[pdf] the nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /sus. . .eac corpus id: the nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution @article{castner thenf, title={the nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution}, author={elizabeth a. castner and allison m. leach and n. leary and j. baron and j. compton and j. galloway and m. hastings and j. kimiecik and jonathan lantz-trissel and elizabeth de la reguera and r. ryals}, journal={sustainability (new rochelle, n.y.)}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, + authors r. ryals 	published 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability (new rochelle, n.y.) abstract anthropogenic sources of reactive nitrogen have local and global impacts on air and water quality and detrimental effects on human and ecosystem health. this article uses the nitrogen footprint tool (nft) to determine the amount of nitrogen (n) released as a result of institutional consumption. the sectors accounted for include food (consumption and upstream production), energy, transportation, fertilizer, research animals, and agricultural research. the nft is then used for scenario… expand view pdf save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations methods citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 table 	blood urea nitrogen measurement 	fossils 	emission - male genitalia finding 	fossil fuels 	fertilizers 	neurofibrillary degeneration (morphologic abnormality) citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency a community nitrogen footprint analysis of baltimore city, maryland 	elizabeth sara milo dukes, j. galloway, + authors elizabeth a. castner 	environmental science 	 	 save alert research feed comparing institution nitrogen footprints: metrics for assessing and tracking environmental impact 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, j. compton, j. galloway, j. andrews 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints 	allison m. leach, j. galloway, elizabeth a. castner, j. andrews, n. leary, j. aber 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed reducing the nitrogen footprint of a small residential college 	n. leary, elizabeth de la reguera, s. fitzpatrick, olivia boggiano-peterson 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed from production to consumption: a coupled human-environmental nitrogen flow analysis in china. 	z. luo, s. hu, dingjiang chen, b. zhu 	environmental science, medicine 	environmental science & technology 	 	 save alert research feed virtual water as a metric for institutional sustainability 	l. natyzakjennifer, a. castnerelizabeth, d'odoricopaolo, n. gallowayjames 	economics 	 	 	 save alert research feed defining system boundaries of an institution nitrogen footprint 	elizabeth de la reguera, elizabeth a. castner, j. galloway, allison m. leach, n. leary, j. tang 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	pdf save alert research feed geographic versus institutional drivers of nitrogen footprints: a comparison of two urban universities 	g. macdonald, j. talbot, + authors brian e. robinson 	geography 	 	 save alert research feed the challenges of dealing with nitrogen pollutants in groundwater 	stephanye zarama-alvarado 	environmental science 	 	pdf save alert research feed life cycle assessment of nitrogen efficiency strategies for canadian egg supply chains 	s. z. ershadi 	environmental science 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites methods save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency a nitrogen footprint model to help consumers understand their role in nitrogen losses to the environment 	allison m. leach, j. galloway, a. bleeker, j. w. erisman, r. kohn, j. kitzes 	business 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed comparing institution nitrogen footprints: metrics for assessing and tracking environmental impact 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, j. compton, j. galloway, j. andrews 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints 	allison m. leach, j. galloway, elizabeth a. castner, j. andrews, n. leary, j. aber 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed reducing the nitrogen footprint of a small residential college 	n. leary, elizabeth de la reguera, s. fitzpatrick, olivia boggiano-peterson 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed from production to consumption: a coupled human-environmental nitrogen flow analysis in china. 	z. luo, s. hu, dingjiang chen, b. zhu 	environmental science, medicine 	environmental science & technology 	 	 save alert research feed virtual water as a metric for institutional sustainability 	l. natyzakjennifer, a. castnerelizabeth, d'odoricopaolo, n. gallowayjames 	economics 	 	 	 save alert research feed integrating ecological, carbon and water footprint into a "footprint family" of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet 	a. galli, t. wiedmann, ertug ercin, doris knoblauch, brad r. ewing, s. giljum 	business 	 	 save alert research feed environmental impact food labels combining carbon, nitrogen, and water footprints 	allison m. leach, kyle a. emery, + authors j. galloway 	computer science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the nitrogen cascade 	j. galloway, j. aber, + authors b. cosby 	biology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed climate action planning at the university of new hampshire. 	sara m. cleaves, b. pasinella, j. andrews, c. wake 	political science 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on nov hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses carolina nájera-domínguez, nestor gutiérrez-méndez, guadalupe nevárez-moorillon, irma caro-canales to cite this version: carolina nájera-domínguez, nestor gutiérrez-méndez, guadalupe nevárez-moorillon, irma caro- canales. comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses. dairy science & technology, edp sciences/springer, , ( ), pp. - . � . /s - - - �. �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr original paper comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses carolina nájera-domínguez & nestor gutiérrez-méndez & guadalupe nevárez-moorillon & irma caro-canales received: march /revised: june /accepted: june / published online: june # inra and springer-verlag france abstract strains of lactococcus lactis used for a long time as starter cultures in the production of cheese have not only acquired special features like fast utilization of lactose, but it is also believed that they have lost certain metabolic capabilities. certain wild strains of l. lactis isolated from vegetables or raw milk products are able to generate flavors different from those produced by industrial strains. the aim of this work was to assess the production of volatile compounds in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses manufactured with different strains of l. lactis isolated from vegetables, raw milk products, and industrial cultures. there was variation among volatile profiles in the miniature cheeses manufactured with different strains of l. lactis. however, some compounds were seen in most of the cheeses such as acetic, lactic, butyric, and caproic acids, acetoin, -methyl- -butanol, and , -butanediol. the source of isolation of the strains (plants, raw milk products, and industrial cultures) did not have a clear influence on the production of volatile compounds in miniature cheeses. according to principal component analysis, out of strains of l. lactis produced volatile profiles similar to the three pasteurized chihuahua cheeses analyzed, but only strains generated profiles similar to the commercial raw milk cheese. however, further research is required to understand the metabolic and genetic differences of these strains. keywords lactococcus lactis . wild strains . volatile compounds . chihuahua cheese dairy sci. & technol. ( ) : – doi . /s - - - c. nájera-domínguez: n. gutiérrez-méndez: g. nevárez-moorillon facultad de ciencias químicas, universidad autónoma de chihuahua, chihuahua, chihuahua, méxico i. caro-canales departamento de higiene y tecnología de los alimentos, universidad de león, campus vegazana, león, españa n. gutiérrez-méndez (*) circuito universitario s/n, col., altavista, c.p. , méxico e-mail: ngutierrez@uach.mx introduction chihuahua cheese or mennonite cheese is one of the most popular cheeses in mexico and the hispanic community in the usa (tunick et al. ). the color of chihuahua cheese is yellow and turns golden yellow with age. its consistency is sliceable, semi-hard, and its sensory characteristics are similar to month-aged cheddar; although rheological analysis suggests it is more like fresh colby cheese (gutiérrez-méndez and nevárez-moorillon ). artisanal chihuahua cheese is manufactured with unpasteurized milk; neverthe- less, nowadays, it is also produced at a large scale using pasteurized milk. according to van hekken et al. ( ), chihuahua cheeses manufactured with unpasteurized milk have a stronger flavor and softer texture than chihuahua cheeses made with pasteurized milk. flavors are chemical sensations produced by certain molecules released from the food during eating (voilley and etiévant ). the pleasant flavors perceived by consumers in fermented dairy products come from the correct balance of flavor compounds (smit et al. ). lactic acid bacteria (lab) provide a high contribution of enzymes that transform the milk components into flavor compounds (santos et al. ). lactococcus lactis has been involved in cheese making since ancient times, and nowadays, these bacteria are most widely used as a starter culture in the manufacture of cheese (klijn et al. ). the natural niches of l. lactis are plant environments such as grass, corn leaves, sweet peas, cucumbers, and beans. this microorganism has adapted to other environments including soil, cow’s skin (mainly udder and teats), and milk (desmasures et al. ; doman-pytka et al. ; nomura et al. ). the adaptation of l. lactis to milk or milk-related environments has promoted the acquisition of special features like fast lactose utilization (mills et al. ; gutiérrez-méndez et al. ). however, the adaptation of these bacteria to rich nutrient environments like milk also has caused the loss of certain metabolic capabilities. for example, plant-derived lactococci have a more efficient use of peptides and greater tolerance to stress than milk-derived strains of l. lactis (nomura et al. ; picon et al. ). some authors have proposed that wild strains of l. lactis isolated from vegetables or raw milk products are able to generate flavors different from those produced by industrial strains (ayad et al. ). certain flavor characteristics observed in artisanal raw milk cheeses are poorly detected in cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk (centeno et al. ). therefore, the use of wild strains of l. lactis for the development of new flavors or flavors that resemble those perceived in raw milk cheeses may have potential. the aim of this work was to assess the production of volatile compounds in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses manufactured with different strains of l. lactis isolated from vegetables, commercial starter cultures, and raw milk products. volatile compounds observed in miniature cheeses were also compared with those found in commercial raw and pasteurized milk chihuahua cheeses. materials and methods . microorganisms the strains of l. lactis used in this study (except the atcc strain) were obtained and partially characterized in a previous work (gutiérrez-méndez et al. b). these c. nájera-domínguez et al. strains were isolated from raw milk dairy products, vegetables, and different commer- cial dairy starter cultures (table ). all the strains were kept at − °c in an m broth (difco laboratories, detroit mich.) with % (v/v) glycerol before use. additionally, the citrate-fermenting capacity of the strains was assessed using the kempler and mckay (kmk) agar (kempler and mckay ). the production of acetoin by the strains was detected by the voges-proskauer (vp) reaction (passerini et al. ). . chihuahua cheese samples five different brands of chihuahua cheese were bought from the local market and stored at °c. the cheese brands were chosen based on a previous survey that determined which were the top selling brands in chihuahua city (almanza-rubio et al. ). mennonite cheese factories located in cuauhtémoc (chihuahua state, mexico) produced all the cheese brands used in this study. the brands used were as follows: queso menonita (brand ), clavel (brand ), los pinos (brand ), lacmeno (brand ), and laurel (brand ). only one brand (brand ) was a cheese manufactured with raw milk. . manufacture of miniature chihuahua-type cheeses miniature model cheeses were produced in the laboratory under controlled conditions in order to minimize the manufacture variations and reduce the microbial contamina- tion. the protocol used was previously developed in the laboratory, to reproduce similar characteristics than commercial chihuahua cheeses (gutiérrez-méndez et al. ). each strain of l. lactis was grown individually in sterile milk ( % fat) at °c over h. these fermented milks were used as inoculum in the production of miniature table strains of lactococcus lactis used in the manufacture of chihuahua-type miniature cheeses strain source of isolation strain source of isolation atcc (american type culture collection) ez cb- lsc (ezal, rhodia food, france) c raw milk chihuahua cheesea ez a lsc (ezal, rhodia food, france) de b raw milk chihuahua cheeseb ez b lsc (ezal, rhodia food, france) rq whey cheese fdvsbs lsc (chr hansen, denmark) alf- lucerne (medicago sativo) kk lsc (danisco, denmark) bb beetroot (beta vulgaris) kk lsc (danisco, denmark) ej green beans (phaseolus vulgaris) li lsc (chr hansen, denmark) mh corn leaves (zea maiz) ma lsc (chr hansen, denmark) mm corn earn (zea miz) mm lsc (danisco, denmark) cm lsc (ezal, rhodia food, france) pk lsc (danisco, denmark) ez ab lsc (ezal, rhodia food, france) vegetable samples were obtained from local producers in chihuahua state, mexico lsc lyophilized starter culture of mesophilic lactococci a cheese manufactured in cuauhtémoc, chihuahua, mexico b cheese manufactured in delicias, chihuahua, mexico comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis chihuahua-type cheese. the milk used for the manufacture of cheeses was obtained from the faculty of animal science and ecology (university autonomous of chihua- hua, chihuahua, mexico). the milk was standardized to obtain the following compo- sition: . ± . g.l− fat, . ± . g.l− protein, and . ± . g.l− lactose. portions of g of pasteurized milk were poured into four -ml glass beakers. milk portions were added % (v/v) with the inoculum of the corresponding strain of l. lactis. the milk was incubated h at °c and μl of cacl . mol.l − and . μl of chymosin (chy-max, chr hansen, horsholm, denmark) added. after h of incubation at °c, the coagulum was cut with a stainless steel spatula in small cubes of . cm , held for min, and then stirred at rpm for min on an orbital shaker. the whey was drained and the curd warmed to °c in a water bath (isotemp , fisher sci, iowa, usa) until ph reached . . then, the curd was salted at % (w/w) nacl and transferred into metallic u-bottom tubes and centrifuged at , ×g for min at room temperature. the expelled whey was drained, and the curd was centrifuged again for min at , ×g. mini cheeses were removed from the tubes and dipped into a sorbate ( . %w/v) and natamycin ( . %w/v) solution. cheeses were stored unpacked at °c and % of relative humidity for week in order to remove the excess of moisture in the cheeses. finally, mini cheeses were wiped with tissue paper, packed in sealed polyethylene bags ( . cm× . cm), and stored at °c for month. miniature chihuahua cheeses had an average size of cm (diameter)× . cm (height) and a weight of ± . g. three mini cheeses were manufactured with each separate strains of l. lactis. . compositional analysis of cheeses cheeses were analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, and ash content using aoac methods: . , . , . , and . , respectively (aoac ). the ph of the cheeses was measured with a ph meter (pinnacle, corning, ny, usa) according to the aoac method . (aoac ). . analysis of volatile compounds the protocol used for the analysis of volatile compounds in cheese was adapted from bourdat-deschamps et al. ( ). volatile compounds in miniature and commercial cheeses were extracted by solid phase microextraction (spme) using a fiber of cm in length coated with a film of ( μm) carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (supelco, bellefonte, pa, usa) and analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (gc- ms). the cheese samples were prepared as follows: g of grated cheese and g of nacl were added to a -ml container (nalgene nunc international, ny, usa). then, the car/pdms fiber was placed into the container headspace and held for h at °c. the fiber was retracted and injected into the chromatograph inlet and desorbed by min at °c. volatile compounds were separated on a gc-ms equipment (autosystem xl, perkin-elmer, norwalk, ct, usa) with a polyethylene glycol (elite- wax etr, perkin-elmer, norwalk, ct, usa) column ( m× . mm i.d.) using the following conditions: initial temperature °c held for min, heating to °c at °c.min− and held for min, heating to °c at °c.min− , and holding for min. ionization was performed in the mass spectrometer (turbo mass gold, perkin-elmer, c. nájera-domínguez et al. norwalk, ct, usa) applying an electronic impact of ev. autotune calibration was routinely performed before each injection sequence. compounds were presumptively identified by nist mass spectral database version . and their mass spectra compared to those reported in the literature. . statistical analysis a multivariate analysis was performed using the relative peak areas of total ion chromatograms. principal component analysis (pca) was calculated using a covari- ance matrix of standardized data collected from peak areas. factor scores from pca were used as euclidean distance matrix for non-hierarchical (k-means) cluster analysis. statistical analysis was carried out with the software minitab (minitab inc, state college, pa, usa). results . fermentation of citrate and production of diacetyl most of the strains of l. lactis used in this study were positive to citrate fermentation using the kmk agar (kmk+) method, and only the strains li and ma were considered as citrate negative (kmk−). according to the voges-proskeaur (vp) reaction, the majority of the strains were able to produce acetoin during growth on milk (vp+), except strains bb , mm , cm , and ma (vp−). . characterization of miniature and commercial chihuahua cheeses the compositional parameters of miniature chihuahua cheeses and commercial chi- huahua cheeses were similar (t student, p< . ). the average composition of minia- ture cheeses (expressed as g. g− ) was as follows: moisture . ± . , protein . ± . , fat . ± . , ash . ± . , and ph . ± . . the average composition of commercial chihuahua cheeses (expressed as g. g− ) was as follows: moisture . ± . , protein . ± . , fat . ± . , ash . ± . , and ph . ± . . . volatile compounds in chihuahua cheese brands in this work, four of the brands analyzed were cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk (brands , , , and ), and only one brand (brand ) was a cheese made with raw milk. the cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk require the addition of com- mercial starter cultures, whereas raw milk uses the natural flora of the milk to ferment the curd. as was expected, the type and proportion of volatile compounds varied among chihuahua cheese brands (fig. ). however, some volatile compounds were found in all cheese brands, like certain organic acids (acetic, formic, butyric, caproic, and lactic acid) as well as , -butanediol (tables and ). the presence of formic acid in all cheese brands was unexpected, because this compound has a pungent, penetrating odor and has only been identified in some cheeses like cheddar cheese (mullin and emmons ). all the cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk showed some comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis fig. volatile compound profiles observed in pasteurized milk chihuahua cheese (brands and ) and raw milk chihuahua cheese (brand ) by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (gc-ms) and solid phase micro extraction (spme). details of volatile compounds are shown in table c. nájera-domínguez et al. volatile compounds like -methyl- -butanone and acetoin, but these compounds were not found in the cheese manufactured with raw milk. likewise, some volatile com- pounds observed in the raw milk cheese were not found in pasteurized milk cheeses: valeric acid, decanoic acid, ethylhexanoate, and , -propanediol-diacetate. pasteurized milk cheeses had acetoin and butyric acid as the major volatile components, whereas the raw milk cheese had caproic and butyric acids as the main volatile components (fig. ). table list of major volatile compounds identified in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses and five of the best selling brands of chihuahua cheese id compound retention timea (min) acids a methanoic acid (formic) . – . a ethanoic acid (acetic acid) . – . a -methylpropanoic acid (isobutyric acid) . – . a -hydroxypropanoic acid (lactic acid) . – . a butanoic acid (butyric acid) . – . a -methylbutanoic acid (isovaleric acid) . – . a pentanoic acid (valeric acid) . a hexanoic acid (caproic acid) . – . a octanoic acid (caprylic acid) . – . a - -hexadienoic acid (sorbic acid) . – . a decanoic acid . – . alcohols al -butanol . al -methyl, -butanol . – . al -methyl- , -pentanediol . al , -octanediol, , -dimethyl . al , -butanediol . – . aldehyde ah -methylpropanal . esters e ethyl butyrate . e ethylhexanoate . e ethyl octanoate . e , -propanediol,diacetate . ketones k -methyl- -butanone . – . k -hydroxybutanone (acetoin) . – . k -hydroxy- -methyl- pentanone . – . terpene t limonene . – . a range of time obtained from all the cheeses analyzed ( cheese treatments and commercial brands of chihuahua cheese) comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis . volatile compounds in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses the miniature cheeses manufactured with different strains of l. lactis had a wide variation in their volatile profiles (tables and ). nevertheless, all the miniature cheeses had certain volatile compounds like acetic, lactic, butyric, and caproic acids, as well as acetoin, -methyl- -butanol (except strain mm ), and , -butanediol (except the atcc strain). these acids, alcohols, and ketone are compounds commonly found in cheese (barbieri et al. ; garde et al. ; bertolino et al. ; hou et al. ). according to the principal component analysis and the k-mean clustering analysis (fig. ), the cheeses were organized in three clusters. the first cluster included six cheeses manufactured with strains isolated from commercial cultures (fdvsbs, ma , kk , ez cb- , kk , ez a), two cheeses manufactured with strains isolated from raw milk cheeses (de b, c ), and three cheeses manufactured with strains isolated from vegetables (alf- , bb , ej ). the volatile profiles of the cheeses that belong to this cluster were similar to the volatile profiles of two commer- cial chihuahua cheeses (brands and ). the main characteristic of these cheeses was the high proportion of ketones (acetoin, -methyl- -butanone, and -hydroxy- - methyl- pentanone) in comparison with the other volatile compounds (i.e., strain fdvsbs; fig. ). additionally, isobutyric acid was identified in some cheeses of the first cluster like those made with the strains c and de b. the second cluster included the volatile profiles of five miniature cheeses made with strains isolated from commercial cultures (ez ab, mm , li, ez b, pk ), one cheese manufactured with a strain isolated from corn earn (mm ), one cheese manufactured with a strain isolated from whey cheese (rq ), and one commercial pasteurized milk cheese (brand ). some of the cheeses of this cluster showed flavor compounds like limonene (strains ez b, mm , and mm ) or decanoic acid (strain mm ). the volatile compounds most abun- dant in the cheeses of the second cluster were as follow: acetic acid, lactic acid, butyric acid, ethylbutyrate, and -methyl- -butanol. in contrast to the first cluster, these compounds were found in higher proportion than acetoin (i.e., strain rq ; fig. ). the third cluster comprised the volatile profiles of one miniature cheese manufactured with a strain isolated from commercial culture (cm ), one miniature cheese manufactured with a strain isolated from corn leaves (mh ), and two commercial cheeses (brands and ). the patterns of volatile compounds that presented these cheeses were very different to the volatile profiles seen in the other mini cheeses and those observed in three out five commercial chihuahua cheeses. the most abundant volatile compounds in the cheeses of the third cluster were as follows: lactic acid, butyric acid, caproic acid, ethylbutyrate, and , -butanediol (i.e., strain mh ; fig. ). some volatile compounds like valeric acid, ethyl ethanoate, and ethyl octanoate were found exclusively in the raw milk cheese (brand ) belonging to this third cluster. this commercial chihuahua cheese made with raw milk (brand ) had also large differences with most of the commercial pasteurized milk cheeses (brands , , and ), whereas there were some similarities with brand . furthermore, only the two mini cheeses made using l. lactis strains cm and mh had volatile profiles similar to the raw milk cheese. c. nájera-domínguez et al. t ab le v o la ti le co m po un ds (a ci ds an d te rp en e) o bs er ve d in m in ia tu re c hi hu ah u a- ty pe ch ee se s m an uf ac tu re d w it h di ve rs e st ra in s of l .l ac ti s an d co m m er ci al c h ih ua hu a ch ee se s m ad e fr om ra w an d pa st eu ri ze d m il k s ou rc e c he es e sa m pl e v o la ti le co m po un ds a a a a a a a a a a a t r el at iv e p ea k ar ea s ex pr es se d in ar bi tr ar y un it s (e + ) f ir st cl u st er p -m b ra nd . – – . . . – . – – – – c f d v s b s – . – – . – – . – . – – a t c c – . – . . – – . – . – – c m a – . – . . . – . . . – – v e j – . – . . . – . – . – . r c – . . – . . – . . . – – r d e b – . . . . . – . . . – – c k k – . – . . . – . . . – – v a lf - – . – . . . – . – . – – c k k – . – . . – – . . . – – p -m b ra nd . – – . . – – . . . – – c e z a – . – . . . – . – . – – v b b – . – . . – – . – . – – c e z cb - – . – . . – – . – – – s ec o nd cl u st er c p k – . – . . – . . . – – c e z b – . – . . . – . . . – . c l i – . – . . . – . – . – – c m m – . – . . . – . – . – . p -m b ra nd . – – . . – – . . . – – v m m – – . – . – – . . comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis t ab le (c on ti nu ed ) s ou rc e c he es e sa m pl e v o la ti le co m po un ds a a a a a a a a a a a t r el at iv e p ea k ar ea s ex pr es se d in ar bi tr ar y un it s (e + ) c e z ab – . – . . . – . – – – – r r q – . – . . – – . . . – – t h ir d cl us te r p -m b ra nd . – – . – – . . . – – v m h – . – . . . – . . . – – c c m – . – . . . – . – . – – r -m b ra nd . – – . . – . . . . . – n = ; cl us te rs d et er m in ed b y pr in ci pa l co m po ne nt an al ys is ; id of vo la ti le co m po un ds ar e sh ow n in t ab le v st ra in is ol at ed fr o m ve ge ta bl e, c st ra in is o la te d fr om in du st ri al st ar te r cu lt ur e, r st ra in is ol at ed fr om ra w m il k pr od uc t, p -m pa st eu ri ze d m il k c hi hu ah ua ch ee se , r -m ra w m il k c h ih ua hu a ch ee se c. nájera-domínguez et al. t ab le v ol at il e co m po un ds (a lc oh ol s, al de hy de s, es te rs , an d k et on es ) o bs er ve d in m in ia tu re c hi hu ah ua -t yp e ch ee se s m an uf ac tu re d w it h di ve rs e st ra in s of l . la ct is an d co m m er ci al c h ih ua hu a ch ee se s m ad e fr om ra w an d p as te u ri ze d m il k s ou rc e c he es e sa m p le v ol at il e co m po u nd s a l a l a l a l a l a h e e e e k k k r el at iv e pe ak ar ea s ex pr es se d in ar bi tr ar y u ni ts (e + ) f ir st cl u st er p -m b ra nd – . . – . – – – – – . – c f d v s b s – . – – . – – – – – – . a t c c – . – – – – – – – – . . . c m a – . – – . – – – – – . . – v e j – . . – . – – – – – . – r c – . . – . – – – – – . . – r d e b – . . – . – – – – – . . – c k k – . . – . – . – – – . – v a lf - – . – – . – – – – – – – c k k – . – . . – – – – – . . . p -m b ra nd . – . – . – . – – . . . – c e z a – . . . . – . – – – . . – v b b – . – . . – – – – – . . c e z cb - – . – . . . – – – – . . s ec o nd cl u st er c p k – . . – . . . – – – . . – c e z b – . – – . – . – – – . . – c l i – . – – . – – – – – . . – c m m – . . – . – – – – – – . – p -m b ra nd . . – – . – . – – . . . – v m m – – – – – . – – – – – comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis t ab le (c on ti nu ed ) s ou rc e c he es e sa m p le v ol at il e co m po u nd s a l a l a l a l a l a h e e e e k k k r el at iv e pe ak ar ea s ex pr es se d in ar bi tr ar y u ni ts (e + ) c e z ab – . – . . – – – – – . . – r r q – . – . . – . – – – – . . t h ir d cl us te r p -m b ra nd – . . – . . – – – . . . – v m h – . – – . – . – – – . . . c c m – . – – . . . – – – – . – r -m b ra nd – – – – . – . . . – – – – n = ; cl us te rs d et er m in ed b y pr in ci pa l co m po ne nt an al ys is ; id of vo la ti le co m po un ds ar e sh ow n in t ab le v st ra in is ol at ed fr om ve ge ta bl e, c st ra in is ol at ed fr om in du st ri al st ar te r cu lt ur e, r st ra in is ol at ed fr om ra w m il k pr od uc t, p -m pa st eu ri ze d m il k c h ih ua hu a ch ee se , r -m ra w -m il k c h ih ua hu a ch ee se c. nájera-domínguez et al. fig. volatile compound profiles obtained by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (gc-ms) and solid phase micro extraction (spme) in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses manufactured with three different strains of l. lactis isolated from a commercial starter culture (fdvsbs- ), whey cheese (rq ), and a vegetable sample (mh ). details of volatile compounds are shown in table comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis discussion there is the perception by local consumers that raw milk chihuahua cheeses have stronger and more pleasant flavor than most of the pasteurized milk cheeses. van hekken et al. ( ) reported that raw milk chihuahua cheeses had more intense sour and bitter flavor than pasteurized milk cheeses. it was anticipated that some differences among the volatile profiles of cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk and raw milk cheeses will occur. these differences can be attributed to many different factors but mainly to the heat treatment of the cheese milk and the variety of microorganisms present in the milk and the cheeses. bricker et al. ( ) reported that chihuahua cheeses manufactured with pasteurized milk contained mostly lab (mesophilic lactococci, lecuconostoc spp., thermophilic lactococci and lactobacilli), whereas raw milk cheeses had lab, coliforms, enterococci, and coagulase-positive staphylococci. nevertheless, it is difficult to establish the effect of microorganisms other than lab on the production of volatile compounds. on the other hand, it is widely known that heat treatment of the milk increases the presence of certain volatile compounds (fatty acids, esters, ketones, and aldehydes) modifying the flavor in the milk (hettinga et al. ). according to zabbia et al. ( ), cooked and flat flavors that develop in the milk during thermal processing derive essentially from maillard compounds including methyl ketones, furans, pyrazines, sulfur, and nitrogen-containing compounds. this could explain the absence of certain ketones ( -methyl- -butanone and acetoin) in the cheeses manufactured with raw milk (fig. ). the miniature cheeses ( month-aged) made with different strains of l. lactis showed a wide variation in their volatile profiles. these differences in volatile profiles were generally not related with the source of isolation of the strains (tables and ; fig. ). nevertheless, one strain isolated from artisanal whey cheese (strain rq ) and one strain isolated from corn leaves (strain mh ) had unusual patterns of volatile compounds (figs. and ). in a previous study, gutiérrez-méndez et al. ( b) assessed the aroma of milks fermented with different strains of l. lactis isolated from vegetables, raw milk cheeses, and industrial starter cultures. the analysis of these fermented milks using an electronic nose did not show a clear relationship between the source of isolation and the ability of lactococci to produce aroma, though some milks fermented with wild strains presented stronger yogurt-like aroma than those milks fermented with industrial strains. ayad et al. ( ) reported that milks fermented with some wild strains of l. lactis isolated from goat and cow milk contained higher levels of certain volatile compounds than milks fermented with industrial strains. nomura et al. ( ) reported that milks fermented with plant- derived strains of l. lactis had a similar flavor than milks fermented with reference strains; however, the milk fermented with some strains of l. lactis isolated from cow milk had a malty taste. centeno et al. ( ) reported that ewes’ cheese manufactured with industrial strains of l. lactis and wild strains of l. lactis isolated from raw milk cheeses had higher abundance of volatile compounds that cheese manufactured only with industrial strains. from results obtained by different authors (ayad et al. ; centeno et al. ; nomura et al. ; gutiérrez-méndez et al. b), it could be established that not all the wild strains of l. lactis have the capability to generate more volatile compounds than industrial strains, but some particular wild strains of l. lactis can produce unusual compounds and/or higher abundance of volatiles. c. nájera-domínguez et al. l. lactis produces different flavor compounds during its growth in the milk, curd, and cheese mostly from the fermentation of citrate and protein degradation. the citrate fermentation generates important flavor compounds like acetaldehyde, diacetyl, acetoin, and , -butanediol (goupry et al. ). all the miniature cheeses manufactured with different strains of l. lactis contained acetoin and , -butanediol. probably because most of the strains used were identified as citrate positive by kmk agar (kmk+) and positive to acetoin production by the vg reaction (vg+). however, the cheeses manufactured with the strains identified as kmk− and/or vg− also presented large amounts of acetoin and , -butanediol. the inconsistencies of these results may be attributed to the lack specificity of the kmk and vg methods. according to passerini et al. ( ), the kmk and vg methods have poor correlation with the real utilization of citrate and the presence of citrate catabolic genes. these authors also confirmed that strains of l. lactis that harbored the citp gene and the citm- g cluster produced a larger number of aroma compounds than those strains without this genetic information. on the other hand, degradation of milk proteins by l. lactis produces a large variety and amount of volatile compounds. the proteolytic system of lab is composed of proteinases that initially cleave the milk proteins to peptides, and then, these peptides are hydrolyzed to amino acids by intracellular peptidases. amino acids are catabolized producing a variety of low molecular weight compounds like aldehydes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, and sulfur compounds (savijoki et al. ). the gene prtp that encodes the cell envelope-associate proteinase in l. lactis is harbored in extrachro- mosomal dna acquired by continuous exposure with other microorganisms that grow fig. principal component analysis (pca) of volatile compounds observed in five brands of chihuahua cheese and miniature chihuahua-type cheeses ( -month-old) manufactured with different strains of l. lactis: white circles strains isolated from commercial cultures, white squares strains isolated from vegetables, white triangles strains isolated from raw milk chihuahua cheeses, black circles commercial chihuahua cheeses. clusters were defined by k-mean clustering analysis comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis in the milk (mills et al. ). for this reason, it has been suggested that plant-derived strains have limited proteolytic activity against caseins (ayad et al. ; picon et al. ). in a previous characterization of the strains of l. lactis used in this work, the strains isolated from vegetables were found with low proteolytic activities, though the strain mh (isolated from corn leaves) showed a very high proteolytic activity (nájera-domínguez and gutiérrez-méndez ). it is worth noting that strain mh produced an unusual volatile profile with a large variety of volatile compounds. the majority of volatile compounds produced by l. lactis come from the catabolism of amino acids (yvon and rijnen ). the limiting step in the catabolism of amino acids is the depletion of α-ketoglutarate (α-kg), which acts as an amino group acceptor during the transamination step. some strains of l. lactis can synthesize the α-kg from glutamate through the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) enzyme (van kranenburg et al. ). for this reason, some authors have suggested that gdh activity could be the most important criteria for the selection of flavor-producing l. lactis (tanous et al. ) and nonstarter lab (kieronczyk et al. ). in the present study, the strains mh , cm , and rq produced unusual volatile profiles. these strains have been previously identified with gdh activity. two out of three strains (mh and rq ) with gdh-nadp activities and one strain with gdh-nad activity (gutiérrez-méndez et al. a). however, other strains similarly confirmed with gdh activities and also used in this work did not produce unusual patterns or large abundance of volatile compounds. conclusions the volatile profiles of commercial chihuahua cheeses made from pasteurized milk were clearly different to that made with raw milk. the capacity of l. lactis to produce volatile compounds in miniature cheeses was strain-dependent. the source of isolation of the strains did not influence the production of volatile compounds. most of the wild strains and industrial strains of l. lactis produced similar volatile compounds. nevertheless, the cheeses manufactured with some particular strains (cm , mh , and rq ) showed unusual profiles of volatile compounds. however, further research is required to understand the metabolic and genetic differences of these strains. all over the world local governments urge cheese makers to pasteurize the milk during the manufacture of cheese and thus reduce the risk of food-borne pathogenic bacteria. from the point of view of cheese makers and consumers, pasteurized milk cheeses have different flavors than raw milk cheeses. for this reason, there is a growing interest in the use of wild strains of l. lactis isolated from raw milk products to obtain similar flavors than artisanal cheeses. however, in this work, it was observed that only few wild strains are able to produce unusual flavor compounds. acknowledgments the mexican national council of science and technology (conacyt) supported this research through the research project no. cb- - / . c. nájera-domínguez et al. references almanza-rubio jl, orozco-mena re, gutiérrez-méndez n ( ) assessing consumer preference toward chihuahua cheese and chihuahua-type cheese. tecnociencia : – aoac ( ) official methods of analysis, ed. association of official analytical chemists, washington d.c. usa ayad ehe, verheul a, de jong c et al ( ) flavour forming abilities and amino acid requirements of lactococcus lactis strains isolated from artisanal and non-dairy origin. int dairy j : – barbieri g, bolzoni l, careri m, mangia a ( ) study of the volatile fraction of parmesan cheese. j agric food chem : – bertolino m, dolci p, giordano m et al ( ) evolution of chemico-physical characteristics during manufacture and ripening of castelmango pdo cheese in wintertime. food chem : – bourdat-deschamps m, lebars d, yvon m, chapot-chartier m-p ( ) autolysis of lactococcus lactis am stimulates the formation of certain aroma compounds from amino acids in a cheese model. int dairy j : – bricker al, van hekken dl, guerrero vm, gardea aa ( ) microflora isolated from mexican mennonite-style cheeses. food prot trends : – centeno ja, tomillo fj, fernández-garcia e et al ( ) effect of wild strains of lactococcus lactis on the volatile profile and the sensory characteristics of ewes’s raw milk cheese. j dairy sci : – desmasures n, opportune w, guéguen m ( ) lactococcus spp., yeasts and pseudomonas spp. on teats and udders of milking cows as potential sources of milk contamination. int dairy j : – . doi: . /s - ( ) - doman-pytka m, renault p, bardowski j ( ) gene-cassette for adaptation of lactococcus lactis to a plant environment. lait : – garde s, carbonell m, fernández-garcia e et al ( ) volatile compounds in hispánico cheese manufactured using a mesophilic starter, a thermophilic starter, and bacteriocin-producing lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis inia . j agric food chem : – goupry sp, croguennec t, gentil e, robins rj ( ) metabolic flux in glucose/citrate co-fermentation by lactic acid bacteria as measured by isotopic ratio analysis. fems microbiol lett : – . doi: . /j. - . .tb .x gutiérrez-méndez n, nevárez-moorillon gv ( ) chihuahua cheese: the history of a mexican cheese. carnilac ind : – gutiérrez-méndez n, valenzuela-soto e, gonzález-cordova af, vallejo-cordoba b ( a) α-ketoglutarate biosynthesis in wild and industrial strains of lactococcus lactis. lett appl microbiol : – gutiérrez-méndez n, vallejo-cordoba b, gonzález-cordova af et al ( b) evaluation of aroma generation of lactococcus lactis with an electronic nose and sensory analysis. j dairy sci : – gutiérrez-méndez n, rodríguez-figueroa jc, gonzález-cordova af et al ( ) phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of lactococcus lactis strains isolated from different ecosystems. can j microbiol : – gutiérrez-méndez n, trancoso-reyes n, leal-ramos my ( ) texture profile analysis of fresh cheese and chihuahua cheese using miniature cheese models. tecnociencia : – hettinga ka, van valenberg hjf, van hooijdonk acm ( ) quality control of raw cows’ milk by headspace analysis. int dairy j : – . doi: . /j.idairyj. . . hou j, hannon ja, mcsweeney pl et al ( ) effect of curd washing on cheese proteolysis, texture, volatile compounds, and sensory grading in full fat cheddar cheese. int dairy j : – kempler gm, mckay ll ( ) improved medium for detection of citrate-fermenting streptococcus lactis subsp. diacetylactis. appl environ microbiol : – kieronczyk a, skeie s, olsen k, langsrud t ( ) metabolism of amino acids by resting cells of non-starter lactobacilli in relation to flavour development in cheese. int dairy j : – . doi: . /s - ( ) - klijn n, weerkamp ah, de vos wm ( ) detection and characterization of lactose-utilizing lactococcus spp. in natural ecosystems. appl environ microbiol : – mills s, mcauliffe oe, coffey a et al ( ) plasmids of lactococci—genetic accessories or genetic necessities? fems microbiol rev : – . doi: . /j. - . . .x mullin wj, emmons db ( ) determination of organic acids and sugars in cheese, milk and whey by high performance liquid chromatography. food res int : – . doi: . /s - ( ) - nájera-domínguez c, gutiérrez-méndez n ( ) autolytic and proteolytic properties of strains of lactococcus lactis isolated from different vegetables, raw-milk cheeses and commercial starter cultures. food nutr sci : – . doi: . /fns. . a comparison of volatile compounds by wild lactococcus lactis http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.idairyj. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /fns. . a nomura m, kobayashi m, narita t et al ( ) phenotypic and molecular characterization of lactococcus lactis from milk and plants. j appl microbiol : – passerini d, laroute v, coddeville m et al ( ) new insights into lactococcus lactis diacetyl- and acetoin- producing strains isolated from diverse origins. int j food microbiol : – picon a, garcía-casado ma, nuñez m ( ) proteolytic activities, peptide utilization and oligopeptide transport systems of wild lactococcus lactis strains. int dairy j : – . doi: . /j.idairyj. . . santos mv, ma y, caplan z, barbano dm ( ) sensory threshold of off-flavors caused by proteolysis and lipolysis in milk. j dairy sci : – . doi: . /jds.s - ( ) -x savijoki k, ingmer h, varmanen p ( ) proteolytic systems of lactic acid bacteria. appl microbiol biotechnol : – . doi: . /s - - - smit g, smit ba, engels wjm ( ) flavour formation by lactic acid bacteria and biochemical flavour profiling of cheese products. fems microbiol rev : – tanous c, kieronczyk a, helinck s et al ( ) glutamate dehydrogenase activity: a major criterion for the selection of flavour-producing lactic acid bacteria strains. antonie van leeuwenhoek : – tunick mh, van hekken dl, molina-corral fj et al ( ) queso chihuahua: manufacturing procedures, composition, protein profiles, and microbiology. int j dairy technol : – van hekken dl, drake ma, molina-corral fj et al ( ) mexican chihuahua cheese: sensory profiles of young cheese. j dairy sci : – van kranenburg r, kleerebezem m, vlieg jvh et al ( ) flavour formation from amino acids by lactic acid bacteria: predictions from genome sequence analysis. int dairy j : – voilley a, etiévant p ( ) flavour in food. crc press, boca raton yvon m, rijnen l ( ) cheese flavour formation by amino acid catabolism. int dairy j : – zabbia a, buys em, dekock hl ( ) undesirable sulphur and carbonyl flavor compounds in uht milk: a review. crit rev food sci nutr : – c. nájera-domínguez et al. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.idairyj. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.idairyj. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jds.s - ( ) -x http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - 	comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses 	abstract 	introduction 	materials and methods 	microorganisms 	chihuahua cheese samples 	manufacture of miniature chihuahua-type cheeses 	compositional analysis of cheeses 	analysis of volatile compounds 	statistical analysis 	results 	fermentation of citrate and production of diacetyl 	characterization of miniature and commercial chihuahua cheeses 	volatile compounds in chihuahua cheese brands 	volatile compounds in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses 	discussion 	conclusions 	references volume refuge number © luann good gingrich and thea enns, . this open-access work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international licence, which permits use, reproduction, and distribution in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original authorship is credited and the original publication in refuge: canada’s journal on refugees is cited. cette œuvre en libre accès fait l’objet d’une licence creative commons attribu- tion-noncommercial . international license, laquelle autorise l’utilisation, la reproduction et la distribution de l’œuvre sur tout support à des fins non commer- ciales, pourvu que l’auteur ou les auteurs originaux soient mentionnés et que la publication originale dans refuge : revue canadienne sur les réfugiés soit citée. a reflexive view of refugee integration and inclusion: a case study of the mennonite central committee and the private sponsorship of refugees program luann good gingrich and thea enns abstract through a qualitative case study with mennonite central committee (mcc) sponsorship groups and former refugee newcomers, we adopt a reflexive, relational, and systemic lens (bourdieu) to analyze the institutional and interper- sonal relationships in the private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program, and more specifically, the ways in which mcc ontario’s sponsorship program invigorates or frustrates dynamics of social inclusion. we situate the institutional relations of the psr program as nested social fields and sub- fields, revealing complementary and competing systems of capital that direct explicit and implicit visions for “success” in mcc sponsorships. a peculiar mennonite/mcc social field and structure of capital generates institutional and social tensions, yet an ambivalent disposition or divided habitus presents possibilities for seeing, understanding, and challenging dynamics of social exclusion. résumé À travers une étude de cas qualitative avec des groupes de parrainage du comité central mennonite (mcc) et d’anciens nouveaux arrivants comme réfugiés, nous adop- tons une perspective réflexive, relationnelle et systémique (bourdieu) pour analyser les relations institutionnelles et interpersonnelles dans le programme de parrainage privé des réfugiés, et plus spécifiquement les façons dont le pro- gramme de parrainage du mcc ontario fortifie ou entrave les dynamiques d’inclusion sociale. nous situons les diverses relations institutionnelles du programme de parrainage privé des réfugiés comme étant des champs et sous-champs sociaux imbriqués, révélant des systèmes complémentaires et concurrents de capital qui orientent des visions explicites et implicites de la “réussite” dans les parrainages du mcc. un champ social et une structure de capital mennonite singuliers génèrent des tensions institutionnelles et sociales. volume refuge number toutefois une disposition ambivalente ou un habitus divisé présentent des possibilités pour voir, comprendre et remettre en question les dynamiques d’exclusion sociale. what is the sponsor’s role? your role … is not to provide instant answers, but rather to encour- age the newcomers to weigh and test a variety of possibilities…. sponsors should be involved in a mutual learning process…. each culture, and individuals within that culture, have their own way of doing things…. remember that they, as yourself, need to be treated as people with feelings and needs…. patience, mutual respect, good humour and love are invaluable assets as you work together in resettlement. the private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program in canada has been hailed by some as an exemplar for social inclusion and integration of refugee newcom- ers into the host society. this self-proclaimed “pioneering refugee resettlement program,” overseen by immigration, refugees and citizenship canada (ircc) through the refu- gee sponsorship training program (rstp), gives “ordinary people across the country” the opportunity to use their own personal resources (monetary and otherwise) “to be directly involved in the resettlement of refugees from abroad.” according to ircc, the role of a sponsor, post-arrival, is “to support the refugees for the length of the sponsorship [one year]. this includes help for housing, clothing and food, as well as social and emotional support.” sponsoring groups are directed to partner with ircc-funded service provider organizations (spos) to “support the settlement and integration of psrs.” while settlement and integration are not defined in gov- ernment documents, emphasis is given to independence and self-sufficiency. for example, the rstp handbook for sponsor- ing groups states, “during the first year, newcomers learn a tremendous amount and generally move from a high degree of dependence to a high degree of independence. through it all, your role is that of an enabler, supporting newcomers to equip themselves, make their own decisions and find out as much as possible about their new environment. above all, you are providing warm friendship and support.” the specific outcomes identified by the canadian gov- ernment—“finding employment, learning english, learning life skills to function in canada” —suggest that priority is placed on effecting individual level adaptation so that the refugee newcomer family reaches economic self-sufficiency through paid work. in contrast, we open this article with an excerpt from a mennonite central committee (mcc) document when the psr program was in its infancy. this passage provides a glimpse of a peculiar mennonite/mcc ethos that is defined by a non-conformist and communal heritage, culture, and institutional structure. this, we argue, is consequential for the nature of sponsor–newcomer rela- tionships, associated values and goals, and positions and dis- positions that develop through mcc’s refugee sponsorships. we adopt a reflexive, relational, and systemic lens to ana- lyze the institutional and interpersonal relationships in the private sponsorship of refugees. we are most interested in examining the tensions and contradictions of sponsor–new- comer relationships and associated positions and disposi- tions (or habitus) that are produced, at the institutional and interpersonal scales. we situate the psr program as a social field with a particular system of capital and habitus. this theoretical lens brings to our attention the symbolic economy, or logic, of the social relations of private sponsor- ship, revealing both complementary and competing systems of capital that direct explicit and implicit visions for “success” in mcc sponsorships, and result in institutional and social tensions and an ambivalent disposition or divided habitus. we argue that the “double privatization” of the psr program is consequential, even in shaping individual private sponsor- ship roles and associated dispositions. equally important in this case example is the unique synergies between mcc as an organization and the congregations that make up its base of support, many of which have sponsored refugees for a sustained period of time. thus, we theorize, these local and global synergies reproduce a distinct mennonite ethos (or social field) that is embodied in institutions and individuals. in this article we draw on focus group and interview data with mcc constituent group (cg) members and former refugee newcomers, along with organizational documents, to examine the nature and evolution of the relationships, responsibilities, positions, and dispositions of private sponsorship. we begin with a brief history of the private refugee sponsorship program in canada and mcc’s part in its development, followed by an outline of this study’s theo- retical framework and methodology. the bulk of the article is devoted to our analysis of institutional and interpersonal relationships, tensions, contradictions, and possibilities as they emerged in our data. private refugee sponsorship in canada complementing canada’s government-assisted refugee (gar) program, the immigration act officially institu- tionalized the psr program. cameron and labman note that “sponsorship is permitted through three types of sponsorship groups: ‘groups of five,’ ‘community sponsors,’ and ‘con- stituent groups (cgs),’ who are members of an organiza- tion that is a sponsorship agreement holder (sah).” as of february , there were sahs across canada, per cent of which are connected with religious communities. approximately per cent of refugees privately resettled are sponsored or co-sponsored by a sah. volume refuge number until recently, much of the literature on private refu- gee sponsorship has focused on program evaluation and history and falls within the context of the indochinese refugee movement, when the program was initially used and internationally recognized. research tends to com- pare refugee resettlement streams (e.g., gars versus psrs) or demographic features and is focused more on outcomes for refugee newcomers than on processes and practices in resettlement. more recently an influx of research has addressed the realities of private sponsorship of syrian refu- gee newcomers, considering identity or motivations and characteristics of sponsors. there is a much smaller body of literature on the unique history and involvement of mcc during this time and prior to signing the first master agree- ment. mcc’s role in refugee resettlement is acknowledged within the larger fabric of christian institutions in canada, while some literature specifically addresses cross-cultural and religious interactions between indochinese refugees and their mennonite sponsors. our focus is on the sponsoring relationships within a larger social system and specific social subfield of mcc as a sah. theoretical considerations: models of integration, social fields, and structures of capital integration and inclusion are regularly considered critical to settlement of refugee newcomers. in practice, integration and inclusion are often used interchangeably, notwithstand- ing discrete conceptual roots and distinct vast literatures. particularly in the context of settlement services for immi- grants and refugees, inclusion may emphasize a subjective sense of belonging and trust over the material realities of settlement and integration. despite their ubiquity, definitions and indicators of inclu- sion, or integration, commonly remain implicit and specific to national contexts and cultural trends that shift over time, revealing the normative nature of an unquestioned social ideal. we consider concepts of refugee integration or inclu- sion to be produced by an assumed logic that is associated with material and symbolic capital (or resources) in a social field. from an individualistic and categorical point of view, integration is most often equated with participation in various social arenas, and interventions focus on increas- ing individual capacity for meaningful incorporation into mainstream communities and institutions. for example, the stated objective of settlement services in canada is “to help them [refugee newcomers] to become participating members of canadian society as quickly as possible.” this familiar evaluative gaze lands squarely and exclusively on the refugee newcomer, producing an invisible yet ideal- ized individual and collective self. integration or inclusion through person-change measures—to help them fit into social systems, institutions, and cultural norms—implies a “centre” or series of centres whereby voluntary engagement or mandatory insertion moves an individual from exclusion to inclusion. offering more depth of meaning and complexity, a popu- lar analogy for integration or inclusion of immigrants and refugees is a “two-way street,” recognizing the need for reciprocal change between newcomers and hosts, where “both the receiving communities and the newcomers change, and change each other.” emphasis is placed not only on rights, but also on responsibilities of both the newcomer and residents to create the “opportunities for the immigrants’ full economic, social, cultural and political participation.” this interpersonal change remains focused on the level of the individual, yet gives some recognition to the self in rela- tion to the other. aiming for a more robust conception of integration, or inclusion, that recognizes refugee newcomers as “stakehold- ers” in integration rather than sites of intervention, lamping, bertolo, and wahlrab posit that the primary goal of resettle- ment is not to provide services, but to build relationships and a welcoming community. similarly, hynie’s holistic integra- tion model strengthens the emphasis on changes within the social context and on the interrelatedness of different social levels or dimensions. this shift from the individual to the social as the unit of analysis and site of intervention requires situating the other in a social context, stressing place change over person change. a key principle or value that operates in mcc’s refugee sponsorship program is a concept of “mutually transforma- tive relationships,” suggesting a model of integration or inclusion that expands the sites of intervention to include interpersonal change, place change, and even system change. we propose that an approach to integration or inclusion of refugee newcomers that is congruent with the mennonite/ mcc ethos (or structure of capital) situates refugee sponsor- ship within the broader context of forced migration—in con- flict that is at once interpersonal and systemic, manifesting itself in fractured relationships between individuals, groups, communities, societies, and nations. this, we argue, is the essence of social exclusion. in writing about transforma- tive relationships in protracted internal and international- ized conflict—contexts that produce refugees—mennonite scholar and practitioner john paul lederach emphasizes the “interdependence between various levels of society affected by and affecting change processes.” thus, a system-change model of integration involves transformation at all levels— personal, relational, institutional, and cultural. seeing integration, or inclusion, as conflict transforma- tion, or system change, is uncommon in refugee-receiving volume refuge number countries in the global north. the social and legal envi- ronments of host nations are relatively just and fair, com- pared to refugee source countries, and by virtue of offering safety and protection, a national moral superiority is implied. furthermore, this narrow perspective denies the inextrica- ble ties between “refugee-producing” and “refugee-saving” nation-states, and the incessant historical practices that give rise to collective violence and “populations that have expe- rienced a deep fracture in human relationships as a result of fundamental violations of their human rights.” especially in the relationships of refugee sponsorship, system change is a demanding point of view, as a critical gaze must be turned to the self and the other in social and historical relations of power. to recognize the sustained conflict and slow violence of “soft domination” requires eschewing common sense binaries to, instead, hold paradox. some definitions of terms are required. according to french sociologist pierre bourdieu, the social world is made up of multiple and diverse social fields and subfields, or are- nas of contest and struggle. a social field, analogous to a field of play in a highly competitive game of sport, is defined by its structure of capital, both material and symbolic, as individuals and groups compete for available resources that are effective and valued in that social field. all social space is ordered according to the legitimate means of appropriat- ing and circulating capital, and the resulting structure and volumes possessed by individuals and groups engaged in any given social field. occupants of various positions in social fields “seek, individually or collectively, to safeguard or improve their position.” in other words, a particular dis- position, or habitus, is associated with advancement in this social field, with the accumulation of various species of capi- tal. the habitus—much more than identity—is “socialized subjectivity” and “the product of collective and individual history,” which is expressed through taste and disposition, or embodied habits that are adjusted to social economies in which we engage. a divided habitus, or “coherent incoherence,” is a necessary “conciliation of contraries” in response to competing social fields and structures of capital, and coincident and opposing positions (i.e., dominant and dominated) in each. we will draw on this tripartite concept in the analysis that follows. methods and methodology: a case study of mcc history of mcc and canada’s private sponsorship model mennonite central committee (mcc) was founded in when famine and the decimation of mennonite communi- ties in ukraine during the russian revolution stirred men- nonites in north america to respond to the need of their co-religionists. in addition to aid, resettlement to canada was an important aspect of the work of the newly formed organization. between and , canada accepted over , mennonites from the soviet union, with the understanding that canadian mennonite communities would provide for and resettle these newcomers. in the fol- lowing decades, mcc expanded its relief and international development work well beyond assistance to fellow men- nonites. according to william janzen, a long-time director of mcc canada’s (mccc) ottawa office, the historical experi- ence of mcc in refugee resettlement served as a precedent for canada’s private sponsorship of refugee (psr) program, which was established more than fifty years after mcc was established. janzen also served as one of the negotiators of canada’s original master agreement, which mccc signed in . this agreement with the federal government provided the legal basis for mccc to work with local congregations that, in turn, offered organizational and logistical support for groups of citizens to privately sponsor refugees. mccc has sustained a vibrant refugee sponsorship program among mennonite churches for forty years. today mcc defines itself as “a worldwide ministry of ana- baptist churches,” with national offices in both winnipeg (manitoba) and akron (pennsylvania), enabling congrega- tions to become engaged in “relief, development and peace in the name of christ” at home and abroad. mcc provides a longstanding and unique case example for considering the relationships of private sponsorship in canada for at least four key factors: its origins in provid- ing aid to refugees; its role in canada’s private sponsorship program; its ties with mennonite and anabaptist churches and their refugee heritage; and the sustained engagement of individuals, sponsorship groups, and sponsoring congrega- tions in private sponsorship. research methods this analysis emerged from a qualitative research partner- ship between mcc ontario (mcco) and york university. our study used a reflexive community-based framework, whereby the research purpose, question, design, and data generation were collectively formulated and conducted in a partnership between researchers at york university, the mcco refugee sponsorship and settlement associate, and the mcco refugee program coordinator. the objective of this study was to examine how the relationships and practices within mccc’s private sponsorship program invigorate or frustrate dynamics of social inclusion. qualitative data were gathered in through seven focus groups with five to eight sponsors each, totalling forty- nine participants from twenty-one churches in six geograph- ical regions that sponsored refugees through mcc ontario between and ; seven interviews with seventeen former refugee newcomers who were sponsored by one of volume refuge number the sample groups; a key informant interview with brian dyck, the national migration and resettlement program coordinator; and mcc documents and publications. none of the sponsorships were named cases, but rather the spon- sored individuals and families were identified through the visa office referred (vor) or blended visa office–referred (bvor) program. this is significant for the purposes of our study, since sponsors had no prior relationship with the refu- gee newcomers they sponsored. apart from one sponsoring church that was affiliated with the evangelical missionary church of canada, all congregations within the sample were members of mennonite denominations that are formal con- tributing constituents of mccc, with the majority belonging to the mennonite church. mcco staff used its database to identify sponsors across ontario and provided formal invitations on behalf of the organization. because a primary objective of the research was to understand the nature and development of sponsorship roles and relationships over time, the sample of cgs was limited to those who had spon- sored a family or individual prior to the – syrian reset- tlement efforts. contact information for cgs before was limited, thus our sample captured sponsors between and . however, as the data reveal, several congregations had been sponsoring for decades, even since . a purpo- sive sample of these long-standing groups that had engaged in multiple sponsorships prior to was selected from regions in ontario with the largest representation of these groups: waterloo region, stratford, niagara, and the greater toronto area. aiming for multiplicity of perspective, purpo- sive sampling was further employed to add three additional focus groups: ( ) sponsors from the leamington area, to provide a rural perspective; ( ) sponsors from ottawa men- nonite church, to understand the experiences of the longest- standing cg with the most completed sponsorships; and ( ) a cg comprising individuals who attended two different mennonite churches and were sponsored through mccc but independent of either congregation. subsequently, sponsors extended the invitation to participate to those whom they had sponsored, resembling a purposive snowball sampling method, as recruitment was limited to former refugee newcomers with whom sponsors had an ongoing relation- ship. refugee countries of origin represented included iraq, syria, eritrea, south sudan, and colombia. interpreters were used for four of the seven newcomer interviews, for arabic, tigrinya, and spanish. focus group discussions and interviews were audio- recorded and transcribed. discussions with sponsors centred on the following topics: expectations or goals of sponsor- ship, values and guiding principles of sponsorship, shifting and growing relationships between sponsor and sponsored refugees over time, best practices, and personal experiences of sponsorship. demographic information for each focus group participant was collected prior to each focus group. thematic analysis of the focus group data was conducted through a collaborative and iterative approach, combining independent analyses by authors enns and good gingrich, and collaborative analysis with mcco program coordinators. direct quotations from former refugee newcomers are identified with pseudonyms, and those from sponsors with the number of the focus group. a reflexive lens research and practice that adopt a relational and systems framework are necessarily reflexive. in other words, the focus of attention is on the ways in which we engage with one another, as well as the outcomes of our work together. we identify the overarching methodology that guided this research project as “epistemic reflexivity.” bourdieu’s prac- tice of reflexivity entails the systematic analysis of practice in everyday social relations, “the objective archeology of our unconscious,” and the arbitrary. reflexive sociology “is critical of established patterns of power and privilege as well as of the politics that supports them.” more simply, a reflex- ive analysis shifts our gaze. rather than the conventional focus on excluded individuals or groups—the other—who are the targets of policies and services to help them become included or integrated, we take as our object of study the social spaces that comprise this largely uncontested “centre,” specifically, the institutional and interpersonal relationships of private refugee sponsorship: a primary objective is “to his- toricize and so denaturalize that which seems most natural in the social order,” to the point of seeming inevitable. epis- temic reflexivity requires us to see what we take for granted, to recognize that we have a world view that is not the only way to view the world. institutional relations: the nested social fields of refugee sponsorship as for all social fields, the institutional relations of private sponsorship are arenas of contest and struggle. specifically, mccc has a duty through its sponsorship agreement to func- tion as an extension of the federal government (ircc) in carrying out the directives of the psr program. yet equally important in our case example is mccc’s obligation to its constituency of mennonite and affiliated congregations. thus, mccc is answerable to two distinct constituencies and systems of institutions, policies, and practices. as a broker between government directives and sponsors, mccc must hold in tension two conflicting sets of values, or structures of capital. we will explore the institutional and interpersonal implications of these contradictory social fields and struc- tures of capital in the following sections. volume refuge number the market-state social field with its primary purpose of refugee settlement, canada’s psr program fits within the social welfare arm of the nation-state. yet private sponsorship programs do not fall neatly under one of the four sectors commonly associated with national welfare states: government (or public), market (or private for-profit), community/voluntary sector (private not-for- profit), and family (private and informal). the “settlement and integration of psrs” is to be achieved through a “part- nership of support” from informal civil society (sponsorship groups) and publicly funded service provider organizations (spos). canada’s psr program is designed to be a public-private partnership, but direct service provision and a portion or all of the cost is delegated to the formal not-for-profit com- munity/voluntary sector as well as informal family and civil society, yet the state imposes the legal framework and prac- tice regulations. this is a double privatization, as the mar- ketized public transfers international and domestic respon- sibility to both the formal and informal not-for-profit private sectors, blurring multiple boundaries within and beyond the nation-state. the logic or structure of capital of the psr program is made explicit in its goals, the terms for “success,” and what sponsors are “to make/to do.” even a cursory glance at ircc guidelines and instructions for sponsors reveals that the standard for successful private sponsorship is measured primarily by a particularly narrow version of self-sufficiency of refugee newcomers at the end of the one-year sponsor- ship. in practice, whether defined as settlement, integration, or inclusion, the outcome is most often assessed through individual and static indicators of financial independence and/or an emotional sense of belonging and trust. market logic assumes that the subjective and material realities of social exclusion are best addressed through paid work. such person-change measures constitute enforced dependency on the market. this is social exclusion by design, as we know that inclusion is not available for everyone through paid work. the mennonite/mcc social field: a countercultural system of capital despite a range of personal beliefs and contradictory expres- sions of proximity or distance to religion and the mennonite church, a common sponsorship ethos, or structure of capi- tal, runs through official mcc discourse and all participant responses. this ethos is institutionalized in mcc and its constituent churches and is reinforced in the specific prac- tices of synergy that are mutually productive for mennonite organizations, mcc programs, and participating individuals. we have argued elsewhere that mccc has maintained a com- mitment to refugee sponsorship largely as the result of his- torical beginnings steeped in refugee resettlement, its local and national credibility as a sah, its substantial presence and history in international development work, and its structure and grassroots connections with mennonite and affiliating denominations in north america. consequently, we theo- rize this diverse yet singular social context as a social field, with its own “institutional boundaries,” “barriers to entry,” and “specialists in the elaboration of a distinctive source of authority and sociodicy.” as with all social fields, the mennonite/mcc social field functions according to its own discernible structure of capital that cuts across place and time and directs the accumulation and exchange of mate- rial and symbolic assets, and produces a particular habitus or disposition. we identify the following distinct features of the men- nonite/mcc social field that have supported and sustained a unique model of refugee sponsorship with long-standing sponsoring groups for over forty years. a heritage of persecution mennonite identity is steeped in “refugeeness.” the mcc dis- position, or habitus, is rooted in stories of mennonite refu- gees from the twentieth century. janzen and epp-tiessen identify the significance of an inherited refugee story, most importantly flight from the soviet union during and after the first and second world wars, in motivating mennon- ites to become involved in the sponsorship of indo-chinese refugees. epp-tiessen explains: “they, their parents, or grandparents had been refugees, and they now wished to ease the suffering of others.” a familiar and inspiring grand narrative is the almost -page first-hand account of mcc’s second refugee resettlement effort of , uprooted men- nonites from russia to south and north america from to , as told by lifelong mcc workers and canadian men- nonites peter and elfrieda dyck ( ). the title, up from the rubble: the epic rescue of thousands of war-ravaged men- nonite refugees, contains the essence of this legendary david and goliath story. nearly half of the sponsors in our study articulated a familial refugee story. this sense of personal connection to “refugeeness” was repeatedly identified as a motivating factor for sponsors: “i think one of the reasons that i feel strongly about this is that my parents were refugees after the second world war.” some respondents described a direct and inti- mate relationship with mcc, as they associated their current life in canada with the support and aid provided by mcc when they themselves, or their family, resettled in canada as refugees. when asked why they chose to sponsor through mcc, an older couple noted, “when we talk about our family volume refuge number experience, it was mcc who was there, and they found spon- sors for my parents and they found sponsors for [my wife] and family. the natural choice.” while not all north american mennonites reference a familial refugee past from the twentieth century, the men- nonite heritage and collective identity also draws from sto- ries of sixteenth-century anabaptists, who were persecuted for opposing the religious and political leaders and institu- tions of the day. the anabaptist disposition is countercul- tural, even radical, outside the mainstream and inclined toward the margins. mennonites often use this history to identify with the disadvantaged and powerless, as social and cultural capital—far more important than material capital in a mennonite social field—is associated with (triumph over) oppression and suffering. this “posture” for the dispossessed and the outsider has shaped the particular anabaptist/men- nonite interpretation of biblical teaching and theological explanations for mcc’s vision and mission of “serving with humility and in partnership to meet local needs with local solutions” and “to prevent violence and promote peace and justice.” a culture of beliefs in action/an ethos of sponsorship a practical and collective response to human crisis or need is an obligation that grows out of religious and humanitarian beliefs and values that have shaped mennonite cultures for over years. for focus group participants who articulated a refugee past, sponsorship was clearly expressed as a means to strengthen their mennonite identity by weaving this herit- age with their current practice. some also drew on classic formulations of anabaptist/mennonite theology to explain their motivation to sponsor: “our congregation is very influ- enced by anabaptist theology. specifically, we recognize the call of the gospel to make a difference in the world and dis- cipleship and service, so the thrust of our service is that we want to reach out to some of these people globally that are in stressed situations.” discipleship, central to mennonite theology and culture, emerged as an important element for some sponsors who specifically described sponsorship through mcc as “an extension, a practical part of [mennon- ite] faith” and of “loving mercy and acting justly.” one respondent from a congregation in southern ontario with a long history of sponsorship noted that refugee sponsorship is a “christian service,” and there “seems to be this understand- ing that within the call to discipleship we should be doing something, and we do this.” although all respondents had some affiliation with a mennonite church or heritage, several explicitly articulated that their involvement in sponsorship was not tied to faith: “the fact that we can do it is why we did it. not out of any obligation, out of any faith, or anything else. it was just that we had the means, and therefore we could participate.” for these sponsors, mcc’s “theological hands-off ” stance made it possible to participate in “a hands- on, real thing—it’s not just talking about it…. this is real. i can contribute to making a real difference, a meaningful difference.” for mennonites in canada, whether claiming religious affiliation or not, sponsorship through mcc gives expression to a past refugee experience, a current represen- tation of triumph over hardship, and a sustained collective identity as people of peace. in turn, a unique mcc sponsor- ship ethos is reinforced. a community of sponsoring communities mcc’s structure expresses an organizational commitment to “relationships with our local partners and churches” that is consistent with anabaptist principles of community, mutual aid, and sharing of material and social resources. the church as a faith community provides a natural structure and cul- ture for sponsorship. a prominent theme in focus group discussions was the mutually supportive and constitutive relationship—an institutional synergy—between mcc and affiliated churches. congregations that have maintained a long-term engagement in private sponsorship are heavily reliant on mcc, its structure, reputation, and staff support. in turn, the stability of mcc’s refugee program is owed to the sustained engagement of individual congregations. the tight connection between mennonite churches and mcc was articulated by a focus group member: “our churches are all part of mcc, we are constituents of mcc—we see mcc as the extension of our local congregation that does the local and international relief and development work and mcc as an extension of the community and development work.” in addition to the reputation and practical support of mcc, long-standing congregational structures, practices, and rela- tionships offer the material, social, and symbolic resources necessary for refugee sponsorship. local congregations are an established collective of people who provide financial and in-kind resources, form sponsorship groups, replace group members as necessary, generate additional supports and resources, connect with community networks, and have ready access to a physical space to hold events or meetings. many churches have designated funds for refugee support in the form of mission budgets, benevolence funds, or even a designated budget line specifically for refugee resettlement needs. further, the congregation provides a financial and social safety net, a pool of potential resources. furthermore, mcc’s extensive international development work and the involvement of north american mennonite churches has cultivated institutional and interpersonal relationships that extend across place and time. mcc has programs in fifty-six countries and is involved in another ten countries, with , workers around the world, and volume refuge number depends on both local staff and a substantial contingent of north american mennonite volunteers to implement its international programs. with its unique capacity to pro- vide accessible and popular international programming that grows a community of returned alumni—known as “mccers”—mcc’s international work is infused into local congregations through interpersonal relationships. the high number of refugees sponsored from specific countries (e.g., colombia, palestine) reflects mcc’s long-term and trusted relationships with international and local partners in those countries, including churches, governments, service organi- zations, and communities. peacebuilding a centrepiece of anabaptist/mennonite theology and tradi- tion is pacifism, or non-violent resistance. similarly, mcc values initiatives that encourage “relationship-building as peacebuilding.” mcc views sponsorship through this peace lens, and hopes for “transforming and everlasting” relationships, particularly between people of different faiths and cultures. writing as an employee of mcc, steph- anie dyck states that mcc encourages sponsors to “move to deeper levels of engagement” with newcomers to encourage a “mutually transformative process of integration and com- munity building.” while much of the material on success- ful sponsorship of refugees emphasizes self-sufficiency and independence, mcc’s focus on mutually transformative relationships is somewhat unusual in the world of refugee sponsorship. for example, unlike many sahs that select refugees to sponsor through named cases, mcc is committed to meeting the resettlement needs of any refugee, regardless of religion or culture. this was a deliberate decision made after a review of the sponsorship program in , when mccc stipulated that at least per cent of all cases were to be referred by unhcr or the canada visa office in order to prioritize those who had been identified as most in need. further demonstrating this commitment, mccc resettled approximately one-third of all refugees identified for reset- tlement by unhcr in . mcc’s goal of relationships of mutual transformation appears in various organization documents and repeat- edly came up in conversation with staff during the course of our research. dyck asserts that sponsorship can promote “mutually transformative relationships.” although the term defies definition, it is clear that the ideal of transformative relationships as an objective of sponsorship emphasizes relationships over belief and goes beyond the utilitarian roles and expectations commonly associated with newcomer integration. whereas mccc may mark “successful” sponsor- ship with economic independence of the refugee newcomer family, a hope for long-term reciprocal relationships is an additional and equally valued ideal, producing a split in the habitus in mennonite sponsoring relationships. mcc refugee sponsorship: an arena of contest and struggle from a relational and reflexive point of view, the dynamics of social exclusion and inclusion produced in the private spon- sorship of refugees are directly tied to the nested social fields, their operating structures of capital, and associated positions and dispositions of the sponsor in relation to the other. the conflicting structures of capital of the mennonite/mcc and market-state social fields introduce complexities, tensions, contradictions, and possibilities for a range of positions and dispositions in the sponsoring relationship and practices that both promote and obstruct social inclusion. the divided habitus of mennonite sponsorship the identities and roles afforded refugee newcomers in the sponsorship relationship and beyond have recently been examined. for example, kyriakides et al. draw on said’s theory of orientalism to argue that the refugee, as “non- western other,” is constructed as “uncivilised, unruly, and lacking in cultural sophistication,” thus rendering “‘our’ western morality and civilization.” alternatively, humani- tarian views of the refugee subject emphasize the suffering and hardship experienced by “undifferentiated masses” of refugees and asylum seekers, framing the character of the refugee in a positive light, but without agency. similarly, kyriakides et al. focus attention on “representations of pas- sivity and infantilization which must be negotiated as part of the resettlement experience.” the refugee as deviant, ascribed low power and low value, is easily turned to threat. in contrast, the refugee as passive victim is deemed a worthy recipient of aid and support. in the context of the sponsorship relationship, the ascribed identities of the refugee newcomer have everything to do with the disposition, posture, and (imagined) identity taken up by the sponsor. a focus on the other as the object of study and site of intervention constructs certain configu- rations of “them,” but more importantly, assembles an ideal- ized “us.” the refugee as threat, which winter and colleagues point out is common in social and news media, feeds a col- lective illusion of vulnerability, even victimization by the undefined other. in the sponsoring relationship, this dual- ity is unlikely, as the undeserving refugee justifies avoidance of engagement, withholding of support, or even punish- ment and retaliation. in contrast, however, the constructed identities of humanitarian discourse fit nicely within the sponsorship relationship, as the “passive ‘them’” positions the sponsor as the “agentic ‘us.’” the natural disposition of the sponsor in relation to the refugee newcomer in need volume refuge number of a humanitarian response is one of “helper” or “protector,” which, as kyriakides et al. imply, reinforces a good deal of social distance and a hierarchical order of things. the helper habitus is inclined toward a person-change approach to refu- gee newcomer integration. these positions and dispositions—commanding helper and passive victim—seem natural, especially in the early days of settlement. the sponsoring relationship was reported by both sponsors and refugee newcomers to be primarily utilitarian for the first six to eight months, assisting new- comers with the basics of everyday life as outlined by mcco, such as financial, health, housing, education, shopping, and transportation. humanitarianism also encourages sponsors to “‘put themselves in the shoes’ of people coping with difficult situations.” this position and disposition, contrasting the helper habitus, brings the self into full view. mennonite sponsors were particularly inclined toward this “alongside” position. one sponsor illustrated how the refugee history had been absorbed into his own identity as a mennonite and how the story of “the refugee” had become his own story: “many of us came from refugee families ourselves, as russian mennonites, and that story resonates especially strongly with me. my parents were both victims of violence and [witnesses to] murder in russia and then came here as refugees, and their story became my story.” similarly, one respondent felt connected to the past work of mcc and believed he was continuing a tradition of helping others: “[mcc] is still there, and i can tell this muslim family, ‘the same organization that helped my ancestors come to canada, now helps you, and it has been around a long time.’” for these individuals, sponsorship offers a means to engage in the work of mcc to give back to an organization from which they themselves, or their ancestors, had personally benefited. even though still rooted in humanitarianism, this sponsor disposition is dis- tinct from both the masterful “helper” and the compassion- ate “protector,” as the identification of the self with the other collapses social distance. the pretence of sameness suggests an ambivalent disposition and position in relation to the refugee newcomer, because only the sponsor is afforded the capacity to take on and discard “refugeeness” and the associ- ated symbolic power at will. sponsoring relationships evolve, often moving from more immediate and practical concerns to emotional and social supports. imposing the helper disposition into more personal aspects of life, some sponsors aspired to direct the decisions of newcomers, “to make them good, canadian citizens.” ideas of citizenship were associated with learning english, finding employment, and becoming “contributing members of canadian society.” both sponsors and former refugee newcomers related encountering uncertainty, disappointment, and frustration. revealing some coherence with the dominant market-state social field, sponsors’ efforts toward person-change integra- tion—defined for and practised to the refugee newcomer — sometimes backfired. for example, sponsors described using their time and social resources to find potential employment options for newcomers, efforts that were ignored or rejected. one respondent lamented, “part of this makes me angry, like they’re milking the system—this bothers me…. we’re trying to be helpful and they’re not really willing to do their end of the bargain.” shifting the locus of control, the newcomers who reported having a sustained job and were satisfied in their line of work had ultimately settled on employment that they had sought and secured on their own accord. for many newcomers, the “survival jobs” available to them could not replace the livelihoods they left behind. nicolas commented that his occupational background was “useless” in canada and explained how he was struggling with finances: “i can’t stop. there are no savings, no safety net.” as commonly reported in previous research, our data indicate that new- comers continue to encounter barriers to dignified employ- ment, even years after resettlement. the complicated nature of sponsorship relationships was defined by one sponsor as a “tension between wanting to help and wanting to not help too much.” most sponsors asserted that newcomers should become independent, and many noted certain times when they felt newcomers should “make their own way in life.” revealing an ambivalent disposition, or divided habitus, many sponsors expressed a desire or expectation for their relationships with the refugee newcomer to extend beyond the sponsorship year, noting that “successful [sponsorships] are the ones where there have been positive relationships established and maintained.” in some instances, the objective of “independence” was over- shadowed by the desire to maintain close relationships. for example, sponsors recognized their involvement might do newcomers a “disservice” and have direct impact on their independence. to enable newcomers to learn and make decisions themselves required sponsors to back off: “i think for some committees, they [refugees] almost become like children and so they’re very happy when the sponsorship groups make decisions for them, [but] for me, the goal was independence—to make myself redundant as quickly as possible.” extending the helper-helped dispositions well beyond the sponsoring year, sponsors reflected the need to strategically position themselves in the relationship so they do not abandon the newcomer, but also do not cre- ate new relationships of dependence. this framing largely assumes that sponsors are the ones who are both providing volume refuge number independence and standing in the way of it—that they alone bear this responsibility. encouraging an alternative sponsor position and disposi- tion, a valuable role identified by former refugee newcomers was that of simply listening—as tiffany said, to “listen to the needs of the person they’re taking care of ” and “be patient,” because newcomers “know things” but may find it difficult to express themselves, or as ayah said, “to talk to us, to feel comfortable.” although sponsors readily fulfilled their utili- tarian responsibilities, few recognized this more passive role and disposition, to simply visit with the family and to learn “what’s important to them…. we think that we know what is the best way to do things, but sometimes you really have to listen to them and let them do what they think they have to do.” staying with the helper-helped dyad, yet expressing a shift in the sponsor disposition, it was noted that a certain amount of advocacy is necessary for the utilitarian responsi- bilities of sponsors, such as facilitating access to medical and education systems. the objective of advocacy was often iden- tified as negotiating adjustment in the interaction between the individual and institution rather than individual-level change, thus bringing the social context into view. adopting a reflexive point of view and extending the line of vision even further to include the self in social relations, sponsors also described recognizing and using their personal privilege and influence to challenge the institution itself. indeed, sponsors noted advocating for change within their own congregations and larger communities in order to shift the narrative on refugee issues and dispel myths that fed xenophobia: “peo- ple have this notion that refugees are given tons and tons of money, more than anybody else…. when i see something like that and i say, ‘this isn’t true, check your facts—don’t go spreading false rumours about what’s happening…. you gotta give your head a shake and speak up.” this recogni- tion of relative privilege—not by virtue of personal merit but due to uneven social relations in canadian institutions and communities—shifts the emphasis from person change to system change. as responsibilities officially end come “month ,” there is a need to redefine and reshape the sponsorship relationship. the majority of sponsors and newcomers described their ongoing relationships in familial terms, and in some respects, the use of familial words legitimizes the continuation of the sponsorship relationship. with an average age of sixty-five among the sample’s sponsors, many noted that they consid- ered themselves parents to many of the newcomers. nearly all newcomers at some point referred to sponsorship mem- bers in relation to family. hassan commented, “the sponsor- ship group is my family. all of them, because they help me to understand the future.” omar explained, “until today, we still communicate and we still get together every once in a while, and we just became a small family. or, i should say, we added to their big family.” omar’s self-correction highlights contradictory meanings of these familial relationships, as sponsors incorporate new members into their existing fami- lies and lives, while newcomers are forced to begin their lives in canada from experiences of loss. as dhalia said, “they were our family, we had nobody here.” mcc encourages “mutually transformative” relationships that continue beyond sponsorship, facilitating the shift “from sponsorship to [interpersonal-change] integration.” navi- gating this transition from an uneven relationship bound within the duties of one year to that of “mutual transforma- tion” post-sponsorship, is paradoxical, introducing tensions and conflicts—and possibilities—in practice. the divided habitus, an expression of congruence to multiple positions and the divided self, allows for paradox to be contained dividing practices in the market-state field to be subvert- ed. the cleft habitus—“to step into one’s authority while remaining ever mindful of its limits and offences” —opens the possibility to look beyond person-change integration, to interpersonal change, place change, and perhaps even sys- tem change. institutional tensions, contradictions, and possibilities distinctions between mcc’s international and domestic pro- grams (especially the refugee sponsorship program), par- ticularly vis-à-vis the ideal of mutually transformative rela- tionships in practice, highlight tensions and contradictions in the mennonite/mcc social field. specifically, mcc’s operat- ing principles and institutional theory of change, articulated in a brief internal document, “encapsulate mcc’s conviction that lasting change often requires long-term commitment and happens when all members of a community connect across lines of difference to actively participate in shaping and implementing visions for just social, environmental, and economic structures.” following the example of jesus, and working in partnership with local organizations and communities, “unjust systems that oppress and exclude” are transformed to “just economic relationships,” “conflict” into “relief and development work,” and “structures of injustice and their legacies” to “a just peace.” in its more prominent international relief and develop- ment work, mcc does not enter into agreements with foreign governments as is required for the refugee sponsorship pro- gram in canada. as a result, mcc is freer in its overseas work to contest governments, policies, and local practices, and “to engage in community-based efforts and public policy advo- cacy at local, national, and international levels that build durable peace.” unlike the international contexts in which mcc engages, little emphasis is placed on transformation of volume refuge number unjust social relations in canada, suggesting an institutional bifurcation between the need for transformation of com- munities, institutions, and economic systems at home and abroad. further, despite mcc’s focus on “the radical trans- formation of unjust systems” in its international programs, mcc staff and sponsors rarely identity or address refugee newcomer experiences of social exclusion in canada. a personal and institutional reluctance to recognize uneven power relationships in our own backyard is revealed. ironi- cally, reflexivity—to see the self and the other in social and historical relations of power—is resisted in refugee sponsor- ship. yet the shared principles of relationship-building and practical engagement are given expression and reinforced through mccc’s refugee sponsorship program. conclusions we return to our guiding research objective: to examine the ways in which mccc’s private sponsorship program invig- orates or frustrates dynamics of social inclusion. the settle- ment experiences articulated by former refugee newcomers in our study expose stubborn dynamics of social exclusion, mingled with genuine experiences of social inclusion. this is the paradox—the simultaneous gain and loss—of forced migration and settlement. former refugee newcomers expressed their appreciation for the hands-on, practical support they received from sponsors: nicolas commented, “people who arrive with the help of the mennonite [church] or with churches with programs like that arrive with a huge blessing. it’s a big help.” other newcomers recalled being pleasantly surprised by how they were received. fatimah stated, “i did not expect such treatment. i had never seen that kind of kindness and hospitality before.” however, the everyday lives of refugee newcomers con- tinue into “month ” and beyond, long after the contrived relationships of sponsorship end. even the sustained rela- tionships of some sponsorships could not shield the ways in which communities and institutions function to keep people marginalized. the persisting and intersecting dynamics of social exclusion experienced by former refugee newcomers included economic exclusion, or loss of livelihood and mean- ingful work that is commensurate with acquired education and skills; spatial exclusion, or isolation and loneliness com- pounded by segregation in one neighbourhood, apartment building, or high school; socio-political exclusion, or barri- ers to accessing informal and formal social supports, such as health care, education, even friends beyond the sponsorship group; and subjective exclusion, or discounted classification, to find oneself “boxed up,” defined by and for others as only refugees, as only vulnerable, as only needy. the system- atic devaluation of education, knowledge, and expertise for newcomers—even when they are no longer newcomers—in notes good gingrich and enns have no current or past for- mal relationship with mcc canada or mcc ontario. both authors are associated with the mennonite community and culture by ethnicity, with differing relationships with the church. we would like to thank kerry fast for her editing and consulting assistance. her expertise in developmental editing and her past involvement in mccc’s refugee pro- gram helped shape this article. mennonite central committee canada, an introduction to southeast asian refugees and suggestions for sponsors (winnipeg, mb: mccc, ). refugee sponsorship training program, “the private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program,” http://www. rstp.ca/en/refugee-sponsorship/the-private-sponsorship- of-refugees-program/. refugee sponsorship training program, “the private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program.” government of canada, “resettlement in canada as a refugee,” last modified september , https://www. canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/ ref uge es/help-outside-canada/pr ivate-sp ons orship- program.html. refugee sponsorship training program, “responsi- bilities of sponsorship groups & availability of ircc- funded resettlement and settlement services,” immi- gration, refugees and citizenship canada (ircc),” may , http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/ircc-resources/ canada’s labour market and local communities is well docu- mented. subjective exclusion functions over time. this is the dispossession of symbolic capital, and it works to keep people in disadvantaged positions. the mennonite/mcc social field and structure of capital generates tensions and contradictions. yet this uncommon sense resists the common sense individualized perspective that limits integration to person change, thus presenting possibilities for seeing, understanding, and challenging processes and outcomes of social exclusion. the invisible yet idealized subject and “centre” of person-change integra- tion is brought into view from a position and disposition outside. yet in the context of the psr program in canada, identification with the other without a reflexive view of the self in social relations of power is disingenuous and unsta- ble. furthermore, well-meaning efforts to change or support the excluded individuals, while overlooking the processes that make them excluded, ultimately serve to reinforce long-standing social and economic divides. social inclusion requires us to reverse our gaze—to examine and confront the assumptions we hold and everyday practices in which we engage that prop up our undeserved places and identities of privilege. http://www.rstp.ca/en/refugee-sponsorship/the-private-sponsorship-of-refugees-program/ http://www.rstp.ca/en/refugee-sponsorship/the-private-sponsorship-of-refugees-program/ http://www.rstp.ca/en/refugee-sponsorship/the-private-sponsorship-of-refugees-program/ https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/help-outside-canada/private-sponsorship-program.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/help-outside-canada/private-sponsorship-program.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/help-outside-canada/private-sponsorship-program.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/help-outside-canada/private-sponsorship-program.html http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/ircc-resources/responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-funded-restlement-settlement-services/ volume refuge number responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of- ircc-funded-restlement-settlement-services/. immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, the rstp handbook for sponsoring groups, “chapter : the first year and beyond,” , http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/ hand-book-for-sponsoring-groups/. immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, rstp handbook. see thea enns, luann good gingrich, and kaylee perez, “religious heritage, institutionalized ethos, and synergies: mennonite central committee and canada’s private spon- sorship of refugees program” (paper presented at “private refugee sponsorship: concepts, cases and consequences,” munk school of global affairs, university of toronto, october – , ). the research reported in this article is part of a larger pro- ject that aims to measure processes and outcomes of social exclusion and inclusion for immigrant and refugee new- comers in canada. the authors gratefully acknowledge the funding support of the social sciences and research coun- cil (sshrc) of canada through the insight grant entitled “advancing social inclusion in canada’s diverse commu- nities: neighbourhood, regional, and national compari- sons,” pi luann good gingrich. geoffrey cameron and shauna labman, “private refugee sponsorship: an evolving framework for refugee reset- tlement” (paper presented at “private refugee sponsor- ship: concepts, cases and consequences,” munk school of global affairs, university of toronto, october – , ) government of canada, “private sponsorship of refugees program: sponsorship agreement holders,” january , https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees- citizenship/services/refugees/help-outside-canada/private- sponsorship-program/agreement-holders/holders-list .html. judith kumin, welcoming engagement: how private spon- sorship can strengthen refugee resettlement in the european union, migration policy institute europe (december ). cameron and labman, “private sponsorship of refugees program,” . see jennifer hyndman, william payne, and shauna jime- nez, “private refugee sponsorship in canada,” forced migration review ( ): – ; shauna labman, “private sponsorship: complementary or conflicting interests?” refuge , no. ( ): – ; michael lanphier, “spon- sorship: organizational, sponsor, and refugee perspec- tives,” journal of international migration and integration , no. ( ): – ; barbara treviranus and michael cas- asola, “canada’s private sponsorship of refugees program: a practitioner’s perspective of its past and future,” journal of international migration and integration , no. ( ): – . see michael j. molloy, peter duschinsky, kurt f. jensen, and robert j. shalka, running on empty: canada and the indochinese refugees, – (montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ); “the indochi- nese refugee movement and the launch of canada’s pri- vate sponsorship program: special issue,” refuge , no. ( ). see, for example, ircc, evaluation of the resettlement pro- grams (gar, psr, bvor and rap) (ottawa: immigration, refugees and citizenship canada—evaluation division, ); laura simich, “negotiating boundaries of refugee resettlement: a study of settlement patterns and social support,” canadian review of sociology and anthropology , no. ( ): – ; lori a. wilkinson, “the integra- tion of refugee youth in canada” (phd diss., university of alberta, ), ; morton beiser, “sponsorship and reset- tlement success,” journal of international migration and integration , no. ( ): – . michaela hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program, inter- group relationships and identities,” canadian ethnic stud- ies , no. ( ): – . audrey macklin, kathryn barber, luin goldring, jennifer hyndman, anna korteweg, shauna labman, and jona zyfi, “a preliminary investigation into private refugee sponsors,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – . macklin et al., “preliminary investigation.” christine mckinlay, “welcoming the stranger: the cana- dian church and the private sponsorship of refugees pro- gram” (ma thesis, ryerson university, ). see stephanie phetsamay stobbe, “cross-cultural experi- ences of laotian refugees and mennonite sponsors in brit- ish columbia and manitoba,” journal of mennonite studies ( ): – ; daphne n. winland, “christianity and community: conversion and adaptation among hmong refugee women,” canadian journal of sociology , no. ( ): – . a variety of terms have been adopted to reference the target outcome of settlement policies and programs for immigrants and refugees, such as acculturation, adaptation, assimilation, integration, and inclusion. for an overview of integration- related terms, definitions, and debates, see stephen castles, maja korac, ellie vasta, and steven vertovec, “integration: mapping the field” (oxford: university of oxford, centre for migration and policy research and refugee studies centre, ); jennifer hyndman, “research summary on resettled refugee integration in canada” (toronto: york university, centre for refugee studies, ). hynie, for example, integrates the subjective considera- tions of belonging and security commonly associated with inclusion into her “holistic integration model (him)” to strengthen emphasis on the social context and “the nature of the relationships between refugees and other mem- bers of their communities” as well as “general community attitudes and beliefs about refugees.” see michaela hynie. “refugee integration: research and policy,” peace and con- flict: journal of peace psychology , no. ( ): – , . immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, “reset- tlement services for government-assisted refugees,” last http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/ircc-resources/responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-funded-restlement-settlement-services/ http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/ircc-resources/responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-funded-restlement-settlement-services/ http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/hand-book-for-sponsoring-groups/ http://www.rstp.ca/en/resources/hand-book-for-sponsoring-groups/ volume refuge number updated january , https://www.canada.ca/en/immi- gration-refugees-citizenship/news/ / /resettlement- and-settlement-services-for-government-assisted-refugees .html see luann good gingrich, out of place: social exclusion and mennonite migrants in canada (toronto: university of toronto press, ), – . hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program,” . the idea of “two-way integration” has been taken up by governments in the global north, including canada, australia, and across the eu. hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program.” see, for example, lara winnemore and john biles, “can- ada’s two-way street integration model: not without its stains, strains and growing pains,” canadian diversity/ diversité canadienne , no. ( ): – . council of the european union, immigrant integration pol- icy in the european union (brussels: council of the euro- pean union, ), . sally lamping, melissa bertolo, and tom wahlrab, “activ- ist citizens in an immigrant-friendly city: the natural helpers program,” peace and conflict: journal of peace psy- chology, ( ), – . michaela hynie, a. korn, and d. tao, “social context and social integration for government-assisted refugees in ontario, canada,” in after the flight: the dynamics of refu- gee settlement and integration, ed. m. poteet and s. nour- panah, – (newcastle upon tyne, uk: cambridge scholars, ); michaela hynie, “refugee integration: research and policy,” peace and conflict: journal of peace psychology , no. ( ): – . see, for example, stephanie dyck, “private refugee spon- sorship in canada: an opportunity for mutual transfor- mation,” intersections: challenges and opportunities in refugee resettlement , no. ( ): – . good gingrich proposes that social exclusion is, essen- tially, conflict that is manifested in processes and outcomes of economic, spatial, socio-political, and subjective divides. see good gingrich, out of place. john paul lederach, “the origins and evolution of infra- structures for peace: a personal reflection,” journal of peacebuilding & development , no. ( ): – . for a useful discussion of conflict transformation, see john paul lederach, preparing for peace: conflict transforma- tion across cultures (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ); john paul lederach, the moral imagination: the art and soul of building peace (oxford: oxford univer- sity press, ). shifting the dominant vantage point of refugee integra- tion from the global north to the global south, kihato and landau consider inclusion of (or by) place: caroline wanjiku kihato and loren b. landau, “stealth humani- tarianism: negotiating politics, precarity and performance management in protecting the urban displaced,” journal of refugee studies , no. ( ): – . adrienne chambon, susan mcgrath, ben zion shapiro, mulugeta abai, teresa dremetsikas, and suzanne dudziak, “from interpersonal links to webs of relations: creating befriending relationships with survivors of torture and of war,” journal of social work research , no. ( ): . pierre bourdieu et al., the weight of the world: social suf- fering in contemporary society, trans. priscilla parkhurst ferguson (stanford, ca: stanford university press, ), . pierre bourdieu, the logic of practice, trans. richard nice (stanford, ca: stanford university press, ). pierre bourdieu and and loïc wacquant, an invitation to reflexive sociology (chicago: university of chicago press, ), . see pierre bourdieu, “principles of an economic anthro- pology,” in the handbook of economic sociology, ed. neil j. smelser and richard swedberg (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ), . good gingrich, out of place, . pierre bourdieu, sketch for a self-analysis, trans. richard nice (cambridge: polity, ), . in october representatives from mennonite churches in manitoba, saskatchewan, and alberta met to organize a canadian central committee similar to the  mennonite central committee just organized in the  united states. the work of providing shelter and support for thousands of mennonite refugees “until they were financially viable” prompted the formation of multiple mennonite organiza- tions, including the canadian mennonite board of colo- nization in , the mennonite land settlement board in , the  central mennonite immigration committee (made up of mennonite newcomers in canada), and the mennonite central relief committee in western can- ada. esther epp-tiessen notes that “by the end of , a wide representation of mennonite and brethren in christ denominations had agreed to the transformation of their existing inter-mennonite organizations into one new national entity known as mennonite central committee canada, with provincial counterparts.” see esther epp- tiessen, mennonite central committee in canada: a his- tory (winnipeg: cmu, ), ; frank h. epp, mennonite exodus: the rescue and resettlement of the russian men- nonites since the communist revolution (altona, mb: cana- dian mennonite relief and immigration council, ). william janzen, “the mcc canada master agreement for the sponsorship of refugees in historical perspective,” journal of mennonite studies ( ): – . sources: epp, mennonite exodus; jacob gerbrandt, “cana- dian mennonite board of colonization,” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, last edited july , http://gameo.org/index.php?title=canadian_mennonite_ board_of_colonization&oldid= . janzen, “ mcc canada master agreement,” . for mcc’s complete vision and mission statement, see mcc, “vision and mission,” , https://mcccanada.ca/learn/ about/mission. https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/ / /resettlement-and-settlement-services-for-government-assisted-refugees.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/ / /resettlement-and-settlement-services-for-government-assisted-refugees.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/ / /resettlement-and-settlement-services-for-government-assisted-refugees.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/news/ / /resettlement-and-settlement-services-for-government-assisted-refugees.html http://gameo.org/index.php?title=canadian_mennonite_board_of_colonization&oldid= http://gameo.org/index.php?title=canadian_mennonite_board_of_colonization&oldid= volume refuge number one interview with a former refugee newcomer/family was conducted in each of the six main focus group regions. individuals and families were chosen on the basis of the overall diversity of the sample, considering factors such as family makeup, country of origin, and time of arrival. seven separate interviews were conducted, comprising sev- enteen participants. for a list of mccc’s sponsoring denominations, see “lead- ership and board,” , https://mcccanada.ca/learn/about/ leadership. for the sake of brevity, and to highlight the identities of sponsorship relationships, former refugee newcomers or previously sponsored refugees are often identified as sim- ply “refugees” or “newcomers.” we recognize the symbolic violence of limiting the identity of sponsored individuals to refugees or newcomers, even years after resettlement. for more on epistemic reflexivity, see good gingrich, out of place. pierre bourdieu, masculine domination, trans. richard nice (stanford, ca: stanford university press, ), . loïc wacquant, “pierre bourdieu,” in key sociological thinkers, ed. r. stones (new york: new york university press, ), . bourdieu, masculine domination, . immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, “respon- sibilities of sponsorship groups & availability of ircc- funded resettlement and settlement services,” http://www. rstp.ca/wp-content/uploads/ / /responsibilities-of- sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-resettlemen.... pdf. liisa h. malkki, the need to help: the domestic arts of international humanitarianism (durham, nc: duke uni- versity press, ). enns, good gingrich, and perez, “religious heritage.” in an interview with aksu akçaoğlu, loïc wacquant clari- fies pierre bourdieu’s concept of social field and symbolic power. see loïc wacquant and aksu akçaoğlu, “practice and symbolic power in bourdieu: the view from berkeley,” journal of classical sociology , no. ( ): . epp-tiessen, mennonite central committee, . sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group . mcc, “vision and mission.” sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group b. sponsor, focus group . mcc, “about mcc,” , https://mcccanada.ca/learn/about. sponsor, focus group . mcc, “where we work,” , https://mcccanada.ca/learn/ where. epp-tiessen, mennonite central committee, . mcc, “refugee response,” , https://mcccanada.ca/ learn/what/refugees/sponsorship. dyck, “private refugee sponsorship in canada,” . treviranus and casasola, “canada’s private sponsorship of refugees program,” . rachel bergen, “mcc resettles one-third of canada’s bvor refugees,” mcc, , https://mcccanada.ca/stories/ mcc-resettles-one-third-canadas-bvor-refugees. dyck, “private refugee sponsorship in canada.” christopher kyriakides, lubna bajjali, arthur mcluhan, and karen anderson, “beyond refuge: contested orien- talism and persons of self-rescue,” canadian ethnic stud- ies , no. ( ): . hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program,” . hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program,” . see mike berry, inaki garcia-blanco, and kerry moore, “press cov- erage of the refugee and migrant crisis in the eu: a con- tent analysis of five european countries,” , http:// www.unhcr.org/ bb c .html; vlad petre glăveanu, constance de saint-laurent, and ioana literat, “making sense of refugees online: perspective taking, political imagination, and internet memes,” american behavioral scientist , no. ( ): – ; simon goodman, ala sirriyeh, and simon mcmahon, “the evolving (re)cat- egorisations of refugees throughout the ‘refugee/migrant crisis,’” journal of community and applied social psychol- ogy ( ): – . kyriakides et al., “beyond refuge,” . donna l. lybecker, mark k. mcbeth, adam m. brewer, and carine de sy, “the social construction of a border: the us-canada border,” journal of borderlands studies , no. ( ): – . elke winter, anke patzelt, and mélanie beauregard, “l’imaginaire national, l’asile et les réfugiés syriens en allemagne et au canada: une analyse discursive,” cana- dian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – . hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program,” . mcco, “committee roles template.” hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program,” . sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group b. for an insightful discussion of pedagogy and the nature of relationships, see dorothy vaandering, “critical relational theory,” in restorative theory in practice: insights into what works and why, ed. belinda hopkins, – (london: jes- sica kingsley publishers, ). sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group a. sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group b. http://www.rstp.ca/wp-content/uploads/ / /responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-resettlemen....pdf http://www.rstp.ca/wp-content/uploads/ / /responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-resettlemen....pdf http://www.rstp.ca/wp-content/uploads/ / /responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-resettlemen....pdf http://www.rstp.ca/wp-content/uploads/ / /responsibilities-of-sponsorship-groups-availability-of-ircc-resettlemen....pdf http://www.unhcr.org/ bb c .html http://www.unhcr.org/ bb c .html volume refuge number sponsor, focus group . sponsor, focus group . wendy adema, “month : from sponsorship to integra- tion,” mcc, , https://mcccanada.ca/stories/month- - sponsorship-integration. a divided habitus, inclined toward the conciliation of con- traries, functions to preserve a subordinate social field and protect one’s assets—particularly one’s symbolic power—in that system of capital. a cleft habitus permits the simulta- neous occupation of dominant and dominated social posi- tions in conflicting social fields. for example, agents may maintain material and symbolic assets and an upward tra- jectory in a secondary system of capital while having mini- mal capacity to accrue capital in the market-state social field. integrated ambiguity is to see and know different and often contradictory systems of capital and divergent rules of the game all at once, and to be inclined towards practices that preserve a coherent yet ambiguous self. see good gin- grich, out of place. good gingrich, out of place, . alain epp weaver, “mcc’s operating principles and essen- tial elements of change” (akron, oh: mennonite central committee, planning learning disaster response depart- ment, ), . epp weaver, “mcc’s operating principles,” . epp weaver, “mcc’s operating principles,” . see, for example, royden loewen, “boxing up the old colony mennonites,” canadian mennonite, august . paulo freire, in his famous pedagogy of the oppressed, identifies that people sometimes accept that they have been made “beings for others,” reduced to the level of a cat- egory or even object by unjust social relations. he calls for transformed social structures that allow people to become “beings for themselves,” to be fully human. paulo freire, pedagogy of the oppressed, th ed. (new york: continuum, ), – . luann good gingrich is an associate professor and the director of the global labour research centre at york university.  she can be reached at luanngg@yorku.ca.  thea enns works in the area of refugee resettlement in canada. she can be reached at t.s.enns@gmail.com. mailto:luanngg@yorku.ca chh volume issue front matter church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols charles lyttle volume viii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles pages arbaugh, george b., gossner missionaries m america - baron, hans, calvinist republicanism and its historical roots - bella, julius l, father tyrrell's dogmas - downey, glanville, julian the apostate at antioch - gray, john r., the political theory of john knox - harkness, r. e. e., the development of democracy in the english reformation - hawley, charles arthur, gerald massey and america - hershberger, guy franklin, pacifism and the state in colonial pennsylvania ., - hudson, winthrop s., the morison myth concerning the founding of harvard college - hudson, winthrop s., the scottish effort to presbyterianize the church of england - kristeller, paul oskar, florentine platonism and its rela- tions with humanism and scholasticism - odlozilik, otakar, bohemian protestants and the calvinistic churches - outler, albert c, origen and the regulae fidei - pennington, edgar legare, john wesley's georgia ministry .... - spinka, matthew, latin church of the early crusades - sweet, william warren, church archives in the united states - minutes of the society minutes of the forty-sixth consecutive (thirty-second annual) meeting of the society and of the council, december, - minutes of the forty-seventh meeting of the society and of the council, april, - book reviews angus, s., essential christianity - attwater, donald, st. john chrysostom beardsley, frank granville, the history of christianity in america bentwich, n., solomon schechter: a biography - bernhart, joseph, the vatican as a world power berthold, s. m., thomas paine, america's first liberal - be"venot, maurice, st. cyprian's be unitate, chapter billington, e. a., the protestant crusade, - - binns, l. e., the church in the ancient world bonner, c, some baptist hymnists from the th century to modern times burton, k., paradise planters - cadbury, henry j., annual catalogue of george fox's papers - corrigan, kaymond, s. j., the church and the nineteenth century - coulton, g. g., inquisition and liberty coulton, g. g., medieval panorama: the english scene from conquest to 'reformation; coulton, g. g., social life in britain from the conquest to the reformation - davis, helen c. m., comp., some aspects of religious liberty dodd, charles harold, history and the gospels - dru, alexander, ed., the journals of soren kierkegaard > - duckett, eleanor shipley, the gateway to the middle ages - eisenach, g. j., a history of the german congregational churches in the united states - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pages fairchild, hoxie n., 'religious trends in english poetry, vol. i - finkelstein, louis, the pharisees, the sociological background of their faith - flew, r. newton, jesus and his church - foster, frank hugh, the modern movement in american theology - garraghan, gilbert j., the jesuits of the middle united states - garrett, c. h., the marian exiles, a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism _ - gingerieh, melvin, the mennonites in iowa - gipson, lawrence henry, ed., the moravian indian mission of white river: diaries and letters - gobbel, l. l., church-state relations in education in north carolina since l ye - goodenough, erwin, the politics of philo judaeus: practice and theory - goodwin, mary c, papal conflict with josephinism gordon, antoinette k., the iconography of tibetan lamaism hagen, lois d., a parish in the pines - haller, william, the rise of puritanism - halperin, s. william, italy and the vatican at war - hardy, e. n., george whitefield, the matchless soul winner horstmann, j. h. and wernecke, h. h., through four centuries - hull, william i., the rise of quakerism in amsterdam, - - jordan, w. k., the development of religious toleration in england, - - jorgensen, j., saint catherine of siena - knapton, ernest john, the lady of the holy alliance: the life of julie de krudener - knox, wilfred l., st. paul and the church of the gentiles - latourette, k. s., the thousand years of uncertainty, a.d. -a.d. - lietzmann, h., die reichskirche bis zum tode julians; and the founding of the church universal - mackinnon, james, the origins of the reformation - mareuse, ludwig, soldier of the church-. the life of ignatius loyola - mcconnell, francis j., john wesley mckinney, w. w., early pittsburgh presbyterianism - mcneill, john t. and gamer, helena m., medieval handbooks of penance - merkel, h. m., history of methodism in utah - moland, e., the conception of the gospel in the alexandrine theology .... - moore, ernest carroll, the story of instruction - muller, karl, kirchengeschichte murison, w., sir david lyndsay, poet and satirist of the old church of scotland - nelson, william, john skelton, laureate - nobbs, douglas, theocracy and toleration, a study in dutch calvinism from - - parsons, ernest william, the religion of the new testament - payton, james simpson, our fathers have told us pennington, e. l., apostle of new jersey, john talbot phelan, m., a history of the expansion of methodism in texas, - pratt, parley p., jr., ed., life and letters of parley p. pratt - riley, arthur j., catholicism in new england to - smith, h. maynard, pre-reformation england - smith, joseph fielding, ed., teachings of the prophet joseph smith - sonne, niels henry, liberal kentucky — - - sturge, c, cuthbert tunszal, churchman, scholar, statesman, administrator - torrey, norman l., the spirit of voltaire - - trobridge, george, swedenborg: life and teachings - walten, m. g., ed., thomas fuller's the holy state and the profane state - walter, johannes von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i wenger, j. c, history of the mennonites of the franconia conference - wertenbaker, thomas jefferson, the founding of american civilization: the middle colonies - white, l. t., latin monasticism in norman sicily - williamson, claude, ed., great catholics - winters, r. l., francis lambert of avignon ( - ) - zyzykin, m. v., patriarch nikon - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by phtt.ip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for charles lyttle president roland h. bainton vice-president matthew spinka secretary robert hastings nichols . treasurer robert fortenbaugh assistant secretary other members of the council william warren sweet herbert wallace schneider conrad henry moehlman reuben e. e. harkness frederick w i l l i a m loetscher f. w. buckler j o h n thomas mcneill e. r. hardy, jr. wllhelm pauck percy v. norwood editorial board of church history matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio vol. viii march, no. table of contents t h e development of democracy i n t h e e n g l i s h reformation r. e. e. harkness calvinist republicanism and its historical roots hans baron c h u r c h archives i n the u n i t e d states william warren sweet pacifism axnfd t h e state i n colonial pennsylvania gay franklin hershberger m i n u t e s of the forty-sixth consecutive ( t h i r t y - second a n n u a l ) meeting of t h e american society of c h u r c h history, december - , m i n u t e s of t h e meeting of t h e council of t h e american society of c h u r c h history, december , book reviews : binns, l. e.: the church in the ancient world, mervin m. deems lietzmann, h.: die reichskirche bis zuni tode julians; and the founding of the church universal, conrad henry moehlman core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents moland, e.: the conception of the gospel in the alexandrine theology c. c. richardson latourette, k. s.: the thousand years of uncertainty, a. d. -a. d. wilhelm pauck white, l. t.: latin monasticism in norman sicily massey h. shepherd, jr. coulton, g. g.: inquisition and liberty . roland h. bainton jorgensen, j.: saint catherine of siena .... robert hastings nichols murison, w.: sir david lyndsay, poet and satirist of the old church of scotland john t. mcneill sturge, c.: cuthbert tunstal, churchman, scholar, states- man, administrator john t. mcneill winters, r. l.: francis lambert of avignon ( - ) roland h. bainton garrett, c. h.: the marian exiles, a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism raymond p. stearns bonner, c.: some baptist hymnists from the th century to modern times robert g. mccutchan wenger, j. c.: history of the mennonites of the franconia conference c. henry smith horstmann, j. h. and wernecke, h. h.: through four centuries david dunn hardy, e. n.: george white field, the matchless soul winner earnest e. eells pennington, e. l.: apostle of new jersey, john talbot william w. manross gobbel, l. l.: church-state relations in education in north carolina since s. m. tenney berthold, s. m.: thomas paine, america's first liberal charles lyttle mckinney, w. w.: early pittsburgh presbyterianism robert hastings nichols billington, r. a.: the protestant crusade, - windsor h. roberts eisenach, g. j.: a history of the german congregational churches in the united states john f. c. green phel,an, m.: a history of the expansion of methodism in texas, - robert w. goodloe bentwich, n.: solomon schechter: a biography, solomon grayzel core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core a s t u d y o p t h e g e r m a n l u t h e r a n a n d c a t h o l i c i m m i g r a n t s i n c a n a d a , f o r m e r l y r e s i d i n g i n t z a r i s t a n d s o v i e t r u s s i a b y e d m u n d h e i e r a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f m a s t e r o f a r t s i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t o f s l a v o n i c s t u d i e s w e a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e d f r o m c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f m a s t e r o f a r t s • m e m b e r s o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t o f s l a v o n i c s t u d i e s . t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a a p r i l , a study of the german lutheran and catholic immigrants in canada, formerly residing in tzarist and soviet russia abstract after empress katherine ii of russia issued a mani- festo i n , inviting european settlers to russia, a sub- stantial number of germans immigrated and settled, with special privileges, on the l e f t and right hand banks of the lower volga river. the napoleonic wars temporarily stopped this f i r s t influx of germans into russia. with the beginning of the th century, a second immigration of germans started to russia, which resulted in the foundation of numerous ger- man settlements i n the black sea region. the high birth rate amongst the german settlers soon made a land shortage appar- ent with the result that sister colonies were founded i n siberia and central asia. although the german settlers were on a low level "culturally, they progressed economically and when compared to their russian neighbors, the germans were a prosperous group. the revolution of i n russia brought about tremendous changes i n the german colonies, nevertheless the colonists remained residing in their original settlements u n t i l world war i i . with the outbreak of the second world war, the volga germans were termed "unreliables" and were resettled to siber- i a . the black sea germans, since that area was occupied by- german forces,, were repatriated to germany. as early as # , when the german colonists* p r i v i - leges were curtailed i n russia, an immigration to overseas countries had. started. the period from to world war i, marked their f i r s t immigration to canada. as the russian- germans were a rural people, they settled exclusively i n the three prairie provinces of canada. they settled according to their religious faith although their settlements i n canada were sporadic when compared to the close, dense settlements i n russia. the period between world war i and world war ii marked the second immigration of russian-germans to canada. very few of these immigrants became farmers, the majority of them settled in the c i t i e s . after world war ii the third im- migration period started. these russian-german immigrants were o'f the group who were resettled to germany during the second world war. the economic success i n canada culturally elevated the entire russian-german group. they were leaderless and lacked a national feeling. these two factors caused the ra- pid adoption of canadian culture by the russian-germans. while the adult immigrants have only reached a level of adjustment, their children, who are canadian born and edu- cated, no longer differ from any of their fellow canadians. acknowledgements i wish to express my sincere thanks to the members of the slavonic studies department at the university of british columbia, for their numerous suggestions and advice. i am also indebted to the british columbia youth foundation who by t'heir generosity have made the completion of this thesis possible. i owe much to those who have so willingly furnished me with valuable information for this work. table op contents part i the germans in russia page chapter i. german settlements in russia . . i. statistics and distribution of german settlements ii. settlement of the volga region iii. settlements near petersburg- leningrad iv. settlement of the black sea region chapter ii. general development u n t i l world war i. land question and economic development ii. state administration iii. self-government i n the colonies iv. educational system v. religion in the colonies vi. characteristics and cultural aspects vii. internal migration and sister colonies chapter iii. the colonists between the world wars... i. world war i and the imperial ukas of ii. the march revolution of iii. october revolution and self- determination iv. economic aspects v. religion i n the colonies vi. german national schools and culture chapter iv. resettlement and repatriation during world war ii i. the eve of world war ii i i . liquidation of the volga german republic iii. black sea colonies under german occupation iv. repatriation from the german occupied territory part.ii russian-germans in canada chapter v. immigration into canada. i. - - - • - i i . iii. iv. canadian immigration policy i n brief immigration into canada ^- ^ second immigration - ^ third immigration into canada - after world war ii page chapter vi. statistics and distribution of russian- germans in canada i. statistics of russian-germans i n canada ii. distribution of the russian-germans i n canada chapter vii. economic, social, and cultural development. i. economic development i i . religion iii. education iv. press and literary publications v. german societies in western canada chapter viii. adjustment and assimilation in canada...... ' bibliography , tables table i. table i i . table iii. table iv. table v. table vi. the original volga colonies general statistics of the black sea area distribution of religious denominations i n the black sea area colonies pounded by russian-germans in i immigration from russia for the years - total immigration from russia according to country of birth and racial origin table vii• odessa village school attendance maps map i. a.s.s.r. of the volga germans map ii. colonies i n the black sea area map iii. russian-german colonies i n western canada introduction this dissertation i s an attempt to present the his- tory of the german lutheran and catholic immigrants in cana- da who had formerly resided i n tzarist and soviet russia. the immediate purpose of this work, however, i s to determine the present extent of adjustment or assimilation of these russian-germans in canada. religious groups such as the mennonltes, hutterites, and other reformed sects, although they are russian-germans, have not been discussed i n this work. extensive written research has already been executed i n regard to the mentioned religious groups. references have been made to these groups only inasmuch as they had an imme- diate bearing on the main theme of this study. the thesis consists of two parts; part i deals with the group i n russia, part ii deals with the group i n canada. part i contains the h i s t o r i c a l background of the russian-ger- mans, with which knowledge we are enabled to have a greater insight into their present behavior. part ii contains the immigration of the russian-germans to canada, their develop- ment in canada, and their present status as canadians. throughout my work and research, i have been guided by walter kuhn's "theory of a language island" (a minority; i i group i n the midst of other nationals). the theory is a pro- duct of a study of a l l the german minority groups i n the world and expounded i n his book entitled, deutsche sprachlnsel- forschung. geschichte, aufgaben. verfahren. the theory presents a pattern according to which a minority group develops. as a substantial number of the same ethnic group settle i n one area, they form a language island. economic success or failure causes class differentiations, i.e. r i c h and poor farmers. a class of workers and craftsmen also emerges. later the group develops a class of i n t e l l i - gentsia, consisting of teachers, pastors, doctors, etc. last- ly a city group is founded. the foundation of a city group marks the cultural advancement which is obtained while draw- ing from the non-nationals. it is this f i n a l state which starts the process of assimilation within the isolated lang- uage island. the material used i n this study has been manifold. the h i s t o r i c a l background of the russian-germans has been ob- tained from literature. further history and development of the group has been obtained by f i e l d work and personal con- tact with russian-germans who have recounted their past from russia and their pioneering days i n canada. an exclusive work about the russian-germans i n canada has never been pub- lished i n canada or abroad. historical sketches of individ- ual colonies in canada were of extreme value. the most i l l outstanding work in which the russian-germans were extensive- ly treated was heinz lehmann's das deutschtum in westkanada. c. h. dawson's book entitled group settlement» ethnic commun- i t i e s i n western canada, was also of great value although he shows no differentiation as to the origin of the germans i n canada. part i the germans in russia chapter i german settlements in russia i . statistics and distribution of german settlements the germans i n russia did not belong to the numerous national groups which were subjugated by force to the tzarist regime, as were the peoples of the caucasus, those of central asia, and many others. as settlers with tolerable rights, they were invited by the imperial government for reasons of th and th century state policy, to settle in the wild or partially cultivated regions of russia. this led to numerous closed german farm settlements. in addition to the german farmers, there was an ex- tensive group of germans who lived in the c i t i e s , especially the main cities of european russia during the th century. these people migrated to russia individually where s k i l l e d services were in great demand, and most of them were to a greater or lesser degree absorbed by the russian population. before world war i almost two and a half million germans were resident in the russian empire. the separation of the western areas from russia, i.e. the baltic states, gallcia, bukovina and bessarabia, a l l strongly german, re- duced the number according to the soviet census in to ., , * . the germans were thus c l a s s i f i e d as the t h i r t e e n t h l a r g e s t n a t i o n a l group i n the s o v i e t union. of these ,- , were c l a s s e d as r u r a l and , as urban. from t o about i , german c o l o n i s t s migrated a t d i f f e r e n t times and from v a r i o u s areas of germany and had e s t a b l i s h e d the s o - c a l l e d 'mutterkolonlen' or main c o l o n i e s . . these main c o l o n i e s were founded by s e t t l e r s who came d i r e c t - l y from germany. only l a t e r i n the n i n e t e e n t h century were numerous s i s t e r c o l o n i e s founded. the s o v i e t census of shows the f o l l o w i n g numbers of c o l o n i s t s f o r the v a r i o u s r e - gions '.̂ . v o l g a german r e p u b l i c - , . . germans i n the adjacent p r o v i n c e s of a s t r a c h a n , saratov, s t a l i n g r a d , samara - , . . b l a c k sea r e g i o n and crimea - , . . transcaucasus - , . . orenburg - , .^ . north caucasus - , ,** . s i b e r i a (omsk) - , .^ . kazakhstan - , .i!- mende von, gerhard, die v o e l k e r der sowjetunion, rudolf s c h n e i d e r v e r l a g , reichenau, , p.. • " c o l o n i s t s " was the common term i n r u s s i a f o r the german s e t t l e r s . mende von, op. c i t . , p. . these were s i s t e r c o l o n i e s founded by germans coming from the main c o l o n i e s . perhaps a more u s e f u l d i v i s i o n of the germans i n r u s s i a i s one made a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r r e l i g i o u s denomination. although k a r l stumpp's t a b l e ^ i s incomplete, i t g i v e s us a f a i r p i c t u r e of the r e l i g i o u s groups i n the b l a c k sea r e g i o n . before world war i , the number of c o l o n i s t s i n t h i s area was about , - t w o - f i f t h s c a t h o l i c , t w o - f i f t h s lutheran and o n e - f i f t h mennonite.^ to these three we have to add the h u t t e r l t e s and.other reformed s e c t s , which amounted to o n l y a few thousand. the v o l g a germans, w i t h an aggregate p o p u l - a t i o n of about , i n , had a more uneven d i s t r i b u - t i o n ; about f o u r - f i f t h s were lutheran and o n e - f i f t h c a t h o l i c . a few thousand of the reformed group are i n c l u d e d w i t h the lutherans j i i . settlement of the volga region i n the th century a f t e r the t a t a r s on the v o l g a were d e s t r o y e d as a power, a constant e f f o r t was maintained by the r u s s i a n government to s e t t l e . t h i s area w i t h t h e i r own p e o p l e . thus we f i n d a c o n s i d e r a b l e group of ukranians s e t - t l i n g i n the lower v o l g a a r e a . k a t h e r i n e i i , empress of r u s s i a , made the o n l y attempt to s e t t l e these v a s t r e g i o n s see table i i i . stumpp, k a r l , die deutschen k o l o n l e n im schwarzmeergeblet. ausland und heimat v e r l a g s a k t i e n g e s e l l s c h a f t , s t u t t g a r t , , p. . verband deutscher vereine lm auslande e. v., wir deutsche i n d e r welt, kommissionsverlag v e r l a g s a n s t a l t otto s t o l l b e r g , b e r l i n g , , p. . with a non-russian population. conscious of the advantages of having russia's unpopulated areas .cultivated and develop- ed, she issued an imperial manifesto on the th of december, . in i t she invited west european settlement of these arable steppes along the volga river. the manifesto wag looked upon as an unreliable document by those who might, have desired to migrate to russia. since the document did not se- cure the immigrants* rights, they were fearful of becoming subjugated to the system of serfdom, which was at i t s peak at that time in russia. the result was that the empress i s - sued on the nd of july, , a second manifesto in which she promised the immigrants f u l l freedom to settle, either in the city or in the country. a number of privileges were also secured for the generations to come. the prospective settlers were promised the follow- ing privileges: . f u l l religious freedom. . exemption from taxes and other burdens for ten . years. . exemption from any kind of military and c i v i l i a n services; however, the settlers were welcome in the services. . a loan for building houses and other instalments repayable free of interest after ten years. . a grant of land of thirty, desjatins " per each family. des.jatln equals i. hectares or o. desjatins equals acre. . every family was permitted to bring its movable possessions as well as goods for market to the sum of three hundred rubles. . those who desired to return to their native land had to repay f i r s t their debts to the government as well as taxes for three years. (only main points are mentioned from the manifesto of .) after the proclamation of the manifesto a general agitation.was started by the diplomats and private agents of katherlne. western europe, and especially germany, became the recruiting f i e l d . especially successful in this.project; were the agents of regensburg, ulm and frankfurt on the river main. there were different reasons for the success of the emigrant agents: . the seven years' war devastated most of western germany, notably the palatinate and the province of hessen. . the despotic rule of the dukes in the century of absolution. . religious intolerance. . the introduction of new taxes and increase of prices i n general. . the severity with which minor crimes were pun- ished. . the general exhaustion of the citizens. langhans-ratzeburg, manfred, die wolgadeutschen. im ost- europa: verlag, berlin w. und koenigsberg, , pp. r- . brendel, johannes, aus deutschen koloriien im kutcherganer geblet, ausland und heimat verlags aktiengesellschaft, stutt- gart, , pp. - . the desire to emigrate became so strong that the governments often issued prohibitions from, leaving, the duch- ies, or were forced to create settlements for the dissatis- fied inside germany. there were , families with a total of , persons, who answered the c a l l of {catherine and migrated to the volga region within a period of four years, from to . the year ? , however, does not mark the end of german migration into russia; it continued u n t i l the second half of the th century into the black sea region. who were these people who l e f t germany with the hope of finding a better future i n the far-off land? histor- ians and descendants of.the volga group have described the majority of "katharine's pioneers" ..as the lowest class of the german people. there were former convicts, ruined merchants and craftsmen, officers and a r t i s t s , etc. - a i l people who had failed in l i f e . the least in numbers among them were those who were professional farmers. bonwetsch, however, dis putes this point and maintained that the majority were farm- ers. his arguments were based on the s t a t i s t i c a l report of count orlov in to the empress. langhans-ratzeburg, op. c i t . , p. . bonwetsch, gerhard, geschichte der deutschen kolonlen an der wolga. verlag von i. engelhorns nachf, stuttgart, , p. - we have only a very general knowledge of the origin of the volga germane, since available data f a i l s to give the exact points from which they emigrated. it is established, however, that most of the duchies of germany were represent- ed and that they came preponderantly from the hessen mountain side, palatinate, vogelsberg, wetterau, spesart and rhoen, also from wuerzburg, bamberg and bayreuth. larger emigra- tions were also recorded from the provinces of thuringla, weimar-eisenach and melningen.^ the route of migration of these people leads f i r s t to the so-called "meeting places" at luebeck and danzig, from there by sea to orienbann near petersburg and f i n a l l y by two different routes to the volga: . by land - novgorod, twer, moscow, rjazan, pensa to petrovsk i n the province of saratov . by water - neva, ladoga, volga to-saratov.-m* as almost a l l pioneers, they too had to experience deep disappointment because a l l they found was a vast area of uncultivated land with neither houses, huts, nor imple- ments to start the pioneer l i f e . many of the settlers were i l l and weak, thus they were unfit for hard labor such as i s demanded from the colonist. after having been convinced that important evidences to determine original places of immi- grants are language, place names, family names, and partly, also, the style of villages and houses. bonwetsch, op_. c i t . , pp. - . here, too, prevailed the now proverbial saying, "by the sweat of thy brow shalt thou earn thy dally bread", many returned to their land of origin; others remained i n russia only because they could not defray their travelling expenses. the promised capital of the manifesto to be used for building their houses was not at hand, they had to contrive implements and other instruments for themselves. the severe winter and surrounding nomadic people provided serious d i f f i - culties for the colonists; worse, however, were the various epidemic diseases. the pugachev rebellion of also l e f t i t s traces of devastation i n the newly founded settlements. ^ in spite of a l l these, they were not completely discouraged. they erected huts, which were soon transformed into wooden, houses. lumber was the best construction material on the volga, i n contrast with the south russian custom of using clay for building peasant houses. later immigrants from ger- many found conditions much better. in a letter dated jan. , , written by a colonist in russia to his homeland, we read: we received everything....houses to live in, barns for' the crop, horses and wagons and everything which is necessary for farming. ° according to a.s .s .r. der wolgadeutschen. deutscher staatsverlag, engels, , the colonists participated in the rebellion. pushkin also mentions i n his pugachevska.la vos- tanlja that the colonists joined pugachev and formed a regi- ment of hussars. bier, p. and schick, a., aus den leidenstagen der deutsch- en wolgakolonien. druck der l.g. wlttiehschen hofbuchdruckerei, darmstadt, , pp. - . the colonies were established on both sides of the lower volga river, k k colonies on the "bergseite", province of saratov, and colonies on the "wiesenseite", province of samara. one colony was founded by french settlers and c a l l - ed rossoschi or franzosen. in course of time i t was assimi- lated by the surrounding german colonies. the volga germans b u i l t their villages at a distance of to kilometers from each other. in this instance, the names of the settlements have no connection with the origin of the settlers. in a l - most every case the colony received the name of i t s leader. already in luebeck the agents had appointed these heads, whose function was to keep order. upon a r r i v a l at the volga colonies, each leader assumed his place as head of a particu- lar village, which thereafter was known by his name - so we find such settlement names as grimm, balzar or kraft. in add- i t i o n , each colony had i t s o f f i c i a l russian name, received either from the kontor "guardian office" or later in the se- cond half of the th century during the period of russifi- cation. ' during the soviet regime some of the colonies were further renamed. thus we find names such as engels, marx, and names of other leading communists. see map i and table i. kuhn, walter, deutsche sprachlnse -forschung, verlag: guenther wolff, plauen . vogtl,, , p.. . langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . . pp. - . table i the original volga colonies presented according to year of foundation and administration of that time, made up of tables by beratz, g., die deutschen kolonlen an der unteren wolga in lhrer entstehung und ent- wloklung. berlin, , pp. ^ . year op number of county - foundation colonies province district * • • • .saratov.......kamyschin • • .saratov •'. .kamyschin i . . . . . • . .samara novousensk saratov kamyschin samarai novousensk . samara nikolajevsk r . . • •.. •.... .saratov. atkarsik i . . . . . . . . . . . .saratov...... .kamyschin . .samara novousensk samara..... nikola j e vsk iii. settlements near petersburg-leningrad the germans near petersburg-leningrad consisted predominantly of colonists who l e f t the main route to the volga and settled around petersburg-leningrad where they founded main colonies. in the course of time, sister colonies appeared with an aggregate population of , . land holdings according to private statistics amounted to about ,ooo desjatins, an area which is very l i k e l y too high. iv. settlement op the black sea region u n t i l the coast region of the black sea was i n the hands of the turks. in , after a six-month's siege, the russian fleldmarshal potemkin took the fortress of otchakov. this marked the beginning of the russian victor- ies over the turks. and f i n a l l y , according to the treaty of yassy i n » the turks had to clear the azov and black sea region. in spite of the russian victory the tatars, kinsmen of the turks, were not f u l l y subjugated and proved d i f f i c u l t especially on the crimean peninsula. this provoked the russ ian government to settle the crimean area with european set- t l e r s , i.e. to create a wall against internal enemies. deutsches ausland iristitut, per wanderweg der bussland- deutsohen, 'ff, kbhlhammer verlag, stuttgart & berlin, stutt- gart, , p. . at f i r s t settlers from the balkans, namely bulgar- ians, were attracted to the newly opened land which was giv- en the name "new russia". there were approximately . , bulgarians. the next group were the germans who were to settle i n this most valuable area of f e r t i l e black s o i l . however, greater precautions were observed this time. . the government had realized that among the volga germans there were very few able men who were f i t for pioneering work and consequently became a burden on the state. this caused tzar alexander i of russia to issue a decree on the th of february, ., this decree pointed out that among the volga germans there were very few useful elements. on the volga i t was v i t a l to bring i n as many people as possible since the area was almost completely unpopulated. in "new russia", already partly populated, i t was important to settle a limited number of people who had a knowledge of farming, craftsmanship, etc. thus, i f accept- ance of foreigners was to be continued, they must be settlers of good quality. in view exclusively was the settlement of the area "new russia" and since the crownlands were limited, the area for settlement was to be selected before bringing i n settlers;, special attention was to be given to f r u i t - growers, vine-dressers, cattle, arid sheep raisers. accepted, also were to be village craftsmen such as t a i l o r s , shoemakers stumpp, opy c i t . , pp. - . carpenters and smiths. a l l other artisans who had nothing to contribute to the development of the countryside, were to be excluded. each prospective settler before immigration into russia had to f u l f i l l a l l obligations to his government, i.e. taxes, military service, each one had to be in possession of money or property amounting to gulden. those lacking this were to be rejected as immigrants, as experience had shown that poverty-stricken people had great d i f f i c u l t y in establishing themselves. immigrants were to be men with f a m i l i e s . a second great migration of germans into russia be- gan about and lasted u n t i l the middle of the th cent- ury. their reasons for abandoning.their homeland were simi- lar to those of the volga settlers. the provinces of the upper rhine were once more i n ruin. for over ten years war had interrupted any peaceful existence as napoleon's army marched across europe. in addition to this, letters from german colonists in russia were in circulation. these pre- sented a very attractive picture of l i f e in russia, the russian agents were s t i l l agitating for emigration. and l a s t l y from across the rhine came streams of alsatians who wandered through germany into russia - they, too, automatic- a l l y became recruiting agents. brendel, op_. c i t . , p. . in addition to economic factors, religious oppres- sion was a prime consideration in determining emigration- this was especially true for the mennonites of west prussia and other reformed groups. in the south-west of germany i t was the schwalkheim separatist group, that broke away from the church because, of their extreme p l e t i s t i c views. seeing i n the religious tzar alexander, the founder of the thousand year kingdom, they emigrated between and. to russia, where they settled predominantly in the caucasus.^ year after.year the emigration into.russia increased. the years an marked the highest emigration into russia. this was a mass migration from, the province of baden which often depopulated whole areas. provinces along the rhine were not alone concerned i n this movement as.almost a l l duchies of south-west germany were represented. against these facts the admonitions of the governments and their i n - stitutions remained inefficacious. on the contrary, i t serv-. ed to create among the prospective emigrants a suspicion that the regent was trying to deprive them of a prosperous future. also, news items in the popular dally papers that the major- i t y of emigrants had died or were l i v i n g in misery, did not prevent the desire from growing in these people to seek a new and better homeland. emigration d i f f i c u l t i e s became more serious when the local administration suddenly demanded verband deutscher vereine im auslande e. v., op., c i t . . p p . - . ik proper documents for leaving the country.. however, neither these requirements nor the threatened loss of citizenship in case an emigrant wished to return to germany, could stop oh their determination to go. the route of migration of the black sea colonists was the following: . the immigrants from danzig and elblng went through koeningsberg, memel, riga and from there through dubrovna to the black sea. . the immigrants from south-west germany took the route from ulm along the danube through vienna and budapest as far.as ismail i n bessarabia and from there on land to odessa. those destined for the caucasus continued their route to cherson, taganrog, rostov, mosdok to t i f l l s . a) a great number branched off in vienna and took.the land route through radzwillov and from there to the black sea.. b) an- other group which migrated into russia in to chose their route through s i l e s i a , warsaw, grodno and then to the black sea region. ^ the journey was made at the expense of the russian government. similar procedures were maintained as with the volga germans. upon a r r i v a l at their destination they re- ceived the promised sums to build their houses and conditions zk deutsches ausland institut, op. pit., p. . stumpp, op. c i t . . p. . on the whole were much better than on the volga. the black sea germans had many craftsmen who were ready to start build- ing houses. the governor of odessa at the time, the due de richelieu, an opponent of napoleon to whom the early colon- ists owed much, went so far as to found the so-called "crafts manship colonies"near odessa for the purpose of helping the settlers with their building. ^ however, i n spite of the fact that the colonists i n the south found conditions much better, many of them disap- peared i n the f i r s t years after settlement. the despotic rule of the local german administrators ? became for many intolerable. prom a general view on the map ® one can see that they founded their colonies close to a river or i n a valley, always building, several colonies at the same time and estab- . lishing them exclusively according to religious denomination. thus we can speak of areas of group settlement, kutchurganer, beresan area, choritza and others. only sister colonies founded i n the second half of the th century had settlers of various faiths. the names of the colonies i n the south lelbbrandt, georg, die deutschen kolbnlen i n cherson und bessarablen. ausland und heimat verlags - aktienges.ellschaft, stuttgart, , introduction. see section.on self-government, chapter ii, infra. see map ii. almost always coincided with the name of the place of their origin. a. province of ekaterlnoslav the oldest colonies in the black sea region are those of the mennonites. in there wa already a colony of mennonites i n gluchov, province of tchernlgov, who had mi- grated from siebenbuergen, rumania. the mass migration of mennonites from west prussia started in , when large groups l e f t the areas of danzig, elbing and marienburg for russia. they a l l settled near ghortlza on the lower right bank of the dniepr i n the province of ekaterlnoslav. the co- lonists near mariupol migrated also from west prussia but were of the lutheran f a i t h . also settlers from pomerania, upper bavaria and austria in founded the colonies of yamburg and kybalsk near ekaterlnoslav. to complete the im- migration into the province of ekaterlnoslav we have to men- tion the colonists from the provinces of baden and hessen, who founded their colonies in to . ^ b. province of taurien - including crimea in the area near melitopol on the l e f t bank of the dniepr was settled by mennonites from-prussia who i n the course of time founded a system of colonies. in to south german settlers arrived and established the deutsches ausland institut, op_. c i t . , pp. - . colonies near prishib on the north side of the azov sea. in the following year many other settlers arrived and founded the largest complex of colonies called the molotchna. a l - most a l l religious groups were represented in this area; be- sides the mennonites, catholics and lutherans, there were quakers, hutterites and other reformed sects.^° the colonies near berdjansk were founded between and and were exclusively swabiane. simultaneously with the settlement of.the dniepr area, that of the crimean peninsula took place. in to the colonies neusatz and frledental near simferopol were established. these settlers were predominantly fruit-growers and vine-dressers who came from the provinces of wuertemberg, alsace and pfalz. swiss.immigrants i n founded zuerich- t a l near theodosia. on the whole, seven main colonies were founded. c. province of cherson originally i t was swedish settlers who founded, un- der katherine ii, the f i r s t farm colonies near the dniepr - known as the "old sweden village". however, because of c l i - matic conditions they soon l e f t the area. in to , swabian settlers migrated to the same area and established deutsches ausland instltut, op_. c i t . , p. . stumpp, op. c i t . . pp. - . the colonies of schlanzendorf, klosterdorf and muehlhausen. prom to , the glueckstal and grossliebental areas settled and contained a substantial number of colonies. the years to marked the founding of the kutchurgan and beresan d i s t r i c t s near odessa.^ these settlers migrated from alsace, baden and pfalz, with only a limited number from prussia and wuertemberg,-^ the settlers in the province were of lutheran and catholic faith. d . bessarabia the settlement of bessarabia by german colonists started i n from central poland. originally these mig- rated from wuertemberg to poland i n to . here their expectations had been so disappointed that many were easily provoked to migrate to the promised land of the tzar. in to . ,' together with other germans direct from wuert- emberg they founded the colonies of tarutino, kuhn, arzls, brienne, malojaroslavetz. these names r e c a l l battle sites which became famous during the napoleonic wars. in the next two decades germans from various parts of germany and poland migrated to bessarabia and founded the colonies of plotzk, denwitz, katzbach and paris. sarata was founded between and by settlers from wuertemberg and by settlers from the black sea area. almost a l l of the original settlers were see map ii and table.ii. stumpp., on. c i t . . pp. - . lutherans by faith. e. south caucasus in a group of families from wuertemberg near reutlingen and ulm migrated into russia. their aim was the south caucasus. enroute through odessa, families dropped out and founded the colony of hoffnungstal about kilometers north of odessa. however, about families from the v i c i n i t y of odessa joined the main body and migrat- ed with them to the caucasus, where they founded the colonies of alexanderdorf, katherlnenfeld, marienfeld and elisabet- stadt, and others near t l f l l s . out of eight main colonies there were eventually another twenty-one sister colonies es- tablished. among these people there were also of the schwaikhelm separatist group. before world war i, the trans- caucasus colonists had an aggregate population of , and held a land area of , desjatins. most of them were vine- dressers .-^ p. wolhynla the last mass migration into russia was that of the wolhynla germans, who came from poland. the actual migration into wolhynla started after the f i r s t polish insurrection in leibbrandt, op_. c i t . . pp. - . verband deutscher vereine lm auslande e. v., op. c i t . . pp. - . . also in to , •which marked the period of the second polish insurrection, a group of - , germans l e f t poland and settled i n wolhynla. many of them came from the lower vistula, s i l e s i a , and congress poland. here, too, we deal with a group similar to the bessarabian germans who also came from poland but had immigrated from germany a few de-. cades earlier. according to the f i r s t russian census in , there were resident , germans in wolhynla. with the exception of a few hundred hutterltes the wolhynla germans were a l l of the lutheran faith. deutsches ausland instltut, op_. c i t . , pp. - . t a b l e i i o r i g i n a l s e t t l e m e n t s o f t h e b l a c k s e a a r e a c o m p i l e d a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s o f s t u m p p , k a r l , d i e d e u t s o h e n k o l o n i e n i m s c h w a r z - m e e r g e b i e t . a u s l a n d u n d h e i m a t v e r l a g s a k t i e n g e s e l l s c h a f t , s t u t t g a r t , , p . . y e a r o f n u m b e r o f n u m b e r o f l a n d p o s s e s s e d f o u n d a t i o n . p r o v i n c e a r e a c o l o n i e s r e s i d e n t s i n d e s j a t i n s c h e r s o n . . . . . . . . . . . s c h w e d e n d i s t r i c t . . . . . . . . , .. , e k a t e r i n o s l a v s k . . . j o s e f s t a l , e t c . , . . .. , . . . . . . . . . e k a t e r i n o s l a v s k . . . c h o r i t z a . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , - - . . . t a u r i e n . m o l o t s c h n a j a . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . , - . . . . . . c h e r s o n . . . . . . . . . . . g r o s s l l e b e n t a l . . , . , . c h e r s o n . . g l u e c k s t a l . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . t a u r i e n . . c r i m e a . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . c h e r s o n . . . k u t c h u r g a n . , . , . c h e r s o n . . b e r e s a n w . . , . t^^ - . . . . . . b e s s a r a b i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , * . . , . . t a u r i e n b e r d j a n s k . ; . . . . . . . , . . ; . . . . . ' . . . . , - - . . . e k a t e r i n o s l a v s k . . . m a r i u p o l •• . . . , . . • . ' . . . . . . . , t o t a l . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . .... , chapter ii general development until world war i i. land question and economic development the original land granted to the volga colonist was desjatins per family. the land was not privately owned but belonged to the community, thus resembling the russian "mir system" which was in practice during the time of the volga settlement. every ten years the land was distributed among a l l male-members of the community - women did not r e - ceive any land. the fact that the land was divided only am- ong male persons resulted i n large families, since many sons meant much land. some families numbered ten to fifteen c h i l - dren. the table below shows the rapid increase of volga ger- mans. population increase of volga germans year population . . . , . . , . . . , . . . • . . . , . . . , verband deutscher verelne im ausland e. v., oj>. c i t . . p. . this rapid increase of the volga colonists and the r e s t r i c - tion of expansion of community land due to the close location of colonies, caused a definite land shortage even at the end of the f i r s t years of settlement. the rapidity with which the land-allowance per person.was reduced can be seen from the following table: reduction in land grants year land per male person . . . . . . . desjatins ...... . h * • . ' " • . " .... . • i '.' . . . . . b in view of these facts the volga germans were forc- ed to find a means of existence for their surplus population. these colonists had been mainly occupied with farming, f r u i t - growing and sheep-raising. now on the mountainside in the province of saratov a small industrial area began to develop, mainly textile manufacturing plants and mills. in in the colony of norka, there were , weaver looms in oper- ation. the textile industry had also began to develop on the l e f t side,of the volga. karamysh had employed as many as workers. tobacco plantations were common and in deutsches ausland institut, op_. c i t . , p. . there were , pud of tobacco harvested. a large num- ber of the surplus population found employment there, thus forming a new social class among the colonists. others were resettled with the help of the main colonies on the newly- granted land i n the province of samara. the land question became even more acute in the second half of the th cent- ury, which led to mass migrations to other provinces of russia; siberia and central asla.^ the land assigned to the colonists i n the black sea region was as the imperial government prescribed, community property. however, contrary to the volga system, the land was not periodically divided among the adult male persons; i t was allotted as hereditary property to each family. there one spoke of a " f u l l farm" (wirtschaft) or a "half farm". a f u l l farm amounted to - desjatins, the original amount of land granted to the colonists i n the black sea region, i.e. twice as much as that received by the volga germans. the land belonging to one family was inseparable, no division among the sons was tolerated, and the youngest son was entitled to the whole farm. only when a younger son was unfit to assume the responsibility as heir, was provision pud equals . kilograms. bonwetsch, op_. c i t . . pp. - . see section on migration within russia, i n f r a . stumpp, op_. cit.,, pp. - . m a d e t h a t a n e l d e r s o n b e c o m e t h e i n h e r i t o r . m o v a b l e p r o p e r - t y w a s a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e p a r e n t s . t h i s p r a c t i c e w a s s i m i l a r t o t h e " e r d h o f - s y s t e m " - , a s y s t e m w h i c h w a s p o p u l a r i n g e r m a n y . t h e a d v a n t a g e o f m a i n t a i n i n g s u c h a s y s t e m w a s t h e f a c t t h a t b e t t e r d e v e l o p m e n t c o u l d b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y h a v i n g t h e f a r m u n d i v i d e d , a n d t h a t e v e n t u a l l y t h e c o m m u n i t y w o u l d b e s a v e d f r o m i m p o v e r i s h m e n t . h e r e , t o o , m a n y l a n d l e s s p e o p l e w e r e r e c o r d e d , d u e t o t h e h e r e d i t a r y l a n d - s y s t e m p r a c t i c e d i n t h e r e g i o n , a n d t h e s i z e o f t h e f a m i l i e s . t h e t a b l e b e l o w g i v e s t h e i n c r e a s e o f b l a c k s e a g e r m a n s a n d i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e i n c r e a s e o f v o l g a g e r m a n s . p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e o f b l a c k s e a g e r m a n s y e a r p o p u l a t i o n , . . . . . . • , . . . . , , h o w e v e r , t h e p r o b l e m w a s s o l v e d b y b u y i n g l a n d o u t s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y a r e a , o r b y r e n t i n g l a n d f r o m t h e r u s s i a n l a n d l o r d s . t h i s l a n d , t o o , u s u a l l y b e c a m e t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e c o l o n i s t s . i n t h i s w a y t h e v a r i o u s " c h u t o r a s " ( s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t s o f c o l - o n i s t s ) w e r e f o u n d e d i n a n a r e a w h e r e t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s n o n - g e r m a n . t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s m a l l i n d u s t r i e s , s u c h a s f l o u r v e r b a n d d e u t s c h e r v e r e i n e m a u s l a n d e . v . . o p . c i t . . p . . and o i l mills, further absorbed the landless population. many turned to s k i l l e d craftsmanship, which often resulted i n the foundations of small factories. examples of such are the wagon factory i n selz near odessa, and the hoehn farm implements factory in odessa. the largest starch factory in south russia was founded in halbstadt. stumpp maintains that the land which was acquired by the black sea colonists u n t i l world war i, exceeded the original crown grants six times. thus one can compare , desjatins of original crownland grants with some , , desjatins of acquired land by . most of this l ,nd was bought from russian landlords or generals who had received large areas of land after the liberation of the black sea region from the turks. the percentage of colonists and their land-holdings prior to , are indicated below: colonists land-holdings germans among the german owned local population land province of ekaterlnoslav - . $... . . $ province of taurien - . $i .. . $ district of taganrog..... - . $ , . $ district of simferopol... - . $ . $ district of odessa - . $. . $ stumpp, op_. c i t . , pp. o- . verband deutscher vereine im ausland e. v.; op. c i t . . pp. - . although the colonista had no real competition i n developing their economic position, they made l i t t l e progress in their f i r s t years of settlement. this may be due to a number of crop failures caused mainly by the settlers' lack of acquaintance with the new climate and s o i l . furthermore, the colonist had no market for his farm products - he simply produced for his own needs. it was not u n t i l the second half of the th century after the emancipation of the russian serfs i n that any real economic progress was recorded. means of communication improved, farm equipment could be ob- tained, and lastly, the colonist i n the black sea region was allowed to dispose over his land. the community land system i n the volga, however, was only abolished after the stolypin agrarian reform i n . from the two groups of colonists, those in the black sea region were more advanced and enjoyed a higher economic standard than their volga brothers in the north. the reason for this was the better climate and s o i l conditions in the south. the prosperity in the south was also due to the more advantageous location of the colonies, i.e. closer to trad- ing centers; furthermore, the colonists received twice as much land as those of the volga; and l a s t l y , they had better opportunities to obtain additional land for their surplus population. also, the different method of t i l l i n g the s o i l (dreifelder system) - crop rotation - had some bearing on their better yields. a comparison of the colonists with their russian neighbours i n respect to economic progress showed that the russian farmers never reached the level of the colonists. these were not only free peasants i n a country where serfdom prevailed u n t i l , but they were also blessed with the numerous concessions which the imperial government had be- stowed upon them. such factors put the colonists automati- cally i n a more favourable position which subsequently led to prosperity. the colonists were known as a diligent, hard-work- ing group who had started and completed their colonization process i n the best manner possible. the foundation of more than colonies with possession of over two million. des- jatins of land and an aggregate population of , be- fore world war i on the volga and the possession of four million desjatins of land and about , colonists with a total of settlements i n the black sea region, and also the foundation of numerous sister colonies in other regions of russia, may well be described as a success. many colon- izations i n the world had been started with a similar c a l - ibre of people, who met similar d i f f i c u l t i e s and were i n the end equally successful. deutsches ausland institut, op_. c i t . , pp. - , and verband deutsoher verelne im ausland e. v., op. c i t . . pp. - . stumpp, op. c i t . , p. . i i . state administration information i s extremely scarce regarding the russian state administration of the colonies in the f i r s t years after their a r r i v a l in russia. according to the mani- fest of july nd, , there was a "guardian office" for foreigners created i n the same month. the office was under the presidency of count orlov i n petersburg, and was known as the vormundschaftskanzlel-tutelkanzlei. count orlov was granted the authority of his state colleagues, i.e. that of a special ministry. the guardian office directed the settlement of the colonists and was under obligation to secure the privileges and rights of the settlers and to supply them with cattle, farm implements and capital to build their houses; for this purpose the guardian office received , rubles per year as long as the colonists required government assistance. according to bauer, the expense of settling the volga germans amounted to . million rubles, a sum which was to be repaid i n the course of time by means of farm products. however, katherine ii, reduced the sum i n to about . million r u b l e s . bauer, g., geschlohte der deutschen ansledler an der wolga s.eit der elnwanderung nach russland bis zur elnfuehrung der allgemeinen wehrpflicht - . nach gesetzlichen owuellen und muendlichen ueberlleferungen, saratov, , pp. - . for the purpose of better administration the area where colonists had settled was divided into d i s t r i c t s to which special commissions were appointed.; later, when the private colonies were dissolved which u n t i l then had been under the jurisdiction of their directors, the number of d i s t r i c t s was increased so that i n the volga area was divided into d i s t r i c t s (kreis) with that number of com- missioners. later in after the pugachev uprising and the decline of the kirghiz riots there were as many as d i s t r i c t s with an average of - colonies. -^ as the commissar.system proved to be very impracti- cal due to the enormous distance between the volga and peters- burg, the imperial government introduced a local center of administration in - the kontor of saratov,. the kontor consisted of a supreme judge with two assistants, a secret- ary and an interpreter. the kontor was to be only temporary u n t i l such time as the colonists had accepted russian ways. at the same time, however, the former commissars were retain- ed but were subordinated to the kontor. this system of administration x*as applicable onlyy to the crown colonies - colonies founded direct by the imper- i a l government, i n number. the remainder of the or- iginal colonies were privately sponsored by three companies. the colonist had signed a contract with these companies i n langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . , p. . which the directors promised to: settle them on the volga, guard their privileges and administer their colonies. how- ever, the colonists soon discovered that they were being de- ceived and measures were taken to abolish the private com- panies. according to langhans-ratzeburg a l l private companies , were abolished by . a suitable time to incorporate the colonists into the general system of administration was apparent i n when the unitary provincial government was introducedifor the whole of russia. the unique state administration of the volga germans - the kontor i n saratov - was dissolved. the function of the kontor was from then on i n the hands of the provincial government. the d i s t r i c t commissars were replaced by the russian "zemski ispravnik", who was responsible for carrying out the law of the government. the sudden incorporation of the colonists into the new russian administration system caused a stagnation i n their development. tzar paul i recognized this and reintro- duced the system of administration which was in force from - . the guardian office and the kontor i n saratov, not responsible to any provincial government, were again the highest authority of state administration for the colonists. the o f f i c i a l language according to langhans-ratzeburg was langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . . pp. - . german; beratz, however, maintains that i t was russian. upon the a r r i v a l of the black sea colonists at the beginning of the th century a similar system of administra- tion was put into effect. there too the area populated by settlers was divided into d i s t r i c t s which were subordinated to a trusteeship (puersorgekomitaet) having a function simi- l a r to that of the kontor i n saratov. however, this sy- stem of administration lasted: only u n t i l . in that year the russian provincial and d i s t r i c t state administration was f i n a l l y introduced as a permanent authority i n the german populated areas. the kontor's function and thatoof the fuereorgekomitaet was from then on limited to church and ed- ucational matters u n t i l the two offices were completely ab- olished in & . klaus sees i n this act a victory hostile to the german colonists and speaks also of the breaking of a pro- mise by the russian government. however, the colonists' sy- stem of administration was only created for a temporary per- iod; furthermore, no promise concerning the administration . was ever made i n the manifesto, hence from the point of view beratz, g., die deutschen kolonlen an der unteren wolga in ihrer entstehung und entwlcklung. berlin, , p. . leibbrandt, op. c i t . , p. . klaus, alexander, unsere kolonlen. verlag odessaer zeit- ung, odessa, , p. . of state administration the abolition of the kontor as well as the fuersorgekomitaet was justified. the new system had in many ways a negative result as the colonists were subju- gated to the provincial law, regardless of any individual characteristics. iii. se lp-government in the colonies the basis of self-government was set out in the imperial manifesto of * rights were granted the settlers to elect their local government. due to economic weakness the colonies never actually reached a uniform system of ad- ministration. each colony or d i s t r i c t seemed to thresh out i t s own system suited to its peculiar needs, which often f o l - lowed unwritten laws of the former homeland. . :•••'li- l i t t l e information i s available concerning these local governments. johannes brendel relates a number of i n - cidents which reflects the despotic power of the rulers, i.e. the community elders (dorfschulze). prom documents, orders given by the individual administrators to the colonists, we read, "i command..... forbid throughout these pa- pers the personal ego prevails, showing how a colony was at the mercy of those i n authority. only after katherlne ii issued a number of instruc- tions do we find a more unified system provided. the elder brendel, op,, c i t . , pp. i -i . of a colony was to be elected for a period of one year and was to rule to the best of his a b i l i t y . he was not only en- trusted with the administration but functioned also as a po- l i c e officer and was able to settle matters of jurisdiction as long as no serious crime was involved. no private buying or selling could be carried out except with permission of the e l d e r . from the manifesto we see that the imperial government denied the appointed russian d i s t r i c t commissars the right to interfere i n the self-government of the colon- i s t s . indeed, the function of the commissar was that of a state inspector. a comparison of the colonist self-government with that of the local russian administration, shows that the set- tlers were in a far more privileged position than their russian neighbors. the russian community administration con- sisted of a "starosta", village elder or tax collector, and a "sotnik", whose function was that of a police officer. an elected responsible administration as such did not exist. the peasants were thus constantly subjected to oppression and extortion. there was no measure i n their system which could protect them against unjustified and irresponsible demands of the collectors. after the kontor i n saratov was reintroduced, paul i saw the necessity of issuing new instructions governing the langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . , pp. - . colonists. a new, complete and uniform system of self-gov- ernment was introduced. this functioned through two d i v i - sions, the community meeting - a kind of village parliament - and the elder with his office (dorfamt). in the community meeting each family was represented by a male member. the meeting was called several times a year depending on the de- cisions which were to be made. the dorfamt was elected by the community for two years. the d i s t r i c t administration was founded on a similar basis to the community meeting, the "oberschulze" was head of the d i s t r i c t and a l l village elders were responsible to him. an attempted reconstruction of the self-government apparatus creates the impression that the state administra- tion and the local administrations of the colonists ran i n two p a r a l l e l lines. however, from various reports and orders quoted by leibbrandt it is obvious that both schulze and oberschulze were obedient servants of either the kontor in saratov or the fuersorgekomitaet i n the black sea region. the rule of alexander ii brought a complete change i n the self-government of the colonies. on the th of july* ? , the colonial codex was abolished and replaced by the landforms issued i n . from then on the settlers were no langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . , pp. - . leibbrandt, op_. c i t . , introduction and appendix. longer considered as a separate unit. they were subject to the general russian laxf, whereby the o f f i c i a l language was russian. the abolition of the laws of self-government and i t s replacement, by the general russian law of administration was thus a breach of the privileges originally granted in the manifesto of katherine ii. another breach of guarantee was the right which was so solemnly granted, of exemption from military service. according to the imperial reforms of the russian nobility as well as the colonists were subject to military draft. on- ly the mennonites were exempted from service by the law of may th, * as pacifists they were allowed to serve the same length of time i n the c i v i l services, forestry, etc., instead of the military service. the reforms of caused the f i r s t emigration of the colonists from russia to north and south america. iv. educational system . if we consider the colonists' economic development in russia as a success, we cannot say the same with respect to their educational progress. through diligence and endur- ance they were able to reach material prosperity but they bonwetsch, op..cit.. pp. - . kessler, joseph a., geschlchte der dioezese tyraspol. ver- lag von rev. george aberle, dickinson, north dakota, , pp. - . for d e t a i l see part ii, infra. were too materialistic to be inspired toward learning. they set no value on schooling and they were too avaricious to spend any money on education. land and property were a l l - important and this was their sole objective. according to brendel, a community i n the black sea region consisted of about ,per cent farmers and per cent ' other professions. only the latter class had any education. - similar conditions were recorded on the volga. from the sta- t i s t i c s of to , we can see that only per cent of the colonists were able to read, per cent were acquainted with mathematics, and only to per cent were able to read the written texts. u n t i l world war i the colonists speak of a constant intimate relation between church and school. teachers were always selected by the pastors and the teachers usually ac- ted as sextons of the church i n addition to the regular teaching duties. the school, in fact, was a church school i n which nothing else was taught but the abc's and the bible. indeed these were the only school texts during the f i r s t years of settlement. general enlightenment or creation of i n i t i a t i v e for self-education were not on the school program. means to maintain the school and pay the teachers were raised by the community, while the pastor acted as school-inspector. brendel, op_. c i t . . pp. - . a.s.s.r. der wolgadeutschen. op. c i t . , p. . the teacher, or schoolmaster, as the colonist used to c a l l him, was considered an important man by the very fact that he worked i n association with the pastor, who was a highly respected man i n the community. although the colonists had only popular schools and no institutions of higher learning, they had great d i f f i c u l t y i n finding teachers. education was another aspect of self-government, consequently there was no interference in the matter from either the kontor and fuersorgekomitaet or from the russian government. paul i, however, did confirm the pastor's super- vision over the school. only at the close of the th cent- ury, as imperial reforms curtailed the colonists' privileges, did education come to be a concern of the russian state. central schools were established throughout russia. such schools were also founded i n the area populated by the ger- man settlers. in iq a central school was established on the volga i n katherinenstadt and a second school was estab- lished i n at lessnol-karamysh (grimm). ? in the black sea region the following areas had german central schools: odessa, grossliebental, kutchurgan and landau prishib, mol- otschna and sarata i n bessarabia. these came to a total of twenty-two i n comparison to only two central schools on the volga. the f i r s t central school in the transcaucasus was established i n the lutheran community of helenendorf near a.s.s.r. der wolgadeutschen. op. c i t . , p. . t i f l i s , similarly a school was founded i n the latter. these central schools provided a higher education thus enabling the graduates to become teachers or o f f i c i a l s i n the village administrations. in fact these schools l a i d the basis of a village intelligentsia. brendel speaks of the central schools as having more than f u l f i l l e d their pur- pose;, not only had they established an educated society in the village but they also prepared students for university entrance. there seems to have been no unified standard of education at the time. according to bishop kessler almost a l l central schools were located i n lutheran communities. these were attended by students of various religious denom- inations. the schools were supported solely by the col- onists u n t i l they were russianized after . after graduation from the central schools a large number of colonists' sons were sent to higher educational i n - stitutions abroad. the protestants especially, who never founded a separate institution to provide training for their church leaders, were forced to send their students to the university of dorpat i n estonia, or to germany. a more for- tunate solution i n this respect was recorded by the catholic sect. in the diocese of tyraspol was founded and with boelitz, otto, das grenz und auslanddeutschtum. druck und verlag von r. oldenbourg, muenchen und berlin, , p. . kessler, oj>. c i t . . pp. -i . i t t h e s e m i n a r y i n . a s v e r y f e w s t u d e n t s e n t e r e d t h e p r i e s t h o o d m a n y b e c a m e t e a c h e r s i n t h e c o l o n i e s . t h e s e m i n - a r y i n s a r a t o v w a s t h e o n l y c a t h o l i c i n s t i t u t i o n f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . t h e r e w a s n o i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m t h e m i n i s t r y o f e d u c a t i o n a s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n w a s u n d e r t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e m i n i s t r y o f t h e i n t e r i o r . t h e s e m i n a r y w a s t h u s f r e e f r o m a n y p r e s c r i b e d s c h o o l p r o g r a m . t h e l a n g u a g e o f i n s t r u c - t i o n w a s g e r m a n . t h e n a t u r e o f e d u c a t i o n w a s g e n e r a l l y a l i b e r a l o n e , h o w e v e r a s a r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n t h e r e w a s a s l i g h t t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s c h o l a s t i c i s m . a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e th c e n t u r y t h e i n s t r u c t o r s i n t h e s e m i n a r y w e r e e x c l u s i v e l y d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h e c o l o n i s t s . a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s g i v e n b y b i s h o p k e s s l e r , t h e n u m b e r o f p r i e s t s g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e s e m i n a r y u n t i l i t s a b o l i t i o n b y t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f , w a s . f o u r o f t h e m b e c a m e b i s h o p s a n d j . a . k e s s l e r a n d a . z e r r w e r e a p p o i n t e d b i s h o p s t o t h e d i o c e s e o f t y r a s p o l . ^ a s s o o n a s t h e r u s s i a n s y s t e m o f p r o v i n c i a l a n d d i s - t r l c t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n , t h e r u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n t e s t a b l i s h e d i t s s o - c a l l e d " o f f i c i a l d i s t r i c t s c h o o l s " . g r a d u a t e s f r o m t h e s e s c h o o l s w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o e n - t e r t h e c e n t r a l s c h o o l s . t h e c o m m u n i t y s h a r e d t h e e x p e n s e s k e s s l e r , o p _ . c i t . , p p . - - . i b i d , p p . - . s e e s e c t i o n o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s u p r a . necessary to support the school. besides the o f f i c i a l d i s - t r i c t schools, the government established also the "minister- i a l schools". brendel claims that a ministerial school in a russian community was f u l l y supported by the government, where- as the same school i n a colonist center was to be supported by the colonists. the program of these schools was relat- ively wide and stimulated the desire for further education. upon graduation the student could enter the fourth grade of a russian gymnasium. with the introduction of these various governmental schools a definite russificatlon process had started. after the colonial codex was abolished in ? , education which was u n t i l then a matter of self-government, f e l l under the jurisdiction of the ministry of education. the colonists* schools were incorporated into the general russian school sy- stem and thus made subject to russian inspection. the lan- guage of instruction became russian - only religion was to be taught i n the settlers' mother tongue. a teacher had to be i n possession of a teaching diploma and a certificate of p o l i t i c a l r e l i a b i l i t y before being appointed. according to brendel the teachers of russian descent i n the german settlements amounted to per cent, the teach- ers of colonist descent only per cent. this percentage was so because the russian teachers usually had a better brendel, ojd. c i t . . pp. - . education. they were graduates of teaching seminaries and thus more readily appointed than the colonists who had not received any teachers training at a l l . the process of russlfication was not only notice- able i n education but also i n many other respects. the ab- o l i t i o n of the colonial codex, which resulted i n the curt- ailment of the colonial privileges; the use of russian in the colonies as the o f f i c i a l language; and the renaming of the german settlements i n the black sea region in i , i.e. giv- ing them russian..namesdo reveal a definite policy direc- ted toward russification of the settlers. due to the insur- rection of - the russian government periodically a l - leviated the russification policy and tolerated the establish- ing of german schools again, but soon also these schools were subjugated to the russian language and the russian school system. v. religion in the colonies the manifesto of ? promised the settlers f u l l religious freedom. they were allowed to build churches, but the foundation of monasteries was prohibited. in the begin- ning the government even provided the capital. this includ- ed funds to build churches and grants for pastors' salaries. brendel, op., c i t . . pp. - . handbuch des deutschtums im auslands. dietrich reimer (ernst bohsen), berlin, , p. . later on the colonies had to support their church leaders by themselves.'^ as already pointed out, the colonists settled i n separate religious communities. thus we find distinct s e t t l e - ments of lutherans, reformed groups, roman catholics or men- nonites. only the town of katherinenstadt (later marxstadt) on the yolga had a population of both catholics and protest- ants. because of these separated communities, any close re- lation between the religious groups was impossible. this separation was also to avoid religious f r i c t i o n among the sects, which would have been a certainty in a mixed commun- i t y . however, due to the lack of catholic priests i n the early years of settlement a number of catholics were convert- ed to the lutheran f a i t h . this was notably true in the crimea where the catholic and lutheran communities were located close to each other. on one occasion, a former catholic priest ignaz lindl advocated the black sea region colonists to con- vert to the lutheran f a i t h . with a small group of converted lutherans, he moved to bessarabia and helped found the colony of sarata i n no religious organization existed among the commun- i t i e s i n the f i r s t years after settlement. however after katherine's annexation of eastern poland the bishopric of beratz, g., op. c i t . . p. . kessler, op. c i t . , pp. - . mohilev was established and also included the german catholic settlers. since the consistorium of the bishopric was too far from the settlements the colonists received l i t t l e bene- f i t from i t . the lutheran sect had no higher church organi- zation whatsoever. although katherine ii permitted the est- ablishment of a lutheran consistorium i n each province i n , i t was not carried out u n t i l , so that each com- munity was l e f t to i t s own responsibility. the same is ap- plicable to the reformed s e c t s . ^ in an administration center of a l l non-ortho- dox churches was established which f e l l under the jurisdic- tion of the kultus ministry in . this enabled the lutheran church to establish an "imperial general cons stor- iumb for a l l lutheran churches in russia. the general gon-r slstorlum was subdivided into eight consistorlums which were located i n the centers of the main lutheran settlements. as the reformed groups and the lutherans could not be united, the general consistorium was limited to the lutheran sect. the system described above lasted only u n t i l when a l l lutheran communities in russia were divided into two sections, with their consistorlums i n moscow and petersburg.-' the lutherans comprised the largest group of set-, tiers i n the volga as well as i n the black sea region. four- langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . . pp. - . ibid, pp. - . f i f t h s of the volga settlers were lutherans (this includes a few thousands of the reformed group) out of a total of about , before world war i. in the black sea region there was a total.of , plus about , wolhynla germans who were a l l of the lutheran faith, except a few thousand hutter- i t e s . * with regard to catholic church administration i n the th century, we must mention that the catholic settlers who belonged to the archdiocese of mohilev u n t i l were then incorporated into the newly established diocese of tyraspol with i t s seat f i r s t i n cherson, later saratov, and in i n odessa. according to bishop kessler, tzar nicholas i v i s i t - ed the pope of reign xvi in at which meeting negotiations for the foundation of the new diocese took place. a papal delegate was sent out to russia who made a survey of a l l the colonies and determined the boundary of the diocese. f i n a l - l y i n the document (urkunde) "universalis ecclesia cura" was signed which l a i d the foundation for the new diocese. until the priests among the colonists, were a l - most a l l of polish origin who scarcely spoke the language of the colonists. thus, the settlers were actually without see table iii. kessler, op. c i t . , pp. - . leaders and received very l i t t l e benefit from the services of the polish priests. this period without leadership was clear- l y reflected i n the development of the educational standard. even after the catholic seminary was established in , which produced teachers and leaders for the catholics, they . were unable to attain the level of the protestant group. ' only for a period of twenty years , from to , were german jesuits active i n the colonies. since these jesuits were only ten i n number and had to serve so great a popula- tion of colonists, they were unable to leave a deep impress- ion of their teachings. with the establishment of the seminary the numbers of priests were increased and one could then speak of an actual parish with a permanent priest. a parish often had several a f f i l i a t i o n s , and a few parishes made up a dekanet. there were twelve of these i n the diocese.**-* according to the catholic encyclopedia the diocese of tyraspol was the largest in the world i n area. the armenian catholics i n the bonwetsch, op. c i t . , p. . the protestant group devoted more attention to education and was thus more progressive. a striking i l l u s t r a t i o n of this fact i s that during the soviet regime the majority of the teachers i n the catholic communities were protectants. simultaneously with their progress i n education, they drew from russian culture at the expense of their own and i n con- sequence their national resistance was less than that of the conservative catholics. see section on education, supra. kessler, op_. c i t . , pp. - . k south of the caucasus, or those i n the crimea, did not belong to the diocese but formed a separate group. the members of the diocese were exclusively german colonists with only a few hundreds of other nationalities. regardless of what the religious denomination may have been, the colonists were ardent followers of their f a i t h and hence religious inter-marriages were very rare indeed. it was a serious offense not to attend church. the church was the only form of organization and the pastor was thus the leader. the church provided the only form of r e l i e f from the dally work of the colonists. they were extremely conserva- tive i n their attitude toward their f a i t h . the unusually high respect for the man of the chureh created an atmosphere of restraint between the pastor and parishioners, especially amongst the catholics. the end of the th and the beginning of the th century, as already stated, marked the period wherein the settlers* privileges were curtailed. however, the promised non-interference policy of katherine with regard to chureh matters was maintained u n t i l the revolution of . . characteristics and cultural aspects prom the previous chapters one can see that the c o l - onists' period of existence in russia was characterized on one hand by the economic, and on the other hand by the r e l i - gious strength of the group. table iii distribution op religious denominations in the black sea area compiled a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s of stumpp, k a r l , die dentschen kolonlen im schwarzmeergebiet, ausland und heimat verlags aktiengesellschaft, stuttgart, , p. . province lutherans catholics mennonites total bessarabia , , , cherson , , , . , taurien , .. , , .. • • .. , ekaterlnoslav.. . , , , .. , don region , , . , kharkov , , ... , . *• , total , , ..... . , ..... . , until the end of the th century the colonists were almost completely isolated from their original homeland. due to this isolation no cultural contact could have been main- tained, nor were there the learned people who would have look- ed to their homeland as a source of culture. the colonists' sole desire was to establish their economical standard. their a c t i v i t i e s were limited to the t i l l i n g of the s o i l . mind and soul were occupied with the number of cattle and horses. their ties with the new homeland were loose. thus there was the constant desire to emigrate which was inspired by lust for land. the colonists* l i f e was colorless. they were con- servative in their convictions, clinging to the old t r a d i - tions. lack of educated people deprived the settlers of ec- onomic, cultural, and p o l i t i c a l organizations. p o l i t i c a l and general enlightenment were outside the scope of their lntex*- est; a book or newspaper was for the schoolmaster. they had a strong belief i n god on whom they relied entirely. to the colonist the church tie was the strongest and often the only s p i r i t u a l requirement which released him from the duties of his daily existence. and as any isolated group, as walter kuhn maintained, their s p i r i t u a l nourishment (geistige nahr- ung) was drawn mainly from the bible, hymnbooks, and calen- dars. kuhn, £. c i t . , pp. - . the characteristic feature of the average colonist was that he was a farmer, firm, steady and f u l l of enormous i n i t i a t i v e ; branded however with the deeply etched features of a troublesome past. a certain slowness was to be seen in his behavior. he was suspicious and envious however, there- by cunning and scornful. god-fearing in isolation he be- came naive and confiding towards the events outside of his own world. although the colonists had almost completely lost the ties with their original homeland for reasons as stated above, they nevertheless preserved what they had inherited from their forefathers. the fact that they had founded pure- ly german settlements isolated from a l l other nationalities did enable them to preserve their national identity. many customs and habits which were victims of modernization i n germany remained unchanged in the colonies, so that a study of them would have been rewarding to the student of folklore. christmas and easter were the most celebrated church festivals. numerous fetes were also observed of which ; "kirchweih-kerva" and "fastnacht were the most important. folksongs were verbally transmitted from generation to gener- ation. an intensive analysis of the folksong of the russian- germans presents the gradual breakdown and change of the song; lines have been dropped from the original l y r i c s and there bonwetsch, op_. c i t . , p. . a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y o n l y i n d i v i d u a l v e r s e s r e m a i n i n g w h i c h i n c o u r s e o f t i m e w e r e a d o p t e d a s a c o m p l e t e s o n g i n i t s e l f . t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t i s t h e r e f o r e o f t e n u n c o n s c i o u s l y m i s r e - p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s i n g e r . u n i n t e l l i g i b l e w o r d s o f s t a n d a r d h i g h g e r m a n b e c o m e r e p l a c e d b y s i m i l a r s o u n d i n g s e n s e l e s s e x - p r e s s i o n s . u n i s o n a n d s i m i l a r i t y o f c o n t e x t o f t e n l e d t o t h e b o r r o w i n g o f v e r s e s f r o m o t h e r s o n g s . a l l t h e s e p h e n o m e n a o f the deterioration of the s o n g s a l s o o c c u r r e d i n g e r m a n y , b u t a m o n g t h e g e r m a n s i n r u s s i a t h i s w a s m o r e a c u t e . t h e d i a l e c t s s p o k e n b y t h e e a r l y c o l o n i s t s w e r e f u l l y p r e s e r v e d . t h e m e n n o n i t e s s p o k e a w e s t - p r u s s i a n l o w g e r m a n d i a l e c t , w h e r e a s t h e l u t h e r a n s a n d c a t h o l i c s s p o k e t h e s o u t h - w e s t g e r m a n , l o w a l e m m a i n e a s w e l l a s t h e r h e m l s h - f r a n - c o n i a n d i a l e c t s . i n s o m e c o l o n i e s , n o t a b l y a m o n g t h e l u t h e r - a n s a n d c a t h o l i c s , a n e w d i a l e c t w a s s h a p e d a s s e t t l e r s f r o m v a r i o u s a r e a s c a m e t o g e t h e r i n o n e c o m m u n i t y . t h e i n f l u e n c e o f r u s s i a n c u l t u r e a f f e c t e d t h e c o l - o n i s t s t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , n o t a b l y a f t e r w o r l d w a r i . a l - t h o u g h t h e c o l o n i s t s w e r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e t h e y t r i e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t y l e s e t b y t h o s e w h o c a m e i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r u s s i a n u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n . i n a d d i t i o n c l i m a t i c c o n d i - t i o n s c a u s e d t h e m t o a d o p t r u s s i a n d r e s s , i . e . t h e b i g f u r c o a t a n d f e l t b o o t s w o r n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r . t h e u r b a n s c h u e n e m a n n , g . , d a s l i e d d e r d e u t s c h e n k o l o n l s t e n i n r u s s l a n d . m u e n c h e n , , p . . germans were russified i n their moods but they s t i l l spoke the german language. because of this the urban german was more ready to inter-marry with the native russian. the v i l l - age intelligentsia also tended to imitate russian ways. this was usually the reflection of a higher russian educational institution. in the f i r s t years of settlement the borrowing from russian culture was limited to material cultural forms. ac- cording to kuhn this process actually works both ways. a certain exchange (ausglelch) takes place between the i s o l a t - ed language group and that of the native people. but only much later, after having been acquainted with the native people and after they are able to master the language of the hq natives does a borrowing of s p i r i t u a l cultural forms occur, ^ in such a process f a i r y tales and proverbial sayings were adopted. in matters of folk music, there has always been a tendency amongst the colonists of eastern europe to readily accept the superiority of the native music, especially if they have been l i v i n g amongst ukrainians and russians. in this manner russian and ukrainian melodies of song and dance were willingly adopted. the songs were adopted because of their beautiful melody, although the l y r i c was not understood. the influence of the russian language was unavoid- able since russian was the language of the country. the use kuhn, op_. c i t . , pp. - . of o f f i c i a l russian terms, expressions designating new types of furniture or clothing, for which no counterpart existed i n the dialect were common. the use of the f i r s t name and the father's name when addressing each other was striking as this i s a way which i s exclusively russian. in spite of this influence of russian culture, the average colonist had unconsciously maintained his nationality. as among other isolated minority groups, the church served as a great support to preserve this national character. elemen- tary schools were church schools" and were supervised by the pastors before the period of russification at the close of the th century. religious ceremonies were presented i n german. the church was the only form of organization amongst the c o l - onists and held them together. in isolation, the church thus beoame a facsimile of a national church, hovrever, there was no definite policy pursued that led to the preservation of their national identity. it was merely that deep desire to keep what was handed down through tradition by their fore- fathers.^ according to kuhn, as the isolated group begins to develop materially as well as s p i r i t u a l l y , and religious pam- phlets are replaced by news of the world, and as the people the preservation of the national identity was aided by the natural separation from the natives as the colonists set- tled i n purely separate religious communities. the d i f f e r - ence in faiths avoided inter-marriages and thereby also the association with the natives. acquire a higher standard of l i v i n g , as well as draw their cultural forms from non-nationals, then the isolated langu- age island has reached a dangerous period, that of assimila- tion. only then, a powerful impulse from the outside can re-awaken the national consciousness and re-establish the contact with the motherland as well as to secure future cult- ural sources. * the group i n russia never reached the level describ- ed by kuhn. the majority were s t i l l farmers l i v i n g i n their own secluded world and thus they never reached the point of assimilation. nevertheless they did receive such an impulse. the definite russification process at the end of the th century coupled with the antagonistic feeling following world war i, created a certain german consciousness i n the group. however, as germans who had no contact with germany and had never been there, they became a unique group which had i n course of time coined i t s own form of culture. as such the group was never f u l l y accepted by the average german. a fact which manifested i t s e l f when part of the group was resettled to germany during world war i i . they spoke of another mem- ber of the group as "one of ours", as the people of alsace do who c a l l themselves neither german nor french hut alsatians. # # # # # kuhn, £. c i t . , pp. - . literary publications amongst the settlers were scarce. in many of the calendars and magazines, h i s t o r i c a l sketches of individual colonies were published. notable for that was the "neuer haus- und landwirtschaftskalendar fuer die deutschen ansiedler im suedlichen russland". in , a noteworthy novel appeared anonymously on the volga entitled, nor net lopper g gewa. which described the attitude of the german colonist toward an idealist young teacher with progres slve views. ^ another publication which appeared on the vol- ga, was a collection of folksongs and childrens* poems of the volga colonists, which was written by goebel, gottlieb; and alexander hunger and entitled fest und true, oder der k l r g l - sen-michel. a l l this literature, including the historical works, were issued i n russia. only after world war i when for the f i r s t time in their history the colonists i n russia attracted the attention of their original homeland, did a number of publications appear in germany. the following l i s t contains calendars, newspapers,, magazines and h i s t o r i c a l works. the dates of publication for l i t e r a r y publications after world war i, see chapter iii, i n f r a . ' luther, arthur, "deutsche dichtung i n russland", der auslanddeutsche. jabrg. xii, no. , stuttgart, , pp. . in there were a series of research works published for the f i r s t time by the newly founded "institut fuer aus- landskunde und auslanddeutschtum" i n leipzig. the climax of research concern about the germans i n russia was reached i n germany after . mark the period of prosperity whereas they ceased, publishing with the onset of world war i when they were prohibited. a. calendars . amtskalender fuer evangelische gelstliche in russland. - .. . christlicher famlllenkalender, semferopol, . . per wolgabote. a calendar for german settlers on the vol- ga, - . . kalender der deutschen kolonlen in russland, petersburg. . molotschnaer volkskalender. for the german settlers in south russia, ^ . . neuer haus- und landwlrtschaftskalendar, for the german settlers in south russia, - . . wolgadeutscher kalender. - . . newspapers and magazines . hausfreund. issued by kanonikus rudolf relchert, odessa, - . . helmatglocken, talovka, , a lutheran weekly. . . klemens. a catholic weekly founded i n , saratov, pub- lished as a weekly u n t i l then issued as a supplement to the "deutsche rundschau" u n t i l . . moskauer deutsche zeltung. a weekly. » odessaer zeltung. a daily, - ; - . . st. petersburger zeltung. - . . saratower deutsche volkszeltung. saratov. handbueh des peutschtums im auslande, op. c i t . , pp. - . , : ibid. . unterhaltungsblatt, for the german settlers in south russia, odessa, - . c. historical books these works have been written by the descendants of the colonists and several of the books have been published abroad. ? . bauer, g., geschlchte der deutschen ansiedler an der wolga seit ihrer einwanderung nach russland bis zur einfuehrung der allgemeinen wehrpflicht, - . . beratz, gottleib, die deutschen kolonlen an der unteren wolga i n ihrer entstehung und ersten entwickelung, saratov, . . bonwetsch, gerhard, geschlchte der deutschen kolonlen an der wolga. stuttgart, . . kessler, bishop joseph a., geschlchte der dlozese tyras- poj., dickinson, north dakota, . . klaus, alexander, unsere kolonlen. odessa, . . loebsack, georg, elnsam kaempft das wolgalarid, leipzig, . . schenk, m. f., geschlchte der deutsche kolonlen in trans- kaukasien. . . schleuning, johannes, die deutschen kolonlen in wolga- geblet. . . schleuning, johannes, in kampf und todesnot. berlin - chariot t e nburg, . . stach jakob, das deutschtum i n slbirlen mittelaslen und dem fernen osten. stuttgart, . . stumpp, karl, die deutschen kolonlen im schwarzmeergeblet. stuttgart, . a great number of h i s t o r i c a l works and articles were pub- lished by the mennonltes, but since the mennonites and their l i t e r a r y works are well known, they shall not be mentioned. here. numerous verbal stories which were never written down circulated amongst the colonists. in the long winter evenings these stories were told; they a l l spoke of the c o l - onists' past and their adventures i n the early days of set- tlement. s t y l i s t i c a l l y they were an adoption of germanic heroic poems which were brought by the early settlers. in time the poems were localized, i . e . the characters and heroes in the poems were replaced by local people. the yearly festivals held by the church choirs must be mentioned here as an important aspect of the colonists a r t i s t i c activity. where cultural l i f e was at best so re- stricted, these religious celebrations helped to supply an important need i n the community. vii. internal migration and sister colonies perhaps no other national group in the world was i n such a constant uninterrupted movement as the germans of russia. the settlement of the mother colonies lasted from u n t i l the middle of the th century. the volga, black sea region, caucasus and wolhynla were selected as settlement areas. almost simultaneously with the completion of the set- tlement of the mother colonies, a new movement started into other areas of russia. neither pressure nor oppression on the part of the russian government caused this migration i n - to isolated d i s t r i c t s . the apparent land problem and the i n - herent urge of the colonists to acquire land, drove them to spread out from every nucleus of settlement. heads of fami- l i e s wished each son to have an area equal to his own. there- fore in.large families there was a constant search for new land. no opportunity was missed to enlarge holdings of pro- perty* price differences helped i n this regard. settlers sold their land when values were favorable and moved into distant areas where they could buy cheaply. the natural de- sire to own one's farm s o i l and the acquisitive nature of these colonists to possess cheap land and much of i t , sent them wandering from one d i s t r i c t into another. the early mi- gration had established mother colonies which soon were sur- rounded by sister colonies. when a l l the available land was taken, a migration eastward took place. according to jakob stach, as the colonists became subject to military service and emigration abroad had started, large numbers of mennonites from molotsohna migrated to the newly acquired territory in turkestan. the majority of them came from the province of taurien, later i n the 's they also came from the volga. the governor of turkestan promised each person a sum of f i f t y rubles and exemption from taxes for eleven years. the total of the settlers who accepted co this proposal was about , .-^ from to an ex- tensive number of colonists migrated from the.province of cherson i n bessarabia to the area of tashkent. stach, jakob, das deutschtum in slblrlen. mittelaslen und dem fernen oaten, kohlhammer verlag, stuttgart, , p. . the colonies i n the don area and north caucasus were founded by volga and black sea germans, in the don area the colonists settled near taganrog. later after , migra- . tions from here to the north caucasus and central asia were recorded. the foundation of the colonies i n the north cauca- sus followed the year i , when black sea and volga germans settled there. these colonies were predominantly located near stavrograd, vladikawkas and novorossljsk. before world war i the number of colonies was over seventy-six with the same number of chutoras (smaller settlements) and an aggre- gate population of , . as sister colonies they were small i n comparison to the mother colonies and had populat- cq ions of only , to , persons.-' the general migration to siberia at the beginning of the th century was due to two historical events i n tzar— st russia: (a) the construction of the trans-siberian r a i l - road; and (b) the stolypin agrarian reform of which was passed by the duma i n . the coming of the railway caused the resettlement of more than three and one half million people - even during the russo-japanese war , people were resettled in siber- i a . ^ the agrarian reform dissolved the "mir system" whereby boelitz, op_. c i t • , p. . stumpp, op_. c i t . , p. . stach, op_. c i t . , p. . the land was community owned and was periodically divided among the male members of the settlement. (note that only the black sea germans were not subject to the "mir system".) the new law freed the peasant from any obligation towards the community. he was free to buy or s e l l land wherever he wish- ed. furthermore, the land became his personal possession. this agrarian reform corrected the mistake of , whereby the abolition of serfdom did not bring with i t the right of private ownership. the reform i n turn marked the biggest colonization period of the th century as the government made a number of special concessions to the prospective settler for siber- i a . colonists were entitled to f i f t e e n desjatins of land be- sides a f a i r reduction for transportation, etc. these induce- ments brought in settlers from bessarabia, cherson and the volga. after the following complexes of colonies were founded i n siberia: in the area of slavgorod ; . colonies. in the area of omsk colonies. in the area of orenburg (european russia)...... colonies. in the area of khmolinsk colonies. in the area of semipalatlnsk (central asia).... colonies. although the above figures only present colonies, there were about german colonies i n siberia before world war i. stach, op. c i t . . pp. - . the colonists possessed a total of , desjatins i n land-holdings.^ summing up the mother colonies and sister colonies i n russia we see the following picture: out of original mother colonies founded by german settlers i n european russia, there were , sister colonies established with , chutoras'founded by the original german settlers. in time they increased eighteen times, i.e. . million by world k war i. to complete the migration of the german settlers within russia we must mention the last migration during the soviet regime. during world war i when the wolhynla germans were ordered to leave their homeland, an extensive number of them settled i n the par east of russia. in to , the period of collectivization marked a migration from a l l german settled areas to the far east. the soviet government granted tax exemption and and other concessions to people who were ready to settle in the far east. in this way fourteen c o l - onies were founded on the amur and ussuri rivers by german s e t t l e r s . ^ during the soviet regime, as the colonists were ousted, there was also a great influx of germans into the deutsches ausland institut, erg. c i t . . p. . k ibid. quiring, walter, "die russlanddeutschen fleuchtllnge i n china", der wanderweg der russlanddeutschen. deutsches aus- land institut, stuttgart, , pp. - . c i t i e s , where they took employment as laborers and various skilled crafts. chapter iii the colonists between the world wars i. world war i and the imperial ukas of the outbreak of world war i marked the beginning of the most d i f f i c u l t period i n the history of the colonists. the planned jubilee commemorating their a r r i v a l i n russia had to be forgotten. instead of the joyful festivals the pre- vailing mood was sadness and disappointment. as f u l l c i t i - zens of russia they were drafted into the army and had to fight against their land of origin. the antagonism existing towards the colonists reached a climax i n the ukas of . the location of the german settlements, i.e. wol- hynla which was strategically important to russia, led to a number of anti-german measures at the beginning of the war. the ukas of i proclaimed the confiscation, with compensa- tion, of the entire german land-holdings along the polish border. within a few days they had to start their march to- wards siberia. there were , people on the way to s i - beria. diseases and starvation were their constant compan- ions. these measures were the more drastic as the entire male population was fighting, only women and children home. deutsches ausland institut, op_. c i t . . p. k. in the tzariat government decreed the expulsion from their homes of the volga germans and those of the black sea region. the decree, however, f e l l into abeyance with the: overthrow of the tzarlst regime. only after the treaty of brest-litovsk i n , were the wolhynla germans allowed to return to their homes. there they found a devastated area, a reflection of a raging battle-field. as these measures had been enforced, the tzarist government could not expect any great loyalty from the c o l - onists. although individuals were i n the western b a t t l e - f i e l d against germany, i t was the policy of the russian government to have the colonists on the turkish front. georg loebsack i n his heroic treatment of the volga germans, elnsam kaempft das wolgaland. maintains that at least , volga ge rmans p had given their lives at the battle of erserum. erserum, near trapesunt, became the cemetery of the colonists i n world war i. i i . the march revolution of the march revolution of seemed to have brought better times as the provisional government restored cultural and national self-determination. they were to develop their future nationality free from any pressure and force of the government. a sudden desire for unity prevailed amongst a l l loebsack, georg, elnsam kaempft das wolgaland, r. voeigt- laeder verlag, leipzig, , p. . k the germans i n russia. a strong unification was craved by the colonists i n order that their rights would be preserved i n case of need. in order to give this new movement character and a uniform aim, professor llndemann, in accordance x-irith other leading colonists summoned representatives from the german settlements to moscow. the meeting took place i n april, the th to rd, , under the chairmanship of prof. llndemann and duma deputy lutz. eighty-six delegates from fifteen pro- vinces had gathered for the f i r s t time i n order to defend the colonists' cause i n russia. at this conference, resolutions of immediate importance were thrashed out. foremost amongst these was the demand for equal rights as russian citizens, the introduction of german in the colonists' schools, the foundation of german newspapers, the foundation of a german society i n russia,^ and immediate help for the expelled wol- k hynia germans. before the proclamation of self-determination of the peoples in russia by the provisional government on the th of march, , the volga germans had already founded a p r i - vate executive for the purpose of combating the unfavorable measures undertaken against the colonists. this private this society had no p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n s . k schleuning, johannes, in kampf und todesnot. bernard u. graefe, berlin-charlottenburg, , pp. - . executive was now augmented to an organized executive which soon called a general meeting i n a p r i l , . three hundred and eighty-six delegates from a l l the volga colonist settle- ments had gathered and elected a "central committee" with its seat i n saratov. questions of economy and culture were to he administered by this committee. its primary aim, however, was the establishment of autonomy for the volga colonists.^ from march u n t i l the october revolution of , according to schleuning, there was an active participation noticeable amongst a l l the people for the re-establishment-of the "ver- lorenes volksgut (national character). during this period a german paper "die saratower deutsche volkszeitung" was founded and numerous teachers* congresses were held by the volga germans. similar activities were carried on by the black sea colonists. at the end of march of , they had already called a conference in odessa for the purpose of founding a "society of a l l germans in russia". here, too, the resolu- tions of the moscow conference were adopted which were to be carried out under the auspices of the elected "central com- mittee" with i t s seat i n odessa. a weekly magazine was founded to promote the cause of the colonist. this magazine was at f i r s t issued in russian and later in the german lang- uage. contrary to the volga germans, the black sea colonist langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . , pp. - . did not strive for autonomy due to the t e r r i t o r i a l distances between the settlements. the caucasian colonists who especially had to exper- ience the antagonism of the tzarist government, enthusiasti- cally welcomed the march revolution. as on the volga and black sea, they too called a congress i n t i f l i s . although they were one of the poorer groups they were able to collect enough funds to establish a german hlghschool (oberrealschule) i n helendorf by the f a l l of ?. parallel to the activities i n the mother colonies were those activities of the colonists i n siberia. in slav- gorod there was a congress called whieh decided on the found- ation of a german teachers' training school. the school was ready for its opening by the f a l l of .' however this great enthusiasm for the purpose of re- establishing their former status as a self-determined group, was of short duration. the eight months from march u n t i l october were not long. the october revolution and i t s con- sequences brought even more destructive elements to the c o l - onies. the colonies were exposed to the anarchism of either the retreating and resisting imperial forces or the approach- ing troops of the new regime. schleuning, op_. c i t . , pp. - . stach, op_. c i t . . pp. - . iii* october revolution and self-determination the attitude towards the new soviet regime was one of resistance. only the poorer landless elements became f o l - lowers of the bolshevist system as they expected land from ft the new government. the colony of balzer on the volga show- ed the greatest resistance towards the bolshevists. this re- sistance resulted in an armed uprising against the invading red forces. even after the october revolution of i when the bolshevists were dominating the volga c i t i e s , the "cent- r a l committee" which was elected during the period of the provisional government was s t i l l r e s i s t i n g . this committee called the warenburg conference in february of as a pro- test against the formation of local soviets i n the town. but with the increasing power of the local commun- i s t s , the "central committee" was crushed and replaced by the "commissariat of the volga germans". the commissariat had the task of preparing for the coming congress of the soviets stumpp, op. c i t . , p. . schleuning, op_. c i t . . p. . "nemcev povolzja a.s.s.r.", bol'sha.la sovetskaja enslk- lopedlia. vol. , o.g.j.z., r.s.f.s.r., moskva, , pp. - . this article states that the volga germans were predominantly ardent followers of the communist idea, and that their contribution to the cause of the revolution was great. the article goes on to describe the heroic p a r t i c i - pation of volga german regiments against the invading troops of denikin and kolchak. langhans-ratzeburg, op_. c i t . , p. . of the volga colonies and that of carrying out the decrees of the soviet regime. preparation having been completed, the f i r s t soviet congress of the volga germans was summoned to saratov by june of . it was only in october of at the second congress that the "autonomous workers' commune of the volga germans" was proclaimed. this was i n accordance with the soviet national policy which secured the right of self-determination to a l l the peoples of the u.s.s.r. now a l l questions pertaining to economy, administration and cult- ure were under the jurisdiction of the elected "soviet cong- ress" of the autonomous workers' commune of the volga ger-. mans.^ the treaty of brest-lltovsk even secured the right to the volga germans to emigrate to germany. german govern- ment o f f i c i a l s arrived on the volga to organize this emigra- tion, but the collapse of germanyin made a quick end to ik this beginning. in , a "zentralkbraitee der deutschen aus russland" was founded in germany. the organization un- dertook the task of assisting the colonists to emigrate to overseas countries. ^ gross, e., a.s .s .r. nemcey povolz.la. izdanije "nemgos- izdata", pokrovsk, , p. a.s.s.r. der wolgadeutschen. op. c i t . , pp. - . ik gross, op. c i t . , pp. - . "zentralkomitee der deutschen aus russland", per ausland- deutsche. jabrg. , no. , stuttgart, ?, pp." -^- ?. it was only by that the autonomous workers' commune was able to exist as a self-contained economical unit. at that time i t was raised to the level of an "auton- omous republic", as part of the large russian socialist fed- eration of soviet republics. the republic was divided into fourteen counties and had a national composition of: germans.......... ... . $ russians . $ ukranians . $ others . $ the black sea colonist as contrasted to the volga colonist had a different phase of development. following the treaty of brest-litovsk the ukraine was occupied by the german forces, so that the "central committee" founded dur- ing the provisional government i n odessa was able to function u n t i l the end of the german occupation, i.e. november of . after the collapse of germany and the subsequent re- treat of the troops from the ukraine, the new soviet regime was able to paralyse the activities of the "central committee" i n odessa. however the colonies around odessa resisted the soviet regime with an armed uprising and were able to main- tain their resistance for a period of two weeks. ''' for details of administration see: langhans-ratzeburg, op. c i t . , and gross, op_. c i t . schleuning, op_. cit.., pp. - . contrary to the volga germans, autonomy never was granted to the black sea germans for reasons of t e r r i t o r i a l distances between the settlements. however they were organ- ized into "national districts" of which there were seventeen i n the entire u.s.s.r. administratively they belonged to the particular province in which they were located. most of them were named after leading german colonists such as, karl leib- knecht d i s t r i c t near odessa, ernst thailmann d i s t r i c t i n the donetz area, and rosa luxemburg d i s t r i c t near dnepropetrovsk, etc. iv. economic aspects the four years of war, the october revolution f o l - lowed by the c i v i l war and the growing anarchism brought ec- onomical disaster to russia. the constant occupation by either the soviet forces or the resisting tzarist troops caused almost a complete impoverishment of the colonies by . in addition to the existing impoverishment, russia was destined to endure i n the greatest crop failure in its history. according to ivan herasimovich, the once so f e r t - i l e s o i l near mariupol returned only . of the original seed sown, and as a result, by the winter of - ^ of the german colonists were subject to the great famine which was kolarz, walter, russia and her colonies. george philip and son limited, london, , p. , according to informa- tion from: bartels, bernhard, die deutschen bauern suedruss- land, moscow, . accompanied by mass starvation and epidemics. the conditions amongst the volga colonists were no less severe. the s t a t i s t i c s below manifest the austerity of the crop failure and the subsequent drop i n population i n . amount of agricultural products exported from the area of the a.s.s.r. of the volga germans to other areas of russia in .. million pud. in .. million pud. in million pud. in million pud. population of the area of the a.s.s.r. of the volga germans in .... , persons. in . . . . . . . . . , persons. in . .. , persons. the loss of , people in the area was due to starvation and dessertion into other areas of russia. through the immediate help of the international red cross and church organizations, as well as relatives abroad, conditions were alleviated by . also the new russian herasimovich, ivan, holod na ukra.llnl. vidavnitstvo 'ukrajinske slovo", berlin, , pp. - . gross, op_. c i t . . pp. - . ibid. economic policy which guaranteed private enterprise at the beginning of the »s helped to overcome this d i f f i c u l t time and many were again on their way to prosperity. but by the coming of collectivization was de- f i n i t e . this i n turn meant the loss of land which was by no means compatible with the materialistic mind of the colonist. the expected economic i n s t a b i l i t y and the intensified fear of a possible revival of the year of , again motivated the lust to wander in the colonist. this period marked the second great migration overseas which lasted u n t i l when the soviet government completely stopped the emigration of russian citizens. after various i l l e g a l ways were con- trived to leave russia. the period of collectivization also marked the ex- pulsion of rich colonists (kulaks) from the colonies. the majority of these then moved into the c i t i e s . thus by the a.s.s.r. could record the existence of collective farms. ten years later » # of e l l farms were incorporated into kolkhoses of sovkhoses (state-owned farms). in addl- . tion the soviet encyclopedia records a tremendous upswing i n industry and mechanization in the a.s.s.r. of the volga ger- m a n s . s i m i l a r statements i n regard to collectivization can be made about other german populated areas. only amongst the a.s.s.r. der wolgadeu t s che n. op. c i t . , pp. - . for d e t a i l see "nemcev povolzja a.s.s.r.", op_. cjlt., germans in siberia was collectivization introduced later. it remains to mention that the famine of found a recurrence'in - , when the crop failure and addi- tional taxes deprived the people of russia of their daily bread. at the close of the decade people had been reconciled with their fate of being collective farmers and conditions were generally improved. it was world war ii which marked ah end to this period. v. religion in the colonies soon after the october revolution of the two lutheran consistorlums i n leningrad and moscow were d i s s o l - ved. however the lutheran seminary i n leningrad was s t i l l < functioning u n t i l « from among forty pastors which served one hundred and f i f t y lutheran colonies on the volga, only fourteen remained by . sixteen retired and the rest fled abroad. similar actions were undertaken against the catholic hierarchy. many priests including joseph a. kessler, bishop of the diocese of tyraspol, were able to leave russia before measures were undertaken against them. the catholic seminary i n saratov was dissolved in and property confiscated. schleunlng, op_. c i t . . pp. - . gross, op_, c i t . , p. . before the war each of the thirty-nine catholic settlements had one priest and one cantor. by there were nine vac- ancies. ? although s t a t i s t i c a l information is not available for the colonies i n the ukraine and other areas, one can as- sume a similar situation i n regard to religious matters. re- l i g i o n as a whole was banned from the school and so were the teachers of religion. isolated and without leadership, the individual pastors carried on with their work u n t i l when most of them became victims of the great purges of - in soviet russia. churches were closed and often transformed into dance or recreation halls. a vivid propaganda against the church as an institution was carried on by the younger generation who were members of the "society of the godless". their main organs of propaganda were the german weekly maga- zines j "die trommel - published in the a.s.s.r. of the vol- ga germans, "die trompete" - published i n the ukraine, and "neuland" antlreligioese zeltschrif der sowjetdeutsche - pub- lished i n the ukraine. the literature published in the soviet union in re- gard to the colonists' attitude towards such measures i s gross, op. c i t . , p. . schleuning, op_. c i t . . p. . strikingly contradictory when compared with the literature published abroad. in the soviet publication of e. gross, he stipulates that by the colonist had developed a negative attitude toward the church due to the enlightenment by the revolution and partly by the corrupted clergy themselves. johannes schleuning states exactly the opposite in his german publication. in spite of the intimidation practiced by the soviet government the majority of the settlers remained ar- dent followers of their religion. it was after a l l their deeply rooted belief that had kept and served them during their historic period i n russia. ° vi. german national schools and culture according to the soviet constitution a l l people of the u.s.s.r. had the right to national schools: article . citizens of the u.s.s.r. have the right to education. this right is ensured by universal and compulsory elementary education; by free education up to and including the seventh grade; by a system of state stipends for students of higher educational establish- ments who excel in their studies; by in- struction i n schools being conducted i n the native language, and by the organization i n the factories, state farms, machine and tractor stations, and collective farms of free vocational, technical and agronomic training for the working people. gross, op. c i t . , p. . schleuning, op., c i t . , p. . constitution of the u.s.s.r.. american russian institute, new york, , p. . i n p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y r u s s i a t h e r u s s i a n l a n g u a g e w a s t h e o n l y o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e a n d t h e p r i n c i p a l m e a n s t o d e n a t i o n a l i z e t h e n o n - r u s s i a n p o p u l a t i o n . a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o v i e t n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , t h e s o v i e t g o v e r n m e n t h a d n o s u c h i n t e n t i o n s . o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t g r a n t e d e n t i r e l i n g u a l a u t o n o m y a n d i t p r o m o t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e i r l a n g u a g e a n d l i t e r a - f o r t h e g e r m a n s i n t h e s o v i e t u n i o n t h i s m e a n t o n l y a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f w h a t h a d b e e n p a r t l y s t a r t e d d u r i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , w h o h a d a l s o g r a n t e d t h e n a t i o n a l s c h o o l s t o i t s p e o p l e . i n a l l t h e c o l o n i s t s ' s c h o o l s w h e t h - e r l o c a t e d i n t h e a . s . s . r . o f t h e v o l g a g e r m a n s o r i n g e r m a n n a t i o n a l d i s t r i c t s , g e r m a n b e c a m e t h e l a n g u a g e o f i n s t r u c t i o n . t h e l a n g u a g e o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e c o l o n i e s w a s a l s o g e r - m a n . s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g e r m a n , t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f m o r e h i g h s c h o o l s , t e c h n i c a l s c h o o l s a n d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s t a r t e d i n t h e g e r m a n c o l o n i e s . f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c o m b a t i n g t h e g r e a t l a c k o f g e r m a n t e a c h e r s , k o h n , h a n s , n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e s o v i e t u n i o n . g e o r g e r o u t l e d g e & s o n s l t d . , l o n d o n , , p p . - . f o r m a n y p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e n o m a d s , w h o h a d n e v e r h a d a w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e t h e l a t i n a l p h a b e t w a s a d o p t e d . a n d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e i r f o l k l o r e w a s w r i t t e n d o w n . l a t e r i n > w h e n t h e s o v i e t g o v e r n m e n t i s s u e d t h e d e c r e e o n o b l i g a - t o r y t e a c h i n g o f r u s s i a n i n a l l n o n - r u s s i a n s c h o o l s , a r e v i - s i o n o f t h e a l p h a b e t w a s n e c e s s a r y . s i n c e i t w o u l d m e a n t h e l e a r n i n g o f t w o a l p h a b e t s , t h e u s e o f t h e l a t i n s c r i p t w a s s t o p p e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y t h e c y r i l l i c a l p h a b e t . s e v e r a l p e d a g o g i c a l i n s t i t u t e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d . o n e o f t h e i n s t i t u t e s w a s a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f s a r a t o v , t h e o t h e r w i t h t h a t o f o d e s s a . ^ b e f o r e w o r l d w a r i , t h e r e w e r e o n l y s e v e n h u n d r e d a n d s e v e n t y - o n e t e a c h e r s i n t h e a r e a o f t h e a . s . s . r . o f t h e v o l g a g e r m a n s . i n t h e n u m b e r i n - c r e a s e d t o t h r e e t h o u s a n d , t h r e e h u n d r e d a n d t w e n t y - s i x . t h u s t h e g r e a t c a m p a i g n t o l i q u i d a t e i l l i t e r a c y h a d b e c o m e r e a l i - z a t i o n . t h e c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s r e c e i v e d s i m i l a r a t t e n t i o n b y t h e s o v i e t g o v e r n m e n t . e s p e c i a l s t r e s s w a s p l a c e d o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l t h e a t r e s . " t r a v e l l i n g p l a y g r o u p s " , a s t h e y w e r e k n o w n , w e r e f o u n d e d a n d t h e m o s t n o t a b l e w a s t h e " d e u t s c h e s w a n d e r t h e a t e r " i n t h e u k r a i n e . i n l a r g e r g e r m a n t o w n s m u s i c s c h o o l s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , w i t h e v e n a c o n s e r v a - t o r y b e i n g c a l l e d t o l i f e i n m a r x s t a d t ( k a t h e r l n e n s t a d t ) o n t h e v o l g a . l i b r a r i e s a n d n a t i o n a l m u s e u m s w e r e f o u n d e d . a s c i e n t i f i c a s s o c i a t i o n f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e a l s o c a m e into e x i s t e n c e . t h e g e r m a n v o l g a r e p u b l i c b e c a m e t h e c u l t u r a l c e n - t e r o f a l l t h e g e r m a n s i n t h e u . s . s . r . d u r i n g t h e s o v i e t r e - g i m e . a l l t h e g e r m a n s c h o o l - b o o k s w e r e p r i n t e d i n p o k r o v s k . ( e n g e l s ) , c a p i t a l o f t h e a . s . s . r . o f t h e v o l g a g e r m a n s , a f t e r t h e r e p u b l i c r e c e i v e d i t s o w n p u b l i s h i n g h o u s e i n . m a n y s c h l e u n i n g , o p _ . c i t . . p . . a . s . s . r . d e r w o l g a d e u t s c h e n . o p . c i t . , p . . german papers and magazines (periodicals) were also issued. notable were the following: . unsere wlrtschaft. an illustrated weekly for the enlight- enment of the rural population i n matters of husbandry, technics and culture. . revolution und kultur. a magazine i n publication since . . naehrichten, a magazine and organ of the government of the a.s.s.r. . selt bereit and . rote fahne, were papers for the youth and were sent out to the distant german settlements i n the soviet union. . deutsche zehtral zeltung. printed i n moscow. . zur neuen schule t a periodical for teachers printed in moscow. from amongst the o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l publications by germans i n the soviet union, some were the works of: . eartels, b., die deutschen bauern i n russland. moscow, . . . " . schmidt, d., tudien ueber geschlchte der wolgadeutschen i t e l l . pokrovsk, . the publications by the volga german, george dinges and by the russian, victor schirmunski, were of great lingu- i s t i c and f o l k l b r i s t i c importance. both men completed their studies i n germany. dinges was appointed director of the "wolgadeutsches zeritralmuseum" and later in director of the "research institute for german dialectics" on the volga. he was f i n a l l y made rector of the newly founded "deutsche kuhn, op_. c i t . , p. . gross, op_. c i t . . p. . pe&agogische hochschule" in the capital of the volga germans. his work was devoted to the compilation of the volga german dialects, the folklore, the creation of a dictionary, and the f i r s t language atlas of the volga area.^ victor schirmunski was a professor of germanics and since had been head of the department of folklore and art at the university of leningrad. he devoted his research to the studies of the german colonies in northern russia, ukraine, crimea and the caucasus. his f i r s t publication was die deutschen kolonlen in der ukraine. moscow, . in his second book, volkskundllche fox»schungen in den deutschen siedlungen der sow.jet union, he treats dialects, folksongs, and history - a l l in a similar manner. numerous articles of his were also published i n the german periodical "teuthon- i s t a " . they were remarkable for the systematic treatise of the development of the new mixed dialects among the germans i n russia. the conference of german teachers of the soviet union decided in that the gothic script which was used i n germany at the time should no longer be used i n soviet schools. this attitude of abolishing a l l traces of germany was carried on to such an extent that the teachers' assembly recommended the simplification of german spelling. their kuhn, op., c i t * . p. . ibid. aim for this was; the provision of a proletarian german lang- uage which shall he intelligible to a l l , clear, concise, and natural.^° with the promotion of research into the colonists' past, the granting of entire lingual autonomy, and the en- couragement of national culture, one should actually expect a close tie with the motherland. germany could have offered much at this time especially since the germans i n russia had not maintained the same cultural l e v e l . they were a few de^ cades behind i n progress of the people i n germany. such ties with germany were not maintained nor tolerated by the soviet regime. germany could not serve as an example to the germans in the soviet union. no school-books were to be imported from germany. only books printed i n the republic of the a.s.s.r. of the germans were to be used i n german schools. it was therefore, the aim of the soviet regime to create a communist german people within the u.s.s.r. with no cultural association with germany. the culture being bestow- ed on them i n their native language was thus to be a: culture national i n form, above a l l in language, but supra-national, socialist, or proletarian in essence.^ no secret was made of this aim, for j. v. stalin already said up.kohh. op. o l t . . pp. - . kl ibid, p. . in : the period of the dictatorship of the pro- letariat and of the building of socialism i n the soviet union is the period of the flowering of the national c i v i l i z a t i o n , which while intrinsically socialist are national i n form.** in the soviet government had recognized that no matter how closely the party had been supervising the ex- ecution of the soviet national policy i t had created and en- couraged "local and linguistic nationalism" by the very fact that l i n g u i s t i c autonomy had been granted to the minority groups. to combat this phenomena the soviet authority issued a decree on march th, , on "obligatory teaching of russian in a l l non-russian national schools".^ this measure was carried to such an extent that i n schools of german national d i s t r i c t s , russian became the lan- guage of instruction and german was taught as a foreign lang- uage. thus the national was deprived of the very essence which made him a member of that national group, namely of his language.**** the consequences of fnis policy were soon for detailed account see stalin, j. v., " p o l i t i c a l re- port to the th congress of the communist party of the sov- iet union, july ". vsesoluznala kommunistlcheskaia partla (b), new york city workers' library publishers, . kolarz, op., c i t . , pp. - . it i s this decree of and i t s practical application which is a striking contradiction to article of the con- stitution of the u.s.s.r. this a r t i c l e secures the right of national schools for a i r people of the u.s.s.r. apparent - notably amongst the olty germans who numbered ab- out , i n russia. they were distributed as follows: moscow - , , leningrad - , , saratov - , , and odessa - , .^ in time the student began to master the russian language. russian papers and books were his only sources for reading. the german papers and periodicals had ceased pub- l i c a t i o n . no cultural contact was maintained with germany for reasons as stated above. popular russian songs were more appealing to the student than the "obsolete" folksongs of his people. if he wished to be impressive, he spoke russian to his fellow member. these and other,reasons are a l l signs that the younger generation was rapidly losing the cultural niveau of an isolated language island and was readily drawing from russian culture. the extent to which some of the city germans had been assimilated into russian ways is seen from the quotation below. a report on the repatriated germans from the soviet union during world war ii in a salzburg camp (austria) states: there are many among them who can no longer speak german, but now are learning the ger- man language with enthusiasm....^ from the above presentation we can conclude that during the - boelltz, op_. c i t . , p. . schechtman, joseph b . , european population transfers - . oxford university press, new york, , p. , according to the "salzburger zeitung", april th, . period of the soviet regime the germans i n russia had ma- tured as an isolated language i s l a n d . ^ they had reached their f i n a l state of development - that i s the formation of a substantial city group. once this city group had been formed the minority group no longer remained isolated for it then drew rapidly from non-natlonal culture and was thus on the border-line of assimilation. see introduction for walter kuhn's theory of the devel- opment of an isolated language island, supra. chapter iv resettlement and repatriation during world war ii i . the eve op world war ii the outbreak of world war ii caused the soviet gov- ernment to undertake similar actions as the tzarlst's did during world war i. both wars brought a drastic change i n the colonist's position as citizens of russia, the d i f f e r - ence, however, is that world war ii and the subsequent policy caused by i t not only brought a resettlement about but they were expelled from the family of the soviet people. they disappeared from a l l ethnigraphical and s t a t i s t i c a l refer- ences of the ethnic composition of the u.s.s.r. the position of the germans i n the u.s.s.r, con- stantly fluctuated with the soviet-german foreign relations at the close of the *s. the soviet-german relations had grown so tense that any day war could be expected and thus the germans in the soviet union were treated as associates of the post-war soviet encyclopedia has completely ignored the existence of germans i n russia either past or present. in contrast, the encyclopedia of » devotes ten pages to a long h i s t o r i c a l description of the a.s.s.r. of the volga germans. it praises their achievements and contributions to the construction of socialism i n the u.s.s.r. germany. during this time they had lost f u l l status as sov- iet citizens. officers of colonist descent were dismissed from the red army as unreliables. for similar reasons the colonists had not been drafted into the army since , i n spite of the compulsory military training which existed i n the u.s.s.r. the great purges of - also heavily affected the german group i n russia. although they affected the russ- ian just as much as the non-russian, the latter suffered pro- portionately more as the purges were directed against the intelligentzia - whose number was limited. the victims were of two kinds. the f i r s t group included people who had champ- ioned the colonist cause during the tzarist regime, the se- cond and much smaller group were the people who were raised i n the bolshevik s p i r i t and had become the leaders of the group during the soviet regime. examples of the second group were prime minister welsch and president luft of the a.s.s.r. of the volga germans. both these men were responsible for previous purges but they were arrested in october, . from the above factors one can conclude that the germans did not occupy a favorable position i n russia at the eve of world war ii. close watch was held on them as the german army crossed the russian border. from that moment the germans i n russia were considered unreliables. kolarz, op_. c i t . , p. . ii. liquidation of the volga german republic the evacuation of the volga germans and with i t the liquidation of the a.s.s.r. of the volga germans, was caused by the pressure of the german army against moscow. another cause was the intention of making kuibyshev, north-east of the republic, the residence of the soviet government and the administration center of the volga-ural defense region. in order to carry out this project, safety measures had to be undertaken against the sympathizing volga germans. the de- cree of august th, , i n which the fate of the volga germans was sealed, accused the volga germans of sabotage and espionage. although the soviet government had dealt with them since on a purely class basis, no differentiations i n this respect were made i n the decree. neither were the members of the communist youth league nor the party members excluded from deportation. the s t a t i s t i c s below w i l l show proportionately the number of communist members as compared to the national composition of the a.s.s.r. i n .^ total . germans russians' others population , ..... , ...... , ..... , party members.. .... , .. the decree announcing the deportation of the entire volga german population reads as follows: edelman, maurice, how russia prepared. penguin books inc., new york, , pp. - . kohn, op_. c i t . , p. . according to reliable information received by military authorities, there are thousands and tens of thousands of diversionists and spies among the german population of the volga region who are prepared to cause ex- plosions i n these regions at a signal from germany. no germans ( l i v i n g in the volga d i s t r i c t s ) ever reported to soviet author- i t i e s the presence of such great numbers of diversionists and spies. therefore, the german population of the volga regions are covering up enemies of the soviet people and the soviet power. if diverslonlst acts were to take place under orders of germany by german diversionists and spies i n the volga german republic or neighboring regions and there were bloodshed, the soviet govern- ment, would be forced according to martial law to adopt measures of reprisal against v. the entire german population. in order to avoid such undesirable occurrences and to f o r e s t a l l serious bloodshed, the presidium of the supreme council of the ussr has found i t necessary to resettle the entire german population of the volga regions un- der the condition that the resettlers are allotted land and given state aid to settle in new regions. resettled germans w i l l be given land in the novo-slbirsk and omsk dis- t r i c t s , the altay region, the kazakstan re- public and neighboring l o c a l i t i e s r i c h in land. in connection with this, the national defense council is instructed to resettle as soon as possible a l l volga germans, \*ho w i l l be given land estates i n new regions. the decree was soon followed by i t s execution, for already at the end of august, : a mournful procession of refugees f i l l e d the roads leading to the railway stations of the middle volga, four hundred thousand of them carrying bedding, dragging domestic animals, the women weeping, a l l with the bitterness on their faces of those who have schechtman, op_. c i t . , p. , according to the "new york times", september th, . "been driven from their homes they were german refugees, the german settlers of the german autonomous volga republic, expelled by decree of the soviet government to s i - beria.° l i t t l e authentic information is available about the fate of the volga germans and that of the , siberian germans who had founded their s i s t e r colonies at the turn of the century. however the existence of a number of german collective farms bearing names as rosa luxemburg, progress and arbeiter were o f f i c i a l l y confirmed i n when over two doz- en german collective farmers and tractor drivers of the omsk province were awarded medals for excellent work by the supreme soviet. iii. black sea colonies under german occupation as the advancing german army approached the german settlements i n the ukraine, many of them were evacuated with the retreating red army. in places where time did not permit evacuations of the entire settlements only male persons were affected. in this manner close to , germans in the ukraine were evacuated by the soviet authority. the black sea germans which were not evacuated by the soviet authorities, remained l i v i n g i n german occupied edelman, op_. c i t . , p. . kolarz, op., c i t . , p. . ibid, p. . ukraine, crimea and north caucasus, where they enjoyed a p r i - vileged position under the german authorities.- this was con- trary to the indifferent attitude towards the colonists by the german occupational forces i n . during world war i i they showed great concern in the germans of ukraine as a re- sult of the national socialist policy. there remained about , persons of the roughly , people before the war. due to their privileged po- sition they were soon able to establish their private farms and businesses as contrasted to the russian population, who were not permitted to do so. constructions of every sort were undertaken and there was no thought of ever leaving their set- tlements. within a short period, with the help of the german authorities who were anxious to see a strong, healthy group of germans, they were well on their way to prosperity. the german group of , i n the romanian annexed transnistria, the area between the rivers dniester and bug, had grown especially prosperous. although the territory was annexed by romania, the germans were under the protection and administration of the german "volksdeutsche mittelstelle " , which had i t s seat i n landau the center of the german this was an organization which was concerned with germans abroad and founded for the purpose of carrying out national socialist policy which was "the unification of a l l germans". it thus supervised the repatriation of german groups such as the baltic and bessarablan germans, and the education of the newly gained germans i n the national socialist s p i r i t . colonies. the territory's revival was not limited only to the economic f i e l d , for education received similar attention. as many times before, german schools were founded i n the c o l - onies and a german highschool i n odessa. there were also two teachers* seminaries established, one i n prlshib, the other i n selz. in spite of the lack of priests, religion found a similar revival i n the colonies. it was of great importance and the main concern of the volksdeutsche mittelstelle, that the younger generation was trained i n the s p i r i t of national socialism. for this purpose, youth leaders from germany were sent to distant russia where they organized the german youth, p a r a l l e l to the organization of the hitler youth i n germany. several youth training camps were set up for the purpose of training lead- ers from amongst the colonists. as " f u l l " germans, they were also drafted into the german army. similar a c t i v i t i e s were carried on i n a l l german colonies, while occupied by the german forces. only the ger- man retreat of - terminated this revival. contrary, to expectation, the german authorities were faced with the sudden decision of repatriating the entire german population from their occupied t e r r i t o r i e s . as previously the baltic, the bessarabian and the bukovina germans were repatriated, now, the entire population was to be resettled to germany too. the settlement area selected for these repatriated germans were the most eastern provinces of germany. iv. repatriation from the german occupied territory prior to the mass repatriation of the black sea group in ^ , the german authorities had resettled some , germans, mainly city dwellers from the area of lenin- grad. in - a second group was resettled - that of , persons from the area of schitomir and , persons from the north caucasus. both groups were transferred to the gen- eral gouvernemente (german occupied territory) of poland and warthegau, the german annexed province from poland.^° the f i r s t mass transfer of the volksdeutsche from the ukraine started i n the f a l l of when the german army started i t s rapid retreat and simultaneously evacuated the german population. this retreat affected the germans, from the crimea, mariupol and melitopol, as well as urban dwellers from zaporozhe and nlkolaev. between the f a l l of and the spring of march, , , persons were on their march towards germany from this area. the second group of , , which went on their journey, were the germans from the area of dniepropetrovsk - from both sides of the river dnieper. the third group, largely rural dwellers comprising a total of , , l e f t wolhynla between october, , and a p r i l , of . . schechtman, op_. c i t . , pp. - , according to the "ost- deutscher beobachter", july rd, . ibid, pp. - , according to the "ostdeutscher beobach- ter". : the last and largest group was that of transnistria, amounting to a total of , persons, who l e f t their homes between march and a p r i l , . this transfer was the least organized one as the rapidly advancing russian forces caused chaos and panic among the concentrated masses at the crossing point on the dniester. in addition to this, the roads were blocked by the retreating romanian and german troops. many of them had covered as much as , miles with horse and wa- gon and after a period of twelve or more weeks they f i n a l l y reached their place of destination which was the warthegau. but hardly had they found accomodation i n the numer- ous transit camps, then they again had to move on westwards into germany. the red army stood at the gate of germany and the breakdown of germany was obvious. in this manner the great resettlement scheme of the third reich was a complete failure. the plan was to bring home a l l germans to germany, and especially to form a solid block of germans against the slavic peoples with the germans who had withstood assimila- tion i n previous times i n other countries. the refuge from the warthegau i n was an indiv- idual private task.• unorganized, every one fled on his own means and i n every direction into germany. as germans from abroad they were recognized by the authorities of hitler, but schechtman, op_, c i t . , pp. - . according to the "ost- deutscher beobacht e r*"," ju ly rd, . as germans who had been separated and isolated from germany for over one hundred years they were not f u l l y accepted with- i n germany by the average german. deeply disappointed about the "journey home to the reich", coupled with the desire for one's own home, caused some to contact the soviet repatriat- ing authorities which not seldom resulted i n a transfer back to the soviet union.^ their hope to return to their former homes was only a mere i l l u s i o n . contrary to the mennonite group who were well organ- ized and attended by unrra, later iro (international refugee organization), the remainder, including lutherans and catho- l i c s , were dispersed a l l over germany as farm helpers and i n other occupations awaiting contact with their relatives and friends across the atlantic. the period starting after world war ii u n t i l the present time, marked the third immigration period into canada by germans from russia. such contacts were made by russian-germans i n the french, american and english occupied zones. russian-germans had been repatriated from the russian occupied zone in ^ . part ii russian-germans in canada chapter v immigration into canada i. canadian immigration policy in brief according to the british north american act the laws affecting immigration came under the jurisdiction of the do- minion government. however under the same act, the l e g i s l a - ture of each province may pass laws which shall be in accord with any law of the dominion government. the basis for immigration and colonization of west- ern canada was the land act of which provided free grants of homesteads. this system, which was so effeotive i n the u.s.a., enabled the immigrant to purchase other do- minion lands i n addition to the free grants. due to poor transportation f a c i l i t i e s this policy did not live up to i t s expectations. the migration to the west consisted largely of canadians from eastern canada. angus, h. f., "canadian immigration: law and i t s admini- stration" , american journal of international law, the ameri- can society of international law, washington, , pro. - . england, robert, the colonization of western canada, p. s. king & son ltd., london, , p. jt. in , any railway company was able to obtain land north of the canadian pacific* railway if tracks were built and the area settled by them within a period of five years. but again, most of the companies failed to live up to their obligations and brought few or no settlers to the area. it was not u n t i l i that a new immigration policy directed the colonization of the west. it was in that year that the energetic clifford sifton became minister of the in- terior under s i r wilfrid laurier government. the previous policy of granting land as payment to railway companies for the construction of railway tracks, was abolished. in this way the government was again able to dispose over large.areas of land and grant settlers one quarter of a section as home- steads. the keyword of clifford sifton's colonization policy was "settle". the immigrant was to be kept in the area, his l i v i n g conditions were to be made tolerable, and he was to bv supplied with railway f a c i l i t i e s . ^ arrangements were made . with shipping companies, such as the north atlantic trading company, to bring i n european farmers. a net of recruiting agents was set up a l l over europe. many of them had to carry on their work secretly as european countries, especially russia, prohibited immigration of their subjects. in.this england, op. c i t . . pp.. - . .k dafoe, john w., clifford sifton i n relation to his time, the macmillan company canada limited, toronto, , pt>. - . manner the prairie population was increased to , , per sons i n the years to .^ the post-war immigration was undertaken on a l i m i t - ed scale as immigration fluctuated with the prosperity of canada. no.limitations were set i n regard to immigrants from perferable countries. some immigrants were allowed from non-preferable countries and such were the immigrants from russia. the task of bringing i n immigrants from non- preferable countries, such as.russia, was given to the r a i l - way companies. the lutheran immigration board and the catho l i e immigration aid society were religious organizations which worked in conjunction with the railway companies and helped to cover costs of transportation.^ with the coming of the depression in , a defin- ite change occurred i n the immigration policy of the domin- ion. an order-in-council dated march, , states: prom and after the th of march and u n t i l otherwise ordered, the landing i n canada of immigrants of a l l classes and oc- cupation i s hereby prohibited except as here- inafter provided: the immigration officer i n charge may permit to land in canada any immigrant who otherwise complies with previous of the im- migrant act, i f i t is shown to his satis- faction that such immigrant i s : . a b r i t i s h subject entering canada directly or indirectly from great britain england, op_. c i t . , pp. - . ibid, p. . or commonwealth countries, who has s u f f i - cient means to maintain himself u n t i l em- ployment is secured. . a united states citizen entering canada from the u.s. who has sufficient means to maintain himself u n t i l employ- ment is secured. . the wife or unmarried child under eighteen years of age of any person legal- l y admitted to and residing in canada, who i s in a position to receive and care for his dependent. . an agriculturalist having s u f f i - cient means to farm i n canada.? this policy had almost completely stopped immigration of central europeans during the years of depression. this im- migration which had been reduced to minor proportions r e v i t - alized after the second world war. the following steps have been taken by the canadian government in regard to immigra- tion policy since world war ii: a. the barriers against b r i t i s h sub- jects, and u.s. citizens had been re- duced to the bare minimum of good health and the absence of subversive p o l i t i c a l views. b. the l i s t of admissible relatives of legal residents of canada has been extended to include everyone closer than a cousin,.. ... it also includes persons engaged to marry the residents who make application for their admission. g. special provision has been made for the entrance of , persons who are not otherwise admissible from the displaced per- sons camps of europe. (each of these per- sons when established in canada may then ap- ply i n turn for the admission of his or her relatives. angus, op_. c i t . , pp. - . keenleyside, h. l., canadian immigration policy. univer- sity of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, , pp. - . it was the canadian government which took the i n i t - iative amongst overseas countries i n finding a solution to the war refugees in europe. u n t i l march, , canada has admitted more d.p.'s than a l l other non-european countries combined. great d i f f i c u l t i e s have been encountered i n carrying out this task especially i n regard to transporta- tion. for the most part of the "beaverbrae", a convert- ed german war vessel, was the only ship which brought refug- ees from germany to canada. later conditions were improved as three more iro ships were aiding transportation. other persons are admitted since an order—in-coun- c i l of june, , under the following terms: the person must satisfy the minister that he is a suitable immigrant and i s not undesirable owing to his peculiar customs, habits, etc. this act particularly opened the p o s s i b i l i t y of german c i t i - zens to immigrate to canada freely and has continued up to the present time. ii. immigration into canada - it was economical and p o l i t i c a l reasons which caused the emigration of colonists from russia between the years of and l . the economical cause was the shortage of land. the canada year book. dominion bureau of statistics, king' printer and controller of stationary, ottawa, , p. . friedemann, wolfgang g., german immigration into canada. the ryerson press, toronto, , p. . there was not sufficient land in the original colonies to support the large colonist families and although sister c o l - onies were formed there was an extensive number of landless towards the end of the nineteenth eentury. in there began a gradual abolishment of the colonists privileges which constituted the p o l i t i c a l cause for emigration. it was in this year that their self-government was discontinued and the colonies were incorporated into the general russian admini- strative system. the above action on the part of the russian govern- ment did not yet disturb the colonist. however the imperial ukas of july, , which proclaimed the coming military ser- vice to russian citizens, caused a general dissatisfaction amongst the colonists. this ukas especially affected the re- ligious reformed groups as military exemption was one of the basis of their creed. already in i i, the mennonites sent a delegation to petersburg to petition for exemption from military service. not awaiting a reply from the imperial government, they prepared for emigration.^ for the other religious groups, the ukas was also sufficient to consider emigration as the conditions in the russian army at the time were unendurable and the term of service lasted from ten to see section on economics, chapter ii, supra. see section on administration, chapter ii, supra. quiring, walter, russlanddeutsehe suchen elne hejlmat, verlag: helnrich schneider, karlsruhe, , pp. - . fifteen years. although the catholics and lutherans were not as organized as the mennonites, they were just as eager to leave russia. the mennonites had requested information about emi- gration to canada and from a l e t t e r dated by the b r i t i s h consul zohrab i n berdjansk to earl granville, british foreign secretary, we read the following regarding the colonists' re- action to the ukas: a period of ten years is granted by this ukas to the germans, dating from i t s issue, to elect whether they submit to i t s conditions or quit the country......that part which marks military service obliga- tory becomes law i n while the clause which makes the conscription compulsory on a l l classes w i l l come into force i n further i n the consul's l e t t e r we read: .....from what i have been able to learn, i doubt not the departure of the mennonites would rapidly be followed by that of ger- mans of other denominations who are now, i am informed, watching the course pursued by the mennonites with the object of following i t i f successful. ^ following the above reasons for emigration was the definite russification policy which has been described pre- viously i n part i. similar causes for emigration prevailed amongst the volga germans. in addition, the russification policy coincided with the years of drought in - on ik corell, ernst, "mennonlte immigration into manitoba", the mennonite quarterly review, vol. , goshen, indiana, july, , pp. - . the volga, which resulted in a mass migration overseas.^ the causes for emigration of the russian-german lu- therans and catholics before world war i, can be summarized as follows: . land shortage amongst the volga and black sea germans. . the ukas of which stipulated military ser- vice for the germans. . the russification of schools and the abolishment of self-government. k» the fear of war after the russo-japanese war of . . the letters from colonists in america which praised the country. . the propaganda of the u.s.a. and canadian immi- gration agents. . the granting of free homesteads by the u.s.a. and canada which was satisfying to the colonists' urge for land. . the definite preparation for emigration by the mennonites had its effect on a l l other religious groups. * » « • * an exact summary of emigration from russia to the americas as to their numbers as well as origin i s practical- l y impossible to compile at the present time. in most cases the early settlers did not keep any records nor were r a c i a l origin and nationality kept distinct at the ports of entry. bonwetsch, op_. c i t . , p. . i t i s c e r t a i n h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e g r e a t b u l k o f e m i g r a n t s f r o m r u s s i a w e r e d i r e c t e d t o n o r t h a m e r i c a . ^ a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c l i m a t i c a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c a n a d i a n p r a i r i e s w e r e n o t a p p e a l i n g t o t h e a v e r a g e w e s t e r n e u r o p e a n . b u t t h e s e v e r y s a m e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e o f g r e a t a p p e a l t o t h e g e r m a n f r o m r u s s i a , w h o w a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l a n d - h u n g r y c o l o n i z e r . h e w a s a c c u s t o m e d t o a h a r d l i f e a n d p o s s e s s e d l i t t l e c u l t u r - a l d e m a n d s . t h e f i r s t g e r m a n s f r o m r u s s i a t o i m m i g r a t e a n d s e t - t l e i n c a n a d a , w e r e t h e m e n n o n i t e s . t h e y f o u n d e d a c l o s e d s e t t l e m e n t i n m a n i t o b a b e t w e e n t h e y e a r s t o w i t h a t o t a l o f c l o s e t o , m e m b e r s . a l t h o u g h i m m i g r a t i o n o f c a t h o l i c s a n d l u t h e r a n s i n t o t h e u . s . p r a i r i e s h a d a l r e a d y t h e t a b l e b e l o w c o m p i l e d b y w a g n e r , g e o r g , a n d m a i , r i c h a r d , d e u t s c h e u e b e r l a n d u n d m e e r . v e r l a g d e r b u c h g e - m e l n d e , b o n n , , p . , s h o w s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g e r m a n s f r o m r u s s i a i n o v e r s e a s c o u n t r i e s , a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t i s t i c s o f : c a n a d a , u . s . a , m e x i c o . . , b r a z i l , p a r a g u a y . . , u r u g u a y ..... , a r g e n t i n a ... , t o t a l . . . . . l e i b b r a n d t , g e o r g , " t h e e m i g r a t i o n o f t h e g e r m a n m e n n o - n i t e s f r o m r u s s i a t o u . s . a . a n d c a n a d a , - " , t h e m e n n o n l t e q u a r t e r l y r e v i e w , v o l . , g o s h e n , i n d i a n a , , o p . - . started i n ,^ it was the mennonite group which had suc- cessfully established itself and thus proved the good farm p o s s i b i l i t i e s of the canadian prairies. it i s then due to their economic success that directed the immigration of other religious denominations to the canadian prairies, especially saskatchewan. an immigration agency already existed in odessa on the black sea before which provided prospective immi- grants with assistance and information regarding immigration. the agency mistier of bremen had a representative i n odessa who provided tickets from odessa to winnipeg at the cost of one hundred and nine r u b l e s . t h e immigrants journey to canada was mainly through hamburg, antwerp and bremen. the emigration of the catholics and lutherans was never really a mass migration as i t was with the mennonites who arrived in canada by the hundreds. the lutheran and catholic emigration took place rather i n small groups of five to ten families and whose f i n a l destination was the canadian prairies as i t was for many others. saskatchewan became the sallet, richard, "russlanddeutsche siedlungen i n den vereinigten staaten von amerika", jahrbuch der deutsch amerl- kanlsohen hl torlschen gesellschaft von i l l i n o i s . vol. , chicago, , pp. - , gives an intensive presentation of the lutheran and catholic immigration into the u.s.a. metzger, h . , qeschichtllcher abrlss ueber die st. peters- pfarrel zu kronau. the western printers association ltd., reglna, saskatchewan, , p. . center of their settlements. although the immigration and with i t the foundation of settlements was most active i n the f i r s t decade of the twentieth century, nevertheless there were many settlements founded prior to clifford siftori's immigration policy which started i n . according to abele, the f i r s t german cath- olics from russia arrived in and settled near regina. the date , however, seems to be i n contrast to the chron- ological development of the emigration of the germans from russia. german catholics from the south of russia'are trace- able i n saskatchewan since the 's. they had founded the colonies of josephstal - , st. peter - (near bal- g o n l ) , new kronau (kronau) - , davln - , and vibank - , a l l south of regina. at .the same time many settled i n the at that time s t i l l small town of regina. in spite of hardship, as w i l l be discussed later, the influx into these the term "settlement" or "colony" i n part ii, does not indicate a closed settlement, but rather a certain farm d i s t r i c t . the name of the post office, railway station, or town which was founded later, was applied to the entire d i s - t r i c t . abele, paul, festschrift zur .jaehrlgen jubllaemsfeier der gruendung der st. pauls-kirohengemelnde in vibank. sask.". . june. . the western printers association ltd., regina, , p. . metzer, ojo. c i t . . p. . abele, op_. c i t . , p. . c o l o n i e s c o n t i n u e d . i t w i l l a l s o b e s e e n t h a t n u m e r o u s o t h e r c o l o n i e s w e r e f o u n d e d b y t h e g e r m a n c a t h o l i c s f r o m r u s s i a . a s u r v e y i n r e g a r d , t o o r i g i n s h o w s t h a t t h e y a l l c o m e f r o m t h e g e r m a n c o l o n i e s n e a r o d e s s a o n t h e b l a c k s e a . t h e c a t h o l i c s f r o m b e s s a r a b i a a n d t h e c r i m e a a r e l e s s r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e y w e r e a l r e a d y s m a l l e r i n n u m b e r s t h a n t h e c a t h o l i c s o n t h e b l a o k s e a . t h e f i r s t g r o u p o f l u t h e r a n s f r o m t h e b l a c k s e a s e t - t l e d i n s a s k a t c h e w a n i n i n b e r e s l n a a n d h o f f n u n g s t a l n e a r l a n g e n b u r g . t h e y w e r e f r o m b e s s a r a b i a . a n o t h e r g r o u p o f l u t h e r a n s f r o m r u s s i a s e t t l e d i n a l b e r t a i n i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f h e l m t h a l i n t h e r a b b i t h i l l s n e a r t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n n i s k u . t h e r e w a s a l s o a s e t t l e m e n t f o u n d e d w e s t o f w e t a s k i w i h . i n . h s i n c e t h e r e w a s a t e n d e n c y t o s e t t l e w i t h p e o p l e o f t h e s a m e f a i t h , w e f i n d t h e l u t h e r a n s f r o m r u s s i a s e t t l e d w i t h o t h e r l u t h e r a n s f r o m p o l a n d a n d b u k o v l n a . e x a m p l e s o f t h e f o r e g o i n g a r e l a n g e n b u r g a n d e d e n w o l d i n s a s k a t c h e w a n . i n a d d i t i o n t o n u m e r o u s s e t t l e m e n t s , l u t h e r a n s h a v e e x t e n - s i v e l y s e t t l e d i n t h e w e s t c a n a d i a n c i t i e s . s t a r t i n g w i t h , a s t r o n g e m i g r a t i o n w a s n o t i c e - a b l e i n w o l h y n l a . t h e s e c o l o n i s t s a r r i v e d a n d s e t t l e d p r e - d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e u . s . s t a t e s o f m i c h i g a n , w i s c o n s i n a n d s e e t a b l e i v nebraska. ^ since they also emigrated to canada into the province of alberta. the f i r s t community founded by them was i n wetaskiwln. leduc was founded i n by wolhynian baptists. ltitherort, bashaw and e hers l i e were founded by wolhynlans i n the 's. the colonies of bruderheim, new sarepta and bruderfeld were founded by wolhynian hutterites. wolhynian germans are also traceable i n saskatchewan since - namely i n regina, rostern, yorkton. yellow grass was founded by them in . they have further exten- sively settled i n kipling, lemberg, lipton and mossbank. since wolhynlans began to settle i n the neighborhood of the mennonlte settlements i n manitoba - i n gretna, morris, brown, morden, friedensfeld near steinbach. they have fur- ther settled east of winnipeg where they have founded gruen- wald and thalberg. the volga german immigrants were fewer i n number than that of german immigrants from other areas of russia. their emigration was directed mainly to the u.s. where they settled i n the states of nebraska, kansas, colorado and i l l - i n o i s . nevertheless they also found their way to canada. as many of their kinsmen i n the u.s., they too had a tendency sallet, op_. c i t . , p. . lehmann, heinz, das deutschtum i n westkanada. verlag junker und duenhaupt, berlin, , p. . sallet, op. c i t . , p. . ? t o s e t t l e i n c i t i e s . i n s u c h a m a n n e r t h e f i r s t v o l g a c o l - o n y w a s f o u n d e d i n o n t h e r i v e r s i d e i n c a l g a r y . l a t e r a r r i v a l s s e t t l e d i n t r o c h u , b e l s e k e r , a n d d u f f i e l d i n a l b e r t a ; n e a r g r u e n w a l d i n m a n i t o b a ; a n d l a t e r i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i n s t . j o s e p h ' s c o l o n y a n d i n t h e d r y b e l t o f s a s k a t c h e w a n . t h e y c a m e p r e d o m i n a n t l y f r o m t h e c o l - o n i e s o f n o r k a , j a g o d n a j a , p o l j a n a , k o l b , p r e u s s , b r a b a n d e r , s c h i l l i n g a n d a l e x a n d e r d o r f o n t h e v o l g a . p r i o r t o c l i f f o r d s l f t o n ' s i m m i g r a t i o n p o l i c y c o m i n g i n t o e f f e c t , m r . e u g o c a r s t e n s i n h l a a n n u a l r e p o r t o n i m m i - g r a t i o n a n d c o l o n i z a t i o n f o r t h e y e a r , s t a t e s t h e f o l l o w - i n g r e g a r d i n g t h e i m m i g r a t i o n o f g e r m a n s f r o m r u s s i a : i m m i g r a t i o n o f g e r m a n s f r o m r u s s i a h a s f a l l e n o f f d u r i n g t h e p a s t s e a s o n , w h i c h i t h i n k m a y p a r t l y b e d u e t o c a u s e s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e p a r t i a l f a i l u r e o f c r o p s l a s t y e a r i n t h e n e w s e t t l e m e n t s i n a l b e r t a , b u t m a i n - l y f r o m r u s s i a h e r s e l f h a v i n g o p e n e d n e w l a r g e t e r r i t o r i e s f o r s e t t l e m e n t , t o w h i c h s h e i s a n x i o u s t o d i r e c t h e r e m i g r a t i o n a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t r e l a x i n g o f s o m e o f t h e o p - p r e s s i v e l a w s w h i c h i n t h e p a s t c h i e f l y i n - d u c e d t h e g e r m a n c o l o n i s t s t o l e a v e r u s s i a . s h o u l d s h e c o n t i n u e t o i m p r o v e h e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s h e r g e r m a n c o l o n i s t s w e m a y n o t l o o k f o r a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n i m m i - g r a t i o n f r o m r u s s i a , a l t h o u g h t h i s y e a r ' s f a v o u r a b l e c r o p t h r o u g h o u t t h e g e r m a n s e t - t l e m e n t s w i l l n o d o u b t b e t h e m e a n s o f b r i n g i n g t o u s t h e f r i e n d s o f o u r g o o d a n d n u m e r o u s r u s s i a n - g e r m a n s e t t l e r s , w h o h a v e i n t h e p a s t y e a r b e e n h e l d b a c k b y l e h m a n n , o p _ . c i t . , p . . table iv colonies founded by buss i an-germans by compiled from the "summary statement" in the annual report of the department of the interior for the year '. no. . printed by s. e. dawson, printer to the queen's most excel- lent majesty, ottawa, , pp» - . name of colony name of nearest number of railway station settlers landshut langenburg, sask. . beresina langenburg, sask hoff enthal. .langenburg, sask.. . new kronau . balgonl, sask. . davin balgonl, sask st. peter and st. joseph,balgonl, sask yellow grass .yellow grass, sask. leduc leduc, alberta. wetaekivin, red deer lake, bears h i l l , , etc wetaskiwin, alberta..... . . , rabltt h i l l s . edmonton, alberta. . unfavourable reports. # * # # • in the f i r s t decade of the th century, when clifford sifton's policy had become a realization, the a r r i - val of germans from russia was at i t s peak. among the new comers this time, there were also germans from the caucasus, crimea and siberia. numerous new colonies were founded by them and many settled i n the established colonies. however, immigration was and remained an individual task. they a r r i - ved i n small groups of a few families and often individuals who had escaped military service.^ since most of the immi- grants were not prosperous, their travelling expenses were subsidized by relatives or friends who had been successful i n canada. the canadian authorities also allowed them credit for travelling expenses as they allowed them similar credit to obtain farm equipment. to complete the immigration picture before world war i, we have to mention the extensive influx from the u.s.a. although immigration from the u.s. had taken place before annual report of the department of the interior for the year ot no. .""printed by s. e. dawson, printer to the queen's most excellent majesty, ottawa, , p. . pdchard sallet reports that this practice was assumed to such an extent that the colony of kassel i n the black sea area which had a population of , was unable to present men for draft i n . this phenomenon was more acute during the russo-japanese war i n - . , i t led a l l other countries i n immigration to canada between the years of and with a total of , . immigrants. the national composition of these immigrants, i n addition to english-speaking, was germans, scandinavians, and others of non-english speaking races. the attraction of these settlers was again^the cheap land which was no longer available i n the u.s. each person was allowed to take up a homestead i n western canada at a cost of ten dollars and a so-called "pre-emption claim" for three dollars an acre . a large number of these immigrants were germans from russia who had previously settled in south and north dakota, montana and other states. among them were also some immigrants of the second generation. they were a great asset to canada as they brought tfith them experience and training i n agricultural pur- suits i n north america. many of them disposed over land or other property before emigrating to canada. sallet records an individual case where a black sea german sold his land at mcclusky, north dakota, which amounted to , acres and moved to morse, saskatchewan with a steam plough. there he bought new cheaper land. the immigrants from the u.s. had an average of $ , per person. dillingham, w. p., the immigration situation i n canada. the immigration commission (u.s.a.), washington government printing office, washington, , p. . sallet, op_. c i t . , p. . dillingham, op. c i t . , p. . sallet, op_. c i t . , p. . the colonies given below were either founded or pre- dominantly settled by lutherans or catholics from russia in the f i r s t decade of the th century. in saskatchewan the settlement of the st. peter's colony east of saskatoon had started i n and st. joseph's colony west of saskatoon in - . amongst them were the russian-german catholics who had previously settled in the u.s. we find them partic- ularly i n the latter colony. extensive advertising in russia resulted i n : a large influx of russian-germans during - into the tramping lake - macklin, eastern part of the st. joseph's colony. further settle- ments were founded by german catholics in saskatchewan at odessa - - , allan - , holdfast - , and selz - . these settlers came exclusively from the black sea. kendal was founded i n by catholics who were mostly from the u.s. settlers from the azov sea area founded the catholic colony of claybank i n . ? bllllmun was founded between and by black sea germans. lutherans from bessarabia settled i n melville, kip- l i n g and zorra i n . since they also settled i n the dawson, c. h., group settlement. macmillan company of canada, toronto, , pp. - . gerein, frank, history of odessa. - . western printers association ltd., regina, saskatchewan, , p. . -lehmann, op_; c i t . , p. . i l l dry belt of south saskatchewan in st. bonnells, mceachern, eatonla, and bateman. wolhynla germans settled in morse, saskatchewan. among the settlers in alberta who had founded the catholic colony near spring lake i n , were many black sea germans who had emigrated from the dakotas and minnesota. freudental near carbon i n alberta was founded i n by lu- therans from the u.s., but who had formerly come from the black sea. the settlement is named after their colony near odessa. in manitoba further german farm d i s t r i c t s were founded near moosehorn, camper, grahamdale and friedfeld be- fore . immigration continued u n t i l world war i but very few new colonies were founded i n the last three years before the war. to alleviate the colonists beginning i n their newly adopted country, the railway companies and the religious or- ganizations, such as the "catholic settlement society", d i r - ected them to the established colonies. further assistance by the immigration department in cooperation with the various churches was offered to the immigrants and can be seen from the following quotation: the canadian steamship manifest con- . tains among other inquiries a question re- lative to the religion of the immigrant... sallet, oj>. c i t . , p. . lehmann, op_. c i t . . p. . ko dawson, op., c i t . , p. . ...the information, i t is stated, is gath- ered not "because the government lays any stress upon religious belief or makes i t i n any sense a test of the admissibility of the immigrant, but largely i n order to assist the churches i n work among those newly ar- rived. a l i s t of arriving immigrants, class- i f i e d by their religious belief, and their destinations, is furnished to the head of any religious denomination requesting the same. such church o f f i c i a l s are enabled i n this way to notify church authorities i n different l o c a l i t i e s of the a r r i v a l of such immigrants, and i t is said that much good results, not merely i n putting the new im- migrants into better social surroundings, but also i n the way of helping them to se- cure work.^- the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n compiling the exact number of catholic and lutheran immigrants before world war i have a l - ready been partly mentioned. although the canadian census does not exactly present the number of immigrants, with which i am concerned, nevertheless the s t a t i s t i c s below w i l l reveal an overall picture of the same. number of total germans in western canada * . , . , • , -• . , dillingham, op. c i t . . p. . census of canada. . vol. i, population. printer to the king's most excellent majesty, ottawa, , table . provinces manitoba saskatchewan.... alberta. b r i t i s h columbia total... in reality the total number of germans must have been higher as many germans from eastern europe (especially germans from russia) have definitely confused r a c i a l origin and national- i t y and have stated their nationality father than,racial or- i g i n in the census. heinz lehmann, who made the f i r s t survey of a l l germans in canada, claimed that of the total germans in western canada before world war i the german from russia comprised the greatest proportion. on the basis of available material i n regard to the origin of the german pre-war immi- grants, he arrived at the composition as stated below. origin of germans in western canada^ germans from russia ........ ,** # germans from romania % germans from austro-eungary ... ..... # . germans from germany ...... ., % germans from the u.s.a.. .. # germans from ontario, and other countries . # the preceding presentation of colonies and their statistics is by no means complete, neither are the settle- ments exclusively founded by the people mentioned. presented are rather the colonies predominantly founded by.either the one or the other group, such as by catholics from the black sea or by wolhynla germans who are of lutheran f a i t h . the d i f f i c u l t y i n tracing the settlers origin as well as the k lehmann, op_. c i t . , p. . definite group who had founded the colony, is created by the fact that a colony was usually settled by people of the same f a i t h but who had come from different countries. in this manner we have the colony of vibank, saskatchewan, which was f i r s t settled by black sea germans. however i n the same year catholics from banat, romania also settled there. exactly the same phenomenon occurred with the lutheran settlers - such as i n the colony of edenwold we find germans from buko- vlna, dobrudsha, south russia and many other places. in spite of the various origins of the settlers, their common langu- age, f a i t h and equal cultural niveau was sufficient to shape a unified community. iii. second immigration - the outbreak of world war i ceased the immigration of russian-germans into canada. an exception were , hut- terites who immigrated from the u.s. during the war. not be- lieving i n supporting a war, they conflicted with the u.s. authorities, which resulted i n their emigration.^ the conditions amongst the colonists i n russia f o l - lowing world war i and the revolution have already been the hutterites, as the mennonites, have founds their o r i - gin i n the anabaptist movement of the th century. they are named after the founder of the sect, jacob huter, who was burned at the stake i n i n insbruck. persecuted, they emigrated to bohemia and later into russia. as military ser- vice became obligatory i n russia, they emigrated to the u.s. i n & . they d i f f e r from the mennonites only i n their com- munal possessions. d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r i i i . t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c a l r e a - s o n s t h a t l e d t o t h e i r e m i g r a t i o n b e f o r e t h e w a r , w e r e n o w e v e n m o r e f o r c e f u l . t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i e s d u r i n g t h e c i v i l w a r , w h i c h l e d t o t h e g r e a t f a m i n e o f , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e n e w r e g i m e i n c i t e d e v e r y o n e t o e m i g r a t i o n . l a t e r i n t h e *s t h i s u r g e w a s s t r e n g t h e n e d b y i n c r e a s e d t a x e s a s w e l l a s t h e p r a c t i c a l e x e c u t i o n o f t h e c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n p o l i c y i n t h e u . s . s . r . a s i n p r e v i o u s t i m e s t h e m e n n o n i t e s w e r e a g a i n t h e o n l y e f f i c i e n t g r o u p t o u n d e r t a k e a n o r g a n i z e d e m i g r a t i o n . t h e y h a d a l r e a d y s e n t a d e l e g a t i o n t o c a n a d a i n i n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e i m m i g r a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s . ^ t h e c a t h o l i c s a n d l u t h e r a n s w e r e d i s o r g a n i z e d a n d l a c k e d l e a d e r s h i p a t t h e v e r y m o m e n t w h e n m a t t e r s o f i m m i g r a t i o n b e c a m e m o s t c o m p l i - c a t e d i n r u s s i a . t h e i m m i g r a t i o n i n t o c a n a d a w a s f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d a s c a n a d i a n i m m i g r a t i o n a d j u s t e d i t s e l f t o t h e e c o n o m i c c y c l e . i n a d d i t i o n r u s s i a w a s o n e of t h e " n o n - p r e - f e r r e d " c o u n t r i e s f r o m w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f i m m i g r a n t s w a s t o b e l i m i t e d . i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t a n e x t e n s i v e n u m b e r o f f a r m e r s i n s a s k a t c h e w a n w e r e o f g e r m a n d e s c e n t , c o m i n g f r o m r u s s i a , p o l a n d , r o m a n i a , g e r m a n y p r o p e r , e t c . , t h e g e r m a n c a n a d i a n s o c i e t y o f s a s k a t c h e w a n a s k e d i n a m e m o r a n d u m t o h a v e p r e f e r e n c e g i v e n t o g e r m a n i m m i g r a n t s , i r r e g a r d l e s s o f l e h m a n n , o p _ . c i t . , p . . origin. this petition was to he applicable to immigrants who otherwise f u l f i l l e d the immigration requirements. the memor- andum was .supported by a l l german organizations and as such was presented for consideration to the royal commission of colonization and settlement i n saskatchewan. it i s not known to what extent this exceptional document influenced further immigration of germans from eastern europe. however, the canadian government came: to an agreement with the cana- dian national and canadian pacific railways to bring i n a num- ber of agriculturalists from russia. strict medical as well as c i v i l inspection was to be carried out. no financial as- sistance was offered to this movement by the canadian govern- ment. the required valid passport by the canadian govern- ment, created further d i f f i c u l t i e s for the russian-germans. on and after the th february, , it shall be necessary as a condition to per- mission to land in canada, that every im- migrant shall be i n possession of a valid passport issued in and by the government of the country of which such person i s a subjeot or citizen, such passport to be presented within one year of the date of i t s issue. meanwhile the urge to emigrate amongst the colonists, had "auslanddeutschtum", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsches ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . england, op_. c i t . . pp. - . england, robert, the central european immigrant i n cana- da. the macmillan company of canada ltd., toronto, , v. p. . grown stronger for the new economic policy period was over and they faced collectivization at the end of the *s.^ the u.s.s.r., however, was not too eager to lose its subjects. to curtail this sudden urge to leave the country, the russian government demanded a fee of rubles from every adult per- son that received a passport.^ in the hope to achieve a solution to their problem, there began an instinctive movement without leadership to moscow. they were represented from a l l parts of russia. the main movement reached catastrophic measures by september of , for nearly thirteen thousand colonists had gathered i n moscow.^ they were weeks and months awaiting their emigra- tion documents. a direct immigration from moscow to canada was not permitted by canadian authorities i n spite of the ur- gent request of the religious organizations. a long negoti- ation between german and u.s.s.r. authorities resulted f i n a l - l y i n the immigration of , persons to germany. settlement i n over populated germany was excluded right from the start. the accommodation offered i n the three camps of prenzlau, quiring, op., c i t . . p. . schoeneich, hans. die lhr helmatland verilessen. verlag von phllipp reclam jun., leipzig, , p. . no o f f i c i a l number of the assembled colonists i n moscow was ever published. schoeneich, op. c i t . . p. , speaks of , , quiring, op., c i t . , p. , of , , and per aus- landdeutsche. of , . quiring, op. c i t . , p. . hammerstein and moelln was to be temporary u n t i l immigration to an overseas country was secured. the religious composition of persons i n these camps was » mennonites, , luther- ans, catholics, and advent lets. -* the expenses of the refugees were partly carried by the german government and the organization "brueder in not" (brothers i n need). this organization was initiated by president von hindenburg, for the purpose of defraying the ex- penses for the refugees. more than , marks were c o l l - ected. a considerable amount was repaid by the german r e l i g - ious organizations i n north america.^ when f i n a l l y i n emigration from russia became an impossibility, the colonists turned to other methods of escaping from russia. as early as , individuals crossed the border into manchuria. but when i n collectivization was also obvious in siberia, the number of refugees increas- ed. walter quiring speaks of a dramatic escape of a whole village across the amur river into manchuria. by night the entire settlement of schumanovka near the amur crossed the "russlanddeutsche bauern auf der wanderung", der ausland- deutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . "russlanddeutsche bauern auf der wanderung", der ausland- deutsche, jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . it shall be remembered that several german colonies were founded near the amur and ussurl rivers. frozen river. safely with f l f t y - s l x f u l l y packed sledges, they arrived in manchuria. similar escapes were also record- ed from turkestan into china. in such a manner , refu- gees had gathered i n harbin, manchuria, by the f a l l of . amongst these refugees were mennonites, lutherans, catholics, baptists and others.^ with a few exceptions these refugees emigrated via marseille to south america, as did the lutheran group, or ar- rived i n germany. by the f a l l of , a total of , russian-german refugees had assembled i n germany. according to religious denomination, these were - , mennonites, , lutherans, catholics, baptists, and advent- i s t s . since the majority of the refugees were of the men- nonlte f a i t h , bishop david toews of rosthern, saskatchewan, became the spokesman of a l l the refugees. however due to the r i s i n g unemployment i n , premier andersen of saskatchew- an as well as the premier of alberta declined immigration of the entire group. an agreement was reached whereby only re- latives of well established citizens were to be permitted en- trance into canada. ? as a result, , immigrated to bra- z i l , , to paraguay, and , to canada. prom among the quiring, op_. c i t . . pp. - . "russlanddeutsche bauern auf der wanderung", per ausland- deutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , pp. - . , ^ there were only about lutherans and catholics. a further group of who did not satisfy the medical o f f i c - ers, remained in germany and were settled in the province of mecklenburg. included i n the total of the russian-german immi- grants into canada between the world wars were over , mennonites.- the number of catholics and lutherans had con- siderably decreased i n comparison to their pre-war immigra- tion. in spite of the interest and effort by the lutheran and catholic immigration societies, who have done good work i n linking up the new comers with communities of the same faith, they were unable to bring into canada more than , catholics and lutherans. ° outstanding i n devoting their ef- forts to the catholic and lutheran immigration, were father c. a. kierdorf, . m. i.., who travelled to europe twice for this purpose,** and director harms of the lutheran college i n saskatoon. alone their effort was not sufficient, for a un- i f i e d organization amongst the catholics and lutherans i n russia was missing and on the whole, however, they did not quiring, op_. c i t . , p. . "wanderungswesen", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. / , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , p. . lehmann, op., c i t . , p. . "rundschau", per auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , pp. - . u t i l i z e the emigration opportunities before the u.s.s.r. re- stricted i t to n i l . most of them deceived themselves when the new economic policy (nep) was introduced i n i n re- gard to the free enterprise that was allowed. later when they realized that this was only for a transitlonary period, i t was too late. the russian restrictions of emigration co- incided with the coming of the depression i n canada when im- migration was reduced to an insignificant number. table v presents the increase and decline of immi- gration from russia. it w i l l be noted that u n t i l the canadian statistics did not make any distinction between ra- c i a l origin and country of birth. the s t a t i s t i c s of germans of r a c i a l origin would have no relation to the proper number of russian-germans since that would include germans from eastern europe and germany proper, therefore they are not pre- sented. the figures given are the total number of immigrants born i n russia, which definitely includes the germans. from these subtract the figures of the russians by r a c i a l origin, which then would leave the estimated number of immigrants of german origin. however, we must again include germans i n the figure given for russian nationality and r a c i a l origin as the germans have confused their r a c i a l origin with their national- i t y . this figure is the closest estimation which can be made from o f f i c i a l s t a t i s t i c s available. new colonies were not founded by russian-germans be- tween the wars as some of the immigrants were directed to the table v immigration from russia for the years - this table has been compiled according to canadian census figures for the years of to from the canada year books, dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , king's printer and controller of stationary, ottawa, of the following years: - p. , - p. , - pp. - , - - pp. - , and - p. . immigrant arrivals immigrant arrivals of year born in russia russian racial origin . , * . . . . . , , . . , . . , , - , . , • . , . , . , established communities. only a limited number found their way to the newly opened territory of the peace river. a l - though the majority of the new comers were farmers, only a few of them became rural dwellers for i t was b r i t i s h subjects and those who had resided i n canada for five years, who were allowed to buy government lands.^ this resulted i n an ex- tensive settlement of the new comers in the c i t i e s where they became engaged i n seasonal work. iv third immigration into canada - after world war ii the third and perhaps the last immigration period of russian-germans into canada started in and has continued u n t i l the present time.. it had been mentioned already that their refuge from the warthegau during the winter of - to western germany was an individual private task. unorgan- ized, they arrived i n western germany from where their fore- fathers had emigrated to russia one hundred and f i f t y years ago. their arrival marked the end of the history of the russian-germans for they no longer form a unified group or community. dispersed, without contact with each other, they were to be found i n every corner of germany. the position of the russian-germans i n post-war ger- many can only be understood i n conjunction with the general refugee situation. the staggering number and the sudden "wanderungswesen", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , p. . influx of uprooted refugees from the eastern provinces of germany had an unsettling effect on the natives of western germany. the lack of accommodation for a l l of them constit- uted the most pressing and at the same time the most complex problem of post-war germany. the natives looked upon the im- poverished refugees as undesirable intruders, especially upon those who came from outside of germany. coupled with the at- titude of the natives was the mass unemployment, which was at its height, and made an indefinite stay i n germany for them unendurable. a return to russia, where they expected to be branded as traitors, was excluded. nevertheless the deep d i s - appointment i n germany, the uncertain future, caused some to contact the russian repatriation commission in western ger- many, which functioned u n t i l ^ . their desire to return to their former homes, which they expected, only remained a hope. repatriation i n occupied russian territory of russian-germans, who were de jure s t i l l u.s.s.r. citizens, was unquestionably carried out to the f u l l e s t extent. as the volga germans, they too were transported to siberia and central asia. being accustomed to deprivation, the remainder of the russian-germans did overcome the depressing f i r s t two years of post-war germany easier than those refugees of east- ern germany, who were used to a secure and well established existence. many were employed as farm helpers and in other employment, awaiting anxiously the contact with their r e l a - tives in america. and relatives they all,had, for at some k time or another a relative had immigrated to an overseas country. it was again the economic insecurity arid the desire for one's home that caused the universal urge to immigrate to america. an o f f i c i a l statement of the numbers of russian-ger- mans in western germany was never issued by the german auth- o r i t i e s . nor was there an organization of russian-germans that kept close s t a t i s t i c s of their numbers. there remains to mention, however, the aiding offices which were founded for the purpose of distribution of carritas gifts donated by their kinsmen abroad. of the , russian-germans repat- riated, an estimated number of , resided i n west ger- many before immigration started to canada. by most of them had established contact with their relatives i n america and had already improved their ma- t e r i a l position as they received generous gifts from abroad. an immediate emigration to overseas countries was however not yet possible. being refugees of german descent, they did not f a l l under the status of displaced persons and were thus ex- cluded from any material assistance by the united nations re- l i e f and rehabllation administration (unrra). at the foundation of the unrra, the function of which is mere material assistance to refugees, a difference of opinion occurred as to what countries and people assist- ance should be given. the viewpoint of the u.s.a. was that any assistance should he denied to people who were members of the german nation as far as they were not victims of the na- tionalist socialist regime. this decision was of importance as the succeeding organization of the international refugee organization (iro) pursued then the same policy. according to the statute of the iro, i t i n the main distinguished two groups of refugees - a) those refugees whose nations were members of the united nations and b) those refugees who were of german r a c i a l origin, who were usually members of german minority groups from eastern european countries. the l a t t e r group did not f a l l under the jurisdiction of the iro.^ it shall be noted that i n addition to material assistance the iro offered protective service as well as assistance for im- migration to overseas countries. since however, the majority of the german refugees had relatives i n canada who were most willing to defray the immigration expenses, the canadian christian council for re- settlement of refugees was founded i n - . the organiza- tion's task was to aid i n locating and processing overseas, approved immigrants who were refugees i n occupied territories of austria and germany, but who did not come within the man- date of the iro. the group concerned with, as said, were a l l german refugees from eastern european countries, who because of events could not return to their former countries. canada institut fuer besatzungsfragen, das dp - problem. verlag j. c. b. mohr (paul siebeck), tueblngen, , p. . was thus not only the f i r s t country to grant admittance to displaced persons but also the f i r s t country to bring i n ger- man refugees. the cccrr was a voluntary organization and consisted of the following membersj the catholic immigration aid society, the canadian mennonite board of colonization, the german baptist colonization and immigration society, the canadian lutheran relief, the suedeten committee, and the latvian relief fund of canada. the work of the council was handled i n exactly the same manner as for approved immigrants coming within the man- date of the irq. for this purpose a screening camp was est- ablished i n hanover. the screening in this camp was r e s t r i c - ted to german nationals. the prospective immigrant not only had. to satisfy the usual immigrant requirements but i n addi- tion had to have close relatives i n canada who were able to secure accommodation and employment for at least one year. further, the immigrant had to be an agriculturalist. thus only rural dwellers i n canada were enabled to bring their re- latives to canada. later i n an order—ln-councll was passed (as already indicated), which enabled others who had no relatives i n canada to immigrate to this country. there i s , however, a group of russian-germans i n germany who are either people in good position or unfit for immigration for reasons of health and age. the canada year book. , op_. c i t . . p. . according to the canadian census of , canada granted admission to , displaced persons between a p r i l , ^ , and march, . this number included , immi- grants who had close relatives l i v i n g i n canada and , immigrants were admitted under the general displaced person movement. the german immigrants were also included i n the canadian statistics as displaced persons. among them were , of german r a c i a l o r i g i n . ^ the number, however, seems to be too low for we receive a different composition accord- ing to table vi when attempting to compile the number of russlan-german immigrants. it must be kept i n mind when c a l - culating, that the confusion of r a c i a l origin and nationality was s t i l l apparent amongst the russian-germans. we thus have i n table vi a total of , immigrants born i n russia as compared to , immigrants of russian ra- c i a l origin. in the" total of r a c i a l origin we can with cer- tainty assume that there are a substantial number of germans included. to derive at an approximate number of russian-ger- man immigrants, we subtract the t o t a l of r a c i a l origin from the total born i n russia and allow a few thousand for others born i n russia such as the ukranians, the remainder undoubt- edly comprises the number of russian-german immigrants i n can- ada. this number would then be somewhat over , . the canada year book. dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , king's printer and controller of stationary, ottawa, , p. . . as a l l the immigrants had to be farmers their place of destination was usually a rural d i s t r i c t , however they never f u l l y settled there. they lacked the means to obtain their own farm and the city offered better opportunities i n seasonal work. as a consequence the majority settled in the c i t i e s . table vi total immigration prom russia according to country op birth and racial origin table compiled from the canada year books. dominion bureau of statistics, king's printer and controller of stationary, ottawa, of the years, - pp- - , - - pp. - , and - p. . immigrant arrivals immigrant arrivals op year born in russia . russian racial origin .. . ... . . . . . . . . , . ; ... , . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , ..... . . . . . , . . . . . . . ... , total .. . .... . . chapter vi statistics and distribution of russian-germans in canada i statistics of russian-germans in canada the d i f f i c u l t y i n compiling the exact number of russian-germans i n ganada has been mentioned i n several cases. it shall be mentioned once more i n greater detail, for i t i s important to know why the o f f i c i a l number, calculated from the canadian census, i s far below their actual number. since the canadian census l i s t s the canadian residents according to racial origin, as such the person has to state the r a c i a l origin of the ancestors, i.e. that of the ancestral immigrant to canada. (a statement such as "canad- ian" or "american" is not acceptable for r a c i a l origin). theoretically then we should be able to compile the exact num- ber of any minority group i n canada - whether assimilated or not. in reality we receive a.different picture. only there where r a c i a l origin and country of birth and with it nation- a l i t y coincide, such as among german immigrants from germany proper, can we exactly state their s t a t i s t i c s . lehmann, op. c i t . , p. . the s t a t i s t i c s for other minority groups, such as the russian-germans, can never he f u l l y calculated. the russian-germans as well as other germans from eastern-euro- pean countries have for reasons as stated below often not distinguished r a c i a l origin and nationality. this phenomen- on occurred either unconsciously due to confusion of r a c i a l origin and nationality or intentionally due to the attitude prevalent toward the german nationals during the world wars. this fact i s manifested i n the drastic example of the mennonites from russia of whom , are l i s t e d under russian r a c i a l origin i n the census of . this occur- rence was not only prevalent amongst the mennonites but just the same amongst the catholics and lutherans, for the census of states that , persons were of russian r a c i a l or- lgin^ and , persons spoke russian as their mother tongue.** the great difference between the preceding two f i g - ures can be explained i n the following manner. it is unlike- l y that the difference of , had been f u l l y assimilated. instead we subtract from the difference the , mennonites l i s t e d under russian r a c i a l origin, allow a few thousand for assimilated russians and ukranians born in russia, the census of canada. . vol. , population, printer to the king e most excellent majesty, ottawa, , table , p p . - . ibid, table , pp. - . ibid, table , p. remainder would then undoubtedly comprise german catholics and lutherans from russia that stated nationality rather than r a c i a l origin. this argument i s actually applicable as stat- ed above to any minority group i n canada whose racial origin does not coincide with their former nationality. since the 's the canadian census l i s t s the can- adian residents under mother tongue in addition to the pre- vious l i s t i n g of r a c i a l origin, country of birth, and nation- a l i t y . canada and south africa are the only two non-european countries that l i s t their population according to such de- tailed information. due to this detail and especially the l i s t i n g of mother tongue, one should be enable to derive at a better judgement of a minority group i n canada i n respect to the number of the group as well as their extent of assim- i l a t i o n . due to the transitionary period i n the assimilation process, the r e l i a b i l i t y of the figure for mother tongue i s questionable. in a group as the russian-germans who are de- f i n i t e l y i n the process of assimilation, we find several ca- tegories from a point of view of language: . those who s t i l l speak their mother tongue fluent- ly and speak very l i t t l e english. . those who speak german and english equally well. . those who s t i l l understand but do not speak ger- man anymore. kloss, heinz, and reimann, katherine, statistlsches hand- buch der volksdeutschen in uebersee. vertrauliche schrtften- reihe uebersee, publlkatlonsstelle stuttgart-hamburg, stutt- gart, , pp. - . this fact is further complicated as german appears i n two forms - standard german and the dialectic german. so that many who do only speak a dialect do not state i t but rather state english as their mother tongue. prom the above, one can see that a person f a l l i n g i n one of the categories is of- ten confused as to what to state as their mother tongue. to derive, however, at an approximate number of russian-german lutherans and catholics i n western canada, one may best calculate this figure, from the s t a t i s t i c s on r e l i g - ious denominations. german catholics and lutherans in western canada provinces lutherans catholics manitoba . , , saskatchewan , . . . . , alberta ?, , b r i t i s h columbia........ , . . total. , ... • , one may safely apply heinz lehmann's estimated percentage, which i s that $ of the total number of germans i n western canada are russian-germans,''' to the total number of german lutherans and catholics in western canada. this then would result i n the approximate number of , russian-german lutherans and , russian-german catholics i n western census of canada. . op. c i t . , table , pp. - . lehmann, op. c i t . , p. . canada. in conclusion, neither o f f i c i a l statements nor p r l - o vate estimates such as heinz lehmann's or george wagner's, who estimated the russian-germans in canada at , , give an exact number of the russian-germans i n canada for reasons as stated above. ii distribution of the russian-germans in canada it shall be remembered that the colonists settled i n russia according to religious denomination, forming at the same time a solid block of closed settlements averaging from one thousand to five thousand people i n a colony. upon arr- i v a l of the russian-germans i n north america, this system of settlement was only maintained by the mennonites i n manitoba. but even they have abandoned this.system at present. another attempt to form regular closed settlements after the pattern of the old settlements i n russia was further tried by the black sea germans i n the dakotas, and by volga germans i n kansas. richard sallet also mentions that even the weekly markets, as they practiced i n russia, had temporarily become a custom. an attempt by lutherans and catholics to settle i n western canada according to the pattern of settlement in russia i s not known. due to the system of homesteads this wagner, georg and mai, richard, op. c i t . , p. . this includes a l l religious denominations. p a t t e r n h a d t o b e a b a n d o n e d . t h e r e w a s h o w e v e r a t e n d e n c y t o a c q u i r e a h o m e s t e a d a d j a c e n t t o a k i n s m a n . n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e d e c i s i v e m e a s u r e t o t a k e u p a h o m e s t e a d i n a f a r m d i s t r i c t w a s a g a i n d e t e r m i n e d , a s p r e v i o u s l y i n r u s s i a , b y r e l i g i o u s d e n o m i n a t i o n . i n t h i s m a n n e r s e v e r a l f a r m d i s t r i c t s w e r e f o u n d e d - a n e x a m p l e o f w h i c h i s t h e s t . . p e t e r ' s c o l o n y , a l a r g e a r e a e a s t o f s a s k a t o o n , w h i c h i s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y s e t t l e d b y c a t h o l i c s . b e c a u s e r e l i g i o n p l a y e d t h e d e c i s i v e r o l e i n s e t t l e m e n t , a c l e a r - c u t p i c t u r e a s t o t h e c o u n t r y o f o r i g i n o f t h e s e t t l e r s w a s n o t m a i n t a i n e d . t h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t s a s s u m e d a f o r m o f t h e s o - c a l l - e d " s c a t t e r e d ' s e t t l e m e n t s , w h i c h r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e h o m e s t e a d s y s t e m . t h e h o m e s t e a d e r s u s u a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e r a i l w a y l i n e s o r w h e r e t h e t r a c k s w e r e e x p e c t e d t o b e l a i d i n t h e n e a r f u - t u r e . t h e n a m e o f t h e n e a r e s t p o s t o f f i c e o r r a i l w a y s t a t i o n w a s o r d i n a r i l y a p p l i e d t o t h e e n t i r e f a r m d i s t r i c t . w h e r e s u c h w e r e n o t p r e s e n t , t h e n a m e o f a c o l o n y i n r u s s i a , f r o m w h e r e p a r t o f t h e s e t t l e r s c a m e , w a s a d o p t e d . s e v e r a l c o l - o n i e s p o p u l a t e d b y r u s s i a n - g e r m a n s h a d u n d e r g o n e c h a n g e s o f n a m e n o t a b l y d u r i n g w o r l d w a r i . e x a m p l e s w e r e e l g i n h e l m c h a n g e d t o y o u n g , k a t h e r l n e n t a l t o k r o n a u , s c h u l t z t o p r e l a t e , a n d s p e y e r t o l e a d e r - a l l l o c a t e d i n s a s k a t c h e w a n . l i t t l e v o l g a w a s c h a n g e d t o s u n d e n c e i n a l b e r t a . o n l y l a t e r w e r e t h e n u m e r o u s p r a i r i e t o w n s f o u n d e d c l o s e t o a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . t h e b e g i n n i n g o f s u c h a t o w n s t a r t e d w i t h t h e b u i l d i n g o f a s c h o o l a n d c h u r c h w h i c h p l a y - e d a d o m i n a n t r o l e i n t h e e a r l y s e t t l e m e n t s . a t t h e s a m e t i m e a g e n e r a l s t o r e w a s b u i l t i n t h e t o w n t h a t b e c a m e t h e s u p p l y c e n t e r o f t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i c t . t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e d i s t r i c t w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d a r o u n d t h e t o w n . t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d a s f a r m e r s r e t i r e d , l e a v i n g t h e i r f a r m s t o t h e c h i l d r e n , a n d s e t t l i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e t o w n , ( i n r e a d i n g t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r , p l e a s e c o n s u l t m a p i i i . ) a p r o v i n c e o f m a n i t o b a - l u t h e r a n s e t t l e m e n t s b e s i d e s t h e c o l o n i e s o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s w h i c h w e r e f o u n d e d b e t w e e n a n d e a s t o f t h e r e d r i v e r , t h e r e w e r e o n l y l u t h e r a n s e t t l e m e n t s f o u n d e d b y r u s s i a n - g e r m a n s i n m a n i t o b a . r u r a l c a t h o l i c s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e n e v e r f o u n d e d i n t h i s p r o v i n c e . a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f c a t h o l i c s f r o m r u s s i a s e t t l e d i n w i n n i p e g a n d b e l o n g t o t h e s t . j o s e p h ' s p a r r i s h t h e r e , w h i c h i s s e r v e d b y t h e o b l a t e f a t h e r s . l u t h - e r a n s h a v e s e t t l e d i n t h e a r e a o f b e a u s e j o u r , g r e e n b a y a n d g o l d e n b a y , w h i c h a r e e a s t o f w i n n i p e g . f u r t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s w e r e f o u n d e d n o r t h - e a s t o f w i n n i p e g i n b r o k e n h e a d , g r u e n w a l d , t h a l b e r g a n d f i s h l a k e . o t h e r l u t h e r a n s h a v e s e t t l e d e a s t o f w i n n i p e g a n d s o u t h o f t h e w i n n i p e g r i v e r i n w h i t e m o u t h , o l d - e n b u r g , a n d w i n n i p e g f a l l s . t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e s e c o l o n i e s w a s s t a r t e d b y w o l h y n l a g e r m a n s i n i . l a t e r , l u t h e r a n s f r o m o t h e r a r e a s i n r u s s i a , s e t t l e d i n t h e s e c o l o n i e s t o o . l e h m a n n , o p . c i t . , p p . - . north-west of winnipeg, german lutherans have set- tled i n moose horn, neuheim and grahamdale along the railway line leading to gypsumville. the settlement began in and lasted u n t i l world war i. the settlers were again pre- dominantly from wolhynla. other wolhynla germans have set- tled in the v i c i n i t y west of the manitoba lake and have founded several german farm d i s t r i c t s . the f i r s t settlers however came from galicla in » only i n have luther- ans from russia settled in the area. close to the saskatchewan border a german farm d i s - t r i c t was founded i n hy the name of friedfeld on the railway line of dauphin. the settlers were again immigrants predominantly from wolhynla. near grandview another settle- ment was founded at the turn of the century by black sea ger- mans from the area of molotchna and by wolhynla germans. the city of winnipeg had , persons of german racial origin according to the census of , of which , s t i l l gave german as their mother tongue.^ half of the , could be classified as russian-germans. in a german society (deutsche vereinigung) was already founded for the purpose of assisting and advising the entire german lehmann, op. c i t . , pp. - . census of canada. . op. c i t . , table , p. . ibid. i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n . ^ t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s i m m i g r a t i o n a i d s o c i e t i e s h a d t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s i n w i n n i p e g a f t e r t h e w a r a n d s t i l l d o a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . b u t t h e i r f i r s t s t r o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , a s i t w a s i n t h e r u r a l d i s t r i c t s , w a s t h e c h u r c h . i n , p a s t o r h . c . s c h m i e d e r a r r i v e d i n w i n n i p e g a n d f o u n d e d t h e f i r s t g e r m a n l u t h e r a n c o m m u n i t y i n w e s t e r n c a n a d a - t h e s t i l l - p r e s e n t " e v a n g e l ! s c h l u t h r a s c h e n d r e l e i n l g - k e i t s k i r o h e " . ^ - t h e c a t h o l i c s , t h a t a r e f e w e r i n n u m b e r s , a r e m e m b e r s o f t h e s t . j o s e p h ' s c h u r c h w h i c h w a s f o u n d e d i n - , a n d a r e a t t e n d e d b y t h e o r d e r o f t h e o b l a t e f a t h - e r s . t h e n u m b e r o f r u s s i a n - g e r m a n c a t h o l i c s i n t h e p a r r i e h h o w e v e r a r e l i m i t e d . o n t h e w h o l e t h e g e r m a n s i n w i n n i p e g h a v e t a k e n u p t h e i r r e s i d e n c e i n t h e n o r t h e n d o f t h e c i t y . b p r o v i n c e o f s a s k a t c h e w a n c a t h o l i c s e t t l e m e n t s t h e o l d e s t c a t h o l i c s e t t l e m e n t a r e a i n s a s k a t c h e w a n f o u n d e d b y r u s s i a n - ^ g e r m a n s i s l o c a t e d e a s t a n d s o u t h - e a s t o f r e g i n a . t h e a r e a i s p o p u l a t e d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y , g e r m a n s a n d c o m p r i s e s t h e c o l o n i e s o f b a l g o n i , q u ' a p p e l l e , k r o n a u ( s t . p e t e r ' s c o m m u n i t y ) , v i b a n k , o d e s s a , k e n d a l , a n d s e d l e y . a n n u a l r e p o r t o f t h e m i n i s t r y o f a g r i c u l t u r e . . n o . , p r i n t e r t o t h e o j u e e n ' s m o s t e x c e t l e n t m a j e s t y , o t t a w a , , p . . r u c c l u s , m . , " d e u t s c h e v a n g e l l s c h e . a r b e i t i n k a n a d a " , d e r a u s l a n d d e u t s c h e . j a h r g . , n o . , d e u t s e h e s a u s l a n d i n s t l t u t , s t u t t g a r t , , p p . - . the o l d e s t settlement i s the colony of j o s e p h s t a l east of regina. the settlement s t a r t e d i n near b a l g o n l and was named a f t e r a colony i n r u s s i a , from where p a r t of the s e t t l e r s came. the colony was f i r s t mentioned i n the an- n u a l report of the m i n i s t r y of a g r i c u l t u r e i n . this colony has a p o p u l a t i o n of n i n e t y - f i v e s o u l s , w i t h the exception of one russian f a m i l y they are a l l germans and speak the german language. i n another s m a l l e r colony east of j o s e p h s t a l was found- ed near south qu'appelle. i n the annual report of the de- partment of the i n t e r i o r f o r the year we read: this colony was s t a r t e d i n and has s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d on account of nearness of a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n . there are probably three hundred f a m i l i e s , eighteen hundred s o u l s i n the d i s t r i c t . f i v e schools have been e s t a b l i s h e d and the d i s t r i c t i s gen- e r a l l y s u c c e s s f u l , many of them i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r holdings i n land by purchase. i n - the f i r s t s e t t l e r s a r r i v e d i n davln and kronau. the l a t t e r colony was named a f t e r a settlement i n the black sea area from where p a r t of the s e t t l e r s o r i g i - nated. i n three other c o l o n i e s were founded by catho- l i c s from the black sea, south of b a l g o n l , between the davln and kronau s t a t i o n s . the c o l o n i e s k a t h e r i n e n t a l , rastadt, annual report of the m i n i s t r y of a g r i c u l t u r e . . no. , p r i n t e r t o the queen's most e x c e l l e n t majesty, ottawa, , p. . annual report of the department of the i n t e r i o r . . p a r t i i , no. , p r i n t e r t o the klngti" most e x c e l l e n t maj- e s t y , ottawa, , p. . a n d s p e y e r r e c a l l n a m e s i n t h e b l a e k s e a a r e a f r o m w h e r e t h e s e t t l e r s c a m e . t h e y a r e c o m p r i s e d i n t o t h e s t . p e t e r ' s c o m - m u n i t y . r e v . h . m e t z g e r p r e s e n t s a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h i s a r e a i n h i s p a m p h l e t w h i c h w a s w r i t t e n i n i n h o n o r o f t h e t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h e f i r s t s e t t l e r s . i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e n e w c h u r c h i n r a s t a d t w a s u n - d e r t a k e n , w h i c h w a s c o m p l e t e d i n . t h e f i r s t s c h o o l d i s - t r i c t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n r a s t a d t i n w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s c h o o l i n * h o w e v e r , b y , t h e s a m e w a s t o o s m a l l a n d w a s r e p l a c e d b y a n e w s c h o o l w h i c h w a s c o n s t r u c t e d c l o s e t o t h e c h u r c h . i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e o t h e r t w o c o l o n i e s a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . ® s o u t h - e a s t o f t h e s t . p e t e r ' s c o m m u n i t y f a r m d i s - t r i c t o n t h e m a n y b o n e g r e e k , t h e s t . p a u l ' s c o m m u n i t y o f v i b a n k w a s f o u n d e d i n b y g e r m a n s f r o m t h e b l a c k s e a a r e a . a t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , c a t h o l i c s f r o m t h e b a n a t a n d g a l - l o l a h a v e s e t t l e d i n t h e a r e a . t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e v i b a n k d i s t r i c t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m a p a m p h l e t w r i t t e n f o r t h e th j u b i l e e o f t h e f o u n d a - t i o n o f t h e s t . p a u l ' s p a r r i s h . b y t h e a r e a a r o u n d v i - b a n k h a d e s t a b l i s h e d s e v e n s e h o o l d i s t r i c t s . t h e e c o n o m i c p r o g r e s s o f t h i s a r e a w a s f a v o r a b l e e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r t h e r a i l w a y s t a t i o n w a s c o m p l e t e d i n . i t i s t h e n t h a t t h e m e t z g e r , o p . , c i t . . p . * town of vibank began i t s development. several stores, which were the supply center for the entire d i s t r i c t were founded i n the following years. in the school and church were transferred from the open prairie into the newly founded town. in course of time vibank has further increased i n respect to business activities as well as construction of new homes for retired farmers. the most notable construction i n the town was that of the holy family convent of the ursa- line order i n , which houses approximately forty s i s t e r s . the sisters are extensively of russian-german descent and are engaged i n teaching. at the turn of the century the settlement area east of vibank was further expanded and resulted i n the foundation of the colonies of odessa and kendal. the l a t t e r colony was again named after the colony i n south russia. the settlers came predominantly from russia but had settled f i r s t i n the u.s.a. before they moved to canada i n . in a recent pub- l i c a t i o n by rev. f. gerein, d.d., commemorating the th an- niversary of the a r r i v a l of the f i r s t settlers and the th anniversary of the founding of the holy family parrish, we the name of the town of vibank has no bearing to the or- i g i n of i t s settlers. the name is derived from the german word "viehbank" meaning a cattle market place. as the term "viehbank" without "eh" produces i n english, as well as i n german, the same sound the two letters were dropped and re- sulted i n the present spelling of "vibank". abele, op. c i t . . p. . nave an intensive account of the settlement and history of odessa. the f i r s t settlers of the odessa d i s t r i c t arrived i n , however, the peak of settlement was reached i n and , when about sixty families had taken up homesteads i n the area. south of odessa a small catholic mission was founded under the name of blumenfeld. however owing to i t s location and size the members were assigned to the parrishes of odessa, sedley and vibank. the development of the town of odessa started only after the completion of the regina-brandon railway - as i t was with the town of vibank. in a new school d i s t r i c t was established i n the town in addition to the three dis- t r i c t s already existing in the area. the present school in odessa i s served by the ursallne sisters. the most notable event i n the town is the recent completion of the holy family church under the energetic leadership of the present pastor, rev. f. gerein, d.d. the name of the d i s t r i c t of odessa has undergone some interesting changes. until the d i s t r i c t was known as sibel plains after the f i r s t school in the area. in i t assumed the name of the newly founded post office, magna. in some circles the d i s t r i c t was also known as moser valley. finally in the present name of odessa was glv- en to the town. jm gerein, pp. c i t . , p. . ikz the above described, settlement d i s t r i c t s , east of regina, are divided into seven catholic parishes which are members of the regina archdiocese. they are a l l served by diocesan priests. in these parishes a number of lutherans from south russia have established themselves - notably in kronau, davin and vibank. north-west of langenburg, the catholic community of landshut was founded i n the 's. the settlers came pre- dominantly from south russia and bavaria. in the south of saskatchewan the colony of maryland was founded by catholics from the banat. however, they were soon joined by catholics from the south of russia. the settlers were from the colony of landau in the black sea area. a smaller colony by the name of landau was founded south of maryland. in the colony of marienthal was founded close to the american border. the settlers came from russia, the u.s. and romania. further west of marienthal, homesteads were taken up by germans, which led to the foundation of jakobsberg i n . s t i l l further west, the colony of berg- feld was founded by germans from the black sea. a larger settlement, the colony of claybank, was founded i n the south of the province i n by germans from the azov sea. ger- mans from other countries have settled in the area after the war. the settlers of german origin number about six hundred lehmann, op_. c i t . , pp. - . persons. their school i s served by ursaline sisters. north-west of reglna, the colony of holdfast was founded between and . the settlers again came pre- dominantly from the black sea area i n russia. germans from banat have also settled i n the area. the f i r s t church was constructed i n for the close to one thousand persons of the colony. late i n - a larger church was built close to the station. south-east of saskatoon, two other colonies were founded close to the railway station of allan. the settlers arrived predominantly from the u.s. and the south of russia. the farm d i s t r i c t s of allan and selz have a population of ap- proximately one thousand settlers. selz is named after a colony i n the south of russia from where the settlers o r i g i - nated. the religious service is received from the oblate fathers. the economic development i n the two farm d i s t r i c t s was extremely favorable in the f i r s t years of settlement and i t is reflected i n the construction of three churches, sever- a l schools, and two recreation h a l l s . here too, the ursaline sisters served as teachers. south of the south saskatchewan river another large settlement area called happyland was founded by black sea germans. the influx into this area, which i s partly dry belt, started i n - . part of the settlers had resided i n dobrudscha (romania) for several years without f u l l y settling there. bessarabian germans have settled near by and founded the community of krasna. further colonies were founded in this area by black sea and dobrudscha germans. these colon- ies are prelate, leader, lancer, josephtal, new london, rosen- thal, rastadt, richmond, blumenfeld, speyer and liebenthal. the area was generally not as successful as others owing to drought,and many moved to b r i t i s h columbia. spiritually the settlers are looked after by the oblate fathers. ursaline sisters teach i n the schools. at one time as many as five hundred families lived i n this area. in - , german catholics from the area of od- essa i n russia founded the colony of billimun in the dry belt of saskatchewan. this colony had an extremely d i f f i c u l t start as i t was more than f i f t y miles away from the nearest railway station. # * # • * at the turn of the century the st. peter's colony, the most solid closed german catholic community, was founded east of saskatoon. the colony comprises f i f t y townships set- tled by catholics. there are only a few lutherans scattered in the c i t i e s of the colony. the origin of this larger c o l - ony was due to the immigration and colonization policy of the catholic clergy. when the stream of settlers poured across lehmann, op_. c i t . , p. . the border to settle in canada, the benedictine fathers **" be- came aware of a new mission. their aim was to direct the catholic settlers into one farm area as a solid block of cath- olics to maintain their f a i t h . it was prior bruno doerfler, o.s.b., who set out to seek for new land for the german set- tlers in . it was the present st. peter's colony that was selected. more than , german farmers had settled i n this area and were comprised into twenty-six parishes. the name of the parish applied to the whole farm d i s t r i c t - not- ably; st. oswald, st. gregor, st. anthony, engelsfeld, st. anna, st. george, st. bernard, st. joseph, st. john, st. au- gustine, st. scholastlca, st. michael, st. leo, lady of mt. carmel, st. bruno, and st. bonlfaee. the settlement started i n by germans from the u.s., who were generally settlers of some means. later, ger- mans from russia also settled in the area. the "catholic settlement society" was founded under the presidency of mr. lange in order to promote colonization into the colony. when boniface wimmer, o.s.b., landed i n america in sept- ember of , he had only a few students and a strong w i l l to transplant the benedictine order into the new world. ten years later the abbey of st. vlnzenz i n pennsylvania was founded and became so strong that the new abbey of st. john was founded near st. cloud on the mississippi as well as the monastery at cluny, i l l i n o i s . it was the monastery at cluny, that was transplanted to the st. peter's colony in saskat- chewan, and unertook the s p i r i t u a l guidance of the colony. wagner, georg and mai, richard, op_. c i t . . pp. - . "rundschau", og. c i t . , pp. - . at the same time the german american land company was found- ed which entered into an agreement whereby a block of land amounting to f i f t y townships was reserved. other land was bought from the government and i n turn sold to the new set- t l e r s . by a l l free homesteads had been settled. after the usual drawbacks of a new settlement, pro- sperity came to the colony. as i n previous settlements, here too, the "scattered" settlement form prevailed. concentrated settlements were found only around the churches and later i n the various towns founded near the railway stations. as.. everywhere, the railway became the impulse to a l l economical progress* in this manner the city of humboldt became the ec- onomic center of the colony because of i t s function as a railway divisional point. it has a population of , persons and ranks f i f t h among the towns of saskatchewan. an imposing town h a l l , a new $ , skat- ing-rink, schools, churches, a large hospital, and a courthouse are the outstand- ; ing buildings i n the community. seventy- five business units draw trade within a ra- dius of miles. out of the seventy-five business units, eighteen are operated by germans. this proportion holds true throughout the colony. muenster, six miles east of humboldt, i s the eccles- i a s t i c a l center of the colony. the small monastery of cluny, ? dawson, op_. c i t . , pp. - . ibid, pp. - . i l l i n o i s was transplanted to muenster by the benedictine or- der and there they b u i l t a cathedral as well as a college. but, muenster never f u l f i l l e d the expectations of the order to become the commercial as well as religious center. hum- boldt, as mentioned, became the undisputed commercial center?^ the religious guidance of the entire colony was l a i d upon the benedictine order by a papal declaration. the mon- astery grew with the colony and was elevated to an abbey in . it was further elevated to an "abbatia nullius" i n and received bishopric rights. ° we have here an examp- le of a german diocese i n canada and i n the benedictine fath- ers a true example of the followers of the orders of clster- ciensium and praemonstratensls, who were outstanding i n the colonization of eastern germany i n the th and th centuries. * # * « # the colonization of another large area by german catholics was started i n . this colony, known as st. jo- seph's colony, was located east of saskatoon comprising sev- enty-seven townships, but, i t was not solid catholic as was st. peter's colony. before a l l the land was settled in st. peter's c o l - ony, mr. lange, president of the "catholic settlement society" dawson, op., c i t . . p. . lehmann, op_. c i t . , p. . had explored for land for another colony.^ this time the order of the oblate fathers became interested in this colon- ization and the "catholic colonization society" was founded for the purpose of settling the area. the f i r s t settlers ar- rived in . the largest part of the settlers came from the south of russia and from the volga area. many of them had previously settled in the u.s.a. a large settlement of germans from the states has been located in the tramping lake d i s t r i c t , it is expected their num- bers w i l l be augmented this f a l l by a thous- and families, and as they have sold their land i n the u.s. they come equipped with mo- ney, good knowledge of the modern ways of farming and are inclined to be t h r i f t y and industrious. germans from germany proper and from the banat also settled there. the russian-germans arrived predominantly i n i o - and settled i n the western part of the colony. the economic development i n this colony was not as favorable as in st. peter's. the development of trade cent- ers shows the same trend of change as i n st. peter's colony, that i s from church village to commercial railway center. but as none of the main railway lines ran through the colony, the colony has not developed a center like humboldt. the dawson, op. c i t . , p. . annual report on immigration of the department of the interior. . part ii, government printing bureau, ottawa, , p. . dawson, op. c i t . , p. . commercial centers of this colony are kerrobert, wilkie, biggar and macklin. these centers are a l l located on the bor- ders of the colony. the settlers are s p i r i t u a l l y guided by the oblate fathers and reside in the following communities; leipzig, handel, revenue, tramping lake, scott, kerrobert, salvador, denzil, grosswarder, st. peter, and macklin. the sisters of the notre dame order teach i n the highschools of leipzig, re- venue, tramping lake, and macklin. there are some lutheran communities within st. joseph's colony and are located in luseland and wilkie. since , owing to crop failure, o many settlers of the st. joseph's colony have migrated to british columbia. lutheran settlements in , the oldest russian-german lutheran s e t t l e - ment was founded in lahdshut near langenberg. lutherans from other countries also settled there simultaneously with the black sea germans. hoffnungstal was founded by germans from bessarabia and galicia. bereslna was also founded i n by bessarablan and wolhynian germans. the colonies of rurtnymede and togo were founded i n and respectively by volga germans. these colonies dawson, op., c i t . , p. . lehmann, op. c i t . , p. . are located east of yorkton and close to the manitoba border - with a settlement of close to three hundred persons. the settlers of togo had for some time resided in the u.s. and winnipeg before f i n a l l y settling i n togo. in the f i r s t germans arrived i n melville from bessarabia. by world war i this d i s t r i c t had been settled by a substantial group of german lutherans. wolhynla germans settled i n lipton i n . in wolhynla germans settled near gansen, volga germans i n prairie rose, and others in kandahar, south of q u i l l lake. the three colonies form one lutheran parish.-' in , at the same time when the catholic colonies of allan and selz were founded, the lutheran colony of eigen- heim (young) was settled by black sea germans. the luther- an colony of luseland, located i n the center of the catholic community of st. joseph's colony, began i t s settlement i n by lutherans from the u.s. as well as volga germans. north-west of the mennonite settlement of rosthern, the f i r s t settlement of silvergrove began i n by settlers who came from germany proper. however, i n i h- , the main settlement was started by black sea germans and by ger- mans from the wolhynla. lehmann, pp. c i t . , p. . ibid, p. . lutherans have settled and founded a few colonies i n the south-east part of the province. neu-norka was founded by volga germans - which fact is manifested by the colony's name. the settlers began to arrive as early as . yellow grass was founded south-east of regina by wolhynla germans. the f i r s t settlers arrived i n and immediately before world war i the greatest bulk of immigrants had arrived i n the area. the f i r s t lutherans settled i n flowing wells i n and they came from the volga area in russia. just prior to world war i about thirty families settled in the area and they too were volga germans. in - volga germans as well as wolhynla germans settled east of herbert and other volga germans settled near the railway station of morse be- tween - . fi the city of regina the germans i n the city of regina have settled pre- dominantly i n the eastern section of the town. the majority of them are catholics and are members of either st. mary's parish or the l i t t l e flower parish. those of lutheran f a i t h mostly belong to the "lutherisohen dreleingkeitsgemeinde". since , the community i s a member of the american-luther- an church. others also belong to the ngnadengemeindeh, which i s the missouri synod. according to the census of , re- gina had , germans, of whom , stated their mother lehmann, op_. c i t . , p. . tongue as german. half of the , are russian-germans. the number of germans i n the city increases as the farmers retire and settle i n the city. c the province of alberta catholic settlements from the previous section one can see that the cath- olics have settled predominantly i n the province of saskat- chewan. only very few colonies of catholics from russia were founded i n alberta. the colony of friedensthal i n the peace river d i s t r i c t was settled by germans from germany proper and by black sea germans. a number of catholic colonies were founded i n near grassy lake by black sea germans. these colonies never had a german priest and so are at present a l - most completely assimilated. the colony of rosenheim, which i s a s i s t e r colony or rather a continuation of saskatchewan's st. joseph's colony, was settled i n . there were many russian-germans amongst the settlers. the colony i s named after a colony on the vol- ga river i n russia. a number of lutherans and catholics from the black sea area settled i n the dry belt area north-east of medicine hat prior to . in this area the original catholic colony census of canada. . op. c i t . , table , pp. - . of schuler i s to be found. the colony consisted of forty f a - milies. in the early years the colony did not have a priest and so i t has in course of time been converted to the various religious sects which are predominantly found i n the area. lutheran settlements in a german colony was founded south of dunmore in the south-east of the province. the settlers moved furth- er north in - due to repeated drought. the russian- germane amongst these settlers founded a colony i n the rabbit h i l l s by name of heimthal, which was west of the railway sta- tion of nlsku. the colony of lutherort was founded by wol- hynla germans i n - north of nlsku. russian-germans settled west of wetaskiwln i n . these settlers came from the colony of alt-schwedendorf i n the south of russia.^ wolhynla germans settled south-east of wetaskiwln and founded the colony of bashaw. >in rus- sian-germans from the black sea area, previously residing i n the u.s., immigrated to the colony of preudental near drum- heller. the colony i s named after the settlement in russia. the cities of edmonton and calgary the germans i n edmonton are predominantly of the lu- theran f a i t h . religiously they belong to the missouri synod uo lehmann, op_. c i t . . p. . and the majority of them are engaged as laborers. the census of l i s t s , germans in the city of edmonton, of whom , stated their mother tongue as german. as mentioned before, volga germans settled i n calgary in in the sec- tion of bouville. they have founded the riverside community. the census of shows the german population of calgary to be , , of whom , gave their mother tongue as german. d the province of b r i t i s h columbia the germans i n british columbia are very few com- pared to the numbers of them in the prairie provinces. be- tween the world wars, many germans from the prairie provinces moved to b r i t i s h columbia due to crop failures. they settled notably i n the okanagan valley - rutland and kelowna - and are predominantly of the catholic f a i t h . further, russian- germans of lutheran f a i t h have settled i n summerland. how- ever solid settlements as i n the prairies, were never founded. direct immigration to british columbia before world war i and during the depression was very seldom the case. this has on- l y occurred since world war ii. in vancouver there are at present two lutheran communities and one catholic community which have a substantial number of russian-germans as members. census of canada. . op. c i t . , table , p. , ibid, p. . chapter vii economic, social, and cultural development the presentation of these aspects i n this chapter are not exclusively applicable to russian-germans. a d i s t i n - guishable difference i n regard to economic, social, and cult- ural development between russian-germans and other eastern european germans cannot always be effected as they were a l l at one cultural l e v e l . they had to undergo similar forces and were faced with the same barriers in the early days of settlement. the only difference that may be pointed out was their origin of country or the dialect spoken. but their common f a i t h and cultural niveau was stronger and brought a- bout a unified community already i n the early days. thus whatever i s said i s applicable also to other or rather to the entire community, unless special mention is made. i economic development the largest proportion of russian-german immigrants i n canada were farmers. this professlon was generally main- tained upon settlement for to gain land was one of the prim- ary causes for their immigration. the majority of the arriv- als were poor. the l i t t l e money they had received for their property i n russia was mostly consumed by their travelling expenses. the russian-germans, who had resided in the u.s. for sometime and migrated into the canadian prairies at the turn of the century, possessed large sums of money, i n add- i t i o n they were familiar with the north american farming me- thods. their start was thus considerably easier than of those who had come directly from russia. the land acquired at a cheap rate by the early set- tlers was i n many cases at a great distance from the railway lines. they settled there because of the f e r t i l i t y of the. s o i l and i n the hope of receiving a railway station in the near future. it was the long distance from the railway sta- tion that provided the greatest d i f f i c u l t y to the settlers. for days they were on the road to and from the railway station with their supplies which consisted of construction materials, provisions, farm implements, and household goods. their f i r s t necessary farm implements were mostly acquired through credit that was readily provided by the railway companies. an example that holds true for a l l pioneering i n the prairie provinces is the information of the russian-german, mrs. u l l r i c h , about the beginning of the settlement of young (eigenheim): with how much great hope we l e f t our old homeland and how much disappointment we had to experience.....vast unpopulated areas on- l y bushland the majority built huts made of earth, grass, and water. (a method r-- used extensively in the south of russia where lumber was not readily available.) shingles for the roof had to be obtained miles further north. a few men under- took this journey, following the marks of the surveyors as there were no roads yet.l the f i r s t yields of the farmers were often so low that the farmers had to look for additional income. this additional income was obtained either by working on another farm or by working on the railway section. to earn a l i t t l e cash money they cut and hauled hay to indian head, qu'appelle and even to regina some of the younger men hired out to farmers who had settled earlier near the main line of the c.p.r. at wages of about seventy-five cents a day. the d i f f i c u l t i e s of the earlier settlers were furth- er complicated by the climatic conditions of the prairie pro- vinces. the prairie blizzards i n the winter which often lasted for several days, were unbearable obstacles. often the l i t t l e cottage which was half built into the ground was snowed i n and had to be dug out by the neighbor. in the summer the extreme hot weather provided equal d i f f i c u l t i e s , as prairie fires were not a rare event. to overcome a l l these obstacles and make an exist- ence possible in the early days, a strong character of im- measurable endurance was demanded by the p r a i r i e . the type of people were to demand l i t t l e i n cultural nourishment. it lehmann, op_. c i t . , p. - . gereln, op_. c i t . , p. s. was thus the eastern european, or their ancestors before, who had been well versed i n colonization and therefore more read- i l y suited for the canadian prairies than the western european. the higher the cultural standard the greater were his d i f f i - culties to adopt the land as his new home. as pointed out i t was mostly the land-hungry eastern european that selected the prairie and has become successful i n the course of time. justifiably we may attribute to them their share i n exploring and cultivating the vast areas of western canada. each set- t l e r i n his own way by overcoming the obstacles as presented, f u l f i l l e d his task as a pioneer. the settlement according to their f a i t h , kinship, and the assistance they gave one anoth- er, made the beginning considerably easier - i n fact only the early community l i f e , primitive and simple as i t was, made i t possible to endure conditions. no matter how strong the desire was to return (to their former homes amongst the pioneers, the realization of this dream was seldom carried out. the great distance and the lack of means excluded the desired journey. they became reconciled with their destiny of being pioneers. after about one to two years of settlement they began with the foundation of a church around which the community l i f e was to be center- ed. simultaneously with the church, the school found i t s or- igin, which received the nature of a "church school" as the pastor acted as the only teacher. with the completion of these two institutions, the community was f u l l y established and a greater sense of security and importance prevailed am- ongst the settlers. the primitive conditions of living, however, remained unchanged for several years to come. only after five to six years of settlement were the settlers abandoning their f i r s t accommodations, i.e. the huts, and were constructing their f i r s t wooden and more elaborate homes. the dispensation of their f i r s t years was accepted for the hope of a better future. real prosperity and economic expansion i n general came with the completion of the various railway lines. we can safely say that the history of western canada i s also the history of the prairie farmers i n canada. the crop failure to which the farmers had to submit affected the whole of western canada. they were usually caused by the dry summers and early frosts and snow before the harvest was completed. crop failures were further often caused by the lack of knowledge of the farming methods of north america and the pursuance of european methods of husbandry. their efforts were f i r s t really rewarded during world war i when the prairie farmer recorded a miraculous yield. this enabled them to defray their debts and improve their farm implements as well as the expansion of their land possessions. relative prosperity was continued u n t i l . during this time the farmers began to speculate with their land - each one was to expand on credit. this phenomena found i t s end i n the collapse of the stock market i n . the period after world war i, as we have seen, marked the second immigration of russian-germans. homesteads, how- ever, were by that time ohly available i n the north of the prairies where transportation was s t i l l inadequate. it was therefore preferred to obtain land i n the older colonies mostly on credit. successive crop failures coupled with the low prices of wheat prevented these people from f u l f i l l i n g their obligations and as expected they lost their possessions. later immigrants i n the 's were never able to obtain land. they started out as farm helpers and as many farmers, they, too, joined the great influx into the cities at the height of the depression where they had to depend on r e l i e f . this per- iod also caused an extensive migration to b r i t i s h columbia where they settled in the okanagan valley and other areas. others sought a better future in the u.s. in many cases it was only with the assistance of the government and the generous help from other eastern provinces of canada that the farmers were able to remain on their farms. although the information obtained by rev. p. gerein i n his history of odessa refers only to conditions of the period i n odessa, i t may be safely applied to many other areas. .....other communities especially in ontario, shipped carloads of vegetables, f r u i t s , f i s h and numberless bundles of clothes for d i s - tribution here. fortunately, the governments and railways cooperated for transportation, for the l o c a l people could not have paid i t . . ...feed for the stock, clothes for the child- ren, food for the family, - everything had to be sought from government r e l i e f o f f i c i a l s . the coming of world war ii, that created greater em- ployment p o s s i b i l i t i e s and raised the prices of farm products, revived prosperity again i n the communities. prosperity con- tinued u n t i l when the prairies again were haunted by successive crop failures. however the extent of these f a i l - ures are by no means a p a r a l l e l to previous times. the farm- ers s t i l l consider themselves prosperous and well-to-do c i t i - zens. the early years of suffering and deprivation were well rewarded• the canadian immigration policy after world war ii directed the settlers to the rural d i s t r i c t s of western can- ada. the immigrant had to be a farmer by profession and re- main on the farm for at least one year before migrating to other places. at present, none of these immigrants have re- mained on the farm. a survey i n the v i c i n i t y of regina where many russian-germans had arrived after world war ii, has shown that they took permanent residence i n the larger c i t i e s where they are engaged predominantly i n seasonal work. their beginning i n canada was by far more favorable than that of their relatives who had immigrated before and after world war i. due to post-war expansion they were able to obtain well- paid jobs. being accustomed to a well economized household gerein, op., c i t . , p. !?• that is prevalent amongst the russian-germans, they were able to save large sums of money that would serve as a down-payment for their own home. the "newcomers that have settled in re- gina, for example, have at present, with the exception of a few single individuals, f u l l y paid for the newly acquired v houses or are close to the completion of their payments. it i s due to this great opportunity to acquire one's own home within a short period, that the newcomer often does not under- stand the hardship the early settlers had to encounter. ii religion the invariable importance of religion i n the history of the russian-germans has been referred to on previous oc- casions. as i n russia so i n canada, religion received the greatest consideration by the immigrants in selecting their place of settlement. in canada, too, the church remained the only organization of the russian-germans i n the early years. even prior to the turn of the century, the import- ance of religion was recognized by canadian immigration auth- o r i t i e s , for a l i s t of arriving immigrants classified by their religious beliefs and their destinations was furnished to ther head of any religious denomination i f the same was requested. such church o f f i c i a l s were thus enabled to notify church auth- orities i n different l o c a l i t i e s of the a r r i v a l of such k see chapter v for direct quotation, supra. immigrants. indeed not long after the a r r i v a l of a group of german immigrants, church o f f i c i a l s , usually german-speaking, became frequent v i s i t o r s . religious services were held i n primitive conditions i n the home of one of the settlers. the appointment of a permanent pastor to a farm d i s t r i c t after about one to two years of settlement resulted i n the founda- tion of a parish as well as the construction of a church building. due to the homestead system the existence of a s o l - id populated settlement was absent. as a consequence, the church was to be located i n the middle of the d i s t r i c t , i.e.' often i n the middle of the open p r a i r i e . when possible, the nearest railway station was preferred. later at the turn of the century, which marked the foundation of numerous prairie towns,- the church was moved into town. with the foundation of a parish, the establishment of a community was completed for the church choir and church school were simultaneously inaugurated. as the pastors were german, the service, the church administration and school were a l l maintained i n german. thus, the pastors became, as they did i n russia, the strongholds i n preserving the german lang- uage. the fathers of the benedictine and oblate orders were s t i l l born i n germany as were the pastors of the lutheran groups; the american lutheran church and the manitoba synod. see chapter vi for foundation of the prairie town, supra. very few of these old churches are s t i l l i n use. they were replaced by larger and more elaborate churches. consequently, both lutherans and catholics brought religion to their communities i n the german tongue. this practice pre- vailed u n t i l world war i. in communities which were not at- tended by german-speaking pastors, a more rapid assimilation was noticeable. such was the case with the settlement of grassy lake in southern alberta. a roman.catholics the s p i r i t u a l guidance and organization of the cath- o l i c germans i n the prairies was vigorously carried out by the order of the oblate and benedictine fathers, as well as the numerous diocesan priests. the diocesan priests have at present a substantial number of russian-german descendants in their ranks. other religious as well as school services were rendered notably by the ursaline sisters and the sisters of the "armen schulschwester". a unified organization of the.german catholics was maintained i n the "volksverein fuer die deutsch-canadischen katholiken", a society which was founded i n i n the st. joseph's church i n winnipeg. the "volksverein... had spread to the entire prairies and had established chapters i n a l l the larger catholic communities. the membership of the "volksverein..." had reached a number of , persons prior to world war ii. the society's original purpose was to pro- mote cultural aspects i n the community. p o l i t i c a l l y the "volksverein,,•" favored the liberal party, as the catholics traditionally and s t i l l do. in the 's, however, i t was attempted to exert p o l i t i c a l influence upon the provincial governments - notably i n respect to the maintenance of the german tongue in schools. in the * the "volksverein..." again resumed the nature of a cultural organization, which resulted i n the fam- ous annual gatherings known as "kathollkentagenw. the nature of these gatherings manifested itself i n an article of a ger- man newspaper published i n germany, the "kolinische volks- zeitung" of november th, . in i t the "volksverein...h was accused of not sufficiently emphasizing the german cause: the general "catholic days" i n regina missed the deeper emphasis on the cause of the ger- man catholics. a few points were mentioned only vaguely i n the debates. ...no real de- sire for german subjects i n schools were demanded. the meeting of the christian school trustees avoided the use of the german lang-* uage and continued their discussion primarily i n the english tongue. the "yolksverein..was also very active i n matters of immigration under the leadership of r. kierdorf, o.m.i. in , between the th and th of june, there was a gen- eral meeting of the "vblksverein..." under the presidency of f. j. hauser i n connection with the celebration of the th jubilee of the foundation of the st. peter's colony. at this meeting i t was decided that a special effort be made to assist the immigration of russian-germans to canada, due to the lehmann, op_. c i t . . p. . conditions i n russia which became continually worse. since the conditions were such as they were, no notable results of this effort were obtained. hatters of immigration were car- ried out by the catholic immigration aid society after world war ii. the coming of world war ii paralyzed the activities of the "volksverein.. .". the society was completely dissolv- ed as were many other german organizations. after world war ii, the "volksverein..." was not revived nor are there any indications that such w i l l occur i n the future. the active members and leaders of the pre-war group are scattered and the younger generation are not interested i n any segregated organization. the functions of the "volksverein..." are con- tinued i n organizations such as the holy name society, the catholic men's club, and the catholic youth organization, none of which are segregated organizations. due to the substantial number of german catholics i n the province of saskatchewan and the great number of canadian- born german priests, i t has been the constant desire of the older immigrants to see one of the german priests appointed to a higher catholic clergy position such as bishop. the re- alization of this desire was recently f u l f i l l e d when bishop klein, a descendant of a russian-german black sea family, was "rundschau", op_. c i t . . pp. - . see section on societies, i n f r a . appointed bishop of the diocese of saskatoon. the older gen- eration looked upon this event with sentiment and satisfaction, for i n this appointment they saw the recognition of their equality with the anglo-canadian group. a request for information i n regard to o f f i c i a l ger- man parishes i n the catholic dioceses of the prairie provinces has shown that there are no such parishes. the catholic church discourages national parishes (canon ) and prefers that they be t e r r i t o r i a l . however, billngualism i s s t i l l the most common practice i n parishes where the german population is i n the majority. this holds true especially i n the rural d i s t r i c t s of the p r a i r i e s . b lutherans although the lutheran church of canada found i t s or- i g i n in germany there are, at present, no ties with that country. its membership, too, is not limited only to that of german nationals but also includes a substantial number of scandinavians. we thus may no longer consider the lutheran church of canada the "german national church'' as i t is often called. the lutheran church's present relation with germany is only i n the use of the german lutheran bible. the f i r s t german lutheran community i n western can- ada was founded i n the "evangelisch-lutherische dreleinig- see section on press for catholic papers, infra. keitsklrche* in by pastor h. c. schmleder, who had a r r i - ved from germany expressly for this purpose. several other pastors followed him and i n the "evangellsch-lutherische synode" of manitoba and of other provinces was founded. later the synods of missouri and ohio, separately carried out exten- sive missionary work in western canada. among the pastors were many s t i l l born i n germany, which resulted in the pre- sentation of the service i n german* later, pastors born i n the u.s. or canada have received their training i n american seminaries and prefer the english language i n presenting their s e r v i c e . the above three mentioned synods comprise a l l the german lutherans in western canada. each of the synods has i t s own college; the, manitoba synod has a college i n saska- toon, sask.; the ohio synod has a college i n regina, sask.; and the missouri synod has a college i n edmonton, alberta. the manitoba synod also has a theological seminary a f f i l i a t e d with i t s college. the pastors of the ohio and missouri synods receive their theological training i n the seminaries in the u.s. each of the synods also has i t s own youth organization as well as a synodal church paper. examples of the paper are the "synodalboten" and the "canadisch-lutherische kirchen- b l a t t " . due to the existence of three synods, a certain ruccius, op_. c i t . , pp* - . see section on press for lutheran papers, i n f r a . rivalry amongst them is unavoidable. but, pastor m. ruccius sees no harm i n this, for in this manner even the most distant lutherans are included in lutheran worship.• the lutheran immigration aid society was very active in matters of immigration after world war i and world war i i . particularly active i n this organization, was director harms of the lutheran college in saskatoon. ** « * * * # while the earlier german pastors, both lutheran and catholic, were the preservers of the german tongue and german habits, i t i s the present younger generation of pastors that were born in canada and received their training i n the english tongue, that are the greatest link for assimilation. pacing reality, i . e . that the younger generation of german descent no longer speak the german tongue, the pastors themselves pre- fer the usage of the english tongue. chureh choirs that at one time exclusively sang i n german, have gradually adoped the english hymn. it is here that the pastor often meets with disagreement from the older german generation who were accus- tomed to the german hymn. but i t i s the insight of the pastor and his recognition of the fact that the community should ruccius. op. c i t . . pp. - . "russlanddeutsche bauern auf der wanderung", op., c i t . , jahrg. , no. , pp. - , and jahrg. , no. , pp. - . become f u l l y canadian, that makes him the undisputed leader of the community. as such, he sets the standards and directs his parlshoners toward becoming f u l l y canadian. i l l education according to the british north american act, educa- tion f e l l under the jurisdiction of the provinces. to pre- sent a complete treatment of the educational development of every province i n western canada, would lead us far from our present purpose. recorded below, are only the forces that had an immediate bearing on the germans and consequently on the russian-germans. the education of the children of the russian-gorman immigrants before the turn of the century i n the prairies was carried out by the local pastors or by other individuals with some advanced education. in the manitoba school act of , we read: where ten of the pupils speak the french language (or any language other than english) as their native language, the teaching of such pupils shall be conducted i n french (or such other lang- uage .....). this clause made the existence of the bilingual school poss- ible u n t i l when the bilingual system was abolished. many objections were raised by governmental o f f i c i a l s i n regard to sissons, c. ., bl-lingual schools in canada. j. m. dent & sons ltd., toronto, , pp. - . the lack of properly trained teachers that were able to teach under the bilingual system. the german lutherans and espec- i a l l y the mennonites made extensive use of this system as long as i t existed. the abolishment of the bilingual system dur- ing world war i caused considerable dissatisfaction particu- l a r l y amongst the mennonites as the german tongue is insepar- able from and the only spoken medium for their religion. contrary to manitoba, saskatchewan and alberta never adopted the bilingual system. the two provinces had s u f f i c - ient time to learn the defect that can be caused by the b i - lingual school system. instead the two provinces permitted separate schools by law. however, the ministry reserved the right to regulate the training and examination of the teachers of such separate institutions. text books were also author- ized by the provincial departments of education. religious instructions were confined to the last half hour of the day. a provision for private and parochial schools was also made in the two provinces. both german lutherans and catholics made use of this opportunity. from amongst the lutherans, the missouri synod was most active i n founding private country schools. in this manner, the german schools of stony plain, edmonton, and wetaskiwln were founded. these schools, too, had to submit to an annual inspection by a regular school in- spector and prove that i t s standards were equal to those of of the public schools.. as a matter of fact many german communities established private schools rather than public schools. thus they were able to teach german as much as they liked i n their schools and otherwise escape irksome regu- l a t i o n s . the foundation of private schools had its limitations i n that financially the institutions had to be supported from private sources, i.e. the parents of the pupils. at the same time, the parents were not exempt from the usual school tax. as a result of this situation, private schools were only pos- sible where there was a solid population of the same ethnic group. this was the case in the st. peter's colony i n sask- atchewan. the bilingual schools i n manitoba were gradually dissolved as were the private schools i n alberta and saskat- chewan, leaving only a few exceptions. ? the importance of education as a medium for assimi- lation of the non-anglo-canadian group was pointed out as early as world war i by several educational authorities. b i - lingual and private schools in which the mother tongue was emphasized was a direct barrier to the future assimilation of this particular group into canadian l i f e . we must begin with the community and because the non-english settler is bound by customs and habits of the old country l i f e , we must start our work with the children. sissons, op_. c i t . , p. . lehmann, op., c i t . , p. . england, op., c i t . , p. . after world war i, the public schools became the re- gular schools i n the german populated d i s t r i c t s . the original half hour of religious instruction i n the mother tongue was f i n a l l y abolished i n saskatchewan i n * the german cath- o l i c newspaper "der katholik" of , records that the sask- atchewan provincial government passed a law whereby religious instructions were to be taught only i n the english language. the occasion for the enactment of this law was apparently due to the inquiry of a german school d i s t r i c t as to whether re- ligious instructions may be presented in the german tongue. during the time of the liberal government i n saskatchewan, matters of language usage for religious presentation remained untouched as religious instruction was not considered a part of the school curriculum. the conservative government which prohibited the use of the german tongue, based i t s authority on paragraph of the school act which stated that english, with the exception of french, should be the only language of instruction. the conservative government interpreted the school act to include religious instruction as part of the school curriculum. the "volksverein..." was outraged and made a general appeal to a l l germans to combat this arbitrary in- terpretation of the law. ^ with the exception of the above mentioned case, eng- l i s h as the language of presentation in schools was peacefully "auslanddeutschtum", per auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , peutsches ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . accepted i n the german d i s t r i c t s . the parents themselves re- cognized the importance of the language of their adopted coun- try and i t s usefulness i n the future of their children as can- adians, with the adoption of english, the mother tongue became neglected. german, as spoken by the russian-germane, was a dialect which had not progressed with the times. having been educated i n english, the generation born in canada no doubt recognized the limitations of their mother tongue. thus they have become reluctant to speak the same. it i s not surprising to hear so many say, "yes, i speak german but i t is what i have learned from my parents - a dialect", when asked whether they speak german. as the dialect was abandoned and english adopted, the younger generation assumed a new culture which has led to their absorption into canadian l i f e . after a tour- ing priest noted some twenty years ago that i n st. peter's colony, german culture and language were disappearing, abbot gertken of muenster, saskatchewan replied, "it is natural. it must come, what of i t . " the great possibility for higher education was by no means ignored. in a l l walks of l i f e today, we find the can- adian-born descendants of russian-german immigrants. the sta- t i s t i c s i n table vii, although limited to the d i s t r i c t of odessa, are typical for many other russian-german settlements, and do not d i f f e r from any other ethnic group in canada. dawson, op_. c i t . , p. . table vii odessa village school attendance taken from gerein, prank, history of odessa, - . west- ern printers association ltd., regina, saskatchewan, , appendix iii, p. . year viii grades ix x xi xii ... . . . * • . . . . . . . . » •»»< . . . . . . . « . . • » « • « . . - . . . . . . . •.. . • • . . . ...< ... . . . . •. .. < >. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • ••••••• • • • • • * . . . * * >.. • • • • . . . » • . . . . . . . . . . • ••• »«••-•' * • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . ..» * - * . . .. ?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . > . < . . • . . i » • • * a • • • * • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » * * . . . . ( . . . . i . . . • • • • • • • • j? • • • . . . . . . . . . . ( . . . . i . . . • • • •« • • • • * • . . . . . . . . .•.•• *.' . . . . . • • • * • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *• > • • . • > * * * v # * * . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . » ».« •• • * *« . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. * * < • . . * . * • • o • • • < . . . . . . . ..• .. . » . . . *• • • • •« . . . graduates from odessa schools priests. * . . . deacons sisters nurses . student nurses . university degrees teachers. iv press and literary publications soon after the arrival of the f i r s t german settlers i n western canada, the news-weekly "der nordwestern" was founded i n winnipeg i n . the paper also published a yearly calendar. before the publication of the german news- paper "der courier", the "der nordwestern" was considered the leading paper i n western canada. it was subscribed to by both lutherans and catholics although i t had a lutheran flavoring. the number of i t s present subscribers is about , . in , the german news-weekly "der courier" was founded in regina, saskatchewan. for a short duration during world war i, the weekly was issued i n english. under the en- ergetic editorship of b. bott, the paper gradually assumed the leading position amongst the german papers i n western canada. a position which i t s t i l l maintains. under b. bott, the "der courier" was e d i t o r i a l l y roman catholic. this i s understand- able as bott was also editor of the catholic paper "der kath- olik" from ~to . the subscription l i s t for "der courier" both past and present i s as follows: - , j - , ; and - , . the number of subscribers has increased i n recent years due to the new influx of ger- man immigrants. as the "der nordwestern", the "der courier" i s also subscribed to by both lutherans and catholics. other religiously independent newspapers were founded before world war i; "der deutsch-canadier" in calgary, alberta and the "alberta herold" i n edmonton. due to the lack of f i - nances, the publication of the two papers was discontinued before the outbreak of world war i. the publication of the "alberta herold" was resumed after world war i, however i t was again unable to subsist and amalgamated with the "der cour- i e r " . the "college freund" was notable amongst the r e l i - gious papers and was published by the manitoba synod seminary i n saskatoon sinoe * it has been absorbed by the "synod- alboten" since . the missouri synod has published the following since the »s; the "canadisch-lutherischen kirch- enblatt", "uneere kirche", and the "der lutherlsche missionar" which was later issued as the "der lutherlsche herold". an exclusive catholic paper was the "westkanada" which was founded i n and which ceased publication with the coming of world war i. the paper was considered the or- gan of the order of the oblate fathers (omt). since then, the oblate fathers publish the "der marienbote" i n battleford, saskatchewan. its present subscribers number , . accord- ing to the estimate of the editor, bernhard von fischbach, o.m.i., there are about , russian-germans on the subscrip- tion l i s t . the "der katholik" which existed from to lehmann, op,, c i t . , p. . kloss, heinz, "materialen zur gesehichte der deutsch- kanadischen presse", per auslanddeutsohe. jahrg. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . had as many as , subscribers. another notable cath- o l i c paper was the "st. petersbote" published by the order of the benedictine fathers (osb), of muenster, saskatchewan. the f i r s t paper was published february th, . the paper was f i r s t printed i n winnipeg, later i n muenster. between and the paper was issued i n english. in a p a r a l l e l to the "st. petersbote" the "st. peter messenger" appeared. later it was changed to the "prairie messenger". at pre- sent, only the "prairie messenger" is published in english. numberous other german papers started publication but were unable to exist for a long period of time as subscrip- tions were very low. the present existing german papers in canada are exclusively read by the older generation - or re- cent immigrants who are not well versed in the english tongue. although some of these papers are on a relatively high edit- o r i a l level, they are weeklies and thus bring belated news. #. # # * « almost nothing has been published i n the l i t e r a r y f i e l d by the entire russian-german lutheran and catholic group i n canada. their publications have been restricted to a few articles that have appeared in the "der courier" and the "der nordwestern". other publications have been h i s t o r i c a l sket- ches of individual colonies. the most recent and notable has kloss, op., c i t . . p. . been that of a russian-german descendant, rev. frank gerein, d.d., entitled history of odessa. the booklet contains a de- tailed description of the colony of odessa, saskatchewan which was founded by russian-germans. a. f. wanner, a black sea german, published several articles and two pamphlets entitled untergehendes volk and volk auf dem wege. both pamphlets con- tain a short historical review of russian-german colonies i n the black sea area as well as a few short stories, the settings of which are the german colonies i n russia. aus deutschen kolonlen im kutschurganer geblet i s a notable publication of johannes brendel. it contains a detailed description of l i f e i n the kutchurgan german settlement and a l i s t of the original settlers. his second work is a collection of russian-german folksongs i n the u.s.a. and canada. v. german societies in western canada the f i r s t german organization i n western canada was founded as early as . the. "deutseher vereinigung" was organized i n winnipeg for the purpose of assisting and advis- ing newly-arrived immigrants. ^ later, the "bund deutseher vereine" was organized which incorporated several small organ- izations in manitoba. at the turn of the century, the "edel- weiss" society was founded i n edmonton and later the "bund der deutschen i n alberta". at the same time, the "deutsch annual report of the ministry of agriculture. . op. c i t . , p. . kanadischer provincial verband" waa founded i n saskatchewan ^ numerous other local organizations were founded, however these predominantly represented the german elements from germany proper. the church remained the only form of organization a- mongst the russian-germans a,s i t had in russia, only after world war i, when the activities of the german societies reached their peak, did the russian-germans begin to be active i n the same. during world war i the organizations ceased their a c t i v i t i e s . after world war i, the organizations were again revived. the german periodical "der auslanddeutsche" of , reported that the "deutsch-kanadlscher national verband" was founded i n alberta. in edmonton, the canadians of german or- igin were united, irregardless of religious and p o l i t i c a l views, for the purpose of acting amongst the german elements and promoting participation in cultural and p o l i t i c a l l i f e . it also undertook to urge a l l germans who were qualified, to apply for their citizenship. it promoted the german tongue amongst the younger generation. in , the edmonton chap- ter of the "deutsch-kanadlscher...." had , members. ^ in other provinces, a revival similar to that of a l - berta took place after world war i. the "deutsch-kanadlscher lehmann, op. c i t . , p. * "auslanddeutschtum", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , p. . bund" of manitoba was founded and included several smaller or- ganizations such as the "deutsche sprachverelnigung", " t. jo- sephs verein" and the "deutseher hllfsverein". in saskatchew- an, the "deutsch-kanadlscher verband" of saskatchewan was revived i n i n addition to the "volksvereih der deutsch- kanadlschen katholiken". the province of b r i t i s h columbia a l - so participated i n the foundation of german clubs after world war i. the "alpen verein" has survived up to the present time. although there was a chapter of the nsdap i n b r i t i s h columbia, the remainder of the german organizations s t r i c t l y adhered to their cultural and recreational purposes, a unified organization of a l l the germans i n canada was never achieved. the organizations were limited to the individual provinces. the a c t i v i t i e s were climaxed in every province by a yearly f e s t i v a l which was usually held i n the capital of the province. the programs of such festivals, known as the "deutsche tage", consisted of various contests i n singing and folk-dancing i n their native dress. with the onset of world war ii, a l l german cultural activities and german organizations ceased to function. a revival of the organizations is not noticeable, although there are smaller local groups in vancouver, regina, and winnipeg. these groups are concerned purely with recreation and sports activities and consist mainly of the recently arrived german immigrants, who are the most active members. unified p o l i t i c a l influence was never exercised by the german lutherans and catholics in western canada. the number of representatives i n provincial parliaments is.very low i n proportion to the total number of germans i n western canada. the relatively low educational standard of the ger- man immigrant from eastern europe, the language d i f f i c u l t i e s and their conservative nature, have kept them away from any notable p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s . they have not even shown part- icipation i n local administration. the russian-germans have been especially reluctant i n this respect. however, i n a few cases where a solid population of russian-germans has been present, they have succeeded in sending their representative to the provincial parliament - for example, anton buck, who was m.l.a. for south qu'appelle i n saskatchewan. in general, the germans in western canada and for that matter the russian-germans have favored the liberal party federally. recent inquiries i n alberta and saskatchewan how- ever, have shown that there i s a tendency to vote for the present provincial governments. there have been several persons of influence, the most outstanding being lieut. gov. g. uhrich and several provinc- i a l representatives. these people, however, have been ger- man and not russian-german. chapter viii adjustment and assimilation in canada it w i l l be the theme i n this concluding chapter to establish to what extent the russian-german immigrants and their descendants have become adjusted to and assimilated i n the canadian way of l i f e . some twenty-five years ago, robert england stated: in the sense i n which i t i s applied by many, there is no such thing as assimilation. if i t be taken to mean sufficient similarity of mental outlook to make cooperation feasible, that i s about a l l we can do. we can never make a german an anglo-saxon any more than we can make an englishman i r i s h . as time as this statement may be, i t i s also true that i t i s not the object of canadian policy to make anglo-saxons of the immigrants. it is the object to make them and their children canadians. otherwise, who then would be called canadian? we have noted that the average russian-germans were a rural people, f u l l of enormous working i n i t i a t i v e . their spiritual l i f e was exhausted in religion. religious a c t i v i - ties were brisk. their literature consisted of the bible, calendars and hymnbooks. their periodicals and papers were england, pp. c i t . , p. . devoted to religious purposes. the church was the only form of organization; the clergy was their leader. education was on a low niveau. there were scarcely any well educated people among them, thus there was no s p i r i t u a l contact with their motherland, nor any deeper knowledge of i t s culture. yet in essence they were germans in as much as they had preserved their language and fostered a culture of their own. as such they lived i n russia and continued to do so after their ar- r i v a l i n canada. in canada, we have further witnessed that with econ- omic success the formation of a social strata had started, which manifested i t s e l f in the formation of numerous prairie towns. the influx into bigger c i t i e s of those who had accum- ulated a certain amount of wealth, and of those who had f a i l e d as farmers, was not a rare occurrence. with this influx and with the russian-german immigrants who had remained in the city after their a r r i v a l in canada, the nucleus of a russian- german city group was established. in this manner, the russian-germans came to live side by side with f u l l canadians and the influence of the latter was soon apparent. the cul- tural value of the surrounding people and their language was learned and borrowed. as expected this process of borrowing proceeded with greater rapidity i n the cities than i t did i n the scattered prairie settlements. in spite of this influence kuhn, op. c i t . , pp. - . that raised the general cultural standard of the adult russ- ian-german immigrant, he nevertheless only became adjusted to the canadian way of l i f e . he s t i l l has preserved many of his old habits and the dialect s t i l l serve him as his main lang- uage. a comparison of the newly arrived russian-german immi- grants with those of the pre-war era, reflect clearly the purely canadian outlook of the latter. it is to this l a t t e r group to whom we may apply the above quotation by robert england in respect to assimilation. but i t is the children of those, who had at one time exhausted their s p i r i t u a l energy exclusively i n religious ac- t i v i t i e s , that have turned to worldly oultural aspects. re- ligious pamphlets become replaced by p o l i t i c a l and cultural reading. whether i n the city or out in the p r a i r i e , educa- tion and culture became elevated i n the course of time. they drew rapidly from canadian culture. the attendance of higher educational institutions by descendants of russian-germans i s not a rare occurrence any longer. the standard demanded by those that have been born and educated in canada does not d i f f e r in any respect from any other canadian's. it is to these russian-german descendants that we may safely say that they have been f u l l y integrated and assimilated into the can- adian way of l i f e . a comparison of the. russian-german group i n canada to their period in russia, exhibits that already the second generation i n canada has with extreme rapidity undergone the process of assimilation. in russia, where the group resided for over one hundred years, they faced assimilation only du- ring the period of the soviet regime. the settlements i n russia were self-contained and on the whole solidly populated by their own group, thus a preservation of habits and langu- age was more favorable than i n canada. in canada, the exist- ence of scattered settlements and its greater contact with the surrounding population made a preservation of their na- tional characteristics less possible. however, the deeper forces of assimilation in canada were the lack of cultural leaders of the group and the lack of national feeling especially amongst the younger generation. their forefathers had l e f t germany for russia some one hundred years ago - this even prior to their migration into canada. very l i t t l e had been preserved that was german and that was handed down from generation to generation. a deeper know- ledge of german culture was never apparent among the genera- tion born in canada. these socially elevated russian-german descendants have even consciously, as pointed out i n the pre- vious chapter, abandoned their mother tongue, for i t was known to them only i n a dialectic form. they never f e l t as germans and they had l i t t l e i n common with germany. their participation in world war ii was done so without any senti- ments. the success of their fathers i n their newly adopted country caused an unconscious affirmation for canada amongst the younger generation. finally, this rapid and peaceful assimilation is ex- pressed i n the attitude of the russian-germans themselves. its essence i s expressed in the simple yet true and v i t a l l y important statement formulated by pfefferi in the loss of their national characteris- t i c s , they do not see an adjustment to a foreign nation, only a stripping off of old habits of the 'old world . they believe i n doing the same as the other nationals i.e. to create out of so many national groups a real new nation. they believe i n forming a new type, such as americans, canadians, aus- tralians, etc. for the sake of their child- ren's future, they became f u l l citizens in their new homeland. thus they are willing, with heaven and the new earth, to adopt the language of their new homeland, and forsake habits and customs that were once so dear. pfeffer, karl heinz, "deutsche volksgruppe und angel- saechslche buergerliche ge sells c h a f f , auslanddeutsche volks- forechung. jahrg. , bd. , ferdinand enke verlag, stuttgart, , p. . bibliography this bibliography contains only the literature which has been used in the research for this thesis. it includes books, periodicals, magazines, encyclopedias, etc. these have been l i s t e d alphabetically according to author, other- wise according to the t i t l e of the book or a r t i c l e . abele, paul, festschrift zur jaehrlgen jubllae'msfeler der gruendung der st. pauls-klrchengemelnde i n vibank. sask., june th. . western printers association ltd., regina, saskatchewan, . anderson, j.t.m., the education of the new-canadian. j.m. dent & sons ltd., london & toronto, . anger, h., die deutschen i n slblrlen. ost-europa verlag, berlln-koenigsberg, . angus, h.f., "canadian immigration: law and i t s administration american journal of international law, vol. , published by the american society of international law, washington, . annual report of the department of immigration and coloniza- tion. to . to . printer to the king's most excellent majesty, ottawa, to , to i . annual report of the department of the interior for the year . n . t . printed by s..e. dawson, printer to the queen's most excellent majesty, ottawa, . annual report of the department of the interior. . part ii no. , printer to the kingts most excellent majesty, ottawa, . annual report of the ministry of agriculture. & . no. ' and no. , printer to the queen's most excellent majesty, ottawa, & i . annual report on immigration of the department of the interior. part ii, to , to , government printing bureau, ottawa, to . a.s.s.r. der wolgadeutschen. polltlsch-oekonomlscher abriss. peutecher staatsverlag, engels, o\ atlas of canada. department of the interior, canada, * atlas of canada. department of the interior, canada, , "auslanddeutschtum", per auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , p. . "auslanddeutschtum", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . "auslanddeutschtum". per auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , peutsches ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pr>. - . bauer, g., geschlchte der deutschen ansledler an der- wolga selt der elnwanderung nach russland bis zur elnfuehrung der allgemeinen wehrpfllcht - . selbstverlag. saratov, . beratz, g., pie deutschen kolonlen an der unteren wolga i n lhrer entstehung und entwicklung. im ost-europa verlag, berlin, . bier, f. and schick, a., aus den leindenstagen der deutschen wolgakolonlen. pruck der l.g. wittichschen hofbuch- druckerei, parmstadt, . boelitz, otto, pas grenz und auslanddeutschtum. seine geschlchte und seine bedeutung. pruck und verlag von r. oldenbourg, muenchen und berlin, . bonwetsch, gerhard, geschlchte der deutschen kolonlen an der wolga. verlag von i. engelhorns nachf, stuttgart, . brendel, johannes, aus deutschen kolonlen im l£utschurganer geblet. ausland und helmat verlags aktlengesellschaft, stuttgart, . buettner, k., pie auswanderung aus wuerttemberg. geographlsche studien reihe a, hefft / , kohlhammer verlag, stuttgart, . the canada year book. to . pominlon bureau of sta- t l s t l c s , king's or queen's printer and controller of stationary, ottawa, to . canadian department of mines and resources, rational topo- graphic series. survey and mapping branch, ottawa, . census of canada, . vol. , population, printer to the king's most excellent majesty, ottawa, . census of canada. . vol. , population, printer to the king's most excellent majesty, ottawa, . constitution of the u.s.s.r.. american russian institution, new york, . dafoe, john w., clifford sifton i n relation to his time. the macmillan company of canada limited, toronto, . dawson, c.h., group settlement. ethnic communities i n western canada, the macmillan company of canada limited, toronto, . dawson, c.h. and younge, eva r., pioneering i n the prairie provinces: the social side of the settlement process. the macmillan company of canada limited, toronto, o. dawson, c.h. and murehie, r.w., the settlement of the peace river country, the macmillan company of canada limited, toronto, . deutsches ausland institut, per wanderweg der russlanddeutsoh- en, w. kohlhammer verlag, stuttgart, , pillingham, w.p., the immigration situation in canada. the immigration commission (u.s.a.), washington government printing office, washington, . edelman, maurice, how russia prepared. penguin books inc., new york, . england, robert, the colonization of western canada. p.s. king & son ltd., london, . england, robert, the central european immigrant in canada. the macmillan company of canada limited, toronto, . friedemann, wolfgang g., german immigration into canada, the ryerson press, toronto, . gerein, frank, history of odessa. - . western printers association ltd., regina, saskatchewan, . gibbon, john murray, canadian mosaic. the making of a north- ern nation. mcclelland and stewart ltd., toronto, . arose, e., a.s.s.r. nemoev povolzja. izdanije "nemgosizdata", pokrovsk, . handbuch des dentschtums im auslande, adressbuch der deutschen auslandschulen. dietrich reimer (ernst bohsen), berlin, i o ". hedges, james b., building the canadian west. the land and colonization policies of the canadian pacific railway. the macmillan co., new york, . herasimovich, ivan, holod na ukra.llni. vidavnitstvo "ukrajln- ske slovo", berlin, . herbermann, c.g., and pace, e., "tiraspol diocese", the catholic encyclopedia. robert appleton company, new york, . institut fuer besatzungsfragen. das dp - problem. verlag j.c.b. mohr (paul siebeck), tuebingen, . keenleyside, h.l., canadian immigration policy. publication of the university of british columbia, vancouver, . kessler, joseph aloysius, geschlchte der dloezese tyraspol. verlag von rev. george aberle, dickinson, north dakota, . klaus, alexander, unsere kolonlen. verlag odessaer zeitung, odessa, . kloss, heinz, "materlalen zur geschlchte der deutsch-kanad- ischen presse", der auslanddeutsche, jahrg. , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , pp. - . kloss, heinz and reimann, katherine, statistlsches handbuch der volksdeutschen i n uebersee. vertraullche bc'hrlfteh- relhe uebersee, publlkat onsstelle stuttgart-hamburg, stuttgart, . kohn, hans, nationalism i n the soviet union. george routledge & sons ltd., london, . kolarz, walter, russia and her colonies. george philip and son limited, london, . krimm, herbert, das antlitz der vertrlebenen. verlag von j.f. steinkopf, stuttgart, . kuhn, walter, deutsche sprachlnsel-forschung, geschlchte. aufgaben. verfahren. verlag: guenther wolff, plauen . vogtl., . langhans-ratzeburg, manfred, die wolgadeutschen. ihr staats- und verwaltungsre cht in vergangenhelt and gegenwart. im ost-europa: verlag, berlin w. und koenigsberg, . lehmann, heinz, das deutschtum i n westkanada. verlag junker und duenhaupt, berlin, . lehmann, heinz, kanada, volksdeutsche ahende. heft , verlag volkhund fuerdas deutschtum im ausland, berlin, * lehmann, heinz, zur geschlchte des deutschtums in kanada, ausland und helmat verlags aktiengesellschaft, stuttgart, v v: '.' • leibbrandt, georg, die deutschen kolonlen i n cherson und beasarablen. ausland und heimat verlags, aktiengesell* •; schaft, stuttgart, . leibbrandt, georg, "the emigration of the german mennonites from russia to u.s.a. and canada,' - ", menno- nlte quarterly review, vol. , goshen college, goshen, indiana, , pp. - l . loebsack, georg, elnsam kaempft das wolgaland, r. voeigtlaeder verlag, leipzig, . luther, arthur, "deutsche dichtung i n russland", der ausland- deutsche . jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . matthals, frledrich, die deutschen ansledlungen in russland. verlag von hermann fries, leipzig, . mende von, gerhard, die voelker der sowjetunlon. rudolf schneider veriag "reichenaut~l "^ metzger, h., geachlchtllcher abriss ueber die st. peters- pfarrel zu kronau. western printers association ltd., regina, saskatchewan, . morton, a.s. and martin, c , history of prairie settlement - dominion lands policy. the macmlllan company of canada ltd., toronto, . "nemcev povolzja a.s.s.r. " , bol'sha. a sovetska. a enslklopedl a. vol. , moskva, o.g.j.z., r.s.f.s.r., , pp. - . neufeld, gerda, elnwanderung in kanada nach dem krlege dissertation, friedrich-wilhelms unlversltaet, berlin, . ottawa government, special report on the foreign born popu- lation. ottawa government printing bureau, ottawa, . pfeffer, karl heinz, "deutsche volksgruppe und angelsaechslche buergerliche gesellschaft", auslanddeutsche volksfors c h - ung. jahrg. , bd. , ferdinarel enke verlag, stuttgart, , pp. - . pfeffer, karl heinz, "zur erforschung des kanadischen peutsch- tums", deutsehes archly fuer landes - u. volksforschungi jahrg. , no. / , verlag von s. hirzel, leipzig, , pp. - . ponten, josef, im wolgaland, deutsche verlags-anstalt, stuttgart & berlin, stuttgart, . ponten, josef, die vaeter zogen qus, deutsche verlags-anstalt, stuttgart & berlin, .stuttgart, . quiring, walter, russlanddeutsche suchen elne helmat, die deutsche elnwanderung i n den paraguaylschen chace., verlag* heinrich schneider, karlsruhe, . quiring, walter, "die russlanddeutschen fleuchtllnge in china", der wanderweg der russlanddeutschen. deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , "op. - . "racial origins and nativity"of the canadian people", census monograph no. , reprinted from vol. of the census of , ottawa, , p. . rennikov, a., zoloto relna, nemcakh v rossli. petrograd, . ruccius, m., "peutsch-evangellsche arbeit in kanada", per auslanddeutsche. jahrg.. , no. , peutsches ausland i n s t i t u t e , stuttgart , pp. - . "rundschau", per auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsehes ausland instltut, stuttgart, , pp. - . "russlanddeutsche bauern.auf der wanderung", per ausland- deutsche, jahrg. , no. , pp. - , no. , pp. - , no. , pp. - , peutsches ausland in tit'ut, stuttgart, . sallet, richard, "russlanddeutavche sledlungen i n den vereinlg- ten staaten von amerlka", jahrbuch der peutsch amerlkan- lschen hlstorlschen gesellschaft von i l l i n o i s . vol. , chicago, , pp. - . schechtman, joseph b., european population transfers. - . oxford university press, new york, . schleuning, johannes, in kampf und todesnot. bernard u. graefe, berlin-charlottenburg , . schoeneich, hans, die lhr helmatland verllessen. wege und schicksale deutseher auswanderer, verlag von phillpp reclam jun., leipzig, . schuenemann, g., das lied der deutschen kolonisten in russland, verlag r. oldenbourg, huenchen, i . slssons, c.b.. bl-llngual schools in canada. j.m. dent & sons ltd., toronto, . stach,.jakob, das deutschtum in slblrlen mlttelaslen und dem fernen osten von selnen anfaengen bis in die gegenwart, kohlhammer verlag, stuttgart, . stalin j. v., " p o l i t i c a l report to the th congress of the communist party of the soviet union, july. ", vsesoluznala kommunls cheskala partia (b), new york city workers library publishers, new york, . strieker, wllhelm, die deutschen bauern in suedrussland. deutsche landbuchhandlung gmbh, berlin, , stumpp, karl, die deutschen kolonlen im schwarzmeergebiet. dem fruehen neu-(sued) russland. ausland und heimat verlags aktlengesellschaft, stuttgart, . timlin, mabel f., does canada need more people. oxford univer- sity press, toronto, . verband deutseher verelne im auslande e. v., wlr deutsche in der welt, kommissionsverlag verlagsanstalt otto stollberg, berlin, , , , , . wagner, georg, and mai, richard, deutsche ueber land und meer. verlag der buchgemeinde, bonn, . "wanderungswesen", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , p. . "wanderungswesen", der auslanddeutsche. jahrg. , no. / , deutsches ausland institut, stuttgart, , p. . wanner, a.f., untergehendes volk. im selbstverlag erschienen, vancouver, . wehrenalp von, erwin barth, deutsche i n uebersee. luehe & co., leipzig, . wimmer, hermann, die deutschen i n russland, verlag von b.g. teubner, leipzig, . "wolgadeutsche republik", per grosse brockhaus. f.u. brock- haus, vol. , leipzig, , p. . k woltner, m., daa wolgadeutsche blldungswesen und die ruaslsche schulnolltik. kommissionsverlag otto harrassowitz, leipzig, , "zentralkomitee der deutschen aus russland", der ausland- deutsche. jahrg. , no. , deutsches ausland institut. stuttgart, , t>p. - . a. s. s./?. of the volga germans (map i) p l a c e of orib.ntskti on • g e r m a n s e t t l e m e n t s (only main settlements me n ~tl gn£d ) saratov %mahten vrg < f \ r r i \ \a//£scnhu£:l o.r hano ""x \ n / i / colonies in the black sea area (maph) a places of orientation • mother colonies o mennonite colonies • s i s t e r colonies c s-f » " - , i mherson i s / k i x %krohsgarte.m \ (dn/spropetrovsk} \ c.xateria/os lav mqaybacsk ..vr &er rf \vr -+ncudorf i v . i . \hortitza district • massel* gnao&nfelo + . eresam, district district schlamgendorf < mnnof. cjpftlschib district [lostsroorf u t- schweoenoorf gvclpea/c scha&oi odessa "at£a -alba lerson melitopol taurien erdtansk a zoi/ / a • • » black sea evpatori, kronenta sevastopol crimea.; • neil. br una/ , "zurichtal. rosea/tal prieioewal. \lta a, £qvt« caucasus, alexanderdorf • %marl£nf£ui el/sa £thtal ^t/fllff vkatherinenfelo* ^ ahfai£fi/fel helemendorf^ file:///hort alberta saskatchewan (mapju) russ- german colonies in viest. canada a places of orientation o catholic colonies • lutheran colonies • reformed colony {edmonton \luth£fio#t he/mthal \ a wetask/inja/ % bashaw silvergrove rosenheim i \st. joseph's colon y^ saskatoon, st peter's colony w/lkiew^ revenue® [tramping lake brmn ohum o\qt omuewster v > 'quill lakes fpeudental a drummell e/f leigcnheimtmmtf** calgary manitoba / / / \ ypsumvillje \ > r\(jnn ymede )\toqo \ a h iqleaoer q prelates < v oholopast hoffnun stal* \ melville % upton% \ friedfeld gran owe w \ndshut moo&ehorn %neuh£im _ % graham dale tasnaq rimer langenburg bekesina lancer schuler o herbert % ̂ • morse regina imedicine hat lethbrjbul a grassy lake * q&algonie&osephstal) ^ go" "- peter's community >flow,a, w£li_s hronado q ovibank c^vs / w t f o ^kendal , . - j brok^nheai grupnvi/lo v fcy fj» ^nwtemolfth pish lah thal erg ^ golden elay ^ oldenbeaq beausejour «l randon iinnipeq \ ^yellow grass o&illimun \ *neu-norkk t morris marienthal bergfelbo jakoasbe_f{t$ q — omar yland olandau is te van \ file:/// ypsumvillje file:///ndshut the genetic basis of fsgs and steroid-resistant nephrosis by martin r. pollak studies of mendelian forms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (fsgs) and nephrotic syndrome have provided new insights into the mechanism of these diseases. congenital nephrotic syndrome and familial forms of fsgs form a spectrum of podocyte diseases of varying severity and age of onset. mutations in both nephrin gene (nphs ) alleles lead to congenital nephrosis, podocyte foot process effacement, and loss of slit-diaphragm structure. mutations in both podocin gene (nphs ) alleles lead to a wide range of human disease, from childhood- onset steroid-resistant fsgs and minimal change disease to adult-onset fsgs. dominantly inherited mutations in actn , the �-actinin- gene, can lead to a slowly progressive adult-onset form of fsgs. in addition, fsgs is observed as part of several rare multisystem inherited syndromes. here we review recent progress in understand- ing the genetic basis of fsgs in humans. © elsevier inc. all rights reserved. the role of genetic factors in the de-velopment of focal segmental glomeruloscle- rosis (fsgs) in humans has become increasingly apparent in recent years. genetic studies also have helped strengthen the notion that glomerular vis- ceral epithelial cell (or podocyte) disorders lead to a spectrum of clinical presentations, from congen- ital nephrotic syndrome (cnf), to minimal change disease (mcd), and fsgs. here we review recent progress in the understanding of the role of genetic factors in these related disorders of podocytes. mendelian disease studies of mendelian forms of disease have pro- vided (and will continue to provide) some of the most novel insights into the mechanisms of human disease. clinicians have observed familial aggre- gation of proteinuric disease for some time, though recognition of familial nephrosis has not been widespread. for over half a century, there have been scattered reports in the medical literature of familial nephrosis. four siblings with nephrotic syndrome were described in a report. pathol- ogy showed minimal change disease in some chil- dren, fsgs in others. the absence of disease in the parents suggested recessive inheritance. additional scattered reports of both single-generation and multigeneration disease have continued to appear in the case literature. - of course, familial disease need not be inherited—multiple members of a fam- ily may be exposed to the same environmental insults. however, recent studies of mendelian dis- ease have begun to clarify the clinical spectrum of the group of disorders that make up familial fsgs and familial nephrotic syndrome (table ). studies involving genetic manipulations in mice have iden- tified additional genes involved in regulating the normal podocyte phenotype and in the develop- ment of fsgs. in the past several years, novel proteins have been identified in childhood forms of nephritic syndrome using purely positional ge- netic approaches. genetics congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type, or cnf, is a geographically widespread dis- ease characterized by the development of severe nephrosis in utero and autosomal-recessive inher- itance. affected neonates have on the order of to g/d proteinuria and typically die from com- plications of the nephrotic syndrome at a young age unless nephrectomy and renal transplantation are performed. without renal transplantation, mor- tality is essentially %. typical problems in- clude infection, growth retardation, prematurity, and the development of renal insufficiency. cnf presents neonatally but is present prenatally. par- ents of cnf infants (and therefore obligate het- erozygotes) have no apparent phenotype, though prenatal proteinuria is detectable in a substantial fraction of heterozygotes before birth. subsequent to mapping the cnf gene to chro- mosome q by a means of a genome-wide linkage analysis, the cnf gene nphs was cloned by positional methods. , nphs spans kb of genomic dna and contains exons. nephrin, the gene product, is a -kd protein containing a fibronectin iii–like domain, immunoglobulin c motifs, and a single transmembrane segment. nephrin localizes to the slit diaphragm in the podo- from the renal division, brigham and women’s hospital, louis pasteur ave, boston, ma. address reprint requests to martin r. pollak, md, renal divi- sion, brigham and women’s hospital, louis pasteur ave, boston, ma . e-mail: mpollak@rics.bwh.harvard.edu © elsevier inc. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . / doi: . /snep. . seminars in nephrology, vol , no (march), : pp - cyte. - nephrin appears to play a role in regu- lating signaling pathways. localization to signal- ing domains known as lipid rafts has been shown recently. , most of the congenital nephrotic syndrome in finland is caused by specific nphs mutations, fin major (the deletion of nucleotides – leading to a frameshift) and fin minor (encoding a premature termination signal at amino acid ). a growing list of disease-associated mu- tations includes missense, splicing, and truncation mutations. - some nephrin mutations have been shown to cause defective trafficking of the pro- tein. in addition to the high prevalence in fin- land, nphs mutations are frequent in mennonites from lancaster county, pennsylvania. eight per- cent of the groffdale conference mennonites carry a specific altered nphs allele. the incidence of cnf is in live births in this group. the identification of nphs has improved the antenatal diagnosis of cnf. prenatal proteinuria and elevated �-fetoprotein levels are observed in fetuses both heterozygous and homozygous for nphs defects, making �-fetoprotein levels a poor screening tool. in finland, where mutations account for % of disease, testing for these alleles can provide an inexpensive and highly sen- sitive screen. mice homozygous for targeted disruption of nephrin have neonatal nephrosis. - nephrin knockout mice initially have normal-appearing podocytes, despite abnormal appearing slit-dia- phragms, suggesting that nephrin’s primary role in the kidney is in slit diaphragm function rather than in podocyte development. recessive fsgs fuchshuber et al described a form of nephrosis characterized by recessive transmission, early on- set, resistance to steroid therapy, and rapid pro- gression to end-stage kidney failure. the majority of the affected children showed an fsgs pattern on renal biopsy examination, though some showed mcd. the gene for this recessive form of fsgs was mapped to chromosome q - and sub- sequently cloned. , nphs , the responsible gene, encodes podocin, a amino acid integral membrane protein. podocin is homologous to sto- matin family proteins and to mec- , part of the caenorhabditis elegans mechanosensing appara- tus. podocin localizes to the slit-diaphragm and has been shown to interact directly with neph- rin. , , , the relatively small number of nphs exons ( ) facilitates mutational analysis of human dna. several recent reports have helped define the spec- trum of nphs -associated disease. many of the disease-associated mutations create truncated pro- teins, suggesting that disease results from a loss of function of nphs . - most affected individuals in these reports presented with disease in early childhood. r q appears to be a common dis- ease-causing variant, and has been observed in several families without recent common ancestors. r x seems to be particularly common in arab- israeli children with steroid-resistant nephrosis. our data suggests that an r q variant, common in the general population, can cause late-onset fsgs when it occurs together with a second mu- tant (and probably more severe) allele. podocin mutations underlie disease in a sizable fraction of both familial and nonfamilial instances of child- hood-onset recessive fsgs. fuchshuber et al found nphs mutations in % of such families. other studies suggest that nphs mutations cause disease in % to % of children with sporadic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. , recent reports suggests a podocin-nephrin inter- action at a protein-protein and at a genetic level. direct physical interactions between the proteins have been shown. , human data also suggest a genetic interaction. koziell et al have reported that the presence of a single nphs may modify table . identified nonsyndromic fsgs/ns genes disease locus inheritance gene protein mim number* study congenital nephrotic syndrome q . autosomal recessive nphs nephrin kestila et al steroid-resistant-ns q - autosomal recessive nphs podocin boute et al fsgs q autosomal dominant actn �-actinin- kaplan et al * mendelian inheritance in man number. martin r. pollak the course of nphs -associated congenital ne- phrosis. recessive and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (ns) is genetically heterogeneous. fuchshuber et al identified one large family un- linked to the chromosome q locus in their report of locus identification. our unpublished data also suggests heterogeneity in recessive disease. ge- netic heterogeneity in human disease is not surpris- ing, given the existence of several recessive loci for ns in mice. dominant fsgs autosomal-dominant forms of fsgs typically present later and are more slowly progressive than recessive forms. - mutations in actn , encod- ing �-actinin- , cause a slowly progressive form of disease with dominant inheritance, nonnephrotic proteinuria, and renal insufficiency. the pen- etrance of actn -associated disease is high but not %: in these families, several individuals carry disease-associated mutations but have no proteinuria or renal insufficiency. actn is one of �-actinin genes. these genes encode biochemically similar, highly homologous proteins. the �-actinins form approximately -kd head-to-tail homodimers. actn is the only actinin expressed significantly in the human glomerulus. the actn mutations identified in fsgs families are all missense and increase the affinity of the encoded protein to actin filaments. �-actinin/actin affinity affects mechanical proper- ties of actin gels, suggesting that these mutations may alter the mechanical properties of the podo- cyte. this form of disease appears to be rare compared with nphs - and nphs -associated nephrosis. actn mutations appear to explain only a frac- tion of dominant fsgs. another locus on chromo- some q has been reported. most families do not show evidence of linkage to either the chro- mosome q (actn ) or this q locus. it remains unknown whether disease in most of these families is caused by inherited podocyte defects. syndromic fsgs fsgs and related podocyte disorders also are seen as part of well-defined inherited syndromes. the spectrum of disease seen with wt mutations is the best studied of these disorders. the wt transcription factor was cloned on the basis of its role in the development of wilms tumor. , frasier syndrome and denys-drash syndrome are related and overlapping syndromes caused by mu- tations in wt . - both syndromes are character- ized by glomerular disease and the development of male pseudohermaphroditism. frasier syndrome is caused by donor splice mutations in intron of wt . an fsgs pattern is seen on renal biopsy examination. frasier syndrome can present as fsgs in ,xx females in association with go- nadal malignancy. , wt mutations are not a significant cause of glomerular disease in the ab- sence of other genitourinary features. denys- drash syndrome is defined by diffuse mesangial sclerosis on renal biopsy examination, genitouri- nary tumors, and pseudohermaphroditism. a dif- ferent spectrum of mutations is seen in denys- drash syndrome, most commonly within exon of wt . , nail-patella syndrome generally is regarded as a disease of the basement membrane rather than the podocyte, though it is probably both. affected in- dividuals typically show nephropathy, as well as dysplastic nails, and absent or hypoplastic patellae. an altered glomerular basement membrane typi- cally predominates on histologic analysis, the glomerulopathy is variable and can present as ne- phrotic syndrome. defects in the lmx b tran- scription factor are responsible for disease. , lmx b helps control the transcriptional regulation of matrix proteins by the podocyte as well as the podocyte genes cd ap and nphs . - a variety of other inherited syndromes are associated with an increased frequency of fsgs. for example, char- cot-marie tooth disease and galloway-mowat syndrome are both inherited neuropathies in which nephrosis and/or fsgs are seen with increased frequency. , secondary fsgs the role of human fsgs and ns genes in ac- quired disease is a subject of ongoing investiga- tion. some studies have reported increased nephrin expression in animal models of disease, others have reported decreased expression in other mod- els. - results from human studies have not yet provided a clear picture of the nature and role of nephrin expression in acquired glomerulopa- thies. , fsgs genetic basis clinical spectrum of disease different defects in the podocyte lead to differ- ent clinical presentations. further elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of these diseases are required to fully understand these differences. disease caused by defects in nphs , nphs , and actn forms a spectrum from prenatal-onset, to childhood-onset, to adult-onset disease. in addi- tion, the disease severity caused by defects in any one of these genes is quite variable as well. it is unclear if the difference between fsgs and ns genes has to do simply with the severity of the resulting podocyte defect, or if fsgs genes perturb a different biologic pathway than ns genes. inter- estingly, one recent report observed that patients with defective nphs alleles and a third muta- tion in nphs showed a congenital fsgs pheno- type. some genes (such as nphs ) may encode proteins whose major (or sole) function is to main- tain the glomerular filtration barrier, whereas others encode proteins that function primarily to establish or maintain the normal podocyte archi- tecture (such as actn ). defects in genes that alter the filtration barrier also may alter the podo- cyte’s production of glomerular basement mem- brane matrix proteins, leading to variations in glomerulosclerosis. sporadic fsgs what causes most cases of fsgs and mcd? a significant fraction of sporadic fsgs in children is caused by nphs mutations. however, a greater fraction still remain unexplained by defects in known genes. likely, complex combinations of genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of much of this disease. for example, it has been suggested that parvovirus infection is associated with the development of fsgs. , hu- man immunodeficiency virus infection also is as- sociated with an fsgs-like lesion. although purely speculative, it may be the case that some moderately frequent variants in podocyte proteins alter the response of these cells to an altered t-cell repertoire. implications prenatal and presymptomatic diagnosis is possi- ble for inherited diseases with known genetic bases. the practical value of such testing depends on the specifics of the disease. as noted earlier, prenatal testing for specific identification of cnf- associated nphs alleles already has been shown to be a useful clinical tool. the use of nphs testing to determine response to treatment still needs to be verified. the value of genetic testing for other forms of fsgs or ns will depend on the frequency of these forms of disease and their im- plications for response to specific treatments. at present, genetic testing for fsgs and ns genes remains primarily a research tool, rather than a clinical test. in the next several years, testing for at least some of these genes likely will evolve into useful clinical tools. as with other forms of inher- ited kidney disease, care must be taken to avoid using an affected relative as a renal transplant donor. because the familial pattern of inheritance may not always be obvious in inherited fsgs, clinicians should take particular care. as a practi- cal matter, at the present time, the best method for ensuring this is to be certain that the potential donor has absolutely no microalbuminuria in mul- tiple repeated measurements. does the human variation in the renal response to primary insults (such as diabetes, hypertension, reflux) involve common differences in genes that regulate podocyte structure and function? varia- tions in some genes may be involved in the heri- table response to podocyte injury, whereas other variations may cause altered podocyte function directly. progress in the genetic and biologic un- derstanding of inherited podocytopathies will con- tinue. ultimately, we may come to regard much of the ns/fsgs group of diseases as a collection of inherited defects in the podocyte, the immune sys- tem, and genes involved in the response to injury. references . werner m: handbuch der erbbiologie. . vernier rl, brunson j, good ra: studies on familial nephrosis. j dis child : , . die konstitutionelle bereitschaft zum nephrosesyndrome. helv paediatr acta : - , . tejani a, nicastri a, phadke k, et al: familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. int j pediatr nephrol : - , . conlon pj, butterly d, albers f, et al: clinical and pathologic features of familial focal segmental glomeruloscle- rosis. am j kidney dis : - , . moncrieff mw, white rh, glasgow ef, et al: the fa- milial nephrotic syndrome. ii. a clinicopathological study. clin nephrol : - , . mehls o, scharer k: familial nephrotic syndrome. monatsschr kinderheilkd : - , . faubert pf, porush jg: familial focal segmental glomer- martin r. pollak ulosclerosis: nine cases in four families and review of the literature. am j kidney dis : - , . rapola j: congenital nephrotic syndrome. pediatr neph- rol : - , . srivastava t, whiting jm, garola re, et al: podocyte proteins in galloway-mowat syndrome. pediatr nephrol : - , . mannikko m, kestila m, holmberg c, et al: fine map- ping and haplotype analysis of the locus for congenital ne- phrotic syndrome on chromosome q . . am j hum genet : - , . kestila m, lenkerri u, mannikko m, et al: positionally cloned gene for a novel glomerular protein—nephrin—is mu- tated in congenital nephrotic syndrome. mol cell : - , . lenkkeri u, mannikko m, mccready p, et al: structure of the gene for congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type (nphs ) and characterization of mutations. am j hum genet : - , . holzman lb, st. john pl, kovari ia, et al: nephrin localizes to the slit pore of the glomerular epithelial cell. kidney int : - , . holthofer h, ahola h, solin ml, et al: nephrin localizes at the podocyte filtration slit area and is characteristically spliced in the human kidney. am j pathol : - , . ruotsalainen v, ljungberg p, wartiovaara j, et al: neph- rin is specifically located at the slit diaphragm of glomerular podocytes. proc natl acad sci u s a : - , . schwarz k, simons m, reiser j, et al: podocin, a raft- associated component of the glomerular slit diaphragm, inter- acts with cd ap and nephrin. j clin invest : - , . huber tb, kottgen m, schilling b, et al: interaction with podocin facilitates nephrin signaling. j biol chem : - , . simons m, schwarz k, kriz w, et al: involvement of lipid rafts in nephrin phosphorylation and organization of the glomerular slit diaphragm. am j pathol : - , . patrakka j, kestila m, wartiovaara j, et al: congenital nephrotic syndrome (nphs ): features resulting from different mutations in finnish patients [in process citation]. kidney int : - , . beltcheva o, martin p, lenkkeri u, et al: mutation spectrum in the nephrin gene (nphs ) in congenital nephrotic syndrome. hum mutat : - , . koziell a, grech v, hussain s, et al: genotype/pheno- type correlations of nphs and nphs mutations in nephrotic syndrome advocate a functional inter-relationship in glomerular filtration. hum mol genet : - , . aya k, tanaka h, seino y: novel mutation in the nephrin gene of a japanese patient with congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type. kidney int : - , . liu l, done sc, khoshnoodi j, et al: defective nephrin trafficking caused by missense mutations in the nphs gene: insight into the mechanisms of congenital nephrotic syndrome. hum mol genet : - , . bolk s, puffenberger eg, hudson j, et al: elevated frequency and allelic heterogeneity of congenital nephrotic syn- drome, finnish type, in the old order mennonites. am j hum genet : - , . patrakka j, martin p, salonen r, et al: proteinuria and prenatal diagnosis of congenital nephrosis in fetal carriers of nephrin gene mutations. lancet : - , . rantanen m, palmen t, patari a, et al: nephrin trap mice lack slit diaphragms and show fibrotic glomeruli and cystic tubular lesions. j am soc nephrol : - , . putaala h, soininen r, kilpelainen p, et al: the murine nephrin gene is specifically expressed in kidney, brain and pancreas: inactivation of the gene leads to massive proteinuria and neonatal death. hum mol genet : - , . hamano y, grunkemeyer ja, sudhakar a, et al: deter- minants of vascular permeability in the kidney glomerulus. j biol chem : - , . fuchshuber a, jean g, gribouval o, et al: mapping a gene (srn ) to chromosome q -q in idiopathic nephrotic syndrome confirms a distinct entity of autosomal recessive nephrosis. hum mol genet : - , . boute n, gribouval o, roselli s, et al: nphs , encoding the glomerular protein podocin, is mutated in autosomal reces- sive steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. nat genet : - , . huang m, gu g, ferguson el, et al: a stomatin-like protein necessary for mechanosensation in c. elegans. nature : - , . roselli s, gribouval o, boute n, et al: podocin localizes in the kidney to the slit diaphragm area. am j pathol : - , . palmen t, lehtonen s, ora a, et al: interaction of endogenous nephrin and cd -associated protein in mouse ep- ithelial m- cell line. j am soc nephrol : - , . frishberg y, rinat c, megged o, et al: mutations in nphs encoding podocin are a prevalent cause of steroid- resistant nephrotic syndrome among israeli-arab children. j am soc nephrol : - , . fuchshuber a, gribouval o, ronner v, et al: clinical and genetic evaluation of familial steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome in childhood. j am soc nephrol : - , . wu mc, wu jy, lee cc, et al: a novel polymorphism (c c�t) of the nphs gene identified in a taiwan chinese family. hum mutat : - , . wu mc, wu jy, lee cc, et al:. two novel polymor- phisms (c t�c and c a�g) in exon of nphs gene identified in taiwan chinese. hum mutat : , . caridi g, bertelli r, carrea a, et al: prevalence, genet- ics, and clinical features of patients carrying podocin mutations in steroid-resistant nonfamilial focal segmental glomeruloscle- rosis. j am soc nephrol : - , . karle sm, uetz b, ronner v, et al: novel mutations in nphs detected in both familial and sporadic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. j am soc nephrol : - , . conlon pj, lynn k, winn mp, et al: spectrum of disease in familial focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. kidney int : - , . mathis bj, kim sh, calabrese k, et al: a locus for inherited focal segmental glomerulosclerosis maps to chromo- some q : rapid communication. kidney int : - , . vats a, nayak a, ellis d, et al: familial nephrotic syndrome: clinical spectrum and linkage to chromosome q . kidney int : - , . kaplan jm, kim sh, north kn, et al: mutations in fsgs genetic basis actn , encoding �-actinin- , cause familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. nat genet : - , . wachsstock dh, schwartz wh, pollard td: affinity of �-actinin for actin determines the structure and mechanical properties of actin filament gels. biophys j : - , . winn mp, conlon pj, lynn kl, et al: linkage of a gene causing familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis to chromo- some and further evidence of genetic heterogeneity. genom- ics : - , . haber da, buckler aj, glaser t, et al: an internal deletion within an p zinc finger gene contributes to the development of wilms’ tumor. cell : - , . gessler m, poustka a, cavenee w, et al: homozygous deletion in wilms tumours of a zinc-finger gene identified by chromosome jumping. nature : - , . pelletier j, bruening w, kashtan ce, et al: germline mutations in the wilms’ tumor suppressor gene are associated with abnormal urogenital development in denys-drash syn- drome. cell : - , . mctaggart sj, algar e, chow cw, et al: clinical spec- trum of denys-drash and frasier syndrome. pediatr nephrol : - , . barbaux s, niaudet p, gubler mc, et al: donor splice- site mutations in wt are responsible for frasier syndrome. nat genet : - , . klamt b, koziell a, poulat f, et al: frasier syndrome is caused by defective alternative splicing of wt leading to an altered ratio of wt � kts splice isoforms. hum mol genet : - , . demmer l, primack w, loik v, et al: frasier syndrome: a cause of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis in a ,xx female. j am soc nephrol : - , . denamur e, bocquet n, mougenot b, et al: mother-to- child transmitted wt splice-site mutation is responsible for distinct glomerular diseases. j am soc nephrol : - , . denamur e, bocquet n, baudouin v, et al: wt splice- site mutations are rarely associated with primary steroid-resis- tant focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. kidney int : - , . schumacher v, scharer k, wuhl e, et al: spectrum of early onset nephrotic syndrome associated with wt missense mutations. kidney int : - , . simila s, vesa l, wasz-hockert o: hereditary onycho- osteodysplasia (the nail-patella syndrome) with nephrosis-like renal disease in a newborn boy. pediatrics : - , . dreyer sd, zhou g, baldini a, et al: mutations in lmx b cause abnormal skeletal patterning and renal dysplasia in nail patella syndrome. nat genet : - , . chen h, lun y, ovchinnikov d, et al: limb and kidney defects in lmx b mutant mice suggest an involvement of lmx b in human nail patella syndrome. nat genet : - , . morello r, zhou g, dreyer sd, et al: regulation of glomerular basement membrane collagen expression by lmx b contributes to renal disease in nail patella syndrome. nat genet : - , . morello r, lee b: insight into podocyte differentiation from the study of human genetic disease: nail-patella syndrome and transcriptional regulation in podocytes. pediatr res : - , . miner jh, morello r, andrews kl, et al: transcriptional induction of slit diaphragm genes by lmx b is required in podocyte differentiation. j clin invest : - , . rohr c, prestel j, heidet l, et al: the lim-homeodo- main transcription factor lmx b plays a crucial role in podo- cytes. j clin invest : - , . chance pf, fishbeck kj: molecular genetics of charcot- marie-tooth disease and related neuropathies. hum mol genet : - , . cohen ah, turner mc: kidney in galloway-mowat syndrome: clinical spectrum with description of pathology. kidney int : - , . luimula p, ahola h, wang sx, et al: nephrin in exper- imental glomerular disease. kidney int : - , . luimula p, sandstrom n, novikov d, et al: podocyte- associated molecules in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis of the rat. lab invest : - , . yuan h, takeuchi e, taylor ga, et al: nephrin disso- ciates from actin, and its expression is reduced in early exper- imental membranous nephropathy. j am soc nephrol : - , . bonnet f, tikellis c, kawachi h, et al: nephrin expres- sion in the post-natal developing kidney in normotensive and hypertensive rats. clin exp hypertens : - , . bonnet f, cooper me, kawachi h, et al: irbesartan normalises the deficiency in glomerular nephrin expression in a model of diabetes and hypertension. diabetologia : - , . patrakka j, ruotsalainen v, ketola i, et al: expression of nephrin in pediatric kidney diseases. j am soc nephrol : - , . doublier s, ruotsalainen v, salvidio g, et al: nephrin redistribution on podocytes is a potential mechanism for pro- teinuria in patients with primary acquired nephrotic syndrome. am j pathol : - , . tanawattanacharoen s, falk rj, jennette jc, et al: par- vovirus b dna in kidney tissue of patients with focal seg- mental glomerulosclerosis. am j kidney dis : - , . moudgil a, nast cc, bagga a, et al: association of parvovirus b infection with idiopathic collapsing glomeru- lopathy. kidney int : - , . klotman pe: hiv-associated nephropathy. kidney int : - , martin r. pollak wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ untitled review article copyright © the canadian journal of neurological sciences inc. this is an open access article, distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. saskatchewan movement disorders program ali h. rajput, alex rajput abstract: we review the saskatchewan movement disorders program, which started in and has had the dual goals of patient care and research. the clinics are structured to collect research-worthy data including videos, longitudinal follow-up, and autopsy studies of patients seen in the clinics. at every clinic visit, the patient is evaluated by one or both authors. a total of % to % of the deceased come to autopsy. frozen half-brain and formalin-fixed remnants from autopsy are preserved in our laboratories. patients not seen in our clinic are not included in research, which makes it different from brain banks. so far, cases have come to autopsy. so far, there have been collaborating scientific teams from canada, the united states, europe, and japan. the collaborators are not charged for access to our resources. this program offers a unique opportunity to study multiple aspects of movement disorder patients seen in clinical practice. rÉsumÉ: movement disorders program de la saskatchewan. nous avons revu le movement disorders program de la saskatchewan établi en . son but est double, soit les soins aux patients et la recherche. les cliniques sont structurées de telle sorte que des données de qualité soient générées à des fins de recherche, incluant des vidéos, sur le suivi à long terme et l’autopsie de patients suivis à la clinique. À chaque visite à la clinique, le patient est évalué par l’un des auteurs ou par les deux. une autopsie est effectuée chez % à % des patients qui décèdent. des demi-cerveaux congelés provenant d’autopsies et des tissus conservés dans la formaline sont également conservés dans nos laboratoires. les patients qui ne sont pas suivis à notre clinique ne sont pas inclus dans notre recherche, contrairement aux banques de cerveaux. À ce jour, autopsies ont été réalisées et équipes de recherche du canada, des États-unis, d’europe et du japon ont collaboré avec nous. aucun frais n’est exigé des collaborateurs pour avoir accés à nos ressources. ce programme offre une opportunité unique d’étudier les multiples aspects des troubles du mouvement rencontrés en pratique clinique. keywords: brain function, essential tremor, movement disorders, neuropathology, parkinson disease doi: . /cjn. . can j neurol sci. ; : - introduction and history ali rajput joined the neurology faculty at the university of saskatchewan in july and alex rajput joined in . for the first years of this history, the term “i” means ali rajput and the subsequent term “we” means both neurologists. i came to the university of saskatchewan in july on a one-year contract. in late september, i informed the department head that i was looking for a position elsewhere after my contract expired. he asked me to wait for two weeks before making the final decision as he was going to the united states and wanted to talk to me on his return. while there, he died suddenly. a new department head was appointed, and i went to inform him about my decision. the department head was highly distressed because there were not many neurologists in canada at that time. during that meeting, i made a commitment to stay one more year in saskatoon. during that year ( ), i met my future wife. soon after we were married, our family circumstances changed and the decision to move was postponed. movement disorders were of clinical interest to me during my neurology training. like most chronic neurological diseases, treatment options for parkinson disease (pd) were very limited. major breakthrough in , ehringer and hornykiewicz reported marked striatal dopamine loss in parkinsonism. one year later, birkmayer and hornykiewicz reported pd patients who improved in a dose- dependent fashion on intravenous levodopa (ld). those two articles were published in german and the intravenous use of the drug had limitations for ongoing treatment of pd. a brief report of oral ld producing improvement in pd was presented by dr. andré barbeau at the international congress of neurology in rome in , but received little attention. in , cotzias et al reported dramatic improvement of pd motor symptoms on a large dose of oral d-l dopa. most cases received g or more—up to g/day. soon ld became available to some experts, but it was expensive. there were many seriously disabled parkinsonian presented as donald calne lecture for parkinson society canada, montreal may , . from the saskatchewan movement disorders program, neurology division, university of saskatchewan and saskatoon health region. correspondence to: ali rajput, university of saskatchewan, royal university hospital, div of neurology, hospital dr., saskatoon, saskatchewan, canada s n w . email: ali.rajput@saskatoonhealthregion.ca received october , . final revisions submitted december , . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at mailto:ali.rajput@saskatoonhealthregion.ca https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core patients in every community who needed urgent treatment. there was no dose-finding study of ld, and the neurologists used the dose that they felt comfortable with. impetus for the university of saskatchewan movement disorders program in early , dr. a. barbeau visited the university of saskatchewan and presented his own observations and the work of cotzias’s group. he informed us that he was organizing a multi- center ld drug trial in canada, but that saskatoon was not included. at that time, the university of saskatchewan had three full-time neurologists—the third largest number of academic neu- rologists at a canadian university. i asked my senior colleagues why we were not considered for the ld trial. i felt that our patients deserved the best available treatment as much as anyone else in canada; they suggested that i consider providing that treatment. start of special clinics and research in , ld was not approved for general use by canadian physicians; therefore, i needed approval from health canada to use the drug. health canada asked for evidence that i would also be pursuing research. i produced a research protocol and the permission to use ld was granted. the requirement by health canada made it necessary for my special clinics and research be carried out simultaneously. the clinics were started in saskatoon in , and because of patient requests we started similar monthly clinics in regina in . initially i had to import ld powder from the united states. the royal university hospital pharmacy prepared -mg ld cap- sules (without charge) and the medication was sold to patients at cost. several north american neurologists were already using the drug and i was in the second wave of specialists to use ld. in the early years, we admitted patients to the hospital to start ld treatment. during hospitalization, other staff—nurses, occupa- tional therapists, physiotherapists, psychologists, and physicians- in-training—became interested in the new treatment and helped perform detailed patient evaluations. our movement disorders clinics in the s and early s included pd cases because many of those patients needed urgent treatment; however, soon i started seeing patients with other movement disorders. it was anecdotally known that essential tre- mor (et) patients improved on alcohol but it had never been studied systematically; the effect of alcohol on action tremor in other disorders was also unknown. with the help of occupational therapists, i conducted a clinical pharmacology study. we observed that a small quantity of oral alcohol improved action tremor in the majority of et cases as well as in other disorders. , basic scientists and clinician scientist teams the three essential ingredients to pursue research are: ( ) appropriate topics to study; ( ) material (resources); and ( ) proper methods. basic scientists are trained in highly specialized methodology that they use to answer scientific questions. clin- icians have many questions like: what is it? what caused it? how does it evolve? what is the best treatment? these different ques- tions require different methods to provide answers. teams con- sisting of clinicians and basic scientists are therefore an ideal combination for research. my research was based on many questions requiring special tools to provide answers; thus, i nee- ded expert collaborators using specific methodology but had to provide them with adequate material. with time, many questions were also raised by the collaborators, which in turn needed our resource to answer. start of low-dose ld therapy ld had created much publicity and optimism in physicians, patients, and families. before the start of the movement disorder clinic saskatchewan (mdcs), some saskatchewan patients had travelled to other provinces and the united states for treatment with ld. expenses of the physician and hospital services outside the province were the responsibility of patients, unless they sought prior written approval from the provincial government. when patients that had their ld treatment initiated outside canada reapplied for an out-of-province return visit, the government directed them to my clinic. thus i saw patients who were already receiving ld. based on observations in those cases and my own early experience, i recognized that the large doses of ld used by most neurologists at the time produced early and sometimes dis- abling dyskinesias. i pondered the benefit and adverse effects profile and concluded that in some pd cases, the quality of life on ld was not much better than the untreated disease. my observa- tion on dyskinesias was confirmed by others at a symposium organized by barbeau in val david, quebec, in . therefore, on my own, i decided to use a lower dose of ld (up to g, the equivalent mg levodopa/carbidopa). we hospitalized the patients for slow titration and monitored the side effects. our patients had slower improvement, but at the end of several months they were doing as well as those on the higher ld dose and had fewer side effects. one adverse effect of ld was postural hypo- tension, which was the topic of an early clinical pathological study. low-dose ld has remained standard practice at the mdcs. in , we published a -year experience. dyskinesia and motor response fluctuations were between % and % compared with those reported on higher ld dose. we also found that dementia was not related to the duration of ld therapy (figure ). at every mdcs patient visit, we used the newly described webster motor symptom measurement scale and global dis- ability scale described by hoehn and yahr. when the unified parkinson’s disease rating scale became available in , we started using that. the differences between the older. , and new scales were small and we could successfully convert old data to the new scale for publications. what should i study and how do i do that? in the late s and early s, two main topics of pd research were: ( ) clinical observations on ld therapy and ( ) biochemical studies of pd brains. i was just getting started when, in , one new york group reported patients treated with ld. naturally, their data would be more credible than the obser- vations i could report on a much smaller number of patients. dr. hornykiewicz pioneered the biochemistry in pd brains, which proved vital for future developments, but many more questions needed to be answered. we had neither the brain material nor the expertise for such studies. i had to also consider the local realities. there was a major mismatch between my research interest and the institutional le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core situations. there were no funds for clinician-driven research, no manpower dedicated to support research, no special equipment for such studies, and no culture of clinician-driven research at the university of saskatchewan. we had no natural advantage to study movement disorders, based on population ethnicity or the occupa- tion in the province. my job involved full-time teaching and clinical service with no protected time for research. because i was unknown and from an unknown institution, i had to produce high-quality work that my peers would consider worthy of publication. i realized that my research needed to progress beyond the clinical observations on the patients and had to settle on topics that were important but were not attractive to larger and faster research teams. i recognized that some such studies could be pursued in saskatchewan. to do that, i needed the support of other experts; however, i had nothing special to offer to attract well-known collaborators. the research topics that i could tackle also required a long time to study. because research was my choice, i had to find my own way to pursue it. there was also a lingering doubt in my mind whether pd research was a good academic career option. in , poskanzer and shwab. had reported that most pd cases were consequent to the von economo encephalitis epidemic of - s and pos- tulated that when the population exposed to that epidemic passed away, pd would come to a natural end. it was published by a reputable group from a highly prestigious institution (harvard), so we had to pay attention. taking advantage of the local situation and building alliances my first major support came from my future wife, karla. before we got married, i told her that my salary was only $ , per year (the lowest for neurologists in canada), but i could earn three times that amount in private practice. she asked me, “do you like what you do?” i said yes. she responded, “do not worry; we will make do”. she has done that for more than years. although she has been my longest and unwavering supporter—she worked in my laboratory as a volunteer for three years and as an employee for the next years—her name does not appear on our papers. the low salary was a mixed blessing because there was no pressure to generate large clinical billing income. the fees were (and still are) based on seeing a new or a return-visit patient and are significantly lower for a return visit. in my case, the fee structure did not matter and i decided to follow patients at inter- vals of my choice and spend as much time as i needed to perform clinical assessments that could be used for future research. when i could afford it, my first investment was a super movie camera. anyone who could look through the lens and press the button took the video and every patient who consented had a movie made. many patients had movies made before and on ld treatment. soon after that, i purchased a super movie projector. as the news of ld treatment for pd spread, invitations for lectures started to come and i never turned down an opportunity. the local media were very generous and showed the movies as part of public service. after a lecture to nurses’ alumni of the saskatoon city hospital, a lady said she wanted to work with me. i thanked her and told her that i had no money to pay her, to which she responded, “did i ask you for money?” she was my first research assistant and her two sons, who were land surveyors, helped us free of charge to do a major study on the environmental cause of pd. following a lecture to the kinsmen’s club of sas- katoon in , i joined them for lunch. after the lunch, their executive members asked if they could borrow my film. they wanted to show the film to other provincial chapters to establish a foundation for the handicapped. the privacy regulations were not stringent at that time and without much thought i agreed to loan figure : adapted from rajput et al, neurology . the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core them the film. they established a highly successful annual charity event called telemiracle saskatchewan. the first telemiracle was organized in with me and a dopa-responsive dystonia patient, whose film was used to motivate formation of the foun- dation, as special guests. (my children, aged six and four, got their own thrills from meeting the sesame street actor, bob mcgrath, and even had their picture in the local newspaper.) early collaborating scientists my first effort to enlist scientific collaboration was to ask dr. bohdan rozdilsky, the neuropathologist at the royal university hospital, to perform autopsies on my patients. he was trained by dr. olszewski (of steele-richardson-olszewski fame), who was on our faculty in the s. dr. rozdilsky was a thorough neu- ropathologist and a very nice man; together, we produced some articles. the first few autopsies were done on patients who had died in the hospital. later, we decided to perform an autopsy on every patient if the family consented. that was a major undertaking in a large province of more than , square kilometers ( , square miles) but only one million population. we devised a plan such that patients/families would experience the least hardship. patients interested in autopsy study for research would sign the declaration of desire for autopsy study form (figure ). a copy of the form was provided to each family member and to the family physician. the patients also signed a more detailed consent approved by the university of saskatchewan bio-ethics board allowing storage and use of brains for research. the final decision for autopsy was always made by the next-of-kin after death of the patient. using local pathologists to perform brain autopsy was not suitable and frequently there was no local pathologist; therefore, it was decided to transport the body to saskatoon for autopsy to ensure uniformity of the autopsy procedure. we concluded early on that for most of the movement disorders, one-half of the brain was sufficient for pathological studies and the other half could be frozen for future research. the autopsy had to be done within hours of death to prevent major biochemical changes. the need for autopsy could arise at any time; therefore, i had to be available around the clock to arrange that. initially, it took me a figure : this form is provided to patients to decide on autopsy for research. a copy is provided to each family member and the family physician. le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core long time to get an autopsy organized, but the procedure has been streamlined—a typical autopsy now takes between to hours of neurologist’s time (though at times up to hours). outside collaborators we are a small institution and there was limited neurosciences expertise to study human brains. in , dr. o. hornykiewicz had moved to clarke institute in toronto, and by the mid- s we established collaboration with his team. dr. s. kish was his postdoctoral fellow and later a faculty member. we collected frozen half-brains in our freezer locally; when there was a suffi- cient number of specimens, they were shipped to toronto. i was also collecting cerebrospinal fluid and urine samples from pd patients untreated and on ld treatment. in , my freezer was accidentally unplugged, resulting in the loss of more than cerebrospinal fluid samples, several dozen urine samples, and about ten frozen half-brains—irreplaceable specimens. i was already a tenured full professor and research was not part of my job requirement. devastated by the loss, i opted to discontinue this research. after three to six months of soul searching, i decided to give it one more try. we made arrangements to have our freezers connected to the emergency power of the royal university hospital and to the hospital security alarm system. with the new arrangement, i had to be available / for any freezer mishap. there were several occasions when i had to come to the hospital at night or over the weekend to relocate frozen brains. after that, we started to keep all frozen half-brains in saskatoon and sent brain samples to toronto for specific research projects only. by the mid- s, we had a sufficient number of frozen brains in saskatoon to pursue several large studies. by then, dr. hornykiewicz had returned to vienna. in , while attending a meeting in vienna, i asked dr. hornykiewicz to recommend someone who could help us process the frozen brains for research. he said, “would you like me to come to saskatoon and do it for you?” before i could say yes, he said, “i know you do not have money; you do not have to pay me.” that was far more generous than i had expected. soon he was appointed distinguished professor of brain disorders research at the university of sas- katchewan with no salary or stipend. he came to saskatoon once or twice a year for approximately a week at a time. he dissected the frozen brains and guided us in research. he could dissect brains for only three days per visit and approximately three new brains each day. together with dr. hornykiewicz and his toronto and new vienna team, we have published more than high- impact articles. our first collaborative study was published in . dr. c. pifl of the vienna team is our new collaborator and together we have recently published a groundbreaking paper on the pathogenesis of pd. dr. alex rajput joined the college of medicine faculty in . the next time dr. hornykiewicz came to saskatoon, he spent the entire visit providing hands-on training to alex. all the frozen brain dissections are now performed by dr. alex rajput. with that development, our options to collaborate increased substantially. sabbatical leave the cohort hypothesis (of pd and its relation to von econ- omo encephalitis infection) was stuck in my mind. when i could not convince anyone else to study that, i took a one-year sabba- tical leave ( - ) to study the epidemiology of pd in rochester, mn. they had previously reported two incidence studies from to . if the cohort hypothesis were correct, it was expected that the incidence of pd would start to decline by the late s. using the same methodology as in the previous studies, i decided to study the incidence of pd in rochester between and . our study showed no decline in the incidence of ps; thus, the cohort hypothesis was put to rest. the sabbatical leave experience was wonderful academically but financially disastrous. my salary was reduced by % and we had to maintain two residences—saskatoon and in rochester for part of the year. the canadian dollar went down to cents and interest rates climbed to more than %. my host and mentor, dr. len kurland, was very generous to me and our family. mayo also helped me analyze my own clinical data, which by now were voluminous. i pursued an analytic epidemiology study to identify environ- mental cause(s) of pd. it was like looking for a needle in a hay- stack—because clinical onset of pd is later in life, one has to consider numerous environmental factors. i decided on having a smaller haystack for the search. we included only those patients that had pd onset by age years and further restricted the environmental consideration to the first years of life (because at age children can leave home). twenty-one early-onset pd patients in saskatchewan were identified; all except one were born and raised in small communities or on a farm and they had all consumed well water for the first years of life. we decided to analyze the well water from those locations. most old wells were not operational, so we identified the nearest functioning wells. water samples were collected and compared with saskatoon tap water—there was no difference. we sent those water samples to dr. w. langston in california for possible - methyl - - phenyl - , , , -tetrahydro pyridine (mptp) or related substance, but none was identified (unpublished). saskatchewan is a major agricultural province where herbi- cides and pesticides have been used for as long as they have been commercially available in canada. we did not find an association between the use of any of the herbicides or pesticides and higher incidence of early onset pd. considering my limited resources, i did not pursue population epidemiology further. the second phase of research the two phases of our research are arbitrary because there is much overlap. the dividing line for me was excluding the cohort hypothesis; i could now focus on clinical and pathological studies of movement disorder brains. by contemporary standards, we had devised a new model of research that had a distinct set of needs. this model was dictated to a considerable extent by the local circumstances. we had major weaknesses, but there were several strengths as well. there was a need for research support at multiple levels, especially because our research was based on human subjects. the major clinical focus was longitudinal follow-up of the mdcs patients and autopsy studies of their brains. that required strong patient/ family/public involvement. saskatchewan was the home of the cooperative movement that started during the depression years. in , saskatchewan became the first canadian province to the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core introduce general tax-funded universal health care system, and i wanted to capitalize on that public spirit. personally, i needed to go beyond the usual duties of a physician—to lead by example. building the trust and support of the public required different skills than the practice of medicine; we have succeeded at that and much credit goes to the people of saskatchewan. funding funding for clinician-driven movement disorders research in canada is mainly from local private sources. the researchers procure funds with their own efforts. a lot of our work was done on “please and thank you,” much personal unpaid time, and sig- nificant in-kind support from the hospital. in spite of that, we still needed funds to pay our small dedicated research staff, and for equipment and consumables. saskatchewan does not have many wealthy people who could make large donations. some patients/ families offered small amounts of money for special clinics and research. i was not sure how to handle those funds and consulted a senior colleague; he recommended against personally handling any donations. four of my patients/friends and i applied for a registered charity status and in we received approval for the saskatchewan parkinson’s disease foundation (spdf). the pri- mary stated objective in the application was to raise funds for special clinics and research. anyone who wanted to donate towards my work was directed to the spdf. the donations were usually small. i observed early on that i would prefer receiving one dollar from a million people as opposed to a million dollars from one person (million-dollar single donations were not forth- coming anyway). the donors of one dollar i hoped would be able to give another dollar the following year. the large number of small donors also started to identify with our program and con- tinued to support it in many other ways, notably in getting the brain autopsies. the spdf contributed financially to the running of special clinics and research, from those donations. the spdf was subsequently renamed as parkinson’s society saskatchewan. in the early s, a group of patients/families organized an annual curling tournament in regina to support our clinics and research. soon, another group organized a golf tournament in regina with the same objectives. those two events have been held regularly for more than years and have raised millions of dollars for the program. both are strictly volunteer-run events. some other smaller provincial groups have organized independent fundraising events to support our work. we have received money from multicenter drug trials (including some funded by the national institutes of health in the united states); all funds left over from the drug studies were kept for other research and the special clinics. even after i (ali) retired from my position at the university of saskatchewan in (when mandatory retirement at the university of saskatchewan was still in place), i did not take residual research funds for myself. we have received research grants from parkinson’s society canada and small amounts from the international essential tremor foundation and from canadian institutes of health research joint grants. in , an anonymous donor established a one million dollar trust for the movement disorders research and later donated $ , more. our model of program funding is similar to that at other major movement disorders programs in canada. since my (ali) retirement from the university, the provincial government has provided financial support towards movement disorder clinics. additional collaborations after dr. alex rajput was trained in processing the frozen brains in , the number of collaborators has increased. so far, we have had different collaborating teams from canada, the united states, europe, and japan. we will not go over the con- tributions made by all of them and instead will restrict our com- ments to two major canadian teams that are currently active. quebec city – laval university group in , dr. paul bédard, professor of neurology, laval university, quebec city, visited saskatoon for the canadian congress of neurological sciences. paul was pursuing high- quality work on a primate model of mptp-induced parkinson syndrome (ps). the mptp model has served well for studies of major motor features of ps, but does not fully represent the naturally occurring disease. i asked paul to consider enlarging his scope of work to include studies of human movement disorder brains and later that year i invited him as a visiting professor to the university of saskatchewan. we showed him our setup and he was convinced that we could develop a useful collaboration. he recommended inclusion of his younger colleague, dr. thérèse di paolo, who had done considerable work on mptp monkeys. she visited saskatoon the following year and our collaboration began. she introduced us to her younger colleague, dr. frédéric calon. all three of them have honorary adjunct professor appointments at the university of saskatchewan. this collaboration has pro- duced more than ten very high-quality papers. they have studied pd brains including ld-induced dyskinesia. our recent paper in brain on the gabaergic system in et brains was chosen as one of the ten best scientific developments in the province of quebec in . we should note that quebec is a powerhouse for neurosciences research in canada. our collaboration continues with drs. calon and di paolo, but unfortunately dr. bédard is no longer active. mayo clinic jacksonville, fl/university of british columbia in , i (ali) was introduced to dr. matthew farrer who was pursuing genetic studies of pd at the mayo clinic, jacksonville, fl. we invited him to saskatoon and quickly realized that we would benefit from each other’s expertise. dr. farrer and his team, including dr. c. vilariño-gűell, moved to the university of british columbia in . our university of british columbia collaboration team has enlarged and now includes two leading movement disorders and positron emission tomography scan experts, drs. jon stoessl and silke cresswell. together, we have published more than articles dealing with the genetics of movement disorders and more recently with functional imaging (positron emission tomography). we have reported on the lrrk gene mutation with autopsy verification in one pd family; inter- estingly, the pathology showed a tauopathy with no evidence of lewy bodies. dr. farrer and his group have identified dnajc mutation in a large multi-incident mennonite family from saskatchewan, with autopsy verification of lewy body pd. this observation has the potential to significantly enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of pd. there are several other articles accepted or in the pipeline. le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core students and future scientists as the research in movement disorders at the university of saskatchewan progressed, several students worked with me dur- ing the summers. even students joining our program for a short time have been able to present and publish articles based on our resources. some of them now occupy prominent academic posi- tions in canada and the united states. notable in that group are drs. ryan j. uitti and alex rajput. ryan started working with me in the summer after his first year of medical college and then continued to be involved throughout his medical college years and beyond. he graduated in and is now professor of neurology at the mayo clinic, jacksonville, fl. dr. alex rajput started working with me in the summer when he was years old and i paid him from my own pocket. my motive was more personal than academic—i wanted to know where my son was so he would not be bored and get into trouble. he did his neurology training at the university of iowa and moved back to saskatoon in as he was on a j visa in the united states. he needed a postgraduate year- of residency training to qualify for the frcp(c) neurology examination and following that he did a one year movement disorder fellowship in saskatoon. he had an offer for a position at the university of saskatchewan but was seriously considering moving back to iowa. i did not want to get involved in that decision nor did i participate in his appointment to the faculty at the university of saskatchewan. once he was here, i asked dr. hornykiewicz to train him in the methods of frozen brain dissection in . alex also did special training in on the rotenone rat model of pd at emory university, atlanta, in dr. j. timothy greenamyre’s laboratory. in our laboratory, the mortality in those animals was high and we determined that early death was associated with brain hemorrhage. we concluded that this model was not suitable for our research. dr. alex rajput is now the director of the saskatchewan movement disorders program, including the clinics, research, and all related laboratories. main components of saskatchewan movement disorders program there are two inseparably linked components: ( ) clinical services for saskatchewan patients and ( ) research. that dual objective was the foundation of this program in . the data collected in the clinics are not driven by any one research protocol but are research-worthy. the clinical data are regularly used in conjunction with videos, pathology, biochemistry, and genetics information in our research. longitudinal follow-up of the patients is a major feature of the mdcs. all saskatchewan resi- dents carry general tax-supported health care insurance and access to mdcs is equal to all provincial residents. there is a provincial plan to support drug costs. clinical data every patient seen at the mdcs is regarded as a potential candidate for inclusion in research studies. the clinics in saska- toon and regina are identical. at every clinic, there are two or three support staff members assisting the clinicians. video recordings are made on all consenting subjects at and rarely on consenting family members who may be of research interest. after initial mdcs assessment, a brochure outlining the disorder, the nature of the disease, and management options is provided. the expected outcome is discussed with the patient/family. those discussions are not restricted by time. patients are provided with our office telephone numbers, and have an unlimited access to the two (ahr/ar) neurologists between clinic visits. we (ahr, ar) answer our patients’ telephone calls, and considerable neurologist time is spent on the telephone with patients. we are interested in knowing of changes in the patient’s status; when appropriate, we initiate treatment changes that may include phone calls or faxes to the patient’s pharmacy—that information is entered into the patient record and used for patient care and research. at an opportune time, we ask patients to consider if they wish to have an autopsy be done after death (figure ). we prefer to give that form to the patient/family to take home and discuss with family members before signing. if the patient is comfortable and intends to proceed with the autopsy, the form is signed and returned to us. there is no expense to the family and the body is not disfigured for viewing. they are also assured that regardless of the decision on autopsy, there would be no impact on the ongoing care. in case the patient is not comfortable with the declaration,he or she is asked to write “no” on the form and return it to us. once a patient has said “no,” we do not ask again for autopsy declaration. in those cases where the patient has declared the desire to have an autopsy, a copy of the signed form is provided to each family member and to the family physician. patients that sign the declaration also sign consent for use of brain tissue for research and allow us access to their clinical information from all sources. if we come across a suitable normal control subject, we offer a similar autopsy option. autopsy procedure typically a call comes to the neurologist from a family mem- ber, nursing home, or hospital personnel that the patient has died and the family wishes to have an autopsy performed for research. the two of us (ahr, ar) are on / call (figure ). we make autopsy arrangements with the family, care home, funeral home, morgue attendant, etc. and are available from the time of initial call until the body is released back to the funeral home. autopsies are performed in saskatoon. the cost of transporting the body to and from saskatoon is our responsibility. saskatchewan is a large geographical area so there can be long distances to transport the body. we also pay for the time of extra morgue attendants when they are needed after hours. the average immediate cost for body transport and the autopsy procedure is now approximately $ , . in rare situations, for patients that have died out of pro- vince we are grateful to have received support from local neuropathologists. between % and % of our parkinson’s patients and a smaller percentage of et cases come to autopsy. the decision to have an autopsy performed rests with the next-of-kin; there are rare examples in which the patient did not sign the declaration but the family decided on autopsy. on other occasions, patients not seen at mdcs also come to autopsy. a call would come at night indicating that someone in a nursing home who had pd has died, but neither the caller nor the neurologist is certain if the patient was ever evaluated at the mdcs. the autopsy will proceed and when we discover later that the patient was never seen in our clinic, the brain is not used for research because of lack of our own clinical information. some normal controls not seen at the mdcs also come to autopsy. the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core immediately after removal, the brain is divided at midline into two halves. half is frozen at − °c for future studies and the other half is fixed in formalin for pathology studies. (there is no parti- cular side that is chosen when the brain is grossly normal. for those cases in which there is a known structural lesion, that hemisphere is fixed in formalin.) the neuropathologist produces a detailed report that is attached to the patient’s clinical record and a copy is sent to the next-of-kin, with an offer to discuss the diagnosis. figure shows summary of saskatchewan movement dis- orders program. information and material storage figure shows different laboratories where patient records and material are stored. videos made with older technology need updating. there are more than patient videos and some patients have had several videos. one member of our staff is responsible for the video library. the videos are updated regularly to ensure compatibility with the most recent technology and catalogued. as noted previously, the freezers are connected to the hospital auxiliary power and the alarm system monitored by royal uni- versity hospital security department. the two of us (ahr, ar) are on / call for any freezer mishap. figure : flow chart of saskatchewan movement disorders program operations. figure : pictures of saskatchewan movement disorders program storage of patient records and research material. (a) filing cabinet containing hard copies of patient clinical records. (b) − °c freezers. currently there are nine freezers. (c) cardboard boxes, each containing half-frozen brain from a patient. each box has patient identification at four places—two with only the number and two with name and number. (d) formalin-fixed remains of the brain tissue after pathology has been completed. (e) paraffin blocks and glass slides stored in our laboratory. (f) video library. le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core each frozen brain is kept in a separate box. the frozen brains are dissected (by ar) in another special room and only one brain is brought to that room at a time. the formalin-fixed tissue and paraffin blocks are being used for research with increasing frequency as new investigative tools become available. one member of our staff has the primary responsibility for the brain tissue storage laboratories, though other members are familiar with that. major movement disorders studied at mdcs the disorders studied at mdcs are those prevalent in the saskatchewan population. the three most common disorders in our clinic population are parkinsonism, et, and dystonia (mostly focal or segmental). figure shows the latest autopsy count and the broad diagnostic groups. in some cases, a final pathology report was not available at the time of this article’s preparation. most of our collaborations are based on deidentified frozen half- brains. numbered brain tissue samples are provided to the collaborators. our resource is not a brain bank since we started publishing human brain studies, interest in this field has increased. several institutions are now pursuing studies of movement disorder–autopsied brains. each program uses the strategy appropriate to the local circumstances and each has its own strengths and weaknesses. following are the common models of such programs. . patients receiving a certain drug treatment regimen are enrolled in research; thus, they are evaluated by the researchers at regular intervals using specific research protocol and autopsy studies are performed. the patients, however, are cared for by their own physicians. the strength of such programs is that research- specific data are collected prospectively. the weakness is that only the specially selected cases are included and the clinical data collected by treating physicians are heterogenous. . studies based on individuals from defined communities who express a desire to have autopsy studies for research. - strengths of such programs are that patients are periodically evaluated in detail by movement disorders experts. they can collect large amounts of detailed data and a large number of autopsied brains, including control brains for research. the autopsy can be obtained soon after death and expert patholo- gists study every brain. the weaknesses are that the cases included are all elderly and not representative of the general population. , and in many cases the medical care is provided by other physicians. . national parkinson’s disease brain bank. brains from all parts of the country are forwarded to a centralized brain bank. the strength is that a large number of brains can be collected. the weaknesses are that there are many (more than ) physicians including neurologists and geriatricians who look after these patients and collect the clinical data. the autopsies are performed locally at multiple sites, thus there is a lack of uniformity of the clinical data and the brain harvesting. pd w/wo other dx psp w/wo other dx msa w/wo other dx et w/wo other dx cbd w/wo other dx als w/wo other dx controls ad w/wo other dx other normal diseased autopsies autopsies frozen frozen formalin formalin paraffin paraffin cases with tissue available used as controls total number of autopsies with pathology report and/or tissue available (july ) number of cases seen in our clinic (alex or ali ) number of cases not seen in our clinic figure : summary of autopsy studies performed at saskatchewan movement disorders program and available samples. pd = parkinson disease; psp = progressive supranuclear palsy; msa = multiple system atrophy; et = essential tremor; cbd = corticobasal degeneration; als = amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; ad = alzheimer disease. the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core . national essential tremor repository in the united states. - neurologists—mostly movement disorders experts from across the country—provide the brains from their own patients. the strengths are that a large number of et brains are available for research and there is very good team of neuropathologists that study those brains. the weaknesses are that the patients are looked after by many different neurologists and the autopsies are performed at multiple sites before the tissue is transported to the central repository. . our program is based on our own clinical practice of movement disorders. for research, we include patients that we (ahr, ar) have evaluated at the mdcs. our cases include a representative sample of the provincial population—all ages and all forms of treatment. the autopsies are done at one centralized location. all patients are looked after by us (ahr, ar), which ensures consistency of the clinical data. the treatment regimen is fully documented and the autopsy procedure is standardized. all patient records including videos and brain material are pre- served in our laboratories. research is based on movement disorder patients seen in our clinic and controls. the main weaknesses are that it is a slow process to collect large number of brains and the clinical data are not based on any specific research protocol. over the years, we have collected several hundred brains from patients with diverse movement disorders (figure ) and the clinical data are of adequate quality to complement other major research studies. , , - after visiting saskatoon, dr. andres lozano, professor and head of neurosurgery, university of toronto, called it a “safety deposit—world heritage site unmatched anywhere.” dr. horny- kiewicz observed, “i consider that collection the most valuable in the world. there is nothing else like it, and i know about every such lab. he collected the whole thing in saskatoon very patiently, and now it is unique. he has very rare material and has meticulous records of the patients.” to distinguish from a brain bank, we call our resource the brain safety deposit. selected work of the saskatchewan movement disorders program for space reasons, we cannot comment on most of our articles and will exclude the epidemiological studies noted previously. we briefly describe some of our work in chronological order to illustrate the evolution of the research over time. . . specificity of tremorilytic effects of alcohol and propranolol. improvement of et after an alcoholic drink has been anecdotally known for a long time and that infor- mation was passed by the neurologists from one generation to the next, but it was never established scientifically. this was first ever literature report on systematically studied effect of oral alcohol on the et. . . relative efficacy of alcohol and propranolol in action tremor. this was the first published study on the effect of oz ( ml) oral alcoholic on the action tremor in several different disorders. we reported on cases, including with et and with pd. action tremor improved minutes after oz of alcohol ingestion in % of et and % of pd cases; action tremor of some other rare disorders also improved. the blood alcohol levels did not correlate with the tremor benefit. more patients improved on propranolol than with a single alcoholic drink. to our knowledge, this is the only study on the effect of oral alcohol in action tremor in multiple disorders. the symptomatic benefit of alcohol on action tremor is neither specific nor restricted to et. . . dysautonomia in parkinsonism: a clinicopathological study. autonomic dysfunction in pd was recognized by early s, but the anatomical basis of that was unknown. most pathology studies were limited to brain and the spinal cord. this study included eight patients that had detailed intra- arterial blood pressure assessments in supine and upright positions, and the autopsy study included the brain, spinal cord, and the sympathetic ganglia. the orthostatic hypotension correlated with the sympathetic ganglia pathology—neuronal loss and lewy body inclusions. this is the only study to our knowledge that looked histologically at central as well as the peripheral autonomic nervous system for the autonomic dysfunction in pd. . . receptor basis for dopaminergic supersensitivity in parkinson’s disease. this included normal controls, untreated pd, and ld-treated pd patient brains. the dopamine receptors were supersensitive in the untreated pd and the sensitivity declined after treatment with ld. this is one of the earliest studies, if not the earliest study of its kind. . . reversible drug-induced parkinsonism. drug induced parkinsonism has been well known since the s, but there were no pathological studies to determine the underlying mechanisms of parkinsonian manifestation. this was a clinical and pathological study of two cases. on neuroleptics, each patient manifested parkinsonism. at autopsy, each case had pathological evidence of premotor pd. the neuroleptic stress needed to unmask parkinsonism was inversely related to the underlying pd pathology. . . chronic low dose levodopa therapy . high dose of ld was a common practice in the s- ’s. we observed that this resulted in early onset of dyskinesias in many cases and decided to use a lower dose of ld. this was a -year clinical study of cases on low dose— g or less plain ( mg ld/ carbidopa)/day. low-dose ld was effective and resulted in considerably lower incidence of dyskinesia and motor response fluctuations. , compared with most literature reports. those observations were confirmed years later by olanow et al. our practice of using lower dose resulted in lower drug costs, less common need for medical service for ld complications, and a better quality of life for patients. . . levodopa efficacy and pathological basis of parkinson syndrome. ld was known to be effective in most pd cases, but the information was based on clinical observations. some patients in those studies likely included other variants of ps. this is a -year clinicopathological study of cases. it shows that all pd patients receiving an adequate ld dose improve, all patients with substantia nigra (sn) restricted pathology also improve, and % of multiple system atrophy cases have some benefit on ld. this is the first published autopsy verified report on ld efficacy in ps. . . accuracy of clinical diagnosis in parkinsonism—a prospective study. this was the first study comparing clinical diagnosis with autopsy verification in parkinsonism. at the first visit, a neurologist correctly diagnosed pd in %, whereas at the final assessment before death, diagnosis by a movement disorder neurologist was accurate in % (as le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core verified by brain histological studies). this article was very well-received and was considered the best original article in the canadian journal of neurological sciences in . in , adler et al reported a virtually identical accuracy rate— % of the initial and % of the final clinical diagnosis accuracy. thus, predicting the pathology, based on the clinical diagnosis of pd, has remained unchanged for more than two decades. our study helped include clinical diagnostic inaccuracy when considering pd case selection for drug trials. . . significance of parkinsonian manifestations in essen- tial tremor. tremor is the major manifestation in both pd and et, but resting tremor is considered characteristic of pd. there is no widely available biological marker to clinically distinguish between those two disorders. in this clin- icopathological study of nine et patients, three ( %) had resting tremor as part of the natural evolution of et. this was first pathologically confirmed report on the presence of rest- ing tremor in et patients. we also recommended that in a well-established et case, all three parkinsonism motor fea- tures—resting tremor, bradykinesia, and rigidity (preferably asymmetrical)—must be present before making the additional diagnosis of ps. . . prognostic significance of the onset mode in parkin- sonism. it was widely known that parkinsonian cases have different modes of motor onset, but the reasons for that were not known. this clinicopathological study of autopsied patients over years showed that most patients with tremor onset had pd, whereas the postural instability and gait diffi- culty onset was most common in multiple system atrophy and progressive supranuclear palsy. the prognosis is most favorable in the tremor onset cases. . . dopa-responsive dystonia: pathological and bio- chemical observations in a case. dramatic and sustained response on a small dose of ld is well-known in dopa- responsive dystonia. this was a detailed clinical, pathologi- cal, and brain biochemical study of a -year-old woman who died after years of dystonia symptoms. she had marked improvement on ld initiated at age years and died in an automobile accident at age . the number of pigmented substantia nigra neurons was normal, but there was a marked reduction in the neuronal pigmentation. there was marked reduction in striatal dopamine levels. this patient was sub- sequently reported in a genetic study showing gch gene mutation as the first example in a caucasian subject. her brother, who had mild symptoms from childhood but did not come to medical attention until age years with mild fea- tures of parkinsonism and dystonia, has responded very well to a small dose of ld. . . is levodopa toxic to human substantia nigra?. toxicity of levodopa to the human sn was vigorously debated based on laboratory studies, especially after dopamine agonist drugs became available. we reported five cases including two autopsies. in one patient, a total of kg (plain ld) was used over years without evidence of nigral damage. this was the first pathologically verified study to show that levodopa is not toxic to human sn. we have now collected ld-treated autopsied cases that have normal sn (unpublished). . . timely levodopa (ld) administration prolongs survi- val in parkinson’s disease. there was an ongoing debate if ld increased life expectancy in pd; however, it could not be verified because all the contemporary pd patients are treated with ld and untreated controls needed for comparison are not available. this clinical study included cases observed over years. cases were divided into those with delayed access to ld at first assessment at mdcs ( to the end of ) with those having unrestricted access to ld (if needed) at first assessment ( and later). to our knowledge, this is the only study comparing pd patients that had highly restricted access to ld with patients that had unrestricted ld access. the survival in parkinsonism remains shorter than expected, but it has increased significantly since unrestricted access to ld. survival benefit, however, is restricted to those that receive ld therapy before onset of postural instability (stage hoehn and yahr, or modified hoehn and yahr stage . ). we also noted that epidemiological studies comparing pd survival with the general population that start from the retrospectively identified pd onset date artificially inflate pd survival. such survival comparisons should start from the date of pd patient entry in the study (i.e. first visit). . . clinical-pathological study of levodopa complica- tions. ld motor complications are known to increase with longer duration of treatment; however, most studies are based on clinical observations of heterogenic ps cases that have different responses to ld. this was a -year study of autopsied lewy body pd cases. the most common ld motor complication was dyskinesia. cumulative incidence of dys- kinesia (observed at some time during the course) over the -year study interval was %, of wearing-off % and of on-off %. to our knowledge, this is the only study based on autopsy-verified pd cases on this subject. . . human brain dopamine metabolism in levodopa- induced dyskinesia and wearing-off. some pd patients on long-term ld treatment develop wearing off but no dyski- nesia, whereas others on comparable ld dose/duration manifest dyskinesia but no wearing off. the reason for that difference was not known. this study compared nine pd brains of cases with different ld motor complication profiles followed over years with four neurologically normal control brains. this is the first autopsy study to show that patients with wearing-off metabolize dopamine more rapidly than the patients with dyskinesia. . . essential tremor course and disability: a clin- icopathological study of cases. et patients have a vari- able course—in some cases there is no significant progression and in others the symptoms worsen with time. in autopsied et cases seen at mdcs over years, we observed pro- gressively wider anatomical sites of tremor involvement and increasing functional disability with time. the risk of devel- oping pd in the et cases was comparable to that in the general population. this is the first autopsy study of long- itudinally followed autopsied et cases. . . globus pallidus dopamine and parkinson motor sub- types: clinical and brain biochemical correlation. some pd patients manifest dominant tremor, whereas others have dominant bradykinesia and rigidity, and many more have equal severity of those motor features. there was no expla- nation for those clinical differences. this study of eight pd cases that had different motor subtypes (determined when the entire clinical course of disease was considered) and five normal control brains found striatal dopamine loss was more the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core pronounced in the akinetic-rigid compared with tremor dominant cases. in the globus pallidus interna, dopamine loss was the most pronounced in the akinetic-rigid and the least in the tremor-dominant cases. these data indicate that akinetic- rigid cases have a more widespread pathology than the tremor dominant cases. . . course in parkinson’s disease subtypes: a -year clinicopathological study. having established that the akinetic-rigid cases have more advanced pathology, we chose to determine the course of disease in different pd motor subtypes. this study included autopsied pd cases seen at mdcs during years. motor subtypes were based on the entire course of disease. the outcome was most favorable in those who had tremor-dominant and the worst in akinetic rigid cases. this is the longest followed autopsy-verified study of pd motor subtypes reported to date. . . significance of cerebellar purkinje cell loss to patho- genesis of essential tremor. the pathological basis of et remains unknown but some studies. - reported that cere- bellar purkinje cell (pc) loss was the specific pathology in a large majority of et cases. this study of seven et, six tremor-dominant pd and two normal control brains, found no difference in pc counts between et, pd, and normal con- trols. literature evidence supporting that pc loss is not spe- cific to et and the conclusion was discussed. because some criticized the study due to small numbers, in we reported on autopsy cases including et, pd, and normal control brains. the pc counts were done by a neuro- pathologist blinded to the clinical diagnosis. it revealed that the pc counts were marginally higher in the et cases com- pared with the control groups. a recent large, independent study has confirmed our observations. it is concluded that pc loss is not the pathological basis of et. . . defective dentate nucleus gaba receptors in essential tremor. this study of et, pd, and control brains first time showed reduced gaba receptors in the dentate nucleus in et cases. . . dnajc mutation in parkinson disease. this study reports on a large multi-incident mennonite family with three autopsy-confirmed lewy body pd that had dnajc mutation. the first case was seen nearly years before publication, but took this long to evaluate other family members and for some affected persons to come to autopsy. other seemingly unrelated persons from four different families of mennonite ancestry were identified; all but one family can trace their roots to the chortitza mennonite colony of the ukraine. the dnajc mutation leads to toxic gain of function resulting in impaired endosome transport. this observation furthers our understanding of the pathogenesis of pd. . . is parkinson’s disease a vesicular dopamine storage disorder? evidence from a study in isolated synaptic vesicles of human and nonhuman primate striatum. the molecular mechanism of onset and progression of pd pathology remains unknown. this study included six pd, four normal control brains, and seven mptp treated and eight normal control monkey brains. there was markedly reduced dopa- mine vesicular uptake and binding in the human pd, but not in the mptp-treated monkey brains. this abnormality is therefore specific to pd. this observation improves our understanding of the pathophysiology of pd and reinforces that despite the usefulness of the mptp model of pd, it does not represent fully what is going on in human pd. what made our research model successful? compared with most other centers, we did not have any special advantages of funding, equipment, manpower, or technical skills. we believe the success of our research program can be attributed to the following. . fully integrated clinical and research programs since it was started in . a large number of cases can be studied because the program includes all movement disorders seen at the mdcs. we follow the patients longitudinally, make videos on all consenting subjects, and perform autopsies wherever possible. all patients are evaluated at each visit by the same two neurologists, ensuring consistency of the clinical data. . a realistic plan, taking into account the local circumstances. . building a long-term sustainable research program. it has several components and each involves successful integration of multiple individuals. . slow but patient. in the earlier years, many of my (ali) contemporaries “appeared to be flying in supersonic jets, while i was walking.” . hard work. in the earlier years, i (ali) took virtually no holidays and the research was done over the weekends and evenings. although there are many other examples of extra- ordinary efforts by saskatchewan movement disorders neu- rologists, one that is easy to understand is the availability. one of us (ahr) has been on / autopsy call for years and emergency freezer call for years, whereas the other (ar) has been on each of those calls for years, without financial or academic reward. . the support of many others, including the hospital personnel, who have contributed significantly to this program in their own ways. . saskatchewan public support. saskatchewan people are prob- ably the most generous anywhere, when the term “generosity” is used in a broad sense. not only has the public raised large sums of money from many small donations to support this work, they have also helped collect research-worthy data and many families authorized autopsy on their loved ones—even when there was no possibility of any gain to the family. . cost-effectiveness. not counting the many voluntary functions performed by thousands of saskatchewan people and neuro- logists over the years, this program has so far cost more than $ million. the cost was bearable as it was spread over a long period. there is an african saying: “if you want to go quickly, go alone; if you want to go far, go together.” together, the sas- katchewan public, neurologists, and our collaborators have indeed traveled far—starting from nothing to being what is considered by some experts in the field as the best program of its kind. future our efforts were dictated by circumstances, and circumstances change with time. the future of this program depends on the new local realities—the desire of the new local expert neurologists in le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core this field and the institution to pursue this model of research. if handled properly, the future of the program is bright. we have one of the best resources and have the mechanism in place for ongoing replenishment. this program can expand to include many other aspects of pd, et, and dystonia and also include other movement disorders. foreseeable needs we are not likely to receive a multimillion dollar donation or to have a very large neurosciences manpower or technological superiority over other major centers. this research program is anchored to patient care and specialized research-worthy clinical data collection. those functions are performed by the specialty trained neurologists. by the standards of this institution, it is a fairly large program. the demands on our (ahr, ar) time are numerous and we are frequently the bottleneck for the collabora- tive studies. we appreciate the patience of our colleagues. the program has reached a point that the two of us, with one (ahr) retired from the university (though spending more than % of his time on research), cannot take full advantage of the available opportunities. there are many research options we cannot pursue because of a lack of medical manpower. there is a need for three fulltime academic movement disorder neurologists if we wish to realize the full potential of this program. appropriate recognition and support for the multiple tasks which neurologists perform is vital in order to attract and retain movement disorders experts. those who can contribute locally with specialized clinical or imaging assessments as well as basic science research support are also needed. new collaborators that bring state-of-the-art expertise to take advantage of our unique resource are welcome. we are highly optimistic about the continuing public generosity; however, there is a need for a more sustained and reliable funding source. acknowledgements we are grateful to greystone golf classic, regina curling classic, and royal university hospital foundation for the major financial support of the saskatchewan movement disorders program. disclosures ali rajput has received honoraria from and been a guest speaker at parkinson society canada. alex rajput received research support from greystone golf classic, regina curling classic, and royal university hospital foundation. references . ehringer h, hornykiewicz o. distribution of noradrenaline and dopamine ( -hydroxytyramine) in human brain: their behaviour in extrapyramidal system diseases. klin wochenschr. ; : - . . birkmayer w, hornykiewicz o. the effect of l- , -dihydroxy- phenylalanine (= l-dopa) on akinesia in parkinsonism. wiener klinische wochenschrift. ; : - . . cotzias gc, van woert mh, schiffer lm. aromatic amino acids and modification of parkinsonism. n engl j med. ; : - . . rajput ah, jamieson h, hirsh s. specificity of tremorilytic effects of alcohol and propranolol. clin res. ; : . . rajput ah, jamieson h, hirsch s, quraishi a. relative efficacy of alcohol and propranolol in action tremor. can j neurol sci. ; : - . . markham ch, diamond sg. evidence to support early levodopa therapy in parkinson disease. neurology. ; : - . . rajput ah, rozdilsky b. dysautonomia in parkinsonism: a clinicopathological study. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry. ; : - . . rajput ah, stern w, laverty wh. chronic low dose therapy in parkinson’s disease: an argument for delaying levodopa therapy. neurology. ; : - . . ahlskog je, muenter md. frequency of levodopa-related dyskine- sias and motor fluctuations as estimated from the cumulative lit- erature. mov disord. ; : - . . webster dd. critical analysis of disability in parkinson’s disease. mod treat. ; : - . . hoehn mm, yahr md. parkinsonism: onset, progression, and mor- tality. neurology. ; : - . . fahn s, elton rl, updrs development committee. unified parkinson’s disease rating scale. in: fahn s, marsden cd, calne d, et al., eds. recent developments in parkinson’s disease, nd ed. florham park (nj): macmillan healthcare information, . p. - . . rajput ah, voll a, rajput ml, robinson ca, rajput a. course in parkinson’s disease subtypes: a -year clinicopathological study. neurology. ; : - . . poskanzer dc, schwab rs. cohort analysis of parkinson’s syn- drome evidence for a single etiology related to subclinical infec- tion about . j chronic dis. ; : - . . lee t, seeman p, rajput ah, farley ij, hornykiewicz o. receptor basis for dopeminergic supersensitivity in parkinson’s disease. nature. ; : - . . pifl c, rajput a, reither h, et al. is parkinson’s disease a vesicular dopamine storage disorder? evidence from a study in isolated synaptic vasicles of human and nonhuman primate striatum. j neurosci. ; : - . . rajput ah, offord kp, beard cm, kurland lt. epidemiology of parkinsonism: incidence, classification, and mortality. ann neu- rol. ; : - . . rajput ah, uitti rj, stern w, laverty w. early onset parkinson’s disease in saskatchewan - environmental considerations for etiol- ogy. can j neurol sci. ; : - . . rajput ah, uitti rj, o’donnell d. metal concentration in drinking water and parkinson’s disease and controls. can j neurol sci. ; : . . rajput ah, uitti rj. paraquat and parkinson’s disease. neurology. ; : . . calon f, rajput ah, hornykiewicz o, bedard pj, dipaulo t. levodopa-induced motor complications are associated with alterations of glutamate receptors in parkinson’s disease. neuro- biol dis. ; : - . . paris-robidas s, brochu e, sintes m, et al. defective dentate nucleus gaba receptors in essential tremor. brain. ; : - . . rajput a, dickson dw, robinson ca, et al. parkinsonism, lrrk g s, and tau neuropathology. neurology. ; : - . . vilarino-guell c, rajput a, milnerwood aj, et al. dnajc mutations in parkinson disease. hum mol genet. ; : - . . allen al, luo c, montgomery a, rajput ah, robinson ca, rajput a. vascular pathology in male lewis rats following short-term, low-dose rotenone administration. vet pathol. ; : - . . hely ma, morris jgl, rail d, et al. the sydney multicentre study of parkinson’s disease: a report on the first years. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry. ; : - . . shill ha, adler ch, sabbagh mn, et al. pathologic findings in prospectively ascertained essential tremor subjects. neurology. ; : - . . adler ch, beach tg, hentz jg, et al. low clinical diagnostic accuracy of early vs advanced parkinson disdease: a clinicopathologic study. neurology. ; : - . . beach tg, sue li, walker dg, et al. the sun health research institute brain donation program: description and experience, - . cell tissue bank. ; : - . the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core . shill ha, adler ch, beach tg, et al. brain biochemistry in autop- sied patients with essential tremor. mov disord. ; : - . . hughes aj, daniel se, kilford l, lees aj. accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study of cases. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry. ; : - . . hughes aj, ben-schlomo y, daniel se, lees aj. diagnosis of pd. reply. neurology. ; : . . louis ed, faust pl, vonsattel j-p, et al. neuropathological changes in essential tremor: cases compared with controls. brain. ; : - . . louis ed. essential tremors: a family of neurodegenerative dis- orders? arch neurol. ; : - . . axelrad je, louis ed, honig ls, et al. reduced purkinje cell num- ber in essential tremor: a postmortem study. arch neurol. ; : - . . rajput ah, rozdilsky b, rajput a, ang l. levodopa efficacy and pathological basis of parkinson syndrome. clin neuropharmacol. ; : - . . rajput ah, rozdilsky b, ang l, rajput a. significance of parkin- sonian manifestations in essential tremor. can j neurol sci. ; : - . . rajput ah, fenton me, birdi s, et al. clinical-pathological study of levodopa complications. mov disord. ; : - . . rajput ah, rozdilsky b, hornykiewicz o, shannak k, lee t, see- man p. reversible drug-induced parkinsonism: clinicopathologic study of two cases. arch neurol. ; : - . . rajput ah. factors predictive of the development of levodopa- induced dyskniesia and wearing-off in parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; : . . olanow cw, kieburtz k, rascol o, et al. factors predictive of the development of levodopa-induced dyskinesias and wearing-off in parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; : - . . rajput ah, rozdilsky b, rajput a. accuracy of clinical diagnosis in parkinsonism - a prospective study. can j neurol sci. ; : - . . rajput ah, rajput a. accuracy of parkinson disease diagnosis unchanged in decades. neurology. ; : - . . rajput ah, pahwa r, pahwa p, rajput a. prognostic significance of the onset mode in parkinsonism. neurology. ; : - . . rajput ah, gibb wrg, zhong xh, et al. dopa-responsive dystonia: pathological and biochemical observations in a case. ann neurol. ; : - . . furukawa y, shimadzu m, rajput ah, et al. gtp-cyclohydrolase i gene mutations in hereditary progressive and dopa-responsive dystonia. ann neurol. ; : - . . rajput ah, fenton me, birdi s, macaulay r. is levodopa toxic to human substantia nigra? mov disord. ; : - . . rajput ah, uitti rj, rajput a, offord kp. timely levodopa (ld) administration prolongs survival in parkinson’s disease. parkin- sonism relat disord. ; : - . . rajput ah, fenton me, di paolo t, sitte h, pifl c, hornykiewicz o. human brain dopamine metabolism in levodopa-induced dyskinesia and wearing-off. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : - . . rajput a, robinson ca, rajput ah. essential tremor course and disability: a clinicopathological study of cases. neurology. ; : - . . rajput ah, sitte h, rajput a, fenton me, pifl c, hornykiewicz o. globus pallidus dopamine and parkinson motor subtypes: clini- cal and brain biochemical correlation. neurology. ; : - . . rajput ah, rajput a. significance of cerebellar purkinje cell loss to pathogenesis of essential tremor. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : - . . rajput ah, robinson ca, rajput ml, robinson sl, rajput a. essential tremor is not dependent upon cerebellar purkinje cell loss. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : - . . symanski c, shill ha, dugger b, et al. essential tremor is not associated with cerebellar purkinje cell loss. mov disord. ; : - . le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /cjn. . https://www.cambridge.org/core 	outline placeholder 	introduction and history 	major breakthrough 	impetus for the university of saskatchewan movement disorders program 	start of special clinics and research 	basic scientists and clinician scientist teams 	start of low-dose ld therapy 	what should i study and how do i do that? 	taking advantage of the local situation and building alliances 	figure adapted from rajput et�al, neurology . 	early collaborating scientists 	figure this form is provided to patients to decide on autopsy for research. 	outside collaborators 	sabbatical leave 	the second phase of research 	funding 	additional collaborations 	quebec city &#x ; laval university group 	mayo clinic jacksonville, fl&#x f;university of british columbia 	students and future scientists 	main components of saskatchewan movement disorders program 	clinical data 	autopsy procedure 	information and material storage 	figure flow chart of saskatchewan movement disorders program operations. 	figure pictures of saskatchewan movement disorders program storage of patient records and research material. 	major movement disorders studied at mdcs 	our resource is not a brain bank 	figure summary of autopsy studies performed at saskatchewan movement disorders program and available samples. 	selected work of the saskatchewan movement disorders program 	what made our research model successful? 	future 	foreseeable needs 	acknowledgements 	acknowledgements missense models [gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly] of murine mucopolysaccharidosis type vii produced by targeted mutagenesis shunji tomatsu*†, koji o. orii*†, carole vogler‡, jeffrey h. grubb*, elizabeth m. snella*, monica a. gutierrez*, tatiana dieter*, kazuko sukegawa†, tadao orii†, naomi kondo†, and william s. sly*§ *edward a. doisy department of biochemistry and molecular biology and ‡department of pathology, saint louis university school of medicine, st. louis, mo ; and †department of pediatrics, gifu university school of medicine, gifu , japan contributed by william s. sly, september , human mucopolysaccharidosis vii (mps vii, sly syndrome) results from a deficiency of �-glucuronidase (gus) and has been associ- ated with a wide range in severity of clinical manifestations. to study missense mutant models of murine mps vii with phenotypes of varying severity, we used targeted mutagenesis to produce e a and e q, corresponding to active-site nucleophile re- placements e a and e q in human gus, and l f, corre- sponding to the most common human mutation, l f. the e a mouse had no gus activity in any tissue and displayed a severe phenotype like that of the originally described mps vii mice carrying a deletion mutation (gusmps/mps). e q and l f mice had low levels of residual activity and milder phenotypes. all three mutant mps models showed progressive lysosomal storage in many tissues but had different rates of accumulation. the amount of urinary glycosaminoglycan excretion paralleled the clinical se- verity, with urinary glycosaminoglycans remarkably higher in e a mice than in e q or l f mice. molecular analysis showed that the gus mrna levels were quantitatively similar in the three mutant mouse strains and normal mice. these mouse models, which mimic different clinical phenotypes of human mps vii, should be useful in studying pathogenesis and also provide useful models for studying enzyme replacement therapy and targeted correction of missense mutations. knock-in mice � point mutation � cre-loxp mucopolysaccharidosis type vii (mps vii or sly syndrome)is a mucopolysaccharide storage disease resulting from a deficiency of �-glucuronidase (gus, ec . . . ) ( ). in mps vii, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and heparan sulfate are only partially degraded and accumulate in the lysosomes of many tissues, leading to cellular and organ dysfunction. mps vii has also been reported in canine, murine, and feline species. human patients with mps vii display a wide range of clinical severity, and � different mutations have been found in the gus gene ( – ). around % of these are point mutations. l f accounts for � % of mutant alleles. this mutation was first identified in a mennonite family ( ), and then observed in other populations. most patients homozygous for l f have a mild phenotype. this mutation is interesting because cells from l f patients have � % of normal gus activity, but expres- sion of the l f cdna in cos cells produced nearly as much enzyme activity as the wt control cdna ( ). characterization of human gus protein by x-ray crystallog- raphy and homology comparisons among several species sug- gested r , e , and e as active-site residues ( ). e was identified as the active-site nucleophile of the human enzyme ( , ). recombinant e a human gus had no catalytic activity, but the e q gus showed . % of wt activity ( ). one severely affected mps vii patient with a null mutation at this residue, e k, has been identified (s.t. and w.s.s., unpublished observation). the original mps vii (gusmps/mps) mice with a -bp deletion in exon have morphologic, genetic, and biochemical character- istics similar to those of mps vii patients ( , ). the features of this murine model, with a known and uniform genetic constitution, made it attractive for studying experimental ther- apies for lysosomal storage disorders. missense mutant mouse models allow functional analysis of specific amino acid replace- ments. we used targeted mutagenesis to produce three such models of mps vii: e a, e q, and l f. the e residue in exon was selected because it was implicated as an active-site nucleophile ( , ). differences in residual activity between recombinant e a and e q were noted in vitro and raised the possibility that the e q mutation might provide a milder form of mps vii than e a ( ). the l f mutation was selected because the homologous human mutation, l f, was the most prevalent mutation among mps vii patients and was usually associated with a mild phenotype. these mice provided the opportunity to explore (i) how the residual enzyme activity level measured in vitro correlates with phenotype, (ii) how glycosaminoglycan (gag) storage corre- lates with the individual mutations, and (iii) how phenotypes in mild and severe murine models correlate with those of human patients who have mps vii caused by similar mutations. materials and methods site-directed mutagenesis and targeting vector construction. re- combinant phage clones containing the gus locus were isolated from an svj mouse genomic dna library (stratagene). the � . -kb fragment and � . -kb fragment of the murine gus gene (containing exons – and exon , respectively) were subcloned into the pbs vector. the mutations (underlined) were introduced into the appropriate fragments by using the following mutagenic primers: for e a in exon , �-ccgattatc- cagagcgcgtatggagcagacgcaatc- �; for e q in exon , �-ccgattatccagagccagtacggagca- gacgcaatc- �; and for l f in exon , �-atcacgat- tgccatta aca acacatttacccctcatacc- �. the e a, e q, or l f point mutation and the indicated additional base changes created new bstui, rsai, or msei restriction sites, respectively. the presence of each point muta- tion was confirmed by sequence analysis of exons – . the ppnt-lox vector, generously provided by shinji hirotsune (national human genome research institute, national insti- tutes of health, bethesda), was modified to contain a � phos- phoglycerine kinase neor cassette f lanked by loxp sites and a � thymidine kinase (tk) cassette and was named ppnt-loxp . the � . -kb xhoi–noti fragment of the murine gus gene was introduced at noti�xhoi-digested sites of the ppnt-loxp vec- abbreviations: mps vii, mucopolysaccharidosis type vii; gag, glycosaminoglycan; gus, �-glucuronidase; es, embryonic stem. §to whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: slyws@slu.edu. – � pnas � november , � vol. � no. www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , tor. next, the . -kb xhoi–sali fragment containing exons – was added between the tk and neor genes to create the complete targeting vector. the final construct contained . and . kb of � and � homology of the gus gene, respectively, with each point mutation (fig. ). homologous recombination in embryonic stem (es) cells and gener- ation of germ-line chimeras. the targeting vector ( �g) was linearized with noti and introduced into the �sv-derived es cell line rw (incyte genome systems, st. louis; � cells) by electroporation ( v and �f) in a bio-rad gene pulser. after h, the cells were placed under positive�negative selection with �g�ml g (gibco�brl) and �m ganciclovir (syntex chemicals, boulder, co) for days. colonies resistant to double selection were isolated and analyzed by pcr and southern blot. the methodology for screening is provided in supporting methods and fig. , which are published as supporting information on the pnas web site, www.pnas.org. two independent, targeted es clones were injected into c bl� j blastocysts, and chimeric males were backcrossed for germ-line transmission to c bl� j females. the f mice were crossed with mice expressing cre enzyme to remove the neor gene ( ). the resultant neo-excised heterozygous mice were mated to produce homozygous mutant mice. genotyping was performed by pcr analysis of dna obtained by tail biopsies at days and confirmed by assaying the gus activity. the resultant homozygous mice with e a, e q, or l f point mutations were named gustm(e a)sly/tm(e a)sly [or gustm(e a)sly], gustm(e q)sly/tm(e q)sly [or gustm(e q)sly], and gustm(l f)sly/tm(l f)sly [or gustm(l f)sly], respectively, following the nomenclature recommended by the jackson laboratory (www.informatics.jax.org�mgihome�nomen�table.shtml). northern blot analysis and rt-pcr. total cellular rna was isolated from tissues of homozygous mps vii mutants, heterozygotes, and wt mice by using a guanidinium�phenol solution (rna- stat- , tel-test, friendswood, tx). twenty micrograms of rna from each source was denatured in formaldehyde- containing buffer and electrophoresed. the rna was trans- ferred to nylon membranes (amersham pharmacia) and prehy- bridized at °c. blots were hybridized overnight at °c with p-labeled mouse gus cdna probes. mrna was also analyzed by rt-pcr followed by diagnostic restriction enzyme digestion and analysis on agarose gels (see supporting methods and fig. , which are published as supporting information on the pnas web site). western blot analysis. tissues were dissected and homogenized immediately (by a brinkmann polytron homogenizer for sec at °c) in vol of homogenization buffer ( mm tris�hcl, ph . � mm nacl� mm pmsf). samples containing �g of protein were analyzed by sds�page under reducing conditions as described ( ). the polypeptides were electronically trans- ferred to immobilon-p membranes (millipore). after transblot- ting, the polypeptides were immunostained by using polyclonal rabbit anti-mouse gus antibody followed by incubation with goat anti-rabbit igg (sigma) coupled with peroxidase. the peroxidase activity was visualized by using a chemiluminescent substrate. lysosomal enzyme assays. gus and two other lysosomal enzymes, �-galactosidase and �-hexosaminidase, were assayed f luoro- metrically by using -methylumbelliferyl substrates as described ( – ). tissues were dissected and homogenized immediately (by a brinkmann polytron homogenizer for sec at °c) in vol of homogenization buffer ( mm tris�hcl, ph . � mm nacl� mm pmsf). gus assays on dilutions of wt tissue extracts were done for h, and on mps vii [gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly] extracts for h. assays of other lysosomal enzymes were incubated for h. units were nmol hydrolyzed per h, and activity was expressed as units�mg protein, as determined by micro-lowry assay. analysis of gags. to determine the �g of gags per mg of urinary creatinine, we measured urine with , -dimethylmethylene blue ( – ). creatinine was measured by mixing �l of a -fold diluted urine sample with �l of saturated picric acid (sigma) and �l of . m naoh. absorbance at nm was read after min and compared with a standard. pathology. multiple tissues from six of each of the mps vii mouse strains [gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly], – months of age, were studied morphologically as described ( ). tissues were evaluated for the extent of lysosomal storage. alterations in the three strains were com- pared with each other and with the original mps vii model (gusmps/mps). long bones from the gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly mice were radiographed as described ( ). results generation of gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly knock-in mice. to introduce each point mutation in the gus gene in mouse es cells, we designed a targeting vector with a total of . kb of homologous genomic sequence (fig. ). the mutation was cotransferred with neo f lanked by two loxp sites through homologous recombination in es cells. after selection with g and ganciclovir, doubly resistant clones were screened for homologous recombination by pcr followed by southern blot- ting with a � external probe. of clones screened for each mutation by pcr, e a, e q, and l f were homologous recombinant clones. the presence of the introduced point mutation in the targeted clones was analyzed by pcr amplification followed by restriction enzyme digestion (see supporting methods and fig. ). thirteen of ( %) clones contained the e a mutation (bstui digestion), of ( %) clones contained the e q mutation (rsai digestion), and fig. . targeted mutagenesis of the gus gene. the structure of the endogenous gene, the targeting construct, the homologous recombinant allele, and the neo-excised allele are presented schematically on successive lines. filled rectangles represent exons and the neomycin resistance gene. the open rectangle indicates the tk gene. the striped bar over the wt allele represents the probe used for southern blots. abbreviations for restriction enzymes are: r, ecori; s, sali; x, xhoi. the r with superimposed x indicates the ecori site that was destroyed during the construction of the targeting vector by in vitro mutagenesis without any effect on the consensus splicing sequences. tomatsu et al. pnas � november , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , three of ( %) clones contained the l f mutation (msei digestion). targeted es cells containing each mutant allele were in- jected into c bl� j blastocysts, and chimeric males were obtained, followed by germ-line transmission of the mutant allele (f ). f offspring heterozygous for each of the three mutations were independently intercrossed with c bl� j mice to generate f homozygous mice that were �sv � c bl� j hybrids. this strategy generated mice heterozygous for the mutation, with the expected mendelian segregation (w t and mutant, : ) at birth. phenotype of the mps vii missense mutants. homozygous e a mps vii mice, herein referred to as gustm(e a)sly mice, were not distinguishable phenotypically from heterozygous and ho- mozygous wt littermates at birth but could easily be identified by the time of weaning. they had shortened faces and were slightly smaller. as they aged, their growth retardation, short- ened extremities, and facial dysmorphism became more prom- inent (fig. a). the gustm(l f)sly and gustm(e q)sly mice could not be distinguished from wt mice until at least months of age. their dysmorphism increased slowly with age, but as adults, it was less severe than that seen in the gustm(e a)sly mice. fig. a shows the adult phenotype of the three mps vii mutant mice and that of a normal wt mouse. radiographic analysis of the long bones from gustm(e a)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and gustm(e q)sly mice showed skeletal dyspla- sia similar to that seen in the previously described mps vii gusmps/mps model and in humans with mps vii. radiographs comparing the upper extremities of mutant and normal mice are presented in fig. b. the long bones were shortened, broad, and sclerotic. the most severe alterations were seen in the gustm(e a)sly mice. the c olon ies of gust m ( e a ) s l y, gust m ( e q ) s l y, and gustm(l f)sly mice were maintained by brother-sister matings, genotyped by pcr analysis of genomic dna, and confirmed by enzymatic analysis of extracts of tail samples for gus activity. homozygous offspring from these colonies were analyzed for biochemical, morphological, and histopatholog- ical phenotypes. in more than offspring from each mutant line, crosses between heterozygotes produced progeny with a distribution at weaning of % ���, % ���, and % ��� for the gustm(e a)sly mice; % ���, % ���, and % ��� for the gustm(e q)sly; and % ���, % ���, and % ��� fig. . morphological and radiographic phenotypes of the gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly mice. (a) a -month-old female gustm(e a)sly mouse (far left) is smaller and has dysmorphic features compared with a normal female mouse (far right) of the same age. female, -month-old gustm(l f)sly (second from left) and gustm(e q)sly (second from right) mice have milder dysmorphic features compared with gustm(e a)sly mice, although they are easily distinguishable from a normal mouse at this age. the affected mice all have small heads with blunted noses, short limbs, and a hobbled gait, but differ in clinical severity. (b) radiograph of the scapulae and upper extremities of gustm(e a)sly (far left), gustm(l f)sly (second from left), gustm(e q)sly (second from right), and normal (far right) mice. the long bones of the -month-old female gustm(e a)sly mouse (far left) were shortened, broad, and sclerotic com- pared with the bones of a normal female mouse of the same age (far right). female gustm(l f)sly (second from left) and gustm(e q)sly (second from right) mice have similar but milder abnormalities. fig. . tissue levels of enzyme activity and gags in gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly mice. (a) gustm(e a)sly mice have no residual gus activity in any tissue. gustm(e q)sly mice have . – . % of control level residual activity in liver, kidney, brain, and spleen; gustm(l f)sly mice have � . % activity in liver and kidney and . – . % in brain and spleen. control gus levels were , , , and units�mg in liver, kidney, brain, and spleen, respectively. (b) gustm(e a)sly mice show a higher secondary elevation in �-galactosidase (�-gal) and �-hexosaminidase (�-hex) activity compared with gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mice. (c) gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly mice all have significant elevations in urinary gags com- pared with b or mixed background mice. gustm(e a)sly mice have a higher elevation than gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mice. � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. tomatsu et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , for the gustm(l f)sly. only the gustm(e a)sly offspring have reduced survival in the neonatal period, comparable to that reported in the original mps vii gusmps/mps mice ( ). biochemical phenotype of the gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly knock-in mice. the homozygous gustm(e a)sly mice showed the profound deficiency of gus reported in the original fig. . histopathology of the gustm(e a)sly (left), gustm(l f)sly (center), and gustm(e q)sly (right) mice. (a) the liver from a -month-old gustm(e a)sly mouse has sinus-lining cells (arrowhead) distended by lysosomal storage. smaller vacuoles affect hepatocytes and pericanalicular distribution (arrow). (b) the liver from a -month-old gustm(l f)sly mouse has small vacuoles in the kupffer cells and few vacuoles in the hepatocytes. (c) the liver from a -month-old gustm(e q)sly mouse has only small vacuoles in the kupffer cells. (d) renal tubular epithelial cells (arrow) in the kidney of a -month-old gustm(e a)sly mouse contain very large cytoplasmic vacuoles representing lysosomal storage. glomerular visceral epithelial cells (arrowhead) and interstitial cells also have storage, although their cytoplasmic vacuoles are smaller than those seen in the tubular epithelial cells. gustm(l f)sly (e) and gustm(e q)sly (f) mice have very little lysosomal storage in renal tubular epithelial cells and glomerular epithelial cells. (g) vacuolar storage (arrow) is apparent in the meninges overlying the cortex of gustm(e a)sly mice. meninges of gustm(l f)sly (h) and gustm(e q)sly (i) mice show minimal storage. (j) the cornea of a -month-old gustm(e a)sly mouse is altered with fibrocytes (arrow) and endothelial cells (arrowhead) distended with cytoplasmic vacuolization. cornea of gustm(l f)sly (k) and gustm(e q)sly (l) mice have much less storage in stromal and endothelial cells. (toluidine blue, cm � . �m.) tomatsu et al. pnas � november , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , mps vii mice ( ) (fig. a). both the gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mice had residual enzyme activity, between . % and . % of normal controls, depending on the tissue measured. the gus activities in the gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mice were - to -fold higher than the background levels found in gustm(e a)sly mice. secondary elevations of other lysosomal enzymes, including �-galactosidase and �-hexosaminidase, were noted in most of the tissues of - to -month-old mice (fig. b). in gustm(e a)sly mice, the �-galactosidase level was - to -fold higher than that of normal controls. secondary elevation of �-galactosidase and �-hexosaminidase enzyme activities in tis- sues tended to increase as the mice aged. accumulation of urinary gags. urine was collected from gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and wt mice. the level of gags in urine from gustm(e a)sly mice was -fold higher than that in normal control mice, whereas the levels from gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mice were increased -fold (fig. c). there were no overlapping values between those three mutants and the wt mice. murine gus mrna transcript and expression of murine gus protein. northern blot analyses on total rna isolated from liver of gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and gus�/� litter- mates showed the presence of a . -kb gus transcript in similar amounts in all mice. transcripts f rom gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, and gustm(l f)sly mice were amplified by rt- pcr and sequenced. sequencing showed no alterations except the introduced nucleotide alterations. digestions with bstui, rsai, and msei distinguished the mutant alleles and the normal allele as described (see fig. ). tissues of liver, kidney, spleen, and brain from gustm(e a)sly, gustm(e q)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and normal control mice were homogenized to analyze the expression of the murine gus protein. a single band with the expected mr of the murine gus protein ( kda) was detected by the anti-mouse gus antibody in multiple tissues of mutant mice (data not shown). histopathology of the gustm(e a)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and gustm(e q)sly knock-in mice. the gustm(e a)sly mice had abundant lysosomal storage in liver, kidney, leptomeningeal cells, and cornea (fig. ) and also in spleen, neurons, and retinal pigment epithelium (not shown). the amount and extent of storage was similar to that of the original mps vii gusmps/mps mice ( , ). in the gustm(l f)sly mice, storage was similar in distribution although less extensive. there was very little storage apparent in the brain and spleen in most of the gustm(l f)sly mice, correlating with the presence of residual gus activity in these tissues. gustm(e q)sly mice had much less storage in renal tubular epithelial cells and hepatocytes than the other two strains, which correlated with their higher residual levels of gus in these two tissues. the bone, articular surface, and synovium of the limb joints also differed in severity of histopathology among the gustm(e a)sly, gustm(l f)sly, and gustm(e q)sly mice (see fig. , which is pub- lished as supporting information on the pnas web site). discussion the original gusmps/mps mps vii mouse has a -bp deletion in exon and produces only � of normal levels of gus mrna ( , , ). these mice have many biochemical, pathological, and phenotypic similarities with mps vii pa- tients with a severe phenotype. the majority of patients with human mps vii have different missense mutations that contribute to the broad range of clinical phenotypes. e has been identified as the active-site nucleophile of the human gus gene ( , ). for this reason, we targeted e (the residue homologous with e in human gus) to produce a missense mutation conferring a null mps vii mouse pheno- t ype caused by an enz y matically inactive gus. the gustm(e a)sly mice exhibit a clinical phenotype characterized by facial dysmorphism, growth retardation, behavioral deficits, systemic bone deformities, and shortened extremities, features ver y similar to those obser ved in the original gusmps/mps mouse. the gustm(l f)sly and gustm(e q)sly mice both show milder clinical phenotypes, detectable residual enzyme activity, less elevation in urinary gag excretion, and less severe histopathol- ogy. in addition, females have the ability to carry a pregnancy to term and produce viable pups, whereas the gustm(e a)sly mice cannot. they also have reduced perinatal mortality compared w ith the e a mut ant mice. gust m ( e a ) s l y /� � gustm(e a)sly/� matings produce fewer than the expected % ��� mice at wean ing. however, the percent age of gustm(l f)sly/tm(l f)sly and gustm(e q)sly/tm(e q)sly mice at weaning did not differ significantly from %. although facial dysmorphism and radiographic features gradually became ap- parent in the mice homozygous for gustm(e q)sly and gustm(l f)sly mutations by – months of age, the mice were larger and appeared healthier during a longer period of their life. the increased viability and fitness of fetuses and newborn pups, the increase in pups surviving to weaning age, and a milder phenotype as adults indicate how much benefit a small amount of residual enzyme can provide. the lysosomal storage in liver, spleen, and kidney was less in age-matched gustm(l f)sly and gustm(e q)sly mice than in gustm(e a)sly mice. quantitative excretion of urinary gags was also less than in age-matched gustm(e a)sly mice. secondary elevation of other lysosomal enzymes was observed in all three mutant strains. however, the lower elevation of �-galactosidase in gustm(l f)sly and gustm(e q)sly mice than gustm(e a)sly mice shows how sensitive this enzyme is as a secondary marker of gag accumulation. it is for this reason that �-galactosidase is a valuable marker for following the response to enzyme replacement therapy ( ). we have not identified the mechanism underlying the residual gus activity produced by the e q but not the e a knock-in allele. in vitro expression studies also showed that cells expressing human e q (or mouse e q) had detectable levels of gus activity ( ). several factors could explain this residual activity. glutamate (e) and glutamine (q) residues are similar amino acids and differ only in one additional amino group on glutamine. the chemical differ- ence, including composition, polarity, and molecular volume, between e and q is minimal, whereas the chemical difference between e and a (alanine) is greater ( ). possibly, q has a low level of activity as a nucleophile ( ), whereas a has none. also, enzymatic or nonenzymatic conversion of q to e by in vivo deamidation could also contribute ( ). the higher levels of e q activity in liver and kidney compared with other tissues favor this explanation. the l f mutation in murine mps vii led to a milder phenotype, as has been seen with many human mps vii patients homozygous for the orthologous (l f) mutation. in vitro expression studies showed that overexpression of gus cdna containing the l f mutation resulted in – % of the gus activity of the w t cdna ( ). however, the fibro- blasts from human mps vii patients homozygous for the l f mutation revealed only . – % of enzyme activity. the discrepancy between the mps phenotype, which was consis- tent with the low level of activity in cells from patients, and the much-higher-than-expected level of gus activity generated by transient expression has been seen in other mutations of the human gus gene ( , ). however, the l f mutation is the most extreme example. it has been suggested that overexpres- sion of mutant monomers could, by mass action, drive the folding reaction or the assembly into tetramers, which achieve a more stable conformation once formed ( ). whether one can � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. tomatsu et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , exploit this possibility to test chemical chaperones to drive unstable mutant monomers into stable, active tetramers in mice (or patients) is an interesting therapeutic question ( , ). the l f mps vii mouse allows us to test this hypoth- esis. in addition, all three of the missense murine models of mps vii reported here should be useful for developing other strategies for treating lysosomal storage disorders, such as chimeric oligonucleotide-directed gene repair ( ). m. rafiqul islam, yanhua bi, and christopher c. holden provided valuable technical assistance. this work was supported by national institutes of health grants gm and dk (to w.s.s.). . sly, w. s., quinton, b. a., mcalister, w. h. & rimoin, d. l. ( ) j. pediatr. , – . . tomatsu, s., sukegawa, k., ikedo, y., fukuda, s., yamada, y., sasaki, t., okamoto, h., kuwabara, t. & orii, t. ( ) gene , – . . tomatsu, s., fukuda, s., sukegawa, k., ikedo, y., yamada, s., yamada, y., sasaki, t., okamoto, h., kuwahara, t. & yamaguchi, s. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . shipley, j. m., klinkenberg, m., wu, b. m., bachinsky, d. r., grubb, j. h. & sly, w. s. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . wu, b. m. & sly, w. s. ( ) hum. mutat. , – . . vervoort, r., lissens, w. & liebaers, i. ( ) hum. mutat. , – . . wu, b. m., tomatsu, s., fukuda, s., sukegawa, k., orii, t. & sly, w. s. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . vervoort, r., islam, m. r., sly, w. s., zabot, m. t., kleijer, w. j., chabas, a., fensom, a., young, e. p., liebaers, i. & lissens, w. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . islam, m. r., vervoort, r., lissens, w., hoo, j. j., valentino, l. a. & sly, w. s. ( ) hum. genet. , – . . vervoort, r., buist, n. r., kleijer, w. j., wevers, r., fryns, j. p., liebaers, i. & lissens, w. ( ) hum. genet. , – . . vervoort, r., gitzelmann, r., bosshard, n., maire, i., liebaers, i. & lissens, w. ( ) hum. genet. , – . . rafiqul, i. m., gallegos arreola, m. p., wong, p., tomatsu, s., corona, j. s. & sly, w. s. ( ) prenatal diagn. , – . . vervoort, r., gitzelmann, r., lissens, w. & liebaers, i. ( ) hum. genet. , – . . jain, s., drendel, w. b., chen, z. w., mathews, f. s., sly, w. s. & grubb, j. h. ( ) nat. struct. biol. , – . . wong, a. w., he, s., grubb, j. h., sly, w. s. & withers, s. g. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . islam, m. r., tomatsu, s., shah, g. n., grubb, j. h., jain, s. & sly, w. s. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . birkenmeier, e. h., davisson, m. t., beamer, w. g., ganschow, r. e., vogler, c. a., gwynn, b., lyford, k. a., maltais, l. m. & wawrzyniak, c. j. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . sands, m. s. & birkenmeier, e. h. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . marth, j. d. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . laemmli, u. k. ( ) nature , – . . wagner, t. e., hoppe, p. c., jollick, j. d., scholl, d. r., hodinka, r. l. & gault, j. b. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . glaser, j. h. & sly, w. s. ( ) j. lab. clin. med. , – . . peterson, g. l. ( ) anal. biochem. , – . . bjornsson, s. ( ) anal. biochem. , – . . whitley, c. b., ridnour, m. d., draper, k. a., dutton, c. m. & neglia, j. p. ( ) clin. chem. , – . . poorthuis, b. j., romme, a. e., willemsen, r. & wagemaker, g. ( ) pediatr. res. , – . . vogler, c., birkenmeier, e. h., sly, w. s., levy, b., pegors, c., kyle, j. w. & beamer, w. g. ( ) am. j. pathol. , – . . soper, b. w., pung, a. w., vogler, c. a., grubb, j. h., sly, w. s. & barker, j. e. ( ) pediatr. res. , – . . sands, m. s., vogler, c., kyle, j. w., grubb, j. h., levy, b., galvin, n., sly, w. s. & birkenmeier, e. h. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . grantham, r. ( ) science , – . . robinson, n. e. & robinson, a. b. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . tamarappoo, b. k. & verkman, a. s. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . frustaci, a., chimenti, c., ricci, r., natale, l., russo, m. a., pieroni, m., eng, c. m. & desnick, r. j. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , – . . kren, b. t., bandyopadhyay, p. & steer, c. j. ( ) nat. med. , – . tomatsu et al. pnas � november , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , untitled noradrenergic neuronal development is impaired by mutation of the proneural hash- gene in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (ondine’s curse) loı̈c de pontual ,{ , virginie népote ,{ , tania attié-bitach ,{ , hassan al halabiah , ha trang , vincent elghouzzi , béatrice levacher , karim benihoud , joëlle augé , christophe faure , béatrice laudier , michel vekemans , arnold munnich , michel perricaudet , françois guillemot , claude gaultier , stanislas lyonnet , michel simonneau and jeanne amiel ,* unité de recherches sur les handicaps génétiques de l’enfant inserm u- , and département de génétique, hôpital necker-enfants malades, paris, france, service de physiologie, inserm e , and cic inserm , hôpital robert debré, paris, france, umr cnrs, igr, villejuif, france and nimr, mill hill, uk received august , ; revised and accepted september , congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (cchs, ondine’s curse) is a rare disorder of the chemical control of breathing. it is frequently associated with a broad spectrum of dysautonomic symptoms, suggesting the involvement of genes widely expressed in the autonomic nervous system. in particular, the hash- –phox a–phox b developmental cascade was proposed as a candidate pathway because it controls the development of neurons with a definitive or transient noradrenergic phenotype, upstream from the ret receptor tyrosine kinase and tyrosine hydroxylase. we recently showed that phox b is the major cchs locus, whose mutation accounts for % of cases. we also studied the proneural hash- gene and identified a heterozygous nucleotide substitution in three cchs patients. to analyze the functional consequences of hash- mutations, we developed an in vitro model of noradrenergic differentiation in neuronal progenitors derived from the mouse vagal neural crest, reproducing in vitro the hash–phox–ret pathway. all hash- mutant alleles impaired noradrenergic neuronal development, when overexpressed from adenoviral constructs. thus, hash- mutations may contribute to the cchs phenotype in rare cases, consistent with the view that the abnormal chemical control of breathing observed in cchs patients is due to the impairment of noradrenergic neurons during early steps of brainstem development. introduction congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (cchs, ondine’s curse, mim ) is a life-threatening disorder characterized by persistent hypoventilation during sleep, beginning in the neonatal period and requiring life-long ventilatory assistance ( ). while the pathophysiologic mechanisms underlying cchs remain elusive, several lines of evidence suggest that genetic factors are involved (occurrence in siblings, concordant monozygotic twins and rare vertical transmission) ( ). changes in the integration of afferent inputs from central and peripheral chemoreceptors in the brainstem are the most likely disease mechanisms. in addition, most cchs patients present a broader defect of the autonomic nervous system ( ), including hirschsprung disease ( – % of cases, haddad syndrome, mim ) ( ), a malformation of the enteric nervous system that has been ascribed to a mutation at the ret receptor tyrosine kinase locus. in mice, the ret signaling pathway, which involves the sequential expression of the mash , phox, ret and th genes, is responsible for the development of all *to whom correspondence should be addressed at: département de génétique, hôpital necker-enfants malades, , rue de sèvres, paris cedex , france. tel: þ ; fax: þ ; email: amiel@necker.fr { the authors wish it to be known that, in their opinion, the first three authors should be regarded as joint first authors. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. – doi: . /hmg/ddg human molecular genetics, vol. , no. # oxford university press ; all rights reserved a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org transient or permanent noradrenergic derivatives ( , ). we recently showed that phox b is the major disease-causing gene in both cchs and haddad syndromes, with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance and de novo mutations at the first generation ( ). cross-regulation of the phox and mash- genes has been shown in mice ( , ); moreover, newborn mash- þ/� heterozygous mice show an impaired ventilatory responses to hypercarbia ( ). we therefore regarded the human ortholog of mash (hash- ), which encodes a tissue-specific basic helix–loop–helix transcription factor, as an additional candidate gene for cchs. we identified a heterozygous nucleotide substitution of the hash- gene in three patients. the functional consequences of hash- mutations were studied using a novel in vitro model of noradrenergic differentiation based on neuronal progenitors derived from the mouse vagal neural crest and reproducing in vitro the hash–phox–ret pathway. forced expression of each of the mutant hash- alleles induced the impairment of noradrener- gic neuronal development. we conclude that, at least in some cases, heterozygous hash- mutation may contribute to the cchs phenotype by modifying noradrenergic neurons during early steps of brainstem development, and that the hash- gene is tightly involved in the formation of the neuronal network for autonomous control of ventilation in human. results hash- heterozygous nucleotide substitutions we screened the single coding exon of hash- for nucleotide variations in a series of cchs patients (fig. ). we obtained an abnormal sscp pattern in three cases. direct dna sequencing showed a c to a transversion at nucleotide , resulting in a proline to threonine substi- tution at amino acid position (p t), in a female patient with isolated cchs. two in-frame deletions of five ( – del nt, a –a del) and eight ( – del nt, a –a del) alanine codons in a -residue polyalanine tract, were identified in female patients with cchs and haddad syndrome respectively (fig. a). both the p t and the a –a del mutations were inherited from the healthy father (fig. a), while the mother of the patient with the a –a del mutation was not available for study. the hash- mutations are located in regions highly conserved across mammalian ash genes as shown by clustal w analysis (fig. b). these data suggest that these protein domains are functionally relevant. accordingly, none of the hash- gene mutations was detected in a panel of control chromosomes. interestingly, a de novo mutation of phox b (polyalanine expansion of seven alanines) was found in the patient harboring the p t mutation of the hash- gene, whereas direct sequencing of the three exons of phox b showed no variation in the other two cases. indeed, all cchs patients described in this series have been tested for the ret, gdnf and phox b genes ( ). hash- expression in early human development we further investigated the possible involvement of hash- mutations in the cchs phenotype by studying the pattern of expression of hash- in early human development (fig. ). consistent with the wide spectrum of afferent nervous system (ans) dysfunction observed in cchs patients and the pattern of expression in mice ( , ), hash- is expressed in both the central nervous system (mesencephalon, rhombencephalon, spinal cord; fig. a, b and e–h), and the peripheral nervous system (cells lining the dorsal aorta, presumed to be neural crest-derived precursors of the sympathetic ganglia, fig. c and d) from carnegie stage . at carnegie stage , hash- expression was detected in the presumptive enteric nervous system, from the esophagus to the rectum (fig. e–h) and in the adrenal medulla (fig. i and j). functional analysis of hash- mutant alleles we investigated the effects of the hash- mutated alleles on their transcriptional activity by means of a luciferase assay. p cells were co-transfected with hash- alleles (þ/� e ) and the luciferase gene under the control of the delta promoter. the transcriptional activities of the p t and a -a del alleles were similar to that of the control, regardless of whether the e cofactor was present (data not shown, available on request). we then overexpressed the wild-type and mutant hash- alleles, and assessed the functional consequences for the differentiation of the noradrenergic lineage, using the phox– ret signaling pathway and the tyrosine hydroxylase (th) phenotype as markers ( , ). we demonstrated that undiffer- entiated vagal neural crest progenitor cells, isolated from e mouse embryos, may be engaged in noradrenergic differentia- tion, and then sequentially produce phox a, ret, and th, thereby reproducing the mouse mash- molecular cascade (fig. a). interestingly, no alternative lineage was obtained, as almost all thþ cells were derived from phox a-expressing neurons. we then showed that it was possible to reproduce the catecholaminergic differentiation pathway, h after the forced expression of hash- by recombinant adenoviruses (fig. b and c). all the infected cells ( %) were transduced with the hash- adenoviral constructs (fig. ), as shown by gfp production (fig. b). the overexpression of wild-type hash- resulted in the differentiation of . � % (n¼ ) of neural crest cells into postmitotic noradrenergic derivatives, as shown by phox a production (data not shown). these values are similar to those previously reported for retroviral forced expression ( ). we investigated the functional consequences of hash- gene mutations for the noradrenergic lineage (fig. b). all mutated forms of hash- tested led to a significant decrease ( – %) in the number of neuronal derivatives of the noradrenergic lineage, as shown by phox a production (fig. b). in particular, only . � . % (p < . ) of neural crest progenitors differentiated to give a noradrenergic phenotype using the a –a del hash- mutant construct, whereas . � . % and . � . % of cells produced phox a when the p t and a –a del hash- mutant alleles, respectively, were used (p < . ; fig. b). discussion taking advantage of the well-characterized specification of catecholaminergic neurons derived from the vagal neural crest human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org ( ), we recapitulated in vitro the molecular cascade involved in the early steps of noradrenergic determination. in that system, we used a forced expression of wild-type and mutant hash- to test the functional relevance of mutated hash- alleles identified in cchs patients. we showed a significant decrease in the number of noradrenergic neurons generated after expression of mutant hash- alleles. however, this is a limited effect considering that patients are heterozygotes for the hash- mutated allele as opposed to our experimental model. nevertheless, subtle consequences on the noradrenergic neuronal development could be expected with hash- gene mutations lying outside of the bhlh domain of the protein. moreover, the hash- mutations were located in highly conserved regions of the protein, although not involved in the basic helix–loop–helix consensus motives ( ). together with the expression pattern of hash- in the developing human embryo, these results cope well with the phenotype of heterozygous mash- þ/� mice ( ). these data also suggest that variant hash- alleles may contribute to the cchs phenotype. however, hash- gene mutations are neither necessary (most patients do not have a hash- gene variant), nor sufficient for cchs to occur (carriers have no phenotypic expression). this observation is reminiscent of the findings in isolated hirschsprung disease in the mennonite population, where endothelin b receptor (ednrb) mutations are neither necessary nor sufficient for the disease to occur and act in conjunction with a yet unknown hypomorphic ret allele ( ). the question as to whether hash- acts as a modifier of phox b, and/or a disease-causing autosomal dominant gene with incomplete penetrance remains unresolved. figure . hash- gene mutations and phylogenetic analysis of hash- proteins. (a) hash- gene mutations. sscp results and mutated sequences are illustrated for the three individuals whose pedigrees are shown directly above. (b) clustal w alignment of the human hash- protein and its mouse, drosophila and c. elegans orthologs. the residues mutated in cchs patients are indicated by arrows. note the conservation of the basic, helix , loop and helix amino acid domains between the four species studied. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org polyalanine repeats are common in transcription factors but their normal function is largely unknown. expansions of polyalanine tracts in transcription factors, including de novo phox b polyalanine expansions in cchs, have been shown to be responsible for disease in several malformation syndromes in humans ( , ), whereas contractions have not been reported thus far. polyalanine contractions may therefore act as hypomorphic alleles. as the cchs phenotypes of patients with phox b and hash- mutations are undistinguishable, our data suggest that any mutation affecting the hash- –phox developmental pathway is likely to impair the development of neurons of the figure . hash- gene expression in developing human embryos. slides stained with hematoxylin-eosin (a, c, e, g, i) and dark-field illumination of the hybri- dized adjacent sections (b, d, f, h, j) on day (carnegie , a–d), and day (carnegie , e–j). parasagittal sections showing weak hash- expression at carnegie stage and strong expression of this gene at carnegie stage in mesencephalon (mes), rhombencephalon (rh), and the dorsal area of the spinal cord (sc) (arrowheads, a, b and e–h, respectively). from carnegie stage , expression was detected in cells to the side of the dorsal aorta (arrow, d). hash- expres- sion was also detected in the intestine, from the foregut (arrow, f) to the hindgut (arrow, h), and in the adrenal medulla (arrow, j) at carnegie stage . ad, adrenal gland; ao, aorta; go, gonad; meta, metanephros; mes, mesencephalon; meso, mesonephros; e, esophagus; re, rectum; rh, rhombencephalon; sc, spinal cord. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org figure . in vitro culture model of mouse vagal neural crest cells to analyze the hash- –phox b/phox a cascade controlling. (a) experimental design; ncscs were isolated from e . mouse embryo neural tubes (nt). ec, ectoderm; som, somite; end, endoderm; nc, neural crest. (b) transcription-factor cascade controlling the ret and tyrosine hydroxylase (th) lineage of neural crest cells (ncscs). cells cultured in the presence of diffusible embryonic mesodermic factors retain the capacity to generate catecholaminergic derivatives, as shown by neurofilament (nf ) and th production, recapitulating the mash –phox b– phox a–ret pathway as in vivo (lower arrow). conversely, ncscs cultured in medium containing serum (fcs medium) remain multipotent and retain their proliferative abilities (upper arrow). (c) sequential expression of the mash –phox a–ret–th gene pathway, studied in cultured ncscs by immunohistochemistry (first row), peripherin staining (per, second row), merged immunohistochemistry and peripherin staining (merged, third row) and in situ hybridization (phase, fourth row), from day to day (d –d ). the mash (d ), phox a (d ), ret (d ) and th (d ) are shown in red fluorescence; the peripherin (d –d ) and neurofilament (nf , nf, d ) are shown in green fluorescence. (d) temporal expression of the mash –phox a–ret–th gene pathway during ncscs culture, from day (d ) to day (d ). the expression timing of mash , phox a, ret and th are indicated by solid bars. peripherin and nf (nf ) are consistently expressed from d to d . human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org noradrenergic lineage and the resulting defect may modify the respiratory network in the brainstem and periphery. materials and methods patients a series of patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria for diagnosis of cchs namely: (i) hypoventilation, hypoxemia and hypercarbia during quiet sleep on polygraphic respiratory recording; with (ii) no cardiac, pulmonary, neuromuscular, eeg or cerebral mri abnormality ( ). haddad syndrome was diagnosed in cases ( %, five long segment hscr, two short segment hscr, four unknown). the histological criteria for hscr were: (i) absence of enteric plexuses with histological evaluation of the aganglionic tract; and (ii) strong histochemical staining of acetylcholinesterase in nerve fibers. blood samples were obtained with informed consent and dna was extracted according to standard protocols. we screened the coding sequence of the hash- gene by single-strand conformation polymorphism (sscp) analysis and/or direct dna sequencing. the pcr products were heated for min at �c, loaded onto a hydrolink mde gel figure . functional analysis, indicating a decrease in the number of noradrenergic neuronal derivatives obtained from ncscs after forced expression of the three mutated forms of hash- , with respect to the wild-type. (a) hash- adenovirus constructs for the production of both green fluorescent protein (gfp) and wild- type or mutated forms of hash under cytomegalovirus (cmv) promoter control. (b) left panel: representative samples of infected ncscs h after infection with adenoviruses producing the wild-type (wt) and mutant (p t, a –a del, a –a del) forms of hash- . gfp was detected by its green fluorescence and phox a was detected by staining with fast red. a typical phox a-positive cell is indicated by a white arrow; a typical phox a-negative cell for is indicated by a white arrowhead. right panel: percentage of phox a positive cells, illustrating the decrease in the number of noradrenergic derivatives obtained from ncscs after infection with the mutant hash- retroviral constructs (p t, a –a del and a –a del). human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org (bioprobe), and subjected to electrophoresis at w. the gel was then dried and placed against a x-ray film for h. if an abnormal sscp pattern was observed, direct dna sequencing was performed by the fluorometric method, for both strands (big dyeterminator cycle sequencing kit, applied biosystems, warrington, uk). in situ hybridization in human embryos human embryos and fetal tissues were collected from legally terminated pregnancies in agreement with french law and ethics committee recommendations. tissues were prepared as previously described ( ). a bp pcr fragment correspon- ding to hash- exon was amplified from human genomic dna with a t extension (taatacgactcactagggaga) added to both primers to generate the sense and antisense probes. probes were labeled with [ s]utp and purified as pre- viously described ( ). tissues on slides were dehydrated, placed against biomax mr x-ray film (amersham) for days, and immersed in kodak ntb emulsion for weeks at þ �c. developed and toluidine blue-counterstained slides were analyzed with dark- and bright-field illumination. no hybridiza- tion signal was detected with the sense probe (data not shown). construction of adenoviral plasmids adenoviral plasmids were constructed using the adeasy system ( ). polyalanine tract contractions and the control hash- coding sequence were amplified by polymerase chain reaction with the primer, tctagacgcatggaaa- gctctgccaa, and the primer, gtcgactcagaacc- agttggtgaagtcga, using genomic dna from controls or patients. pcr-derived fragments were checked by sequen- cing and subcloned into the pad-track cmv vector, using the xbai–sali restriction sites. pad-track cmv vectors were used to produce viruses that could be tracked by following gfp fluorescence. adenoviral plasmids were generated by homologous recombination in electrocompetent e. coli bj , according to the manufacturer’s instructions (stratagene). adenoviral plasmids were then cut with paci and viral stocks were produced in qbi- a cells. mouse neural crest culture neural crest cells were cultured as previously described ( ). neural tubes were microdissected from swiss mouse (iffa credo) embryos on day of gestation. somites and surrounding tissues were removed to obtain neural tube segments corresponding to the first seven somites of the vagal region. these segments were then plated on fibronectin-coated glass coverslips ( mg/ml, boehringer roche) and cultured for days in dmem (life technologies) supplemented with % fetal calf serum (abcys) and iu/ml penicillin/streptomycin (life technologies), at �c, in a humidified atmosphere containing % co . infection of primary cultures of neural crest cells we tested various levels of multiplicity of infection (moi) and decided to use plaque-forming unit (pfu), which gave % infected neural crest cells. neural crest cells (nccs) were cultured for days, infected on day and fixed h later. acknowledgements we thank bert vogelstein for adenoviral constructs, and frances goodman and jean-françois brunet for helpful discussions. h.a. was recipient of an ifro fellowship. v.n. was partly supported by a fondation pour la recherche médicale fellowship. this work was supported by grants from eurexpress, hmr (hoechst-marion-roussel), the european community ( - ), fondation pour la recherche médicale, and association française contre les myopathies- inserm (maladies rares). references . gozal, d. ( ) congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: an update. pediatr. pulmonol., , – . . amiel, j., laudier, b., attié-bitach, t., trang, h., de pontual, l., gener, b., trochet, d., etchevers, h., ray, p., simonneau, m. et al. ( ) polyalanine expansion and frameshift mutations of the paired-like homeobox gene phox b in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. nat. genet., , – . . croaker, g.d., shi, e., simpson, e., cartmill, t. and cass, d.t. ( ) congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and hirschsprung’s disease. arch. dis. child., , – . . brunet, j.f. and pattyn, a. ( ) phox genes—from patterning to connectivity. curr. opin. genet. dev., , – . . goridis, c. and rohrer, h. ( ) specification of catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons. nat. rev. neurosci., , – . . pattyn, a., morin, x., cremer, h., goridis, c. and brunet, j.f. ( ) the homeobox gene phox b is essential for the development of autonomic neural crest derivatives. nature, , – . . pattyn, a., goridis, c. and brunet, j.f. ( ) specification of the central noradrenergic phenotype by the homeobox gene phox b. mol. cell. neurosci., , – . . dauger, s., renolleau, s., vardon, g., népote, v., mas, c., simonneau, m., gaultier, c. and gallego, j. ( ) ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia in mash- heterozygous newborn and adult mice. pediatr. res., , – . . guillemot, f. and joyner, a.l. ( ) dynamic expression of the murine achaete–scute homologue mash- in the developing nervous system. mech. dev., , – . . guillemot, f., lo, l.c., johnson, j.e., auerbach, a., anderson, d.j. and joyner, a.l. ( ) mammalian achaete-scute homolog is required for the early development of olfactory and autonomic neurons. cell, , – . . lo, l., tiveron, m.c. and anderson, d.j. ( ) mash activates expression of the paired homeodomain transcription factor phox a, and couples pan-neuronal and subtype-specific components of autonomic neuronal identity. development, , – . . lo, l., morin, x., brunet, j.f. and anderson, d.j. ( ) specification of neurotransmitter identity by phox proteins in neural crest stem cells. neuron, , – . . bertrand, n., castro, d.s. and guillemot, f. ( ) proneural genes and the specification of neural cell types. nat. rev. neurosci., , – . . puffenberger, e.g., hosoda, k., washington, s., nakao, k., dewit, d., yanagisawa, m. and chakravart, a. ( ) a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell, , – . . goodman, f.r. and scambler, p.j. ( ) human hox gene mutations. clin. genet., , – . . stromme, p., mangelsdorf, m.e., shaw, m.a., lower, k.m., lewis, s.m., bruyere, h., lutcherath, v., gedeon, a.k., wallace, r.h., scheffer, i.e. et al. ( ) mutations in the human ortholog of aristaless cause x-linked mental retardation and epilepsy. nat. genet., , – . human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org . weese-mayer, d.e., shannon, d.c., keens, t.g. and silvestri, j.m. ( ) idiopathic congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: diagnosis and management. am. j. respir. crit. care med., , – . . odent, s., attié-bitach, t., blayau, m., mathieu, m., augé,j., delezoide, a.l., gall, j.y., le marec, b., munnich, a., david, v. et al. ( ) expression of the sonic hedgehog (shh) gene during early human development and phenotypic expression of new mutations causing holoprosencephaly. hum. mol. genet., , – . . he, t.c., zhou, s., da costa, l.t., yu, j., kinzler, k.w. and vogelstein, b. ( ) a simplified system for generating recombinant adenoviruses. proc. natl acad. sci. usa, , – . . boisseau, s. and simonneau, m. ( ). mammalian neuronal differentiation: early expression of a neuronal phenotype from mouse neural crest cells in a chemically defined cultured medium. development, , – . human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a t u n ive rsite d e m o n tre a l - b ib lio th e q u e s - a cq u isitio n s (p e rio d iq u e s) o n a u g u st , h ttp ://h m g .o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org mem onite settlement in the lower fraser valley by a l f r e d henry siemens b.a., university of b r i t i s h columbia, a thesis submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements for the degree of master of arts i n the department of geography we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british columbia a p r i l , i abstract this study attempts to trace the historical geo- graphy of mennonite settlements in the fraser valley, to single out for analysis significant changes in their struc- ture and function and to summarize their distinctive charac- teristics by means of statistics, maps, photos and descrip- tion. a l l this is to l i f t a segment of one ethnic group out of the mosaic of the canadian population and show what has been i t s part in the shaping of the landscape of british columbia^ densely settled southwestern corner. fo obtain the necessary historical information the relatively few systematic published studies were con- sulted; but the bulk ©f the information was pieced together from interviews of pioneers, newspaper clippings, historical accounts by church o f f i c i a l s on anniversary celebrations (usually unpublished), personal knowledge of events con- cerned and other sources. much of this information was placed into i t s historical geographical context for the f i r s t time. the statistics necessary for outlining d i s t r i - bution and structure of the mennonite population came from the listings in the census of canada under the classifica- tion of religious a f f i l i a t i o n , from church records of the individual congregations, compilations in mennonite year** books of various kinds, school records as well as from estimates given by responsible people in cases where docu- mented figures were not available. the information so obtained was portrayed cartographically by means of dot maps, an isopleth map, a centrogram and a flow diagram. the centro- gram was of particular interest in that i t showed shifts in the center of gravity of the mennonite population of the fraser valley which were closely corroborated by economic and social currents within the community. the flow diagram was used to portray graphically the centrality of the settlement of clearbrook with reference to one c r i t e r i a - i t s attraction of young people into the mennonite high school located there. this was supplemented by a discussion of other oriteria of centrality for this community, which now represents the most important concentration of mennonites in the fraser valley and, indeed, i n the whole province. the actual settlement forms that have resulted from mennonite occupanoe of the land were considered after some aspects of the history of the group had been traced and i t s present situation in the fraser valley outlined. the individual holding, the small nucleatlon, the sizeable men- nonite centers of yarrow and clearbrook, as well as the urban community in vancouver were described and analysed in turn, with a view particularly toward capturing peculiar- i t i e s , ascertaining the extent of obliteration of former characteristics and finding some definite marks of the degree of acculturation experienced by the people themselves. the principal conclusions of the study are simply a substantiation of what i s known more or less accurately about the situation of other ethnic groups in our country and elsewhere. the mennonites have retained a considerable number of peculiarities up to the present time, and the expression of these in the nature of their settlement has been the main concern of this paper. the cultural and economic changes,however,that are sweeping a l l segments of the popu- lation toward farm rationalization and urbanization, are affecting them as well. in many cases the only peculiarities that persist are theological. under these circumstances a recurrence of a traditional group response such as mass migration or even traditional individual responses like the preservation of the german language in the home are d i f f i c u l t to envisage for the immediate future. .'.j in presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of b r i t i s h columbia, i agree that the library s h a l l make i t freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his representatives. it i s understood that copying or publication of this thesis for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my written permission. department of geography , the university of british.columbia, vancouver , canada. date feb. , i acknowledgements the author g r a t e f u l l y acknowledges the continuous interest, frequent advice and careful c r i t i c i s m offered throughout the preparation of this thesis by the head of the department of geography, dr. j. l. robinson, and the thesis adviser, dr. r. i. ruggles. he i s especially indebted, also, to mr. herbert klassen for allowing free access to his l i b r a r y i n abbotsford and to rev. p. r. toews of vancouver for the use of numerous books from his l i b r a r y . many people kindly contributed information and of these mr. j. c. krause of yarrow, mr. dick rempel of mission and rev. j. b. wiens of vancouver deserve special thanks. the appreciation shown by many leaders i n the community, p a r t i c u l a r l y the faculty of the mennonite educational institute, was a r e a l encouragement. table of contents chapter page i introduction .ii early history of the mennonites anabaptism ethnic o r i g i n establishment and u n i f i c a t i o n settlement on the v i s t u l a delta of poland settlement i n russia movement i n t o canada movement i n t o b r i t i s h . columbia iii physical characteristics of the fraser valley lowlands general features of the t e r r a i n climate morphology, vegetation, s o i l cover and a g r i c u l t u r a l use of mennonite settlement areas f l a t l a n d s from agassiz to upper sutnas matsqui m i s s i o n abbotsford aldergrove " surrey l u l u i s l a n d chapter page iv sequent occupance of the mennonites in the fraser valley methods of land procurement periods of settlement pioneer period post-war "boom" -present period of centralization and urbanization v a statistical delineation of the situation of the mennonites in the fraser valley . sources distributions charaeteristics of mennonite population patterns of immigration concentration _ shifts i n the center of gravity of the group the fraserview mennonite brethren church - an example study vi - intra-group movement patterns vii settlement forms farm types small non-farm nucleations prominent mennonite centers yarrow * clearbrook urban settlement i n vancouver chapter page viii conclusions bibliography appendices a. table xv b. table xvi c. table xvii d. suggestions for further research e. photographic supplement list of maps page . locations! map for mennonite settlement in poland and prussia . . . . . . . . . . . mennonite settlement in southern european russia before . . . source of migrants into british columbia . . . . . church tributary regions and the movement of the center of gravity from to . locational map of the lower fraser valley . . . a . glacial deposition in the eastern part of the lower fraser valley a . soils of the eastern part of the lower fraser valley b . loeational map - abbotsford and vicinity . . . . a . mennonites in canada . mennonites in the lower fraser valley . origin of the students attending the mennonite educational institute a . small mennonite centers in the lower fraser valley a . the structural pattern of the yarrow settlement . the structural pattern of the greendale settlement . land clearing in the olearbrook area . changes in the structural paktern of olearbrook . concentration of mennonite families in southeastern vancouver . households associated with vancouver's four mennonite churches l i s t of f i g u r e s f i g u r e f a c i n g p a g e . m e n n o n i t e b u i l d i n g s i n p r u s s i a . . . . . . m e n n o n i t e s e t t l e m e n t i n r u s s i a . " d r y - p o i n t " f a r m s . m e n n o n i t e s c h o o l s i n t h e f r a s e r v a l l e y . . b a r n t y p e s i n t h e f r a s e r v a l l e y . . . . . a b b o t s f o r d f a r m l a n d . m e n n o n i t e h o u s e s i n a b b o t s f o r d . . . . . . t y p i c a l s m a l l y a r r o w f a r m . m e n n o n i t e h o u s e s i n y a r r o w . c l e a r b r o o k a n d s u r r o u n d i n g s . v i e w s o f o l e a x b r o o k . m e n n o n i t e b u i l d i n g s i n o l e a r b r o o k . . . . o l e a r b r o o k ' s c o m m e r c i a l g o r e a & b . m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h e s . . m e n n o n i t e f a r m l a n d a p p e n d i x e a & b . g e n e r a l v i e w s o f f a r m s i n m e n n o n i t e s e t t l e m e n t a r e a s • " . s m a l l m e n n o n i t e c e n t e r s . . . . . . . p a n o r a m i c v i e w s o f y a r r o w " . c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y i n y a r r o w , . " list of tables page i mennonites i n russia ii basic climatic data iii total of mennonites i n sub-divisions of census d i v i s i o n no. - - total numbers of mennonites i n b. c., - v male-female breakdown - vi immigrants brought i n under the auspices of the mennonite board of colonization vii. origin of immigrants brought i n by mennonite board of colonization viii destinations of mennonite immigrants - - ix c l a s s i f i c a t i o n according to sex of immigrants arriving i n - x ethnic breakdown i n census division no. of b r i t i s h columbia xi congregational origin of students at the mennonite educational institute - . . . xii commercial services of yarrow - xiii industries of yarrow life xiv commercial services of clearbrook - . . . - xv dates of establishment of mennonite churches appendix i n the fraser valley a xvi a representative l i s t i n g of mennonite family appendix names as compiled from church directories of b lower fraser valley mennonite churches xvii membership totals of mennonite churches of the appendix lower fraser valley from to . . . . c chapter i introduction in the rich, mosaic of canada's population the mennonites are an intensely colourful and conspicuous part. wherever they have settled the feeling and look of that place have become distinctive. in the fraser valley of british columbia their presence i s known and their influence f e l t in a wide variety of pursuits. local residents and even visitors usually recognize, too, when passing through such places as yarrow or olearbrook, that certain features of the farm holdings, the buildings and indeed the entire nucleations are characteristically mennonite. to describe and analyse the nature and peculiarities of these settlements from a geographic point of view is the purpose of this study. the mennonites have always tended to regard them- selves as distinctive primarily on the basis of their religious beliefs, and these do set them apart sufficiently well so that reasonably accurate statistics may be compiled on this basis. outsiders have often associated them with certain cultural complexes as well, but in their own minds cultural values have always tended to be indistinguishably knitted with the religious. for them, religion has always been the point of departure and the end of every consideration regarding this l i f e or the next. this springs from a firm belief that man should in every aspect of his being allow himself to be governed by the holy scriptures, and should acknowledge himself as responsible to an almighty god. in the literature of the mennonites, particularly those groups represented in western canada, spiritual currents have usually been the first considerations dealt with in any history of the movement. devotional aspects of their l i f e are heavily stressed and repeatedly linked to quotations from the holy scriptures. economic factors are usually treated as addenda, and are often evaluated in terms of the ethics of the group. the mennonites have traditionally held the belief that frugality, industry and honesty in a l l v business dealings should be the outward manifestations of their faith. prosperity, even though diligently sought, is considered by them as a blessing of god. these deeply rooted attitudes were what made them highly desirable pioneer settlers and model citizens in whatever country they happened to take up land during the time of their european migrations. to some extent their canadian neighbors are s t i l l able to see and appreciate these qualities in them now. references have often been made by canadian men- nonite authors and speakers at various occasions to the cultural characteristics of their people, but seldom have these elements been consciously regarded as cultural. certain foods, household appointments and mannerisms are thought of as vaguely belonging to mennonitism, but the essence of mennonitism is usually considered to be religion. many s t i l l affirm that the mennonite system of private secondary educ- ation functions to preserve the use of the german language, but in view of actual teaching practises this is largely l i p - service. the preservation of the traditional mennonite religious position is being more vitally and consciously pursued. literature and music, even though extensively appreciated and developed, most often function as media of education, worship and edification. art in the form of painting, sculpture and architecture has seldom been treated imaginatively for its own sake. purely social activities have often been looked on by many within the mennonite groups we will be dealing with in this study as rather illegitimate. friendly banter, group games and other amusements seem to them to be unjustifiable unless they are an introduction to something more serious, or are at least introduced by properly pious remarks and ended by prayer. undeniably, many activities classed as "fellow- ship" have fulfilled essentially social needs within the con- gregations. this overall desire to place everything in very close relationship to one's religious beliefs is doubtlessly laud- atory on the one hand, but i t does lead now — even as i t has done ever since the beginning of the anabaptist movement — to fruitless divisions within churches on problems regarding acceptable behavior. the question remains, however, whether i t is possible to maintain the identity of a group at a l l under the pressures and leveling influences of modern existence without the cement of common religious beliefs. as more and more mennonites have moved into urban areas and as higher education has become accessible and acceptable to a growing number of their young people, new views of mennonitism have been taken, sometimes non-religious, but not necessarily anti-religious. this trend has increased as individuals have gone into endeavours other than those which the group usually expected its better-educated members to enter. in addition to the traditional theology, medicine, nursing, education, history and languages, mennonites are now seeking out such fields as commerce, sociology, political science, international studies, pure and applied sciences and many more. new and interesting views of mennonitism have also been developed by outsiders who have been keenly sym- pathetic with the aims and customs of the movement or who have seen in i t an object of worthwhile research. the excel- lent sociological study of the mennonites of manitoba by e. k. francis, the discussion of pioneer mennonite settle- ment in western canada by c. dawson and others undoubtedly were written with either or both of these motives. as mennonitism is viewed increasingly' from a non-religious or extra-group position new relationships within itself and between i t and the non-mennonite population become more apparent. in this study, as already noted, the viewpoint is geographical and the focus i s on settlement patterns. new rural and urban groupings, movements between them and the retention or abandonment of traditional features are dealt with. distinguishing characteristics of the mennonite people themselves are discussed, their distributions, relationships amongst themselves and relationships to non-mennonites — particularly i n as far as a l l of this may be areally delin- eated. conclusions are then drawn regarding a number of trends i n the community and the evidence that exists for advanced assimilation. the study ends with suggestions for further research along geographical as well as historical lines. a number of procedures useful i n a geographical study of this type have been applied. a historical geograph- i c a l analysis of settlement patterns and other conditions prevailing at significant periods i n the history of the group is undertaken. the information for this was derived from literary research and the interviewing of pioneers. data on the distribution of mennonites i n canada, and more specifi- cally i n the fraser valley, were obtained from the census of canada- and church statistics. they are portrayed carto- graphically and also diseussed i n the text. field observation during excursions and a considerable period of residence in the area provided the information for the mapping and dis- cussion of the structure and function of present mennonite settlement. photographs and sketches supplement the maps in illustrating the ideas developed. footnotes and references the census of canada- l i s t s information on religious denominations of canada in tables - of volume i. the following are examples of this type of an approach: a. h. unruh, die gesehffite der mennoniten brddergemeinde. winnipeg, christian press, ; h. j. willms, die sued-abbotsford ansiedlung. yarrow, b. c , columbia press, . e. k. francis, in search of utopia; the mennonites of manitoba. altona, manitoba, d. w. friesen, . c. a. dawson, group settlement. ethnic communities i n western canada. toronto. macmillan, , vol. vii. chapter ii early history of the mennonites anabaptism after the reformers of the early sixteenth century had made their pronouncements against catholicism and esta- blished new ehurches that soon became, in their own right, institutionalized, and involved to greater or lesser extents i n alliances with secular powers, there were those who pro- tested against an incomplete protestantism". these people became known as "anabaptists", or those who denied the efficacy of infant baptism and otherwise challenged the practises of the reformed churches. their protests brought them persecution| and i t became necessary for many to seek refuge i n neighbouring countries, wherever rulers allowed them at least some measure of religious freedom. the anabaptist movement, that had begun i n i n switzerland, gradually spread northward, down the rhine and into the netherlands. it was propagated through the work of missionaries expressly sent for that purpose, as well as through the influence of displaced'persons. the followers of menno simons, an itinerant mis- sionary and evangelist who worked throughout north central europe, were those who f i r s t became known as "mennonites". this t i t l e has since then come to be used for numerous other groups who were of similar religious persuasion, yet were of various ethnic backgrounds, and thus has replaced the term, "anabaptist" almost entirely. mennonitism, as i t was i n i t - iated i n the netherlands and northwest germany, is the chief concern of this paper — in contrast to the mennonitism that emanated directly from switzerland, austria and what is now southwest germany. the "hutterites", who live near some mennonite settlements i n the prairies and who have often been confused with mennonites, are members of a movement begun within original mennonitism by one jacob hutter in the tyrol and moravia early in the sixteenth century, and thus do not come into the area of this study. ethnic origin the ethnic origin of the mennonites who l e f t the netherlands and began a succession of migrations that at last brought them into western canada, is very d i f f i c u l t to esta- blish. the problem has been explored by many mennonite leaders, particularly during times of war when i t was highly important whether one was to be classed as german or not. a very careful study of the problem was carried out i n the years just prior to world war ii by dr. b. h. unruh of karlsruhe, germany. dr. e. k. francis, in his book on the mennonites of manitoba, concurs with him in many of his conclusions. dr. unruh points out that i t is impossible to ascertain whether the strain of mennonitism with which we are concerned here i s either german or dutch; hut that i t had i t s origin i n a thorough mixture of both elements. to establish this, he believes, one must consider where the earliest mennonite refugees, who began the later movement eastward into the delta lands of the vistula river, came from. this appears to have been friesland, a country along the northern coast of present germany, just southwest of what i s now denmark; which was the f i r s t gathering place of refugees from religious persecution i n surrounding lands. as i t hap- pened, there was a ruler there who tolerated religious dif- ferences and allowed victims of persecution to take refuge i n his realm. the refugees came from dutch territory and also from those fragmented states that must be considered as antecedent to parts of present germany. sources for the documentation of this turbulent formative period in the history of the group are very meager and hence the proportions of the dutch to the german elements w i l l probably never be f u l l y known. when opportunities for the acquisition of land i n what was to become west prussia opened up for the mennonites during the i »s, many l e f t their temporary homes and migrated eastward i n small groups. the cultural orientation of these new settlers i n the vistula delta was, during the f i r s t two hundred years of their stay there, largely toward holland and the dutch language. then a gradual shift toward the german language set in, with low german adopted as the m a p i. ~~~ a. s i e m e n s language of common intercourse and eventually high german as the language of worship and education. germanization in- creased markedly after the partition of poland i n and the allotment of the vistula delta to prussia. in time german came to be regarded as the "mother tongue", an attitude that prevails to the present day i n the settlements of the descendants of these mennonites, wherever they may be located. it i s to be expected, therefore, that i n the complex of cultural traits exhibited by these people both dutch and german features may be found in various combinations. added to this may be variants such as those supplied by the men- nonites of polish background, with their interestingly accented german. a l l have been fused into a f a i r l y unique whole under the effects of compact settlement in relative isolation and the unifying influence of strong religious ideals. the result has been an ethnic group, with i t s distinct cultural heritage and body of well developed characteristic traits. establishment and unification in the further consideration of the history of this group, particular attention w i l l be given to two periods in their successive movements and settlement: that of their establishment and unification after i n the lands of the vistula delta, and the time spent by emigres from there, and their descendants, i n russia after . during these two periods many characteristic elements were developed, including certain settlement forms - concerned here. with which we are primarily settlement on the vistula delta of poland in the years - - groups of mennonite families began to settle around danzig, elbing and konigsberg on the poorly drained, brush-overgrown deltaic lands of the vistula, i t s distributary the logat, and other smaller rivers. later their settlements were to spread up the river past marienburg, as far as the present city of torun (map ) . although poland was o f f i c i a l l y catholic in religion, some parts of i t had been affected by the reformation, and other areas had sufficiently tolerant rulers, so that a good measure of religious freedom could be offered these incoming settlers. moreover, the s k i l l s in drainage and cultivation of land below sea level that the mennonites had achieved in their former coastal homelands, together with their industrious nature and close, well-ordered social organization, made them sought after by landowners in the coastal lowlands of poland for the drainage and settlement of their lands. the fact that they had such economic contributions to make for some time persuaded many administrators to overlook differences that did arise in religious affairs. the environment that the settlers now found themselves i n was physically rigorous. the climate of the area is essentially a northerly continental one, with several months a year below °f. in mean temperature and only approximately one month with a mean over *f. a mean annual r a i n f a l l of some - inches may be expected, and a period of snowfall lasting approximately twenty days. the land i t s e l f , of course, was marshy and overgrown with tangled vegetation. such conditions made harsh demands on the settlers, and also exacted a terrible t o l l of l i f e in the f i r s t years — chiefly because of the raging "marsh fever". the mennonites facilitated the actual acquisition of the land by banding together into leasing organizations and thus contracting for land with the polish king, individual landed barons and even princes of the catholic church. these associations became the bases for village communities. they paid their rent as one unit and were held communally respon- sible for the drainage of their holdings. the land complex held by such a community was also an interesting physical entity, because i t usually occupied a separate "height" of land and was enclosed by i t s own dyke. the drainage process was a complicated one. plots of marshy bottom lands would f i r s t be dyked from the sea and then surrounded by side channels. the surface of these plots would be given a slight slope to one corner to facilitate run-off, and then windmills would be set up to pump out the water. it required the work of several generations to bring the land into full-scale cultivation. the f i r s t use of the land was usually for meadow and pastureland, supporting a dairy industry. after a period of this type of activity, eereal cultivation could be begun. the villages that were laid out on this land took a form that i s probably most accurately described as a "deich- hufendorf." this village type was a variation of the "reihendorf", derived partly from the "marschhufendorf" of the marshes of northwest germany, which had the dyke as the main thoroughfare of the village, and partly from the north- european forest tillage ("waldhufendorf"), that featured a straight central roadway and cleared plots stretching back on either side. a "reihendorf" had a typical cross-sectional sequence of a stream or eanal, a dyke with a street on top of i t , the eomplex of buildings and yard ("hof"), the fields, and then a canal at the rear boundary. eaeh family had i t s own "hof" and plot of land extending back of the waterway and dyke. deltaic lands were soon f u l l y taken up, and young couples, as well as new immigrants, began settling on scattered parcels upstream along the vistula's lowlands. they acquired these properties by purchase from individual land owners, often teutonic knights, and established on them "einzelhofe", or individual farmsteads. the buildings that were to be found on the village farmsteads as well as the isolated farms were always of a simple, solid and orderly kind. since each farmyard, built on land below sea level, had to be laid out on a raised earthern mound called a "werft" i t was kept as compact as possible. hence the house, barn and storage quarters were assembled under one roof into a "reihenhof". such a farmyard found on isolated farmsteads as well as on the village properties, stood i n contrast to those laid out earlier under the settlement schemes of the teutonic knights, i n which the various components of the farm were housed i n separate buildings. there were variations on the simple "reihenhof", however, and usually they increased in complexity with the increase i n size of the holding and the prosperity of i t s holder. a l l of them were designed, however, to provide a maximum of shelter on a minimum of "werft" surface space. the "reihenhof" appeared usually on holdings up to forty- five acres in extent. a "winkelhof" was found on farms of between - acres. it featured an "l" shaped building with i t s two wings aligned along the two sides of the "werft". on farms of over acres a "kreuzhof" appeared, with i t s cruciform building designed so that the living quarters and storage spaee ran one way and the stables crossed this at right angles. such a building reduced the distance of feed haulage to a minimum, a consideration that is s t i l l highly important i n the design of modern barns. architecturally, the private and public buildings of these people represented a sturdy, straightforward solution to their needs. the joined farm building was a simple ridged structure with visible "joints" where the house ended and the barn began. exposed gables were often faced with wood down to the level of the windows. the walls were a combination of wood and masonry, or of masonry alone. the roof was usually of thatch, w i t h a wooden ridge cap. hedges, or p i c k e t fences, a n e c e s s i t y i n a v i l l a g e community, were u s u a l l y l a i d out n e a t l y and s t u r d i l y around every "hof" (figure ). the main p u b l i c b u i l d i n g of the group, the church, was a simple ridged s t r u c t u r e of the same s t y l e and materials as the p r i v a t e homes, without a tower or other d i s t i n g u i s h i n g feature of any k i n d . this form, of course, r e s u l t e d from the d e s i r e of the group f o r utmost s i m p l i c i t y i n matters of r e l i g i o n . i t was not designed to i n s p i r e any p a r t i c u l a r emotion or to be the s e t t i n g f o r any r i t u a l , but simply to serve as a meeting house where one sang, heard a sermon and meditated on god. during the e a r l y period of residence i n the v i s t u l a lowlands the mennonites adopted c e r t a i n i n s t i t u t i o n s that were to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i r settlements f o r some time to come. communal f i r e insurance was organized, with the p r o v i s i o n that a premium was to be l e v i e d on every member of the a s s o c i a t i o n a f t e r a d i s a s t e r occurred to any one of the members, and t h i s to be commensurate w i t h the extent of the l o s s and the assessment of each member. later t h i s was changed to a system of r e g u l a r l y - p a i d premiums. a type of t r u s t company f o r the d e s t i t u t e and orphaned, c a l l e d a "waisenamt", probably orginated at t h i s time as w e l l . later, i t came to serve as a sort of investment agency too. communal government was by elected o f f i c e r s , i n c l u d i n g a reeve or "schultze" and h i s c o u n c i l l o r s . this was f u r t h e r developed i n russia and even figure . mennonite buildings in prussia a. a farm house including barns and living quarters in one building. b. a farm house in the shape of an "l" (winkelhof). c. a church built in l l „ d. a more pretentious church, built later than the one on picture c. from h. wiebe, das sledlungswerk niederlandischer mennonlten weichseltalm, • i i carried over into manitoba and mexico. after the partition of poland and the inclusion of the vistula delta into the province of west prussia a number of severe d i f f i c u l t i e s arose for the mennonites. the ruler, frederick ii, had formally confirmed the privileged status of the mennonites and allowed them the right of exemption from military service. in practise, however, pressures were soon exerted on them from various quarters as a consequence of these privileges. the surrounding populace resented their freedom from military service particularly. what was worse, however, was that frederick ii issued edicts in and that prohibited further acquisition of land by the mennonites. this came at a time of marked population growth and expansion within mennonite settlements. young couples, and otherwise unlanded mennonites i n large numbers began making plans for emigration. settlement i n russia during this time of unrest the invitations of catharine ii of russia, already made in and > became attractive to the landless along the vistula. a legal frame- work had been laid down by the russian government for large scale immigration. it provided a regulation of influx and support en route, laid down in great detail the economic, p o l i t i c a l and social organization under which immigrants were expected to live and, what was very important, stipulated a separation of the immigrant communities from the native i — communities. a l l this was done in a s p i r i t of "humane enlightenment" and was quite in accord with the most pro- gressive attitudes of rulers in that time. to the mennonites of poland, specific promises of religious freedom, exemption from military service and the taking of oaths, as well as grants of acres of land per family, had been made. southern european russia, where most of the incoming settlers were to find their new home, was quite an advantageous settlement site. drainage was no problem, neither was the clearing of land. the terrain was relatively f l a t , with only low rolling h i l l s in some places. steppe vegetation prevailed over most of the area to be occupied by the mennonites, and good rich chernozem and chestnut soils promised abundant crops. the climate there i s continental, having a con- siderable number of cold days every year. the number of days with a mean daily temperature of less than °f. increases from thirty i n southern european russia to ninety in the vicinity of kiev. a continental climate, of course, has many days every year that go to the other extreme in their temper- ature. in the crimea they have some ninety days i n a year that have a mean daily temperature of more than °'f. this decreases to sixty near kiev. rainfall is usually between sixteen and twenty-four inches annually and approximately forty days of snowfall may be expected. on the whole, climatic conditions were more amenable on the steppes than they had been on the vistula delta. a . s i e m e n s in , then, the f i r s t mennonite "locators" visited the ukraine. they selected a f e r t i l e plain near berislav on the dniepr, a locality somewhat similar to the delta lands they had known in poland, as the site for the f i r s t settlement (map ) . due to d i f f i c u l t i e s the russians were having with the turks in the area, however, the f i r s t actual settlement was made in on rolling, less f e r t i l e land near the chortiza river, a tributary of the dniepr. in i and succeeding years, mennonites settled on a plain near the l i t t l e molotschna river that flowed into the sea of azov. two multi-village colonies, known as chortiza and molotschna, became the largest concentrations of men- nonites in russia. other smaller settlements, such as those in the provinces of saratov and samara, along the volga, were eventually established. they were populated by immigrants from prussia who continued to come to russia in larger or smaller groups, as well as by landless people finding no place in crowded colonies in the f i r s t areas of settlement. the totals of mennonite population in russia at various times are listed in the accompanying table, which includes in i t s figures original entrants, additional immigrants and the offspring of both. the fact of a rapidly increasing population is largely responsible for expansionist tendencies, a good deal of internal'strife and the eventual emigration of large numbers of mennonites to north america. table i mennonites in russia^" , , , , , , the mennonites brought peasant ideals with them into russia, attaching themselves closely to the land, being careful to preserve i t s value and taking pride in economic stability and work well done. of course, they were also intent on the preservation of their religious position, which involved the establishment of church dominance over the government of the community and the education of the young people. certain key doctrines, such as the exhortations to avoid any violence and unnecessary involvement with a sinful "world", were to be perpetuated. almost inseparable from these religious ideals was the desire to maintain the german language and certain dutch and german cultural traits. conditions in russia for the mennonites at f i r s t were such that these things could be realized. indeed, something approaching the utopia that many mennonites envisaged was established. unfortunately inner anomalies, brotherly strife and an intense pressure on the cultivated land -- as well as upheavals in russian politics thwarted the ultimate. local government, l e f t up to the mennonites almost completely, was based on the system of the village commune, in which one representative from each landholding family had a place. the "sehultze" was the chairman of the commune, and at the same time tax collector and police judge. the chair- men of a l l village communes came together into a council representing the entire colony, as for example the colony of molotschna. an "oberschultzem presided over this council, representing i t i n dealings with the department of crown lands, under whose jurisdiction the mennonite colonies ultimately stood. in practise the more wealthy and influential members of most village communities soon placed themselves in the leadership of the church as well as the local government. the system of lay ministry allowed those who had time to spare, and prestige among the village folk, to occupy the ministerial and hence the leading positions of the church. these same men, usually land owners of the f i r s t rank, also had a strong voice i n local government. abuses, of course, could not long be kept out. furthermore, the anomaly inherent i n the situ- ation became f u l l y apparent when policing or law enforcement was necessary and the church found i t s e l f i n effect performing the function of the "world". the anabaptist tradition was a s t r i c t separation of church and state, a shunning of the "world". the result could only be a secularization of the church and eventually the emergence of reactionary groups, such as the mennonite brethren, who decried such secularization. the civic institutions upheld by the mennonites in russia were largely a carry-over from prussia. close association i n many aspects of l i f e made for common interests and communal solutions to problems. communal f i r e insurance was retained and improved. the "waisenamt" continued to pro- vide for the destitute and serve more and more as an invest- ment agency. granaries were built to store grain for times of need and disaster funds were set up. of special importance to the community were the laws the mennonites upheld amongst themselves regarding inheritance. the family tract of land was regarded as indivisible. it was usually given to the eldest son, who then paid off or provided for his siblings. this, of course, was the chief cause for the development of a growing landless class and the increasing need for daughter colonies. from the very beginning elementary schools were set up i n each village by the mennonites themselves, since they had been made responsible for their own educational f a c i l i t i e s . even though they were staffed by very poorly trained teachers these schools were nevertheless on par with similar schools anywhere in europe and eertainly superior to those of the russians. under the influence of the wealthy and progressively minded johann cornies, and the association for the promotion of education that he organized in , these schools were eventually improved. to them were added, in time, excellent secondary schools, known as "zentralschulen", which were designed chiefly to train teachers. from these a number of young people continued on in russian universities or even schools in other european countries. economically, the colonies i n i t i a l l y suffered a l l the d i f f i c u l t i e s involved in a shift from one environment to another. the farmers needed to know how to combat new pests, provide for the occasional drought and, above a l l , find the most advantageous combination of crops. general farming, with an emphasis on cattle and sheep, was practised in the early years. then, gradually, cash crops such as flax, tobaeco, fruits and vegetables were introduced. the s i l k industry promised well for a time and numerous mulberry trees were planted. with the opening of a seaport, berdiansk, on the black sea in the l 's, wheat-growing began to replace sheep, s i l k and other crops. early implements were crude, requiring very much hand labour. as soon as possible, machines were introduced. eventually a number of mennonite implement factories were established, which became the most significant industries carried on amongst the group. individual artisans in each village provided most of the hardware, tools and other goods the people needed but could not conveniently import. improvements of seeds, stocks, methods and materials proved as laborious there as amongst any other peasant group, and may be attributed largely to the energy and imagination of johann cornies and other model farmers who provided leadership during the f i r s t half of the nineteenth century in economic as well as cultural f i e l d s . eventually a considerable degree of material pro- sperity developed amongst the mennonites, which was to pro- vide a reasonably good l i f e for most of them until the disruptive forces of liberalization, war and revolution broke over the colonies and their way of l i f e . the settlement forms resulting from the mennonite way of l i f e i n russia again showed a close relationship to what had been adopted earlier i n other environments, but also included some new innovations. for the sake of security against marauding russian neighbours, i n i t i a l l y , and then also for purpose of unity in religious, economic and social affairs, close habitat, based on dutch and german forms already mentioned, with surrounding open fields modelled on the russian "mir" system, was the form of settlement used predominantly in the layout of russian mennonite colonies. even though drainage or the clearing cf forests were no longer the basic problems of agriculture, as they had been in north-central europe, the village tracts were s t i l l divided into rows of individual holdings on either side of a main street. each holding con- sisted of a total of some acres- granted to one family in permanent usufruct as well as the right of access to a common meadow at one end of the village. once a homestead had been established i t usually presented a sequence outward from the main street, of a front hedge or fence, a row of trees, a flower garden, the complex of buildings, a vegetable garden and fields, which might or might not be located immediately behind the farmyard. such a village, a "strassendorf" in the best sense of the term, stood in contrast to the encamp- ment of nomadic nogatsi tribesmen or the irregular "haufendorf" that might be found i n surrounding areas occupied by russians. numbers of mennonite villages would be strung in "paternoster" fashion along main roads, each one bearing an idealized german name such as "rosenthal" (valley of roses), "schonwiese" (beautiful meadows), "waldheim" (home in the woods), "blumenfeld" (field of flowers) or one of many others. these names reflected an intense appreciation of the beauties of a rural environment, and were, undoubtedly, wistful refer- ences to a homeland the mennonites had once known in north- central europe. they were retained by groups of the most orthodox of mennonites when they l e f t russia in the l 's to establish new colonies in manitoba, and were even taken by these same groups from there to mexico. mennonites migrating directly from russia to latin america before world war ii and those going there later as refugees out of a war-torn germany also graced many a hostile paraguayan or argentinian landscape with these nostalgic names. the buildings erected by the mennonites in russia re- sembled those they had known in west prussia (figure ). the farm buildings were again often joined under one roof, in such forms as the "reihenhof", the "winkelhof" or the "kreuzhof". figure . mennonite settlement in russia a. early farm house in chortitza. b. more modern farm house in chortitza. c. and d. mennonite churches in the molotschna colony, e. an early village school, f. a newer village school, as introduced in many villages by a progressive leader, johann cornies. g. typical mennonite village in south russia (sketch by j. h. janzen). h. mennonite operated steam mill. i . mennonite factory. from p. m. friesen, die alt-evangelische mennonltische bruderschaft in russland ( - .). . walls were usually of brick, exposed or finished in plaster; roofs were of t i l e or thatch. a l l this reflected, of course, the scarcity of wood for building purposes. architecturally, these buildings were the same simple, functional solutions to the problem of shelter that they had been i n prussia. the feature of the entire farm property that seems to have been a mark of economic status and prestige, besides the general size and excellence in the construction of the buildings, was the substantial fence or wall with i t s main gate that faced the street. classical columns, pediments and various other decorations were used to make these fronts as pretentious as possible. the village churches also were of the same simple basic pattern as they had been i n prussia, but here they were more profusely decorated, each one corresponding to the wealth and prestige of the villagers. then, as is s t i l l too often done now i n the building of mennonite churches, enhancement of the building was sought by the addition of unimaginative details. cornices, false columns, pediments over windows, buttresses, gothic and romanesque windows a l l were used in various combinations to beautify a basically monolithic building form. only seldom, as in the case of the large ornate church in the village of "einlage'% was a truncated tower added. spires were never built on russian mennonite churches. the aspect of a wide, tree-shaded main street in a typical mennonite village with substantial and scrupulously neat farmyards on either side, together with the solid schools and churches, must have been an impressive sight to russian neighbours and particularly visiting government o f f i c i a l s . movement into canada the movement of those mennonites represented i n our study, from their russian homeland into canada and particularly into british columbia, transpired in stages over a considerable period of time. the f i r s t large-scale movement out of russia into canada took place in - , but this involved mainly conservative members of the group, known as "old colony" mennonites. they l e f t russia to find new settlement areas for their growing numbers, as well as to escape the results of "russianization" policies undertaken by the government — the most important of which was the abolition of the privilege of the exemption from military service. some , of them, or approximately thirty percent of the total of mennonites in russia, l e f t during this time. of these, came to canada, and the others went to various latin american countries. few of these people or their descendants are represented in the mennonite population of the lower fraser valley. the "general conference" and "mennonite brethren" people, the chief concern of this thesis, began arriving in canada in large numbers during the 's. they were escaping the terrors of post-war and post-revolution years i n russia. the war had brought devastating army advances through the colonies. the revolution had unleashed various raiding, k i l l i n g bands who terrorized the colonies. religious freedom and the special civic privileges rooted i n the magnanimous terms of the charter given to the mennonites by the empress catharine ii had been swept away. families had been dis- persed by the banishment of many men into siberian work camps. the stable village properties had been pillaged and burnt in orgies of vented resentment by russians who had watched too long while their mennonite neighbours prospered. the only way out was emigration. in canada, mennonites were well aware of the plight of their "brethren" in russia. a "canadian mennonite board of colonization" was organized with the co-operation of a l l mennonite groups i n the country, and this body entered into negotiations with the canadian government for permission to bring these unfortunates into canada. permission was granted, with the stipulation that the settlers should remain, for a time at least, as farmers on the land. money needed to be found to finance the venture, because most of the mennonites coming from russia had been impoverished by robbery, excessive charges on every hand and a poor market in which to dispose of their holdings. the canadian pacific railway company proved willing to enter into a contract with the board of colonization to provide passage for the immigrants on a long-term loan basis. the collection of funds for the repayment of this loan, signed for by the president of the board, mr. david toews, subsequently became a very important concern of the leadership of the mennonites, but i t was duly accomplished. the movement out of russia began in the early twenties and continued as a sizeable exodus until , during which time some , mennonites entered canada. as more and more of these people l e f t russia, however, emigration permission became harder and harder to obtain, until f i n a l l y the only possibility of exit was by secret flight across the border. the headlong escape of some of the country's most stable citizens was not a good advertisement for the new order. the f i r s t stop for most of them was manitoba, where many of their "old colony" friends and relatives already lived. thus took place the superimposition}for a time,of one main strain of mennonitism upon another. those arriving during the «s became known as "russlander" and those who had been i n the country since as "kanadier".® many of the "russlander", despite war and privation, had received at ieast some education beyond the village school level, either at the mennonite high schools and normal schools, or in other schools at home and abroad. most of them, moreover, were of comparatively progressive religious persuasion. then too, they had experienced the years of turmoil in early twentieth century russia, which had brought to them the necessity for new adjustments regarding military service. education and other matters. they had accepted alternative service opportunities and had experienced a considerable degree of "russianization" in their schools and other institutions. the "kanadier", by contrast, were decidedly backward in their education, ultra-conservative in matters of faith and isolated by distances and d i f f i c u l t i e s of transportation from the settlements of the outside world. very soon mutual contempt arose between these groups, a feeling that has persisted to a great extent up to the present time. one other differentiation was perpetuated within the "russlander" group i t s e l f , and this must be elaborated upon here, for i t is apparent throughout this study. they were divided into two main religious "sub-factions", the general conference and the mennonite brethren. these two groups co-operate in matters of overseas relief work, to a limited extent in education and in some other respects. the general conference group might be regarded as slightly more conservative in religious matters than the mennonite brethren. to the outside observer there are only slight differences of doctrine and religious observance between them, but these are sufficiently important to effect a distinct separation. the present ratio within the fraser valley is estimated as roughly two-fifths general conference to three-fifths mennonite brethren.^ from their f i r s t stopover in manitoba, mennonites of both the general conference and mennonite brethren groups, moved f a i r l y soon as individual families or small groups of families, westward into saskatchewan, alberta and eventually british columbia, as well as eastward into southwestern ontario,, the pattern was always similar. a few families would move into any area where land could be bought under agreeable conditions or could be rented. others would follow, joining their friends and relatives from whom they had heard about possibilities i n the area. soon there would be a congregation, a church building, and, i f the settlement was large enough to support i t , a mennonite bible or high school. land could not usually be acquired i n completely contiguous blocks, as had been possible for the f i r s t mennonites coming into manitoba, because i t was often necessary to buy land from different individual owners. this factor and the almost universal use of the grid pattern i n land subdivision made the village form of settlement infeasible. nevertheless, one could speak of almost solid mennonite settlements, achieved by a careful buying" up or- renting of nearby plots and a gradual displacement of non-mennonlte neighbours. on the whole, i t must be realized that shifts within the mennonite population of western canada were com- prised of constant, concurrent movements of individual families and small groups, this way and that. the conditions conducive to unified mass movements•seemed to have passed for them. movement into british columbia movement into british columbia took place during and after . the triggering action was an advertisement by a certain mr. eckert in the winnipeg free press inviting settlers onto a plot of land at the present site of yarrow. the maritime climate offered relief from the harsh climatic conditions of the prairie provinces. land was available; i t was reasonably f e r t i l e , and barring the d i f f i c u l t i e s of drainage and clearing, easy to work. once a number of families were established at yarrow, and elsewhere too, others came. the volume of movement waxed and waned with economic conditions in b. c., but generally it coincided with the westward move- ment of other segments of the population. (map ) in a l l their various locations, these mennonites preserved, to a considerable extent, the old traditional attachment to the land. wherever they could they continued to farm in the extensive manner.of former times, growing cereal crops, raising cattle and the like. where i t was necessary to break away from this, however, as i t was in british columbia, they did so, showing a willingness to adapt and rationalize. they l e f t the rural environment for the urban too, where necessary. usually individual members of families, often the older g i r l s , had to go to the cities to find employment there, in order to augment the meager returns of the farm and to help repay the heavy burden of debt that rested on many a household. soon the numbers of mennonites in the cities grew source of migrants into british columbia - n m i g r a n t s o u t m i g r a n t s the width of the arrows is proportional'to the number of people involved mi ' ' i i i l j from british c o l u m b i a a t l a s of r e s o u r c e s t \ w a. s i e m e n s to such an extent that urban congregations could be esta- blished, a trend that brought with i t new conditions and problems — as w i l l be discussed later i n this study. in considering the movement of mennonites into british columbia the influx of mennonite displaced persons after must be given special mention. these people had come as refugees from communist russia, from old prussian lands ceded to the poles after the war, and elsewhere. they had been given temporary asylum i n west germany and then helped by the r e l i e f workers of the mennonite central committee to relocate in canada, latin america and the united states. usually they came as wards of relatives here, and so were quickly scattered among various settlements. they made every effort to adjust themselves rapidly to the way of l i f e i n the mennonite communities here, to learn english and to f i t into the broader canadian pattern too. very many of them soon found their way into the cities, where they took any employment that could be found until they had mastered the language and perhaps attained some professional standing. this consideration of the movement of the mennonites from country to country and finally into western canada may be concluded by noting the total number resident in british columbia's fraser valley and outlining roughly where their settlements are. in the total number of mennonites here was estimated to be approximately , . their d i s t r i - bution may be inferred from the dot map showing the census of ple ridge locational map of the lower eraser v a l l e y boundaries of major district m u n i c i p a l i t i e s m a i n h i g h w a y s p r i n c i p a l bridges principal s t r e e t s in v a n c o u v e r city z a l d e r g r o v e c a n a d a — u s . a i n t e r n a t i o n a l boundary l msgsf ' abbotsford i-ĵ (old) i [ map b a . s i e m e n s sn im is v •bq i o i ^^t' l wodd a n v a d svhd h i nt n o i l v l l l d o d i m o n n w h i jo a i i a v h o jo h i . n h i jo in w a w h i s i v i a n t /aoativ h • s i h i a i a h o y n n o d o a o n i s h qnv s m i a a i n i inodd a n t v i b svw n v m n a m h i dod noiltfhwodni ' s h dnho s n o i a v a h i do sn i a a h v i n a i b i s h i do snoiivwiawoo i n s a d a sv aw a d a v h s h i n ^ s iln nn iac do sv hv viaiix ijddv av id a e ̂ s d v w no n i v i -hq nl na\ohs si a b a n o o n v a nl i n l n n i i s i l n h ( n w canada listings for (map ) and from the map of church tributary regions for (map ) . concentrations existed near the towns of chilliwaek,h abbotsford, mission and aldergrove; i n southeast vancouver; and in the two mennonite centers of clearbrook and yarrow. the physical characteristics of each one of these settlement areas w i l l be dealt with in the next chapter, and a detailed analysis of sequent occupance, distributions, movements, settlement patterns and settlement forms w i l l follow in later chapters. footnotes and references i b , h. unruh, "dutch backgrounds of mennonite migrations of the th century to prussia," mennonite quarterly review, : - , july, . — e. k. francis, in search of utopia: the mennonites i n manitoba, altona, manitoba, d. w. friesen, . "properly, terms b u i l t upon this root should apply exclusively to groups where the r a c i a l bonds and c u l t u r a l bonds are so interwoven that the members of the group i t s e l f are o r d i n a r i l y unconscious of them, and unspeclalized out- siders tend to make no d i s t i n c t i o n between them. such groups are the l o g i c a l product of human evolution under conditions of r e l a t i v e isolation and segregation." in h. p. f a i r c h i l d , dictionary of sociology, new york, philosophical library, - , p. . a. ehrt, das mennonitentum i n russland, berlin, julius beltz, , p. . the mennonite search for a utopia i s the keynote of francis' book. francis, op. c i t . , p. . c. henry smith, the story of the mennonites, berne, indiana, mennonite book concern, , p. . francis uses these terms a number of times throughout his book. this estimate was made by rev. a. a. wiens, secretary of the b r i t i s h columbia o f f i c e of the mennonite central committee, i n an interview the author had with him i n . another estimate made by mr. wiens i n the interview referred to above. note: the name of the municipality i s spelled "chllliwhack" on some maps, as differentiated from the name of the town which is spelled without the "h". in this thesis, however, both names w i l l be spelled without the extra "h". chapter iii physical characteristics of the fraser valley lowlands the area under particular consideration in this study, the lower fraser valley, begins at hope and extends some ninety-five miles westward to the extremities of the delta of the fraser river. it is f a i r l y uniform in climate, but varies considerably in i t s array of land forms, veget- ation and soils. therefore each of the rural areas within i t that was occupied by the mennonites offered i t s f i r s t settlers, even as i t s t i l l does today, different opportunities for agriculture. general features of the terrain the valley lowlands, as we shall refer to the relatively low areas adjacent to the fraser river even though they are not one uninterrupted plain, are bounded to the north by the coast mountains, to the southeast by the skagit range of the cascades and, for our purposes, to the south by the international boundary. chilliwack mountain ( '), sumas mountain ( '), burnaby mountain ( ) and other lesser heights stand out as topographic islands in the lowlands. from agassiz through to the international boundary at huntingdon stretch the alluvial plains of the valley. they have an average altitude below and are the result of post-glacial deposition by the fraser, nooksack and chilliwack rivers. just east of abbotsford the undulating h i l l country begins, extending westward into the municipality of surrey. the hilltops are up to - ' in elevation and consist of materials deposited late i n the pleistocene epoch, which were then subjected to uplift and subsequently eroded. the recently deposited delta lands of the fraser, with an average elevation of only ' above mean sea level, begin just south- west of new westminster and extend out to the sea. climate climatically, that part of the valley where mennonites are located may be classed mostly within the "inner coast" region of the "west coast" climatic province. temper- atures here seldom go below freezing in their average minima and hover around - degrees i n their average maxima. five to six months have mean temperatures above °f., and there are some - frost free days. no month has an average of °*f. or less. a l l this assures a warm, sunny summer and a mild winter. precipitation is over f i f t y inches annually in most parts, the bulk of i t falling during the winter months. clearly this is a climate moderated in temper- ature and enriched in moisture by air circulation from the ocean. the basic climatic data for three stations in the fraser valley and for saskatoon and winnipeg are given in the table below in order to substantiate statistically the great difference between the climate from which mennonite settlers came and the one into which they went. table ii basic climatic data mean january daily minimum temperature vancouver abbotsford agassiz saskatoon winnipeg airport airport - * - to . - to (entire valley) - - mean july daily maximum temp. - ° (entire valley) mean annual total precipitation " " " " " moisture deficiency " f t mean annual n „„ snowfall " " " " " average frost- „ ^ , free period - days - days (entire- valley) british columbia, therefore, offered the mennonites a r e l i e f from the harsh continental climate of the prairies. articles in mennonite papers and special resettlement pro- motion brochures referred again and again to the mild temper- atures and the abundant precipitation to be found here. these same factors have remained highly attractive to prospective settlers as well as to "suitcase farmers" from the prairies who like to spend their winters here. morphology, vegetation, soil cover and agricultural use of mennonite settlement areas in the further discussion of the physical character- i s t i c s of mennonite settlement sites, particularly the rural ones, certain areas within the lowlands must be singled out. each site is treated with regard to i t s morphology, s o i l cover, vegetation, and agricultural use, and each of them is dealt with in turn from the eastern end of the valley to the west. it must be noted in this connection that the crops that the mennonites, and many of their neighbours, found economical on certain soils were discovered and developed largely through t r i a l and error. market conditions, of course, often overshadowed a l l else in determining what was grown. whether the use that was made of the land was optimal as far as physical potential is concerned or not is another question - one that w i l l not be explored here. flatlands from agassiz to upper somas in the chilliwack area the iee of the latest advance i s believed to nave remained in one position for a relatively long period of time, leaving behind only a thin veneer of drift. it i s possible that an arm of the sea invaded the area i n one of the intervals between ice advances and l e f t be- hind marine sediments. over these deposits the fraser built up an extensive a l l u v i a l plain that sloped gently from east to west. the natural vegetation cover in the chilliwack area, as well as i n other areas covered by monroe soils, consisted of open meadows and grasses i n spots that were subject to annual flooding. the higher ground, flooded only very occa- sionally, supported a t a l l stand of cottonwood and scattered f i r and cedar. on this low and gently undulating terrain soils of the monroe series have been developed. in the agassiz, east chilliwack, greendale and yarrow areas azonal monroe clay loam is the dominant s o i l , it has been found to be most suitable for the support of a dairy industry, but small fruits, tree fruits and crops such as hops, legumes and tobacco may also be grown economically on i t . in the yarrow settle- ment, even though i t is located on a similar s o i l as that of the chilliwack area, raspberries have been developed suc- cessfully as the main crop. this specialization probably resulted more from cultural and economic factors rather than a close adaptation to the s o i l . in the sumas area three alluvial fans, those of the fraser, chilliwack and nooksack rivers, impounded sumas lake between them. after the drainage of the lake in i t s sediments were exposed to form the coarse-textured azonal s o i l called monroe loamy sand. since this land varies in elevation from . feet below sea level to feet above i t , continuous pumping is necessary to permit the growth of grasses, hay and similar crops on the lower areas. the water table must not be allowed to sink too low in the dry season, however, because the s o i l is very porous and w i l l allow moisture to drop quickly below the reach of short-rooted plants. relatively large fields, edged by willows that grow near the drainage ditches, are characteristic of this area. in upper sumas, just north of the international boundary, post-glacial alluvium that was deposited by the nooksack river predominates. a number of low, narrow ridges, the remains of old sumas lake shorelines, run i n a northwest- southeast pattern across what i s otherwise a lowland sloping gently northward. the azonal monroe clay that has developed there supports grain, forage crops and pasture, together with some special crops such as raspberries. settlement took place in the upper sumas area early in the history of the province ( - ). farmyards were laid out on the narrow ridges to escape the periodic flooding of the adjacent lowlands. some of these holdings may s t i l l be seen when one travels along vye road (figure ). figure . "dry-point" farms these farms are located on ridges thrown up around old sumas lake. they can be viewed as one passes eastward on vye road (map ). matsqui the matsqui area remained under an ice advance for a relatively long period of time, and was eventually covered by late glacial marine s i l t s and clays as well as post-glacial alluvium from the fraser river. prominent ice contact slopes are s t i l l noticeable around the western and southern periphery of this well-defined flatland. the azonal, fine-textured soils of the ladner series that cover the area have been dyked and drained in order to lower the water table sufficiently to permit crop growth. the natural swamp forest of willow, poplar and scattered cedar and f i r , to- gether with grass vegetation on the better drained sections did not present great clearing d i f f i c u l t i e s . hay, oats and pasture, supporting a dairy industry, occupy the bulk of the open land now. specialty crops such as corn, berries, vegetables and others are also in evidence. mission north of the town of mission, where a considerable scattering of mennonites are located, farmland has been cleared on the gentler slopes and small f l a t areas of what is very h i l l y terrain. the natural vegetation was a luxuriant growth of f i r , cedar, hemlock, alder, maple and birch, with many varieties of shrubs and a dense growth of bracken. heavily eroded and uplifted interglacial material forms the basis for zonal soils of the alderwood series. small fruit culture and a limited dairy industry are carried on by farmers who, in many cases, devote only a part of their working time to their farms. abbotsford the undulating uplands of the abbotsford area were built up of pitted outwash to the west of the ice lobe covering chilliwack and sumas, and to the south of that covering matsqui. zonal soils of the lynden series developed here. lynden s i l t proved especially suitable for small fruit and vegetable production. after the luxuriant timber and bush which was i t s natural climax vegetation was cleared and larger fields cultivated,dairying could be carried out suc- cessfully as well. lynden gravelly s i l t has excessive drainage through a porous substratum and therefore the vegetation on i t suffers i n mid-summer dry seasons. the greatest expanse of this type of s o i l may be found around north clearbrook road. the forest growth that existed there at the time of the arrival of the f i r s t mennonites was a second growth of f i r , alder, cedar, maple and poplar. this was easier to clear than the land to the south, around huntingdon road, where there were many large stumps besides a similar second growth. it was found that on this s o i l strawberries and vegetables that mature before the onset of the summer dry season do quite well. poultry is a profitable pursuit as long as the price structure remains favorable. actually the area was, from the very start, of a marginal value for most cultivated crops. much of i t has now been taken up for urbanization by the expanding periphery of clearbrook. aldergrove a large extent of undulating terrain around the town of aldergrove and east of i t , where many mennonite farm- steads are located, i s made up of a thick deposit of vashon drift. on i t have developed the rich agricultural soils of the whatcom series. a heavy second growth of alder, maple, f i r and birch covered a l l of i t when the settlers moved in. stumps of the original climax forest of douglas f i r , hemlock and giant cedar were large and frequent. clearing costs, therefore, were heavy, which delayed settlement a good deal. wherever cleared the s o i l has proved suitable for mixed farming and special fruits and vegetables as well. among the small fruits the strawberry seems the most adaptable, as has been demonstrated i n the coghlan d i s t r i c t . surrey mention must be made here as well of the surrey upland, even though most of the mennonite settlers here have followed main occupations other than farming ever since they f i r s t came into the area. older deposits of the antecedent stream of the present fraser, isostatically raised and then eroded, make for a very h i l l y terrain. a layer of impervious boulder clay often lies too near the surface to permit proper cultivation and subsoil drainage. vegetables, berries and other small crops can be grown, poultry and fur-bearing animals raised — a l l of which are suitable to the needs of the part- time farmer. lulu island the last of the settlement areas to be mentioned here, lulu island, originally offered considerable opportunity for farming, and some mennonites settled there. the island i s part of the recent delta of the fraser and hence rises only some - feet above mean sea level. its soil is of the azonal ladner clay variety. after the land was dyked and drained by means of open ditehes i t was possible to carry on dairying on the large acreages and the culture of vegetables and small fruits on smaller holdings. here too, much of the farming carried on in early years, and certainly now, i s of a part- time nature. in a l l of these areas the mennonites attempted to choose the most advantageous sites available, to make the best use of resources at hand and to settle in a manner best suit- able to the circumstances. this willingness to adapt to an agricultural economy different from most others that they or their ancestors had known, as well as the willingness event- ually to enter an urban environment, characterized the fraser valley mennonites generally and sometimes made their settle- ment units d i f f i c u l t to differentiate from those of the non- mennonites around them. a description of the physical charac- teristics of their settlement sites i s therefore only a des- cription of localities they found to be most advantageous for household and community development and does not necessarily reflect their predilection for a particular type of settlement sh +. footnotes and references - british columbia natural resources conference, british columbia atlas of resources, vancouver, smith's lithography, , pp. - . compiled from: ibid., pp. - ; meteorological division, department of transport and the division of building research, national research council, climatological atlas of canada, ottawa, queen's printer, , p. ?; john d. chapman, the climate of british columbia, reprint from the proceedings of the f i f t h british columbia natural resources conference, victoria, b. c., king's printer, . information received in an interview with dr. w. h. mathews in . c. c. kelley and r. h. spillsbury, soil survey of the lower fraser valley, department of agriculture, technical bulletin , ottawa, queen's printer, , p. . note: a l l references to other s o i l types are taken from the same source. g l a c i a l d e p o s i t i o n in t h e e a s t e r n p a r t o f t h e l o w e r f r a s e r v a l l e y l e g e n d map a s i e m e n s f r o m c soils of the e a s t e r n part of the lower f r a s e r valley c.kelley ond r.h. spilsbury, soil survey of the lower froser v o l l e y , ottawa, department of agriculture, . si s o i l t y p e s e v e r e t t g r a v e l l y sandy l o a m — a monroe clay lynden g r a v e l l y loam ly « l ' . e r w o o d sandy loam ^_ l y n d e n gravelly silt loam ^ alderwi silt loam , »a lynpef.' silt l o a m — jr[[ whatcom silt loam w monroe l o a m y s a n d fjl l a d n e r clay- l monroe loam ^ m i x e d p r o f i l e mx m o n r o e c l a y l o a m — — ' jj_ peat p a r e a s of m e n n o n i t e s e t t l e m e n t ( r e f e r to m a p s ft ic) a r e a s with a l t i t u d e s over ft. [pjrmh q j mi a s i e m e n s m a p chapter iy sequent occupance op the mennonites in the fraser valley in response to the attractions of southwestern british columbia's climate, and to an offer of land, mennonites began to move into the lower fraser valley i n . they had suffered through droughts and hard winters * in the prairie provinces and looked forward to the long frost-free seasons, abundant, well-distributed r a i n f a l l and mild temperatures they had been told prevailed on the west coast. the advertisement of a certain mr. c. eckert, car- ried i n the winnipeg free press prairie farmer early in had offered settlement opportunities in the yarrow area. there had been reports, too, of possibilities in upland areas around abbotsford. offsetting these attractions were known drainage problems affecting such low-lying areas as yarrow and greendale and heavy timber and stump stands such as those around abbotsford. methods of land procurement most mennonites who took up land in the fraser valley during the early years of the establishment of mennonite communities procured tracts in one of three ways. the f i r s t and very interesting way involved the already mentioned mr. eckert, who, together with mr. e. a. crain, owned sizeable tracts near agassiz and the l i t t l e railroad station of yarrow. mr. eckert acted somewhat in the role of a "locator" for many mennonite farmers. with his help and general good w i l l toward mennonites, born out of earlier associations with the group in eastern canada and the united states, the yarrow settlement was able to get under way. he sold the original tracts on long-term credit, furnished the f i r s t building materials for the farmsteads, procured agricultural machinery and then waited long and patiently for repayment — in so doing, becoming the revered patron of the community. the municipal and provincial governments also had a hand in locating the mennonites in the fraser valley, in matsqui municipality had specifically reserved a tract near the present clearbrook settlement for these people. later i n the same year i t offered for sale at public auction two sections of land in the abbotsford area between the international boundary and huntingdon road (map ) . this was an opportunity open to a l l , but i t was a special chance for the mennonites who might now acquire adjacent tracts and again settle together i n a block. only a few of the mennonites present at this auction, however, availed themselves of this opportunity because they had expected the minimum price per acre to be $ . when actually i t turned out to be $ . . many soon realized what a mistake they had made in not buying the land even at this price, since they ended up paying more for the land land in the ensuing weeks and months to speculators who had quickly bought i t up. simultaneously with these developments and later, wherever mennonites were to settle, tracts were individually procured by private purchase or even by the acquisition of homesteads. is a result of their close family ties and strong group consciousness these people always endeavoured to buy up plots in close proximity to one another. this was particularly successful in the area that became known as "south abbotsford" and also north and south of the junction of olearbrook road and the trans canada highway. in other rural areas entered by mennonites, and also i n vancouver, grouping was possible only to more limited degrees. periods of settlement the thirty years of mennonite settlement in the fraser valley that were thus begun may be divided roughly into three periods of overall development: ( ) the pioneer years, ( ) the post-war "boom" and ( ) the period of large scale centralization and urbanization. during this time there was a progressive increase in the total number of mennonites resident in the fraser valley (table iv). the f i r s t period lasted from to the beginning of world war ii and saw the establishment of f i r s t settlements. the second period, coinciding with the last years of the war and the immediate post-war years, saw an upsurge i n the economy and a marked acceleration of the i n f l u x of mennonites from the p r a i r i e provinces and elsewhere. the third period, beginning around , s t i l l witnessed a r e l a t i v e l y high rate of influx, but also a gradual change i n orientation of mennonite settlements from the r u r a l farm to the r u r a l non-farm and the urban, a substantiation of these changes i n the size, structure and orientation of the entire mennonite community i n the fraser valley i s provided by a table of church member- ship figures (table xvii), this table is more closely analysed later and so serves here only as an index to the o v e r a l l trend. a continuous growth i s evident, as well as an increase i n the rate of growth just after the war. of particular interest i s the retardation of growth i n r u r a l churches and the simultaneous disproportionate growth i n urban churches during the l a s t period. pioneer period in the consideration of the pioneer period of mennonite settlement the f i r s t area that must be mentioned i s agassiz. mr. eckert and his partner owned a farm there and so they encouraged some of the mennonites arriving from the p r a i r i e s to rent tracts on i t . a few complied, but they soon found that there were not nearly enough opportunities for remunerative employment available, certainly not as many as were offered i n the hop yards close to the newly established settlement of yarrow. without this part-time employment i t was impossible to make a living in these early years. it was also found that there were no really good tracts of land available near agassiz for a sizeable group settlement. very soon these people began seeking land elsewhere, and most of them found i t in the abbotsford area. settlement began in earnest with the establishment of the yarrow community. mr. eckert met the f i r s t group of families that arrived at the small station on the b. c. electric railway line known as yarrow and assisted them in the establishment of an i n i t i a l communal residence on mountain road. he had for their settlement a tract of acres, divided into acre parcels. they were to pay $ per acre « actually a high price at the time — and were to be given ample time for repayment. mr. eckert was willing, as was previously indicated, to furnish tractors and cattle to get the settlement under way. soon the first families were settled in their crude dwellings — and i t was not long before other groups of families arrived. the land itself needed to be cleared of its poplar trees and brush, and of logs which had floated in during high level periods in old sumas lake. wood was skidded in from the railway for the erection of dwellings and out-buildings. drainage ditches were dug, fences built and rough roads laid out. t h e c o m m u n i t y s u s t a i n e d i t s e l f d u r i n g t h e s e d i f - f i c u l t y e a r s b y t h e r e t u r n s o f t h e w o r k o f a l l a b l e - b o d i e d m e n i n t h e n e a r b y h o p y a r d s , m u n i c i p a l m a i n t e n a n c e p r o j e c t s a n d o t h e r j o b s . g r o w n - u p g i r l s o f m a n y o f t h e f a m i l i e s w e r e s e n t i n t o v a n c o u v e r t o a u g m e n t t h e f a m i l y b u d g e t b y w a g e s e a r n e d a s s e r v a n t s a n d h o u s e k e e p e r s . d u r i n g h o p - p i c k i n g s e a s o n , e v e r y o n e f r o m t h e y o u n g s t e r s t o t h e g r a n d p a r e n t s w e n t o u t t o e a r n a s m u c h a s t h e y c o u l d . w h i l e e a r n i n g a l i v i n g e l s e w h e r e t h e s e t t l e r s s o m e h o w m a n a g e d t o p r e p a r e t h e i r f a r m l a n d a n d e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a v a r i e t y o f c r o p s . e v e n t u a l l y i t w a s f o u n d , l a r g e l y b y t r i a l a n d e r r o r , t h a t c r o p s s u c h a s s u g a r b e e t s , b e a n s , l e t t u c e , a s p a r a g u s , c a b b a g e a n d c a r r o t s w e r e a l l n o t s u i t a b l e t o t h e s o i l a n d d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s . r a s p b e r r i e s a n d s t r a w b e r r i e s , p a r t i - c u l a r l y t h e f i r s t , o f f e r e d t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d h a v e r e m a i n e d t h e m a i n s t a y o f t h e c o m m u n i t y e v e r s i n c e . t h e s o i l f u l f i l l s t h e n e e d s o f t h e r a s p b e r r y p l a n t , a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h o s e o f t h e s t r a w b e r r y p l a n t t o o , i n t h a t i t h a s a r e a s o n a b l e f e r t i l i t y a n d g o o d s u b s o i l d r a i n a g e . t h e c l i m a t e o f t h e a r e a p r o v i d e s a f a i r a m o u n t o f r a i n f a l l , s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s i n summer a n d a n a s s u r a n c e o f a n a d e q u a t e n u m b e r o f f r o s t - f r e e d a y s . a b e l t a l o n g t h e d y k e h a s p r o v e d p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o d u c t i v e b e c a u s e o f t h e s t e a d y s e e p a g e o f m o i s t u r e f r o m t h e c a n a l , w h i c h s u p p l e m e n t s n a t u r a l p r e c i p i t - a t i o n i n t h e d r y s e a s o n . the depression of the early 's kept the community i n financial straits longer than might have been necessary had i t been farther along in i t s development. by » however, many farms were productive enough to allow the heads of households, at least, to remain at home. yarrow survived i n i t i a l hardships and grew steadily, in spite of the fears held by mennonite leaders elsewhere in canada, from whose congregations people were moving to british columbia, that i t would not prosper financially. very soon after i t s establishment an institutional framework grew up in i t . the church, obviously the most important institution in the community, existed from earliest times right in the homes of the settlers. in the mennonite brethren faction built their f i r s t church building, only to replace i t in with a much larger structure, which, with alterations, remains the building in use today. the general conference mennonite group did not build their church until . this building, somewhat altered, is also s t i l l the present church. a bible school was established in - by the mennonite brethren church to f u l f i l l their needs for trained personnel. secular schooling was under public administration from the start. the f i r s t building provided i n was replaced in by a new, municipally built one-room school. further f a c i l i t i e s i n this respect were added later. it was not until after the war that the community, with government permission, built a private high school. this school, as well as the mennonite educational institute built i n olearbrook, was to conform to governmentally set academic standards, but to draw i t s support entirely from the community i t served. in the mennonites of yarrow organized a co- operative amongst themselves which was to provide consumer goods at lower prices on the one hand and familitate the marketing of produce on the other. going beyond the pioneer period for a moment, i t may be noted that the co-op grew in assets, t i l l in i t boasted a $ , processing plant with some $ , of equipment in i t . in the slump year of , however, charges of mismanagement were laid against the management, i n view of their inability to dispose of 's bumper crop and the heavy debts they had incurred in over- ambitious expansion schemes. shareholders lost faith in the establishment and voted for liquidation. they finally realized some # on the dollar. electricity was brought to the community in . other f a c i l i t i e s , such as pavement and sidewalks had to wait a good deal longer. local government was organized in an unofficial manner during the early years in order to cope with problems of providing basic u t i l i t i e s such as roads and water and in order to head off emergencies. m l the property owners made up a council, and elected a chairman or "schultze" after the old form, as well as a secretary. in the yarrow waterworks board was granted a charter and i t became the f i r s t o f f i c i a l governing body of the community. in this capacity i t achieved the installation of a fresh water supply from a nearby mountain creek after seepage from barns and septic tanks was found to be polluting the wells. in addition i t was respon- sible for the organization of a f i r e department. it has sinee served to mediate between the chilliwack township and yarrow ratepayers, and has also become the mouthpiece for organized opinion in the community. in , j. c. krause, one of the earliest settlers in yarrow, together with two partners, bought up a tract of land north and east of the vedder canal. they realized that the influx of mennonites would probable increase in volume and that these would soon be in need of more land for settle- ment. they closely inspected and classified their new tract and then made i t available through an agent in chilliwack to incoming settlers. this became then the greendale mennonite settlement. at the outset i t was hoped that this area would be taken up exclusively by mennonites of the general conference group and the yarrow area be l e f t to those of the mennonite brethren persuasion, but an intermingling took place never- theless. immediately from the beginning of the greendale settlement a "conference" church was organized; the "m.b.'s" organized independently some four to five years later. the f i r s t mennonites coming into the abbotsford area around from the abandoned agassiz settlement and from uneconomical p r a i r i e farms found generally f e r t i l e , well-drained land, but also a heavy second growth of forest i n many places and huge stumps everywhere. the e a r l i e s t s e t t l e r s took up land especially reserved for them by the matsqui municipality north of the trans-canada highway along what has become clearbrook road (map ) . a forest f i r e had burnt over the area i n , leaving a s t r i p of t a l l pines unscorched along old yale road — a good number of which have been preserved to the present time. elsewhere a low brush of small pines, alders, birches and hemlocks predominated. land i n the area was r e l a t i v e l y inexpensive, but i t proved also to be of low a g r i c u l t u r a l potential. a short time l a t e r , as has already been noted^- i n connection with the methods of land procurement, a number of mennonite settlers acquired land south of the clearbrook area by purchase through auction and from private holders. their sites had been recently logged off, for the most part, and were covered by low brush, a tangle of logging slash and a veritable forest of stumps and snags. settlers there, as i n yarrow and elsewhere, were obliged to work for wages i n the early years u n t i l their farms became self-supporting. the depression, of course, made jobs hard to get and wages low. many cycled long distances to work on farms i n sumas p r a i r i e — one of the e a r l i e s t settlement areas i n the fraser v a l l e y . others got jobs on road b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s i n i t i a t e d by the m u n i c i p a l i t y . in t h e i r spare time they worked hard to c l e a r p l o t s f o r b u i l d i n g s , then f o r the p l a n t i n g of tree f r u i t s and small f r u i t s , and e v e n t u a l l y the seeding of f i e l d s f o r pasture. u n t i l - they d i d t h i s c h i e f l y by hand implements and the occasional use of stumping powder. later dynamite came i n t o very wide use and i t , together w i t h the b u l l d o z e r , f a c i l i t a t e d the c l e a r i n g "boom" that began i n the e a r l y 's. the t y p i c a l mennonite farmstead i n abbotsford, as w e l l as i n otherfraser v a l l e y settlements, consisted of unpretentious b u i l d i n g s , which were u s u a l l y set back a good distance from the road or t r a i l and constructed of whatever lumber could be purchased or manufactured r i g h t on the property i t s e l f . people s p l i t t h e i r own shakes f o r r o o f i n g and s i d i n g and long staves f o r r a i l fences. p a i n t and other decorations were r a r e l y used. as l i t t l e land as possible was used f o r yards and every a v a i l a b l e p l o t of cleared land was used f o r crops. c a t t l e were grazed on land that had had the brush removed and grasses seeded between the stumps. the mennonite brethren church was organized among these s e t t l e r s as e a r l y as the spring of . the congreg- a t i o n f i r s t met i n the farmer's i n s t i t u t e h a l l i n clearbrook road, south of king road (map ), but t h i s l o c a t i o n imposed hardships on many who had to walk long distances to attend services. in i t was decided to build two churches, one at the corner of old yale and clearbrook roads, the antecedent of the present church there, and the other on emerson road south of huntingdon. both of these buildings had to be enlarged within a few years. in abbotsford, as i n yarrow, mennonites of both "conference" and "m. b." groups banded together into a co-operative. here, however, the purpose was largely the procurement of consumer goods at lower than general r e t a i l prices. in a store was opened i n a private home on huntingdon road, and then a year l a t e r i t was moved to a separate building on i t s present s i t e . after three or four years i n these rather cramped quarters a new building was erected and a branch store opened i n the clearbrook area. in the whole co-op was sold to private individuals and a progressive l i q u i d a t i o n has gone on since then. to complete the picture regarding mennonite co-ops, i t might be interjected here that a co-op for the marketing of produce was formed i n abbotsford among the mennonites and a few of their non-mennonite neighbors i n - . its plant was erected just off the abbotsford-mission highway, where i t functioned successfully u n t i l being moved i n to i t s new location on the trans canada highway near clearbrook. mennonites began to move into the mission area i n « they came from the p r a i r i e s , as those moving i n t o yarrow and abbotsford had done, and established small f r u i t farms on the h i l l y t e r r a i n north of the fraser, as w e l l as l a r g e r general farms on the matsqui f l a t s . to supplement meager returns on t h e i r farm lands they took jobs i n sawmills and wherever else they were a v a i l a b l e . at f i r s t members of both the mennonite brethren and general conference persuasion met together f o r worship i n p r i v a t e homes. i n - the general conference people e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r own church north of mission. i t was not u n t i l - ", when the economic upsurge of the l a t e war years and the associated increase i n the number of mennonite migrants i n t o b r i t i s h columbia were w e l l underway, that the mennonite brethren adherents acquired a church j u s t north of the v i l l a g e of matsqui. even though the predominant o r i e n t a t i o n of the mennonites i n the fraser v a l l e y was s t i l l r u r a l some f a m i l i e s already were moving i n t o vancouver i n the e a r l y ' s. by there were some half-dozen mennonite homes established near fraser s t r e e t . the p l o t t i n g of f a m i l i e s making up the vancouver m. b. church and the f i r s t mennonite (conference) church (map ) mirrors t h i s e a r l y conscious attempt at close settlement i n an urban area. the reasons f o r movement i n t o the c i t y were l a r g e l y economic. people needed jobs and these could be found i n the saw mills on the north arm of the fraser river. wages, however were only some to cents an hour and the general economic conditions as d i f f i c u l t there as anywhere else at this time. eventually other avenues of employment opened for the mennonites, including skilled and professional occupations, until at the present time the economic base of the mennonite community here is relatively broad. the one main mennonite institution that was able to survive the shift from rural to urban, the church, was organized in the city soon after the people settled there. mennonite brethren and general conference adherents at f i r s t worshipped together i n a hall at th avenue and fraser street. in separate churches were organized and buildings provided, an interesting smaller institution, antedating the earliest mennonite church i n the area was the "m&dchenheim" or g i r l s ' home, established in . it helped mennonite girls coming into the city to find jobs and generally sought to shelter them from harmful influences. in a modified form the home exists to the present time. post-war "boom" during the war years and immediately after them the canadian economy, only recently recovered from the great depression lag, was experiencing a forward thrust in response to demands for increased production in a wide range of fields. in agriculture, a l l existing capital goods and land resources had to he utilized in the most efficient manner possible. markets presented few problems; the major problem was to be able to deliver. in the prairie provinces, where farmers already had had to make drastic adjustments in crops, machinery and acreage to the market and to drought conditions in the decade before the war, mechanization and consolidation of farm holdings gathered momentum. in british columbia intensification of land use through mechanization, chemical fertilization, irrigation and the introduction of improved stocks was going on, together with an extension of the area under cultivation, as well. the physical value of production increased some forty per cent here from - . the improved land areas increased some twenty-five per cent. larger farms of over acres were increasing only slowly in number, whereas the smaller farms, particularly those between and acres, were increasing very quickly. this reflected the possibilities for production on small, intensively-farmed plots as well as a desire on the part of many farmers to operate with as l i t t l e hired labour as possible and perhaps even to operate the farm as a sideline to more profitable employment elsewhere. against the background of these overall economic factors the influx of mennonites into b. c. increased markedly, as did the general migration of population westward (map ) . the trend toward the liquidation of marginal farms on the prairies and their consolidation into larger holdings heightened the attraction of small economic acreages in b. c. for many a mennonite farmer, tired of the rigors of grain farm work and prairie climate. just as important to many prospective mennonite migrants were the attractions of religious and educational opportunities that could be offered by rapidly growing settlements such as yarrow, abbotsford or greendale. added to a l l this, of course, was the ever-present attraction of a moderate climate and a beautifully-green, mountain-ringed location. in the established mennonite settlements a l l through the fraser valley incoming mennonites, using the capital acquired through liquidation of holdings elsewhere in canada, bought up more and more of the land held by non-mennonites. those who had come in as pioneers built new homes and barns. implements and vehicles were replaced and supplemented. in areas where land remained to be cleared, particularly in the abbotsford and aldergrove areas, dynamite and bulldozers were brought into service on a large scale to win new acreage. many landowners found i t profitable, moreover, to subdivide their holdings and realize tidy profits on the resale of plots to other mennonite farmers who were willing to establish farms on a smaller scale. new church buildings that sprang up during the immediate post-war period attested visibly to the increasing prominence of the mennonites in many communities. no fewer than nine churches were built within the - - period — each one of them, because of the locational policies of the builders, being f a i r l y accurately in the center of a new group of mennonite households, (map ) . the new schools built in these years, while also marks of the physical expansion of the community, showed something of heightened group consciousness and aspirations as well. the f i r s t one was established in abbotsford in and housed in a new building in . the other one was built i n yarrow soon after. both helped to focus the orient- ation of the mennonites on these two localities. after the economic decline of yarrow in , abbotsford, and more particularly the new settlement of clearbrook, became the major center of mennonitism in the valley. (f^ure^) the rise of mennonite centers during the latter part of the post war "surge" merits further mention here and special consideration as to structure later in this study. in response to needs for services, a business district, largely operated by mennonite businessmen, grew up in yarrow. clear- brook advanced from its"crossroad-filling-station"status to that of a service "village" too. general stores, garages and a few other services, usually operated by mennonites, were established near a number of churches. such centers, hardly deserving the t i t l e of "hamlets" may be seen at green- dale, arnold, south abbotsford and west abbotsford (maps and ) . the center at south abbotsford was later to undergo an interesting shift as the result of the abandonment of the ol< church and the building of a new one approximately one half-mi < figure . mennonite schools i n the fraser valley a. mennonite educational institute, clearbrook. bo sharon mennonite collegiate institute, yarrow. c. former s.m.c.i., yarrow. d. mennonite brethren bible school, clearbrook. distant. present period of centralization and urbanization the accelerating demand on the part of prospective home builders and r e a l estate promoters for lots on the one hand and the pressure exerted on farmers by the r i s i n g costs of upkeep, mechanization and r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n on the other are at present converting more and more farm land i n the fraser valley, as elsewhere, to non-agricultural uses. this has brought new patterns of settlement and, indeed, a new s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l orientation i n i t s wake for the men- nonites — as w i l l be brought out i n greater d e t a i l i n the l a s t chapter. alternative and more lucrative opportunities for employment have for some time now been inducing very many mennonite young people to leave the farms and come to the c i t y . landowners thus l e f t without successors to cultivate their land are being forced to s e l l and move into towns and c i t i e s as well. i t i s reported from the area that the buyers of these farms are largely european immigrants, as i s the case i n other parts of canada. i t seems that they are s t i l l w i l l i n g , together with their families, to take up a - acre dairy farm. farmers on small, formerly economical tracts of land, f i n d they must take on additional employment and join the increasing stream of long distance commuters coming from r u r a l fraser valley points into areas where employment may be found i n construction, m i l l i n g or other pursuits. often these owners subdivide their properties or simply dispose of them entirely. the dominant pattern of employment resembles again the wage-earning, part-time farming situation of the pioneer period, except that i t is a deliberate move away from or de-sire agriculture and carries with i t l i t t l e hopeafor a return to full-time farming. an index of this large scale change in settlement patterns of the mennonites is the trend in congregational grouping and new church construction. since - most of the new congregations organized and new churches erected have been in rural non-farm or urban areas (table xv). s certainly the recent dwelling of membership numbers in mennonite churches in clearbrook, chilliwack and especially vancouver indicate well this trend toward urbanization. in the following chapter this large scale shift and other related changes and conditions among the mennonites in the fraser valley w i l l be dealt with in terms of statistics. footnotes and references a man who precedes a group of s e t t l e r s into an area and works to f a c i l i t a t e i n i t i a l d i v i s i o n of land, upkeep of the s e t t l e r s while they are getting established and so f o r t h . i t i s an ancient term used, for example, with reference to individuals who led eastward germanic settlement movements into central europe during the th and th centuries. one of the community's main roads i s respectfully named eckert road. j. m. smith, canada's economic growth and development from to % royal commission on canada's economic"' prospects, hull, queen's printer and controller of stationery, , v o l . , p. . chapter v a statistical delineation of the situation of the mennonites in the fraser valley valuable facts come to light when one complies statistics on any situation, breaks them down into component parts and analyses' them with the help of various techniques and formulae. to provide the basis for such an analysis of the distribution and characteristics of the mennonites in the fraser valley, s t a t i s t i c a l information was gathered from a number of sources. these sources, which were different in some respects than those most often utilized in other geo- graphic studies, must be discussed and evaluated before actual figures can be quoted. sources the census of canada for provides data on mennonites as a religious denomination. it enumeratess the specific religious denomination of which the person was either a member or to which he adhered or favoured...! this probably gives f a i r l y accurate.figures as to numbers of mennonites i n the various areas and under various classifications because the great majority of them, whether they belong to one or another of the four sub-groups mentioned, would acknowledge themselves as mennonites without hesitation, since their adherence is a deep-seated cultural as well as religious a f f a i r . even those who do not have membership in any parti- cular church congregation would not readily deny their heritage. origin statistics were not utilized because of the confusion regarding concepts such as nationality, birth place and race that enters into a consideration of this type. n. b. snyder, in a discussion of the usefulness of canadian origin statistics summarizes the limitations of this data well when he states that: . . . i t seems f a i r to conclude that the usefulness in research of canadian statistics on origins is probably limited for the most part to the dividing of the population into four broad groups? the british, the french, the other whites and the non-whites, and that attempts to carry out serious, more detailed research on origins requires extreme caution, particularly with regard to variations through time. much valuable information was gained from individual church records wherever they were in a sufficiently systematic and orderly form. the records of the fraserview mennonite brethren church in vancouver provided the most useful data, and this is analysed in detail below. it is interesting to note that the emphasis in most of the mennonite church records on family descendance, personalities involved in church leadership and data relating to the spiritual growth of the church, rather than on the simple numerical characteristics of the group, their economic and cultural standing and the like. map ̂ mennonites in t h e l o w e r f r a s e r v a l l e y total — ca. , one dot = a r e a s o v e r in a l t i t u d e census of canada — i f m a p . a s i e m e n s the l a t t e r considerations are appearing more and more frequently, however, as the organization of the churches becomes more unified and methods of recording are perfected and extended. the published church directories were useful i n outlining the tributary regions of the respective churches. in addition to the i n d i v i d u a l church records, the yearbooks of the several b r i t i s h columbia, canadian and north american conferences of which the churches i n the fraser valley are members, i n one way or another, provided useful material — p a r t i c u l a r l y regarding past membership t o t a l s . municipal voter's l i s t s were used i n several of the r u r a l municipalities of the valley, where mennonites are most numerous, i n order to find the r a t i o of mennonites to non-mennonites. f i e l d inquiries supplemented a l l of these, p a r t i - cularly to f a c i l i t a t e the delimitation of church tributary regions and the tracing of h i s t o r i c a l developments. distributions the percentage dot map showing the mennonite population of canada (map ) , as compiled from census figures, indicates that . $ of canada's , mennonites, some , of them, were resident i n b r i t i s h columbia. this compares with the . $ i n manitoba, . $ i n saskatchewan, , $ i n ontario and . $ i n alberta. the entire mennonite population of canada i s . $ of the t o t a l canadian population,, of british columbia's , mennonites the over- whelming majority, or at least , , were in the fraser valley in .^ it may be projected on the basis of increases in the province's mennonite church enrolment from to that this figure rose to some , in . this is in the same o order of magnitude as an estimate of ,# made by the rev. a. a. wiens of yarrow, secretary of the british columbia office of the mennonite central committee and a man well acquainted with trends in the mennonite community.^ the dot map showing mennonites in the fraser valley (map ), compiled from census data and correlated with the map of church tributary regions (map ), indicates concentrations of mennonites in the essentially rural municipalities of matsqui and chilliwack, a concentration in vancouver and scatterings else- where. the following table gives the exact numbers involved. table iii total of mennonites i n sub-divisions of census division no. - lower fraser valley , . district municipalities chllliwhack , coquitlam delta fraser mills kent langley l maple ridge matsqui , mission - pitt meadows sumas , surrey unorganized , total , . vancouver metropolitan area city proper , richmond surrey burnaby coquitlam new westminster other sub-divisions combined - bi note: there is some slight overlapping in these two sub-divisions, therefore a minor discrepancy appears between the lower fraser valley total and the sum of the totals of the district municipalities and the metropolitan area. a further table, also obtained from the census, shows the increase of the mennonite population of b. c : table iv total numbers of mennonites in b. c , - ^ , , , the increase, therefore, has been continuous and f a i r l y rapid, except for a short period around when settlements in central british columbia failed and had to be partly abandoned. characteristics of mennonite population a closer analysis of figures obtained from the census, church records and field inquiries, provides interesting information on many aspects of the internal structure of the group, particularly when these figures are compared with those for the entire populations of british columbia and of canada. the mennonites of this province and of the whole country, as well, have much greater percentages of their total numbers resident in rural areas than is the case for the rest of the population of federal and provincial levels. this clearly reflects persisting agrarian tendencies up to . it must be remembered, however, that the rural- urban relationship w i l l have been altered for both mennonites and non-mennonites since . certainly i t is evident from church membership trends in the fraser valley that a greater percentage of the mennonites there are urban now than were so in . an interesting deviation from national and provincial male-female breakdowns is also evident, as the following table shows? table v male-female breakdown - canadian canadian b. c. b. c. total mennonites total mennonites total , , - , , , , m. , , , , , f. , , , , , \ there are more females than males in the mennonite populations of the nation and of b. c, in contrast to an opposite trend in the total populations of both regions. this is largely, no doubt, a result of the recent immigration of numerous female mennonite refugees from eastern europe where many of their husbands, fathers and brothers were war casualties or victims of slave labour. patterns of immigration from the and issues of the canadian mennonite conference yearbook ^ certain facts regarding the stream of mennonite immigrants into canada and into british columbia may be ascertained. in general, since the early 's, there have been two main waves of mennonite immigrants, one from - and another from - - ? with sizeable numbers entering the country in the intervening years. the table below cites some figures regarding this influx: table vi immigrants brought in under the auspices of the mennonite board of colonizationll . , . , , , , , ' , , , m , until recently these immigrants were coming mainly from european countries. in the last two or three years, however, the contingent coming from paraguay has grown in significance and at present i t is the largest part of the influx. figures available on the classification of these immigrants as to origin follows table vii origin of immigrants brought in by mennonite board of colonization ^ immigrants arriving immigrants arriving - june, june - june europe , paraguay , brazil uruguay china mexico argentina columbia , of the immigrants coming into canada from - some $ have come to british columbia. only manitoba has received a greater percentage, as seen below: table viii destinations of mennonite immigrants - - prince edward island hew brunswick quebec ontario , manitoba , saskatchewan , alberta , british columbia . , for the same period, - a breakdown of mennonite immigrants is available, showing that a greater number of females than males entered canada — for reasons already referred to in the discussion of male-female classifications. table ix classification according to sex of immigrants arriving in - intact families widows and women whose men were taken into slave labour widowers and men whose women were taken into slave labour single men single women c one entra t i ons it has already been pointed out that on the map showing the distribution of mennonites in the fraser valley (map ) the municipalities of matsqui and chilliwack stand out with their particularly heavy concentrations of these people. from the voters' l i s t s of these two municipalities some idea of the percentage of the population that is men- nonite within them can be gained by singling out those registered voters with typical mennonite names and comparing their number with that of the non-menn_onites. it must be interjected here that i t is possible to identify mennonite names generally, and also to dif- ferentiate between the names that may be found within various strains of mennonitism. a good deal of work has been done by scholars, notably dr. b. h. unruh of karlsruhe, germany, to , establish origins of mennonite names and to c l a s s i f y them. the great majority of mennonites i n the fraser valley are c l e a r l y of the s t r a i n that originated i n the netherlands and north germany, moved from there to prussia, russia and f i n a l l y to north america — i n contrast to the other main s t r a i n that originated in switzerland and what i s now southwestern germany, moved from there to pennsylvania and other eastern and mid-western states. from church directories a l i s t of names peculiar to these people was compiled (table xvi). when encountered i n records by anyone at a l l familiar with them they stand out c l e a r l y . matsqui and "]% of those i n chilliwack were mennonites. when compared with the breakdown of major ethnic groups for census division of b. c. the above percentages show that mennonites make up a considerably higher proportion of the population of these municipalities than i s the case for the population of the entire d i v i s i o n . ethnic breakdown i n census division no. of b r i t i s h columbia total population of division - , i t was found i n this way that -% of the voters of table x % of total german french b r i t i s h scandinavian , , , , , , h . . . netherland ukrainian . . . the german and netherland segments, under either or both which mennonites might he c l a s s i f i e d ethnically, together make up only . % of the population of the d i v i s i o n . a further refinement regarding concentration was obtained from post o f f i c e r e g i s t r i e s i n the villages of yarrow and clearbrook. using mennonite names as c r i t e r i a again i t was found that in both settlements the mennonite to non-mennonite r a t i o was * . ° c a l l them "mennonite towns", as many casual observers do, i s therefore quite j u s t i f i a b l e . the degree of concentration of mennonites within the vancouver metropolitan area i s best conveyed v i s u a l l y , as on the isopleth map showing the concentration of mennonite families within the area (map ) . a rough quadrangle, bounded on the north by king edward avenue, on the east by v i c t o r i a drive, on the south by the north arm of the fraser and on the west by gamble street enclosed most of these families. a scattering may be found concentrically around this area. a new grouping has taken place i n - east of v i c t o r i a drive into burnaby. this trend w i l l no doubt be accentuated i f and when the proposed new mennonite brethren church i s b u i l t i n that general v i c i n i t y . shifts i n the center of gravity of the group to give some idea of the movements that have taken place within the mennonite community of the fraser valley over the l a s t twenty years the centers of gravity were calculated for church membership figures throughout the area at two-year intervals. ( e a r l i e r centers could not be calculated because of the inadequacy of available figures). these points were then collated into a centrogram and the movement of the centers noted (map ). church membership figures were used for a number of reasons. they were, f i r s t of a l l , the only yearly s t a t i s t i c s on mennonites available. then, even though they do not include younger children and deviants, they seem a f a i r l y constant index of the whole. this i s so because, t r a d i t i o n a l l y , these people are very closely connected to their church and hence there are not very many families who are not represented on the church r o l e . also, most of the churches induct young people i n their early teens and thus ensure a f a i r l y constant increase. the r e l i a b i l i t y of these figures as indices i s substantiated by the relationship evident between figures for t o t a l mennonite populations i n census division no. of b. c. and figures for church membership i n the years and . in the f i r s t case membership figures are . $ of the t o t a l mennonite population; i n the percentage i s . , a difference of only $. it may be assumed, therefore, that large scale trends in church membership figures mirror trends i n the entire mennonite community. in this case we are able to recognize changing settlement patterns i n the whole group from s h i f t s i n membership figures. the center of gravity moves f i r s t eastward and then pronouncedly westward from - . this locus is i n clear and close correspondence with other factors. in the period between - , for which the center moved eastward, the destination of mennonites migrating from the prairies into b. c. and those immigrating from europe was predominantly into r u r a l areas of the valley — thus swelling church memberships in places such as chilliwack, greendale, yarrow and abbotsford. around a remarkable reversal took place, as a result of a decrease i n job opportunities i n r u r a l areas together with a decrease i n attractiveness of existing opportunities there — over against the increased attractiveness of the urban environment i n many respects. in any case, a strong movement toward vancouver becomes evident i n the pronounced westward s h i f t of the center. this movement probably represents the most s i g n i f i c a n t large scale s o c i a l change going on amongst mennonites, and the surrounding population too, for that matter. further deductions as to minor variations i n the locus of the center of gravity are not warranted because of the frequent minor i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n the way church secretaries send s t a t i s t i c s into conference headquarters. the l i n e i s useful simply to i l l u s t r a t e a general trend. the fraserview mennonite brethren church — an example study from the well organized and r e l a t i v e l y comprehensive records of the fraserview mennonite brethren church of vancouver it was possible to obtain detailed information regarding the membership and thus to i l l u s t r a t e on the l e v e l of one individual church a number of general points made else- where i n this thesis. at the close of the church had a t o t a l of members, which represented families. including children years old and under who were not classed as members, the church had some adherents. the record of the birthplaces of the congregation showed up two main places of o r i g i n . some $ of the con- gregation, most of them being over years of age, were born i n the p r a i r i e provinces. another $, most of them over years of age, were born i n russia. this r e f l e c t s clearly the main components of most mennonite congregations i n the fraser valley. those who were i n the f i r s t wave of mennonite immigration after world war i are now over years of age. most of these people settled i n the p r a i r i e s f i r s t and raised families there. their children, as well as some children of e a r l i e r (c. ) immigrants, are the group that register with p r a i r i e birthplaces. the small group of members born i n b r i t i s h columbia (some - $), a l l between and years of age, are the offspring of mennonite pioneers i n this province. the almost complete absence of members who were born i n vancouver ( $) indicates that the offspring of the early mennonite brethren settlers i n vancouver are either a f f i l i a t e d with the f i r s t of their churches to be organized i n vancouver, the vancouver mennonite brethren church at rd avenue and prince edward street, or are not yet of baptismal and induction age. it also shows the obvious fact that the families of the recent wave of young mennonite migrants into the urban area are small and their children mostly below baptismal age as yet. an analysis of occupations represented within this church's membership shows a f a i r spread over a variety of f i e l d s . certainly the absence of the a g r i c u l t u r a l pursuit i s i n i t s e l f already a wide deviation from the t r a d i t i o n a l orientation of the group. the greatest number of the gainfully employed members may be classed as tradesmen and labourers. while s t a t i s t i c s were being compiled, i t was noticeable that among them a surprisingly large number of elderly men held positions as common labourers, a r e f l e c t i o n of the d i f f i c u l t i e s these men had i n gaining qualifications for better jobs and a secure future under the turbulent conditions of the russian revolution and the depression years that followed while they were i n canada. a sizeable number of better qualified persons are already to be found amongst these people. a growing owner and operator group i s i n evidence. there are a number of professional people, most of them i n professions t r a d i t i o n a l l y sanctioned within mennonitism, such as medicine, nursing and teaching. among the students now enrolled i n the church, however, are those who are entering new and varied f i e l d s . understandably, a large number of young people, p a r t i c u l a r l y g i r l s , who have come from the country into the c i t y to find work, appear i n the analysis as c l e r i c a l , factory and day household workers. ? in summary, then, i t may be said that this congregation represents latest developments i n the structure and orientation of mennonitism i n this area. the r i s i n g membership (table xvii) i t s e l f i s an indication of the trend toward urbanization. the breakdown of the membership according to age groups and birthplaces represents the pattern of origin and movement westward that is t y p i c a l for many mennonites i n b. c. in the occupational structure an economic reorientation i s evident. the general s p i r i t and outlook, as well as a certain "progressiveness" — a l l of which are hard to sub- stantiate here — mirror an interesting s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l change that seems to be spreading amongst mennonite churches of the valley in spite of their sporadic opposition to i t . footnotes and references dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , ninth census of canada - ~i (ottawa, kings printer, ), v o l . , p. x v i . ' the two main sub-groups of the mennonite community i n the lower fraser valley are the mennonite brethren churches and the united mennonite churches, or as they are commonly referred to, the "general conference" people. two small sub-groups also exist, but they s h a l l be omitted i n the s t a t i s t i c a l calculations of this study because numerical information on trends within their congregations were not available, and also because both groups make up only a small part of the t o t a l of mennonites i n the valley. one of them i s the church of christ mennonite of bradner, which was established in and had some members i n . this congregation i s interesting because of the ultraconservative views i t s members hold on e t h i c a l matters and also because the men usually wear f u l l beards and no neckties. the other i s the evangelical mennonite brethren church of the town of abbotsford. i t was established i n and had approximately members i n . i. b. ryder, "interpretation of origin s t a t i s t i c s , " canadian journal of economics and p o l i t i c a l science, : - , november, , p. . the term "conference" here denotes a regional grouping of individual congregations. any one congregation may belong to provincial, national and international mennonite conferences. the term "fraser valley" or "lower fraser valley" coincides closely with census division no. , hence the figure. interview with rev. a. a. wiens of yarrow, i n the summer of . canada census , vol. i, table . canada census . vol. i, table - canada census , vol. i, table . conferenz der mennoniten i n canada, jahrbuch - jubilaums ausgabe, - , (rosthern, der bote, ), pp. - , and conferenz der mennoniten i n canada. jahrbuch - , ( , der bote, rosthern), p. . conferenz jahrbuch, , p. . conferenz jahrbuch, , p. . note: the mennonite board of colonization undertakes negotiations for the movement of displaced persons and other migrants from one country to another. it also seeks to f a c i l i t a t e the establishment of the immigrant i n his new homeland, which may e n t a i l the development of new settlements or the addition to those already well underway. conferenz jahrbuch, ? p. l l . conferenz jahrbuch, , p. . - i b i d . , p. . b. h. unruh, die niederlandlsh-niederdeutschen hintergrunde der mennonitischen ostwanderrungen im"'l ," cr,""urld^l ^e^~ ~ jahrhundert, karlsrulret'getrt^y, h. schneider, %*t, ~ canada census , v o l . i i , table l . chapter vi intra-group movement patterns centers of a t t r a c t i o n within a community and the movement of people into these centers are factors that help to bind individuals and congregations closely together. this i s certainly the case among the various separate fraser valley mennonite settlements, which we may group together and term a community because of their common heritage, common religious ideals and close ties of kinship — not to mention economic and s o c i a l connections. probably the most important central point of a t t r a c t i o n for the entire group i s the mennonite secondary school i n clearbrook, known as the mennonite educational i n s t i t u t e . there are other centers that are also important points of attraction, such as the mennonite brethren church i n yarrow, where large conferences are occasionally held; the bible schools i n chilliwack, yarrow and abbotsford to which many students come; and the fraserview mennonite brethren church i n vancouver, where many mennonite transients i n the c i t y come to worship. however, the "m.e.i.", as the high school i s commonly called, s h a l l serve here as the prominent example. i t i s possible to portray the flow of students into this center cartographically (map ). the complex convergence on the school auditorium of participants in numerous extra-curricular functions must be described generally. the school was established in the years of the great economic and numerical upsurge of the late war and early postwar years already referred to in chapter iv. the founding of the institution was a response, f i r s t of a l l , to deeply f e l t needs for secondary education f a c i l i t i e s where, in addition to the required secular subjects, studies in religion, the german language, mennonite history and the like could be offered. new functions were added to the institution, however, as i t was moved from cramped quarters near the old south abbotsford mennonite brethren church to i t s new building on the present site (map ). the auditorium of this building became the common meeting place for a l l the mennonite congreg- ations around abbotsford, as well as those elsewhere in the valley. about a year after the founding of the m. e. i. i n another mennonite high school was founded in yarrow and called the sharon mennonite collegiate institute. together with the rather spacious mennonite brethren church there i t served for a considerable period as a center for the activities of mennonite congregations in the eastern part of the valley. with the discontinuation of private secondary education in yarrow in , and also as a result of the general eclipse of yarrow by fast-growing clearbrook, the m. e.# i. became the most important mennonite meeting place in the fraser valley. in its primary function of education the school s m a l l mennonite centers in the lower fraser v a l l e y (located on map number ) "south a b b o t s f o r d " l e g e n d ch [ church or church school r — — | buildings i c i commercial buildings schools i non-farm residence h farm residence principal barns approximate s c a l e / m i . " a r n o l d " 'south a b b o t s f o r d "(old) " w e s t abbotsford" m a p a . s i e m e n s serves a far-flung constituency. the following table shows the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the - student body according to the congregations from whieh they came. this table may be compared with the map of church tributary regions (map ) i n order to visualize the areas involved. table xi congregational origin of students at the mennonite educational institute - bethel (g.c.) east aldergrove (m.b.) west abbotsford ( g.c.) clearbrook (m.b.) clearbrook (g.c.) south abbotsford (m.b.) abbotsford (m.b.) matsqui (m.b.) arnold (m.b.) greendale (m.b.) chilliwack (m.b.) chilliwack (g.c.) east chilliwack (g.c.) east chilliwack (m.b.) i t i s immediately apparent that considerable numbers of students would need to be transported to the school from areas as far distant as east aldergrove, arnold, greendale and chilliwack. this problem i s solved, i n the main, for students coming from eastern communities by chartered buses. car chains provide transportation for most of the other students coming from outside clearbrook. a number of them, p a r t i c u l a r l y those from vancouver and v i c i n i t y , obtain room and board near numbers of % of total students enrollment . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . the school i t i s to be noted that the high school which was re-established i n yarrow i n does not yet attract to i t s e l f many students that have been coming to the m. e. i. from chilliwack and greendale congregations. since both mennonite high schools i n the fraser valley depend, f i n a n c i a l l y , to a large degree on t u i t i o n fees, the diversion of students from the m. e. i. to yarrow would be desirable. most of the students themselves, however, prefer to continue on at the m.e.i. solutions to this situation have often been discussed amongst school board members, teachers and parents, but without r e a l success to date. in the meantime the m. e. i. i s overcrowded, whereas the yarrow school stands i n need of more students. another problem related to the finances of the school has resulted from the fact that only six of the fraser valley's mennonite congregations o f f i c i a l l y support the school by contributing to i t a certain amount per church member. e f f o r t s are being made to broaden this base, but the other churches are not anxious to increase levies on their memberships. roughly $ of the students of the school come from a mennonite brethren background, and most of the others come from general conference congregations. this i s of interest when compared with the : r a t i o of mennonite brethren to general conference that prevails i n the mennonite population of the province. the reason for this situation may be sought, largely, i n the greater stress l a i d generally by members of the mennonite brethren churches on the preservation of certain key religious principles and c u l t u r a l values. in considering the extra-curricular uses of the school, p a r t i c u l a r l y of its auditoria and playing f i e l d s , one comes on a long l i s t of interesting a c t i v i t i e s . a brief reference to the more important of them gives us a further indication of the importance of the school as a central gathering place and also shows some of the scope and character of mennonite group a c t i v i t i e s . to those who l i v e on access routes to the school the importance of these a c t i v i t i e s to mennonites i s clearly evident. streams of cars converge on the school, f i l l i n g a l l available parking space on the school grounds and on the road allowances nearby. often special t r a f f i c police and parking o f f i c i a l s are on hand to regulate the flow. clearly, the school f a c i l i t i e s meet a number of needs, mostly s o c i a l and cultural, which the individual churches are not able to meet, both because i t i s not considered suitable to hold certain events i n church buildings and also because there simply i s not another meeting place available that is so spacious and centrally located. among the cultural achievements of the mennonites their musical renditions are probably the best known; and the favourite medium, the choir, is often featured at musical f e s t i v a l s held at the m. e. i. the student body i t s e l f sponsors educational and entertaining programs c a l l e d " l i t e r a r i e s " . i t has become a tradition, too, that the graduating class of the school presents a major drama that runs for two or three nights. the auditorium serves a number of church young peoples' groups as a gymnasium for recreational events. the l o c a l junior s o f t b a l l league and the municipal league use the school's s o f t b a l l diamonds, and every summer evening there are a score or more of boys from the neighbourhood playing b a l l there. during every winter a considerable number of films, including f u l l - l e n g t h features, are shown in the auditorium under the auspices of the school i t s e l f or of some other organization. the use of the auditorium for this purpose seems somewhat anachronistic i n view of the o f f i c i a l positions of most churches regarding the attendance at "shows". a l l of these showings are well attended, however, and i t i s a familiar fact that the best way to raise money i n the com- munity i s to schedule a f i l m at the m. e. i. auditorium. when events of interest to mennonite brethren, general conference and other mennonite congregations are to be scheduled, such as meetings i n support of r e l i e f organizations l i k e the mennonite central committee and the mennonite disaster service, the place that i s usually chosen i s the m. e. i. a number of mass meetings of great interest to a l l mennonites were held there just after the war, when mennonites everywhere i n north america were r a l l y i n g to the r e l i e f of their "brethren" i n europe. this area represents, i t must be added, one of the few i n which the various mennonite groups w i l l a c t i v e l y co-operate. funeral services of prominent mennonite leaders, and weddings planned on an extraordinarily large scale usually take place i n the auditorium of the school. in the l a t t e r case, however, this expedient i s often regarded as being just a b i t ostentatious. up to the present time the administration of the school has resisted the use of the auditorium for s t r i c t l y p o l i t i c a l purposes. this would, no doubt, make a highly advantageous platform for p o l i t i c i a n s who wished to gain ground with the mennonites. several other interesting extra-curricular uses of the school may be mentioned i n conclusion here, and these have to-do with the promotion of the use of the german language amongst the mennonites. every saturday during the winter a number of mennonite children from the surrounding areas come to what i s known as "saturday school" or "german school". this i s an innovation that has served many mennonite com- munities throughout canada for a good number of years i n providing elementary instruction i n the german language for youngsters. educational methods here have often been inadequate and teaching staffs i n s u f f i c i e n t l y trained; a result, no doubt, of the half-hearted support that the community gives this a c t i v i t y . at the m. e. i,, too, a b r i t i s h columbia chapter of an association for the promotion of the use of the german language has had occasional meetings. these are usually gatherings of people who vociferously r e s i s t the introduction of english into church services and who vigorously support a l l things german. i t seems, however, that the use of the german language among mennonites continues to wane, regardless of the protests of individuals and organizations such as this one. what has been said here about the c e n t r a l i t y of the m. e. i. applies to the entire settlement of clearbrook and also to other lesser centers within the mennonite community, each one of which has i t s own area of dominance. this factor, as well as considerations of the structure and function of a wide range of t y p i c a l mennonite settlement forms are dealt with i n the following chapter. chapter vii settlement forms the holdings of the mennonites i n the fraser valley, whether r u r a l and dispersed, r u r a l and nucleated, "rurban" or urban i n character, are i n most cases not e a s i l y distinguished from those of their non-mennonite neighbors. this i s a r e f l e c t i o n of the r e l a t i v e l y l i b e r a l religious ideas of the mennonites represented here, which allow for modernization and the entry into whatever honourable economic opportunities present themselves. one may contrast this to more conservative mennonite groups, such as the extremely conservative "old colony" people of manitoba and saskatchewan, who u n t i l recently settled i n v i l l a g e s , restricted themselves to agriculture and endeavoured to keep out of their l i v e s anything that was i n their opinion "worldly". i t i s also, of course, an indication of the degree to which mennonite settlers have been caught up into universal trends such as those toward r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n agriculture and urbanization. farm types there are a number of different farm types i n the fraser valley, found in non-mennonite as well as mennonite settlements, which must be considered i n a discussion of mennonite r u r a l settlement i n this area. in those r e l a t i v e l y f l a t areas of the fraser valley covered by post-glacial alluvium (map ) and resultant s o i l s of the monroe and lynden series (map ) a farm type based on dairying dominates the landscape. fields are spacious there, as much as - acres each, and hay, pasture and sileage crops occupy the greatest acreage. cash crops such as beans or small f r u i t s may occupy several acres. barbed wires', having displaced the old stave fences, i s almost universal now. the farmyard on such a holding i s amply l a i d out, having a kitchen garden, some old f r u i t trees (newly planted orchards seem l i t t l e i n evidence) and, occasionally, some landscaping i n front. the buildings are, of course, dominated by the barn. older barns, b u i l t sometime before world war ii or even before the depression, usually have a straight peaked roof, a lean-to type of stable for cattle and a central storage area often reaching down to the ground (figure ). the newer barns that have largely replaced these old structures usually have a hip roof, two storeys and a substantial s i l o attached (figure )• low annexes may extend to one side or another to house c a t t l e . a track extending out to a sizeable manure p i l e i s usually there. near the barn one finds the other necessary outbuildings; the milkhouse, the machine shed, a garage for the family car and the truck, as well as swine and poultry shelters. the house on such a farm i s i n many cases now a new, modern bungalow which has replaced the old box-like two-storey farmhouse. in the more highly relieved abbotsford area, where figure . barn types i n the fraser valley a. an early dairy barn, of the type s t i l l to be seen i n the sumas, sardis, chilliwack areas and elsewhere. b. a modern, hip-roof barn of the type that i s generally replacing the above type. late g l a c i a l alluvium of a pitted and undulating configuration and resultant whatcom s o i l s mantle the surface (maps and ), farming "becomes more intensive and the average size of holdings decreases. agriculture of a mixed nature, depending mainly on dairying, poultry and small f r u i t s , i s carried on there. the dairy herds are usually smaller than those on lowland areas, and hence the dairy barns need not be as large. the chicken barns, however, are larger and more important i n the overall farm economy. strawberries and raspberries take up considerable acreage on every farm. in the period when new farm land was being won from the forest on a large scale i n this area, the numerous stumps and the undulating topography made every cleared acre a r e a l achievement. this land was then divided into r e l a t i v e l y small f i e l d s , some as small as one or two acres, and put to a variety of uses. the nature of cash crops and the modest feed requirements of small herds made these f i e l d s p r a c t i c a l . the fences of the early days were of cedar poles, assembled i n a variety of ways. now, of course, fences here are of wire as well. the farmyard i t s e l f , i n view of the high value of cleared land, was usually kept as small as possible. on many farms i n the abbotsford area these small farmyards, with their closely grouped buildings, are s t i l l i n evidence (figure ) . the barn i s most often of the hiproof type, but i t i s stubbier than those found on the flatlands of sumas and chilliwack because herds are usually smaller here. i t i s almost always figure . abbotsford farmland a view of farmland that was cleared from an area infested with numerous heavy stumps. the picture was taken on emerson road, near the international border (map ), looking eastward. two-storied over part or a l l of i t s floor plan and has the manure track, milking machine and other fixtures of the larger dairy barn. i t may face i n any direction, since there i s no prevailing wind strong enough to make any special alignment necessary. in close proximity to the barn i s the milkhouse, usually smaller than those on f l a t l a n d farms simply because there i s less milk to handle. the poultry barn may be a one- storied long, low structure or a two-storied a f f a i r . brooder houses and poultry ranges usually take up considerable space around i t , unless the newest methods of raising the birds on wire platforms have been adopted. in this area too, many of the o r i g i n a l houses have been replaced by modern structures. the range of styles, corresponding to some degree to the times when they were b u i l t , may be observed on the accompanying photographs (figure ). since the farmyard i s generally small i t i s possible to keep i t t i d i e r than a large farmyard i n sumas or chilliwack, to landscape i t and plant decorative plants. traditionally, the mennonite farmer has prided himself on a neat and tidy yard, and i t i s maintained by many of them that one may s t i l l differentiate their farms from those of their non-mennonite neighbors on this basis. i t i s doubtful whether this could actually be substantiated. a growing number of the smaller farms of the abbotsford area, as well as many other areas of the fraser valley, no longer f u l l y support the people l i v i n g on them. among farms of this type there are a number of long, narrow figure . mennonite houses i n the abbotsford area a. a pioneer home redecorated and kept i n good condition. b. more recently b u i l t homes along huntingdon road (map ) . the one i n the foreground i s a home b u i l t i n the late - 's or early ' 's. the one i n the background i s a modern home of the type seen throughout the area. holdings noticeable i n the s o l i d l y mennonite areas around clearbrook. these were the products of hasty subdivision i n a time of a g r i c u l t u r a l "boom", when i t was possible to make a l i v i n g on a small acreage. now they are undoubtedly a highly uneconomic arrangement of property, for f i e l d s and barns often remain unused and uncared-for while the owner works at a gob. the matsqui municipality passed a by-law i n that makes it compulsory to keep % of the periphery of a newly surveyed piece of a g r i c u l t u r a l property fronting on a road. this would tend to prevent the creation of further excessively narrow farm plots. undoubtedly similar l e g i s l a t i o n exists i n most other r u r a l municipalities by now. an interesting arrangement of buildings and f i e l d s may often be found on these small narrow farms. a house faces the road, behind i t i s the poultry barn which i s set p a r a l l e l to the long boundaries of the l o t , and back of this are, successively, berry patches, pasture and hay f i e l d s , and woodlots at the very back. many other forms of small a g r i c u l t u r a l holdings, occupied by mennonites as well as non-mennonites, may be found on the peripheries of expanding urban areas and elsewhere. their owners may be keeping poultry, several head of cattle or other animals. some part of the acreage i s usually devoted to vegetables and small f r u i t s . a l l these pursuits are usually sidelines to an outside job. it i s this type of a farm, l a i d out haphazardly in great numbers along many of the main roads of the fraser valley, that gives r i s e to extremely cluttered and unsightly settlement. when uncontrolled sub- d i v i s i o n and the erection of substandard r e s i d e n t i a l units follows, one has what might well be called "rurban" slums. small non-farm nucleations in a number of the larger mennonite settlement areas one may find an interesting non-farm nucleation, which provides such basic services as the general store, the automotive service station and possibly a lumber yard or r e a l estate o f f i c e . most nucleations of this type are closely related to a church s i t e , because people building non-farm residences i n an otherwise r u r a l area are often r e t i r i n g couples, and they prefer to l i v e near their place of worship. commercial establishments, owned or operated by mennonites, take advantage of this development and make of the l i t t l e center something approaching the "hamlet" i n size and function. in the stores of these nucleations one may e a s i l y detect an a i r of f a m i l i a r i t y and probably even hear the low german dialect being spoken. (fc^re.\y) flppe^;* e) wherever there i s a continued impetus for growth, as seems to be the case i n the new "south abbotsford" nucleation (map ), such a settlement may develop into something larger and more s i g n i f i c a n t . in general, however, these small centers seem to be very limited i n their potential for expansion. most of them were established prior to the post-war increase i n the mobility of the r u r a l shopper and have since been reduced to supplying incidentials. the fact l o £ / that very l i t t l e new commercial building or renovation of existing stores is going on seems to indicate that they have become commercially s t a t i c . prominent mennonite centers the two nucleations of yarrow (pop. approximately ) and clearbrook (pop. approximately ) deserve special analyses of their functions and structures. most of the people i n both centers, as was pointed out i n chapter v, are mennonites. within these two places one finds the clearest expression of current mennonite settlement trends, as well as the s o c i a l and religious trends, which can only be referred to b r i e f l y here. yarrow yarrow'd wedge-like s i t e i s very neatly bounded to the north by the vedder river, to the south by the mountains and to the east by the monroe clay loam s o i l boundary (map ). the promoter of the settlement, mr. eckert, happened to own the major part of this triangle of land. as soon as the mennonites had acquired i t from him the stage was set for the development of a thriving community. yarrow's f i r s t transportation links with other settlements were the b. c. e l e c t r i c railway, which maintained a small station at the head of wilson road, and the old mountain road, which skirted the f l a t s l e f t by drained sumas lake. in time the trans canada highway superseded both of these routes i n importance, which gave yarrow an "off-the- main-road" character and made i t for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes a * mennonite reserve. in spite of the fact, however, that the greatest numerical concentration of mennonites i s s t i l l i n yarrow, the f o c a l point of mennonitism i n the fraser valley- has become clearbrook. a placard at the junction of the highway and' the road that leads to yarrow advertises the "scenic" route to cultus via yarrow, i l l u s t r a t i n g thereby this main dilemma of the town and efforts made to improve the situation. in i t s form, yarrow seems l i k e an antenuated, branching a g r i c u l t u r a l v i l l a g e . the properties along roads, or "streets", such as eckert, f i r s t , wilson or even yarrow central are i n many ways l i k e holdings on either side of the main street of a "strassendorf" (map ) . the old pattern of v i l l a g e settlement i n russia, besides being evident i n the arrangement of the streets and properties, i s also noticeable i n many of the individual farms. the orchard i s at the front, the house i s set back among the trees, the farm buildings are close behind the house and back of i t a l l stretch the garden plots and the f i e l d s . gradually, of course, this pattern i s bemg obscured as purely r e s i d e n t i a l housing i n modern styles i s being b u i l t . the yarrow farm, as the study of a map of property lines or of an a i r photo reveals, i s predominantly a small one — seldom reaching a size of ten acres. the land i s usually under intensive use. the raspberry, discovered more or the structural pattern of the yarrow settlement t y p e s o f b u i l d i n g s f o u n d in t h e s e t t l e m e n t commercial industrial feel a s i e m e n s less by t r i a l and error as the most advantageous crop for the area, dominates. this, as was already indicated, i s partly the result of s o i l conditions which provide adequate f e r t i l i t y and good sub-soil drainage and also the result of advantageous climatic conditions. the numerous f r u i t trees one sees i n the area are now proving somewhat of an embarrassment because of the lack of markets for the s l i g h t l y substandard f r u i t that i s produced. some farms s t i l l have their cows and flocks of poultry, but many dairy and poultry barns now stand unused. as might be expected on small acreages, the buildings on the average yarrow farm are closely grouped together around a rather small yard. the barns on many farms include a d i s t i n c t i v e , stubby dairy barn that i s just big enough for one or two cows, and a small, low poultry barn (figure ). where these have become v e s t i g i a l they are usually i n poor repair and unpainted. the houses show an interesting d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n according to styles and economic conditions prevailing at the time of their construction. on some farms the simplest of pioneer farmhouses i s s t i l l i n evidence, with i t s four straight walls and pitched roof. as prosperity came to the community new and more pretentious buildings were erected. these are the box-like, two-storey houses with porches and dormer windows. this form went through a number of variations and then was displaced by the low, modern bungalow that usually features gaudy coloring, stucco and wood exterior f i n i s h , asphalt shingles and false fronts of brick and stonework, a l l set near to the street and landscaped (figure ) . figure „ typical small yarrow farm the small barn for one or two cows and the chicken barn near i t , just big enough for a small flock, i l l u s t r a t e the scale of farming i n this area. the raspberry f i e l d s are the most important elements i n the economy of most yarrow farms l i k e this one. figure . mennonite houses in yarrow a. a substantial farm house of the type built throughout the area during the economic upsurge of the late 's. b. houses dating back to the 's, and even to the pioneer period, stand in sharp contrast to the modern bungalow. view is along yarrow's main street. c. crowded low value housing around the mennonite brethren church (map ) . yarrow bible school is in the foreground. the purely r e s i d e n t i a l property, as differentiated from the small farm, i s similar to modern r e s i d e n t i a l housing everywhere. as far as quality i s concerned, there i s a gradation from the very well b u i l t and spaciously landscaped houses of the community's leading citizens to the somewhat small and unsubstantial yet neat housing that may be found near the mennonite brethren church. as well as the dominance of mennonite businessmen, may be seen i n the following l i s t of businesses. where businesses were owned and operated by the same people the a f f i l i a t i o n of the owner i s given; and where the business i s a branch of a parent company the a f f i l i a t i o n of the manager i s given. the range of commercial services offered i n yarrow, table xii commercial services of yarrow - number type of business a f f i l i a t i o n of owner or manager mennonite non-mennonite general store grocery garage clothing hardware radio and e l e c t r i c cartage farm feeds and equipment lumber yard furniture and upholstery jewellery real estate and finance blacksmith barber shop cafe and pool h a l l b. c. telephone office bank of commerce post office i l l i t i s obvious that by far the majority of people serving the community commercially are mennonites. they provide the day-to-day essentials and some luxury goods as well. for major purchases people go to chilliwack or even to vancouver. it i s notable, too, that the community has only meager amusement f a c i l i t i e s — which does not mean, however, that i t i s entirely free of the rowdyism often associated with a small town theatre and licensed premises. in most of yarrow's shops, even more so than i n the shops of the smaller centers referred to e a r l i e r , one finds an a i r of f a m i l i a r i t y . one i s quite l i k e l y to hear a good deal of low german or high german spoken there at any given time. i t is interesting to note that the entire commercial section i s arranged i n a bi-nodal fashion along the yarrow central road. the reason for this separation l i e s largely i n the location of the two churches and i n the nature of the junctions of eckert road and dyke road with yarrow central. mennonite churches have often been located on land donated by one of the church members. in communities where both of the main sub-groups have congregations, moreover, these plots are not l i k e l y to be located too closely together, since to the mennonites the difference between general conference and mennonite brethren i s highly significant and these two groups are not comfortable i n too-close company. in yarrow each church has attracted residences and commerce around i t , with the result that a straggling line of businesses, having a concentration at either end, stretches i n an inconvenient life manner through the toym. (one sees a similar pattern of attraction on r e s i d e n t i a l building i n the greendale settlement (map ). the commerce i n this l i t t l e center, however, has gathered around a strategic intersection.) the rough coin- cidence of two t-form intersections with the location of the churches has also contributed very s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the bi-nodality of yarrow. one cross-form intersection, l i k e that of clearbrook road with the trans canada highway i n the town of clearbrook, would probably have made for a much more concentrated commercial zone. the industries of this community, as may be expected, consist of f r u i t processing and packing plants, as well as one box factory. the folloy/ing table l i s t s the concerns with the a f f i l i a t i o n of their owners and managers: table xiii industries of yarrov? - concern owner or owners manager hon- non- mennonite mennonite mennonite mennonite e a r l pearcy and son (packing plant) clearbrook frozen foods p a c i f i c coast canners ocean spray canners yarrow box factory two of these plants, that of the p a c i f i c coast canners and ocean spray canners, are located just south of the town proper on the b. c. e l e c t r i c railway. the box factory x x x x x x x x x x t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n of t h e g r e e n d a l e s e t t l e m e n t i l e g e n d o n ' o n - f a r m r e s i d e n c e c o m m e r c e c h u r c h s c h o o l f a r m r e s i d e n c e / / m l map a. siemens i s located near the yarrow lumber yard on yarrow central road and clearbrook frozen foods have their plant just west of the town proper. i t may be noted from the table that most of the investment for these plants has come from non-mennonite sources. this was not the case before the collapse of the co-op, which was discussed i n an e a r l i e r chapter, and i s , no doubt, a further indication of the economic decline of the community. the i n s t i t u t i o n s of yarrow, of course, are dominated by the two churches. the mennonite brethren church is by far the larger and has served, as was already pointed out, as an important meeting place for mennonites from eastern lower fraser valley congregations as well as those of the entire valley. the general conference church i s s t i l l housed i n i t s unpretentious f i r s t structure on eckert road (figure ). the sharon mennonite collegiate institute, yarrow's private high school, operated for a period i n the building now occupied by the public yarrow elementary and junior high school. after a lapse of seven years the school was revived and i n s t a l l e d i n new premises on stewart road, where i t i s now serving a growing student body (figure ). a bible school, conducted i n a building on the mennonite brethren church grounds, ceased to operate i n * it may be said i n summary that yarrow remains b. c.'s most d i s t i n c t i v e l y mennonite settlement i n population as well as i n form and overall character. in it are preserved, even if they are economically "passe", numerous small farms l a i d out on old v i l l a g e patterns. i t i s to be regretted that there hangs over the whole community an atmosphere of decline, as many young people leave to find occupation elsewhere, as farms become p a r t i a l l y or completely unproductive and new construction lags. i t seems doubtful that any new impetus w i l l be found to r e v i t a l i z e i t and set i t on a path toward new growth. clearbrook the settlement of clearbrook, located on a g l a c i a l floodplain and on the gravelly s o i l of the lynden series (maps and ) , offered only a limited a g r i c u l t u r a l potential to i t s f i r s t mennonite s e t t l e r s . the land could sustain quickly maturing f i e l d crops such as strawberries and rasp- berries, but i t was best suited for the limited demands of poultry culture. i t could moreover, be e a s i l y cleared of the brush that had grown on i t after the forest f i r e of . the potential of the area lay not i n agriculture, but i n the r e l a t i v e l y f l a t topography that would allow easy r e s i d e n t i a l growth i n a l l directions, and i n the advantageous proximity to the fraser valley's main highway artery. as the mennonite settlements of the valley increased, the congregations forming at clearbrook came to be more and more at the geo- graphical center of a l l of them. once the m. e. i. had been moved to i t s present location on the northwest corner of clearbrook and old yale roads and business of various descriptions had begun to locate near the junction of clearbrook road and the trans canada highway, this centrality could be developed to advantage. in order to introduce clearbrook's functions as a center and i t s resulting form, two aspects of i t s development are discussed and i l l u s t r a t e d below. i t i s interesting to note, f i r s t of a l l , the retreat of brush vegetation as settlers entered the area and cleared plots for a g r i c u l t u r a l , r e s i d e n t i a l and other uses. the two attached maps, one showing the vegetation pattern i n and the other that of , indicate the extensive progress of clearing i n some twenty years (map ) . this cleared area provided the land for numerous small farms which are s t i l l i n evidence around the present town (figure ). the patches of trees interspersed among the houses give the settlement the "half-hidden" character i t has today when viewed from nearby h i l l s (figure ) . two land use maps of clearbrook, the one prepared i n and the other i n (map ) , i l l u s t r a t e the rapid expansion of clearbrook i n that period, p a r t i c u l a r l y the spread of r e s i d e n t i a l areas. the commercial sections have been extended and modernized too, but the rapid subdivision of land and the building of new homes remains the most remarkable development. to outline the present form of the clearbrook s e t t l e - ment we may begin with the farms that are s t i l l to be seen around the periphery of the nucleation and along the roads figure . clearbrook and surroundings a view of clearbrook and the surrounding farm land. the nucleation i t s e l f is hidden behind trees i n the middle and on the right of the photo, mt. baker can be seen i n the distance. figure . views of clearbrook a. clearbrook as seen from the northwest. b. clearbrook as seen from the southwest. c h a n g e s in t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n o f c l e a r b r o o k commerce industry non-farm residence light-farm residence l e g e n d ffffph institut ions u parkland - - boundaries of the clearbrook water district — • abandoned railway note'- non-farm residence and l i g h t - f a r m r e s i d e n c e were not d i f f e r e n t i a t e d for since the rapid subdivision of small farms was making this less and less meaningful. most new residential building since was n o n - f a r m in c h a r a c t e r . / i / =fc= i m i . m a p a . s i e m e n s branching out from i t . farmland i n this area i s held by many persons on a speculative basis, i n anticipation of a time when advantageous subdivision w i l l be possible. livestock are s t i l l being kept and f i e l d crops grown, but many of the barns are becoming v e s t i g i a l and a good number of f i e l d s l i e unused. yftien one compares these farms and ones that existed i n the area before the onset of urbanization with the farms of mennonite settlers i n chilliwack and greendale, or even with the farms of the surrounding abbotsford countryside one notices that the average clearbrook farm i s poorer i n appearance. this was attributable i n the early years of the settlement largely to the very limited a g r i c u l t u r a l potential of the s o i l . now the p o s s i b i l i t y of further urbanization contributes to the run-down appearance of many of the farm buildings, because the owners see no reason to keep up buildings that w i l l probably soon be removed. i t must be pointed out, however, that several model poultry farms do exist just north of clearbrook on clearbrook road. the owners developed hatcheries i n connection with their poultry barns, and with careful management have prospered. many farms engulfed i n clearbrook's advancing periphery have experienced the familiar process of succession i n their land use. fields are cleared of fences and barns, streets and lots are l a i d out and the building of modern bungalows begins — leaving the old farmhouse as an oddity among them. in the meantime the farmer has realized a tidy p r o f i t , and possibly has had the new street named after him. the residences of clearbrook may be differentiated somewhat s i m i l a r l y as those of yarrow. one finds remodelled and painted homes of pioneer days. there are the box-like, two-storied homes of the immediate post-war period too. in clearbrook, even more than in yarrow, one finds groups of small, unsubstantial but neat houses crowded together. the type of house that i s most prevalent, of course, i s the modern bungalow, erected during the r e l a t i v e l y recent period of clearbrook's rapid expansion (figure ) . the changes i n r e s i d e n t i a l areas between - and have involved this type of a home almost exclusively. 'behind some of these differences i n the nature of clearbrook r e s i d e n t i a l areas l i e developments i n the building regulations ot matsqui municipality. in the period up to the early 's, subdivision and building of residences proceeded i n an unplanned manner. haphazard housing developments "were the result. any orderliness that was brought into subdivisions during this time resulted simply from agreements between developers and the municipality. effective control by the municipality began i n , when a building by-law was passed, requiring the i n s t a l l a t i o n of certain sanitation f a c i l i t i e s to the satisfaction of inspectors and regulating the size of lots somewhat. more specific by-laws were passed i n and , stipulating certain dimensions for l o t s , careful location of houses on lots and so on. the values that houses should have i n particular areas have not yet been expressly put into law, but the existing and contemplated restrictions figure . mennonite buildings in clearbrook a. a farm of the type seen on the peripheries of clearbrook. b. modern bungalows along clearbrook road (map or ), c. more expensive houses on the heights overlooking the town on the northwest. w i l l automatically bring about the construction of reasonably attractive and functional homes. i t may be noted here, i n passing, that clearbrook too i s developing i t s own higher class r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t . a number of good quality houses are located on the r i s e of land northwest of the town, where lots with excellent views may be obtained. cf"\«"« >a) establishment of a store on the southeast corner of clearbrook and the highway by a certain mr. harter. this store, even though i t changed ownership, remained the only commercial establishment i n the area u n t i l the early 's. at this time mennonite businesses began to move i n , f i r s t a garage, then a jewellery shop and soon numerous others. the dominance of the mennonite businessman has been maintained, and today one may quite easily shop for most of one's needs here without having to speak english. commercial establishments of the nucleation and shows the a f f i l i a t i o n of the owners or branch managers. the commerce of clearbrook began i n & with the the following table c l a s s i f i e s the present table xiv commercial services of clearbrook - number type of business owners managers hon- non- mennonite mennonite mennonite mennonite grocery automotive service table xiv (continued) number type of business owners managers non- non- mennonite mennonite mennonite mennonite hardware building supply farm equipment farm feed clothing furniture and appliances jewellery book and music photo pharmacy auto metal plumbing and heating e l e c t r i c and radio auto courts l beauty shop l barber shop cafe variety l general repair real estate bank post office here again i t i s clear that, except for the obvious lack of businesses providing entertainment, there i s a f u l l range of goods and services available to the people of the community. i t i s notable that the general store no longer r e a l l y exists there, i t s place having been taken by the super- market and s p e c i a l i t y shops. a number of businesses are i n keen competition. these include firms providing for food, clothing, automotive and farm needs. a good number of others, however, s t i l l enjoy the advantages of being the only shops of their kind i n the community. notable i n this respect i s the community's largest single firm, dueck building supplies, whose competition no one, u n t i l recently, has been w i l l i n g to face. that a community of this type has special needs may be seen i n some of the grocery stores that s e l l foods favoured by mennonites and also i n the two book and music stores that provide certain texts for m. e. i. students, music and instruments for a generally music-loving group of people and religious a r t i c l e s suited to the mennonite f a i t h . i t must be added that, since the summer of when this survey was begun, several changes have taken place i n the pattern of clearbrook commerce. a shopping center has been b u i l t on the northwest corner of clearbrook road and the highway, and new businesses, such as a used car l o t , have been added. a new commercial and i n d u s t r i a l area has been opened up on the highway just east of the community through the location there of a trucking firm and the new receiving plant of the abbotsford growers co-op union. no doubt this w i l l become i n time a part of the expanding town i t s e l f . some of the characteristics of clearbrook*s commercial area may be seen i n the accompanying photographs (figure ) . the industry of clearbrook i s limited to the f r u i t packing plant of sunripe f r u i t packers and the new co-op plant just going into operation. these supply work for only a small number of the settlement s breadwinners. others work to provide goods and services for the population, commute to places of work outside of the community or depend on private incomes and pensions. the institutions of the settlement have already been •f i figure . clearbrook's commercial core a. the commercial section as seen in . the corner store is the oldest business establishment in the nucleation. b. the same corner location in . supermarkets of this type were built in a number of places in the area and represent the most radical change in the structure of clearbrook s commercial core. dealt with i n part and need only be mentioned here. they include the large buildings of the junior and senior divisions of the m. e. i., the bible school b u i l t recently just north of the m. e. i. on clearbrook road (figure ), and the two churches (figure ). a photographic comparison of a number of points i n the town, as they looked i n and as they are now, are included i n this study as a further evidence of the dynamics of growth within this settlement (figure ). this growth may very well continue for some time. physically, the only barrier that presents i t s e l f to the spread of the town i s the upland to the northwest. this may be turned to advantage, however, by the lay-out of preferred view l o t s . economic barriers, i f they do present themselves, w i l l probably come i n the form of a scarcity of employment i n surrounding areas. increased commuting may preclude this and allow clearbrook to exist as a predominantly r e s i d e n t i a l town. it i s d i f f i c u l t to foresee what other barriers may present themselves to the growth of this settlement, but developments i n former s e t t l e - ments i n prussia and russia seem to point to the fact that i t i s not i n the group's best s o c i a l and religious interests to settle too compactly. the undesirable s o c i a l attitudes and religious stagnation that often result from such settlement may make residence i n clearbrook less attractive i n the future. some further mention must be made, i n conclusion, of the important characteristics of clearbrook s population) since the people are most responsible for the form and character, f i g u r e a . m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h e s a . e a s t a l d e r g r o v e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , b . s t r a w b e r r y h i l l m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , c . y a r r o w m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , d . m i s s i o n g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e , e . g r e e n d a l e g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e f . c h i l l i w a c k m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , g . c l e a r b r o o k m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , h . c l e a r b r o o k g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e , . m a t s q u i m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , n o t e : t h e t e r m s " m e n n o n i t e " , " f i r s t m e n n o n i t e " o r " u n i t e d m e n n o n i t e " a r e u s e d i n some c a s e s t o d e s i g n a t e c h u r c h e s t h a t a r e h e r e t e r m e d " g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e " . t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c i l i t a t e s t h e d i v i s i o n i n t o t h e t w o m a i n s u b - g r o u p s . figure b. mennonite churches a. old south abbotsford mennonite brethren (now a wood- working shop), b. bradner church of christ (mennonite), c. west abbotsford general conference, d. east chilliwack general conference, e. arnold mennonite brethren, f. yarrow general conference, g. east chilliwack mennonite brethren (including the old church building and the newer one beside i t ) , h. fraserview mennonite brethren (vancouver), i . vancouver general conference. of any settlement. unfortunately l i t t l e exact information beyond that already quoted i n the s t a t i s t i c a l chapter i s available. church records generally proved of l i t t l e overall value for this study, because they were either i n process of revision or did not include the information necessary. i t may be safely said, however, that a good number of the community's citizens, probably more than i s usual for a settlement of this size, are retired folk who find a location near the churches, shops, their friends and the m. e. i. auditorium very amenable. this higher than average proportion of older people has tended to produce an excessively conser- vative church policy, much to the d i s l i k e of the younger generation. the proportion of younger families i s increasing, however, and this i s raising the problem of providing recreational f a c i l i t i e s for the youngsters. loitering, vandalism and petty crime are already well known i n the community. the development and structure of the settlement of clearbrook, therefore, i s interesting because here i s an example of ethnic homogeneity paralleled i n very few other places i n our province. here i s also an expression of changing cultural patterns i n terms of settlement forms. within this community we have i l l u s t r a t e d trends that are taking place among other ethnic groups i n our province and other parts of canada. urban settlement i n vancouver the last major area of mennonite settlement remaining f c for discussion i s that within the completely urban environment of southeast vancouver. there are other places, such as abbotsford, chilliwack and for that matter clearbrook, where mennonites have settled under essentially urban conditions, but these w i l l be omitted here. the trend toward urbanization as well as the effects of i t , are best i l l u s t r a t e d i n vancouver. in both the chapter dealing with sequent occupance (chapter iv) and that on s t a t i s t i c s (chapter v) references were made to urbanization trends and resulting conditions. these w i l l be reviewed here and supplemented. the plotting of mennonite families, as located with the help of church directories, provides a f a i r l y accurate picture of the degree of concentration found among them, and this i s one of the f i r s t aspects of the form of urban mennonite settlement in which we are interested. there i s a definite concentration i n the area bounded on the north by king edward avenue, on the east by victoria drive, on the south by the north arm of the fraser and on the west by gamble street. an isopleth map (map ) reduces the vague v i s u a l pattern to a numerical basis and shows an interesting d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . the number of mennonite families per unit area increases as one moves from the peripheries of the concentration into a well defined core. this core coincides roughly with the location of the two oldest mennonite churches in the area. a secondary concentration is clearly evident around the recently established fraserview mennonite brethren church. a third concentration shows up near the united mennonite mission church, concentration of mennonite families in s o u t h e a s t e r n vancouver c l/fe / / mi. i i ' a . s i e m e n s but i n view of the dispersed locations of the members of this congregation a correlation i s not warranted. after separating the patterns of concentration around each individual church from the whole complex one may observe a number of differences betv/een these patterns (map ). the churches with the densest concentrations immediately around the church building are the f i r s t united mennonite church on nd avenue and especially the vancouver mennonite brethren church on rd avenue and prince edward street. transportation was s t i l l an important problem during the early 's when many mennonites were coming into the c i t y and so they grouped as closely as possible around their most important i n s t i t u t i o n . there was no p o s s i b i l i t y for contiguous settlement, of course, since the area into which they came was already largely occupied by residences. any concentration that was achieved resulted from the efforts of the individual buyer to find property close to that of the others of his group. the churches organized at later dates p a r t i c u l a r l y the fraserview mennonite brethren church, show a more evenly dispersed d i s t r i b u t i o n of families. this i s a r e f l e c t i o n of the fact that these new churches were established to serve families already scattered far from the o r i g i n a l core area and families coming into the c i t y and settling i n an extensive area, a l l of whom f e l t no great need or desire for close settlement. the houses of mennonites i n vancouver do not d i f f e r households a s s o c i a t e d with v a n c o u v e r ' s four m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h e s king,, ' edward avt; s.east marine unve fraserview mennonite brethren vancouver mennonite brethren first mennonite one dot represents the household of one of the following: a family; a widow or widower with or utthi.ul c h i l d r e n , r e s i d i n g m tlii; family home", seveicil r^iblitigs living together at one a d d r e s s . churches are r e p r e s e n t e d by c r o s s e s . for l o c a t i o n within vancouver refer to map , vancouver mennonite mission s c a l e / / . i ' ^ ^ , _ „ map a siemens perceptively i n quality and style from the houses of people around them. they are a part of the settlement of people i n lower and middle income brackets that one finds generally around main, fraser and v i c t o r i a streets. only a few mennonite households have entered f i r s t class r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t s such as those on southwest marine drive and granville street. even where some of the more well-to-do among them have b u i l t quite costly homes these are not usually architecturally sophisticated. the commerce carried on by an increasing number of mennonite businessmen i s not localized i n any one area. it i s d i f f i c u l t to differentiate their establishments from those around them, except perhaps i n one respect, and that is their usual aversion to dealing i n entertainment or any a r t i c l e s that their religious position might lead them to consider as "questionable". the large number of mennonites working i n industries, moreover, are not usually employed i n mennonite concerns, nor do the products and services they provide go mainly to their own people. it becomes clear, then, that i n the urban environment the commercial and i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s of people l i k e the mennonites, as well as their residential patterns, are submerged i n the bustle of the city's l i f e . of key importance i n maintaining any sort of peculiarity, and giving outward v i s i b l e expression to i t , are the churches. located as centrally as possible among the households that are tributary to them, they provide the only r e a l focus and central attraction for them. they are not of the same stereotyped style as most of those i n the valley, but they are not advanced i n their design either. a photo- graphic comparison brings out their characteristics quite c l e a r l y (figure ). the only mennonite schools i n the vancouver are a "saturday school" of the kind already described (chapter vi), which i s held i n the vancouver mennonite brethren church, and a bible school conducted i n the evenings i n the fraserview mennonite brethren church. there have been discussions about the building of a high school and possibly a bible college, but these are s t i l l very inconclusive. it may be, however, that i f and when these are undertaken a new and stronger centralizing influence w i l l be f e l t i n the vancouver mennonite community. footnotes and references the terra "hamlet" i s defined variously i n different countrie for our purposes we may think of i t as a small agglomeration of residences and a few service buildings such as a general store and possibly a garage. this l i t t l e center may or may not have a well established name. i t i s usually not incorporated. compiled by f i e l d survey. compiled by f i e l d survey. compiled from f i e l d survey and information given by o f f i c i a l s of the matsqui municipal o f f i c e . reference i s made here to the ukrainians, the doukhobors and the finns; but other groups might well be mentioned too. sources of information on the above three are entered i n the bibliography at the end of this study. chapter v i i i conclusions although the significance of most facts that emerged from description and analysis in this study was pointed out immediately, it is useful to make several summarizing con- clusions, particularly regarding the marks of peculiarity s t i l l discernable within mennonite settlements, the disap- pearance of distinctions on the other hand, as well as the social and cultural significance of data treated here pri- marily from a geographic point of view. the large scale movements of mennonites into the city, the conversion of many of their farms into housing subdivisions and the rationalization of procedures on the remaining farms are a l l evidence of a state of flux within the mennonite home, congregation and community at large. similar things are taking place, of course, in the settlements of other ethnic groups within british columbia and elsewhere in canada. one might cite as examples the doukhobors, the finns, the ukrainians and others. for all of these people the processes that are changing their settlement patterns help to bring about an eventual breakdown of traditionally well defined social and cultural patterns. efficient means of communication create new needs and desires; and increased prosperity make their fulfillment possible. the characteristic foods, clothes, household appointments, building styles, farm groupings and often religious practices as well, give way to the modern innovation. the old things are preserved with considerable nostalgia by the older folks, but considered by younger people as belonging to the closet, the museum or l i t e r a t u r e . outward p e c u l i a r i t y has dwindled; much assimilation, merging and melting into the "canadian whole" has taken place — leaving the unanswerable question of whether i t was a gain or a loss. evidence has been given i n this study for the existence of certain settlement features that make i t possible to designate parts of the fraser valley as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y mennonite. in yarroy/, the e a r l i e s t sizeable settlement i n the valley, there i s the old a g r i c u l t u r a l "strassendorf" v i l l a g e form. the individual farms with their orchards and flower gardens i n front of the house, mirror elements of the russian mennonite v i l l a g e farmyard. in other r u r a l areas, where compact mennonite settlement was not possible to the same extent, i t i s more d i f f i c u l t to recognize p e c u l i a r i t i e s . a general tidiness and orderliness often sets the mennonite farm apart from neighbouring farms, as do some minor features such as whitewash on f r u i t tree trunks and the l i k e . james gibson, i n his comparison of mennonite and anglo-saxon farms i n the fraser valley, makes the point that the mennonites on monroe s o i l s are preoccupied with'raspberries, whereas the anglo-saxon farmers are more concerned with dairying. it i s certainly true that this crop has been developed very extensively by mennonites i n chilliwack and yarrow, as their co-operative f a c i l i t i e s for small-fruit processing clearly indicate. wherever the mennonites are found, i n our area as elsewhere, the church i s always a central, conspicuous and d i s t i n c t i v e settlement feature. it draws mennonite settlement closely around i t s e l f ; i n yarrow, and to a lesser extent i n greendale, churches of the two subgroups have exerted a p u l l strong enough to bring about a binodality i n the structure of these centers (maps and ), a rare feature anywhere. architecturally, these churches have, up to recent times, been constructed on a stereotyped plan. the rather low-pitched roof, the wide auditorium, the twin towers and the white stucco are features that one sees again and again. the interiors follow a common basic form as well, being closely related to the nature of the mennonite church service. only i n the c i t y are exterior form and i n t e r i o r appointment changing somewhat i n basic design (figure ). in the country, where r u r a l mail delivery i s widespread, there i s another indication of mennonite distinctiveness. the t y p i c a l l y mennonite names on mail boxes i n r u r a l chilliwack, sumas, abbotsford or aldergrove leave no doubt as to the ethnic background of their proprietors (table xvi, appendix b). the mennonite centers such as clearbrook, yarrow and greendale seem very similar to most other small nucleations i n the province as far as the appearance of their commercial cores i s concerned. one characteristic sets them off, however, and this i s the absence of theatres and licensed premises — an obvious r e s u l t of certain religious principles held i n the community. on the streets and i n the stores of these centers one may s t i l l hear the old west prussian low german dialect and possibly even some high german being spoken. usually i t w i l l be the older folks, many of whom know l i t t l e or no english, who use the low german, and recently arrived immigrants from europe who use the high german. among the garish placards and refrigerated display cabinets of an ultra-modern supermarket i n canada this sounds rather incongruous. in spite of a l l the p e c u l i a r i t i e s that persist, however, more evidence may be found for the obliteration of old forms and practices by new innovations than for their preservation. modern housing, i n styles seen along the length of north america's west coast may be found now even i n the most r u r a l of mennonite settlements in the fraser valley. municipal building by-laws have brought about an even, e f f i c i e n t use of l o t space that gives streets of new- houses a similar appearance, whether they be on b r i t i s h columbia's lower mainland, i n western washington or elsewhere. and the relentless process of farm subdivision has made of many mennonite and non-mennonite farms alike, housing developments that are essentially urban i n form, and function. strong documentary, p i c t o r i a l and s t a t i s t i c a l evidence i s given i n this study for this rapid change of the use of a good deal of land from the r u r a l to the non-farm or urban. i t is common knowledge, moreover, that more and more people are moving into the c i t y to l i v e or commuting into i t to work. this whole process has had serious social consequences for t r a d i t i o n a l l y agrarian people such as the mennonites. it has tended to disturb close family ties i n that it has drawn many young people away from the farm and home into non-farm occupations, often at considerable distance from the family residence. the return of these people has often introduced new ideas and practices into the home, the church and c i r c l e s of relatives and friends. i l l of this could not but generate a considerable amount of tension and estrangement. when these contacts with the "outside" have become frequent enough i t has happened that whole families or congregations have changed their attitudes and behaviour from broadly accepted norms. they have then often regarded as excessively sophisticated or even "worldly" and they i n turn have looked upon others as backward. thus, the whole complex of economic and cultural influences exerted upon the mennonites i n connection with changes i n settlement as outlined i n this study, together with numerous social and personal consider- ations have gradually brought about a reorientation of the value and behaviour patterns of a large segment of this ethnic group. this situation must be recognized as the background to s t a t i s t i c a l trends and regional description. geographic evidence for reorientation i s also persuasive evidence for advanced assimilation into canadian culture and nationality. the term "assimilation" may be defined as at .... process or processes by which people of diverse r a c i a l origins and different cultural heritages, occupying a common t e r r i t o r y , achieve a c u l t u r a l s o l i d a r i t y s u f f i c i e n t at least to sustain a national existence. this process must not be considered as simply an adoption of some c u l t u r a l t r a i t s by the immigrant from the people of his new homeland. this would be simply acculturation or accommodation. i t i s , rather, a two-way exchange, involving contributions by both new immigrants and those that have been i n the country for a longer period of time, toward a common culture. naturally, this i s seldom, i f ever, completely achieved. for the f i r s t generation immigrant, i f he considers i t at a l l desirable, assimilation involves intense personal c o n f l i c t , as well as the expense of great efforts i n the learning of a new language and new modes of l i f e . the elderly people i n every mennonite congregation would readily attest to the d i f f i c u l t i e s of assimilation, p a r t i c u l a r l y since most of them had to begin the process during the d i f f i c u l t depression years when i t was hard to make a bare l i v i n g , to say nothing of becoming proficient in english or any of the other refinements of the 'culture into which they had come. i t must be said too, that many consciously resisted assimilation on religious or other personal grounds. people who are second generation immigrants, as are most of the mennonites coming to maturity now i n the fraser valley, find the c o n f l i c t between themselves and "outsiders" lessened. many elements of their background are reduced to sentimental attachments only. they have, on the other hand, to contend with a c o n f l i c t between themselves and their eld e r s« i or whom i t was almost impossible to advance as far i n their adjustment to the new way of l i f e . the second generation, i f i t i s at a l l a l e r t , begins to question, to re-examine and to modify t r a d i t i o n a l stands on cultural and certainly also on religious matters. this questioning i s more l i k e l y to happen i n an urban or semi-urban environment than i n the t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l environment. the third generation, of which the children of many young mennonite couples are now members, probably w i l l not ever have any great interest i n the homeland and culture of their grandparents. the appeal of a v i t a l r e l i g i o n that takes into account the changing s p i r i t u a l needs of modern young people w i l l be necessary to keep these growing youngsters consciously and creatively associated with their group. an appeal based on the d e s i r a b i l i t y to preserve the use of the german language and other cultural elements w i l l probably not be s u f f i c i e n t . i t is interesting to project some of the trends that are evident i n the settlement patterns as well as i n the changing s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l and religious orientation of the mennonites, and to speculate on the future of this hitherto well-defined ethnic group. one may foresee an increase i n the urbanization of residence, occupations and mentality. these people and a l l of their neighbours are involved i n a seemingly inexorable economic process that has i t s repercussions i n almost every other aspect of l i f e . e f f i c i e n t media of communication and pressure toward conformity and acquisition of status symbols within an urban society serve to obscure and even to eliminate ethnic p e c u l i a r i t i e s . the influence of the ideas and practices of other religious denominations, moreover, makes the maintenance of a t r a d i t i o n a l religious position d i f f i c u l t as well. further conformity, therefore, seems inevitable i n s o c i a l and cultural matters and i n outward religious practices, i f not basic ideals and principles, as well. a repetition of unified group action, such as the mass movements from country to country that took place only some - decades ago, i s d i f f i c u l t to imagine. mennonitism, as have many other movements, has run into the sands of a modern, m a t e r i a l i s t i c and urbanized environment, from which an extrication would seem almost impossible. footnotes and references sources dealing with each one of these peoples are entered i n the bibliography. j. r. gibson, a comparison of anglo-saxon, mennonite and dutch farms i n the lower fraser valley: a methodological study i n areal d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and the relative influences of the physical and cultural environments, unpublished thesis (m. a.), university of oregon, corvallis, . r. e. parks, "social assimilation," encyclopedia of s o c i a l sciences, vol. ii, p. . bibliography . reference works b. c. natural resources conference. b. c. atlas of resources. vancouver, b. c., smith's lithography, . f a i r c h i l d , h. p. dictionary of sociology. new york, philosophical library, - . klassen, c. f. b r i t i s h columbia mennonite encyclopedia, v o l . l , , p. . oxford regional economic atlas, the u.s.s.r. and eastern europe. "oxfordt oxford untv^rstty~ptess, [o ~. suckan, g. h. "b. c. provincial mennonite brethren conference," mennonite encyclopedia, vol. , , p» . . books dawson, c. a. group settlement, ethnic communities i n western canada, vol. v i i . macmillan, . dawson, c. a. and gettys, w. e. an introduction to sociology. new york, ronald press, . ehrt, a. das mennoni tent urn i n r.ussland. berlin and leipzig, julius beltz, . francis, e. k. in search of utopia. altona, manitoba, d. w. friesen, . friesen, p. m. die alt-evangejische mennonitische briiderschaft , i n russland" t i b - ) t l l a l l ^ " v e r l a g "raduga", ' . gibbon, j. m. canadian mosaic: the making of a northern nation. toronto, mcclelland, • hawthorn, harry b. the doukhobors of b r i t i s h columbia. vancouver, university of b r i t i s h columbia and dent, * hubbard, george d. the geography of europe. new york, appleton-century-crofts, . kelley, c. c. and spilsbury, r. h. s o i l survey of the lower fraser valley, dominion department of agriculture, publication no. , technical b u l l e t i n , , lohrenz, j. h. the mennonite brethren church. hilsboro, kansas, mennonite brethren publishing house, . lysenko, vera. men i n sheepskin coats: a study i n assimilation. toronto, ryerson, . putnam, d. f. et a l . canadian regions. toronto, j. m. dent and sons, . shoemaker, j. s. small-fruit culture. , pp. - . smith, c. henry. the story of the mennonites. berne, indiana, mennonite book concern, . unruh, a. h. die geschichte der mennoniten brudergemeinde. winnipeg, canada, christian press, . unruh, b. h. die niederlandisch-niederdeutschen hintergrunde der mennonitischen osterwanderungen im l t , ten~ * jahrhundert. karlsruhe, germany, h. schneider, . wiebe, h. "das siedlungswerk niederlandischer mennoniten im welchseltal zwischen forden und weisenberg bis anfang des l t e n jahrhunderts." wissenschaftliche beitrage zur geschichte und landeskunde ost-mitteleuropas, v o l . (manuscript), marburg-lahn, germany, johann gottfried herder institut, . wiens, h. j. the mennonite brethren churches of north america. killsboro, kansas, mennonite brethren publishing house, . . periodicals "a guide to maps in mennonite books and periodicals," mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. (october ) • bender, h. s. "mennonite colleges and mennonite research." mennonite quarterly review, vol. (january ), pp. - . * "doukhobors: canada's untractable minority." world today, vol. (december ), pp. - . driedger, j. "farming among the mennonites i n west and east prussia, - ." mennonite quarterly review, vol. ? no. (january ), pp. - . duncan, h. c. "a study i n the process of assimilation." american sociological society papers, vol. , , pp. - . francis, e. k. "mennonite institutions i n early manitoba - a study on their origins," agricultural history, x x i i , . pp. - . ~ ' ' francis, e. k. "the russian mennonites: from religious to ethnic group." the american journal of sociology, vol. , no. (september ), pp. - . horsbrugh. patrick. "barns i n central i l l i n o i s . " landscape, v o l . , no. (spring ), p. . — humphrey, n. d. "on assimilation and acculturation." psychiatry, vol. , , pp. - . krahn, c. "agriculture among the mennonites of russia." mennonite l i f e , vol. x, no. (january ), pp. - . krahn, c. "mennonite community l i f e i n russia." mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. (july ). krahn, c. "mennonite industry i n russia," mennonite l i f e , vol. x, no. (january ) , pp. - . krahn, c. "the ethnic origin of the mennonites from russia." mennonite l i f e , v o l . , no. (july ), pp. - . fretz, w. "recent mennonite community building i n canada." mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. (january ), p~p t- ." ~™~~ parks, r. e. "social assimilation," encyclopedia of the social sciences, vol. ii, pp. - . penner, h. "west prussian mennonites through four centuries." mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. (october ), pp. - . ~~ ryder, n. b. "the interpretation of origin s t a t i s t i c s . " canadian journal of economics and p o l i t i c a l science, vol. , no. (november ) , pp. - . simons, s. e. "social assimilation." american journal of sociology, vol. , , pp. - . unruh, b. h. "dutch backgrounds of mennonite migration of the t h century to prussia." mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. (july ) , pp. - . van cleef, eugene. "finnish settlement in canada." geographical review, v o l . ( a p r i l ) , pp. - . wiens, b. b. "pioneering i n b. c." mennonite l i f e , vol. , no. (july ), pp. - . woolston, h. "the process of assimilation." social forces (may ), pp. - . . government publications b r i t i s h columbia. department of agriculture. climate of b r i t i s h columbia, report for . v i c t o r i a , queen's printer, . b r i t i s h columbia. department of agriculture. raspberry culture, horticultural circular no. . victoria, king's printer, . chapman, j. d. the climate of b. c. reprint, f i f t h b, c. natural resources conference, . dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s . eighth census of canada, . v o l . ii (population by s o i l subdivisions). ottawa, king's printer, . dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s . ninth census of canada, , v o l . i (population). ottawa, king's printer, . dominion department of transport. meteorological division, and national research council. division of building research. climatological atlas of canada. ottawa, king's printer, . drummond, w. m. and mackenzie, w. program and prospects of canadian agriculture (royal commission on canada's economic prospects). hull, quebec, queen's printer and controller of stationery, . smith, j. m. canada's economic growth and development from to (royal commission on canada's economic prospects). hull, quebec, queen's printer and controller of stationery, . united states. department of agriculture. s o i l : the yearbook of agriculture, . washington, government printing office, . . unpublished research papers gibson, james r. a comparison of anglo-saxon, mennonite. and dutch farms i n the lower fraser valley: a methodological study i n areal differentiation and the relative influences of the physical and cultural environment.unpublished thesis (m. a.). university of oregon, . krahn, john j. a history of the mennonites i n b r i t i s h columbia. unpublished thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, faculty of medicine, . mathews, w. h. preliminary report on the superficial deposits of the lower fraser valley. unpublished report. b. c. department of mines, . reimer, d. p. the mennonites i n b. c. unpublished thesis (m. a.) university of b r i t i s h columbia, department of history, . rempel, dick. united mennonite church, mission city, b. c. ' unpublished research paper. winnipeg, . siemens, a. an h i s t o r i c a l geographical survey of the development of the community of clearbrook. unpublished research paper. university of b r i t i s h columbia, . siemens, a. the fraser valley lowlands. unpublished research paper. university of b r i t i s h columbia, . . pamphlets die vereinigten mennoniten gemeinden i n b r i t i s h columbia. yarrow, b. c., columbia press, . glesbrecht, j. history of the mennonite church at rd and prince edward. address to the congregation on the occasion of i t s th anniversary. december , . kettle, l. j. where t r a i l s meet. abbotsford, a. m. s. news, . " krause, j. c. kurzgefasster bericht ueber einige siedlungs- moeglichkeiten i n b r i t i s h columbia. yarrow, b. c., columbia press. willms, h. j. die sued-abbotsford ansiedlung. yarrow, b. c., columbia press, . conferenz der mennoniten i n canada, jahrbuch . rosthern, sask., der bate, . conferenz der mennoniten i n canada, jahrbuch - jubilhums ausgabe, - . rosthern, sask., der bate, . notes; church directories, which .were often only mimeo- graphed sheets, and conference yearbooks too numerous to iention here, were used frequently throughout the study. m . newspapers the chilliwack progress (may , ), pp. - . series of a r t i c l e s commemorating the community's t h anniversary. krause, j. c. "mennoniten - jahre in b r i t i s h columbien." mennonitische rundschau, p. . toews, j. j. "warum verlhsst der ackermann seinen acker?". mennonitische rundschau (january ) , pp. - . "yarrow's.pioneer recalls community beginning years ago." the chilliwack progress (may , ) , p. . appendix a table xv dates of establishment of mennonite churches i n the fraser valley (excluding the mission stations) greendale mennonite (conference) south abbotsford mennonite brethren, aggasiz mennonite brethren, yarrow mennonite brethren, greendale mennonite brethren north abbotsford (clearbrook) mennonite brethren yarrow mennonite (conference), west abbotsford mennonite (conference), bethel mennonite (conference) vancouver mennonite brethren, f i r s t united mennonite of vancouver (conference) mission city mennonite (conference) arnold mennonite brethren, east chilliwack m. b., matsqui m. b., strawberry h i l l , m. b., chilliwack mennonite (conference), east chilliwack mennonite (conference) evangelical mennonite brethren of abbotsford chilliwack mennonite brethren, east aldergrove mennonite brethren church of christ mennonite of bradner abbotsford mennonite brethren ? new westminster mennonite (conference) , clearbrook mennonite (conference) fraserview mennonite brethren of vancouver note: the names of individual churches tend to vary somewhat; the names on signboards often are different than those i n publi- cations put out by provincial and canadian conferences, or even by the churches themselves. the above names have been used in a form that would f a c i l i t a t e location and differentiation between sub-groups. appendix b table xyi a representative listing of mennonite family names as compiled from church directories of lower fraser valley mennonite churches abrahams da h i adrian daniels albert defehr a l l e r t delesky andres derksen arens dick arndt dirks dirksen baerg doerksen bahnman dosso baier driediger balzer dueck barg dueckmann bargen duerksen bartel dyck bartsch barwich ediger berg engbrecht bergen enns bergmann ens blatz epp block esau boese espenberg boldt ewert born borowsky fa ik boschmann fast brandt fieguth braun fleming brauer franz brede friesen brown froese brucks funk bruehler buhr gauer buller geddert busse gienger giesbrecht classen goepinger cornelson goertz cornies goerzen cornis goossen gorecki gossen koohn graeve konrad gronau koop grunau kopp guenther kornelsen gruen koslowsky gutwin krahn kran haak krause hamm kroeker harder krone harms kungel heide he i n lange heinrichs langemann helgeborde lehn hep ting lemke iliebert lenzmann hildebrand lepp hildebrandt letkemann hintz loepp hoeppner loewen hodel lowen hubert lohrenz huebert mantler isaac martens matis jackel matthies jantz matties jantzen meyer janz mieike janzen mirau jensen mueller kaethler nachtigal kasper neitsch keilbart neufeld kehler neufeldt ketler neuman klassen neumann kleebaum nickel kliewer niebuhr knecht table xvi (continued) niessen ratzlaff nikkei redekop nussbaumer reimer regehr olfert regier rempel paetkau renpening pankratz riediger pauls riesen p enner rogalsky peters rumpel petker russenberger p l e t t poetker sagert poettcker sawatsky p o l l s schapansky pump schellenberg pump schier quapp schierling quiring s c h i l l i n g schmidt s chin or schowalter unger schroeder unrau schulz unruh siebel siebert van bergen siemens veer sommerfeld vogt spenst voth stobbe suderman walde sudermann wall sukkau warkentin wed e l teichroeb wegenart teichgrab /eyer thielmann wiebe thiessen wiens tleszen wiensz t i l i t s k y willems toews wlllms wittenberg wittman wolfe • * pq ' > « pq cp * • • • « o o • o ^ s / pq • « o ) o o o o r h h c d c d cd & !?• c d cd •s c d cd & !?• • h • h •rh • r - i o o d h h r h r h h h -> r h •p h sh <p •rh • h c o i h c o > h & c d s h s h xi xi cd x! cd x! > h t o o w o appendix c table xvii membership totals of mennonite churches of the lower fraser valley from to s h pq ^ pq cq pq ^ pq ) » • s h s • ' - n • . -p o s o w o • ^ • v ^ - f j •—v «•> • pq e j c ; -h >> . a> cd -p ^ t is s ) t n c ^ g u p q > > o o o e h s h w ^ s • h cd c d <d cd - p s h . o o x i o o o o . w > > > > co c d ^ ^ s h c-i x! s h s h c m - h fl o in j o> x ! ^ htxo tuo-=c; xi x ! mm <a ( d o p o o «s p ) s h s h s h s h xl p > p a< - h r h w o co o o ' - v c d c h x i c u - p c d p ^ c d ' cd - p o o to en >j o ctj fl s h fl fl ^ • t i r l " i ' d « ' <» <d x > x > p w p > fl s h co th cd co ( d o - p d ( d h ( i j h d ) d h r h o x > x i cd - h - h s h ^ > p>h > > s ^ t o k m<! m<< o o w <c s ^ o - - - ho - - - - - i l l i l l i i - note: the names used i n this table have been simplified where necessary, but the essential name, place and a f f i l i a t i o n have been presented. "m. b." refers to mennonite brethren and "c" to conference or general conference. in cases where figures were missing for a particular year totals were interpolated by taking the average of the memberships before and after. appendix d suggestions for further research i t became apparent during the course of this study that much further work could be done i n the outlining of the cultural geography of the fraser valley, and i n the solution of problems i n related f i e l d s . more detailed and more extensive land use surveys are necessary, f i r s t of a l l , for a comprehensive view of settlement i n the entire fraser valley and for a proper r e l a t i o n of ethnic group settlement to the whole. these surveys w i l l need to show, among other things, just where the boundaries between essentially urban and essentially r u r a l land use l i e . this w i l l mean taking careful note of deceptive v e s t i g i a l farm buildings. the clear portrayal of the structural patterns of numerous nucleations that would result from such surveys would be highly valuable and interesting. i t is hoped, therefore, that the work being done by f i e l d workers of the geographical branch of the department of mines and technical surveys, ottawa, on the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of land use i n ruchmond and surrey w i l l be continued to cover the other municipalities of the valley as well. studies of the settlement patterns and associated s o c i a l , cultural and religious situations of other ethnic groups beside the mennonites would y i e l d more and important information on b r i t i s h columbia's population. numerous books and a r t i c l e s are avilable on various aspects of our province's ethnic groups, but geographical studies, with s t a t i s t i c a l and cartographical substantiation are s t i l l rare. admittedly, good sources of s t a t i s t i c a l information on the internal characteristics of some groups are hard to come by, the the research's ingenuity may well be able to overcome this d i f f i c u l t y . much further work could be done on the systematic treatment of sequent occupance, form and function of many fraser valley nucleations. a good deal of h i s t o r i c a l information may be gathered from newspaper archives, histories published on the occasion of various f e s t i v i t i e s and the interviewing of pioneers. the study of form and function would require extensive f i e l d work, involving such techniques as questioning of householders and f i e l d mapping. it is s t i l l necessary to develop useable c r i t e r i a for the centrality of nucleations i n our area and to c l a s s i f y them accordingly. work has been begun on this last problem by a staff member and students of the geography department of the university of b r i t i s h columbia. undoubtedly, a study of individual settlement forms such as farm types, houses, barns, fences and others, as distributed over the entire valley, would yield highly interesting results. one needs only to consult a r t i c l e s i n periodicals such as landscape, dealing with the. distribution, history, function and even aesthetic qualities of building types, to envisage what might be done i n the fraser valley. ' i t must be remembered that buildings of interest i n this connection are fast disappearing as modernization and urbani- zation advance. within the mennonite community i t s e l f there i s very much more that could be studied from the geographic point of view and documented. a detailed study of overall mennonite farm economy, dealing with such factors as i t s i n i t i a l development, i t s relationship to s o i l and climate, the significance of intra-group co-operative organization and the l i k e would be highly useful i n an understanding of the group, as i t would be for any other ethnic group as d i s t i n c t as theirs. i t may be pointed out, l a s t l y , that there i s a wealth of h i s t o r i c a l and other material on a l l aspects of mennonite l i f e i n the fraser valley that needs to be collected and properly organized. there i s s t i l l no central repository for this material. it seems reasonable that the l i b r a r y of the m. e. i., or of some future mennonite l i b e r a l arts college, could be expanded to include a collection of this kind. there are many mennonite pioneers who have interesting accounts that could be recorded. the number of published works and unpublished theses dealing with the mennonites of the fraser valley, and of western canada generally, are increasing. one might mention here the work of dr. f. c. peters on s o c i a l and psychological trends within canadian mennonitism, harold dyck's work on mennonite education i n western canada and others either just finished or s t i l l underway. i t w i l l s t i l l be some time, however, before mennonite l i f e here i s as carefully and comprehensively documented as i t i s i n eastern canada, and particularly i n the central and eastern united states. patrick horsbrugh, "barns i n central i l l i n o i s , " landscape, vol. , no. , p. (spring ). . mennonite farmland a sizeable poultry farm in abbotsford, along emerson a f i e l d under process of clearing - abbotsford. workers i n a berry f i e l d i n summer - abbotslord. figure a. general views of farms i n mennonite settlement areas a. mennonite farms along short road, abbotsford. b. farm land north of mission city. c. a prosperous mennonite farm on the corner of emerson and huntingdon roads i n abbotsford. figure b. a. farmland i n the east chilliwack area. b. a pioneer farm i n abbotsford, with buildings set we away from the road among f r u i t trees. c. a mennonite farm with an extensive flower garden i n front of the house. figure . small mennonite centers a. south. abbotsford b. arnold c. greendale (refer to maps and ) figure . panoramic views of yarrow a. western section of yarrow. b. central section of yarrow. c. eastern section of yarrow. aw figure . commerce and industry i n yarrow a. the eastern section of yarrow's commercial core. b. packing and processing plants along the b. c. e l e c t r i c railway. c. the yarrow branch of clearbrook frozen foods. old meets new: identifying founder mutations in genetic disease commentarycmaj all editorial matter in cmaj represents the opinions of the authors and not necessarily those of the can adian medical association. © canada inc. or its licensors cmaj, february , , ( ) f rom the first arrivals over     years ago to the most recent immigrants, every person coming to canada has carried with them a unique genetic contribution. once here, forces such as the size of founder populations and isolation by geography or cultural practices have led to a high prevalence of specific genetic conditions in many diverse ethnic groups. although an appreciation of such variation in disease frequency and population genetics prin- ciples has been around for some time, the appli- cation of modern methods for gene identification now has the potential to improve outcomes for patients, their families and com mun ities. examples of this approach are well illus- trated by two linked cmaj articles. in the first, macardier and colleagues document the finding of a common mutation in the si gene responsi- ble for congenital sucrase–isomaltase deficiency in inuit, a condition highly prevalent in this pop- ulation. in the second, rousseau-nepton and colleagues describe the use of whole-exome sequencing in children with glycogen storage disease type iiia to identify a founder mutation in the agl gene in inuit from nunavik. both of these studies deal with autosomal recessive disorders that are common in inuit populations. both conditions are caused by homozygous mutations in their respective genes, and yet, despite identical genotypes, affected patients can present with variable manifestations. in both diseases, early diagnosis and dietary interventions may help ameliorate the clinical consequences of the deleterious genotype. however, although it is apparent that the si mutation is widespread in inuit populations, sug- gesting an ancient origin, the agl mutation in the inuit population has so far only been identi- fied in those from nunavik. inuit from other regions may also be gene carriers, but the lack of reports of glycogen storage disease type iiia in other areas suggests a more recent mutational event. haplotype analysis can provide informa- tion on the relative age of founder mutations, because regions of homozygosity around a gene of interest become shorter with time as a result of meiotic recombination. furthermore, the si mutation appears to be unique and restricted to the inuit, whereas the agl mutation was found to be the cause of glycogen storage disease type iiia in a north african jewish population, and its heterozygous state has been found in genome databases. rousseau-nepton and colleagues suggest that this coincidence is likely due to mutations at a genetic “hot spot” rather than to any shared ancestry. however, introduction of alleles from other groups into indigenous popu- lations is always possible. for example, evidence exists from both molecular data and oral history that the founder mutation for autosomal reces- sive infantile leukoencephalopathy, seen in cree and chippewayan populations in manitoba and cree in northern quebec, may have come via british fur traders for the hudson bay company in the s. globally, founder effects have lead to similar patterns of high prevalence of rare diseases in specific populations. other canadian examples include infantile hypophosphatasia among men- nonites and bowen–conradi syndrome in hutt- erites. founder alleles can also contribute to risk for more common adult-onset disorders. among the oji-cree in northwestern ontario, a popula- tion with high rates of type diabetes mellitus, each copy of a unique mutation in hnf a old meets new: identifying founder mutations in genetic disease jane a. evans phd competing interests: none declared. this article was solicited and has not been peer reviewed. correspondence to: jane evans, jevans @ms.umanitoba.ca cmaj . doi: . /cmaj. • founder mutations are often responsible for the high prevalence of rare genetic disorders in specific populations, but are also associated with more common monogenic disorders and complex traits. • awareness of ethnic background allows for targeted screening, but admixture and spontaneous mutation can result in recessive alleles being present in people from populations in which a genetic condition is less prevalent. • next-generation molecular techniques have substantially accelerated the finding of rare disease alleles, facilitating diagnosis and treatment and enhancing the provision of personalized genetic health care to patients, families and communities. key points see related research articles on page and at www.cmaj.ca/lookup/doi/ . /cmaj. and on page e and at www.cmaj.ca /lookup/doi/ . /cmaj. commentary cmaj, february , , ( ) (hepatocyte nuclear factor homeobox a) lowers the median age of onset by about seven years. similarly, specific alleles in cancer predisposition genes may be more common in certain ethnic groups, such as del in brca (breast cancer , early onset) among icelandic families with breast cancer or founder msh (muts protein homolog ) mutations in lynch syndrome in newfoundland and labrador. awareness of such variation in distribution of disease has allowed an important preventative health strategy: using ethnic background to iden- tify people who should be offered screening for conditions such as sickle cell anemia, thalas- semias and tay–sachs disease. taking a detailed three-generation family history may provide useful clues as to whether a condition is familial and what the reasons for that might be — genes, shared environment or interactions between them. however, assumptions cannot be made that certain genetic disorders only occur in par- ticular ethnic groups. cystic fibrosis, although more common in white people, occurs in other populations, such canadian and australian indigenous groups owing to either admixture or spontaneous mutation. qureshi and kai tell a cautionary tale of how ignorance that people with white skin can carry sickle-cell mutations led to delayed diagnosis in an affected child and the erroneous assertion of nonpaternity. attention to ancestral background will help assess the probability of genetic disease. in addi- tion, the possibility of parental consanguinity should be explored because it increases risks for both recessive and multifactorial disorders. how- ever, as the linked articles document, in many genetic isolates, close consanguinity is not com- mon, and such populations may in fact be “out- bred” (i.e., marriage partners are often less closely related than might happen by chance). consan- guinity increases the likelihood of homozygous genotypes, both wild type and deleterious ones, but it has no impact on allele frequency. usually, the high prevalence of recessive disease is a conse- quence of a high carrier frequency due to founder effect and, potentially, heterozygote advantage. consanguinity has, however, been very bene- ficial to the discovery of new recessive mutations using homozygosity mapping. when the culprit gene is already suspected, sequencing may iden- tify the mutation, though this can be challenging, as was initially seen with agl in the nunavik population. next-generation molecular tools have shown great potential to accelerate discov- ery in this area, and it should be a source of pride that canadian initiatives to find mutations for rare genetic disorders (such as the finding of rare disease genes in canada [forge canada] con- sortium) have been so productive. as suggested in both articles, once a caus- ative mutation is discovered, opportunities exist to use molecular rather than more invasive diag- nostic testing, to start treatment early and to offer carrier testing to family members at risk. in col- laboration with the community, targeted popula- tion screening can be considered, as has already been done for carnitine palmitoyltransferase i a (cpt a) deficiency in hutterite populations, the ultimate goal being to reduce the burden of disease and provide patients and their families with more personalized genetic health care. references . marcadier j, boland m, scott cr, et al. congenital sucrase– isomaltase deficiency: identification of a common inuit founder mutation. cmaj ; : - . . rousseau-nepton i, okubo m, grabs r, et al. a founder agl mutation causing glycogen storage disease type iiia in inuit identified through whole-exome sequencing: a case series. cmaj jan. . [epub ahead of print]. . zimakas pj, rodd cj. glycogen storage disease type iii in inuit children. cmaj ; : - . . parvari r, moses s, shen j, et al. a single-base deletion in the ′-coding region of glycogen-debranching enzyme is prevalent in glycogen storage disease type iiia in a population of north african jewish patients. eur j hum genet ; : - . . fogli a, wong k, eymard-pierre e, et al. cree leukoencepha- lopathy and cach/vwm disease are allelic at the eif b locus. ann neurol ; : - . . triggs-raine bl, kirkpatrick rd, kelly sl, et al. hnf- α g s, a transactivation-deficient mutant, is associated with altered dynamics of diabetes onset in an oji-cree community. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : - . . thorlacius s, sigurdsson s, bjarnadottir h, et al. study of a sin- gle brca mutation with high carrier frequency in a small pop- ulation. am j hum genet ; : - . . stuckless s, parfrey ps, woods mo, et al. the phenotypic expression of three msh mutations in large newfoundland families with lynch syndrome. fam cancer ; : - . . wattendorf dj, hadley dw. family history: the three-genera- tion pedigree. am fam physician ; : - . . qureshi n, kai j. genomic medicine for underserved minority pop- ulations in family medicine. am fam physician ; : - . . beaulieu cl, majewski j, schwartzentruber j, et al.; forge canada consortium. outcomes of a -year national rare-disease gene-discovery project. am j hum genet ; : - . . prasad c, johnson jp, bonnefont jp, et al. hepatic carnitine pal- mitoyl transferase (cpt a) deficiency in north american hutterites (canadian and american): evidence for a founder effect and results of a pilot study on a dna-based newborn screening program. mol genet metab ; : - . affiliation: biochemistry and medical genetics, university of manitoba, winnipeg, man. diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture (review) diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture (review) pamela riney-kehrberg histoire sociale/social history, volume , number , mai-may , pp. - (review) published by les publications histoire sociale / social history inc. doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /his. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /his. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ creole society of the colony, especially in the areas of sinnamary and kourou, where the few french-canadian survivors of the choiseul expedition took refuge, merging into the larger acadian community. here, he argues, the canadiens became involved in small-scale agriculture and especially cattle- raising—though he gives no concrete examples — and contributed to the develop- ment of a creolized petit blanc agricultural sector ignored by guianese historians because it remained apart from the dominant slave-based plantation economy. again, without offering examples, the author claims that some of these canadiens lived in “une certaine prospérité” (p. ) and that their survival is evi- denced by the persistence of french-canadian surnames into the nineteenth century. larin even suggests that guiana did not prove to be the white man’s grave, while conceding nevertheless that nearly half of the french-canadian immigrants perished shortly after their arrival, and that another third was saved only by rapid repatriation to france. in the end, larin avows that only four members of the french-canadian elite remained permanently in guiana after and that only eight commoners stayed. without further evidence as to what impact these eight commoners, morphed into creolized petits blancs, had on guianese society, one is tempted to accept the official french accounts of the s to s that depicted the few white settlers remaining at that time in sinnamary or kourou as surviving miserably on subsistence farming or wood- cutting. in sum, one might say that there is really so little information provided on french canadians once they arrived in guiana that the title canadiens en guyane is a misnomer. indeed, it would have been more appropriate to have entitled this book canadiens vers la guyane, for it is almost entirely a history of a migratory movement. it is in this sense that larin has made his mark. the canadian historical world can only hope that robert larin will soon conclude his larger study of the exodus of all french canadians during and after the conquest, of which this current book appears to be a preview. lawrence c. jennings emeritus, university of ottawa loewen, royden — diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture. toronto: university of toronto press, . pp. . in diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture, royden loewen traces the fracturing and dispersion of kleine gemeinde descendant mennonite colonies in the period from to . by the s, these descendants of the migration from russia had established themselves in mennonite communities from manitoba to belize, varying greatly in their responses to the economic, environmental, and cultural stresses of the middle years of the twentieth century. while most historians tend comptes rendus / book reviews histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) to assume that the trajectory from tradition to modernization involves fairly straightforward progress in a single direction toward modernity, the kleine gemeinde mennonite experience does not fall neatly into this model. some members of this group, and particularly those in meade county, kansas, moved fairly quickly toward integration into mainstream north american culture, but others resisted, moving south into settlements in mexico and then belize, search- ing for the right environment in which to pursue an older way of life. the middle years of the twentieth century were not easy ones for farmers, between economic stresses and environmental challenges. canadian mennonite farmers in the rural municipality of hanover and american mennonite farmers in meade county, kansas, were not different. while the canadian farmers lived with the strictures imposed by a very short growing season, those in meade county lived with the constraints of semi-aridity, which, during the s, became the dust bowl. in both areas, farmers valued land and nurtured it, in the hopes of maintaining a viable religious community. in both areas, conditions forced farmers to adapt themselves to new technologies, new farming methods, and agriculture on an increasingly large scale. this growing scale and increasing economic competition meant that, although mennonites remained on the land in disproportionately large numbers, more moved into towns and cities each year, seeking economic stability. as loewen describes, the middle decades of the twentieth century did not just remake agriculture; they remade gender roles. in meade, because of the increas- ingly commercial orientation of mennonite farmers and the lessening economic role of farm women, women turned their attention toward children, women’s organizations, and town. the eggs, chickens, milk, and cows that had once organized mennonite women’s lives had less and less of a role. in canada, mennonite men found their identity as strong, silent upholders of a patriarchal agrarian tradition challenged by a new model of masculinity that valued striving, accumulation of wealth, and athletic prowess. mennonites who had once frowned at all athletic contests increasingly resigned themselves to that staple of canadian manliness, hockey. the events of the middle decades of the twentieth century also made it difficult for mennonite communities to maintain their faith. canadian and american par- ticipation in the second world war, and american preoccupation with the cold war, made maintaining pacifism a difficult proposition. even more obviously, the growing appeal of evangelical christianity made inroads into mennonite con- gregations. the appeal of a personal, emotional, and joyous faith was hard to counteract. increasingly, church leaders found it difficult to enforce discipline by way of shunning, the traditional means of encouraging adherence to community mores. faced with a changing world and a changing faith, kleine gemeinde mennonites had choices to make. they could adapt their agricultural communities to changing conditions; they could move to more urban locations; or they could create new communities that would follow a more traditional path. mennonites followed all three of these paths. in canada, farmers in the regional municipality of histoire sociale / social history histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) hanover adapted to agricultural and social change, and those who wished even further change moved with their families to winnipeg, creating an urban mennonite community far more evangelical than that they had left behind. in meade county, mennonite farmers moved ever closer to the mainstream, and those who left agriculture often moved into cities, such as denver, without ident- ifiable anabaptist communities. those who wanted to maintain a more traditional way of life moved first to los jagueyes, in northern mexico, and then spanish lookout, in the british honduras (now belize). there, mennonites founded com- munities reminiscent of those in which their parents and grandparents had lived during the early years of the twentieth century, before the disruptions of the “great disjuncture.” except for those who chose to adapt to the changes of the twentieth century by leaving, it became more and more difficult to see the differ- ences between mennonites and their neighbours. loewen has written an engaging and useful text, beautifully illustrating the many and varied mennonite responses to economic change. historians studying rural and agricultural change in the twentieth century generally expect to see that change moving in one direction — toward modern, technologically sophisti- cated market agriculture. they also expect their research subjects to move in a relatively predictable trajectory toward consumerism, higher levels of education, and eventually into new residences in towns and cities. loewen has added a sig- nificant twist to that story, demonstrating the profound ways in which religious values may influence and complicate a group’s response to modernity. diaspora in the countryside is a highly readable and very useful book that will be of interest to rural and agricultural historians as well as social and religious his- torians, both in the united states and canada. my primary concern with the text is, perhaps, that there is not quite enough of it. loewen is telling a complex story of economic, social, and religious transformation in four separate communities (hanover, meade county, los jagueyes, and spanish lookout). two of these four communities had further offshoot communities in urban locations. while it is almost impossible to discuss a single mennonite community without discussing its daughter communities, the ensuing examination of the range of changes and the relationship between various locations can become terribly tangled and complex. loewen has done a fine job of managing these complexities and keeping the text readable, but, at the same time, there is so much more that i, and other readers, would want to know about the difficulties of creating new com- munities in mexico and belize. it is a fascinating story, and one that i hope will receive further elaboration in the future. pamela riney-kehrberg iowa state university comptes rendus / book reviews histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) wellington county by fred dahms copyright © the ontario historical society, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : ontario history wellington county by fred dahms karen dearlove volume , numéro , spring uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the ontario historical society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu dearlove, k. ( ). compte rendu de [wellington county by fred dahms]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ �book rev�ews regarding this shift. overall i find a silent revolution an intriguing addition to canadian historical geography and a text that would be fascinat- ing for exploration at higher levels of under- graduate or graduate classroom study. this text would be invaluable to those seeking to explore aspects of historical change in ham- ilton and victoria, as baskerville’s meticu- lous attention to records of the time commu- nicates a vast amount of detail. still, i find this volume most significant in its broader contributions to understanding historical gendered identities. baskerville’s findings provide an intriguing examination of wom- en’s identities as property owners, and of the shifts in laws and governance that influenced the ability of women to conduct themselves as people in control of wealth. glenna harris, mcmaster university fred dahms’ interest and background in geography is evident throughout the readable text and abundance of lavish pho- tographs in wellington county. a founding member of the university of guelph’s depart- ment of geography, dahms’ enthusiasm and appreciation for his subject is clear. author of several non-academic books exploring the history and geography that characterizes the small communities and landscapes of cana- da, dahms’ newest work is a treat for amateur historians and geographers, as well as resi- dents of wellington county or day-trippers searching for an afternoon’s adventure. dahms begins with the natural envi- ronment, exploring the ancient geographic development of the area and the impact of water and stone on the settlement of wel- lington county. from the gorges on the grand river, to luther marsh and the ket- tle lake at puslinch, dahms clearly describes the natural history and heritage. he explains how settlers exploited these natural features, by harnessing the power of water for mills or quarrying limestone for building material and gravel. wellington county also addresses the impact of the human exploitation on the natural environment—the intensification of the annual flooding throughout the water- shed, for instance—and responses, such as building dams for flood control along the major waterways. the second chapter is devoted to the architectural history of stone building in the county, especially the abundance of limestone structures in guelph and fergus. dahms’ text reads like heritage walking tours of these communities, highlighting the sig- nificant architectural treasures as well as providing tidbits of historical background. throughout this chapter he links the past with the present, providing stories and ex- amples of how cherished and well-preserved historical buildings have been transformed for new uses. the wellington county mu- wellington county by fred dahms erin: boston mills press, . pages. $ . hardcover. isbn - - - (www.bostonmillspress.com) � ontario history seum and archives, for example, inhabits an impressive building originally constructed as the wellington county home of industry and refuge, a poorhouse. dahms explores the rural landscape of wellington county through case studies of present agricultural endeavours. in one he examines the history of the family farm at blythwood, from its beginnings in to the present day. other examples look at what dahms calls “modern pioneers,” like the blue haven farm, a hobby farm in eramosa town- ship. as with his previous chapters, this one links the past to the present by highlighting the agricultural history of the area, including the mennonite heritage and the university of guelph’s school of agriculture, and by la- menting the decline in family farms in recent years. three chapters concentrate on the built communities in wellington county, starting with a chapter-long portrait of guelph. while the text goes back and forth between past and present, the majority of content highlights the modern city, its buildings and amenities. the neighbouring rival communities of elora and fergus are presented in a single chapter. dahms contrasts elora, heavily dependent on tourism, with fergus, which still has an indus- trial base. in both cases he praises efforts to preserve historic buildings for modern uses, a persistent theme throughout the book. the chapter titled “mill towns, historic villages and ghost towns” is especially interesting for the backyard tourist. even those readers famil- iar with wellington county will find stories about settlements that have long since disap- peared—places they may have never heard of before. dahms presents several reasons for the decline of these communities, including the beginning of rural mail delivery in , the influx of motor vehicles and paved roads, and the general decline of industry in once- thriving mill towns. chapter seven, “arts and artisans in wellington county,” seems somewhat out of place in this otherwise cohesive volume. however, tourists to the county, as well as backyard tourists, may find the information useful and enjoyable. dahms’ conclusion, “towards a sus- tainable future,” brings together the themes explored throughout the book. he again la- ments family farms threatened by agribusi- ness, highlighting the environmental hazards posed by pesticide and chemical run-off. ur- ban sprawl, sewage treatment, landfill sites, water supply, and urban congestion are all modern problems that threaten the commu- nities of wellington county. yet dahms does not paint an overwhelmingly gloomy pic- ture of the future. he praises provincial and municipal plans that address these growth issues. he lauds local conservation authori- ties that preserve natural environments, and make efforts to preserve the built heritage. concerned citizens, dahms explains, are the key to preserving the history and natural her- itage of the area. wellington county is both a visually beautiful book and an insightful one. al- though it may be of limited use for academic historians, it might serve as a starting place for researching some of the interesting sto- ries of wellington county, especially the long-deserted “ghost towns.” dahms in- cludes a bibliography of his sources to guide further research. but for amateur historians and geographers it is an excellent example of a well-researched book of local interest that is both readable and knowledgeable. it is es- pecially of interest for those wishing to ex- plore wellington county for the first time, or local citizens looking to learn more about their own communities. karen dearlove mcmaster university layout t he protagonist in brian moore’s governor general award- winning novel, the great vic- torian collection, wakes one morning to discover that his dream of owning the most-extensive collection ever of victorian antiquities has materialized in dazzling glory in a parking lot beside his motel — the downside is that it’s up to him to look after it. this is a role that retired registered nurse nancy macleod has taken on willingly as she has collected more than pieces of th-century medical memorabilia. and like the great victorian collec- tion, she too displays her pieces: dressed in period costume she re- enacts the part of a “medical practi- tioner” of that era. using audience members as “patients,” she “treats” their various ailments by bloodletting, amputation and the like. last year, macleod, who lives in kitchener, ont., took her show on the road times in ontario, mostly to nursing homes, but also historical sites and community groups. “the elderly don’t just want to be entertained they want to learn things as well,” she says. her interest is a synthesis of her interest in nursing and medicine and long-time love of history. in the late s she acquired her first piece, an invalid feeder cup. today her artifacts range from a travelling pharmacy kit to a syphilis syringe (which was filled with diluted silver nitrate and injected into the urethra), bloodletting instru- ments to an enema pump (c. ) called the irrigator, which may have also been used for embalming. she combs antique stores and thrift shops, occasionally scoring spectacular finds, such as a medical dictionary from that she bought along with a mitt full of novels for $ at her local value village. her collection of medical memora- bilia and victorian fashion, gradually grew through the years, then, in , a patient told her about historical re- enactments of the civil war and macleod travelled to the united states to have a look. she decided they needed a period medical unit. her first persona was a grey nun and then she became a confederate nurse leading a unit of eight. her collecting picked up. ninety per cent of her pieces are authentic; the reproduction pieces, including an ampu- tation/surgeons kit with multiple knives and bullet forceps, a trephine kit and slip (bed) pan, were acquired for her civil war re-enactments. the move from re-enactment to road show came in when she staged a private victorian fashion show and was invited by an activities director at a seniors’ home to bring her show to that institution. macleod’s shows typically begin with an explanation of the health status of your average citizen in , when humanitiescmaj cmaj • september , • ( ) © canadian medical association or its licensors e essay the victorian medical show d o i: . / cm aj . pictured above, top, is a scarifator from the s, which was used for bloodletting. when the trigger is pulled, razor blades come down and cut the skin and underly- ing vein. at the centre of photo is a steel reproduction leech box (modelled after one from ); leeches were used to clean wounds. at the bottom of photo is a fleam from the s, also used for bloodletting. r o g e r c o ll ie r mcleod combs antique stores and thrift shops, occasionally scoring spectacular finds. previously published at www.cmaj.ca the life-expectancy was around . physician training in the southern united states consisted of three months of school followed by a two to three year apprenticeship. and medical treat- ment was based on the concept of the four “humors” in the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. ill- ness, either physical or mental, resulted when these humors were out of bal- ance. phlebotomy (bloodletting) re- established the balance by releasing to ounces of blood; generally it was performed on patients with pneumonia until he or she felt faint, or fell down. no one believed in germs and the only required cleaning of the instruments was an annual oiling of the wooden handles of equipment. macleod’s show is pretty convinc- ing as she talks in graphic detail about amputations and bullet wounds. some- times people have to sit down because they feel faint or leave altogether and she appoints a spotter at school demon- strations. “i enjoy telling stories and seeing people’s reactions,” says macleod. “a lot of people return and ask to hear a story again.” barbara sibbald bj deputy editor, analysis and humanities cmaj ottawa, ont. cmaj • september , • ( )e humanities this original apothecary box, c. , contains myriad screw-cap bottles of drug pow- ders, including strychnine. mcleod purchased this at a mennonite thrift shop. in the foreground is a rubber syphillis syringe dating to , manufactured by the hanover rubber company. it was used to instill diluted silver nitrate or mercury into the uretha, giving rise to the saying: “a night with venus, a lifetime with mercury.” fa a ra h s a ya n i depicted above is a reproduction of an ether can from , a laudanum bot- tle from with a reproduction label and, at the bottom, dr. chisholm’s inhaler from . ether was poured on the small sponge inside the inhaler and the two canula would be put in the patient’s nose. this was an improvement on the old method of dropping ether onto a cloth over the nose and mouth. r o g e r c o ll ie r Олена Блинова Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , УДК : j. mccabe-juhnke received march , revised april, , accepted april, ,  enacting gemeinde in the language of story: narrative performance among kansas mennonites from volyn this article examines oral narrative performance within the cultural context of the swiss volynian mennonites in moundridge, kansas, whose forbears were members of a congregational group that migrated from volyn province in polish russia in . a swiss volynian mennonite himself, the author tape-recorded interviews with second and third generation descendants of the mennonites from volyn. using interview transcriptions and participant observation in the moundridge community as primary data, the author analyzes how the language of storytelling performance both sustains and is shaped by social and cultural norms of swiss mennonite gemeinde. an analysis of the personal and social roles of swiss volynian storytellers reflects a fundamental tension between individuality and conformity. swiss volynians most frequently perform at the level of natural or unself-conscious narration rather than intentional or public narration, allowing oral narrators to maintain the community norm of self-effacement despite their obvious competence as storytellers. an exami- nation of the written transcriptions of these oral narratives reveals noticeable contextual overtones. the use of dialect, insider’s code and community-oriented genres demonstrates the storytellers’ evocation of an in-group context for storytelling. key words: swiss mennonites, storytelling, narrative performance, kotosufka, german dialect, moundridge, kansas. Мак-Кейб-Янкі Дж. Лінгвокультурний прояв «gemeinde»/»громади» в наративах канзаських менонітів із Волині. У статті розкрито аспекти вивчення усного наративу в культурному середовищі волинських менонітів швейцарського походження, які зараз мешкають у м. Маундріджі (штат Канзас, США). Їхні пращури належали до конгрегації менонітів, які емігрували року з Волинської губернії, що на той час перебувала у складі Російської імперії. Ці іммігранти прагнули зберегти чуття gemeinde (громади) – особливої релігійної спільноти з тісними внутрішньогруповими зв’язками, відокремленої від зов- нішніх спільнот. Автор цього дослідження – волинський меноніт швейцарського походження – записав на плівку і взяв за основу свого дослідження інтерв’ю з нащадками волинських менонітів у другому та третьому поколінні з міста Маундріджа. Під час мовного аналізу розповідей виявлено аспекти обопільного соціокультурного впливу громади на формування норм швейцарських мено- нітів. Подальший аналіз наративів засвідчив той факт, що «швейцарські» воли- © mccabe-juhnke j., psychological prospects. issue , няни відчувають внутрішній конфлікт між «індивідуальним» і «колективним». У своїх розповідях вони здебільшого виявляють риси природного, несвідомого, аніж інтенційного чи публічного дискурсу. Це свідчить про їхню схильність до «скромності», типової для представників цієї громади, попри їхню очевидну вправність в оповідуванні. У їхніх розповідях також простежуються зумовлені контекстом громади особливі лексико-стилістичні засоби, зокрема діалектизми, «внутрішньогруповий код», послуговування властивими лише для цієї громади жанрами, що є маркерами належності й прояву в мові спільних для носіїв глибинних ознак «gemeinde». Ключові слова: швейцарські меноніти, розповідання історій, наративна поведінка, Кутузовка, німецький діалект, Маундрідж, Канзас. Мак-Кейб-Янки Дж. Лингвокультурное проявление «gemeinde»/ «общи- ны» в нарративах канзасских меннонитов с Волыни. Статья раскрывает аспекты изучения устного нарратива в культурной среде волынских меннони- тов швейцарского происхождения, проживающих ныне в г. Маундридж (штат Канзас, США). Их предки принадлежали к конгрегации меноннитов, эмигри- ровавших в году из Волынской губернии, которая в то время была в составе Российской империи. Эти иммигранты хотели сохранить ощущение gemeinde (общины) – особенного религиозного сообщества с тесными внутригрупповыми связями, отделенного от внешних сообществ. Автор данного исследования – волынский меннонит швейцарского происхождения – записал на пленку и взял за основу своего изучения интервью с потомками волынских меннонитов во втором и третьем поколении из города Маундридж. Языковой анализ рассказов показал аспекты взаимного социокультурного влияния общины на формиро- вание норм швейцарских меннонитов. Дальнейший анализ установил тот факт, что «швейцарские» волыняне ощущают внутренний конфликт между «индиви- дуальным» и «коллективным». В своих рассказах они проявляют преимущест- венно черты естественного, несознательного, нежели интенционального или публичного дискурса. Это свидетельствует об их приверженности к «скромности», являющейся типичной для представителей данной общины, несмотря на их очевидное мастерство быть прекрасными рассказчиками. В их нарративах наблюдаются обусловленные контекстом общины особенные лексико-стилисти- ческие стредства, в частности диалектизмы, «внутригрупповой код», использо- вание свойственных только для этой общины жанров, которые являются мар- керами принадлежности и проявления в языке общих для носителей глубинных признаков «gemeinde». Ключевые слова: швейцарские меннониты, рассказывание историй, нар- ративное поведение, Кутузовка, немецкий диалект, Маундридж, Канзас. introduction. narrative performance pervades everyday experience. as we tell others about events in our lives and listen to what others say about us, we cast and recast our experience in ways that affirm our individual and relational identities. story re-enacts and interprets the past, Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , captures emotion, and expresses value. our ability to understand each other depends on our facility as storytellers. as kristin langellier observes, personal narration is a fundamental mode of human communication [ , – ]. this article investigates the relationship between storytelling and cultural identity as it emerged in the social interactions among a group of mennonites, whose ancestors emigrated from polish russia in the s and settled in the community of moundridge, kansas. sustained by their anabaptist christian beliefs, they worked to establish a community of mutually accountable believers that was independent of the social and political structures of mainstream society. in their native language of german, they called this idea of community gemeinde. as a result of living in gemeinde, a distinctive cultural identity endured among second and third-generation descendants of the swiss volynians immigrants as evidenced by their ethnic foodways, schweitzer dialect , and religious orientation. a careful examination of swiss volynian oral narration reveals that a primary function of narrative performance is to give momentary substance to a continually evolving sense of community. in other words, by affirming community «connectedness», reinforcing community values, and sometimes questioning the norms and expectations of the community, the swiss volynian mennonites enact gemeinde in their storytelling. as a third generation descendant of swiss volynian immigrants, i have both a scholarly interest in interpreting the narrative behaviors of this group and a personal interest in recapturing what i fear is a disappearing ethnic heritage. though the primary «textual» data for this study were obtained through tape recorded interviews, the responses elicited and the interpretations offered are derived as much from my intimate association with the swiss mennonites as they are from a careful analysis of the interview transcripts. in order to develop a legitimate analysis of oral narrative in everyday experience, my primary data necessarily come from my personal involvement in the everyday experience of swiss mennonite culture. the interviews, then, provided a means for following up on personal insights about the performances i have observed in natural environments and for soliciting the help of my informants in describing such performances. background: a historical sketch of the swiss volynian mennonites. in the s the swiss mennonites migrated to the united states from the the term «schweitzer,» derived from the german word, schweizer [swiss], is used by both community insiders and members of other german communities to refer to the swiss volynian people. psychological prospects. issue , province of volhynia in polish russia (zhytomyrska oblast in present day ukraine). the majority of swiss mennonites originally came from canton bern in switzerland, where they were persecuted for their anabaptist beliefs. in order to escape religious persecution and to seek new agricultural opportunities, the swiss mennonites moved from switzerland to south germany, and then to the province of volyn in polish russia. (actually, the term «swiss mennonite» is something of a misnomer since the cultural identity of this group developed during several centuries of experience in europe and russia rather than in switzerland.) in , a swiss mennonite congregation was founded in the small town of kotosufka in volyn. however, the passing of the military conscription law during the reign of czar alexander required yet another emigration. on august , , seventy- eight swiss mennonite families (nearly everyone in the village) left kotosufka for new york. according to swiss mennonite historian solomon stucky, nineteen families chose to settle in south dakota, while the remaining fifty-nine settled on the prairies of central kansas. there the kotosufka congregation established the hopefield church and became some of the most significant founding members of the moundridge community. mennonite historian, harley j. stucky, observes that these «russian mennonites» formed «their own unique communities based on common faith, dialect, [and] occupation.... they tried to perpetuate communities similar to those in the old world primarily on the basis of congregational affinity» [ , р. ]. for the swiss volynians in the late s, the church was the community and the community was the church. this was the essence of the gemeinde – the notion that members in the church community were wholly interdependent. the storytelling community. prevalent traces gemeinde remain in the oral culture of the mennonites in the moundridge community. richard schrag, a retired mennonite farmer, remembered it this way: [w]e were conscious of the fact that to misbehave – there may be punishment, and to fallout of favor with the community – the church family – was a real disgrace. and you’d really feel isolated... we were considered – at that time when i was growing up – we were considered a closed group [f: ]. citation designation indicates that schrag’s quotation is transcribed in appendix f on page of: mccabe-juhnke, j. e. ( ). narrative and everyday experience: performance process in the storytelling of the swiss volhynian mennonites (volumes i and ii). (doctoral dissertation) umi ( ). louisiana state university, baton rouge, louisiana. the dissertation manuscript and tape recordings are held in the Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , as a second-generation descendant of the russian immigrants, richard maintained a strong sense of accountability to community expectations. richard was one of the thirty-four people from the moundridge community whom i interviewed for this study, thirty of whom were either first or second-generation descendants of the immigrants from volyn. as a result, the perceptions of «community» as they emerge in this study are those of a specific group of older swiss mennonites, who ranged from to years of age at the time of the interviews. this particular group of swiss mennonites, now mostly deceased, was a transitional group. they learned english as a second language. in their childhood homes they spoke german to their parents and siblings, but they spoke english to their own children. they saw remarkable changes in farming practices, from the primitive methods of the horse-drawn plow to the modern technology of motorized tractor. although their experiences with religion, social life, work, education, and family relationships altered significantly in the course of their lifetimes, they interpreted each of these aspects of contemporary life in light of the clearly defined expectations of their youth. the humble storyteller: a description of swiss volynian oral narrators. i began researching this project in when i was a doctoral student at louisiana state university. i was an eager and ashamedly naive field researcher, who was on the hunt for individuals with established reputations as storytellers in the moundridge community. however, my search was fraught with false leads, disorientation, and a general lack of information. my initial inquiry into the storytelling traditions of the swiss mennonites left me feeling that i had misjudged my home community and wondering whether any storytellers still lived there. in the rare instance that others identified individuals as good storytellers, the «storytellers» themselves denied the distinction. several fundamental assumptions of swiss volynian religion and culture undoubtedly contribute to this reticence to acknowledge participation in a storytelling tradition. an oral narrator reared in a religious tradition mennonite library and archives, bethel college, north newton, kansas. the library at lesya ukrainka eastern european national university in lutsk, ukraine also holds a copy of the dissertation. the other four included three spouses of swiss volynians from other german mennonite ancestry and one descendant from the swiss palatinate group that migrated to kansas from iowa in . psychological prospects. issue , that, according to s. stucky, values the «practical life, stressing the dangers of pride and admonition to lead holy lives» [ , р. ] has plausible reasons for a bias against storytelling, which is associated with frivolity, self- presentation, and secularism. p. e. sawin observes, «when modesty and self-effacement are valued, … self-presentation becomes a more problematic rhetorical exercise» [ , р. – ]. in addition, the kotosufka congregation’s migration en masse to america perpetuated a closed community based on congregational self- sufficiency they had practiced for nearly two centuries in europe and russia. although their interdependence as a congregation dissipated with acculturation to american society, a measure of clannishness endured. speaking in at the seventy-fifth year celebration of the swiss volynian migration, r.c. kauffman, a mennonite historian, identified the swiss mennonites’ «most obvious...trai[t] – that, namely, of a strong in-group feeling – the denominational loyalty and separateness that characterizes us» [ , р. ]. even after a century of acculturation to american society, the swiss mennonites in moundridge were perceived as a clannish people. with such a strong cultural bias towards separateness, the swiss mennonites maintained a community in which the concern for activities and experiences of those within the group dominates the oral culture of the group. j. o. schrag characterized the narrow scope of swiss mennonite oral narration in the moundridge community, when he observed, «[w]e developed a lot of little stories (when we were together with our cousins), but no one – they didn’t amount to anything outside of your group» [e: ]. thus, the storyteller in the moundridge community cannot be distinguished by his or her vast repertoire of traditional folk tales. rather, the oral narrator tells personal experience stories, family reminiscences, and stories about unusual community events or personalities. it is not surprising then that swiss mennonites consider storytelling – in the traditional sense – as an activity foreign to their group. after dismissing the notion of a folk tale tradition in the moundridge community, schrag went on to address at the heart of swiss mennonite narration. «but, there are stories. sometimes you have to dig a while till you get them out. but there are some stories that have been – especially in their own experiences, you know.... so, they created their own stories» [e: ]. indeed, «creating one’s own story» is a primary function of swiss volynian oral narration. drawing from personal experience, narrators not only affirm their personal identities in oral narration, they also adhere to Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , expectations of truthfulness thereby upholding the integrity of narrative discourse. thus, the absence of a generally acknowledged forum for sharing stories among the swiss volynians does not necessarily signify the lack of a storytelling tradition. in fact, storytelling is pervasive in swiss mennonite culture. ozzie goering provided insight into the storytelling practices of the swiss volynians. i think if you were to tell this group that you would like...to hear us tell stories about eli schrag (ozzie’s uncle, who was often the butt of jokes) and about people like that, that you would find a wealth of stories bubbling out that there wouldn’t be time for them all. i think where you are right is that due to the perceived humility factor or something, the swiss do not want to be identified as being the storyteller. but you get a group together and get them started talking, there’s stories galore about what all has happened [ : – ]. as goering’s comment suggests, for swiss mennonites, the «traditional» corpus of narratives includes personal experience stories and community anecdotes rather than standard folk tales, legends, or ballads. stories of community experiences both preserve the «humility factor» and encourage a widespread participation in narrative interactions. expressions of community in narrative discourse. as one who feels strongly that narrative performance involves an intimate relationship among the performer, his or her language, and the diverse components of the performance setting, i am reticent to launch an analysis that isolates the narrative «text» (for lack of a better word) from the other aspects of the performance event. while i recognize the artificial nature of this separation, the very act of writing a performance analysis constrains me to select from many worthy objects of attention in order to focus my discussion. i derive some comfort from dwight conquergood’s suggestion that those who investigate the «swirling constellation of energies» we call «culture» are less bound to «systematic investigation» than to «experience in social life» [ , р. ]. indeed, determining the exact point entrance into performance analysis the designation, [ : – ], indicates material drawn from the transcriptions of storytelling workshops i conducted in moundridge in the spring of . the arabic numeral before the colon indicates the workshop number ( : - - , : - - , : - - , : - - ) and the numbers after the colon indicate the page numbers of the transcription. the tape recordings and transcriptions of the storytelling workshops are held in the mennonite library and archives, bethel college, north newton, kansas. psychological prospects. issue , may be incidental to the actual decision to enter. no matter where one enters, one cannot fail to see that the interconnected nature of performance, in which individual performers, their language, their relationships, and their culture continually define and reshape each other. mikhail bakhtin’s discussion of literary discourse supports the notion that language – both written and oral – reflects the lived experience of the individual who uses it. bakhtin recognizes a pervasive tension in spoken and written discourse between language that is «half someone else’s» and half «one’s own» [ , р. ]. because we are constantly using words that have been appropriated from the experience of others, our speech reveals a complex multiplicity of contexts that reflect our own experience as well as the experience of others. as we bring words together in new combinations, we create new contexts for the interpretation of meaning. applying bakhtin’s theory of narrative discourse to spoken discourse is warranted since bakhtin himself derives much of his criticism from the analysis of speech. by examining the linguistic features of oral narrative, i hope to demonstrate how individual narrators create particular «conceptions of the world.» word choice, style, and narrative technique constitute «contextual overtones» that suggest particular interpretations of a narrator’s individual and collective experiences. on the most fundamental level, the schweitzer dialect exhibits bakhtin’s concept of polyglossia – the interplay among several national languages. adina krehbiel, a first-generation descendant of the swiss mennonites from volyn, noted the dialect «isn’t like the [german text]book…. we had polish and russian and german in our language which is so easy for us» [a: - ]. the mennonites’ sojourn through south germany and polish russia has obviously contributed to the multilingual nature of their dialect. victor goering gave a clear example of the polish influence on the schweitzer dialect. he talked about the traditional after-harvest celebration that his family called objinky. for years he assumed objinky was just a family word for the post-harvest event. however, when he and his wife sponsored some polish trainees, they discovered that the polish word for harvest festival is dovzhinky [m: ]. no doubt, the swiss mennonite’s experience in polish russia fostered an assimilation of polish vernacular in their speech patterns. in the same manner, after more than a century of experiences in the united states, swiss mennonites incorporated american english into their dialect as well often using «germanized» pronunciations of english words in their dialect. Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , polyglossia abounds in swiss mennonite oral narrative. the schweitzer dialect occurs most often in passages of reported speech. however, narrators generally translate the schweitzer dialect into american english in order to accommodate the unfortunate ignorance of their interviewer. as a third generation descendant of the volynian immigrants, i understand very little of the schweitzer dialect. storytellers maintain the dialect when recounting bits of dialogue originally spoken schweiter – in effect to demonstrate the «truthfulness» of the narrative. often when storytellers render reported speech in dialect, the quoted passage has a special intensity or significance to the event being described. notice for instance william juhnke’s fervent plea to his neighbor for help with the runaway horses. «[val krehbiel] saw that my horses were running. and…i yelled, ‘stop mei geil! stop mei geil’ [‘stop my horses! stop my horses!’] ... he couldn’t stop them» [c: ]. in the face of an apparently life-threatening situation, the young william called out in desperation. at this point in the story, a measure of intensity appropriate to the impending danger accompanies the verbal command, and the shift into dialect highlights the urgency of the moment for the narrator. swiss mennonite storytellers also used the schweitzer dialect to highlight the punch line of a story. richard bauman suggests that although some stories have a primary focus on events, in anecdotes that make use of quoted speech, the primary focus is the dialogue – «the conversational encounter that culminates in a punch line» [ , р. ]. especially for the older swiss volynian storytellers, memorable conversational encounters were those in which dialect was used to poke fun at someone. j.o. schrag laughed about fellow schweitzer fred grundman, who finally managed to start his dilapidated car after repeated efforts and then triumphantly exclaimed «entlich uf hoch!» [«finally i’m on high!»] [e: ]. ellen schrag and erwin goering told stories about andy unruh, a stuttering low german farm hand. their stories also achieved humor by quoting andy’s lines in german [n: – ; i: ]. the humor of a punch line spoken in dialect is sometimes elusive when the phrase or sentence is translated into english. j.o. schrag told a story about a member of the hopefield church choir, john strauss, who was «the butt of a lot of stories....» he couldn’t sing very well but then, he would try it. well, we had a cantata. and at the dress rehearsal…john strauss wasn’t there. so at the time for the rendition he was there. now then he walked up and psychological prospects. issue , said, «where do i sit?» and at that time ed p. goering was still alive...and ed p. said, «das wees nurre der gott und der neuenschwander.» now, neuenschwander was our preacher. «only god and neuenschwander know where you’re going to sit!» [e: ]. on the surface the literal translation of mr. goering’s comment seems marginally humorous at best. yet, the oral narrator laughed when he finished the telling. of course, some of the humor arises from knowing the people involved in the incident, but the oral narrator’s direct quotation indicates an interest as well in the specific phraseology of the comment. part of what makes the line funny is the fact that it is stated in dialect. these schweitzer storytellers typically enjoyed the special finesse that the schweitzer dialect lent to the spoken word, and they readily acknowledged that funny statements frequently lose their humor when translated into english. the swiss mennonites’ appreciation of the distinct character of the german language was demonstrated in reluctance among storytellers to offer english translations of reported speech without acknowledging that the quotations were originally spoken in german. notice delbert goering’s account of a challenge to the bücher beer, a traveling book (büch) salesman who depended on his customers for food and shelter. «somebody asked him once about going where you’re not invited. and he said in german, ‘they didn’t ask me not to come’» [b: ]. richard schrag made a similar acknowledgement in his story about trying to refuse gracefully wine from his wife’s grandfather. so i thought, «...maybe i can wiggle out of it because of my stomach trouble.» so i said, «well, i don’t want to [drink wine] on account of my stomach.» he said, «the apostle paul» – he said it in german – «the apostle paul told timothy to take a little wine for his stomach’s sake.» and i was stuck [f: ]. in this case the narrator made a false start, interrupting himself to insert a footnote about the original language of the quotation, as if he failed to recognize the inadequacy of the translation until he uttered it aloud. both narrators reveal a reticence to delete completely the influences of the german language on the oral culture of their people. in richard’s example there is a further indication that for previous generations of swiss mennonites the german language was vested with religious authority. prior to world war i, the mennonite churches in moundridge used german for sunday morning worship services. although their education in american schools had fostered the general adoption of Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , english for communication in the home and at the work site, swiss volynians continued to worship, pray, and read the bible in german. therefore, the grandfather’s quotation from the bible would naturally have been spoken in german rather than english. richard’s need to acknowledge the german original no doubt arises from a keen awareness of the significance in earlier years of using german in all forms of religious discourse. schweitzers of my generation are more indifferent toward the german language. the spiritual aura that once surrounded the language has all but vanished. ellen kling recalled a conversation that provides a good example of the schweitzer’s shifting attitudes toward the german language. ...joe said that those older people were convinced that in heaven german would be the only language spoken. and then they started to laugh and donald [ellen’s brother] said, «yes, but do you remember, sis...that dad agreed for a while. but then he said, ‘no, that can’t be. because there aren’t enough cuss words in german’» [j: ]. the remark by ellen’s father, dan waltner, clearly typifies his feisty nature, and at the same time debunks the idea that the german language is sanctified in some way. it also reveals the absurdity of ascribing sanctity or profanity to particular words in any language. after all, if the language in heaven includes a healthy proportion of cuss words, then we ought not to be offended by a little swearing here on earth. instances of language play between german and english sometimes highlight words that sound the same in both languages but have different meanings in each. dan w. goering remembered that he was teased as a child for wishing it would be more hell [bright] outside on dreary days. he and erwin c. goering told differing versions of a story about a mennonite farmer who asks a neighboring «english» woman for a kisse [pillow] for his sore buttocks. in dan’s version the protagonist was supposedly one of andy j. goering’s relatives in south dakota who was clearing a field of stones with a stone sled [h: ], and in erwin’s the main character was an eden- hopefield mennonite who was hauling hogs to halstead with a lumber wagon [n: – ]. both accounts develop in a similar fashion. after several hours of riding, the metal seat of the wagon or sled became irritating to the mennonite farmer. so he decided to stop at a roadside farmhouse and ask for a pillow to ease his sore buttocks. when he called at the door, an english lady answered. and suddenly the farmer panicked, unable to remember the english word for pillow. he said, «excuse me miss, but i psychological prospects. issue , wonder if you could give me a kisse.» from her shocked response, the farmer could tell that he had made a grave error. so he added, «oh no, no, no. not a kisse here [pointing to lips]. a kisse there [pointing to buttocks].» the polyglot in the swiss mennonites’ oral culture indicates the variety of cultural influences that have shaped swiss volynian experience. though predominantly german, the schweitzer dialect also includes words from poland, russia, and the united states. because of this unique mingling of national languages, the dialect is difficult to decipher for any group other than the swiss volynians. unlike numerous other immigrant groups, the term «bicultural» is inadequate to characterize the heritage of the swiss volynians. indeed, their oral discourse reflects a multi-cultural experience. ironically, the multi­cultural nature of their dialect functions to limit, rather than to broaden the base of their communication. when swiss volynians speak in the «mother tongue», they can be understood fully only by other swiss volynians. the dialect affirms their distinctive cultural identity and enables swiss mennonites to perpetuate their separation from the american mainstream. conclusion. indeed swiss volynian oral narration reflects the inevitability of contextual overtones within story texts. the storyteller’s participation in community life is apparent in the preponderance of dialect, which promotes an in-group identity. the predominance of community anecdotes, family re- miniscences, and personal experience stories demonstrates an overriding interest in life within the fairly limited scope of community experience. the linguistic structure of swiss mennonite oral narratives in this study is clearly shaped by community experience. in addition to reflecting a broad spectrum of community concerns, structural elements function to locate story action within a mutually understood context of people and places. thus, even an analysis that focuses specifically on «textual» consi- derations of swiss mennonite oral narrative reveals that narrative structures function both to recall and to evoke the essence of swiss volynian gemeinde. references . bakhtin m. m. the dialogic imagination : four essays / m. m. bakhtin ; trans. m. holquist eds. emerson c. & holquist m. – austin : university of texas press, . . bauman r. story, performance, and event / r. bauman // cambridge studies in oral and literate culture. – cambridge : cambridge university press, . – vol. . . conquergood d. performing cultures: ethnography, epistemology and ethics / d. conquergood // miteinander sprechen und handeln: festschrift fur hellmut geissner / ed. Е. slembek. frankfurt : scriptor. – Р. – . Психологічні перспективи. Випуск , . kauffman r. c. a critical evaluation of ourselves (the swiss mennonites) / r. c. kauffman // addresses and other items of interest connected with the seventy- fifth anniversary services of the swiss mennonites (schweitzer mennoniten) / ed. Н. І. stucky. – north newton : n. p., . . langellier k. m. personal narratives : perspectives on theory and research / k. m. langellier // text and performance quarterly. – . – ( ). – С. – . . sawin p. e. ‘right here is a good christian lady’ : reported speech in personal narratives / p. e. sawin // text and performance quarterly. – . – vol. ( ). – Р. – . . stucky h. j. a century of russian mennonite history / h. j. stucky. – north newton : n. p., . . stucky s. the heritage of the swiss mennonites / s. stucky. – waterloo : conrad press, . УДК . : . . Н. П. Медвідь received march, , revised april, , accepted april, ,  АНАЛІЗ РЕЗУЛЬТАТІВ СОЦІАЛЬНО-ПСИХОЛОГІЧНОЇ АТЕСТАЦІЇ КЕРІВНИКІВ У СФЕРІ ДЕРЖАВНОГО УПРАВЛІННЯ У статті проаналізовано результати соціально-психологічної атестації керівників у сфері державного управління, які отримано за допомогою авторської методики. З’ясовано, що найбільшим стимулом самовдосконалення керівників у сфері державного управління є любов до своєї роботи ( , %); домінує де- мократичний стиль керівництва ( , %); здебільшого керівники мають внут- рішню локалізацію контролю ( , %); більшість керівників – сангвініки ( , %); найбільше керівників, які в конфліктних ситуаціях послуговуються стратегією «співробітництво» ( , %); більшість керівників – інструментальні лідери ( , %); найчастіше трапляється тип керівника «незамінний» ( , %). За результатами таблиць узгодженості й непараметричного критерію хі-квадрат з’ясовано, що оцінки індивідуально-психологічних та соціально-психологічних властивостей керівників статистично достовірно різняться залежно від посадо- вого статусу суб’єкта оцінювання (р < , ) та статистично достовірно не різняться залежно від його статі та стажу державної служби (р > , ). За результатами соціально-психологічної атестації керівників у сфері державного управління виявилося, що рівень розвитку професійно важливих якостей у % керівників – вище середнього, а у % керівників – високий. З допомогою множинного регресійного аналізу (покроковий метод) з’ясовано, що рівень професійно © Медвідь Н. П., chh volume issue cover and front matter church history march, an essay on the development of christian doctrine jaroslav pelikan sources of origen's doctrine of freedom b. darrelljackson concilium generate and studium generate: the transformation of doctrinal regulation in the middle ages peter r. mckeon relationships of the brethren with the mennonites and quakers, - donald f. dumbaugh jonathan edwards and the theology of the sixth way robert c. whittemore the moravian missionaries and the labrador eskimos in the eighteenth century william h. whiteley christian socialism and the first church of humanity charles crowe published by the american society of church history available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by p h i l i p schaff, : reorganized, ; incorporated by act o f t h e legislature of new york, officers for john r. von rohr president stuart c. henry asst. secretary richard m. cameron .. vice president guy s. klett treasurer james h. smylie secretary robert m. grant ] (union theological seminary, rich- martin e. marty \ editors mond, va.) jerald c. brauer j voting members of the council harold j. grimm heiko a. oberman lefferts a. loetscher wilbur k. jordan albert c. outler elwyn a. smith jaroslav pelikan john tracy ellis other members of the council winfred e. garrison winthrop s. hudson frederick w. loetscher massey h. shepherd john t. mcneill james hastings nichols wilhelm pauck ray c. petry charles lyttle sandford fleming roland h. bainton sidney e. mead e. r. hardy, jr. carl e. schneider percy v. norwood leonard j. trinterud kenneth s. latourette quirinus breen matthew spinka h. shelton smith cyril c. richardson george h. williams ernest g. schweibert robert t. handy jerald c. brauer subscription prices are five dollars a year, one dollar and a half for single copies. twenty-five cents a year should be added for foreign countries. remit- tances should be made to the order of the american society of church history. subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, claims for missing numbers, orders for single copies of current or back issues should be addressed to guy s. klett, mill road, oreland, pennsylvania. claims for missing numbers will be honored without charge if made within two months following the regular month of publication. manuscripts and books for review should be sent to the editorial office, swift hall, university of chicago, chicago , illinois. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series one and two, and of church history, volumes i-xvii ( - ) are available at cost ($ and $ , respectively, plus transportation) from the atla board of microtext. orders should be sent to raymond p. morris, library of the yale divinity school, prospect street, new haven , connecticut, as well as inquiries as to microfilm portions, xerox copies. microfilm reproductions of church history beginning with volume xviii are available to subscribers and to members of the society from university microfilms, north first street, ann arbor, michigan. a cumulative index of both series of papers and of church history through volume xxx ( ) is available at two dollars a copy from guy s. klett, mill road, oreland, pennsylvania. publication office is berne, indiana second-class postage paid at berne, indiana . send change of address and forms to mill road, oreland, penn- sylvania . available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by robert m. grant, martin e. marty, jerald c. brauer with the cooperation of r. pierce beaver (divinity school, james h. nichols (princeton theo- university of chicago) logical seminary) n _, xt ,t, . „ , , taroslav pelikan (divinity school, robert t. handy (union theolog- yale university) teal seminary) ray q p ^ y (di^nity school, duke e. r. hardy, jr. (berkeley divinity university) school) leonard j. trinterud (san fran- cisco theological seminary) winthrop s. hudson (colgate- george h. williams (divinity rochester divinity school) school, harvard university) vol. xxxv march, no. table of contents a n essay on t h e development of christian doctrine jaroslav pelikan - - - - - - - sources of origen's doctrine of freedom b. darrell jackson - - - - - - - concilium generate and studium generale: t h e transformation of doctrinal regulation i n the middle ages p e t e r r . m c k e o n . . . . . . . a relationships of t h e brethren with t h e mennonites and quakers, - donald f. durnbaugh - - - - - - jonathan edwards and t h e theology of the s i x t h w a y robert c. whitienwre - - - - - - t h e moravian missionaries and the labrador eskimos i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h century william h. whiteley - - - - - - christian socialism and the first c h u r c h of h u m a n i t y charles crowe - - - - - - - available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core contents book reviews _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ dodds, e. r.: pagan and christian in am age of anxiety .. william r. schoedel kelly, j. n. d.: the athanasian creed d. larrimore holland tierney, brian : the crisis of church and state - ....allen cabaniss adam, paul: la vie paroissiale en france an, xive siecle .... richard lumay watanabe, morimichi : the political ideas } nicholas of cusa richard luman fabian, ekkehart : die enstehung des schmalkaldischen bundes und seiner verfassung / - / lewis spitz buck, hermann : die anfdnge der konstanzer reformationsprozesse, osterreich, eidgenossenschaft und schmalkaldischer bund / - lewis spitz friedmann, robert: die schriften der huterischen taufergemeinschaften: gesamtkatalog ihrer manuskriptbiicher, ihrer schreiber und ihrer literatur, - harold j grimm linder, robert dean : the political ideas of pierre viret.... harold j. grimm hunt, george l. and mcneill, john t. (eds.) : calvinism and the political order robert m. kingdon d'etaples, jacques lefevre : epristres et evangiles pour les ciquante & deux sepmaines de i'an; monter, w. william : studies in genevan government ( - ) joseph haroutunian thompson, craig r.: the colloquies of erasmus l. j. trinterud new, john f. h.: anglican and puritan • the basis of their opposition - '. george drake ware, timothy : eustratios argenti n. zernov akers, charles w.: called unto liberty: a life of jonathan mayhew john opie ellis, john tracy: catholics in colonial america james h. smylie weber, francis j.: california's reluctant prelate; documents of california catholic history ( - ) john bernard mcgloin dederen, raoul: un reformateur catholique au xixe siecle; eugene michaud james d. nelson albright, raymond w.: a history of the protestant episcopal church nelson r. burr maring, norman h.: baptists in new jersey; a study in transition hugh wamble jamison, wallace n.: religion in new jersey; a brief history norman h. maring levine, lawrence w.: defender of the faith. william jennings bryan: the last decade - john opie bloch-hoell, nils : the pentecostal movement: its origin, development, and distinctive character timothy l. smith coughlin, bernard j.: church and state in social welfare .. robert t. handy m i n u t e s of t h e c o u n c i l and s o c i e t y - - - available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core [pdf] cis-regulatory mutations in human disease. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /bfgp/elp corpus id: cis-regulatory mutations in human disease. @article{epstein cisregulatorymi, title={cis-regulatory mutations in human disease.}, author={d. epstein}, journal={briefings in functional genomics & proteomics}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	d. epstein 	published 	biology, medicine 	briefings in functional genomics & proteomics cis-acting regulatory sequences are required for the proper temporal and spatial control of gene expression. variation in gene expression is highly heritable and a significant determinant of human disease susceptibility. the diversity of human genetic diseases attributed, in whole or in part, to mutations in non-coding regulatory sequences is on the rise. improvements in genome-wide methods of associating genetic variation with human disease and predicting dna with cis-regulatory potential are… expand view on pubmed academic.oup.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	diabetes mellitus 	autistic disorder 	crohn disease 	genetic diseases, x-linked 	disease susceptibility citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency clinical and phenotypic relevance of cis‐acting regulatory polymorphisms 	a. liebert, b. jones, d. swallow 	biology 	 save alert research feed identification of functional cis‐regulatory polymorphisms in the human genome 	ivan molineris, d. schiavone, f. rosa, g. matullo, v. poli, p. provero 	biology, medicine 	human mutation 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed genetic variation in long-range enhancers. 	j. fullard, s. rahman, p. roussos 	biology, medicine 	current topics in behavioral neurosciences 	 save alert research feed deregulated regulators: disease-causing cis variants in transcription factor genes. 	r. van der lee, solenne correard, w. wasserman 	biology, medicine 	trends in genetics : tig 	 	 	 save alert research feed regulatory variations in the era of next‐generation sequencing: implications for clinical molecular diagnostics 	o. jarinova, m. ekker 	biology, medicine 	human mutation 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed a whole-genome analysis framework for effective identification of pathogenic regulatory variants in mendelian disease. 	d. smedley, max schubach, + authors p. robinson 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	 save alert research feed a mobile insulator system to detect and disrupt cis-regulatory landscapes in vertebrates. 	j. bessa, m. luengo, + authors j. l. gómez-skarmeta 	biology, medicine 	genome research 	 	 	highly influenced 	pdf 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed bayespi-bar: a new biophysical model for characterization of regulatory sequence variations 	junbai wang, kirill batmanov 	biology, medicine 	nucleic acids research 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed a comprehensively molecular haplotype-resolved genome of a european individual. 	eun-kyung suk, gayle k mcewen, + authors m. hoehe 	biology, medicine 	genome research 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the sheep and the goats: distinguishing transcriptional enhancers in a complex chromatin landscape 	a. sonnenschein, i. dworkin, d. arnosti 	biology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency long-range control of gene expression: emerging mechanisms and disruption in disease. 	d. kleinjan, v. van heyningen 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed abundant raw material for cis-regulatory evolution in humans. 	m. rockman, g. wray 	biology, medicine 	molecular biology and evolution 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed a regulatory snp causes a human genetic disease by creating a new transcriptional promoter 	m. de gobbi, v. viprakasit, + authors d. higgs 	biology, medicine 	science 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references methods and background save alert research feed genetics of gene expression and its effect on disease 	v. emilsson, g. thorleifsson, + authors k. stefánsson 	biology, medicine 	nature 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed mapping determinants of human gene expression by regional and genome-wide association 	v. cheung, r. spielman, k. ewens, t. weber, m. morley, joshua t. burdick 	biology, medicine 	nature 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed evaluation of the ret regulatory landscape reveals the biological relevance of a hscr-implicated enhancer. 	e. grice, erin s. rochelle, e. green, a. chakravarti, a. mccallion 	biology, medicine 	human molecular genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed management of gene promoter mutations in molecular diagnostics. 	k. d. de vooght, r. van wijk, w. v. van solinge 	medicine 	clinical chemistry 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed a genome-wide association study of global gene expression 	a. dixon, l. liang, + authors w. cookson 	biology, medicine 	nature genetics 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed in vivo enhancer analysis of human conserved non-coding sequences 	l. pennacchio, n. ahituv, + authors e. rubin 	biology, medicine 	nature 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed high-resolution mapping of expression-qtls yields insight into human gene regulation 	jean-baptiste veyrieras, s. kudaravalli, + authors j. pritchard 	biology, medicine 	plos genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ book reviews not in uniform but dressed in their black bonnets and street clothes, ready, as the authors suggest, to go out to the pub. these are lower class women, some who are slouching or sitting informally, legs on the sides of the chairs. they are clearly not ‘ladies’, and are staring directly into the camera. this photograph is a potent piece of the author’s argument for the urgency of reform. a contrasting photo located in the conclusion chapter, shows ‘the new trained nurse’ (p. ), at st bartholomew’s hospital, c. s. the nurses are wearing starched, clean uniforms and are straight of posture, glancing self-consciously away from the camera. these are the nurses after nurse training reform and, by choosing a photo that did not portray st. thomas’ nurses, the authors bring their argument full circle – nightingale was critical to reform but there were others who made her reforms possible. julie fairman university of pennsylvania doi: . /mdh. . myra rutherdale (ed.), caregiving on the periphery: historical perspectives on nursing and midwifery in canada, mcgill-queen’s associated medical services studies in the history of medicine, health, and society (montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), pp. + x, isbn: - - - - . although not quite as unique as the editor claims (p. ), caregiving on the periphery illustrates the ethnic diversity of canada and the value of using this particular, vast country as a microcosm in order to study the history of health care in a variety of sometimes clashing cultures. the history of nursing in canada is a burgeoning field, and a previous edited volume has also examined the role of place: jayne elliott, meryn stuart and cynthia toman, place and practice in canadian nursing history (vancouver: university of british columbia press, ). furthering existing literature on the country, the book seeks to bring the diversity of race and ethnicity into prominence in the history of nursing within canada. for example, in her chapter on russian mennonite communities, marlene epp explores the ethnic tensions between white immigrant groups. in her analysis of margaret butcher’s life writing, mary ellen kelm examines the difference between ‘englishness’ and ‘whiteness’ in canada, in addition to wider complexities of race and gender. opening with a gripping story of a nurse’s isolation and autonomy, a major theme of the book is isolation. in her chapter on red cross nursing, jayne elliott highlights how nurses’ autonomous roles in small communities meant that young nurses were under surveillance and judged regarding their social lives and sexuality. similarly, as lesley mcbain demonstrates in her chapter, nurses in northern saskatchewan were concerned for their reputations and professional identity, and therefore suffered social isolation. judith young shows that in early-nineteenth-century urban toronto, this small town in the empire provided nurses from england, ireland or scotland with a sense of being on the british periphery. however, isolation is not highly evident within every chapter; for example, midwives formed part of close-knit mennonite communities, which placed importance on midwifery practice exclusively performed by their own ethno-religious group, as examined by marlene epp, although skis were required in order for one mennonite nurse https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews to reach patients in more remote areas. myra rutherdale usefully reminds the reader that isolation should not just be based on geography, but on power relations in communities and countries. as with most literature on nursing and midwifery in rural areas, caregiving on the periphery highlights the autonomy and diversity of their roles. for example, epp likens nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century trained mennonite midwives to those practising in europe until the seventeenth century, with these midwives performing bone-setting, teeth- pulling, diagnosis and prescribing, emergency surgery, spiritual folk-healing and working as undertakers. heidi coombs-thorne considers the blurred boundaries of nursing and medical practice in her chapter on nursing in the grenfell mission stations. these major themes of isolation, autonomy, diversity and ethnic communities are examined within four parts, focusing on midwifery, life writing, nursing regulation and professionalisation, and nursing in outposts and amongst aboriginal communities. encounters with these indigenous communities and analyses of colonisation are not confined to this latter part but permeate other chapters of the book. for example, rutherdale addresses an account of nursing work in an aboriginal community in the s and s in her chapter on amy wilson’s life and travel writing. rutherdale analyses the intrusive nature of wilson’s colonising and civilising work, judging her to be relatively enlightened in her approach to indigenous health care practices. laurie meijer drees assesses the inhibited role of aboriginal nurses between and in the professionalisation section of the book. the book also includes a chapter on religious nursing – a canadian anglican nursing sisterhood and its involvement in war nursing during the northwestern rebellion ( ), examined by elizabeth domm. some of the eleven chapters forming these parts include rigorous primary research. in particular, young’s analysis of census data on nursing in toronto highlights their high literacy rates from the s, their age, ethnic groups and an examination of their social class, undertaken by looking at the occupations of the nurses’ families; she determines that the nurses were largely working class. drees relies on numerous archival sources to elucidate the training of aboriginal health workers. elliott and judith bender zelmanovits undertake extensive archival research and interviews. the genre of the history of health care in places, and in particular of health in the rural north, is expanding with two volumes published by pickering and chatto in , which both include substantial contributions on canada – j.t.h. connor and stephan curtis (eds), medicine in the remote and rural north, – (london, ) and erika dyck and christopher fletcher (eds), locating health: historical and anthropological investigations of place and health (london, ). published prior to these volumes, caregiving on the periphery is a very worthwhile contribution to this literature. the book addresses the ethnic and cultural breadth of nursing and midwifery in canada from the early nineteenth century to the late twentieth century, whilst remaining a coherent volume with many of the authors referencing the relevance of each other’s chapters. rosemary wall imperial college london, uk king’s college london, uk https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core oleaga.pmd museum and society, ( ) museum and society, mar . ( ) - © , marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky. issn - looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america marisa gonzález de oleaga* universidad nacional de educación a distancia, spain; maría silvia di liscia** universidad nacional de la pampa, argentina; ernesto bohoslavsky*** universidad nacional general sarmiento, argentina abstract what functions might the history museum fulfill in the twenty-first century? how could this powerful ideological device, so closely linked in its origins to the nation- state and neo-colonial expansion, be changed into an instrument of multicultural citizenship? in some latin american museums, new historical subjects and audio-visual media have been incorporated into the exhibits. but, is that enough? we do not believe so, because things are said in a museum, but things are also done while speaking: reality is ordered, evaluated and hierarchized, so that a certain way of conceiving and being in the world is conveyed. therefore, making the museum suitable to the new needs of the community demands changes not only in what is said, but also in the way it is said. it serves little to incorporate new social subjects (the native peoples of latin america, for example) if this inclusion results from a pejorative conception of these communities, which is just what happens in the museum of america in madrid, where the spanish appear as masters of the word while the indigenous people are represented by ceramic vessels. if, in the accounts of the museums, the part continues to be taken for the whole by essentializing and naturalizing the difference, then those other social subjects must appear to be merely a historical afterthought. it seems to us that the performative dimension of the discourse in the museum is a very important aspect at the moment its function in the new global society is evaluated. we propose two objectives for new museums: serving the purposes of multicultural coexistence, and being spaces where the subjects may examine their social situation. in order to do this, we have analyzed the setup of three museums: a colonial museum (the museum of america in madrid), a national museum (the national historical museum in buenos aires), and an ethnic museum (the mennonite jacob unger museum in the paraguayan chaco). key words: representation, otherness, performativity, narratives looking at the forest from the ground i myself remember that when i was a child… we used to climb the tallest trees just to get a better view, right, to improve the scenery, yes? it seemed so restricted to us, because as we looked in any direction, there was the forest. the world ended… the biggest sensation that we could have possibly dreamed of was going up in a plane and looking at the chaco from above. that was the dream of every child. i remember when they put a radio tower in south filadelfia… all the children climbed it to look at the chaco from above… marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america that was the sensation, wasn’t it? …since there are no mountains, and… it seems to me that we grew up with a diminished perception of space…(niebuhr ) that is how gundolf niebuhr, the man in charge of the jacob unger museum, stated his greatest desire and that of the children from his community in the s, before the trans-chaco highway was put in to connect the isolated mennonite colonies with the outside. it was a world that was partitioned off and closed up behind the impenetrable chaco forest, which cut off any possibility for communication or exchange with whatever lay just a little beyond. therefore, looking from above was the only conceivable way of getting around that obstacle and encountering the (un)known from another perspective: they had to defy the thicket that held their vision captive. from the ground, the forest was an impassable barrier, the end of the world. but from above it could be a boundary (separating what was known from what was not) and an opportunity: precisely because it separated both realities, it called for an encounter between them. in a world like ours, which only seems to be very different from the mennonite world of that decade, obstacles also exist that threaten to curtail, tame and mortgage away our perceptiveness. in spite of all the debate about the reach and effect of globalization (albrow ; ferguson ; nederveen pieterse ; appiah ; steger, ) and about the ability of local cultures to appropiate western modes of thinking (spivak ; robertson ; bauman ; chakravarty, ; mignolo, ; shohat, ; dirlik, ; ashcroft, ; young, ), it seems undeniable that there is a tendency to erase or eliminate those differences – those other “forms of being in the world” – that work against converting citizens into consumers. it is in this context, which alleges its diversity while being obsessively homogenizing, where the museum can have an important role as a place for difference. and within the museum, history museums in particular may be places for encountering and re- working those differences in the past, which is its own “foreign country.” museums continue to be powerful visual and ideological systems whose messages shape collective imaginaries in various ways. in them, things are said, but things are also done while speaking: reality is created, ordered, evaluated, hierarchized, and justified. that is, when statements are made in museums, a way of perceiving the world is being recorded at the same time. but their word has great value because the museum aspires to be not just like any other institution, it works as a space for gaining knowledge, a place where what is exhibited is not included as a product of a historically conditioned interpretation. the museum aims to be a locus where discourse, constructed from “scientific facts… unequivocal statements”, must be located (macdonald : ). in museums, things are said, and things are done while speaking. and all these actions by way of inscriptions and imprints, comprise a major ideological operation and policy that the museum strives to efface by appealing to science and true knowledge. it is this performative or actualizing dimension of language (austin ; derrida ; butler and ) that merits evaluation at the moment of redefining the objectives of this institution. because the museum is not a product of modernity, but one of its allies, it is “one of the technologies through which modernity… is constituted” (macdonald : ). what do the accounts in history museums say and do? in the more modern museums, new subjects have been incorporated, and new mechanisms for exhibition have been added for historical narratives. but is that enough? if we want the history museum to accompany multicultural societies in their development, is it enough to have new subjects or to outfit the exhibits with new interactive devices? if we accept that the museum has the ability to affect the lives of citizens not only by what it says but also by what is does as it is speaking, we should understand that it is not only the statements that are made which must be questioned, but also the way in which they are made. because museums are spaces for the creation and re-creation of identities, they are “contact zones” (pratt : - ). this means that they are places for knowing and recognizing the strategies of domination and resistence that constituted the subjects in the past and which, above all, define them in the present (clifford ; lindauer ). perhaps then we will be closer to re- imagining other uses for this institution. it is time, then, to defy the mandate of civilization and climb up into the trees. museum and society, ( ) climbing trees history museums are a genre within the kind of public museums that were popularized in the th century. as formidable visual devices (preziosi : - ), these institutions were created to gather, classify, preserve, exhibit and study vestiges of the past that might permit – at a time of great changes – the education and indoctrination of the new subjects of modern nation-states: their citizens (coombes ; duncan ; earle ; kaplan ).this reorganization and re-creation of memory contributed toward naturalizing the idea of the nation, and it also served to show that the superiority of the west was not the result of force, but rather of historical rationality that the world should imitate (heartney ; mitchell ; simpson ). however, this hegemonic and little-debated viewpoint began to change around , and its critics have intensified their debate in recent decades (clifford ; simpson ; walsh ; dubin ). national minorities and subaltern groups that have traditionally been excluded from representation in the museums – as well as professionals from those institutions and scholars dedicated to research in the social sciences – have lifted up their voices against what they consider to be an anachronistic institution that fails to meet the needs of its citizens. with some insistence, various people from these groups are asking that museums stop being places of inculcation and indoctrination, and become spaces where one who comes there might see herself as part of a larger story. access to history and memory is seen, from this critical perspective, as a fundamental right that affects the identity and ability to act for all the actors and subjects involved. the historical invisibilization and negative appraisal of certain groups contemporizes and reinforces the structures of domination, and incapacitates the actors from being able to mount an active resistance (sepúlveda dos santos ; lindauer : ). this shift in the purposes, functions and uses of museums has found broad resonance in the english-speaking world, where distinct ethnic minorities have found a place and have demanded to participate in the making and the management of how they are depicted (simpson ). somewhat closer to the cultural environment of the authors of this paper, we may cite the conflict that took place in in catalunya, which revolved around the embalmed body of a pygmy on display at the darder museum of natural history in banyolas. the existence of this display was condemned by the african immigrants in the area, which jeopardized the participation of teams from that continent in the barcelona olympic games. the incident was finally settled when the body was repatriated to its native land in the year . in latin america, whether it is because of pressure from ethnic groups or because of the sensitivity of those responsible for making cultural policies, the traditional historical accounts that affect the indigenous communities are being called into question with increasing force. not only are statements beginning to be voiced about the pertinence of displaying human remains from primitive cultures in the exhibits, but on several occasions the demand has been made that those remains be returned to their descendants (brooks and rumsey ; alberti et alt. ). such was the case of the ancient chief mariano rosas (painé), whose remains were claimed by his ranquel family members at the natural museum of la plata, where he was on display. his remains were finally sent to victorica (la pampa) in july of . but apart from these episodes, there have not been great debates in the latin american world about the functions of the museum. some have endured notable transformations. they have become more interactive, with the resultant effect that this might have on the attitude of the visitor toward the knowledge being displayed there. yet we believe it is not an exaggeration to say that these changes have not permeated the discourse of the history museum, which may still be considered in the majority of cases to be a “temple of knowledge,” or, the place where a visitor comes in search of a true account. one of the places that represents all those things is the museum of america (mam) in madrid, founded during the dictatorship of franco. it is the only museum in the world that seeks to represent the reality of the entire continent, and it accurately conveys a certain colonial melancholy. the permanent exhibit in this museum is an example of how a presentation that appears to be very modernized with multi-media and audio-visual accoutrements can still contain discourses that are traditional, if not openly reactionary. in spanish, the museum is called the ‘museum of america’ (singular). this name may give rise to some confusion, since marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america ‘america’ tends to be associated with the united states of america. however, it is the idea of the ‘hispanic world’ in particular that franco used as a resource in the first years of the second world war to compete against pan-americanism. therefore, the use of ‘america’ in singular in the name is a vestige of the competition to lead or hegemonize the political will of that continent. another example might be the national historical museum (nhm) located in buenos aires. the permanent display is an attempt, to some extent a failed one, to change what was until recently the hegemonic discourse of a national museum, characterized as it was by heroes and tombs. the museum reverses the hierarchies of the protagonists, but it does not manage to subvert them: where the elite once were, the masses now are. the old military heroes are replaced by new ones, represented by groups traditionally excluded from the official history, leaving the traditional imaginary structure untouched. finally, it seems interesting to assess the state of affairs of a museum for an ethnic community, a kind of museum that is experiencing an ever-growing boom today as it fundamentally changes the scale for analysis and incorporates new subjects to depict history. we shall consider the case of the mennonite jacob unger museum (jum) in the paraguayan chaco. in this final example – where we have designated the exhibition as “nature and culture” – we wish to stress that the key is not the inclusion of new historical subjects, or at least it is not the only important feature, when thinking of new functions for the museum. the critical use of these institutions cannot be reduced to adding more characters to the cast, but rather a new form of expression must be written into the museum. returning to the premise that things are said in history museums about the past at the time that messages are inscribed in the present, it is fitting to ask about the strategies of meaning: how is meaning created in the permanent exhibits of these history museums? when we enter a museum, the space is not simply filled with random artefacts. rather, these artefacts are arranged in a particular way that is coherent with the cultural conceptions or the ideological positions of the society or community that creates or maintains the museum. what we mean by this will become apparent as we describe the three museums that are the focus of this study. so then, the museum conveys significance, in the first place, through the organization of a symbolic space that seeks to transmit statements that say things about the museum and what is represented there. in the second place, the museum speaks through the structure and circulation of accounts that are composed of texts and objects. finally, the interaction between the space and the accounts produces a sort of discourse that goes beyond the institution itself to shape our way of thinking and of perceiving reality (garcía canclini ; geertz , barthes , ; chartier ). emblems the three museums mentioned – the mam, the nhm and the jum – are situated in places that are emblematic for their respective communities. whether these places have been built for the purpose of housing the museum or not, their location seemed appropriate for what was going to be exhibited there. the mam, a building of brick and hewn stone with a rectangular, “l-shaped” floor plan that imitates a baroque colonial convent with a church and tower, is situated at one of the busiest entrance points into madrid, the one that connects the city with the entire northern part of the country. it was founded in , during the dictatorship fig . spatial syntax of mam museum and society, ( ) of general franco, two years after the end of the civil war. however, its collections wandered around other institutions until they were ultimately transferred to their current resting place in . it is located at the intersection of two main boulevards, the avenue of the catholic monarchs and victory arch avenue, which ends a few meters away with an enormous arch that commemorates the triumph of the fascists troops in the war. the mam is situated on a hill that demarcates western park, a verdant expanse where statues and monuments have been erected over the decades to heroic latin american figures, and to the (spanish) heroes who fought against the freedom fighters in cuba and the philippines. the museum forms part of the university district, which was the scene of military conflict during the civil war, as attested by the preserved bunkers and the altar to the virgin of the siege. the maintenance of this religious image is very interesting because it is accompanied by a plaque on which a large text, which was placed there by the ruling executive body of the university district (junta de gobierno de la ciudad universitaria), praises “the soldiers of franco (that) made her a mirror of their fortitude” (fernández delgado et al. : ). behind the museum, a few meters from the plaza of christ the king, stands the school of naval engineering and the hispanic library, which occupies part of the building that once housed the institute of hispanic culture. something in this obstinate and repetitive spatial semantic (of the cross and the sword) tells us that the place where the museum rests is not a casual choice, but rather that this site has been selected with its appropriateness for the institution in mind. one need only know the basic tenets of franco’s foreign policy for this all to be consistent with the regime’s objectives: to use the presumably privileged relationship of spain toward the american nations – by virtue of language, religion and history – as a currency of exchange with the leading powers on the international scene, i.e. germany in the first years of the second world war, and afterwards the united states (gonzález de oleaga ). the museum opened its doors at its present location in , and closed them again for fig . the museum of america located at the intersection of the two main boulevards, with the arch that commemorates the triumph of the fascist troops during spanish civil war. marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america repairs in . it was not completely reopened until , when it housed an entirely new exhibition that it has maintained since that time. the museum of america opening its doors again in full democracy is one of the legacies of franco. but the new government and the local authorities do not seem interested in re-drawing this cumbersome imperial historical legacy, which clearly extolled language and religion as spanish contributions . moreover, the grand opening in was spatially related to the prior construction of a -meter tower called the ‘lighthouse of moncloa’, which “illumines the facilities that rise beneath its feet” : that is, the museum of america. the lighthouse signals and marks what is locked away, the spoils of war obtained thanks to the discovery and the conquest, accentuating the colonial bias that we shall see in the exhibition itself. the national historical museum (nhm) in buenos aires was founded in as a municipal museum, and nationalized in . since it has been housed in a rectangular building in the italian style, painted the colour of ochre with white moldings, above one of the gullies of lezama park in the san telmo neighbourhood, where pedro de mendoza supposedly founded buenos aires in . the property belonged to the english until . for this reason, it was known for decades as the “english estate.” the european ambience suggested by the house and garden make the museum seem like part of the old world that has been grafted or tacked on to buenos aires. it is accessed by an iron gate that opens onto defensa street, and one reaches the entrance through a courtyard surrounded by gardens that, were it not for the bars, would be part of the public park. in the courtyard, one may contemplate a colonial cistern, the brass bells of one of the oldest churches in buenos aires (that of the virgin of merced, patroness of the army, whose cult was imported from spain), carriages and cannons of brass, and the statues of powerful sitting lions that seem to be keeping watch to safeguard the relics of the homeland. the building is accessed through a covered gallery, in which there are two statues in offset alcoves: one statue is of the first director of the museum, adolfo carranza, and the other is of christopher columbus. on one side of the gallery, there is a series of plaques fig . tower of the museum and ‘lighthouse of moncloa’ museum and society, ( ) out in the open commemorating key moments for the institution and visits made by persons or institutions who rendered homage to the museum. the entire space is saturated with references to the old world. this is because, from its inception, it was never clear what its function was, or what argentine reliquaries should be designated to represent the country. its first director, adolfo carranza, solicited donations from the patrician families of buenos aires – and later from the families of the rest of the country – to include the greatest number of “trophies” to embody the nation of argentina. his basic role was to gather objects without order or systematization in order to saturate the eye of the spectator. the objects chosen represented the matrons and patricians, the creole elite, and idolized heroes who were changed into a model of humanity and civility. this europeanizing environment may seem paradoxical when one considers that it occurred in the context of defining a nationality that, in order to come into being, had to break its ties with the metropoli. but one need only know a little argentine history to resolve the apparent contradiction. argentina as a nation never valued native contributions or the influence of popular culture, and the national identity was always considered to be an inheritance of the values of high european culture. nevertheless, this imported ambience that was intended to define the nation must have been a liability for the team that designed the current permanent display that was launched in . in the foyer at the entrance before starting the tour of the exhibition, there are large panels explaining the traditional function of museums in western throught (the domination of space, the pedagogy of progress, the memory of the nation) and the origin of the national museum, which was born from the will of “patricians” who assembled their own histories and wanted to convert them into collective history. in these texts, the critical spirit of the current display is mentioned, as are the debates concerning the importance of museums. the caution is given that the objects and accounts on display are not the only ones possible or, perhaps, the best ones, and that by drawing from everyone – visitors and curators alike – other accounts may be constructed. it is as if they were attempting, with this warning, to counteract the effects of narratives inherited from other eras fig . outside the nhm marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america finally, the jacob unger mennonite museum at the fernheim colony in paraguay is a community museum and also an example of the ethnic museum so much in vogue in recent decades. each colony possesses a history museum, and fernheim, furthermore, has a house museum: the knelsenhaus. the fernheim museum is located in the middle of the colony at the intersection of hindenburg and unruh avenues, just in front of the cooperative building, the supermarket, the bank, the civil association, the industrial plant, and the department of education and culture, and it is a few meters from the hospital. it is a central place for the community, at the crossroads of social and administrative life for the colony. it was founded in may of at the insistence of a teacher who deemed it necessary to “gather and protect things,” and to make use of them as an educational resource. in , the display was transferred to the second floor of the “colony house,” one of the four original buildings, where it remained until may of , when it was decided to move the samples of local fauna to the adjoining school in order to protect them from the harsh climate. the installation of the museum in the coloniehaus demonstrates the value that the memory of the community and the history of the pioneers have for this group. the building that houses the museum is a wooden structure, with a rectangular floor plan of two levels, corredor jeré (a gallery around the perimeter), and a gabled roof. it features two symmetrical apertures, one in front, and another in the back portion of the building. the one in the back leads to the gallery and a garden. at either side of the two doors are two windows, both on the upper and lower floors. the façade is split by an outside staircase that connects the front garden with the upper floor. the style of the building is an example of an architectural hybrid, with central european elements (materials, structure, roof design) and other characteristics from paraguay (such as the corridor that circumambulates the entire building). the floor of the lower level, where the pioneer exhibit is kept, has been preserved with its original clay floors, and the structure of the building has been maintained nearly intact. thus, fig . jacob unger museum, façade and main entrance in the intersection of the hindenburg and unruh avenues. museum and society, ( ) a small aperture can still be seen in one of the wall dividers on the upper level, a sort of window through which the telephone operator attended to the public. this is not, then, a building conceived as a museum, but rather an exhibit adapted to one of the places that is emblematic for the community. in all the cases described, the museums are located in significant places that, through the interaction of these spaces and their exhibits, are each transformed into a significant locus. in the three museums mentioned, there is a common spatial language – albeit with slight variations – that is able to influence the experience of the visit. it involves the way that the tour of the exhibit is organized. in the mam, the itinerary to be followed is pre-arranged by the architecture and the manner in which the display is organized. this is a museum/gallery, a concrete spatial typology (hillier and tzortzi ) that is characterized by “a gathering space near the entrance, which serves as a space for setting out from and returning to; and, linked to this, there is a set of spaces which are strongly sequenced so they can be walked through without back-tracking or getting lost” (hillier and tzortzi : ). it is organized into two floors in which the rooms follow one after the other in a chronologically arranged tour. there is no possibility of following a different route, or of the visitor choosing an order different from the one proposed. each exhibition hall has an exit that leads to a glass-enclosed cloister from which one may see a conventual garden with red earth that evokes the gardens of the spanish religious missions in latin america. the jum also has this gallery structure on the lower floor. at the entrance, as soon as the visitor enters the door, she is compelled to follow the itinerary on the left where, in a chronological and evolutionary fashion, she may follow the accounts about the history of the pioneers. the display concludes with the visitor positioned back at the beginning of the exhibit, facing the guest book. if she pushes on and climbs the stairs to the second floor, the visitor finds that here, in this second room, the route is determined by the architectural barriers, though there is a slightly larger margin for the visitor to choose her own itinerary. the upper floor of the old colony house is divided into three consecutive bedrooms. the first room that the visitor enters is dedicated to the chaco war. from there, one may continue to the right, to the room for ethnography and archeology; or to the left, which is dedicated to the fauna of the area. in contrast to the mam and the jum exhibit on the first floor, the visitor is not obliged to continue forward or retrace her steps. to a certain extent, it is possible to move from the room dedicated to the war to the local fauna room, thus dispensing with the ethnography exhibit, or deciding on one and avoiding the other. finally, the route proposed in the nhm is a bit more complicated. a single hall comprises the permanent collection, which opens with a display case devoted to the ancient indigenous population. from there, the visitor may choose two itineraries: the one on the right, or the one on the left. in each of them, problematic events or aspects of national history are addressed. this culminates in a large-scale photographic screen that attempts to resolve the political conflicts discussed in the two tours. the space is so small that, in spite of these two options, visitors circulate clockwise, moving from the origins of the nation’s history to contemporary history, then returning to the battles for independence. however, apart from how the space is organized, the museum produces meanings and feelings, due to the structure of its accounts and the way in which the selected information is arranged and displayed. texts in spite of differences in theme, size and budget, the three museums we have studied are united by a common discourse, the product of ingrained empiricist and evolutionist concepts that belong to modernity. in all these instances, reality is conceived of as being a coherent and ordered whole that is waiting to be decoded and understood; this is a role that belongs to science, a field to which the museum is indebted. the permanent exhibit of the mam has the appearance of a very modern display because of the characteristics of the materials used and the abundance of audio-visuals. enormous glass display cases give the impression that the objects are floating within reach of the visitors. the exhibition halls are largely accompanied by supporting video, which gives them marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america the feel of a contemporary museum. nevertheless, there is no interactive display in the entire exhibition. in every instance, there are dioramas or dvd documentaries that appeal to the visitor’s passivity. the display is arranged around five thematic areas: ‘knowledge of america,’ ‘the reality of america,’ ‘society’ ‘religion’ and, finally, ‘the means of communication’ as if these were the chapters of a book, at the beginning of the tour – in large display cases – the museum advertises this structure and its corresponding sections. it is these titles in the singular that first catch one’s attention. how can a continent with so many countries be distilled in such a way that we might be able to talk about one knowledge, one reality, or one society? it is clear that the museum seeks to give this vision of unity, an almost natural one, even while it is faced with obvious (ethnic and cultural) diversity that accompanies the entire exhibition through photographs and objects. the display is arranged vertically, so that what is above is more significant than what is shown on the first floor. if we take into account the kind of religious edifice that this is, the exhibition is placed along superimposed naves and an apse, the place of the sacred. in the apse is found the treasure of the quimbayas, funeral offerings made of solid gold and donated by the colombian government in the th century. because of the kind of lighting provided, there is no room for doubt as to the importance that the museum bestows on this place and what is being exhibited there, reproducing yet again the old images of the conquest. two easily detectable common threads run through the entire exhibition: the first extols the spanish technological progress that established the metropoli at the height of imperial power, and the other defends the unity in diversity that is presumed by the conquest and colonization. in the former case, this is a progression from “mythos” to “logos”: that is, from the first fantastical representations of america (“mythos”), to the “logos” that in this instance is shown graphically in the reproduction of a satellite map of the planet. thanks to science and technology, spain conquered america and, along the way, the museum allows us to “truly” know those realities. the second is a journey through babel, from the variety and diversity of ethnicity, geography and culture, to the unity brought by the spanish language, a tool of progress in the fig . the quimbayas gold treasure museum and society, ( ) world today. in this two-fold itinerary, the spaniards are always represented by the word: they have a voice, and they are the ones who describe, tell and relate the accounts. meanwhile, the native peoples are represented by objects that in the majority of cases are different kinds of earthenware vessels. different groups of human beings traveled along this road toward cultural and linguistic unity, and their demographic contributions are shown in the hall titled “the one mankind.” there, africans, asians and europeans are integrated into the american population with no problems, with the natural flow of an organized voyage. nothing is said of the violence, power, submission, domination and resistance that took place among them (price and price ). slavery, which is represented by the everyday objects of the african settlers, is called “african emigration,” and the rest of the panels in this hall seem to be a clear and deceptive attempt to show that the demographic catastrophe in latin america was not produced through the spanish conquest, but rather during the wars of independence. in the same way, maps and charts hint that the conquest of north america was more traumatic, in demographic terms, than that of the rest of the continent, thus attempting to counter the “black legend”, regarding the spanish conquest. in the entire display, one sees a tension between the acknowledgement of diversity – ethnic, cultural and religious – and the emphasis placed on hinting that these differences are only a question of form because, deep down, we all belong to the same species (are we not all the children of god?). this is so much the case that in the hall dedicated to “society” – which is divided according to “life cycles” as if it were part of a natural history museum – different rites are dressed up as the same thing: a catholic communion, an indigenous initiation rite, a jewish bar mitzvah, and a fight between what appear to be gangs of teenage hoodlums. the dissimilarity is expressed by being automatically placed under the label of our common humanity. another such example appears in the hall of religion where it is expressly stated in fig . dvds dedicated to indigenous languages marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america a documentary that “men, no matter what their ethnic or cultural background may be, or the place where they may live, have through religion sought solutions to their problems, which are and have always been universal.” then it goes on to speak of some kind of religious thought whose function has been to legitimize the established order, in a sufficiently antiquated sort of functionalism. in spite of the universalist tendency of the museum that accentuates what humanity has in common, we find that almost all the scenes that represent the indigenous world are in black and white, while those that have to do with the western world are in colour. at the end of the exhibition is the hall dedicated to communication, where two documentaries are shown. one of them is devoted to indigenous languages, where representatives of the native peoples talk about their creation myths as they are framed against a parchment backdrop that evokes history and times long past. in contrast, the documentary devoted to spanish is a procession of great writers who talk about the advantages of the language, using images that radiate rhythm, modernity and the future. in the nhm, there were no important changes in the organization or collections of the museum in the century after it was founded. (di liscia, bohoslavsky y gonzález de oleaga ). the old political history, along with its share of heroes and tombs, overran the whole exhibition. something appears to have changed since november , when the directorship was taken over by josé pérez gollán, an archeologist and historian who was exiled to mexico during the last military dictatorship. a certain problem – violence – is highlighted in the new arrangement of the museum, and an objective is proposed: a stable and inclusive democracy. these are very novel traits from the broad scope of argentine museums in recent decades, since they involve a display in which the old heroes have not disappeared, but they are condemned to live alongside the new ones, who are now the popular masses. yet, in spite of these changes and the best of intentions, the relics of one of the national heroes, san martín, remain just as they were before: replicas are exhibited there of his bedroom and of the door to his house in boulogne sur-mer, where he died during his exile in france. the simulated chamber of this heroic figure is the first thing one sees upon entering the exhibition hall, and it is located in such a way that it surveys argentine history from the time of indigenous settlement ( , years before the present day) to the restoration of democracy ( ). a series of “altarpieces” separated from each other by large-scale, transparent photographic screens establishes different historical stages, and it allows the visitor to see the historical process from the beginning in the form of layers. in general, the large screens illustrate anonymous persons who symbolize the abstract community of the nation: creoles playing truco, demonstrators on loyalty day, immigrants arriving at the port of buenos aires, an assassination attempt in the s…the only recognizable figures in the enlargements are those of josé de san martín and jorge rafael videla. despite its attempt to unburden history of the weight of individuals, the museum here harkens back to its pedagogical and moral role by distinguishing between good and evil, between heroes and villains. two itineraries may be followed in the display. in the one on the right, the visitor retraces the history of argentina from to fig . transparent photographic screens: cueva de las manos museum and society, ( ) as the attention is focused on its heyday; but above all, the visitor sees argentina’s times of crisis. a critical look prevails over the violence in recent history, not over those exploits traditionally extolled by national patriotism, such as the british invasions, the war with paraguay, or the conflict in the malvinas/falkland islands. it seeks to highlight the disastrous effects of these coups, because patriotic pedagogy for the argentina of the st century is to promote democracy. if the visitor follows the itinerary on the left, she is met with a path that carries her from the colony to the armed groups of the s and s. sectors that are ignored by politics are included: indigenous peoples, women, workers, immigrants and students. this legitimizes their interventions – even the most violent ones – as just causes. both itineraries conclude with a large-scale screen where one can see the citizens celebrating the coming of democracy. below, there is a display case containing three symbolic objects: the headscarf of the mothers of the plaza de mayo, the never again report about the “disappeared ones” during the last military dictatorship, and leaflets from the majority political parties that ran in the democratic elections of . all are symbols of a new argentina, the new relics of the homeland. in the jum, the exhibition is arranged on two floors that do not communicate with each other except by an outside staircase. many visitors are not aware of this division, and only visit the first room: that of the pioneers. in this large diaphanous room without partitions, the history of the first mennonites who came to the chaco from russia is revealed. in it, what predominate at first glance are the objects, the machines and contraptions related to work in the colonies. the exhibit is arranged on two axes. one of these is the technological axis, by which the evolution of mennonite technology is shown: from the drums for making butter to the printing press for the colony, and from oil and kerosene lamps to the electric lighting facilities. the other axis – that of everyday life, shows objects that are used on a daily basis: clothing, possessions, clocks, and photos of the fig . violent intervention of guerrilla groups in the ’ s fig . display case containing symbolic objects: headscarf of madres de plaza de mayo, the never again report about “disappeared ones” ( - ) and leaflets from political parties that ran in the democratic elections of . marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america administrators throughout their history. the axis of everyday life has a peculiar structure, a certain language: from porcelain to brass, and from brass to iron. in the first display cases, which are kept under lock and key, are porcelain dishes and other personal effects which once belonged to people of a certain social status and cultural formation. the musical instruments accompanying this porcelain indicate that the pioneers were not poor farmers, but rather affluent agriculturalists who were obliged to emigrate, given the political situation in russia. they brought porcelain to remember where they had come from, but had no reservation about exchanging it for plates of brass, for those modest accoutrements that the society of colonization provided to each mennonite family. it was acceptance of these new conditions and hard work that allowed them to reach a notable improvement in their standard of living, represented by the printing press, electric lighting, the hospital alarm, and the books published in the colonies. there are no references to the present day, and the exhibition concludes at a moment that is temporally undefined – as if there is no need to show the current situation, the community’s success. its prosperity is evident, as one can see merely by stepping foot into this region. but they do have to answer for these differences, for living in a reality so different. it is here that the museum attempts to give a response. the floor of the lower level of the museum is not connected to the second floor. as if they were dealing with different worlds, an outside staircase gives access to the floor above, where the exhibit shows the collection of fauna, the room devoted to paraguay, and the collection of ethnic handicrafts. there is no continuity, intersection, or relationship between the account of the pioneers and the accounts devoted to paraguayan fauna, ethnography and history. in the first room are the remains from the chaco war ( - ). this is the only mention of paraguay and its inhabitants, who are represented as soldiers. grenades, ammunition, rifles… all of this places the military conflict as the only context in which to define the paraguayans. if the mennonites were linked to hard work and sacrifice, then the paraguayans would be linked – in this representation – to war. bearing in mind that the mennonites are a pacifist group, this association seems to take on an even greater ominous implication. it is no wonder, then, that in the drawings of mennonite children the paraguayans always appear as soldiers, while the colonists are made out to be businessmen or merchants. the indigenous people, for their part, are represented by objects like axes, baskets, fig . porcelain dishes in the first display case fig . everyday life: from porcelain to brass museum and society, ( ) earthenware, textiles and – in the case of the ayoreos – by weapons and adornments. everything seems to indicate that the ornateness of the objects, at the discretion of the collectors, was the criterion for selecting these indigenous pieces (classen and howes ). there are almost no texts to explain their world or context, as if the visitor is obliged to be content with the graceful colours and geometric shapes. no great distinction is established from one indigenous community to another, nor is there an abundance of their history or differentiating characteristics. the explanatory labels that accompany the ceramics give the name of their donor – or the place where a piece was found – with greater precision than they list its characteristics, whether it belongs to one ethnic group or another, or the uses to which this object was put; this is the same sort of thing that happened in the first science museums (macdonald : ). the ayoreos merit special mention because they were the most warlike tribe in the region since the beginning of the colonization (zanardini y biedermann ). a frame notes the killing of a mennonite family, the stahls, at the hands of the ayoreo indians. the ages of the children and wife who were murdered are noted. the manner of classifying the ethnographic materials is not much different from the one employed in the exhibit about local fauna. the display cases with birds, mammals and reptiles bear the names of the specimens without further details. the displays devoted to the indigenous world do not abound with explanations either, and they order their materials according to a formal logic: all the feather headdresses, all the hats, and the fibre bags are categorized in a general way, without taking into account whether these objects had an everyday or ritual value. the ayoreos are singled out from among all the other tribes, and they remain associated with a legend for ferocity and violence. nothing is said, even though it is known, about the dispute over the land between this indigenous community that had inhabited the area since ancient times, and the recent arrivals who believed that they had purchased lands that were empty and devoid of local population. furthermore, the threat fig . upstairs exhibition: remains of the chaco war ( - ) marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america that the colonists posed to the traditional ayoreo lifestyle or the survival of their hunting grounds is never mentioned in the exhibition. there are no maps in this museum, neither of the colony, nor of paraguay. it is as if the space were intended to be dominated rather than represented. the entire display on the upper floor seems to bears this mark: to know in order to control. this is as much true for the flora and fauna as it is for the indigenous peoples, who are divided according to whether they are peaceful or warlike. inscriptions in each one of the examples given, accounts are circulated that, in spite of describing and talking about very different historical realities, contain common elements. a continent, a country and an ethnic group are the objects and subjects of the presentations in each of the museums, but in each exhibition there is a common, underlying narrative structure. in the colonial melancholy that exudes from every display in the mam, there are several questions that the museum attempts to answer; but above all there is a question that explores spanish identity five hundred years after the conquest and colonization of america. moreover, we might be so bold as to say that the museum is a pretext for creating and constructing that identity, which was injured in the disaster of , silenced during the century that followed, and of which a reminder was provided through the quincentennial celebrations – the moment when the current collection was created. therefore, the others (the indigenous peoples, the africans) are of no interest in themselves, but are merely reference points against which to define oneself. “we are what the others are not,” could well be one of the mottoes of the museum. but in order for that to be the case, we need to create and describe those others who are the anti-type. we need a strategy that will create these different ones and subject their specifications to the needs of self- fig . indian textiles and feather adornments museum and society, ( ) glorification (edwards et al. : ). from there stem the two axes of the account: the technological axis and the linguistic axis, which accentuate spain’s change and progress before the continuity of the other worlds which, only by being touched by spanish civilization – thanks to the language, culture, and religion – may be incorporated into modernity and the future. the documentary on languages, which closes the display, is a clear example in this sense. everything reverts back in one way or another to a dynamic picture of spain. furthermore, the general account of the museum is fairly archetypal: an ‘event’ (the encounter between two worlds), conflict (how these differences are functionally organized), and denouement (the integration of those cultural spaces into modernity thanks to spanish colonization). if indeed there is nothing objectionable in this structure, what changes the museum’s interpretation into a justification of conquest and colonization is the total lack of other voices, of alternative accounts, of a certain polyphony. one group speaks for the others. just as much could be said of the nhm and its proliferation of heroes and tombs. in spite of its attempts to create a critical display about the history of the nation, that desire is not reflected in the accounts of the exhibition, but in the statement of intent that precedes it. there is no single version of the past, the museum tells us. yet this does not appear to be indicated in what is said in the collection, which wagers on reversing the traditional histories: where the great heroes used to be, now there are the popular masses. here, the exhibition appeals to and dialogues with the more traditional versions of argentine national identity asking: “who are the argentines?”. before the elitist notions that defined nationality as the legacy of high european culture, the new exhibition incorporates the great majority, that amalgam of immigrants and native population that represents the popular culture. here, also, the inclusion of new subjects in the account or the reconsideration of its historical role makes the others into the opposition: the oligarchy and the military, of whom little is said – except that they are the root of the country´s violence and political instability. the others are again an excuse to redefine one’s own identity; in other words, they are merely a point of reference, against which the argentines are to define fig . peronism in the museum marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america their own identity. but violence remains on the side of the others, because their own violence is justified as the only way out when faced with the lack of democratic alternatives. finally, the general account also takes part in that tripartite structure, in which the political instability (occasioning event) leads to singling out the problem of violence as the cause of all evils (conflict), and democracy as a system of collective coexistence thus becomes the solution (or denouement) of the problem. finally, the jum reproduces the same thing around the motto nature and culture. on the one hand, this is an exhibit geared toward mennonite success in a poor country. in order to do this, it gives its account around two access points, of which we have already spoken: technological and familiar, the history of effort, discipline and sacrifice by the pioneers, which counterposes the natural life of animals and indigenous peoples. this exhibition also has an ‘occasioning event’ (the ‘anomaly’ of the mennonite community that is so different from those around it), a conflict (their economic success), and a denouement (the keys to that success). in all of these exhibitions, things are not only said: they are also inscribed by dint of repeating them, these images in the collective imagination. through these skewed, partial descriptions – which are processed as true characterizations – reality is created; it is ordered, evaluated, hierarchized and justified. the part is mistaken for the whole, and it is taken for granted that there exist stable entities like america, spain, argentina, mennonites, and indigenous people. these entities, just the way they appear in the exhibitions, do not seem to have any cracks, and – according to the museum – they possess (they are not assigned) concrete characteristics that define them. but these qualities, by having different values, hierarchize these created entities in different ways. some are placed on the side of progress, and others are on the side of poverty. all of this justifies the power that some exercise over others: spain over america, the mennonites over the indigenous people, certain popular groups like peronism (or those defined as such by the museum ) over those who are not part of it. in these exhibitions, the course of history is not only justified by recording one account in the face of other possible accounts, but a way of interpreting the world is also being recorded that takes itself for granted, that is not subject to criticism: it is a view of reality that is empiricist, evolutionist and modern. looking from above it does not seem, based on what has been discussed up to this point, that the dimensions of what is represented in these three museums provide great innovations in their contents. we have seen cases of the historical representation of a continent, a nation, and an ethnic group. in all of them, their discourses have many similarities. neither would it seem that the inclusion of new historical subjects in the displays presupposes an important change in them, although it could be a significant inclusion for whoever is represented. we have seen in the case of the nhm that the old heroes were substituted for new ones, which reversed – but did not subvert – the structure of the official discourse. moreover, the audiovisual innovations, if perhaps they might reorient the visitor, were still not significant when the time came to suggest new perspectives in the museum (classen and howes : ). the mam is an example of these winds of change. nevertheless, its conversation is no different from the conversation of the jum, which is completely opposite in terms of its use of any kind of media technology. in the three museums described (the mam, the nhm and the jum), there is a way of perceiving the world and finding one’s place in it that, apparently, does not have visible cracks, which is put forth as a true (scientific) way of knowing and making use of reality. this way is not expounded as a social, political or ideologically biased form of arranging it. is it the duty of the public museum, as it was at its inception, to indoctrinate citizens? or, on the contrary, should its democratic service be directed at historizing every account, at de-essentializing any reality, definition or identity? if we were to opt for this latter option as the criterion for new exhibitions and contemporary museums, what advantages (and what problems) might it bring with it? stated another way: why should these museums, where people speak of interpretations of reality instead of facts and events, be more functional for collective coexistence? why must these museums, where everything exhibited is historicized and relativized, better serve the purposes of a multicultural citizenship? museum and society, ( ) let us take this piece by piece. it is not our belief that the function of the public museum should be to indoctrinate the citizenry in one sense or another, whether this indoctrination comes from the colonial elite of the mam or the popular spokespersons of the nhm. nor do we believe that the museum or the institution of the museum has to be abandoned, or that it has to be condemned to mere entertainment. the institution continues to have possibilities. we propose two functions: one is horizontal, to make this multicultural coexistence possible, which seems to be the trend of the future. the other is vertical, that of making it possible for social subjects to grasp their own position of dependence or exclusion with regard to power or to a hegemonic center. in both cases, these two functions demand the emergence, recounting and spread of difference, of otherness, of those other worlds where power relationships may have been and could be different. when we speak of multicultural coexistence, which is one of the universal features of the last decade, we are referring to the possibility of social and cultural interactions that are more egalitarian and less authoritarian, exclusionist and violent. in sum, they are more democratic. but in order for this to be able to become a reality, the political playing field must be rearranged. this is not about “nationalizing” the minorities now or excluding them from power, as was traditional in the models for integration during the th and th centuries. rather, it is about negotiating new spaces and articulating new ways of coexistence. to that end, all the players from each side must revise their values and strategies for coexistence. every successful negotiation inaugurates a new consensus, a new hybridization, and demands examination of those positions that are considered natural, normal, or universal up to that moment. it is here, in the need to ask oneself about the relevance or the working potential of the positions that have been held until now, where the museum can make its claim: in exposing and causing accounts about difference to circulate. knowing and acknowledging that there have existed other forms of seeing the world, of organizing oneself, of participating in reality (whether these are family structures, interpersonal relationship or sensory regimes) may counter the tendency towards the uniform life styles to which we seem doomed; and it may help to put in check, and question, what is our own. making accommodation for what is foreign is a way of thinking about what is one’s own. if diversity or difference is a necessary condition (albeit not a sufficient one) to be able to think about one’s own values and attitudes, then it is also a necessary condition for being able to recognize the historical situation in which there are those who are excluded or are in positions of subordination (lindauer ); because one of the conditions of liberation “begins with the recognition that one’s place in a social structure is constructed” (lindauer : ). here we connect with the second function of the museum. only if someone recognizes that there is nothing natural, but only historical, in her own position of subordination can she begin to think of other possible realities. the de-naturalization of this position of subordination as the imagining of other possible worlds (for example, the places of resistance for those subordinated throughout history) can be shown in the museum. to state it another way: difference, and knowledge and the appropiation of this difference (hassoun ) is a condition for the possibility of action. we do things, we take different courses of action, or we project different behaviors when we can imagine that these actions are possible and, in many case, desirable in accordance with the ends put forth. and we do this, moreover, when we can feel ourselves to be potential agents of action. but in order to be able to imagine those other actions we have to have some place where we can perceive and understand that this is possible. if everything is the present, if our reality is a continuum without too many skip or jumps, or a theme park where difference is only a consumer commodity, how can we imagine new landscapes? with this we are not saying that the historical accounts and the museum are repositories of possibilities in themselves. nobody can repeat or reproduce what has already occurred and taken place. but it is a place where it is confirmed that other worlds have been possible, and that they continue to be so. therefore, the museum is not just any place. it is a politically important space, because there identification can be enacted. of course, this function of the museum as a space for spreading possibilities that might favour coexistence or consciousness of social subjects is a condition – one we believe to be necessary – but not a guarantee. therefore, it is fitting to include two criticisms. one is by tony bennett regarding cultural logics and the risks of difference. the other, by gayatri spivak, is about the ability of subaltern groups to speak (and act). as tony bennett indicates in his marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america perceptive article ‘exhibition, difference and the logic of culture,’ one runs a number of risks when invoking cultural difference. one of them would be to turn these museums (‘people movers’, bennett : ) into spaces for the intellectual elite, for those who possess sufficient cultural capital to feel comfortable in this “perpetual perceptual revolution” ( ). another risk of having museums as “differencing machines” ( ) could be the reactive harboring of personal identities or the transformation of difference into “a collection of otherness” ( ), where diversity would be, yet again, a kind of national possession (hague in bennett: ). after all, as bennett himself indicates, as he cites the work of ghassan hage, if making the native into the exotic “was the product of the power relation between the colonizer and the colonized in the colonies…, [then] the multicultural exhibition is the product of the power relation between the post-colonial powers and the post-colonized as it developed in the metropolis…” (hage in bennett: - , emphasis in original). while the criticism by bennett is very relevant, it seems to us that it does not entirely overturn our proposal. perhaps the risk of making the museum into a space where only the educated elite feel comfortable might be better applied to art museums than to history museums, because the latter present fewer possibilities for “perpetual perceptual revolutions”: even in the most post-modern historical narratives, there is still a referent (the constraint of the past). on the other hand, it is true that reactive behaviors could be a possible consequence of the noise that diversity can generate, in the same way that there is a risk of changing history museums into displays of “zoological multiculturalism” (hage in bennett: ). but, in each of these cases, the problem lies not so much in exhibiting the differences as it does in the manner in which this is done, and perhaps in the categorization itself of the concept of “difference.” our concept of ‘difference’ has nothing to do with the one that the mam seems to propose: difference is formal, but it responds to the same human needs or to diversity, which is understood to be a catalog of ways of doing things or ideas about the world. when we speak of ‘difference’ we are not just referring to what is different (the “other” as a unity), but to the marks that this difference has left on what has happened, to the difference that allows history to be read from another place (derrida ; bhabha ). when we speak of difference, we are talking about that diversity or otherness that displaces, examines, appeals to, and casts doubt upon the certainties of the individual, about her own self and about that that belongs to her. but for that to happen, the accounts must be oriented in this sense, committed to the idea that what was, what occurred, was not the only possible outcome. difference in the past tends to de-naturalize the present, to open it to other options. these ‘many presents of the past’ (dening ) continue to influence the present and echo today by pointing out current possibilities. the criticisms of gayatri spivak in her work ‘can the subaltern speak?’ may also be useful to our argument. how can the museum be used as a place for difference and possibility, where those who are excluded might recognize their position – bearing in mind that it is quite probable that the subordinated people, beleaguered by the discourse that is instructing them, may not want to see or recognize themselves? how can an appeal be made to a policy of resistance based on the accounts of the museum, when the purpose of the institution is to see that all the accounts are circulated without deciding on any one of them? in her already classic article and in all the polemic it has generated, spivak asks whether the subaltern have the ability to constitute themselves as such, whether they can be agents of their own destiny. these questions are of utmost importance. to the first question we can only answer that the museum offers a possibility, but it does not constitute efficient cause. there might be individuals who are able and willing to recognize themselves, and others who are not. but that does not diminish the potential of the museum. there is a certain tendency to want to manipulate certainties and absolutes in the debates about the agency and position of the subject. if we propose that the museum can be a space for recognizing the subordination of social subjects, the wager must be guaranteed. when we say that the subjects can recognize some of their positions in the museum, we know or take for granted that we are all conditioned by the power that instructs us. but while this may be true, it is also true that this power is not unlimited: it has loopholes, inconsistencies through which those subjects can penetrate. this is because, despite the weight that power has in the construction of their identities, those subjects maintain their capacity for action; and this capacity can be extended, thanks to a vocabulary that is suitable for transgressing or challenging the limits established by that power (appiah ). museum and society, ( ) regarding the second question that deals with the ability of the subjects to act in contexts of uncertainty, it seems to us that one must distinguish – as spivak herself does (spivak ) – between universalism and strategic essentialism. one concern is that the museum should not impose on the visitors a single way of seeing things and passing it off as true and/or scientific (by erasing the principles on which it is based). another very distinct concern is that the museum should not have its own discourse linked to democratic political notions. it is one thing to say that it must not impose some truth. it is another very distinct thing to say that the museum must not have a certain truth to advance according to political or philosophical positions that it must express. the pitfall of the modern museum is that it changes its truth into one that is universal and transcendent. perhaps if we use another notion of truth, not as the correct representation of an order underlying reality, but as a descriptive vocabulary at the service of human activities (i.e., “truth as an attitude toward one’s fellow human beings rather than an attitude toward something non-human”) (rorty : ), we will be closer to understanding that “a truth” can be said without turning it into “the truth.” thus, the museum would be one of those spaces in which to seek, if one so desired, new vocabulary with which to widen our critical imagination. this displacement in the idea of truth as adequation to truth as uncertainty or ‘operative truth’ calls together new kinds of individuals: those that are less assertive and more responsible, and that are not condemned to passivity. indeed, one expects greater reflexivity from them. they are responsible because they know that what they say has political effects, and may affect other people; so they must answer for it. their unestable position is not a product of the truth, but of the choice of a perspective or position. these same responsible individuals draw upon the premise that definitive knowledge is fundamentally impossible, based on the impossibility of expressing the difference, or that this expression could be taken as the whole. they are, then, subjects who know that all knowledge makes an appeal to the other (including the other that is nestled in every identity), to the one who is different, in order to probe this distance. we cannot speak for the others, but we can convoke them so that they speak of and for themselves. it seems evident that the subjects that are open to reflexivity and dialogue – whether they are individual people or social subjects – are more functional, or at least should be better adapted to multicultural coexistence. on the one hand, these subjects are more reflexive because they are more interested in the relationship between what is said in a museum and its corresponding political and ideological accounts; they are the ones best prepared to be able to describe their own condition of subordination and act as a result. perhaps this type of museum, the one we have proposed, can contribute to building these new subjectivities, and these positions will in time be better endowed to take advantage of the resources of the institution. finally, all these discussions about the possible criteria for devising accounts in our museums leave one key question yet to be clarified: what do we do with existing museums, with the majority of the permanent exhibits that comprise the bulk of history museums? this is a rhetorical question, because neither we nor – it seems – anybody else can alter the policies that govern these institutions in the immediate future. but, posed in a different way, what concerns us is that the majority of these exhibitions continue to function, issuing messages, sending texts and inscribing images into the collective imagination. and all of this affects policy in the present and in the future. on the other hand, these exhibitions are also an imprint, the document of an era. how, then, can their status as a historical document be preserved while removing their status as a monument? it can be done through the resignification, the historization of their contents; or else by removing the exhibition from the realm of science and perfect understanding in order to place it in the realm of interpretation and biased knowledge. working in a museum with these characteristics, one would not be concerned solely with the collection of data, of dates, or with the comprehension of processes that the student or visitor might gain. for this proposal, every time someone entered the museum it would be an event, a singular and unrepeatable phenomenon with personal and social consequences… like looking at the forest from above and seeing that beyond lies the lowland and the mountain, the cities and the rivers. and we would see that we are quite fragile, among so many others… received: january finally accepted: may marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america notes we are aware of the discussion about the hierarchization that has begun in the west in the second half the th century and, specifically, the criticisms of making what is visual into a rational sensory perception, making it somehow preferable to other ‘lower’ and ‘more basic’ senses, such as taste or touch. however, what this metaphor emphasizes – or at least what we wish to emphasize – is not the need of seeing in order to know, but rather the exigency of circumventing this green wall made up of the chaco forest. if instead of looking to see what was further away the mennonite children had wished to hear or smell what was beyond their villages, they would have had to negotiate the barrier that consisted of the impenetrable prickly saltwort. on control through seeing, see the classic work by m. foucault, . an outstanding work about the form in which the modern west has construed the eastern world – specifically, egypt – as an exhibition (ie, the ‘world-as-exhibition’) or as a picture is found in timothy mitchell, , (see chapter : egypt at the exhibition, - ). in this sense, see also the work of sharon macdonald, , pp. - , (particularly the epigraph “modern museums of science: diagnosis, publics and progress”). tony bennett has an article about the construction of ‘civic seeings’ through regimes of vision in museums, in t. bennett, , pp. - . by the same author, , pp. - . regarding the museum effect as a way of seeing, svetlana alpers, , pp. - . a very detailed development, from the ‘anthropology of the senses’, to how colonialism has attempted to impose its particular way of being-in-the-world through sensory economies on the material culture is found in elizabeth edwards, chris gosden and ruth phillips, , pp. - ; - (see especially edwards, gosden and phillips, “introduction”; and constance classen and david howes, “the museum as sensescape: western sensibilities and indigenous artifacts”). more information is available at the history department of the university of botswana www.thuto.org/ubh/afhist/elnegro/eln .htm. accessed september , . see, for example, the statement from the national historical museum of argentina at www.cultura.gov.ar/direcciones/?info...id... . accessed september , . see “restituyen los restos de un cacique ranquel” in la nación, november , . at the beginning of , there was a special project for the museum of america, coordinated by the anthropologist manuel gutiérrez estévez. political disputes derailed this attempt. see richard and sally price, . executing culture. museé, museo, museum. american anthropology , ¹ , pp. - as told on the website for the lighthouse, www.elfarodemoncloa.com, accessed september , , created by the municipal government of madrid. we know, through the interviews and informal discussions conducted with the director and the conservators, the enormous efforts that have had to be made to introduce a certain critical perspective about argentine national history and the conflicts implied in desiring to introduce new historical subjects in the traditional viewpoint of the museum. as a legacy of that th-century historiography, which director gollán calls ‘history in the style of billiken’, in reference to the children’s magazine, there is the bedroom of josé de san martín and the replica of his house in french exile. this is all a perfect example of the old heroes and tombs. the interview may be read at http://edant.clarin.com/diario/ / / /sociedad/s- .htm from an article in the mennoblatt, may , reproduced in a brochure from the jacob unger museum. the transfer of the collection began in may , and the opening of the display in its new location coincides with the world mennonite congress that took place between july and of . museum and society, ( ) the title in spanish ‘el hombre’, like the other titles, has a definite article. furthermore, rather than saying ‘la humanidad’ (‘the humanity’ or ‘humankind’), the museum has chosen ‘el hombre’ (‘the man’), to the exclusion of woman. this was an experiment conducted by c. redekop with mennonite children whom he asked to draw mennonites and paraguayans. the drawing can be seen in appendix a of his book calvin redekop, ( ). strangers become neighbors. mennonite and indigenous relations in the paraguayan chaco. ontario: herald press. peronism is very complex movement that brings the extreme left and the extreme right together. what the museum does is to recognize as peronists only a segment of the movement, instead of all the factions that comprise it. interviews nieburh, gundolf, . memory and museums among the mennonites by marisa gonzález de oleaga (mp ). bibliography alberti, samuel j.m.m., bienkowski, piotr, chapman, malcolm, j, and drew, rose ( ) ‘should we display the dead?’, museum and society, - , , ( ). albrow, m. ( ) globalization: myths and realities, (inaugural lecture), london: roehampton institute. alpers, svetlana ( ) ‘the museum as a way of seeing’ in i. karp and s. d. lavine (eds) exhibiting cultures: the poetics and politics of museum display, - , washington- london: smithsonian institution press. appiah, kwame anthony ( ) ‘tolerable falsehoods: agency and the interests of theory’ in jonathan arac and barbara johnson (eds) the consequence of theory, - , baltimore: john hopkins university press. ashcroft, bill ( ) post-colonial transformation, london: routledge. austin, j. l. ( ) how to do things with words, cambridge: harvard university press. barthes, roland ( ) mythologies, london: vintage books. barthes, roland ( ) el imperio de los signos, barcelona: mondadori. basu, paul ( ) ‘the labyrinthine aesthetic in contemporary museum design’ in sharon macdonald and paul basu (eds) exhibition experiments, - , london: blackwell. bauman, zygmunt ( ) globalization: the human consequences, new york: columbia university press. baxandall, michael ( ) ‘exhibiting intention: some preconditions of the visual display of culturally purposeful objects’ in ivan karp and steven d. lavine (eds) exhibiting cultures: the poetics and politics of museum display, - , washington: smithsonian institution. bhabha, homi ( ) the location of culture, london: routledge. bennett, tony ( a) museums and ‘the people’ in robert lumley (ed.) the museum time machine: putting cultures on display, - , london: routledge. marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america bennett, tony ( b) ‘the exhibitionary complex’, new formations, - , . bennett, tony ( c) ‘speaking to the eyes: museums, legibility and the social order’ in s. macdonald (ed.) the politics of display, museums, science, culture, - , london: routledge. bennett, tony ( ) ‘exhibition, difference and the logic of culture’ in i. karp et al. (eds) museum frictions: public cultures/global transformations, - , durham: duke university press. bennett, tony ( ) ‘civic seeing: museums and the organization of vision’ in sharon macdonald (ed.) a companion to museum studies, - , oxford: wiley-blackwell. brooks, mary m., rumsey, claire, ( ) ‘who knows the fate of the bones? rethinking the body on display: object, art or human remains?’ in simon j. knell, suzanne macleod, sheila watson, museum revolutions: how museums change and are changed, - , london: routledge. butler, judith, ( ) gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity, new york: routledge. butler, judith, ( ) bodies that matter: on the discursive limits of ‘sex’. new york: routledge. carbonell, bettina mesias (ed.) ( ) museum studies: an anthology of contexts. oxford: blackwell. classen, constance, howes, david ( ) ‘the museum as sensescape: western sensibilities and indigenous artifacts’, in elizabeth edwards, chris gosden, ruth b. phillips, (eds) sensible objects: colonialism, museums and material culture, - , oxford: berg. clifford, james, marcus, george ( ) ‘on ethnographic allegory’, in james clifford, george marcus (eds.) writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography, - , berkeley: university of california press. clifford, james ( ) the predicament of culture: twentieth-century ethnography, literature, and art, cambridge: harvard university press. clifford, james ( ) ‘los museos como zonas de contacto’ in j. clifford itinerarios transculturales, - , barcelona: gedisa. coombes, annie ( ) ‘museums and the formation of national and cultural identities’ in bettina messias carbonell (ed.) museum studies: an anthology of contexts, - , london: blackwell. chakravarty, dipesh ( ) provincializar europa, barcelona: crítica. chartier, roger ( ) el mundo como representación, barcelona: gedisa. dening, greg ( ) performances. chicago: the university of chicago press. derrida, jacques ( ) writing and difference, london: routledge. derrida, jacques ( ) acts of literature, new york: routledge. museum and society, ( ) di liscia, maría silvia, bohoslavsky, ernesto, gonzález de oleaga, marisa ( ) del centenario al bicentenario. memorias (y desmemorias) en el museo histórico nacional in a contracorriente: a journal on social history and literature in latin america, - , ( ). dirlik, arif, ( ) pedagogies of the global: knowledge in the human interest, dulles: paradigm publishers. dubin, steven c. ( ) ‘incivilities in civil(-ized) places: ‘culture wars’ in comparative perspective’ in sharon macdonald (ed.) a companion to museum studies, - , oxford: wiley-blackwell. duncan, carol, wallach, allan ( ) ‘the universal survey museum’, art history, - , . duncan, carol ( ) ‘art museums and the ritual of citizenship’ in ivan karp, steven d. lavine (eds.) exhibiting cultures: the poetics and politics of museum display, - , washington: smithsonian institution press. duncan, carol ( ) ‘from the princely gallery to the public art museum: the louvre museum and the national gallery, london’ in daniel preziosi, claire farago (eds) grasping the world: the idea of the museum, - , aldershot: ashgate publishing company. earle, rebecca ( ) monumentos y museos: la nacionalización del pasado precolombino durante el siglo xix. in beatriz gonzález stephan, jens andermann (eds.) galería del progreso. museos, exposiciones y cultura visual en américa latina, - , rosario: beatriz viterbo editora. edwards, elizabeth, gosden, chris, phillips, ruth ( ) sensible objects: colonialism, museums and material culture, oxford: berg. faillace, magdalena ( ) la memoria, sustento de la identidad in museo histórico nacional, buenos aires: manrique zago ediciones. ferguson, neil ( ) ‘the myth about globalization’, european journal of communication, - , . fernández delgado, j. m., miguel pasamontes, mercedes, vega gonzález, m.j. ( ) la memoria impuesta. estudio y catálogo de los monumentos conmemorativos de madrid ( - ), madrid: ayuntamiento de madrid. findlen, paula ( ) ‘the museum: its classical etymology and renaissance genealogy’ in daniel preziosi, claire farago (eds) grasping the world: the idea of the museum, - , aldershot: ashgate publishing. foucault, michel ( ) the order of things: an archaeology of the human sciences, london:tavistock. garcía canclini, néstor ( ) culturas híbridas. estrategias para entrar y salir de la modernida, méxico: grijalbo. geertz, clifford ( ) ‘estar allí: la antropología y la escena de la escritura’ in c. geertz. el antropólogo como autor, - , barcelona: paidós. geertz, clifford ( ) the interpretation of cultures, new york: basic books. gonzález de oleaga, marisa ( ) el doble juego de la hispanida, madrid: uned. marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america gonzález de oleaga, marisa, monge, fernando ( ) ‘museums and museum of america’ in akira iriye and pierre-yves saunier (eds) the palgrave dictionary of transnational history, new york: palgrave macmillan. hassoun, jacques ( ) los contrabandistas de la memoria, buenos aires: ediciones de la flor. heartney, eleanor ( ) ‘fracturing the imperial mind’ in bettina m. carbonell (ed.) museum studies, - , london: blackwell. hillier, bill and tzortzi, kali ( ) ‘space syntax: the language of museum space’ in sharon macdonald (ed.) a companion to museum studies, - , oxford: wiley- blackwell. hudson, kenneth ( ) museums of influence, cambridge: cambridge university press. jordanova, ludmilla ( ) ‘objects of knowledge: a historical perspective on museums’ in peter vergo (ed.) the new museology, - , london: reaktion books. kaplan, flora e. s. ( ) ‘making and remaking national identities’ in sharon macdonald (ed.) a companion to museum studies, - , oxford: wiley-blackwell. karp, ivan, levine, steven d. ( ) (eds) exhibiting cultures: the poetics and politics of museum display, london: smithsonian institution press. lindauer, margaret a. ( ) ‘critical museum pedagogy and exhibition development: a conceptual first step’ in simon j. knell, suzanne macleod and sheila watson, museum revolutions: how museums change and are changed, - , london: routledge. macdonald, sharon ( ) ‘exhibitions of power and powers of exhibition: an introduction to the politics of display, in s. macdonald (ed.) the politics of display: museums, science, culture, - , london: routledge. martinez de la torre, cruz, cabello carro, paz ( ) museo de américa, madrid: ibercaja. mignolo, walter ( ) historias locales/diseños globales: colonialidad, conocimientos subalternos y pensamiento fronterizo. madrid: akal. mitchell, timothy ( ) colonizing egypt, berkeley: university of california press. mitchell, timothy ( ) ‘orientalism and the exhibitionary order’, in donald preziosi, claire farrago (eds), grasping the world: the idea of the museum, - , aldershot: ashgate. nederveen pieterse, jan, ( ) the development of development theory towards critical globalism, la hague: institute of social studies. pérez ruiz, maya lorena ( ) construcción e investigación del patrimonio cultural. retos en los museos contemporáneos. alteridades, , ( ), - . pratt, marie louise ( ) imperial eyes:travel writing and transculturation, london: routledge. preziosi, donald ( ) ‘brain of the earth’s body: museums and the framing of modernity’, in carbonell, bettina messias (ed.), museum studies: an anthology of contexts, - , oxford, blackwell. museum and society, ( ) price, richard, price, sally ( ) ‘executing culture: museé, museo, museum’, american anthropology, - , ( ). redekop, calvin ( ) strangers become neighbors: mennonite and indigenous relations in the paraguayan chaco, ontario: herald press. robertson, roland ( ) ‘glocalization’ in mike featherstone, scott lash, roland robertson (eds.) global modernities, - , london: sage. rorty, richard ( ) truth, politics and post-modernism, amsterdam: universiteit vam amsterdam. sahlins, marshall ( ) the western illusion of human nature, chicago: prickly paradigm press. sepúlveda dos santos, myriam ( ) ‘representations of black people in brazilian museums’, museum and society, - , ( ). shohat, ella, stam, robert ( ) unthinking eurocentrism: multiculturalism and the media, london: routledge. shohat, ella ( ) nota sobre lo postcolonial in s. mezzadra (ed.) estudios postcoloniales. ensayos fundamentales, madrid traficante de sueños. simpson, moira g. ( ) making representations: museums in the post-colonial era, london: routledge. spivak, gayatri ( ) ‘the rani of simur’ in francis baker et al. (ed.) europe and its others, cochester: university of essex. spivak, gayatri c. ( ) ‘can the subaltern speak?’ in cary nelson and lawrence grossberg, marxism and the interpretation of culture, - , hampshire: macmillan. spivak, gayatri c. ( ) the post-colonial critics: interviews, strategies, dialogues, new york: routledge. steger, manfred ( ) globalization: a very short introduction, new york: oxford university press. walsh, kevin ( ) the representation of the past: museums and heritage in the post- modern world, london: routledge. young, robert ( ) postcolonialism: an historical introduction, london: wiley-blackwell. zanardini, josé and biedermann, walter ( ) los indígenas del paraguay, asunción: zamphirópolos. acknowledgement *this work has been made possible thanks to the financial support of the centro de estudios para américa latina and the cooperación internacional (cealci) of the fundación carolina in . *marisa gonzález de oleaga is full professor at the departamento de historia social y del pensamiento político de la facultad de ciencias políticas y sociología de la universidad nacional de educación a distancia (uned) (department of social history and political thought of the faculty of political sciences and sociology at the long distance national university). she has directed two research projects financed by the ministerio español de ciencia e innovación marisa gonzález de oleaga, maría silvia di liscia, ernesto bohoslavsky: looking from above: saying and doing in the history museums of latin america (spanish ministry of science and innovation) and by fundación carolina related to the problem of museums in argentina and paraguay. marisa gonzález de oleaga has written several articles on the subject for spanish journals and has participated with the entries museum and museum de america in the palgrave dictionary of transnational history ( ) edited by akira iriye and pierre-yves saunier. email: mgonzalez@poli.uned.es tel: fax: **maría silvia di liscia is associate professor at the departamento de historia de la facultad de ciencias humanas de la universidad nacional de la pampa (history department of the faculty of human sciences at the national university of la pampa) and director of the instituto de estudios sociohistóricos (institute of socio-historical studies). she is a member of the research team on museums in argentina and paraguay funded by fundación carolina. her area of expertise is the social history of science in latin america. email: silviadi@fchst.unlpam.edu.ar, silviadiliscia@yahoo.com.ar tel: fax: ***ernesto bohoslavsky is researcher-associate professor at the instituto del desarrollo humano de la universidad nacional de general sarmiento, argentina (institute of human development of the national university of general sarmiento). he is currently participating in a research project on museums in america. he has specialized in the history of latin america in the th and th centuries. email: ebohosla@ungs.edu.ar tel: fax: this peer-reviewed article has been accepted for publication but not yet copyedited or typeset, and so may be subject to change during the production process. the article is considered published and may be cited using its doi . /s . epidemiology & infection is published by cambridge university press. risk factors for toxoplasma gondii seropositivity in the old order amish markon, a. o. , ryan k. a. , , wadhawan a. , , pavlovich m. , , groer m.w. , punzalan c. , gensheimer k. , jones j. , daue m.l. , , , dagdag a. , donnelly p. , peng x. , , pollin t. , , , mitchell b.d. , , , postolache t.t. , , u.s. food and drug administration, center for food safety and applied nutrition (cfsan), office of analytics and outreach (oao), division of public health informatics and analytics (dphia), college park, md, usa. division of endocrinology, diabetes and nutrition, department of medicine, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa. program for personalized and genomic medicine, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa. mood and anxiety program, department of psychiatry, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa. saint elizabeth’s hospital, psychiatry residency training program, washington, dc, usa. college of nursing, university of south florida college of nursing, tampa, fl, usa. geriatrics research and education clinical center, veterans affairs medical center, baltimore, md, usa. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms amish research clinic, university of maryland school of medicine, lancaster, pa, usa. rocky mountain mental illness research education and clinical center (mirecc), veterans integrated service network (visn) , military and veteran microbiome: consortium for research and education (mvm-core), denver, co, usa. mental illness research, education and clinical center (mirecc), veterans integrated service network (visn) , va capitol health care network, baltimore, md, usa. corresponding authors: main: teodor t. postolache: tpostola@som.umaryland.edu andré o. markon andre.markon@fda.hhs.gov disclaimer: the findings and conclusions in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the u.s. food and drug administration (fda). data availability: the data cannot be shared because of the original protocol and amish consent. a collaborative effort could be considered and interested individuals should contact the corresponding author. -word summary: risk of infection with the major foodborne pathogen, toxoplasma gondii, varies by individual, geographic, sociocultural, and economic factors. we assessed the risk of toxoplasmosis, focusing on food safety and environmental factors, among the old order amish, a relatively homogenous population. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. mailto:tpostola@som.umaryland.edu mailto:andre.markon@fda.hhs.gov https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms summary toxoplasma gondii is an important human disease-causing parasite. in the us, t. gondii infects > % of the population, accrues economic losses of us$ . billion/year, and ranks as the second leading culprit of foodborne illness-related fatalities. we assessed toxoplasmosis risk among the old order amish, a mostly homogenous population with high prevalence of t. gondii seropositivity, using a questionnaire focusing on food consumption/preparation behaviours and environmental risk factors. analyses were conducted using multiple logistic regression. consuming raw meat, rare meat, or unpasteurized cow or goat milk products were associated with increased odds of seropositivity [unadjusted ors: . , . , . , and . , respectively). in separate models by sex, consuming raw meat, or consuming unpasteurized cow or goat milk products, were associated with increased odds of seropositivity among women; washing hands and touching meat with decreased odds of seropositivity among women [adjusted or (aor): . ]; and cleaning cat litterbox with increased odds of seropositivity among men (aor: . ). this is the first study to assess associations between behavioural and environmental risk factors and t. gondii seropositivity in a us population with high seroprevalence for t. gondii. our study emphasizes the importance of proper food safety behaviours to avoid risk of infection. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms introduction the apicomplexan parasite toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) infects one-third of the world’s population, disproportionately affects socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, and ranks among five neglected parasitic infections targeted in the united states (us) by the centers for disease control (cdc) for public health action[ , ]. some estimates indicate that in the us ~ , new toxoplasmosis cases occur annually and that . million are currently infected, amounting to infection among . % (age-adjusted: . %) of the population [ ]. other sources note that although > million men, women, and children in the us may harbour the parasite without symptoms because the immune system prevents occurrence of the full-blown illness, consequences of infection can be severe for the immunocompromised and for women infected during or shortly before pregnancy [ ]. the burden of t. gondii infection by foodborne routes, which is estimated to account for about half of all us cases, exceeds $ . billion and equates to the loss of , quality-adjusted lifedays (qalds)[ ]. according to scallan at al. ( ), . % of us-acquired foodborne t. gondii infections will result in hospitalizations, and . % will result in death, leading to an estimated deaths annually, making toxoplasmosis the second leading cause of foodborne illness fatality in the us [ ]. sexual reproduction of t. gondii occurs in its definitive felid hosts, including cats, while asexual reproduction occurs in intermediate hosts, including humans and nearly all warm-blooded vertebrates. the parasite has three infectious stages[ ] - : sporulated oocysts that contain sporozoites, tachyzoites that invade and multiply rapidly within the https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms cells of intermediate hosts, and bradyzoites that slowly replicate in tissue cysts (life cycle detailed in figure ). tissue cysts are most often found in the central nervous system; the eyes; and smooth, skeletal, or cardiac muscles. while bradyzoites in tissue cysts characterize chronic infection, tachyzoites characterize primary acute or reactivated infections, which can trigger adaptive igg immune responses[ , ]. in reactivation, tissue cysts rupture and release bradyzoites that transform back into destructive tachyzoites , . toxoplasmosis may present in immunocompetent individuals with painless lymphadenopathy; mononucleosis-like symptoms, including fever, malaise, sore throat, and maculopapular rash; ocular infections in some older populations; or no symptoms in pregnant women[ ] , . severe clinical manifestations, such as pneumonitis, chorioretinitis, or multi-organ involvement, occur most often in reactivated and primary infections among immunocompromised individuals and in congenital infections[ , ]. hiv-positive individuals often present with life-threatening toxoplasmic encephalitis, characterized by headache, confusion, weakness, focal neurologic involvement, and seizures[ , ]. previously, chronic infections were not associated with clinical manifestations[ ], but recent studies have linked chronic infection to schizophrenia[ - ] and suicidal behaviour [ , ]. multiple behavioural, socioeconomic, and demographic factors may contribute to the risk of toxoplasmosis. studies focusing on behavioural risk factors often use a combination of immunoassays to determine infection and questionnaires to conduct epidemiologic assessment of potential exposures. while the questionnaires themselves are often tailored to specific populations, many ask similar questions regarding behaviour-related exposures: most notably, eating different meats[ - ] (porcine, https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms bovine, lamb/mutton, other); handling or eating raw or undercooked meat[ , ]; consuming dairy/ dairy products[ - ]; eating unwashed or improperly washed fruits and/or vegetables[ , , ]; gardening and/or engaging in contact with soil[ , , , ]; living with pets, such as cats and/or dogs at home[ , , ]; drinking water (treatment, source, other characteristics)[ , , ]; and even hunting/consuming wild game (venison, boar, other)[ , ]. in the us, those below the federal poverty threshold have higher t. gondii seropositivity[ ], while higher early-life socioeconomic status (ses) has been shown to be related to seronegativity[ ]. other risk factors for higher seroprevalence, specifically in the us, include foreign country of birth, hispanic and non-hispanic black race/ethnicity, lower than high school education levels, crowded housing conditions, rurality/urbanicity, and employment type[ , ]. the old order amish (ooa) population in the us, by virtue of its homogeneous characteristics, provides a unique opportunity to assess relationships between t. gondii seropositivity and specific behavioural and environmental (including food-related) risk factors. t. gondii seropositivity prevalence levels among the ooa exceed those found among the general us population[ ], and the geographic, ethnic, and socioeconomic homogeneity of the ooa population [ ] helps to control for potential confounding that can otherwise complicate risk factor assessment. in addition, the amish lifestyle presents the prospect of evaluating potential associations between t. gondii seropositivity and culturally specific meal-preparation practices, such as slaughtering, smoking, curing, and canning meats[ ]. these distinctive characteristics, in conjunction with antibody testing and data collection using ooa lifestyle-specific questions, allowed this study to pursue the objective of advancing understanding of https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms relationships between the prevalence of t. gondii seropositivity and behavioural and environmental (including food-related) risk factors of infection, while minimizing confounding by other potential sociodemographic and behavioural determinants. methods study population the amish wellness study the amish wellness study (aws), an ongoing community-based investigation conducted by the university of maryland baltimore and approved by the university of maryland baltimore institutional review board, was established in to offer health screening and collection of dna, blood samples, and basic medical information to address specific research questions. criteria for participation included membership in the ooa community of lancaster county, pennsylvania; age of ≥ years; and an informed consent. a registered nurse obtained multiple clinical measures of general health (e.g., weight, height, waist and hip circumference, blood pressure, measures of respiratory health). an amish liaison facilitated administration of the study questionnaire in person to assess several aspects of each participant’s health and well-being, including mood, sleep, and medical, personal and family histories; as well as to evaluate life-style factors. a university of maryland amish research clinic research nurse confirmed completion of each questionnaire. a fasting blood sample was drawn for measurement of lipids and glucose, and from this sample, we also measured t. gondii igg antibodies for this study. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms for the present study, we sent the amish toxoplasma risk factor questionnaire (atrfq) to a convenience sample from the aws (n = , nonrandomly selected, based on availability to participate), between december , and january , . we evaluated participant responses to the atrfq, along with their demographic information and t. gondii antibody results from the aws. immunoglobulin g serointensity and seropositivity testing for this study, the laboratory of maureen groer at the university of south florida in tampa determined t. gondii antibody seroprevalence using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (elisa) (ibl international, männedorf, switzerland) that tests for rh factor common to all t. gondii serotypes. concentrations of ≥ iu/ml were defined as seropositive, and of - iu/m as equivocal. the equivocal samples were tested a second time, and if the second testing yielded samples that tested positive for concentrations of ≥ iu/ml on the second test were also considered positive as previously reported [ ]. amish toxoplasma infection risk factor questionnaire (atrfq) the atrfq was developed by researchers at the university of maryland baltimore with input from epidemiologists at fda’s center for food safety and applied nutrition (cfsan) and co-author jeffrey jones, based on current risk factor literature and subject matter expertise. the questionnaire was adapted after incorporating input from sessions of review and feedback by a group of amish liaisons, sessions of feedback by nurses experienced in working with the amish, and individual researcher comments and questions to maximize comprehension and cultural sensitivity. the https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms questionnaire consisted of questions focusing primarily on food consumption and preparation, as well as other environmental risk factors, such as water sources, pet ownership and contact, and contact with soil. the pet component specifically asked about cat/ kitten ownership, cat breeding, cat litter cleaning, where the cats live (outdoors vs indoors), where the cats/ kittens eat, type of food they eat, visits of not- owned cats, type of cats seen in the garden or yard, cats for breeding, feral cats (domesticated and returned to the wild), and stray cats (lost or abandoned). . it was mailed to study participants between december , and january , with a cover letter, response envelope, and us$ compensation. the cover letter informed participants that they could keep the $ even if they decided not to participate. responses from the returned questionnaire received by april , were entered into an access database. returned envelopes received after april , were not included in the analytical sample used for this study. statistical analyses the analytical sample included those with both t. gondii serological measures and atrfq responses. analyses were performed to describe the analytical sample (table ) and to assess the strength and significance of associations with examined behavioural and environmental (including food-related) risk factors through models estimating odds of t. gondii seropositivity (tables - ). in addition to age and sex derived from the parent aws survey, the atrfq variables addressed contact with soil, pets (including cats and litter boxes), and shoes/feet before touching food; farm vs. other-than-farm residence and time at residence; drinking untreated or treated water and drinking water source/filtration; working with animals/raw meat/horses; consuming https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms locally-produced, cooked, cured, frozen, canned, raw and/or rare meats; consuming raw oysters; consuming unpasteurized goat and/or cow milk/products; washing produce; washing hands/utensils after raw meat contact; and eating outside the home. bivariate analyses, including chi-square (Χ ) and t-tests, compared seropositive to seronegative to identify significant or borderline significant (p value < . and < . ) variables. for those variables, we then specified comparison reference groups and estimated unadjusted odds ratios (uors), % confidence intervals (cis), and p values (tables and ). we included the variables that exhibited significance in the bivariate uor analysis (p value < . ) in the final unconditional multiple logistic regression models by sex to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aors), % cis, and p values, evaluating the associations between each of the predictor variables and the outcome of t. gondii seropositivity as defined above (table ). these analyses were performed using sas . (cary, nc), as well as the x calculator in mcdonald ( )[ ]. we also adjusted the results for relatedness (heritability) and shared households by applying a variance component approach using solar . . software (san antonio, tx) to assess significance (p value < . ) [ ]. results of the questionnaires mailed to study participants, ( %) were returned. t. gondii serology was assessed in . % (n= ) of those who returned questionnaires. we limited our analytical sample to the amish subjects with both serology test results and questionnaire response data ( . % of the who were mailed and returned the questionnaire also had serology results). https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms more than half ( . %) of the study participants tested positive for t. gondii igg antibodies (table ). nearly two-thirds of participants ( . %) were female among both the seropositive and seronegative groups. the age distribution/n was similar among seropositive individuals, but not among seronegative individuals or the whole study sample. mean and median ages were higher among seropositive than among seronegative individuals, and there were more seropositive than seronegative males. in addition to sex, the Χ test results from the first step of the bivariate analysis indicated significant/borderline significant associations between t. gondii seropositivity (p values < . ) and the category-based variables capturing farm vs. other-than-farm residence and time at residence; working with horses; consuming unpasteurized cow milk/products; consuming cured, rare, and raw meats; pet contact; and washing hands/utensils after raw meat contact, as well as the frequency-based variables addressing how often unpasteurized cow milk/products, raw meats, rare meats, and meals outside the home were consumed. of those variables, the uor estimates from the second step of the bivariate analysis showed significance (p value < . ) for pet contact, consumption of meat and unpasteurized milk/products, and handwashing behaviours (table ), as well as for frequency of consumption of unpasteurized cow milk/ yoghurt, rare meat, raw meat, and meals outside the home (table ). the four meat-eating behaviours, as well as the two variables addressing the frequency of consumption, were all associated with t. gondii seropositivity. the odds of seropositivity from eating rare and raw meat compared to not eating rare and raw meat https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms were . ( % ci: . , . ) and . ( % ci: . , . ), respectively, while seropositivity among those who reported eating compared to not eating raw ground beef was greater (or: . , % ci: . , . ). only one individual reported eating raw ground pork and was seropositive. odds of seropositivity comparing consumption of unpasteurized milk to not consuming raw milk was . (or: . , % ci: . , . ). among the behaviours related to pets, only cleaning a cat’s litterbox was found statistically significantly associated with t. gondii seropositivity (or: . , % ci: . , . ). because of the significant difference found between sex and seropositivity in the bivariate analysis, separate models by sex were used to estimate the adjusted associations between the other variables also identified as significantly associated with seropositivity (table ). several of the associations between t. gondii seropositivity and behavioural and environmental (including food-related) risk factors did not retain significance in the adjusted models by sex. however, the separate adjusted models by sex showed that significance persisted nominally for cleaning the litterbox (among men only), eating raw meat (among women only), and washing hands after touching raw meat (protective in women only). consuming raw goat or cow milk was significantly associated with seropositivity among women only (or: . , % ci: . , . ; or: . , % ci: . , . , respectively, where only respondents indicated consumption of unpasteurized goat milk products, and indicated intake of unpasteurized cow milk products). washing versus not washing hands after touching raw meat was also significantly associated with seropositivity among women only (or: https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms . , % ci: . , . ). these adjusted significant results held, even after adjustment for heritability and shared household. discussion this study found that members of the ooa community of lancaster, pennsylvania have a high seroprevalence of t. gondii antibodies, with over % of study participants testing seropositive, exceeding the levels reported in many other us populations, although similar to levels reported in java, indonesia ( . %)[ ] and among the nanvik inuit of canada ( . %)[ ]. the jones et al. ( ) us-based analysis of the - national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes) that included a wave of participants aged ≥ years found a much lower seroprevalence of . % [ % confidence limit (cl): . %, . %] prior to adjustment for age and an age-adjusted seroprevalence of . % ( % cl: . %, . %)[ ]. as these studies vary in terms of recruitment and analytical methodologies, we suggest caution when interpreting these differences. the uniqueness of our study population may further complicate comparisons—as previously mentioned, the ooa community is an ethnically, behaviourally, and culturally distinct group. we are not aware of any studies assessing the seroprevalence of t. gondii in other amish populations and have found only one study focusing on a similar population. alvarado-esquivel et al. ( ) conducted a t. gondii risk factor and seroprevalence analysis among mennonites in durango, mexico, an isolated and mostly rural population of ethnic germanic descent, with cultural and behavioural aspects that differ from the surrounding communities[ ]. they found lower seroprevalence ( . %) among the mennonites of durango[ ], compared to the % seroprevalence rate that we have observed in the ooa https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms community of lancaster, pennsylvania. also, the seroprevalence of t. gondii igg antibodies in the general population of durango city, mexico was reported to be . %, which was remarkably less than the seroprevalence in the mennonite community living in the same city[ ]. this difference in seroprevalence may relate to diverse factors, including food sources, diet, unique group practices, geographic characteristics, and other factors that differ between this mennonite community and the ooa. the rural location of residence may contribute to the higher seroprevalence among the ooa compared to other populations. seroprevalence studies often consider living in a rural environment a risk factor because of the presence in rural settings of potentially infected animals that can transmit the parasite to humans in a variety of ways[ ]. the finding of higher seroprevalence among rural compared to urban populations is consistent with the results from the united kingdom, germany, and ireland[ , , ]. in addition, a study by muñoz-zanzi et al. found that children residing on farms in wisconsin were more likely seropositive than those who did not reside on farms[ ]. in their multivariate analysis of the - wave of nhanes, jones et al. reported significantly lower seropositivity among non-hispanic blacks living in metropolitan areas (> million population) (or: . , % ci: . , . ) than among non-hispanic blacks living in non-metropolitan areas[ ]. yet, the risk of t. gondii infection was not different among residents of metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas for populations of non-hispanic whites or mexican-americans[ ]. our study population lacked a proper urban counterpart to assess the impact of rurality/urbanicity, so we cannot exclude the possibility that there is simply high seroprevalence in the general study area. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms several of the food- and food safety-related risk factors found significantly associated with t. gondii seropositivity in this study are consistent with results from other studies. first, consumption and handling of raw and/or undercooked meats was associated with t. gondii seropositivity for both beef and pork, as previously seen in the literature[ , - ]. while the practice of cleaning a cat’s litterbox was also observed to be a risk factor among males in our study, our findings highlight the importance of the foodborne transmission route for t. gondii. in addition, washing hands was found protective of t. gondii seropositivity in our study, especially among women. our findings emphasize the importance of proper food safety behaviours, such as cooking meat to a safe temperature prior to eating/ not consuming raw meat, which is effective at diminishing risk of contracting the parasite. also, people should avoid accidental contamination by thoroughly washing hands before and after handling meats, and properly washing preparation surfaces and utensils (such as knives) with soap and hot water after use. washing of hands and/or use of gloves during gardening, may also help prevent contamination[ ]. our study also found that consumption of unpasteurized milk products was associated with risk of seropositivity. while intake of these products provides a possible route of exposure to the parasite[ - ], consumption rates are low among the us population[ , , ], and thus could explain, in part, the increased seropositivity among the amish. this study provided novel insights into risk factors for infection with a highly prevalent parasite in a unique us population. among several strengths, the study population is known for its ethnic and socioeconomic homogeneity, which may have helped to minimize confounding by unmeasured variables. second, response rates https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms were high for both the aws questionnaire and the atrfq. third, to counteract the possibility that the participants’ close family and household aggregation could have produced spurious associations, the study adjusted post-hoc for heritability and household in the analytical sample, without any loss of statistical significance for any of the positive findings reported in our study. among the study’s important limitations, the findings may not be generalizable to other populations in the us or elsewhere, given the unique characteristics of the culturally distinct ooa[ ]. in addition, we saw different distributions between age groups, which may be due to cumulative seropositivity and may have biased some of the observed associations. our study was also only included adults (age y or older), which means that we are unable to assess whether infections were acquired during childhood. consequently, we are unable to access certain risk factors and are also unable to provide recommendations to prevent these potential exposures. this study is also limited by a relatively small sample size given the number of risk factors analysed. although the high seropositivity in the ooa may have mitigated sample size issues, the low incidence of certain behaviours may have masked the statistical significance of their potential association with seropositivity. we presented our findings, both formally and informally, to the ooa community in lancaster, pa. we discussed the different t. gondii risk factors identified in our analysis and specifically addressed the observed sex-based differences. direct feedback from the ooa community and the findings themselves have and will continue to be used to develop content for future education efforts, including food safety. we plan on applying for grants to develop additional educational materials, train amish https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms educators, and conduct future studies to assess the possible relationships between knowledge and practice among the oaa. for example, future research efforts include developing a study to assess toxoplasma risk factors and foetal infection, morbidity, and mortality, and possibly establishing a longitudinal study to look at a variety of other important genetic, epigenetic, proteomic, clinical, and environmental factors, with sampling data for t. gondii in food, soil, water, and farm and domestic animals, as well as neuroimaging and other markers of physical and neuropsychiatric health and functioning. conclusion this study found t. gondii seropositivity among more than half of the participants from a unique ooa community with culturally specific meal preparation practices. the study highlights significant behavioural and environmental (including food-related) risk factors associated with infection, such as consuming undercooked meats and unpasteurized cow milk products, as well as protective behaviours, such as eating meals outside of the home and washing hands after contact with raw meat, showing the importance of proper food safety practices for meal preparation, which is of growing relevance to the consumers in the current general us population, as well. future research will focus on characterizing specific microorganism traits, including serotypes, markers of infection, and genetic, physiological, and clinical associations with t. gondii seropositivity, as well as advancing understanding of education and outreach needed to https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms promote protective behaviours and reduce the burden of toxoplasmosis from foodborne and other routes. acknowledgments: the authors thank gursharon nijjar, christopher chen, phillip miljanic, hassan yousufi, nupur hegde, winny mwaura, hira mohyuddin, sonia y. postolache, thea postolache, iqra mohyuddin, sunghee flores, hanna king, christopher a. lowry, lisa a. brenner, andrew hoisington, jeffrey o’connell, amish liaisons and nurses and staff of the amish research clinic of the university of maryland, lancaster, pa, who went out of their way to support this project. the authors also thank the entire amish community for collaborating in this project. we further would like to thank dolores hill, dietmar fuchs and christopher hunter for their expert advice on this project. this work was supported by the u.s. food and drug administration through the cooperative agreement fdu. (ttp). additional funding for this study was provided by the mid-atlantic nutrition obesity research center (norc) pilot & feasibility project (postolache, pi), a sub-award of the parent grant p dk (simeon i. taylor, program director), and, in part, by the va merit review csr&d grant i cx - a (postolache, pi). the views, opinions and findings contained in this article belong to the authors and should not be construed as an official position of the us food and drug administration, the us department of veterans affairs, or the national institutes of health. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms conflicts of interest: the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest related to the publication of this paper. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms references ( ) jones jl, parise me, fiore ae. neglected parasitic infections in the united states: toxoplasmosis. american journal of tropical medicine & hygiene ; ( ): - . ( ) centers for disease control and prevention (cdc). parasites - toxoplasmosis (toxoplasma infection) (https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/index.html). accessed june , . ( ) jones jl, et al. toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in the united states - and comparison with the past two decades. american journal of tropical medicine & hygiene ; ( ): - . ( ) minor t, et al. the per case and total annual costs of foodborne illness in the united states. risk analysis ; ( ): - . ( ) scallan e, et al. foodborne illness acquired in the united states--major pathogens. emerging infectious diseases ; ( ): - . ( ) dubey jp, lindsay ds, speer ca. structures of toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites, and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts. clinical microbiology reviews ; ( ): - . ( ) hill de, chirukandoth s, dubey jp. biology and epidemiology of toxoplasma gondii in man and animals. animal health research reviews ; ( ): - . ( ) montoya jg, liesenfeld o. toxoplasmosis. lancet ; ( ): - . ( ) montoya jg, boothroyd jc, kovacs ja. toxoplasma gondii. in: bennett je, dolin r, blaser mj, eds. principles and practice of infectious diseases. th ed. philadelphia, pa: elsevier saunderss, : pp. - . ( ) derouin f, pelloux h, parasitology esgoc. prevention of toxoplasmosis in transplant patients. clinical microbiology & infection ; ( ): - . ( ) robert-gangneux f, darde ml. epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis. clinical microbiology reviews ; ( ): - . ( ) dubey jp, jones jl. toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals in the united states. international journal of parasitology ; ( ): - . ( ) sutterland al, et al. beyond the association. toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: systematic review and meta-analysis. acta psychiatrica scandinavica ; ( ): - . ( ) torrey ef, bartko jj, yolken rh. toxoplasma gondii and other risk factors for schizophrenia: an update. schizophrenia bulletin ; ( ): - . ( ) torrey ef, et al. antibodies to toxoplasma gondii in patients with schizophrenia: a meta- analysis. schizophrenia bulletin ; ( ): - . ( ) arling ta, et al. toxoplasma gondii antibody titers and history of suicide attempts in patients with recurrent mood disorders. journal of nervous & mental disease ; ( ): - . ( ) pedersen mg, et al. toxoplasma gondii infection and self-directed violence in mothers. archives of general psychiatry ; ( ): - . ( ) said b, et al. risk factors for acute toxoplasmosis in england and wales. epidemiology & infection ; ( ): - . ( ) bamba s, et al. seroprevalence and risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women from bobo dioulasso, burkina faso. bmc infectious diseases ; ( ): . ( ) alvarado-esquivel c, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in huicholes in mexico. parasites & vectors ; . ( ) nash jq, et al. risk factors for toxoplasmosis in pregnant women in kent, united kingdom. epidemiology & infection ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms ( ) jones jl, et al. risk factors for toxoplasma gondii infection in the united states. clinical infectious diseases ; ( ): - . ( ) iddawela d, vithana smp, ratnayake c. seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection among pregnant women in sri lanka: a cross sectional study. bmc public health ; ( ): . ( ) retmanasari a, et al. prevalence and risk factors for toxoplasmosis in middle java, indonesia. ecohealth ; ( ): - . ( ) wam ec, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii igg and igm antibodies and associated risk factors in women of child-bearing age in njinikom, nw cameroon. bmc research notes ; ( ): . ( ) zhang xx, et al. seroprevalence and associated risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection in the korean, manchu, mongol and han ethnic groups in eastern and northeastern china. epidemiology & infection ; ( ): - . ( ) messier v, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii among nunavik inuit (canada). zoonoses & public health ; ( ): - . ( ) meier hc, et al. early life socioeconomic position and immune response to persistent infections among elderly latinos. socical sciences & medicine ; : - . ( ) hill d, et al. identification of a sporozoite-specific antigen from toxoplasma gondii. journal of parasitology ; ( ): - . ( ) kraybill d, johnson-weiner j, nolt s. the amish: the john hopkins university press, . ( ) cuyun carter gb, et al. dietary intake, food processing, and cooking methods among amish and non-amish adults living in ohio appalachia: relevance to nutritional risk factors for cancer. nutrition & cancer ; ( ): - . ( ) duffy ar, et al. toxoplasma gondii serointensity and seropositivity: heritability and household- related associations in the old order amish. international journal of environmental research and public health ; ( ). ( ) mcdonald jh. handbook of biological statistics ( rd ed.). baltimore, maryland: sparky house publishing, : pp. - . ( ) almasy l, blangero j. variance component methods for analysis of complex phenotypes. cold spring harbor protocols ; ( ): pdb top . ( ) alvarado-esquivel c, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in a mennonite community in durango state, mexico. journal of parasitology ; ( ): - . ( ) alvarado-esquivel c, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in general population in a northern mexican city. journal of parasitology ; ( ): - . ( ) wilking h, et al. prevalence, incidence estimations, and risk factors of toxoplasma gondii infection in germany: a representative, cross-sectional, serological study. scientific reports ; : . ( ) taylor mr, et al. community study of toxoplasma antibodies in urban and rural schoolchildren aged to years. archives of disease in childhood ; ( ): - . ( ) muñoz-zanzi c, williams-nguyen j, belongia ea. a sero-survey of toxoplasmosis in farm and non-farm children from wisconsin, united states, – . bmc public health ; ( ): . ( ) jones jl, et al. toxoplasma gondii infection in the united states: seroprevalence and risk factors. american journal of epidemiology ; ( ): - . ( ) costard s, et al. outbreak-related disease burden associated with consumption of unpasteurized cow's milk and cheese, united states, - . emerging infectious diseases ; ( ): - . ( ) boughattas s. commentary on: "detection of toxoplasma gondii in raw caprine, ovine, buffalo, bovine, and camel milk using cell cultivation, cat bioassay, capture elisa, and pcr methods in iran". frontiers in microbiology ; : . https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . demographic characteristics of old order amish participants, toxoplasma gondii serostatus and risk factor study, - . characteristic total n (%) ( %) seropositive n (%) ( . ) seronegative n (%) ( . ) p value* age (y) - ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) < . - ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) - ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) - ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) - ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) + ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) mean (sd) . / . ( . ) . / . ( . ) . / . ( . ) < . sex female ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) < . male ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) body mass index mean (sd) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . t. gondii titre concentration (iu/ml) ** median (sd) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) < . sd, standard deviation; t. gondii, toxoplasma gondii. *p value from x test of independence for age and sex[ ]; from sas . (cary, nc) for t-test; italics denote significance at p < . . **t. gondii titre concentration: seropositive ≥ iu/ml; seronegative < iu/ml. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . bivariate analysis of unadjusted associations (unadjusted odds ratios) of serostatus and category-based behavioural risk and protective factors of old order amish participants, toxoplasma gondii serostatus and risk factor study, - . behavioural risk or protective factor seropositive of those positive for behaviour n/n (%) seropositive of those negative for behaviour n/n (%) unadjusted odds ratio % ci p value pets (ref: no pets) has pets / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . has cats / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . has kittens / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . has contact with cats / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . cleans the litterbox / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . meat consumption (ref: no consumption) ate rare meat / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . ate raw meat / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . ate raw ground pork* / ( . ) / ( . ) ∞ ∞ < . * ate rare ground beef / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . unpasteurized milk consumption** (ref: no consumption) consumed unpasteurized cow or goat milk products* / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . washing hands (ref: not always washing hands after touching raw meat) always washing hands after touching raw meat / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . *only respondent indicated raw ground pork intake. **only respondents indicated consumption of unpasteurized goat milk products; indicated intake of unpasteurized cow milk products. italics denote significance at p < . . https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . bivariate analysis of associations (unadjusted odds ratios) of serostatus and frequency- based behavioural risk and protective factors of old order amish participants, toxoplasma gondii serostatus and risk factor study, - . behavioural risk or protective factor never < /week ≥ week daily unadjusted odds ratio % ci p value consumption of: unpasteurized cow milk/ yoghurt / ( . ) / ( . ) / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . rare meat / ( . ) / ( . ) / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . raw meat / ( . ) / ( . ) / ( .) / (n/a) . . - . . less than once a month once a month or more unadjusted odds ratio % ci p value location of meal consumption: outside the home / ( . ) / ( . ) . . - . . italics denote significance at p < . . https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . adjusted associations (adjusted odds ratios) of toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and age and behavioural risk and protective factors by sex of old order amish participants, toxoplasma gondii serostatus and risk factor study, - male female factor adjusted odds ratio % ci p value adjusted odds ratio % ci p value age female . . – . < . male . . – . . pets has pets . . – . . . . – . . has kittens . . – . . . . – . . has cats . . – . . . . – . . cleaned the litterbox . . – . . . . – . . meat consumption* ate rare meat . . – . . . . – . . ate raw meat . . – . . . . – . . ate rare ground beef . . – . . . . – . . unpasteurized milk consumption** consumed unpasteurized cow or goat products** . . - . . . . - . . consumed unpasteurized cow milk products . . - . . . . - . . washing hands always washing hands after touching raw meat . . – . . . . – . . italics denote significance at p < . . *only respondent indicated raw ground pork intake; results, therefore, not shown. **only respondents indicated consumption of unpasteurized goat milk products; indicated intake of unpasteurized cow milk products. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms development of a population-based newborn screening method for severe combined immunodeficiency in manitoba, canada international journal of neonatal screening article development of a population-based newborn screening method for severe combined immunodeficiency in manitoba, canada j. robert thompson , cheryl r. greenberg ,*, andrew dick , olga jilkina , luvinia kwan , tamar s. rubin , teresa zelinski , marlis l. schroeder and paul van caeseele cadham provincial laboratory, winnipeg, mb r e j , canada; bob @mts.net (j.r.t.); adrdick@gmail.com (a.d.); pvancaesee@gov.mb.ca (p.v.c.) department of pediatrics and child health, max rady college of medicine, rady faculty of health sciences, university of manitoba, - mcdermot ave, winnipeg, mb r e r , canada; lkwan@hsc.mb.ca (l.k.); trubin@manitoba-physicians.ca (t.s.r.); teresa.zelinski@umanitoba.ca (t.z.); mschroeder@hsc.mb.ca (m.l.s.) cancercare manitoba, winnipeg, mb r e v , canada; ojilkine@gmail.com * correspondence: cgreenberg@hsc.mb.ca; tel.: + -( )- - received: may ; accepted: june ; published: june ���������� ������� abstract: the incidence of severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) in manitoba, ( / , ), is at least three to four times higher than the national average and that reported from other jurisdictions. it is overrepresented in two population groups: mennonites (zap founder mutation) and first nations of northern cree ancestry (ikbkb founder mutation). we have previously demonstrated that in these two populations the most widely utilized t-cell receptor excision circle (trec) assay is an ineffective newborn screening test to detect scid as these patients have normal numbers of mature t-cells. we have developed a semi-automated, closed tube, high resolution dna melting procedure to simultaneously genotype both of these mutations from the same newborn blood spot dna extract used for the trec assay. parallel analysis of all newborn screening specimens utilizing both trec analysis and the high-resolution dna procedure should provide as complete ascertainment as possible of scid in the manitoba population. keywords: newborn screening; scid; trec . introduction severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) is the most profound form of the primary immunodeficiency diseases (pid) and is characterized by the lack of a functioning immune system. infants born with scid are normal at birth but invariably develop multiple severe infections which usually prove fatal in the first year of life. treatment by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation early in life is associated with a good outcome and the highest probability of long-term survival [ ]. pre-symptomatic diagnosis and early intervention greatly improve the outcome of children with this condition with the potential to save lives and prevent suffering. in march , the federal us committee on newborn screening recommended the addition of severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) to the routine newborn screening panel and now is offered in over states in the united states [ , ]. since then several countries including israel [ ], taiwan [ ] and one canadian province of ontario [ ] have introduced newborn screening for scid. many others are conducting pilot projects or have proposals being considered [ – ]. the most widely used newborn screening test for scid is the quantification of t-cell receptor excision circles (trec) [ ]. canadian surveillance studies have found that scid incidence is -fold higher in the province of manitoba compared to the rest of the country [ , ]. in a retrospective study [ ] of the children int. j. neonatal screen. , , ; doi: . /ijns www.mdpi.com/journal/neonatalscreening http://www.mdpi.com/journal/neonatalscreening http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - x/ / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://www.mdpi.com/journal/neonatalscreening int. j. neonatal screen. , , of diagnosed with scid and other pid in manitoba between and , we demonstrated that more than half of these affected children would not have been identified on newborn screening by trec analysis. the children who would have not been ascertained by trec analysis belong to two separate population groups, each with a founder mutation that contributes to the disproportionately high frequency of scid in manitoba. one group is of mennonite descent and has zeta chain-associated protein kinase (zap ) deficiency [ ] and the second group is of first nations northern cree ancestry with inhibitor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in b-cells, kinase beta (ikbkb) deficiency [ ]. the mennonite zap deficiency seen in our population results from a homozygous g>a substitution in the acceptor splice site of intron of zap (c. − g>a) abolishing the usual acceptor splice site and creating a new acceptor splice sequence upstream. this results in the insertion of nucleotides in the mrna and additional amino acids in the protein product, inactivating the kinase. the northern cree ikbkb mutation results from the homozygous insertion of a g at nucleotide in exon of the ikbkb gene (c. dupg) causing a frameshift mutation and a premature stop codon with complete loss of kinase function of the ikbkb protein. the latter is integral to the nf-kb pathway by phosphorylating inhibitors of kb, thereby impacting t and b cell receptors [ ]. a semi-automated method involving closed-tube (homogeneous) high-resolution melting analysis for the simultaneous genotyping of these two founder mutations was developed and run in parallel with the quantification of trec on each newborn dried filter paper blood spot (dbs) collected as part of routine newborn screening. we now report details of this methodology and its validation and emphasize the importance of ensuring that ascertainment is as complete as possible when introducing universal newborn screening for scid. . materials and methods . . patient studies dna was extracted from dbs retrieved from patients known to be at risk for zap deficiency and ikbkb deficiency, genotyped in previous studies as n = zap or n = ikbkb homozygous affected; n = zap or n = ikbkb heterozygous; and n = zap or n = ikbkb homozygous normal with respect to the zap and ikbkb mutations [ – ]. the dna eluates were then amplified and analyzed by the high-resolution melting technique as described below and assigned a genotype. the amplicons assigned homozygous affected, heterozygous or homozygous normal genotypes were then compared to the sanger sequencing results generated from the original dbs to validate the genotype assignments from the high-resolution melting technique. the study was conducted in accordance with the declaration of helsinki and was approved on june , by the research ethics board of the university of manitoba (h : ). . . high resolution melting dna studies a quantitative real-time pcr (qpcr) assay was designed to make use of the high-resolution dna melting curves by exploiting the difference in the melt temperature (tm) of amplicons resulting from the single nucleotide substitutions in zap and ikbkb from individuals with different genotypes. primers were designed to ensure similar melt temperatures (tm) for forward and reverse primers and short amplicon product sizes of less than bp, based on the rationale that the shorter the amplicon, the greater the effect of a single base change on the melting temperature of the product. the primer sequences and their tms were as follows (table ). table . primer sequences and tms for pcr amplification. name sequence length tm ikbkb forward primer ′-agg aat ctc gcc ttc ttc c- ′ . ikbkb reverse primer ′-ctg gat gct gtg cca gac- ′ . zap forward primer ′-tga gga gga gga cac tgg- ′ . zap reverse primer ′-ttg ccc tgc tcg atg aag- ′ . int. j. neonatal screen. , , of dna was extracted from each dbs using a mm spot punched by an eppendorf dbs puncher and lysed using qiagen biosprint lysis buffers (qiagen sciences, germantown, md, usa) containing proteinase k at ◦c for min while shaking at rpm. dna was extracted from the samples over min using the biomerieux easymag nuclisenssystem with magnetic silica beads (biomerieux inc. canada, st. laurent, qc, canada) to produce a µl eluate of purified dna. eluates were stored at ◦c until analysis. amplification of µl aliquots was performed using the bioradcfx thermocycler c touch system (bio-rad laboratories (canada) ltd., mississauga, on, canada) using biorad ssofast evagreen supermix (biorad cat. no. ). reaction mixtures (total volume µl) were prepared by combining µl ssofast evagreen supermix, . µl of each µm forward and reverse ikbkb primers, . µl of each µm forward and reverse zap primers, µl extracted dna eluate from patients and controls and . µl dnase/rnase free water to bring final reaction volume to µl. product amplification was monitored by the increase in fluorescent intensity using the following cycling parameters. initial dna denaturation at ◦c for min (to complete the activation of hot start polymerase) was followed by denaturation at ◦c for s and annealing/extension at ◦c for s. this was repeated for cycles with a plate read at the end of each cycle followed by a final denaturation at ◦c for s and final anneal/extension at ◦c for s. melt curves were then generated between – ◦c by incrementally increasing the temperature in steps of . ◦c for s per step followed by plate read. the melt curve profile data were generated by the cfx manager software (bio-rad precision melt analysis software version . ( . . . ), mississauga, on, canada) based on measurement of the decrease in fluorescent signal at each incremental step of double stranded amplicon denaturation. the amplicon melting temperature was defined at the point at which there was a decrease of % in fluorescent signal intensity. the precision melt analysis software interpreted the melt curve data following signal strength normalization due to the variable intensity of the starting signal between specimens. . results figure illustrates the raw fluorescence data of the precision melt analysis adjusted by the negative first derivative visualizing the melting temperatures of the zap and ikbkb amplicons (a) and the normalized melt curves (b). in panel a the melting temperatures of the amplicons were assigned at the point where there is a % loss of fluorescent signal intensity, that is, the point where one half of the double stranded amplicon is denatured. panel b shows the results when the precision melt analysis software normalized the raw fluorescent data and set pre- and post-melt signals to relative values of . to . the normalized melt curves produced clear differentiation between the zap (top b) and ikbkb (bottom b) amplicons. the temperature shifted difference curves further resolved and clearly differentiated the zap and ikbkb homozygous affected, heterozygous and wild type genotypes respectively (figure a,b). the zap and ikbkb genotype assignments from the dbs were validated by sanger sequencing of dna extracted from the original dbs samples. the high resolution melting technique used in the dna studies also assigned a genotype of homozygous normal to unrelated, random, age-matched, unaffected control samples with % accuracy. int. j. neonatal screen. , , of figure . negative first regression adjusted raw fluorescent data of amplified products. in panel a the peaks of zap * and ikbkb# represent the melting temperatures of all the zap and ikbkb amplicons where there is % loss of fluorescent signal intensity, that is, the point at which one half of the double stranded amplicon dna is denatured. the rate of change in fluorescence as the temperature rises is determined by plotting the negative first regression of relative fluorescence (rfu) vs. temperature (−d(rfu)/dt) on the y-axis. panel b shows the results when the precision melt analysis software normalized the raw fluorescent data (a) and set pre- and post-melt signals to relative values of . to . the normalized melt curves produced were distinct for the zap amplicons (top b) and the ikbkb amplicons (bottom b). figure . representative temperature shifted difference curves. the temperature shifted difference curves further resolve clusters of the same genotype and clearly differentiate the zap homozygous affected (green line), heterozygous (blue line) and wild type (red line) genotypes (a) and the ikbkb homozygous affected (blue line), heterozygous (green line) and wild type (red line) genotypes (b). int. j. neonatal screen. , , of . discussion although trec screening should identify % of t-cell deficient forms of scid and pid, we have previously shown that it will not identify the majority of t-cell positive forms of scid and pid prevalent in our population due to our known founder mutations. there are ~ , births annually in the province of manitoba. one baby with the zap mennonite founder mutation and one baby with the ikbkb northern cree founder mutation are diagnosed, on average, yearly. these babies become symptomatic and either die of their disease or are referred for bone marrow transplantation. without screening at birth, these babies with scid have very prolonged and complicated hospitalizations and, if they survive to transplant, have very stormy post-transplant courses. the cost of an early successful transplant in an infant ascertained on newborn screening in our province is less than the costs of prolonged hospitalization and morbidity suffered by managing a patient with scid after a late diagnosis. the actual cost of the materials for dna extraction followed by quantitative pcr for trec/rnase p and high resolution melt analysis for both founder mutations is ~$ . canadian per test. implementation of the high-resolution dna melting analysis described in this manuscript for the determination of the specific zap and ikbkb genotypes in all patients run in parallel with trec/rnasep quantification should provide as complete ascertainment as possible of scid in the newborn population of manitoba. we realize that other mutations in zap and ikbkb in our population and in other populations will not be identified by this specific high resolution melt analysis and is a limitation of our approach. other methodologies such as next generation sequencing (ngs) could be considered but at the present time are not feasible as a first-tier clinical test for universal newborn screening in our province [ ]. thus, combining trecs with high resolution melt for these founder mutations as we describe will have the best sensitivity and the lowest likelihood of false negatives in universal neonatal screening for scid in manitoba. this methodology could also be implemented in other canadian provinces where these founder mutations are also present in their mennonite [ ] and indigenous communities [ ] or can be adapted to other populations with their own specific founder mutations when there are false negative results with trecs alone. our approach is also conceptually similar to that described recently by al- mousa et al. [ ] using a targeted-ngs [t-ngs] primary immunodeficiency panel in their saudi population with a very high frequency of scid. however, their approach is different from ours as t-ngs is a second tier mutation screening tool on dbs from saudi newborns ascertained by low trec assays. both biggs et al. [ ] and rechavi et al. [ ] discuss the challenge of a trecs-based assay alone for neonatal scid detection, its fundamental inability to detect immunodeficiencies that result from t-cell dysfunction without t-cell lymphopenia and the need to be aware of these t-cell positive scid variants that will be missed by trecs- methodology alone. with our combined methods we believe we will significantly reduce the number of false negatives in our manitoba population than if we used trecs alone. the methodology is semi-automated, scalable and reproducible allowing for high throughput, rapid universal newborn screening for scid and for those particular conditions prevalent in our province, a programme we hope to implement in the coming year. author contributions: j.r.t. contributed to the conception and design of the experiments, analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. a.d., o.j., l.k. performed the experiments. t.r., t.z., m.s., p.v.c. and c.r.g. contributed to the design of the article and critically reviewed and revised the article for important scientific content. all authors gave final approval of the version to be published. acknowledgments: we gratefully acknowledge the expertise of cherie evans and kerry dust, cadham provincial laboratory, the helpful input of cindy ellison and geoff cuvelier and the support of the children’s hospital research institute of manitoba. this study was funded, in part, by an operating grant from the winnipeg rh institute foundation (to tz). this research received no other external funding. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. int. j. neonatal screen. , , of references . pai, s.-y.; logan, b.r.; griffith, l.m.; buckley, r.h.; parrott, r.e.; dvorak, c.c.; kapoor, n.; hanson, i.c.; filipovich, a.h.; jyonouchi, s.; et al. transplantation outcomes for severe combined immunodeficiency, – . n. engl. j. med. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . uniform screening panel for newborn screening. available online: https://www.hrsa.gov/advisory- committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/index.html (accessed on june ). . therrell, b.l.; padilla, c.d.; loeber, j.g.; kneisser, i.; saadallah, a.; borrajo, g.j.; adams, j. current status of newborn screening worldwide: . semin. perinatol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . rechavi, e.; lev, a.; simon, a.j.; stauber, t.; daas, s.; saraf-levy, t.; broides, a.; nahum, a.; marcus, n.; hanna, s.; et al. first year of israeli newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency-clinical achievements and insights. front. immunol. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . chien, y.-h.; yu, h.-h.; lee, n.-c.; ho, h.-c.; kao, s.-m.; lu, m.-y.; jaing, t.-h.; lee, w.-i.; chang, k.-w.; shieh, c.-c.; et al. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency in taiwan. int. j. neonatal. screen. , , . [crossref] . cross, c. ontario newborns now screened for scid. cmaj , , e . [crossref] [pubmed] . al-mousa, h.; al-dakheel, g.; jabr, a.; elbadaoui, f.; abouelhoda, m.; baig, m.; monies, d.; meyer, b.; hawwari, a.; dasouki, m. high incidence of severe combined immunodeficiency disease in saudi arabia detected through combined t cell receptor excision circle and next generation sequencing of newborn dried spots. front. immunol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . adams, s.p.; rashid, s.; premachandra, t.; harvey, k.; ifederu, a.; wilson, m.c.; gaspar, h.b. screening of neonatal uk dried blood spots using a duplex trec screening assay. j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . zetterström, r.h.; barbaro, m.; ohlsson, a.; borte, s.; jonsson, s.; winiarski, j.; von döbeln, u.; hammarström, l. newborn screening for primary immune deficiencies with a trec/krec/actb triplex assay—a three-year pilot study in sweden. int. j. neonatal. screen. , , . [crossref] . gaspar, h.b. a practical guide to implementing population newborn screening (nbs) for severe combined immunodeficiency (scid). int. j. neonatal. screen. , , . [crossref] . gerstel-thompson, j.l.; wilkey, j.f.; baptiste, j.c.; navas, j.s.; pai, s.y.; pass, k.a.; eaton, r.b.; comeau, a.m. high-throughput multiplexed t-cell receptor excision circle quantitative pcr assay with internal controls for detection of severe combined immunodeficiency in population-based newborn screening. clin. chem. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . rozmus, j.; junker, a.; thibodeau, m.l.; grenier, d.; turvey, s.e.; yacoub, w.; embree, j.; haddad, e.; langley, j.m.; ramsingh, r.m.; et al. severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) in canadian children: a national surveillance study. j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . jilkina, o.; thompson, j.r.; kwan, l.; van caeseele, p.; rockman-greenberg, c.; schroeder, m.l. retrospective trec testing of newborns with severe combined immunodeficiency and other primary immunodeficiency diseases. mol. genet. metab. rep. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . schroeder, m.l.; triggs-raine, b.; zelinski, t. genotyping an immunodeficiency causing c. - g>a zap mutation in canadian mennonites. bmc med. genet. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . pannicke, u.; baumann, b.; fuchs, s.; henneke, p.; rensing-ehl, a.; rizzi, m.; janda, a.; hese, k.; schlesier, m.; holzmann, k.; et al. deficiency of innate and acquired immunity caused by an ikbkb mutation. n. engl. j. med. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . king, j.r.; hammarstrom, l. newborn screening for primary immunodeficiency diseases: history, current and future practice. j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . biggs, c.m.; haddad, e.; issekutz, t.b.; roifman, c.m.; turvey, s.e. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency: a primer for clinicians. cmaj , , e –e . [crossref] [pubmed] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /nejmoa http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.hrsa.gov/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/index.html https://www.hrsa.gov/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/index.html http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.semperi. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /fimmu. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . /cmaj. - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /fimmu. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . /clinchem. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ymgmr. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /nejmoa http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - -x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /cmaj. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	patient studies 	high resolution melting dna studies 	results 	discussion 	references cjp volume issue back matter the welfare state in capitalist society policies of retrenchment and maintenance in europe, north america, and australia ramesh mishra mishra identifies three components of the post-war welfare state: full employment, universal social services, and a commitment to social justice. he then considers how different countries approach each of these components. $ . representing order crime, law, and justice in the news media richard v. ericson, patricia baranek, and janet chan following the authors' widely acclaimed previous works, visual- izing deviance and negotiating control, this volume analyses news content as an integral part of the crime, law, and justice processes. cloth $ . , paper $ . duff pattullo of british columbia robin fisher pattullo was premier of british columbia from to . governing through the tumultuous years of the s, he was the most significant b.c. premier of this century; his liberal admini- stration offered what was arguably the most vigorous response to the depression in canada. $ . u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core limits on liberty the experience of mennonite, hutterite, and doukhobor communities in canada william janzen janzen considers the efforts of mennonites, hutterites, and doukhobors to maintain their distinctive communal practices in the face of canadian governments' emphasis on individualism, major- ity rule, integration, equality before the law, and, in recent times, universalism in certain social programs. $ . now in paperback the communist ideal in hegel and marx david macgregor ' a spirited and vigorously argued work... a brilliantly conceived book which no student in the field can afford to overlook.' r.n. berki, political studies 'an outrageous and important book.' herb gamberg, dalhousie university $ . changing the guard canada's defence in transition peter langille ' t h e most penetrating analysis of contemporary canadian defence policy formulation that i have read in at least ten years... absolutely invaluable.' gwynne dyer $ . u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the supreme court and canadian federalism professor katherine e. swinton this illuminating new work examines the role of the supremecourt of canada as constitutional umpire in federal-provincial matters under the direction of chief justices laskin and dickson. professor swinton surveys some decisions by the court. • a definitive examination of the supreme court's present approach to federalism. plus an insightful prognosis of the court's approach to federalism in the future. • detailed survey of the supreme court's "general regulation of trade" doctrine in giving the federal government greater scope over the regulation of the economy. • in-depth inquiry into constitutional interpretation. including the use of economic and historical data as well as human rights theory. • revealing insight into the federalist positions of chief justices laskin and dickson and justice beetz — the three key figures on the supreme court of canada who shaped canadian federalism over the past two decades. order your copy today! -day risk-free examination d please send me the supreme court and canadian federalism for a -day risk-free examination. l - august pp. hardcover $ . name address city prov postal code phone no thomson professional publishing canada carswell/richard de boo publishers ordering address: corporate plaza, kennedy road, scarborough, ontario m t v fax: ( ) - ( hours) toll free: - - - ( : a.m. to : p.m. eastern standard time) in toronto call: ( ) - price subject to change without notice and subject to the % g.s. t. / core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial policy and notes to contributors / politique editoriale et avis aux collaborateurs the canadian journal of political science, whose policy is set by the editorial board, is committed to the publication of scholarly research in all fields of political science. manuscripts are assessed on the basis of their contribution to the discipline and by the authors' adherence to the highest scholarly standards. the editorial board may judge manuscripts unsuitable if they are too narrow or specialized for an omnibus political science journal. la revue canadienne de science politique dont la politique est mise en place par le comite de redaction s'engage a publier des travaux de recherche academique dans toutes les orientations de la science politique. les manuscrits sont evalues sur la base de leur contribution a 'avancement des connaissances dans la discipline et selon la conformite des textes aux exigences academiques les plus elevees. le comite de redaction peut considerer inadmissibles des manuscrits portant sur des sujets trop specialises ou trop etroits. authors are requested to forward four copies of their manuscripts together with four copies of an abstract of words. manuscripts should not be longer than pages (all material included). all material must be double-spaced. footnotes should be double-spaced and placed in a single listing at the end of the paper. tables and diagrams must be submitted on separate pages. in preparing a manuscript for consideration by the editorial board, authors should follow the journal's style sheet which the editors can supply. otherwise, the most recent issue of the journal can serve as a style guide. manuscripts will not be returned. les auteurs doivent faire parvenir leur manuscrits en quatre exemplaires accom- pagnes d'un resume de mots en quatre exemplaires. les manuscrits ne doivent pas depasser pages dactylographiees a double interligne (y compris les notes, les references et les tableaux). les references doivent aussi etre presentees a.double interligne dans un ordre consecutif a la fin du manuscrit. les tableaux et les graphiques doivent etre soumis sur des pages separees. avant de soumettre un manuscrit, les auteurs doivent s'assurer que le protocole de redaction de la revue est respecte. ce protocole peut leur etre envoye sur demande ou ils peuvent s'inspirer a cet egard du dernier numero de la revue. les manuscrits ne sont pas retournes aux auteurs. the editorial board considers manuscripts on an exclusive basis only; that is, a manuscript submitted for consideration must not have been previously published, nor be under consideration, nor accepted for publication, elsewhere. le comite de redaction considere que les manuscrits lui sont soumis en exclusivite; c'est-a-dire qu'un manuscrit soumis ne doit pas avoir deja etc public, etre soumis ou accepte pour publication dans une autre revue. editorial correspondence in english should be directed to professor roger gibbins, department of political science, university of calgary, calgary, alberta t n in . on doit adresser toute communication en francais au sujet de la redaction au professeur stephane dion, departement de science politique, universite de montreal, c. p. , succursale a, montreal, quebec h c j . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core farming the dry forests of south america: diversity of land users and imprints on ecosystem functioning cultivating the dry forests of south america: diversity of land users and imprints on ecosystem functioning germán baldi ,* , javier houspanossian , francisco murray , , adriel a. rosales , , carla v. rueda , , and esteban g. jobbágy affiliation: grupo de estudios ambientales - imasl, universidad nacional de san luis & conicet. ejército de los andes , d hhw. san luis, argentina. inta, eea valle inferior. ruta nacional nº km , camino , . viedma, argentina. universidad de la punta. av. universitaria s/n, d . la punta, argentina. instituto de silvicultura y manejo de bosques, universidad nacional de santiago del estero. av. belgrano , g abt. santiago del estero, argentina. * corresponding author: germán baldi, tel: + - - - fax + - - , baldi@unsl.edu.ar. abstract in the south american dry forest of the dry chaco and chiquitania, the area under cultivation rose from % to % over the last ten years, and little biophysical, economical, or political constrains seem to prevent further expansion. although typically associated to a homogeneous agribusiness system, agriculture and its expansion in this territory involve a diverse array of land users. here we (i) identified and mapped the most conspicuous groups of land users based on existing scientific literature and technical reports, and (ii) described their associated landscape pattern and (iii) vegetation functioning based on different remote sensing tools applied to a set of sample points. we recognized groups of land users of local or foreign origin, composed by individuals or corporative organizations, and dedicated either to pasture or crop production, or its combination. these groups displayed a wide variation in the scale of their operations as suggested by a -fold difference in paddock sizes. twelve years of modis- ndvi data showed small and non-significant differences in the magnitude of primary productivity ( . fold-difference) but strong contrasts in its seasonality and long-term variability, © . this manuscript version is made available under the elsevier user license http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/ . / including shifts in the rates of vegetation greening and browning (up to fold-differences), growing period length ( to days y - ), number of cultivation seasons per year ( to . ), and inter-annual coefficient of variation (up to . ). agriculture under capitalized groups was characterized by very large paddocks, less stable productivity patterns, and more divergent seasonality. instead, all smallholders showed more stable productivities both seasonally and inter-annually. deforestation and cultivation in these dry regions does not have a single imprint on landscapes configuration and primary production dynamics, but one that shifts depending on the human and productive context under which they take place. keywords: dry chaco, chiquitania, cultivation, rural typology, landscape pattern, vegetation functioning. . introduction dry subtropical regions face a rapid expansion of agriculture over the still dominant areas of natural and seminatural vegetation (miles et al., ; portillo-quintero and sánchez- azofeifa, ; baldi and jobbágy, ). among the driving factors of these changes are the increasing overseas demand of food and fuel, the enhanced connectivity of formerly remote areas, more stable economies, and the release of local population from poverty and violence (unruh, ; redo et al., ). agricultural land in these regions is managed by a broad array of users ranging from small-scale subsistence to large-scale commodity production, depending on the balance between population density, connectivity to global markets, and affluence/technology conditions (grau et al., b; cotula et al., ; lobell et al., ; baldi and jobbágy, ). thus, the results of such transitions in terms of landscape pattern (rate of agricultural subdivision, paddocks shape), and of vegetation functioning (magnitude and temporal variability of primary productivity) may depend greatly on the human context under which changes occurs and not only on the biophysical conditions of the territory (ellis and ramankutty, ; baldi et al., ). in south america, the dry chaco and chiquitania ecoregions do not escape from this general trend of expanding cultivation (grau et al., b; killeen et al., ; guyra paraguay, ). although it still represents one of the largest extents of subtropical dry forests in the world, its transformation become noteworthy at a regional scale since the beginning of the ’s (van dam, ; adámoli et al., ; leguizamón, ), both through the expansion of the few early (i.e. ´s) agricultural foci and emerging new areas, where no large biophysical limitations seem to constrain their establishment (ewel, ; pacheco, ; houspanossian et al., in preparation). the historical availability of federal lands, an ethnically and economically diverse population, governmental immigration campaigns, and a recent openness to the global market of agricultural goods, led to an exceptionally heterogeneous scenario of agricultural land users (glatzle, ; vázquez, ; killeen et al., ; redo, ). under this complexity, local- to country-scale research showed a noticeable imprint on landscape composition and its dynamic (killeen et al., ; casco verna, ). in this territory, a developing body of studies is showing the effect of deforestation and subsequent cultivation on primary productivity patterns, carbon pools and emissions, groundwater hydrology, and climate regulation (nitsch, ; gasparri et al., ; jobbágy et al., ; santoni et al., ; amdan et al., ; houspanossian et al., ). in particular, cultivation introduces an amplification of the seasonal and inter-annual variability of productivity, apparently without changing its average magnitude (volante et al., ; baldi et al., ). however, little is known about the regional spatial and temporal heterogeneity of primary productivity patterns, and even less about its relationship with the diverse land management approaches performed by farmers and ranchers (guerschman et al., ). our guiding questions are: who are the agricultural land users in the dry chaco and chiquitania territory? users have a particular imprint on landscape patterns and vegetation functioning? is there an interaction between this variable human context and aridity restrictions? to address these questions we (i) identify agricultural land users and characterize a series of social, operational, and productive traits from existing scientific literature and technical reports. then we quantify (ii) the imprint of these groups on landscape patterns (i.e. paddock size and shape) using google earth high resolution imagery and (iii) their vegetation functioning (i.e. magnitude, and seasonal and long-term variability of primary productivity) using high temporal resolution modis spectral data. finally, we (iv) assess the effect of climatic water availability on vegetation functioning patterns. while characterizing contrasts across the entire region, we make emphasis on the comparisons between neighbouring groups of land users (sharing presumably a same physical environment). . methods . . study area we focused our analyses on the dry portion of the dry chaco and chiquitania territory (fig. , left panel), encompassing an area of , km in northern argentina ( %), southeastern bolivia ( %), and western paraguay ( %) according to olson et al. limits ( ). the territory is characterized by an extremely flat relief, and by fertile and deep soils of quaternary origin (aeolian and fluvial). rainfall follows a monsoonal pattern, ranging from mm year - –in the north-center– up to , mm year - –in the outer limits–, and average temperatures from to °c from south to north, according to the “ten minute climatology database” (new et al., ). these two factors determine a general water deficit (especially from may to october). the ratio of mean annual precipitation-to-potential evapotranspiration (ppt:pet) ranges from . to . . originally composed of dry forests and savannas, natural vegetation has been subject to different uses including logging, charcoal extraction, and grazing, which led to changes in structure and composition (morello et al., ; adámoli et al., ; gasparri and baldi, ; rueda et al., ). currently a dominant, continuous, cover of woody vegetation characterize the area (baldi et al., ), with agricultural areas reaching in march % of the study area ( , , and % in argentina, bolivia and paraguay; respectively) (killeen et al., ; umsef, ; rediex, ; vallejos et al., ; volante et al., ; guyra paraguay, ). in argentina and bolivia agriculture is mainly devoted to the production of cereals, oil, and industrial crops (e.g. soy, wheat, cotton, and sunflower) or exotic pastures (e.g. cenchrus ciliaris, panicum spp.). this last use is dominant in paraguay, were exotic (i.e. leucaena leucocephala) and native shrubs (e.g. prosopis spp.) are additional components of pastures (van dam, ; glatzle, ). . . agricultural land users in order to identify the different land users within the agricultural territory of dry chaco and chiquitania (fig. , left panel), we explored a set of technical reports, papers, thesis, and websites dealing with local to regional agricultural production and expansion. each of these sources of information described for widely accepted groups (e.g. ranching corporations), social (ethnic origin, settlement history, ownership), operational (source of capital, use of inputs, mechanization), and productive traits (crops vs. pastures, fate of products) –following kostrowicki ( )–. from the described dominant traits, and with the aid of local expertise and from our own knowledge, we generated a single scheme of groups by avoiding overlaps and inconsistencies. due to the strength of political factors driving land use in the region (vázquez, ; redo et al., ; leguizamón, ), we further distinguished groups by country. though we acknowledge that some unmanaged variability within groups may exist, quantitative information at a paddock level is not currently available for the entire region. -insert fig. here- . . sampling scheme spatiality explicit location of the different agricultural land users groups was available in of the bibliographic information sources. the spatial accuracy and the extent of this information varied from sketches (e.g. vázquez, ) to detailed maps (e.g. dgeec, ), and from very small (e.g. arístide, ) to large areas (e.g. killeen et al., ), respectively. this information encompassed the entire bolivian territory, almost two-thirds of paraguay, and scattered areas throughout argentina. within these areas allocated to different agricultural land users, we determined a variable number of sample points for each group in order to characterize landscape patterns and vegetation functioning. the number of sample points depended on the known extent of each group, and on the accomplishment of points of the following criteria: (i) be composed by > % of crops or pastures within a m-radius area (the remaining area being woody corridors or isolated trees), (ii) be > km away from any other sample point (with the exception of argentinean mennonites due to their reduced territorial extent), and (iii) be subject to cultivation since or earlier. we set a maximum of points per group, discarding extra sites through a random selection process, resulting in the selected samples. the first two conditions were evaluated by a visual inspection of very high (≤ m, quickbird) to high ( . to m, spot) spatial resolution images from google earth (http://www.google.com/earth/index.html). the third condition was evaluated by a visual inspection of imagery circa from the “geocover” orthorectified landsat etm+ mosaics project (mda federal, ), and several existing land cover / land use classifications (huang et al., ; consorcio l. berger - icasa, ; casco verna, ; vallejos et al., ; volante et al., ). agricultural paddocks were easily recognizable from the uncultivated surrounds by their relatively high brightness and regular shape (clark et al., ; baldi et al., ). for functioning analyses we considered only those samples with continuous agricultural areas of > ha (two mod q pixels, sample points) in order to avoid signal contamination from uncultivated areas. finally, the group of paraguayan campesinos was discarded from the analyses due to an undetermined location and minor extension, while the group of bolivian local indigenous was only analysed for landscape patterns due to the very small size and isolation of its agricultural paddocks (killeen et al., ). . . landscape pattern for each individual sample point we digitalized the contours of its corresponding paddock and the contiguous ones. an “on-screen” visual interpretation of the google earth images was applied. paddocks were individualized from each other according to differences in colour and texture, and to the presence of physical barriers (wind-breaks, roads, water channels, etc.). we selected the newest available imagery at the time of sampling ( ). for each sample point we obtained the (i) mean and (ii) maximum paddock size, (iii) a mean elongation index given by the ratio of major-to-minor side of the paddocks, and (iv) a mean shape index given by the perimeter-to-area ratio relative to a circular standard. last two metrics equal when all paddocks are square or circles, and increases without limit as the shape becomes less symmetric (mcgarigal and marks, ). additionally, we performed a qualitative description about the most frequent degree of paddock aggregation (isolated vs. clustered) and spatial arrangement (scattered, consolidated, radial, fishbone) of landscapes within a km radius area around sample points. http://www.google.com/earth/index.html . . vegetation functioning in order to evaluate differences in the magnitude, seasonality, and long-term variability of primary productivity across agricultural land users, we applied metrics based on temporal series of normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) for - (monteith, ; paruelo and lauenroth, ; jobbágy et al., ) (table ). for each of the sample points we downloaded ndvi data from the terra modis instrument (mod q ; spatial and temporal resolutions of m and days, respectively) from the ornl “modis global subsets: data subsetting and visualization” on-line tool (http://daac.ornl.gov). for calculations, we defined growing years from september to august. for each sample point we only considered ndvi values with highest quality (flagged as category vi, % of the data) (huete et al., ), eliminating noise from clouds and aerosols. we used the code timesat v. . . to reconstruct temporal series (jönsson and eklundh, ; jönsson and eklundh, ; eklundh and jönsson, ). this tool fits smoothed model functions that capture one or two cycles of growth and decline per year. we selected an adaptative savitzky-golay model (jönsson and eklundh, ), assuming a preliminary bi-modal seasonality. from the reconstructed temporal series, we calculated the metrics by means of timesat and the r v. . statistical software. metrics to (table ) were calculated by averaging annual measures of magnitude and seasonality, whereas metrics to considered their inter-annual variability. metrics to quantified the contribution of three additive temporal components to the overall variance of ndvi. with the aim of assessing whether the groups have significant differences in terms of vegetation functioning (and spatial configuration), we applied non-parametric kruskal-wallis´ h and post hoc comparison tests (conover, ). -insert table here- after calculating the functioning metrics, we explored their reciprocal associations using kendall’s τ non-parametric correlation test (whittaker, ). then, in order to identify major functioning patterns, we ordered samples based on the reciprocal averaging (ra) method (legendre and legendre, ). instead of maximizing the entire variation proportion that can be explained by single axes (as in principal component analysis), ra maximizes the correlation between the descriptive variables (functioning metrics) and the score assigned to samples (nenadić and greenacre, ). the eigenvalue associated with each axis can be interpreted as the correlation coefficient between metric and sample scores, and its ratio over the total variance of the data matrix, known as “inertia”, represents its explanatory power. we explored differences among agricultural land users within the ra space by (i) plotting the centroid and variability (one standard deviation) of each group within the ra space and (ii) applying a multi-response permutation procedure (mrpp, see details in supplementary material) (biondini et al., ). to achieve a graphic representation of the mean seasonal curves, we averaged for each group the reconstructed ndvi values of the dates that mod q provides by year for the temporal series of years. in contrast to the metrics described above, which were calculated for each sample point, these curves reflect the spatially aggregated seasonality of each agricultural land user. in order to explore to what extent water availability gradients –within the study area– are more important than or interact with agricultural land users shaping vegetation functioning, we evaluated the association between the functioning metrics and the mean precipitation-to- potential evapotranspiration ratio (ppt:pet). this measure was based on averaged-monthly data ( - period) from the “ten minute climatology data base” (new et al., ); pet was retrieved from the penman-monteith equation (allen et al., ). linear regression models were applied to the entire data set and to individual group. . results . . agricultural land users fourteen groups of agricultural land users were delimitated across the dry chaco and chiquitania territory, of them in bolivia, in paraguay, and in argentina (table ; fig. , right panels). these groups were settled during different periods and have a very diverse ethnic origin (e.g. indigenous or brazilian in paraguay), are composed by individuals or corporative organizations, have contrasting sources of capital or production fates (local to international), among other differences. additionally, they represent a variable fraction of the current agricultural territory (e.g. vs. , km for mennonite colonists in argentina and paraguay, respectively), with also variable expansion rates (up to , km y - for farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina). -insert table here- . . landscape pattern the diversity of agricultural land users led to a large heterogeneity of landscapes (fig. and table i, supplementary material). corporations and capitalized individuals, even though oriented to farming or ranching activities, had the largest scale of production across the three countries (mean and largest paddock size values > ha). on the opposite extreme, local indigenous in bolivia and paraguay showed the smallest scale (mean paddock size < . ha). thereby, a -fold difference was observed between extreme cases (farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina and local indigenous in bolivia). colonist groups (andean indigenous, japanese, mennonite) showed intermediate scales (paddock size from . to . ha), with mennonite ones showing important differences across countries (up to ~ times between paraguay and argentina). in terms of paddocks shape, complexity was higher (elongation > . , msi values > . ) for mennonite colonists in argentina and bolivia and andean indigenous colonists in bolivia, with paddocks conforming fishbone and radial clusters, respectively (table i and fig. i, supplementary material). shape complexity was lower for local indigenous in bolivia and mixed and brazilian ranching corporations in paraguay, with isolated and symmetrical paddocks. -insert fig. here- . . vegetation functioning mean ndvi curves (fig. ), reflecting the spatially aggregated behaviour of each group of agricultural land users, showed much greater contrasts in seasonality than in the magnitude of primary productivity. extreme seasonal patterns ranged from a single to two short growing periods with high maximum and low minimum values (e.g. farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina, andean indigenous colonists in bolivia), to a more evenly distributed growth throughout the year (e.g. all groups in paraguay). individual metrics showed small differences in the magnitude of primary productivity (metrics to , table ), with mean ndvi ranging from . to . ( . -fold variation) across agricultural land users. bolivian groups (except mennonite colonists) and brazilian ranching corporations in paraguay showed the highest mean values, while the remaining paraguayan groups showed the lowest. all neighbouring groups (presumably under a similar climatic and soil context, fig. ) displayed strong convergences for this metric. differences increased for maximum ( . -fold), and minimum ( . -fold) metrics. farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina and andean indigenous colonists in bolivia showed the highest values for ndvi maximum (> . ), while the first group and the mennonite colonists in paraguay, the lowest for ndvi minimum (< . ). seasonal patterns (metrics to , and ; table ) showed the greatest differences across agricultural land users. farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina and local indigenous in paraguay had the highest and lowest range and inter-annual cv values, respectively ( . and . -fold variation, respectively). these general variability metrics could be better understood by exploring the differences in the number of growing seasons, the length of the growing period, and the browning and greening rates. the number of growing seasons was > . for three bolivian and one argentinean groups (reaching . for andean indigenous colonists), while was = for all paraguayan and for mennonite colonists in argentina. farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina had the most acute peak around the mean, associated with high browning and greening rates (both metrics highly correlated; fig. ii, supplementary material), and the shortest growing period ( day y - ), days y - less than the neighbouring local campesinos. all bolivian and paraguayan groups (ranching and farming- oriented) exceeded the day y - . in all cases, the seasonal contribution to the overall variance of ndvi time series exceeded trend and residual components (from to %). groups also differed in terms of the inter-annual ndvi variability (metrics to , table ). mean and maximum coefficients of variation were highly correlated (fig. ii, supplementary material) and were highest (i.e. least stable productivity) for mixed ranching corporations in paraguay, all mennonite colonists, and farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina. on the other hand, the lowest values (i.e. most stable productivity) were found for the brazilian ranching corporations and local indigenous in paraguay and the andean indigenous colonists in bolivia. in paraguay, local indigenous showed more stable production than neighbouring mennonite colonists and mixed ranching corporations. -insert fig. here- -insert table here- the first two dimensions of the reciprocal averaging (ra) explained half of the functional variability of the dry chaco and chiquitania agricultural territory. a first axis ( % explained inertia) was related to the seasonality of samples, driven positively by browning and greening rates (and to a lesser extent peakness) and a negatively by the greening-to-browning ratio and the growing period (fig. ). a second axis ( . % explained inertia) was related to the inter-annual variability characteristics of samples, with a positive association with trend contribution and the mean and maximum ndvi variability. remarkably, magnitude metrics (mean, maximum, and range) played a secondary role in the ordination of samples, with low eigenvalues for both ordination axes. even displaying some internal heterogeneity, each group could be described according to the specific location of its centroid within the multivariate space (fig. a). located towards the low end of the first ra axis, local indigenous and brazilian and mixed ranching corporations in paraguay had the flattest ndvi curves, while towards the high end, farming corporations and capitalized farmers in argentina and bolivia and the andean indigenous colonists in bolivia had the most symmetrical and acute curves. located towards the low end of the second ra axis, brazilian ranching corporations and local indigenous at paraguay showed the most inter- annually stable patterns, while the opposite occurred with mennonite colonists in argentina and the rest of the users in paraguay. neighbouring agricultural land users were not necessarily close in the ordination space, as shown by standard deviation ellipses (fig. b-d) and mrrp (table ii, supplementary material). in argentina, local campesinos and farming corporations & capitalized farmers arose as statistically different clusters. in bolivia, andean indigenous colonists differed significantly from local farmers and mennonite colonists. in paraguay, mennonite colonists and mixed ranching corporations differed from local indigenous. distant groups with preponderance of ranching activities showed some clustering along the first ra axis, whereas farming-oriented groups were more dispersed. little clustering of groups according to ethnicity, settlement origin, and capitalization, were found. -insert fig. here- in contrast with the strong links that agricultural land users had with the temporal variability of primary productivity, water availability (as described by the ppt:pet) resulted highly correlated with its average magnitude (kendall’s τ > . ; fig. ii, supplementary material). the linear regression analysis supported this general and positive relationship (fig. a), but user-specific models showed that it could be only partially ascribed to a causal link, as only three farming-oriented groups displayed significant models (fig. b). remarkably, local campesinos and farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina, the most widely distributed groups (ppt:pet ranges > . ), showed non significant associations. seasonality metrics showed a lower association with ppt:pet, being positive for the number of growing seasons, the peakness, and the browning rate, and negative for the greening-to-browning ratio. -insert fig. here- . discussion in the south american dry chaco and chiquitania territory, the still dominant forests are rapidly being replaced by extensive croplands and pastures (grau et al., b; killeen et al., ; guyra paraguay, ). our study reveals that agriculture, typically associated to a homogeneous agribusiness system favoured by low land prices and a high profitability of commodities (leguizamón, ), occurs and expands under a highly diverse array of social conditions (identified here as groups of agricultural land users). at present, large-scale corporations are intermingled across the territory with medium-scale capitalized farmers and ranchers, and partially capitalized smallholders (campesinos and indigenous), leading to contrasting landscapes and vegetation functional patterns. within capitalized groups (individuals or corporations) and across the three countries, pasture production prevails under drier conditions, while pasture and crop production coexists under more humid conditions. smallholders on the other hand seem to choose a diversified set of pasture and crop species even under more unfavorable climatic circumstances. on all groups, the preference for farming and/or ranching activities would arise from interacting endogenous and exogenous signals (market and climate), a variable accessibility to consumption, docking and transferring points, and the productive tradition of individuals or groups (van dam, ; grau et al., a; killeen et al., ; leguizamón, ). cultural or productive backgrounds and knowledge may be as important as market signals driving ecosystems’ structure, as recently shown for bolivian lowlands (redo, ). surprisingly, the diverse management options followed by different groups were not associated with strong divergences in the primary productivity magnitude. differences in paddock size (up to -fold contrast), cultivated species (annual vs. perennial, grasses vs. legumes, c vs. c photosynthetic syndromes), or level of mechanization, implied only a . - fold variation in mean ndvi. small differences in the magnitude of productivity were only explained by the regional gradients of the climatic water availability (the higher the water availability, the higher the productivity), in concordance with previous assessments in natural vegetation in drylands (jobbágy et al., ; guerschman et al., ; del grosso et al., ). this climatic dependence, described as the most crucial factor for agricultural success in the region (devani et al., ; calviño and monzón, ; adámoli et al., ), demands further explorations, as it showed weak patterns when individual users were analyzed. contrary to what was found in relation to the variability of the magnitude of primary productivity, different groups showed strong differences in their seasonal and inter-annual behaviours (according to the ordination analysis, the first and second dimensions of divergence, respectively). land use transitions would mostly imply changes on these functional attributes, as previous studies showed for the transition from grasslands and woodlands to agriculture (guerschman et al., ; volante et al., ). in terms of seasonality, although substantial variability exists within capitalized groups in argentina and bolivia, agriculture is based in the industrial production of soybean accompanied –in more humid areas or under irrigation practices– by a secondary cash crop (van dam, ; grau et al., a). thus, under these conditions, primary productivity resulted concentrated within short (one or two) growing periods with comparatively high greening and browning rates, and accompanied by lapses of low or null photosynthetic activity (i.e. a fallow). interestingly, andean indigenous colonists in bolivia, with a limited access to technology and a different fate for their production (ifad, ), converged with capitalized groups, achieving the highest frequency of ndvi peaks within a year. in paraguay, the preference for herbaceous perennial species with similar phenological behaviours (c photosynthetic syndrome) (glatzle and stosiek, ) was related to a uniform and broad distribution of productivity within a single season. though several regional-scale studies on croplands, pastures, and grasslands showed that the inter-annual stability of primary production increases with decreasing aridity (jobbágy et al., ; verón et al., ; guerschman et al., ), our study asserted this association exclusively on groups devoted to pasture production. in paraguay, mixed ranching corporations and mennonite colonists (under comparatively drier conditions) showed very high long term coefficient of variation values for the ndvi magnitude, while brazilian corporations (under wetter conditions), showed very low ones. on the contrary, we found that in farming-oriented groups, particular management pathways entail exceptions to this biophysically-centred association, as farming corporations & capitalized farmers in argentina, under more humid conditions, showed a variable productivity across years, and local indigenous in paraguay, under drier conditions, showed a low variation. groups oriented to international markets constantly pursue a fine synchronization of sowing and harvesting dates (through different crops varieties) with climatic and market signals (devani et al., ; calviño and monzón, ). the opposite occurs on groups that supply homestead to local markets, who necessary deal with a diversified and constant food demand, and may be less receptive to overseas signals that could homogenize their production. this positive relationship between diversity and stability could arise in time (i.e. different species grown in a single year), and space (different paddocks encompassed within a sample unit, i.e. a modis pixel), issues previously explored on cultivated and natural grasslands of central and south america (aragón et al., ; ospina et al., ). in addition to the disparities in paddocks’ spatial configuration, the observed divergences in temporal dynamics of primary productivity could lead to contrasting scenarios of related or subordinated ecosystem processes, services, and natural assets (wallace, ). due to the semiarid climate and very flat topography of the dry chaco and chiquitania territory, land use could introduce changes in deep drainage and water tables dynamics (nitsch, ; jobbágy et al., ; santoni et al., ). likewise, a management that concentrates production in short periods of time may imply negative effects such as flooding and soil salinization due to a partial consumption of incoming rainfall water and higher deep drainage fluxes (amdan et al., ; giménez et al., in press). in terms of nature conservation, differences in the quality and intensity of interventions would interact with spatial configuration of paddocks in sustaining species diversity and cascading services (like pollination or pest control). lightly intervened (physically and chemically, e.g. savanna-alike pasturelands in paraguay) and/or complex agricultural landscapes (e.g. small paddocks intermingled with uncultivated vegetation in bolivia) would favour diverse systems (benton et al., ; poggio et al., ). interestingly, smallholder groups always led to heterogeneous landscapes, while under capitalized conditions, complexity depended on the time elapsed since deforestation and the compliance with land use planning laws (uncultivated corridors where frequent in bolivia and paraguay, but not in argentina; figure i, supplementary material) (adámoli et al., ). finally, translating the primary productivity differences into crop or pasture yields remains to be a challenging task (giménez et al., in press). though feasible, the application of ecophysiological models to derive yields would require an extensive collection of field data encompassing the territory heterogeneity (lobell et al., ). national statistics, extremely useful to explore regional pasture and crop production rates, would not allow comparisons across groups, as cross-national data at a sub-county scale is still lacking or inaccessible (paruelo et al., ). the combination of rural typology bibliography, high spatial resolution images, and remotely sensed spectral data allowed us to quantify the connections between landscape patterns, vegetation functioning, and agricultural land users. nevertheless, we recognize three methodological aspects that could affect the precision and stability of our results. (i) our typological approach, based on qualitative rather than quantitative delimitation variables, would not allow the isolation of the underlying mechanisms of divergences, like resource endowments. (ii) each group explores a particular geographical space, and thus potentially particular climatic and soil conditions. by considering aridity effects on functioning, we assumed to encompass the main physical constrain to agriculture, however the strength of unconsidered variables on vegetation functioning remain to be explored. (iii) some unmanaged variability within groups could be expected. as examples, in argentina, campesinos can incorporate capitalistic elements in their production system (like gm crops) (arza et al., ), while capitalized users encompass variable affluence and tenure conditions (e.g. familiar, corporate or private, private leasing in several forms). mennonite colonists –due to different attitudes towards traditional values– have a different appropriation of technology, being complete in paraguay, variable in bolivia, and selective in argentina (cañás bottos, ; gameo, ). in our region, agricultural lands are currently home of a very diverse spectrum of farming and ranching groups, offering a singular possibility to assess the sensitive of structural and functional characteristics to variable management conditions. we found that groups of land users have a strong imprint on the configuration of landscapes and on the seasonal and inter- annual dynamics of primary productivity (but surprisingly not on its magnitude). even so, the implications of these differences on future regional structural and functional characteristics would depend on group-specific expansion rates. in argentina and paraguay (comprising % of the territory), dominance by capitalized farmers and ranchers seems to prevail under current political and economical contexts (grau et al., a; vázquez, ; leguizamón, ), implying increasingly larger holdings and less stable primary production. these groups, oriented to the production of commodities, could eventually choose to exchange the focus of their production from crops to pastures or viceversa following market signals (e.g. changes on soybean or meet international prices), with large implications on ecosystems’ seasonal behaviour. bolivia ( % of the territory) offers a different perspective, as new agricultural land seems to be handled by a more diverse range of social groups –in response to local policies– with variable functional implications (pacheco, ; redo et al., ). ultimately, these alternative and contrasting trajectories will have strong implications on future regional ecosystem processes (energy and carbon exchange with atmosphere), services (water regulation), and assets (biodiversity), and their spatial and temporal dynamics. acknowledgements this work was funded by grants from the international research development center (idrc-canada, project - ), and the inter-american institute for global change research (iai, crn ii ), which is supported by the us national science foundation (grant geo- ). we would like to thank albrecht glatzle, eva florio, jorge mercau, marcos texeira, raúl giménez, and roxana aragón for their help during this study. references adámoli, j., guinzburg, r., torrella, s., . escenarios productivos y ambientales del chaco argentino: - . fundación producir conservando, buenos aires, p. . allen, r.g., pereira, l.s., raes, d., smith, m.d., . crop evapotranspiration. guidelines for computing crop water requirements. fao, roma. amdan, m.l., aragón, r., jobbágy, e.g., volante, j.n., paruelo, j.m., . onset of deep drainage and salt mobilization following forest clearing and cultivation in the chaco plains (argentina). water resour res , – . aragón, m.r., oesterheld, m., irisarri, g., texeira, m., . grassland stability and diversity at the landscape scale. landscape ecol, - . arístide, p., . procesos históricos de cambio en la apropiación del territorio de figueroa (santiago del estero, argentina, chaco semiárido). universidad internacional de andalucía, andalucía, spain. arza, v., goldberg, l., vazquez, c., . argentina: difusión del algodón gm e impacto en la rentabilidad de los pequeños productores de la provincia del chaco. revista cepal , - . baldi, g., jobbágy, e.g., . land use in the dry subtropics: vegetation composition and production across contrasting human contexts. j arid environ , - . baldi, g., verón, s.r., jobbágy, e.g., . the imprint of humans on landscape patterns and vegetation functioning in the dry subtropics. glob chang biol , – . benton, t.g., vickery, j.a., wilson, j.d., . farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? trends ecol evol , - . biondini, j.e., . colonia menonita, http://www.coloniamenonita.com.ar/. biondini, m.e., mielke jr, p.w., berry, k.j., . data-dependent permutation techniques for the analysis of ecological data. vegetatio , - . calviño, p., monzón, j., . farming systems of argentina: yield constraints and risk management, in: sadras, v., calderini, d. (eds.), crop physiology. academic press, san diego, usa, pp. - . cañás bottos, l., . old colony mennonites in argentina and bolivia: nation making, religious conflict and imagination of the future. brill, leiden, netherlands. casco verna, g.e., . análisis del avance del uso agropecuario en el dpto. de alto paraguay, entre los años , , , , , , , y . dirección general de gestión ambiental (dgga), asunción, p. . clark, m.l., aide, t.m., grau, h.r., riner, g., . a scalable approach to mapping annual land cover at m using modis time series data: a case study in the dry chaco ecoregion of south america. remote sens environ , - . conover, w.j., . practical nonparametric statistics. john wiley and sons, new york. consorcio l. berger - icasa, . planes de ordenamiento territorial – . municipios de irala fernandez, filadelfia, loma plata, mariscal estigarribia. “implementación plan de gestión ambiental (pga) del programa corredores de integración de occidente, paquete i. préstamo no. /oc-pr (bid), asunción. cotula, l., vermeulen, s., leonard, r., keeley, j., . land grab or development opportunity? agricultural investment and international land deals in africa. iied/fao/ifad, london/roma. http://www.coloniamenonita.com.ar/ cresud, . página oficial cresud s.a., http://www.cresud.com.ar/. del grosso, s., parton, w., stohlgren, t., zheng, d., bachelet, d., prince, s., hibbard, k., olson, r., . global potential net primary production predicted from vegetation class, precipitation, and temperature. ecology , - . devani, m.r., ploper, l.d., pérez, d., . producción de soja en el noroeste argentino. agromercado , - . dgeec, . atlas de las comunidades indígenas en el paraguay. dirección general de estadística, encuestas y censos, paraguay, fernando de la mora, paraguay. eklundh, l., jönsson, p., . timesat . software manual. lund university, lund, sweden. ellis, e.c., ramankutty, n., . putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. front ecol environ , - . ewel, j.j., . natural systems as models for the design of sustainable systems of land use. agroforest syst , - . fenaboja, . federación nacional de asociaciones boliviano-japonesas, http://www.fenaboja.com. fundación agrecol andes, . desarrollo agropecuario sostenible en el chaco boliviano: problemas, tendencias, potenciales y experiencias, cochabamba, bolivia, p. . gameo, . global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. gasparri, n.i., baldi, g., . regional patterns and controls of biomass in semiarid woodlands: lessons from the northern argentina dry chaco. reg environ change , – . gasparri, n.i., grau, h.r., manghi, e., . carbon pools and emissions from deforestation in extra-tropical forests of northern argentina between and . ecosystems , - . giménez, r., houspanossian, j., mercau, j.l., jobbágy, e.g., in press. balancing agricultural and hydrological risk in farming systems of the chaco plains. j arid environ. glatzle, a., . sistemas productivos en el chaco central paraguayo: características, particularidades. inttas, loma plata, paraguay. glatzle, a., stosiek, d., . country pasture / forage resource profile del paraguay. food and agriculture organization of the united nations, roma. grau, h.r., aide, t.m., gasparri, n.i., a. globalization and soybean expansion into semiarid ecosystems of argentina. ambio , - . grau, h.r., gasparri, n.i., aide, t.m., b. agriculture expansion and deforestation in seasonally dry forests of north- west argentina. environ conserv , - . guerschman, j.p., paruelo, j.m., burke, i., . land use impacts on the normalized difference vegetation index in temperate argentina. ecol appl , - . guyra paraguay, . monitoreo de los cambios de uso de la tierra, incendios e inundaciones gran chaco americano. guyra paraguay, asunción. houspanossian, j., giménez, r., mercau, j.l., baldi, g., jobbágy, e.g., nosetto, m.d., in preparation. farming south american dry forests: current and potential deforestation as a function of agricultural suitability. j arid environ. houspanossian, j., nosetto, m., jobbágy, e.g., . radiation budget changes with dry forest clearing in temperate argentina. glob chang biol , - . huang, c., kim, s., song, k., townshend, j.r.g., davis, p., altstatt, a., rodas, o., yanosky, a., clay, r., tucker, c.j., musinsky, j., . assessment of paraguay's forest cover change using landsat observations. glob planet change , - . huete, a., didan, k., miura, t., rodriguez, e., . overview of the radiometric and biophysical performance of the modis vegetation indices. remote sens environ , - . ifad, . bolivia: proyecto de desarrollo y consolidación de las colonias de pequeños agricultores en el departamento de santa cruz (prodepa). international fund for agricultural development, roma. jobbágy, e.g., nosetto, m.d., santoni, c.s., baldi, g., . el desafío ecohidrológico de las transiciones entre sistemas leñosos y herbáceos en la llanura chaco-pampeana. ecología austral , - . jobbágy, e.g., sala, o.e., paruelo, j.m., . patterns and controls of primary production in the patagonian steppe: a remote sensing approach. ecology , - . jönsson, p., eklundh, l., . seasonality extraction by function fitting to time-series of satellite sensor data. ieee t geosci remote , - jönsson, p., eklundh, l., . timesat - a program for analyzing time-series of satellite sensor data. comput geosci , - . http://www.cresud.com.ar/ http://www.fenaboja.com/ killeen, t.j., calderon, v., soria, l., quezada, b., steininger, m.k., harper, g., solórzano, l.a., tucker, c.j., . thirty years of land-cover change in bolivia. ambio , – . killeen, t.j., guerra, a., calzada, m., correa, l., calderon, v., soria, l., quezada, b., steininger, m.k., . total historical land-use change in eastern bolivia: who, where, when, and how much? ecol soc , [online]. kleinpenning, j.m.g., . the mennonite colonies in paraguay. origin and development. ibero-amerikanisches institut, berlin. kostrowicki, j., . a hierarchy of world types of agriculture, in: mohammad, n. (ed.), new dimensions in agricultural geography: historical dimensions of agriculture. concept publishing company, delhi, pp. - . legendre, p., legendre, l., . numerical ecology, ed. elsevier science bv, amsterdam. leguizamón, a., . modifying argentina: gm soy and socio-environmental change. geoforum , – . lobell, d., asner, g.p., ortiz-monasterio, j.i., benning, t.l., . remote sensing of regional crop production in the yaqui valley, mexico: estimates and uncertainties. agric ecosyst environ , – . lobell, d.b., ortiz-monasterio, j.i., lee, a.s., . satellite evidence for yield growth opportunities in northwest india. field crops res , - . mcgarigal, k., marks, b., . fragstats: spatial analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. u.s. department of agriculture, forest service, pacific northwest research station, portland. mda federal, . landsat geocover /etm+ edition mosaics. usgs, sioux falls, usa. miles, l., newton, a.c., defries, r.s., ravilious, c., may, i., blyth, s., kapos, v., gordon, j.e., . a global overview of the conservation status of tropical dry forests. j biogeogr , - . monteith, j.l., . climatic variation and the growth of crops. q j roy meteor soc , - . morello, j., pengue, w., rodríguez, a.f., . etapas de uso de los recursos y desmantelamiento de la biota del chaco. fronteras , - . müller, r., müller, d., schierhorn, f., gerold, g., pacheco, p., . proximate causes of deforestation in the bolivian lowlands: an analysis of spatial dynamics. reg environ change , - . nenadić, o., greenacre, m., . correspondence analysis in r, with two- and three-dimensional graphics: the ca package. j stat softw , - . new, m., lister, d., hulme, m., makin, i., . a high-resolution data set of surface climate over global land areas. clim res , - . nitsch, m., . el desmonte en el chaco central del paraguay influencia sobre el agua subterránea y la salinización, º simposio sobre aguas subterráneas y perforación de pozos en el paraguay, san lorenzo, paraguay, pp. - . olson, d.m., dinerstein, e., wikramanayake, e.d., burgess, n.d., powell, g.v.n., underwood, e.c., d'amico, j.a., itoua, i., strand, h.e., morrison, j.c., loucks, c.j., allnutt, t.f., ricketts, t.h., kura, y., lamoreux, j.f., wettengel, w.w., hedao, p., kassem, k.r., . terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. bioscience , - . ospina, s., rusch, g.m., pezo, d., casanoves, f., sinclair, f.l., . more stable productivity of semi natural grasslands than sown pastures in a seasonally dry climate. plos one , e . pacheco, p., . agricultural expansion and deforestation in lowland bolivia: the import substitution versus the structural adjustment model. land use policy , - . paruelo, j.m., guerschman, j.p., baldi, g., di bella, c.m., . la estimación de la superficie agrícola. antecedentes y una propuesta metodológica. interciencia , - . paruelo, j.m., jobbagy, e.g., sala, o.e., . current distribution of ecosystem functional types in temperate south amerca. ecosystems , - . paruelo, j.m., lauenroth, w.k., . regional patterns of ndvi in north american shrublands and grasslands. ecology , - . pértile, v.c., . características sociales del pequeño productor del centro y sudoeste chaqueño a fines de los . instituto de geografía (igunne), resistencia, argentina, pp. - . poggio, s.l., chaneton, e.j., ghersa, c.m., . landscape complexity differentially affects alpha, beta, and gamma diversities of plants occurring in fencerows and crop fields. biodivers conserv , - . portillo-quintero, c.a., sánchez-azofeifa, g.a., . extent and conservation of tropical dry forests in the americas. biodivers conserv , – . rediex, . atlas geográfico del chaco paraguayo, asunción, p. . redo, d., . the role of the individual producer in driving land change: the case of santa cruz, bolivia, - . geojournal , - . redo, d., millington, a.c., hindery, d., . deforestation dynamics and policy changes in bolivia's post-neoliberal era. land use policy , - . rueda, c.v., baldi, g., verón, s.r., jobbágy, e.g., . apropiación humana de la producción primaria en el chaco seco. ecología austral , - . santoni, c.s., jobbágy, e.g., contreras, s., . vadose zone transport in dry forests of central argentina: role of land use. water resour res . scheinkerman de obschatko, e., . las explotaciones agropecuarias familiares en la república argentina: un análisis a partir de los datos del censo nacional agropecuario , serie estudios e investigaciones. sagpya-iica, buenos aires, p. . umsef, . monitoreo de la superficie de bosque nativo de argentina. secretaria de ambiente y desarrollo sustentable, buenos aires. unruh, j.d., . the role of land conflict and land conflict resolution in a peace process: mozambique's return to agriculture. refuge , - . vallejos, m., bustamante, l., volante, j., vale, l., ferreyra, e., huykman, n., arpigiani, d., bonomo, i., buchter, w., campo lópez, g., campos, c., garcía collazo, a., lauro, a., lipera, m., mosso, c., newell, n., recondo, v., saucedo, j., silvoso, c., ueno, a., urquiza, e., paruelo., j., . descripción de la evolución de desmontes en la región del chaco semiárido sudamericano, xxv reunión argentina de ecología. asae, luján. van dam, c., . cambio tecnológico, concentración de la propiedad y desarrollo sostenible: los efectos de la introducción del paquete soja/siembra directa en el umbral al chaco. debate agrario , - . vázquez, f., . territorio y población: nuevas dinámicas regionales en el paraguay. asociación paraguaya de estudios de población, asunción. vázquez, f., . las reconfiguraciones territoriales del chaco paraguayo: entre espacio nacional y espacio mundial. observatorio de la economía latinoamericana , - . verón, s.r., paruelo, j.m., sala, o.e., lauenroth, w.k., . environmental controls of primary production in agricultural systems of the argentine pampas. ecosystems , - . volante, j.n., alcaraz-segura, d., mosciaro, m.j., viglizzo, e.f., paruelo, j.m., . ecosystem functional changes associated with land clearing in nw argentina. agric ecosyst environ , - wallace, k.j., . classification of ecosystem services: problems and solutions. biodivers conserv , - . whittaker, r.j., . an application of detrended correspondence analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling to the identification and analysis of environmental factor complexes and vegetation structures. j ecol , - . tables table . agricultural land users of the dry chaco and chiquitania and their social, operational, and productive characteristics. importance in terms of area under agriculture, overall territorial extent and rate of expansion (last years) is presented together with the number of sample points. sources of information for argentina: pértile ( ), morello et al. ( ), arístide ( ), scheinkerman de obschatko ( ), biondini ( ), cresud ( ), leguizamón ( ); for bolivia: ifad ( ), fundación agrecol andes ( ), pacheco ( ), killeen et al.( ), redo et al. ( ), müller et al. ( ), cresud ( ), fenaboja ( ), redo ( ); for paraguay: glatzle ( ), dgeec ( ), vázquez ( ), kleinpenning ( ), rediex ( ), consorcio l. berger - icasa ( ), casco verna ( ). country group source of capital cultivated species production fate starting period fertilizers & irrigation mechaniz ation territorial extent (km ) agricultur al area (km ) rate of increase (km y - ) sampl e points argentina farming corporations & capitalized farmers local and extra- regional argentinean investors industrial and grain crops (soybean, maize, cotton, wheat, sunflower, sorghum) and pastures international market > low high high ( , ) , high ( , ) local campesinos (smallholders) local diversified (potato, pepper, onion, watermelon, etc.) to industrial crops (soybean, citrus, rice, peanut) and pastures local market < none to high low to medium high (> , ) , - , nil or decreasin g (?) mennonite colonists local industrial and grain crops (maize, sunflower, sorghum) and pastures local to national market low (only fertilizers) none to low nil (?) nil (?) bolivia farming corporations bolivian, brazilian, and argentinean investors industrial and grain crops (cotton, sugar cane, soybean, maize, wheat, sorghum, sunflower) and pastures international market unknown high medium (> , ) , medium ( ) local (cruceños) farmers local industrial and grain crops (sugar cane, soybean, cotton, rice) and pastures national to international market < unknown high medium ( , ) , low ( ) japanese colonists local industrial and grain crops (soybean, sorghum, wheat, rice, maize) and pastures national to international market unknown high low ( , ) , nil to low (?) andean indigenous colonists local diversified (maize, rice, potato, pepper, soybean, citrus, peanut) and pastures homestead to national market < low to medium none to medium medium ( , ) , medium ( ) local indigenous (self-organized) local diversified (tomato, watermelon, peanut, etc.) homestead < unknown unknown medium ( , ) low ( ) mennonite local industrial and grain crops national to unknown high medium , low ( ) colonists (soybean, sorghum, maize, sesame, cotton) and pastures international market ( , ) paraguay brazilian ranching corporations brazilian herbaceous to savanna-alike pastures (with remnant native trees and shrubs) brazilian market none unknown medium ( , ) , medium ( ) mixed ranching corporations capitalized mennonites and extra-regional investors (paraguayan, brazilian, argentinean, uruguayan, and european) herbaceous (cenchrus ciliaris) to savanna-alike pastures (with remnant native trees and shrubs) national to international market unknown none to medium high (?) , high ( , ) local campesinos (smallholders) local diversified (pulses, tubers, pastures) homestead to local market < unknown none to low nil ( ) ? unknown (?) - local indigenous (mission- organized) local diversified (beans, squash, cassava, sweet potato, sesame, maize, melon, watermelon) homestead to local market < unknown none low ( , ) nil (?) mennonite colonists local herbaceous (panicum spp., cenchrus ciliaris) to savanna- alike pastures (with remnant native trees and shrubs and leucaena leucocephala) and minor industrial and fodder crops (cotton, sorghum, safflower) national to international market < none high high ( , ) , medium ( ) table . description of the functioning metrics depicting ndvi magnitude (metrics to ), seasonality ( to , and ), and inter-annual ( to ) and overall variability ( ). only metrics and are calculated directly from timesat v. . . metrics were based on paruelo et al. ( ), jobbágy et al. ( ), and eklundh and jönsson ( ). growing years are calculated from september to august. metric description mean mean ndvi value. calculated as the average of the - annual mean values (same for metrics # to # but changing the focus annual value). maximum maximum (annual) ndvi value. minimum minimum (annual) ndvi value. range difference between the (annual) maximum and minimum ndvi values. intra-annual cv coefficient of variation of (annual) ndvi values. greening rate of increase of ndvi. derivative of the ndvi ascent curve between . and . * range. browning rate of decrease of ndvi. derivative of the ndvi descent curve between . and . * range. greening-to- browning ratio measure of the asymmetry (skewness) of the ndvi curve. growing period length, in time (days), between the beginning to the end of the growing season, multiplied by the number of growing seasons per year (metric # ). beginning and end are recorded when the fitted ndvi curve crosses the minimum + . * range value within a single year. peakness ratio of maximum ndvi to growing days metrics (# and # ) representing kurtosis. number of growing seasons number of growing seasons per year (i.e. number of crops per year). only growing seasons with range > . were considered. date of maximum median date of the period above . * range + minimum considering only the largest growing season of the year. long term mean cv inter-annual coefficient of variation of mean annual ndvi values. long term maximum cv inter-annual coefficient of variation of maximum annual ndvi values. long term growing period cv inter-annual coefficient of variation of growing period. long term date of maximum sd standard deviation of the date of maximum ndvi. trend contribution percentage of the overall variance of the ndvi time series explained by inter-annual differences. seasonal contribution percentage of the overall variance of the ndvi time series explained by seasonal differences. residual contribution percentage of the overall variance of the ndvi time series unexplained by # and # . table . average and standard error values across agricultural land users of the ndvi-derived functioning metrics depicting average and long-term variability conditions ( - period). see metrics units in table . ppt:pet is depicted for a general descriptive purpose. all metrics showed significant differences between groups according to kruskal wallis test (p < . ); for each metric, letters indicate significant differences between groups (p < . ). e argentina bolivia paraguay f a rm in g c o rp . & c a p it a li z e d fa rm e rs l o c a l c a m p e s in o s m e n n o n it e c o lo n is ts f a rm in g c o rp . l o c a l fa rm e rs a n d e a n in d ig e n o u s c o lo n is ts j a p a n e s e c o lo n is ts m e n n o n it e c o lo n is ts m ix e d r a n c h in g c o rp . b ra z il ia n ra n c h in g c o rp . l o c a l in d ig e n o u s m e n n o n it e c o lo n is ts ppt:pet . . . . . . . . . . . . mean . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . c . ± . c . ± . c . ± . c . ± . b . ± . a . ± . c . ± . a . ± . ab maximum . ± . gh . ± . bc . ± . cde . ± . fgh . ± . efgh . ± . defg . ± . h . ± . cd . ± . ab . ± . def . ± . a . ± . bc minimum . ± . a . ± . def . ± . cd . ± . def . ± . f . ± . f . ± . ef . ± . de . ± . bc . ± . f . ± . cde . ± . ab range . ± . f . ± . ab . ± . cde . ± . de . ± . bcde . ± . bcd . ± . ef . ± . bcde . ± . ab . ± . bc . ± . a . ± . bcde intra-annual cv . ± . d . ± . abc . ± c . ± . c . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . bc . ± . bc . ± . bc . ± . a . ± . a . ± . c greening . ± . f . ± . ab . ± . de . ± . bcde . ± . bcde . ± . bcd . ± . ef . ± . bc . ± . bcd . ± . cde . ± . a . ± . de browning . ± . f . ± . cd . ± . de . ± . ef . ± . cde . ± . cde . ± . ef . ± . bcd . ± . ab . ± . bc . ± a . ± . cd greening-to- browing ratio . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . cde . ± . a . ± . abc . ± . bcd . ± . a . ± . bcd . ± . e . ± . e . ± . de . ± . e growing period . ± . a . ± . bc . ± . a . ± . ab . ± . bcd . ± . cde . ± . ab . ± . b . ± . bc . ± . e . ± . de . ± . bc peakness . ± . f . ± . bc . ± . ef . ± . def . ± . cde . ± . bc . ± . def . ± . cd . ± . b . ± . b . ± . a . ± . bc number of growing seasons . ± . de . ± . bcd . ± . a . ± . cde . ± . ef . ± . abc . ± . f . ± . bcd . ± . ab ± abc ± abc ± . ab date of maximum . ± . cd . ± . cd ± . e . ± . abcd . ± . abc . ± . bcd . ± . ab . ± . d . ± . bcd . ± . a . ± . bcd . ± . d long term mean cv . ± . ef . ± . bcde . ± . f . ± . cdef . ± . abcd . ± . ab . ± . abc . ± . cdef . ± . def . ± . a . ± . a . ± . def long term maximum cv . ± . bcd . ± . bcd . ± . cde . ± . bc . ± . bcd . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . cd . ± . e . ± . a . ± . abc . ± . de long term growing period cv . ± . cd . ± . bc . ± . de . ± . e . ± . cde . ± . cd . ± . cde . ± . cd . ± . ab . ± . a . ± . ab . ± . cd long term date of maximum sd . ± . ab . ± . bcd . ± . e . ± . abc . ± . cde . ± . abc . ± . a . ± . a . ± . abc . ± . cde . ± . abc . ± . de trend contribution . ± . ab . ± . cdef . ± . f . ± . bcdef . ± . abcdef . ± . abcd . ± . ab . ± . abcde . ± . ef . ± . abc . ± . a . ± . def seasonal contribution . ± . de . ± . cd . ± . a . ± . ab . ± . bcd . ± . bcd . ± . abc . ± . de . ± . d . ± . de . ± . e . ± . bc residual contribution . ± . bcd . ± . ab . ± . ef . ± . ef . ± . def . ± . cdef . ± . f . ± . bc . ± . a . ± . ab . ± . ab . ± . cde figure captions figure . left panel in light gray, dry chaco and chiquitania ecoregions (olson et al., ) and in dark gray agricultural areas (crops and pastures) in march . in the detailed maps, different symbols indicate sample sites of agricultural land users (cross-border groups have the same symbol, table ). due to their reduced size, local indigenous samples in bolivia were characterized only for their landscape patterns. white lines represent constant values of water availability (ppt:pet). figure . paddock size (mean and largest values) across groups of agricultural land users in the dry chaco and chiquitania. letters represent the significances of differences among groups (p- value < . ). acronyms: ar argentina, bo bolivia, and py paraguay. figure . seasonal patterns of the normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) across groups of agricultural land users. annual cycle is depicted from september (julian day ) to august (julian day ). dotted lines indicate spatial (across sample points) standard error values. figure . (a) reciprocal averaging (ra) ordination of sample points (light gray markers) according to the functioning metrics (see table ). axes i and ii explained . % and . % of the inertia, respectively. colour symbols indicate the average ordination values (centroid) for each group of agricultural land users within the three encompassed countries. the direction and relative length of the projection of the metrics (i.e. arrows) reveals the level of correlation with the axes. main metrics are named inside the plot; others are named in the graphic reference. (b- d) ra depicting all samples by country, and ellipses showing one standard deviation around the centroid of each group. acronym: g:b greening-to-browning ratio. figure . lineal regression models for the mean ndvi in relation to the precipitation-to-potential evapotranspiration ratio (ppt:pet). different symbols and colours represent different agricultural land users; solid lines indicate significant models (p-value < . ). (a) relationship considering all sample points together; (b) models considering all sample points within each group. in (b), only groups with a significant model or a ppt:pet range > . are named. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ untitled a population-based study of kcnh p.arg his and bipolar spectrum disorder kevin a. strauss , , ,{,∗, sander markx ,{, benjamin georgi , steven m. paul , robert n. jinks , toshinori hoshi , ann mcdonald , michael b. first , wencheng liu , abigail r. benkert , , adam d. heaps , yutao tian , aravinda chakravarti , maja bucan and erik g. puffenberger , , { clinic for special children, strasburg, pa, usa, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pa, usa, lancaster general hospital, lancaster, pa, usa, department of psychiatry, columbia university, new york, new york, usa, department of genetics, perelman school of medicine and, department of physiology, university of pennsylvania, philadelphia, pa, usa, departments of neuroscience, psychiatry and pharmacology, weill cornell medical college of cornell university, new york, new york, usa, biological foundations of behavior program, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pa, usa and center for complex disease genomics, mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine, johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa received february , ; revised and accepted june , we conducted blinded psychiatric assessments of amish subjects ( +++++ years) from four families with prevalent bipolar spectrum disorder, identified potentially pathogenic alleles by exome sequencing, tested association of these alleles with clinical diagnoses in the larger amish study of major affective disorder (asmad) cohort, and studied mutant potassium channels in neurons. fourteen of amish had bipolar spec- trum disorder. the only candidate allele shared among them was rs , a non-synonymous variant of kcnh (c. g>a, p.arg his). kcnh c. g>a and nine other potentially pathogenic variants were sub- sequently tested within the asmad cohort, which consisted of subjects grouped into controls subjects and affected subjects from overlapping clinical categories (bipolar disorder, bipolar spectrum disorder and any major affective disorder). kcnh c. g>a had the highest enrichment among individuals with bipolar spec- trum disorder (x . ) and the strongest family-based association with bipolar (p . ), bipolar spectrum (p . ) and any major affective disorder (p . ). in vitro, the p.arg his substitution allowed normal expression, trafficking, assembly and localization of herg /kv . channels, but altered the steady-state volt- age dependence and kinetics of activation in neuronal cells. although our genome-wide statistical results do not alone prove association, cumulative evidence from multiple independent sources (parallel genome-wide study cohorts, pharmacological studies of herg-type potassium channels, electrophysiological data) implicates neuronal herg /kv . potassium channels in the pathophysiology of bipolar spectrum disorder. such a find- ing, if corroborated by future studies, has implications for mental health services among the amish, as well as development of drugs that specifically target herg /kv . . introduction mental illness afflicts – % of people worldwide ( ). mood disorders—including bipolar disorder, bipolar spectrum dis- order and major depressive illness—account for at least half of this global mental health burden ( ). in north america, % of medical disability in persons aged – years is attributable to psychiatric illness ( ) and in the usa, suicides outnumber homicides two to one ( ). our failure to prevent serious psychi- atric morbidity results in part from insufficient understanding of † equal contributors. ∗ to whom correspondence should be addressed at: clinic for special children, bunker hill road, strasburg pa, , usa. tel: + ; fax: + ; email: kstrauss@clinicforspecialchildren.org # the author . published by oxford university press. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc/ . /), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. for commercial re-use, please contact journals.permissions@oup.com human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. – doi: . /hmg/ddu advance access published on june , http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / its root causes ( ). here, the application of genetics holds promise as a means to identify individuals predisposed to psychi- atric disease ( ), but genetic studies of mental illness have thus far produced few specific risk alleles that help clinicians care for patients ( ). the clinic for special children (csc) is a non-profit commu- nity health center that serves uninsured amish and mennonite (plain) communities of pennsylvania (usa) and surrounding states ( ). although the csc has historically focused on pediat- ric health, bipolar and other affective disorders pervade every aspect of family and community life ( ) and it is increasingly ap- parent that adult-onset mental disorders can be associated with prodromal symptoms during childhood, including disturbances of mood, attention and thought ( ). the csc invests heavily in genetic strategies that allow prevention of disability and disease ( ). this concept is germane to the diagnosis and treat- ment of mental disorders, for which early detection of specific risk alleles in youth could enable more timely and effective psy- chiatric care ( ). endogamous populations such as the old order amish provide distinct advantages for investigating the genetic bases of mental illness ( , ). the amish study of major affective disorder (asmad), initiated in by egeland and collea- gues, has tracked several large, multi-generation pedigrees with high prevalence of bipolar spectrum disorders ( ). despite three decades of sustained and valuable research, the asmad cohort has revealed no definitive genetic risk factors for major affective disease ( ). however, a recent study of asmad subjects (n ¼ ) that combines microsatellite and high-density single nucleotide polymorphism (snp) geno- types with whole-genome sequence data implicates dozens of rare alleles that may interact to determine risk for bipolar disorder ( ). traditional linkage analysis is less informative in the asmad cohort given multiple, unexpected lines of interrelatedness within an endogamous group such as the amish ( ). mapping susceptibility alleles for mental disorders in any population poses additional challenges: (a) behavioral phenotypes such as bipolar disorder are, by their nature, incompletely penetrant and variable in expression both within and between individuals; (b) a single genetic variant can have pleiotropic effects on psychopathology that change over the lifespan ( , ); (c) cat- egorization of mental illness often depends critically on self- reporting of remembered subjective experience, vulnerable to errors of both omission and commission; and ( ) instruments currently used to categorize mental disorders (e.g. diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, dsm) are based on phenomenology rather than firm biological constructs ( , ), and thus do not capture the full phenotypic spectrum (i.e. endophenotypes) associated with any particular susceptibil- ity allele ( , , ). these facts are especially problematic when using conven- tional statistical paradigms to identify rare variants of clinical significance in small, endogamous groups ( ). recognizing this, we developed a strategy that depends on multiple, conver- ging lines of evidence to evaluate a complex phenotype within a narrow genetic context. we first applied an approach common- ly used to investigate mendelian disorders ( , ), searching whole-exome data for low-frequency alleles shared among closely related amish individuals with bipolar spectrum disorder ( , ). we then used these findings to independently test for genetic associations within the larger asmad cohort ( ), and finally conducted functional studies of mutant potas- sium channels in neuronal cells. based on our statistical and functional results, kcnh c. g.a (p.arg his; rs ) emerges as a strong candidate for bipolar disease risk among the pennsylvania amish. this corroborates findings from a recent genome-wide association (gwa) study of an independent cohort of taiwanese patients, which isolated kcnh as one among four genes likely to be associated with bipolar disorder ( ). to support the genetic data, we provide functional evidence that p.arg his alters the electrophysiological properties of herg /kv . -mediated po- tassium currents in neuronal cells. taken together, these findings suggest that functional variation of herg-type neuronal potas- sium channels ( – ), and herg /kv . in particular, may have a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder and schizophre- nia. because our association data do not reach genome-wide sig- nificance, the main finding should be viewed as provisional until confirmed or refuted by future studies. results exome variants in core amish families a – d we initially studied four old order amish sibships with a high prevalence of bipolar disorder (fig. ). families a – d consisted of amish subjects (mean age + years, range – years, % female) who underwent independent, blinded psy- chiatric assessment. phenotype was characterized on four levels (table ): ( ) structured clinical interview for dsm-iv-tr (scid) diagnosis; ( ) a sub-categorization of de- pressive, manic and psychotic symptom clusters; ( ) a designa- tion of multidomain affected if at least two of three symptom clusters (i.e. mania, depression and psychosis) were present; and ( ) a detailed breakdown of specific symptoms (supplemen- tary material, table s ). fourteen of amish subjects from families a – d (fig. ) met dsm-iv-tr criteria for at least two of three symptom clus- ters (mania, depression or psychosis) and were designated as multidomain affected. they comprised diverse axis diagnoses (table and supplementary material, table s ): bipolar with psychotic features (n ¼ ), bipolar with psychotic features (n ¼ ), bipolar disorder not otherwise specified (n ¼ ), schizoaffective disorder (n ¼ ), schizophrenia with major de- pressive disorder (n ¼ ), and recurrent major depression com- plicated by somatoform disorder and substance-induced psychosis (n ¼ ). seven of these subjects were chosen for exome sequencing (indicated with asterisks in fig. ) and shared a total of exome variants. because our study design lacked power to detect common var- iants associated with small or modest effects, we restricted our focus to low-frequency variants with potentially higher patho- genicity (fig. ). we first excluded alleles with minor allele fre- quency . % in control plain exomes; this narrowed the list to variants. we then excluded synonymous and intronic changes which further reduced the number to ‘candidate’ variants (table and fig. ). to perform association analyses, all sub- jects from families a – d and all subjects from the asmad cohort were genotyped for these variants (figs . and ). human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc candidate variants in three of genes (krt , utp c, nek ) had minor allele frequencies . % in genomes project, european controls, or the exome variant server. among variants in the genes, three (kcnh , muc , aldh a ) were predicted to be pathogenic by sift, polyphen- and mutation taster, and two of these (kcnh , muc ) were absent in all three non-plain control exome datasets ( genomes project, european controls, exome variant server; table ). muc p.cys phe was not associated with bipolar disorder in the asmad pedigree [family- based association test (fbat) p-value ¼ . ]. moreover, mucin- has no known function in neurons and is not expressed in human brain (http://proteinatlas.org/). the muc variant was there- fore considered an unlikely candidate. association of kcnh c. g>a with psychiatric illness in the asmad cohort kcnh c. g.a (rs ) was the only candidate exome variant carried by all subjects from families a – d who were multidomain affected based on the presence of at least two of three symptom clusters (i.e. mania, depression and psychosis) (table and supplementary material, table s ). moreover, kcnh c. g.a was deemed the most likely pathogenic variant based on multiple converging lines of evidence, including: (a) results from independent gwa and whole-genome sequencing studies ( , ); (b) expression pattern of kcnh in areas of the brain that are believed to mediate mood and cognition ( ); figure . a (upper panel): individuals from four families underwent blinded, independent psychiatric assessments using the structured clinical interview for dsm-iv (scid), research version. exome sequencing was done on subjects designated with a red asterisk. families a – c (blue enclosures) were interviewed during the first phase of the study and family d (green enclosure) was recruited later. black symbols indicate individuals who met dsm-iv-tr criteria for at least two of three symptom clusters—mania, major depression, psychosis—and were considered multidomain affected with bipolar spectrum disorder. gray symbols indicate individuals who met diagnostic criteria for depressive illness (recurrent or single episode) uncomplicated by mania or psychosis. the ‘‡’symbol indicates subjects who were unavailable for interviews or declined to participate. b (lower panel): during the second phase of the study, samples from the asmad were used to test associations of exome variants with bipolar spectrum disorder (eighteen asmad samples were individuals from families a and c and thus excluded from the replication analysis). all asmad subjects were genotyped for candidate exome variants and categorized as unaffected (n ¼ ) or affected (n ¼ ) by major affective illness; the latter category was then subdivided into the increasingly restrictive designations of bipolar spectrum disorder (n ¼ ) and bipolar disorder (n ¼ ). human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc (c) evidence that antipsychotic drugs block the herg /kv . channels encoded by kcnh ( ); (d) the proposed role of other potassium channel subunits in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia ( – ); and e) the conservation of nucleotide guanine , corre- sponding to amino acid arginine , across all species from homo sapiens to caenorhabditis elegans (phylop . ) (table ). to further test this observation, we obtained de-identified dna and clinical data for asmad samples. individuals from aforementioned families a and c (fig. ) were represented in the asmad cohort, but were excluded from the replication analysis. fifty-four asmad subjects had minor or incompletely characterized psychiatric phenotypes and were also excluded. we grouped the remaining subjects into the following over- lapping clinical categories, as depicted in figure : bipolar dis- order (n ¼ ), bipolar spectrum disorder (n ¼ , including bipolar , bipolar and bipolar disorder not otherwise specified), any major affective disorder (n ¼ , including major depres- sive disorder, recurrent), and unaffected by major affective illness (n ¼ ). among these individuals, we investigated association of the candidate variants with psychiatric diagno- ses using three complementary methods: (a) a simple x analysis of allele distribution with phenotype; (b) the fbat, which mea- sures transmission distortion of alternative alleles to affected and unaffected siblings in pedigrees ( ) and (c) the efficient mixed- model association expedited method (emmax), which controls and corrects for relatedness between subjects ( ). kcnh c. g . a (rs ) behaved in a manner dif- ferent from all other variants (table and fig. ). table lists nominal (uncorrected) x calculations as well as fbat and emmax p-values for the candidate exome variants. kcnh table . phenotypes and genotypes of amish study subjects from families a – d human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. c. g.a had the highest enrichment in subjects with affective disorders (x for bipolar ¼ . ; bipolar spectrum ¼ . , any af- fective disorder ¼ . ), lowest emmax p-value for bipolar and bipolar spectrum disorders (p ¼ . ) and lowest fbat p-value for bipolar (p ¼ . ), bipolar spectrum (p ¼ . ) and any major affective disorder (p ¼ . ) (table and fig. ). the statistical results presented in table do not alone provide sufficient evidence of association after correcting for multiple tests. we nevertheless pursued kcnh c. g . a further based on (a) the weight of evidence from multiple sources ( , – , , , – ); (b) recognition that our cohort size and study design lacked power to generate an un- equivocal signal for any true positive association (discussed below); and (c) the important implications that a true positive as- sociation would have for design of preventative mental health services among amish communities as well as future drug devel- opment for patients with bipolar disorder and related psychiatric disorders. we thus turned to studies of herg arg his expres- sion and function in neurons. expression and function of kcnh arg his when overexpressed in mouse and human neuroblastoma cells, wild-type and herg /kv . arg his potassium channel protein subunits had similar abundance, core and mature glycosylation and localization to the plasma membrane (fig. a – f and suppl- ementary material, fig. s ). wild-type and arg his mixed monomers co-localized in a pattern indistinguishable from that of wild-type proteins alone, suggesting appropriate intracellular traf- ficking and formation of mature heteromers (supplementary material, fig. s ). depolarization of neuro- a cells transfected with wild-type kcnh elicited outward currents that progressively diminished in size with depolarization to . mv (fig. g), a pattern char- acteristic of herg/kv channels with fast c-type inactivation ( ). in cells transfected with herg arg his , the following differences were observed: (a) when currents were normalized to the maximal current size in each cell, fractionally smaller currents were observed through arg his channels at a given voltage , mv (fig. i); (b) greater depolarization was required to elicit currents through the arg his channel; the normalized conductance (g/gmax) curve, proportional to the probability that the channel is open, was shifted � mv in the positive direction (fig. j); and (c) upon depolarization, current kinetics through the arg his channel were slower (fig. k), but the deactivation kinetics at a negative voltage were essentially indistinguishable between the two channel types (fig. l). together, the results suggest that the p.arg his muta- tion slows the activation process of herg /kv . channels and thereby shifts the overall voltage dependence of activation in the positive direction. discussion kcnh , herg-type potassium channels and mental illness by studying a few amish families to search for low-frequency, relatively penetrant bipolar risk alleles, we discovered a specific missense variant of kcnh (c. g.a) that appears to segregate with bipolar spectrum disorder among a subset of penn- sylvania amish families. in our view, the most important conclu- sions to be drawn from our results are that the kcnh c. g.a allele, uniquely present in all affected patients among the original cohort of , clearly distributes in a way differ- ent from all nine other rare and potentially pathogenic exome var- iants tested within the larger asmad cohort (table and fig. ), and significantly alters potassium channel currents in neuronal cells. given the relatively small sample size used and incomplete penetrance of the bipolar spectrum phenotype, the genetic evi- dence is alone insufficient to provide definitive proof of associ- ation. however, we believe kcnh c. g.a warrants further investigation based on the cumulative weight of evidence from multiple sources, its high degree of specificity, and the poten- tial public health implications for amish communities. the kcnh c. g.a variant (rs ) was recently highlighted as one of potentially pathogenic missense variants figure . among seven amish individuals with bipolar spectrum disorder, we identified a total of exome variants, of which remained after filtering out synonymous and intronic changes. focusing on low-frequency alleles with potentially high pathogenicity, we excluded exome variants with minor allele frequency (maf) . % among population-specific control exomes. only of these variants were present in all seven individuals. these ‘candidate’ alleles were then used to test for associations with bipolar spectrum disorder and broader diagnostic categories within the extended core pedigree (families a – d, n ¼ ) and the larger asmad cohort (n ¼ ), respectively. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc table . ten exome variants among the seven affected amish individuals chosen for exome sequencing allele frequency predicted effects on protein function chr position ref alt dbsnp gene class codon change amino acid change phylop score all plain exomes (n ¼ ) amish exomes (n ¼ ) genomes evs ceu sift polyphen- mutationtaster g a rs aldh a missense gcg/gtg a v . . . . . . damaging probably damaging disease-causing c t rs kcnh missense cgc/cac r h . . . . . . damaging probably damaging disease-causing g c rs xirp missense aga/aca r t . . . . . . tolerated na polymorphism c a . muc missense tgt/ttt c f . . . . . . damaging probably damaging polymorphism a g rs alg b missense att/gtt i v . . . . . . tolerated benign polymorphism g t rs ccdc missense gat/tat d y . . . . . . damaging; low confidence possibly damaging polymorphism g a rs csrnp missense acg/atg t m . . . . . . damaging; low confidence possibly damaging polymorphism g c rs krt missense ccc/gcc p a . . . . . . damaging probably damaging disease-causing a g rs utp c missense act/gct t a . . . . . . tolerated benign na t g rs nek missense aaa/caa k q . . . . . . damaging probably damaging polymorphism the highest phylop value is indicated by orange fill. alleles that were not detected in non-plain exomes are designated with green fill, and blue fill indicates alleles predicted to have damaging effects on protein function. asmad, amish study of major affective disorder; ceu, control european exomes; evs, exome variant server. h u m a n m o le c u la r g e n e tic s, , v o l. , n o . in whole-genome sequence analysis of asmad extended fam- ilies ( ). a parallel, independent gwa study of taiwanese patients identified a different kcnh variant (rs ) as one of four alleles associated with bipolar (empirical p-value ¼ . ; n ¼ ) ( ). again, the statistical signal for rs fell short of genome-wide significance among tai- wanese patients, but this allele nevertheless behaved in a way not likely to be observed by chance. available data also implicate other potassium channels genes (kcnh and kcnj ) in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia ( ), localize herg-type channels to the brain’s limbic circuits ( , ), and demonstrate a role for altered potassium currents in mania and the therapeutic actions of lithium ( – ). these converging lines of evidence, com- bined with genetic and electrophysiological data detailed in this report, suggest that variation of neuronal herg-type potassium channels ( – ), and specifically herg /kv . , might con- tribute to mental illness in certain individuals. kcnh and mechanisms of mental illness herg /kv . , encoded by kcnh , belongs to the ether-á- go-go-related (erg) family of voltage-gated potassium chan- nels expressed throughout the mammalian brain, especially in limbic and cortical areas associated with mood and cognition ( ). heterologously expressed herg arg his is processed to the plasma membrane in neuroblastoma cells, but the histidine substitution at a highly conserved cytoplasmic arginine shifts voltage dependence of activation in the positive direction and table . association testing of exome variants with affective disorders in the asmad cohort (n ¼ ) a gene chromosome variant bipolar disorder bipolar spectrum disorder any major affective disorder x fbat p emmax p x fbat p emmax p x fbat p emmax p aldh a a v . . . . . . . . . kcnh r h . . . . . . . . . xirp r t . . . . . . . . . muc c f . . . . . . . . . alg b i v . . . . . . . . . ccdc d y . . . . . . . . . csrnp t m . . . . . . . . . krt p a . . . . . . . . . utp c t a . . . . . . . . . nek k q . . . . . . . . . a the nominally most significant value from each column is shaded blue (bipolar disorder), red (bipolar spectrum) or purple (any major affective disorder). figure . testing for the association of rare candidate alleles with bipolar (bp , circles), bipolar spectrum (bps, squares), and any major affective disorder (any aff, triangles) among subjects from the amish study of major affective disorder cohort. fbat p-values (abscissa) and x distribution (ordinate) were calculated for each of the rare candidate gene variants detected by exome sequencing. nine of these variants (aldh a , xirp , muc , alg b, ccdc , csrnp , krt , utp c and nek ) are plotted in gray. kcnh c. g.a, represented with red symbols, shows the strongest association with affective disorders and shows an unusual distribution behavior among the variants. for graphical clarity, fbat is transformed to the log ; dotted lines indicate arbitrary thresholds of p ≤ . and x ≥ for fbat and chi-square testing, respectively. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. slows activation kinetics; thus the mutation is predicted to increase excitability of neuronal cells in vivo. penetrance and severity of mental illness were similar among kcnh c. g.a heterozygotes and homozygotes. this may reflect the heterotetrameric nature of erg channels (e.g. other erg subunits may partially substitute for erg ) and/or a high degree of potassium channel redundancy in the nervous system that attenuates the biological impact of modest functional abnor- malities of any one channel subunit ( ). potassium channel dysfunction appears mechanistically im- portant in animal models of mania and may be relevant to the actions of lithium ( ). kcnh is expressed in mammalian mid- brain, where its blockade prolongs plateau potentials in bursting dopaminergic neurons and may in turn alter mesolimbic dopa- mine release ( ). certain typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs inhibit herg /kv . ( ) and lithium is believed to exert mood-stabilizing effects in part by modulating potassium currents, either by reducing voltage-gated potassium channel open events or by inhibiting gsk ß kinase-mediated channel phosphorylation ( ). in murine models of mania (kcnd / kv . knockout; clockd ), genetic deletion or experimental manipulation of potassium currents attenuates physiological and behavioral correlates of mania and dose-dependently increases phosphorylation of gsk b in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus ( ). the latter mechanism is thought to be shared among all effective mood-stabilizing drugs ( ). figure . left panel: localization of overexpressed kcnh wild-type and arg his in neuro- a cells immunostained under non-permeabilizing conditions (see materials and methods) with mouse monoclonal anti-v igg a ( : ), followed by alexafluor -conjugated goat anti-mouse igg a ( : ). nuclei were stained with ’, -diamidino- -phenylindole (dapi, . mg/ml) (blue fluorescent signal). (a and b) kcnh wild-type and arg his with the v epitope tag inserted in the s – s extracellular loop localize to the plasma membrane in non-permeabilized neuro- a cells (single confocal images). (c and d) maximum projection z-stack images of the cells shown in a and b. (e) left—confocal image of neuro- a cells transiently overexpressing arg his s -v -s -kcnh . right—orthogonal projection of a section through the cell in the center of the left image demonstrating membrane localization for arg his s -v -s -kcnh . (f) western blot of transiently overexpressed wild-type and arg his s -v -s -kcnh fusion proteins in neuro- a cells from the same transfections used for a – d. s -v -s -kcnh fusion proteins migrated as a core glycosylated and mature glycosylated doublet at � kda. b-actin was labeled as a loading control. primary antibodies: anti-v mouse monoclonal igg a ( : ) and anti-b actin ( : ). secondary antibody: goat anti-mouse igg hrp-conjugated ( : ). data are representative of four independent transfections. right panel: electrophysiological characteristics of wild-type (wt) and arg his herg (kcnh ) currents. (g) representative currents from a neuro- a cell transiently expressing wt herg channels. (h) representative currents from a neuro- a cell transiently expressing arg his herg channels. (i) scaled peak current – voltage (i/imax) curves for wt (blue) and arg his (red) channels. the results are normalized to the maximal current size in each cell. the data points are connected by lines for an illustrative purpose only. n ¼ and for wt and arg his, respectively. (j) normalized conductance (g/gmax) as a function of voltage for wt (blue) and arg his (red). the half-activation voltage (v . ) and the apparent equivalent charge movement were – . + . mv and . + . e for wt and . + . mv and . + . e for arg his. n ¼ and for wt and arg his, respectively. the v . values for arg his are statistically different from those for wt (p , × – ). the equivalent charge numbers are indistinguishable between the groups (p ¼ . ). the smooth curves are boltzmann fits to the pooled results. kinetics of ionic currents at mv (k) and – mv (l). currents are scaled to facilitate comparison. the sweep width represents the mean + sem. in (k), n ¼ and for wt and arg his, respectively. in (l), n ¼ and for wt and arg his, respectively. human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. a community-based approach to psychiatric genetics among people afflicted with serious mental disorders, conserva- tive estimates suggest that only – % in developed nations and – % in less-developed nations are diagnosed and treated appropriately ( ). such is the case in amish communities ( ), where treatment for psychiatric disease may only occur in re- sponse to crises like intractable mental anguish, emergent hospi- talization, violence, or the threat of suicide ( ). the treatment gap ( ) in amish as well as other communities results from mul- tiple factors, including social stigma, a dire shortage of profes- sional resources and abiding ignorance of underlying disease mechanisms and their developmental expression ( ). for many patients, the first signs of mental illness surface during childhood or adolescence, while there remains a window for effective intervention ( ). at present, identification of presymptomatic individuals who might later develop major psychiatric disease is based on a combination of family history, prodromal symptoms, and concerning patterns of behavior ( ). underlying this effort is the simple notion that recognizing a predilection for mental illness allows medical and psychosocial interventions to be implemented proactively ( ). indeed, in- formed prevention has proven the key practical benefit that genetic knowledge confers on clinical practice ( ), and it is widely believed that mental health services can be improved by a firmer grounding in genetics and developmental biology ( ). effective treatment strategies for bipolar disorder will largely depend on the identification of biological markers suffi- ciently specific to determine who is at risk ( ). the csc has invested heavily in the discovery of such markers—typically rare and highly penetrant alleles—that can guide the design of population-specific surveillance and prevention programs ( ). despite the presumed genetic complexity of bipolar disorder ( ), we hypothesized that one or more rare alleles might exert strong pathogenic effects within certain endogamous demes ( ). this strategy allowed us to identify kcnh c. g.a as a potential risk factor for bipolar spectrum disorder within a subgroup of pennsylvania amish families. population-specific risk alleles and overlapping psychiatric phenotypes our observations suggest that kcnh c. g.a, and pre- sumably other psychiatric risk alleles, can have pleiotropic effects and do not segregate solely with a single categorical psychiatric phenotype (e.g. bipolar disorder). kcnh c. g.a carriers have prevalent psychotic symptoms and diverse, overlapping axis diagnoses (including schizoaffective disorder, schizophre- nia and major depression). this is not particularly surprising; within the general population, most mental disorders are thought to arise from the combinatorial effects of multiple alleles and their interaction with epigenetic and life events ( ). it is also in- creasingly evident that a single allele can segregate with different categorical psychiatric diagnoses (e.g. bipolar disorder or schizo- phrenia) ( , ). this basic model surely also applies to genetic isolates like the amish, but within such populations it is compara- tively easier to identify low-frequency alleles with stronger pathogenic effects and to document the full range of psychiatric phenotypes that segregate with a particular allele within extended families ( ). in the asmad cohort, kcnh c. g.a segregates in nuclear families and is found in % of patients with a bipolar spectrum diagnosis. however, within these families it appears to be relatively penetrant and might therefore be clinically ac- tionable ( ). further research is needed to verify this, delineate what other alleles may predispose amish individuals to mental illness, map their distribution among the various amish demes, and determine how they might interact with kcnh c. g.a to affect disease expression. such knowledge could lead to personalized pharmacological therapies and, for the first time within this community, preventative mental health care ( ). conclusions, limitations and future directions major limitations of the present study are its small size and narrow focus. by restricting our analysis to amish cohorts, we may have identified a variant unique to this population. however, a recent independent gwa study suggests an associ- ation between bipolar illness and a different kcnh variant in a cohort of ethnically homogeneous taiwanese patients ( ). observations from amish and taiwanese cohorts reveal how we might advance the field of complex disease genetics through the investigation of ‘common’ phenotypes in relatively small, en- dogamous groups ( , ). an association between kcnh c. g.a and bipolar spectrum disorder, even if limited to a few genetic isolates, informs the underlying biology of mood regulation and can suggest more widely applicable treatment strat- egies (i.e. new drug targets). for certain rare pathogenic alleles discovered in small, isolated populations, conventional statistical thresholds for genome-wide significance may be difficult if not impossible to achieve. for example, a recent review suggests that studies sufficiently powered to identify rare variants of clinical significance should include discovery sets of cases or more ( ), a number representing roughly half the amish population of pennsylvania ( ). moreover, the pennsylvania old order amish are more accurately understood as many separate founder populations; the several reproductively isolated demes within the state are defined by different allele distributions ( ). germane to this point, kcnh c. g.a only segregated in a minority of the nuclear families within the asmad cohort, and therefore will be only one of many bipolar risk alleles within the population as a whole. these considerations underscore the importance of using mul- tiple or different sources of evidence to optimize investigations of complex and incompletely penetrant phenotypes within small genetic isolates. despite limitations inherent in the genetic data, we pursued kcnh c. g.a further for three reasons. first, this allele segregated differently from nine other rare, potentially pathogenic variants in two amish cohorts (core families a-d and the larger asmad pedigree); while recognizing this result could be by chance, we were persuaded by the nominal differences represented in table and figure . second, potassium channels in general, and herg channels in particular, have a plausible causative role in bipolar spectrum based on a large body of knowledge about their function in neurons ( , ), distribution within the central nervous system ( ), and pharmacological interactions with lithium and antipsychotic drugs ( , , ). finally, our interest in kcnh c. g.a was strengthened human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. by the recent finding of a potential association between kcnh and bipolar illness in an independent taiwanese cohort ( ), although the latter study also only demonstrated nominal, not genome-wide, significance (empirical p value ¼ . ; n ¼ ). our observations, together with the evidence for genetic heterogeneity from analysis of whole-genome sequence and imputed genotypes of asmad extended families ( ), sets the stage for a diverse genetic landscape of bipolar disease risk even within a population as seemingly ‘uniform’ as the pennsyl- vania amish ( , ). moreover, this study highlights the chal- lenges of statistical analyses using small, endogamous groups to study a phenotype that is: (a) incompletely penetrant, (b) vari- able in expression and (c) by its very nature, difficult to categor- ize with certainty. nevertheless, efforts to link genetic variants to bipolar illness will continue at a rapid pace ( ). our experience suggests that future studies should better delineate subtypes of this complex behavioral disorder by combining systematic discovery of genetic variants with multisystem analyses of quantitative traits that more deeply and reliably characterize the psychopathology ( ), and will likely rely on convergent evidence from multiple sources. multidimensional research strategies within small founder populations could be crucial to these efforts. materials and methods phenotypic assessments the study was approved by the institutional review board of lancaster general hospital and all patients consented in writing to participate. study subjects underwent independent, blinded psychiatric assessment using the structured clinical interview for dsm-iv-tr (scid), research version (http:// scid .org/) ( ). for each subject, supplemental information was collected from at least two closely related individuals (e.g. parent, sibling or child) and in some cases, hospital records. phenotype was characterized on four levels as described above, and phenotypic assessments, including final scid dsm-iv-tr diagnoses, were determined by uniform consensus among three blinded interviewers (a.m., m.f., s.m.). the asmad began in ( ). a five-member psychiatric board blinded to familial ties, pre-existing diagnoses and treat- ment used strict research diagnostic and dsm-iii/iv criteria to develop consensus diagnoses for each subject. uniform as- sessment procedures were applied longitudinally for more than three decades of follow-up, and samples were donated to the coriell cell repository (coriell institute for medical research, camden nj). genomic and statistical methods we performed exome sequencing on a subgroup of amish sub- jects as previously described (broad institute, boston, ma) ( ). our aim was to identify low-frequency alleles with relatively high penetrance; thus exome data were filtered to exclude syn- onymous and intronic changes as well as variants with minor allele frequency . % in two different, but overlapping, sets of population control exomes (designated ‘plain’ exomes: control amish and mennonite exomes combined and control amish exomes). ten candidate variants passed filtering criteria and were verified by sanger sequencing (table ). for each variant, we obtained a measure of conservation (phylop) from the university of california santa cruz genome browser (http://genome.ucsc.edu/) and modeled potentially damaging effects on protein structure in silico using sift (http://sift.jcvi. org/), polyphen- (http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph /) and mutationtaster (http://mutationtaster.org/). asmad samples (n ¼ ) were genotyped using the illu- mina omni . snp array platform. in addition, all samples were genotyped for each of the candidate variants using high- resolution melt analysis (lightscanner , biofire diagnostics; lightcycler , roche diagnostics). estimates of pair-wise relatedness of the asmad subjects were obtained based on illumina omni . snp array data. a x statistic was used to assess distribution of candidate alleles among individuals with and without mood disorders, and association of these variants with psychiatric diagnoses was tested using the fbat ( ) and ef- ficient mixed-model association expedited (emmax) methods ( ). the bonferroni correction was applied for multiple com- parisons. fbat p-values were log transformed to construct figure . functional studies of kcnh arg his in cell lines all cell lines were obtained from american type culture collection (http://atcc.org/). we cloned wild-type kcnh (also known as herg or kv . ; nm_ . ) from human adherent retinal pigment epithelium cells (arpe- ), introduced c. g.a by site directed mutagenesis, and overexpressed verified constructs in human neuroblastoma (sh-sy y), mouse neuroblastoma (neuro- a) and transformed human embryonic kidney (hek- t) cell lines for immuno- fluorescence and western blotting (supplementary methods). to assess membrane localization of kcnh subunits, the v epitope tag (gkpipnpllgldst) was inserted between amino acids and of the s -s extracellular loop of kcnh and indirect immunofluorescence labeling was performed under non-permeabilizing conditions. briefly, s -v -s kcnh fusion proteins overexpressed in neuro- a cells were labeled with mouse monoclonal anti-v ( : ) (life technologies) at c for min in dmem with % fetal bovine serum and washed three times before fixation (see supplementary methods for details). neuro- a cells overexpressing wild-type or kcnh arg his (n-terminal epitope tags) were tested by patch-clamp experiments using the whole-cell configuration. we recorded ionic currents at room temperature with an axopatch a amp- lifier (molecular devices), elicited currents by s pulses applied every s from a holding potential of mv, and analyzed results using custom routines implemented in igor pro (wave- metrics) (supplementary methods). supplementary material supplementary material is available at hmg online. acknowledgements the clinic for special children board of directors allowed interviews and genetic studies to be conducted on-site and human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/lookup/suppl/doi: . /hmg/ddu /-/dc donated the clinic’s material and professional resources to the study. dr stacey gabriel and the biological samples, genotyp- ing and sequencing platform at the broad institute (boston, ma) kindly donated exome sequencing services. dr alan shuldiner of the university of maryland amish research clinic generously shared control exome data. amos and rebecca smoker assisted with study design and subject recruitment. donald kraybill and jean endicott provided important cultural context for interpret- ation of scid data. dr sara hamon provided independent statis- tical analyses and made valuable comments about manuscript content. the authors thank wade edris, penn state college of medicine for assistance with confocal microscopy. we thank dr egeland for her tireless effort to study bipolar disorder in the old order amish of lancaster county, pa and for her dona- tion of dna samples to the coriell. finally, we are especially in- debted to the individuals afflicted with severe mental illness who agreed to participate in this study. conflict of interest statement. none declared. funding s.m.p., w.l., b.g. and m.b. were supported by national insti- tutes of health grant ro -mh- - . t.h. and y.t. were supported in part by national institutes of health grant r -gm- . r.n.j., e.g.p. and k.a.s. were supported by hhmi undergraduate science education awards and . r.n.j. was also supported by the center for re- search on women and newborn health, and by connectcare . funding to pay the open access publication charges for this article was provided by the clinic for special children. references . world health organization. ( ) mhgap: mental health gap action programme: scaling up care for mental, neurological and substance use disorders, http://www.who.int/mental_health/mhgap/en/. . insel, t.r. ( ) disruptive insights in psychiatry: transforming a clinical discipline. j. clin. invest., , – . . hurvitz, k. and kandi, d. ( ) quickstats: suicide and homicide rates, by age group—united states, . mmwr, , . . martinowich, k., schloesser, r.j. and manji, h.k. ( ) bipolar disorder: from genes to behavior pathways. j. clin. invest., , – . . mcnamara, r.k., nandagopal, j.j., strakowski, s.m. and delbello, m.p. ( ) preventative strategies for early-onset bipolar disorder: towards a clinical staging model. cns drugs, , – . . depaulo, j.r. jr. ( ) genetics of bipolar disorder: where do we stand? am. j. psychiat., , – . . strauss, k.a., puffenberger, e.g. and morton, d.h. ( ) one community’s effort to control genetic disease. am. j. pub. health, , – . . reiling, d.m. ( ) boundary maintenance as a barrier to mental health help-seeking for depression among the old order amish. j. rural health, , – . . luby, j.l. and navsaria, n. ( ) pediatric bipolar disorder: evidence for prodromal states and early markers. j. child psychol. psychiat. allied discipl., , – . . strauss, k.a. and puffenberger, e.g. ( ) genetics, medicine, and the plain people. ann. rev. genom. hum. genet., , – . . zuk, o., schaffner, s.f., samocha, k., do, r., hechter, e., kathiresan, s., daly, m.j., neale, b.m., sunyaev, s.r. and lander, e.s. ( ) searching for missing heritability: designing rare variant association studies. proc. natl. acad. sci., , e – e . . egeland, j.a. ( ) a genetic study of manic-depressive disorder among the old order amish of pennsylvania. pharmacopsychiatry, , – . . hou, l., faraci, g., chen, d.t., kassem, l., schulze, t.g., shugart, y.y. and mcmahon, f.j. ( ) amish revisited: next-generation sequencing studies of psychiatric disorders among the plain people. trends genet., , – . . georgi, b., craig, d., kember, r.l., liu, w., lindquist, i., nasser, s., brown, c., egeland, j.a., paul, s.m. and bucan, m. ( ) genomic view of bipolar disorder revealed by whole genome sequencing in a genetic isolate. plos genetics, , e . . cross-disorder group of the psychiatric genomics, c. and genetic risk outcome of psychosis, c. ( ) identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. lancet, , – . . huang, j., perlis, r.h., lee, p.h., rush, a.j., fava, m., sachs, g.s., lieberman, j., hamilton, s.p., sullivan, p., sklar, p. et al. ( ) cross-disorder genomewide analysis of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression. am. j. psychiat., , – . . sullivan, p.f., daly, m.j. and o’donovan, m. ( ) genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: the emerging picture and its implications. nat. rev. genet., , – . . van praag, h.m. ( ) kraepelin, biological psychiatry, and beyond. eur. arch. psychiatr. clin. neurosci., , – . . cross-disorder group of the psychiatric genomics consortium; ( ) identification of risk loci with shared effects on five major psychiatric disorders: a genome-wide analysis. lancet, , – . . fears, s.c., service, s.k., kremeyer, b., araya, c., araya, x., bejarano, j., ramirez, m., castrillon, g., gomez-franco, j., lopez, m.c. et al. ( ) multisystem component phenotypes of bipolar disorder for genetic investigations of extended pedigrees. jama psychiatry, , – . . puffenberger, e.g., jinks, r.n., sougnez, c., cibulskis, k., willert, r.a., achilly, n.p., cassidy, r.p., fiorentini, c.j., heiken, k.f., lawrence, j.j. et al. ( ) genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel diseases. plos one, , e . . kuo, p.h., chuang, l.c., liu, j.r., liu, c.m., huang, m.c., lin, s.k., sunny sun, h., hsieh, m.h., hung, h. and lu, r.b. ( ) identification of novel loci for bipolar i disorder in a multi-stage genome-wide association study. prog. neuropsychopharm. biol. psychiat., , – . . saganich, m.j., machado, e. and rudy, b. ( ) differential expression of genes encoding subthreshold-operating voltage-gated k + channels in brain. j. neurosci., , – . . kang, j., chen, x.l. and rampe, d. ( ) the antipsychotic drugs sertindole and pimozide block erg , a human brain k + channel. biochem. biophys. res. commun., , – . . huffaker, s.j., chen, j., nicodemus, k.k., sambataro, f., yang, f., mattay, v., lipska, b.k., hyde, t.m., song, j., rujescu, d. et al. ( ) a primate-specific, brain isoform of kcnh affects cortical physiology, cognition, neuronal repolarization and risk of schizophrenia. nature med., , – . . yamada, k., iwayama, y., toyota, t., ohnishi, t., ohba, h., maekawa, m. and yoshikawa, t. ( ) association study of the kcnj gene as a susceptibility candidate for schizophrenia in the chinese population. human genet., , – . . apud, j.a., zhang, f., decot, h., bigos, k.l. and weinberger, d.r. ( ) genetic variation in kcnh associated with expression in the brain of a unique herg isoform modulates treatment response in patients with schizophrenia. am. j. psychiatry, , – . . atalar, f., acuner, t.t., cine, n., oncu, f., yesilbursa, d., ozbek, u. and turkcan, s. ( ) two four-marker haplotypes on q . region indicate that the potassium channel gene herg (kcnh , kv . ) is related to schizophrenia: a case control study. behav. brain funct., , . . horvath, s., xu, x. and laird, n.m. ( ) the family based association test method: strategies for studying general genotype-phenotype associations. eur. j. hum. genet., , – . . kang, h.m., sul, j.h., service, s.k., zaitlen, n.a., kong, s.y., freimer, n.b., sabatti, c. and eskin, e. ( ) variance component model to account for sample structure in genome-wide association studies. nat. genet., , – . . shepard, p.d., canavier, c.c. and levitan, e.s. ( ) ether-a-go-go- related gene potassium channels: what’s all the buzz about? schizophrenia bull., , – . . redrobe, j.p. and nielsen, a.n. ( ) effects of neuronal kv potassium channel activators on hyperactivity in a rodent model of mania. behav. brain res., , – . human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. . einarsen, k., calloe, k., grunnet, m., olesen, s.p. and schmitt, n. ( ) functional properties of human neuronal kv channels. pflügers arch. eur. j. physiol., , – . . bauer, c.k. and schwarz, j.r. ( ) physiology of eag k + channels. j. memb. biol., , – . . shi, w., wymore, r.s., wang, h.s., pan, z., cohen, i.s., mckinnon, d. and dixon, j.e. ( ) identification of two nervous system-specific members of the erg potassium channel gene family. j. neurosci., , – . . coque, l., mukherjee, s., cao, j.l., spencer, s., marvin, m., falcon, e., sidor, m.m., birnbaum, s.g., graham, a., neve, r.l. et al. ( ) specific role of vta dopamine neuronal firing rates and morphology in the reversal of anxiety-related, but not depression-related behavior in the clockd mouse model of mania. neuropsychopharmacology, , – . . borsotto, m., cavarec, l., bouillot, m., romey, g., macciardi, f., delaye, a., nasroune, m., bastucci, m., sambucy, j.l., luan, j.j. et al. ( ) pp a-bgamma subunit and kcnq k + channels in bipolar disorder. pharmacogenomics j., , – . . butler-munro, c., coddington, e.j., shirley, c.h. and heyward, p.m. ( ) lithium modulates cortical excitability in vitro. brain res., , – . . jan, l.y. and jan, y.n. ( ) voltage-gated potassium channels and the diversity of electrical signalling. j. physiol., , – . . muller-oerlinghausen, b., berghofer, a. and bauer, m. ( ) bipolar disorder. lancet, , – . . schulze, t.g., buervenich, s., badner, j.a., steele, c.j., detera-wadleigh, s.d., dick, d., foroud, t., cox, n.j., mackinnon, d.f., potash, j.b. et al. ( ) loci on chromosomes q and p interact to increase susceptibility to bipolar affective disorder in the national institute of mental health genetics initiative pedigrees. biol. psychiatry, , – . . kraybill, d.b. ( ) concise encyclopedia of amish, brethren, hutterites, and mennonites. john hopkins university press, baltimore, md. . yang, s., wang, k., gregory, b., berrettini, w., wang, l.s., hakonarson, h. and bucan, m. ( ) genomic landscape of a three-generation pedigree segregating affective disorder. plos one, , e . . egeland, j.a. and hostetter, a.m. ( ) amish study, i: affective disorders among the amish, – . am. j. psychiatry, , – . human molecular genetics, , vol. , no. << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /pagebypage /binding /left /calgrayprofile () /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo false /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments true /preserveoverprintsettings false /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /preserve /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true /courier /courier-bold /courier-boldoblique /courier-oblique /helvetica /helvetica-bold /helvetica-boldoblique /helvetica-oblique /symbol /times-bold /times-bolditalic /times-italic /times-roman /zapfdingbats ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages false /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages false /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages true /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects true /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /enu () >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice journal of european baptist studies : ( ) church planting in the united kingdom inspired by the anabaptist vision alexandra ellish the anabaptists of the sixteenth century emerged at a time of societal and religious upheaval and change. they rejected the nature and practices of the church in the christendom era: synthesis of gospel and culture, shallow discipleship and lack of missionary engagement. as western culture slowly emerges from christendom, the anabaptist vision offers resources, insights and experience for christians today grappling with how the church engages with culture, tells the gospel and nurtures disciples. this article argues that from the context of the united kingdom, it is time to take a further step from endorsing anabaptist values towards establishing believers’ communities in the re- discovered anabaptist vision of peacemaking, radical discipleship, and love for enemies and neighbours. keywords church planting; anabaptism; discipleship; peacemaking; uk introduction church planting today looks materially different from five centuries ago. at least in most places in western europe, christians are unlikely to face the persecution and suffering experienced by their anabaptist forebears. critics might question whether church planting is an unnecessary dilution of limited resources, a risky endeavour with unknown outcomes, or even sectarian. in recent years there has been increasing creativity as churches from various traditions grapple with engaging with a wider range of people in the changing contexts and cultures of the united kingdom and western europe. in this article my purpose is to argue for the development of church plants drawing on insights from the anabaptist tradition. the anabaptist vision offers see, for example, stefan paas, church planting in the secular west: learning from the european experience (grand rapids, mi: wm b. eerdmans, ). by this i mean the form of church arising from the radical reformation of the s and described in such books as c. arnold snyder, anabaptist history and theology: an introduction (kitchener, on: pandora press, ); george huntston williams, the radical reformation (kirksville, mo: sixteenth century publications, ); walter klaassen, ed., anabaptism in outline (waterloo, on: herald press, ) and reformed for a modern readership by people such as stuart murray, the naked anabaptist: the bare essentials for a radical faith (harrisonburg, va: herald press, ). ellish, church planting in the united kingdom inspiration and some clear virtues and values which are a valuable resource for church planting and re-imagining the nature and purpose of the church. setting the scene anabaptism today in belfast, northern ireland sounds like catholic and protestant communities singing christmas carols together next to the peace wall; just one initiative of soulspace, led by karen sethuramen and gordon mcdade, which works for peace and reconciliation through cross- community events, training and service opportunities. anabaptism today in southwest england looks like a zoom gallery, a weekly gathering of jesus-followers committed to a peace-centric gospel, who are creating space for exploring questions of faith, life and theology. folks who are stressed and burdened by the complexity of life are co-creating inclusive communities characterised by ‘simplicity of life, simplicity of gatherings and simplicity of spirituality’. anabaptism today in a baptist church in london smells like home cooked food; like trestle tables pushed together to make a larger table as people from kurdistan, albania and just-down-the-road pull chairs up, hesitant, but tempted by delicious syrian food. inspired by the stories, courage and passion of the early anabaptists, people across the united kingdom are exploring what believers’ church christians might learn from our radical, dissenting (and persecuted) forebears. these christians are discovering a movement characterised by reconciliation, deep commitment, whole-life discipleship, peacemaking, and hospitality as a context for mission. since my studies in prague at the international baptist theological seminary (ibts), concluded over ten years ago now, i have similarly been captivated by the anabaptist vision, formulated in by harold bender, who focused on discipleship and non-violence. his approach was later the revd karen sethuramen is a baptist minister who, with gordon mcdade, launched a celtic community in belfast, northern ireland, focusing on gender equality, peace and reconciliation. in mcdade and sethuramen formed the down community church seeking to move out from traditional forms of free church life and draw on anabaptist and celtic church insights. zoom is a cloud-based video technology company based in california which provides peer to peer software for video teleconferencing and has grown exponentially during the covid- pandemic. steve jones is the founder of ‘simply’ based in exeter, https://steve-jones.org [accessed october ]. for stories of early anabaptists see, for instance, h. wayne walker pipkin, scholar, pastor, martyr: the life and ministry of balthasar hubmaier (prague: ibts, ); c. arnold snyder and linda a. huebert hecht, eds., profiles of anabaptist women: sixteenth century reforming pioneers (waterloo, on: wilfrid laurier university press, ); william r. estep jr, anabaptist beginnings ( - ) (nieuwkoop, netherlands: de graaf, ); and, a popular introduction by keith g. jones, a believing church: learning from some contemporary anabaptist and baptist perspectives (didcot, oxon: baptist union of great britain, ). journal of european baptist studies : ( ) developed further by other scholars, including james wm mcclendon jr. i would describe myself as an anabaptist (small ‘b’) baptist minister, unofficial neighbourhood chaplain, and jesus-follower currently working out my vocation in a small corner of southeast london. part time, i also work as a co-ordinator with urban expression to support mission and church planting in marginalised communities in london. it is this combination of roles — community minister, pastor, enabler and organiser — that has brought me to the question of anabaptist church planting, and why we need it. unfortunately, while the seeds of anabaptism had fertile soil in which to bury themselves, i had only passing interest in anabaptist history when i first started at ibts. i have not retained much from the compulsory weekly wednesday afternoon lectures from doctoral students researching seemingly obscure anabaptist personalities or historical figures. james mcclendon jr’s ‘biography as theology’, or peacemaking ideas from glen stassen, fortunately, remain clearer in my memory. academic learning at its best takes place in the context of caring, authentic relationships. the experience of living at ibts in a community shaped by particular practices, then led and nurtured by keith g. jones alongside others, was the light, water and air needed for my budding interest in anabaptism to grow roots and shoots. during my time at ibts, i had the privilege of working with helle liht and tony peck in the office of the european baptist federation, and i enjoyed participating in the diversity and complexity of baptist family life in europe and the middle east. whilst travelling with a group of ebf mission secretaries to the ‘jesus in the city’ congress in bristol, uk in , i first stumbled across urban expression and was introduced to juliet kilpin and stuart murray. all these experiences, mixed now with practical pastoral work and theological reflection, have led to clearer awareness that the anabaptist heritage has a valuable contribution to make to mission and witness in a multi-cultural and secular society. many more different kinds of churches urban expression is an urban mission agency that recruits, equips, deploys and networks self-financing teams, pioneering creative and relevant expressions of the christian church in under-churched areas of inner city, outer estates, and marginalised communities. see https://www.urbanexpression.org.uk [accessed october ]. james william mcclendon jr, theology as biography (eugene, or: wipf and stock, ). see, for instance, glen h stassen, just peacemaking (westminster: john knox press, ). helle liht is an estonian baptist and serves as assistant general secretary of the ebf. the revd tony peck is a british baptist who has served as general secretary of the ebf since . http://www.ebf.org [accessed october ]. for a history of the european baptist federation see bernard green crossing the boundaries; a history of the european baptist federation (didcot: baptist historical society, ), and keith g. jones, the european baptist federation: a case study in european baptist interdependency - (milton keynes: paternoster press, ). juliet and jim kilpin and stuart murray were the founders of urban expression. juliet and stuart continue to be involved in the anabaptist mennonite network in the united kingdom. ellish, church planting in the united kingdom are needed to engage with changing western culture, and the anabaptist experience is a helpful resource. although church planting has not been a key priority for anabaptists in the uk thus far, more christians are beginning to nurture fellowship-type believers’ communities where anabaptist values are informing and inspiring their practice. one area where anabaptist values have been significant is urban expression, a movement of small teams of christians committed to living out the gospel on the margins. urban expression inspired by anabaptist values urban expression is an urban church planting and mission network which was started in as a response to the concern that most church planting was taking place in more affluent areas in the uk, where there were already many established churches and where church planting efforts frequently uncritically replicated the ‘mother church’. urban expression works as a grassroots organisation. it is a network of people committed to radical jesus-shaped discipleship, mission and community in neighbourhoods struggling with marginality and deprivation. after completing my studies at ibts, i was ordained in the baptist union of great britain in and have spent the last eleven years in churches and teams connected with urban expression. urban expression (ue) now has twenty-four teams spread across the uk (and eleven teams in the netherlands founded by ue’s sister agency there). teams range in size and character, from social enterprises, to missional communities, table churches and retreat homes. the glue which holds the network together are the three core values of relationship, creativity and humility; and seven commitments: being on the margins, being jesus- centred, committed to the shalom vision of peace, seeking the kingdom of god, nurturing uncluttered church, serving unconditionally, and building respectful relationships with all people. urban expression is not an explicitly anabaptist church planting network. however, the anabaptist vision is apparent in the core values and the seven commitments. in addition, urban expression is committed to work in neighbourhoods and networks that do not belong culturally or socially to the centre of society. this is similar to the experience of the sixteenth-century anabaptists. a number of urban expression trustees, coordinators and team members draw inspiration from anabaptist faith and practice and some people identify their expressions of christian community as intentionally anabaptist. journal of european baptist studies : ( ) anabaptists in the uk some of the baptistic believers who are key voices in sharing anabaptist contributions and values in the uk are connected with the anabaptist mennonite network (amn as it is now known, following the merger of the mennonite trust and the anabaptist network), most notably stuart murray. the network’s roots are in a student residence in the s, welcoming christians from across the world at a time of open racial hostility. active in the work of reconciliation was the london mennonite centre (lmc), run by north american mennonite mission workers. it was decided that instead of setting up a new denomination, which might threaten or be considered competition to local churches, the mennonites would offer resources and insights from the anabaptist-mennonite tradition to christians in other traditions. although there were no attempts to plant churches, a mennonite church did emerge from the community of the lmc, which closed in after a number of difficult years. on a personal note, i should mention, that it was primarily through relationships with people involved in urban expression that i experienced first-hand the lived-out convictions of anabaptists. however, the anabaptist network also played a crucial role in understanding the goals of this re-emerging radical tradition. the anabaptist network, formed in , adopted the same policy of not planting churches but, instead, offering resources and building relationships with christians interested in and inspired by the anabaptist vision. for three years from , i worked with the network to build relationships with younger adults already connected with the network, and develop new connections with those who were interested in ‘anabaptist-like’ values — especially active peacemaking and reconciliation. i had many fascinating conversations with passionate, justice-seeking jesus-followers and activists. many of these folks were working out their calling to be peacemakers through their professional work for organisations committed to the environment, debt relief, local and international peacemaking and mediation. some had learned enough about anabaptism to add elements of this tradition to their christian discipleship but were generally not looking for more points of connection with the network. however, i was frequently asked ‘where can i be part of this kind of community?’, and had to admit that i had only a very limited number of suggestions. there are currently no anabaptist-mennonite denominations the merger took place in . see https://amnetwork.uk/ [accessed october ]. stuart murray is a prolific author. his work includes biblical interpretation in the anabaptist tradition (waterloo, on: pandora press, ). the mennonite church is an anabaptist church arising out of the dutch anabaptist, menno simons. mennonite churches exist in a variety of denominational groupings, principally in north and south america, associating together in the mennonite world conference founded in , and have a recognised christian world communion of about . million believers. ellish, church planting in the united kingdom active in the uk, although a number of local churches in membership with other denominations have affiliated themselves with the amn. for example, the values of e community church in tower hamlets, london, inspired by the anabaptist tradition, are to be a jesus-centred, multi-voiced, local church committed to peacemaking. the bruderhof community and one largely portuguese-speaking mennonite church in eastbourne are the only explicitly anabaptist churches in the uk. the brethren in christ church has a number of small and mostly zimbabwean congregations, which draw on anabaptist, wesleyan, evangelical and pietist traditions. there are also study groups and occasional gatherings of people connected with the amn. taking this into account, it is hardly possible to deny the need for more communities shaped by anabaptist values and practices where people could experience distinctive, radical ways to live christian faith and life. the case for planting anabaptist churches in february , the amn held a consultation to consider actively planting new anabaptist churches. over the years there have been conversations about sticking to the ‘no church planting’ rule, with strong feelings on both sides of the argument. this weekend gathering was an opportunity to discuss and discern with a larger group of people what the future might hold for the newly formed amn and to explore if the ‘no church planting’ rule was still serving the aims of the kingdom of god or if it was time to reconsider and prioritise church planting. since that gathering, there are various experiments in the pipeline to explore this question further. the amn has gathered resources for christian communities linked to the network to explore their distinctive anabaptist identity alongside other communities in a year-long ‘learning journey’. there are proposals to form a dispersed intentional anabaptist community; or to fund pioneers and church planters to nurture anabaptist communities. might something emerge from any of these ideas? if we fail to engage or take some risks, how might we respond when people ask us about community expressions of shalom and peacemaking? does this require a separate movement or network of church planters and pioneers who will self- consciously identify with and nurture anabaptist communities? considering that there is no official anabaptist denomination in the uk, how might these churches connect with each other? who will provide accountability for them? there are still many questions to wrestle with, but it is my conviction on the history of the early years of the bruderhof community in the uk see ian m. randall, a christian peace experiment: the bruderhof community in britain, – (eugene, or: cascade books, ). the brethren in christ church (bc) is based in the usa. it is an anabaptist christian denomination rooted in the mennonite community, shaped by radical pietism and the wesleyan holiness tradition. journal of european baptist studies : ( ) that there is a clear need for the planting of new churches in the peace church tradition in the uk; particularly at this time of political and social turmoil, where there is a deep need for active non-violence, for reconciliation between hurting people and communities, and for daily practices to sustain discipleship. the current pandemic offers the opportunity to re-imagine christian community with less power and privilege but deeper relationships and clearer commitment to the person of jesus. the conversation is alive and kicking. the early anabaptists were passionate church planters, committed to establishing new churches instead of reforming existing churches. today, church planters are drawing on inspiration from the anabaptist tradition as they reflect on how to engage in culturally sensitive and contextually appropriate mission. although the present-day and early radical reformation contexts are separated by five hundred years of history and change, the anabaptists emerged at a time of similar cultural and social upheaval. they might offer us some insights into how we inhabit and witness to an alternative narrative to our dominant culture. the anabaptist tradition is embodied and communal — it is most authentically and faithfully expressed in the discipleship and mission of the community of disciples, not in the gathering dust of theological tomes. in the following, i will consider three aspects of anabaptist theology embodied in the uk through the core convictions of the amn which might offer a unique contribution to the current and growing enthusiasm for church planting. there are seven core convictions in total, however as i cannot consider all seven here, i will address the first, fifth and sixth. (see appendix for the full list.) followers of ‘the way’ jesus is our example, teacher, friend, redeemer and lord. he is the source of our life, the central reference point for our faith and lifestyle, for our understanding of church and our engagement with society. we are committed to following jesus as well as worshipping him. (conviction number ) the early anabaptists were committed to following after jesus, or nachfolge, as the radical reorientation of a person’s life to the way of christ, see, for instance, wilbert r. shenk, ed., anabaptism and mission (kitchener, on: herald press, ); wilbert r. shenk, and peter f. penner, eds., anabaptism and mission (schwarzenfeld, germany: neufeld verlag, ). in members of the anabaptist network gathered to formulate seven core convictions which each express an essential belief and lead to a commitment. see stuart murray, the naked anabaptist: the bare essentials for a radical faith (harrisonburg, va: herald press, ) and anabaptist mennonite network, core convictions https://amnetwork.uk [accessed october ]. see, for instance, werner o. packull, hutterite beginnings: communitarian experiments during the reformation (baltimore, maryland: the johns hopkins university press, ); walter klaassen, ed., anabaptism in outline, especially chapter , ‘cross, suffering and discipleship’. ellish, church planting in the united kingdom articulated most passionately by hans denck: ‘no one can truly know christ unless they follow him in life.’ becoming a follower of jesus was an active and ongoing journey of discipleship and transformation, not only a transactional event for salvation. this anabaptist principle applies to believer’s church ecclesiology, discipleship and mission and provides the key to understanding the rest of the scriptures. as culture moves increasingly into post-christendom and becomes less familiar with the structures, symbols and institutions of christendom, we have fresh opportunities to tell the story of the upside-down kingdom, and life, actions and words of jesus christ. diminishing cultural familiarity with a patriarchal, hierarchical and institutionally racist church could be considered a gift to church planters today. anabaptist communities forming new churches will need to consider what the most appropriate ways of gathering might be — particularly now as there is still so much uncertainty and fear around how life must change in the light of covid- . whilst some churches have moved further towards consumerism and passive attendance on the performance spectrum, others have discovered new ways of connecting and relating. it is here that anabaptist spirituality may prove inspirational and serve as a model. in communities experiencing lockdown because of covid- , neighbours have started to recognise each other during clapping and drum-banging, while pictures of rainbows in windows have brightened dreary streets and pavements. churches have recognised that they were frequently not the first ones on the scene to help in their neighbourhoods, nor were they always as organised as community whatsapp groups burst into action. the challenge going forward is for christians to have greater imagination about who they are and how the jesus story is good news in their communities. no doubt, similar creativity was present among the early anabaptists. for anabaptists, following jesus is communitarian as well as individual. the meal table is a significant place of discipleship and hospitality. today’s commentators are emphasising that millennials and william klassen and hans-juergen goertz, ‘discipleship’, global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online (june ) https://gameo.org/index.php?title=discipleship&oldid= [accessed october ]. see, for instance, stuart murray, post-christendom: church and mission in a strange new world (eugene, or: wipf and stock, ). in the early months of covid- in the united kingdom citizens were invited to come out of their homes on a thursday evening and cheer and clap the key workers in the uk national health service. whatsapp is an encrypted person to person, or person to group audio and audio-visual technology. alan and eleanor kreider, worship and mission after christendom (harrisonburg, va: herald press, ). journal of european baptist studies : ( ) those who are part of generation z, as digital natives, are used to consuming information, entertainment and connection ‘on demand’. assuming that sunday morning is not the only god-ordained time for meeting, and in view of the increasing necessity and desire for online connection, how might anabaptist communities find helpful online spaces and patterns to nurture relationships, welcome people, and help people to grow in their faith? as our lives have shrunk so significantly, perhaps a return to house gatherings, neighbourhood meet-ups, and everyday discipleship in the way of the early anabaptists will nurture our faith and our witness. it has frequently been noted that it is not jesus that puts people off christianity — but the church and christians, who have arguably spent more time patrolling the perimeter fence than demonstrating and emulating the life of christ. taking seriously the call to discipleship and following after christ might help jesus-followers to navigate uncertain territory as we pay sustained attention to the way that jesus resisted power and subverted cultural expectations and religious norms. developing leaders and being perpetual students churches are called to be committed communities of discipleship and mission, places of friendship, mutual accountability and multi-voiced worship. as we eat together, sharing bread and wine, we sustain hope as we seek god’s kingdom together. we are committed to nurturing and developing such churches, in which young and old are valued, leadership is consultative, roles are related to gifts rather than gender and baptism is for believers. (conviction number ) this principle is particularly pertinent in a time where people from both inside and outside church communities are becoming increasingly disillusioned with their political and religious leaders. within the church this might be due to the number of high-profile christian leaders who have been accused of serious sexual misconduct in recent years, but also more positively, there is a growing conviction that leadership is something that can be shared, developed and nurtured in a community. asset-based community development theory, a bottom-up way of working with communities that focuses on community strengths and assets rather than on deficits and problems, is gaining traction with grassroots missional initiatives. the membership of congregations from diverse christian traditions in generation z are the demographic cohort succeeding millennials and preceding generation alpha. researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late s as the starting birth years and the early s as ending birth years. digital native is a term coined by mark prensky in , used to describe the generation of people who grew up in the era of ubiquitous technology, including computers and the internet. on developing alternatives see keith g. jones, ‘gathering worship: some tentative proposals for reshaping worship in our european baptistic churches today’, journal of european baptist studies, , no. (september ): – . teams connected with urban expression use these methods of community engagement. ellish, church planting in the united kingdom community organising networks like citizens uk demonstrates that there is a growing appetite and desire for relational, collaborative and local leadership development. for those seeking to nurture new christian communities, the theology of the missio dei goes hand-in-hand with an asset-based mindset. if we believe that god is already at work in unknown or yet to be discovered ways, we can partner with others already engaged in that work. christians nurturing new communities are invited to be co- learners and guests, instead of centring themselves as hosts and ‘pioneers’. perhaps anabaptist communities can embody and offer the gifts of their unique heritage, convictions and practices, within the wider church and culture, without competition or hostility. this heritage includes accountability between ‘brothers and sisters’, and emphasis not only on christian beliefs, but also on christian behaviour modelled by jesus christ. adopting a posture of vulnerability and dependence on a neighbourhood community, instead of self-sufficiency, might offer a corrective stance to the self-portrayal of the church as all-powerful and immutable. the early anabaptists frequently met in homes and hospitality was an important element of their witness. even their hermeneutics was communally orientated. in this context, conversation and dialogue comes naturally and these early anabaptists often invited those gathered (sometimes even their opponents) to offer their understanding or interpretations of biblical texts. this was unheard of in the sixteenth century, and is still not a regular feature today in most sunday morning teaching slots, where a mono-voiced sermon is the main method of communication. twenty-first century culture places significant value on ‘experience’. people are yearning for opportunities for transformation, for adventure, and for deep community. for people unfamiliar with the christian story, experiencing hospitality and observing the christian community at work and play offers opportunities for learning, development, and participation as part of the journey towards discipleship. whilst it might be contentious in postmodern society, re-imaging the anabaptist practice of ‘the rule of christ’ (matthew : – ) might be another way that new communities can foster open, honest and vulnerable citizens uk is a national network of institutions (churches, schools, mosques, trade unions) who work together for the common good. see, https://www.citizensuk.org [accessed october ]. on missio dei see, for instance, david j bosch, transforming mission (new york: orbis books, ). see, for instance, c. arnold snyder and linda a. huebert hecht, eds, profiles of anabaptist women, for examples of the use of homes. stuart murray sets out the case for this in his book, biblical interpretation in the anabaptist tradition (ontario, canada: pandora press, ), especially the chapter 'congregational hermeneutics', pp. – . see, for instance, bridge builders ministries, uk for transforming conflict (https://www.bbministries.org.uk), or community justice initiatives in canada, working on restorative justice in communities in need (https://cjiwr.com) [accessed october ]. journal of european baptist studies : ( ) communication. accepting that conflict is part of being in relationship with others, an anabaptist approach to dealing with conflict would take seriously the call to non-violent peacemaking between individuals, communities, and within and among churches. churches inspired by the anabaptist vision might invest time in exploring different tools, resources, and processes to resolve disagreements. one example comes from e community church. during my time in ministry there between and , we set aside six months to delve deeply into how we as a church dealt with conflict. at the conclusion of this time, the church signed a written agreement detailing the steps for conflict resolution for their community. an anabaptist understanding of ecclesiology would invite christians to reorient our lives towards jesus within the context of a community as we together work out how to witness to the new reality of the kingdom of god breaking in. committing to a radical and wholistic lifestyle of faith and discipleship spirituality and economics are inter-connected. in an individualist and consumerist culture and in a world where economic injustice is rife, we are committed to finding ways of living simply, sharing generously, caring for creation, and working for justice. (conviction number ) as concern grows about environmental degradation and climate change, together with increased awareness of structural and institutional racism in british society, the anabaptist commitment to radical discipleship and witness might be one way of embodying jesus-centric beliefs in intentional ways. as advertisers increasingly play on human feelings of shame, lack of self-esteem, and loneliness, a commitment to simplicity, sharing and resisting consumerism can speak prophetically to wider society. the early anabaptists cannot be considered environmental activists or committed to ‘green’ issues, however there are notable examples of anabaptist communities living simply as part of their commitment to christ’s call of discipleship. for example, the bruderhof community (a worldwide organisation of anabaptists, with three communities in the uk) reject all ownership of private property and personal possession, instead holding all things in common and trusting god fully to provide for the community’s needs. work and worship are inseparable and all forms of work are equally valued and honoured, whether that is farming, teaching, publishing or product design in one of the community’s businesses. work is understood as an expression of service and love to the community and to their neighbours. the bruderhof community commit to living simply so that they can be generous with their support for the poor and vulnerable. they cultivate their own produce and meat wherever possible free from chemicals, and by using for a public account of the bruderhof faith, the tenets and orders common to all bruderhof communities see the bruderhof, foundations of our faith and calling (rifton, ny: plough, ). ellish, church planting in the united kingdom solar and geothermal energy, continue to explore reducing their environmental impact. whilst recognising the many ways that anabaptist-mennonite churches and leaders have colluded with the cultural status quo, present-day anabaptist communities have often been at the forefront of movements for justice, peace and non-violent resistance. christian peacemaker teams were founded in the mid- s by members of the historic peace churches including quakers, church of the brethren, and mennonites, on the passionate conviction that peacemaking should require the same level of investment, commitment and sacrifice for peace as governments demand in relation to war. speaking in to the mennonite world conference in strasbourg, ron sider implored his listeners: we must take up our cross and follow jesus to golgotha. we must be prepared to die by the thousands. those who believed in peace through the sword have not hesitated to die. proudly, courageously, they gave their lives. again and again, they sacrificed bright futures to the tragic illusion that one more righteous crusade would bring peace in their time, and they laid down their lives by the millions. unless we […] are ready to start to die by the thousands in dramatic vigorous new exploits for peace and justice, we should sadly confess that we never really meant what we said, and we dare never whisper another word about pacifism to our sisters and brothers in those desperate lands filled with injustice. unless we are ready to die developing new nonviolent attempts to reduce conflict, we should confess that we never really meant that the cross was an alternative to the sword. more recently, juliet kilpin and simon jones co-founded peaceful borders, an organisation inspired by the anabaptist story, to ‘[seek] peace in the spaces in between’. peaceful borders emerged at the time of the refugee crisis, when a number of volunteers (people of peace from different faith backgrounds) from the uk spent time befriending, supporting and working with community leaders in the informal migrant camps in calais, france. the work of peaceful borders is focused around accompanying and equipping people responding to forced migration by supporting new arrivals to the uk, building capacity for peaceful responses to forced displacement, and advocating for displaced people. early anabaptists were largely poor and marginalised people, who witnessed to their friends and neighbours in ways that were meaningful and authentic. although we must avoid idealising their life and witness, as some anabaptist communities could also be characterised by withdrawal from the bruderhof community, ‘living simply’ https://www.bruderhof.com/en/life-in-community/living- simply/ [accessed october ]. christian peacemaker teams, ‘the origins of cpt’ https://www.cpt.org/about/history/origins [accessed october ]. for full text of the speech: https://www.cpt.org/resources/writings/sider [accessed october ]. see https://peacefulborders.org [accessed october ]. journal of european baptist studies : ( ) society and prone to schism. however, their positive influence outweighs the negative aspects of this tradition. anabaptist communities today, and those inspired by the anabaptist vision, must walk in the light of this inheritance as they seek to wrestle with the injustices of our time, including racism, which has been painfully amplified by recent deaths and the uprising of collective action. statements and declarations about being anti-racist will need to be backed up with personal and collective work to hear more voices from various backgrounds, to learn, and to work against injustice. christians today will need to discover and practise new disciplines as they follow jesus and courageously break allegiances with white supremacist, classist, sexist and patriarchal hierarchies. christian communities must enact the way of jesus to place the last and least valued as first and foremost. as disciples, christians must commit to sharing life with others which means ‘no longer allowing the racial hierarchy to pattern our social lives, manage our geographic movements, shape identities of superiority and inferiority, or interpret one another through white supremacist and antiblack gazes’. church planting today takes place in the shadow of colonialism and institutional racism, and wrestling with these issues alongside our black and brown brothers and sisters is non-negotiable. anabaptist theology has a particular gift to the wider church in this regard because anabaptists affirm that peacemaking is the heart of the gospel: worship, mission and discipleship are all informed by that central conviction. active peacemaking is needed for reconciliation and transformation to take place within each of us as we deal with our own unconscious racism (sexism, classism), and as we work for healing and shalom in our christian communities, neighbourhoods and the wider world. peacemaking and the seeking of shalom is a core element of anabaptist identity today (and one of the amn’s core convictions). reflecting on and exercising this distinct quality of anabaptist identity in various contexts — interpersonal relationships, neighbourhood politics and congregational life — requires significant time and energy. anabaptists might consider how a commitment to peacemaking extends to hosting spaces for difficult and nuanced conversations in a time of ‘cancel culture’, fear around holding counter-cultural opinions, and growing online aggression. most people cannot commit to training with a christian peacemaker team with a view to being sent into an area of conflict, but perhaps we might be inspired by other stories of ‘ordinary’ peacemaking. like the split-second decision made by dirk willems, the sixteenth-century dutch anabaptist who after crossing a frozen lake to safety, turned around to save the life of his pursuer who had fallen through a hole and was drowning, despite the fact that he knew he drew g. i. hart, the trouble i’ve seen: changing the way the church views racism (harrisonburg, va: herald press, ). ellish, church planting in the united kingdom would lose his life for saving another’s. or in more recent times, the local baptist minister who, on seeing a restless group of young people gathering in their usual haunt near her home, quickly got baking and within thirty minutes had managed to dispel the atmosphere of intimidation and violence with her courage, conversation, and cookies. this turned out to be the beginning of an ongoing relationship of trust, support and friendship which emerged out of one brave spur-of-the-moment act of mediation. or the example of the amish community of nickel mines who immediately extended forgiveness to terri roberts, the mother of the gunman who killed five schoolgirls and injured others when he opened fire in their one-room school in . since then, the amish community and roberts have continued to offer mutual support, comfort and friendship in the midst of loss and grief. the anabaptist tradition has many other stories, resources and experiences to offer that can help disciples of christ to engage in acts of ‘everyday peacemaking’ in our time. where to now? urban expression might seem to be the natural vehicle to explore a commitment to more self-consciously anabaptist church planting. however urban expression has a particular call to marginalised communities which should not be compromised, and which may not be the only context where people might want to consider anabaptist church planting. for those who are willing to take some risks and experiment, should the amn prioritise church planting and offer targeted funding to support this? or should there be a three-pronged approach: to more explicitly articulate the anabaptist underpinnings of urban expression and the importance of these values in the christian calling to marginalised communities; to support anabaptist church planting in a variety of contexts; and to continue resourcing the wider church through the activities of the network? the logistics need some working out, but the case for distinctly anabaptist church planting in the uk seems clear to me. i would be interested to know whether there are similar conversations happening in other parts of the ebf family where there are still a number of historic anabaptist-mennonite denominations. conclusion in a climate of fear and suspicion, anabaptist communities can welcome people to tables of hospitality and reconciliation. in a time of isolation and the story of dirk willems is from a anabaptist martyrology compiled by thieleman j. van bracht, translated as martyrs mirror (scottdale: herald press, ), pp. – . terri roberts, forgiven: the amish school shooting, a mother's love, and a story of remarkable grace (bloomington, mn: bethany house, ). journal of european baptist studies : ( ) loneliness, anabaptist christians can extend friendship and community, travelling companions on the journey of faithfully following jesus. in a context of upheaval and transition, anabaptists today can learn from the experience of their forebears who often worked out their discipleship at the margins of society. in this paper i set out to review how insights from our anabaptist forebears might be used in contemporary european society, especially amongst generation z, but not exclusively so, to create gathering, intentional, convictional and missional communities, which are shaped through the recovery of key anabaptist insights, but reinterpreted and applied to this present age. i have sought to demonstrate by use of examples primarily from my own context of the united kingdom, that there are viable and important developments which provide signposts of life and hope as followers of jesus seek to engage new europeans with the key message of christ, but not bound up with the ecclesia of christendom. at the close of the consultation of the wider amn community, in february this year, one young man blurted out to our group, ‘it is as if you have this treasure; gold and riches in a chest. do you not know how valuable that treasure is? do you not perceive what you have that you could share?’ spurred on by this spirited encouragement, i am convinced that it is time for those who draw with gratitude on the treasure of the anabaptist heritage, to commit boldly and courageously to the task of re-imagining church planting as a key priority for the anabaptist family in the uk. revd alexandra ellish is the minister of amott road baptist church, peckham, london, and london coordinator for urban expression, uk. keith g. jones, ‘towards a model of mission for gathering, intentional, convictional koinonia’, journal of european baptist studies, , no. (january ): – . see nigel g. wright, disavowing constantine (milton keynes: paternoster press, ). ellish, church planting in the united kingdom appendix : core convictions of the anabaptist mennonite network . jesus is our example, teacher, friend, redeemer and lord. he is the source of our life, the central reference point for our faith and lifestyle, for our understanding of church and our engagement with society. we are committed to following jesus as well as worshipping him. . jesus is the focal point of god’s revelation. we are committed to a jesus- centred approach to the bible, and to the community of faith as the primary context in which we read the bible and discern and apply its implications for discipleship. . western culture is slowly emerging from the christendom era when church and state jointly presided over a society in which almost all were assumed to be christian. whatever its positive contributions on values and institutions, christendom seriously distorted the gospel, marginalised jesus, and has left the churches ill-equipped for mission in a post-christendom culture. as we reflect on this, we are committed to learning from the experience and perspectives of movements such as anabaptism that rejected standard christendom assumptions and pursued alternative ways of thinking and behaving. . the frequent association of the church with status, wealth and force is inappropriate for followers of jesus and damages our witness. we are committed to exploring ways of being good news to the poor, powerless and persecuted, aware that such discipleship may attract opposition, resulting in suffering and sometimes ultimately martyrdom. . churches are called to be committed communities of discipleship and mission, places of friendship, mutual accountability and multi-voiced worship. as we eat together, sharing bread and wine, we sustain hope as we seek god’s kingdom together. we are committed to nurturing and developing such churches, in which young and old are valued, leadership is consultative, roles are related to gifts rather than gender and baptism is for believers. . spirituality and economics are inter-connected. in an individualist and consumerist culture and in a world where economic injustice is rife, we are committed to finding ways of living simply, sharing generously, caring for creation, and working for justice. . peace is at the heart of the gospel. as followers of jesus in a divided and violent world, we are committed to finding non-violent alternatives and to learning how to make peace between individuals, within and among churches, in society, and between nations. different gene preferences of maple syrup urine disease in the aboriginal tribes of taiwan pediatrics and neonatology ( ) , e available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect journal homepage: http://www.pediatr-neonatol.com original article different gene preferences of maple syrup urine disease in the aboriginal tribes of taiwan jia-woei hou a,b,*, tsann-long hwang c a department of pediatrics, cathay general hospital, taipei, taiwan b department of pediatrics, fu-jen catholic university school of medicine, new taipei city, taiwan c department of surgery, chang gung university school of medicine, taoyuan, taiwan received may , ; received in revised form aug , ; accepted sep , available online november key words carrier frequency; dihydrolipoyl transacetylase gene; gene preference; maple syrup urine disease; taiwanese aboriginal austronesian tribe * corresponding author. department e-mail address: hou @cgh.org.tw - /$ copyright ª , taiw http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. background: maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a rare inborn error of metabolism caused by a deficiency of the branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckd) complex. mutations in any one of the three different genes encoding for the bckd components, namely, bckdha, bckdhb, and dbt, may be responsible for this disease. in taiwan, few msud cases were diag- nosed clinically, and most of these patients are from aboriginal tribes. materials and methods: to identify and detect the carrier frequency of msud in taiwanese aboriginal tribes, we performed biochemical and molecular studies from peripheral blood in msud patients and dried blood on filter paper in the enrolled screened populations. results: homozygous a t and i t of bckdha were found in two patients from hans (non- aboriginal taiwanese), respectively; compound heterozygous mutations of the dbt gene [ . kb deletion/c. - inst (l f or l fsx ) and c. - inst/c. - delat] were found in two patients from amis, respectively, after direct dna sequencing and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism studies. there were no cases of deleted . -kb heterozygote out of normal people (hans, n z ; atayal, n z ; and saisiyat, n z ); by contrast, the dbt mutations c. - inst and deleted . -kb het- erozygote were noted in / and / , respectively, from the general population of the amis, a southeastern taiwanese tribe. conclusion: although the taiwanese austronesian aboriginal tribes are considered to share a common origin, different gene preferences of msud were noted. the novel dbt mutation c. - inst was more prevalent than the deleted . -kb heterozygote in the amis of pediatrics, cathay general hospital, section , jen-ai road, taipei , taiwan. (j.-w. hou). an pediatric association. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. . . mailto:hou @cgh.org.tw http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.pedneo. . . &domain=pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.pediatr-neonatol.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . j.-w. hou, t.-l. hwang population. the reported . -kb deletion indicating a possible founder mutation may be pre- served in the southern and eastern, but not in northern aboriginal tribes of taiwan. copyright ª , taiwan pediatric association. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. aboriginals in taiwan from the lohkata medical service . introduction maple syrup urine disease (msud) is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder, which is caused by mutations in any one of the three different genes (bckdha, bckdhb, and dbt ) that encode components of the branched-chain a-ketoacid dehy- drogenase (bckd) complex (e a, e b, and e subunits). the msud derives its name from the sweet, burnt sugar, or maple syrup smell of the urine. if not detected and treated early in life, the accumulation of branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) and their metabolites may resultinacuteandchronicbraindysfunction. e themsud has been described in all ethnic groups and occurs in approxi- mately / , and / , newborns in the united states and taiwan, respectively. , , as an autosomal reces- sive disorder, msud is more prevalent in selected inbred populations with a high frequency of consanguinity, such as the mennonites in pennsylvania, usa (whose incidence may be as frequent as / newborns). , , founder mutations including y n/y nofthe bckdhageneinthemennonite/ non-mennonite communities, r p of the bckdhb in ashke- nazi jews, a -bp insertion after exon of the dbt gene in filipino population, and a c. delc-alpha (p.r gfsx ) deletion inthe bckdha gene ina portuguesegypsy population have been reported. e since the incorporation of tandem mass spectrometry into the existing newborn screening pro- gram, more patients with msud were detected earlier, and thus an in-time therapy became possible. , , recently, msud has been found to have the tendency to occur in the austronesian aboriginal tribes of southern taiwan. , , aboriginal austronesian tribal populations in taiwan are considered as highly homogeneous within each tribe due to geographic isolation over a long period. therefore, screening for some specific genetic mutations underlying msud in certain populations may potentially facilitate the prenatal diagnosis and carrier detection of msud. a previous report indicated a founder effect after characterizing a dbt gene . -kb deletion of intron found in the general popu- lation from the paiwan austronesian aboriginal tribe in southern taiwan. because members of the aboriginal tribe in taiwan may be at a higher risk of classic form of msud, , we enrolled the aboriginal patients and collected the ge- netic epidemiological data in the general population to iden- tify carriers of msud among northern and eastern taiwanese aborigines, including the atayal, amis, and saisiyat tribes. this studywas donetogetherwiththe lohkatamedical service team for aborigines of chang gung medical school. . materials and methods . . patients this study enrolled patients with msud from a hospital as well as the general population of aboriginals/non- team for aborigines in chang gung medical school over years. four affected individuals and their family members were included in the first step of the study. the patients exhibited the classical (n z , including amis boys of months and . years at molecular diagnosis, and han girl of months) or intermediate (n z , han boy of months) clinical phenotype of msud. only one of them was diag- nosed as having msud by newborn screening. the study was approved by the ethics committee of chang gung memorial hospital (irb number - b) and informed consent was obtained from all families. . . methods genomic dna for further sequencing and polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (pcr- rflp) analysis was extracted from peripheral blood in msud patients or dried blood on filter paper in the enrolled general population according the standard procedure. an efficient and simple method for extracting and purifying genomic dna from dried blood spots stored on filter paper for further dna analysis was performed. , for each sample, six drops of approximately ml of blood were spotted on filter paper by direct application from a finger stick. they were dried at room temperature, stored in separated plastic bags, and shipped to the laboratory within days of processing. samples were immediately used for pcr analysis or stored at � �c. direct sequencing of the bckdha ( exons), bckdhb ( exons), and dbt ( exons) genes over the patients and their parents were performed. e , e the detection of heterozygote of dbt . -kb deletion and carrier-frequency determination in the enrolled populations were done on the genomic dna by duplex pcr. the detection of c. - inst mutation (l f or l fsx ) was done with the pcr-rflp method by the mwoi (new england biolabs, ipswich, ma, us) restriction analysis. . results the extraction and purification of genomic dna from dried blood specimens are efficient and appropriate for genetic studies. a total of blood samples were collected, including from normal controls ( males and fe- males) and from msud patients and their parents. after pcr-rflp and direct dna sequencing studies, two homo- zygous mutations a t and i t of bckdha were found in two han patients (non-aboriginal taiwanese), along with two compound heterozygous mutations of the dbt gene: . -kb deletion flanking parts of intron and the -un- translated region of exon (figure )/c. - inst (l f or l fsx ) of exon (figure ) and c. - inst/c. - delat of exon , in two patients from the eastern amis tribe, respectively. their parents were all figure polymerase chain reactionerestriction fragment length polymorphism analysis with restriction enzyme mwoi revealing two additional bands of bp and bp in the c. - inst (l f) heterozygous mutation or maple syrup urine disease carrier. gene preferences of maple syrup urine disease heterozygous carriers. possible maternal paiwan lineage of the second patient was mentioned. large-scale screening of the mutated sites was carried out on normal patients, including hans (n z , e years of age), and non-hans including atayal (n z , e years of age), saisiyat (n z , e years of age), and amis (n z , e years of age). the first two aboriginal tribes occupy highland areas, whereas the third one occupies lowland areas. the deleted e gene ( . kb) or l f heterozygote was not found in han, atayal, or saisiyat patients, whereas . -kb and l f heterozygotes were found in amis ( / and / , respectively; figure ). . discussion the determination of prevalence of msud in a certain population plays a very important role in genetic coun- seling. the incidence of heterozygous carriers (i.e., carrier frequency) and the pattern are the results of consanguinity and founder effect. certain ethnicities demonstrate higher incidence with common mutations due to endogamous practices, such as ashkenazi jews and mennonites possibly attributable to a founder effect. , taiwan’s indigenous tribes are highly homogeneous within each tribe, but diversified among the different tribes due to geographic isolation over a long period. results of immunohematologic studies support the aforementioned theory. , recently, msud was found to occur in the austronesian aboriginal tribes of taiwan. meanwhile, a common . -kb deletion on the dbt gene indicating a founder mutation in the paiwan tribe in southern taiwan was reported. this specific change was also noted in the philippines, which is consistent with the previous description of proto- austronesian genetic affinities with southeast asian populations. figure identification of the heterozygous . -kb deletion by duplex pcr: the -bp duplex pcr product representing a heterozygous deletion in the msud patient or carriers, whereas only two bands of bp and bp are present in normal controls. msud z maple syrup urine disease; pcr z polymerase chain reaction. this is the first comprehensive genetic study of msud in the austronesian tribal groups in northern and eastern taiwan. mutations in han patients occurred in the bckdha gene; and no common genetic changes were found in the aboriginal population (figure ). the phylogenic tree made from the distribution pattern of the human leukocyte an- tigen gene and the haplotype frequencies/immunoglobulin allotypes distinguishes aborigines from han populations in taiwan or china. e this study suggests that although the taiwanese aboriginal tribes are considered to share a common origin, the dbt gene . -kb founder deletion may be preserved only in the southern and eastern tribes, but not in northern aboriginal tribes of taiwan. the novel dbt gene l f mutation has more carrier frequency ( / ) than that of . deletion ( / ) in the amis population. moreover, we also identified a common c. - delat of exon found in one msud patient of possible maternal paiwan lineage. amis was delineated in a different fashion from paiwan in terms of immunohematology and mito- chondrial polymorphisms. , , further dilution, distance, and selection factors, or intermixture by marriage in the past century on the founder effect may explain this condition. e in conclusion, our findings suggest that a limited number of mutations may exist in msud in certain aboriginal austrone- sian tribal populations, and this finding may potentially facil- itate prenatal diagnosis and carrier detection of msud. a close genetic relationship between taiwan’s southern and eastern indigenous tribes and southern asians, such as filipinos, ex- ists. the identification could be performed by a simple, figure map of taiwan showing the studied populations and carrier frequency. f z frequency of e . -kb deletions, number of heterozygotes/numbers being tested; f z frequency of l f, number of heterozygotes/numbers being tested. j.-w. hou, t.-l. hwang reliable, sensitive, and cost-effective dna extraction method from dried blood spots stored on filter paper along with a newborn screening program. conflict of interest the authors state that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. acknowledgments we are very grateful to the families for participating in this study, and family interview by medical students of lohkata aboriginal health and medical service of chang gung university. this work was supported by the grant (grant no. cmrp ) from chang gung memorial hospital. gene preferences of maple syrup urine disease references . chuang dt, shih ve. maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in: scriver c, beaudet al, sly w, valle d, childs b, kinzler kw, et al., editors. the metabolic and mo- lecular basis of inherited disease. th ed. new york: mcgraw- hill; . p. e . . digeorge am, rezvani i, garibaldi lr, schwartz m. prospective study of maple-syrup-urine disease for the first four days of life. n engl j med ; : e . . simon e, fingerhut r, baumkötter j, konstantopoulou v, ratschmann r, wendel u. maple syrup urine disease: favourable effect of early diagnosis by newborn screening on the neonatal course of the disease. j inherit metab dis ; : e . . love-gregory ld, grasela j, hillman re, phillips cl. evidence of common ancestry for the maple syrup urine disease (msud) y n allele in non-mennonite msud patients. mol genet metab ; : e . . niu dm, chien yh, chiang cc, ho hc, hwu wl, kao sm, et al. nationwide survey of extended newborn screening by tandem mass spectrometry in taiwan. j inherit metab dis ; : s e . . nellis mm, danner dj. gene preference in maple syrup urine disease. am j hum genet ; : e . . puffenberger eg. genetic heritage of the old order menno- nites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet ; c: e . . edelmann l, wasserstein mp, kornreich r, sansaricq c, snyderman se, diaz ga. maple syrup urine disease: identifica- tion and carrier-frequency determination of a novel founder mutation in the ashkenazi jewish population. am j hum genet ; : e . . love-gregory ld, dyer ja, grasela j, hillman re, phillips cl. carrier detection and rapid newborn diagnostic test for the common y n maple syrup urine disease allele by pcr-rflp: culturally permissible testing in the mennonite community. j inherit metab dis ; : e . . silao cl, padilla cd, matsuo m. a novel deletion creating a new terminal exon of the dihydrolipoyl transacylase gene is a founder mutation of filipino maple syrup urine disease. mol genet metab ; : e . . quental s, macedo-ribeiro s, matos r, vilarinho l, martins e, teles el, et al. molecular and structural analyses of maple syrup urine disease and identification of a founder mutation in a por- tuguese gypsy community. mol genet metab ; : e . . chace dh, kalas ta, naylor ew. use of tandem mass spec- trometry for multianalyte screening of dried blood specimens from newborns. clin chem ; : e . . chace dh, kalas ta. a biochemical perspective on the use of tandem mass spectrometry for newborn screening and clinical testing. clin biochem ; : e . . chi cs, tsai cr, chen lh, lee hf, mak bs, yang sh, et al. maple syrup urine disease in the austronesian aboriginal tribe paiwan of taiwan: a novel dbt (e ) gene . kb founder deletion caused by a nonhomologous recombination between line- and alu and the carrier-frequency determination. eur j hum genet ; : e . . lin m, chu cc, lee hl, chang sl, ohashi j, tokunaga k, et al. heterogeneity of taiwan’s indigenous population: possible relation to prehistoric mongoloid dispersals. tissue antigens ; : e . . chaisomchit s, wichajarn r, chowpreecha s, chareonsiriwatana w. a simple method for extraction and purification of genomic dna from dried blood spots on filter paper. southeast asian j trop med public health ; : e . . henneke m, flaschker n, helbling c, müller m, schadewaldt p, gärtner j, et al. identification of twelve novel mutations in patients with classic and variant forms of maple syrup urine disease. hum mutat ; : . . rodrı́guez-pombo p, navarrete r, merinero b, gómez- puertas p, ugarte m. mutational spectrum of maple syrup urine disease in spain. hum mutat ; : . . silao cl, padilla cd, matsuo m. early diagnosis of maple syrup urine disease using polymerase chain reaction-based mutation detection. pediatr int ; : e . . lin m, broadberry re. immunohematology in taiwan. transfus med rev ; : e . . melton t, clifford s, martinson j, batzer m, stoneking m. ge- netic evidence for the proto-austronesian homeland in asia: mtdna and nuclear dna variation in taiwanese aboriginal tribes. am j hum genet ; : e . . shaw ck, chen ll, lee a, lee td. distribution of hla gene and haplotype frequencies in taiwan: a comparative study among min-nan, hakka, aborigines and mainland chinese. tissue an- tigens ; : e . . schanfield ms, ohkura k, lin m, shyu r, gershowitz h. immu- noglobulin allotypes among taiwan aborigines: evidence of malarial selection could affect studies of population affinity. hum biol ; : e . . trejaut ja, kivisild t, loo jh, lee cl, he cl, hsu cj, et al. traces of archaic mitochondrial lineages persist in austronesian-speaking formosan populations. plos biol ; :e . . yang n, han l, gu x, ye j, qiu w, zhang h, et al. analysis of gene mutations in chinese patients with maple syrup urine disease. mol genet metab ; : e . . tajima a, sun cs, pan ih, ishida t, saitou n, horai s. mito- chondrial dna polymorphisms in nine aboriginal groups of taiwan: implications for the population history of aboriginal taiwanese. hum genet ; : e . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	different gene preferences of maple syrup urine disease in the aboriginal tribes of taiwan 	 introduction 	 materials and methods 	 . patients 	 . methods 	 results 	 discussion 	conflict of interest 	acknowledgments 	references pauline greenhill and diane tye, eds. undisciplined women: tradition and culture in canada. montreal: mcgill-queen's university press, . xv, pp. isbn - - (hardcover) all rights reserved © canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : canadian university music review revue de musique des universités canadiennes pauline greenhill and diane tye, eds. undisciplined women: tradition and culture in canada. montreal: mcgill-queen's university press, . xv, pp. isbn - - (hardcover) marcia ostashewski volume , numéro - , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) canadian university music society / société de musique des universités canadiennes issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu ostashewski, m. ( ). compte rendu de [pauline greenhill and diane tye, eds. undisciplined women: tradition and culture in canada. montreal: mcgill-queen's university press, . xv, pp. isbn - - (hardcover)]. canadian university music review / revue de musique des universités canadiennes, ( - ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ -v -n - -cumr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cumr/ cumr/rmuc pauline greenhill and diane tye, eds. undisciplined women: tradition and culture in canada. montreal: mcgill-queen's university press, . xv, pp. isbn - - (hardcover). this interdisciplinary volume contains twenty essays dealing with women and culture in canada. these essays contribute to the growing body of literature that addresses women's issues in folklore studies. it continues in the vein of folklore publications, like rosan a. jordan's women's folklore, women's culture and claire r. farrer's women and folklore, which initiated challenges to the pub- lic/private boundaries of women's culture and related issues. moreover, undis- ciplined women endeavors to redress the general neglect of canadian culture in broader academic folklore spaces, and folklore in canadian studies. the editors note in their introduction that the book's title both recognizes the "exclusion of women and feminism" in folklore, and marks their "resistance to it" (p. x). in this way, the articles challenge ways of knowing and making knowledge within academic spaces, or "how folklore is done" (p. xvi). these essays represent work by senior folklorists and younger academics at different points in their careers; also, notably, the volume addresses and includes authors who work outside academic spaces. this is the first mark of the volume's "(un)discipline"—to include "as significant and valid collectors and (re)presenters of traditional and popular culture not only those women associated with the academy but also those who have never been near it" (p. xi). the word play in the book's title signifies in a variety of ways. perhaps most obviously, the women and female/feminine constructs (including "witches" and female taxi drivers) explored in the chapters often challenge socially-palatable and conforming notions of identity. this kind of challenge is encapsulated in the book's cover art, a painting created by canadian ukrainian artist natalka husar. it appears to be a scene much like those found at ukrainian (and other) community dinners commonly held in church basements and halls in various regions of canada. two older women sit minding a table where they are selling tickets, very clearly in charge of the situation. behind them a young woman is dressed in ukrainian folk-staged dance costume—painted upside down! in this way, she "turns on their head" socially prescribed norms of behavior; she is not quite the demure or conforming young maiden her costume might suggest. the ways in which the authors write about the communities they worked in often disrupts more conventionally accepted understandings of identity constructs found in popular culture; here, greenhill's article that challenges heterosexist interpretations of cross-dressing ballads comes to mind. this is immensely sig- nificant not only to the discipline of folklore, but when considering that identities of related communities are tied up with conventional or "traditional" perceptions of identity constructs. this is due in large part to the fact that these identity constructs are inextricably linked to gender, as the authors both explicitly and implicitly argue in their various chapters. i can well imagine that some of the rosan a. jordan and susan j. kalcik, eds., women's folklore, women's culture (philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, ); claire r. farrer, women and folklore (austin: university of texas press, ). / - ( ) articles may present epistemological challenges to the ways in which communities and individuals understand themselves and their identities. yet, as the editors point out in their introduction, some of the contributing authors "describe themselves as committed feminists; others find the terms and its connotations problematic" (p. xiii). this group of authors, then, is not easily bounded but themselves experience unsettledness and undisciplined-ness in relation to women's issues and academia. considering recent discussions regarding the efficacy or desirability of disciplinary boundaries and distinctions in academia, this volume's "undisci- plined" title seems especially pertinent. together, the authors break through disciplinary boundaries, writing across and through women's studies, folklore, anthropology, sociology; they find themselves at "the intersection of three all too often marginalized areas of academic inquiry—folklore, women, and canada" (p. ). this volume subsequently challenges the reader to consider topics, which have until recently been considered merely "folkloric," in critical examinations of culture. grouped along thematic lines, the essays focus on the collection and interpre- tation of women's folklore; images and representations of women in canadian folklore; and how "women transform their lives and traditions." each thematic section is introduced by the editors, who point to major scholars in each area and central issues related to its theme. they address the collection and dissemination of folklore, and the variety of traditional and popular culture forms related to women's experiences. finally, they celebrate the changes these women—authors, research participants and subjects—effect in folklore and canadian studies. the first thematic section opens as doucette seeks to reclaim the study of women's traditions as part of canadian studies, and "endeavor a renewing of the intellectual framework for the study of traditional culture in canada" (p. ). labelle advocates for a reassessment of catherine jolicoeur's work, which has been marginalized within academia. edith fowke, a renowned canadian folk- lorist, writes of her life—and its connection with folklore; her account details, both metaphorically and more plainly, the struggle of feminism ("before there was such a term") (p. ) in canadian folklore studies. diane tye exam- ines—through and account of jean heffernan's work in springhill, nova scotia—concepts central to folklore studies such as "innocence," "commu- nity," and "woman as ethnography/ethnographer." re-evaluating cameron's daughters of copper woman, christine st. peter addresses problems associ- ated with writing native women's culture in canada. the second thematic section deals with representations of women. barbara reiti first explores newfoundland witchcraft remedies and their connection to violence against women. through an investigation of nationalism and gender, anne brydon examines the icelandic fjallkona and its shifting symbolic meaning in canada. barbara le blanc considers how social relations might be manifest in cheticamp dance forms. as mentioned above, challenging homogenous het- erosexist interpretations of the material of folklore, greenhill presents a variety of interpretations of cross-dressing ballads; taft describes the role of transvestism in mock weddings on the prairies. janice ristock's writes of "dangerously powerful women" (p. ) as represented in hollywood films such as fatal attraction; these cumr/rmuc present difficulties for her own project of representing abuse in lesbian relation- ships. in the last article of this section, vivian labrie analyses stories of workplace relationships; she suggests that "indiscipline" (p. ) can be an effective way of dealing with "structural violence." she provides a segue from a section dealing with (re)interpretations of women's images in folklore, to a section focusing on the women that actively transform their lives and traditions. here in this final section of the book, the authors attend to ways in which women work to challenge limitations placed along lines of gender, in both public and private spaces. susan shantz struggles to understand the place of mateychuk quilts within wider quiltmaking practices. just what constitutes "public" and "private" is questioned by jocelyne mathieu, as she follows the production, exchange and use of clothing. gail paton grant writes about processes and narratives associated with miracle healing. by interviewing three female taxi drivers, cynthia boyd learned of their negotiations of power within a primarily male occupation. robin mcgrath finds feminist messages in autobiographical narratives of inuit women. through an examination of the way in which women in cape st. george negotiate their leisure time, marie- annick desplanques details how women who work collaboratively reinforce the personal links between them. women also use narratives and folklore as resistance, as pamela klassen's article on mennonite woman preacher agatha janzen demonstrates. kay stone, marvyne jenoff and susan gordon reveal the efficacy of (re)interpreting narratives. it is indeed through learning of the ways in which all these women effect change, that we understand it is possible. in conclusion, i urge consideration of the larger topic at hand with this volume—that this volume is truly a project of broader cultural studies. it inspires musicologists to look to the cultural context and signification of music and related practices, in our search for understanding the complex and fluid processes in- volved in the continual (re)creation of identities and histories. more specifically, its authors draw our attention to powerful instances and the richness of knowledge in the spaces where women, folklore and canadian studies intersect. numerous recent music-focused publications, including beverley diamond and pirrko mois- ala's music and gender, jane c. sugarman's engendering song, virginia daniel- son's the voice of egypt, sheila whiteley's women and popular music—and numerous others—speak to similar issues in addressing culture. undisciplined women focuses on topics related to cultural production—past and contempo- rary—in canada, which are often at the heart of canadian musicology. with this in mind, undisciplined women finds a place on my bookshelf, and very often open in my hands, in investigations of identity, music and related cultural production. marcia ostashewski beverly diamond and pirkko moisala, eds. music and gender (urbana, il: university of illinois press, ); jane c. sugerman, engendering song: singing and subjectivity at prespa albanian weddings (chicago: university of chicago press, ); virgina danielson, the voice of egypt: uum kulthûm, arabic song, and egyptian society in the twentieth century (chicago: university of chicago press, ); sheila whiteley, women and popular music: sexuality, identity and subjectivity (london: routledge press, ). edinburgh research explorer a secreted wnt-ligand binding domain of fzd generated by a frameshift mutation causes autosomal dominant coloboma citation for published version: liu, c, widen, s, williamson, k, ratnapriya, r, gerth-kahlert, c, rainger, j, alur, r, strachan, e, manjanath, s, balakrishnan, a, floyd, j, uk k consortium, li, t, waskiewicz, a, brooks, b, lehmann, oj, fitzpatrick, d & swaroop, a , 'a secreted wnt-ligand binding domain of fzd generated by a frameshift mutation causes autosomal dominant coloboma', human molecular genetics. https://doi.org/ . /hmg/ddw digital object identifier (doi): . /hmg/ddw link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: peer reviewed version published in: human molecular genetics publisher rights statement: author's final peer-reviewed manuscript as accepted for publication general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/ . /hmg/ddw https://doi.org/ . /hmg/ddw https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/a-secreted-wntligand-binding-domain-of-fzd -generated-by-a-frameshift-mutation-causes-autosomal-dominant-coloboma(c ad - c- b- fb- c b).html published by oxford university press . this work is written by (a) us government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the us. a secreted wnt-ligand binding domain of fzd generated by a frameshift mutation causes autosomal dominant coloboma chunqiao liu , ,#, sonya a. widen ,#, kathleen a. williamson ,#, rinki ratnapriya , christina gerth-kahlert , joe rainger , ramakrishna p. alur , erin strachan , souparnika h. manjunath , archana balakrishnan , james a. floyd , uk k consortium , tiansen li , andrew waskiewicz ,*, brian brooks , ordan j. lehmann , ,*, david r. fitzpatrick ,*, and anand swaroop ,* neurobiology-neurodegeneration & repair laboratory, national eye institute, national institutes of health, center drive, bethesda, md , usa state key laboratory of ophthalmology, zhongshan ophthalmic center, sun yat-sen university, guangzhou , china department of biological sciences, university of alberta, edmonton, ab t g e , canada mrc human genetics unit, institute of genetic and molecular medicine, university of edinburgh, edinburgh eh xu, uk dept. of ophthalmology, university hospital zurich, frauenklinikstrasse , zurich, switzerland unit on pediatric, developmental, and genetic eye disease, national eye institute, center drive, bethesda, md , usa department of ophthalmology and visual sciences, university of alberta, edmonton, ab t g h , canada welcome trust sanger institute, hinxton, cambridge, cb hh, uk dept. of medical genetics, university of alberta, edmonton, ab t g h hmg advance access published january , by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ *correspondence may be addressed to: prof. anand swaroop, neurobiology- neurodegeneration & repair laboratory, national eye institute, center drive, bethesda, md , usa. swaroopa@nei.nih.gov, prof. david r. fitzpatrick, mrc human genetics unit, university of edinburgh, western general hospital, edinburgh eh xu, uk. david.fitzpatrick@ed.ac.uk, prof. ordan j. lehmann, department of ophthalmology and visual sciences, university of alberta, edmonton, ab t g h , canada. olehmann@ualberta.ca, prof. andrew waskiewicz, department of biological sciences, university of alberta, edmonton, ab t g e canada. aw@ualberta.ca #these authors should be considered as joint first authors. abstract ocular coloboma is a common eye malformation resulting from incomplete fusion of the optic fissure during development. coloboma is often associated with microphthalmia and/or contralateral anophthalmia. coloboma shows extensive locus heterogeneity associated with causative mutations identified in genes encoding developmental transcription factors or components of signaling pathways. we report an ultra-rare, heterozygous frameshift mutation in fzd (p.ala glufs* ) that was identified independently in two branches of a large family with autosomal dominant non-syndromic coloboma. fzd has a single coding exon and consequently a transcript with this frameshift variant is not a canonical substrate for nonsense-mediated decay. fzd encodes a transmembrane receptor with a conserved extracellular cysteine rich domain (crd) for ligand binding. the frameshift mutation results in the production of a truncated protein, which retains the wnt-ligand binding domain but lacks the transmembrane domain. the truncated protein was secreted from cells, and behaved as a dominant-negative fzd receptor, antagonizing both canonical and non- canonical wnt signaling. expression of the resultant mutant protein caused coloboma and microphthalmia in zebrafish, and disruption of the apical junction of the retinal neural epithelium in mouse, mimicking that of fz /fz compound conditional knockout mutants. by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from mailto:swaroopa@nei.nih.gov mailto:david.fitzpatrick@ed.ac.uk mailto:olehmann@ualberta.ca mailto:olehmann@ualberta.ca http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ our studies have revealed a conserved role of wnt-frizzled signaling in ocular development and directly implicate wnt-fzd signaling both in normal closure of the human optic fissure and pathogenesis of coloboma. introduction ocular coloboma (oc) is a developmental structural defect caused by the abnormal persistence of the optic fissure in post-embryonic life. in combination with microphthalmia (small eyes) and anophthalmia (absent eyes), oc represents a spectrum of malformations that account for an estimated % to % of pediatric blindness ( ). transcription factors and signaling pathways play crucial roles in optic cup morphogenesis and fissure closure ( , ). accordingly, human genetic studies together with vertebrate models have implicated bone morphogenetic protein (bmp) ( - ), hedgehog (hh) ( ), retinoic acid (ra) ( - ) and hippo ( ) pathways in the pathogenesis of these ocular malformations ( , - ). defects in components of wnt signaling have been attributed to syndromic and non-syndromic ocular diseases, including norrie disease ( , ), osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome ( ) and familial exudative vitreoretinopathy ( , , - ), but not with abnormalities associated with ocular morphogenesis. a growing body of evidence from several vertebrate models indicates that wnt signaling is indispensable in optic field development and ocular morphogenesis. in the wnt pathway, non-canonical (β-catenin-independent) signaling interacts with canonical (β- catenin-dependent) signaling to control presumptive retinal versus forebrain fates ( ). loss of non-canonical ligands, wnt and wnt , causes failure of eye field segregation ( ), whereas inactivation of β-catenin prior to optic vesicle differentiation causes anophthalmia ( ). at later stages of development, the canonical pathway also contributes to optic cup morphogenesis, with overexpression of the wnt inhibitor dkk leading to abnormal lens formation and coloboma ( , ). furthermore, loss of the secreted frizzled related by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ proteins (sfrps; known modulators of wnt signaling) causes defects in optic cup patterning ( ). the wnt receptor frizzled- (fzd ) mediates both canonical and non-canonical signaling ( , ). during eye field specification, fzd is specifically expressed in evaginating eye precursors ( , ). in zebrafish, wnt -fzd signaling promotes eye field specification using the non-canonical pathway ( ). in xenopus, fzd acting via the canonical pathway controls the neural potential of retinal progenitors through regulation of sox ( ). mouse fzd -/- mutants display extreme optic cup invagination defects with failure to induce lens formation ( ), whereas conditional fzd mutants (supplementary fig. ) exhibit both microphthalmia and coloboma with disrupted retinal epithelial apical junctions ( , ) implicating fzd in mammalian ocular morphogenesis and early neurogenesis. additionally, mouse knockout mutants of lrp , encoding fzd co-receptor presumed to be in the canonical wnt signaling pathway ( ), demonstrate ocular phenotypes similar to those observed in the conditional fzd mutants. we therefore hypothesized that mutations in fzd may be involved in the development of human congenital ocular malformations. in this study, we tested this hypothesis using two independent methods: an unbiased genetic screen, and a candidate gene approach. both of these identified the same single novel frameshift mutation in fzd in a large, extended family in which non-syndromic oc segregated as an autosomal dominant disorder. functional analysis of the mutant protein, using zebrafish and mouse retinal explants, strongly suggests a dominant negative effect on wnt signaling which is likely responsible for optic fissure closure defects. the present study therefore directly implicates wnt-fzd signaling in the pathogenesis of human coloboma. results a frameshift mutation in fzd causes automomal dominant coloboma whole exome sequencing (wes) was performed as part of the rare disease component of uk k (www.uk k.org) in five members of a large family with autosomal dominant oc (family ; fig. a-c). the affected individuals iv: , v: , vi: and vi: shared only one by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ ultra-rare variant (not present in exac, evs, g, uk k internal databases); a frameshift mutation in fzd (c. delcinsag; p.ala glufs* , hereafter referred a xfs* ). this variant was then shown to co-segregate with the disease in all affected individuals available for testing with one exception, iv: (fig. a). iv: has bilateral coloboma but is “married-in” to the family being unrelated to the affected individuals vi: , v: , iv: , iv: and iv: (his wife). he has no prior family history of eye malformations and no other plausible causative variants could be identified in his exome sequence data. two unaffected individuals (iii: & v: ) also carried the mutation and were considered as non- penetrant. targeted re-sequencing of fzd in an additional unrelated coloboma patients from the mrc human genetics unit cohort as part of uk k revealed no other potentially pathogenic variants. concurrently, fzd was screened as a candidate gene, based on mouse studies ( , ), in unrelated individuals with coloboma from cohorts at national eye institute (nei), usa and university of alberta (u of a), canada. these studies revealed the identical a xfs* mutation in all four affected individuals from family , where each exhibited bilateral coloboma and related phenotypes [e.g., microphthalmia, and cataract] (fig. a, b). haplotype analysis using five microsatellite markers flanking the fzd gene suggested a recent common ancestry between family and family (supplementary fig. ). based on the information provided by family that individual ii: had emigrated to north america, this female represented a plausible genetic link with family . in addition, both families are of mennonite ancestry and originated from the same region in europe. for the purpose of calculating the two-point lod score, we designated ii: in family as the maternal great-grandmother of individual i: in family , which is the closest possible link based on information from family . this was a conservative approach, as it would generate a minimum possible lod score associated with co-segregation of the disease and the mutation in the combined family. the linkage analysis was performed using the r package paramlink. co-segregation of the fzd mutation with coloboma in the extended pedigree gave a two-point lod score = ) ranging from . - . using penetrance by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ values between . - . it was not possible to obtain an accurate estimate of the penetrance for this mutation as we were not able to examine or genotype all apparently unaffected individuals in both branches of the family. however, on the basis of the genotypes we can safely conclude a relatively high but incomplete penetrance of the disease mutation. fzd has a single coding exon with a ’ non-coding exon. as such the a xfs* mutant transcript is not predicted to be a substrate for nonsense-mediated decay. the a xfs* mutation is thus likely to result in production of a truncated fzd protein with an intact highly conserved ligand-binding domain (extracellular cysteine rich domain, crd) but lacking the seven transmembrane domains (fig. d) (supplementary fig. ). within the nei and u of a cohorts, one additional rare missense variant was identified (c. a>t; p.asp val (d v); supplementary table , supplementary fig. a, b). this variant is of uncertain significance as this variant was not present in the unaffected mother or brother and the father was deceased (supplementary fig. a). this mutation did not significantly change fzd protein level or its membrane localization by in vitro transfection assay (supplementary fig. c). atomic non-local environment assessment (anolea) predicted that the d v variant would perturb local interactions (supplementary fig. d). super topflash (stf) reporter assays indicated a slight but consistent increase of wnt b-stimulated canonical wnt activity by d v mutation (supplementary fig. e) suggesting a gain-of-function. altered expression of fzd a xfs* in zebrafish results in microphthalmia and coloboma to elucidate the functional relevance of the human fzd a xfs* mutation, zebrafish were used as a model system. concordant with observations in mouse fzd mutants ( , ), zebrafish fzd morphants exhibited coloboma and microphthalmia phenotypes (fig. a- d). in addition, over-expression of the fzd -a xfs* mutant in zebrafish embryos also resulted in coloboma and microphthalmia (fig. e-j). surprisingly, these phenotypes were by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ more prevalent when the wild type fzd protein was over-expressed (fig. k-l). we noted that the eye size was similar when either wt or fzd -a xfs* mutant was over- expressed (supplementary fig. ). these observations suggest that precise fzd and/or wnt signaling dosage is critical for ocular development. fzd a xfs* is a secreted protein that binds to wnt but is incapable of mediating wnt signaling to further understand the functional consequences of the human fzd a xfs* mutation, we examined mutant protein expression and localization in vitro. transfection of a xfs* cdna construct into hek cells produced a truncated fzd protein as predicted, containing the entire ligand-binding domain but not the transmembrane domains. under non-reducing conditions, the mutant fzd a xfs* protein shows multiple bands in the cell extracts, including one of ~ kd and several ~ kd (fig. a). with the addition of mercaptoethanol, the truncated fzd protein primarily migrated at a lower molecular weight in the ecm fraction (fig. a). live cell surface immunofluorescence analysis confirmed that truncated fzd did not localize to the outer cell membrane (in contrast to the full length fzd ) and instead displayed punctate and/or irregular extracellular staining (fig. b, supplementary fig. ). as predicted, the a xfs* truncated fzd protein abrogated the ability to mediate both canonical (fig. c, integrated tcf-dependent reporter) and non- canonical wnt signaling activities (fig. d, pulldown assay of wnt a stimulated gtp-rhoa). an engineered secreted fzd -crd protein (scrd, fused with human ig-fc fragment) had an effect similar to the a xfs* fzd mutant (fig. c, d), suggesting that the secretion of the latter is critical for its abnormal function. to examine whether a xfs* fzd binds to wnt, co-ip experiments were conducted using cell extracts transfected with wnt a-myc, wnt a-ha, fzd and fzd a xfs* constructs in different combinations ( , ). we detected binding of fzd a xfs* to wnt a as well as fzd (supplementary fig. ), suggesting that a competition may exist between a xfs* fzd mutant and wild type for wnt utilization. by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ fzd a xfs* antagonizes both canonical and non-canonical wnt signaling given the abnormal function of truncated fzd a xfs* , as indicated by its aberrant localization at the plasma membrane, and that a xfs* was associated with a dominant mode of inheritance in family and family , we reasoned that fzd a xfs* may act as a secreted frizzled-related protein ( ). this acquired secretory function may act non-cell autonomously and antagonize wnt-fzd activity expressed from the wild type allele. to test this hypothesis, a co-culture assay was developed in which constructs a xfs* and wnt b plus fzd were respectively transfected into hek and stf cells containing a built-in tcf luciferase reporter. measurement of luciferase activity (schematically illustrated in fig. a, left panel) revealed dose-dependent, non-cell autonomous inhibition of fzd -mediated canonical wnt activity with co-cultured a xfs* expressing cells (fig. a, middle panel). moreover, the inhibition was reversed in a dose-dependent manner by increasing fzd expression (fig. a, right panel). similar results were obtained in a wnt a/fzd -induced rhoa activity assay (fig. b-c), which is a measure of non-canonical wnt signaling. taken together, these data suggest that the a xfs* mutant protein functions in a dominant, non-cell autonomous manner to repress fzd signaling. forced expression of fzd a xfs* in mouse retina leads to apical junction defects similar to those observed in fzd / compound mutants previous studies in mice demonstrated apical junction defects in the retinal pigment epithelium of fzd /fzd compound mutant retina, and these were likely to contribute to or cause abnormal neurogenesis and coloboma ( ). to examine whether the a xfs* mutation can mimic a fzd dominant loss-of-function, we overexpressed the fzd - a xfs* mutation in mouse retina and evaluated fzd -related downstream molecular events. mutant constructs were electroporated into e . mouse retina together with a constitutive ub-gfp expression vector, and the retina was analyzed after hrs of culture in by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ vitro. consistent with apical junction defects in fzd -/-;fzd +/- compound mutant mouse retina ( ), the overexpression of the a xfs* mutant also caused apical junction defects in cultured retinal explants, as indicated by attenuated expression of atypical protein kinase c (apkc) (fig. a-f) and rhoa (fig. g-l). both fzd and apkc are expressed in retinal progenitor cells (see fig. and refs. ( , )). decreased expression of these proteins likely represents the loss of concentrated apical localization of markers, which would not be demonstrated by immunoblotting. furthermore, both human and mouse fzd showed the same apical retinal localization (fig. m-r), supporting the hypothesis that they may mediate similar molecular events during human and mouse retinal development. discussion in the present study, we have identified an ultra-rare frameshift mutation in fzd in a large extended family with non-syndromic coloboma segregating as an autosomal dominant disorder. the open reading frame of fzd is entirely within the second exon which makes it unlikely that transcript would be subject to nonsense mediated decay since there is no intron-exon boundary ’ to the premature termination codon ( ). the distinct location of the frameshift in the open reading frame suggests that the truncated protein would have an antagonistic effect on wnt signaling. this predicted effect was demonstrated in cultured cells, zebrafish retina and mouse retinal explants that establish fzd as a strong candidate for human eye malformation(s). fzd mutations with similar predicted dominant negative effect appear to be extremely rare in human populations. a total of copy number variations (cnvs) encompassing fzd locus are listed in decipher database. three patients with cnvs have eye abnormalities including cataract (one duplication case) and iris and/or chorioretinal coloboma (two deletion cases). however, a simple phenotype-genotype correlation could not be inferred since the cnv regions are large and include many genes. only two fzd “loss- of-function” alleles, both frameshift, are documented in exac. one of these, p.e afs* is also predicted to generate a secreted wnt-ligand binding domain with no transmembrane by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ domain. no phenotype information is available for the single individual carrying this mutation in a heterozygous state. given that non-penetrance has been observed in at least two members of the family presented above, it is possible that this individual is non-penetrant or has microphthalmia, a disorder characterized by reduced ocular size that is closely associated with coloboma. an explanation for the rarity of such mutations may be related to the observation that fzd null mouse embryos die before e due to placental angiogenesis defects ( ). the non-penetrance of such variants may reflect rescue via genetic background effects and/or compensation by paralogs. the latter effect is prominent in fzd /fzd mutant mice ( ) although no obvious fzd mutations compatible with a digenic effect were identified in wes in the individuals presented here. notably, similar non- penetrance has been observed in patients with autosomal dominant coloboma due to yap ( ) and shh ( ) mutation. our results demonstrate a direct role for wnt-fzd signaling in optic fissure closure during human eye development. the a xfs* mutation converts fzd from a membrane-bound wnt receptor to a secreted frizzled antagonist that, by competing with wnt ligands or dimerization with wild type fzd (on the cell surface), might impart dominant-negative characteristics on wnt signaling. as a result of the disrupted wnt signaling, retinal neuroblasts exhibit apical junction defects (supplementary fig. ) ( ), which could directly or indirectly impact proliferation, survival and maturation of progenitors (supplementary fig. ), leading to microphthalmia and coloboma. the dominant-negative role of a xfs* mutant is also consistent with the absence of observable ocular defects in heterozygous fzd null allelic mice. to date, ocular disorders attributable to mutations in wnt signaling are norrie disease ( , ), osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome ( ) and familial exudative vitreoretinopathy ( , , - ). our study directly implicates perturbed wnt signaling in coloboma and microphthalmia and is consistent with conclusions from mouse models ( , , , ). fzd mediates both canonical and non-canonical wnt signaling pathways in different organisms and tissues ( , , ). however, it is likely that fzd -mediated non- by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ canonical wnt signaling is the predominant pathway in the developing mammalian retina, as only minimal activity from the canonical pathway has been reported in these cells ( ). the retinal apical junction defects observed in fzd /fzd -knockout mice, and retinal explants expressing the fzd mutant protein are likely to be the consequence of interactions between the actin cytoskeleton and components of the apical junctional complexes induced by the loss of non-canonical wnt activity. the identification of fzd as a human coloboma gene extends opportunities to elucidate disease mechanisms and treatment paradigms for ocular malformations. materials and methods animal experiments animal care and use committee of the national eye institute approved all procedures involving the use of mice. fzd and fzd compound mutants were created and maintained as described previously ( ). all zebrafish experiments were consistent with canadian council of animal care guidelines and approved by the university of alberta’s animal care and use committee (protocol # ). experiments utilized the wildtype ab zebrafish strain or tg(top:dgfp)w transgenic strain ( ). all embryos were grown at . °c and staged according to developmental hallmarks ( ). zebrafish morpholino and fzd mrna injection experiments morpholino oligonucleotides (mo; genetools) were appropriately diluted in danieau’s solution, then heated to °c for min and allowed to cool before injection into the - cell stage embryos. a previously described translation blocking mo targeting fzd (gatgctcgtctgcaggtttcctcat) was injected at a dose of . pmol ( ). morphological phenotypes were recapitulated by injecting a minimally overlapping mo (tgcaggtttcctca-tactggaaagc) (data not shown). human fzd wt and a xfs* cdna was amplified using prk constructs as template (see below) using the by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ following primer sequences: f – cacaggatccaccatggctcggcctg), r – cacagaattccctgaaccaagtggaa. pcr products were cloned into pcr -topo (invitrogen) for sequencing confirmation and sub-cloned into pcs + for mrna synthesis. constructs were linearized with nsii (new england biolabs) and mrna was generated using the sp mmessage mmachine kit (ambion). mrna was purified using ym- microcon columns (amicon, millipore) and the concentration was determined through spectrophotometry. the mrna was diluted with depc-treated water and injected at a dose of pg into -cell stage embryos. whole mount in situ hybridization, immunofluorescence and live imaging live zebrafish embryos were photographed using an olympus stereoscope with a qimaging micropublisher camera. whole mount in situ hybridization was performed as previously described ( ). rt-pcr was used to generate - bp templates for probe synthesis or sub-cloned into pcr -topo (invitrogen). immunofluorescence was performed as previously described ( ) using rabbit polyclonal specific for laminin ( / ) (sigma l ). after either in situ hybridization or immunofluorescence, eyes were dissected off and flat mounted for imaging on zeiss axioimager z compound microscope with axiocam hr digital camera. patients and dna sequencing individuals with microphthalmia, anophthalmia and/or coloboma (mac) were subjected to exome sequencing and sanger sequencing. genomic dna samples fromcoloboma probands were analyzed by the national eye institute clinical eye center, uk k consortium, mrc human genetics unit at the igmm, university of edinburgh, and the university of alberta. informed consent was obtained from each participant, and study approval provided by the relevant ethics boards (nih irb; u of a health research ethics board (reference # ), uk multiregional ethics committee (reference # /mre / )). five affected individuals from family (uk k) were subjected to whole exome sequencing, and sanger sequencing was used to test for the fzd mutation in all other available members of by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ this branch of the family. four affected individuals from family (hreb) were sanger sequenced for the fzd gene. exome sequencing was performed as described ( ) with bwa . . used for alignment, picard . for duplicate marking, gatk . . for realignment around indels and base quality scores recalibration, and gatk unified genotyper for variant calling. lod score was calculated using paramlink package in r ( ). the oligonucleotides used to pcr amplify fzd are listed in supplementary table . immunoblotting, immunofluorescence staining, and immunohistochemistry for examining expression of fzd mutant constructs, plasmid dna of each mutant (d v or a xfs* ) or wild type fzd construct was transfected into hek t cells cultured in -well dishes. a total of g dna was used for transfection for each well, and biological and technical triplicates were made for each transfection. transfected ells were cultured for hr, supplemented with serum reduced medium (opti-mem, life technologies, cat. # ), continually cultured for another hr. cell medium was collected and store at - c. total cell extracts were prepared by adding xsds laemmli buffer (bio-rad, cat. # - ) onto cells rinsed with pbs. to prepare extracellular matrix (ecm) proteins, cultured cells were washed with pbs and incubated in pbs containing mm edta at °c for - min to remove the cells. ecm proteins are retained on the dish and solubilized in laemmli buffer. immunoblotting was performed as described previously ( ) using custom-made rabbit antibody against the n-terminus residues ( - amino acids) of the mouse fzd protein. the signal intensities were quantified by nih imagej from three representative western blots, and analyzed by microsoft excel. to detect fzd and fzd a xfs* cellular or extracellular localization, two g dna was used for transfection in each well ( -well plate) carrying coated coverslips. transfected cells were cultured in dmem-f for hr. immunofluorescence staining was conducted using the same antibody for detection of mutated/variant fzd proteins. to avoid cytoplasmic staining, live cells were first incubated with anti-fzd antibody in cultured medium at oc for hr, washed with pbs, by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ and then post-fixed with pfa. after rinse with pbs, secondary antibody was added to further proceed with immunohistochemistry. standard immunohistochemistry was performed on pfa-fixed frozen retinal sections with anti-fzd antibody ( : ), anti-apkc ( : , cell signaling, cat. # ) and anti-rhoa (cytoskeleton, cat. # arh ). fzd gene mutagenesis and wnt/beta-catenin pathway activation assay fzd cdna was cloned into prk expression vector with a cmv promoter and site-directed mutagenesis was performed to generate the fzd a xfs* frameshift mutation. for testing canonical wnt signaling activity, dna constructs were transfected into stf hek cells with a xtcf promoter-driven firefly luciferase reporter stably integrated in the genome ( ). as shown in fig. a, fixed amount of wnt b and fzd were cotransfected together with pcag-renilla luciferase plasmids (rl, used for internal expression control) into stf cells. different amount of fzd a xfs* and scrd plasmids were transfected into regular hek cells, respectively. twelve hours after transfection, both stf and hek cells were lifted off by trypsin-edta, and mixed at : ratio and seeded into new plate for another hr culture. biological and technical triplicates were prepared for each transfection. cell extracts were then prepared for firefly luciferase and renilla luciferase assay using dual-luciferase assay system (promega, e ). luminicence was measured sequentially by turner biosystem modulus microplate reader. firefly luciferase activity was normalized against renilla luciferase, and p-value calculation was performed using microsoft excel software student t-test function. active rhoa assay for wnt a stimulation hek cells were cultured to % confluence in dmem:f in -well dishes, transfected with fzd wt, a xfs* and scrd plasmids, cultured for hrs, then serum starved for hrs. wnt a recombinant protein conditioned medium (wnt a cm, roche, cat: -wn- /cf) was applied for min at ng/ml. cells were lysed and then subjected to active gtp-rhoa assays according to the manufacturer instructions (pulldown assay: by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ rhoa/rac /cdc assay kit, cytoskeleton inc, cat. # bk- ; g-lisa assay: rhoa g-lisa kit, cytoskeleton inc, cat. # bk- ). signal intensity was acquired by nih imagej from three representative immunoblots. light absorbance/optic density of hrp colorimetric reaction was measured (spectramax m), and the data was analyzed in microsoft excel. retinal electroporation and explants culture mouse embryonic retinas were dissected in dmem medium at e . excluding lens and rpe. retinae were subjected to electroporation with btx ecm electroporator in embryo gps chamber (sunivf, egps- ) supplied with ng/l dna solution in xpbs. the following parameters were set for electroporation: volts for electric field strength; x current pulses ( ms duration); ms intervals between pulses. retinas were then cultured in dmem:f (invitrogen, cat. - ) for hr, harvested in pbs and fix in % pfa, and subjected to sectioning and immunohistochemistry ( ). co-immunoprecipitation (co-ip) hek t cells were transfected with . g dna in each well of a -well dishe. myc-tagged wnt a, ha-tagged wnt a were coexpressed, respectively, with fzd or fzd a x . cell extracts and co-ip procedure were performed essentially as described ( ). antibodies used were mouse anti-ha (transgene biotech, ht ), rabbit anti-myc (sigma, c ), and rabbit anti-fzd (custom-made). protein a agarose resin was purchased from tansgene biotech (dp ). by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ acknowledgments we are grateful to jeremy nathans for wnt-fzd constructs and reporter cell lines. we thank arvydas maminishkis for providing human fetal retina and suja hiriyanna for technical assistance. these studies were supported by intramural research program of the national eye institute (as, tl, bb), a uk medical research council block grant to the university of edinburgh mrc human genetics unit (drf, kaw, jr), and by grants from nserc, aitf and wchri (saw, ajw), cihr and wchri (ojl), and people plan of sun yat-sen university (cl). the welcome trust supported uk k project (#wt ). conflict of interest the authors claim no conflict of interest for publishing this study. by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ references hornby, s.j., gilbert, c.e., rahi, j.k., sil, a.k., xiao, y., dandona, l. and foster, a. ( ) regional variation in blindness in children due to microphthalmos, anophthalmos and coloboma. ophthalmic epidemiol, , - . gregory-evans, c.y., williams, m.j., halford, s. and gregory-evans, k. ( ) ocular coloboma: a reassessment in the age of molecular neuroscience. j med genet, , - . williamson, k.a. and fitzpatrick, d.r. ( ) the genetic architecture of microphthalmia, anophthalmia and coloboma. eur j med genet, , - . bakrania, p., efthymiou, m., klein, j.c., salt, a., bunyan, d.j., wyatt, a., ponting, c.p., martin, a., williams, s., lindley, v. et al. ( ) mutations in bmp cause eye, brain, and digit developmental anomalies: overlap between the bmp and hedgehog signaling pathways. am j hum genet, , - . rainger, j., van beusekom, e., ramsay, j.k., mckie, l., al-gazali, l., pallotta, r., saponari, a., branney, p., fisher, m., morrison, h. et al. ( ) loss of the bmp antagonist, smoc- , causes ophthalmo-acromelic (waardenburg anophthalmia) syndrome in humans and mice. plos genet, , e . wyatt, a.w., osborne, r.j., stewart, h. and ragge, n.k. ( ) bone morphogenetic protein (bmp ) mutations are associated with variable ocular, brain, ear, palate, and skeletal anomalies. hum mutat, , - . asai-coakwell, m., french, c.r., berry, k.m., ye, m., koss, r., somerville, m., mueller, r., van heyningen, v., waskiewicz, a.j. and lehmann, o.j. ( ) gdf , a novel locus for a spectrum of ocular developmental anomalies. am j hum genet, , - . schimmenti, l.a., de la cruz, j., lewis, r.a., karkera, j.d., manligas, g.s., roessler, e. and muenke, m. ( ) novel mutation in sonic hedgehog in non-syndromic colobomatous microphthalmia. am j med genet a, a, - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ pasutto, f., sticht, h., hammersen, g., gillessen-kaesbach, g., fitzpatrick, d.r., nurnberg, g., brasch, f., schirmer-zimmermann, h., tolmie, j.l., chitayat, d. et al. ( ) mutations in stra cause a broad spectrum of malformations including anophthalmia, congenital heart defects, diaphragmatic hernia, alveolar capillary dysplasia, lung hypoplasia, and mental retardation. am j hum genet, , - . srour, m., chitayat, d., caron, v., chassaing, n., bitoun, p., patry, l., cordier, m.p., capo-chichi, j.m., francannet, c., calvas, p. et al. ( ) recessive and dominant mutations in retinoic acid receptor beta in cases with microphthalmia and diaphragmatic hernia. am j hum genet, , - . fares-taie, l., gerber, s., chassaing, n., clayton-smith, j., hanein, s., silva, e., serey, m., serre, v., gerard, x., baumann, c. et al. ( ) aldh a mutations cause recessive anophthalmia and microphthalmia. am j hum genet, , - . williamson, k.a., rainger, j., floyd, j.a., ansari, m., meynert, a., aldridge, k.v., rainger, j.k., anderson, c.a., moore, a.t., hurles, m.e. et al. ( ) heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in yap cause both isolated and syndromic optic fissure closure defects. am j hum genet, , - . ye, m., berry-wynne, k.m., asai-coakwell, m., sundaresan, p., footz, t., french, c.r., abitbol, m., fleisch, v.c., corbett, n., allison, w.t. et al. ( ) mutation of the bone morphogenetic protein gdf causes ocular and skeletal anomalies. hum mol genet, , - . morcillo, j., martinez-morales, j.r., trousse, f., fermin, y., sowden, j.c. and bovolenta, p. ( ) proper patterning of the optic fissure requires the sequential activity of bmp and shh. development, , - . reis, l.m., tyler, r.c., schilter, k.f., abdul-rahman, o., innis, j.w., kozel, b.a., schneider, a.s., bardakjian, t.m., lose, e.j., martin, d.m. et al. ( ) bmp loss-of- function mutations in developmental eye disorders including short syndrome. hum genet, , - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ chen, z.y., battinelli, e.m., fielder, a., bundey, s., sims, k., breakefield, x.o. and craig, i.w. ( ) a mutation in the norrie disease gene (ndp) associated with x- linked familial exudative vitreoretinopathy. nat genet, , - . nikopoulos, k., venselaar, h., collin, r.w., riveiro-alvarez, r., boonstra, f.n., hooymans, j.m., mukhopadhyay, a., shears, d., van bers, m., de wijs, i.j. et al. ( ) overview of the mutation spectrum in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy and norrie disease with identification of novel variants in fzd , lrp , and ndp. hum mutat, , - . gong, y., slee, r.b., fukai, n., rawadi, g., roman-roman, s., reginato, a.m., wang, h., cundy, t., glorieux, f.h., lev, d. et al. ( ) ldl receptor-related protein (lrp ) affects bone accrual and eye development. cell, , - . robitaille, j., macdonald, m.l., kaykas, a., sheldahl, l.c., zeisler, j., dube, m.p., zhang, l.h., singaraja, r.r., guernsey, d.l., zheng, b. et al. ( ) mutant frizzled- disrupts retinal angiogenesis in familial exudative vitreoretinopathy. nat genet, , - . toomes, c., bottomley, h.m., jackson, r.m., towns, k.v., scott, s., mackey, d.a., craig, j.e., jiang, l., yang, z., trembath, r. et al. ( ) mutations in lrp or fzd underlie the common familial exudative vitreoretinopathy locus on chromosome q. am j hum genet, , - . poulter, j.a., davidson, a.e., ali, m., gilmour, d.f., parry, d.a., mintz-hittner, h.a., carr, i.m., bottomley, h.m., long, v.w., downey, l.m. et al. ( ) recessive mutations in tspan cause retinal dysplasia and severe familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (fevr). invest ophthalmol vis sci, , - . cavodeassi, f., carreira-barbosa, f., young, r.m., concha, m.l., allende, m.l., houart, c., tada, m. and wilson, s.w. ( ) early stages of zebrafish eye formation require the coordinated activity of wnt , fz , and the wnt/beta-catenin pathway. neuron, , - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ hagglund, a.c., berghard, a. and carlsson, l. ( ) canonical wnt/beta-catenin signalling is essential for optic cup formation. plos one, , e . lieven, o. and ruther, u. ( ) the dkk dose is critical for eye development. dev biol, , - . veien, e.s., rosenthal, j.s., kruse-bend, r.c., chien, c.b. and dorsky, r.i. ( ) canonical wnt signaling is required for the maintenance of dorsal retinal identity. development, , - . holly, v.l., widen, s.a., famulski, j.k. and waskiewicz, a.j. ( ) sfrp a and sfrp function as positive regulators of wnt and bmp signaling during early retinal development. dev biol, , - . liu, c. and nathans, j. ( ) an essential role for frizzled in mammalian ocular development. development, , - . borello, u., buffa, v., sonnino, c., melchionna, r., vivarelli, e. and cossu, g. ( ) differential expression of the wnt putative receptors frizzled during mouse somitogenesis. mech dev, , - . sumanas, s. and ekker, s.c. ( ) xenopus frizzled- : a frizzled family member expressed exclusively in the neural retina of the developing eye. mech dev, , - . van raay, t.j., moore, k.b., iordanova, i., steele, m., jamrich, m., harris, w.a. and vetter, m.l. ( ) frizzled signaling governs the neural potential of progenitors in the developing xenopus retina. neuron, , - . burns, c.j., zhang, j., brown, e.c., van bibber, a.m., van es, j., clevers, h., ishikawa, t.o., taketo, m.m., vetter, m.l. and fuhrmann, s. ( ) investigation of frizzled- during embryonic neural development in mouse. dev dyn, , - . liu, c., bakeri, h., li, t. and swaroop, a. ( ) regulation of retinal progenitor expansion by frizzled receptors: implications for microphthalmia and retinal coloboma. hum mol genet, , - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ zhou, c.j., molotkov, a., song, l., li, y., pleasure, d.e., pleasure, s.j. and wang, y.z. ( ) ocular coloboma and dorsoventral neuroretinal patterning defects in lrp mutant eyes. dev dyn, , - . carmon, k.s. and loose, d.s. ( ) secreted frizzled-related protein regulates two wnt a signaling pathways and inhibits proliferation in endometrial cancer cells. mol cancer res, , - . carmon, k.s. and loose, d.s. ( ) development of a bioassay for detection of wnt- binding affinities for individual frizzled receptors. anal biochem, , - . bodine, p.v., zhao, w., kharode, y.p., bex, f.j., lambert, a.j., goad, m.b., gaur, t., stein, g.s., lian, j.b. and komm, b.s. ( ) the wnt antagonist secreted frizzled- related protein- is a negative regulator of trabecular bone formation in adult mice. mol endocrinol, , - . popp, m.w. and maquat, l.e. ( ) organizing principles of mammalian nonsense- mediated mrna decay. annu rev genet, , - . ishikawa, t., tamai, y., zorn, a.m., yoshida, h., seldin, m.f., nishikawa, s. and taketo, m.m. ( ) mouse wnt receptor gene fzd is essential for yolk sac and placental angiogenesis. development, , - . liu, h., thurig, s., mohamed, o., dufort, d. and wallace, v.a. ( ) mapping canonical wnt signaling in the developing and adult retina. invest ophthalmol vis sci, , - . dorsky, r.i., sheldahl, l.c. and moon, r.t. ( ) a transgenic lef /beta-catenin- dependent reporter is expressed in spatially restricted domains throughout zebrafish development. dev biol, , - . kimmel, c.b., ballard, w.w., kimmel, s.r., ullmann, b. and schilling, t.f. ( ) stages of embryonic development of the zebrafish. dev dyn, , - . gongal, p.a. and waskiewicz, a.j. ( ) zebrafish model of holoprosencephaly demonstrates a key role for tgif in regulating retinoic acid metabolism. hum mol genet, , - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ olbrich, h., schmidts, m., werner, c., onoufriadis, a., loges, n.t., raidt, j., banki, n.f., shoemark, a., burgoyne, t., al turki, s. et al. ( ) recessive hydin mutations cause primary ciliary dyskinesia without randomization of left-right body asymmetry. am j hum genet, , - . egeland, t., pinto, n. and vigeland, m.d. ( ) a general approach to power calculation for relationship testing. forensic sci int genet, , - . by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ legends to figures figure . a fzd frameshift mutation identified in a family with autosomal dominant coloboma a, six- and three-generation family pedigrees of family and family , respectively. the dotted line links these independently ascertained pedigrees carrying the same mutation on an identical haplotype. this link is plausible based on the history obtained from both mennonite families, with the likely linking individual (family ii: ) having emigrated from europe to north america. for family , ocular images from the affected individuals are shown adjacent to the cognate pedigree symbol. col numbers indicate individuals whose exomes were sequenced. otherwise, sanger sequencing was used for segregation analysis, which reveals high ( . ) but incomplete penetrance, as indicated by two obligate carriers that are unaffected. the pedigree key is in the top left corner. b, representative images showing eye malformations in affected individuals from family . the lod score for the combined pedigree is shown below the family tree. c, chromatopherogram of the frameshift fzd mutation (c. delcinsag). d, schematic of the human fzd gene with hg coordinates on chromosome . this gene is transcribed in the antisense direction relative to the genomic coordinate numbering. the position of the cdna mutation is indicated in the open reading frame (orf), which is entirely contained in the second exon. below are diagrammatic representations of the wild type and “mutant” fzd peptides. the wnt binding domain (dark blue box) is common to both, and the seven transmembrane domains (orange boxes) are present only in the wild type protein of residues. the mutation results in the truncation at ala (substituted to glu) with an aberrant extension of residues (red box), resulting in a protein of amino acids. by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ figure . morpholino knockdown and over-expression of fzd causes microphthalmia and coloboma in zebrafish. a-b, representative images of live embryos at dpf, either uninjected (a) or injected with . pmol of fzd translation blocking morpholino (mo; b). c-d, in situ hybridization for gfp was performed at hpf in tg[top:dgfp] embryos to assess levels of canonical wnt signaling in uninjected (c; n= / eyes) or fzd morphants (d; n= / eyes). retinal gfp expression was increased in morphants, while lens expression was decreased (d compare to c), suggesting a tissue-specific function for fzd in wnt signaling. e-l, embryos were injected at the -cell stage with either pg human wt fzd mrna or a xfs* fzd mrna and imaged to analyze eye size and prevalence of coloboma. injection of wt fzd caused higher incidence of microphthalmia (k, ***, p< . ) and coloboma (l, **, p= . ; *, p= . ) compared to injection of a xfs* fzd mrna. all images represent majority of observed phenotypes in each injection group. e-g, live images of larvae at dpf; h-j, eyes labeled with β-laminin antibody at dpf. k-l, quantification of ocular phenotypes seen in e-j. for e-l, number of embryos analyzed for microphthalmia: uninjected (n= ), wt fzd (n= ), a xfs* (n= ), experimental replicates. number of embryos analyzed for coloboma: uninjected (n= ), wt fzd (n= ), a xfs* (n= ), experimental replicates. figure . fzd -a xfs* is incapable of mediating wnt signaling a, immunoblot analysis of subcellular fractions from transfected hek cells. fzd a xfs* mutant protein is detected primarily in extracellular matrix (ecm) fraction. secreted cysteine-rich domain (scrd) is expressed in both culture medium (cm) and ecm. ce: cell extract. b, live cell immunofluorescence detection. immunofluorescence staining was conducted to detect fzd proteins expression in transfected cells on coated coverslips (see materials and methods). wt fzd is primarily present on the cell surface (left panel), by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ whilst majority of a xfs* mutant protein is detected extracellularly (middle panel), presumptively in ecm (doted staining). negative control with vector transfection is shown in the right panel. c, wnt b-induced canonical wnt signaling in supertopflash (stf) reporter cell line. cells were transfected with . ug wnt b plasmid combined with . ug other plasmids. like scrd, fzd a xfs* mutant protein is not able to mediate wnt b- induced canonical wnt signaling. the rightmost bar represents wnt b-induced canonical wnt activity by wild type fzd , which is significantly different from all other froms of fzd . d, representative image foractive-rho pulldown assays for non-canonical wnt signaling. hek cells were transfected with fzd wt, a xfs* and scrd plasmids, treated with wnt a recombinant protein conditioned medium. active gtp-rhoa assays strictly followed the manufacturer instructions (cytoskeleton inc, cat. # bk- ) (details see materials and methods). wnt a-enhanced formation of gtp-rhoa is obtained in the presence of fzd , but not a xfs* mutant or scrd. the signal intensities were quantified by nih imagej from three immunoblots for three independent experiments, and analyzed by microsoft excel (student t-test, ***, p< . ). figure . non-cell autonomous dominant-negative effect of fzd a xfs* mutant on wnt signaling. a, wnt b-fz signaling. all experiments were done in triplicates of at least three independent transfections. left panel, illustration of the experimental scheme. a fixed amount of wnt b and fzd was co-transfected with pcag-renilla luciferase plasmids (rl, used for internal expression control) into stf cells. different amounts of fzd a xfs* and scrd plasmids were transfected into hek cells. after hr, both stf and hek cells were collected by trypsin-edta, mixed at : ratio, and seeded into a new plate for another hr. cell extracts were then prepared for firefly luciferase and renilla luciferase assay. middle panel, inhibition of wnt b/fzd activity by either a xfs* or scrd in a dose-dependent manner. firefly luciferase activities were normalized against renilla luciferase, and statistics was performed using microsoft excel software. right panel, the by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ inhibition of fzd -mediated wnt signaling by a xfs* or scrd a xfs* or scrd was reversed by augmenting fzd expression. b, wnt a-fzd signaling. rhoa g-lisa assay showed that wnt a/fzd -stimulated accumulation of gtp-rhoa was abolished by a xfs* mutant or scrd protein (compare the right three bars). samples preparation was as described in fig. d, g-lisa assay followed instructions of rhoa g-lisa kit (cytoskeleton inc). absorbance of hrp colorimetric reaction was measured by spectramax m. the data were quantified by microsoft excel. c, inhibition of rhoa activation by a xfs* or scrd protein was reverted by increased fzd expression. left panel: similar experimental scheme in ‘a’ was used for testing non- cell autonomous effects of a xfs* on wnt a/fzd induced rhoa activation. right panel: the inhibition of rhoa activation (g-lisa assay) was reverted by increased fzd expression. ***, p< . , student t-test. figure . overexpression of fzd a xfs* led to similar apical junction defects that were reported in mouse fz / compound mutants. mouse embryonic (e . ) retina was dissected and subjected to electroporation supplied with wild type fzd and fzd a xfs* dna solution. the retinae were cultured for hr and harvested for immunohistochemistry. a-f, apkc localization in vector (a), wild type fzd (wt) (b) and a xfs* mutant (c) electroporated retinae. note the loss of apical localization of apkc in a xfs* -expressing retina (c). d-f, images of a, b, and c merged with coelctroporated egfp, respectively. g-i, similar as apkc, apical rhoa enrichment is also greatly attenuated (compared to g and h). j-l, images of g, h, and i merged with co-elctroporated egfp, respectively. m-r, localization of fzd protein in mouse and human retina. m, apical localization of fzd protein in wild type mouse retina (above dashed bracket). n, same protein localization of fzd was detected in human retina. o, mouse fzd conditional mutant retina showed absence of apical fzd protein. p-r, images from m-o merged with dapi, respectively. by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ family iii iv iii: iii: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: n iv: v: v: v: v: vi: vi: vi: vi: v: vi: vi: vi: vi: vi: v: v: v: v: n n bilateral chorioretinal coloboma +/- iris colobma unilateral optic disc/nerve pigmentary abnormality mutation not present mutation present col uk k exome sequence v vi col col col col col col no family history of coloboma ii: ii: i: i: ii: ii: emigrated from volga region i ii family >= generations iv: v: vi: iv: iv: v: vi: vi: fzd chr : fzd fzd c. delcinsag p.(ala glufs* ) i: i: ii: ii: - ii: ii: ii: iii: a. b. c. d. ’utr orf ’utr exon exon fzd p.ala glufs* wnt binding domain c. delcinsag transmembrane domains frameshift sequence family maximum lod for combined family is . at θ = penetrance = . - number in linkage table by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ by guest on january , http://hm g.oxfordjournals.org/ d ow nloaded from http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/ george woodcock and the doukhobors: peasant radicalism, anarchism, and the canadian state intellectual history review – in press matthew s. adams, loughborough university & luke kelly, university of manchester george woodcock and the doukhobors: peasant radicalism, anarchism, and the canadian state matthew s. adams* department of politics, history and international relations, loughborough university, uk luke kelly† department of history, university of manchester, uk abstract for the british-canadian writer and intellectual george woodcock, the doukhobors – a persecuted radical christian sect, many members of which emigrated from russia to canada at the turn of the twentieth century – were a continual source of fascination. a cause célèbre for a host of nineteen-century thinkers, including leo tolstoy and peter kropotkin, the doukhobors were frequently portrayed as the exemplars of the viewer’s particular ideological beliefs. the present article examines woodcock’s shifting interpretation of the doukhobors, mapped onto the development of an intellectual career that saw him emerge as a leading anarchist thinker, and his broader transition from a british writer to a canadian public intellectual. where once he saw the doukhobors representing anarchism in action, as his politics matured his view of the sect became more complex. rather than living anarchists, he came to see the doukhobors’ experience as a powerful reminder of the forces of assimilation at work in modern democracies that threatened the liberties of dissenters. reflecting woodcock’s revised anarchist politics, the doukhobors’ story now became a key component of an intellectual vision that cast a probing light on canadian history and canadian cultural politics. keywords: anarchism, doukhobors, canada, public intellectuals, federalism, trudeau * email: m.s.adams@lboro.ac.uk † luke.kelly@manchester.ac.uk the british-canadian historian, literary critic and public intellectual george woodcock came to the story of the doukhobors in part through his role as the most influential chronicler of anarchism’s past. publishing the first major biography of peter kropotkin, his key intellectual influence, in , woodcock was drawn to kropotkin’s role as a secular spokesperson for the group, noting that when he visited canada in , he was: enabled to repay the debt he owed to those doukhobor peasant communists who …influenced his ideas by their practical example. during the s the doukhobors were subjected to violent attacks for their refusal to be conscripted. they stood firm…when it seemed clear that the russian authorities intended to continue persecutions. woodcock’s fascination with the doukhobors would prove enduring, and like so many thinkers before him, he strived to understand the group and their history through the lens of his politics. his intellectual journey, however, would impose revisions on this perception, just as the anarchism that he began to propagate in britain in the s developed into a more heterodox political creed in the s and ‘ s. by this time, woodcock had emerged as one of canada’s most important literary intellectuals. it may be simplistic to view him as ‘canada’s “first man of letters”’, but this appellation was certainly central to his sense of self, seeing in the title a ‘craftsmanly’ commitment to advancing critical opinion in crystal prose. and this woodcock achieved with striking productivity, writing, as one commentator observed, ‘more than many literate people have read’, on a host of subjects. in a poem dedicated to woodcock, the poet al purdy looked to amend an older formulation to capture this variety: “renaissance man” has a grand sound how about “binder twine” not quite so culturally proud but indicating useful pride. politics was one ‘twine’ running through woodcock’s diverse achievements; political attachments that mutated as he moved between the old world and the new, as he embarked on fresh intellectual journeys, and as anarchism was reborn as a politics of protest in the s. in this process, his understanding of the doukhobors was subject to parallel transformations. the plight of the doukhobors had attracted the interest of anarchists long before woodcock completed his influential study of the sect in . as woodcock’s comments highlighted, kropotkin argued that his exposure to the doukhobors while undertaking military service in siberia had revealed to him the power of cooperation: to witness…the ways in which the communities of dukhobors [sic]… migrated to the amur region; to see the immense advantages which they got from their semi-communistic brotherly organization; and to realize what a success their colonialization was, amidst all the failures of state colonization, was learning something which cannot be learned from books. kropotkin may have seen this direct experience as invaluable, but the late nineteenth century saw a great stream of ink spilt in examining this group of religious heretics. the doukhobors – meaning ‘spirit wrestlers’, a name originally coined as a term of abuse denoting their apparent struggle against the holy ghost – soon became a cause célèbre in european radical circles, as their struggle against tsarist autocracy gained publicity through the efforts of sympathisers including kropotkin and leo tolstoy. a key component of their appeal was the complex of radical principles that their struggle and example seemingly encapsulated. they rejected the authority of the russian orthodox church and, indeed, the entire notion of priestly hierarchy. many refused to cooperate with the russian state or submit to military service, finding expression in a thoroughgoing pacifism, which even sometimes extended to vegetarianism. reflecting their slogan, ‘toil and peaceful life’, the doukhobors were dedicated to communal forms of social organisation and labour, as well as communistic distribution, and a subversion of conventional family structures shown in such habits as communal child-rearing. given the breadth and pliability of these ideas, the doukhobors soon became a vessel for a range of competing political enthusiasms, with european christians, liberals, socialists and anarchists all highlighting particular practices as key, and identifying in the doukhobor cause a mirror of their own political and religious ambitions. the present article examines one example of the doukhobors’ appropriation by political radicals, focusing on woodcock’s shifting interpretation of the group mapped onto the development of his politics and intellectual life. the first section places woodcock’s analysis in a deeper context of western political dissidence, exploring the ways in which nineteenth century thinkers representing a variety of traditions looked to the doukhobors as exemplars of their particular political hopes. as the second section demonstrates, woodcock, writing in britain in the immediate wake of his turn to anarchism, inherited many of these essentially nineteenth century readings. for the early woodcock, the doukhobors represented a model of anarchism, attaining an elusive combination of communal solidarity, communism, and a rejection of political authority that offered empirical evidence of anarchism’s possibility. the third section explores the ways in which woodcock rethought this reading as he moved to canada and met the doukhobors. mapped onto his developing intellectual identity as a canadian writer with an interest in canadian history and culture, and in the context of an invigorated political focus in the wake of pierre elliott trudeau’s election victory in , the doukhobors re-emerged in woodcock’s writing as a way of understanding and assessing the social and political changes at work. rather than a positive model, the doukhobors became a negative example of the effects of the centripetal force at work in modern democracies. bearing the seeds of a philosophical self-reflection that led him to reshape his politics as a broader libertarianism, this politics similarly shaped woodcock’s work in canadian cultural politics. the history and future of the doukhobors remained, therefore, a common theme in woodcock’s work, and like his life and ideas in general, has not received sufficient attention. examining his interpretation of the group in the context of his broader intellectual journey restores the importance of the political to his broad interests, while also highlighting the inappropriateness of seeing his reading of the doukhobors as static. more valuably, however, it also allows us to comprehend the intellectual life of one of canada’s most important and distinctive critical voices; a figure, one commentator argues, matched only by trudeau and george grant as a distinctively canadian twentieth-century thinker. i. under western eyes: the radical appeal of the doukhobors woodcock was introduced to the doukhobors through the ideas of a number of nineteenth- century thinkers. a divergently understood emblem of resistance to the state, example of communal living, and epitome of religious discipline, the doukhobors were subject to varied scrutiny and support by radicals. from an ethnographic curiosity, to a cause célèbre among pacifists in the s, and then a challenge to integrationist officials in colonial canada, the attention-grabbing sect sat at the crux of a number of ideological streams, and offered dissenters a vivid, real-life example of either a rural past or an ideal future, in the heart of modern canada. woodcock was among the canadians who engaged most deeply with sect, particularly in his seminal study the doukhobors. shaping this reading, however, especially in his early work on the group, was their history of appropriation by political radicals of various stripes. this nineteenth century history therefore provided the architecture for his attempt to understand the wider significance of their particular struggles. the doukhobors were a small group of russian peasants, one amongst a number of dissenting religious sects in nineteenth-century russia distinguished by their refusal to worship in the orthodox church. none of their chroniclers pinpoint an exact origin, suggesting instead that they ‘appeared’, ‘arose’ or ‘emerged into history’ in the eighteenth century. the principal feature of the group was their rejection of all of the ‘external rites and ceremonies’ of christianity. instead they prayed ‘inwardly at all times’ and their gatherings were said to be filled with the spontaneous recitation of psalms and songs, passed down orally, with repeated bowing and kissing signalling a commitment to equality and brotherhood. foreign observers tended to classify them in the language of western ecclesiastical history as ‘dissenters’ of either a ‘rational’, ‘mystical’ or ‘heretical’ persuasion, with some opting to describe them as ‘russian quakers’. observers were also often tempted to contrast their ‘neat and clean dress, comfortable looking huts, and industrious habits, their numerous flocks, and extensive and well cultivated fields’ with the apparently more slovenly habits of orthodox russians. as with many russian peasants they held property in common, but went further in winning the admiration of liberals, socialists, and anarchists through a complex of beliefs and practices. the exact commitment to these principles tended to vary by doukhobor community, but they often included, alongside communistic systems of sharing, an insistence on equality, including between genders, and even sometimes a strict vegetarianism. in the s, peter vasilevich verigin, who would lead the so-called large party of doukhobors in the caucasus, began a correspondence with leo tolstoy which would help solidify doukhobor doctrine as pacifist, vegetarian and politically radical in the eyes of the world. the sect’s tense relationship with the tsarist government in russia was at the root of their positive appraisals by outsiders. in addition to dissenting from the russian orthodox church in rejecting the mediation of priests, sacraments, or the bible, doukhobors often rejected another central pillar of the russian state in asserting a profound pacifism. the tsarist government sought to punish or convert the sect, and in the s dispersed certain groups of the doukhobors to finland and elsewhere, motivated by a desire to preserve orthodox authority and enforce conscription. in , they were encouraged to move to the fertile molochnaya river area in modern-day ukraine, a policy which both isolated their heresy and helped develop a sparsely populated area. with the ascension of nicholas i in , the doukhobors position worsened. as an absolutist, woodcock argued, nicholas was convinced that the endurance of the russian state depended on the institutions that the doukhobors threatened – the church and the army – and he opposed leniency ‘towards pacifist sectarians’. in the s, amidst allegations of sexual licentiousness and religiously motivated murder, the government exiled some doukhobors to the caucasus, again isolating them in an undeveloped region and forcing them to give up much of the wealth they had acquired in the previous colony. by the time of their coming to prominence in the s, the sect had been living on the borders of the russian empire for decades as part of the government’s ‘toleration through isolation’ and colonization policies. the upholding of doukhobor principles had always waxed and waned between generations and settlements, and many in the caucasus had begun to carry weapons and accumulate wealth in the second half of the nineteenth century. in , however, the government began to institute military service in the caucasus, not excepting pacifists, as part of its project of modernisation. the doukhobors’ new leader, peter vasilevich verigin, attempted to purify the christian testimony of the sect, whose pacifism he thought had become lax under the influence of wealth, which produced a split in the group. in , the more radical ‘large party’ of doukhobors, led by verigin, burned their weapons, prompting a government reaction that included flogging, imprisonment, and exile. married to the attractiveness of their pacifism, the vegetarianism practised by some doukhobors, and their championing by tolstoy, such oppression by the agents of russian autocracy prompted expressions of solidarity from christians, anarchists and radicals in russia, europe, and north america. the widespread favour for the small peasant sect was based on a number of distinct ideas their example supposedly embodied, and while few engaged closely with the doukhobors ideas and practices, many took their existence as a sign of stifled social and economic progress in russia. the first point of interest was the doukhobors’ dissent from russia’s state church, which many took as an example of the democratic and modernising resources of russian society that were usually stymied by autocracy. sometimes this rested less on their concrete beliefs, or any conscious attempt to bring down the regime, than on their reputed example. the liberal alexander herzen’s autobiography, for example, recounts a banished doukhobor offer of help to a decembrist exiled in irkutsk. herzen used this story to exhort would-be reformers to know ‘the life of the people’ and to offer an image of solidarity between classes: and so in the forests and mines of siberia, the russia of peter, of the landowner, of the public official, of the officer, and the ‘black’ russia of the peasants and the village, both banished and fettered, both with an axe in the belt, both leaning on the spade and wiping the sweat from their faces, looked at each other for the first time and recognised the long-forgotten traits of kinship. he also recounted an anecdote of a doukhobor whose refusal to bare his head for tsar paul i led to his imprisonment in a monastery. here, however, the doukhobor’s honesty and teetotalism gained him a reputation for saintliness, even swaying his initially hostile orthodox jailers. in neither story was herzen concerned with the particular beliefs of the doukhobors. instead, he saw in their peculiar customs and principled resistance, signs of a russia independent from the autocracy, while also distinct from the abstractions of educated political reformers. the doukhobors were not a threat to the state, but their example of a genuine ‘other russia’ demonstrated the possibility of democracy and modernisation far better than the theoretically driven schemes of reformist nobles. in this, the doukhobors were presented in parallel ways to groups like the mennonites, molokans, and stundists, with observers frequently noting, although seldom through detailed analysis, these groups’ prosperity, cleanliness and ordered lifestyles. the travellers adele and xavier de hell, for example, observed that ‘they admirably availed themselves of the examples set by the germans [mennonites], and soon attained a high degree of prosperity’, commended their ‘activity, probity, intelligence, desire of improvement’, and concluded by pondering ‘how great a change in religion may have on the character and intellect of the russians’. these witnesses saw the doukhobors not as a source of direct resistance, but rather as a symbol of the deeper socio-economic progress that began with a rejection of the rituals and hierarchy of orthodoxy. approval for the peasant sect was premised on the idea that russia as a whole was backward and corrupt. while these voices saw the value of the doukhobors as being specific to the context of russia’s relative under-development, some on the left saw them representing more widely applicable lessons. in , kropotkin, then exiled in london, wrote an article on canada which consisted of a detailed geographical analysis of the country’s resources, and in which he contemplated the example of the mennonites who had migrated from russian twenty years earlier: it is a remarkable fact that amidst that capitalist civilisation some twenty thousand men [sic] should continue to live, and to thrive, under a system of partial communism and passive resistance to the state which they have maintained for more than three hundred years. while written about the mennonites, kropotkin’s words nevertheless point to several themes that would continue to attract anarchists and other radicals to the doukhobors. for the scientifically-minded kropotkin, one key feature was what he saw as the rational basis underpinning this partial communism in that it maximised productivity, rather than this communism simply being a legacy of mennonites’ ‘traditional beliefs’ and superstition. his article also had real-world significance in that it, and the mennonites’ good reputation, encouraged the canadian authorities to allow the doukhobor migration on the grounds that both were hard-working and skilled farming communities who would help transform the prairies. positive views of doukhobor communalism were elaborated and popularised by two individuals above all. from the s, the social democrat vladimir bonch-bruevich developed an interest in the doukhobors, which he carried into high office after the revolution. his ethnography of the sect has been influential for later scholars, including woodcock, and his influence in the bolshevik party demonstrates the continued importance of russian sectarians to communist thought. in a convergence of political belief and personal interest, bonch-bruevich would accompany the doukhobors on the long sea journey to canada, where, according to one scholar, he ‘found his ideal in the émigré dukhobory villages’, with his book about them ‘an ode to sectarian socialism [and] perhaps the most mesmerizing portrait of the narod ever written in russian.’ from a different perspective came tolstoy, whose anti-hierarchical christianity has often been seen as essentially anarchist. in the words of one contemporary, tolstoy thought that the doukhobors ‘professed the very principles of christian anarchy’ he expressed, and managed to ‘put these into actual practice without that disintegrating result so painfully evident in the failure of the tolstoyan colonies’. tolstoy and his followers, along with english quakers, would provide much of the money and organisation for the sect’s emigration to canada in the s. common among the nineteenth-century friends of the doukhobors - be they pacifist, anarchist, christian or communist - was the knowledge that the sect was subject to oppression. for many of these onlookers the doukhobors move to canada was a welcome opportunity for the group to thrive, away from the dictates of a bankrupt autocracy. yet when they arrived in canada, far from being able to realise their utopia, they found themselves subject to a new set of pressures. in democratic canada, both officials and former supporters began to express distaste for the ‘doctrines’ of the doukhobors, which were seen as a distraction from their fundamental value as hardworking farmers and potential canadians (new york times, november , ). indeed, kropotkin’s friend the political economist james mavor, who had helped to resettle the doukhobors, came to argue, contra kropotkin, that communalism was not necessarily the most rational form of organisation in the context of canada’s modern economy. ‘although they regarded communism as a peculiarly christian form of social life’, he argued, of one faction’s decision to continue communal ownership in canada, ‘i am convinced that what really determined their adoption of it were practical considerations’, namely the fact that distributing their relatively few possessions to individuals ‘was certain to provoke disputes in which they would waste their time and energies’ at a time when the colony was far from established beyond a settling-in period, mavor was sceptical about the benefits of living apart from the canadian economy and society. indeed, he even proposed that the desire to live in ‘simplicity’ – a characteristic of the doukhobors’ lives so many found beguiling – essentially amounted to the ‘art of ignoring complexity’, with a group like the doukhobors therefore merely transferring ‘to others the burdens of its problems’. in the coming decades, thoughts like this would grow, for some canadians, into feelings of resentment. the doukhobors became the subject of such heated debate in the nineteenth century precisely because the group was a vessel for a number of competing political enthusiasms. their obstinate refusal to acquiesce to the demands of the russian state won them the admiration of both liberal and socialist critics of autocracy, while their religious fervour and practical communism appealed to a range of radicals. the move to canada fundamentally altered the basis on which support for the doukhobors rested. free from tsarist oppression, the doukhobors’ unusual customs now came under greater scrutiny on their own terms, and those seeing the group as model anarchists or communists, would have to make their case anew in the context of a country confident of its democratic credentials. ii. ideological attraction: anarchizing the doukhobors when woodcock turned his attention to the group in the s, he was therefore following a familiar path in being attracted to the doukhobors because of their apparently heroic history of resistance. as he began his intellectual journey in london in the s, the example of the doukhobors became an important positive model in his political thought. in the time before he left for canada in , he frequently pondered the example the group afforded radicals intent on building a new world, as economic crisis and world war suggested capitalism’s days were numbered. first inspired by his father’s stories of the group from his time in canada, he soon realised that the doukhobors were more than ‘nudist shovellers of snow’ or sybaritic nonconformists united in ‘complex and orgiastic patterns of shacking-up’. instead, he started to see the group representing an anarchist community in action. woodcock’s attraction to anarchism began in the mid- s, principally a product of the renewed international attention given to anarchist politics as the spanish civil war rumbled on, but also significantly shaped by his developing cultural interests. in a letter to a childhood friend written in the midst of the spanish drama, he demonstrated a precocious sense that the banality of soviet culture betrayed the kind of society created by the russian revolution. ‘although i am a communist in all the essentials’, he wrote, ‘there are certain things in official communism that jar on me’: particularly the idea…that art must necessarily be turned to political ends. we have seen in russia the effects of the creed of “art for politics’ sake”. if anything, it is a more deadly attitude than “art for art’s sake”. at this time, however, he also demonstrated ‘no great [hope]’ in spain’s anarchists, praising ‘their attitude to the artist’, but also seeing them as the ‘blind’ wreckers of the first international. this was a cautious endorsement, but as the promise of the spanish civil war faded into memory, both the nature of anarchists’ contribution, and the perceived role of stalinism in strangling the revolution, sharpened woodcock’s sense of anarchism’s worth. woodcock’s letter also showed that he was unafraid to challenge anarchist orthodoxies. this is most noticeable in fact that woodcock identified pacifism as the key force propelling him towards anarchism. shaped by the disillusioned literary chroniclers of the first world war, he argued that his anarchism emerged from his repudiation of war, since ‘one was necessarily putting one’s own conscience above the law, and therefore denying the presumptions of the state and legality’. in the peace pledge union’s (ppu) journal, he argued that anarchism is the ‘logical end of pacifist thought’, and in refusing to fight, whatever the ‘political creed’ of the refuser, ‘he acts as an anarchist, denying the law’s…dominion over his acts’. as another war loomed, and with woodcock this time old enough to fight, he declared himself a conscientious objector, ultimately seeing out the period engaged in agricultural work, initially through the communal initiative of the oaks in langham, essex. founded under the auspices of the ppu by max plowman and john middleton murry, woodcock quickly tired of this experiment in communalism. noting that his fellow communalists were ‘on the whole, more intelligent than average’, he nevertheless grew frustrated that the lack of privacy hampered his literary ambitions. ‘i feel fitter than ever before’, he confided, ‘but…the fact of writing being impossible has forced me to realise more vividly than before how much it is my raison d’etre.’ kropotkin was the key intellectual influence on his anarchism. as this political identity strengthened in tandem with his growing literary ambitions, woodcock followed the example kropotkin set in his classic work mutual aid ( ) in looking for anthropological illustrations to buttress his claim that an anarchist society was a viable proposition. he alighted upon the doukhobors, and in his pamphlet the basis of communal living, he noted that despite the best efforts of both the russian and canadian authorities, the doukhobors had successfully waged a peaceful war against the state. ‘their “prophet”, peter verigen [sic], was assassinated by a bomb’, he wrote, ‘and during both of the last two wars, they have been persecuted for their refusal to accept military service, their young men being imprisoned and all kinds of economic pressure being used to weaken their resistance.’ in spite of these efforts, however, he argued that the doukhobors in their ‘communities of krestova and brilliant…live in peace and brotherhood, without rules or rulers, without printed regulations or time clocks, regulating their lives on the sense of responsibility within each of them’. looking at the example of the doukhobors from a london recovering from war, woodcock concluded that the group represented the ‘best example of a successful libertarian community that exists in the world today’, an existence won by ‘forcing the canadian authorities’ to acknowledge their independence. woodcock’s comments on the doukhobors highlight the outlines of his personal anarchist politics, reflecting his anti-state stance, pacifist conception of revolutionary change, and desire for a society in which communal bonds replaced the atomisation of capitalism. in the first of these, the rejection of the state, he was unexceptional. writing in in the influential periodical now that he established the previous year, woodcock struck a characteristically anarchist pose in spying no essential difference between the world’s various state structures. he nevertheless sought to update this nineteenth-century argument by wrapping his analysis in the language of totalitarianism. on both ‘left and right’, every party is moving towards totalitarian control, he argued, and: the most sinister tendency…is among those elements of the labour party whom the comintern propagandists…once called ‘social fascists.’ these men, who have destroyed our liberties more meanly than hitler could ever have done, prepare the super state that will follow the peace…in which the monstrous army, the still maintained a.r.p. organisations and trades unions…proud of their recognition…will provide the basis of the mass movement necessary for our polite but ruthless english fascism. an older woodcock would no doubt baulk at the crudity of this forecast, but it expressed the essential logic of a position that saw little difference between the world’s various political forms. ‘to the individual whose life is frustrated by the law of the state’, he commented later, ‘it does not matter whether that law is the will of one man or the will of a million’, what matters is that ‘through its existence he is not free and…cannot be complete’. the very definition of liberty purveyed by the liberal democracies was therefore the problem, overlooking as it did the oppressions of majoritarianism and economic inequality. ‘anarchists do not advocate political freedom’, he concluded, ‘what they…advocate is freedom from politics.’ as his comment on the doukhobors implied, woodcock believed that they had liberated themselves from politics, but a further point of attraction was the manner of this extraction. the pacifism that had attracted various religiously minded nineteenth-century reformers appealed equally to woodcock as he attempted to develop his renunciation of political violence into a coherent theory of social change. the key task, he wrote in his polemic anarchy or chaos ( ), was to develop a policy of direct action pitched at capitalist economic relations, ‘the achilles heel of the state.’ looking to syndicalism, a political movement that rose to prominence in the years of industrial militancy just before the first world war, he seized on its shibboleth of the general strike as the chief tool of struggle, while highlighting the utility of other syndicalist tactics: ‘ca’canny’ or ‘working slow’, the boycott, and sabotage. anarchy or chaos abjured discussing the role of violence in this process, but in contemporary articles woodcock made it clear that the value of these techniques lay in their potential of avoiding corrupting bloodshed. contributing an article entitled ‘the folly of “revolutionary” violence’ to the literary journal the adelphi in , he confessed to being inspired by an earlier essay published in the same organ by herbert read. read’s work ruminated on the future of europe in the wake of germany’s surrender, foreseeing a looming crisis in the soviet union’s ‘geodetic vision’, a sense that its security depended upon expanding its boundaries towards defensible coastlines. the prospect of ‘atomization’ made this instability all the more dangerous, and he foresaw a bleak role for britain in the next war, ‘dispersed as volcanic dust’ under a ‘rain of atomic bombs’. against this fate, read called for a policy of ‘negative or passive resistance’, opposing the inevitable militarist response of the british state, while purging our ‘aggressiveness’ to unleash the potential to build a new world on the basis of ‘love and serenity’. read’s demand for a creative politics of compassion in a time of superpower tensions was supremely quixotic, but woodcock believed that it hinted at a deeper truth concerning the self-defeating nature of political violence. countering georges sorel’s argument that revolutionary violence was morally regenerating, woodcock retorted that, in fact, it encouraged the ‘degeneration of moral values’. aside from the practical chances of revolutionaries winning a fight against professional armies, he added that revolutionary war inevitably undermined the freedom it pursued. ‘any true revolution demands an increasing realization of liberty, equality, and fraternity’, woodcock declared, and ‘the needs of war demand the destruction of these qualities’. against guerrilla fighters and rebel armies, he therefore looked to non-violent struggle as an antidote to the ‘self-destructive’ effects of revolutionary violence, and, as if challenging an unpersuaded interlocutor, pointed to an example: ‘the doukhobors in canada give hope that a self-disciplined movement of non- violent action may bring great achievements in the removal of injustice and establishment of a classless social order of real liberty, equality, and fraternity.’ while woodcock’s idealism would fade, the logic of this lesson in the perils of political violence remained a mainstay of his thought. exploring the tradition of civil disobedience in a series of radio talks for the canadian broadcasting corporation (cbc) in , for instance, he praised the ‘firm and unresisting’ confidence of the doukhobors in the face of cossack whippings, noting that the attention their defiance drew paved the way for their escape. but beyond their history of valiant resistance, woodcock’s early appreciation of the doukhobors rested on a belief that they enshrined a positive kind of freedom; ‘a real social vision’. in the basis of communal living, he suggested that this life of liberty pursued in communities in british columbia had four main attributes: fraternity; the absence of rules; no ‘time clocks’; and, in the absence of formal laws, a sense of personal ‘responsibility’. once again the values that woodcock saw the doukhobors approximating were a neat encapsulation of his own politics. despite a defined individualistic streak in his thought, woodcock was wedded to a concept of community as the locus of meaningful individuality. while he traced the birth of society to recognition that it was ‘convenient’, therefore, he rejected the idea of ‘absolute individual freedom’ as impossible, noting that ‘one cannot conceive of a society in which man [sic] would be devoid of obligations’. what was needed was a decentralised patchwork of communities in which ‘communal relationships of function and neighbourhood’ existed, but that also ‘bounded [individuals] loosely’, guaranteeing space for eccentricity. in this, woodcock was following closely the arguments of kropotkin, who had criticised nineteenth-century utopians for building ‘communist-beehives’ that dissolved individual uniqueness in the collective. emphasising the importance of ‘social organization’ allowed woodcock to disregard the ‘serious misconception’ that anarchism equalled individualism carried to its ‘extreme conclusion’. in their communalism, the early woodcock saw the doukhobors achieving this life without written law, but an even more attractive element was their metaphorical destruction of the clock. in ‘the tyranny of the clock’, a article for dwight macdonald’s journal politics, woodcock examined the baneful effects of ‘time-conscious[ness]’, highlighting the importance of formalised time to the birth of modern capitalism, where the ‘regularization and regimentation of life’ supported industrial exploitation. here woodcock was mining a rich vein in the history of socialist thought, with marx, for example, noting that one of robinson crusoe’s first actions was to fish his watch from the wreckage of his ship. ‘like a true-born briton’, crusoe begins to ‘keep a set of books’ detailing necessary labour, and his precious resources. for all that crusoe offered marx a model of liberated labour from which to attack the assumptions of political economy, his comments on crusoe’s diligence pointed as much to his understanding of the nature of british capitalism, where ‘time is everything, man is nothing; he is at most, time’s carcase’. woodcock paralleled marx’s argument that the control of time was central to the functioning of capitalism. contrasting pre-industrial communities whose conception of time ‘is represented by the cyclic processes of nature, the alternation of day and night, the passage from season to season’, with ‘modern…man’ tied to the ‘mechanical and mathematical symbols of clock time’, his preference was clearly the former. indeed, while he saw mechanical time as antecedent to capitalism, he saw in the anarchic living conditions of the period – ‘the chaotic irregularity which characterized the gin-sodden slums of…nineteenth- century industrials’ – a spontaneous rebellion against the robotic life of the ‘factory slave’. gin was no lasting solution, however, and liberty did not just mean freedom ‘from the rule of men’ but also ‘from the tyranny of abstractions’. in returning to the rhythms of nature and the dignity of the black soil, woodcock believed that the doukhobors had achieved this freedom. in his early appreciation of the doukhobors woodcock saw the group as a living embodiment of the political theory he was labouring to develop. anarchism became a frame for his understanding of the community, and in turn, he used their history as a means of legitimising his own particular political vision. the doukhobors offered woodcock a positive model of anarchism in action, and in this, he was in many respects buying into a vision of the group that would have been familiar to a victorian like kropotkin. so, as woodcock packed his trunk in for a new life on the bosky shores of vancouver island, he was excited by the prospect of making contact with a community that had beguiled him from afar for so long. this contact, however, would lead to a dispiriting reassessment. iii. the lessons of experience: encountering the doukhobors when woodcock landed in canada he was excited to hear that a small group of doukhobors – an ‘heretical offshoot’ that had separated from the broader community in mainland bc – had also made vancouver island its home. given his impression of the group as a ‘libertarian sect which took its christianity neat and turned its settlements into utopian communes’, he noted that ‘to meet the doukhobors had been one of my aims’. yet, contact with the doukhobors also held the promise of something more practical. as woodcock and his wife laboured in pursuit of self-sufficiency – striving to turn their unforgiving plot of land into a productive concern – it soon became clear that this was not the thoureauvian idyll they had anticipated from blitz-damaged london. coupled with the absence of a defined literary scene in canada, ‘where few authors could then exist by their work alone’, woodcock faced straitened circumstances. with these concerns in mind the doukhobors presented themselves as a subject for potentially lucrative journalistic work, as a letter from his friend dwight macdonald, then a staff writer at the new yorker, made clear: the nyorker might take a reportage piece on the doukhobors if it were fast, curious funny enough; lots of odd facts, good stories; could be sympathetic (the editors are all for the underdog and the odd duck) but would have to be phenomenological rather than ideological. the new yorker piece never materialised, but it is clear that fascination was not the only reason guiding woodcock’s keenness to meet members of the community. that first summer woodcock took a break from his homesteading to hitchhike north to visit the doukhobor settlement in hilliers. the community was under the spiritual leadership of michael ‘the archangel’ verigin, a distant relative of peter vasilevich verigin, who believed that the spiritual and economic purity of the broader community had been tainted by ‘evil canadian influences’. the hilliers community was an attempt to get back to what they saw as the original doukhobor principles of a communist economy and communal work, features that woodcock had praised from afar. while impressed by the fervour of the community – the prodigious communal effort that reaped a bounty from their well-tilled land, and their professed commitment to an expansive liberty in which ‘no person must have rights over another, either parental or marital’ – woodcock was nevertheless left uneasy. the pile of empty beer bottles squirrelled away in a distant field suggested that not everyone in the group abided by the doukhobors’ teetotalism, and while woodcock saw this as a ‘sign of strain’, he spied graver problems. his encounter with ‘the archangel’ was dispiriting, and rather than confirming tolstoy’s vision of the doukhobors as essentially anarchist, he was perturbed by verigin’s seemingly unquestioned power. similarly, woodcock found the passive acceptance of the spiritual leader’s gnomic utterances – the ‘laconic banalities of the oracle’ – deeply problematic. ‘from the moment of meeting michael’, he concluded, ‘i abandoned my earlier illusions that these were natural anarchists. i recognized theocracy when i saw it.’ although woodcock’s direct engagement with the doukhobors was a source of disappointment, this did not mark the end of his interest in the community. indeed, it encouraged him to rethink the broader lessons that the doukhobors’ experience offered, a revision that ultimately reflected both his changing conception of anarchist politics, and his shift from being a british writer to becoming a canadian intellectual with a particular interest in canadian affairs. central to the conception of anarchism that he would develop in these years, and his subsequent interventions in canadian cultural politics, was a sense of canada’s defined regionalism and its engrained federalist tradition. increasingly concerned by what he saw as a tendency to political centralisation that cut across these canadian qualities, these fears informed a new perception of the doukhobors. rather than exemplars of anarchism, he came to argue that the group’s treatment in canada bore witness to the inability of the modern state to cope with groups whose eccentricities defied the logic of central control and uniformity inherent in the state model. anarchism remained a central conceptual guide in reaching this tocquevillian conclusion, but it was a politics in a different form. the frictions between the canadian state and the doukhobors that were so important to woodcock’s intellectual development began long before he arrived in the country. while the doukhobors, like the mennonites, were exempted from military service, their desire to live communally and generally to not submit to the canadian state, remained a source of tension. initially they were allowed to register their land and live together in villages, rather than the single-family homesteads originally envisaged in the dominion lands act of . in , however, the government insisted on the individual registration of land, and required doukhobor settlers to swear an oath of allegiance. the sect subsequently lost about a third of their holdings, and split into factions: the ‘independents’ who were prepared to register their land individually; and the community doukhobors, who stayed loyal to the charismatic peter vasilevich verigin, and formed the christian community of universal brotherhood; and a group later to be called the sons of freedom, some of whom would go on to commit bombings and nude marches in protest at materialism and the state custody of doukhobor children in the s. under verigin’s leadership, around , doukhobors migrated from the prairies to the warmer climate of bc. while their farms and cottage industries again proved successful, the state’s preference for private property led to further stresses. with their communally owned property not covered by the farmers' creditors arrangement, which aimed to prevent foreclosures during the depression, the group saw assets worth $ . m foreclosed for the sake of $ , debt. in addition, as canada joined the allies in , the government showed reluctance to honour section of the dominion military act exempting the doukhobors from service. doukhobors in saskatchewan and alberta had to undertake alternative service or serve time in prison, while those in bc saw $ per month deducted from their income and sent to the international red cross. efforts to ‘integrate’ the doukhobors also stoked tensions. in the most coercive episode, w.a.c bennett, premier of bc between and , sought to intern forcibly doukhobor children in schools, in response to the sons of freedom’s refusal of public education. in the ‘freedomites’ responded by protesting to the un under the genocide convention, which forbade the separation of a minority’s children from their parents. in resisting both this direct coercion and broader attempts at assimilation, the freedomites were responsible for a decades- long campaign that included nude protests, starting with their first naked pilgrimage in , to bombings in the s and s, usually aimed at public buildings. they also targeted the property of ‘orthodox doukhobors’ whom they accused of betraying their beliefs by cooperating with the state. as the new york times frantically noted in , the splinter group turned ‘british columbia into…a state close to civil war’ (new york times, march ). exasperated by the intransigence of the sons of freedom, in the late s, the government even examined the possibility of paying these doukhobors to emigrate and renounce their canadian citizenship (new york times, august , ). the s was therefore a climacteric for the doukhobors in canada, and for woodcock too the decade was crucial in shaping his politics, as well as being a period of general intellectual stress. struggling to establish himself as a writer, he was also reassessing the anarchist commitments that had been central to his self-identity in britain. in one sense, this was a product of the waning gravitational pull of london’s anarchist milieu, but it also reflected broader intellectual changes in the movement that gathered momentum in this decade. for woodcock, this amounted to an acceptance that while an anarchist society was ultimately an unlikely proposition, this did not vitiate the utility of anarchism as a ‘touchstone by which existing societies could be judged’, or the idea of ‘partial anarchy in the present’, seen in multifarious institutions practising mutual aid. while he noted that it was preparing his highly influential anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements ( ) that inspired this epiphany, the fruits of this intellectual change had taken time to germinate. indeed, the first edition of his influential history offered a far more muted take on anarchism’s possibilities than his autobiographical comments imply. with his new approach to anarchism in mind, woodcock turned to canadian history, and returned to the doukhobors. the major product of this historical turn was the doukhobors, co-written with the yugoslav-canadian academic ivan avakumović, and published by oxford university press. the book’s origins lie in woodcock’s critical review of simma holt’s work terror in the name of god: the story of the sons of freedom doukhobors in the canadian literary magazine tamarack review. noting the difficulties that confronted the prospective historian of the doukhobors – their excursive mysticism, hostility to written records, and general distrust of outsiders – woodcock pointedly observed that ‘newsmen run where scholars fear to tread’. he thus objected that holt unduly focused on a ‘minority within a minority within a minority’, and seemed more intent on ‘passionate exposé’ than ‘objective history’. the book’s ‘sensational chapter headings, grotesque nude photographs, and…breathlessly urgent manner’ all informed a moralistic argument that skipped ‘lightly over the blunders of bureaucrats’, and resulted in a call for new laws to deal with the sons of freedom menace. this woodcock rejected: special laws against minorities…carry dangers both to the people against whom they are enacted and to the community as whole, since such laws often form the basis for wider attacks on civil liberties. a democracy which accepts the argument that coercion is the only solution to its problems is giving notice of its own abdication. he concluded that for those seeking to break down the barriers of mistrust, holt’s book could only complicate matters, while privately he deemed the work an expression of ‘anti- doukhobor prejudice’, and lamented that holt was ‘now a canadian m.p.’ woodcock’s the doukhobors was a direct response to his observation that no valuable scholarly work on the community existed, but two key intellectual traditions also informed the text. on one level, woodcock was following the model of historical anthropology that anarchists in the nineteenth century, epitomised by kropotkin, had found especially appealing. in studying human diversity, with particular reference to social customs and decision-making structures, the propagandist was able to highlight the potential to live differently, while equipping his or her arguments with the carapace of disciplinary respectability and objectivity. this was an idea echoed in woodcock’s approach to the first nations of the pacific northwest, as he suggested when responding to a letter from the anarchist alex comfort, who had praised the doukhobors, and hoped to commission a similar work for the natural history of society series he was editing for the publisher nelson. ‘the doukhobor book’, woodcock replied, sprang from twenty years of interest and connection….but i have been concerned for as long a time with the indians [sic] of the pacific northwest – the pole- builders and potlatch-givers – and would like…to do something on their culture and the effects of contact with white men, which were at first immensely stimulating…but eventually destructive. this politicised historical anthropology underpinned woodcock’s efforts, but another important influence was the emergence of social history as a historical subdiscipline. woodcock did not engage in a sustained manner with the historiographical debates informing the rise of social history, and was indeed rather proud of his insulation from the academy as a writer of ‘serious non-academic history’. nevertheless, in important ways woodcock’s historical imagination was shaped by what a contemporary observer described as the ‘liberating effect of the world-wide shift of historical concerns, away from political…into economic, social, and intellectual history’. for woodcock interestingly, these disciplinary shifts generally informed a renewed contact with the past, rather than an effort to explicitly root his work in contemporary methodological innovations. even a late text, like a social history of canada ( ), for example, positioned itself in terms of work primarily completed in the s: that of the economic historian harold adams innis and his disciple donald creighton. that both were pioneering historians of canada obviously lay behind this debt, but equally significant was woodcock’s by this time firmer sense of himself as a canadian intellectual, engaging with canadian intellectual problems. thus, while he was critical of what he saw as creighton’s misreading of the ‘fathers of confederation’ as masquerading centralists, and found innis’ liberal commitment to protecting provincial independence in the face of concentrating power in ottawa more appealing, he shared with both a sense that canada was pursuing an independent historical journey, and demanded its own historiography. with one commentator seeing in innis’ work a ‘direct parallel to the insistence of the painters of the group of seven for a more authentic, indigenous art freed from the bondage of european paradigms’, it is apparent that a parallel concern began to move to the centre of woodcock’s intellectual identity in the s. the distinctiveness of the path canada might pursue was an idea he would imminently turn to, but it also informed an approach to history that was inherently political. declaring his commitment to popular history, woodcock thus noted that the power of the work of creighton and the french- canadian historian lionel groulx, lay in its creation of ‘actuality’ out of sometimes questionable ‘factuality’, leavening ‘laboratory worker’ empiricism with ‘intemperate’ judgements, strong passions, and ‘visions powerful enough to sweep us’. methodologically he may have confessed more affinity with leo tolstoy, but this approach to history, informed also by his hours spent studying kropotkin, ran through woodcock’s scholarship. the doukhobors fused this politicised historical anthropology and social history, informing a thesis that recovering the history of the doukhobors was not simply a scholarly exercise, nor ‘controversial journalism’ in the manner of simma holt, but was crucial for understanding the dynamics of canadian society. the doukhobors, and his review of holt, highlighted the development of woodcock’s views on the doukhobors and his new sense of the political lessons afforded by their experiences in canada. it was certainly one of his most successful and widely reviewed works. with publications as diverse as the british journal of sociology, american historical review, and american anthropologist deeming it ‘excellent’, ‘a significant contribution to knowledge’ and ‘the best…historical study of the doukhobors’, it is apparent that, to academic reviewers at least, woodcock’s book achieved the general level of objectivity he believed lamentably absent in holt’s study. certainly he demonstrated a willingness to treat the group more critically than in the past, conceding that holt was correct in observing that the doukhobors ‘lived under a theocratic system’ often mendaciously exploited by their leaders, and that it was ‘impossible to deny or condone the acts of violence’ perpetrated by the sons of freedom. this more reflective critical gaze may have altered, but it did not weaken the political lessons that woodcock thought the doukhobors’ experience presented. echoing his broader contemporary effort to rethink anarchism as enduringly relevant in confronting the dominating tendencies of the modern nation state, he now approached the doukhobors’ story as epitomising the state’s propensity to control, and its inability to tolerate difference. woodcock drew this line boldly in his preface, observing that in spite of the ‘widely divergent systems of government’ between autocratic russia in the nineteenth century, and federalist canada in the twentieth, both entities struggled to find an adequate solution to the doukhobor problem. canada’s vastness and the ‘spacious makeshift life of the pioneers’ may have initially offered tolerance for ‘large pockets of eccentricity’, but the increasing professionalisation of the state led to conflict. for all the ‘romantic appeal that belongs to lost causes and forlorn hopes’, woodcock therefore judged that the real value of the doukhobors’ history lay in the awkward questions it posed a country seeing itself as a modern democracy: how well has a democracy succeeded when it has failed to reconcile its most extreme dissenters? how far has the majority…the right to impose its principles and its way of life on a small and at first harmless minority?...is uniformity in education, or the need for vital statistics, or such a formal point as demanding an oath of allegiance…sufficient justification for penal action…? where once the doukhobors were a positive example of anarchism’s real potential, woodcock now looked on the group as a negative example of the enduring weakness of the nation state. this was a lesson to which he would continually return. this refined critique of state power was accompanied by a deepened engagement with canadian history and society, partly reflecting the fact that from woodcock’s work would mostly appear through canadian publishing houses. canada now profoundly shaped his sense of self, even if it was defined, in george fetherling’s words, by a consistent ‘west coast bias’. canada and the canadians ( ) was the first and strongest expression of this change, and stressed his belief in the value of regionalism. at the outset, woodcock confessed that although ‘i am averse to nationalism in any political shape’, a ‘local patriotism’ would be evident to his readers. however this patriotism was an essentially radical commitment, he argued, and foreshadowed a coming resistance to the nation state: i believe intensely that small local loyalties are the necessary complement to global loyalty, and…that in the next stage of world history we shall see the patrias chicas rising into prominence in the twilight of the great states which are already the dying gods of our present era. these comments foreshadowed woodcock’s optimistic conclusion that canada’s ‘muted’ national voice nurtured a productive tension that guaranteed its plurality. just as the ‘french canadian…mennonite…doukhobor or…indian [sic]’ was in a state of ‘perpetual vigilance’, the greater mass of english-speaking north americans across the border cultivated a similar watchfulness. not only did this preclude the ‘fevers of aggressive patriotism’, but militated against the ‘uniformity’ that he thought the watchword of the modern state. these anodyne musings drew directly on woodcock’s anarchism in their defence of federalism as an antidote to the apparently discredited politics of the monolithic nation state. unusually, however, in canada and the canadians woodcock identified an unexpected ally in this commitment to radical federalism, in the shape of recently elected liberal party prime minister elliott trudeau. seeing trudeau as exemplifying the ‘collective genius of canada’ in stressing the ‘perils of nationalism and the importance of federalism’, he argued that this had ramifications broader than domestic politics and could be ‘a principle for the re- structuring of global politics’. reviewers were quick to diagnose woodcock’s unlikely trudeaumania and criticise his ‘naiveté’, and while he would later become a fierce critic of trudeau, this act of ideological misrecognition highlights the importance he attached to the idea that canada had the potential to pursue a radically different path; a path that would allow groups like the doukhobors to maintain their distinctive way of life. indeed, the optimism that informed this vision had, woodcock conceded later, obvious contextual origins in what trudeau himself described as a ‘mood of…festivity’ in the wake of the centennial of confederation celebrations and expo’ . their real significance, however, lies in woodcock’s understanding of the necessary interrelation of federalism, regional difference, and local patriotism. real federalism, the achievement of ‘local autonomy and direct democracy’ that left space for the cultural idiosyncrasies of the patria chicas, was the sort of system that would not stultify the independence of a group like the doukhobors in forcing their assimilation. this, he held, was a ‘truly revolutionary’ model, and it was an idea woodcock would remain committed to after his momentary optimism for the future of conventional politics disappeared. initially seeing trudeau as representing a deeper commitment to a pioneering form of federalism, and briefly enchanted by what one historian sees as the ‘fire of passionate promise for the future’ at the heart of trudeau’s campaign, woodcock soon cooled to the politician. indeed he later saw trudeau, in his efforts to patriate canada’s constitution and thereby wrest ultimate oversight from westminster, as a centraliser, using patriation as a ruse to re-concentrate in ottawa ‘power that in recent decades has rightfully flowed to the regions.’ this amounted to a reversal of the desires woodcock voiced in canada and the canadians, and as he returned to the fray to champion federalism and local democracy, the doukhobors soon reappeared in his writing as an exemplar of the inadequacies of the nation state. reviewing koozma tarasoff’s pictorial history of the doukhobors in , he parodied the rhetoric of assimilation to mourn the cost of integration: the doukhobors have become good citizens…we have overcome! we have assimilated the doukhobors, and most of us fail to realize that in forcing a minority culture to abandon almost all that declares its identity…we have admitted that no more than totalitarian states can our kind of democracy find room within it for a radically dissenting group. woodcock expanded this theme in the first of a regular column for the vancouver newspaper the georgia straight in . fresh from making a series of what he described as ‘elegiac’ films on the doukhobors for the cbc, he argued in his column that ‘their fate is an example of what happens to…[a]…different minority caught in the social meat grinder of a large modern state, whether it is democratic or dictatorial, capitalist or communist.’ while individual members of the community had prospered following their capitulation to ‘the canadian pattern of individual free enterprise’, woodcock held up their experience as an indictment of the canadian state, arguing that ‘canada as a democracy stands condemned’. unable to make space ‘any more than russian autocrats’ for a minority that rejected the status quo, he concluded that this betrayed the weakness of ‘our devotion to freedom’, and that, ‘at best, we enjoy…a little more liberty than the frankly authoritarian countries’. with his hopes that canada was pursuing a path of radical federalism frustrated, woodcock feared that the country was instead heading down a familiar path of political centralisation and intolerance in which the example of the doukhobors was especially salient. pitching an article to the american libertarian magazine inquiry, he made his position explicit: we regionalists argue trudeau’s “federalism” is…merely a disguised centralism and that he is seeking to sustain the nineteenth-century nation-state when canada could give a lead by creating an example of a genuine working federalism of autonomous regions. in this spirit, the canadians ( ) seized the opportunity to lambast governmental folly in the treatment of the doukhobors, and to undercut what he presented in his letter as historical backsliding. the state’s insistence on the oath of allegiance that caused the doukhobors’ migration to bc was an example ‘of the unimaginative attitude of the canadian government…[and] lead to generations of conflict’. moreover, he reiterated a favourite theme, insisting that canada’s size meant that the country was ‘not a national state in the usually accepted sense’ and any ‘attempt to tidy it up into a centralized nation-state would bring its immediate disintegration.’ post-trudeau, woodcock was clearly still anxious that the forces of political centralisation he represented remained at work. in the century that made us: canada - ( ), he repeated his thesis that the doukhobors’ experience was a warning about the inadequacies of majoritarianism: once again it was a matter of a democratic society attuned to the idea of the majority…having no room for eccentric social or economic…viewpoints – particularly if they led beyond theory into action and resulted in social enclaves that followed different ways of life from the accepted ones. as the seeming threat posed by the doukhobors to canadian society was eased by their assimilation, their story would remain, in woodcock’s view, a lesson that a mass, democratic society should not forget. contributing a piece on the doukhobors’ to james marsh’s the canadian encyclopedia, he struck a plangent tone in an entry that reflected the distance that the doukhobors had travelled in his lifetime, from radical heretics to good canadian citizens. one of the ‘largest and most complex undertakings in communal living in n. american history’ was over, he concluded, and now only pockets of ‘various doukhobor groupings…struggle to forestall the effects of encroaching assimilation.’ iv. conclusion today, visitors to the doukhobor discovery centre without the necessary cash to meet the $ entrance fee will be sent back over the highway to the only atm in the area, housed in a gaudy casino, the noise of the traffic punctuated by the din of serried slot machines. sitting on a hill overlooking the columbia river, and laying close to the unassuming town of castlegar, the juxtaposition of the discovery centre and the casino illustrates the changes that have shaped canadian society since woodcock first looked to the doukhobors for inspiration; changes that, ultimately, this group of radical christians were unable to resist. it is not difficult to imagine woodcock noticing these encroachments of modern life, and lamenting the decline of the doukhobor movement as he saw its distinctiveness washed away in the broader tidal currents of canadian culture. the centre, a simulacrum of a doukhobor homestead in the early twentieth century replete with the everyday artefacts that memorialise their defining slogan ‘toil and peace life’, is a protest against this process. moreover, in its focus on the journey that the doukhobors took from russia to canada, and on the troubled years when they attempted to establish a foothold in saskatchewan and then bc, it stands as a reminder that there was far more to the doukhobor experience than nude marches across the prairies or the conflagrations of the sons of freedom. woodcock would have appreciated these efforts, and recognised the importance of remembering the experiences of a group to which he devoted so much intellectual energy, but he would no doubt also have seen the discovery centre as a clear reminder of the price exacted by the forces of assimilation. for all the change that characterised his life – the geographical relocation, the prodigious and varied publishing record – his interest in the doukhobors was a constant. he remained fascinated by their history, and continued to be a passionate advocate for their rights; rights he believed imperilled by changes underway in canadian politics and society. yet his interpretation of the group itself shifted, and this process of rethinking reflects both his mutating political attachments, and his changing self-identity. while once the doukhobors were the embodiment of a radical politics that gave woodcock his initial intellectual energy, the discomfitures of experience stripped away his enthusiasm. yet, as his politics altered from a militant anarchism to a ‘pragmatic’ libertarianism, and he was reborn as a canadian rather than a british writer, the doukhobors’ history remained important to him. there were important continuities in these intellectual shifts. as one commentator recognised, running through woodcock’s ‘extensive oeuvre…[is]…a central concern with freedom, individuality and…eccentricity and waywardness’ that made the doukhobors such an appealing group in the first place. but with these philosophical and practical changes, how he understood the doukhobors changed. their theocracy belied the idea that these were anarchists, but as he began to see anarchism as a theoretical compass particularly adept at identifying and exposing authoritarianism, the doukhobors’ history offered something different. while others have appreciated the depth of his interest in the doukhobors, their utility as an intellectual weather-vane, pointing to the shifts in his cultural politics, has been missed. here was a group that, rather than showing anarchy in action, demonstrated that even ostensibly democratic states struggled with difference, and even democratic cultures tended towards assimilation and conformity. his was ‘a plea for the anti-nation’, and perhaps in this way, through a radical decentralisation coupling autonomy with empowering responsibility, he hoped the canadian mosaic would no longer be illusory. notes woodcock and avakumović, anarchist prince, . tippett, made in british columbia, ; woodcock, walking through the valley, hughes, woodcock, . purdy, ‘george woodcock’, . kropotkin, memoirs of a revolutionist, . woodcock and avakumović, the doukhobors, . androsoff, ‘pacifist “terrorists”’, ; woodcock, doukhobors, ; androsoff, “spirit wrestling”, - . antliff and adams, anarchist studies. this journal special issue is a rare exception, but does not deal with the doukhobors. for such a static reading, see: fetherling, the gentle anarchist, - . for a thoughtful discussion of his politics, see: antliff, “pacifism, violence and aesthetics”, - . gwyn, northern magus, . chertkov, “christian martyrdom in russia,” p. ; author unknown [a.u], “the spirit- wrestlers one hundred years ago: a paper written in ,” ; woodcock andavakumović, the doukhobors, . ebenezer henderson, “travels to the dukhobortsy living on the molochnaya river, ”. chertkov, christian martyrdom in russia ; a.u.., “the spirit-wrestlers one hundred years ago,” . stepniak, “rationalistic dissent”; albert f. heard, the russian church and russian dissent, comprising orthodoxy, dissent, and erratic sects, . henderson, “travels to the dukhoborsty.” pinkerton, “a visit to the dukhobortsy on the sea of azov, .” josh sanborn, “pacifist politics and peasant politics: tolstoy and the doukhobors,” – ; tolstoy, donskov, and woodsworth, leo tolstoy and russian peasant sectarian writers: selected correspondence. first recorded in the eighteenth century, the origins of the doukhobors remain disputed. some see them as deriving from the raskolniks or old believers, russians rejecting changes to the orthodox liturgy in the seventeenth century. others argue that they were influenced by bulgarian bogomils in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, by english quakers, or by a wandering hermit deserted from the russian army, while in soviet times historians sought to understand the origins of the doukhobors in materialist terms. woodcock, doukhobors, - ; klibanov and dunn, history of religious sectarianism. woodcock, doukhobors, . ibid., - . breyfogle, heretics and colonizers, . woodcock, doukhobors, - . alston, “a great host of sympathisers,” - ; kelly, ‘christianity and humanitarianism in the doukhobor campaign,” - . herzen, my life and thoughts, - . ibid., - . adele and xavier hommaire de hell, “travels among the molochnaya dukhobortsy.” kropotkin, "some of the resources of canada", . ibid., . see also: adams, kropotkin, read, and the intellectual history of british anarchism. klibanov, religious sectarianism, - , ; etkind, "whirling with the other,” - . engelstein, castration and the heavenly kingdom, . etkind, "whirling with the other”, . consider: christoyannopoulos, christian anarchism. maude, peculiar people, . alston, tolstoy and his disciples. elkington, the doukhobors, . mavor, my windows on the street, . ibid., . woodcock, beyond the blue mountains, . george woodcock to j.l. goodwin: undated, george woodcock papers, queen’s university, ontario [hereafter: gwpqu]: box file . woodcock to goodwin: undated. woodcock, letter to the past, . woodcock, “anarchy, says george woodcock,” . george woodcock to j.l. godwin: february ’, gwpqu: : . woodcock, basis of communal living, . ibid., . see also: antliff, ‘pacifism, violence and aesthetics’. woodcock, “commentary,” . woodcock, anarchy or chaos, , . ibid., . ibid., . woodcock, “the folly of ‘revolutionary’ violence,” . read, “there is now no other way,” , , . woodcock, ‘“revolutionary” violence’, , , . woodcock, civil disobedience, . woodcock, communal living, . woodcock, anarchy or chaos, , . woodcock, communal living, . kropotkine, “communism and anarchy,” . for more on this, see: adams, “rejecting the american model.” woodcock, anarchy or chaos, . woodcock, “the tyranny of the clock,” . marx, capital, . marx, poverty of philosophy, ; marx, capital, , . see also: kemple, reading marx writing, . woodcock, “tyranny of the clock”, , . ibid., . woodcock, blue mountains, . ibid., . dwight macdonald to george woodcock: th april , gwpqu: : . woodcock, “encounter with an archangel,” . ibid., . woodcock, beyond the blue, . for woodcock’s view on tocqueville, consider: woodcock, walking through the valley, . popoff, "the doukhobors,” - . jaenen, "the doukhobor,” - . pauli, “the new anarchism,” - . woodcock, blue mountains, . woodcock, anarchism, , . as with woodcock’s previous collaboration with avakumović, woodcock was primarily responsible for writing the text, with avakumović concentrating on translating russian- language materials, and responding to draft chapters. for more on this process see: fetherling, gentle anarchist, - , - . woodcock, blue mountains, . woodcock, “the sons of freedom, , , , . george woodcock to alan hodge: th december , gwpqu: : . george woodcock to alex comfort: th april , gwpqu: : woodcock, the century that made us. in this, woodcock in some respects stood closer to nineteenth century canadian historical writing, which tended to be ‘non-professional, a branch of literature; most of it, also, had political purpose’. mcnaught, penguin history of canada, . hanham, “canadian history in the s,” . berger, writing of canadian history, . woodcock, social history, . woodcock, “the servants of clio,” ; berger, canadian history, . berger, canadian history, . woodcock, ‘servants of clio’, , , . woodcock, social history, . woodcock, doukhobors, . whitworth, “the doukhobors,” ; bourdreau, “the doukhobors,” ; frantz, “the doukhobors,” . see also: fetherling, gentle anarchist, woodcock, “sons of freedom,” . woodcock, doukhobors, , . ibid., . woodcock, walking through the valley, . fetherling, gentle anarchist, ; woodcock, blue mountains, . woodcock, canada and the canadians, , . ibid., . ibid., . woodcock, canada and the canadians, , . fox, “canada portrayed,” . for a description of this phenomenon, see: english, just watch me, - . trudeau, memoirs, ; woodcock, canada and the canadians, ; woodcock, blue mountains, . woodcock, walking through the valley, , . palmer, canada’s s, . woodcock, confederation betrayed!, . woodcock, “the doukhobors: a sad epic,” . this description of the films came in a letter to history today editor alan hodge. george woodcock to alan hodge: th november , gwpqu, : ; woodcock, “against the tide,” , . woodcock, “against the tide,” , . george woodcock to ralph raico: nd march , gwpqu: : . woodcock, the canadians, , . woodcock, century that made us, . woodcock, “the doukhobors,” . duffy, “george woodcock,” . fetherling, gentle anarchist, - . woodcock, “a plea for the anti-nation,” - . bibliography author unknown, “several characteristics of doukhobor society, .” translated by robert pinkerton, doukhobor genealogy website. accessed march , . http://www.doukhobor.org/platon.html author unknown, “the spirit-wrestlers one hundred years ago: a paper written in ,” in chertkov, vladimir, christian martyrdom in russia: persecution of the spirit-wrestlers (or doukhobortsi) in the caucasus. croydon: brotherhood publishing company, , - . adams, matthew s. “rejecting the american model: peter kropotkin’s radical communalism.” history of political thought , no. ( ): - . adams, matthew s. kropotkin, read, and the intellectual history of british anarchism: between reason and romanticism. basingstoke: palgrave macmillan, . alston, charlotte. “‘a great host of sympathisers’: the doukhobor emigration and its international supporters.” journal of modern european history , no. ( ): - . alston, charlotte. tolstoy and his disciples: the history of a radical international movement. london: i.b. tauris, . androsoff, ashleigh. “spirit wrestling: identity conflict and the canadian ‘doukhobors problem, - ”. phd diss., university of toronto, . androsoff, ashleigh. “pacifist ‘terrorists’ in the ‘peaceable kingdom’: cultural conflict in twentieth-century canada.” journal for the study of radicalism , no. ( ): - . antliff, allan & matthew s. adams. anarchist studies , no. ( ) antliff, mark. “pacifism, violence and aesthetics: george woodcock’s anarchist sojourn, - .” anarchist studies , no. ( ): - . berger, carl. the writing of canadian history: aspects of english-canadian historical writing since . london: university of toronto press, . bourdreau, j.a. “the doukhobors.” american historical review , no. ( ) - . breyfogle, nicholas b. heretics and colonizers: forging russia’s empire in the south caucasus. london: cornell university press, . chertkov, vladimir, christian martyrdom in russia: persecution of the spirit-wrestlers (or doukhobortsi) in the caucasus. croydon: brotherhood publishing company, . christoyannopoulos, alexandre. christian anarchism: a political commentary on the gospel. exeter: imprint academic, . duffy, dennis. “george woodcock: voyager of liberty.” canadian literature ( ): - . elkington, joseph. the doukhobors: their history in russia: their migration to canada. philadelphia: ferris & leach, . engelstein, laura. castration and the heavenly kingdom: a russian folktale. london: cornell university press, . english, john. just watch me: the life of pierre elliott trudeau, - . toronto: knopf, . etkind, aleksandr. “whirling with the other: russian populism and religious sects.” the russian review ( ): - fetherling, george. the gentle anarchist: a life of george woodcock. vancouver: subway, . fox, c.j. “canada portrayed.” canadian literature ( ): - . frantz, ch. “the doukhobors.” american anthropologist , no. ( ): - . gwyn, richard. the northern magus: pierre trudeau and canadians. toronto: mcclelland & stewart, . hanham, h.j. “canadian history in the s.” the canadian historical review , no. ( ): - heard, albert f., the russian church and russian dissent, comprising orthodoxy, dissent, and erratic sects. new york: new york, harper & brothers, . henderson, ebenezer, “travels to the dukhobortsy living on the molochnaya river, ,” doukhobor genealogy website. accessed march , . http://www.doukhobor.org/platon.html. herzen, alexander. my life and thoughts: the memoirs of alexander herzen. translated by constance garnett. london hommaire de hell, adele and xavier. “travels among the molochnaya dukhobortsy, - .” doukhobor genealogy website. accessed november , . http://www.doukhobor.org/hommairedehell.html hughes, peter. george woodcock. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . jaenen, cornelius. “the doukhobors first perceived as the ‘other’.” in the doukhobor centenary in canada: a multi-disciplinary perspective on their unity and diversity, edited by andrew donskov et al. ottawa: university of ottawa press, : - . kelly, luke. “christianity and humanitarianism in the doukhobor campaign, - .” cultural and social history , no. ( ): - . kemple, thomas m. reading marx writing: melodrama, the market, and the “grundrisse”. stanford: stanford university press, . klibanov, t.i. history of religious sectarianism in russia, - . oxford: pergamon press, . kropotkin, peter. “some of the resources of canada.” the nineteenth century. ( ): - . kropotkin, peter. memoirs of a revolutionist. london: folio society, . kropotkine, peter. “communism and anarchy.” freedom: a journal of anarchist communism ( ): - . marx, karl. capital. translated samuel moore and edward aveling. new york: modern library, . marx, karl. the poverty of philosophy. moscow: foreign languages publishing house, n.d. maude, aylmer. a peculiar people: the doukhobors. london: archibald constable, . mavor, james. my windows on the street of the world. london. j.m. dent, . mcnaught, kenneth. the penguin history of canada. london: penguin, . miller, david. anarchism. london: j.m. dent, . palmer, bryan d. canada’s s: the ironies of identity in a rebellious era. london: university of toronto press, . pauli, benjamin j. “the new anarchism in britain and the us: towards a richer understanding of post-war anarchist thought.” journal of political ideologies , no. ( ): - . pinkerton, robert, “a visit to the dukhobortsy on the sea of azov, ,” doukhobor genealogy website. accessed march , . http://www.doukhobor.org/platon.html. popoff, eli a. “the doukhobors: the ‘enigma’ and the reality.” in the doukhobor centenary in canada: a multi-disciplinary perspective on their unity and diversity, edited by andrew donskov et al. ottawa: university of ottawa press. : - . purdy, al. “george woodcock.” in a political art: essays and images in honour of george woodcock, edited by william h. new, - . vancouver: university of british columbia press, . read, herbert. “there is now no other way: an appeal to youth.” the adelphi , no. ( ): - . sanborn, josh, “pacifist politics and peasant politics: tolstoy and the doukhobors, – ,” canadian ethnic studies, , no. , ( ): – . stepniak, sergius, “rationalistic dissent.” chap. in the russian peasantry, their agrarian condition, social life and religion. london: sonnenschein, . tippett, maria. made in british columbia: eight ways of making culture. madeira park, bc: harbour, . trudeau, pierre elliott. memoirs. toronto: mcclelland & stewart, . tolstoy, leo, donskov, andrew, and woodsworth, john, leo tolstoy and russian peasant sectarian writers: selected correspondence. ottawa: slavic research group, university of ottawa, . whitworth, john. “the doukhobors.” british journal of sociology , no. ( ): - . woodcock, george. & ivan avakumović, the anarchist prince. london: t.v. boardman, . woodcock, george. & ivan avakumović, the doukhobors. toronto: oxford university press, . woodcock, george. “commentary.” now: a journal of good writing. ( ): - . woodcock, george. anarchy or chaos. london: freedom press, . woodcock, george. “the tyranny of the clock.” politics ( ), - . woodcock, george. “‘anarchy, says george woodcock, is ‘the logical end of pacifist thought.’” ppu journal. ( ): + . woodcock, george. the basis of communal living. london: freedom press, . woodcock, george. “the folly of ‘revolutionary’ violence.” the adelphi , no. ( ): - . woodcock, george. anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements. london: penguin, . woodcock, george. “encounter with an archangel.” the tamarack review ( ): - . woodcock, george. “the sons of freedom.” the tamarack review ( ): - . woodcock, george. civil disobedience. toronto: canadian broadcasting corporation, . woodcock, george. canada and the canadians. london: faber, . woodcock, george. “a plea for the anti-nation.” the canadian forum ( ) - . woodcock, george. “the doukhobors: a sad epic.” books in canada , no. ( ): . woodcock, george. “against the tide.” georgia straight ( ): - . woodcock, george. the canadians. don mills, ont: fitzhenry & whiteside, . woodcock, george. “the servants of clio: notes on creighton & groulx.” canadian literature ( ): - . woodcock, george. confederation betrayed! the case against trudeau’s canada. madeira park, bc: harbour publishing, . woodcock, george. letter to the past: an autobiography. toronto: fitzhenry & whiteside, . woodcock, george. beyond the blue mountains: an autobiography. toronto: fitzhenry & whiteside, . woodcock, george. a social history of canada. london: penguin, . woodcock, george. “the doukhobors.” in the canadian encyclopedia: a-edu, edited by james h. marsh, - . edmonton: hurtig publishers, . woodcock, george. the century that made us: canada - . toronto: oxford university press, . woodcock, george. walking through the valley: autobiography. oakville, on: ecw press, . multilingualism in the midwest: how german has shaped (and still shapes) the midwest multilingualism in the midwest: how german has shaped (and still shapes) the midwest michael t. putnam, joseph salmons middle west review, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by university of nebraska press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /mwr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /mwr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ michael t. putnam and joseph salmons multilingualism in the midwest how german has shaped (and still shapes) the midwest from to , an estimated . million german speakers came to the united states, settling especially in the midwest. while popular cul- ture tends to portray “german americans” as relatively homogenous, they came from areas stretching from present day belgium, france, and swit- zerland through central and eastern europe— and later from as far east as siberia. moreover, they spoke many radically different varieties of “ger- man,” often more different from one another than french is from span- ish. that is, these were not mutually intelligible varieties, and so they cross the usual defi nitional line for linguists between “dialects,” where speakers can communicate across varieties, and “languages,” where they cannot. we argue that the german language in this broad sense continues to have a fundamental impact on midwestern cultures and identities. to this end, we respond to jon k. lauck’s call for a renewed focus on midwestern his- tory, using this discussion as an opportunity to dispel some myths about language in particular and showing some persistent patterns of infl uence throughout the region today. we provide three case studies which all support the central thesis that the linguistic landscape of the midwest has been— and continues to be— profoundly shaped by german, often indirectly and mostly not in the expected ways. first, two persistent myths about germans are that im- migrants learned english quickly after arrival and that “anti- german senti- ment” in the world war i era meant the end of the german language in the region. in fact, germans did not necessarily learn english quickly; none- theless, the shift to english was well underway before the first world war middle west review • vol. no. on the one hand and on the other, german continues to be spoken even to- day. this history of language use and shift can help us reconsider language issues among new immigrants in the midwest, with implications for edu- cation and policy. second, midwestern english has been— and is being— shaped by german infl uence, but not in the ways one might think. clichés of german- infl uenced speech have surely receded, but important structur- al infl uence is present and still developing today. third, german immigra- tion is not something only of the past: speakers of languages and dialects considered in some sense to be “german” are still immigrating to the mid- west in surprisingly high numbers. these case studies illustrate how the history of german in the midwest can and should inform contemporary discussions about immigration and immigration issues. ultimately, these case studies show how german- speaking immigrants continue to shape the landscape of the midwest even today. the rest of the paper is structured around these three case studies— learning english and abandoning german, the shaping of midwestern english, and a resurgence of “german” immigration to the region. at the same time, our changing understanding of the issues bears on the histo- riography of the midwest— and language and immigration in particular. we discuss how our understanding of german immigration to the mid- west still sometimes remains in the shadow of fi liopietism and even oc- casionally still the stain of connections to nazi “research.” taken together, we hope that these case studies suggest a blueprint for future collaborative studies between linguists and specialists in other disciplines such as an- thropology, education, history, and sociology. i. learning english and abandoning german much of the popular and occasionally even scholarly understanding of germans and their languages in the midwest resides in two narratives. the fi rst is that the german speakers were model immigrants with regard to language— that is, that they learned english quickly after arrival. the sec- ond is that world war i led to the death of german in the region. both are, judging from available evidence, largely incorrect. before continuing, we need to clarify an important terminological mat- ter: in immigration or other situations where languages come into contact with one another, linguists distinguish between the two situations dis- cussed in the previous paragraph: ( ) the learning of a new language (that putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest is, german speakers becoming bilingual in english); and ( ) the aban- donment of the immigrant language (that is, german- english communi- ties becoming english monolingual over time, with bilingual parents rais- ing their children as english monolinguals), a process that specialists call “language shift.” the former creates a situation of language contact within individual speakers— or bilingual brains— while the latter, language shift, eliminates language contact. let us deal with them in turn. one of the most glaringly false but resilient myths in american history and politics, from the colonial period to the present, is that immigrants to this country do not learn english; rather, they actively resist using it and even their children do not learn it. exponents of this myth, across time and space, have often contrasted the presumed language acquisition patterns of contemporary immigrants with those earlier immigrants, who ostensi- fig. . lester w. j. “smoky” seifert interviewing a german speaker in s wisconsin. photo- graph donated by the seifert family to the max kade institute for german- american studies, university of wisconsin– madison, and reproduced here by their courtesy. middle west review • vol. no. bly mastered english quickly. this is a longstanding refrain in american political discourse, with complex historical origins, but it remains strong even today. for instance, conservative scion michael reagan lamented in a essay: all across the u.s., hordes of immigrants— legal and illegal— are chattering away in their native language and have no intention of learning english— the all- but- offi cial language of the united states where they now live. . . . can you blame them? they are being enabled by all those diversity fanatics to defy the age- old custom of immi- grants to our shores who made it one of their fi rst priorities to learn to speak english and to teach their offspring to do likewise. research by scholars from many different disciplines and perspectives shows, however, that the exact opposite holds true: immigrants learn eng- lish as quickly as they can. as is so often the case, historical (mis)interpre- tation serves to keep this myth alive. as linguist james crawford puts the myth, en route to debunking it: “today’s immigrants refuse to learn eng- lish, unlike the good old immigrants of yesteryear.” the social settings of bilingualism have of course changed dramatically. our point is not that these situations are comparable but simply that they are treated as such in much public discourse. our focus here is on the historical claims about “good old immigrants.” in fact, a steadily growing body of research shows that many immigrants and their descendants remained monolingual in their immigrant languag- es after over a half century or more living in the u.s. and several genera- tions later. the census asked about all individuals over the age of ten whether they were able to speak english and, if not, what language they spoke. such data is fraught with problems, but it can serve as a rough gauge of how many people remained monolingual at the time. one factor, for instance, suggests that non- english monolingualism may be serious- ly underreported: the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were a time of great xenophobia: the nativist and know nothing movements found great popular support, and language offered a fertile battleground in immigration debates. because of political and social pressure placed upon immigrants to learn english, speakers might have had concrete mo- tivations to over- rather than underestimate their ability to speak english. as an example, in the village of hustisford, in eastern wisconsin, twenty- four percent of residents reported being monolingual in german putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest in , well over a half century after the main immigration to the commu- nity. over a third of the reported monolinguals were born in the u.s. this included numerous third generation monolinguals— grandchildren of eu- ropean immigrants who had not learned english— in . farther to the north, one scholar found that in a census district in new holstein, twenty- eight percent reported being monolingual, with forty- nine of those born in the u.s. no contemporary immigrant community has been documented as “resisting” learning english to nearly this extent. in short, these immi- grants hardly consistently abandoned german quickly; indeed, they often did not learn english for a couple of generations and, contrary to popular belief, they have often held on their language generations longer than con- temporary immigrants. a second myth concerns the role that world war i played in the decline and death of german in the midwest. it is still widely believed that world war i was a primary cause of this demise— we often hear this misconcep- tion in community outreach talks and informally from scholars as well. as one older source puts it, world war i was for german americans “a thun- derclap from a cloudless sky.” the simple existence of today’s speakers and hundreds of thousands of others born and raised with german as their fi rst language long after the war— when it was often used in church and worship services, school, and elsewhere— disproves this myth. but the sto- ry is richer, as we discuss below. a coherent and testable theory is now emerging of why communities do (or do not) maintain languages. this growing body of research builds around roland l. warren’s theory of a “great change” in american com- munity structure. previous works tended to see language shift in terms of “prestige” and various local considerations or as simply a mundane process of assimilation to surrounding societal patterns. in this new view, language shift is seen as coming along with “verticalization,” shift of con- trol from local to non- local hands. according to this theory, language loss is driven by broad forces transforming community structure, primarily by the displacement of locally interconnected organizational structures in fa- vor of ones connected primarily to extra- community organizations. before the change, communities were relatively autonomous, with local institu- tions tied more closely to one another than to state or national ones. in this period, what happened in local schools was driven by local cultural and economic needs and desires— closing schools at harvest time or for deer season, for instance. over time, control of institutions “verticalizes,” or middle west review • vol. no. moves beyond local control, whether in governmental, economic, or pri- vate institutional contexts. after these changes are carried out, the support structure for minority languages within a community steadily erodes. the patterns of wisconsin german monolingualism described above were facilitated by the relatively large german- speaking population and supported by a full range of institutions in the german language— such as schools, churches, newspapers, and labor unions. as scholars have dem- onstrated, some individuals began shifting to english immediately upon arrival, and some culturally german institutions were established in eng- lish, but vast numbers of people continued to use german and established institutions in that tongue. over time, institutions came under various kinds of pressure to switch to english, but the full impact of this language shift did not occur in connection with the dramatic events associated with the last century. for schools, many states passed laws restricting or even banning instruction in german, like wisconsin’s bennett law in , but that law and some others were repealed relatively quickly, and states had limited ability to enforce such laws in the late nineteenth and early twenti- eth century. the most noticeable changes came at the hands of increasing state con- trol of education, which meant that schools were ever more tightly regulat- ed, including with regard to language. in the press, the war had a profound impact on this industry, as some papers folded or switched to english. but the larger impact was from economic changes, which made small papers in any language less and less viable over time. larger and larger circula- tions became necessary to make newspapers and magazines economical- ly viable. with this, smaller german language publications failed, just as smaller circulation english language papers have been going out of busi- ness for over a century. in religion, the shift to english was long and often hotly debated, but some churches only shifted to english after german- speaking clergy were no longer available. that is, the shift was driven not by a desire to switch services to english but by an inability to conduct them in german in some instances. across this range of institutions— public education, private business, and religion— we witness the lessening of local control in favor of non- local control. in each, that change undermines the position of german, much less as a matter of policy or proclamation and much more as part of an integration into broader, english- speaking society. warren’s model of “verticalization” as part of a sweeping change in community structure putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest captures neatly the processes we see at work here, and today’s highly ver- tical social structure in the united states is consistent with the very rapid shift to english among newer immigrants. this, we argue, is the most fun- damental difference between past and present immigrants with regard to learning english, as alluded to above. once again, these historical cases tie in to and inform contemporary hot- button issues relevant to the midwest and beyond. as already suggest- ed above, the pressure on immigrant language speakers to shift to english is a thread running from the colonial period down to the present day, fed by repeated waves of xenophobia. with regard to wisconsin’s burgeon- ing spanish- speaking population, catherine stafford writes: language policies that favor educating children monolingually in english over developing and maintaining bilingualism are perhaps a vestige of misconceptions that grew out of research fi ndings pub- lished in the xenophobic climate of the fi rst half of the twentieth century. these ideologically tainted studies concluded that bilingual- ism meant imperfect mastery of two languages (referred to by some pejoratively as “semilingualism”) and that it could lead to cognitive confusion, even schizophrenia, and was therefore to be avoided. of course, these claims have long since been discredited, but unfortu- nately, the destructive, narrow- minded ideologies associated with them persist. stafford’s comments speak to modern misconceptions harbored by some that bilingualism in a pluralistic society is a hindrance rather than an as- set, both for individuals and society as a whole. this negative view of bi- lingualism was also present in sociological work early in the last century. bilinguals and bilingualism in general has traditionally been considered a hindrance individually and at a societal level, according to scholars such as izhak epstein, who states la polyglossie est une plaie sociale (“multilingualism is a social ill”). elaborating on this point— but certainly not sharing his view— aneta pavlenko explains, “since bilingualism could be particularly harmful for young children whose thought processes were still developing, [epstein’s] recommendation was to begin foreign- language instruction in later childhood and to limit it to reading and basic everyday expressions.” these sorts of misconceptions about bilingualism naturally had an impact in shaping public opinions about bilingual individuals and communities, but also education policy as we have discussed above. middle west review • vol. no. the view of bilingualism as a “social ill” has since been repeatedly and thoroughly debunked from a variety of research perspectives. modern re- search in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics has presented a wide ranging of compelling evidence that, in contrast to epstein and his con- temporaries’ views of bilingualism exhibiting “une infl uence negative ou inhibitrice” (a negative or inhibitory infl uence), bilinguals actually dis- play distinct cognitive advantages when compared with their monolingual counterparts, such as a delay in the onset of dementia and other debili- tating cognitive illnesses such as alzheimer’s disease. furthermore, re- search shows that the amounts of white matter in the brain and grey matter in the cerebellum increase over the course of a bilingual’s lifespan. that is, bilingualism has positive, lifelong effects on individual cognition, in addition to its social, political, and economic values. beyond that, under- standing this history is now driving work to support language revitaliza- tion efforts underway in native american and other communities: a work- able theory of language shift will yield insight into how to reverse it, and fig. . a barn in el soberbio, misiones, argentina. in the summer of , michael t. putnam conducted fi eld work on german- language heritage speakers in argentina. photograph by michael t. putnam. putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest that workable theory may be the one emerging now from the study of ger- man in the american midwest. to sum up, german speakers hardly all learned english on or even shortly after arrival in the united states, and the view that world war i was the death knell of the german language in america was overstated. the bilingual tradition in the midwest continues to enrich the landscape as new languages come into the region, including somali, russian, laotian, and many others. these immigrants are learning english much faster and probably shifting to english much more quickly than germans did. at the same time, the linguistic impact of german is hardly limited to german- english bilingualism. in the next section, we consider the role that heritage immigrant german has played in the development of mid- western english. ii. midwestern english and the role of german in talking to public audiences about the infl uence of german on english in the midwest, we often hear examples of words and stereotypes, espe- cially from older people— for example, words like hausfrau (“housewife”) and dummkopf (“dumb person”) or phrases like danke schön (“thank you”). as von schneidemesser shows with a series of maps, these terms are often regional, concentrated in the midwest and pennsylvania, areas of particularly heavy settlement by speakers of german dialects. these words also appear, based on our experience, to be recessive, mostly used by older speakers today, though a few have established themselves in the region. brat(wurst), “kind of sausage” is a familiar example of this shift. another case in point is bakery. for most americans, it means a place where baked goods are produced, but especially in wisconsin it can refer to the product— “people might be hungry, so we should bring some bakery to the meeting.” this refl ects a dialectal meaning of the german term bäckerei, “bakery.” beyond borrowed words, howell provides an excellent survey of struc- tural patterns reported in midwestern (and pennsylvania) english that ap- pear to refl ect german infl uence. examples include unexpected verb tens- es and verbal “aspect” like i am here ten years (instead of “have been”); did you hear the lecture last night? i have heard it (instead of expected simple past “heard,” both from milwaukee); and “semantic impositions” like make the light out, make out the light (following the use of german machen [“to make”] in such constructions, from illinois and wisconsin). some stereotypes of middle west review • vol. no. german infl uenced english, like throw mama down the stairs a kiss (associat- ed by cliché, for example with milwaukee), likely existed only among native speakers of german with limited command of english. subtler patterns have only begun to be investigated. consider construc- tions like sheboygan is a city people like when they visit vs. sheboygan is a city people like when they visit it. the former pattern is widely used in american english (and preferred by some speakers) while the equivalent of the second (with the pronoun “it” at the end) is the direct english translation of the ger- man sentence (which requires the last pronoun to be present). since these structures are ones that speakers are typically unaware of and which are not discussed in school or grammatical texts, we might expect a subtle german infl uence here. while wisconsin german- english bilinguals and some older monolingual english speakers from wisconsin show a tendency to prefer german- like patterns— requiring the fi nal pronoun, “it,” to be present— this preference has since largely disappeared. younger english monolingual speakers appear to prefer the structure without the pronoun. the “german infl uenced” structures that remain in broad use today are largely a variety of patterns that laypeople may think of as “grammatical,” but which in fact largely refl ect changes in the usage of particular words in german- like ways. examples include what for (german: was für) or the verbal particle with in clauses like are you coming with? (german: kommst du mit?). this last construction, for instance, expands on an extant set of “verb- particle constructions” in english— “to come around”— rather than representing a structural innovation in english grammar. it is today unre- markable throughout much of the midwest and is even used beyond it. changing pronunciations of the /æ/ vowel— the vowel found in words like bad, ban, bag, back— is characteristic of many regions, and certain parts of the midwest show pronunciations of this vowel more like the common american vowel [ɛ], as in bed, ben, beg, beck, or even [e:] as in bade, bane, vague, bake. since most kinds of german lack /æ/, and german speakers of- ten replace it with [ɛ] or [e:], this has been attributed to german infl uence. however, this is less than certain and the changes could be “internal,” not driven by contact. moreover, the vowel /æ/ is lacking in most of the immi- grant languages of the region— polish, dutch, and so on— so if this were an effect of earlier language contact, it would refl ect a broader immigrant phenomenon rather than an exclusively german one. the same holds for “stopping” of english “th” sounds in thing or this (interdental fricatives, phonetic [θ, ð]) to d, so that those things there can be produced as dose dings putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest dere or dose tings dere. here, though, stigmatization plays a role, as teach- ers and others have worked to stamp out such forms— though the d pro- nunciations are still regularly heard in parts of the region today, includ- ing among young speakers— just as many stigmatized features survive and thrive in various social groups and regions. far more remarkable, however, are the changes in a set of other pat- terns. german does not distinguish word- fi nal sounds by “voicing,” so s ~ z, t ~ d, etc. are pronounced the same, a phenomenon called “fi nal de- voicing.” this pattern can be heard in heavily german settled regions to- day, so that buzz is pronounced more or less like bus and bed like bet. re- cent studies show that this is not a direct continuation of german- like pronunciation— that is, the direct carrying over of a german accent into the english of later generations. instead, older speakers and speakers in historical recordings overpronounce the “voicing” of fi nal z, d, and oth- ers. it is only today’s younger speakers who produce the devoiced variants, people who represent a population with little or no direct connection to german. similar “boomerang” effects— where immigrant- infl uenced fea- tures recede with language shift only to return after language shift is far advanced— exist in other situations of language contact like in cajun eng- lish. this may refl ect a sociolinguistic “reallocation,” where particular linguistic features continue to be used, but with new social meaning. in this instance, formerly ethnic/immigrant speech features are used to mark new regional and local identities. this opens the door to seeing the bigger picture of language in the re- gion: in the upper midwest, distinctive dialects are only now beginning to emerge, and with them awareness of distinctive accents. kathryn rem- linger, luanne von schneidemesser, and joseph salmons show that aware- ness of distinctive speech patterns in the upper peninsula of michigan and in wisconsin is recent, a fi nding supported by graphing the occurrences of “wisconsin accent” and “north carolina accent” in ngram viewer, which searches huge sets of printed books for words and phrases. wisconsin and north carolina were historically of similar population size. (both had around two million residents in , and . vs. fi ve mil- lion in .) but as fi g. shows, references to “north carolina accent” begin far earlier and are vastly more common. work still in progress pro- vides strong evidence that wisconsin listeners are far better at recogniz- ing younger wisconsin speakers as being wisconsinites than older ones. wisconsin speakers recorded in were identifi ed as being from wis- middle west review • vol. no. consin much more often than those recorded in the s or s. rates for non- wisconsin speakers— from boston, north carolina, and southern california— did not show these effects. this timing is reminiscent of the “devoicing” patterns described above, and that may be more than coincidence: though popular views see dialect diversity in the u.s. as being on the decline, many studies have shown that some american dialects are in fact rapidly becoming more different from one another, especially the midwestern ones. we know from a large body of research that when new areas are settled by speakers of a new language, it takes at least three to four generations for a coherent, recognizable new dialect to emerge. in the german- speaking midwest, this process could have only begun in many communities with the shift to english as a fi rst language. that is, the presence of immigrant languages (and english in- fl uenced by german) likely delayed the onset of new dialect formation. the german contributions to midwestern english dialects came along at roughly the same time, long after germans had arrived in the state and as german was no longer a widely spoken language in the region. iii. new “german” speakers in the midwest so far, we have talked about german varieties that have reached their last generation of speakers and their effects on regional english. not all vari- eties in the region fi nd themselves in this situation, and we illustrate this with two examples, one likely familiar to most midwesterners and the fig. . this graph illustrates the discernible gap between popular references to a “north carolina ac- cent” and to a “wisconsin accent.” source: google books ngram viewer, http://books.google .com/ngrams. north carolina accent wisconsin accent putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest other much less so. “pennsylvania german” or “pennsylvania dutch”— called deitsch by its speakers— is spoken in the midwest alone by an esti- mated , people, who are almost all old order amish and old order mennonite, and their numbers are growing rapidly. with dialectal origins mostly in present- day southwestern germany, pennsylvania german de- veloped into an independent language in colonial pennsylvania with gen- erations of isolation from european german speakers. the map below il- lustrates some of the major migration routes from pennsylvania across the midwest; today there are large communities in most midwestern states, with, for example, settlements in ohio, in indiana, ninety- three in wisconsin, forty in iowa, and forty- nine in missouri. in these communities, the language continues to be transmitted to chil- dren and used in daily life. as just noted, the number of speakers is grow- ing rapidly, due to early marriage and large families. today the midwestern dialects are diverging from the varieties spoken in pennsylvania. another recently arrived population in the region speaks a dramatically different germanic language, a form of low german, the indigenous lan- guage of northern germany. so- called “old colony mennonites” use the language known as “mennonite low german,” or plautdietsch, in the home and for worship services. they have roots in the netherlands and north- western germany (with dutch infl uences but primarily low german lin- fig. . this map highlights the locations of major midwestern amish communities in the nineteenth century, as well as the movements of selected amish families. map originally appeared in steven hartman keiser, pennsylvania german in the american midwest (durham, n.c.: duke university press, ) and is reproduced here courtesy of the publisher. iowa arthur kalona pennsylvania ohio indiana illinois settlement of somerset co., pa., and midwest migration of joseph keim family, – migration of william miller family, – holmes co. madison co. somerset co. berks co. lancaster co. – europe elkhart co. – ?? – ?? ? middle west review • vol. no. guistic origins) from the sixteenth century. after migrating to west prussia (danzig) in the middle of the sixteenth century to avoid religious persecu- tion and spending approximately two hundred years there, many then mi- grated to south russia beginning in . starting in many migrated to the prairie provinces of manitoba and saskatchewan, canada. following world war i, about seven thousand of these canadian old colonists went south, and established an autonomous colony in the province of chihua- hua, mexico. when economic conditions in chihuahua deteriorated in the s, an outmigration began— some to canada, some to south america, some to seminole, texas (where approximately fi ve thousand now live), and in the late s to kansas. mennonite low german has traditional- ly been strictly an oral language, like pennsylvania german. in recent de- cades, epp has created a working orthography for this language and thies- sen an excellent dictionary and a brief, accessible history of the language. in , the kansas statewide farmworkers health program (ksfhp) registered mennonites from mexico, representing seven percent of the total farmworkers served. by , , mennonites from mexico were registered, representing forty- three percent. in , ksfhp characterized this population as highly mobile, having no emphasis on formal education, a low literacy rate, and religiously conservative. the number served by ksfhp in was , . by one estimate, there were approximately four to fi ve thousand old colony mennonite migrant farmworkers in kansas in . because of this unique migration background and language learning history, this group presents important opportunities to understand mul- tilingual language development and linguistic and social identity across several generations in the midwest. from a linguistic standpoint, the docu- mentation and analysis of the three languages spoken within this group— mennonite low german, spanish, and english— will reveal a great deal about language maintenance, language loss/attrition, and the develop- ment of english as a third language (l ) in this group. of equal impor- tance, and returning to our fi rst case study concerning the “abandonment of german,” given the overwhelming recent scientifi c evidence document- ing the cognitive and societal benefi ts of bilingualism, it will be interesting to see how educational policy is shaped to accommodate this population in an extremely rural setting in southwestern kansas. this last case study serves as a valuable reminder that “german” in the midwest often requires the scare quotes: the two new varieties just dis- cussed, pennsylvania german and plautdietsch, are not comprehensible to speakers of contemporary standard german, and they are farther apart putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest from one another than from today’s european german. the same holds for many of the other german(ic) languages spoken in the region, from po- meranian low german (still spoken in central wisconsin) to “schweitzer” german (in moundridge, kansas, with origins in the palatinate, despite the name). at the same time, some form of standard german, in writing and to a lesser degree in speaking, was and even now is known in the midwest. this kind of linguistic diversity is a focus for us as linguists, but it also underscores that there is no group of “midwestern germans,” but rather myriad distinct and sometimes related communities with their own histo- ries. here too, this has powerful parallels in contemporary immigration— from the dialectal diversity of hmong (spoken especially in minnesota and wisconsin) on to spanish, about which stafford writes: “individuals who self- identify or are identifi ed as hispanic include monolingual english speakers, monolingual spanish speakers, and bilingual/multilingual indi- viduals whose relative profi ciency in spanish, english, and in some cases latin american indigenous languages varies widely.” if midwesterners understand the german part of their history, we argue, it will facilitate un- derstanding and accepting contemporary linguistic diversity. iv. the german language in the context of midwestern history in the foregoing, we have laid out three case studies particular to language, issues which are rooted in and connected to the writing of midwestern re- gional history. any history is constructed and contested over various ide- ological tensions, including the history of german and germans in the american midwest. in this section, we connect the linguistic issues raised above to two such issues: the pitfalls of writing history focused on the con- tributions of german americans on the one hand and a reliance on re- search from the nazi era on the other. the fi rst is often talked about under the rubric of what scholars like brent o. peterson or joseph salmons call “fi liopietism” or what robert frizzell describes as a “contributionist” approach: much or even most ear- lier work on german in the midwest was written by people who came from the communities they wrote about, and such works can refl ect uncritical views held within the community and consciously or unconsciously pro- mote a positive view of the community and its history. the discussion above of the situation of german americans in the world war i era already refl ects the perspective of german americans, typical of early scholarship middle west review • vol. no. generally and illustrated above in carl wittke’s work. this thread contin- ues into the present century. frizzell writes about a book published in that generally presented a view of german american history “as written de- cades ago,” but its treatment of the world war i era is “thoroughly up- to- date in that it is a part of the contemporary american culture of competi- tive victimization. most scholars who study german americans recognize that germans in america are not strong players at this game.” indeed, only a remarkably parochial perspective on american history could see the german american experience in terms of actual “persecution,” compared to other groups— for instance, the attempted genocide of indigenous pop- ulations, followed by boarding schools aimed in part at destroying com- munities’ cultures and specifi cally their languages; enslaved populations brought forcibly from africa and subjected to widespread violence and profound discrimination long after emancipation; and the chinese exclu- sion act. but such views of german american persecution still shape some scholarly thinking. world war i was certainly a diffi cult time to be a german speaker in the united states. still, as argued throughout the present paper and much other modern research, the war and that period by no means killed the german language in this country. nor, as we have argued, were german speakers “model” immigrants in terms of learning english or abandoning german. the list of less politically charged but still historically and scientifi cally im- portant skewing of history in this way could be expanded considerably. for instance, it is not uncommon to hear comments in communities about their languages as “archaic th century dialects” from the “old country.” this contrasts throughout much of the midwest and elsewhere with the very real presence of standard german, in an active press, in religious institutions and as a medium of instruction of countless schools. what is needed, we as- sert, is to understand this history including its positive and negative aspects within the full context of american history and society. the second issue is a signifi cant but still widely unrecognized entangle- ment of work on the german language in the u.s. with national socialism. we were surprised by comments from someone who read an earlier ver- sion of this paper and who suggested forcefully that we needed to cite the work of heinz kloss: “kloss did major studies about the german language throughout the united states, producing a huge atlas along the way.” this is indeed true, but this work was done for the nazi “german foreign institute.” cornelia wilhelm writes the following about kloss and the relevant project: fig. . a world war ii– era example of patriotic images from a german- language maga- zine, die hausfrau, milwaukee, wisconsin. courtesy of the max kade institute for german- american studies, university of wisconsin– madison. middle west review • vol. no. he collected information for the publication of a german- american atlas, which was to document the german contribution to america, but also to help german political agencies to understand the local communities, their setting, and conditions. the information was to help them make their political decisions regarding propaganda and military planning. although the outcome of the two large projects was used by the political agencies, both projects were not published until the s, when they were fi nally published by la vern rippley, an american scholar, as an “academic work” valuing kloss’s works as major research achievements without mentioning their origins, original context, and purpose. kloss was in fact not a linguist, and wilhelm makes a strong case that his work should be understood to a great extent not as scholarship, but rather as political propaganda for the national socialist government. the crux of this message was, in wilhelm’s words, to present: [a . . .] history based on the supposed “fact” that “germans” still lived in large and connected parts of the united states, having maintained their supposed germanness. in kloss’ eyes it was mainly the ger- mans who had invested work in the cultivation of american soil, and his research concluded that there was a strong connection between the achievements of the german people and the american soil. he claimed that america was only “cultivated” by their work. wilhelm points out that there was for many of these people of german ances- try no connection to a german identity at all. for instance, people who had fl ed persecution in german- speaking europe to come to north america had no strong reasons to identify with germanness. many other german speak- ers came, as noted at the outset, from far outside of modern day germany and/or came long before german unifi cation in , so that any “german identity” was complex and tenuous even on arrival. more importantly, many german speakers in the midwest expressly adopted american identities. with regard to the broader aims of kloss’s research, wilhelm writes that “the policies outlined by kloss never had a long- term impact upon the german american community and the german ‘folk islands.’” that is surely true, but, as we have been reminded once again, his impact on con- temporary scholarship remains often much greater, as shown by the ad- monition that we should see his contributions as central to understanding german in the u.s. putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest for both traditions of “contributionist” historiography and propagan- distically tinged writings passing as “major studies,” we urge a more criti- cal engagement, both in terms of a richer understanding of the full context of american immigration history and immigrant languages. our three case studies point to both a kind of coherence of experience in the midwest and a rich local diversity in those experiences. more impor- tantly, in each instance, a nuanced and detailed investigation of bilinguals past and present dispersed throughout the american midwest, broadly conceived, can inform our thinking about current issues, and lead to new research opportunities connecting various disciplines. at the same time, as argued just above, understanding the importance of german in the mid- west demands reexamination of some points of regional history, particu- larly with regard to language. understanding the long and complex process of german speakers learning english and eventually abandoning german strengthens the more positive view of bilingualism, immigrant and otherwise, that has emerged in various academic fi elds today. certain obvious “german” features of midwestern english have receded, but a whole new set of features is fi rmly established as on the rise, often signaling new kinds of social group mem- bership. the arrival of new communities in our region, deitsch or plautdi- etsch, continue long traditions and show that instead of “german” we have many “germans,” just as in some sense there are many “midwests.” michael t. putnam is associate professor of german and linguistics at pennsylvania state university. he is the coauthor, with thomas stroik, of the structural design of language (new york: cambridge university press, ); and the coeditor of several other volumes, including moribund germanic heritage languages in north america: theoretical perspectives and empirical findings (london: brill publishers, ) with richard page. his research focuses primarily on gaining a better understanding of the general cognitive archi- tecture underlying the language faculty in multilinguals, with a particular interest in global varieties of german. this research program explores the intersection of language, cognition, and culture from experimental, formal, and functional perspectives. joseph salmons is the lester w. j. “smoky” seifert professor of germanic linguistics at the university of wisconsin– madison and the cofounder of the center for the study of upper midwestern cultures. he is author of a history of german: what the past reveals about today’s language (new york: oxford university press, ; second edition forthcoming); editor of diachronica: international journal for historical linguistics; and coeditor with tom purnell and eric raimy of wisconsin talk: linguistic diversity in the badger middle west review • vol. no. state (madison: university of wisconsin press, ). his work focuses on language change in the context of linguistic theory, drawing data especially from germanic languages, including american english and heritage languages spoken in the u.s. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the editors of the middle west review and an anonymous reader for helpful discussion and feedback on this paper, as well as the following: joshua bousquette, monica macaulay, stefan manz, alyson sewell, jack thiessen, and miranda wilkerson. notes . günter moltmann, “the pattern of german emigration to the united states in the nineteenth century,” in america and the germans: an assessment of a three- hundred year his- tory, vol. , ed. frank trommler and joseph mcveigh (philadelphia: university of penn- sylvania press, ), . while our focus here is directly on language- related issues, note that there is a very rich literature on the history of german communities across this region, as these few key examples suggest: kathleen neils conzen, immigrant milwaukee, – : accommoda- tion and community in a frontier city (cambridge, mass.: harvard university press, ); idem, germans in minnesota (st. paul: minnesota historical society press, ); philip e. webber, kolonie- deutsch: life and language in amana (ames: iowa state university press, ); walter d. kamphoefner, “german americans: paradoxes of a ‘model minority,’” in origins and destinies: immigration, race, and ethnicity in america, ed. silvia pedraza and rubén g. rumbaut (belmont, calif.: wadsworth, ), – ; william keel and kurt rein, eds., german emigration from bukovina to the americas (lawrence, kan.: max kade center for german- american studies, ); joachim reppmann, north germans in amer- ica – (preetz: verlag für amerikanistik/hesperian press, ); gordon scott seeger, “socio- economic infl uence on low german in north- central kansas: from immigrant language lost to heritage language revived” (ph.d. diss., university of kansas, ); heike bungert, cora lee kluge, and robert c. ostergren, eds., wisconsin german land and life (madison, wis.: max kade institute for german- american studies, ); stefan manz, constructing a german diaspora: the “greater german empire,” – (new york: routledge, ). for accessible general surveys and rich anthologies, see frank trommler and joseph mcveigh, eds., america and the germans: an assessment of a three- hundred year history, vols. and (philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press), ; josef raab and jan wirrer, eds., die deutsche präsenz in den usa (münster: lit verlag, ). many excellent histories also address matters pertinent to german american com- munities. for work on women’s organizations see anke ortlepp, “auf denn, ihr schwest- ern!” deutschamerikanische frauenvereine in milwaukee (wisconsin), – (stuttgart: steiner verlag, ). for the impact of the first world war, see katja wüstenbecker, deutsch- amerikaner im ersten weltkrieg: us- politik und nationale identitäten im mittleren westen putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest (stuttgart: franz steiner verlag, ). for singing societies, see heike bungert, “deuts- chamerikanische sängerfeste und lieder als medium der ethnizitätsbildung, – ,” lied und populäre kultur ( ), – . several collections treat the languages and dialects of these communities and be- yond. see glenn gilbert, ed., the german language in america (austin: university of texas press, ); joseph c. salmons, ed., the german language in america: – (madi- son, wis.: max kade institute for german- american studies, ); michael t. putnam, ed., studies on german- language islands (amsterdam: benjamins, ). . jon k. lauck, the lost region: toward a revival of midwestern history (iowa city: uni- versity of iowa press, ). . michael reagan, “english: the vanishing language,” human events, aug. , , humanevents.com/article.php?id= . for a discussion of reagan’s essay and other similar examples, see miranda e. wilk- erson and joseph salmons, “‘good old immigrants of yesteryear’ who didn’t learn english: germans in wisconsin,” american speech , no. (fall ), – ; idem, “linguistic marginalities: becoming american without learning english,” journal of transnational american studies , no. ( ), escholarship.org/uc/item/ vn kk. . for an accessible overview, see lucy tse, “why don’t they learn english?” separating fact from fallacy in the u.s. language debate (new york: teachers college press, ). . james crawford, at war with diversity: u.s. language policy in an age of anxiety (clev- edon, england: multilingual matters, ), . . william f. thompson, ed., the history of wisconsin, vols. – (madison: state his- torical society of wisconsin, – ); crawford, at war with diversity; wüstenbecker, deutsch- amerikaner im ersten weltkrieg. . wilkerson and salmons, “‘good old immigrants of yesteryear’”; idem, “linguis- tic marginalities”; miranda e. wilkerson, mark livengood, and joseph salmons, “the sociohistorical context of imposition in substrate effects: german sourced features in wisconsin english,” journal of english linguistics , no. (dec. ): – ; arika okrent, “the wisconsin town that didn’t learn english for five generations,” men- tal floss, , mentalfl oss.com/article/ /wisconsin- town- didnt- learn- english- fi ve - generations. . benjamin frey, “towards a general theory of language shift: a case study in wis- consin german and north carolina cherokee” (ph.d. diss., university of wisconsin– madison, ). . carl wittke, german americans and the world war (columbus: ohio state archaeo- logical and historical society, ), – . . joseph salmons, “community, region and language shift in german- speaking wisconsin,” in regionalism in the age of globalism: concepts of regionalism, ed. lothar hönni- ghausen, marc frey, james peacock, and niklaus steiner (madison, wis.: center for the study of upper midwestern cultures, ), – ; idem, “the role of community and regional structure in language shift,” in regionalism in the age of globalism: forms of re- gionalism, ed. lothar hönnighausen, anke ortlepp, james peacock, niklaus steiner, and carrie matthews (madison, wis.: center for the study of upper midwestern cultures, ), – ; felecia a. lucht, “language variation in a german- american com- middle west review • vol. no. munity: a diachronic study of the spectrum of language use in lebanon, wisconsin” (ph.d. diss., university of wisconsin– madison, ); benjamin frey, “towards a gen- eral theory of language shift” (ph.d. diss., university of wisconsin– madison, ); joshua r. brown, “religious identity and language shift among amish- mennonites in kishacoquillas valley, pennsylvania” (ph.d. diss., pennsylvania state university, ). for another recent study of language shift in german communities include (though not in the verticalization framework discussed below), see g. scott seeger, “socio- economic infl uence on low german in north- central kansas: from immigrant lan- guage lost to heritage language revived” (ph.d. diss., university of kansas, ). . roland l. warren, the community in america, third ed. (chicago: rand- mcnally, ). . salmons, “the shift from german to english”; salmons “community, region and language shift”; salmons “the role of community and regional structure in lan- guage shift”; lucht, “language variation in a german american community”; frey, “towards a general theory of language shift.” . on the bennett law, see discussions in william f. thompson, ed., the history of wisconsin, vols. – , esp. vols. and . . salmons, “the shift from german to english.” . lucht, “language variation in a german american community.” . crawford, at war with diversity. . catherine stafford, “spanish in wisconsin: advantages of maintenance and prospects for sustained vitality,” wisconsin talk: linguistic diversity in the badger state, ed. thomas purnell, eric raimy, and joseph salmons (madison: university of wisconsin press, ), . . izhak epstein, la pensée et la polyglossie: essai psychologique et didactique (lausanne: librarie payot et cie, ), . . aneta pavlenko, the bilingual mind: and what it tells us about language and thought (malden, mass.: blackwell- wiley, ), . . see ellen bialystok, “the good, the bad, and the indifferent,” bilingualism: lan- guage and cognition , no. (jan. ): – ; ellen bialystok and fergus i. m. craik, “cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind,” current directions in psycho- logical science , no. (feb. ): – . . see christos pliatsikas, tom johnstone, and theodoros marinis, “grey matter volume in the cerebellum is related to processing of grammatical rules in a second language: a structural vbm study,” cerebellum , no. (feb. ): – ; christos pli- atsikas, elisavet moschopoulou, and james douglas saddy, “the effects of bilingualism on the white matter structure of the brain,” proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america (forthcoming). . see esp. frey, “towards a general theory of language shift”; felecia lucht, “life after language death: the effects of community change on the history and future of german in southeastern wisconsin” (unpublished manuscript, wayne state university). . luanne von schneidemesser, “more german loanwords from the dictionary of american regional english,” in the german language in america, ed. joseph salmons (madi- putnam & salmons: multilingualism in the midwest son, wis.: max kade institute, ), – ; idem, “words used in wisconsin,” in wis- consin talk, – . . von schneidemesser, “more german loanwords.” . robert b. howell, “german immigration and the development of regional vari- ants of american english: using contact theory to discover our roots,” in the german language in america, – . . alyson sewell and joseph salmons, “how far- reaching are the effects of contact? parasitic gapping in wisconsin german and english,” in questioning language contact: limits of contact, contact at its limits, ed. robert nicolai (leiden: brill, ), – . . polish, dutch, and some kinds of yiddish have similar devoicing, thus this is likely again not just a german sourced pronunciation. . thomas purnell, joseph salmons, and dilara tepeli, “german substrate effects in wisconsin english: evidence for final fortition,” american speech , no. (summer ): – ; thomas purnell, joseph salmons, dilara tepeli and jennifer mercer, “structured heterogeneity and change in laryngeal phonetics: upper midwestern final obstruents,” journal of english linguistics , no. (dec. ): – ; annear annear, lucas, emily clare, alicia groh, thomas purnell, eric raimy, mary simonsen, and jo- seph salmons, “why do english speakers neutralize voicing finally?” paper present- ed at new ways of analyzing variation, georgetown university, washington, d.c., . . sylvie dubois and barbara m. horvath, “let’s tink about dat: interdental frica- tives in cajun english,” language variation and change , no. (oct. ): – . . ngramviewer is available at books.google.com/ngrams. for a related discussion, see kathryn remlinger, luanne von schneidemesser, and joseph salmons, “revised per- ceptions: changing dialect awareness in wisconsin and the upper peninsula,” american speech , no. (summer ): – . . danielle schuld and joseph salmons, “hearing a new accent: changing percep- tions of wisconsin english over time,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the american dialect society, portland, ore., jan. . . william labov and sharon ash, “understanding birmingham,” in language vari- ety in the south revisited, ed. cynthia bernstein, thomas nunnally, and robin sabino (tus- caloosa: university of alabama press, ), – ; paul kerswill, “koineization and accommodation,” handbook of language variation and change, ed. j. k. chambers, peter trudgill, and natalie schilling- estes (oxford: blackwell, ), – . . steven h. keiser, pennsylvania german in the american midwest (durham, n.c.: duke university press, ), . . keiser, pennsylvania german in the american midwest, , ; steven m. nolt, a history of the amish, rev. ed. (intercourse, pa.: good books, ), . . reuben epp, the spelling of low german and plautdietsch: towards an offi cial plautdi- etsch orthography (hillsboro, kan.: reader’s press, ); jack thiessen, mennonite low german dictionary / mennonitsch- plattdeutsches wörterbuch (madison, wis.: max kade insti- tute, ). . paula m. rowden, angelia m. paschal, suzanne r. hawley, and tracy hsaio. “oral health attitudes and practices among a german mexican mennonite farmworker community,” journal of immigrant and minority health , no. (dec. ): – . middle west review • vol. no. . martha ratliff, hmong- mien language history (canberra: pacifi c linguistics, ); susan burt, “hmong in wisconsin,” in wisconsin talk, . on spanish, see stafford, “spanish in wisconsin,” . . brent o. peterson, “germanistik and ethnicity,” in challenges of germanistik: traditions and prospects of an academic discipline/germanistik weltweit? zur theorie und praxis des disziplinrahmens, ed. eitel timm (munich: iudicium verlag, ), – ; joseph salmons, “academic/non- academic relations and filiopietism in german ameri- can studies,” monatshefte , no. (fall ): – ; robert w. frizzell, “german american history as written decades ago,” review of don heinrich tolzmann, the ger- man american experience, h- ethnic: h- net reviews, dec. , h- net.org/reviews/showrev .php?id= . . frizzell, “german american history as written decades ago.” . see frederick c. luebke, bonds of loyalty: german americans and world war i (dekalb: northern illinois university press, ); jörg nagler, “pandora’s box: propaganda and war hysteria in the united states during world war i,” in great war, total war: combat and mobilization on the western front, – , ed. roger chickering and stig förster (new york: cambridge university press, ), – . . for more on kloss’s work for the foreign institute (das deutsche ausland- institut), see katja gesche, kultur als instrument der außenpolitik totalitärer staaten: das deutsche ausland- institut – (köln: böhlau, ). . cornelia wilhelm, “nazi propaganda and the uses of the past: heinz kloss and the making of a “german america,” amerikastudien / american studies , no. ( ): . . wilhelm, “nazi propaganda,” . . see wilkerson and salmons, “good old immigrants”; idem, “linguistic mar- ginalities.” . wilhelm, “nazi propaganda.” the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war by robin edith deich ottoson b.a., taylor university, m.a., fuller theological seminary, m.a., university of denver, an abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy department of history college of arts and sciences kansas state university manhattan, kansas abstract this study examines how three mennonite colleges in kansas struggled with issues of church and state during the vietnam war as they attempted to express patriotism while remaining true to their anabaptist theological heritage and commitments. it considers how the pressures of an undeclared war in vietnam and acculturation into the greater american society produced tension within these colleges and also evaluates whether these forces eroded or sharpened their peace positions and those of their parent denominations. allowing for close analysis of three groups that derive from the same theological tradition, but which have struggled with how to express their dual doctrines of nonresistance and nonconformity in regard to the american state and society, the investigation considers both the motivations for and political experience of dissent by these people previously opposed to political involvement. this study examines why the three campuses chose different responses to this dilemma and argues that their actions depended not only on students, but also were influenced by the leadership of faculty and administration, decisions by the three parent denominations, and pressures exerted by the towns in which they were located. as such, this study relies on a thick social analysis to explore what acculturation meant for mennonites struggling to emerge from isolation and to be faithful to their christian commitments. it offers an answer to the historiography that locates antiwar protest as a chiefly secular exercise and breaks new ground by arguing that even theologically conservative religious groups opposed the war and demonstrated against it because of their convictions and commitment. moreover, it also explores the pressures exerted by kansans on these groups and why two of the three were willing to raise questions and perform protests of a wide variety that risked the protected status extended to their draft-age young men. it also begins to fill a gap in the historical literature on mennonites in central kansas during the vietnam war, describing the diverse responses by the different colleges and considering how the war challenged denominational attitudes about their historic faith and its relationship to government. in the case of one school in particular, the analysis also will indicate that the college had not completely resolved the tensions between church and state, but only postponed their resolution to the next decade. finally, the study will lay groundwork for further investigation and argumentation regarding the abilities of the main mennonite groups to experiment with and redefine non- conformity in regard to issues of church and state in the united states and the contested nature of antiwar unrest and protest in twentieth-century america. this dissertation incorporates the publication by robin deich ottoson, “the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war,” journal of church and state, , no. (october ), – , https://doi.org/ . /jcs/csq . used with permission by oxford university press and the j.m. dawson institute of church-state studies at baylor university, this is the first comparative study of mennonite college protest during the vietnam war. the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war by robin edith deich ottoson b.a., taylor university, m.a., fuller theological seminary, m.a., university of denver, a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy department of history college of arts and sciences kansas state university manhattan, kansas approved by: major professor dr. robert d. linder copyright © robin edith deich ottoson . abstract this study examines how three mennonite colleges in kansas struggled with issues of church and state during the vietnam war as they attempted to express patriotism while remaining true to their anabaptist theological heritage and commitments. it considers how the pressures of an undeclared war in vietnam and acculturation into the greater american society produced tension within these colleges and also evaluates whether these forces eroded or sharpened their peace positions and those of their parent denominations. allowing for close analysis of three groups that derive from the same theological tradition, but which have struggled with how to express their dual doctrines of nonresistance and nonconformity in regard to the american state and society, the investigation considers both the motivations for and political experience of dissent by these people previously opposed to political involvement. this study examines why the three campuses chose different responses to this dilemma and argues that their actions depended not only on students, but also were influenced by the leadership of faculty and administration, decisions by the three parent denominations, and pressures exerted by the towns in which they were located. as such, this study relies on a thick social analysis to explore what acculturation meant for mennonites struggling to emerge from isolation and to be faithful to their christian commitments. it offers an answer to the historiography that locates antiwar protest as a chiefly secular exercise and breaks new ground by arguing that even theologically conservative religious groups opposed the war and demonstrated against it because of their convictions and commitment. moreover, it also explores the pressures exerted by kansans on these groups and why two of the three were willing to raise questions and perform protests of a wide variety that risked the protected status extended to their draft-age young men. it also begins to fill a gap in the historical literature on mennonites in central kansas during the vietnam war, describing the diverse responses by the different colleges and considering how the war challenged denominational attitudes about their historic faith and its relationship to government. in the case of one school in particular, the analysis also will indicate that the college had not completely resolved the tensions between church and state, but only postponed their resolution to the next decade. finally, the study will lay groundwork for further investigation and argumentation regarding the abilities of the main mennonite groups to experiment with and redefine non- conformity in regard to issues of church and state in the united states and the contested nature of antiwar unrest and protest in twentieth-century america. this dissertation incorporates the publication by robin deich ottoson, “the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war,” journal of church and state, , no. (october ), – , https://doi.org/ . /jcs/csq . used with permission by oxford university press and the j.m. dawson institute of church-state studies at baylor university, this is the first comparative study of mennonite college protest during the vietnam war. viii table of contents list of abbreviations ..................................................................................................................... xi acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xiii dedication .................................................................................................................................... xvi introduction---faith, citizenship, and contested loyalties ............................................................ who are the mennonites and why do they matter? .............................................................. historiography, popular memory, and remembered disorder ................................................ historiography and antiwar opposition ................................................................................... organization and chapter descriptions .................................................................................... a word regarding sidney ahlstrom and the ahlstrom argument .......................................... chapter -- the mennonites and modernity ............................................................................... situating the mennonites .......................................................................................................... mennonite origins: nonconformity, nonresistance, persecution, and endurance --- a history of movement ................................................................................................................. mennonites on the move --- or not. a few notes on mennonites in europe to .......... the dutch-russian experience ............................................................................................. the swiss-south german experience .................................................................................. the mennonites meet america ................................................................................................ the dutch-russians become dutch-russians ...................................................................... why america? and why kansas? ....................................................................................... situating mennonites and american war ................................................................................. american mennonites and war prior to the twentieth century .......................................... american mennonites during world war i ......................................................................... american mennonites between wars—cooperative peace ................................................. postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of mennonite central committee (mcc) ................................................................................................ theological interlude ...................................................................................................... the two kingdoms .................................................................................................... acted theology ........................................................................................................... postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of the historic peace churches and the creation of civilian public service........................................ american mennonites during world war ii – unintended consequences ....................... ix the burke-wadsworth bill and the selective service and training act of ........ american mennonites during world war ii—attempts at institutionalization and unintended consequences .................................................................................. the re-appropriation and re-casting of mennonite identity ....................................... mennonites postwar and the broadening of claims ........................................................... the winona lake conference ( ) ............................................................................. conflict, creativity, ethics: interrogating “the anabaptist vision” in the age of consensus ........................................................................................................... reconstruction, questioning, and identification ............................................................ unintended consequences & international conversations: the concern group ( ) & puidoux ( - ) .......................................................................................... church and state in america .................................................................................................. the lordship of christ & witnessing to the state .............................................................. mennonite relief and tiptoes of american empire. vietnam ........................................... international claims, anti-communist rhetoric, the challenge of communism and the challenge of nationalism ( ) ............................................................................ on the cusp of the public war --- tracking and defusing dissent (the hershey-brunk forum) ........................................................................................................................ particular notes on mennonites in kansas ......................................................................... particular notes on the hershey-brunk forum................................................................... part i: flying the flag while leading protest chapter -- bethel college and the definition of public patriotism ......................................... prelude .................................................................................................................................... the long vietnam war .......................................................................................................... entering the public square with a resounding tiptoe .......................................................... the denomination approaches vietnam ............................................................................... bethel college and the public square: and mixed commitments in the public square how the peace club got its groove: prelude ........................................................................ how the peace club got its groove: action .......................................................................... bethel college and moratorium day: entering the public square ......................................... the bell ................................................................................................................................... the march to wichita ............................................................................................................. the denomination confronts its peacemaking ...................................................................... the march against death, american memory, and a resonating symbol .......................... x later reflections and outcomes: publicity, reaction, and reflections ................................. the moratorium, real and imagined consequences, and contested memory ...................... politics and peacemaking: structural attempts at reinvention ............................................. part ii: questioning nationalism and affirming new symbols chapter -- hesston college and the question of nationalism ................................................. prelude .................................................................................................................................... watching the flag: hesston college and the first world war .............................................. finding a path to protest and inter-mennonite cooperation .................................................. the mc mennonite church takes a surprising stand ........................................................... the long vietnam war comes to hesston college ............................................................... demonstrations and counter-demonstrations: re-visioning america, re-visioning disorder .................................................................................................................................... flags on american soil: loyalties and kingdoms at hesston college .................................. part iii: struggling with conflicted visions chapter -- tabor college and unresolved tensions................................................................ prelude .................................................................................................................................... the long vietnam war comes to hillsboro .......................................................................... vietnam through a detailed lens: acts of mercy, mennonite memories, and the travels of delbert wiens ......................................................................................................... changing the culture: delbert wiens ................................................................................. conscientious objection, christian service, and conflicted beliefs: institutional and personal, but not political ...................................................................................... tabor college and its innovations: delights in modernity .................................................... mcc’s surprising re-appearance: the long war returns to tabor ................................... lost mennonite brethren memories & the curious case of the oklahoma objector: in loco parentis, selective service, and denominational angst ............................................ finding faith, raising the flag: conflicted loyalties and the intensified war ..................... chapter -- conclusion .............................................................................................................. bibliography ............................................................................................................................... appendix a - interviews and correspondence ........................................................................... appendix b - mennonite immigration to the united states ....................................................... appendix c - timeline of related events (selective) ................................................................ xi list of abbreviations organizations afsc american friends service committee calcav clergy and laity against the war co conscientious objector cps civilian public service for fellowship of reconciliation ipf intercollegiate peace fellowship mcc mennonite central committee nisbro national interreligious service board for religious objectors (successor to nsbro) nsa national student association nsbro national service board for religious objectors sane national committee for a sane nuclear policy sds students for a democratic society sncc student non-violent coordinating committee vmc vietnam moratorium committee archives & sources amc archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, in bhla brethren historical library and archives, elgin, il cmbsf center for mennonite brethren archives, fresno pacific university, fresno, ca cmbsh center for mennonite brethren archives, tabor college, hillsboro, ks gameo global anabaptist encyclopedia online mcc mennonite central committee archives, ephrata, pa mcusa mennonite church usa archives, elkhart, in mhi u.s. army military history institute, carlisle barracks, pa xii mhl mennonite historical library, goshen college, goshen, in mla mennonite library and archives, bethel college, north newton, ks mshl menno simons historical library, eastern mennonite university, harrisonburg, va xiii acknowledgements my greatest debt is to my advisor, dr. robert d. linder, who encouraged me from the beginning, then leavened the journey with tough questions and grace. i am also grateful to members of my committee who offered me their insights and challenges at various stages: drs. albert n. hamscher, laurie m. johnson, lou falkner williams, and sue zschoche, and others in the department of history who enabled me to persist: drs. louise a. breen, michael krysko, heather mccrea, and charles sanders. many scholars, including emeritus archivists, librarians, and their assistants, have made this work possible as they suggested sources, unearthed treasures, and in some cases became close personal friends. i am especially indebted to those who encouraged me in early stages of the research: lois bowman, faculty emerita library, and gerald brunk, emeritus professor of history, both at eastern mennonite university, james zimmerman, emeritus professor of history at trine university, the late paul toews, emeritus professor of history at fresno pacific university, james c. juhnke, emeritus professor of history at bethel college, john sharp, professor of history at hesston college, and victoria waters, formerly of the university of chicago and goshen college. john thiesen and james lynch of the mennonite library and archives in north newton, kansas were essential to this study, and william c. kostlevy of the brethren historical library and archives in elgin, illinois, always offered a welcome refuge and surprising goldmine. perry bush’s fine work on mennonite pacifism was an exemplar of scholarship i always had before me, while he himself models the best of expansive hospitality, as did his father, frederick william bush. kip wedel, mark jantzen, kevin enns rempel, hannah keeney, and barbara and john thiesen consistently extended collegial encouragement, and keith sprunger added some laughter and polish at the end. gari-anne patzwald, william c. xiv kostlevy, the late frank ritchel ames, richard g. kyle, raymond f. wiebe, jonathan and cathleen lauer, susan claassen jantzen, and marykate morse helped me find my historical voice in ways that can never be thanked enough. sunki (michael) choe introduced me to the art of thinking and has continued as friend and mentor for almost forty years, an inestimable gift. fellow graduate students at kansas state university who were important critical companions include alida s. boorn, robert j. clark, aaron k. davis, timothy w. holgerson, kelly levi sartorius, cameron stutzman, jennifer day tope, darin tuck, and jennifer m. zoebelein, some of whom read early versions and some of whom travelled alongside in different ways. those alumni, former students, and faculty who agreed to be interviewed and situate what took place many years ago can never be thanked enough. they appear in more detail throughout the study, but i am especially grateful to the late katie funk wiebe, delbert wiens, frank brenneman, dorothea janzen, albert berg, liz black, ellen kroeker, robert harms, phil kliewer, myron toews, susan wiebe, bob maher, allan teichroew, dwight bitikofer, dan and jean widmer clark, dan king, and cheryl miller ramer. none of my research in far-flung archives would have been possible without the support of the generous donors who endowed the scholarships and travel grants kansas state university’s department of history awarded during the course of my studies-- in particular, the ida belle mueller and the kenneth jones awards. an earlier faculty grant from tabor college’s hope scholarship fund enabled significant research at eastern mennonite university, the wisconsin historical society archives, trine university, and the army war college. without the support of vonnie horst c’de baca, joanne pagliasotti, linda hochevar wurst, anne emmons, patricia cochran bartel, sara j. hill, charlotte kennedy-takahashi, sylvia unruh abrahams, herb bartel, and elinor ewert kliewer there would never have been xv enough kindness or laughter to enjoy the journey. gary, andrew, and ben ottoson were my most constant companions, with ben adding in lindsey as a new delight in our family. my brothers were there for me at different times in almost inexpressible ways, as were my late father and memory of my mother. two special people who set examples of struggling to find their dreams as thinkers include my maternal grandmother, edith clara ellis griffith, who wanted desperately to attend college, and my dear friend dr. k. elaine woodruff, who took some of her last moments on earth to encourage me to persist in this work. it is to edith that i dedicate this work. xvi dedication to edith clara ellis griffith ( - ) and gary introduction---faith, citizenship, and contested loyalties midway through , the american presence in vietnam had increased from seven hundred to twelve thousand men. the cold war conflict that saw the french capitulate to vietnamese forces in had been shouldered gradually by the united states, first through material support and then through the provision of army officers designated as advisors. when these uniformed men now appeared on television, few americans realized that more than “advisors” were in vietnam and that the war was being escalated secretly, according to military historian stanley karnow. when directly asked at a january , news conference if u.s. soldiers were engaged in combat in the southeast asian country, president john f. kennedy answered with one word: “no.” the administration and its military, infused with a “can-do” attitude, were only beginning the escalation which, in the hands of kennedy’s successors, would eventually commit the united states to a full-scale undeclared war. meanwhile, in september , the small town of hillsboro, kansas more than doubled in size when it hosted a statewide forum on the military draft between prominent representatives of the nation and the church. lieutenant general lewis b. hershey, director of the u.s. selective service system, appeared at the newly-constructed tabor college gymnasium opposite reverend george r. brunk ii, a popular evangelist of the mc mennonite church. billed as “serving god and country,” the evening meeting followed a special, invitation-only luncheon stanley karnow, vietnam: a history, nd ed. (new york: viking, ), - . this dissertation incorporates the publication by robin deich ottoson, “the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war,” journal of church and state, , no. (october ), – , https://doi.org/ . /jcs/csq . used with permission by oxford university press and the j.m. dawson institute of church-state studies at baylor university. for local dignitaries, ministers, selective service counselors, and their wives in the basement of the hillsboro mennonite brethren church. the event, the first time in his -year career the general had appeared before a mennonite audience, had been widely publicized. in the mennonite enclave in henderson, nebraska, the local newspaper encouraged, “parents, young people [and] especially men of draft age [to attend] the presentations” and to hear hershey speak to “survival and religious freedom” and brunk address “survival [and] christian witness.” the hillsboro star journal reported that the state selective service headquarters in topeka had encouraged all draft board members in the state to attend so that they might understand and explain the options open to draftees as combatants, noncombatants, or conscientious objectors. whether drawn by the topic or the prominence of the featured speakers, so many people arrived that the gymnasium overflowed and some attendees were diverted to the chapel in the main administration building where hershey and brunk spoke a second time. in addition, three hundred would-be listeners were turned away. a large american flag and a huge banner proclaiming “serving god and country” stretched behind the platform in the gymnasium. among the attendees were mennonite brethren, amish mennonites, church of god in christ mennonites, general conference mennonites, and mc mennonites who heard, according to the “general hershey, rev. brunk discuss draft choices,” the hillsboro star journal, september , , . the newspaper earlier had announced that major junior elder, kansas selective service director, also would address “pre-draft preparation for all young men”; “lewis b. hershey to speak here,” the hillsboro star journal, september , , . “important meeting at tabor college saturday,” the henderson news, september , . also, poster announcing the event, brunk file, center for mennonite brethren studies, hillsboro, ks. the author is indebted to assistant archivist connie isaac and archivist peggy goertzen, who identified the event from a picture in the tabor bluejay. “general hershey, rev. brunk,” . tabor college newspaper, “two men representing two entirely different ways of solving the world’s problems.” so many people had arrived that simultaneous meetings were held, each man addressing one group, then changing rooms and speaking to the other. both men paid their respects to the other’s position. the general, dressed in a suit, referred to his own swiss mennonite ancestry, and then commended the mennonites for their cooperation with the alternative service program that had been designed for those whose religious convictions forbade them to engage in conventional military service. with respect to the administration of draftees who had registered as conscientious objectors, he remarked, “we [the government and mennonites] don’t disagree over what should be done, but on how it should be done.” hershey stated that his task that night was to interpret the government to the mennonites, describing at length the dilemma the government faced when the state was in jeopardy and religious toleration was juxtaposed against national survival. while hershey thus referred to the ongoing discussion between mennonites and selective service about who should oversee the assignment and daily supervision of conscientious objectors, his subsequent remarks touched on the central issue of conflicting views of religious convictions on the one hand and loyalty to the state on the other. reassuring his listeners that recognizing religious liberty meant the government should protect dissenters “to the “ , hear talks saturday,” the hillsboro star journal, september , , . bob suderman, email message to author, november , . suderman was a conscientious objector serving under the mennonite brethren conference christian service program. also, the tabor bluejay, [ - ]. “ , hear hershey and brunk,” the tabor college view, october , , (hereafter the view). “ , hear hershey-brunk on ‘survival,’” christian leader, october , , - . for a description of hershey’s attitudes toward mennonites, see george q. flynn, lewis b. hershey, mr. selective service (chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press, ), - . ultimate,” he nevertheless also told a story about people traveling in a boat with someone who decided to drill a hole in its bottom. at what point, he implied, would toleration for a position threatening to the state be accepted? dr. george r. brunk ii appeared in the standard black plain coat of the mc mennonites, the descendants of the heavily persecuted swiss and southern german anabaptists who had fled to america in the s. editor of the conservative periodical, the sword and trumpet, and professor at eastern mennonite college in harrisburg, virginia, the evangelist emphasized that “we owe a debt of gratitude to our government, and to our neighbors who have made room in this country for us and the testimony we have to give.” noting that hershey was a minister of the government and he was a minister of the church, he underscored the separate spheres of each. while the state could offer the alternative service that the mennonites were profoundly grateful to accept, brunk insisted that the church’s loyalty was not simply to a nonresistant stance on peace, but one which derived explicitly from the “centrality” of the person and teachings of christ. he warned the listeners that promoting peace apart from christ was “a doctrinal bulge” mennonites could not endorse, thereby cautioning them against pacifism as a secular ideology, but also implying that establishing real peace was beyond the jurisdiction of the state. the two speakers sidestepped each other, both paying tribute to the government’s support of alternative service, but both carefully framing different arguments about loyalty to the church and the government. lewis b. hershey, “survival and religious freedom,” september , , transcript, private collection. also, “ , attend service rally in hillsboro,” mennonite weekly review, september , , a. george r. brunk, “survival and the christian witness,” september , , transcript, private collection. the scene, placid enough in the photographs of the event, included all of the elements that would erupt during the next decade. in october , lieutenant general hershey, formerly a congenial supporter of the -w draft designation for conscientious objectors, collaborated with president lyndon b. johnson in punitive reclassification or revocation of deferments for those seen as resisting or interfering with draft registration. in , reverend brunk would advocate for “hippie”-garbed draft resisters and eventually promote the adoption of the mc mennonite church’s statement that not only reaffirmed traditional mennonite conscientious objection as an essential peace position, but also asserted that non-cooperation with selective service was a “valid and ‘legitimate witness.’” and, finally, those in the audience in who supported, taught, or attended the three mennonite colleges within twenty miles of hillsboro faced their own decisions about the war and what the national flag meant both on their own campuses and in their particular mennonite denominations or fellowships. the turmoil that soon descended on america was about to become their own concern. this study will examine how the three colleges founded by the largest mennonite denominations in kansas struggled with issues of church and state during the vietnam war as they attempted to express patriotism while remaining true to their anabaptist theological heritage and commitments. it considers how the pressures of an undeclared war in vietnam and acculturation into the greater american society produced tension within these colleges and also evaluates whether these forces eroded or sharpened their peace positions and those of their parent george q. flynn, the draft, - (lawrence, ks: the university press of kansas, ), - . paul toews, mennonites in american society, - : modernity and the persistence of religious community (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), . denominations. allowing for close analysis of three groups that derive from the same theological tradition, but which have struggled with how to express their dual doctrines of nonresistance and nonconformity in regard to the american state and society, the investigation considers both the motivations for and political experience of dissent by these people previously opposed to political involvement. the analysis will then argue that the three campuses chose different responses to this dilemma. their actions depended not only on students, but also were influenced by the leadership of faculty and administration, decisions by the three parent denominations, and pressures exerted by the towns in which they were located. as such, this investigation relies on a thick social analysis to explore what acculturation meant for mennonites struggling to emerge from isolation and to be faithful to their christian commitments. on the one hand, it thus begins to address a gap in the social historical literature on mennonites in central kansas during the vietnam war, describing the diverse responses by the different colleges and considering how the war challenged denominational attitudes about their historic faith and its relationship to government. on the other hand, even as the analysis offers a piece toward the first comprehensive and comparative study of mennonite college activism during the vietnam war, it contributes to the larger historiographical debates about american antiwar protest during the vietnam war, including those that address memory and the meaning of disorder. “denomination” is a problematic term among some mennonites, but since the three sub-groups in this study increasingly have referred to themselves as “denominations,” the term will be used with the understanding that it is complicated and does not completely represent the nature of “common peoplehood” or “brotherhood” used by the tradition. james c. juhnke, “denominationalism, article,” in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://gameo.org/index.php?title=denominationalism (accessed february , ). it offers a rejoinder to the historiography discussed shortly that has challenged the perception of antiwar protest in american memory as a chiefly secular exercise and breaks new ground by arguing that even theologically conservative religious groups opposed the war and demonstrated against it because of their convictions and commitment. by examining the reasons why these individuals and groups participated or did not participate in protests the study argues that this activism derived from religious motivations, even as it significantly interacted with and upon secular antiwar dissatisfaction. moreover, it also explores the pressures exerted by kansans on these groups and why two of the three were willing to raise questions and perform protests of a wide variety that risked the protected status extended to their draft-age young men. in the case of tabor college, whose students were especially articulate about the war, the analysis also will indicate that the school had not completely resolved the tensions between church and state, but only postponed their resolution to the next decade. the issues manifested particularly at all three schools in a highly charged symbol --- the american flag. as the increasingly prominent emblem of national identity and focus for campus protest nationwide during the s, it was already one considered problematic for mennonites, who had debated saluting it or flying it since the early s. some contended that such actions displayed loyalty to the state rather than to god. others had even begun to fly the american flag in their churches. the banner will appear throughout the narrative and will illustrate each college’s struggles with the questions of church and state. rachel waltner goossen, “flag,” in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/index.php?title=flag (accessed february , ); david l. weaver-zercher, “between two kingdoms: virginia mennonites and the american flag, mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - ; john perry, “not pledging as liturgy” lessons from karl barth and american mennonites on refusing national oaths,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (october ): - . finally, the study will lay groundwork for further investigation and argumentation regarding the effect an institutionally secured conscientious objection policy and practices had on the abilities of the main mennonite groups to experiment with and redefine non-conformity in regard to issues of church and state in the united states. did the boundaries established by selective service enable the kind of internal discourse that encouraged each group to re-think and re-work its stance toward the government in such a way that each better defined its own position, disrupted traditional structures of decision-making, and both strengthened and weakened the historic peace church tradition? did the mennonite actions strengthen the ability to effectively oppose the conduct of future wars? who are the mennonites and why do they matter? but why were mennonites, arguably perceived as one of the most conservative of american religious traditions, involved as protesters against any war, and, in particular, the vietnam war, whose activists are widely perceived as college-age radical students whose motivations derived from secular impulses? before turning to the larger historiographical questions regarding the latter a brief descriptive sketch of the former is in order. both mennonites and american culture have identified the faith tradition and its adherents as essentially conservative. in part, the latter has reduced the wide range of anabaptist groups to some of their most culturally nonconformist --- and therefore visible --- members. thus, anabaptist associations (such as the amish, old order mennonites, conservative mennonites, hutterites) which would fit under the umbrella of mennonites as outlined separately by historian james c. juhnke and sociologist donald kraybill are the standard representation of mennonites for many americans. men with beards and black plain coats, women in caps wearing plain mid-calf, long-sleeved dresses with black hose, black vehicles with blackened chrome (to avoid ostentation) or horse-drawn buggies, and an aversion to technology are stereotypical images of what is in fact a diverse collection of groups with historically strong commitments to a peace tradition that can radically question the cultures in which they have resided. mennonites themselves have self-identified as conservatives, but with significant caveats to that identification, both theologically and in practice, particularly in regard to what the forum between reverend brunk and lieutenant general hershey was consistent with ongoing attempts by mennonites to clarify their positions as one of the three historic peace church traditions granted exemption from military service in the united states. beginning in the sixteenth century, mennonites had moved throughout europe for many reasons, but in large part due to persecution based on their beliefs regarding adult believers’ baptism and nonresistance, or military service. those doctrines had put them in disfavor with both religious and civil authorities resulting in torture and a martyr’s death for many. persecution was most severe for the swiss-german branch of these people, but those who began in holland, were forced into prussia, and then finally into russia also adopted survival strategies, chiefly by blending into rural communities. they were known as die stillen im lande, or the “peaceful people in the that might mean in a country engaging in war. both strands will be explored in chapter in considering twentieth-century historical and theological contexts, particularly in regard to mennonite struggles with modernity. for a concise and clear explanation of mennonite identification as essentially conservative, see james c. juhnke, “mennonite churches,” in robert d. linder, bruce l. shelley, and harry s. stout, eds., dictionary of christianity in america (downers grove, il: intervarsity press, ), - . for a more thorough historical analyses undergirding juhnke’s essay, see james c. juhnke, vision, doctrine, war: mennonite identity and organization in america, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), in particular - , and toews, mennonites in american society, - , - , - . in regard to the amish, see donald kraybill, the amish struggle with modernity (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). explicating how mennonites situated themselves theologically and culturally was originally undertaken in the landmark study conducted in by sociologists j. howard kauffman and leland harder who analyzed surveys administered to five mennonite and brethren in christ groups on both theological and social variables. the results, which reflected beliefs and practices, were reprised nearly two decades later through the follow up project conducted by kauffman and sociologist leo driedger. in both studies, the faith tradition had strong identification with many culturally conservative attitudes toward conventional morality and identified positively with theological positions more conservative than most protestants, although varying significantly on issues of peace. the inter-mennonite picture, to be explicated in the next chapter, depicts some variations between groups, particularly in regard to what the authors attribute to the influence of american fundamentalism. j. howard kauffman and leland harder, anabaptists four centuries later (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); j. howard kauffman and leo driedger, the mennonite mosaic: identity and modernization (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). country,” who practiced their religion privately and who did not engage in political activity. migrating to the united states in the colonial era, and again in two waves in the s and s, they continued to explore how their peace stance could function within the selective service system of twentieth-century america. it had not been a simple path. mennonites in world war i had been pressured to buy war bonds in order to demonstrate their loyalty to their new country, and they had also endured beatings, vandalism, and arson. like quaker and church of the brethren conscientious objectors, their young men drafted into service were frequently abused in military camps. during world war ii, major general hershey, a descendant of swiss mennonites, worked with president franklin delano roosevelt to create an alternative service program that allowed conscientious objectors to work in prisons, hospitals, forests, and farms--or to volunteer as subjects in medical experiments--rather than to be based in military camps. the partnership continued to be an uneasy one and, while mennonites expressed their appreciation to the american government at denominational conferences in the united states and canada, they also continued to discuss this cooperation and the pressure to participate in war. these assemblies passed no fewer than thirty statements or resolutions on peace issues and military service between and . each war, or threat of war, generated more discussion as mennonites grew increasingly acculturated as americans and faced the pressure to support the majority stance. the term “historic peace churches” was coined in to describe the collective peace convictions of the mennonites, the society of friends (also known as quakers) and the church of the brethren (not to be confused with other groups such as the brethren in christ or river brethren). melvin gingerich and paul peachey. "historic peace churches." global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/index.php? title=historic peace churches (accessed march , ). on “die stillen im lande,” s.v. leo driedger. "urbanization." global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/index.php?title= urbanization (accessed february , ). these comments are a simple reduction of the mennonite position on peace which will there were nine main groups of mennonites in kansas in the s, with the four largest responsible for founding the three mennonite colleges in the state. the largest branch, the general conference mennonite church, had been founded in iowa in , attracting progressives from other mennonite bodies and incorporating many of the russian mennonites who arrived in the s and s. the mennonite brethren were an evangelical reform movement among mennonites in russia, a group that was heavily influenced by german pietism and that chiefly immigrated to the united states as a group in the s. in , the krimmer mennonite brethren, who had emigrated from the russian crimea and who resisted americanization, joined their four congregations to the mennonite brethren in . the mc mennonite church descended from the heavily persecuted swiss-south german branch of the faith and as a result was the most wary of government intrusion. it emphasized nonconformity in their dress (with men wearing the collarless plain coat and women wearing small caps) and separation from the world. for reasons more fully developed in subsequent chapters, these four groups of kansas mennonites had founded three colleges within fifteen years and twenty miles of each other. be examined in the following chapter, for an in-depth treatment of the classic theological stance at mid-twentieth-century, see guy f. hershberger, war, peace, and nonresistance (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), with historical framing by perry bush, two kingdoms, two loyalties: mennonite pacifism in modern america (baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, ). see bush, two kingdoms, - , for the treatment of conscientious objectors during world war i. urbane peachey, ed., mennonite statements on peace and social concerns, - (akron, pa: mennonite central committee, ), - . james c. juhnke, a people of two kingdoms: the political acculturation of the kansas mennonites (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), - . these denominations include the three largest groups of mennonites in america, the mennonite church (also referred to as old mennonites or mc mennonites), the general conference mennonites, and the mennonite brethren. mc mennonite church will be used in this analysis, rather than the more potentially confusing mennonite church label. bethel college was established by the general conference mennonite church near newton (later called north newton) in , followed by tabor college in hillsboro (mennonite brethren and krimmer mennonite brethren) in and hesston college (mc mennonites) in . each school struggled with enrollment at different times (tabor had closed in for a year) and each attempted to come to terms with the fundamentalist-modernist tensions that began to affect american christianity in the interwar period between and . all three would continue to contend with how to reconcile faith and politics during the course of the vietnam war, when they found their students and constituents torn between individual, personal piety on the one hand, and concerns about peace, social justice, and collective well-being on the other. as the war progressed, each came to terms differently with the conflict, its demands on young men, and what it meant to be a patriot. while across the nation american flags were being burned as a free-speech exercise and an excoriation of the american military presence in vietnam, the flag ranged from being a silent symbol of freedom to the focus of activist confrontation on the kansas mennonite college campuses. historiography, popular memory, and remembered disorder the historiographical picture is a remarkably complex one, because it includes not only treatments by historians, but also an unusually intense popular memory which has largely defined a decade and established a particular understanding of the sources of fragmentation in american society. because this interpretation helps to nullify the presence of actors moral and religious, and has been consistently invoked as a convenient trope in american war making during the subsequent fifty years after the war, it is essential to keep it present---although backgrounded---during this analysis. the inquiry will first turn to this cultural memory, then examine elements of disorder not considered in the long memories about the vietnam war and the s, then move into the particular historiography. before leaving the historiographical picture the analysis will reflect and interact with historian sydney ahlstrom’s conclusions about the turbulent sixties and its de facto closing of the door on the american puritan epoch. thus, before engaging in a formal historiography, the study will first consider issues of memory and public opposition to the war. the vietnam antiwar movement has long been posited as a chiefly secular exercise that demonstrated little patriotism and created unprecedented civil disorder. young radicals sporting long hair, torn jeans or dungarees, and angry fists jammed in the air alongside picket signs that often carried crude language have found their way into a long popular memory. few women appear on the scene --- much less as leaders --- and those that do include base creatures who spit on returning soldiers or, conversely, who greet national guardsmen with expressions of beatific and wishful thinking. the iconic young hippie inserting a daisy into a guardsman’s gun barrel stands alongside tear gas, free love, and, above all, disrespect for the honorably discharged warriors returning from vietnam. the long-lived result has been a bifurcation in popular memory between those who honorably served in the military and those who dishonored them upon their return home, alongside visions of disorder. the image has been a particularly useful one for those who continued to define patriotism as willing participation in america’s subsequent wars, but has also contained a baffling subtext. sociologist jerry lembcke, in his classic study that initially endeavored to investigate the long-held stories of antiwar protestors spitting on gis returning from vietnam, in fact discovered not a single case of such activity. instead, he discerned not only that the numerous reported incidents were essentially part of an urban myth, but also that the constructed myth itself was highly useful as a trope to garner and to reinforce support for subsequent american wars. in particular, he has continued to argue that the composition has enabled american presidential administrations in the late twentieth century to argue “that opposition to the war was tantamount to disregard for [the soldier’s] well-being and that such disregard was reminiscent of the treatment given to vietnam veterans upon their return home. [for example], by invoking the as sylvester stallone’s iconic anti-hero, rambo, explained in a lowered, measured, authoritative voice in the blockbuster film first blood in , “i did everything to win, but someone didn’t let us win. and at home at the airport these maggots were protesting. they spat at me, called me a baby murderer and shit like that! why protest against me, when they weren’t there, didn’t experience it?” the former u.s. army special forces officer has returned to southeast asia, a man abandoned by his country and living off the land by his wits, extraordinary self-discipline, strength of character, and rugged determination to survive as an independent operator, all undergirded by an exceptional musculature. he is both the symbol of all that went wrong with the war and all that remained fascinating about it, with over seventy- seven ( ) million americans revisiting those times through rambo’s abandonment and his thorough determination, albeit reluctantly, to fight and win the battle against cruel, despotic, communists and their corrupt affiliates in the jungles miles from the screen and years after the war has ostensively been ended. stallone’s cachet contributed to the film’s success (and the production of three lucrative sequels), but as marita sturken argues in her analysis of popular image of anti-war activists spitting on veterans, the [bush] administration was able to discredit the opposition and galvanize support for the war. so successful was this endeavor that by the time the bombing of iraq began in january president bush had effectively turned the means of war, the soldiers themselves, into a reason for the war.” the spitting image: myth, memory, and the legacy of vietnam (new york: new york university press, ), . lembcke, himself a vietnam veteran, has continued to hammer away at the ongoing use of the myth in order to argue that patriotism includes dissenting opposition and that continuing to service the memory of such stories has reinforced the notion that dissent --- rather than the conduct of the wars themselves --- harms the hapless soldier. his work evidences not only the long cultural reach of the memory of the vietnam war, but its usefulness as an ongoing political weapon. jerry lembcke, “popular consensus or political extortion? making soldiers the means and ends of us military deployments,” in social policy and the conservative agenda, ed. clarence y.h. lo and michael schwartz (malden, ma: blackwell publishers, ), - . american memory regarding vietnam, rambo also contributed to the common theme of films about vietnam produced after the war and their subsequent portrayal of antiwar opposition: the films portray the vietnam war as one characterized over who the enemy was. the enemy in this war was elusive, invisible, and disguised. the message in many of the vietnam war films is that the real enemy was america --- not simply as rambo might have put it, that the american public and u.s. government would not let the war be won but rather, as perhaps oliver stone would put it, that blind patriotism and anticommunism were the real foes. as the films contested the identification of the real enemy in the war, they also argued over the meaning of the war from an american perspective, yet always framing antiwar protestors as oppositional, in contrast to the warriors. films such as platoon and casualties of war present the war of the indecisive american psyche, the country that could not agree on a narrative under which to fight, the war of the grunt, struggling for survival, versus the antiwar protestors at home---that is, the war produced by the american public’s collective guilt over having allowed the war to happen and then mistreating or ignoring the veterans on their return. transcript, first blood ( ). i am indebted to the theatre and business librarians at kansas state university’s hale library for providing the raw statistics and calculators used by the national association of theatre owners (nato) and the motion picture mpaa to determine ticket sales for films released prior to . the nearly . million tickets sold were for the entire rambo series of four films. “annual average u.s. ticket price,” national association of theatre owners, http://www.natoonline.org/data/ticket-price/ (accessed september , ); “franchises: total grosses,” box office mojo http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/? id=rambo.htm (accessed september , ). for method of calculation for previous years see “theatrical market statistics ,” motion picture association of america, http://www.mpaa.org/ wp-content/uploads/ / /mpaa- theatrical-market-statistics- _final.pdf (accessed september , ), p. - ; marita sturken, tangled memories: the vietnam war, the aids epidemic, and the politics of remembering. berkeley, ca: university of california press, , . the screen character of john rambo was loosely based on an actual vietnam veteran, and sturken notes the ongoing activity at the national vietnam memorial in washington, dc by individuals who take rubbings of his name. ibid., . while labor historian penny lewis focuses her memory study on the invisibility of the working class as frequent opponents to the war contrary to the popular narrative, her conclusions concur with sturken’s overall analysis on cultural memory, particularly that promoted through mass culture. “with the exception of the two films explicitly although films like oliver stone’s born on the fourth of july ( ), novels such as tim o’brien’s the things they carried, and, most of all, the creation of the vietnam war memorial in washington dc explored a more complex story of those who fought in vietnam --- both americans and asians --- american memory has continued to see the times in less nuanced terms when it comes to antiwar protest. the warrior is identified with the war and any lack of support for the war is not honorable or patriotic, but a betrayal of the sacrificial hero, the everyman who loyally served his country. about the movement, (hair and born on the fourth of july) the antiwar movement is singled out for scorn or remembered with ambivalence.” penny lewis, hardhats, hippies, and hawks: the vietnam antiwar movement as myth and memory (ithaca, ny: cornell university press, ), . born on the fourth of july ( ) is based on the autobiography of ron kovic, a wounded vietnam veteran who actively opposed the war through the organization vietnam veterans against the war (vvaw). ron kovic, born on the fourth of july (new york: mcgraw hill, ); tim o’brien, the things they carried, boston: houghton mifflin, . sturken, - . sturken emphasizes this point when she recounts president william clinton’s visit to the vietnam veterans memorial in washington dc in to deliver a memorial day address. some veterans booed, held signs “never trust a draft dodger,” and turned their backs on him when he began to speak. sturken, n . clearly, one who opposed the war and avoided military service was not included in the remembrance of the war and its dead, yet, as cultural historian keith beattie recalls, there is a stubborn cultural obstinacy in america that remembers what it wants to about the war and antiwar protests, even against the objection of its direct participants, that is, those who performed military service. when vietnam veterans demonstrated in boston against rambo and stallone’s receipt of an award for the film in , they were met by a crowd of teenagers who screamed for them to “go home,” that stallone was “a real veteran.” beattie’s analysis argues that remembrance of the war deliberately lacks a “canon” that includes dissenting veterans in favor of one that emphasizes a particular kind of cultural unity (the unity that lembcke finds essential to building an embedded culture of war- making). reflecting on the twentieth annual meeting of the popular culture association in which included sessions focusing on the topic, beattie remarked on the usefulness of this construction. “in select and specific ways vietnam veterans have drawn upon their experiences within the war and on the homefront to inform their criticisms of militarist policies and domestic inequities. such articulations contradict and contest unity by revealing the inadequacy of a notion that presumes and asserts a basic cultural homogeneity. in this sense, the veterans’s voice of dissent is a way of ‘talking back’ --- an insolent and insubordinate voice that ‘dare[s] to disagree’… acknowledgement of the limitations of ‘central’ texts, specifically the impact that canonized texts have on the effectiveness of attempts to articulate experiences that contradict these memories locate the s as an age of disorder, rather than as a time of attempted reform and corrective to the stretch of american overreach and defaulted vision both domestic and international. as america and those sympathetic to the civil rights movement and its reform impulses endured the shock of the assassinations of dr. martin luther king, jr. and senator robert f. kennedy in the span of less than sixty days, the culture of seeming consensus stretched to breaking, appeared to be doing just that. evening news reports of racial disorder remained in memory, as did the increasing amount of footage of the war in vietnam. on the cultural front, the lines between young new left activists and cultural nonconformists increasingly blurred, so that by late anyone appearing countercultural was likewise identified with antiwar protest. those who were “tuning in, turning on, and dropping out” by embracing drugs, alternative lifestyles and sexual mores, psychedelic fashions, and “flower power” included those whose stances expressed criticism of the establishment, a yearning for authenticity, and a moral objection to a war built on national hubris, but in the lens of the times and in later memory, they simply represented a miasma of disorder. dominate interlocutor positions, informs [the attempts to offer a corrective to an oppositional cultural unity that omits their voices].” thus, beattie discovered that not only is the cultural memory unusually persistent, but that eliminating some actors who expressed dissent in these narratives (such as veterans who questioned or opposed the war, whether they were affiliated with vietnam veterans against the war, or not) is a continuing process. keith beattie, the scar that binds: american culture and the vietnam war (new york: nyu press, ), - , n . bruce j. schulman, the seventies: the great shift in american culture, society, and politics (new york: free press, ), - . historian david farber analyzes the complex distinctions between the antiwar movement and that of the counterculture, noting that although each had early “draw lines” between those who wanted to force political action for change and those who saw the creation of alternative realities (chiefly through drugs and sexual experimentation) as the most essential shape of reform, by the end of the sixties, he argues, there was considerable overlapping, although not complete identification. the pressure of the war and the interest of some influential organizers like david dellinger to create bridges absorbed part of the counterculture even as it redefined political engagement. historian michael foley explored yet, other kinds of disorder remained invisible, even though they profoundly affected the underpinning of the seemingly sturdy consensus culture that had emerged during the s, and would enable the culture wars that would follow for nearly a generation. the consumer culture that proved so gratifying and unifying had a collection of myths undergirding it, including an acceptance of debts, conformity, wishful thinking, racial exclusion, and the illusion of the classless society, while the growth roundly applauded and manifested by religious institutions in material resources, membership, and physical plants owed at least part of its success to mass marketing and a desire for respectability, rather than commitment to a faith and its incumbent ethical obligations. systemic issues, including those concerning justice and freedom for many americans, remained absent from this narrative, even as they positioned the society for fragmentation and economic disillusionment. for example, the year is remembered as a year of unprecedented disorder in the streets, yet the political and bureaucratic revolt against the johnson administration’s reforms the development of such dynamics (and the later regrets of activists) in key organizations in boston late in the decade as they accommodated themselves to the counterculture both out of frustration with the trials and convictions of prominent peace leaders (including clergy) and the attempt to re-think strategies of community change. the point here is to note that the two were not the same and that there were many factors in cultural and political revolutionary practices. to the onlooker, the distinctions were frequently, and sometimes, deliberately, blurred by the media and the nixon administration in particular, as melvin small observed. david farber, “the counterculture and the antiwar movement,” in give peace a chance: exploring the vietnam antiwar movement, ed. melvin small and william d. hoover (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ), , - ; michael s. foley, confronting the war machine: draft resistance during the vietnam war (chapel hill, nc: the university of north carolina press, ), - ; melvin small, antiwarriors: the vietnam war and the battle for america’s hearts and minds (wilmington, de: sr books, ), - . lisabeth cohen, a consumer’s republic: the politics of mass consumption in postwar america (new york: knopf, ); kevin m. kruse, one nation under god: how corporate america invented christian america (new york: basic books, ), ch. . remains in the background. the worldwide economic crisis of most evident in an international run on gold and subsequent destabilization is almost entirely absent from common memory, although the battles five months later in the streets of chicago during the democratic national convention retain their grip as evidence of antiwar protesters determined to overthrow democratic process. as wilbur mills of arkansas, the powerful chairman of the house ways and means committee, continued to table president lyndon baines johnson’s proposal for a tax hike, he pushed the president to cut the liberal domestic programs and their long-range obligational authority that were at the heart of the great society and its attempts at systemic reform. the long-term economic fragmentation of a split society that president richard m. nixon would so thoroughly reinforce and exploit to his own ends remained invisible, even as social disturbances appeared paramount. economic historian robert m. collins argued that the long-term building of “the most serious economic crisis since the great depression [that] shook the western world” and which exposed faults throughout the world economy, remained invisible because of the seemingly- expanding pie of the american economy which cloaked the chronic balance of payment deficits the united states incurred beginning in , and experienced every year throughout the eisenhower and kennedy administrations, save . this looming crisis that was exacerbated by the cold war and about which successive administrations both republican and democrat had been aware, was brought explicitly by council of economic affairs (cea) chairman gardner ackley to johnson’s attention in late . collins dissects how wilbur mills skillfully played “guns” over against “butter” as a “sophisticated attempt to decouple the defining elements of growth liberalism, to separate growth economics from liberal activism.” robert m. collins, more: the politics of economic growth in postwar america (new york: oxford university press, ), , ch. . lbj’s “guns and butter” strategy took the hit as the entitlements put into place in the s deflected criticism from the systemic financial overspending and widening economic inequalities onto the urban poor, chiefly represented by blacks. even though the economic stresses began to affect working class whites, george wallace, then richard nixon, successfully parlayed fear of disorder as evident in the antiwar movement and urban riots to undermine the democrats and their domestic reform programs. jefferson cowie, stayin’ alive: the s and the last days of the working class (new york: new press, ). cowie also addresses a piece of cultural conflict that has eluded popular recollections about the vietnam war and antiwar activity when he touches on union members' experiences of or interest in vietnam, reflecting not only the working class nature of the war, but also the working class opposition to the war -- something he keeps backgrounded throughout and which parallels the the silent majority cannily built on george wallace’s racist political message by richard nixon and reinforced by spiro t. agnew which seemingly erupted late in the s and early in the s did so as middle-class americans believed that their dreams had been sacrificed to underwrite the entitlements now perceived to be freely available to minorities. nixon adroitly side-stepped a direct identification of racial issues as the central problem by focusing overtly on civil disorder. his enjoinder to enforce “law and order” encoded an appeal to racism, while referring explicitly to the breakdown of american society, particularly revealed in the widespread antiwar protests which intensified in and , then continued to erupt as americans discovered nixon’s secret extension of the war in bombings and invasions of cambodia and an american-supported incursion into laos. nixon’s subsequent self-destruction enabled a caveat to the historical record regarding his suitability as president, but his rhetorical strategies regarding disorder remained successfully embedded in american memory. his naming “the silent majority” reified a restless unknown into a distinctly oppositional force against those who engaged in anything that could be cast as civil unrest. he thus successfully created a manichaean analysis of protest. within this process of bifurcation, nixon and his supporters successfully not only augmented a vision that cast disorder in particularly public terms, but also cloaked much of the destruction wrought behind the scenes though policy-making argument penny lewis makes about memory and working class opposition to the war. schulman thoroughly explores how nixon systematically undermined domestic programs while seeming to support them. by decentralizing funding, for example, and shifting allocations to local control via block grant programs, the president appeared to foster liberal agendas while dismantling the political and economic structure of the great society. an avid fan of kevin phillips’ the emerging republican majority, he calculated how to restructure political alliances by building on fear of social disorder, both real and contrived, including that which he abetted. schulman, - , - . and bureaucracy. thus dissent which included social and moral dimensions was recast as a particular kind of anarchy in an opposing, well-ordered moral universe. diminishing the memory of the religious dimensions of antiwar protest during the vietnam war not only enabled an incomplete secular narrative of civil disorder with far-reaching consequences in the subsequent decades, but also increasingly discounted pacifism (and also antiwar protest from a peace position, the differences to be discussed in chapter one) as a sustainable form of american patriotism. the loss of the opposing voice of conscience --- particularly that based on religion --- as a viable historical actor in american memory thus leaves a gap in twentieth-century american history and by such enervation facilitates the kind of uncritical acceptance of subsequent narratives of american empire that historians such as historian dan t. carter describes author norman mailer’s apt portrayal of nixon as a protean wallace: “even if they were ‘not waiting for george wallace,’ mused mailer, was it possible they were ready for ‘super wallace’ --- a dressed-up, more sophisticated and refined salesman for the venom and bitterness that too many whites felt toward blacks?” dan t. carter, the politics of rage: george wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of american politics (new york: simon & schuster, ), - . melvin small argues that nixon was able to exert more force against the antiwar movement because of his willingness to overstep civil liberties more than lyndon baines johnson had been willing to do, including the use of a bureaucracy like the internal revenue service to conduct audits that did not necessarily result in convictions or fines, but which “occupied the energies and resources of movement leaders.” melvin small, antiwarriors, - , . as nixon speechwriter william safire noted, the antiwar movement was politically useful in a manichaean universe, “useful as the villain, the object against which all our supporters could be rallied.” william safire, before the fall: an inside view of the pre-watergate white house (garden city, nj: doubleday, ), . princeton historian kevin m. kruse has recently emphasized the role of evangelist billy graham in this dichotomization through his shoring up of the nixon presidency particularly in may and july after antiwar protest reignited over the invasion of cambodia and the subsequent shootings at kent state university. although graham’s stated purpose was to include all americans, the structure of the crusade at the university of tennessee and his leading of services in washington dc on july at the “pro-america rally” were designed to strengthen an implied linkage between his followers and the silent majority. kruse, - . small also emphasizes graham’s appearance in knoxville as another of nixon’s attempts to define an order-loving and moral silent majority. small, antiwarriors, . godfrey hodgson and loren baritz had criticized as leading to the cultural endorsement of entry into the war in vietnam in the first place. moreover, this clouding of memory also occluded the far ranging moral voice that concerned itself with systemic concerns, both economic and social, which religious historian sidney ahlstrom strongly mulled over in his critique of the sixties and which will be briefly examined at the end of this introduction. historiography and antiwar opposition the historiography of protest about the vietnam war in america has refuted the popular perception that protesters were dirty, ragged, dissatisfied youth who roamed the streets of america and created havoc while acting as a fifth column that undermined u.s. military efforts to thwart communism in southeast asia. although most of the focus on the antiwar movement was media-dependent, with images of both the war and its opposition readily available on the evening news for immediate cultural appropriation, many of the early reflections on antiwar activity were written by participant-observers, particularly those who were outspoken and often the flashiest individuals. some of these works were designed to raise money for the cause itself, while other reflected a combination of political message and self-aggrandizing ego. these godfrey hodgson, america in our time: from world war ii to nixon---what happened and why, nd ed. (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); loren baritz, backfire: a history of how american culture led us into vietnam and made us fight the way we did (new york: william morrow, ). both historians argue that john f. kennedy’s eloquent enjoinder to americans framed foreign policy as a kind of privilege: “we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” baritz refers to the nationalism myths of america, including the metaphor of the “city on a hill” for the religious, wilsonian idealism conjoined with the secular version of nationalism, while hodgson wryly eschewed the sacred-secular imperatives in favor of exceptionalism, and its sudden awakening to economic reality: “([kennedy]did not go so far as to say americans would pay any tax in that cause!).” baritz, - ; hodgson, ; sidney ahlstrom, a religious history of the american people, nd ed. (new haven, ct: yale university press, ), - . autobiographies and biographies focused on young, male leaders, who had been proponents of the new left or of the counterculture, and whose names were familiar: tom hayden, abbie hoffman, david harris, and, to a lesser extent, historian todd gitlin, whose work is usually recognized as a scholarly analysis. the accounts generally focused on the efficacy of young, white, student-led protest generated by radicals out of the new left, with a sprinkling of other groups and individuals not as focused (or articulate) as those self-described as in the forefront. some accounts such as that written by the irreverent and colorful abbie hoffman also conflated those on the left fighting for reform with the counterculture that might or might not have genuine political commitments, but which called attention to some of the most memorable and bizarre aspects of the decade. early analysts such as paul jacobs, saul landau, and jack newfield provided some insightful correctives in their contemporary accounts during the mid- sixties, but even those appearing a decade later tended to focus on the movements as almost solely a product of the new left. tom hayden, reunion: a memoir (new york: random house, ); abbie hoffman, soon to be a major motion picture (new york: g.p. putnam, ); david harris, dreams die hard (new york: st. martin’s, ); fred halstead, out now: a participant’s account of the movement against the vietnam war in the united states (new york: pathfinder, ); todd gitlin, the sixties, years of hope, days of rage (new york: bantam books, ); james miller, “democracy is in the streets”: from port huron to the siege of chicago (cambridge: harvard university press, ); paul jacobs and saul landau, the new radicals (new york: random house, ); jack newfield, a prophetic minority (new york: new american library, ). the use of the term “movement” is ambiguous, with many “movements” comprising the whole. small captures this fuzziness and sees it as both strength and weakness, the former, because of its multi-faceted inventiveness and the latter because of its easy capture by anyone interested in associating with it and its ready availability for political distortion. “there were no membership cards in the movement, nor were there any organizations that dominated its activities for the more than seven years of its existence… if you said you were in the movement, you were accepted as a member in good standing.” small, antiwarriors, . this analysis will nevertheless use the term with the understanding that it contains these tensions. but, more than a decade after u. s. secretary of state henry kissinger and north vietnamese negotiator le duc tho signed a peace accord between the adversaries, two analyses issued a challenge to the prevailing narrative and foreshadowed what would become the magisterial treatment of the antiwar movement. journalists nancy zaroulis and gerald sullivan’s painstaking study, who spoke up? american protest against the war in vietnam, - , established that anti-war demonstrators represented a wide swath of american society and that, even as the “movement” coalesced, contracted, and then re-formed, it was a complex combination of groups and individuals, rather than a drive chiefly by leftist students. although zaroulis and sullivan described antiwar action as a “homegrown movement of the left which eventually encompassed the entire political spectrum,” their treatment is far more nuanced than the statement appears at face value. as they maintained, although some parts of the movement derived strictly from elements of the old left and new left, because many of these groups had pacifist commitments (including those based on religious convictions), the picture is more complicated than simply arguing for a secular-sacred divide with easily discerned and classified actors. moreover, they claimed a widespread disaffection and opposition to the war chiefly led by a preponderance of adults who largely embraced respectability and who chiefly eschewed the trappings of the counterculture. the journalists emphasized the inherently peaceful nature of the movement, “which was begun and led by lifelong pacifists, many of them devoutly religious men and women who practiced nonviolence as part of their faith” and offered no small encomium to “the two old men” to whom they attribute the inspiration for the movement. one of the “two old men” who early articulated and then engaged in direct opposition was the indefatigable quaker a.j. muste. the other was david dellinger, later notorious in the trial of the chicago eight, who was a lifelong exponent of nonviolent resistance which was derived from his religious faith and his interaction with the teachings of gandhi. dellinger had studied theology at union theological seminary in new york in the late s. nancy zaroulis and gerald sullivan, who spoke up? american protest against the war in vietnam, - (garden city, ny: doubleday, ), xii. by scrutinizing the development of the new left, marxist historian maurice isserman further explored the political, and philosophical commitments of a wide variety of actors, leaving no partisan group of the old left unexamined. in doing so, he created a rich fabric for understanding the genius underlying antiwar protest associated with “the movement,” and also why it later fragmented. isserman’s study, while focused on the traditional left, contributes two significant frameworks that help structure the subsequent historiography and also call into question studies that would ignore the influence of the religious sources of sixties protest. first, he thoroughly explicates how many of the politically committed leftist conscientious objectors who later became leaders in the s became acquainted with and then embraced the tenets of radical pacifism during either their imprisonment or their civilian public service work during world war ii. he thus explained and complicated the narrative, even as his work anticipated some of the historical analyses of the early twenty-first century to be discussed shortly. second, and equally important to understanding the web of antiwar opposition and some of its foundations in religion, isserman extended his analytical timeline into the s and s. not only did this long timeframe enable him to trace commitments and changes in the left, but also to examine more thoroughly those pacifists he called radical pacifists and their actions in postwar america. subsequent analyses have validated that working from such a long timeline focused on the left also enables the religious actors and underpinnings to come into focus, even if that was not the original intention or primary focus of the authors. thus, the zaroulis-sullivan recognition of multiple actors combined with isserman’s detailed examination of a changing left over an extended timeline complicated the narrative of antiwar protest and began to reveal the intricacies of intergroup overlap, interaction, motivations, and differentiation. in part, this emphasis may be due to the kind of self-examination that some members of the old left were already considering, even as the new left formed. isserman analyzed what radical pacifism meant to american marxists struggling with stalinist visions before offering an approximate description rather than a definition. the definitional process is significant for understanding the dynamics of antiwar activism and for appreciating the contentions of those who would later make a case that “the personal is political.” for example, socialist norman thomas, who had led the “pacifist-religious” fellowship of reconciliation (for) in the early s, explored gandhi’s approach to opposing unjust systems, and “considered the possibility that gandhi’s means might serve to attain marx’s ends,” but had then, according to isserman, “dropped that interesting line of inquiry in factionalist fighting prior to world war ii.” but, other later antiwar activists of the sixties reprised such thinking when they traced their development as radical pacifists to their experiences as conscientious objectors either in civilian public service camps or prison during the war. some encountered the practices of objectors from the historic peace churches whose cooperative stances were baffling, while others absorbed the writings of gandhi: “communism lost whatever appeal it earlier may have had for them. pacifism itself seemed far more radical that the beliefs of the traditional parties of the left, because it was radical in its means as well as its ends.” maurice isserman, if i had a hammer: the death of the old left and the birth of the new left (new york: basic books, ), , , - . historian ronnie lieberman also explored part of this moral tension as she examined very early cold war america through . arguing that the peace movements in postwar america were a tangled picture, with many communists also dedicated peace activists, lieberman likewise included a variety of religious actors in her analysis. although communists’ insistence on tying commitments to the fate of the soviet union impugned them in the eyes of those with whom they had contact, lieberman also discovered that the kinds of dynamics later faced by peace activists during the vietnam war also prevailed during the cold war as the u.s. government deliberately and systematically cast anyone advocating “peaceful co-existence” rather than military buildup as a communist. at the same time, deciding whether or not to sever ties with other activists, whether communist or not, put non-communists under a deep scrutiny and discredited their actions as unpatriotic, themes that would continue to resonate through and after the vietnam war. these characterizations had far-ranging impacts for religious actors uneasy with both the labeling of others as “godless communists” and the pressure to disassociate themselves automatically from fellow peace activists. robbie lieberman, the strangest dream: communism, anticommunism, and the u.s. peace movement, - (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ). thus, using a wide lens in studies of the left and a timeframe that extended at least into the s uncovered religious actors and an interaction between them and others without religious commitments who were either rethinking the presuppositions inherent in their radical allegiances or who were in organizations that brought them into common contact. three years later in , the hallmark study of the american antiwar movement during the vietnam era appeared. an american ordeal: the antiwar movement of the vietnam era by historians charles debenedetti and charles chatfield, built on the wide scope of the former’s earlier consideration of peace movements throughout american history, the peace reform in american history. the historically expansive lens debenedetti introduced in the initial work enabled him to thoroughly recognize a wide range of religious actors and organizations in the vietnam antiwar movement, better differentiate between traditional pacifism and the radical pacifism which was foundational for many activists, and draw distinctions between those americans who protested and those who opposed the vietnam war but eschewed either protest or the countercultural accretions that were increasingly associated with activism. in using the s as a starting point for their analysis, debenedetti and chatfield rooted the later vietnam antiwar movement not only in the left, but also in the anti-nuclear atmospheric testing and civil defense protests which informed ordinary citizens to the dangers of the increasing arms race and national security state. by doing so the historians foreshadowed what within a decade became a complicated, frequently overlapping combination of religious groups, labor unions, traditional pacifist organizations, and veterans, including those who had returned from the war itself. they also emphasized the social characteristics of those early groups who provided the backbone of later protests in sharp contrast to the perception fostered by early analyses and in memory. for example, the historians observed that organizations such as the national committee for a sane nuclear policy (sane) which were originally founded to exert pressure on other objectives, but who widely embraced and engaged in antiwar protest, prided themselves on their respectability. even as they led some of the earliest and largest mass protests, they concerned themselves with “how not to appear as crazies and fringe people, although sane was degrees opposite to that charge in style and demeanor.” by using the debenedetti-chatfield flattened timeline that extends into the s, historians of the movement such as melvin small of wayne state university have recognized that the origin of vietnam-era antiwar protest included many religious actors and groups, even if they originally ignored or minimalized such strands in their earlier work. a few comments on the comprehensive nature of the classic work are in order. originally a , page manuscript, what had been debenedetti’s solo work ended in chatfield’s involvement as an “assisting author” when the former was diagnosed with an aggressive brain tumor. faithful to debenedetti’s plans to edit the manuscript by about half, chatfield fleshed out the final two chapters from notes and added a final reflection. due to the nature of the work, however, and chatfield’s contention that “your work is a precious child and i am conscious that it is your child. my role is like a doctor at birth,” the book is generally attributed by peace historians to debenedetti, with chatfield, but sometimes shorthanded in other works as written solely by debenedetti. hereafter, it will be referenced as debenedetti-chatfield, for these reasons and also easily to distinguish it from solo works by debenedetti. charles debenedetti, with charles chatfield, an american ordeal: the antiwar movement of the vietnam era (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ), xi. debenedetti’s earlier work began with quaker william penn’s “holy experiment” in founding pennsylvania as a place of religious toleration and refuge which included many traditional “peace sects” that refused to engage in war or killing. it had concluded with a chapter on the last of eight periods of reform, “the deferred reform, - ,” which had included the civil rights and antiwar movements of that period. charles debenedetti, the peace reform in american history (bloomington, in: indiana university press, ). in regard to the distinctions between traditional pacifism and radical pacifism, debenedetti-chatfield focused on the inherent meaning of radical (as root), even as they acknowledged its ambiguities in actual usage: “by there was an incipient form of pacifism with a politically radical nuance. its adherents differed from traditional pacifists, whose absolute repudiation of war and military service did not extend to activism, and also from liberal pacifists, whose efforts for social reform did not extend to direct action or civil disobedience. radical pacifists were not necessarily revolutionaries. they repudiated violence, and their activism was consonant with selective reform. humankind does not live by definitions, however, and the ambiguity associated with the word radical would become associated with the word pacifist.” debenedetti, with chatfield, an american ordeal, . former co-chair of sane and political scientist marcus raskin provided this particularly apt quote which illustrates debenedetti-chatfield’s point about the focus on respectability by many of the religious actors. marcus raskin, “the vietnam war and sane’s change of focus” in peace action: past, present, and future, ed. glen harold stassen and lawrence s. wittner (boulder, co: paradigm publishers, ), ; melvin small, johnson, nixon, and the doves (new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, ); covering dissent: the media and the anti-vietnam war movement (new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, ). in his most recent work how religious groups fit into the larger vietnam antiwar movement has been a point of argument, both in general terms and in regard to specific types of opposition. in , emeritus political scientist gunther lewy of the university of massachusetts/amherst launched a salvo against american pacifism and its involvement in the vietnam antiwar movement at large. focusing his ire on four long-standing traditional peace organizations, lewy denounced them for the activism they had expressed during the war and how their increasing involvement with the american left had essentially drawn three of them from their religious roots into a secularized haze. in part, he pulled his conclusions from basic tenets of content analysis, contending that the use of a common language of protest meant a congruence of vision and motivation. on the one hand, his use of such evidence too quickly identified religious radical pacifism with secular revolution without unpacking the meaning of either, but on the other hand, he raised significant questions about the confusion, denial, and naiveté of those who held strong religious convictions, protested because of them, and then blurred their peace witness, sometimes deliberately, with the work of antiwarriors drawn from a “totalitarian left.” by the mid- s, he charged, the major peace organizations had little hope of reclaiming any moral high ground unless they abandoned the public protest they had embraced. focusing on those who opposed the war, small has also recognized religious actors in part by expanding his timeline, but also by widening his focus. small, antiwarriors. the four major pacifist organizations lewy examined were the american friends service committee (afsc), the fellowship of reconciliation (for), the women’s international league for peace and freedom (wilpf), and the war resister’s league (wrl), all founded early in the twentieth century, each with a distinctive mission, but by the postwar period - all having arrived at “a similar ideological stance,” according to the political scientist. lewy countered what he saw as dangerous activism that had foresworn a morally pure pacifism for the sake of engaging in a quest for justice, even if it compromised its means. urging religious pacifists to recognize the niebuhrian dichotomy between individual purity and social obligation, lewy allowed that they might, as citizens, be allowed to participate in democratic process, but only if they did not disturb order and place the society or lives of others in jeopardy. “when the pacifist’s conscience does not allow him to support policies that utilize force or the threat of force,” lewy maintained, “the proper course for him is to remain silent.” quickly taken to task by a wide range of ethicists, historians, sociologists, and clergy, his work as a whole was largely discredited as a comprehensive analysis, although many of his challenges remain relevant to studies such as this one. in regard to whether or not religious actors engaged more heavily in particular types of antiwar opposition, sociologist charles c. moskos has argued that conscientious objection has become a secular exercise, even as he has taken historian peter brock to task for arguing that religious commitments continued to be significant in the vietnam era. moskos disputed brock’s earlier extended argument that religious protest was foundational in it of itself, that is, that “individual perfection is not a basis on which to build a political platform. pacifists have every right to avoid the moral dilemmas posed by the world of statesmanship, and statecraft and seek individual salvation through ethical absolutism and purity, but they have no right to sacrifice others for the attainment of this vocation.” gunther lewy, peace & revolution: the moral crisis of american pacifism (grand rapids, mi: william b. eerdmans, ), viii, , . lewy was both applauded and opposed in a special day-and-a-half forum sponsored by the ethics and public policy center in washington, dc shortly after the publication of his work. in particular the resulting papers by leadership in the four organizations, activists who had been involved in the multiple overlapping of groups described by zaroulis and sullivan, peace historian charles chatfield, who drew from his forthcoming work with debenedetti, and ethicists from roman catholicism and the largest of the mennonite denominations countered both his evidence and his methodology at either the forum or in separate publications. michael cromartie, ed., peace betrayed? essays on pacifism and politics (washington, dc: ethics and public policy center, ); tom cornell, “u.s. pacifism attacked and defended,” cross currents (summer ), - . quakers issued a collective rejoinder to lewy in chuck fager, ed., quaker service at the crossroads: the american friends service committee and peace and revolution (falls church, va: kimo press, ). religious convictions motivated these groups and individuals to activism (particularly conscientious objection, but extending to public protest and participation in demonstrations against the war). moskos and historian john whiteclay chambers instead contended that those motivated by religious convictions gradually were secularized and that both pacifism and conscientious objection were essentially secular in nature. brock was joined by sociologist and peace studies theorist nigel young in when they contended that moskos’ and chambers’ evidence not only erroneously dismissed the impact of faith, but also argued that the protests of the s were driven by the basic moral currents that derived from religious impulses in the american culture itself. recent works have begun to grapple with the brock and young rejoinder by evidencing the explicit religious convictions held by not only the actors and groups in the civil rights movement, but also key members of the students for a democratic society (sds), the student non-violent coordinating committee (sncc), and other organizations that involved themselves in antiwar protest. peter brock, pacifism in the united states: from the colonial era to the first world war (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); charles c. moskos and john whiteclay chambers, eds., the new conscientious objection: from sacred to secular resistance (new york: oxford university press, ), - , - , ; peter brock and nigel young, pacifism in the twentieth century (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ), - . in part, the disagreement is due to the frameworks utilized by the two opponents. brock and young not only delineate a wide number of peace initiatives and movements over the course of a century, but they also argue from a comprehensive view of pacifism which includes the radical variety to which debenedetti-chatfield allude, e.g integrated and rooted. this significantly complicates the definition of secular, by raising questions about the religious or moral roots of justice and the origins of modern notions of individual freedom, and how both undergird notions of conscience. moskos and chambers do not deny the significant support of religious objectors on behalf of the new, more inclusive definitions which have broadened objection to include many beyond not only the historic peace churches, but also to those in other religious traditions, or even those objecting on what moskos and chamberlain ascribe as “humanitarian” grounds. although focused on conscientious objectors, their critique includes broader antiwar activity, and that of the surrounding culture which has supported it and argues that secular impulses have made these definitions (and legal classifications) possible. in particular, two studies by historians attempting to disentangle religious commitments and action characterized as “secular” built on the earlier work of former sds activist and sociologist wini breines in which she considered the effects of those who attempted to live their dedication to nonviolence, peace, and justice in both private and public life --- a thorough, political, and personal congruence between means and ends. historian james j. farrell explored how the philosophy of personalism and its various manifestations in america laid the groundwork for the essential understanding that the “political is personal” as its adherents not only attempted to cultivate a “third way” between marxism and capitalism, but also find an ethical correspondence between means and ends. farrell’s explication of the theistic strands of “realistic personalism” reveal how many groups and individual actors in later antiwar (and cultural) protest in the postwar period through the vietnam war were motivated by essentially religious convictions. douglas rossinow’s the politics of authenticity: liberalism, christianity, and the new left in america is the most carefully nuanced of the new studies that concern themselves with not only the explicit and direct, but also the implicit and derived, impact of religion on activism couched as a basic quest for moral authenticity. james j. farrell, the spirit of the sixties: the making of postwar radicalism (new york: routledge, ); doug rossinow, the politics of authenticity: liberalism, christianity, and the new left in america (new york: columbia university press, ). sociologist wini breines, a former member of sds and antiwar activist, had laid footing for rossinow’s later argument fifteen years earlier when she specifically recognized the significant theoretical underpinning provided by what she labels radical pacifists such as a.j. muste, david dellinger, and the catholic worker movement, all of which distrusted hierarchical organizations, offered ethical critiques of capitalism, and focused on the significance of moral witness: “their impact on the new left may not have been extensive, nevertheless, the pacifists and anarchists are among the new left’s real forerunners.” wini breines, community and organization in the new left, - : the great refusal. nd ed. (new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, ), . in addition, her model of “pre-figurative politics,” in which activists lived in ways that “embodied the desired society” anticipates rossinow’s emphasis on activists who desired congruence, including that which derived both directly and indirectly from religious commitments. breines, . breines also explicitly recognizes the distinctive building of the likewise, axel schafer’s compendium of twelve studies ranging over the sixties (including andrew preston’s analysis of vietnam) argues for the pervasive impact of religion within the culture in which it “shaped and transported sixties impulses in unexpected ways” and was in itself re-defined. although only a handful of the essays briefly touch on issues of social protest, they nevertheless address the religion-secularism divide raised by moskos and chambers. on a microscopic level with larger implications, mennonite historian gordon oyer’s recent analysis of a little-known peacemakers retreat initiated by trappist thomas merton offers a substantive look at social and antiwar protest by religious actors and their motivations. held in late on the heels of freedom summer and the gulf of tonkin resolution which enabled lyndon johnson’s public escalation of the vietnam war, the intense retreat, which included quaker a.j. muste, roman catholics daniel and phillip berrigan, and mennonite john howard yoder, focused on a thoroughly integrated model of christian faithfulness which would engage communities in which politics was “lived out” in the civil rights movements of the s and s, as both model and energizer for those opposed to the war. these important exemplars, which were significant for many of the mennonite students and faculty in the schools in this study, are well-considered in a wide variety of works on the movement such as david l. chappell, a stone of hope: prophetic religion and the death of jim crow (chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press, ); wesley c. hogan, many minds, one heart: sncc’s dream for a new america (chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press, ); john lewis, walking with the wind: a memoir of the movement (new york: simon and schuster, ); charles marsh, god’s long summer : stories of faith and civil rights (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); and vincent harding, martin luther king: the inconvenient hero (maryknoll, ny: orbis books, ). likewise, on the sociological front, a young robert j. wuthnow analyzed four “systems of meaning” and their intersection with social changes associated with the s, with special attention to ethical congruence and the re-ordering of society during the course of the vietnam war. although his dissertation centered on respondents to a bay area survey of san francisco, california, the sociologist discovered a microcosm of concern with values (including those derived from or interacting with religion) which breines had seen operative in the new left and effectively explicated. robert john wuthnow, “consciousness and the transformation of society” (phd diss., university of california, berkeley, ). systemic issues of structural evil through both means and ends, while eschewing the “political expedients” of the secular culture. the close consideration demonstrated in oyer’s work on religion foregrounds the benefits of cultural and social analyses regarding antiwar activity, which have in recent years included historian kenneth j. heineman’s comparative study of four state universities, marc jason gilbert’s compendium of short case studies, and andrew grose’s examination of the university of south carolina, all attempting to provide “a more perfect mirror” of institutions not generally associated with activism. in doing so, heineman and grose are able to thoroughly consider issues such as student government, policies about in loco parentis, concern about the draft, and administrative responses to student fears and actions, while gilbert offers a snapshot of a variety of institutions ranging from small state universities to secondary schools. although heineman has been criticized for his detailed consideration of these seemingly adjacent topics, rather than the war itself, this study indeed will demonstrate how significant campus rules and administrative decisions loomed for draft-age men, including those members of the historic axel r. schafer, ed., american evangelicals and the s (madison: university of wisconsin, ), . regarding the intense retreat at gethsemani, although many topics were aired, three stood out in sharp relief: conscientious objection, dehumanization and issues of technology and merton’s question “by what right do we protest?” originally to include bayard rustin, martin luther king, jr., and mennonite paul peachey, the small group blossomed to fourteen participants, most not members of either the mainline protestant denominations already engaging in anti-nuclear objection or the historic peace churches. oyer’s work ably teases out the complex questions the retreatants considered, including issues of right motives and faithful witness, questions that were especially pressing for mennonite john howard yoder, whose tradition did not support this kind of public protest, and the roman catholics, who were just coming to grips with vatican ii and pope john xxiii’s monumental encyclical pacem in terris. gordon oyer, pursuing the spiritual roots of protest: merton, berrigan, yoder, and muste at the gethsemani abbey peacemakers retreat (eugene, or: cascade books, ), xiii, . the study evidences the strong primacy of faith, with protest derived from it and not the culture or a secular peace movement. peace churches with conscientious objector classifications, particularly after general hershey implemented punitive reclassification in october . moreover, the historian’s analysis of canisius college in buffalo, new york, discovered not only direct antiwar activism, but the kind of antiwar stances held by working and professional class catholics not typically associated with protest. all of the case studies in these three investigations suggested the pressures local communities and regional cultures might exact on individuals and on the campuses themselves, factors which would indeed manifest among the mennonite colleges in kansas. few non-mennonite scholars have studied the twentieth century encounters with modernity and pressures on pacifism (or antiwar thought and action, including that during the vietnam war) with a particular focus on either the historic peace churches in general or mennonites in particular, although the classic treatments by charles debenedetti, peter brock, and lawrence s. wittner include some general discussions on mennonite involvement prior to the vietnam war, and brock offers an insightful twelve-page consideration of “pacifist renewal among mennonites and brethren” that incorporates the vietnam war. even mitchell hall’s substantive analysis of clergy and laity against the war (calcav) makes only one spotty reference to mennonites, even though many were active particularly in the regional chapter for indiana. former president of the council on peace research historian melvin small’s earlier kenneth j. heineman, campus wars: the peace movement at american state universities in the vietnam era (new york: new york university press, ); marc jason gilbert, the vietnam war on campus: other voices, more distant drums (westport, ct: praeger, ); andrew grose, “voices of southern protest during the vietnam war era: the university of south carolina as a case study,” peace & change , no. (april ): - . heineman’s examination of the tensions felt by catholics who were antiwar, but who opposed the kinds of antiwar protests seen on nightly news, models what penny lewis later discovered about working class opponents of the war. kenneth heineman, “american schism: catholic activists, intellectuals, and students confront the vietnam war,” in the vietnam war on campus, gilbert, - . work considers long-standing pacifist groups which have many of their roots in religious convictions, but focuses on secular actors with little attention to the historic peace church traditions in general and almost none on mennonites. although his most recent analysis, antiwarriors, has provided a definitive corrective to some of these omissions, with an emphasis on a number of individual actors and groups who were acting out of their faith commitments, mennonites still do not appear. for example, even though small emphasizes the strategic effectiveness of the moratorium events held around the country in in convincing the nixon administration that it was losing the battle with the antiwar movement, the moratorium events at bethel college in kansas are not mentioned, even though they garnered national attention both in print and on the nightly news as an example of protest “in the heartland.” a notable exception to the invisibility of a particular historic peace church’s antiwar protestors acting out of deep faith commitments is tarik w. kamil’s dissertation that comprehensively analyzes quaker activism during the vietnam war and concludes that the faith tradition interacted with secular peace antiwar activism, both shaping it and being shaped in turn. debenedetti, the peace reform in american history; debenedetti-chatfield, an american ordeal; brock, pacifism in the united states; lawrence s. wittner, rebels against war: the american peace movement, - (new york: columbia university press, ). wittner’s remarks regarding the historic peace churches during world war ii are especially cutting, but foreshadow the kinds of questions many hpc actors would ask themselves as they faced the vietnam war: “most pacifists did not rebel or follow the lead of the new radicals [“drawn in good part from the ranks of political objectors”], but dug many a fine ditch for selective service between and . the historic peace churches proved particularly acquiescent, cheerfully ready to ‘walk the second mile.’ mennonites, with their philosophy of non-resistance that accepted suffering as a logical concomitant of this world, posed no threat to the alternative service system.” wittner, ; brock and young, pacifism in the twentieth century, - ; mitchell k. hall, because of their faith: calcav and religious opposition to the vietnam war (new york: columbia university press, ); small, antiwarriors. the earlier festschrift for debenedetti by small and william d. hoover includes an essay by hall on chiefly mainline church involvement in calcav, but otherwise ignores those protesting because of explicit religious commitments. mitchell k. hall, “calcav and religious opposition to the vietnam war” in give peace a chance, small and hoover, - . even though mennonites were the largest of the historic peace churches, there is no comprehensive work focused on mennonite activism and attitudes during the vietnam war, although several shorter treatments on ancillary topics are exemplary. moreover, because mennonites were the first protestant group to arrive in vietnam as aid workers in late shortly after the french left and were present as missionaries and aid workers throughout the war, with four remaining after most americans had left the country, they had direct experience of the conflict. quick to consider whether or not their increasingly complex entanglements with the u.s. military were worth the costs to their peace commitments, their communication with those at home and in mcc demonstrate their conflicted thoughts, some of which had earlier motivated mennonite college students to protest. articles and short monographs by these individuals offered an immediate challenge to their constituencies and evidenced considerable reflection, as did several compilations regarding mennonite conscientious objectors. bluffton college historian perry bush has offered the most extensive analyses of mennonite reaction to and involvement in the vietnam war not only in two chapters of his notable analysis of mennonite pacifism in the twentieth century, but also in a highly reflective series of articles considering the impact of voluntary service in vietnam on those peace workers and their constituencies. evidencing his skill in political sociology, the historian has also considered the patricia applebaum explicitly ignores the mennonite presence in the pacifist culture at large because they did not “maintain a conspicuous public presence” in american society. patricia applebaum, kingdom to commune: protestant pacifist culture between world war i and the vietnam war (chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press), . tarik w. kamil, the politics of time and eternity: quaker pacifists and their activism during the vietnam war era. (phd diss., ohio university, ). memory of vietnam as experienced by the larger denominational groups and their constituencies during and after the peace treaty had been signed. apart from several significant exceptions by historians at bethel college (kansas) and goshen college (indiana), little has been done particularly to document and analyze the effects of the vietnam war on the anabaptist colleges in the united states, or on the kansas schools in particular. no one has analyzed inter-campus societies among mennonite schools, including most significantly, the intercollegiate peace fellowship (ipf), which provided a means for mutual organizing among mennonite and brethren collegians nationwide. at the college level, bethel college historians james juhnke and keith sprunger and their students have detailed a wide variety of activities at their school during the war. the latter include written descriptions by the levellers club and a set of oral history interviews, all of which are housed in the max ediger, a vietnamese pilgrimage (newton, ks: faith and life press, ); james e. metzler, from saigon to shalom: the pilgrimage of a missionary in search of a more authentic mission (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), articles from the “vietnam” issue of mission focus published in , were reprinted with a reflective analysis in the journal’s collection of essays in . missiologist david a. shank commented on the articles written by aid workers and missionaries in vietnam, noting the constraints and convoluted dilemmas of americans offering service under what he called the pax americana, or the shadow of u.s. foreign policy. david a. shank, “comment on vietnam appraisal,” in mission focus: current issues, ed. wilbert r. shenk (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - . shank reflected on the variant struggles posed by james e. metzler, “vietnam: i wouldn’t do it again,” in ibid, - ; james klassen, “walking with vietnam christians,” in ibid, - ; and luke s. martin, “implications of the vietnam experience for world mission,” in ibid, - . delbert l. wiens, “my saga: ‘in’ and ‘out’,” in a dangerous mind: the ideas and influence of delbert l. wiens, ed. w. marshall johnston and daniel j. crosby, eds. (eugene, or: wipf & stock, ), - . melissa miller and phil m. shenk, ed. the path of most resistance: stories of mennonite conscientious objectors who did not cooperate with the vietnam war draft (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); james w. tollefson, strength not to fight: an oral history of conscientious objectors of the vietnam war (boston: little, brown, & co., ); perry bush, two kingdoms, two loyalties, - ; perry bush, “the political education of vietnam christian service, - ,” peace & change , no. (april ): - ; perry bush, “vietnam and the burden of mennonite history,” conrad grebel review, , no. (spring ): - . mennonite library and archives in newton (mla). juhnke, sprunger, and historian john sharp of hesston college have also evaluated some of the events involving their colleges and towns, but almost nothing concerning mennonite brethren or their denominational school during the war had been documented or analyzed. the latter is a significant omission. the third largest of the groups, mennonite brethren are almost completely absent from any analysis regarding the impact of the war or their involvement in antiwar protest, even though one of their alternative service workers was the first long-term mennonite in vietnam in and mennonite brethren students were the first mennonite college students nationwide to evidence awareness of the war and issue a written the systematic use of college senior history seminars at bethel college and goshen college enabled the collection, analysis, and preservation of both primary and secondary sources, including work on campus peace clubs and, tangentially, activity in the ipf. a sampling includes mark g. chupp, “reconciliation through resistance: mennonite draft resistance and the mennonite general conference turner, oregon, august ,” (history senior seminar paper, goshen college, ), mennonite historical library (mhl); terence goering, “a history of the bethel college peace club,” (student paper, bethel college, ), mla; david harder, “an editor and his denominational periodical, or maynard shelly and the mennonite: - ,” (student paper, bethel college, ), mla; david leaman, “politicized service and teamwork tensions: the mennonite central committee in vietnam, - ,” (history senior seminar paper, goshen college, ), mhl; steven p. miller, “mediating revolution: the goshen college peace society and the new left,” (senior history paper, goshen college, ), mhl; david roth, “engaging a politicized world: goshen college record coverage of the vietnam war, - ,” (goshen college history seminar paper, ), mhl; james c. juhnke, "clashing symbols in a quiet town: hesston in the vietnam war era," kansas history , no. (autumn ): - ; james c. juhnke, small steps toward the missing peace: a memoir (newton, ks: flying camel publications, ), - , - ; keith sprunger, bethel college of kansas, - , (north newton, ks: bethel college, ), - ; john e. sharp, school on the prairie: a centennial history of hesston college, - (telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, ), - . very recent attention has been paid to mennonite brethren and mennonite central committee worker delbert wiens, who was the first mennonite assigned by mcc to vietnam in , but apart from a very generalized assessment of his impact among students at either tabor college or bethel college, his influence on antiwar activities at mennonite colleges or his impact on the larger mennonite community’s understanding of vietnam has not been assessed. johnston and crosby, a dangerous mind. protest as early as . omitting this group misses an essential piece of the historical record, but also precludes the detailed analysis that could issue from comparing them to the more numerous general conference mennonites who also include a large contingent of german- russian immigrants that derive from the same historical-cultural context in russia. moreover, because mennonites, and mennonite brethren in particular, have executed an intricate, although occasionally fumbling dance with american evangelicalism, examining the tradition’s attempts to bridge this movement and anabaptism offers an additional aspect to the larger religious and sociological understanding of acculturation and its influence on this smaller group. several mennonite historians and sociologists have analyzed the traditions’ tensions with american society and the attempts to maintain a peace position in twentieth-century america and the debate is an ongoing interdisciplinary one among many mennonite intellectuals and the denominations themselves. historians paul toews and james juhnke considered the increasing pressures of acculturation (including that involving nonresistance and conscientious objection in the world wars and vietnam) in their separate volumes of the mennonite experience in america, while historian perry bush evaluated how a changing view of the theology of the state provided the theological undergirding for protests that were further enabled by the passing of significant policy decisions by the two largest mennonite bodies (the general conference mennonites and the mc mennonites. mennonite sociologists leo driedger, leland harder, j. howard kauffman, and donald kraybill have been foremost analysts of the internal and external pressures on anabaptist groups during the mid-twentieth century, resulting in inter-systemic and conflict research studies which figure in the historical analyses, while communications theorist ervin r. stutzman has recently explored changes in mennonite peace rhetoric that reflect cultural adaptation (or resistance). by focusing on social history and juxtaposed against the connection between ideas and structures, my proposed research and its argument also will trace “different paths to different outcomes” as suggested by mennonite sociologist fred kniss of the university of chicago in his call for comparative studies on social change such as this one and will further contribute to this aspect of the literature. organization and chapter descriptions in addition to this backdrop, because community and consensus have been essential hallmarks of mennonite identity, decision-making, and adaptation to pressure in the process of modernization and industrialization, both social and intellectual history are significant pieces of this study. moreover, even though coming to terms with power and wrestling with its implications were part of the mennonite struggle to construct identity prior to and during the scope of this study, because political science has not been a well-developed field among mennonites and most work in the area has been an outgrowth of studies in power by sociologists, ethicists, or theologians, these likewise are reflected in the argument considering the intermingling of identity and political protest. in particular, the three central chapters on the three colleges contain a mixture of primary and secondary sources, including college newspapers, kansas newspapers, oral interviews (both contemporary and recently collected), toews, mennonites; james c. juhnke, vision, doctrine, war: mennonite identity and organization in america, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); bush, two kingdoms; j. howard kauffman and leo driedger, the mennonite mosaic: identity and modernization (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); leland harder and j. howard kauffman, anabaptists four centuries later (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); and donald kraybill the amish struggle with modernity (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); ervin stutzman, from nonresistance to justice: the transformation of mennonite church peace rhetoric, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ); fred kniss, disquiet in the land: cultural conflict in american mennonite communities (new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, ), . these include mc bishop john e. lapp, ethicist keith graber miller, theologian john howard yoder, and sociologists calvin redekop and rodney sawatsky. extensive reflections and “discussions” in denominational publications, and resolutions enacted by the various conferences during and immediately after the ending of the war. the triad is bracketed by chapters that considers shifts in church-state theological orientations by mc mennonite intellectuals and theologians in the late s and the ragged consensus that began to emerge among conservative laity about the definition and shifting meaning of “peacemaking.” throughout the five chapters, the american flag appears and disappears, as do the deadly serious “jokesters” of mennonite central committee, who carried firsthand accounts of the war as early as the late s and american intervention in vietnam as early as . the presence or absence of the flag will support the thesis that each college came to terms differently with issues of church and state, while the latter will argue the force of the transnational claims of mennonite faith and identity. an introduction and conclusion surrounds the five chapters, followed by a limited final analysis that further interacts with the current ongoing arguments among historians of american religious history regarding secularization and modernity and those among mennonites regarding nationalism that are rooted in the s and which suggests directions for further study. a word regarding sidney ahlstrom and the ahlstrom argument no dissertation in american religious history which contends with the overwhelming tensions of the vietnam war era can be written without including historian sidney ahlstrom as companion and critic. his presence is more than an exercise in historiography, but speaks to many of the issues that lie at the heart of the entanglements between freedom, justice, and disorder which rest in the story of the decade. ahlstrom’s monumental classic published in , a religious history of the american people, concluded with a lamentation directed at the sixties and his argument has continued to resound among american historians, whether in one guise or another. specifically, the historian asserted that the puritan era, or, the systemic influence of puritanism as a guiding interpretive lens in american history, had been definitively challenged by the social and cultural disorder of the immediately preceding years. the decade of the sixties seems in many ways to have marked a new stage in the long development of american religious history. not only did this intense and fiercely lived span of years have a character of its own, but it may have even ended a distinct quadricentennium---a unified four-hundred-year period in the anglo-american experience. his framework was an expansive one, not only focusing on puritanism as a discrete body of belief, but on its wider scope as cultural influence, and against which all other traditions and movements formed or responded. this is not to say that only the vicissitudes of puritanism are vital to an understanding of the intervening years, but it is to say that the exploration and settlement of those parts of the new world in which the united states took its rise were profoundly shaped by the reformed and puritan impulse, and that this impulse, through its successive transmutations, remained the dominant element in the ideology of most protestant americans. to that tradition, moreover, all other elements among the american people --- catholic, orthodox, lutheran, jewish, infidel, red, yellow, and black --- had in some way, negatively or positively, to relate themselves. or at least they did so until the s, when the age of the wasp, the age of the melting pot, drew to a close. let us look more closely at this momentous decade, this seeming watershed and alleged turning point in american history, the moment of truth for “the nation with the soul of a church.” ahlstrom, religious history, . although he did not expand on his earlier framing of the society of friends (quakers) as a movement that arose “out of left-wing puritanism,” it is tempting to extend the ahlstrom thesis through the s and beyond by arguing for the profound impact the relatively small movement had on american history in the twentieth century and particularly during the long reach of the vietnam war, including the s. as ahlstrom noted, “as a movement, it exhibits the relentless movement of the puritan-reformed impulse away from the hierarchical, sacramental, and objective christianity of the middle ages toward various radical extremes in which intensely individualistic and spiritual motifs become predominant…. the movement which looks to george fox as its founder is overwhelmingly the most important and enduring manifestation of puritan radicalism in either england or america.” ibid., . yet, ahlstrom did not concern himself with quakers beyond the civil war, even though their efforts to secure conscientious objection on behalf of the historic peace churches the ahlstrom thesis has been revisited and endorsed, and, recently in , subjected to a strong structural critique from a social and cultural historical perspective. although, this particular appraisal concluded that ahlstrom’s work closed the door to those who followed simply because social and cultural history could no longer admit the “top down” denominational, institutional, and denominational approach he had demonstrated, others saw ahlstrom’s work as a harbinger of the movement toward cultural and intellectual investigations and exploring the questions raised by the epoch. the discussion continues to be a lively one, and ahlstrom can never be discounted, even by articulate critics like david a. hollinger who focus on the “post- protestant” or “post-christian” era in american history. and objectors in the twentieth century remains a significant contribution to american religious history. james m. o’toole, “religious history in the post-ahlstrom era,” in recent themes in american religious history: historians in conversation, ed. randall j. stephens (columbia, sc: university of south carolina press, ), - . harry s. stout and robert m. taylor, jr. better recognize that ahlstrom was engaged in social and cultural history even as he organized american religious history around denominational and institutional categories. along with sidney mead, they understood that these “two giants … while representing the culmination of a tradition inspired by perry miller … also signaled newly emerging intellectual and cultural themes: post-puritan religion, secularization, civil religion, and pluralism.” harry s. stout and robert m. taylor, jr., “studies of religion in american society,” in new directions in american religious history, eds. harry s. stout and d. g. hart (new york: oxford university press, ), ; ahlstrom himself provided ample support that his thesis and method encompassed wide social changes, including those that had resulted in the consensus (or conforming culture, a culture that thrived on comforting spiritual works of “harmonial inspiration” and which saw alienated individuals swelling church membership rolls because of their need for affiliation). ahlstrom’s choice to publish an expansive analysis in daedalus moreover evidenced that he did not see his work as focused on religious structures and events which at that time might be seen as largely ancillary to american culture and the purview of church historians in theological schools. sydney ahlstrom, “national trauma and changing religious values,” daedalus, , no. , a new america? (winter, ), - ; even intellectual historian hollinger’s exploration of the seeming dis-integration of american mainline protestantism reacts to the ahlstrom thesis, however indirectly framed. his analysis interacts with wuthnow’s classic argument published in about the shift and splitting of american religious denominational and institutional commitments, reflecting not only on the to be fair to ahlstrom, he lived barely more than a decade after his opus’ publication in , a year that would see the ongoing deflation of the antiwar movement, attempts by secretary of state henry kissinger to negotiate peace with le duc tho of north vietnam while “de-americanizing” the war, the arrest of five men for breaking into the democratic national committee offices at the watergate complex in washington, dc, and the re-election of quaker richard nixon over peace democrat george mcgovern. ahlstrom had no chance to revisit his thesis in depth --- or to interact particularly with those of debenedetti-chatfield or brock and young --- or even those of isserman, lieberman, small and hoover which also emerged during the decade following ahlstrom’s death. rather, on the religious front, attempts to reclaim a “christian america,” to redeem the culture from the throes of secular humanism, and to resist the perceived encroachment of the state in a spate of judicial decisions during the decade would prove to be fodder for the rise of a new religious right which came to terms with the social justice movements of the previous decade by reinforcing the idea of a disintegrating vision of america. ahlstrom may well have reworked his conclusions on the s, perhaps even the s, and re-opened the door to puritanism’s cultural reforming imperatives, but his arguments as they stand open three doors to themes that resonate in the current task at hand and which are also at the forefront of any analysis of the antiwar years: the re-definition of the american public square, a re-casting of the nature of secularization (including elements such as the fragmentation expanded religious spaces, but also the values which inhabited those spaces. robert wuthnow, restructuring of american religion: society and faith since world war ii (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); david a. hollinger, after cloven tongues of fire: protestant liberalism in modern american history (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ), - . of american mainline protestantism and its loss of cultural power), and the use of each in a re- examination of the nature of disorder. ahlstrom himself opened the potential for this richer analysis as he reflected in : no account of the decade’s radicalism, especially at the ethical level, is complete, however, unless it also takes cognizance of a vast and long overdue moral renewal. a revolt against the hypocrisies and superficiality of conventional moral codes by no means resulted in nihilism or libertinism, though both of the latter were defended and practiced by some especially alienated groups. much of the violence and organized protest of the sixties arose from intense moral indignation, a deep suspicion of established institutions, and a demand for more exalted grounds of action than social success, business profits, and national self-interest. examining the three mennonite colleges in kansas will include their interactions with denominational structures as they struggled to articulate --- or deny --- reform. but this analysis will to a greater extent offer a challenge to the popular memories of disorder and its causes and offer evidence that elements of the sixties as reforming rather than disordering in essence. the study is small, a piecemeal social and cultural analysis of three nearly invisible groups in the ahlstrom, a religious history, . that wuthnow as sociologist was concerned, like ahlstrom, with a larger view of what constituted disorder can be seen in a near-companion monograph issued shortly before restructuring. musing on what underlay social splitting, he noted what occurred when the meaning and understanding of moral obligations was disturbed, resulting in not only a kind of fragmentation, but a larger consequence for ideology: “in other words, disturbances in the moral order are likely to be a factor in the production of new ideological forms… disturbances in moral obligations appear to be the most likely sources of alteration in ideology…. indeed, the role of moral obligations in many cases is to anticipate disturbance in social resources and to provide for the maintenance of social order in the presence of such disturbances.” these implications are an essential piece to understanding what will be discussed not only regarding the mennonite response to postwar europe and vietnam but also concerning whether american religious commitments were overtaken by a secular left in antiwar activity. robert wuthnow, meaning and moral order: explorations in cultural analysis (berkeley, ca: university of california press, ), - . heartland of kansas. but, it offers a distinctive counter to the perceived and remembered decade of turbulence during which american christianity defaulted on its stabilizing mission. chapter -- the mennonites and modernity situating the mennonites the forum that took place in tiny hillsboro kansas in both diverged from american mennonite history and was consistent with its participants’ attempts to come to grips with the forces of modernity, the pressures of acculturation, and the demands of the state, particularly in twentieth century america. although its primary encounters would be with nationalism and its local forms, the struggles that began to manifest on the campuses and in their parent bodies also add a thick layer to the meaning of secularization theory and complicates its easy application as a concept of decline in religious commitment and engagement with society, particularly during the long s. at the same time, the story leading up to the meeting between hershey and brunk evidences both the maintenance and adaptability of mennonite identity, factors which expressed themselves in the three kansas colleges’ responses to the vietnam war. the task is a two-fold one within these broader theoretical frameworks. just as in the faith tradition itself, the story focuses not only on the historical theological issues intertwined within the schools’ decision-making, but also with the very concept of a lived faith that was expressed largely through its local community. at the same time, even though the resident expression of faith was paramount, the larger constructs of memory, kinship networks, denominational authorities, and historical shared experience all informed the approach to decisions, including decisions “not to decide.” furthermore, the uneven attempts to come to terms with national claims during times of war clashed with the mennonite self-identification as “the peaceful people,” forcing them to consider just what it meant to be a faithful witness to peace in a country not especially appreciative of those who opposed war. how the colleges reflected the larger discussions and decisions about nationalism and claims for social justice that were taking place within their larger denominational communities is an essential component to understanding how they fit within the national culture and why hershey found time to visit the small community that hosted the forum. it offers important clues to the mennonite journey through modernity and raises larger interrogations that feed into the central questions raised by the dissertation regarding the nature of social and political protests. did modernity have an essentially secularizing effect on the groups, or, could a journey through modernity actually focus a peace position rather than diminish it? although general hershey was the prominent symbol of america’s military demands on individual conscience in , it had been a long and checkered road for mennonites to come to grips with these claims --- and what lay behind them, namely, the state’s ability to conscript those who refused to bear arms against another. contending with these claims had multiple impacts, that affected not only identity formation among those who would be named as the historic peace churches, and their situating among peace adherents, but a wide extension of what it meant to indeed be carriers of peace and peaceful people. for those who lived in kansas and whose children attended one of the three mennonite colleges in central kansas, the long s and the vietnam war, in particular, challenged them to move from relatively insular cultures to the willingness to engage with the vast array of social problems in twentieth-century america. in part, the pressures exerted by war forced them not only to protect their own peace and nonresistant commitments in terms of explicit pressures to participate in the military, but also to move beyond what subjects might be considered appropriate private or communal reflections of “peace” and into the public square. living under the protection of the state and enjoying its benefits forced the groups to decide whether a protected position was more faithful - -- or less. thus twentieth-century american wars pushed them to wrestle with re-defining peace and forced them to draw on their own modern history as a people to do so. mennonite origins: nonconformity, nonresistance, persecution, and endurance --- a history of movement stripped to its essentials, mennonite identity can be pegged to the anti-authority impulses of the protestant reformation in which those who sought a true faith turned from roman catholicism and the commitments it exacted from church and society. first attempting to reform it and then, when that failed in the eyes of some, choosing to return to the purity of the early church motivated a diverse assortment of opponents, who ranged from former priests to laity situated throughout the social spectrum. as the formidable martin luther of saxony took on the roman church and its hierarchy, others both interacted with the lutheran critiques and established their own particular stands on the individual conscience, interpretation of the bible, sacramental issues, and --- in the case of those who were caustically called anabaptists --- the religious commitments and social ordering of medieval society. hans-jurgen goertz, “the confessional heritage in its new mold: what is mennonite self-understanding today?” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives, ed. calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner (lanham, md: university press of america, ), - . goertz reflects on the edginess of modernity and how the mennonite location in crisis suggests several aspects of their identity as “precursors of modernity,” albeit identity in a tangled way that opens part of this author’s considerations of the pressures of nationalism and secularization. reformers such as luther and calvin wanted to reform the church (reformatio), whereas those reformers who did not think these measures went far enough wanted reforms that would restore the church to its earlier life and practices (restituto), thus the common phrase “reforming the reformers.” each wished to establish a faith that placed the faithful in a more direct relationship with the word of god, whether in verbal or lived experience. thus, all of these basic reformers are part of the protestant reformation with those who wished to move to a more radical reform further designated as the radical reformers, the radical reformation, or even the left wing of the reformation (a designation by reformation historian roland h. contrary to their fierce and pejorative characterization at the time, the anabaptists were not necessarily intent on social disruption for its own sake, although scholars who wrestle with the essentials of the movement’s identity recognize that the chiliastic, fanatic millenarian, and anarchic elements in various strands need to be acknowledged, especially when considering why the groups were such a threat. rather, early reformers such as conrad grebel, felix manz, georg blaurock, michael sattler, and hans marquart argued that to have a truly free conscience, the believer embraced only the authority of god. sixteenth-century european society’s seamless view of church and state in which belief and citizenship were interlocked precluded this kind of distinction. when a child was born as a member of the state, it was automatically baptized into church membership, thus maintaining a congruence necessary to social order. for anabaptist reformers, however, the demands on individual conscience meant that an individual had to make a conscious choice to believe (and therefore to be baptized). moreover, the new movement’s bainton that has largely been abandoned, although it occasionally appears in the literature). “radical” is considered a more apt descriptor because of its focus on “roots”. those radicals who wished to return to the life of the early church and emulate its earliest practices such as baptism upon confession of faith in jesus christ were pejoratively and derisively labeled “anabaptists” by their opponents. creating such a moniker also enabled state (and church) authorities to recall and forcibly implement the ancient justinian code that had been created originally to expunge the donatists, a law that leveled the death penalty on re-baptizers. as both bainton and robert d. linder indicate, the term embodied the overwhelming fear that their beliefs profoundly threatened the religious, social and civic order. the designation is thus not a self-description, although as this study examines, the label was embraced in the twentieth century by those within its traditions who were attempting to define its central tenets of identity. this re-visiting of mennonite identity is reflected in the two articles on “anabaptism” published in and then revised in in the fifth volume of the mennonite encyclopedia, a magisterial collective work by mennonite intellectuals issued in four volumes during the cold war and then updated with a fifth volume in . robert friedmann. “anabaptist” in the mennonite encyclopedia (scottdale, pa: herald press, - ), : - and walter klaassen. “anabaptism," in ibid., : - . roland h. bainton, the reformation of the sixteenth century (boston, ma: the beacon press, ), - ; robert d. linder, the reformation era (westport, ct: greenwood press, ), - . refusal to swear oaths, embracing of pacifism, use of lay leadership, and, in some cases, commitment to other first-century economic practices (such as sharing of wealth) sharply reinforced not only their purely theological threat to roman catholicism and emerging protestantism, but also their potential intransigence within the state. the movement, which attracted numerous adherents and which also appeared to withstand dispersal under persecution, was therefore both heretical and seditious. the resulting challenge to roman catholicism and the protestant reformers such as luther, calvin, and zwingli, coupled with the high concentration of magisterial states (political states which maintained the view of a seamless relationship between church and state) resulted in persecution that ranged from widescale blistering martyrdom to harassment of all sorts. not only were leaders targeted for death, and accorded the gruesome deaths especially designed to silence and provide an example to others, but in some areas of south german states and switzerland, squads were sent out to ferret out those who were practicing the threatening faith. it is widely accepted that more than , individuals were executed during the reformation, with the majority being anabaptists. historian franklin h. littell elaborates how normative anabaptist beliefs and practices were seen as a threat to social order, a threat magnified by the near-revolutionary disturbances in the city of munster in . franklin h. littell, the origins of sectarian protestantism (new york: macmillan, ), - ; hans-jurgen goertz, “the confessional heritage,” - . sociologist j. milton yinger highlights how the ultimate goals of the state and the ultimate goal of the believer conflict: “the final concern of the state is self preservation, whatever the means; the final concern of religion is salvation, whatever the costs.” j. milton yinger, the scientific study of religion (new york: macmillan, ), . historian lionel rothkrug contends that the early reformation correlates with a decreased activity in the search for jews and witches in south german states, particularly during the great peasant war, an argument which suggests either that anabaptists now fit the categories of both insurgent and heretic or that the label could be conveniently used to subsume other dangerous individuals. that the particular corridor which had been a lively area of witch-hunting saw action against others (including anabaptists) is especially intriguing considering that during the course of these persecutions, a priest from west friesland in the netherlands began to doubt the sacramental claims of the roman church, decided in favor of the anabaptist practice of believer’s baptism, and then wrestled with whether or not to commit himself to the movement. appalled at the loss of life and the authorities’ vicious recriminations on those who had participated in the chiliastic revolt at munster, menno simons decided to embrace reform, even as he maintained his pulpit at witmarsum. concluding that he must break with roman approximately one-third of all anabaptist martyrs were women. linder cites harold s. bender’s and marilyn j. peters’ mennonite encyclopedia articles on “women,” : - and : - , to emphasize the high level of female participation and martyrdom and to underscore their part in enabling the highly dispersed movement to persist. littell and dyck detail the macabre tortures meted out to anabaptists, as well as the commonplace means of social isolation, such as the strictures against giving shelter and food introduced in strassbourg in and and the enforcement of banishment in . the debate about the number of anabaptist martyrs evidences how intense the persecution was, how threatening anabaptists were perceived to be, and how these memories could be maintained with such force for later generation dispersed throughout europe. the detailed teasing out of numbers in the mennonite encyclopedia’s article on “martyrs” by paul schowalter notes that only those deaths that were civil executions were recorded, and that variant records among locales kept numbers from being exact. moreover, sixteenth-century society’s attempts to eradicate the real and remembered presence of a heretic meant that civil (religious) records could be altered (erased or overwritten) so that the individual was no longer recorded as existing. as historian william r. estep noted, this was especially true for any prelate or priest who had converted to anabaptism. drawing from the listings kept in mennonite hymnals such as the ausbund (and later reprised visually and in print in the martyr’s mirror), mennonite historian guy franklin hershberger argued for , martyrs among the swiss brethren alone, believers whose deaths were remembered as a matter of course during subsequent church services. the ratio regarding women is derived from the next century’s detailed accounts of anabaptist martyrs in t. j. van braught’s the bloody theatre, or martyr’s mirror of the defenseless christians, translated into english, but widely utilized in dutch and german by descendants of the original anabaptists. the martyr’s mirror is a source that has been subject to scrutiny and validated as historically accurate by historian brad gregory. lionel rothkrug, religious practices and collective perceptions: hidden homologies in the renaissance and reformation (waterloo: university of waterloo, ), - ; linder, - ; littell, - , - ; cornelius dyck, an introduction to mennonite history (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - ; paul schowalter, “martyrs,” in the mennonite encyclopedia, : - ; william r. estep, the anabaptist story, rd ed. (grand rapids, mi, ), ; guy franklin hershberger, war, peace, and nonresistance (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), ; brad gregory, salvation at stake: christian martyrdom in early modern europe (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), - . catholicism, he left his pulpit, disappeared for a year, was baptized and married, then appeared to lead the various fragments of anabaptism in the netherlands. over the course of the next twenty-five years, he led a clandestine existence, moving throughout the netherlands, schleswig- holstein, and the rhineland, preaching a peaceful gospel drawn from the bible and lending his name to those who followed this form of anabaptism. the “mennists,”mennisten,” or “mennonites,” thrived under his diligent and yet fugitive care, seeing their leader carry the “extraordinary price of gold guilders on his head” and existing under the direct threat of death for aiding him. as for their tenacious leader, who died of natural causes, menno simons wrote more than two dozen books and pamphlets, reaching thousands through his writings and leaving a legacy estimated as high as , believers in the netherlands. the mennonites and other anabaptists also left two particular public legacies that resonated through their reformation-era sufferings and which continued in practice and memory as essential elements of their identity: ) their lamb-like sufferings (as individuals and as a collective) and ) their opposition to the use of the sword. both were foundational to their early origins as refugees seeking freedom of conscience and both would be drawn upon as the groups developed their ethical traditions and practices. they likewise left a less public legacy that was also derived from the same desire to create a more faithful church based on the life and teachings it was common practice for groups to be identified with their leaders, whether anabaptist (e.g. melchior hoffmann (melchiorites), jacob hutter (the hutterites), jacob ammon (the amish)) or not (martin luther (the lutherans). on december , the authorities in leeuwarden laid a price on simons’ head of one hundred guilders, and over the next twenty-five years he saw a number of individuals executed because they had assisted him or offered him shelter (e.g. tjaard renicx of friesland was executed in for sheltering menno, klaas jans executed for the same in , and jan claesz was beheaded in for possession of copies of the leader’s writings). cornelius krahn, “menno simons,” in the mennonite encyclopedia, : - . according to linder, during menno’s ministry, “he was the most sought after heretic in western europe.” linder, - . of jesus. this particular bequest of contention, factionalism, and splitting would ironically later be mirrored in american religious history. it reflects the dynamic character of the freedom of conscience established by the anabaptist movements and, raises questions about the nature of modernity within a religious framework. it is also an important factor in this study’s consideration of mennonite unity or disunity during the twentieth century and particularly in the long vietnam war. as followers of jesus, anabaptists saw themselves as lambs, the sheep of the good shepherd, who trusted in god’s power and authority and who laid down his life willingly for his sheep. as conrad grebel of the swiss brethren enjoined his fellow believers in : true, believing christians are as sheep in the midst of wolves … they must reach the fatherland of eternal rest, not by overcoming bodily enemies with the sword, but by overcoming spiritual foes. they use neither the worldly sword nor engage in war, since among them taking human life has ceased entirely, for we are no longer under the old covenant. mennonites generally have resisted the “systematization” of their ethics and theology, preferring instead to see their beliefs derived directly from the bible. hence, words like “tradition,” “practice,” or “experience” are more accurate designations, especially prior to the twentieth century, even though theological engagement was ongoing within “the brotherhoods” and occasionally intense enough to result in the splitting of congregations. using them as an example of the intense divisions that occurred in early anabaptism, cornelius dyck gives an account of the extensive splits and factionalism among early flemish and frisian mennonites, who, in their zeal to create a pure church, placed a variety of strictures on fellow believers (including the “ban” a form of church discipline that separated the intransigent from other devotees) and those that did not conform within the community. the division spread across northern europe in spite of an attempt to reconcile differences in . as he notes, “the tragic, and in a way almost comic, point was reached in emden, where minister jan van ophoorn finally banned everyone in the congregation except himself and his wife!” dyck, - . thus, even as mennonites faced intense persecution from the civil and magisterial church authorities, they could also find themselves in opposition to their fellow co-religionists as they attempted to create a pure church. the pattern would continue, albeit not as the public face, or even the desired outcome for these “yielded” people. c. arnold snyder also offers a historical theology perspective on the internal theological pressures on the anabaptists and how their free church beliefs predisposed them to splits. c. arnold snyder, anabaptist history and theology (kitchener, ontario: pandora press, ). the metaphorical lamb was grounded in fact, as both roman catholics and magisterial protestants attempted to annihilate the movement. “those who held themselves as sheep for the slaughter were dreaded and exterminated as if they had been wolves,” contended bainton, in analyzing the anabaptist threat to the reformation order and its response to them. “they challenged the whole way of life of the community. had they become too numerous, protestants would have been unable to take up arms against catholics and the germans could not have resisted the turk.” this representation of biblical meekness and martyrdom would continue to reinforce anabaptist, and particularly mennonite, identity not only as they suffered persecution, emigrated throughout europe and then the americas, and found stability, but also as they presented themselves to civil authorities and the general populace throughout their migrations. also derived from their interpretation of the new testament, and particularly the sermon on the mount, anabaptists championed the notion of “nonresistance” or relationships with people (and the state) that completely opposed the use of any violence against others, whether offensive or defensive force. this included coercive action in any form, whether direct coercion backed with the threat of violence or indirect, and precluded mennonite service to the state. as menno simons explained in a treatise directed at civil authorities: the regenerated do not go to war, nor engage in strife. they are children of peace who have 'beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning forks, and know no war' (isaiah : , micah : ) ... our weapons are not weapons with which cities and countries may be destroyed, walls and gates broken down, and human blood shed in torrents like water. but they are weapons with which the spiritual kingdom of the devil is destroyed... christ is our fortress; patience our weapon of defense; the word of god our sword... iron and metal spears and conrad grebel quoted in ernst crous. “nonresistance,” in the mennonite encyclopedia, : ; bainton, ; littell describes this proclivity as “their sense of destiny as the church of the martyrs,” a destiny infused with eschatological hopes of the lord returning to establish his people throughout the earth. littell, - . swords we leave to those who, alas, regard human blood and swine’s blood of well-nigh equal value. in spite of their characterization by contemporaries who had their own reasons to identify them as anarchic troublemakers, and their later depiction by those who elided their essential christianity in favor of more material explanations (e.g. as instigators and participants in the peasant revolts), anabaptists opposed revolution in all of its violent forms. they were quick to emphasize that they intended to be obedient citizens of earthly governments, provided that those governments did not attempt to exact what was only due to god. these beliefs, derived from their desire to follow the mandates of conscience, but also to live in the orderly manner they saw outlined in the bible (particularly the new testament), initially explained how they viewed themselves as earthly inhabitants. soon after anabaptists at munster engaged in their violent attempt to implement the peaceful vision, anabaptists were quick to distance themselves from the horrifying results and to clarify their position regarding earthly authorities (the magistrate). their stance would become a doctrinal formulation known as the two spheres or the two kingdoms, thereby acting as a means by which mennonites could be faithful to god and also be faithful within what they saw as a civil order ordained also by god. littell translates the hutterite explanation which is particularly clear in its elucidation of the civil sphere: our will and mind are not, however, to do away with worldly government nor not to be obedient to it in goods and sanctions. for a government shall and must be in the world among men just as the daily bread and just as the schoolmaster must have the rods among the children. for because the great house of this world will not admit and let rule the word of god, the knaves and rascals or children of this as will be seen, this concept would later prove especially challenging to twentieth- century advocates of non-violence. this included members of the historic peace churches, who saw it effectively used by gandhi (as satyagraha) and then others in the american civil rights movement, including martin luther king, jr., as a nonviolent means in order to force justice. menno simons, “a christian and affectionate exhortation to all in authority,” menno simons.net http://www.mennosimons.net/ft -exhortation.html (accessed june , ). world who pursue no christian piety must yet have a worldly and gallows-piety … therefore the magistrate is an institution of god. the diffuse nature of the movement, its persistence through the appearance of leaders who took the place of those who had been martyred (some later suffering the same end), its recognition and utilization of lay leadership, and the protection offered by tolerant rulers in hesse, east friesland, and moravia enabled anabaptist survival, but also occluded a tidy and precise story of origins. mennonite historians initially favored switzerland-south germany as the origin of anabaptism, in large part due to the cohesive narrative brought to america by those who settled in unified settlements in pennsylvania, then later the corridor into virginia’s shenandoah valley, but also in large part through the efforts of mc historian harold bender, the energetic collector, organizer, and preserver of the movement’s documents. in the latter part of the twentieth century, however, a case was made by other historians and sociologists who argued vigorously for a multiple origins theory known as polygenesis to explain the fragmented and shifting nature of anabaptist identity during the reformation. the issue is a significant one for this study, not only in its later manifestation among mennonites --- including those in kansas --- in the twentieth century, but also in terms of essential questions regarding anabaptists, mennonites, and modernity that arise during this analysis. for example, littell remarks on the views of german socialist karl kautsky and british socialist belfort bax as those who late in the nineteenth century remarked on anabaptism as a social movement only. littell, - . littell, translating and citing a.j.f. zieglschmid, ed. die alteste chronik der hutterischen bruder (philadelphia: carl schurz memorial foundation, ), in littell, n . robert friedmann’s analysis of the two kingdoms emphasizes how the anabaptist doctrine was essentially derived from the gospels, in contrast to that developed by the reformers who focused on the writings of paul as he moved through the roman empire. robert friedmann, “the doctrine of the two worlds,” in the recovery of the anabaptist vision, ed. guy f. hershberger (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - . the intense discussion in part reflects the turn toward and recognition of the advantages of using social history within the profession, but also reprises some of the discussions in particular, and without pursuing the detailed arguments of reformation historians concerning other groups that might be classified as anabaptists, the question of multiple origins is important because of the collective identities that they forged as mennonites both in spite of among mennonites in the mid-twentieth-century. the classic statement on origins is by james m. stayer, werner o. packull, and klaus deppermann published as "from monogenesis to polygenesis: the historical discussion of anabaptist origins” in . stayer, et. al. focused on the emergence of at least three separate strands which all had different sources and subsequent work by each scholar discovered significant differences in origin or focus (packull identified a strong streak of mysticism among south-german-austrian anabaptists, while stayer emphasized the impact of reformed congregationalism on the swiss branch and deppermann saw a heavy apocalypticism among anabaptists located in the netherlands). these arguments modified and expanded on the earlier work by intellectual historian robert friedmann which had argued that using different schemes of classification and clustering brought different groupings into focus, particularly in regard to theological positions. the discussion of which stayer, et. al. were a part was also designed to overcome what they saw as the construction of mennonite identity by bender and other mc historians that privileged the early arrivals in america and diminished the particular claims brought by other streams, particularly the second largest grouping of dutch- north german mennonites who had migrated to the united states after migrations through prussia and russia. in another statement now considered authoritative, james juhnke refined the discussion with his argument for “a bipolar mosaic,” preferring the terms swiss-south german and dutch-russian, a convention this study will follow while recognizing an additional bifurcation within the second body (the “kirchliche” for the dominate and normative body among dutch-russians, and the brudergemeinde” known in america as the mennonite brethren). using social history as a lens has also forced the recognition of bender’s work as an attempt to consider pressures of acculturation and the state, thereby viewing his work from a different angle of intent and allowing for a greater latitude in assessing what can be seen as his urgent work on identity. goertz pushed the early social dimensions of anabaptism further, most recently arguing for origins not only based in theological and social issues clustered around anti- clericalism, but also heavily invested in class issues and other social conflict associated with the peasants revolts in the german states. james m. stayer, werner o. packull and klaus depperman, "from monogenesis to polygenesis: the historical discussion of anabaptist origins," mennonite quarterly review, ( ): - ; werner o. packull, mysticism and the early south german anabaptist movement, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ): - ; klaus depperman, melchior hoffman: social unrest and apocalyptic visions in the age of reformation (edinburgh: t&t clark, ); robert friedmann, “conception of the anabaptists,” church history , no. ( ); james c. juhnke, “mennonite history and self- understanding,” in ibid., - ; goertz, - ; a. james reimer on the assertions by goertz, a. james reimer, “mennonite theological self-understanding, the crisis of modern anthropocentricity, and the challenge of the third millennium” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives, ed. calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner (lanham, md: university press of america, ), - . and because of their beliefs and distinctive histories. under the intense pressures of persecution, but centered on the elemental christianity of the bible, the movement was yet able to adapt in part because of its diffuse origins, use of narratives of suffering and persecution to construct and maintain a mobile identity as refugees, and the enlistment of those stories in the following centuries to reinforce a non-threatening, yet hard-working, frequently separatist, presence in a europe fraught with nationalism. how did the mennonites survive, in order to reprise and re- claim or re-invent their divergent and common identity (or identities?) four hundred years later on a different continent? the answers begin in reformation europe. first, different groups embraced different survival strategies. swiss-south-german anabaptists who endured the harshest persecution from both catholics and other protestants fled from their urban origins deep into the countryside in an attempt to achieve invisibility. those in northern germany and holland eventually established themselves in holland’s increasingly more tolerant environment where they were able to enter urban and commercial life in movements recent work by rhetorician gerald biesaker-mast, while opposing what he sees as the oversimplification of polygenesis, explores the ambiguities present in the various streams, recognizing the complex adaptive strategies they used in the sixteenth century to create a living presence that both articulated a radical posture and yet appeared as politically quietist. recognizing the fragmentation associated with intense and widespread persecution and coupled with the various streams of immigration to north america, the question becomes not only one of origins, but why it was so important to these groups not only to maintain elements of anabaptist identity that enabled them to keep an identity of connectedness throughout europe for four hundred years but also to focus on identity issues in twentieth-century america especially under the pressures of acculturation and nationalism. unfolding this particular aspect of the construction (including recovery) of tradition from multiple sources is considered by philosopher laura roberts, who argues that the reconstruction of such identity is possible hermeneutically, but also strains to retain the dynamism of its traditions over time. gerald biesecker-mast, separation and the sword in anabaptist persuasion: radical confessional rhetoric from schleitheim to dordrecht (telford, pa: cascadia publishing, ), - , - , - ; laura schmidt roberts, “refiguring tradition: paul ricoeur’s contribution to an anabaptist- mennonite hermeneutics of tradition” (phd diss., graduate theological union, ), - . more fully explored later in the history of the kansas mennonites. later generations of the northern germans-dutch migrated to prussia and then russia, with smaller communities remaining along these corridors. second, because of persecution and the need to locate as far away from observation as possible, anabaptists who remained in areas subject to harassment fled to rural areas where they might be undetected. this, combined with historiographical issues to be considered shortly, resulted in a strong identification of mennonites in particular with agrarian occupations --- and with increasingly self-protective and separatist practices. reinforced by the migration of urban dutch and north german mennonites into agricultural occupations in prussia and later russia, the linking of faith with land found ultimate expression in the satisfying moniker, die stillen im lande (“the quiet in the land” or “the peaceful people in the country”). third, memories of persecution became paramount in the collective identity --- even among those who had not experienced the devastating harassments, tortures, and martyrdom that had reduced their numbers and devastated their leadership. that the movement was born in spite of intense persecution was brought to mind and reinforced for subsequent generations by the publication of the seventeenth century martyrs mirror, a collection designed to encourage the faithful to persist both in times of trial and in lukewarm times of ease. as mennonites were pushed from place to place chiefly because of their nonresistant stance and refusal to serve in the military, their times of rootlessness also fused with memories of these harsh persecutions. roland r. goering, “die stillen im land,” mennonite life , no. (january ): - . genuine suffering melded with the experience of migration to create distinctive collective memories that remained a hallmark of these “peculiar people.” fourth, and for related reasons, the story of the swiss-south germans initially served as the defining narrative around which the various other streams revolved and depended. revisited in particular by late twentieth-century american mennonite historians who insisted on a dual stream of origins --- the north german-dutch and russian trajectories in addition to the swiss- south german --- the impact of reformation-era persecutions nevertheless favored the most heavily persecuted as the normative anabaptist and mennonite experience. recent historians such as juhnke have argued for equal time for the dutch/prussian/russian (hereafter, dutch- russian) stream, particularly in the north america context. characterizing the resulting combination as a “bipolar mosaic,” the historian contends that focusing chiefly on the swiss- south german movement not only has omitted or skewed a significant part of the historical picture, but also given more cultural authority to the group’s defining of the anabaptist and mennonite narrative. the point is that multiple sources of origin coupled with their tenacious belief in the freedom of conscience and disregard of the geographical boundaries of state churches frame the ervin r. stutzman, whose work focusing on the rhetorical shifts in mennonite conceptions of nonresistance to an advocacy for justice will be considered later in this chapter, observes that the martyr’s mirror “was so central to mennonite self-understanding that it could be found in most homes next to a copy of the bible and a hymnbook.” ervin r. stutzman, from nonresistance to justice: the transformation of mennonite church peace rhetoric, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), . indeed, the martyr’s mirror is still in print as thieleman j. van braght, the bloody theater or martyr’s mirror of the defenseless christians, published simultaneously by mennonite publisher herald press in the united states and canada in a edition. anabaptists and the mennonites as harbingers of modernity and as potential challengers to national loyalties. the gathering of small congregations by believer’s baptism went on apace, and anabaptism spread in many areas closed to protestant state churches by their acceptance of the principle of territorialism. the anabaptists represent thereby an early protestant vision of a world mission unrestricted by territorial limitations and in a unique fashion foreshadow the later concept of the church as a community of missionary people. understanding these beginnings as a free church with multiple points of origin drawn together and yet dispersed under the fires of persecution sets the stage for understanding the mennonite maintenance of and yet search for identity in america --- and how their identity developed under the heat of american nationalism. coupled with strong memories of dislocation that would be reinforced in the twentieth century as mennonites faced the suffering of two world wars and the distinct grief of their co-religionists under stalinism, the tradition was in a position not only to observe the suffering of others, but also to question the nationalism that promoted it. among north american mennonites in the twentieth century, the determined memories and questions regarding identity made room for an even larger picture than their separatist ancestors had adopted in order to survive. on the one hand, their particularity not only could create rigid communities of conformity, but on the other hand it would also challenge nationalism through the faith tradition’s belief in and practice of a gospel that was universal in its witness. their struggles to recreate a nonresistant identity based on their traditions in the face of the claims of the american state. who had authority to resolve issues of identity and to negotiate the claims of the american state was a complex issue for groups that both accepted a collective identity and yet rejected its many particulars. the challenges the multiple strands faced in negotiating littell, . nationalism ironically created both a more entangled citizenship and yet one more capable of resisting national claims. like the larger bodies, the mennonite colleges in kansas would manifest these same struggles during the long vietnam conflict, bringing the beliefs of this theologically and culturally conservative religious tradition to bear against war and bringing it in the context of their conservative local communities. mennonites on the move --- or not. a few notes on mennonites in europe to when the first mennonites began to trickle into north america in the late seventeenth century, they left behind a europe that alternately hunted them, persecuted them, offered them refuge, proffered toleration, encouraged their economic development, embraced their practice of nonresistance when it yielded a ready and compliant workforce (particularly endorsing their increasing reputations as industrious farmers able to work unprofitable lands), eschewed their nonresistance when it meant they refused military service, enacted edicts forcing them from settlement, and extended imperial decrees designed to populate areas with willing agrarians who could also serve as a buffer against the turks. the patchwork of european states that varied in their state formation, religious toleration, encounters with modernity, and national aggression mimicked the variety of encounters the anabaptists had experienced since , with mercantilism, nationalism, and industrialization offering opportunities for freedom or for suffering and desperate poverty. the picture was a kaleidoscope, and mennonites were a part of it. sketching a very brief overview offers all of the elements mennonites would call into play as they reconstructed their identities in twentieth-century america under the pressures of nationalism and also clarifies the two largest streams of mennonite origins, the dutch-russian and the swiss-south german. the dutch-russian experience during the earliest years of persecution as has already been noted, several german princes had established pockets of toleration and refuge, as had the moravians where followers of jacob hutter (the hutterites) had been welcomed. these exceptional offers were dependent on the good wishes of the ruler, and were not widespread policies of toleration. the standard narrative holds that after william of orange wrested independence from spain after northern provinces united against the common enemy, he issued the first statewide edict of limited religious toleration in the union of utrecht. having earlier ordered the city of middelburg to stop attempting to force the mennonites into military service in and to leave them in peace (provided they were otherwise useful citizens), william opened the netherlands to what mennonite historian cornelius j. dyck calls “the golden age.” not only did dutch mennonites integrate into society (for better or for worse), but they established a long tradition of benevolence and assistance to mennonites in the persecuted areas of switzerland and various german states, and what would become a centuries old tradition of hospitality even later as they helped their co-religionists to immigrate to america in the late seventeenth century and then again in the s. known and valued for their skillful weaving, they entered the life of dutch trade, both by participating in various aspects of it and by following its trade routes to other points of settlement. far from being only “the quiet in the land,” dutch mennonites achieved prominence as physicians, in the overseas fishing trade (with the provision that they did not work or travel in boats that carried weaponry and cannons contrary to their nonresistant position), and in the cultural life of the city. at the same time, they established their reputation for excellence in farming that would serve as a defining hallmark (and occasional lifeline) when they became expert at draining swamps and recovering the marshy lands precariously at risk from the sea. in the northern german states, dutch and german mennonites found persecution or refuge dependent upon the protection of tolerant or sympathetic noblemen, or even, for a brief period of time, with the archbishop of cologne, but toleration was uneven and could be revoked or established accordingly. the mennonite reputation as stolid and productive farmers was increasingly known and was an added incentive for tolerating or protecting the peaceful people. scheswig-holstein tendered protection on various estates, the nobility offering the dutch mennonites an opportunity to drain the marshy lands, implement a system of dikes, and recover the land for productive farming. the congregations in and near hamburg thrived under the legal protection officially established after , and menno simons passed his last years there peacefully. yet recent scholarship focused on the vistula delta on the baltic sea opens a picture that more fully explicates the immediate and long-term consequences of the persecutions exacted on the early dutch mennonites by spaniards charles v, phillip ii, and the duke of alva, a general particularly determined to implement phillip’s orders to eradicate the poison of protestant and dissenting heresy. implementing the blistering attacks on the growing population of anabaptists in the early and mid-sixteenth century, their violence resulted in the martyrdoms already briefly the union of utrecht chiefly benefitted mennonites, but also addressed toleration for the growing number of religious movements, such as the nascent baptists and the quakers who also challenged the unity of church and state. in addition to the pockets of toleration and protection in the german states, strassburg on the rhine river was also an early site of acceptance, a city known for its willingness to consider ideas --- and, also a city that had divested itself of its ruler in the centuries prior. ruled by what dyck describes as a “democratic form of government … with a complicated system of councils and elected officials … [its] main center of power lay with the twenty guilds, which were unions of craftsmen.” dyck, - , - . discussed and which would become the strong stuff of mennonite memory. but, as their persecutions intensified and those who chose to flee did, the commercial networks of the baltic sea would play a large part in the preservation --- and dispersal --- of the dissenters. because spain’s grip in the northern provinces was weak, refugees flocked to the baltic sea where they could obtain passage to the free city of danzig via ships bound there from amsterdam. taking advantage of the strong trade networks established between these two ports and centers of commerce, mennonites not only escaped persecution but also established settlements in the vistula delta region in which danzig nestled. accepting work from local nobility, many of whom were polish, mennonites found not only work as farmers, but a location that enabled them to easily keep in contact with mennonites in amsterdam via the trade routes by sea and to establish and maintain communication with mennonites scattered southward along the vistula waterway. the region’s complicated overlapping of jurisdictions between the polish crown (which controlled what was called “royal prussia” (west prussia)), the lands held by albert, grand master of the teutonic knights who upon converting to lutheranism submitted to the king of poland and designated himself “duke of prussia” (thereby creating the “duchy of prussia” or “ducal prussia” (east prussia)), nobles, danzig was so prosperous it was considered ”the queen of the baltic” and its heavy grain trade with amsterdam reinforced the latter’s reputation as “the granary of europe,” according to historian peter j. klassen and his analysis of shipping records from to that are independently attested in both cities. the alliance between the two cities carried heavy economic clout, with the independent city in the vistula managing more than percent of the baltic’s grain trade and the dutch maintaining not only a system of factors and a bank, but also able to weigh in on decisions concerning mennonites as klassen attests. not only has his recent work uncovered a wide range of carefully-teased commercial, governmental, and land documents, but it has also made them available in english or german, translated from the polish. peter j. klassen, mennonites in early modern poland & prussia (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ). in regard to danzig and amsterdam, ibid., , - . the “netherlands” at this time approximated present day belgium and the netherlands. quasi-independent cities and two prominent independent cities (danzig and elbing) created competing loyalties that also resulted in variant approaches to religious toleration. some entities extended toleration almost continuously over the next two hundred years (danzig, elbing), while others varied according to ruler, economic conditions, or religious impulses. what prevailed, however, were two substantive realities. one was religious. one was economic. both would keep the dutch mennonites who had emigrated in place, by their own volition and in accord with their professed beliefs in nonresistance intact. in conjunction, these realities would offer them a place which they would occupy until the pressures of the napoleonic wars and the third division of poland yielded to european nationalism. first, what historian peter j. klassen labels “a dramatic demonstration” of religious toleration took place in , six years before william of orange’s widely-heralded union of utrecht was established. known as the “confederation of warsaw,” nobles in the sejm, or national assembly, called for an act of toleration that would preclude the violence that was occurring throughout europe in the name of religion. vowing that such warfare would not be poland’s solution to religious and civic turmoil, they enacted what became the binding commitment on polish kings for more than two hundred years: since there is in our republic no little disagreement on the subject of religion, in order to prevent any such harmful strife from the beginning among our people on this account as we plainly see in other realms, we mutually promise for ourselves and our successors forever, under the bond of our oath, faith, honor, and conscience, that we who differ with regard to religion will keep the peace with one another, and will not for a different faith of a change of churches shed blood nor punish one another by confiscation of property, infamy, imprisonment, or banishment, and will not in any way assist any magistrate or office in such an act. klassen, - . although the act would be binding on the king, the fragmented and overlapping jurisdictions would still mean that mennonites were under strictures from local nobles or cities regarding their commercial activities, ability to purchase land, or opposition to their settlement. hostility would occur in different locations and by different entities. yet, as klassen notes, no mennonites were ever expelled from the crown’s lands or those with whom the crown could negotiate. the second condition would, combined with the toleration extended through the “confederation,” eventually position the mennonites as valuable, yet conflicted members of an extended national community --- and both establish and reinforce their well-known reputations as farmers who could reclaim wastelands. the vistula delta was a wide marshy area that also included a network of smaller tributaries, including the nogat river, and five distinctive areas, all of which were subject to the devastating floods of poland’s chief waterway. eager to solve the precarious conditions, danzig welcomed the fleeing “netherlanders” who were skilled in the construction of dikes, building of windmills, and other techniques that would drain arable land, then maintain consistent water levels. by offering them a measure of local autonomy, guaranteeing them rights of inheritance, and proffering religious toleration, the city, then various other authorities, saw their hopes realized when the “sober, hardworking mennonites” reclaimed as klassen provides in one of his singular translations from polish, the crown also retained a strong memory it was willing to voice on behalf of the mennonites (and perhaps upon the crown’s foresight). for example, one hundred years after the first refugees had fled to the delta, king wladislaw iv in proclaimed: “we are well aware of the manner in which the ancestors of the mennonite inhabitants of the marienburg islands (werder), both large and small, were invited here with the knowledge and by the will of the gracious king sigismund augustus, to areas that were barren, swampy, and unusable places in these islands. with great effort and at very high cost, they made those lands fertile and very productive. they cleared out the brush, and in order to drain the water from these floodedand marshy lands, they built mills and constructed dams to guard against the vistula, nogat, haff, tiege and other streams.” klassen locates this document in the archivum panstwowo w gdansku, / . ibid., - . land that no one had been able to farm. the subsequent regional prosperity enlisted the heavy support of local officials when mennonites were criticized for their religion, and when they were disparaged for the economic success of their communities. increased landholdings meant more income for the city, the crown, or the nobility who wanted their lands drained and they ensured that the mennonites received a specially protected minority status that guaranteed their nonresistance by exempting them from the military. thus, the refugees established a reputation that not only served them well, but also aroused a long community memory that, under the pressures of nationalism, would raise the question regarding their peace position regarding military service. under the crown, they had enjoyed toleration and a variety of land and property rights, and yet they did not enjoy full equality before the law. did all citizens have equal rights and obligations to serve national ends? although tolerated in the sixteenth and most of the seventeenth century, their protected status was increasingly tenuous as poland was carved up and danzig lost its independence to the german state of prussia, then germany after . the pressures exerted on mennonites by the hohenzollern dynasty beginning in , coupled with the desire of some to be full citizens in german society eventually forced them to choose between their nonresistant faith which precluded warfare and participation in military service and the citizenship that was increasingly defined to support nationalism. the wars for german unification in the s were capped by the revocation of the mennonites’ military exemption in . as the prussians embraced nationalism and exerted pressure on the mennonites to enlist in their armies, these settlements in the dutch mennonite system of reclaiming marshy land and creating productive farms was so distinctive, that it engendered its own term, “hollandereien.” mennonites in the vistula delta were not only farmers, but also skilled craftsmen and artisans, their skills later bringing them into sharp conflict with the city guilds in danzig. klassen, mennonites, , . the extended vistula delta would be the source for a majority of the mennonites who would first emigrate to russia in response to catherine the great’s invitation in , and then leave the russian colonies a century later for the united states and canada. they are thus the originators of the dutch-russian stream of american mennonites who would arrive in kansas, then found bethel college and tabor college. the swiss-south german experience although the last dutch mennonite martyr died in , and those in the movement later labeled the dutch-russian stream generally no longer feared for their lives, whether in the netherlands, the states of northwest germany, or eastward in the vistula delta and its patchwork of independent cities, duchys, and the polish crown, those in the swiss-south german stream faced a far different reality. trapped by a determined reformed presence in switzerland, and the warring of lutherans and roman catholics, they were despised as heretics and purveyors of disorder almost uniformly throughout the region, with the exception of scattered points of refuge and the city of strassburg. the intense persecutions not only eliminated most early swiss anabaptist leadership, but forced the laity into remote areas and poor land, where they endured widespread privation and sometimes extremes of poverty. some swiss brethren remained in enclaves in switzerland, escaping persecution by retreating to the protection of nobles in the jura klassen and mennonite historian mark jantzen analyze the tentative negotiations that took place at different points in the history of the vistula delta/prussian mennonites, klassen focusing on land, religious, and commercial issues while considering the long view of overlapping jurisdictions in changing conceptions of citizenship and the state and jantzen concentrating on the years after the capitulation of poland and the rule of the prussian hohenzollerns prior to bismarck. ibid., - ; mark jantzen, mennonite german soldiers: nation, religion, and family in the prussian east, - (notre dame, in: university of notre dame press, ). mountains where they worked as tenants, while others withdrew into isolated villages that were predominantly french. although the last execution of a swiss mennonite martyr took place in , the reformed church in switzerland, once established, continued to press the mennonites to recant or to leave. in the seventeenth century, they faced a double threat: from official persecutions enacted by the civil governments in switzerland, and by the devastation of the thirty years war when roman catholics and protestant armies fought for control of germany. swiss mennonites had already fled into the rhineland and other regions north of switzerland, scrabbling for an existence that kept them out of the reach of hostile authorities, but persecutions unleashed in waves by the city of zurich and the canton of bern intensified their suffering, particularly for those who had escaped north. with the thirty years’ war devastating large portions of the german states and killing nearly one-fourth of the german population between and , swiss and south german mennonites found little refuge. when the city of zurich initiated persecutions in in the midst of the war, refugees fled down the rhine (northward) particularly into the palatinate and alsace, but as far as worms into areas where their co- religionists attempted to survive. most of the mennonite settlements in the palatinate were destroyed in the course of the war, as were other areas ravaged during the course of military maneuvers or defensive actions taken by the populace (such as flooding of land). in , when elector karl ludwig of the palatinate issued an edict of religious toleration, then five years later specifically offered the swiss mennonites refuge and a limited amount of religious freedom in c. henry smith, the story of the mennonites, th ed., rev. and enl. by cornelius krahn (newton, ks: mennonite publication office, ), - ; dyck, ; david a. haury, prairie people: a history of the western district conference (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), . exchange for rebuilding his devastated province, many emigrated. settling in areas between wiesloch and wimpfen that in had experienced the most intense battles of the palatine, they rebuilt the farming economy through a number of innovations while their flemish brethren established a thriving manufacture of silk and velvet in krefeld. their status nevertheless remained tenuous and dependent on the good will of a particular ruler. after the canton of bern issued an order expelling all anabaptists from the jurisdiction, swiss mennonites successfully pressed for a ten year reprieve in order to settle their affairs, but in the government passed new legislation offering them the opportunity to recant --- or to leave. according to historian c. henry smith, more than seven hundred mennonites were driven out of their homes, making their way through the vosges mountains to the palatine where they joined their brethren who had settled and farmed under the protection of karl ludwig. this reprieve was cut short when louis xiv of france ordered the destruction of the palatinate in and warfare resumed. those who managed to remain in bern were repeatedly subjected to karl ludwig’s stipulations included a ban on proselytizing, freedom of worship in homes (but not in public meetinghouses), and an annual payment of tribute (three gulden for the first year, six gulden in subsequent years). smith, story, - ; christian hage also recounts the long-term consequences of the thirty years war on more than , hutterite anabaptists who were forced out of their homes by the newly victorious roman catholics who overtook this early refuge. they subsequently moved to hungary and transylvania. christian hege, "thirty years' war ( - )," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://gameo.org/index.php?title=thirtyyearswar (accessed june , ). in regard to innovative agricultural practices that helped restore the land, walter kuhn describes swiss mennonites’ introduction of a new variety of clover as ground cover and feed, the reform of feedlots, and the use of fertilizers. walter kuhn, "swiss galician mennonites," mennonite life, , no. (january, ), pp. - . even these improvements did not necessarily accrue to long- term mennonite stability. smith recalls the difficulty swiss-south german mennonites faced under the reimplementation of the ancient code of ius retractus in which land that previously had been owned by one of the magisterial religious groups but purchased by a mennonite had to be returned to the original owner upon payment of the original price. thus, land which had been unproductive or devastated by war, sold at a low price, and then improved by a mennonite farmer, could be returned to the original owner for the original outlay. smith, . persecution, with a special commission established to handle them from to . punishments ranged from branding on the forehead to identify them as heretics (thereby indicating that no one could give them lodging or provisions), sentencing to life as a galley slave, interment outside the public cemeteries, and other provisions that in symbol or fact distanced them from the bern community, the only canton that still had mennonites by the late seventeenth century. if anything positive could be derived from the precarious position of the swiss- mennonites, it was that their intense situation came to the notice of dutch mennonites some time before , at which time they began a long practice of brotherly intervention and material assistance. they pressed the swiss to stop the persecutions, but they also raised funds for relief and assembled shipments of clothing, money, food, and supplies to help the refugees “who were fleeing in a steady stream” to the palatinate. the stories of persecution so moved the dutch that they overcame some of their divisions in order to cooperate in the relief of these refugees, a story that not only proved true for other situations in which the dutch intervened on behalf of their co- religionists in europe over the next three hundred years, but which would prove to be true for mennonites in twentieth-century america, some of whom were their direct descendants, and others the descendants of those they had assisted. moreover, as historian richard k. macmaster asserts, their contact with those who were suffering rekindled their own re-identification with their faith. it was at that point in time when thieleman van bragt compiled and published the dyck, introduction, , . martyrs mirror in , thus positioning the widely read and distributed work that would help create and maintain mennonite memory and identity. memories of intense persecution coupled with an existence made tenuous by european religio-political warfare kept the swiss-germans in an uneasy situation and wary of the state in ways that their more confident co-religionists in the netherlands were not. they also achieved far less prosperity and stability than those dutch refugees who had fled eastward to the vistula delta and then remained for more than two hundred and fifty years. the wars derived from religious disputes which the polish “confederation” had stymied on behalf of its various jurisdictions had only a vague parallel in the treaty of westphalia, which extended toleration solely to the roman catholics, lutherans, and reformed, and omitted non-magisterial groups the confident dutch mennonites did not just supply material relief, but on occasion were willing to involved the dutch government on behalf of the swiss-germans. for example, when minister benedikt brechbuhl and his wife attempted to hide from authorities in bern and were apprehended, officials collaborating with bern commercial interests attempted to ship him and a group of fifty-six other prisoners to north carolina in . the trip northward via the rhine to rotterdam was, as macmaster explained, exactly what the dutch mennonites hoped. the newly formed commission for foreign needs successfully enlisted the help of the dutch government to free all, many of whom reunited with their families scattered throughout the mennonite diaspora. in regard to how refugees helped the dutch reconstruct memories of persecution, macmaster emphasized the formation of what would become the martyr’s mirror. van bragt’s work was derived from several earlier compilations, the earliest collected and published in by a dutch pastor who was concerned about divisions among his fellow christians (including the english baptists and other religious exiles who had fled to the netherlands and whom he assisted). he saw the exercise in memory could re-establish an authentic faith and christian unity, believing that: “recovery of the anabaptism that had flourished in the time of the martyrs was a common ground on which separated brethren might unite,” according to the historian. richard k. macmaster, land, piety, peoplehood: the establishment of mennonite communities in america, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - , - . dyck’s analysis, which was first published during the vietnam war and two years before the mc mennonites would work toward unity on the war in spite of wide cultural differences, also focuses on the wider dynamics of de ries’ concern for spiritual vigor and community remembrance: “in a sermon shortly before his death in , the octogenarian shared how the poor and suffering church of his youth had now become rich and socially acceptable but how much spiritual vigor had been lost in the process.” dyck, . entirely. they had the advantage, however, of a stubborn faith that had persisted in the interstices of persecution, in contrast to those who had grown lax in the “golden age” of dutch mennonitism. not as literate as the expansive, educated dutch, who did not have to hide and avoid congregating for either worship or for formal instruction, they nevertheless carried a long memory, which would refine itself in america and challenge a self-congratulatory and victorious twentieth-century culture nearly three hundred years later. maintaining boundaries that viewed both state and culture with skeptical eyes, some swiss-south german mennonites would eventually make their way to kansas and found two-year hesston college in harvey county in in a deliberate decision to provide their brotherhood in the west with a college education. others, having initiated a reform movement aimed at the later manifestations of swiss-german religious and cultural life in the mid-nineteenth century, would see themselves combining with strands of the later dutch-russian emigration to found bethel college, also in harvey county. the mennonites meet america by the time elder peter eckert arrived from russia on the newly scrubbed plains in what would become marion county, kansas, in , his co-religionists had been in north america for nearly three hundred years. carefully cradling the grains of hard winter wheat for which mennonites in kansas, then the state itself would become famous, eckert and his german- the treaty of westphalia obtained religious equality to the magisterial churches of germany (the roman catholics, the lutherans, and members of the reformed churches). to move beyond purely ethnic terms, the swiss-german stream of mennonites is not only the backbone of what became designated as the mc mennonite church that would found hesston college at the turn of the twentieth century, but also the basis of what later organized as the general conference mennonite church (the gcs), who would, together with a large infusion from the great dutch-russian emigrations of the s, found bethel college. hesston college was first founded as an academy for high school students, then was recognized as a junior college in . speaking kin would set down roots in land that was newly theirs, having emigrated from russia in large clusters, sometimes almost entire churches. they were part of the largest single migration of mennonites in american history, with almost , arriving between and . their arrival in post-civil war era america during the final years of reconstruction would add a thick strand to the mennonite presence in the united states, although it would be but one part of a fragmented weft that would reconstructed and defined in the next century. their story would be the predominant narrative in south central kansas in the twentieth century, partially occluding the chronicle of those who had first arrived in north america in the seventeenth century. the first mennonites to arrive in america did not arrive as entire congregations or even complete family groups fleeing potential conscription as their co-religionists would later. rather, the early records teased out by historian richard macmaster find a few souls who arrived not as self-identifying religious refugees, but as dutchmen who were part of the trade established between the netherlands and new amsterdam (later new york). although the first permanent settlement of mennonites in germantown, pennsylvania, took place in , their presence was already evident in the public records macmaster is so adept at scouring and show a local populace already wary of the potential heresy of “menonists,” lutherans, and english “independents” (congregationalists) against the official dutch reformed church. for example, john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church: pilgrims and pioneers (hillsboro, ks: mennonite brethren publishing house, ), , . for the sake of clarity, this work will be cited further as john a. toews, history, in order to distinguish the work from works by other toews with the first name john. one anna smits who was an anabaptist was called to account in for her “slanderous and calumniating” language against a reformed sermon. the first permanent mennonite settlement at germantown in evidences the hodgepodge that was european anabaptism and early american christianity. including quakers, mennonites, and mennonites who were married to quakers, the first meetings built on relationships that had developed in the palatinate among swiss-german mennonites and quakers (friends) who had preached among them beginning in the mid-seventeenth century. contemporaneous with elector karl ludwig’s extension of toleration to the second wave of refugees from bern, quaker founder george fox had travelled in holland and through the palatinate in , preaching the gospel --- and a different good news about a potential refuge in america. accompanied by william penn, fox and his religious message were not completely accepted by the mennonites because of both theological reasons and different approaches to interaction with the state. quakers were enthusiastic opponents of paying particular taxes levied to support wars, whereas mennonites, although just as opposed to warfare and their personal participation in it, were eager not to arouse any further hatred against themselves in a germany that had already cast anabaptists as purveyors of disorder. they therefore preferred to pay taxes, avoid confrontation, and reside as carefully as possible as “the quiet in the land.” but, in the first mennonite settlement in america was an outgrowth of the “lamb” congregation in the netherlands which, as described previously, initiated much of the material relief collected and distributed to the swiss-german refugees that flooded into the palatinate due to their ouster from bern. assisted by the amsterdam city council, one pieter cornelisz plockhoy founded a short-lived colony in delaware at what is present day lewes in . hoping to build a communitarian life modeled on that of the hutterites and explicitly forbidding slavery and the slave trade, the new village lasted less than a year. razed by warfare between the english and dutch, the colonists dispersed, with some filtering into other settlements. macmaster, - . regards to the other good news regarding fox’s (and penn’s) potential refuge, the mennonites were eager listeners. the trickle of emigrants, a large percentage coming as indentured servants, initially included chiefly quakers with a minority of mennonites, until quakers reminded palatinate authorities just how dangerous their beliefs could be to civil order. after two female quakers preached in the palatinate in , officials banned the friends and harassed them, actions that stirred quaker emigration and pulled along those who had intermarried with them or who were related by marriage, a number of whom were mennonites. after when bern renewed its persecutions, swiss-german mennonites began to emigrate more deliberately, with , eventually leaving germany by to join the approximately mennonites who had already moved in fits and starts to new york, then germantown. aided by a strong dutch network of benevolence, the movement was both religious and economic in nature. the palatine’s policies of conditional and tenuous land ownership combined with persecution pushed the swiss-germans to leave, but the lure of pennsylvania and its explicit welcome and guarantees of religious freedom and land also helped overcome any reluctance. joined later by swiss-german amish, few additional mennonites arrived until the nineteenth century when , alsatian and german amish, swiss, and palatine mennonites would arrive, most of the new arrivals following general trajectories of the quakers are not anabaptists, but their social connections and common beliefs in nonresistance brought them close together at many points in their histories. ibid., - . although early anabaptists had both male and female preachers, mennonites eventually allowed only men to preach in contrast to the quaker practice that continued to welcome its female testimonies and exhortations. because palatine authorities generally viewed quakers as a kind of mennonite, they lumped them all together, thereby recalling old fears of disorderly anabaptists. macmaster, - . american settlement by moving past east and central pennsylvania to inhabit western pennsylvania, ohio, indiana, illinois, and iowa. their numbers would belie their eventual impact on american history, albeit an ironic impact. bringing the same inclinations to america that they had in europe, they generally avoided calling attention to themselves and preferred a quiet existence. although their history in america would be multi-valent, with variations and separations of many sorts which this study will generally omit, their life in america would defy easy categorization. no longer forbidden by law to engage in certain trades, they moved into many skilled crafts and local commercial activities, thus disproving the stereotype that they simply melted into the land and worked solely as farmers. moreover, as their early settlement and worship evidences, the swiss-german mennonites did not separate themselves from the culture as a matter of course, nor did they isolate themselves from other settlers. congregational in organization and authority, evidencing the same strong doctrinal disputes that could result in the typical splitting characteristic of the free churches, they reinforced the strong boundary markers that sociologists view as means to maintain identity. among these were tenacious holds on not only what would later be reified as “nonconformity,” but also their peace position of nonresistance, both of which would be historically conditioned. together, these beliefs would make them conflicted critics of culture and american warfare, however, especially in the twentieth century. see appendix b for john a. toews’ chart on mennonite immigration, updated by toews with additional numbers from the mennonite encyclopedia. john a. toews, history, . macmaster notes that “mennonites [in colonial southeastern pennsylvania] were prominent in the crafts.” schlabach also reprises the work of historical geographer james lemon whose detailed analysis of southeastern colonial pennsylvania concluded that ”mennonites, like quakers and other german sectarians, did establish exceptional group discipline and mutual aid. but lemon has pointed out that they did not choose the tightest of the available patterns of the dutch-russians become dutch-russians meanwhile, their theological kindred in europe were starting to experience the nationalistic pressures in europe that would eventually result in the large-scale migrations to north america in the s. situated in the vistula delta region, mennonites had enjoyed the toleration proffered by the polish crown for more than two hundred and fifty years. many had prospered and established themselves and extended families on land they had recovered and improved. but, with the rise of first imperialism, then nationalism, mennonites in poland found themselves in an intense geo-political situation, with their futures no longer stabilized by the protection of the polish crown. instead, they saw poland torn apart in three partitions, with prussia, russia, and austria enjoying the spoils and their peaceful position endangered. by , those mennonites that remained had chiefly divested themselves of their nonresistant positions community, for they established neither european-style villages nor religious communes. in outer life mennonites were part of a pluralistic fluid community structure.” moreover, they were highly networked along routes of trade, including those running from philadelphia through lancaster. “lemon found mennonites to have been ‘quite in tune with market conditions.’” mennonite “nonconformity” is based on the biblical injunction, “be ye not conformed to the world, no anything in it,” an enjoinder that meshed with two-kingdom theology, which is discussed later in this study. “nonconformity” issued in church splits, fragmentation within congregations, and, later between denominations, but it is not necessarily a reaction against culture for the sake of maintaining identity. as historian steve nolt cautions, it is imperative not to automatically construe a conflict as “boundary maintenance,” nor is it accurate historically to cast mennonite life in terms of an ongoing struggle between individualism and collectivity, however tempting. although his case studies are situated in the twentieth century, his larger argument concerns mennonite history in general. juhnke frames a similar argument in the context of american history, when, in considering late nineteenth-century church conflict involving revivalism, he cautions against seeing mennonite splits as negative reactions in a simple polarity. rather, he observes that the typical split between what he labels “conservatives” and “progressives” were reactions in juxtaposition with american culture that in actuality brought renewed spiritual growth to each of the parties. macmaster, - ; theron f. schlabach, “mennonites, revivalism, modernity: - ,” church history , no (december ), ; steve nolt, “problems of collectivity and modernity: mid-century mennonite conflicts involving life insurance and biblical hermeneutics,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ), - ; juhnke, vision, - . and accepted conscription as a measure of their status as would-be citizens, choosing to believe in the righteousness of the fatherland as an instrument of god rather than their long-held beliefs against warfare. prior to these changes, mennonites had chiefly adhered to their nonresistant position and refusal to serve in the military, a stance that was not especially threatened when european warfare was conducted through the use of mercenary soldiers. but now, citizenship was increasingly enmeshed with the military demands of the state, and the particular entity that would soon come to dominate polish life. prussia (brandenburg-prussia) would not only occupy and divide the kingdom of poland beginning in , but it also would challenge the mennonite position on peace. casting about for a position on what to do with the mennonites, the question was finally solved nearly a century later when the mennonites’ military exemption was revoked in . by then, the faith community had split over whether or not to view nonresistance as an essential belief, attempted a variety of strategies to accommodate the state short of conscription, seen its ability to buy property hedged as a condition of citizenship and military service, and then, finally, for those who stayed and made their accommodations with the prussian state, recast its view of the emerging german state as a holy and righteous nation. jantzen, mennonite, - , - . there is an important and wide-ranging caveat regarding the use of mercenaries and the general freedom of the population before the universal draft was implemented. unlike most of europe, part of the stress on mennonites in switzerland was due to the fact that the swiss economy depended in large part on the enlistment of its citizens as mercenaries. serving in the military was not an option for the swiss, but a requirement, a point stressed by jantzen. under the pressures of the napoleonic wars, the victorious prussians instituted what is popularly conceived as a universal draft. although conscription of all adult males was possible under the accord proposed in by the landtag (provincial estates) and religious exemptions were not allowed, mennonites were initially able to negotiate their release from the requirement, being charged instead with an increase in the fees levied in its stead. what was not successful, however, was negotiating a situation in which mennonites maintained their reputations with their it also saw the exodus of , members of its community leave for the refuge of russia, taking advantage of catherine the great’s expansive offers to anyone willing to colonize her newly-acquired outlying lands taken in the turkish war. offering free land, free travel, wide discretion in the establishment of their own local quasi-governments and educational institutions, and exemption from military service, her edict of extended to anyone interested who was willing to settle and farm the unproductive regions, but by , her governor general potemkin specifically extended the invitation to the mennonites in the vistula delta and west prussia in particular. contrary to popular american mennonite memory, the russian provisions were not especially crafted for their special benefit, but were, rather, the stipulations fashioned for a policy that intended to keep the “foreign colonies” separate from the mainstream of russian life. beginning in , when frederick william of prussia issued his newly written charter of privileges which guaranteed that mennonites would “remain eternally free from military registration and personal military service,” but then began to modify the state’s commitments first under the pressure of the napoleonic wars, then in service of the growing prussian nation, communities. in the face of a draft to which almost everyone was subject, mennonites now faced neighbors who were increasingly irate over mennonite exemptions when their own sons had no choice but to comply. increasingly, according to historian mark jantzen who has teased out the details of prussian assessments, mennonites found their would-be citizenship called into question. jantzen, - , - . the immigration numbers of mennonite settlers who emigrated from the vistula were adapted from the work of j. ewert by cornelius krahn. the confusion over special privileges is explained by krahn, who notes that the later agreement extended to the mennonites in and then reaffirmed as the privilegium by czar paul i in included margin notes that the mennonites would have exemption from military service for “all eternity.” cornelius krahn, “russia,” mennonite encyclopedia : - ; toews, john a., history, - . nevertheless, what is significant is that the dutch-russian mennonites at the time of emigration to russia and their descendants in america both argued that the exemptions regarding military service were an essential part of their agreement, therefore suggesting that they considered it, at least through the vietnam war, to be one of the markers of their collective identity. many mennonites took up russia’s offer. of the , mennonite souls the king had enumerated in , by a substantial number had left, creating alarm in prussia at the loss of this productive farming manpower to the new colony of khortitsa, and resulting in a halt to the issuing of passports, except to the laboring working class poor. stymied in attempts to grant exemptions by social pressures, the prussian view of citizenship, and a mennonite community increasingly divided over whether citizenship or nonresistance was more important, the prussians relented in fits and starts. more prosperous families began to emigrate, and by , some well- to-do farmers had as well, interested in the , acres that comprised the colony of molochna, the second colony founded and what would become the largest mennonite settlement in russia. as peter klassen concludes, “gradually the population of mennonites in russia came to equal and then exceed the total number of those who remained in prussia.” by , mennonites had established forty-six villages from the , immigrants and the russians had almost discontinued their earlier offers. why america? and why kansas? a generation and a half later, the generous provisions in russia, although maintained, were under the threat of modification, and some feared, revocation. the colonies that had been established as a means of maintaining an agriculturally productive and geographically strategic footprint against the turks had enjoyed what later mennonite historians characterized as “a state within a state.” governing in a quasi-independent manner and charged with running the internal affairs of their settlements, the original colonies had prospered --- and been extended when land this is jantzen’s translation of the mennonite charter of privileges issued in which also contains the king’s enumeration. jantzen, ; smith, story, ; klassen, mennonites, . grew short --- into two additional communities. under russian benevolence, the dutch-russian mennonites enjoyed freedom from conscription as promised and the ability to teach their children in their own language (now german) and according to their own religious objectives. yet, by , first an internal issue, then, within a decade an external decision, threatened what they saw as a peaceful existence. religious revival within the brotherhood in , resulted in a split between those who shared a common heritage into the normative and more dominant group (the “kirchliche”) among dutch-russians, and the revivalists or “brudergemeinde” (known in america as the mennonite brethren). fostering at least as much concern for the well-being of the brotherhood was the tsar’s imperial decree of , followed by the announcement in that the military exemption enjoyed to date was coming to an end. rather than having a complete exemption, the russians informed the mennonites that religious minorities would be expected to serve. countered by the colonists in an extended series of meetings, the authorities eventually agreed to alternative service in such assignments as forestry or hospital work, but for many mennonites, the prospects made them uneasy. those who had left prussia most recently were all too aware of stipulations invoked for the sake of nationalism had been a slippery slope, with policies that shifted and that threatened their hopes for citizenship. the threat that russia would also revoke their exemptions rang in their ears. their reaction and subsequent immigration of many to america would affect not only the brotherhood in the russian colonies, but mennonites situated throughout eastern europe. the dutch-russians would not only transplant the intense tensions associated with the revivalist split, but also a variant view on church-state relations. their experience of governing their own “state within a state” gave them both a model for local government expectations regarding citizenship that they would transplant to their new country. by the early s, other mennonite communities and enclaves across europe actively investigated emigration by contacting settlement elsewhere and by sending emissaries to locations that seemed promising. correspondence between cornelius jansen of south russia and various american, canadian, and british mennonites fostered interest in north america and was publicized in his sammlung von notizen ueber amerika which was published in danzig in and widely distributed. individuals such as bernhard warkentin of the molotschna colony in south russia toured the united states and canada in and reported their findings through letters eagerly read and shared in his home colony. at the same time, several delegations which represented mennonites from a variety of colonies in europe toured together. one five-man deputation in particular influenced the course of mennonite settlement in kansas. not only did the group choose kansas after touring other locations, but it did so as what would later be called a “mixed” group of mennonites, that is, as a working representation of various strands of the smith is typical in his reference to the governing provisions that the russians established for the foreign colonies as resulting in each being a “state within a state.” smith, . there has been much discussion among mennonite historians regarding the split within the russian mennonites and the historiography of the discussion would be a study in itself. some argue that the reforming impulses would have been embraced by the entire body had more time been given to the decision to split formally, while others have focused on the deep socio- economic faultlines that were part of what became a chasm. this study will consider the impact of this split on the founding of the two groups’ colleges in kansas and the attempts to resolve the bitter antagonism at the advent of the s. see smith, - and john a. toews, history, - for part of the historiographical consideration of the bifurcation, including the spiritual, economic, and finally political complications of the split. in regard to nationalism’s press of mennonites in both prussia and russia, klassen recounted the crown prince’s (later frederick iii) rejoinder to the dutch-prussian mennonites who threatened to immigrate to russia late in february if their requests for exemption were not granted. “the crown prince dryly remarked that should mennonites move to russia, they might well be advised to have alternative plans, for russia would soon, no doubt, also impose compulsory military service.” klassen, . tradition. wilhelm ewert of west prussia was joined by swiss volhynian andreas schrag, tobias unruh of michalin (poland) and karolswalde (volhynia), and molotschna colony (russia) representatives jacob buller and leonhard sudermann. as historian david haury emphasized, choosing kansas did not necessarily mesh with the objectives with which the delegates had been charged. in particular, the molotschna representatives had clear directives from their congregations to find land and political conditions under which their people could have: . legal assurance of complete religious freedom; specifically, full exemption from military service. . sufficient land of good quality at low prices and easy terms. . closed settlements with the german language and local self-determination. a fourth condition --- the availability of financial assistance for the journey --- was not considered as crucial as the other three, but highly desirable. yet, as word spread throughout mennonites in europe, and positive accounts were posted and reported back to their communities, enthusiasm for america prevailed in spite of what became no firm guarantees at all of either military exemption as an aspect of religious freedom or of the establishment of local governance (including the right to continue using the german language). only the guarantee of good land at moderate prices --- and sufficient quantity --- prevailed in the long run. haury, . haury, n . i am grateful to james c. juhnke’s translation of these terms summarized from leonard sudermann’s eine deputationsreise von russland nach amerika (elkhart, in: mennonitische verlagshandlung, ), and reprinted in juhnke, a people of two kingdoms, n . by the s, the german language had become almost a marker of faith (akin to a “sacred language”) among the mennonites derived from the north-german-dutch streams (which included the russian mennonites and groups left along the migration to russia). hence, this essential condition embodied far more than a preference for a particular language. this would be in sharp contrast to the swiss-south german mennonites who chiefly embraced learning english on arriving in north america. german would continue to be used among descendants of the former well into the mid-twentieth-century. one of the leading newspapers in haury and juhnke each consider the paradox --- or even outright contradiction --- between these stated goals and those that were finally accepted. was there a disconnect between the desire for religious freedom and the economic drives to acquire land, particularly in kansas? were they, as juhnke ponders, “mennonites [who] talked like religious men, but acted like economic men”? both he and haury explicate a more complex reality than this simple equation would admit, with the former exploring previous mennonite migrations in terms of their approach to governmental authority and the latter focusing on internal affiliative patterns and community decision-making. they each nevertheless raise the question of mixed motives against stated religious convictions --- and open the door to ongoing issues of memory among the mennonites of kansas as they faced american nationalism in the twentieth century. situating mennonites and american war before turning to the mennonites in cold war america and their reactions to the vietnam war, it is necessary to sketch a brief outline of mennonite encounters with american warfare. this summary by necessity includes a short discussion of their essential interpretation of relations with the state, in what is called “two-kingdom theology.” because it began to show in sharp relief after the crisis mennonites faced in world war i, i have chosen to locate it there. hillsboro, ks, vorwaerts, was published in german into the s. its masthead carried the slogan, “die goldene regel uberwindet die macht des goldes” (“the golden rule overcomes the power of gold”). as mb historian john a. toews acutely observed in , “had the mennonites emigrated to russia some fifty years earlier, they would in all probability have continued to speak the dutch. it would have been well in later generations in russia (and even in canada and the united states) would have reminded themselves that the change from dutch to german was a mere historical coincidence, and that the german language was not an integral part of the anabaptist heritage. the constant identification of true mennonitism with german language and culture created serious problems for the faith and mission of the church.” john a. toews, history, . american mennonites and war prior to the twentieth century conscientious objection to military service was accepted in early america and the fact that many early mennonite settlers established themselves in quaker pennsylvania supported and reinforced their nonresistance. during the french and indian war and then the revolutionary war, mennonites employed a number of strategies to maintain military exemption and, as possible, to avoid paying levies that were used to support the war. interpreting the new testament literally and employing their two kingdom doctrine, they ironically paid any charge labeled as a “tax,” although if a fee levied in support of war was not labelled a “tax,” they frequently refused to pay it. moreover, historian theron schlabach discovered widespread instances of both tax resistance and the refusal to craft armaments by mennonites in spite of the penalties exacted against them. during the civil war, the practice of nonresistance was largely respected, with most mennonites refusing to serve in either union or confederate armies. faced with the legal option of whether or not to hire a substitute that was available in the north and the south, mennonites (and amish) wrestled with the moral dilemma of equivalency. although mennonites were almost unanimous in their condemnation of slavery (with evidence of even more consistency than the quakers), their apolitical approach to social reform meant they eschewed abolitionism, as either a political means or as a compelling justification for bearing arms. at the same time, historians james o. lehman and steven m. nolt discovered that although the mennonite church as a brotherhood eschewed participation in the military, in fact whether or not a young man served as a soldier largely depended on his own congregation’s stance. in a brotherhood of schlabach, “mennonites, revivalism, modernity: - ,” - . multiple conferences and strong congregational polity, local decisions sometimes deviated from the historical position. moreover, some conferences of the church struggled with articulating a position even though they considered the problem multiple times, a problem schlabach attributes not to uncertainty about nonresistance, but indecision about what structures would formalize a decision. at the same time, lehman and nolt discovered widespread resistance to supporting the war, particularly among virginia mennonites who heavily populated the shenandoah valley, an opposition that the two described as “no doubt the largest collective act of defiance ever carried out by american mennonites.” some aided both mennonite and non-mennonite draft resisters to escape north, while others refused their officer’s commands to shoot. that their opposition was widespread and engendered hatred among their southern neighbors is supported by the evidence of claims for damages available during reconstruction as well as the long-term resentment of their communities. the issue was also complicated by the fact that provisions regarding the draft and exemption included only men who could prove they were “member[s] in good standing” in a church that opposed warfare as a religious tenet. since a mennonite man rarely joined the church as a formal member until adulthood (and sometimes only after marriage), many young mennonites were dependent on local authorities’ views of their membership. brock, pacifism in the united states, - ; schlabach, - . although mennonites generally eschewed supporting the war, and came to different conclusions about the hiring of substitutes or paying commutation fees, the evidence shows that they willingly offered to care for the needs of women and children whose husbands went to war or who had been injured or killed. schlabach, peace, - . in regard to the shenandoah valley, for example, lehman and nolt discovered that more than percent of claims to the southern claims commission from rockingham county, virginia, were initiated by dunkers or mennonites. james o. lehman and steven m. nolt, mennonites, amish, and the american civil war (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ), - . the resistance to conscription and refusal to support the war effort is also documented by william blair who described the devastation of the shenandoah valley. william blair, virginia’s private war: feeding body and soul in the confederacy, - (oxford: oxford university press, ), - , . schlabach reprises several quotations attributed to stonewall jackson regarding the uselessness american mennonites during world war i the war evidenced the dislocation that was taking place in american national dreams. a president was re-elected in large part because “he kept us out of war” and yet within three years the united states would enter the war, embrace a martial fervor that contradicted the cries for peace, and then profit by its careful management of european debts. the victorious allies would then punish the defeated while the same president who had promoted his country’s entrance into the war as a means of “mak[ing] the world safe for democracy” and a great exercise in idealism would see his own dreams short-circuited by congress. the conflicted vision was one that also took place for american mennonites who, as the country stutter-stepped from peace to war, likewise staggered in attempting to come to terms with the great war within their own brotherhoods, then with the state and its claims on the bodies and consciences of their young men. as a result, they reckoned with a government that focused on and constructed the exigencies of war, a social fabric that unevenly tolerated dissent, and a brotherhood that began to learn to work with other religious traditions that objected to warfare. within the brotherhood, they realized that many of the differences they had within their own groups were far less important than their common shared vision of nonresistance. of dunkers and mennonites, who generally obeyed their officers, except when it was time to shoot, they refused “to take correct aim.” schlabach, - . vietnam war era mennonites later took particular note of william jennings bryant, who saw these discontinuities as he embraced a peace position in his run for the presidency, anticipated what the turn to war meant for the country and to american christianity, and believed pursuing warfare contradicted american ideals in the progressive-era. willard smith, “the pacifist thought of william jennings bryan,” mennonite quarterly review (january & april ), - ; - . peace historian charles chatfield analyzes both the elemental religious pacifism of the peace movement that prevailed prior to and its unraveling after america entered the war. he argues that almost all of the epoch’s religious pacifism derived from the life of jesus, and that the stolid mennonites, coupled with the more activist quakers and most of the brethren maintained their opposition to war even as many progressives who had on april , , congress declared war at the request of president woodrow wilson who had concluded he had done everything he could do to avoid it. within six weeks, he signed the selective service act into law on may , , building on the earlier national defense act that had established compulsory military training in the event of a “national emergency.” both acts seemed to provide for conscientious objectors, offering them complete exemption from combatant duty as a matter of conscience. the bills both, however, failed to exempt objectors from fulfilling noncombatant service under the express authority of the military, leaving its definition and its implementation to the president. the qualified exemption put mennonites in a quandary. how could they oppose warfare and yet become a part of its machinery? historians agree that american mennonites’ issues were never ones that questioned their basic embrace of essential beliefs about peace, although there were exceptions. rather, they floundered in how to organize their responses, a dilemma due to different approaches to church polity and the authority of the local church, and, secondarily, due to how they understood what initially invested themselves in pacifism (even out of their religious beliefs) realigned themselves with nationalism once america entered the war. for the nonsectarian pacifists who attempted to maintain their stances, “the war became an interior event” in which they endured isolation from former friends and society, whereas mennonites were, however castigated by their local communities and nation, still able to maintain their collective peoplehood. for the economic and political consequences of the war in addition to an overview from a social history perspective, see david m. kennedy, over here: the first world war and american society (oxford: oxford university press, ), - , especially - on the use of the trading-with-the enemy act to seize german chemical patents and permanently transfer them to american interests. as an example of actions in conflict with stated american ideals or reconstruction, these actions coupled with newly enacted stiff tariffs so crippled what had been german “undisputed leadership” in dyes and pharmaceuticals that kennedy could assert: “[this] must severely qualify woodrow wilson’s claim that america alone among the great powers was disinterested in economic gains from the war.” kennedy, . like kennedy, chatfield viewed the war as an essential betrayal of america’s stated ideals. charles chatfield, for peace and justice: pacifism in america, - (knoxville, tn: university of tennessee press, ), - , - ; in regard to “war as an interior event,” . the national government was prescribing. two of the three largest groups also struggled with how to negotiate their affinity for germany, whether based on a reasoned analysis that placed the blame for the war on the french and the russians or a reaction derived from an attraction to all things german. the struggle for the dutch-russian strand would be its first large encounter with an american war and its national claims, but for all of the groups how to envision themselves as patriotic citizens whose first loyalty was to god plunged them into a crisis which grew as the war progressed, and, particularly, after the united states entered the war. had they anticipated not being fully exempt for any service directed by the military, they could have held a unified front, such as they later began to develop at great effort during the interwar period. instead, they were faced with a compressed time frame in which they had to come to terms with legislation that was not fully detailed until nine months after the mandatory registration on june , and six months after mennonite men had already started being assigned to camps. there they were faced with the three minimum requirements for service: uniforms, drilling, and assigned work. historian gerlof d. homan particularly emphasizes the simple internalization of nonresistance that most mennonite draftees had. biblically based and heavily literal, the young men had grown up with a communal objection to warfare, a simplicity that confounded and irritated the army authorities charged with dislodging them from their positions. drawing from the papers of political and military figures charged with overseeing conscription policies and the draftees, he noted their annoyance when psychological studies conducted on the resisters found them to have above average intelligence, even though the mennonites in particular seemed “bovine” in their stolid insistence on not participating. gerlof d. homan, american mennonites and the great war, - (waterloo, ont: herald press, ), especially - , - ; juhnke, vision, - ; john a. toews, history, - . the swiss-german mennonites who were long resident in america and spoke english now populated two groups: the mennonite church (mc), which was more numerous, and tended to live east of the mississippi, and the general conference (gc) mennonites, who had split from the main body in an attempt to reform it. after and the dutch-russian mennonites began to arrive, most of them joined the gcs, swelling its ranks and adding two different cultural complications --- their experience in local government in russia and their appreciation of the german language. the third largest group, the mennonite brethren (mb), who also arrived in the great migration from russia, were more clannish, and became both more insular and more insistent on maintaining their german tongue. in regard to church polity and the war, because the mc mennonites had a better developed the men soon learned that any agreement to engage in these tasks put them at risk for camp authorities to challenge their nonresistance, revoke their objection as “insincere,” and put them at risk for being sent into combat. because the churches had not considered the prospect of induction into a military environment and educated their young men about nonresistance, early inductees struggled with what tasks integrated into the making of war and what did not. moreover, the lack of agreement among mennonite church bodies on what could be acceptable hampered these decisions even after the president finally issued what qualified as noncombatant service (medical, quartermaster, engineering corps). mc mennonites, with their strong objection organizational structure within conferences, a central conference that helped the individual conferences consider coordinated action, and a heavy interest in making a clear statement about nonresistance, they first issued a statement in objecting to any christian’s participation in “carnal warfare under any circumstance, nor for any cause.” on august , they adopted the most forceful statement about nonparticipation in war that had been issued by mennonites in the twentieth century. to insure that there were no doubts about the authority of the statement made at the yellow creek church in indiana, all sixteen conferences approved the document by affixing the signatures of one hundred and eighty one delegates and representatives. peachey, - , - . because mc polity consisted of long-standing conference structures headed by bishops who were accorded heavy authority and who also enjoyed informal power, the mcs thus positioned themselves to rigorously enforce sanctions against anyone who violated church decisions and discipline. in contrast, gcs had a more diffuse response, with decisions dependent on forceful personalities, according to juhnke, partly because the church was reluctant to rule on a matter of conscience and partly because church polity deferred to the autonomy of the local congregation. noting that the gcs tabled a motion to consider a stance on conscription in september , then three years later still could not make a decision, juhnke argues that the focused action of four western district conference gc leaders [in kansas] regarding conscription “helped speed up a process whereby newton [kansas] was becoming the geographical center of the gc denomination.” he also recognized similar processes at work among the mbs who were heavily concentrated in marion county, kansas. in this case, the president and a member of the faculty at the denominational college, tabor college, worked to fill the void left because the brotherhood lacked an official conference statement on conscription and had only a single sentence regarding nonresistance in their statement of faith. the work of these two men “recentralized mb denominational power” in hillsboro. i am indebted to juhnke for his analysis on these two processes. juhnke, vision, - . toews also notes that the mbs had not only not issued a statement on nonresistance, but they had no committee charged with peace and nonresistance issues. john a. toews, history, . to the state and their structures that helped them enforce church discipline, soon reacted and told their young men not to perform any task, a stance that increasingly put them under scrutiny and the threat of being charged under the sedition act. the other bodies, in attempting to come to terms with the same issues, chose different responses at different times, adding to the confusion for their men and increasing the ire of camp and national authorities. the war abroad and at home also introduced them to the realities of the modern state in which trying not to support warfare concerned more than bearing arms. it also involved them in the social and political fabric that underlay modern warfare, particularly the financing of the war, and laid the groundwork for a heightened awareness of church-state entanglements, even for those people who sought to maintain the traditional separations between the two. as the mennonites cast about for a solution to the stunning selective service act of which presented them with the predicament of “noncombatancy,” they faced the increasing ire of the communities around them who frequently harassed and sometimes violently tormented them, peace historian peter brock emphasized mennonite laxity toward their nonresistant position after the civil war and prior to world war i, noting in particular how little publishing and formal education was organized on the matter in spite of several exceptional cases such as publisher john f. funk, evangelist john f. coffman, and john holdeman, the founder of the church of god in christ, mennonite. brock considers the latter’s ein spiegel der wahrheit (a mirror of truth) first published in the “most elaborate exposition of mennonite pacifism” during this period and a theologically nuanced exposition that moved beyond biblical literalism. a small pamphlet, “on nonresistance,” based on one of the chapters, can still be found today in marion county, at the main street café owned by holdeman mennonites in durham, ks. brock, pacifism in the united states, - . in regard to the u.s. government’s increasing concern about seditious activities of particularly the mc mennonites, see homan on the harassment and intimidation of aaron loucks whose pastoral activities and visits to army camps on behalf of men were seen as threatening, the attempt to indict the signatories of the yellow creek church statement against war under the espionage act, and the western federal district court’s seizure of the mennonite publishing house’s -page tract, “nonresistance,” which simply restated the church’s positions, but was charged with “willfully uttering, printing and writing and publishing language to incite, provoke, and encourage resistance to the u.s.” under the sedition act. homan, - . painting their homes, churches, and barns yellow, inscribing epithets such as “coward” or “slacker,” and, on occasion, administering beatings and near-lynchings. although most mennonites initially refused to buy liberty bonds or thrift stamps, attempting a wide range of negotiations to substitute donations to the red cross or other humanitarian efforts, many capitulated under explicit threats from their neighbors and communities, particularly in areas engaged in war bond fervor. while the memories of their sons who were persecuted or died in the course of their conscientious objection could be viewed as a kind of martyrdom, however much grieved, the guilt of buying war bonds, even when they had done so under intense community pressure, called some of them to confront the same issues as had draftees regarding the complex nature of complicity in the modern state. the state’s uneven approach to conscientious objectors not only evidenced its disregard for religious freedom when that resulted in dissent, but also its strong belief in national conformity. on the one hand, it attempted to accommodate the men and their religious traditions regarding war. on the other, it attempted to keep them integrated into a social fabric that was homan, - . two examples will illustrate some of the means by which mennonites were forced under community scrutiny during the war. individual mennonites who discussed their conference’s advice not to do anything that would contribute to the war machine were found guilty under the provision of the sedition act that concerned “the obstruction of the sale of war bonds.” on a larger scale, all but two of the fifteen hutterite colonies in south dakota emigrated to canada after their young married men were drafted (contrary to standard conscription practice), two died after horrific treatment at alcatraz, and local communities forcibly seized hutterite assets to buy war bonds. in one case the yankton county council of defense led a raiding party of “good citizens” who seized one thousand sheep and one hundred head of cattle, sold them at a public auction, then attempted to buy liberty bonds in their names. homan, , - , - . like the obverse of the young draftees who had to figure out what actions were truly nonresistant and what contributed to the war effort, juhnke explores kansas mennonites’ ethical shaving in which they attempted to embrace a nonresistant ethic while also coming dangerously close to justifying their choices in nationalistic terms. for example, he refers to c.b. schmidt’s appeal for exemption in order that mennonites might contribute their agricultural expertise to the war effort. juhnke, vision, - . increasingly seized with passion for war and eager to create structures to engage in it. it found itself in opposition to a community that was both traditional and resilient in its assessment of warfare, but one that was subject to government coercion as well as popular pressure. within the army camps themselves, treatment of objectors varied widely according to military leadership, many of whom abjured the selective service act’s provisions for treating objectors with “tact and consideration” and who often encouraged verbal and physical abuse, a problem exacerbated by the determined housing of resisters in the main population. the men in the camps were as much trouble as were their nonresistant families and churches, even though they eschewed causing problems in the first place. in kansas, these issues were particularly intense, for both draftees and the mennonite population. camp funston was considered one of the most abusive of objectors and ft. leavenworth housed the men court-martialed for noncompliance with orders, including conscientious objectors. in addition, the heavy population of german-speaking immigrants from russia in central kansas fueled a wide range of threats and physical harassment, both of individuals and of churches. still debated in popular memory, one college’s administration building was consumed in a fire in the same town in which an articulate and zealous mennonite editor living in the particularly insular community had been more than willing to publicize his mennonite historian c. henry smith is far more generous in his praise of the u.s. government’s attempts to uphold the objectors than what is evidenced in standard works about the time period. smith, - ; homan, - . “as farmers, the mennonites are % efficient --- as militants, % deficient.” historian allan teichroew, quoting a military intelligence division report’s conclusions, in “military surveillance of mennonites in world war i,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ), . early support of germany against french militarism --- in german. a stubborn individual, he had nevertheless taken seriously his freedom of speech --- and his affinity for germany. thus, american mennonites had attempted a unified vision of war because of their common embrace of nonresistance, but they had experienced little official cooperation between their brotherhoods on the matter. moreover, they not only had experienced the harsh marginality accorded dissenters, but also had seen their formerly apolitical stance to be inadequate in the modern state, particularly under the pressure of war. in some cases, they had embraced the war effort, whether heartfelt or coerced. nevertheless, the first world war saw mennonites formalize their peace commitments in statements recognized within their groups and sometimes used as models by others who lacked representative policies and wanted to create them. they also saw their national government recognize, however imperfectly, that religious dissenters could be troublesome and stubborn actors, no matter how seemingly simple. for mennonites, how to negotiate the increasingly conflicted loyalties would result in a reworking of tightly constructed theological beliefs and social practices that had underwritten their approach to the civil order for four hundred years. james c. juhnke, “mob violence and kansas mennonites in ,” kansas historical quarterly (august ), - . juhnke, vision, - . john a. toews also considered the same situation, although in writing the official mb history he simply noted that the editor had been “an outspoken critic of american entry into the war,” perhaps leaving the reader to a different conclusion. john a. toews, history, . regarding the fire, anonymous long-term hillsboro resident, conversation with author, hillsboro, ks, november , . juhnke and his colleagues, keith sprunger, john waltner, and john thiesen at bethel college created an in- depth collection of oral histories regarding mennonites in the first world war that have preserved this era, including the showalter oral history collection on world war i conscientious objectors. as juhnke emphasized, the need to formalize positions about nonresistance for the sake of their men who were drafted, often saw mennonite groups cooperate that might not otherwise. “thus they crossed the boundaries which in other situations they tried hard to keep firm.” juhnke, vision, . mennonites also sometimes found themselves pursuing allies not american mennonites between wars—cooperative peace postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of mennonite central committee (mcc) reeling from the shock of world war i and not only the experiences of their drafted men, but the rejection many faced in their local communities, mennonites felt dislocated from the larger american culture. many had bought war bonds under compulsion, although others had done so voluntarily. the war had also brought substantial prosperity, as agricultural prices rose under the pressure of war, a no-win situation for mennonites in communities that already questioned their patriotism. yet, the war also enabled a means by which mennonites could meld their common history of mutual aid in spite of their sharp differences theologically and culturally and begin a project that would have unforeseen and long-ranging consequences. they acted basic beliefs even as they scrambled to understand and articulate them. traditionally associated as such. for example, the increasingly beleaguered aaron loucks who was harassed not only for his pastoral and advocacy work on behalf on mennonites in army camps but also because of his work at the mennonite publishing house, requested help from roger baldwin, the pacifist head of the american civil liberties bureau (forerunner of the american civil liberties union), who assisted him in appealing to the justice department. homan, . for the sake of clarity and to avoid acronym overload, mennonite central committee is spelled out, except in paragraphs where it is the focus of discussion. the documents regarding mcc throughout this study do not necessarily have consistent classification numbers. much of this research was undertaken during the summer of when the mcc archives were housed at goshen college in the mcusa (mennonite church) archives. the mcc archives were moved in to mcc headquarters in akron, pennsylvania and occasionally reclassified, as the author encountered during work in the mcc archives in june . i have kept the classifications in place at the time of each visit. the archivists at the current site are very helpful in negotiating any cross-classification issues. regarding their real and perceived rejection by the larger national culture, homan, american, - ; paul toews, mennonites, - ; juhnke, vision, - , - . disease and famine raged in pockets throughout europe after the great war. in what was now known as the ukraine, it was especially pervasive, not only due to war and weather, but also the impact of the russian revolution in which whites and reds scoured the countryside in their attempts to control the territory. mennonites in the old colonies were hit especially hard by the ongoing violence, in part due to their nonresistance. when the four-man delegation or studien kommission from russia arrived in kansas seeking help from their co-religionists in january , they were greeted enthusiastically and warmly in the small town of hillsboro, home of the german language newspaper vorwaerts, the mennonite brethren college which had recently rebuilt its administration building after fire had consumed it eighteen months prior (tabor college), and a community that included those who had immigrated from the old russian colonies a generation earlier. when they returned in july after a round of visiting other mennonites in pennsylvania, ohio, indiana, illinois, nebraska, and in nearby harvey county, so many people arrived to hear their account and make their acquaintance that tents had to be set up to accommodate the crowds. mennonites in marion and harvey counties who had heard the earlier accounts and were themselves chiefly immigrants or descendants from the dutch-russian strain had already had quickly moved to organize relief, basing their decisions in part from the early reports of suffering from socialist jacob ewert, who was a regular columnist in vorwaerts and who was known for his reports on international news. but, yielding to the recommendation of the studien kommission (which had accurately assessed the real or potential chaos of multiple actors), they sent representatives to join mc mennonites on july - , in elkhart, indiana, in what would be described as “the most momentous meeting in american mennonite history.” historians robert s. kreider and rachel waltner goossen outlined the impact of war and disease in their popular account of mcc’s history, noting that “the battlefield had shifted more than twenty times in two years through some mennonite villages.” robert s. kreider and the story, simple in outline, and seemingly simple in interpretation, focused on need for material aid and assistance to would-be immigrants, a long-standing mennonite practice now amplified by the acute suffering of relatives, extended kinship networks, and friends. but, even in its initial stages of organization it moved beyond itself, beyond its own narrow strictures and into what would later become a potent focus of identity. it dismantled culture even as it amplified it. taking time to unpack the cultural dynamics of the meeting emphasizes not only some of the fissures among american mennonites in the early twentieth century, but also emphasizes the significance of the cooperation that unfolded and suggests the means by which it took place. in the compilation of scholarly essays analyzing and celebrating the meeting’s impact over the next ninety years, historian james juhnke paints a picture of this unusual gathering and the basic dynamics of american inter-mennonite reality in : rachel waltner goossen, hungry, thirsty, a stranger: the mcc experience (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - . at one point during this crisis mennonites had abandoned nonresistance in attempts to protect themselves, but the result had been disastrous. john b. toews, czars, soviets & mennonites (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), - . early relief efforts defy easy stereotyping. dutch-russian mennonites (including more progressive strains) had organized relief efforts to benefit mennonites in russia, but they had not moved beyond helping their own communities of faith at this point in time. they collected money for russia ( ), germany ( ), and siberia ( ), but it was targeted toward alleviating mennonite suffering. when they formed their emergency relief commission in , it was with an eye to serving their own brethren. on the other hand, the more strident strain of conservative swiss-south germans in the mc cooperated with the quakers in an international project designed to alleviate suffering in the near east and turkey. their relief commission for war sufferers worked in france and offered their young people an opportunity to work directly with the consequences of war, a situation that on the one hand rendered real service regardless of faith confession, but on the other hand increasingly worried conservatives because they could not exercise ready control over those “essentials” of the faith concerning dress and cultural conformity. juhnke, vision, - . james c. juhnke, “turning points, broken ice, and glaubensgenossen: what happened at prairie street on july - , ?” in a table of sharing: mennonite central committee and the expanding networks of mennonite identity, ed. alain epp weaver (telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, ), . [in spite of their mutual aid to each other at various points in their history] … these so-called “brothers” found it impossible to share communion with each other, to accept each other’s ordination, or to come together in a common denominational organization. their religious-cultural differences were too great… we don’t have photographs or other descriptions of the prairie street meeting to know what attendees were wearing, who sat with whom, who spoke the most, etc. but we can make some reasonable assumptions based on what we know about the participants and their times. the russians [the gcs and mbs in this study] and the old mennonites [the mc mennonites, likewise] were separated by distinctive clothing. the old mennonites, perhaps with the exception of slagel and smucker, wore regulation plain coats as prescribed by old mennonite church discipline, none of the russians even owned plain coats. they probably wore lapel coats or less formal wear. the two kinds of mennonites probably sat together in their separate groups rather than intermixed. juhnke continued, moving on to the language differences intrinsic to the more recently arrived dutch-russian immigrants who had emigrated less than fifty years earlier: the groups were also separated by language. their formal deliberations probably were in english, though the russians [american dutch-russian mennonites] spoke with a stronger german accent [in low german]. for most (perhaps all) of the old mennonites, the mother tongue was pennsylvania german. the old mennonites, having had more decades of acculturation to american ways and language, probably spoke english more fluently and high german less fluently than the russians. this description, as juhnke acknowledges, does not even address the further subdivisions within the two general streams, a reality all of the participants would have understood. juhnke, ibid., . gcs, as already noted earlier, derived from a reform movement among the swiss-south germans, but also incorporated a majority of the dutch-russians. this is a simple identifier for the sake of readability. ibid., - . juhnke notes the internecine issues at work and just how complicated negotiating the differences could be among the individual groups. “the differences among subgroups within both the russians (mb, gc, kmb) and those of swiss and south german background (old, new, old order, amish) were substantial. moreover, the years following world war i were times of painful theological and organizational disputes. the russians [the ukrainian nationals] attending the … meeting were keenly aware of differences, even hostilities, among the mennonite brethren, the krimmer mennonite brethren, and the church mennonites (kirchliche) going back to splits in russia … [within the swiss-south german stream, there were and yet --- and yet --- the participants agreed on three essential actions. they charged a three-member provisional committee (one each from mc, gc, mb) to organize the effort, chose the name mennonite central committee for russian relief, and scheduled a meeting in chicago later in the year to finalize their arrangements. over the next five years, the organization managed more than $ . million donated by american mennonites for russian relief, fed more than , people, including , mennonites, and cooperated with herbert hoover’s american relief association (ara) in direct distribution of food, clothing, and medical relief. they also moved beyond these essentials and delivered two large shipments of fordson tractors generational disputes, moreover.]” juhnke, ibid., . biographer wesley prieb’s typically understated comment that “in mennonites from different conference groups did not know each other well … some feared being unequally yoked with other mennonites” embodied the real fear that too much contact with those who did not follow christ in non-negotiables (e.g. certain forms of dress, the amount of chrome on a vehicle, preaching in english, etc.) would taint the true believer. moreover, within these dynamics rests an organizational one: most of the groups already had relief organizations of their own and creating another one would open a number of battles for turf, particularly, perhaps, among the mc mennonites and their multiple conferences. to complicate the picture, but to add an intriguing exercise in memory, the historiography supports a complex picture of origins, and also a running concern between mennonite historians representing the two major streams. correcting what he sees as an origin story determined by the mcs, juhnke teases out an earlier account in which mcc was founded not in elkhart, in, but in hillsboro, ks, in the heart of the kansas dutch-russians nearly seven months earlier than the canonical account. juhnke, “turning,” - . as mcusa moderator erwin stutzman recognized in in the book that resulted from his dissertation in communications, “[juhnke] rightly contends that the narrative of mennonite central committee’s origins has long been dominated by an incomplete and at time inaccurate mc mennonite perspective.” stutzman, n . as far as the mbs are concerned, wesley prieb’s popular biography of p.c. hiebert emphasizes the importance of the russian delegation itself and an early report on its plea by mc mennonite orie miller, who had relief experience in syria. wesley prieb, peter c. hiebert: “he gave them bread” (hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, ), - . considering the obstacles of internecine cooperation and the thick culture within the mcs in particular, it is likely that giving primacy to the original narrative (with some corrections) does not necessarily weaken the other arguments, but rather reinforces the memory that would function in the creation of a more resilient anabaptist identity in an american culture of war later in the century. the formation of mcc thus had a dual historic significance, with its memory a direct historical agent. maintained and operated by relief workers who then trained the ukrainians how to use them. canadian mennonites and the canadian government meanwhile successfully enabled the emigration of , ukrainian mennonites to the western prairies, thus reinforcing a memory of shared suffering, assistance, and migration, albeit one with yet another historical context. kreider and goossen, . the most thorough account of the russian relief operations was written by tabor college vice-president p.c. hiebert, the first chair of the mennonite central committee (hereafter, mcc) and who served for thirty-three years until . his narrative that was written in popular language detailed the operations, including the familial connections that were involved, but also sought to build bridges among american mennonite bodies. hiebert later left tabor in and moved to sterling college, where he served as head of the education department until he retired in and moved back to hillsboro, the center of the mb world. p.c. hiebert, feeding the hungry: russia famine, , american mennonite relief operations under the auspices of mennonite central committee (scottdale, pa: mennonite central committee, ). by the u.s. had largely closed its doors to immigrants from russia and eastern europe through the national origins act, but canada extended terms of settlement even more generous than what american mennonites had received. more than , took canada’s offer to settle them on its plains and enjoy exemption from military service. as mennonites began to flee stalinization later in the decade, mcc moved beyond relief work and helped russian mennonites migrate to paraguay, where a large number of mennonites still exist. regarding u.s. foreign aid, hoover’s actions as secretary of commerce (and therefore director of the ara) yielded substantial humanitarian assistance, but, as the quaker later admitted, it also “may have helped set the soviet government up in business,” a suggestion that is supported by american mennonite jubilation at having provided the tractors that enabled “the upbuilding of russian agriculture” in the ukraine. hoover nevertheless maintained that the humanitarian actions outweighed political considerations. joan hoff wilson, herbert hoover: forgotten progressive (prospect heights, il: waveland press, ), - . concerning mennonite material aid, see prieb, recording b.b. janz, president of the verband, regarding this “work of love … a loud testimonial” and also quoting a russian news clipping, prieb, peter, . according to juhnke, herbert hoover remains the unsung hero of the first chapter of mennonite central committee, “perhaps unacknowledged because mennonites did not want to highlight their alliance with the united state government.” juhnke, “turning,” . for an extended treatment of the famine from a macro perspective that does not mention mennonites, see bertrand patenaude, the big show in bololand: the american relief expedition to soviet russia in the famine of (stanford, ca: stanford university press, ). glen jeansonne’s recent biography provides a brief snapshot that is a solid companion to hiebert’s extended treatment and juhnke’s contextualized overview of mcc’s work. it offers a short overview of the particular difficulties ara faced in russia, the agency’s exceptional delivery of relief, and hoover’s compassionate nature informed by his quaker beliefs. glen jeansonne, herbert hoover: a life (new york: new american library, ), - . even before the russian relief project seemingly neared completion in , chair p.c. hiebert recommended that the inter-mennonite project continue, a suggestion that was rebuffed by the mc mennonites who held to their original agreement for a temporary centralized committee to handle an acute emergency. improvising with those groups that had joined the original three (minus the support now of the mcs) and who wished to continue, mcc reconfigured itself as the american mennonite relief commission, seemingly creating a new body. in fact, the new board used a tactic that would prove to keep inter-mennonite discussions open. it “accorded the privileges of the meeting” to two members of the recalcitrant mcs, and even elected one as secretary, a position he held and used to keep the break from happening. the man who served with him and also acted as a bridge builder would become one of the strongest links between conservatives in the mc and mcc after the american mennonite relief commission quietly dissolved. thus mcc straddled tradition and modernity, as it created an organization that interacted with other agencies to address human needs, but did so in large part through the use of traditional networks and highly personal improvisations. by working with other nonresistants such as the quakers and the brethren (the latter joining mcc as a constituent organization), it fostered a broader awareness of the experiences of other religious pacifists, created connections that would result in the formal ideation of the historic peace churches and laid a nascent foundation for an international approach to peace. at the same time, it cooperated with the u.s. government means of delivering aid without concerning itself with whether this was an entanglement with the state levi mumaw and orie miller were the members of the mc mennonite relief commission who continued contact, with mumaw elected secretary and miller continuing what would be his long association with inter-mennonite projects. kreider and goossen, hungry, - . or not. rather, mennonite generosity meshed with national humanitarian goals and even, when stalinization created a refugee crisis for , mennonites, helped more than , emigrate to the desolate chaco of paraguay. in highly personal terms it incorporated mennonite concepts of service to brotherhood, created a voluntary structure of inter-mennonite cooperation, and fostered forms of service and contributions that were monetary and non-monetary (which also incorporated women in a distinctive means of service). created as a temporary body designed to address reports of acute famine in russia, it became the chief organ by which mennonites addressed government in times of war. its actions ironically positioned mennonites to re-work their long-standing theology that kept them from political action and to re-cast their very definition of the political. but deliberately forming a conscious peace presence that would directly confront and challenge the american social and political order (including the increasing culture of war) was far from how mennonites of all variations viewed their task. rather, they held to their long-held beliefs derived from the bible that prohibited the exercise of violence and that also, they sociologist donald b. kraybill examines mcc as an aspect of mennonite identity through the lens of the sociology of knowledge, detailing how its formation has enabled twentieth-century mennonites to reconstruct their essential identity. donald b. kraybill, “from enclave to engagement: mcc and the transformation of mennonite identity,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ), - . to emphasize the point that mennonites were not recognized as a conscious peace presence or organization that would challenge the political order is evident in john whiteclay chambers ii’s analysis of peace movements from - . the past president of the council on peace research in history acknowledges the existence if mennonite (and quaker) conscientious objectors, but does not comment on their early postwar relief (and reconstruction work) even though he includes an exchange between jane addams and woodrow wilson regarding the urgent needs in europe and asia for relief. the “traditional pacifist sects” were not politically organized and thus almost invisible. john whiteclay chambers ii, the eagle and the dove: the american peace movement and united states foreign policy, - . nd ed. (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ), lxiv, - , - . believed, called them to a life of nonconformity with the world, the latter an increasingly contested concept. at the same time, however, these twin beliefs propelled them to re-think the peace education of their brotherhoods, and particularly the instruction of their young men. as their discussions demonstrated, they had few illusions about what a peace stance might mean in the next american war, a prospect that came into sharp focus in the s. determined not to be caught so flat-footed, but also faced with conflicting views in their brotherhoods regarding government, cooperation with other mennonites bodies, and alliances with the other historic peace sects, they relied on traditional means of conflict resolution and the possibilities raised by the formation of mennonite central committee to navigate internal conflicts and imagine external cooperative endeavors. in the long run, however, american war pushed them not only to creatively structure a means of alternative service for their young men, but also to re-work their collective identity --- and identities. taking a brief theological trip will focus how mennonites faced american culture in the years between the world wars and why different groups argued for different approaches to the state. theological interlude the two kingdoms to understand the great shift that took place among american mennonites during the twentieth century in which they moved from positions that were chiefly quietist in regard to the state to critics willing to speak out against american warfare, it is necessary to unpack two theological constructs, their essential view (theology) of the two kingdoms or the two worlds, and the means by which internal conflict could be navigated. in their collective theological view, all of humanity was part of the kingdom of the world, which was ruled by satan, a realm in which coercion and warfare prevailed and in which the state ruled as a matter of bringing order. the kingdom of christ, on the other hand, was the community the believer entered upon baptism and was chiefly evident in the church. as citizens of the kingdom of christ, believers were called to discipleship and had social responsibilities within their fellowships, but also relinquished those practices which christ had eschewed. this included using violence against others, giving allegiance to the state through oaths, and submitting to worldly authorities when to do so was to ignore the commands of jesus. the state had been ordained by god to restrain evil, and was responsible to him, but as part of the worldly social order was outside of the “perfection of christ.” the state could not rule on or exact behavior on matters of conscience, but otherwise had to be obeyed. thus, the christian must pay taxes, but could not serve this worldly kingdom by participating in it, either in war or politics. mennonites had derived this basic view based on their recognition of the primacy of conscience over against the magisterial churches that were melded to the state in reformation europe, but their historical experiences of intense persecution and the threat of state violence had heightened their awareness and belief that the kingdom of the world needed to be avoided as much as possible. when, however, the two realms were so tightly separated that the church had little to say about warfare (other than not to be involved), leaving it to the state’s business, the danger was that nationalism took priority over the faith community. mennonites historically were uneasy with the term “theology” or the designation of an idea as “theological.” in part, this was due to their fear of a living faith being reduced to formulaic concepts or systematizations that distanced a believer from the living god and the discipleship that resulted from this relationship. in addition, because some of their most ardent persecutors were reformation-era theologians, they distrusted men whose interpretations justified violence against believers. later, this unease with the term made for some interesting tensions between the two waves of american fundamentalism in the twentieth century. the first which was biblically based, was more acceptable (and embodied many mennonite ways of thinking), but the overly systematized approach to salvation remained suspect, even though many were attracted to it. mennonites since robert friedmann (see n ) have viewed the term more positively, using it as a means of organizing doctrinal principles, and it is in this sense that i use it. for an extended discussion regarding the term, see harold bender, nanne van der zijpp and mennonites had been chiefly of one mind in regard to this two kingdom theology, although they did not always interpret what the idea of the state’s “magistry” or function of a magistrate meant. dutch mennonites, for example, had participated in government, although carefully avoiding positions that exercised coercion (such as the police). although there are smatterings of european mennonite participation in political office, they are generally rare, with one exception. for dutch-russians who had exercised a degree of autonomy within their individual colonies in russia, participating in government was viewed more positively, although, again chiefly on a local level and in largely limited positions. how high of a wall existed between the kingdoms had historically been conditioned, with a high wall not only preserving the theological interpretation, but also serving as a means of cultural protection. a tall barrier offered protection --- but it also meant that the church recused itself from any interaction --- much less criticism --- of government policies. the only exceptions were matters in which the state attempted to interfere with matters that belonged to god, including the refusal to engage in warfare. as american mennonites in the twentieth century deliberated how to face a warfare state, they found themselves in a position in which they could argue for exemption and refuse to fight (and face the consequences exacted by the state), but could not speak to the increasingly complex interstices of a national government and culture committed to war. that a people might be marlin e. miller, "theology, mennonite," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://gameo.org/ index.php?title=theology_mennonite (accessed june , ). juhnke has elaborated on how this manifested in kansas, where the bulk of the emigrants of the s had settled. he has recently published a sequel to his original analysis published in , a people of two kingdoms ii: stories of kansas mennonites in politics (newton, ks: bethel college, ) which picks up in where his original volume ended. complicit in warfare even while not directly acting as combatants was now a real issue, foreshadowed by the twin conundrums of noncombatancy and pressures to fund a war. for mennonite conservatives and fundamentalists who maintained the tight construction of the two kingdoms and repeatedly opposed treading on the government’s domain, the dilemma was particularly acute as they contemplated how to maintain nonresistance not only during wartime, but also in times of peace. an additional theological and cultural construct complicated the post-war world. mennonites had long held to the doctrine of nonconformity, a belief drawn directly from the new testament and the words of paul, the apostle: i beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of god, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto god, which is your reasonable service. and be not conformed to this world: but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind, that ye may prove what is that good, and acceptable, and perfect, will of god." (kjv roman . , ) other passages were also used to encourage the believer distancing himself or herself from “worldliness,” but what that meant had become an entangled issue. originally focused on a discipleship that followed jesus, nonconformity not only included taking up the cross (particularly the cross of suffering), but also disciplines of simplicity, humility, and purity. coupled with the “twin” doctrine of nonresistance, nonconformity encouraged separation for the sake of holiness. in early anabaptism, as already discussed, what this meant for the church was a ready source of schism. what activities were conformed and what were not were frequently disputed. by the twentieth century, mennonite bodies had split, re-formed, and fractured again, contributing in part to the variations among american mennonites, huttterites, and amish. moreover, nonconformity had acquired a cultural function, serving to draw the line between people protecting their way of life from the larger culture. disputes over women’s head- covering, for example, led to sharp exchanges, while what sort of coats men wore identified them as holding a particular theological position. why this is significant for postwar discussion is because of its ready supply of justifications for not cooperating with other mennonites, other peace churches such as the brethren and quakers, and having a particular fear of contamination from “the world” of pacifists. it nearly disrupted the formation of alternative service arrangements during the second world war, and continued to challenge mennonite reckonings with culture. bender, harold s., nanne van der zijpp, john c. wenger, j. winfield fretz and cornelius j. dyck, in "nonconformity." global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. , http://gameo.org/index.php?title=nonconformity&oldid= (accessed july , ). nonconformity was more formally an issue with the mc mennonites, but it served as a handy construct for dissenters among all of the groups. by the mid- s, however, the mcs had taken “a middle position” and young mennonites chose new forms of nonconformity. ibid. several examples will suffice to illustrate how concerns for cultural nonconformity and humility intersected, sometimes to reinforce cultural traditions against threatened changes and sometimes to generate an innovation. paul toews offers one example of a dispute that was in fact an attempt at sectarian boundary maintenance. the mc lancaster conference deliberated over the use of the automobile in the s, with one side arguing that it was associated with being “proud” or “fashionable” (as well as dangerous), another asserting that it was a practical invention, and a third contending for a developmental view that agreed that early adapters of technologies tended to be “worldly” people “puffed up” and with “high heads,” but that once a technology became widespread it was simply utilitarian. in this case, when the principal objecting bishop died, his successors split over the issue, with one no longer excommunicating members who purchased cars, and the other withdrawing to create a splinter group. their successors are the “black bumper” mennonites (who have over-painted the chrome on their black cars) and the “team” mennonites who use horses. toews, mennonites, - , - . one form of conformity pressed by conservative mc mennonites was dress. a wide variety of strictures and stipulations focused on women’s clothing (some of these differences are apparent today in the variations on types of caps worn, what color they might be, and whether or not a pattern or trim is acceptable), but men also were urged to demonstrate nonconformity via dress, most notably through wearing the plain coat. couched as a form of “witness,” the dark coat without lapels mainly confused those outside the brotherhood. for example, intellectual and classicist edward yoder’s fellow students at the university of iowa ( - ) and the university of pennsylvania ( - ) mistakenly took him for a clergyman. painful to many within the gc brotherhood, it nevertheless offered a means by which to identify oneself as conservative even while advancing different, even progressive initiatives. orie o. miller, harold s. bender, and guy franklin hershberger all wore the plain coat, although bender had embraced it reluctantly and usually wore a tie underneath it. it was thus an acted argument on its own, and occasionally a powerful one. juhnke, vision, - , , . acted theology mennonite theology was hardly pre-literate, but it always performed a delicate balancing act between holding onto and living out of a shared text and yet representing a commitment that was symbolic, wordless, and highly ethical. charging someone with “pride” was not only an attempt to ensure humility, but also a means by which to exert control within the brotherhood. indeed, schlabach points to this very issue at the heart of the progressives’ struggle within the mennonite church in america in the nineteenth century. using forceful speech, wearing clothing that might be seen as “assertive,” or using language that evidenced education undermined humility. the tensions the historian observed during the birth of the gc movement, remained a constant throughout the twentieth century and serve as a backdrop to mennonite decision- making. but, this exercise in identity offers important clues to the methods by which mennonite intellectuals and congregations came to terms with the definition of peace after the first world war in a highly charged environment. choosing to act out their beliefs in a way that was both biblical and yet embodied in the community as people of god situated them firmly on behalf of the suffering. that was the affiliative power of mennonite central committee (mcc). it offered mennonites in fact did not have a systematic theology. one of the first attempts that is still recognized as a foundational exercise was written by robert friedmann, a jewish convert who had fled germany with the aid of harold bender at goshen. friedmann melded the lived experience of peoplehood, the bible, and mennonite categories of thinking in mennonite piety through the centuries published in , more thoroughly explicated as an “implicit theology” in his the theology of anabaptism. he fully recognized the credibility of an acted theology, even if it was not explicated in the typical manner of systematic theologies. robert friedmann, mennonite piety through the centuries (goshen, in: mennonite historical society, ), - and robert friedmann, the theology of anabaptism (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - , - ; james reimer, "the nature and possibility of a mennonite theology," conrad grebel review , no. (winter ): - . an embodied theology that reinforced essential aspects of identity: community, service, humility, actions that spoke in the place of words. performed first on behalf of the brotherhood, but then extended beyond it, mcc was both symbol --- and then an active means of inter-mennonite cooperation. tactics for promoting unpopular ideas (which frequently involved mcc and what became its expansive vision) drew from these same markers of identity that reinforced the brotherhood and which its authorities could not easily dismiss. for example, in an exchange that illustrates humility as a means and canny strategy for recognizing and yet disarming of brotherly authority, the man who would later appoint the first mcc representative to serve in vietnam couched his arguments in terms that resonated with mc views about humility. after being successfully pressed to resign from the continuation committee of the conference of pacifist churches in , orie miller responded to the conservative heavyweight who had warned him about his association with the suspect organization, writing, i am sure i want to do right, and try to serve obediently and submissively the master and his church. will you pray for me that i might be kept more faithful and more watchful yeas and more humbly submissive in life, attitude and mind? i appreciate the confidence that fellow workers in the church have and have had in me, and certainly pray that i might merit its continuance. quoted in juhnke, vision, - . bishop mosemann thought miller was “a dangerous man … [who] gets machinery set in motion that will take some power to stop,” yet miller’s careful submissiveness combined with his patience and work to gain the confidence of those involved, “let him take advantage of changed situations or new crises,” according to juhnke. juhnke and bush have teased out the careful framing of responses mc mennonite reformers made to those who wielded authority within, especially, the conservative lancaster and virginia conferences, with juhnke’s focus on the s and bush’s from - . that the progressive and conservative groups could negotiate in these terms is evidenced in mcc locating its headquarters in ephrata, pa, in the midst of the lancaster conference. that the letters exist in the mc archives is also an indication that the individuals involved and the church itself valued and were willing to preserve such an exchange. juhnke, - ; bush, . for further insight on mennonite views of humility, see joseph c. liechty, “humility: the foundation of mennonite religious outlook in the s,” mennonite quarterly review (january ). miller then maintained his connections with the conference of pacifist churches by serving as an “observer” so that he might report his findings back to the brotherhood. postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of the historic peace churches and the creation of civilian public service mennonites did not wait for another war to be on the horizon. chastened by the experiences of their young men that demonstrated the churches’ naiveté, lack of foresight, and inadequate peace education, almost all bodies scrambled to educate their young men. the u.s. government’s approach to conscientious objectors ironically reinforced the churches’ positions and educational efforts. because objectors remained in military prisons far past the war, the church bodies formed to support them did not disband immediately after the war. formalizing positions in their own bodies, they also met with other non-mennonite church bodies as early as the s. but with whom could they cooperate? in postwar america, pacifism made a comeback. committed pacifists re-surfaced and there was a renewed interest in international organizations that promoted peace. the appearance of antiwar sentiment and new organizations, was welcoming and disturbing. on the one hand, more progressive mennonites welcomed the discussions about peace and the very real interest in preventing warfare. on the other hand, mennonites --- particularly conservatives --- feared the influence of pacifism on their own brotherhood. at worst, it distorted the doctrine of nonresistance, separating it from the life and person of christ and his redemption of humanity as portrayed in the bible and replacing it with a an optimistic view of the world that forecast the because some draftees were not released from prison until the early s, church bodies that attempted to represent them continued to exist, even though the war had ended nearly fifteen years earlier. for example, the exemption committee of the western district conference (gc) represented the wdc at conferences of the pacifist churches in (bluffton college, oh) and (friends university, ks). haury, prairie, - . end of war because of human actions. it focused on political action, a task forbidden to mennonites whose allegiance was not to an earthly government, but rather to the kingdom of god. and, at best, it still “unequally yoked” the brotherhood with both nonbelievers and professed believers who did not conform to the real faith. as lancaster conference bishop mosemann wrote in the widely distributed mc gospel herald, the modern peace movement was a front for theological modernists, “nothing less than a satanic delusion, a mighty and deceptive force intended to deceive the church of christ and lead her headlong into the clutches of modernistic and liberalistic leaders.” associating with such groups could lead to the soul- threatening influence of shailer matthews, harry emerson fosdick and other “semi-infidels.” for mc conservative john r. mumaw, moderator of the mc general conference, its dangers were clear and publicizing the differences essential. expressing the views of conservatives that would later be issued during the second world war in his nonresistance and pacifism, his -page booklet clearly stated the menace of the dangerous movement. in it, he listed the “vital differences” between pacifism and nonresistance in chart form, comparing basic beliefs, attitudes toward the state, objectives, and means for achieving objectives. his as already noted in the introduction to this study, many of the so-called secular peace organizations had strong religious roots in christianity and had members who acted on their beliefs. the fellowship of reconciliation was one significant group that had both domestic and international ties. other organizations that focused on antiwar credos included the war resister’s league, the women’s international league for peace and freedom (wilpf), the national council for prevention of war, and the emergency peace campaign (the latter what chatfield considers “the most important coalition in the history of the american peace movement before the vietnamese war”). chatfield, for peace, - . regarding the emergency peace campaign, see . in , thirty-seven organizations united to form the national peace conference. as chatfield notes, seventeen of these were peace organizations while the remainder were affiliates with additional goals. chatfield, ibid., . as wittner explored the broader popular base of pacifism, he estimates that between forty-five and sixty million americans were sympathetic with it. wittner, rebels, ; j.h. mosemann, “the modern peace movement,” gospel herald (january , ), cited in toews, mennonite, . comments, based on scripture, were a formulary of mennonite beliefs about pacifism and why “[it] and nonresistance are incompatible.” arguing that pacifists had only advocated their positions during peacetime, only to abandon them during war, he castigated them for their confident position grounded in an optimistic view of humanity, rather than true peace being derived from god. his concerns were representative --- and not only of conservatives. for mennonites, peace was impossible without the person of christ. mennonites had cooperated with quakers in relief operations and their men had encountered each other, along with brethren, in military camps, but they did not share formal affiliations or peace statements before the s, a situation that troubled the disparate traditions from all sides, but which reflected their differences. for example, quakers were willing to hold an absolutist position that would defy the government. mennonites were eager to cooperate with a government, provided it extended exemptions for the individual conscience. brethren were in between the two positions. a common statement was more than difficult, even though the american government treated them all as “peace sects” since peace was foundational to each’s identity. in addition, other protestant churches had also awakened to peace issues, and were eager supporters --- between wars. for example, the federal council of churches conference on the churches and world peace held in resolved that “the churches should condemn resort mumaw’s language clearly is skewed toward the conservative wing of the mcs, but is nevertheless representative of mennonite beliefs in essentials. that the booklet was re-issued in clearly evidences that the mc mennonites did not think the issue dead. john r. mumaw, nonresistance and pacifism (scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, ), - . mbs also voiced concern during their annual conference in , when their committee on nonresistance reported that some of the “peace conferences” they had attended seemed to advocate the creation of a “warless world” through the efforts of humanity. general conference of the mennonite brethren, yearbook, , - . to the war-system as sin and should henceforth refuse … to sanction it or to be used as agencies in its support.” but, for mennonites, forming associations with such bodies was suspect. nevertheless, the churches continued to move on peace issues, performing delicate balancing acts within their bodies, and sometimes achieving results that provided models for others. for example, the mc peace problems committee (ppc) carefully formulated a new conference peace statement in . developed off of traditional arguments about nonresistance derived from the scriptures and led by chair harold s. bender, the ppc built its case from the heavily attended “mennonite conference on peace and war” convened in in goshen, indiana. at the meeting, the usual sides presented their arguments with the typical lines of division, but they were challenged by two historians to consider how potentially precarious the nonresistant position was in america. gentle and patient guy f. hershberger argued that nonresistants clearly could not take the offer of noncombatancy that had caused so many issues in the war, but had to absolutely refuse military service unless the government offered some sort of alternative service. yet, by prodding his co-religionists to address the issue themselves, he carved out an indisputable area of conscience, even while still recognizing the government’s purview: “the position of nonresistant christians in time of war promises to become increasingly difficult unless they themselves provide some means to relieve the situation.” his careful advocacy not only achieved what historians consider the “intellectual articulation of what would be the mennonite negotiating position” in the creation of alternative service in the second world wittner, rebels, . war, but also received approval from conservatives as he worked with two kingdoms boundaries. but fellow plain-coated historian harold bender delivered the ppc proposal that would garner “an easy and wholehearted approval,” even as it explicated and condemned those activities that were part of the modern warfare state. carefully qualifying any direct challenge to the government, he nevertheless laid out individual systemic elements of warfare that mennonite postwar, almost all of the larger mennonite bodies (denominations) formed peace groups, while individual conferences in some cases did as well. in , the mcs revived their peace problems committee, which had been established in but become inactive after the war. the gcs formed a conference peace committee in , but individual districts also organized their own in . the mbs had created a committee on nonresistance in at the same conference in which they endorsed their first official statement on nonresistance, but by they had asked that their southern district’s committee on nonresistance serve as the general conference organ. that this committee, chaired by p.c. hiebert, was merged in with the relief committee indicates that the mbs saw the two ideas entwined. john a. toews, history, - . historian albert n. keim’s classic study that argues that the eventual civilian public service solution ironically met the desires of both the mc church and selective service, focuses on the mc peace problems and the gc peace committees as the central actors, but the record also suggests that hiebert’s presence as mb and as an individual heavily facilitated the interactions between the two. albert n. keim, "service or resistance? the mennonite response to conscription in world war ii," mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ), . even as the peace committees proliferated, they sometimes had to face uncomfortable truths. for example, the western district conference (gc) exemption committee which had “led the way in peace education among the pacifist churches in world war i” nevertheless saw almost percent of its young draftees from kansas accept regular or noncombatant service, according to david haury, a stark statistic that reveals how unprepared (or acculturated?) these particular gcs were. haury, prairie, . on hershberger’s “intellectual articulation” see paul toews, “will a new day dawn from this? mennonite pacifist people and the good war,” mennonite life (december ), and bush, two, , . in advocating for a proactive approach, hershberger reprised his conference argument in stark terms in the widely respected mennonite quarterly review: “the history of the mennonite church seems to teach that when the forces of militarism become too strong there is always a danger of compromise.” guy f. hershberger, ‘‘the christian’s relation to the state in time of war: ii. is alternative service desirable and possible?” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): . harold s. bender, “our peace testimony, goals and methods: to the world,” in a report of the conference including the principal addresses given (goshen, in: peace problems committee, ) [mennonite conference on war and peace (february - , : goshen, in)]. - . mla. conservatives condemned. moreover, by noting that the church should “present the truth of god to the powers that be,” bender laid the groundwork for what would become an overarching principle of “witness to the state” twenty years later, even as he nodded to the separation of the two kingdoms. the result was not only a carefully framed recognition and opposition to the means of warfare, but also a theological means by which to confront it. the resulting “statement of our position on peace, war and military service” that was adopted by the mc conference in was later lifted almost verbatim by the gcs for their “statement of the position of the general conference of the mennonite church of north america on peace, war, military service and patriotism” passed at their annual conference in a few months before the bombing of pearl harbor and u.s. entry into the war. although the mbs noted in their statement on “the issue of military service” that they had adopted their overall statement from like-minded bodies, there is no apparent direct borrowing. their short statement on military service was followed by another on patriotism, both passed by the mb general conference meeting in reedley, california, in late november, . the collective statements issued later by mennonite bodies, however astutely framed, did not spring forth only from the work of the mc conference in goshen, indiana. they were also derived from another important conference held later in the year, in this case from a meeting of the three historic peace sects. note paul toews regarding this time period and his emphasis on the young harold bender’s framing of the “issue [of witness] in irresistible mission terms.” paul toews, “the long weekend or the short week: mennonite peace theology, - ,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ), . regarding the later statements issued by the three largest bodies, see the mc “a statement of our position on peace, war and military service,” in mennonite general conference: report of the twentieth mennonite general conference held at turner, oregon, august - , , - and the gc “a statement of the position of the general conference of the mennonite church of north america on peace, war, military service, and patriotism,” in general conference minutes and reports, , - , the latter including a section on “our concept of patriotism.” the brief mb resolutions [in german], “the issue of military service” and “our understanding of patriotism” are in gen. a year after the horrific storms of the dust bowl raged through the plains, and six months after the notorious “black sunday” dust storm had forced marion and harvey counties into darkness at mid-day, representatives of the three “peace sects” met in newton, kansas in what was later considered a historic meeting. the brethren, mennonites, and friends had met six times between and originally at the behest of friend wilbur k. thomas, but continued through the interest of all. originally calling themselves the “conference of pacifist churches,” they changed their name due to the increasing discomfort some mennonites had with the term pacifist and after mennonite henry (h.p.) krehbiel explicitly raised the issue in . the meeting in was the first to use the phrase “historic peace churches,” the designation which has been widely accepted. fifty-seven delegates and twenty-four visitors were present at the meeting, including forty-seven mennonites. discussions were wide-ranging with a findings statement that defined “christian patriotism,” called for “a plan of united action in case the united states is involved in war,” and created a continuation committee, with two representatives from each of the three groups. by now their chief focus was to find a means of conf. year book ( ), - . all mla. all statements are also available in peachy, mennonite, with the mb statements translated into english, - , - , and . i am grateful for bush’s reiteration and emphasis regarding the mc conference at goshen and the final passing of a statement two years later. as he notes, the endorsement of the mc report was “wholehearted,” although in its path to approval the virginia conference noted its disapproval of any associations with liberal pacifists. bush’s thorough explication of mc and gc committees during the interwar period untangles the challenges “progressive” mennonites (many of whom were young) issued to their parent bodies and the means by which they were able to do this. for example, bush not only nods to miller, bender, hershberger, krebiel, harshbarger and the young robert krieder as intellectuals and churchmen, but he explores the network that henry fast, the first executive secretary of civilian public service, developed with the gc church’s encouragement to travel throughout the united states and canada to promote missions. this complex, highly interpersonal arrangement served fast well when he was later asked to manage the alternative service system in wwii, but it also exemplifies the associational aspects of mennonite decision-making. bush, on fast, - . alternative service under civilian direction rather than by the military. varying significantly in their theologies, histories, political views, and tactics, they nevertheless cooperated under the pressures of war to create a united front to the u.s. government, an approach that by yielded what would become the national service board of religious objectors (nsbro) and then, the system of alternative service called civilian public service. as krieder observed in just prior to the american bicentennial, little notice was taken of the conference attended by delegates and visitors: “virtually nothing was reported in the conference papers, either before or after … in this historic peace church conference appears not to have been viewed as of any particular historic significance.” robert krieder, “the historic peace churches meeting in ,” mennonite life , no. (june ), . mennonite life was published by bethel college in north newton, ks, for a popular audience. donald durnbaugh, on earth peace: discussions on war/peace issues between friends, mennonites, brethren and european churches, - (elgin, il: brethren press, ), - . more than one-third of the representatives hailed from kansas or had lived there, including mb p.c. hiebert, gc e.l. harshbarger, and mc harold bender (formerly of hesston college) who would continue to appear in the subsequent encounter with the u.s. government. hiebert had left tabor college when it closed for financial reasons in and did not return, spending the remainder of his academic career as professor of education at sterling college, a presbyterian school in sterling, ks, roughly eighty-five miles west of hillsboro and north west of bethel and hesston. harshbarger was professor of history at bethel college. the three largest mennonite brotherhoods all derived official positions based on the findings: mcs ( ), gcs ( ), and mbs ( ). while enjoining patriotism, they all emphasized that they would not perform any service directly under the command of the military or finance the war in any way (particularly proscribing purchasing war bonds), positions that would re-appear in the denominational statements. see n for the mc statement ( ) and the gc ( ) statement. the very brief mb “resolutions” passed at the conference held in buhler kansas were now published in english as “loyalty to our country” and “war bonds” in gen. conf. year book ( ), - . that the gcs and mbs, whose leadership and institutions were heavily concentrated in kansas spoke to issues of patriotism in particular suggests a heightened awareness of the persecution and harassment their members had undergone in wwi. this is further reinforced by the statement issued by the mbs during their conference held in corn, oklahoma, a “written document of loyalty under nonresistance,” which was published in english in the conference minutes. it specified that “(b) the delegates further wish to go on record as having no sympathy or connection with organizations of foreign origin who are carrying on propaganda in these countries,” a likely reference to the accusation that mennonites were actively supporting the german bund in kansas and oklahoma. all mla. see peachy, mennonite, , for the mb statements issued in , and the earlier document on loyalty ( ). the original organization was the national council for religious conscientious objectors (ncrco), becoming the national service board for religious objectors (nsbro) in , then the national interreligious service board for conscientious objectors (nisbco), this series of cooperative meetings, re-working of positions, and willingness of mennonite bodies to contribute to the larger project of negotiating with the government has been thoroughly explored by social historians and participant observers from the mennonites, friends, and brethren. a brief overview is sufficient in order to emphasize the overall trajectory, the dual nature of the solution reached between the historic peace churches (hpc) and the u.s. government, and how american wars encouraged the recasting of mennonite identity in the s. the historic peace churches built off of the discussions in the s and s among themselves, deriving essential positions from their own bodies, and then adopting much of the acronyms that commonly appear in treatments of the american draft and, later, in antiwar protest during the korean and vietnam wars. hpc (historic peace churches) and cps (civilian public service) are used in the following section for the sake of brevity. the complete cps story is covered thoroughly in albert n. keim and grant m. stoltzfus, the politics of conscience: the historic peace churches and america at war, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), while gingerich focuses on mennonite service and the details of cps life common to all involved. melvin gingerich, service for peace: a history of mennonite civilian public service (akron, pa: mennonite central committee, ). keim offers a detailed account of the negotiations among mennonite bodies, the three historic peace churches, and the u.s. government in keim, “service,” - . brethren rufus d. bowman, details the brethren involvement in the development of the joint proposal, his presentation of the brethren position in , and a copy of the brethren plan. the church of the brethren and war (elgin, il: brethren press, ), - . see e. raymond wilson for an analysis that includes lobbying efforts. e. raymond wilson, "evolution of the c.o. provisions in the conscription bill," quaker history , no. ( ): - . philip ernest jacob’s review of the legislation includes eyewitness accounts of the hpc engagement with the government and was published as an early overview for a popular audience. philip ernest jacob, the origins of civilian public service: a review of the negotiations during the fall of between government officials and representatives of the churches most immediately affected by the drafting of conscientious objectors (washington, d.c.: national service board for religious objectors, ). the classic early history of objection during the second world war is mulford q. sibley and philip e, jacob, conscription of conscience: the american state and the conscientious objector, - (ithaca, ny: cornell university press, ). mennonite solution of alternative arrangements as advanced by guy f. hershberger as the basis for what would become their common stance before the government. representatives met with president franklin d. roosevelt on february , to discuss their opposition to militarism and their concerns about conscription. by their second meeting with the president on january , , france and england were at war with germany, and the eight-man delegation presented specific proposals for alternative service. hoping to engage in the kinds of reconstruction and aid to the suffering that were increasingly characteristic of both the american friends service committee and mennonite central committee, the men quickly presented concrete plans of action derived from an intense meeting of the newly created mennonite central peace committee in chicago three months earlier on september , . what had been a meeting scheduled for three minutes turned into almost thirty, with the president’s enthusiastic endorsement giving rise to premature optimism, reinforcing the illusion that conscientious objectors could be a part of a civilian-controlled process and that the churches could create and manage service projects that would alleviate the suffering of war. the group soon met with the realities of american politics. the mennonite central peace committee (mcpc), although initially independent of mcc, was one of the predecessors to the mcc peace section created in during the war and an astute actor during the vietnam war. formed on march , , the mcpc was explicitly charged to create a “plan of action for mennonites in case of war.” the new executive committee was composed temporarily of the chairmen of the peace committees of the three largest brotherhoods, an arrangement that became permanent: mb p.c. hiebert (chairman), gc e.l. harshbarger (vice-chairman), and mc harold s. bender (secretary). as noted previously, hiebert and harshbarger were both kansans, while bender had served at hesston college before moving to goshen college. hiebert. toews, - ; prieb, - ; gingerich, - , . euphoric at roosevelt’s reaction to the delegation, p.c. hiebert reported that the group believed they “had a friend” in the president. prieb, peter, . in fact, fdr had little use for conscientious objectors. american mennonites during world war ii – unintended consequences the burke-wadsworth bill and the selective service and training act of when the original bill was reported out to the senate on june , it largely resembled the selective service law of the first world war. draftees were once again under the jurisdiction of the military and the bill only offered objectors the option of noncombatant service, thus reprising the problems of wwi. moreover, only members of the historic peace churches were candidates for these provisions. disappointed with the proposal and faced with persuading congress otherwise, lobbying by hpc representatives, along with that from the war resisters league and other peace organizations resulted in modifications and amendments. they did not get exemption. but they obtained a broadening of the basis for objection beyond the historic peace churches to include all of those who “by reason of religious training and belief [are] conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form,” an appeal process for those with rejected claims, and the civilian control provisions they believed would thwart entanglements with the military. not only would they be assigned “work of national importance” under civilian direction rather than induction into the armed services, but also any who committed infractions or violations of the law would be judged by federal, rather than military courts. historian george q. flynn contextualizes the creation of selective service and its provision for religious objectors. his detailed explication of the problems with the draft also explores the reasoning behind the structuring of a system that was both centralized and yet highly local, effectively weaving in the political effectiveness of general lewis b. hershey, the social construction of the “democratic” project of conscription, and how hershey achieved the flexibility of a system that would be in place well into the s. george q. flynn, the draft, - (lawrence, ks: university press of kansas, ), - on religious objectors, - . gingerich weaves together the seemingly disparate denominational committees and the cooperative bodies formed by the hpc that would eventually result in the formation of nsbro, the integration of policy proposals, and the details of the amendments to the burke-wadsworth act. the selective service act of , section (g), signed by roosevelt on september , , declared that “nothing contained in this act shall be construed to require any person to be subject to combatant training and service in the land or naval forces of the united states, who, by the hybrid project between the churches and the state that eventually resulted had mixed results in the long run, but in the short run, mennonites were euphoric. even members of the war resisters league and other peace groups waylaid their concerns for the sake of cooperating in a project that would be under civilian control, believing that such authority would better safeguard freedom of conscience in comparison to the state. moreover, although the process had been tenuous at times, the historic peace churches (and their constituent groups) had put aside many of their differences in order to focus on their common interest in an alternative vision of peace, with mennonites and brethren focusing on consensus and a concrete plan, and the friends drawing on their experience in political action to advocate. mennonite melvin gingerich concludes that, it would appear from the [detailed discussion regarding the eventual legislation] that the brethren and mennonites had taken the leadership in working out plans for action in case of conscription and war but that the friends had taken the leadership in getting these concepts into the selective training and service act of . reason of religious training and belief, is conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form.” statutes at large, , . apart from the broadening to include other religious objectors, the bill did not stipulate membership in a particular church, a problem that young mennonite men had encountered when they had not yet, per church doctrine, joined a local congregation. gingerich, . paul toews concurs, noting that the document derived from the september , meeting of the newly created mennonite central peace committee, “a plan of action for mennonites in case of war,” had been quickly endorsed by all three bodies (and, in the case of mennonites, by their various constituent bodies) with minor modifications and had been the “core” of the proposal advanced to roosevelt. toews, mennonites, . gingerich, writing in , may have had his own reasons for carefully phrasing what had indeed been extensive lobbying. although the friends used their political experience, lack of concern about political process, and legal expertise to lobby most vigorously, the mennonites also had “met” with congressmen and senators, actions that were a conundrum for strict two kingdom theology. nearly five months after roosevelt signed the selective service act, he issued executive order on february , , establishing civilian public service and essentially enabling the means by which draftees would perform their alternative service via “work of national importance.” on the one hand, the national service board for religious objectors (nsbro) represented the peace churches, the fellowship of reconciliation, other church bodies, and non- affiliated individuals claiming objection. on the other hand, selective service, organized as a civilian arm of the government, represented the state. but, as historian georg q. flynn argues, “the alternative service program was put together casually.” cobbled together by representatives of peace churches who had little real power and a government facing the reality of the fall of western europe, roosevelt largely left the directors of selective service to manage the project, with one large caveat. he pointedly refused to finance the cps camp system in any way, except in general administration. the onus to fund daily operations was left to the churches, a charge they agreed to accept. as p.c. hiebert later recounted, at this crucial … meeting [after the selective service act was signed into law and prior to the issuing of the executive order], general hershey and a number of representatives from the president’s office were present. early in the morning, prior to the official meeting, a prayer meeting was held, and peter hiebert asked the mennonite representative what the mennonites might do if asked to finance the program. “do you think we can do that?” asked hiebert. orie miller looked at peter hiebert and said, “have our brethren ever let us down when we had a real case to present before them?” with anticipation, the church representative heard the director of selective service ask, “are you men and your people willing to undertake this job even if it will cost you a great deal of money?” there was silence for a while and then orie miller spoke with deep and sincere conviction: “by the help of god we will try.” the end result was that selective service agreed to "furnish general administrative and policy supervision and inspection, and [to] pay the men's transportation costs to the camps." its prieb quoting hiebert, prieb, peter, . director retained final authority to choose work projects and assignments, and was the final arbiter of appeals. nsbro agreed "to undertake the task of financing and furnishing all other necessary parts of the program, including actual day-to-day supervision and control of the camps (under such rules and regulations and administrative supervision as is laid down by selective service [italics mine]), to supply subsistence, necessary buildings, hospital care, and generally all things necessary for the care and maintenance of the men." the peace churches had thus obtained a project chiefly under civilian agency, but with almost all of the responsibility on their own shoulders. the arrangement, not completely public, nor completely private, was heavily dependent on the adaptive abilities of each within a loose bureaucratic framework. for example, in spite of roosevelt’s early objections, nsbro director paul comly french managed to convince selective service to use old civilian conservation corps camps temporarily, a request made permanent in practice. in the long run, the cps camps that started opening on may , , more than six months before the bombing of pearl harbor and u.s. entry into the war, had unintended consequences for both the government and the churches and unaffiliated objectors. one early proposal by the hpc’s was categorically rejected by an irate fdr. when friend paul comly french proposed that the men would receive wages as did men performing military service, they were quickly disabused by roosevelt who emphasized that he did not see their service as commensurate with that of soldiers. paul toews, quoting paul comly french, toews, mennonites, - . french’s account in a letter he wrote to clarence e. pickett, december , , is reprinted in jacob, origins, . in hindsight, this proved to be a harbinger of how alternative service was couched. while at this point in time the hpc delegation anticipated performing significant work including reconstruction or the relief of suffering in potentially dangerous situations overseas (as well as forestry, farming, or non-military hospital work), the government had no such intention. the wage issue smarted at the time and continued to do so. cps historian melvin gingerich framed the issue clearly in , not only clarifying the contributions, but likely preempting the characterization of cps men as moochers. “at least different types of work were done according to the works progress reports in the selective service records offices. as the draftees were not paid for the work performed in the base camps, and only given maintenance wages of $ per month in the special projects (using the basic army pay of $ a month for estimation) men in mennonite cps contributed approximately $ million worth of labor to the federal and state governments. the federal government spent on the one hand, it tested the ability of the hpc bodies to continue to cooperate in nasbro as the different groups questioned whether or not they had been compromised. in particular, for the friends and others who had attempted to argue for those who held absolutist positions (in which even registering for the draft was a concession), the project seemed to be increasingly flawed and hollow. on the other hand, the government, mediated through the genuinely reflective, yet politically astute and resilient lewis b. hershey, was routinely called to task for providing any sort of option for objectors. approximately $ / million on cps. thus the united states benefited to the figure of $ / million from the contribution of men drafted to mennonite cps camps.” melvin gingerich, "civilian public service," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=civilian_public_service&oldid= (accessed july , ). paul toews argues that mennonites paying their own way, “[even if] every mennonite had to mortgage his farm,” disarmed many of the harshest critics of the program. toews, quoting orie miller and john mosemann, jr., paul toews, mennonites, . this was the basic process of conscription: all men were encouraged to register for the draft. an individual then noted that he was claiming religious objection on form . the notice routed to the local draft board which determined whether or not the request was a sincere one, based on both the answers the individual had provided on the form, and, if necessary, by personal interview. if accepted as sincerely meeting the legal requirements, the draftee was shifted to nsbro’s responsibility, then assigned to a “unit” where he would, in general, serve out his term of service. these units could be based in a cps camp or assigned to a non-camp posting (such as a mental hospital). each unit was under the general jurisdiction of a “technical agency” (such as the forest service or state mental hospital) and the particular administration by one of the “operating groups,” one of the hpc bodies (mcc, for the mennonites). any would-be objector could appeal to a civilian process if his original request was denied. if, at the point of registration, the individual was willing to enter the military (as - percent of hpc men were), he chose whether to enter the regular service (provided he passed the physicals) or to enter service, but as a noncombatant (i- a-o). men in alternative service received no pay, nor the host of military benefits available to them and their dependents either during the war or in postwar legislation. nsbro assumed financial responsibility for objectors not associated with the hpc, although in fact the three church bodies contributed toward their expenses as well. gingerich, service, - , - . flynn offers a nuanced portrait of the process objectors faced before their local boards and how hershey pressed for and applied broad and sympathetic judgments on objectors whose claims had been denied. george q. flynn, lewis b. hershey: mr. selective service (chapel hill, nc: university of north carolina press, ), - . the need to negotiate as a group obscured the differences between mennonites, friends, and brethren in their initial approach to the government. in particular, the friends american mennonites during world war ii—attempts at institutionalization and unintended consequences the alternative service project that managed the more than , young men assigned to it tested the organizing skills of the hpc bodies who divided responsibility for the camps, promoted the development of young men who would became future leaders, created an amalgam of religious and political dissenters, offered churches an unprecedented access to educating their young men about peace convictions, and disappointed many who had seized on a vision of meaningful “witness.” it tied mennonites, who were attempting to navigate their theology of “the two kingdoms” into an ironic entanglement. as historian albert keim observed, among those most consciously attempting to remain aloof from government, the mennonites by force of circumstances found themselves in one of the most intimate relationships ever established between church and state in american history, and with the military arm of the government at that.” attempted to protect those who held absolutist positions derived from quaker theology and its views regarding the individual conscience. when mennonites refused to support the absolutist position that would effectively refuse cooperation with the government, the friends had to resort to a memorandum to the main proposal, a rider that was completely rejected by congress. paul toews, mennonites, - . the wily hershey alternately played the press and congress, diffusing criticism and achieving a wide range of latitude for his administration of the draft, including his general oversight of the cps system. a descendent of the heavily persecuted swiss-south german stream of mennonites, he had embraced a largely self-fashioned religious creed of stoicism, humanism, deism, and american individualism. rising in military ranks until he lost the use of his right eye in a polo accident at fort bliss, hershey was the second director of selective service, remaining in that position from until . he routinely maintained that the alternative service program was an experiment in democracy and dissent, an “experiment … to find out whether our democracy is big enough to preserve minority rights in a time of national emergency.” but, he also made the case before congress that the program would “relieve the armed forces of thousands of malcontents.” it was essential that they not be able to “spread the doctrine of pacifism to our youth in its formative period.” flynn, lewis, , . keim, “service or resistance?” . peace historians peter brock and nigel young consider some of the inherent complexities and contradictions in the formation of a peace stance during world war ii, juxtaposing the cps system with conscientious objection of the absolutists who chose prison. brock and young, pacifism, - . yet, the fact that mc conservative amos horst who maintained the traditional stance of the separation of “the two kingdoms” was satisfied with the program thus far in reiterated how the doctrine played out. that mennonites had been subject to the government and had kept their young men away from the war and military jurisdiction recognized both the sphere of the world and the sphere of god. but, even so, as he emphasized in a letter to his son-in-law harold bender, the issue remained a live one, even under civilian control: we should always be prepared to make clear to government that if a civilian program … demands one’s loyalty to the gov. rather than to god that we would at any time withdraw from civilian service and try to live true. that we obey god rather than man, take the course with the lord and meet the consequence with society. horst’s primary “citizenship” thus was in the kingdom of god. in the long run, the state was not preeminent, even though their situation, as general hershey was willing to remind objectors, was not a right of citizenship, but rather a “privilege” that could be revoked. yet, mennonites in particular had hoped to evidence that they were loyal americans, demonstrating both their convictions and their willingness to serve the country --- to be patriots - -- by engaging in significant work for the well-being of others. building on the significant reconstruction work initiated by the american friends service committee in the first world war (and which took place during the war itself) and the relief activities of mennonite central committee, cps bodies hoped for equivalent service. nsbro had hoped to move into overseas work “of national importance,” and the first conscripts were on their way to china to work in medical relief and rehabilitation when word arrived that congress had cancelled overseas work horst quoted in bush, two, . flynn, lewis, . for cos. it was thwarted by representative joe starnes (al) who attached a rider removing approval to a billion dollar military appropriation bill. the defeat was a significant one for nsbro participants who wanted to directly address the destruction of war. initially, mennonites were satisfied with cps, viewing it as an improvement over the entanglements that resulted from the solution that had been pressed upon them in the first world war. although selective service sponsored the new program and administered particular pieces of it, the fact that it was overseen by civilians satisfied both those who considered the previous plan as a still too direct supporter of warfare and those who desired their “service” to be a form of “witness.” for the men of cps, however, there were increasingly mixed feelings about what this witness really meant. for some, the chance to be away from home and from the oversight of their local church bodies was liberating. mixing with other men and having free time, even if little money, was an adventure, a means by which to break loose. for others, the grinding boredom and the nagging knowledge that they were performing work that was shallow when juxtaposed against those who were in the military in combat was deeply disturbing. appealing for and being granted more meaningful assignments that included an element of danger or required exceptional compassion--- such as smoke-jumping, volunteering for medical investigations such as the starvation experiments, or working directly with the mentally ill in severely understaffed institutions met the need for consequential work that embodied both a peace witness and alternative service as americans. krieder, looking, ; toews, mennonites, . in regard to the starnes amendment see gingerich, service, - . in re: the starvation experiments, see todd tucker, the great starvation experiment: the heroic men who starved so that millions could live (new york: the free press, ). the work with the greatest long-term consequences of all was in mental health, a focus that mennonites and others directly pursued after the war due to their work in cps. after four although the experiences in cps camps continued to nag at the consciences of other members of nsbro because they increasingly believed that their involvement aided conscription and the war effort, mennonites were largely satisfied with the arrangements. even as the early consensus among nsbro’s affiliates broke apart, the mennonites cast their involvement as service within the dictates of their beliefs. quaker cps men who had carefully documented what they had observed in the philadelphia state hospital and decided to form a clearinghouse of information in , they solicited accounts from the approximately , fellow conscientious objectors (more than half of them mennonites) who were working in the cps units assigned to sixty-five state mental hospitals and facilities for the mentally retarded. initially called the mental hygiene program of cps, they received more than , reports detailing the modern-day bedlam of the institutions (the philadelphia state hospital, for example, had a stated capacity for , patients, but housed more than , , with a ratio of attendant per patients). science reporter albert q. maisel’s graphic exposé published in life magazine, “bedlam : most u.s. mental hospitals are a shame and disgrace,” drew from the cos’ documentation and helped launch modern mental health reform. alex sareyan, the turning point: how persons of conscience brought about major change in the care of america’s mentally ill (washington, dc: american psychiatric press, ); stephen j. taylor, acts of conscience: world war ii, mental institutions, and religious objectors (syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, ). taylor focuses on the activism of quakers who were more willing to speak out, but also recognizes that mennonites, even though less likely to confront conditions directly, contributed widely to the collection of reports. ibid., . for mennonites, work in mental hospitals resulted in their postwar creation of mental health systems, including the prairie view network in kansas. participant william keeney, later academic dean at bethel college during the vietnam war, documented this service and its long-range impact after the war. william keeney, “experiences in mental hospitals in world war ii,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ), - . other members of nsbro had mixed reactions to cps. the association of catholic conscientious objectors was the third group to leave the nsbro arrangement, departing in october , following the war resister’s league’s departure from its position on the consultative council ( ), and the fellowship of reconciliation ( ). although the hpc and other bodies had stayed together in an effort to support alternative service, the reasons given by the for represented the thoughts of others. instead of removing themselves from the war effort, they had, in an attempt to provide an alternative, “allied [themselves] with the military in administering conscription, one of the most essential phases of the war effort. the catholic group concurred, with language aimed particularly at the mennonites. “it is our duty to uphold the christian ideal of evangelic love at all times, but there can be no great or lasting merit in a program of involuntary servitude that ignores the basic christian concept of justice. to attempt to identify this ideal of evangelic love (embracing the testimony by “service” and “second mile” one endeavor within the camps with consequences that have not been assessed and bear further investigation was profoundly satisfying for many mennonites, although it also sent mixed messages about freedom of religion to those who were not mennonites and yet serving their terms of service in mennonite-run units. in the units administered or co-administered by mcc, the mennonite churches used cps camps as an opportunity to educate the young men about their brotherhoods’ beliefs, and particularly its position on peace. remembering the difficulty world war i draftees had experienced when asked to explain their nonresistant positions, mcc encouraged the publication of “the mennonite heritage course,” and then promoted that the men take it during their first year of service. many did, working their ways through the six forty-eight page booklets that ranged over mennonite history in europe and america, to an explanation of church and state relationships, and then general tracts on mission and social relationships. the churches also utilized the camps to invest their next generation of leaders, many of whom will crop up as significant actors in the kansas mennonite colleges during the vietnam war. at the same time, some mennonites worried about the influences to which their young men might be exposed. the danger was not only exposure to non-mennonites, philosophies so often used to justify the cps program) … is rather to distort those ideals and expose them to the contempt and ridicule of those who neither accept nor understand the christian counsels of perfection.” articles from the reporter [the fellowship of reconciliation’s newsletter] quoted in gingerich, service, . re: the war resister’s league withdrawal, see scott h. bennett, radical pacifism: the war resisters league and gandhian nonviolence in america, - (syracuse: syracuse university press, ), . bennett estimates that of the , conscientious objectors in cps and , who went to prison, at least war resistance league members participated in the former and in the latter. his notes explain that wrl counts tended to be low because of under-reporting and cross-affiliations with other groups, such as the fellowship of reconciliation. ibid., , n . but to other mennonites themselves, a situation that concerned church elders no small amount of consternation. as some of the early historiography of cps documented, however, in spite of the issues that bothered them and concerned their brotherhoods, the experience was a positive achievement in the eyes of the men themselves. they discovered that other mennonites from different mennonites comprised percent of the objectors assigned to the cps units. of the eighty-nine units administered by mcc as mennonite representative, seventy-seven were run solely by mcc, five jointly with the brethren service committee, three jointly with the american friends service committee, and four as coops. gingerich, “civilian,” in global. the mennonite heritage series was edited by harold s. bender and authored by men from the three major mennonite bodies: no. , “mennonite origins in europe,” (harold s. bender (mc)), no. , “mennonites in america” (c. henry smith (gc)), no. , “our mennonite heritage” (edward yoder (mc)), no. , “our mission as a church of christ,” (edward g. kauffman (gc)), no. , “christian relationships to state and community,” (guy f. hershberger (mc)), no. , “life and service in the kingdom of god,” (p.c. hiebert (mb)). toews captures the dynamic of mennonite identity in the mid-twentieth century in his comments about the series: “except for not giving voice to smaller groups, they represented mennonite syncretism with an interpretation that emphasized commonality of history and faith. this was true even though that inter- mennonite perspective was a down payment on the future more than a portrayal of the past.” toews, mennonites, . regarding dangerous influences, for example, mb p.c. hiebert who had been heavily active in the historic peace church conversations and in the subsequent common negotiations, was nevertheless deeply concerned about what would happen if mcc chose theologically unsound individuals to be camp directors. cautioning orie miller about several potential directors, he wrote: “i would feel bad if our boys would return from camps contaminated with modernism.” since “there will doubtless be some liberal thinkers among the boys … we must be all the more careful about the directors.” quoted in toews, mennonites, . hiebert’s concern is somewhat ironic since he had studied the writings of walter rauschenbush when he himself was at seminary. rauschenbush as champion of the social gospel was suspect among conservative mennonites. mennonite focus on the achievement of their brotherhoods’ internal objectives (including the surveys that evaluated whether or not the educational program and/or cps strengthened mennonite understanding of nonresistance) has, unfortunately, done little to enrich the historiography of how mennonite-run cps camps apprised the development of the peace witness among non-mennonite men described in this study’s opening chapter and which energized the antiwar protests of the vietnam war. doing so systematically would not only inform how mennonite lived theology contributed to a non-mennonite comprehension and utilization of nonresistance, but also enliven the discussion about the roots of antiwar protests during the cold war and enrich the conversation about the nature of secularization and whether or not the disorder associated with peace protest reflects a fragmenting of the religious witness. brotherhoods and objectors from other traditions were not what they had been characterized to be. differences remained, but they made friendships in work groups, in camp bull sessions, and in intense problem-solving situations, such as mental hospitals. for those young men who were assigned to be camp leaders, managing budgets, assignments, conflicts, and educational and social programs, the experience yielded a next generation of organizers --- and visionaries. historian robert s. kreider who was conscripted as a conscientious objector, assigned to cps no. in colorado springs, served as an mcc administrator for cps, volunteered as a pax man and later was dean at the gc school bluffton college, eloquently explained what the camps meant to him and others: at age when i was drafted into cps camp no. at colorado springs, i had already experienced more pluralism than most. i had just received my master’s degree from the university of chicago, itself a world of choices in an urban setting. for me it was a liberating experience to escape from university studies to live with largely farm fellows of seventeen or more mennonite varieties … making friends for the first time with mennonite brethren, amish, hutterites and holdeman. detached from the border-protecting sanctions of home communities and clinging together in awareness of public displeasure with our stance, our pluralism was encompassed by a sense of a new extended family. the family spirit even reached out and embraced john, a plymouth brethren; reuben, the pentecostal; two jehovah’s witnesses; george yamanda, a nisei co moved east from coastal california where he imperiled west coast detainees; bruce, the restless methodist, arlo sonnenberg, the evangelical who had a lyrical way with words; but perhaps not the macho mennonite from nebraska who left camp after pearl harbor to join the army and came back … later wearing a button: “jap killer” … never in mennonite history were so many different mennonites thrown into the same pot and stirred with molokans, christadelphians, nazarenes, … a sprinkling of atheists and agnostics, and scores more. this enforced acceptance of pluralism had a variety of problems for mennonites: … who is the brother whose sensitivities are not to be offended? who are the keepers of the boundaries? krieder, looking, - . krieder’s reflections were an excerpt of his earlier article “’let a hundred flowers bloom’ and ‘one lord, one faith, one baptism’,” mennonite quarterly review, , no. (july ). pax was the designate for the foreign service branch of alternative service administered by mcc for i-w men after wwii. it is also spelled pax and its service workers are variously considered as pax man, pax-man, pax men, and pax-men, although women also were later admitted as pax workers. harold s. bender, “pax” in global the universe had expanded, and had done so with men eager to parse their convictions about peace. it had helped acculturate men, yet done so by re-focusing identity, and calling its essence into question. but it did so in tandem with the older leadership and established hierarchy who had not yet shelved the questions raised by twentieth-century america, a process to be considered shortly. the movement was in both directions, from the top down and from the bottom up. overcoming the failures of world war i had emphasized not only the problematic nature of their position in the american state, but also demonstrated that mennonites themselves had not necessarily kept their focus on the issues of peace that they had long used to organize and to protect themselves in their settlements and migrations since the reformation. their focus on relief work, which arguably began and continued on behalf of their own brotherhood, nevertheless also extended to others outside themselves, and by doing so offered both internal and external markers of identity. but attempting to negotiate space for themselves and on behalf of other peace churches in the face of the american government not only brought challenging and satisfying connections with others who agreed on christ as the author of peace, but also called into question the boundaries of church and state within the brotherhoods and between the brotherhoods. these same encounters were reprised among the young men (and the young women) who served in civilian public service. these discussions and the work surrounding them brought into sharp relief the larger interrogation about witness and what exactly what that meant. the questions were the focus of what became the public work of two historians, anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=pax (accessed march , ) reflections that derived from august authorities, but which were appropriated and long re-worked by the cps and postwar generation. the re-appropriation and re-casting of mennonite identity two major documents emerged in and , both written by historians, one hastily composed and the other the result of an extended time away from teaching responsibilities. those documents, and the process of their reception, had two long-lasting results. on the one hand, harold bender’s address, “the anabaptist vision,” delivered to the american society of although the extended entry written for the mennonite encyclopedia by historian melvin gingerich in makes no mention of women in cps, some women created their own female co units and called themselves cogs (c.o. girls), even though they were encouraged by mcc director peter c. hiebert to change the name of their organization, which “might be offensive to certain groups.” and to coordinate their work with ladies sewing circles in local churches. as historian rachel waltner goossen observes, the women kept their name, but accepted his advice, carefully shielding the fact that they had created an organization. their presence was an ambiguous one. church officials readily recognized the value of having female volunteers to boost the spirits of cps males, even though the women themselves saw their work as an act of personal conviction and commitment to peacemaking through service. only the friends appointed a female administrator to work with female units, but all three of the hpcs utilized the approximately volunteers, particularly in mental hospitals. their presence, like that of the more recognized c.o. males, contributed to the postwar focus on mental health. in particular, goossen recounted eleanor roosevelt’s changed attitude toward cos after members of the women’s unit at the poughkeepsie hospital invited her for tea, contact that also facilitated the former first lady’s work with the postwar national mental health foundation. rachel waltner goossen, women and the good war: conscientious objection and gender on the american home front, - (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ), - . their involvement also helped develop the postwar concept of mennonite voluntary service, although paul toews echoes goossen’s assessment that incorporating women was not necessarily designed to create new opportunities for them. paul toews, mennonites, - . although the two monumental arguments were presented by acknowledged and appreciated gc mennonite historians, it is essential to recognize the work of elizabeth horsch bender, scholar of german language and literature and a historian whose work has largely remained masked. although the prodigious workload of her husband, harold s. bender, granted him particular authority, it likely reflected the work of two individuals working in tandem. appreciating his at times ubiquitous presence in various initiatives reflects her hidden presence. keim suggests many points at which she was heavily involved in his work and in mennonite historiography. albert n. keim, harold s. bender, - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). paul toews has been one of the few to recognize her as a mennonite historian. paul toews, mennonites, . church historians annual meeting offered a new organizing principle that would situate mennonites in anabaptism at a time of crisis --- during the reformation, and as american armies planned for the invasion of europe. on the other hand, historian guy f. hershberger’s war, peace, and nonresistance carefully argued for the doctrine of the two kingdoms, but re-cast mennonite nonresistance as no longer simply a way of living in the kingdom of christ, but as a witness for the world. while explicitly maintaining that the new testament had an “entirely unpolitical” stance, and that the faithful community could only model what the world might find “curative,” hershberger not only situated god’s moral law as fundamental for all time but also used biblical language to position mennonite engagement. nonresistant life, he argued, … is to bring healing to human society … to prevent its further decay through a consistent witness to the truth. this world needs the ministry of nonresistant christians whose light, set on a hill, stands as a glowing witness to the way of truth and righteousness. a people who provide this witness are not parasites living at the expense of organized society. they are its greatest benefactors. thus, he carefully threaded his way through two kingdom doctrine to articulate a broad consensus of mennonite convictions about nonresistance and to arrive at a heavily nuanced analysis that positioned the church to concern itself with social problems beyond its own community. hershberger’s nonresistance was more than a rejection of war, but, according to historian theron schlabach, “what amounted to a self-consciously biblical social gospel.” the result was “arguably the most influential statement on mennonite social ethics in the twentieth century,” a position that challenged conservatives and progressives alike. bender delivered his address as president of the asch, then turned the remainder of the meetings over to roland bainton and left for a rushed trip to chicago for mcc meetings regarding civilian public service camps. the past president had advised him to meet in chicago as a more convenient location, but bender had insisted on holding the meetings conjointly with the american historical association annual meeting. in his address, he contended that the central concepts for anabaptist identity were discipleship (following christ), “voluntary church membership based on true conversion,” and an ethic of love and nonresistance, utterly together with the experiences derived from cps, mennonites worked the three strands together: nonresistance, community, and a nonconforming witness. the endeavor created an “acted” theology that was congruent with its own history, which incorporated mennonite groups that widely diverged on cultural issues, and yet which challenged american nationalism during the cold war perhaps as much as it challenged its own people. it positioned a peace witness that was an active force derived from conservative christianity and stolid traditions, albeit a force that was still considering a public presence and public voice. its colleges remained within a quietist umbra even as some of its intellectuals and churchmen wrestled with what it meant to be anabaptist – or mennonite. but, the church as a whole was by no means disengaged as it continued to enter situations of postwar relief and repair through the cooperative efforts of mcc which this study will consider shortly. by and the united states’ entry into world war ii, mennonites in america had negotiated a means by which their young men could remain true to nonresistance in wartime. the erstwhile solution would avoid the sticky trap of noncombatancy when conscientious objectors were assigned to military camps, and it offered a means by which the brotherhoods repudiating any involvement in warfare (“complete abandonment of all warfare, strife, and violence, and the taking of human life”). bender’s text was published three months later in the society’s journal, church history. keim, harold, - . harold s. bender, “the anabaptist vision,” church history , no. (march ), . regarding hershberger, see guy f. hershberger, war, peace, and nonresistance (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), , ; theron f. schlabach, “guy f. hershberger’s war, peace and nonresistance ( ): background, genesis, message,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ), . at this point it is tempting to attribute the solution of their issues to modernity --- and its reputation for producing structures and enabling systematization. for the mennonites, however, the structures they created could only be derived from the highly held community values of humility and the local --- a valuing of the individual conscience without embracing individualism. rather than consolidating and simplifying, modernity tended to complicate and enrich mennonite identity. could manage the young draftees under their own terms. structured in such a way financially that the churches themselves would bear a share of the burden rather than the federal government carrying it all as a function of the armed services, the historic peace churches could also assert a place for themselves as citizens, as patriotic americans who performed alternative service and assumed the debt for doing so. how they arrived at this position and what resulted from the creative, yet staid, civilian public service camps of world war ii proved to have unintended consequences for both the historic peace churches and for the u.s. government. for those who assess the presence of modernity in terms of the formation of organizations and the consolidation of institutional identity, the actions mennonites took after the first world war might on the surface fit these paradigms. the mennonite approach to the twentieth-century, however much it might fit part of these patterns, varies significantly both in its unruly formation of identity and the long-term outcomes of this construction as they later manifested during the cold war. how and why they were able to maintain congruence while negotiating an identity as americans was an intense and ragged process spread over less than a generation --- and performed in the name of peace, the peace of jesus. but, in arriving at the policies that would protect their nonresistance and exempt them from bearing arms against another during the second world war, the church engaged in a parallel construction of identity that was quintessentially american and yet extra-national in scope. it began to challenge its own presuppositions about the meaning of “peace” and wrestled also with the meaning of nonconformity. in doing so, it would encounter modernity in strange forms and challenge it in unexpected ways. faced with the internal fragmentation of their own church bodies (now denominations) due to the desire for and the fear of acculturation, but challenged by an american nationalism that threatened their existence, mennonites fashioned an identity that was historically constructed. that is, it was constructed by using history as the authoritative referent. as such, it was an american religious improvisation, but one that was deadly serious. fear of acculturation and the loss of nonconformity is more generally attributed to the mcs, chiefly because their hierarchical structure and focus on isolation as a form of protection mean they attempted to maintain boundaries that were more easily seen and which they rigorously defended. but, of the three largest mennonite groups, all dealt with issues of acculturation and control. thus, drawing a line too tightly is not historically accurate. regarding an overview of postwar nonresistance, this discussion now involves historians, sociologists, and a rhetorician. analyzing american mennonite peace activity, the re-casting and re-claiming of mennonite identity, and their responses to war in the twentieth century includes several now- classic works, joined by three recent ones. goshen college historian guy f. hershberger’s the mennonite church in the second world war (scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, ) details not only activities during the war, but also much of the interwar period and its inter-mennonite activities. he speaks as both a historian and also as a participant observer in the intense mc discussions about nonresistance and nonconformity. his analysis is unparalleled for its astute observations regarding mennonite nonresistance (success and failure) during the second world war. james c. juhnke and paul toews’ volumes in the mennonite experience in america series are invaluable for their overviews, with juhnke (gc) focusing on world war i, its deep impact on american mennonites and the immediate postwar encounters with fundamentalism, while toews (mb) considers issues of acculturation, the intense (and fragmented) attempts to meet with other peace churches and pacifists in the face of significant opposition from mennonites themselves, the cooperation with selective service in the creation of civilian public service, and postwar impacts on peace theology through the late vietnam war. juhnke, vision and toews, mennonites. juhnke’s a people of two kingdoms is a now classic study of kansas mennonites through the second world war and is particularly valuable for the larger discussion as newton, ks, became the center of gc activity and hillsboro, ks, the center of mb endeavors. canadian historian rodney j. sawatsky wrote two classic studies never published beyond the dissertation submission, but which are indispensable to understanding the pressures of non-mennonite and mennonite fundamentalism. "the influences of fundamentalism on mennonite nonresistance, - " (m.a. thesis, university of minnesota, ) carefully dissects mennonite fundamentalism and is an excellent companion to the debate between beulah hostetler and nate yoder on the impact of american fundamentalism. rodney j. sawatsky, "history and ideology: american mennonite identity definition through history" (phd diss., princeton university, ) analyzes the creation of “the anabaptist vision” as a historical construct, using some methods of reader-response analysis. bluffton university professor perry bush’s two kingdoms, two loyalties is an elegant treatment by a historian who is also acutely aware of the categories of political science. juxtaposing his work with that of sociologists leo driedger and donald kraybill in mennonite peacemaking and erwin stutzman’s from nonresistance to justice which focuses on mc rhetoric offers a complimentary and interdisciplinary trek through the interwar years and beyond. the work was contested by a variety of actors, then loosely pulled together by mennonite historians and intellectuals who articulated mennonite identity in terms of nonresistance, but it was shaped (sometimes ironically) by the powerful forces of the denominations themselves as they proliferated peace and peace problems committees designed to formulate positions in relation to the state --- and sometimes to other mennonites. but, it was a bottom-up activity as well, in which the relief and material aid concerns of individuals (including the strong presence of women in countless aid groups), combined with the widespread involvement of young men (and some young women) in far-flung civilian public service actions. in the very short run between global conflicts, the pressures of war forced mennonites to come to terms with each other, the two other american religious traditions that had long advocated peace as essentials of identity, and the state. it also enabled the young men of cps to exercise a unique and authoritative voice within the brotherhoods. but, it also revealed the fissures that continuously haunted the maintenance of a peace position in cold war america. mennonites postwar and the broadening of claims the winona lake conference ( ) in late , what was later described as the “most representative american mennonite peace discussion ever convened” converged on the winona lake, indiana, conference grounds. acting on behalf of thirteen denominations and almost all of the groups affiliated with mcc, the assemblage included sixty-two official delegates and an additional twenty-five observers from across the mennonite spectrum. the list of attendees was a visual imprint of plain coats, suits and ties, young turks and old guard. there were two disjunctions, however. although the leo driedger and donald kraybill, mennonite peacemaking: from quietism to activism (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). patriarchy was well in place, there were three female faces, two as delegates, one as a visitor. whether this was any cause for alarm is not documented. one face, however was missing, and its absence was significant. mb p.c. hiebert, the longstanding chairman of mcc charged to serve as vice-chairman for the meeting, was seriously ill. although he would recover and continue in his capacity for just over two more years, he would not be able to convince his own brotherhood to build off of the conference’s findings or cooperative statement as both the mcs and gcs would do. two concerns were in the background. the difficulty the historic peace churches had in formulating a common stance to take before the u.s. government in was replicated in when a frustrated w. a. visser ‘t hooft, general secretary of the world council of churches (wcc), chastised the same groups for not being able to agree on a common platform. following extended visits to europe by members of the mcc peace section who were implementing relief and reconstruction projects, the world council of churches had asked the peace groups to contribute a statement of their own convictions to the wcc resolution, “war is contrary to the will of god.” the debacle was both embarrassing and instructive for the groups which had always been on the margins of the larger discussions and were now being specifically asked to contribute their thinking to the postwar milieu of devastation. meeting at the ecumenical conference “the church and the war” in detroit in may , the mennonite delegates resolved toews, mennonites, ; bertha fast (woodlawn avenue, chicago, il) represented the mennonite biblical seminary students, orpah mosemann (goshen college, goshen, in) represented the mennonite nurses’ association, and alta schrock, also of goshen college (goshen, in) attended as a visitor. fast was gc, the latter two mc. hiebert’s absence was discussed in the minutes. report of the mcc peace section study conference held at winona lake, indiana on november to , , - , . mla (hereafter, winona lake conference). to take what they had learned from the wcc encounter and work toward a coherent and unified stance. on the home front, president harry truman had wasted no time in requesting a new selective service act in , and while it worked its way through a congress not yet intent on prosecuting a korean war, the government deliberated on what to do with conscientious objectors. the original version of the bill had considered simply giving a complete exemption with no provision for alternative service to any young man who, by virtue of “religious training,” had a peace position. signed into law on june , , but soon realizing that public outcry would never accept such a provision, further iterations called for universal military training (umt) with no exemptions, a proposal that received significant opposition. re-named the universal military training and service act, the final bill that passed a few months after the john a. lapp, “the peace mission of mennonite central committee,” mennonite quarterly review (july ), , - . chastened by the rebuke in the three historic peace churches plus the international fellowship of reconciliation (ifor) cobbled together a booklet published in in which they each issued a statement. as historian donald durnbaugh recognizes, the groups were not yet able to agree on a common declaration, even though they had a common witness to peace. the booklet was graciously received by the ecumenical leadership who again pressed the groups for a common statement, asking “how they expected as diverse a group as the wcc membership to come to unity on the peace issue when even the peace churches could not come to a common mind.” in the groups arrived at a common document, “peace is the will of god,” reflecting the work of young mennonite and quaker scholars. durnbaugh, on earth, - , - . historian beulah stauffer hostetler details the varied responses to the request within the mc mennonite church and emphasizes the work of two young mennonite graduate students (paul peachey and irvin b. horst) who cooperated with british quakers to create the resulting statement. beulah stauffer hostetler, “nonresistance and social responsibility: mennonites and mainline peace emphasis, ca. to ,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ), - . brethren historian william c. kostlevy offers a particularly cogent assessment of the peace churches, the fellowship of reconciliation and the catholic worker movement during as the cold war intensified and they found themselves increasingly marginalized by a culture of anti-communist realism. william c. kostlevy, “a perfectionist remnant: the christian pacifist dissent from realism on the eve of the cold war,” brethren life and thought (summer-fall ): - . winona lake conference instead offered a -w classification and alternative service domestically or overseas. the result offered three expansive options to historic peace church men, but hedged against other objectors. although it was greeted with relief by many mennonites, it also raised a wide range of ethical questions and renewed concerns within conservative elements of the brotherhoods about its acculturating effects. but these issues were still under debate when the winona lake conference convened. although the prospect of umt and a renewed draft were on winona lake delegates’ minds, broader questions occupied the sixteen study papers prepared for the conference. thirteen of the papers considered six topics, with their authors matched with a presenter from a different denomination and including three young men who would emerge as intellectuals and churchmen over the next decade. historians paul toews and perry bush reach different conclusions about the conference, both of which are correct from yet a third angle. toews emphasizes the centripetal aspects of the meeting. there were no new findings, but rather a consolidation of positions: it remained for decades the most prominent of inter-mennonite peace statements. if the needs of the moment called forth a new document, that statement nonetheless reaffirmed more than it reformulated. more than pointing in new directions, which it scarcely did, the document consolidated a consensus. it both wittner explains how the proposed legislation both advanced and hedged against a peace position and its religious objectors. on the one hand, its early version offered complete exemption. on the other hand, it required the potential draftee to pass a stricter test of religious commitment. as in the bill, an objector was “by religious training and belief, is opposed to participation in war in any form,” but the new law specified belief in a supreme being, thereby excluding “essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a personal moral code.” wittner, rebels, . selective service act of , deferment and exemptions, section (j) was passed and signed into law in . zelle andrews larson explores the difficulty surrounding the new definition for pacifists who were not members of the historic peace churches and hershey’s willingness to “have nothing to do with the troublesome problem” of administering alternative service. zelle andrews larson, “an unbroken witness: conscientious objection to war, - ” (phd diss., university of hawaii, ) , - . re-affirmed two-kingdom theology and acknowledged an “obligation to witness to the powers that be of the righteousness which god requires of all men, even in government.” toews’ recapitulation of “witness” sees it as a concept already franked, and therefore nothing new. bush, on the other hand, sees the centrifugal forces that mennonites themselves had already started to face in their attempts to perform the service of peace. by viewing the conference through an explicit two-kingdom lens that traces the impact of hershberger’s earlier work and the careful staking of the notion of “witness,” bush positions the conference as change agent. examining, for example, the papers contributed by historian robert kreider and sociologist j. winfred fretz, both young gc intellectuals who argued on behalf of the lessons mennonites were learning as a result of their civilian public service and mennonite central committee work, bush juxtaposed two kingdom theology over against the claims of the state and found the “hidden prophetic qualifier that hershberger had articulated” --- the mennonite “obligation to witness to the powers that be of the righteousness which god requires of all men.” the conference thus laid further groundwork for mennonites to see the large fabric of peace that they had long enjoined in their own communities, but not outside --- the systems that underlay peace. thus bush thoroughly explores the import of the conference, not only for some of the sub- themes regarding peace on two-kingdoms theology, but most notably as the origin of what would become the powerful concept called the “lordship of christ” which created the theological framework that would justify mennonites’ entering the sphere of politics --- and which would allow many of them to justify explicitly and publically protesting the vietnam war. thus, by building on two-kingdom theology, but also accepting the potentially expansive concept of witness, the conference both consolidated its peace identity, but further positioned it as a fulcrum for change. in what churchman john lapp considered the “only extensive inter-mennonite theological document ever produced,” the winona lake delegates passed the “declaration of christian faith and commitment,” an expansive text for peace, whether it was racial, social, or concerned the state. two sections germane to understanding how the mennonites positioned themselves at the advent of the cold war and four years before they undertook relief work in vietnam focused on war in general and in cold war america. first, they addressed the issue of conscription: section seven. we cannot compromise with war in any form. in case of renewed compulsion by the state in any form of conscription of service or labor, money or goods, including industrial plants, we must find ways to serve our countries and the needs of men elsewhere, in ways which will give significant and necessary benefits which will keep our christian testimony uncompromised, particularly with respect to war, and which will make possible a faithful representation of christ and his love. we cannot therefor participate in military service in any form. we cannot have any part in financing war operations or preparations through war bonds. we cannot knowingly participate in the manufacture of munitions, weapons, and instruments of war or destruction. we cannot take part in scientific, educational, or cultural programs designed to contribute to war, or in any propaganda or activity that tends to promote ill-will or hatred among men or nations, races, and classes. and we cannot as churches lend ourselves to the direct administration of conscription or state compulsion, seeking rather to find voluntary patterns of service through which the demands of the state may be both paul toews, mennonites, ; bush, two, - . robert kreider, “the disciple of christ and the state,” in winona lake conference; fretz recapitulated the results of relief activities: “mennonites should propagate nonresistance because god has entrusted this heritage to mennonites and has helped them preserve this aspect of the christian witness through the centuries. we have had our nonresistant doctrine vacuum packed, as it were, within the confines of the mennonite cultural walls. this seal has been broken during these thirty years of world wide relief activities of the mennonite central committee. we must therefore go on. we cannot retreat into the shell of an isolated group existence.” j. winfield fretz, “nonresistance and the social order,” in ibid, . fretz served at bethel college from to , with several intermittent mcc assignments intervening. satisfied and transcended [italics mine], and going with our men in whatever civilian service they give. they then reaffirmed their nonresistant position of peaceful service: section . if war does come with its possible serious devastation from bombings or other forms of destruction, such as atomic blasts, germ warfare, poison gas, etc., we will willingly render every help which conscience permits, sacrificially and without thought of personal safety, so long as we thereby help to preserve and restore life and not to destroy it. called by the mcc peace section in an attempt to find a common statement “on the essence of the mennonite mind” the mennonites and brethren in christ not only reached consensus among their leadership who attended, but, one that was broadly endorsed by most of the brotherhoods they represented. the conclusions reached in were widely published and within two years seconded by the two largest denominations who then issued statements of their own. when mc historian and executive secretary of the mcc peace section john lapp reprised the singular conference in the article he wrote for the mennonite quarterly review in mennonite church usa archives ix- - , mcc peace section, box , folder . the “declaration” has also been republished in peachey, mennonite statements, - . sociologists driedger and kraybill offer a content analysis of the final conference statement, noting that terminology had changed during its final formulation, moving most notably from “nonresistance” (the topic of nearly every paper presented) to “the way of love,” starting to frame delegates’ thoughts on the state in terms of “the lordship of christ,” and not using the word “justice” in the final statement even though presenters and participants frequently used it. concluding that “nonresistance” was an integral part of the gospel, they nevertheless framed a foundational statement that positioned them to engage the social order in particularly mennonite terms while recasting its language. driedger and kraybill, mennonite, - . the mcs adopted their statement in as “a declaration of christian faith and commitment with respect to war, peace, and nonresistance,” in goshen, indiana, august , at their th session of their [mc] general conference. mennonite general conference report, - . mla. the gcs adopted “a christian declaration on peace, war, and military service,” in portland, oregon, august , at their rd general session. report from general conference, - . mla. see also peachey, mennonite statements, - and - . july of , he did so as one of the participants in another highly significant meeting, this one held the previous year in turner, oregon, and which had, in a surprise agreement reached by traditionalists and progressives, supported vietnam-era conscientious objectors. it is difficult not to surmise that his recapitulation of the winona lake statement was designed to promote and reinforce a similar unity twenty years later. yet, within three years of the winona lake conference, it was apparent that not all of the peace section participants’ brotherhoods accorded the same weight to the proceedings. although the mcs, shortly followed by the gcs, passed resolutions that basically affirmed the conclusions about the connections between nonresistance and an extended view of peace, the mbs remained silent. was this due to essential disagreements with or suspicion of anything promoted by the mcc peace section as will be evidenced later --- or is there is a different explanation? neither prieb nor johnson offer an account of the historic meeting, nor does historian john a. toews offer a direct analysis, but the latter suggests a reason for the reluctance to build on the inter-mennonite efforts, at least among mbs in the united states: inter-mennonite associations and activities of mennonite brethren are not as fully developed in the united states as in canada because of a difference in historical experience. the mennonite brethren who came to canada in the ’s and later had been deeply involved in inter-mennonite cooperation prior to their coming to the new world. however, the mennonite brethren who came to the united states in the ’s had left russia at the time when the scars of secession were barely healed. this difference in experience partly accounts for the difference in attitude toward inter-mennonite cooperation in the two countries. toews, history of the mennonite brethren church, . these comments are congruent with c. henry smith’s analysis of the mennonite brethren who had remained in russia after the emigrations of the s. he saw their interactions with pietists from germany as a “stimulating influence from abroad in the culturally isolated settlements of russia [that] resulted in the mennonite brethren becoming pioneers in a number of areas: evangelism, missions, sunday school work, publication, enterprises, the introduction of gospel songs (glaubensstimme), etc. … this is not equally true of the chortitza mennonite brethren and those who came to america in .” smith, - . since those who left russia in the s as insightful as toews’ remarks are regarding the mb canadians and their more cohesive culture as an explanation for the reluctance on the part of american mbs to be involved in cooperative efforts, they do not necessarily provide a complete picture. gc mennonites in kansas were largely drawn from the same ethnic strain of the mbs who came from russia in the s, yet henry a. fast (gc), who also derived from the same strands, was a staunch and eloquent promoter of the hershberger analysis offered at winona lake. young and exuberant, his formal comments recognized the scriptural and historical foundations of the conference and its statement, but also acknowledged the new lens of “witness” --- as part of mennonite identity. perhaps historian john a. toews’ later analysis and brief comments on the national association of evangelicals are instructive, particularly in light of the discussion addressed in later chapters that analyzes the heavy pressure of fundamentalism on both mennonite brethren and gc mennonites in kansas introduced in the s and which continued to dog each through the remainder of the century. although the mbs did not enact supportive resolutions on the mcc almost entirely emigrated to canada, this later wave of mennonite brethren, however conservative, were more aware of other groups in general, less isolated culturally, and more likely to view their co-religionists in a positive light. j.b. toews, russian émigré, churchman, seminary president, winona lake conference participant, and one of the first mbs to pursue a doctorate offers a different reason that presented a challenge, lamenting that “before the s and s the united states mennonite brethren had no scholars in theology who could articulate the fundamentals of their own anabaptist heritage. … throughout my ministry i have been troubled by the absence of historical perspective among mennonite brethren. esteemed leaders and colleagues, though deeply committed to the scriptures, do not connect our theological heritage to the anabaptist origins in the sixteenth century.” mbs did not have the men in place who could articulate and encourage anabaptist commitments as did those among the gcs who nevertheless shared a common ethnic heritage. this deficit did not facilitate their adapting the winona statement to their own brotherhood, nor did a conference decision in that badly fractured the mbs. j.b. toews, jb: a twentieth-century mennonite pilgrim (fresno, ca: center for mennonite brethren studies, ), - , . one of toews’ sons, paul toews, became one of the historians charged with writing a volume in the -volume comprehensive history, the mennonite experience series, late in the twentieth century. peace section work like the two larger groups, they continued to affirm their cooperation with the conservative inter-evangelical nae and its stand over against the national council of the churches of christ and its purported “modernism.” in important educational and missions work, they affirmed their affiliation with the nae while quietly avoiding the explicit commitments to the inter-mennonite and anabaptist statements discussed at winona lake. former civilian public service administrator henry a. fast warmly endorsed the winona lake conference in extended “remarks” he offered during the closing worship service on sunday morning before the sermon. “i think we have kept our feet solidly on scriptural ground all through. … jesus christ is supreme, the source of our hope and faith in a new mankind, and new men; and out of that only can come a new society and social order and world of peace… four hundred years have given us a mission; and i hope that out of this fellowship together, this study together, this praying together, there may come a mennonite church that will sense its responsibility much more clearly that it does now… i hope that our of this conference will come a mennonite church … which will stimulate us all down the line for more clear-eyed and more consecrated and dedicated witness to the world that has lost its way and is going down stream.” henry fast, “remarks,” in winona lake conference, - . john a. toews, history, - . foreshadowing what would continue to be a sticking point with mcc, toews identified the “initial impulse for affiliation with the nae came from the board of foreign missions which submitted a request for affiliation to the committee of reference and counsel.” the proposal which passed the general conference convention meeting in dinuba, california in recommended the affiliation with the evangelical group in order: “( ) to support morally the stand against modernism. ( ) to have in times of need an adequate representation for our foreign missions activities, in case our own institutions are unable to take care of this. ( ) to remain in contact with evangelical efforts in the sunday school work.” thus, the mbs consolidated significant portions of their anticipated undertakings not with other mennonites, but with conservative evangelicals, a position later explicitly and publicly applauded in statements made by the general secretary in . the tension resident in the historian’s careful hedging, near disclaimer of the expansive public accolades, however, followed in his wry comments that “this contribution, it might be noted here, mennonite brethren were able to make partly because of their association with mcc. the latter organization was able, for instance, to provide the personnel for nae for relief work at hue in south vietnam. the relationship of mennonite brethren with both organizations, mcc and nae, has from time to time created unique opportunities for a meaningful witness.” in , theologian j.b. toews echoed the assessment of mcc’s significance for the mennonite brethren conference and its development of foreign missions in his comments on what would be the significant postwar meeting of : “the second major decision [the first was in regard to accepting a south american delegation for membership] was the overture of mennonite central committee to the mennonite brethren to accept the responsibility for the postwar relief program in japan with the intent to make it a stepping stone toward a church-planting mission. the conference thus marked the beginning of the most effective church-planting program of the mennonite brethren in the post- nevertheless, mennonite brethren were not indifferent to the basic considerations raised by the winona lake conference and the mcc peace section. they were heavily invested in nonresistance as long as it focused on either relationships within church fellowships or in its classic interpretation regarding military service, concerns born out in extended discussions that were originally formalized in and extended well into the s. faced with the u.s. government’s decision to reinstitute universal military training (umt), the mb general conference (which represented both american and canadian churches) had a rude awakening when its representatives went to washington dc and met with members of the department of defense in late . attempting to meld the model of noncombatant service mennonites had established in russia early in the century, the spokesmen asked the military leaders to clarify how their brotherhood could serve in civilian noncombatant medical corps, thereby fulfilling the demands of the state for service, but doing so under non-military direction. the pentagon representatives disabused the mbs of any such service. the delegation detailed the jarring encounter in a six-page article in the popular mb magazine, gospel messenger magazine: major abel offered an analysis [that explained] the division between civil and military law in the structure of the united states government makes it impossible to consider any provisions for civilian units in the framework of the united states armed forces… [the other pentagon officers] confirmed the conflict of structural world war ii period, the church in japan.” toews, j.b., a twentieth century mennonite pilgrim, . mb former missionary and professor at tabor college jacob a. loewen described, however, how mbs reacted to the winona lake conference decision that encouraged cooperative mission efforts that would foster an explicit peace witness. only after a heated “campaign of opposition” by mbs ensued and several attempts over the course of the next year to mediate concerns failed, did the final issue manifest. mbs, in spite of their insistence that peace was an integral part of the gospel and “should not be separated from the gospel witness and the total discipling process,” did not want to incorporate it in their evangelistic efforts. “it was only then that mennonite brethren delegates expressed their real concern: they feared that openly identifying peace issues with the message of evangelism would seriously reduce the number of converts.” jacob a. loewen and wesley j. prieb, only the sword of the spirit (winnipeg, mb: kindred productions, ), - . principles between civil law and military law which makes the provisions for civilian units in the medical branch an impossibility. to consider such provision in the future would first require a basic change in the structural division of civil and military law, which is unlikely to happen in the framework of a democratic country. they then pointedly explained that the purpose of the noncombatant medical corps was not to heal for the sake of healing, but --- in order to return men back into combat. lt. col. ahr explained that the primary mission of the medical service was to contribute to the success of military operations and the department of defense was responsible to guard this objective in the formulation of the governing principles affecting this branch. saving lives and easing suffering are not mentioned is part of the mission of the medics. the army field manual fm - states: “the mission of the medical service is to contribute to the success of the military effort through (a) conserving manpower … (b) preventing adverse effects of unevacuated casualties on combat efficiency….” [rather, the medical corps existed to] “remov[e] every obstacle which so easily is created through wounded and suffering soldiers in the pursuit of the army’s assignment to destroy the enemy”… not humanitarian concern, but the goal of quick recovery to fight again motivates the treatment of injured soldiers. finally, the delegation reported to its readers, “the conference with the officials in the pentagon establishes several very clear principles … the conscientious objector … must face the issue that in spite of personal interpretations which he may attach to his participation … from the standpoint of the army he is considered part of the combat operation.” thus, to their chagrin, the delegation faced the fact that their brotherhood had established a policy six years earlier which had no real grounding in fact. “the noncombatant and conscience,” gospel messenger august , , . ibid., . ibid. excerpts from the article are also reprinted in peachey, statements, - . both mb historians john a. toews and paul toews argue that the attempt to rescind evidenced poor decision-making. e.g. the former contends, “… the damage was done. the church had legitimized a restricted form of noncombatancy. an uninformed and ill-advised resolution, the conference learned, could be interpreted by its members and government officials ‘as an acceptance by the conference of … noncombatant service,’” paul toews, mennonites, - ; thus, a week after the meeting in washington, dc, the mb annual conference rescinded the now widely accepted resolution made in . backtracking from and overturning their earlier recommendation that mb draftees engage in noncombatant service continued to haunt the brotherhood’s peace position throughout the s. but behind the six-year struggle is a different question: why, after so much co-operation between mennonite bodies prior to and during world war ii, did mbs rush to enact a position of their own when the draft bill itself was not even final? their own p.c. hiebert had been instrumental in facilitating inter-mennonite (and historic peace church) action, and many young mbs entered civilian public service (although many had also entered the military as either combatants or noncombatants). were there now reasons not to work with other mennonites? or, were other forces at work? conflict, creativity, ethics: interrogating “the anabaptist vision” in the age of consensus american mennonites were by no means in consensus. many of their young men had turned from nonresistance and entered the military as either combatants or noncombatants in spite of the cps alternative, a situation that was lamented and examined at length by leadership. moreover, civilian public service and the war had facilitated acculturation and movement out of the rural environments that had been seen by many as essential to the maintenance of identity. other issues provoked such internal conflict and disagreement to the point that sociologist fred john a. toews, history, - . mbs were also floundering, both theologically and organizationally in the early s, as demonstrated in the attempts first to address issues of fragmentation in , tackle a crisis fomented by fundamentalism at tabor college in , and re-work conference structures in as described by j. b. toews. toews argues that the re- structuring that deferred decisions about important vision documents to a congregational level thereby diminished larger discussions that fostered unity. significantly, the process also diffused support for classic mennonite positions in favor of those influenced by fundamentalism. j.b. toews, jb, - , - . kniss observes that “conflict frequency … peaked immediately following the war’s end..... the post-war conflict rate was about fifty percent greater than that during the war.” these issues are addressed elsewhere by historians, and it is sufficient to note that the conversations were active ones among ordinary mennonites as well as those accorded more authority. at this point, the narrative could end and align itself with what has been characterized and remembered as the consensus culture of the s. increased church attendance and participation marked the era, as did a consensus among political liberals and conservatives about the threats of communism and atomic war. an expanding economy that included provisions for returning veterans generated optimism for many americans, even with the struggles for civil rights sitting in the background. elements of american fundamentalism had become more mainstream, in part through the “new evangelicalism” and with the evangelistic crusades of billy graham against the backdrop of opposition to “godless communism.” mennonites, too, enjoyed postwar prosperity and there were increasing pressures in favor of acculturation and against nonconformity, with local congregations sometimes exerting pressure for change. migration to the cities threatened those elements of identity that were grounded in rural life and isolation. for large numbers of mennonites technology remained hershberger, mennonite; kniss, disquiet, . paul toews, mennonites, - ; bush, two, - . kniss argues that the ground between traditionalists and what he calls communalists was still contested, but that its tenor had changed from sharply worded personal attacks to a diffuse style of communication aided and abetted by the proliferation and use of committees. thus, the development of organization actually facilitated a more intimate and cooperative brotherhood during the postwar period. kniss, disquiet, - . others have questioned whether or not these structures facilitated a dominance contrary to anabaptist ethics and the debate remains an active one. keim, harold, - . george marsden, the twilight of enlightenment: the s and the crisis of liberal belief (new york: basic books, ) recognizes the standard consensus narrative and offers a counterpoint. suspect, even as others in the dutch-russian stream embraced the use of english. their decision- making structures were less like brotherhoods and more like denominations, in spite of concern about these adaptations. yet, the threats raised by war and the challenges issued to situate themselves in a historical recovery of identity enabled mennonites to discover and create a source of grounding that was essentially conservative, and yet open-ended enough to accept challenges. how they accomplished this juxtaposed concrete actions in concert with abstract ideas, both of which derived from their beliefs and from the thick mennonite culture of tradition and community. they did so at the periphery of a society largely pleased with its position as victor, but uneasy with dissent, especially opposition that questioned nationalism. just because they were on the margins domestically did not mean they were invisible internationally. mennonites were far from being vocal public dissenters, but the cold war found them privately and communally contesting conformity to the national culture, particularly in regard to war. they did so through their acted theology of relief work and in their engagement with internal and external recapitulations of the nascent anabaptist vision. by the time the clusters of mennonites met in the small town in hillsboro, kansas, to hear representatives of the church and the state, they had recast their relationship with government in general and called american nationalism to task in particular. in march , senator joseph mccarthy was formally condemned by the senate after four years of red-baiting and questionable interrogations of not only government bureaucrats, but sociologist fred kniss’ application of social movement theory to several mc case studies explores how cultural resources (including ideas and culture used together) become powerful symbolic actors in social mobilization and change. fred kniss, “ideas and symbols as resources in intrareligious conflict: the case of american mennonites,” sociology of religion , no. ( ), - . also high-profile cultural figures via his infamous house un-american activities committee (huac). although he burst onto the scene in , the anti-communist initiatives had already started with truman’s determination to invoke loyalty oaths within his administration, an initiative soon mirrored elsewhere. mccarthy’s castigations before long stripped the state department of its far eastern specialists, leaving a vacuum on southeast asia that would be regretted in hindsight more than a decade later. but, the increasingly strident anti-communism affected pacifists who found themselves subjected to scrutiny and harassment and their dissent characterized as anti-american to a heightened degree. as a result, the peace witness and its interrogations about systemic violence in the cold war ironically became the domain of the sectarians who had already been at the margins of society (however much some of them wished otherwise). unlike the quakers, the catholic workers, the fellowship of reconciliation, and the brethren who were willing to engage in politics, the mennonites largely insisted on maintaining their distance from direct political involvement. but they engaged in the “acted theology” that expressed their identity, and, in doing so, they inadvertently positioned themselves for a unique witness during the vietnam war in spite of their small numbers. james t. patterson, grand expectations: the united states, - (new york: oxford university press, ), - . regarding the pressures on non-sectarian pacifists and their marginalization, see debenedetti, peace, - . for example, the american friends service committee published speak truth to power in . the book became a classic manifesto among pacifists that is still cited and used as a model for nonviolent dissent. speak truth to power: a quaker search for an alternative to violence (washington, dc: the american friends service committee, ). although mennonites continued their discussions reified in “the anabaptist vision,” hershberger’s work, the winona lake declaration, and their overseas work, much of it remained sectarian, out of the public eye in the early s, as contrasted with the quaker and catholic worker projects. exceptions to this are the shared statements made by the historic peace churches. the war resisters league (wrl) is somewhat of an outlier in regard to reconstruction, questioning, and identification mennonites re-implemented their reconstructive and relief work in europe and other war- torn areas even before the war had ended. both young men and young women --- many of whom were bilingual --- hurried overseas. again, their operations seemingly focused on helping their kindred, but also extended to assisting those who were not, with percent expressly allocated to the latter. at first these were volunteers, some having already performed work via cps, but over the next decade as the draft was reinstituted (after a single year’s hiatus in and the re-working of the selective service act of ), men who were serving alternative service as i-ws joined in the projects that ranged from direct welfare, hunger relief, and reconstruction to assisting refugees on a number of levels (including immigration). relief work sponsored by mcc was heavily supported yet again by those at home in north america and continued to reinforce mennonite identification with the suffering, particularly with refugees and displaced people. true to its reputation, the organization was one of the first to arrive and to mobilize early shipments of direct relief. for example, in and , mcc ranked first among all authorized relief organizations in the total volume of supplies sent to postwar germany, and fourth in . the relief operations embraced by leadership and laity alike both cemented organizational structures and offered means to re-envision them. mccarthyism. many of its members were also religious sectarians and the organization had explicitly distanced itself from communism in its actions and policy statements. nevertheless, it faced more pressure than the sectarian pacifist groups. bennett, radical, - . nearly men and women served in mcc projects from - in forty-five countries. that women comprised percent of these numbers raises some interesting questions about their historical near-invisibility and both the actual and gendered nature of alternative service for mennonite men. paul classen, “statistics on mennonite central committee personnel,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ), - . peachey, mennonite, . the u.s. government refused aid to germany during , but after repeated appeals from voluntary organizations, allowed relief to be distributed via a single organization, cralog unintended consequences & international conversations: the concern group ( ) & puidoux ( - ) a significant number of those who became future leaders in the brotherhoods were among these young aid workers, staying to pursue graduate work in european universities and obtaining doctorates in history, theology, biblical studies, and sociology. in both relief work and their studies they engaged suffering and the catastrophe of war, but with a heightened awareness of the blistering questions about the meaning of existence --- for example, regarding the (council of relief agencies licensed for operation in germany) beginning in spring, . mcc was one of eleven entities that comprised it and eventually focused its distributions in a : : formula in the british, french, and american zones, respectively, with one-third of mcc workers in europe assigned to germany by the end of . krieder and goossen, hungry, - . the couching of mcc service is a curious one. on the one hand, historian robert kreider, who directed mcc relief in germany after wwii, raises a query consistent with his earlier comments at the winona lake conference in regard to the focus of mennonite service through mcc: “to whom do we as mennonites owe primary responsibility: our kinsmen or the stranger outside the gate? these issues were most urgent immediately following world war ii when one had to allocate scarce resources between mennonites in need and non-mennonite in greater need.” robert kreider, “the impact of mcc service on american mennonites,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ), . yet, on the other hand, the picture painted in the popular history of mcc clearly explicates the varieties of assistance made to european mennonites. the chapter by no means excludes the relief proffered to non-mennonites, which historian james enns’ study clearly emphasizes. “kreider could still assure the leaders of hilfswerk [the protestant group that distributed aid] that only % of all mcc aid was being earmarked specifically for german mennonites while the remaining per cent continued to be distributed among germans ‘without institutional prejudice.’” james enns, saving germany: north american protestants and christian mission to west germany, - (kingston, on: mcgill-queens university press, ), . in order to understand why and how mcc has become, in the words of theologian ted koontz, “the epitome of the anabaptist vision,” historian lucille marr of mcgill university encourages a more critical evaluation of mcc history. in particular she raises essential questions about the sources of the aid itself and its frequent generation by mennonite women, especially via largely marginalized “sewing circles.” the process she explores is similar to that employed by southern baptist women whose “women’s work” gave them the separation they needed to develop their own leadership, even as mennonite women continued to subordinate theirs. ted koontz, “commitments and complications in doing good,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ), quoted in marr, . lucille, marr, “the history of mennonite central committee: developing a genre,” journal of mennonite studies (january ), - . holocaust --- and the consequences of silence or withdrawal. coupling their direct relief work in europe with a larger intellectual engagement, they became participants in two larger conversations --- one that was internal to mennonites and of their own creation and one that was external, largely due to the historic peace church encounter with the world council of churches in that eventually resulted in the shared statement by the hpc issued six years later. informing both were the challenges implicit in the hershberger analysis that had started to envision addressing social problems within a two kingdom model, but which pushed the church toward engagement as a witness to the state and to the culture at large. already considering harold bender’s “anabaptist vision,” and its validity across the disciplines, the young intellectuals faced the ironic contrast between a devastated europe and their situation in the birthplace of anabaptism when they met in amsterdam in early for what was intended to be a two-week respite and theological retreat. the material result over nearly two decades was an eighteen pamphlet periodical issued as “concern: a pamphlet series.” the immaterial result was a challenge to “the anabaptist vision” and those who had endorsed it conducted through not only the publication of the monographs, but also via sometimes intense discussion and correspondence over their content. the first seven “founders” of what was called “concern” or “the concern movement,” expanded and contracted over time to include many of the brightest male minds across the mennonite spectrum. the concern group had seven original participants, but expanded to include a wider circle beyond mc mennonites. founding members with their affiliations as of the first issue were: irwin b. horst (amsterdam), john w. miller (goshen college, goshen, in), paul peachy (eastern mennonite college, harrisonburg, va), david a. shank (brussels), orley swartzentruber (paris), and calvin redekop (minneapolis). later contributors who appear in the story of the three colleges in kansas include sol yoder (hesston college). redekop also served at both hesston and at tabor college. virgil vogt, ed. the roots of concern: writings on anabaptist renewal, - (eugene, or: cascade books, ). “concern” was important for what it did and what it refused to do. for example, sociologist paul peachey who introduced each of the early issues in the series, declared that the mennonite church, for all of its attempts at nonconformity, had not only become institutionalized, but was in danger of creating the very thing it had opposed, a culture that was self-reinforcing rather than one of faithfulness: on the one hand we were aware of the more complete discipleship of the early christians coupled with a fervent expectancy of the parousia, and on the other, with our own compromised life and at-home-ness in the world. in a similar vein we sensed the validity of the anabaptist dissent and “exodus” as over against world conformity within church life coterminous with society, freedom, and necessity as expressed in the pneumatic church versus conformity and organization within the institutional church and the renewal and perpetuation of the true christian community as compared to a church which becomes traditional or justifies the process of assimilation. the central questions thus challenged, in orley swatzentruber’s words, not a corpus christianum but a corpus mennonitum, a contained culture that focuses inward for the sake of protection, but then becomes its own referent culture to the exclusion of its ability to be a witness to the world. the discussions were both theoretical and aimed at the practical leveraging of power within the brotherhood. as peachey noted in the letter that accompanied the first concern pamphlet, they were necessary because the leadership had tamped down discussion: “there has been little grass-roots communication, and all too often decisions relative to them are made either by one or two leaders or in haste by uninformed conference bodies.” yet, the group repeatedly stressed that it was not intent on separating from the church or creating its own society. it simply wanted to engage the dicey questions about institutional formation, maintenance of a separated culture, assimilation, and the ability to be faithful under the pressures paul peachey, “introduction,” concern (june ), - . to acculturate. in short, “concern” wanted the church to tackle modernity. its critiques and questions would inform students in the s, whether through direct contact with the publication and its discussions, through the response of the old guard to its arguments, or through the men who became faculty in the mennonite colleges and brought its interrogations and analyses with them. what were called the puidoux conferences were rooted in the immediate postwar conversations initiated in by brethren m.r. ziglar between the historic peace churches (hpc) and the newly formed world council of churches. although the wcc had been interested earlier in pacifism in the immediate postwar years, by the mid- s the hpc and the fellowship of reconciliation had come to the realization that they needed to hold their own discussions about the nature of the state. beginning in and ranging until , they did so, holding intense study sessions and interdisciplinary discussions, all conducted under the umbrella of “the lordship of christ over church and state” and building from their earlier collaboration that resulted in their collective statement on "peace is the will of god." reprising some of the same categories derived from the earliest encounter between the groups held in in kansas and expanding on brethren, quaker, and mennonite work pre- and postwar, the conferences incorporated not only foundational discussions of the last twenty years, but also the newer generation of scholars and churchmen (and, in the case of the quakers, women). these “concerning ‘concern’” [undated letter to potential subscribers enclosed in first issue], in author’s possession. paul toews, “the concern movement: its origins and early history,” conrad grebel review (spring ), - . regarding not forming a separate body, ibid., . an undercurrent running throughout the early “concern” issues that focused on the corruption inherent in the creation of institutions is reminiscent of the work by french sociologist jacques ellul, a connection that needs to be explored further, especially in light of the use of ellul by thomas merton and other antiwar voices in america in the s who attempted to reconcile christian faith with social disruption. extended interactions evidence a serious theological engagement with the state, contrary to the pejorative assessments later levelled particularly against american quakers and the fellowship of reconciliation in their antiwar cold war protests. because non-pacifist groups were included in the discussions, the conferences “developed rather as perhaps the first serious theological conversation since the reformation era between the original protestant traditions in europe and the ‘radical reformation.’” for mennonites, the intergenerational consultations were consistent with their ongoing thinking about nonresistance, peace, and identity, both deriving from the work they had started on the nature of church and state relationships and contributing to its further development which would soon coalesce. but the intergenerational work also had more direct results, particularly through the paper presented by young mc john howard yoder, an mcc worker, participant in “concern,” and student of neo-orthodox theologian karl barth at basel. yoder’s paper, “the theological basis of the christian witness to the state,” coupled with work back in the united states by gc elmer neufeld at the mcc conference on “christian responsibility and the state” in demonstrated that many mennonites were far from their previous self-protective sectarian stance, even if their theology remained restrained, traditional, and largely public only through their actions focused on the relief of suffering. how theology and the life of the brotherhoods manifested in cold war america was now on the table. mennonites soon had their chance to confront their own theology, encounter a new version of relief work in the service of american empire, and face the hot climate of anti-communist rhetoric. the puidoux conferences took place in puidoux, switzerland ( ), iserlohn, germany (july-august ), bie᷅vres, france (august ), and oud poelgeest, the netherlands (july ), with mcc sponsoring mennonite participation and providing financial support to the conferences. see durnbaugh for selected keynote addresses, papers, overviews, declarations and related meetings. durnbaugh, on earth. regarding a developmental timeline church and state in america the lordship of christ & witnessing to the state mennonites now had the pieces for a larger theological paradigm that could attend to the cultural issues that they believed they could not ignore. in addition to the stark reality of warfare, the injustices faced by african americans had drawn hershberger and others into close conversations with those who suffered, a category that called for empathy, if not address --- and which resonated easily with categories mennonites already understood. using the peace thinking that included the work at puidoux, the mc mennonites concluded that god had created a standard of righteousness for both church and state. the state still had its domain and the church was not to attempt to christianize it, but it was also not to ignore injustice. thus, the church was not only charged with being a witness, but with acting as a witness --- thereby calling the state to account for its activities. historian perry bush analyzes the detailed discussions of the mc peace problems committee which wrestled with the new conception of the two kingdoms. integrating the theological work from puidoux which pushed for a lordship over both church and state with that includes subcommittees, study groups, and auxiliary discussions, note john howard yoder’s recapitulation. john howard yoder, “ years of ecumenical theological dialogue efforts on justice and peace issues by the fellowship of reconciliation and the ‘historic peace churches’: a chronology,” in a declaration on peace: in god’s people the world’s renewal has begun, ed. douglas gwyn et al. (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - . paul peachey, “puidoux conferences,” in global anabaptist encyclopedia online http://gameo.org/ index.php?title=puidoux conferences (accessed july , ); yoder’s paper is available in durnbaugh, on, - . for yoder, the separate orders remained intact, but the response to the orders were different. “the moral law included even the state, and so it was obligated to say yes to god. still it would not say yes in the same way the church should say yes. since the lordship of christ extended over both realms, both could be held accountable, but not in the same way.” paul toews, mennonites, - . young participants who brought these new understandings directly to their work in three kansas colleges included two future deans at bethel college, william keeney and albert meyer. the long-held mennonite view of the “lordship of christ” over the church was no easy task. he recounts the tension: some of the participants thought the entire shift too radical, expressing concern that the new paradigm would “baptize’ the social order” and erase the traditional mennonite distinction between the two kingdoms. in fact, a leading dissenter to the breakthrough was the most influential mennonite church leader of his generation, harold s. bender. metzler later recalled him “reluctantly dragging his feet” on the lordship of christ language during the discussions until he was prodded by two old reliable conservative allies. john e. lapp and lancaster bishop amos horst pitched their appeal in the ultimate legitimation for theological reshaping, the standard of biblical authority. “bro. bender, the young men have brought us biblical teaching,” they pled, “and we want to be biblical, don’t we." the mc peace problems committee’s decision to re-work their “a declaration of christian faith and commitment with respect to war, peace, and nonresistance” approved at the annual conference in , resulted in a new statement that cannily built on the old. by explicitly stating that the new statement simply elaborated on a “fuller understanding of the meaning of [the] obligation to witness,“ the newly minted “the christian witness to the state” garnered almost no opposition, even from the lancaster and virginia conservatives. at this time we would give special attention and further expression [to the earlier declaration that stated] “we acknowledge our obligation to witness to the powers- that-be of the righteousness which god requires of all men, even in government, and beyond this to continue in earnest intercession to god on their behalf.” the decade since these words were spoken has been given to search for a fuller although the following chapters will explore the intersections between civil rights advocacy and antiwar protest, mennonites had, particularly with hershberger’s work and that of gcs leland harder and vincent harding, already become involved in african american issues. for example, mcc had established a cps camp that became a thirty-year project in gulfport, mississippi, that involved over voluntary service workers over its tenure. david haury, the quiet demonstration: the mennonite mission in gulfport, mississippi (newton,ks: faith and life press, ). perry bush’s nuanced research untangles the correspondence, meetings, and conversations regarding the mc peace problems subcommittee work, its implications for the political theology of the two kingdoms, and its careful formalization through mc structures of approval, the latter evidencing how widespread the eventual consensus was. bush, two, - . understanding of the meaning of this obligation. what is the basis of the christian witness to the state? what is the character of that witness? and in what manner is it to be given? in addition to its reaffirmation of our historic nonresistant faith, therefore, the present statement seeks to find helpful answers to these questions and to set forth certain positive convictions concerning the christian obligation to witness to the state. while maintaining a two kingdom theology, but building on the lordship of christ discussions, the statement now recognized that challenging government to “find the highest possible values within their own relative frames of reference” was not only acceptable but essential witness. the church could rightfully challenge government regarding injustice --- and war itself. by when the largest inter-mennonite meeting ever held assembled for the mennonite world conference in kitchener, ontario, the phrase --- which no mennonite could reasonably contest --- was the conference title. with , registered participants and thousands of unregistered attendees, at least twenty-five countries were represented under the rubric “the lordship of christ” and its multiple bible studies, formal lectures, inspirational events, and discussion sessions. american mennonite brethren finally appeared as active participants, with tabor college acting president wesley prieb, hillsboro minister marvin hein, j.b. toews (who was on the cusp of assuming a position on the fresno pacific college faculty) and christian leader editor orlando harms joining their co-religionists as presenters on cultural and educational themes. the event was judged a success, even by some of the most conservative amc, i- - .ii ppc, guy f. hershberger file, minutes and reports - , box , folders / , / . also reprinted in peachey, statements, . bush, two, - . elements among american mennonites who nevertheless recognized and approved of anabaptist identity, even as they lamented that “a real unity in doctrine and walk is sadly lacking.” mennonite relief and tiptoes of american empire. vietnam if mennonite relief efforts in europe after the two world wars could be characterized as self-serving, their critics, had they known of a different venture on the other side of the world, were disabused of their cynicism. in august , mennonite central committee (mcc) was the first north american protestant relief organization to enter the country on the heels of the french defeat at dienbienphu and their exit from vietnam in may. during the rest of the decade, mennonites in the united states received a regular stream of news about vietnam, initially focused on relief for the hundreds of refugees pouring from what had been designated as north vietnam, and routinely published in denominational popular magazines and circulars. again, mennonites poured supplies into the country, trusting mcc workers to administer it “in the name of christ,” and responding with different kinds of supplies when initial shipments did not match the daily diet of the vietnamese. as mcc deliberated over how best to meet long-term needs in vietnam, it shifted some of its attention to medical services, collaborating with christian and missionary alliance medical missionaries at the cma leprosarium near ban me thuot in the highlands beginning in . mcc physician willard kraybill accepted appointment there and worked earnestly, but the mbs did not officially approve participation in the mennonite world conference until , and even when they re-affirmed participation in , their endorsement did not reflect an interest in mutual sharing and learning, according to john a. toews. john a. toews, history, - . although they terminated their membership in the national association of evangelicals in because of its political work, mbs nevertheless continued to support nae financially and occasionally proffered delegates to its conventions. they renewed their membership in . paul toews, mennonites, . james a. goering, “reflections on the mennonite world conference,” the sword and trumpet third quarter ( ), . realities of the escalation of the war as the united states increased its presence from to , “advisors” in mid- were soon felt. on may , , mennonite pax man daniel gerber and two others were abducted by twelve viet minh guerrillas who ransacked the compound for medical supplies, clothing, and equipment. in spite of early reassurances in the mennonite press regarding the safety of the three, none were ever released. the incident hinted at the entanglements mcc had encountered. although the missionaries who were not harmed during the raid were told by the guerrillas to leave, not return, and to turn operation of the leprosarium over to the vietnamese, they were able to return only with the proviso of the provincial governor that they have military personnel in the compound. the incident remained a live one for mennonites. what the congregations did not know were the stories behind the relief efforts, including the corruption of vietnamese leaders, the struggles not to be used by the u.s. government in propaganda, and the varied reactions and political commitments of the missionaries from both mennonite and other denominations. but mcc’s executive committee and officers knew --- and how they knew is covered in the following chapter about tabor college. while mennonites in general likely comprehended far more about vietnam and the early stages of the war than the ordinary american, mcc possessed knowledge that informed mennonite statements on church and state. it also positioned mennonites not only to question the state of affairs in vietnam, but to deny the narrative argued by the american government. “no word on kidnaped [sic] workers in vietnam,” the gospel herald, , no. (july , ): . the other two workers were archie mitchell and dr. eleanor a. vietti. international claims, anti-communist rhetoric, the challenge of communism and the challenge of nationalism ( ) although western district gc mennonites had first explicitly mulled over and formulated a statement on communism in the mid- s and mcc had explicitly distanced itself from the essentially and “consciously materialistic” claims of the ideology, the mc mennonites were the first to issue a thorough study which built on earlier mc declamations issued in and . a year before the hershey-brunk forum in kansas, and informed by not only the complex picture evidenced by the puidoux meetings but also the reports coming through mcc about the burgeoning conflict in vietnam, the conference issued its wide-ranging statement, “communism and anti-communism.” meeting in august in johnstown, pennsylvania, at the same annual conference which had approved the new statement on “the christian witness to the state,” and building from both practical experience and theological reflection, the mc mennonite general conference recognized a more complex picture behind the ideology. it therefore advocated for a more extended analysis of the problems of communism while incorporating a sharp critique of systemic issues --- and american nationalism. the result was far from the anti-communist rhetoric that infused much of cold war american christianity. david e. settje, faith and war: how christians debated the cold and vietnam wars. (new york: new york university press, ); andrew preston. sword of the spirit, shield of faith: religion in american war and diplomacy. new york: knopf, ; axel r. schafer, ed. american evangelicals and the s (madison: university of wisconsin press, ); rick l. nutt, toward peacemaking: presbyterians in the south and national security, - (huntsville: university of alabama press, ); warren l. vinz, pulpit politics: faces of american protestant nationalism in the twentieth century (albany, ny: state university of new york press, ). recalling the positions held in the earlier statements of and , the new pronouncement first “reaffirm[ed] our commitment to our biblical and historic nonresistant faith,” and emphasized the previous assertions: . our love and ministry must go out to all, whether friend or foe. . while rejecting any ideology which opposes the gospel or seeks to destroy the christian faith, we cannot take any attitude or commit any act contrary to christian love against those who hold or promote such views, but must seek to overcome their evil and win them through the gospel. . if our country becomes involved in war, we shall endeavor to continue to live a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty and avoid joining in any wartime hysteria of hatred, revenge, and retaliation. yet, now in late summer of , the mc general conference moved beyond its earlier enjoinders to live simply in its identifiable trope as “the peaceful people in the land” to something (close to a strategy) that encompassed a more deliberate reckoning. on the one hand, the statement emphasized the dangers lurking in various materialistic ideologies and the need to understand and intelligently oppose them: that we inform ourselves thoroughly and intelligently on the evils of all atheistic ideologies and practices and all materialistic philosophies of whatever character. yet, on the other hand, using a clear a reference to the gospel of loving the enemy, the conference emphasized that simply residing as people of peace was not enough to be faithful. faithfulness included direct acts of mercy, even toward a “reputed enemy”: that we must be faithful and effective in our witness against those ideologies and philosophies (a) through the truth of the gospel; and (b) through works of mercy which demonstrate the way of love which the gospel proclaims, even the feeding of our reputed enemies [italics mine] …. amc, i- - .ii ppc, guy f. hershberger file, minutes and reports - , box , folders / , / , reprinted in peachy, mennonite statements, - . since mcc’s relief work in vietnam was a well-known project that now had been in place for seven years, the point was clear. refusing to minister to those who might be enemies was not an option and the mc general conference mennonites were not going to choose recipients of aid based on ideology. moreover, the emerging picture might be a more complex one for both the faithful and those to whom they might offer help. continuing its self-described “positive” points of action, the statement urged both a courageous willingness to “proclaim all the implications of the gospel in human life even at the risk, if need be, of being misunderstood and falsely accused” and a gentle, yet pointed, emphasis on a bigger picture regarding more systemic issues: that we urge upon governments such a positive course of action as may help to remove the conditions which contribute to the rise of communism, and which tend to make people vulnerable to communistic influence. moving to what it labeled the negative commitments, the conference then first emphasized the dangers of communism (“we recognize the incompatibility of christianity and atheistic communism and the challenge to the cause of christ which the latter represents”) and in no uncertain terms repudiated its downfall through christian witness and not by violence. yet, there was also no room for either nationalism or for the violent speech or hatred that created a “holy war.” without naming names, the conference thus repudiated not only the kind of anti- communist campaigns such as billy james harges and former major general edwin walker were promoting in operation midnight ride but also even the widely quoted comments by evangelist billy graham. “negatively we understand our commitment to mean,” continued the document, that we cannot equate christianity with any particular economic or political system, or with americanism. accordingly we cannot accept the view that to be anti-communist is therefore necessarily to be christian, or that to exercise christian love toward communist persons is therefore unnecessarily to be pro- communist. that although we teach and warn against atheistic communism we cannot be involved in any anti-communist crusade which takes the form of a “holy war” and employs distortion of facts, unfounded charges against persons and organizations, particularly against fellow christians, promotes blind fear, and creates an atmosphere which can lead to a very dangerous type of totalitarian philosophy. that our word of warning must go out particularly against the current use of the pulpit, radio, and the religious press, in the name of christianity, for this purpose. by calling its people to its historic nonresistance and biblical faith, the conference not only emphasized its nonconformity with a world of hatred, but by underscoring love’s concrete application to distant enemies, it also enlarged the brotherhood’s own “public” square. church missionary endeavors and mcc relief work had already begun stretching its obligational sphere beyond a simple and localized ministry to suffering co-religionists who were mennonites, and moved through work on behalf of victims of war. but this latest statement, interjected into the midst of cold war fear and national distraction called for a consistent rejection of both harm to enemies and the means that were being employed to generate hatred --- and particularly those means that issued from the pulpit, the religious press, and radio. harold bender was among those at the conference, and, in addition to the weight he normally carried among his co-religionists, he also brought conversations which were taking place internationally to the denominational table. drawing from the wide connections made through the puidoux conferences, and increasingly solicited for their positions on peace, quakers, brethren, and mennonites were now part of larger discussions designed to promote east-west dialogue rather than contributing to national tensions. when the mc general conference met and issued its statement, it did so not only out of its own peace convictions, but because it had stepped into a more public forum designed to wrestle with issues that in the past had been beyond mennonite purview. sandwiched between the significant all-christian peace ibid., . assembly held in prague in june and a colloquy between fourteen americans and twenty- six europeans (including a sizeable wedge of twenty participants from iron curtain countries) held in karlsbad in january , the mennonites, through members of the peace problems committee of mcc, had been incorporated into larger church circles. reflecting on the nearly seven hundred delegates and official observers who attended the meetings in prague, bender emphasized to members of his tradition and also to the larger readership of the publication of american mainline christianity, the christian century, that national boundaries were not foremost in mind and urged americans not to embrace nationalism. “there are real christians on both sides who are not dragging their banners in the dust,” he asserted. bender would die eight months later at the age of fifty-six, one day before the hershey-brunk forum at tabor college in hillsboro, kansas. on the cusp of the public war --- tracking and defusing dissent (the hershey-brunk forum) particular notes on mennonites in kansas for all of the work that centers on their being the “peaceful people,” mennonites in kansas carried a burden that few in the early generations fully appreciated. despite their long years of displacement as refugees and their long cultural memory of persecution, abandonment, and, especially for those who would follow after the russian revolution, mennonites in kansas built their early legacy off of what had been stripped out of the hands of others. hustled through keim, harold, - . quakers a.j. muste and douglas steere and harold row of the church of the brethren had also been instrumental in the planning stages, muste as the representative of the fellowship of reconciliation. other american mennonites who participated in the assembly in prague included mc intellectual and theologian john howard yoder, and gc peter dyck (mcc europe representative), who, along with bender were mcc peace section representatives. the hands of speculators, including the railroads, the cheyenne had treated with the u.s. government to move to the confluence of the elcah (little arkansas river) and the ute-cha-og- gra (arkansas river) at the present site of wichita. two years later, the treaty of medicine lodge treaty coupled with the drum creek treaty of managed the removal of the cheyenne and osage --- and the favorable sale of the eight million acres of native lands for twenty cents per acre. six days after the osage departed for indian territory (oklahoma), wichita was incorporated. one year later, in , the first swiss-south german mennonites arrived and settled in mcpherson and marion counties. within two years, the topeka & santa fe railroad brought dutch-russian mennonites emigrating from russia to settle on land managed and sold by the santa fe railroad. harvey, mcpherson, and marion counties were soon populated with a people whose tribal story was one of repeated movement, persecution and exile. according to hesston college historian john sharp, “there is little if any evidence that these mennonites sensed any guilt or complicity for the dispossession of the first americans.” historian john sharp has ably teased out the details of the first mennonite settlers in central kansas who purchased land northwest of wichita in and laid the foundations of what would become hesston, kansas. his analysis, built in part on the work of craig miner, particularly contextualizes the sad irony of the occupation of land recently dispossessed of native peoples and re-occupied by those whose history included loss, displacement, and persecution. this situating of the kansas mennonites is indebted to him for this insightful groundwork. it is particularly poignant to read the words of poet simon j. ortiz and his specific mention of mennonites as “simple enough,” but who became liars and thieves. john e. sharp, a school on the prairie: a centennial history of hesston college, - (telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, ), - . ibid., . particular notes on the hershey-brunk forum the hershey-brunk forum that took place on september , was certainly the strangest inter-mennonite gathering that had ever occurred among the kansas brethren. the introduction to this analysis already describes the numbers of people that appeared, the composition of the crowds, the festive hospitality surrounding hershey’s welcome, and the basic remarks made by the two speakers --- general lewis b. hershey, director of the selective service, and rev. george r. brunk ii, a popular evangelist of the mc mennonite church. what has not been assessed is how atypical the event was in many ways for both the speakers and the audience. hershey had never met with a large group of mennonite laity. as director of selective service, he had met at length with various mennonite, brethren, and quaker delegations, historic peace church group representatives, individual leaders, and those associated with the national service board of religious objectors (nsbro). interviewed at length by grant stoltzfus of eastern mennonite university, he exuded his usual folkish charm, just as he had in meeting after meeting with members of the historic peace churches prior to and during world war ii. the general loved to tell stories and frequently disarmed his listeners by his extensive spinning of yarns sprinkled with jokes. he wore his rank lightly, yet authoritatively, when working with the quakers, mennonites, and brethren, yet he could be deadly sharp. rev. brunk, on the other hand, was a personable, yet serious conservative whose publication, the somewhat incongruously named, the sword and trumpet, could be depended upon to level accusations against the intrusions of modernism and any potential violations of lewis b. hershey, “survival and religious freedom,” september , , transcript, private collection. george r. brunk, “survival and the christian witness,” september , , transcript, private collection. nonconformity. wearer of the plain coat, brunk ii was, however, somewhat of a polymath who flew his own plane cross-country to appear at forums (such as this one) or to expedite the tent revivals that unfurled from semi-trucks in voluminous amounts of canvas. enormously popular among mennonite brethren who loved a good revival, he normally did not address nonresistance, even though he strictly supported it as an essential identifier of a disciple of christ. a mc mennonite with a formidable capacity for hard work, he was also a man who had both a strict interpretation of the two kingdoms, and no tolerance for any governmental attempt to manage the individual conscience. a few months before he and other mennonite leaders met with evangelist billy graham in philadelphia to solicit his counsel on evangelism and to encourage his recognition of nonresistance as a belief at the heart of christianity, mb dwight wiebe talked with general hershey about making a visit to the midwest for a meeting like that that took place at tabor college. as director of the christian service board which counseled and aided placement of mb conscientious objectors in i-w service, wiebe was highly interested in anticipating wartime demands on objectors. moreover, having recently vacated a position at mcc that supervised the vetting of i-w institutions and placements and having access to the carefully protected direct reports being made by mcc workers, wiebe was fully conscious of what many were not --- the escalating war in vietnam. when hershey traveled to topeka to meet with the state selective service officers, wiebe followed up with a phone call to re-issue the invitation. within days, the wiebe explained that brunk was chosen because of his “stature in our conference would enhance his message.” dwight wiebe, letter to j. harold sherk, november , . private collection in possession of the author. in addition to being director of nsbro, sherk was a mennonite brethren in christ minister who hailed from canada. director of nsbro, j. harold sherk, had finalized arrangements, somewhat to wiebe’s surprise. as the evidence suggests, wiebe’s invitation was more than routine, even though he was an eager director highly interested in meaningful placement of his men. but documentation also raises questions about hershey’s reasons for coming. belying the laid back, populist touch he applied to the mass meeting, evidence exists that suggests mennonites and brethren in kansas were under heavy scrutiny by the selective service during the cold war, although there is no evidence to suggest any particularly calculated reason for hershey’s appearance. ibid. to date, no memo has been discovered that indicates a particular targeting of potential hot spots of potential resisters. yet, evidence in the hershey files bolstered by a hershey scholar and an emeritus archivist at the army war college in carlisle, pennsylvania, strongly suggests that kansans, including large populations of mennonites (including amish) and brethren, were under particular scrutiny. both emeritus professor of history james zimmerman of trine university and archivist david keough of the army war college warned me that the hershey files were a “disaster,” described as a truckload of disorganized papers which were, in the opinion of each, one of the worst projects to befall an archivist (or, in zimmerman’s case, a newly appointed history assistant professor charged with processing what occupied an entire room on campus at hershey’s alma mater, trine (then tri-state university)). yet, after working in the files for the better part of a week, i discovered the kansas files, impeccably neat, ordered, and organized to the county level. conscientious objectors and other potentially troublesome individuals were identified by each draft board, and accompanied by detailed descriptions. perhaps major junior elder, kansas selective service director was an unusually organized individual, but the clearly organized files with their repeated reports on conscientious objectors, anabaptist congregations, and members of those congregations begs for explanation, particularly since marion and harvey counties were two of the u.s. counties most heavily populated by mennonites, and mcpherson contained both a heavy concentration of brethren and significant numbers of amish and mennonites, all of whom considered members of the historic peace churches. moreover, within his “trips and visits, april- september box,” the brunk- hershey event merited its own distinctively labeled file, “ / / tabor college, hillsboro, kansas,” the only individually denoted file. lewis b hershey papers (hereafter lbh), trips and visits, april- september , unnumbered box, mhi. james zimmerman, emeritus professor of history, trine university, conversation with author, angola, indiana, july , ; david keough, archivist-historian, u.s. army military history institute, army war college, conversation with author, carlisle, pennsylvania, july , . hershey’s datebook, in spite of his detailed folder on the tabor college event, only specifies that he will be in newton, with a thus, as the representatives of the church and of the state met in what was a widely anticipated event, the thoughts of key individuals remain largely cloaked. for the listeners, who included mennonites from as far away as nebraska, the local community and those who attended, taught or supported the three mennonite colleges, their loyalties were soon tested by not only a long undeclared war, but also by the perception that dissent was a profoundly un- american activity. how they experienced the challenge and why they chose certain strategies and actions depended on a variety of variables, including their adherence to anabaptism, the pressures from their local communities, their embrace of nationalism, and --- in some cases --- their ambivalence. meeting the prior day with the selective service representatives in wichita. his other calendar leaves the day blank. ibid. part i: flying the flag while leading protest chapter -- bethel college and the definition of public patriotism prelude bethel college had always flown the american flag. from the opening of the school in , when it accepted the banner as a gift from newton townspeople, the institution had kept it flying. administrator david goertz, however, had explicitly defined how the college viewed the donation. he made it clear in the letter addressed to the local women who had donated the flag that the college viewed it as “an emblem of liberty and freedom, of national unity and independence rather than as a battle flag.” he further emphasized that for those mennonites who had come from russia, the flag was a distinct symbol of religious freedom. originally placed on top of the administration building, it was eventually moved to a tall flagpole next to its former home. it flew constantly during the vietnam war, except on october , during an anti- war moratorium. but it was firmly in place, perhaps paradoxically, in spite of the campus’s reputation for protest from to and the flag-burning that accompanied anti-war demonstrations throughout the nation. david goerz, document addressed to the ladies of the bethel college bell club. david goerz papers. mennonite library and archives / mennonite church usa archives, north newton, ks (hereafter mla) ms. , folder , box , quoted in “the bethel flag,” gleanings from the threshing floor: newsletter of the mennonite library and archives, october , no. . mla. goerz was one of the founders of bethel college and served as its business manager in its early years. james c. juhnke, email message to author, october , . juhnke is emeritus professor of history at bethel college, north newton, ks. i am indebted to archivist john thiessen and assistant archivist jim lynch of the bethel college mla for the primary documents they suggested and provided throughout this study. as historian keith sprunger emphasizes, bethel college intentionally promoted itself as the college that was at the crossroads of america. early advertising campaigns emphasized this distinction, not only as a means of reflecting that it lay geographically near the center of the united states, but, more significantly, that it occupied a special location “at the center, at the intersection or focal point, at the point of decision.” the first mennonite college established in america, the school embodied the hopes and dreams of its founders, even as its early creation also contained tensions that would continue to hound it nearly one hundred years later. building off of the earliest attempt to found a college, the wadsworth mennonite seminary in ohio ( - ), and then a preparatory school that planted in in halstead, kansas, the infusion of mennonite settlers that arrived in the s soon gave urgency to the creation of a college. although mennonite suspicion of higher education was prevalent, progressives pressed the culturally and economically diverse assortment of immigrants to seize the opportunity to situate themselves fully in the new land. establishing a school was not simply for the sake of education, but to preserve the faith. keith sprunger, bethel college of kansas, - (north newton, ks: bethel college, ), . the preparatory school started in rural kansas near goessel, a community roughly ten miles north of north newton where bethel was founded. after moving to halstead, it functioned as the halstead mennonite seminary (mennonitische fortbildungs-schule) until . ibid., - ; haury, prairie, - . historian david haury explains that, although the large groups that emigrated from russia in the s appear homogenous, there were actually eight different european mennonite ethnic streams that relocated into kansas within that movement. with some stark differences in economic and social status, they nevertheless overcame their differences enough to found the kansas conference of the general conference mennonites, the forerunner to the western district conference. this is a necessary simplification. ibid., - and, particularly, - for an explanation of organizational lineage. there is little indication that these optimistic immigrants had any sense about the dispossession of the native americans who had only recently been forced out of kansas into oklahoma, a point that both sprunger and hesston college historian john sharp discuss. instead, they eagerly seized upon the opportunities that the prairie seemed to afford. as sprunger emphasizes in his treatment of bethel’s founding stories, the school’s optimism paralleled that of nineteenth-century white settlers. the college only started to recognize its pre-history in the s and, even then, re-mapped the mennonite vision of rural wholesomeness and sectarian worthiness onto its own origins myth. he observes, for example, how easily the traces of the chisholm trail could be incorporated without irony into the celebration of the th anniversary of mennonite migration and engraved on a monument funded by faculty and students in . the marker read, beaten hard by the hoofs of millions of texas cattle, the chisholm trail, from to , wound northwest past the knoll on which bethel college was established. newton became the notorious “cow capital” of the west ... santa fe railroad agents and government officials sought farmers to settle in harvey county and build homes, churches and schools … so in the wake of the cowboys and their six-shooters came mennonites with their plows and turkey red wheat. the trail lined with the bleaching bones of longhorns gave way to the railroad and wheatfields destined to become a breadbasket of the world. this identity as useful farmers who contributed to american well-being --- and even that of the world at large --- offered a resilient vision that enabled the school’s founders to persist in spite of numerous difficulties. cajoled into moving the would-be college into newton by a funding proposal that never quite came to fruition, bethel’s founders nevertheless chartered the school in , cobbled together a small, but persistent faculty that taught its first classes in , and then sprunger, bethel, . sprunger incorporates the analyses of historians james sherow and craig miner on the domestication of the prairie grasslands and their ready incorporation into global markets to situate the kansas mennonites. weathered internal disputes and external challenges to establish a first-rate college early in the twentieth century. in the process, they created a system of independent board governance, rather than one dependent on the kansas conference brotherhood, and entered a relationship with the city of newton that would prove alternately to be fulfilling and frustrating. for example, the early promises by city fathers to give $ , ($ , in land and $ , in cash) if the gc mennonites established their college in the town never panned out. after starting a visionary building project with plans drawn up by notable architects from wichita, construction halted, with the limestone “castle on the plains” abjectly standing partly finished for three years. with only about $ , of the originally promised money actually donated and the region suffering the economic depression of the s, the early high hopes of town and college cooperation were put on hold. at the same time, the bethel board that had once included several non-mennonite newtonians embraced the original terms of the charter and relegated any such members to “honorary corporation status,” a process sprunger calls “menno-izing” the board. some of this same distance would later manifest when the small mennonite enclave that had grown up around the college incorporated as north newton, rather than joining with the original settlement. by and the early death of c.h. wedel, bethel’s first president, the school had established itself as a liberal arts college, and one that had a vision for the church’s youth. sprunger recapitulates that harold j. schultz successfully employed wedel’s exhortation as he as sprunger observes, “menno-izing” also resulted in the purging of non-mennonite donor records from the newly-created corporation book. early supporters and their donor numbers simply disappeared from the record. ibid., - . later repaired relationships and restored the college to financial health in the years following the vietnam war: much, very much of the whole future progress of our denomination, holding fast to the doctrines of our fathers, and the healthy growth of our congregations in general, will depend on the instruction on which our young people are nurtured. wedel set a high bar for himself, publishing nine books and articles, all while teaching and serving an unpaid charge as minister of the bethel college mennonite church, the latter also held by his successors. in spite of its exhausting commitments, the college maintained its ties to the church even as it was governed by the independent board. it weathered the same challenges by fundamentalism in the s and s that so impaired tabor college, and was able to attract gifted academics, many of whom served long tenures as professors and also were involved heavily in the life of the church. at mid-century, bethel’s intellectuals were party to the discussions about identity and “the anabaptist vision” advanced by harold bender, even as they also helped design and implement the civilian public service camp system for conscientious objectors. historians e. l. harshbarger and a young robert krieder, along with sociologist j. winfield fretz, participated in inter-mennonite discussions, while bethel graduate henry fast discovered his untapped organizational and improvisational skills by serving as the first executive secretary of civilian public service. co-hosting the fourth mennonite world conference in evidenced bethel’s ability to challenge the potential hegemony of mc goshen college in indiana, but also to readily communicate with it, as they jointly hosted the conference even though they were over , miles apart. how was this possible? the santa fe railroad route that ran from los angeles to referring to harold j. schultz presidential records, “centennial fund drive – talks and quotes, - ,” (iii. .a. . ). mla. sprunger, , n . chicago passed through newton, enabling participants to meet at goshen august - , then readily switch to bethel august - . this link helps explain why kansans, including mennonites, were able to connect readily with both coasts, in spite of the state’s reputation as a rural outback. the long vietnam war considered to be the most academically focused and socially progressive of the three kansas mennonite schools, bethel accepted and promoted the involvement of students, faculty, and even board members in its rise from inactivity to deliberation, and then to peaceful dissent, in the years preceding the vietnam war and continuing through its escalation. although the bethel college weekly newspaper, the collegian, documented a wide range of activities that were typical for a liberal arts college in the early s, the publication regularly despaired about the lack of student involvement in either student government or wider social concerns. nevertheless, behind the reports on homecoming, football, and pranks lurked a longstanding attempt to articulate a peace presence at the institution. bethel students, like those at tabor college and hesston college, had participated in a nationwide peace oration competition beginning in the early s, performed an annual peace play that toured churches since the s, shared a showalter peace grant that underwrote special projects, and, in , joined other mennonite colleges to form the intercollegiate peace fellowship (ipf) sponsored by the peace section of the mennonite central committee, the same inter-mennonite organization that focused on international material relief, peace, and self-help projects. students such as james on the comparison of the three schools’ academic reputation, see juhnke, people, . brian shrag, “politics as applesauce,” the bethel college collegian, march , , . (hereafter the collegian). juhnke and dwight platt, who later returned to bethel as members of the faculty, were active in the s in a club formally organized as the bethel peace club that presented plays at local churches and led activities on campus that promoted peace. students later drew on a tradition of specific encounters with the state. long-term economics professor j. lloyd spaulding had spent time in prison for registering as a conscientious objector during world war ii. raised a methodist, his stance had not been recognized by his local community. the man who later brought his post-doctoral education at the london school of economics to his classroom was sentenced to prison and served time at sandstone, minnesota, then paroled to a civilian public service camp in maryland. in when he returned to bethel as an instructor, he became the faculty advisor for the peace club. students were well aware that the fbi regularly came to his home in north newton to check on him. although james juhnke pursued the more conventional alternative service as a pax man in reconstructive work in post-war europe, his fellow bethelite, dwight platt instead refused to register for the draft, thereby becoming the kind of non-cooperator generally seen among quakers, the fellowship of reconciliation, and secular pacifist groups like the war resisters league. he spent time in jail as a war resister in , then later returned to bethel to teach after he completed his doctoral work in biology. on the peace oration competition, see james c. juhnke, “the political acculturation of the kansas mennonites, - ” (phd diss., indiana university, ), , and on the bethel peace club and its involvement with the intercollegiate peace fellowship, see terence r. goering, “a history of the bethel college peace club,” research paper, bethel college, , , . the showalter foundation in north newton, kansas, annually offered grants to underwrite various peace projects including lecturers and, occasionally, travel. the foundation funding was particularly important to the ipf groups on the individual mennonite campuses in north america. other faculty members on campus wrestled with issues of peace while attempting to create a resilient academic environment. in particular, academic deans albert meyer ( - ), a physicist, and william keeney ( - ), a theologian with a bent for social reform, brought the conversations they had as members of the “concern” group in europe to bear on what was valid mennonite witness to the state and society and what that meant for christian higher education. meyer, a mc mennonite on loan to bethel from goshen college, pushed bethel toward excellence, even as he also cautioned against the idea that a mennonite college was identical with the church. james juhnke, anna kreider (later juhnke), and dwight platt all were involved in the challenges brought by the civil rights movement. juhnke and kreider met in the course of an absorbing intercollegiate peace fellowship (ipf) annual conference held at fisk university in nashville in april in which they not only listened to civil rights leaders james lawson, james bevel, vincent harding, and student sit-in protesters leo lillard and james zwerg, but also encountered racism first-hand when a member of their student delegation, enos sibanda from rhodesia, was refused admittance to lodging at the allen hotel with the rest of his fellow students. sibanda and ipf vice-president and bethel student al habegger checked into a room at fisk, but the incident brought home the reality of racism, personal shame at not refusing to check into the hotel themselves, and then, disappointment in some of the mennonite leaders such as guy hershberger who refused to intervene. for ipf and the bethel students, the conference obituary for j. lloyd spaulding, mennonite weekly review, february , , ; jay l. spaulding, interview by keith sprunger, june , , original tape b- , . , oral history collection, mla. jay l. spaulding is the son of j. lloyd spaulding. albert meyer and walter klaassen, “church and mennonite college: some comments on the relationships between two communities,” concern (september ), - . was exhilarating, but full of self-reproach. bethel student kay peters reflected on the incident in nashville and extrapolated it in a short column in the next ipf newsletter: individuals have criticized the group for moral compromise when faced with an opportunity to practice what we say we believe. since the conference was on race relations, it is emphasized, we should have acted positively with respect to the aims of the organization. did we only go to nashville to observe? the allen hotel incident brings the problem home to me as a person and to our campus and town. we lack a sensitivity to the extent and means of discrimination in newton and were naïve about the situation in nashville. we must learn for ourselves by what means and when we should promote demonstrations of protest. our individual attitudes must be re-examined continually. while still in nashville, ipf delegates wrote a letter protesting sibanda’s exclusion to the allen hotel and presented it personally to the hotel manager, who was apparently relieved that the protest did not escalate. they also sent copies to the nashville chamber of commerce and the nashville community relations conference. upon returning to campus they were faced with the angry objections by a handful of other students including lawrence hart, peace chief of the cheyenne nation, and john opiyo from uganda. although the same peace notes issue reporting the conference also contained a letter written by a student at fisk that noted the hotel had changed its approach to a group of africans at a subsequent conference, juhnke could find no change in the segregationist policy when he inquired at the hotel in the fall of when he was once again in nashville. the incident and the mennonite response continued to haunt him. kay peters, “reflections,” peace notes,” , no. (may ), . intercollegiate peace fellowship records, - . x/ - . box : minutes, newsletters, and correspondence, - . mennonite church usa archives, goshen, in (hereafter peace notes file, mcusa). the peace notes are scattered across several archives with the most complete set at mla (hereafter, peace notes, and the archive where located). regarding the overall ipf conference in , the allen hotel incident, and reactions by his fellow students when he returned to bethel see james c. juhnke, small steps toward a missing peace: a memoir (lexington, ky: flying camel publications, ), - . for a copy on the other hand, two years later, platt walked with his family in the august , civil rights “march on washington,” in spite of fears by some that the protest would be disorderly and violent. both the biology professor and his wife, lavonne, brought this experience to later bethel protests when he walked in the first public bethel antiwar march in and then joined students in the moratorium events of , which are detailed later in this chapter. as the number of military advisors increased in vietnam in , the collegian announced “peace cast tours oklahoma churches,” reported a joint peace conference held with hesston college, and published political satires and editorials appealing for involvement in the young democrat or young republican political clubs. thus, as the vietnam war escalated, the long tradition of peace activities at bethel included students and a few faculty. these activities were regularly reported in denominational publications such as the weekly the mennonite, which also described events organized by other mennonite denominations or fellowships. although bethel’s first self-described “protest” event of the mid- s was the february all-campus walkout and march to main street to celebrate an upset victory by the basketball team over powerhouse bethany college, the peace club soon became more activist. as the of the letter to the allen hotel and an excerpt from the letter regarding the seeming change in policy note “some results obtained,” in peace notes, , no. (may ), . “platt joins washington march for civil rights,” the collegian, september , , . in ibid., see “peace cast tours oklahoma churches,” february , , ; brian shrag, unsuspecting charlie,” may , , ; and “join a political club,” may , , , . among shrag’s lines were: “god bless america, land that i love, sit beside her and guide her while i go play golf,” and “america, america, god shed his grace on thee, and crown thy good with a larger gross national product.” television news and print media reported on the civil rights and student power movements, bethel students took notice. in spring , after thirteen students and faculty attended the intercollegiate peace fellowship ipf annual conference held in washington, d.c., twenty-one bethel students and four faculty sponsors (including platt) participated in the civil rights march in montgomery, alabama. less than two weeks later, ten students, mathematics professor arnold wedel, and walter paetkau, director of short term voluntary service for the general conference mennonite church, joined sixty students from five other kansas schools to protest on behalf of fair housing legislation at the state capitol building. as the - school year opened, the peace club sponsored a protest fast to increase awareness about the war and to raise money to send to mennonite central committee for projects in vietnam. forty students skipped dinner every wednesday during the fall term. the fast raised a variety of questions in the collegian. some letters to the editor questioned its efficacy, while others argued that efforts on behalf of peace and justice should address ills in the united states. in november , english instructor janet juhnke took four students to washington, d.c. to join , anti-war activists picketing the white house. after the protest, the group attended the national coordination committee to end the war in vietnam conference held on november - , thus continuing to connect bethel students and faculty directly to “negro leader to be speaker at campus race conference,” ibid., april , , . also in ibid., “ipf,” april , , ; “school boy dream comes true with walkout day,” february , , ; “peace conference delegates discuss christian in politics,” april , , and “students march in topeka,” april , , . significant national activities, individuals, and groups opposed to the war. when the ipf held its annual conference a few months later, it did so at bethel, attracting more than participants. after president johnson’s administration began to revise selective service regulations in late and early to increase the number of draftees, articles in the collegian warned that “less promising students could be drafted,” and advised how “to avoid the draft” by following the correct registration procedures for eighteen-year-olds. the war was more than dinnertime conversation. there were now more than , troops in vietnam. by the end of the year, , american men would be in or near combat. entering the public square with a resounding tiptoe bethel’s first formal protest in newton evidenced a deliberate attempt to confront the war clearly and without violence. several had already been involved in civil rights work, antiwar protest or both. allen teichroew, kathy gaeddert teichroew, and tom friesen had all been involved in civil rights work, with kathy’s family serving as long-term staff at the mcc interracial ministry in gulfport, mississippi, and friesen one of the marchers at selma. cheryl ratzlaff had protested against president johnson when he made a trip to indiana. several were vs or voluntary service workers, bringing their experience in inner city missions work and nonviolent protest to their concern for justice. moreover, the images of the destructive effects of napalm were broadcast in , shocking the same students whose talents were being recruited in ibid., “peace club members will raise money by fasting,” september , , ; “fast is questioned,” october , , ; and “students picket white house,” december , , . in regard to the selective service revisions, see flynn, the draft, - . articles in the collegian included “’less promising students’ could be drafted,” march , , ; “to avoid the draft,” ; and “draft deadline saturday,” . for statistics on the continued escalation of the war, see karnow, vietnam, . in the sciences. beginning in october at two of the academic powerhouses for science at the university of california in berkeley and wayne state university in michigan, more than a hundred other protests aimed at dow chemical and chemical warfare in general took place over the next year, incidents that allen teichroew attributed to part of the heightened interest in protest at bethel. when school started in september , forty students attended the first peace club meeting. after dean esko loewen offered them the opportunity to present a chapel on november , a day treated as armistice day rather than veterans day at bethel, they instead immediately decided upon and began planning a peace rally. concerned that a march might inflame relations between the college and the town, stanley bohn, board member and secretary of the general conference mennonite church committee on peace and social concerns, met with the club. consequently, the students decided to issue an advance statement and to reframe their action as a “repentance walk and mail” during which participants would walk south two miles along main street into the adjoining town of newton and mail letters of concern or protest to congress. sending the resolution to local churches and organizations, the club soon confronted objections from other students and community members and received anonymous threats in the mail promising violence. allen teichroew recalled that the two greatest factors in galvanizing bethel students to “want to do something” were the antiwar march in november of and the protests against dow chemical nationally, but he also stressed in an early interview with historian keith sprunger, that those who had been involved in civil rights work and community organizing were among those already focused. allen teichroew and kathy gaeddert teichroew, interview by keith sprunger, august , , original tape b- a&b, . , oral history collection, mla (hereafter, teichroews to distinguish from his individual interview). for the timeline of the events, see “chronology of events pertaining to bethel college peace club rally, november , .” peace club files, mla. for a description of spurred into action by the proposed march to mail letters at the post office, the veterans of foreign wars and the american legion decided to parade from the opposite end of town, timing their march to place them at the main newton post office at the same time as the bethel protesters. after a plea from bethel president vernon neufeld, the club decided to limit the destination to the north newton post office a few blocks away from campus. wearing suits or dresses, the ninety students, faculty, and single board member walked there somberly on november , then returned to the school without incident to hear antiwar methodist minister john swomley of kansas city. the quiet protest received national attention from kansan calvin trillin in the new yorker and generated even more excitement locally as newton held its first veterans day parade in over ten years in reaction to the proposed march. two hundred veterans, meanwhile, paraded down main street later in the afternoon to the accompanying blare of air raid sirens, according to the collegian, as planes buzzed the bethel college campus. in spite of the local threats, peace club members soon found their actions obliquely supported by the mennonite weekly review in an editorial issued less than two weeks later. having opposed the repentance walk and mail from the beginning, the widely-circulated newspaper now nudged mennonite toes toward the public square, not only accepting the walk, the decision-making about the walk, the resulting threats, and speaker john swomley’s address on campus, see the mennonite, december , , - . calvin trillin, “the war in kansas,” the new yorker, april , , reflected on the bethel protest in a national publication. in regard to the decisions and actions of the day, see “memorandum” to peace club from president neufeld, november , . peace club files, mla, as quoted in goering, history, , ted koontz, bethel college alumnus, email message to author, november , , and “peace march held; mail protest letters,” the collegian, november , , , . but also raising the question about the possibility of similar actions in other towns where mennonite schools were located. if marches are appropriate in hillsboro, bluffton, harrisonburg, and goshen – and indeed in our respective congregations…. if the inter-mennonite weekly organ offered its tentative support, letters-to-the-editor in the mennonite over the next month directly reinforced the club’s actions just as bethel students would chiefly find again in after they engaged in other protests. editor maynard shelly issued a wake-up call to mennonites when he wrote, so the question does not turn on the decision of bethel college, but on the willingness of the mennonite church to support its members in radical discipleship. in its action on the peace walk, the bethel college administration has passed judgment on the mennonite church … when the chips are down the mennonite church will not put its money and its middle-class reputation where its preaching is. we would like to prove this judgment wrong. but we can’t find the evidence, particularly in this situation. he thus castigated the apparent hypocrisy between the church’s insistence that it held a nonresistant stance about war and peace, and its reluctance to publicly make those claims and risk offending the majority culture. were those holding negative views willing to talk about it, but not put their views in print? few negative letters made their way into print, but the scrupulous maynard shelly printed an exact facsimile of one response: editor these locations thus included colleges of the three largest mennonite denominations: mb tabor college (hillsboro, kansas), gc bluffton college (bluffton, ohio), mc eastern mennonite college (harrisonburg, virginia), and mc goshen college (goshen, indiana). editorial, mennonite weekly review, november , , . as noted previously, the mennonite was a gc popular publication. letters to the editor, january , , ; maynard shelly, editorial, the mennonite, december , , . the mennonite newton, kansas this is too much! nine of sixteen pages devoted to one event! over half of one entire issue! a publishing cost of almost $ ! this is too much! one is tempted to conclude that the editor either has run out of news and articles, has an obsession about peace marches, or is trying to convince himself of his own views. "methinks thou protesteth too much." v. h. neufeld member of a general conference mennonite church many supportive letters articulated various aspects of the meaning of mennonite (or anabaptist) witness, while others pointedly reminded readers that the bethel students were simply acting on the basis of what they were being taught in church. lydia ewert of hillsboro, kansas, where mb tabor college was located, posted her lament, not for what the students had done, but what the church failed to do. the woman who was known at her local gc congregation as “our conscience” used self-recrimination as a mirror for her readers: in my sixty-four years i have talked, corresponded, and argued considerably against war and for racial justice. but that's the extent of it. here comes a group of young men and women choosing to put into action what has been poured forth from our mennonite pulpits and institutional pep meetings all these years. and we are caught-frightened, paralyzed, or enraged. as i analyze my heart it tells me i am a coward. contemplating this detailed and, in my opinion, fair account of what happened as this plan progressed, i get no comfort for myself in detecting errors in either the motivation, the planning, or the execution of the repentance walk. there were none, in my judgment. the regrettable thing is that what could have been a dynamic expression in real discipleship, drawing with it the understanding and support of the larger mennonite church body, turned instead into cutting itself off and isolating those who gave themselves for that purpose. as you say in your editorial, "our young people have responded to what we have been preaching for generations." how does their demonstration make us look? i earnestly pray that the agony and hurt engendered by this experience will pry deeply into our consciences and come forth in repentance and renewal in the mennonite church, called peace church. bethel college has not suffered v. h. neufeld, letter to the editor, the mennonite, dec , , . dishonor. our college's honor has been enhanced by the quality of this group of students. mrs. j. p. ewert, hillsboro, kan. . of all of the letters to the editor received and published in the mennonite regarding the repentance walk and mail, only four were written by local mennonites, two of which were from marion county. only a single letter --- which supported the changed route --- was printed from harvey county, where newton and north newton were located. within weeks, the peace club joined an approved public spectacle by walking in the large bethel college homecoming parade that marched down the length of newton’s main street. as allen teichroew recalled, between four to six members carried a large banner that said “war is not a football game.” no one called them out for their actions. although the peace club argued within itself over its motivations for what they were doing, most of the students characterized their actions as derived from their religious beliefs. the issue came to a head following one student’s proposal that their protest be framed in explicitly religious language, that is as a “repentance” walk rather than an antiwar protest even though the repentance being called for was explicitly political. the religious language reflected what they wanted to accomplish and dovetailed with the caution that some had. kathy gaeddert teichroew, whose family had suffered at the hands of the church when they returned to their home turf lydia ewert, letter to the editor, in ibid.; carolyn penner, interview with the author, june , ; ron brandt, email message to author, october , . helen coon, letter to the editor, the mennonite, december , , ; in ibid., elmer schmidt, letter to the editor, january , , - ; gerhard friesen, letter to the editor, december , , . friesen was an elderly mennonite from the community who had participated in the walk, his letter the only local letter printed with his street address in newton. allen teichroew, telephone conversation with author, october , . firmly committed to bettering race relations in general and advocating the welcome and incorporation of blacks in the mennonite church, observed this acutely. when allen and kathy teichroew had started school as freshmen, she was shocked at the depth of experience most students had and their fear of rejection if they were involved in social protest and reform: the questions the students were asking here were things i had asked long ago, [such as] can you become socially committed because you lose contact with a certain amount of people [can you] become radicalized when some may be alienated from you because of your opinion. i was so tired of those kind of questions. she saw no real dichotomy between her religious beliefs as a mennonite and advocating for social change, no bifurcation between the church and politics. i think, i don’t know if i would separate political and religious beliefs necessarily. as a student in high school i had been in mississippi and my, and maybe most of my beliefs so much came from experiences we had had there and were basically the experiences of meeting people when we had come back from mississippi [and met with rejection by the church] that was a very traumatic affair and i think the feelings then i, or the beliefs i had religiously were more of things that i had gathered from feeling and sensing what was happening among the people or observing what the war or what the civil rights movement had done to people or wasn’t doing for people was the basis for how i became involved. when mennonite keynote speaker gordon kaufman, professor of theology at harvard divinity school, addressed the bethel community during the inauguration of new president orville voth in february , he put his reputation solidly behind the need for dissent and encouraged his listeners to engage in it. invited by his long-term friend and former classmate to address the community, kaufman’s words were taken to heart, although their enactment proved teichroews, interview, original tape b- b, mla. ibid. allen teichroew also saw that the struggles mennonites had when they attempted to dismiss the need for social justice as a “political” issue in which they should not be involved, rather than an outgrowth of their christian faith. allen teichroew, interview with author, october , . to be a great challenge for his friend, the biochemist now become new president. over the next two years, the basic struggles mennonites had between their desire for personal piety, their heritage and communal memory as “the quiet in the land,” and their increasing concern about vietnam were reflected in activities at bethel. challenges to the no dancing, drinking, and smoking policies and mandatory chapel attendance were interspersed with a variety of peace activities production of the anti-war play, “the trojan women,” attendance at the annual intercollegiate peace fellowship meeting, and a “supper of sharing” meal of rice and tea in conjunction with the national mobilization against the war in vietnam’s call for action. faculty continued to participate in the various peace activities. throughout it all, the american flag continued to fly, raised every morning and lowered every evening. because bethel had defined the banner as a symbol of religious freedom and the discussion about dissent had been explicitly tied to peace church theology, the college was content to see it fly. as the tri-college symposium between bethel, hesston, and tabor opened at hesston in october , featuring former peace corps deputy director bill moyers as speaker, the general conference mennonite church sought to create a dialogue about vietnam. while moyers pointedly challenged the audience to realize that “there is no such thing as an innocent bystander,” during the same month the general conference peace and social concern committee sponsored a debate in mcpherson, kansas, between william boyer, political science chair at kansas state university, and his counterpart at the university of kansas, clifford p. ketzel. the mennonite editor, maynard shelly, joined five bethel faculty in a “teach-in” on the clayton koppes, “kaufman exposes mennonite crisis,” the collegian, february , , . in ibid., “anti-war play included in folk festival program,” april , , ; barbara koppes, “peace club members observe u.n. at work,” march , , ; and “peace club holds sharing meal,” april , , . vietnam war in november. organizing an interdisciplinary forum, the art, history, religion and philosophy, and anthropology faculty combined efforts with president orville voth to present a series of five campus lectures, forums, and chapel services on the war. history professor keith sprunger spoke on “learning from history: vietnam is not munich,” a lecture transmitted by telephone to a tabor college classroom, where students sat and listened. editor shelly challenged the audience to think about the credibility of both the press and the government and not to accept uncritically what either said. but positioned bethel’s students, faculty, and administration for crisis. students’ high idealism, redounding support for the political process, and determined opposition to what they saw as in loco parentis met with shattering defeats both on and off campus. after president johnson declared his intention to not seek re-election, antiwar students and faculty were jubilant. the election year found bethel students organizing to support anti-war candidate senator eugene mccarthy. in the national student mock election, “choice ‘ ,” they voted for mccarthy, who garnered votes, followed by senator robert kennedy ( ) and former vice-president richard nixon ( ), with the remaining votes divided among nine other candidates. thirty- five percent voted for immediate withdrawal from vietnam, fifty-six backed a phased retreat, and only five percent supported an “all out effort.” bethel students were far more likely to support the peace candidate mccarthy ( . to . percent) and far less likely to support saturation bombing ( to percent) than students nationwide who participated in the poll. in ibid., “bethel teach-in will present six facets of vietnam war,” october , , ; terry unruh, “’american week’ exposes pseudo-patriotism, shortage,” november , , ; jan carpenter, “political scientists spark mcpherson vietnam meet,” october , , ; and “bethel professors, shelly relate to vietnam war,” december , , . on the reaction to johnson’s declaration, anna kreider juhnke, interview by paul brown, march , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla (hereafter not only did the student body deliberate on political candidates and take mock polls, some joined in political campaigns, an act that for mennonites had been debated a mere twelve years earlier when bethel sponsored a “conference on education and political responsibility” and participants had mulled over the question “should mennonites participate in politics?” many bethel students were involved in the mccarthy campaign, with a few attending the democratic national convention in chicago in where some experienced police violence firsthand. after mccarthy’s defeat for the nomination, student historian goering characterized the peace club as briefly disenchanted. to a point that is true, but lingering issues over student discipline, the brutal chicago democratic convention in which some students were clubbed by police, and the general disillusion with the war were manifested on campus. in spite of the issues this study will consider shortly, they still sponsored their annual reconciliation week fast to raise money for mennonite central committee. some met for discussion in the newly organized coffeehouse, “the other side,” where anti-war students from tabor also came for companionship and intense discussions. in march, the three kansas schools again sent students to the national intercollegiate peace fellowship meeting in washington, d.c. forty-two students from bethel, eighteen from hesston, and thirteen from tabor filled two buses chartered and paid for by the colleges. when they returned from the series, “the peacemaker in revolution,” they discovered that historian juhnke had received a grant from the national endowment for the humanities to kreider juhnke, to distinguish between her interview and james juhnke’s interview); “mccarthy edges kennedy in bethel choice ’ vote,” ibid., may , , ; see university of cincinnati record, may , , on the national choice ’ results. study conscientious objectors during world war i, a project that was to include both students and faculty in conducting oral history interviews. but as the school year closed, bethel students continued to be roiled by the griefs of --- both off campus and on. those that had been involved in the democratic national convention in chicago extrapolated their anger and disillusionment with the hypocritical “adults” who had let them down in the windy city, either through the jaded political process or, more pointedly, through the calculated police violence exacted against peaceful campaign workers and demonstrators. in an interview conducted nearly four years later, several made the bitter point that what happened in chicago affected how they looked at campus issues regarding trust --- and, particularly, authority. the disappointing political process in chicago that had also illustrated the ease with which a garrison state could be enforced seemed to have stark parallels on campus. history major and mccarthy supporter fred zerger explained the extrapolation: well i came back from chicago as a sophomore and i saw bethel college as a microcosm of the society that i had seen in chicago. it was easy to see voth and goering and people in certain kinds of roles, johnson, department of defense, everything, just all, your mind was so screwed on in chicago, that you came back with categories, and you were unable to see people as individuals, rather you saw them all as parts of a conspiracy. it made, the whole experience of chicago made, the whole mood it created in the country, it made a rough year at bethel. kids just didn’t trust anyone older, refused to believe that there was any good in anyone, in anyone in any authority position. juhnke, people, ; see goering, history, - on what he characterizes as the peace club’s brief disillusionment. although the peace club re-grouped and continued to support peace activities, some of its members recognized their discouragement throughout spring term. fred zerger, mark stucky, terry unruh, and don schrag, interview by greg stucky, may , , original tape b- b, . , oral history collection, mla (hereafter, fred zerger, et al., interview, b- b, mla). fred zerger, speaking in fred zerger, et al., interview. mla. punishments that the students explicitly rejected (yet also, on occasion, recognized had some grounding in fact) were magnified by seeming betrayals, such as the administration’s decision to change the academic calendar to a new - - system over student objections. in spite of the administration’s belief that it was including students in some decision-making, many chafed under punishments that ranged from the inane to the serious. the undergraduates acknowledged that their own leadership had contributed to the problem, yet still smarted under president voth’s direction, in spite of the fact that he had implemented policies that allowed dancing on campus ( ) and a designated smoking room in each dormitory ( ), policies for which he took grief from the constituency and which were rare in christian colleges. as historian keith sprunger recognizes, many students sympathized with those being called on the carpet simply because the punishments appeared to have been exacted without due process. as the collegian jumped into the fray after the suspension of four offenders disciplined for smoking, drinking, “mixed partying,” and other offenses, forty-three students, including a national merit scholar, two thresher scholars, two outstanding student awardees, and numerous members of the dean’s list, declared their intense dissatisfaction with the college and their intentions to leave bethel, decisions changed only “if and when the present ‘attitude’ and direction of bethel becomes more sensitive to student concerns.” we the undersigned are taking action now which will enable us to attend a college other than bethel in the near future. our action grows out of a concern greater than that generated by the recent expulsion and/or calendar change. although two of the four wrongdoers would later petition for readmission and return to finish their degrees, the collegian columnist emphasized that the consequences of student life “student action,” the collegian, november , , . disciplinary action in the conservative institution resulted in one offending student’s loss of his student deferment: “marty model had an immediate problem of the draft and viet nam.” even the formerly beloved dwight platt was castigated as “the very conservative dr. platt” who had judged the students worthy of suspension, thereby sending the hapless model into the waiting arms of selective service. platt said he had “a change of heart” and supported the students appeal, but the damage was done as far as some angry students were concerned. in addition to the issues of student discipline, cultural issues called out for attention. moreover, others who felt marginalized called the campus’ attention to their invisibility during important campus rituals. black students, for example, pointedly called the campus’ attention to the fact that no “afros” had appeared onstage as actors during the much-anticipated annual “faculty follies.” the three freshmen and one junior lamented the insensitivity. we enjoyed the faculty follies, but as usual, we were ignored. it would have been apropos to have includes at least one “afro.” however, this only exemplifies the ways white america shows the black man that unless he conforms to its standards, he will be left out --- invisible. art professor bob regier framed his concerns in the may , “wheat or chaff?” forum which posed a question, then printed responses. “do you feel students across the country should assume a more militant posture (as reflected at san francisco state and cornell), in order to achieve their desired goals?” the young associate professor tendered a nuanced response that questioned the nature of “militancy” and encompassed violent student unrest, government neil goldman, “four dissenters suspended: ‘law and order triumphant,’” in ibid. b.j. cruel, norma jackson, karethy bowens, and frances carter, “letter to the editor,” the collegian, may , , . the black experience at bethel needs exploration and analysis, particularly as african-american student enrollment continued to climb during the decade when bethel enrollment began to decline. by the late s, african-americans comprised nearly percent of students. sprunger, bethel, . hypocrisy, the war in vietnam, and the delicate moral ground occupied by anyone who embraced apathy in the face of these forms of violence. i’m troubled by a definition. citing the examples of san francisco state and cornell suggest that physical violence and destructive acts lie within the term “militancy.” if this is the case, then i would have to say that militancy is something i couldn’t personally condone or encourage. however, such a response seems too easy. i would prefer to say that i hope a more militant posture will become less necessary as institutions become more responsive to making the changes that will reduce the cause of discontent. if schools fail to respond, they may have no moral ground on which to base condemnation of militancy…. if schools end up without moral ground from which to condemn student violence they will only be ending up where the government already seems to be. strong statements by high government officials condemning campus violence and promising reprisals don’t ring true with draft-conscious students who receive daily reports of condoned violence in vietnam. this sober thought causes me to search for my own moral ground from which to speak. my apathy on various issues may implicitly condone violence. this question is becoming more difficult to answer with every word i write. his careful transparency thus took the question seriously and peeled away the dimensions of the issues, even as it obliquely modeled what it meant to be a moral agent. participant in the repentance walk and remembrance of , within five months the respected professor would again support the peace club in its major venture into the public square during the fall semester. the last day of the spring term included a sobering project organized by professor james juhnke that re-focused students on part of the human cost of the war-- a reading of the names of americans killed in the war. bethel faculty continued to create programs that systematically included student engagement with peace issues in general and the war in particular, but they also did so juxtaposed against a student body that was increasingly anxious. as robert regier had done, many faculty recognized the complex matrix of dissonance that the war and the means by which it could be thwarted posed for students. they themselves faced the same discord in living robert regier, [response], the collegian, may , , . faithfully and in preparing students to live in an american society that was uneasy about peacemakers, whether or not they entered the public square through the political process or direct actions. the denomination approaches vietnam as the college continued its discussions and activities focused on peace, while struggling to handle the sharp disillusionment of many of its students with national politics and local college governance during the - school year, the denomination also had been busy. in a more sharply worded assessment of the situation in vietnam than that issued in , the general conference council of boards recommended sending medical aid not only to south vietnam as mennonites had been doing through mennonite central committee, but also to victims in north vietnam, and called for tax resistance in the form of not paying the federal excise tax designated as a war tax. its resolution argued for a systemic approach to the war, building off of the statement endorsed in , but explicitly endorsing medical aid to north vietnam: the continuing war which is undergoing a step-by-step escalation in vietnam prompts us to speak again. as a church which has engaged in some works of mercy, we feel prompted not just to devote our energies to repairing the destruction and giving aid to the victims of war. we must also seek to speak to the cause of destruction and war. we cannot be at peace with ourselves unless we have tried to witness as clearly as we can. the gospel as god’s coming to the world and its people he loves, reconciling man to himself and man to his brother, prompts us to proclaim this good news and accept the responsibilities of peacemakers. peacemaking is a most necessary task. despite its awesomeness and in response to the biblical call, we appeal to the church to renew its efforts to carry out this commission … [in regard to sending medical aid to north vietnam], we are aware of the political implications of this kind of action and the accusations of propaganda maneuvering that might be leveled at us. nevertheless, in regard to the reading of the names of americans who had died in the war, see goering. goering, history, - ; the collegian, march , , , and may , , on the national endowment for the humanities (neh) grant. the demands and ethics of love are clear and we are called to be true witnesses to jesus christ. the gc mennonites not only endorsed peacemaking actions in the war-torn country, but implemented creative programs that trained their young men in conscientious objection. in , the general conference mennonite church began conducting peacemaker workshops and boot camps for high school males in the newton-hesston area and in oklahoma. the boot camps opened with a pledge of allegiance to the flag and a pledge of allegiance to conscientious objection, an unusual blending of patriotism with what would be for many mennonites the questionable practice of taking an oath. by fall , the western district conference (of the general conference mennonite church) not only had made a decision to reaffirm the traditional stance on conscientious objection, or objection to military service in all wars, but also to consider selective objection (objection to a particular war). more than articles and letters-to-the-editor on the war appeared in the mennonite between and , with most calling for all mennonites to reaffirm their peace stance. many explicitly supported the students who were raising questions at bethel college and goshen college, the mc mennonite four-year liberal arts school in indiana, although others did not. even if the endorsement was not unanimous, students nevertheless found other mennonites agreeing with their actions--- and agreeing in a larger forum. general conference council of boards, “statement on vietnam,” december , , mla; “an urgent message to our churches from the council of boards,” the mennonite, december , , - . “peacemaker workshop,” ibid., february , , a- ; “resolution on conscientious objection,” ibid., january , , a- . bethel college and the public square: and mixed commitments in the public square by early the national antiwar movement was reeling, in part because of its own sometimes increasingly confused dynamics, and in part through the resolute opposition of the new president determined to reinforce a law and order platform. the ideological interests of the new left, which had, in large part earlier accepted and embraced the tactics of nonviolent pacifism, were stretched thin and under growing pressures to accept and endorse violence. the drive to reform society and its systemic injustices via civil rights for african americans had occupied many activists and spawned additional projects, such as feminism, while the vietnam war challenged the nation’s ability to fund both guns and butter. the counterculture that focused on nonconformity, authenticity, and consciousness at best, and seemingly unending confusion in its drugs, music, and lack of convention, had grown separately, but as the war continued, the rough lines between the two now blurred, in the public mind and partly in fact. the war’s disproportionate consumption of mexican-american lives spawned the chicano movement, and the war’s demand for more men amplified student rights struggles. prominent leaders were exhausted, dead, or jailed, and those that continued to persist were harassed in different ways. of the two “old men of the movement,” who had held radical pacifism to its nonviolent religious roots, quaker a.j. muste had died in and david dellinger was in jail as a casualty of the protests in chicago at the democratic convention. the high hopes for a political solution were shattered in first by the assassination of robert kennedy and then the failed candidacy of eugene mccarthy. hubert humphrey’s late alignment with the demands for peace were seen as both opportunistic and too little, too late. as debenedetti recounts, the antiwar movements in early scrambled to re-group, largely re-fueled by the old peace groups, many of which with religious roots and commitments to nonviolence, a story that is lost in american memory. as the old mobe ceased to function over the disputes about actions in the streets, the pacifist groups fostered the first coordinated antiwar protest of the nixon presidency with a “resistance and renewal” project on easter weekend that involved approximately , people in forty cities and specifically avoided venues with strong concentrations of the potentially divisive elements of the new left. the result was a balancing act between the moratorium and the new mobilization (“the new mobe”) which not only sought a different strategy to protest that sacrificed the inclusion that had opened the door to disorderly elements, but also created a kind of dissent that did not require the energy of large-scale organizing like the large protests that had taken place previously in cities like new york, boston, and washington, dc, and which had been both effective and also dangerously open to disruptive individuals and groups. the new approach called for a “moratorium” or “pause” every month to reflect upon the war, actions that were primarily local and distributed to evidence widespread dissatisfaction (and avoid the problems with mass not only were antiwar leaders harassed. for example, members of the american friends service committee were arrested and taken to court for their determination to read the names of the dead on the steps of the capitol. debenedetti-chatfield, . for a recap of the situation, see n earlier in this study. according to interviews conducted by reporter douglas e. kneeland in the “heart of america” at smith center, kansas, the town had little enthusiasm for politics, because of a sense of helplessness in part exacerbated by the assassination of robert kennedy. smith center is only miles from the geographical center of the continental u.s. douglas e. kneeland, “center of u.s. seems far from presidential campaign,” new york times, august , , . protests), and an intention to extend the moratorium by an additional day each month the war continued without a specific timetable for american withdrawal. the approach created a broad tent of potential public protest. by focusing its objective on achieving a specific timetable for withdrawal, it not only offered radical pacifists an opportunity to focus on the war’s injustices, but also incorporated those who were increasingly disenchanted with the war, including those antiwar liberals who had initially looked to nixon for a political solution. many of the elements that were now in play on college campuses and within the antiwar movement ---particularly within the groups that were attempting to maintain nonviolence--- came into play at bethel college and in its immediate community. the religious commitments to anabaptism, the strain of entering an explicit public square of protest, and local pressures to embrace nationalism combined with mennonite acculturation and ambivalence about the war all manifested themselves after the college endorsed observing the moratorium called by the national antiwar movement. treating the events leading up to the intense four days in mid- october in an extended discussion illustrates the complex negotiations entered into by students and their supporters, and evidences the particular strains protest placed on members of the historian largely attributes the most persistent and significant antiwar activity of early to clergy and laity concerned (calc) and notes that many of the long-lived peace groups such as the fellowship of reconciliation, wilpf, sclc, and afsc, cooperated with the newly formed national action group (nag) in a quest for “sustained principled nonviolent action” as the radical left collapsed. he also emphasizes that the term “moratorium” was adopted over the word “strike” in order to emphasize a nonviolent pause, rather than the negative connotations with which some viewed the latter term. debenedetti-chatfield, - . in this study, moratorium is capitalized when referring to the distinctive event(s) associated with october , but is lowercase when referring to the general planning for the yet unformalized projects. the religious tradition. because these actions included people from the surrounding communities and the two other mennonite schools, it throws into relief the pressures each faced. when readers of the newton kansan opened their newspapers on monday, september , , they discovered that a particular kind of antiwar opposition was indeed about to be played out on their own doorsteps. beginning on october and continuing for three more days, bethel college would observe the national vietnam moratorium that enjoined americans to call for an end to the war by engaging in local protests of their own making. newtonians were invited to join the activities that were scheduled both on and off campus. included in the article that described the plans was an excerpt from the peace club’s statement of purpose that emphasized its somber intentions: we wish to respectfully express our sorrow for those kansas men killed in vietnam through a quiet, contemplative service. though we don’t agree with their being in vietnam, we can recognize and sympathize with their cruel, de- humanizing situation, hopefully, knowing for whom the bell tolls, how long it must toll, and why it must toll so long will sensitize us to the enormity of the devastation to human life. by memorializing those already killed, we hope to better realize the tragedy involved, and thus pledge ourselves to a greater effort for peace so that no more casualties shall be counted for any side. nearly three weeks later on the day before the national moratorium, as it described the activities scheduled for the following day, the local daily again referred to the original document issued by the club. the news article selectively quoted the college peace club’s “statement of purposes,” stripping some of its more potentially provocative language, but also emphasized that the group’s actions were not finished with the activities beginning the next day on october . these were in an article buried on page beyond stories about “miss kansas,” the peace club plans appeared. “peace club plans walk,” the newton kansan, september , , . for the original statement which contained seven planks, see bethel college peace club, “statement of purposes,” peace club clippings file, mla. actions aimed at a long-term objective and which challenged the local community to join in an antiwar effort. this is not a protest-picket march. it is a walk with the positive goal of calling for a national moratorium on nov. which will help all policy makers realize that token withdrawals have not and will not satiate the american people’s desire for a quick end to the war … we wish to respectfully express our sorrow for those kansas men killed in vietnam through a quiet, contemplative memorial service … we hope the walk will exact a deep commitment from its participants. the newspaper omitted the club’s fourth plank, which called attention to wichita “as the military center of kansas … [thereby] call[ing] into question some of the basis for her economic and financial wealth” and those words in the second plank that encouraged widespread participation: we wish to encourage all bethel, acck, hesston, and wichita state students, area ministers and laymen, and any other people in the community who are in opposition to the continuation of the vietnam war in a mass showing of the general discontent with present war policy. finally, the news article omitted parts of planks six and seven that enjoined others to participate as not only “a witness of faith in a radical and highly visible medium” but also as an exercise in democracy, “following history’s teachings” to engage in “visible social protests.” what the article did report was a series of activities much larger than a solemn event planned by a small group of students that had previously comprised the peace club. instead, the college faculty itself had endorsed the moratorium, planned an opening convocation followed by a teach-in by faculty, administrators, and representatives of a veterans organization, and accepted the peace club’s plans to conclude the events with an -mile walk through the heart of newton “bethel groups to join moratorium observance,” the newton kansan, october , , ; “moratorium grows far beyond original plans,” ibid.; “war moratorium called treason,” ibid., . ibid. to wichita. moreover, it supported a highly symbolic action that would firmly fix the war’s outcome in the public square. what became a four-day event represented an intersection between the peace interests and frustrations of bethel college students and faculty and the larger national antiwar movements, but it was also a sequence juxtaposed against a local population that saw itself as quintessentially patriotic america. it, too, was carrying on its own national conversation about patriotism through groups such as the american legion, the veterans of foreign wars, and national columnists featured in the newton kansan. on the day before the bethel moratorium joined hundreds of other local protests held nationwide, the washington correspondent for the newspaper enterprise association characterized the projected national october and november events in alarming terms. contrary to what the organizers of the next moratorium planned for november in washington dc and san francisco, reporter ray cromley’s column on the editorial page of the newton kansan described the upcoming national-local collaboration as a calculated and disorderly sequence. appearing under the newspaper’s lead editorial which affirmed dissent, but also support for the president and his secretary of state, cromley emphasized what he thought the national protests expected to achieve: the oct. antiwar protests are but a prelude to what is being set up for mid- november. the “plan” has been for october to be peaceful. the november confrontations are scheduled to be rough. the preliminary meetings held thus far have been led by men who believe in violence as the way to get results. as we move deeper into these months of protest, it would be well to remember again the ancient city of hue, in central vietnam, partially occupied by the north vietnamese and viet cong forces in the tet offensive of … [in which numerous atrocities were committed by the occupying forces]… it would be interesting to know how those who want all u.s. forces to leave “right now” (instead of gradually as south vietnam’s troops are strengthened) would face their consciences when hue was multiplied many times over in a north vietnamese occupation of the south. thus, the moratoriums scheduled a month apart per the plans of the new mobe and vietnam moratorium committee to pressure the nixon administration into “a firm commitment to a definite timetable for total withdrawal” were, in the eyes of the columnist and those who agreed with him, a kind of bluff. seemingly peaceful, they were in fact vehicles for disorder, and for communism itself. as a meeting held at the local american legion and caught by an abc-tv camera crew evidenced, the protests were simply a front for the dangerous international conspiracy, and the bethelites were simple dupes, at best. how the peace club got its groove: prelude for some in newton, there were good reasons to view the campus with suspicion. the college’s “repentance walk and mail” three years earlier had raised patriotic hackles. the presence of two faculty who had been under routine scrutiny by the federal bureau of investigation for their conscientious objection or refusal to register for earlier drafts generated questions, as did the actions of faculty like alvin beachy and james juhnke who made no apologies for their opposition to the war. the president, now attempting to mediate between the local communities and activists on his campus, had himself walked in the action in when he ray cromley, “red bloodbath in cards for weakened vietnam,” the newton kansan october , , . cromley’s column, “what’s going on in washington,” was a standard feature in the newton newspaper. “dialog held preliminary to observance,” the newton kansan, october , , re: greg jackson and the abc camera crew; [news reports on moratorium], recorded by james c. juhnke, october , , original tape, b- , . , oral history collection, mla; abc-tv newscast, “bethel college, oct. , , vietnam moratorium day,” https://www.youtube.com /watch?v= yzx_ o mnh (accessed october , ). was dean. moreover, as the campus yearbooks in and evidenced, some students on campus began to resemble the counterculture featured on nightly news, with men having long hair and facial hair and young women sporting blue jeans in bare feet. on campus, the earlier student rumblings about student power had taken a turn. although several students had begun publishing the caustic underground newspaper, the fly, in , in opposition to president voth, during the summer of disaffected bethel students calling themselves the concerned bethel students (cbs) formulated a response to the actions taken by the administration during the previous year. still angered by the suspensions of “the four” smokers and other intrusions of in loco parentis, the group moved beyond its earlier statements in the collegian and announced its determination in the remnant newsletter published shortly after the fall term began: working toward a possible restructuring activism, a group of concerned bethel students began uniting this summer in the wake of a psychologically devastating school year. drawn together by the experience of a year in which all intelligent creativity, discovery, and initiative seemed to be stifled, we, as a group, began to establish a tight organization, a strong power base, a hard line of philosophy and action, and a communal spirit of love. the group, which included many individuals who were also peace club members, thus brought their irritation with administration decision-making and oversight to the planning sessions for what would become the college’s distinctive participation in the fall’s antiwar activities and the moratorium. mark wagler, “so what,” the remnant newsletter, september , . two peace club members had a familial connection with one of the four students who had been suspended for smoking. antiwar activists phil dick (who had been suspended) and ed dick were brothers and peace club leader kirsten zerger dick had married the latter. thus, the conflict was heightened through family ties. at the same time, understanding the moratorium events and the wide participation of students in them, is a more complex picture than simply focusing action on the major actors. as a cartoon in the collegian asked of the concerned bethel students, “do you think they’ll keep the anabaptist vision?,” there were students who considered themselves radicals and who did not agree with the tenor and language of the more barbed campus discourse advanced by cbs. as student virginia galloway argued in a letter to the editor, it is the belief of concerned bethel students that “bethel maintains a policy of discouraging, stifling, and punishing radical thought and action.” i am a radical, but i am not “discouraged, stifled, nor punished” by bethel as an “establishment.” my discouragement stems from those who cannot perceive that the only real “life” of the present and future of bethel is in the hoped of the fulfillment of the ridiculed goals in the campus catalogue set down by the “establishment.” “a personal commitment of life to christ for salvation and service.” she continued, turning to the manifesto the concerned bethel students had issued in the underground newspaper, the remnant. to the authors of the referred text, bethel should be a “free university” with “hard rapping, grooving, singing, dancing, searching, crying, and loving for, between, and among everyone involved in the campus community.” what does this mean? “searching” for what? “crying” for what? “loving” what? one must have something to find, to want, and to love…. if the members of cbs want to follow and use as examples their anabaptist ancestors, they should do so in the most important area ---they should wish to be christians…. i found what i came here for ---not as much as i’d hoped, but what there is, is found in the “heritage” and “purpose” of bethel college. thus, those who were the most prominent actors in the subsequent events were not the only significant participants, and the questions such as those raised by galloway about the place of anabaptist faith, institutional authority, and the motivations of protestors, anticipated much of virginia j. galloway, “letter to the editor,” the collegian, september , , . the later external criticism and self-examination regarding bethel’s most public protest and its memory within and outside the college. how the peace club got its groove: action although the peace club held its first meeting of the year almost as soon as the fall term began, its early actions evidence its familiarity and intersection with national peace groups, both those that were distinctively religious in nature and those that had secular roots. as discussed previously, these contacts included not only those made through participation in the inter- mennonite intercollegiate peace fellowship annual conferences and special events, but also via other projects initiated by mcc’s peace section. mennonite vincent harding, who was the author of dr. martin luther king, jr.’s groundbreaking speech against the vietnam war in , had long connected mennonites directly to both civil rights and antiwar actors, while on the local level, bethel had faculty who had resisted the draft and participated in national marches. yet, understanding the fabric of the most public of bethel’s antiwar activism includes examining not only new material, but a re-reading of early source material, including the earliest and most authoritative compilation of original documents and oral history interviews compiled three years after the events. the combination fleshes out the narrative and positions the paper to consider sources of and motivations for activism. vincent harding’s early antiwar stance connected to both his anabaptism and the oppressed was widely distributed through an inter-mennonite periodical. he challenged the relative ease of most i-w conscientious objectors, compared their service to the suffering vietnamese, and then asked the readers, “is their plight nothing to us in wealthy, un-bombed, well-fed america --- at least that part of america most of us know”? vincent harding, “vietnam—is there no other way? questions, not answers,” mennonite weekly review, september , , . king’s speech, known variously as “beyond vietnam” and “a time to break silence,” was deliverd at riverside church, new york, on april , . the levellers sprang from the ongoing endeavor at bethel to create seminar courses that pushed students seventy-two students congregated in the cramped confines of goering hall lounge on september , in the peace club’s first meeting of the year. by the next evening when fifty-eight assembled in the lounge, the officers elected in the first meeting had decided against a hierarchical government in favor of a shared triumvirate consisting of sophomores kirstin zerger dick and phil unruh and freshman stan senner. the meeting that included appeals to “lay your life on the line” overwhelmed some students, while energizing others. in the mild chaos and competing visions remembered by those who had attended, the students nevertheless nominated a steering committee to formulate three proposals for the second meeting to be held the next evening, an approach that mirrored conventional mennonite approaches to problem-solving, but which also reflected the approaches used in community organizing. this steering committee was composed of senior jack goering, sophomores ruth juhnke and clinton (clint) stucky, and freshman robert (bob) mayer. all were native kansans and gc mennonites, with the exception of outlier bob mayer who hailed from ohio, and whose presence offered an unanticipated focus. members of concerned bethel students were elected to office, but so were students who were academically. in bethel historian keith sprunger charged his fall term class with the task of becoming junior historians by studying the moratorium events at bethel in . he trained them in conducting oral interviews and utilizing local source material. known as the levellers, their final project was a printed publication, “peace activities of at bethel college, or, a peace of the rebellion.” because each chapter was written by a different student, and the quality is uneven among papers, individual chapters will be cited. many of the oral interviews are extant, carefully preserved by mla archivists on the original cassette tapes, although the recordings vary in usability, chiefly because of the original conditions under which they were recorded. i am indebted to archivist and historian john thiesen of mla for transferring these to files that i could use and his generosity of spirit. the levellers, “peace activities of at bethel college, or, a peace of the rebellion,” mla (hereafter, the levellers, with individual contributors noted. the pagination begins over for each chapter in the compilation and the citation reflects that convention as given). oral interviews are listed with full citations on first use, then with the least amount necessary for identification on second use. not, including several freshmen. like peace club leadership in prior years, including the activist year of - , women held positions of leadership, both formal and informal. although no minutes survive from the first meeting and many of its details are lost, the meeting focused on establishing leadership and exploring potential projects. leveller john haury’s brief recounting stated that: [after choosing leadership], the second major point of discussion was the formulation of a project which would be constructive and beneficial to the cause of peace. in discussing this matter, it was decided that there were two possible approaches which could be used. the first involved confrontation politics whereby the group would actively challenge the system, while the second approach centered on trying to work constructively through the system. the first approach was the route which was chosen. it is evident from the comments made in the course of the second meeting and later oral interviews, that there was a substantial argument between zerger dick’s enjoinder that people needed to be ready to “lay their [sic] life on the line” and history and social studies major jan carpenter who challenged what felt to many like pressure tactics. by the next night at the second meeting the steering committee had formed three proposals for action, projects which potentially zerger dick (salina, ks), unruh (harper, ks), senner (buhler, ks), goering (moundridge, ks), juhnke (mcpherson, ks), and stucky (burrton, ks) were all kansas natives, while mayer came from ohio (wadsworth, oh). of the kansans, excepting zerger dick, all came from a mile radius around bethel. regarding women in leadership, history major and forensics star jan carpenter matched wits with kirsten zerger dick over strategies and inclusivity, an exchange that was remembered in later interviews. peace club meeting, recorded by james c. juhnke, september , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla; kirsten zerger and stan senner, interviewed by fred zerger, may , , original tape b- , . , oral history collection, mla. kirsten (zerger) dick used her married surname in the bethel yearbook, but is frequently referred to as kirsten zerger in various interviews. to avoid confusion, zerger dick will be used. there are no minutes from the first meeting and this analysis is heavily dependent on leveller john haury for that session. john haury, “the peace club planning for ,” in the levellers, chapter ii, . offered a great deal of freedom for individuals. the first, which was later chosen, proffered some sort of yet undecided action on moratorium day that would then stretch to november and the second moratorium, while the second proposal framed a general collective action that would be either a walk of some sort or a petition, either of which reminiscent of the original walk planned in to the newton post office. the third option stated that only a particular group would either walk or petition. that the club could agree on the first proposal in a strong majority vote indicates that there was enough leeway at this point that even some of the students who had felt pressured in the previous meeting could agree. these dynamics and open framework would prevail in spite of the oft-repeated criticism regarding the peace club leaders that they dominated actions. the second meeting that decided between the three relatively abstract proposals and continued to process the internal dynamics of those students present (and those who were absent but represented by others) was recorded by history professor james juhnke, who attended along with economics professor j. lloyd spaulding, the latter the long-term peace club advisor since . the second meeting is notable for several reasons other than the particular actions taken. first, it revealed a strategic way of approaching decision-making in its focus on general, rather than specific plans, and the directive, yet effective, logic used by zerger dick. second, it evidenced an ability to respond to the challenges issued in the first meeting, articulated most pointedly by jan carpenter, and to accept her argument regarding the need to back off from a rigid definition of what constituted either a committed antiwar activist or someone who was against the war but not willing to embrace the more strident terms of action. third, it explicitly zerger dick and senner, interview, original tape b- , mla; peace club meeting, recording, september , , original tape b- a, mla. articulated a hope that the other kansas mennonite colleges (tabor and hesston) would participate in the national moratorium by hosting events on their campuses, even as subsequent discussion revealed that the tabor student council president said his campus would likely demur, a judgment that was later confirmed. fourth, james juhnke’s presence had two results. his tape recorder demonstrated his interest in recording the event for posterity, but his strategic asking of chiefly understated questions guided the students through campus process and helped them anticipate and undermine objections to their yet undefined proposal for moratorium day on october . he asked them, for example, “are we voting on condition on getting permission [to engage in a particular memorial to the american dead], pressure can easily be brought to bear on the peace club.” the question was not only both diffuse and direct, yet spoken in such a manner that it was almost offhand as it slurred the two thoughts together, but also one that gently advanced a potential problem. this was a particularly mennonite means of raising a question and respecting the process of thinking through an issue. it empowered the students to re-think their actions, but left the decision in their hands. moreover, after the official meeting was over, he and another faculty member present discussed the particular process regarding faculty approval (since the moratorium stipulated cancelling classes) over the course of ten minutes. students entered freely into the conversation and yet listened to the faculty explicate their thinking, patently transparent for the listening students. in the end, juhnke and his fellow faculty member recognized that no specific approval for that day’s events would be needed because it was a student council-controlled day without classes anyway, but that the faculty would need to be involved for other decisions. it was a ibid.; al berg, former tabor student body president, email message to author, october , . carefully couched conversation that was gentle, open, revealing of the means of process, and inviting students into the decision-making. that this approach was successful (and largely invisible) is evidenced by later interviews of peace club leaders who eschewed the notion that the faculty had controlled the protest events. there is yet another intriguing question that hangs over the two meetings that launched the moratorium events of and which concern the issue of sacred-secular influences on antiwar activity in general, and bethel college protest specifically. none of the levellers mention that being involved in the national moratorium dovetailed into any particular peace group actions. being involved in the moratorium was fleshed out by bob mayer, who brought his organizing experience and contacts with others in the national moratorium leadership and community to the table and helped integrate them into the plans. that is true, yet, in the interview conducted three years later, both stan senner and kirsten zerger dick immediately noted that the idea for the moratorium had been advanced in the first meeting by [senner]: “dr. beachy,” [zerger dick]: “dr. beachy mentioned it at the first meeting. he said something about clergy concerned.” bible and religion professor alvin beachy had brought information issued by clergy and laity concerned (calc), the organization in which he was a member and to which de benedetti attributes the credit for maintaining the strongest and most-determined peace club meeting, recording, september , , original tape b- a, mla; zerger dick and senner, interview, original tape b- ; j. lloyd spaulding, interviewed by terence goering, april , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla. regarding faculty involvement, leader stan senner later answered interviewer and history major fred zerger’s question, “who were the instrumental faculty members throughout the moratorium activities? were there any that provided, you know, sort of, that if they weren’t … there plugging away [it would not have happened] or was it totally student-initiated?” by flatly stating “no faculty members played a real significant role.” zerger dick and senner, interview, original tape b- , mla. antiwar protest stance and series of actions after the election of president nixon. thus, analyzing the bethel events in total must incorporate the early influence of calc, one of the religious bodies involved in organizing the national moratorium and which issued not only specific suggestions for events, but also helped distribute guidelines on discipline, a statement of purpose, and suggestions for incorporating communities. moreover, beachy was not the only faculty member involved in religious organizations that pressed for peace and antiwar activity and whose contacts helped shape bethel protests. english professor anna kreider juhnke brought her long-term membership in the women’s international league for peace and freedom (wilpf) to bear during the bethel events, involving what bethel students called “the wilpf ladies” in organizational tasks, sewing black armbands for marchers, incorporating a few in the walk to wichita, and situating the bethel moratorium events in a larger framework. by the time the peace club met a week later, it had established the basic structure for moratorium events, deciding on a march that emulated the original plans in , but moving down main street from north newton to newton’s main post office and then on to wichita eighteen additional miles along highway . further modeling their actions on what some considered the failed peace march of , they also created plans that would both preempt community anger and educate the surrounding communities about the horrors of the war. finally, they acquired october , the day set aside for student council to manage as it saw fit, as moratorium day. the club had also obtained an interesting twist for its local actions --- kreider juhnke was “on and off chairman of that organization.” kreider juhnke, interview, original tape b- a, mla. wilpf was one of the four peace organizations that political scientist lewy later castigated in his controversial analysis of peace groups that had in his judgment become activistic. lewy, peace; stan senner and pat albrecht senner, interview by jonathan rich and curt goering, october , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla. involvement and incorporation by the national moratorium committee. in an intriguing conjunction that addresses the connections between sacred and secular antiwar protest, the peace club’s new member from ohio, steering committee member bob mayer, firmly situated bethel in the midst of national moratorium activities, a position that would both fascinate and alarm members of the campus, the community, and the mennonite churches. the connection would result in debates about ego, the character of mennonite-anabaptist witness, and the nature of the public square. yet mayer’s presence also evidences the interplay between the religious pacifist groups and antiwar organizations from the new left. mayer was a forensics scholarship student, recruited by professor ada mae haury for her formidable debate program at bethel. a student activist in high school, he was involved in students for a democratic society as it was morphing from a thoughtful new left establishment- critical and justice-focused organization to its redefinition as the weathermen, a showy exemplar for violence that enjoyed posturing and extravagant claims and which mayer eschewed. later trailed by the fbi, the future bethel student hated the war, burned his draft card, --- and had early strong connections that exposed him to the historic peace churches and religious pacifism. “some of my best friends in high school were mennonites,” and some were quakers. among the latter, were mark looney and his father john looney, who was active in the american friends service committee and so fiercely interested in peace and nonviolence that he sold his business in order to pursue them. after the relatively long-haired mayer chose bethel following a trip to kansas with a mennonite friend, he joined the peace club as it began sketching out the moratorium activities. when his old friend mark looney now at american university in washington dc became involved in the national planning, he called mayer, then put national moratorium organizer sam brown in touch. as a result, the bethel freshman became the statewide coordinator for the moratorium, responsible for contacting other institutions and making sure their plans were funneled to the national committee for the sake of publicity. as the peace club brainstormed over the idea of using a bell in a solemn service that would recognize the american dead during the moratorium, a faculty spouse offered a solution that the club, bob mayer, and through him, the national vietnam moratorium committee (vmc) excitedly listed on their master chart of local events. the idea for using a bell was lavonne platt’s. wife of the biology professor who had spent time in prison for refusing to register with selective service in , she also had an activist bent, participating in the march on washington in and offering hospitality to the endless stream of students who enjoyed meeting in the platt home. after she conceived of the idea, jim juhnke contacted the local mennonite museum and borrowed an impressive school bell that two bethel industrial arts faculty outfitted with a heavy frame to enable its ringing by an individual standing next to it. with basic plans in place, over the next few days, the peace club deliberated over how best to approach the college administration and faculty and gain their support. advised by several faculty who urged them to think in terms of strategic but incremental terms the club mayer’s pictures in the bethel yearbook for depict him with hair slightly below ear level, a style already reflected by other kansas mennonite male students. thresher, , , . mayer would later take a year off from his studies at bethel first to study the hutterites in vienna and then to work for the war resister’s league. he eventually graduated from bethel with a degree in history and religion. bob mayer, telephone interview with author, october , . early reports on peace club activities variously attributed credit to other faculty members, but the powerful symbol was lavonne platt’s brainchild. keith sprunger, notes in margin of original, john waltner, “moratorium (october - ),” in the levellers, chapter iii, ; jonathan rich, “the faculty,” in the levellers, chapter v, . reached a rough consensus about their approach. they first offered a proposal to student council, which, in turn, endorsed and submitted it to the faculty. during the october faculty meeting, jim juhnke moved that the school cancel classes on october so that students might study peace. the faculty approved his motion and one that approved [in principle] using a bell to recognize those who had died in the war. art professor robert regier who had participated in the repentance walk and mail explained how the faculty viewed the proposed activities in a later interview: there was a relatively small group that was enthusiastically behind it … and investing their own time in the organization of it. then there would be a little larger group that was sympathetic to the whole thing, believed in what was behind the event, believed in what the peace club stood for. they maybe had some self- doubts about the appropriate means for getting to message out. there would be a relatively small group that was really opposed. they more or less kept quiet. although biology professor dwight platt supported the peace club in general and joined with jim juhnke in presenting the motion to the faculty to support cancelling classes and setting aside a day to participate in the moratorium, his support was not a simple or reflexive endorsement. rather, he deliberately reasoned how his individual conscience led to his support of collective action. i was of course very strongly opposed to the continuation of the war in viet nam and felt that for many reasons it was wrong. and felt that if one has a conviction such as this, you can’t just sit around and think about it. that in some way you have to express it, you gotta find some mode of expression. and then secondly, a number of students and other faculty were developing this sort of a public expression and it seemed like a legitimate thing. and, so one feels called upon to support this sort of expression if it is expressing the ideas which you want to bethel college faculty, minutes, october , . robert regier, interview, by jonathan rich, december , , original tape b- b, . , oral history collection, mla. express in a way in which you feel comfortable expressing them, then you feel some compunction to join with others in this sort of public expression. by the time the faculty met and approved the juhnke-platt motion on october , the peace club had already implemented its larger plan. determined to avoid the reaction by newton to the earlier peace walk and remembrance three years earlier, the peace club mapped out a stratagem for meeting with a wide range of the community. beginning just after the initial meetings in september, over the next thirty days small clusters of peace club representatives met with church boards, ministers, public school educators, women’s groups, and veterans groups, including aborted attempts with the veterans of foreign wars and the american legion. explaining the goals for the moratorium, they met with a wide range of responses. most reactions were negative, but the student representatives found some surprising pockets of support, sometimes juxtaposed against those in the same meeting. for example, student historian and leveller john haury described the meeting with a local presbyterian congregation: at the first presbyterian church, jack goering, ruth juhnke, and clinton stucky met with nine or ten of the church leaders on october . a general discussion on vietnam and also about the peace club’s activities was held. the majority of the church representatives were very much opposed to the walk. the new assistant pastor, ralph milligan, who had recently come to the church from the east, was gravely afraid of what would happen. he thought that there would be violence. the pastor, louis dale, summarized the meeting by saying “the church is just an empty banana peel from hell if it can’t respect and support these kids in what they’re doing.” mennonite churches also had their objections, sometimes supporting the students, occasionally rejecting their antiwar stances or their means of protest, and, frequently, voicing no overt dwight platt, interview by jonathan rich, december , , original tape, b- b, . , oral history collection, mla. haury, “the peace club,” in the levellers, chapter ii, . objection, but asserting it by withdrawing from the church, however temporarily. because some students approached their own congregations, it is difficult to assess what the real thinking was prior to the moratorium events. as the churches later considered means by which to address bethel’s crisis in , it is apparent that the western district conference was struggling with a strong peace position, some of which will be considered later in this study. on campus, the peace club’s internal wrestling over projects and the contested endorsement of an open structure that could incorporate those who did not support the public march bore unexpected fruit. students who had not considered being involved, signed on to projects such as shifts for ringing the bell, acting as lookouts from the tops of campus buildings to anticipate trouble for the bell-ringers, or acting in an antiwar play, the flag, which was staged the first night of the moratorium. faculty, administrators, and even several townspeople volunteered to participate in a teach-in on the day of the national moratorium. creating a structure that could accommodate activists who wanted to confront both the campus and town, but accepting the antiwar commitment among those who did not endorse that stance had an unexpected result. senior thaine dirks expressed what leveller suzanne wedel found as a common student opinion: ibid., ; lou lichti, “the mennonite church takes a stand,” in the levellers, x, - - . this is an area that needs more research. mla houses some interviews of local church members and clergy regarding the vietnam war and bethel college, but several are poor quality due either to the environments in which they were conducted or to the degradation of the recording media over time. i wasn’t sure whether it was worth alienating or getting all these people really pissed off at me; getting all these people mad, whether anything would actually be accomplished by it. [but], i needed to go for myself. thus, the peace club and those who contended over means and inclusivity within it had inadvertently created a powerful communitarian action that recognized individual conscience and offered opportunities for peace education by the same young people that the church had lamented losing. students who had not considered marching were excitedly getting involved, although there was by no means consensus. by the time the faculty endorsed the symbolic ringing of the bell in theory, the peace club’s determination had ignited a firestorm in the community and on campus, particularly with the administration. president orville voth and dean william keeney scrambled to dissuade the students from taking events off campus. while both were opposed to the war, they were also increasingly conscious of the town’s reactions and disapproval. although each had participated in public demonstrations, voth as dean in the repentance walk and mail in and keeney in an earlier action when stationed as a pax man performing alternative service in europe, neither approved of the means the students wanted to employ. as keeney reflected in a later interview regarding the planned events: the bell ringing, i did, i thought that was a kind of symbolic expression which one ought to engage in and i was very much supportive of those plans. i indicated to the group that marching was not my style. i had done it once before in amsterdam back in or in protest against the use of hydrogen bombs in [atmospheric] testing. i did some checking and in general i felt it didn’t really think it changed people’s minds by bringing them to conviction. it was more of a suzanne wedel, “student reaction to the peace activities at bethel college in the fall of ,” in the levellers, chapter vi, ; thaine dirks, interview by john rich and kurt goering, october , , original tape b- c, . , oral history collection, mla. pressure tactic. … not quite in harmony with my way of working at peace, not my style. he was also concerned about the potential mixed messages that a peace march might have, thus wrestling with the identification of disorder and violence with peaceful dissent. reflecting three years later, keeney argued, [my issue was that people will] identify the group with those who were treasonable [who] would do it for strictly political reasons; [the march] didn’t differentiate this group, particularly those who were doing it for christian reasons, from any other group those who were marching for many other reasons, including communistic, political reasons, or simply radical protest against all authority. there were a whole bag of reasons why people were marching then and you got put in the same bag with everyone else. the thoughtful keeney, like peace club sponsor j. lloyd spaulding, was not an ethnic mennonite. rather, he had grown up in a coal-mining family and become a mennonite through early associations in pennsylvania with both quakers and mennonites, graduated from the other gc four-year college (bluffton), and had succeeded the august mc harold bender as chair of the mcc peace section when bender passed in . a conscientious objector, he once explained his decision to become a mennonite: “"my decision to become a christian and, therefore, a conscientious objector led me to become a mennonite." he had already engaged in mental health reform and in helping establish an interracial church that nurtured many activists. he was a committed religious pacifist. but, he opposed anything that smacked of coercion. over the next weeks and months, keeney was a supportive dean to the increasingly embattled orville voth, but he also became what he called an “interpreter” or mediator between angry groups, whether william keeney, interview by raymond reimer, october , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla. ibid. students or community, utilizing the same set of skills that made him an effective leader of the mcc peace section during the vietnam war as the section took on the difficult task of approving and sending aid to north vietnam. president voth found himself in a quagmire, partly as a result of the previous year’s disciplinary actions. his in loco parentis decisions, coupled with the highly personalized anger some peace club members had for him, and the changed mood of students who had returned from the democratic convention in chicago juxtaposed the need for a delicate parsing of “witness” against a group of students who disputed his right and ability to do that, either for them or for the college. even as he articulated his views of an appropriate peace “witness,” later reprised during the moratorium teach-in, he had the unenviable task of representing the college to the community and the churches. unable to persuade students not to proceed with plans which had now caught the eye of the national news networks, he appealed to civic leaders to respect these same means of dissent as a democratic right that should be tolerated. in a day of administrative infamy, he met consecutively with the newton junior chamber of commerce, the newton chamber of commerce, and the newton city commission, all of which agreed with the appeal to democratic rights. the city commission approved providing police protection, a promise made good. he was concerned about the effects on newton and the mennonite constituency who were making their objections known, but his job was made more difficult when the impish and obstinate business professor bennie bargen turned over the bethel mailing list to the peace club to help them raise money. a “radical communitarian,” bargen had lived in ibid.; robert s. kreider, “in memoriam: william e. keeney ( - ),” mennonite quarterly review (january ): - ; dave janzen, interview by suzanne wedel, november , , original tape b- c, . , oral history collection, mla. a bruderhof commune and continued to hold strong views about the state. thus, by october , and the newton kansan’s final article about the moratorium, the campus, the churches, and the town were primed for bethel’s long venture into the streets. moreover, with the arrival of abc- news’ correspondent gregory jackson and a film crew who conducted interviews over three days, newton’s main street was about to become main street usa. but, contrary to the much- feared threatening events of the repentance walk and mail on veterans day in , the bethel moratorium events apparently did not attract the attention of the fbi. the long-haired, barefoot “radicals” of were apparently of no concern to the bureau. they would not generate a single report on the college as a whole until february , , four months later. bethel college and moratorium day: entering the public square moratorium events began with a convocation held in the open air in front of the administration building, the signature structure of the campus. student council president terry unruh, who had been roughed up in chicago during the democratic national convention, opened the solemn event, then turned the microphone over to dr. alvin beachy, professor of religion, to set the context for the day’s events and to explain in particular the meaning of the tolling of the bell. beachy, who was an outspoken and determined opponent of the war, and who for a timeline of events, see “chronology of fall peace activities, ,” in the levellers. concerning bargen, see juhnke, small, ; senner, interview, original tape b- b, mla. regarding the fbi and the moratorium at bethel college, the foia file skipped from a general request to conduct “an applicant type search” on an alleged member of the bethel peace club, “his listed fellow students, also fellow students and selected faculty members,” dated / / to special agent otto t. handwerk’s report on a bethel college student who had subscribed to the students for a democratic society (sds) publication, “new left notes.” fbi, “[report] kc - ,” september , , - ; fbi, “[report] kc - ,” february , , - . for a long-range study of fbi surveillance of bethel college, see keith a. sprunger and mary sprunger, mennonite quarterly review, forthcoming. had fully accepted the concept of mennonite political engagement, solemnly addressed the assembly: we meet in this memorial service not in anger, but in sorrow. at each tolling of the bell we seek to be reminded of one of the more than forty thousand young americans who have died in the vietnam war …. this protest is directed, not toward the young men, american or vietnamese, who have fought and died in it; but against the continuation of a policy that has already brought death to countless thousands of innocent civilians, threatens a country with total destruction, and claims more american lives and treasure with each passing day…. we who are gathered here share in this deep conviction, that the vietnam war is wrong and as free and responsible persons we cannot remain silent. as beachy concluded his remarks with a request that the assembly bow in silent prayer, dean william keeney spontaneously lowered the american flag to half-staff. he did not realize that the peace club had specifically asked president voth for permission to do just that and had been denied. he noted later: it seemed to me that the flag ought to be at half-mast in mourning and we thought about it and nobody was sure whether we could do it and i decided we should do it, so i proceeded to put the flag at half-mast since it was a service of mourning…. it seemed to me to be a very natural and appropriate act in the kind of situation in which we were mourning the dead in vietnam. beachy had earlier written a pointed letter castigating president nixon for the war in vietnam. alvin beachy, “for whom the bell tolls,” october , . peace club files, mla; maynard shelly, “for us the bell tolled,” the mennonite, november , , - . shelly emphasized that the moratorium had been observed at other mennonite schools by following the article on bethel with a short overview of events at two other gc colleges. “vietnam vigils and talks at freeman and bluffton,” ibid. shelly received a great deal of pressure during the vietnam war for what was described as his courageous stance in continuing to discuss the war in spite of constituency objections. david harder, “an editor and his denominational periodical, or maynard shelly and the mennonite: - ,” bethel college student paper, , mla. keeney, interview, original tape b- a, mla. bethel students and other participants later interviewed by student john waltner said that they had approved of keeney’s action---and that it had seemed completely appropriate for a ceremony of mourning. under the gaze of abc-tv cameras, peace club member pat albrecht began the rhythmic tolling of the bell, a heavy sound that rang out throughout north newton and well into newton itself. each toll represented the death of one american in vietnam, and with more than , dead, that meant that the bell rang every four seconds, from : a.m. to : p.m. over the next four days. as the bell continued its doleful rhythm, those who wished to participate gathered at the fine arts center for an afternoon teach-in on the vietnam war. a general historical overview of the war combined with the effects of the war on the vietnamese people--- and on, in the case of the speaker from g.i. forum, the impact on hispanic americans. among the twelve speakers in the teach-in, alvin beachy contested the nixon administration’s characterization of the war, just as he had done earlier in the war when he joined other clergy to protest what the american people were being told. he later reflected on the speech in a student interview: so what i did in this speech essentially [was] to expose the lies of the administration concerning our reason for being there and also talk about the methods we were using to fight the war which i think amounts, thought then and still do, that they amount to genocide. waltner, “moratorium” in the levellers, ii, . alvin beachy, interview by raymond reimer, november , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla. other teach-in speakers included bethel faculty: james juhnke, dwight platt, ronald rich, howard snider, david janzen, president orville voth, and dean william keeney. during the day, it was manifest that members of the administration, while tolerating how the students had organized the moratorium, nevertheless were disturbed by these same means. during the teach-in president voth expressed his deep concern over not just the means of protest, but the underlying nature of political actions. i am specifically troubled when our youth confront others in the cause of peace but in the means of political persuasion. i do not mean to belittle or discourage involvement in peace efforts on a political base—but ultimately the motivation must be in the name of jesus christ and his gospel of hope, love, and brotherhood. political arguments are insignificant bases for committing one’s life- --for finally political situations change and when a cause is won on what basis does one choose another. or more seriously, if a cause is lost what political tenet drives us to continue to love, to live for others, or die if need be. while i believe that a moratorium is appropriate i ask still, what is our motivation? … in conclusion then i am saying simply that in all our frantic and exciting preparation for a moratorium and a peace march, we dare not cut the roots of the christian faith which nurtures that concern. politicalization of the mennonite heritage of a radical faith in jesus christ [creates] possibilities for misdirection if not loss of direction. the single minded attention to the brutality of war must ultimately arise out of the particularity of a commitment to jesus christ. and, finally the best evidence for a moral maturity is that it is a developing maturity---this means a broadening of concern but still keeping an intensity of concern and of conscience associated with questions of morality and faith. voth had participated in the teach-in associated with the earlier protest and emphasized the de- humanizing effects of the war. as dean, he had also walked to the north newton post office and mailed his objections to congress. but now, in the hype and glaring presence of the television networks, he could not easily endorse what seemed to be a boastful event, full of ego, and detached from the centrality of faith in christ. when he reflected back on the events in an interviewed conducted three years later, he emphasized that he believed the peace club orville voth, untitled message, teach-in at bethel college moratorium, october , . peace club files. mla. (hereafter voth, teach-in). leadership was sincere about its reasons for protest. but he also believed that their reasons for protest were essentially political, rather than religious. the bell the day had started with ceremony, but its chief symbol made its presence known over the next four days, to the annoyance of many and as a means of solemn and sorrowful reflection to many. after beachy’s call for a silent prayer and keeney’s lowering of the flag, peace club member pat albrecht began the rhythmic tolling that continued for the next four days. as the volunteers who had signed on for thirty minute shifts soon realized, ringing the large heavy bell was no easy matter. some individuals had to use both arms and a wide-arching and bending motion in order to keep a rhythm and render a toll. others stood to the side as a way of gaining relief. peace club leader and organizer of the march to wichita, stan senner explained how strenuous keeping the rhythm was: ringing the bell was, you know, a noisy experience fairly deafening and it was really hard on the arms to sit there and swing the thing back and forth and we’d try to change to the other arm without losing rhythm because we did try to keep it at a regular pace…. the , was more symbolic than actual. the ringers paced themselves, having adopted short phrases or mantras developed by alvin beachy or utilizing their own. kirsten zerger dick, for example, chose a line from quaker thomas kelley: “the power of love is a part of peace.” she later recalled how compelling it orville voth, interview by raymond reimer, suzanne wedel, and jonathan rich, november , , original tape b- a, . , oral history collection, mla. senner, interview, original tape b- a, mla. was for both ringers and listeners: “[the] incessant ringing for hours a day, for days straight, ma[de] its message --- the terrible cost of the war --- impossible to ignore.” students and faculty on campus or within earshot all day and night emphasized its resonant impact. again, stan senner noted: many people said that it was quite an experience and, it really brought the number of deaths home because each toll of the bell stood for a dead person and it, uh, made it hit home when you heard the bell all day long and late at night. biology professor dwight platt who had refused to register for the draft and spent time in prison in the s recalled how evocative the bell tolling was: the bell ringing turned out to be a very significant sort of exercise and quite meaningful, really. it was a good symbol … it was a continuous reminder throughout the day of the fact that, of the great amount of suffering and dying that had been going on in vietnam. i mean you just began to think that every time that bell rang it represented another person had been killed. the thing just kept going and going and going and it was a way of making more real the sort of thing which was happening… could i hear it in the classroom? oh, yes, constantly. the bell fascinated people, but so did the idea of roughing up the pacifists at bethel. two faculty secured it every night, but the campus was aware of threats and potential harassment. lookouts the large cast-iron bell was originally in a schoolhouse in antelope, kansas, then the meadow mennonite church of colby, kansas, but had been purchased, re-purchased and donated to the kauffman museum, which preserved mennonite artifacts and which was located adjacent to the bethel college campus. historian james juhnke had facilitated borrowing the bell for the moratorium, while peace club students consulted industrial arts instructors wesley pauls and emerson wiens, who made a heavy stand for the bell and then secured it before and after the start of each day’s session. waltner, “moratorium,” in the levellers, iii, . the impressive bell garnered a great deal of attention. the day before the moratorium, the newton kansan allocated as many inches to describing the bell as to quoting the club’s “statement of purpose.” “bethel groups,” the newton kansan, october , , . historian keith sprunger discussion with kirsten zerger, february and email february , cited in sprunger, bethel, . senner, interview, original tape b- a, mla. platt, interview, original tape b- b, mla. were posted in the upper floors of buildings and attempted to defuse problems in advance. some encounters were expected, but others surprised and touched the participants. leveller john waltner assessed the range of responses to the bethel college bell ringers and found bravado, harassment, understanding, and pathos as the students attempted to anticipate aggression and maintain a nonviolent reaction. reflecting on the interviews he conducted and the documents he examined three years later, he concluded: it was probably due to the cool of the students that although they were often spit upon and verbally assaulted, there were never any real physical violent confrontations with the hecklers. many bell ringers agreed that even the heckling was good because it broke a certain sense of isolation which the students felt and gave them a look at other people’s points of view. not all people who came to watch the bell ringing were bent on violent confrontation. lauren hiebner, one of the bell ringers recounts the story of an incident which occurred while he was ringing the bell. it was late at night. a young man came up and stood behind the bell ringer for awhile [sic]. the man was uneasy but he kept ringing the bell. finally the young man who had been watching came up to lauren and asked him if he could ring the bell once for a friend of his who had been killed in vietnam. lauren agreed and the young man stepped up and rang the bell just once and then stepped back. lauren says that he looked at the young man and it was evident that he was crying. as hiebner emphasized, “that had more meaning for me than any of the other things that had happened that week.” by the end of the day on october , the events seemed larger than life to many participants and onlookers. in its opening report on the national moratorium, abc-tv news featured “a look of the land today, from one coast to the other,” leading with chicago, then moving from east to west coasts. wedged in between students at the catholic university of lauren hiebner, transcribed interview, october , , from waltner, “moratorium,” in the levellers, iii, . america singing “america, the beautiful” and an early morning march in the rain across san francisco’s golden gate bridge by hundreds of quiet protesters, bethel college and newton, kansas, appeared on the screen for ten dramatic and haunting seconds: (low, extended single toll) newton, kansas. (slowly pronounced) the bethel college bell tolls every four seconds for americans killed in vietnam (low, extended toll) following the final clip of city college of los angeles and its participants reading the names of those killed in vietnam, news anchor frank reynolds followed the ninety second overview of the peaceful protests with equal time for a singular event at the white house characterized as violent. “the day’s calm was shattered at the white house gates” by a protest of “militant black students” who “attempted to storm the gates” wearing red arm bands and carrying a coffin. reynolds finished the broadcast after discussion of the meaning of “moratorium” and a low-key but direct face-off between sam brown, one of the moratorium organizers, and herb klein, representing the white house and testing the waters on nixon’s soon-to-be articulated mantra of “the silent majority.” klein’s statement along with artful editing by the newscast perfectly positioned the mid-american hometown as an exemplar for the idea. abc-tv news was not done with the bethel college moratorium events. in contrast to the ten seconds accorded the memorable tolling of the large bell, the agency’s reporter who had spent several days in newton interviewing peace club leadership and townspeople, rolled out [news reports], original tape b- , . , mla. ibid. the brown-klein counterpoint was notable because klein rolled out the precursor to nixon’s signature designation for those who were his quiet supporters: “i think it’s a possibility that a lot of the american people who have been silent while the minority have been vocal will feel now that perhaps it’s time for speaking out.” another . minutes on the small-town scene. intoned frank reynolds, “resentment was expressed elsewhere too. here is a report from abc’s gregory jackson in newton, kansas, [male voice] “the hotheads that are promoting this thing would like to see us take some action against them so they as can pose martyrs .…” jackson continued, this is a man in kansas. he hates the war but is deeply disturbed by dissent. for him, as for so many in the country the question is: can a moratorium do any good? do these young people really know what they are doing? the young people in this report are from bethel college, an old, but small mennonite school in newton kansas and in this tightly conservative farm community the most radical group are members of the peace club. they talked the faculty into suspending classes but they are moving against the grain and they know it. as jackson’s cameramen panned a tightly-packed living room, they featured the rather ordinary young people, some of the men with hair below the ears: [unruh?]: “people that make up the town or community or culture that you live in is [sic] very aware that a deviation threatens the past and like i said before the past is a very important thing here in kansas.” the words are disturbing to newton whose broad quiet main street looks like a movie set. the land has been good to these people but behind it all is the nagging fact of the war. and the peace club has forced the issue over the past few weeks by confronting churches and civic groups in the area asking them for moratorium day support. the town like the country is deeply divided but the overwhelming majority is against the protest. jackson’s next clips featured the american legion, where students had been refused admittance earlier in the month when they attempted a dialogue: [female voice]: “all we need are a few crazies to get with these groups and [unintelligible].” [male voice]:“well, mr. commander the black book, the bible, says that you shall pray, that prayer changes everything. it certainly doesn’t say action because action leads to war and violence.” [additional male voice]:“also this whole thing has been instigated by the communist party in the u.s. all you have to do is read any of the communist literature for the past several months and they have been promoting this thing they set the date, it’s their words. their dupes all over the country have taken it up.” the reporter resumed his commentary. this old bell (toll) hasn’t rung for sixty years. now the bethel college (toll) students are ringing it every four seconds, once for every american killed in vietnam. but the fact is, the rally (toll) and the teach-ins on this campus today are anti-climatic. the real issue here has been joined for weeks (toll) as people have been forced to examine their personal positions on the war and what to do about it. and on this (toll) cold gray kansas morning it’s clear not many people in this part of the country think a moratorium day is (toll, toll) the answer. this is gregory jackson at bethel college in newton, kansas. bethel students and faculty should not have been surprised at the extended treatment given to the newtonians who so pointedly disagreed with the planned march. by , president johnson thought that abc-tv was the only one of the three major news networks that treated his vietnam policies with any favor, a stance that nixon also held. the march to wichita four days after the bethel moratorium began and as the bell continued its tolling, marchers began the nine-hour walk from bethel to wichita via highway . although the majority of the walkers were students or faculty from bethel, their companions included students from hesston college, tabor college, and mcpherson college, the latter a church of the brethren school, plus high school students, ministers, parents, people from newton and surrounding communities. ibid. william m. hammond, reporting vietnam: media & military at war (lawrence: university press of kansas, ). locally, the newton kansan reported on the local events and those nationally in objective analyses without any pejorative extrapolations. “protests begin peacefully,” october , , ; “bethel college bell tolling,” october , , ; “every state had some form of moratorium protest,” october , , . the bell was mentioned in an article by the new york times and its picture featured prominently in life. “america gathers under a sign of peace,” life , no. (october ), - . ministers included mennonites melvin schmidt (halstead) and wendell rempel (moundridge) and others from the western district conference office also walked. schrag estimated that approximately people participated in the walk at various points, including a in an attempt to convey the serious nature of the walk and to anticipate dismissal of the marchers because of their clothing, the peace club had decided among themselves to adopt practices that evidenced decorum. stan senner, who was responsible for organizing the details of the walk to wichita, explained the purposeful and disciplined structure regarding signage and dress. they carried only one sign, he explained: it identified the group. and that was about it. we decided that carrying a lot of signs which we had no control over who would put what on a sign was not the sort of witness that we wanted to make. it was more of a silent, we were not supposed to be laughing and joking and having a gay old time [although for some of the younger ones it became a gay old time] .… in general the idea was to be sort of a silent walk and not of a lot of signs and that sort of thing. noting that most observers along the route in newton simply stared, rather than making positive or negative comments, he reflected on the marchers’ careful attention to how they appeared. although we were all urged to dress well, we didn’t say no to blue jeans but we did say try to be as presentable as possible. and, i recall i put on a pair of slacks and a nice-looking coat. we looked, we did not want to look like a bunch of hippies marching, because we didn’t think that fit the image and the concept we were trying to express. many of us were long-haired, but nonetheless neat and [unintelligible (all the rest?)]. one faculty participant was harold moyer, professor of music at bethel, who explained why he walked even though he might not have chosen it as his particular method for protesting the war: i felt pretty strongly that the nation needed to be aroused about the war and that while this method is questionable, it seemed at that time to be desirable to so some fairly dramatic things to demonstrate this … i had some questions about it and was concerned that it be peaceful and legal. i think one reason why some of us in the faculty participated is so that it wouldn’t be just young people, but to show that there are people of all ages that are interested and concerned. also, by number of elderly individuals who completed short stints. bonita schrag, “the peace walk,” in the levellers, iv, . senner, interview, original tape, b- b, mla. being present in it, perhaps we would help to stabilize it in case there were students that had immature reactions. after the walk which exhausted many of its participants (the indomitable dwight platt was the only faculty member to walk the entire distance), alvin beachy led a litany at the drive-in theatre that was the march’s destination: forgive us god, for we know what we have done. when we dropped napalm bombs that consumer living human flesh, and sprayed the crops with defoliants so that food for hungry children withered on the stalk instead, we did not know that we were killing you or seeking to starve you. open our eyes, that we may see and our hearts to understand that you are the god of life, rather than the god of death. amen. the denomination confronts its peacemaking denominational concerns both complicated and enriched the moratorium plans, evidencing uneasiness with both an explicit protest action and cultural issues associated with its proposers. planned a year in advance, the gc western district conference was scheduled to meet from october - in wichita. the peace club executive committee (phil unruh, stan senner, kirsten zerger dick) and four other members attended. they presented a resolution recognizing the national moratorium and its planned local expression at the conference’s college. although their resolution was eventually brought forward by the resolutions committee, moved by kenneth lee janzen and seconded, uneasiness soon manifested in discussion: resolved: that the western district conference adopt and accept the national call for a vietnam moratorium and, in conjunction with that acceptance, endorse and actively support the specific efforts of bethel peace club as it prepares to harold moyer, interview, by raymond reimer, october , . original tape b- , . , mla. “a memorial service in honor and in memory of all americans and vietnamese who have died in the vietnam conflict,” read october , at the drive-in, wichita, kansas. peace club files, mla. observe this moratorium on october - . we ask that this support be shown by active participation and/or by a donation of money to help finance the planned activities. after intense consideration, the motion was narrowly defeated by a vote of to . the conference then passed a resolution of generalized support for peace, commending the “constructive peace efforts of our young people” and encouraging western district conference churches to “arrange for a special religious service” to roughly coincide with moratorium dates: resolved: that as the western district conference of the general conference mennonites in session at wichita, october - , , we express our gratitude for all constructive peace efforts of our young people, and that we encourage all our congregations to arrange for a special religious service between october - , the announced vietnam moratorium. this religious service is to be one of gratitude and prayer for: a) our young people; b) all constructive efforts everywhere to end the vietnam war; c) especially for our beloved country that its entire life, especially the foreign relations, might increasingly develop on a more christian basis. western district conference minister elbert koontz, whose son ted had been a participant in the bethel college “repentance walk and mail,” three years earlier and who was a thoughtful man in his own right, had long considered the vietnam war. in a later interview, he explained the nature of the two votes. they were basically good resolutions … [but the personalities and dress of the students were off-putting to many of the people]. at the time that the first resolution was presented people were uptight pretty much emotionally about the whole issue and weren’t really ready to make an objective decision and therefore they voted on how they felt emotionally rather than in a rational kind of way. western district conference, minutes, , item . mla. western district conference, minutes and reports, october - , , items and ; lichti, “the mennonite church,” in the levellers, x, - ; david haury, prairie, - . when the second resolution came to the floor, a number of people felt a little bit guilty that they had not accepted the proposal that the young people came with and wanted to make some amends and this was one way to make an amend, the [sic] accept the resolution. … i think it was a very good thing… people had to make some choices [about] what it really means to be an anabaptist church or a nonresistant church. … it got people seriously thinking about the mission of the church. within a year, the western district conference had an opportunity to think through its interest in college students and the denomination’s school. the march against death, american memory, and a resonating symbol the moratorium events in north newton garnered a large amount of publicity, chiefly due to the ringing of the bell. the abc-tv newscast featuring bethel and its haunting schoolhouse bell situated in the middle of kansas was not the only national forum to feature the intriguing symbol, with the result that the peace club (and the bell) were explicitly invited by bob mayer’s contacts on the vietnam moratorium committee to participate in the november moratorium. the november event, which was the largest antiwar protest in american history and considered by historian melvin small to be the most meaningful, was a simple march that started at arlington national cemetery and ended at the capitol. carried out in thirty-six hours of cold drizzling rain, , people represented americans killed in the war. quakers groups such as the american friends service committee and the quaker action group trained over , marshals to keep peace in spite of anticipated provocations from the ultra-left and extreme- right. near the beginning of the route, bethel students and their bell tolled again in a stark the western district conference minister is an official designation for the wdc chief executive and moderator. elbert koontz, interview, by lou lichti, december , , original tape b- a, . , mla. refrain. thirty-four students participated, having carefully tended the bell during its cross- country trip. debenedetti describes the scene which has largely escaped american memory: stewart meacham was responsible for the march against death, which set the tone for the whole. it had been his idea, drawn from the experience of reading the list of war dead at a rally in the spring… late in the afternoon, led by seven drummers playing a funeral roll, the marchers left the cemetery area and crossed the arlington memorial bridge in solemn single file, each person carrying a lighted candle and a placard inscribed with the name of a dead gi or a destroyed vietnamese village. they strode silently into raw winds and a biting november rain, more than a thousand of them each hour, and on to the white house. in the wet stillness, facing blinding security lights, each citizen paused to shout the name drawn on his or her placard, and then continued in the procession down pennsylvania avenue and on to the west steps of the capitol. each in turn, the marchers placed their placards in waiting coffins and blew out their candles. navy second lieutenant donald droz was the first of the dead to be memorialized, and his name was laid to rest that night by his twenty-three year old widow, judy. the march continued for thirty-six hours --- in the darkness of wednesday night, through the following day, to mid-morning friday. the peaceful protest that assembled was the largest in american history with an estimated , people traveling in waves down the mall the day after the march against death concluded. yet, richard nixon’s assault on the television networks had achieved a stunning result. unlike previous protests which were broadcast live, only snippets of the events made their way onto the networks. no one watched the seeming endless processions in real-time, because the networks ignored the peaceful processions. debenedetti-chatfield, american, - . meacham, a former methodist missionary, was peace education director of the american friends service committee during the s. small, nixon, . on november , , between the two moratoriums, nixon had addressed the nation in what became known as his “silent majority” speech. he built on themes already tested by aide herb klein during the first moratorium newscast by abc-tv news. small discounts the massive number of letters nixon claimed to have received from supporters across the nation, reporting that republican national convention operatives were pressed into service to bombard the white house with seemingly authentic responses when they were, in fact, sent in a deliberate fabrication. c-span has preserved a copy of the telecast. richard m. nixon, when badgered by the press about how much violence was anticipated, mobe organizer sidney lens, who had appeared at the intercollegiate peace fellowship annual conference alongside mennonites paul peachey (mc), delbert wiens (mb) and john lapp (mc) at eastern mennonite university in , exploded: why the hell don’t you ask the man who is really committed to violence, richard nixon, whether he intends to continue the massacres in vietnam? if all of us on this podium lived a thousand years we couldn’t perpetrate as much violence as nixon does in one day. ask your questions of him, not us. of course, as debenedetti observes, “the point was … that the dissenters and not the war had become the paramount news issue. back in newton, the reverend vern bender, pastor of a local independent church, called the local mennonite college students’ patriotism into question, extending his anger at hesston (considered next in this study) to bethel and tabor. from on, bender circled each campus periodically in his car loaded with american flags and a bullhorn as he played patriotic music and challenged the campuses to debate him. on december , , as a guest columnist in the collegian, he challenged the three mennonite schools to send their “very best forensic talent” to a debate on the following july . none took him up on the offer. “silent majority speech, november , ,” c-span, https://www.c-span.org/video/? - /silent-majority-speech (accessed october , ). debenedetti citing lens’ autobiography, , n . sidney lens, unrepentant radical: an american activist’s account of five turbulent decades (boston: beacon press, ). ibid. richard c. kyle, tabor college emeritus history professor, interview by author, hillsboro, ks, october , ; vern bender, “pastor addresses peaceniks,” the collegian, december , , ; kurt goering, “publicity and new coverage,” in “peace activities of at bethel college or a peace of the rebellion,” [ ]- . levellers file, mla. “peace marchers converge in washington for protest,” the collegian, november , , . later reflections and outcomes: publicity, reaction, and reflections reaction to the moratorium events was forthcoming, both externally and internally. president voth was very opposed to the war, but he did not like the methods, particularly the public activities that called so much attention to the college and to the individual participants. he was chiefly concerned about the impact such actions would have on the school’s finances, particularly in its attempts to recruit students and its fund-raising, but he was also worried about the meaning of the heightened publicity. were participants more interested in the excitement of the event and its garnering national attention than the faith commitments that underlay mennonite opposition to war? during the teach-in on the moratorium, which commenced after beachy’s invocation and the bell-ringing began, the president questioned his audience: “i am uneasy when i see television cameramen. to what credit is it to us that our witness makes a national show? we should not parade our witness.” he soon had an earful. one of the most strident letters against bethel activities not only made an appeal to traditional family ties and mennonite subordination to government, but also captured the fears of disorder and cultural change. ending with a german language appeal to his brethren, the covina, california, writer explained: dear sirs: i really had to hang my head in shame when bethel college was flashed on our tv screen during demonstrations. so our people have joined the dissenters, hippies, dope pushers, niggers, etc. hanoi must feel encouraged and fight harder than ever. what a tragedy that will be. you have done our boys a terrible disservice over there. i’m a soldier of world war i. thank god nothing like this happened to us boys. i’m not a newcomer to bethel college. c. c. wedel was president when mother and us children ran the boarding hall in - . uncle david goerz was business manager. yes, those were carefree days which keeney, interview; voth interview, original tape b- b; voth, teach-in. will never return again unless we decide to support our government. sonst ist alles kaput. external reactions were often caustic, aimed at the perception of disorder and irritation that the students were running the school. as will be discussed shortly, the school faced a financial crisis blamed on the protests. but, for students involved in the actions, the process itself had been creative and fulfilling, even though some would later argue about and reflect on whether or not the wide amount of publicity had generated some mixed motives. as members of the peace club later recognized, having so many activities, rather than insisting on a single set of protests, had some unintended, but positive consequences. designing a format that included the march that satisfied activists, but including a variety of opportunities to be involved incorporated far more people than anticipated. some who did not walk to wichita took a shift of bell-ringing, while other attended the well-received play acted by drama majors who were not formerly involved in the peace club. although the teach-in presentations garnered mixed reviews, with some finding them boring and others stimulating, they also included students and townspeople who otherwise would not necessarily have been involved. three years stan senner reflected on the moratorium events and whether or not they had achieved what the peace club had intended. his comments evidenced an interest in the community locally and an ability to exercise self-criticism. yes, taking them one by one. the march provided a focus for all of our activities. the community meetings, i think, were very, very valuable, but the community “a terrible disservice,” the mennonite, november , , . thane chastain, “media and vietnam peace protests: actual or acted? a small campus study,” seminar paper, bethel college, . manuscript files. mla. zerger and senner, interview, original tape b- a, mla. meetings were really made possible by the fact that we were having the march. it gave us something to go and talk to them about, it gave us an issue to revolve around in addition to the war. if we had just called up churches and say hey we like to talk about the war it wouldn’t have been anything, but since we were having a peace march through newton then they were interested in listening to us talk about the war and what we were doing. so the march gave us something to focus on, the contacts with the community through various organizations and individuals, i think, were just really valuable if for no other reason than they were personally valuable education-wise. it was just a good experience to go out and talk with people who were not necessarily sympathetic to you. he then turned to the symbol that continued to resonate: the bell ringing, i think, as far as impact and the war impact, national impact, and symbolic impact certainly was definitely the most effective thing we did. the march itself was nothing. it was the focus of the march that, if you understand the difference, the news media hardly talked about the march it was the bell they were interested in. i feel genuinely that we contributed to the whole national moratorium thing in a significant way. i guess it’s debatable how much the moratoriums have done to end or prolong the war. i feel they have had a positive effect. certainly, you certainly can’t deny they have had an effect. the moratorium, real and imagined consequences, and contested memory from the beginning, the bethel college administration had feared the effects of local public activism. when protest had taken place in distant places, or students participated in intercollegiate peace fellowship conferences that considered political involvement and featured speakers that included a wide gamut of positions, there was little notice. bethel’s earlier repentance walk and mail two blocks away to the north newton post office had drawn criticism, but also garnered supportive statements nationally. even though it was held up as a fearful projection of what bethel might expect if its students ventured into neighboring newton, senner, interview, original tape b- b, mla. ibid. it also was long remembered as a meaningful protest for many of its participants and largely heralded by readers of the mennonite. but the moratorium events of were different. they intruded on public space, that was deliberately proximate, first through the ringing of the bell which could be heard in newton, and then through the public walk down main street to highway and eighteen more miles to wichita. apart from catcalls and egg- or tomato-throwing, there was no violence and most onlookers simply stared. peace club members, faculty, and administration had followed through on their plans to meet in advance with civic and church groups to discuss the walk (that was repeatedly emphasized in the newton kansan as “this is not a protest-picket march”) and the community was well-apprised. but, the simple events which were situated chiefly on the campus, occupied the air for four days, and then passed through newton on the way to wichita had moved into a wider venue, chiefly through broadcast television. they entered the national public square and, by doing so, performed at least two tasks. they had drawn a startling attention to the war from the heartland of america and they had centered mennonites in general in a public forum not of their choosing. by doing so, they emphasized that even in kansas --- the state that epitomized hard-working, values-laden, rural life --- there was strong opposition to the war, and opposition that was generated because of christian faith. whether or not mennonites themselves agreed with such a public witness, the religious actors at the college had taken it upon themselves to assert one, and to do so through means that sharply interrogated the idea of nonconformity. were the assertive, relatively long-haired, blue-jeaned individuals and their “adult” companions part of an anabaptist community seeking to be faithful? or were they sprunger, ; koontz, interview, original tape b- a&b; teichroews, interview, original tape b- ; allen teichroew, interview by author, october , . simply cultural mimics, miming the questioning masses featured on the evening news, who luxuriated in woodstock as real americans died in vietnam? or, were they both, and, if so, what did that mean? in the minds of mennonites, the answer was yes. for those who eschewed the protests, moratorium events on and off campus were sharply attacked in personal conversations, a small number of letters to the college administration, and letters to denominational publications. some reprised arguments made privately by bethel administrators and faculty who disagreed with the war, but objected to anything that called attention to the individual or to the group. others utilized two kingdom theology to make the case that mennonites should be subject to government and that any variance was unbiblical. and others who had supported the school financially, including several major donors, made it clear that their support was now in question. as the budget crisis of loomed, it was blamed squarely on bethel’s activism, whether or not this was a straw man. whether bethel’s enrollment drops and funding issues were directly due to antiwar activism is still under debate, although it is largely a case of statistical trends versus institutional and denominational memory. the high college enrollments of the mid- s had begun to drop nationwide, a trend that is also causally debated. some studies support a drop in male enrollment that parallels the draft and the vietnam war, but others argue that economic issues that would manifest in the s were responsible for nationwide drops. for example, kent state university administrators “puzzled over the unexpected enrollment decline in january , but part of the reason may have been students forsaking college deferments they no longer needed.” thomas m. grace, kent state: death and dissent in the long sixties (amherst, ma: university of massachusetts, ), , n . r.b. freeman, “the decline in economic rewards to college education,” review of economics and statistics , no. (february ), - . j. peter matilla, “determinants of male school enrollments: a time-series analysis,” the review of economics and statistics , no. (may ), - ; the mennonite, for example, featured an annual report on student enrollment in gc institutions and published it shortly after the moratorium of october . the statistical graph shows that all undergraduate gc schools (bethel, bluffton, and conrad grebel) had declining enrollments, whether in the u.s. or canada, and freeman (the only junior college in the u.s.) was holding steady. bethel and bluffton had similar trajectories since - , although bethel had experienced a sharp although there were mixed reports about the state of the college’s health at the start of the school year after the moratorium, events quickly came to a head. the collegian reported an optimistic picture that evidenced strong support by alumni and by the newton community, noting that several records for giving were set in the fiscal year that included the moratorium. alumni giving increased by . percent over the previous fiscal year (prior to the protests), and funding from the newton “business and professional communities … topped all earlier records” for giving. but even as these rosy details were painted, the larger picture of the bottom line found the school in financial crisis. a bailout from the denomination was not to be expected. bethel was governed by its own independent corporation, not a denominational body that could exercise oversight and manage finances. as such, it was dependent on the relationships that mennonites prized, at-will funding by the gc western district conference, and the support of individuals. at the annual meeting of the western district conference (gc) in october , delegates heard the near-catastrophic decline from - , far before the first organized protest in . “student report,” november , , . three years later in interviews conducted by the levellers, former president voth declined to attribute the declines to bethel activism, but rather a reflection of larger trends. both voth and dean keeney both enumerated some of the reactions, voth noting that he in actuality received very few letters objecting to the events, but that most comments were made in the course of conversations, and that some people who threatened “to never give again” in fact were not even listed on donor rolls. voth, interview, original tape b- a; keeney, interview, original tape b- b; senner, interview, original tape b- b. mla. historian david haury argued a decade after the crisis that, although the declines themselves were not necessarily a result of activism, they included a long-term and prevailing lack of confidence conservative members of the constituency placed in the college, with this skepticism extending back into the s. haury, prairie, - . the unsigned article was typical of news releases by the college, rather than one written by a member of the student newspaper staff, suggesting that the administration did not want to risk the loss of further students. “contributions surged for fiscal - ,” the collegian, september , , . details that had been revealed and discussed at bethel one month earlier during the annual corporation meeting. in spite of the happy numbers reported on some fronts, bethel had ended the previous fiscal year at a $ , deficit in operating expenses, a number that president orville voth later explained would drain the endowment within two to three years. moreover, he reported that the school projected a $ , gap for the current year, a variance due to a sharp drop in enrollment by eighty-three students on the heels of a drop of twenty-three the previous year. he offered several explanations that included bethel’s refusal earlier in the decade to accept state aid and the increasing enrollment of gc students in non-gc schools, but rejected arguments that the deficits were due to bethel’s antiwar activities. the denomination responded by backing its school in an unprecedented move. refusing to assign blame, the western district conference went into special session and stood squarely behind the school for which it had no legal obligation with a bailout. instead, four hundred delegates representing forty-seven of the sixty-four member churches of the conference approved six resolutions that included assuming the estimated deficit of $ , for - and making a commitment to more than cover the estimated operating expense voth had projected for - . resolution number emphasized the special nature of the assumption and the personal charge to those who had made the decision to participate in its resolution: resolved. that the western district conference assumes the estimated deficit this year of $ , in operating expenses of bethel college. this is understood to be above budget norm of giving. be it further resolved that all those in attendance of this special session of conference make a specific financial commitment to western district conference, minutes and reports, october - , , items - ; “church colleges face issue of survival,” the mennonite, october , ; bethel had set a record enrollment in - of students, a rise from in - and prior to the public escalation of the vietnam war and call for inductees. “schools lose students: first decline in decade,” the mennonite, november , , ; “college student statistics: more in non- church schools,” the mennonite, oct , , . bethel college as they are able, and begin the implementation of this resolution by joining one of the gift clubs before they leave the auditorium, projecting a goal of raising the $ , needed for current operating expenses; then go home, resolved to secure at least two more persons to make similar commitments. in addition to deciding to accept state tuition grants, the delegates agreed that churches would help recruit students, open their doors to “delegations of bethel college faculty, administration, and students to our church communities, our homes and churches to share what it means to be christians of mennonite conviction in the ’s,” and that the wdc and the bethel corporation board would mutually implement a vehicle for better communication between the two. as wdc conference minister elbert koontz emphasized in a follow-up to the special session, the special sessions included frank discussions --- and a desire to support the larger educational mission. from the small discussion groups came many helpful suggestions, as well as some frank criticisms and desires for new directions for the college. many expressed words of appreciation for what the college has done and is continuing to do for the church and for the young people who attend there. the conference resolved, in typical mennonite fashion, to enjoin mutuality and brotherhood and to place the issues in a larger church context. as the preface to the first resolution emphasized, the crisis of bethel college is within the larger context of the entire conference and our churches. there is a general situation facing us of leadership loss, of churches failing to grow, of our youth going out into the larger community and losing their identity with the christian heritage of anabaptist-mennonite interpretation. western district conference, minutes and reports, special session november - , , - ; “church joins college in crisis,” the mennonite, december , ; “special session pledges to provide support for bethel,” the collegian, december , , . elbert koontz, “education in crisis: bethel college and the church,” mennonite life, , no. (january ), - . ibid., . the crisis had been averted, and a hopeful trajectory set by the large body of delegates, yet bethel college historian keith sprunger framed how the campus development office viewed the recent events in may , eighteen months after the moratorium events: david c. wedel, former president and now in the development office, warned that the college was rapidly losing touch with the mennonite churches. “bethel college lost about one-half of the western district because of the peace witness of the bethel peace club.” church people asked wedel, “who runs the college, anyway? radicals and radical professors?” in spite of the ire behind the scenes, it was undeniable that the conference and its delegates had stood behind the college and insisted upon its continued existence as an anabaptist-mennonite endeavor, an affirmation that continued to resonate. the wounds ran deeper than realized, fueled by mixed feelings by the constituency which could not decide whether it objected more to the public display or to the protest’s opposition to american government and its policies. as far as newton was concerned, it took many rounds of golf and soothing of feelings by the new bethel president, harold schultz, who took office in . nevertheless, bethel had been willing to take the risk, pushed by its students and faculty who were convinced of the war’s terrible footprint and justified by an anabaptist faith that required a faithful public witness in the face of evil. dwight platt, biology professor and sponsor of the peace club earlier in the decade took a long-range view of the events, also reflecting on its consequences in an interview conducted sprunger, quoting two memoranda, david c. wedel memo, may , and steven g. schmidt memo, reporting on a conversation with david c. wedel, may , . sprunger, bethel, , n . the wedel memo is available in the peace club files. david c. wedel memo, may , , peace club files. mla. keith sprunger, conversation with author, september , . three years later. the teacher had been absent on sabbatical for an intervening year and missed some of the mid-range fallout, but he put the protest actions in a larger framework that accepted uncertainty as he answered the interviewers staccato questions. “did they help the college, did they divide the college, did they split the college?” his painstaking answer explicated the layers of the essential long-term view. that’s a really hard question to answer because it probably had all those effects to some degree. and, i would say that there was some definite polarization at the time, but i also think that the, there was some positive effects in terms of feelings that we were making a witness and the witness was successful to a degree in creating some public discussion at least of some of these issues. as far as evaluating how much positive effect or negative effect it had on the college i find it very difficult to really say. in general it seems to me that although one looks at things like this in terms of, you have to look at strategy and their public image they create and their public effect both in terms of the college and the cause you’re demonstrating for. but in the final analysis you can’t always predict what these things are going to be and even after they’ve occurred, you can’t always analyze what has caused what. in the final analysis on something like this, you have to decide what course of action which personally seems relevant and reasonable and useful at the time and then try to follow it through in some creative fashion. and sometimes this sort of action at the time may look like it’s more negative than positive or may look like it’s more positive than negative --- long terms effects are much more difficult to analyze. and although there was community confrontation and there was some antagonism with certain elements of the community over this particular thing, i don’t know but what in the long run bringing the issue out in the open and active participation and discussion of issues may have cleared the air to some degree. i don’t know. it’s hard to evaluate. at least one would have to say that community relations of the college, for instance with the newton community have not deteriorated over the past few years. i think they’re much better. and, although at the time, the college was not popular, probably, maybe one of the factors in the improvement has been this, there has been this frank discussion between administration, students, faculty and community on some very controversial thing like this. the former draft resister who had been willing to serve time in prison because of his beliefs, and who had, along with his wife, participated in the march on washington in , was a scientist platt, interview, original tape b- b, mla. by training, and one open to questions of causality and long-range effect. his long-range view of struggle against systems positioned him to reflect on strategies, while his compassionate empathy for others evidenced in his explanation for being involved in the activities and his willingness to walk with the students to wichita, situated him as one of the foremost supporters of the next direction bethel took in its approach to peace-making. politics and peacemaking: structural attempts at reinvention bethel students not only continued to participate in anti-war activities, but they also gave their support to structural change, including that achieved through the electoral process. they campaigned in support of james juhnke’s run for congress in , attended the joint bethel- hesston cultural series lecture with keynote speaker senator george mcgovern in february , helped to organize a joint program on the draft by bethel and hesston later in the month, and incorporated tabor and hesston students in bethel’s may rally against nixon’s bombing of cambodia. their final peace actions included a -mile “walk to end the draft” in topeka, and a peace fast in april , followed by a bethel alumnus flying over newton on may , and “bomb[ing]” it with anti-war leaflets. in spite of the arduous march to topeka and other antiwar activities, by , the college climate had changed by the time professors james c. juhnke and anna kreider juhnke returned from their two-year leave to perform service in botswana as gc mennonite missionaries. the vietnam war had ended, as far as americans were concerned, and with it, most immediate concern about vietnam. noted the former in his autobiography published in : the student power activism of the s had given way to more conventional student passivity. the student peace club in - was a pale shadow of its glory days of agitation against the vietnam war. more energetic was a new student christian club whose expressive evangelical piety (i.e. praising jesus in the style of athletic cheerleading) seemed strange to us. after the college initiated its new peace studies program in fall and a final protest (including the bell) occurred on january , , the campus quieted down. the flag still flew as it had every day with the only exception during the moratorium in october when the bethel community rang the bell for three days every four seconds to commemorate the americans who had died in vietnam. even though anti-war students, faculty, and administration at bethel faced the ire of many of the townspeople in newton, including the nearly ubiquitous vern bender, and had their patriotism specifically called into question by members of the veterans of foreign wars and the american legion from to , the bethelites had continued to assert that they were indeed patriots, even as they moved beyond conscientious objection to direct protest. they pointed to the flag as a symbol of freedom, justice, and dissent, but not one that endorsed militarism. bethel did not allow the majority culture to define what flying the flag meant and to exclude dissenters from being americans. juhnke, small, . in ibid., “mcgovern presents political views at hesston-bethel cultural series,” february , , ; “local draft conference discusses alternatives,” february , , ; “classes dismissed for day to protest cambodia policy,” may , , ; “bethelites walk to end the draft,” may , , ; “peace movement arises,” may , , ; and “peace studies now a reality,” march , , . part ii: questioning nationalism and affirming new symbols chapter -- hesston college and the question of nationalism prelude hesston, kansas, home of the mc mennonite two-year junior college, also had a tradition of mennonite service in local politics and community work, and a carefully-tended relationship with its civic populace. with a population of , in and , in , the town was the smallest of the three municipalities with a mennonite college. enrollment at hesston college doubled during the same decade, from to students and there was little hint of the financial issues that bethel and tabor faced during this time. it had already carved out an innovative niche for itself, adding coursework, for example, in airplane mechanics, which gave would-be missionaries or farmers important technical skills. the college had successfully blended conservative religion with basic liberal arts, while adding vocational coursework. it also faced a town that enjoyed the economic benefits of having such a school, while resting uneasily at best with its peace tradition. hesston had been the brainchild of two large mc mennonite families transplanted from the east to harvey county, kansas. over a family meal in , they charged young anna smith king with her fourth grade education to draft a question that could be deposited into the “query juhnke, two kingdoms, . u.s. dept. of commerce, bureau of the census. census of population ( ) volume , characteristics of the population. part , kansas. table . washington, d.c.: u.s. government printing office, . hillsboro had , people in and , in , while north newton, home of bethel college, laid claim to and , respectively. newton, however, immediately adjacent to north newton, had , people by , up from , in . box” used at mc mennonite assemblies to manage inquiries not on a formal agenda. the bishop, who headed one of the two brainstorming families, took the question to the heavily attended meeting of male delegates. on the second day of the kansas-nebraska conference meeting in la junta, colorado, the “query manager” pulled king’s slip of paper from the box. “would it advance the cause of christ to establish a school somewhere in the west in which bible work is made a specialty?” the carefully couched inquiry was neither proud, nor pejorative. it made no statements about the condition of mennonite higher education or reference to underlying tensions. it simply focused on geography, and, of course, the bible. the brotherhood already had a school, goshen college, in indiana, but that was over miles away. moreover, there were concerns already about the indiana school founded only four years earlier. these issues eventually manifested in two presidential resignations in and in , and ongoing crisis until . like bethel and tabor, goshen played out struggles in the larger brotherhood where mennonites faced both american fundamentalism and their own concerns, moments that historian paul toews calls “mennonite versions of the fundamentalist crusade.” the crises were not strictly theological, but, as discussed in chapter , included attempts to maintain boundaries as gc mennonites faced american culture. because this meant direct church control of its schools, hesston college did not have an independent board when it was founded unlike bethel and tabor. from the beginning, it was a project of the mc mennonite church, supervised by its board of education and financed by the church. it was an outlet for the mc church and the delegates at the conference quickly agreed on its potential, provided that it had “a consecrated faculty” that was “strictly in the order of the church.” as john sharp, quoted in sharp, school, - . quote, . hesston college historian and author of the centennial history observes, goshen’s not being “in the order of the church” led to its shutdown in for a year and a purge of part of the faculty. sharp captures the fierce competition among kansas towns to attract the newly proposed school. having a college, after all, brought respect and revenue in the early twentieth century. in the case of contender peabody in marion county, the excited editor of the peabody gazette exhorted townspeople to come to a meeting to hear about the “exceptional advantages” of attracting the prospective school. sharp described what followed: [the editor] advised “all interested (and that means every citizen and every taxpayer)” to attend the : p.m. meeting/ bishop f. [sic] m. erb” would be there to present the vision. he concluded with a note of urgency” “this is a crucial matter to the town which may be so fortunate” as to win the college. at the end of the day the intentions of the peabody group were clear. as erb reported in his diary. they “want that school and they are going to work hard to get it. working hard to get it meant competing with other cities in making the best offer of land and cash as incentive to bring the college to their city. winning a college would bring prestige, revenue, and new citizens to peabody, a city of , people. in march the editor clarified what had apparently become confused information. the new tabor college at hillsboro, which the nearby town of aulne had hoped to attract, was not the same school for which peabody was contending. that one was a “russian mennonite” school. the one we are “after” is a “german mennonite” institution. although it is difficult to know exactly what the citizens of peabody hoped for, they did not obtain it, when the “german mennonites” (aka, the mc mennonites who were largely fluent in english and bilingual) instead accepted the offer from hesston, kansas, eight miles northwest of newton, the other finalist and home of bethel college. from the vantage point of the twenty-first century, a choice to found yet another separate school raises eyebrows. but in the early twentieth paul toews, “fundamentalist,” . sharp, school, . century, the brotherhoods were sharply divergent. as described earlier, the more acculturated and confident dutch-russians who had managed their own insular communities and political offices in russia contrasted sharply with the swiss-german strain that viewed the state with heightened skepticism and culture as problematic. adding in class difference within the dutch- russian immigrants magnified the originally sleight theological differences between gcs and mbs, an issue that will be briefly considered in the chapter on tabor college. the result was now three mennonite schools within thirty miles of each other. as hesston alumnus joseph s. miller described in an overview of the college’s history, the divisions were real, whether or not the original author’s militaristic comments to his friend were tongue-in-cheek: using language of the recent war [a goshen alumnus wrote to the purged president deemed as liberal] about how they could both teach at bethel. while at bethel, says burkhard, they could use bethel as a submarine base and be within firing range of hesston college and specifically within firing range of president d.h. bender’s office on the second floor of the ad building. watching the flag: hesston college and the first world war hesston college did not fly the american flag as bethel had done from its founding, nor did it display a customized pennant like tabor did. it simply did not display any particular symbols of identity. but, six months after the united states entered the war, a group of hesston townspeople made certain that they knew they were being called on the patriotic carpet. during a revival service during the evening of november , , “about two dozen malicious fellows” raised a makeshift flagpole over the school’s gazebo and hung an american flag from it, garnishing it with a note that threatened more harm if it was removed. after students discovered quotation in joseph s. miller, “the view from the president’s window,” hesston college today (winter ), - . it and reported it to president d.h. bender who had just returned from visiting conscientious objectors in army camps, he asked them to remove and carefully fold it, then discovered that one of the students had recognized the perpetrators. based on his identifications, bender approached the ringleader, who was a mechanic in town, returned the flag and attempted to explain that the mc mennonite college did not fly it due to its militaristic connotations. bender then faced the resulting ire --- and the threat of arrest --- by asking for a meeting with townspeople. historian sharp repeated what bender recorded in an unpublished manuscript: if they really wanted the college and its mennonite faculty to vacate the town, said bender, he and the faculty had agreed that they would make it easy for the officials by leaving voluntarily. the men apologized and condemned the mob action, assuring bender that that was not what they wanted, because, after all, “the college had made the town.” “we want you to stay,” concluded the citizens, “but we wish you were better fighters.” bender responded by saying he didn’t want to leave town either but mennonites deserved to be respected for their convictions even if unpopular. after additional meetings, the town and gown reached a compromise, the college agreeing to fly the flag except on national holidays and during war-related commemorations. only two months earlier, bender had been one of the authors of the yellow creek statement issued by the mc mennonites that is considered the most forceful statement about nonparticipation in war that had been issued by mennonites in the twentieth century. mc mennonites were prepared to defend their consciences, lessons they learned in kansas and elsewhere, which bender attempted to convey in a hesston gazette newspaper article explaining mennonite beliefs and denying they were slackers. mennonites in all three of the larger brotherhoods, plus those in smaller groups, reached rapprochement with their communities or d.h. bender , “world war experiences,” unpublished manuscript in the guy f. hershberger collection, hist mss - , ix. first world war materials, mca-g, - , quoted in sharp, - . faced the threat of vandalism, harassment, tarring and feathering and even lynching. many in kansas complied by purchasing liberty war bonds to demonstrate their loyalty, then assuaging their guilt by donating them to one of the three mennonite colleges, all of which received substantial donations after the war ended. hesston did not forget the threats made in . by mid-century, the college had enjoyed the gentle intellect of president milo kauffman, who carefully helped the college navigate the challenges of wwii, and move from being a bible school to a liberal arts college, and his successor roy roth, who, like kauffman, were the last of the presidents to wear the plain coat (also called the straight coat). the school joined the intercollegiate peace fellowship in , and its students began enjoying the annual conferences that the mcc peace section sponsored and which later activists at all three schools almost universally anticipated. finding a path to protest and inter-mennonite cooperation in , the college’s students who opposed the war had protested little on their own, but they had been involved in activities organized at bethel. in that year, however, they founded a peace club and immediately organized two lectures, walked from camp funston to leavenworth to protest conscription, and participated in the anti-war symposium in at mcpherson, kansas. the protest at leavenworth in support of three soldiers imprisoned there for peachey, statements, - . see bender’s statement, the hesston gazette, march , . for a survey of real and threatened violence against mennonites in kansas during world war i, see juhnke, “mob,” - . all three colleges benefitted from the war bonds their donors had purchased during the first world war. in all, bethel acquired $ , and hesston, a new administration building that was largely financed by such donations. orlando harms recounted tabor president h. w. lohrenz’ appeal for donations of bonds bought under compulsion and a mb onference session in that tabled a question regarding whether or not a child of god could buy war bonds. homan, american, ; orlando harms, a conference in pilgrimage: the sory of the southern district mennonite brethren conference and its churches (hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, ), . refusing to fight in vietnam was especially noteworthy for two reasons. first, the bethel peace club was particularly articulate in its explanation for the walk, hearkening back to mennonite history and the hutterites who had died there during wwi, and reaffirming the need to bear witness against war: we claim a special interest in fort leavenworth prison, for it was here that young men of the mennonite church were imprisoned just fifty years ago for their refusal to fight in world war i. it was at the leavenworth prison that two religious objectors to the war were tortured to death for refusing to put on the army uniform. we remind the world of the heroic tradition in which objectors to war stand. second, the bethel and hesston peace clubs discovered what it was like to face physical harm during a protest, and to find some surprising allies that defended them. peace club member allen teichroew of bethel explained that the bethel and hesston students had been surrounded by a mob who trapped them against a closed gate, then hemmed them in. only a bus he described as carrying “trotskyites from minnesota” and a black power contingent from colorado saved them by strategically maneuvering the bus between them and the counter-demonstrators. on the way out, someone heaved “an enormous rock the size of a bowling ball” at them. thus, engaging in antiwar protest put the students in a more fluid universe than their elders might have expected, and one that included allies united against the war despite ideological differences. bethel the hesston college peace club also referred to itself as the hesston college peace concern. the terms are used as they appear in the sources, but the two refer to the same campus organization. “hesston” report, peace notes, february , . peace notes was the intercollegiate peace fellowship newsletter published irregularly by its student editors, but consistently two to three times a year. john sharp, hesston college alumnus and history professor, telephone interview with the author, november , . “words and deeds [column listing various happenings],” the mennonite, february , , ; the same article noted that paul leatherman, director of vietnam christian service, had approached billy graham on the evangelist’s visit to the country to “express concern for the church’s involvement in and identification with the military effort in vietnam.” graham replied, the article noted, that he was there to preach to the troops. ibid. students kathy gaeddert teichroew, allen teichroew, tom friesen, and cheryl ratzlaff had already experienced this in their individual and collective protests, but the hesston students now experienced it for themselves, thus entering a larger universe of antiwar activity. by , the peace club was fully organized. eighteen hesston students joined thirty four bethel and thirteen tabor students on a chartered bus to washington dc for the annual intercollegiate peace fellowship conference in march. titled "the peacemaker in revolution," the event featured a mixture of peacemakers including canadian mennonite frank epp, ron young of the fellowship of reconciliation (for), and pacifist allard lowenstein, formerly of the mccarthy campaign. although bethel student fred zerger, vice president of the ipf, bitterly complained that the conference presenters were enjoining the same old approach to change, which included “playing the middle-class game,” other students found the event challenging and invigorating. for example, first year student dan clark of hesston, whose gadfly column, “the cutting edge,” would regularly appear in the college newspaper the following year, attributed a particular part of his later activism at hesston to the conference: “i was one of the hesston students who attended ipf in washington, dc., in spring , and that exposure to speakers with [vietnam] experience motivated me as much as anything to react as i did to ho’s death [in the later incident to be discussed shortly].” peace concern students who attended included those who were highly involved and visible campus actors such as editors of campus publications and gospel team participants. they were thus articulate and, in many ways, model students that could not easily be dismissed as troublemakers. teichroew, interview with author, october , . goering, history, ; “students puzzled by views of revolution,” the mennonite, april , , - ; dan clark, email message to author, november , . in when bethel held its moratorium events that included the “walk to wichita,” hesston peace club students joined in. for dwight bitikofer, who came from a conservative mc mennonite family in mcpherson county, the solemn march was his first venture into public protest. for me it was a kind of watershed action, a first willingness to put myself out in a public action to demonstrate my belief in the immorality of war, the call for peaceful alternatives to war. although the hesston college administration did not endorse public protest, they did not penalize their students for participating, nor for holding contrary opinions. as one hesston alumna, who studied at both hesston and tabor, remembered, she never had to “watch her words at hesston” like she did at tabor. discussions about environmental issues and simple lifestyle were not acceptable at the hillsboro campus. at hesston, a handful of faculty supported these interrogations and experimentation, although --- like bethel and tabor --- “the constituency” was used as a reason for stifling dissent and controversial public actions. in part, the violence directed toward mennonites in general during the world wars was not just a community memory among some hesston college people, but an actual experience. noted dwight bitikofer, whose family lived in mcpherson country where there had been violence against mc mennonites: in general, the younger members of the faculty seemed the most supportive of protest actions. there was an administrator in my sophomore year … who also seemed very supportive… i think in part, the older members of the faculty were concerned about getting along with the larger hesston community and those who were not mennonite. they were the ones with clear memory of the conflicts between mennonites and non-mennonites during world war ii and possessed at dwight bitikofer, email message to author, october , . least the institutional memory of the persecution mennonites in world war i faced from their communities for refusal to buy war bonds. he also recognized that they were conflicted about the antiwar movements which were seen as largely secular actions and that students might have been involved for the excitement. there was also a sense that they believed our willingness to protest was influenced by the drama of the secular protest movement more than our biblical beliefs in pacifism. and they were probably at least partly correct about that. only a handful of individuals on and off campus formally endorsed antiwar activity that brought attention to the school, even though some had engaged in it themselves. the most outspoken was the college’s history professor, whose double tenure preceded and post-dated the events in the fall of that focused on hesston college as a local hotbed of antiwar activism. for a brief time, hesston accepted the brilliant iconoclastic historian sol yoder, who taught history at hesston college from to and again from january to . the young teacher was one of the “concern” group participants discussed in chapter and he took the quest for authenticity seriously, whether it was his own, or that of other faculty or students. proficient in several european languages, his specialty was anabaptist history which he applied in his classroom and in his lifestyle. willing to engage with students on all manners of peace and justice topics, he and his artist wife naomi opened their home to individuals and students, for anonymous, hesston alumnus, interview with author, september , ; bitikofer, email message to author, october , . ibid. anonymous, hesston college faculty, email message to author, october , . nick king, interview with author, september , . counseling, discussion, and singing. he especially delighted in leading songs drawn from wobblies labor music, including “the internationale.” sol loved to teach about the labor movement of the early s and loved the songs. i think i helped compile some songs he wanted the whole class to sing, which they did, reluctantly. sol had such a clear vision of justice. he was so right about most of it, but went overboard, and most students didn’t understand. some students remembered phrases drawn from songs, such as a rendition of “this land is your land” that recognized native american rights, and their delight in singing them at the yoder home. i loved [sol yoder]! took most of his classes, sometimes went to his [apartment] with other students for discussions. he was very inspirational to me. i don't remember details except that he had us sing, "this land is the indians’, i say the indians’, this land was stole by you and me!" or something like that. they also freely shared their possessions, with james juhnke the grateful recipient of the yoders’ offer to lend him their automobile during his campaign for congress in . dwight bitikofer was one of the students heavily influenced by history professor sol yoder, whose brief three-year tenure was peppered with protests and other political actions involving students: “i remember conversations about the juhnke campaign and about amnesty international and political prisoners with sol and naomi” and discussions about the vietnam war. i had a class with sol yoder [world history?]. i talked a lot with sol and his wife, naomi. sol was a strong believer in a radical, christianity. many faculty members seemed supportive of protest, but sol was always right in the middle of things. i think he was ostracized by other members of the faculty. there were a few faculty ken gingerich, email message to author, november , . once when traveling from iowa, student dan clark hitched a ride with earl martin and pat hostetter, voluntary service workers in vietnam. all three slept on the yoders’ living room floor. dan clark, email message to author, november , . randy zercher, emeritus professor of music, hesston college, email message to author, november , . cheryl ramer, interview with author, october , . members who, while pacifist, were very much opposed to peace marches and protests. yoder’s teaching occasionally engaged his students in unconventional means, some of whom enjoyed them. bitikofer remembered, for example, an antiwar tax demonstration on april , that was an extension of one of his history classes: in the spring, i participated in an april anti-war tax demonstration in front of the irs office in wichita. i remember i carried a sign that read: “god damns war -- withhold taxes.” ….this was with sol yoder and several other members of his class (world history, i think). the demonstrations were not frivolous, or simply emulating protest couched as secular. rather, yoder’s quest was for a radical christianity that derived from the early church, which in the eyes of bitkofer, put him “always right in the middle of things.” bethel professor anna kreider juhnke, who along with her husband, historian james c. juhnke, attended the same church as the yoders, echoed that assessment, noting his positive contributions: and then we had another prophet in our midst --- solomon yoder --- who taught at hesston college and he also would stick his neck out with quite strong statements against the war … he was in our sunday school class and when jim ran for congress he was something of a counselor and a gadfly and a conscience during that whole campaign and was a very good supporter of us as well. james c. juhnke, “clashing symbols in a quiet town: hesston in the vietnam war era,” kansas history, vol. , no. (autumn ), ; dwight bitikofer, email message to author, october , ; bitikofer, email message to author, october , . dwight bitikofer, email message to author, october , . bitikofer, email message to author, october , ; kreider juhnke, interview, original tape b- a, mla. the notion of “prophet” was commonly understood as a valid function in mc mennonite (old mennonite) congregations, cheryl ramer, interview with author, october , ; joe eck, “prophets spoke on politics” [letter to the editor], the mennonite, october , , . after juhnke was defeated in his bid, much to yoder’s disappointment, and the war was winding down only for americans with , troops still in vietnam, the hesston professor explained his radicalism in early , the same questions are up for review now as presented themselves during the reformation: what is the relation of church to society, of church to state (the power structure)? but are the answers the same? the cutting edge moves on and the symbols change. nowadays nobody will suffer for baptism—who cares when he is baptized, how he is baptized, or if he is ever baptized? today the church will, however, suffer for its social witness, its response to the social-ethical issues of war, racism, poverty, and caring for god’s creation. and what is today’s sacrosanct symbol, which one dare not touch? surely not baptism—perhaps the nation’s flag? again, nowadays it is not likely that the disciple will suffer the death penalty. but he will suffer psychological isolation, and he will have to lay on the line his standard of living, his job, his career. how can we hope then to stand up to the powers let loose on us? i see it only in the strength of the faithful brotherhood. to be deprived of this support is tragic. reflecting on albert einstein’s pacifism and yet his dashed hopes that the german people would stand up to fascism, yoder made his point with ironic humor, quoting einstein’s late in life assessment: “if i had to do it all over again, i think i would become a plumber.” (immediately he received a telegram from the president of the international brotherhood of plumbers naming him an honorary member.).” but, yoder continued, i think it was the disappointment of a noble soul which moved him to say further: “most people won’t even sacrifice their jobs for their convictions, let alone their lives.” what is the importance of the anabaptist movement for us? only by the strength of my brothers do i find the strength to stand firm for truth and righteousness in obedient response to god. sol yoder, “being an anabaptist today --- by a mennonite who is trying to become one,” mennonite life, , no. (january ), - . yoder, “being,” . his fellow member of the hesston inter-mennonite fellowship announced his candidacy for congress in the same issue. james c. juhnke, “a mennonite runs for congress,” ibid., - . after yoder departed for a study leave in order to pursue his doctorate and never returned, yoder’s minister in the early s reminded him of the event in which the history professor had led “several hundred hesston students marching not to chapel or classes or to the dining hall, but to downtown hesston to protest the vietnam war. at the front of the demonstration, as if the pied piper of hamlin, was solomon yoder, jr.” i asked him about this story that took place over years ago. sol told me that he thought that back then he felt the mennonites of hesston needed shaking up and he was prepared to serve as the leader. the students had written protest letters and were en masse personally delivering their letters to the hesston post office. again, many community people in hesston, including mennonites, found the student protest very upsetting. sol explained the community’s response by claiming that hesston may have been mostly mennonite, but it was also mostly a goldwater republican kind of town. this account, however entertaining, must be taken with a grain of salt. originally a speech presented at the annual partner dinner on february , , following the re-dedication of the alliman administration center, the reflection it clearly exaggerated events in hesston. there is no evidence of any march or walk involving “several hundred hesston college students” at any time, although the protest at the hesston post office in february attracted hesston, bethel, and tabor students. miller’s reminiscence is an interesting exercise in memory, yet its clearly overstated observations on events in hesston and some of the actions of sol yoder nevertheless maintain miller, “view,” , . i am indebted to dan clark and jean widmer clark for their particular insights on an earlier draft of this manuscript. dan clark, email message to author, november , . ellen kroeker, email message to author, november , . part of the essence that the instructor brought to his students, the campus, and the community at large --- and the campus’ desire to retain that image. yoder’s disappearance from academia eventually to the netherlands where he translated original anabaptist works remained a mystery, with many students and faculty believing he had been forced out. yet, he thought he was being a faithful witness in the midst of a devastating war, a concern that meshed with many in his brotherhood as they considered the theological concerns raised by the war in late . the mc mennonite church takes a surprising stand the mc mennonite church issued a historic statement in august when in turner, oregon, it had considered the pleas of three goshen college students for the church to support draft resistance. the position moved beyond the traditional conscientious objector stance to the promotion of non-cooperation -- that is, not registering for the draft or not complying with government policies to facilitate the registration of others. the latter included sit-ins to block the entrances to draft boards and not revealing the whereabouts of draft resisters. among those who supported the appeal was george r. brunk ii, son of the founder of the conservative magazine sword and trumpet, and the same man who had appeared five years earlier opposite lieutenant general hershey at tabor college. the general assembly of the mennonite church (mc mennonites) concluded that resistance was “also a legitimate witness” and pledged assistance to those who made the choice not to cooperate. although the decision was considered by some to miller’s account was published in the popular campus organ designed for re- distribution to alumni and prefaced by the college president. be hasty, it nonetheless stood. this was the first time in two hundred years that a mennonite conference went on record as endorsing non-cooperation with a military draft. two mennonite ministers in hesston supported those making this choice, one of which was gideon yoder of the hesston inter-mennonite fellowship where the juhnkes were members (and which sol and naomi yoder would join on their return to hesston). kreider juhnke described the minister’s endorsement of noncooperation: well, gideon was quite a prophet. he got into trouble with some members of the church for saying that he would resist the draft if he were young again. we had some fairly cautious members of the church. i don’t know if we had any prowar members, but certainly some who thought it was inappropriate to protest or rock the boat. hesston students anticipated the decision. hesston college journal editor eli savanick had earlier in the year endorsed both protest and noncooperation when he joined with other national student leaders to sign a letter pledging their opposition to the war. the dormitory resident assistant explained, “i did it because i cannot agree with the war at all,” and arguing that what he had done was a “traditional mennonite stand.” among those who chose to resist or non-cooperate at hesston were two leaders of the peace club from - and the vice-president of the student government, the latter an mc general conference, th session, august , , turner, oregon. amc i- - , cpsc, walton hackman file, minutes and reports, - , box , folder / - . mcusa. the statement is more easily obtained in peachey, statements, ; melissa miller and phil m. shank, the path of most resistance: stories of mennonite conscientious objectors who did not cooperate with the vietnam draft (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), - ; paul toews, mennonites, - . kreider juhnke, interview, original tape b- a, mla. dan clark, email message to author, november , ; hesston college journal, february , , - . individual who had never considered any sort of protest. dan clark, raised methodist, but with parents who became quakers, came to hesston because of its peace convictions. in an interview conducted by a student at iowa mennonite school in , clark explained part of his journey: when we were children (i am the eldest of four), our parents taught us to dislike violence and question the "need" for war, whatever justification might be put forward. they praised gandhi and others who "fought" and "won" over armed and violent opponents without resort to killing, even in self defense. i remember such stories as early first grade and lots of it by third grade. as methodists, we were not members of a traditionally pacifist church, but we learned, from our father especially, about christians who "served" as conscientious objectors. like bethel economics professor j. lloyd spaulding, a methodist committed to pacifism, the elder clark found little understanding of his position, although, unlike spaulding, he was not imprisoned for his stance during world war ii. his son had mixed feelings about his father, especially about his lack of military service. i'd better say more about my dad. he was older than the fathers of most of my peers and was not in the military during world war ii. he'd been a teacher and lay minister and--under influence of quakers he met while at seminary--had told his draft board in boone, iowa, that he would carry a stretcher or drive an ambulance but would not train with weapons or use them. whether or not he was formally deferred, they left him alone rather than deal with his lone objection. it seems he wasn't much aware of the civilian public service program for war objectors such as mennonites and quakers. privately i admired dad and considered him unique and very smart, but--well, how do you brag about a "service" record like that?! kind of embarrassing, huh? he soon found himself in a heavily mennonite and amish community in iowa when his family moved, discovering that he was increasingly sympathetic to the mennonite stance: when i was , we moved to the iowa city area and landed in washington county among the amish and mennonites. whole communities that didn't send their men to be soldiers was a new thing! attending public school, i took an dan clark, interview by rachel halder, may , . shared by permission from private collection. ibid. interest in "them" and sometimes took their side in discussions behind their backs. i considered the criticisms and complaints of my fellow "english" (how odd to labeled so) about those cowardly mennonites who wouldn't serve the country but were reputed to hold all the best land and were probably richer than they let on. i made friends among "them" and learned the critics were wrong mostly. during my junior and senior years [in high school], i grew increasingly sure of my opposition to the vietnam war and increasingly forthright as a peace advocate. a mennonite friend and i visited our intended colleges in kansas together, and i ended up bailing out of mine, the presbyterian one, and enrolling at his, the mennonite one. i was joining the peace people. clark was ambivalent about the draft at first. nixon had been elected on his promise to end the war (“peace with honor”), and the first year hesston student registered, affixing a letter to his form explaining that “i might withdraw my participation when i fe[el] braver.” because he was not a member of a historic peace church, he bided his time and became involved in the antiwar movement, recognizing its divisions, but also concluding that the traditional peace “witness” by mennonites in which alternative service was performed under the provisions of selective service was not enough of a stance. these were the same arguments the goshen students used when they appealed to the mc conference in turner, oregon, and the mc church agreed to support any of its men who took such a stance of noncooperation. from rural kansas i was studying what i could learn of antiwar activism around the country and identifying myself with the movement. whenever i could affirm my preferences, i stood with christian and secular pacifists (more, for example, than with anarchists or new left socialists). amid the mennonites, i was gravitating toward their radicals who said “nonresistant" civilian alternative service was too puny a peace witness. i applauded "draft resisters" who said any cooperation with selective service simply helped the war continue. after attending a camp for draft counselors, clark returned his card to his draft board. he was now in stark violation of the law and eligible both for a prison term and up to a $ , fine. ibid. ibid. bethel graduate dennis koehn served such a penalty for his choice, but when the draft board reclassified him as -a, clark said he “chickened out,” even though he had by then participated in a number of events as a draft resister. after wavering, garnering a student deferment, and then challenging his punitive reclassification successfully, he finally followed his convictions by not cooperating. eventually, selective service dropped his case. he was too much trouble, the war was winding down by the time his appeals had gone through, and the draft was abandoned. he explained why he had not left for canada and his reasons for opposing the war, even though his antiwar protests with hesston gave selective service more incentive for denying his case. i briefly considered going to canada, but living among mennonites helped me decide i was about stopping the war, and i wasn't about running away or hiding or blending in. i also decided i wasn't asking the war-making government to certify me moral enough to be exempt from killing. clark, the mennonite-by-choice, had refused to cooperate, but so did nick king, who hailed from conservative mc mennonite roots in yoder, kansas, where his grandfather had founded the local mennonite church. king, who arrived a year after the bethel moratorium events and the protests held at both bethel and tabor in the spring of against the invasion of cambodia, followed dwight bitikofer as chair of the hesston peace club. beginning in his freshman year, he actively demonstrated along with other hesston students in front of the post clark later reflected on his activities and the dilemmas men in his community faced and the false dichotomy between “resisters and warriors.” “i had friends and relatives in the war, and i've compared notes at length with two cousins. one was pictured in the des moines register during the cambodia incursion, while i was in student government getting the flag removed from the campus flagpole at hesston. the other was an almost-co who enlisted in hopes of avoiding vietnam but found himself there anyway, jumping from helicopters in "search and destroy" missions. afterwards we found our perspectives were similar; it was not about warriors vs. war resisters. one of my best friends, very active in the peace movement, had been a platoon leader of airborne rangers. he shared his stories, but he would not go see the movie "platoon" with me. been there done that, he said.” ibid. office, attended intercollegiate peace fellowship conferences with bethel and tabor students, and helped design local peace projects funded by showalter grants issued through ipf. in his case, being involved in a summer “peace team” with three bethel college students, “had a profound effect” on him. the group, which included activists patty shelly, lois preheim, and dennis koehn, traveled to churches where they talked about peace, performed skits, and preached, leading to sharpened convictions about the draft. both king and koehn resisted the draft, with the latter serving time in the federal prison in englewood, colorado (while president of the intercollegiate peace fellowship). after king sent his draft card to kansas senator pearson, who returned it with a note that “[king] couldn’t do that,” king headed to peru as a missionary, again returning his card. as he later learned, the card was mailed to “nick king, lima, peru” where it presumably made its way to someone else. the third resister considered in this snapshot of male draft resisters at hesston college was an unlikely participant, even more than king. thinking about any sort of involvement other than student government was not on his radar. but, for lonnie buerge, going to hesston deepened his understanding of anabaptism. coming into contact with students from ohio, indiana, and kansas, he realized that his understanding of conscientious objection had been shallow and something simply accepted as a matter of form in his home church in missouri. even though he had grown up as a conservative mennonite, he did not fully comprehend the when king returned to his home church to ask for their support of his position, however, the church refused to give it to him, in spite of the mc mennonite decision in turner. yoder, kansas, was also the center of amish settlement in kansas. king, interview with author, september , . nonresistant position in relation to war. his action, taken on the eve of his graduation from hesston was definitive, however, based on his religious convictions against killing. in the spring of , i returned my draft card to the draft board. i tore it up and instead of just throwing it away, i mailed it back to them. nothing came of it and [they] then mailed me another one but it was again a start to see[ing] opportunities to resist. as it did for many who destroyed their draft cards, he remembers the event as if burned into his brain: it was a warm stairwell cold dark foxholes it was quiet and safe machine guns screaming death the choir was preparing the draft boards had been gathering the card, the card connecting the dead, the dying, the doomed the card in the back pocket the card in the hand lonnie buerge, interview with author, october , . lonnie buerge, email message to author, october , . then it was done the young musician who was a member of the school choir and a hesston college gospel team that travelled to churches where the group played music, performed dramatic skits, and offered brief reflections on scripture, had moved beyond an easy acceptance of a -o classification in which he was protected as a member of a historic peace church, and instead resisted cooperating with a system that waged war. like nick king, he did not care if they pursued him or not. the long vietnam war comes to hesston college hesston heavily emphasized recruitment of international students and had a significant population of “missionary kids” and former overseas relief workers. the campus chaplain had served with the mennonite central committee. the result was a campus “sensitized to the devastating effects of the war,” according to historian sharp, hesston alumnus and participant- observer of some of the events. mennonites had been in vietnam since , serving as aid workers with mennonite central committee, missionaries with mc mennonite missions, or as voluntary service workers engaged in a variety of educational, development, or medical projects, a story more fully discussed in the chapter concerning tabor college. among those were hesston college graduate earl martin ( ) and pat hostetter martin, she having been there since . pat hostetter had entered pax service in vietnam at the same time as her more prominent sibling who will appear lonnie buerge, poem written about the tearing up of his draft card; lonnie buerge, email message to author, october , . john e. sharp, email message to the author, november , . in the next chapter. she was a canny observer and wrote long, detailed letters to her brother and family about what she heard and saw as a teenager and young adult, first in the united states, and then in vietnam. early in , she attended a commissioning service for dr. atlee beachy at the harrisonburg city church of the brethren in which two men who had just returned from vietnam were the featured speakers. after describing the effects of the war the men had observed, she reflected on the hostetters’ upcoming pax service: so doug it’s a poor situation we’re getting ourselves into and who knows how much longer the war and destruction will last---six or eight years possibly, the military men say. it seems almost hopeless to piece together people’s lives they’re still in the midst of destruction. but, it’s like atlee beachy says--- we’re going into vietnam to take the presence and compassion of christ with us so this in itself will be hope for some. she then turned to more personal concerns: the prospect of vietnam does bring with it though the possibility of a “untimely” death which doesn’t really scare me. i guess it’s the realization that there’s a greater force within than any of these without. “a man who is good for anything ought not to calculate the chance of living or dying, he ought only to consider whether he’s right or wrong.” in vietnam, she met and married earl martin in , a man who later was one of four mennonites to stay in the country as the war ended. their story in brief explains why their speaking tours brought the war home to mennonites, including the conservative conferences in the east, and to college students at hesston. not only could they speak to the suffering of the vietnamese in the war, like long-term missionary donald sensenig did. the latter described the horrific pain of children badly burned by napalm, but as pax workers expected to navigate the war under the gaze of the u.s. military, the martins also spoke to systemic issues their audiences usually had not considered. they were pat hostetter to doug hostetter, january , , douglas hostetter papers, / , mcusa. well aware of the pressure to play on “the u.s. team,” the view by the u.s. military that aid workers and missionaries were in vietnam to solve problems in the community and to provide the psychological arm of “winning the hearts and minds of the vietnamese people.” the encounter earl martin had with an army colonel near the quang ngai where the couple lived encapsulated the pressure that had always been present, but which was emphatic with the u.s. determination to win the war. martin and some other mcc pax men decided they wanted to clarify who they were and what they were doing with the local army officers: we explained who we were and why we were helping the refugees --- a humanitarian operation out of motivations of christian love. then the colonel took his turn. martin remembered his words clearly. ‘you’ve told me what you do. now let me tell you what i do. my job, to put it starkly, is to kill the enemy. the more viet cong we kill the better,’ the u.s, military man said. the colonel, however, wasn’t finished. ‘that’s not all, of course. we are also here with a mandate to win the hearts and minds of the vietnamese people. and that is where you some in, with your work in the refugee camps. we are glad you are part of “the team.”’ what the colonel said had been expressed to mcc and other aid workers in both explicit and metaphorical terms since . it unsettled those who heard it, but almost overwhelmed the moral sensibilities of those who heard it when their countrymen were now directly responsible for much of the misery. when the furloughed couple spoke to mennonite groups, they presented a picture that was far more complex than mennonites considered in their generous humanitarian aid. by , mcc had approved sending medical aid to north vietnam, a decision heavily informed by the hostetter and martin reports, and conformed by mcc representatives. the don sensenig could not contain his emotions during a conversation about what he and his wife had seen as missionaries working with injured children and displaced families. don sensenig, conversation with author, akron, pa, june , ; earl martin, quoted in david edward leaman, “politicized service and teamwork tensions: the mennonite central committee in vietnam, - , history senior seminar paper, goshen college, , - . decision met with some opposition, but it also resonated with enough mennonites to be endorsed. these were among the stories the couple brought to hesston college in , shortly before the first moratoriums and on the heels of a memorial by hesston college students that was soon viewed as a notorious protest. when ho chi minh, leader of north vietnam, died on september , , five hesston students sprang into action. phil blosser and dan kanagy, both children of missionaries to japan, along with three others, decided to emphasize his passing by making a three-by-five foot democratic republic of vietnam (drvn) flag, with its yellow star on a red background. dan clark and jean widmer purchased the fabric from a local shop, bill hess’s hesston variety store, and phyllis emerson sewed the flag. on september , “very early in the morning,” the five met at the campus’ flag pole. the american flag that had flown over the college ever since local mennonites had been harassed and beaten during world war i, had been taken down for the night. blosser offered a few words and they then held a moment of silence before hoisting the drvn flag to half-mast. it stayed there until morning, when a student on the way to breakfast briefly acquired it for his dormitory room until the flag’s owners retrieved it and re-installed it at half-mast on the pole, where it remained until college chapel worship. administrators then lowered the flag, returning it with the stipulation that it not be flown again. former dean of students john oyer declared that to fly such a flag on an american flag pole was at the least “an act in poor taste” and perhaps even illegal, an opinion echoed by others, according to the college newspaper account of the event. dan clark, email message to author, november , ; jean widmer clark, email message to author, november , ; “north vietnam flag flies briefly,” hesston college journal, september , , ; sharp, interview with author, november , ; sharp, school, - . the concerns raised by the five students were amplified five days later by the scheduled appearance of mennonite service workers earl martin and pat hostetter martin on september . on campus as part of a speaking tour before they returned to vietnam, the first-hand experiences of the vietnam christian service workers who had already served a three-year term reinforced what the students had done. after presenting a vivid account of the war and suffering in vietnam via slides and their own reflections, the pair emphasized that continued u.s. presence was obstructing the creation of peace in the country, rather than diminishing the conflict. standing before the chapel attendees, martin wore a black armband, while hostetter-martin wore a black patch affixed to her dress both to symbolize mourning and to model jesus’ teaching to love the enemy. martin’s call for a period of silence was, in the words of the hesston college reporter covering the event, “a more dramatic phenomenon” than the perhaps more inflammatory raising of the flag five days earlier. in the view of historian james juhnke, the protest involving the drvn flag might have stopped there, except that the reverend vern bender got involved. the same man who would shortly demand a debate with bethel, hesston, or tabor representatives found a crusade by which he might expose what he deemed the “hanoi-kremlin pseudo peace endorsements of the bethel and hesston college peace clubs.” bender bought large ads in the newton kansan that resembled handbills and directed people to hesston’s un-patriotic sanctioning of ho chi minh as “the george washington of vietnam”: viet cong flag hours over harvey county on campus flag pole! hear “north vietnam,” . confession of the enemy flag raisers! the lie that george washington was an atheist! how a professor cries out in agony: “the peace club is on trial” a blistering washington’s day expose of the peacenik march on his city! hear it all! p.m., sunday, february , in the people’s church the resulting brouhaha found bender on a search and destroy mission for the drvn flag, and he used the occasion as an opportunity for more patriotic flag waving as he circled the campus, then toured the county, in a station wagon outfitted with loudspeakers, american flags, and a sign mounted on a rack atop the car that read: “peace (?) marchers refused to surrender vietcong flag.” for the mc mennonites who eschewed publicity and who largely still favored simple dress as an act of humility, the attention was bad enough. in light of the denomination’s history of persecution, the blaring noise and garish signs directing people to hesston was in sharp contrast to the mc mennonites’ survival as “the quiet in the land.” moreover, bender’s focus on the american flag in the course of his harassment raised a sore point for the hesston college mennonites --- and others --- sensitive to its militaristic connotations, a point more fully considered shortly. mc mennonites in both virginia and juhnke, “clashing,” . replication of the advertisement in the newton kansan. the advertisement included nearly triple the amount of text in this brief depiction. the newton kansan, february , , . although the student protesters emphasized that the flag was a drvn flag, bender and other detractors insisted on the highly pejorative moniker “viet cong” instead. juhnke, “clashing,” - ; sharp, email correspondence, november , . pennsylvania had raised ongoing questions since the s about the theological implications of pledging allegiance and raising a salute to a national flag, and several faculty were acutely disturbed. nevertheless, the college continued to confront the war and the patriotism that surrounded it by allowing student protest, even if the campus administration did not endorse it as a means of witness. demonstrations and counter-demonstrations: re-visioning america, re- visioning disorder hesston hosted its own “national mobilization” events in november , with the chapel program featuring pro- and anti-war speakers and the initial parts of a “dramatic dialog” that culminated in december. members of the hesston college “peace concern” joined the bethel peace club in various activities, including the march to wichita on october , that ended the moratorium events and which affected dwight bitikofer so profoundly. tabor students then took part in hesston’s march a month later, when the “peace concern” led a protest walk down the town’s main street to the local post office, actions reminiscent of the first bethel anti-war walk in north newton. this was the march later described by joseph miller with sol yoder as “pied piper,” although in fact, faculty, members of the community, and mc mennonite minister jerry weaver of the whitestone mennonite church walked without yoder in what was david l. weaver-zercher, "between two kingdoms: virginia mennonites and the american flag," mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - , and john perry, "not pledging as liturgy: lessons from karl barth and american mennonites on refusing national oaths." mennonite quarterly review , no. (october ): - . described as an orderly procession. in october, the club also organized a forum devoted to a discussion about whether a christian college should fly the american flag. like counter-demonstrations held nationwide and characterized as “rally round the flag” events, the town soon had its own response to the college’s protests. nationally, such rallies held throughout culminated on july when god and country were blended on "honor america day" in washington dc, an event highlighted by billy graham’s appearance and interfaith morning services at lincoln memorial. in hesston, the event held five months earlier in late february promised to hold the same melding. framed as the dedication of a new flagpole outside the municipal hall built in , event organizers included local dignitaries, a representative from mcconnell air force base in wichita, members of the veterans of foreign wars, a flag donated by representative garner shriver, and the high school band. a bugle sounded, the flag was raised, and “hesston men” fired the traditional salute followed by the band’s rendition of the national anthem. the methodist minister opened and closed the formal program with an invocation and benediction, mc mennonite minister peter wiebe sandwiched into the midst of the event as the dedicatory speaker. the staging was set for the celebration of community, albeit one with significant issues underlying its daily life. master sergeant corckum from mcconnell asked his approximately one hundred listeners whether they could ever “fly the flag too much?” and “can we read the bible too much?” wiebe then stepped to the podium, “hesston,” peace notes, december , . as noted earlier, sol yoder had not yet arrived on campus in spite of later recollections. expected to give a rousing dedication of the flag, which had flown briefly over the federal capitol and had been supplied by congressman shriver. instead, wiebe deconstructed the town’s underlying assumptions by using the flag as a different kind of symbol than one associated with military might and political authority. he began inauspiciously, eschewing his usual extemporaneous speaking to read from the written remarks he uncharacteristically had prepared: we have gathered here in a celebration of the blessings god has allowed us to enjoy in our country. the flag which we have raised over hesston, and shall fly over our city in coming years, will have much to say to us. i would like for you my fellow citizens to think with me few moments about what it might symbolize. and, then, he continued, “the american flag is to be a symbol of the best for which the american people stand. we have come to this country from almost every country in the world, in search of the freedoms that all people desire and deserve." the scene was set for what the now- present sol yoder feared would be a celebration of civil religion. instead, the minister issued not only a direct criticism of the town’s domestic attitudes toward a low income housing project, but also a pointed critique of u.s. involvement in vietnam, coupled with remarks advocating an expansive, patriotic, non-nationalistic use of the american flag. he first turned to the town’s racial issues, symbolized for townspeople as the fear of a badly needed low-income housing project” “lions club flag pole dedicated february ,” hesston record, march , , . the action reflected flag etiquette of not flying a flag at night. “the major part” of the minister’s remarks were later published in the hesston record. peter wiebe, “the symbol of our country,” hesston record, march , , . sol yoder’s thoughts and his interaction with wiebe were reported by james juhnke and were based on interviews. juhnke, “clashing,” - . we have, in hesston, hopefully, agreed on low-cost housing; we have agreed to have a safe and free community. if this flag flies over hesston and we do less than this for our underprivileged millions, then it is a sham, a farce, it ought to be torn down. he then moved on to american militarism and the meaning of nationalism, while obliquely attacking domestic injustice that was not only a national issue, but a local one: i don’t like to see the flag fly on a military base in another country. i have a feeling we do not belong there, and history in vietnam and elsewhere is proving how badly mistaken we have been in our military efforts. our threats today are the inside ghettoes communism takes over where social ills are not met by the country. the best way to fight communism is in determining to live up to all that we have promised in the declaration of independence…. not a narrow patriotism or nationalism—but a new and international spirit needs to emerge. we need to be loyal to america, but as citizens of the world. . . the flag is not a whip for lining people up. in his conclusion, the pastor asked his somewhat stunned audience to join him in “the army of the lord,” under the “commander in chief [who] is the man of sorrows, the prince of peace.” as the audience moved into a recitation of the pledge of allegiance, followed by a closing ceremony and lowering of the flag, wiebe instead remained silent, folding his hands behind his back and bowing his head as if in prayer. for hesston student lonnie buerge, the dedication of the flag was his first protest against the war: it was the fall of when i started at hesston. vietnam was an issue but most of us had student deferments and, frankly, it seemed a long way off at that time. however, that sense of isolation soon started to crumble around us as the protests and the stories of the war came to us. the burden of knowing that there was so ibid. ibid. lonnie buerge, email communication to author, october , . on tabor student involvement in the hesston walk, ellen kroeker, email communication to author, november , . juhnke reported on the ceremony and excerpts of the speakers’ remarks. james c. juhnke, “anabaptists at the flagpole,” the mennonite (april , ), - . much suffering while we enjoyed our college years weighed on some of us. the first time that i recall doing any form of protest was at a dedication of a new post office in hesston at which peter wiebe spoke. he was pastor at hesston mennonite church at that time. i recall turning around backwards as the flag was raised. it was a small gesture and i was alone there but it was my own first step to begin to see that we had a chance to state our beliefs and we needed to do it. wiebe’s references to racial issues also resonated with the student government vice-president who later recalled that the campus itself could barely address them. racial tensions were starting to be felt on campus and i recall listening to black students and how lonely and angry they felt. i recall asking for patience and calm and now i regret asking for any time of patience since we have made so little progress since then. by the time he was ready to graduate, he had not only engaged in a conscious act of protest, but come to understand the deeper implications of resistance in both real and symbolic forms. nixon’s invasion of cambodia and the subsequent killing of four protesters at kent state university in ohio hit home for the conservative mennonite from small-town missiouri. later that spring, the kent state shootings took place. i recall going as a member of student government to ask the administration how we were going to respond. i was told that we were not. i told them there was no way i was going to let that happen and so [i bought and] we placed plants at the front of chapel that day and asked that the chaplain mention the plants as symbols of the dead students. i recall that we rang the bells after chapel and the community complained about the noise. now, that seems so small and insignificant but it was another step. chaplain lederach who had outwitted vern bender’s attempts to create a lasting symbol, was initially reluctant to tender a transitory remembrance of those who died as a result of dissent. lonnie buerge, email message to author, october , . lonnie buerge, email message to author, october , . buerge, email correspondence with author, october , ; interview with author, october , . although the chaplain changed his mind because of buerge’s persistence, the town was ready to complain about the bell ringing. even such brief actions were viewed as disorder. flags on american soil: loyalties and kingdoms at hesston college vern bender eventually acquired the charred remains of the vietcong flag in an event charged with both melodrama and dark humor. in february, five months after hesston peace concern member raised the vietcong flag, hesston college chaplain john lederach met with rev. bender to discuss a resolution to his demands. he was unsuccessful. bender was determined to make an example of the “vietcong flag,” reportedly planning to burn it in front of the newton county courthouse by which the earlier moratorium participants had filed on their “march to wichita.” and, the mc mennonite, who opposed public protest, but who also had strong convictions about nationalism, was as determined to keep such a symbol out of the firebrand’s hands. arriving at lederach’s home in hesston with two veterans in tow, bender stormed back to newton when the chaplain refused to give him the flag. upon bender’s angry departure, lederach suggested that they burn the flag as traditionally performed on captured “enemy flags,” a process successfully completed with gasoline and a lighted match. the chaplain gathered the charred remains, gave them to the two veterans, and then gave the abandoned victors a ride home to newton. bender kept the fragments on display under glass at his church for many years and occasionally asserted his authority in the community by taking them with him to local events. “burn flag at hesston confrontation,” hutchinson news, february , , ; “viet cong flag burned at hesston,” newton kansan, february , , ; sharp, interview, november , ; “burned flag remnants open for public display” advertisement, the newton kansan, february , ; juhnke, “clashing,” - . although vern bender had retrieved what he considered a valuable symbol of the disruptive actions occurring at hesston college and bethel college, the hesston students still debated the presence of an american flag on campus. the campus community congress finally decided on may , that the school should not fly the flag, but the decision was quickly overturned by the administration that stated in an official ”flag policy statement,” that indeed it would. the policy was written in classic two kingdom language, which also made a bow to the original statement issued by bethel college at its founding. the decision was “consistent with our anabaptist heritage” because it recognized the separation of church and state in america: we fly the flag because the united states government tolerates dissent and makes a serious attempt to respect personal convictions, and because the united states from early colonial times has welcomed religious dissenters of every type. thus hesston college’s administration had re-interpreted the contemporary use of the flag as a nationalistic symbol in favor of its representation of minority dissent, although historian sharp noted the real reason for its restoration to the flagpole was “alleged student and community disapproval.” local anger was focused on whether or not hesston flew the american flag, but it also included the larger activism regarding racial issues and antiwar protests, actions the community saw as disorder. james juhnke conducted interviews with both sol yoder and peter wiebe and learned that each had received threatening telephone calls from a prominent individual whose voice they recognized. as the celebration of “honor america day” was taking place in the nation’s capital, peter wiebe received a telephone call. “i want you to know that we are going to “flag policy statement,” hesston college journal, may , , . sharp, interview, november , . run you out of town. two things we don’t need in hesston are long haired people and blacks.” wiebe remained in his position before resigning january , to take an appointment at a different mennonite church. sol yoder was likewise threatened at a future date and encouraged to leave not just town, but the continent, as the caller offered to buy him a plane ticket to africa where he might join the bethel historian james juhnke who was in botswana on a service appointment. after seventy members of the hesston college community helped the hesston methodist church with a service project, the local animosity died down. sometime following commencement in , after the students left campus, the flag disappeared into the back of chaplain lederach’s desk. i noticed early one morning that the folded flag was on the bench outside my office. someone from the maintenance staff, after taking it down the night before, had apparently left it there. . . . i saw it, picked it up and put the flag in the back of my bottom desk drawer.. . . that day the flag did not fly over the campus. as i remember, no one seemed to notice! several times toward the end of that year the question was asked, “what happened to the flag?” no one seemed to know. i did not say anything. the reality was that it became a non-issue. the year ended and nothing was said. . . . to me, this little story illustrated how at times, making things into such a big issue could have divided the faculty and campus, but a quiet intervention kept the issue from becoming divisive and destructive. according to sharp, neither the faculty nor president laban peachey (himself a descendant of conservative mc mennonite dissenters who refused to salute the flag) had been in favor of flying the flag and so did not press the issue. during the spring of , after finding the flagpole lying on its side several times, the maintenance department removed the pole and, eventually, the concrete foundation. hesston now flies no flags except in the cafeteria, where flags of all the juhnke, “clashing,” . john lederach to james juhnke, may , cited in juhnke, “clashing,” . nationalities of current students are on display. the college had quietly reasserted its nonconformist stance without calling attention to its decision, but it also placed the american flag alongside those of other nations, thereby reaffirming its view about nationalism. while hesston students continued to participate in bethel protest activities, they also conducted their own. the college’s student-led “peace concern” organized an anti-war film series. history professor sol yoder initiated a variety of actions, including a procession around campus in with a coffin-shaped box. by , the campus was quiet. the vietnam war forced the members of the mc mennonites at hesston to come to terms with the flag, and they had concluded that it was a symbol of nationalism, which could not be compatible with a christianity that extended throughout the world. moreover, the use of the stars-and-stripes in a war that was increasingly seen an unjust exercise of american might was incompatible with the mennonite church’s basic stance on peace. in spite of its association with minority voice and dissent, it could not be flown in good conscience. the mc mennonite desire to quietly live on good terms with the national government had been jolted by the vietnam war. for hesston college, the american flag demanded an allegiance it could not give in good conscience, and so the school discontinued flying it, except alongside other flags representing student nationalities. margaret wiebe, hesston college librarian, conversation with author, wichita kansas, fall . also, sharp, interview, november , . sharp, email. the notion of “prophet” was commonly understood as a valid function in mc mennonite (old mennonite) congregations, cheryl miller ramer, interview with author, october , ; joe eck, “prophets spoke on politics” [letter to the editor], the mennonite, october , , . the college tolerated its student dissent and the often iconoclastic vision of sol yoder and others who agreed with his vision of prophetic faithfulness. in spite of the town’s ire, the college supported its students, even if administrators and faculty had to be pushed to do so. it also supported projects that healed some of the sharpest rifts between the town and gown. but it was also willing to engage in its own highly symbolic actions that opposed society’s militaristic claims. in spite of its attempts to meld with the local culture, by the college was willing to discontinue its use of a particular national symbol, focusing instead on the loyalties that peter wiebe had explored in his speech during the flag dedication: “we need to be loyal to america, but as citizens of the world.” part iii: struggling with conflicted visions chapter -- tabor college and unresolved tensions prelude tabor college was established in to provide higher education for mennonite brethren and krimmer mennonite brethren. its location was chosen after a competitive bidding process with four kansas communities offering their reasons why the college should choose them. hillsboro overwhelmingly won over second place aulne after individuals pledged $ , and offered the following: twenty-eight lots; six churches including a mennonite brethren church; a law that prohibited the sale of intoxicating beverages; and a “clean german town of from to , inhabitants, with … prospects from another passenger train with east- west connections.” the original building was dedicated on september , . the college did not fly an american flag as bethel and hesston had done from their early years, but instead it hoisted a large triangular pennant with “tabor college” written on it. after a suspicious fire destroyed the original building on april , , leaving the students without classrooms and lingering questions about the nature of the fire, the school rebuilt. although the german-speaking population had been pressured during world war i to buy war bonds, to avoid speaking german, and to display the american flag, it was never concluded that the fire was due to arson, and its memory has been contested. on the one hand, there were insistent stories from several individuals, which were passed down through families, peggy goertzen, “birth of a vision: our own school,” in tabor college: a century of transformation, - , ed. douglas b. miller (hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, ), - ; peggy goertzen, director of the center for mennonite brethren studies, interview with author, hillsboro, ks, october , . that the fire was deliberately set. on the other hand, the college history maintains that it was likely due to an unfortunate accident with the furnace. the local history of hillsboro implies as much in its account of the fire, although it omits the caustic comments about the war by the mennonite editor of hillsboro’s german-language newspaper, vorwaerts, which drew criticism locally and within the state. moreover, anti-german feeling ran high enough in marion county that during the war, a member of the first tabor college graduating class of , fled with his family to canada. receiving a draft notice, and then learning that vigilantes were searching for him, he and his family hid with relatives, then departed to saskatchewan after his father quickly sold the farm. regardless, tabor still did not fly the american flag until later in the century. to date, no one knows at what point the college installed a flag pole in front of the lohrenz administration building and began to fly the national banner. one long-term hillsboro resident, former administrator ( - ), and college board member for seventeen years ( - ), recalled, “the flag was flown inconsistently. it was flown for long periods of time, then not at all.” by the time of the escalation of the vietnam war in , the national banner was raised and lowered every day. goertzen, birth, ; raymond f. wiebe, hillsboro, kansas: the city on the prairie (hillsboro, ks: multi business press, inc., ), ; “big fire loss: tabor college,” marion record, may , , . regarding the conflicted interpretation of the fire, anonymous long-term hillsboro resident, conversation with author, hillsboro, ks, november , ; juhnke, “mob,” - ; juhnke discovered angry reactions in kansas city, topeka, and marion, the county seat and a town with a reputation that had little use for mennonite pacifists. juhnke, vision, - ; john a. toews is more nuanced, although leaves the reader to draw conclusions about the impact of the newspaper articles. john a. toews, history, ; c.c. regier, professor of history at bethel college offers an important clue in one of his letters when he wrote in september that it was easier to comply with the demands of the loyalty league "than to erect a new college building.” paul toews, quoting delores reimer, "jacob frank balzer and the experience at bethel college, - " (student paper, bethel college, ). paul toews, “fundamentalist conflict in mennonite colleges: a response to cultural transitions?” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ), ; harry bennett, long-term resident of marion, email message to author, september , . for the story of the pacifist tabor was founded with high hopes that it would be a liberal arts college that would position its students to excel in academics and in service to the church. as its first president, biologist h. w. lohrenz articulated it, tabor was founded to offer a liberal arts education in a christian setting, to prepare young men and women for spiritual leadership in the church, and to provide a program of vocational training. it was the special concern of the association, of the board, and of the teachers that the school be a seminary of real christianity, where the spirit of prayer could prevail and where souls could become better grounded in the spiritual life. as far as the church was concerned, the college was centered in the ideal environment. according to historian richard g. kyle, hillsboro was the “heart of the mennonite brethren world” between and . the town itself had only , inhabitants, but it was home to several denominational offices, including the mennonite brethren board of missions, the mennonite brethren publishing house, and three mennonite brethren congregations, including the largest in the denomination, hillsboro mennonite brethren church. there were also two krimmer mennonite brethren congregations that would unite with the parent denomination in . it was a focused environment, with the best the brotherhood had to offer. who moved his family to canada, see dale suderman, “a view from afar: hillsboro, home of ‘the simpsons,’” hillsboro free press, august , , . regarding the college’s practice of flying the flag, raymond c. schlichting, interview with peggy goertzen, hillsboro, ks, november , . schlichting also had been a civilian public service conscientious objector in world war ii. wesley j. prieb, "tabor college (hillsboro, kansas, usa)," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://gameo.org/index.php?title= tabor college (hillsboro, kansas, usa&oldid= (accessed october , ). richard g. kyle, “years of crisis and transition ( - ), in tabor college, ed. miller, . as far as the liberal arts vision was concerned, the constituency remained conflicted. early graduating classes had a high proportion of those who went on to graduate school and achievements in the sciences, the arts, education, and religious service, but the constituency remained suspicious of these high-achieving graduates and how they could fit within the needs of the church. tabor embodied the tensions and narrowness evidenced by the denomination itself. when recent russian émigré and future seminary president, j. b. toews, arrived to start school in , he found the local churches to be both insular and clannish, with mennonite brethren churches unable to cooperate with other mennonites, such as the general conference mennonites. the groups had split before coming to the united states and still could not resolve their differences. noted toews, “the social and spiritual gap between the various mennonite church communities reflected a kind of spiritual narrowness.” like bethel, tabor encountered heavy pressure from american fundamentalism, particularly acute on not only the attempt to defend biblical authority, but also to defend the culture against the intrusions of “modernism.” in kansas, both schools endured the penetrating gaze and extraordinary influence of second wave fundamentalist gerald b. winrod, whose polemics against communism resonated particularly well with mennonites whose families had either recently fled russia or who had relatives there. his exhortations to clean living and temperance were especially welcomed by those whose fellowship in the old country had been rent in part by alcohol, but his incorporation of dispensationalism resonated especially with mennonite brethren whose history included an embrace of end-time thinking. for tabor and j.b. toews, jb, - . toews was not a typical undergraduate. he had fled russia in and arrived at tabor with four years at the university of the ukraine and graduate work at the university of amsterdam. classified as a first-year student because he lacked proper documentation, he observed tabor’s dilemmas from - . bethel, however, winrod’s focus on mennonites as reliable allies created stress that was almost catastrophic. for tabor, in particular, fundamentalist pressures resulted in its adoption of a ten- point doctrinal statement. the - catalog explained why it now published the credo: “because of the many-sided inquiries as to where tabor college stands doctrinally in these days of modernistic and fundamentalist contention, it seems appropriate to give the following statement.” according to historian paul toews’ analysis, during this time tabor lost four young faculty who had the intellectual acumen to set a different trajectory for the college. all tabor alumni from those early promising graduating classes, they initially persisted for the sake of the potential vision. p.s. goertz was one of those, and toews explains what happened: at the beginning of his last year, he wrote to his mentor, kenneth s. latourette at yale, requesting an alternative job. tabor had become unacceptable because "there is no little opposition to real scholarship such as a first class college should encourage. a narrow spirit of fundamentalism is hard at work. no teacher, though evangelical and warm as well as christo-centric, will be safe on the faculty if he accepts any results of modern scholarship. george r. marsden, fundamentalism and american culture: the shaping of twentieth-century evangelicalism: - (new york: oxford university press, ). toews interacts with marsden’s argument, agreeing with his more nuanced interpretation of fundamentalism and developing the argument that mennonites both adapted pieces that enabled them to americanize, while resisting first wave fundamentalism’s attitudes toward war and “the constricted language of [biblical] inspiration,” paul toews, “fundamentalist conflict,” - , quotation from . for pressure on kansas mennonites, see james c. juhnke, “gerald b. winrod and the kansas mennonites,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (october ): - and robin deich ottoson, “defending the faith: the impact of gerald b. winrod on the mennonite brethren in kansas, - ,” forthcoming publication; - tabor college catalog, . paul toews, “fundamentalist,” - . the other three promising young scholars were adolph franz, m.s. schlichting, and p.e. schellenberg, the latter later returning to be president. like bethel, tabor was governed by an independent corporation, in tabor’s case chiefly because the brotherhood did not want the financial commitment required to maintain the college. after budget could not be met in , the school dropped its junior and senior years, thereby becoming a junior college and losing four of its senior faculty. a last-ditch effort transferred the school to the general conference of the mennonite brethren churches of north america and the general conference of the krimmer mennonite brethren. in order to reorganize, the college closed from to and, after offering the presidency to four individuals who declined, settled on a. e. janzen who agreed to assume the office. he remained in the position until . he loved tabor and he was an ardent dispensationalist who looked to israel as the clock of prophecy and who struggled with focusing tabor as a liberal arts college rather than a bible college. his fondest hope, he related in his memoirs, would be that the school would be a training ground for missions. the community itself remained insular, with the shift from german to english evidence of some of the acculturative differences between gcs and mbs in kansas. according to paul toews, “the transition came on the heels of world war i. for mb mennonites the transition came during world war ii and through the s. the delayed language transition reflects a larger pattern of cultural insularity.” in hillsboro, the language issues are still remembered by those alive in the s and s as sources of division. deich ottoson, “defending,” . paul toews, “fundamentalist,” . two long-term residents of hillsboro, one gc mennonite and one methodist, remember how contentious the language issue was in daily life when shopping. sylvia abrahams, conversation with the author, summer, and charlotte kennedy takahashi, summer, . after peter e. schellenberg assumed the presidency of the college in and attempted to strengthen the liberal arts model, the school was once again roiled by demands that he combat modernism. he was the first president with a ph.d. and he was the first to resign after nine years of pressure about his discipline (psychology), and even his character, charges some of his accusers later regretted. the rest of the decade was spent trying to regain footing --- and deciding whether or not --- or how --- to embrace the anabaptist identity that had now been under explicit discussion by mc mennonites and gc mennonites for almost ten years. as discussed in chapter , the mbs remained suspicious of inter-mennonite cooperation, and with the loss of p.c. hiebert to sterling college during the shutdown of the early s, they keenly experienced the intellectual and spiritual isolation that such interaction would help overcome. hiebert continued to represent mbs with mennonite central committee, but it is easy to surmise that his no longer living in hillsboro within easy range of denominational offices did nothing to ameliorate the suspicion with which mbs continued to view mcc once the substantial aid to their brethren was concluded after the war. only a handful of individuals and the routine meetings of the conference on mennonite educational and cultural problems fostered sustained inter-mennonite discussions locally. by when a consultant considered whether or not the three mennonite schools in kansas could possibly unite, the prospect of joining with tabor was seen as impossible. the long vietnam war comes to hillsboro in , the college inaugurated a new president who would take the school through the political and cultural changes of the s until his resignation in , but before he arrived, the “report of the commission, ,” vern preheim papers, mla. college found itself uniquely positioned to engage the vietnam war through the presence of a new member of the faculty and the recent formation of the project that vetted conscientious objectors for the denomination. each situated the school in larger contexts, one international, and one national. yet the impact of each on mennonites, tabor college, and its students was widely variant over the long s. in particular, the founding of the alternative service program discussed later evidences the struggles that mennonite brethren faced within their own singular brotherhood and the inter-mennonite cooperation one of their founding fathers had so carefully and lovingly cultivated. vietnam through a detailed lens: acts of mercy, mennonite memories, and the travels of delbert wiens mennonite central committee (mcc) remained a fledgling organization with a tolerance for the unconventional. founded in by representatives of nine mennonite and brethren in christ “brotherhoods,” the association born out of relief efforts after world war i in france and germany had since its inception --- even before its formal founding --- immediately incorporated kansas mennonites, including those associated with all three of the mennonite colleges in the state and their local churches. as described previously, mcc generated intense interest and fervent involvement by american and canadian mennonites. pressed with urgent appeals to focus on relief in russia, mbs and gcs in central kansas often knew first or second hand of the suffering, because many still had extended families there. for those who did not, the reports of famine, epidemics, atrocities of revolution and counter-revolution, and stranded kinsmen gripped those who arrived in hillsboro in july to hear the report of the studien kommission from russia. after five years of intensive efforts at relief and immigration assistance, members of the ad hoc group hesitated, then kept delicate lines of communication in place, which later allowed mcc to function as an inter-mennonite group without directly competing with denominational or conference organizations. by the early s, when mcc was established as a clearinghouse for mennonite men fulfilling conscientious objection or alternative service, there were decidedly mixed feelings about performing the pax service other mennonite men were doing in europe. earlier, mb men serving in cps camps during world war ii had resisted the denomination’s attempts to separate them from other mennonites, an encounter wesley prieb described in his popular biography of p.c. hiebert. he wrote, during the cps era, some mennonite brethren wanted to place their volunteers in separate camps for spiritual nurture. hiebert helped conduct a survey among mennonite brethren camps; the overwhelming consensus was: ”don’t separate us.” they had learned to know and appreciate other mennonites in the camps. but these interests did not extend either to serving in europe during the s post-war reconstruction projects that had provided for a rich collaboration with european pacifists or to performing work that did not come with a paycheck. former cps worker prieb recorded hiebert’s lament that the enthusiasm and support for voluntary service among the mennonite brethren was less than hiebert had hoped for. he once said to his conference, “our brethren do not seem to grasp the importance of vs.” mennonite conferences were quite diverse and often shared little fellowship with each other, “some influential mennonites feared such meetings where one could be unequally yoked with other mennonites who did not dress, speak, and act as one did … mcc was not a marriage born of affection but a cautious contract born of necessity,” robert s. kreider and rachel waltner goossen, hungry, thirsty, a stranger: the mcc experience. (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), , - . even nearly years after the first aid shipments, the thrift stores in hillsboro and newton frequently carry family histories and self-published biographies that detail the sufferings in russia (the ukraine). prieb, he gave, . ibid. but, the alternative service that leveraged many men out of their rural and sectarian cocoons into a wider cultural universe included some who later became members of the tabor faculty and administration, including business manager raymond wiebe, board member raymond schlichting, english professor wesley prieb, bible and religion professor clarence hiebert and part-time communications instructor dwight wiebe, who also began leading the mb, the latter two working in postwar europe as pax men. the sixth man who joined them briefly as the vietnam war was being escalated by kennedy was a live wire from the mb enclave of corn, oklahoma. the cultural isolation and apolitical stances that mennonites preferred were soon challenged by the experience of vietnam, and one of the chief mennonite actors was the iconoclastic mennonite brethren delbert wiens. changing the culture: delbert wiens as the french began evacuating from vietnam in march , mcc director orie miller made plans to act, hustling a naïve twenty-three year old with a bent for independent thinking and improvisation through processing for a passport and visa. as wiens explained sixty years later, “i had been hoping that god wanted me in germany [to fulfill my alternative service as a conscientious objector], and i wished devoutly that it had been god who had spoken to me instead of orie because, as i muttered to myself, ‘with god it would have been possible to argue.’” by august, wiens was in vietnam, with a charge to “establish work in a means delbert wiens, “my saga: “in” and “out,” in a dangerous mind: the ideas and influence of delbert l. wiens, ed. w. marshall johnston and daniel j. crosby (eugene, or: wipf & stock, ), . consistent with mcc’s goals -- in the name of christ.” mcc was thus the first north american protestant relief agency to enter the country. wiens hit the ground running, determined to organize relief efforts to meet the needs of the hundreds of thousands of refugees flooding the south from the north, designated communist only a scant two months earlier. within weeks and through the widespread contact the voluble mennonite was able to make with usaid workers, he not only comprehended the herculean relief task at hand, but also discovered a wide range of contradictions in what was happening: only a small number of the refugees had any clear idea why their lives were being torn apart. most of them were village peasants whose parish priests had heeded the orders of higher-ups to bring them to a northern port so that the u.s. navy could transport them south. scrambling to implement mcc’s typical approach to refugee assistance, he immediately worked on operation reindeer, designed to distribute clothing and food to as many as possible. he soon pressed those at headquarter in akron, pennsylvania to re-orient shipments of supplies, eschewing wheat, butter and cheese (traditional mennonite forms of relief that he discovered the vietnamese were feeding to their pigs) in favor of oil, rice and dried milk powder. interspersed with his witty embrace of what it would realistically take to shuttle supplies (“with only a motorbike … this will require , trips to deliver the reindeer packages alone”) were more sober reflections about motives, corruption, the murky boundaries of non-military aid, cross-cultural issues, political manipulation and instability. these not only reflected his growing understanding of the entanglements that were already present in vietnam in --- but also kreider and goossen, . delbert wiens, “report for the month of october,” october , , . mcc wiens, delbert, / . mcc archives, akron, pa (hereafter, mcc). concern for mcc’s constituency. originally sharing his daily diary entries with those at headquarters, he quickly hedged what he would share if the home office published his detailed entries as he discovered had been done by an overly-eager publications manager. regarding his journal entries, he emphasized, “for goodness sake, don’t send them to the executive committee,” a charge he would abandon for the sake of candid exchange as mcc leadership began to understand the complex picture that emerged and carefully guarded what was distributed for publication. by november, he expressed his cautious hopes that mcc might obtain u.s. foa (foreign operations administration) funds to augment relief work, a hope that was realized when mcc’s john byler signed the contract for mcc to distribute packages bearing the foa emblem. as foa provided office space, mcc operated as it had before, as if it were an independent agency able to purchase and distribute supplies with government money. but interspersed with his energetic and hopeful observations, there were ominous hints of an atypical relief situation. as wiens mulled over whether general hinh or president diem would prevail politically, he watched the effects of corruption: “the officials are spending money like salesmen on an unlimited expense account. nor is it used wisely. but things are being done.” he also observed what seemed to be incongruities among the refugees, ranging from their characterization as more than percent roman catholic in a country at large of only percent, ibid. he and co-worker adam ewert lamented being “forced to pay a man the equivalent of an mcc worker’s monthly allowance for a half day of interpreting.” ibid, . to the perceptive scrutiny that in some areas being proposed by the u.s. government as areas for relief, that in fact, the refugees were dependents of army personnel who needed no assistance. through his contacts in diem’s office, he also discovered in , that diem was not quite sure whether to allow mennonites to consider founding medical missions and leprosariums. according to diem’s secretary, the president hesitated at mennonite involvement: “i don’t know whether we should approve this project or not. [mennonites] are in some kind of trouble with the army at home. they refuse to join their army.” ironically, over the next four years, wiens and mcc discovered the implications of a close relationship with the u.s. government. on the one hand, by providing relief funds and materials, mcc realized that it was allowing itself to be used for potential military investment, and on the other hand, it knew its efforts were significant for many of the refugees who did not have other resources. i have heard that usom is not to start any new projects after all … it seems they are running out of money … this could mean that mr. collins (or rather general) plans to curtail the u.s. contributions to the economics of the country and divert to military buildup. this has been hinted, but it is forbidden under the geneva agreements. wiens’ observations in late november hinted at the mixed motives and the presence that would remain for the next twenty years. and, as he exchanged candid letters with mcc headquarters, he built a standard of transparency and trust that enabled the creation of a realistic picture of what was occurring in vietnam, that later enabled members of the peace section in foa was created in and headed by harold stassen. delbert wiens, to william t. snyder november , , . mcc corr. “indo-china office, sept-aug ,” mcc. delbert wiens, to orie miller, august , . mcc corr. “indo-china office, dec- aug ,” mcc. particular to apprehend the situation and to greet the u.s. government descriptions with a exceptionally informed skepticism. when mcc deliberated over how best to meet long-term needs in vietnam, and shifted some of its attention to medical services in , mennonites in the u.s. and canada were aware of not only the needs, but also the ever-present state of war. and, on may , , when mennonite pax man daniel gerber and two others were abducted from a leprosarium by viet minh guerrillas, never to be released, the incident was but one in a long stream of reports from the field in vietnam. the mennonites in north america were well aware of the war long before many americans, while mcc leadership had a thorough picture of the entanglements wiens had earlier explicated. after returning from vietnam, an exhausted wiens recovered himself first by taking the long way home via steamers and overland excursions, then pursuing a masters in divinity from yale, followed by a last minute call to the local bible academy in his family’s former stomping grounds in the mennonite brethren community of corn, oklahoma. the worlds could not have been more markedly different, but he concealed his insecurities and adapted to both, ever the improviser. accepting appointment at tabor college in as “media man” and part-time instructor in english, he soon found himself teaching “introduction to philosophy” when the philosophy professor was killed in an automobile accident shortly before the term started. his service there lasted less than three years before he entered the phd program at the university of delbert wiens, to mcc assistant executive, secretary william t. snyder, november , , . delbert wiens to mr. byler, november , , . mcc ibid. delbert wiens to mr. byler, november , , . mcc ibid. “no word on kidnaped [sic] workers in vietnam,” the gospel herald, , no. (july , ): . the other two workers were archie mitchell and dr. eleanor a. vietti. chicago. but, he had left his mark on both the mennonite brethren school and the town through oblique marks that addressed foundational issues rather than direct political action. wiens’ short-lived presence at tabor college forced some of the highly conservative students to relinquish their narrow views of the world, particularly on civil rights and world issues, to think in complex terms, and to question their quietist approach to activism. as one former student explained: i consider the unique ways in which [he] interacted with and influenced us … having scootered, sampled, sipped, and supped his way through much of asia, europe, and the states, dr. wiens was to become an habitué of tabor’s student cafeteria, and, later, our new student union. teaching took place not only in the classroom; it was ubiquitous. for the students who had been reared on a combination of anabaptism and dispensational theology, wiens challenged them on presuppositional grounds. “[he] played cognitive hardball. his classes challenged us to ask the hard questions, postulate answers, and act upon our convictions with vigor… we found ourselves in positions to tolerate ambiguity, although sometimes we “wigged out.” in the highly patriarchal world of the mennonite brethren, it is compelling that wiens included gender in his critique of foundational issues at tabor. although these have yet to be explored, it is intriguing to know that women at tabor in the late s after his departure became some of the most articulate and assertive antiwar protesters on campus. “invariably, in surveying the pre- wiens, “my saga,” - . faith nickel adams, “a living braid of social justice” in johnston and crosby, . ibid. feminist era, anyone interested in cultural change would want to know what comprised the education of young women at tabor… wiens was a feminist ahead of his time.” in the town of hillsboro no one to date directly attributes their subsequent protests to the influence of delbert wiens, but compelling evidence gleaned from the church records of the largest gc mennonite church in town suggests otherwise. first mennonite church, which had focused many of its energies on a new church building, had nevertheless also concerned itself with civil rights issues, with several families hosting youth from chicago’s south side for two weeks. in shortly after wiens gave a missions presentation, the church abruptly allocated half of its annual “lenten folder” missions budget to vietnam. wiens had found a ready listener. later described as one of the staunchest anti-vietnam war protesters in town, the high school biology teacher and member of that church was one of the deacons responsible for funding the project. his strong influence on students who became some of the most articulate protesters at bethel college in nearby newton, has been emphasized in oral interviews recorded in the decade after the war. thus delbert wiens remains one who argued the peace position, contended for conscientious objection, pushed his students to choose an anabaptist approach to thinking and living, and dis-assembled the provincial mindsets of students as the war escalated before he left tabor in . he left a strong impression on students, including some of the first individuals to question the war in biting editorials. but he did not directly protest or foment protest. ibid. “the messenger,” [first mennonite church newsletter], , no. .first mennonite church (hillsboro) church newsletters, mla, bethel college; ted koontz recorded interview, , mla, bethel college; “wiens was always in trouble with the townspeople because he always had the right word [to argue] for conscientious objection,” anonymous long-term hillsboro resident, interview with author, november , . the interview was conducted on the condition of anonymity. in regard to his impact on students, including the cadre of young males who lived in housing they called the abbey of theleme, see david l. brown, interview mcc left a second footprint that engaged the long vietnam war at tabor college, although this was even more indirect and by default. although his presence had the potential to extend the direct witness to the horrors of the conflict and the complicated entanglements that were enacted in the small country, there is little evidence that he engaged in such analysis. rather, the optimistic, gregarious dwight wiebe offered the kind of involvement that mennonite brethren approved. he maintained a classic separation between the two kingdoms and thereby cooperated with the u.s. government in order to protect their young men from military service. but what was an essentially quiescent interpretation of the separation between politics and the church became increasingly problematic as the decade continued under the pressures of the war, not only for young mbs, but their denomination and its service program. conscientious objection, christian service, and conflicted beliefs: institutional and personal, but not political one man who was determined that non-resistance be recognized in theory and demonstrated in practice was dwight wiebe, the director of the christian service program for the mennonite brethren from through . the project, which was located in hillsboro, kansas, at the edge of the tabor college campus, originally vetted all mennonite brethren men who chose conscientious objection, although it also arranged assignments for service-minded young mbs. wiebe and his assistants appointed them to projects throughout the united states per the strictures of selective service in which men could not be detailed to projects within miles of their homes. the work included careful record-keeping, monitoring of assignments, with author, september , ; keith harder and judy priebe harder, interview with author, september , ; dale suderman, “cynicism as therapy: seeing the log in our own eye,” in cynicism and hope: reclaiming discipleship in a postdemocratic society, ed. meg e. cox (cascade, or: wipf and stock, ), - . scouting of prospective new unit locations and tasks, and the ability both to justify postings and navigate draft boards attempting to reclassify these mennonite brethren objectors. although much of the work was bureaucratic in nature, wiebe was no stooge for bureaucracy. he was a committed non-resister who had won the national intercollegiate peace speech association competition in , then performed alternative service himself during the s after he completed college. one of the youngest attendees at the winona lake conference in , wiebe was the sole delegate for the krimmer mennonite brethren, a smaller group that had arrived in kansas with the larger migration from russia in the s and that merged at the end of the decade with the mennonite brethren. from - , he served in europe as the mcc european pax relief director in germany, where he met his future wife. returning to mcc headquarters in akron, pennsylvania, he then directed -w services and voluntary the mbs had made good on their desire to directly supervise their alternative service workers, rather than having mcc oversee the welfare of individuals. the result was the christian service program, assigned to the mb board of general welfare and public relations which proceeded to emphasize the program’s benefits for the brotherhood itself. although the program had been specifically designed for i-w and general voluntary service, in its th session of the general conference in , the denomination dropped its earlier designation in favor of the more general name: “in order to meet our conference needs in the 's we will discontinue the use of the program names of voluntary service and l-w service. rather, we will introduce the name christian service for all our conference personnel into these categories since we are convinced that this program can only be effective if our conference young people recognize a sense of call into christian service and accept the responsibilities of representing christ and the mennonite brethren church while in service.” “introducing the christian service program of the mennonite brethren church,” . “christian service beginnings & history and reports, - ,” reports to conference and committees, - , folder , a . , christian service files, center for mennonite brethren studies, fresno pacific university, fresno, ca (hereafter cmbs-f). the christian service office was housed at s. lincoln st., adjacent to the college campus, within the board of general welfare & public relations until when the board merged with the board of foreign missions and to become the board of missions and services. “a new look for -w: dwight wiebe, the new director of -w services,” the christian leader, september , , , ; “dwight wiebe leaves legacy of service,” the christian leader, (february ), , . service for the large and complex clearinghouse for all mennonite, amish, and brethren in christ assignments for two years, where he remained until to accept the directorship of the mennonite brethren operation in hillsboro. in all, he brought a sharp dedication to nonresistance, a firm grasp of how i-w units functioned, and a strong commitment to encouraging young mbs to give two years toward christian service, whether they were performing alternative service as conscientious objectors or not. hitting the ground running in , wiebe threw himself wholeheartedly into his new charge as director of christian service, both in designing the newly conceived program and in dwight wiebe, “peace orations: winners in national speech contests: ‘what matter of me are we?’ [and] albert kroeker, “’this diminishing world,’” tabor college bulletin, , no. (march ), - . wiebe did not attend a denominational college, preferring instead to attend and graduate from taylor university in upland, indiana, chiefly because neither mb school was accredited in the late s. the krimmer mennonite brethren hailed from the crimea and were adamantly opposed to participation in politics. regarding the shift from mcc, the movement of responsibility for -w assignments and direct oversight of individual men from mcc to the denomination was a long-discussed topic among mennonite brethren beginning in the mid- s. the ability to oversee the spiritual life of their servicemen was the paramount consideration according to minutes from the meetings of various mb bodies during the decade. mcc continued to serve as the overall vetting agency for mennonite alternative service in relation to nsbro (national interreligious service board for religious objectors) and selective service, approving project locations and descriptions, but moved the detailed oversight to the denominations like the mennonite brethren who chose to oversee their own men. wiebe brought his considerable experience from overseeing mcc -w and voluntary service men (and women) to his position at denominational headquarters in hillsboro, kansas. what wiebe thought in toto about the pressures exacted by nationalism on the christian service board during the vietnam war is difficult to discern at several points and requires a great deal of reading between the lines. few of his personal papers have been preserved and since his tenure at both the christian service board and tabor college (where he served a half-time appointment for four years as communications instructor and debate coach) ended in , many pieces are missing. it is unfortunate not to have more records preserved from the ardent nonresistant who was also determined that alternative service opportunities be a distinctive form of christian witness. nevertheless, the christian service program records have been preserved and carefully processed at the center for mennonite brethren studies at fresno pacific university and document his actions within the program, including some of his thoughts about the nature of witness. administering it. in addition to a half-time appointment as speech and debate instructor at tabor, he was also charged with immediately developing the strictures of the program. under the jurisdiction of the mb conference, its policy handbook explicitly spelled out the goals the mennonite brethren had in mind for the continent-wide alternative service program. “the purpose and objectives as spelled out in the christian service policy handbook are as follows”: a. in relationship to those served by the christian service program ( ) to present the gospel of christ through a personal witness and service so that those served by the program may come to know christ as their personal savior. to participate in the fellowship of the church and assist the local mennonite brethren church or mission board in establishing and developing a mennonite brethren church. ( ) to witness to the love and power of god by serving in obedience to his commands. ( ) to extend love and technical and material assistance to needy people regardless of race, creed or color. b. in relationship to those who serve under the christian service program ( ) to give people involved in the program the opportunity to share the gospel of christ with those who do not know him and to nurture a fellowship of believers in the community where the worker serves. ( ) to give the worker an opportunity for personal witness which utilizes his vocational or professional training for the outreach of the gospel. ( ) to provide an apprenticeship experience for young people of the mennonite brethren conference to help them mature in their christian life and commitment. ( ) to make possible an educational experience which will acquaint young people of the mennonite brethren conference with various phases of its power. ( ) to expose young people of the church to the great cause of missions at home and abroad with the hope that it will challenge them to a call to missions and the ministry of the church after they have completed their christian service. ( ) to give participants an opportunity to personally decline the materialistic and selfish philosophy of our society and to express their commitment to the lord in their service to mankind in a life of sacrifice and service. ( ) to give the participants an opportunity to serve their country and society in a positive ministry as a witness for peace in a world torn by strife, suffering and war. [italics mine] c. in relationship to the constituency ( ) to transmit a christian witness which expresses the faith, doctrines, and commitment of the mennonite brethren church. ( ) to serve as an organ of the mennonite brethren conference by which it can fulfill part of its responsibility to god and to christians who want to be obedient to christ's command to witness. ( ) to create an opportunity for the expression of the biblical doctrines of nonresistance which will encourage young men to serve sacrificially and creatively during their period of alternative service [italics mine]. the handbook specified age requirements for alternative service (eighteen domestic and twenty years of age overseas) and that the notion of alternative service was a kind of “calling” that was sacrificial and focused on serving god by helping others: “the worker should willingly and joyfully accept the challenge to serve the lord in the program and be willing to forego personal preferences and accept necessary restrictions to further effectively the cause of christ and help meet the needs of men.” moreover, the volunteer must be a baptized member of his church and be able to demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the bible “’to give an answer’ for the ‘reason of hope.’” should he have any deficiencies in his ability to “witness,” the service board would give him remedial help for his weaknesses. by the late s, christian service assignments largely paralleled those described earlier and administered more directly by mcc: the mennonite brethren conference is operating a program in eight states in the west and mid-west as well as in three provinces. the type of work that has been done is: teacher, radio work, secretary, hospital work, maintenance, church work, child and day care, clerk, physical therapy, recreation, newspaper editor, counsellor, social and welfare work, cook, housekeeper, soil technician, old folks home, book rack evangelism, youth clubs, correctional work, computer programmer, and dial-a-meditation. the canadian work, in proportion to other vs programs, is quite substantial in terms of numbers, relative to the single the christian service policy handbook (hillsboro, ks: board of general welfare and public relation, ), - . the christian service program was transferred to the board of missions and services in , when the board of general welfare and public relations merged with the board of foreign missions in an attempt to better integrate overseas missions into the board structures. ibid., . church agencies. they have an active program in nova scotia, mostly in the field of education. they also have some volunteers in british columbia, working in various areas of those already mentioned, and in manitoba doing church work and assisting in the mennonite brethren conference office. one of the stated objectives was to have the men live together in close proximity, being assigned to units that would reinforce christian growth and fellowship and that would meet some of the doctrinal aims mbs had found lacking in the mcc-administered postings. unless men were assigned to projects that could easily be overseen by church bodies, wiebe doted on the volunteers under his care, visiting them and attempting to oversee their general welfare. he especially pressed for the spiritual life of his men, insisting that they be members of the churches and actively involved in their local mb congregations. as he noted later to one would-be man searching for an alternative service assignment, the christian service program had high expectations for its men, urging them to devote the time they had leftover after the forty hour work week required by the program to serving their local churches. what wiebe discovered, however, in his many journeys to oversee the men engaged in alternative service, reflected the uneven realities of men in their late teens and twenties. many had moved from their stated addresses, and even thought they were largely conscientiously serving in their work assignments, most were not devoting their non-work hours to the hoped-for sacrificial upbuilding of the brotherhood. ibid. domestic service project descriptions (hillsboro, ks: christian service office, ); wiebe’s copiously detailed report on april , is typical of his pastoral approach to the cs units and his reflections to his board on the meaning and impact of their service appointments. dwight wiebe, “report on the christian service administrative visit: march through april ,” memorandum to staff, april , . christian service, correspondence of executive secretary and secretariat, mailings, , folder , a . christian service files, cmbs-f (hereafter, cs correspondence, year, folder, cmbs-f). don isaac, who oversaw -w assignments at fresno pacific university on behalf of dwight wiebe and as part of his duties as by the end of and the early impact of vietnam, the christian service program had more than doubled in the first eight months of the year, with ninety two men assigned in projects from kinshasa (congo) and nova scotia to chicago and denver. most were engaged in teaching, hospital work (chiefly in veteran or mental health), or working with correctional programs for youth. of these, forty-two were receiving i-w credit. the christian service program has doubled its personnel on the field in the first eight months of bringing the years [sic] end total to . the board maintains regular contact with another young men performing their alternative and military service. in the year the personne office of the christian service program has corresponded with over persons. o£ these the-board has accepted over persons as approved candidates and has assigned over workers in this period. wiebe’s report highlighted the training new workers received and the commitments the new workers were making: two full-scale christian service orientation schools were held in july and august, . a total of workers attended and were commissioned. aside from the excellent sessions attended, this time provided several days of close fellowship with peop e of like interests. practical discussions followed, how to live on $ a week, economic differences they would encounter, their role in a church situation aside from their regular assignments, adjustment to cultural shock to be bridged because of a foreign language, strange (to us) customs and manners, how to ive amicably with unit members thrown together through circumstances, etc. -- in short, how to put faith into action. one month after bethel students and faculty had walked in their first march, the repentance walk and mail, and the mennonite was still fielding dismissive or supportive letters about their business manager at the school, said that wiebe trusted the arrangement and did not hover over his charges as was seen in the independent units. don isaac, telephone conversation with author, october , . dwight wiebe, “christian service highlights,” january , , - . cs, correspondence, , folder , cbbs-f. ibid. actions, the christian service office was declaring a means by which young men could resist war and display faith in action --- through alternative service through the christian service office in hillsboro. for the first time, wiebe mentioned the vietnam war, noting that his offer of a filmstrip on “vietnam” had met with “an enthusiastic response” by the churches. he closed his report on christian service by noting that it had two positive outcomes: men could “make a contribution on a christian service level and at the same time they are encouraged to donate part of their earnings to help alleviate suffering in vietnam. nearly , american troops were now in the small country. the question, as the ardent nonresistant had enjoined to the central district ministerial conference meeting in onida, south dakota, five years earlier, was “what belonged to caesar?” first he turned to the bible: the apostle paul clarifies this in romans . “let every soul be subject unto the higher power, for he is the minister of god to thee for good, for he beareth not the sword in vain. wherefore ye must needs be subject for conscience sake. toman [sic] : - . there can only be one interpretation of this passage and peter chapter which is in keeping with the rest of the scriptures. the christian is to be obedient to the government in power. christians are to be good citizens insurrectionist. nowhere is the christian instructed to adopt the principles of the state. christ never teaches that the end justified the means. the authority of the state is limited. if the state were to decree that all citizens should reject god, as in communist russia, could one obey the state and still be a christian? then, he moved to the government position, considering whether or not obedience to the government included not entering the military: since the united states government recognizes the position of conscientious objectors to war as a valid christian position can we as a church do less? ibid., . dwight wiebe, “biblical basis of nonresistance and its implication and strategy as it effects [sic] the mennonite brethren conference,” central district conference, february , , - . dwight wiebe file, cmbs-h. certainly no christian is disobedient to the government because he qualifies for the valid provisions of alternative service for conscience sake such as are provided by the -o position. this position releases the committed christian from the duty of killing for the sake of his government which is contrary to the motivating force of the gospel of love. it is easy to be critical of wiebe and what he and others might have brought to mb campuses in hillsboro and fresno, yet he was not facing a crowd simply interested in alternative service. he faced a crowd that was deciding whether obeying the government meant active military service or noncombatant service and who did not necessarily agree that even alternative service was an active witness. as will be discussed, mennonite brethren in the town that had been “heart of the mennonite brethren world” did not think much about protest and many did not think about alternative service. in , as in , wiebe and his denomination focused on alternative service as the valid form of witness. even a man as committed to nonresistance as the christian service director did not see questioning government policy, much less countering it, as a valid form of witness. it simply was not an option. even as he wrote the reports for the middle part of the decade, he was already at the edge of an encounter with the government that received national attention, a story that backgrounds the heightened fears of protest at tabor college. tabor college and its innovations: delights in modernity in , the college had a new president, roy just, who had been thoroughly examined by the mennonite brethren board of reference and council chaired by reverend marvin hein of ibid. the practice of nonresistance in relation to military service (and other variables), had begun to erode by the harder and kaufman survey for both mbs and gcs. harder and kauffman, anabaptists, - , - , - . hillsboro. he had faced review, in spite of two apologies to his church in fresno, california, for what was characterized as his “disruptive sunday school teaching.” the charges made clear that anabaptist beliefs were being challenged by those who advocated for evangelicalism (or even fundamentalism). the challenges ranged from just’s views on the noncombatancy that had been problematic for many mennonites to a desire that he endorse the increasingly popular organizations and speakers enjoyed by evangelicals. moreover, he challenged his sunday school listeners to think through complicated questions. he had a powerfully negative opinion of noncombatant military service and did not support the nondenominational ministry youth for christ, both of which cast suspicion on him … the concerns over just’s ambivalence toward evangelical organizations, dancing, and evangelism were exacerbated by just’s refusal to provide definitive answers to discussion questions at sunday school…. just also never mentioned upcoming billy graham meetings. [one individual] testified to the church council that just had, at a public meeting, criticized the mennonite brethren position against smoking tobacco and dancing. what just said was that if a prohibition existed against smoking tobacco and dancing, there should be one on overeating. [the accuser] concluded “a professor who questions smoking or dancing doesn’t have [a] close relationship to the lord. i gathered he was looking for license [to behave immorally.]” [he] also considered just overly concerned with relief work [instead of christ]. the real issue for the church council was how to ban just from teaching. in order to pass such a sanction, they needed a reason, and according to the testimony, they did not have a compelling one. they finally settled on “unrest in the class.” it was proposed that just be suspended from teaching sunday school for one year. the affair ended with the church council accepting just’s repentance for his abrasive teaching style [when he thought people gave lazy or unreflective answers] and affirming that he was an evangelical. the sociologist’s response to the criticisms was to accept the presidency of tabor college when it was offered to him. brian froese, california mennonites (baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, - . only twelve years earlier, tabor had gone through a brutal time when president peter schellenberger had been the target of various angry constituents, faculty, and board members as he attempted to define the school as a liberal arts institution rather than as a bible college based on certain millennial beliefs. the school was confident, but edgy. just was considered politically astute and well aware of the impact a constituency could have on a school. he was also extremely alert to community disapproval. granted accreditation by the north central association in , tabor was ready to experiment --to a point. by the s, tabor’s student newspaper, the tabor college view, had editors ready to challenge their fellow students and the administration. they published a thinly veiled allegory about communism and american nationalism in vietnam in november , the first of the mennonite colleges in kansas (and north america) to do so, alongside edgy church-state editorials written by columnist dale suderman throughout and . lampooning fundamentalist evangelist billy james harges and former major general edwin walker, who teamed together in an anti-communist lecture tour called operation midnight ride, suderman blasted their appearance in wichita and their politicization of the gospel, and he pushed mennonite students to become critical thinkers, rather than passive receptacles: “down with ‘die stillen im lande.’” likewise, tabor student bob harms mixed sarcastic advice to would-be student council leaders to use “the all-purpose tabor election platform: favor god, motherhood, the flag and tabor” with biting editorials aimed at the contest between president lyndon lynn jost, “a time of stability and growth,” in tabor college, ed. miller, . in regard to just’s political abilities, keith harder, tabor college alumnus and former student body leader, interview with author, hillsboro, ks, november , . johnson and opponent senator barry goldwater in which he challenged his fellow students to think through their political beliefs. tabor began participating in the intercollegiate peace fellowship in and routinely sent from three to five students to its annual meeting. it hosted the conference in and again in , the former incorporating tabor faculty on a panel that discussed “political responsibility and non-resistance,” and that featured english professor and later acting president wesley prieb, who challenged students not to use nonresistance as an excuse to disengage from social problems. seven years later, in , the keynote speaker was bethel dean and physicist albert meyer, who addressed “the nature of the christian church and radical pacifist action.” this was the last intercollegiate peace fellowship meeting that tabor sponsored during the vietnam war. however, the college was by no means isolated from issues about conscientious objection and selective service. as noted previously, it housed the denomination’s christian service program just a block west of the tabor library and under the direction of dwight wiebe, who also taught speech at the school. although wiebe had organized the hershey-brunk forum in , and supervised the alternate service assignments for approximately - men, one of his chief assistants noted the lack of concerted discussion, programs, or protests regarding war and peace during the vietnam era as discussed in the view, see suderman, “perusal,” february , , , and dale suderman, “miscellaneous: die stillen im lande,” march , , . “die stillen im lande” = “the quiet in the land” is a traditional moniker used by others and within mennonite circles to describe themselves. in ibid., see also, dale suderman, “misc.,” march , , ; howard jost, “montage: vietnam, the beautiful,” november , , ; and bob harms, cacophony,” october , , . research to date indicates that the jost editorial was the first editorial or article to mention vietnam by any of the north american mennonite college student publications. note also, david roth, “engaging a politicized world: goshen college record coverage of the vietnam war, - .” goshen college history seminar paper, , - . earlier. wiebe’s goal was to encourage men to register and to serve alternative service, but he did not favor further action that might result in protests against the war. instead, a minority of tabor students raised questions that were troubling them and the nation. harms brought home to tabor students what being a peacemaker meant when he soberly described the stanleyville massacre in the congo and the narrow escape of conscientious objectors jon snider and former bethel student gene bergman, the latter performing alternative service there as a “pax-man.” editor harms referred students back to the honors’ committee’s recent recommendation of dietrich bonhoeffer’s cost of discipleship and its injunctions for christians to live their faith as peacemakers even at the cost of their lives. he taunted them with: “costly grace? good will toward men? maybe if a few more of us would catch the spirit of these two young [conscientious objectors] who asked nothing more than a chance to help at any price, these words would not seem so empty after all.” during the fall of when he was editor of the view, harms challenged students to break out of their apathy. the view featured a report by bethel student clayton koppes, who described the november , , “march on washington” and the national coordinating committee to end the war in vietnam. the former was the antiwar protest that, combined with the revelations about napalm and dow chemical’s recruitment on college campuses, energized the bethel students who engaged in their first protest walk that was curtailed due to community disapproval and threats of violence. after ninety bethel students, faculty, and single board member walked from bethel to the north newton post office the following year in their “repentance walk and mail,” they returned to a campus where peace notes, june , - , and february , . bob suderman, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , . the christian service program coordinated conscientious objection service for mennonite brethren who chose it as an option. speaker john swomley delivered his talk over the sound of planes buzzing the campus. but, at tabor, there was no venturing, even barely, into the public square. after publishing numerous articles designed to raise consciousness about the larger society and the world, harms lamented tabor students’ lack of interest in global issues: “our world view is a unique one. the center of the earth is wichita. slightly off center is the tabor campus. off toward the periphery is the world, which consists of rural and suburban middle- class america. with a world view like this it is no wonder that i was recently asked why we wasted view space on vietnam.” his successor as editor, dave klaassen, found the same parochial mentality as harms had observed. klaassen pointedly challenged the tabor community to look at what was happening in vietnam and to be an active peace witness in line with its anabaptist heritage. he caustically commented, “when war and the attendant issues of morality and ethics hold the nation’s debates the time seems ripe for the mennonite to state his case and expect an audience. but locally the silence echoes through the halls. it is broken only by the sounds of students struggling to defend their deferments.” tabor students faced some of the same issues bethel had, but with a twist. they were far less confident of support from the administration and the faculty. columnist loren jost challenged the tabor administration and students alike when he insisted that there were limits to the school acting in loco parentis, including the college’s censorship of articles in student publications. he appealed to his fellow students to recognize that their membership in the bob harms, “cacophony,” the view, december , , . in ibid., clayton koppes, “how to talk peace and influence others,” november , , . bob harms, “how to catch an aruton,” november , , ; and dave klaassen, “vietnam and we,” april , , . national student association (nsa) encouraged critical thinking and responsibility, not conformity. for activists, issues about student rights began to dovetail with protest about vietnam, but for those contemplating activism, the threat of losing a deferment by being called on the carpet by the campus administration kept them from even considering protesting, an anxiety not shared by bethel or hesston males. as the demand for soldiers expanded, pressure grew on the local draft boards with the authority both to revoke student deferments or to reclassify problematic conscientious objectors. simple violations of student rules, as well as protests, could result in a revocation, a foreshadowing of the punitive reclassification that was aimed at recalcitrant anti-war protestors in . the tensions simmered at tabor as students fielded rumors that the federal bureau of investigation had come to campus to investigate deferments and that male students from oklahoma were being targeted for reclassification by eager draft boards there. violating the more stringent rules for student life at tabor was grounds for a report to the student’s draft board and his subsequent loss of a deferment, although there is little evidence that such actions were taken. nevertheless, the conjunction between the violation of student life standards and the possibility of being drafted added to the quiescence of tabor males. thus, in the fall of , as bethel planned its first peace walk, tabor continued its regular activities. reporter becky aaron cynically recommended that instead of leaving campus every weekend, as . percent of students indicated they did in a recent survey, they should, loren jost, “viewpoint: the individual speaks,” ibid., january , , . on fear of losing a deferment because of behavioral issues, see bob ewert, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , . “for a late afternoon date, watch the flag being lowered in front of the administration building. all the color, spectacle, and excitement of this performance will be yours absolutely free.” tabor was not as inactive as it appeared. before his departure to the mennonite brethren biblical seminary in fresno, the formidable delbert wiens, chairman of the bible department at tabor in - , was “always in trouble with the townspeople” because of his peace stance and his commitment to anabaptism. according to a long-term hillsboro resident, wiens always had the “right word to counter an argument,” particularly when the case was being made that mennonite brethren should give up their distinctive nonresistant stance on war, including the refusal to bear arms in combat. his colleague in the department, clarence hiebert, also posed problems for those who celebrated american nationalism. hiebert, a canadian from winnipeg, composed lectures that challenged students to think about peace. one of the most popular courses on campus was his sermon on the mount class, for which he prepared a new series of lectures every year. these in particular helped those students who had grown up with dispensational theology to re-think the sermon’s peace injunctions as not being limited to an end-time epoch in history, but to interpret them as integral statements about mennonite peacemaking and nonresistance. the professor later led the challenges in the late s and the s to remove the american flag and to replace the singing of the “star spangled banner” with that of “america, the beautiful,” but, in the mid-to-late s, he was still developing his thinking. he had, however, together with becky aaron, “hillsboro swings!” the view, february , , . anonymous long-term hillsboro resident, interview with author, november , . the interview was conducted on the condition of anonymity. marvin hein, the pastor of hillsboro’s largest mennonite brethren church, removed the american and christian flags from that church’s sanctuary. they have never returned. but in late , hiebert was focused on teaching and mentoring of individual students, although his inclusion of bob harms in a minneapolis consultation on vietnam, “faithfulness to christ in situations of international conflict,” and his involvement on the mennonite central committee peace section board, indicated his sympathies for global, not national, concerns. hiebert would be instrumental in the creation of the pax education program in the congo and latin america within two years. in spite of letters such as those written by bob harms to the view, students sympathetic to a peace position were at a loss concerning how to take action. when the newspaper’s writer and photographer howard jost and two other students attempted a protest, they were quickly deflated. harms reported what happened. as the three sat on the tabor lawn holding signs opposing the war, elmer flaming, president of the hillsboro bank, … and his son-in-law [an end-of-the-world radio and television evangelist] came along and invited the three students to join them for a free dinner at a local restaurant. at the dinner, [they] tried to get the three students to abandon their opposition to the war by using arguments such as the claim that more people were killed in automobile accidents in the u.s. every year than were killed in vietnam, ferne hiebert, widow of clarence hiebert, tabor college bible professor and interim president in - , interview with author, hillsboro, ks, november , . don ratzlaff, tabor college alumnus and editor of the hillsboro free press, interview with author, hillsboro, ks, november , . mrs. hiebert said her late husband had attributed his broadmindness to his father, who described himself not as a national patriot, but as “ich bin alianz gesinnt” = “i am broad (expansively, inclusively) minded.” “mcc consultation called,” the view, november , , . so vietnam was no big deal. the students were not convinced, but they enjoyed the free meal, and they never staged another protest. noted harms in a recent communication, “while there were some of us at tabor prior to spring who were concerned about the vietnam war and tried to keep informed about what was going on across the country, there was little or no activism on the tabor campus because of the feeling that most tabor students had no interest in these issues.” even those who attempted to protest, however, could not sustain it. tabor students evidenced both their sympathies with the republican party ( percent affinity) and their ignorance about the basic nature of nonresistance and conscientious objection. the local campus poll taken in late had percent approving of u.s. policy in vietnam, with percent of the males approving. only percent of the latter, however, were willing to fight there. meanwhile, the denomination was struggling to issue a statement on political participation. during the november general conference of mennonite brethren churches, the group ignored the war, but it formally approved guidelines for political involvement. passed with some dissent, the last (and pointedly separate) recommendation was “we believe that ‘super-patriotism’ and ‘militant nationalism’ are unbecoming to a christian.” as we will see bob harms, reporting on a conversation he had with howard jost, email message to author, november and november , . bob harms, tabor college alumnus, “former editor harms criticizes vietnam policy,” ibid., february , , . harms, email message to author, november , . historian richard c. kyle noted that flaming’s son-in-law was a popular and influential dispensationalist author who attended parkview church, the former gnadenau krimmer mennonite brethren congregation, and confirmed that both he and flaming were “very conservative,” interview by author, hillsboro, ks, november , . shortly, it would take nearly three more years before the mennonite brethren issued a carefully hedged statement on vietnam. while tabor never officially sponsored any formal and public peace events on campus after the intercollegiate peace fellowship and brunk meetings in the early s, and had only a handful of chapel services focused on war and peace, students and faculty continued to participate in the intercollegiate peace fellowship and mennonite central committee projects off-site. the new organization of the tri-college cultural series and the shared programs of the associated colleges of central kansas addressed the unwillingness to talk about political issues in the classroom -- or in town. in particular, bill moyers’ lecture in at hesston received more appreciation from tabor students in the college newspaper than that posted by bethelites. “how long,” said moyers, “has it been since you’ve rationally explained the settlement that you believe the united states could find acceptable in vietnam and asia.” senator mark hatfield’s tele-lecture served as the october , chapel, as students sat and listened to the speakerphone. the view columnists al berg and keith harder challenged students to answer questions about vietnam, and they continued to amplify in subsequent editorials the presentations made by such outside speakers as philip drath of the american friends service committee in december chapel services, but there were still no protests either on or off campus in hillsboro. some of this was about to change, however. on the campus poll regarding vietnam, see “point of view,” the view, september , , . “political statement approved,” ibid., december , , . anonymous long-term hillsboro, ks residents who are mennonite brethren and who favored the anabaptist peace position, interviews with author, hillsboro, ks, november and , . burton buller, “moyers speaks at hesston,” the view, november , , . tabor’s student power movement was seen at the time as akin to the formation of a students for a democratic society (sds) local chapter, but its discussions gave students the impetus to change dress codes, mandatory chapel, and rules for room searches. by changing the rules for student life, tabor students removed part of the threat of being reported to draft boards for behavior that could result in the loss of a deferment. the national student association (nsa) membership also offered a further means to associate with others considering protesting or who were already active in it. former student body president al berg recalled caravans of like- minded students from bethel, mcpherson college, and tabor traveling to national meetings of the national student association in san diego and el paso. the results of these and other trips to bethel college to hear james juhnke were reported in the view and evidenced in later tabor activism. the wittenburg door, a public forum for comments, posters, anti-war poetry, and arguments, became an active repository for student opinion. an actual door in the main hallway of the administration building, it was a bulletin board for free-speech (excepting vulgar comments). at one point in the late s, it was painted like an american flag to protest the war, but repainted at the administration’s insistence. students who protested through their words and later through their actions made extensive use of it. it featured anti-war poetry, some of jack braun, tabor college emeritus professor of communication, interview with author, november , . although there continued to be a question about whether an sds chapter was actually formed or whether it was the administration’s interpretation of the student organizing, research collaborates that there was no such organizing, although it was casually discussed. regarding nsa trips and the impetus for changing behavioral codes on campus, see al berg, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , ; phil kliewer, email message to author, october , . regarding trips to bethel and interaction with james juhnke, see “point of view,” the view, november , , . which was later read at a coffeehouse in goshen, indiana, then published in a denver newspaper. but the administration’s lack of more substantive support baffled some mennonite students. one student protester of summarized the thoughts of other early activists when she wrote: i don't think my anti-war stance was appreciated much by the administration either. that genuinely puzzled me since we supposedly were conscientious objectors. i was very much into our anabaptist heritage and was angry that tabor seemed to have forgotten that heritage while bethel and other mennonite colleges were on the forefront of the protest against the vietnam war. i want to emphasize for all of us war protesters, it was genuinely an outgrowth of our faith and deep abiding belief in the teachings of jesus christ, and of our mennonite heritage which had always stood up to governments and war-mongering. the contrast between the activities at bethel and goshen, gc mennonite church and mc mennonite schools respectively, with the lack of support by the tabor administration, perplexed the articulate mennonite brethren students who thought their anabaptist beliefs were also consistent with protest. in , students staged a “sit-in” to protest an interterm exam and then boycotted chapel services to force the use of contemporary music. although these actions were some of the first organized protests against the administration’s policies, they were portrayed by some students as harmless, almost frivolous exercises. in contrast to the frustrations behind these and with larger issues, the college yearbook, the bluejay, portrayed tabor’s activism as a relatively reassuring butch gerbrandt detailed the use of the wittenburg door. butch gerbrandt, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , . gerbrandt was also a member of “the brethren,” a group of student leaders who dressed in mock “old mennonite” garb and appeared at sports events to harangue the opposition with bible verses. poet liz black saw her anti-war poetry recognized in additional settings. liz black (formerly betty kliewer), tabor college alumnus, email message to author november , . goering, history, - ; steven p. miller, “mediating revolution: the goshen college peace society and the new left,” goshen college senior history paper, goshen college, . one to those who would read the annual. quoting st. francis de sales’s approach to labor, the volume also reported that “a wave of three-day student demonstrations swept tabor for the th annual year. these demonstrations were not in disapproval, but in approval of a concept – student sponsored work days.” thus, “protest” at tabor was characterized as only the kind that resulted in students spending their spring breaks cleaning homes, typing letters, chopping wood, or working on a farm, and then donating the money to the student council improvement fund. no one needed to worry that the campus was involved in any of the actions going on across the nation. rather, these were students who spent their energies raising money for the school. tabor students lacked the overt approval of the administration or faculty to initiate or create the kinds of actions held at either bethel or hesston. no one led taborites to the south to march for civil rights as had dwight platt at bethel, or to engage in public symbolic actions and discussions like sol yoder did at hesston. despite the comments made in the early s by the now-absent wiens and the ongoing presence of hiebert who cautiously addressed peace issues, it was up to the students themselves to organize -- which they did. they held discussions around the flag pole, including one “that was a very open discussion by both sides -- students who thought there was a need to speak against the war and those who thought that peace was a private, not a political issue.” at another point during or , a group of students who planned to lower the flag to half-staff were met by others. again, there was no physical although the tabor centennial history states that students staged antiwar protests, there are no antiwar protests documented in the publication. the protest documented in the history concerned the interterm exam. jost, “a time,” in tabor college, ed. miller, , n . the tabor bluejay, . workdays were an annual event during which students were hired out to the community and alumni, who then donated money toward student-selected improvements on campus. confrontation. knowing that infractions against rules for student conduct could compromise their conscientious objector status, some male students were reluctant to become involved and to press the issue. the reality of the war was on their doorstep, sharply evident in the life magazine article that featured the black-and-white photographs of gis killed in vietnam in one week. the photo essay designed to call attention to the humanity, “to look into the faces” behind the numbing statistics of the dead included one who had lived within ten miles of the campus. the last face that looked back at the reader was that of “robert l. boese, , army, pfc. marion, kansas,” twelve miles east of hillsboro. yet, an attempt to organize a peace march through town in was foiled by banker elmer flaming “who simply said, ‘no.’” flaming, who attended the second-largest mennonite brethren congregation in town, was used to wielding power in the town and in the church, where he leveraged his financial clout to control clergy and to stifle objection on a variety of issues throughout the community. perhaps being stymied was somewhat a relief. several students who with respect to discussions around the flagpole, john quiring, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , ; concerning the plans to lower the flag, berry friesen, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , , and in regard to concerns about rules infractions, burton buller, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , and bob ewert, tabor college alumnus, email message with author, november , . “yet in a time when the numbers of americans killed in this war--- , --- though far less than the vietnamese losses, have exceeded the dead in the korean war, when the nation continues week after week to be numbed by a three-digit statistic which is translated to direct anguish in hundreds of homes all over the country we must pause to look into the faces. more than we must know how many we must know who.” “vietnam: one week’s dead,” life, june , , - . i am grateful to long-term marion resident harry bennett, who called this portrait to my attention. harry bennett, email message to author, september , . had participated in activities at bethel and hesston frequently talked about what “abuse would occur if they held an anti-war march in town [hillsboro].” nevertheless, the combination of a small town, a faculty and administration unwilling or unable to provide leadership for students who wanted to oppose the war, and the man who headed the first national bank was a powerful combination to repress the kind of public dissent that was peacefully occurring at other mennonite institutions. if the anti-war students had hoped for a denominational statement similar to those issued by the gc mennonite church and the mc mennonites, they were disappointed when in august the mennonite brethren general conference refused on technical grounds to tender a resolution on noncooperation. although the canadian conference had issued strong statements on the peace position, including a re-affirmation of nonresistance and alternative service in , the general conference of the mennonite brethren representing both canadians and americans explicitly chose to defer action on a resolution until . when the mennonite brethren pacific district was pressed two months later in november , the resolution that was adopted focused on “responsible christian citizenship,” and “selective service [as] a concerning flaming and his actions from to , anonymous long-term hillsboro resident and faculty spouse, conversation with author, hillsboro, ks, november , and paul penner, tabor college alumnus, interview with author, hillsboro, ks, october , . in later years, flaming demanded that president roy just stop tabor math professor, frank brenneman, a member of the mc mennonites, from holding a sign protesting the movement of military equipment through town. frank brenneman, professor emeritus, interview with author, february , . regarding student concerns if they protested, berry friesen, tabor college alumnus, email correspondence with author, november , . the first major history of marion county had this to say in : “the first national bank remains the major financial institution in hillsboro. it’s [sic] total resources increased from $ . million in june to $ . million in april . e. w. flaming [is the] president.” sandra van meter, marion county, kansas: past and present (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house, ), . recruiting agency” that was morally neutral (“it is not necessarily a vehicle of destruction. for those who desire, it can become an agency for positive christian service and the peace witness by accepting alternative service”). the conference expressed a willingness to “extend a spiritual ministry” to those who held a position of noncooperation, but there was no explicit stance against the vietnam war or language that might be construed as offensive to the nixon administration. it instead explicitly recommended “a study be carried on during the next triennium on the subject of involvement in war and that a resolution be presented at the convention.” it would take nearly four more years before formal consideration of a thorough peace position on the war in southeast asia. a subsequent resolution a week later by the southern district conference held less than miles away from hillsboro in buhler, kansas, emphasized mennonite brethren respect for government. the denomination simply reinforced what was already taking place at the christian service program office of dwight wiebe, the organizer of the hershey-brunk forum. young men who were drafted were given alternative service assignments. opposition to the government was simply not a denominational option. at tabor, the view editor galen buller expressed his disappointment in the mennonite brethren’s unwillingness to provide leadership on and off campus: “this is sad, because now the group, and our governing board at this institution still have no official stand on this vitally important issue.” although students recalled meetings at the homes of bible and religion professor harms, english professor prieb, english professor katie funk wiebe, and band director (and later dean) larry feil, they found only sympathetic ears, rather than articulators or john e. toews, “mennonite brethren statements on war and peace in north america,” in the power of the lamb, ed. john e. toews and gordon nickel (winnipeg, mb: kindred press, ), - . exemplars of protest. in the estimation of one student leader, these faculty were well aware that they might encounter difficulties from the administration. i viewed faculty like clarence hiebert, wes priebe, and larry feil as the voices for anabaptist tradition and intellectual integrity. they hosted private events at their homes, but i think the few activist students also guessed that they were under pressure from tabor leadership as well. one wonders what it might have been like had the leadership supported faculty and students in their explorations and concerns. only the itinerant speakers appearing in chapel supported the students’ questioning. among these was doug hostetter, a former mennonite central committee community development worker in vietnam, who appeared in a new chapel series on peace, war, and non-resistance in late . his lecture was a catalyst for some of tabor’s most outspoken activists, but the administration remained silent. nevertheless, hostetter’s impact was far-ranging, for tabor students and for other mennonite college students who could still recall elements of his speech at nearly fifty years later. mcc’s surprising re-appearance: the long war returns to tabor doug hostetter had impeccable conservative mennonite credentials. his father was b. charles hostetter, the prominent mc mennonite church speaker on “the mennonite hour,” a anonymous tabor alumnus, email message to author, october , ; phil kliewer emphasized that katie funk wiebe encouraged him to write an antiwar article and submit it for publication to the christian leader where it was published, and then re-printed in the mennonite. phil kliewer, email message to author, october , . galen buller, tabor college alumnus, “conference of m.b. churches meet: ‘so what?’” the view, september, , , . ellen kroeker, tabor college alumnus, email correspondence to the author, november , . regarding doug hostetter’s speech on the vietnam war to other mennonite college students, see first mennonite church survey respondents from goshen college and freeman junior college, in mc ministries council, first mennonite church survey, may , . the survey was composed and administered by the author and approved in advance by the mc ministries council. renowned popular radio program that featured music, sermons, general programs on holy living, and readings from scripture. raised in a household where his father still wore the plain coat and collar, the junior hostetter attended a mennonite high school where he played basketball, participated in the literary society, held various leadership positions (including the presidency of the local young people’s christian association), and was listed repeatedly on the honor roll. in , he had just completed two years serving as president for virginia’s mennonite youth fellowship (myf), the organization described by one pastor as “a wholesome way of meeting the needs of youth [that] … gives them recognition and a creative outlet for christian energy.” sporting a flat-top haircut, the young mennonite was the tall, well-mannered, squeaky clean epitome of american young manhood in early . recently invited to the united states senate fourteenth annual presidential prayer breakfast by senator frank carlson of kansas, hostetter was also enjoined to participate in a “young men’s leadership seminar” following the breakfast. with nearly , men in vietnam, civil unrest spreading throughout the south and urban areas elsewhere, and less than two weeks before senator william fulbright and the senate pat hostetter, later pat hostetter martin, who appeared earlier in this study, was also a pax volunteer who left for orientation by mcc in akron, pennsylvania at the same time as her brother. her anticipated service was not highlighted in various publications to the extent that her brother’s was. “mennonite hour,” gameo; “senior: doug hostetter,” windsock (september , ), . windsock was the newsletter of eastern mennonite high school in harrisonburg, virginia, one of the largest and most prominent communities of mc mennonites in the united states. it had a seamless system of mennonite education, which both younger hostetters had attended. “president leaves for viet nam service,” virginia conference youth courier (june , ), . hostetter, mcusa / ; james fairfield, “myf emphasis week scheduled,” virginia conference youth courier (june , ), . doug hostetter had spent the summer between his junior and senior years, “working on a farm and market along a busy pennsylvania highway. my job consisted of anything from serving at a chicken-corn-soup supper to helping take down evangelistic tents… i am glad for a school year in which to recuperate.” douglas hostetter, “my job last summer,” [undated print publication]. douglas hostetter papers, / , mcusa archives. foreign relations committee directly challenged the johnson administration by calling for and initiating public hearings on vietnam, carlson voiced his hopes. this is to provide an opportunity for you to discuss together how to better develop a leadership led by god. it is our earnest hope that we can, in this way, add sustenance to a spiritual renaissance throughout our country. the senator from kansas who would soon question secretary of state dean rusk why the u.s. had deemed the war of crucial importance when its allies in the south east asia treaty organization (seato) extended little appreciable aid to the project did not have his head in the clouds. and neither did the young invitee, who soon disembarked in a different world. doug hostetter landed in vietnam determined to meet the full demands of being a pax man. eschewing a posting in saigon or other small cities where he might enjoy the protection of the u.s. army, he headed for tam ky, a small hamlet near the coast and just south of the border with north vietnam. mastering the language, he lived in humble circumstances, sharing the food and perils of the vietnamese with whom he lived. he started a sewing project, worked with literacy, and looked for ways to initiate community development. he endured the shelling and gunfire aimed at the hamlet for the next three years by determinedly remaining with the people of tam ky, excepting a forced hiatus of a month to be discussed shortly. he was soon to be called on the carpet by an irate u.s. army colonel. hostetter had arrived in vietnam shortly after mcc’s peace section had called for an urgent meeting on vietnam in november . the peace section had already sent a letter to letter from senator frank carlson to douglas hostetter, january , on senate letterhead. douglas hostetter papers, / , mcusa archives. joseph a. fry, debating vietnam: fulbright, stennis, and their senate hearings. (lanham, md: rowman & littlefield: , . president lyndon johnson on june , pressing for a negotiated settlement and enjoining him “[to enter] into unconditional discussions with whomever necessary to halt hostilities” and they had sent physician and former medical missionary mc willard krabill on an extensive journey through the country where he had once lived. the war had now escalated with over , troops in the country. as this study has described, some mennonites who eschewed politics were now entering into it, in part because of their movement into the culture and in part because they had engaged for more than a decade in observation and analysis about the unending war and its miseries. the young pax man knew that mcc was taking a tough stance on the conditions in the country and on the ongoing escalation, but he was also a keen observer determined to live his faith in service without compromise. at times this put him in conflict with other missionaries and members of vietnam christian service (vcs), including other mennonites who had decided that staying in the country required a wide range of accommodations to the u.s. military, their parent denominations, or their own safety. doug hostetter had carefully cultivated extensive relationships with the people in tam ky and his fluency in their language had enabled conversations that touched on difficult and nuanced topics, including his opinion of antiwar sentiment in the u.s., topics frequently raised by students in the area. he had also offered shelter to four young american soldiers who ended up being awol marines looking for a way to escape the killing they were being charged to do. most of what hostetter did was well within the objectives of the agency which briefly incorporated mcc objectives, but when he took the vietnam christian service charge to “show “memorandum to members of the peace section executive committee,” november , , mcc peace section executive committee, - , mcc. no national partiality” by taking emergency food and relief supplies behind nlf-controlled lines and then refusing to share intelligence about people in tam ky, the local colonel exploded. seeking to have the mennonite transferred permanently, vcs instead furloughed him for a month, then allowed him to return. hostetter continued to experience the war through the eyes of the vietnamese, living precariously through such events as the tet offensive, when drvn soldiers bypassed the house where he lived. when hostetter returned to america in , mcc peace section’s john lapp invited him to participate in section discussions, soon appointing him as a representative and sponsoring him on a lecture tour of mennonite and brethren in christ colleges. it was during this time that he made his appearance at the three mennonite schools in kansas where his presentation at tabor galvanized the small group of antiwar protesters. ellen kroeker, who was one of the antiwar apologists in the early s, not only found her voice to protest, but also donated money to hostetter’s tour. although tabor students found little support for the kinds of protests taking place at bethel college and hesston college, kroeker agitated both on and off campus. tabor students had heard doug hostetter’s stunning first-hand account of the war and the suffering taking place --- and they wanted to act. instead, they had been pressured not to protest leaman, - . doug hostetter letter to his parents, september , , - , douglas hostetter papers / mcusa. ellen kroeker, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , ; myron l. toews, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , . ellen kroeker, email message to author, november , . chuck neufeld, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, february - , . ledger sheet of donors, during college speaking tour], doug hostetter papers, , box , mcc; hostetter’s impact on mennonite college students was significant. in a survey conducted in hillsboro, ks in , two of the twelve respondents singled out his lectures at goshen college in indiana as key to their development as antiwar activists. by a town and a president concerned about the reaction of the constituency. even when peace club leader canadian chuck neufeld had been physically threatened at gunpoint, the administration could not venture into a response. antiwar activist and missionary kid phil kliewer described what happened: chuck neufeld, student council president, was vocal enough that he was known for his views even outside of the tabor community. one evening when he went to pick up his wife, bonnie, from work at the hospital, some mennonite farmers from out of town held him up at gunpoint as he waited outside the hospital. as bonnie walked to the car she quickly assessed the situation and cheerfully invited everyone to come talk over some pie she had baked that morning. they dropped their guns and went for the pie. in the two years i was at tabor, chuck was perhaps the central character against the war. at least, he was the only one i recall who was seriously harassed, although not by a draft board. he was canadian, else he may have been harassed by the draft board. yet, there was no response, either to the war, or now to the violence that threatened antiwar activists on campus. by april , student columnist berry friesen sharply commented: i assume that some conscientious objection still exists in some diluted form at tabor. however, this witness of conscience in regard to vietnam and militarism has been absent from tabor’s leaders as well. faculty members have held the peace about the war in a very uncommendable way. and president just has defined tabor’s position as one of opposition to civil disobedience and support for president nixon’s interest and concerns for peace … it is a question of expressing objection or joining nixon’s silent majority. if tabor students had hoped their denomination would take a stance on vietnam as had the general conference mennonite church and mc mennonites, they were disappointed. they had no formal support from either the denomination or the administration and faculty. phil kliewer, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, october , . berry friesen, tabor college alumnus, “conscience, the silent majority, the view, april , , . moreover, the conference could not even find it within itself to engage the host of cultural, racial, and economic issues that pressed for attention. as the popular magazine distributed to every mennonite brethren household lamented, one could not help but feel that we were not meeting our christian responsibility in our world of unrest when nothing was said about the unrest in that world. no word regarding the christian’s responsibility to government, vietnam, race, the draft, the city ghettoes, campus unrest, birth control, and the population explosion, organ transplants, and the endless causes of unrest can hardly be called “christian responsibility.” the issues that pressed on young people preparing for life and service, could not obtain a formal denominational hearing. rather, discussion centered on the church growth projects mennonite brethren had in mind as they contemplated what they called the “decade of enlargement,” a plan by which the conference could double in size. the tensions came to a head in spring , when a counter-demonstration was organized in response to an on-campus protest led by students in reaction to the shootings at kent state that killed four students. invited by chuck neufeld to speak at a peace rally on may , professor of history jim juhnke from bethel college, addressed a group on the tabor college lawn. as juhnke described it in his memoir, the town of hillsboro and tabor’s mennonite brethren constituency were shocked that the protest movement had come to their placid conservative town … while i spoke, the hillsboro chief of police, eldo flaming, listened from his police car parked on the street beside the green. in flaming and i had been in the same catechism and baptism class at the lehigh mennonite church. now we were on opposing sides of a national fracture… flaming took notes as my speech took aim at president nixon. “the president promised peace and then gave orlando harms, “general conference ‘christian responsibility’ … words or deeds?” christian leader, (september ), . us a bigger war. nixon is a liar!” the rally ended without incident, but its reverberations continued in the coming weeks. tabor students barry friesen and phil kliewer also spoke at the rally, but afterwards, it was juhnke who heard from the chief of police, whose letter to the history professor arrived the next day in north newton telling him not to return to hillsboro and threatening him with an investigation by the fbi: [he] blasted] my “anti-americanism,” “hairy ideas,” and “empty mouthed malarkey.” he enclosed a message by j. edgar hoover, director of the federal bureau of investigation, rallying “the entire citizenry to disclaim and reject recent outrages in the streets and in the courts against the law.” i wrote a return letter to flaming arguing there was “nothing anti-american about political dissent … [in the tradition of] patrick henry, abraham lincoln, william jennings bryan and many others.” within two weeks, juhnke also received a visit from tabor academic dean, abe konrad, who appeared in person at bethel to say that “he had to withdraw the invitation for me to teach there in the fall.” he was deeply embarrassed by what he had to say. he had earlier invited me to teach an american history class in the fall of . now he had to break that agreement. the tabor peace rally, and my speech in particular, had created a backlash among main street citizens in hillsboro. the president of the first national bank, e. w. flaming, was a major financial contributor to tabor. he had told tabor’s president, roy just, that he and many others would stop giving if juhnke taught at the school. considering the circumstances, [konrad] and i had a friendly conversation. i appreciated his effort to deliver the painful message in person. juhnke, small, ; juhnke, email message to author, december , . ibid.; juhnke, small, - . ibid. if the loss of the opportunity to teach at tabor was calculated to harm juhnke, it had little of its intended effect. as he explains, “not long after that, i decided to file as a candidate for the kansas th district congressional seat held by garner shriver. that campaign took nearly all of my time that summer and fall. i would have had to withdraw from the tabor invitation on my own if i had not already been disinvited.” but the tabor peace club soon experienced the ire of hillsboro. between seventy and people assembled to “rally round the flag” directly in front of the college’s administration building and within close proximity to its main entrance. although neither the view nor the hillsboro star journal recorded it, the event chiefly attracted townspeople and featured men in uniform, including a color guard from the american legion. when tabor students reacted, some of the participants from the town were irate. recalled kliewer (who still has the sharp image of the man’s face from whom he seized the microphone in his memory), i don’t recall who all crashed the stage and grabbed microphones besides me, but several of us did, which really lit off the veterans… [they] asked for our names so that [they said] they could pass them on to the fbi. we criticized the nixon administration and nixon personally, which they considered treasonous. again, banker flaming was “terribly upset” that any public protest was occurring, as was a major donor. ibid. phil kliewer, email message to author, october , . myron l. toews, tabor college alumnus, email message to author, november , . ellen kroeker, email message to author, november , . chuck neufeld, tabor college alumnus, email messages to author, february - , . the threat of involvement by the federal bureau of investigation (fbi) was ever-present at tabor, so much so that it appeared as a chimera. male students repeatedly named rumors about campus surveillance and “especially about the oklahoma boys,” yet there was no firm evidence that this had happened. only a letter in a file in an archive noted that the school had no evidence that was applicable to a case the fbi was attempting to investigate. it was a near argument from silence. yet, evidence exists that during most of the s, tabor administration knew that not only was an individual under investigation, but that the case would take so long to resolve that he would move from being a student to being an alumnus. his case demonstrated that the rumors were not simply imaginings. moreover, his case forced the christian service board and the denomination to wrestle with what a mennonite brethren identity really was. lost mennonite brethren memories & the curious case of the oklahoma objector: in loco parentis, selective service, and denominational angst tabor student jerry penner was one potential conscript who pursued the legal means of dissent described by historian richard moser --- as a conscientious objector. hailing from the mennonite brethren enclave of balko, oklahoma, he discovered that not only did he have to face a rigorous local draft board determined to deny his application, but he also had to endure perhaps the even more penetrating gaze of his brotherhood, its college, and the denominational office in hillsboro, kansas. his story is particularly significant because it is the likely source for the strong belief, particularly among tabor college students during the vietnam war, that they were under scrutiny by the fbi, and that the oklahoma men were particularly vulnerable because of their zealously patriotic draft boards. but, penner’s case evidences not only a fear of external agents, but internal actors as well, including both town and gown. moreover, the story illustrates why the student free speech and rights movements were significant players in the arguments about in loco parentis, even on campuses which would have been expected to support conscientious objection as a matter of the faith tradition. what became a six-year struggle that interrupted his college enrollment, found him sentenced to five years in a federal penitentiary for refusing to accept induction into the armed services, and saw mennonite brethren denominational authorities offer initially reluctant support for his position, began innocuously. following the standard procedure that all mennonite groups had recommended that their young men follow to meet the terms of the selective service act of and its derivatives, penner had dully registered with selective service in and claimed conscientious objection, thereby requesting a -o classification (conscientious objection to any military service). like most oklahoma draft boards that were notorious for their opposition to conscientious objectors, local board no. in beaver county, oklahoma, denied penner’s request and instead classified him as -a-o (noncombatant duty). appearing in person before his local board, penner unsuccessfully appealed his new classification directly, a decision that the state appeals board upheld. supported by the national interreligious service board for religious objectors (the successor to nsbro that the historic peace churches and others had formed in response to world war ii), penner then unsuccessfully petitioned general lewis b. hershey’s presidential review board. not only did the board refuse to recognize his conscientious objection, but also reclassified him to -a, completely eligible for full military service as a combatant. moser, new, - . in regard to the mysterious source of the rumor that oklahoma men were under particular scrutiny by their local draft boards and the fbi, numerous tabor informants mentioned the fears, yet could not name actual events or individuals, in spite of the extremely tight-knit community and layers of kinship among many of the students. although the legislation is commonly called the selective service act of , it has had several amendments to its content and modifications to its name, first renamed the universal subsequently receiving a notice to report to oklahoma city for induction into the army on august , , penner reported, but refused induction. brought to trial for his refusal, he was sentenced on november , , to five years in a federal penitentiary. two years later, in february , the th u.s. court of appeals upheld his conviction in the district court and his -a classification. appealing with the help of the mcc peace section which assisted him with finances, legal counsel, and an amicus curiae brief, penner was eventually represented by marvin karpatkin, a new york attorney who was general legal counsel for both the american civil liberties union and the central committee for conscientious objectors and who took the case to the supreme court. advised by u.s. solicitor general ervin n. griswold that the case had been built from unreliable fbi reports that portrayed penner as insincere in his religious convictions, the supreme court accepted his recommendation that the court of appeals decision be reversed and that the case be remanded to the district court for dismissal. on june , , penner had finally been recognized as a conscientious objector. but what had happened in the first place? why was a member of a historic peace church under trial for his opposition to military service on the basis of conscience? military training and service act in , then the military selective service act of and, finally, the military selective service act in . in spite of nisbro executive secretary j. harold sherk’s vigorous and thorough defense of the mennonite brethren objector, hershey’s board ruled against him and then reclassified the young man as i-a. sherk’s appeal to hershey recapitulates the nisbro interactions with the college and with the denominational office headed by dwight wiebe. j. harold sherk, to general lewis b. hershey, january , . christian service, draft and peace witness: individual -w cases, file , a . , christian service files, cmbs-f. two months after penner refused induction and his case began to work through the courts, general hershey and president johnson collaborated in october in punitive reclassification or revoking of deferments for those seen as resisting or interfering in the draft, a decision that included religious objectors. flynn, the draft, - . karpatkin had earlier represented leroy garber in an amish religious freedom case in kansas in . what was reported to mennonites through press releases and prayer requests from mennonite central committee’s peace section and what was recounted in the national press, were consistent, although with more flair and detail in the latter. penner came from a family with strong beliefs in nonresistance and had been born in staunton, virginia in during his father’s service in a cps camp there. he had been raised in the mennonite brethren enclave of balko, oklahoma, but when he later attended tabor college and registered duly for selective service with the local draft board in his home state, he faced two situations that were problematic. on the one hand, he faced a highly nationalistic oklahoma draft board in a state notorious for its attempts to avoid granting conscientious objectors classification. on the other hand, he had engaged in activities that were later portrayed by the presidential review board as demonstrating his religious convictions were insincere. penner had not retracted his belief in conscientious objection and an adamant refusal to kill an enemy. but he had, according to fbi reports garnered from interviews with unidentified classmates, engaged in “smoking, drinking and carousing with girls while at tabor college.” his reputed actions flew in the face of conduct endorsed by his brotherhood and also violated the strong behavioral standards endorsed by the college. “objector’s draft defiance upheld,” (ap report, lacks citation, likely is selective service newspaper, the register, or selective service news, june .) christian service files clipping, cmbs-f. violations of rules for behavior were standard reasons for dismissal or suspension, a means by which a man who was not a conscientious objector in the hpc tradition could lose a student deferment, one reason that college students opposed in loco parentis rules that could see them easily charged and dismissed with violations of conduct. evidence in college records of disciplinary charges or action were highly prejudicial when a case was reviewed. by and the introduction of punitive reclassification, even hpc members who were staunch conscientious objectors and classified as -o were under scrutiny as well. there is evidence that the college attempted to protect penner when the fbi attempted to garner information from a particular administrator who was cannily evasive, a conclusion also supported by the fbi’s use of reports garnered from “classmates” rather than from college records. joel a. wiebe to j. harold sherk, january , ; dwight wiebe to j. harold sherk, january , ; sherk to mennonites throughout north america, however, did not hear the flashy details later reported in the associated press newspaper article, although the final report issued by mcc offered a simple statement that objectively quoted the solicitor general’s argument to the supreme court. instead, they heard the story of his conviction and became active witnesses to penner’s contested conviction. in a mcc news service release on april , , the mcc peace section’s associate executive secretary issued a three page article that detailed jerry penner’s situation just prior to his appeal to the supreme court. “the right of appeal: a time for testing” described why the case was important to mennonites, why an appeal was not a lawsuit to which many mennonites would object as coercive --- and also enlisted its readers in his defense. it couched its appeal in language that the larger brotherhood could appreciate: the sentence was appealed in the u. s. l th circuit court of appeals where the lower court's decision was sustained. the only remaining recourse is an appeal to the united states supreme court. such an appeal is not exercising the legal process for one's own advantage and benefit, such as in collecting a bad debt, nor is it filing a suit against the government. rather, the appeal is simply asking the supreme court to review a decision or sentence of a lower court to ascertain that the intent of the law has been fully appreciated. realizing the far-reaching consequences for the church and for conscientious objectors, the alvin penner family and the mennonite brethren church through its general secretary, henry h. dyck, have requested the mcc peace section to assist them in making the decision of whether or not to appeal the case. up to this point the penner family personally has covered all the expenses involved, which have been quite extensive. a petition of certiorari (a writ of a superior court to call up the records of a lower court) had to be filed within days. however, a -day extension of time has been granted by the supreme court. this extension ends on may , . such a petition must present the arguments which are unique to this case and which have not been previously considered by the court. the cost for the preparation of such a petition alone, with no assurance that the case will be heard hershey, january , . christian service, draft and peace witness: individual -w cases, a . , file , christian service files, cmbs-f. by the supreme court, will be several thousand dollars (which, incidentally, shows why the poor cannot afford the due process of the law for justice). mennonites from across the tradition sent donations to help the penner family and within three months their hopes were realized. u.s. solicitor general ervin griswold’s assessment of karpatkin’s argument agreed that justice had been miscarried, and even in a particularly punitive manner. when mcc’s peace section issued its follow-up news release, it breathed a sigh of relief and a prayer of thanksgiving, even as it hinted at the various undercurrents in play: in the conclusion of the petition … the attorney asked the supreme court to rule as to whether "a conscientious objector must be a saint, or whether it is sufficient to be an ordinary man who is, by reason of religious training and belief, conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form." penner's conviction rested largely on the basis of rather fragmentary and undocumented evidence contained in an fbi report which alleged that he did not hold to some of the basic tenets of the mennonite faith. last week in a completely unexpected and unprecedented action the united states solicitor general ervin n. griswold, in writing his recommendations to the supreme court, said that the penner case was an obvious miscarriage of justice and in fact likened it to the sacco vanzetti case, a case where guilt was supposedly established and execution was carried out largely because of strong public feelings--only to have some concrete vindicating evidence uncovered after the execution. the solicitor general whose responsibility it is to support the government’s conviction came to the defense of jerry penner and recommended that the court of appeals decision be reversed and that the case be remanded to the district court for a dismissal of indictment. attorney karpatkin said that this statement by the solicitor general was in his practice and to his knowledge unprecedented. the supreme court in its final action for the spring session reviewed the case and stated that there had been an obvious error in the conviction …. they decided not to hear the case but to simply order the recommendations of the solicitor general. on monday, june , , the united states supreme court issued the following very terse order: "on the basis of a confession of error by the united states solicitor general and of an independent review of the record, the petition for writ of certiorari is granted, the judgment of the court of appeals is vacated and the case is remanded to the united states district court for the western district of oklahoma with mcc news service releases were distributed to all mcc denominations and were routinely published in their popular denominational organ, thus achieving a particularly wide distribution to laity. walton hackman, “the right of appeal: a time for testing,” mcc news service (april , ), christian service, ii. correspondence, dwight wiebe, a . , cmbs- f. instructions to dismiss the indictment." the supreme court's decision annuls the lower court's conviction and completely dismisses all criminal charges against jerry penner. after six years jerry penner has been acquitted, justice rendered and prayers answered. the family has borne almost the entire financial load of about $ , ; persons wishing to share in this expense with the family may channel contributions through the mcc peace section. this was, after all, a decision which will be of benefit not only to jerry penner, but to all conscientious objectors. for several years afterwards, the case remained in the memory of the brotherhood. contributions continued to trickle in to mcc which were then forwarded to penner and his family. the case that the national interreligious service board for religious objectors had feared might erode basic protections for beliefs about participation in war had been dismissed even under the pressure of public patriotism. the supreme court, by accepting griswold’s recommendation, upheld conscientious objection and defused an attack that had used questionable evidence and reasoning against a particular objector. yet, the six years it took for penner to achieve recognition for his original declared stance was a cautionary note, however nebulous, for not only other mennonite brethren in general, but also tabor college men, particularly as the demands of the vietnam war increased. moreover, the case throws into sharp relief the protections afforded students at bethel college, where students successfully argued for smoking privileges on campus in several designated areas, versus the behavioral stipulations under which many tabor students chafed. the case is intriguing as an exercise in memory and questioning why something so significant to the history of nonresistance among college students --- and mennonites --- has been largely forgotten. yet it also represents the agony of a family under scrutiny as they saw their son walton hackman, “penner case acquitted and prayers answered,” mcc news service, july , , - . classified, then re-classified into a position expressly against his beliefs about killing, and then placed under a lens that called his sincerity into question. penner performed his subsequent alternative service at the prairie view mental health facility in newton, kansas. but he did so apart from the christian service office. why was it so difficult for the college initially to defend him? the school faced the same dilemmas as the denominational christian service office run by dwight wiebe. for each, behavior was a strong indicator of christian commitment and variations from strict standards called a person’s faith into question. the college had emphasized clean living since its inception, with its deans of men and women alert to violations, practices that were common in christian higher education, but that also, in other forms, were standards enforced as the in loco parentis rules so despised and increasingly opposed in american higher education. these values were an almost essential part of the college’s identity and to deny behavioral criteria was to deny a significant part of that identity. moreover, on paper, the mennonite brethren were eager to demonstrate their respect for government and to cooperate in whatever way they could. at the same time, president roy just’s decision in not to re-establish a -w unit on campus despite the earnest entreaties by dwight wiebe and influential others enabled the school to more easily maintain separation from the u.s. government, including potential selective service scrutiny. it also avoided an explicit identification with conscientious objection. the action was an adept maneuver by the college’s new administration. in the short run, the college was able to sidestep the fbi’s attempts to finger penner as someone with a disciplinary problem. in the long run, the school avoided a confrontation in which it might publically have defended the essentials of conscientious objection and a concomitant peace position. yet dwight wiebe was baffled by just’s reply. was it not an ideal situation for the college --- to house a project at tabor college that granted conscientious objector credit to men who were working on school projects? j. harold sherk’s reply handwritten on the back of just’s letter evidences that just was making a decision that more completely protected the integrity of conscientious objectors --- and the essentials of a peace witness --- than a project that benefitted the brotherhood. i don’t know roy just’s reasons for his views about -w men on the campus. as you know, a number of men have served in similar situations, but a number of thoughtful men question the propriety of using -w men in any church school on the ground that the church would not have a school except primarily in its own interests. the balancing factor is the service which the school gives to the general community…. thoughtful church men as well as selective service people have been in disagreement on this matter. on the one hand, just successfully kept the college from particular legal obligations and scrutiny by selective service. but, on the other hand, it meant not sponsoring a project that would have provided cheap labor and young men committed to the mennonite brethren vision working on campus. was his a decision more in line with anabaptist thinking? if so, why did the college come under the thumb of the very community that sherk described? finding faith, raising the flag: conflicted loyalties and the intensified war student phil kliewer could not believe that the brotherhood was so unwilling to stand behind its peace commitments. a missionary kid from zaire he clearly remembered watching the just’s letter to wiebe is measured, carefully cloaked as a reply to an earlier conversation: “i believe that my personal conversations with you in this regard are sufficient amplification for you to understand how we feel.” roy just, to dwight wiebe, february , , “christian service, kansas: hillsboro, tabor college, - , a . , christian service files, cmbs-f. j. harold sherk, to dwight wiebe, undated reply on the verso of ibid. survivors of the stanleyville massacre that bob harms had enjoined tabor students to ponder when they considered discipleship. i was in congo during , and went to the airport in kinshasa to count friends among the survivors of the massacre as they came out of c- aircraft. we didn’t know how things had unfolded in the end there until survivors came off the airplanes and told their stories. a couple of the paxmen as well as others spoke in various settings about what happened, and one told of playing dead, so that must have been bergman. amazing stories. i didn’t know him or bob [harms] then, but i did meet bob later on our way to a peace conference. working on the juhnke campaign in the summer of and considering the lack of response by mennonite brethren to the war, kliewer argued his case in the popular mb magazine the christian leader, then saw it reprised in the mennonite. he asked mennonites if the extent of their witness was simply personal conscientious objection or if they had a larger witness to violence as he believed his anabaptist forefathers had: these people were radical. by radical, i mean something drastic and extreme — without regard to personal pleasure and well-being. we are looking back at the radical commitments of the early christians and of our mennonite fathers and wondering whether mennonites are radically committed, today. at present, we see the mennonites making good commitments in areas of social concern. we see mennonites making good commitments to other persons' relationships with god. we see mennonites making good commitments among themselves and god. but what happened to our radical commitment to oppose violence? did this commitment end with the alternative service act? people tell me that the government recognized us by legislating the alternative service program and respect us for our good use of it. that is all very fine, except that the recognition and respect has not gone much further than this. were we only looking for recognition and respect? instead, he pushed the readers to consider the witness of the early church and its refusal to commit violence. obviously, our sincere but meager attempts to oppose the violence of our government has posed no real problem to the government. if we continue to enjoy phil kliewer, email message to the author, october , . the comforts of social endorsement of our present position of indifference toward violence, menno's dove may never again find a home with us. with this in mind, what am i asking of the mennonite church of ? … generally, i ask that we look back to jesus and the early christian church and, without living in the past, be as radical in our time as they were in theirs. i ask that we look back to our mennonite fathers and, without living in the past, be as radical in our time as they were in theirs. i ask that we not only have a faith, but that we become the faith that is within us. therein lies the fusion of faith and works. kliewer’s letter elicited responses by three letter writers, all of whom disagreed with his interpretation. the most pointed argued that the tabor student needed to rethink radicalism”: “please, phil, in your bible studies, yield your thinking to the holy spirit. certainly, then you will see that the early christians were not ‘radicals’ or rebels.” clearly, kliewer was on the wrong theological track. by the time the nixon administration began the intensified bombing of north vietnam in december , tabor students had lined the grassy mall area with white crosses. they had been unable to protest formally in town, but they now saw, ironically, hundreds of teenagers who had arrived for the annual tabor youth conference encouraged to march through hillsboro with picket signs proclaiming evangelistic messages such as, “jesus christ today,” “jesus people unite,” “jesus saves,” and “give jesus a chance,” a march that featured prominently in the college yearbook. yet activists such as ellen kroeker refused to let her faith be framed only in these terms. as did other tabor students, she believed it demanded a response to the war. one of the organizers of the protest that had been countered by the rally round the flag demonstration, she asked to make an announcement in chapel. she instead criticized the kliewer, phil. “did the cat get menno’s dove?” the mennonite, october , , - . o. r. fretz, in ibid., november , , . bombings, then held onto the microphone as administrator joel wiebe approached to take control of the situation. she “quickly announced a prayer” and prayed, foiling the attempt to stop her speech. she was subsequently upbraided by the leader of an evangelical group on campus for “using prayer as a manipulative tool.” student activists who attributed their conclusions about protesting the vietnam war to their mennonite brethren faith had seen their hopes of walking through town and mailing letters as had been done at bethel and hesston thwarted. yet they also saw that the purely evangelical messages encouraged by the student life organizers of the youth conference were not only acceptable, but encouraged. nevertheless, activists like ellen kroeker were accused of using religion to manipulate a political protest. while tabor began flying the flag intermittently during the s, the issue was revived over the next two decades after the end of the war. clarence hiebert and other members of the faculty contested the national symbol, insisting that christians were “world citizens.” they also questioned the singing of the “star spangled banner” on campus, which was routinely done at sporting events. an attempt at compromise in the late s resulted in the flagpole being moved to what was then the periphery of the campus, away from the “spiritual and intellectual focus” of the lohrenz building, the signature classroom, chapel, and administration edifice. in , the board of trustees recommended that “we fly the flag on campus regularly.” although it is outside the direct scope of this analysis, the arguments presented evidenced that tabor remained conflicted about national symbols --- and its own loyalties. the tabor bluejay, . ellen kroeker, email correspondence with author, november , . the compromise was informally called “the prieb compromise” after the man who advocated for anabaptism and yet who was adept at keeping peace on campus. regarding the flag and mb memory, see president vernon janzen memos & correspondence, - . as the vietnam war came to a close for americans, mennonite central committee held its annual meeting on the tabor campus in . the questions loomed large and yet the minutes are chiefly silent. only part of the meeting can be teased from other sources. yet, the encounter was significant as the war closed. at issue was whether or not mcc should continue sending medical and material relief to north vietnam (areas including the democratic republic of vietnam (drvn) and the people’s revolutionary government (prg). the meeting grew heated as those mennonites of dutch-russian ancestry whose families had survived communist rule in russia early in the century argued against sending any aid to communists, while others contended that mennonites had sent relief to areas “in the name of christ” that they could not control. distribution was not always as tidy as contributors desired. yet, behind the exchange was the larger question: who is our enemy? could mennonites agree to now heal the wounds of war? and, where did their citizenship lie? in the local community or state? or in a world citizenship that occupied a far larger public square? the college struggled to align itself with these larger imperatives, agreeing to do so when it involved evangelism and visions of mission, and attempting to implement curricular innovations that would attract and retain students. but in the short run, there was little room for “rational for flying the u.s. flag on the tabor campus in the area southwest of the gymnasium entrance.” cmbs tabor register i.d.: : . center for mennonite brethren studies, hillsboro, ks. although the flag was not always flown, it is interesting to note that the memo states: “tabor college has never quit flying the flag and acknowledging national respect. though flying the flag on the flagpole in front of the main administration building was discontinued some years ago due to maintenance problems, the flag has continued to fly and the national anthem has continued to sound forth in our gymnasium and our stadium at major athletic events attended by the public.” mcc, minutes of the annual meeting, hillsboro, kansas, , . mcc annual meetings. mcc; kreider and goossen, hungry, - ; dyck, memorandum to executive office, april , , - . mcc, vietnam, , / , ix- - . mcc. the realities of a war in vietnam. neither the brotherhood nor the college leadership was able to risk the debate in which the other schools and their brotherhoods engaged. in spite of the ongoing attempts to prove they were loyal american citizens, they did not support their young people who needed a place for dissent. instead, both faith and a rigorous and questioning patriotism was hedged by the conformity of a small town. in this case, anabaptism was subsumed by the desire to survive. chapter -- conclusion reflecting on the twentieth anniversary of the free speech movement, berkeley historian leon litwack in california monthly (december ) commented on what he saw as the ongoing attempts during the s to re-cast the s as a time of immoral disruption and social chaos: what is happening now in the reagan era, is that people are trying to reinterpret the sixties as a period of excess: we over-reached ourselves; the war on poverty was misguided altruism; the civil rights movement demanded too much too fast; the movement descended into apocalyptic fantasy; the counter culture died from an overdose; the antiwar movement made us soft and flabby; i don’t agree. i think few generations cared more about this country. it was a generation that opted for the highest kind of loyalty. it defined loyalty to one’s country as disloyalty to its pretenses, a willingness to unmask its leaders, a calling to subject its institutions to critical examination. that, to me, is real patriotism. litwack’s comments parallel what american religious historian sydney ahlstrom had not completely articulated, but which was embedded in his argument about the s as the end of american puritanism. he saw the decade as a time of disorder --- not only the disorder that president richard nixon used in his campaign in favor of “law and order” and which has remained in american memory as the chief characteristic of the decade, but also the disorder of injustice that underlay the fierce and remembered public discontent. for mennonites, these questions intersected with the anxieties raised as a result of their persecution for their antiwar beliefs, first in the two world wars, and then, postwar in the uneasy patriotism of the cold war. they attempted to negotiate enough of a common identity to gain the protection of the u.s. government during the wars, but, in fact chose different paths to realizing their beliefs. these were dependent not only their views of polity, but their acculturation to american christianity, leon litwack, “facing the issue: years later,” california monthly , no. (december ), . and in particular evangelicalism. while two of the groups directly engaged the “anabaptist vision” that was both an attempt to define and appropriate a theological heritage and a means by which to engage what it meant to be a people of “peace” in the twentieth century, the third struggled even to keep the connections in place that enabled discussion, disagreement, and consensus. in spite of the shared experiences of civilian public service camps and the attempts by mennonite leadership to create a common understanding of a peace witness, the ability to engage in dialog and respond to internal and external pressure varied by denomination --- and by their colleges. this evaluation of the impact of the long vietnam war on mennonite colleges in kansas reveals an attempt to come to grips with both kinds of disorder and to decide which narrative is the one most endorsed by denominations that had only recently emerged from what were called brotherhoods. the tension between communal harmony and the challenge of identity formation issued by the “anabaptist vision” within each group was manifested in different ways. on the one hand, the three colleges in kansas, shared common views about a radical christianity rooted in the early church, but on the other, each struggled with how that was demonstrated --- both internally and externally. was it essential to be a witness and, if so, what kind of witness? how did the public square fit into their beliefs that they were a peculiar people, and particularly in their historical opposition to war? in spite of the common visions each had articulated in favor of the liberal arts and the kind of inquiry that was necessary to intellectual and spiritual growth, in practice they formed campuses that approached learning in different ways --- and teaching peace as an outcome of mennonite identity in starkly variant manners. although these resulted from denominational decisions, which included the impact of external forces such as american fundamentalism, they also were dependent on local factors. in part, for the gcs and the mbs, this was not only due to congregational structures of decision-making that diffused centralized authority (and the creation of theological vision), but also derived from the largely self-contained, self-governing community structures in russia that enabled a self-referent autonomy. the gcs in their more expansive vision and alliance with other progressives faced outward. the mbs struggled with whether or not they wanted to interact with other mennonites, even as they embraced aspects of american fundamentalism (then evangelicalism) that paralleled their own interests. for all three brotherhoods, how they taught peace was an outgrowth of their interactions with their local communities. the colleges both formed and were formed by the towns in which they were situated. because each had chosen its own location and geographical setting, how the town served the gown and how the gown served the town was a complex combination of variables, a process that was further complicated by american warfare. from a social science perspective, this study affirms the importance of ideal or cultural factors as motivators in social change. in this case, each college drew on its vision of itself and how it looked at peace using the resources available through peace actors on campus, the denomination, its local community, and the willingness to take the risks necessary to manage conflict. yet they all derived additional justifications for their decisions from outside influences and whether or not they perceived those influences as a disorder to be embraced or one to be rejected. these included the antiwar movement (both sacred and secular streams within it), the reports of mennonite service workers and missionaries in vietnam, denominational views of political involvement, their loyalties as americans, and the towns in which each was situated. kniss, fred, “ideas and symbols as resources in intrareligious conflict: the case of american mennonites.” sociology of religion , no. ( ): - . debenedetti’s argument that “the experience refined in civil rights was critical in positioning radical pacifism within the changing peace movement” in the early s is evidenced in part by some pieces of the kansas mennonite college engagement with culture. antiwar activists among faculty and students at bethel drew from their experiences with the civil rights movement, as did those at hesston. the incident at nashville’s allen hotel during the annual intercollegiate peace fellowship in put mennonite ideas of nonresistance to the test and disabused future faculty at bethel of the notion of simply a personal peace. likewise, the participation of bethel faculty and students in civil rights movement demonstrations and the insistent eloquence in word and deed by activist vincent harding incorporated students from all three colleges in the larger peace movement. the schools and denominations also evidenced both the dilemma of antiwar witness and the entanglements of the sacred and secular antiwar movements. faculty at all three campuses had performed conscientious objection through civilian public service camps, pax, or voluntary service, thus participating in what each brotherhood considered appropriate mennonite witness. while mbs continued to maintain that the best form of witness was through the denomination’s alternative service program, both gcs and mcs stretched beyond simple job placements as the only valid witness. the mcs issued a historic statement supporting those who saw noncooperation as the means to stay untangled from a warfare society, while the gc college although debenedetti focuses on “radical pacifism” as the use of gandhi’s nonviolent direct action by groups such as for (fellowship of reconciliation), core (congress on racial equality), and sncc (student non-violent coordinating committee), he also includes the early efforts by quaker individuals and groups such as the newly formed spu (student peace union) both to address disarmament and to engage in an immediate, highly personalized contact with one of chicago’s black ghettos. debenedetti, american ordeal, - . tacitly endorsed that same witness even when it involved prison, with both faculty and students serving prison time as a more faithful witness to a system of war. moreover, a careful reading of those who chose to protest, particularly those at bethel, reveals that both religious and secular pacifism influenced their actions. reflecting the complex mix of individuals and actors that were among the first to protest and then those who sustained protest finds the religious pacifists of clergy and laity concerned, the fellowship of reconciliation, the american friends service committee, and the women’s international league for peace and freedom as significant influences, with mennonite central committee (particularly, its peace section) educational projects that put students directly in touch with vietnam service workers an additional influential actor. likewise, the war resisters league, brief encounters with students for a democratic society, and, as the bethel peace club discovered, badly needed assistance from the black panthers and a bus of trotskyites, were among the secular pacifist connections. the most significant influencers, however, were the quakers and mennonites, either as individuals or, particularly in the case of the former, in organizations like the american friends service committee. thus, the study indicates that it is too easy of a conclusion to simply state that the colleges were emulating national movements and secular actors. tabor, unlike bethel and hesston, could not resolve its tensions. while the gc mennonite church and mc mennonites had responded to the escalating war and the growing conviction that the u.s. government was demanding an allegiance the church could not give, the mennonite brethren were torn. even as the gc and mc mennonite discussions were by no means univocal, the mennonite brethren tabled a decision. they apparently could not act decisively. although hesston college enrollment continued to grow, both bethel and tabor struggled financially. the former’s woes were attributed to its activism in and , but the denomination made an unprecedented move not only to guarantee and pay its debts, but also to help actively recruit students, thus flying in the face of those who were critical of bethel’s activism. the result was that bethel was able to continue anti-war activities, to begin to repair relationships with the town and with its larger constituency, and to establish a new peace studies program as part of the college curriculum. for many, the college remained suspect even as its denominational conference moved to support it. hesston achieved a stance in line with denominational nonconformity, quietly resolving the conflict over the flag by removing it as a sovereign national symbol and maintaining that the state could not take precedence in matters of conscience and divided loyalties. examining this contested ground as it played out at tabor college during the vietnam war offers a counterpoint to the assertion that the mennonite brethren easily yielded to the larger religious or national culture. yet, it also raises questions about the extended meaning of non-resistance so artfully reinterpreted by the mc mennonite church and by the gc mennonite church and whether the larger church environments in the three towns were able to contribute to this engaged or even activistic re-interpretation. in hillsboro, the appearance of the highly influential banker in the tabor story suggests that the college was under pressure to conform to the community. it was the only one of the schools in which townspeople were allowed to hold a counterdemonstration on campus. had the mennonite brethren been certain of their theological stance, perhaps they would have taken the risk both to anger the community and then attempt to repair relationships as was done in both bethel and hesston. that decision would assume the group’s vision was not conflicted. but it was. the mennonite brethren were torn as the other fellowships were: between private and public peacemaking, between piety and social concern, and between keeping the peace within a congregation and disturbing it. unlike bethel and hesston, whose leadership had recast the definition of patriotism to encompass ideas about justice and freedom that were consistent with an anabaptist heritage, tabor floundered. the questions proffered at the hershey-brunk forum in had been framed simply: “survival …. and religious freedom” by hershey, and “survival … christian witness” by brunk. tabor could only choose “survival” and because of that ambivalence refused to make a decision on the war, or in doing so, raise disturbing questions about its own identity. it was caught between its anabaptism and the pressures to conform to the community, local and national. it could not risk redefining patriotism and it could not risk removing its symbol altogether. the flag was down, then up, then erratically flown, then flown not at all, then flown, but with a caveat. two schools could make a clear commitment to anabaptism, but the third made no commitment and hence aligned itself with the majority culture. bibliography primary sources manuscript collections brethren historical library and archives, elgin, il. hershey, lewis b. file brunk ii, george r. papers, private collection center for mennonite brethren studies, fresno, ca. christian service papers intercollegiate peace fellowship files center for mennonite brethren studies, hillsboro, ks. brunk ii, george r. files intercollegiate peace fellowship files just, roy file wiebe, dwight file eastern mennonite university archives, harrisonburg, va. hesston college archives, hesston, ks. kansas state historical library, topeka, ks harvey county, kansas. newspaper files marion county, kansas. newspaper files mennonite central committee archives, akron, pa mennonite central committee. correspondence mennonite central committee. peace section. files hiebert, clarence files hostetter, douglas files voluntary service. bethel college files voluntary service. hesston college files voluntary service. tabor college files wiebe, dwight files wiens, delbert files viet nam clippings files mennonite church usa archives, goshen, in. goshen college pax club records hostetter, douglas papers intercollegiate peace fellowship files wiens, delbert files mennonite historical library, goshen, in. menno simons historical library. eastern mennonite university archives, harrisonburg, va. mennonite library and archives, north newton, ks. bethel college peace club papers first mennonite (hillsboro, ks) files preheim, vern papers messiah college archives, grantham, pa. prieb, wesley papers, private collection. trine university archives, angola, in. hershey, lewis b. papers u.s. army war college archives, u.s army military history institute (usamhi), carlisle, pa. hershey, lewis b. papers virginia mennonite conference archives, harrisonburg, va. wichita state university archives, wichita, ks. wisconsin historical society archives, madison, wi. interviews mennonite library and archives, north newton, ks. showalter oral history collection. individual interviews, including sources requesting anonymity periodicals concern: a pamphlet series, - hillsboro star-journal, - marion county record, - newton kansan, - hesston record, - peace notes (ipf), - tabor view, - the bluejay (tabor college), - the collegian (bethel college), - the lark (hesston college), - the christian leader, - the gospel herald, - the mennonite, - the mennonite quarterly review, - the mennonite weekly review, - the messenger (first mennonite church, hillsboro, ks), - the thresher (bethel college), - other primary sources bowman, rufus d. the church of the brethren and war. elgin, il: brethren press, . ediger, max. a vietnamese pilgrimage. newton, ks: faith and life press, . french, paul comly. civilian public service. washington, d.c.: national service board for religious objectors, . gitlin, todd. the sixties, years of hope, days of rage. new york: bantam books, . halstead, fred. out now: a participant’s account of the movement against the vietnam war in the united states. new york: pathfinder, . harris, david. dreams die hard. new york: st. martin’s, . hayden, tom. reunion: a memoir. new york: random house, . hoffman, abbie. soon to be a major motion picture. new york: g.p. putnam, lens, sidney. unrepentant radical: an american activist’s account of five turbulent decades. boston: beacon press, . lewis, john. walking with the wind: a memoir of the movement. new york: simon and schuster, . mceldowney, carol cohen. hanoi journal . edited by suzanne kelley mccormack and elizabeth r. mock. amherst, ma: university of massachusetts press, . metzler, james e. from saigon to shalom: the pilgrimage of a missionary in search of a more authentic mission. scottdale, pa: herald press, . swomley, john. confronting church and state: memoirs of an activist. amherst, ny: humanist press, . toews, j. b. jb: the autobiography of a twentieth century mennonite pilgrim. fresno, ca: center for mennonite brethren studies, . van braght, thieleman j. the bloody theater or martyr’s mirror of the defenseless christians. scottdale, pa: herald press, . william safire, before the fall: an inside view of the pre-watergate white house. garden city, nj: doubleday, . secondary sources books and pamphlets ahlstrom, sydney e. a religious history of the american people. nd ed. new haven, ct: yale university press, . applebaum, patricia. kingdom to commune: protestant pacifist culture between world war i and the vietnam war. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . appy, christian g. working-class war: american combat soldiers & vietnam. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . bainton, roland h. the reformation of the sixteenth century. boston, ma: the beacon press, . baritz, loren. backfire: a history of how american culture led us into vietnam and made us fight the way we did. new york: morrow, . beattie, keith. the scar that binds: american culture and the vietnam war. new york: nyu press, . bender, thomas. nation among nations: america's place in world history. new york: hill and wang, . bennett, scott h. radical pacifism: the war resisters league and gandhian nonviolence in america, - . syracuse: syracuse university press, . berman, marshall. all that is solid melts into air: the experience of modernity. new york: simon and schuster, . biesecker-mast. separation and the sword in anabaptist persuasion: radical confessional rhetoric from schleitheim to dordrecht. telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, . blair, william. virginia’s private war: feeding body and soul in the confederacy, - . oxford: oxford university press, . breines, wini. community and organization in the new left, - . nd ed. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . brock, peter. pacifism in the united states: from the colonial era to the first world war. princeton, nj: princeton university press, . brock, peter and nigel young. pacifism in the twentieth century. syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . bush, perry. two kingdoms, two loyalties: mennonite pacifism in modern america. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . caro, robert a. years of lyndon johnson, vols. new york: knopf, - . carpenter, joel. revive us again: the reawakening of american fundamentalism. new york: oxford university press, . carter, dan. the politics of rage: george wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of american politics. new york: simon & schuster, . chalmers, david. and the crooked places made straight: the struggle for social change in the s. nd ed. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . chambers, john whiteclay. the eagle and the dove: the american peace movement and united states foreign policy, - . nd ed. syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . chapman, jessica m. cauldron of resistance: ngo dinh diem, the united states, and s southern vietnam. ithaca, ny: cornell university press, . chappell, david l. a stone of hope: prophetic religion and the death of jim crow. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . chatfield, charles. the american peace movement: ideals and activism. new york: twayne, . _____. for peace and justice: pacifism in america, - . knoxville, tn: university of tennessee press, . cohen, lisabeth. a consumer’s republic: the politics of mass consumption in postwar america. new york: knopf, . collins, robert m. more: the politics of economic growth in postwar america. new york: oxford university press, . cowie, jefferson. stayin’ alive: the s and the last days of the working class. new york: new press, . cromartie, michael, ed. peace betrayed: essays on pacifism and politics. washington, dc: ethics and public policy center, . danielson, leilah. american gandhi: a. j. muste and the history of radicalism in the twentieth century. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, . debenedetti, charles. the peace reform in american history. bloomington, in: indiana university press, . debenedetti, charles, with charles chatfield. an american ordeal: the antiwar movement of the vietnam era. syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . dekar, paul r. creating the beloved community: a journey with the fellowship of reconciliation. telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, . deppermann, klaus. melchior hoffman: social unrest and apocalyptic visions in the age of reformation. edinburgh: t&t clark, . dower, john w. cultures of war: pearl harbor, hiroshima, - , iraq. new york: norton, . driedger, leo and donald b. kraybill. mennonite peacemaking: from quietism to activism. scottdale, pa: herald press, . driedger, leo and leland harder, eds. anabaptist-mennonite identities in ferment. elkhart, in: institute of mennonite studies, . durnbaugh, donald f., ed. on earth, peace: discussions on war/peace issues between friends, mennonites, brethren and european churches, - . elgin, il: the brethren press, . dyck, cornelius j., ed. an introduction to mennonite history. scottdale, pa: herald press, . englehardt, tom. the end of victory culture: cold war america and the disillusioning of a generation. rev. ed. amherst, ma: university of massachusetts press, . fager, chuck, ed. quaker service at the crossroads: the american friends service committee and peace and revolution. falls church, va: kimo press, . farrell, james j. the spirit of the sixties: the making of postwar radicalism. new york: routledge, . flynn, george q. the draft, - . lawrence, ks: university press of kansas, . _____. lewis b. hershey: mr. selective service. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . foley, michael s. confronting the war machine: draft resistance during the vietnam war. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . _____. dear dr. spock: letters about the vietnam war to america’s favorite baby doctor. new york: new york university press, . friedmann, robert. mennonite piety through the centuries. goshen, in: mennonite historical society, . _____. the theology of anabaptism. scottdale, pa: herald press, . froese, brian. california mennonites. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . fry, joseph a. debating vietnam: fulbright, stennis, and their senate hearings. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield, . gaddis, john lewis. the cold war: a new history. new york: penguin, . gilbert, marc jason, ed. the vietnam war on campus: other voices, more distant drums. westport, ct: praeger, . goossen, rachel waltner and robert s. kreider. when good people quarrel: studies of conflict resolution. scottdale, pa: herald press, . grace, thomas m. death and dissent in the long sixties. boston: university of massachusetts press, . grele, ronald j. envelopes of sound: the art of oral history. nd ed., chicago: precedent publishing, . gwyn, douglas et al. a declaration on peace: in god’s people the world’s renewal has begun, scottdale, pa: herald press, . habermas, jurgen. the structural transformation of the public sphere: an inquiry into a category of bourgeois society. cambridge, ma: mit press, . hall, mitchell k. because of their faith: calcav and religious opposition to the vietnam war. new york: columbia university press, . harding, vincent. martin luther king: the inconvenient hero, maryknoll, ny: orbis books, . harms, orlando. a conference in pilgrimage: the story of the southern district mennonite brethren conference and its churches. hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, . haury, david a. prairie people: a history of the western district conference. newton, ks: faith and life press, . _____. the quiet demonstration: the mennonite mission in gulfport, mississippi. newton, ks: faith and life press, . hawkley, louise and james c. juhnke, eds. nonviolent america: history through the eyes of peace. north newton, ks: bethel college, . heineman, kenneth j. campus wars: the peace movement at american state universities in the vietnam era. new york: new york university press, . hershberger, guy f. the mennonite church in the second world war. scottdale, pa: herald press, . _____. war, peace, and nonresistance. rd ed. scottdale, pa: herald press, . hershberger, mary. traveling to vietnam: american peace activists and the war. syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . hirschmann, nancy j. rethinking obligation: a feminist method for political theory. ithaca, ny: cornell university press, . hodgson, godfrey. american in our time: from world war ii to nixon---what happened and why. nd ed. princeton, nj: princeton university press, . _____. myth of american exceptionalism. new haven, ct: yale university press, . hogan, wesley c. many minds, one heart: sncc’s dream for a new america. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . homan, gerlof d. american mennonites and the great war, - . waterloo, ont: herald press, . huebner, chris k. a precarious peace: yoderian explorations on theology, knowledge and identity. scottdale, pa: herald press, . hunt, michael h. ideology and u.s. foreign policy. nd ed. new haven, ct: yale university press, . _____. lyndon johnson's war: america's cold war crusade in vietnam, - : a critical issue. new haven, ct: yale university press, . hunt, michael h. and steven i. levine. arc of empire: america’s wars in asia from the philippines to vietnam. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . isserman, maurice. if i had a hammer: the death of the old left and the birth of the new left. new york: basic books, . jacob, philip ernest. the origins of civilian public service: a review of the negotiations during the fall of between government officials and representatives of the churches most immediately affected by the drafting of conscientious objectors. washington, d.c.: national service board for religious objectors, . jacobs, paul and saul landau. the new radicals. new york: random house, . jantzen, mark. mennonite german soldiers: nation, religion, and family in the prussian east, - . notre dame, in: university of notre dame press, . johnston, w. marshall and daniel j. crosby, eds. a dangerous mind: the ideas and influence of delbert l. wiens. eugene, or: wipf & stock, . jones, howard. death of a generation: how the assassinations of diem and jfk prolonged the vietnam war. oxford: oxford university press, . juhnke, james c. a people of two kingdoms: the political acculturation of the kansas mennonites. newton, ks: faith and life press, . _____. a people of two kingdoms ii: stories of kansas mennonites in politics. newton, ks: bethel college, . _____. small steps toward the missing peace. newton, ks: flying camel publications, . _____. vision, doctrine, war: mennonite identity and organization in america, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . karnow, stanley. vietnam: a history. nd ed. new york: viking, . kauffman, j. howard and leland harder. anabaptists four centuries later: a profile of five mennonite and brethren in christ denominations. scottdale, pa: herald press, . kauffman, j. howard and leo driedger. the mennonite mosaic: identity and modernization. scottdale, pa: herald press, . kazin, michael. american dreamers: how the left changed a nation. new york: vintage, . keim, albert n. harold s. bender, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . kennedy, david. over here: the first world war and american society. oxford: oxford university press, . kimball, jeffrey. vietnam war files: uncovering the secret history of nixon-era strategy. lawrence, ks: university press of kansas, . klassen, a.j., ed. the seminary story: twenty years of education in ministry, - . fresno, ca: mennonite brethren biblical seminary, . klassen, peter j. mennonites in early modern poland & prussia. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . kraybill, donald. the amish struggle with modernity. scottdale, pa: herald press, . kreider, robert s. and rachel waltner goossen. hungry, thirsty, a stranger: the mcc experience. scottdale, pa: herald press, . kniss, fred. disquiet in the land: cultural conflict in american mennonite communities. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . kruse, kevin m. one nation under god: how corporate america invented christian america. new york: basic books, . kyle, richard g. from sect to denomination: church types and their implications for mennonite brethren history. hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, . leffler, melvyn. specter of communism: the united states and the origins of the cold war, - . new york: hill and wang, . lehman, james o. and steven m. nolt. mennonites, amish, and the american civil war. baltimore, johns hopkins university press, . lembcke, jerry. the spitting image: myth, memory, and the legacy of vietnam. new york: new york university press, . lewis, penny. hardhats, hippies, and hawks: the vietnam antiwar movement as myth and history. ithaca, ny: cornell university press, . lewy, gunther. peace & revolution: the moral crisis of american pacifism. grand rapids, mi: william b. eerdmans, . lieberman, robbie. the strangest dream: communism, anticommunism, and the u.s. peace movement, - . syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . linder, robert d. the reformation era. westport, ct: greenwood press, . littell, franklin h. the origins of sectarian protestantism. new york: macmillan, . loewen, jacob a. and wesley j. prieb. only the sword of the spirit. winnipeg, mb: kindred productions, . lyttle, bradford. the chicago anti-vietnam war movement. chicago: midwest pacifist center, . macmaster, richard k. land, piety, peoplehood: the establishment of mennonite communities in america, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . marsh, charles. god’s long summer: stories of faith and civil rights. new haven, ct: yale university press, . mast, russell l. christianity and communism. newton, ks: faith and life press, . miller, douglas b. tabor college: a century of transformation, - . hillsboro, ks: center for mennonite brethren studies, . miller, melissa and phil m. shenk. the path of most resistance: stories of mennonite conscientious objectors who did not cooperate with the vietnam war draft. scottdale, pa: herald press, . monhollon, rusty l. “this is america?” the sixties in lawrence, kansas. new york: palgrave, . moskos, charles c. and john whiteclay chambers ii, eds. the new conscientious objection: from sacred to secular resistance. new york: oxford university press, . moser, richard. the new winter soldiers: gi and veteran dissent during the vietnam era. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . mumaw, john r. nonresistance and pacifism. scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, . newfield, jack. a prophetic minority. new york: new american library, . nguyen, lien-hang t. hanoi’s war: an international history of the war for peace in vietnam. chapel hill, nc: the university of north caroline press, . nutt, rick l. toward peacemaking: presbyterians in the south and national security, - . huntsville: university of alabama press, . o’brien, tim. the things they carried. boston: houghton mifflin, . oyer, gordon. pursuing the spiritual roots of protest: merton, berrigan, yoder, and muste at the gethsemani abbey peacemakers retreat. eugene, or: cascade books, . packull, werner o. mysticism and the early south german-austrian anabaptist movement, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . patterson, james t. grand expectations: the united states, - . new york: oxford university press, . peachey, urbane, ed. mennonite statements on peace and social concerns, - . akron, pa: mennonite central committee u.s. peace section, . phillips, kimberly l. war! what is it good for? black freedom struggles and the u.s. military from world war ii to iraq. chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . polletta, francesca. freedom is an endless meeting: democracy in american social movements. chicago: university of chicago press, . preston, andrew. sword of the spirit, shield of faith: religion in american war and diplomacy. new york: knopf, . _____. war council: mcgeorge bundy, the nsc, and vietnam. cambridge, ma: harvard university press, . prieb, wesley j. and don ratzlaff. to a higher plain of vision: tabor college, the first years. hillsboro, ks: tabor college, . redekop, benjamin and calvin w. redekop, eds. power, authority, and the anabaptist tradition. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . redekop, calvin wall and samuel j. steiner, eds. mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. lanham, md: university press of america, . remple, henry d. from bolshevik russia to america: a mennonite family story. sioux falls, sd: pine hill press, . ribuffo, leo. right center left: essay in american history. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . rosenfeld, seth. subversives: the fbi's war on student radicals, and reagan's rise to power. new york: farrar, strauss, and giroux, . rossinow, doug. the politics of authenticity: liberalism, christianity, and the new left in america. new york: columbia university press, . rothkrug, lionel. religious practices and collective perceptions: hidden homologies in the renaissance and reformation. waterloo: university of waterloo, . ruth, john l. maintaining the right fellowship: a narrative account of life in the oldest mennonite community in north america. scottdale, pa: herald press, . schafer, axel r., ed. american evangelicals and the s. madison: university of wisconsin press, . schlabach, theron f. peace, faith, nation: mennonites and amish in nineteenth-century america. scottdale, pa: herald press, . schulman, bruce j. the seventies: the great shift in american culture, society, and politics. new york: free press, . scott, james c. domination and the arts of resistance: hidden transcripts. new haven, ct: yale university press, . scott, katherine a. reining in the state: civil society and congress in the vietnam and watergate eras. lawrence: university press of kansas, . settje, david e. faith and war: how christians debated the cold and vietnam wars. new york: new york university press, . sharp, john e. school on the prairie: a centennial history of hesston college, - . telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, . shenk, wilbert. by faith they went out: mennonite missions, - . elkhart, in: institute of mennonite studies, . _____, ed. mission focus: current issues. scottdale, pa: herald press, . sibley, mulford q. and philip e, jacob. conscription of conscience: the american state and the conscientious objector, - . ithaca, ny: cornell university press, . small, melvin. antiwarriors: the vietnam war and the battle for america’s hearts and minds. wilmington, de: sr books, . _____. at the water’s edge: american politics and the vietnam war. chicago: ivan r. dee, . _____. covering dissent: the media and the anti-vietnam war movement. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . _____. johnson, nixon, and the doves. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press, . small, melvin and william d. hoover. give peace a chance: exploring the vietnam antiwar movement: essays from the charles debenedetti memorial conference. syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . smith, c. henry. the story of the mennonites. th ed., rev. and enl. by cornelius krahn. newton, ks: mennonite publication office, . snyder, c. arnold. anabaptist history and theology. kitchener, ontario: pandora press, . snyder, jack. religion and international relations theory. new york: columbia university press, . sprunger, keith. bethel college of kansas, - . north newton, ks: bethel college, . stassen, glen harold and lawrence s. wittner, eds. peace action: past, present, and future. boulder, co: paradigm publishers, . stayer, james. anabaptists and the sword. lawrence, ks: coronado press, . stephens, randall j. recent themes in american religious history: historians in conversation. columbia: university of south carolina press, . stout, harry s. and d.g. hart. new directions in american religious history. new york: oxford university press, . sturken, marita. tangled memories: the vietnam war, the aids epidemic, and the politics of remembering. berkeley, ca: university of california press, . stutzman, ervin r. from nonresistance to justice: the transformation of mennonite church peace rhetoric, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . swartz, david r. moral minority: the evangelical left in an age of conservatism. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, . teigrob, robert. living with war: twentieth-century conflict in canadian & american history and memory. toronto, university of toronto press, . toews, j.b. pilgrimage of faith: the mennonite brethren church, - . winnipeg, mb: cascade, . toews, john a. a history of the mennonite brethren church: pilgrims and pioneers. hillsboro, ks: mennonite brethren publishing house, . toews, john e. and gordon nickel, eds. the power of the lamb. winnipeg, manitoba: kindred press, . toews, paul, ed. bridging troubled waters: the mennonite brethren at mid-twentieth century. winnipeg, mb: kindred press, . _____. mennonites in american society, - : modernity and the persistence of religious community. scottdale, pa: herald press, . _____. pilgrims & strangers: essays in mennonite brethren history. fresno, ca: center for mennonite brethren studies, . tollefson, james w. strength not to fight: an oral history of conscientious objectors of the vietnam war. boston: little, brown, & co., . u.s. congress. senate. committee on foreign relations. causes, origins, and lessons of the vietnam war. hearings before the committee on foreign relations. nd cong., nd sess., may - , . u.s. dept. of commerce, bureau of the census. census of population ( ) volume , characteristics of the population. part , kansas. table . washington, d.c.: u.s. government printing office, . van meter, sandra. marion county, kansas: past and present. hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house, . vogt, virgil, ed. roots of concern: writings on anabaptist renewal. eugene, or: wipf and stock, . weaver, alain epp, ed. a table of sharing: mennonite central committee and the expanding networks of mennonite identity. telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, . wilson, joan hoff. herbert hoover: forgotten progressive. prospect heights, il: waveland press, . wittner, lawrence s. rebels against war: the american peace movement, - . rev. ed. philadelphia: temple university press, . woehrle, lynne m., patrick g. coy, and gregory m. maney. contesting patriotism: culture, power, and strategy in the peace movement. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield, . wuthnow, robert. consciousness reformation. berkeley, ca: university of california press, . _____. meaning and moral order: explorations in cultural analysis. berkeley: university of california press, . _____. restructuring of american religion: society and faith since world war ii. princeton, nj: princeton university press, . yinger, j. milton. religion in the struggle for power: a study in the sociology of religion. new york: arno press, . _____. the scientific study of religion. new york: macmillan, . zaroulis, nancy and gerald sullivan. who spoke up? american protest against the war in vietnam, - . garden city, ny: doubleday, . zinn, howard. on war. new york: seven stories press, . zieglschmid, a.j.f., ed. die alteste chronik der hutterischen bruder. philadelphia: carl schurz memorial foundation, , . quoted in franklin h. littell, the origins of sectarian protestantism. new york: macmillan, . articles ahlstrom, sydney e. “the traumatic years: american religion and culture in the ‘ s and ‘ s.” theology today , no. (january ): - . ainlay, stephen and fred kniss. “mennonites and conflict: re-examining mennonite history and contemporary life.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . bender, harold s. “the anabaptist vision.” church history , no. (march ): - . _____. “women.” in the mennonite encyclopedia. vol. . scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, - . box office mojo. “franchises: total grosses.” http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/? id=rambo.htm (accessed september , ). broadhurst, christopher j. "’we didn't fire a shot, we didn't burn a building’: the student reaction at north carolina state university to the kent state shootings, may .” the north carolina historical review, , no. (july ): - . burkholder, john richard. “pacifist ethics and pacifist politics.” in peace betrayed? essays on pacifism and politics, edited by michael cromartie, - . washington, d.c.: ethics and public policy center, . bush, perry. “the flexibility of the center: mennonite church conflict in the s.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . _____. “the political education of vietnam christian service, - .” peace & change , no. (april ): - . _____. “vietnam and the burden of mennonite history.” conrad grebel review , no. (spring ): - . butler, jon. “jack-in-the-box faith” the religion problem in modern american history.” journal of american history , no. (march ): - . chatfield, charles. “misplaced crisis.” in peace betrayed? essays on pacifism and politics, edited by michael cromartie, - . washington, d.c.: ethics and public policy center, . chavez, mark. “secularization as declining religious authority.” social forces , no. (march ): - . classen, paul. “statistics on mennonite central committee personnel,” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ): - . cornell, tom. “u.s. pacifism attacked and defended.” cross currents (summer ): - . cowie, jefferson. “vigorously left, right, and center: the crosscurrents of working class america in the s.” in america in the s, edited by beth bailey and david farber, - . lawrence, ks: university press of kansas, . debenedetti, charles. “the american peace movement and the national security state, - .” world affairs , no. (fall ): - . deich ottoson, robin. “the battle over the flag: protest, community opposition, and silence in the mennonite colleges in kansas during the vietnam war.” journal of church and state, , no. (october ): – . deich ottoson, robin. “defending the faith: the impact of gerald b. winrod on the mennonite brethren in kansas, - .” forthcoming. driedger, leo. “die stillen im lande,” s.v. "urbanization," global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia (accessed may , ). elkind, jessica. “’the virgin mary is going south’: refugee resettlement in south vietnam, - .” diplomatic history ( ) peace research abstracts, ebscohost (accessed october , ). farber, david. “the counterculture and the antiwar movement.” in give peace a chance: exploring the vietnam antiwar movement, edited by melvin small and william d. hoover, - . syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . fast, paul shetler. “carrying a weight beyond its numbers: fifty-five years of people- centered development in vietnam.” the conrad grebel review , no. (winter ): - . “flags in mennonite spaces,” mennonite church usa archives, http://mla.bethelks.edu/archives/numbered-photos/flags.php (accessed october , ). flipse, scott. “to save ‘free vietnam’ and lose our souls: the missionary impulse, voluntary agencies, and protestant dissent against the war, - .” ln the missionary impulse and north american history, grant wacker and dan bays, ed. tuscaloosa, al: university of alabama press, . friedmann, robert. “anabaptist.” in the mennonite encyclopedia. vol. . scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, - . _____. “conception of the anabaptists.” church history , no, (december ): - . _____. “the doctrine of the two worlds.” in the recovery of the anabaptist vision, edited by guy f. hershberger, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . _____. “on mennonite historiography and on individualism and brotherhood.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april, ): - . gingerich, melvin and paul peachey. "historic peace churches," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia (accessed march , ). goering, james a. “reflections on the mennonite world conference.” sword and trumpet third quarter ( ): - . goertz, hans-jurgen. “the confessional heritage in its new mold: what is mennonite self- understanding today?” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives, edited by calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner, - . lanham, md: university press of america, . goossen, rachel waltner. “flag,” in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia (accessed october , ). grose, andrew. “voices of southern protest during the vietnam war era: the university of south carolina as a case study.” peace & change , no. (april ): - . hege, christian. "thirty years' war ( - )," in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia (accessed june , ). hall, mitchell k. “calcav and religious opposition to the vietnam war.” in give peace a chance: exploring the vietnam antiwar movement, edited by melvin small and william d. hoover, - . syracuse, ny: syracuse university press, . harder, leland. “an empirical search for the key variable in mennonite reality.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (december ): - . hauerwas, stanley. “pacifism: a form of politics.” in peace betrayed? essays on pacifism and politics, edited by michael cromartie, - . washington, d.c.: ethics and public policy center, . heineman, kenneth. “american schism: catholic activists, intellectuals, and students confront the vietnam war." in the vietnam war on campus: other voices, more distant drums, edited by marc jason gilbert, - . hershberger, guy f. ‘‘the christian’s relation to the state in time of war: ii. is alternative service desirable and possible?” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): - . hollinger, david a. "the 'secularization' question in the united states in the twentieth century." church history , no. (march ): - . _____."why is there so much christianity in the united states? a reply to sommerville," church history , no. (dec. ): - . homan, gerlof. “innocents abroad: mennonite central committee’s beginnings in vietnam, - .” journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . hostetler, beulah stauffer. “nonresistance and social responsibility: mennonites and mainline peace emphasis, ca. to .” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): - . hurd, elizabeth shakman. “secularism and international relations theory.” in religion and international relations theory, edited by jack snyder, - . new york: columbia university press, . johns, loren l. “a tribute to harold s. bender,” mennonite historical society newsletter, ( ), - . juhnke, james c. "clashing symbols in a quiet town: hesston in the vietnam war era." kansas history , no. (autumn ): - . _____. “denominationalism, article,” in global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online, http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia (accessed february , ). _____. “mennonite churches.” in dictionary of christianity in america: a comprehensive resource on the religious impulse that shaped a continent, edited by robert d. linder, bruce l. shelley, and harry s. stout. downers grove, il: intervarsity press, . _____. “mennonite history and self understanding: north american mennonitism as a bipolar mosaic?” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives, edited by calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner, - . lanham, md: university press of america, . _____. “mob violence and kansas mennonites in .” kansas historical quarterly (august ): - . _____. “turning points, broken ice, and glaubensgenossen: what happened at prairie street on july - , ? in a table of sharing: mennonite central committee and the expanding networks of mennonite identity, edited by alain epp weaver, - . telford, pa: cascadia publishing house, . keeney, william. “experiences in mental hospitals in world war ii.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): - . keim, albert n. "service or resistance? the mennonite response to conscription in world war ii." mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . kemmelmeier, markus, and david g. winter. "sowing patriotism, but reaping nationalism? consequences of exposure to the american flag." political psychology , no. (december ): - . klaassen, walter. “anabaptism.” in the mennonite encyclopedia. vol. . scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, - . klassen, james. “walking with vietnam christians.” in mission focus: current issues, edited by wilbert r. shenk, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . kniss, fred. “ideas and symbols as resources in intrareligious conflict: the case of american mennonites.” sociology of religion , no. ( ): - . kostlevy, william c. “a perfectionist remnant: the christian pacifist dissent from realism on the eve of the cold war.” brethren life and thought (summer-fall ): - . krahn, cornelius. ““some social attitudes of the mennonites of russia,” mennonite quarterly review (october ): - . kraus, c. norman. “american mennonites and the bible, - .” mennonite quarterly review , no. (october ): - . kraybill, donald b. “from enclave to engagement: mcc and the transformation of mennonite identity.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): - . krieder, robert. “the historic peace churches meeting in .” mennonite life , no. (june ): - . kuhn, walter. "swiss galician mennonites." mennonite life, , no. (january, ): - . kyle, richard g. “north american mennonite brethren at mid century: ecclesiological developments.” in bridging troubled waters: the mennonite brethren at mid- twentieth century, edited by paul toews, - . winnipeg, mb: kindred publications, . lapp, john a. “the peace mission of the mennonite central committee” mennonite quarterly review (july ): - . lembcke, jerry. “popular consensus or political extortion? making soldiers the means and ends of u.s. military deployments.” in social policy and the conservative agenda, edited by clarence y. h. lo and michael schwartz, - . malden, ma: blackwell publishers, . liechty, joseph c. “humility: the foundation of mennonite religious outlook in the s,” mennonite quarterly review (january ): - . martin, luke s. “implications of the vietnam experience for world mission.” in mission focus: current issues, edited by wilbert r. shenk, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . metzler, james e. “vietnam: i wouldn’t do it again.” in mission focus: current issues, edited by wilbert r. shenk, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . moore, r. lawrence. “insiders and outsiders in american historical narrative and american history.” american historical review , no. (april ): - . morse, stanley j. and stanton peel. “a study of participants in an anti-vietnam war demonstration.” journal of social issues , no. ( ): - . motion picture association of america. “theatrical market statistics .” http://www.mpaa.org/ wp-content/uploads/ / /mpaa-theatrical-market-statistics- _final.pdf (accessed september , ). national association of theatre owners. “annual average u.s. ticket price.” http://www.natoonline.org/data/ticket-price (accessed september , ). newman, saul. “the place of power in political discourse.” international political science review , no. (april ): - . nolt, steve. “problems of collectivity and modernity.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . o’toole, james m. “religious history in the post-ahlstrom era.” in recent themes in american religious history: historians in conversation, edited by randall j. stephens, - . columbia: the university of south carolina press, . perry, john. "not pledging as liturgy: lessons from karl barth and american mennonites on refusing national oaths." mennonite quarterly review , no. (october ): - . peters, marilyn j. “women.” in the mennonite encyclopedia. vol. . scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, - . reimer, a. james. “mennonite theological self-understanding, the crisis of modern anthropocentricity, and the challenge of the third millennium” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives, edited by calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner, - . lanham, md: university press of america, . reimer, james. "the nature and possibility of a mennonite theology." conrad grebel review , no. (winter ): - . rodell, paul. “ivs in vietnam: war and birth, of activism, - .” peace & change (april, ): - . schlabach, theron f. “guy f. hershberger’s war, peace and nonresistance ( ): background, genesis, message.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ): - . _____. “mennonites, revivalism, modernity: - .” church history , no. (december ), - . schoenherr, richard a. “power and authority in organized religion: disaggregating the phenomenological core.” sociological analysis suppl. (march ): - . schowalter, paul. “martyrs.” in the mennonite encyclopedia. vol. . scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, - . shank, david a. “comment on vietnam appraisal.” in mission focus: current issues, edited by wilbert r. shenk, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, ). shelly, maynard. “for us the bell tolled.” the mennonite, november , : - . smith, timothy l. “religion and ethnicity in america, american historical review (december ): - . smith, willard. “the pacifist thought of william jennings bryan.” mennonite quarterly review (january & april ): - ; - . sommerville, c. john. "secular society/religious population: our tacit rules for using the term 'secularization,"' journal for the scientific study of religion, , no. (june ): - . stayer, james m., werner o. packull and klaus depperman, "from monogenesis to polygenesis: the historical discussion of anabaptist origins," mennonite quarterly review, ( ): - . stout, harry s. and robert m. taylor, jr. “studies of religion in american society: the state of the art.” in new directions in american religious history, edited by harry s. stout and d. g. hart, - . new york: oxford university press, . swomley, john n. “an attempt to silence pacifists.” in peace betrayed? essays on pacifism and politics, edited by michael cromartie, - . washington, d.c.: ethics and public policy center, . teichroew, allan. “military surveillance of mennonites in world war i.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . toews, j. b. “the influence of fundamentalism on mennonite brethren theology.” direction , no. (july ): - . toews, paul. “the american mennonite search for a useable past: from the declensive to the ironic interpretation,” mennonite quarterly review , no. ( ): - . _____. “the concern movement: its origins and early history.” conrad grebel review (spring ): - . _____. “fundamentalist conflict in mennonite colleges: a response to cultural transitions?” mennonite quarterly review , no. (july ): - . _____. “henry w. lohrenz and tabor college.” mennonite life (september ): - . _____. “the long weekend or the short week: mennonite peace theology, - .” mennonite quarterly review , no. (january ): - . trillin, calvin. "the war in kansas." new yorker , no. (april , ): - . peace research abstracts, ebscohost (accessed october , ). unruh, mark. "a story of faith and the flag: a study of mennonite fantasy rhetoric." mennonite life (online) , no. (september ). (accessed october , ). urry, james. ’servants from far’: mennonites and the pan-evangelical impulse in early nineteenth-century russia.” mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . weaver-zercher, david l. "between two kingdoms: virginia mennonites and the american flag." mennonite quarterly review , no. (april ): - . wilson, e. raymond. "evolution of the c.o. provisions in the conscription bill." quaker history , no. ( ): - . wuthnow, robert. “international realities: bringing the global picture into focus.” in world order and religion, edited by wade clark roof, - . albany, ny: state university of new york press, . yoder, john howard. “ years of ecumenical theological dialogue efforts on justice and peace issues by the fellowship of reconciliation and the ‘historic peace churches’: a chronology.” in a declaration on peace: in god’s people the world’s renewal has begun, edited by douglas gwyn et al., - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . _____. “the unique role of the historic peace churches,” brethren life and thought (summer ): - . unpublished papers, theses, and dissertations chastain, thane. “media and vietnam peace protests: actual or acted? a small campus study.” seminar paper, bethel college, . mla. chupp, mark g. “reconciliation through resistance: mennonite draft resistance and the mennonite general conference turner, oregon, august .” history senior seminar paper, goshen college, , mhl. flipse, scott e. “bearing the cross of vietnam: humanitarianism, religion and the american commitment to south vietnam, - .” phd diss., university of notre dame, . goering, terence. “a history of the bethel college peace club.” bethel college student paper, , mla. harder, david. “an editor and his denominational periodical, or maynard shelly and the mennonite: - .” bethel college student paper, , mla. harder, leland. “the quest for equilibrium in an established sect: a study of social change in the general conference mennonite church.” phd diss., northwestern university, . herrington, luke m. “a world ripe for the gods: regime theory and religion in international relations.” phd diss., university of kansas, . hershberger, mary. “to the shores of vietnam: citizen diplomacy and the second indochina war.” phd diss., university of georgia, . janzen, cornelius cicero. “a social study of the mennonite settlement in the counties of marion, mcpherson, harvey, reno, and butler, kansas.” phd diss., university of chicago, . johnston, j. angus. “the united states national student association: democracy, activism, and the idea of the student, - .” phd diss. city university of new york, . juhnke, james c. “the political acculturation of the kansas mennonites, - .” phd diss., indiana university, . kamil, tarik w. “the politics of time and eternity: quaker pacifists and their activism during the vietnam war era.” phd diss., ohio university, . kinney, sharla. “study of partly dave coffee house in elkhart.” sociology , methods of social research paper, goshen college, , mhl. leaman, david edward. “politicized service and teamwork tensions: the mennonite central committee in vietnam, - .” history senior seminar paper, goshen college, , mhl. levellers, the. “peace activities of at bethel college, or, a peace of the rebellion.” history seminar paper, bethel college, . mla. martin, luke s. “an evaluation of a generation of mennonite mission, service, and peacemaking in vietnam, - .” mcc. maxwell, donald william. “unguarded border: the movement of people and ideas between the united states and canada during the vietnam war era.” phd diss., indiana university, . miller, keith graber. “wise as serpents, innocent as doves: american mennonites engage washington.” phd diss., emory university, . miller, robert w. “the role and contribution of the foreign voluntary agencies in south vietnam, - .” m.a. thesis, university of pittsburgh, . miller, steven p. “mediating revolution: the goshen college peace society and the new left.” goshen college senior history paper, goshen college, . roberts, laura schmidt. “refiguring tradition: paul ricoeur’s contribution to an anabaptist- mennonite hermeneutics of tradition.” phd diss., graduate theological union, . roth, david. “engaging a politicized world: goshen college record coverage of the vietnam war, - .” goshen college history seminar paper, . sawatsky, rodney. “the impact of fundamentalism on mennonite nonresistance,” m.a. thesis, university of minnesota, . _____. “history and ideology: american mennonite definition through history.” phd diss., princeton university, . suderman, dale. “a view from the streets: reflections on street ministry in elkhart.” peace studies colloquim [sic] and independent study paper, associated mennonite biblical seminary, . wuthnow, robert. “consciousness and the transformation of society.” phd diss., university of california, berkeley, . yoder, john howard. “the search for a nonresistant historiography.” unpublished memorandum, . appendix a - interviews and correspondence interviews and correspondence are in the possession of the author, including those conducted under the stipulation of anonymity. notes and files will eventually be deposited with the mennonite library and archives, bethel college, north newton, ks unless otherwise stipulated by the respondent. interviews interviews correspondence sets of correspondence, chiefly email appendix b - mennonite immigration to the united states . lower rhine to germantown ( - ) . . swiss and palatine mennonites to eastern pa. ( - ) , . . swiss and palatine amish to eastern pa. ( - ) . . alsace-lorraine, hessian and bavarian amish to western pa., ohio, illinois, iowa ( - ) , . . swiss mennonites to ohio and indiana ( - ) . . palatine mennonites to ohio, illinois, and iowa ( - ) . . prussian mennonites to nebraska and kansas ( - ) . . russian mennonites to the prairie states ( - ) , . . russian mennonites to reedley, california ( ) . . scattered individuals (second half of the th century) from germany, switzerland, france, and russia to states west of the mississippi . , . john a. toews, history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: general conference of mennonite brethren church, ), . toews cited data from mennonite encyclopedia, iv, ("with slight revisions"). toews, n . appendix c - timeline of related events (selective) vietnam asia united states other nations kansas military draft kansas mennonite colleges (and denominational action) fdr signed selective training and service act of which established the selective service as an independent govt agency s vietminh fight japanese vietnam partitioned mcc begins work, aid in s. vietnam via delbert wiens, et. al. bay of pigs operation in cuba failed berlin wall erected aug tabor college hosts annual ipf in march (mid-year) american advisors in vietnam increased from to , (may ) mennonite pax man daniel gerber & two others abducted from cma leprosarium near ban me thuot; none ever seen again widely reported in mennonite press (sept.) tabor college hosts forum with hershey and brunk attended by - (fall) , american advisors $ m for vietnam dwight platt (biology professor at bethel) and family walk in march on washington (nov. ) ngo dinh diem assassinated howard jost, “montage: vietnam, the beautiful,” the view, november , , ; first mennonite college statement on vietnam (nov. ) jfk assassinated (dec.) , american advisors in vietnam $ m in aid to s. vietnam during the year (august) tonkin gulf resolution (oct.- dec.) china explodes st atomic bomb (october) lbj continues to reject raids against n. vietnam vietnam asia united states other nations kansas military draft kansas mennonite colleges (and denominational action) (nov.) lbj beats goldwater s. vietnam government unstable (feb.) operation rolling thunder (sustained bombing n. vietnam) (march) first american troops in vietnam at danang bethel students and faculty in civil rights march in montgomery, alabama; then march in topeka for fair housing; in november join protest in dc (december) nearly , american troops in vietnam (january) senators signed letter to lbj to cease air strikes against n.vietnam & to push for diplomatic solution gc and mc peace and social committees publish joint issues of the mennonite and gospel herald on vietnam; ipf annual meeting at bethel in march lbj resumed bombing; rfk broke with lbj (june) johnson meets with kosygin for days (nov. ) bethel peace club sponsored "repentance walk and mail" in north newton; vfw holds parade in newton (december) nearly , american troops in vietnam the mennonite editorial on mennonite church not risking its reputation; supports bethel pc students (january) members of the bethel peace club participate in march at leavenworth; includes hesston students and students from other states on january (april) bethel pc holds "supper of sharing" on april , in conjunction with the mobe (oct.) lbj infuriated by , protestors in dc hershey implements "punitive reclassification" for resisters bethel holds vietnam teach-in november - ; faculty and maynard shelly (dec.) dak soon massacre (nlf) -- + civilians killed gc council of boards recommends medical aid to n. vietnam nearly , american troops in vietnam mcc office opens in washington, dc (january) pueblo seized by north korea (jan.- sept.) tet offensive (feb- march) westmoreland req. , additional troops vietnam asia united states other nations kansas military draft kansas mennonite colleges (and denominational action) (march) my lai massacre (u.s.) -- approx. - unarmed civilians killed gc holds peacemaker workshops in newton-hesston (april) mlk, jr. assassinated (memphis) kansas council of churches meets on vietnam (may) th anniversary of wwi co in hesston celebrated (june) rfk assassinated (los angeles) lorraine ave. church in wichita establishes vs unit (august) democratic national convention (chicago) (sept.) joint mennonite exhibit at kansas state fair on themes, incl. vietnam (oct.) western district conference begins to consider selective co (nov.) nixon elected over humphrey & wallace large vet day marches in lawrence: pro- and con- billy graham appeals for exemptions for , campus crusaders (dec.) , american troops in vietnam bethel males suspended & expelled for smoking. western district finalizes language in support of selective co position (march) mb conference rejected student statements on draft resistance (march) the three colleges attend ipf annual meeting (may) bethel holds a reading of the war dead on the last day of classes (organized by jim juhnke) summer vietnam moratorium committee formed (august) mc general assembly statement at turner, oregon, "non-coop. as valid witness" (sept.) ho chi minh dies bethel students, admin meet with newton city officials, menno churches to gain acceptance for march to wichita; hesston pc pledges - participants; hesston students hoist drvn flag on campus; vern bender flag crusade (sept.) earl martin and pat hostetter martin chapel program at hc (oct.) vietnam moratorium committee names bethel student bob mayer as bethel student bob mayer named kansas coordinator for the moratorium by the national committee vietnam asia united states other nations kansas military draft kansas mennonite colleges (and denominational action) coordinator for the moratorium for kansas (oct ) bethel faculty agree to support student council proposal for moratorium events (oct ) hershey refused to quit; reassigned by nixon gc western district conf. accepts "total noncooperation with selective service" by individual conscience, but opposes protests (oct - ) bethel holds moratorium events and walk to wichita; hesston holds moratorium events (john lapp mcc peace section in chapel,; coffee house pro-war speaker; dramatic dialogue; memorial-commitment service) "late" doug hostetter appears in tabor chapel; is on lecture circuit for mcc (nov) nixon "silent majority" speech (nov. ) hc students & faculty march to hesston post office; mennonite students and vs workers march in mobe & dc peace march ( bethel students), "march against death" (nov. - ); mcc in chicago called alternative service into question (nov. - ); pacific district (mb) re-affirms selective service system and support for government mb southern district affirms support for government mb pacific district 'spiritual support" for resisters (dec.) , american troops in vietnam first lottery draft held hesston pc sponsors debate in flying us flag (march) nixon [secretly] bombs cambodia (april) nixon invades cambodia ku student union set on fire, april , (may ) protesters killed at kent state university james juhnke accepts invitation to teach at tc that fall ( ); speaks at outdoor protest rally on cambodia at tc; juhnke threatened by police in hb; dean withdraws invite. tabor students hold flag protest and townspeople hold counter-protest, "rally round the flag" (may ) nixon appears at billy graham rally at univ tenn (june ) billy graham & bob hope announce honor america day, with hope emphasizing rally round the flag for all americans vietnam asia united states other nations kansas military draft kansas mennonite colleges (and denominational action) (july ) "honor america day" in washington dc, highlighted by billy graham & interfaith morning services at lincoln memorial (dec.) , american troops in vietnam (april) vietnam veterans against the war (dec.) , american troops in vietnam (feb.) nixon to china (nov.) nixon re-elected over george mcgovern (dec. - ) "christmas bombing" of n. vietnam bethel college funds peace studies program all volunteer military (jan.) cease fire signed in paris nixon secretly promised $ . b in 'war reparations' (march) last american troops leave vietnam (april) last american pows released in hanoi (nov.) congress overrides nixon's veto of "law limiting the president's right to wage war." (august) nixon resigns (april) saigon falls phnom penh falls to khmer rouge vietnam invaded cambodia 	abstract 	copyright 	abstract 	table of contents 	list of abbreviations 	acknowledgements 	dedication 	introduction---faith, citizenship, and contested loyalties 	who are the mennonites and why do they matter? 	historiography, popular memory, and remembered disorder 	historiography and antiwar opposition 	organization and chapter descriptions 	a word regarding sidney ahlstrom and the ahlstrom argument 	chapter -- the mennonites and modernity 	situating the mennonites 	mennonite origins: nonconformity, nonresistance, persecution, and endurance --- a history of movement 	mennonites on the move --- or not. a few notes on mennonites in europe to 	the dutch-russian experience 	the swiss-south german experience 	the mennonites meet america 	the dutch-russians become dutch-russians 	why america? and why kansas? 	situating mennonites and american war 	american mennonites and war prior to the twentieth century 	american mennonites during world war i 	american mennonites between wars—cooperative peace 	postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of mennonite central committee (mcc) 	theological interlude 	the two kingdoms 	acted theology 	postwar service and the challenge of cooperation: the formation of the historic peace churches and the creation of civilian public service 	american mennonites during world war ii – unintended consequences 	the burke-wadsworth bill and the selective service and training act of 	american mennonites during world war ii—attempts at institutionalization and unintended consequences 	the re-appropriation and re-casting of mennonite identity 	mennonites postwar and the broadening of claims 	the winona lake conference ( ) 	conflict, creativity, ethics: interrogating “the anabaptist vision” in the age of consensus 	reconstruction, questioning, and identification 	unintended consequences & international conversations: the concern group ( ) & puidoux ( - ) 	church and state in america 	the lordship of christ & witnessing to the state 	mennonite relief and tiptoes of american empire. vietnam 	international claims, anti-communist rhetoric, the challenge of communism and the challenge of nationalism ( ) 	on the cusp of the public war --- tracking and defusing dissent (the hershey-brunk forum) 	particular notes on mennonites in kansas 	particular notes on the hershey-brunk forum 	chapter -- bethel college and the definition of public patriotism 	prelude 	the long vietnam war 	entering the public square with a resounding tiptoe 	the denomination approaches vietnam 	bethel college and the public square: and mixed commitments in the public square 	how the peace club got its groove: prelude 	how the peace club got its groove: action 	bethel college and moratorium day: entering the public square 	the bell 	the march to wichita 	the denomination confronts its peacemaking 	the march against death, american memory, and a resonating symbol 	later reflections and outcomes: publicity, reaction, and reflections 	the moratorium, real and imagined consequences, and contested memory 	politics and peacemaking: structural attempts at reinvention 	chapter -- hesston college and the question of nationalism 	prelude 	watching the flag: hesston college and the first world war 	finding a path to protest and inter-mennonite cooperation 	the mc mennonite church takes a surprising stand 	the long vietnam war comes to hesston college 	demonstrations and counter-demonstrations: re-visioning america, re-visioning disorder 	flags on american soil: loyalties and kingdoms at hesston college 	chapter -- tabor college and unresolved tensions 	prelude 	the long vietnam war comes to hillsboro 	vietnam through a detailed lens: acts of mercy, mennonite memories, and the travels of delbert wiens 	changing the culture: delbert wiens 	conscientious objection, christian service, and conflicted beliefs: institutional and personal, but not political 	tabor college and its innovations: delights in modernity 	mcc’s surprising re-appearance: the long war returns to tabor 	lost mennonite brethren memories & the curious case of the oklahoma objector: in loco parentis, selective service, and denominational angst 	finding faith, raising the flag: conflicted loyalties and the intensified war 	chapter -- conclusion 	bibliography 	appendix a - interviews and correspondence 	appendix b - mennonite immigration to the united states 	appendix c - timeline of related events (selective) tending the student body: youth, health, and the modern university by catherine gidney copyright © the ontario historical society, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : ontario history tending the student body: youth, health, and the modern university by catherine gidney karissa patton volume , numéro , spring uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the ontario historical society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu patton, k. ( ). compte rendu de [tending the student body: youth, health, and the modern university by catherine gidney]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ ontario history catherine gidney’s tending the student body is one of her many works on the history of youth culture and education in canada. this book in particular explores the history of medicine, the history of ed- ucation, and the history of youth through an examination of the establishment and evolution of university health programs in canada from the turn of the twenti- eth century to the s. gidney uses the history of physical activity, athletics, and university health services to examine “the changing ideals of student formation as well as the nature of the university itself ” ( ). in doing so, she uses age, class, and gender in her analysis of how notions of morality and citizenship shaped the devel- opment of health programs on canadian campuses. gidney’s book is divided into two sec- tions, separated chronologically and topi- cally. the first section, which includes the first five chapters of the book, focuses on the establishment of student health systems from the early twentieth century to the s and investigates the ideologies that influenced such systems. in her first and second chapters, gidney introduces the development and increasing importance of student health programs. first she tracks evolution of such health programs to the s when most canadian universities either had already implemented, or were advocating for, health services and physi- cal training. she argues that the increasing presence of health programs signify the conceptual link of students’ health, stu- dents’ morality, and students’ success. in the second chapter she briefly describes the ailments and infectious diseases that oc- curred on campuses across canada during the first half of the twentieth century, and explains that administrators’ preoccupa- tion with aliments and disease was indica- tive of their role as in loco parentis as well as their attempt to protect their university’s resources and reputation as a healthy and safe institution. the third and fourth chapters of the book analyze how post-secondary admin- istrators conceptualized “health” from the s to the s. in chapter three gidney argues that the creation of physical tending the student body youth, health, and the mod- ern university by catherine gidney toronto: university of toronto press, . pages. $ . soft cover. isbn . $ . cloth isbn . $ . ebook (epub format) isbn . (http://www.utppublishing.com) book reviews training as part of university requirements played a significant role in imparting white middle-class gendered values and ideals on the student body, such as the masculine values of personal responsibility and de- velopment as well as the feminine selfless- ness and respect for authority. in chapter four gidney examines the broader notion of health as it developed in the first half of the twentieth century and how these notions were implemented into univer- sity endeavours. for example, she explains that encouragement of healthy moral and physical practices for students such as hy- giene, fitness, and premarital abstinence was deeply entwined with ideological fears of moral and racial degeneration. the fifth chapter discusses the in- crease in work opportunities for women as dieticians, nurses, physical training in- structors, and deans of women that came with the growing concern of students’ health. gidney focuses on the experiences of women professionals at victoria col- lege, university of toronto in this chap- ter. she recognizes that while women still faced much discrimination in these new positions, the women at victoria college used these professional opportunities to carve out a significant space for women within their own university. the second section of the book exam- ines how the systems for student health and the ideologies behind them developed from the s to the s. thus, the last three chapters of the book examine the in- stitutional changes around health services and physical training within the univer- sity as well as the way in which these de- velopments paralleled organizational and ideological shifts in the universities them- selves. in chapter six, gidney traces the development of health services alongside the decline of physical training on post- secondary campuses from the s to the s. she argues, however, that despite this decline in mandatory physical training students’ health remained strongly linked to morality and citizenship. chapter sev- en delves deeper into the shifts occurring in post-secondary institutions, focusing on the specialization of knowledge and how this shift in particular influenced shifting health priorities. gidney use the examples of tuberculosis and mental health to outline the shift away from university administra- tors’ attempt at broader social and health reform of the early twentieth century to the increasing focus on medical experts’ pro- motion of preventative care and individual health from the s to the s. the eighth chapter discusses the discursive shift away from student health and charac- ter development to student health and per- sonality and the individual development of students. gidney argues that the focus on citizenship and morality remained, but by the s students had increasing control over their own programs and were left to determine how their choices would influ- ence their own citizenship. gidney acknowledges that, due to the abundance of archival material at their ar- chives, victoria college, university of to- ronto, is featured prominently in the book. her book begins and ends with the story of dr. edna guest who wrote a report on the health of women students at victoria college in . she calls upon guest’s story and the victoria college as exam- ples frequently throughout the book. she also discusses programs at the university of western ontario and mcmaster uni- versity additionally, she features a table of physical training at the university of toronto in her appendix that tracks male and female students’ participation in phys- ical training from to . gidney’s main purpose in tending the student body is to illuminate how “concern ontario history samuel j. steiner’s the search of promised lands: a religious history of mennon- ites in ontario is a comprehensive account of the rich past of one of the province’s ear- ly settler groups. steiner’s archival record is voluminous, yet he weaves the evidence together into a rich, cogent, and accessi- ble history of the mennonites in ontario. drawing upon personal narratives, mu- nicipal records, the census, newspapers, and denominational records (to name a few), steiner’s book explores the nuances of mennonite origins in upper canada and follows those threads through to the near present. steiner incorporates the themes of religiousity, assimilation, conflict, and iden- tity politics throughout his book to trace the fragmentation and realignment that constantly occurred within the denomi- nation in order to sketch the spectrum of mennonite faith and practice in ontario. the promised lands of the title pro- vide a rich metaphor for the way early in search of promised lands a religious history of mennonites in ontario by samuel j. steiner kitchener, ontario: mennomedia, . pages. $ . hardback isbn: . $ . e-pub. (www.mennomedia.org ) mennonite, amish and quaker commu- nities sought a new life in north america upon which to build their faith. this prom- ise continued to animate settlement and emigration patterns as mennonites from pennsylvania traveled north to the niaga- ra region, the grand river valley, and the huron shores of present-day ontario, or when other mennonite communities im- migrated to canada in the twentieth cen- tury from places like the ussr, germany, asia, or south america. although not dissimilar from other immigration sto- about student health led to the creation of new sites through which administrators could exert their moral vision of the uni- versity and shape the student body” ( ). in doing so, gidney expands the understand- ing of the historical relationships between youth’s health, citizenship, and morality. her history of how university administra- tors tended the student body in the past also sheds light onto the ways universities are tending the student body today. she exposes the current conceptualization of universities as moral communities where students are seen as “immature youth, to be guided to full adulthood” ( ) and the university as their moral and intellec- tual guide. karissa patton university of saskatchewan 	 		 			 				 					 						 					 					 						 							 								we’re sorry, but the page you are looking for has been blocked for security purposes. . 							 							 							 							 							 								if you believe this to have been blocked in error, please email the error code below to : help desk 								 							 						 					 				 			 		 	 hindawi publishing corporation journal of pathogens volume , article id , pages http://dx.doi.org/ . / / clinical study seroepidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection in tepehuanos aged years and older in durango, mexico cosme alvarado-esquivel faculty of medicine and nutrition, juárez university of durango state, avenida universidad s/n, durango, dgo, mexico correspondence should be addressed to cosme alvarado-esquivel; alvaradocosme@yahoo.com received january ; revised february ; accepted february academic editor: timothy j. johnson copyright © cosme alvarado-esquivel. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. this study aimed to determine the seroepidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection in tepehuanos (an indigenous ethnic group living in rural mexico). the prevalence of anti-helicobacter pylori igg antibodies was examined in tepehuanos in durango state, mexico, using an enzyme-linked immunoassay. in addition, sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics of tepehuanos associated with seropositivity were investigated. in total, ( %) of the participants (mean age . ± . years) had helicobacter pylori igg antibodies. fifty-four ( . %) of the seropositive individuals had helicobacter pylori igg antibody levels higher than u/ml. males and females had comparable seroprevalence of helicobacter pylori infection and helicobacter pylori igg antibody levels. the seroprevalence was significantly higher in women with pregnancies than those without this obstetric characteristic. logistic regression showed that helicobacter pylori infection was positively associated with low education (or = . ; % ci: . – . ;𝑃 = . ) and laborer occupation (or = . ; % ci: . – . ;𝑃 = . ). this is the first report of seroprevalence and contributing factors for helicobacter pylori infection in tepehuanos and of the association of helicobacter pylori infection with laborer occupation. results warrants further research. . introduction the spiral-shaped and flagellated bacillus helicobacter pylori causes infections in humans worldwide [ ]. estimates indicate that h. pylori is currently infecting approximately one half of the world’s population [ , ]. although most infections with h. pylori are asymptomatic, a severe gastric disease including chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer, gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and gastric cancer may occur in some individuals [ – ]. according to the current knowledge, dissemination of h. pylori might occur from person to person [ ] and by oral-oral or oral-fecal routes [ ]. infections with h, pylori might also occur by drinking contaminated water [ , ]. the seroprevalence of h. pylori varies substantially among countries being significantly higher in developing countries than in developed countries [ ]. the prevalence of infection also varies among geographical regions and ethnic groups [ ]. very little knowledge about the epidemiology of h. pylori infection in mexico exists. there is a lack of information about h. pylori infection in tepehuanos (an ethnic group in northern mexico). tepehuanos consist of indigenous people living mostly in little remote rural communities. a cross-sectional study was performed to determine the seroprevalence of anti-h. pylori antibodies in tepehuanos in durango state, mexico. in addition, sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics associated with h. pylori seropositivity in tepehuanos were also investigated. . materials and methods . . study design and study population. through a cross- sectional study using serum samples from a recent tox- oplasma gondii serosurvey [ ], tepehuanos living in durango state, mexico, were studied. in the previous study, the purpose of sera collection was to determine the seroepi- demiology of toxoplasma gondii in tepehuanos, and sera were collected from january to march . inclusion criteria for voluntary participation of the subjects were ( ) subjects of tepehuano ethnicity, ( ) years and older, ( ) any gender, ( ) any occupation, and ( ) any socioeconomic level. http://dx.doi.org/ . / / journal of pathogens . . sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral data. char- acteristics of the participants were obtained with the aid of a standardized questionnaire. sociodemographic data including age, gender, birth place, residence, educational level, occupation, and socioeconomic status were obtained from all participants. socioeconomic status in tepehuanos was ranked by themselves according to their own perception. clinical data explored in tepehuanos included the presence of any disease, presence or history of gastritis, peptic ulcer, gastric cancer, and lymphadenopathy. clinical data was obtained from the participants, and a diagnosis of diseases was based on previous medical consultations. confirmation of clinical data by means of further diagnostic procedures was beyond the scope of the present survey. for women, obstetric data was also recorded. behavioral data included animal contacts, foreign travel, consumption of meat, unpasteurized milk, unwashed raw vegetables or fruits, or untreated water, frequency of eating away from home (in restaurants or fast food outlets), contact with soil (gardening or agriculture), and type of floorings at home. . . serological examination for h. pylori antibodies. serum samples were obtained from all participants and kept frozen at – ∘c until examined. serum samples were analyzed through qualitative and quantitative methods for anti-h. pylori igg antibodies with a commercially available enzyme immunoassay kit, that is, “anti-h. pylori igg accubind elisa” (monobind inc., lake forest, ca). anti-h. pylori igg antibody levels were expressed as units (u)/ml, and a result greater than u/ml was considered positive. test was performed following the instructions of the manufacturer. . . statistical analysis. the statistical analysis was per- formed with the aid of the software epi info version . . and spss version . . for calculation of the sample size the following values were used: a reference seroprevalence of % [ ] as expected frequency of the factor under study, as the size of population from which the sample was selected, a worst acceptable result of . %, and a confidence level of %. the result of the calculation was subjects. the pearson chi-square test and the fisher exact test (when values were less than ) were used for comparison of the frequencies among groups. age among groups was compared by the student’s 𝑡-test. bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the association between the characteristics of the subjects and h. pylori seropositivity. as a criterion for inclusion of variables in the multivariate analysis, variables with 𝑃 < . obtained in the bivariate analysis were considered. odds ratio (or) and % confidence interval (ci) were calculated by multivariate analysis using logistic regression with the enter method. a 𝑃 value of < . was considered statistically significant. . . ethical considerations. this study was approved by the ethical committee of the instituto de seguridad y servicios sociales de los trabajadores del estado in durango city. only archival serum samples and questionnaires from the previous survey [ ] were used in the present study. however, in the previous survey, the purpose and procedures of the studies were explained to all participants, and a written informed consent was obtained from each participant. the previous survey was approved by an institutional ethical committee. . results of the tepehuanos studied, ( . %) were positive and ( %) were negative for h. pylori igg antibodies. general sociodemographic characteristics of the tepe- huanos studied are shown in table . most participants were born in durango state; their mean age was . ± . years (range – years). the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection was not influenced by gender, birth place, residence, or socioeconomic status. in contrast, the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection varied significantly with age, educational level, and occupation. increased seroprevalence in tepe- huanos was found in the age groups of – ( %) and – ( %) years old and in those with low education (up to years of education) ( . %). in addition, laborer tepehuanos (employees, construction workers, agriculturists, etc.) had a significantly (𝑃 = . ) higher seroprevalence than nonlaborer tepehuanos (housewives, students, or neither). of the h. pylori igg positive participants, ( . %) had igg levels higher than u/ml, ( . %) between to u/ml, and ( . %) from to u/ml. levels of anti- h. pylori igg antibodies were similar in men and women (𝑃= . ). with respect to clinical data, there were two tepehuanos suffering from gastritis, and both were positive for h. pylori antibodies. one of them has had lymphadenopathy. the frequency of gastritis in h. pylori seropositive ( / ) and h. pylori seronegative ( / ) tepehuanos was similar (𝑃 = . ). no cases of peptic ulcer or gastric cancer among tepehuanos were found. ill participants suffered from a number of diseases including arthritis, back pain, eye dis- ease, epilepsy, upper respiratory tract infections, and others. clinical data was similar among h. pylori positive and h. pylori negative individuals. in women, the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection was significantly (𝑃 = . ) higher in women with pregnancies ( / : . %) than those without such history ( / : . %). the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection was similar (𝑃= . ) in pregnant and nonpregnant women ( / and / , resp.). the seroprevalence was similar in women who have had cesarean sections, deliveries, and abortions than those without such obstetric characteristics. regarding behavioral characteristics, three variables showed 𝑃 values < . by bivariate analysis: consumption of meat (𝑃 = . ), frequency of meat consumption (𝑃 = . ), and frequency of eating away from home (𝑃 = . ). other behavioral characteristics including animal contacts, foreign travel, consumption of unpasteurized milk, unwashed raw vegetables or fruits, or untreated water, contact with soil, and type of floorings at home showed 𝑃 values higher than . in the bivariate analysis. table shows the results of the bivariate analysis of behavioral characteristics and h. pylori seroprevalence. further analysis using logistic regres- sion of sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics of journal of pathogens table : sociodemographic characteristics of tepehuanos and seroprevalence of h. pylori infection. characteristic no. of subjects testeda prevalence of h. pylori infection 𝑃value no. % gender male . . female . age groups (years) – . . – . – . – . – . – . birth place durango state . . other mexican state . residence area urban . . rural . educational level up to years of education . . or more years of education . occupation laborerb . . nonlaborerc . socioeconomic level low . . medium . asubjects with available data. bemployee, construction worker, business, factory worker, others. chousewife, student, or neither. tepehuanos showed that h. pylori infection was positively associated with low education (or = . ; % ci: . – . ; 𝑃 = . ) and laborer occupation (or = . ; % ci: . – . ;𝑃= . ) (table ). . discussion the % seroprevalence of h. pylori infection found in tepe- huanos in durango, mexico, is similar to the mean national seroprevalence ( %) reported in mexico [ ]. however, this comparison should be interpreted with care, since different test methods in the studies were used. a commercial elisa was used in the present study, while a homemade elisa was used in the national survey. the national survey in mexico [ ] did not provide specific seroprevalence in durango. however, the seroprevalence found in tepehuanos is higher than a . % seroprevalence found in mennonites (an ethnic group of german descent living in rural communities) in durango [ ]. in both studies in ethnic groups in durango the same test (commercial elisa) was used. in an international context, the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection in tepe- huanos in durango is lower than the estimated %– % seroprevalence of h. pylori infection in developing countries [ ]. with respect to the sociodemographic characteristics of tepehuanos, seropositivity to h. pylori was found even in the youngest participants ( . % in ages of – years old), and some older groups ( – and – years old) showed a % seroprevalence of h. pylori infection. the former suggests an early exposure to h. pylori in the studied population, and the latter follows a typical increase in the frequency of h. pylori infection in humans as reported elsewhere [ , , ]. in the present study, multivariate analysis of sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics of tepehuanos showed that seropositivity to h. pylori was associated with low education (up to years of education) (or = . ; % ci: . – . ; 𝑃 = . ) and laborer occupation (or = . ; % ci: . – . ;𝑃 = . ). the finding of an association between h. pylori infection and low educational level in tepehuanos agrees with the data found in the national survey in mexico [ ]. on the other hand, the finding that laborer tepehuanos showed a significantly higher seroprevalence of h. pylori than nonlaborers is intriguing. the variable age was not responsible for the difference in the seroprevalence among journal of pathogens table : bivariate analysis of selected behavioral characteristics of tepehuanos and seroprevalence of h. pylori infection. characteristic no. of subjects testeda prevalence of h. pylori infection 𝑃value no. % cats at home yes . no . raising animalsb yes . . no . eating outside home never . . from to times a year . more than times a year . meat consumption yes . . no frequency of meat consumption never . up to times a week . – times a week raw cow milk consumption yes . . no . unwashed raw vegetables yes . . no . unwashed raw fruits yes . . no . untreated water yes . . no . traveled abroad yes . no . national trips yes . no . soil contact yes . . no . floor at home ceramic . . concrete . soil . asums may not add up to because of missing values. braising of any kind of animals. laborer and nonlaborer tepehuanos, since age adjustment was included in the multivariate analysis. to my knowledge, there are not any previous reports of an association of laborer occupation with h. pylori seropositivity. it is not clear why laborer tepehuanos had a higher h. pylori seroprevalence than nonlaborers. it is possible that laborer tepehuanos are in closer contact with the h. pylori source of infection than nonlaborer tepehuanos. other sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics explored in tepehuanos were not associated with h. pylori seropositivity. the socioeconomic journal of pathogens table : multivariate analysis of selected characteristics of tepe- huanos and their association with h. pylori infection. characteristic oddsratio % confidence interval p value age . – . . low education . . – . . laborer . . – . . eating outside home . . – . . meat consumption — — . frequency of meat consumption . . – . . status did not influence the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection in tepehuanos. this finding conflicts with those found in other studies [ , ] where h. pylori infection was associated with a low socioeconomic status. consumption of meat has been associated with a significant increase of anti- h. pylori igm antibodies in kenyan children [ ]. in addition, h. pylori infection has been related with meat consumption in children in mexico [ ]. however, the associations of h. pylori seropositivity with meat consumption and frequency of meat consumption obtained in the bivariate analysis in the present study did not resist the multivariate analysis. further research about the association of h. pylori infection with meat consumption using a larger sample size population is needed. of the clinical characteristics explored, there was no difference in the frequency of gastritis or other clinical data among h. pylori positive and h. pylori negative tepehuanos. there were only gastritis cases, and both were positive for h. pylori. therefore, h. pylori-associated gastritis exists among tepehuanos, and further research to evaluate the impact of h. pylori on the health of tepehuanos is needed. in the present study, the seroprevalence of h. pylori infection was significantly higher in women who have had pregnancies than those without this obstetric history. this finding agrees with that found in a study of pregnant women in israel [ ] where researchers found that women positive for h. pylori had more prior pregnancies than h. pylori negative women. the higher seroprevalence of h. pylori infection in women with pregnancies than those without pregnancies found in the present study was likely due to difference in age among the groups. the mean age in women with pregnancies ( . ± . years old) was significantly higher than that ( . ± . years old) in women without pregnancies (𝑃< . ). this is the first report of seroprevalence and contributing factors for helicobacter pylori infection in tepehuanos and of the association of helicobacter pylori infection with laborer occupation. results warrants further research. references [ ] p. ruggiero, “helicobacter pylori and inflammation,” current pharmaceutical design, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] g. sachs, d. r. scott, and y. wen, “gastric infection by helicobacter pylori,” current gastroenterology reports, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] p. malfertheiner, “the intriguing relationship of helicobacter pylori infection and acid secretion in peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer,” digestive diseases, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] j. zabaleta, “multifactorial etiology of gastric cancer,” methods in molecular biology, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] a. c. ford and a. t. r. axon, “epidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection and public health implications,” helicobacter, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. l. goh, w. k. chan, s. shiota, and y. yamaoka, “epi- demiology of helicobacter pylori infection and public health implications,” helicobacter, vol. , supplement , pp. – , . [ ] d. m. m. queiroz and f. luzza, “epidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection,” helicobacter, vol. , supplement , pp. – , . [ ] d. y. graham, e. adam, g. t. reddy et al., “seroepidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection in india. comparison of devel- oping and developed countries,” digestive diseases and sciences, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. alvarado-esquivel, s. estrada-mart́ınez, l. garćıa-lópez cr, a. rojas-rivera, a. sifuentes-álvarez, and o. liesen- feld, “seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in tepehuanos in durango, mexico,” vector-borne and zoonotic diseases, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] j. torres, y. leal-herrera, g. perez-perez et al., “a community- based seroepidemiologic study of helicobacter pylori infection in mexico,” journal of infectious diseases, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. alvarado-esquivel, “seroepidemiology of helicobacter pylori infection in a mennonite community in durango state, mex- ico,” helicobacter, . [ ] s. sasidharan, s. j. t. lachumy, m. ravichandran, l. y. latha, and s. r. s. gegu, “epidemiology of helicobacter pylori among multiracial community in northern peninsular, malaysia: effect of age across race and gender,” asian pacific journal of tropical medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. h. siekmann, l. h. allen, m. r. watnik et al., “titers of antibody to common pathogens: relation to food-based inter- ventions in rural kenyan schoolchildren,” american journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. calva-rodŕıguez, j. j. luna-alcántara, b. lagunes-yannelli, m. e. rivera-domı́nguez, d. calva-cerqueira, and e. santos- marcial, “prevalence and risk factors of helicobacter pylori infection in three populations of children in puebla, mexico,” revista de gastroenterologı́a de méxico, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] h. shirin, o. sadan, o. shevah et al., “positive serology for helicobacter pylori and vomiting in the pregnancy,” archives of gynecology and obstetrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . perhaps the most influential of all those included here is the “challenge sermon” (ed. torrance kirby) that john jewel preached in : a denunciation of the “great and evident abuses” that he said overshadowed in the medieval church the meaning of the death of christ and “the holy mysteries of our salvation” ( ). jewel vowed to yield his opinions only if he could be shown examples in scripture or the primitive church that disproved him. his challenge unleashed a torrent of controversy that lasted for decades. as morrissey noted in politics and the paul’s cross sermons, by widening divisions in society, jewel’s “challenge sermon” absorbed theologians in debate at the same time that it won the laity for elizabeth’s church. other sermons in this volume are less well known and were preached by men who are now obscure. they include richard rex’s edition of a good friday sermon by simon matthew (tentatively dated to ) from the only known copy in the state papers collection of the national archives in london, and john copcot’s sermon (ed. p. g. stanwood) from a manuscript preserved at lambeth palace library. kirby studied for a second time a lenten sermon by robert singleton, chaplain to anne boleyn, which survives in a unique printed copy in lincoln cathedral’s wren library. it gives a rare glimpse of the evangelical message that the queen endorsed dur- ing her brief ascendency. the editors provide each sermon in this volume with its own introduction, appara- tus, and notes. mark rankin presents two sermons that were preached during the reign of mary i, both of which deserve the meticulous attention he devotes to them. in one, james brooks argued in that the church in england had died, but now, just as christ raised the daughter of jarius, so with god’s help the church in queen mary’s day “shal revive” ( ). it is difficult to know if the handful of sermons presented here are representative of the many thousands that were delivered at paul’s cross in the twelve decades that the volume covers. as a miscellany, the editors of the individual sermons have often followed their own conventions, particularly for the notes. the results can be uneven. nevertheless, sermons at paul’s cross provides welcome attention to the political exercise of preaching in reformation england. susan wabuda, fordham university doi: . /rqx. . scriptural authority and biblical criticism in the dutch golden age: god’s word questioned. dirk van miert, henk nellen, piet steenbakkers, and jetze touber, eds. oxford: oxford university press, . xvi + pp. $ . scholars from the early modern low countries played an important role in biblical crit- icism, which also challenged the authority of the holy writ. the four editors in the reviews downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core introduction sketch biblical criticism as an innovative force. humanists’ philological criticism of the bible contributed to the decline of ecclesiastical truth claims, whereas until recently only the rise of the sciences was attributed this role. synchronic with this shift, awareness grew that we cannot think in terms of a “post-spinozist period” as con- stituting the rise of biblical criticism, but spinoza’s contribution rather fits in an ongo- ing development. philology, historical criticism, historicism, and the increasing knowledge of oriental languages contributed to this development. nellen and steenbakkers, in their magisterial chapter that serves as an introduction (“biblical philology in the long seventeenth century: new orientations”), discuss this role (or, rather, these roles) in a broad and in-depth study. they treat the role of biblical philology and its ways of working, starting with lorenzo valla and, particularly, desiderius erasmus in the sixteenth century. however, this philology was moderated by practical circumstances and theological demands, and philology was used by both orthodox theologians and radical libertines to prove their points. such discussions were of the highest importance, since they hit the heart of the sacrosanct status of the bible, and the issue of the primacy of reason or revelation, and of fact or faith. between orthodox and libertines, irenic authors steered a middle course, and strived in some way or another at reconciliation and unity of the church, the very position that paradoxically put them outside the established church. an excellent passage in the introduction is devoted to the remarkable lodewijk meyer ( – ), a physician, poet, translator, theater manager and playwright, literary critic, grammarian and lexicographer, and philosopher in the entourage of spinoza. in the words of nellen and steenbakkers, he was one of the scholars who “dismantled the divine message” in a way similar to thomas hobbes. the two authors also discuss the position of spinoza in the field, discussing the findings of grafton and israel in the volume. the volume is arranged in seven parts. part is “famous cases of pia fraus,” featuring erasmus and the forged cambridge manuscript that contained the johannine comma by mcdonald, thus saving the biblical status of the doctrine of trinity; and krans on the “velesian readings,” textual variants of the greek new testament collected by pedro fajardo, marquis of los vélez, which should confirm the status of the vulgate. part , “the boundaries of orthodoxy challenged,” on heinsius and grotius (van miert), and a chapter on grotius’s adversary, the orthodox calvinist french hebraist andré rivet (ossa-richardsons). part discusses the bible in early modern judaism by kromhout and zwiep (“god’s word confirmed”), and benjamin fisher (on the controversial jewish scholar menasseh ben israel). part is the heart of the volume with two challeng- ing chapters by grafton and israel, who argue that the philological passages of the tractatus theologico-politicus were unoriginal and that spinoza’s most original contribu- tion was the distinction between factual truth and authorial meaning, respectively. part discusses “innovative exegesis by remonstrant, mennonite, and other liberal thinkers,” such as philip van limborch (daugirdas), pierre bayle (bernier, and renaissance quarterly volume lxxii, no. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core pitassi), and anthonie van dale (mandelbrote). part deals with orthodox reformed exegetes: gisbertus voetius (goudriaan) and the second half of the seventeenth century in general, by touber. the final part, , turns to biblical criticism in the eighteenth cen- tury by german theologians who had connections with the republic: hermann von der hardt (mulsow) and johann scheuchzer ( – ) (roling). thus the volume gives a wonderful overview of dutch seventeenth-century biblical scholarship in the golden age, from orthodox, libertine, and jewish points of view, and even in the period after the golden age republic had waned in the s. of course, not everything or everybody is covered, but those who want to learn about seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century biblical scholarship will find much valuable in this collec- tion of essays. jan bloemendal, huygens institute for the history of the netherlands / ruhr-universität bochum doi: . /rqx. . political theology in medieval and early modern europe: discourses, rites, and representations. montserrat herrero, jaume aurell, and angela c. miceli stout, eds. medieval and early modern political theology: historical and theoretical perspectives . turnhout: brepols, . pp. € . the modern discourse of political theology has developed in two major directions in the wake of carl schmitt, its ostensible founder. the first is philosophical or theoretical, differently exemplified by the likes of hans blumenberg and giorgio agamben. the second is exemplified by ernst kantorowicz’s book the king’s two bodies: a study in medieval political theology. as recent scholarship by victoria kahn and lorna hutson has shown, kantorowicz’s book does have a veiled anti-schmittian the- oretical bent, and yet the book itself reads more as an attempt to trace the historical development of ideas around the intersection of sacral and juridical kingship. both approaches are on evidence in the collection of essays here under review. the essays in the first section take a more theoretical tack. montserrat herrero sets out to trace the myriad afterlives of schmitt’s political theology, offering a useful gene- alogy of how the field has unfolded over time. william cavanaugh argues that political theologians read too little theology, giving the field a tilt toward modern secularism and away from religion; he hopes to open democracy to transcendence without schmitt’s authoritarianism or catholic nostalgia. antónio bento offers a richly suggestive essay on schmitt’s and kantorowicz’s competing conceptions of the church, arguing that schmitt’s invisible church never collapses entirely into the visible, whereas for kantorowicz the juridical and mystical bodies of the church coincide. reviews downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ a strength-based mirror effect persists even when criterion shifts are unlikely a strength-based mirror effect persists even when criterion shifts are unlikely gregory j. koop & amy h. criss & angelina m. pardini published online: february # the psychonomic society, inc. abstract in single-item recognition, the strength-based mirror effect (sbme) is reliably obtained when encoding strength is manipulated between lists or participants. debate surrounds the degree to which this effect is due to differentiation (e.g., criss journal of memory and language, , – , ) or criterion shifts (e.g., hicks & starns memory & cognition, , – , ). problematically, differing underlying control processes may be equally capable of producing an sbme. the ability of criterion shifts to produce an sbme has been shown in prior work where differentiation was unlikely. the present work likewise produces an sbme under conditions where criterion shifts are unlikely. specifically, we demonstrate that an sbme can be elicited without the typical number of trials needed to adjust one’s decision criterion (experiments , , and ) and using encoding manipulations that do not explicitly alert participants that their memory quality has changed (experiments and ). when taken in the context of the broader literature, these results demonstrate the need to prioritize memory models that can predict sbmes via multiple underlying processes. keywords recognition . strength based mirror effect . differentiation . criterion-shifts imagine you have just started teaching at a new university when a friend comes to visit and requests a tour of campus. during this tour, a group of young adults passes by, and your friend asks you if you have any of them in class. feeling somewhat sheepish, you point to a couple of students that look sort of familiar and identify them as being in your class. (fortunately, your friend has no way of knowing if you’re wrong.) after only a week of classes, it remains exceedingly difficult to distinguish between your own students and the other students that look similar. as luck would have it, your friend again passes through town months later, and you again are walking around campus when she asks you to iden- tify any of your students. having spent an academic year on campus, you quickly and confidently identify only those stu- dents that you actually had in class. just as importantly, you also note that you are much less tempted to misidentify the other students in that group that you did not have in class. it strikes you as odd that you can so easily dismiss these other students because, after all, you have had roughly the same amount of experience with them after a year of classes as you did after a week of class (i.e., none). why now, after a year has passed, has it become easier to dismiss these un- known students? this opening example is analogous to a phenomenon in recognition-memory research known as the strength-based mirror effect (sbme; glanzer & adams, ; glanzer, adams, iverson, & kim, ; stretch & wixted, ). in a typical sbme task, participants study a series of strong words or weak words, and then complete a single-item recog- nition test over that material (see fig. for a version of this design used in experiment ). at test, participants are gener- ally presented with equal numbers of studied items (targets) and unstudied (items) foils, and asked to identify each as bold^ or bnew.^ the sbme describes the finding that strengthening items at study improves performance in two ways. one’s ability to correctly identify previously studied items (the hit rate, or hr) improves, whereas the likelihood of incorrectly recognizing unstudied material (the false-alarm rate, or far) decreases. the question posed at the end of the opening example is also one that has persisted in the literature: why do unstudied foils become easier to reject as the contents of memory are strengthened? why should foils benefit from an encoding manipulation for which they, by definition, were not present? * gregory j. koop gregory.koop@emu.edu department of psychology, eastern mennonite university, park road, harrisonburg, va , usa syracuse university, syracuse, ny, usa memory & cognition ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:gregory.koop@emu.edu significance of the strength-based mirror effect to memory theory while all contemporary models of memory predict that strengthening items (whether through repetition, duration, or bdepth^) leads to a higher hr, the accompanying de- crease in far has been somewhat more contentious. one reason for this debate stems from the use of signal detec- tion theory (sdt; green & swets, ; macmillan & creelman, ) to analyze recognition performance. signal detection theory is a measurement model that de- scribes performance in a recognition-memory task along two spectra: discriminability and bias. discriminability represents the ease with which targets can be distinguished from foils. targets, by virtue of being studied, generate more mnemonic evidence than foils during the recognition test. as items are strengthened at study, targets acquire increas- ing amounts of mnemonic evidence and the difference in evidence between targets and foils increases (thereby increasing discriminability). applications of sdt to memory assume that the mnemonic evidence for foils is unaffected by study. bias describes one’s general tendency toward giving bold^ or bnew^ responses. in other words, bias reflects the amount of mnemonic evidence an individual requires to call an item bold.^ this threshold for calling an item bold^ is known as a decision criterion. for example, an individual who is more bold^ biased requires less evidence to call an item bold^ and therefore adopts a more liberal criterion. returning to the sbme, there exist two accounts for the decrease in far for strong items relative to weak items. the traditional explanation, here called the decisional ac- count, assumes that changes in the far between strong lists and weak lists is due to metacognitive decisional processes—that is, criterion shifts (benjamin & bawa, ; hirshman, ; morrell, gaitan, & wixted, ; stretch & wixted, ). some assume the criterion is set on the basis of the study list (e.g., hirshman, ), and others assume the criterion is set on the basis of the test list (e.g., verde & rotello, ). in a standard sbme para- digm these hypotheses are indistinguishable because the strength of the targets is the same on study and test. participants in a strong list condition ostensibly realize the quality of their memory is high and therefore require more mnemonic evidence to call an item bold^ (starns, ratcliff, & white, ; starns, white, & ratcliff, ; stretch & wixted, ; verde & rotello, ). this more conservative criterion results in a lower far be- cause, according to the decisional account, mnemonic ev- idence for foils is only determined by preexperimental fa- miliarity (hirshman, ; parks, ; stretch & wixted, ). however, the assumption that the mnemonic evi- dence generated by foils does not change between strong and weak lists has been contested. we will call this second explanation the mnemonic ac- count. in short, the mnemonic account claims that the match between a test item and the contents of episodic memory produces mnemonic evidence that necessarily de- pends on the fidelity of the events in episodic memory (e.g., criss, , , ; shiffrin & steyvers, ). relative to weak lists, the contents of episodic memory traces are more complete in strong lists. as the contents of memory become more complete, any item pre- sented at test will be less likely to match by chance alone. in other words, foils match the contents of the episodic memory traces less well in strong lists and therefore func- tionally produce less mnemonic evidence. that is, they produce more evidence of not being in episodic memory. this process, known as differentiation, is a fundamental characteristic of episodic memory (see criss & koop, , for a review; mcclelland & chappell, ). although these two accounts specify very different mechanisms for the sbme, it is difficult to discriminate between them using the standard pure-strength sbme de- sign (starns et al., ; starns et al., ). one strategy has been to look for mirror effects under conditions where differentiation should not occur (e.g., hicks & starns, ; starns & olchowski, ; starns et al., ; starns et al., ). critically, this body of work shows that criterion shifts alone can be sufficient to produce an sbme. this literature does not ask if differentiation alone could also produce an sbme. this is the primary question engaged in this article. to address this question, we first review the literature on when criterion shifts occur (and when they do not). under what conditions do criterion shifts occur? the standard sbme design is a pure-strength, single-item recognition task. that is, a given study–test cycle will include only strong items or weak items, but never both. under these conditions, a mirror effect can be reliably produced (e.g., criss, , , ; glanzer & adams, ; hirshman, ; koop & criss, ; stretch & wixted, ; among others). however, deci- sional and mnemonic accounts are confounded in such a design (starns et al., ; starns et al., ). in contrast to pure-strength experiments, a mixed-strength experi- ment presents strong and weak items within the same study–test cycle (see fig. for a version of this design used in experiment of this article) and assumes that a criterion is set on the basis of the test. at first glance, such a mixed-strength design would seem to distinguish between decisional and mnemonic accounts because the over- all degree of differentiation would be consistent for all test mem cogn ( ) : – items. unfortunately, there is an obvious problem with this logic—foils are not classified as strong or weak within the experimental design. a foil is by definition unstudied and not directly affected by any encoding manipulations. stretch and wixted ( ) addressed this by explicitly cu- ing anticipated strength. at test, each item was presented in one of two colors. if an item was red (for example), that indi- cated the item was either a strongly studied target or a foil. if an item was blue, that indicated the item was either a weakly studied target or a foil. the straightforward prediction, then, was that participants should adopt a more stringent criterion for red (strong) foils than for blue (weak) foils. although the hr was greater for strong items than for weak items, there was no difference in far, even when participants were explicitly alerted to the meaning of the color-cuing manipulation. rather than item color, morrell et al. ( ) differentially strength- ened one of two semantic categories at study. however, par- ticipants again failed to show changes to far as a function of category strength even when explicitly told that one category would be strengthened. this led morrell and colleagues to conclude that although possible for participants to shift criteria on an item-by-item basis, bthey appear to be remarkably re- luctant to do so even when they know they should, and it would be easy for them to do were they so inclined^ (p. ). many other studies have also failed to indicate within-list strength-based criterion shifts (e.g., bruno, higham, & perfect, , experiment ; higham, perfect, & bruno, , experiment ; verde & rotello, ). eliciting criterion shifts within mixed-strength lists is a fickle endeavor but there have been a few demonstrations that participants can flexibly adjust their criterion. the literature suggests two characteristics that increase the likelihood of criterion shifts. the first is that participants are explicitly pro- vided with clearly differing strength expectations. the second is that participants have substantial time (or, more accurately, trials) to adjust the criterion when changes in the testing envi- ronment (and strength expectations) are not made explicit. a study by hicks and starns ( ) demonstrates both of these principles. they had participants study a mixed-strength list. at test, strength was cued by color coding and by instruc- tion. participants were informed that items in red font (for example) should be judged as studied once or as not studied, and items presented in green font should be judged as having been studied four times or not studied. following a mixed- strength study list, participants completed an -item test where item strength was randomly intermixed or like- strength items were grouped into blocks of varying size ( , , or items). when like-strength items were blocked and participants were clearly alerted to differing strength expecta- tions via instructions and color cues, strength-based criterion shifts (as measured by changes in far) were elicited. when items were color cued but presented randomly, criterion shifts were not consistently produced (only one of three experiments showed the effect). when the like-strength blocks were provided but color cu- ing (and corresponding instructions) was withheld, false alarms did not differ as a function of strength of the targets in the test block. however, when blocks were items in length, participants that began with a weak block showed a significantly higher far than those that began with a strong block (experiment ). this finding led the authors to conclude that bparticipants do not stabilize their criterion in the first or trials, but getting a consistent and high expectation of strength for trials produces a criterion shift^ (hicks & starns, , p. ). subsequent work has demonstrated an alternative, but con- ceptually related, means to elicit strength-based criterion shifts. differences in far can be produced if participants are required to use unique responses to expected-strong and expected-weak items at test (franks & hicks, ; starns & olchowski, ). thus, we can conclude that criterion place- ment requires substantial affordances: manipulations that make participants clearly aware of differences between strong and weak items (franks & hicks, ; hicks & starns, ; starns & olchowski, ), and/or numerous like-strength trials (more than ; hicks & starns, ). these findings fit with the general criterion shift narrative that during a typical sbme paradigm, participants set the criterion on the basis of expected test strength, which differs between pure-weak lists and pure-strong lists. evidence from alternative bias manipulations like base rate (estes & maddox, ; koop & criss, ; rhodes & jacoby, ) or distractor similarity (benjamin & bawa, ; brown, steyvers, & hemmer, ) support the notion that as chang- es in the testing environment become more apparent to the participant, criterion shifts become increasingly likely. by pro- viding individuals with abundant affordances (e.g., very ex- plicit cues, pure-strength blocking of significant duration) ex- perimenters can usually elicit changes in fars between weak and strong items when differentiation should be minimized. why are pure-strength strength-based mirror effects so reliable? given extensive explicit affordances, individuals shift the cri- terion somewhat reliably. however, the affordances needed to produce within-list criterion shifts are a clear departure from the ease with which pure-list sbmes have been consistently recall that differentiation occurs because test items are compared with the contents of memory acquired during study (see shiffrin & steyvers, ). in pure-strength experiments, test items are compared with either an entirely strong list (producing poorer matches) or an entirely weak list (producing better matches). consequently, false-alarm rates will be lower for strong lists than for weak lists. in a mixed-strength design, both strong and weak items are compared back to the same (mixed-strength) contents of memory. mem cogn ( ) : – documented over decades of research (e.g., criss, , , ; glanzer & adams, ; hirshman, ; koop & criss, ; stretch & wixted, ). one possibility is that pure-strength lists produce an sbme so reliably because they meet the two criteria for criterion shifts that were discussed above: a sufficient number of trials to establish stable strength expectations, and awareness of expected memory quality at test (see hicks & starns, , for a similar explanation). the first question addressed by the experiments presented here is whether an sbme is still produced in a pure-strength design when the number of trials falls below the number of trials required for establishing a criterion. if an sbme is still evident, it would suggest that criterion shifts are not necessary to produce a mirror effect in a pure-strength single-item rec- ognition study. another explanation for the consistency of the pure- strength sbme is that criterion adjustment is not necessary in a pure-strength design. after all, the -trial threshold for criterion setting comes from an experiment where the strength of the study list (mixed) and test list (pure) differed. perhaps participants are much more efficient at setting criteria in pure- strength lists because expectations about memory strength do not change. this account is highly unlikely. recent data have indicated that participants bring established expectations about memory performance into the experimental setting (cox & dobbins, ; koop, criss, & malmberg, ; turner, van zandt, & brown, ). for example, hrs and fars are shockingly similar between groups of participants presented with test lists consisting entirely of targets or foils and individuals in standard test lists consisting of half foils and half targets (cox & dobbins, ; koop et al., ). obviously, participants faced with a test list consisting entirely of targets should have a different understanding of the strength of items at test in an all-target list than in an all-foil list. in fact, participants only dramatically altered their responses when they were provided with feedback that indicated preexperimental expectations no longer held (koop et al., ). these data demonstrated that individuals do not come into the test setting as bblank slates.^ participants have a life- time of experience making recognition decisions and have therefore developed an understanding about what is likely to be an accurate memory and what is not (wixted & gaitan, ). it is reasonable to assume these bpreexperimental priors^ will be maintained unless it becomes apparent to the participant they no longer hold (turner et al., ). thus, for participants to adjust their criterion in a typical sbme design, they must have an accurate understanding about the effects of different encoding manipulations. this claim will be the focus of experiments and . to summarize, strength-based criterion shifts require two things: sufficient trials for establishing expectations about memory quality, and/or manipulations that make participants acutely aware of differences between strong and weak trials. experiments and explored whether sbmes persist with an insufficient number of trials to establish a criterion, while experiments and examined participants’ awareness of the effects of encoding manipulations. finally, experiment combines both of these manipulations to assess memory and awareness of encoding manipulations in short study–test lists. experiments and in experiments and , we use lists that are so short so as to eliminate criterion shifts. the above discussion focuses on the number of test trials necessary to establish a criterion, but, of course, study trials could also help participants establish an appropriate criterion (e.g., hirshman, ). to eliminate ei- ther possibility, we use both short study and test lists. the experiments are very similar and only differ in that experiment is slightly more difficult by virtue of different encoding tasks and a slightly longer delay between study and test. method participants seventy-two introductory psychology students from syracuse university participated in experiment . thirty-nine introductory psychology students from eastern mennonite university participated in experiment . participant data were excluded from analysis if they had a d′ of less than . on either of the two study–test cycles (de- scribed below). this exclusion criterion resulted in removing three participants from experiment , and two participants from experiment . all participants received partial fulfill- ment of course requirements in exchange for their participation. design and materials in both experiments, participants com- pleted two study–test cycles containing items each. for each participant, one of these study–test cycles was strong and one was weak, with the order randomly determined across participants. participants in experiment also completed an additional study–test cycle that followed the two short blocks examined here. these data were collected for a different re- search project, one focused on theoretical questions outside the scope of the present work and will therefore not be discussed further. participants in experiment only complet- ed the two short study–test cycles. the test phase was single- item recognition, where participants were asked to make old/ new decisions on five targets and five foils. the order of targets and foils at test was randomized. thus, the data ana- lyzed here come from a (block strength: strong vs. weak) × (item type: target vs. foil) repeated-measures design. word stimuli were pulled from a pool of high norma- tive frequency words between four and letters in length mem cogn ( ) : – (median = ) and ranging between . and log frequency (m = . ) in the hyperspace analog to language corpus (balota et al., ). for each participant, a subset of words were selected and randomly assigned to condition. stimulus presentation and recording of responses were conducted with the psychtoolbox add-on for matlab (brainard, ; kleiner et al., ). procedure upon arrival to the experiment, all participants were given an informed consent form. next, participants read instructions that informed the participants that they would study a list of words and later have their memory for those words tested. at study, participants were given either a weak or strong encoding prompt for each trial depending on the strength of that particular cycle. the weak encoding task for experiment asked participants to indicate whether or not the word contained the letter e. for strong encoding trials, partic- ipants indicated whether or not they considered the word to be pleasant (fig. ). in experiment , the weak encoding task asked participants whether or not the stimulus was written in red, whereas the strong encoding task asked participants whether the stimulus was easy to imagine. for all prompts, yes and no responses were indicated by a single key press, (bz^ or b?^ key, counterbalanced between participants). the study phase was self-paced with the lone constraint that a response could not be entered until a minimum of . seconds after stimulus presentation. after each study phase, there was a math distractor task. in experiment , this task lasted for seconds, whereas in experiment it lasted for seconds. after completing the distractor task, participants were given instructions for the test phase. at test, participants were presented with a single test word and asked to indicate whether that word was bold^ (pre- viously studied word) or bnew^ (word that was not studied). participants indicated their choice by clicking on bold^ or bnew^ response boxes located in the upper left and right cor- ners of the screen (left/right order was counterbalanced be- tween participants). after providing a recognition judgment, the stimulus disappeared, and participants clicked on a start button at the bottom of the screen to begin the next trial. following the first recognition test, participants were allowed to take a short break (if necessary) prior to beginning the second study–test cycle. after completing all tests, partici- pants were asked if they had any questions and were thanked for their participation. results all analyses were conducted using jasp (jasp team, ). in addition to reporting standard frequentist statistics we also report bayes factors (bf). bayes factors provide a continuous fig. pure-strength study–test cycle in experiment . participants completed either items using a weak encoding task (two leftmost study panels) or a strong encoding task (two rightmost study panels), followed by a second distractor task, and single-item test trials. a second study–test cycle followed the first and used whichever encoding task participants did not see during block . experiment used the same design with different encoding tasks and a longer distractor. in the weak condition, participants were asked, bis this word written in red?^ in the strong condition, participants were asked, bis this word easy to imagine?^ mem cogn ( ) : – estimate of relative evidence. in particular, as presented here bf indicate the ratio of evidence for the model with an effect compared with the null model. values greater than indicate evidence for a model with an effect, and values below indi- cate support for the null model. in order to explore whether a strength-based mirror effect was obtained under conditions where criterion shifts would not be expected, we first conducted a (strength: strong vs. weak) × (trial type: target vs. foil) repeated-measures anova. in experiment , the data (see table ) demonstrat- ed a strength × trial type interaction, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . , bf = . . this interaction was due to an increase in hr from weak to strong conditions accompanied by a decrease in far. planned comparisons confirmed an increase in hr from weak (m = . , se = . ) to strong (m = . , se = . ) conditions, t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . there was a numerical decrease in far between weak (m = . , se = . ) and strong (m = . , se = . ) conditions, but it was not statistically significant, t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . in experiment , the data again demonstrated a strength × trial type interaction, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . , bf = . e + . strong lists elicited a higher hr and a lower far than weak lists. planned comparisons again confirmed an increase in hr from weak (m = . , se = . ) to strong (m = . , se = . ) lists, t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . e + . unlike experiment , fars were also reliably lower for strong lists (m = . , se = . ) relative to weak lists (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . generally speaking, this experimental design is a challenge because limiting memory to such a short list necessarily re- sults in near ceiling performance, making it difficult to detect changes in far. therefore, we performed an exploratory analysis that collapsed across these two highly similar studies to see whether the associated increase in power would provide clarity, especially with regard to the far. as expected, the (experiment) × (strength) × (trial type) mixed-factors anova revealed a three-way interaction, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . , bf = . . as is apparent from table , this interaction is the product of the typical sbme interaction being more pronounced in experiment than in experiment . however, the direction of the interaction is identical. this combined data set demonstrates a reliable difference between strong (m = . , se = . ) and weak (m = . , se = . ) far, t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . , and strong (m = . , se = . ) and weak (m = . , se = . ) hr, t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . e + . discussion we observed the descriptive sbme pattern of higher hr and lower far for strongly encoded lists indicating that the sbme can be elicited even under conditions where criterion shifts are highly unlikely. however, the small magnitude of the bfs suggest that the evidence for differences in the far was not strong. we see these experiments as a bproof of concept^ and will return to a more rigorous (and preregistered) evaluation of this short-list sbme in experiment . although a substantial body of literature suggests it takes more than trials to establish firm expectations about mem- ory quality at test, it could be possible that participants were able to establish expectations about memory quality in the short study lists. in other words, it is possible that participants quickly established an accurate expectation about the strength of the upcoming test list (but see turner et al., , for evidence that participants bring preexisting memory expectations into the experimental context). this would re- quire that participants can somewhat accurately evaluate memory fidelity for individual study items. in experiments and , we provide an empirical test of how these expectations develop over the course of study and test, using list lengths that are more typical of sbme experiments. experiments and to best address how test expectations develop, we look to studies assessing metaknowledge. benjamin ( ) examined individuals’ expectations regarding the recognizability of low- frequency and high-frequency words. during study, benjamin asked participants to rate the likelihood that they would rec- ognize a studied item on the subsequent memory test. three separate studies indicated that, in general, participants incorrectly expected that they would have better memory for high-frequency words than for low-frequency words. the in- ability of participants to grasp—prior to test—the effects of word frequency on recognition lead benjamin ( ) to spec- ulate that people may often have bpoor self-assessment of one’s own memory ability and, by extension, of the effects of different variables on one’s memory^ (p. ). obviously, table hit and false-alarm rates in experiments and hit rate false-alarm rate weak strong weak strong experiment . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) experiment . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) note. standard error in parentheses here, the bf represents support for an interaction model (strength × trial type) relative to a model only containing main effects. mem cogn ( ) : – if such a claim were true in the standard sbme paradigm, this would question the viability of criterion shifts to produce all sbmes. it seems reasonable to assume that people are aware that repetition helps memory. however, an sbme is observed not just when items are strengthened by repetition but also through levels of processing, as in experiments and (see also glanzer & adams, ; kiliç, criss, malmberg, & shiffrin, ; koop & criss, ). we collect memory pre- dictions in mixed-strength study lists (experiment ) and pure-strength study lists (experiment ) to establish whether participants are aware that different encoding conditions lead to different levels of subsequent memory. method participants introductory psychology students participated in experiments and . thirty-one students from eastern mennonite university participated in experiment in ex- change for partial course credit. forty-four students from syracuse university participated in experiment and were compensated with partial course credit. as in the first two experiments, all participants that did not achieve a d′ above . were excluded from analyses. this resulted in excluding one participant from experiment , and one participant from experiment . design and materials in experiments and , participants completed two study–test cycles. study lists consisted of words, and test lists consisted of words ( targets and foils). in experiment , we presented mixed-strength study lists. in each study list, half of the words were presented with the weak encoding task (bdoes this word contain the letter e?^) and half of the words were presented with the strong encoding task (bis this word pleasant?^). strong and weak items were randomly intermixed at study and test. study lists in experiment were pure strength and the encoding tasks were identical to experiment . each participant completed one weak study–test cycle and one strong study–test cycle. the order in which participants encountered strong and weak blocks was randomly assigned across subjects. stimuli were pulled from a pool of medium normative frequency words between three and letters in length (me- dian = ) and ranging between . and . log frequency (m = . ) in the hyperspace analog to language corpus (balota et al., ). for each participant, a subset of words was randomly selected from this pool and randomly assigned to strength condition (weak vs. strong). stimuli were presented and responses were recorded using the psychtoolbox add-on for matlab (brainard, ; kleiner et al., ). procedure the procedure for experiments and is depicted in fig. . first, participants were instructed that they would be asked to study lists of words and later complete a test of their memory for those words. participants completed two study– test cycles. the critical addition to experiments and was that we also collected participants’ predictions about their ability to later recognize each studied word ( = i won’t recognize, = i will recognize; benjamin, ). these pre- dictions were collected on each study trial immediately after participants responded to the encoding task. all other details for the study phase and subsequent distractor task were iden- tical to experiment . the test phase in experiment was procedurally identical to that of the previous experiments, with the exception of length and that study was mixed strength. experiment had one additional change. because participants experienced pure- strength lists in experiment , it was possible to collect weak and strong postdictions at test (benjamin, ). whenever participants in experiment provided a bnew^ response at test, they were asked to respond to the question bhow likely would you have been to remember this word if you had actu- ally studied it?^ by providing a rating on a – scale ( = i am sure i would not recognize this word; = i am sure i would recognize this word). each test word remained on- screen during the postdiction phase. results we first examined the participants’ accuracy data (see table ) to verify that the encoding manipulation had the expected effect. in experiment , participants showed a higher hr to strongly encoded items (m = . , se = . ) than to weakly encoded items (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . . the mixed-strength design of experiment means that it is not possible to compare weak and strong far. for experiment , we conducted a (strength: weak vs. strong) × (trial type: target vs. foil) repeated-measures anova. as expected, there was the strength × trial type interaction that is characteristic of an sbme, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . , bf = . e + . strong hrs (m = . , se = . ) were higher than weak hrs (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . , whereas strong fars (m = . , se = . ) were lower than weak fars (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . having confirmed that the encoding manipulations had the intended effect, we turn attention to the question of whether participants were aware of how encoding would affect later memory (see fig. ). in other words, did participants expect to have better memory for items presented with the strong versus weak encoding task? experiment had a single study list with strong and weak encoding tasks intermixed at study. we evaluated participants’ predicted recognizability for all strongly studied items and all weakly studied items. ratings of strongly studied items (m = mem cogn ( ) : – . , se = . ) did not reliably differ from ratings of weakly studied items (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . in experiment , encoding task was manip- ulated between lists. we again compared predicted recogniz- ability for strong and weak items. participants in experiment showed slightly higher predictions for strong items (m = . , se = . ) than for weak items (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . we also collected postdictions in experiment . each time participants provided a bnew^ response at test, they were asked how likely they would have been to remember that word if it had actually been presented. participants showed greater postdicted confidence for strong correct rejections (m = . , se = . ) than for weak correct rejections (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . however, there was not a reliable difference between strong misses (m = . , se = . ) and weak misses (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . . notably, the average confidence ratings for misses are lower than those of correct rejections. this means that participants indicated that they would be more likely to remember unstudied foils than items they actually studied. one distinct possibility is that participants simply reported confidence in their response rath- er than postdiction judgments (or they conflated the two). a reviewer suggested an interesting alternative interpretation. he suggested that lower ratings for misses than correct rejec- tions indicates that metamemory judgments are quite accurate in the sense that participants accurately indicate that they would not have remembered exactly those items that they forgot (e.g., misses). in either event, these results are not in- formative for the present research question without additional research. experiment experiment weak strong pr ed ic te d r ec og ni za bi lit y fig. mean predicted recognizability for studied items in experiments (mixed-strength lists) and (pure-strength lists). error bars are ± se table hit and false-alarm rates in experiments and block order and experiment hit rate false-alarm rate weak strong weak strong experiment (mixed-strength) . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) experiment (pure-strength) . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) . (. ) note. strong and weak study trials are intermixed in experiment , there- fore it is not possible to define weak or strong false alarm rates. standard error in parentheses fig. procedure for collecting predictions (top panel; experiments & ) and postdictions (bottom panel; experiment only). predictions were collected following every trial during the study phase. postdictions were only collected following a bnew^ response. in the bottom panel, no postdiction is collected for bjazz,^ because the participant identified it as an old word. a postdiction is collected for bspoke^ because it was identified as a new word mem cogn ( ) : – discussion the goal of experiments and was to assess participants’ awareness of the effects of different encoding manipula- tions. we investigated whether participants have accurate expectations about the effects of encoding manipulations on memory quality, as predicted by the decisional account. remarkably, the data suggest no difference in predicted recognizability between weak encoding tasks and strong encoding tasks in experiment even though participants’ accuracy was dramatically higher for strong items. it ap- pears as though participants do not notice clear distinctions in memory quality at a trial-by-trial level. experiment did show a difference between predicted recognizability for strong and weak items. however, the small magnitude of the bf suggests minimal evidence for the observed differ- ence in the predicted memory. we will return to this with a large n, preregistered evaluation of memory expectations in experiment . interestingly, we note that hit rates in experiments and are extremely similar. however, the ratings of predicted memorabil- ity are higher for experiment than experiment . in other words, quite different memorability ratings do not correspond to differences in accuracy. this is another indication that participants are not well calibrated with respect to assessing future memory or how encoding might affect later memory. our measure of predicted memory is somewhat similar to judgments of learning (jol). current theorizing on jols attributes them to fluency in processing the individ- ual items and beliefs about what affects memory (e.g., dunlosky, mueller, & tauber, ; koriat, ). the role of beliefs has largely been tested in terms of properties of the items (e.g., font size), whereas here we manipulated the encoding task that is common to all items. consistent with prior work, memory predictions do not reflect differences in quality between encoding tasks like those used here. for example, begg, duft, lalonde, melnick, and sanvito ( ) provided individuals with interactive or separate imagery- based encoding tasks. although memory performance differed between groups, memory predictions did not. recall that strength-based criterion shifts require two things: sufficient trials for adjustment and accurate expec- tations about memory quality on the part of participants. experiments and showed preliminary evidence for an sbme with insufficient trials to establish a criterion. experiments and showed that participants do not have accurate expectations about memory quality. in our final study, we collect additional data about participants’ mem- ory expectations by asking a single question about predict- ed memory for the entire set of targets. after all, it is pos- sible that a post-study estimate might better characterize expectations about the encoding conditions absent judg- ments about the specific target items. experiment in experiment , we combine the short list design of experiments and while also assessing participants’ awareness of the specific encoding manipulations used therein. if participants continued to show an sbme while simultaneously failing to note the mnemonic consequences of weak and strong encoding tasks, then a pure criterion shift account of all sbmes would be highly unlikely (as- suming the standard assumption that criterion shifts are active control processes). on the other hand, if participants accurately assess differences in memory strength even after short study lists, this could provide grounds for revisiting assumptions about the speed with which criterion shifts can occur. experiment was a preregistered study that was identical to two additional experiments ( a and b) that appeared in a previous draft of this manuscript. results from those studies can be found in the supplemen- tary materials posted at (https://osf.io/bv c /). preregistration for experiment can also be found there. method participants in order to determine our sample size for experiment , we performed a power analysis using g*power (faul, erdfelder, lang, & buchner, ). we se- lected a sample size of participants because it would give us above − β = . with an effect size of d = . (roughly the effect size on far from experiment ). to ensure that we would accrue participants after no-shows, cancellations, and exclusions, we posted many more than sessions at syracuse university and eastern mennonite university. in total individuals participated in the experiment. all par- ticipants completed the experiment before we looked at any data. participants were compensated with partial fulfillment of course requirements. design and materials experiment is a complete replication of experiment , with the addition of a single question about the quality of participants’ memory immediately prior to the test phase (described more fully below). procedure participants received the same instructions and completed the same study–test cycles as in experiment . g.k. and a.h.c. had an interesting conversation about whether to report the first participants so as to remain faithful to the preregistered sample size or to report all participants. in the end, we agreed that it was not sensible to discard the contribution of a large number of volunteers because we pessimis- tically scheduled too many appointments. as alexander dehaven wrote, bpreregistration is a plan not a prison^ (https://cos.io/blog/preregistration- plan-not-prison/). finally, note that the pattern of results do not change with the smaller sample size. mem cogn ( ) : – https://osf.io/bv c / https://cos.io/blog/preregistration-plan-not-prison/ https://cos.io/blog/preregistration-plan-not-prison/ following the -second distractor task and test instructions, participants were asked an additional question about their per- ceived memory quality. the question was as follows: the test will be words in length. before starting the test, we would like you to estimate how well you will do. if you believe you will give the correct bold^ or bnew^ response to all items, you would type b .^ if you feel like you will be completely guessing, you can expect to get around five answers correct, and should enter b .^ following this question, participants then completed the single-item recognition test trials just as described in experiment . after completing both a strong study–test cycle and a weak study–test cycle (counterbalanced across partici- pants), participants were thanked and then dismissed. results participants were excluded using the same criterion (d′ < . in each study–test cycle) as the previous studies. this resulted in excluding participants. additionally, one individual gave a memory prediction response outside of the – scale and was therefore excluded from analysis. in total, data from par- ticipants were analyzed. we analyzed accuracy data using a (strength: strong vs. weak) × (trial type: target vs. foil) repeated-measures anova and paired-samples t tests. predicted recognition per- formance following weak and strong study lists was compared using a paired-samples t test. these analyses were preregistered. in addition, we included bayes factors for all analyses, which we did not preregister. participants showed a strength × trial type interaction, f( , ) = . , p < . , ηp = . , bf = . e + . hrs were higher on strong blocks (m = . , se = . ) than on weak blocks (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . e + . there was also a reliable difference in far between strong (m = . , se = . ) and weak blocks (m = . , se = . ), t( ) = . , p < . , d = . , bf = . . thus, the sbme was present for short study and test blocks. an analysis of participants’ predicted memory showed a small difference between predictions following a strong block (m = . , se = . ) and those following a weak block (m = . , se = . ). the statistical analysis of this effect is mixed, t( ) = . , p = . , d = . , bf = . , with the p value indicating support for this difference and the bf indicating no evidence for an effect and in fact weak evidence for a null effect. discussion experiment was designed to assess whether individuals show an sbme under conditions where a criterion shift is unlikely and without demonstrating awareness of differing memory quality between the two encoding tasks. the re- sults from experiment clearly showed strong evidence for an sbme under conditions where criterion shifts would not be expected. whether participants are aware that dif- ferent encoding tasks result in differences in memory qual- ity is ambiguous. given the strong evidence of an sbme, it is particularly striking that there was trivial evidence for differences in the predicted memory. if participants are basing a criterion shift on the outcome of encoding, then the cognitive system must be magnifying small differences in expected memory to rather large differences in the deci- sion space. general discussion the experiments presented here have demonstrated that it is possible to elicit an sbme under conditions inhospitable for criterion shifts. we observed an sbme even when par- ticipants had few items on which to establish a criterion. we used encoding manipulations that participants did not consistently think affected memory. we demonstrated these findings in the first four experiments and then com- bined them in a preregistered study with a large sample size. collectively, this demonstrates the presence of an sbme under conditions where criterion shifts would not be predicted. further, participants do not accurately adjust their expectations about memory quality in response to levels of processing manipulations. even if participants could set a specific criterion for the list after exposure to only a few items, they would set an inappropriate criterion (to generate an sbme) because they estimate that encoding tasks produce minimal differences in memory accuracy. prior research has established that an sbme can be found when differentiation is not present. this, of course, is consistent with all models of memory because no models dispute the possibility of a criterion or the ability of participants to modify a criterion to suit the needs of the individual or context. here, we find that an sbme is observed under conditions that would not seem to support a criterion shift of the sort required to produce an sbme. this does not imply that differentiation is responsible for the pattern of hr and far; there could be some alterna- tive mechanism that produces an sbme. however, our research does suggest that a criterion shift is unlikely to be the single mechanism responsible for this pattern of data. mem cogn ( ) : – implications for strength-based mirror effects because our aim in the present work was to address the debate between decisional and mnemonic accounts of sbmes, we have ignored a more nuanced perspective on criterion shifts. recent work has raised the possibility that individuals can adjust decision criteria on an item-by-item basis, but making the decision as to what strength to expect is arduous (starns & olchowski, ). thus, rather than a failure to elicit criterion shifts, much of the literature reviewed in the introduction could potentially be framed as failures to effectively manipu- late strength expectations. starns and olchowski ( ; see also franks & hicks, ) produced item-by-item shifts in fars by making encoding strength covary with the side of the screen on which items were presented and requiring participants to use differ- ent response keys for strong and weak items. for example, when an item was presented on the right side of the screen, it was either a strong target or a foil, whereas items presented on the left side of the screen were either weak targets or foils. providing an bold^ response then required the use of different keys for items presented on the left or right side of the screen. while this work may very well demonstrate that partici- pants often do not shift their strength expectations (rather than criteria) in typical mixed-strength recognition studies, it does not affect the interpretation of our results. first, the fundamen- tal assumption is that without external affordances, partici- pants take time to adapt to a new decision environment. based on this work, one presumes that the literature demon- strating that criterion shifts take time (e.g., brown & steyvers, ; hicks & starns, ; verde & rotello, ) could easily be reframed as slow decisions to adopt different strength expectations. however, the fact remains that differ- ences in far are only observable on an item-by-item basis when significant affordances are provided. the affordances may include things like color cuing (hicks & starns, ; starns & olchowski, ; stretch & wixted, ), pure- strength blocking at test (hicks & starns, ; starns et al., ; verde & rotello, ), or forcing individuals to ac- knowledge strength distributions through different response keys (starns & olchowski, ). in short, without explicit cues, it takes time for people to adapt to changing strength environments. thus, our results challenge the notion that any adjustment of memory strength expectation occurred dur- ing the shortened pure-strength sbme design. again, one might ask the question: if it is so hard to elicit this adjustment (whether criterion shift or decision about ex- pected strength), why is it that pure-strength lists reliably pro- duce an sbme without going to any great lengths to alert (or force) participants to acknowledge differences in strength be- tween lists? one possibility is that the encoding tasks provide this explicit affordance. after all, if items are strengthened by repetition, participants bshould certainly expect to have better memory after an entire list of words studied five times than after an entire list of words studied once^ (starns & olchowski, , p. ). however, all the experiments pre- sented above used less intuitive strength manipulations than mere repetition. experiments , , and directly tested this assumption. those data suggested that participants do not consistently form dramatically different expectations for strong encoding tasks and weak encoding tasks. one possible explanation for why repetition leads to clear memory expec- tations, whereas our strength manipulations do not, is because memory expectations are influenced by the ease with which study items are processed (begg et al., ). repetition ma- nipulations make items easier to process and therefore have a much larger impact on memorability expectations than do the manipulations used in this work. for example, both strong and weak tasks are relatively easy for participants to perform and therefore do not have significant effects on expected memorability. this account is very speculative, and future work could examine this possibility in greater detail. in summary, although the results shown by starns and olchowski ( ) certainly demonstrated that criterion shifts can produce a mirror effect, it is premature to assume that such item-by-item criterion shifts underlie all demonstrations of sbmes. typically, data demonstrating sbmes have fallen into two competing (and often mutually exclusive) camps: the deci- sional account and the mnemonic account. this debate has generated a significant amount of data. some of these data have produced an sbme under conditions not predicted by the mnemonic account, whereas the present data produced an sbme under conditions not predicted by the decisional ac- count. after surveying this literature, we believe it will be most fruitful to take a bboth/and^ approach to the sbme rather than beither/or.^ taken as a whole, the literature indi- cates that neither a pure-decisional nor a pure-mnemonic ac- count explains all sbmes. we also suggest that these data should lead to changes in terminology. rather than speaking of the sbme as if this is a single phenomenon, these results suggest it is more appropriate to discuss an sbme. implications for memory theory while sbmes have produced a significant amount of re- search, the effect is only interesting insofar as it tell us some- thing about the nature of the memory processes used to pro- duce it. in other words, bwhat drives the sbme?^ is not a particularly important question, whereas bwhat do sbmes tell us about the nature of memory?^ is. focusing too narrow- ly on sbmes may lead to an increasingly compartmentalized memory literature—a broader problem that has led to a fair amount of handwringing (criss & howard, ; hintzman, ; malmberg, ). in short, theorists have raised con- cerns about the generalizability of memory models. at times it mem cogn ( ) : – appears as though accounts are created ad hoc for individual tasks even though similar mechanisms should underlie perfor- mance of the memory system in a number of domains. we briefly highlight this debate because one argument occasion- ally used to support a pure-decisional account is that it is parsimonious or commonsensical. although a pure- decisional account may seem to be a relatively straightforward explanation of sbmes (though differentiation is not a partic- ularly complex explanation either), we see it as contributing to the fractured landscape of memory models. the critical question, then, is whether these data advance our broad understanding of memory, or are we simply basking what causes some characteristic twitch in the data^ (hintzman, , p. ). our hope is that rather than merely cataloguing memory effects and developing ad hoc models to explain them, we can identify models that do reasonably well at accommodating data from a wide variety of tasks. in the present context, this means identifying a model that can ac- commodate the bboth/and^ approach rather than only a bpure decisional^ or bpure mnemonic^ approach. in other words, a model should include a mechanism for decisional processes (i.e., an adjustable criterion) as well as incorporating mnemon- ic processes like differentiation exactly as suggested by atkinson and shiffrin ( ). we briefly highlight the retrieving effectively from memo- ry (rem; shiffrin & steyvers, ) framework for its ability to use common mechanisms to produce human data across a variety of tasks (malmberg, ). unlike signal detection theory, rem is a true process model that provides an account of how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved. for ex- ample, versions of rem have been applied to recognition (shiffrin & steyvers, ), free recall (lehman & malmberg, ), and cued recall (diller, nobel, & shiffrin, ; wilson & criss, ). although this work does not necessarily fulfill hintzman’s ( ) call to study memory bin the wild,^ we believe the success of rem across a number of different experimental tasks begins to speak to more general characteristics of memory, like differentiation. concerning sbmes, rem incorporates both decisional processes and dif- ferentiation, which could conceivably cover the breadth of data collected on the sbme to date. finally, we see the present work as addressing a common problem also noted by atkinson and shiffrin ( )—specif- ically, the fact that multiple control processes may give rise to similar patterns of memory performance. for example, many sbme studies used fairly transparent strengthening opera- tions like repetition. use of this type of strengthening task most likely elicits metacognitive criterion shifts that are absent for encoding processes like those used in the present experi- ments. it has taken a sizable amount of research to establish that some sbmes may be the product of repetition strategies and subsequent criterion shifts, whereas others (like depth of processing) may somewhat automatically elicit an sbme via differentiation. while the present work indicates that a depth of processing manipulation produces sbmes without a crite- rion shift, it is still unclear exactly what people are doing during such encoding tasks. future work will need to more effectively model what, exactly, individuals are doing during such manipulations. acknowledgements data and supplementary materials are available at (https://osf.io/bv c /). experiment is preregistered at (https://aspredicted.org/b ne .pdf). we thank the following students for assistance collecting data: michael austin, lara weaver, andrew peltier, sophi hartman, and olivia dalke. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdic- tional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. references atkinson, r. c., & shiffrin, r. m. ( ). human memory: a proposed system and its control processes. in k. w. spence & j. t. spence (eds.), the psychology of learning and motivation (vol. , pp. – ). new york, ny: academic press. balota, d. a., yap, m. j., cortese, m. j., hutchison, k. a., kessler, b., loftis, b., … treiman, r. ( ). the english lexicon project. behavior research methods, , – . begg, i., duft, s., lalonde, p., melnick, r., & sanvito, j. ( ). memory predictions are based on ease of processing. journal of memory and language, , – . benjamin, a. s. ( ). predicting and postdicting the effects of word frequency on memory. memory & cognition, , – . benjamin, a. s., & bawa, s. ( ). distractor plausibility and criterion placement in recognition. journal of memory and language, , – . brainard, d. h. ( ). the psychophysics toolbox. spatial vision, , – . brown, s., & steyvers, m. ( ). the dynamics of experimentally in- duced criterion shifts. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . brown, s., steyvers, m., & hemmer, p. ( ). modeling experimentally induced strategy shifts. psychological science, , – . bruno, d., higham, p. a., & perfect, t. j. ( ). global subjective memorability and the strength-based mirror effect in recognition memory. memory & cognition, , – . cox, j. c., & dobbins, i. g. ( ). the striking similarities between standard, distractor-free, and target-free recognition. memory & cognition, , – . criss, a. h. ( ). the consequences of differentiation in episodic mem- ory: similarity and the strength based mirror effect. journal of memory and language, , – . criss, a. h. ( ). the distribution of subjective memory strength: list strength and response bias. cognitive psychology, , – . criss, a. h. ( ). differentiation and response bias in episodic mem- ory: evidence from reaction time distributions. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , . criss, a. h. & howard, m. ( ). models of episodic memory. in j. busemeyer, j. t. townsend, z. wang, & a. eidels (eds.) oxford handbook of computational and mathematical psychology. new york, ny: oxford university press. criss, a. h., & koop, g. j. ( ). differentiation in episodic memory. in j. raaijmakers, a. h. criss, r. goldstone, r. nosofsky, & m. steyvers (eds.), cognitive modeling in perception and memory: a mem cogn ( ) : – https://osf.io/bv c / https://aspredicted.org/b ne .pdf festschrift for richard m. shiffrin (pp. – ). new york, ny: psychology press. diller, d. e., nobel, p. a., & shiffrin, r. m. ( ). an arc–rem model for accuracy and response time in recognition and recall. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, ( ), – . dunlosky, j., mueller, m. l., & tauber, s. k. ( ). the contribution of processing fluency (and beliefs) to people’s judgments of learning. in d. s. lindsay, a. p. yonelinas, h. i. roediger, d. s. lindsay, a. p. yonelinas, & h. i. roediger (eds.), remembering: attributions, processes, and control in human memory: essays in honor of larry jacoby (pp. – ). new york, ny: psychology press. estes, w. k., & maddox, w. t. ( ). interactions of stimulus attributes, base rates, and feedback in recognition. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . faul, f., erdfelder, e., lang, a.-g., & buchner, a. ( ). g*power : a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. behavior research methods, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /bf franks, b. a., & hicks, j. l. ( ). the reliability of criterion shifting in recognition memory is task dependent. memory & cognition, , – . glanzer, m., & adams, j. k. ( ). the mirror effect in recognition memory: data and theory. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . glanzer, m., adams, j. k., iverson, g. j., & kim, k. ( ). the regu- larities of recognition memory. psychological review, ( ), – . green, d. m., & swets, j. a. ( ). signal detection theory and psychophysics. new york: wiley. hicks, j. l., & starns, j. j. ( ). strength cues and blocking at test promote reliable within-list criterion shifts in recognition memory. memory & cognition, , – . hintzman, d. l. ( ). research strategy in the study of memory: fads, fallacies, and the search for the bcoordinates of truth^. perspectives on psychological science, ( ), – . higham, p. a., perfect, t. j., & bruno, d. ( ). investigating strength and frequency effects in recognition memory using type- signal detection theory. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . hirshman, e. ( ). decision processes in recognition memory: criterion shifts and the list-strength paradigm. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . jasp team. ( ). jasp (version . )[computer software]. retrieved from https://jasp-stats.org/ kiliç, a., criss, a. h., malmberg, k. j., & shiffrin, r. m. ( ). models that allow us to perceive the world more accurately also allow us to remember past events more accurately via differentiation. cognitive psychology, , – . kleiner, m., brainard, d. h., pelli, d. g., broussard, c., wolfe, t., & niehorster, d. ( ). what’s new in psychtoolbox- ? perception, ( ), . koop, g. j., & criss, a. h. ( ). the response dynamics of recognition memory: sensitivity and bias. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, ( ), – . koop, g. j., criss, a. h., & malmberg, k. j. ( ). the role of mne- monic processes in pure-target and pure-foil recognition memory. psychonomic bulletin & review, ( ), – . koriat, a. ( ). monitoring one’s own knowledge during study: a cue utilization approach to judgments of learning. journal of experimental psychology: general, , – . lehman, m., & malmberg, k. j. ( ). a buffer model of memory encoding and temporal correlations in retrieval. psychological review, ( ), – . macmillan, n. a., & creelman, c. d. ( ). detection theory: a user’s guide. new york, ny: cambridge university press. malmberg, k. j. ( ). recognition memory: a review of the critical findings and an integrated theory for relating them. cognitive psychology, ( ), – . mcclelland, j. l., & chappell, m. ( ). familiarity breeds differenti- ation: a subjective-likelihood approach to the effects of experience in recognition memory. psychological review, ( ), – . morrell, h. e., gaitan, s., & wixted, j. t. ( ). on the nature of the decision axis in signal-detection-based models of recognition mem- ory. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . parks, t. e. ( ). signal-detectability theory of recognition-memory performance. psychological review, , – . rhodes, m. g., & jacoby, l. l. ( ). on the dynamic nature of re- sponse criterion in recognition memory: effects of base rate, aware- ness, and feedback. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . shiffrin, r. m., & steyvers, m. ( ). a model for recognition memory: rem—retrieving effectively from memory. psychonomic bulletin & review, , – . starns, j. j., & olchowski, j. e. ( ). shifting the criterion is not the difficult part of trial-by-trial criterion shifts in recognition memory. memory & cognition, ( ), – . starns, j. j., ratcliff, r., & white, c. n. ( ). diffusion model drift rates can be influenced by decision processes: an analysis of the strength-based mirror effect. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . starns, j. j., white, c. n., & ratcliff, r. ( ). a direct test of the differentiation mechanism: rem, bcdmem, and the strength- based mirror effect in recognition memory. journal of memory and language, , – . stretch, v., & wixted, j. t. ( ). on the difference between strength- based and frequency-based mirror effects in recognition memory. journal of experimental psychology: learning, memory, and cognition, , – . turner, b. m., van zandt, t., & brown, s. ( ). a dynamic stimulus- driven model of signal detection. psychological review, , – . verde, m. f., & rotello, c. m. ( ). memory strength and the decision process in recognition memory. memory & cognition, , – . wilson, j. h., & criss, a. h. ( ). the list strength effect in cued recall. journal of memory and language, , - . wixted, j. t., & gaitan, s. c. ( ). cognitive theories as reinforcement history surrogates: the case of likelihood ratio models of human recognition memory. animal learning & behavior, ( ), – . mem cogn ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /bf https://jasp-stats.org/ 	a strength-based mirror effect persists even when criterion shifts are unlikely 	abstract 	significance of the strength-based mirror effect to memory theory 	under what conditions do criterion shifts occur? 	why are pure-strength strength-based mirror effects so reliable? 	experiments and 	method 	results 	discussion 	experiments and 	method 	results 	discussion 	experiment 	method 	results 	discussion 	general discussion 	implications for strength-based mirror effects 	implications for memory theory 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ skip segment hirschsprung disease and waardenburg syndrome contents lists available at sciencedirect j ped surg case reports ( ) e journal of pediatric surgery case reports journal homepage: www.jpscasereports.com skip segment hirschsprung disease and waardenburg syndrome erica r. gross a,*, gabrielle c. geddes b, julie a. mccarrier b, jason a. jarzembowski c, marjorie j. arca a a division of pediatric surgery, children’s hospital of wisconsin, milwaukee, wi, usa b department of pediatrics, division of medical genetics, children’s hospital of wisconsin, milwaukee, wi, usa c department of pathology, children’s hospital of wisconsin, milwaukee, wi, usa a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received november received in revised form february accepted february key words: skip segment aganglionosis hirschsprung disease waardenburg syndrome neonatal obstruction * corresponding author. n nd st, pediatric su wi , usa. tel.: þ . e-mail address: ergross@mcw.edu (e.r. gross). - /� the authors. published by elsevier in http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.epsc. . . a b s t r a c t skip segment hirschsprung disease describes a segment of ganglionated bowel between two segments of aganglionated bowel. it is a rare phenomenon that is difficult to diagnose. we describe a recent case of skip segment hirschsprung disease in a neonate with a family history of waardenburg syndrome and the genetic profile that was identified. � the authors. published by elsevier inc. this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). hirschsprung disease (hd) is a form of functional bowel obstruction that presents most commonly in the neonatal period. in hd, neural crest cells fail to migrate caudally, leaving a distal portion of aganglionated rectum. in the majority of cases, there is a single segment of bowel where the nerves terminate, known as the “transition zone.” in this case report, we describe an atypical pre- sentation of neonatal bowel obstruction and a rare case of skip segment hd, or segmental aganglionosis. this patient was found to be homozygous for a pathogenic variant in the endothelin-receptor b (ednrb) gene, previously described in association with hd- waardenburg syndrome. . case report a g term male was born at home and admitted for evalu- ation of abdominal distention and failure to pass meconium after h of life. he was born to a family with a paternal history of hearing loss, hd, and white forelock, which had been clinically diagnosed as waardenburg syndrome without molecular confir- mation. there was no known history of consanguinity and the parents are from different mennonite populations. the father had rgery, unit , milwaukee, c. this is an open access article unde total colonic hd and the patient’s sister was treated for rec- tosigmoid disease (fig. ). on physical exam, the neonate had a soft abdomen with no peritonitis and no other congenital anomalies. an abdominal radiograph showed bowel distention (fig. ). a rectal contrast study was performed, during which the colon was perfo- rated. the neonate was taken to the operating room and found to have fecal peritonitis from a > % circumferential mid-transverse colon perforation. frozen biopsies were performed at the level of the perforation and the rectosigmoid colon. the transverse colon had ganglion cells and sigmoid colon lacked ganglion cells, con- firming the diagnosis of hd. a colostomy was created at the level of the perforation. for days, there was no stool from the colostomy. contrast studies showed a transition point in the right lower quadrant. on post-operative day , he was explored for adhesive bowel obstruction. adhesions were indeed identified in the right lower quadrant, corresponding to the transition zone in the contrast study. post-operatively, there was no colostomy output. irrigations were performed as well as contrast studies with limited results. the child was taken back to the operating room one month after adhesiolysis. once again, the terminal ileum appeared dilated despite having no significant adhesions. biopsies were sent from the terminal ileum, which showed no ganglion cells. biopsies were then sent every cm proximal to the ileocecal (ic) valve. frozen section analysis identified ganglion cells at cm from the ic valve r the cc by-nc-nd license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). delta: _given name delta: _surname delta: _given name delta: _surname delta: _given name http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ .� / mailto:ergross@mcw.edu http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.epsc. . . &domain=pdf www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.jpscasereports.com http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ .� / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.epsc. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.epsc. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.epsc. . . fig. . pedigree. our patient is identified by number in the fifth generation ([). b ¼ females, , ¼ males, d ¼ miscarriage, > ¼ unknown sex, n ¼ unknown number of offspring. e.r. gross et al. / j ped surg case reports ( ) e (fig. ). the aganglionated ileum was resected. an end ileostomy and a mucus fistula were created cm from the ic valve, and a gastrostomy tube was placed. the child began to have bowel function within two days of surgery and slowly progressed up to full enteral feeds. at the time of discharge, parenteral nutrition had been discontinued. feeds were given continuously via the gastrostomy tube at night and ad lib orally during the day, to decrease high ostomy output. at one year of fig. . abdominal radiograph. diffuse intestinal gaseous distention without rectal gas. age, he is taking all nutrition by mouth, and his growth curves are in the th percentile. we are planning to perform a completion proctocolectomy and endorectal pullthrough. . . genetic profile after diagnosis of skip segment hd in the setting of a strong family history of hd was made, the genetics team was consulted. given the family history of multiple paternal relatives with hearing loss, hd, and white forelock, the previous clinical diagnosis of waardenburg syndrome (ws) was molecularly confirmed. ws with hd is specific to waardenburg syndrome type iv (also called fig. . schematic of final intestinal pathology. ganglion cells were present (þ) in the transverse and descending colon but absent (�) in the terminal ileum and sigmoid colon. the site of perforation (p) was located in the mid-transverse colon. e.r. gross et al. / j ped surg case reports ( ) e waardenburg-shah syndrome) which has been molecularly asso- ciated with ednrb, endothelin (edn ) and sox [ ]. waarden- burg syndrome type iv can be inherited in an autosomal dominant or an autosomal recessive pattern; however, the paternal family history was suggestive of autosomal dominant inheritance. to molecularly confirm the diagnosis, sequence analysis with multi- plex ligation-dependent probe amplification (mlpa) for exon deletion and duplication testing was clinically performed on edn exons e (nm_ . ), ednrb exons e (nm_ . , nm_ . ), and sox exons e (nm_ . ). the results of this testing showed our patient was homozygous for ednrb p.w c without exon deletions. unfortunately, familial testing for further segregation and clarification has been declined by the family. this variant has been previously described in mennonite populations and this specific variant has resulted in disease in in- dividuals who are both heterozygous as well as homozygous for this variant, with penetrance of hd being higher in homozygotes ( %) versus heterozygotes ( %) [ ]. . discussion the description of hd as a single aganglionic segment extending from the anal margin to a varying length of rectum or colon is widely accepted. total colonic aganglionosis has also been well described. these aganglionic segments are believed to result from failed cranial-caudal migration of neural crest cells. it is also believed that the earlier the arrest of migration of these cells, the longer the segment of aganglionated bowel will be. skip segment hd, where there is a portion of ganglionated in- testine between two segments of aganglionated bowel, has been reported in fewer than patients and is easily overlooked or misdiagnosed. o’donnell and puri performed a systematic review of patients with this entity of hd over a -year time span and noted that % of patients were male, % had a skip segment in the transverse colon, and % had multiple skip segments. the terminal ileum was aganglionic in % of patients reviewed [ ]. our patient’s disease pattern is consistent with these observations. the incidence of hd is : live births, and it may present in more than one family member. in the majority of hirschsprung cases, noclearpatternofinheritanceexists.patientswithverylong-segment aganglionosis seem to have a higher rate of familial incidence [ ]. gene pathogenic variants have been identified on chromosome involvingthe retproto-oncogene(non-syndromic)in %of sporadic and familial cases of hd [ ]. hd has also been linked to pathogenic variants in the ednrb and edn genes [ , ]. waardenburg syndrome is a congenital disorder resulting from defective neural crest cell development, presenting as pigmentary disturbances and sensorineural deafness. ws occurs in in , live births and is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion; however, the degree of penetrance is variable [ ]. waardenburg-shah syndrome (ws type iv) refers to the waar- denburg-hd association and is an autosomal recessive condition. the association of hd and ws has been ascribed to pathogenic variants of the ednrb gene [ ]. there are fewer than case reports of hd occurring in combination with ws [ ]. in these reports, there was no increasing penetrance of hd between generations, with the aganglionic length being very similar amongst family members [ ]. no cases reported skip segment aganglionosis. . conclusion skip segment aganglionosis is a rare phenotype of hd that is yet to be fully understood at a genetic or cellular level. this is the first documented case of skip segment hd with detailed family history and genetic profile. conflicts of interest none of the authors have any conflicts of interest in writing this paper. references [ ] wang hh, chen hs, li hb, zhang h, mei ly, he cf, et al. identification and functional analysis of a novel mutation in the sox gene associated with waardenburg syndrome type iv. gene ; : e . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gene. . . . [ ] puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewit d, yanagisawa m. a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirsch- sprung’s disease. cell ; : e . [ ] o’donnell am, puri p. skip segment hirschsprung’s disease: a systematic re- view. pediatr surg int ; : e . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - . [ ] moore sw, johnson ag. hirschsprung’s disease: genetic and functional asso- ciations of down’s and waardenburg syndromes. semin pediatr surg ; ( ): e . [ ] edery p, attie t, amiel j, pelet a, eng c, hofstra rm, et al. mutation of the endothelin- gene in the waardenburg-hirschsprung disease (shah-waar- denburg syndrome). nat genet ; : e . [ ] kusafuka t, puri p. mutations of the endothelin-b receptor and endothelin- genes in hirschsprung’s disease. pediatr surg int ; : e . [ ] cui l, wong eh, cheng g, firmato de almeida m, so mt, sham pc, et al. genetic analyses of a three generation family segregating hirschsprung disease and iris heterochromia. plos one ; ( ):e . [ ] bonnet jp, till m, edery p, attie t, lyonnet s. waardenburg-hirschsprung dis- ease in two sisters: a possible clue to the genetics of this association. eur j pediatr surg ; : e . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gene. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gene. . . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	skip segment hirschsprung disease and waardenburg syndrome 	 . case report 	 . . genetic profile 	 . discussion 	 . conclusion 	conflicts of interest 	references hrh .tmp journal of agricultural and applied economics, , (july ): - @ southern agricultural economics association small farms and sustainable development: is small more sustainable? discussion mark s. henry in their paper, “small farms and sustainable de- velopment: is small more sustainable?” d’souza and ikerd examine the potential linkages between two streams of analysis—’’sustainable develop- ment” and “small farms.” this is a worthwhile ob- jective, as there has been little effort to link the two together. this is—as the authors note—a surpris- ing gap in the thinking about forces that might lead to long-term sustainability in agricultural produc- tion. the authors are right to bring the issue to our attention. as a member of the leading edge of the baby boom generation, i cannot resist the temptation to remind the audience that the authors seek an an- swer to an old question raised in a more general context by schumacher in a “little black book” popular with early environmental activists, small is beautiful. in the days around the time of the national environmental policy act (nepa), the environmental gluttony of big business was widely criticized. in many cases, the criticisms were on target even if the most vocal critics—rang- ing from jane fonda to abbie hoffman—were hardly mainstream analysts or even politicians, is “small” beautiful? the question is raised anew in the discussion of the characteristics of small farms and the sustainability of development, if the farm size structure continues on the path to- ward “industrialization;’ like the mega-hog opera- tions in north carolina that seem to be responsible for fouling some streams in parts of that state, will that mean that the resource base will be so ne- glected that long-term agricultural sustainability mark henry is a professor in the department of agricultural and applied economics, clemson university, clemson, south carolina. will be threatened? and, if instead, we returned to the hog farm structure of many small producers, could the set of small producers needed to replace the large “industrial” farms produce the same out- put and do a better job of conserving the resource base needed for long-term sustainability? benefits of small farms since d’souza and ikerd have used a qualitative approach to this issue, my suggestions should be taken as a plea for more analysis to examine the evidence that the assertions in the paper are cred- ible. at this juncture, i am skeptical that many of the arguments made for small farms as key players in long-term sustainability will hold up under seri- ous evaluation of the data available. based on their review of the literature, the authors attribute a num- ber of benefits to small farms. taking each of these small farm benefits in the sequence presented by d’souza and ikerd, let me raise a few questions in response to their comments. ( ) small farms act as buffers against urban encroachment. thompson’s dictum that “the number of small farms in a community is directly proportional to the economic vitality of that community” is cited by the authors to support this benefit. the explanation given is that small farms have owners who are not much concerned about the income earned on the farm, i.e., they are “gentleman” farmers who care more about stewardship of the farmland they own than its market value in farming or in alternative uses. thus, according to the authors, unlike owners of large farm operations, farmers on small-scale operations are less likely to succumb to market henry: small farms and sustainability: discussion pressures to sell to urban developers of ex-urban residential tracts. ho questions are raised in my mind about this “buffer” benefit of small farms. first: is urban spread to nearby rural areas less evident in rural counties with a larger share of small farms? this seems like an easy question to answer with data from the census of population and census ofagri- culture over various years. second: is urban spread to rural areas bad for the natural resource base that sustains agriculture? markets for land at the urban fringe tend to allocate land to its highest and best use. there maybe mar- ket failures in this process if use of farmland for residential or commercial purposes at the urban fringe reduces long-nm agricultural sustainability (and more importantly, the welfare of rural and ur- ban residents). if so, then public policy can and has provided subsidies to small farms and purchased land to preserve green space at the rural fringe of densely populated urban areas. but is this an im- portant problem in the context of long-term viabil- ity of farming? my guess is that it is not. however, large-scale protection of small urban fringe farms through new subsidies by taxpayers, higher land costs for urban homeowners, and commercial ac- tivities suggests welfare losses, not to mention large howls of protest by the multitudes that love nothing better than another excuse to bash “big government.” in sum, making the case that the “buffer bene- fit” matters is likely to be extremely difficult at best, and a thorough analysis might suggest that the effort to maintain small farms as buffers is a welfare-losing proposition for society. ( ) small farms provide scenic attrihes. this may or mayor may not be true. the lancaster, pennsylvania, example given by the authors as evi- dence of “the small farm as tourist attraction” is a curious illustration. the productivity, quaintness, and scenic features of these farms are associated with the amish and mennonite values and tradi- tions—not with small farm characteristics. most of us can cite numerous examples of extremely unat- tractive small farms, as well as scenic large farm operations. in my mind, scenery associated with large expanses of cattle-grazing areas of the west, the great corn desert of illinois, and amber waves of grain across large wheat farms in my home state of kansas are more scenic than many small farms i have seen in the south, for example. of course, some may prefer the scenic attraction of rows of broiler houses nestled in the hills of the small farms of north georgia. the obvious point is that this “scenic benefit” has more to do with the scenic vista provided— whether it be by small farms or large “industrial” farms-and the eye of the beholder. size of farm is not relevant. moreover, what are the linkages between scenic attributes and agricultural sus- tainability? ( ) small farms tend to involve lower intensity of land use. if small farms do use land less intensively by devot- ing iarger land shares to woodlands, pasturing, and in cover crops to improve the soil, is this good for the environment and sustainability? perhaps and perhaps not. since most small farm operations rely on off-farm employment for most of their income, small farm operators have less time and incentive to use all of their land in fence row-to-row cultiva- tion. at the margin, these farmers will devote time to off-farm activities since the opportunity cost (off-farm wage rate) is too high to justify added use of farmland. it is widely accepted that it is this rise in the off-farm wage rate (relative to the return to labor in farm activities) that is a key to understand- ing why average farm size has increased steadily over this century. as the u.s. economy continues to shed farm jobs and small farm operations over the next de- cade, the small farm will continue as a part-time activity supported by work in the rural manufactur- ing and service sectors that dominate the rural economy. there is no going back to small farms as a dominant source of food and fiber. and few econ- omists would argue we should unless society is willing to pay much higher costs for food and fiber that characterize other countries, such as france. the french support for small farms ( to acres) has been widespread. the array of public programs for small farmers has been astounding, but the re- sult has been very intensive use of both land and chemicals. a similar government policy in the u.s. to encourage small farms would be under extreme pressure to subsidize small farms, and thus would journal of agricultural and applied economics, july encourage greater land use and chemical intensity to compete effectively in world markets. the “lower land use intensity” benefit suffers from the fallacy of composition. what is true for a few small farms (lower chemical and land use in- tensity) is likely to be false if most farming re- turned to small size operations (more intensive use of both land and chemicals). ( ) small farms imply greater reliance on conservation practices. d’souza and ikerd suggest that an army of small farmers can take better care of their acres than the same land under the management of a few large in- dustrial managers. this follows, according to the authors, because small farmers are “less dependent on row crops . . , , they farm fewer acres, and they can devote more time to caring for them,” this reasoning suffers from the same fallacy of composition as the lower land use intensity argu- ment. if the u.s. returned to an army of small farm- ers, these farmers would plant more row crops, use land and chemicals more intensively, and, accord- ingly, would have less time to devote to land stew- ardship because their attention would be focused on competing in world markets. another reason to be skeptical about this small farm benefit is the development of geographic in- formation systems (gis) for use at the farm level. using gis technology, large industrial farms can adjust chemical applications as they move across large fields. this can be done to minimize chemical use to achieve a given expected yield by acre on the farm. it can also be used to comply with conserva- tion reserve program (crp) guidelines efficiently by avoiding use of the most erodible acres, and those that are most likely to generate runoffs to nearby streams. it is likely that gis technology will be adopted primarily by larger farms that can spread fixed costs’ over a larger number of acres. this puts small farms at a disadvantage in em- ploying the use of a gis technology that is well suited for improving the stewardship of large farms. sandra batie at michigan state university has done some interesting work along these lines. ( ) small farms foster intergenerational transfers ofpractices. this benefit example suggests that small farm oper- ators hand down environmentally sound practices. do they? in developing countries, small landhold- ers may respond to government chemical subsidies by excessive chemical application to crops, and may handle chemicals in ways that endanger their own health (shepard, hammig, and carrier). they respond to gratuitous subsidies like farmers in france and the u.s. they use more chemicals than market conditions warrant. and with weak “osha-like” and environmental laws, these small farmers put their health in jeopardy (kishi et al.). in the philippines, small landowners are taught about sloping agricultural land technologies to re- duce erosion on hillsides. these are government- sponsored programs to correct nonsustainable hab- its on small farms (van wagner), no doubt there are many examples of sustain- able farm practices handed down through the gen- erations, but is there evidence that these are wide- spread and promote economic viability? is the “old way” better than contemporary large farm practice? for a given level of output, do the “old ways” pro- duce more environmental benefits at the same or lower cost than contemporary large-scale produc- tion? if not, do the environmental benefits of the old ways suggest a y , yo, y , or what ?t!oin- crease in food and fiber costs? as a society, evaluat- ing tradeoffs is an everyday event. we need infor- mation on the value of the net benefits (or costs) to society of maintaining the “old ways” of farm production. my guess is that the net benefits are negative. societal costs of small farms in their discussion of societal costs of small farms, d’souza and ikerd address two cost arguments. again, i raise questions in offering my comments and reactions to the authors’ statements, ( ) small farms are not ef/icient. yes they are. what is surprising is that the authors suggest that small farm operators are good environ- mental stewards since they depend more on off- farm income. ignored here are the inefficiencies of henry: small farms and sustainability: discussion taking workers out of current jobs in manufacturing and services and putting them back into added small farm operations needed to generate the same output of the large farms we now have. if these small farm operations were needed, then the sub- stantial exodus from farming (even with large fed- eral subsidies for farmers) over the past years has simply been a big mistake forced on the farm sector by the market place. ( ) stnallfarms are slower to adopt new technologies. the adjustments in the farm sector since world war have been persistent and productive, driven by technological adoption and rising opportunity costs facing farm labor and small farm operators. despite the authors’ suggestion that slower adoption of technologies by smail farmers as a group may bene- fit society, almost all economists since malthus point out that technical advances allow more output per unit of a given input; and it is these shifts in the production function that enable societies to im- prove living standards. technology also produces new products (e.g., vcrs, laptop computers, and fat-free potato chips) that help fill consumer needs. as long as consumer needs are large relative to their incomes, faster adoption of technology to re- duce costs to consumers and to introduce new prod- ucts is likely to be viewed as a plus for society. concluding comment finally, the authors suggest that food self- sufficiency schemes are on the rise and that small farms can make a difference here. while there are dedicated groups that are into the “new commune economics” of self-sufficiency, and small farms provide organic products needed to meet this market, these groups are likely to be very small players in the future of american agri- culture. why? let me tell a story of a good cheese, i was with a group on a tour of an integrated dairy/ cheese operation near angers, in the loire valley of france. the owners were proud that they grew their own feed, fed their own dairy cattle, and processed the milk into camembert cheese, all without any chemicals or artificial ingredients—a truly organic cheese. after a few samples, it was clear this was a good cheese. on my way home, i stopped at a super marche to take a few cheeses with me to supplement the fare available from the local winn dixie. there were about two dozen camembert displayed. i picked two that i had tasted before and started to put the “organic” camembert in my bas- ket of goodies—until i saw the price that was about triple that of the others. after a quick marginal util- ity calculation, i returned the organic product to its display and replaced it with its neighbor in the dairy case, my feeling is that most consumers are like me. if so, small farm producers will fill niche consumer markets, but will never be big players in providing most food and fiber. nor are large farms likely to trash the environment. despite the current mood in washington to get government off everybody’s back, the environmental influence on farm and food policy is strong and is likely to sustain its momen- tum, since consumers demand safe food and water supplies, the environmental lobbyists are likely to be very effective as a countervailing force to big agribusiness for a long time to come. the funda- mental self-interest of industrial agribusiness to seek profits, along with the growing strength of en- vironmental lobbyists, holds out more hope for long-term agricultural sustainability than small farm operations. at least this is my untested hy- pothesis. references kishi, m., n. hirshhom, m. djajadisastra, l. n. sat- terlee, s. strowman, and r. dilts. “relationship of pesticide spraying to signs and symptoms in indo- nesian farmers.” scandinavian j. work and environ- mental health ( ): – . schumacher-, e. small is beautiful: economics as f people mattered. new york: harper and row, . shepard, m., m. hammig, and g. career. “integrated pest management research, development, and training activities for palawija crops in indonesia.” annual rep., proj. no, – . prepared by clem- son university for usaid agro-enterprise and envi- ronment project office, november . thompson, e., jr. small is bount@l: the importance of small farms in america. washington dc: american farmland trust, . van wagner, k. “farm-level adoption of sloping agricultural land technology among semi- subsistence farmers in leyte, philippines.” unpub- lished master’s thesis, clemson university, . ed .tif.pdf report resumes ed co institutional differences and student characteristics. by- chickering, arthur w. pub date may fors price mf-$ . hc-$ . p. ,descriptors- *student college relationship, colleges, *student characteristics, *institutional environment, *research projects, college curriculum, reports, omnibus personality inventory, guide for college visits and reporting a comparison of the characteristics of colleges shows that these dimensions are important--curriculum organization, religious emphasis, patterns of regulation and supervision, student faculty relationships, and sense of community.and institutional objectives. the guide for college visits and reporting was used for data collection. a description of the various college differences within each dimension, and a cluster analysis of the dimensions of diversity for all the colleges are presented. all students entering the colleges in completed the omnibus personality inventory. there are sharp and significant differences in the characteristics of students. an examination of the relationships between institutional characteristics and student personality illustrates a high degree of congruence. major questions raised by project results center about the relationships between the patterns of curriculum organization and the development of mental health; implications for the development of mental health when characteristics of students ac: ;:aculty members are similar, and implications for mental health of the relationships between individual student behavior and institutional regulation and supervision. this paper was prepared for the annual meeting of the mental health section of the american college health association, may , . (ps) . institutional differences and student characteristicsl arthur w. chickering project on student development plainfield, vt. the project on student development is a four year study of student change in thirteen colleges, all with enrollments of less than . the participating institutions are bryan college, in tennessee, earlham, in indiana, eastern mennonite, in virginia, gbddard, in vermont, malone, in ohio, messiah, in pennsylvania, morris, in south carolina, nasson, in maine, sacred heart, in kansas, salem, in west virginia, shinier in illinois, western new england, in massachusetts, and westmont, in california. istitutional differences while there are si. ies among some of the colleges, each college is, in significant ways, ,, rent from the other twelve. but five dimensions of difference seem to be of mjor importance: the patterns of curriculum organization, the religious emphasis, the patterns of regulation and super- vision, student-faculty relationships and sense of community, and institu- tional objectives. before commenting on these variables let me describe the basis for the obt rvations. the major source of information comes from two or three day visits to each campus by a team of three, two from the project staff and one from the commission on experimentation and research of the council for the advancement of small colleges. on these visits team members talk with faculty, administration, and students, visit classes and other meetings, and generally see as much of each institution as possible during the allotted time. a guide for college visits and reporting provides a common framework for inter- views, observation, and recording, and each team member is asked to complete this guide as fully as possible, so three fairly independent and overlapping reports are generated, which cover all the major aspects of the college pro- gram and environment. thus, with the exception of the institutional goals, the descriptions of differences among the colleges rest on these reports from visiting the campuses, supplemented by the literature each college provided about itself. the relationships among the institutions described here there- fore, except for differences in objectives, result from intuitive judgements based on this information and not on numeric or statistical analyses. diversity in patterns of curricular organization and in religious orienta- tion and emphasis was to be expected because the institutions were selected with this intent. the other dimensions of diversity apparently come along with these two variables. essentially the task of the project is to discover what the significant differences are and to examine their relevance for patterns of attrition and student development. . prepared for the annual meeting of the mental health section of the american college health association, may , . . funded by the national institute of mental health, mho- - . u.s. department of health, education & welfare office of education cg this document has been reproduced exactly as received from the person or organizatiow originating it. points of view or opinions stated do not necessarily represent official office of education position or policy. chickering - - patterns of curriculum organization ten of the project colleges conform quite closely to the standard under- graduate liberal arts curriculum. that is to say, the organization of course requirements, the content of courses, and the procedures for evaluation basically conform to those found in practically every college catalog one might pick at random off the shelf. distribution requirements assure that each student takes at least one or two courses in the humanities, natural sciences and social sciences. evaluation is through quizes, mid-terms, finals, and papers. and the course content is fairly predictable. at some of these colleges there are variations within this standard theme however. at colleges with strong church ties bible courses are re- quired for up . sixteen hours of credit. until recently, post-college -'employment oppo.. .unities for the negro graduates of morris college were limited to teaching and the ministry, and therefore their liberal arts pro- gram has developed within that context. at morris there is also experimen- tation with the freshman english courses, and with remedial work in reading and speech. sacred heart has developed one interdisciplinary course bringing together history and the humanities, hai another ready to begin soon, and is seeking support to extend this approach to other areas. at westmont college team teaching in history is working well and being tested in other areas, opportunities for independent study have been opened up to senior students and may start to filter down to lower grade levels, and the psychology department has developed an entirely original sequence of courses and off- campus activities which allow on-campus learning to be intimately related to significant participation by students in a local mental hospital and in research on and off campus. earlham enables independent study for upper division students, and offers interdepartmental courses and fields of concen- tration. independent research supported by a $ stipend is also possible for thirty students during the summer. foreign programs and other off- campus study opportunities at centers in washington and new york, and at the hoover institute at stanford and the merrill palmer institute in detroit are also available. three of the project colleges differ fairly sharply from the standard pattern. western new england differs because it is primarily training stu- dents in either business or engineering. the general studies component is strong, . a distinct liberal arts unit is underway, but currently a student's program is determined clearly and in detail by whether he majors in business management or engineering. thus western new england differs primarily in the content of its curricula. shimer and goddard are both distinct from the rest of the project colleges and distinct from each other. shiner has developed a highly structured and tightly integrated curriculum which places explicit emphasis on developing intellectual skills in analysis, rhetoric, logic, and integration, and on developing a comprehensive background of basic information. classes are primarily intense small group discussions of limited reading materials fre- quently prepared in mimeographed form by the staff responsible for the particular course or sequence. evaluation is by comprehensive examinations in chickering - - humanities, natural sciences and social sciences, and by integrative examin- ations in foreign language, history, and philosophy. figure , taken from the shimer catalog, portrays the general pattern, and reveals that at least one faculty member developed some kind of skill to a high degree. notice that nat. sci. iv and hum. iii go down for a pass while soc. sci. ii follows math i in a fake line plunge over right guard. [insert figure about here] goddard's student-centered and highly flexible curriculum is in direct contrast to that of shimer. there are no required courses and independent study is open to all students from the second year onward. students are expected to undertake three studies each semester but may carry only two if the nature of the studies warrants it. independent study may be pursued singly, or with one or more other students who share similar interests and who can agree on a plan of work for the semester satisfactory to themselves and to whatever teacher will work with them. courses arise out of the interests of the students and the interests and capabilities of tire teachers. three days is usually given to registration during which students confer with teachers and with counselors about courses and about prospective inde- pendent studies. during the first three weeks of the semester course changes can be made with ease, and planning of independent studies may be carried forward. the usual system of examinations and grades is replaced by a system of written self-evaluations and instructor comments and the last four or five days of each semester is given to final conferences with teachers and counse- lors about the work of the term. figure portrays the last faculty member who attempted to diagram the goddard curriculum. [insert figure about here] table indicates in rough fashion the relative positions of the project colleges visited so far with respect to religious orientation, regulation and supervision, and student-faculty relationships and sense of the college as a community. definition of some points on these continua will help clarify the meaning of the different locations. [insert table about here] religious orientation and emphasis eastern mennonite, messiah, bryan, and westmont all require daily chapel attendance, and twelve to sixteen credit hours in religion, theology and bible studies. faculty members must sign a statement indicating adherence to a religious creed as a condition of employment. prayer meetings are part of the week's routine. at eastern mennonite for example frequent prayer meetingsamong girls in the dorm are reported, "usually one big dorm prayer meeting per week, one small group ( - ) meeting per week, and one off-dorm chickering - - prayer meeting per week." at westmont, "prayer meeting, held once a week, lasts about an hour, is student planned, organized and.operated, and was attended by roughly seventy five students of both sexes. hymn singing was followed by prayer and testimonials, then by more prayer to end the meeting. attendance was voluntary and was taken seriously." about bryan, a team mem- ber reports, "the extent to which the religious convictions of the bryan community permeate its life is revealed by the frequency of references to its theology and religious beliefs in conversations with students and faculty and by the practice of opening each class with prayer or readings from the bible." salem and ec'rlham occupy locations toward the middle of the continuum. at salem, attendance is required at a "convocation period" three times a week, one of which is devoted to "worship services with sacred music and inspirational talks", and there is a religious emphasis week "to focus the thoughts of the entire student body and faculty on the significance of religion and its contribution to the life of the individual." however, only four hours of "religious courses" are required for graduation. at earlham, the stout memorial meeting house with its quiet room open at all times for meditation and prayer, and comments in the catalog and by members of administration, faculty, and students make clear the quaker orientation. graduation requirements may be fulfilled by six hours of study in either philosophy or religion. at both salem and earlham, while a signifi- cant portion of the faculty share the respective religious background, there is diversity of belief and religious orientation is not a major criterion for employment. at goddard and western new england, representing what conservative friends call the "heathen" end of the continuum, there is no chapel on campus and no plan to have one. nor is there expectation or requirement concerning religious study as prerequisite to graduation. in the literature of the institutions and in the conversation of administrators, faculty and students no mention is made of religious philosophy or belief. at goddard there is much talk about values, attitudes, morality, and socially responsible be- havior, but the basis is clearly humanistic rather than theolcrical. thus the project colleges run the gamut from strong emphasis on,religicus belief and commitment in the context of conservative, fundamentalistic or evangelical traditions through more moderate emphasis in the context of catholic or more liberal religious views, to complete absence of the religious or theological component as such. regulation and supervision there is similar diversity with regard to regulation and supervision of students and the relative positions of the colleges are similar. at messiah, bryan, and eastern mennonite regulations are numerous and supervision is close. roughly ten to twenty pages of the student handbooks are given to spelling out standards, expectations, and consequences with regard to be- havior on and off campus and in the residence halls. chickering - _ the most important of these regulations rest on the religious beliefs, thus eastern mennonite "protests: engaging in activities on sunday which are not in harmony with the spirit of the lord's day; attending theatres, movies, poolrooms or similar places of amusements; the use of playing cards; music and radio programs not in keeping with christian principles; spending excessive time in games and other recreational pursuits." messiah college says this about dress: "for men students: for classes, sport clothes (slacks, sweaters, and sport jackets) are usually worn. coats are expected for the evening dinner except during extremely hot weather. for recreation areas men may wear t-shirts and shorts. shorts are not per- mitted for general campus wear. for women students: standards of modesty, femininity, good taste and neatness are expected of all. women students are expected to avoid the excesses of modern fashions and tight-fitting apparel. dresses and evening wear must have a minimum of capped sleeves. sleeveless dresses, low necklines, open backs, and excessively short or tight skirts are not in keeping with the above principles. for classes, dresses, skirts and blouses are worn. hose are expected for the evening dinner except during extremely hot weather." about socializing between the sexes messiah says, "couples spending an inordinate amount of time together on or off campus will be given counseling or discipline. freshmen should refrain from socializing before : p.m. monday through friday." bryan college spells out expected dining room behavior in detail. for example: "please refrain from talking with those who are serving you....all requests, such as asking for another napkin, etc. are to be given to the hostess, who will give them to the waitress serving that table....playing with dishes, flipping water with your spoon and tearing doilies are all childish traits, and may not be tolerated....when you have completed the meal, place your knife and fork in the center of the plate, side by side with handles on the outer edge. do not merely place them on the edge of the plate...please do not hang your arms over the back of the chair at any time during the meal. at nc time should you lean on the table while eating.... do not chew with your mouth open....hold your knife and fork in the proper manner....do not dunk." supervision of student behavior rests with authorized persons; adults living in the dormitories, student assistants living on each dormitory floor, and deans of men and women who in some cases also have student assistants consequences for misbehavior rest with the deans, although pre-established monetary fines or other punishments are associated with some infractions, and in severe cases action usually rests with a faculty committee. student judiciary committees operate to a limited extent. obviously, not all the rules and expectations are seen as equally important nor are infractions treated with equal severity. many are more statements of expectation than strict regulations. they are mentioned how- ever, to communicate a basic principle and a basic assumption on which these colleges seem to operate, (a) the principle that students should be told in chickering - - writing just what they are to do and what they are not to do, that the more things a:e spelled out the better, that no area should go unmentioned, and (b) that extensive regulation and close supervision fosters the development of responsible behavior. at goddard by contrast the rules are few and fuzzy. according to one reporter there are four: "( ) no unmannerly drinking, this is not explicitly defined. ( ) no drinking under . ( ) limitation on inter-dorm visitation. ( ) sign out at switchboard when leaving campus." the college regulations section of the mimeographed document provided for students indicates that during the fall semester , members of the opposite sex are permitted in the sleeping quarters of student residences from : to : p.m. on week- days, and : to : p.m. on sundays. each house must be closed one day, and within these limits each house may set its own hours. the college regulation with regard to dress is, "appropriate standards of personal appearance are expected of community members at all times both on and off campus." there are neither faculty supervisors nor student assistants in the residence halls. students are expected to manage their own affairs, and all students are expected to assume responsibility for their fellow students and for the welfare of the community. commenting about handling of offenders a team member said, "there is a social standards committee which is also a fact finding committee--ninety percent of their energy has to do with inter-dorm visitation violation (students in sleeping quarters of opposite sex outside prescribed hours). there is no enforcement machinery. when asked who they have to back up regulations answered: 'we have forest davis (dean), he knows everything, almost.' last year forest davis asked a stu- dent to leave." it seems clear that at goddard the operating principles and assumptions are the opposite of those at bryan, messiah, and eastern mennonite, namely (a) that expectations and standards for behavior should not be spelled out in writing, nor even hardly hinted at, and (b) that conditions of minimal regulation and limited supervision by adults or other authorized personnel foster the development of responsible behavior. the other project colleges fall between these two poles. westmont and morris, while basically similar to bryan, messiah, and eastern mennonite in arrangements for supervision and enforcement, leave more unsaid and allow students somewhat greater freedom and self-determination. shimer, salem, and western new england have the typical array of rules concerning gambling, drinking, smoking, dormitory curfews, late permissions, signing out, auto- mobile use, and so forth. earlham's rules and standards are not strikingly different but there is a strong honor code and considerable responsibility for implementation rests with the students. it is worth noting that the issue of rules and student behavior seems to be most salient at both the colleges with numerous regulations and close supervision and at goddard with conditions of great freedom. there is a chickering - - difference however. in the first instance there is a relatively large amount of energy expended on implementation and enforcement. at goddard, on the other hand, most of the energy, and a good bit is expended, goes into discussing and debating the standards themselves, with relatively minor modifications sometimes resulting. at earlham, salem, and sacred heart by contrast, the existing structure of regulations seems to be accepted without much fuss and relatively little energy is expended in this area. student-faculty relationships and sense of community to make judgements about student-faculty relationships and the extent to which there is a sense of the college as a community is risky business. yet there seem to be clear differences from college to college. about western new england one reporter says, "the order of the day seemed to be a kind of standardized urban anonymity. serious-faced young men...came and went singly, in pairs, or small groups, chatting pleasantly and easily in quiet tones. beyond the immediate circle however, the other students were treated as strangers with the not unfriendly distance often accorded other people eating in a restaurant or traveling on a train. a number of faculty (at least ) complained of the lethargy of the students, saying they seem to have no interests; they are commuters; their lives are lived away from the college, 'they come to class, take notes, go away.' at sacred heart and messiah the dominant impression is one of formality, distance, and respect. students and faculty are acquainted and students obviously feel positively about the faculty and feel quite at ease with their teachers. but, with individual exceptions of course, banter, casual conversation, or other informal exchange is rarely observed. at morris and westmont one is struck by a mere relaxed atmosphere. re- porting on morris a team member says, "one...senses a great deal of warmth and friendliness--a high regard by the faculty for students and the feeling among students that teachers are their friends." this warmth and friendliness seems stronger at bryan, and begins to carry also a feeling of community or extended family: "one needs to be on campus only a short time to sense a strong community spirit characterized by warmth, concern for the college, and devotion to its religious principles. according to statements made by students...they place a high value on the friendliness of the faculty and their readiness to respond to personal requests for help, whether in studies or personal problems." at goddard and shimer relationships of friendship and informality are relatively frequent, and there-is a relatively strong sense of community. at goddard students and faculty operate for the most part on a first name basis. each student has a faculty counselor, usually of his own choice, and it is expected that individual conferences will be held every one or two weeks. in this context, as well as in the context of small classes, inde- pendent studies, and numerous joint student-faculty committees, close rela- tionships of mutual regard develop. the sense of community is particularly chickering - - strong at shimer, where certain attitudes and behaviors are clearly "shimerian" and others clearly are not. few members of the community can define pre- cisely what it means to be "shimerian", but in his heart everyone knows. as is the case at goddard, and also at bryan to a lesser extent, this sense of community seems to derive primarily from a wide range of informal, in- explicit, and frequently unidentified agreements and understandings that are only learned through living as a member of the community. institutional objectives as is to be expected, all these differences are accompanied by, or more properly, perhaps result from, variation in institutional objectives. the data presented below come from a college goals rating sheet completed by members of the faculty and administration of each college. this sheet lists twenty-five characteristics of graduates and the respondent is asked tc represent the objectives of his institution by indicating the two most desirable and two least desirable characteristics, and the five next most desirable and least desirable, leaving eleven characteristics remaining rated in the middle. table presents the five most desired and five least desired characteristics when all respondents within each institution are pooled. [insert table about here] four basic patterns emerge, labeled christ-centered, intellectual- social, personal-social, and professional-vocational. in the christ-cen::red cluster, the colleges are remarkably similar not only in the characteristics they rank most desired, but in those ranked least desired. whenever an item has an explicit religious reference it was ranked high at bryan, eastern mennonite, messiah, and westmont. thus the five such items among the twenty- five choices are ranked highest. malone and sacred heart follow a somewhat similar pattern, except that the item "capable of effective judgement based on sound analysis of relevant information", and items concerning responsible citizenship without religious reference were ranked high with sufficient frequency to displace items mentioning christ and god. it should be noted that faculty and administrators at the christ-centered colleges may see the intellectual, social, and professional-vocational dimensions of the other patterns to be expressed within the five items they ranked highest. indeed one of the questions still most unclear is just how the graduate who is committed to christ differs from the secular graduate who is strongly committed to a similar value system which has a humanistic basis. like the sense of community, the difference has real meaning for the faculty and for many of the students at these colleges, but clear communica- tion of that difference to someone outside the community seems very difficult to achieve. colleges with patterns other than the christ-centered consistently rank as least desirable some of the items with religious referents, most commonly, "committed to christ" and "guided by god's will". these colleges share with chickering - - the christ-centered, the frequent assignment of "chooses friends carefully," and "mixes easily but chooses friends carefully" to the least desirable category. thus these two items did not contribute much to the discriminative power of the instrument. earlham and shimer rank highest characteristics reflecting intellectual ability, breadth of information, and social responsibility. shimer replaces one item concerning social responsibility with one concerning increased self- understanding. goddard's desired characteristics are predominantly related to personal development and responsible citizenship, with one item reflecting development of intellectual competence. no items concerning information or breadth of knowledge are ranked among the top five. at western new england and morris, the emphasis on professional and vocational preparation is reflected along with concern for intellectual competence. at morris, "constructive and creative member of interdependent society" is displaced by "aware of brcad cultural foundations of our society." if five major dimensions of diversity are examined together for all the colleges, four clusters emerge. the colleges with the strong emphasis on a conservative religious orientation tend to express their objectives in highly similar fashion and to have the same assumptions and practices with regard to student regulation and supervision. they also, with the exception of west- mont and perhaps sacred heatt, depart least from the standard curricular arrangements. goddard and shimer also tend to vary together at the other end of the spectrum, although not so closely. earlham and sacred heart consistently occupy the,tiddle range. western new england, morris, and salem seem to have more individual patterns. as we turn to examination of the characteristics of the entering students we shall see whether these collegiate relationships tend to persist. student characteristics all students entering the thirteen project colleges in fall completed the omnibus personality inventory along with several other questionnaires and inventories. these comments are based on the opi results which are presented for five factors and four scales. the practical outlook, intellectual- esthetic, and intellectual-scientific factors have been grouped together in table , labeled intellectual orientation. the impulsive-innovation factor and the altruism and religious orientation scales have been grouped together in table , labeled social-religious orientation. integration and anxiety factor, and the extroversion and response bias scales have been grouped to- gether in table , labeled personal orientation. most variation among the colleges occurredwith respect to intellectual orientation and social-religious orientation, with little variation among the measures labeled personal orientation. when these factor and scale scores chickering - - for the students entering the thirteen different project colleges were com- pared, three major patterns accounted for ten of the institutions, and three colleges were sufficiently different from the major patterns and from each other, as to be unique. the three major patterns have been called the intellectual altruists, the practical conservatives, and the altruistic conservatives, and are described briefly in that order. intellectual altruists intellectual altruists are the mode at goddard, starner, and earlham. students entering these institutions show diverse interests in artistic matters and activities, and appreciation for literature, music, and dramatics. they are characterized by a liking for reflective thought and academic activities, and their thinking is relatively free from domination by ob- jective conditions and generally accepted ideas. they are also interested in science and are generally logical, analytical, and critical in their approach to problems, they admit to sensitivity and emotionality. these students are generally ready to express impulses and to seek gratification either in conscious thought or in overt action, they have an active imagination and value sensual reactions. they are experimentally oriented and fond of novel situations and ideas. they are tolerant of ambi- guities and prefer to deal with diversity and complexity as opposed to simplicity and structure. they exhibit concern for the fe:lings and welfare of others and are trusting in relatiolships with them. they are skeptical of conventional religious beliefs and practices and especially reject those that are orthodox or fundamentalistic in nature. practical conservatives the practical conservatives predominate at bryan, messiah, sacred heart, and salem. they show a pattern opposite that of the intellectual altruists; when the intellectual altruists score low the practical conservatives score high and vice versa. thus the practical conservatives are interested in practical applied activities and tend to value material possessions and concrete accomplishments. they are characterized by authoritarianism, con- servatism and non-intellectual interests and show a preference for overt iaction. they tend to deny interest in esthetic matters and to evaluate ideas on the basis of their practical immediate application. compared with the intellectual altruists they are less concerned about the welfare of others and view people from a more impersonal and distant perspective. they have a strong religious commitment and ascribe to conser- vative, evangelical or fundamentalistic religious beliefs. altruistic conservatives the third pattern, the altruistic conservatives, typified students entering eastern mennonite, westmont and malone. these students share with the intellectual altruists a relatively strong concern for the welfare of chickering - - others and a trust in others. in the intensity of their intellectual inter- ests they fall generally between the practical conservatives and the intel- lectuals. they share with the practical conservatives a disinclination to gratify impulses through overt thought or action and a rather fixed way of viewing things which leads to a non-experimental orientation, a preference for what is known and has been tried over that which is novel. the altruistic conservative also shares with the practical conservative a strong religious commitment and general adherence to conservative and evangelical religious beliefs. thus, the altruistic conservative differs from the practical conserva- tive primarily in terms of his high level of social concern and sensitivity to the welfare of others, and he differs from the intellectual altruists primarily in his religious orientation, his hesitancy with regard to the expression of his own impulses, and his wariness of the new or experimental. these three major patterns account pretty well for the opi characteristics which most sharply differentiate among entering students at ten of the thirteen project colleges. three colleges, nasson, morris, and western new england, present unique configurations. nasson students are unique in the consistency with which they stay close to the mean. in only one instance do they deviate more than one half standard deviation from the mean for the norms group, and the small variations which do occur have no apparent systematic relationship with any of the patterns so far observed. morris college entrants are unique in combining a very strong practical orientation with moderate levels of intellectual interests. this combination is accompanied by low concern for the feelings and welfare of others. they are also characterized by moderate conservatism in religious orientation as well as some hesitancy with respect to impulse expression and experimentation. western new england college entrants, all men aspiring to either busindss or engineering, are unique in reflecting much stronger intellectual interest in the scientific realm, than in the esthetic or humanistic. at all the other project colleges the level of intellectual interests tended to be fairly consistent across both these areas, but at western new england this is. not the case. western new england students also reflect relatively little social concern or concern for the welfare of others and score close to the mean on measures of impulse expression, tendency toward innovation, and religious orientation. there were three measures which reflected little difference among the project colleges, personal integration, extroversion, and response bias. the student scoring low on fersonftl integration and social extroversion may often express hostility and aggredsion, and may reveal feelings of loneliness, rejection, and isolation. he intentionally avoids others and tends to with draw from social contacts and responsibilities. the response-bias measure reflects the test taking attitude of the student, with high scorers responding in manner similar to students who were explicitly asked to make a good impression by their responses. on none of these three measures is the difference in mean score between the lowest and highest institution greater than seven points, or approximately two thirds of a standard deviation. chickering - - thus, among the students entering these thirteen small colleges, intel- lectual orientations and social-religious orientations vary independently in relation to variables of personal integration and interpersonal relationships. this is to say, the systematic relationships along the intellectual and social- religious variables not carry over into the areas tapped by measures of personal integration, anxiety level, extroversion, and response bias. sex differences these data can also be examined for insights concerning sex differences.. the most noteworthy finding is that for all measures differences between sexed are smaller than differences between institutions. to put it differently, boys and girls at the same institution are more alike on these measures than either is like a person of the same sex at a different institution. within this generalization however, it is also true that there is small but con- sistent difference between the sexes on some variables. except for one college, shimer, girls consistently score slightly higher on the intellectual-esthetic factor and lower on the intellectual-scientific facto. this result is not only a function of the differential loading for the masculinity - femininity scale but also occurs because girls score consist- ently higher on the estheticism and thinking introversion scales which tap interests in the arts and humanities, and lower on the theoretical orientation scale which taps interests in the sciences. in all project colleges girls score lower on the impulsive-innovative factor and higher on the altruism scale, and at all except goddard and shinier girls reflected a more conserva- tive religious orientation than their male peers. girls also consistently score slightly lower on integration and anxiety, presumably a reflection of somewhat less need to deny feelings of anxiety or worry. while it is true that in no single instance would the sex differences reach statistical significance, the consistency with which the differences occur suggests clearly some value to be gained from further exploration. although sex differences appear small when compared with institutional dif- ferences, it may well be that within a particular institution, recognition of some of these differences could enable substantial improvement of the college program. discussion these data make obvious the fact that there are sharp and significant differences in the characteristics of students attending the different kinds of colleges participating in the project. the processes that operated to sort the individuals into these different groups, to move these persons into these differing environments and social systems, certainly worked quite effectively. the relatively small standard deviations and the distances between the groups, indicates that there are few practical conservatives among the intellectual altruists and that the intellectuals return the compliment. the altruistic conservatives also comprise a fairly distinct group, as do the patterns chickering - - unique to morris, wasson, and western new england. it seems very likely that the student who fits one pattern would feel quite out of place at an insti- tution where another pattern was dominant. more particular examination of some of the relationships between insti- tutional characteristics and student personality illustrates the high degree of congruence. as would be expected, students with the most conservative religious beliefs attend those colleges with a strong emphasis of that kind. within this group the most altruistic students attend those church related colleges where service is emphasized. students scoring highest on measures of intellectual interest seek out those colleges which vary most sharply from the traditional pattern, perhaps hoping for an improvement upon what they have so far experienced. students who are most reluctant to express their impulses in conscious thought or overt action, attend those schools where regulations are most numerous and supervision most close. what are the implications of these findings for the development of increased mental health in college and for conceptions concerning mental health? first, the conception of mental health as simply the absence of mental illness is clearly not a very useful one here, but this has been recognized for some time. further however, conceiving of mental health as related to how well a person is functioning at a given point in time does not serve very well either. it seems clear that a student who is functioning effectively and well in the setting of one of these colleges might experience considerable upset and disequilibrium at another. but it would probably not be accurate to say that he was less healthy. the conception of mental health as the fullest use of one's potentials is a good one, but the limits of potential are not definable and therefore determination of where one stands in relation to them is difficult, except on occasions where obvious deterio- ration has occured. of course any attempt to define mental health is hazardous, but it is necessary if communication is to occur. the definition offered here is be- havioral and operational; "the mental health of an individual is directly proportionate to the range of situations with which he can cope productively and from which he can gain satisfaction." thus the sick person is he who has been unable to cope productively with, or to gain satisfaction from, the conditions of his existence sufficient to sustain himself. the healthiest person is he who can move through a wide range of conditions and situations without being seriously "bugged" by any of them. this is, perhaps, rather an "antibody" definition of mental health and that may be a weakness, but at this point it is helpful in thinking about the development of mental health among college students. in the light of this definition the findings raise three major questions: . what are the relationships between patterns of curriculum organ- ization and the development of mental health. it seems clear that the educational program most likely to foster development for one kind of student is unlikely to be useful for all the others. the course content, curricular chickering - - requirements, teaching styles, and student faculty relationships developmentally fruitful for one probably are not for the other. . what are the implications for the development of increased mental health where most students and faculty members are similar to each other in a variety of significant ways? . what are the implications for mental health when students most wary of their impulses attend institutions where behavior is most highly regulated and supervised? when students who are most tuned in to their impulses and most ready to express them attend an institution with miuimal regulation and supervision? there are no clear answers at hand, but it is to questions such as these that the project on student development and future research concerning stu- dent development in college must be addressed. specialized courses in humanities specialized courses in social sciences i ,humanities hum the curriculum: general courses and the comprehensives ( social sciences / specialized courses in mathematics r soc sci iv soc sci iii specialized courses in physics and chemistry \ specialized courses in biology natural , sciences history iii _j all i & ii general figure . .....,. ryoni w, ve/.q t, tlie lome/y oric-s" table . relative positions for religious orientation, regulation and supervision, student-faculty relationships and sense of community religious orientation regulation and supervision stu-fac. relations and comm. conservative- stroug.emohasis regulations - close distant, formal, weak numerous supervision sense of community eastern mennonite messiah messiah bryan bryan eastern mennonite westmont morris sacred heart salem earlham shimer western new england salem westmont morris sacred heart messiah sacred heart earlham eastern mennonite western new england shimer morris salem westmont earlham bryan western new england goddard goddard goddard shimer liberal- few regulations close, informal, strong no emphasis limited supervision community sense pattern and colle e table . patterns of institutional objectives expressed as most and least desired characteristics of graduates five most desired five least desired christ-centered a. bryan messiah eastern mennonite westmont christ centered b. malone sacred heart intellectual-social earlham shimer educated in the liberal arts .within the context of a christ- ian world view committed to christ guided by god's will activated by christian ideals in the various pursuits of life dedicated to christian service independent member of society recognizes and accepts feel- ings as relevant to decisions chooses friends carefully educated in the traditional liberal arts mixes easily but chooses friends carefully. same as above except that "dedicated to christian service" gives way to "capable of effective judgement based on sound analysis of relevant information." same as above except that "guided by god's will" gives way to "capable of effective judgement...""socially responsible and participating citizen," and"constructive and creative member of interdependent society", also were ranked high. capable of effective judgement chooses friends carefully based on sound analysis of rele- committed to christ vant information guided by god's will activated by the intellectual, cul-mixes easily but chooses tural, moral, and spiritual values friends carefully of our civilization independent member of constructive and creative member society of interdependent society socially responsible and a parti- cipating citizen educated in the liberal arts with- in the context of a christian world view. same as eariham except that "socially responsible... ", and "educated in the liberal arts...world view"'are replaced by "has understanding of self as an individual and as a member of society", and "aware of the broad cultural founda- tions of our society."; and "independent member of society" is replaced by "dedicated to christian service and leadership" * . table . cont. pattern and college five most desired five least desired personal-social goddard professional-vocational western new england morris has understanding of self as an in-committed to christ dividual and as a member of guided by god's will society dedicated to christian service constructive and creative member educated in the liberal arts of interdependent society within the context of a capable of effective judgement christian world view. based on sound analysis of rele- activated by christian vent information ideals in the various able to recognize and develop own pursuits of life creative potentials socially responsible and partici- pating citizen prepared for future professional activities possesses skills and abilities for future vocation capable of effective judgement... socially responsible and parti- cipating citizen construction and creative member of interdependent society committed to christ guided by god's will dedicated to christian ser- vice educated...within the context of a christian world view. chooses friends carefully same as above except that "aware independent member of society of broad cultural foundations of educated in the traditional our society" replaces "constructive liberal arts and creative member of interde- guided by god's will pendent society" activated by personal value system relevant to own needs and social circumstances chooses friends carefully editorial foreword editorial foreword peasant workers. social research regularly discovers that nothing is so neat as we remember its having seemed in earlier studies. by comparing peasant workers in two regions and different periods, douglas holmes and jean quataert find a continuity that challenges some familiar categories. peasants who both farmed and did industrial work were not only firmly established in saxony before the industrial era but kept that dual position through the nine- teenth century, drawing new industry to the countryside. in this century the peasants of friuli maintain a similar pattern. and that persistence calls into question some frequent assumptions about peasant economies, proto- industrialization, proletarianization, rural migration, and modernizing social change. frances rothstein, who studies wage-earning peasants in mexico, places her findings in the context of the current literature on development in the third world. that leads her to reject the very concept of peasant-workers, for peasants who earn wages differ from their neighbors in their social net- works, patron-client relations, expenditures, ambitions, and politics. from that perspective, the concept of peasant-workers looks like yet another im- position of eurocentric ideal types in which local complexity is considered merely transitional, something doomed to fail under the pressures of world systems and dependency. yet the adaptability of the domestic household in the face of economic development—in africa (in cssh see sanjek, : ; roberts. : ), latin america (kuznesof, : ; archetti, : ), and europe (fischer, : ; scott and tilly, : ; minge-kalman, : )—should be warn- ing enough against reifying abstract categories. as the review essays on the rural classes of germany and england indicate, economic structures, public policy, and family relations all connect to peasant life with effects not easily determined. on connecting institutions to social class. although american politi- cians display no such hesitance, scholars have not been confident as to how in practice the protestant ethic (however defined) relates to social mobility. anthony la vopa here addresses that problem through a subtle analysis of pietistic doctrines, pedagogy, and social recruitment at the university of halle. this treatment becomes all the more suggestive in light of liedman and ringer's discussion in the last issue and when compared to education in the scottish enlightenment (camic, : ) and among the hutterites and men- nonites (peter and urry, both in : ). j. a. perkins also turns to a classic issue of modern historiography: the distinction between germany east and west of the elbe, with large estates and serf labor in the east and small peasant-holdings in the west. that institutional difference—related to dif- ferences in legal system, the strength of the state, and the role of the aristocra- core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core cy—is often seen as one crucial to german history and used to explain the conservatism and power of the junker class. like a botanist classifying spe- cies, perkins dissects the data on land holding patterns and finds that the famous dualism hardly existed at all. estate systems may, of course, relate to social class in other ways (compare richards, : ); and other institutions may amplify differences in property or wealth (note clawson, : ). the ties that bind. sources of conflict but also social cement, systems of landholding, law, and kinship can work in many directions at once. in india, nicholas dirks points out, mutual misunderstanding on these matters lay at the heart of british rule. mistaking indian concepts of property for their own, the british used courts of law to maintain an order they had imagined while indians (maintaining cultural practices that emphasize gifts and reciprocity) made the british courts an arena of political negotiation. the cultural result included unintended disruption and continuity unrecognized. in order to iden- tify the problem he treats, dirks must break free of some assumptions that tend to follow from the extention to india of familiar conceptions of proto- industry and world systems. instead, he is much closer to the studies of legal systems (such as rudolph and rudolph, : ; note also the comments of rosen, : ) and of property (kemper, : , kumar, : ) that begin with attention to indian culture. similarly, charles lindholm must justify his break with much of the established literature (compare lindner, : ) before he can develop his own tightly drawn argument. comparison is the means to that independence, the basis for classifying systems of kinship, and the test of his conclusions. these are remarkable. not only are there distinctive systems of political authority characteristic of the middle east and of central asia, but in each culture that pattern rests on a specific kinship system. the impact of kinship on politics is not always seen in this way (compare cornell, : ; goody, : ; and lewin, : ), but lindholm's is the sort of finding that was once considered the purpose of a science of society. cssh discussion. anthropologists have become fond of writing about the culture of anthropology as a subject in itself and of including themselves in their field work. the self-consciousness of a discipline seeking to understand the other is hardly surprising, aside from the fact that it fits the tendencies of late-twentieth-century thought so neatly as to be a bit suspect. continuing a discussion begun by ortner (in : , but note both hammel and cohn in : ), arjun appadurai focusses on the problem of place, ulf hannerz on the relation of culture to society, and aram yengoyan on the threat that spe- cialization and materialism have come to pose for the very concept of culture. perhaps the problems of anthropology are less unique than its ambitions, for these admirable confessions of discontent can be read by scholars in other fields with some of the benefits seventeenth-century merchants are said to have derived from works of devotion. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses j. dairy sci. : – http://dx.doi.org/ . /jds. - © american dairy science association®, . abstract the objective of this review is to present an overview of some of the most commonly consumed artisanal mexican cheeses, as well as those cheeses that show potential for a protected designation of origin. a de- scription is given for each of these cheeses, including information on their distinguishing characteristics that makes some of them potential candidates for achieving a protected designation of origin status. this distinc- tion could help to expand their frontiers and allow them to become better known and appreciated in other parts of the world. due to the scarcity of scientific stud- ies concerning artisanal mexican cheeses, which would ultimately aid in the standardization of manufactur- ing processes and in the establishment of regulations related to their production, more than varieties of artisanal cheese are in danger of disappearing. to preserve these cheeses, it is necessary to address this challenge by working jointly with government, artisanal cheesemaking organizations, industry, academics, and commercial partners on the implementation of strate- gies to protect and preserve their artisanal means of production. with sufficient information, official mexi- can regulations could be established that would encom- pass and regulate the manufacture of mexican artisanal cheeses. finally, as many mexican artisanal cheeses are produced from raw milk, more scientific studies are required to show the role of the lactic acid bacteria and their antagonistic effect on pathogenic microorganisms during aging following cheese making. key words: artisanal mexican cheese, raw milk, pasteurized milk, protected designation of origin introduction currently, cheesemaking is one of the most important industries in mexico, and it uses approximately % of the total milk produced in the country (siap, ). it is believed that at least a similar percentage of milk is used by small-scale or artisan cheesemakers for the production of cheese, which is not as easily quantified. the importance of this industry is reflected in the es- timation that around % of all mexican cheese comes from small-scale productions (cervantes-escoto et al., ). among all the mexican cheeses, quesos frescos, or fresh cheeses, are the most popular; almost % of the cheese consumed in mexico falls within this cat- egory (jiménez-guzmán et al., ; torres-vitela et al., ). although artisanal mexican cheese is often produced from cow milk, several varieties, such as pan- ela, are produced from sheep and goat milks as well as from cow milk or from a mixture of these (rodriguez- nogales and vázquez, ; cervantes-escoto et al., ). although fresh cheese is the most consumed variety in mexico, there are several varieties of semi- aged and aged cheeses such as chihuahua and regional cotija cheeses, respectively (cervantes-escoto et al., ; cesin-vargas et al., ). in mexico, nearly different varieties of cheese are recognized to date (vil- legas de gante and cervantes-escoto, ; villegas de gante et al., ). the most important varieties are fresco, panela, oaxaca, and chihuahua, due to their large production volumes, whether by traditional, semi- mechanized, or mechanized production (cervantes- escoto et al., ; siap, ). in spite of the fact that the production of cheese is a daily activity in mexico, the tradition of manufacturing cheese did not originate in the americas but rather during its colonization by the spanish and subsequent- ly in the colonial territory of new spain (currently mexico). during this period, the spanish brought the first herds of cattle, sheep, and goats. from the milk of these animals, the production of a wide variety of invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses aarón f. gonzález-córdova,* carlos yescas,† Ángel martín ortiz-estrada,* maría de los Ángeles de la rosa-alcaraz,* adrián hernández-mendoza,* and belinda vallejo-cordoba* *laboratorio de química y biotecnología de productos lácteos, coordinación de tecnología de alimentos de origen animal (ctaoa), centro de investigación en alimentación y desarrollo, a.c. (ciad) carretera a la victoria km. . , apartado , hermosillo, sonora, mexico †politics department, the new school for social research, east th street, th floor, new york, ny received july , . accepted december , . corresponding author: aaronglz@ciad.mx journal of dairy science vol. no. , invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses cheeses began. subsequently, some of the production methods were modified, and many of these methods enriched with regional ingredients (e.g., chili peppers, annatto) by the local habitants, which gave rise to new varieties of cheese with unique sensory characteristics (cervantes-escoto et al., ; hernández-morales et al., ; yescas, ; villegas de gante et al., ). many of these varieties still exist today and form the basis of traditional mexican cheesemaking (villegas de gante et al., ). because the majority of artisanal mexican cheeses are produced from raw milk, they do not comply with mexican regulations concerning food safety, which es- tablish that all milk used for cheese production within the national territory must undergo pasteurization (ssa, ; pomeón and cervantes-escoto, ). therefore, cheeses that do not comply with such regu- lations with respect to the need for pasteurization are at risk of disappearing. this situation is unfortunate considering that mexican artisanal cheeses represent more than just food. these cheese and their means of production are strongly linked to their place of origin and are a testimony to the history and culture of the communities that produce them (licitra, ; villegas de gante, ). although several papers have described character- istics of specific artisanal mexican cheeses, there is a need to present available knowledge of some of the most representative and popular varieties. thus, the objective of this review is to present an overview of some of the most commonly consumed artisanal mexi- can cheeses, as well as those cheeses that show potential for a protected designation of origin (pdo). the current scenario of mexican artisanal cheeses the main characteristics of the most representative mexican artisanal cheese varieties are summarized in table . artisanal mexican cheese production is carried out throughout mexico, mainly from raw milk pro- duced by pure breed or mixtures of cattle breeds. ac- cording to their moisture content, cheese types include soft, semi-hard, and hard. in terms of maturation, most are unripened and few may be semi-ripened or ripened (table ). despite their importance in mexico, artisanal cheeses are undergoing a crisis; for example, oaxaca cheese was once exclusively produced using artisanal methods in the state of oaxaca. however, today its production is mostly large-scale and mechanized and carried out in different regions of mexico, therefore losing its regional character and putting traditional artisanal means of production at risk of disappearing. this situation is not exclusive to oaxaca cheese: chihuahua cheese, panela, and fresh cheeses are facing the same problem of losing their regional character (torres-llanez et al., ; tunick et al., ; cervantes-escoto et al., ; torres-vitela et al., ; villanueva-carvajal et al., ; yescas, ; villegas de gante, ). several varieties of artisanal mexican cheese such as barca, jobo, astillero, and ixtapan have completely disappeared. other varieties such as crema de chiapas, bola de ocosingo (chiapas), guaje, cincho, hoja, rueda, and poro de balancan (tabasco) are produced and consumed in specific regions of the country, thus positioning themselves as regional products that are not well known outside of their areas of origin in mexico. in fact, an additional difficulty surrounds the classifica- tion of these cheeses, because several distinct variet- ies may hold the same name but be different in taste, texture, and form, or they may have distinct names and in reality be the same kind of cheese (cervantes-escoto et al., ). another issue surrounding artisanal mexican cheeses is that they may be considered unsafe for consump- tion, as several studies carried out on “mexican style” cheeses have associated them with different foodborne illness outbreaks (linnan et al., ; macdonald et al., ; harris et al., ; jackson et al., ). however, perhaps the greatest difficulty surrounding artisanal mexican cheeses is the scarcity of available information, as only a few of these cheeses have been systematically characterized. in general, previous publications of artisanal mexi- can cheeses have outlined their history, manufacturing process, and main characteristics (cervantes-escoto et al., ; villegas de gante et al., ). some spe- cific studies have focused on evaluating their sanitary quality (solano-lópez and hernández-sánchez, ; moreno-enriquez et al., ; torres-vitela et al., ; soto-beltran et al., ; alejo-martínez et al., ) or physicochemical characteristics (de oca-flores et al., ; hernández-morales et al., ; caro et al., ; gamboa alvarado et al., ). their sensory characteristics (van hekken et al., ; paul et al., ; villanueva-carvajal et al., ; alejo-martínez et al., ), texture, and rheological (or elastic) prop- erties (tunick et al., ; van hekken et al., ; guerra-martínez et al., ; morales-celaya et al., ; solís-méndez et al., ) have also been evalu- ated. although still lacking in information, the microbi- ota associated with artisanal mexican cheeses has been studied and characterized (torres-llanez et al., ; flores-magallón et al., ; renye et al., ; saxer et al., ; aldrete-tapia et al., ; alejo-martínez et al., ), including the role of the different microbial groups present in these cheeses and their effect on food g o n z Á le z -c Ó r d o va e t a l. journal of d airy s cience v ol. n o. , table . principal characteristics of most representative mexican artisanal cheeses name of cheese production area type of milk used origin of milk production level type shape and weight reference adobera jalisco, guanajuato, aguascalientes, zacatecas raw cow, holstein artisanal soft, pressed, milled, fresh or slightly ripened prismatic- rectangular; from g to kg cervantes-escoto et al., asadero durango, chihuahua, coahuila, aguascalientes, jalisco, guanajuato raw cow, holstein artisanal, industrial filata, unripened block-formed or hank; from g to kg cervantes-escoto et al., bola de ocosingo ocosingo and surrounding municipalities (chiapas) raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal outer hard rind, soft paste inside, semi- ripened appears as a hard ball with a diameter between and cm; from g to kg cervantes-escoto et al., ; yescas, chihuahua chihuahua raw, pasteurized cow, holstein artisanal, industrial semi-hard, pressed, cheddarized, lightly cooked or uncooked, semi-ripened cylindrical-flat or rectangular prism; from to kg tunick et al., ; van hekken et al., ; gamboa alvarado et al., cotija type jalisco, michoacán, veracruz, chiapas raw, pasteurized cow, holstein, holstein-creole, zebu-brown swiss, holstein- zebu artisanal, industrial hard, pressed, uncooked, ripened large format, cylindrical; from to kg cervantes-escoto et al., crema de chiapas chiapas, tabasco raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal soft, pressed, lightly ripened small pieces prismatic- rectangular and cylindrical flat; from to , g cervantes-escoto et al., ; romero-castillo et al., de cincho morelos, guerrero raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal semi-hard, pressed, ripened cylindrical; > kg cervantes-escoto et al., de epazote hidalgo, puebla, tlaxcala, state of mexico pasteurized cow, holstein creole artisanal, industrial semi-hard cylindrical; from g to kg cervantes-escoto et al., de hoja veracruz raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal soft, autopressed, unripened small, cylindrical; around g cervantes-escoto et al., de morral hidalgo, puebla, state of mexico, jalisco pasteurized cow, holstein industrial semi-hard, pressed, semi-ripened pillow shape; from to kg cervantes-escoto et al., de rueda veracruz raw cow, goat (or mixture of both) artisanal firm, chopping, lightly pressed cylindrical, flat, from . cm of diameter, . cm high. other sizes; a few grams cervantes-escoto et al., fresco (molido, de aro, ranchero) practically throughout méxico raw, pasteurized cow, goat artisanal, industrial soft, fresh, unpressed, unripened cylindrical; from g to > kg torres-llanez et al., ; cervantes-escoto et al., guaje (de bola) san luis potosi raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal filata, unripened small guaje; from g to > kg cervantes-escoto et al., continued journal of d airy s cience v ol. n o. , in v it e d r e v ie w : a r t is a n a l m e x ic a n c h e e s e s table (conitnued). principal characteristics of most representative mexican artisanal cheeses name of cheese production area type of milk used origin of milk production level type shape and weight reference mexican manchego type queretaro pasteurized cow, holstein industrial semi-hard, pressed, uncooked ripened cylindrical-flat and rectangular prism; from to kg lobato-calleros et al., oaxaca (de bola, quesillo, de hebra) practically throughout méxico raw, pasteurized cow, holstein, zebu-brown swiss artisanal, industrial filata, unripened balls or hanks; from g to > kg cervantes-escoto et al., ; de oca-flores et al., ; villanueva- carvajal et al., region de origen cotija sierra de jalmich (jalisco and michoacán) raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal semi-hard, hard, pressed, ripened large format, cylindrical; about kg chombo-morales, ; flores- magallón et al., panela practically throughout méxico raw, pasteurized holstein artisanal, industrial soft, fresh, unpressed, unripened inverted conical; from . to ~ kg cervantes-escoto et al., ; torres-vitela et al., poro de balancán balancán and other townships in zone of rivers (tabasco) raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal soft, pressed, lightly ripened small pieces prismatic rectangular- plane; from to , g cervantes-escoto et al., ; aldrete tapia et al., ; alejo- martínez et al., sierra jalisco, guanajuato, michoacán raw cow, holstein industrial semi-hard, pressed cylindrical; > kg cervantes-escoto et al., sopero tabasco raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal soft, chopping, lightly pressed prismatic- rectangular, cylindrical of g to kg cervantes-escoto et al., tetilla nayarit raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal semi-hard, fresh, lightly ripened or ripened conical form with – cm of base; close to kg cervantes-escoto et al., trenzado veracruz, oaxaca raw cow, zebu- brown swiss artisanal filata, firm, unripened braiding cervantes-escoto et al., gonzÁlez-cÓrdova et al. journal of dairy science vol. no. , safety, sensory characteristics, and shelf life. although there are several artisanal mexican cheese varieties, few have been fully characterized (table ). the fact that scientific studies on artisanal mexican cheeses are scarce, the lack of standardization in manu- facturing processes, and the deficient organizational capability on behalf of cheese producers have led to lack of specific defined standards. for all of these rea- sons, none of these cheeses have been included within a pdo classification system. however, the panorama has begun to change, as some organizations specializing in artisanal cheese, with the support of research centers and mexican universities, have obtained a collective mark for regional cotija cheeses (poméon, ), bola de ocosingo, poro de balancan, and crema de chiapas. although the distinction of a collective mark is not the same as pdo, it represents an official protection and competitive advantage for the producers of these cheeses, so that consumers may differentiate between genuine artisanal cheese and its imitations. in addition, the collective mark serves to guarantee product quality and a fair price for cheesemakers. this demonstrates the need for groups of experts that support cheesemak- ing organizations to unite and carry out studies on the different varieties of mexican artisanal cheeses with the goal of obtaining information that would help to protect and to regulate their production in agreement with mexican regulations surrounding food safety. this would offer protection to mexican traditional cheeses so that they would not lose their artisanal character and it would guarantee the quality and safety of the product. main mexican artisanal cheeses queso fresco queso fresco (qf) is the most popular and most consumed cheese in mexico and latin america and comes in several varieties, including aro, molido, and ranchero (torres-llanez et al., ; cervantes-escoto et al., ). this type of cheese is produced not only throughout mexico but also in other regions of the con- tinent (cervantes-escoto et al., ). in recent years, the popularity of qf has increased among north amer- ican consumers; in , more than million pounds of hispanic style cheeses were produced in the united states, and of those, qf was the most consumed (van hekken et al., ; nass, ). as qf is produced on a mass scale, the manufactur- ing process and the ingredients used for its production are similar in many regions and countries of the ameri- can continent. however, due to small variations in the manufacturing process and the ingredients utilized, the physicochemical composition of qf differs according to the producing region (van hekken and farkye, ). on the other hand, artisanal queso fresco (figure ) may be distinguished in mexico by the lack of standard- ization during its manufacturing process. in general, its physicochemical composition is characterized by a moisture content ranging from to % and by to % fat, to % protein, and to % salt. artisanal qf may be produced with whole, partially skimmed, or skim milk and has a short shelf life. it is formed in a cylindrical shape, and its weight varies widely, from g to kg. the texture is soft and creamy, and its color is bright white. the cheese crumbles easily, and its flavor is lightly reminiscent of fresh, salty milk (figure ; torres and chandan, ; van hekken and farkye, ; torres-llanez et al., ). in general, artisanal qf is produced from raw milk using traditional manufacturing methods and on a small scale, often with the use of a commercial curdling agent and without the addition of a starter culture. due to its production attributes, a large diversity of lactic acid bacteria (lab) are present throughout the cheesemak- ing process, which acidify the milk and give rise to the typical characteristics of this cheese (higuera-ciapara, ; torres-llanez et al., ). queso panela queso panela (qp) is produced in practically all regions of mexico and is similar in characteristic to greek feta cheese. it is soft and white in color, has hints of fresh, sweet milk flavor, and takes the form of the basket in which it is pressed (figure ). although mainly produced from pasteurized cow milk, qp may be occasionally produced from sheep or goat milk or a mixture of these milks, and either whole or partially figure . artisanal mexican queso fresco. journal of dairy science vol. no. , invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses skim milk can be used (cervantes-escoto et al., ; jiménez-guzmán et al., ). as qp is generally pro- duced with pasteurized milk, the type of facility where it is made generally has a certain level of automation (semi-automatic or automatic; cervantes-escoto et al., ). however, this cheese is also produced in smaller proportions from raw milk by artisanal cheesemakers (figure ). queso panela is widely popular in mexico, where in alone, nearly million pounds were produced, making it one of the cheeses with highest production volumes in mexico (siap, ). its popularity likely resides in the fact that it is considered to be “healthy” by consumers because of its low fat content (lobato- calleros et al., ). however, due to its moisture con- tent ( – %), it is very perishable (saxer et al., ). it is marketed in portions weighing from approximately . to kg (cervantes-escoto et al., ). the process of producing qp is relatively simple and similar to that of nearly all mexican quesos frescos. one of the distinguishing characteristics of this cheese is its form, as it is molded in wicker, palm, reed, or plastic baskets (cervantes-escoto et al., ). recently, saxer et al. ( ) characterized the micro- biota of several mexican cheeses and found that lab from the lactococcus and enterococcus genera and the yeast candida guilliermondii are the most important bacterial and fungal populations for qp cheese, which is interesting, considering that a starter culture is not used for the production of qp. this implies that bacte- rial and fungal populations are present in the processing environment and very likely contribute to the develop- ment of the taste, smell, and texture of qp. queso oaxaca queso oaxaca (qo), also known as queso de hebra, de bola, or quesillo, is a stretched, pasta filata cheese that is widely popular and one of the most consumed dairy products in mexico. its name is linked to the state of oaxaca, where it likely originated (de oca- flores et al., ; domínguez-lópez et al., ). however, it is currently produced in several distinct regions of mexico at an artisanal scale as well as at a larger, industrial production level, from either raw or pasteurized milk from both multi-purpose and special- ized cattle livestock (zebu-brown swiss, zebu-holstein; cervantes-escoto et al., ). queso oaxaca is considered a fresh cheese and may contain a moisture content of up to % (cervantes- escoto et al., ; villegas de gante et al., ). during the manufacturing process for this cheese, the curd is acidified until reaching a ph level of . and then kneaded in hot water and stretched. afterward, thin strips are formed from the forming cheese, which are cooled in salted water and then cut into segments (figure ). subsequently, the segments are braided into the typical ball or knot form, which can weigh from a few grams to several kilograms (cervantes-escoto et al., ; villegas de gante et al., ; caro et al., ). the artisanal production process of genuine qo is similar to that of mozzarella cheese (yescas, ), and it requires specific knowledge of several critical steps during the manufacturing process that need to be rec- figure . artisanal mexican queso panela. figure . artisanal mexican queso oaxaca. gonzÁlez-cÓrdova et al. journal of dairy science vol. no. , ognized by the artisan, such as the necessary acidity to obtain a stretchable cheese or the quantity of salt that should be added. these cheesemaking abilities are essential to minimizing variability between different production batches and their sensory and structural characteristics (morales-celaya et al., ). due to its production from raw milk, its flavor notes are milky, buttery, acidic, and fermented (villanueva-carvajal et al., ; yescas, ). the combination of these fac- tors make qo an exquisite cheese for the taste palate, and it is unique among traditional mexican cheeses due to its delicate manufacturing process. queso chihuahua queso chihuahua (qch), also known as mennonite or chester cheese, is a traditional cheese from the state of chihuahua. this cheese is marketed in blocks that range from g to kg (figure ) and is semi-hard, pressed, easy to melt, and slightly matured for to wk, with sour, bitter, and salty notes (van hekken et al., ; cervantes-escoto et al., ). it is mainly produced from pasteurized cow milk, either whole or with a standardized fat content (van hekken et al., ; cervantes-escoto et al., ). the origin of this cheese is linked to the mennonite communities that migrated from canada to mexico in the s and settled in the state of chihuahua (cervantes-escoto et al., ). currently, qch is also produced in regions where mennonite settlements do not exist, which has resulted in the existence of many varieties of qch that, although considered genuine, possess their own unique set of characteristics. queso chihuahua arose from the production of cheddar cheese by mennonite communities. upon attempting to produce cheddar cheese by mennonite communities in mexico, qch was manufactured. the most critical phase during the manufacture of qch is during its cheddarization. during this step, the dornic acidity is maintained at to degrees dornic (°d), which is crucial to the development of the unique char- acteristics of this cheese. recently, in an attempt to standardize the manu- facturing process for qch, governmental authorities, along with support from academic, industrial, and chee- semaking organizations, established and approved the mexican regulation nmx-f- -cofocalec- , which declared that milk destined for the production of qc should undergo a pasteurization process (co- focalec, b). independently of this requirement, qch continues to be produced from raw milk by arti- sanal cheesemakers, resulting in a cheese that is softer in texture and that has a more intense flavor than if it were produced with pasteurized milk (van hekken et al., ). some of the lab of raw milk that influ- ence the taste and texture of this cheese have been identified and proposed as potential starter cultures for standardized production of this cheese (renye et al., ; ortiz-estrada, ). the most abundant identi- fied microorganisms in qc were those of the genera lactococcus, lactobacillus, streptococcus, leuconostoc, and enterococcus, as determined by dna sequenc- ing following denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (dgge) of pcr products obtained from dna ex- tracted from samples (ortiz-estrada, ). queso bola de ocosingo queso bola de ocosingo (qbo) is unusual com- pared with other artisanal mexican cheeses because it is formed from cheeses, one bundled inside another. its production process is peculiar and has been passed from generation to generation since the arrival of cattle livestock in the region. queso bola de ocosingo is formed into a hard, spherical shape (figure ) and weighs approximately kg (cervantes-escoto et al., ). although the italian cheese cacciocavallo is simi- lar in shape and type, it is thought that qbo was originally inspired by the dutch cheese edam. queso bola de ocosingo was the first cheese to be collectively branded in mexico, and a wider protection, such as a pdo classification, has recently been sought for this cheese. its distinction as a collective mark is based upon its artisanal production that uses raw milk exclu- sively from zebu-brown swiss cattle in ocosingo, an figure . artisanal mexican queso chihuahua. journal of dairy science vol. no. , invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses area located in the northeastern region of the mexican state of chiapas (yescas, ). the production of qbo can be divided into phases: ( ) the acidification of the milk and a use of a mix of coagulants to solidify the cheese rennet and acidic whey obtained from the previous day, and ( ) the preparation of an outer lining from skim milk. the production of qbo starts with the curdling of the milk for h, after which it is placed in a sack or cotton cloth to drain the whey. afterward, a small amount of salt is added, and the curds are placed on a new cloth for d until the cheese matures. during this ripening process, the cloth is changed every d and the curds are kneaded. finally, the cheese is compacted by hand into the shape of a ball and covered with successive layers of stringy, curling milk produced from skim milk, which is rich is casein and which, upon cooling and airing out, hardens and functions as a protective packaging (cervantes- escoto et al., ). inside, the cheese is bright yellow in color, with a creamy texture and a milky, salty, and fresh taste (yescas, ). queso poro de balancan queso poro de balancan (qpb) is a regional cheese produced only by artisanal cheesemakers located in the municipalities of balancan, tenosique, jonuta, and emiliano zapata (river zone) in tabasco, mexico. the beginnings of its artisanal production date back more than yr. this cheese was recently protected as a collective mark. currently, different characterization studies are being carried out to analyze the microbiota of qpb during the different stages of its manufacturing process, with the goal of understanding its composition and the possibility of scientifically standardizing its production as part of a strategy to achieve a wider pro- tection as a pdo product (de la rosa alcaráz, , ; aldrete-tapia et al., ). queso poro de balancan is a fresh cheese, although it can involuntarily mature in up to wk if its distribu- tion is slow. it is marketed in small, rectangular pieces (figure ) and covered with wax and yellow cellophane. queso poro de balancan is demineralized and crumbly because the curds and forming cheese are layered on top of each other during the molding process. there- fore, when qpb is cut, it appears to be separated in layers and on occasion has small holes (“poros” or pores), resulting in its name. its porous appearance is also a common effect of the typically present microbi- ota (cervantes-escoto et al., ; de la rosa-alcaráz, , ). for the manufacture of qpb, only raw milk from the zebu-brown swiss variety of cattle is used. its specific production processes are crucial for achieving its char- acteristic acidity and taste. as part of the first step in the process, to set the milk, a mix of rennet and acidic whey (obtained by fermentation of the whey from the previous day’s production) is used. afterward, the cheese is cut in blocks, left to rest for to h, and then immediately placed in wooden molds to drain the whey for h. after h, the cheese is transferred to small molds and pressed in a rustic wooden press for d. figure . artisanal mexican queso bola de ocosingo. figure . artisanal mexican queso poro de balancan. gonzÁlez-cÓrdova et al. journal of dairy science vol. no. , once pressed, the cheese is partially matured on wooden shelves, called “roperos” in spanish (“wardrobes”) for or d. during this time, the rind of the cheese receives an additional application of salt. finally, the cheese is covered with wax and wrapped in cellophane. the dynamics and diversity of the microbial popu- lations of qpb was characterized by dgge of pcr products derived from dna extracted from samples. lactococci, lactobacilli, and streptococci were the dom- inant components of the microbiota identified by dna sequencing of the s rrna gene (de la rosa-alcaráz, , ; aldrete-tapia et al., ). queso crema de chiapas queso crema de chiapas (qcc) is an artisanal product manufactured in the state of chiapas in different regions: north, frailesca (center), and costa (coast). the cheese’s physical, chemical, and microbio- logical characteristics vary depending on the produc- tion region (rangel-ortega, ; villegas de gante et al., ). its flavor is acidic and its paste is fresh, soft, and pressed. this type of cheese is obtained through a prolonged acid-enzymatic coagulation of cow raw milk and has unique sensory characteristics due to the endogenous lab in milk from this region (cervantes- escoto et al., ; villegas de gante et al., ). cheese making starts with milk maturation for to h at ambient temperature (≥ °c) so that the natural microflora multiplies; then, rennet is added and co- agulation takes place over approximately to h so that a highly acidic curd is produced. then, the curd is cut and left undisturbed overnight. the following day, curds are placed in cotton bags that are hanged for whey draining. at the end of this draining period, curds reach a ph of . and are ready for kneading, salting, molding, and pressing in a rustic wooden or metallic press (figure ). it is marketed in rectangular pieces covered with a -layer package: plastic film, aluminum foil, and yellow or red cellophane. there are more than small dairies in this region, and cheesemaking is one of the main economic activi- ties. queso crema de chiapas is one of the mexican ar- tisanal cheeses with a collective mark and has potential for obtaining a pdo (villegas de gante et al., ). because this type of cheese has unique sensorial char- acteristics due to the endogenous lab, the dynamics of the microbial consortia of lab present in qcc were characterized by dgge of pcr products derived from dna extracted from cheese after and d of ripen- ing (rangel-ortega, ; rangel-ortega et al., ). the dominant genera were lactobacillus, streptococcus, and lactococcus, as identified by dna sequencing of the s rrna gene. the population dynamics of lab in qcc were different in structure and diversity ac- cording to season and region as determined by dgge; on the other hand, they were similar regardless of the maturity stage. these results may be useful in the pro- duction of starter cultures for the manufacture of qcc (rangel-ortega, ; rangel-ortega et al., ). queso cotija queso cotija is an artisanal cheese found in a wide variety of forms. it is hard and pressed into a cylindri- cal shape that can weigh up to kg. although its name is linked to the town of cotija, michoacan, tra- ditional production of this cheese is concentrated in a small region located along the eastern mountain range of sierra de jalmich in mexico, between the states of jalisco and michoacan. however, similar versions are produced under different conditions and using distinct manufacturing processes, mainly in the states of jalis- co, michoacan, veracruz, and chiapas, where they are generally considered to be imitation cheeses. in , designation as a collective mark was sought after and achieved, with the goal of differentiating au- thentic cotija cheese from its imitations. the cheese was therefore classified according to its official region of origin. afterward, with the support of academic groups, its artisanal manufacture was regulated and standardized, which resulted in the creation and ap- proval of a normative regulation, nmx-f- -cofo- calec- . to the date, regional cotija cheese is the only cheese in mexico for which its artisanal production figure . artisanal mexican queso crema de chiapas. journal of dairy science vol. no. , invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses is exclusively regulated by an official mexican norm (cofocalec, a). the tradition surrounding the authentic production of cotija cheese dates back more than yr to the sierra de jalmich region, specifically during the months of july to october. cotija cheese is exclusively produced from mixed native-zebu livestock. during its process- ing, the milk is acidified and curdled at a temperature of to °c for to h, using natural curdling agents. once the curds achieve a certain consistency, they are cut, drained on fiber mats, and kneaded. additional salt is added until a homogeneous mixture is achieved; then, it is placed in wooden, cylindrical molds that are fastened by belts or by twine from maguey fibers that are tied around the exterior of the mold, maintaining pressure for a period of to h. subsequently, the molds are placed under pressure for an additional to d, until the cheese is completely drained. finally, it is left to mature in the cheesemaking facility for a pe- riod of at least mo (figure ; poméon, ; chombo- morales, ; flores-magallón et al., ). the characteristic smell, texture, and taste of au- thentic cotija cheese are favored by the environmental conditions surrounding its production, in addition to the type of milk that is used during production and its associated microbiota content. such peculiarities make cotija a unique mexican cheese (poméon, ; flores- magallón et al., ). raw milk in the production of artisanal mexican cheese although the production of cheese is an important industry throughout the world, all cheesemaking begins with the selection of high-quality milk, considering its physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics (fox and mcsweeney, ). cheese is produced by the fermentation of milk, a process that has historically depended upon the presence of microbiota in raw milk, including bacteria, fungi, and yeasts. the presence of microorganisms and their successional stages and in- teractions play an important role in the production of cheese, including the acidification of the milk curds and the formation of the cheese and its ripening that give rise to differences in texture, composition, smell, and flavor (beresford et al., ; ndoye et al., ; mallet et al., ). many cheesemakers add raw milk in the production process of cheese, because it is considered by many to be essential for achieving a good flavor, which is in large part a result of the proteolysis and lipolysis of the microbiota contained in raw milk (lópez and mayo, ; poznanski et al., ; medina et al., ) therefore, the native microbiota of raw milk is par- tially responsible for the distinctive smell, texture, and taste that only cheeses produced from raw milk can offer. a range of additional factors, such as the pro- duction environment, climate, and type of cattle feed (or free range/natural), also significantly influence the unique characteristics of the final cheese (poznanski et al., ; licitra, ). however, artisanal cheeses may not be classified simply according to the use of raw milk in their pro- duction, because several practices are involved that influence their production and safety (licitra, ). in spite of this knowledge, mexican regulations concerning food safety promote the strategy of pasteurizing milk to guarantee the safety of dairy products to consum- ers, with the exception of cheeses aged d or more. this has created interest among researchers for future studies on different artisanal mexican cheese varieties and their safety by addressing milk pasteurization and aging. figure . artisanal mexican queso cotija. gonzÁlez-cÓrdova et al. journal of dairy science vol. no. , a review of foodborne illness outbreaks has shown in several cases that cheeses produced from raw milk do not present a greater risk than those produced from pasteurized milk (de buyser et al., ; licitra, ). this is because the thermal treatment of milk signifi- cantly contributes to the microbial safety of cheese. in- adequate pasteurization, the presence of contaminants during postprocessing, or cross-contamination, or a combination of these, are the main factors that contrib- ute to cheese being contaminated by pathogenic bacte- ria (little et al., ; licitra, ). for example, one such case occurred with mexican style cheese manufac- tured in the united states, which was associated with a foodborne illness outbreak resulting from post-process contamination (jackson et al., ; cdc, , ). thus, cheeses produced from raw milk should not be considered to be lacking in safety on the mere basis of being produced from raw milk, as several practices are involved in their quality and safety. conclusions the current review provides general information on the state of the art of mexican cheesemaking, including an outline of the most commonly produced cheeses. cer- tain varieties of artisanal mexican cheese, such as bola de ocosingo, poro de balancan, crema de chiapas, and regional cotija cheeses, possess unique characteristics that make them potentially eligible to be protected as pdo products. this distinction could help to expand their frontiers and allow them to become better known and appreciated in other parts of the world. it is neces- sary for authorities, academics, and cheesemaking or- ganizations to carry out more research so that artisanal cheeses may be systematically characterized to obtain information that would aid in the standardization of the production of different cheese varieties. with suf- ficient information, official mexican regulations could be established that would encompass and regulate the manufacture of mexican artisanal cheeses. finally, as many mexican artisanal cheeses are produced from raw milk, studies are required to show the role of the lactic acid bacteria and their antagonistic effect on pathogenic microorganisms during aging following cheese making. acknowledgments the authors are grateful for the technical support received from maria del carmen estrada montoya and ricardo reyes diaz (both from centro de investigación en alimentación y desarrollo, a.c. hermosillo, sonora, mexico). we thank the sectorial research fund for ag- riculture, livestock, aquaculture, agro-biotechnology, and genetic resources (sagarpa-conacyt, call for funding - , mexico city, mexico) for financing the following project: improvement of the productivity, competitiveness, and sustainability of the milk pro- duction chain of milk livestock in mexico. sub-project .-development program for the integration of value along the different steps of the production chain: strengthening artisanal cheesemaking through tech- nological intervention in order to assure the quality, safety, and traceability of mexican cheeses. we also thank the instituto mexicano del queso, a.c. (mexico city, mexico) for its support in funding the images taken by fernando gómez carbajal (lacarmela foto- grafía de oficio gastronómico, mexico city, mexico) to illustrate this text and allison marie jermain (ali marie translation, hesperia, ca) for editing and proofreading the manuscript. references aldrete-tapia, a., m. c. escobar-ramírez, m. l. tamplin, and m. hernández-iturriaga. . high-throughput sequencing of mi- crobial communities in poro cheese, an artisanal mexican cheese. food microbiol. : – . alejo-martínez, k., m. ortiz-hernández, b. r. recino-metelín, n. gonzález-cortés, and r. jiménez-vera. . tiempo de madu- ración y perfil microbiológico del queso de poro artesanal. rev. iberoam. cienc. : – . beresford, t. p., n. a. fitzsimons, n. l. brennan, and t. m. co- gan. . recent advances in cheese microbiology. int. dairy j. : – . caro, i., s. soto, m. j. franco, m. meza-nieto, r. h. alfaro-rodrí- guez, and j. mateo. . composition, yield, and functionality of reduced-fat oaxaca cheese: effects of using skim milk or a dry milk protein concentrate. j. dairy sci. : – . caro, i., s. soto, l. fuentes, n. gutiérrez-méndez, b. garcía-islas, k. e. monroy-gayosso, and j. mateo. . compositional, function- al and sensory characteristics of selected mexican cheeses. food nutr. sci. : – . cdc (centers for disease control and prevention). . online food- borne disease outbreak database. accessed jan. , . http:// wwwn.cds.gov/foodborneoutbreaks/. cdc (centers for disease control and prevention). . multistate outbreak of listeriosis linked to roos foods dairy products. ac- cessed jan. , . http://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/ cheese- - /index.html. cervantes-escoto, f., a. villegas de gante, j. a. cesín-vargas, and a. espinoza-ortega. . los quesos mexicanos genuinos. patri- monio cultural que debe rescatarse. st ed. mundi prensa méxico, méxico city, mexico. cesin-vargas, a., f. cervantes-escoto, and a. villegas de gante. . producción industrial y artesanal de queso en méxico. pages – in la leche y los quesos artesanales en méxico. f. cervantes- escoto and a. villegas de gante, ed. miguel Ángel porrúa, d. f. mexico, méxico. chombo-morales, p. . el queso cotija región de origen un caso especial. pages – in los quesos mexicanos genuinos. patri- monio cultural que debe rescatarse. st ed. mundi prensa méxico, méxico city, mexico. cofocalec (consejo para el fomento de la calidad de leche y sus derivados). a. norma mexicana nmx-f- -cofo- calec- . sistema producto leche–alimento–lácteo–queso chihuahua–denominación, especificaciones y métodos de prueba. journal of dairy science vol. no. , invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses accessed jan. , . http://www.cofocalec.org.mx/catalogo/ por_tema. cofocalec (consejo para el fomento de la calidad de leche y sus derivados). b. norma mexicana nmx-f- -cofo- calec- . sistema producto leche–alimento–lácteo–ali- mento lácteo regional–queso cotija artesanal madurado–denomi- nación, especificaciones y métodos de prueba. accessed jan. , . http://www.cofocalec.org.mx/catalogo/por_clave. de buyser, m., b. dufour, m. maire, and v. lafarge. . implica- tion of milk and milk products in food-borne diseases in france and in different industrialised countries. int. j. food microbiol. : – . de la rosa-alcaráz, m. a. . dinámica poblacional de la microbiota del queso de poro de balancán durante su proceso de fabricación artesanal. ms thesis. centro de investigación en alimentación y desarrollo, a.c., hermosillo, sonora, mexico. de la rosa-alcaráz, m. a., a. hernandez-mendoza, b. vallejo-cor- doba, and a. f. gonzález-córdova. . diversity and evolution of the microbial populations during manufacture of poro de bal- ancán, a mexican artisanal cheese. fil-idf world dairy summit , vilnius, lithuania. international dairy federation. de oca-flores, e. m., o. a. castelán-ortega, j. g. estrada-flores, and a. espinoza-ortega. . oaxaca cheese: manufacture pro- cess and physicochemical characteristics. int. j. dairy technol. : – . domínguez-lópez, a., a. villanueva-carvajal, c. m. arriaga-jordán, and a. espinoza-ortega. . alimentos artesanales y tradicio- nales: el queso oaxaca como un caso de estudio del centro de méxico. estud. soc. : – . flores-magallón, r., a. a. oliva-hernández, and j. a. narváez-za- pata. . characterization of microbial traits involved with the elaboration of the cotija cheese. food sci. biotechnol. : – . fox, p. f., and p. l. h. mcsweeney. . cheese: an overview. pages – in cheese: chemistry, physics and microbiology. no. : gen- eral aspects. rd ed. elsevier academic press, oxford, uk. gamboa-alvarado, j. g., d. rojas-almaraz, l. g. ramón-canul, and e. j. ramírez-rivera. . determination of the quality of cheese “chihuahua” type: sensory and physicochemical approaches. emir. j. food agric. : – . guerra-martínez, j. a., j. g. montejano, and s. t. martín-del-cam- po. . evaluation of proteolytic and physicochemical changes during storage of fresh panela cheese from queretaro, mexico and its impact in texture. cyta-j. food : – . harris, n. b., j. payeur, d. bravo, r. osorio, t. stuber, d. farrell, d. paulson, s. treviso, a. mikolon, and a. rodriguez-lainz. . recovery of mycobacterium bovis from soft fresh cheese originating in mexico. appl. environ. microbiol. : – . hernández-morales, c., a. hernández-montes, e. aguirre-mandujano, and a. v. de gante. . physicochemical, microbiological, tex- tural and sensory characterisation of mexican añejo cheese. int. j. dairy technol. : – . higuera-ciapara, i. . small-scale cheesemaking of latin american cheeses. cheesemaker’s j. . . jackson, k. a., m. biggerstaff, m. tobin-d'angelo, d. sweat, r. klos, j. nosari, o. garrison, e. boothe, l. saathoff-huber, l. hainstock, and r. p. fagan. . multistate outbreak of listeria monocytogenes associated with mexican-style cheese made from pasteurized milk among pregnant, hispanic women. j. food prot. : – . jiménez-guzmán, j., a. flores-nájera, a. e. cruz-guerrero, and m. garcía-garibay. . use of an exopolysaccharide-producing strain of streptococcus thermophilus in the manufacture of mexican panela cheese. food sci. technol. (campinas.) : – . licitra, g. . worldwide traditional cheeses: banned for business? dairy sci. technol. : – . linnan, m. j., l. mascola, x. d. lou, v. goulet, s. may, c. salminen, d. w. hird, m. l. yonekura, p. hayes, r. weaver, a. audurier, b. d. plikaytis, s. l. fannin, a. kleks, and c. v. broome. . epidemic listeriosis associated with mexican-style cheese. n. engl. j. med. : – . little, c. l., j. r. rhoades, s. k. sagoo, j. harris, m. greenwood, v. mithani, k. grant, and j. mclauchlin. . microbiological quality of retail cheeses made from raw, thermized or pasteurized milk in the uk. food microbiol. : – . lobato-calleros, c., l. ramos-solis, a. santos-moreno, and m. ro- driguez-huezo. . microstructure and texture of panela type cheese-like products: use of low methoxyl pectin and canola oil as milk-fat substitutes. rev. mex. ing. quim. : – . lópez, s., and b. mayo. . identification and characterization of homofermentative mesophilic lactobacillus strains isolated from artisan starter-free cheeses. lett. appl. microbiol. : – . macdonald, p. d., r. e. whitwam, j. d. boggs, j. n. maccormack, k. l. anderson, j. w. reardon, j. r. saah, l. m. graves, s. b. hunter, and j. sobel. . outbreak of listeriosis among mexi- can immigrants as a result of consumption of illicitly produced mexican-style cheese. clin. infect. dis. : – . mallet, a., m. guéguen, f. kauffmann, c. chesneau, a. sesboué, and n. desmasures. . quantitative and qualitative microbial analysis of raw milk reveals substantial diversity influenced by herd management practices. int. dairy j. : – . medina, r. b., r. oliszewski, m. c. abeijón mukdsi, c. p. van nieu- wenhove, and s. n. gonzález. . sheep and goat’s dairy prod- ucts from south america: microbiota and its metabolic activity. small rumin. res. : – . morales-celaya, m. f., c. lobato-calleros, j. alvarez-ramirez, and e. j. vernon-carter. . effect of milk pasteurization and acidi- fication method on the chemical composition and microstructure of a mexican pasta filata cheese. food sci. technol. (campinas.) : – . moreno-enriquez, r. i., a. garcia-galaz, e. acedo-felix, h. gon- zalez-rios, j. e. call, j. b. luchansky, and m. e. diaz-cinco. . prevalence, types, and geographical distribution of listeria monocytogenes from a survey of retail queso fresco and associated cheese processing plants and dairy farms in sonora, mexico. j. food prot. : – . nass (national agricultural statistics service). . dairy products summary. accessed jan. , . http://usda .library. cornell.edu/usda/current/dairprodsu/dairprodsu- - - . txt. ndoye, b., e. rasolofo, g. lapointe, and d. roy. . a review of the molecular approaches to investigate the diversity and activity of cheese microbiota. dairy sci. technol. : – . ortiz-estrada, a. m. . diversidad y dinámica de las poblaciones microbianas durante la manufactura y almacenamiento de queso chihuahua. ms thesis. centro de investigación en alimentación y desarrollo, a.c., hermosillo, sonora, mexico. paul, m., a. nuñez, d. l. van hekken, and j. a. renye. . sensory and protein profiles of mexican chihuahua cheese. j. food sci. technol. : – . poméon, t. . el queso cotija, méxico. un producto con marca colectiva queso “cotija región de origen”, en proceso de adquis- ición de una denominación de origen. fao/iica. san salvador, méxico. pomeón, t., and f. cervantes-escoto. . el sector lechero y que- sero en méxico en las últimas décadas. pages – in la leche y los quesos artesanales en méxico. f. cervantes-escoto and a. villegas de gante, ed. miguel Ángel porrúa, d. f., méxico. poznanski, e., a. cavazza, f. cappa, and p. s. cocconcelli. . in- digenous raw milk microbiota influences the bacterial development in traditional cheese from an alpine natural park. int. j. food microbiol. : – . rangel-ortega, s. c. . identificación y caracterización de los con- sorcios microbianos del queso crema tropical. ms thesis. centro de investigación en alimentación y desarrollo, a.c., hermosillo, sonora, mexico. rangel-ortega, s. c., d. ercolini, a. f. gonzález-córdova, and b. vallejo-cordoba. . identification and characterization of lactic acid bacteria in crema tropical cheese through dgge. abstract number - in -ift annual meeting and expo, new orleans, la. institute of food technologists, chicago, il. journal of dairy science vol. no. , renye, j. a., g. a. somkuti, d. l. van hekken, and v. m. guerrero- prieto. . short communication: characterization of microflora in mexican chihuahua cheese. j. dairy sci. : – . rodriguez-nogales, j. m., and f. vázquez. . application of elec- trophoretic and chemometric analysis to predict the bovine, ovine and caprine milk percentages in panela cheese, an unripened cheese. food contr. : – . romero-castillo, p. a., g. leyva-ruelas, j. g. cruz-castillo, and a. santos-moreno. . evaluación de la calidad sanitaria de quesos crema tropical mexicano de la región de tonalá, chiapas. rev. mex. ing. quím. : – . saxer, s., s. m. schwenninger, and c. lacroix. . characterization of the microflora of industrial mexican cheeses produced with- out added chemical preservatives. food sci. technol. (campinas.) : – . siap (servicio de información agroalimentaria y pesquera). . boletin de la leche enero-marzo de . accessed jan. , . http://infosiap.siap.gob.mx/index.php?option=com_content&vie w=article&id= &itemid= . solano-lópez, c., and h. hernández-sánchez. . behaviour of lis- teria monocytogenes during the manufacture and ripening of man- chego and chihuahua mexican cheeses. int. j. food microbiol. : – . solís-méndez, a. d., j. g. estrada-flores, and o. a. castelán-ortega. . a study on the texture diversity of the artisan ranchero cheese from central mexico. int. j. dairy technol. : – . soto-beltran, m., k. d. mena, c. p. gerba, p. m. tarwater, k. reyn- olds, and c. chaidez. . risk assessment of listeria monocy- togenes in queso fresco in culiacan, mexico. j. microbiol. res. : – . ssa (secretaria de salud). . norma oficial mexicana nom- –ssa - , productos y servicios. leche, fórmula láctea, producto lácteo combinado y derivados lácteos. disposiciones y especificaciones sanitarias. métodos de prueba. accessed jan. , . http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fec ha= / / . torres, n., and r. c. chandan. . latin american white cheese—a review. j. dairy sci. : – . torres-llanez, m., b. vallejo-cordoba, m. díaz-cinco, m. mazorra- manzano, and a. gonzález-córdova. . characterization of the natural microflora of artisanal mexican fresco cheese. food contr. : – . torres-vitela, m. r., m. mendoza-bernardo, j. castro-rosas, c. a. gomez-aldapa, l. e. garay-martinez, v. navarro-hidalgo, and a. villarruel-lópez. . incidence of salmonella, listeria monocy- togenes, escherichia coli o : h , and staphylococcal enterotoxin in two types of mexican fresh cheeses. j. food prot. : – . tunick, m. h., d. l. van hekken, j. call, f. j. molina-corral, and a. a. gardea. . queso chihuahua: effects of seasonality of cheesemilk on rheology. int. j. dairy technol. : – . van hekken, d. l., m. a. drake, f. j. m. corral, v. m. guerrero-pri- eto, and a. a. gardea. . mexican chihuahua cheese: sensory profiles of young cheese. j. dairy sci. : – . van hekken, d. l., m. a. drake, m. h. tunick, v. m. guerrero, f. j. molina-corral, and a. a. gardea. . effect of pasteurization and season on the sensorial and rheological traits of mexican chi- huahua cheese. dairy sci. technol. : – . van hekken, d. l., and n. y. farkye. . hispanic cheeses: the quest for queso. food technol. : – . van hekken, d. l., m. h. tunick, l. n. leggett, and p. m. toma- sula. . impact of curd milling on the chemical, functional, and rheological properties of starter-free queso fresco. j. dairy sci. : – . van hekken, d. l., m. h. tunick, p. m. tomasula, f. j. m. corral, and a. a. gardea. . mexican queso chihuahua: rheology of fresh cheese. int. j. dairy technol. : – . villanueva-carvajal, a., m. esteban-chávez, a. espinoza-ortega, c. m. arriaga-jordán, and a. dominguez-lopez. . oaxaca cheese: flavour, texture and their interaction in a mexican tradi- tional pasta filata type cheese. cyta-j. food : – . villegas de gante, a. . los quesos méxicanos genuinos (necesidad de su rescate y valorización). pages – in la leche y los que- sos artesanales en méxico. f. cervantes-escoto and a. villegas de gante, ed. miguel Ángel porrúa, d.f., méxico. villegas de gante, a., and f. cervantes-escoto. . la genuinidad y tipicidad en la revalorización de los quesos artesanales mexicanos. estud. soc. : – . villegas de gante, a., f. cervantes-escoto, a. cesín-vargas, a. espi- noza-ortega, a. hernández-montes, a. santos-moreno, and a. r. martínez-campos. . atlas de los quesos mexicanos genuinos. ed. biblioteca básica de agricultura, texcoco, estado de méxico. villegas de gante, a., a. santos-moreno, and a. hernández-montes. . caracterización del queso crema de chiapas (aspectos socio- económicos y tipicidad del producto). ed. universidad autónoma de chapingo. méxico-texcoco. edo. de méxico, méxico. yescas, c. . cheese of the week: queso de bola de ocosingo. accessed jan. , . http://lactography.blogspot.mx/ / / cheese-of-week-queso-de-bola-de.html. yescas, c. . fromagge, cheese, fromagge, cheese, queso. accessed jan. , . http://www.letraslibres.com/blogs/fromage-cheese- queso. gonzÁlez-cÓrdova et al. 	invited review: artisanal mexican cheeses 	introduction 	the current scenario of mexican artisanal cheeses 	main mexican artisanal cheeses 	queso fresco 	queso panela 	queso oaxaca 	queso chihuahua 	queso bola de ocosingo 	queso poro de balancan 	queso crema de chiapas 	queso cotija 	raw milk in the production of artisanal mexican cheese 	conclusions s jed .. renewable agriculture and food systems cambridge.org/raf editorial: themed content: intermediated marketing channels in regional food systems cite this article: dimitri c, oberholtzer l, pressman a, welsh r ( ). supporting local and regional food systems through intermediated markets: introduction to themed issues. renewable agriculture and food systems , – . https://doi.org/ . /s received: january first published online: february key words: direct to consumer markets; intermediated markets; local and regional foods; small and medium-sized farms author for correspondence: lydia oberholtzer, e-mail: lydiaoberholtzer@gmail.com © cambridge university press supporting local and regional food systems through intermediated markets: introduction to themed issues carolyn dimitri , lydia oberholtzer , andy pressman and rick welsh new york university, new york, ny, usa; the pennsylvania state university, elm avenue, takoma park, md , pennsylvania, usa; attra—national sustainable agriculture information service, national center for appropriate technology, butte, montana, usa and syracuse university, syracuse, new york, usa abstract intermediated markets account for two-thirds of local sales and are slowly gaining more atten- tion. these marketing channels generally include all opportunities in the local supply chain that are not direct-to-consumer transactions, including sales to grocery stores, restaurants, regional aggregators such as food hubs, as well as schools, universities, hospitals and other institutions. the marketing chains are often regionally based and are shorter than the typical conventional food supply chain. these markets, like all other marketing opportunities, have their advantages and challenges for farmers. a set of nine papers in this themed issue explores a range of aspects of intermediated market channels, with some papers taking a broad view and others examining how farmers navigate specific markets. together, the papers point to the potential that intermediated markets offer farmers interested in marketing their products locally and regionally, as well as reveal the entrepreneurial spirit that some of these market channels embody. while growth has been substantial and some successes evident, the papers also point to the challenges facing farmers who are trying to improve the economic situation of their farms. by now, most readers of renewable agriculture and food systems know that local foods are of great and growing interest to consumers, businesses and researchers. the discussion around local and regional foods, and the farmers that provide them, has most often focused on direct-to-consumer markets such as farmers markets, community supported agriculture and farm stands. little research has been conducted, until recently, on other marketing opportun- ities for farmers selling local and regional foods. intermediated markets, such as farm to school efforts, are slowly gaining more attention. intermediated marketing channels, according to usda economic research service (low et al., ), generally include all marketing opportunities in the local supply chain that are not direct-to-consumer transactions, including sales to grocery stores, restaurants, regional aggregators such as food hubs, as well as schools, universities, hospitals and other institutions. the marketing chains are often regionally based and are shorter than the typical conventional food supply chain. they account for % of local food sales (usda nass, ). farmers may be interested in intermediated marketing channels for various reasons. for the right farmer, intermediated markets can provide market stability, since farmers know they can sell what they produce. compared to direct to consumer channels, the intermediated channels may require less of a farmer’s time and less spoilage and wasted produce. through forward contracts, even informal ones, intermediated markets may encourage farmers to expand acres of production with less risk and farmers can specialize in products that may have a higher price point than other wholesale markets. on the other hand, these markets also have their challenges. operators of small farms may be unable to consistently produce sufficient quantity to meet the needs of the markets (low and vogel, ). intermediated markets may provide lower price points than direct-to-consumer markets, and usually have requirements, such as gap certification or insurance coverage, that may be costly barriers for farmers. although the local food market has grown in size as consumer interest has increased, our knowledge has failed to keep pace with the changes. until recently, understanding the state of direct-to-consumer and intermediated marketing channels was a difficult task because few data existed about these channels. the bulk of data that exists covers direct-to-consumer mar- kets, with the usda agricultural census gathering information on these markets since . this themed issue of nine articles seeks to fill some of the gaps in information about local and regional food sales through intermediated markets. the first paper provides some context for the themed issues. dimtri and gardner ( ) review the current state of knowledge about intermediated marketing channels and review a selection of published literature focusing on farmer use of specific marketing channels in downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/raf https://doi.org/ . /s https://doi.org/ . /s mailto:lydiaoberholtzer@gmail.com https://www.cambridge.org/core the united states. bauman et al. ( ) also provide a higher-level view of farmers using local marketing channels, including inter- mediated markets. the authors examine how financial perform- ance of farms utilizing local food markets compare to their peers and whether optimal size vary among farmers depending on the nature of how they participate in the local food system. the themed issue then turns to specific intermediated market- ing channels. christensen et al. ( ) and o’hara and benson ( ) use data from the new usda farm to school census in their research. in the former, the authors use the census to esti- mate the relationship between a school district’s local food pur- chases per student and supply chain structure, especially where schools purchase their local food. in the latter article, the authors look at whether local agricultural conditions affect the probability of whether a school district will purchase local foods and then at what levels they purchase local foods. boys and fraser ( ) report data from a series of focus group meetings with small-scale fruit and vegetable famers in three south-atlantic states to identify and suggest solutions to barriers that limit the ability of these farmers to supply institutional food- service operations, such as schools and hospitals. feenstra et al. ( ) used an extensive dataset of survey responses from dairy, meat, fruit/vegetable/nut and grain specialty manufacturers, along with numerous interviews with manufacturers and farmers in five states, to examine the benefits, barriers and challenges for small- and medium-sized farmers who want to sell their products to specialty manufacturers. dunning et al. ( ) take a practical view of an intermediated marketing channel not often studied; that is, military bases. the authors describe their experience, largely unsuccessful and challenges in a -year initiative to increase the amount of locally produced, source-identified pro- ducts used at a north carolina military installation. two final papers examine unique aspects of intermediated markets. reid et al. ( ) examine wholesale produce auctions, a growing trend in some areas of the country. wholesale produce auctions are a local aggregation point that provides access for small-scale fruit, flower and vegetable farmers to wholesale buyers. as some produce auctions cater to amish and mennonite populations, outreach to these farmers needs to be tai- lored. givens and dunning ( ) report from the field about a regional food service distributor playing an active role identifying produce items desired by chefs, providing this information to farmers, and facilitating commitments from farmers to grow and chefs to buy the products. this set of papers explores a range of aspects of intermediated market channels, with some papers taking a broad view and others examining how farmers navigate specific markets. together, the papers point to the potential that intermediated markets offer farmers interested in marketing their products locally and regionally, as well as reveal the entrepreneurial spirit that some of these market channels embody. while growth has been substantial and some successes evident, the papers also point to the challenges facing farmers who are trying to improve the economic situation of their farms: not every venture was successful. our hope is that this set of papers will spur new dis- cussions about intermediated marketing channels, and that future research will uncover best practices for farmers desiring to use these channels as part of their marketing strategies. author orcids. carolyn dimitri, - - - ; lydia oberholtzer, - - - acknowledgements. funding was provided by the us department of agriculture’s national institute of food and agriculture, - - . references bauman a, thilmany d and jablonski bbr ( ) evaluating scale and technical efficiency among farms and ranches with a local market orientation. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge, uk: cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . /s . boys ka and fraser am ( ) linking small fruit and vegetable farmers and institutional foodservice operations: marketing challenges and considera- tions. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . /s . christensen lo, jablonski bbr and o’hara jk ( ) school districts and their local food supply chains. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . / s . dimitri c and gardner k ( ) farmer use of intermediated market channels: a review. renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . /s . dunning r, day j and creamer n ( ) local sourcing and the military: lessons learned through a university-based initiative to increase local procurement at a us military base. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . / s x. feenstra g, hardesty s, lev l, houston l, king r and joannides j ( ) beyond fresh and direct: exploring the specialty food industry as a market outlet for small- and medium-sized farms. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . / s . givens g and dunning r ( ) distributor intermediation in the farm to food service value chain. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . /s . low sa and vogel s ( ) direct and intermediated marketing of local foods in the united states. washington, dc: u.s. department of agriculture, economic research service. err- . low sa, adalja a, beaulieu e, key n, martinez s, melton a, perez a, ralston k, stewart h, suttles s, vogel s and jablonski bbr ( ) trends in u.s. local and regional food systems: a report to congress. economic research service, us department of agriculture. o’hara jk and benson mc ( ) the impact of local agricultural production on farm to school expenditures. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . / s . reid j, simmonds d and newbold e ( ) wholesale produce auctions and regional food systems: the case of seneca produce auction. in renewable agriculture and food systems. cambridge university press, pp. – . doi: . /s . usda nass ( ) local food marketing practices survey and (for all farms data) census of agriculture. washington, dc: u.s. department of agriculture, national agriculture statistics service. ach – . carolyn dimitri et al. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://orcid.org/ https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://www.cambridge.org/core 	supporting local and regional food systems through intermediated markets: introduction to themed issues 	acknowledgements 	references physical fitness and performance conquering childhood inactivity: is the answer in the past? mark s. tremblay , , joel d. barnes , jennifer l. copeland , and dale w. esliger , college of kinesiology, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, saskatchewan, canada; statistics canada, ottawa, ontario, canada; and department of kinesiology, university of lethbridge, lethbridge, alberta, canada abstract tremblay, m. s., j. d. barnes, j. l. copeland, and d. w. esliger. conquering childhood inactivity: is the answer in the past? med. sci. sports exerc., vol. , no. , pp. – , . purpose: the primary purpose of this study was to compare the health-related physical fitness and physical activity behaviors of old order mennonite children to both rural and urban-dwelling children living a contemporary canadian lifestyle. methods: a cross-sectional study design was used to compare the physical fitness and physical activity characteristics of three groups of children between the ages of – yr. a total of old order mennonite children (oom) from ontario, canada, were compared with contemporary living children from urban (usk, n � ) and rural (rsk, n � ) saskatchewan, canada. fitness was assessed using measures of height, weight, triceps skinfold, grip strength, push-ups, partial curl-ups, and aerobic fitness. physical activity levels were directly measured for seven consecutive days using a mti actigraph accelerometer model . results: after controlling for maturational age, analyses revealed that oom children had a smaller triceps skinfold than usk children (p � . ), a greater aerobic fitness score than rsk children (p � . ), and greater grip strength than both rsk and usk children (p � . ). the oom children also accumulated more minutes of mvpa per day than rsk or usk groups (p � . ). conclusion: this research demonstrates that oom children tend to be leaner, stronger and more active than urban and rural dwelling children living a contemporary canadian lifestyle despite having no physical education, no institutionalized sport, and low socioeconomic status. these findings support the notion that that contemporary living may facilitate a decline in fitness and physical activity among some canadian children. key words: fitness, accelerometry, children, adolescents, old order mennonite, physical activity t he world health organization (who) international obesity task force estimated that – million children worldwide are obese and approximately million are overweight ( ). these alarming figures illus- trate the public health consequence of the rapid westerniza- tion, urbanization, and mechanization of modern society. potential strategies to achieve population caloric balance must target caloric intake (diet) and/or energy expenditure (physical activity). in a growing child, restricting food in- take is generally discouraged because of the need for essen- tial nutrients for normal growth and development, and be- cause of the risk of prompting eating disorders. on a population basis, modifications to physical activity behavior are generally considered to be the best alternative because they can facilitate energy balance, avoid risks associated with nutritional imbalances, and provide multiple health benefits above and beyond achieving an energy balance or deficit ( , ). for perhaps the first time in our evolution, an entire generation of children has the opportunity, or perhaps the misfortune, of living a completely sedentary lifestyle. mul- timedia-based, inactive behaviors appear to progressively displace the potentially active leisure time of our children. most daily chores are completed by automated technology, and automobiles have replaced active modes of transporta- tion. the minimal movement required for contemporary living may be insufficient to provide the health protection that was inherent in the lifestyle of previous generations. this pattern of hypokinetic behavior may accelerate the development of chronic diseases including cardiovascular disease, metabolic disease, osteoporosis, and some cancers ( ). despite comprehensive efforts by various groups around the world ( , , ), we do not know how much physical activity children require for the promotion of health and fitness. in a comprehensive review, twisk ( ) con- cluded that there is a paucity of evidence supporting any particular threshold value for physical activity. one way to begin to determine appropriate physical ac- tivity guidelines would be to quantify activity behaviors address for correspondence: dr. mark tremblay, senior scientific advisor on health measurement, statistics canada, tunney’s pasture, main building, room , section s, ottawa, ontario k a ot , canada; e-mail: mark.tremblay@statcan.ca. submitted for publication july . accepted for publication february . - / / - / medicine & science in sports & exercise® copyright © by the american college of sports medicine doi: . / .mss. . .a from previous generations before the manifestation of the current “obesity epidemic.” unfortunately, these “histori- cal” data are not available or are based on incomplete subjective information ( ). ideally, if we could compare the typical activity pattern of today’s children to that of children from previous generations with much different lifestyles, we would have some empirical evidence upon which we could assess changes over time and base physical activity recommendations. the old order mennonites in southwestern ontario, can- ada, are a religious group who originated from the anabap- tist movement of th century europe and relocated to canada between and ( ). the distinguishing feature of mennonite culture is their steady resistance to social and technological changes ( ), resulting in the pres- ervation of daily behaviors representative of a traditional agrarian lifestyle, one somewhat representative of life in canada three to four generations ago ( , , , , ) (table ). examining the fitness and daily activity patterns of the old order mennonites, where the lifestyle of previous gen- erations has been somewhat preserved, provides us with a glimpse of the past. the purpose of this study was to compare the health-related physical fitness and physical activity behaviors of old order mennonite children to both rural and urban-dwelling children living a contemporary canadian lifestyle. it was hypothesized that old order men- nonite children would be more fit and more active. methods subjects a cross-sectional study design was used to compare the physical fitness and physical activity characteristics of three groups of children (n � ) between the ages of and yr. a target sample size of ( males and females) per group was set to accommodate % power to detect a % difference in means at an alpha level of . , while allowing for as much as % attrition. a final sample of old order mennonite (oom) children from southwestern on- tario, canada was obtained and compared to contemporary living children from urban (usk, n � ) and rural (rsk, n � ) saskatchewan, canada. data from the ca- nadian community health survey ( ) indicated no signifi- cant difference in physical activity behavior between these areas of canada ( ) suggesting these were comparable regions of canada for the purposes of this study. a directory of all old order mennonite families in south- western ontario was used to generate a list of families with - to -yr-old children. using a random number generator, children were selected from this list and invited by mail to participate in this research. an additional children were randomly selected as data collection proceeded. the final response rate was calculated to be %. the oom children were tested in their home. the sample of main- stream contemporary children was obtained through the school system, and testing was completed in the school. schools were selected based on their location and approval from the district school board, and all schools within a selected district were invited to participate in the study. three rural schools (community population � ) and one urban school (community population � , ) vol- unteered. all students in grades – at these schools were invited to participate in the testing, and the final response rate was calculated to be % for the rsk sample and % for the usk sample. details of the study procedures were explained to all children and their parents and also to the teachers and principals of the rsk and usk samples. each child com- pleted a physical activity readiness questionnaire ( ) and gave written assent. parental consent was also obtained. all procedures were approved by the institutional research ethics board. all data collection for this study took place september to december . measurement of health-related physical fitness. fitness was assessed on each participant individually using measures of height, weight, triceps skinfold, grip strength, push-ups, partial curl-ups, and aerobic fitness (pro- gressive step test to % of age-predicted maximum heart rate) according to the procedures of the canadian physical activity, fitness and lifestyle appraisal (cpafla) ( ). cpafla measures of waist circumference, trunk skinfolds, and sit-and-reach flexibility were unobtainable or deter- mined to be invalid due to the restrictive traditional clothing of the mennonite children and were excluded from subse- quent analysis. measures of resting blood pressure and heart rate were used for screening purposes according to the cpafla ( ). maturational age was calculated from esti- mated peak height velocity based on methods by mirwald et al. ( ). the maturational age calculation includes measures of chronological age, body mass, standing height, sitting height, and leg length. all measurements were performed by university trained professional fitness and lifestyle con- sultants certified as advanced fitness appraisers by the ca- nadian society for exercise physiology. testing was done table . comparison of lifestyle characteristics between old order mennonites (oom) and mainstream canadian children (mcc) in the early s and today. variable mcc (early s) oom (today) mcc (today) education school frequently left early for work grades – followed by yr of apprenticing grades – � among the majority housing no electricity or piped water in rural areas electricity and piped water among the majority electricity and piped water among the majority recreation cycling, horseback riding, swimming, and walking auctions, barn raisings, family games, singing, and swimming cycling, jogging, swimming, television viewing, and video games technology no computers or televisions no computers or televisions computers and televisions among the majority transportation bicycles and horse-drawn vehicles bicycles and horse-drawn vehicles bicycles and motorized vehicles official journal of the american college of sports medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org individually in the home (for the oom) or in a vacant room at school (for rsk and usk). measurement of physical activity. physical activity levels were directly measured for seven consecutive days using a mti actigraph accelerometer model (mti) (manufacturing technologies inc., fort walton beach, fl). the mti is a uniaxial accelerometer that detects vertical acceleration in the magnitude of . – . g with a frequency response of . – . hz ( ). all accelerometers were calibrated on a hydraulic shaker plate at varying accelerations and frequencies before use in the study. only accelerometers with intra- and inter-accelerom- eter reliability coefficients greater than . were used. par- ticipants wore the mti over the right hip using a waist mounted nylon belt. the participants were asked to record the times the monitor was attached and removed each day for the purpose of distinguishing between activity time and sleeping time. upon completion of the data collection, the data were electronically downloaded into a file, which con- tained minute-by-minute movement counts for each child. after data were scanned for spurious measures, sleep time was determined from the log sheets and activity counts were added to the data file for unworn daytime periods for which the activity was included on the log sheet (using met-count conversion values published by trost et al. ( )). subse- quently, the average daily activity counts and number of minutes of light (� mets), moderate ( – . mets), vigorous ( – . mets), and very vigorous ( � mets) activity was determined from the activity counts ( ) for the week and each day individually. it should be noted that despite their ability to provide temporal assessments of physical activity intensity, there are inherent limitations when using accelerometers to assess free-living physical activity ( ). when each participant returned the acceler- ometer, the physical activity questionnaire for older chil- dren (paq-c) was completed ( ). a composite score (range – ) was calculated as the mean score of the first nine items on the questionnaire. data analyses. the normality of the data was assessed by calculating skewness and kurtosis statistics. the data were considered within the limits of a normal distribution if the dividend of the skewness and kurtosis statistics and their respective standard errors did not exceed � . . if the data for a given variable were not normally distributed, one of two steps was taken: either a log transformation (base ) was performed or the outliers were identified (� standard deviations from the mean) and removed. log transformations were per- formed for push-ups and minutes of vigorous physical ac- tivity per day. outliers were removed from the data for the following variables: sitting height, body mass index (bmi), handgrip strength, and activity counts per minute. to determine whether physical fitness was different be- tween groups an ancova was performed with group and gender as the main effects and maturational age as the covariate. a multivariate ancova was used to detect group differences in physical activity variables. tukey post hoc testing was performed when necessary to determine where significant differences occurred. statistical signifi- cance was set at p � . , and all analyses were performed using spss v. . software (spss inc., chicago, il). results subjects. using unadjusted data the oom children were chrono- logically and maturationally older than the other groups (p � . ). although - to -yr-old children were targeted in this study, the use of entire classrooms in the rsk and usk groups resulted in the inclusion of some - and - yr-olds such that the average age of these groups was less than that of the oom group. accordingly, maturational age was included as a covariate in all analyses. when analyses were performed using maturational age as a covariate, most group differences disappear (table ) although the usk children were taller than the rsk (p � . ) and oom (p � . ) children. as might be expected, after adjusting for maturational age, boys are taller and heavier than girls. (note: although not reported here, analyses were replicated using chronological age as the covariate instead of matura- tional age, with very similar group results for fitness and physical activity. when chronological age was used as a covariate, many significant gender effects emerge as would be expected given the significant difference in maturational age between boys and girls (table )). there were no significant differences in bmi between groups. health-related physical fitness. the assessment of health-related physical fitness revealed several noteworthy differences between oom and main- stream contemporary children. the mean triceps skinfold values are shown in figure . there was a significant main effect for group with oom children having a smaller skin- fold than usk children (p � . ) and a trend for a smaller skinfold than the rsk children (p � . ). there was no significant gender effect but there was a significant group � gender interaction (p � . ), indicating a significantly greater within-group gender effect in the rsk group com- pared to the other groups. as shown in figure , both oom and usk children had a significantly greater aerobic fitness score than the rsk children (p � . ), and there was also a gender effect with boys scoring better than girls (p � . ). handgrip strength, shown in figure , was greater in the oom chil- dren than either rsk (p � . ) or usk (p � . ). there was a gender difference for handgrip strength (boys stronger than girls; p � . ) and a significant group � gender interaction (p � . ). the interaction effect is caused by the different gender effect in the rsk group (no gender difference) compared with the other groups. the oom group performed fewer push-ups ( . � . repeti- tions) than the rsk ( . � . ) and usk ( . � . ) conquering childhood inactivity medicine & science in sports & exercise� groups (p � . ). there were no group differences for the partial curl-ups (oom � . � . ; rsk � . � . ; usk � . � . ), but there was a gender effect (boys performed more repetitions than girls; p � . ). physical activity. there were no significant group differences in self-re- ported physical activity from the paq-c (table ). the absence of any correlation between the directly measured indicator of physical activity (counts�min� ) and the phys- ical activity reported on the paq-c by the oom children suggest that the instrument is not culturally sensitive to their lifestyle. however, the direct monitoring of physical activity revealed that the oom group had greater average acce- lerometer activity counts per minute than the rsk group (p � . ) (table ). the accelerometer results also re- vealed a significant gender difference with boys having greater average counts per minute than girls (p � . ) (table ). figure illustrates that oom children accumu- figure —mean triceps skinfold thickness (� standard error) of old order mennonite children (oom, n � ), urban saskatchewan children (usk, n � ), and rural saskatchewan children (rsk, n � ). white bars are boys, shaded bars are girls. *oom less than usk (p < . ) and trend for oom less than rsk (p � . ). figure —mean aerobic fitness score (� standard error) of old order mennonite children (oom, n � ), urban saskatchewan children (usk, n � ), and rural saskatchewan children (rsk, n � ). white bars are boys, shaded bars are girls. * rsk lower than oom and usk (p< . ); # boys greater than girls (p< . ).ta bl e . ch ar ac te ris tic s of st ud y pa rt ic ip an ts ;m ea n (s d ) an d ra ng e. va ri ab le o o m u sk r sk bo ys g ir ls bo ys g ir ls bo ys g ir ls n ch ro no lo gi ca la ge (y r) . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . m at ur at io na la ge (y r fr om ph v) � . ( . ) � . to . � . ( . ) � . to . � . ( . ) � . to � . � . ( . ) � . to . � . ( . ) � . to � . � . ( . ) � . to . st an di ng he ig ht (c m )# . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) * . to . . ( . )* . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . si tti ng he ig ht (c m ) . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . w ei gh t (k g) # . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . bm i (k g� m � ) . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . . ( . ) . to . bm i, bo dy m as s in de x; ph v, pe ak he ig ht ve lo ci ty .* ta lle r th an r sk (p � . ) an d o o m (p � . ), af te r ad ju st m en t fo r m at ur at io na la ge ;# bo ys gr ea te r th an gi rls (p � . ), af te r ad ju st m en t fo r bi ol og ic al ag e. official journal of the american college of sports medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org lated more minutes of moderate and vigorous activity per day (mvpa) than either the rsk (p � . ) or usk (p � . ) groups. there were no significant gender differences for minutes of moderate and vigorous activity per day after adjusting for differences in maturational age. figure illus- trates that nearly all children in this study met or exceeded the physical activity guidelines set by different groups ( , , , , ) and summarized in table . discussion this study was designed to assess how social change (progressive impact of labor saving technology and seden- tary multimedia recreational opportunities) has influenced physical activity behavior and fitness in children. the ex- perimental model employed in this study allowed us a glimpse of the past, perhaps comparable to life three to four generations ago. though the old order mennonites differ from other canadians who live a more contemporary life- style in many ways, perhaps the most striking is their daily behavior in the absence of most modern conveniences. with a cross-sectional comparison, we have demonstrated that a traditional way of life may reduce chronic disease risk factors (obesity, low fitness, physical inactivity). this in- formation can assist in determining key strategies to address the determinants of the top preventable diseases affecting the health of canadians. approximately % of the participants in this sample were overweight using the international sex-specific cut- points established by cole et al. ( ). this prevalence is similar to that reported by tremblay et al. ( ) on a nation- ally representative sample of - to -yr-old canadian chil- dren, suggesting that this sample was not morphologically different than other canadian children. although there were no significant differences in bmi between groups, the oom children did have a smaller triceps skinfold, which suggests the oom children were slightly leaner after adjusting for maturational age differences. the triceps skinfold results in girls suggest a gradient with oom � usk � rsk. this gradient is consistent with our hypothesis that oom chil- dren are more habitually active than children living a con- temporary lifestyle and recent evidence demonstrating that rural dwelling female high school students have higher prevalences of obesity than urban dwelling peers ( ). the oom children had greater grip strength than both the rsk and usk groups; however, they performed fewer push-ups. the oom children were completely unfamiliar with the push-up test, likely due to the lack of institutionalized phys- ical education in the mennonite school system. therefore, the apparent contradiction between grip strength results and push-up results may be attributed to a learning effect. in other words, contemporary canadian children may be more “practiced” in performing push-ups, than oom children, for whom this was a very foreign movement. the aerobic fit- ness score was higher in oom children than rsk children but there was no difference between oom and usk. collectively, these results suggest that children who live a lifestyle somewhat representative of previous generations (oom) are leaner and stronger than children living a con- temporary canadian lifestyle. furthermore, oom and usk children are more and more aerobically fit than rsk chil- dren. the apparent fitness advantage of the oom children may be caused by their lifestyle-related physical activity (e.g., farm chores, active commuting). we found that oom girls and boys attained over . and nearly . h of mvpa per day, respectively. using the same accelerometer and cut-points, campagna et al. ( ) assessed several hundred children from nova scotia, canada and reported and min of mvpa for boys and girls from grade , and and min of mvpa for boys and girls from grade , respectively. though not perfectly comparable because of age differences, the results of campagna et al. compare favorably to those reported in this study. in contrast, santos et al. ( ) and mota et al. ( ) reported . and . h of mvpa per day in portuguese girls and boys of similar age to the present study. this substantial difference may be the result of cultural differences or underlying sampling differ- ences. alternatively, these differences may provide support for our belief that our sample of contemporary children was biased towards more active children. the recommendations figure —mean grip strength (� standard error) of old order mennonite children (oom, n � ), urban saskatchewan children (usk, n � ), and rural saskatchewan children (rsk, n � ). white bars are boys, shaded bars are girls. * oom greater than usk and rsk (p< . ); # boys greater than girls (p< . ). table . physical activity characteristics; mean (sd) variable oom usk rsk boys girls boys girls boys girls average activity (counts�min� ) ( )*# ( ) ( )# ( ) ( )# ( ) paq-c score . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) correlation r � . , p � . r � . , p � . r � . , p � . * greater than rsk, p � . ; # greater than girls, p � . . paq-c, physical activity questionnaire for older children. conquering childhood inactivity medicine & science in sports & exercise� of various international guidelines for physical activity range from to min of accumulated physical activity every day ( , , , , ). as shown in figure nearly all children in this study, from all groups, met these guidelines and most exceeded them. this is consistent with the findings of epstein et al. ( ), whose meta-analysis on directly mea- sured physical activity based on heart rate data showed that across many studies virtually all children met the physical activity guidelines. because temporal trend information continues to demonstrate an increase in childhood obesity ( , ), it is clear that the guidelines are insufficient for the current energy intake of canadian children. there were expected gender differences in physical fit- ness and activity. boys had greater grip strength, better aerobic fitness, and did more partial curl-ups than girls. although boys had greater average activity counts per minute than girls, there was no significant gender effect for minutes of moderate and vigorous activity per day after adjusting for differences in maturational age. it is interesting to note that the group difference in physical activity is much more dramatic in the boys (see fig. ). this may be ex- plained by gender-specific chores performed by the men- nonites; boys tend to work at farming-related tasks whereas girls tend to do more sedentary activities such as sewing and cooking. however, even when girls were analyzed sepa- rately, oom girls still had significantly greater mvpa than usk or rsk girls. on average, the oom children accumulated and more minutes mvpa ( � mets) per day, respectively, compared with the urban and rural contemporary children. to put this in perspective, at this rate the oom children would accumulate additional minutes of mvpa per year, which, if all else were equal, would translate into a caloric difference of approximately , kcal per year, or over pounds of fat per person per decade! these results provide evidence to support the speculation that the health- related physical fitness and habitual physical activity of contemporary canadian children has declined over the last few generations and may offer insight to the rising obesity epidemic. to our knowledge, this is the first study to compare the physical activity and fitness of a sample of children from an old order mennonite community to children living a con- temporary western lifestyle. previous studies have exam- ined the diet, health-related physical fitness, activity, and mortality among adults in old order mennonite communi- ties and similar old order amish communities ( , , ). glick et al. ( ) examined men and women from an old order mennonite community in yates county, ny. they demonstrated that despite a similar diet to that of the overall u.s. population, old order mennonite men were leaner (based on bmi) and exhibited lower serum cholesterol and blood pressure levels compared with men from the overall u.s. population. the authors suggested that higher levels of physical activity in the old order mennonite population explained the observed differences in coronary heart disease risk factors among old order mennonite men. in support of this theory, bassett et al. ( ) reported that amish adults living a traditional agrarian lifestyle had extremely high levels of physical activity (as measured by pedometers) and a low prevalence of obesity. one limitation to this study was the poor response rate of the mennonite children and the inability to randomly select children from the rural and urban schools. the old order mennonite population is a very homogeneous religiocultural group with little exposure to contemporary societal ideals of fitness and body image; therefore, we believe there was a minimal risk of selection bias in that group of children. indeed, we were advised by community leaders that the families most resistant to technological or societal change were the most likely to disregard requests for involvement. figure — mean minutes per day of moderate and vigorous phys- ical activity (mvpa) (� standard error) of old order mennonite children (oom, n � ), urban saskatchewan children (usk, n � ), and rural saskatchewan children (rsk, n � ). white bars are boys, shaded bars are girls; * oom greater than usk and rsk (p< . ). figure —proportion of children meeting common international physical activity guidelines for accumulated daily physical activity. mvpa, moderate and vigorous physical activity. table . physical activity guidelines for children and youth. organization and reference guideline consensus meeting ( ) active daily � � min of mvpa�wk� health canada ( , ) increase activity by – min�wk� decrease inactivity by – min�wk� health education authority ( ) min mpa�d� , min mpa�d� if inactive, strength and flexibility activities � wk� national association for sport and physical education ( ) min�d� from three or more bouts of activity mvpa, moderate and vigorous physical activity; mpa, moderate physical activity. official journal of the american college of sports medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org in contrast, the self-identifying process required to select participating schools from contemporary society almost surely resulted in schools participating that were very sup- portive of physical activity. the schools involved had won awards for physical education programs and inter-school sports programs. we believe it is possible that the volunteer participants from the urban and rural contemporary schools were more fit and active than the general population. we are confident that, if anything, these �limitations� work to dis- prove our hypothesis and therefore strengthen our findings. it has been shown that socioeconomic status is inversely related to risk of overweight ( ) and physical inactivity ( ). however, the present results demonstrate that old order mennonite children tend to be more active and more physically fit than children living a contemporary lifestyle despite having very low socio-economic status and no phys- ical education or institutionalized sport. conventional inter- vention strategies forwarded to combat the childhood obe- sity epidemic tend to focus on purposeful activity approaches (increased physical education, increased green space, increased sport opportunities) ( ). this study dem- onstrates that lifestyle-embedded physical activity also has potential to assist in getting children more active. implications for the future. efforts to establish physical activity guidelines for chil- dren and youth have been hindered by a relative absence of empirical evidence upon which to base any guidelines. although cause and effect relationships cannot be deter- mined from this study, these findings suggest that contem- porary living has resulted in a decline in fitness and physical activity among canadian children, that traditional behavior patterns that include substantial lifestyle-embedded physical activity provide nonsport, nonphysical education opportu- nities for physical activity interventions to alleviate the childhood obesity epidemic, and that most physical activity guidelines for children and youth appear insufficient to achieve important health and fitness outcomes. the ap- proach taken in canada’s physical activity guide for chil- dren and youth ( , ) may be closer to what is required ( -min increase in physical activity and a -min decrease in sedentary behavior). future research is needed to understand how children accu- mulate physical activity, how children should accumulate physical activity, and what the relationships are among differ- ent physical activity patterns and health outcomes. prospective longitudinal research is required to investigate the dose–r- esponse relationship between physical activity level during childhood and long-term health outcomes and how changes in physical activity level during childhood affect short- and long- term health outcomes and quality of life. further exploration is required to understand these relationships if changes in phys- ical activity levels occur at different ages, among different ethnic and cultural groups, and between sexes. this informa- tion is required to produce evidence-based, health-related phys- ical activity guidelines for children and youth. this study was funded by the canadian population health initia- tive of the canadian institute for health information. references . baldwin, d., and p. baldwin. canada through the decades: the s. calgary, ab: weigel educational publishers, , pp. – , – . . bassett, jr., d.r., p. l. schneider, and g. e. huntington. phys- ical activity in an old order amish community. med. sci. sports exerc. : – , . . béland, y. canadian community health survey: methodological overview. health rep. (statistics canada, catalogue - ) : – , . . campagna, p., g. ness, r. murphy, et al. physical activity levels in children and youth in the province of nova scotia. report to the sport and recreation commission, government of nova sco- tia. july, , pp – . . canadian society for exercise physiology (csep). canadian physical activity, fitness and lifestyle appraisal manual. ottawa, on: csep, , pp. . – . . . corbin, c. b., r. p. pangrazzi, and g. j. welk. toward an understanding of appropriate physical activity levels for youth. phys. activity fitness res. dig. : – , . . cole, t. j., m. c. bellizzi, k. m. flegal, and w. h. dietz. establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. br. med. j. : – , . . craats, r. canada through the decades: the s. calgary, ab: weigel educational publishers, , pp. – , – . . cragg, s., cameron, c. craig, and c. l. russell. s. canada’s children and youth: a physical activity profile. ottawa, on: canadian fitness and lifestyle research institute, , pp. – . . durnin, j. v. g. a. physical activity levels: past and present. in: physical activity and health, norgan n.g. (ed.). new york: cambridge university press, , pp. – . . epstein, l. h., r. a. paluch, l. e. kalakanis, g. s. goldfield, f. j. cerny, and j. n. roemmich. how much activity do you get? a quantitative review of heart-rate measured activity. pediatrics :e , . . glick, m., a. c. michel, j. dorn, m. horwitz, t. rosenthal, and m. trevison. dietary cardiovascular risk factors and serum cho- lesterol in an old order mennonite community. am. j. pub. health : – , . . health canada. canada’s physical activity guide for children. ottawa, on: minister of public works and government services canada, , pp. – . . health canada. canada’s physical activity guide for youth. ottawa, ontario: minister of public works and government ser- vices canada, , pp. – . . horst, i. r. a separate people: an insider’s view of old order mennonite customs and traditions. waterloo, on: herald press, , pp. – , – . . kowalski, k. c., p. r. e. crocker, and r. a. faulkner. valida- tion of the physical activity questionnaire for older children. pediatr. exerc. sci. : – , . . levinson, r. m., j. a. fuchs, r. r. stoddard, d. h. jones, and m. mullet. behavioral risk factors in an amish community. am. j. prev. med. : – , . . lobstein, t., l. baur, and r. uauy. obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. obes. rev. (suppl. ): – , . . malina, r.m., bouchard, and c. bar-or. o. growth, matura- tion, and physical activity ( nd ed.). champaign, il: human kinetics, , pp. – . . martin, d. old order mennonites of ontario: gelassenheit, dis- cipleship, brotherhood. kitchener, on: pandora press, , pp. – . . michel, a., m. glick, t. c. rosenthal, and m. crawford. conquering childhood inactivity medicine & science in sports & exercise� cardiovascular risk factor status of an old order mennonite community. j. am. board family practice : – , . . mirwald, r. l., a. d. g. baxter-jones, d. a. bailey, and beunen. g. p. an assessment of maturity from anthropometric measurements. med. sci. sports exerc. : – , . . mota, j., p. santos, s. guerra, j. c. and ribeiro, j. a. duarte. differences of daily physical activity levels of children according to body mass index. pediatr. exerc. sci. : – , . . pate, r., trost, and s. williams. c. critique of existing guide- lines for physical activity in young people. in biddle, s., j. sallis, and n. cavill (eds.). young and active? young people and health-enhancing physical activity: evidence and implications. london: health education authority, , pp. – . . peters, j. the plain people: a glimpse at life among the old order mennonites of ontario. kitchener: herald press, , pp. – . . plotnikoff, r. c., k. bercovitz, and c. a. loucaides. physical activity, smoking, and obesity among canadian school youth: comparison with urban and rural schools. can. j. pub. health : – , . . sallis, j. f., and k. patrick, physical activity guidelines for adolescents: consensus statement. pediatr. exerc. sci. : – , . . salomons, e. canada through the decades: the s. calgary, ab: weigel educational publishers, , pp. – , – . . santos, p., s. guerra, j. c. ribeiro, j. a. duarte, and j. mota. age and gender-related physical activity: a descriptive study in children using acceleromtery. j. sports med. phys. fitness : – , . . statistics canada. health indicators: leisure time physical ac- tivity. catalogue no. - -xie. ottawa, on: statistics canada, , pp. – . . thomas, s., j. reading, and r. j. shephard. revision of the physical activity readiness questionnaire. can. j. sport sci. : – , . . tremblay, m. s., p. t. katzmarzyk, and j. d. willms. temporal trends in overweight and obesity in canada, – . int. j. obes. relat. metab. disord. : – , . . tremblay, m. s., and j. d. willms. is the canadian childhood obesity epidemic related to physical inactivity? int. j. obes. relat. metab. disord. : – , . . trost, s. g., r. r. pate, j. f. sallis, et al. age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth. med. sci. sports exerc. : – , . . tryon, w. w., and r. williams. fully proportional actigraphy: a new instrument. behav. res. methods instruments comput. : – , . . twisk, j. w. r. physical activity guidelines for children and adolescents: a critical review. sports med. : – , . . u.s. department of health and human services. physical activity and health: a report of the surgeon general. atlanta, ga: u.s. department of health and human services, centers for disease control and prevention, national center for chronic disease prevention and health promotion, , pp. – . . u.s. department of health and human services, public health service, centres for disease control and prevention, national centre for chronic disease prevention and health promotion, division of nutrition and physical activity. promoting physical activity: a guide for community action. champaign, il: human kinetics, , pp. – . . welk, g. j. use of accelerometry-based activity monitors to assess physical activity. in: physical activity assessments for health related research, g. j. welk (ed.). champaign, il: hu- man kinetics, , pp. – . . willms, j. d., m. s. tremblay, and p. t. katzmarzyk. geo- graphic and demographic variation in the obesity of canadian children. obes. res. : – , . official journal of the american college of sports medicine http://www.acsm-msse.org [pdf] inquisition, index, zensur. wissenskulturen der neuzeit im widerstreit. edited by hubert wolf. (rmische inquisition und indexkongregation, .) pp. . paderborn: ferdinand schningh, . . (paper). | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. corpus id: inquisition, index, zensur. wissenskulturen der neuzeit im widerstreit. edited by hubert wolf. (rmische inquisition und indexkongregation, .) pp. . paderborn: ferdinand schningh, . . (paper). @inproceedings{macdougall inquisitioniz, title={inquisition, index, zensur. wissenskulturen der neuzeit im widerstreit. edited by hubert wolf. (rmische inquisition und indexkongregation, .) pp. . paderborn: ferdinand schningh, . . (paper). }, author={n. macdougall and stephenie andrews and john tedeschi and massimo firpo and pietro carnesecchi and f. beretta and j. bujanda and u. baldini}, year={ } } 	n. macdougall, stephenie andrews, + authors u. baldini 	published forcefully argued study of the reception of humanism in pre-reformation scotland provides a fascinating context for the other early renaissance chapters, and a welcome analysis of social change in the century after ; but the burden of proof still rests heavily on those who argue that this period witnessed seismic changes in church and state due to a proliferation of lawyers and an increasingly literate laity.  static.cambridge.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper related papers 	abstract 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue gastro_ _ _april .indb can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april department of community health sciences; university of manitoba ibd clinical and research centre, university of manitoba; department of epidemiology and cancer registry; department of hematology and oncology, cancercare manitoba; department of internal medicine, university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba correspondence: dr harminder singh, section of gastroenterology, university of manitoba, - mcdermot avenue, winnipeg, manitoba r e p . telephone - - , fax - - , e-mail harminder.singh@med.umanitoba.ca received for publication february , . accepted february , colorectal cancer (crc) continues to be the second most com-mon cause of cancer deaths in north america ( ), although many of these deaths could be prevented by removal of precancerous precursor lesions or by detection of crc at early and curable stages ( , ). although there has been a recent emphasis on lowering the incidence of crc, reduction in crc mortality is the primary object- ive of crc screening activities. an apparent increase in incidence is witnessed after the initiation of screening programs due to the identi- fication of prevalent cases and, subsequently, due to overdiagnosis of indolent cases, inherent in most screening activities ( ). hence, crc mortality remains the primary outcome of interest for public health programs aiming to reduce the burden of crc and, accordingly, was the focus of the present study. exploring geographical variation in crc mortality and predictors of crc mortality could help in developing risk-tailored approaches for crc screening by rapidly expanding crc screening programs. several studies have investigated the variation in crc mortality among small geographical areas, but few explored the effect of socio- economic factors in jurisdictions with universal health care systems such as canada ( , ). universal health care systems are expected to original article © pulsus group inc. all rights reserved m torabi, c green, z nugent, et al. geographical variation and factors associated with colorectal cancer mortality in a universal health care system. can j gastroenterol hepatol ; ( ): - . objective: to investigate the geographical variation and small geographical area level factors associated with colorectal cancer (crc) mortality. methods: information regarding crc mortality was obtained from the population-based manitoba cancer registry, population counts were obtained from manitoba’s universal health care plan registry and characteristics of the area of residence were obtained from the canadian census. bayesian spatial poisson mixed models were used to evaluate the geographical variation of crc mortality and poisson regression models for determining associations with crc mortality. time trends of crc mortality according to income group were plotted using joinpoint regression. results: the southeast (mortality rate ratio [mrr] . [ % ci . to . ) and southcentral (mrr . [ % ci . to . ]) regions of manitoba had higher crc mortality rates than suburban winnipeg (manitoba’s capital city). between and , crc mortality did not vary according to household income; however, between and , individuals residing in the highest-income areas were less likely to die from crc (mrr . [ % ci . to . ]). divergence in crc mortality among individuals residing in different income areas increased over time, with rising crc mortality observed in the lowest income areas and declining crc mortality observed in the higher income areas. conclusions: individuals residing in lower income neighbour- hoods experienced rising crc mortality despite residing in a jurisdic- tion with universal health care and should receive increased efforts to reduce crc mortality. these findings should be of particular interest to the provincial crc screening programs, which may be able to reduce the disparities in crc mortality by reducing the disparities in crc screening participation. key words: colorectal cancer mortality; spatial patterns; universal health care; worsening socioeconomic disparities la variation géographique et les facteurs associés à la mortalité causée par le cancer colorectal dans un système de santé universel objectif : examiner la variation géographique et les facteurs liés à une petite région géographique associés à la mortalité causée par le can- cer colorectal (ccr). mÉthodologie : les chercheurs ont obtenu l’information relative à la mortalité causée par le ccr dans le registre du cancer du manitoba (un registre en population), le décompte de la population dans le registre d’assurance-maladie universelle du manitoba et les caractéristiques des régions de résidence dans le recensement du canada de . ils ont utilisé des modèles bayésiens mixtes de poisson avec généralisation spa- tiale pour évaluer la variation géographique de la mortalité causée par le ccr et des modèles de régression de poisson pour déterminer les associa- tions avec la mortalité causée par le ccr. ils ont consigné les tendances de la mortalité causée par le ccr dans le temps selon le groupe de revenu d’après la régression joinpoint. rÉsultats : les régions du sud-est (ratio des taux de mortalité [rtm] , [ % ic , à , ) et du centre-sud (rtm , [ % ic , à , ]) du manitoba présentaient des taux de mortalité causée par le ccr plus élevés que la région suburbaine de winnipeg (capitale du manitoba). entre et , le taux de mortalité causée par le ccr ne variait pas selon le revenu familial, mais entre et , les personnes qui habitaient dans les régions au revenu le plus élevé étaient moins suscep- tibles de mourir d’un ccr (rtm , [ % ic , à , ]). la diver- gence du taux de mortalité causée par le ccr chez les personnes qui habitent dans des régions aux revenus variés augmentait au fil du temps, le taux de mortalité causée par le ccr s’accroissant dans les régions à faible revenu et diminuant dans les régions au revenu le plus élevé. conclusions : les personnes qui habitaient dans des quartiers à faible revenu présentaient un taux de mortalité croissant causée par le ccr, même si le système de santé universel était offert dans leur terri- toire de compétence et aurait dû s’associer à plus d’efforts pour réduire la mortalité causée par le ccr. ces observations devraient susciter l’intérêt des programmes provinciaux de dépistage du ccr, qui pourront peut- être réduire les disparités en matière de mortalité causée par le ccr en atténuant les écarts de participation au dépistage du ccr. geographical variation and factors associated with colorectal cancer mortality in a universal health care system mahmoud torabi phd , christopher green phd , zoann nugent phd , , , salaheddin m mahmud phd , , alain a demers phd , , jane griffith phd , , harminder singh md mph facg , , , torabi et al can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april provide equitable access to health care services to different sections of the population and, thereby, reduce disparities in disease outcomes such as crc mortality. review of outcomes in such health care sys- tems is of increasing relevance, even to the jurisdictions without such systems (such as the united states) because they are initiating pro- grams aiming to increase health care coverage in their populations. manitoba, a central canadian province, has a universal health care plan without premiums that covers all residents irrespective of their age or socioeconomic status (ses) ( ). in addition, efforts are continuously made to reduce any potential disparities in access to health care services across the province (eg, providing diagnostic imaging such as computed tomography scanning and onsite chemotherapy at remote areas in the province). we hypothesized that crc mortality rates would be compar- able across the different socioeconomic strata in the province and would change at a comparable rate over time. the objectives of the current study were to determine the geo- graphical and temporal variation in crc mortality in manitoba and to identify population-level factors associated with crc mortality. methods data sources and study measures manitoba is a central canadian province with a relatively stable popu- lation ( . million in and . million in ). manitoba health is the publicly funded health insurance agency providing com- prehensive universal health insurance to all residents of manitoba (except inmates, and members of the armed forces and royal canadian mounted police) and maintains a population registry of permanent residents in the province. the population registry is a demographic, vital status and migration status database, and was used to determine the population size and distribution across the province. information regarding deaths from crc was obtained from the manitoba cancer registry (mcr), a population-based database act- ively recording all cancers diagnosed in residents of the province since . reporting to the mcr is mandated by law. the coding and capture of cancer data are audited regularly by the north american association of central cancer registries and the canadian cancer registry. the quality of the mcr data is high, with consistently high levels of reporting completeness and histological verification ( , ). the mcr receives reports from manitoba vital statistics on cause of death and investigates and documents all cases in which the reported cause of death is cancer. information regarding cause and date of death was obtained from the mcr for all manitoba residents who died from crc between and , and who had a diagnosis of crc. cases of crc were identified using international classification of diseases, ninth revision, clinical modification (icd- -cm) codes . - . , . - . and . (for cases diagnosed before ) and icd- -ca codes c . , c . -c . , c , c and c . (from onward). also included were crc patients whose cause of death was listed as another cancer (lung, liver, primary unknown) but had no record of diagnosis of a cancer other than crc. there are differences in the biology and phenotype of crc occur- ring in the proximal (upper/right) part of the colon compared with those occurring in the distal (lower/left) colon ( , ). several recent studies suggest that in routine clinical practice, all commonly used crc screening tests are less effective in reducing proximal crc inci- dence and mortality ( - ). the incidence of crc occurring in the proximal part of the colon has been increasing in canada ( ). therefore, geographical variation in mortality due to proximal colon crcs (cancers occurring in and proximal to the splenic flexure) and distal colon crcs (cancers distal to the splenic flexure) were deter- mined separately. to determine the crc subsite, the subsite at the time of cancer diagnosis as recorded in the mcr was used. a combination of the six-digit postal code and the municipal code of residence at time of diagnosis was used to geocode each crc death to one of the neighbourhoods in winnipeg (average population during the study years , ) or to one of the municipalities in rural manitoba (average population during the study years , ). for the population included in the denominator, the residential codes used were those recorded on july of each year. these areas were the geographical units used in the analyses. areas within winnipeg – the only urban centre in manitoba with a population > , – were considered to be urban. all other areas were considered to be rural. sociodemographic characteristics, such as mean household income, proportion of recent immigrants, jewish ethnicity (increased crc incidence has been reported in some studies among those of jewish ethnicity [ ]), visible minority status and unemployment status, were obtained for each area from the canadian census microdata files. statistical analysis to visualize geographical variation in crc mortality, a spatial poisson mixed model was used to calculate age- and sex-standardized rates, using the general canadian population as the standard. to con- trol for potentially unstable rate estimates resulting from small case counts in areas with small populations, rate estimates were smoothed using bayesian spatial poisson hierarchical models incorporating two random variables indicating geographical variation and any other unspecified variation across study areas ( ). using hierarchical mod- els, the mortality rate in each area is smoothed by pooling information from the neighbouring areas to generate stable rate estimates ( ). details of the bayesian models used in this analysis are discussed else- where ( ). the deviance information criterion was used for model diagnostics. arcgis version . (environmental systems research institute, usa) was used to produce choropleth maps of rates. to model the relationship between crc mortality and the charac- teristics of the geographical units, two approaches were taken, both using age- and sex-adjusted poisson regression models. first, a series of bayesian poisson regression models were implemented for each char- acteristic with adjustment for age and sex to control for differences in demographic structures. second, a saturated bayesian poisson regres- sion model containing multiple predictor variables was developed. all models were fitted to individual cases, whereby cases were assigned the ecological characteristics (eg, average income level) of the geograph- ical unit to which they were geocoded. variables were categorized using jenks natural breaks classification method, which attempts to find natural break points in the data when identifying category cut-offs ( ). in the saturated model, a variable for the region of residence in the province (winnipeg urban core; winnipeg areas outside the urban core [suburban]; northern manitoba, southwestern manitoba, southcentral manitoba; and southeastern manitoba) was included. some of the ecological variables, such as the proportion of jewish or visible minorities and urban/rural residence, were not included in the saturated model to avoid multicollinearity. potential overdispersion in the models was managed by incorporating a random variable to cap- ture unspecified variation across small areas. the results are based on posterior probability and presented as mortality rate ratios (mrr) and corresponding % credible intervals (equivalent to confidence inter- vals in non-bayesian analyses). the winbugs software package (mrc biostatistics unit, institute of public health, united kingdom) was used for all bayesian analyses. all analyses (choropleth maps and regression models) were separ- ately repeated for proximal and distal colon crc mortality and for two different periods ( to ; to ). the year has been previously noted to be the year with potentially sharper increase in crc screening in the province ( ) and the year at which crc mortality started decreasing in canada ( ). to further explore the findings of the main bayesian analyses, the linear time trends of crc mortality in the different income groups were assessed by the joinpoint regression program developed by seer (surveillance epidemiology and end results, national cancer institute, usa). the average annual percentage changes (apc) in crc mortality were calculated. the apc gives the estimated average annual rate of change in the rates and is equal to *(em− ), in which m is the slope of the corresponding regression line. the p value spatial patterns and predictors of crc mortality can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april presented with the apc estimates assesses the statistical significance of the estimates slope derived from the log-linear regression model. pairwise comparability tests were performed to compare the different sets of trend data ( ). results the number of deaths from crc totalled between and , with an average of . fatalities per , population per year (table ). the number of deaths from distal and proximal colon crcs was and , respectively. the annual mortality rates (per , ) from distal colon crc ranged from . in to . in , and for proximal colon crc from . in to . in . men ≥ years of age had the highest crc mortality rates, regardless of the site of crc in the colon (table ). the differences in rates between men and women were smaller for deaths due to proximal colon crc than for distal colon crc. the choropleth maps depict the smoothed rates of crc mortality across manitoba, which ranged between . to . (per , ) in to (figure ). the highest crc mortality rates were observed in the northcentral part of winnipeg and in rural areas in southwestern and eastern manitoba, while northern manitoba had the lowest crc mortality rates. mortality rates from distal colon crc ranged from . to . (per , ), with the highest distal colon crc mortality rates in the northern part of winnipeg and in discrete rural areas in eastern manitoba (data not shown). the mortality rates from proximal colon crc ( to ) ranged from . to . (per , ), with the highest rates observed in discrete areas of southern winnipeg (data not shown). the mortality rates (overall, proximal colon and distal colon crc) across manitoba for the two different time periods to and to suggested that in the second time period of the study, there was an increase in the crc mortality in the northern part of the province and in the northern part of winnipeg (an area with higher proportion of immigrants from southeast asia and indian subcontinent). overall, crc mortality rates tended to decrease for both men and women over the study period (table ). however, changes in rates dif- fered substantially depending on the mean household income of the area where individuals resided. although men and women residing in areas with the highest annual income (>$ , ) had higher crc mortality in the s than those residing in the other neighbourhoods, they had a significant decrease in crc mortality between and (apc approximately − . %), while those residing in areas with the lowest annual income (<$ , ) experienced an increase (apc men to : + . ; apc women to : + . and to : + . ) (table ; figures a and b). the pairwise comparability tests suggest that the trend for the lowest income group was statistically significantly different than that of the other two income groups. in the age- and sex-adjusted poisson regression models for crc mortality to , the overall, proximal colon and distal colon crc mortality rates among those living in the highest-income areas figure ) smoothed colorectal cancer mortality rates (per , ) (all sites combined), province of manitoba and city of winnipeg, manitoba, to , age- and sex-adjusted to the canadian population table colorectal cancer mortality counts and rates (per , ) according to site, sex and age, to age group, years overall mortality distal colon proximal colon female male female male female male count rate count rate count rate count rate count rate count rate overall . . . . . . < . . . . . . – . . . . . . ≥ . . . . . . table time trends in overall colorectal cancer mortality rate according to sex and income annual income, $ time period apc (p) pairwise comparisons p for pairwise comparisons* coincident parallel men all – − . ( . ) < , (low) – + . ( . ) low versus high < . . , to , (average) – − . ( . ) low versus average < . < . > , (high) – − . ( . ) average versus high . . women all – − . ( . ) < , (low) – + . ( . ) low versus high . . – + . ( . ) , to , (average) – − . ( . ) low versus average < . < . > , (high) – − . ( . ) average versus high . . *the test of coincidence assesses whether two joinpoint regression functions are identical and the test of parallelism assesses whether the two regression mean functions are parallel torabi et al can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april were approximately % lower than those residing in the lowest- income areas (table ). there was no relationship to recent immigrant status or higher visible minorities’ status. areas with higher proportion of individuals of jewish ethnicity did not experience increased crc mortality. individuals residing in the southern parts of the province had higher rates of death from proximal colon crc. the saturated poisson regression analysis suggested that between and , the highest crc mortality rates occurred in south- central manitoba (mrr . ) and southeastern manitoba (mrr . ) (regions of the province with higher proportion of individuals of dutch-german mennonite ethnic descent and farming communities) (table ). while the mean household income was not associated with crc mortality rate in to , areas with higher income experi- enced lower crc mortality in to . the impact of income was similar for deaths due to distal colon crc and deaths due to proximal colon crc. geographical areas with a higher proportion of recent immigrants had lower crc mortality; this reduction was essen- tially related to lower mortality due to distal colon crc. discussion the present analysis highlights that individuals residing in higher- income areas in manitoba experienced a decrease in crc mortality over the study period while people residing in lower income areas experienced an increase. in the mid- s, individuals residing in lower income areas had lower mortality rates from crc than people in higher income areas, which reversed over time. we are not aware of a similar analysis in canada, but comparable observations have been reported from the united states ( ). saldana- ruiz et al ( ) reported that before , people living in counties with higher average ses were at greater risk for dying from crc than individuals living in counties with lower ses. in that study, the gradient also reversed direction over time. our initial hypothesis was that income would not be significantly associated with the risk of dying from crc in manitoba because of the universal health care system and because of efforts to diminish social inequity in the province. far from supporting that notion, our results suggest a disconcerting scenario of widening ses gap in crc mortality over time. in their study, saldana-ruiz et al ( ) suggest that a framework of fundamental social causes (“resources that can be used to avoid risks or to minimize the consequences of disease once it occurs” [ ]), including “money, knowledge, status and avail- ability of social support” ( ) may be used to understand gaps in health outcomes such as crc mortality. the framework predicts that when a new resource becomes available (eg, screening for cancer), it will be more readily accessed by people who already have resources, leading to earlier and more rapid reduction in disease incidence and mortality in that group. our results suggest that this framework could also be applic- able to a jurisdiction with a universal health care system.the widening gap in crc mortality among socioeconomic groups could be due to earlier access to knowledge regarding screening among the higher income groups. a recent report from ontario ( ) suggests that the inequities in crc screening participation according to ses in ontario may have increased between and , despite the launch of province-wide crc screening program in . our observation that the differences with income were no more marked for deaths from distal colon crc suggests there may be addi- tional contributing factors because crc screening in usual clinical figure ) a time trends of overall colorectal cancer mortality among men in different income groups ( to ), joinpoint regression analysis. b time trends of overall colorectal cancer mortality among women in different income groups ( to ); joinpoint regression analysis table age- and sex-adjusted poisson regression analyses of colorectal cancer (crc) mortality, to all crc distal colon proximal colon region (manitoba) urban* . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) rural . (–) . (–) . (–) winnipeg (excl core) . (–) . (–) . (–) winnipeg core . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) northern . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) southwestern . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) southcentral . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) southeastern . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) annual income, $ < , . (–) . (–) . (–) , to , . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) > , . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) unemployment rate, % < . (–) . (–) . (–) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) to . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) recent immigrants, % < . (–) . (–) . (–) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) jewish ethnicity, % < . (–) . (–) . (–) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) visible minorities, % < . (–) . (–) . (–) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) to < . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) data presented as mortality rate ratio ( % ci). *urban-rural differences were evaluated in a separate model. excl excluding spatial patterns and predictors of crc mortality can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april table adjusted saturated poisson regression analysis of colorectal cancer (crc) mortality time period parameter all crc distal colon proximal colon mrr % ci mrr % ci mrr % ci – region (manitoba) winnipeg excluding core . – . – . – winnipeg core . . – . . . – . . . – . northern . . – . . . – . . . – . southwestern . . – . . . – . . . – . southcentral . . – . . . – . . . – . southeastern . . – . . . – . . . – . annual income, $ < , . – . – . – , to , . . – . . . – . . . – . > , . . – . . . – . . . – . unemployment rate, % < . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to . . – . . . – . . . – . recent immigrants, % < . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to < . . – . . . – . . . – . – region (manitoba) winnipeg excluding core . – . – . – winnipeg core . . – . . . – . . . – . northern . . – . . . – . . . – . southwestern . . – . . . – . . . – . southcentral . . – . . . – . . . – . southeastern . . – . . . – . . . – . annual income, $ < , . – . – . – , to , . . – . . . – . . . – . > , . . – . . . – . . . – . unemployment rate, % < . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to . . – . . . – . . . – . recent immigrants, % < . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to < . . – . . . – . . . – . – region (manitoba) winnipeg excluding core . – . – . – winnipeg core . . – . . . – . . . – . northern . . – . . . – . . . – . southwestern . . – . . . – . . . – . southcentral . . – . . . – . . . – . southeastern . . – . . . – . . . – . annual income, $ < , . – . – . – , to , . . – . . . – . . . – . > , . . – . . . – . . . – . unemployment rate, % < % . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to . . – . . . – . . . – . recent immigrants, % < . – . – . – to < . . – . . . – . . . – . to < . . – . . . – . . . – . ci credible interval; mrr mortality rate ratio torabi et al can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april practice is more effective in preventing deaths from distal colon crc ( ). these factors may include changes over time in crc lifestyle risk factors (eg, obesity), receipt of treatment and survival after crc diagnosis, and should be investigated. the important implication of the fundamental social causes framework for policy makers includes significantly more emphasis when introducing new organized screen- ing programs and treatments on ensuring equal uptake among lower socioeconomic groups. to the best of our knowledge, the canadian provincial crc screening programs have not, to date, made extra efforts to encourage crc screening among lower ses groups. our results, combined with that from the recent study from ontario ( ), emphasize the urgent need for such efforts. we suggest that all recently established canadian provincial crc screening should investigate the ses inequities in crc screening participation in their jurisdic- tions and develop measures to reduce any such disparities. in the saturated regression models, we found that southcentral and southeastern regions in the province had a higher crc mortality rate. differences in the ethnic composition of the populations could be contributing to this pattern. there are a higher proportion of individ- uals of dutch-german mennonite ethnic descent in these regions. a specific genetic mutation has been described in several families of mennonite background in manitoba ( ), which has been associated with lynch syndrome, a hereditary syndrome with very high risk for developing crc. although a % to % lifetime risk of crc has been suspected in families with this mutation ( ), we do not know the prevalence of this mutation in our population. additional studies should investigate the reasons for the regional variations in crc mor- tality and assess whether there are variations in crc incidence, stage at presentation and survival after crc diagnosis. it is interesting to note that areas with higher proportions of recent immigrants had lower mortality rates from crc in the analysis adjusted for income, but not in the analysis adjusted for age and sex only. this finding may have some implications for the crc screening programs, which may be concerned about potentially lower rates of crc screening among the immigrant populations. our results suggest the focus should be on areas with lower income, irrespective of the proportion of recent immigrants among their inhabitants. the results of our study should be interpreted in the context of its strengths and limitations. we used bayesian poisson mixed models to obtain stable rate estimates for areas with small case counts. we used the population-based mcr, which has been found to have very high data quality ( , ). we accessed the manitoba population registry, which is regularly updated and, hence, had comprehensive follow-up. our multiple regression analysis to determine the effect of average household income included variables indicating different regions of the province, thereby adjusting for potential regional variations in delivery of health care. the cause-of-death data from manitoba vital statistics was supplemented by the data on crc mortality by an algo- rithm to identify additional cases of crc mortality. the routine, care- ful evaluation of each cancer death by the manitoba cancer registry has enabled us to develop and use such an algorithm in this and previ- ous studies ( ). on the other hand, the present study was an ecological analysis and additional studies are needed to confirm its findings. although previous studies from manitoba have shown a substantial correlation between self-reported household income and an individual’s neigh- bourhood average income ( ), the increase in crc mortality among those residing in the lowest income neighbourhood found in the present study should be interpreted in the context of average neigh- bourhood household income and suggests the potential importance of focusing on lower-income neighbourhoods. the present study was observational in nature, a study design that has the potential for resid- ual confounding by unmeasured or unrecognized factors. we were not able to evaluate the effect of ethnicity independent of income. we used the data from a single census year ( ) to determine the eco- logical characteristics. however, most important variables, such as relative average neighbourhood income, have not changed over time. we did not adjust our analyses for crc stage at diagnosis because for most of the study, period stage information was not collected reliably by the registry (routinely collected from onward). however, stage is likely a mediator of the effects of ses differences on mortality; therefore, adjusting for it will only serve to explain at least some of the differences, but will not change the conclusions. disclosures: dr torabi was supported by an establishment grant from manitoba health research council (mhrc). dr mahmud holds a canada research chair in pharmacoepidemiology and vaccine research, and was supported by an establishment grant from the mhrc and by the great-west life, london life and canada life junior investigator award from the canadian cancer society. the results and conclusions are those of the authors, and no official endorsement by cancercare manitoba or manitoba health is intended or should be inferred. there are no conflicts of interest. the analyses were performed by drs torabi and nugent. all of the authors were involved in the study concept and design; acquisition of data, interpretation of data and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. references . canadian cancer society’s steering committee. canadian cancer statistics . toronto: canadian cancer society, . . zauber ag, winawer sj, o’brien mj, et al. colonoscopic polypectomy and long-term prevention of colorectal-cancer deaths. n engl j med ; : - . . hewitson p, glasziou p, watson e, et al. cochrane systematic review of colorectal cancer screening using the fecal occult blood test (hemoccult): an update. am j gastroenterol ; : - . . moynihan r, doust j, henry d. preventing overdiagnosis: how to stop harming the healthy. bmj ; :e . . saldana-ruiz n, clouston sa, rubin ms, colen cg, link bg. fundamental causes of colorectal cancer mortality in the united states: understanding the importance of socioeconomic status in creating inequality in mortality. am j public health ; : . . steinbrecher a, fish k, clarke ca, et al. examining the association between socioeconomic status and invasive colorectal cancer incidence and mortality in california. cancer epidemiol biomarkers prev ; : - . . roos ll, walld r, uhanova j, et al. physician visits, hospitalizations, and socioeconomic status: ambulatory care sensitive conditions in a canadian setting. health services res ; : - . . hotes ellison j, wu xc, mclaughlin c, et al, eds. cancer in north america: - . vol : incidence: north american asociation of central cancer registeries inc, :ii- . . chen vw, wu xc. incidence, cancer in north america, - . in: andrews pa, ed. north american association of cancer registries. sacramento, . . iacopetta b. are there two sides to colorectal cancer? int j cancer ; : - . . nawa t, kato j, kawamoto h, et al. differences between right- and left-sided colon cancer in patient characteristics, cancer morphology and histology. j gastroenterol hepatol ; : - . . singh h, nugent z, demers aa, et al. the reduction in colorectal cancer mortality after colonoscopy varies by site of the cancer. gastroenterology ; : - . . baxter nn, goldwasser ma, paszat lf, et al. association of colonoscopy and death from colorectal cancer. ann intern med ; : - . . atkin ws, edwards r, kralj-hans i, et al. once-only flexible sigmoidoscopy screening in prevention of colorectal cancer: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. lancet ; : - . conclusion we identified regional variations in crc mortality in manitoba and widening ses gap in crc mortality between income groups. the results suggest that ses disparities in crc mortality could exist or even increase over time, even in jurisdictions with a univer- sal health care system. the results also suggest that lower income areas should be a focus of crc screening programs and other health care programs aiming to reduce the health burden of crc. spatial patterns and predictors of crc mortality can j gastroenterol hepatol vol no april . haug u, knudsen ab, brenner h, et al. is fecal occult blood testing more sensitive for left- versus right-sided colorectal neoplasia? a systematic literature review. exp rev molecul diagnos ; : - . . singh h, demers aa, xue l, et al. time trends in colon cancer incidence and distribution and lower gastrointestinal endoscopy utilization in manitoba. am j gastroenterol ; : - . . locker gy, lynch ht. genetic factors and colorectal cancer in ashkenazi jews. fam cancer ; : - . . torabi m, rosychuk rj. hierarchical bayesian spatiotemporal analysis of childhood cancer trends. geogr anal ; : - . . torabi m. hierarchical bayes estimation of spatial statistics for rates. j statist planning inference ; : - . . jenks gf. the data model concept in statistical mapping. international yearbook of cartography ; : - . . canadian cancer society’s steering committee. canadian cancer statistics . toronto: . . kim h-j, fay mp, yu b, et al. comparability of segmented line regression models. biometrics ; : - . . link bg, phelan j. social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. j health soc behav ;spec no: - . . honein-abouhaidar gn, baxter nn, moineddin r, et al. trends and inequities in colorectal cancer screening participation in ontario, canada, - . cancer epidemiol ; : - . . lwiwski n, greenberg cr, mhanni aa. genetic testing of children at risk for adult onset conditions: when is testing indicated? j gen counsel ; : - . . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, et al. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med gen ; a: - . . mustard ca, derksen s, berthelot j-m, et al. assessing ecologic proxies for household income: a comparison of household and neighbourhood level income measures in the study of population health status. health place ; : - . submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com stem cells international hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume mediators inflammation of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume behavioural neurology endocrinology international journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume disease markers hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume biomed research international oncology journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume oxidative medicine and cellular longevity hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume ppar research the scientific world journal hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume immunology research hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume journal of obesity journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume computational and mathematical methods in medicine ophthalmology journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume diabetes research journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume research and treatment aids hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume gastroenterology research and practice hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume parkinson’s disease evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com book reviews fiction, folklore and poetry david elias, sunday afternoon. coteau books, . pp. . paper, $ . david elias's first novel sunday afternoorz returns to the landscape of his earlier short story collections crossirzg the line (orca, ) and places of grace (coteau, ). in "hidden places," a story from the first collection, elias describes the mennonite west reserve through the eyes of a young boy gazing down from an elevated spot in manitoba's pembina hills: two hours later they were standing in a clearing, high above the valley floor, looking out to the east. it had been a tough ride up, but the view today was worth it. the villages below were so many green islands on a blanket of yellow and black. you could s e e rosengart and blumenfeld, reinland and nuehorst. far off, at the horizon, were the white oil tanks of gretna. that was almost thirty miles. to the south, across the line, the arrangement was different. instead of large green clusters, there were smaller patches of green, scattered evenly across the plain, each one standing apart. (crossing the line - ) in three simple paragraphs elias establishes the valley setting of his stories and contrasts the mennonite village culture on the manitoba side of "the line" with the single-family farm culture "across the line" in north dakota. he also sows the seeds of themes that are picked up in later stories such as "dickie del*ltsen": his place was all by itself out in the country, where only two kinds of people ever lived: those that were too rich to live in the village, and those that were too poor. rich people had a fancy place with a garage attached to the house instead of a barn, and windows out front big enough to see right into the living room where people sat loolting back out at you. jounml ofmera~onite studies poor people had a place thrown together from scrap lumber or buildings dragged out of the village before they got torn down, a place where a few scrawny hogs and chickens scrounged around in the dirt and kids played outside all day, hungry and half-naked. (places of grace - ) this is the west reserve in the s straddling the time between world war two and the cultural shifts of the s. in sunday afternoon elias combines the setting, themes, and many of the characters from his short stories and fashions them into a novel that takes place on one sunday afternoon during lnaddoch schlope, the traditional nap and procreation time for couples in the mennonite villages. however, the time is now tlze early s: the cold war is at its height, john glenn has rocketed into space, missiles a r e being installed in silos just across the line, and the world's tallest television tower has been erected not many miles away, and so not everyone in the village of neustadt is sleeping or procreating on sunday afternoon. stock mennonite village characters, developed to three dimensions, stir in various restless states: abe wiebe, the gentle excommunicated soldier; steven zacharias, the sensitive teenager growing into a poet; martha wiebe, the spinster who looks after her widowed father and her bachelor brothers; dickie derlisen, the mildly retarded boy; the gruesonzely disfigured martens brothers; the sharp-tongued zacharias sisters; the village preacher who unwittingly awakens sexual pleasure in his wife. the valley in the shadow of the pembina hills becomes a mythical place squirming with sensuality, unknowingly anticipating a miracle. elias doesn't flinch from writing about the darli side of mennonite village life and he shows the reader extremes of cruelty in the actions of characters such as dickie derlisen's stepfather and the teacher agnes thiessen. the novel shows characters struggling to keep their creative spirits from being stifled by the almost eden-like nature of the valley-those who escape temporarily find themselves drawn back to the valley and the village and even the church. at the same time the village is involved in forces both darli and light that will change the people and the commuizity forever. surzday aftel-noon is a fabulous novel (in the old sense of the word, related to fable) and i daresay that elias has spent time with the works of robert kroetsch, especially what the crow said and seed catalogzie. elias uses the details of eveiyday village life and the gossip that goes with it to create myth and characters who do mythical things. however, elias doesn't reveal the fabulous nature of the novel until the reader is completely enthralled by the sensuous setting and the compelling characters and their conflicts; the miraculous nature of the ending may disappoint the reader who prefers a realistic ending growing out of characters' literal actions. elias has a background in philosophy and his novel, as well as being very funny at times, takes the reader into philosophical argument. but more than the miraculous conclusioi~ of the novel, it is the reader's rich sunday afternoon in this mennonite village in the valley in a particular moment that makes this novel one that deserves to be read and enjoyed widely, including by the non- mennonite literaly world currently enthralled with miriam toews's a conzplicated kindness. for those of you who have been watching the east reserve vs. west reserve literary scoreboard for the past odd years, i'd say sunday afterlzoo~z is a significant addition to the west reserve's numbers. al-min wiebe's most i-ecent novel, tatsea, won the mcnally-robirzson boolc of the year award and the margaret laurence award for fiction. tatsea is reviewed i n this issue. armin wiebe winnipeg, manitoba jean janzen, piano in the vineyard. intercourse, pa: good books, . pp. . paper, $ . (u.s.). jean janzen is a california poet who has published five previous books of poems. her work has been included in several anthologies, and she contributed several hymn texts to hymrza :a worship book. in this latest book she explores themes she has explored before but which she shows no sign of exhausting. the first section, "broken places," explores the many ways in which our lives fracture. the title poem in the section underlines the inevitability of both pain and our persistent efforts to alleviate it: "all of us shipwrecked, / clutching what we can" ( ). there are echoes of the psalms in some of these poems. "april storm," for instance, speaks, as many psalms do, of an overwl~elming, unnamed sorrow. "in janualy" ends by calling on god to deal with the unjust- in this case, gun manufacturers. here, as elsewhere in the book, janzen writes as someone secure enough in her faith to lament and complain. when she expresses doubt, it is not a rejection of faith but a doubt that wants to believe. that was, for me, one of the remarkable things about this book: the fact that its viewpoint is so orthodox, so anti-modern. the existence of god is not jounzal ofmeizlzo~zite studies questioned, nor does the poet feel any need to apologize for her faith. the presence of god is simply accepted, an assumption that underlies evelything janzen writes. the cycle of garden poems that opens the second section is concise and vividly sensual. garden images- common in janzen's wol-k- offer multiple ways of engaging themes of birth, growth, sexuality and death. they also provide a natural way to express the connection between the sensual and the spiritual, an ongoing theme in janzen's poetry. in "january," the pruning of rosebushes recalls the narrator's cutting off her braids at the age of twelve. "april" and "may" are, perversely, associated with death. the other poems in this section did not have quite the same impact. it's not that they aren't good in themselves, just that they are not as compact and powerful as the garden cycle. there is light and darkness in these poems, and janzen embraces them both. she communicates an intense love for her surroundings in language which is full of color and texture. she is especially good at evoking the particular atmosphere of each season - the way summer heat, for instance, turns the air "thick as plastic, / ripe to the verge of rot and split ' ( ). the third section is a short group of poems based on family stories. there are some vely effective poems here, among them "seeing it," which demands that victims of torture be remembered for who they were, not just for how they died: "to write it so that you can see that daniel / is not a blur, but wears scuffed shoes, / striped stockings, and a cap over blonde / curls" ( ). then there is "borrowing the horse," in which the courtship of janzen's parents is turned into a luminous faily tale: she was the darling of the village, and he had only his good looks, a sheaf of papel; and three books, which he lay down before he picked up the reins of the borrowed horse. ( ). the final section is about beginnings, about anticipating the new and unknown. it describes dreams of a wilderness that we enter "without map or tools" ( ) and it characterizes death as a passage into an unfamiliar countly. the last poem begins with an epigraph by charles wright: "every true poem is a spark, and aspires to the condition of the original fire, arising out of the emptiness" ( ). this poem, and by implication the entire section, expresses a desire to see that spark rise up. book reviews reading this collection, i found myself drawn into jean janzen's landscape and, especially in the third section, into the lives of the people she poi-trays. this is accessible, profound poetry that celebrates the presence of the spiritual in the world of the senses. joanne epp winnipeg, manitoba john weier, stand the sacred tree: journeys i n place and memory. winnipeg: turnstone press, . pp. . paper, $ . . in his latest work, winnipeg writer john weier has set himself a challenging task: to visit a number of countries (iceland, holland, syria, denmark, and canada), and observe the inhabitants, both human and avian, in an attempt to find connections between them. the result is a book that is self-revealing and engagingly honest. in the preface to stand the sacred tree, weier explains that the idea for his book comes out of an earlier work, marshwalker. in marslzwalker, weier undertook a thoreauesque observation of the oak hammock marsh near winnipeg. he states that his original purpose was "to explore wilderness, the wild places, where plants and animals grew more or less unattended" and "especially to catalogue the lives and movement of birds." his focus gradually expanded to encompass other interests, experiences, and personal obseivations. i the wake of the publication of marshwalker-, weier was invited to visit the abovementioned countries, and he decided to "take [his] oak hammock expedition out into the world." the result is a combination of travel writing, memoir, and weier's personal observations on family, marriage, birds, the environment, religion, and a host of other concerns and interests. the book is presented in a fragmented, sometimes breathless style ("peculiar today how we travel, how we treat the earth around us. location. how we rush into it. through it. at one hundred kilometres an hour. or seven hundred. gone! before we realize we've arrived."). rather than providing a linear accounting of separate journeys, weier interweaves the threads of his jouweys. this approach often allows him to make interesting connections between vaiying experiences, but at times his use of repetition ("i wanted to know about willow island, about his experience of willow island, the nature of the place, the wilds of willow island. david, how did you come to know willow island?") can be distracting. overall, the reader will come away with few penetrating insights about the countries weier visits, but perhaps this was not the intention. as weier himself disarmingly points out, "these narratives won't actually tell you a great deal about syria, about holland. [...i they show you instead the contemporaiy traveller, his reactions to place and people over a veiy limited time. a few hours. days. sometimes over a few weeks." weier and his wife, mary, have many of the usual concerns of travelers: they worry about how much they are spending, about whether they are being culturally sensitive, about language and cultural differences. there is a quixotic air to weier's writing, and readers may at times find themselves woriying about his safety. in his quest for bird sightings, he wanders about in war-torn syria wearing a pair of binoculars, despite warnings from the canadian embassy and concerned syrians. in a scene in damascus, he impulsively approaches a group of armed syrian soldiers: "i hadn't planned anything. [. . .] some impulse must have directed me. when i stepped close to that soldier under the palm frond-a boy, really, all three of them boys-i bent my long body and bowed down. i crowded into the shade beside him, draped my arm over his shoulder. a few centimetres from his nose to mine under that thin palm frond. a soldier and his black machine gun, i and my bare head, all ill the shade of a palm branch. he laughed. that young man laughed. there hadn't, in fact, been any doubt that he would." weier seems much more comfortable in his observations of birds and other natural phenomena than he does when he describes his interactions with local citizeniy. his account of a sojourn in iceland and, in particular, his encounters with the "dazzling icelandic horses," brings to life the singular beauty of the icelandic landscape and is one of the most interesting and rewarding parts of the book weier's real subject, however, is himself, and he devotes much of the book to his interior journeys. one of the strengths of the book is in weier's recounting of maiy's struggle with breast cancer and the resulting breakdown of their marriage. in these observations, weier writes compellingly, unsentimentally and with great candour about the cracks that can develop in a relationship in times of stress. stand the sacred tree will be of particular interest to readers of weier's other books and to those looking for a very personal take on the travel memoir. barbara simler white rock, bc book reviews carrie snyder, hair hat. toronto: penguin, . pp. . softcover, $ . . in this collection of linked short stories, carrie snyder writes with powerful subtlety. the central theme of hail- hat is loss in its many guises: a young woman gone missing from the streets of vancouver; a baby given up for a adoption; a mastectonly; various forms of rob- bely, betrayal, and sudden death. in the context of these losses, the characters' deepest griefs and secrets are skillfully revealed through sinall gestures and casual comments. in "harassnlent," for example, the narrator's decision not to leave his usual six-cent tip at a coffee shop reveals the inner demons that make him slightly threatening to others, though he himself is unaware of it. and in the middle of "yellow cherries," the narrator lets drop one simple, chilling sentence that splits the stoly wide open, tingeing its every detail wit horror. snyder has a talent for investing ordinary objects with meaning - a dil-ty shower curtain, a stolen cd player, and a child's teddy-bear chair all carry a rich, metaphorical resonance that's introduced with a light, deft touch. the only object in this book that seems overburdened with significance is the hair hat of the title. the collection's title refers to a character who appears in evely story, a man whose hair has grown into the shape of a hat. as a unifying central image, the hair hat fails. it is impossible to picture (despite the little cartoon illustrations), and its presence in evely story begins to seen forced, even gratuitous, distracting the reader from the strengths of snyder's writing, which needs no such gimmicks to succeed. the hair hat man is perhaps intended as a structural device to tie the stories together, but the stories are already convincingly connected by theme, narrative structure, and characters who know each other. ultimately, by promising inore than it delivers, the hair hat disappoints. when we finally meet him, the hair hat man's explanation is anticlimactic: "i wanted to do something different, to feel different" ( ), he says. we learn that his hairstyle is a response to devastating loss, but the reason behind this bizarre response remains a loose end. the strongest stories in the collection are "yellow cherries," about a young girl's fall from innocence; "the apartment," about a lonely landlady's need to invade her tenants' privacy; and "tumbleweed," about a mother's attempt to ignore the pain of her failing marriage. in each of these stories, snyder touches on human failure with grace and compassion, drawing her characters with swift, telling strokes. the strongest story of all is "personal safety device," narrated by jenny, a young college student who discovers that the boy she likes has been charged with a series of rapes. her reaction to this discovely reveals her conviction that she's been left out of evelything. in the stoiy's jounzal of meizizoizite studies comic opening scene, jenny meets a salesman who tries to interest her in his product, the "personal safety device" that comes with a battery pack and convenient carlying case, and can be purchased for a mere $ . a month. there are several levels of irony at work here. jenny's awkward unattractiveness has been a kind of built-in safety device that has kept her out of the rape suspect's range. on another level, her self-centeredness "protects" her from getting close to anyone. near the end of the story, she is humiliated after tripping and falling in front of the other students, but as she rises, assisted by ubiquitous hair hat man, she realizes that no one has even noticed: everyone else had turned away, dispersing. they were lousy with previous commitments: telephones ringing, email unwritten, notes unstudied, friends guffawing, teachers flirting, beer to drinlr, girls to rape, lies to tell. they could not care less about my clumsiness, my efforts and attempts, my foolish, foolhardy falls. ( ) snyder's insight into the human ego is often, as here, surprisingly unpleasant: jenny's ultimate epiphany is undercut by her bitter self-pity. i a book that features loss as its central theme, the personal safety device may make a better central image than the hair hat. with its easy payment plan and batteries included, it serves as an ironic reminder of our vulnerability and the futility of our attempts to protect ourselves from loss or harm. catherine hunter university of winnipeg nathan dueck, king's(mk -e). winnipeg: turnstone, . pp. . softcover, $ cdn. in a first book from a young mennonite writer one usually finds at least a few poems dealing with some aspect of mennonite experience. there is none of that here. neither is there any trace of the autobio- graphical or confessional material that often appears in a young poet's first book. it's as if nathan dueck has skipped the first book altogether and gone straight on to his second. seen in the wider context of canadian poetly, however, dueclc's book fits in. l c i ~ z g ' s ( m - e ) is a long poem (perhaps a prose poem) book reviews rather than a collection of poems. while admittedly an ill-defined form, the long poem has been prominent in canadian literature since the nineteenth century. and the long poem as imagined biography autobiography is also a well-established genre that includes works like stephen scobie's and forget my name: a speculative biography of bob dylan and michael ondaatje's the collected works of billy tlze kid. kiizgls(mere) is an imagined life of william lyon mackenzie king, prime minister of canada in the s and through the second world war. the title is a pun, of course: kingsmere, in the gatineau hills of quebec, was the site of mackenzie king's summer home; but ~ ~ -e refers to his mother isabel, to whom he was extremely devoted. many more puns follow (perhaps a few too many on the name willy), as well as much alliteration and word association. it's playful, restless language that takes mackenzie king's stoly, tosses it around, turns it upside-down and shakes it to see what falls out. dueclc draws on historical sources to create a fictionalized portrait of a man who is even stranger than most people thought. mackenzie king was known during his lifetime as a mild-mannered, slightly dull bachelor, and after his death as a closet eccentric who communed with the spirit of his dead mother. the mackenzie king in this book is passionate, lustful, sentimental, anxious, and at times immature. he has a relationship with his mother that goes beyond devotion, and loves his dog as if it were a son. as one of the back cover blurbs says, dueck mythologizes an already mythic character and makes him larger than life. not much of what's in here looks like poetry. the text is composed of newspaper columns, fragments of dialogue, faux scripture, the text of a comic strip, letters and diary entries, among other things. mackenzie king's voice is prominent, but we also hear his mother's voice, as well as her mailman's, the voice of mrs. wriedt, the medium, and the voice of a hospital nurse with whom mackenzie king falls in love. poet rob mclennan describes a long poem as "sequences of fragments that hold faster than any adhesive." this book feels like it shouldn't work - the component parts are just too widely disparate -but it does. the parts don' t make much sense individually, but they gain meaning from being placed together. the text turns into a collage of found objects that, when viewed from the right distance, resolves itself into a discernible shape. while it's hard to find individual lines that demand to be quoted, the book nevertheless gives an overall impression of coherence. one has to ask, of a new book about someone well-known, does this add something valuable to what we already know about mackenzie king? i think the answer is yes. dueck doesn't contribute any new knowledge of mackenzie king, but he doesn't intend to. what he does do is take a well-known story and give it the new form and flavour that make it his own. i t took me a while to grow accustomed to dueck's style, and i'm not sure i've warmed to it even after several readings. still, i can't help admiring what he accomplishes here. nathan dueclc is a writer to watch. joanne epp winnipeg, manitoba miriam toews, a complicated kindness. toronto: alfred a knopf canada, . pp. . hardcover, $ . . perhaps the greatest kindness one can do miriam toews' most recent novel is not review it at all but simply continue the nation-wide conversation that's been provoked by the voice of nomi nickel, the -year-old protagonist and narrator. typically, a reviewer comments dispassionately on intricacies of plot, layers of meaning, integrity of character development, multiplicity of themes, and depths of symbolic richness. none of these elements is readily evident in a comnplicated kindrzess. most striking in this novel is its voice, a strident, bleak teen- age voice that makes dispassionate obseivation nearly impossible. every review i have read focuses on the voice--or evades it by commenting on other reviews. the people i've spoken to about the novel do the same. the conversation began for me even before i'd read the novel. non-mennonite colleagues and friends kept asking if such a funda- mentalist, isolated mennonite community was realistic and did i know about shunning. mennonite friends were similarly eager to enter the dialogue begun by nomi-precocious, depressed, and desperate nomi, determined to s c h p u t (mock) her way to freedom from the self-righteous, surreal town from which her sister and her mother have already, separately, vanished. nomi offers what seem like random explanations and bits of stories, linked by her idiosyncratic patterns of association, and she pleads with us to understand. like the school counselor she visits briefly and unproductively, we risk not hearing her need for clarity and security if we focus too closely on the bad-girl image she projects - the ultra-good-girl behavior of her early years having brought only guilt and fear. many who read the boolc with immediate delight find it humourous: "wickedly funny" is a favorite label. i, on the other hand, agree entirely with a mennonite friend who described it as, "possibly the saddest boolc i've ever read." it's not that i didn't get the mennonite jokes; book relrielvs i understand low german. indeed, having grown up in a mennonite community as fundamentalist, if not quite as ingrown, as nomi's, my childhood self was just as terrified as hers of the rapture and of hell. perhaps i identify too closely with both nomi's fears and the hollow laughter that attempts to purge both bitterness and anger. the novel's uneven tone triggers such completely disparate responses. it edges too close to caricature to be a believable and compassionate examination of a tragic situation (family dysfunction and disintegration; a father's emotional and mental instability; a best friend's depression; a boyfriend's rejection), yet is far too painful and realistic to function as satire. nomi's preoccupations veer wildly from the trivial to the profound, just as her language swings between the annoyingly incorrect ("me and travis") and the surprisingly articulate: "the other day," nomi explains early in the novel, i found [my mother's] passport in her drawer [ . . . ] i wish i hadn't. [ . . . ] i sat on my dad's bed and flipped through page after empty page. [ . . . just the id information and my mother's black-and-white photo which, if it were used in a psychology textbook on the meaning of facial expressions would be labeled: obscenely, heartbreakingly hopeful. ( ) in that regard, toews has accurately registered a teenage mind with its uncertain expression and even more uncertain self-knowledge. the voice is appropriately fragmented, struggling to make itself heard and to find coherence in a situation that makes no sense. a voice like nomi's makes demands that not all readers are prepared to meet. i found the complete immersion in a teenage perspective claus- trophobic, particularly on the first reading. on subsequent readings, i could see that nomi actually addresses two audiences - the general, real, presumed non-mennonite reader, and the english teacher to whom nomi feels she has to explain herself. much of my initial tedium was replaced, on a second reading, with genuine sympathy, but i still resist the novel's uneasy mix of bleakness and grim amusement. the chaos and claustrophobia of adolescence are exquisitely rendered but yield only a limited aesthetic effect. for readers like me, the novel's chief strength is in its brief moments of devastatingly accurate perceptions of life and theology in east village: "it's hard to grieve in a town where everything that happens is god's will," nolni explains at one point. "it's hard to know what to do with your emptiness when you're not supposed to have emptiness" ( ). elsewhere, with one brief sentence, she dismisses the dubious relationship between isolation and goodness: "somehow all the problen~s of the world manage to get into our town but not the jotinla of meiliaoitite studies strategies to deal with them" ( ). she herself is apt testimony of the truth of that conclusion. edna froese st. thomas more college saslcatoon, saskatchewan d o u g l a s i s a a c , p a s t , p r e s e n t : t e n s e ... o t t a w a : buschekbooks . pp. . douglas isaac invokes his muse - whom he addresses as "meine ohma"( ) - in order to gain the insight necessaiy to "divine the clan histoiy that befuddles me"(l ) and to "relive our people's struggle," before asking her to see "what a wretch i have become" ( ). how mennonite can you get? it 's all there - the obsession with the family stoiy, the fascination with the anabaptist stoly (especially the gory bits) and the self loathing for never being good enough to live up to those stalwart souls who suffered long before helwe adopted a comfortable position in front of the computer. there is an awful lot of naming going on. wretch is not the only name the poet calls himself; he is also: "a contortionist in avoidancelof confrontation" ( ) "such a spoiled male child"( ) "an undecided" ( ) a black sheep", "prodigal son" (only the first two of a six point list) ( ) an "insufferable self-centered egotist"(courtesy of his grandfather, peter p., who haunts the book) ( ) a "hypocrite" (so), a "bad boy" ( ) "mien lcleinet jungtje" (courtesy of ohma) ( ) "doglass '(by his g r a n d f a t h e r ) ( a n d every i n s t a n c e subsequently) "i, the author" ( ) "ethnic" ( ) "ethnic mennonite (light)" ( ) "child of darkness and death"( ) "this nun-ator" (by peter p) ( ) "the narrator" ( ) "l~npotent gmrzdson" ( ) a "dilettante, acting glib and tough ( ) "simnply a clzronicler/ here, a n occasional apologist"( ) "a real man" ( ) book reoienrs "a phoenix" ( ) "saga-weaver" ( ) ~ir zp y zadlas the rest of us" ( ) "slightly mad, visionaly, manic/depressive" ( ) "a poet"( ) unfortunately, although he is a poet, he is not yet a good one. this poet draws attention not only to himself but also to the text, which, after the oth century, we readers know cannot be trusted. in case we're not quite sure what we're reading, isaac lets us know, drawing attention to the text, his story, describing it variously as: "ancestral history"( ) "epic" ( ' ) a mock epic narrative ( ) "machinations" ( ) "fabulations" ( ) "decoizstructirzg this" ( ) "my saga" ( ) "coizfessioiz" ( ) "mythic, a mere conceit poetic" ( ) "a history fabulated" ( ) "tlzis tale ( ) "another in the inventory of fictions"( ) "revelations/ i bring"( ) "this narrativew( ) "this poem" ( ) there is a feverish energy in isaac's desire for recounting: menno; buekels; claas epp; his association with revolutionaries; his metamorphosis into a phoenix forcing sex during a russian mennonite bacchanal- all propel the bad-boy image, "playing soccer solitaire with the head/ of a young virgin. her golden tresses/swirl, crimson rooster-tails in mire" ( ). excluding only his venerable "ohma," women generally fare poorly in this narrative, as do most of the men. in this stoly, there is really no one we can root for. this work is prosaic, even within the relative leniency of the narra- tive long poem. poetry, even narrative poetly, is tight as a sharply made bed and convincing. isaac's offers messy post-modern bedclothes, another re-telling of sometimes anabaptist, sometimes mennonite history, and some rooting around the family tree. he begins by asking his ohma for insight and concludes with what he has seen. i have witnessed child-hookers not taking jesus as their saviour, but using jotn-nal of mem~ozdte studies hallways to do their johns (respected members of the bench, financiers, poets). i've bleached works for junkies trembling too much to tie the tubing on - oh yes olzrna - i've seen it all but what he's seen is not in this poem. and that's the problem and the hope. isaac could let the ego stand, drop the dated post-modern pose and the false humility, and show us, instead, what he's seen. victor enns winnipeg, manitoba lorraine janzen, learning to see in the dark. toronto: wolsak and wynn, . pp. . "this is the shape of love, the heft and hew" - a promising opening for what turns out to be a middling collection of poetry, the first by lorraine janzen, a writer who teaches english at nippising university in nortl~ bay. despite occasional flashes of illumination, what's missing here is the rhythm of poetly, the economy of language that invites a reader into a writer's persuasive realm. in the section titled, "the discovely poems," the image of the sidewalk jump-rope over the dust of people "carrying a cultural memory" ( ) names mennonites' displacement of aboriginals and induces forms of white guilt, but it makes for poor poetry. this section includes some of the most prosaic writing of the collection, though it makes the interesting point that mennonite faith hinged on the discovely of language, the power of words, with the result that they were "martyred over metaphors, insisting on symbols / to the lastn( ). t e ambiguous line breaks, early on, disrupt the reading ("like a beaultiful .. ., or "dis/covering") but thankfully these seem to fade away midway through the collection, as does occasional silliness like the paradox, "inevitable. unexpected" ( ). "always wear a slip, or things my mother taught me" ( ) is a tribute but it isn't poetry, sliding, as it does, into greeting card sentimentality. after two relatively strong stanzas with concrete, though familial-, images of canning, we come to the admonition, "to take pleasure in the moment" ( ) and end with a list of lessons; the emphasis on woman's wisdom concludes with "the love to carly on." book reviews i love pie and dug right into her "pie poems," one of the best pieces in the collection. the extended metaphoi*, though, runs into trouble. pastly can only take you so far before it falls apart in your hands and when we get to "doing and doughing / all of your days" ( ), we've all had enough. we dress for sundays. we've all been to church. alleluia, what a pew. she nails the afternoon remembering "the grief / of lace doilies and cyclamen and african violets" ( ) in "sunday best," which resonates for anyone who has been to church and to grandma's of a sunday. the work generally seems to improve a s it moves along to "graveyard tunes" ( ). of death in "dead secret," janzen concludes, "some things are better left busied. / light a candle and leave." good work surfaces in "seasonal cycle," particularly in the third "lady of the lakes" movement where "the sudden scent of summer mint / bringing sweetness to all this light"( ) manages to be both startliilg and fresh. overall, though, there is a looseness of language in this work, a slackness of purpose that invites our attention to wandel-. it seems, in this collection, that we've left the old countly, bringing with us long narrative lines that can, by now, only be spoken in english and are difficult to turn into poetry. cariying a narrative in poetry is always hard work; ultimately, in this collection, the stoiy is not enough. victor enns winnipeg, manitoba armin wiebe, tatsea. winnipeg: turnstone, . pp. . paper, $ . will every reader of this wonderful book express surprise at armin wiebe's departure from his earlier worlc? wit the salvatiorz of yasch siernerzs, murder irz guterzthal, and the secolzd corning of yeeat shparzst, wiebe has developed and sustained a reputatioil as the comic genius of souther manitoba mennonite life. tatsea takes us far from wiebe's trademark antics, sets us down in , in the midst of dogrib life in what is now the canadian subarctic, and tells a story that threatens tragedy far inore often than it celebrates comedy. ultimately, though, this is an extraordinary stoiy of life-affirming love and a representation of dogrib life before encounters with eui-opeail technologies wreaked irrevocable cultural change. the novel begins focused on tatsea, a strong-minded young dogrib woman constrained, for the first time in her life, to the menstrual hut journal ofme?t?zo?tite studies when what she really wants is to steal away to go swimming. the nar- rative promptly shifts to introduce the other main character, ikotsali, the fi-og-faced man who is a remarkably adept hunter possessed of legendaly dream power; the hero of one of the group's central survival stories; and, incongruously, an outsider amongst his own people. the narrative promptly explains that incongruity by describing ikotsali's physical defects, his small size, his hunched back, and the congenital skin condition that covers his face with oozing boils. when iltotsali rescues tatsea's father from certain death, he earns the right to take tatsea as wife, a situation that gives him great pleasure but mortifies tatsea, repulsed as she is by the sores on his face. when she gives birth, however, she finds herself drawn, against her inclina- tion, to ikotsali's unfailing gentleness and the surprising pride and interest he shows in their girl-child. at this relatively lyrical point, the narrative takes off: early on a summer morning, after ikotsali has left to collect birchbark and tatsea has departed some little distance to bathe and swim, their camp is attacked by a group of enda (cree) raiders who kill and scalp eveiyone they find. they take tatsea as their lone captive but not until after she has managed to hide her baby daughter high in a tree. the rest of the novel is the story of the lovers' -for they become more thoroughly lovers in their separation than they have ever been before - struggle against extraordinaiy odds to be reunited. the narrative shifts regularly from tatsea's story to ikotsali's, juxtaposing their dif- ferent situations: tatsea the captive of first one group of enda and then another till she arrives at an english f ~ ~ r - t r a d i n g fort; ikotsali struggling to keep their baby daughter alive and to find his wife. throughout, tatsea and ikotsali are linked by dream visions of one another. indeed, wiebe's skillful use of magic realism respectfully evokes traditional dream power and intensifies the gripping adventure that unfolds. of all this wonder-full story's magical elements, perhaps the most poignant is its representation of a male member of a male-dominated society so determined to keep his baby daughter alive that he nurses her himself and in the process, forms an unbreakable bond with her. at one point, having found another group of dogrib people, ikotsali is directed to a young widow, a nursing mother who generously agrees to feed his daughter: ikotsali shuddered with joy and with sadness when he placed tatsea's child i n dagodichih's arms and helped the huilgly mouth find the overflowing breast. but tatsea's daughter refused the noisy widow's milk, howled relentlessly until she was inside ikotsali's shirt again, sucking book rel~iems ravenously while her father dripped warm fisli soup from the hollow swan's-leg drinking tube. ( ) like rudy, the other wiebe famous for his depictions of encounters between first nations people and europeans, armin wiebe credits a variety of documentary sources. my particular familiarity with samuel hearne's a jour-rzey from prirzce of wales's fort multiplied my pleasure at this novel's twenty-first chapter, since tatsea becomes there the remarkable young dogrib woman whom hearlie and his party discovered in janualy surviving alone on the barrens. lilie rudy wiebe as well, armin wiebe invites the possibility of censure on the grounds of cultural appropriation, but i am not the right reader to issue that criticism: i was thoroughly drawn in to this delicately sketched and compelling stoly of devotion, fidelity, and endurance, both in the material, observable, world and in spiritual realms outside of time and space. kathleen venema university of winnipeg julia kasdorf, fixing tradition: joseph w. yodev, amish american. telford, pa: pandora, . pp. . paper, $ . cdn. julia icasdorf's biography of joseph w. yoder ( - ), author of rosanlza oftlze amislz ( ) - which the melznorzite encyclopedia identifies as "a semifictionalized biography" - is a welcome and engag- ing study of a popular american mennonite writer and his time. fixing traditiorz: joseph vi! yoder; amish arnericalz is volume of bluffton college's c. henry smith series, which, according to series editor j. deiiny weaver, is intended "to publish interdisciplinary and multi- disciplinaly scholarship for the service of the church." to be sure, as weaver says, joseph w. yoder has been "virtually an unklzown" in arnishimennonite circles - apart, that is, from some , individuals who have, since , bought (and presumably read) his rosamza. as a gigantic figure on the landscape of popular north american mennonite literature, he cannot be ignored. julia kasdorf remarks in her preface that she came to the life of joseph w. yoder "as a poet and writer," believing at first that he could show her "how a person can become an author and also remain part of the mennonite community" ( ), how a person born into a minority culture might "become an artist without breaking ties with his place and people of origin" ( ). as often happens in an archive-based project such as this, kasdorf's research led her well beyond this initial question to the explication, for example, of yoderls embrace of muscular christianity, "a literary, religious, and social movement" that "sought to develop strength of character through sport" ( ); his career as a musician, singing teacher and college recruiter; and his decision, in the late s (when he was almost years old) to write and publish a book that would "tell the truth" about his people, the amish ( ). this volume will attract readers who are curious about yoder as well as readers attracted by kasdorf, herself a prominent poet in american mennonite circles. all will find much to savour here. kasdorf as poet is discernible in the book's compelling preface and epilogue, where she presents, as contextual bookends to the yoder narrative, her own experience as a minority-culture writel: as author of the biography itself, kasdorf the poet stands apart, her absorbing and easy-to-read biographical text driven by available fact and anecdote. even though yoder's intriguing stoly occupies over two hundred pages of the text, the man himself remains surprisingly elusive. we learn enough about his activities to wonder what motivated him to live as he did, but kasdorf's remarks finally reveal little about what actually drove this man, who seemed to love drawing attention to himself; who lived for eighteen years with a male friend (john m. hooley) and his wife; who married for the first time at age ; and who became "increasingly shrill" ( ) and "obnoxious" ( ) in his later years. near the middle of her study kasdorf observes that even though yoderls life was "thoroughly documented in published memoirs and through preserved correspondence," he "left no traces of his eighteen- odd years of living with the hooley family" ( ). this observation would seem to invite further probing, but kasdorf, here as elsewhere in the text, resists exploring further, and offers no speculation about the nature of the yoderihooley relationship, except to remark in passing that it went through a "period of turbulence and uncertainty" ( ) before the household split up. the story of yoder's wife, emily lane, who lived with yoder for the eight years immediately preceding the publicatioi~ of rosanna, is also shrouded in mysteiy. here, too, kasdorf refrains from adequately problematizing an apparently huge gap in her story. she introduces emily merely as "a striking, white-haired woman who wore 'stylish clothes" ( ), relnarlcing that she was an "independent, forward thinking" presbyterian who "supported temperance and women's suffrage" ( ). nowhere does she probe the role yoder's wife might have played in the controversial, proto-feminist activities of his later life. if yoder lived with emily until his death in (kasdorf reveals nothing about emily's fate, so the reader has no ltnowledge of when book reviews she died), she would have spent years as his companion. but she occupies only three paragraphs of text. these two instances - yoder's life with hooley and with emily - demonstrate the challenges of a work such as kasdorf's. like any biographer, kasdorf was limited in her research by the number and nature of her sources. (i remember my husband paul and i driving her to aylmer, ontario in march , to interview david luthy at the old order archive there - kasdorf 's only canadian encounter, which yielded little.) although her many interviews and substantial work in archives garnered an enormous amount of fascinating material about yoder's public life, the man himself remains, in large measure, a mystely, and the deeper currents that might account for his life remain unplumbed. as for the volume itself, i would have wished that more attention had been paid to ensuring textual exactitude: many typos in the work, along with syntactical and other errors, unnecessarily undermine the best efforts this series and this volume represent. the brief caption for the illustration on page (one of several veiy interesting and illuminating photographs in the text), which begins with yoder's father crist being referred to as "christ" and includes other glitches as well, is an example of the technical errors that pepper the book. joseph w. yoder's rosanlza of the anzish remains an amish/men- nonite best-seller. kasdorf's study is a significant and captivating contribution to the burgeoning north american literature by and about mennonites. one of the revelations of kasdorf's study -- that yoder's life story resists conforming to any straight-forward binaly reading of the relationship between a minority-culture writer and his world -- serves to inform our understanding of mennonite literaly lives and literary texts in general. i hope others will take up the challenge kasdorf throws out in this substantial exercise. may we see many more studies of amish/mennonite writers and the diverse cultural landscapes they inhabit. hildi froese tiessen conrad grebe university college university of waterloo ervin beck, mennofolk. studies i n anabaptist a n d mennonite history, no. . scottdale pa: i-ierald press, . ervin beck, former professor of english at goshen college, has compiled essays based on years of study into a single book examining the folk traditions of modern mennonites. most of his material concerns jol~nlal of meizizonite studies the (old) mennonite church community of swiss-german origin, with a smaller amount from amish and hutterite communities. the topics are wide ranging, and include folk tales, jolces and songs, as well as material culture such as painted glass and family record plaques. this range of material provides an introductory oveiview to topics previously neglected, in the hope that more interest will be generated in this type of study. the book will provide surprises to some readers. the old folk tale of menno simons' evasion of capture on a carriage can also be attributed to a host of other religious leaders in different countries at roughly the same time. this story is part of a larger corpus of tales and jolces regarding mennonites' ambiguous relationship with the truth: they were, it turns out, once considered inveterate liars, cheats, and triclcsters. at times beck could have gone further and deeper in his analysis of follc tales. in one old story menno is interrupted in his preaching by the authorities. in his haste to escape he falls into the barrel of molasses on which he was standing, and is covered in the substance, which would have left an easy trail for his pursuers. to remedy the situation, "all the women in the front row each took one long lick of molasses off his hosen [leggings]. and that explains why mennonite children in holland to this day have a sweet tooth" ( ). beck rightly attributes this tale to the trickster tradition, but says nothing of its metaphors of authority and gender, sexuality, or progeny. besides older folk tales, the author includes modern social phenom- ena such as urban legend, protest songs, and relief sale festivals. this raises a number of issues that are important in mennonite studies, but for which there is no general agreement in either popular or academic discourse. do modern mennonite groups constitute ethnic groups? certainly they did at one point, and the amish and hutterites are still considered as such among scholars. ethnic groups are defined by both boundaries (maintained by the group and by outside forces) and inner cohesion (or understanding) in reference to dozens of criteria like language, politics, food, music, etc. mennonites may thus be considered ethnic at certain times under certain conditions, when individuals may feel a desire to be so affiliated. ethnicity then takes on a role in personal identity formation. beck's collection of stories and interviews makes the argument that even though many mission oriented anabaptists may feel that "mennonites should not regard themselves as ethnics," the shared nature of their traditions constitute something of an ethnic coherence. certainly the debate is still open. another issue raised by the book as a whole is the importance of the "mundane" in historic or social studies. beck claims mennonite folk studies in general have been ignored by scholars and the public alike book reiienls because of their mundane nature, but that such studies can be quite revealing about cultural values as they relate to religious values. for example, in a chapter on "inter-mennonite ethnic slurs," it becomes obvious that differences between mennonite communities run deeper than theological arguments. boundaries are maintained by colloquial and slang oral practice. mennonite folk traditions a r e important because they are a part of daily life, and it is in the choices and practice of daily life that mennonites have traditionally expressed their faith. analysis of the mundane in mennonite life will deepen an understand- ing of the interface of mennonite theology and social interaction. roland sawatzky mennonite heritage village steiilbach, manitoba history and memoir karel c. berkhoff, harvest of despair: life and death in ukraine under nazi rule. cambridge, m a : harvard university press, . pp. . us $ . karel berkhoff, associate professor at the center for holocaust and genocide studies in amsterdam, has written a remarkable book about human agony and survival in the ukrainian heartland occupied by german soldiers and civilians during world war . with exhaustive exploitation of available archival sources in ukraine, germany and canada, he has given us a stellar example of alltagsgeschichte. this type of histoly depicts life on the local level or describes the evelyday struggle for survival by ukrainians, jews, russians, ethnic germans and other minority groups, including mennonites, in the "dnieper ukraine." nearly every endnote cites several primary sources in ukrainian and russian archives in the native language. this approach might suggest a pro-ukrainian bias, but the broadly conceived thematic chapters demonstrate even-handed treatment of highly controversial issues. sensational familiar events like the massacre at babi yar do not inhibit systematic coverage of an ethos of destruction that pervades the entire reichskommissariat ukraine, which becomes a landscape of genocide in several ways. the two preliminary chapters, sketching the soviet ukraine at the time of the german invasion and the realm of the reichskommissariat, jounlnl of menilonite studies are adequate, although a fuller discussion of the political, diplomatic and theoretical background would have helped the non-specialized reader to understand the events on the ground during the period of the occupation, to . the following chapters are more analytical than narrative and take the form of empirical accumulation of facts, events and attitudes leading to separate interpretive conclusions. they analyze the holocaust of jews and roma, prisoners of war, life in the countiyside, urban conditions, the artificially produced famine in kiev, popular culture, ethnic identities and political loyalties, the practice of religion and piety, deportations and forced migrations. a general chapter entitled "toward the end of nazi rule" describes the role of soviet partisans, the "struggle against gangs" (anti-partisan activities of the ss), the brutal anti-polish actiolls of ukrainian nationalists and the violent reactions on all sides in the wake of the german retreat. there are surprises in nearly every chapter. readers will not be surprised to learn that "the vast majority of non-jews ... just stood by and watched" as the holocaust unfolded. many will be reassured to read that among ukrainians "the baptists and evangelical christians seem to have helped jews the most." some will question the following conclusion: "with regard to ethnic germaiis, there are contradictory reports on their views of jews, but evidence that any of them saved, or tried to save, a jew has not been foul~d." ( - ). the german administration kept the collective farms intact and in the end made them even more exploitive, thus turning the initially friendly peasantiy against the occupiers with a vengeance. the massive depopulation of the cities and the lack of social solidarity is hardly surprising in the light of the deliberate starvation policies. this policy was designed to turn the ukrainian population into servile supporters of the german hen.e?zme~zschen and their volksdeutsche allies who received material privileges. when evaluating ethnic identities and political loyalties, berkhoff provides his readers with the biggest surprise of all. he asserts that "the nazi regime had nearly no effect on the mental outlook of those who survived, thus rejecting the two prevailing schools of thought, one holding that the invaders solidified the soviet peoples support for stalin's dictatorship and the other one which believes that the peoples in dnieper ukraine became more conscious of nationhood. there was a modest religious revival, but it was limited to a continued conversioll to the evangelical branch of protestantism begun in late tsarist times. berkhoff believes that "the widespread disinterest in the orthodox church and religion in general . . . changed little under the nazi regime" ( ). this assumes that the religious restoration in mennonite villages recorded by memoirist like jakob neufeld and anna sudermann were subsumed under his categoiy of evangelicals. book reviews since berlthoff's dissertation took form under the supervision of paul robert magocsi at the university of toronto, whose much broader work on the history of ukraine gave proportionately more space to the russian mennonites, it is curious that the author of this book gives them rather cursoly uncritical treatment. depending on somewhat outdated secondary sources and a single thin memoir, berkhoff completely ignores a substantial secondary literature on mennonites in ultraine. he has mined the resources of the ukrainian center in winnipeg but failed to explore any mennonite archival collection. the picture of himmler at halbstadt reviewing young mennonite recruits for a waffen-ss cavally division with only minimal identifica- tion, as mennonite pacifist youth volunteering to fight for hitlerys imperium, is more than misleading. similar pictures were published in menrzorzite li$e ( ) and there certainly has been no paucity of discussion by mennonites of their falling from grace symbolized by the halbstadt episode and the friendly attitude of mennonite villagers toward the representatives of the third reich. in short, the men- nonite experience of the occupation is not placed in the historical and ethnographic context the picture demands. berlthoff has also missed an opportunity to mine two important recent books that impinge on the mennonite experience, namely michael fahlbusch, wisserzschaft irn dierzst der rzatiorzalsozialistisclzerz politik? ( ) and andrej angrick, besatzzirzgspolitik zirzd masserzmor-d ( ). the latter's examination of the murderous course of einsatzgruppe d through the southern ultraine reveals the presence of a young mennonite police officer who was a deputy commander of einsatzkommando . he was an aspiring teacher from muntau in the molochna and joined the nsdap (the nationalsozialistische deutsche arbeiterpartei) and the ss as early as in danzig and the security service (sd) in . he was responsible for organizing major massacres of jews in crimea and the caucasus regions and is mentioned in a postwar soviet war crimes trial at krasnodar, first noted by alexander rempel, the son of a russian mennonite elder. karel berkhoff's picture of mennonites under occupation in ukraine is far from complete. gerhard rempel jupiter, florida ruth brunk stoltzfus, a way was opened: a m e m o i ~ scottdale, pa: herald press, . pp. . in this delightful book, readers hear the fascinating life story of ruth brunr stoltzfus in her own unique and powerful voice, almost as though hearing it face-to-face in her living room. through many personal quotes and journal entries, readers encounter this pioneer mennonite woman minister's engaging personality. ruth's steadfast faith in god, her zest for life, her deep love for family and her quick wit come through palpably in each chapter. in the end, one is impressed with the stalwart character of this woman, born of tall and strong brunk stock ( ). for this reason, the title a way w a s opened strikes me as particu- larly unfitting for the unfolding events revealed within its pages. the passive voice of this title misrepresents the active role ruth repeatedly took in finding ways to express her ministiy gifts. ruth gives god credit for opening doors in her life saying, "god made a way when there wasn't any way for a woman to use the gifts the spirit had given for public ministry" ( ). yet the stoiy ruth tells makes abundantly clear that she was no passive partner in this process. this woman, driven by a deep sense of inner call, actively imagined doors of opportunity and found numerous ways to test if they would open for her. for example, after ruth imagined a radio broadcast for women she and her husband proposed her idea to a united church of christ minister who had connections in the radio business. ironically, in letters to her mother and her sisters, ruth described this turn of events as "the opportunity that has been thrown right in my lap" ( ). this savvy woman knew in her s context that being too asser- tive was inappropriate for a respectable mennonite woman. later in the s, she "prayed to god for strength to woi-lc for necessaiy change [to enable women's speaking ministries] with caution and with charity" ( ). at various points, ruth's memoir includes the critique she received from some men that she came across too strongly and threatened male leaders. it certainly is not the voice of one who pas- sively waits for a way to be opened for her who writes, "i answered that i refused to strive to be incompetent, and that men would have to grow up" ( ). a way w a s opened clearly reveals that many times, god and ruth brunlz stoltzfus made a way where there was no way. does the book title indicate that this ninety-year-old mennonite minister still has to be careful not to come across too assertively in her church community? no matter the reason for this title, i recommend this memoir to anyone interested in the histoiy of mennonite church life between and the present time. pastors and teachers should recommend book reviews this book to mennonite young people who have no experience of a time when mennonite women were not allow to serve as ordained ministers. the painful and amazing stories of pioneer mennonite women pastors must be heard and remembered. ruth's memoir reveals the nitty-gritty of the controversy over women in ministly in her virginia conference context while not a scholarly work, this book provides historians of mennonite histoiy a significant window into the lives of grant and ruth brunk stoltzfus and an important chronological account of their ministries. historians of mennonite theology, like myself, will be disap- pointed that this memoir does not disclose more fully the substance of the theology ruth embraced and proclaimed through the years. what specific beliefs about malelfemale roles and relationships did she communicate to her largely female radio listeners in the s? what sexual theology did she and grant articulate through their christian family service millistries started in ? while snippets here and there reveal something of ruth's theology, a substantial picture is not given. historians will find in this memoir a perspective on the well- known george brunk i through the loyal heart and loving eyes of a daughter. rut acknowledges her father was involved in church controversies ( ) and indicates she was aware as a child that some people did not like her papa. she never tries to argue that her father would have approved of ordaining women for ministly saying "we must be accurate in our words about him" ( ). however, historical evidence would prove her own words inaccurate when she claims "my father.. .never said anything about the covering being a symbol for a woman's submission to her husband" ( ). nonetheless, historians will find ruth's comments about the george and katie wenger brunk family of keen interest. this autobiographical account of the strong female church leader produced by this family sheds new light on their stoiy. a way was opened is a worthwhile and intriguing read. brenda martin hurst eastern mennonite university jounlal of menlzoizite studies lawrence klippenstein a n d j a c o b dick, mennonite alteinative sewice in russia: the story ofabram diick and his colleagues - . kitchener, on: pandora press and herald press, . pp. iv, . paper, $ . . harvey l. dyck, john r. staples and john b. toews, edited, translated, and introduction, nestor makhno and the eichenfeld massacre: a civil war tragedy in a ukrainian mennonite village. kitchener, o n : pandora press, . pp. . paper, $ . . the years between the end of the tsarist regime and the communist revolution continue to haunt the collective memory of russian men- nonites. the world war i period and the following civil war in russia were most traumatic for mennonites there. if we were to extend the period to include the s and s, there seems little doubt that mennonite suffering during the first half of the twentieth century equaled, perhaps exceeded, the suffering of the anabaptists in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. the two booklets, published by pandora press, deal with two important historical developments. one deals with the mennonites who served their country before and during the war, at the end of mennonite life in tsarist russia. the other deals with a most horrible beginning during the revolutionaly period, namely destruction and death at the hands of lawless men. both publications thus trace the beginning of the elid of mennonite colnlnunal life in russia as it had existed for some years. in a sense klippenstein and dick's melzizonite altenzative s e ~ v i c e in russia still expresses a degree of optimism and some hope for the future. russian mennonites entered the war with a willingness to serve their countly that had become their homeland. as a pacifist ethno-religious group, while wishing to remain true to their historic peace tradition, they willingly put their resources and lives on the line by caring for the wounded at the fronts, on red cross trains and in hospitals. two of the mennonite papers at the time urged their readers to take their service to russia seriously. editor abram kroeker wrote in the friede~zsstimme just before the was: "do we not owe it to our government and russian neighbours to show that if a war ... broke out, we would be ready to serve the interests of the fatherland [russia], and to help the needy" ( )? similarly, d. h. epp, editor of der botschafter, wrote: "we need to show that we have kept the promise of faithfulness made to out forefathers ... our confession forbids us to spill blood, but binding wounds we hold to be a sacred duty" ( ). lawrence klippenstein, who did his doctoral dissertation on mennonite pacifism and state service in russia, provides a helpful book reviews introduction in this book to alternative service ( - ), and jacob dick provides some stories from personal experiences of his father, abram diick, who served his countly in forestly and medical wol-k in the years to . the numerous black and white photographs in this book ( - ) tell us much about the mennonite boys, tjeadels, as they were called. these young men donned uniforms with shining buttons, they rode horses like soldiers--although they were not army men--they posed gladly, it seems, for photographs to be sent home, and their mustaches, which most of them wore, made them resemble tsar nicholas i whom they proudly sewed. when the war ended these mennonite young men returned to their homes, farms and businesses, experiencing not only feelings of betrayal by the country they had served, but also violence, the scourge of civil was, banditry, murder, and the end of a life as they had known it. this tragedy is recorded in nestor makhizo and the eichenfeld massacre, published as part of the tsarist and soviet mennonite stud- ies series of the university of toronto, with general editor harvey l. dyck and associate editor john r. staples. the booklet is dedicated to the mennonite victims who were massacred by nestor makhno's men on october to , , in the niliolaipole volost, ukraine. on may , descendants and friends of these murdered men, women and children gathered at the eichenfeld/dubovka site in ukraine to remember these people's cruel fate. they placed a memorial stone in the form of a traditional mennonite coffin--sculpted by paul epp--thus symbolically giving them a proper burial they had never received. in true mennonite communal fashion, the commemoration and the production of the booklet included a number of participants, both men- nonite and ukrainian. the stoiy of the massacre is told by scholars and witnesses who were interviewed. some eyewitness accounts, written originally in german in earlier publications like the meizizonitisclze rundschau ( ), were translated into english for this publication. interviews of older ukrainian people were conducted by svetlana bobyleva and colleagues ( - ). they retell stories of their parents and grandparents. abram kroeker's account of the killing of tent mis- sionaries ( - ), and peter letkemann's list of names of victims underline the gruesomeness of the massacre. the moving homily at the site by john b. toews, included here ( - ), speaks of "forgiveness and reconciliation and future friendship." while both mennonites and ukrainiails leave no doubt that the victims of the massacre had not deselved their fate, there are those, especially on the ukrainian side, who "believed that mennonite self- defense groups [selbstsclzutz] had provoked retaliation by firing on makhno's forces"( ). mennonites themselves, "as a mainly religious jouii~al of menizoitite studies community," according to the editors, "viewed makhnovite butchely equally as the scourge of god, as recompense for their moral failings" in russia. "but whether interpreted as deserved or not, suffering triggered a powerful revivalist, penitential mood among mennonites that shaped their outlook for decades to come" ( ). indeed, questions and statements concerning the painful experi- ences at the time range from "we have sinned!" to "what would we have done in the face of rape and murder?" some mennonites still feel that armed resistance against the makhno bandits was the right response. others, at the time and later, believed that the formation of selbstschzitz was a betrayal of the mennonite peace principles. the memorial service at eichenfeld/dubovka, with its emphasis on peace and forgiveness is, no doubt, an appropriate response to violence. harry loewen, kelowna, bc adolf ens, becoming a national church: a history ofthe conference of mennonites i n canada. winnipeg: c m u press, . pp. . paper. long time professor of history and theology at canadian mennonite bible college (now university), adolf ens, provides readers with a detailed yet veiy readable account of the conference of mennonites in canada's (cmc) almost century of existence ( - ). this is a wide-ranging story, but ens organized the book-commissioned by the heritage committee of the former cmc-around the theme of churchly evolution toward national status and identity. in this sense, the volume provides background for understanding the formation of mennonite church canada (mc canada), the primary, though not direct or exact, successor to cmc. ens begins with the settlement of bergthaler immigrants in manitoba and the coalescing of the rosenorter geineinde in saskatchewan-two groups that initially formed the conference of mennonites in central canada, as the body was first known. conference membership swelled with the arrival of thousands of additional mennonite newcomers in the s and s and spread east and west. beginning in mid-centuiy, mission churches incorporated some first nations people into the con- ference, and by the s congregations consisting of asian immigrants were joining. ens also provides background on the so-called swiss mennonites of ontario that became cmc members in as a result of inter-mennonite conference integration in eastern canada in . along t h e way, e n s describes t h e expanding and changing understandings of home missions and overseas service, the emergence and consolidation of bible schools, and various attempts to support a church periodical. chapter , which recounts events during - , portrays some of the most profound changes. these developments included language transition to english and new patterns of polity. ens' analysis of polity matters is especially insightful, whether he is describing the break-up of multiple-meeting-place gemeinde into stand-alone congregations, or the shift in centralized leadership from repeatedly reelected committee members to appointed and salaried executive staff. the book includes photographs, provincial maps, and a number of short primary source excerpts or anecdotes as sidebar illustrations. appendices reproduce the constitution text, provide cmc leadership rosters and meeting chronologies. a series of nine tables (with extensive footnotes) reports information on each congregation admitted or withdrawn from cmc. as the title indicates, this is a history of the conference; in that sense it is primarily an institutional history, rather than, say, a social or theological one. for example, the bureaucratic restructuring that replaced the board of christian service with the congregational resources board becomes the opportunity to reflect on the changing ways cmc engaged peace and social issues. and while the cmc story intersects with the institutional histories of the provincial conferences and congregations, on the one hand, and the continental general conference mennonite church and inter-mennonite canadian entities, on the other, ens keeps the focus on cmc. this is appropriate, though readers less familiar with these other bodies may sometimes find all the organizational connections confusing. becomirzg a natioizal church grew out ens' close reading of primary sources generated by or for cmc. perhaps predictably, this clear strength also becomes something of limitation, since the things that dominated those primary sources-position papers (referate) in the early decades, programs and budgets in later years-drive the narra- tive, and context ends up being a bit thin at places. helpful in the opening chapters, for example, was ens' broader discussion of early twentieth-century mennonites and politics, which drew on his previously published work. in contrast, toward the end of the book, i wished for more analysis from ens on the emergence and meaning of national church status and identity. on the one hand, this national evolution seemed natural, given the distinctive features of the canadian social environment and the frustrations inherent in a binational relationships dominated by u.s. agenda. at the same time, the move toward becoming a national church seemed almost haphaz- jountal of imeltlzoltite studies ard. perhaps the process was as unreflective as it appears here, but i wondered if narrative reliance on board minutes and delegate votes gave a more ad hoc feel to the s t o ~ y than a less immediate perspective might have offered. ens has written an informative book that will serve not only academ- ics, but also pastors and lay members of mennonite church canada as they live with the legacies of cmc polity, priorities, and practices. it call also serve as a guide for mc canada as that body continues to explore the implications of being a national church in relation to its own domestic neighbours and to a parallel u.s.-based mennonite denomination. for that mattel; members of mennonite church usa would do well to read this book to understand better the background of their denominational sibling and to reflect on the meaning-new for them-of national church status. i hope all these audiences will give attention to this book. steven m. nolt goshen college edith elisabeth friesen, journey into freedom: one family's real-life drama. winnipeg, man.: raduga press, . pp. . $ cdn. justine d. neufeld, a family torn apart. kitchener, o n : pandora press, . pp. . $ cdn. over the past three generations scores of russian-mennonite refugees have recorded dramatic and moving stories of how they suffered persecution and violence in the brutal era that began with the russian revolution and continued through the stalinist decades and world war . through strong faith, courage and often miraculous luck these survivors were able to escape tyranny and terror and begin lives in a freer world. many victims, of course, remained behind forever. these published memoirs are valuable as social histoly adding to the mennonite stoly. vicariously, we can experience with these survivors their unwavering faith and almost superhuman determination to overcome all obstacles and get on with their lives. for those who survived, their escape from violence and death opened up a freedom they had hardly dared to dream about. that is the persistent theme of edith friesen's journey iizto freedonz, the story of her dycli family which, after years of displacement, deprivation and brutal treatment, finally managed to emigrate to canada after book reviews world war %. their story is told as a "conversation" by the four dyck siblings-anne (the author-editor's mother), lydia, jol~ll and martha-who were separately interviewed but whose comments have been spliced together to form a four-voice "interview" interspersed and enriched by friesen with relevant historical slcetches and dramatic "imagine this" vignettes. this makes for an innovative format that works well most of the time but occasionally becomes a trifle artificial and repetitious. the dyclcs were not a typical small-village russian-mennonite fam- ily. raised in the urban setting of nikopol, they were mostly unaware of their mennonite identity, although they were staunch christians. grow- ing up in a city gave them a degree of sophistication-"street smarts", if you will. after losing their father in the witch-hunt thirties, they were left with their mother to fend for themselves. anne, the eldest, became the acting head of the family as they scrabbled to lceep from starving. through a series of almost incredible miracles they managed to survive and finally got to germany, where they faced brutality afresh from advancing russian troops. on one occasion mother dyck and her three daughters were saved from being raped when the mother fell to her knees and began praying loudly in russian, something she had never done before. as anne says: "her prayers must have frightened the soldiers because they ran away and left us alone." although friesen's book is skilfully crafted with various narrative techniques, she pushes her central theme of "freedom" to the point where it becomes somewhat tedious and confusing. each chapter begins with three or four epigraphs on freedoin by writers ranging from aristotle and cicero to einstein and nelson mandela and many more in between. these quotations describe and define so many dif- ferent kinds of ''freedom" that the reader will be more perplexed than enlightened by them. after all, when all is said and done all "freedoms" are fragile and incomplete and threatened by restrictions and the brutal facts of life. justina neufeld's a farnily torn a p a r t deals essentially with the same tragically chaotic world as friesen's book, but her stoly is told in a vely different way. neufeld tells her touching--often harrowing--stoly in a direct, personal manner that ranges from simple narration to highly suspenseful and stirring stories artfully told. justina was the youngest of ten children in the neufeld family, with eight brothers and a sister. father neufeld was arrested during the stalin purges and never seen again. some of her brothers were conscripted into the german army later, and the whole family was scattered across half of europe. teen- aged justina was sent to france to stay with her brother gerhard and his wife, who were living there as refugees. she was never to see her mother again, as she and sister anna were captured and sent back to the joni-nal of lmennonite studies soviet union. two of her brothers courageously went bacli voluntarily so as to be re-united with the families they had left behind. justina, like so many other russian-mennonite refugees, was rescued by those heroic and indefatigable mcc workers elfrieda and peter dyck and sent to the u.s., where she was able to go bacli to school. an excellent student, she graduated from high school in record time and went on to college, where she earned a degree in nursing admin- istration and eventually an m.a in gerontology. but her good fortune in creating a fine new life for herself has not obliterated her past, especially the loss of her parents and several siblings. having gone back to uliraine several times to search for traces of her lost world, she closes her book with the confession: "what i lost cannot be found by going bacli. a small chamber in my heart remains empty" ( ) here again "fi-eedom" remains incomplete and tied to a bitter past. these two graphically told family odysseys are well worth reading. while they don't have quite the historical scope and diversity of such recent books as david rempel's a mennonite family in tsarist russia and the soviet union ( - ) and harry loewen's collection road to freedom, they must be regarded as among the best of the russian-mennonite memoirs in english. both books are vivified and personalized by appropriate family and scenic photos. friesen's book merges different experiences and points of view into a comprehensive and affecting family history. neufeld's story, by virtue of being told by a single narrator, achieves a gripping emotional intensity as she explores her inner self in the light of her own astonishing experiences and those of her family. books like these remind us once again that our enduring mennonite heritage has been forged in the fires of persecution and suffering over the centuries, and that it has again and again been revitalized by the unyielding faith and triumphant hope of those who survived to tell their stories. a reimer university of winnipeg rudy p. friesen with edith elisabeth friesen, building on the past: mennonite architecture, landscape and settlements in russialukraine. winnipeg, m b : raduga publications. . pp. . building on the past is a massive catalogue of mennonite archi- tecture in russia. winnipeg architect rudy p. friesen has expanded book reviews his previous effort, into the past ( ), to pages. based on his experience as an architect, his many travels to ukraine and historical research, friesen sets forth a comprehensive survey of mennonite buildings and settlements in the former colonies. friesen reigns in the breadth and diversity of his subject by organizing the data according to region and type ( colonies, plus estates, urban centres, and forestry camps). he also creates a system of evolutionary phases of architectural development in the mennonite settlements. this helps to define trends and places individual buildings in historical context. viewing architectural change as "evolution", however, creates the impression that such shifts occur by themselves, inexorably and inevitably. this tends to -emove the builders and users from the architecture. friesen's overlapping architectural phases include: settlement ( - ), progress ( - ), flowering ( - ), disintegration ( - )' and recovely ( -present). such categories are incomplete, but help to give a general sense of at least the author's understanding of the material. loaded terms like "progress" and "flowering" are not particularly helpful, however, and these phases could also be interpreted as "expansion" and "decadence" respectively. historical context is provided through a balanced presentation of mennonite histoly and introductions to each colony chapter, as well as a history of each village presented in the book. this histoiy raises many questions and provides departure points for vasious readings or future studies of the built environment. how does the rise of mennonite institutions in russia after , such as large schools, orphanages, and hospitals relate to the changing nature of the household and vil- lage community at that time? to what extent were these institutional buildings monuments to the wealthy patrons who planned and paid for their construction? were johan cornies' reforms of mennoilite domestic buildings followed in their entirety, or was there resistance and individual experimentation? how were labour activities and social interaction controlled in factoly and institutional settings, and how did this reflect class or ethnic distinctions? it was not friesen's task to answer these questions, but they do arise from the abundance and detail of the material. friesen's approach is that of an architect, with particular attention paid to stylistic influences (i.e. the "eclectic" late- s russian approach, followed by the first "modernn movements such as jugendstil and art nouveau), building materials, and decorative detailing. this is greatly supplemented by over a thousand images, which include recent and historic photographs, floorplans, and reproductions of historic advertisements. this mass of images threatens to overwhelm the book, but the layout design succeeds in balancing the visual material jo ~ zal ofmennonite studies with the text in an organized fashion. photographs of tombstones, factoiy interiors, brickwork, window details, floors and gates all help to provide a more intimate sense of place, around which mennonites made the daily decisions of their lives. mennonites were evidently fully engaged in materiality, despite claims to the contrary, and like all societies used the built environment as symbolic setting for social inculcation. factories, institutions, and estate mansions communicate power, wealth and permanence, and stand out in stark contrast to the poor villagers and peasants in the surrounding areas. there are parallels here with architectural developments of mennonite churches in canada and communities in paraguay. as with many architectural studies, the homes and gathering places of the poor are not well represented, although this is partly due to poor preservation and a lack of written accounts associated with these buildings. vernacular architecture can provide a great deal of information concerning social values and ethnic interaction, but again this would be beyond the scope of this present work. b~iildilzg oiz the past is ultimately a survey that helps to make sense of variety: one begins to understand the complexity and changes in mennonite life through material culture. urban and rural worlds contrast, simplicity is overwhelmed by the ornate and decorative, and the public and private take on a myriad of forms based on status and function. the book is essential for mennonite historians and those interested in russian mennonite life, and will function as a handbook for anyone touring the former colonies. roland m. sawatzlcy mennonite heritage village steinbach, manitoba karl koop, anabaptist-mennonite confessions of faith. the development of a tradition. kitchener, o n : pandora press, . pp. . index. koop has offered a clear and insightful study of a neglected aspect of mennonite histoiy with the identity of the contemporaly mennonite church in mind. but the conditions he proposes in order to make this coherent tradition useful carry significant implications. in the preface, he sets forth this argument: by moving beyond the early anabaptist beginnings and giving attention to the mennonite confessions of faith of the boolc reviews early seventeenth centuly, we can recognize an identifiable and coherent anabaptist-mennonite theological tradition. my conviction is that this tradition is an important horizon for viewing the past, and can be a point of departure for theologians, church leaders, missionaries and ecumenists in t h e anabaptist and mennonite traditions who seelc to understand their own theological heritage, and who endeavor to articulate their convictions in the coiltext of the church and the world. ( ) koop studies three confessions of faith from the seventeenth centuiy: "the short confession" adopted in by the waterlander mennonites; the "jan cents confession" adopted in by the frisian and high german mennonites; and the "the dordrecht confession" adopted primarily by the flemish mennonites in . as koop turns to the study of history, he has in mind present chal- lenges facing the mennonite church. he asks about the role of doctrines and confessions in the mennonite church, whether they are necessary, whether the writing of confessions belongs to a truly mennonite or anabaptist tradition or not, and how confessions can be embraced in a way that does not cause church splits. koop maintains that writing confessions has always been part of the anabaptist-mennonite ti-adi- tion. it seems appropriate to continue to compose confessions of faith, and prudent to learn from past experience how to keep confessions from dividing the mennonite church. according to koop, the three confessions reveal broad agreement, despite certain points of difference. after discussing the way the three confessions treated the various doctrines, he identifies several distinc- tive notes they shared. he lists human capacity to choose between good and evil, personal regeneration expressed in daily discipleship, the voluntaiy gathering of the i-egenerate, communal iilterpretation of scripture through the guidance of the holy spirit, baptism upon confession of personal faith in christ, accountability within the church, a life of peace, refusal to swear oaths, and the life and teachings of jesus as the moral foundation. ( ) koop also spealcs of three themes identified in all three confessions, namely, the importance of human free will, ethical responsibility, and mutual accountability.(l ) important as these were, they did not form the heart of the confessions. rather, they provided a lens, or perspective which helped to shape the heart of the confessions, namely, belief in god, jesus christ, the holy spirit, salvation, the church, the sacraments, the moral life, church discipline, and teaching the last day. koop characterizes the differences among the three groups as relating to "the relationship between inner and outer reality," or the "tension between personal regeneration and jounlal of meliennonite studies a more external and communal emphasis."(ll - ) these differences were a matter of emphasis and did not take away from the development of an "identifiable and coherent tradition." in the end, koop offers the mennonite church two considerations if it is to appropriate this theological tradition for the present. the first is the importance of unity and the second is a recognition of the development of tradition. the tradition that koop presents as cohererzt, was, he stresses, not uniform, for the convictions held commonly by the three confessions were not identical. there is a right way and a wrong way to 'use' confessions: one results in splits and the other values unity. the model that koop holds up is one in which "...the confessions were not optional documents that could be taken lightly.. .(but) were considered secondaly to the scriptures and subordinate to the unity of the church."(l ) he warns against allowing confessional statements, doctrines and even concern for moral integl-ity to break up the church, since "...an ecclesiology faithful to the biblical account assumes the priority of a unified c h ~ r c h . ' ~ ( l ) diversity existed not only alnong the three confessions, but also across time, between the seventeenth century confessions and the sixteenth centuly anabaptists. koop argues that this change is the result of a developing tradition, revealing both strengthening as well as decline. koop presents the moves to a more orthodox doctrine of the incalmation, and away from the ban as positive. the growth away from the sixteenth century anabaptists explicit theology of suffering and martyrdom might represent a decline. koop suggests that in a "...context of prosperity and acculnulation of wealth, europeans and north americans might do well to recall and learn something from the martyrs, who were able to let go of their earthly possessions, and who were willing to completely submit themselves to the will of god. for a recovery of this martyr tradition the confessions of faith may not be vely helpful.. ."(l i don't know if i agree. perhaps, meditation on the confessions which recall the whole heart of the faith are what will keep alive the tradition of obedience, submission and faithfulness, which could mean martyrdom - but usually just suffering. the confessions might provide a more profound basis for submission to christ in new settings, than the niemoly of martyrdom alone. koop's two points regarding unity and development are significant for their origins and their implications which lay and point beyond the mennonite church. indeed, koop ends by noting the necessity of an ecumenical orientation ( ) and a regard for the experience of the church over the years. the notion of the development of tradition is a departure from the initial anabaptist and protestant impulse. koop presents it as a discovery due to post-modern awareness, making the sola scriptura slogan sound nayve. if sola scriptura and the anabaptist book reviews zeal for a pure church a r e both problematic then there is good reason to look for some healing of year old ruptures. o r put differently, it is significant to hold these two 'foreign' values as essential for making the mennonite tradition that koop identifies as one that might "give support to the church in the current context."( ) the incorporation of these two new values represents not just a minor adjustment but a major turning point. in working to identify a mennonite tradition to support the current mennonite church, koop has strengthened the impetus for ecumenical conversation and bridge-building. rachel reesor-taylor winnipeg, manitoba ted e. friesen. memoirs: a personal autobiography of ted friesen altona. mb: ted e. friesen (available from mennonite books, winnipeg, mb), . ' ~ p . . cloth, $ . . memoirs are a very instructive type of writing, revealing unknown things about people. they are, of course, bits that the writer chooses to share publicly, the "lighted" sides of one's life, though "dark" sides are often included as well. they offer a person's own perspective, and sometimes a self-analysis. this volume illuminates the life and work of someone widely known in mennonite and other circles. ted friesen grew up in altona, manitoba and ultimately chose to remain there -- with his wife, linie, and the children, eric, tim and paul -- even when many others, family members included, moved on. an introductoly section about early life, schooling, and social setting, the story proceeds by decades, s, s, and so on. always personal experiences are put into context, giving this autobiographical account a broader framework of meaning and significance. this memoirist illustrates very dramatically how one can gain a well-balanced perspective on the larger world even while remaining part of a relatively small local community. even though ted was not able to finish high school and pursue post secondaly education as he had hoped, other avenues such as wide reading, interacting with people outside the community, undertaking an intense pursuit of cultural interests far beyond the town, and simply extensive traveling, attend- ing concerts and visiting art galleries, brought a strong awareness of the outside world and the good things it had to offer. the decade of the s and world war i added the experience of conscientious joul-nal of meinloi~ite studies objection, even as other family members took a different direction, as shown in the recent national film board production, the pacifist who went to war. by the s ted had become well established in an internation- ally active printing firm, known today simply as "friesens" of altona. it brought with it a very busy life. his personal interests in music, art and literature, already fostered in his parental home, were also maturing quickly by then. his father, d.w., passed away early in that decade, and soon after that sad event, d.w. friesens and sons, owned and run by the brothers, dave, ted and ray, appeared on the scene as an expanding, retooled business organization which would take its place on the business stage with vigour and very considerable success. the author also tells of his venture into the larger field of church work, accepting membership in the board of christian service for conference of mennonites in canada, and the canadian mennonite relief committee. he also became involved in the founding of the radio station cfam in altona and that experience added to the fabric of his life. further amplification of this important communications venture must await another volume! with the s came the grieving of the loss of mother, sarah (klippenstein) striemer friesen, a widow when she married d.w., and a "consummate homemaker." that decade also saw the loss a still-born child, madeleine ruth, and the death also of father peter b. ki-ahn, a widely respected teacher. the decade brought three further public arenas of great interest and participation - mennonite central committee (canada), mennonite historical society of canada and the altona mennonite church, which was founded during these years. each remains vely close to ted's heart to this day. then came a fiftieth birthday for both ted and linie, anniversaries, much more travel and church work, some writing and publication with boolcs on the altona mennonite church, his johann klippenstein "line" (related to this reviewer) , the village of grigorievlca in present-day northern ukraine which once had been a home village for the krahns, some worlc with videos and films, plans for retirement, and finally these memoirs also. ted's has been a full and productive life, and my brief sketch of his booli can only hint at its rich details! ted's concluding statement, "i have no special gifts", is a most modest summing up for a man named altona's "citizen of the year" in . his very extensive libraly of mennonitica, art and music and his rich collection of personal papers are among the legacy from which others will benefit. this volume, now given to others for their libraries, includes a fine selection of photos, and is excellently published by the "home firm", of boolc reviews course. memoirs such as these will surely inspire others to undertake similar venture, that is, to leave a legacy through which maiiy people can be blessed and greatly enriched. lawrence klippenstein winnipeg, manitoba lucille marr, t h e transforming power of a century: m e n n o n i t e central c o m m i t t e e and i t s evolution i n ontario. kitchener, o n and scottdale, pa: pandora press (co-published by herald press), . pp. with bibliography and index. paper, $ . cdn, $ . u.s. in the early s david worth, newly appointed director of mennonite central committee ontario (mcc) felt institutional memory slipping away. e. j. swalm and ross nigh, both brethren in christ (bic) pastors and prime movers in inter-mennoniteibic activities passed from the scene. c. j. rempel, first director of the mcc office in the s, was in his mid-seventies and in poor health. alice snyder, margaret brubacher, and maiy harder, leading lights in the development of ontario programs had all retired. wortli had good reasons to be concerned. he convinced the mcc ontario board to appoint a history project committee to preserve and "tell the stoly of the way we were then and the way we are now." this volume is an impressive result. lucille marl; a well-trained historian and co-pastor with her husband of the mennonite fellowship of montreal, spent eight years reading the documents, interviewing maiiy leaders and participants, and writing what has to be one of the most interesting church agency histories. it is surely the best researched and written stoly of a regional or provincial mcc body. as such this is an important contribution to canadian church histoly and of course mennonite history. mam tells the story of mcc ontario in great detail. but she does not overlook the ontario setting or relevant canadian political developments. she highlights the evolving nature of inter-mennonite structures beginning with the non-resistant relief organization established during world war i. in the s the nrro became the conference of historic peace churches. this conference convinced the government in ottawa to provide alternative service for canadian conscientious objectors during world war . the same body provided chaplaincy services for hundreds of young conscientious objectors in camps within the province and beyond. it was inevitable that the journal of meiulonite studies conference of historic peace churches would be one of the building bloclcs of what became mcc ontario in . rightly marr" seeks to hear women's voices, for the mcc s t o ~ y is also theirs." here again there is a pre mcc identity with the ontario sewing circles who began cooperative work even before world war i. their collecting and making clothing, blankets, preserving food provided resources for the several relief programs and for a time the canadian red cross. during world war i sewing circle leaders established the ontario mennonite women's cutting room preparing material for home based sewing. soon they added a clothing depot and a food depot. these, too, became essential building bloclcs of the new organization. the role of mcc headquartered in akron, pennsylvania, was not incidental to ontario developments. under the energetic leadership of orie . miller and ernest bennett, mcc proposed establishing a canadian office in kitchener in december . ontario leaders were not sure about the expansion of this organization in such an assertive fashion into canada even though they already cooperated with mcc in a variety of programs. ontario women in particular took a number of cues on material assistance from the ephrata, pennsylvania material resource center. what made t h e mcc move acceptable was naming a young mennonite brethren banker c. j. rempel as director of the office. rempel's successors, particularly businessman edward snyder and visionary harvey taves, increasingly directed the office's program toward ontario and canada issues. when mcc ontario was formed the kitchener office already at kent avenue had its own voluntary service program, a teachers program in newfoundland, a boys school known as ailsa craig boys farm (later craigwood) and a local men- nonite disaster service group in tune with civilian defense concerns of the canadian government. if taves's health had not been so precarious the mcc canadian office would have been even more creative and assertive. the formation of mcc ontario in - was precipitated by the formation of mcc canada. marr candidly and deftly notes the dissatisfactions of western canadians and with the kitchener office and pressure from mcc akron in determining priorities in ontario. a critical issue was where relief monies should go: to the poor within the mennonite household of faith or to the most needy people regardless of race or creed. it was "winds from the canadian west" which forced "ontario mennonites to shift allegiance from their pennsylvania roots to embrace the brewing 'canadian mennonite nationalism."' strong voices in ontario supported the new canadian organization even though harvey taves and a number of ontario leaders vigorously opposed it. interestingly, just as ontario agreed with reservations to the crea- tion of a mcc canadian office, now with similar reservations, ontario mennonite and brethren in christ accepted the leadership of mcc canada based in winnipeg. in both cases the ontario inter-mennonite leadership turned these events into positive moments of growth in local activity while continuing to provide strong support for both canadian and international program. in a review it is impossible to summarize the flowering of mcc ontario since . harvey taves's untimely death in at age deprived the mennonite and brethren in christ community of one of its most forceful voices. remarkably mcc ontario quickly found new and strong capable leaders. marr might have mentioned that these leaders not only made local programs prominent in the mcc system, but also supplied strong leadership in both mcc canada and mcc international. she does include in the text names of many ontario workers both in north america and abroad. since ontario mennonites and brethren in christ have been vely generous in supporting mcc programs, it would have been interesting to chart contributions, particularly since . i t would be difficult for an mcc insider not to be enthusiastic about this book. the inter-mennonite scene in ontario has been at the forefront of the mcc movement in north america and beyond. it is no accident that the north american office of mennonite world conference is in kitchener. marr traces this interest and adds much new information about mcc. she understands well the ethos of mcc. with a "bottom up" approach, marr demonstrates that mcc is indeed a people's movement of women and men, both young and elderly. she is not afraid to point out weaknesses along the way, particularly the organization's failure to recognize the leadership potential of women participants. she highlights the slow but sure change in this regard. i thought h knew the essential ingredients of the mcc stories. but lucille marr fills in more than a few gaps. this book is one of the two or three essential books for anyone, including any executive director of mcc international, wishing to understand the "transforming power" of this significant ministly. john a. lapp, global mennonite history project akron, pennsylvania. jol~i al ofmeititoitite studies donald martin, old order mennonites of ontario: gelassenheit, discipleship, brotherhood. kitchener o n : pandora press (co-published with herald press), . pp., . paper, $ us; . cdn. index, bibliography, appendices donald martin is a member of the markham-waterloo conference of old order mennonites in ontario, a group that separated from the more traditional horse-and-buggy driving old order mennonites about sixty years ago. the two groups cooperate in some areas such as schools and the use of meetinghouses and share a common old order identity, histoly, and theological perspective. martin's book is an important contribution to the scholarly literature on old order groups because, to my knowledge, it is the only systematic account of old order history, theology, and practice written by an old order lay historian. although martin's focus is on ontario, he sets his story in the context of broader old order developments and relationships in the united states as well. martin's work parallels the writing of isaac r. horst, a canadian old order horse-and-buggy author of a separate people (herald press, ). martin's work, however, is more systematic and historically grounded. whereas horst's is aimed at a more popular audience. martin's purpose for writing is "to portray the old order mennon- ites," to outsiders in a "non-compromising and non-offensive way"( ). the material is organized into twenty chapters and an epilogue that focuses on gelasselzheit, a concept which martin stresses throughout the book. indeed, the key argument of the book, is found in his first sentence of the epilogue: "the old order mennonite community and the anabaptist ethos of gelnsselzheit are synonymous." although gelassenheit appears in hutterite writings, sandra cronk was the first scholar to use the word in as a concept to understand rituals of submission and yieldedness in old order mennonite and amish communities. martin is the first old order writer to use gelasserzlzeit as his primaly conceptual category to organize historical material and interpret old order beliefs and practices. he argues that the ethos of gelasse~zheit was the reason that old orders rejected outside cultural and theological influences such as pietism, fundamentalism, revivalism, missions, and individualism. pietist scholars will not be comfortable wit martin's pejorative view of pietism which he juxtaposes against anabaptism based on his reading of robert friedmann. in addition to his historical analysis of the various old order schisms in canada and the united states, two important chapters ( and ) focus on the distinctive features of old order belief and practice. in chapter he identifies some distinctive beliefs-obedi- ence, brotherhood, ordnuizg, communalism, leadership, and the "old order standm-that characterize his tradition. later in chapter he describes old order practices related to worship, communion, counsel meetings, weddings, funerals, family, holidays, gender and technology. these chapters provide rich insights into the old order worldview and theological commitments. unlike horst's books, martin provides more scholarly apparatus such as endnote references, a complete bibliography, several valuable appendices, and an index. the index however tends to focus on names more than topics and the topics that a r e included a r e somewhat random. there are entries for telephone, but none for technology, bicycles, auton~obile or car, despite the fact that the car was a major point of contention in several twentieth centuly old order divisions. the organization of the book follows a chroilological time line, yet is somewhat uneven, and not always clear the groffdale conference weaverland conference division in lancaster county (pa) of was seported as thrice on pages and . martin's wol-k is a welcome and important contribution to old order studies. and while its thorough scholarship makes for a significant contribution, it paradoxically is an aberration in a community char- acterized, historically at least, more by oral tradition and informal sentiments, than by abstract concepts and formal arguments. donald b. kraybill young center for anabaptist and pietist studies elizabethtown college mil penner, section : a century on a family farm (lawrence k s : university press of kansas, ). pp. . cloth. this is a spendid book, written by a farmer with a deft and poetic hand, a vivid imagination, a keen eye for detail and a well-grounded memoly. it brings to life the world of milford penner, who, born in , spent his boyhood on section - - w near inman, kansas. but it is much more than an autobiography. it renders the histoly of a kansas farm family, a mennonite family, despite the book's featureless subtitle. in the process it also presents a picture of change in agricul- ture among mennonites. it outlines new farm technologies, changing concepts of community, shifting gendered worlds, and challenging inter-generational relations. as penner notes, the aim of the book is to "recall values, customs and a way of life with close ties to the land" (xi. the book thus links the modern mennonite farmer to the land. numerous works suggest that the amish and old order mennonites have maintained a special relationship to the land and of these david kline's great possessions is perhaps the best known. penner's book casts aside this notion of 'old order' exceptionalism, showing how modern farmers too can have a love for the land, an affinity for nature and respect for the earth. these mennonites smell fresh dirt also from the seat of a tractor, observe the northern lights from the balcony of a modern house, and see the flowers from a passing pickup truck. they are farmers who are concerned about environmental desecra- tion, despise the oil companies' many sink holes, wonder about the vulnerability of pulverized soil, grieve the disappearing bird types. and where they have been party to violence on the land they show that they can change their ways. penner confesses his decades-long work in reshaping the land through irrigation projects, avenues in which "the bulldozer was my idol," and acknowledges the shortsightedness in which "conquest [was] the only value" ( ). the book also illuminates the culture of the progressive kansas mennonite community. i t details the complex interrelatedness of mennonite faith and ethnicity. although penner chooses the obscure word 'low dutch' to refer to the more common 'low german' or 'pautdietsch' dialect, his description of its cultural workings is highly convincing: when "pop", for example, would repair a seized up combine in degree fahernheit weather he would "speak to devil in low dutch," swear words only if translated into english. he describes evelyday religiousness, sometimes critically: a minister visit young milford before baptism, coming around at an inopportune time, and then after this "rite of passage" the minister never visits again. culture comes in tone and shade and things not said: community members arrange for visits by exploratory telephone calls, speaking first about weather, and then haltingly they hint of their desire to visit. the family struggles with religious ethics: they wonder about working on sunday and knows that immunity is assured when weather patterns threaten the crop or the land. mil's pacifist impulses are tested in world war , and are predisposed by the racist reflection "that if i were guaranteed i could fight the japanese and not the germans, i could join the army. ..." ( ); in the end he becomes a conscientious objector, although mostly because "pop" declares mil's "pacifism" for him. the socialization of children occurs not through the rules of autlloritative parents, but through "the combined influences of sunday school, catechism, overheard adult conversation and lack of encouragement ..." ( ). this book shows that autobiography can be highly affective in pre- senting mennonite life in twentieth century nortl~ america. mennonite histoly too often is strong in identifying a community's institutions. book reviews mennonite poetly and fiction are always adept at showing the pathos of artists caught on the periphery of the community. mennonite sociologist differentiate the rural from urban worlds, variously lauding the former or the latter and questioning the authenticity of the other. section is a work by a member of the community who knows how rural and urban forces are intertwined, recognizes the incongruent features of life, and declines the dichotomies of other disciplines. i found the book refreshing in its perceptiveness, its candor, and absence of self-righteousness. royden loewen university of winnipeg j o h n r. staples, cross-cultural encounters on the ukranian steppe: settling the molochna basin, - . toronto, university of toronto press, . pp. . cloth. at the recent international conference "molochna : mennonites and their neighbours ( - )," john staples presented a paper entitled "putting russia back into russian mennonite history." that certainly happened at the conference where more than two-thirds of the participants were non-mennonite scholars. in this study of the settlement of the molochna basin, staples contributes significantly to this new and exciting era in russian mennonite research and writing. by focusing on this smaller geographic era he puts russia back into the settlement experiences of mennonite migrants during the first half of the nineteenth centuly. until recently, much of the russian mennonite story was shaped by the memories of people fleeing from impossible life circumstances. many of these documents reflected memories of an idyllic lifestyle amid a physical landscape isolated from the outside world and were permeated by a nostalgia for a lost world. conversely there was also anger when that world was destroyed by the bolshevik revolution. by focusing his study on the molochna basin, staples challenges some of the assumptions characterizing the works of amateur and professional historians who studied mennonites in ukraine. he reminds mennonite readers that we were not alone on the ukrainian steppe. there were others - orthodox peasants, nogai, german colonists and doukhobors. he rnakes a convincing argument for the fact that mennonites, instead of being uniquely privileged, started the survival race with other settlers from the same finishing line. none had previous agricultural experience in dealing wit the arid steppe, most of the settlers could be defined as peasants and all subscribed to traditional religious beliefs. furthermore, all received similar incei~tives from the russian state. yet in the end, the varied settlers ran the race towards prosperity vely differently. for staples, the drought of - marked a turning point insofar as mennonites altered the paradigm of their existence in the molochna basin. rather central to that re-definition were the often controversial reforins of the entrepreneurial johann cornies. for staples, the cornies era was not so much a symbol of secularization as an indication of an acrimonious but healthy dialogue within the mennonite com- munity. somewhat ironically, the quarrels of the late s and early s generated both piety and prosperity. ultimately, it generated a civil system alongside the traditional congregational structure. both entities, though reminiscent of the medieval church-state, significantly benefited the mennonite settlers in the molochna basin. by participating in the life of the local congregation they strengthened their religious identity. concurrently their role in the mennonite state allowed for inventiveness and innovation. in contrast to the orthodox state peasants, the mennonites were in complete control of their land and their church. orthodox peasant pas- sivity in the local church failed to generate a strong religious ideiltity nor did the state peasants have the freedom to change the established communal land system. in the end, similar starting advantages pro- duced vely different results. initially, both mennonite and orthodox settlers were truly peasants and for a time, it seemed both would move beyond that categoly. yet the orthodox colonist regressed and again became a peasant while the mennonite, according to staples' apt phrase were "peasants in the process of 'de-peasantizing"' (p. ). the author's arguments for his revisionist views are convincing. he writes in a crisp, non-partisan style and almost by way of understate- ment says "here is the evidence." utilizing russian archival material, he offers significant corrections to traditional views generated by an abundance of in-house mennonite documents. thanks to staples' research and the ongoing energetic contributions of ukrainian and russian scholars, a new era is emerging in russian mennonite studies. hopefully the study will signal the first of many books that expand our understanding of the multi-dimensional experience of the mennonites in russia and ukraine. staples is to be congratulated for a first class study. john b. toews regent college, vancouver, bc book reviews j o h n h. yoder, a n a b a p t i s m a n d r e f o r m a t i o n i n switzerland: an historical and theological analysis oftlze dialogues between anabaptists and reformers. edited by c. arnold snyder. translated by david carl stassen and c. arnold snyder. introduction by neal blough. kitchener: pandora press, . pp. . $ . cdn, $ . us. john howard yoder is best known for his scholarly contributions in biblical theology, social etl~ics and peace studies. several of his earliest scholarly works, however, were in the area of reformation studies, such as his dissertation on swiss anabaptism, publisl~ed in , and a later study also on the swiss anabaptists, published in . until recently, these studies by yoder were available only in german-language publications. thanks to the translation efforts of david carl stassen and c. arnold snyder, the english-speaking world now has access to these seminal writings, which have been combined into a one-volume work. the book is divided into two parts. part i is a survey of the origins of anabaptisin in and around zurich with special attention to the dialogues and disputations (gesprache) that took place between swiss anabaptists and zwinglian reformers from to . part i is a systematic analysis of the dialogues. the book includes a preface by the editor, c. arnold snyder, which provides an assessment of yoder's scholarship in the context of anabaptist and radical reformation studies. also incorporated is an introduction by neal blougl~, which maps out the central themes in yoder's early work that would become integral to his more mature writings. a publication of this sort deserves some explanation. after all, yoder's scholarship reflects the anabaptist historiography of the mid- twentieth centuiy and thus represents a somewhat outdated viewpoint of swiss anabaptist origins. this raises the question of whether this publication is truly an event to be celebrated, as the editor of the volume claims. in continuity with the work of john horsch, harold bender, and robert friedmann, yoder's worlc clearly belongs to the genre of anabaptist scholarship that sought to rehabilitate the anabaptists from hostile mainstream historiography. yoder did not only assume that the anabaptists originated in zurich in close geographical proximity to zwingli. he also maintained that they stood in close tlzeological proximity to this reformer, and that the swiss anabaptists provided the "anabaptist" template by which other anabaptist groups should be measured. by the s, this approach was superceded by empirical studies that emphasized the multiple origins of various anabaptist movements, all with unique characteristics and none providing a template for the jor~mal of memlonite studies rest. on the one hand, therefore, yoder's work represents an older view no longer accepted by specialists in the field. thus, some read- ers, conversant with the current state of anabaptist historiography, will undoubtedly find yoder's broad generalizations concerning anabaptism unconvincing and even frustrating. yoder would later learn from the revisionist historians and accept a broader definition of anabaptism, but his woi-lc does not yet reflect this insight. on the other hand, readers will find it difficult to dispute the thoroughness and comprehensive nature of yoder's investigations. his ability to painstakingly sift through vast amounts of primaly source material, and his skill in finding larger patterns of meaning that cut across academic disciplines is remarkable. in this volume we discover yoder's seminal thought that would permeate his later scholarship, and we see the extent to which his views on ecclesiology, christology, and histoly clearly derived from his early encounter wit the anabaptists of ziirich. the book should be of significant interest to historians and theologians of anabaptism, and it will be essential reading for those seeking to understand the trajectory of yoder's thought over a period of four decades. somewhat enigmatic was yoder's move away from historical studies as he was approaching the mid-point of his scholarly careel: after , he withdrew from active engagement with sixteenth centuly anabaptist scholarship, and moved on to write in other disciplinary fields. evidently the methodological sea change in anabaptist studies, less than a decade after he had completed his second volume of the anabaptist-reformed dialogues, was inhospitable to his intellectual sensibilities. even though, already in his dissertation, yoder aclcnowl- edged differences among the various anabaptist groups, it was "the anabaptism that endured" that mattered and was worthy of historical study. the early swiss tradition, along with anabaptists such as menno simons, pilgram marpeck, and the hutterian brethren would continue to be essential material for ecclesiological and ethical reflection. until the end of his career yoder remained tenaciously consistent in his methodology and continue to privilege the kinds of questions and concerns whicli in his opinion mattered most. a central theme in yoder's study is that the anabaptists had an "inexhaustible will to dialogue." ecumenical conversation, according to yoder, was not simply a strategy to escape persecution, but emerged out of a particular theological epistemology and understanding of ecclesiology. while yoder did not assume that truth emerged merely from the process of conversation-he held to epistemological norms-in his later writings he would emphasize the importance of testing one's own theology, not simply within one's own circle, but in conversation with others. a basic question that arises from this is whether the early book revieli s anabaptists were truly as dialogical as yoder understood them to be, or whether his interpretation of anabaptism in this regard was skewed by his own ideals. further investigation into the nature of religious dialogue during the reformation age will hopefully clarify the extent to which anabaptists fi-eely chose to enter into dialogue as a conscious means of testing their own theological suppositions, and the degree to which they entered into dialogue as a matter of survival in the face of persecution. karl koop canadian mennonite university sergei i. zhuk. russia's lost reformation: peasants, millennialisrn, and radical sects in southern russia and ukraine, - . woodrow wilson center press & the johns hopkins university press: washington, dc and baltimore, . pp. xx, . $ . , us. cloth. this comparative study of sectarianism makes bold claims about the social, political, and cultural impact of shalaputs, stundists, molokans, mennonites, and related religious groups. zhulc's main argument is that the social and cultural dislocation caused by colonization of the southern frontier, combined with the equally profound dislocation caused by serf emancipation in , led to a religious awakening in southern russia and ukraine that is analogous to the radical reforma- tion in the west. while zhuk's evidence, derived from regional and central archives in ukraine and russia, is intriguing, his uncritical application of social-science theories, and his equally uncritical use of sources, result in a book that has little scholarly value. zhuk begins by describing "charter groups" of settlers in southern ukraine. these groups play an important role in zhuk's argument because they provided a base-line of sectarian doctrine with which subsequent immigrant groups interacted. a puzzling omission from zhulc's charter groups is the dukhobors. the molochna region, where the dukhobors lived from - , is an important focus of the book. while the molochna mennonites, molokans, skoptsy, khlysty, and shalaputs receive close attention, the dulchobors - the first large group of religious sectarians to settle in the region and the group that prompted the most controversy among tsarist officials in the s and s - are altogether ignored. zhulc pays much closer attention to the mennonites, but the results a r e unsatisfying. early pietist influence in southern ukraine is a joun~al of mennonite studies vital component in zhuk's account of the construction of ukrainian and russian radical sectarian identity, so the original sources of pietist influence are fundamentally important to his argument. but zhuk's claim that "during the s, religious enthusiasm, influenced by 'prussian pietism,' took over all the mennonite settlements of the molochna," ( ) is simply unsupported by the evidence. this example points to a central problem with rz~ssia's lost reformation. zhuk is uncritical of his sources, and worse yet, he sometimes seems to misinterpret those sources in the interests of his own argument. zhuk's sole source on molochna mennonite pietism in the s is delbert plett's golderz years, but nowhere does plett claim that pietism "took over all the mennonite settlements." just as troublesome as this misinterpretation is that zhuk apparently does not recognize that plett's self-published study of a minority group within the mennonite settlement is not, by itself, an adequate source for characterizing the entire community. zhulc is equally uncritical of the sociological, anthropological and political theorists who appear so frequently in his book. frederick jackson turner, max weber michele foucault, clifford geertz, victor turner, arnold van gennep, and james c. scott are all called upon in support of various claims, but zhuk does not question or interpret their theories in light of his own evidence; the theories are treated as paradigmatic, and touted by zhuk as substitutes for sound archival evidence. a significant example is zhulc s allegiance to weber's protestant ethic as an explanation for the emergence of capitalism in southeril ulwaine. weber's work is vital to the modern sociology of religion, but the protestant ethic has been repeatedly debunked in recent scholarship. if zhuk proposes to rejuvenate this theory, he must at least address the controversy that surrounds it. instead, in a chapter entitled "peasant theologians and the protestant ethic," zhuk accepts weber unquestioningly, offering in support, a series of accounts of sober industrious, economically successful sectarian peasants. this anecdotal evidence is not supported by quantitative socio-economic analysis that might prove or disprove it. zhuk's eagerness to link his sectarian subjects to late-tsarist politi- cal radicalism seems to contradict his weberian arguments. he claims that the radical sects particularly appealed to poor ukrainian peasants, helping to motivate then to participate in radical political movements in the s and s ( , ). while there may have been sufficient variety ainong sectarian groups to produce both prosperous capitalists and impoverished political radicals, zhulc is oblivious to the apparent contradiction. in fairness it must be said that zhulc's chapter on the convergence of religious and political radicalism is the best part of this book. book reviews employing sectarian, official church, and police sources, he clearly documents this intersection of interests. unfortunately (and despite the promise of the book's title) he does not pursue this stoly into the revolutionary years of the early twentieth centuiy, noting in passing that "evangelical peasants did not participate in the political struggle during the revolutions of and " ( ). russia's lost reformation does not succeed in mounting a convinc- ing argument that imperial russia experienced a radical reformation in the late nineteenth century. although zhuk frequently points out similarities between events in russia and the west, the comparisons are mechanical and unsatisfying. when zhuk describes the evolution of shalaput religious practices away from castration toward "more rationalized and abstract ideals" in the s, he observes that "the shalaputs moved in t h e direction of religious enthusiasm, which was typical for all european christian radicals, such as the first anabaptists, early quakers, methodists, and shakers" ( ). this may be true, but is the similarity more than skin-deep? the shalaputs emerged in the late nineteenth century, in far different circumstances than the early european christian radicals to whom zhuk compares them. the shalaputs were in close contact with mennonites who were experiencing their own religious upheavals - upheavals that clearly had nothing to do with the problems of the first anabaptists. zhuk's comparison could only have been valuable if he had explored the obvious differences, rather than commenting in passing on the obvious similarities. zhuk is no more successful in his attempt to claim far-reaching influence for his sectarians. he maintains in his conclusion that "the shalaputs, radical stundists, and maliovantsy . . . structured the popular oppositional discourse in imperial russia" ( ). this claim is not substantiated, and indeed zhuk's own calculations would suggest a different story. when he attempts to quantify the number of stundists in the empire, he concludes that they made up just two percent of the population even in the regions where they were most populous ( ). his appendices document just , sectarians out of a total russian population of almost million in ( ). still, he insists that the stundists "influenced no less than one-third of the population" in some southern regions ( ). how h e a r r i v e s a t t h i s f i g u r e , a n d what he m e a n s by "influenced," a r e unclear. in the end there is little to recommend russia's lost reformatiolz. zhuk's central premise, that cultural and socio-economic dislocation cause religious radicalism, might well be right. his extensive knowledge of regional and central archives, and his equally extensive reading in social science theoly, offer the potential for important insights into this little-known stoly. jour-nal ofmellltonite studies unfortunately, theoiy and evidence do not converge, and this potential has not been realized. john staples state university of new york, fredonia peace studies and theology j. denny weaver, and gerald biesecker-mast, eds., teaching peace: lvonviolence and the liberal arts. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield, . pp. fernando enns, scott holland, and ann k. riggs, eds., seeking cultures of peace: a peace church conversation. telford, pa: cascadia, . pp. . two recent books on peace by anabaptist scholars complement each other well. they inspire intellectual dialogue. above this, they serve as impetus for taking the practical historic peace church wit- ness into different contexts, namely post secondaly education and the universal church. the first book, teaching peace: nonviolelzce and the liberal arts, edited by j . denny weaver and gerald biesecker-mast grew out of a conference by mennonite colleges for new faculty. during the confer- ence and later at bluffton college, weaver invited the staff to rethink how nonviolence could undergird and influence each colleague's discipline. the book is an outcome of that discussion. the second book, seeking cultures of peace: a peace church conversation, is a compilation of selected essays presented during an international historic peace church (quaker, brethren, and mennon- ite) consultation, held in june in bienenberg, switzerland. the consultation occurred as a direct result of an invitation by the world council of churches (wcc) in . the invitation asked the historic peace churches to offer direction for the wcc's "decade to overcome violence, - : churches seeking reconciliation and peace." seeking cultures of peace offers some of the historic peace churches' most recent work on the subject of theology and peacemaking. the first two chapters of teaching peace both situates and frames the discussion of how nonviolence can play a formative role across academic disciplines. biesecker-mast's introduction lays the groundwork for a new foundation for christian academics, namely by ~ o o k reviews imitating an alternative and activist christian church as understood by the historic peace churches. this becomes the baseline for how professors can engage their academic disciplines. by beginning with a worldview where violence and its consequences are not "natural", colleges and universities can offer academic instruction without accepting "violence-accommodating methodologies and pedagogies" as "fact" underlying the various disciplines ( ). the second chapter provides the guiding definitions for the book by defining the terms nonviolence and violence. social-ethicists stassen and westmoreland-white argue that before definitions can be offered, the questions, "what is violence?", and, "what is and what is not an acceptable use of violence?" need to be separated and answered. succinctly, the authors review early definitions of force, coercion, and violence and offer their own definition; violence is "...destruction to a victim or victims by means that overpower the victim's consent" ( ). no definition for nonviolence is given by the authors, instead nonviolence refers to the practices and initiatives of just peacemaking theoiy, which is based on the biblical understanding of slzalom, and which stassen has summarized from his early work. the remaining of chapters each apply nonviolence to specific academic subjects. two examples are given below. david janzen offers a way around the violent god of the old testament and the nonviolent jesus in the new testament dichotomy. instead of privileging the new testament above the old or feverishly attempting to harmonize old testament texts to new testament texts, janzen promotes a christocentric approach to reading violent old testament passages. in this approach obedience to christ's nonviolent life and teaching is kept, a trinitarian understanding of god remains consist- ent, and the character of god is no longer problematic. this is achieved by superceding authorial intent, which retains the entire bible as authoritative yet highlights the nonviolent themes as those that most closely identify the character of god. jeff gundy, in a chapter entitled, "literature, nonviolence, and nonviolent teaching", explains that teaching nonviolently may be harder than teaching about nonviolence. in the first half of gundy's essay, he describes how themes of violence and peace appear within classic literature and film. while the literature rarely promotes peace itself, it is however an excellent opportunity to examine texts from a nonviolent perspective. the second and more intriguing half of gundy's essay reveals a nonviolent pedagogy, whereby gundy argues against a top-down, bank-deposit style of teaching, using stanley hauerwas as his counterpoint. gundy explains that teaching peaceably includes accepting students' as they come and appearing fallible by not having the answer to evely question. by exhibiting a confident, passionate teaching style that refuses to treat students as blank slates, nonviolent teaching can offer a life long example of how to live nonviolently, modeling the vely behavior that is studied in class. seeking cultur'es of peace offers a more theological treatise on christian peacemaking. the essays are written to the universal church as opposed to christian colleges and universities. the book's sixteen chapters encompass the rich and varied cultures and faith traditions united under the historic peace church banner. of additional value is the epistle from bienenberg, a statement of peace convictions and suggestions and a study paper addressed to the wider church, created and signed by the participants. two of three major groupings of essays are clustered under the themes, "the gospel of peace in context: shaping identity", and "building cultures of just peace"; this compilation of essays boasts an international list of authors, a quarter of which are female writers. similar themes inhabit both books, with author j . denny weaver continuing his argument for a nonviolent atonement. scott holland, in his essay, "the gospel of peace and the violence of god" addresses a similar question as does david janzen in the previous book. another theme is evident as well in the outline of an accessible peace theology that includes a high christology to the wider church, while at the same time leaving room for other formulations for a christian peace theology. the two books combined offer an impressive argument for extend- ing the historic peace church witness into schools of higher education as well as the universal church itself. either alone or together, teach- ing peace and seeking cultures of pence would be welcome additions to any university library or serious student of peace studies. as conversation starters, these books have more than fulfilled their role. korey dyck menno simons college community development: journai of the community deveiopmeni society. vol. , no. , winter the waste solutions forum: an innovative and cooperative approach to support the agricultural community and protect water quality eric bendfeldt, katharine knowlton, tanya denckla cobb, franklin dukes, kathy holm, and jactone arogo ogejo nitrogen (n) and phosphorus (p) contamination of water resources is a significant concern for the chesapeake bay and threatens the economic viability of farming communities within the shenandoah valley. nutrient reduction challenges in the shenandoah valley are greater because the excess nutrients in the region are largely in the form of manure and poultry litter, which have traditionally been applied to cropland and are difficult and expensive to transport long distances. poultry is virginia's top revenue earner for receipts in the agricultural sector and employs , people statewide. dairy farming generates about $ million in farm receipts in virginia and percent of the state's dairy farms are located in the shenandoah valley. the waste solutions forum was convened in april by virginia tech faculty and a planning committee comprised of individuals representing the agricultural and environment conservation communities and other interest groups to explore innovative, economically viable, and long-term solutions to these nutrient challenges and issues. nearly invitees from the agricultural, business, regulatory, environmental, and academic communities participated in a facilitated "outcome-based" discussion that resulted in a detailed strategy for addressing excess manure and litter, including specific priority actions for research, pilot projects, policy, and education. the forum and its steering committee continue to focus on these strategies and long-term solutions to the nutrient challenge facing animal agriculture in an effort to support the agricultural community and protect water quality. this collaborative approach of traditional and non-traditional partnerships has allowed the forum to make significant progress toward long-term solutions and achieving the defined priority actions, including receipt of over $ million in grant funds, implementation of multiple on-the-ground pilot projects, numerous educational events, and coordinated policy to support agriculture and improve water quality. keywords: collaborative, non-traditional partnerships, outcome-based solutions nitrogen (n) and phosphorus (p) contamination of water resources is a significant concern for the chesapeake bay and threatens the economic viability of fanning communities within the shenandoah valley. implementing sustainable and cost-effective solutions for nutrient management is critical for restoring water quality and sustaining agriculture. nutrient reduction challenges in the shenandoah valley are significant because the excess nutrients in the region are largely in the form of manure and poultry litter, which eric bendfeldt: area specialist, community viability, virginia cooperative extension, blue stone hills drive, suite , harrisonburg, virginia email: ebendfel@vt.edu. katharine knowlton: associate professor, virginia tech, department of dairy science, litton-reaves hall ( ), blacksburg, va email: knowlton@vt.edu. tanya denckla cobb: senior associate, university of virginia, department of urban and environmental planning, institute for environmental negotiation, emmet street, charlottesville, va email: td n@virginia.edu. franklin dukes: director, university of virginia, department of urban' and environmental planning, institute for environmental negotiation, email: ed k@virginia.edu. kathy holm: coordinator, shenandoah rc&d council, p.o. box , verona, va email: kathy.holm@va.usda.gov. jactone arogo ogejo: assistant professor, virginia tech, department of biological systems engineering, seitz hall, blacksburg, va email: arogo@vt.edu © , the community development society community development: journal of the community development society have traditionally been applied to cropland and are difficult and expensive to transport long distances. the chesapeake bay commission's report, cost-effective strategies for the bay: smart investments for nutrient and sediment reduction, identified excess animal manure and poultry litter as an overarching problem for the bay. nutrient loads from manure and poultry litter to the chesapeake bay are estimated to be percent of the total nutrient load; therefore, animal agriculture sectors like dairy, beef, and poultry are under considerable scrutiny and pressure to do their part to reduce these nutrient loads, while the effects and contributions of residents and municipalities are also being evaluated and addressed to improve the overall quality of the bay (chesapeake bay watershed agricultural summit, ). sustainability of animal agriculture in virginia and the shenandoah valley is particularly important because of its history, economic impact and present prominence. in , virginia ranked *, *, and " in the nation for commercial turkey, broiler, and egg production, respectively. the value of virginia's turkey, broiler, and egg production was $ million. the six poultry processing companies in the shenandoah valley employ more than , people. dairy farming generates $ million in farm receipts in virginia. presently, percent of virginia's dairy farms are located in the shenandoah valley. the presence of these dairy farms and the extensive business infrastructure needed to support these farms have a positive economic impact on the local community and state economy because each dollar made on a dairy farm generates at least $ to $ off the farm (chesapeake bay foundation, ; cryan, ). an important cultural linkage regarding sustaining agriculture, community viability, and environmental stewardship in the shenandoah valley are the efforts being made with dairy and poultry farmers within the old order mennonite community of western rockingham county. this community represents close to percent of virginia's daiiy industry, owns and operates many of the area's poultry farms, and desires to maintain their culturally unique agriculture-based lifestyle, so working with them on nutrient management issues is particularly important. the protection of water quality is critically important to virginia and communities in the shenandoah valley, and the chesapeake bay watershed. recreational and fishing activities in the chesapeake bay and its tributaries annually generate between $ million and $ . billion dollars for virginia and other bay states. however, the chesapeake bay and many of its tributaries in virginia and the shenandoah valley are listed as impaired water bodies by epa because of excess nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment loads. therefore, sustaining agriculture and protecting water quality are integrally linked to communities and the interests of various stakeholder groups in the shenandoah valley and the chesapeake bay watershed. this article addresses how diverse interest groups were mobilized around these issues in an innovative and cooperative grassroots effort, gathered for an outcome-based waste solutions forum, and have continued to work collaboratively to identify and implement viable environmental solutions to support agriculture and water quality. literature review formal and informal relationships and initiatives centered on watershed and ecosystem management, sustainable agriculture and communities, forest management, riparian restoration, grazing management, and capacity building are increasingly important (carmin et al., ; wondolleck & yaffe, ). although collaboration is not a new concept, the urgency of contemporary problems and recognition of the potential benefits of collaboration are promoting acceptance and wider adoption as people look for sustainable solutions to complex problems. bendfeldt, knowlton, cobb, dukes, holm, and ogejo the impetus for the recent surge in collaboration among diverse interest groups includes shifts in public policy that encourage collaboration (daniels, senecah, & walker, ), failures of traditional public involvement to achieve desired outcomes (booher & innes, ), renewed civic engagement (leighninger, ), the multitude of geographic and jurisdictional boundaries involved in contemporary environmental and economic issues (dukes, ), importance of a sense of place and community (kemmis, ), and the need to find sustainable solutions through common ground (cormick et al., ). environmentalists and conservationists have to consider the social, economic, and environmental effects of policies, particularly as they become more interdependent in nature and practice. for instance, environmental and conservation groups are now realizing the loss of farmland to urban and suburban development poses potentially significant water quality concerns because of more impervious land surfaces, increased storm water runoff, and increased nutrient use when farmland is developed (chesapeake bay foundation, ; chesapeake bay commission, ). similarly, the agricultural community is realizing farming practices have to be environmentally sound to be socially acceptable as well as commercially competitive. the collaborative approach, when used appropriately, allows people with varied interests to discover a set of shared values and determine ways of meeting one another's needs (wondolleck & yaffe, ; dukes & firehock, ). interest in sustainability and long-term durable solutions has encouraged the change from one-time negotiations and court battles to more collaboration and community-based problem solving among diverse groups (emerson et al., ). unique public-private partnerships have been formed that mobilize people and increase their capacities for the understanding and trust needed for effective action and change (leach & sabatier, ). similarly, the goals of a healthy economy and a healthy environment are not mutually exclusive, but are inextricably linked so that collaboration and collective action is requisite for effective problem solving. bradshaw and pigg ( ) outlined a model for catalytic community development built on collaboration as a key component. with this model, the emphasis is on identifying and mobilizing local expertise, leveraging local resources, and creating networks and partnerships for community-based solutions. other characteristics of catalytic community development include capacity-building, empowerment, expanded locus of activity, open access to information, and coalitions that are flexible and loosely aligned to maintain independence while fostering a collaborative structure to encourage seamless service. bradshaw and pigg ( ) emphasize that communities with robust associational and organizational structures nurture civic engagement and are best able to meet the social and economic needs of the community. proponents for collaboration cite the benefits as encouraging innovative solutions, promoting problem solving and effective results, building community sustainability, and expanding the conservation and civic toolbox (booher & innes, ; dukes, ). critics of some forms of collaboration point to co-optation as a real possibility; local control that might compromise regional and national resources and interests; the survival and persistence of lowest common denominator solutions; issues of complacency, representation, irreconcilable values, precedent, and authority that can have lasting negative effects if parties are not aware of the issues and possibilities (kenney, ; coggins, ). hence, care must be taken to use collaborative processes only in appropriate circumstances and with proper support (booher & innes, ; leach & pelkey, ). methodology animal agriculture is particularly intense and important in the shenandoah valley because of its history, economic impact, present prominence, and ecological role in community development: journal of the community development society preserving working landscapes and open space. however, the dairy and poultry farms in the shenandoah valley are within the chesapeake bay watershed; and the bay and many of its tributaries are listed as impaired water bodies by epa because of excess nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment loads. animal agriculture has been identified as contributing to this water quality impairment, along with urban and residential sources. an important cultural aspect that contributes to the increased urgency to proactively address the nutrient challenges facing animal agriculture and the bay are the efforts being made with dairy and poultry farmers within the old order mennonite community of western rockingham county. the old order mennonite community and lifestyle is pre-dominantly agriculture-based. the community's simple or plain ethos is typified by non-conformity, non-resistance, horse-drawn buggies, and a strong sense of faith and community. therefore, sustaining agriculture and protecting water quality are integrally linked to communities and the interests of various stakeholder groups in the shenandoah valley and the chesapeake bay watershed. a cooperative grassroots effort was initiated in . the waste solutions forum was established to build a consensus among the agricultural and environment conservation communities and other interest groups on long-term collaboration and partnerships towards a common vision of clean water and thriving agricultural communities within the shenandoah valley and chesapeake bay watershed. the initial discussion and effort was initiated by the virginia state dairymen's association and the chesapeake bay foundation. they organized several exchange trips for farmers to the bay and watermen to the valley as an ongoing educational program. through these exchanges, participants realized the benefit and value of a process and partnership that promotes problem-solving and focuses on individual interests as well as shared concerns. the educational exchanges between farmers, watermen, and the two organizations have helped allay fears and misgivings, overcome differences, and find common ground to support agriculture and protect water quality. within this context, a diverse group of people with backgrounds in agriculture, environmental science, research, education, business, legislation, and policy met in roanoke, virginia on april - , , for the waste solutions forum to find common ground, explore innovative solutions, and develop a concrete strategy to address the nutrient challenges of animal agriculture in the shenandoah valley. to design this event, a group of nearly twenty people representing different interests formed a planning committee. because of the longstanding differences and common, very public conflicts between the interests represented at this planning table - environmental, agricultural, academic, state government - members of this planning group understood that their discussions were critical for the event's success; if they could not agree on the goals for the forum or how the forum should be conducted, it would never occur. all were drawn to participate in the planning by two key factors: the increasingly urgent need to find new ways of managing excess animal manure for the shenandoah valley's intensive agricultural production and the knowledge that long-term solutions would require the cooperation, if not collective action, of all the key interests. over the course of nine months, with the assistance of an independent facilitator skilled in process design as well as group facilitation, this planning committee worked to sharpen its focus and methodology for the forum. through this planning period, members of the committee consulted their organizations, sharing the committee's emerging ideas for how the forum would work, and bringing their organization's feedback to the planning committee. this, too, was a critical aspect for the eventual forum success, as the planning effort thus effectively obtained broader buy-in to the forum goals and created anticipation, as well as some anxiety, among diverse stakeholders about what the forum might yield. the planning committee eventually came to agree that the forum would have three key bendfeldt, knowlton, cobb, dukes, holm, and ogejo goals: ) educate all participants about the issues to ensure that all had the same essential basic knowledge for making decisions; ) provide participants with significant time to have open discussion about the issues, with facilitators ensuring that discussion remained productive and focused on the future and possible solutions, not degrading into rehashing the past and finger-pointing; and ) invite participants to develop ideas and recommendations that were specific, concrete, and could be implemented in the next five years. to keep participants focused, the discussion groups would be organized into four topic areas: education, research, pilot projects, and policy. in short, the planning committee wanted the forum to avoid the pitfalls of other gatherings that produced dust-gathering reports and, instead, create a strategic plan with very specific actions that could be turned around and implemented immediately. the waste solutions forum was envisioned as both an event and an ongoing process. the two-day forum would develop a strategic plan, and at the end of this event a new waste solutions steering committee would be formed to guide implementation of the plan. results as an innovative and cooperative approach to support agriculture and protect water quality in the shenandoah valley, the invitation-only forum gathered key stakeholders who were selected to represent diverse interests - the agricultural commmunity, environmental and conservation groups, universities, and representatives from local, state, and federal government. working couaboratively to find viable and durable solutions for nutrient management, participants willingly set aside historical differences and individual interests to work toward a shared vision of clean water and a thriving agricultural community in the shenandoah valley. a significant part of this willingness was engendered by the caretul outreach efforts of the planning committee to keep all organizations informed during the planning phase, and its efforts to educate all participants with issue briefs provided in advance as well as presentations at the forum. differences certainly emerged during the group discussions, particularly the discussion on policy; fiarthermore, far more ideas emerged from discussions than could be implemented. but common ground was also not hard to find. participants were asked to identify their individual priorities based on which of the many proposed actions would be most do-able in the next three years, which would make the greatest different for the least investment, and which needed to happen first before other things could be accomplished. participants were assured that all ideas would be recorded in the strategic plan, with no ideas lost or dropped, which provided a kind of psychological space for people to focus less on ownership of a particular idea and more on what would improve valley agriculture and nutrient management. the participants all had vested interest in the nutrient challenges and were keenly interested in coming away from the forum with specific actions and plans. the shared interests included helping farmers to find economic and cost-effective solutions to stay commercially competitive, to improve and protect state waters through the stewardship of a viable farm community, to enhance compliance with water quality standards and current environmental regulations, to protect the rural agricultural heritage and the cultural uniqueness of farm communities, to develop and implement effective and compliant nutrient reduction technologies, and to seek cost-effective non-polluting renewable energy as altematives to foreign oil. over the two days of the forum, participants narrowed their priority actions to fit within four topic areas: ( ) improve the nutrient efficiency of feeds to reduce n and p in manure and poultry litter without compromising animal and bird health or productivity; ( ) improve demand and markets for manure and poultry litter-based products; ( ) develop and community development: journai of the community deveiopment society implement alternative methods for processing manure and poultry litter and end uses for these organic resources to include, but not be limited to, nutrient reduction and renewable energy technologies and a regional farmer-based cooperative to work toward these goals; and ( ) encourage the development of state and federal policies to ensure fiinding and achieve the overall goals of the forum (denckla cobb, ). not all aspects of forum went smoothly for all participants. some participants were clearly disappointed that their favorite ideas did not receive sufficient support to become a priority in the strategic plan. some were also fiiastrated at the pressure of the time-frame for the group discussions, expressing desire for more time to think about and discuss all the ideas on the table. in addition, the forum process was complex and, before prioritization, some participants expressed a sense that it felt chaotic - too many ideas on the wall, too hard to visually read them all, too hard to sort through them, too hard to make choices. at the same time, many participants expressed satisfaction in the process itself, especially the fact that all ideas would be heard and fairly considered. also, some participants expressed relief that the process had a limited timeframe, forcing people to make choices and come to specific conclusions. given the high stakes for all participants and the high-pressure nature of the process, the forum had at least three immediate concrete measures of success. no participant expressed an inability to support the outcomes, nor disenfranchi sèment or withdrawal of their organization from the forum process, which would have represented a significant blow to the forum's legitimacy and credibility. conversely, the forum strategic plan received broad support from all participants, smoothing the way for its implementation. in addition, reflecting the forum's success in engendering participant buy-in and enthusiasm, a number of participants volunteered at the end of the forum to work on the new steering committee to guide implementation of the strategic plan. these measures of success, however, were not the ultimate test of the forum's success. for the forum to be successful in the planners' eyes, measurable results would need to be seen within several years. after the forum in , the voluntary steering committee continued to meet regularly as a rolling coalition to advance the goals and priorities recommended. significant accomplishments of the past two years include movement forward on pilot projects, research and education: q research/ pilot project: initiating a $ . million precision phosphorus feeding pilot project for dairies, funded by usd a natural resources conservation service (nrcs) and virginia's deprtment of conservation and recreation (dcr); ^ pilot project: implementing a $ million grant project to pilot innovative and cooperative approaches to utilize and export the shenandoah valley's organic resources and reduce nutrients to the chesapeake bay by converting poultry litter into a bio-oil, slow-release fertilizer, syngas, and value-added product; isolating and precipitating phosphorus out of liquid dairy manure for more effective application and transportation of dairy manure; hiring an "on-the-ground" market maker to facilitate movement of poultry litter and manure-based products to nutrient deficient areas and out of the watershed; demonstrating the effectiveness of manure-based compost as a soil amendment on reclaimed highway construction sites, ñinded by the national fish and wildlife foundation and farm pilot project coordination, inc.; § pilot project: forming a subcommittee, the valley organic resources cooperative, to work on a variety of cooperative initiatives throughout the valley such as a community-based manure processing and methane recovery system within the old order mennonite community and a local poultry processing cooperative to encourage nutrient reduction on farms with limited acreage and renewable energy co-generation; n bendfeldt, knowtton. cobb. dukes, holm, and ogejo pilot project: collaborating with protected harvest, the environmental defense's center for conservation incentives, and virginia tech to pilot a project to encourage and reward dairy farmers in the marketplace through an eco-friendly label for implementing best management practices and water quality improvement measures on their farms; policy: proposing an innovative manure and poultry litter management subprogram within the farm bill; l policy: assessing incentives for efficient poultry litter management; g education: fiinding a bio-energy fact-finding frip by academics, industry representatives, and valley farmers to europe to explore existing pyrolysis technology; and j education: implementing numerous nutrient management, water quality, and renewable energy based educational and extension programs. through both the lengthy planning process, the two-day forum in , and the subsequent two years of steering committee efforts, the forum has succeeded in building long-term collaboration between traditional and non-traditional partners to address the nutrient challenge associated with animal agriculttire and implement environmental solutions in the shenandoah valley. the steering committee continues to be a safe place where partners can air and resolve differences, while working on shared goals for implementing the forum strategic plan. the collaborative approach and the momentum of the wsf will continue through completing existing projects. specifically, the steering committee envisions implementing the following aspects of the wsf strategic plan: q education (planning and partner development): holding a follow-up waste solutions forum ii to review accomplishments to date, re-evaluate the solutions strategy, and solicit new ideas for priority actions; pilot project: coordinate and pilot an adaptive stream fencing program to augment and complement existing livestock exclusion programs offered by federal and state conservation agencies; a policy: coordinate with virginia's natural resource, agriculture, and forestry secretariats to develop and seek the governor's issuance of an official executive order seeking greater use of virginia manure and litter as fertilizer on virginia lands; education: host a symposium to bring national experts together in the valley to discuss innovative means to address excess nutrients and produce energy and value-added products; q education: hold educational field days that market new technologies piloted ^ under grants and other novel approaches to producers and policy-makers; and policy/pilot projects: develop and advocate for incentive-based programs to facilitate efficient poultry litter management. summary and conclusion the contamination of water resources and threat to the economic viability of farming communities make action and collaboration imperative. the waste solutions forum and its steering committee's on-going efforts have proven successfiil in bringing together a diverse group of people with various vested interests but shared concerns about the health of the chesapeake bay and the long-term viability of agriculttire in the shenandoah valley. maintaining the group's cohesion will be an on-going challenge as the group faces different issues and concerns related to agriculture and the environment. however, together, the community development: journal of the community development society group has taken positive steps to improve water quality and sustain agriculture in the shenandoah valley of virginia by implementing a strategic plan aimed at research, pilot projects, educational programs, and policies necessary for practical and durable solutions. references booher, d. e. & innes, j. e. ( ). reframing public participation: strategies for the st century. planning theory & practice ( ), - . bradshaw, t.k. & pigg, k.e. ( ). catalytic community development: a theory of practice for changing rural society. in d.l. brown & l.e. swanson (eds.), challenges for rural america in the twenty-first century (p. - ). university park, pennsylvania: pennsylvania state university press. carmin, j., koontz, t. m., mosely, c , smith korfmacher, k., steelman, t.a. &. thomas, c. w. ( ). collaborative environmental management: what roles for government? washington, d.c.: resources for the future. chesapeake bay commission. ( , december). cost-effective strategies for the bay: six smart investments for nutrient and sediment reduction. annapolis, maryland. chesapeake bay foundation. ( , september). vital signs: assessing the state of chesapeake agriculture in . annapolis, maryland. chesapeake bay watershed agricultural summit. ( , january). finding solutions to excess animal manure and poultry litter. proceedings of the chesapeake bay watershed agricultural summit. sponsored by the mid atlantic regional water quality program of the land grant universities and the u.s. environmental protection agency chesapeake bay program office. coggins, g. c. ( ). of califomicators, quislings, and crazies: some perils of devolved collaboration. chronicle of community ( ). cormick, g., dale, n., emond, r, sigurdson, g. & stuart, b. ( ). building consensus for a sustainable future: putting principles into practice. ottawa: national round table on the environment and the economy. cryan, r. ( , may). the economic impact of the dairy industry. u.s. dairy markets & outlook. : . dairy management, inc. rosemont, illinois. daniels, s. e., senecah, s.l. & walker, g.b. ( ). from the forest to the river: citizens' views of stakeholder engagement. human ecology review \z{ ), - . denckla cobb, t. ( ). the waste solutions forum: final report and solutions strategy. y\rg\n\a. polytechnic institute and state university: blacksburg, virginia. dukes, e. f. ( ). resolving public confiict: transforming community and governance. manchester: manchester university press. dukes, e.f. ( ). what we know about environmental conflict resolution: an analysis based on research. confiict resolution quarterly {\- ), - . dukes, e. f. & firehock, k. ( ). collaboration: a guide for environmental advocates. charlottesville, va: institute for environmental negotiation, the wilderness society, national audubon society. emerson, k., nabatchi t., o'leary, r., & stephens, j. ( ). the challenges of environmental conflict resolution. in r. o'leary & l.b. bingham (eds.), the promise and performance of environmental confiict resolution ( - ). washington, d.c.: resources for the future. kemmis, d. ( ). community and the politics of place. norman, oklahoma: university of oklahoma press. kenney, d. s. ( ). arguing about consensus: examining the case against western watershed initiatives and other collaborative groups in natural resource management. boulder: natural resources law center at the university of colorado school of law. leach, w.d.& pelkey, n.w. ( ). making watershed partnerships work: a review of the empirical literature. journal of water resources planning and management ( ), - . leach, w. d. & sabatier, ra. ( ). to trust an adversary: integrating rational and psychological models of collaborative policymaking. american political science Äev/ew ( ), - . leighninger, m. ( ). the next form of democracy: how expert rule is giving way to shared bendfeldt, knowlton, cobb, dukes, holm, and ogejo govemance-and why politics will never be the same. nashville, tennessee: vanderbilt university press, wondolleck, j,m. & yaffe, s. l, ( ). making collaboration work: lessons from innovation in natural resource management. washington, dc: island press, wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ a de novo novel mutation of the ednrb gene in a taiwanese boy with hirschsprung disease j formos med assoc | • vol • no ednrb mutation in hirschsprung disease hirschsprung disease (hscr) is a congenital disorder characterized by an absence of ganglion cells in the nerve plexuses of the lower digestive tract. although mutations in eight different genes ( ednrb, edn , ece , sox , ret,t gdnf, ntn, sip ) have been identified in affected individuals, it is now clear that ret and ednrb are the primary genes implicated in the etiology of hscr. all eight genes are involved in the early development of the enteric nervous system, and most act through two distinct biochemical pathways mediated by ret at nd ednrb. mutations in ret at nd ednrb account for up to % and % of hscr cases in the general population, respectively. interaction between these two signaling pathways could modify ret expression and, therefore, hscr phenotype. here, we report the case of a -year-old taiwanese boy who presented with abdominal distension since birth and bilious vomiting after feeding. hscr (short-segment type) was diagnosed based on x-ray, lower gastrointestinal series and biopsy findings. mutation analysis revealed a heterozygous t>c missense mutation in exon of the ednrb gene, that substitutes the highly conserved cysteine- residue in the extracellular domain of the g protein-coupled receptor with an arginine residue (c r). no ret gene mutation was detected in this patient. [j formos med assoc ; ( ): – ] key words: ednrb gene, hirschsprung disease, taiwanese departments of emergency medicine and surgery, national cheng kung university medical college and hospital, tainan, taiwan. received: march , revised: may , accepted: july , hirschsprung disease (hscr, omim ), or aganglionic megacolon, is a congenital disor- der characterized by the absence of enteric gan- glia along a variable length of the intestine. the estimated incidence is approximately in live births. molecular genetic analysis has identi- fied several genes that have a role in the develop- ment of hscr; the major susceptibility gene for this disorder is the ret proto-oncogene. genes encoding functional ligands of the ret-receptor complex, such as the glial cell line-derived neu- rotropic factor (gdnf), neurturin (ntn), arte- min (artn), persephin (pspn), and correspond- ing members of the gdnf-family receptor genes (gfr - - ), have also been suggested as putative susceptibility genes associated with *correspondence to: dr. ming-che tsai, department of emergency medicine, national cheng kung university hospital, , sheng-li road, tainan , taiwan. e-mail: terence @yahoo.com hscr. waardenburg-shah syndrome is a dis- order of the embryonic neural crest that combines the clinical features of waardenburg syndrome and hscr. patients with waardenburg-shah syndrome with megacolon have a homozygous founder mutation in the g-protein-coupled en- dothelin-b receptor gene (ednrb), whereas het- erozygous mutations of ednrb and endothelin- (edn ) have been identified in individuals with isolated hscr. heterozygous mutations of sox have been described in patients with megacolon in waardenburg-shah syndrome. mutation of the ret gene accounts for up to % of sporadic and % of familial cases. mu- tation of the ednrb gene accounts for – % of all hscr cases. , short-segment hscr occurs case report a de novo novel mutation of the ednrb gene in a taiwanese boy with hirschsprung disease wen-chau chen, shen-shun chang, edgar d. sy, ming-che tsai* © elsevier & formosan medical association j formos med assoc | • vol • no w.c. chen, et al physical examination did not show any pig- mentary anomalies or deafness. x-ray examina- tion showed diffuse enlarged bowel gas with absent bowel gas in the rectal area. lower gas- trointestinal series showed an enlarged cecum, ascending colon and ileum without focal obstruc- tion sign. suction biopsy was performed and pathology revealed no ganglial neurons in the rectum and sigmoid colon. acetylcholine ester- ase stain was positive. under the impression of hscr (short-segment type), colostomy was ar- ranged. pcr and automated dna sequencing genomic dna was extracted from the peripheral blood (qiaamp midi kit; qiagen, valencia, ca, usa) of the proband and parents after obtain- ing informed consent. dna samples were then subjected to mutation screening by amplifica- tion of segments of the ret and ednrb genes with primers (tables and ) synthesized on the basis of intronic sequences from genbank. in about % of ret-caused cases and in more than % of ednrb-related cases. even in fami- lies with apparent monogenic inheritance, there is incomplete penetrance of disease-causing mutations and intra- and interfamily variation of phenotype severity, suggesting that modify- ing genetic, stochastic or environmental factors are involved. in this report, we describe the genetic analysis of the ret and ednrb genes in a taiwanese boy with hscr. case report the proband was a -year-old taiwanese boy with hscr. he presented with abdominal dis- tension since birth and bilious vomiting after feeding. the baby was born at full term with a birth weight of g. he was the first child of this family. no other family members had a his- tory of the same symptoms/signs. table . polymerase chain reaction primers used for the amplification of the ret gene from genomic dna exon forward ( ’ ➔ ’) backward ( ’ ➔ ’) product size (bp) at (°c) cggcgcttacctcgcttcag tgtcccgtttgctccaggac cagttcttttctagcccgtg atgattcccgtgtgtctcca gtttacaccagccctggagc gctctgtctgccccacaaga ctgtggagcggaggagggga ctaggacagacggcgcagac ctgacaacacacatctggtc cagagacacaggaagtgctg cgtgtttgcaccagtgtgag cacccagtctactctgtgct gttccaggacttaggctgtg agccttgcagctgtactgct ctggcactgtctttgctgcc ctcacaagccctctcccaag ctcctctcccataagccatg gaactgacagccctggcaac cagaaaggcactgtgaccaa caggctgacaagttgtttgg gtaaatggcagtacccatgc cacagcgccctatggaaatg gcagagacaggcagcgttgc ctcgctctgcttctctaggc ctctctgtctgaacttgggc cagtagggaaagggagaaag cagagctgcagcagtgctgc catgccatggcaggggcatg ctgccatgtcacaccctgac gtcagtatgctgccagggag caggagtgtctacagcactc cattgcagagggctagcact cgacagggtcagcaggtgct ctggtttctcctggggctgc ctttggagttggagacagag catgactctctctctctgca ctggtctcttggagaggtca ggttcagagcagactttggt cacagaaaccacgagtttgg ctgctaggagggaaaatcac at = annealing temperature. j formos med assoc | • vol • no ednrb mutation in hirschsprung disease for polymerase chain reaction (pcr) amplifi- cation, approximately ng of genomic dna, . pmol of each primer, μmol dntp and . u of taq (qiagen) were used in a total vol- ume of μl. the amplification conditions were ° c for minutes, followed by cycles of ° c for seconds, annealing temperature for seconds and ° c for seconds, and extension at ° c for minutes. pcr products were puri- fied by qiaquick columns (qiagen) and sequenced with both forward and backward primers ( abi advanced biotechnologies, columbia, md, usa). automated dna sequencing of the ednrb gene revealed a heterozygous t to c transition of codon in exon (figure), which predicted a substitution of cysteine by arginine (c r). this mutation was confirmed with backward primer for exon . neither of the parents had this mu- tation. the mutation created a new restriction en- zyme site (acii). the mutation was absent in normal unrelated taiwanese controls by restric- tion fragment analysis, indicating that it was not a polymorphism. no mutation was detected in the ret gene of this patient. discussion hscr is a frequent neurocristopathy character- ized by the absence of submucosal and myenteric plexus in a variable length of the gastrointestinal tract. in the vast majority of cases ( %), the agan- glionic tract involves the rectum and the sigmoid colon only (short-segment hscr), while in % of cases, it extends towards the proximal end of the colon. although % of cases are sporadic, pedigree and segregation analyses suggested the involvement of one or several dominant genes with low penetrance in hscr. a major hscr gene has been mapped to chromosome q . , and the disease has been ascribed to mutations in the ret proto-oncogene,t , – which encodes a re- ceptor tyrosine kinase. however, the lack of geno- type–phenotype correlations, the low penetrance and the sex-dependent effect of ret mutations supported the existence of one or more modifier gene(s) in familial hscr. , puffenberger et al reported evidence that hscr type (hscr ; omim ), an apparently multigenic dis- order, is due to mutations in ednrb. endothelin (edn) is a potent vasoactive pep- tide, which can induce a wide range of cellular and physiologic responses. in mammalian cells, there are at least two edn receptor subtypes, ednra and ednrb, both of which belong to the superfamily of rhodopsin-like g-protein- coupled receptors (gpcrs) that contain seven table . pcr primers used for the amplification of the ednrb gene from genomic dna exon forward ( ’ ➔ ’) backward ( ’ ➔ ’) product size (bp) at (°c) ctctgcttgtctctaggctc gattcagtaggtctggggtg , gtgatacaattcagagggca cactgagatcaaggggattc cagtaagtgtggcctgaaag gtgaagtggaaccgaagtga gatctagggagaatcagaac gaagtactgaagctggctga gcacagaagctacaatgact ctaccaaaaacagggaacag caaagaaagtcagaaccctg tccatgccgtaaacagctca at = annealing temperature. figure. automated dna sequenc- ing of the ednrb gene revealed a t to c transition: (a) sequence from the proband; (b) sequence from a normal control. bb a j formos med assoc | • vol • no w.c. chen, et al transmembrane domains. the extracellular and transmembrane domains of gpcrs are involved in ligand binding, whereas the intracellular do- mains are involved in g protein coupling and subsequent effector regulation. to determine when ednrb signaling is required during em- bryogenesis, shin et al determined that ednrb is required during a restricted period of neural crest development between embryonic days and . . they concluded that ednrb is required for the migration of both melanoblasts and enteric neuroblasts. arai et al demonstrated that the human genome contains a single copy of the ednrb gene, which spans kb and comprises exons and introns that encode a amino acid protein expressed in brain, kidney, lung, heart and endothelial cells. inagaki et al showed that this protein is also ex- pressed in the human colon, particularly in the myenteric plexus, mucosal layer, ganglion and blood vessels of the submucosa. recently, muta- tions in the ednrb gene have been identified in hscr patients, including deletion/insertion mutations, , non-sense mutations, – splicing mutations and several missense mutations (table ). , , , , – the mutation was dosage sensitive in that homozygotes and heterozygotes had a % and a % risk, respectively, of developing hscr. other analyses of patients in the extended mennonite pedigree showed that hscr is a multigenic disorder. for all clinical forms of hscr, there is a greater incidence of megacolon in males than in females, and the same is true for the spe- cific ednrb mutation. the c r mutation seems to be significant in the pathogenesis of hscr for several reasons: ( ) it was absent in normal controls, making the hypothesis of a coincidental polymorphism very unlikely; ( ) it led to substitution of a hydrophilic amino acid with a polar side chain (cysteine) by table . endothelin-b receptor gene mutations in hirschsprung disease (hscr)/waardenburg syndrome (ws) mutation location phenotype (segment length) genotype reference # g>a g s ec hscr (s) heterozygous t>c c r ec hscr heterozygous present case t>c c r tm i hscr (s) heterozygous c>g a g tm iii hscr/ws homozygous g>a g r tm iii hscr (l)/ws homozygous c>t r x il ii abcd syndrome homozygous g>t w c tm iv hscr (s&l) heterozygous c>t r x el ii hscr (l)/ws heterozygous + t>c splicing mutation el ii hscr (s) heterozygous g>a w x tm v hscr (s) heterozygous g>t w c tm v hscr (l&s) heterozygous/homozygous t>c f l tm v hscr (l)/ws heterozygous inst y l (ptc+ aa) tm v hscr (s) heterozygous g>a s n il iii hscr (s) heterozygous g>a a t il iii hscr (s) heterozygous c>t r w il iii hscr (s) heterozygous g>a m i tm vii hscr heterozygous dela n i (ptc+ aa) tm vii hscr (s) heterozygous c>t p l tm vii hscr (s) heterozygous c>a s r c hscr (l) heterozygous abcd = albinism, black lock, cell migration disorder of the neurocytes of the gut, and deafness; c = carboxyl-terminal region and adjacent to tm ; ec = extracellular domain; el = extracellular loop; il = intracellular loop; l = long-segment; ptc = premature termination of codon; s = short-segment; tm = transmembrane domain. j formos med assoc | • vol • no ednrb mutation in hirschsprung disease a basic hydrophilic amino acid (arginine); ( ) this region is highly conserved between species, which probably indicates an important functional role in ednrb signaling. the c r mutation may change ligand binding. functional analysis of the c r protein will be necessary to determine the effect of the mutation on the function of the ednrb protein. in conclusion, the detection of a de novo novel mutation (c r) of the ednrb gene in our pa- tient suggests that dysfunction of the endothelin- b receptor has a role in the etiology of some cases of hscr, especially short-segment hscr. acknowledgments this study was supported by research grant nck- uh - from national cheng kung university hospital, taiwan. references . edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm, et al. mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature ; : – . . doray b, salomon r, amiel j, et al. mutation of the ret ligand, neurturin, supports multigenic inheritance in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . shah kn, dalal sj, desai mp, et al. white forelock, pig- mentary disorder of irides, and long segment hirschsprung disease: possible variant of waardenburg syndrome. j pediatr ; : – . . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, et al. a mis- sense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in mul- tigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell ; : – . . hofstra rm, osinga j, tan-sindhunata g, et al. a homozy- gous mutation in the endothelin- gene associated with a combined waardenburg type and hirschsprung pheno- type (shah-waardenburg syndrome). nat genet ; : – . . pingault v, bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, et al. sox muta- tions in patients with waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . attie t, pelet a, edery p, et al. diversity of ret proto- oncogene mutations in familial and sporadic hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . chakravarti a. endothelin receptor-mediated signaling in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . svensson pj, tapper-persson m, anvret m, et al. mutations in the endothelin-receptor b gene in hirschsprung disease in sweden. clin genet ; : – . . benish bm. the neurocristopathies: a unifying concept of disease arising in neural crest development. hum pathol ; : . [letter] . whitehouse fr, kernohan jw. myenteric plexuses in con- genital megacolon; study of cases. arch intern med ; : – . . badner ja, sieber wk, garver kl, et al. a genetic study of hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : – . . lyonnet s, bolino a, pelet a, et al. a gene for hirschsprung disease maps to the proximal long arm of chromosome . nat genet ; : – . . angrist m, kauffman e, slaugenhaupt sa, et al. a gene for hirschsprung disease (megacolon) in the pericentromeric region of human chromosome . nat genet ; : – . . angrist m, bolk s, thiel b, et al. mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . romeo g, ronchetto p, luo y, et al. point mutations affect- ing the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature ; : – . . yin l, barone v, seri m, et al. heterogeneity and low de- tection rate of ret mutations in hirschsprung disease. eur j hum genet ; : – . . rubanyi gm, polokoff ma. endothelins: molecular bio- logy, biochemistry, pharmacology, physiology, and patho- physiology. pharmacol rev ; : – . . vane j. endothelins come home to roost. nature ; : . . sakurai t, yanagisawa m, masaki t. molecular characteri- zation of endothelin receptors. trends pharmacol sci ; : – . . shin mk, levorse jm, ingram rs, et al. the temporal re- quirement for endothelin receptor-b signalling during neu- ral crest development. nature ; : – . . arai h, nakao k, takaya k, et al. the human endothelin- b receptor gene. structural organization and chromosomal assignment. j biol chem ; : – . . sakamoto a, yanagisawa m, sakurai t, et al. cloning and functional expression of human cdna for the etb endo- thelin receptor. biochem biophys res commun ; : – . . inagaki h, bishop ae, escrig c, et al. localization of endothelin-like immunoreactivity and endothelin bind- ing sites in human colon. gastroenterology ; : – . . auricchio a, casari g, staiano a, et al. endothelin-b re- ceptor mutations in patients with isolated hirschsprung disease from a non-inbred population. hum mol genet ; : – . . kusafuka t, wang y, puri p. novel mutations of the endothelin-b receptor gene in isolated patients with hirsch- sprung’s disease. hum mol genet ; : – . j formos med assoc | • vol • no w.c. chen, et al . syrris p, carter nd, patton ma. novel nonsense muta- tion of the endothelin-b receptor gene in a family with waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. am j med genet ; : – . . verheij jb, kunze j, osinga j, et al. abcd syndrome is caused by a homozygous mutation in the ednrb gene. am j med genet ; : – . . inoue m, hosoda k, imura k, et al. mutational analysis of the endothelin-b receptor gene in japanese hirschsprung’s disease. j pediatr surg ; : – . . attie t, till m, pelet a, et al. mutation of the endothelin- receptor b gene in waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . amiel j, attie t, jan d, et al. heterozygous endothelin receptor b (ednrb) mutations in isolated hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . tanaka h, moroi k, iwai j, et al. novel mutations of the endothelin b receptor gene in patients with hirschsprung’s disease and their characterization. j biol chem ; : – . . sakai t, nirasawa y, itoh y, et al. japanese patients with sporadic hirschsprung: mutation analysis of the receptor tyrosine kinase proto-oncogene, endothelin-b receptor, endothelin- , glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and neurturin genes: a comparison with similar studies. eur j pediatr ; : – . . boardman jp, syrris p, holder se, et al. a novel mutation in the endothelin b receptor gene in a patient with shah- waardenburg syndrome and down syndrome. j med genet ; : – . . pingault v, girard m, bondurand n, et al. sox mutations in chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction suggest a com- plex physiopathological mechanism. hum genet ; : – . chh volume issue back matter prizes of the american society of church history the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize the brewer prize is a subsidy of $ to assist the author in publishing a booklength manuscript in church history. the winning manuscript shall be published in a manner acceptable to the society. manuscripts accepted for publication may be submitted for this award, but the winning manuscript must have printed on its title-page, "the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize essay of the american society of church history." if competing works are otherwise of equal quality, preference will be given to topics relating to the history of congregationalism. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by november each year, with return postage included. the award will be announced at the spring meeting of the society. the philip schaff prize the schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ to be paid to the author of the best book originating in the north american scholarly community which presents original research in the history of christianity or any period thereof. books considered for the next award must have been published during the year or . any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration for the schaff prize. copies of books nominated do not have to be submitted. titles nominated for consideration must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by march . the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december . the sidney e. mead prize the mead prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent recipient whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to stephen j. stein, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, e. maxwell lane, bloomington, in , by july each year. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core z o n e b o o k s fragmentation and redemption essays on gender and the human b o d y in medieval religion by caroline walker b y n u m in these eight historical and philosophical reflections, caroline walker bynum, author of the highly acclaimed holy feast and holy fast, radically reexamines conceptions o f body, gender and religiosity in the high middle ages. "bynum aims at nothing less than a revivified form of historical practice, what she calls 'history in the comic mode! where telling fragments of the past are brought to bear on modern questions of body and psyche, survival and identity." — lynn hunt. "bynum's original and richly learned reflections on the spiritual history of somatic experience and the somatic history of spiritual experience make fragmentation and redemption essential reading for anyone interested in the new cultural poetics!' — stephen greenblatt. $ . c l o t h p a g e s i l l u s t r a t i o n s a l s o f r o m z o n e b o o k s . . . n e w i n p a p e r b a c k your money o r your life e c o n o m y and religion in the middle ages by jacques le goff t r a n s l a t e d b y p a t r i c i a r a n u m this concise examination o f the problem usury posed for the medieval church describes how, as the structure of e c o n o m i c life inevitably began to include financial loans, the church refashioned its ideology in order to condemn the userer not to hell but merely to purgatory. $ . p a p e r b a c k p a g e s z o n e b o o k s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d b y t h e m i t p r e s s , h a y w a r d s t r e e t . c a m b r i d g e , m a . t o l l f r e e o r d e r s : - - . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history the outler prize was established to encourage the critical study of ecumenical church history, broadly conceived, and to facilitate the publication of such studies. "ecumenical" is to be construed as chiefly concerned with the problems of christian unity-and-disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) in any period of church history; or with interactions between christianity and other religious movements. works of a partisan nature are excluded. the following categories are eligible: a. studies, chiefly narrative and critical, of ecumenical church history dealing with historical controversies and divisions, or with notable instances of reconciliation and consensus. b. analyses of church councils, dialogues, and debates, or interactions between christianity and other religious traditions. c. biographical studies of significant leaders, or of persons whose involvement in ecumenical dialogue and action was noteworthy. d. critical editions (preferably annotated) of significant ecumenical documents. e. bibliographical reviews and evaluations in major areas of ecumenical church history. f. pioneering studies that advance scholarly knowledge and ecumenical understanding. the prize consists of an award of $ to the author and a possible grant of up to $ for publication (or in exceptional cases, for necessary expenses in the preparation of a book-length manu- script accepted for publication). the prize will be awarded annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by june. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. the jame dempsey douglass prize the douglass prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay on some aspect of the role of women in the history of christianity. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to stephen j. stein, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, e. maxwell lane, bloomington, in , by august each year. no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new books the muslims of valencia in the age of fernando and isabel between coexistence and crusade mark d. meyerson "an exciting and magisterial contribu- tion to mudejar studies, it is also revisionist in its conclusions as to crown policies about these peoples." —robert i. burns, s.j., university of california, los angeles $ . early christian art and architecture robert milburn now in paperback "milburn presents a wide-ranging account of all aspects of artistic and architectural achievement in a well- organized and cogently written summary of the history of early christian art. . . . this volume, also useful as a textbook, makes available for the interested layperson and student a coherent and readable appreciation of the early christian world." —patrislics $ . paper territories of grace cultural change in the seventeenth-century diocese of grenoble keith p. luria territories of grace offers a sophisticated model of cultural change in early modern rural society, by examining the religion of villagers in the french diocese of grenoble during the counter-reformation. studies on the history of society & culture $ . rome before avignon a social history of thirteenth-century rome robert brentano now in paperback with a new preface "brentano has given us a sensitive series of essays on a period of roman social history which has . . . received little attention from modern historians." —american historical review "in a brief, brilliant, sometimes disturbing but always arresting book, robert brentano examines this complex roman world in the thirteenth century." —english historical review $ . paper at bookstores or order toll-free - - - . visa/mastercard only. university of california press berkeley o cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core ^ noteworthy church history in the age of science historiographical patterns in the united states, - henry warner bowden considered a founder of the field of church historiography, bowden provides the earliest analysis of the work of john g. shea, ephraim emerton, frank h. foster, arthur c. mcgiffert, walter rauschenbusch, and philip schaff. ( -x) $ . cloth church history in an age of uncertainty historiographical patterns in the united states, - henry warner bowden essential to catholic, protestant, and even secular scholars of american religious history, this is the first historiographical analysis of the work of henry k. rowe, james h. nichols, leonard j. trinterud, h. shelton smith, john t. mcneill, herbert w. schneider, robert t. handy, john t. ellis, and jaroslav pelikan. ( - ) $ . cloth a century of church history the legacy of philip schaff edited by henry warner bowden "the essays show an amazing evenness of excellence in scholarship and interdisciplinary expertise. these chapters bring us up-to-date on those most important themes in american religious history.... recommended."—choice ( - ) $ . cloth john craige's mathematical principles of christian theology richard nash first published in latin in , john craige's theology represents a rare early attempt to introduce mathematical reasoning into moral and theological dispute. (journal of the history of philosophy monograph series) ( - ) $ . paper the nativity arnoul greban. translated by shelley sewall a selection of approximately , lines from greban's , -line masterpiece — © mystery of the passion (c. ) — this is a producible english translation of a french medieval christmas play. illustrated. ( - ) $ . cloth add $ . when ordering by mail. visa and mastercard accepted. please include sales tax on all orders shipped to illinois addresses. k m southern illinois university press 'dept. rs , p.o. box , carbondale, il - cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core b o o k s rome in canada the vatican and canadian affairs in the late victorian age roberto perin perin explores the role of the vatican in the political, religious, and cultural life of canada during this period. he focuses on the struggle for a french-canadian nationalism as articulated by a majority within the roman catholic clergy. cloth s . , paper $ . freedom from violence sectarian nonresistance from the middle ages to the great war peter brock a long line of christian sects have rejected both the violence involved in war and the violence involved in the administration of the state. this account tells their story, concluding with the outbreak of the great war in . $ . freedom from war nonsectarian pacifism - peter brock brock explores the pacifist impulse and its spread from a small number of sects like the quakers and the mennonites in to a widespread international force by the outbreak of the first world war. $ . u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s n a g e l d r i v e , c h e e k t o w a g a , n y cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the variety of american evangelicalism edited by donald w. dayton and robert k. johnston pages, isbn - - -x, $ . the church of god a social history mickey crews pages, illustrations, isbn - - - , $ . forthcoming in ! the spiritual churches of new orleans origins, beliefs, and rituals of an african-american religion claude f. jacobs and andrew j. kaslow fall , pages, illustrations, $ . the university of tennessee press knoxville - cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core reformed & informing calvin's ecclesiastical advice translated by mary beaty and benjamin w farley these forty-six letters and writ- ings of john calvin demonstrate how calvin applied the theology of the institutes and the biblical exege- sis of his commentaries to issues of everyday life. paper $ . a reading of calvin s institutes benjamin a. reist "reist's is a fresh, sensitive, and mercifully readable reading of calvin's institutes. more than merely a sum- mary or study guide, it is an open invitation to join together with calvin in thinking through con- cerns of theology as timely today as in the reformation era. reist lets calvin speak in a living voice." —james o. duke, professor of church history, pacific school of religion, berkeley, california paper $ . reformed and feminist a challenge to the church johanna w. h. van wijk-bos viewed from a reformed/calvinist context, this fresh and insightful book explores the nature and function of biblical authority for christian feminism. the author draws upon her per- sonal experiences of an early child- hood spent in the nazi-occupied netherlands and an adolescence in a faith community with a strong calvinist cast. paper $ . available from your local book- store or direct from the publisher. (please include $ . per book for postage and handling.) westminster/ john knox press witherspoon street louisville, ky - cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new interpretations of the th-century radical reformation and current worldwide developments in anabaptist/mennonite experiences highlight new encyclopedia. just released the /mennonite a continuation of m b h m n i t e encyclopedia volumes i-iv on anabaptom mennonitss brethren-in-christ mlievers church themes some new entries not previously listed plus over articles updating earuer items theology sociology history biographies human interest features extensive bibliographies maps charts global coverage the mennonite encyclopedia, volume v nearly , articles on new topics and articles updating entries in the previous four volumes reflect continuing research into anabaptism, take into account new interpretations arrived at since the first four volumes were published, and examine current developments within the denomination globally. interspersed among the articles are human interest stories that highlight a particular episode in a person's life or give biographical information. "french fries and world mission" and "missing in action: the daniel gerber story" are two of these feature stories. entries in volume five are cross-referenced to all five volumes. bibliographies document the articles and facilitate further research. the mennonite encyclopedia, volume v was prepared under the direction of the institute of mennonite studies, elkhart, indiana, and published by herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania. volume five joins the first four volumes of the mennonite encyclopedia published in the s. together the five-volume set covers years of anabaptist mennonite history. volume v, $ . plus $ . shipping (in canada, $ . plus $ . shipping). five volume set, $ . plus $ . shipping (in canada, $ . plus $ . shipping). herald press books are available through your local bookstore or write to herald press. herald press herald press dept jch dept. jch walnut avenue dutton drive scottdale, pa - waterloo, on n l h cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core microsoft word - water-     water  ,  ,  ; doi: . /w   www.mdpi.com/journal/water  article  seeking common ground in dryland systems: steps  towards adaptive water governance  gabriel lopez porras *, lindsay c. stringer and claire h. quinn  sustainability research institute, school of earth and environment, university of leeds, woodhouse lane,  leeds ls   jt, uk; l.stringer@leeds.ac.uk (l.c.s.); c.h.quinn@leeds.ac.uk (c.h.q.)  *  correspondence: eegilp@leeds.ac.uk  received:   december  ; accepted:   february  ; published:   february    abstract: drylands are exposed  to climate stressors, such as water scarcity, as well as societal  stressors, including conflicts, which can make water governance unsuitable for the system’s context.  the emergence of adaptive water governance often takes places in these challenging contexts, but  the  process  of  achieving  this  style  of  governance  requires  a  better  consideration  of  system  complexities. using the rio del carmen watershed in mexico as a case study, with primary data  obtained through a questionnaire survey carried out with   farmers, this paper aims to identify  the main complexities and needs to enable the emergence of adaptive water governance. we found  that  different  groups  of  farmers  converge  in  identifying  system  stressors  and  the  main  needs  regarding water governance; yet, the ways these stressors are perceived differ between groups. the  results  indicate  that  contrasting  perceptions  are  shaped  by  the  different  cultural  roots  and  environmental conditions in the upper and lower parts of the watershed. this variation increases  the  difficulty  in  achieving  collaboration  and  compromise  when  conflicts  ensue.  reducing  inequalities  in  the  awareness  of  system  stressors  has  the  potential  to  enable  adaptive  water  governance. this could be achieved through a peacebuilding technique with an appropriate cultural  approach for the watershed’s context in the early stages of a stakeholder engagement process.  keywords:  mexico;  social‐ecological  resilience;  perceptions  survey;  agricultural  systems;  water  scarcity; cultural sensitivity    . introduction  drylands cover approximately  % of the world’s land surface [ , ]. their human populations,  consisting of the poorest and most marginalised people in the world [ ] number  .  billion [ ], with  projections suggesting increases to   billion in the next   years [ ]. such growth increases pressure  on limited water resources, reducing water ecosystem services (wes) that support natural resource‐ based  livelihoods  [ ].  moreover,  drylands  are  highly  conflict‐prone  areas  [ ]  often  exposed  to  environmental stressors like droughts and high temperatures [ ]. this is a challenging context, as  drylands’ high climate variability can trigger larger impacts over the whole social‐ecological system  (ses), beyond the direct area of drought occurrence [ ]. for instance, incidents of violent conflict in  some places have been shown  to  increase by up  to  % when  there are extreme droughts [ , ].  looking to the near future, as drylands and their inhabitants are predicted to increase [ , ], so will  other major issues such as poverty, migration, conflicts, and political instability [ ].  current notions of ses functioning show that contemporary conflicts are complex, and that  societal (including cultural) and ecological (e.g., climate non‐linearity) dynamics and interactions  shape conflict occurrence [ ]. the capacity to deal with these challenges and dynamics determines  the risk of future conflicts [ ]. however, traditional top‐down and centralised water governance has  often failed to address uncertainty and ses’s changing conditions, leading to the collapse of wes and  water  ,  ,      of    conflicts over access to them [ – ]. adaptive water governance (awg) has emerged as a way to  foster adaptive capacity, moving from stiff and centralised water governance, towards more flexible,  inclusive, and collaborative arrangements that can strengthen ses resilience in the face of uncertainty  [ ]. awg is especially appropriate when conflicts and resource scarcity are increasing [ ], and  indeed, conflict  is a common and sometimes necessary element of change  [ ]. nevertheless,  the  literature suggests that social attributes such as perceptions and conflicts, which shape ses resilience,  have not been properly captured [ ]. these deficits need addressing to enable awg. as drylands  are more exposed to stressors such as conflicts and water scarcity than many other ses, finding ways  to improve understanding and build resilience in that challenging context is paramount [ ], yet, an  important gap remains in terms of identifying the pertinent barriers and opportunities [ ].  given the gap in the literature on processes that seek to enable awg in conflictive and water‐ scarce contexts, characterising dryland ses exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity through a  stakeholder  lens, can unravel both the threats and the potential for moving towards awg. this  consideration is based on the understanding that ( ) conflicts are commonly caused by opposing  perceptions of needs, values, and interests [ ] and that ( ) identifying ses stressors and sensitivity  is  key  to  raising  awareness  of  vulnerability,  targeting  adaptation  strategies,  and  designing  governance  changes  [ ].  moreover,  understanding  system  stressors  through  stakeholders’  perceptions is appropriate since societal influence over ses is shaped by how humans interact with  the environment and understand ecological functioning [ , ]. cognition of such ses complexities is  important when facing uncertainty [ , ]. addressing this challenge, we focus on understanding  and differentiating between opposing perceptions and cultural constraints that undermine dryland  adaptation, and the potential that stakeholders have to overcome their differences and enable awg,  using the rio del carmen watershed in mexico as a case study. our results show that perceptions are  shaped  by  context‐specific  societal  and  ecological  elements.  in  this  sense,  given  that  awg  is  appropriate for a conflictive and resource‐scarce context, we show that understanding ses threats  through a stakeholder lens, has the potential to highlight key barriers and opportunities for enabling  awg. by doing so, we contribute solutions to one of the biggest dryland challenges: improving  governance to support water management in conflictive and water‐scarce contexts.  . . literature review  awgs regimes are flexible, collaborative, and learning‐based institutions, designed to adapt to  changing  relationships  in  society  and  between  society  and  ecosystems,  and  which  engage  key  stakeholders for an adaptive management of water resources and wes [ , ]. awg has the potential  to increase human adaptive capacity to better face non‐linear and complex environmental changes  [ ]. to do so,  the awg conceptual  framework establishes:  ( ) a  legally binding authority and  accountability to stakeholders; ( ) that governance should operate with the institutional principles of  flexibility,  collaboration,  iteration,  and  subsidiarity;  and  ( )  that  financial,  technical  and  administrative resources are necessary for its sustainability [ ]. in a dryland ses context with highly  variable  ecological  conditions,  such  as  extreme  droughts  and  torrential  rains  [ , ], and  social  complexities,  such  as  conflicts  over  water  access  [ , ],  awg  is  paramount  to  allowing  ses  functioning to continue [ ]. therefore, understanding exposure to stressors is important if awg is  to address them, especially if the ses shows sensitivity to them. sensitivity considers the extent to  which ecological functioning, human well‐being, and livelihoods could be affected by exposure to  ses stressors [ , ]. but also, sensitivity must be understood in terms of social fabric, as ses stressors  have system‐wide impacts on the social function of governance, and can undermine the system’s  adaptive capacity [ ].  the literature claims that awg is appropriate when an ses faces threats to social or ecological  values, conflicts over scarce resources, or ses crises [ , ]. since awg aims to enhance the capacity  of actors to cope with a diverse range of stressors, and to adapt or transform so they can continue to  exist within the ses [ , ], dealing with potential conflicts and societal challenges that could arise  when moving towards awg is of great importance.  water  ,  ,      of    in the light of the above, tensions and conflicts need to be properly managed for engaging key  stakeholders in a process that can potentially enable awg [ , ]. managing those tensions demands  a better understanding of stakeholder perceptions since they shape collaboration and/or incompatible  behaviours  between  stakeholders  [ , ].  moreover,  perceptions  influence  decision‐making  processes [ , ] and affect human interaction with the environment [ ]. in this sense, as adaptive  capacity  is  based  on  collaboration,  self‐organisation,  and  learning  to  live  with  change  [ , ],  stakeholder  perceptions  must  be  recognised  and  incorporated  in  any  engagement  process.  unravelling stakeholder perceptions is thus paramount for understanding an intersubjective ses  [ ], and for identifying the main barriers to and opportunities in moving towards awg [ ].  . materials and methods  . . the rio del carmen watershed  the rio del carmen watershed is in chihuahua, mexico (figure  ), and forms the case study  focus  of  this  paper.  the  main  municipalities  that  make  up  the  watershed  are  ahumada,  buenaventura, namiquipa, and riva palacio [ ]. the watershed has four broad dryland biomes:  grasslands, desert scrub, sandy desert vegetation, and forest [ ]. the average annual rainfall ranges  from   mm in the northern part (downstream) to   mm in the south (upstream) [ ]. the rio del  carmen is an endorheic watershed. [ ]. groundwater sources consist of   main aquifers that are  overexploited: santa clara located upstream, and flores‐magon—villa ahumada and laguna de  patos, both of which are located downstream [ ]. on the surface, the river santa clara later becomes  the river carmen, while in terms of hydraulic infrastructure, there is las lajas dam [ ]. the national  water commission (conagua) is the government agency responsible for managing and issuing  water rights, more than  % of which are issued for agricultural purposes [ ]. accordingly, the main  economic activity in the watershed is agriculture [ ].    figure  . the rio del carmen watershed. image obtained from the national institute of statistic and  geography of mexico [ ].  from around  , the rio del carmen watershed, specifically downstream, began experiencing  a significant and disorganised increase in agricultural activity [ ]. given concerns about potential  water  depletion  and  the  consequential  impacts  on  agriculture,  in  ,  an  undefined  period  of  water  ,  ,      of    restricted‐access for new water exploitations was established [ ]. this presidential decree had the  following three main purposes: ( ) establish restricted‐access for surface water and groundwater, ( )  order  the  construction  of  hydraulic  infrastructure  for  agriculture  in  the  area,  and  ( )  establish  irrigation  district  el  carmen    to  control  agricultural  development  and  access  to  hydraulic  infrastructure [ ]. accordingly, a dam called las lajas with a capacity of  .  m  was built to be  used by irrigation district el carmen   [ , ].  irrigation  districts  are  institutional  structures  designed  to  support  agricultural  production,  consisting  of  an  agricultural  surface,  hydraulic  infrastructure,  the  endowment  of  surface  and  groundwater, and legal protection for their activities [ ]. irrigation districts need to be established  through presidential decree, and have a hydraulic committee, including farmers, and a water district  chief  designated  by  conagua  [ ].  furthermore,  they  have  their  own  regulations  for  the  administration,  operation,  and  conservation  of  land,  agriculture,  and  water  in  the  district  [ ].  irrigation district el carmen   is made up of two ejidos (agricultural communities that manage  their land collectively), the ejido benito juarez and the ejido constitucion. it has a total surface area  of  ,  ha, located downstream, and the main crops farmed by this district are chilli, pecans, cotton,  alfalfa,  and  sorghum  [ , ].  in  general,  the  irrigation  district  does  not  have  high‐tech  hydro‐ agricultural  infrastructure, which  leads  to various  inefficiencies  in  irrigation methods  (including  water leaks), generating an indiscriminate use of water [ ]. manzanares rivera [ ] states that ejidos’  agricultural practices do not rely on intensive water use, and their production tends to be for self‐ consumption.  however,  irrigation  district  el  carmen    has  been  characterised  as  having  substantial agricultural production and a large expansion of its irrigated surface, which contradicts  the ejidos’ traditional agricultural production approach [ ].  upstream and downstream differences are not limited to climate conditions. upstream areas are  mainly  occupied  by  a  mennonite  agricultural  community  in  contrast  to  the  mostly  mexican  traditional farmers found downstream [ ]. in the early  th century, mennonites, a peaceful and  secluded agricultural community originally from the netherlands and germany, were looking for  new countries where they would be allowed to carry out their religious practices freely, so they made  contact with the mexican government [ ]. in  , the president of mexico issued a “privilegium”,  which consisted of a letter addressed to the representatives of the old colony rheinland‐mennonite  church. while the secretary of agriculture and development, and the assistant secretary for foreign  affairs also signed the letter, it was never published in the federal official gazette [ ]. this letter  gave freedom of worship, exemption from military service, the freedom to regulate their lands, and  an autonomous school system without interference from the mexican government to the mennonite  community, clearly contradicting the political constitution of the mexican states [ ]. subsequently,  between   and  , mennonites first established themselves in the laguna de bustillos watershed  in chihuahua before moving to other areas, like the rio del carmen watershed, as their population  grew [ , ]. although mennonites acquire mexican nationality by birth, mennonite and mexican  traditional farmers differ in terms of their cultural identity [ , ].  mennonite communities are characterised by their separation from the secular world, so they  are isolated communities that provide their own education with strong religious connotations [ ].  the  configuration  of  the  landscape  built  upstream  by  the  mennonite  community  (figure  ),  is  intrinsically related to their cultural identity. they have found in agriculture an activity that allows  them  to  isolate  themselves  geographically,  which  is  also  reflected  in  the  shape  of  their  human  settlements [ ]. mennonites’ ethos demands a life of effort and austerity to please god, so that in  exchange  god  provides  that  which  is  necessary  for  the  community  [ ].  however,  modern  mennonites have migrated towards more profitable agriculture, with an unsustainable economic  reorientation that has led to water overexploitation [ , ]. manzanares rivera, [ ] has described  this new mennonite agricultural model as a highly specialised emerging development, which consists  of a participatory model at the community level, with a cooperative dynamic that ranges from the  acquisition of land, seeds, and irrigation technology, to the sale of the product in the market. the  problem is that, at least in the state of chihuahua, all the aquifers where these agricultural models  water  ,  ,      of    are in operation, like the santa clara aquifer, are overexploited, which highlights the detachment that  this model has with the ecological context where it is practiced [ , ].    figure  . mennonite settlement “field  ” next to the river santa clara, that later becomes the river  carmen. image obtained from google [ ].  conflicts  between  upstream  (mennonites)  and  downstream  (traditional  mexican)  farmers  started in the rio del carman watershed in  , when water levels in downstream groundwater  exploitations started to drop considerably, along with reduced water runoff in the river carmen [ ].  following this, a group of mexican farmers detected numerous mennonite water exploitations that  were protected by false water rights and rigged with the collusion of some conagua officials  [ , ]. mexican farmers identified more than   illegal wells and   illegal dams in the watershed,  and they had evidence that, for at least the last   years, conagua officials had been charging  between  ,   and  ,   us  dollars  for  each  apocryphal  water  right  [ ].  this  situation  led  downstream farmers, some of which were affiliated to a grassroots militant activist organisation  called el barzon, to create a social movement called “defenders of the water of the chihuahuan  desert”, which represented more than   mexican farmers [ ]. the fundamental demands of this  group were that the government should:  . enforce the law and stop illegal water exploitation in the watershed;  . prosecute the illegal conversion of grasslands to croplands that was taking place upstream;  . not grant any kind of support or subsidy to farmers who illegally access water; and  . stop providing electricity to illegal exploitations in the watershed [ ].  when these demands were not met, el barzon, in coordination with other rural organisations,  such as the peasant democratic front and the national peasant confederation, began to carry out  direct action to force the authorities to take them more seriously [ , ]. these acts of protest included  the occupation of government offices, highways, and even aggression against government officials,  until finally conagua agreed to work with them in the identification and demolition of illegal  water wells and dams placed to divert the flow of the river [ , ]. however, some members of el  barzon also began to burn crops that were being irrigated with illegal water exploitations [ , ]. at  this point, mennonites demanded that the governor of chihuahua and the president of mexico stop  the aggression against their community, arguing that conagua should also inspect downstream  water  ,  ,      of    illegal exploitations [ ]. given the widespread organised crime, the lack of judicial warrants, the  lack of economic resources, and the lack of political will, amongst other issues, the closure of illegal  water exploitations  in  the watershed could not continue  [ ]. to date, despite several attempts,  principally from el barzon, which has met with the mennonite central committee and with several  government agencies to resolve the situation and stop water overexploitation, illegal water access,  corruption, and conflicts continue to permeate the ses dynamics of the rio del carmen watershed  [ , ].  . . data collection  a questionnaire survey (supplementary materials) was conducted in spanish in the rio del  carmen watershed. from december  –february   we surveyed the mennonite community  and  the  mexican  farmers  located  in  the  municipalities  of  ahumada,  buenaventura  (both  downstream),  namiquipa,  and  riva  palacio  (both  upstream).  questions  considered  water  exploitation, legal water access, droughts, agricultural livelihoods, crime, conflicts, corruption, crop  types, coordination, law enforcement, and the main problems and emerging needs in the watershed.  stratified sampling was used [ ]. accordingly, table   shows a summary of section  .  and  .   regarding the collection and analysis methods used in this paper.  table   methods used for collecting and analysing the data needed for answering the main research  questions.  research question  data collection  data analysis            where are the vulnerabilities  in current water governance  in the rio del carmen  watershed that undermine  resilience?  for exposure: survey  research and secondary  data on drought  indicators.  frequency analysis on survey results  regarding climate perceptions and  secondary data regarding drought  indicators.  for sensitivity: survey  research and secondary  data on social conflicts,  water availability and  crop yields.  incidence and severity index on  survey results regarding the main  problems in the watershed and  frequency analysis on secondary data  regarding the conflicts and crop  yields.  for adaptive capacity:  survey research and  secondary data on  agricultural expansion.  frequency analysis and chi‐square  test of independence on survey  results regarding stakeholder  perceptions. frequency analysis on  secondary data regarding agricultural  expansion.  what potential does society  have to enable awg in the  rio del carmen watershed?  survey research.  incidence and severity index on  survey results regarding the main  needs in the watershed.  the sample size was delimited by the number of water rights  issued  in the watershed and  ascribed to the public registry of water rights. in march  , public water records were downloaded  from  the  mexican  government  website  https://datos.gob.mx/busca/dataset/concesiones‐ asignaciones‐permisos‐otorgados‐y‐registros‐de‐obras‐situadas‐en‐zonas‐de‐libre‐alu. rights issued  in the rio del carmen watershed were filtered to select those that were for agricultural use. a total  of   rights were identified and ascribed: flores‐magon—villa ahumada (downstream) had  ,  santa clara  (upstream) had  ,  and  laguna  de  patos  (downstream)  had  .  each aquifer  was  considered a stratum, and simple random sampling took place within each [ ]. with a population  size of   water rights, using a sample size calculator [ ], a  % confidence level, and a  % margin  of error [ ], the total sample size was  , divided as: flores‐magon—villa ahumada  , santa  clara  , and laguna de patos  . however, because access to the mennonite community located in  water  ,  ,      of    the santa clara aquifer (upstream) was complex given their cultural preference not to engage with  outsiders, the achieved sample was  , and so the final sample was: flores‐magon—villa ahumada  , santa clara  , and laguna de patos  . verbal consent was obtained, complying with ethical  approval granted at the authors’ institution.  during december  –february  , secondary data on agricultural production, water rights,  crop  yields,  agricultural  expansion,  conflicts,  water  availability,  and  climate  conditions  were  collected  from  the  websites  https://www.gob.mx/conagua,  http://ocam.imta.mx/inicio.html,  http:// . . . /index.html, https://www.inegi.org.mx/, http://mosemm.conagua.gob.mx/, and  http://www.dof.gob.mx/, all of which are maintained by the federal government of mexico. the  secondary information gained was used to complement the survey data.  . . data analysis  the results were translated into english in march–april   and were transcribed and analysed  using microsoft excel  . along with the secondary data, we made a quantifiable estimation of  vulnerability considering: ( ) the ses’s exposure to societal and climate stressors, ( ) its sensitivity to  structural change due to that exposure and, ( ) its adaptive capacity to maintain ses stability during  exposure [ , ]. exposure to climate stressors was examined using survey results on climate change  perceptions,  along  with  the  secondary  data  on  drought  indicators  in  mexico  obtained  from  http://mosemm.conagua.gob.mx/. accordingly, perceptions on climate change were quantitatively  analysed according to the frequency with which they were identified by the participants, and drought  data was graphically represented according to the indices that mark if it is an extreme or exceptional  drought. this allowed us to see which climate stressors are perceived as relevant, and how severe the  droughts (as a climate stressor) were in the watershed. next, using the survey results, we identified  which problems were considered as major threats by the participants. this allowed us to characterise  stakeholder perceptions on the watershed´s sensitivity to suffering harm, by ranking the problems  according  to  their severity and  incidence. to do  this, we used an  incidence and severity  index  approach [ ]. in the survey, participants were asked to list and rank, with no limitations, the main  problems in the rio del carmen watershed. using the formula sj =   + (r −  )/(n −  ), where sj is the  severity value, r is the rank, and n is the total number of problems mentioned by the respondent, we  calculated their severity. this was done with every participant, then the average severity index was  calculated for each problem by summing the sj values of that problem and then dividing by the  number of people who mentioned it. for the incidence index, the total number of times a problem  was mentioned was divided by the total number of responses, producing a number ranging from  zero  (no  incidence)  to  one  (highest  incidence).  accordingly,  the  incidence  lets  us  know  how  commonly identified the problem is, while the severity index constitutes the perception of sensitivity  to suffering harm from those problems. afterwards, from the press and documentary database of  water‐related  conflicts  located  on  the  government  website  (http://ocam.imta.mx/inicio.html)  we  identified  the  number  of  clashes  in  the  watershed  related  to  corruption,  conflicts,  water  overexploitation, and its illegal access. this allowed us to identify if the ses was sensitive enough to  stressors to generate violent conflicts among the agricultural communities in the watershed. finally,  with secondary data on water availability, and crop yields, we examined sensitivity by exploring how  water  overexploitation  and  droughts  specifically  affect  water  availability  and  agricultural  production.  the  investigation  of  the  adaptive  capacity  used  survey  results  that  captured  farmers’  perceptions. as we said in section  . , collaboration is a foundational element of adaptive capacity.  by revealing how opposing perceptions have been inhibiting the collaboration between agricultural  communities, we can understand the perceptions’ influence on adaptive capacity. this allowed us to  investigate how similar or different upstream/downstream perceptions are to one another and thus  why  collaboration  has  not  been  achieved.  accordingly,  survey  data  regarding  stakeholders’  perceptions  were  analysed  quantitatively  according  to  frequency  [ ].  a  chi‐square  test  of  independence was carried out [ ], with the null hypothesis that both communities are equal in  relation to their perceptions. using frequency values from each group’s perceptions, we calculated  water  ,  ,      of    the  expected  values  and  then,  using  the  chisq.test  function  from  microsoft  excel  ,  we  calculated p‐values  for  each  perception.  using  secondary  data  on  agricultural  expansion  in  the  watershed, we then explored the extension of the agricultural frontier as an adaptation strategy and  its effectiveness in facing climate stressors.  awg has to operate in an institutional setting in which collaboration and self‐organisation can  take place. to identify common ground that allows collaboration, survey data related to the main  needs in the watershed was analysed using incidence and severity indices [ ]. the methodology is  the same as with the identification of the main problems in the watershed, but this time, we asked  the surveyed to list and rank the main needs in the watershed. accordingly, results on the main needs  highlight potential to use common needs among the agricultural communities as a route to facilitate  collaboration in the watershed. finally, to validate our survey results, secondary data on agricultural  plantations, climate conditions, water granted, water availability, and natural recharge were analysed  qualitatively, enabling data validation through methodological triangulation [ ]. in this sense, for  data validation, we verified that the survey results were consistent with the information obtained  from secondary data and the literature on agricultural communities and water governance in the  study  site  (e.g.,  [ , , ]).  the  contradictions  detected  from  survey  results  (e.g.,  mennonites´  perceptions on corruption) were addressed through a complementary approach, highlighting what  those differences were and analysing them in context [ ]. this allowed us to understand and resolve  those contradictions.  . results  . . where are the vulnerabilities in current water governance in the rio del carmen watershed that  undermine resilience?  . . . exposure  here, we consider only the exposure to environmental stressors identified in the survey that can  be supported by secondary data. between   and  , droughts increased, particularly  in the  downstream area of the watershed (figures   and  ). downstream areas have also experienced more  severe droughts in recent years, while the most significant upstream drought period was from    to    (figure  ). these differences between upstream and downstream climate conditions are  reflected in perceptions, with more mexican farmers (located downstream) perceiving droughts as a  climate stressor.    water  ,  ,      of      figure  . percentage of the upstream and downstream area affected by (a) exceptional and (b) extreme  drought, from   to  . information obtained from the national water commission (conagua)  and the national autonomous university of mexico (unam), [ ].    figure  . survey results when the   participants were asked if they had seen any change in the  climate conditions in the rio del carmen watershed between   and  .  water  ,  ,      of    this evidence indicates that mennonite and mexican farmers’ perceptions of climate change  differ, because, in effect, the climate conditions upstream and downstream are different and hence  their exposure to climate stressors, in this case drought, are different.  . . . sensitivity  according to our survey results, where we asked participants to list and rank the main problems  in  the  watershed,  we  found  that  both  farmer  groups  agree  that  the  main  problems  are  water  overexploitation, illegal water access, droughts, corruption, and the breaching of the law (figure  ).  the higher in the graph, the greater the perceived incidence of the ‘problem’ during the survey, and  the more to the right, the greater the perceived severity of the ‘problem’. most problems are of a social  nature, for which the emergence of violent conflict can be used as an indicator of sensitivity to those  societal stressors. according to a press and documentary database of water‐related conflicts from   to  ,   incidents were recorded related to corruption, conflicts, water overexploitation and  its illegal access [ ]. this highlights that, regardless of its capacity to adapt to those stressors, water  governance in the watershed is sensitive enough to the exposure of the identified problems in figure   to generate social clashes.    figure  .  scatter  plot  that  displays  the  problems  identified  by  mexican  farmers  (circles)  and  mennonites (triangles) according to their severity and incidence. the severity index ranges from    (least  severe)  to    (most  severe);  the  incidence  index  ranges  from    (not  mentioned)  to    (most  mentioned).  although drought was  identified as a problem, and evidence shows  it  is a climate stressor  (figure  ), its negative impact on water regulation and supply can only be validated for surface water,  because from   to  , no data showing variation in groundwater recharge had been published  by the mexican government. as table   shows, from   to  , groundwater availability had been  measured only by considering the changes in groundwater allocation through property rights, as if  the  climate  dynamics  that  affect  groundwater  recharge  were  linear  and  stationary.  however,  perceptions over variations in water supply (table  ) and conflicts over water overexploitation [ ],  confirm that the negative impacts on wes have been experienced by some stakeholders.  water  ,  ,      of    table  . summary of the water sources in the watershed according to information published in the  mexican official journal of the federation [ , – ]. figures are given in cubic meters per year.  santa clara aquifer  (upstream)  annual  groundwater  recharge  groundwater  allocated  groundwater  availability    .   .   − .     .   .   − .     .   .   − .   flores magon‐villa  ahumada aquifer  (downstream)  annual  groundwater  recharge  groundwater  allocated  groundwater  availability    .   .   − .     .   .   − .     .   .   ‐ .   laguna de patos aquifer  (downstream)  annual  groundwater  recharge  groundwater  allocated  groundwater  availability    .   .   .     .   .   .     .   .   − .   upstream  water runoff  surface water  allocated  surface water  availability    .   .   .     .   .   .     .   .   .   downstream  water runoff  surface water  allocated  surface water  availability    .   .   .     .   .   .     .   .   .   table  .  survey  results  that  present  the  different  perceptions  between  the  mennonites  and  the  mexican farmers in the rio del carmen watershed, over the same issues and the same period of time  ( – ), with the p‐value of the chi‐square test for independence. three asterisks mean that there  is a significant difference between perceptions of the two groups of farmers, so the null hypothesis  that states that that both communities are equal in relation to their perceptions cannot be accepted.  survey question  mennonites  mexican  farmers  p‐value of the chi‐square  test for independence.  yes  no  yes  no  have you noticed any variation in the  supply of water from your exploitations?          p <  .  ***  have you noticed any deterioration in the  rio del carmen watershed grasslands?          p <  .  ***  have you been involved in any conflict over  water access?          p <  .  ***  have you seen any illegal water exploitation  in the watershed?          p <  .  ***  have you witnessed any act of corruption in  relation to access to water in the watershed?          p <  .  ***  in terms of agriculture’s sensitivity to drought, during  – , key crop yields saw minimal  increases, except  for maize, which suffered a significant decrease  (figure  ). likewise,  the  total  water  ,  ,      of    agricultural yield of irrigation district el carmen   has remained constant, ranging from  .   tons/ha in   to  .  tons/ha in   [ ]. however, table   shows that groundwater allocation  (which is mainly for agriculture [ ]) has been increasing from  –  and that upstream surface  water allocated has substantially increased between   and  . moreover, from   to  , in  the same municipalities, the area sown with drought resistant varieties increased by  ,  ha, and  the fertilized surface increased by  ,  ha [ , ]. the lack of yield increase, and in the case of  maize, a yield decline, suggests that these  investments  in  improving agriculture, along with the  increasing water allocation for agricultural purposes, have only managed to maintain the status quo.    figure  . main crop yields in key municipalities in the rio del carmen watershed from  – .  information obtained from inegi, [ – ].  . . . adaptive capacity  as stated in section  . , adaptive capacity is founded on collaboration and self‐organisation.  therefore,  analysing  stakeholder  perceptions  that  allow  or  hinder  collaboration  and  self‐ organisation, on which adaptive capacity is based is, important. table   shows the results of the  survey  analysis  of  perceptions,  in  which  a  significant  difference  in  perceptions  between  the  agricultural  communities  is  found.  most  mennonites  said  that  they  had  not  experienced  water  variation or deterioration, or seen conflict, corruption or illegal water exploitation, in stark contrast  to responses from mexican farmers.  it is important to put these results in context, since the mennonites are a close knit and isolated  community. accepting that they have witnessed of an act of corruption would mean acknowledging  that they have seen someone in their community committing it; this would transgress their intimate  social cohesion [ ]. nevertheless, mennonites do recognise a corruption problem in the watershed  as a whole (figure  ).  livelihood aspirations for increasing agricultural production have led to maladaptive actions.  although yields have not increased despite investments in improved seeds and fertilizers (figure  ),  the agricultural frontier in the same municipalities has extended (figure  ).  water  ,  ,      of      figure  . hectares sown with the main crops in the key municipalities that make up the rio del  carmen watershed, from  – . information obtained from inegi, [ – ].  the most prominent indicator of this maladaptation is seen in maize. in   years, its agricultural  frontier increased by  %, (figure  ) but yields decreased by  % (figure  ). moreover, climate  stressors have influenced over‐dependency on already overexploited groundwater. table   shows  that there is surface water availability to meet water needs in the watershed. however, it is unlikely  that annual runoff will be consistent year on year given the risk of drought (figure  ), so groundwater  is  considered  a  safer  bet  by  most  farmers.  furthermore,  las  lajas  dam  is  the  only  hydraulic  infrastructure that can guarantee agricultural water needs, yet, the irrigation district el carmen    has almost exclusive water access rights [ , ] which means that many farmers have no choice but  to rely on decreasing groundwater reserves.  . . what potential does society have to enable awg in the rio del carmen watershed?  enabling  the  collaboration  necessary  for  awg  first  requires  the  identification  of  common  ground between  the watershed’s agricultural communities. to do  this, survey participants were  asked to list and rank the main needs in the watershed. results are shown in figure   according to  their importance and incidence.  water  ,  ,      of      figure  .  a  scatter  graph  that  displays  the  needs  identified  by  mexican  farmers  (circles)  and  mennonites (triangles) according to their importance and incidence. the importance index ranges  from   (least important) to   (most important), and the incidence index ranges from   (not mentioned)  to   (most mentioned).  irrigation technologies (need  ) and law enforcement (need  ) emerge as areas of agreement;  they were mentioned with a similar level of incidence, and ranked at a similar level of importance  (figure  ), offering potential  to address  the system’s sensitivity  to climate and societal stressors  accordingly.  . discussion  unravelling dryland exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, as well as  identifying  the  changes needed according to the context, provides insights for more informed pathways towards  awg. characterising the rio del carmen watershed’s vulnerabilities through a stakeholder lens has  laid the groundwork for determining that dryland sess are not only exposed to climate stressors and  have  helped  to  identify  inequalities  in  awareness  and  conflicting  perceptions  that  might  act  as  barriers to awg.  despite the rio del carmen watershed’s exposure to drought and water overexploitation, we  found that stakeholders´ perceptions and behavioural norms are diverse, with significant differences  between  mennonite  and  mexican  farmers.  this  is  because,  as  stated  in  section  . ,  the  ways  stakeholders experience social–ecological interplay is shaped by both environmental conditions and  cultural constraints  [ ]. our results show  that mennonites do not experience  the same climate  stressors at the same time and intensity as mexican farmers (figures   and  ). additionally, as part  of their culture and faith, many mennonites do not believe that groundwater can be overexploited,  believing that god will provide unlimited water [ ]. conversely, the results show that although  mexican farmers have increased their agricultural activity to sustain yields (see section  . . ), they  also recognise drought and groundwater overexploitation, because they have had to modify their  water exploitations and deepen their wells in response to reduced water availability [ ].  climate stressors have led to maladaptation, as demonstrated through land‐use changes that  have expanded the agricultural frontier and increased reliance on groundwater. we found that these  water  ,  ,      of    changes  did not  lead  to  a significant yield  improvement  (figure  ). so,  to  increase agricultural  production,  farmers  have  converted  the  chihuahuan  desert  grasslands  to  farmland,  with  the  literature  indicating  this  has  mostly  been  done  illegally  [ ].  moreover,  farmers’  reliance  on  groundwater  as  a  drought  adaptation  is  maladaptive  at  the  watershed  scale,  causing  aquifer  depletion [ ]. a similar case can be found in the rio grande basin, where farmers’ groundwater  exploitation as a drought buffer caused legal disputes between the states of texas and new mexico  because it was leading to aquafer depletion [ ]. in the rio del carmen watershed, these maladaptive  strategies could be addressed  through awg, yet, several social complexities present barriers  to  achieving this, for instance, the societal stressors that are leading to social clashes in the area.  the integration of societal stressors within a vulnerability characterisation provides a valuable  understanding of social influences over ses adaptation. in this case study, it is shown that if an ses  is sensitive enough to societal stressors, such as illegal water access, corruption, and the breaching of  the law, it will lead to social clashes, undermining human adaptive capacity in terms of collaboration  and  self‐organisation.  it  highlights  that  social  vulnerability  is  not  only  about  poverty  and  marginalisation,  because  the  absence  of  good  social  relations,  security  and  peace  all  increase  vulnerability  in  terms  of  human  well‐being  [ ].  moreover,  our  findings  help  to  increase  our  understanding of vulnerability by including other intersecting social processes (e.g., the interaction  between opposing perceptions and illegal water access) that are the differential factors between the  vulnerability to climate change and the vulnerability to ses stressors [ ]. exposure to ses stressors  is not only environment‐related [ ]. as reported in section  . , in the rio del carmen watershed,  societal stressors have caused   conflict incidents in two years, consisting of social clashes, dam  destruction,  and  the  burning  of  crops,  illustrating  the  fragile  context  of  conflict  dynamics  [ ].  nevertheless,  societal  stressors  are  not  exclusively  linked  to  resource  scarcity,  as  they  are  institutionally embedded  in, e.g.,  intensive agriculture’s externalities or  the adoption of corrupt  practices [ ]. this is similar to the situation in southeast asia, where forestry, water, and mining  sectors  have  generated  several  societal  stressors,  e.g.,  human  rights  violations  and  unequal  distributions of costs and benefits, resulting in conflicts and violent rebellions [ ]. addressing both  climate and societal stressors is thus paramount for advancing adaptation.  another identified societal stressor is corruption (figure  ), which plays a major role in the lack  of collaboration. corruption has been exacerbating inequalities between agricultural communities in  terms  of  water  access  and  has  played  a  key  role  in  determining  who  is  affected  by  water  overexploitation [ ]. no one wants corruption. mennonites do not like that they were victims of it,  but since they were deceived into buying apocryphal water rights by some conagua officials,  sustaining a relationship based on corruption  is the only way through which some of them can  continue farming [ ]. this explains why mennonites said that they had not witnessed an act of  corruption (table  ): claiming otherwise implies that the participant or someone close to them has  been part of  it. trusting that the community will take care of  its members  is a basic element of  mennonite culture and of the construction of its collective identity [ , ]. expecting that they will  reveal who is responsible for corruption or illegal water access within their community is unrealistic  [ ]. again, this does not mean that mennonites do not recognise corruption as a problem, because  as figure   shows, they do, but stating they have witnessed corruption carries other implications,  which explains the survey results in table  . given societal complexities like this, confrontation and  incrimination between the agricultural communities only worsens the situation [ ]. the absence of  a culturally sensitive approach to the mennonites, and the lack of recognition of opposing perceptions  (table  ) when dealing with illegal water access and its overexploitation, has meant a lack of positive  results [ , ]. such cultural insensitivity undermines the extrapolation of proven solutions to diverse  conflict  settings  [ ].  understanding  the  mennonites’  cultural  approach  is  necessary  to  allow  a  rapprochement between these communities [ ]. nevertheless, identifying common ground between  both agricultural communities as a starting point for this rapprochement is the first step.  principles identified in the awg framework, such as learning and collaboration for achieving  adaptation  through  common  goals  (e.g.,  irrigation  technology  and  law  enforcement),  have  the  potential to address societal stressors, by aligning the two communities’ incentives to address the  water  ,  ,      of    watershed’s  problems  [ ].  collaboration  also  depends  on  achieving  greater  equity  between  communities, allowing them to develop similar levels of awareness about the climate at wider scales  (figure  ) and to better understand the societal stressors they face (figure  ). developing a more  equal awareness  is of great significance, because  if mennonites think they will not get the same  benefits as the mexican farmers, they may not have the same incentives to collaborate [ ]. identifying  common needs between agricultural communities (figure  ) enhances the exchange of ideas and  views, to deliberate and negotiate solutions to common problems as part of a learning process [ ].  accordingly, social learning co‐generates ecological knowledge to address climate stressors, while  building an understanding of how  to cooperate and collaborate with conflicting stakeholders  to  address the societal stressors [ ]. this will not necessarily modify cultural constraints or trigger  change, but can establish the institutional setting to advance adaptation by adjusting agricultural  livelihoods to the watershed´s context through social learning [ ]. learning will also require, for  instance, collaboration  to address monitoring deficiencies on groundwater recharge  (table  )  to  support adjustment of farming practices to ecological conditions. collaboration enables stakeholders  to  devise  and  develop  suitable  and  multi‐perspective  solutions  [ ],  meaning  that  stakeholder  engagement is appropriate for developing solutions to commonly identified problems [ , ], similar  to  the  ones  shown  in  figure  .  nonetheless,  neither  mennonites  nor  conagua  officials  will  participate in any collaborative process if they are seen as the source of the corruption problem or  responsible for current disputes [ ].  peace is not the absence of conflict, but the ability to manage and transform it [ ]. in the rio del  carmen watershed, this means the ability to manage opposing perceptions (table  ) in order to allow  agriculture  to continue. peacebuilding comprises different strategies, ranging  from negotiations,  mediation, and conflict resolution, to institutional strengthening and economic development [ , ].  understanding this is important, especially in dryland contexts where there is a lot of competition  for  scarce  resources  [ ].  a  peacebuilding  process  as  a  starting  point  for  enabling  awg  could  potentially  reconcile  the  agricultural  communities  in  the  watershed  in  a  non‐conflictual  way,  addressing the root of the disagreements, and building common frames, needs, and interests [ , ].  awg principles need to be embedded in peacebuilding in terms of adaptation to future adversities,  rather than taking a conflict approach that will increase vulnerability [ ]. considering peacebuilding  to enable awg is important, as awg emergence often takes place in undesirable states of governance  and a conflictive context, delaying any transition to another governance regime. for instance, in the  in the klamath river, usa, it took about   years to resolve legal, political, and physical contestations  between different productive sectors and indigenous communities in order to allow the emergence  of adaptive governance [ , ]. a first step in peacebuilding for adaptive governance is to identify  leadership among  the agricultural communities  [ ]. this  is straightforward since  the  irrigation  district is a structured organization formed by irrigation associations and a water district chief [ ],  while  the mennonite  community  is very closely connected  through religion and  family,  with a  community head that has representativeness, legitimacy, and accountability [ , ]. then, focusing  on common needs and problems that bring people together despite the conflicts, by highlighting and  recognising each communities’ capacities, sets the stage for a peacebuilding process [ ]. this  is  especially important in drylands with extreme droughts, like the rio del carmen watershed. hence,  identifying vulnerabilities, problems, and needs, as we have here, is key for starting a peacebuilding  process grounded in stakeholder engagement, which can ultimately enable awg.  . conclusions  awg offers potential to increase the dryland ses adaptive capacity by addressing both climate  and societal stressors. understanding the role of societal factors in shaping ses resilience provides  important insights for defining context‐specific awg. in seeking to achieve awg, it is necessary to  acknowledge  stakeholder  perceptions  of  exposure,  sensitivity,  and  adaptive  capacity,  as  this  highlights the potential for enabling awg and system needs. the rio del carmen watershed case  provides important insights on how to unravel ses components in order to understand exposure to  water  ,  ,      of    societal and climate stressors, and how context‐specific procedures can be designed to overcome  them. such insights offer important guidance for other watersheds globally.  the  rio  del  carmen  dryland  context  is  challenging:  livelihoods  rely  on  overexploited  groundwater;  it  has  nuanced  exposure  to  droughts;  and  it  has  illegal  water  access,  corruption,  inequality, and legal breaches that are exacerbating existing conflicts over water access. nevertheless,  irrigation  technologies  and  law  enforcement  are  common  needs  in  the  watershed  that  can  be  leveraged to initiate stakeholder engagement as part of a process of peacebuilding. conflicts and  cultural differences require a peacebuilding process in the early stages of stakeholder engagement.  this requires working on and developing common frames, needs, and interests, in order to achieve  enduring and suitable awg.  supplementary materials: supplementary materials are available online at www.mdpi.com/xxx/s .  author contributions: the research was designed by g.l.p., with supervision of l.c.s. and c.h.q., writing— original draft preparation, g.l.p.; review & editing—l.c.s. and c.h.q. all authors have read and agreed to  the published version of the manuscript.  acknowledgments: the first author acknowledges financial support from the mexican council for science and  technology (conacyt) and the mexican ministry of energy.  funding:  this  research  received  financial  support  from  conacyt‐secretaria  de  energia‐ sustentabilidad energetica grant no.  .  conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest.  references  . prăvălie, r. drylands extent and environmental issues. a global approach. earth sci. rev.  ,  ,  – .  . plaza, c.; zaccone, c.; sawicka, k.; méndez, a.m.; tarquis, a.; gascó, g.; heuvelink, g.b.m.; schuur,  e.a.g.; maestre, f.t. soil resources and element stocks in drylands to face global issues. sci. rep.  ,  ,  .  . middleton, n.; stringer, l.; goudie, a.; thomas, d. the forgotten billion mdg achievement in the drylands;  undp: new york, ny, usa,  .  . ipbes  summary  for  policymakers  of  the  assessment  report  on  land  degradation  and  restoration  of  the  intergovernmental sciencepolicy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services; scholes, r., montanarella, l.,  brainich, a., barger, n., ten brink, b., cantele, m., erasmus, b. ipbes secretariat: bonn, germany,  .  . schlaepfer,  d.r.;  bradford,  j.b.;  lauenroth,  w.k.;  munson,  s.m.;  tietjen,  b.;  hall,  s.a.;  wilson,  s.d.;  duniway,  m.c.;  jia,  g.;  pyke,  d.a.;  et  al.  climate  change  reduces  extent  of  temperate  drylands  and  intensifies drought in deep soils. nat. commun.  ,  ,  .  . huang, j.; li, y.; fu, c.; chen, f.; fu, q.; dai, a.; shinoda, m.; ma, z.; guo, w.; li, z.; et al. dryland climate  change: recent progress and challenges. rev. geophys.  ,  ,  – .  . werrell,  c.;  femia,  f.  epicenters  of  climate  and  security:  the  new  geostrategic  landscape  of  the  anthropocene. climate diplomacy,   june  .  . huang, j.; yu, h.; guan, x.; wang, g.; guo, r. accelerated dryland expansion under climate change. nat.  clim. chang.  ,  ,  – .  . de coning, c. adaptive peacebuilding. int. aff.  ,  ,  – .  . aggestam, k.; sundell‐eklund, a. situating water  in peacebuilding: revisiting  the middle east peace  process. water int.  ,  ,  – .  . decaro, d.a.; chaffin, b.c.; schlager, e.; garmestani, a.s.; ruhl, j.b. legal and institutional foundations  of adaptive environmental governance. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . smidt, s.j.; haacker, e.m.k.; kendall, a.d.; deines, j.m.; pei, l.; cotterman, k.a.; li, h.; liu, x.; basso, b.;  hyndman, d.w. complex water management in modern agriculture: trends in the water‐energy‐food  nexus over the high plains aquifer. sci. total environ.  ,  – ,  – .  . hileman,  j.;  hicks,  p.;  jones,  r.  an  alternative  framework  for  analysing  and  managing  conflicts  in  integrated water resources management (iwrm): linking theory and practice. int. j. water resour. dev.  ,  ,  – .  water  ,  ,      of    . cosens, b.a.; ruhl, j.b.; soininen, n. enabling adaptive governance: defining the role of government in  new governance. ssrn electron. j.  .  . reed, m.s.; stringer, l.c. land degradation, desertification and climate change: anticipating, assessing and  adapting to future change; routledge: london, uk,  ; isbn  .  . stringer,  l.c.;  reed,  m.s.;  fleskens,  l.;  thomas,  r.j.;  le,  q.b.;  lala‐pritchard,  t.  a  new  dryland  development paradigm grounded in empirical analysis of dryland systems science. l. degrad. dev.  ,  ,  – .  . delgado,  l.e.;  marin,  v.h.;  bachmann,  p.l.;  torres‐gomez,  m.  conceptual  models  for  ecosystem  management through the participation of local social actors: the rio cruces wetland conflict. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . downing,  t.e.;  patwardhan,  a.;  authors,  c.;  klein,  r.j.t.;  mukhala,  e.;  stephen,  l.;  winograd,  m.;  ziervogel, g. assessing vulnerability for climate adaptation; technical paper no.  . in: adaptation policy  frameworks  for  climate  change.  developing  strategies,  policies  and  measures.  united  nations  development programme, global environment facility. cambridge university press: new york, ny, usa,     pp.  – .    . kotzé, l.j.; kim, r.e. earth system law: the juridical dimensions of earth system governance. earth syst.  gov.  ,  ,  .  . dietz, t. bringing values and deliberation to science communication. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa  ,    suppl,  – .  . akamani,  k.  adaptive  water  governance:  integrating  the  human  dimensions  into  water  resource  governance. j. contemp. water res. educ.  ,  ,  – .  . o’connell, d.; abel, n.; grigg, n.; maru, y.; butler, j.; cowie, a.; stone‐jovicich, s.; walker, b.; wise, r.;  ruhweza, a.; et al. designing projects  in a rapidly changing world—guidelines  for embedding resilience,  adaptation and transformation into sustainable development projects; gef: washington, dc, usa,  ; p.  .  . hill  clarvis,  m.;  allan,  a.;  hannah,  d.m.  water,  resilience  and  the  law:  from  general  concepts  and  governance design principles to actionable mechanisms. environ. sci. policy  ,  ,  – .  . lopez porras, g.; stringer, l.c.; quinn, c.h. corruption and conflicts as barriers to adaptive governance:  water governance in dryland systems in the rio del carmen watershed. sci. total environ.  ,  ,  – .  . reynolds, j.f.; smith, d.m.s.; lambin, e.f.; turner, b.l.; mortimore, m.; batterbury, s.p.j.; downing, t.e.;  dowlatabadi, h.; fernández, r.j.; herrick, j.e.; et al. global desertification: building a science for dryland  development. science  ,  ,  – .  . cosens,  b.a.;  gunderson,  l.;  chaffin,  b.c.  introduction  to  the  special  feature  practicing  panarchy:  assessing  legal  flexibility,  ecological  resilience,  and  adaptive  governance  in  regional  water  systems  experiencing rapid environmental change. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . baca,  m.;  läderach,  p.;  haggar,  j.;  schroth,  g.;  ovalle,  o.  an  integrated  framework  for  assessing  vulnerability  to  climate  change  and  developing  adaptation  strategies  for  coffee  growing  families  in  mesoamerica. plos one  ,  , e .  . pahl‐wostl,  c.  an  evolutionary  perspective  on  water  governance:  from  understanding  to  transformation. water resour. manag.  ,  ,  – .  . chaffin, b.c.; gosnell, h.; cosens, b.a. a decade of adaptive governance scholarship: synthesis and future  directions. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . cosens, b.; gunderson, l.; allen, c.; benson, m.; cosens, b.; gunderson, l.; allen, c.; benson, m.h.  identifying  legal,  ecological  and  governance  obstacles,  and  opportunities  for  adapting  to  climate  change. sustainability  ,  ,  – .  . engle, n.l. adaptive capacity and its assessment. glob. environ. chang.  ,  ,  – .  . folke, c. resilience (republished). ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . interpeace using resilience to build peace—practice brief: resilience and peacebuilding; interpeace: geneva,  switzerland,  .  . schlüter, m.; baeza, a.; dressler, g.; frank, k.; groeneveld, j.; jager, w.; janssen, m.a.; mcallister, r.r.j.;  müller, b.; orach, k.; et al. a framework for mapping and comparing behavioural theories in models of  social‐ecological systems. ecol. econ.  ,  ,  – .  water  ,  ,      of    . kaufmann, w.; hooghiemstra, r.; feeney, m.k. formal institutions, informal institutions, and red tape: a  comparative study. public adm.  ,  ,  – .  . lopez porras, g.; stringer, l.c.; quinn, c.h. unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive  water governance in dryland systems. water resour. manag.  ,  ,  – .  . díaz, s.; demissew, s.; carabias, j.; joly, c.; lonsdale, m.; ash, n.; larigauderie, a.; adhikari, j.r.; arico,  s.; báldi, a.; et al. the ipbes conceptual framework — connecting nature and people. curr. opin. environ.  sustain.  ,  ,  – .  . inegi instituto nacional de estadística y geografía. estudio de información integrada de la cuenca río santa  clara y lago las flores; instituto nacional de estadística y geografía: aguascalientes, mexico,  .  . dof diario oficial de la federación. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de  agua subterránea de los   acuíferos de los estados unidos mexicanos, mismos que forman parte de  las  regiones  hidrológico‐administrativas  que  se  indican,  .  available  online:  http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /  (accessed on   june  ).  . inegi síntesis de información geográfica del estado de chihuahua; institutio nacional de estadística y geografía:  aguascalientes, mexico,  .  . conagua  comisión  nacional  del  agua.  disponibilidad  por  acuíferos.  available  online:  http://sigagis.conagua.gob.mx/gas /sections/disponibilidad_acuiferos.html (accessed on   june  ).  . inegi mapa digital de méxico v . .  instituto nacional de estadistica y geografia. available online:  https://gaia.inegi.org.mx/mdm /?v=bgf oji ljc mtu lgxvbjotmtaylje nty lho mixsommxmtfz zxj awnpb n dgmxmtfzzxj awnpb m= (accessed on   febuary  ).  . dof acuerdo que establece el distrito de riego de el carmen, en san buenaventura y villa ahumada,  chih., y declara de utilidad pública la construcción de las obras que lo formen y la adquisición de los  terrenos  necesarios  para  alojarlas  y  operarlas.  available  online:  http://dof.gob.mx/nota_to_imagen_fs.php?cod_diario= &pagina= &seccion=   (accessed on    july  ).  . lan ley de aguas nacionales. diaro oficial de la federacion. cámara de diputados del h. congreso de  la unión. available online: http://www.diputados.gob.mx/leyesbiblio/pdf/ _ .pdf (accessed on    febuary  ).  . conagua comisión nacional del agua. estadísticas agrícolas de  los distritos  de riego. available  online:  https://www.gob.mx/conagua/documentos/estadisticas‐agricolas‐de‐los‐distritos‐de‐riego  (accessed on   december  ).  . yescas diego, f. valoración económica del agua en el módulo uno del distrito de riego   “el carmen” en el  estado de chihuahua, a través de los costos de obtención y de la productividad marginal.; institución de  enseñanza e investigación en ciencias agrícolas: texcoco, estado de méxico, méxico,  .  . manzanares rivera, j.l. hacer florecer al desierto: análisis sobre  la  intensidad de uso de  los recursos  hídricos subterráneos y superficiales en chihuahua, méxico. cuad. desarro. rural  ,  ,  – .  . quintana, v.m. nuevo orden alimentario y disputa por el agua en el norte de méxico. apunt. rev. ciencias  soc.  ,  ,  – .  . bravo peña, l.c.; alatorre cejudo, l.c.; díaz caravantes, r.; wiebe, l.; moreno murrieta, r. cultura y  apropiación del espacio: diferencias en los paisajes culturales de menonitas y mestizos de chihuahua,  méxico. j. lat. am. geogr.  ,  ,  – .  . carroll janer, i.e. la gente que nos alimenta. herencia, parentesco y sangre entre los menonitas de la vieja  colonia  en  el  ejido  salamanca  al  sur  del  estado  de  quintana  roo  en  méxico,  escuela  nacional  de  antropologia e historia, ph.d. thesis, ciudad de méxico, méxico,  .  . google google earth. image land,  .  . athie, k. el agua, zoy; centro de estudios sociales y de opinion publica, ed.: mc editores; camara de  diputados lxiii legislatura: mexico city, mexico,  ; isbn  ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ .  . imta instituto mexicano de tecnología del agua. observatorio de conflictos por el agua en méxico.  available online: http://ocam.imta.mx/inicio.html (accessed on   january  ).  . bhattacherjee, a. social science research: principles, methods, and practices. usf open access textbooks  collection. book   university of south florida, tampa, florida, fl, usa,  .  . surveymonkey sample size calculator. available online: https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample‐ size‐calculator/ (accessed on   march  ).  water  ,  ,      of    . barlett, j.e.; kotrlik, j.w.; higgins, c.c. organizational research: determining appropriate sample size in  survey research. inf. technol. learn. perform. j. spring  ,  ,  – .  . quinn, c.h.; huby, m.; kiwasila, h.; lovett,  j.c. local perceptions of risk  to  livelihood  in semi‐arid  tanzania. j. environ. manag.  ,  ,  – .  . kohlbacher, f. the use of qualitative content analysis in case study research. forum qual. sozialforsch. /  forum qual. soc. res.  ,  ,  – .  . mcdonald, j.h. handbook of biological statistics,  rd ed.; sparky house publishing: baltimore, md, usa,  .  . patton, m.q. enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. health serv. res.  ,  ,  – .  . may, v. realities toolkit # . what to do with contradictory data? morgan centre, university of manchester:  manchester, uk,  .  . conagua; unam comision nacional del agua y universidad nacional autonoma de mexico. monitor  de sequía multivariado en méxico (mosemm). available online: http:// . . . /index.html (accessed  on  january  ).  . dof. diario oficial de la federacion. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual  de las aguas nacionales superficiales de las   cuencas hidrológicas que comprenden las   regiones  hidrológicas  en  que  se  encuentra  dividido  los  estados  unido.  available  online:  http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /  (accessed on   november  ).  . dof. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de agua subterránea de los    acuíferos de  los estados unidos mexicanos, mismos que forman parte de  las regiones hidrológico‐ administrativas  que  se  indican,  .  available  online:  http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /  (accessed on   december  ).  . dof. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de agua subterránea de los    acuíferos de  los estados unidos mexicanos, mismos que forman parte de  las regiones hidrológico‐ administrativas  que  se  indican,  .  available  online:  http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /  (accessed on   december  ).  . dof. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de las aguas superficiales en las  cuencas hidrológicas río del carmen  , río del carmen  , mismas que forman parte de  la región  hidrológica  número    cuencas  cerradas  del  norte,  .  available  online:  http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /   (accessed  on    december  ).  . dof. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de las aguas superficiales en las  cuencas hidrológicas río del carmen  , río del carmen  , mismas que forman parte de  la región  hidrológica  número    cuencas  cerradas  del  nort,  .  available  online:  http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /   (accessed  on    december  ).  . inegi. instituto nacional de estadística y geografía. anuario estadístico y geográfico de chihuahua  ; instituto  nacional de estadística y geografía: aguascalientes, mexico,  ; isbn  .  . inegi.  instituto  nacional  de  estadística  y  geografía. anuario estadístico  de  chihuahua  ;  instituto  nacional de estadística y geografía: aguascalientes, mexico,  .  . inegi. instituto nacional de estadística y geografía. anuario estadístico y geográfico de chihuahua  ;  instituto nacional de estadistica y geografia: aguascalientes, mexico,  ; isbn  ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ .  . inegi. instituto nacional de estadística y geografía. anuario estadístico y geográfico de chihuahua  ;  instituto nacional de estadística y geografía: aguascalientes, mexico,  .  . dof. resolucion sobre dotación de aguas, solicitada por vecinos del poblado denominado benito juarez,  antes  enriquez  y  punta  de  alamos,  municipio  de  buenaventura,  chih.  available  online:  http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / /  (accessed on   sepertember  ).  . garrick, d. decentralisation and drought adaptation: applying the subsidiarity principle in transboundary  river basins. int. j. commons  ,  ,  .  . ipcc. climate change  : synthesis report. in contribution of working groups i, ii and iii to the fifth  assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change [core writing team, r.k. pachauri and l.a.  meyer (eds.)]; ipcc: geneva, switzerland,  .  water  ,  ,      of    . pichler,  m.;  brad,  a.  political  ecology  and  socio‐ecological  conflicts  in  southeast  asia.  aseas‐ Österreichische zeitschrift südostasienwissenschaften  ,  ,  – .  . roessingh, c.; boersma, k. “we are growing belize”: modernisation and organisational change  in the  mennonite settlement of spanish lookout, belize. int. j. entrep. small bus.  ,  ,  .  . søreide,  t.;  truex,  r.  multi‐stakeholder  groups  for  better  sector  performance:  a  key  to  fighting  corruption in natural‐resource governance? dev. policy rev.  ,  ,  – .  . de vente, j.; reed, m.s.; stringer, l.; valente, s.; newig, j. how does the context and design of participatory  decision making processes affect their outcomes? evidence from sustainable land management in global  drylands. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . reed, m.s.; evely, a.c.; cundill, g.; fazey, i.; glass, j.; laing, a.; newig, j.; parrish, b.; prell, c.; raymond,  c.; et al. what is social learning? ecol. soc.  ,  , r .  . stringer, l.; dougill, a.; fraser, e.; hubacek, k.; prell, c.; reed, m. unpacking “participation”  in  the  adaptive management of social–ecological systems: a critical review. ecol. soc.  ,  ,  .  . akhmouch,  a.;  clavreul,  d.  stakeholder  engagement  for  inclusive  water  governance:  “practicing  whatwe preach” with the oecd water governance initiative. water (switz.)  ,  ,  – .  . medema, w.; adamowski, j.; orr, c.; furber, a.; wals, a.; milot, n. building a foundation for knowledge  co‐creation in collaborative water governance: dimensions of stakeholder networks facilitated through  bridging organizations. water  ,  ,  .  . chaffin,  b.c.;  garmestani,  a.s.;  gosnell,  h.;  craig,  r.k.  institutional  networks  and  adaptive  water  governance in the klamath river basin, usa. environ. sci. policy  ,  ,  – .  . chaffin, b.c.; craig, r.k.; gosnell, h. resilience, adaptation, and transformation in the klamath river  basin social‐ecological system. idaho law rev.    ,  ,  – .    ©   by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access  article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution  (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /).    _ - _ _ - volume number october t h e jou rn al of e cclesiastical h istory v ol. n o. o ctob er the journal of ecclesiastical history contents i articles taking the devil at his word: the devil and language in the dialogues of gregory the great charlotte kingston the crusade against frederick ii: a neglected piece of evidence gianluca raccagni pope innocent iii, the fourth lateran council, and frankish greece and cyprus chris schabel and nickiphoros i. tsougarakis the first bible printed in england: a little known witness from late henrician england eyal poleg the travels and translations of three african anglican missionaries, – emma wild-wood the holy see, italian catholics and palestine under the british mandate: two turning points paolo zanini note and document two unpublished letters of stephen gardiner, august–september (bodleian library, oxford, ms eng. th. b. ) spencer j. weinreich review article the minimised heretic sebastian moll reviews books received the eusebius essay prize; the world christianities essay prize authors’ addresses iv cambridge journals online for further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: journals.cambridge.org/ech the journal of ecclesiastical history vol. no. october mix paper from responsible sources ® ® _ - _ _ - / / : pm page downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core the journal of ecclesiastical history editors james carleton paget, university of cambridge alec ryrie, university of durham assistant editor christine linehan, cambridge advisory editorial board copying this journal is registered with the copyright clearance center, rosewood drive, danvers, ma , usa (www.copyright.com). organizations in the usa who are also registered with ccc may therefore copy material (beyond the limits permitted by sections and of us copyright law) subject to payment to ccc. this consent does not extend to multiple copying for promotional or commercial pur poses. code - / . isi tear sheet service, market street, philadelphia, pa , usa, is authorised to supply single copies of separate articles for private use only. organizations authorized by the copyright licensing agency may also copy ma terial subject to the usual conditions. for all other use, permission should be sought from cambridge or from the american branch of cambridge university press. this journal is included in the cambridge journals online service which can be found at www.journals.cambridge.org. for further information on other press titles access www.cambridge.org. this journal issue has been printed on fsc-certified paper and cover board. fsc is an independent, non-governmental, not-for-profit organization established to promote the responsible management of the world’s forests. please see www.fsc.org for information. © cambridge university press, cambridge university press journals fulfillment department, uph, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb bs, uk. avenue of the americas, new york, ny - , usa williamstown road, port melbourne, vic , australia c/ orense, , planta , madrid, spain dock house, the waterfront, cape town , south africa cambridge university press, printed and bound by bell & bain ltd, glasgow, uk contributions and books for review should be addressed to the editors, journal of ecclesiastical history, robinson college, cambridge cb an, uk ; e-mail jeh@robinson.cam.ac.uk . the journal normally expects articles to be not longer than eight thousand words, inclusive of endnotes ; this represents a maximum of – pages of published text and – pages of an average double-spaced a typescript. a copy of the journal’s style sheet will be sent to intending contributors on application to the editors. subscriptions the journal of ecclesiastical history (issn - ) is published quarterly by cambridge university press in january, april, july and october. four parts form a volume. the subscription price, which includes delivery by air where appropriate, plus electronic access to institutional subscribers (but excluding vat) of volume in is £ (us $ in usa, canada and mexico) for institutions ; the print only price for institutions is £ (us$ ) and £ (us $ ) for individuals ordering direct from the publishers and certifying that the journal is for their personal use. single parts are £ net (us $ in usa, canada and mexico) plus postage. the electronic only price available to institutional subscribers is £ ($ in usa, canada and mexico). eu subscribers (outside the uk) who are not registered for vat should add vat at their country’s rate. vat registered members should provide their vat registration number. japanese prices for institutions (including asp delivery) are available from kinokuniya company ltd, p.o. box , chitose, tokyo , japan. orders, which must be accompanied by payment, may be sent to a bookseller, subscription agent or direct to the publisher : cambridge university press, journals fulfillment department, uph, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb bs, uk; or in the usa, canada and mexico : cambridge university press, journals fulfillment department, avenue of the americas, new york, ny , usa. periodicals postage paid at new york, ny, and at additional mailing offices. postmaster : send address changes in usa, canada and mexico to the journal of ecclesiastical history, cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, new york – . david bebbington, university of stirling michael bourdeaux, keston institute, oxford martin brett, university of cambridge euan cameron, union theological seminary, new york richard carwardine, university of oxford gillian clark, university of bristol tim cooper, university of otago david d’avray, university college london eamon duffy, university of cambridge judith herrin, king’s college, london simon keynes, university of cambridge diarmaid macculloch, university of oxford david maxwell, university of cambridge rosamond mckitterick, university of cambridge hugh mcleod, university of birmingham †j. d. y. peel, soas, university of london miri rubin, queen mary, university of london w. j. sheils, university of york julia smith, university of glasgow pauline stafford, university of liverpool brian stanley, university of edinburgh alexandra walsham, university of cambridge frances young, university of birmingham patrick zutshi, university of cambridge j. kwabena asamoah-gyadu, trinity theological seminary, ghana elizabeth clark, duke university, usa giles constable, institute for advanced study, princeton, usa sergei filatov, institute of eastern studies, moscow, russia robert frykenberg, university of wisconsin-madison, usa clara garcía ayluardo, centro de investigación y docencia económicas, mexico city, mexico jean-philippe genet, université paris i, france david hilliard, flinders university, australia dominique iogna-prat, centre d’Études médiévales, paris, france susan karant-nunn, university of arizona, usa peter lake, vanderbilt university, usa hartmut lehmann, max-planck-institut für geschichte, göttingen, germany harry o. maier, vancouver school of theology, canada claudia rapp, university of california, usa andré vauchez, École française de rome, italy international advisory board _ - _ _ - / / : pm page downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core the journal of ecclesiastical history volume  number  october  contents articles taking the devil at his word: the devil and language in the dialogues of gregory the great: by charlotte kingston  the crusade against frederick ii: a neglected piece of evidence: by gianluca raccagni  pope innocent iii, the fourth lateran council, and frankish greece and cyprus: by chris schabel and nickiphoros i. tsougarakis  the first bible printed in england: a little known witness from late henrician england: by eyal poleg  the travels and translations of three african anglican missionaries, – : by emma wild-wood  the holy see, italian catholics and palestine under the british mandate: two turning points: by paolo zanini  note and document two unpublished letters of stephen gardiner, august–september  (bodleian library, oxford, ms eng. th. b. ): by spencer j. weinreich  review article the minimised heretic: by sebastian moll  reviews groen, galadza, glibetic and radle (eds), rites and rituals of the christian east. proceedings of the fourth international congress of the society of oriental liturgy, lebanon, – may : by sebastian p. brock  marenbon, pagans and philosophers. the problem of paganism from augustine to leibniz: by lionel wickham  haas (ed.), fiat voluntas tua. theologe und hisktoriker – priester und professor. festschrift zum . geburtstag von harm klueting: by karim schelkens  engels and van nuffelen (eds), religion and competition in antiquity: by james carleton paget  rÜpke, from jupiter to christ. on the history of religion in the roman imperial period: by teresa morgan  cook, crucifixion in the mediterranean world: by james carleton paget  daley and kolbet (eds), the harp of prophecy. early christian interpretation of the psalms: by rowan williams  downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core jacobsen, christ – the teacher of salvation. a study on origen’s christology and soteriology: by m. j. edwards  blumell and wayment (eds), christian oxyrhynchus. texts, documents and sources: by james carleton paget  mathieson, christian women in the greek papyri of egypt to  ce: by annemarie luijendijk  keyden, orientierung. die westliche christenheit und das heilige land in der antike: by jonathan j. armstrong  cribiore, libanius the sophist. rhetoric, reality, and religion in the fourth century: by richard lim  cartwright, the theological anthropology of eustathius of antioch: by wolfram kinzig  bergjan, gleede and heimgartner (eds), apollinarius und seine folgen: by m. j. edwards  kim, epiphanius of cyprus. imagining an orthodox world: by m. j. edwards  dalmon, un dossier de l’épistolaire augustinien. la correspondence entre l’afrique et rome à propos de l’affaire pélagienne (–). traduction, commentaire et annotations: by gillian clark  frenkel, theodotus of ancyra’s homilies and the council of ephesus (): by mark smith  brown, the cult of the saints. its rise and function in latin christianity: by robert wiśniewski  hahn, strange beauty. issues in the making and meaning of reliquaries, –circa : by caroline walker bynum  urlacher-becht, ennode de pavie, chantre officiel de l’église de milan: by joop van waarden  kavvadas, isaak von ninive und seine ‘kephalaia gnostika’. die pneumatologie und ihr kontext: by grigory kessel  lifshitz, religious women in early carolingian francia. a study of manuscript transmis- sion and monastic culture: by scott bruce  discenza and szamarch (eds), a companion to alfred the great: by francisco jose alvarez lopez  molyneaux, the formation of the english kingdom in the tenth century: by rory naismith  vanderputten, imagining religious leadership in the middle ages. richard of saint- vanne and the politics of reform: by tom licence  bruce, cluny and the muslims of la garade-freinet. hagiography and the problem of islam in medieval europe: by thomas m. izbicki  kempf and bull, the historia iherosolimitani of robert the monk: by valentin portnykh  webster, king john and religion: by liam lewis  thibodeau (ed.), william durand. rationale v. commentary on the divine office: by richard w. pfaff  poor and smith (eds), mysticism and reform, –: by tom schwanda  papademetriou, render unto the sultan. power, authority, and the greek orthodox church in the early ottoman centuries: by teresa shawcross  posset, johann reuchlin (–). a theological biography: by robert kolb  leppin (ed.), reformatorische theologie und autoritäten. studien zur genese des schriftprinzips beim jungen luther: by robert kolb  trocmÉ-latter, the singing of the strasbourg protestants, –: by timothy duguid  harris and love, dialogue and disputation in the zurich reformation. utz eckstein’s ‘concilium’ and ‘rychsztag’. edition, translation and study: by carrie euler  ii c o n t e n t s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core maryks (ed.), a companion to ignatius of loyola. life, writings, spirituality, influence: by jonathan wright  oberholzer (ed.), diego laínez (–) and his generalate. jesuit with jewish roots, close confidant of ignatius of loyola, preeminent theologian of the council of trent: by jonathan wright  van veen, visser and waite (eds), sisters. myth and reality of anabaptist, mennonite, and doopsgezind women, ca –: by karl koop  killeen, smith and willie (eds), the oxford handbook of the bible in early modern england, c. –: by eyal poleg  munns, richards and spangler (eds), aspiration, representation and memory. the guise in europe, –: by luc racaut  daubresse and haan (eds), la ligue et ses frontiéres. engagements catholiques à distance du radicalism à la fin des guerres de religion: by eric nelson  huber-rebenich (ed.), jacques bongars (–). gelehrter und diplomat im zeitalter des konfessionalismus: by david gehring  van der steen, memory wars in the low countries, –: by tony claydon  young, inferior office? a history of deacons in the church of england: by mark chapman  harmes and bladen (eds), supernatural and secular power in early modern england: by clive holmes  martin, literature and the encounter with god in post-reformation england: by paula mcquade  asch, sacral kingship between disenchantment and re-enchantment. the french and english monarchies, –: by richard cust  graney, setting aside all authority. giovanni battista riccioli and the science against copernicus in the age of galileo: by paul greenham  helmers, the royalist republic. literature, politics, and religion in the anglo-dutch public sphere, –: by mark williams  kennedy, the first american evangelical. a short life of cotton mather: by francis j. bremer  douglas, spinoza & dutch cartesianism. philosophy and theology: by victor nuovo  laborie, enlightening enthusiasm. prophecy and religious experience in early eighteenth- century england: by mark goldie  peucker, a time of sifting. mystical marriage and the crisis of moravian piety in the eighteenth century: by colin podmore  gillespie and gallachÓir (eds), preaching in belfast, –. a selection of the sermons of james saurin: by s. j. connolly  spence, heaven on earth. reimagining time and eternity in nineteenth-century british evangelicalism: by keith robbins  clart and scott (eds), religious publishing and print culture in modern china, –: by r. g. tiedemann  harlow, religion, race and the making of confederate kentucky, –: by douglas ambrose  richey, methodism in the american forest: by jeremy bonner  aquino and king (eds), receptions of newman: by james pereiro  schweighofer, religiöse sucher in der moderne. konversionen vom judentum zum protestantismus in wien um : by hugh mcleod  beaken, the church of england and the home front, –. civilians, soldiers and religion in wartime colchester: by john broom  williams, bonhoeffer’s black jesus. harlem renaissance theology and an ethic of resist- ance: by jennifer moberly  thomas, english cathedral music and liturgy in the twentieth century: by peter webster  iiic o n t e n t s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core cuchet, faire de l’histoire religieuse dans une société sortie de la religion: by hugh mcleod  hartch, the prophet of cuernavaca. ivan illich and the crisis of the west: by rosa bruno-jofré and jon igelmo zaldívar  searle and cherenkov, a future and a hope. mission, theological education, and the transformation of post-soviet society: by giles udy  books received  the eusebius essay prize; the world christianities essay prize  authors’ addresses dr charlotte kingston, centre for medieval studies, university of york, king’s manor, york yo ep; e-mail: charlotte.kingston@york.ac.uk dr sebastian moll, mainzer strasse ,  bingen am rhein, germany; e-mail: molls@uni-mainz.de dr eyal poleg, school of history, queen mary university of london, mile end road, london e ns; e-mail: e.poleg@qmul.ac.uk dr gianluca raccagni, school of history, classics and archaeology, university of edinburgh, old medical school, teviot place, edinburgh eh ag; e-mail: gianluca.raccagni@ed.ac.uk professor chris schabel, department of history and archaeology, university of cyprus, po box , cy- nicosia, cyprus; e-mail: schabel@ucy.ac.cy dr nickiphorus i. tsougarakis, department of english and history, edge hill university, st helens road, ormskirk, lancs l qp; e-mail: nickytsou- garakis@gmail.com spencer j. weinreich, harris manchester college, oxford ox td; e-mail: spencer.weinreich@hmc.ox.ac.uk dr emma wild-wood, cambridge centre for christianity worldwide, westminster college, cambridge cb aa; e-mail: ew@cam.ac.uk dr paolo zanini, university of milan, department of historical studies, via festa del perdono ,  milan, italy; e-mail: paolo.zanini@unimi.it iv c o n t e n t s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. mailto:charlotte.kingston@york.ac.uk mailto:molls@uni-mainz.de mailto:e.poleg@qmul.ac.uk mailto:gianluca.raccagni@ed.ac.uk mailto:schabel@ucy.ac.cy mailto:nickytsougarakis@gmail.com mailto:nickytsougarakis@gmail.com mailto:spencer.weinreich@hmc.ox.ac.uk mailto:ew @cam.ac.uk mailto: paolo.zanini@unimi.it https://www.cambridge.org/core 	ofc.pdf 	ifc.pdf 	ech_ _ _contents.pdf seeking optimal means to address micronutrient deficiencies in food supplements: a case study from the bangladesh integrated nutrition project the gerald j. and dorothy r. friedman school of nutrition science and policy food policy and applied nutrition program discussion paper no. seeking optimal means to address micronutrient deficiencies in food supplements: a case study from the bangladesh integrated nutrition project rezaul karim∗, gwénola desplats**, thomas schaetzel***, faruk ahmed*, quazi salamatullah*, mohammad shahjahan****, mohammed akhteruzzaman*, f. james levinson** february corresponding author: james.levinson@tufts.edu discussion papers provide a means for researchers, students and professionals to share thoughts and findings on a wide range of topics relating to food, hunger, agriculture and nutrition. they contain preliminary material and are circulated prior to a formal peer review in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment. some working papers will eventually be published and their content may be revised based on feedback received. the views presented in these papers do not represent official views of the school. the discussion paper series is available on line at http://nutrition.tufts.edu/publications/fpan/. please submit drafts for consideration as fpan discussion papers to patrick.webb@tufts.edu. ∗ institute of nutrition and food science, dhaka university, dhaka , bangladesh ** school of nutrition science and policy, tufts university, curtis street, medford, ma , usa *** the micronutrient initiative, south asia regional office, jor bagh, new delhi , india **** the micronutrient initiative, cida program support unit, house d road , gulshan- , dhaka, bangladesh mailto:james.levinson@tufts.edu abstract in seeking to improve the micronutrient content of a food supplement used in a major community-based nutrition project in bangladesh, operations research was conducted to compare the provision of needed micronutrients through additional food sources (fresh or dried fruits or vegetables), a micronutrient multi-mix, or a combination of the two. using a standard food fortification method, micronutrient gaps were estimated for four groups of project beneficiaries. cost-delivery and bulk constraint analysis were then utilised to compare options. in terms of these analyses, the micronutrient multi-mix proved by far to be the most advantageous. while, in addition to the multiple benefits of food per se, food options are unquestionably desirable in terms of sustainability and the value of increasing demand to boost domestic fruit and vegetable production for the population as a whole, it is clearly cost-effective to use powdered micronutrient mixes for such specific purposes as supplementary food enrichment and food fortification. background while there has been considerable ideology supporting food and non-food approaches in addressing micronutrient deficiencies, there has been remarkably little empiricism. this study represents an effort to fill this important gap, and in so doing help us move forward on this issue with some common purpose. the bangladesh integrated nutrition project (binp), now covers % of the country, and is presently being expanded into a national program. one of the components of this integrated project involves daily, on-site supplementary feeding for four beneficiary groups: young children who are growth faltering or severely malnourished, and pregnant or lactating women who have a low body mass index. unlike many other food supplements, the binp food supplement has been designed as an educational tool to demonstrate the importance of complementary food to mothers, to indicate an easy way to feed their children and themselves, and to promote growth. the choice was made at project inception to process the supplement locally by women's groups for the purpose of local income generation instead of processing it centrally by a food company. the supplement is made from roasted rice flour, roasted lentil powder, molasses, and oil, and is packaged in units called "pushti" packets, i.e., nutrition packets. the binp food supplement, however, is deficient in micronutrients. therefore, it is neither an appropriate therapeutic food, nor an appropriate demonstration food. the goal of this operations research was to identify the optimal means of increasing the micronutrient content of the binp food supplement in order to make it appropriate to the needs of the beneficiaries. the government asked that this operations research explore alternative possibilities of meeting this micronutrient gap. we considered providing vegetables or fruit (fresh or dried), a micronutrient multi-mix, or some combination of the two. the food options had the advantage of being sustainable and serving as a valuable education and demonstration tool. yet, uncertainty was raised about feasibility, because of the large quantity of fruits and vegetables that would be needed. indeed, covering adequate amounts of micronutrients, particularly vitamin a and iron, two deficiencies typically considered important public health problems in developing countries, might require large amount of produce. this article includes the results of the first phase of the operations research and focuses on the review of the options to increase the micronutrient content of the food supplement. a second phase then involved the feasibility testing of the option selected. methods the study was carried out jointly by the institute of nutrition and food science (infs) of dhaka university and the school of nutrition science and policy, tufts university. phase of the study was divided into two parts: ( ) micronutrient gap analysis and ( ) cost-delivery and bulk constraint analyses. the team determined the micronutrient gaps for the four binp beneficiary groups by using a methodology commonly used for food fortification (beaton, ). for each planned micronutrient, it was assumed that the distribution of intakes of that nutrient by a given population group was normal, and means and standard deviations were taken from published sources (jahan, ; ahmed, ). to these theoretical nutrient intakes, we added the nutrient intake from the binp food supplement and subtracted the estimated amount of food substituted as a result of supplementation. this calculation was done separately for each beneficiary group. using a calculation of nutrient density for each planned nutrient and each population group (beaton, ), a method that was validated for the bangladesh context by desplats, an estimation was made of the nutrient density of a fixed amount of supplement capable of ensuring that a pre-determined percentage of the population would consume at least the requirements for that nutrient. we then determined reference nutrient intakes for each group of beneficiaries based on their average intakes so that % of the children and % of the mothers would receive the full rda of each micronutrient (beaton, ). we defined the "micronutrient gaps" as being the difference between estimated micronutrient intake and the reference nutrient intake. in order to meet the vitamin a and iron gaps identified in this first phase, the team compiled a list of locally available fruits and vegetables with the highest content of those two micronutrients. assessments then were made of each identified fruit and vegetable in terms of cultural acceptance, market price, and seasonal availability in order to provide a practical list to nine readily available, accessible and acceptable fruits and vegetables. given the importance of bulk in consumption by young children, the team then explored opportunities to reduce the bulk from these fruits and vegetables. we considered solar drying with dryers made from locally available materials, a low cost technology developed and validated by the mennonite central committee, for its capability for rapid drying during the rainy season. for the short-listed nine fruits and vegetables, a computerised model was developed using excel spreadsheets. this model included up to six parameters (vitamin a or iron contenti, bio-availability of the micronutrientii, loss during processing, edible portion of the raw foodiii, percentage of dried matteriv, and average market price between peak and lean seasonv ), and estimated the cost and the amount of food required to meet vitamin a and iron reference nutrient intake per pushti packet. since the precise bio-availability of iron in particular foods is uncertain, we conducted a sensitivity analysis with a range of values. results micronutrient gap because data on age specific nutrient consumption in bangladesh is relatively scarce, estimates were taken from two sources (jahan, ; ahmed, ). analysis of the micronutrient content of the binp food supplement was carried out by infs (brown, ). for nutrients that could not be tested, estimations of nutrient content were taken from the literature (infs; gopalan, ; usda, ). feedback from project implementation staff indicated that beneficiaries of the food supplementation were consuming the entire food supplement allocated to them, i.e., one pushti packet per growth faltering child, two per severely malnourished child, and four per pregnant or lactating woman. at the same time, based on international data on supplementary feeding programs, the team estimated that, due to consumption of the project's food supplement, women would consume the equivalent of fewer kcal at home (adair, ). since % of the adult bangladeshi diet consists of rice (jahan, ), the team worked with an assumption that all the food displaced for mothers would be rice. for children, it was assumed that kcal would be displaced, consisting of kcal of rice and kcal of breast-milk. by comparing daily nutrient intakes and daily requirements, nutrient gaps and per packet requirements were estimated (see table ). cost-delivery and bulk constraint analysis cost-delivery and bulk constraint analysis based on the previously determined gaps were carried out for vitamin a and iron only, on the assumption, proven valid, that conclusions could be drawn from these two nutrients alone. several parameters included in the previously discussed model are provided in table below. the team made the conservative assumptions that all the vitamin a would be bio-available, and that the bio- availability of iron varied from % to %vi. estimates used for vitamin retention during drying and cooking were . % and % respectively, while a figure of % retention was used for iron (mulokozi, ; rahman, ). at this point in the operations research, table was discussed in a meeting with binp officials and infs research staff. the meeting concluded that based on cost and bulk considerations, further analysis of the fresh and dried food should be carried out with lal shak (red spinach) only. the team then calculated total costs required to cover the vitamin a and iron gaps for , community nutrition centres (cnc) for one year (see table ). data from binp implementation staff indicated that, on average, each cnc feeds two severely malnourished children, ten growth faltering children, and twenty pregnant or lactating women each day. this means that, on average, each cnc would require pushti packets per day, for the days a month it functions. calculations were made in bangladeshi taka and then converted to us dollars using the conversion rate of tk. for us $ . the cost for the multi-micronutrient mix, $ per , pushti packets, was taken from estimates provided from indian suppliers. as indicated in table , the cost of the multi-mix, meeting all major micronutrient requirements, is a small fraction of the cost of the fresh or dried shak required to meet only vitamin a and iron requirements. even making the audacious assumption of % iron absorption from lal shak, the cost of fresh or dried shak would be nearly times higher; at % iron absorption, the cost would be nearly times higher. to meet these needs with eggs—an option suggested by one binp official—would require . to eggs per pushti packet per day. at the % absorption level, eggs would cost times and at the % absorption level, they would cost times the cost of the multi-mix. fresh shak, at the % absorption level, would more than double the bulk of the food supplement, while at the % absorption level it would increase the bulk over fold. discussion although the cost-delivery of the multi-mix is more attractive than fresh or dried food for purposes of enhancing the micronutrient content of the binp food supplement, broader benefits of fruits and vegetablesvii, coupled with the sustainability of food-based optionsviii, argue for creative ideas to bolster such approaches. in the context of the food supplement, for example, an alternative to the multi-mix alone might be the use of fresh lal shak to meet the vitamin a gap (increasing the cost of meeting this gap by only % while increasing supplement bulk by less than a third) while using the multi-mix to address the iron and other gaps. by contrast, drying the shak or providing eggs would not be feasible. beyond the high cost involved, drying with solar dryers would require the installation of multiple dryers at each site, the expenses of training in their use, and the cost of maintenance. the limitation for the eggs option, beyond the cost, would be the regular supply of a large quantity of eggs. conclusion the results indicate a distinct cost-delivery advantage to providing the needed micronutrients in the binp food supplement through a powdered multi-mix as opposed to the addition of other foods, or perhaps, as suggested above, through some combination of the two. in addition to the major cost differential, the amount of fresh food necessary to meet these micronutrient gaps would far exceed the capacity of young children to consume such bulk. the expense and logistics of the food drying option would be prohibitive. while the project should continue to promote intensively the consumption of micronutrient-rich foods and to encourage home garden production of micronutrient-rich foods, it may be unrealistic to use fruits and vegetables exclusively for the narrower purpose of enriching the food supplement. considered more broadly, the use of powered micronutrient mixes for such specific purposes as supplementary food enrichment and food fortification appears fully justified. in resource-scarce developing economies, it would be foolhardy to bypass such attractive and cost-effective opportunities. at the same time, given the enormous value of food-based approaches as discussed above, national governments should take all possible steps to encourage the production and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods, through combinations of behaviour-change communications and sustainable home-gardening activities. research and program efforts to make these food-based options viable sources of micronutrients for even the poorest households should be encouraged. references adair ls and pollit e, . outcome of maternal nutritional supplementation: a comprehensive review of beacon chow study. am j clin nutr : - . ahmed au, . pattern of food consumption and nutrition in rural bangladesh. international food policy research institute, bangladesh food policy project, dhaka. beaton gh, . criteria for an adequate diet in modern nutrition in health and disease, th edition. shils me, olson ja and shike m eds. lea & febiger. - . beaton gh, . design of fortification for binp. personal communication, february. bloem mw, . report of the meeting of the working group on vitamin a and iron. scn's th session reporting, april. unhcr, geneva. gopalan c, . personal communication, december. gopalan c, rama satri bv, balasubramanian sc, . nutritive value of indian foods. national institute of nutrition, hyderabad, india. greiner t, . personal communication, december. infs, nd. table of nutrient composition of bangladeshi foods. hki, dhaka, bangladesh. jahan k, . - bangladesh national nutrition survey. institute of nutrition and food science, dhaka university. bangladesh. unpublished. mcc, . price estimation from ramgonj market. dhaka, bangladesh. personal communication. prentice am, . can maternal dietary supplements help in preventing infant malnutrition? acta paediatr scand suppl : - . rahman mm, nd. preparing and preserving green leafy vegetables for poor communities in bangladesh. icddr,b. bangladesh. rahman mm, wahed ma, akbar am, . b-carotene losses during different methods of cooking green leafy vegetables in bangladesh. journal of food composition and analysis : - . rahman mm, wahed ma, mahalanabis d, sack rb, . sun-dried green leafy vegetables can provide adequate vitamin a for poor communities. icddr,b. presentation to the xviii ivacg meeting, september. cairo, egypt. usda, . food composition tables http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/list_nut.pl. table . micronutrient gaps nutrient amount of nutrient needed per g of food supplement amount of nutrient needed per pushti packet ( g) iron (mg) . ca (mg) zn (mg) . . vitamin a (re) vitamin c (mg) . . riboflavin (mg) . . niacin (ne) . . vit. b (µg) . . table . assessment of nine nutrient-rich locally available fruits and vegetables by parameters used in the model vitamin a content in g of edible portion iron content in g of edible portion edible portion of raw food % of dry matter average market price per kg of raw produce (re) (mg) (%) (%) (tk) data shak (leafy vegetable) , . . pui shak (leafy vegetable) , . . helencha shak (leafy vegetable) , n/a . lal shak (leafy vegetable) , . . borboti (cow pea) . . gajor (carrot) . . mishti kumra (sweet pumpkin) , . . paka pepe (ripe papaya) . n/a amra (hog plum) . . table . annual costs needed to meet the vitamin a and iron gaps for , community nutrition centres and quantities of food added per pushti packet total cost (us$) bulk added per pushti packet multi-mix , negl. fresh lal shak vitamin a , g iron % a , g iron % b , , g dried lal shak vitamin a , . g iron % a , g iron % b , , g egg vitamin a , , . iron % a , , . iron % b , , a. if iron bio-availability = % b. if iron bio-availability = % notes i gopalan, ii mcc, ; rahman, iii mcc, iv mcc, v mcc, vi infs estimates that the absorption of iron would not exceed %, considering the lack of an absorption enhancer such as vitamin c in the bangladeshi diet and the presence of inhibitors such as tannins. nonetheless, the team used "conservative" estimates of % and % in a sensitivity analysis to provide the "benefit of the doubt" to the food-based options. vii some scientists argue that "foods contain, besides the vitamins that we know of, a whole range of bioactive phytochemicals... which are known to have beneficial effects on health." (gopalan, ). viii while food-based solutions often enhanced sustainability, it would be erroneous to assume that the multi- mix option necessarily implies imports. although an imported product was utilized in this operations research, large-scale production for a national program would almost certainly generate local production. response of obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia to a low-fat diet and to a plant sterol ester dietary challenge copyright © by lipid research, inc. this article is available online at http://www.jlr.org journal of lipid research volume , response of obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia to a low-fat diet and to a plant sterol ester dietary challenge peter o. kwiterovich, jr., , * shirley c. chen, † donna g. virgil,* amy schweitzer,* dagmar r. arnold,* and lisa e. kratz* lipid research/atherosclerosis division,* department of pediatrics, johns hopkins university, north broadway, baltimore, md ; and nutrition science group, † unilever bestfoods na, sylvan avenue, englewood cliffs, nj abstract twelve obligate heterozygotes from two kindreds were ascertained through phytosterolemic probands homo- zygous for molecular defects in the atp binding cassette (abc) half transporter, abcg . the response of these het- erozygotes to a step diet low in fat, saturated fat, and cho- lesterol, and to . g daily of plant sterols (as esters) was de- termined in protocol i ( weeks) and protocol ii ( weeks) during three consecutive feeding periods: step /placebo spread; step /plant sterol spread; and step /placebo spread (washout). at baseline, half the heterozygotes had moderate dyslipidemia and one-third had mildly elevated campesterol and sitosterol levels. on the step /placebo spread, mean ldl cholesterol decreased significantly, . % in protocol i (n � ), and . % in protocol ii (n � ). substitution with plant sterol spread produced a significant treatment ef- fect on ldl levels in protocols i and ii. conversely, the mean levels of campesterol and sitosterol increased % and %, respectively, during the use of plant sterol spread for weeks in protocol i, an effect mirrored for weeks in protocol ii. during the placebo spread washouts, ldl lev- els increased, while those of plant sterols decreased to base- line levels in both protocols. in conclusion, phytosterolemic heterozygotes respond well to a step diet, and their re- sponse to a plant sterol ester challenge appears similar to that observed in normals. —kwiterovich, jr., p. o., s. c. chen, d. g. virgil, a. schweitzer, d. r. arnold, and l. e. kratz. response of obligate heterozygotes for phytoster- olemia to a low-fat diet and to a plant sterol ester dietary challenge. j. lipid res. . : – . supplementary key words lipoproteins • carotenoids • fat soluble vi- tamins • plant sterol ester enriched spread • margarine studies in humans with inherited disorders of choles- terol metabolism have provided unique and important insights into the mechanisms underlying both hyper- cholesterolemia and premature atherosclersosis ( ). this has led to a more precise understanding of the effects of both dietary restriction of cholesterol and of pharmaco- logical agents on reducing plasma cholesterol levels and preventing cardiovascular disease ( – ). for example, both dietary and drug treatments that lower the pool of cholesterol in the liver lead to an up-regulation of ldl re- ceptors and to a decrease of plasma ldl cholesterol ( ). the effect of dietary cholesterol on plasma cholesterol levels is modest, due in part to the incomplete absorption of cholesterol by the intestine ( , ). for example, bosner et al. ( ) found that the mean ( sd) cholesterol absorp- tion in humans was . ( . )% with a range from . % to . %. this protective barrier in the normal human in- testine is even more efficient for dietary plant sterols, such as sitosterol and campesterol, with estimates for sitosterol absorption ranging from . % to . %, and for campes- terol from . % to % ( ). ostlund and coworkers ( ), using serum to establish unequivocal absorption into the systemic circulation and mass spectrometry for definitive identification of labeled tracers, recently reported lower estimates of absorption, namely, . % for sitosterol and . % for campesterol. the plant sterols are structurally very similar to choles- terol, except that they always contain substitutions at the c position, and the mechanism that selectively prevents most of their intestinal absorption is not clear. the plant sterols, due to this structural similarity to cholesterol, pre- vent cholesterol absorption, most likely by precipitating cholesterol and competing for space in mixed micelles ( ). an increased fecal excretion of cholesterol occurs, the hepatic concentration of cholesterol decreases, ldl receptors up-regulate, and the blood levels of total and ldl cholesterol subsequently fall ( – ). plant sterols were first given in high doses of g to g per day to treat hypercholesterolemic patients. more recently, more mod- est doses of phytosterols, such as g daily, have been in- corporated into margarine and given to normal or moder- to whom correspondondence should be addressed. e-mail: pkwitero@jhmi.edu manuscript received december and in revised form march . published, jlr papers in press, april , . doi . /jlr.m -jlr this is an open access article under the cc by license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / journal of lipid research volume , ately hypercholesterolemic subjects to lower their ldl cholesterol levels about % ( – ). recently, novel insights into the mechanisms affecting cholesterol and plant sterol absorption have been gained through the study of patients with the rare ( � one in a mil- lion) autosomal recessive disorder, phytosterolemia ( ). patients with phytosterolemia have markedly elevated ( � -fold) plasma levels of plant sterols ( – ). this re- sults from two metabolic abnormalities. first, patients with phytosterolemia hyperabsorb plant sterols, for example, between % and % of the average of mg to mg of plant sterols consumed daily ( , , ). second, unlike normal humans in whom almost all of any ab- sorbed plant sterol is quickly secreted into the bile ( , ), phytosterolemic homozygotes excrete only a fraction of the plant sterols into the bile ( , , ). phytosterolemic subjects also absorb a higher fraction of dietary choles- terol than normals, and they secrete less cholesterol into the bile ( , , ). the cholesterol pool in the liver in- creases despite a low cholesterol synthetic rate, ldl re- ceptors down-regulate, and ldl levels increase. the liver secretes the excess sterols into the blood on vldl, which is converted into ldl, the major carrier of sterol in blood ( ). about % to % of the sterol on ldl in phy- tosterolemia is plant sterol ( – ), and a similar propor- tion of these sterols is found in human tissues ( ). as a result of these two metabolic abnormalities, patients with phytosterolemia often have elevated levels of ldl ste- rol similar to those heterozygotes for familial hypercholes- terolemia (fh); however, phytosterolemic subjects develop xanthomas (cholesterol deposits in skin and tendons) in the first decade of life, while fh heterozygotes do so in the third and fourth decades. phytosterolemic homozygotes can also develop premature coronary artery disease at an earlier age than fh heterozygotes ( – , ). phytosterolemic pa- tients often develop aortic stenosis, an unusual finding in fh heterozygotes, and more typical of fh homozygotes ( ). unlike individuals with fh or other forms of hyper- cholesterolemia, phytosterolemic subjects respond dramati- cally to restriction in dietary cholesterol and plant sterols, and to bile acid sequestrants ( , , ), often with the to- tal and ldl sterol levels falling to within the normal range. the molecular defects responsible for homozygous phy- tosterolemia are caused by two mutant alleles either in the gene that encodes the atp binding cassette (abc) half transporter, abcg , or in the gene encoding the half transporter abcg ( , ). these two genes are on chro- mosome p, where they are located in a head-to-head ori- entation. abcg and abcg are expressed exclusively in human liver and intestine, the sites of the two metabolic abnormalities in phytosterolemia. in mice, diets contain- ing high cholesterol markedly increase the expression of abcg and abcg mrna in liver and intestine ( ). the current hypothesis, therefore, is that abcg and abcg have two normal functions: first, to limit the ab- sorption of cholesterol and plant sterols, and second, to promote their excretion from the liver into the bile. while it is clear that consuming plant sterols is con- traindicated in phytosterolemic homozygotes, little infor- mation is available on the effect of increasing dietary plant sterols on the plasma total and ldl cholesterol, and plant sterol levels in the more common ( � in ) het- erozygotes for phytosterolemia ( , ). the intake of di- etary plant sterols can be increased significantly using margarines containing either unsaturated plant sterol es- ters or saturated plant sitostanol esters, both of which lower total and ldl cholesterol levels in normal humans about – % ( – ), and have similar effects on sup- pressing cholesterol absorption ( ). since unsaturated sterol esters have been shown to increase the average plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels in normals about -fold while saturated sitostanol esters decrease these lev- els to below the average ( ), we selected unsaturated ste- rol esters as the dietary challenge. our objectives were to characterize the clinical and bio- chemical phenotype of obligate heterozygotes for phy- tosterolemia and their response to an unsaturated plant sterol ester-enriched spread, as judged by their change in ldl cholesterol levels and the extent of their increase in plant sterols levels. methods study participants sixteen members of two families with homozygous phytoster- olemic probands participated in the study. an amish family was ascertained through the sudden death of an -year-old boy who had xanthomas and extensive atherosclerosis at autopsy. of the siblings of this amish proband, five were found to be phy- tosterolemic homozygotes ( , ). of the amish obligate heterozygotes (two parents and children of the homozy- gotes), participated in this study. two siblings and two spouses of the amish homozygotes also participated as familial controls. both parents of the two original phytosterolemic homozygotes described by bhattacharyya and connor ( ) were also studied. the two families were not related to each other, and each had different mutations in the gene for the abcg half transporter ( ). the amish phytosterolemics were homozygous for a mis- sense mutation (arg for gly, g a) in a residue that was con- served in mouse and human abcg ( ). the original phy- tosterolemic patient was homozygous for a nonsense mutation ( g–a) in exon that introduced a premature terminal sig- nal at codon , terminating abcg ( ). the subjects were healthy males (n � ) and females (n � ), aged to years. informed consent was obtained for each subject. the johns hop- kins joint committee on clinical investigation approved the study. the subjects were free of active surgical or medical illnesses. subjects were excluded from participating in the study if they had any of the following conditions: types i, iii, or v hyperlipo- proteinemia; secondary hyperlipoproteinemia; body mass index � . kg/m ; were pregnant or lactating women; or used oral hypolipidemic therapy, systemic corticosteroids, androgens, or thyroid hormones (except stable-dose replacement therapy for � months prior to enrollment). study protocols the flow diagrams for the two study protocols are schemati- cally summarized in fig. . protocol i was of weeks duration and consisted of seven outpatient visits. five subjects were also sampled weeks after the conclusion of protocol i (an eighth kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols visit). protocol ii was of weeks duration and consisted of eight outpatient visits. each study was single blind and placebo con- trolled. study design in both protocol i and protocol ii, each subject received an in- struction at the first visit by a nutritionist on a low total-fat, satu- rated-fat, and cholesterol diet following the guidelines of the american heart association ( ). the revised guidelines placed increased emphasis on foods and an overall eating pattern. the goal is a total fat intake of % of calories or less, a saturated fat intake of � % of calories, and a daily cholesterol intake of � mg. while these guidelines collectively replace the “step ” designation used earlier, we simply refer to this diet here as the step diet. this step diet was followed throughout both proto- col i and protocol ii. in protocol i, the first visit was followed by a week baseline period; after weeks of a stabilization period (fig. a), a placebo spread [four servings ( g per serving) of a % fat spread] was incorporated into the step diet. after weeks on the placebo spread, each subject entered a week treatment period, during which a plant sterol spread [four serv- ings ( . g plant sterols per serving) in the form of sterol esters] was incorporated into the step diet. protocol i concluded with a week washout period during which time the subjects reverted back to the use of the placebo spread as part of their step diet. in protocol ii, the subjects were given a placebo spread [two servings ( g each) daily of a % fat spread] at their first visit to be incorporated into their step diet. after weeks on pla- cebo spread and diet, each subject entered a week treatment period, during which time the plant sterol spread [two servings ( g each) daily, each containing . g of plant sterols in the form of sterol esters] was incorporated into the step diet. pro- tocol ii concluded with a week washout period, during which time the subjects reverted back to the use of the placebo spread in their step diet. for both protocols, evaluation included a physical examina- tion and an electrocardiogram at baseline and final visit, vital signs at each visit, urinary pregnancy measurement at baseline, and safety laboratory evaluation (chemistry and hematology pro- files and urinalysis) at visits one, three, four, and seven in proto- col i, and at visits one, five, and eight in protocol ii. thyroid- stimulating hormone was measured in each subject at baseline. plasma levels of total cholesterol, total triglycerides, and hdl cholesterol were determined at each visit in both protocols. the concentrations of the plasma plant sterols were measured at each visit in both protocols except at week , visit two in protocol i. the plasma levels of apolipoprotein b (apob), apoa-i, and lipo- protein [a] (lp[a]) were assessed at each visit in both protocol i and protocol ii. retinol, tocopherols, and carotenoids were de- termined in plasma at visits three, four, five, six, and seven in pro- tocol i, and at each visit in protocol ii. the test margarines were specially prepared spreads (unilever bestfoods, na, baltimore, md). one was a plant sterol spread, the other was a placebo spread. the plant sterol spread was forti- fied with phytosterol (ester) concentrates derived from vegetable oil distillates. the sterols were a mixture of sitosterol, campes- terol, brassicasterol, and stigmasterol ( ). the vegetable oil ste- rols were esterified with fatty acids from sunflower oil to an ester- ification degree of %. the two spreads were provided in the form of g individual packs for protocol i. for protocol ii, the spreads were provided in tubs, along with a measuring spoon that provided a g serving. the placebo and study spreads had identical fat levels ( %, or . g/serving) and fatty acid compo- sitions. the chemical composition of the spreads has been de- scribed in detail ( ). the plant sterol spread contained . g of phytosterol in each serving in protocol i, and . g of phy- tosterol in each serving in protocol ii. thus, the daily total intake of phytosterol was . g in both studies, but the package size was different. compliance with study spread consumption was evaluated by patient interview and by day food records. compliance was re- corded as a percentage of scheduled intakes of study product consumed. compliance was � % in both protocols. the intakes of dietary cholesterol and plant sterols, total fat, saturated fat, and unsaturated fat were estimated for each subject using a day food record before, during, and after the sterol- containing test spread. the day food records were then ana- lyzed using nutritionist pro, first data bank, san bruno, ca. the subjects were also asked to report the frequency, kind, and amount of supplements, including vitamins that they used at each visit. statistical methods the effect of the three study diets (placebo spread, plant ste- rol ester spread, placebo spread) on the dependent variables (plasma levels of total cholesterol, total triglycerides, hdl cho- lesterol, ldl cholesterol, the ratio of ldl-hdl cholesterol, campesterol, sitosterol, lp[a], apob, apoa-i, the ratio of apob- apoa-i, retinol, tocopherols, and carotenoids) were determined in protocol i and protocol ii using a one-way mixed model fig. . protocol i is schematically summarized in a and protocol ii is summarized in b. journal of lipid research volume , anova for repeated measurements (sas proc mixed). in this model, individual differences were accounted for using baseline (home diet) as a covariate ( ), and by including a random sub- ject effect in the model. the remaining time series (residual) correlation was modeled as one parameter autoregressive ( ). we used the tukey-kramer multiple comparison test ( ) to de- termine which of the study diets significantly affected the depen- dent variables. additional posthoc comparisons of the same vari- ables for subjects at baseline and at the end of the placebo spread run-in period were determined using paired student’s t -tests ( ). laboratory methods total cholesterol, total triglycerides, and direct hdl choles- terol were measured in a hitachi chemistry analyzer in the johns hopkins lipoprotein analytical laboratory with coeffi- cients of variability (cvs) of � %. the lipid standardization program of the centers for disease control, atlanta, ga, certified the laboratory. ldl cholesterol was calculated by the friedewald formula ( ). the plasma levels of total apob and apoa-i were measured in a bering immunonephelometer with cvs of % ( ). we measured lp[a] by elisa, as described, with a cv of % ( ). lipoprotein phenotypes were defined as follows. first, an ele- vated plasma level of ldl cholesterol or triglycerides was de- fined as a value � th percentile, and a low level of hdl choles- terol as a value � th percentile, using the age- and sex-specific cut points from the lipid research clinics program ( ). a type iia phenotype was defined as an elevated level of ldl choles- terol with normal triglycerides, and a type iib as elevated levels of ldl cholesterol and triglycerides. a type iv phenotype was defined as an elevated triglyceride level with a normal ldl cho- lesterol level. hyperapob phenotype was defined as an elevated level of apob ( � . � mol/l in adults, � . � mol/l in chil- dren) in the presence of a normal ldl cholesterol level. a nor- mal phenotype was defined as the absence of any of these dyslipi- demic phenotypes. campesterol and sitosterol were measured using selected ion monitoring gas liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (gc/ ms) as described ( ), except to increase the plasma sample vol- ume to � l to permit more accurate measurement of the trace quantities of phytosterols in plasma of normal individuals. this method detects small amounts ( � . � mol/l) of plant sterols. the plasma levels of lutein, � -cryptoxanthine, � -cryptoxan- thine, lycopene, � -carotene, � -carotene, total carotenoids, reti- nol, 	 -tocopherol, and � -tocopherol were determined using hplc as described ( , ). results the biochemical and clinical characteristics of the study population are summarized in table . twelve are obligate phytosterolemic heterozygotes ( children of four amish homozygotes and two parents of the original phytosterolemic homozygotes). four additional amish subjects were studied as familial controls: two adult sib- lings (ii- and ii- ) of the homozygous proband, and two spouses (ii- and ii- ) of two other homozygotes. nine males and seven females were studied. at baseline, six of the obligate phytosterolemic heterozygotes (type iib, n � ; type iv, n � ; hyperapob, n � ), and both the amish proband’s siblings (type iia, n � ; hyperapob, n � ) had a dyslipidemia (table ). both the spouses were normal. to interpret the plant sterol levels in the study popula- tion at baseline, plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels (mg/dl) were determined in unrelated control sub- jects. these controls included normal mennonites, who were unlikely to carry the mutant allele for phytoster- olemia, but who share a similar diet and life style with the amish. seventeen other caucasian controls who were not mennonites were also studied. the mean (sd) sitosterol and campesterol levels ( � mol/l), respectively, in the con- trol subjects were: ) adult mennonite (n � ), . table . clinical and biochemical characteristics of the study population subjects sex age tc tg hdl cholesterol ldl cholesterol apob apoa-i sitosterol campesterol lp[a] lipoprotein phenotypes mmol/l � mol/l mg/dl obligate heterozygotes i- m . . . . . . . . hyperapob i- f . . . . . . . . normal ii- f . . . . . . . . type iv ii- m . . . . . . . . normal ii- m . . . . . . . . normal ii- f . . . . . . . . normal ii- f . . . . . . . . normal ii- m . . . . . . . . normal ii- m . . . . . . . . type iib ii- f . . . . . . . . hyperapob ii- m . . . . . . . . type iv ii- m . . . . . . . . type iv proband’s siblings ii- m . . . . . . . . type iia ii- m . . . . . . . . hyperapob spouse controls ii- f . . . . . . . . normal ii- f . . . . . . . . normal apo, apolipoprotein; lp[a], lipoprotein[a]; tc, total cholesterol; tg, triglycerides. the lipoprotein phenotypes were determined as described in methods. kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols ( . ), and . ( . ); ) mennonite, – years (n � ), . ( . ), and . ( . ); ) mennonite, – years (n � ), . ( . ), and . ( . ); and ) adult cauca- sian (n � ), . ( . ), and . ( . ). the menno- nite controls were used for the amish participants and the caucasian controls for the parents of the original phy- tosterolemic homozygotes. four of the amish obligate heterozygotes had both plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels that were two sd above the mean of the controls. one sibling (ii- ) of the amish homozygous proband also had levels of sitosterol and campesterol that exceeded these cutpoints. both the amish spouses and the other two obligate heterozygotes (i- and i- ) from the original family had plasma plant sterol levels that were within the normal ranges. individual responses of obligate heterozygotes to modified-fat and plant sterol ester challenge we first examined the individual responses of the obli- gate heterozygotes to the step diet and to the plant ste- rol ester-enriched margarine to determine the patterns of responses to the dietary interventions. individual responses in ldl cholesterol levels. the change in ldl cholesterol levels in each obligate heterozygote during protocol i is summarized in fig. a . the pattern of de- crease in ldl cholesterol levels from baseline to the end of the placebo spread period, with an additional fall dur- ing the plant sterol spread period, followed by an increase during the washout placebo spread period, was internally consistent, with each subject generally following this pat- tern. five of the subjects were also sampled weeks af- ter the conclusion of the week period of protocol i, and ldl cholesterol values remained stable (n � ) or in- creased (n � ) (fig. a). in the longer-term protocol ii, there was again a down- ward trend in ldl cholesterol in each subject from base- line to week on the step /placebo spread diet (fig. b). after weeks of the substitution of the plant sterol spread for the placebo spread, the subject (ii- ) with high- est ldl cholesterol at baseline had the greatest decrease in ldl cholesterol (fig. b). the decrease in ldl choles- terol in the remaining six obligate heterozygotes was less accentuated, and one subject (i- ) had an increase in ldl cholesterol on the plant sterol ester spread (fig. b). dur- ing the week placebo spread washout period, however, the individual ldl cholesterol values increased, as ex- pected, toward levels that were similar to those observed at baseline (fig. b). individual responses in plant sterol levels. the response of the plasma plant sterols in the obligate heterozygotes to the chal- lenge of . g per day of dietary plant sterols in the test margarine is summarized in fig. a – d . in protocol i, both sitosterol (fig. a) and campesterol (fig. c) increased during the plant sterol spread phase, reaching a maxi- mum after weeks of treatment, and declining thereaf- ter on the placebo spread to values similar to those at baseline. however, at the end of protocol i, three subjects (ii- , ii- , and ii- ) had campesterol levels � � mol/l; the sitosterol levels in each of these three subjects were � � mol/l. protocol ii was therefore designed to assess for a longer period of time the effect of the plant sterol spread on the sitosterol and campesterol levels. in proto- col ii, subjects ii- and ii- again had the largest increase in sitosterol and campesterol on the test margarine (fig. b, d). both these subjects also had sitosterol and campes- terol levels at baseline that exceeded sd above the mean of the age-appropriate controls (table ). the sitosterol levels did not exceed � mol/l on the plant sterol spread, and fell to about � mol/l on the placebo spread during the washout period, a value close to baseline (fig. b). the campesterol levels exceeded � mol/l in each of these two subjects on the plant sterol spread (fig. d), but fell during the washout period on the placebo spread, and were about � mol/l at weeks and weeks of protocol ii, close to the baseline values (fig. d). each of the rest of the subjects in protocol ii had an increase in si- tosterol and campesterol on the plant sterol spread that then fell during the washout with the placebo spread to values similar to those observed at baseline. fig. . individual responses of ldl cholesterol to pla- cebo spread and plant sterol ester spread in obligate phy- tosterolemic heterozygotes in protocol i (a) and in proto- col ii (b). journal of lipid research volume , group response of obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia to step diet and to a plant sterol ester challenge changes in nutrient intake. the group data for the obligate heterozygotes studied in protocol i was next assessed, focus- ing on the plasma levels of ldl cholesterol and plant ste- rols. an important first step was to characterize the baseline (home) diet of these subjects, to document that they had modified their dietary intake as a result of their instruction on a step diet (see methods), and that they continued to follow this diet throughout the three study periods ( table ). the study group lowered their mean intakes of satu- rated fat and cholesterol significantly (table ). total fat was also lowered from . % of calories to . % of calo- ries, but this change was not significant. the modest in- crease in polyunsaturated fat was significant (table ). these changes were maintained throughout the study (ta- ble ), and there were no significant differences in these variables across the three experimental diet periods (by anova, see methods) (table ). during the three experi- mental periods, a significant difference was observed for energy intake, due mainly to decreased carbohydrate in- take (table ). there was an � -fold increase in plant ste- rols during the plant sterol ester spread period (table ). the group in protocol ii was very similar to that in pro- tocol i in regard to their marked increase in dietary plant sterols during the plant sterol ester spread period. the mean nutrient intakes for the seven obligate heterozy- gotes in protocol ii differed, however, from those of the obligate heterozygotes in protocol i in several ways. first, at the initial visit on the home diet, their mean in- takes of total fat ( . %), saturated fat ( . %), and cho- lesterol ( mg/day) were already at the step goals. there were no significant differences in protocol ii be- tween these nutrients (or any others) when the home diet and the end of the placebo run-in period were compared (data not shown). nevertheless, the group in protocol ii decreased their total fat and saturated fat to % and . % of calories, a change that was maintained through- out the plant sterol ester spread period. in protocol ii, during the placebo washout, the study group increased their protein, total-fat, saturated-fat, monounsaturated-fat, polyunsaturated-fat, and cholesterol intakes significantly, compared with the plant sterol ester spread study period, but they were still within the step goals. fig. . individual responses of plasma levels of sitosterol (top) and of campesterol (bottom) to placebo spread and plant sterol es- ter spread in obligate phytosterolemic heterozygotes in protocol i (a, c) and protocol ii (b, d). table . nutrient intakes of obligate heterozygotes for sitosterolemia (n � ) based on day diet records (protocol i) variables and study periods home diet a (baseline, week ) study diets placebo spread (run-in, weeks , ) plant sterol ester spread (weeks , ) placebo spread (washout, week ) p e energy, kcal , , c , d , cd . protein, g/day . carbohydrate, g/day c d c . fat, g/day . cholesterol, mg/day b . saturated fat, g/day b . monounsaturated fat, g/day . polyunsaturated fat, g/day b . plant sterols, mg/day d , c d . a mean se. b are significantly different from the corresponding values at the end of the run-in period (week ), p � . . c,d,cd least squares mean se. for the three study diet periods, values in a row with different superscripts dif- fer, p � . . e p values for treatment effect, as determined in methods. kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols group response of plasma ldl cholesterol levels. there were sig- nificant falls in ldl cholesterol of . % from baseline to weeks in protocol i and of . % from baseline to weeks in protocol ii (tables , ). there was a significant treatment effect of the plant sterol-enriched margarine on ldl cholesterol levels in both protocols i and ii (tables , ). during the plant sterol spread period, ldl cholesterol in protocol i decreased another . % but did not fall fur- ther in protocol ii. during the washout periods of both protocols i and ii, the substitution of the placebo spread for the plant sterol spread produced significant increases in the mean ldl cholesterol levels of . % and . %, re- spectively (tables , ). these data taken together sug- gested that the plant sterol spread was responsible for the significant treatment effect on ldl cholesterol observed in both studies (tables , ). group response of plasma plant sterol levels. in both protocol i and protocol ii, there was a significant treatment effect of the plant sterol ester spread on plasma levels of both si- tosterol and campesterol (tables , ). the mean plasma campesterol levels increased about -fold in both protocol i and protocol ii during the plant sterol ester spread pe- riod. the mean increase in the sitosterol level on the plant sterol ester spread was about half that seen with campes- terol (tables , ). in the washout period, when the pla- cebo spread was substituted for the plant sterol spread, both the mean campesterol and sitosterol levels decreased to those observed in the placebo run-in periods in proto- cols i and ii (tables , ). despite differences in the dura- tion of the plant sterol treatment and the placebo washout period in the two protocols, the qualitative pattern and the quantitative extent of response were very similar. table . lipids and apolipoprotein concentrations of obligate heterozygotes for sitosterolemia (n � ) at baseline, and in response to study diets (protocol i) study diets variables and study periods home dieta (baseline, week ) placebo spread (run-in, weeks , ) plant sterol ester spread (weeks , ) placebo spread (washout, week ) overall p e total cholesterol, mmol/l . . b . . cd . . d . . c . triacylglycerols, mmol/l . . . . . . . . . hdl cholesterol, mmol/l . . . . . . . . . ldl cholesterol, mmol/l . . b . . cd . . d . . c . ldlc/hdlc . . . . . . . . . campesterol, �mol/l . . . . d . . c . . d . sitosterol, �mol/l . . . . d . . c . . d . lp[a], mg/dl . . . . . . . . . apob, �mol/l . . b . . . . . . . apoa-i, �mol/l . . b . . . . . . . apob/apoa-i . . . . . . . . . a mean se. b values are significantly different from the corresponding values at the end of the run-in period (week ), p � . . c,d,cd least squares mean se. for the three study diet periods, values in a row with different superscripts differ, p � . . e p values for treatment effect, as determined in methods. table . lipids and apolipoprotein concentrations of obligate heterozygotes for sitosterolemia (n � ) at baseline, and in response to study diets (protocol ii) study diets variables and study periods home dieta (baseline, week ) placebo spread (run-in, week ) plant sterol ester spread (weeks , , ) placebo spread (washout, weeks , , ) overall p e total cholesterol, mmol/l . . b . . d . . d . . c . triacylglycerols, mmol/l . . . . d . . c . . c . hdl cholesterol, mmol/l . . . . d . . c . . c . ldl cholesterol, mmol/l . . b . . d . . d . . c . ldlc/hdlc . . b . . . . . . . campesterol, �mol/l . . . . d . . c . . d . sitosterol, �mol/l . . b . . d . . c . . d . lp[a], mg/dl . . . . . . . . . apob, �mol/l . . . . d . . d . . c . apoa-i, �mol/l . . . . d . . c . . c . apob/apoa-i . . . . . . . . . a mean sd. b values are significantly different from the corresponding values at the end of the run-in period (week ), p � . . c,d least squares mean se. for the three study diet periods, values in a row with different superscripts dif- fer, p � . . e p values for treatment effect, as determined in methods. journal of lipid research volume , group response in other biochemical lipid variables. in protocol i, the mean plasma levels of both total cholesterol and apob decreased significantly after the step /placebo spread run period (table ). there was a significant treatment ef- fect for the plant sterol ester spread for total cholesterol, but that for the apob did not reach statistical significance (table ). the plasma level of apoa-i decreased signifi- cantly after the step /placebo spread run-in, but that of hdl cholesterol did not (table ). there was no signifi- cant treatment effect on either the hdl cholesterol or apoa-i levels in protocol i (table ). in protocol ii, the plasma levels of total cholesterol also decreased significantly after the step /placebo spread, and a significant treatment effect was noted for total cho- lesterol. in contrast to protocol i, apob, triglycerides, hdl cholesterol, and apoa-i also manifested a significant treatment effect (table ). there was no effect of either the step diet or the plant sterol ester spread on lp[a] lipoprotein levels (ta- bles , ). response of familial controls to the plant sterol ester challenge the individual responses of the four familial controls to the plant sterol ester treatment were also assessed and compared with responses in unrelated subjects from the published literature ( , , – ) where a similar dose of plant sterol esters was used and both ldl cholesterol and plant sterols were measured (table ). the average fall in ldl cholesterol in the familial controls was . %, similar to the high end of the range of unrelated subjects in the literature ( ). the average plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels increased . % and . % in the fa- milial controls, within the ranges previously reported in unrelated subjects (table ). fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids. if plant sterols displace fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids from bile acid mi- celles, their use might theoretically decrease the absorp- tion of these fat-soluble nutrients and potentially promote deficiencies in such nutrients ( , , ). we therefore also examined whether the use of plant sterol in a dose of . g/day significantly decreased carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols. ten variables were measured in protocols i and ii (lutein, �- and �-cryptoxanthine, lycopene, �- and �-carotene, total carotenoids, retinol, and �- and 	-tocoph- erols). the data are presented for protocol ii because these variables were measured at baseline and could be used as covariates in the statistical analysis. protocol ii was also longer than protocol i, and therefore any effect of the plant sterol esters more pronounced. after correction for plasma total cholesterol levels, significant treatment ef- fects of the plant sterol ester were found for plasma levels [mean (sem) as �g/ mg cholesterol] of �-cryptoxan- thine, lycopene, and �-carotene (table ). there was no significant effect on any of the other variables examined (table ). discussion we report here the response of obligate heterozygotes from two well-characterized families with phytosterolemia to . g daily of plant sterol via the consumption of a plant sterol esters-enriched spread, as judged by the change in their plasma levels of ldl cholesterol and plant sterols. we used an aba study design that provided two control periods (a), one before and one after the plant sterol es- ter challenge (b; aba switchover). each obligate het- erozygote served as his or her control. table . comparisons of mean plasma levels of ldl-cholesterol, sitosterol and campesterol responses to intake of plant sterol ester-containing margarine of subjects from published literature and individual responses of familial controls in the current study percent change in plasma levels after treatment with plant sterol esters subjects n design (duration) daily intake of plant sterol (background diet) ldl cholesterol sitosterol campesterol published studies (reference) mildly hypercholesterolemic adults ( ) incomplete latin square ( weeks) . g (habitual diets) � . � . � . normal to mildly hypercholesterolemic adults ( ) , b two arm parallel ( weeks) . g (step ) � . � . � . hypercholesterolemic adults with or without statins ( ) cross-over ( weeks) . g (recommended diet for hypercholesterolemics) � . � . � . hypercholesterolemic adults ( ) cross-over ( weeks) . g (habitual diets) � . � . � . normal to mildly hypercholesterolemic adults ( ) two arm parallel ( weeks) . g (habitual diets) � . � . � . current study (familial controls)a aba switchoverc . g (step ) adult sibling of homozygote protocol i � . d � . d � . d adult sibling of homozygote protocol i � . � . � . spouse of homozygote protocol ii � . � . � . spouse of homozygote protocol ii � . � . � . a see table for subject descriptions and fig. for study design. b n � for the ldlc measurement; n � for the plant sterol measurements. c there were two control periods (a), one before and one after the plant sterol ester challenge (b). d comparison of values at the end of the lead-in period with control placebo spread and at the end of the treatment period with plant sterol ester spread. kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols the study population responded to a step diet with an average decrease in ldl cholesterol of . % in proto- col i and of . % in protocol ii, both highly statistically significant. in protocol i, the ingestion of about . g of plant sterols daily produced a significant additional reduc- tion of . % in ldl cholesterol over that achieved by a step diet. such a significant fall was not seen in protocol ii. since the blood levels of the plant sterols increased sig- nificantly in protocol ii, and in a pattern similar to proto- col i (fig. ), lack of compliance to the ingestion of the test margarine does not explain the failure to find a de- crease in ldl. the simplest explanation is that the obser- vation was due to intraindividual heterogeneity, which might become of more importance, given the smaller sam- ple size in protocol ii. for example, in one subject (i- ) in protocol ii, the ldl cholesterol levels increased notably during the plant sterol ester period (fig. b). the mean dietary intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol were lower at baseline and during the placebo run-in pe- riod in protocol ii than in protocol i, but both groups fol- lowed a step diet throughout all the study periods. moreover, in both protocol i and protocol ii, there was a significant increase in ldl cholesterol in the placebo spread washout period, indicating that the plant sterol- enriched spread had an effect independent of the step diet. while sources of error, such as instrument effect, un- derestimate or overestimate of dietary intakes, and adher- ence effect (compliance bias) can influence the estimates of the intake of these nutrients ( ), the changes in these the intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol were consistent across our study population and both protocols. the moderate dyslipidemia in the obligate heterozy- gotes, observed at baseline here and elsewhere ( , ), might reflect some moderate down-regulation of the ldl receptor in these subjects, which might accompany in- creased sterol absorption. further metabolic studies will be required to answer this issue. while the response of ldl cholesterol to the dietary changes employed here are of relatively low magnitude, on a population basis even a mean decrease of only % to % may have a significant effect on the overall incidence of coronary artery disease (cad) ( – ). conversely, the mean plasma levels of campesterol and sitosterol increased % and %, respectively, during the use of the plant sterol-enriched spread in protocol i, an effect that was mirrored in protocol ii. while such changes were highly statistically significant, they were of similar magnitude to those seen in normal and mildly hy- percholesterolemic unrelated subjects in other studies of plant sterol esters ( , , – ) and in our familial con- trols (table ). it must also be noted that the levels of plant sterols remained a minute fraction of the total blood sterols (tables and ). the greater increase in the plasma level of campesterol than sitosterol in the obligate heterozygotes given the plant sterol-enriched spread may be related to the fact that humans have a greater intestinal absorption of campesterol than of sitosterol, a differential related to the decreased uptake of plant sterols by intesti- nal cells with an increasing number of carbon atoms at c ( , , ). in that regard, campesterol has one carbon, while sitosterol has two carbons at c . once the effect of the plant sterol-enriched spread reached a plateau, no further increase was observed in either protocol i or pro- tocol ii, suggesting that the obligate heterozygotes elimi- nated the plant sterols sufficiently to prevent their accu- mulation. this tenet was supported by the fact that the mean plasma levels of both campesterol and sitosterol re- turned to baseline levels during the placebo spread wash- out period. in normal humans, ostlund et al. ( ) re- ported that the mean (sd) half-life of plasma sitosterol was . ( . ) days and that of plasma campesterol . ( . ) days. despite the relatively long half-life of these plant sterols, one would predict that these levels would re- turn to baseline by the time we sampled our obligate het- erozygotes on the placebo spread in the washout period, unless there was a continued secretion of plant sterols ab- table . plasma carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamin concentrations (�g/ mg cholesterol)a of obligate heterozygotes for sitosterolemia (n � ) at baseline, and in response to study diets (protocol ii) study dietse variables and study periods home dietb (baseline, week ) placebo spread (run-in, week ) plant sterol ester spread (weeks , , ) placebo spread (washout, weeks , , ) overall p f lutein . �-cryptoxanthine . �-cryptoxanthine c d cd . lycopene cd d c . �-carotene c d d . �-carotene . retinol . . �-tocopherol , , , , . 	-tocopherol , , , , . a corrected for total cholesterol. b mean se. c,d,cd values at baseline and at the end of the run-in period (week ) are not different. e least squares mean se. for the three study diet periods, values in a row with different superscripts differ, p � . . f p values for treatment effect, as determined in methods. journal of lipid research volume , normally accumulated in liver. these observations are consistent with the metabolic findings of salen and co- workers ( ), who reported that the somewhat increased plant sterol absorption in heterozygotes for phytoster- olemia was offset by rapid elimination from the liver to prevent accumulation of plant sterols. protocol ii examined the effect of the plant sterol spread on the plant sterol levels for a longer period of time, and also followed the participants for a greater time on the placebo spread to ensure that the increase in the plant sterols observed in protocol i actually reached a pla- teau and then fell to the baseline levels and remained there. very similar qualitative and quantitative patterns of increase in the mean plant campesterol and sitosterol lev- els, followed by a prompt decrease and stabilization, were observed in protocol ii as in protocol i (tables , ). the mean plasma sitosterol and campesterol levels (mg/ dl) determined by gc/ms (see methods) in our control groups were similar to those reported by others ( , , , ). for example, the range of total plasma plant sterols in human serum under normal conditions was found to be be- tween . to . �mol/l. stalenhoef et al. ( ) reported mean plasma levels of . �mol/l for campesterol and . �mol/l for sitosterol in healthy subjects; the campes- terol levels varied . -fold (range . to . �mol/l) and the sitosterol levels varied . -fold (range . to . �mol/ l). the mean baseline levels of sitosterol of . �mol/l and of campesterol of . �mol/l in our obligate heterozygotes were about -fold higher than those found in our age- and population-specific controls. four of the amish obligate heterozygotes had both sitosterol and campesterol levels that were two sd or higher above the mean for our controls. however, these values ranged from . to . �mol/l, and were clearly not elevated to a range intermediate between normals and phytosterolemic homozygotes (� �mol/l). thus, while theoretically heterozygotes might have a % deficiency in the intestinal absorption and hepatic elimina- tion of plant sterols leading to a more significant increase in their plasma plant sterols, this does not appear to be the case, and the function of the normal abcg allele appears to compensate for the mutant allele, thereby leading to the recessive phenotype ( – ). the implication for the development of cad when plant sterol levels are in the range of . to . �mol/l is not known. in a cross-sectional study, glueck and co- workers ( ) reported such modestly elevated levels in probands and relatives from families with premature cad. however, these observations may be confounded by dietary intake of sterols and age factors. berge et al. ( ) have recently found that the plasma levels of campesterol and sitosterol are heritable, and that two common dna sequence variations (d h and t k) in the abcg gene are associated with lower concentrations of these plant sterols. thus, the abcg gene appears to influence the plant sterol levels in the general population. in fact, a higher ratio of plasma plant sterols to cholesterol levels appears to be correlated positively with the fractional ab- sorption of cholesterol but negatively with cholesterol synthesis ( ). in the scandinavian simvastatin survival study, those patients with cad who had a lower ratio of plasma plant sterols to cholesterol, and consequently a greater biosynthesis of cholesterol, were found to have a greater reduction in plasma cholesterol levels with treat- ment, and reduced recurrences of cad events ( ). reduced cholesterol solubilization in bile acid micelles has been proposed as an important mechanism in the in- hibition of absorption of cholesterol by phytosterols ( ). since campesterol and sitosterol are more hydrophobic than cholesterol, they have a higher affinity than choles- terol for micelles, thus restricting the solubility of cho- lesterol. this should affect both dietary and biliary cho- lesterol absorption, and our observation that the plant sterols appear effective even in the face of a reduced-cho- lesterol diet supports this mechanism. one study ( ) found that the addition of g/day of sitostanol to a low- cholesterol diet was not efficacious in lowering plasma cholesterol in moderate hypercholesterolemic men, an observation that might be explained by the likelihood that the stanols used in this study were not in solution. the absorption of cholesterol and plant sterols by intes- tinal cells was previously postulated to be nonspecific, but now a high-affinity receptor-mediated mechanism has been proposed ( ). if this hypothesis is correct, then plant sterols might also inhibit the high-affinity receptor- mediated uptake of cholesterol, as well as displace choles- terol from micelles. either of these two mechanisms might lead to decreased cholesterol absorption and esterifica- tion in the intestine, less subsequent excretion into the blood stream on chylomicrons, decreased hepatic uptake of cholesterol from chylomicron remnants, induction of ldl receptors, and reduction in ldl cholesterol levels. the decrease in ldl cholesterol is most likely not as ef- fective as it could be, due to the compensatory increase in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis ( , ). the identification of a high-affinity receptor that nor- mally mediates the absorption of cholesterol and plant sterols has been elusive. if abcg and abcg co-coordi- nately functioned as such a receptor, one might expect mutations in the genes for these half abc transporters to produce decreased intestinal absorption of sterols. the opposite occurs in the phytosterolemic homozygotes, and therefore it has been postulated that abcg and abcg normally mediate the egress of cholesterol and plant ste- rol from inside the intestinal cell back out into the intesti- nal lumen. in the intestine, cholesterol feeding up-regu- lates the genes for abgg and abcg , an effect that is regulated by the oxysterol receptors, liver x-activated re- ceptor (lxr)�, and lxr�, transcription factors that regulate the expression of genes involved in cholesterol efflux, storage, catabolism, and elimination ( ). in enterocytes, lxr agonists also markedly up-regulate the gene for abca , a full-sized abc transporter that medi- ates the efflux of cholesterol from cells ( ). however, mutations in abca cause tangier disease ( ), and it is unlikely that abca is the primary receptor that regulates sterol absorption. scavenger receptor class b type i (sr- bi) is another cell surface receptor postulated to play a role in cholesterol absorption ( ). ezetimibe, a drug that kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols inhibits the absorption of cholesterol in humans ( ), binds with high affinity to sr-bi, and overexpression of sr-bi in chinese hamster ovary cells resulted in increased cholesterol uptake, which was blocked by ezetimibe ( ). however, sr-bi knockout mice have normal cholesterol absorption, indicating that sr-bi may have a role in cho- lesterol absorption, but is not essential for it to occur ( ). we used the amount of test margarine that one is likely to encounter in individuals attempting to lower their total and ldl cholesterol an additional amount over that obtained with a low total-fat, saturated-fat, and cholesterol diet. we did not examine, therefore, the dose-response relationship between the amount of dietary plant sterol and the ldl cholesterol level. others ( ) found no evidence for a statis- tically significant dose-response relationship between cho- lesterol lowering and three different, relatively low, intake levels of plant sterols ( . , . , and . g/day). the ab- sence of a clear dose dependency may be due to the com- pensatory increase in cholesterol synthesis that occurs after ingestion of higher dosages of plant sterols ( , ). in a double-blind, randomly-crossed-over controlled feeding study of mildly hypercholesterolemic adults fed . g plant sterols daily, judd et al. ( ) found that base- line levels were a significant predictor of the final concen- trations for all blood lipids and lipoproteins. we also ob- served in both protocol i and protocol ii that those obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia with the high- est baseline ldl cholesterol levels had the greatest fall in ldl cholesterol during the treatment period. those with the lowest ldl levels also had a response, however, and the response does not appear to be simply a function of the baseline ldl levels. furthermore, in examining a treat- ment effect of plant sterol esters, differences in baseline ldl levels were taken into account (see methods). our pediatric subjects, � years of age, responded similarly to the young and older adults in the study. tammi et al. ( ) found that doubling dietary plant sterol intake in - month-old children almost doubled the serum plant ste- rol concentrations. becker et al. ( ) previously reported that children with heterozygous fh responded to either sitosterol or sitostanol with a significant reduction of ldl cholesterol. in agreement with at least a half dozen other reports ( , , ), we found no significant treatment effect of the plant sterol esters on the levels of hdl cholesterol or apoa-i, its major apolipoprotein, in protocol i. the treat- ment effect on the levels of hdl cholesterol and apoa-i in protocol ii may have been due to the increase in hdl and apoa-i in the placebo washout period when the di- etary fat content of the diet increased. the reduction in ldl cholesterol that we observed was accompanied by a significant fall in the apob levels, in agreement with a number of previous reports ( ). this observation further suggests that treatment with a plant sterol-enriched mar- garine decreases the number of atherogenic ldl parti- cles, and is not simply decreasing the core cholesteryl es- ter content. in agreement with a number of other studies ( – , ), we found no evidence that the use of a plant sterol es- ter-enriched food decreased significantly the plasma lev- els of total carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols. even though we observed significant reductions of �-cryptoxan- thine, lycopene, and �-carotene, the levels were within the broad limits of the normal population ranges. thus, in re- gard to plasma carotenoids and fat-soluble vitamins, there appears to be no problem based on these relatively short- term studies in a special population of subjects. a concern has also been raised that a plant sterol-enriched marga- rine may decrease the availability of �- and �-carotene, even after correcting for changes (decreases) in ldl-c levels ( ). speculatively, this may decrease the availability of such antioxidants and promote the oxidation (and thus atherogenicity) of ldl, but this study provides no infor- mation in that regard except that the levels of �-carotene did decrease significantly on the plant sterol spread. a larger cohort of older obligate heterozygotes for phy- tosterolemia will be required to determine if such carriers are at high risk for cad. future longer-term studies will also be required in large free-living populations to deter- mine if small increases in plasma plant sterols might be as- sociated with the development of atherosclerosis. we be- lieve that this is unlikely, given the good prognosis of populations that consume diets low in animal fat and en- riched with plant products. normal humans, and appar- ently obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia, have a remarkable capacity to excrete plant sterols from the liver into bile, thus preventing their accumulation in the body. the authors thank dr. beverly clevidence for performing the analyses of the plasma carotenoids, retinol, and tocopherols, and dr. matthew kramer for help with the statistical analyses. both dr. clevidence and dr. kramer are with the united states department of agriculture. we thank dr. gert meijer for his helpful discussions about the study. dr. richard kelley oversaw the analyses of the plant sterol levels and provided critical re- view of the manuscript. we also thank dr. d. holmes morton, christine l. hendrickson, donna robinson, and lee ann drum of the clinic for special children in strasburg, pa; dr. brian henry and jo ingraham of the due west family medical clinic, due west, sc; and dr. alvin graber and valerie havi- land of nappanee medical clinic, nappanee, in for their gen- erous support in the conduct of both protocols. the authors thank sharon blackburn for providing the graphic arts. this study was partly supported by an unrestricted research grant from unilever bestfoods. references . goldstein, j. l., and m. s. brown. . the cholesterol quartet. science. : – . . kwiterovich, p. o., jr. . the effect of dietary fat, antioxidants and pro-oxidants on blood lipids and lipoproteins and atheroscle- rosis. j. am. diet. assoc. (suppl.): s –s . . kwiterovich, p. o., jr. . state-of-the-art update and review: clin- ical trials of lipid-lowering agents. am. j. cardiol. : u– u. . law, m. r., n. j. wald, and s. g. thompson. . by how much and how quickly does reduction in serum cholesterol concentra- tion lower risk of ischaemic heart disease? bmj. : – . journal of lipid research volume , . salen, g., e. h. ahrens, jr., and s. m. grundy. . the metabo- lism of b-sitosterol in man. j. clin. invest. : – . . ostlund, r. e., jr. . phytosterols in human nutrition. annu. rev. nutr. : – . . bosner, m. s., l. g. lange, w. f. stenson, and r. e. ostlund, jr. . percent cholesterol absorption in normal men and women quantified with dual stable isotopic tracers and negative ion mass spectrometry. j. lipid res. : – . . ostlund, r. e., jr., j. b. mcgill, c-m. zeng, d. f. covey, j. stearns, w. f. stenson, and c. a. spilburg. . gastrointestinal absorp- tion and plasma kinetics of 
 -phytosterols and phytostanols in humans. am. j. physiol. endocrinol. metab. : e –e . . armstrong, m. j., and m. c. carey. . thermodynamic and mo- lecular determinants of sterol solubilities in bile salt micelles. j. lipid res. : – . . ling, w. h., and p. j. jones. . dietary phytosterols: a review of metabolism, benefits and side effects. life sci. : – . . jones, p. j. h., d.e. macdougall, f. ntanios, c. a. vanstone. . dietary phytosterols as cholesterol-lowering agents in humans. can. j. physiol. pharm. : – . . lu, k., m-h. lee, and s. b. patel. . dietary cholesterol absorp- tion: more than just bile. trends endocrinol. metab. : – . . weststrate, j. a., and g. w. meijer. . plant sterol-enriched mar- garines and reduction of plasma total- and ldl-cholesterol con- centrations in normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholester- olemic subjects. eur. j. clin. nutr. : – . . jones, p. j. h., and f. ntanios. . comparable efficacy of hydroge- nated versus nonhydrogenated plant sterol esters on circulating cholesterol levels in humans. nutr. rev. : – . . jones, p. j. h., m. raeini-sarjaz, f. ntanios, c. vanstone, j. y. feng, and w. parsons. . modulation of plasma lipid levels and cho- lesterol kinetics by phytosterol versus phytostanol esters. j. lipid res. : – . . hendricks, h. f. j., j. a. westrate, t. van vliet, g. w. meijer. . spreads enriched with three different levels of vegetable oil sterols and the degree of cholesterol lowering in normocholesterolemic and mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects. eur. j. clin. nutr. : – . . miettinen, t. a., and h. k. gylling. . regulation of cholesterol metabolism by dietary plant sterols. curr. opin. lipidol. : – . . jones, p. j., and m. raeini-sarjaz. . plant sterols and their de- rivatives: the current spread of results. nutr. rev. : – . . maki, k. c., m. h. davidson, d. m. umporowicz, e. j. schaefer, m. r. dickline, k. a. ingram, s. chen, j. r. mcnamara, b. w. geb- hart, j. d. ribaya-mercado, g. perrone, s. j. robins, and w. c. franke. . lipid responses to plant-sterol-enriched reduced-fat spreads incorporated into a national cholesterol education pro- gram step diet. am. j. clin. nutr. : – . . bhattacharyya, a. k., and w. e. connor. . beta-sitosterolemia and xanthomatosis. a newly described lipid storage disease in two sisters. j. clin. invest. : – . . miettinen, t. a. . phytosterolemia, xanthomatosis, and pre- mature atherosclerotic arterial disease: a case with high plant ste- rol absorption, impaired sterol elimination and low cholesterol synthesis. eur. j. clin. invest. : – . . kwiterovich, p. o., jr., p. s. bachorik, h. h. smith, v. a. mckusick, w. e. connor, b. teng, and a. d. sniderman. . hyperapobe- talipoproteinemia in two families with xanthomas and phytoster- olemia. lancet. : – . . bjorkhem, i., and m. boberg. . inborn errors in bile acid bio- synthesis and storage of sterols other than cholesterol. in the met- abolic bases of inherited disease. c. r. scriver, a. l. beaudet, w. s. sly, d. valle, editors. mcgraw-hill, new york. – . . lutjohann, d., i. bjorkham, v. f. beil, and k. von bergmann. . sterol absorption and sterol balance in phytosterolemia evaluated by deuterium-labeled sterols: effect of sitostanol treatment. j. lipid res. : – . . salen, g., i. horak, m. rothkopt, j. l. cohen, j. speck, g. s. tint, v. shore, b. dayal, t. chen, and s. shefer. . lethal atherosclerosis associated with abnormal plasma and tissue sterol composition in si- tosterolemia with xanthomatosis. j. lipid res. : – . . salen, g., p. o. kwiterovich, jr., s. shefer, g. s. tint, i. horak, v. shore, b. dayal, and e. horak. . increased plasma cholestanol and alpha-saturated plant sterol derivatives in subjects with sito- sterolemia and xanthomatosis. j. lipid res. : – . . berge, k. e., h. tian, g. a. graf, l. yu, n. v. grishin, j. schultz, p. kwiterovich, b. shan, r. barnes, and h. h. hobbs. . accumu- lation of dietary cholesterol in sitosterolemia caused by mutations in adjacent abc transporters. science. : – . . lu, k., m-h. lee, s. hazard, a. brooks-wilson, h. hidaka, h. kojima, l. ose, a. f. h. stalenhoef, t. mietinnen, i. bjorkem, e. bruckert, a. pandya, h. b. brewer, jr., g. salen, m. dean, a. srivastava, and s. b. patel. . two genes that map to the stsl locus cause sitosterolemia: genomic structure and spec- trum of mutations involving sterolin- and sterolin- , encoded by abcg and abcg , respectively. am. j. hum. genet. : – . . repa, j. j., k. e. berge, c. pomajzl, j. a. richardson, h. h. hobbs, and d. j. mangelsdorf. . regulation of atp-binding cassette sterol transporters, abcg and abcg , by the oxysterol recep- tors, lxr alpha and beta. j. biol. chem. : – . . salen, g., g. s. tint, s. shefer, v. shore, and l. nguyen. . in- creased sitosterol absorption is offset by rapid elimination to pre- vent accumulation in heterozygotes with sitosterolemia. arterioscl. thromb. : – . . stalenhoef, a. f. h., m. hectors, and n. m. demacker. . effect of plant sterol-enriched margarine on plasma lipids and sterols in subjects heterozygous for phytosterolemia. j. int. med. res. : – . . beaty, t. h., p. o. kwiterovich, jr., m. j. khoury, s. white, p. s. ba- chorik, h. h. smith, b. teng, and a. d. sniderman. . genetic analysis of plasma sitosterol, apoprotein b and lipoproteins in a large amish pedigree with sitosterolemia. am. j. hum. genet. : – . . krauss, r. m., b. howard, l. j. appel, s. r. daniels, r. j. deckel- baum, j. w. erdman, p. kris-etherton, i. goldberg, t. a. kotchen, a. h. lichtenstein, w. e. mitch, r. mullis, k. robinson, j. wylie- rosett, s. st. jeor, j. suttie, d. tribble, and t. l. bazzarre. . re- vision : a statement for healthcare professionals from the nu- trition committee of the american heart association. j. nutr. : – . . judd, j. t., d. j. baer, s. c. chen, b. a. clevidence, r. a. muesing, m. kramer, and g. w. meijer. . plant sterol esters lower plasma lipids and most carotenoids in mildly hypercholester- olemic adults. lipids. : – . . sas/stat user’s guide. version . . sas institute inc., cary, nc. – . . friedewald, w. t., r. i. levy, and d. s. fredrickson. . estima- tion of the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in plasma, without use of the preparative ultracentrifuge. clin. chem. : – . . bachorik, p. s., k. l. lovejoy, m. d. carroll, and c. l. johnson. . apolipoprotein b and ai distributions in the united states, – : results of the national health and nutrition examina- tion survey iii (nhanes iii). clin. chem. : – . . weiss, s. r., p. s. bachorik, l. c. becker, t. f. moy, and d. m. becker. . lipoprotein (a) and coronary heart disease risk fac- tors in a racially mixed population: the johns hopkins sibling study. ethn. dis. : – . . the lipid research clinics population studies data book. . the prevalence study. vol. i. us department of health and hu- man services, national institutes of health, nih publication no. – . – . . kelley, r. i. . diagnosis of smith-lemli-opitz syndrome by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of -dehydrocholesterol in plasma, amniotic fluid and cultured skin fibroblasts. clin. chim. acta. : – . . khachik, f., g. r. beecher, m. b. goli, w. r. lusby, and j. c. smith. . separation and identification of carotenoids and their oxi- dation products in the extracts of human plasma. anal. chem. : – . . bieri, j. g., e. d. brown, and j. c. smith. . determination of individual carotenoids in human plasma by high performance liq- uid chromatography. j. liq. chromatogr. : – . . neil, h. a., g. w. meijer, and l. s. roe. . randomized con- trolled trial of use by hypercholesterolaemic patients of a vegeta- ble oil sterol-enriched fat spread. atherosclerosis. : – . . mussner, m. j., k. g. parhoefer, k. von bergmann, p. schwandt, u. broedl, and c. otto. . effects of a phytosterol enriched mar- garine on hemorheology and plasma lipoproteins in mild to mod- erate hypercholesterolemia. metabolism. : – . . hendriks, h. f. j., e. j. brink, g. w. meijer, h. m. g. princen, f. y. ntanios. . safety of long-term consumption of plant sterol es- ters-enriched spread. eur. j. clin. nutr. : – . kwiterovich et al. response of phytosterolemic heterozygotes to plant sterols . heinemann, t., g. axtmann, and k. von bergmann. . com- parison of the intestinal absorption of cholesterol with different plant sterols in man. eur. j. clin. invest. : – . . salen, g., v. shore, g. s. tint, t. forte, s. shefer, i. horak, e. horak, b. dayal, l. nguyen, a. k. batta, f. t. lindgren, and p. o. kwiterovich. . increased sitosterol absorption, decreased re- moval and expanded body pools compensate for reduced choles- terol synthesis in sitosterolemia with xanthomatosis. j. lipid res. : – . . miettinen, t. a., p. puska, h. gylling, h. vanhanen, and e. vartiainen. . reduction of serum cholesterol with sitostanol- ester margarine in a mildly hypercholesterolemic population. n. engl. j. med. : – . . glueck, c. t., j. speirs, p. streicher, e. illig, and j. vandegrift. . relationships of serum plant sterols (phytosterols) and cho- lesterol in hypercholesterolemic subjects, and familial aggre- gation of phytosterols, cholesterol, and premature coronary heart disease in hyperphytosterolemic probands and their first-degree relatives. metabolism. : – . . berge, k. e., k. von bergmann, d. lutjohann, r. guerra, s. m. grundy, h. h. hobbs, and j. c. cohen. . heritability of plasma noncholesterol sterols and relationship to dna sequence polymorphism in abcg and abcg . j. lipid res. : – . . miettinen, t. a., r. s. tilvis, and y. a. kesaniemi. . serum plant sterols and cholesterol precursors reflect cholesterol absorp- tion and synthesis in volunteers of a randomly selected male popu- lation. am. j. epidemiol. : – . . miettinen, t. a., h. gylling, t. strandberg, and s. sarna. . baseline serum cholestanol as predictor of recurrent coronary events in subgroup of scandinavian simvastatin survival study: finnish s investigators. bmj. : – . . denke, m. a. . lack of efficacy of low-dose sitostanol therapy as an adjunct to a cholesterol-lowering diet in men with moderate hypercholesterolemia. am. j. clin. nutr. : – . . vanhanen, h. t., s. blomqvist, c. ehnholm, m. hyvonen, m. jau- hiainen, i. torstila, and t. a. miettinen. . serum cholesterol, cholesterol precursors, and plant sterols in hypercholesterolemic subjects with different apoe phenotypes during dietary sitostanol ester treatment. j. lipid res. : – . . miettinen, t. a., and h. t. vanhanen. . dietary sitostanol re- lated to absorption, synthesis, and serum level of cholesterol in dif- ferent apolipoprotein subtypes. atherosclerosis. : – . . remaley, a. t., s. rust, m. rosier, c. knapper, l. naudin, c. broc- cardo, k. m. peterson, c. koch, i. arnould, c. prades, n. du- verger, h. funke, g. assman, m. dinger, m. dean, g. chimini, s. santamarina-fojo, d. s. fredrickson, p. denelfe, and h. b. brewer, jr. . human atp-binding cassette transporter (abc ): geno- mic organization and identification of the genetic defect in the original tangier disease kindred. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : – . . altmann, s. w., h. r. davis, x. yao, m. laverty, d. s. compton, l. zhu, j. h. crona, m. a. caplen, l. m. hoos, g. tetzloff, t. priest- ley, d. a. burnett, c. d. strader, and m. p. graziano. . the identification of intestinal scavenger receptor class b, type i (sr- b ) by expression cloning and its role in cholesterol absorption. biochim. biophys. acta. : – . . sudhop, t., d. lutjohann, a. kodal, m. igel, d. l. tribble, s. shah, i. perevozskaya, and k. von bergmann. . inhibition of intesti- nal cholesterol absorption by ezetimibe in humans. circulation. : – . . tammi, a., t. ronnemaa, l. valsta, r. seppanen, l. rask-nissila, t. a. miettinen, h. gylling, j. vilkari, m. anttolainen, and o. sim- ell. . dietary plant sterols alter the serum plant sterol concen- tration but not the cholesterol precursor sterol concentrations in young children (the strip study). j. nutr. : – . . becker, m., d. staab, and k. von bergmann. . treatment of se- vere familial hypercholesterolemia in childhood with sitosterol and sitostanol. j. pediatr. : – . 	response of obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia to a low-fat diet and to a plant sterol ester dietary challenge 	methods 	study participants 	study protocols 	study design 	statistical methods 	laboratory methods 	results 	individual responses of obligate heterozygotes to modified-fat and plant sterol ester challenge 	group response of obligate heterozygotes for phytosterolemia to step diet and to a plant sterol ester challenge 	response of familial controls to the plant sterol ester challenge 	discussion 	references book reviews also recognisable in other contexts: the influence of the broader evangelical gender debate; the previously mentioned areas of tension; men dominating the conversation at conventions; the importance of role models in practice and discussion. that is why this work of heidebrecht transcends the situation and context of the mennonite brethren and — despite all the differences — calls for recognition in different contexts. this thick description provides insight into how processes in conventions and unions run, and that is valuable for everyone involved in these lengthy discernment processes. reviewed by ingeborg te loo — co-ordinator of learning network, ibts centre, amsterdam. andrew j. kirk, being human: an historical enquiry into who we are (eugene, oregon: wipf & stock, ), pages. isbn: - . in this book andrew kirk focuses on the question of what it means to be human. this author is well-known for his contribution on the subject of mission and relevant aspects of missiology of western culture. being human is a fruit of kirk’s sustained interest in the aspects of secular culture and how these are related to the christian mission and message. the book is unique in that it offers an account of the views on humanity and human nature from the renaissance, including the reformation, through the enlightenment to the present. it is motivated by the intention ‘to grapple afresh with the notion of being human’ (p. ). the book encompasses a timespan of five centuries, different intellectual milieus, many authors and various topics. after introducing the foundational presuppositions of the enquiry (ch. ), kirk proceeds to a description of the renaissance shift towards humanism (ch. ) and its consequences for the external authority in politics represented by john locke (ch. ). chapters to explore the enlightenment humanism exemplified by such figures as hume and diderot, darwin and ‘masters of suspicion’ marx, nietzsche and freud. kirk argues that the enlightenment has departed from the yet theocentric renaissance humanism and that this has resulted in what he calls ‘secular humanism’ (ch. ), which denies any reality beyond the natural world (p. ). in two final chapters the author outlines the perspectives of some prominent christian theologians who have dealt with the issues relevant to human existence and identity. he summarises the key topics of the enquiry and in chapter proposes a method of abduction for ‘dialogue in the context of truth’ (p. ). journal of european baptist studies : ( ) the book is an apologetic essay that consistently argues for the theistic metanarrative as the proper context in which humans could make sense of themselves and their experience. dealing with different authors and their contribution on the subject, kirk demonstrates that materialistic or secular humanism lacks explanatory power to answer satisfactorily the most acute aspects of being human — their origin, humanness, morality and the problem of evil. he concludes that neo-darwinists cannot resolve convincingly the issue of human origin, while secular humanists fail to explain the origin of consciousness and morality. a vast project like this is by necessity a complex one. however, kirk deals skilfully with its complexity, explaining some knotty ideas and demonstrating flaws and consequences of the secular humanist metanarrative. although the book is straightforwardly theistic, kirk demonstrates a commendable openness to honest and sincere dialogue with opponents. whether such dialogue is ever possible at all is hard to tell. andrew kirk has written an important book, which not only fills a gap but also points to the field in which theologians should invest their efforts in the near future. reviewed by dr oleksandr geychenko — rector of odessa theological seminary, ukraine. paul cloke and mike pears (eds), mission in marginal places: the theory (milton keynes: paternoster press, ), pages. isbn: - . paul cloke and mike pears (eds), mission in marginal places: the praxis (milton keynes: paternoster press, ), pages. isbn: - . paul cloke and mike pears (eds), mission in marginal places: the stories (milton keynes: paternoster press, ), pages. isbn: - . in this review i discuss the trilogy of books in the mission in marginal places series co-edited by sociological scholar paul cloke (professor of human geography at the university of exeter) and theological scholar mike pears. pears was part of an urban expression community and carried out his phd research (at ibts centre, amsterdam) on a theology of place. he is currently director of ibts centre in amsterdam. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ distribution, status and taxonomy of the near-threatened black-bodied woodpecker dryocopus schulzi bird conservation international ( ) : - distribution, status and taxonomy of the near-threatened black-bodied woodpecker dryocopus schulzi a. madrono nieto and m. pearman summary studies of records of the black-bodied woodpecker dryocopus schulzi through literature searches, communications with ornithologists, personal observations and data from museum specimens show that the distribution of the species is basically limited to xero- phytic chaco woodlands in western paraguay, northern and central argentina, and southern bolivia. its western limit is defined by the transition zone between the chaco and the semi-humid montane forest on the east andean slopes of southern bolivia and north-west argentina; in the extreme south it extends into the dry deciduous woodlands in the sierras of cordoba and north-eastern san luis. the taxonomic history of the species has been chequered; we present morphological and vocal differences from its closest relative that reaffirm its specific validity. it appears to have suffered an alarming decline over much of its former range in argentina, and appears to survive only in two isolated population centres of significant importance, in cordoba and adjacent san luis and in the central part of the paraguayan chaco. the main cause of its rarity is destruction of habitat for timber extraction and expansion of agriculture and cattle-raising. el estudio de registros del carpintero negro dryocopus schulzi mediante revision biblio- grafica, comunicaciones de ornitologos, observaciones personales e information adjunta a especimenes en museos, muestra que la distribution de la especie basicamente se circunscribe al bosque chaqueno de caracter xerofilo del oeste de paraguay, norte y centro de argentina y sur de bolivia. su extremo occidental alcanza la zona de transicion entre el chaco y los bosques semihumedos montanos en las sierras orientales andinas del sur de bolivia y del noroeste argentino; en el extremo sur se extiende hasta los bosques secos deciduos de las sierras cordobesas y del noreste de san luis. la historia taxonomica de la especie ha sido confusa; las diferencias morfologicas y vocales que aqui se presentan y comparan con su pariente mas proximo reafirman su validez especifica. parece haber sufrido una disminucion preocupante en la mayor parte de su distribution original en argentina, y quedan aparentemente tan solo un par de nucleos poblacionales aislados de cierta importancia, en cordoba y zona adyacente de san luis y en la zona central del chaco paraguayo. la principal causa responsable de su rarefaction se debe a la destruc- tion del habitat por la explotacion de los recursos madereros y a la creciente expansion de la frontera agricola y ganadera. introduction the black-bodied woodpecker dryocopus schulzi is restricted to the central and southern chaco, in bolivia, paraguay and argentina, and to the transitional subtropical forest at the low eastern edge of the andes in southern bolivia and north-west argentina (see figure ). it was originally a candidate for inclusion a. madrono nieto and m. pearman figure . the distribution of dryocopus schulzi showing historical (o pre- ), recent (• post- ) and hybrid (•) records. ringed areas represent the central dry paraguayan chaco (a), humid chaco where most hybrids have been reported (b), dry chaco and transitional forest (c), and cordoba and san luis transitional (d); dashed line roughly separates dry chaco (to the west) and humid chaco to the east (following hueck's map). see appendix for key to numbered localities. in threatened birds of the americas (collar et al. ), as its distribution and habits were poorly known (e.g. short , ) and most published information and correspondence (with icbp) remarked on its scarceness (see population below). however, after deeper investigation in the literature and further inquiries to other ornithologists with field expertise in the region, it was decided to confine it to "near-threatened" status, adopted by icbp as a term for "birds which, while apparently not (yet) seriously in danger of global extinction, give cause for concern" (see collar et al. ). however, it was also agreed that in due course the analysis already begun on the species should be completed and published, partly because it is clearly valuable to review the status of such borderline species whenever possible, and partly because this bird is a particu- larly interesting representative of the chaco fauna: any conservation initiatives in the chaco should certainly take the species into account. the black-bodied woodpecker methods this paper constitutes a compilation of all published and unpublished informa- tion (available to us) on the black-bodied woodpecker. museums are referred to in the text by abbreviations as follows: amnh, american museum of natural history; ansp, academy of natural sciences of philadelphia; bmnh, british museum of natural history (tring); iml, instituto miguel lillo (san miguel de tucuman); macn, museo argentino de ciencias naturales, buenos aires; mcz, museum of comparative zoology (cambridge, u.s.a.); ummz, univer- sity of michigan museum of zoology. part of the museum data was gathered by n. j. collar during the early stages of preparing threatened birds of the amer- icas; m. lecroy provided the information from amnh, j. r. navas from macn, r. a. paynter from mcz, r. w. storer from ummz, while we ourselves studied the specimens held in bmnh. considerable data were collected through personal communications with ornithologists familiar with the species and from our own observations in argentina and paraguay. in the appendix, records are organized within countries and provinces or departments (from north to south); coordinates are derived for every traced locality, which have been numbered and mapped in figure ; the coordinates are generally provided from the original source (published or not) or by refer- ence to ornithological gazetteers (paynter et al. , paynter , ) or dsgm ( ). most localities in figure have been circumscribed in four general areas (a-d) in order to facilitate discussion in different parts of the text. at least one source for each record is provided, although on several occasions several sources have been included in order to facilitate further research; for this same reason if specimens exist, the relevant museum (if known) is also given (very often collecting dates and descriptions of specimens are incomplete or lacking in the literature, but information in museums has greatly compen- sated for this deficiency). approximate altitude of the record (provided in the original source or obtained from the gazetteers) is given if available, but no attempt has been made to provide figures for localities throughout the vast low chaco plain, where elevations move gradually from below m near the para- guay river in the east to m in areas at the base of the andes in the west (short , paynter , ). six study tapes of calls of lineated woodpecker d. lineatus from wide-ranging south american localities were compared with two available study tapes of d. schulzi from two different localities in cordoba, argentina (tape-recorded and published by r. straneck; a copy is held in the british library of wildlife sounds, national sound archive, london). taxonomy the taxonomy of the black-bodied woodpecker has been the subject of much uncertainty, with various changes at both subspecific and specific level. the existence of several hybrids between lineatus and schulzi (see appendix and below) and descriptions of invalid taxa (see below) have helped to muddle the already puzzling taxonomic position of the species. cabanis ( ) first described the species under the genus phloeotomus, a. madrono nieto and m. pearman although later generic designations of the species, or hybrids with lineatus, included: campephilus, ceophloeus, dryotomus, neophloeotomus (e.g. dabbene , cory , peters , pergolani de costa ), all of which were eventu- ally synonymized (including the lineatus and pileatus allospecies) in dryocopus (peters ; also pergolani ). however, this genus (dryocopus) was fortui- tously applied to the species by burmeister ( ) (before it was known to science) when he referred to an immature "d. [dryocopus] atriventris" (= cream- backed woodpecker campephilus leucopogon), which, according to cabanis ( ), was an individual belonging to the newly described species (schulzi) (see also sclater and hudson - ). dabbene ( ) described a new species ("shiptoni") from tucuman, which was identical to schulzi but for a white scapular bar; however, this taxon (although accepted by cory ) was discarded by dinelli ( ), who referred to the existence of specimens of schulzi (including paired birds) with and without this plumage feature. his opinion was supported by mogensen ( ), who attributed this characteristic to the close relation with d. lineatus. the evidence of these two latter authors was not, however, followed by soma ( ) or olrog ( ), whoxmaintained specific distinction between schulzi and shiptoni, although the latter was soon after (and finally) discarded (pergolani de costa , short , olrog ). a further taxonomic problem was introduced in by r. dabbene, who described yet another race of schulzi, namely "major" (see dabbene , ). both mogensen ( ) and pergolani de costa ( ) believed this to be a good species, the former suggesting the name "ceophloeus ater" and the latter "dryo- copus major"; nevertheless, the distinction was not accepted by short ( , ), who considered the form in question to represent a hybridization between schulzi and lineatus. furthermore, peters ( ) described the subspe- cies "dryocopus erythrops fulcitus" (type-specimen in mcz; see also peters ), which was also later considered a hybrid between lineatus and schulzi (short ). a similar taxonomic problem to that of "shiptoni" (possessing white scapular bars) led to the description of "d. erythrops" (see peters ), which represents lineatus without the white scapular bar, but again the specific distinction was not accepted, the form being relegated to subspecific level (i.e. d. /. erythrops) (pergolani de costa , short , , sibley and monroe ). interest- ingly, in the south-east of the lineated woodpecker's range the race erythrops is distinctive (i.e. all birds lack the white bar), with a zone of overlap where both nominate lineatus and erythrops "morphs" are present (see figure in short ), whereas within the range of schulzi no such isolation is present inasmuch as both morphs (typical schulzi and the white-scapulared "shiptoni") can be found mixed throughout (see above) and, although southern birds are smaller than those from the northern chaco, variation is clinal (short , , ). despite the morphological and ecological differences between lineatus and schulzi indicated by short ( ), that author (p. ) remarked that "whether or not it [schulzi] is specifically distinct from lineatus is a moot point". however, comparisons between the common call type of lineatus and schulzi through sona- graphic analysis tend to confirm that both represent valid taxa (see below); the black-bodied woodpecker furthermore, the following obvious morphological differences are judged suffi- ciently important as definitely to maintain schulzi's full specific status: (a) the red crown in schulzi females extends over most of the forehead leaving only c. . cm (or less) of grey feathering above the base of the bill, whereas c. . cm (or more) of grey is exposed in hneatus; (b) schulzi has pale grey or whitish ear-coverts, whereas in hneatus this area is black or dark grey; (c) the throat in schulzi is white to dirty grey with or (usually) without fine brownish streaks (also short ), whereas in hneatus it tends to be heavily streaked giving a much darker appearance; (d) bill colour in schulzi is predominantly white, whereas in hneatus it is typically blackish to grey; (e) nine specimens in bmnh were labelled as having "coffee" and "bright coffee" irides, whereas in hneatus eye colour varies from white to pale yellowish orange, although the young may have brown eyes at first (short ; also his plate jj); (f) belly, flanks, vent and undertail-coverts are black in schulzi, sometimes with very fine barring, usually on the flanks and abdomen, unlike hneatus which always shows heavy barring; (g) underwing-coverts are white in both species, but schulzi presents an irregular, usually large black patch (sometimes nearly lacking: short ) on the bend of the wing, whereas in hneatus this same area is entirely white, although occasionally with a small or, rarely, moderately sized black patch (short ); (h) the rectrices in schulzi show white shafts (visible in the field and on bmnh specimens) which are dark in hneatus. the vocalizations on both sets of {schulzi and hneatus) recordings appear to be constant in form and duration between different localities: the loud ringing "wick wick wick" call types of schulzi and hneatus (see figure ) are very similar in the quality, structure and frequency of their notes, with the fundamentals and double harmonies of hneatus falling within the frequency ranges of those of schulzi. the vocalizations do, however, differ as follows: (a) the schulzi vocal- - - - - / / / ' . . . . c cd ll - > ' ' / • . . . . . . . . . . . time (seconds) figure . sonagrams of typical calls of dryocopus schulzi (a) and d. hneatus (b) in the hz bandwidth. a. madrono nieto and m. pearman ization is delivered at four notes per second compared with the faster delivery of lineatus at six notes per second; (b) schulzi shows a broader pitch variation (see figure ); (c) schulzi typically delivers only five notes compared with (mean from six study tapes) in lineatus. it should be noted that schulzi is capable of delivering a longer variation of this call type, although it has only been reported by one observer, and was then judged to be atypical; we would expect differences between (a) and (b) mentioned above to be constant within such a vocalization. the differences between calls in this analysis suggest that schulzi is specifically distinct from lineatus, but only a small sample for schulzi was available and the evidence presented here therefore needs further investigation. a second vocalization, "ti-chrr", with the second note being a harsh rattle, is very common in lineatus but rare in schulzi; we have been unable to make a sonagraphic comparison in the absence of a recording of this call type for schulzi. it should be noted that drumming of the two species is very similar, with lineatus giving . strokes per second (mean from five study tapes), and schulzi giving . strokes per second (mean from two study tapes), whilst duration of the drum (the same study tapes) was . seconds in schulzi compared to . seconds in lineatus, although a factor such as the state of prenuptial activity presumably precludes the possibility of a valid comparison. whilst the morphological and vocalization differences (regardless of the ecolo- gical habitat preferences: see short , ; also ecology below) are judged important enough to maintain schulzi as a valid species, the high number of hybrids recorded in areas of sympatry (area b in figure ), general structure of call types (see above and figure ) and certain phenotypic characters occasion- ally present in both species (i.e. a character not expected for schulzi but for lineatus and vice versa) serve to emphasize the common ancestral origins of these two species. distribution the black-bodied woodpecker has a relatively restricted range in south-central south america, where it has been recorded from south-central bolivia (santa cruz and tarija; see remarks ), western paraguay (nueva asuncion, boqueron and presidente hayes) and north-central argentina (salta, formosa, chaco, tucuman, santiago del estero, corrientes, santa fe, cordoba and san luis) (see below; also figure ). bolivia the species is only known from two localities in the central and southern parts of the country on the eastern slopes of the low andes (see figure and appendix). the recent record from comarapa, santa cruz (record no. ), extends the previous known range to the north by c. km, and it seems likely that birds will also be found in appropriate habitat in between (see ecology). furthermore, the record of a bird at teniente enciso, in the paraguayan chaco near the bolivian border (record no. ), suggests that the species probably occurs in the chaco lowlands of eastern chuquisaca and tarija near the paraguayan border. the black-bodied woodpecker paraguay all records are west of the paraguay river where all but one (from nueva asuncion) are from boqueron and presidente hayes departments. the record at teniente enciso in extreme western paraguay suggests that the species occurs throughout the dry chaco westward to the eastern environs of the low andes in bolivia. the species appears to be absent from the northern chaco (chaco department) and from south-eastern santa cruz department (bolivia), where it has never been recorded (e.g. short , remsen and traylor , hayes et al. ; also in fieldwork by a.m.n.). the northern limit of the species's range in the paraguayan chaco is yet to be ascertained. argentina most of the records in the country are from the western edge of the chaco in the foothills of the eastern sierras of the andes in the provinces of salta, tucuman, santiago del estero and from the sierras of western cordoba; however, the species also occurs to the east in the chaco lowlands reaching eastern formosa, chaco and corrientes (for hybrids with hneatus see figure and appendix) and north-west santa fe (corrientes and santa fe provinces are not mentioned, or included, in the distribution maps given by narosky and yzurieta and canevari et al. ). dabbene ( ) referred to a female collected at santa ana, misiones, by f. m. rodriguez (this specimen, according to him, had been sent to macn), and to a second specimen taken in the "same territory" by e. budin. we have been unable to trace the location of either of the above-mentioned specimens, which are presumably the source of other authors listing the species for that province (e.g. soma , peters , pereyra , olrog , ). it is likely that there was a confusion with d. hneatus (for which there is a large series from the same locality: see, e.g., pergolani de costa ). later reviewers and maps of the species's distribution (see, e.g., olrog , narosky and yzuri- eta , canevari et al. ) excluded the province from its range, and there appears to have been no further mention of these two specimens from misiones. the southernmost known locality for the species is in north-eastern san luis province at ° o's (see appendix and figure ). population bolivia the species appears to be very rare; there are only four records from two localit- ies (in and , one a hybrid: see appendix). the record from valle de comarapa, santa cruz, much the northernmost site for the species, suggests that it may occur in the intervening region (see figure ), although t. a. parker (verbally ) has not found it in the above-mentioned area despite extensive fieldwork there, nor did j. fjeldsa and s. maijer during long treks in the pre- montane zone of chuquisaca in september-october and march (j. fjeldsa in litt. ). however, as already stressed in distribution, it is likely that the species occurs in the chaco woods of chuquisaca near the border with a. madrono nieto and m. pearman paraguay, where there is still extensive undisturbed forest (a.m.n. pers. obs.). the paucity of records from the country does not allow an assessment of past status, and it remains unclear as to whether the species has suffered a consider- able decline or was always very rare there. paraguay very little is known about the status of the species over a large part of the country. most records come from the central chaco between boqueron and presidente hayes departments (area a in figure ) within the environs of men- nonite colonies (i.e. filadelfia, vicinity of lichtenau, loma plata, colonia neu- land, orloff; see appendix). these records suggest that the species was once and perhaps still is at least locally common (at least specimens were collected in the early s; also short ). neris and colman ( ) found the species "abundant" (i.e. "found daily" in their study area; see appendix) between april and march , suggesting that it has not suffered a notable decline; however, neris and colman's ( ) categorization should be treated with cau- tion because daily observations in one particular locality or area may well repres- ent repetition of sightings of the same individual(s). furthermore, a.m.n. spent a total of two months during the winter of and at site no. (see figure ), which is very close to the locality indicated by neris and colman ( ), but only observed a single individual, whereas other species of picidae were frequently encountered. it is also worth mentioning that f. e. hayes (in lilt. , ) spent roughly a month in the central paraguayan chaco, where he observed two different birds on the same day twice at localities nos. , and (see appendix). the lack of additional records from the remaining paraguayan dry chaco (at least near the bolivian border) presumably reflects the lack of fieldwork in this area and the species's status there remains, for the time being, undetermined. argentina after the species was described (cabanis ; see remarks ) stempelmann and schulz ( ) listed it for the province of cordoba as a permanent resident ("not rare": frenzel ), and lillo ( ) also included it in his list of the birds of tucuman; however neither of them gave an indication of its status. by the species had still only been recorded from the above-mentioned provinces (dabbene ). menegaux ( ) reported it for santiago del estero for the first time (vicinity of icano), thus considerably extending the previous known range south-south-east into the chaco lowlands. he described nesting habits (see ecology) and referred to pairs and groups of "five to six individuals"; further- more he indicated that the species was very rare in collections, as already noted by dabbene ( ). dinelli ( ) collected birds at las termas, santiago del estero, between and september ; although he did not refer to the status or abundance of the species, the large number of specimens taken sug- gests that it was at least locally common in the area. mogensen ( ) referred to the scarcity of the species in tucuman, despite there being at least specimens collected in the province between and ( of which were taken the black-bodied woodpecker between and ; see appendix). nores et al. ( ) judged it to be "fairly scarce" in cordoba, an opinion shared by d. willis (in litt. ); narosky and yzurieta ( ) considered it "rare or very difficult to find"; canevari et al. ( ) judged it "rare" throughout its range and "poorly known", and m. nores (in litt. ) believes it to be scarce although remarking that it appears always to have been so. the evidence presented above suggests that the population in the argentine chaco (area c in figure ) may have declined severely, there being only four recent (post- ) records (see figure and appendix) compared with (from different sites; see remarks and threats) historical (pre- ) records. in the sierras of cordoba (grande/comechingones) and nearby areas (e.g. north-east san luis province, area d in figure ), the species has been recorded more often (although considered scarce: see above) and there are recent (post- ) records for most known localities, in some of which (e.g. nos. , , and ) it is regularly observed (canevari et al. , r. j. straneck in litt. ; also appendix). in this region the black-bodied woodpecker appears to be relatively safe in those areas where the forest remains fairly well preserved. the area b (in figure ), i.e. humid chaco, is considered possibly atypical habitat for the species (see below; also short ), with five of the eight records there being hybrids, and the occurrence of the species in it may be only occasional: for instance, in rio pilcomayo national park there were only two sightings in c. years in the s by a park guard (verbally to m.p.), and many ornitholo- gists visited the area without observing the species (j. c. chebez in litt. ; see remarks ). finally, it is worth noting the lack of records between areas a (in paraguay) and c (mainly in north-east salta and the western parts of for- mosa and chaco), which may be attributable to a general lack of fieldwork in the area. ecology the black-bodied woodpecker inhabits the central and southern dry chaco of paraguay, bolivia and argentina, the isolated mountain range of sierra grande/comechingones of western cordoba and north-eastern san luis, and the fringe of the east andean sierras in bolivia and argentina. in the latter ecotone, the vegetation where the species occurs is a transitional gradation between the chaco and that of the high sierra, being above , m (short , , nores et al. , clarke , data in this paper: remarks ; figure ). the highest elevation at which the species has been recorded is , m (in santa cruz, bolivia) (clarke ), but most records are below , m (see appendix). at the above-mentioned locality (no. ), the habitat where the spe- cies was observed corresponded to the division between semi-humid montane forest with a predominance of alnus and tipuana and semi-arid intermontane vegetation, where more xerophytic vegetation was dominated by cacti spp., acacia, prosopis, schinopsis and tipuana (clarke ; also remsen and traylor ). the species is unrecorded north of joaquin v. gonzalez, salta, in the continuing strip of montane forest (semi-humid forest or "yungas") which extends into bolivia, where extensive fieldwork has been conducted in calilegua national park, jujuy, and baritu national park, salta, indicating that the species has never occurred in this ecotone. within the humid chaco (see figure ), the a. madrono nieto and m. pearman figure . transitional woodlands at cerro uritorco, sierra grande, cordoba, argentina, march (photo: m. pearman). species has rarely been recorded in formosa (two records); at rio pilcomayo national park birds were observed in an isolated woodland dominated by pro- sopis sp. surrounded by marshland (park guard verbally to m.p.). given that five of the seven other humid chaco records refer to hybrids (see figure and appendix), it seems conceivable that the humid chaco is unusual habitat for the species, and further investigation on this hybridization zone needs to be conducted in order to shed more light about the status of the species there. brief descriptions of the habitat where the species has been recorded in the dry chaco of central western paraguay (boqueron department) can be found in steinbacher ( ) and neris and colman ( ); r. straneck (in litt. ) describes the area where he has observed the species on different occasions (locality n o . ) as dominated by lithraea molleoides, celtis tala and acacia caven (see also nores et al.'s descriptions of the vegetation of this general area). for more detailed descriptions of the vegetation throughout the species's range see, e.g., hueck ( ), sab ( ) and spichiger and ramella ( ). m. nores (in litt. ) has reported that the species also appears in semi-modified areas, perhaps thus indicating a degree of adaptability to environments affected by man. there is no information about food or feeding behaviour other than that foraging occurs on trunks and major tree limbs in typical woodpecker fashion (pecking and probing, hammering, etc.) (b. m. whitney in litt. , pers. obs.). the breeding season has been given as october and november, with a moult following nesting from february to april (short ); two birds collected in the black-bodied woodpecker october in the vicinity of lichtenau had enlarged gonads (short ). the nest is drilled in the trunk of dead trees (menegaux ); a pair bred in a telegraph pole by a secondary road at alta gratia, cordoba (m. nores in litt. ); a pair frequented a roost/nest hole in a dead tree in may (m. sulley verbally ), and a bird was observed drumming on a telephone pole in march (f. r. lambert verbally ). pairs or single birds are usually reported. however, menegaux ( ) observed groups of five or six birds (presumably a family group). nothing is known about seasonal displacements or other questions such as territory size, clutch-size, breeding success, etc. the species appears to be a permanent resid- ent at least in argentina and paraguay (nores et al. , neris and colman ). threats bolivia the chaco habitat in tarija and chuquisaca is being cleared in places for water and oil prospecting (t. a. parker verbally ) which, as in other parts of the chaco, is associated with human colonization and thus further deforestation. paraguay neris and colman ( ) noted the increasing deforestation of the central para- guayan chaco for agriculture and cattle-raising. this deforestation became more severe after the settlement of mennonite farmers during the early decades of the s; although they started with a subsistence economy based on agricul- ture, from the s onwards they modernized their technology and thus pro- duction increased enormously, inevitably involving deforestation at an alarming rate for additional farmland, pasture and wood extraction (notably "quebracho colorado" schinopsis balansae). furthermore, electricity in the mennonite colonies (e.g. at filadelfia, loma plata) is produced by wood burning in electric plants. another reason for concern is the relatively recent (early s) introduction of the "jojoba" simmondsia chinensis, notably in the relatively pristine chaco near the bolivian border, resulting in large areas being cleared. this plant from the sonoran desert of mexico and the u.s.a. is cultivated for the production of fine oils and cosmetics. argentina bucher and nores ( ) and canevari et al. ( ) indicated that the species may be negatively affected by the destruction of its natural habitat. this is clearly reflected by the notable absence of records from the dry chaco, undoubtedly owing to the extensive logging of quebracho (aspidosperma spp., schinopsis balansae) and algarrobo (prosopis spp.) for charcoal, tannins, railway sleepers and land clearance for agriculture, which has occurred on a vast scale since european colonization and continues today. much of the land in which the species was previously recorded in area c (see figure ) is now deforested, accounting for the lack of recent records. a. madrono nieto and m. pearman conservation protection in the form of managed reserves is urgently required to secure the habitat where the two remaining healthiest populations occur: the dry chaco forest of west-central paraguay (area a) - i.e. the "central paraguayan chaco" - and the dry forest in the sierras of cordoba (area d). within these areas the species only receives protection in argentina's chancani and copo provincial parks ( , ha and , ha respectively; protection in the latter is insufficient), both areas deserving more attention from the conservation point of view (j. c. chebez in litt. ). the population in the central paraguayan chaco is clearly under great threat (see threats) and the creation of reserves there is of great priority before yet another population disappears. in paraguay the species should be searched for in teniente enciso and tinfunque national parks, which are adjacent to area a (f. e. hayes in litt. ). meanwhile, ecological and population studies are needed in order to design a network of reserves that would guarantee the species's survival in the long term. addition- ally, in the paraguayan chaco the main mennonite colonies desperately need electrification in order to avoid wood burning for electricity; this should be available from itaipu binational dam in the parana basin (f. e. hayes in litt. ). the status of the species in bolivia and in the argentine chaco of salta, western formosa and chaco, including its possible presence in chaco national park and formosa national reserve (j. c. chebez in litt. ), needs clarifying as well as in the hybridization zone (area b in figure ). remarks . short ( ) erroneously referred to the species as occurring in chuquisaca department, bolivia; remsen et al. ( , ) published the details of this record (given to them by short) as: "ch [chuquisaca]: monteagudo, m, may (mus. comp. zool. # )". paynter ( ) spotted this mistake (also present in remsen and traylor ); the specimen was collected by l. m. dinelli in monteagudo, tucuman (r. a. paynter in litt. ). . although cabanis ( ) only indicated that the species was observed in "central argentine" by m. f. schulz, the type-locality has been attributed to tucuman (e.g. cory , peters , pergolani de costa ), while dabbene ( ) indicated that it was discovered by schulz in cordoba. . this refers to different dates of observation without taking into account the number of birds observed on each given date. . records nos. and are sightings and it is therefore difficult to assess whether these birds might have been hybrids as well. . the records in salta, tucuman and western santiago del estero (figure and appendix) are on the western edge of the chaco and in the transitional forest with the "yungas" (see, e.g., figure in nores and cerana , and the map in esteban : ). the black-bodied woodpecker acknowledgements we would like to extend our thanks to the following persons for putting their personal observations or information/comments at our disposal: j. fjeldsa, f. e. hayes, p. v. hayman, f. r. lambert, m. nores, t. a. parker, r. a. paynter, g. pugnali, m. sulley, b. m. whitney and d. yzurieta, with a special mention for j. c. chebez and r. j. straneck for their interest and effort in obtaining a number of records which greatly improved this paper; to r. ranft of the british library of wildlife sounds, national sound archive, london, for the use of audio-spectogram instrumentation and the production of sonagrams; to v. i. mees-balchin and r. j. straneck for use of recorded vocalization material; to a. j. long (icbp) for preparing the map and adapting the sonagram; to m. lecroy (amnh), j. r. navas (macn), r. a. paynter (mcz) and r. w. storer (ummz) for providing specimen data from their museums, and to p. r. colston and r. p. piys- jones for permission to study skins in bmnh. some of the preparation of this paper was undertaken as part of icbp's red data book programme, and it was completed with the use of icbp's facilities and database. appendix. summary of the records for black-bodied woodpecker dryocopus schulzi throughout its range. country bolivia (santa cruz) bolivia (tarija) paraguay (nueva asuncion) paraguay (boqueron) location/coord./alt. (m) ( ) cerro picacho, comarapa i ° 's ° o'\v ( , ) ( ) villa montes i°i 's ° o'w (c. oo) ( ) teniente enciso i°i 's i° o'w ( ) km west of puerto casada c. ° 's ° 'w ( ) km w puerto casado c. °io's o°i 'w ( ) orloff, colonia mennonita c. oi 's o°oo'w ( ) loma plata ° i's ° o'w ( ) south of filadelfia ° l's o°o 'w ( ) estancia (= fortin) toledo ° l's o° o'w ( ) estancia campo verde c. ° 's o° o'w date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . no. of birds involved * * * * * • l source clarke bond and meyer de schauensee , remsen et al. , short , ansp remsen et al. , remsen et al. , amnh ummz ummz ummz brodkorb steinbacher steinbacher f. e. hayes in litt. f. e. hayes in litt. f. e. hayes in litt. a. madrono nieto a. madrono nieto and m. pectrtnan appendix, (cont.) country paraguay (pres. hayes) argentina (salta) argentina (formosa) argentina (chaco) location/coord./alt. (m) ( ) km west of colonia neuland ° 's o° o'w ( ) km south of orloff c. ° o's o°oo'w ( ) vicinity of lichtenau c. ° o's ° o'w \ ( ) km south of lichtenau c. °io's ° o'w ( ) "lapachio", km west of conception (presumably los lapachos) c. oi 's ° o'w ( ) c. km north-east of joaquin v. gonzalez °o 's °o 'w ( ) metan ° 's ° 'w ( ) ( ) section laguna blanca, rio pilcomayo national park c. °io's ° o'w ( ) guaycolec ° 's °n'w "chaco, argentina" ( ) castelli ° 's o° 'w ( ) napalpi ° 's o°o 'w ( ) rio de oro (= general vedia) ° 's ° o'w ( ) rfo san juan (possibly riacho san juan: paynter i » )f ( ) las palmas °o 's ° 'w date - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not given . . . s s . . . . . not given . . . . no. of birds involved *s xi * l * i * i • * i xi x i xi source neris and colman steinbacher steinbacher amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh amnh short gardner and gardner amnh park guard verbally park guard verbally t. narosky per j. c. chebez ansp t. narosky per j. c. chebez steullet and deautier short dabbene , pergolani de costa , short ; macn peters , mogensen , short ; mcz the black-bodied woodpecker appendix, (cont.) country argentina (santiago) del estero) argentina (tucuman) location/coord./alt. (m) ( ) resistencia / ' s ° 'w ( ) reserva provincial copo - 's °oo'w ( ) las termas ° 's ° 'n ( ) ( ) villa rio hondo ° 's ° 'w ( ) girardet ° 's °io'w ( ) campo del cielo ° 's i° 'w ( ) sierra de guasay^n °oo's ° o'w ( ) frias ° 's °o 'w ( ) near icano - 's ° 'w "tucuman" ( ) trancas - 's - 'w ( ) ( ) vipos ° 's ° 'w ( ) ( ) leales medio (presumably c. leales) °i 's °i 'w ( ) ( ) concepci n ° o's - 'w ( ) monteagudo ( ) toro muerto ° 's ° o'w?: paynter date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . no. of birds involved x i x i x i * source peters , short dabbene , , short dabbene d. a. g mez per j. c. chebez in litt. dinelli dinelli ; bmnh dinelli , nores et al. ; iml dinelli , bmnh dinelli , bmnh dinelli , bmnh nores et al. steullet and deautier nores et al. ; macn nores et al. nores et al. menegaux , nores et al. bmnh dinelli ; iml dabbene ; macn macn amnh amnh mcz macn macn mcz mcz mcz mcz a. madrono nieto and m. pearman appendix, (cont.) country argentina (corrientes) argentina (santa fe) argentina (cordoba) locatioivcoord./alt. (m) monte toro (untraced) ( ) laguna pampin c. ° o's ° 'w ( ) tostado °i 's i° 'w ( ) south-east of san marcos sierra ( ) base of cerro uritorco capilla del monte o° 's ° i'w (c. , ) ( ) quebrada honda, unquillo i°i 's ° o'w (c. ) ( ) cordoba i° 's °n'w ( ) parque provincial chancani i° 's ° 'w ( ) (= los pocitos) ( ) quebrada de la mermela, chancani i° 's ° 'w ( ) ( ) alta gracia i° o's ° 'w ( ) serranita la rancherita i° o's ° 'w ( ) nono i° 's °oo'w ( ) ( ) villa general belgrano, date . . . ? . . . . . ? . . not given . . late s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . currently . . . . . . . . . not given undated . - . . . . no. of birds involved n? * * i *i • * i * i * * * * * • l * * *s * source macn dabbene dabbene , macn dabbene , macn dabbene mcz contreras and contreras giai ; macn a. johnson per j. c. chebez in litt. g. pugnali per j. c. chebez in litt. m. pearman et al. f. r. lambert verbally m. sulley verbally p. hayman verbally b. m. whitney in litt. b. m. whitney in lift. m. nores in litt. mcz canevari et al. , and from information sent by r. j. straneck in litt. d. yzurieta per m. nores in litt. d. yzurieta per m. nores in litt. j. c. chebez et al. in litt. r. j. and m. straneck in litt. m. nores in litt. m. nores in litt. d. yzurieta verbally c. henschke per r. j. straneck in litt. r. j. straneck in litt. calamuchita i° 's ° 'w ( ) - r. j. and m. straneck in litt. the black-bodied woodpecker appendix, (cont.) country location/coord./alt. (m) no. of birds date involved source argentina (san luis) ( ) castelar, calamuchita . . i° o's ° 'w ( ) parador de la montana, . . calamuchita °o 's ° 'w ( , ) ( ) embalse del rio tercero undated °i 's ° 'w prior ( ) chulome, calamuchita . . °i 's ° 'w ( ) ( ) near merlo . ° i's °o 'w (c. oo) ( ) salto del tabaquillo, . . near merlo e. ° i's °o 'w (c. oo) ( ) la estanzuela undated ° o's °o 'w ( ) m. straneck per r. j. straneck in litt. r. j. straneck in litt. *i a. azategui per). c. chebez in litt. *i a. azategui per r. j. straneck in litt. *i g. pugnali per j. c. chebez in litt. * m. babarskas per j. c. chebez in litt. n? casares numbers before localities are matched with spots in figure schulzi and lineatus; s indicates "several" records, but number but number of birds involved unknown. *, sight record; x , hybrid between not specified; n? applies to a record references bond, j. and meyer de schauensee, r. ( ) the birds of bolivia, . proc. acad. nat. sci. philadelphia : - . brodkorb, p. ( ) additions to the avifauna of paraguay. proc. biol. soc. washington : - . bucher, e. h. and nores, m. ( ) present status of birds in steppes and savannas of northern and central argentina. pp. - in p. d. goriup, ed. ecology and conservation of grassland birds. cambridge, u.k.: international council for bird preservation (techn. publ. ). burmeister, h. ( ) reise durch die la plata-staaten. halle: h. w. schmidt. cabanis, j. ( ) phloeotomus schulzi n. sp. /. orn. : - . canevari, m., canevari, p., carrizo, g. r., harris, g., mata, j. r., straneck, r. j. ( ) nueva guia de las aves argentinas. buenos aires: fundacion acindar. casares, j. ( ) aves de estanzuela, san luis. hornero [ ]: - . clarke, r. o. s. ( ) field survey of the birds of the comarapa valley and the cloud forests of siberia, dept. santa cruz, bolivia. unpublished. cory, c. b. ( ) catalogue of birds of the americas, part ii no. . field mus. nat. hist. zool. ser. (publ. ). collar, n. j., gonzaga, l. p., krabbe, n., madrono nieto, a., naranjo, l. g., parker, t. a. and wege, d. c. ( ) threatened birds of the americas: the icbp red data book. third edition (part ). cambridge, u.k.: international council for bird preservation. contreras, j. r. and contreras, a. ( ) addenda a la lista de aves no passeriformes de la provincia de corrientes, argentina. historia natural ( ): . dabbene, r. ( ) ornitologia argentina. buenos aires: imprenta y casa editora "juan a. alsina". (an. mus. nac. buenos aires [ ]n). dabbene, r. ( ) description d'un nouveau genere et d'une nouvelle espece de pic a. madrono nieto and m. pearman provenant du nord-ouest de la republique argentine. an. mus. nac. buenos aires : - . dabbene, r. ( ) una subespecie aparentemente nueva de neophloeotomos schulzi. physis : - . dabbene, r. ( ) distribution geografica del carpintero neophloeotomus schulzi (cab.). hornero : - . dinelli, l. m. ( ) los carpinteros dryotomus schulzii y neophloeotomus shiptoni. hornero : - . dsgm ( ) = direction servitio geografico militar ( ) mapa del paraguay ( : , , ). se'ptima edition. direction del servitio geografico militar. esteban, j. g. ( ) protecd n de los recursos naturales en la provinda de tucuman (espetialmente la fauna). ada zool. lilloana : - . frenzel, j. ( ) uebersicht uber die in der provinz c rdoba (argentinien) vorkommenden v gel. /. orn. : - . gardner, n. and gardner, d. ( ) a birder's guide to travel in argentina. un- published. giai, a. g. ( ) notas de viajes. hornero : - . hayes, f. e., scharf, p. a. and loftin, h. ( ) a birder's field checklist of the birds of paraguay. lake helen, florida: russ's natural history books. hueck, k. ( ) mapa de la vegetation de america del sur, : , , . stuttgart: gustav fischer verlag. hueck, k. ( ) los bosques de sudamerica; ecologia, composition e importancia economica. eschborn, germany: sotiedad alemana de cooperation tecnica. lillo, m. ( ) enumeration sistematica de las aves de la provinda de tucuman. an. mus. nac. buenos aires ( ) : - . menegaux, a. ( ) etude d'une collection d'oiseaux faite par m. e. wagner dans le chaco argentin. rev. franc. orn. : - . mogensen, j. ( ) algo mas sobre los carpinteros, d. schulzi y n. shiptoni. hornero : - . narosky, t. and yzurieta, d. ( ) guta para las identificacidn de la aves de argentina y uruguay. buenos aires: asotiatidn ornitologica del plata. neris, n. and colman, f. ( ) observadones de aves en los alrededores de colonia neuland, departamento boqueron, paraguay. bol. mus. nac. hist. nat. paraguay : - . nores, m., yzurieta, d. and miatello, r. ( ) lista y distribution de las aves de cdrdoba, argentina. c rdoba, argentina: academia national de cientias. nores, m., and cerana, m. m. ( ) biogeography of forest relics in the mountains of northwestern argentina. revta. chilena hist. nat. : - . nores, m., yzurieta, d. and salvador, s. a. ( ) lista y distribution de las aves de santiago del estero, argentina. bol. acad. nac. cienc. cdrdoba ( - ): - . olrog, c. c. ( ) has aves argentinas, una guia de campo. tucuman: universidad national de tucuman (instituto miguel lillo). olrog, c. c. ( ) lista y distribucion de las aves argentinas. tucuman: universidad national de tucuman. (opera lilloana ). olrog, c. c. ( ) nueva lista de la avifauna argentina. tucuman: ministerio de cultura y education, fundacion miguel lillo (opera lilloana ). paynter, r. a. ( ) ornithological gazetteer of argentina. cambridge, mass.: museum of comparative zoology. paynter, r. a. ( ) ornithological gazetteer of paraguay. cambridge, mass.: museum of comparative zoology. paynter, r. a. ( ) ornithological gazetteer of bolivia. second edition. cambridge, mass.: museum of comparative zoology. the black-bodied woodpecker paynter, r. a., traylor, m. a. and winter, b. ( ) ornithological gazetteer of bolivia. cambridge, mass.: museum of comparative zoology. pereyra, j. a. ( ) las aves del territorio de misiones. an. mus. nahuel huapi : - . pergolani [de costa], m. j. i. ( ) los picidos argentinos. hornero : - . pergolani de costa, m. j. i. ( ) los picidos argentinos vi. los g£neros celeus boie, dryocopus boie y phloeoceastes cabanis. ada. zool. lilloana : - . peters, j. l. ( ) two new birds from argentina. occas. pap. boston soc. nat. hist. : - . peters, j. l. ( ) check-list of birds of the world, . cambridge, mass.: harvard university press. remsen, j. v. and traylor, m. a. ( ) an annotated list of the birds of bolivia. vermillion, south dakota: buteo books. remsen, j. v., traylor, m. a. and parkes, k. c. ( ) range extensions for some bolivian birds, (columbidae to rhinocryptidae). bull. brit. orn. club : - . remsen, j. v., traylor, m. a. and parkes, k. c. ( ) range extensions for some bolivian birds, (tyrannidae to passeridae). bull. brit. orn. club : - . sab ( ) = sociedad argentina de botanica ( ) conservacidn de la vegetacion natural en la republica argentina. tucuman: ministerio de cultura y educacion/fundacion miguel lillo. sclater, p. l. and hudson, w. h. ( - ) argentine ornithology. london: r. h. porter. short, l. l. ( ) a zoogeographic analysis of the south american chaco avifauna.- bull. amer. mus. nat. hist. : - . short, l. l. ( ) notes on a collection of birds from the paraguayan chaco. amer. mus. novit. . short, l. l. ( ) woodpeckers of the world. delaware: delaware museum of natural history (monogr. ser. ). sibley, c. g. and monroe, b. l. ( ) distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world. new haven: yale university press. soma [secci n ornitol gica del museo argentino de ciencias naturales] ( ) lista sistematica de las aves argentinas. hornero : - . spichiger, r. and ramella, l. ( ) the forests of the paraguayan chaco. pp. - in l. b. holm-nielsen, i. c. nielsen and h. halslev, ed. tropical forests: botanical dynamics, speciation and diversity. london: academic press. steinbacher, j. ( ) beitrage zur kenntnis der vogel von paraguay. senckenbergiana biol. : - . stempelmann, h. and schulz, f. ( ) enumeration de las aves de la provincia de c rdoba, republica argentina. bol. acad. nac. dene. cdrddba : - . steullet, a. b. and deautier, e. a. ( ) catdlogo sistemdtico de las aves de la republica argentina. buenos aires: imprenta y casa editora "coni" (obra del cincuentenario del museo de la plata [pt. ]). alberto madrono nieto cl borox , madrid, spain. mark pearman prospect place, wapping wall, london ei tj, u.k. gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . report gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome dan doherty, ,* albert e. chudley, gail coghlan, gisele e. ishak, a. micheil innes, edmond g. lemire, r. curtis rogers, aizeddin a. mhanni, ian g. phelps, steven j.m. jones, shing h. zhan, anthony p. fejes, hashem shahin, moien kanaan, hatice akay, mustafa tekin, , forge canada consortium, barbara triggs-raine, and teresa zelinski , ,* autosomal-recessive inheritance, severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss, and partial agenesis of the corpus callosum are hall- marks of the clinically well-established chudley-mccullough syndrome (cms). although not always reported in the literature, frontal polymicrogyria and gray matter heterotopia are uniformly present, whereas cerebellar dysplasia, ventriculomegaly, and arachnoid cysts are nearly invariant. despite these striking brain malformations, individuals with cms generally do not present with significant neuro- developmental abnormalities, except for hearing loss. homozygosity mapping and whole-exome sequencing of dna from affected individuals in eight families (including the family in the first report of cms) revealed four molecular variations (two single-base dele- tions, a nonsense mutation, and a canonical splice-site mutation) in the g protein-signaling modulator gene, gpsm , that underlie cms. mutations in gpsm have been previously identified in people with profound congenital nonsyndromic hearing loss (nshl). subsequent brain imaging of these individuals revealed frontal polymicrogyria, abnormal corpus callosum, and gray matter heterotopia, consistent with a cms diagnosis, but no ventriculomegaly. the gene product, gpsm , is required for orienting the mitotic spindle during cell division in multiple tissues, suggesting that the sensorineural hearing loss and characteristic brain malformations of cms are due to defects in asymmetric cell divisions during development. the autosomal-recessively inherited disorder, chudley- mccullough syndrome (cms [mim ]), was first described in canadian siblings of dutch-german menno- nite (sometimes referred to as old colony or chortitza mennonite) ancestry, who presented with hydrocephalus and profound sensorineural hearing loss. several subse- quent reports – have expanded the clinical phenotype to include partial agenesis of the corpus callosum, frontal polymicrogyria, gray matter heterotopia, cerebellar dysplasia, and arachnoid cysts. this combination of brain malformations is highly distinctive and not seen in any other genetic syndrome. in an effort to identify mutations that cause cms, we re- cruited individuals with cms from centers in canada and the united states. study subjects were enrolled with informed consent under protocols approved by the health research ethics boards of the participating academic insti- tutions. all affected individuals had severe or profound sensorineural hearing loss and ventriculomegaly (table ). brain imaging revealed additional findings characteristic of the syndrome, including posterior agenesis of the corpus callosum, frontal polymicrogyria, frontal heterotopia, cere- bellar dysplasia, and arachnoid cysts (figure , table ). the affected individuals were nondysmorphic, except for department of pediatrics, university of washington, seattle children’s hospit department of biochemistry and medical genetics, university of manitoba, wi child health, university of manitoba, winnipeg, mb r e l , canada; depa seattle, wa , usa; department of pediatrics, university of calgary, calg ewan, saskatoon, sk s n w , canada; greenwood genetic center, greenvi cancer agency, vancouver, bc v z l , canada; department of life science bakir , turkey; department of human genetics, dr. john t. macdonal school of medicine, university of miami, miami, fl , usa; division o turkey; a full list of forge canada consortium members may be found in *correspondence: ddoher@u.washington.edu (d.d.), zelinski@cc.umanitoba.c doi . /j.ajhg. . . . � by the american society of human b (table ), who had downslanting palpebral fissures and low-set, posteriorly rotated ears. only subject b had developmental issues beyond what is typically seen in individuals with severe hearing loss (table ). perhaps most surprising given the polymicrogyria and heterotopia in all individuals, seizures were present in only two subjects ( b and b), and they were well controlled with medication. in four mennonite families, genomic dna from six affected individuals and their unaffected relatives was gen- otyped with the affymetrix genechip human mapping k nspi snp array. loss of heterozygosity on chromo- some p was observed in all six affected individuals, but not in any member of their extended families. four of the six individuals studied were identically homozygous for a . mb region (range: . mb to . mb). the re- maining two individuals (a sister and brother) also shared a homozygous interval on p, but their haplotype differed from the other four affected individuals. overlap between the two unique haplotypes was approximately . mb (from rs to rs ), a chromosomal segment within p . containing known and putative genes (genome reference consortium human genome build [grch ]/hg ). al, seattle, wa , usa; department of pediatrics and child health and nnipeg, mb r t n , canada; rh laboratory, department of pediatrics and rtment of radiology, university of washington, seattle children’s hospital, ary, ab t b a , canada; department of pediatrics, university of saskatch- lle, sc , usa; canada’s michael smith genome sciences centre, bc s, bethlehem university, bethlehem, palestine; memorial hospital, diyar- d foundation, and john p. hussman institute for human genomics, miller f pediatric genetics, ankara university school of medicine, ankara , the acknowledgments a (t.z.) genetics. all rights reserved. the american journal of human genetics , – , june , mailto:ddoher@u.washington.edu mailto:zelinski@cc.umanitoba.ca http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . table . clinical features in subjects with gpsm -related chudley-mccullough syndrome indiv.a sex age dna change protein change ethnicity hearing loss aids/ implants motor delay comm. delayb cognitive impairment other features a m yr c. delg p.g gfsx mennonite severe cochlear implant mild mild no none a f yr c. delg p.g gfsx mennonite severe cochlear implant no no no none a m yr c. delg p.g gfsx mennonite severe none no yes mild none b f yr c. delg p.g gfsx mennonite severe none yes yes mild to moderate id h/o seizures, now off medications a f yr c. delg p.g gfsx mennonite profound cochlear implant mild mild mild none a f yr c. delc p.n nfsx mennonite severe- profound cochlear implant no no no none b m yr c. delc p.n nfsx mennonite profound cochlear implant no mild, resolved no downslanting palpebral fissures, rotated ears, nasal voice a f yr c. delc p.n nfsx european- american profound cochlear implant mild no no none a f yr c. delc p.n nfsx dutch profound cochlear implant no no mild, resolved none c. c>a p.s x b f yr c. delc p.n nfsx dutch severe- profound cochlear implant mild, mildly increased tone mild, resolving mild, resolved controlled seizures, breath holdingc. c>a p.s x a f yr c. þ g>t p.r rfsx mexican- american profound cochlear implant mild no no none b m yr c. þ g>t p.r rfsx mexican- american profound cochlear implant mild no no none previously published subjects with gpsm mutations , a, walsh cg m yr c. c>t p.r x palestinian severe- profound none no no no none a, yariz iv- f yr c. c>t p.q x turkish severe- profound none no no no none b, yariz iv- m yr c. c>t p.q x turkish severe- profound none no no no none a,c yariz iv- m yr c. c>t p.q x turkish severe- profound none no no no none indiv., individual; comm., communication; m, male; f, female; yr, years of age; id, intellectual disability; h/o, ‘‘history of.’’ aa and b indicate siblings. bmore than expected for severe to profound hearing loss. c a is a first cousin of a and b. please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . as part of a cross-canada initiative known as forge (finding of rare disease genes), genomic dna from two mennonite individuals (one of each unique haplotype described above) and four non-mennonite affected indi- viduals from other parts of canada and the united states were subjected to whole-exome sequencing. details of exome-capture-library preparation, sequencing, and bioin- formatics analysis can be found in supplemental data (available online). in brief, the span of the human genome covered by at least one qualified aligned read (total sequence yield) averaged . gb per subject (table s ). more than , sequence variants were identified in each subject with > , of these being nonsynony- the american journal of human genetics , – , june , mous variants. although more than , identified vari- ants per subject were not cataloged in dbsnp or dbsnp , only about per subject were novel; that is, not listed in the genomes project database or the noncancer genome database compiled at the michael smith genome sciences centre (vancouver, bc, canada). of these novel variants, the only gene within the identified homozygous snp interval that carried biallelic mutations in all six sequenced subjects was the g pro- tein-signaling modulator gene (gpsm [mim ]). the mutations identified with exome sequencing were verified with sanger sequencing in all affected subjects and, when available, in the extended family of each figure . characteristic neuroimaging features of gpsm - related chudley-mccullough syndrome (a) illustrates posterior agenesis of the corpus callosum (bracket indicates remaining corpus callosum) and a quadrigeminal plate cistern cyst (white plus sign) causing mass effect on the cerebellum and tectum in individual a at years of age. (b) illustrates severe ventriculomegaly (black asterisks) and frontal polymicrogyria (white arrows) in individual b at months of age. (c) illustrates large frontal gray matter heterotopia (white arrow- heads) located superior and medial to the enlarged lateral ventri- cles (black asterisks) in individual a at years of age. (d) illustrates inferior cerebellar hemisphere dysplasia in indi- vidual b at months of age. (e) and (f) illustrate a short corpus callosum (bracket indicates remaining corpus callosum) and a quadrigeminal plate cistern cyst (black plus sign) causing mass effect on the cerebellum and tectum as well as cerebellar hemisphere dysplasia in individual a (cg from walsh et al. ) at years of age. please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . proband. the first mutation, a homozygous single-base deletion (c. delg) predicted to cause a frameshift (p.gly glyfsx ), was identified in all four mennonite subjects ( a, a, a, and b) who displayed the . mb snp haplotype (figure a) and was also detected in subject a, who was not analyzed for snps. the second mutation, also a homozygous single-base deletion (c. delc) pre- dicted to cause a frameshift (p.asn asnfsx ), was identified in the mennonite sister and brother ( a and b) of the second haplotype and in an unrelated subject ( a) of european ancestry from the southern united states (figure b). affected siblings ( a and b) of dutch ancestry were heterozygous for the c. delc mutation (paternally transmitted) and also for a maternally transmitted c. c>a (p.ser x) mutation (figure c). the final two subjects were siblings of mexican ancestry ( a and b) who were found to be homozygous for a mutation in the donor splice site for exon , c. þ g>t (figure d). this mutation results in a transcript that is missing exon (figure e) and is predicted to generate a truncated protein, p.arg argfsx . two of the four mutations were defined in individuals of mennonite ancestry and probably represent founder muta- tions of european origin. although the c. c>a muta- tion was not in dbsnp or dbsnp , it is now listed as rs , having been identified (as heterozygous) in one of , european-american subjects who partici- pated in the national heart, lung, and blood institute grand opportunity exome sequencing project (nhlbi go esp; see web resources). we identified this change in cms-affected siblings of dutch ancestry ( a and b), confirming that this allele is also of european origin. the origin of the identified splice-site mutation (c. þ g>t) in the affected siblings of mexican ancestry is unknown, and it was absent from , euro- pean-american subjects in the nhlbi go esp data set. recently, a gpsm nonsense mutation, c. c>t (p.arg x), was reported as the cause of recessively in- herited nonsyndromic hearing loss (nshl) (dfnb ) in a large palestinian family. subsequently, a second nonsense mutation, c. c>t (p.gln x), was identified in a turkish family whose members also displayed profound hearing loss, confirming that gpsm is one of more than genes in which mutations are known to cause recessive deafness. given the identification of gpsm mutations in individuals with cms and in individuals with profound, apparently nonsyndromic hearing loss, we investigated whether the latter group might have asymptomatic brain malformations. brain imaging was performed on one affected individual from the palestinian (g) and (h) illustrate similar findings in individual b (iv- from yariz et al. ) at years of age, although the corpus callosum is thinned posteriorly and dysplastic anteriorly, rather than short. (a) and (g) are sagittal t -weighted images; (b)–(d), (f), and (h) are axial t -weighted images, and (e) is a sagittal t -weighted image. the american journal of human genetics , – , june , table . neuroimaging features in subjects with gpsm -related chudley-mccullough syndrome individuala ventriculomegaly cc heterotopia frontal pmg cerebellar dysplasia arachnoid cyst a yes posterior agenesis small moderate unable to score due to mass effect large bilateral cpa cysts a yes, right > left posterior agenesis moderate presentb yes nd a shunted hc posterior agenesis small extensive yes no, right ventricle herniation into midline b shunted hc posterior agenesis small moderate yes left cpa a yes posterior agenesis extensive extensive no right cpa ac hc, foramen of monro fenestration probable partial agenesis nd nd nd nd bc shunted hc probable partial agenesis nd nd nd nd a shunted hc posterior agenesis small extensive yes large interhemispheric and small left cpa cysts a yes posterior agenesis small moderate yes moderate interhemispheric cyst b shunted hc posterior agenesis small moderate yes small pineal cyst a yes posterior agenesis large extensive yes large interhemispheric and small bilateral cpa cysts b shunted hc posterior agenesis moderate extensive yes moderate interhemispheric and small right cpa cysts previously published subjects with gpsm mutations , a, walsh cg no short and thin moderate moderate yes moderate interhemispheric cyst a, yariz iv- no short and thin small subtle no moderate interhemispheric cyst b, yariz iv- no short, severely thin posteriorly moderate subtle yes small interhemispheric cyst a,d yariz iv- no short and thin small subtle mild on right moderate interhemispheric cyst cc, corpus callosum; cpa, cerebellopontine angle; hc, hydrocephalus; nd, no data; pmg, polymicrogyria. aa and b indicate siblings. bunable to determine the extent due to technical limitations of the available images. conly computed tomography scans available. d a is a first cousin of a and b. please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . family and all three affected individuals from the turkish family. despite the fact that study subjects a, a, b, and a did not exhibit any neurological deficits (table ), all four individuals displayed imaging features consistent with cms (table and figure e– h). in contrast to the cms subjects, none of the individuals studied solely because of hearing loss had ventriculomegaly, and the corpus callosum abnormalities tended to be less severe. genotype-phenotype correlations were not apparent, in that the individuals ( a, b, a, and a) with gpsm mutations predicted to result in the shortest proteins (p.asn asnfsx and p.arg x) did not have more severe brain malformations or clinical features than the other subjects studied. the gpsm mutations identified in individuals with cms highlight the role of gpsm in normal brain develop- ment and in mechanisms that underlie common brain malformations, such as partial agenesis of the corpus cal- losum, heterotopia, and polymicrogyria. during early neu- rogenesis in the mouse cerebral cortex, gpsm is required for planar orientation of the mitotic spindle in apical the american journal of human genetics , – , june , progenitor cells (radial glia). , in mice, an engineered variant (dc) very similar to the human p.gly glyfsx variant (figure f) results in abnormally localized apical progenitors but does not seem to radically affect the number or organization of cortical neurons, although phenotypes in mature mouse brain have not been pub- lished. , it is tempting to speculate that the ectopic neuronal precursors could result in heterotopic neurons analogous to the heterotopia observed in individuals with cms. gpsm is also required for correct spindle orien- tation in keratinocyte progenitors, t cells, oocytes, and epithelial cells, as well as for neurotransmitter local- ization in mature neurons. given this central role of gpsm (also known as lgn [leu-gly-asn repeat-enriched protein] and pins [partner of inscuteable, homolog of drosophila]) in cell division, it is surprising that truncating mutations do not cause more widespread defects in indi- viduals with cms and in the mouse model. in conclusion, we provide compelling evidence that gpsm mutations account for cms in most, if not all, affected individuals, confirming a role for gpsm in figure . gpsm sequence analysis and gpsm schematic with the use of the primers specified in table s , genomic dna from each subject was pcr-amplified, and the products were isolated and purified, as described in supplemental data. sanger sequencing was conducted on both the forward and reverse strand; only the forward strand is shown here. the reference (ref.) sequence (nm_ . ) is depicted directly below the variant sequence in each panel. (a) depicts the c. delg mutation identified in five subjects. (b) depicts the c. delc homozygous mutation identified in three subjects. two other study subjects were heterozygous for this mutation (sequence not shown). (c) depicts the c. c>a heterozygous mutation from one of the two subjects who was also heterozygous for c. delc. (d) depicts the homozygous splice-site mutation identified in siblings a and b. (e) depicts the effect of the splice-site mutation on the splicing of exon . primers in exons and generated a ~ base-pair (bp) product in the unaffected control, but no product in subjects a and b. primers in exons and generated a ~ bp fragment in the control and a ~ bp product in subjects a and b, consistent with the loss of exon . sequencing of this product revealed that exon is spliced to exon in the affected siblings (data not shown). the horizontal arrows indicate the primer positions; the vertical red arrow indicates the location of the splice-site mutation. ‘‘lad’’ indicates the ladder lane and ‘‘c’’ indicates the control lanes. the expected exon composition and size of the various products are indicated to the right of the gel. (f) depicts the positions of amino-acid variants that account for nshl and cms, and includes the mouse-engineered variant dc. three of the variants occur within the seven tetratricopeptide repeat domains of gpsm , and three within the four goloco motifs. please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . human brain development. in contrast to others affected with hydrocephalus, agenesis of the corpus callosum, pol- ymicrogyria, and heterotopia, individuals with cms usually do not have significant cognitive impairment or seizures. therefore, gpsm sequencing should be per- formed both in individuals with brain-imaging findings of cms and in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss who have not undergone brain imaging. identification of gpsm mutations in fetuses and infants with agenesis of the corpus callosum and heterotopia would greatly alter prognostic counseling and allow for early detection and treatment of hearing loss after birth. although it seems probable that gpsm -related defects in asymmetric cell division underlie the hearing loss and abnormal brain development in cms, the mechanistic details remain to be established through future investigations. supplemental data supplemental data include additional methods and two tables and can be found with this article online at http://www.cell. com/ajhg/. the american journal of human genetics , – , june , http://www.cell.com/ajhg/ http://www.cell.com/ajhg/ please cite this article in press as: doherty et al., gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome, the american journal of human genetics ( ), doi: . /j.ajhg. . . acknowledgments we are grateful to the family members who participated in this study, to sunita khatkar for conducting candidate gene analysis, to kirk mcmanus for preparing figure , and to tom walsh and mary-claire king for critically reading the manuscript. the research was supported by grants from the national institutes of health, kl -rr (to d.d.), r dc (to m.t.), and r dc (to m.k.); the manitoba institute of child health (to a.e.c. and b.t.r.); and the winnipeg rh institute foundation (to t.z.). forge (finding of rare disease genes) canada funding was provided by the government of canada through genome canada, the canadian institutes of health research, and the on- tario genomics institute (ogi- ). additional funding was provided by genome quebec and genome british columbia. forge canada consortium steering committee: kym boycott (leader; university of ottawa), jan friedman (coleader; university of british columbia), jacques michaud (coleader; université de montréal), francois bernier (university of calgary), michael brudno (university of toronto), bridget fernandez (memorial university), bartha knoppers (mcgill university), mark samuels (université de montréal), steve scherer (university of toronto). received: november , revised: april , accepted: april , published online: may , web resources the urls for data presented herein are as follows: dbsnp, http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/snp nhlbi grand opportunity exome sequencing project (nhlbi go esp) exome variant server (evs), http://evs.gs.washington. edu/evs online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www. omim.org ucsc genome browser, http://genome.ucsc.edu references . chudley, a.e., mccullough, c., and mccullough, d.w. ( ). bilateral sensorineural deafness and hydrocephalus due to foramen of monro obstruction in sibs: a newly described autosomal recessive disorder. am. j. med. genet. , – . . hendriks, y.m.c., laan, l.a.e.m., vielvoye, g.j., and van haeringen, a. ( ). bilateral sensorineural deafness, partial agenesis of the corpus callosum, and arachnoid cysts in two sisters. am. j. med. genet. , – . . lemire, e.g., and stoeber, g.p. ( ). chudley-mccullough syndrome: bilateral sensorineural deafness, hydrocephalus, and other structural brain abnormalities. am. j. med. genet. , – . . welch, k.o., tekin, m., nance, w.e., blanton, s.h., arnos, k.s., and pandya, a. ( ). chudley-mccullough syndrome: expanded phenotype and review of the literature. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . the american journal of human genetics , – , june , . Østergaard, e., pedersen, v.f., skriver, e.b., and brøndum- nielsen, k. ( ). brothers with chudley-mccullough syndrome: sensorineural deafness, agenesis of the corpus callosum, and other structural brain abnormalities. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . matteucci, f., tarantino, e., bianchi, m.c., cingolani, c., fattori, b., nacci, a., and ursino, f. ( ). sensorineural deaf- ness, hydrocephalus and structural brain abnormalities in two sisters: the chudley-mccullough syndrome. am. j. med. genet. a. , – . . alrashdi, i., barker, r., and patton, m.a. ( ). chudley- mccullough syndrome: another report and a brief review of the literature. clin. dysmorphol. , – . . kau, t., veraguth, d., schiegl, h., scheer, i., and boltshauser, e. ( ). chudley-mccullough syndrome: case report and review of the neuroimaging spectrum. neuropediatrics , – . . walsh, t., shahin, h., elkan-miller, t., lee, m.k., thornton, a.m., roeb, w., abu rayyan, a., loulus, s., avraham, k.b., king, m.-c., and kanaan, m. ( ). whole exome sequencing and homozygosity mapping identify mutation in the cell polarity protein gpsm as the cause of nonsyn- dromic hearing loss dfnb . am. j. hum. genet. , – . . yariz, k.o., walsh, t., akay, h., duman, d., akkaynak, a.c., king, m.-c., and tekin, m. ( ). a truncating mutation in gpsm is associated with recessive non-syndromic hearing loss. clin. genet. , – . . dror, a.a., and avraham, k.b. ( ). hearing loss: mecha- nisms revealed by genetics and cell biology. annu. rev. genet. , – . . morin, x., jaouen, f., and durbec, p. ( ). control of planar divisions by the g-protein regulator lgn maintains progenitors in the chick neuroepithelium. nat. neurosci. , – . . konno, d., shioi, g., shitamukai, a., mori, a., kiyonari, h., miyata, t., and matsuzaki, f. ( ). neuroepithelial progeni- tors undergo lgn-dependent planar divisions to maintain self-renewability during mammalian neurogenesis. nat. cell biol. , – . . shioi, g., konno, d., shitamukai, a., and matsuzaki, f. ( ). structural basis for self-renewal of neural progenitors in cortical neurogenesis. cereb. cortex (suppl ), i –i . . williams, s.e., beronja, s., pasolli, h.a., and fuchs, e. ( ). asymmetric cell divisions promote notch-dependent epidermal differentiation. nature , – . . oliaro, j., van ham, v., sacirbegovic, f., pasam, a., bomzon, z., pham, k., ludford-menting, m.j., waterhouse, n.j., bots, m., hawkins, e.d., et al. ( ). asymmetric cell division of t cells upon antigen presentation uses multiple conserved mechanisms. j. immunol. , – . . guo, x., and gao, s. ( ). pins homolog lgn regulates meiotic spindle organization in mouse oocytes. cell res. , – . . zheng, z., zhu, h., wan, q., liu, j., xiao, z., siderovski, d.p., and du, q. ( ). lgn regulates mitotic spindle orientation during epithelial morphogenesis. j. cell biol. , – . . sans, n., wang, p.y., du, q., petralia, r.s., wang, y.x., nakka, s., blumer, j.b., macara, i.g., and wenthold, r.j. ( ). mpins modulates psd- and sap trafficking and influences nmda receptor surface expression. nat. cell biol. , – . http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/snp http://evs.gs.washington.edu/evs http://evs.gs.washington.edu/evs http://www.omim.org http://www.omim.org http://genome.ucsc.edu 	gpsm mutations cause the brain malformations and hearing loss in chudley-mccullough syndrome 	supplemental data 	acknowledgments 	web resources 	references review essays/ notes critiques the centre does not hold: a review essay of canadian history: a reader's guide a.w. rasporich m. brook taylor, canadian history: a reader's guide. . beginnings to confed- eration (toronto: university of toronto press ). doug owram, canadian history: a reader's guide. . confederation to the present (toronto: university of toronto press ). these volumes represent the third generation of guides to canadian history published by the university of toronto press, and the fourth or fifth if one includes earlier versions published by hakkert in the s. one looks almost nostalgically at the earlier prices in comparison with four and fivefold increases to this present- day version of the historical canon. admittedly the current volumes are twice the size of the originals at four or five hundred pages each, reflecting the vast increase of scholarship in canadian history over the past two to three decades. ably abetted by the irrigation provided by granting agencies, the learned journals such as this one and others devoted to various aspects of canadian social, economic, and regional history, have caused the desert to bloom. in fact, one of the authors notes in the section on the canadian west that j.m.s. careless complained there has been so much regional history written that he feels like "a farmer in a flood: 'lord, i a.w. rasporich, "the centre does not hold: a review essay of canadian history: a reader's guide," labour/le travail, (fall ), - . labour/le travail know i prayed for rain, but this is ridiculous.'" but, it is also likely that the current contraction in both granting agencies and funding for post-secondary education will mark the recent past as the high water mark, or even golden age, of canadian historiography when examined in retrospect the editors begin with a bold presumption on their covers proclaiming the books as "an authoritative guide to canadian historical writing — what is good and why?" and an even bolder dedication in volume one which covers the pre-confederation period — t o our students." as assumptions go, these assertions only partially deliver. this is most certainly an historian's guide, as there is much beef here for scholars to chew on. many historians will scurry to the indexes to see if their publications and those of their respected peers have made it into the new version of the canon, and will not likely be disappointed. the editors and authors have with few exceptions done an admirable job on their chosen subjects, opting for inclusivity over exclusivity by casting their bibliographical net widely, whether regional or thematic in nature. certainly the aspiring professional historian among the students will have here a vade mecum to the current state of the craft in these citation-laden articles, but will the history major or general student be an appropriate target audience? the likely verdict paralleling comment on the earlier versions of these volumes, will be that they are considered by students to be useful from a bibliographic perspective, but limited in their capacity to identify or inform the non-specialist of clear interpretive trends in canadian historical writing. these and other reservations are suggested in two caveat articles suggested to the reader in vol. (xii) by the editor, doug owram, who notes the disclaimers against specialization and fragmentation of the discipline as a whole by j.m.s. careless and j.m. bliss. these reservations should give pause for reflection since creighton and careless' fine biographies of john a. macdonald and george brown drew not only a generation into the discipline in the late s but also attracted a wider reading public, and bliss' scientific and literary forays into canadian medical history with the insulin and smallpox stories confirmed the craft was alive and well among historians and lay reading public in the s. now we are being told in the s that we have strayed off-course, the centre was not holding, and that we were, in bliss' words, "privatizing the mind" and "sundering ... canadian history." according to the canons of national history prescribed from the centre, we had, like mae west's snow white, "drifted" from our pristine nationalist vocation. where now are the national issues, and the national historians like creighton, lower, and morton to keep alive the metier of public historians? (i note, ironically, that hilda neatby and her crusade against progressive education in the s, so little for the mind, and the marxist historian stanley ryerson's heretical version of the historical canon are not usually mentioned in this arcadian lament) but by implication, there were still some of that noble breed, largely in toronto, still left to defend the faith from the historical epicentre. the centralists' difficulty paral- canadian history leled that of the united states, where david novick painstakingly demonstrated mis historical devolution in his chapter on the decentralization and deconstruction of american historiography from the s forward. but one must ask, did we ever have a mythic centre? did we not hear donald creighton's enduring lament against "the authorized version" of canadian history from the whig, liberal, and liberal perspective? was it not w.l. morton who in lambasted the laurentian school of canadian history and complained of the status of the poor western canadian as a reincarnation of die poor medieval scot catching crumbs from the central canadian table? and did i not hear, when as an undergraduate at queen's university in s , arthur lower say of creighton (not mentioning him by name, but as the author of mat rival and inferior text, the empire of the north), that surely anyone who had to use that many adjectives really was not much of a historian! or had i not read michel brunet passionately state quebec's nationalist position in die s, or heard w.l. morton speak unequivo- cally of the need to crush militarily any civil disobedience of the flq variety of separatism in ? in short, it seems that this country was and is all about diversity, and that passionate disagreement about varying regional, class, and ideological agendas has always been a part of its intellectual fabric. that is die essential point that carl berger makes in the last chapter of his classic historiographie study, when be wrote of die s that, "the upsurge of publications in regional and provincial history represented the extension of a pre-existing tendency radier than an abrupt departure from the tradition of canadian historical writing." berger also noted in his fine analysis of die "new" history in die last chapter of his revised historiography, that after die mid-sixties, die transformation of historical writing reflected "a sea change" in die country's educational and intel- lectual life. among its indicators were a boom in higher educational institutions and a rapid expansion of die graduate school, resulting in a quadrupling of graduate dieses in history over die decade - , and an invigoration of die discipline by "people of more varied ethnic and cultural backgrounds, with a diversity of experiences, perspectives, and attainments." the new history would be as diverse as canada itself and reflect more faithfully its class composition, its gender, its edinicity, and its varied ideological and regional perspectives. i directly experi- enced that need for personal, emotional validation in history when i arrived at die university of calgary in , and assigned several essay topics on a variety of subjects, one of diem on louis riel. defying all laws of distribution and resources i received an over three-quarters return on die west's first political martyr. never were george stanley's works summarized and paraphrased so often by so many! those were die same undergraduates whom w.l. morton graphically described 'david novick, "the center docs not hold," that noble dream: the objectivity question and the american historical profession (cambridge ), - . cari berger, the writing of canadian history (toronto ), . berger, k writing of canadian history (toronto ), . labour/le travail with some alarm in the late s as wanting to "feel" history, rather than think critically about the past and in some cases, these undergraduates also became the graduate students and professional historians who wove themselves and their stories, whether familial, class, political, or ethnic into the rich tapestry of the canadian experience in the s and s. we have in the process created a whole host of subdisciplines, as carl berger has so eloquently written of english canada and serge gagnon has of french canada. they have now self-described themselves in various thematic collections of historiographical essays such as john schultz's writing about canada, terry crowley's clio's craft, and monographs such as brook taylor's promoters and partisans, donald smith's le sauvage and daniel francis' image of the indian, to name a few. add to these, many reflective essays on the regions of canada in such journals as acadiensis, which not only features retrospectives on the atlantic region, but on every aspect of canadian historiography. similarly, the western canadian perspective has been described in introspective essays from its various conference proceedings dating from - , notably the comparative maritime and western conference. in fact, every major regional and national journal devoted to the newer history, such as labour/le travail, the urban history review, canadian ethnic studies/etudes ethniques au canada, atlantis, canadian women's studies, the canadian historical review, histoire sociale/social his- tory, revue d'histoire de l'amérique française, and nearly all of the provincial history journals have featured essays which reflect on this evolution of their historical consciousness. it is in this collective sense of self-introspection that these two readers deliver a summation of an extraordinary modern enterprise, the historical writing of the past generation. the historical record has been doubled and redoubled, as entire shelves of libraries have been filled by the new scholarship. on the national macro/scale we are now up to the thirteenth volume of the dictionary of canadian biography/dictionnaire biographique du canada, abundantly cited in these vol- umes, particularly the pre-confederation text which is covered by the first ten volumes of the dcb. three volumes of the canadian historical atlas are also now before us. and, the centennial history of canada, begun in is now completed to nineteen volumes, a monument as ramsay cook has noted to its original editors, donald creighton and w.l. morton, and to its publisher jack mcclelland. on the less well-known micro-scale, donald akenson's fine collection of papers in rural history is already up to ten volumes and growing. military history flourishes as never before, with the third volume of the rcaf history published and regimental histories marching forward on all fronts. by any measure, the achievements have been formidable, and testimony to the collective enterprise of canadians summed up in frank underbill's acute observation and imprecation of canadians "working together" in a common enterprise. canadian history canadian scholars have in fact always done well at such collective approaches to their history, beginning with the series, canada and its provinces and the makers of canada earlier in the century, but extending into other ambitious series such as the frontiers of settlement in the s, the multi-volume canadian- american relations series sponsored by the carnegie foundation, and later. the social credit series which spanned the s to die s. the great classics of historical writing in canada referred to in these two volumes were often written under the umbrella of some funded collective enterprise. innis' fur trade, creighton's commercial empire of the st. lawrence, lower's north american assault on the canadian forest, morton's progressive party, and c.b. macpher- son's democracy in alberta, were all produced under the umbrella of funded research in a multidisciplinary series which spanned political economy, history, geography, sociology, and law to name a few. this collective tradition continued through to the modem period under examination here with learned journals and conference proceedings funded by canada council, sshrc, and a whole boat of government departments, notably secretary of state, external affairs and others. add to these joint ventures with publishing houses, which produced the genera- tions series published by mcclelland and stewart and the secretary of state (eds., j. burnet and h. palmer) or the history of canadian cities (éd., a. artibise) with the national museums of canada and james lorimer. without such cooperative enterprises or joint ventures our historical landscape would be much more bleak and barren. for the purposes of this journal, perhaps the most compelling area of focus comes in that elusive entity, "the common people." they were perhaps first described for us rather obliquely, but nicely, by fred landon in his classic centenary article on the rebellions of - as, those who farmed and worked at trades or kept shop; those who attended horse races or wrestling matches as well as those who attended revival meetings; those who came from the united states as well as those from the british isles; the stage-driver, the inn-keeper, the doctor, the missionary, the postmaster, the editor of the local paper, the anglican, the meth- odist, presbyterian, or quaker, the people of whom abraham lincoln said that god must have loved them because he made so many of them." since this was written in , much has been said in print about "the common people," in british historiography notably by e.p. thompson, peter laslett, eric hobsbawm, richard cobb, and others, in the united states by eugene genovese, moses rischin, peter gay, et al. and in france by the annalistes, bloch, braudel, and ladurie, and more recently by michel foucault, the post-structuralists and post-modernists. the devolution of history from patrician to plebeian, from elite to mass culture, from elite to popular culture, from patriarchal to matriarchal concerns, from conquerors to conquered, from colonizers to aboriginal peoples, from ordered national themes *fred landon, the common man in the era of the rebellion in upper canada," cha annual report ( ), . labour/le travail and chronology to more disjunctured local and regional subjects has been profound. but it has also made our history more complex as it deepens, layer upon layer, and sub-theme upon subplot, until we enter into the sort of detailed learned discourse which might be in danger of obliterating the original subject of our enquiry — the common people of landon's early definition. these two volumes are in some respects very different, the pre-confederation by brook taylor longer by about a hundred pages than the post-confederation one edited by doug owram. upon closer examination, one finds that the essays in volume one are more traditional in that they generally integrate better the pre- historiography into their literature review of the field. the post-confederation essays tend on the whole to concentrate more upon the new fields of history, such as working class, women, urban, business, native, and intellectual themes, blending them into a mix of regional and provincial history. the pre-confederation volume on the other hand is a more traditional mix of subjects such as atlantic, pacific, northwest, and central canadian regions, with two chronological examinations of the pre- period from the viewpoint of exploration and discovery, with an endpiece on the colonial-imperial context by j.m. bumsted. both the periodization and the thematic divisions of history are both predictable and faithful to die historiographical conventions which have developed in such self-defining collec- tive ventures as the canadian centenary series and the dictionary of canadian biography. conversely, the traditional territorial division of historiographical subjects in volume one is as much a limitation as a strength, for the largely thematic divisions in the post-confederation volume result in more impressionistic sketches which cut across regions and provinces. the latter essays, despite a tendency to overlap and repetition (see, for example, women's suffrage, where cleverdon and bacchi's single titles are mentioned four times), address the new social histories of women, workers, and native peoples in addition to cultural, intellectual, and business history. one might quibble about the weighting given to each, but the groupings themselves force each of the authors to concise summaries of the main themes in recent historiography. given such divisions of labour, however, important themes have been lightly treated, for example, ethnicity, which is only superficially touched upon the area studies, less than a page each on ethnicity in québec and the maritimes, two to three on ontario and the west and north. given the lack of a theme essay on the subject, major works like frank epp's two-volume history of the mennonites (and a third in the works by ted regehr), or manoly lupul's work on the ukrainians are omitted. or, one might lament the lack of recent studies on the jews in english-speaking canada, like louis rosenberg's republished work, gerald tul- chinsky *s recent works or those of henry trachtenburg. most noticeable is the lack of any mention of david lewis' autobiography or the place of the lewis family in the history of the ccf/ndp. the history of ethnicity in modern canada thus appears canadian history as a subset of labour, urban, and women's history, and while it does surface in a paragraph or page or two of each of those articles, it does so wiui distinct limitations of perspective in each. the preference would have been for a discrete essay like diat by j.r. miller for canada's native peoples, or even a more extensive essay which incorporated both ethnicity and native peoples in a single treatment of the cultural history of minorities in the canadian experience. such a treatment of pluralism in the canadian social experience would have been useful, and at the very least readers might have been guided to w.l. morton's fine essay on mat subject in canadian ethnic studies ( ). by contrast, it appears dut the prc-confederation volume on pre-industrial canada captures more of the pluralistic makeup of canada's diversity. the essays on canada's beginnings, the pays en haul, on acadia and on nova scotia thor- oughly detail the contract and conflict with canada's amerindian populations, die french and acadians, and the diverse strands of scots, irish, and welsh settlements in pre- british north america. nowhere is dut ethnic diversity more.com- peuingly dealt with than in j.m. bumsted's fine section on die imperial and international context of english, irish, scots, welsh, and american loyalist emigration/immigration, with passing reference to german and jewish immigra- tion. ( - ) olaf uwe janzen's essay on newfoundland also catches some of this diversity as well in his section on "die european settling of newfoundland" as does kerry abel on die west and tino loo on the pacific coast, die latter moreso in die context of native peoples and die métis. bom the essays by james lambert on québec and bryan palmer on upper canada catch some of die complexity of early british settler culture, particularly of the irish immigration of die early th century. but die particular place of german, mennonite, and dutch settlers, and for that matter die quakers, in die rural social fabric of old ontario appears to have been omitted, aldiough die role of die blacks, particularly die slave refugees, is judiciously recorded. lastly, die place of ethnic groups in die maritime colonies is fully discussed by ian ross robertson, who includes a wide-ranging list of works on aboriginal, loyalist, english, irish, scots, black, and acadian populations in pre-confederation atlantic canada. in sum, die authors have done well to offer a more complex version of a history that had been exclusively preoccupied with institutional history and die origins of die canadian state. seen from anodier perspective of london's "common man," dus collection admirably addresses die working people's culture, particularly in die essays by bryan palmer on upper canada in volume one, and craig heron on working-class history in volume two, plus solid subsections of die area studies by andrée lévesque on québec, david mills on ontario, t.w. acheson on die maritimes, and john thompson on die west and norm. also, heron's essay addresses die issue of working-class culture in industrial canada with an excellent summary of die rapidly emerging area of culture, leisure, and sports in die section on "neigh- bourhood and community." ( - ) again, the only quibble one can raise is mat he http://more.com- labour/le travail misses work on the conjuncture of ethnicity and working-class leisure, in particular the recent works on the nordic leisure pursuits of finns and scandinavians in ontario and the west by jorgen dahlie, jim tester and bruce kidd to name a few. there are precious few citations of works on carnivals and fairs despite an abundance of these, for example, in the numerous works by gray and macewan on the calgary stampede, breen on the pacific national exhibition, and other more recent popular works such as pierre berton's niagara. similarly, popular religion, while an acknowledged part of the québec historiography, seems to be lacking an english-canadian counterpart beyond a study of drink and prohibition as a measure of social control. while the role of church and chapel are acknowledged in other essays, particularly that by owram on cultural and intellectual history, there is relatively little of the thompsonian variety of synthesis which weaves the complex strands of religious practice, particularly methodism, into working-class life. some address of this gap occurs in the essays by palmer on regulation and social control in volume one, and in volume two by mills on the role of religion in ontario's historiography, and by mitchinson on the role of religion in the lives of women. nowhere is this more evident than in several titles of the canadian social history series, in particular the classic study of the sisterhood by marta danylewycz in taking the veil: an alternative to marriage, motherhood and spinsterhood in québec, - . ( ) the new social history of the common people is celebrated throughout the pages of these volumes, with widespread citations of works on family, gender relations, sexuality, education, daily life, sickness, and health. we now understand much better the role of fire, flood, and disaster in the ordinary lives of canadians with recent books and articles on the halifax explosion, the st. john's conflagra- tion, the p.f.r.a. and the dryland disaster, than we ever knew before (although j.m. bumsted's article on the winnipeg flood is curiously omitted). similarly, the role of epidemics from cholera to smallpox and the spanish flu are better under- stood as are the role of public health measures adopted to prevent repetitions of the tuberculosis and polio epidemics, and the role of canadians in developing drugs and therapies such as insulin and the polio vaccine. we are coming to understand much better the complexities of gender relations and the rhythms of family life, violence, and repression, the latter in particular with relation to the history of native peoples. and we know a great deal more about the violent history of a non-violent people as anticipated in earlier historiographical challenges thrown out in the s and s by s.r. mealing and kenneth mcnaught. from labour violence to religious and race riots and the activities of far right groups, down to plain down-home hockey riots and sporting debacles, we know what we knew instinc- tively and did not say, that the "peaceable kingdom" is one of the great canadian myths, a whiggish fiction designed for the cosmopolitan world outside, and for social control within. canadian history we have therefore come "to know ourselves" much better, as tom symons put it in his challenge to canadians by now some two decades old. and according to some, like michael bliss and j.m.s. careless, we know far more perhaps man we ever needed to know. but it is perhaps the discovery of all the underside and commonplace in our social and national character mat is disturbing here: karen dubinsky's study of violence against women, angus mclaren's work on sexual sterilization, and cheryl krasnick warsh's book on the homewood retreat, and barbara roberts study of the deportations from canada, from whence they came, to name but a few of the recent citations in social history. by opening up those letters in the attic, those hospital and asylum records and deportation files, the heroism commonly attributed to a single gender, class, and relatively homogenous ethnicity of two founding peoples has been irretrievably shattered in the decon- struction of the national myths. the reconstruction and recombination of the parts is by general agreement the relatively disordered state mat we are at, since various of die authors of these essays often exhort upon the need for the great walks of synthesis which must come. we are indeed at that nietzschean point whore we have, instead of shoring up out tottering historical myths, given them a push instead we have perhaps also acknowledged what the historians of antiquity or the distant past always knew, the difficulties of historical reconstruction of even the recent past and the retrieval of what peter laslett has called t h e world we have lost" the historical world that we are in the process of rediscovering and remaking may only be a century or two old, but we are discovering by exhaustive delayering and painstaking restoration, a much deeper and richer mosaic than could have been imagined a generation ago. protestantism in east germany, - : a summing up sabrina petra ramet* here [in the gdr] the clergymen sound like revolutionaries, and the officials like clergymen - stefan heym ( ) the reunification of germany in october brought an end to an era. for the years of the existence of the german democratic republic, soviet military occupation of east germany was a fact of life, the east german state attempted to construct a communist system on the soviet model, and - where religion was concerned - the protestant churches played an ever greater role in harbouring political opposition to the regime and its policies. with the dismantling of the gdr, however, the churches, which had been invigorated by their politicisation, lost their unique political role, and watched helplessly as their congregations rapidly shrank. the gdr ( - ) had the distinction of being the only communist country in which protestantism was clearly the predominant religious force. this fact, combined with the fact that germany was a divided country, made for an almost unparalleled intensity of interaction between the churches of this society and churches in the 'moncommunist world, particularly west germany and austria. clergy enjoyed an exemption from the general proscription against travel to noncommunist countries, and frequently travelled west for eccles- iastical and ecumenical meetings. *this chapter is based in part on interviews conducted in east germany, june- july . interviews were conducted with appropriate clergymen and responsible officials of religious organisations, as well as theologians and responsible state officials, in berlin, dresden, herrnhut, leipzig, halle, erfurt and eisenach. i am grateful to the international research exchanges board (irex) for providing funding in support of this research. editor's note. this article renders the german 'bund evangelischer kirchen' by the english 'federation of evangelical churches' .. normal practice in rcl is to translate it as 'federation of protestant churches'. i have decided to retain the alternative translation in order to avoid needless confusion within the article itself. protestantism in east germany, - at first sight, church life in the gdr in the late s looked vigorous. public meetings organised by the evangelical church in particular drew large and interested crowds. services were regularly attended. vocations revived. and the churches themselves operated an impressive number of hospitals, homes for old people, and other facilities, and, thanks in part to subsidies from sister churches in the west, were financially relatively comfortable. yet east german pastors were aware that secularisation was eating away at the base of their support. the evangelical church, which numbered . million adherents in , had only . million in , and as of , claimed only , , members. a publication of the institute for marxism-leninism suggested an even lower figure, estimating real membership of the evangelical church at - . million.l statistics for the evangelical church in anhalt province may be taken as illustrative of the trend. in , the province counted , members, and recorded , commun- ions, , baptisms, and , confirmations. in , the province could count only , members, recording , communions, baptisms, and , confirmations. ten years later, the province counted , church members, recording , communions in , baptisms, and confirmations. in berlin-brandenburg, to take another example, the church lost. more than half of its members between and . in villages as much as per cent of the population may still be christian, while informed sources estimate that only per cent of the population in the big cities is christian. pastors are also aware that while the church's ability to attract non-believers to its events has enhanced its prestige, in the long run the church cannot prosper on the basis· of non-converts' who attend specific events out of specific interest: to survive and prosper, a church must, at a minimum, maintain its base, if not actually expand. the religious sector: an overview in every respect, the evangelical-lutheran church dwarfs all other oenominations in eastern germany. maintaining , parishes, it had , active clergy (in ), and operate~ hospitals (with a total of , beds), homes for the mentally and physically disabled, homes for old people (with about , places), orphanages, communal service outlets, and kindergartens and i wolfgang kaul, kirchen und religionsgemeinschaften in der ddr - eine dokumentation (institute for marxism-leninism: rostock-warnemiinde, ), pp. - ; and zahlenspiegel bundesrepublik deutschlandldeutsche demokratische republik: ein vergleich ( rd edition), (federal ministry for inter-german relations: bonn, ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - day nurseries. in addition, the evangelical-lutheran church maintains three ecclesiastical training missions (in berlin, naumburg and leipzig), two schools for preachers (in berlin and er(urt), and one pedagogical institute (in potsdam). six of the state univ:ersities include theological faculties, whose salaries in the years - were paid out of the communist state budget (at the universities of berlin, halle, leipzig, jena, greifswald, and rostock). these faculties are specifically protestant and are used essentially by members of the evangelical and reformed churches. and finally, the evangelical church was able to publish five regional papers: die kirche (berlin, circulation , ; also in a greifswald edition), der sonntag (dresden, circulation , ), mecklenburgische kirchenzeitung (mecklenburg, circulation , ), glaube und heimat (jena, circulation , ), and potsdamer kirche (potsdam, circulation , ). all these papers were printed on state presses, which made it easy for the state authorities to check copy prior to publication. this proved important in , when the state repeatedly censored or banned specific issues of these newspapers. aside from these publications, there was also the monthly journal, standpunkt, which for years was viewed as no more than a tool of the regime, operated by pro-regime protestants. in the last years of the gdr, however, standpunkt published a number of probing articles, and as a result, its standing improved somewhat. the only other denomination with more than a million members is the roman catholic church, which claimed some . million members in , with , priests and , members of women's orders (as of ). its most important periodical publication was the st hedwigsblatt, published in berlin, although as in the case of the protestants, there was also a pro-regime monthly journal (begeg- nung). ~ leaving aside the russian orthodox church, which maintains its headquarters for the central european exarchate in dresden, the remaining christian denominations can be divided into three broad groups. traditional protestants would include the aforementioned evangelical-lutherans, as well as methodists ( , ), members of the baptist federation ( , ), reformed ( , ), old lutherans ( , ), evangelical-lutheran. free ( , ), moravians (unity of brethren, , ), free evangelicals ( , ), mennonites ( ), and zah/enspiege/, p. . frankfurter aligemeine, april , p. , trans. in jprs, east europe report, no. eer- - ( may ), p. . keston news service, no. ( july ), p. . 'for detailed discussion of the roman catholic church, see robert f. goeckel, 'the catholic church in east germany', in pedro ramet (ed.), catholicism and politics in communist societies (duke university press: durham n . c., ). protestantism in east germany, - quakers ( ). there are also apostolic communities, specifically: the new apostolic church ( - , members), the apostolate of jesus christ ( - , ), the shepherd and flock ( , ), community in christ jesus (lorenzianer, , ), the apostolate of juda ( , ), catholic-apostolic ( , ), and reformed apostolic ( , ). and finally there is a rather heterogeneous collection of other christian churches, including the jehovah's witness (not legally registered in gdr times, but numbering - , adherepts), seventh day adventists ( , ), christian community (christengemeinschajt, , ), mormons ( , ), the church of john (johannische kirche, , ), old catholics ( , ), anderson community of god ( ), reorganised mormons ('a few'), and darbyists (figure not reported). in addition, there are reportedly a number of christian scientists in eastern germany; they were placed under ban by the sed in and remained illegal until november , when they belatedly reacquired legal status. finally, there are also some non-christian religious groups, specifically the muslims ( , ), the jews ( in ), and the rastafarians ( , and as of summer , awaiting registration). there may be a handful of satanists in berlin and leipzig, but this is hard to verify. traditional protestants two churches bear a special relationship to the numerically preponderant evangelical church. these are the federation of evangelical reformed communities in the gdr, and the unity of brethren. there is no 'reformed church in the gdr' per se, but there are ref'{rmed p~rishes, organised in one of two ways. most of the parishes exist as organisational parts of the evangelical district churches - a legacy of the union church created by kinkfriedrich wilhelm iii of prussia in . in some cases (e.g., in berlin- brandenburg), the separate origin of the reformed parishes is recognised by according them the right to reject synodal decisions that contradict their teachings. three parishes - dresden, leipzig, and \ most of the figures given here come from interviews with responsible church representatives or with state officials in east germany, june-july , or from kaul, kirchen und religionsgemeinschaften. . . some statistics were taken from hubert kirchner (ed.), freikirchen und konfessionelle minderheitskirchen (evangelische verlagsanstalt: east berlin, ); and helmut obst, apostel und propheten der neuzeit: griinder christlicher religionsgemeinschaften des / . . jahrhunderts, nd ed. (union verlag: east berlin, ). christian science monitor, november , p. . protestantism in east germany, - biitzow - are autonomous units not integrated into evangelical district churches. all reformed parishes, whether integrated into the evangelical district churches or not, are represented in the federation of evangelical reformed communities in the gdr, which was established in . the reformed communities share theological training institutes with the evangelical church in berlin, leipzig and naumburg, and take advantage of the theological faculties attached to the state universities. the unity of brethren (moravian church) is distinguished by having become an associate member of the federation of evangelical churches in . associate membership leaves the unity of brethren theologically and financially independent, but enables it to take part in evangelical church deliberations and to associate itself with the evangelical church's posture vis-a-vis the state. church life centres on the village of herrnhut (population , ), where about a fifth of the church's , members live. in , the community experienced a brief crisis when a pastor werner morgenstern announced that he had had himself and his family rebaptised, and started to build a small circle of born-again christians. unity of brethren parishes in herrnhut, niesky, kleinwelka and ebersdorf were affected by morgenstern's preaching, and for a while the issue of rebaptism was hotly discussed in the church. the debate ended with the expulsion of morgenstern from the church. the largest traditional protestant church in the gdr, after the evangelical church, was the methodist church. with some active pastors and more than , lay workers, the methodist church was a minority church in the gdr, but has played a larger role in the province of saxony; where many of its adherents are concentrated. (saxony is, in fact, confessionally the most diverse province in eastern germany, and a number of groups operate there which have no base ~lsewhere in the country.) the methodist church was actively involved in ecumenical activities in the gdr, and the secretary of the working community of christian churches in the gdr (arbeits- gemeinschaft christlicher kirchen in der ddr), the most important forum for ecumenical activity in the country, was (as· of ) a methodist (martin lange). pacifism is strong among methodists, and some per cent of young methodists volunteered for the construction brigade, in, preference to regular military service. the methodist church operates a theological seminary at bad klosterlaus- . nitz, and has published a bi-weekly b,ulletin, friedensg/ocke, in , copies. with some , members in· all, the federation of evangelical- .free church communities in the gdr unites three distinct denominations: the baptists, the evangelical brethren, and the elim protestantism in east germany, - community. the baptists and the elim community combined in a joint baptist federation in . the brethren joined three years later. all three component groups are very much lay movements, in which ordained ministers do not enjoy anything like the authority exercised by priests of the catholic or orthodox churches, or even like pastors of the evangelical church. for all three, emphasis is on parish life. but there are also some differences in orientation: the baptists are rather more concerned than the others about developing parish life in accord with a strict interpretation of the new testament; the elim community places greater emphasis than the others on the role of the holy ghost. like many church organisations, the evangelical-free church federation has experienced a decline in membership, down from a post-war level of - , . retreats for young people are regular events, and emphasise bible study. the federation operates a. four-year theological seminary at buckow, a one-year bible school for lay persons at burgstadt, a nursing home for the mentally disturbed ( beds), and three homes for the aged (berlin-hirschgarten, crivitz and sonneberg). the federation also iss.:es a monthly periodical, wort und werk, in , copies, and publishes eight to ten books a year. of the remaining traditional protestant churches, only the old lutheran church has more than , members in eastern germany. formed by lutherans who refused to go along with the administrat- ively decreed amalgamation of the lutheran and reformed churches in , the old lutheran church has become sceptical of ecumenism, fearing that there is a danger that in searching for 'common ground', christian doctrine becomes reduced to just christ and love. a representative of the church attended an ecumenical meeting in dresden in early and found he objected to some of the conc- lusions: peace and justice, he felt, cannot be the primary tasks for the church. the old lutheran church (affiliated with the missouri synod) vie'xs itself as a very conservative church, and criticises the main evangelical church for having modified its doctrines. the church's parishes were organised into three dioceses, served by pastors. it sought permission for a number of years to publish a newspaper - without success until the communist regime collapsed. state per- mission was not, however, required to print an informational bulletin 'for internal use only' - and this the old lutheran church did. the free evangelicals, with , members; enjoy close working relations with the baptists, sending their seminarians to the baptist seminary at buckow for theological training. the free evangelicals 'ulrich materne, 'der bund evangelische-freikirchlicher gemeinden in der ddr', in kirchner (ed.), freikirchen . .. , p. si. 'werner klan and johannes zellmer, 'die evangelischlutherische (altlutherische) kirche', in kirchner (ed.), freikirchen . .. , p. . protestantism in east germany, - are actively involved in social work, concentrating their efforts on work with the psychologically disturbed, alcoholics, the aged, and the socially isolated (e.g. those recently released from prison). a church bulletin for internal use only, glaube und dienst, appears seven times a year in , copies. the mennonites did not inhabit -the territory of the present-day gdr until after the second world war, when the mennonite communities of east and west prussia were forced to leave their native lands. most of them settled in west germany, but about a thousand remained in the gdr. today there are about mennonites in eastern germany, dispersed across different towns and villages. normal parish life is impossible. but the mennonite community holds monthly religious services in berlin, and additional services two to three times a year in halle, erfurt, schwerin, rostock, torgau, potsdam and dresden. o the community publishes a monthly bulletin for internal use, gemeindebrief, in copies. and finally, there is the small society of friends (quakers), able to survive with scarcely more than four dozen adherents, because of their independence from any hierarchy or structure. considering their size, the quakers have been surprisingly active in social issues, lending their support to the initiative to introduce the construction brigade alternative in and backing the drive for a social service alternative to military conscription in any form. apostolic communities the bulk of this article will be concerned with those churches i have listed as 'traditional protestants', and their experiences under communism. however, it will probably be useful to say a few words iflbout the churches in the other two groups. the apostolic churches trace their origins to the early th century, when a feeling among some european christians that the churches had decayed spiritually gave rise to a hope that a new age was dawning. between and , these impulses took institutional shape in england, when englishmen were named 'apostles'. they built up a community, which soon spread to the continent, and taught that other churches had, become the tools of satan, and that it was therefore necessary to resurrect the 'original' church. the members, of the apostolic community were also convinced that they would see the second coming of christ within their lifetimes, and specifically during the apostolate of the . by , six of the apostles had ioknuth hansen and hubert kirchner, 'die mennoniten-gemeinde', in kirchner (ed.), freikirchen . .. , p. . protestantism in east germany, - died, and a sense of crisis began to grow within the community, in which some members favoured electing new apostles to replace those who had died, while others considered this unthinkable. this led to a schism, with those favouring the election of new apostles forming what is now the new apostolic church. the original community, which is today known as the catholic-apostolic community, continued to refuse to elect new apostles, even after all of the original apostles had died (the last of them died in ). since the community is hierarchically organised, with apostles required to consecrate bishops, bishops required to ordain, ministers, and so on, the catholic-apostolic community has steadily atrophied, and as of , its leading official in the gdr was a lower deacon (unterdiakon). in the s, the catholic-apostolic community still numbered - , adherents in the gdr, but by the late s, the number had shrivelled to about , . the remaining apostolic communities resulted from splits within the new apostolic church. the first of these splits gave birth, in , to the apostolate of juda, which split again in , giving rise to the apostolate of jesus christ. all of the apostolic churches believe that the second coming is a historical fact and that it will occur soon. a prominent tnember of one of these communities told me that his church expected the second coming to occur in the year . all of them are socially and politically conservative, and view the other churches (even within the apostolic movement) with condescension. the apostolic churches have, therefore, with the sole exception of the apostolate of jesus christ, essentially no interest in ecumenical dialogue. as for the communist state, their relations with it were correct but not characterised by that kind of effusiveness which occasionally marked, say, the attitude of the evangelical church to the state after ~. members of the apostolic churches view earthly monarchy as a reflection of the divine monarchy, and organise their own churches on a monarchical basis. this seems to have coloured the attitude of the new apostolic church towards the gdr in the early years, when it was openly critical of the proletarian and social-democratic tendencies unleashed by the new regime. but this criticism never assumed a political aspect, because, like the other apostolic communities, the new apostolic church has ,felt that the church should stay out of politics entirely. this attitude, of course, also has consequences as far as the regime's christian democratic union is concerned. as a member of another apostolic community told me in , 'a christian cannot be in a party. a christian party is, in our eyes, not christian pietsche, 'im benehmen mit dem staate: die neuapostolische kirche in der ddr', in kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (june ), pp. - . protestantism in east germany, - possible. christian teaching teaches one to love one's neighbour; and party life is narrowed to serve partial interests.' other christian communities if one asks clergymen of various churches whether they consider other churches to be christian, one finds that some churches which consider themselves to be christian, in particular ~the church of john, the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints (mormons), and the jehovah's witnesses are often not recognised as christian by the clergy of other churches. of the six 'larger' churches i listed in this category, one (the jehovah's witnesses) never succeeded in obtaining legal registration from the gdr's communist authorities, and was granted legal status only in march , by the coalition government of lothar de maiziere. the jehovah's witnesses were therefore unable to engage in ecumenical contacts (which they would surely have spurned in any case). two other churches (the old catholic church and the mennonites) joined the working community of christian churches in the gdr which was dominated by the evangelical ,and methodist churches. in addition, the seventh day adventists enjoyed observer status in the working community (alongside the roman catholic church, the central european exarchate of the russian orthodox church, the quakers, and the apostolate of jesus christ). the small christian community (christengemeinschajt) thinks of itself as ecumenically oriented, although it does not take part in the work of the working community; its clergy argue that ecumenism is better fostered at the parish level, between individual pastors and lay persons, than at the level of ecclesiastical leaderships. " these churches vary quite considerably in degree of social engagement. the seventh day adventists, for example, mobilised their ranks in , when a law legalising abortion was being passed, and contacted the state secretary for church affairs. the seventh day adventists have also been interested in environmental questions, but chiefly in an ecumenical context, taking part in the ecumenical assemblies devoted to 'peace, justice and the integrity of creation', and at one time sent medical supplies, automobiles and other items to several african countries (angola, mozambique, ethiopia, tanza~ nia). the seventh day adventists also reported profitable contacts with the east german cdu - one of the few religious organisations to express a positive view of the cdu. the seventh day adventists dpa (hamburg), march , trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), march , p. . protestantism in east germany, - were allowed, by the gdr authorities, to publish a monthly newspaper, adventgemeinde, in , copies. the church of john is treated as a kind of pariah by most of the other churches, because it teaches that god the father manifested himself through moses, god the son through christ, and god the holy ghost through joseph weissenberg ( - ), the founder of the church. as a result, it did not take part in the working community of christian churches and has no official ecclesiastical contacts with the evangelical church, although the clergy of the church of john have personal contacts with individual clergy of various churches. on social issues, the church of john considers military duty a matter of individual conscience, and showed its ecological commitment by organising volunteers to clean up the long-polluted bhinkensee tributary. by contrast, the christian community and the mormons decline to become involved in environmental issues and other social questions, arguing that 'this is the sphere for the state, not the church.' the mormons also do not object to military service per se, although some members of that church have opted for alternative service in the construction brigade. the mormons have kept their distance from the other churches in the gdr, abstaining from the ever-increas~ng number of ecumenical forums - unlike the christian community which, incidentally, accepts the church of john as a fellow christian church. the structure o/the evangelical church the evangelical church in the gdr is not aunified body, but rather a federation of eight district churches (landeskirchen) having some- whatl different traditions. in five of these districts (berlin- brandenburg, g rlitz, greifswald, anhalt, saxony-magdeburg), the church is heir to the union church established by the_prussian government and unifying evangelical and reformed churches. these district churches are therefore influenced in part by the reformed tradition, which in the political arena translates into a greater tendency to become involved in social and political affairs. the other three district churches (mecklenburg, thuringia, and saxony- dresden) are in the pure lutheran tradition, and have inherited in a less diluted form luther's view that church and state have different tasks and that the church should acknowledge the state as god's instrument in the secular realm (a sentiment which contributed to the for an account of weissenberg's life and of the early experiences of his community, see obst, apostel und propheten, pp. - . protestantism in east germany, - state's enthusiasm over luther during the quincentenary celebrations). in concrete terms this was illustrated in a controversy which developed within the church in . bishop gottfried forck of berlin, of the 'union' tradition, responded to pressures from east german citizens seeking emigration by opening his offices to consultations with would-be emigrants. others in the church criticised forck, saying that in so doing he had overstepped the bounds of legitimate church activity. there are some differences in style among the bishops of the district churches, which at times can translate into differences in posture vis-a.-vis the state, or differences in orientation and effectiveness vis-a.-vis the local congregation. bishops werner leich (of thuringia) and horst gienke (of greifswald) were described as more conservative than others, while bishops forck, christoph stier (of mecklenburg) and christoph demke (of magdeburg) were more liberal - which sometimes translated into a greater readiness to confront the authorities over social issues. but stier and bishop rogge (of gorlitz), the latter a trained historian with special expertise on martin luther, are described as very ecumenically-minded and very open to dialogue. the federation of evangelical churches in the gdr was created in june and lasted until april . its highest organ was the synod, which consisted of members: from the eight district churches, and eight from the conference of church leaderships, which was responsible for the administrative and business affairs of the federation. in , the unity of brethren affiliated with the federation, and from then on it was represented in the conference. much of the responsibility for coordinating operations fell to the secretariat, which oversaw standing commissions. these commis- sions were responsible for: theology, parish work, social questions, ,jnformation, radio and television, ecumenism, work with children and candidates for confirmation, work with adolescents, training of pastors, administration, and finances. "see: dan beck, 'the luther revival: aspects of national abgrenzung and confessional gemeinschaft in the german democratic republic', in pedro ramet (ed.), religion and nationalism in soviet and east european politics (revised and expanded edition; duke university press: durham, n.<;:., ). bishop gienke aggravated the memb.ers of his churcq in by joining honecker in reaffirming the continued valic!lity of the 'church in socialism' concept at a time when church members were increasingly critical of this concept. as a result, the district synod voted' no confidence' in him in november, by a majority of to . the vote impelled· the bishop to resign his office the same month. see adn international service (east berlin), november , trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), november , p. . i'see neue ziircher zeitung, september , p. ; - february , p. ; february , p. ; and april ,p. ; and siiddeutsche zeitung (munich), - february , p. . protestantism in east germany, - from the federation, along with all of its component district churches, belonged to the ecumenical council of churches and took an active part in its work. the evangelical church in the early post- war period the nazis had destroyed the institutional structures of the churches and they had to be rebuilt after the second world war. but many clergy emerged from the war with great prestige, due to their resistance to the nazis and to the so-called german christian movement, through what had come to be called the 'confessing church' (bekennende kirche). new synods had to be elected, although the confessing church had maintained an illegal council of the brethren, which had held synods and carried out administrative tasks parallel to the administration being conducted by nazi- controlled church offices. after the second w orld war, the traditional district church structures reemerged, and all the evangelical churches in the soviet zone of occupation reestablished episcopal offices (or, in the case of anhalt, the office of church president). dr otto dibelius, ousted from the post of general superintendent of the kurmark by the nazis in , had been active in the confessing church throughout the nazi period, and on may (when germany surrendered) he took the lead in establishing the consistory of the church in berlin- brandenburg. pastors and communists had been together in nazi concentration camps, and strong personal ties had developed. this contributed to creating a kind of honeymoon which lasted about three years from ! to . during this period, for instance, a conference on culture, sponsored in january by the socialist unity party (sozialistische einheitspartei deutschlands, or, hereafter, sed), declared that the brave conduct of a part of the clergy in the struggle against the barbarism of hitler has also earned· the recognition and respect of socialist labourers.' faith and socialism are not the antagonists that some would arbitrarily make them. the position of the party toward religion is one of absolute tolerance. that which christianity seeks from faith, socialism seeks from "for details, see hans-martin moderow and matthias sense (eds.), orientierung okumene: ein handbuch ( nd edition; evangelische verlagsanstalt: east berlin, ), especially chapter . protestantism in east germany, - knowledge. in their efforts to achieve their eminently secular objectives, the socialists have no desire to misuse the church in a propagandistic manner. the church began eliminating nazis from its ranks immediately after the war and was able to carry out its de-nazification without the interference of any of the occupation authorities; in this weeding-out process, the church was particularly concerned to remove pastors who had been involved in the german christian movement. at times there was pressure exerted on local pastors to endorse the new communist authorities. in july the evangelical-lutheran church of saxony responded by issuing a circular letter to its pastors, asking them to refrain from open political activity lest their spiritual-pastoral role be compromised. the church's own position was 'that christian life would only be possible at all if the state were constructed on democratic principles of organisation and if the churches received constitutionally anchore,d guarantees that they could fulfil their christian mission.' by , there was a change in the atmosphere. villagers and townspeople in many municipalities were, for instance, ordered to report for work on farms and in factories on sundays: they were thus prevented from attending church. in addition, the authorities interfered with religious instruction in some communities. the churches grew apprehensive. in a pentecostal letter dated june bishop dibelius wrote: more than anything else, we are concerned with the fact that the pattern of the state which is arising here is already showing signs of the same things which we struggled against under nazi rule: power which overrules law, inner deception and untruth, and enmity to the christian gospel. shortly after the establishment of the gdr in october , two so-called 'progressive' pastors, mehnert and kehnscherper, were foisted upon the church's weekly radio broadcasts, -as a result of which the church decided to withdraw from the programme. subsequently, the government issued orders forbidding schools to commemorate christmas in any way and requiring them to celebrate the birthday of stalin on december .. christmas vacation was renamed winter vacation, and the christ child was renamed the i'quoted in richard w. solberg, god and caesar in east germany: the conflict of church and state in east germany since (macmillan; new york, ), p. . i'ibid., p. . . °horst diihn, konfrontation oder kooperation? das verhiiltnis von staat und kirche in dersbziddr - (westdeutscher verlag: opladen, ), p. . quoted in solberg, god and caesar . .. , p. . protestantism in east germany, - 'solidarity child'. at one point, a history textbook was issued in which one passage denied that christ had ever existed; in the face of strong remonstrations from church officials, a revised edition was issued in with this passage deleted. at about this time, schoolteachers began requiring children to write essays expressing a materialist point of view. bishop dibelius repeatedly protested to prime minister otto grotewohl about this, as did bishops in the various district churches. such expressions of concern were unavailing however, and in summer the state authorities went further and banned almost all bible study groups. the authorities also obstructed the church's work with young people, on the grounds that it involved an 'illegal' youth organisation; this was vigorously denied 'by the church. there was systematic discrimination against christians at all levels of socio-politicallife. on the other hand, there was no state interference in religious services or diaconical work. there were no show trials of bishops, as in other communist countries; and relatively few believers had to suffer imprisonment for their faith (although more than evangelical pastors and lay workers were imprisoned from: january - some, such a§- erich schumann, after show trials - while manfred klain, an argent young catholic, was likewise imprisoned without just cause). the sed was intent, in the early s, on breaking the inter-german links of the churches, and on pressurising the evangelical church into docile cooperation. in particular, the sed wanted the church to cooperate with its national front and to give prominence to the 'progressive' pastors. in the sed press published a series of defamatory articles alleging that bishop dibelius was a western agent. until then the sed had faithfully honoured the obligations assumed by the state in the th century to make regular payrqents to the churches; but in payments to the church of brandenburg were reduced by per cent, and in early all subsidies to churches were (temporarily, as it turned out) discon- tinued. lest the churches turn elsewhere to make up the difference, they were hindered from making street collections (for each of which a special permit was required), and barred from making house collections. in addition, several west german church periodicals, which had up to then freely entered the gdr in the mail, were banned, including the official lutheran church organ evangelisch- lutherische kirchenzeitung. in these years the state authorities regularly interfered in church events, harassed· student congregations and student pastors at the ibid., p. . jdiihn, konfrontation oder kooperation . .. , p. . protestantism in east germany, - universities" and at times published defamatory articles in the press. but on june grotewohl promised an end to reprisals against christian students, the reinstatement of teachers fired for their support of expelled students, and a retraction of certain limitations on religious instruction introduced the previous january. these assur- ances improved the atmosphere temporarily, but by july the situation was deteriorating again and pastors in particular were being subjected to police surveillance. even as the church papers experienced difficulties in obtaining adequate paper supplies, a new religious monthly magazine made its appearance: glaube und gewissen, printed on high quality paper, was produced by east germany's 'progressive pastors'. the sed was especially interested in weaning young people from religion, and introduced a requirement that school teachers had to be marxists, dropping the requirement under pressure in , only to reintroduce it later. in , the sed introduced a youth dedication ceremony (jugendweihe), at the culmination of which each adolescent was presented with a book entitled weltall, erde, mensch (the universe, the world, humanity), which, among other things, explained that religion was a tool for 'holding down the masses and oppressing them'. the sed exerted strong pressure on young people to take part in this nominally voluntary ceremony, widely interpreted as an atheist alternative to the church sacrament of confirmation; and by the jugendweihe had established itself as a norm for young people. on february , the city council of east berlin issued the so-called fechner decree, forbidding the conduct of religious instruction before school, requiring at least a two-hour pause between regular school and any after-class religious instruction, and requiring parents who wanted their children to obtain religious instruction to secure a written permit, renewable on a three-month basis. at about the same time hilde benjamin, the minister of justice, issued a decree making the payment of church taxes voluntary. (up to then the gdr state machinery had enforced individual payments of this tax!) in these years, the state's relationship with the churches was entrusted to the care of deputy prime minister otto nuschke, head of the cdu-east, who was also a member of the evangelical church. nuschke presided over a special office for church relations, established within the framework of the cdu. in march , however, this office was eliminated, and a new state secretariat for church affairs was created, headed by werner eggerath, former gdr ambassador to romania. this organisational change was accompanied by an intensification of pressure on the clergy in east "quoted in solberg, god and caesar . .. , p. . protestantism in east germany, - germany to sever their organisational connections with clergy in west germany. more specifically, the government announced that it would no longer hold consultations with clergy who were not gdr residents. bishop dibelius, who as bishop of berlin-brandenburg had been living in west berlin, was suddenly ostracised and would in fact no longer be allowed to enter the gdr. the same applied to dr heinrich grueber, the official representative of the ekd to the east german government, who was likewise a west berlin resident. dibelius was not merely ostracised, but vilified, and posters were put up linking the bishop with hitler's henchman heinrich himmler, and with a convicted sex criminal named balluseck. for the time being, however, the evangelical church refused to divide itself along state lines. in his first letter to all bishops in the gdr eggerath asked them to devote their easter sermons to a rejection of the atomic bomb and to advocacy of the peaceful use of atomic energy: compliance would have signified subservience to the government. bishop moritz mitzenheim of thuringia, as the senior evangelical bishop resident in the gdr, replied that the church had long ago rejected the use of atomic weapons and that he construed eggerath's request as an attempt to discredit the church leadership and divide the church. it was not only the bishops who were put under pressure. police started to put pressure on pastors to report on the political attitudes of their parishioners, and on one occasion, tried to persuade a pastor visiting west germany to observe western military installations and troop movements and provide a report. on april came the arrest of the popular dr siegfried schmutzler, a pastor at the university of leipzig. after a show trial he was imprisoned for five years, on the charge of 'agitation to boycott the republic' . he was also accused of having expressed sympathy for the hungarian revolt and of having favoured the evangelical church's agreement with bonn to establish a chaplaincy in the west german army. meanwhile, the jugendweihe was creating a crisis within the evangelical church. some church members suggested that the church simply abandon confirmation, since it had no biblical basis anyway; others suggested postponing confirmation until the more mature age of ; still others suggested sp~itting up c?nfirmation into its component parts, with the completion of instruction, vow-taking, and the grant of constitutional rights no longer associated. a rift now emerged within the hierarchy over what posture to adopt toward the jugendweihe. dibelius led the majority who felt that church confirmation and the jugendweihe had to remain mutually exclusive, ibid., p. . "ibid., p. . protestcmtism in east germany, - even if that meant a shrinking base. mitzenheim was the principal voice of a group which felt that refusing confirmation to those taking part in the jugendweihe would needlessly contribute to the shrinkage of the church; he recommended tolerance of the atheist youth dedication ceremony. this controversy adumbrated a deeper rift between mitzenheim and most of the rest of the hierarchy. mitzenheim believed that the church had to choose between a prophetic/critical role and an effective protective role, and felt that only the latter choice could be justified. he accordingly tried to maintain cordial and supportive relations with the regime, and to seek concessions from the regime through persuasion and consultation. typical of mitzenheim's controversial style was his acceptance of an invitation in october to attend a cdu rally in dresden, even though the local bishop had declined. the bishop of dresden was angered and took 'revenge' by refusing to allow mitzenheim to speak in one of the large lutheran churches in leipzig. mitzenheim, who served as bishop of thuringia from to , would be rewarded by the regime in august , when it decorated him with the order of service to the fatherland in gold. mitzenheim was, however, terribly isolated, and had little following outside thuringia. he himself spoke of a 'thuringian path' (thiiringer weg) and it was said that his concessions were calculated to help to preserve the strongly christian character ·of life in the villages. while mitzenheim was bishop, a number of church people from thuringia joined the cdu, and mitzenheim's son, the director of the district church office, became a member of the volkskammer (people's chamber). in , mitzenheim himself was elected an honorary member of the cdu-east. mitzenheim was n longer so controversial by the late s (let alone in post-gdr germany), chiefly because the controversies of the s and s were no longer relevant by the late s. once branded in some circles as the 'red bishop', mitzenheim has more recently been honoured by the thuringian church. the street leading up to the district church office in eisenach is in fact named after him. in thuringia, some clergy told me in that mitzenheim was a precursor of the 'church in socialism' concept developed in the s. outside thuringia this was disputed: other clergy recall theologians giinter jakob and johannes hamel who in· the s and s spoke about the need for a kind of critical solidarity with the state - with a strong accent on criticism, and with no word of trying to obtain special concessions for the church (on which mitzenheim placed stress). they represented an opposition to mitzenheim, who, as already noted, felt that the church had no critical role to play. yet it was mitzenheim who, as early as , said 'we don't want to be a protestantism in east germany, - church against socialism, but a church for the people who want to be christians in a socialist order. ' it was, moreover, mitzenheim's efforts which brought about the church-state accord of july , which produced a softening in party secretary ulbricht's policy toward the churches. in the communique then issued, mitzenheim put his signature to a text which among other things declared that 'the churches ... are in fundamental agreement with the peace efforts of the gdr and its regime.' the communique itself was controversial within the church. but it was quite a change to hear waiter ulbricht declare in the wake of this communique that 'christianity and the humanistic ideals of socialism are not in contradiction.' again, it was mitzenheim's efforts which led in to permission being granted for pensioners to travel to the west. and on august ulbricht and mitzenheim met again in the wartburg castle in eisenach and signed a follow-up document on church-state understanding. ulbricht commented on that occasion: 'we have no basis for differences ... in the basics, in the questions of securing the peace and building socialism, we are of one mind ... the common humanist responsibility unites us all.' splitting the churches from the west as long as the question of german reunification remained open, it was reasonable to argue that there was no point in hurrying to make organisational changes to conform to what might prove to be transient politi al realities. but with the creation of the gdr in and the failure of the last soviet initiative on german reunification in , it became clear to all concerned that the division of germany was going to last for some time. perhaps the first to adapt to the new situ~tioh was the german unity of brethren which had already divided its organisation in two in , establishing one organisation for the soviet zone of occupation and one for the other three zones. the federation of evangelical-free church communities soon followed. and soon after the gdr was established, the federation of free evangelical communities severed its organisational ties with congregations in west germany and in e;stablished a separate quoted in florian ehlert, '''stichet der stadt bestes!": bischof mitzenheims bemiihungen urn einvernehmen mit dem staat', in kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (june ), p. . "quoted in ibid., p. . "quoted in ibid., p. . quoted in ibid. ji stephen r. bowers, 'east german national consciousness: domestic and foreign policy considerations', east european quarterly, vo!. no. (summer ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - organisation for the gdr. in the old lutheran church in the gdr likewise set up a separate organisational structure. the authorities were, of course, most interested in splitting the evangelical church. in they stepped up the pressure. at a conference of the cdu-east in jena on february cdu chairman gerhard gatting spoke of an 'independent' evangelical church in the gdr which could 'not be mentioned in the same breath' with the evangelical church in west germany. this sounded like praise, perhaps, but church leaders reacted with alarm. church president d. m. muller of the evangelical church of anhalt wrote a letter to gatting, dated march , in which he said that the supposed ecclesiastical division was only a case of wishful thinking on gatting's part and argued that the gdr churches' abstention from the west german chaplaincy agreement of could scarcely be interpreted, as gatting seemed to think, as evidence of ecclesiastical secession. bishop hans joachim frankel of garlitz was of the same mind and declared 'we would be repudiating god's call for christian unity if we were to allow ourselves to be separated from our sister churches in the fatherland.' an evangelical church synod was convened from to april in furstenwalde, and on april it issued a statement rejecting pressures to split the german organisation in two. in a key passage, the furstenwalde synod declared 'we evangelical christians in the gdr have no reason to destroy the community of the ekd. we have good reasons to preserve it. ' the new gdr constitution of specified that the churches had to conduct their activities in conformity with the legislative ,and administrative parameters of the gdr. this seemed to narrow the churches' options. in april the district churches of saxony, mecklenburg and thuringia dissolved their organisational ties to the western churches of the united evangelical lutheran church of ,permany and on december established a new association, the united evangelical lutheran churches in the gdr. for a while, the five member churches (landeskirchen) of the evangelical church union held back; but by mid- the separation was complete and a new organisation, the federation of evangelical churches in the gdr, was set up on june. the quakers, reformed, and methodists likewise separated from their west german co-religionists at about this time. . . organisational adaptation led to ideological adaptation. meeting at eisenach in july , evangelical church leaders accepted the "quoted in peter fischer, kirche und christen in der ddr (verlag gebr. holzapfel: east berlin, ), p. . "quoted in ibid., p. . "quoted in ibid., p. . protestantism in east germany, - programmatic formula associated with the evangelical federation's chairman at that time, bishop albrecht sch nherr, that the church did not want to be a church alongside socialism, or a church against socialism, but a church in socialism. what this meant was, to some extent, left vague. it clearly signified a pledge of loyalty, while at the same time implying that some reciprocation was expected. it did not entail 'ideological coexistence', as the church made clear. even so, some clergy and believers feared initially that the church was somehow 'selling out', and the concept stirred some brief controversy. the other protestant churches divided over the concept. some (such as the unity of brethren, the baptist federation, and the seventh day adventists) applauded the concept. others were sceptical. (the catholic church repudiated the concept altogether.) shortly before the eisenach synod of july , bishop schonherr met the state secretary for church affairs, hans seigewasser, who had succeeded eggerath in that post in . schonherr complained on that occasion of continued discrimination against young christians in entrance to uniyersities, and of the fact that persons fulfilling their military service in the construction brigade were simply barred from university education altogether. discrimination against believers, both in these forms and in hiring and promotion, remained an issue as long as the sed was in power. the church might have been in socialism, but its members were, in a number of ways, made to feel that they were only alongside socialism. the social engagement of the church after the massive destruction of the second world war, pacifist sentiments were naturally widespread, especially among young peoj(le. the church responded to these sentiments and as early as became engaged in political debate by promoting the idea of a social service alternative to the then newly introduced military_ conscrip- tion. the introduction of the construction brigade in was the state's reply to this pressure. on the surface, the situation seemed -calmer after that. but voices were repeatedly raised within the church - such as that of or heino falcke, evangelical provost in erfurt, at a dresden meeting in - urging'involvement"in the concerns of the "see kirche als lerngemeinschaft: dokumente aus der arbeit des bundes der evangelischen kirchen in der ddr (evangelise he verlagsanstalt: east berlin ), pp. - . "ibid., pp. , . j ibid., p. . "theo meehtenberg, 'die friedensverantwortung der evangelisehen kirehen in der ddr', deutsche studien, vo\. no. (june ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - society. in fact, falcke himself became deeply involved in promoting pacifist and ecological activism on the part of the church and addressed a church assembly in buckow ( - january ) on the subject of a 'theology of nature' , arguing that the old testament lies within the environmentalist tradition. ironically, it was on the eve of a dramatic escalation in the church's involvement in peace-related and ecological concerns that bishop schonherr was received by general secretary erich honecker for a kind of 'summit meeting' on march . the meeting came at the church's suggestion, and was carefully prepared in negotiations between responsible parties for months in advance, in order to ensure that the meeting would have not merely a formal and ceremonial character but some real substance. the church wanted access to television and radio, to obtain a pension for clergy over age , to be able to construct church facilities in so-cal ed 'socialist cities' (churchless cities built after the war). there was also a more specific issue: ownership of the augustine monastery in erfurt was shared equally between church and state - the church wanted full ownership. all these requests were granted. in addition, the meeting created an atmosphere of trust between church and state, and led directly to the establishment of contacts, in which outstanding problems came to be resolved on an issue-by-issue basis. the state secretariat for church affairs came to see itself increasingly as a 'go-between' between the state apparatus of which it was a part and the church. officials at the state secretariat were highly knowledge- able, understood the needs of the churches, and liked to think that they were of use to the churches. other churches likewise benefitted from the new atmosphere, and almost every clergyman with whom i talked said that his church was an indirect beneficiary of the march meeting between schonherr 'land honecker. what did the state gain from this meeting? first of all, it represented the culmination of honecker's efforts to set church-state relations on a new footing. honecker wanted to break with the confrontational policies of his predecessor, walter ulbiicht, and to see church-state relations become more tranquil. secondly, the authorities were already planning to introduce obligatory 'pre- military' training at upper secondary schoof level in september of that year. they may well have welcomed the chance to work out a kind of modus vivendi with the church, before embarking on a course that kirche als lerngemeinschajt . .. , p. . ibid., p. . "see albrecht schonherr, 'nach zehn jahren: zum staat-kirche-gesprach am . marz ', in kirche im sozialismus, vol. no. (february ), p. ' . protestantism in east germany, - was certain to anger many church people. and thirdly, the honecker regime was already beginning to show a new approach toward the german past, 'rehabilitating' long-denigrated giants of german history. martin luther, as will be shown, was central to this project. the state was going to celebrate the luther quincentenary in , and honecker himself would chair the official martin luther committee of the gdr, which was established on june . the modus vivendi achieved in march established a kind of trust, on the basis of which church-state cooperation in celebrating luther would become possible. the luther year celebrations will be discussed in the next section. meanwhile, the church reacted very quickly to the announcement of the introduction of pre-military training. already at a national conference on june , the evangelical church federation warned that the planned educational changes would encourage young people to think in terms of 'enemies', cultivating prejudice and hate in them. in july the conference of church leaderships adopted an 'education for peace' action programme, underlining the church's duty to work for peace, broadly conceived. and in september , a church synod at berlin-w eissensee urged the regime to scrap its pre-military training programme and introduce a 'peace education' programme instead, with emphasis on independent thinking on moral questions. the sed was not interested. in , on the initiative of young people in the church, the first 'peace decade' was organised under the auspices of the evangelical church. this -day event mobilised christians and non-christians for discussions and seminars on peace, environmentalism, the arms race, and other issues of social concern. small groups of pacifists began forming spontaneously in late in the larger cities of the gdr, and by numbered , - , activists and , - , sympathisers and supporters. these groups, with anywhere between five and members each, continued to exist in all the larger cities of the gdr. perhaps as many as per cent of these groups were church-linked (until late ), because church-associated activities were the sole exception to the official requirement (up to late ) that citizens register any 'large' gatherings in advance - this even included regular meetings of as few as half a dozen persons. despite the high dependence of these groups on the cnurches for the use of church premises, - per cent of the members of these groups were non-christians, some of the activists were in fact antipathetic to the church in general terms, and some of the groups themselves had no particular christian character. in this respect, the church was quite receptive to independent initiatives. in , a group of punks came to frankfurter aligemeine, september , p. . protestantism in east germany, - berlin's church of the samaritan and asked for the use of a room, in order to set up a punk club. the church turned down their request. however, some members of a peace group already making use of the premises of the church of the samaritan were sympathetic and allowed the punks to join their group. in , the evangelical church commissioned an east german graphic artist to design an emblem with the scriptural words 'swords into ploughshares' (schwerter zu pflugscharen). the resulting emblem was used on shoulder badges distributed by the church at its second 'peace decade' in november . the authorities initially seemed to approve of the emblem, but in april banned the badge, and ordered the police to stop young people wearing it and force them to remove it. some churches, such as the apostolic communities and the mormons, have been interested neither in ecumenism nor in the environment. other churches, including the methodists, the re- formed church, the seventh day adventists and the church of john, did become active in environmental concerns, however, and organised volunteers to help clean up polluted streams and to plant trees. the environment came to be a central theme of ecumenical meetings in the gdr, and thus involved all churches taking part in such meetings. as for the evangelical church itself, it made the environment a focus of its 'peace decades' in the late s. as the peace work of the evangelical church developed, it became clear that there were six contentious issues between church and state. first, the church rerrfained opposed to what it termed the militarisation of east german society, and in particular to the programmes of pre-military training in schools. yet the regime repeatedly extended and expanded these pre-military programmes, both in school and in the pioneers youth organisation (for boys and :,girls aged to ). second, the church continued to plead for the introduction of a social service alternative to military service, and protested against discrimination against young people who fulfilled their military duty in the construction brigade. in , a panel discussion in st sophia's church in berlin revealed that more than former members of construction units had been admitted to university study and concluded that discrimination against veterans of the , . \ "for further discussion, see pedro ramet, 'church and peace in the gdr', problems o/communism, vo!. no, (july-august ), especially pp, - ; also reprinted as chapter in pedro ramet, cross and commissar: the politics / religion in eastern europe and the ussr (indiana university press: bloomington, indiana, ), "de tijd (amsterdam), december , trans. in jprs, east europe report, no. eps- - ( january ), p. ; and ulrike enders, 'erziehung zum hass: zum staatlichen erziehungsprogramm fur kintergarten', kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (april ). protestantism in east germany, - construction brigade was no longer a problem. s third, the church continued to remonstrate against more widespread discrimination against christians in employment and elsewhere in education or in jobs or in other areas. fourth, the church continued to plead for the right of emigration and established a consultation service in berlin for those seeking to emigrate. fifth, the· church's protection of the independent peace groups opened it to the charge of harbouring political opposition, and made the holding of what bishop werner krusche once called 'the narrow space between opposition and opportunism' a much more complex task. and sixth, as already noted, the church increasingly addressed environmentalist concerns and identified itself with those who believed that the sed's economic policy was leading to ecological disaster. peter gensichen of wittenberg has played a special role here: as head of the wittenberg church research centre, he has edited a series of information bulletins about environmental questions. when erich honecker received the then chairman of the federation of evangelical churches, bishop hannes hempel of dresden, for a meeting in february , the conversation centred on the church's peace activism and the sed's policy on peace. honecker pointedly reminded hempel of the gdr's alliance with the soviet union, and acknowledged the contribution of east german christians to the building of socialism in that country. the compliment implied a warning. the luther and miintzer celebrations in the early post-war years, the sed drew a sharp contrast between martin luther and his contemporary thomas miintzer. luther was criti~ised for serving the interests of princes and nobility, while miintzer, a chiliastic zealot who stirred up a peasant revolt in germany in , was hailed as 'the true representative of the revolutionary forces' in reformation times. so in a publication, frankfurter allgemeine, september , p. . ... ibid., february , p. . quoted in gisela helwig, 'zwischen opposition und opportunismus: zur lage der kirche in der ddr', deutschland archiv, vqi. no. (june, ), p. . "wolfgang biischer and peter wem;ierski, null bock auf ddr: aussteigerjugend im anderen deutschland (spiegel verlag: hamburg, ), p. ; also glaube und heimat (jena), may , p. , trans. in jprs, east europe report, no. eer- - ( july ), pp. - . neues deutschland, february , p. . mittelalter, beginn der neuzeit (volk and wissen volkseigener verlag: berlin ), a history textbook for senior schools in the gdr, as quoted in arvan gordon, 'the luther quincentenary in the gdr', religion in communist lands, vol. no. (spring ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - luther had been cast as the spiritual ancestor of hitler, while another east german historian, writing in , had charged luther with being 'counter-revolutionary'. by the mid- s, however, luther was being credited with contributing to the early 'bourgeois' revolution against 'feudal' roman supremacy, a position which conceded that his influence had been progressive, relative to his time and context. as luther's star rose in east german historiography, miintzer's declined somewhat. as the gdr prepared to commem- orate the th anniversary of the reformation in , a rough consensus was reached in elite circles that . . . it is neither scientifically nor politically justified to content ourselves with this 'babylonian captivity' of the progressive luther heritage. marxist historical research has, on the contrary, . through the exposition of the legitimate (gesetzmiissig) inter- relationship of the reformation and peasant war as phases of the bourgeois revolution, uncovered the progressive meaning of the lutheran reformation and with it has created the scientific basis for the national jubilee marking the passing of years since the reformation, which appreciated martin luther as be~onging to the good traditions of our republic. the decision to celebrate the luther quincentenary in entailed a further rehabilitation of luther, even though the sed continued to insist that luther had been unable to perceive the full social ramifications of the revolutionary upheaval which he had helped to stir up. the state's new interest in luther provided a basis for a deepening of church-state rapprochement, although some church persons were critical of the sed's transparent attempt to adopt luther as a forerunner of socialism. indeed, luther was now described as 'one of the greatest sons of the german people.' 'i for the sed, celebrating luther reinforced its more general effort (which can be dated to ) to reclaim its german past and to establish historical precedents and roots for the present-day socialist system. in this way, the sed hoped to convert german nationalism, which had long been a source of contempt for the east german state, into a source of support. moreover, luther's theology explicitly wolfram von hanstein, von luther. bis hitler (dre&den, ), pp. - , as cited in stephen p. hoffmann, 'the\gd~, luther, and the german question', review of politics, vol. no. (spring ), p. . . alexander abusch, der irrweg einer nation (berlin, ), first published in , as cited in ibid. gerhard brendler, 'reformation und fortschritt', in leo stern and max steinmetz (eds.), jahre reformation (berlin, ), p. , as quoted in ibid., p. . "robert f. goeckel, 'the luther anniversary in east germany', world politics, vol. no. (october ), p. . "quoted in ibid., p. . protestantism in east germany, - traced temporal authority to divine ordinance, leading luther to preach obedience to secular authorities, whoever they might be, under most circumstances. (he preached passive resistance to authorities whose actions were contrary to christian teaching.) luther could thus be reinterpreted in the first place as a forerunner of 'progressive' thinking, even of socialism, and in the second place as an advocate of rendering unto caesar's what is caesar's. church representatives took part in the work of the official martin luther committee, and the state provided funds for the restoration of a number of churches and sites of historical importance. the state even provided logistical support for church-sponsored events connected with the luther celebrations in . in the wake of the celebrations, there was a new trust in the relationship between the state on the one hand and the evangelical and other traditional protestant churches on the other. (since the apostolic and other christian churches placed no particular importance on luther, the quincentenary had no effect on their relations with the state.) thomas miintzer was a very different matter. a utopian and political radical who entertained dreams of realising far-reaching equality in an earthly republic, miintzer has far less importance for the church than luther. indeed, both the church and the sed tended to see miintzer as a 'theologian of revolution' - which explains both the interest of the sed, and the lesser interest of the church, in commemorating his birth. in a three-page set of 'theses on thomas miintzer' , the party organ neues deutschland declared that miintzer aspired, on the basis of his revolutionary understanding of christian teachings, to bring about a radical transformation of society in the interest of the exploited and subjugated people. he developed a theology of revolution with the goal of overcoming every form of class rule. he perceived in simple people the agent lmd revolutionary instrument of this transformation. honecker himself was even more explicit, claiming that miintzer's legacy lived on in gdr socialism, and that his legacy was 'especially valuable' for the sed. . - the evangelical church established a committee to organise its commemoration of miintzer's quincentenary in · , and appointed three 'observers' to attend sessions of the state committee (headed, as priedrich winterhlfger, 'thomas miintzer und die gegenwart in beiden deutschen staaten', deutsche studien, vo!. no. (december ), p. ; and arbeitsgruppe thomas-miintzer-gedenken des kirchenbundes, 'orientierungshilfe zum gedenken des . geburtstag von thomas miintzer im jahre ', epd dokumentation ( ), no. , p. . 'thesen iiber thomas miintzer', neues deutschland, - january , p. . ibid. protestantism in east germany, - in the case of the luther celebrations, by erich honecker). the state, following the model it had established in its luther celebrations, commissioned a number of biographies of miintzer as well as musical· and dramatic works celebrating him, prepared a series of conferences and ceremonial events in his honour, and renamed the town of stolberg after him (hereafter, thomas-miintzer-stadt stolberg). yet the miintzer celebrations were to have no particular impact on church-state relations, because the church by and large views miintzer as a 'schwiirmer' (a fanatic), on the fringes of its tradition. the church therefore approached the miintzer quincentenary with marked reserve. trends and developments in the gdr's final years the increased involvem<;!nt of the church in pacifist and ecological concerns after was associated with a mobilisation of people at grass roots level. indeed, the bishops have often taken stands because of pressures generated from below. in , this grass roots mobilisation reached the point where one could speak of a rebellion at the base - a rebellion aimed at the laicisation of the church. in october of that year, a group of pastors, church workers and lay persons issued a declaration setting forth the principles of a 'solidarity church'. the laity, according to the authors of this declaration, could not allow themselves to become the passive objects of the church's pastoral care, but should take an active role in the formulation of church programmatic statements. in june the evangelical church was convening a synod in berlin on the theme of christian-marxist coexistence. supporters of the 'solidarity church' decided that they wanted to hold an 'iopposition synod, which they called the 'church congress from below' (kirchentag von unten). charging that the church hierarchy had become too quiescent vis-a.-vis the state, advocates-of the church congress from below were nonetheless ultimately dependent on the benevolence of the church, since the only place where they could legally meet would be on church premises. bishop forck decided to make church facilities available to them, and the 'counter-synod' was held at berlin's churcn of the pentecost; attended by some , persons, mostly young people. in general, the church congress "roland hahn, 'miintzer ein sozialrevolutionar? die sed und die kirche vor dem . geburtstag thomas miintzer', kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (august ), p. ; also thomas miintzer ehrung der ddr (dietz verlag: east berlin, ). rita hermanns, 'auf der suche nach freiraumen: iiber die initiative "kirchentag von unten": kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (august ), p. . frankfurter a llgemeine, june , p. , and june , p. . protestantism in east germany, - from below was dominated by the idea that the concept of a 'church in socialism' had become obsolete, and should be replaced by a new concept of a 'grassroots movement for a different socialism'. that is t say, some adherents of the movement did not see western parliamentary pluralism as attractive, but hoped instead to refashion socialism in accordance with certain humanist ideals. the 'church from below' also aspired to restructure the church - from below. 'church from below' groups appeared in other cities, although the strongest group was the original group in east berlin. in general, these groups saw themselves as presenting an alternative to the traditional methods of the evangelical hierarchy. in erfurt, however, the local 'church from below' group enjoyed good relations with the hierarchy and the two sides cooperated in putting on a critical exhibit about the reconstruction of erfurt after the second world war. in berlin itself, the church of zion became deeply involved in environmental concerns, putting together an environmental library. the library published the samizdat journal umweltbliitter, and organised the first unofficial peace march in the country (in september ). on november , east german security police raided the library, confiscating copying machines and various publications and materials of a critical nature. twenty-one persons were arrested there, and similar actions were carried out in rostock, dresden, lena, weimar, wismar, -and halle. the raid on the church of zion was the first time that church premises had been searched in the gdr since the s. the raid and arrests provoked widespread protests in east germany, including a protest from bishop werner leich, chairman of the federation of evangelical cnurches. two months later, an official parade in honour of rosa luxemburg and karl liebknecht, founders of the german communist party, proxided the spark for new tensions between church and state. some , persons were taking part in the official parade. they were, however, joined by unofficial protestors who unfurled _a banner bearing a quotation from luxemburg: 'freedom is always only the freedom to think differently.' these activists were quickly rounded up and imprisoned, and the church loudly protested. the party had evidently had enough, and bishop leich was invited to a private meeting with werner larowinsky, a member of the politburo. in that meeting, larowinsky allegedly told the bishop: "'grossere freiriiume fiir basisgruppen' [riidiger rosenthal, as interviewed by matthias harmanl, kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (october ), pp. , . die welt am sonntag (bonn), november , pp. - ; and frankfurter aligemeine, december , p. . protestantism in east germany, - recently, the number of occurrences and events in the sphere of [thel evangelical churches has increased, which cannot be left unchallenged and in some cases exceed the limit of what can be tolerated. these events must be taken very seriously. they are in direct contrast with the form and understanding of togetherness which has proved its worth for a long time, respect for what is due the state, the parties, and the social organisations, and respectfor the church's constitutional tasks and duties. it must be clear that in the church too, there cannot be any zones exempt from [thellaw. we must take very seriously such occurrences as the provocations on the fringes of the rosa luxemburg demonstration, and the obstructionist and virulent campaigns against the gdr, that are connected with the church of zion and the subsequent series of events in some berlin churches ... churches are organising purely political agitprop events, and anti-state slogans and calls for riots and confrontation are being tolerated tnere. . . the limit of what can he tolerated has been surpassed, the opposition groups have gone too far. we cannot allow things to continue like this. in a number of cases, events are organised without the knowledge of the allegedly competent municipal church councillors, under pressure from the outside and from above, over which the 'well-meaning' initiators no nger have control in the end. these are indeed signs of a disintegration of church structures, which, according to the wishes of people acting in the background, should apparently be replaced by different structures. if even church representatives openly admit that real substructures are forming, that there is discernible logistic control from outside and corresponding cooperation, this must be an occasion for reflection, for a reversal, for a necessary clarification, and for a change on the part of the responsible bodies. attempts are being made to turn the churches into tribunals, lawyers' offices, or prosecutors' offices. at official offices, people answer the phone saying 'contact office' , 'solidarity office', or 'coordina- tion centre' . tensions developed in the relationship between the evangelical church and the state from september ; when clergy attending the erfurt synod sharply criticised the regime's policies in the field of education and oiice again demanded a social· service alternative to military service. klaus gysi, state secretary for church affairs from "frankfurter aligemeine, november , p. , trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), november , pp. , . the statement was allegedly read to leich and distributed, in written form, only to the first secretaries of sed bezirk and kreis leaderships. protestantism in east germany, - october to july , fin~ly agreed to take up these issues with appropriate church representatives, but he was overruled by higher authorities, and no such meeting took place. in , a state official attending one of the church congresses was asked about the prospects for gorbachev-style democratisation in the gdr. when the official ruled it out, he was loudly booed. the example set by gorbachev in the soviet union was probably largely responsible for encouraging church leaders in their outspoken course. already in early june , in a document circulated at the church congress in gorlitz, activist cells of the 'church from below' said that 'current events in the soviet union have prompted us to consider certain fundamental questions concerning a social and political renewal.' the six-page letter called for initiating action to bring about democratisation from below. later that same month another regional church congress, held in halle, heard explicit calls for the introduction of gorbachev's programmes of glasnost' and perestroika in the gdr. participants in the latter congress also raised the key question as to what the churches might be able to do to 'alleviate the glaring injustice of the division of our fatherland.' subsequently, at a synodal meeting in dessau ( - september ), bishop leich criticised what he called the development of a two-class system in the gdr, consisting of people allowed to travel to the west and people denied that prerogative, and called for a society with a 'human face' - a phrase strikingly reminiscent of czechoslovak reformer alexander dubcek's calls, in , for 'socialism with a human face'. other congresses in took up other sensitive issues. the authorities responded by barring west german television crews from taping or filming the proceedings in dessau, and by censoring a series of issues of church newspapers which sought to report on the various church assemblies. this was the first time since the early s that 'fhurch publications had been censored. all five regional church papers as well as the evangelical news service were affected. on one occasion, the berlin newspaper die kirche was banned because it attempted to reprint, in german translation, an article on religious policy in the soviet union originally published in the soviet paper . moscownews. "quoted in barbara donovan, 'church groups call for democratic reforms?, radio free europe research, june , p. . frankfurter rundschau, june , p. . quoted in die welt, june , p. ; trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), june , p. . frankfurter allgemeine, september , p. ; and matthias hartmann, 'hier iindert sich nichts - zur synodaltagung des kirchenbundes', in deutschland archiv, vo!. no. (october ), p. . "on this case, see frankfurter allgemeine, june , p. . protestantism in east germany, - on june, bishop leich met representatives of the state secretariat for church affairs to discuss these interventions by the authorities, but the meeting failed to resolve anything. bishop leich subsequently made a formal protest to east german prime minister willi stoph. meanwhile, two independent groups (a peace group and a working circle of the 'solidarity church') likewise sent a letter of protest to state authorities. as the censors' intrusions continued, berlin pastor wolfram huelsemann led a silent protest march of some persons on october; the march was broken up forcibly by the security police after it had gone about yards, on the grounds that it was an unregistered, and hence illegal, assembly. u during alone, the authorities had censored die kirche times; the other evangelical church papers were also affected. i as tensions grew, the gdr authorities banned an international church congress scheduled to start in east berlin on november. sixty-five representatives from evangelical churches in ten european countries had planned to discuss peace issues and moscow's reform policy. the authorities said that the meeting would have put 'pressure' on the church-state relationship in the gdr. the chul;ch and the revolution meanwhile, the formula 'church in socialism' came under fire within the evangelical church itself in . writing in the west berlin periodical kirche im sozialismus, east german theologian richard schr der criticised the formula for suggesting that the church was somehow incorporating socialism into its self-image, and suggested that 'church in the gdr' might be a more appropriate, and politically less loaded, formula. but the latter would also have been politically "less useful to both church and state. moreover, although developed within evangelical church circles, the formula was widely accepted among other protestant churches, as well as by the church of john, though not by the apostolic churches, the mormons, or, of course, usiiddeutsche zeitung, july , p. ; die welt, july , p. i, trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), july , p. ; frankfurter aiigemeine, july , p. , and august , p. ; and siiddeutsche zeitung, october , p. , trans. in fbls, daily report (eastern europe), october , p. . vienna domestic service ( december ), trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), december , p. ; and michael burg, 'es geht nicht urn die kirchenpresse', kirche im sozialismus, vol. no. (december ), especially p. . "die welt, november , p. i; and dpa (hamburg), november - both trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), november , p. . jrichard schroder, 'was kann "kirche im soziaiismus" sinnvoll heissen?', kirche im sozialismus, vol. no. (august ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - the catholic church. by march , schroder was no longer a 'voice in the wilderness', and thuringian bishop werner leich himself - chair of the evangelical church federation - called the concept 'church in socialism' 'rather worn out'. leich had come to agree that the concept suggested that the church was for socialism. on the contrary, the church was becoming, ever more decisively, a leading force in the growing opposition to the sed regime. the church began to distance itself from the concept, but the entire concept would soon be overtaken by events anyway. on may , elections were held in the gdr. opposition groups sheltered by the evangelical church monitored the elections closely, and when the results were announced the opposition charged the regime with fraudulent under-reporting of negative votes. in east berlin's prezlau hill district alone, according to the opposition, some , negative votes had been confirmed; yet the regime had reported only , negative votes in the whole of east berlin. some young people demonstrated against the elections in front of the st sophia church; they were beaten up by security forces and of them were arrested. they were released, however, after representa- tions were made by the church. in summer , hungary opened its borders with austria and announced that it would no longer honour its earlier agreement to return to the gdr east german citizens seeking foreign asylum. the result was that within a matter of weeks, hundreds of thousands of east germans fled to west germany, most of them via hungary and austria, but some by scaling the walls of west german embassies in warsaw and prague. an evangelical church synod, held in eisenach in september, declared that fundamental political and social reforms were 'urgent' and in particular demanded the introduction of a multi-party system in the gdr. the regime refused. the church lead~rship sent a letter to the honecker leadership requesting bilateral talks on political and social reforms. the authorities 'took note' of this request, but shelved it until events forced their hand. - as is well known, the gdr's th anniversary celebrations on october proved to be the final curtain on the east german experiment. the evangelical church organised peace prayers and vigils in support of reform in berlin? leipzig, an~ dresden. hundreds "frankfurter aligemeine, marchll , p. ; trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), march , p. . "heino falcke, 'stellvertretendes handeln: "kirche im sozialismus" am beispiel der ddr', kirche im sozialismus, vo!. no. (december ), pp. - . frankfurter rundschau, may , p. . frankfurter aligemeine, september , p. ; also neue ziircher zeitung, - september , p. . die welt, - september , p. ; trans. in fbis, daily report (eastern europe), september , p. . protestantism in east germany, - of thousands of people gathered in protest. the vigils ultimately brought the regime down. erich honecker, secretary of the sed since , was forced to resign (and ultimately fled to the ussr), and egon krenz briefly took the reins. on his first day in office, krenz had a private meeting with bishop leich - a clear sign of the political power of the church at that juncture. later, in december, when round table talks on east germany's future were convened in berlin, bishop forck of berlin-brandenburg was chosen to chair the discussions. new elections were held in east germany in march , bringing into office a coalition government headed by christian democrat lothar de maiziere and committed to german reunification. de maiziere viewed himself as a caretaker for the brief transition prior to eventual reunification on october . his cabinet included four protestant pastors - among them rainer eppelmann (minister of defence and disarmament) and markus meckel (minister of foreign affairs). fourteen of the members of the transitional parliament were pastors. the transition government restored several church holy days (including christmas and easter) as state holidays, removed pressures on the church, and released internal documents revealing the state security's strategies for undermining and subverting the churches, including drawing evangelical pastors into cooperation. the reunification of germany also made possible the reunification of the divided evangelical church, and this process, started in september , was by and large accomplished by february . thus ended the independent existence of the 'east german church'. however as robert goeckel, a seasoned american observer of the east german religious scene, noted: despite its ideological conflict with the sed regime, the church is ironically more likely than other institutions to retain elements of its past experience of socialism. little appears likely to remain of 'real existing socialism' in much of gdr society ... the wende, or transformation, has left no segment of sociefy unaffected, even 'non-political' areas like sports and the music scene. yet because the church was less affected by the leninist system, its rejection of the gdr legacy is less sweeping than in these other institutions. there have been few purges in the church leadership and the church's calls for social justice stand in stark relief to the popular embrace (as of mid- ) of west german-style' new york times, may, p. as. '"on the last point, see frankfurter allgemeine, september , p. , and september , p. . neue ziircher zeitung, february , p. . protestantism in east germany, - capitalism ... nor is the resurgence of religion after the collapse of the nazi regime likely to be repeated in the post-communist regime. the collapse of the leninist system in the gdr was due in no small part to the evangelical-lutheran church. it too will fall prey to the greater diversity of german tradition and the pluralism of liberal democracy. yet; more than other institutions in the gdr, the church is likely to embody elements of the past in the new germany. conclusion during the era of communist rule, - , the evangelical church, by virtue of its preponderant size,to some extent set the tone for church-state relations more generally. but there were some important exceptions to this rule. in the early post-war period, while the evangelical church's relations with the state were difficult, other churches, which had been banned under the nazis or had suffered severe limitations, felt relief at being able to organise themselves anew. moreover, whereas earlier german governments had favoured the evangelical church, the sed treated all registered religious organisations more or less equally. the result was that the smaller churches often took a more positive view of sed policy (a perspective that was also encouraged by circumspection). the sch nherr-honecker meeting of march , on the other hand, produced positive effects for all churches. religious life became more normal, communities generally found it easier to build churches, and the entire church-state climate improved. by contrast, the falling out after was specific to the relationship with the state of the evangelical church, and did not affect other churches. only the pub'ications of the evangelical church were censored. officials of other churches insisted that there was no particular tension in their relations with the state during the last years of the gdr, f - . in fact, as tensions were growing between the evangelical church and _the state in , the church of john sent an open letter to general secretary honecker warmly commemorating ih~ march meeting and noting the 'positive effect of the separation between state and \ church and of equal respect to all churches and religious communities in our state.' the letter gratefully acknowledged the 'expansion of the publication of church materials' and underlined acceptance by that robert goeckel, 'the evangelical-lutheran church and the east german revolution', occasional papers on religion in eastern europe, vo!. no. (november ), p. . protestantism in east germany, - church of the principle that the church is 'neither a political nor a social organisation.' the churches i have discussed in this article are highly diverse; their theologies, ecclesiologies, and perspectives on politics have all differed considerably. even within the evangelical church there have been differences - some traceable to differences between the lutheran and reformed traditions, some associated with differences of personality, or differences in the experience of regional churches. as for the regime, it generally succeeded in presenting a more unified front. reunification presents the churches in the eastern part of germany with a powerful challenge. unlike the churches in the western part of the country, they have suffered a dramatic depreciation in membership as a consequence of regime-sponsored secularisation. until reunification, their political role assured them of a continued role in society. now shorn of that role, the east german churches will find it far more difficult than their west german sister churches to maintain a visible presence. j neues deutschland, may , p. . protestantism in east germany, - fact sheet (groups with , or more members. a data are from , unless otherwise stated) no. no. no. o/members · / parishes o/pastors protestants evangelical (werner , , ' , ' , ' leich, chairman) methodist (riidiger , minor, bishop of dresden) baptist federation , (manfred suit, president) reformed (hans- , jiirgen sievers, chairman) old lutheran , (j ohannes zellmer, president) evangelical- , ' ? ? lutheran free unity of brethren , (christian m iiller , chair of the directorate) 'i apostolic _new apostolic (fritz - , , schroder, president) apostolate of jesus - , - , christ (waldemar rhode, presiding) ' ' j lay preachers protestantism in east germany, - shepherd and flock (giinter hain , presiding) community in christ jesus (lorenzianer) (gottfried borner, chair of the exec- utive committee) apostolate of juda (horst glaser, presiding) catholic-apostolic (werner zander, lower deacon) reformed apostolic (kurt kretzschmar , chairman) other jehovah's witnesses seventh day advent- ists (lothar reiche, president) christian community ~ormons (henry burckhardt, president) church of john (frieda muller, superintendent) fact sheet (cont) , , , , , - , , , , , regular parishes; affiliate parishes me chisedek priests; aaron priests ? more than lower deacon illegal unknown q journal of f̂ j contemporary religion editor professor peter b. clarke, centre for new religions, "^ king's college london, university of london, uk o c/j u co-editor ms elisabeth arweck, centre for new religions, king's college london, university of london, uk journal of contemporary religion (formerly religion today) is an international journal which is concerned with the discussion and analysis of new religious movements. the journal also focuses on current forms of religiosity and spirituality, including the field of religious experience in contemporary society. the journal includes review articles on these themes and reviews of books dealing with these topics. subscription rates - volume ( issues). issn - . institutional rate: £ . ; north america us$ . personal rate: £ . ; north america us$ . orderform please send a completed copy of this form, with the appropriate payment, to the address below. name address carfax visit the carfax home page at hap awww.carfax.co.uk uk tel:+ ( ) uk fax- -» ( ) e-mail sales@carfax.co uk carfax publishing limited, po box , abingdon, oxfordshire ox ue, uk terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://hap awww.carfax.co.uk mailto:sales@carfax.co https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new from r u t l e dg e the least of these r a c e , l a w , a n d r e l i g i o n i n a m e r i c a n c u l t u r e anthony e. cook "cook's powerful book is a pioneering work that connects legal theory, religious thought, american studies, and race in a fasci- nating manner. how refreshing it is to have such a sophisticated legal scholar put forward a progressive religiospiritual vision of racial and economic iusticef" —cornel west racial and economic justice $ . /pb millennium, messiahs, and mayhem c o n t e m p o r a r y a p o c a l y p t i c m o v e m e n t s edited by tom robbins and susan palmer "robbins and palmer have gathered a number of essays that take a sober look at the phenomenon of apocalypticism in the modern world.... in all of the essays, the authors attempt to show how apocalyptic groups may be defined by their attention to the signs of the millennium and the signs of a messiah, a figure who will draw to a close one epoch ana usher in a new one, and the ways in which these dual beliefs often lead to mayhem." —publishers weekly $ . /pb african muslims in antebellum america t r a n s a t l a n t i c s t o r i e s a n d s p i r i t u a l s t r u g g l e s allan d. austin possessors of strong identities a n d a powerful faith, african m u s l i m s m a d e a n i m p r e s s i v e b u t u n d e r s t u d i e d i m p a c t on america. this b o o k explores, via p o r t r a i t s , d o c u m e n t s , m a p s , a n d texts, the lives of sub-saharan n o n - p e a s a n t m u s l i m africans c a u g h t in the slave t r a d e b e t w e e n a n d . $ . /pb exporting the american gospel global christian fundamentalism steve brouwer, paul gifford, a n d s u s a n d. rose "[the authors] have made their case with welcome reability and an impressive . . . grasp of both the reli- gious and economic dimen- sions involved." —harvey cox, world policy journal $ . /pb c h a n g i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n s cultural analysis and religious reflection edited by sheila greeve devaney a n d dwight n. hopkins emphasizing a commit- ment to the marginalized perspectives this book presents insightful contri- butions which show how religion is both embed- d e d in and expressive of concrete social relation- ships and local realities. $ . /pb f a c i n g t h e m i r r o r o l d e r w o m e n a n d b e a u t y s h o p c u l t u r e frida kerner furman "a respectful and even ten- der treatment of a large and largely neglected population in our culture: elderly, mid- dle income, middle american women . . . [furman's] account is beau- tifully written, warm." —sally b. purvis $ . /pb r terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core amer\c*%\a r^tiiion reinventing american protestantism christianity in the new millennium d o n a l d e. miller "a refreshingly honest and personal account, this book is a model for the analysis of religion and contemporary culture and contains important clues as to why many mainline churches are declining while others churches grow." —wade clark roof, author of a generation of seekers "everyone interested in the changing face of religion and society will want to read this engaging, empirically grounded, persuasively argued book." — r o b e r t wuthnow, author of the restructuring of american religion $ . cloth god's daughters evangelical women and the power of submission r. marie griffith "griffith's deft portrayal is a unique and important contribution to the study of pentecostal spirituality and a compelling model for the retelling of women's religious experience in th- century american culture." —margaret bendroth,author of fundamentalism and gender, to present "vivid, lucid, and well-written." —lynn davidman, author of tradition in a rootless world $ . cloth at bookstores or order - - - . www.ucpress.edu terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www.ucpress.edu https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core ^ ^ f c ^ g american originals homemade varieties of christianity paul k. conkin "[illuminates] the most successful 'new religious movements' in the united states derived from christianity. [conkin's] judgements are informed, incisive, independent, and at times intellectually provocative—a valuable reminder of the innovative contribu- tions coming from the religious margins in america."—stephen j. stein, indiana university pp. $ cl / $ . pa redeeming the south religious cultures and racial identities among southern baptists, - paul harvey "with the candor of faith, the insight of hope and the judiciousness of char-' ity, paul harvey has documented the uneasy spiritual rapprochement be- tween white and black christians for a critical segment of american history." —c. eric lincoln, duke university pp. $ . cl / $ . pa fred w morrison series in southern studies america's communal utopias donald e. pitzer, editor "only now do we have a comprehen- sive survey of [communal groups] written by those who know each community, or family of communities, best. [readers] will be absorbed by this book for decades."—timothy miller, university of kansas pp., illus., w/ an appendix listing more than utopian communities $ cl / $ . pa a cautious patriotism the american churches and the second world war gerald l. sittser "an invaluable introduction to the issues and choices that shaped ameri- can religion . . . [sittser] helps us understand why the war was so im- portant for american religion in the twentieth century and for american culture."—john m. mulder, louisville presbyterian theological seminary pp. $ . cl women against the good war conscientious objection & gender on the american home front, - rachel waltnergoossen "tells the story of mennonite and other[pacifist] women. . . . [goossen] explores the ambiguities of [their] situation and the ways their lives and outlook were profoundly altered by their experience." —paul boyer, institute for research in the humanities pp., illus. $ . cl / $ . pa gender and american culture interpreting the free exercise of religion the constitution and american pluralism bette novit evans "an immensely well-informed and nuanced treatment of the full range of recent free exercise problems. . . . engaging and important."—franklin i. gamwell, university of chicago pp. $ cl / $ . pa # s at bookstores or by toll-free order the university of north carolina press chapel hill phone ( ) - , fax ( ) - • http://sunsite.unc.edu/uncpress/ "ityears terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://sunsite.unc.edu/uncpress/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pql religious titles from mercer university press merspectives on war in the bible bu. j o h n wood isbm - - - m u p / p l l l $ . , paperback literary otudies in luke-acts edited bu, picnard p. i hompson and i nomas t . phillips i s b n - - - m u p / h $ . , nardback mercer l^ommentaru, on the dible volume : pentateuch/ lorah watson e. mills and pichard i. wilson, qeneral editors isbm - - - m u p / p $ . , paperback the inte nor oense ot ocripture t h e s acred liermeneutics of j o h n w mevi bu william d ipuccio stud ies in american biblical liermeneutics isbm - - - m u p / p $ . , paperback a biblical people in the bible belt i he jewish oommunitu. of memphis, tennessee, - bu. oelma o . lewis isbm - - - m u p / h $ . , hardback encyclopedia ot rceliqion in the south edited bu. oamuel o . n i l l isbm - - - x m u p / p $ . t , paperback walkinq inteqritq edited bu, lawrence l . charter, o r . isbm - - - m u p / p $ . , paperback co i he lite and houqht ot kichard c^reenham by j o h n i - !. primus isbm - - - m u p / h $ . , hardback uhronos, ixairos, ohristos ii v^hronoloqical, nativity, and keliqious studies in memory ot r<au, summers edited bu, j e r r q vard a man isbm - - - m u p / h $ . , hardback send orders to mercer university press peake road, macon, georgia - - - , ext. - - , ext. (in georgia) fax - - email mupressorders@mercer.edu http://www.mupress.org terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core mailto:mupressorders@mercer.edu http://www.mupress.org https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core it_"j yes, i want my own convenient subscription to religion and american culture. please enter m y two-issue subscription, $ individual, $ institution. total subscription order: $ total back issue order: $ canada residents, add % gst $ (#r ) intl. postage (add $ airmail): $ total enclosed: $ three convenient ways to pay: i ] check enclosed .., purchase order enclosed '! charge: mastercard visa c a r d # signature exp. date n a m e organization & department address city state/country zip return this card with payment to: religion and american cwzrwre/university of california press journals berkeley way # , berkeley, ca - or fax (visa or mc orders): - - . email journals@ucop.edu rc b religion and american culture belongs in your library! if your library doesn't currently subscribe to religion and american culture, please fill out this card and give it to your librarian. i r e c o m m e n d acquisition of religion and american culture. referred b y d e p a r t m e n t religion and american culture (issn - ) is published twice a year by the university of california press. articles are peer-reviewed. printed on ph-neutral stock. sample issues are available upon request. religion and american culture is abstracted or indexed in historical abstracts, america: history and life, and religion index one: periodicals, published by the american theological library association. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core mailto:journals@ucop.edu https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core complete your collection of religion and american culture, or search through the tables of contents—online! point your internet browser to http://www-ucpress.berkeley.edu/ j o u r n a l s / r a c / to find the issues you want and order your back issue and subscription with this card or via our online order form. biannual volumes are available, beginning with winter , issue : through winter , issue : . recent special issue: religion and twentieth-century american novels. winter , issue : . i would like the following back issues: individuals' price: $ x number of issues = $. institutional price: $ x number of issues = $ route to: acquisitions librarian terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www-ucpress.berkeley.edu/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core lowed by cell death and permanent disability [ , , ]. crigler and najjar first characterized fatal hereditary non- hemolytic jaundice in [ ]. they described six infants in three families; five children died of kernicterus by months of age, and the remaining patient died at age years, several months after suffering devastating brain injury. crigler-najjar disease is rare in most populations, but a loss-of-function (type i) ugt a mutation is prevalent among the amish and mennonite groups of pennsylvania and the midwestern united states. while the development of effective phototherapy systems has altered the course of this previously lethal disease [ , ], cnd patients remain vulnerable to brain injury throughout their life span [ ], and the high disease incidence within our local plain commu- nities necessitated the development of a systematic treatment protocol. we report here uniformly good neurological outcomes for all cnd patients managed under this protocol over the last years. patients and methods patients twenty cnd patients, ages . – years, were managed over a -year period and represent patient-years of follow-up (table ). over this same time period, we were consulted about additional children (not included in the - patient cohort) who suffered kernicterus. data from these cases are included under the section case summaries to illustrate various concepts. for the patients from amish or mennonite communities, only exon of ugt a was sequenced to determine the homozygous c→a genotype. for the three remaining patients, all five exons of ugt a were sequenced according to previously described methods [ ]. written informed consent to dna testing was obtained from the parents of all patients. clinical management the mainstay of therapy was an overhead array of ten philips w special blue (bb) fluorescent tubes . in recent years, two other phototherapy systems were used: portable light emitting diode (led)-based panels (stanford portabed system [ ]) and a custom-made “lightbox” housing fluorescent tubes (combined tl and bb). for newborns, a bb- or led-based light source was placed – cm from the skin for – h/day with – % of the body surface exposed. for older children and adults using the bb panel and portabed systems, light was positioned – cm from the skin and delivered at night for – h with – % of the skin exposed. mirrors were placed at the sides and head of the bed, and all patients used white sheets. lightbox therapy was provided for shorter daytime intervals ( – h) with about % of skin exposed. ursodiol ( – mg/kg/day) and a lipid-rich bedtime snack were used to stimulate bile acid-dependent bile flow and increase hepatic clearance of lumirubin, the water-soluble hepatically-excreted bilirubin photoproduct [ ]. irradiance was measured at the skin surface using three different instruments: the biliblanket meter ii (ohmeda medical, laurel, md.), joey dosimeter (respironics, pittsburgh, pa.), and a relatively inexpensive light meter (model lm , meterman test tools, everett, wash.) adapted at stanford university and calibrated against the biliblanket meter ii [ ]. the dose of light in watt-hours per nanometer (w-h/nm) was estimated as the product of skin- level irradiance (μw/cm /nm), surface area exposed (cm ), table clinical and biochemical summary of patients with crigler-najjar disease patient information mean (range) current age (years) ( . – ) age treatment started (days) ( – ) number of non-surgical hospitalizationsa . ( – ) clinical parameters percentage of patients (n= ) exchange transfusionb ursodiol therapy cholecystectomy liver transplantation neurological impairment visual impairment biochemical parameters means, sd (range) reference range bilirubin (mg/dl)c ± ( – ) . – . albumin (g/dl) . ± . ( . – . ) . – . bilirubin:albumin (mol:mol) . ± . ( . – . ) not applicable alanine transaminase (iu/l) ± ( – ) – alkaline phosphatase (iu/l) ± ( – ) – γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (iu/l) ± ( – ) – aover % of non-surgical hospitalizations were for neonatal hyper- bilirubinemia, the remainder were for infectious illnesses. overall hospitalization rate was . hospitalizations per patient per year bexchange transfusions were performed on two patients during the newborn period, before they came under our care in . no exchange procedures were performed within the cohort after cbilirubin in mg/dl× . = bilirubin in μmol/l; albumin in g/dl× = albumin in μmol/l overhead bb panels were constructed by floyd martin under the guidance of dhm. the biliblanket ii meter-based light meter and led-based portabed system were designed and constructed by hjv and colleagues. the led light panel research and development was financed by a grant from the dutch crigler-najjar association. the upright lightbox was originally designed and built by alex carmichael (australia) utilizing tl tubes. a modified bb tube- based lightbox unit, used for this study, was constructed by fm. hue test [ ]. five of these subjects were from our cohort (ages – years) and five were managed at the sophia children’s hospital in rotterdam, the netherlands (ages – years). none of the cnd patients tested wore eye shields during phototherapy. three age-matched healthy siblings (ages – years) were used as controls. results diagnosis all seventeen patients of amish or mennonite descent were homozygous for a c→a mutation in exon of the ugt a gene that resulted in a stop codon (y x) and complete absence of transferase activity. among the remain- ing patients, two had severe phenotypes (with genotypes c. [ c→t] + [ c→t] and c. [ - g→a] + [ _ delinst]) and one had a milder cn variant (with genotype c. [ a→g] + [ a→g]). patients for whom records were available began receiving phototherapy at ± days of age, before molecular confirmation of the cnd diagnosis. in the newborn period, no patient had evidence of infection, hepatopathy, or hemolysis. bilirubin rose – mg/dl/day , and the hour-specific bilirubin at presenta- tion was equal to or greater than the th percentile for healthy term neonates [ ] (fig. a). for high-risk neonates (e.g. sibling affected with cnd or parents known to be carriers), mutation detection from cord blood was typically completed within the first h of life. phototherapy we detected no serious health consequences for individuals exposed to > , lifetime hours of high-intensity blue light. for patients homozygous for the y x mutation, phototherapy maintained total bilirubin at a mean value of ± mg/dl (range: – mg/dl) and a bilirubin:albumin molar concentration ratio of . ± . (range: . – . ). major determinants of individual bilirubin values were the total light dose (irradiance × treated surface area × time) and patient age. despite consistent light dosing, baseline total bilirubin increased at a rate of . mg/dl/year (r= . , fig. b), such that the bilirubin:albumin molar ratio approached . by age years. daily illumination time ( – h) and percentage body surface treated ( – %) were similar among children and adults with cnd, whereas irradiance varied considerably. using the ohmeda biliblanket ii meter, an overhead bank with ten fresh w bb tubes irradiated skin with – μw/cm /nm at a distance of cm. the joey dosimeter measured considerably higher irradiance values from a common light source at a similar distance (fig. a). for fluorescent bb systems, major determinants of skin- level irradiance were source distance, hours of use (tube “freshness”), and the nature of surrounding materials. energy output was also influenced by the length ( –foot vs. foot) and number of tubes in the array, their axis of orientation to the body, and tube temperature; irradiance was highest when a large number of w ( -foot) tubes were oriented parallel to the long axis of the body and kept cool by a separate system of fans. tube irradiance diminished by – % after about , h ( months) of use, but this was not visually detectable. families that used light meters on a regular basis more effectively controlled the many variables influencing light dose. irradiance provided by the portabed ( – μw/cm / nm) was roughly equivalent to overhead bb light banks. major advantages of the led panels were portability, source longevity, and sleep under cover, but the system remains prohibitively expensive at this time. the upright “light box” was most effective, delivering a uniform circumferential irradiance that was . - to -fold higher than that achieved with either the overhead bb panel or portabed (fig. b). advantages of the light box system were a high surface area exposure, capacity for a large number of tubes, close proximity of light source to skin, and controlled use of reflective surfaces. because it constrained the patient during waking hours, it was only practical for about h of use per day. all three systems generated considerable heat, necessitating the use of cooling fans and warranting special attention to patient hydration. hospitalizations the overall hospitalization rate was . hospital admis- sions per patient per year, and six patients in the cohort ( %) were never hospitalized. over % of all hospi- talizations were for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia and occurred within the first weeks of life. remaining hospitalizations were for various non-surgical and surgical indications. the major reason for non-surgical hospitaliza- tion was infectious illness, which was often associated with transiently increased bilirubin and decreased albumin. daily light dose could be increased in the hospital by adding a second high-intensity unit and increasing expo- sure time to > h/day. however, given the high efficacy of home phototherapy units, patients were not hospitalized for any intensification of phototherapy per se, but for intrave- nous albumin therapy, more careful clinical and biochem- ical monitoring, and the treatment of complicating factors our hospital laboratory routinely reports bilirubin values in mg/dl and albumin in g/dl, whereas other laboratories use units of μmol/l. to interconvert these units: bilirubin in mg/dl × . = bilirubin in μmol/l; albumin in g/dl × = albumin in μmol/l. throughout the manuscript, calculated energy doses are based on direct light meter readings over the spectral range found effective toward photodegrading bilirubin ( – nm). this range encompasses the blue light absorption spectrum of bilirubin. these measurements are valid for comparing relative light energies. however, for more precise calculation of total light energy striking a biological material, such as the retina, we use “full width at half max” (fwhm), defined as the spectral width at half-maximal light intensity. this is also called the “bandwidth” and for practical purposes takes into account the gaussian distribution of energy over the detectable range. (e.g., vomiting, anorexia, dehydration, dysnatremia, etc.). there were no complications of albumin administration, and no patient received plasmapharesis while under our care. ten of twenty patients ( %) developed cholelithiasis and underwent elective laproscopic cholecystectomy; eight of these patients were being treated with ursodiol prior to developing gallstones. neurological outcome serial neurological examinations of cnd patients showed no evidence of hearing loss, cranial nerve injury, dystonia, cerebellar dysfunction, gait abnormalities, or peripheral neuromuscular disease. children and adults with cnd had normal intellectual function as assessed by school performance and social interactions. visual acuity was / – in both eyes for non-spectacled cnd patients over years of age and, compared to unaffected siblings, cnd patients did not have an increased need for corrective lenses. the farnsworth-munsell color discrimination error score was ± for cnd patients and ± for controls (p= . , non-significant), where error scores of < are consistent with normal color vision. liver transplantation four patients (ages , , , and years) had whole orthotopic liver transplants performed under standard protocol at the thomas e. starzl institute (pittsburgh, pa.). mean post-transplantation follow-up time was months (range: – months). total bilirubin was normal within h of allograft perfusion, but staining of skin and sclerae did not resolve completely for – weeks. the youngest of these patients had significant post- transplant complications, including cmv hepatitis, ebv viremia, acute and chronic allograft rejection, widespread opportunistic infection of the small bowel, and post- transplant lymphoproliferative disease. case summaries five clinical cases are grouped by clinical paradigm and briefly summarized. cases , , and are patients from the present cohort. two additional cases ( and ) are amish cnd patients from midwestern states managed elsewhere. mechanisms of kernicterus are introduced for further discussion (see figs. , ). fig. a the rate of rise of bilirubin over the first h of life may be normal in cnd patients but continues to rise to dangerous levels by day of life . using the th percentile hour-specific bilirubin [ ] as a screening cutoff value for pre- dicting severe jaundice (peak bilirubin > mg/dl), all of these cnd patients would have been identified for targeted follow-up and the early institution of pho- totherapy. b in our cnd pa- tients the molar ratio of bilirubin to albumin is elevated from . to . during the neonatal peri- od, reaches a nadir by age years, and then rises progres- sively to adulthood at a rate of . mol:mol/year (r= . ). this is due to a progressive . mg/dl/year (range: . – . mg/dl/year) rise of bilirubin unrelated to patient compliance. based on the chemistry of bili- rubin-albumin binding in healthy individuals, we assign the “safe” bilirubin:albumin molar ratio at or below . in older children and adults (de- noted by the dashed line) [ ] type i crigler-najjar disease in the newborn period case . prospective management of cnd a mennonite newborn had a sibling and several cousins homozygous for the y x mutation. phototherapy with an overhead bb light bank was started at home when jaundice was apparent on day of life . cord blood was sent to our clinic for targeted mutation testing, and the diagnosis of cnd was confirmed on day of life , at which time total bilirubin was mg/dl ( μmol/l), albumin was . g/dl ( μmol/l), and the bilirubin:albumin molar ratio was . . she was managed throughout the first year of life with daily overhead phototherapy and ursodiol ( mg/kg/day). during that time, total bilirubin ranged from . to . mg/dl ( – μmol/l) and the bilirubin:albumin ratio ranged from . – . . growth and development were normal, and she had no hospitalizations. she is now years of age, receiving phototherapy h per day, and healthy. case . poor neonatal risk assessment, inadequate therapy, and kernicterus in an amish infant from the midwest (not in the -patient cohort) was delivered at fig. a using two different light meters, the ohmeda bili- blanket meter ii and the respironics joey dosimeter, irradiance measurements were taken at -cm increments from an overhead bank of bb tubes (philips w, -foot long) used routinely at a community hos- pital neonatal intensive care unit (nicu). bb tubes in use were aged, putting out only about % of the power pro- vided by fresh tubes, irradiance decreased as a function of dis- tance from the source, and light meters which should yield roughly equivalent values dif- fered by as much as two- to threefold. b the graph displays hourly light power within the - to -nm bandwidth as the product of skin-level irradi- ance (μw/cm /nm, biliblanket meter ii) and average treatable body surface area with each type of system, estimated for a pa- tient with total body surface area of m ( , cm ). because irradiance values from the same source vary considerably using different light meters, the graph displays a relative, rather than absolute, comparison of light power home by a lay midwife. jaundice was first apparent on day of life but was not measured until he was hospitalized at days of age with lethargy and severe hyperbilirubinemia ( mg/dl, μmol/l). liver disease and hemolysis were excluded. phototherapy decreased total bilirubin to mg/dl over h. he was discharged without phototherapy, and bilirubin again rose to a range of – mg/dl. he was first examined by us at months of age, and found to be stuporous, irritable, and hypotonic. he had generalized axial dystonia, athetoid movements, poor head control, and feeding impairment. muscle mass and power were normal, deep tendon reflexes were diminished, and ankle clonus was absent. babinski reflexes were strongly plantarflexion. brain stem auditory evoked potentials were absent. a brain mri showed enlarged cerebrospinal fluid spaces over the frontal and temporal lobes and prominent sulci suggestive of diffuse cortical atrophy. the basal ganglia were normal in size. there were symmetric t signal hyperintensities in the internal and external pallidi, nucleus accumbens, substantia nigra, and hypothalamus. at present, he is deaf and has severe generalized dystonia. hospital management case . prevention of kernicterus in a cnd patient during an infectious illness a -year-old amish girl with cnd was admitted to our hospital with streptococcal pharyngitis, fever, vomiting, dehydration, rising total bilirubin ( mg/dl, μmol/l), and a high bilirubin:albumin molar ratio ( . ). she was managed according to an inpatient protocol (table ) over a -h period. continuous phototherapy fig. bilirubin in the cerebral circulation is bound to albumin and to a lesser extent red blood cells (rbc). unbound bilirubin (b) is the fraction that interacts with cerebral membranes, moving continuously between intravascular and extravascular binding sites. cumulative bilirubin deposition on endothelial membranes interferes with a variety of cellular processes, perhaps by altering the properties of membrane- associated and -embedded proteins such as ion pumps (nak-atpase), nutrient transporters (e.g.,glut , lat ), and metabolic enzymes. the uptake of bilirubin by brain can be expressed by the equation [ ]: d = (f)(b)(t)[ − fe(−k t)], where d is amount of bilirubin per weight of brain tissue, f is cerebral blood flow, b is total bilirubin concentration (> % of which is albumin-bound), e is the dimensionless value . , and t is duration of exposure. the last term expresses the relative quantity of bilirubin extracted by the brain for any given total plasma bilirubin value. it depends on the fraction of bilirubin unbound (f) and the dissociation constant of the bilirubin-albumin complex (k ) relative to the transit time of blood moving through brain capillaries (t). total bilirubin-binding capacity of blood [ ] is a function of albumin concentration, the number of high-affinity sites (n) per albumin molecule, and affinity of those sites for bilirubin (kab = k /k ); where kab = [b]/(b[na−b]). a variety of drugs, preservatives, and endog- enous anions interact with albumin to either reduce the number of high- affinity binding sites (l ) or increase the dissociation rate of the complex (l ; increase k , decrease kab). in experimental animals, fractional extraction and brain uptake of bilirubin is invariably – % lower than predicted by this model [ ]. this may reflect both the unmeasured effect of erythrocyte binding and the important role of brain endothelial proteins in bilirubin extrusion (e.g. p-glycoprotein, mdr ). brain bilirubin extrusion matures postnatally and may increase considerably in chronically jaundiced patients (approximately w-h/nm/day), four albumin infusions ( g/kg/dose), and enteral ursodiol ( mg/kg/day) lowered the bilirubin:albumin molar ratio to . . she recovered uneventfully. case . acute kernicterus during an infectious illness in a patient with cnd an amish boy with cnd (not in the - patient cohort) had chronic bilirubin levels of – mg/dl receiving – h of phototherapy per day. albumin levels were not monitored. bilirubin levels periodically increased to – mg/dl during illnesses. growth and development were normal. at years of age he developed streptococcal pharyngitis and was prescribed amoxicillin as an outpatient. the following day his speech became slurred and he stopped eating. four days later he presented to a midwestern hospital deeply jaundiced, stuporous and mute, unable to swallow or stand, and febrile. deep tendon reflexes were increased, he had ankle clonus, and babinski reflexes were plantarflexion. total bilirubin was mg/dl ( μmol/l), albumin was . g/dl ( μmol/l), and the bilirubin:albumin ratio was . . serum chemistries were normal, including glucose ( mg/dl), bicarbonate ( meq/l), and blood urea nitrogen ( mg/dl). an eeg showed diffuse slowing and paroxysms of generalized polyspike activity. a brain mri was normal. at the midwestern hospital, he was managed with contin- uous phototherapy, intravenous crystalloid, albumin, and phenobarbital. the bilirubin level decreased to his baseline value, but neurological function did not improve. he died at home a few weeks later. liver transplantation case . liver transplant in a -year-old mennonite man with cnd and increasing bilirubin levels the first of our patients to undergo a liver transplant had total bilirubin levels that ranged from to mg/dl (molar ratio to albumin: . – . ) despite rigid compliance with photo- therapy, treatment with ursodiol, and cholecystectomy at age years. post-transplant, the bilirubin decreased to normal within h, but yellow discoloration of the skin and sclera persisted for weeks. liver explant showed portal tract fibrosis, inflammation, ductal proliferation, and patchy bridging fibrosis. crystallized plugs of biliru- bin were seen in small degenerating ductules. centrolob- ular hepatocytes showed focal hepatocellular giant cell transformation, pseudoacinar formation, leathery degen- eration, and cholestasis. discussion diagnosis and management of cnd in the newborn period our data demonstrate that cnd patients can be detected by universal screening procedures for neonatal hyperbiliru- binemia [ , , ] (fig. a). whether or not a jaundiced newborn has cnd does not change their basic need for timely detection and effective treatment; in all of our patients phototherapy was started well before molecular confirmation of the diagnosis (case ). thus, brain injury in neonates with cnd does not result from delayed di- agnosis per se, but from poor recognition and inadequate treatment of “idiopathic” neonatal hyperbilirubinemia (case ). cnd patients can be managed safely to prevent death and disability table compares our study to various population measures from five previously published clinical surveys. crigler and najjar’s classic description preceded the advent of effective phototherapy, and all of their patients developed brain injury and eventually died [ ]. the combined data from four recent surveys [ , – ] suggest that – % of cnd patients suffer neurological injury ranging from mild to severe, – % of patients will need one or multiple exchange transfusions, and – % die of complications related to the disease. in contrast, we had no brain injuries or deaths extending over patient-years and did not perform a single exchange procedure since we began caring for children with cnd in . long-term biochemical data suggest that liver transplantation or some other curative procedure may ultimately be necessary to manage cnd patients safely (fig. b, case ). nevertheless, a systematic fig. in vitro studies [ ] show a progressive rise in free bilirubin when the bilirubin:albumin molar ratio exceeds . (dotted line) and a sharp rise in free bilirubin when the ratio exceeds . (i.e., sat- uration, dashed line). maximum bilirubin:albumin molar ratio was recorded during hospitalizations of our cnd patients with transient exacerbation of hyperbilirubinemia (open circles). none of these patients developed kernicterus. from our consultation records and published cases, we found cases of brain injury in patients for whom bilirubin and albumin values were available (solid circles). maximum recorded bilirubin:albumin molar ratio was significantly higher in patients that developed kernicterus ( . ± . vs. . ± . , p< . ) approach to neonatal screening, light dosing, and kernicterus prevention can assure that children and adults proceed to transplantation in good neurological health. providing effective phototherapy effective phototherapy for any patient requires education of health care providers and parents, phototherapy systems that are in good working order, a supply of fresh bb tubes or an energetic equivalent (e.g., tl s, leds), and the use of calibrated and affordable light meters [ ]. variables that influence light dose can be monitored intermittently by a nurse, physician, or parent, and allow patients to derive adequate phototherapy from a variety of sources in the hospital or at home. to be meaningful in terms of efficacy, a phototherapy order should specify light source and number, distance from the patient’s skin, and nature of surrounding materials (e.g., white sheets and mirrors), with a goal to achieve a measured irradiance over a percentage of skin surface for a specified period of time. a physician’s order for phototherapy in “hours per day” is incomplete, and an order for “double” or “triple” phototherapy is uninformative. one good light is usually sufficient, provided it is used correctly. surprisingly, many hospital practices use phototherapy systems without regularly monitoring or recording their performance. data in fig. a was obtained from a w fluorescent bb system in use at the nicu of a local community hospital. it revealed visually imperceptible aging of the tubes. in hospital settings, tubes may only be replaced when they no longer function, such that phototherapy systems operate for long periods emitting well below their energy potential. furthermore, fluorescent devices are often fitted ( : ) with cool-white bulbs to attenuate the blueness of bb light; this makes the system less effective. figure a also shows that despite measurement within a similar bandwidth and peak sensitivity, irradiance readings from different commercial light meters can vary as much as two- to threefold, while all meters show the decay of energy as a function of distance from the light source. light power calculations also demonstrate the comparatively low efficacy of fiber-optic blankets and halogen-quartz spotlights, which are inappropriate for managing patients with cnd or severe idiopathic jaundice (fig. b). these observations have several practical implications: ( ) light meter(s) in use at any facility should be calibrated at a determined distance against each phototherapy system operating at maximum output; ( ) any light source should be placed as close to the skin as possible; ( ) phototherapy systems should be accompanied by a tag or logbook that records the date of bulb/tube replacements and peak irradiance measurement with fresh lights at a standardized distance; ( ) for an infant who genuinely needs phototherapy, home treatment with a fiberoptic blanket is inappropriate. other factors reduce the dose of light achieved with a given source, including plexiglass barriers, pigmented (light- absorbing) materials, and objects that shield the skin. we find that isolettes are not necessary for well-hydrated term or near-term infants receiving phototherapy. in neonates, the thorax, outer arms, and head constitute the majority of table historical trends in crigler-najjar disease (nr not reported, na not applicable) reference year of publication number of patients age in years mean, standard deviation (range) bilirubin (mg/dl) mean, standard deviation (range) exchange transfusion (%) brain damage (%) mortality (%) liver transplant (%) transplant age, mean (range) crigler and najjar [ ]a ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) na van der veere et al. [ ]b . ± . ( . – . ) nr . ( – ) suresh and lucey [ ]c (< – ) . ± . ( . – ) shevel [ ]d nr nr nr nr nr na nazer [ ]e nr . ( – ) nr present studyf ± ± ( – ) ( – ) acrigler and najjar’s original report preceded the advent of exchange transfusion and phototherapy bbrain injured patients (n= ) were transplanted later ( . ± . years) than those without brain damage (n= , . ± . years) cinformation is compiled from an international questionaire involving patients from four continents. there is patient overlap with other studies, including our amish cohort ( of the patients reported). in the non-amish subgroup, neurological disability was present in of patients ( %). mean ± standard deviation bilirubin values (in mg/dl) varied by sub-group: neonatal peak, . ± . ; neonatal typical, . ± . ; postnatal typical, . ± dthe % incidence of neurological injury is based on an extensive review of published articles ( – ) by these authors, who further subdivided adverse outcomes into four discrete patterns of disability einformation from affected siblings, not included in the -patient cohort, is included in the paper by nazer et al. all died with bilirubin- induced brain injury, resulting in a total brain injury rate of / ( %) and a disease-related mortality of %. four patients required more than one exchange transfusion, for a total of exchange procedures among of the patients reported fprior to coming under our care, two patients in the cohort required exchange transfusion as neonates, and one patient developed kernicterus. however, the outcomes reported here were observed for patients under our care from to the present treatable skin surface, these but may be obscured by unnecessary diapers, monitor leads, and iv boards. we place term newborns with cnd in an open crib, naked, lying on an open diaper over bright white sheets. with a bb or led system placed – cm from the skin, the newborns appear comfortable, feed well, and maintain core body temperatures of °– °f. anticipating and preventing kernicterus patients with all variants of cnd remain vulnerable to brain injury throughout life, particularly during intercurrent illnesses, after injuries, or during surgery (case ). routine laboratory measurements can only be used to estimate the magnitude of the whole body bilirubin load and its rate of change, but for any individual patient a variety of other clinical and physiological details more fully characterize the potential for brain injury (figs. , ). these multiple factors vary from one individual to the next and in a single individual depending on age and clinical conditions. it is thus impractical and misleading to assign rigid guidelines for identifying patients “at risk” for kernicterus. rather, we base treatment decisions on general biochemical indices con- sidered together with particulars of time and circumstance. our treatment protocol in table is based on the pathophysiologic model illustrated in fig. [ , , , , , ] and is designed to lower total body exchangeable bilirubin and prevent its movement to extravascular sites. in jaundiced infants and adults, the total body bilirubin pool is very large and almost exclusively bound to proteins and lipid membranes, while the lower unbound bilirubin concentra- tion [ , ] is characterized by continual flux between two competing reservoirs – a finite number of intravascular binding sites and a much larger number of lower-affinity sites on endothelia of brain and other organs. as bilirubin passes through the circulation, the fraction deposited in the brain and other tissues depends only on its molar relationship with high-affinity albumin binding sites and the dissociation rate of the bilirubin-albumin complex relative to the time it takes blood to transit a tissue capillary bed [ , ]. according to this model, when high-affinity bilirubin binding sites on albumin approach saturation, or are occupied by competing ligands, bilirubin can shift rapidly from intravascular to tissue binding sites (fig. ). in clinical practice, the most important factor affecting bilirubin-albumin binding is the presence of organic anions which either compete directly for the bilirubin binding site or allosterically reduce its affinity for bilirubin [ ]. numerous exogenous and endogenous organic anions interfere with bilirubin-albumin binding, including intravenous and oral medications, drug metabolites pro- duced in vivo, commonly used preservatives, and endog- enous organic acids and free fatty acids. drugs which generally do not interfere with the binding equilibrium are cationic, glycosylated, or present in blood at protein- bound concentrations of < μmol/l [ ]. the number and complexity of bilirubin-albumin-drug interactions under- scores the point that all medications and intravenous solutions should be used cautiously in patients with hyperbilirubinemia, and only after a focused review of drug information in the physicians’ desk reference, medical literature, and/or a comprehensive pharmacology text. based on available resources [ , , , – , , , , , , – , , , , – , , ], we compiled a list of commonly used drugs, infusible substances, and endogenous metabolites in the appendix. drugs are listed based on probable safety for use in hyperbilirubin- emic patients. however, it is important to recognize that in vitro studies are not a perfect predictor of drug-albu- min-bilirubin in living patients. for example, drugs in the “variable safety” column show weak displacing activity in vitro which may become clinically significant under certain circumstances. for these compounds, lower dosing and slower infusion rates minimize displacing potential. important clinical drugs for which no data are available are listed to guide further studies in this important area. caring for the aging cnd population adolescence is a particularly important period of vulner- ability for kernicterus in patients with cnd. as patients mature, phototherapy increasingly interferes with lifestyle, social opportunities, and the formation of intimate relation- ships. baseline total bilirubin increases with age and approaches dangerous levels in young adulthood (fig. b, case ). contrary to other studies [ , ], we could not identify a relationship between age and compliance with phototherapy as a plausible explanation. the progressive rise in bilirubin is likely influenced by several physiolog- ical variables. first, “treatable” body surface area decreases relative to bilirubin volume of distribution as patients age (i.e., plasma in the cutaneous vascular bed accessible with light represents a progressively smaller proportion of total extracellular volume and distributed blood flow). second, bilirubin distributes to peripheral extravascular binding sites over time, creating a large tissue “reservoir” in equi- librium with the intravascular pool. evidence of this was found in all four transplanted patients, in whom cutaneous and scleral icterus took up to weeks to dissipate following liver transplantation, despite normal bilirubin levels within – post-operative hours. finally, hepatobiliary clear- ance of lumirubin may become rate-limiting in some patients, as evidenced by cholestatic changes in two of four liver explants. whatever the causes of rising bilirubin with age, it is apparent that most of our cnd patients will face liver transplantation over the next – years. liver transplanta- tion is currently the only clinically robust way to replace ugt a and hepatic transferase activity [ ]. viral and non- viral gene transfection techniques are far from human trials, and when these methods reach clinical maturity they may not be safer, cheaper, or even more effective than liver trans- plantation. fortunately, there is now considerable experience with liver transplantation for primary metabolic disorders as well as reductions in peri-operative mortality and medica- tion-related morbidity over recent years [ , , ]. how- ever, patient from our cohort suffered life-threatening post- transplant complications. thus, despite its metabolic ef- ficacy, liver transplantation is not an easy solution for patients with cnd. conclusion: lessons learned from cnd timely recognition of hyperbilirubinemia followed by effective phototherapy makes exchange transfusions and prolonged hospitalizations unnecessary. the core principles of management for neonates with idiopathic hyperbilirubin- emia should be the same as those for cnd: pre-symptomatic detection, timely risk assessment, scheduled follow-up monitoring, phototherapy guided by measurements of light power, treatment of maximum body surface, and the use of emergency protocols that emphasize bilirubin biodistribu- tion (table , figs. a, a, , ) [ ]. a precise formulation of kernicterus mechanisms remains obscure, but a great deal is known about bilirubin, its distribution in the body, and interaction with the brain. we believe this knowledge is sufficient to prevent brain injury in most, if not all, jaundiced patients. the most significant obstacle to the prevention of kernicterus is not scientific ignorance, but inadequate education of parents and health care providers, and a failure to translate established concepts into practice [ , , , , ]. acknowledgements we extend thanks to cnd patients and their parents from our local community for their support of this work and their hopes for future progress. we thank the outstanding nursing, pharmacology, and biomedical engineering staffs at lancaster general hospital for providing patients exceptional clinical care. floyd and katie martin were instrumental in gathering light measurements in the field and tim weaver, m.d., helped gather data for fig. . special thanks to charles e. ahlfors, m.d., for a technical review and helpful comments. finally, thank you to the dutch crigler-najjar association (huizen, the netherlands), for funding development of the portabed led system. appendix potential bilirubin-albumin displacing interactions (see text for references) safety class (see note) anti-inflammatory/antipyretic acetaminophen • aspirin • dexamethasone • ibuprofen • indomethacin • ketorolac • naproxen • phenacetin • prednisolone • safety class (see note) salicylate, sodium • antimicrobial acyclovir • amoxicillin • amoxicillin-clavulanate • amphotericin b • amphotericin, liposomal ampicillin • ampicillin-sulbactam • azithromycin azlocillin • aztreonam • carbenicillin • cefazolin • cefalothin • cefepime • cefixime • cefmetazole • cefonicid • cefoperazone • ceforanide • cefotaxime • cefotetan • cefoxitin • cefpodoxime proxetil • ceftazidime • ceftizoxime • ceftriaxone • cefuroxime • cefuroxime axetil • cephalexin • cephapirin • cephradine • ciprofloxacin • clarithromycin • clindamycin • dicloxacillin • doxycycline • erythromycin • erythromycin es-sulfisoxazole • fusidic acid • gangcyclovir • gentamicin • imipenem • imipenem-cilastatin • isoniazid • levofloxacin • lincomycin • linezolid • meropenem • methicillin • metronidazole • minocycline • safety class (see note) nafcillin • nitrofurantoin • oxacillin • penicillin g • penicillin v • piperacillin • piperacillin-tazobactam • rifampin • streptomycin • sulfisoxazole • sulphamethoxazole • sulphasalazine • tobramycin • trimethoprim • trimethoprim-sulfa (bactrim) • vancomycin • cardiovascular drugs atropine • bretylium tosylate • digoxin • disopyramide • dobutamine • dopamine • edrophonium chloride • enalapril • epinephrine • hydralazine • isoproterenol • lidocaine • nitroprusside • procainamide • propanalol • verapamil • contrast agents diatrizoate sodium • iodate sodium • iodipamide sodium • iopanoic acid • meglumin ioglycamate • metrizamide • metrizoate sodium • diuretics acetazolamide • bumetanide • chlorothiazide • ethacrynic acid • furosemide • hydrochlorothiazide • mannitol • spironolactone • neuroactive drugs aminophylline • amitryptyline hcl • safety class (see note) atomoxetine • bupropion • carbamazepine • chloral hydrate • clonazepam • codeine • desipramine hcl • diazepam • ethosuximide • etomidate • fentanyl • fluoxetine/norfluoxetine • inhaled anesthetics • imipramine hcl • ketamine • lorazepam • meperidine • methylphenidate • midazolam • morphine • naloxone • nortryptyline • olanzapine • oxazepam • paroxetine • phenobarbital • phenytoin • primidone • propofol • risperidone • theophylline • thiopental • valproic acid • venlafaxine • neuromuscular blocking agents neostigmine • pancuronium • rocuronium • succinylcholine • vecuronium • preservatives/metabolites [a] n-acetyl-dl-tryptophan • n-acetyltyrosine • benzoic acid (benzoate sodium) • caprylic acid • hippurate (from benzoic acid) -hyroxybenzoylglycine • miscellaneous bicarbonate • calcium chloride • calcium gluconate • carnitine • clofibrate • safety class (see note) heparin • intralipid/free fatty acids [b] • magnesium sulfate • prostaglandin e • tin mesoporphyrin • probably safe for clinical use considered unsafe safety variable: eg. drug dosing and combinations insufficient data a) acetyltryptophan (stabiliser in hsa i), acetyltyrosine (component of some tpn amino acid mixtures), caprylic acid, hexanoic acid (stabiliser in hsa i and ii) b) plasma free fatty acids are increased by fasting and infusions of intralipid, epinephrine, or heparin references . american academy of pediatrics, subcommittee on hyper- bilirubinemia ( ) management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant or more weeks of gestation. pediatrics : – . ahlfors ce, herbsman o ( ) unbound bilirubin in a term newborn with kernicterus. pediatrics : – . ahlfors ce, wennberg rp ( ) bilirubin-albumin binding and neonatal jaundice. semin perinatol : – . andersen dh, blanc wa, crozier dn, silverman wa ( ) a difference in mortality rate and incidence of kernicterus among premature infants allotted to two prophylactic antibac- terial regimens. pediatrics : – . bhutani vk, donn sm, johnson lh ( ) risk management of severe neonatal hyperbilirubinemia to prevent kernicterus. clin perinatol : – . bhutani vk, johnson l, sivieri em ( ) predictive ability of a predischarge hour-specific serum bilirubin for subsequent significant hyperbilirubinemia in healthy term and near-term newborns. pediatrics : – . brodersen r ( ) determination of the vacant amount of high-affinity bilirubin binding site on serum albumin. acta pharmacol toxicol : – . brodersen r ( ) bilirubin. solubility and interaction with albumin and phospholipid. j biol chem : – . brodersen r, ebbesen f ( ) bilirubin-displacing effect of ampicillin, indomethacin, chlorpromazine, gentamicin, and parabens in vitro and in newborn infants. j pharm sci : – . brodersen r, funding l ( ) binding of bilirubin and long- chain fatty acids to human serum albumin with general remarks on displacement of firmly bound ligands. scand j clin lab invest : – . brodersen r, friis-hansen b, stern l ( ) drug-induced displacement of bilirubin from albumin in the newborn. dev pharmacol ther : – . cashore wj ( ) bilirubin metabolism and toxicity in the newborn. in: polin ra, fox ww (eds) fetal and neonatal physiology. w.b. saunders, philadelphia, pp – . cashore wj, oh w, brodersen r ( ) bilirubin-displacing effect of furosemide and sulfisoxazole. an in vitro and in vivo study in neonatal serum. dev pharmacol ther : – . chalasani n, chowdhury nr, chowdhury jr, boyer td ( ) kernicterus in an adult who is heterozygous for crigler- najjar syndrome and homozygous for gilbert-type genetic defect. gastroenterology : – . chowdhury jr, wolkoff aw, chowdhury nr, arias im ( ) hereditary jaundice and disorders of bilirubin metabolism. in: scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d (eds) the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – . christakis da, rivara fp ( ) pediatricians’ awareness of and attitudes about four clinical practice guidelines. pediatrics : – . cooper-peel c, brodersen r, robertson a ( ) does ibuprofen affect bilirubin-albumin binding in newborn infant serum? pharmacol toxicol : – . cremer rj, perryman pw, richards dh ( ) influence of light on the hyperbilirubinaemia of infants. lancet : – . crigler jf jr, najjar va ( ) congenital familial nonhemo- lytic jaundice with kernicterus. pediatri : – . ebbesen f, brodersen r ( ) comparison between two preparations of human serum albumin in treatment of neonatal hyperbilirubinaemia. acta paediatr scand : – . ennever jf ( ) phototherapy for neonatal jaundice. in: polin ra, fox ww (eds) fetal and neonatal physiology. w.b. saunders, philadelphia, pp – . farnsworth d ( ) the farnsworth-munsell hue dichotomous tests for colour vision. j opt soc amer : – . fink s, karp w, robertson a ( ) ceftriaxone effect on bilirubin-albumin binding. pediatrics : – . fink s, karp w, robertson a ( ) effect of penicillins on bilirubin-albumin binding. j pediatr : – . gartner lm, herrarias ct, sebring rh ( ) practice patterns in neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. pediatrics : – . guentert tw, frey bm, luedin e, heinzl s, brodersen r ( ) increase of plasma nonesterified fatty acid concentration and decrease of albumin binding affinity after intravenous injection of glycocholate-lecithin mixed micelles. j lab clin med : – . honore b, brodersen r ( ) albumin binding of anti- inflammatory drugs. utility of a site-oriented versus a stoi- chiometric analysis. mol pharmacol : – . ivarsen r, brodersen r ( ) displacement of bilirubin from adult and newborn serum albumin by a drug and fatty acid. dev pharmacol ther : – . jarnerot g, andersen s, esbjorner e, sandstrom b, brodersen r ( ) albumin reserve for binding of bilirubin in maternal and cord serum under treatment with sulphasalazine. scand j gastroenterol : – . johnson lm, bhutani vk, brown ak ( ) system-based approach to management of neonatal jaundice and prevention of kernicterus. j pediatr : – . kinney hc, armstrong dd ( ) perinatal neuropathology. in: graham di, lantos pl (eds) greenfield’s neuropathology. arnold, london, p – . krukow n, brodersen r ( ) toxic effects in the gunn rat of combined treatment with bilirubin and orotic acid. acta paediatr scand : – . kuang aa, rosenthal p, roberts jp, renz jf, stock p, ascher nl, emond jc ( ) decreased mortality from technical failure improves results in pediatric liver transplantation. arch surg : – ; discussion – . lucey jf ( ) the future demise of exchange transfusions for neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. dev med child neurol : – . martin e, fanconi s, kalin p, zwingelstein c, crevoisier c, ruch w, brodersen r ( ) ceftriaxone-bilirubin-albumin interactions in the neonate: an in vivo study. eur j pediatr : – . meropol sb, luberti aa, de jong ar, weiss jc ( ) home phototherapy: use and attitudes among community pediatri- cians. pediatrics : – . nazer h, al-mehaidib a, shabib s, ali ma ( ) crigler- najjar syndrome in saudi arabia. am j med genet : – . ostrea em, jr., bassel m, fleury ca, bartos a, jesurun ca ( ) influence of free fatty acids and glucose infusion on serum bilirubin and bilirubin binding to albumin: clinical implications. j pediatr : – . park ws, chang ys, chung sh, seo dw, hong sh, lee m ( ) effect of hypothermia on bilirubin-induced alterations in brain cell membrane function and energy metabolism in newborn piglets. brain res : – . puffenberger eg, hu-lince d, parod jm, craig dw, dobrin se, conway ar, donarum ea, strauss ka, dunckley t, cardenas jf, melmed kr, wright ca, liang w, stafford p, flynn cr, morton dh, stephan da ( ) mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function. proc natl acad sci usa : – . rand eb, olthoff km ( ) overview of pediatric liver transplantation. gastroenterol clin north am : – . rasmussen lf, ahlfors ce, wennberg rp ( ) displace- ment of bilirubin from albumin by indomethacin. j clin pharmacol : – . rasmussen lf, ahlfors ce, wennberg rp ( ) the effect of paraben preservatives on albumin binding of bilirubin. j pediatr : – . robertson a, brodersen r ( ) effect of lactate, pyruvate, acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate on albumin binding of bilirubin. j pediatr : – . robertson a, brodersen r ( ) effect of drug combinations on bilirubin-albumin binding. dev pharmacol ther : – . robertson a, fink s, karp w ( ) effect of cephalosporins on bilirubin-albumin binding. j pediatr : – . robertson a, karp w, brodersen r ( ) bilirubin displacing effect of drugs used in neonatology. acta paediatr scand : – . robertson af, baker jp ( ) lessons from the past. semin fetal neonatal med : – . robinson pj, rapoport si ( ) binding effect of albumin on uptake of bilirubin by brain. pediatrics : – . roger c, koziel v, vert p, nehlig a ( ) mapping of the consequences of bilirubin exposure in the immature rat: local cerebral metabolic rates for glucose during moderate and severe hyperbilirubinemia. early hum dev : – . schauer r, stangl m, lang t, zimmermann a, chouker a, gerbes al, schildberg fw, rau hg ( ) treatment of crigler-najjar type disease: relevance of early liver trans- plantation. j pediatr surg : – . shevell mi, majnemer a, schiff d ( ) neurologic perspectives of crigler-najjar syndrome type i. j child neurol : – . suresh g, lucey jf ( ) lack of deafness in crigler-najjar syndrome type : a patient survey. pediatrics :e . van der veere cn, sinaasappel m, mcdonagh af, rosenthal p, labrune p, odievre m, fevery j, otte jb, mcclean p, burk g, masakowski v, sperl w, mowat ap, vergani gm, heller k, wilson jp, shepherd r, jansen pl ( ) current therapy for crigler-najjar syndrome type : report of a world registry. hepatology : – . vreman hj, wong rj, murdock jr, stevenson dk ( ) in vitro efficacy of an led–based phototherapy device (neo- blue™) compared to traditional light sources. pediatr res : a . vreman hj, wong rj, stevenson dk ( ) phototherapy: current methods and future directions. semin perinatol : – . wadsworth sj, suh b ( ) in vitro displacement of bilirubin by antibiotics and -hydroxybenzoylglycine in newborns. antimicrob agents chemother : – . walker pc ( ) neonatal bilirubin toxicity. a review of kernicterus and the implications of drug-induced bilirubin displacement. clin pharmacokinet : – . wennberg rp ( ) the blood-brain barrier and bilirubin encephalopathy. cell mol neurobiol : – 	management of hyperbilirubinemia and prevention of kernicterus in patients with crigler-najjar disease 	abstract 	introduction 	patients and methods 	patients 	clinical management 	vision testing 	results 	diagnosis 	phototherapy 	hospitalizations 	neurological outcome 	liver transplantation 	case summaries 	type i crigler-najjar disease in the newborn period 	case . prospective management of cnd 	case . poor neonatal risk assessment, inadequate therapy, and kernicterus 	hospital management 	case . prevention of kernicterus in a cnd patient during an infectious illness 	case . acute kernicterus during an infectious illness in a patient with cnd 	liver transplantation 	case . liver transplant in a -year-old mennonite man with cnd and increasing bilirubin levels 	discussion 	diagnosis and management of cnd in the newborn period 	cnd patients can be managed safely to prevent death and disability 	providing effective phototherapy 	anticipating and preventing kernicterus 	caring for the aging cnd population 	conclusion: lessons learned from cnd 	appendix 	potential bilirubin-albumin displacing interactions (see text for references) 	references << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (none) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (iso coated) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /perceptual /detectblends true /colorconversionstrategy /srgb /dothumbnails true /embedallfonts true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preserveepsinfo true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts false /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true /aardvarkpsmt /acebinghamsh /addisonlibbysh /agaramond-italic /agaramond-regular /akbarplain /albertus-bold /albertusextrabold-regular /albertusmedium-italic /albertusmedium-regular /alfonsowhiteheadsh /algerian /allegrobt-regular /amarillousaf /amazonebt-regular /ameliabt-regular /amerigobt-bolda /amertypewriteritcbybt-medium /andalemono /andymacarthursh /animals /anneboleynsh /annifont /antiqueolive-bold /antiqueolivecompact-regular /antiqueolive-italic /antiqueolive-regular /antoniomountbattensh /arabiapsmt /aradlevelvi /architectureplain /arial-black /arial-blackitalic /arial-bolditalicmt /arial-boldmt /arial-italicmt /arialmt /arialmtblack-regular /arialnarrow /arialnarrow-bold /arialnarrow-bolditalic /arialnarrow-italic /arialroundedmtbold /arialunicodelight /arialunicodelight-bold /arialunicodelight-bolditalic /arialunicodelight-italic /arrowsaplentysh /arrusbt-bold /arrusbt-bolditalic /arrusbt-italic /arrusbt-roman /asiana /assadsadatsh /avalonpsmt /avantgardeitcbybt-book /avantgardeitcbybt-bookoblique /avantgardeitcbybt-demi /avantgardeitcbybt-demioblique /avantgardeitcbybt-medium /avantgardeitcbybt-mediumoblique /bankgothicbt-light /bankgothicbt-medium /baskerville-bold /baskerville-normal /baskerville-normal-italic /baskoldface /bauhaus /bavand /bazookaregular /beauterrysh /becross /bedrockplain /beeskneesitc /bellmt /bellmtbold /bellmtitalic /benguiatitcbybt-bold /benguiatitcbybt-bolditalic /benguiatitcbybt-book /benguiatitcbybt-bookitalic /benniegoethesh /berlinsansfb-bold /berlinsansfbdemi-bold /berlinsansfb-reg /bernardmt-condensed /bernhardboldcondensedbt-regular /bernhardfashionbt-regular /bernhardmodernbt-bold /bernhardmodernbt-bolditalic /bernhardmodernbt-italic /bernhardmodernbt-roman /bethel /bibigodivash /bibinehrush /bkenwood-regular /blackadderitc-regular /blondieburtonsh /bodoniblack-regular /bodoni-bold /bodoni-bolditalic /bodonibt-bold /bodonibt-bolditalic /bodonibt-italic /bodonibt-roman /bodoni-italic /bodonimtpostercompressed /bodoni-regular /bookantiqua /bookantiqua-bold /bookantiqua-bolditalic /bookantiqua-italic /bookmanoldstyle /bookmanoldstyle-bold /bookmanoldstyle-bolditalic /bookmanoldstyle-italic /bookshelfsymbolfive /bookshelfsymbolfour /bookshelfsymbolone-regular /bookshelfsymbolthree-regular /bookshelfsymboltwo-regular /bookwomandemiitalicsh /bookwomandemish /bookwomanexptlightsh /bookwomanlightitalicsh /bookwomanlightsh /bookwomanmonolightsh /bookwomanswashdemish /bookwomanswashlightsh /boulderregular /bradleyhanditc /braggadocio /braillesh /brectangular /bremenbt-bold /britannicbold /broadview /broadway /broadwaybt-regular /brubber /brush bt-regular /brushscriptmt /bsorbonna /bstranger /btriumph /buckymerlinsh /busoramaitcbybt-medium /caesar /californianfb-bold /californianfb-italic /californianfb-reg /calismtbol /calistomt /calistomt-italic /calligrapherregular /cameronstendahlsh /candy /candycaneunregistered /cankersore /carltellersh /carriecattsh /caslonopenfacebt-regular /casstaylorsh /cdot /centaur /centurygothic /centurygothic-bold /centurygothic-bolditalic /centurygothic-italic /centuryoldstyle-bolditalic /centuryschoolbook /centuryschoolbook-bold /centuryschoolbook-bolditalic /centuryschoolbook-italic /cezanne /cgomega-bold /cgomega-bolditalic /cgomega-italic /cgomega-regular /cgtimes-bold /cgtimes-bolditalic /cgtimes-italic /cgtimes-regular /charting /chartreuseparsonssh /chasecallassh /chasthirdsh /chaucerregular /cheltenhamitcbybt-bold /cheltenhamitcbybt-bolditalic /cheltenhamitcbybt-book /cheltenhamitcbybt-bookitalic /childbonapartesh /chiller-regular /chuckwarrenchiselsh /chuckwarrendesignsh /cityblueprint /clarendon-bold /clarendon-book /clarendoncondensedbold /clarendoncondensed-bold /clarendonextended-bold /classicalgaramondbt-bold /classicalgaramondbt-bolditalic /classicalgaramondbt-italic /classicalgaramondbt-roman /claudecaesarsh /cli /clocks /closetome /clukennedysh /cmbx /cmbx /cmbx /cmex /cmmi /cmmi /cmmi /cmmib /cmr /cmr /cmr /cmsl /cmsy /cmsy /cmsy /cmti /cmtt /coffeecamusinitialssh /colettecoleridgesh /colonnamt /comicsansms /comicsansms-bold /commercialpibt-regular /commercialscriptbt-regular /complex /cooperblack /cooperbt-blackheadline /cooperbt-blackitalic /cooperbt-bold /cooperbt-bolditalic /cooperbt-medium /cooperbt-mediumitalic /cooperplanck lightsh /cooperplanck sh /cooperplanck boldsh /copperplategothicbt-bold /copperplategothicbt-roman /copperplategothicbt-romancond /copticls /cornerstone /coronet /coronetitalic /cotillion /countryblueprint /couriernewps-bolditalicmt /couriernewps-boldmt /couriernewps-italicmt /couriernewpsmt /cssubscript /cssubscriptbold /cssubscriptitalic /cssuperscript /cssuperscriptbold /cuckoo /curlzmt /cybillistzsh /czarbold /czarbolditalic /czaritalic /czarnormal /dauphinplain /dawncastlebold /dawncastleplain /dekker /dellarobbiabt-bold /dellarobbiabt-roman /denmark /desdemona /diploma /dizzydomingosh /dizzyfeiningersh /doctermanboldsh /dodgenburna /dodocasalssh /dododiogenessh /domcasualbt-regular /durian-republik /dutch bt-bold /dutch bt-bolditalic /dutch bt-extrabold /dutch bt-italic /dutch bt-roman /ebt's-cmbx /ebt's-cmex /ebt's-cmmi /ebt's-cmmi /ebt's-cmmi /ebt's-cmr /ebt's-cmr /ebt's-cmr /ebt's-cmsy /ebt's-cmsy /ebt's-cmsy /edithdaysh /elephant-italic /elephant-regular /emgravessh /engeleinsteinsh /english vivacebt-regular /english bt-regular /engraversgothicbt-regular /engraversoldenglishbt-bold /engraversoldenglishbt-regular /engraversromanbt-bold /engraversromanbt-regular /envirod /erasitc-bold /erasitc-demi /erasitc-light /erasitc-medium /erasitc-ultra /ernestblochsh /estrangeloedessa /euclid /euclid-bold /euclid-bolditalic /euclidextra /euclidextra-bold /euclidfraktur /euclidfraktur-bold /euclid-italic /euclidmathone /euclidmathone-bold /euclidmathtwo /euclidmathtwo-bold /euclidsymbol /euclidsymbol-bold /euclidsymbol-bolditalic /euclidsymbol-italic /euroroman /euroromanoblique /exxpresleysh /fencesplain /fences-regular /fifthavenue /figurinecrrcb /figurinecrrcbbold /figurinecrrcbbolditalic /figurinecrrcbitalic /figurinetmscb /figurinetmscbbold /figurinetmscbbolditalic /figurinetmscbitalic /fillmoreregular /fitzgerald /flareserif bt-roman /fleurfordsh /fontdinerdotcom /fontdinerdotcomsparkly /footlightmtlight /forefrontbookobliquesh /forefrontbooksh /forefrontdemiobliquesh /forefrontdemish /fortress /fractionsaplentysh /frakturplain /franciscan /franklingothic-medium /franklingothic-mediumitalic /franklinunic /fredflahertysh /freehand bt-regularb /freehand bt-regulara /freestylescript-regular /frutiger-roman /ftpmultinational /ftpmultinational-bold /fujiyamapsmt /futurablackbt-regular /futurabt-bold /futurabt-boldcondensed /futurabt-bolditalic /futurabt-book /futurabt-bookitalic /futurabt-extrablack /futurabt-extrablackcondensed /futurabt-extrablackconditalic /futurabt-extrablackitalic /futurabt-light /futurabt-lightitalic /futurabt-medium /futurabt-mediumcondensed /futurabt-mediumitalic /gabbygauguinsh /galliarditcbybt-bold /galliarditcbybt-bolditalic /galliarditcbybt-italic /galliarditcbybt-roman /garamond /garamond-antiqua /garamond-bold /garamond-halbfett /garamond-italic /garamond-kursiv /garamond-kursivhalbfett /garcia /garrymondrian lightitalicsh /garrymondrian lightsh /garrymondrian bookitalicsh /garrymondrian booksh /garrymondrian sblditalicsh /garrymondrian sbldsh /garrymondrian bolditalicsh /garrymondrian boldsh /garrymondrian extraboldsh /garrymondrian ultrash /garrymondriancond lightsh /garrymondriancond booksh /garrymondriancond sbldsh /garrymondriancond boldsh /garrymondriancond extraboldsh /garrymondriancond ultrash /garrymondrianexpt lightsh /garrymondrianexpt booksh /garrymondrianexpt sbldsh /garrymondrianexpt boldsh /garrymondrianswashsh /gaslight /gatineaupsmt /gautami /gdt /geometric bt-boldc /geometric bt-lightc /geometric bt-romanc /geometricslab bt-bold /geometricslab bt-boldcond /geometricslab bt-bolditalic /geometricslab bt-light /geometricslab bt-lightitalic /geometricslab bt-medium /geometricslab bt-mediumcond /geometricslab bt-mediumitalic /geometricslab bt-xtrabold /georgemelvillesh /georgia /georgia-bold /georgia-bolditalic /georgia-italic /gigi-regular /gillsansbc /gillsans-bold /gillsans-bolditalic /gillsanscondensed-bold /gillsanscondensed-regular /gillsansextrabold-regular /gillsans-italic /gillsanslight-italic /gillsanslight-regular /gillsans-regular /goldmineplain /gonzo /gothice /gothicg /gothici /goudyhandtooledbt-regular /goudyoldstyle-bold /goudyoldstyle-bolditalic /goudyoldstylebt-bold /goudyoldstylebt-bolditalic /goudyoldstylebt-italic /goudyoldstylebt-roman /goudyoldstyleextrabold-regular /goudyoldstyle-italic /goudyoldstyle-regular /goudysansitcbybt-bold /goudysansitcbybt-bolditalic /goudysansitcbybt-medium /goudysansitcbybt-mediumitalic /graceadonissh /graeca /graeca-bold /graeca-bolditalic /graeca-italic /graphos-bold /graphos-bolditalic /graphos-italic /graphos-regular /greekc /greeks /greeksans /greeksans-bold /greeksans-boldoblique /greeksans-oblique /griffin /grungeupdate /haettenschweiler /hankkhrushchevsh /harlowsolid /harpoonplain /harrington /heatherregular /hebraica /helenehissblacksh /helvetica /helvetica-bold /helvetica-boldoblique /helvetica-narrow /helvetica-narrow-bold /helvetica-narrow-boldoblique /helvetica-narrow-oblique /helvetica-oblique /henrypatricksh /herald /hightowertext-italic /hightowertext-reg /hogbold-hmk /hogbook-hmk /homeplanning /homeplanning /homewardboundpsmt /humanist bt-bold /humanist bt-boldcondensed /humanist bt-bolditalic /humanist bt-italic /humanist bt-light /humanist bt-lightitalic /humanist bt-roman /humanist bt-romancondensed /ibmpcdos /iceaged /impact /incised bt-bold /incised bt-light /incised bt-roman /industrial bt-italic /informal bt-roman /informalroman-regular /intrepid /intrepidbold /intrepidoblique /invitation /ipaextras /ipaextras-bold /ipahighlow /ipahighlow-bold /ipakiel /ipakiel-bold /ipakielseven /ipakielseven-bold /ipasans /isocp /isocp /isocp /isoct /isoct /isoct /italic /italicc /italict /jesterregular /jokerman-regular /jotmedium-hmk /juiceitc-regular /jupiterpsmt /kabelitcbybt-book /kabelitcbybt-ultra /karlajohnson cursivesh /karlajohnson regularsh /karlajohnson boldcursivesh /karlajohnson boldsh /karlajohnson extraboldcursivesh /karlajohnson extraboldsh /karlkhayyamsh /karnack /kartika /kashmir /kaufmannbt-bold /kaufmannbt-regular /keplerstd-black /keplerstd-blackit /keplerstd-bold /keplerstd-boldit /keplerstd-italic /keplerstd-light /keplerstd-lightit /keplerstd-medium /keplerstd-mediumit /keplerstd-regular /keplerstd-semibold /keplerstd-semiboldit /keystrokenormal /kidnap /kidsplain /kindergarten /kinomt /kissmekissmekissme /koalapsmt /korinnaitcbybt-bold /korinnaitcbybt-kursivbold /korinnaitcbybt-kursivregular /korinnaitcbybt-regular /kristenitc-regular /kristin /kunstlerscript /kyotosong /lainiedaysh /landscapeplanning /lapidary bt-bold /lapidary bt-bolditalic /lapidary bt-italic /lapidary bt-roman /latha /latinopal lightitalicsh /latinopal lightsh /latinopal italicsh /latinopal romansh /latinopal demiitalicsh /latinopal demish /latinopal bolditalicsh /latinopal boldsh /latinopal extraboldsh /latinopal blacksh /latinopalcond romansh /latinopalcond demish /latinopalcond boldsh /latinopalexptromansh /latinopalswashsh /latinwidd /latinwide /leetoscanini lightsh /leetoscanini regularsh /leetoscanini boldsh /leetoscanini blacksh /leetoscaniniinlinesh /lettergothic pitchbt-bold /lettergothic pitchbt-boldital /lettergothic pitchbt-italic /lettergothic pitchbt-roman /lettergothic-bold /lettergothic-bolditalic /lettergothic-italic /lettergothicmt /lettergothicmt-bold /lettergothicmt-boldoblique /lettergothicmt-oblique /lettergothic-regular /librarianregular /linuspsmt /lithograph-bold /lithographlight /longisland /lubalingraphmditctt /lucidabright /lucidabright-demi /lucidabright-demiitalic /lucidabright-italic /lucidacalligraphy-italic /lucidaconsole /lucidafax /lucidafax-demi /lucidafax-demiitalic /lucidafax-italic /lucidahandwriting-italic /lucidasans /lucidasans-demi /lucidasans-demiitalic /lucidasans-italic /lucidasans-typewriter /lucidasans-typewriterbold /lucidasansunicode /lydiancursivebt-regular /magneto-bold /mangal-regular /map-symbols /marcushobbessh /mariah /marigold /maritamedium-hmk /maritascript-hmk /market /martinmaxxiesh /mathtypemed /matisseitc-regular /maturamtscriptcapitals /maudemeadsh /memorandumpsmt /metro /metrostyle-bold /metrostyleextended-bold /metrostyleextended-regular /metrostyle-regular /microgrammad-boldexte /microsoftsansserif /mikepicassosh /minipicsliledibles /minipicslilfolks /minipicslilstuff /mischstabpopanz /misterearlbt-regular /mistral /modernedemi /modernedemioblique /moderneoblique /moderneregular /modern-regular /monalisarecutitc-normal /monospace bt-bold /monospace bt-bolditalic /monospace bt-italic /monospace bt-roman /monotxt /monotypecorsiva /monotypesorts /morrisonmedium /morsecode /motorpsmt /msam /mslinedrawpsmt /ms-mincho /msoutlook /msreference /msreference /mtex /mtexb /mtexh /mt-extra /mtgu /mtgub /mtls /mtlsb /mtmi /mtmib /mtmih /mtms /mtmsb /mtmub /mtmuh /mtsy /mtsyb /mtsyh /mt-symbol /mtsyn /music /mvboli /mysticalpsmt /naghammadils /nealcurieruledsh /nealcuriesh /nebraskapsmt /neuropol-medium /nevisoncasd /newmilleniumschlbkbolditalicsh /newmilleniumschlbkboldsh /newmilleniumschlbkexptsh /newmilleniumschlbkitalicsh /newmilleniumschlbkromansh /news bt-bold /news bt-italic /news bt-roman /newton /newzuricabold /newzuricaitalic /newzuricaregular /niagaraengraved-reg /niagarasolid-reg /nigelsadesh /nirvana /nuptialbt-regular /ocrabybt-regular /officeplanning /oldcentury /oldenglishtextmt /onyx /onyxbt-regular /opensymbol /ottawapsmt /ottomasonsh /ozhandicraftbt-roman /ozzieblack-italic /ozzieblack-regular /palatiabold /palatiaitalic /palatiaregular /palatinolinotype-bold /palatinolinotype-bolditalic /palatinolinotype-italic /palatinolinotype-roman /palmspringspsmt /pamela /panroman /paradisepsmt /paragonpsmt /paramountbold /paramountitalic /paramountregular /parchment-regular /parisianbt-regular /parkavenuebt-regular /patrick /patriot /paulputnamsh /pcencodinglowersh /pcencodingsh /pegasus /penguinlightpsmt /pennsilvash /percival /perfectregular /pfn blackitalic /phantom /philsimmonssh /pickwick /pipelineplain /playbill /poorrichard-regular /poster /posterbodonibt-italic /posterbodonibt-roman /pristina-regular /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /proxy /prx /prx /prx /prx /prx /prx /prx /prx /prx /pythagoras /raavi /ranegund /ravie /ribbon bt-bold /rmtmi /rmtmib /rmtmih /rmtmub /rmtmuh /robwebsterextraboldsh /rockwell /rockwell-bold /rockwell-extrabold /rockwell-italic /romanc /romand /romans /romant /romantic /romanticbold /romanticitalic /sahara /saltintorettosh /sambarberinitialssh /samplimsollsh /sansserif /sansserifbold /sansserifboldoblique /sansserifoblique /sceptre /scribbleregular /scriptc /scripthebrew /scripts /semaphore /serifabt-black /serifabt-bold /serifabt-italic /serifabt-roman /serifabt-thin /sfn bold /sfn italic /shelleyallegrobt-regular /shelleyvolantebt-regular /shellymarissh /sherwoodregular /shlomoaleichemsh /shotgunbt-regular /showcardgothic-reg /shruti /signatureregular /signboard /signetroundhandatt-italic /signetroundhand-italic /signlanguage /signs /simplex /sissyromeosh /slimstravinskysh /snapitc-regular /snellbt-bold /socket /sonate /souveniritcbybt-demi /souveniritcbybt-demiitalic /souveniritcbybt-light /souveniritcbybt-lightitalic /sprucebyingtonsh /spsfont medium /spsfont medium /spsfont medium /spsfont medium /spsfont medium /spsfont normal /spsscript /sregular /staccato bt-regular /stagecoachregular /standoutregular /startreknextbt-extrabold /startreknextpibt-regular /steamerregular /stencil /stencilbt-regular /stewardson /stonehenge /stopd /storybook /strict /strider-regular /stuyvesantbt-regular /stylusbt /stylusregular /subwayregular /suevermeer lightitalicsh /suevermeer lightsh /suevermeer meditalicsh /suevermeer mediumsh /suevermeer demiitalicsh /suevermeer demish /suevermeer bolditalicsh /suevermeer boldsh /sunyatsensh /superfrench /suzannequillsh /swiss -blackobliqueswa /swiss -blackswa /swiss bt-black /swiss bt-blackcondensed /swiss bt-blackcondenseditalic /swiss bt-blackextended /swiss bt-blackitalic /swiss bt-blackoutline /swiss bt-bold /swiss bt-boldcondensed /swiss bt-boldcondenseditalic /swiss bt-boldcondensedoutline /swiss bt-boldextended /swiss bt-bolditalic /swiss bt-boldoutline /swiss bt-italic /swiss bt-italiccondensed /swiss bt-light /swiss bt-lightcondensed /swiss bt-lightcondenseditalic /swiss bt-lightextended /swiss bt-lightitalic /swiss bt-roman /swiss bt-romancondensed /swiss bt-romanextended /swiss bt-thin /swiss -lightobliqueswa /swiss -lightswa /swiss bt-extracompressed /swiss bt-regulara /syastro /sylfaen /symap /symath /symbolgreek /symbolgreek-bold /symbolgreek-bolditalic /symbolgreek-italic /symbolgreekp /symbolgreekp-bold /symbolgreekp-bolditalic /symbolgreekp-italic /symbolgreekpmono /symbolmt /symbolproportionalbt-regular /symbolsaplentysh /symeteo /symusic /tahoma /tahoma-bold /tahomaitalic /tamflanahansh /technic /technicalitalic /technicalplain /technicbold /techniclite /tekton-bold /teletype /tempsexptboldsh /tempsexptitalicsh /tempsexptromansh /tempsswashsh /tempussansitc /tesshoustonsh /texcatlinobliquesh /texcatlinsh /thrust /times-bold /times-bolditalic /times-boldoblique /times-extrabold /times-italic /timesnewromanmt-extrabold /timesnewromanps-bolditalicmt /timesnewromanps-boldmt /timesnewromanps-italicmt /timesnewromanpsmt /times-oblique /times-roman /times-semibold /times-semibolditalic /timesunic-bold /timesunic-bolditalic /timesunic-italic /timesunic-regular /tonywhitesh /transcyrillic /transcyrillic-bold /transcyrillic-bolditalic /transcyrillic-italic /transistor /transitional bt-bolda /transitional bt-cursivea /transitional bt-romana /translitls /translitls-bold /translitls-bolditalic /translitls-italic /transroman /transroman-bold /transroman-bolditalic /transroman-italic /transslavic /transslavic-bold /transslavic-bolditalic /transslavic-italic /trebuchet-bolditalic /trebuchetms /trebuchetms-bold /trebuchetms-italic /tribunebold /tribuneitalic /tribuneregular /tristan /trotslight-hmk /trotsmedium-hmk /tubularregular /tunga-regular /txt /typouprightbt-regular /umbrabt-regular /umbrellapsmt /uncialls /unicorn /unicornpsmt /univers /universalmath bt-regular /univers-bold /univers-bolditalic /universcondensed /universcondensed-bold /universcondensed-bolditalic /universcondensed-italic /universcondensed-medium /universcondensed-mediumitalic /univers-condensedoblique /universextended-bold /universextended-bolditalic /universextended-medium /universextended-mediumitalic /univers-italic /universityromanbt-regular /universlightcondensed-italic /universlightcondensed-regular /univers-medium /univers-mediumitalic /urwwoodtypd /usablackpsmt /usalightpsmt /vagabond /venetian bt-demi /venetian bt-demiitalic /venetian bt-italic /venetian bt-roman /verdana /verdana-bold /verdana-bolditalic /verdana-italic /vinerhanditc /vinetabt-regular /vivaldii /vladimirscript /voguepsmt /vrinda /waldoiconsnormala /waltharringtonsh /webdings /weiland /weshollidaysh /wingdings-regular /wp-hebrewdavid /xavierplatosh /yurikaysh /zapfchanceryitcbybt-bold /zapfchanceryitcbybt-medium /zapfdingbatsitcbybt-regular /zapfelliptical bt-bold /zapfelliptical bt-bolditalic /zapfelliptical bt-italic /zapfelliptical bt-roman /zapfhumanist bt-bold /zapfhumanist bt-bolditalic /zapfhumanist bt-italic /zapfhumanist bt-roman /zappedchancellormeditalicsh /zurichbt-blackextended /zurichbt-bold /zurichbt-boldcondensed /zurichbt-boldcondenseditalic /zurichbt-bolditalic /zurichbt-extracondensed /zurichbt-italic /zurichbt-italiccondensed /zurichbt-light /zurichbt-lightcondensed /zurichbt-roman /zurichbt-romancondensed /zurichbt-romanextended /zurichbt-ultrablackextended /zwadobef ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages false /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname (http://www.color.org?) /pdfxtrapped /false /syntheticboldness . /description << /deu <feff a f f f e f f c c e d f c f c e e e f e c e e d e d c d e d d d d c f e e f e c f a f f f f e e e e f f d f e c f e c e f f c f f f f e c e f f c e f c f a f d f e e> /enu <feff a f f f e f f c c e d f c f c e e e f e c e e d e e d d > >> >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice s jbr .. book reviews the first amendment and state bans on teachers’ religious garb: analyzing the historic origins of contemporary legal challenges in the united states. by nathan c. walker. new york: routledge, . pp. . $ . (cloth); $ . (digital). isbn: . “if we were being indoctrinated now, at this very minute, would we know it?” so asked terence copley, professor of religious education and theology at the university of exeter in . copley raised the question in the context of england’s approach to religion and ethics in the k- classroom. in the process of examining the strengths and weaknesses of the program of study, copley noted that omissions are as instructive as commissions. when schools avoid teaching about the variety of religious and non-religious beliefs according to which human beings shape their lives, “surely this [avoidance] too is indoctrination, as it has very effectively xed habits and dispositions without engaging the child’s active powers. even if by omission, and with no intention . . . the end result is the same—a closed mind, which sincerely believes in its own programming.” for this reason, copley spent most of his professional life designing and eld-testing k- courses about religion, which are mandated by statute in the united kingdom and required in most european countries. readers in the united states should note that k- coursework in religion and philosophy, the value of which forty-seven nations in the council of europe afrmed as recently as , exists in addition to the pluralistic school structure in most democracies in which the state funds a variety of school types, including religious schools. most modern democracies, in other words, acknowledge religion in both the structure and the content of public education. (the united states is thus an outlier in both respects.) more diverse provision of education and a richer curriculum, however, have not resolved the issue of teachers’ religious garb in these countries. indeed, this issue has exploded in recent years, with courts from pakistan to the united kingdom adjudicating between competing rights—and often coming to completely different conclusions. the matter of teachers’ religious garb is separate from educational structure and content, but it is certainly related to the larger question of what counts as indoctrination. teachers’ religious garb is the focus of nathan c. walker’s first amendment and state bans on teachers’ religious garb terence copley, indoctrination, education and god: the struggle for the mind (london: society for promoting christian knowledge, ), xi. copley, . see myriam hunter-hénin, introduction to law, religious freedoms and education in europe, ed. myrriam hunter-hénin (farnham: ashgate, ), – , at . see, for example, robert jackson, “religion, education, dialogue and conict,” british journal of religious education , no. ( ): – , at . see, for example, johns hopkins institute for education policy and european association of education law and policy, “global pluralism,” johns hopkins institute for education policy, , https://edpolicy.education.jhu. edu/global-pluralism/; ashley berner, pluralism and american public education: no one way to school (new york: palgrave macmillan, ). nathan walker provides a summary of relevant cases at pages – of the book under review. see also, hunter-hénin, law, religious freedoms and education in europe. note that the issue of teachers’ and others’ “manifestation” of religious belief in the public square is quite pressing internationally. both individual nations and the european court of human rights frequently take up legal challenges. journal of law and religion , no. ( ): – © the author(s), . published by cambridge university press on behalf of the center for the study of law and religion at emory university. doi: . /jlr. . journal of law and religion of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms https://edpolicy.education.jhu.edu/global-pluralism/ https://edpolicy.education.jhu.edu/global-pluralism/ https://edpolicy.education.jhu.edu/global-pluralism/ https://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog?doi= . /jlr. . &domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core ( ). walker directly asks whether being taught by a public-school teacher who wears hijab—the covering required of muslim women in some cultures—coerces young people into islamic belief. does a catholic teacher’s habit or a mennonite teacher’s bonnet indoctrinate? in legal terms, does religious garb offer a “symbolic link,” and thus an endorsement, of religion by the state and thus fall afoul of the establishment clause of the federal constitution? walker thinks not, but he takes the reader there by examining the confusing, often tortuous, decisions of courts in the united states about teachers’ religious garb in public schools, and shows us that the matter is not yet settled law. the history he recounts plays out across years of cultural conict, state laws, and “eleven substantive cases about bans on public school- teachers’ religious garb, nine of which were state supreme court decisions” ( ). to my knowl- edge, his is the most extensive treatment of the subject to date. for readers who are not already engaged in the issue of religion and the public schools, walker provides a helpful glossary of legal terms (xx–xxi), a table that sets out the relevant cases ( – ), details that locate teachers’ religious garb rmly within first amendment jurisprudence, and reections on how federal courts might resolve the tensions between establishment and free exercise claims when it comes to reli- gious garb. walker’s focal point is pennsylvania, the state that passed the rst-of-its-kind anti-religious garb law in , directly after the state’s supreme court ruled ( ) in favor of habited nuns who taught in public schools. pennsylvania’s anti-religious garb law was revised and reafrmed in and, most recently, in ; it stands outside and in addition to the state’s education code, which species separately that public schools may not enjoin activity that “‘instructs, proselytizes or indoctrinates students in a specic religious or political belief’” ( ). walker highlights the fact that pennsylvania’s anti-religious-garb law may be in direct conict with pennsylvania’s religious freedom protection act of ( ) although—a critical point for walker—no federal court has weighed in on the disjuncture or nuance. and there is considerable nuance. walker reminds us, for instance, that courts pay particular attention to students’ impressionability when determining the appropriate age at which public- school students could participate voluntarily in religious clubs or the appropriate role of teachers in sponsoring such activities ( ). walker honors the subtlety well, with a dialogical back-and-forth between competing “takes” on teachers’ religious attire within both establishment and free exercise claims (especially – ). he also calls for research that could empirically ground the courts’ assumptions about the real-world impact of teachers’ religious garb on students; our current disagreements about “how best to balance the rights and interests of children and religious-garb-wearing teachers” are determined by the subjective views of the observer rather than upon evidence ( – ). i am sure he is right. while walker’s book addresses a specic matter—religious garb in public schools—it raises a more profound, and perennial one: how do we adequately prepare the next generation to navigate pluralism and liberal democracy? as walker himself notes, “the complex questions embedded in this subject do not simply fall in the domain of teachers’ rights or students’ rights, but they also put into question the very purpose of public education in the twenty-rst century” ( ). walker’s book is thus particularly urgent and timely, and is a welcome guide for legal scholars and education policy- makers alike. see a brief summary of national statistics and data from classrooms in ashley berner, “in a polarized america, what can we do about civil disagreement?,” brown center chalkboard (blog), april , , https://www.brookings. edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/ / / /in-a-polarized-america-what-can-we-do-about-civil-disagreement/. book reviews journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/ / / /in-a-polarized-america-what-can-we-do-about-civil-disagreement/ https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/ / / /in-a-polarized-america-what-can-we-do-about-civil-disagreement/ https://www.brookings.edu/blog/brown-center-chalkboard/ / / /in-a-polarized-america-what-can-we-do-about-civil-disagreement/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core my primary criticism of the book is that at times it becomes quite tedious in its rehearsal of walker’s own process of study and review, reading more like a doctoral thesis than a legal analysis. the reader does not particularly need to know that walker searched through lexisnexis, nor do we need to hear a blow-by-blow and often repeated account of what will be addressed in future sections or chapters, as if we were evaluating the success of a high school lincoln-douglas debate. we assume walker did due intellectual diligence to produce this (peer-reviewed) volume. indeed, walker’s nal three chapters are so exciting that one wishes even more for a tighter, more high-level analysis of the legal history that could lead us more directly to the questions of why this issue matters so very much—for teachers, for students, for policy makers, and indeed for the viability of american democracy itself. for democratic education exists, in no small part, to prepare the next generation of young people to sustain a democracy that is both liberal and plu- ral. walker’s argument is that laws against religious manifestations in schools diminish rather than enhance this preparation. far from being indoctrinatory, he suggests, religious attire in the public schools represents an important reference point for students about what it means to live in a dem- ographically and ideologically diverse community. his argument thus points beyond the narrow scope of the book’s inquiry and toward the central dilemma of how democratic life ought to be organized and nurtured. therefore, one of the most satisfying parts of the book, for me, comes when walker outlines the fears of a “religious takeover” that animate pennsylvania’s anti-religious-garb law; for instance, the concern that a “critical mass” of teachers in religious garb in a majority-jewish neighborhood in pittsburgh, or in a majority-muslim neighborhood in philadelphia, might create a “symbolic link” between the state and religious belief. to this, walker remarks, “the obvious question is, so what? should not public schools reect the public it serves? employing teachers who reect the demographics of their community is not a violation of the establishment clause—denying members of the community employment because of their religious identity is a violation of both the establishment and free exercise clauses of the first amendment” ( ). put positively, exposure not only does not equal “coercion,” but it may well constitute a net pos- itive that can support civil tolerance. put negatively, not allowing religious garb “intentionally sup- presses teachers’ religious identity by ‘sanitizing’ them for the classroom––a message that students can reasonably interpret to mean that the state is hostile to the religion of their teacher, an identity some students in the classroom may share” ( ). walker and copley are on the same page. walker concludes on a sober note, namely, the cold, hard facts of “trends in social hostilities and violence against religious minorities [that] correlate with the laws used to regulate them” ( , also see ). he recites the anti-catholic vitriol that inspired pennsylvania’s law; he brings prejudice up to date with statistics on the negative biases levied against muslims in the workplace ( – ). walker follows up the general nding that religious restrictions penalize minorities disproportionately, with the (to me) shocking and unpleasant news that “to date, no native american, jew, or sikh has won a free exercise claim before the u.s. supreme court. muslims won their rst cases in ” ( ). unfortunately, many aspects of the united states’ school systems reinforce prejudice against religious minorities, including the limitations we place on religious schools and the absence of a there are too many excellent sources to name in a footnote. but for a start, see charles leslie glenn, the myth of the common school (amherst: university of massachusetts press, ); philip hamburger, separation of church and state (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ). book reviews journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core systematic k- approach to religion and ethics. would a clear supreme court ruling supporting teachers’ religious garb in schools make a difference? it might. at the very least, it would offer an opportunity for legal scholars, education policymakers, parents, and activists, to engage in demo- cratic deliberation about the relationship between exposure and indoctrination. walker’s book can prepare us for that conversation. ashley rogers berner associate professor, johns hopkins school of education; deputy director, johns hopkins institute for education policy see, for example, stephen prothero, religious literacy: what every american needs to know—and doesn’t (new york: harpercollins, ). “democratic deliberation” is one of the goods valued by educational theorist amy gutmann, currently president of the university of pennsylvania. see amy gutmann, democratic education (princeton: princeton university press, ); amy gutmann, democratic education: with a new preface and epilogue (princeton: princeton university press, ); amy gutmann, democratic education, rev. ed. (princeton: princeton university press, ). book reviews journal of law and religion at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /jlr. . https://www.cambridge.org/core 	book reviews william a. fischel – professor of economics and robert c. & hilda hardy professor of legal studies skip to content 	 		advanced features of this website require that you enable javascript in your browser. thank you!	 	 	education 	degree finder 	departments & programs 	global learning 	graduate schools 	libraries 	lifelong learning 	summer at dartmouth 	the undergraduate experience 	research 	research news 	faculty experts 	schools & departments 	research support 	life & community 	explore the green 	arts across campus 	athletics & recreation 	diversity 	health & wellness 	technology 	outdoors 	residential life 	service 	student groups & activities 	sustainability 	more 	admissions 	schools 	centers 	global 	arts 	athletics 	giving search dartmouth college explore dartmouth 	 		 		 			 			 				 						william a. fischel 					 						professor of economics and robert c. & hilda hardy professor of legal studies 					 			 		 		 		 		 			 				 			 						 		 		 		 			primary menu 			menu 			 			 				 					 				 					search for: 					 				 				 			 	home 	working papers 	curriculum vita 	contact 	 				 					search for: 					 				 				 			 	 		 		 			 			 	 	 		 		 			autobiographical essay march 			 		 		 			photo credit janice g. fischel    i have been a professor in the dartmouth college economics department since and am also the robert c. and hilda hardy professor of legal studies, emeritus. i retired from teaching in . the courses i most recently taught were economics (survey for nonmajors) and economics (urban and land use). my continuing interests are in public economics, particularly local government structure and behavior. my most recent work in this vein is "counting on counties," which offers a theory of american county government formation and its regional geographic variations. climate and race are a large part of it.      unlike most other economists, i have relied primarily on sole-author books to develop my scholarship. their common theme holds that local governments should be thought of as active economic agents rather than passive “creatures of the state.” my most recent book is “zoning rules! the economics of land use regulation,” published by the lincoln institute of land policy in july . it is an update and extension of my book, “the economics of zoning laws,” which argued that zoning is the product of rational, if not always admirable, economic calculation by voters in american municipalities. a prize-winning undergraduate thesis by kihara kiarie explored zoning in an inverted way by examining land use in houston, texas, the only large city that lacks zoning, and a copy of his work is available here. the centerpiece of  “zoning rules!” is its economic explanation of how zoning evolved. it shows that zoning’s goals shifted from municipal “good housekeeping”  to “growth control” as a result of inflation and environmental activism in the s. this was the product of what i call “the rise of the homevoters,” the local political movement in which homeowners displaced the pro-growth factions in local government. the anti-growth shift accounts for the higher housing costs of the west and the northeast compared to the rest of the united states. my current research examines the link between zoning pioneers such as edward bassett (his autobiography is here) and my thesis that cheap motor vehicles provided the impetus for zoning in the - era. a general economic theory of local government behavior was the subject of  “the homevoter hypothesis” (harvard university press in ). because homeowners have so much of their net worth wrapped up in their houses, they pay close attention to the many things that local governments can do to enhance or detract from their value. this provides a political side for the famous vote-with-your-feet model of local government, the tiebout hypothesis. the homevoter model explains why proposition , the california voter initiative that limited property taxes, was caused by serrano v. priest, which undermined voter incentives to support local school taxes. i also organized a conference and edited a book of essays, “the tiebout model at fifty” (lincoln institute of land policy, ), that probes the implications of charles tiebout’s durably famous model. “regulatory takings” (harvard university press, ) investigated the constitutional ways by which the excesses of zoning might be curbed by the judiciary without infringing on the creativity and autonomy of local governance. of special interest during this phase of my career were follow-ups on regulatory takings cases to see what happened afterwards, as in the photographic essays (lucas essay) (lucas update) ) on lucas v. south carolina coastal council, u.s. ( ). a rethinking of regulatory takings is in my investigation of the facts of  miller v. schoene, the case of the cedar trees that made apples go bad. it has made me less optimistic about the doctrine’s viability. my book, “making the grade” (university of chicago press), explores the economic evolution of american public school districts, the local government boundaries that home buyers care most about. the book explains the transformation of education from one-room schools, which were ungraded, to the age-graded schools we now reflexively think of as “real school.” there were over , districts in , but they now number fewer than , (here is a map of american school districts in , courtesy of sarah battersby). i regard their transformation as an example of market-like spontaneous order, the most subtle of which is summer vacation. voters voluntarily surrendered one-room schools and their tiny districts because they retarded children’s access to high school. inverted support for this is provided by the continuing embrace of one-room schools by the old-order amish: “do amish one-room schools make the grade? the dubious data of wisconsin v. yoder” (university of chicago law review ). my writing has been shaped by several year-long leaves at universities on the west coast. my wife, janice g. fischel,  (moravian ‘ ) and i have been at the university of california at davis ( - ); at santa barbara ( - and - ); and at berkeley’s law school ( - ). we also spent a year in seattle, where i visited the daniel j. evans school of public affairs at the university of washington ( - ).  our permanent home is in hanover, new hampshire, in a neighborhood within swimming distance of vermont. i served on the hanover zoning board from to , and i have rejoined the board in my retirement. janice and i are both natives of bethlehem, pennsylvania, though i grew up in nearby lower saucon township and attended hellertown high school (class of ). i graduated from amherst college in and got a phd in economics from princeton university in . i studied some law (but do not have a law degree) at vermont law school and at what its graduates fondly called “henry manne’s summer camp.” i enjoy back-road bicycling and year-round hiking. janice and i have for years followed dartmouth men’s basketball, and i have most recently served as an academic advisor to the team. a short memoir that relates my basketball experience to economics is available here. we are also architecture enthusiasts and enjoy walkabouts in new york and other cities. janice makes and sells photographic note cards, which you can view at http://www.jgfischel.com. our son, josh, graduated from amherst college (class of ) and received his master’s degree from the gerald r. ford school of public policy at the university of michigan in . in , he married cameren cousins, a middlebury graduate who received an mba in sustainability from antioch in . both are teachers and live in acton, massachusetts with their son, cabot earnest fischel, born in . cabot, janice, and bill cabot, cameren, and josh. acton, mass. march 			 		 		 			 		 		 	 	 			 		 		 	 	 	 	 	 		 		footer content 				 		 			 								 			 		 	 		 			 			 		 		 	 	 	my dartmouth 	students 	faculty 	staff 	alumni 	families 	find it fast 	campus map 	directory 	events 	news 	visit 	resources 	dartmouth at a glance 	accessibility 	administrative offices 	emergency preparedness 	careers 	sexual respect & title ix connect with us 	facebook 	instagram 	twitter 	youtube 	copyright © trustees of dartmouth college 	• 	privacy 	• 	a-z index 	• 	site or accessibility feedback groth, paul, and todd w. bressi, eds. understanding ordinary landscapes. new haven and london: yale university press, . pp. ix, . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliography and index all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine groth, paul, and todd w. bressi, eds. understanding ordinary landscapes. new haven and london: yale university press, . pp. ix, . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliography and index brian s. osborne volume , numéro , october uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu osborne, b. s. ( ). compte rendu de [groth, paul, and todd w. bressi, eds. understanding ordinary landscapes. new haven and london: yale university press, . pp. ix, . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliography and index]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews / comptes rendus the illustrations, and while captions are used to identify people, they do not point out what is significant in the visual image, or how it relates to the text of the chapter. apart from brief refer- ences to bank barns and mennonite georgian-style houses, there is no architectural assessment of buildings and no floor plans of buildings are presented. the fifty beautifully prepared black-and-white maps in the book are an antidote for the few surviving township maps. it seems a pity that none of the clearer maps from the past such as the tremain map of were reproduced in their original form. the digitized translation of the map inside the front cover lacks the names of land- owners. on it modern symbols for churches, schools, post offices, hotels and mills are so large as to obscure their exact location, in contrast with the precision of the original map. how well does bloomfield succeed in capturing the persisting and valuable essence of waterloo township? in many ways she does establish the particularity of this township, citing the ger- man language spoken, its unique land survey, the complexity of its cadastre, its large size, its irregular roads, the lack of road allowances, the lack of crown and clergy reserves, its group settlement by pennsylvania mennonites, and so on to its demise in which she describes as "one of the most com- plex in ontario." bloomfield says "waterloo township is unique." she also claims that this "history illustrates also larger processes of change in southern ontario during the last two centuries — from the acquisition of land from aboriginal peo- ples in the late eighteenth century, through the creation of a rural economy and society, to the transforming effects of indus- trialization and urbanization." readers may be forgiven if they are confused as to whether waterloo was a typical or unique township. in a sense it almost doesn't matter. in the midst of the present urban sprawl, hampered by the destruction of so many original township records, bloomfield was obliged in part to re- create the reality of rural waterloo township from provincial leg- islation and regulations. what partly emerges as her subject is not waterloo township specifically, but rather a more generalized biography of the township in ontario, that is, any ontario town- ship. there is surprisingly little drama for a book that opens with "set- ting the stage" and closes with "last act." almost no coverage is given to the generic german identity of much of the popula- tion, other than listing family names, dates and paths of arrival. bloomfield would have us believe that little evidence has been found of the effect of two world wars on the local german- speaking population, but a dozen or so references sprinkled through the text and notes effectively suggest otherwise. had the "german" character of local society been more fully deline- ated, bloomfield might better have succeeded in capturing the persisting and valuable essence of waterloo township. glenn j lockwood ottawa groth, paul, and todd w. bressi, eds. understanding ordinary landscapes. new haven and london: yale university press, . pp. ix, . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliogra- phy and index. this volume is the product of a symposium held to com- memorate the th anniversary of the founding of the berkeley department of landscape architecture. it was intended to be an interdisciplinary forum on subjects, methods, and philoso- phies of that ever-expanding term, landscape studies. in an attempt at focussing the predictable eclecticism that threatens such an approach, contributors were urged to focus on two princi- pal issues: the reliability of visual and spatial information in under- standing past and present cultures; and the ways in which the social and cultural pluralism of landscapes are best understood. the volume is organized in three parts. first, the editors present an efficient "capsule history" of the traditions and practice of landscape study. secondly, ten practitioners demonstrate their specific approaches to interpreting landscapes. finally, six chapters are devoted to scholarly critiques of the earlier contri- butions and reflect on the future of landscape studies. the essays range from comprehensive surveys and critiques, through empirical case-studies, to detailed expositions of pre- ferred methodology. several of the contributors set up the straw-men of the limita- tions of superficial analysis of a culture's external features, or else tilt at the windmill of a sauerian fetish concerned solely with material "stuff." and all too often, the mantra is the same: certainly, visual analysis does yield important insights; however, reliance on visual analysis alone is dangerous; therefore, visual evidence must be accompanied by the scrutiny of other histori- cal documentation; finally, it is only through these that social processes underlying material things may be exposed. thus, deryck holdsworth's thorough investigation of landscape and archives as texts pays obeisance to all the stations of the theo- retical-cross along his via delarosa that laments the shortfalls of naive vision and the neglect of "broader issues of social, cul- tural, and economic change" (p. ). but there are others. rina swentzell's essay on conflicting land- scape values in the santa clara pueblo breathes life into the power of the visual engagement with place. she demonstrates how the materiality of this particular setting is imbued with the people's relationship with the land, their community, and the cosmos. it was/is/will be a world where everything is "touch able, knowable, and accessible" (p. ). in this way, swentzell applies the power of the visual to contrast the holistic, natural world of the pueblo with the alien imposition of the bureau of indian affairs school. dolores hayden also addresses "sense of place," but from a more explicitly theoretical perspective in which urban landscape history is informed by the "politics of space." for her, a sensitive history of urban landscapes must combine an appreciation of the aesthetics and politics of dis- tinctive spaces and the part they play in economic and social reproduction. hayden's visuals accompany a lucid argument urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxvii, no. (october, ) book reviews / comptes rendus for the understanding of "place-bound identities" and the dem- onstration of how "people's attachments to places are material, social, and imaginative" ( ). however, it must be said that they are presented more as auxiliary illustrations rather than as evidence to be integrated into her thesis. indeed, considering this volume's concern with a critical evaluation of the utility of the image, little attention is paid to the theory of the visual. where is the discussion of the power of iconography, the insights of semiotics, the rigour of visual theory? only a few of the contributions attempt a detailed exposition of the potential contribution of a rigorous visual analysis. at least denis cosgrove does not dodge the column in his use of renaissance spectacle and theatre to elucidate the tension between "visual and textual truth in contemporary landscape criticism" (p. ). he takes head-on the western world's dis- trust of images and preference for text and mathematical sym- bol and argues that visual images should be taken seriously as "one among the many discursive fields in which we may repre- sent truth" to be placed "into a dialectic unity with text" (p. ). in a similar vein, catherine howett's critique of "certain ways of viewing the world" (p. ) unpacks the ways by which western society has codified the way it "sees" the world by focussing on prevailing aesthetic and scientific discourses. in a well-docu- mented and well-argued study, she demonstrates how our aes- thetic criteria for evaluating landscapes can only be understood in the context of an ever-evolving cultural tradition. such perspectives on how the material world is visualized pro- voked those charged with the task of commenting on the future direction of landscape studies. they include some of the most productive scholars in the field: wilbur zelinsky, david lowenthal, dell upton, jay appleton, robert riley. all of them provide good service in imaginative critiques of the past and didactic prospects for the future. but it is richard walker who grasps the nettle of the essential tension running through much of this volume: the imputed con- flict between the materialist approach to landscape and the enthusiasms of the new cultural geographers informed by social theory. in an excitingly critical and playful think-piece, walker chides all around: the traditional landscape school for a static and anti-modernist view of culture; new cultural geogra- phers for their cultural idealism; and political economists for their neglect of consumer cultures (p. ). while his unabashed materialist position will irritate some, others will sym- pathize with his discontent with, the posturing of the postmodernist and the mannered style of discourse that glibly condemns the linear, logical, and eviden- tiary essay in favor of fragments of literary allusion and freely tossed lacanian word salads, which leave a faint and convo- luted trail of simulacrumbs for the poor reader to follow (p. ). his critical whimsy disposed of, walker goes on to advocate the "promiscuous mingling and mutual education of cultural geographers and political economists" (p. ). as noted by dell upton, "the primacy of vision in landscape studies" is the central theme running through these various stud- ies ( ). indeed, the title of the original symposium — vision, culture, and landscape — would have been a fine iden- tifier for this volume as it represents a provocative investigation of these three inseparable phenomena. brian s. osborne department of geography queen's university olechnowicz, andrzej. working-class housing in england between the wars: the becontree estate. oxford historical manuscripts. oxford: clarendon press, . pp. . maps, tables, bibliography, index. $ . (cloth). when urban studies came storming onto the scholarly scene in the s, housing was identified as one of the essential areas of research. scholars as diverse as american historian sam bass warner and the french marxist sociologist henri lefebvre considered housing a key site of scholarly investigation which directly intersected with the wider areas of political economy, social relations and culture. in the last thirty years, researchers have broadened this agenda by asking new questions and applying new methods of inquiry. domestic economy and archi- tecture, gender, race, class, sexual orientation, age, and a host of other themes have been investigated in the realm of both pri- vate and public housing. a spate of monographs on various aspects of the housing experience have been published, a spe- cialized journal devoted to housing studies was inaugurated in the s, and prominent journals in economics, geography, history and sociology regularly feature articles on housing. yet these developments have been uneven. in the field of pub- lic housing history much work needs to be done. unlike labour and women's history, broad-ranging "community" studies from an historical perspective that integrate policy analysis and the social history of tenants appear few and far between. that is why andrzej olechnowicz's book on the becontree estate is so welcome. as governments around the world shed public hous- ing in the name of fiscal restraint and ideological zeal, this book comes at a propitious time. it seeks to understand why council housing has gained a reputation in britain as one of the "basic social failures of the twentieth century." the becontree public housing estate in the eastern environs of london was the largest supplier of public housing in the world. comprising four square miles, it contained , separate dwellings and housed , persons. its sheer size has ensured that it has become a focal point for the stormy debates in the twentieth century on the role of state-provided housing. olechnowicz concisely sketches in the background to becontree's development: the lack of affordable accommoda- tion for britain's working class, the debates between different jurisdictions for funding and control of council estates, the pre- urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxvii, no. (october, ) changes in completed family size and reproductive span in anabaptist populations by j. c. stevenson, p. m. everson a n d m. h. crawford abstract the anabaptist amish, hutterite and mennonite peo- ples trace their origins to the reformation. although they share cer- tain beliefs, such as adult baptism and the separation of church and state, each group is culturally unique. the hutterite and amish are highly fertile and their populations exhibit stable rates of growth. these demographic characteristics reflect communal living among the hutterites and labor intensive farming practices among the amish. the mennonites are the most receptive anabaptist group to outside socioeconomic influences and provide a demographic con- trast to the more conservative amish and hutterites. demographic data collected during a study of aging in mennonite population sam- ples from goessel and meridian, kansas, , and henderson, ne- braska, , formed the basis of a cohort analysis in order to assess fertility change over time. completed family size has decreased significantly in all three communities since . since the early 's the mean age of the mother at first birth has fluctuated but the mean age of mother at the birth of the last child is decreasing significantly for the communities of goessel and henderson, thus effectively shortening the reproduc- tive span. the pattern is somewhat different for meridian, the most conservative of the three communities. the amish, hutterite and mennonite peoples trace their origins to the reformation (dyck ). the three groups organized separately around the charismatic personalities of jacob ammann, jacob hutter and menno simons, respectively. all three anabaptist groups advocate adult baptism and separation of church and state. the latter idea was con- sidered treasonous in most areas of europe in the 's. adherence to this concept of separation of church and state resulted in persecution and department of anthropology, western washington university, bellingham, wa department of anthropology, university of washington, seattle, wa ^laboratory of biological anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, ks human biology, february , vol. , no. , pp. - © wayne state university press, / stevenson, everson a n d crawford frequent forced migration. the movement began in switzerland spread- ing to parts of germany and holland, then to prussia, czechoslovakia, later to poland and russia. migration to the americas began in the 's (dyck ). how- ever, many amish moved in the 's coming primarily from switzer- land. the ethnically german hutterites migrated from russia in the 's settling first in south dakota. although mennonites were even- tually tolerated in europe during the late 's and 's, economic concerns due to discrimination and increasing militarism caused migra- tion to north america. migrants represented two categories: swiss-south german and dutch-prussian-russian. in the late 's, and continuing through the early s, , to , swiss and german mennon- ites first settled in pennsylvania. during the 's and the 's, ap- proximately , dutch-prussian-russians arrived in the united states midwest and canada. the cultural heterogeneity of the mennonites may be partially responsible for the more liberal attitudes of many contem- porary mennonites relative to hutterites and amish. published demographic studies of mennonites are few (allen and redekop ; harder ; yoder ), and there is little documen- tation of fertility change over time. thus, in this study, reproductive his- tories for women, representing population samples from one nebraska and two kansas mennonite communities, will be analyzed by cohort and compared to other anabaptists. the amish and hutterites, anabaptist "cousins" of the mennon- ites, are of considerable biological and demographic interest because of remarkably stable levels of mortality and fertility with little or no in or out migration from the group since the beginning of this century until the s (cook ; cross and mckusick ; eaton and mayer ; ericksen et al. ; hamman et al. ; sheps ; and tietze ). birth control is not condoned, so that fertility is high. the mean family sizes of . and . for the amish (ericksen et al. ) and hutterites (eaton and mayer ), respectively, have remained unchanged for at least or years. in addition, mortality is low. thus, growth rates of both groups are very high (cook ; cross and mckusick ; eaton and mayer ; friedmann ; laing ; peter ). the constancy of this growth coupled with maximum or near maximum fer- tility, particularly of the hutterites, has received much attention from social scientists interested in determining the limits of human fecundity or "natural fertility" (e.g. espenshade ; henry ; and robinson ). other researchers have utilized the excellent genealogical records of the anabaptist groups and their relative isolation to explore either topics in medical genetics (e.g. mckusick ) or additional aspects of family size and reproductive span / population structure such as inbreeding, genetic drift and group fissioning (hurd , a, b; mange ; mckusick et al. ; morgan and holmes ; steinberg et al. ). the mennonites, can provide an interesting contrast to the hut- terites and amish. although a heterogeneous group, the mennonites are, in general, the most receptive to the outside world (dyck ). today, except for old colony mennonites in mexico (allen and redekop ) and other conservative mennonite groups, the fertility levels of the men- nonites are the lowest of the anabaptists. yoder ( ) found that . to . children was the average per married woman over the age of in a census of the (old) mennonite church (mennonite general conference, organized ). when single women are averaged in, the mean drops to around to . children per woman. pollack ( ; also described in hurd, b) compared old amish, mennonites and non-mennonites and demonstrated the existence of a positive relationship between reli- gious conservatism and number of live births per completed family in plain city, ohio. thus, lower fertility is expected for the mennonites relative to the amish and hutterites. the focus here will be on the pat- tern in completed family size and reproductive span in these groups over time. the populations studied three communities are represented in this study: goessel, and meridian, located in kansas, and henderson, nebraska. the three com- munities are related historically, but the composition of each is unique. goessel and henderson mennonites are descendants of peoples liv- ing in the th and th century netherlands primarily, plus switzerland and southern germany. ancestry can also be traced to prussia and russia due to local conversions during their later travels (crawford and rogers ; rogers ). political and economic changes in russia convinced many of the members of one russian village, alexanderwohl, of the ukraine molotschna colony, to migrate to the u.s. in . after arriv- ing in the united states they split into factions, in part, because of com- petition between railroad agents for land sales. thus, one group settled west of lincoln, nebraska, in today's town of henderson. another group, new alexanderwohl, settled in the rural areas around today's goessel, kansas, in the counties of harvey, marion and mcpherson. most of the individuals in this study are from churches affiliated with the general conference mennonite division which was founded in with the intent of uniting all of the american mennonites / stevenson, everson a n d crawford (dyck ; van meter ). not as strict as many of the smaller groups, they only require adherence to the fundamental doctrines of the mennonite faith. new alexanderwohl was the first congregation to affiliate in and was followed by tabor, hillsboro, johannestal, lehigh, brudertal and goessel. in this study, % of the participants from the goessel community represent alexanderwohl, goessel and tabor churches. fifteen per cent are from other mennonite churches, and % are non-mennonites. a few smaller groups have remained separate. one such church is the holdeman or church of god in christ, represented in this study by the meridian congregation, which is located near hesston, kansas. "holdemans" are the most conservative mennonites in this study with plain dress and beards worn by the men. all meridian participants are members of this church and reside in rural areas surrounding the church or in the towns of hesston or moundridge, kansas. ethnically, the holdeman members are a mixture of the descendants of the prussian-russian immigrants and american mennonites from indiana and pennsylvania (crawford and rogers ). the henderson mennonites of nebraska are descendants of inhab- itants from a number of russian villages of the molotschna colony in- cluding alexanderwohl (crawford and rogers ; rogers ; voth ). disputes about church worship soon surfaced, probably along vil- lage lines. the largest group organized the bethesda church (now gen- eral conference), but a reform movement led to families breaking away to form the evangelical mennonite brethren church in . in addition, an earlier reform predating the immigration from the molotschna colony led to the organization of the mennonite brethren in . presumably members from this church are descendants of molotschna colony im- migrants and american mennonites. individuals in this study represent all three churches, respectively, in the following proportions: , and %. seven per cent are in a miscellaneous category which includes both non-mennonites and out-of-state mennonites. materials and methods the demographic data from the communities of goessel and merid- ian, kansas, and henderson, nebraska, were taken as part of a larger interdisciplinary aging study which is described in crawford and rogers ( ). interview and questionnaire data were collected at health clin- ics in goessel and meridian churches in kansas, during january, , and in the bethesda church of nebraska during january, . merid- family size and reproductive span / ian was a small sample which included % of the adults residing in the community. however, % of the families were represented by this sam- ple (sirijaraya ). the cornell medical index questionnaire provided reproductive histories for , and women from goessel, hender- son and meridian, respectively. the goessel clinic sample included % of the entire alexanderwohl church membership. this clinic sample was further supplemented by mailed questionnaires in order to obtain a larger sample of the community in . the town of henderson consisted of persons and a total sample of ( %) participated in the study. mennonites from the three communities are culturally homogenous, and thus, sample sizes approximating % should be representative. household surveys provided additional information about na- tal and reproductive families of household heads and their respective spouses. individuals were encouraged to consult family records in order to complete the household surveys. complete family histories were then used to reconstruct families for individuals born as early as the 's, and these reconstructed families were used to calculate completed family size for ten-year cohorts. reproductive histories were used to estimate mean age at menarche, mean age of mother at first and last child and mean reproductive span. completed family size is calculated as the to- tal number of children born to a married woman. reproductive span is calculated by subtracting the birth year of the last child from the birth year of the first child and adding one (tietze ). mothers with a sin- gle child are given a reproductive span value of one. this measure of reproductive span is not a potential measure; rather, it is an estimate of the actual span of childbearing. results the mean completed family size by community by decade, from to , for goessel, henderson and meridian are presented in table and graphically portrayed in figure . most of the women born in the 's have not completed their childbearing by - so the figures for this cohort are conservative. in each of the three communities, goessel, henderson, and meridian, the mean completed family sizes for the - cohort are significantly greater than the mean completed family sizes for the - cohort (t = . , p < . , t = . , p < . , t = . , p < . , one-tail tests, respectively). there were no significant differences in comparisons of mean completed family size between henderson and goessel for the same cohorts. sample sizes are smaller for meridian so means fluctuate. however, the trend to / stevenson, everson a n d crawford table . mean completed family size, by community, by decade of woman's birth, - decade of goessel henderson meridian woman's birth n x s.d. n x s.d. n x s.d. - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . - . . . . . . d e c a d e of w o m a n ' s b i r t h figure . mean completed family size, by community, by decade of woman's birth, - . decreasing family size is apparent in all three communities, decreasing from a high of to children among the women in the - cohort, to to children characterizing the women in the - cohort. summary measures of the reproductive span, by decade, of women born from - for goessel and henderson, and to for meridian, are presented in table . statistical comparisons for meridian could not be made due to the small sample sizes; however, trends are noted. family size and reproductive span / table . summary measures of reproductive span, by community, by decade of woman's birth, - . decade of mean age mean age mean age mean woman's at at at reproductive birth menarche first birth last birth span by community n x sd n x sd n x sd n x sd - goessel . . . . . . . . henderson . . . . . . . . meridian — id* — — id* — — id* — — id* — - goessel . . . . . . . . henderson . . . . . . . . meridian . . . . . . . . - goessel . . . . . . . . henderson . . . . . . . . meridian . . . . . . . . - goessel . . . . . . . . henderson . . . . . . . . meridian . . . . . . . . - goessel . . . . . . . . henderson . . . . . . . . meridian . . . . . . . . *id insufficient data. the mean age at menarche decreases in all three communities. within goessel the mean age at menarche decreases . years from to . thus, the mean age at menarche for the - cohort is significantly higher than the - and - cohorts (t = . , . , p = . , . , one-tail tests, respectively), and the mean ages at menarche for the - and - cohorts are significantly higher than for the - cohort (t = . , . , p = . , . , one-tail tests, respectively). within henderson, the mean age at menarche drops . years from to but fluctuates. there is a significant difference between the - and - cohorts when the mean age at menarche rises (t = . , p = . , one- / stevenson, everson a n d crawford tail test). however, the overall trend continues downward although the mean age at menarche for the - cohort is significantly higher than among the - and - cohorts (t = . , . , p = . , . , respectively). finally, the mean age at menarche for meridian women decreases . years from to . the mean age at first birth has fluctuated since the early 's hov- ering in the mid- 's. there are no discernable trends within communi- ties. however, goessel women tend to be older than henderson women at the birth of the first child for all cohort comparisons, - , - , - , - , - (t = . , . , . , . , . , p = . , . , . , . , . , respectively, two-tail tests). the mean age at last birth fluctuates around the age of for merid- ian women, but decreases . and . years, respectively, from to for the women of goessel and henderson. within goessel the mean age at last birth drops significantly every decade for all but the last cohort, - versus - , - vs. - , - vs. - , (t = . , . , . , p = . , . , . , respec- tively, one-tail tests). within henderson significant decreases are found between two pairs of cohorts, - vs. - , - vs. - , (t = . , . , p = . , . , respectively, one-tail tests). the mean age at last birth for goessel and henderson differ significantly only when the first two cohorts are compared, - , - , (t = . , . , p = . , . , respectively, two-tail tests). thus, goes- sel and henderson women become more alike over time with respect to mean age at last birth. the mean reproductive span has shortened . and . years for goessel and henderson women over the period - , and one year for meridian women from to . the most dramatic decreases occur among goessel women during the periods - vs. - , and - vs. - , (t = . , . , p = . , . , one-tail tests, respectively). mean reproductive span in henderson declines less so that significant differences are found only when the - , - , and - cohorts are compared to the - cohort (t = . , . , . , p = . , . , . , one-tail tests, respectively). discussion since the early 's, the mean age at menarche has decreased suggesting improved health and nutrition (danker-hopfe, ; malina, family size and reproductive span / ). the mean age at first birth has fluctuated slightly with no ob- vious trends although remaining consistently higher for goessel when compared to henderson women. the mean age at first birth increased slightly (although not significantly) for the women of goessel and hen- derson born during the decade - , but these are women who bore children during the depression and world war ii. the mean age at menarche also rises for henderson women during the depression years. the mean age at first birth decreased in later cohorts from both commu- nities and significantly so for goessel women although it is apparently rising again for women born in the 's. for henderson, the mean age at marriage averaged . , . , . , . and . years for women born in the decades - , - , - , - and - , respectively. the age at marriage also increased slightly for women born in the decade - and again for those born in the 's. however, the mean age at last child has decreased steadily (and most dramatically for the goessel community) so that the reproductive span has decreased , and % for goessel, henderson and merid- ian, respectively. the mean completed family size, presented in table , indicates how this shortened reproductive span has also resulted in reduced completed family size, although this is slightly more evident for goessel and henderson than for the more conservative community of meridian. the subtle differences in measures of reproductive span be- tween goessel and henderson women are not reflected in differences in mean completed family size. further study should reveal if these con- sistent differences reflect cultural differences in achieving desired family size. this demographic shift experienced by mennonites in the last thirty or forty years is also being predicted for the more culturally buffered amish and hutterite populations (laing ; morgan ; peter ). the demographic stability from approximately to the 's reflects the isolation and self-sufficiency of the hutterites and amish. both practice an agrarian lifestyle, are relatively uniform in socioeconomic circumstances and receive adequate medical care, but there are significant differences. the hutterites are communal and have utilized sophisticated farm machinery since the 's (hostetler , ). the amish live as single families and resist such technological innovations as automobiles, telephones and electricity (hostetler ). refusal to practice birth control, coupled with a high standard of living, has led to a dramatic increase in the population size of both groups. the hutterite population has increased from approximately immigrants in to approximately , individuals residing in colonies in (peter ). in the amish, the population growth has been / stevenson, everson a n d crawford at a slightly slower rate but with similar results. for example, between and , the number of amish church districts in lancaster county, pennsylvania, increased from to (ericksen et al. ). this population explosion has been supported among hutterites by the communal acquisition of capital and the purchase of new land, followed by group fissioning. as needed, the amish family also purchases additional farmland for its offspring. however, difficulty in obtaining land due to its scarcity, inflation, and increasing political restrictions has led several researchers to predict a decline in the fertility of both the hutterites and amish (eaton ; eaton and mayer ; ericksen et al. , ; peter ). there are a limited number of positions of responsibility in a hutterite colony and the inability to create new positions through group fissioning is likely to produce internal discontent (clark ; peter ). this dissatisfaction may result in a decline in family size, and seems to be happening for north american hutterites. peter ( ) demonstrates a decrease in the population growth rate from . % per year to . %. in an analysis of census data for alberta hutterites, laing ( ) demonstrates that the crude birth rate declined from . per thousand in to . per thousand in . laing also found a decrease in the age-specific fertility of the hutterite women. the conversion to contemporary farm technology has reduced the need for labor, and thus, the average size of hutterite colonies has been reduced. a number of strategies have been adopted to reduce fertility. hutterite women married at . and men at . years in (cook ), whereas, laing ( ) estimated that in mean age at marriage for alberta hutterite women had risen to . years and for men . years. peter ( ) has predicted a greater increase in the ages at marriage in order to account for the . % reduction in the birth rate from - . however, boldt and roberts ( ) argue that peter's predictions may be too high and that other means of reducing fertility may be in use, such as birth control. in addition, the percentage of never-married women is increasing, and women who do marry are having fewer children (laing ). the age specific rates decline most in women over the age of years. there is little evidence for a decline in amish fertility over time except for those who leave the congregation (ericksen et al. ). the mean age at marriage is below years for the amish women who marry by age and is over for their husbands (ericksen et al. ). amish men tend to marry earlier, while amish women marry at the same time as their u.s. neighbors. there has been little or no change since the late 's although smith ( ) finds a slight decrease in age of marriage for family size and reproductive span / southeastern pennsylvanian amish men and women. amish fertility has been lower than that of hutterites due primarily to a more rapid decline in fertility for amish women at older ages. sterilization and abstinence are likely explanations for this fertility differential. thus, the fertility decline is not yet evident for the amish. an age/sex distribution from a "nebraska" amish population of mifflin county, pennsylvania, for december, (hurd b) does not differ significantly from the age/sex distribution for holmes county, ohio, amish in (n = ) (cross and mckusick ). the impact of population pressure is probably more immediately felt in hutterite colonies rather than in the individual families of the amish. the amish have more job opportunities due to labor intensive practices (ericksen et al. ). because land may be more difficult to obtain among the amish, individuals may be initially absorbed into occupations such as carpentry, cabinet-making, blacksmithing and harness repair. thus, fewer amish families depend directly on farming before there is a change in fertility. about % of holmes county amish are either part or full-time farmers, whereas, ericksen et al. ( ) find that only % of amish males of lancaster county, pennsylvania, are directly involved with farming. the amish may be temporarily buffered from the demographic changes being experienced presently by the hutterites. ericksen et al. ( ) observed that it is difficult to give up farming and to remain amish. there is an increasing rate of defection from the amish church in families least able to purchase more land. in addition, those who defect exhibit a slight decrease in fertility. to counteract this trend, remaining amish are either going to have to locate new families outside of lancaster county (which causes additional problems because it is difficult to maintain family ties and thus amish identity), and/or reduce fertility. from the late 's to the 's, a period of time when amish and hutterite fertility has remained stable, mean completed family sizes for the three mennonite communities of this study have been decreasing. during that time mennonite fertility has also been sensitive to changes in the outside world. for example, note the later mean age at first birth (and for mean age at marriage for henderson women) for women born in the years to and the associated drop in mean completed family sizes for the communities of goessel and henderson. women born in the 's are reducing family size, and the mean age at first birth is slightly higher. reduction in completed family size is also occurring through a reduced reproductive span, and like the hutterites and amish, the reduction is primarily at the end of the childbearing years. the mean age at last child has lowered dramatically in goessel and has been relatively low in henderson since the early 's. thus, mennonites / stevenson, everson a n d crawford reduce fertility in the later years more and sooner than do the hutterites and amish. meridian, the most conservative mennonite community of the three, does not exhibit this pattern. the reduction in mean completed family size is due primarily to a slight elevation in the age of mother at first birth rather than due to a decreased mean age of mother at the birth of the last child. presumably, the most "liberal" mennonites of this study, the goessel and henderson communities, are more similar to their non- mennonite neighbors. however, there are no comparable measures avail- able for the kansas-nebraska census population. the census does provide an indirect measure of fertility, "children-ever-born". this mea- sure enumerates the number of children ever born per married woman to years of age. for the kansas-nebraska census population, these age groups consist of individuals who were born in the decades - , - , - , and - , with values of . , . , . , and . , respectively (u.s. bureau of census , , ). thus, the reduction in fertility of the goessel mennonites makes them more similar to their non-mennonite neighbors. in addition, mennonite women of goessel, henderson and merid- ian are using the contraceptive pill in order to both delay the birth of the first child and decrease the fertility of their later reproductive years (see table ). most of the women born in the late 's and 's have used the pill in the later reproductive years, and virtually all of the women born in the 's are using the pill in order to delay the birth of the first child. a small percentage ( - %) of women born in the 's and 's have also had tubal ligations. eaton and mayer ( ) predicted that hutterite women might eventually adopt birth control as they acculturated to american values, and boldt and roberts ( ) have suggested the use of contraception in order to explain the recent decrease in the rate of growth of the hutterites. however, to date, there is no pub- lished information to support the use of birth control by either amish or hutterite women. the use of the birth control pill by the more con- servative meridian women suggests that the pill may also be employed by contemporary amish and hutterite women. another artificial means of reducing the length of the reproductive span is through the surgical removal of the ovaries and/or uterus. table presents the proportions of women having hysterectomies by decade of birth, and the percentages are relatively high for all three communities. of those goessel and henderson women who also gave their ages at the time of the surgery, to % were years old or younger. these high frequencies suggest voluntary birth control. eaton and mayer ( ) also noted high rates of hysterectomies in hutterite women. family size and reproductive span / table . use of birth control pills, by community, by decade of woman's birth, - . decade of woman's birth, by community % have used sample size - goessel . henderson . meridian . - goessel . henderson . meridian . - goessel . henderson . meridian . - goessel . henderson . meridian . - goessel . henderson . meridian . - goessel . henderson . meridian . conclusions a cohort analysis indicates that the reproductive span of mennon- ite women has been shortened. the mean age of the mother at first birth is rising, while the mean age of mother at the birth of the last child is decreasing for the communities of henderson and goessel. thus, the reproductive span for both communities is being shortened most dra- matically as a result of a decrease in the age of the mother at the birth of the last child. meridian is the most conservative of the three mennonite communities and the women in that sample have not reduced either the completed family size or the reproductive span by as much as the women / stevenson, everson a n d crawford table . hysterectomies, by community, by decade of woman's birth, - . decade of woman's birth % total sample % < # with by community hysterectomy size age age - goessel henderson meridian id* id id id - goessel henderson meridian id id - goessel henderson meridian id id - goessel henderson meridian id id - goessel id id henderson id id meridian id id *id insufficient data in the goessel and the henderson samples. the slight reduction in the mean length of the reproductive span for meridian women was accom- plished primarily through the increase of the mother's age at first birth. the birth control pill is also utilized, plus there is a high rate of hys- terectomies for women years and younger. the demographic shift for these three mennonite communities begins for women born in the 's and 's. although a similar demographic transition in the amish and hutterites is anticipated as a result of the social changes accompany- ing population pressures due to historically high fertility, the preliminary evidence for this shift is apparent only for the hutterites. in sum, the fer- tility measures of contemporary mennonite women indicate that demo- graphically they are beginning to resemble the kansas-nebraska census population, instead of the other more conservative anabaptist groups. family size and reproductive span / acknowledgements this research was supported in part by n.i.h. grant ago - and a p.h.s. research career development award k de - . we are grateful to the goessel, meridian and henderson congregations, without whose support and participation this study would not have been possible. we also wish to thank ms. meredith uttley and dr. laurine rogers for their assistance in data analysis and data collection, and mr. lucky tedrow and mr. gene hoerauf of western washington university for their assistance in preparing the figure. ms. eileen smith's help in preparation of the final manuscript is acknowledged. literature cited allen, g. and c. redekop individual differences in survival and reproduction among old colony mennonites in mexico: progress to october . eug. quart. : - . boldt, e. d. and l. w. roberts the decline of hutterite population growth: causes and consequences—a critique. can. ethnic stud. : - . clark, p. leadership succession among the hutterites. canadian rev. sociol. and anthrop. : - . cook, r. c. the north american hutterites: a study in human multiplication. pop. bull. : - . cross, h. e. and v. a. mckusick amish demography. soc. biol. : - . crawford, m. h. and l. rogers population genetic models in the study of aging and longevity in a mennonite community. soc. sci. & med. : - . danker-hopfe, h . menarcheal age in europe. yearbook of physical anthropology, : - . dyck, c. j. ( ) mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptists and the mennonites. herald press, scottsdale, pa. eaton, j. w. controlled acculturation: a survival technique of the hutterites. am. sociol. rev. : - . eaton, j. w. and a. j. mayer the social biology of very high fertility among the hutterites. the demography of a unique population. human biol. : - . ericksen, e. p., j. a. ericksen and j. a. hostetler the cultivation of the soil as a moral directive: population growth, family ties, and the maintenance of community among the old order amish. rural soc. : - . ericksen, j. a., e. p. ericksen, j. a. hostetler a n d g . e. h u n t i n g t o n fertility patterns and trends among the old order amish. pop. stud. : - . espenshade, t. j. a new method for estimating the level of natural fertility in populations practicing birth control. demography, : - . friedmann, r. a hutterite census for : hutterite growth in one century, - . menn. quart. rev. : - . hamman, r. f., j. i. barancik and a. lilienfeld patterns of mortality in the old order amish. am. j. epidem. : - . harder, l. comparative demographic analysis: mennonite church and general conference mennonite church. elkhart, indiana. / stevenson, everson a n d crawford hostetler, j. a. total socialization: modern hutterite educational practices. menn. quart. rev. : - . hostetler, j. a. hutterite society. the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. hostetler, j. a. amish society. the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. henry, l. some data on natural fertility. eug. quart. : - . h u r d , j. p. kin relatedness and church fissioning among the "nebraska" amish of pennsylvania. soc. biol. : - . h u r d , j. p. a kissing cousins: frequencies of cousin types in "nebraska" amish marriages. soc. biol. : - . h u r d , j. p. b sex differences in mate choice among the "nebraska" amish of central pennsylvania. ethol. sociobiol. : - . laing, l. m. declining fertility in a religious isolate: the hutterite population of alberta, canada, - . human biol. : - . malina, r. m. secular changes in size and maturity: causes and effects. monogr. soc. res. child dev., serial no. : - . m a n g e , a. p. growth and inbreeding of a human isolate. human biol. : - . m c k u s i c k , v. a., j. a. hostetler and j. a. egeland genetic studies of the amish: background and potentialities. in: v. a. mckusick (ed.), medical genetic studies of the amish, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore, pp. - . m o r g a n , k . mortality changes in the hutterite brethren of alberta and saskat- chewan, canada. human biol. : - . m o r g a n , k. and t. m. holmes population structure of a religious isolate: the dariusleut hutterites of alberta. in: m. h. crawford and j. h. mielke (eds.), current developments in anthropological genetics, volume , ecology and population structure, plenum press, new york, pp. - . peter, k . a. towards a demographic theory of hutterite population growth. variables, : - . peter, k. a. the decline of hutterite population growth. can. ethnic stud. : - . pollack, r. genetic demography of an amish-mennonite population. abstract. am. j. phys. anthrop. : . robinson, w. c. another look at the hutterites and natural fertility. soc. biol. : - . rogers, l. a. phylogenetic identification of a religious isolate and the measurement of inbreeding. ph.d. dissertation. university of kansas. sheps, m. c. an analysis of reproductive patterns in an american isolate. pop. stud. : - . slrijaraya, s. inbreeding in the meridian mennonites of kansas. unpublished m.a. thesis, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas. smith, e. l. studies in amish demography. the research council of eastern mennonite college, harrisonburg, virginia. steinberg, a . g . , h . k . bleibtreu, t . w . k u r c z y n s k i , a . o . martin a n d e. m . kurczynski genetic studies on an inbred human isolate. in: j. f. crow and j. v. neel (eds.), proceedings of the third international congress of human genetics, the johns hopkins press, baltimore, pp. - . tietze, c. reproductive span and rate of reproduction among hutterite women. fertil. steril. : - . u n i t e d states th census of population, . volume , characteristics of the population. chapter c, general social and economic characteristics, pt. , kansas, family size and reproductive span / pc - c and pt. , nebraska, pc - -c . u. s. department of commerce, bureau of census, washington. government printing office. u n i t e d states th census of population, . volume , characteristics of the population. chapter c, general and social and economic characteristics, pt. kansas, pc - -c , pt. nebraska, pc - -c . u. s. department of commerce, bureau of census, washington. government printing office. u n i t e d states th census of population, . volume , characteristics of the population. chapter b, general population characteristics, pt. , kansas, pb - - b , and pt. , nebraska, pc - -b . u. s. department of commerce, bureau of census, washington. government printing office. v a n meter, s. marion county, kansas: past and present. m. b. publishing house, hillsboro, ks. voth, s. e. (ed.) henderson mennonites, from holland to henderson. henderson centennial committee, service press, inc., henderson, nebraska. y o d e r , m. l. findings from the mennonite census. menn. quart. rev. : - . slavic review important volume’s broad scope and precision of documentation place the conversa- tion on a high level. the book is dedicated to the memory of the much-beloved and highly influential st. petersburg historian, boris vasil évich anan΄ich, who did much to define this collective agenda and who died in . catherine evtuhov columbia university chosen nation. mennonites and germany in the global era. by benjamin w. goossen. princeton: princeton university press, . xiv, pp. notes. bibliography. index. illustrations. photographs. tables. maps. $ . , hard bound. doi: . /slr. . chosen nation presents a sweeping history of mennonites and germany in what benjamin goossen calls a “global era,” roughly the nineteenth and twentieth centu- ries. though he focuses on mennonites within germany, goossen also comments on mennonites in imperial russia, the soviet union and, to a lesser degree, paraguay, brazil, canada, and the dutch east indies. goossen uses such a vast landscape to consider the relationship between reli- gion and nationalism, terms that he deems highly malleable. nations, he writes, “are amorphous to the point of incoherence” ( ), as are “faith formations” ( ). in their place, goossen is attracted to those who bypass the “vagaries of ‘identity’ altogether” ( ) and focus more on a collectivism that is inherently dynamic and necessarily fragmentary ( ). he believes that the investigation of mennonites and germany in “a global era” will allow us to better understand “the fluidity of group loyalty” ( ). goossen also finds it almost impossible to define who mennonites are, or how mennonite identities changed over time. mennonites emerged out of sixteenth cen- tury anabaptism but he accepts that it was always “disunited in even basic prin- ciples” ( ) and that its statements of faith were “multiple and contested.” goossen suggests that there is no core to who mennonites are, at least no “core values”; all is merely process ( ). even “christ’s foundation” ( ) is in constant flux, a claim he makes but does not investigate or substantiate. with such a vast and indeterminate approach it will not surprise readers that his study struggles to attain an overall coherence, nor will readers find an overview of the book’s argument in the introduction. goossen first investigates how selected mennonite leaders in the german lands and beyond responded to german unifica- tion. here and elsewhere he is primarily interested in mennonite “activists” ( ), pro- gressive leaders like carl harder, hermann mannhardt, and hinrich van der smissen who sought to create a broader pan-german mennonitism within a pan-german nationalist mold. leave aside the difficulty of knowing what terms like “progressive” and “conservative” mean within the great indeterminacy of mennonite identities for goossen, he is at his best in his portrayal of these mennonite progressive “activists” within germany proper. mennonites themselves, however, are rarely investigated, which is ironic given goossen’s stated commitment to collectivism. for example, we are told ( ) that only a small fraction of the seventy-one mennonite congregations in the new german reich joined the union of mennonite congregations, but the mennonites in those seventy-one congregations are rarely given a voice. this lack of voice is particularly troublesome in his chapter on ukrainian mennonites during the nazi invasion and holocaust. his approach is best captured in the book’s cover photo. what the reader http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /slr. . &domain=pdf book reviews sees is a small group of defenseless women hemmed in by a large, armed regiment of nazi soldiers on horseback, all of whom are male. it is a sobering photograph. but the caption reads: “residents of the molotschna mennonite colony in southeast- ern ukraine, including a cavalry squadron of the waffen-ss, celebrate a visit from heinrich himmler, ” (back flap). though that adequately captures goossen’s conclusions of mennonite complicity in nazi atrocities in ukraine during world war  ii, at no point does he investigate who those women were in the photograph, and to what degree they might have felt compelled to “celebrate,” if “celebrate” they did. his own commentary on page suggests that alternate narratives are entirely plausible. yet for reasons unclear, goossen declares that (some? all? many?) “mennonite leaders had assisted hitler’s empire building in ukraine and poland,” and that ukraine’s mennonites were a “tool of nazi colonialism” ( ). at no point does he engage any russian language sources or the work of viktor klets, the leading ukrainian historian of mennonites during the nazi occupation. here and elsewhere, goossen’s text reveals the dangers that arise in attempting to cover too vast a territory. the reader often is unsure how goossen’s conclusions have been reached. taken as a whole, goossen has provided valuable insight into how select mennonite progressive “leaders” in the german lands responded to german unifica- tion, and how they worked to transform their confession up to and after world war i. it is to be hoped that goossen will now dig deep into the german mennonite experience, and investigate the people within those “collectivisms” whose voices, until now, have rarely been heard. leonard g. friesen wilfrid laurier university fascism in manchuria: the soviet-china encounter in the s. by susanne hohler. london: i.b. tauris, . ix, pp. notes. bibliography. index. $ . , hard bound. doi: . /slr. . by focusing on – , susanne hohler breaks new ground in english language studies by writing about emigres in manchuria after the japanese occupation. she is also the first scholar to argue that russian fascism was an integral part of civil soci- ety. drawing on recent challenges to the definition of civil society as inherently toler- ant or democratic, she is interested in examining the function of movements in civil society and how they spread their influence. to achieve this she focuses on fascists’ activities in russian clubs, russian education, and in promoting antisemitism. she offers a new explanation for the spread of russian fascism in the s: she argues that it was their dense networks of associations that allowed the fascists to deeply penetrate émigré society. arguing that russian fascism was not just a copy of italian or german fascism, she illustrates how effective russian fascists were at working with likeminded individu- als and groups. her most persuasive evidence is that of the russian clubs that they established. because they downplayed their association with these seemingly apo- litical institutions, they were able to serendipitously promote their political agenda. unlike john stephen, hohler also emphasizes how russian fascism differed from its western european counterparts in promoting itself as a defender and advocate of religion, and how this helped increase its popularity. yet while all émigré organiza- tions focused, as do all diasporas, on preventing denationalization, and the fascists’ reviews of the shevchenko stained-glass window at kiev university are also discussed. i t is a grim and disturbing account. j o h n s. reshetar, j r . university of washington a s p e c t s o f r e l i g i o n i n t h e s o v i e t u n i o n , - . edited by richard h. marshall, jr., thomas e. bird, and andrew q. blane. chicago and london: university of chicago press, . xv, pp. $ . . the study of religion in the u s s r , not long ago the wallflower of the soviet studies sisterhood, has recently been attracting many serious and resourceful suitors. the best sign to date of both the quantity and the quality of their attentions is the present volume, in which they pool their interdisciplinary talents to produce a highly informative and useful survey of developments concerning religion throughout the first half-century of soviet rule. very fittingly the book is dedicated to paul b. anderson, and dedicated in something better than the usual curt manner. a thirty-page section of the book is devoted to anderson, containing first a brief appreciation of his extensive service both to the study of religion and to religion itself during the entire soviet period, next an interesting autobiographical sketch by anderson covering the period, and finally a bibliography of his published writings. t h e heart of the book consists of essays by seventeen scholars covering virtually every major aspect of the subject and every major religious group in the u s s r (orthodox, moslems, jews, baptists, catholics) as well as national churches (georgian, armenian) and even minor groups such as the mennonites and the animistic siberian tribes. there is also good exploration of themes not frequently treated, such as joan delaney's essay on soviet antireligious organizations and george kline's on religious motifs in soviet poetry and fiction. some repetition is unavoidable in a volume of this sort: khrushchev's vigorous antireligious campaign of - , for example, receives treatment in a number of the essays, in addition to being the subject of a separate essay by donald a. lowrie and william c. fletcher. but this is not a serious fault; in fact it facilitates the use of the book for reference by making the chapters on the various religious groups relatively independent. two other features should also be mentioned as giving the book special worth: an appendix containing the text of all the major laws pertaining to religion in the u s s r , and a selected bibliography of english-language books on religion in the soviet union. all in all, if some disaster should require the library of congress (or the lenin library, for that matter) to part with all but one of its books on religion in the u s s r , this is the book it should keep. j a m e s p. scanlan the ohio state university i c o n a n d s w a s t i k a : t h e r u s s i a n o r t h o d o x c h u r c h u n d e r n a z i a n d s o v i e t c o n t r o l . by harvey fireside. russian research center studies, . cambridge: harvard university press, . xx, pp. $ . . dr. fireside has lifted the veil from what has been the least-known period in the recent history of the russian orthodox church—its life under the nazi occupation advertisement increasing archives without adding floor space mobile storage division it is now possible to increase your archives capacity from - % in existing storage areas. this wall stretching is accomplished by replacing wasteful aisles with new rows of storage equipment. most storage areas in common use today require one aisle between every two rows of equipment, actually wasting about % of the area. until now, there has been no system which could stop this continued waste of valuable space. the d o l i n m o b i l e storage system requires only aisle for , , or more rows of storage equipment. this reutilization of floor space makes possible a - % increase in archives without adding floor space. the tech- nique is to place several rows of rolling (mobile) storage units on \" high steel tracks directly in front of a fixed (nonmobile) row of equipment. there is only three inches between rows. each of the mobile rows contains one or two units less than the fixed row. access to any rear unit is made by rolling the "dolly" mounted units sideways at any point along the mobile row. mobile units easily roll sideways along track at any point to provide access to any rear unit. any girl can easily move heavily loaded mobile units — lbs. of effort will move a ton load. an important feature of this system is the adaptability of the existing equip- ment used. shelving, files, etc., can be converted to m o b i l e storage with the addition of the special mobile bases or "dollies." because of the elimination of aisles, there is less walking required to reach the farthest storage units. all archives are more readily accessible and finding is generally speeded up. as part of our service, we will gladly submit revised floor plans of your archives areas to show exactly the benefits of a d o l i n m o b i l e s t o r a g e sys- t e m . write for descriptive literature. dolin metal products, inc., dept. rk lexington avenue - brooklyn , n. y. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril fibredex better containers for display, handling and storage of library materials document case used extensively by the nation- al archives, the library of con- gress, state archives, and his- torical societies. one piece construction hinged lid, reinforced bot- t o m , super fibre board, light gray. write for free circular illuttrating other fibredex eaten the hollinger corp. s. four mile run drive arlington, virginia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril producing books : catalogues : publications and other types of printing for over fifty years serving some customers for over thirty continuous years t h e torch press d st., s.e. cedar rapids, iowa at your service. • • tea years of experience and the resulting skill of this company in the repair and preservation of manuscripts, books, newspapers, parchment documents, etc. for libraries. also available are modern, reasonably priced laminating ma- chines — custom built to meet your requirements. your inquiry will receive our prompt and careful considera- tion. write for our free booklet, "the repair and preser- vation of documents." the arbee company summit avenue summit, n. j. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a microfilmer replies by leon d e v a l i n g e r , jr. hall of records dover, delaware the october number of the american archivist con-tained a provocative article by miss jerry mcdonald, en- titled "the case against microfilming." as a practicing archivist who utilizes microfilming as an important part of our record management program at the state, county, and municipal levels, i feel compelled to dissent from the unsubstantiated and untenable claims and incorrect statements appearing in the article.* perhaps miss mcdonald's article would have served a better pur- pose if she had pointed out that the case is not against microfilming but for a more effective evaluation of what, when, and how micro- filming should be done. it would be desirable to answer the state- ments in the article paragraph for paragraph, but regrettably space in the american archivist is limited. in the first sentence of her article, on page , the author, after attempting to disparage microfilming writes ". . . but never to my knowledge, based on extensive research, has anything been written about the shortcomings of microfilming." a far from complete list of writings that refer to the shortcomings of microfilming would include morris l. radoff's paper delivered at the richmond, va., meeting of the society of american archivists in . the war department's technical manual ( t m - ) entitled records the author, who is treasurer of the society of american archivists, has been for many years the archivist of delaware. •editor's note: mr. devalinger's lively rejoinder to miss mcdonald's equally lively article, "the case against microfilming," is welcomed by the american ar- chivist. it should be noted, however, that miss mcdonald and mr. devalinger, in their observations on cost, have chosen to consider opposite extremes. miss mcdonald sees only the cost of microfilming very difficult material with flat-bed cameras. mr. devalinger's figures on microfilming cost apparently assume the use of an automatically fed rotary camera while his figures on alternative storage costs are in terms of steel file cabinets, which are not ordinarily used in an efficiently run storage facility. as a consequence the arguments seldom meet. a dispassionate article should now be written that would carefully analyze and distinguish in the matter of costs and would develop some aspects of the problem that do not turn so critically on the element of cost — for instance, microfilming as a means of preserving the substance of records that have begun to disintegrate, as a means of producing security copies, and as a means of publishing cheaply in a very small edition. briefly summarized in american archivist, : (j a n - ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist administration microfilming of records, published in , has a section (iv) entitled "disadvantages of microfilm." irving zitmore refers to some of the disadvantages of microfilming, along with the advantages, in an article published in . and in my own address on "microfilming and preservation of public records" delivered at carmel, california, sept. , , there is a section describing the disadvantages of microfilming. toward the end of the second paragraph on page of her ar- ticle, miss mcdonald writes: "despite the fact that many in the au- dience were either microfilm representatives or officials that had been using filming, the rather extensive question-and-answer period that followed brought out nothing to refute or dispute any of the attorney's statements." i marvel at this statement, but perhaps the "microfilm representatives or officials" were so astounded that they could not reply or possibly they were not given the opportunity to do so. the first paragraph of page decries the use of microfilming as an effective method of reducing records, "while its use as a tool in the accounting field, for instance, has been largely neglected." here the author seems to overlook the use of microphotography for accounting purposes in banks, retail stores, and industrial and mercantile firms. it should be pointed out that modern automatic microfilming was first developed for and has had its greatest use in banks. miss mcdonald does not mention the remarkable world war ii uses of microfilming in v-mail or such continuing nationwide microfilming projects as the reproduction of vital statistics for the u. s. public health service or the microreproduction of newspapers. paragraph on the same page states that $ , worth of microfilming "would not even make a dent in , square feet of floor space." it is estimated that the capacity of a -drawer, letter- size file cabinet is approximately , documents. each -drawer file cabinet requires approximately square feet of floor space. this results in approximately -drawer file cabinets occupying , square feet of floor space. the prorated cost of recording the contents of a -drawer file consisting of , exposures of letter-size documents, including film, purchase of microfilmer and reader, and labor cost for the ' "how to decide whether to microfilm business records, and how to go about it," in journal of accountancy, feb. , p. - . published in th annual conference of the national association of secretaries of state, september - , (sacramento, calif.). incidentally, the compiler of these proceedings, the hon. frank jordan of sacramento, has greatly improved the efficiency of recording and servicing the voluminous corporation records in his office through the use of microfilming. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a microfilmer replies machine operator computed at $. per mm. image totals ap- proximately $ . therefore, to record the estimated , , exposures contained in the file cabinets would cost approxi- mately $ , . let us pursue these figures further. at an average cost of $ for a -drawer steel filing cabinet, with a deduction of $ as the cost of microfilming its contents, there is a saving of $ in steel equipment gained through microfilming. this figure, multiplied by (the number of file cabinets that occupy , square feet of floor space), gives a total saving of $ , in steel equipment. next, if we take the , square feet of floor space mentioned by the author and multiply it by $ , a more realistic annual rental per square foot than the $ mentioned by miss mcdonald, we get the sum of $ , annual rent saved. as the records in the low-cost center would obviously be retained for at least the period of the statute of limitations, let us take the median figure of years. the cost in rent, then, for retaining the records in a , square foot area for years would be $ , . adding this sum to the $ , saving in steel cabinets results in a total saving of $ , , through microfilming the contents of file cabinets occupying , square feet of floor space. miss mcdonald failed to include in her recommendation of de- centralized storage facilities any comment on the disadvantages as- sociated with this type of commercial "limbo" in terms of delays in producing the original material for reference and of the inherent hazard of misfiling the documents or of their loss in transit to and from the facilities. she made no comment on the difficulties that may be encountered by outside personnel in servicing the records. understandably such personnel, unfamiliar with filing techniques peculiar to each client company, may misfile papers that are bor- rowed and returned. now let us turn to page , on which microfilmed engineering drawings are assailed. miss mcdonald's criticisms on this point are refuted by the modern microfilming systems now in use in the u . s. signal corps, the u . s. navy department, state highway de- partment programs like that of colorado, and many outstanding manufacturing organizations. the difficulties encountered in refer- ring to drawings in roll form are readily met by unitizing microfilm copies in aperture cards. i t seems strange that during her years of "extensive research" miss mcdonald did not examine methods "microfilming statements, city of portland, oregon," compiled by will gibson, auditor of the city of portland. the statistics in this report include figures for the operation of the centralized microfilm project in portland for the calendar year . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist like the recordak precision engineering drawing system for re- producing engineering drawings. the questions raised by her must have been answered for some time, in view of the impressive number of organizations that have invested thousands of dollars in con- verting their engineering drawings to microfilm in aperture cards and that are continuing to use this system. on page the author seems either misinformed or uninformed with respect to the retention and maintenance of cumulative records on microfilm. the method of dealing with such records is ele- mentary, merely requiring the insertion of microfilm strips in ace- tate jackets. this is standard procedure in hundreds of business organizations and government agencies confronted with the prob- lem. miss mcdonald is apparently unaware of the basic technique in targeting film, with targets that can be read without magnifica- tion. h e r article does not acknowledge the inevitability of misfiling documents that are used in reference or the inherent advantage of microfilm in preserving the continuity of records and presenting an alteration-proof image. the third paragraph on page , commenting on the need of constant electric current for the operation of photographing equip- ment, is too trifling to merit rebuttal. on the same page, the article envisions situations where personnel may refuse to release the documents for microfilming. if we are not to pass this by as frivo- lous, the question arises how, under the circumstances, any record is released for standard filing procedures. on page she refers to the inability of ordinary film to register colors without code notations. this difficulty has been met by the use of color film.** t o register embossed legal seals on micro- film requires only rubbing over the raised part of the seal a specially manufactured crayon, which highlights the design for copying purposes. this is a common practice in photocopying. the author ** editor's note : the proposed specification for permanent film record issued by the american standards association on mar. , , and adopted as an interim standard by the general services administration on june , , recognizes (par. . ) only "safety cellulose ester-type films having gelatin-silver halide emulsions developed in ordinary processing solutions to produce what is normally called black- and-white photographic image. silver halide layers that produce colored images by means of their chemical composition or treatment in processing are excluded. likewise excluded are black-and-white silver halide images that have been chemically al- tered by treatment such as toning, reduction, or intensification." it further specifies that "a developer or a process of development designed to produce a colored image shall not be employed. stained or toned images shall not be accepted for permanent- record use." the eastman kodak company's pamphlet, "storage and care of kodak color films," says on p. : "like other dyes, the dyes used in kodak color films, prints, and enlargements may change in time. these products, therefore, will not be replaced or otherwise warranted against any change in color." d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a microfilmer replies concerns herself with the distance that papers must be transported to the microfilmer. but many modern microfilm machines are of a size and weight that make it quite practicable to move them to the file areas. the first paragraph on page requires our attention. i t would be interesting to see any comparative figures miss mcdonald may have on the number and cost of microfilm retakes as opposed to the number and cost of misfilings in a record center. one prominent record management firm states that " . . . the over-all average cost of misfiling is $ . p e r misfiled p a p e r . " the errors due to the human element in a record center are bound to result in a number of m i l l e d documents.. the question concerning the legality of microfilm records, on the same page, can be best answered by reference to an opinion delivered by justice sutherland in adjudicating an appeal in the u . s. circuit court of appeals, second circuit. the case was united states of america, plaintiff-appellee, v. martin t . manton and george m . spector, defendants-appellants, on appeal from the united states district court for the southern district of new york. the de- cision given on dec. , , sustained the use of microfilm fac- similes of bank checks as evidence in the suit. this would seem to contradict miss mcdonald's contention that ". . . actually to date no major case has been tried where the authenticity of the film has been challenged." page comments on the disastrous effect of heat and fire on microfilm records but fails to acknowledge identical if not greater hazards to original papers or the ease with which duplicate rolls of film can be made for security purposes and stored in dispersed areas. the author fails to comment on the excellent water-repellent quality of developed microfilm or the disastrous effect of floods on papers. during the past years developed microfilm records have been submerged by floods in various parts of the country for hun- dreds of hours and have been salvaged without significant loss of in- formation by the simple method of cleaning them in clear water. paper records in the same situation would have been reduced to a mass of pulp. miss mcdonald's comments on the low cost of record centers for the retention of documents gloss over the efficiency (or inefficiency) of the operations involved in storing original papers in this manner. she says little of the hazards of misfiling and other risks associated with retaining documents in their original form. one of the risks was well demonstrated in a midwestern state where an employee records trends, jan., feb., (records controls, inc., chicago, .). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist deliberately set fire to a vast quantity of records, proving the point that papers are somewhat less than fireproof. lest some of our readers should be led astray it should be pointed out that there is equipment available other than the "$ o,ooo re- production machine" mentioned on page . the second paragraph of page refers to the work of irving zitmore. his article already cited in footnote opens with the following paragraph: microfilming, like many other good things, is subject to a great deal of abuse. its success in recording current events and transactions by photo- graphing the paper evidence thereof as it passes through some phase of the ac- counting procedure has effected important savings in time, labor, and costly accounting machines. multiple postings and time-consuming descriptive en- tries are frequently eliminated. the microfilm records require only i/ ooth of the space required for the paper records. the compact microfilm can be protected against fire, floods, and theft in a manner that would be prohibitively expensive for the bulkier paper records. on page , miss mcdonald, in her enthusiasm for a service that she apparently considers the answer to all record keeping prob- lems, proposes the decentralization of records to a low-cost storage area. she fails, however, to indicate the cost of such storage and the cost of reference to records in the centers. the figures i have provided in response to the claims on page showed that the present cost of microfilming the contents of a - drawer file cabinet is approximately $ ,*** not the $ mentioned on page of the article. the steel company executives quoted failed to give any consideration to the salvage cost of the file cabi- nets (rangingupward from $ each) after the contents have been microfilmed and failed to make any allowance for the saving in floor space occupied by these records. the statements from the steel company executives may not have been wholly impartial since their own product was involved. in summary, the entire article reflects on the judgment of thou- sands of reputable business organizations, as well as city, county, state, and federal government offices, which have selected micro- film for safeguarding and perpetuating many of their invaluable records. these organizations have been using microphotography as a record management tool for a considerably longer time than they have the newer approaches to record retention advocated by miss mcdonald. ''journal of accountancy, feb. , p. . •** editor's note : this, of course, is the cost for material that can be automatically fed into a rotary camera; hand feeding brings the cost up, and the use of a flatbed camera makes the cost still higher. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in the united states and canada; a bibliography by edmund l. binsfeld, c. pp. s. brunnerdale seminary a the suggestion of ernst posner during the presidency of wayne c. grover in the church records committee began, under the guidance of the society's council, this bibliography of published ma- terial relating to church archives. the committee now presents to the society the results of its labors up to september . this bibliography, covering church archives in the united states and canada, has been a cooperative endeavor throughout the past years. t h e retiring chairman of the church records committee gratefully acknowledges the as- sistance of his fellow workers: msgr. arthur j. riley of quincy, mass.; worth m . tippy, archivist of depauw university, greencastle, ind., and his sec- retary, eleanore c. cammack; abbe honorius provost, assistant archivist of laval university, quebec; mabel e. deutrich of the national archives, washington, d. c , to whom the chairman pays special tribute because more than half of the work is miss deutrich's achievement; thomas h. spence, jr., archivist of the historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches, montreat, n. c.; nelson p. springer, librarian for the archives of the mennonite church at goshen college, goshen, ind.; john p. hively of the maryland hall of records, annapolis; and father thomas t . mcavoy, c. s. g , archivist of the university of notre dame, notre dame, ind. the church records committee is quite aware that the bibliography is neither so comprehensive nor so complete as it might well be. any additions or corrections will be welcomed. it is to be noted that the bibliography is only tentative, and it is hoped that it may in the future be made more useful by an ad- ditional list of appropriate titles. b i b l i o g r a p h y general . billington, ray a. guides to american history manuscript collections in li- braries of the united states. mississippi valley historical review, : - (dec. ). this guide to general manuscript collections includes collections in religious history. its two parts list guides to collections in the federal de- father binsfeld, former chairman of the church records committee of the society of american archivists, presents this bibliography as a report of his committee. as the items for the bibliography were furnished by several contributors, they are not always consistent in style or in length of annotation. " d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist positories and guides to collections and libraries of the several states. in the second part collections of the chief private libraries are also listed. . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of church archives of michi- gan ; dearborn churches. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . v, p., processed. the first half of this volume contains a history of the various religious denominations in dearborn. the inventory proper gives the names and locations of the churches and lists the records of each. ar- ranged alphabetically by denomination and thereunder by church or church organization. indexed. . . oklahoma. inventory of the church archives of oklahoma. no. , bryan county (durant). oklahoma city, oklahoma historical records survey, . iii, p., processed. contains historical information and a description of the records of each church. arranged by religious denomination. vermont. inventory of the church archives of vermont; pre- print of churches of hinesburg, - . montpelier, vermont historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. gives historical information and a description of the kinds and amount of records of churches in the town of hinesburg, vt. arranged alphabetically by church denomination. washington. survey of everett, yakima, and wenatchee church archives. pacific northwest quarterly, : - (oct. ). a guide to the church archives in the three cities, giving the location of records, types of records, and dates. arranged by city, thereunder alphabetically by de- nomination, and thereunder alphabetically by name of church. . . washington. survey of seattle church archives. pacific north- west quarterly, : - (apr. ). a guide to church archives in the city of seattle, giving the locations of the records, types of records, and dates. arranged under the headings "active churches" and "defunct churches," thereunder alphabetically by denomination, and thereunder alphabetically by name of church. . . washington. survey of spokane church archives. pacific north- west quarterly, : - (oct. ). a guide to church archives in the city of spokane, giving the locations of the records, types of records, and dates. arranged under the headings "active churches" and "defunct churches," there- under alphabetically by church denomination, and thereunder alphabetically by name of church. . manitoba. public archives. preliminary inventory. provincial library, win- nipeg, manitoba, . p. pages - contain a description of the church records in the legislative library of manitoba. . passano, eleanor p. an index of the source records of maryland, genealogical, biographical, historical. baltimore, privately printed, . an excellent sec- tion on church records, p. - , lists the records by denomination and by congregation within each denomination. (no hebrew congregations are in- cluded.) the listing shows type of record, inclusive dates, and place of deposit. . spence, thomas h., jr., virgil v. peterson, and thomas f. o'connor. church archives and history. american association for state and local history, bulletin, : - ( ). three papers respectively describe church records of the historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches, the mormons, and the roman catholic church in the united states. . sweet, william w. church archives in the united states. american archivist, : - (oct. ). a discussion of the increased interest in church ar- chives in recent years and a "general cross-section view of what has been ac- complished thus far in gathering and preserving the widely scattered archival materials of american churches." d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada baha'i assemblies . historical records survey. new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; baha'i assemblies. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. devoted primarily to historical information. a brief listing of records is included in the six entries. catholic . browne, henry j. the american catholic archival tradition. american ar- chivist, : - (apr. ). a commentary on the general lack of archival interest among american catholic institutions until recent years, the occasional recognition of the value of archives by certain church officials, and the recent growth of interest in archives. . . the catholic church and the knights of labor. washington, d. c, catholic university of america press, . p. in the essay on sources (p. - ) the author discusses only the sources used in preparing his doctoral dissertation and hence restricts his comments to archives in the field of his investigation, but he gives the names and locations of many catholic archival collections, with some clues to their contents and facilities. . caron, abbe ivanhoe. inventaire de la correspondance des eveques de quebec. rapport de i'archiviste de la province de quebec, - — - . covers the years - . . . inventaire des documents concernant pfiglise du canada sous le regime frangais. rapport de i'archiviste de la province de quebec, - — - . covers the years - . . desrosiers, abbe l.-a. correspondance des eveques de montreal - rapport de i'archiviste de la province de quebec, - — - . . ellis, john t. a guide to the baltimore cathedral archives. catholic his- torical review, : - (oct. ). a valuable guide to one of the principal depositories of source materials for american catholic history. an introduction giving historical and background information precedes brief de- scriptions of the various record series. an appendix contains a brief de- scription of the books and newspapers in the cathedral archives and lists the names and addresses of other important record-creating agencies of the archdioceses of baltimore and washington. . . the life of james cardinal gibbons, archbishop of baltimore, - . milwaukee, bruce publishing co., . vols. an essay on sources, : - , contains an account of the manuscript sources in diocesan and seminary archives used in the preparation of the biography. . ferland, j. b. a. notes sur les registres de notre-dame de quebec. d ed., quebec, g. et g. e. desbarats, . p. . foik, paul j. catholic archives of america. catholic historical review, : - (apr. ). a tribute to james f. edwards, who undertook the collection of catholic archives and their centralization at the university of notre dame in indiana. . foley, henry. records of the english province of the society of jesus. london, burns and oates, - . vols. valuable source material on the church in colonial america. (american jesuits were under the jurisdiction of the english province from to .) . geiger, maynard. calendar of documents in the santa barbara mission ar- chives. washington, d. c, academy of american franciscan history, biblio- graphical series, no. , . p. a detailed descriptive list of the docu- ments in the important archives of the santa barbara mission. the numbered entries in the calendar correspond to the numbers assigned to the documents in the archives. arranged chronologically. . . the franciscan conquest of florida ( - ). washington, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril h the american archivist catholic university of america press, . p. the essay on the sources and bibliography (p. - ) discusses the original and published sources used by the author in preparing his doctoral dissertation. many of the docu- ments contain information relating to the activities of franciscan friars in spanish florida. the discussion of the stetson collection of photostats is of especial interest in this respect. . . in quest of serrana. americas, : - (july ). while telling of the search for documents of and about fray junipero serra, founder and fresidente of the california missions, the author gives a general description of the santa barbara mission. . guilday, peter. life and times of john carroll. westminster, md., newman press, . a critical essay on the sources (p. - ) discusses the sources used by the author and gives much valuable information on the location and contents of catholic archival depositories, particularly in the section on un- published sources (p. - ). . . the writing of parish histories. american ecclesiastical review, : - (sept. ). a thorough outline of the subject with suggestions for the preservation of local historical material in parish archives. . historical records survey. district of columbia. preprint of inventory of records of st. patrick's church and school. washington, d. c, library of congress, . p., processed. devoted primarily to historical information concerning st. patrick's church and school, but contains a brief listing of records. . . florida. translation and transcription of church archives of florida, roman catholic records; st. augustine parish, white baptisms, - . tallahassee, florida state library board, . vols., processed. ab- stracts of original registers (books and ) of white baptisms in the parish of st. augustine. volume records baptisms performed between oct. , , and july , ; volume records those between july , , and may , . indexed to personal names. the appendix in volume contains tran- scriptions and translations of certain specimen entries. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; the roman catholic church, archdiocese of detroit. detroit, michigan his- torical records survey project, . v, p., processed. identifies and gives locations of the organizations, institutions, churches, schools, and ceme- teries within the archdiocese and lists the records of each. arranged by organizational unit. indexed. . . nevada. inventory of the church archives of nevada; roman catholic church. reno, nevada historical records survey, . v, p., processed. gives name of church, school, or other organization; historical information pertaining to each; and a brief description of the records. ar- ranged in hierarchical order, listing records of ( ) the diocese, ( ) the cathedral, and ( ) parishes, missions, and stations; and thereunder chronologi- cally. indexed. . . new hampshire. inventory of the roman catholic church records in new hampshire. manchester, diocese of manchester, . ii, p., processed. gives a brief history of each ecclesiastical unit in the diocese and describes its records. a detailed table of contents lists each in- ventory entry. . . new york. guide to depositories of manuscript collections in new york state (exclusive of new york city). albany, . on page is a description of the archives of bishop bernard j. mcquaid's administration of the diocese of rochester, n. y., now housed at st. bernard's seminary, rochester. . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; roman catholic church, archdiocese of new york. vol. , the bronx, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada manhattan and richmond. new york, new york city historical records survey, . . x, p., processed. contains historical information and lists records of the churches. arranged chronologically except that material on st. patrick's cathedral is given first and that on the uniate churches last. indexed. . . wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; roman catholic church, diocese of la crosse. madison, wisconsin his- torical records survey, . xiv, p., processed. . holweck, f. g. the historical archives of the archdiocese of st. louis. st. louis catholic historical review, : - (oct. ). contains a general description and a partial catalog of this collection, arranged under four headings — documents, petitions, mexicana, and letters. only the entries under the first heading give any clue to the contents of the records. . hughes, thomas. the history of the society of jesus in north america, colonial and federal. london, longmans, - . vols. volume (p. - ) contains a list of practically the entire woodstock college collection, of- ficially known as the maryland province archives. pages - give a complete list of sources for american jesuit history. . kekumano, charles a. the secret archives of the diocesan curia. washington, catholic university of america press, . viii, p. a detailed com- mentary on the erection, contents, custody, use, and abuse of the secret archives. . louis, william f. diocesan archives. washington, catholic university of america press, . p. traces the legal history of diocesan archives and comments on the pertinent canon laws. among the topics discussed are the definition of archives and the care, custody, and accessibility of the documents. . mcavoy, thomas t . catholic archives and their preservation. catholic li- brary practice, : - ( ). a discussion of the need to organize records of diocesan and institutional offices and periodically turn them over to competent custodians and a statement of the obligation to provide suitable quarters. among the subjects treated are a definition of archives, cataloging and calendaring, and the disposal of records. . . manuscript collections among american catholics. catholic his- torical review, : - (oct. ). deals chiefly with the work of james f. edwards in building up the notre dame archival collection. . notre dame archives. library occurant, : - (apr.-june ). a brief account of the archives, reprinted from the south bend, ind., neivs-times, . nute, grace l., ed. documents relating to northwest missions, - . st. paul, minnesota historical society, . xix, p. . o'connor, thomas f. catholic archives of the united states. catholic his- torical review, : - (jan. ). the author distinguishes between ec- clesiastical archives and corporate or institutional archives, presents an overall picture of various catholic archival holdings, and briefly analyzes church legislation concerning the establishment, care, and use of archives. . . historical and archival activities of the roman catholic church in the united states. american association for state and local history, bul- letin, : - (apr. ). slight modification of the article listed im- mediately above. . paschalia, sister m. preluding history. illinois libraries, : - (june ). an account of the organization of the records and archives of the dominican sisters at st. clara convent, sinsinawa, wis. gives information on the classification and cataloging of the holdings. . provost, abbe honorius. documents sur les anciennes cures de montreal aux archives du seminaire de quebec. rapport - de la societe canadienne d'histoire de i'eglise catholique, p. - . . . le seminaire de quebec et les missions d'acadie. revue d'his- toire de i'amerique francaise, : - (mar. ). a list of documents d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist on the question preserved in the archives of the seminary of quebec and of the archbishopric of quebec. . roy, pierre-georges. inventaire des registres de l'etat civil conserves aux archives judiciares de quebec. beauceville, l' "eclaireur," ltd., . p. . van male, john. resources of pacific northwest libraries. seattle, wash., pacific northwest library association, . p. pages - describe the microfilm collection and correspondence of early oblate and secular mis- sionaries of the region deposited at gonzaga university; also the manuscript holdings relating to jesuit work among the indians and pioneers of the north- west (including some indian treaties) deposited at mt. st. michael's seminary, spokane, wash. . t h e woodstock letters. vol. - ( - ). a quarterly publication of the society of jesus, which prints early documents from the woodstock college archives and letters of the jesuit fathers in the united states. many of the letters describe missionary activities among the american indians in the middle and far west. . wright, ralph. something new for historians. catholic educational review, : - (june ). a descriptive article on the holdings of the notre dame archives written by one of the student workers. jewish . american jewish archives. folder, hebrew union college, cincinnati, n.d. "the american jewish archives has gathered and catalogued a unique col- lection of letters, congregational records, and historical documents that preserve the voice of the american jew, speaking in his own words, as recorded in the history of our nation." . t h e american jewish historical society, . p. "this brochure de- scribes the activities of the american jewish historical society . . . gives an account of the library and its valuable collections." . historical records survey. colorado. inventory of the church archives of colorado; jewish bodies. denver, colorado historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical background, names, and locations of jewish religious bodies in colorado and describes their records. arranged in three groups — national organizations, congregations, and cemeteries — and there- under chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . louisiana. inventory of the church and synagogue archives of louisiana; jewish congregations and organizations. louisiana state university, department of archives, . xvii, p., processed. divided into the fol- lowing four parts: ( ) historical sketch of the jews in louisiana, ( ) archives of jewish congregations, ( ) jewish cemeteries, and ( ) jewish organizations and institutions. the entries within each division, arranged chronologically, contain background information and brief descriptions and statements of the location of records. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church and synagogue archives of michigan; jewish bodies. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . vi, p., processed. gives historical background, names, and locations of jewish religious institutions, congregations, and cemeteries in michigan and describes the records in each. arranged by institutions, con- gregations, and organizations and thereunder chronologically. indexed. . . mississippi. inventory of the church and synagogue archives of mississippi; jewish congregations and organizations. jackson, mississippi state conference, b'nai b'rith, . v, p., processed. gives historical information concerning the jewish organizations and congregations and lists the records of each. the first four entries are for organizations; the rest are for congregations, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . tennessee. inventory of the church and synagogue archives of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada tennessee; jewish congregations. nashville, tennessee historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. historical information, lists, and loca- tions of records. arranged chronologically under ( ) national organizations and publications and ( ) congregations. indexed. . . wisconsin. inventory of the church and synagogue archives of wisconsin; jewish congregations. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. . meyer, isidore s. the american jewish historical society. new york, . p. reprinted from journal of jewish bibliography, vol. . this pamphlet discusses the holdings of the american jewish historical society library, with particular attention to seven large divisions of archival and other manu- script material. one of these is the a. s. w. rosenbach memorial to his mother. . stern-taeubler, selma. survey on the jewish archives in america. archivum, : - ( ). discusses the plans made in for the american jewish archives at cincinnati and the problems met and solved. enumerates the types of materials collected and the places from which they were received. . t h e zionist central archives. american archivist, : - (oct. ). "revision of a leaflet previously issued by the archives from its headquarters in the jewish agency building, jerusalem." tells of the founding of the zionist central archives in berlin in , its transfer to jerusalem in , and its objectives and describes its holdings and some of its accomplishments. protestant — general . allison, william h. inventory of unpublished material for american re- ligious history in protestant church archives and other repositories. wash- ington, d. c , carnegie institution of washington, . p. although published in , this volume is still a basic source for materials relating to protestant denominations. it gives the location and a listing of documents housed in various depositories. . t h e bulletin ; records and proceedings of the committee on archives of the united church of canada. vol. - ( - ) . published in collaboration with victoria university. toronto, united church publishing house. these annual bulletins contain much information on the nature and extent of the holdings in the central and conference archives. the recent editions list the more important acquisitions. . historical records survey. new jersey. transcriptions of early church records of new jersey; colporteur reports to the american tract society, - . newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. these transcripts of reports of colporteurs give an insight into social and economic conditions. . . utah. inventory of the church archives of utah. vol. , smaller denominations. ogden, utah historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. gives historical information and descriptions of the kinds and amount of records. arranged alphabetically by denomination and there- under by churches in chronological order of their establishment. indexed. . some recent acquisitions. historical foundation nevus, jan. , , p. ; july , , p. ; and oct. , , p. [ ]. includes records from local churches in the united states, periodicals, and pastoral registers. assemblies of god . historical records survey. wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; assemblies of god. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . v, p., processed. gives historical information and lists records, with their locations. arranged chronologically under the following sections: ( ) assemblies affiliated with the wisconsin and northern michigan district council, ( ) german branch, and ( ) independent assemblies. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril i the american archivist baptist church . baptist bibliography. vol. , a-authors, ; vol. , b-biloxi, ; vol. , bin-bz, ; vol. , c-colby, ; vol. , colc-cz (in preparation). "being a register of printed material by and about baptists; including works written against the baptists. . . . the attempt has been made to include writings of baptists, not only on baptist topics, but also on topics of general theological, philosophical, historical and social content." . historical records survey. florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. florida state association of old line baptist, com- posed of missionary baptist churches. tallahassee, florida state library board, . p., processed. gives background information, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establish- ment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , black creek baptist association. tallahassee, florida state library board, . p., processed. gives historical information, de- scriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , lake county baptist association. jacksonville, florida his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. gives historical in- formation, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the associa- tion are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologi- cally by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , northeast florida baptist association. jacksonville, florida historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives back- ground information, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , northwest coast baptist association. tallahassee, florida state library board, . p., processed. gives background information, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , okaloosa baptist association. jacksonville, florida historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives background informa- tion, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , orange blossom baptist association. jacksonville, florida historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives background information, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the as- sociation are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , palm lake baptist association. jacksonville, florida his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. gives background information, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the as- sociation are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chrono- logically by date of establishment. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , pinellas county baptist association. jacksonville, florida his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. gives background in- formation, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the as- sociation are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , seminole baptist association. jacksonville, florida his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. gives background in- formation, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the association are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . florida. inventory of the church archives of florida; baptist bodies. no. , southwest baptist association. jacksonville, florida his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. gives historical in- formation, descriptions, and locations of the records. records of the associa- tion are described first; thereafter records of churches, arranged chrono- logically by date of establishment. indexed. . . georgia. inventory of the church archives of georgia; atlanta association of baptist churches, affiliated with georgia baptist convention. atlanta, georgia historical records survey, . v, p., processed. gives background information, names, locations, and descriptions of records. ar- ranged under two headings: ( ) baptist bodies and agencies and ( ) atlanta association of baptist churches. the records of churches are arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . georgia. inventory of the church archives of georgia; fairburn missionary baptist association, affiliated with georgia baptist convention. atlanta, georgia historical records survey, . v, p., processed. gives background information, names and locations of depositories, and descriptions of records. arranged under two headings: ( ) fairburn missionary baptist association and ( ) atlanta association of baptist churches. records of churches are arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . missouri. bethel church book; minutes of the proceedings of the bethel church, - . st. louis, missouri historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. transcription of the bethel church minute book. . . missouri. inventory of the church archives of missouri; baptist bodies. no. , tebo baptist association. st. louis, missouri historical records survey, . vii, p., processed. entries relating to individual churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment, contain historical informa- tion and descriptions of the records. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; baptist bodies. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . xxii, p., processed. gives brief historical statement and descriptions of the records. arranged by conventions and associations and thereunder chronologi- cally by date of church establishment. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; baptist bodies, seventh day baptist supplement. newark, new jersey his- torical records survey, . p., processed. describes the seventh day baptist records at plainfield, n. j. arranged by societies, boards, and other organizational units. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention, allegany association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives his- torical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chronologi- cally. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist carolina; southern baptist convention, brunswick association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives historical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chrono- logically. indexed. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention, central association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives his- torical information and lists the records of each church. indexed. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention, flat river association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives historical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chrono- logically. indexed. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention, raleigh association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives his- torical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chrono- logically. indexed. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention, stanley association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey, . vi, p., processed. gives his- torical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chrono- logically. indexed. . . north carolina. inventory of the church archives of north carolina; southern baptist convention and north carolina baptist state con- vention, yancey baptist association. raleigh, north carolina historical records survey* . iv, p., processed. gives historical information and lists the records of each church. arranged chronologically. indexed. . . rhode island. inventory of the church archives of rhode island; baptist churches. providence, rhode island historical survey, . iv, p., processed. . . tennessee. inventory of the church archives of tennessee; tennessee baptist convention, nashville baptist association. nashville, tennessee historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. contains historical information and lists of records. arranged under ( ) baptist bodies and agencies and ( ) the nashville association (thereunder chronologically). indexed. . . tennessee. inventory of the church archives of tennessee; ten- nessee baptist convention, ocoee baptist association. nashville, tennessee historical records survey, . vii, p., processed. contains historical information and lists of records. arranged under ( ) baptist bodies and agencies and ( ) the ocoee association (thereunder chronologically). indexed. . . utah. inventory of the church archives of utah. vol. , baptist church. salt lake city, utah historical records survey, . v, p., processed. contains historical information and descriptions of the kinds and amounts of records. the records of the northern baptist convention are given first, followed by those of churches and missions in chronological order. indexed. . . virginia. inventory of the church archives of virginia; dover baptist association. richmond, virginia historical records survey, . xxiii, p., processed. gives historical information and describes the records. arranged chronologically. indexed. . . virginia. inventory of the church archives of virginia; negro baptist churches in richmond. richmond, virginia historical records sur- vey, . xii, p., processed. gives historical information and lists records. arranged chronologically under the following headings: ( ) national and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada state associations, ( ) district associations and churches, and ( ) churches not affiliated with a district association. indexed. . kuhns, frederick. the baptists in iowa. palimpsest, : - (sept. ). . sweet, william w., ed. religion on the american frontier. vol. : the baptists; a collection of source material. new york, h. holt and co., [ ]. ix, p. in the bibliography (p. - ) part , manuscripts (p. and ), lists ( ) church minutes and other church records and letters and diaries of baptist ministers and ( ) other manuscript materials by or concerning baptists. in subsection ( ) the depositories holding such materials are noted. . torbet, robert g. a social history of the philadelphia baptist association, - . philadelphia, westbrook publishing co., . p. the bibli- ography (p. - ), especially in parts - , lists various manuscripts and semiofficial and private archival holdings relating to the baptist churches of the philadelphia area. christian reformed church . historical records survey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; christian reformed. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. church of christ, scientist . historical records survey. arkansas. inventory of the church archives of arkansas; church of christ, scientist. little rock, arkansas historical rec- ords survey, . p., processed. gives names of churches or societies, brief historical background for each, and a description and location of the records. arranged chronologically by date of establishment of the church or society. the inventory proper is preceded by an essay on the christian science movement. indexed. church of england . cobb, henry s. archives of the church missionary society. archives, : - (michaelmas ). church of the nazarene . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; church of the nazarene, michigan district assembly. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . p., processed. identifies the church organizations and churches and describes the records of each. ar- ranged by church organizations and churches and thereunder chronologically. indexed. . . wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; church of the nazarene. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical information and lists and gives locations of records. arranged chronologically. indexed. churches of god . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; churches of god, michigan assemblies. detroit, michigan his- torical records survey project, . p., processed. identifies the church organizations and congregations and describes the records of each. arranged in five groups of denominations, thereunder by organizations and congre- gations, and thereunder chronologically. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist congregational christian church n o . historical records survey. new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; congregational christian churches. newark, new jersey his- torical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical information and a brief listing of the records of each church body. arranged by church or- ganization. indexed. i n . sweet, william w., ed. religion on the american frontier. vol. : the con- gregationalists; a collection of source materials. chicago, university of chi- cago press, . xi, p. in the bibliography (p. - ), part , manu- scripts (p. ), describes congregationalist letters and documents in six repositories, five of which are libraries of theological seminaries or church- related colleges. disciples of christ . historical records survey. wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; disciples of christ. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . v, p., processed. gives historical information and lists the records, with their locations. arranged chronologically. indexed. eastern church . historical records survey. new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; eastern orthodox churches and the armenian apostolic church in america. new york, new york city historical records survey, . xxvii, p., processed. gives historical information and lists the records of the congregations of the eastern orthodox bodies and of the armenian holy apostolic church of america. arranged by synodical, dio- cesan, or archdiocesan organizations and thereunder chronologically. indexed. evangelical and reformed church . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; evangelical and reformed church. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives the names and lo- cations of churches, institutions, and organizations of the evangelical-reformed church that belong to the michigan-indiana synod, and a description and statement of the locations of their records. arranged by ( ) organizations and institutions, and ( ) churches, listed chronologically by date of establish- ment. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; evangelical church, michigan conference. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives historical background, names, and locations of organizations and churches; lists the records; and shows their locations. arranged by organizations and by churches and there- under chronologically. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; evangelical church. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical information and a listing of records. the records of the general conference and the constituent districts are arranged serially, followed by those of the affiliated new jersey churches. indexed. friends, society of . drake, thomas e. the quaker collection at haverford. pennsylvania, haver- ford college, . p. excerpt from the annual report of the curator of the quaker collection, - . contains a brief review of the history of the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada quaker collection and a partial list of the larger collections of books and manuscripts in the haverford college library. . friends historical association. inventory of church archives; society of friends in pennsylvania. philadelphia, pennsylvania friends historical as- sociation, . . historical records survey. new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; religious society of friends. compiled by john cox, jr. new york, new york city historical records survey, . i, p., processed. . . new york city. new york city church archives; religious so- ciety of friends, a catalogue. new york, new york city historical records survey, . p., processed. a catalog of the records in the possession of, or relating to, the two new york yearly meetings of the friends and their subordinate meetings. pennsylvania. inventory of church archives; society of friends in pennsylvania. philadelphia, pennsylvania friends historical associa- tion, . iii, p., processed. contains much historical information, with lists and locations of records. arranged by meetings. indexed. rhode island. inventory of the church archives of rhode island; society of friends. providence, rhode island historical records survey, . iii, p., processed. contains historical information and description of records. arranged by societies and thereunder by meetings. indexed. . james, alfred p., ed. old western pennsylvania documents of the society of friends; westland minutes. western pennsylvania historical magazine, : - , - , - , - (jan.-oct. ). minutes, mar. , -mar. , , of the westland monthly meeting of friends, washington county, pa. . riley, lyman w., and frederick b. tolles, comps. a guide to the location of american quaker meeting records. bulletin of friends historical association, : - (spring ). latter-day saints, church of the . bennett, archibald f. the record copying program of the utah genealogical society. american archivist, : - (july ). the church records microfilmed are of christenings, marriages, and burials, in the united states and europe. copies of the film for each state are deposited in an appropriate institution (usually the state historical society). . peterson, virgil. behold there shall be a record kept among you. american association for state and local history, bulletin, : - (apr. ). a discussion of the importance of vital statistics to mormons and of their early realization of the need for records. the author describes the housing available for mormon records and the wealth of records useful not only to mormons but also to social, economic, and political historians. lutheran church . ander, o. f. the augustana college archives. illinois libraries, : - (june ). describes the important primary sources of the augustana evangelical lutheran church in the augustana college archives, rock island, . discusses three groups: ( ) records and manuscripts pertaining to the church, ( ) records and manuscripts concerning the college and seminary, and ( ) records concerning swedish immigrants in general. . deutrich, mabel e. archival developments in the lutheran churches in the united states. american archivist, : - (apr. ). locates and describes the archival depositories and the holdings of various lutheran church bodies in the united states. . forster, walter o. zion on the mississippi. [st. louis], concordia pub- lishing co., . p. pages - of the bibliography list the manu- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist scripts and documents relating to the lutheran church in missouri that are in the concordia historical institute, st. louis. there are also short references to the archives of several individual congregations. . guide to depositories of manuscript collections in pennsylvania. pennsylvania historical commission, bulletin no. , series no. . harrisburg, . a guide to the holdings of the lutheran theological seminary at philadelphia and the archives of the ministerium of pennsylvania. . historical records survey. connecticut. inventory of the church archives of connecticut; lutheran. new haven, connecticut historical records survey, . p., processed. contains historical information, names and loca- tions of churches, and brief descriptions and statements of the location of records. entries for active churches are arranged by synod and thereunder chronologically. indexed. . . delaware. inventory of the church archives of delaware; pre- print of sections , lutheran church, and , protestant episcopal church. wilmington, delaware historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. lists, describes, and gives locations of records of the lutheran and episcopal churches in delaware. much of the inventory is devoted to historical in- formation concerning the churches and to pertinent bibliographical informa- tion. indexed. . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; lutheran church. new york, new york city historical records sur- vey, . xii, p., processed. gives historical information and lists records. arranged by synods and thereunder chronologically. indexed. mennonite church . archives of the mennonite church. bulletin, - ( - ). issued by the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. to date five processed issues have appeared: ( ) brief history and plan of administra- tion of the archives of the mennonite church, ( ) rules and regulations for the use of archives, ( ) plan for the accessioning and arranging of ma" terials in the archives, ( ) the collection of newspaper clippings in the archives, and ( ) suggested forms for the transfer of official and personal records to the archives. . bender, harold s. inauguration of the archives. mennonite historical bulletin, i• w (oct. ). program of dedication services of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind., with description of its facilities for records. . . our mennonite archives. mennonite historical bulletin, : (apr. ). announces the establishment of official archives for the men- nonite church. . . our mennonite church archives. gospel herald, : - (june , ). explanation of the function of a church archives; the action of the mennonite general conference in , commissioning its historical committee to establish an archives for the mennonite church; and the work of the historical committee in carrying out its assignment. . burkholder, l. j. ontario mennonite archives. mennonite historical bulletin, : (apr. ). describes records of the mennonite conference of ontario, then on deposit with the archives branch of the provincial government of ontario but removed in to a conference vault in the golden rule book- store, king st. e., kitchener, ontario. . [erb, paul]. keeping records. gospel herald, : (sept. , ). the editor of the official organ of the mennonite church stresses the value of church records and urges support of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada . gingerich, melvin. church bulletins as church history. gospel herald, : (may , ). . and j. c. wenger. catalog the church archives. gospel herald, i : * (june , ). an appeal for funds to finance the cataloging of the records deposited in the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. . mennonite general conference. historical committee. recommended poli- cies regarding the retention and disposal of the records of officers and com- mittees of the agencies of the mennonite church. [goshen, ind., ]. p., processed. a statement of what constitutes official church records, with recom- mendations for bringing inactive records of permanent value into the official depository, the archives of the mennonite church. this statement was later adopted as the official policy of the mennonite general conference and recom- mended by the conference to other agencies of the church. it also appears in the printed proceedings of the mennonite general conference for . . oswald, walter e. sections from the report of the archivist of the archives of the mennonite church. mennonite historical bulletin, : [i.e., ] (apr. )- report of the archivist for the period june , -mar. i, . . springer, nelson p. a call for volunteers. gospel herald, : (apr. , ). a plea for volunteers to clip articles pertaining to mennonites in non- mennonite newspapers and magazines for the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. . . general catalogue of the archives of the mennonite church. mennonite historical bulletin, : , , (jan. ). simple listing of record groups in the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. also printed in gospel herald, : , , (aug. , ). . . the mennonite historical library at goshen college. men- nonite quarterly review, : - (oct. ). mentions incidentally some of the manuscript holdings of the mennonite historical library at goshen col- lege, goshen, ind. also available as a separate. . . preliminary inventory of the records of the mennonite board of education. goshen, ind., archives of the mennonite church, . p. . . progress report on the archives of the mennonite church. men- nonite historical bulletin, : [i.e., ] (july ). report of new acces- sions and other work for the period mar. , -apr. , . . . sound recordings and transcriptions as historical material. gospel herald, : - (mar. , ). request for recordings of services of special historical interest for the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. . umble, john. an amish minister's manual. mennonite quarterly review, : - (apr. ). description of a minister's manuscript manual found among amish mennonite materials in the mennonite historical library at goshen college, goshen, ind. includes the text of the manual. . . catalog of an amish bishop's "library." mennonite quarterly re- view, : - (july ). catalog of manuscripts from the library of jacob frederick schwarzendruber, - , some of which are in the mennonite historical library, goshen college, goshen, ind. . . david a. schenck's notes on the history of the sonnenberg (ohio) swiss mennonite congregation. mennonite quarterly review (oct. ). . — . manuscript amish ministers' manuals in the goshen college mennonite historical library. mennonite quarterly review, : - (oct. ). description of various amish mennonite ministers' manuscript manuals in the mennonite historical library, goshen college, goshen, ind. . wenger, john c. progress in the church archives. mennonite historical bul- letin, : [ - ] (sept. ). brief statement of work done, with a list of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist record groups accessioned, during the first years of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. methodist episcopal church . depauw university. office of archives. annual report; the archives of de- pauw university and indiana methodist history [to the president of the university and the joint committee of the indiana conferences]. / , ' / - greencastle, ind., university of depauw press, [ , ]- lists acquisitions received during each year, with names of donors. briefly notes completed projects and reports progress on those yet to be completed. . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; african methodist episcopal church, michigan conference. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . v, p., processed. gives the names of churches and institutions and describes the records of each. the church entries are arranged chronologically. indexed. . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; methodist church. new york, new york city historical records sur- vey, . xv, p., processed. gives historical information, and lists records with their locations. arranged by conferences, societies, and other organizations. the church entries are arranged chronologically under their respective conferences. indexed. . journal of the methodist library. st. petersburg, fla., indianapolis, ind., published for the methodist historical library, inc.; international editor, frederick d. leete. - [ ? ] . from vol. , no. : "the large accumulation of methodist letters, manuscripts, books and other memoriae outlined in this paper began when, about , the editor realized that through the years he had saved a mass of important historical material which might well be pre- served and increased." the materials listed in the journal are arranged by the following subjects: ( ) history and biography, ( ) british and foreign collections, ( ) episcopal writings and memorials, ( ) law, government, discipline, ( ) general methodist literature, and ( ) inheritances from former collectors. this collection was purchased in by the bridwell library of the perkins school of theology of southern methodist university. . sweet, william w., ed. religion on the american frontier. vol. , the metho- dists, a collection of source materials. chicago, university of chicago press, . ix, p. the bibliography, part , manuscripts (p. - ), lists diaries of ministers, official conference journals, and other documents and papers in methodist-related college libraries and archives and in the his- torical societies of the conferences of the church. moravian church . historical records survey. wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; moravian church. madison, wisconsin historical records sur- vey, . p., processed. gives historical information, and lists records with their locations. records of the district are placed first and are followed by those of churches in chronological order. indexed. pilgrim holiness church . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; pilgrim holiness church, michigan district. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . vii, p., processed. gives his- torical background, names and locations of organizations and churches, and brief descriptions and statements of the location of records. arranged by ( ) organizations and institutions and ( ) churches; thereunder chronologically. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada presbyterian church . anderson, charles a. special collections in the presbyterian historical so- ciety. [philadelphia, presbyterian historical society, ]. p. describes the kinds of material collected by the society for more than a century and housed in its quarters in the witherspoon bldg., philadelphia . . t h e archives of the presbyterian and reformed churches. historical founda- tion news, apr. , , p. . lists the number of volumes in the archives per- taining to the various divisions of the presbyterian church in the united states, as well as other countries. . early records lately acquired. historical foundation news, oct. , , p. . chiefly sessional records from presbyterian churches in the united states, dating from as early as . . foundation facts — the archives. historical foundation news, : (jan. , ). discusses the word archives and applies it to the foundation's hold- ings of miscellaneous papers. "seventeen hundred of these are in the original or transcript form." . historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches. annual re- ports of executive committee. minutes of the general assembly, presbyterian church in the united states, - . each report contains information on the foundation archives. . . a great collection of presbyterian and reformed literature. montreat, n. c , historical foundation publications, . p. description of printed and manuscript materials, including , volumes of ecclesiastical records, owned by the foundation. . . survey of records and minutes in the historical foundation, comp. by thomas h. spence. montreat, n. c , historical foundation publications, . p. a geographically arranged list of records, with dates covered. . historical records survey. illinois. inventory of the church archives of illinois; cumberland presbyterian church. chicago, illinois historical records survey, . xiii, p., processed. gives historical background, names, and locations of churches and church organizations, and brief descrip- tions of records, with their locations. arranged by denominational divisions and by churches. the church records are arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . illinois. inventory of the church archives of illinois; presby- terian church in the united states of america, presbytery of cairo. chicago, illinois historical records survey, . x, p., processed. the entries contain background information, names and locations of churches and church organizations, and brief descriptions of records, with their locations. arranged by denominational divisions and by churches and thereunder chronologically by date of establishment. about half of the volume is devoted to a historical sketch. indexed. . . illinois. inventory of the church archives of illinois; presby- terian church in the united states of america, presbytery of springfield. chicago, illinois historical records survey, . p., processed. the entries contain background information, names and locations of churches and institutions, and brief descriptions of records, with their locations. arranged under the following headings: denominational divisions, dependent institutions, and churches. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; presbyterian church in the u. s. a., presbytery of detroit. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . v, p., processed. gives his- torical background, names and locations of organizations and churches within the presbytery of detroit, and brief descriptions of records, with their loca- tions. arranged by ( ) organizations and institutions and ( ) churches and missions, the latter listed chronologically. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; presbyterian church in the u. s. a., presbytery of flint. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . . iii, p., processed. gives historical background, names and locations of organizations and churches within the presbytery of flint, and brief descriptions of records, with their locations. arranged by ( ) organizations and institutions and ( ) churches, the latter listed chronologically. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; presbyterians. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. contains historical information and a description of records, with their locations. the records of the general assembly of the presbyterian church in the u. s. a. are listed first and are followed by synod records and then those of presbyteries, with the churches, institutions, and organizations within the jurisdiction of each arranged chronologically by date of organiza- tion. indexed. . . new jersey. transcription of early church records of new jersey (presbyterian) ; john brainerd's journal, - . a reprint. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. transcript of the journal of john brainerd, missionary to the indians at brotherton and in the area of southern new jersey, jan. -oct. . . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; presbyterian church in the united states of america. new york, new york city historical records survey, . viii, p., processed. contains historical information and a description of records, with their locations. ar- ranged by presbyteries and other units or organizations. the church entries are arranged chronologically. indexed. . . west virginia. inventory of the church archives of west virginia; presbyterian churches. charleston, west virginia historical records survey, . xiv, p., processed. contains historical information and descriptions of records. arranged by synod, thereunder by presbytery, and thereunder by churches in chronological order of establishment. indexed. . minutes of the chippewa presbytery, - . presbyterian historical so- ciety, journal (mar. ). . presbyterian historical society. journal. vol. - ( - ). issued by the society, witherspoon bldg., philadelphia . "devoted to publishing articles on presbyterian history and . . . publishing source materials that would other- wise not be available." . rachal, william m. e. early minutes of hanover presbytery. virginia magazine of history and biography, apr. . . records of jacksonville (illinois) presbyterian church. [ - ]. presbyterian historical society, journal, mar. . . records of the presbyterian church in the united states of america; embrace the minutes of the general presbytery and general synod, - , together with an index and the minutes of the general convention for religious liberty, - . philadelphia, . . rowland, dunbar. an official guide to the historical materials in the missis- sippi department of archives and history. eleventh annual report of the director of the department of archives and history of the state of mississippi from november , iqii, to october , . nashville, tenn., brandau- craig-dickerson co., . p. the archives of the synod of mississippi of the southern presbyterian church are listed on pages - . . spence, thomas h., jr. catalogues of the presbyterian and reformed institu- tions. montreat, n. c, historical foundation publications, . p. his- torical notes on the presbyterian and reformed churches' institutions of learning, as gleaned from their catalogs. . • the historical foundation and its treasures. montreat, n. c, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada historical foundation publications, . p. chapter , "archival eldorado" (p. - ), contains a general description of the archives of the foundation. the last two paragraphs of the chapter give the names of the major manuscript collections. . . the historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches. american association for state and local history, bulletin, : - (apr. ). a brief discussion of the policies of the presbyterian and reformed churches in respect to the safekeeping of records, followed by dis- cussion of the important collections. much more detail is given to the founda- tion at montreat, n. c , than to other depositories. . . survey of the records and minutes in the historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches. montreat, n. c , historical foundation publications, . p. this survey, the initial unit of a projected inventory of the more important holdings of the foundation, pre- sents the basic chronology of the courts of the presbyterian and reformed churches and briefly tells what minutes and other records may be found in the institution. contains some background information relating to the courts. . sweet, william w., ed. religion on the american frontier. vol. , the presbyterians; a collection of source materials. new york, harper and bros., . xii, p. in the bibliography (p. - ), part , manuscripts (p. and ), lists collections of presbyterian materials and gives their locations. . what materials constitute its holdings. historical foundation neivs, apr. , °> p- - an article by the curator explaining the three divisions of the foundation holdings — museum, library, and archives. protestant episcopal church . historical records survey. alabama. inventory of the church archives of alabama; protestant episcopal church. birmingham, alabama historical records survey project, . p., processed. gives historical back- ground, names and locations of churches and church organizations, and brief descriptions of records, with their locations. arranged chronologically by date of establishment of the church. indexed. . — . connecticut. inventory of the church archives of connecticut; protestant episcopal. new haven, connecticut historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical background, names and locations of episcopal units, and descriptions of their records. arranged by diocese and diocesan organizations, parishes in union with the convention, missions, chapels, and extinct churches. indexed. . . delaware. inventory of the church archives of delaware; pre- print of section , lutheran church, and , protestant episcopal church. wilmington, delaware historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. lists, describes, and gives locations of records of the lutheran and episcopal churches in delaware. much of the inventory is devoted to historical in- formation concerning the churches and to pertinent bibliographical infor- mation. indexed. . . district of columbia. inventory of church archives of the district of columbia; protestant episcopal church. washington, district of columbia historical records survey, . vols., processed. volume pertains to the diocese of washington (exclusive of washington cathedral), embracing the district of columbia and the counties of prince georges, charles, and st. marys in maryland; volume is devoted to washington cathedral. the inventories give much information on the history and organization of the diocese, washington cathedral, parishes, churches, and other organizations, with detailed lists of records for each. indexed. . . maryland. inventory of the church archives of maryland; protestant episcopal, diocese of maryland. baltimore, maryland historical d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t h e a m e r i c a n a r c h i v i s t records survey project, . v, p., processed. contains description and statements of locations of records of churches and church organizations. the entries are grouped under the following main headings: ( ) diocesan records, ( ) parishes, churches, and missions, and ( ) current diocesan institutions. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; protestant episcopal church, diocese of northern michigan. detroit, michi- gan historical records survey project, . p., processed. the entries contain historical information and lists of records. arranged by church organi- zation and thereunder chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; protestant episcopal bodies, diocese of michigan. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . p., processed. the entries contain his- torical information and lists of records. arranged by church organization and thereunder chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; protes- tant episcopal church, diocese of western michigan. detroit, michigan historical records survey project, . p., processed. the entries con- tain historical information and lists of records. arranged by church or- ganization and thereunder chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. . . mississippi. inventory of the church archives of mississippi; protestant episcopal church, diocese of mississippi. jackson, mississippi historical records survey project, . vii, p., processed. the in- ventory contains, for each church or organization, a historical statement, a bibliography, and a description of its records. arranged chronologically by date of church establishment. indexed. . . nevada. inventory of the church archives of nevada; protestant episcopal church. reno, nevada historical records survey project, . vi, p., processed. gives names of missions or other church organizations, a brief historical sketch of each, and a description of its records, with their lo- cation. arranged chronologically by date of church establishment. indexed. . . new hampshire. inventory of the church archives of new hampshire; protestant episcopal, diocese of new hampshire. manchester, new hampshire historical records survey, . p-» processed. con- tains much historical information and a list of records. the inventory proper, which begins on page , is arranged chronologically under the following divisions: ( ) churches and missions, ( ) private chapels and shrines, ( ) towns where missionary work was done, and ( ) schools and institutions. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; protestant episcopal, diocese of new jersey and diocese of newark. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. contains historical information and descriptions of the records, with their locations. the records of the general convention are listed first, then records of the second provincial synod, the diocesan convention, the diocesan headquarters, and the cathedral. then follow the individual parishes and missions, arranged alphabetically by legal name or name of town, and finally the institutions and organizations. indexed. . . new york. inventory of the church archives of new york state (exclusive of new york city) ; protestant episcopal church, diocese of rochester. albany, new york historical records survey, . xiii, p., processed. contains historical information and lists of records. the first part of the inventory pertains to diocesan officers, organizations, and institutions. the second part pertains to churches and missions and is arranged alpha- betically by counties. indexed. . . new york. inventory of the church archives of new york state d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives in u. s. and canada (exclusive of new york city) ; protestant episcopal church, diocese of western new york. albany, new york historical records survey, . xxvi, , xxvii-xl p., processed. gives historical information and lists of records. records of the diocese and diocesan organizations are given first, followed by those of churches, arranged chronologically. indexed. . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; protestant episcopal church, diocese of long island. vol. , brooklyn and queens. new york, new york city historical records survey, . x, p., processed. contains historical information and lists of records, with their location. the entries concerning the diocese of long island are given first, followed by those for churches, arranged chronologically. indexed. . . new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; protestant episcopal church in the united states of america, diocese of new york. vol. , manhattan, bronx, and richmond. new york, new york city historical records survey, . xi, p., processed. contains his- torical information and lists of records. the entries for associations, schools, societies, and other organizations precede those for the churches, which are ar- ranged chronologically. indexed. . . vermont. inventory of the church archives of vermont. no. , protestant episcopal, diocese of vermont. montpelier, vermont historical records survey, . iv, p., processed. contains historical information and descriptions of records. arranged by ( ) diocesan records and ( ) parishes and missions (thereunder alphabetically by town, village, or city). indexed. . . west virginia. inventory of the church archives of west virginia; protestant episcopal church. wheeling, diocese of west virginia, . v, p., processed. contains historical information and descriptions of records. arranged under the heads, ( ) the diocese of west virginia, ( ) parishes and churches (in chronological order), and ( ) institutions. indexed. . . wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; protestant episcopal church in the united states of america, diocese of eau claire. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . xvi, p., processed. . . wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; protestant episcopal church in the united states of america, diocese of fond du lac. madison, wisconsin historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical information and lists of records. arranged chronologically under ( ) parishes and missions, ( ) unorganized missions, ( ) chapels, and ( ) institutions. indexed. . joint committee on historical magazine, protestant episcopal church in the united states of america. special report on the preservation and safekeeping of church records. kansas city, mo., . p. a special report to the general convention of the protestant episcopal church recommending that the church historical society, a corporation organized in with head- quarters in philadelphia, be designated the official agency to collect and pre- serve records and historical documents. the report points out the value of archives and the need for better facilities, recommends the appropriation of funds for this purpose, and incidentally gives a little information about the library of the church historical society. reformed church in america . historical records survey. new york city. inventory of the church archives of new york city; reformed church in america. new york, new york city historical records survey, . ix, p., processed. gives historical information and lists of records of the reformed dutch church. arranged chronologically. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist salvation army . historical records survey. michigan. inventory of the church archives of michigan; salvation army in michigan. detroit, michigan historical rec- ords survey project, . viii, p., processed. identifies and gives the lo- cations of the organizations, institutions, posts, corps, and citadels within the state and lists the records of each. arranged by geographical headquarters and division and thereunder by organizational unit. indexed. . . new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; the salvation army, jersey city. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . p., processed. gives historical information and lists of records. arranged chronologically by date of establishment of organizational unit. unitarian church . historical records survey. new jersey. inventory of the church archives of new jersey; unitarian church. newark, new jersey historical records survey, . ii, p., processed. contains historical information and lists of records. information on records of organizations is given first, followed by .records of churches, arranged chronologically by date of establishment. indexed. united brethren in christ . evangelical united brethren church. historical society. manual for con- ference historians. "it is intended to encourage the collection, preservation and interpretation of all historical data relative to the annual conference in- volved." . historical records survey. wisconsin. inventory of the church archives of wisconsin; church of the united brethren in christ. madison, wisconsin his- torical records survey, . iv, p., processed. gives historical infor- mation and lists of records, with their locations. arranged chronologically under the heads ( ) active churches, ( ) active churches, old constitutions, ( ) inactive preaching places used years or more, and ( ) inactive preaching places used only year. indexed. united church of canada . boyle, georg. archives of the united church of canada. archivum, : - ( ). gives background on the establishment and organization of the united church of canada and its archives. lists some of the archival ma- terial in the church central archives at toronto. . kyte, e. c. archives of the united church of canada. american archivist, : - (july ). tells the location and gives a brief description of the contents of the archival libraries of the united church of canada. universalist church of america . historical records survey. massachusetts. an inventory of universalist ar- chives in massachusetts. boston, massachusetts historical records survey, . iii, p., processed. contains historical information and detailed lists of records pertaining to the churches and societies organized by the universal- ists and those previously established that adopted the universalist faith. ar- ranged under the heads ( ) national organizations, ( ) state organizations, and ( ) churches. indexed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes h. b. fant, editor national archives s o c i e t y o f a m e r i c a n archivists the membership of the society's committee on international relations is now complete: t . r. schellenberg, chairman, robert claus, carl l. lokke, george j. olszewski, and mrs. john r. weske. a new member of the busi- ness records committee is a. a. deter, of the linde co., new york city. since the last membership changes were noted new members have joined the society and have been dropped from the rolls. new or reinstated mem- bers since the last published listing include: roumelle bowen, tallahas- see, fla.; velma churchill, golden, colo.; john t . curry, kansas city, m o . ; lewis k. demand, cheyenne, wyo.; the rev. alcuin greenburg, conception abbey, m o . ; bernard hall, m . d., menninger foundation; william har- rington, san bernardino, calif.; jerry n . hess, independence, m o . ; ralph hudson, oklahoma state library; martha f. montague, lewis & clark college library; mrs. harry e. pratt, springfield, .; irving rosenfeld and mrs. marion schimpf, los angeles; cecil h. schrepfer, independence, mo.; ralph l. scrocco, solar aircraft co., san diego; julia ward stickley, na- tional archives; manette swetland, emma willard school; william j. van schreeven, virginia state library; and mrs. john r. weske, brookville, md. institutional members include the libraries of fort hays kansas state college; the genealogical society, salt lake city; kansas state teachers college, emporia; new mexico college, a & m arts; tennessee state li- brary and archives; texas woman's university, denton; the university of massachusetts, amherst; the university of pittsburgh; and the western re- serve historical society, cleveland; also the new century publishers, inc., new york; records management service, gsa, kansas city, m o . ; the pur- chasing unit of the social security administration, baltimore; and the u. s. forest service. new foreign members, personal and institutional, include the archives and bibliotheque, leopoldville, belgian congo; bibliotheek der staatsmijnen, ge- leen, holland; the department of public administrative service, rio de janeiro; escobar hernan, medellin, colombia; the institution of public ad- ministration and management library, rangoon, burma; evan david jones, aberystwyth, wales; the koninklijke bibliotheek, the hague; keiji tajima, tokio; and the university of the philippines library. erratum carl l. lokke has called the editor's attention to an error in the january american archivist. on pages and francis p . blair is identified as d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist the editor of the diplomatic correspondence of the united states, - , whereas he was the printer. a clerk in the department of state, william a. weaver, compiled and edited the work. n a t i o n a l archives a n d records service on may president eisenhower formally received from administrator of general services franklin floete and archivist wayne c. grover the first copy of the first volume of the public papers of the presidents of the united states. this volume, entitled dwight d. eisenhower, , introduces a series to be published by the federal register division of the national ar- chives and records service. the series was begun on the recommendation of the national historical publications commission. the first volume contains the president's messages to congress, transcripts of his news conferences, and his important speeches and statements, including the speeches delivered at the bermuda conference in march and at the n a t o paris conference in decem- ber of . in addition to a comprehensive index it has several appendixes listing (a) white house press releases, (b) proclamations, executive orders, and similar documents already published in the federal register during , and (c) presidential reports to congress made during the year. the volume of pages is on sale by the superintendent of documents for $ . . it is intended to bring out one current volume each year and from time to time to publish an extra volume to fill in the gap since richardson's messages and pa- pers of the presidents. at the first annual meeting of the board of the harry s. truman library institute, held at independence, mo., on apr. , the following officers were reelected: president, elmer ellis, president of the university of missouri; vice president, david d. lloyd, alexandria, va.; treasurer, tom l. evans, board chairman of kansas city radio station k c m o ; and secretary, philip c. brooks, director of the truman library. nine new members of the board were named: chief justice earl warren, house speaker sam rayburn, chancellor richard m . drake of the university of kansas city, pres. ethan a. shepley of washington university of st. louis, prof. thomas e. blaisdell, jr., of the university of california, prof. merle curti of the university of wis- consin, prof. francis e. heller of the university of kansas, prof. dexter perkins of cornell university, and prof. samuel p. hays of the university of iowa. the national archives has recently accessioned the records of the earliest predecessors of the labor department — records of the bureau of labor, - , the department of labor, - , and the bureau of labor, - . this accession includes the only known records of the pullman strike com- mission, - . t w o more preliminary inventories have been issued: no. , records of the rationing department of the office of price administra- tion, compiled by meyer h. fishbein, martha chandler, walter w . wein- stein, and albert w . winthrop; and no. , cartographic records of the bu- reau of the census, compiled by james berton rhoads and charlotte m. ashby. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes among recently issued national archives microfilm publications are letters received by the office of indian affairs, - . these letters were written from agencies ( rolls) and from superintendencies: arizona ( rolls), arkansas ( roll), colorado ( rolls), florida ( rolls), new mexico ( rolls), st. louis ( rolls), utah ( rolls), and wisconsin ( rolls). other recent microfilm publications are the revolutionary war rolls, - ( rolls); and population schedules of the fourth census, , for the states of north carolina ( rolls) and south carolina ( rolls). library of congress the number of manuscripts in the library of congress on june , , was estimated a few weeks ago to have been almost ^ million. new acquisi- tions include the following: a journal, feb. -nov. , , kept by a massachusetts soldier during a march to montreal and back; about letters, - , of edward everett hale; about , manuscripts of the hoe family, whose name is associated with the manufacture of printing presses; and some , papers of the late james mckeen cattell, editor of scientific publications. lincoln isham of dorset, vt., great-grandson of abraham lin- coln, contributed three lincoln manuscripts; and the novelist mackinlay kantor presented literary manuscripts and , personal letters written or re- ceived, - . the centennial of the birth of worthington chauncy ford ( - ), noted historian and editor, was commemorated at the manuscript division, which he headed in the first decade of this century, by an exhibit of manuscript notes and letters. t e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a glossary of terms used in magnetic tape recording is available free from dept. m - , minnesota mining and manufacturing co., bush st., st. paul, minn. western reserve university and the council on documentation research sponsored a conference in cleveland, feb. - , attended by about repre- sentatives from organizations interested in documentation and information services for science and technology. despite the general awareness of in- adequacies in present methods of disseminating and using scientific knowledge, the conference reached no final conclusions. it voted that the council on documentation research inform the national academy of sciences-national research council of the cleveland transactions and ask the academy to ap- point a special committee to study the problems involved and to work toward their solution. kenneth munden of the national archives and records service, region , general services administration, was detailed to the federal civil defense administration for months this spring to develop standards for selecting records essential to the continuity of state and local government in the event of nuclear attack. in this assignment he saw the establishment of the records d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e a m e r i c a n a r q h i v i s t preservation division, a new unit of fcda's continuity of government of- fice. through correspondence or personal contact with civil defense directors, archivists, and record management officers of all the states and of many counties and cities, mr. munden gathered enough data to draft a comprehensive techni- cal manual on this subject. this manual is now being reviewed within fcda and by responsible state officials. when published by fcda it will serve to guide state and local officials, as the new gsa handbook on protecting vital records will serve to advise agencies of the federal government. f o r e i g n news argentina as reported in the hispanic american historical review for last november, the first reunion argentina de paleografia y neografia, held at cordoba in nov. , recommended the institution of training courses for archivists in argentina; the establishment of a commission of archivists and historians to examine the validity of documentary publications already issued in argentina; support by the provincial and national governments for the publication by the instituto de estudios americanistas (cordoba) of the archives of gen. jose maria paz; and, in general, government support for the publishing programs of archivists. ceylon the administration report of the government archivist for (dec. j ) notes that the archivist, j. h . o. paulusz, retired on oct. , , when the archives department was transferred from the ministry of educa- tion to the ministry of local government and cultural affairs. some months later, however, mr. paulusz was reappointed archivist. the assistant ar- chivist, e. p. p. perera, is perfecting himself in law preparatory to classifying and arranging ceylon's judicial records. a fellowship granted by u n e s c o en- abled the librarian, g. d. ranasinghe, to visit the hague and to go to london for a special course in bibliography and archival science. france charles braibant, director of the archives of france and honorary presi- dent of the international council on archives, has announced that the eighth international course in archival techniques will begin at the archives na- tionales in jan. . the brochure stage international a"archives and other information can be obtained by writing to his office, archives nationales, rue des francs-bourgeois, paris e, attention of albert mirot or robert-henri bautier. great britain assisted by a grant from the united states information service in the united kingdom, the british association for american studies expects to pro- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes duce a guide to manuscript and printed source materials in the united king- dom bearing on united states history, politics, economics, and literature. h. c. beales, director, and b. r. crick, assistant director, may be addressed at the institute for historical research, university of london, london w . c. i. india the national archives of india reported at the end of last november that work on its multivolumed calendar of persian correspondence had reached the following stages: volume ( - ) was being printed, volume ( - ) was being indexed, and volume ( - ) was being compiled. in connection with the preliminary listing of original persian letters received during the early th century, a catalog of oriental seals is being prepared. israel the institute of hebrew manuscripts, which has operated since as a branch of the ministry of education and culture, has been bringing together in jerusalem reproductions of hebrew manuscripts held in austria, belgium, denmark, france, holland, hungary, italy, switzerland, and the vatican; it has recently extended its searching to england also. thus far about per- cent of the institute's worldwide objective has been attained. paraguay the materials at the archivo nacional at asuncion selected for microfilm- ing by the spanish archivist francisco sevillano colom amount to about , manuscript pages. the microfilming was a joint project of u n e s c o and the government of paraguay. what was covered is summarized in a - page archival section of the feb. hispanic american historical review. rhodesia and nyasaland in the territories of southern rhodesia, northern rhodesia, and nyasaland became the federation of rhodesia and nyasaland. as a result existing legislation had to be revised, and this year a national archives act was passed by the federal house of assembly. the name of the archival agency has been changed from central african archives to national archives of rhodesia and nyasaland. otherwise, the act in the main follows existing legislation. a clear distinction is made be- tween archives and records and the act allows public access to archives — that is to say, material more than years old that has been judged worthy of per- manent preservation. the address of the national archives of rhodesia and nyasaland is p. o. box , causeway, salisbury, southern rhodesia. v. w . hiller is director. alabama marie bankhead owen, who directed the alabama department of archives and history for years and retired years ago, died on mar. , , aged d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e a m e r i c a n a r c h i v i s t . sister of the late u. s. sen. john h. bankhead and the late speaker of the u. s. house of representatives, william b. bankhead, mrs. owen was the aunt of the actress tallulah bankhead, who was brought up in the owen home in montgomery. mrs. owen's historian husband, thomas m. owen, founded alabama's state archives department in and headed it until his death in , when she succeeded him. their son, the late thomas m . owen, jr., was one of the early employees of the national archives in wash- ington. ca lif o rnia part of a much-needed guide to the manuscript collections of the bancroft library will soon go to press. the guide is the outcome of plans laid in and represents extensive collaboration by various members, past and present, of the manuscript staff. irving rosenfeld, formerly an assistant archivist in colorado's division of state archives and public records, has been appointed senior library assistant in the department of special collections at the ucla library, los angeles. colorado the denver interagency records administration conference held its fourth meeting of the - season on friday, mar. , in the bureau of rec- lamation auditorium, denver federal center. herbert e. angel, assistant archivist of the united states, records management, discussed the economy of a good record program. at a legislative seminar held in denver, feb. - , for students of seven colorado and wyoming colleges, dolores renze, state archivist, was a panelist. the seminar was sponsored by the rocky mountain citizenship clearing house and cosponsored by the ford foundation and denver uni- versity. harry e. carleno of englewood, formerly record analyst on the staff of the division of state archives and public records, has been named deputy district attorney for arapahoe county. connecticut an associated press despatch from groton, jan. , announced that a col- lection of letters, drawings, and other writings about the confederate submarine hunley, the first combat submersible in american experience, had been turned over to the commanding officer of the atomic-powered nautilus. eustace williams of van nuys, calif., assembled the materials, and rear adm. frederick b. warde, atlantic fleet submarine force commander, made the presentation. the ceremony took place at the electric boat division of general dynamics corp., which built the nautilus. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s d i s t r i c t o f c o l u m b i a an original draft of robert g. ingersoll's "plumed knight" speech nomi- nating james g. blaine in has come to georgetown university, which has an important collection of blaine materials. the draft of the ingersoll speech was among ingersoll papers given to the university by isaac d. levy, philadelphia attorney and civic leader. according to the washington sunday star, mr. levy valued his gift at $ , . sen. john sherman cooper, chairman of the lincoln sesquicentennial com- mission, has chosen the following executive committee: bertha s. adkins, conrad l. wirth, victor m . birely, ralph j. bunche, paul c. reinert, f. j. nimtz, and l. quincy mumford. f l o r i d a the st. augustine historical society is compiling a calendar of its spanish materials. charles w . arnade of florida state university assisted during the past summer on the initial work. the project will be carried forward by william b. griffen, formerly of the university of arizona and now assistant to the society's executive historian, john griffin. g e o r g i a secretary of state ben r. fortson and archivist mary givens bryan have long been aware of georgia's need for a new state archives building. a legislative committee, consisting of three representatives and two senators, ap- pointed by the general assembly last year to investigate the matter of safe housing for the archives, recommended construction of a fireproof modern building. one of the peripheral duties of mrs. bryan each biennium is to compile the state of georgia's official register. the latest volume runs to , printed pages. john c. bonner, archivist of the university of georgia, contributed the sketch of william mclntosh in georgians in profile; historical essays in honor of ellis merton coulter, published by the university of georgia press, . dr. coulter, though retiring from teaching at the university this year, will continue to edit in athens the georgia historical quarterly of the georgia historical society, which has its headquarters and collections in savannah and is directed by lilla m . hawes. i l l i n o i s the committee on bibliography of the reference services division of the american library association met in chicago jan. under the chairmanship of edwin b. colburn of the h. w . wilson co. the committee hopes to ex- tend its cooperation with various organizations to include national archival and manuscript societies. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist kansas on feb. , when a luncheon was held at abilene to begin the nationwide drive for funds to build an eisenhower presidential library, contributions in the abilene area already totaled more than $ , . letters, - , originally held by the family of john s. brown, pioneer unitarian minister of lawrence, are among an extensive manuscript collection recently deposited with the kansas state historical society. louisiana the seventh annual convention of the national microfilm association was held at new orleans, apr. - . the program emphasized the newest devel- opments in the field and was supplemented by a comprehensive exhibit of technical equipment and supplies. an oral history project to record on tape interviews with survivors of the - period of jazz development in new orleans is one of the under- takings jointly sponsored by the departments of history and of music at tulane university, which has received a $ , grant from the ford foundation for a -year search for records concerning the birth and growth of american jazz. the department of archives and manuscripts of louisiana state university is arranging and packing its holdings of some two million items for removal in august to new quarters on the university campus. every effort will be made to assist researchers during the late summer, but some collections may be in- accessible during the moving operations. summer researchers who can arrange their visits to the department before the last week in july or after september should experience no difficulty in using the collections. maryland the following paragraph is quoted from the twenty-second annual report of the archivist of the hall of records ( ) : for some years now the number of replacements in the archival division has re- mained at our all-time minimum. we have not been so fortunate, however, in our new records management division. since this program was initiated, in , several large states have undertaken the care of current records as part of their archival program, and competition for the few trained individuals available has taken on an air of desperation. to make our problem even more difficult, american industry is actively recruiting its records officers from state and federal agencies. last year we lost our public examiner, john t. caton, to the new records management program of the state of illinois and thomas wilds to the records division of union carbide and carbon corporation. each man received an increase in salary of approximately $ , . mr. caton, who resigned december , , was replaced the next day by jackson s. saunders of the university of oklahoma archives; and mr. wilds, who resigned october , , was replaced february , , by george w. straubinger, jr., formerly librarian of the united states senate. massachusetts the fifth annual session of the institute on historical and archival manage- ment sponsored by radcliffe college and the department of history of harvard d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes university is being held at cambridge, june -aug. i, . the director is again lester j. cappon of the institute of early american history and culture, williamsburg, va. the records of a th-century concern, the turners falls lumber co., "one of the largest firms bringing spruce logs down the connecticut river," are now available for research use at baker library, harvard university. the roper public opinion research center was established on july , , at williams college. the raw materials of more than , interviews, dat- ing from , made for fortune magazine and many american industries, will become available for research purposes there. archbishop makarios of the greek orthodox church in cyprus has pre- sented to the boston university school of theology, where he was a special student, - , a manuscript of certain chapters of the new testament. the item, believed to date from the th century, came from the archives of the greek orthodox archdiocese of cyprus and is held to be one of the best of many thousand known greek manuscripts. m i c h i g a n richard ruddell of the ford motor company archives has been appointed to the dearborn library commission. philip p. mason, formerly of the michigan historical commission ar- chives at lansing, has been since feb. of this year archivist of wayne state university, detroit . dr. mason is an assistant professor of history on the wayne faculty, though he did not teach any courses during the spring semester. the university may soon offer a course in archival administration, to be sup- plemented by a one- or two-semester apprenticeship in the university archives. missouri the missouri historical society has acquired items, - , pertaining to the famed naturalist john j. audubon. three of his autograph letters are in the lot. concordia historical institute, st. louis, has received a collection of docu- ments, books, and manuscripts that include some personal papers and other manuscripts of several th-century lutheran leaders. n e w york on mar. fire of unknown origin broke out during a luncheon recess at the state supreme court building at centre st., in downtown new york city. nearly , legal papers and documentary items — litigation records for , , and —were burned or damaged. the losses occurred in a subbasement record room. only for completed case files had microfilm dupli- cates been made and stored in an upstairs record room. robert a. shiff, president of naremco services, inc., fifth ave., new york , announced on apr. that the firm was expanding its activity to offer d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist a wider range of services to both large and small business organizations. pre- viously a wholly owned subsidiary, naremco now functions separately from the nonprofit national records management council, though a close working relation remains. mr. shift continues to be a member of the board of directors of the council, which in turn is represented on the naremco board. the john pierpont morgan library, new york city, has come into pos- session of more than a hundred love letters written by voltaire during the years - . the letters were not discovered until last year. former gov. thomas e. dewey in deposited over a million of his personal papers in the university of rochester library. since then he has added a quantity of speech material and correspondence, the latter dating as late as the summer of . the collection is available for exploitation by properly qualified students who obtain written permission from mr. dewey. on may at white plains, in the modern communication and record center of the standard-vacuum oil co., the association of records executives and administrators — area — met in its annual conference on record services for effective paperwork administration. standard-vacuum's record administra- tor, maxwell s. mcknight, chairman of the conference, presented the story of the center, which was exhibited in operation. from the esso research and engineering co., the head of record management, t . j. devlin, and the as- sistant director of the technical information division, g. w . duncan, dis- cussed information centers and information retrieval methods. j. e. slater of the international affairs program of the ford foundation analyzed the pos- sibility of applying the secretariat function, as known in public affairs, to business organization. six workshop seminars, each with a chairman and an as- sistant chairman, were scheduled, as follows: current filing, dorothy e. knight, lever bros. co., and inez c. o'brien, national records management council; manuals, a. albert deter, linde co. division of union carbide corp., and roger chappelka, american telephone and telegraph co.; record center op- erations, robert w . humphrey, new york stock exchange, and john w . travers, radio corp. of america; record retention and scheduling, william l. rofes, olin mathieson chemical corp., and vincent a. nunziato, chemical corn exchange bank; record systems and procedure analysis, alan g. negus, naremco, inc., and william b. warren, port of new york authority; vital record protection, saul citrone, international business machines corp., and charles r. buell, union carbide corp. n o r t h carolina h. g. jones, state archivist, has announced the completion, by personnel of north carolina's record center, of an index to the north carolina con- federate pension applications. the index is available in the search room of the department of archives and history at raleigh. over two dozen officials from different departments of the state government attended a correspondence management workshop, feb. - , in the capitol. instruction was conducted by a. k. johnson, jr., chief of the rec- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s ords management division, national archives and records service, gsa region , atlanta, ga. o h i o a page of a minute book of the bluecoat school of wolverhampton, staf- fordshire, england, whereon button gwinnett signed his name as a school trustee, dec. , , has been presented to western reserve historical so- ciety. autograph signatures of button gwinnett, a georgia signer of the declaration of independence, are extremely scarce and valuable. o r e g o n since november the oregon state archives has been organizing and de- veloping the record management program authorized by the legislature. by the middle of february the records of the state treasurer had been sur- veyed, and schedules had been drafted for the retention or destruction of various series. state archivist david c. duniway reports the employment of richard dolph as record management analyst and neil riggs as archival as- sistant. a business administration graduate of the university of washington, mr. dolph came from the staff of the oregon public utilities commission; mr. riggs, an american history graduate of the university of oregon, formerly worked for the bank of california. their arrival facilitates the program, which extends to county as well as to state records. in succession to eugene javens, resigned, margaret keillor is now in charge of archival reference and catalog development. besides receiving the papers of five more lumber or timber companies, the oregon historical society now has the records of the western forestry and conservation association, - . pennsylvania the american philosophical society's library bulletin for contains a progress report by leonard w . labaree and whitfield j. bell, jr., on the editing of the papers of benjamin franklin, now under way at yale university under the joint sponsorship of the society and the university. of the , documents believed pertinent to the undertaking, the society in philadelphia has about , . other institutions are reckoned to have these quantities: the library of congress, over , ; the national archives, about , ; the historical society of pennsylvania, more than ; the yale library, more than ; the massachusetts historical society, about ; the archives of the french foreign office, nearly ; and the harvard library, about . some , other items are scattered among smaller collections, including a collection of high quality at the henry e. huntington library. the gordon alward hardwick, jr., memorial fund has made it possible for the university of pennsylvania library to acquire n o feet of literary pa- pers of the novelist and critic james t . farrell. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist puerto rico luis m . rodriguez-morales, the newly appointed archivist general of puerto rico, hector l. vazquez, of the puerto rican bureau of the budget, and jose acaron cabanellas, of the courts administration, supreme court of puerto rico, spent the months of february and march in the united states studying the archival and record management programs of the national ar- chives and records service. while most of their time was spent at the na- tional archives and in various federal executive and judicial offices in washington, all three officials visited the maryland hall of records at an- napolis, and sr. rodriguez-morales visited the archives division of the vir- ginia state library at richmond. r h o d e island thomas r. adams has succeeded lawrence c. wroth as librarian of the john carter brown library at brown university. having headed the library since and having been since research professor in american history, m r . wroth became librarian emeritus on june , . a member of the society of american archivists, mr. wroth during his active career served also as director and president of the providence athenaeum, consultant to the pierpont morgan library, and consultant to the library of congress. t e n n e s s e e mrs. john trotwood moore, a charter member of the society of american archivists, died in nashville on aug. , . her husband, before his death in , had served for a decade as state librarian and archivist of tennessee. mrs. moore followed him in this post for two decades, - . she was cor- responding secretary of the tennessee historical society, - , a member of the tennessee historical commission, - , and at the time of her death a commissioner emeritus. t e x a s the letters of antonio martinez, last spanish governor of texas, - , translated and edited by state archivist virginia h. taylor, were pub- lished in jan. in a single volume of pages. previously, in outline form, they had appeared in eight issues of the southwestern historical quarter- ly, - . the new book can be had from the texas state archives, camp hubbard, austin, for $ . for the same price a copy of texas treasury papers, vol. , published in , can be procured. utah the annual meeting of the society of american archivists will con- vene at salt lake city, aug. - . this gathering date, much earlier than usual, will afford better touring conditions for those members of the society who wish to explore the mountain regions of the west. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s robert b. barker of kaysville, utah, has been promoted from assistant director to director of the naval records management center, clearfield, ogden, utah. v e r m o n t this tribute to good neighborliness is taken from the mar. news and notes of the vermont historical society: when the connecticut state library discovers material not within the purview of its collection policy, it seeks an appropriate repository for such items. we have just received from our connecticut neighbor the following: account book of henry tolles, weathersfield, vermont, - . on another occasion that library gave us the account book of e. wing parker of dryden, massachusetts, and brattleboro, vermont, along with ancient catalogs from middlebury college and norwich university. v i r g i n i a eugenia d. lejeune, who spent years in lexington when her father, the late lt. gen. john a. lejeune, u. s. m . c , was superintendent at the vir- ginia military institute, has been appointed librarian of the george c. marshall research center being established there. during world war ii miss lejeune, a major in the marine corps women's reserve, had charge of the record section and military library at the marine corps schools, quantico. w i s c o n s i n the state historical society is establishing what has been called the first mass-communication history center in the united states. the idea developed from a gift to the society by commentator hans v. kaltenborn of several boxes of manuscripts and fan mail. in years the kaltenborn coverage was in- creased to some boxes of material, illustrating some years of his career. the society is now collecting or soliciting similar material from other well- known journalists and commentators. papers have already been received from joseph c. harsch, c. e. butterfield, and louis lochner; and the future promises to bring papers from many others in the same field. w y o m i n g the buffalo bill memorial association is constructing a new fireproof build- ing in cody, in the northwestern corner of the state a few miles from yellow- stone national park, to house the entire studio collection of the artist frederic remington. acquired through the assistance of the coe foundation, the varied materials include n o valuable remington sketches and studies. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril basic facts on threegreat card files . . . each unequalled in its field # . simplawheel, a motorized pushbutton or manually opera- led cradle-type wheel file. suspended cradles are fully and automatically stabilized and travel in a true circle. generally not as compact as wheeldex. somewhat more compact than competitive units of its type. better engineering throughout combines some important features not available in others. better suited and less expensive than wheeldex for some applications, particularly those requiring large forms. carries existing materials or records on all types of paper without physical alteration. records ride unattached in removable cradles or trays. capacities range generally from a hundred to several thousand linear filing inches per machine. (not limited to use as a housing for records.) # . wheeldex, a true wheel file, cards removably attached directly to a continuous ring. over different models— motorized or manual—for limited or tremendous volumes. the original and outstanding leader in both quality and performance for over years. has many truly important exclusive features which can be proven by inspection. for example, "only wheeldex provides comfortable post- ing of handwritten entries direct to every card without re- moval from the wheel." for wheeldex this includes all types of jobs, even those requiring detailed entries with pen or pencil. every card comes into the same good working re- lation to the cabinet surface on which the operator's arm rests comfortably white posting (cards are readily removable when typewritten entries are required.) others claim a direct-to-wheel posting feature, also, but a trial should convince you that it is truthful only in an ex- tremely limited sense. it is practical, comfortable, and broadly true only with wheeldex. # . simplafind selector button controls automatically de- termine the shortest route and speedily bring the desired records to the operator's hands. records ride unattached in short removable trays. simpla- find carries existing records or other materials without physical alteration. with many models, capacity ranges from several hundred to over linear filing inches per machine. superbly engineered throughout—nothing on the market even approaches simplafind for speed, for compactness or convenience, competitive claims to the contrary notwith- standing. prove it by the use of a ruler, stop watch, simple arithmetic and thoughtful, personal inspection. wheeldex & simpla products inc. bank street phone: white plains - white plains, n. y. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril ; o < en o d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril this article was downloaded by:[ebscohost ejs content distribution] on: august access details: [subscription number ] publisher: routledge informa ltd registered in england and wales registered number: registered office: mortimer house, - mortimer street, london w t jh, uk journal of moral education publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t religion, ethics and the implications for moral education: a critique of nucci's morality and religious rules robert kunzman a a indiana university, usa. online publication date: september to cite this article: kunzman, robert ( ) 'religion, ethics and the implications for moral education: a critique of nucci's morality and religious rules', journal of moral education, : , - to link to this article: doi: . / url: http://dx.doi.org/ . / please scroll down for article full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf this article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. the publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. the accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. the publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. © taylor and francis http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t journal of moral education, vol. , no. , september religion, ethics and the implications for moral education: a critique of nucci’s morality and religious rules robert kunzman indiana university, usa abstract through a critique of a recent argument by larry nucci, this article claims that for many religious believers, religion and morality cannot be wholly separated. accordingly, efforts at moral education that seek to ignore the role of religion in moral judgement will fail to engage with the realities of many students’ moral frameworks. in contrast to nucci’s claim that religion is irrelevant to moral judgement, this essay argues that morality is only weakly independent from religion. moral knowledge does not derive exclusively from religious sources, but none the less involves relevant (and sometimes critical) religious considerations. accord- ingly, moral education in american public schools needs curricula that help students explore and understand various moral rationales and motivations from a variety of cultural sources, religious and otherwise, providing opportunities for students to engage with difference and develop the capacity for mutual respect and (when necessary) reasonable disagreement. can public schools engage in effective moral education without addressing religious perspectives? the relationship between moral education and religion in american public schools has a long history of competing ideologies generating varying curricu- lar approaches. in this past century, character education’s “search for a civic religion” (yulish, ), kohlberg’s cognitive–developmental models inspired by kantian ethics and modern character education’s emphasis on judeo–christian virtues have all played an influential role. more recently, work in domain theory (turiel, ; nucci, ) has provided important insight into the relationship between moral rules and conventions and established firmly that moral development is not simply reducible to a cultivation of religious faith. accordingly, an american public education intended for and respectful of a diverse mix of religious, agnostic and atheistic students cannot insist on the exclusive religious grounding that charac- terised its new england colonial origins. but just as an exclusive connection between religion and morality cannot be justified, neither can an insistence on their complete separation, even in the realm of moral education in public schools. in this article, i contend that a recent argument by larry nucci (in his largely impressive issn - print; issn - online/ / -  journal of moral education ltd doi: . / d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t r. kunzman education in the moral domain, ) advocating a moral education independent of religious considerations suffers from both empirical and normative weaknesses, and that such an education fails to engage with the realities of many religious students’ moral frameworks. as my introductory comments suggest, my intention here is not to defend what nucci refers to as the “old and enduring belief that morality and religion are inseparable” ( , p. ; all further quotations from education in the moral domain unless noted otherwise). rather, i argue that nucci’s data do not demonstrate the opposite extreme, that morality is wholly independent from religion. i also do not intend to dispute nucci’s more modest claim that “children and adolescents make a distinction between the rules and practices specific to their religion, and those moral issues that ought to be common to religions other than their own and to secular society as well” (p. ). instead, my critique focuses on his significantly more ambitious conclusion that “even for deeply religious children from fundamentalist or orthodox backgrounds, morality stems from criteria independent of god’s word” (p. ; emphasis added). when nucci claims that morality stems from criteria indepen- dent of religious sources, i assume that he is referring to our current concept of morality, rather than offering an evaluation of its historical origins; the historical interplay between religious sources and the emergence of modern moral sensibilities seems beyond doubt. in considering the present relationship between morality and religion, we might frame the question as whether morality is strongly or weakly independent from religion. that is, to what extent—if at all—do the moral criteria people employ rely on religious belief? to illustrate the distinction between strong and weak indepen- dence, consider the different roles that religious revelation and mathematics play in scientific procedure. it is generally acknowledged that supermatural revelation and the scientific method occupy separate magisteria—the premises of one are irrelevant to the other. in the same way, if religious premises were determined to be strictly irrelevant to moral issues, we would conclude that morality is strongly independent from religion. conversely, mathematics—while not wholly sufficient for science but often essential—is weakly independent from scientific procedure. similarly, a claim that religion is weakly independent from morality means that moral knowledge does not derive exclusively from religious sources, but none the less involves relevant (and sometimes critical) religious considerations. extending this notion to nucci’s argument, a strongly independent morality would either dismiss religious considerations or, as nucci claims religious children do, attempt to coordinate religious beliefs to match moral judgement. however, nucci’s data and analysis do not demonstrate this strong independence, and therefore do not refute my contention that, for many religious believers, morality is only weakly independent from religion. put another way, many religious believers rely on their moral judgement as a form of reflection and validation concerning divine command, but their lives and moral actions are nonetheless shaped directly by the force of those religious commitments. my critique of nucci’s claim—and the ensuing implications he draws for pedagogy—will focus on two points: the empirical inadequacy of his interview data d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t religion, ethics and moral education analysis and the inconclusiveness of an underlying normative assumption that, for all people, the moral good exists independent of conceptions of god. interviews with religious students: establishing a weakly independent morality nucci describes several studies in which groups of children and adolescents (ages – ) with fundamentalist religious beliefs (conservative mennonites, orthodox jews, conservative jews and dutch reform calvinists) were interviewed. structur- ing this questioning was the domain theory of social development, which distin- guishes between morality (conceptions of human welfare, justice and rights) and social convention (behaviour determined by particular social systems) (turiel, ). murder, for example, would be a moral issue, whereas appropriate attire falls in the conventional domain. following this distinction, children were queried regarding the alterability or universality of religious conventions and moral rules. while the studies garnered a number of interesting findings, my focus here is on these religious students’ conception of “moral domain” rules; in the interview transcripts nucci provides, the primary examples were stealing and murder. using the example of stealing, then, the four anchor questions followed this pattern: would it be right/wrong for religious authorities to eliminate rules about stealing? if another religion does not have rules about stealing, would it be right/wrong for them to steal? if god/scripture did not say anything about stealing, would it be right/wrong for you to steal? if god/scripture had said you should steal, would it then be right for you to steal? analysis of interview transcripts revealed that over % of the children felt moral transgressions were wrong even for those who had no religious rules governing the acts. in addition, nucci claims that “with respect to moral issues, it was apparent that children had reasons beyond ‘god’s law’ to object to alterations in the governing rules”, he cites % of the mennonite children’s justifications and % of the jewish children’s justifications as “focused on the intrinsic features of the acts as hurtful or unjust” (p. ). two comments deserve emphasis here: first, we might also observe from these percentages that a significant number of rationales were not based on these intrinsic reasons; secondly, based on the transcripts nucci provides the reader, those children who offered these non-religious reasons often did so in addition to references to god’s law. the implications here—both concerning what we can claim and what we cannot—are important. clearly, some religious students see moral laws as justified by more than their own religious beliefs, but it would be unwarranted to conclude (as nucci does) that the source of moral criteria for these children is entirely independent of religious belief. the first three questions seek to ascertain whether moral criteria can be derived in the absence of religious decree. it is vital to note, however, that the most these questions can reveal is that morality is weakly indepen- d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t r. kunzman dent from religious sources. that is, students are confident in making moral claims apart from religious authority when the (hypothetical) circumstances involve re- ligion’s silence—but this reveals little about the relationship between morality and religion in matters when divine command is clearly present. a review of the interview transcript reveals the limitations of what nucci can claim from students’ answers to the first three questions. in the excerpt with -year-old sam, a conservative mennonite, he is asked about the wrongness of stealing. he emphasises repeatedly that god’s law is the source of this universal prohibition—“because god said that thou shalt not steal and that goes for every- body”. sam is then posed the hypothetical question, “if god hadn’t said anything about stealing one way or the other, would it be okay to steal then?” to which he responds in the negative (pp. – ). this suggests that sam is able to draw on moral criteria beyond god’s word, but because the hypothetical momentarily denies the role of religious influence, we are unable to draw any conclusion about the influence that sam’s moral intuition would have relative to divine command. nucci claims that “each child employed evidence from his and her own personal experience as a touchstone from which to evaluate these moral transgres- sions” (p. ), but i would suggest that many of these children probably used their personal experience as a validation of the moral principle they had learned from their religion, rather than as the sole source of that principle. nucci, of course, interprets this process of reflective equilibrium differently. he perceives “an attempt by children to coordinate their notion of the just judeo–christian god with what they know to be morally right” (pp. – , original emphasis), depicting conceptions of god as wholly dependent on freestanding moral knowledge, rather than a more complex interrelationship. nucci sees the religious justifications as merely initial justifications that are then superseded by a foundational justification rooted in a universal moral core; but the most nucci’s research can demonstrate is that there is sometimes more to these students’ justifications besides their initial religious ones. as jeffrey stout ( ) points out, someone could grant that god’s will is not the sole fundamental criterion, “but it does not follow from this admission that a criterion connecting moral goodness or obligation to god’s will is less fundamental than many (or even most) of our moral judgments. so there may still be a strong sense in which god’s will belongs to the foundation of morality—the level of criteria on which the bulk of moral judgments depend for their justification” (p. ). a rational desire to have one’s faith resonate with one’s moral intuitions does not necessarily mean that the former is dictated by the latter. at the very least, the interview data provide no conclusive answer. “that changes the whole thing”: an incoherent hypothetical question it is the fourth question listed above, however, that aims to establish the existence of moral criteria strongly independent from religion. here, instead of exploring the role of moral intuition in the absence of clear religious criteria, a diametric conflict between the two is presented. rather than simply stipulating that god/scripture has nothing to say about a moral wrong, interviewers ask children to suppose that god d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t religion, ethics and moral education commands exactly the opposite—“suppose that god said that we should murder?” this question fails to reveal what nucci claims. within the three major theistic traditions of islam, judaism and christianity, a standard conception of the nature of god exists whereby god is by definition perfectly good; it is, in other words, the very essence of god’s being. this foundational concept of an omnibenevolent god (swinburne, ) means that nucci’s hypothetical construct essentially requires students to imagine that their god does not exist, which defeats the intent of forcing a judgement about moral goodness in opposition to divine command. understandably, then, the religious students’ responses to this fourth question are ambiguous. nucci seems to suggest that such responses indicate either under- developed or incoherent reasoning. in his commentary on the interview with -year-old cathy, he notes that she takes “two seemingly contradictory positions”: stealing is wrong because it hurts people, but if god said it was acceptable, then it would be. he then admits, “we cannot conclude whether such reasoning is a function of developmental level or if it simply reflects an alternative mode of conceptualising the relationship between morality and god’s word” (p. ). it is not clear whether nucci assumes the second possibility to be incoherent; if not, then this alternative conceptualisation deserves further consideration as an example of an intertwined relationship between morality and religion, the very scenario nucci seeks to deny. more likely, nucci assumes cathy’s conceptual framework is incoher- ent. it is the assumed contradiction of this alternative conceptualisation that i wish to question; the next section of this essay will suggest reasonable philosophical explanations for such alternative positions. the interview with -year-old faith also prompts nucci to address the possibility of a more complex relationship between religious and moral conviction. faith appeals to god as a higher law than moral judgement, while expressing discomfort with the character of a hypothetical god who would command theft and murder. nucci observes that: faith’s thinking nicely illustrates how a deep conviction and faith in god’s goodness, coordinated with a belief in god’s omniscience, can lead a person to accept conclusions about the moral rectitude of actions com- manded by god that run counter to the person’s own intuitions about the actions. the reasoning of such individuals, however, is not structured by an unreflective acceptance of god’s authority. on the contrary, the notions of god’s moral authority, held by the participants in this study, stemmed from their assumptions about the inherent goodness of the judeo–christian god (pp. – ). but nucci’s next sentence seems to miss the point: “should that assumption be challenged, then god’s authority in moral matters would be called into question” (p. ). this claim would be more accurately and revealingly phrased, “if we require children to abandon that assumption [of god’s inherent goodness], then god’s authority in moral matters would be called into question.” as noted previously, it is the conviction of god’s goodness that grounds the entire belief framework of many religious children; to “assume” that away is to create an imaginary scenario that tells d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t r. kunzman us very little about the relationship between religious and moral belief in the actual lives of believers, and thus has little to offer in formulating a singular approach to public moral education. the final exchange between faith and her interviewer makes this abundantly clear: i: so, if he were a different kind of god, would it be all right to do it—to kill? f: well, i don’t know. that changes the whole thing. so, i don’t know. nucci’s hypothetical construct does indeed change the whole thing. i am therefore deeply sceptical of his claim in the very next sentence: “in summary, there was clear evidence in this study that christian and jewish children evaluate moral issues on the basis of criteria independent of the word of god” (p. ). no such strong independence is demonstrated. in fact, for many of these children, the relationship between god and moral goods appears deeply intertwined. in summary, nucci’s data suggest the existence of a morality that is weakly autonomous from religion. his argument for a stronger independence, however, proves unconvincing. the likelihood of a more complex relationship between morality and religion for many people remains. the next section sketches a philo- sophical description of such a relationship and thus throws into doubt normative claims that insist on morality’s strong independence from religion for all people. the final section then suggests implications for moral education in public schools if nucci’s claims are unsubstantiated. divine command and moral reflection: unresolved complexity the question is at least as old as plato’s euthyphro, where socrates explores the gods’ relationship to moral obligations: are they obligatory because the gods com- mand them, or do the gods command them because the obligations exist in and of themselves? these are the philosophical roots of nucci’s claims for a clear separ- ation between religion and morality. nucci contends that the one source or sustain- ing element of morality is secular considerations of right and wrong, and that a coherent morality does not include the idea of god’s commands. religious consid- erations, therefore, are irrelevant when it comes to moral judgement. nucci cites nielsen’s ( ) argument that, at least for a judeo–christian framework, moral goods must be prior to and independent of god. my intent here is not to show that nielsen’s contention must fail, but rather that other reasonable philosophical argu- ments can be made that describe a more complex interrelationship between god and moral goods. if this proves convincing, we have further indication that a moral education stripped of religious considerations probably does not provide a sufficiently diverse picture of the moral life. the interview question, “what if god said that you should murder?” involves a divine command at odds with our strong moral intuition that murder is wrong. in relation to this question, nucci alludes to a story from the jewish and christian scriptures that serves as perhaps the most prominent example of divine command d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t religion, ethics and moral education seemingly at odds with moral intuition: the story of abraham and isaac. described briefly, god tells abraham that he must sacrifice his son isaac as a burnt offering. abraham proceeds to obey god’s command and when he raises his knife to kill isaac, god intervenes and provides a ram as a sacrificial substitute. the children’s understandable discomfort in defending a divine command to murder (or steal, hit other children, etc.) stems from their own moral intuition that such things are wrong. nucci sees this as a rejection of morality determined by divine command and an effort to “coordinate their notion of the just judeo–christian god with what they know to be morally right” (pp. – ). by contrast, i suspect that the conflicted responses of some of these children do not represent a rejection of divine command morality as much as a lack of philosophical language to express such complexity. what follows is a brief sketch of a philosophical attempt to give fuller expression to the issues these children struggle to articulate in the interviews. one common element of theistic belief mentioned earlier that children would probably have difficulty defending from philosophical objection is god’s om- nibenevolence. a sceptic might question this foundational principle by pointing to historical examples where original divine command has apparently been superseded by new revelation—if god is always good, how could divine moral commands have shifted so drastically? a prime example of this in the christian tradition involves the old testament command of “an eye for an eye” (exodus : ) which is altered by jesus in the sermon on the mount to “turn the other cheek” (matthew : – ). in such an instance, theologians often appeal to the notion of progressive revelation, the idea that god’s commands address our current moral capacity and are intended to bring us along closer and closer to god’s full moral goodness. in this particular example, the old testament admonition of “an eye for an eye” was a tempering of previous practice in which transgressions were responded to with increasing escala- tion (for example, genesis : ). while the theology of progressive revelation is far from indisputable, conceiving of moral reflection as a reciprocal relationship be- tween historically evolving revelation and the growth of moral understanding from secular sources is certainly a defensible philosophical position. recognising it as such helps explain why many religious students (whose moral judgements likely reflect this relationship) found the either/or choice demanded in nucci’s fourth question to be incoherent. theonomy: a dialectic of religion and morality the philosopher robert adams ( ) offers a balanced approach to the tension between moral autonomy and religious heteronomy, arguing instead for theonomy, a term borrowed from paul tillich. adams writes, “let us say that a person is theonomous to the extent that the following is true of him: he regards his moral principles as given him by god, and adheres to them partly out of love or loyalty to god, but he also prizes them for their own sakes, so that they are the principles he would give himself if he were giving himself a moral law” (p. ). here nucci might respond that if divine law and human morality are the same, then we have escaped the need to deal directly with religious doctrine in the moral d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t r. kunzman sphere. in fact, part of his concluding claim is that since “basic moral concerns are shared across the range of human societies and groups … this means that there can be moral education compatible with, and yet independent from, religious moral doctrine” (p. ). but this response overestimates the congruence between the two, and more importantly, underestimates the extent to which religious belief can influence broader concepts of human flourishing, which in turn affect one’s judge- ments of others’ interests. as eamonn callan ( ) points out, “if i had faith, my relationship to god would not just be added to my existing scheme of values, like a new interest in stamp-collecting, say, which governs choice only within a segment of life i assign to the interest. the life of faith is driven by devotion to god, which means that embracing it would oblige me to think altogether differently about what matters in my life and the lives of others” (p. ). one theological manifestation of this view is forwarded by stanley hauerwas ( ), whose notion of “narrative ethics” maintains that moral principles only make sense within a broader conception of virtuous human life (a view argued in philosophical terms by alasdair macintyre and others). at the same time, hauerwas does not seek to privilege teleological ethics over deontological principles. rather, the religious notion of the good life informs a range of possible moral choices, as i suggest nucci’s interviewees are doing in seeking reflective equilibrium between their religious beliefs and moral judgements. a theonomous believer, then, while probably sharing many basic values in common with the non-religious, will also probably have moral sources that shape aspects of moral life in significantly different ways. many christians, for instance, share with broader society the pragmatic view that forgiveness is an important step toward reconciliation in human relationships, but also believe deeply that they are required to forgive because god through christ has forgiven them. even if the eventual actions associated with certain moral virtues end up being similar, an approach to moral education that only allows for consideration of secular rationales will not connect with the motivations of many religious believers. for instance, the common religious belief that humans are precious children of god, perhaps even made in god’s image, is a powerful motivation for believers to treat others with love and respect. while various secular arguments for the dignity of all people might also inform believers, such arguments will probably prove to be a secondary motivation for them. even though many religious believers will accept a variety of secular moral sources, they will arguably do so through a process of reflective equilibrium with religious beliefs. the possibility that emerges here is a dialectic of sorts between divine command and moral reflection. basil mitchell ( ) criticises the type of dualism nucci poses, pointing out that “it is one thing to hold that religious belief may profoundly affect a man’s belief as to how he should live, and why he should live that way, and another to claim that morality must be wholly based upon considerations which are specifically religious” (p. ). it need not be an either/or decision. as callan ( ) argues, a rational morality necessitates at least some moral reflection about divine command, but does not invalidate the influence of religious belief in moral judge- ment. he writes, “in ascribing goodness to god’s will theists may have to admit that d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t religion, ethics and moral education they employ some non-religious understanding of moral goodness, and that ad- mission is tantamount to saying that morality is at least weakly autonomous vis-à-vis religion. but all this is entirely consistent with the possibility of a clear deductive path from claims about what god commands to conclusions about what we ought to do” (p. ). the exact nature of such a reflective process may differ from believer to believer, but its reasonable existence suggests that a process of moral education that rejects such a possibility outright will not speak to many religious believers. to re-emphasise, my purpose in this brief philosophical foray has not been to show that indisputable philosophical proof exists for the connection between moral- ity and religion. rather, the question is still very much in dispute in the field, and the philosophical perspective i just sketched is recognised widely as one of several reasonable competitors. to the extent that such reasonable yet conflicting argu- ments exist, we should resist accepting normative claims about the disconnection between morality and religion as settled matters. morality and religion: educational implications for a complex relationship on the surface, at least, many of these religious students sought to make god the beginning and end of their moral framework, but their responses to nucci’s questions reveal that weakly independent moral judgement is also at work. never- theless, reliance on religious decree for moral judgements is still vital to the overall moral frameworks of many students. the existence of weakly independent moral judgement and its distinct moral criteria, while important to recognise, tells us little about how religious believers actually function in the moral world. my point here has certainly not been that moral education in public schools should teach that divine command is an adequate sole justification for morality, but neither should it discount or dismiss the role of divine command in the moral frameworks of students and society. even more important, it is vital to note that the question of religion’s role in moral education ought to extend well beyond nucci’s consideration of divine command. many religious traditions—even among islam, judaism and christianity—derive moral influence from sources other than divine command [ ]. nucci’s focus on divine command examines one element of religious belief; it should not be used as a sole basis for broader conclusions about religion’s proper role in moral education. nucci contends that his research supports “a more constrained use of moral language” when addressing the universal “moral core” in american public schools. however, if, contra nucci, religion and morality cannot be clearly separated in the lives of religious believers, where does that leave efforts toward moral education in public schools? in the introduction to his argument, nucci alludes to “the particular legal dilemma of teaching about morality without, at the same time, violating first amendment freedoms and constitutional provisions regarding the separation of church and state” (p. ). this legal principle of separation, however, need not preclude the consideration of religious influences on moral matters. the first amendment center, a non-partisan foundation which advocates a legally sensitive d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t r. kunzman inclusion of learning about religion in the public school curriculum (and has been deeply involved in the development of consensus documents, such as the williams- burg charter cited below) affirms as much in their publication finding common ground: “public schools may teach about the various religious and nonreligious perspectives concerning the many complex moral issues confronting society, but such perspectives must be presented without adopting, sponsoring or denigrating one view against another” (p. ). curricula that help students explore and understand various moral rationales and motivations from a variety of cultural sources, religious and otherwise, provide the opportunity for students to engage with difference and develop the capacity for mutual respect and (when necessary) reasonable disagreement. such curricula are vital in public schools. ideologically diverse groups have sponsored various consensus statements on the role of religion in public life, including education. one such effort, the williamsburg charter ( ), affirmed that: too often in recent disputes over religion and public affairs, some have insisted that any evidence of religious influence on public policy represents an establishment of religion and is therefore precluded as an improper “imposition.” such exclusion of religion from public life is historically unwarranted, philosophically inconsistent and profoundly undemocratic (p. ) [ ]. the clear belief is expressed here that citizens should engage respectfully with the diversity of religious beliefs, moral and otherwise; but to expect this of citizens who have not had the opportunity to develop these skills and virtues in the public educational realm seems unrealistic. more fundamentally, recognising the intertwined relationship between religion and morality also suggests the need for a fuller conception of moral education, one that includes the broader notion of “ethics” as the ancient greeks defined it. this included not only a focus on moral obligation, but also a concern for what makes a full and meaningful life. so whereas much modern civic and character education is concerned primarily with our responsibilities toward others, ethical education would also involve broader questions about the good life and human flourishing. lawrence walker ( ) advocates this broader concern for “moral identity” when he con- tends, “morality is also an intrapersonal enterprise because it is integral to the how-shall-we-then-live existential question—it involves basic values, lifestyle, and identity” (p. ). as more than morality-as-obligation, ethical education would be an endeavour of even greater complexity, but one with much deeper resonance with students’ lives. in the conclusion to his argument, nucci contends that there is “considerable common ground on which deeply religious people from different religious perspec- tives, along with nonreligious people, can come to terms regarding the central concerns of their children’s moral development” (p. ). i certainly agree, but cultivating this common ground does not depend on the wholesale exclusion of religious perspectives and how they inform ethical beliefs. in fact, as i have argued, d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t religion, ethics and moral education such exclusion will hinder educational efforts to engage students with ethical complexities as they play out in their lives and the society in which they live. i concur with nucci’s call for “tolerance based on the moral principles of mutual respect and fairness” (p. ), but such respect calls for efforts to understand the moral and ethical motivations of others, and these sources will often be religious. acknowledgements my thanks to eamonn callan, the mcs group at stanford, and an anonymous jme reviewer for their insightful comments on this essay. correspondence: dr robert kunzman, assistant professor, department of curricu- lum and instruction, school of education, indiana university, w.w. wright edu- cation building, north rose avenue, bloomington, in – , usa; tel: ; fax: ; e-mail: rkunzman@indiana.edu notes [ ] for examples, see john stratton hawley’s ( ) saints and virtues. [ ] signatories included not only religious representatives but also leaders of groups such as people for the american way and americans united for separation of church and state, as well as educa- tional groups such as the american federation of teachers and the national school boards association. references adams, r.m. ( ) the virtue of faith and other essays in philosophical theology (new york, oxford university press). callan, e. ( ) godless moral education and liberal tolerance, journal of philosophy of education, , pp. – . hauerwas, s. ( ) a community of character (notre dame, in, university of notre dame press). hawley, j.s. ( ) saints and virtues (berkeley, ca, university of california press). haynes, c. & thomas, o. ( ) finding common ground: a guide to religious liberty in public schools (nashville, tn, first amendment center). mitchell, b. ( ) morality, religious and secular: the dilemma of the traditional conscience (oxford, clarendon press). nielsen, k. ( ) ethics without god (buffalo, ny, prometheus). nucci, l. ( ) morality and the personal sphere of actions, in: e. reed, e. turiel & t. brown (eds). values and knowledge, pp. – (hillsdale, nj, lawrence erlbaum). nucci, l.p. ( ) education in the moral domain (cambridge, cambridge university press). stout, j. ( ) ethics after babel (princeton, nj, princeton university press). swinburne, r. ( ) the coherence of theism (oxford, clarendon press). turiel, e. ( ) the development of social knowledge: morality and convention (cambridge, cambridge university press). walker, l.j. ( ) moral exemplarity, in: w. damon (ed.), bringing in a new era in character education (stanford, ca, hoover institution). williamsburg charter, the ( ) reprinted in haynes, c. & thomas, o. ( ) finding common ground: a guide to religious liberty in public schools (nashville, tn, first amendment center). yulish, s.m. ( ) the search for a civic religion: a history of the character education movement in america, – (lanham, md, university press of america). d ow nl oa de d b y: [e b s c o h os t e js c on te nt d is tr ib ut io n] a t: : a ug us t platelet glycoprotein iib/iiia receptors and glanzmann’s thrombasthenia platelet glycoprotein iib/iiia receptors and glanzmann’s thrombasthenia deborah l. french, uri seligsohn platelet aggregation and fibrin formation are essential forthe maintenance of normal hemostasis, a system designed to act quickly and effectively to arrest hemorrhage. this system is also triggered by pathogenic events, such as the rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque, which can lead to thrombotic vaso-occlusion, ischemia, and infarction. platelets are a major contributor to these damaging and life-threatening thrombotic phenomena because of their adhesive properties, which result in the release of soluble mediators, platelet aggregation, and enhancement of thrombin generation. the platelet glycoprotein iib/iiia (gpiib/iiia) receptor is a key component in the pathway to platelet aggregation; conse- quently, this receptor has become the target for therapeutic intervention. a paradigm of this antiplatelet treatment modal- ity is found naturally in the inherited disorder glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. a key feature of this disease is that patients present with mucocutaneous bleeding but only rarely demon- strate spontaneous central nervous system hemorrhage, a feared complication of anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy. all of the mutations that have been identified in patients with glanzmann’s thrombasthenia result in a functional deficiency of gpiib/iiia receptors, , and a hallmark of this disease is the absence of agonist-induced platelet aggregation. the molec- ular characterization of mutations causing glanzmann’s thrombasthenia has provided a wealth of information on structure-function relations of the gpiib/iiia receptor. this review will briefly summarize those mutations that affect ligand-binding domains and receptor activation and present them in the context of predicted structures. more comprehen- sive coverage can be found in reviews discussing the struc- ture and function of the gpiib/iiia receptor complex , and the clinical and molecular basis of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. , gpiib/iiia receptor platelets are the first line of defense in preventing blood loss from injured blood vessels via recognition and adhesion to components of the subendothelial matrix. this event is followed by formation of a platelet plug due to recruitment of additional platelets by binding and cross-linking of large ligand molecules, such as fibrinogen and von willebrand factor. in addition, activated platelets provide a surface for blood coagulation components, thus facilitating the genera- tion of thrombin. , platelet aggregation is mediated by the gpiib/iiia receptor (integrin aiibb ), one of the most abun- dant cell surface receptors (' per platelet), which represents ' % of total surface protein. on quiescent platelets, this receptor exhibits minimal binding affinity for von willebrand factor and plasma fibrinogen. in an activated state, “inside-out” signal transduction mechanisms trigger a conformational change in the receptor to a high-affinity ligand-binding state that is competent to bind adhesive glycoproteins and form a platelet plug. after ligand binding, “outside-in” signal transduction mechanisms mediate integrin-cytoskeleton interactions. these have been shown to be requirements for postligand occupancy events, such as cell spreading and formation of focal adhesion sites. ligand recognition motifs for integrin receptors require an acidic amino acid for activity. the first example of an acidic peptide conferring integrin recognition was the arg-gly-asp (rgd) sequence in fibronectin. other extracellular matrix molecules were found to contain this sequence, and the concept of rgd as a common recognition motif was adopt- ed. the rgd motif is found in ligands of gpiib/iiia receptors including the a chain of fibrinogen and von willebrand factor, but a lys/gly-asp (k/gd) recognition motif, found within a unique dodecapeptide sequence in the fibrinogen g chain, is necessary and sufficient for fibrinogen- mediated platelet aggregation. because of the absence of a crystal structure, less precise information is available concerning the sites within integrin receptors that recognize ligands. structural information is available for ligand-binding region, which is the von willebrand factor a or i (inserted) domain. the i domain is expressed by a subset of a-chain subunits, and high- resolution crystallography has established this domain as part of a unique metal coordination site designated the metal ion-dependent adhesion site (midas). the i domain is not present in the gpiib (aiib) subunit, but structural studies have identified a region of similar cation-binding character- istics in integrin b subunits. a number of structural models have been generated showing the conformational association of amino acid residues predicted to play a direct role in ligand binding. – received april , ; revision accepted july , . from the mount sinai school of medicine (d.l.f.), new york, ny, and the chaim sheba medical center (u.s.), tel-hashomer, israel. correspondence to deborah l. french, phd, box hematology, mount sinai school of medicine, one gustave l. levy place, new york, ny . e-mail dfrench@smtplink.mssm.edu (arterioscler thromb vasc biol. ; : - .) © american heart association, inc. arterioscler thromb vasc biol. is available at http://www.atvbaha.org brief review d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , a structural model of the ligand-binding domain of an integrin a chain has been predicted by computer modeling. the minimal ligand-binding sequence of gpiib is composed of the amino-terminal amino acids, which contain homologous repeats with cation-binding sites. these repeats are composed predominantly of b strands, which have been predicted to fold into a b-propeller structure. the b propeller is highly conserved in evolution, and the model for an integrin a chain contains repeats of b sheets that are arranged as propeller blades around a central axis. ligand binding has been proposed to take place on the face opposite the cation-binding sites that lie on the bottom of this structure. glanzmann’s thrombasthenia glanzmann’s thrombasthenia is an autosomal recessive dis- ease that results in a functional deficiency of gpiib/iiia receptors. this lifelong disorder is characterized by muco- cutaneous bleeding, with epistaxis and purpura being com- mon in childhood and menorrhagia being common during child-bearing years and causing significant morbidity. the hallmark of this disease is severely reduced or absent platelet aggregation in response to multiple physiological agonists. this disease is caused by mutations in the genes encoding gpiib or gpiiia that result in qualitative or quantitative abnormalities of the platelet membrane proteins. , the mo- lecular characterization of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia in patients and their families has permitted dna-based carrier detection and prenatal diagnoses to be performed. , in recent years, the number of mutations that have been identi- fied at the molecular level has increased, thus forming the basis of an internet database that includes clinical, biochem- ical, and mutation information on reported patients (http://med.mssm.edu/glanzmanndb). mutations within the b-propeller sequence of an integrin a chain different groups of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia mutations that are located within the gpiib b propeller are beginning to emerge. one group of mutations is located within and surrounding the calcium-binding domains, and another group is located within and around the third blade of the propeller (figure ). four missense mutations and in-frame deletion mutation in patients have been identified within and surrounding the calcium-binding domains, which are located within the fourth to seventh blades of the propeller. these mutations affect transport of the gpiib/iiia complex to the cell surface and include a g d(g d) substitution (pa- tient fld), which precedes the first calcium-binding do- main; e k(e k) (patients fl and swiss) , and r h(r h) (patients kj and mila- ) , substitutions, located between the second and third calcium-binding do- mains; a g d(g d) (patient lm) substitution, which precedes the fourth calcium-binding domain; and a v d (patient lem) deletion at the beginning of the fourth calcium-binding domain. another group of mutations is located within the vicinity of the third blade (w ) of the b propeller, which contains a predicted b-turn structure that has been implicated in ligand-binding of gpiib/iiia and other integrin receptors. , four missense mutations in patients result in functionally defective receptors. a t i(t i) (frankfurt i) substitution is located in the - connecting strand, a l p(l p) (patient lw) substitution is located at the end of the second b strand near the - connecting strand, and p a(p a) (mennonite) and p l(p l) substi- tutions are located within the - connecting strand between the second and third blades of the propeller. independent support for the functional importance of this region has been shown by a d v(d v) mutation, located within the - connecting strand between the third and fourth blades of the propeller. this mutation was identified from in vitro– generated mutant gpiib/ iiia receptors expressed on the surface of chinese hamster ovary cells and disrupts ligand-binding function of the receptor. mutations within the midas of gpiiia eight missense mutations identified in patients with glanz- mann’s thrombasthenia are located within the cation-binding sphere of the gpiiia midas domain (figure ). two mutations, d y(d y) (cam variant) and d n(d n) (patient nr), are located within the conserved dxsxs amino acid motif; mutations, r w(r w) (strasbourg i variant and patient cm), , r q(r q) (patient et), and r q(r q) (patient sh), are located near the putative coordinating sites ; and mutations, d w(d w) (patient mk), s l(s l) (patient bl), and l p(l p) (pa- tient ld), are located within the sphere of the midas domain. the mutations at residue d result in severe abnormalities of gpiib/iiia function but do not affect surface expression, whereas the mutation at d results in the intracellular retention of misfolded receptor complexes. the mutations at residues r and r result in surface-expressed gpiib/iiia receptors that are abnormally sensitive to dissociation by calcium chelation, and the mutations at residues s and l result in surface expression levels ' % of normal but also show sensitivity to dissociation by calcium. the importance of these sites is rein- forced by the identification of a group of in vitro– generated figure . glanzmann’s thrombasthenia and in vitro– generated mutations located within a b-propeller structure of an integrin a-chain subunit. a schematic drawing of a -blade b-propeller structure predicted to represent the ligand-binding region of an integrin a-chain subunit. each blade ( to ) is composed of antiparallel b strands (arrows numbered to , as shown in blade ) that are connected by hairpin loops. the calcium- binding domains (blue dotted lines) are included within the - connecting loops within blades to . these domains have been hypothesized to be located on the bottom of the propeller and lie opposite the ligand-binding sites. the locations of missense mutations and deletion mutation identified in patients with glanzmann’s thrombasthenia are represented by red circles; the in vitro– generated mutation located between the third and fourth blades of the propeller is represented by an open circle in red. arterioscler thromb vasc biol. march d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , mutant gpiib/iiia receptors expressed in chinese hamster ovary cells. the mutations d n, r w, d n, e q, and e k were identified as functional defects, providing indepen- dent support for the importance of the midas domain in ligand binding. mutations that affect receptor activation two glanzmann’s thrombasthenia mutations that disrupt the activation state of the gpiib/iiia receptor have been identi- fied. both mutations are located within the gpiiia cytoplas- mic domain, which is important for integrin activation and the regulation of ligand binding. the mutations are a r x(r x) nonsense mutation (patient rm), which results in the deletion of the carboxy-terminal residues of gpiiia, and a s p(s p) missense mutation (patient p or paris i). resting platelets from both patients express signif- icant levels of stable gpiib/iiia complexes that are unrespon- sive to agonists but responsive to conformational activators. functional analyses show normal adhesion to immobilized fibrinogen but abnormal cell spreading. the s p(s p) mutation shows reduced focal adhesion plaque formation, and the r x(r x) mutation shows undetectable tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase pp fak. these mutations provide support for the role of the gpiiia cytoplas- mic tail in the function of the gpiib/iiia receptor complex. conclusion our appreciation for the diversity of abnormalities that underlie glanzmann’s thrombasthenia has been enriched by the molecular characterization of mutational defects identi- fied in patients affected by this disorder. mutations can be precisely defined, and distinct groups of mutational defects can now be identified. the molecular characterization of patients with this disorder has provided the foundation for dna-based carrier detection and prenatal diagnoses of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. as the structural basis of integrin receptors begins to unfold, the identified mutations will shed light on mechanisms of receptor-ligand complex formation. the information generated from these studies will continue to provide insight into the biogenesis, structure, and function of the gpiib/iiia and integrin family of adhesion receptors. references . coller bs. augmentation of thrombolysis with antiplatelet drugs. coron artery dis. ; : – . . george jn, caen jp, nurden at. glanzmann’s thrombasthenia: the spectrum of clinical disease. blood. ; : – . . french dl. the molecular genetics of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. platelets. ; : – . . calvete jj. on the structure and function of platelet integrin aiibb , the fibrinogen receptor. proc soc exp biol med. ; : – . . shattil sj, kashiwagi h, pampori n. integrin signaling: the platelet paradigm. blood. ; : – . . reverter jc, beguin s, kessels h, kumar r, hemker hc, coller bs. inhibition of platelet-mediated, tissue factor-induced thrombin generation by the mouse/human chimeric e antibody. j clin invest. ; : – . . oliver ja, monroe dm, roberts hr, hoffman m. thrombin activates factor xi on activated platelets in the absence of factor xii. arterioscler thromb vasc biol. ; : – . . wagner cl, mascelli ma, neblock ds, weisman hf, coller bs, jordan re. analysis of gpiib/iiia receptor number by quantitation of e binding to human platelets. blood. ; : – . . jennings lk, phillips dr. purification of glycoproteins iib and iiia from human platelet plasma membranes and characterization of a calcium- dependent glycoprotein iib-iii complex. j biol chem. ; : – . . yamada km, geiger b. molecular interactions in cell adhesion com- plexes. curr biol. ; : – . . ruoslahti e, pierschbacher md. arg-gly-asp: a versatile cell recognition signal. cell. ; : – . . yamada km. adhesive recognition sequences. j biol chem. ; : – . . farrell dh, thiagarajan p, chung dw, davie ew. role of fibrinogen a and g chain sites in platelet aggregation. proc natl acad sci u s a. ; : – . . lee j-o, rieu p, arnaout ma, liddington r. crystal structure of the a domain from the a subunit of integrin cr (cd b/cd ). cell. ; : – . . michishita m, videm v, arnaout m. a novel divalent cation-binding site in the a domain of the b integrin cr (cd b/cd ) is essential for ligand binding. cell. ; : – . . tozer ec, liddington rc, sutcliffe mj, smeeton ah, loftus jc. ligand binding to integrin aiibb is dependent on a midas-like domain in the b subunit. j biol chem. ; : – . . tuckwell ds, humphries mj. a structure prediction for the ligand- binding region of the integrin b subunit: evidence for the presence of a von willebrand factor a domain. febs lett. ; : – . . takagi j, kamata t, meredith j, puzon-mclaughlin w, takada y. changing ligand specificities of avb and avb integrins by swapping a short diverse sequence of the b subunit. j biol chem. ; : – . . springer ta. folding of the n-terminal, ligand-binding region of integrin a-subunits into a b-propeller domain. proc natl acad sci u s a. ; : – . . loftus jc, halloran ce, ginsberg mh, feigen lp, zablocki ja, smith jw. the amino-terminal one-third of aiib defines the ligand recognition specificity of integrin aiibb . j biol chem. ; : – . . tuckwell ds, humphries mj, brass a. a secondary structure model of the integrin a subunit n-terminal domain based on analysis of multiple alignments. cell adhes commun. ; : – . . seligsohn u, mibashan rs, rodeck ch, nicolaides kh, millar ds, coller bs. prenatal diagnosis of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. lancet. ; : . letter. figure . glanzmann’s thrombasthenia mutations located within the vicinity of the midas domain of gpiiia (b ). a schematic drawing shows the predicted folding pattern of a von willebrand factor a domain structure of gpiiia in which a midas domain is located at the center of the structure. this drawing has been modified to include mutations identified in patients with glanz- mann’s thrombasthenia. arrows a to f represent predicted b sheets, and cylinders to represent predicted a-helix struc- tures. the cation-binding d xs xs motif and coordinating residues d and e are shown in black circles. the locations of mutations identified in patients with glanzmann’s throm- basthenia are represented by red circles. french and seligsohn gpiib/iiia receptor and glanzmann’s thrombasthenia d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , . french dl, coller bs, usher s, berkowitz r, eng c, seligsohn u, peretz h. prenatal diagnosis of glanzmann thrombasthenia using the poly- morphic markers brca and thra on chromosome . br j haematol. ; : – . . poncz m, rifat s, coller bs, newman pj, shattil sj, parrella t, fortina p, bennett js. glanzmann thrombasthenia secondary to a gly asp mutation adjacent to the first calcium-binding domain of platelet glyco- protein iib. j clin invest. ; : – . . bourre r, peyruchaud o, bray p, combrie r, nurden p, nurden at. a point mutation in the gene for platelet gpiib leads to a substitution in a highly conserved amino acid located between the second and the third ca -binding domain. blood. ; : a. abstract. . ruan j, peyruchaud o, alberio l, valles g, clemetson k, bourre f, nurden at. double heterozygosity of the gpiib gene in a swiss patient with glanzmann’s thrombasthenia. br j haematol. ; : – . . wilcox da, paddock cm, lyman s, gill jc, newman pj. glanzmann thrombasthenia resulting from a single amino acid substitution between the second and third calcium-binding domains of gpiib. j clin invest. ; : – . . ferrer m, fernandez-pinel m, gonzalez-manchon c, gonzalez j, ayuso ms, parrilla r. a mutant (arg his) gpiib associated to thrombas- thenia exerts a dominant negative effect in stably transfected cho cells. thromb haemost. ; : – . . wilcox da, wautier jl, pidard d, newman pj. a single amino acid substitution flanking the fourth calcium binding domain of aiib prevents maturation of the integrin aiibb complex. j biol chem. ; : – . . basani rb, vilaire g, shattil sj, kolodziej ma, bennett js, poncz m. glanz- mann thrombasthenia due to a two amino acid deletion in the fourth calcium- binding domain of aiib: demonstration of the importance of calcium-binding domains in the conformation of aiibb . blood. ; : – . . irie a, kamata t, puzon-mclaughlin w, takada y. critical amino acid residues for ligand binding are clustered in a predicted b-turn of the third n-terminal repeat in the integrin a and a subunits. embo j. ; : – . . kamata t, irie a, tokuhira m, takada y. critical residues of integrin aiib subunit for binding of aiibb (glycoprotein iib-iiia) to fibrinogen and ligand-mimetic antibodies (pac- , op-g , and lj-cp ). j biol chem. ; : – . . westrup d, santoso s, becker-hagendorff k, just m, jablonka b, siefried e, kirchmaier cm. transfection of gpiibile /iiia (frankfurt i) in mammalian cells. thromb haemost. ; : . abstract. . grimaldi cm, chen fp, wu ch, weiss hj, coller bs, french dl. glycoprotein iib leu pro mutation produces glanzmann thrombas- thenia with both quantitative and qualitative abnormalities in gpiib/iiia. blood. ; : – . . basani rb, french dl, vilaire g, brown dl, chen f, coller bs, derrick jm, gartner tk, bennett js, poncz m. a naturally occurring mutation near the amino terminus of aiib defines a new region involved in ligand binding to aiibb . blood. ; : – . . tozer ec, baker e, ginsberg mh, loftus jc. a mutation in the a subunit of the platelet integrin aiibb identifies a novel region important for ligand binding. blood. ; : – . . baker ek, tozer ec, pfaff m, shattil sj, loftus jc, ginsberg mh. a genetic analysis of integrin function: glanzmann thrombasthenia in vitro. proc natl acad sci u s a. ; : – . . loftus jc, o’toole te, plow ef, glass a, frelinger al iii, ginsberg mh. a b integrin mutation abolishes ligand binding and alters divalent cation-dependent conformation. science. ; : – . . ward cm, chao yl, kato gj, casella j, bray pf, newman pj. substi- tution of asn, but not tyr, for asp of the b integrin subunit preserves fibrin binding and clot retraction. blood. ; : a. abstract. . lanza f, stierle a, fournier d, morales m, andre g, nurden at, cazenave j-p. a new variant of glanzmann’s thrombasthenia (strasbourg i: platelets with functionally defective glycoprotein iib-iiia complexes and a glycoprotein iiia arg trp mutation. j clin invest. ; : – . . djaffer i, rosa j-p. a second case of variant of glanzmann’s thrombas- thenia due to substitution of platelet gpiiia (integrin b ) arg by trp. hum mol genet. ; : – . . bajt ml, ginsberg mh, frelinger al iii, berndt mc, loftus jc. a spontaneous mutation of integrin aiibb (platelet glycoprotein iib-iiia) helps define a ligand binding site. j biol chem. ; : – . . newman pj, weyerbusch-bottum s, visentin gp, gidwitz s, white gci. type ii glanzmann thrombasthenia due to a destabilizing amino acid substitution in platelet membrane glycoprotein iiia. thromb haemost. ; : . abstract. . basani rb, brown dl, vilaire g, bennett js, poncz m. a leu trp mutation within the rgd-peptide cross-linking region of b results in glanzmann thrombasthenia by preventing aiibb export to the platelet surface. blood. ; : – . . jackson de, white mm, jennings lk, newman pj. a ser leu mutation within glycoprotein (gp) iiia (integrin b ) results in an unstable aiibb complex that retains partial function in a novel form of type ii glanzmann thrombasthenia. thromb haemost. ; : – . . ward cm, newman pj. a leu pro mutation in the integrin b subunit results in an aiibb complex which binds fibrin but not fibrinogen. blood. ; : a. abstract. . shattil sj, gao j, kashiwagi h. not just another pretty face: regulation of platelet function at the cytoplasmic face of integrin aiibb . thromb haemost. ; : – . . wang r, shattil sj, ambruso dr, newman pj. truncation of the cyto- plasmic domain of b in a variant form of glanzmann thrombasthenia abrogates signaling through the integrin aiibb complex. j clin invest. ; : – . . chen y-p, djaffar i, pidard d, steiner b, cieutat a-m, caen jp, rosa j-p. ser pro mutation in the cytoplasmic domain of integrin b subunit and defective activation of platelet integrin aiibb (glycoprotein iib-iiia) in a variant of glanzmann thrombasthenia. proc natl acad sci u s a. ; : – . key words: platelets n integrins n glanzmann’s thrombasthenia arterioscler thromb vasc biol. march d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. note to the repmnt edition: full page advertisements which do not add to the scholarly value of this volume have been omitted. this accounts for the irregular pagination found in this reprint edition. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman vol. ii published by the american society of church history ams reprint company new york , n.y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for conrad henry moehlman president frederick william loetscher vice president frederick william loetscher secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer matthew spinka assistant secretary other members of the council shirley jackson case william david schermerhorn w i l l i a m walker rockwell abdel ross w e n t z george warren richards william warren sweet w i n f r e d ernest garrison j o h n t h o m a s m c n e i l l edward strong worcester james moffatt wllhelm pauck e d i t o r i a l b o a r d of church h i s t o r y matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman, ex officio publication office, scottdale, pennsylvania executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois reprinted w i t h the permission op the original publisher ams reprint company new york . n. y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles breen, q., domine everhardus bogardus - gaddis, merrill e., religious ideas and attitudes in the early frontier - hardy, edward rochie, jr., national elements in the career of st. athanasius - harkness, r. e. e., early relations of baptists and quakers.. - higgins, john s., ultramontanism of st. boniface - knappen, m. m., the early puritanism of lancelot andrewes - lyttle, charles h., deistic piety in the cults of the french revolution - mccutchan, robert g., american church music composers of the early nineteenth century - oborn, george t., why did decius and valerian proscribe christianity? - richards, george w., was troeltsch right? - riddle, donald w., factors in the development of modern biblical study - schaff, david s., cardinal bellarmine—now saint and doctor of the church - scott, e. f., the opposition to caesar worship - sweet, william w., the churches as moral courts of the frontier - in memoriam: arthur cushman mcgiffert - franklin p. manhart albert henry newman - , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core books reviewed baynes, norman h., constantine the great and the christian church - booth, h. k., the world of jesus buckley, george t., atheism in the english renaissance - butler, pierce, comp., fifteenth century books case, s. x, the social triumph of the ancient church case, s. j., and schermerhorn, w. d., church history deputation report - the catholic church in contemporary europe -. clayton, joseph, saint anselm cory, david m., faustus socinus - dearmer, p., songs of praise discussed dobree, b., william penn, quaker and pioneer - edwards, m., john wesley and the eighteenth century - friess, h. l., and schneider, h. w., religion in various cultures « - garrison, w. e., the march of faith - griffin, joseph a., the contribution of belgium to the catholic church in america - horsch, john, the hutterian brethren kaufman, e. g., the development of missionary and philanthropic interest among the mennonites - kidd, b. j., the counter reformation - knappen, m. m., two elizabethan puritan diaries - koch, g. adolph, republican religion - leslie, shane, the oxford movement - levison, n., the jewish background of christianity , - lietzmann, hans von, geschichte der alter kirche, b. - macfarland, c , christian unity in practice and prophecy - mcgiffert, a. c., a history of christian thought, vol. i i - mackay, john a., the other spanish christ - maiden, r. h., the roman catholic church and the church of england mathews, s., new testament times in palestine - maxwell, william, john knox's genevan service book, nebelthau, j. h., ed., the diary of a circuit rider palm, f . c , calvinism and the religious wars - plooij, d., the pilgrim fathers from a dutch point of view - posey, w. b., the development of methodism in the old southwest, - ross, j. e., john henry newman - spinka, matthew, a history of christianity in the balkans - stackhouse, p. j., chicago and the baptists - sweet, w. w., methodism in american history - tillich, paul, the religious situation - vander velde, lewis g., the presbyterian churches and the federal union, - - walter, joh. von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i - wentz, a. r., the lutheran church in american history - westin, g., protestantismens historie i amerikas forenta stater westin, g., negotiations about church unity, - white, hugh g. e., the history of the monasteries of nitria and scetis - wilbur, e. m., tr., servetus on the trinity «. - worcester, e., studies in the birth of the lord - wright, luella m., the literary life of the early friends , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core natural osmolyte trimethylamine n-oxide corrects assembly defects of mutant branched-chain α-ketoacid decarboxylase in maple syrup urine disease* natural osmolyte trimethylamine n-oxide corrects assembly defects of mutant branched-chain �-ketoacid decarboxylase in maple syrup urine disease* received for publication, july , published, jbc papers in press, august , , doi . /jbc.m jiu-li song and david t. chuang‡ from the department of biochemistry, university of texas southwestern medical center, dallas, texas - maple syrup urine disease is caused by deficiency in the mitochondrial branched-chain �-ketoacid dehydro- genase (bckd) complex. the clinical phenotype in- cludes often fatal ketoacidosis, neurological derange- ment, and mental retardation. the type ia mutations y n-�, y c-�, and f c-�, which occur in the e � subunit of the decarboxylase (e ) component of the bckd complex, impede the conversion of an �� het- erodimeric intermediate to a native � � heterotetramer in the e assembly pathway. in the present study, we show that a natural osmolyte trimethylamine n-oxide (tmao) at the optimal m concentration restores e activity, up to % of the wild type, in the mutant e carrying the above missense mutations. tmao promotes the conversion of otherwise trapped mutant hetero- dimers to active heterotetramers. this slow step does not involve dissociation/reassociation of the mutant het- erodimers, which are preformed in the presence of chap- eronins groel/groes and mg-atp. the tmao-stimu- lated mutant e activity is remarkably stable upon removal of the osmolyte, when cofactor thiamine pyro- phosphate and the transacylase component of the bckd complex are present. the above in vitro results offer the use of chemical chaperones such as tmao as an ap- proach to mitigate assembly defects caused by maple syrup urine disease mutations. often fatal ketoacidosis and encephalopathy, which lead to mental retardation in survivors. intermediate and intermittent forms show milder symptoms with a late onset. patients with thiamine-responsive msud respond to pharmacological doses of thiamine with returns to the normal levels of branched-chain amino acids ( ). patients with e deficiency have combined enzyme impairments in �-ketoacid dehydrogenase complexes and usually die in infancy with severe lactic acidosis ( ). the prevalence of msud is in , newborns worldwide, but in certain populations, for example the mennonites, the inci- dence is as high as in life births, as a result of consanguinity. the enzyme affected in msud, the mitochondrial branched- chain �-ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckd) complex, is a multien- zyme complex of – million daltons. it is organized about a -meric cubic core of dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e ). at- tached to the e core are multiple copies of branched-chain �-ketoacid decarboxylase (e ), e , bckd kinase, and bckd phosphatase ( , ). the kinase and the phosphatase tightly regulate activity of the bckd complex by reversible phospho- rylation (inactivation)/dephosphorylation (activation) ( ). the e component is a thiamine pyrophosphate (tpp)-dependent enzyme consisting of two � and two � subunits. the e com- ponent is a homodimeric flavoprotein and is common in the family of mitochondrial �-ketoacid dehydrogenase complexes comprising pyruvate dehydrogenase, �-ketoglutarate dehydro- genase, and bckd complexes. therefore, msud is genetically heterogeneous, and mutations in four (e �, e �, e , and e ) of the six subunits that comprise the bckd complex have been reported in affected patients ( ). on the basis of the affected subunit in the bckd complex, msud is classified into six genetic subtypes ( ). among them, type ia msud affects the e � subunit, type ib the e � subunit, type ii the e subunit, and type iii the e subunit. type iv and type v msud involve the kinase and the phosphatase, respectively, in which the disease-causing mutations have not been detected. the crystal structure of the human e � � heterotetramer was determined recently to . -Å resolution ( ). the overall � � heterotetrameric structure dictates that each subunit is in contact with the other three subunits. subunits �, ��, �, and �� are designated such that the � and the � subunits when com- bined correspond to one polypeptide of the related dimeric yeast transketolase ( ) and are equivalent to the �� het- erodimeric assembly intermediate of human e ( ). each of the two binding sites for cofactor tpp is located in the interface between � and � subunits. the e structure also discloses that the extended small c-terminal region protruding from the bulk of the e � subunit is essential for the interaction between heterologous � and � subunits. this segment is referred to as the “mennonite” region, because it contains the type ia y n-� mutation, which is prevalent in the mennonite pop- * this work was supported by grant dk- from the national institutes of health and grant i- from the robert a. welch foun- dation. the costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” in accordance with u.s.c. section solely to indicate this fact. ‡ to whom correspondence should be addressed. tel.: - - ; fax: - - ; e-mail: david.chuang@utsouthwestern.edu. the abbreviations used are: msud, maple syrup urine disease; bckd, branched-chain �-ketoacid dehydrogenase; dtt, dithiothreitol; e , branched-chain �-ketoacid decarboxylase; e , dihydrolipoyl transacylase; e , dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase; nta, nitrilotriace- tic acid; tmao, trimethylamine n-oxide; tpp, thiamine pyrophos- phate; tev, tobacco etch virus. the journal of biological chemistry vol. , no. , issue of october , pp. – , © by the american society for biochemistry and molecular biology, inc. printed in u.s.a. this paper is available on line at http://www.jbc.org maple syrup urine disease (msud) or branched-chain ke- toaciduria is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder in the catabolism of branched-chain �-ketoacids derived from leucine, isoleucine, and valine ( ). the accumulated branched-chain �-ketoacids and amino acids are secreted in the urine, giving rise to a distinct maple syrup odor and hence the name of the disease ( ). based on the clinical presentation and biochemical responses to thiamine treatment, msud can be grouped into five distinct phenotypes, classic, intermediate, intermittent, thiamine-responsive, and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (e )-deficient forms ( ). classic msud has a neonatal onset of this is an open access article under the cc by license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / ulation ( , ). the tyr to asn mutation at position of the � subunit abrogates the interaction between � and �� subunits and prevents chaperonin groel/groes-dependent heterotet- ramer assembly, with the mutant e locked in an ensemble of inactive heterodimeric conformations ( ). the other two type ia mutations in the mennonite region, f c-� and y c-�, also disrupt the heterologous � and �� and � and � subunit interactions, respectively, resulting in the inability to assemble into the native heterotetrameric conformation. naturally occurring osmolyte trimethylamine n-oxide (tmao) is present in high concentrations in coelacanth (sharks) and marine elasmobranchs (rays) ( ). it counteracts the damaging effects of concentrated urea on protein folding and stability in these organisms ( ). this osmolyte has been shown to force the in vitro folding of normally unstructured proteins such as glucocorticoid receptor – -amino acid frag- ments and af /tau domain ( , ) and reduced/carboxyami- dated ribonucleases ( , ). tmao has also been reported to increase the folding efficiency of a truncated glutamine synthe- tase ( ). tmao is shown to correct temperature-sensitive folding defects of �f in cystic fibrosis transmembrane con- ductance regulator ( ), and interfere with the formation of scrapie prion protein ( ), but not to increase the secretion of mutant �-antitrypsin z ( ). studies to date have focused on the positive effects of tmao on protein folding, which is ap- parently mediated via a solvophobic mechanism, resulting from unfavorable interactions between the osmolyte and the peptide backbones ( ). in this study, we employed tmao as a possible chemical chaperone ( ) to ameliorate the msud phenotype caused by mutations in the e components of the bckd complex. we report that tmao significantly augments residual e activity in the above type ia msud mutants associated with e as- sembly defects. interestingly, the activation occurs after mu- tant e has been folded and misassembled. tmao corrects the assembly defects in msud mutants by promoting the conver- sion of trapped mutant heterodimers to active heterotetramers. this is the first report of the positive effect of tmao in cor- recting protein assembly defects caused by human mutations. experimental procedures expression and purification of recombinant wild type and msud mutant e —the altered site in vitro mutagenesis system from pro- mega (madison, wi) was used to introduce desired known msud mu- tations into the cdna for the e � or e � subunit. detailed protocols for the mutagenesis and the construction of the phis-tev-e plasmid coexpressing wild type or mutant human e � and e � subunits were described previously ( ). these expression vectors contained a his tag linked ( � to �) to the tev protease site, followed by the n terminus of the e � subunit, and the e � subunit was untagged. the phis-tev-e plasmid and the pgroesl plasmid overexpressing bacterial chaper- onins groel/groes were cotransformed into escherichia coli cg- ests cells, and recombinant his -tagged e wild type and mutant proteins were expressed and purified as described previously ( , , ). e activity was assayed either radiochemically ( ) or spectropho- tometrically ( ), based on the reconstituted bckd activity in the presence of excess e and e . protein concentrations were determined using coomassie blue plus from pierce with bovine serum albumin as standard. incubation of msud mutant e proteins with tmao—the m stock solution of tmao (from sigma) was prepared by dissolving . g of tmao in distilled water to a final volume of ml. the stock solution was filtered through a . -�m membrane filter and stored at room temperature. mutant e proteins ( �g/ml) were incubated with different concentrations of tmao at °c for h in buffer a, com- prising mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, mm tpp, mm mgcl , mm dithiothreitol (dtt), and the complete protease inhibitor mixture (roche molecular biochemicals). aliquots taken at different times or at the end of the incubation were analyzed for e activity and protein concentration. sucrose density gradient analysis of tmao-treated mutant e — mutant e at �g/ml was incubated with . m tmao in buffer a for h at °c. after centrifugation, the supernatant was applied to a -ml – % sucrose density gradient containing . m tmao and was spun at , � g for h at °c. as a control, wild type e also in buffer a was separated on an identical sucrose gradient with . m tmao in the same run. untreated wild type and mutant e proteins were separated on a – % sucrose gradient in the absence of tmao. the wild type e heterotetramer sedimented to the same position on both gradients. aliquots of the fractions collected from top to bottom were analyzed by sds-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis after trichlo- roacetic acid precipitation. the remaining aliquots were assayed radio- chemically for e activity after precipitation with % (w/v) ammonium sulfate. in vitro refolding of wild type and mutant e in the presence of tmao—wild type and mutant e were denatured for h at °c in m urea in a buffer containing mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, and mm dtt to make a final protein concentration of mg/ml ( . �m e heterotetramer). denatured e was rapidly diluted -fold on a vortex mixer into buffer a containing �m groel ( - mer), �m groes ( -mer), followed by the addition of different concen- trations of tmao. the refolding was initiated with mm mg-atp added to the refolding mixture. after incubation at °c for h, e proteins in the refolding mixture were precipitated with % ammo- nium sulfate. the protein pellet was redissolved in �l of buffer a and analyzed for recovered e activity by the radiochemical assay. cd spectroscopy—cd spectra of wild type and msud mutant e proteins were recorded at °c in an aviv ds spectropolarimeter using a . -mm cuvette, with a bandwidth of . nm and scan step of nm. spectra were recorded at a protein concentration of . mg/ml in mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, . mm dtt, and . mm edta. each spectrum was an average of three consecutive scans from to nm and was corrected for contributions from the buffer solution. results activation of msud mutant e by tmao treatment—we selected for study five msud mutations that affect the e component of the bckd complex. the y c-�, f c-�, and y n-� type ia mutations that are located in the c-terminal region of the e � subunit produce severe classic phenotype. an additional type ia mutation a d-� shows significant residue activity and is present in a compound-heterozygous caucasian patient with an intermediate msud phenotype. a single type ib mutation s l-�, which is prevalent in the israeli druze kindred, also gives rise to the classic msud phenotype ( ). fig. shows that . m tmao has no significant effect on wild type e activity, with activity in the absence of tmao set as %. in contrast, activity of f c-� mutant e was in- creased markedly from % of wild type without tmao to % with . m tmao. similar effects were obtained with y c-� e in that residue activity is % in the absence of tmao and % in its presence. tmao also activated y n-� e with fig. . tmao restores enzyme activity of mutant e carrying msud mutations. wild type (wt) e and various mutant e were incubated with buffer a (see “experimental procedures”) with or with- out . m tmao at °c for h. e activity was measured radio- chemically based on reconstituted bckd activity in the presence of e and e . the activity of �g of wild type e in the absence of tmao was set as %. trimethylamine n-oxide mitigates assembly defects activity increased from to % of the wild type, in the absence and the presence of tmao, respectively. the s l-� and a d-� mutants showed and % residual activities, re- spectively, in the absence of tmao, but these activities re- mained unchanged after incubation with the osmolyte. the activation of msud e mutants by tmao treatment was studied further by titrating the osmolyte concentration. fig. shows that the activation of e activity for the three type ia msud mutants y c-�, f c-�, and y n-� is insig- nificant below . m tmao. rapid rises in residual e activity were obtained at . m or higher tmao concentrations. the highest degree of activation occurs at m tmao concentration for all three msud mutants, with y c-� at %, f c-� at %, and y n-� at % of the wild type specific activity. at higher than m tmao concentrations, elevated residual e activities decline precipitously. kinetics and stability of tmao activation—the time course of tmao activation was investigated with y c-� e in the presence of m tmao. as shown in fig. , the tmao-mediated activation of the mutant e is a slow process. the activation curve reached a plateau at h, with a t ⁄ of h. the tmao- augmented y c-� e activity, after a -fold dilution in the complete activity assay mixture, was completely stable in h and declined only slightly to % of the zero time after incu- bation for h at °c (fig. ). similar results were obtained when dtt was omitted from the incubation mixture. in the absence of tpp, activity of the tmao-stimulated y c-� mutant e declined gradually to % at h. when e was depleted from the incubation mixture, a steeper decrease in stimulated e activity occurred, which reached % of the zero time at h and % at h. the above data indicate that both e and tpp are required to optimally stabilize tmao-stimu- lated activity of the mutant e . tmao corrects assembly defects of msud mutant e —it was shown previously that type ia mutations y n-�, f c-�, and y c-� impede heterotetrameric assembly in mutant e ( ). we therefore investigated the possible effect of tmao on mutant e assembly. the y n-� mennonite mu- tation leads to trapped inactive heterodimers, which migrated near the top of the sucrose density gradient and peaked at fraction (fig. a). after a -h incubation with . m tmao at °c, the y n-� mutant e sedimented as a heterotet- ramer and peaked at fraction , similar to wild type e without fig. . the optimal stimulation of msud mutant e occurs at m tmao concentration. y c-� (f), f c-� (●), and y n-� (�) mutant e at . mg/ml were incubated in buffer a (see fig. ) with different concentrations of tmao at °c for h. after centrifugation at , rpm at °c for min, aliquots were taken from the super- natant for radiochemical e activity assay and protein concentration determination. specific activity was calculated for each sample and expressed as a percentage of the specific activity of wild type e . fig. . tmao-mediated activation of msud mutant e is a slow process. y c-� mutant e was added into buffer a (see fig. ) containing m tmao at °c to a final concentration of . mg/ml. aliquots of �l taken at different times during the incubation were assayed for e activity spectrophotometrically based on reconstituted bckd complex activity. the activity of y c-� mutant e before the incubation with tmao was set as activity at the zero time. �od, change of absorbance at nm. fig. . tmao-rescued mutant e activity is stable upon re- moval of the osmolyte. y c-� mutant e was activated by incu- bating with m tmao in buffer a (see fig. ) at °c for h. after centrifugation at , rpm for min, the supernatant was diluted -fold into the e spectrophotometrical assay mixture (f) or the assay mixture without e (●), tpp (�), or dtt (‚), followed by incubation at °c. at the indicated time, aliquots of �l were taken and incu- bated at °c. after min, mm �-ketoisovalerate (substrate) and the deleted component (e , tpp, or dtt) were added to the incubation mixture to initiate the enzyme assay. the activity of same amount of y c-� mutant e before dilution was set as %. trimethylamine n-oxide mitigates assembly defects tmao treatment. fractions that contained y n-� het- erodimers prior to tmao incubation did not exhibit e activity (fig. b). the conversion from �� heterodimers to � � het- erotetramers after tmao treatment coincided with the pres- ence of e activity in the sucrose density gradient fractions (fractions – ). similar results were obtained with f c-� and y c-� mutant e . the data provide direct evidence that tmao corrects assembly defects in msud by promoting the conversion of trapped inactive heterodimers into active heterotetramers. tmao activates mutant e during chaperonin-mediated refolding—the above results show that tmao augments re- sidual activity of folded msud mutant e . here, we further decipher the effect of tmao on mutant e activity during groel/groes-mediated folding (fig. ). tmao efficiently stimulated activity recovery of the y c-� mutant e in an osmolyte concentration-dependent manner. the highest degree of reactivation, which showed -fold increase over baseline activity (no osmolyte), was obtained at m tmao concentra- tion. a smaller but significant activation was observed with the g r-� mutant e , with a maximal . -fold increase over the baseline at . m tmao. insignificant activation by tmao was obtained with n s-�, r p-�, and l a-� mutant e . refolded wild type e activity was unchanged in the presence or absence of tmao. we showed previously that chaperonins groel/groes pro- mote the conversion of wild type e heterodimers to heterotet- ramers through a dissociation/reassociation cycle ( , ). to address whether tmao induced dissociation of mutant assem- bly intermediates, the y c-� e , which comprised predom- inantly trapped heterodimers with a his tag on the e � sub- unit, was immobilized on ni �-nta resin and incubated with groel with or without . m tmao. tmao-induced dissoci- ation of the mutant heterodimer would have triggered the release of the untagged e � subunit from the resin to be trapped by groel in the supernatant. fig. showed that a groel-� complex was not detected in the supernatant after removal of the resin by centrifugation, either in the presence or the absence of tmao. the stoichiometry of e �:e � was main- tained at : either in the presence and the absence of tmao, irrespective of the addition of groel, in the eluted fractions. the data, taken together, indicate that the mutant het- erodimers immobilized on ni �-nta resin did not undergo dissociation into individual e � and e � subunits. minor top bands in the fractions eluted from the ni �-nta resin repre- sented nonspecific binding of groel. secondary structures of wild type e and msud mutant e —wild type e and f c-�, y c-�, and y n-� mu- tant e proteins were analyzed by cd spectroscopy. as shown in fig. , all spectra are very similar, with one maximum at nm and two minima at and nm. the -nm minimum might be because of the combination of �-helix (peak at nm) and �-sheet (peak at nm) structures. the overall secondary structures of the wild type and the three mutant e are very similar. however, y n-� and f c-� e appear to have a slightly higher content of secondary structures, compared with the wild type e and the y c-� mutant e . discussion the msud mutations studied here, y n-�, y c-�, and f c-�, involve three aromatic residues that are critical for the packing of the c-terminal region of the e � subunit against the heterologous e �� or e � subunit (fig. ). the tyr- -� residue is hydrogen-bonded to his- -� and asp- -�� in the e � and e �� subunits, respectively ( ). a tyr to asn conver- sion in the mennonite y n-� mutation impedes the �/�� subunit interaction necessary for the cross-talk between �� and ���� heterodimers. this prevents � � heterotetrameric assembly of native e , resulting in permanently trapped het- erodimers. the side chain of the phe- -� residue in the e � subunit is packed tightly against the side chain of tyr- -�� in the e �� subunit. the f c-� mutation is likely to also affect fig. . tmao promotes the conversion of trapped mutant e heterodimers to heterotetramers to restore e activity. a, su- crose density gradient analysis of wild type and mutant e . the y n-� mutant e before and after . m tmao treatment was separated by sucrose density gradient centrifugation as described un- der “experimental procedures.” wild type e without tmao treatment was run concurrently as a control. b, e activity profile of the sucrose density gradient fractions. e activity of each fraction was assayed radiochemically as described in the legend for fig. . open bars, y n-� mutant e before tmao treatment; filled bars, after tmao treatment. fig. . tmao markedly enhances mutant e activity rena- tured in the presence of chaperonins groel/groes. urea-dena- tured wild type (wt) and mutant e were refolded in a buffer contain- ing chaperonin groel/groes and different concentrations of tmao as described under “experimental procedures.” after incubation at °c for h, recovered e activity was measured by the radiochemical assay. activity recovered in the absence of tmao is set as . . trimethylamine n-oxide mitigates assembly defects �/�� subunit interactions and results in the accumulation of heterodimers, similar to the y n-� substitution. the third member of the aromatic array tyr- -� in the e � subunit is next to gln- -� that coordinates to asn- -� in the e � subunit. the substitution of a tyr with a cys residue substan- tially weakens the �/� subunit interactions, which is essential for the integrity of the native � � heterotetramer. as a result, the y c-� mutant e exists as both heterodimers and heterotetramers. organic osmolytes including tmao are capable of forcing otherwise naturally unstructured proteins such as af /tau domain of the glucocorticoid receptor ( , ) and reduced/ carboxyamidated ribonucleases ( , ) to fold in vitro. tmao was also shown to protect against urea-induced dissociation and inactivation of lactate dehydrogenase in vitro ( ). tmao promotes protein folding by preferential hydration of the ex- posed peptide backbone of an unfolded protein ( ). this pro- duces a thermodynamically unstable state associated with the increased ordering of bound water molecules. this entropically unfavorable situation promotes the folding of the unfolded pro- tein into a native conformation, in which exposed side chains are sequestered and the osmolyte is excluded from the peptide backbone. therefore, the gibbs free energy of the native con- formation is significantly lower than that of the tmao-bound unfolded ensemble. although tmao-facilitated protein folding has been studied at length, much less is known concerning the effects of the osmolyte on protein assembly. tmao was shown to enhance the assembly and stability of microtubules ( ) and accelerate fibril assembly in the amyloid-� aggregation pathway ( ). it is suggested that the same preferential hydration effect of tmao promotes protein oligomerization. in the present study, we extend this concept by showing that tmao corrects protein assembly defects caused by msud mutations after folding. as a case in point, the y n-� mutation abolishes interactions between �� and ���� heterodimers at the �/�� and ��/� subunit interfaces. it is possible that tmao mitigates this impairment by destabilizing the folded y n-� heterodimers through hy- dration. the resultant increase in gibbs free energy in the mutant heterodimer forces its association with another tmao- bound heterodimer. the hydration effect of tmao may further force the two loosely associated mutant heterodimers to form a tighter packing along the defective �/�� and ��/� subunit inter- faces, resulting in an entropically more stable mutant het- erotetramer. tmao-mediated hydration exerts little, if any, effects on the wild type heterotetramer, because it is already in the most stable native conformation. in the presence of physi- ological e or tpp, the active heterotetrameric conformation of the mutant e is largely maintained even after the removal of the osmolyte. the stabilization effect of bound ligands was also observed with the tmao-induced folded structure of the af / tau domain in the glucocorticoid receptor ( ). the expression and assembly of wild type and msud mutant e proteins is absolutely dependent on the coexpression of the chaperonins groel/groes ( , ). the assembly of the wild type e � � heterotetramer proceeds through an �� het- erodimeric intermediate, which presumably represents an en- semble of low energy valleys in the folding energy landscape. in fig. . the mutant heterodimeric intermediate does not un- dergo dissociation in the presence of tmao. y c-� mutant e was immobilized on ni �-nta resin by incubation at °c for h. after washing with buffer a (see fig. ), the resin was divided into four aliquots. the aliquots were incubated at °c for h with buffer a with no addition or with different combinations of . m tmao and �g of groel. after centrifugation and the collection of supernatant, the resin was washed and protein bound to the resin was eluted with buffer a containing mm imidazole. the supernatant and the imi- dazole-eluted fractions were analyzed by sds-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. fig. . msud mutant e proteins posses folded native-like structures. the secondary structures of wild type and mutant e at . mg/ml each were analyzed by cd spectroscopy as described under “experimental procedures.” each spectrum represents an average of three consecutive scans and is corrected for contribution from the buffer solution. the spectra are of wild type e (—), y c-� (...), f c-� (–.–.), and y n-� (– – –) mutant e . mdeg, millidegrees. fig. . type ia msud mutations in the mennonite region im- pede interactions of the � subunit with the � or �� subunit. the c-terminal domain of e � subunit shown as a coil backbone is packed against semitransparent surfaces of the � (red) and �� (yellow) subunits. selected side chains are marked, and the three aromatic residues, tyr- -�, phe- -�, and tyr- -�, that are affected in msud are highlighted. this segment of the e � chain is called the mennonite region, because of the presence of the prevalent y n-� mutation in this population. tyr- -� is hydrogen-bonded to asp- -�� in the �� subunit. phe- -� is packed against tyr- -�� also in the �� subunit. tyr- -� is packed against the � subunit at the �/� subunit interface. reproduced from Ævarsson et al. ( ) with permission. trimethylamine n-oxide mitigates assembly defects the presence of mg-atp, these bacterial chaperonins convert trapped wild type e heterodimeric intermediate to its produc- tive counterpart, capable of forming heterotetramers, through iterative dissociation/reassociation cycles ( , ). interactions of the groel double-ring complex with the -kda het- erodimeric intermediate occurs in the cis cavity capped by groes ( ). however, groel/groes are unable to rescue trapped heterodimers dictated by the type ia msud muta- tions, either in e. coli ( ) or during in vitro refolding ( ). the results are consistent with the concept that molecular chaper- ones promote protein folding but do not contain steric informa- tion that determines the final protein structure ( ). during chaperonins groel/groes-mediated in vitro refold- ing, the recovered activity of y c-� mutant e is -fold higher in the presence of tmao than in its absence. in con- trast, tmao has no effect on the renatured wild type e activity under similar conditions. delayed additions of tmao for up to h during refolding of y c-� mutant e does not affect the activation of e activity by the osmolyte (data not shown). these findings suggest that the tmao exerts its ef- fects after the mutant e is folded and trapped in the het- erodimeric conformation. therefore, chaperonins and tmao work in tandem to enhance the recovery of enzyme activity during refolding of mutant e . interestingly, tmao causes the aggregation of wild type glutamine synthetase during in vitro refolding, and it has been suggested that the compactness of the folded monomer in the presence of osmolyte is the reason for its failure to assemble into a functional oligomer ( ). chap- eronins groel/groes promote the dissociation of trapped het- erodimers, and the separated � and � monomers reassociate to form “good” heterodimers capable of spontaneous dimerization ( ). in contrast to this mechanism, tmao achieves the con- version of trapped mutant e heterodimers to heterotetramers without promoting dissociation of the mutant heterodimers. the transformation from heterodimers to heterotetramer by either chaperonins ( ) or tmao (present study) exhibits rather slow kinetics. the results are similar to those observed during the tmao-assisted renaturation of the mutant � glutamine synthetase ( ) and amyloid-� assembly in the pres- ence of tmao ( ). the beneficial effects of tmao on the clinical phenotypes of certain genetic diseases have been demonstrated at the cell culture level. for example, tmao at mm has been shown to reverse defective trafficking of �f cystic fibrosis transmem- brane conductance regulator ( ) and enhance antigen presen- tation in antigen-presenting cells ( ). a serum concentration of mm tmao with a long half-life of – h has been achieved in a mouse model ( ). these findings offer an auspi- cious prospect for the use of chemical chaperones such as tmao as an approach to eradicate human diseases caused by protein misfolding. the results presented in this study demon- strate for the first time that the tmao is capable of correcting assembly defects associated with msud after folding and at the step of the trapped heterodimeric ensemble. whether these in vitro results have direct application in the treatment of msud patients will be addressed by cell culture studies. references . chuang, d. t., and shih, v. e. ( ) in the metabolic and molecular basis of inherited disease (scriver, c. r., beaudet, a. l., sly, w. s., and valle, d., eds) th ed., pp. – , mcgraw-hill book co., new york . menkes, j. h., hurst, p. l., and craig, j. m. ( ) pediatrics , – . scriver, c. r., mackenzie, s., clow, c. l., and delvin, e. ( ) lancet , – . taylor, j., robinson, b. h., and serwood, w. g. ( ) pediatr. res. , – . pettit, f. h., yeaman, s. j., and reed, l. j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. , – . reed, l. j., damuni, z., and merryfield, m. l. ( ) curr. top. cell. regul. , – . harris, r. a., paxton, r., powell. s. m., goodwin, g. w., kuntz, m. j., and han, a. c. ( ) adv. enzyme regul. , – . Ævarsson, a., chuang, j. l., wynn, r. m., turley, s., chuang, d. l., and hol, w. g. j. ( ) structure , – . lindqvist, y., schneider, g., ermler, u., and sundstrom, m. ( ) embo j. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., chuang, j. l., cote, c. d., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . fisher, c. r., fisher, c. w., chuang, d. t., and cox, r. p. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . matsuda, i., nobukuni, y., mitsubuchi, h., indo, y., endo, f., asaka, j., and harada, a. ( ) biochem. biophys. res. commun. , – . forster, r. p., and goldstein, l. ( ) am. j. physiol. , – . wang, a., and bolen, d. w. ( ) biochemistry , – . baskakov, i. v., kumar, r., srinivasan, g., ji, y. s., bolen, d. w., and thompson, e. b. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . kumar, r., lee, j. c., bolen, d. w., and thompson, e. b. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . baskakov, i., and bolen, d. w. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . qu, y., bolen, c. l., and bolen, d. w. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. , – . voziyan, p. a., jadhav, l., and fisher, m. t. ( ) j. pharm. sci. , – . brown, c. r., hong-brown, l. q., biwersi, j., verkman, a. s., and welch, w. j. ( ) cell stress chaperones , – . tatzelt, j., prusiner, s. b., and welch, w. j. ( ) embo j. , – . burrows, j. a., willis, l. k., and perlmutter, d. h. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. , – . welch, w. j., and brown c. r. ( ) cell stress chaperones , – . chuang, j. l., davie, j. r., chinsky, j. m., wynn, r. m., cox, r. p., and chuang d. t. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . chuang, j. l., wynn, r. m., song, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., song, j. l., chuang, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) methods enzymol. , – . chuang, j. l., davie, j. r., wynn, r. m., and chuang, d. t. ( ) methods enzymol. , – . wynn, r. m., ho, r., chuang, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., chuang, j. l., sansaricq, c., mandel, h., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., song, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . song, j. l., wynn, r. m., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . baskakov, i., and bolen, d. w. ( ) biophys. j. , – . lin, t. y., and timasheff, s. n. ( ) biochemistry , – . sackett, d. l. ( ) am. j. physiol. , r –r . yang, d. s., yip, c. m., huang, t. h. j., chakrabartty, a., and fraser, p. e. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., cox, r. p., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . ellis, r. j, and van der vies, s. m. ( ) annu. rev. biochem. , – . voziyan, p. a., and fisher, m. t. ( ) protein sci. , – . ghumman, b., bertram, e. m., and watts, t. h. ( ) j. immunol. , – . bai, c., biwersi, j., verkman, a. s., and matthay, m. a. ( ) j. pharmacol. toxicol. methods , – trimethylamine n-oxide mitigates assembly defects 	natural osmolyte trimethylamine n-oxide corrects assembly defects of mutant branched-chain α-ketoacid decarboxylase in maple syrup urine disease* 	experimental procedures 	results 	discussion 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ [pdf] hepatic parenchymal injury in crigler-najjar type i | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /mpg. corpus id: hepatic parenchymal injury in crigler-najjar type i @article{mitchell hepaticpi, title={hepatic parenchymal injury in crigler-najjar type i}, author={e. mitchell and s. ranganathan and p. mckiernan and robert h. squires and k. strauss and k. soltys and g. mazariegos and j. squires}, journal={journal of pediatric gastroenterology and nutrition}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ – } } 	e. mitchell, s. ranganathan, + authors j. squires 	published 	medicine 	journal of pediatric gastroenterology and nutrition background: crigler-najjar syndrome type i (cni) arises from biallelic variants of ugt a that abrogate uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase (ugt a ) activity resulting in unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. historically, liver parenchyma in cni was considered structurally and histologically normal. recent review of cni liver explants revealed fibrosis. our aim was to investigate the association between hepatic histology and disease phenotype in cni. methods: we extracted data from the… expand view on wolters kluwer journals.lww.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations view all topics from this paper 	fibrosis 	uridine diphosphate 	aspartic acid 	hypertensive disease 	liver parenchyma 	transaminases 	liver diseases 	liver dysfunction 	crigler najjar syndrome, type 	biliary calculi 	alanine transaminase 	hypertension, portal 	unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia 	cholelithiasis 	tail 	t test 	disease phenotype 	sgot - glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase 	physiological sexual disorders citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency liver cirrhosis in a patient with crigler najjar syndrome 	z. barış, f. Özçay, y. usta, g. Özgün 	medicine 	fetal and pediatric pathology 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed disease burden of crigler–najjar syndrome: systematic review and future perspectives 	a. dhawan, m. lawlor, + authors s. prasad 	medicine 	journal of gastroenterology and hepatology 	 	 save alert research feed advances in understanding disease mechanisms and potential treatments for crigler–najjar syndrome 	g. bortolussi, a. muro 	medicine 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed efficacy of aav -hugt a with rapamycin in neonatal, suckling, and juvenile rats to model treatment in pediatric cns patients 	xiaoxia shi, sem j aronson, + authors p. bosma 	medicine 	molecular therapy. methods & clinical development 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed crigler‐najjar syndrome type : pathophysiology, natural history, and therapeutic frontier 	k. strauss, c. ahlfors, + authors h. vreman 	medicine 	hepatology 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed molecular mechanisms in pediatric cholestasis. 	j. squires, p. mckiernan 	medicine 	gastroenterology clinics of north america 	 	 save alert research feed disorders of bilirubin metabolism 	n. chowdhury, j. chowdhury 	 	pdf save alert research feed clinical biochemistry test eliminator providing cost-effectiveness with five algorithms 	ataman gönel 	medicine 	acta clinica belgica 	 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed elimination of clinical biochemistry laboratory tests through artificial intelligence programs to increase cost-effectiveness 	ataman gönel 	medicine 	 	pdf save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency isolated hepatocyte transplantation for crigler-najjar syndrome type 	g. ambrosino, s. varotto, + authors l. d'antiga 	medicine 	cell transplantation 	 	 	 save alert research feed liver transplantation in crigler-najjar syndrome type i disease. 	z. tu, d. shang, + authors s. zheng 	medicine 	hepatobiliary & pancreatic diseases international : hbpd int 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed current therapy for crigler‐najjar syndrome type : report of a world registry 	c. n. van der veere, m. sinaasappel, + authors p. jansen 	medicine 	hepatology 	 	 	 save alert research feed liver cell transplantation for crigler-najjar syndrome type i: update and perspectives. 	p. lysy, m. najimi, x. stephenne, a. bourgois, f. smets, e. sokal 	medicine 	world journal of gastroenterology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed management of hyperbilirubinemia and prevention of kernicterus in patients with crigler-najjar disease 	k. strauss, d. robinson, h. vreman, e. puffenberger, g. hart, d. morton 	medicine 	european journal of pediatrics 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed successful pregnancy in a crigler-najjar type i patient treated by phototherapy and semimonthly albumin infusions. 	v. gajdos, f. petit, + authors p. labrune 	medicine 	gastroenterology 	 	 save alert research feed successful plasmapheresis for acute and severe unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in a child with crigler najjar type i syndrome. 	anne laure sellier, p. labrune, thérésa kwon, a. m. boudjemline, g. deschênes, v. gajdos 	medicine 	jimd reports 	 	 	 save alert research feed aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index in children with cholestatic liver diseases to assess liver fibrosis. 	aysel Ünlüsoy aksu, s. sarı, güldal yılmaz, Ödül eğritaş gürkan, z. demirtaş, b. dalgıç 	medicine 	the turkish journal of pediatrics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed gilbert syndrome as a predisposing factor for cholelithiasis risk in the greek adult population. 	a. tsezou, m. tzetis, + authors s. kitsiou‐tzeli 	medicine 	genetic testing and molecular biomarkers 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed splice-site mutations: a novel genetic mechanism of crigler-najjar syndrome type . 	s. gantla, c. bakker, + authors n. roy chowdhury 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue the british journal of psychiatry | cambridge core skip to main content accessibility help we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. login alert cancel log in × × home only search content i have access to 	 	home 	log in 	register 	browse subjects 	what we publish 	services 	about cambridge core 	 cart 	 cart 	 	 	 	 access provided by 	 carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	logged in as: carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	 	 	 register 	 register 	 log in 	 	 cart 	 < back to search results 	home 	journals 	the british journal of psychiatry 	 english | français the british journal of psychiatry 	 	 	 	 	 search within full text search within journal search within society 	 	 	 	 	 submit your article 	 information submit your article you are leaving cambridge core and will be taken to this journal's article submission site. cancel leave now × 	 other actions 	 submit your article 	information 	 	 	 	 	 	 	visit: 	 	 	 	 journal home 	journal home 	accepted manuscripts 	firstview articles 	latest issue 	all issues 	most read 	subscribe 	open access articles there is currently a delay in the posting of accepted eletters to cambridge core. we apologise for the inconvenience. 	 access: subscribed 	 contains open access on the cover continues the asylum journal (  -  ), the asylum journal of mental science (  -  ), journal of mental science (  -  ) title history 	 issn: - (print), - (online) 	 editor: professor kamaldeep bhui cbe oxford university, uk 	editorial board the british journal of psychiatry (bjpsych) is a leading international peer-reviewed journal, covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. published monthly on behalf of the royal college of psychiatrists, the journal is committed to improving the prevention, investigation, diagnosis, treatment, and care of mental illness, as well as the promotion of mental health globally. in addition to authoritative original research papers from around the world, the journal publishes editorials, review articles, commentaries on contentious articles, short reports, a comprehensive book review section and a lively, well-informed correspondence column. bjpsych is essential reading for psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and all professionals with an interest in mental health. latest articles view all 	article 	 bjp volume issue cover and front matter 	 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose – psychiatry in history 	 stephen wilson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 robert hooke's bethlem hospital of : an architectural wonder – psychiatry in pictures 	 r.h.s. mindham 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘of the chaunge from one sex to another’: eye-witness accounts of pliny the elder ( – ) and ambroise paré ( – ) – psychiatry in literature 	 greg wilkinson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 kaleidoscope 	 derek k. tracy, dan w. joyce, dawn n. albertson, sukhwinder s. shergill 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘lone travelers’ – psychiatry in pictures 	 brent r. carr 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 the medical model in mental health: an explanation and evaluation by ahmed samei huda oup. . £ . (pb). pp. isbn 	 alistair stewart 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 highlights of this issue 	 kate adlington 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all rcpsych article of the month blog view all 	 are there ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic? 	 march , diana miconi, phd 	the rcpsych article of the month for february is ‘ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic: a cross-sectional study on the impact... view all tweets by bjpsych facebook loading https://www.facebook.com/rcpsych... . impact factor: out of psychiatry journal citation reports © clarivate analytics most read view all 	article 	 factors influencing the decision to use hanging as a method of suicide: qualitative study 	 lucy biddle, jenny donovan, amanda owen-smith, john potokar, damien longson, keith hawton, nav kapur, david gunnell 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all most cited view all 	article 	 a new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change 	 stuart a. montgomery, marie Åsberg 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all 	librarians 	authors 	publishing partners 	agents 	corporates 	 additional information 	accessibility 	our blog 	news 	contact and help 	cambridge core legal notices 	feedback 	sitemap join us online 	 	 	 	 	 	 legal information 	 	rights & permissions 	copyright 	privacy notice 	terms of use 	cookies policy 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top cancel confirm × merging the religious congregations and membership studies: a data file for documenting american religious change r e s e a r c h n o t e merging the religious congregations and membership studies: a data file for documenting american religious change rachel bacon • roger finke • dale jones received: october / accepted: april / published online: may � the author(s) abstract the decennial religious congregations and membership studies are a popular data source for analyzing local religious composition and diversity, but several methodological challenges hinder merging the datasets for longitudinal analyses. in this paper, we introduce strategies for addressing four of the most serious challenges: religious mergers and schisms, changes in membership stan- dards within certain groups, missing data and changes in county boundaries. in doing so we successfully merge the , , and collections and build new longitudinal datasets of congregational and membership counts at the state and county levels. these changes increase religious group representation from to , reduce bias from missing data, allow for the more reliable inclusion of – million adherents in each year, and improve overall ease of use. we also document instances when corrections were not possible and alert readers to the limitations of the merged files when measuring change among certain groups. the new longitudinal files are accessible from thearda.com. keywords religion census � religious change � data � longitudinal analyses the decennial religious congregations and membership studies collected by the association of statisticians of american religious bodies are perhaps the most heavily used datasets on american religion. these data provide counts of adherents and congregations belonging to dozens of religious groups at the state and county levels. scholars of varied backgrounds rely on these data to measure and analyze & rachel bacon rjb @psu.edu the pennsylvania state university, oswald tower, university park, pa , usa church of the nazarene global ministry center, prairie star parkway, lenexa, ks , usa rev relig res ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &amp;domain=pdf https://doi.org/ . /s - - - local religious composition, diversity, and the contextual effects of religion (lim ). the four most recent of these datasets (i.e. , , , ) have been collectively downloaded more than , times from the association of religion data archives (thearda.com) over the past years. moreover, religious denominations and local congregations, as well as the media and community planners, use the files extensively for research, journalism, and planning. in short, the collections have proven invaluable to a diverse group of users for mapping and analyzing religious variations across counties, states and the nation. despite the popularity of these collections, they are seldom used to measure changes in religious group size or the composition and diversity of geographic regions overtime. several practical and methodological challenges deter researchers from merging the datasets. this paper introduces methodological strategies to address four of the most significant challenges for merging the collections: religious mergers and schisms, changes in membership standards within certain groups, missing data, and changes in county boundaries. relying on these strategies we merge the , , and collections and build two datasets of congregational and membership data across time: one for counties and another for states. when possible, we make corrections or offer improved estimates to standardize measures and units of analysis over time. when corrections are not possible, however, we alert readers to the limitations of the merged files. before we address the challenges of merging the data collections, however, we begin with a brief overview of the data collection procedures used. documenting how the data are collected helps to clarify and identify the challenges that emerge when we attempt to merge the collections. collecting congregational and membership data the congregational and membership studies conducted in , , and each provide a county-by-county enumeration of religious bodies in the u.s.. although similar collections also were conducted in and (national council of churches ; johnson et al. ), we have not included them because the level of participation was lower and the measures used were less standardized than the later collections. the remaining four datasets relied on procedures and measurement criteria that were largely standardized. nevertheless, we highlight several important differences between the remaining four collections. in each of the decennial studies, a study representative contacted all of the major religious groups and asked them to report on the number of congregations, members and adherents in their religious group for each county in the u.s.. we focus on congregational counts and total adherents because these measures are more consistently reported across religious groups and are more standardized than membership (membership counts are also unavailable in the online versions of the both files can be downloaded from thearda.com at: http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/ descriptions/rcmsmgcy.asp and http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/descriptions/rcmsmgst. asp. rev relig res ( ) : – http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/descriptions/rcmsmgcy.asp http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/descriptions/rcmsmgcy.asp http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/descriptions/rcmsmgst.asp http://www.thearda.com/archive/files/descriptions/rcmsmgst.asp and datasets). for many groups, especially christian groups practicing adult baptism, full membership status was reserved for adults. in contrast, adherents is a more inclusive measure defined as ‘‘all members, including full members, their children and the estimated number of other participants who are not considered members’’ (quinn et al. ). not all religious groups directly reported both membership and adherent data. when religious groups reported only adult members, the data collectors estimated the number of total adherents using a county-level multiplier. most religious groups who directly reported adherents agreed to the standard definition, but several groups changed their counting methodology over the years, usually to make their adherent counts more accurate and more comparable to other groups. data collectors also commissioned independent studies for groups that were difficult to count accurately, such as the amish and most non-christian groups. these independent studies were not always conducted by the same principal investigators (pis) from one decade to the next and employed different methodologies. among those groups affected by changes in measurement, therefore, counts differ substantially between the datasets and may not reliably reflect changes in size. we also call attention to the fact that the scope of the data collections has expanded over time, resulting in varying levels of data collection efforts allocated to specific groups. for the and collections the pis appealed only to christian denominations and jewish groups, capturing the vast majority of white americans attending local congregations. later collections expanded to include independent christian congregations as well as non-christian groups. despite the pis’ efforts to include as many groups as possible, the level of participation varied across the datasets, with participating in , in , in , and in . as shown in greater detail in online supplement appendix a (all appendices are available at thearda.com), however, only of the cumulative participating groups have both adherent and congregation data in all four decades. the considerable variation in participation can be partly explained by the expanded scope of the collection procedures in later decades. furthermore, some groups merged, split, or simply reported their data differently from one decade to the next, while other groups simply participated in some years, but not others. the result is that most groups have missing data for at least year. finally, we should note that the official name of the datasets and the sponsoring institutions have varied from year to year. the collection was assembled by the glenmary research center and the final three collections were conducted by the association of statisticians of american religious bodies. the and reported church members [total population/(total population - children years and under)]. in the collection, groups reported their own adherents while an additional groups reported members and had adherents estimated by data collectors using the county-level multiplier (grammich et al. ). the documentation identifies groups because the american lutheran church, lutheran church in america, and association of evangelical lutheran churches reported separately in the publication, but were merged in the stand-alone dataset available on the arda website. the organizations helping to fund one or more of the collection have included: the lilly endowment inc., john templeton foundation, national council of the churches of christ in the u.s.a. (new york), rev relig res ( ) : – datasets were entitled ‘‘church and church membership in the united states,’’ reflecting their focus on christian groups. the dataset was changed to ‘‘religious congregations and membership study’’ and the dataset was revised to the ‘‘u.s. religion census: religious congregations and membership study.’’ to reduce confusion, throughout this paper we refer to the four datasets as the religion census data, and the final dataset as the merged or longitudinal file. the religion census data offer great promise for conducting longitudinal and spatial analyses on religious change in america, but merging the files and offering comparable data over time poses multiple challenges. below we review these challenges, offer recommendations on how some can be addressed and review the limitations that will remain. addressing the challenges in this paper, we address four major challenges in merging the four religion census datasets. first, we devise a new scheme to address inconsistency in variable names across the datasets because of mergers, schisms or changes in how a group’s data were aggregated over time. second, we document how some groups changed their standards for reporting adherent and/or congregation counts between collections and we clearly delineate between the counts that can be rectified and those that cannot. third, we reduce the amount of missing data by offering adherent estimates for groups missing adherent and/or congregation data for a single year and by providing comparable estimates overtime for groups involved in mergers or schisms. fourth, we account for changes in the geographic boundaries of counties, allowing for a comparable unit of analysis over time. in addressing the problems, we produce a merged dataset of the four collections that readily permit trend analysis of adherent and congregation counts, although with some caveats that we clearly identify. accounting for mergers, schisms, and other aggregations religious group schisms occur when a group splits into two or more groups, and a merger occurs when two or more religious groups become one group, which makes it difficult to consistently identify the same group of adherents over time. this problem is further compounded by measurement errors, such as accidentally omitting one of the religious groups involved in the merger, schism or some other aggregate group change. since religious groups are geographically concentrated and therefore non-randomly distributed (land et al. ; stump ; finke and stark ), the unintentional omission of a group in longitudinal analyses could footnote continued association of statisticians of american religious bodies, glenmary research center, glenmary home missioners, aid association for lutherans, southern baptist convention, lutheran council in the u.s.a., african methodist episcopal zion church, church of the nazarene, american baptist churches in the usa, national association of free will baptists, presbyterian church (u.s.a.), united church of christ, wisconsin evangelical lutheran synod and evangelical lutheran church in america. rev relig res ( ) : – introduce significant bias. we address both of these problems in the new longitudinal file. we begin by replacing the old naming scheme for variables with one that is more consistent across the data collections. in the stand-alone versions of the religion census data available online, the variable names assigned to individual religious groups are different in each dataset. data are presented in ‘‘wide’’ format (i.e. each row is a county and the dozens of columns contain the counts of each religious group’s adherents and congregations separately) and users must rely on the name of the religious group to match them across datasets. although most groups retain the same name for each year they participated, their name can change due to mergers, splits or changes in how the data were reported. in the case of schisms, adherents who previously belonged to one religious group are split among two or more groups after the schism. in mergers, the opposite occurs. in addition, some groups in the religion census data did not formerly split or merge, but agreed to report together in year and separately in another. to alleviate the burden of identifying groups across the datasets for users, we first replaced the old variable names with the unique three-number codes assigned to each religious group by the religion census data collectors. second, we created new aggregate cases that combine all groups affected by a schism, merger, or other group count change into a single group. the full listing of religious group names and their accompanying codes are in appendix a and the ‘‘notes’’ column identifies which groups are combined on account of a merge, split or change in aggregated reporting. our solution resulted in eight new aggregate groups created from individual religious groups: (a) a total of five groups present in the religion census data were affected by a schism and were combined into two new groups for the longitudinal file. (b) six groups experienced a formal merger and were combined into two new groups. (c) sixteen groups chose to report together in year but separately in another, and we subsequently combined them into four new groups. table identifies the affected religious groups and their sizes. newly combined groups are now assigned the three-digit code that matches the largest group among them, followed by the letter ‘‘b’’ to indicate that multiple groups were combined to make the new group. data in the merged file are also presented in ‘‘long’’ format (i.e. rows now represent religious groups in a specific county and year, and only two columns are used to identify adherent and congregation counts). groups that would otherwise be dropped because they do not appear to participate across the datasets are now included, resulting in nearly two million additional adherents across all four datasets. in this way, the longitudinal file includes both the combined groups and the individual counts of each religious group that was included in the combined group. once we identified the groups that needed to be combined, however, some data remained missing. in five instances, one of the groups included in a combined group the merged file also includes a variable that flags whether each case is included elsewhere in a combined group or is itself a combined group. rev relig res ( ) : – table adherents of groups affected by schisms, mergers, or other changes in aggregation code schisms episcopal church groups combined b , , , , , , , , episcopal church , , , , , , , , the anglican church in north america , a evangelical lutheran church in america groups combined b , , , , , , , , evangelical lutheran church in america , , , , , , , , lutheran congregations in mission for christ , north american lutheran church , a merges mennonite groups combined b , , , , conservative mennonite conference , , mennonite church , , the mennonite church general conference , , mennonite church usa , , serbian orthodox church in the usa groups combined b , , serbian orthodox church in the usa , , serbian orthodox church in the usa (new gracanica metropolitanate) , a changes in aggregate reporting friends groups combined b , , , , friends (quakers) , , , friends central yearly meeting friends united meeting , friends—evangelical , friends—independent yearly meetings friends—unaffiliated local meetings a friends—conservative friends—general conference , friends—dual general conference and united meeting , bruderhof and hutterian groups combined b , , , hutterian brethren , , , a bruderhof communities, inc. orthodox church in america groups combined b , , orthodox church in america: territorial diocese , , orthodox church in america: albanian orthodox archdiocese orthodox church in america: romanian orthodox episcopate of america , rev relig res ( ) : – was missing adherent counts in year, so we estimated the missing adherent counts in these cases (please see the section on missing data for methodological details). because schisms are often regionally based, this correction reduces the geographic bias that would exist if they were omitted. in other cases, a few of the schismatic groups simply did not participate. for example, the alliance of baptists (aob) split from the southern baptist convention (sbc) in and is included in the religion census collection. we chose not to combine the aob counts with the sbc because the aob only provided data on the number of congregations in and provided no data at all in and . individual congregations also are known to switch affiliations or become independent churches at a smaller scale than formal schism (marcum ; chaves ), making it impossible to track the adherents of congregations who leave the denomination to another group in the data. most of these omissions, however, are small and will have little impact on the total counts. overall, our adjustments for known schisms, mergers and other aggregations allow for meaningful comparisons over time for more groups and greatly ease the use of the longitudinal files. group measurement changes a second major challenge for constructing a longitudinal file is when some groups change the criteria they use for counting adherents or congregations from one collection to the next. as noted earlier, the criteria or methods used for collecting the data were sometimes changed in an effort to improve the counts or make their measurement comparable to other groups in the collection. by making the change, however, the adherent or congregation counts for the group were no longer comparable across all four collections. this is a significant concern because it affects four of the largest religious groups in the country and because it is often the most difficult to correct. table continued code orthodox church in america: bulgarian diocese moravian church in america, alaska and north province combined b , , , , moravian church in america, alaska province moravian church in america (unitas fratrum) north province , , , , total adherents added after adjustments , , , , a adherent count is estimated for these groups the omission of the aob from sbc enumerations in the and subsequent collections is unlikely to be associated with significant bias. in , there were aob congregations compared to , congregations in the sbc. rev relig res ( ) : – table lists all of the groups where measurement criteria or methods changed for at least one time point, reports on the size of the group, and offers recommendations on when over time comparisons can be made. below we offer additional information and additional precautions for each of these groups. before we review these details, however, we first explain how we were able to offer corrections for the measurement changes of the united methodist church. for the united methodist church (umc), there was a change in adherent measurement between and . prior to the collection, the umc reported membership, but not adherent counts. because adherents were not directly reported, the religion census data collectors estimated adherents using the membership count and their standard county-level multiplier (see footnote ). in , however, umc statisticians directly reported their own adherent totals for each congregation, and this shift yielded more adherents than the old estimate. the county-level estimation would have identified . million adherents in rather than the . million reported by umc statisticians (see table ). since the umc submitted both membership and adherent counts to the religion census in , it is possible to use the old county-level estimation formula to create an adherent count consistent with earlier datasets. we also requested from the umc statisticians a direct reporting of adherent counts for , which made it possible to use the direct-reporting measurement for and . both the ‘‘new’’ and ‘‘old’’ versions of umc adherents for and are included in the longitudinal file. in the case of the umc, the measurement change was relatively simple and we were able to standardize the adherent count with earlier years using membership and a county-level multiplier. other groups have more complicated changes and we were unable to standardize their counts across all four datasets. like the umc, the measurement of roman catholic church adherents switched to a more direct-reported adherent count in . unlike the umc, however, earlier counts relied on some survey-based estimates, which could not be standardized with the new count method. the southern baptist convention and church of latter-day saints changed their definition of congregations or adherents and, unlike the umc, were unable to provide counts to us based on their old/new definition. for eastern orthodox groups and the wesleyan church, we are unable to determine the methodology used in some years, which calls into question measurement consistency across time. among the remaining cases of measurement change, religion census data collectors commissioned independent studies to improve the accuracy of measurement. differences in data collection methods and strategies used by these independent studies contribute another source of measurement inconstancy over time. each group has a unique measurement history that limits comparisons between two or more collection years. we describe these histories in more detail here: there are additional non-christian groups (i.e. buddhist, jain, muslim, and hindu) whose data were collected by different independent pis or with differing procedures between years, and only have counts for and . we do not discuss those groups here due to their limited participation, but we do include notes about their measurement in appendix a. more detailed descriptions of the methodologies used to count all groups in each collection are available in the appendices of the religion censuses’ data publications (quinn et al. ; bradley et al. ; jones et al. ; grammich et al. ). rev relig res ( ) : – table groups with measurement changes and recommendations for comparisons possible over-time comparisons catholic adherents , , , , , , , , , , ; caution when using congregations , , , , all years groups same group is measured in all years united methodist adherents (old) , , , , , , , , all years adherents (new) – – , , , , , congregations , , , , all years groups same group is measured in all years latter-day saints adherents , , , , , , , , , , ; caution when using congregations , , , , all years groups same group is measured in all years southern baptists adherents , , , , , , , , all years congregations , , , , , , ; caution when using groups same group is measured in all years independent churches adherents – , , , , , , , ; do not compare with congregations – , , ; do not compare with groups – , charismatic/ non-charismatic black protestants adherents , , , , – , , no years definitively comparable congregations – , no years definitively comparable groups – no years definitively comparable jewish groups adherents , , , , , , , , ; do not compare with or rev relig res ( ) : – • the catholic church in , some adherent counts were available at the parish-level, but in many areas the data collectors relied on diocese-level vital and sacramental statistics or on county-level estimates made using the american religious identification survey (jones et al. ). the shift to congregational- based direct reports in greatly reduced the number of catholic adherents. the number of catholics appears to decline from . million in to . million in , but the figure reported to the yearbook of american and canadian churches (yacc) suggests an increase from . to . million over the same time period (lindner , ). some survey estimates of catholics do identify a recent flattening in adherents, but most do not (grammich ), which suggests the decline captured in the religion census is a data artifact. table continued possible over-time comparisons congregations , ; do not compare with or groups jewish count split into four groups for old order amish adherents , , , , no years definitively comparable congregations no years definitively comparable groups additional amish group reported with the old order amish in , but separately in orthodox groups adherents , , , , , , , ; do not compare with or congregations , ; do not compare with or groups same groups present in and the wesleyan church adherents – , , , no years definitively comparable. congregations – no years definitively comparable groups – same group is measured in all years rev relig res ( ) : – • church of latter-day saints (lds) for the collection, the lds church reported a total of . million adherents. this total excluded members who were baptized, but not associated with a specific congregation. a more inclusive count is the . million members reported by the church in its almanac and to the yacc (lindner ). for the collection, the lds church changed its procedures to include the previously excluded baptized persons and reported an adherent total of . million, a figure more consistent with what it has reported elsewhere (lindner ) and more comparable to how other denominations count adherents in the religion census. • the southern baptist convention (sbc) the sbc reported adherents in a consistent way over time, but changed how they defined congregations. prior to , the congregation count did not include small ‘‘mission’’ gatherings, although adherents attending ‘‘missions’’ were counted. the sbc revised their methodology to include their mission congregations and therefore became consistent with other religious groups (grammich et al. ). as a result, there is a sudden increase of sbc congregations between and despite negligible growth in the number of adherents. • eastern orthodox groups in and , four orthodox groups directly reported adherent counts and an additional seven groups provided congrega- tional counts for , but they provided no documentation regarding counting methodology (quinn et al. ; bradley et al. ). for the and collections, however, data on a larger number of eastern orthodox groups were collected by a single pi using a more standardized definition of ‘‘adherents that included both adults and children known to participate in services at the local parish’’ (jones et al. ). as a result, the counts for several orthodox groups change suddenly between and . • the wesleyan church the documentation of data collection methodologies are available for and , but not for , and a significant change in estimation is suggested between decades. in , the wesleyan church provided adherent counts based on their own record-keeping, reflecting ‘‘those who have some contact with the church through its various departments’’ (jones et al. ). in , they estimated that adherents were simply percent more than the average attendance (grammich et al. ). • black protestant groups only four historically black protestant groups directly reported their own counts in the collection (quinn et al. ). in , three black protestant groups participated and an independent study estimated the size of black baptist churches, but the estimates did not include any congregational counts (bradley et al. ). black protestant groups are entirely absent in the collection, although finke and scheitle ( ) did create a state-level multiplier based on survey data to estimate the size of all black protestant adherents for that year. relying on congregational estimates from the online infogroup database on religious organizations, the collection included membership estimates for eight black protestant denominations and congregational estimates for . adherent counts were not available for all black protestant congregations, and so data collectors estimated a membership of for those congregations (grammich et al. ). rev relig res ( ) : – • jewish groups the collection included direct counts of conservative and reform judaism who were members of the united synagogues of america (quinn et al. ). the count also has direct reporting, but from an expanded four branches of judaism (conservative, reconstructionist, reform and orthodox) (grammich et al. ). in and , however, the data collectors relied on the american jewish yearbook to identify adherents and the jewish almanac yellow pages and phone directories to identify congregations (bradley et al. ; jones et al. ). • independent churches no efforts were made to count independent churches in and their measurement changed significantly between and . in and , the megachurch research center gathered information on large, independent churches for the religion census by calling the churches via telephone, identifying about two million adherents in each year (bradley et al. ; jones et al. ). in , a more exhaustive study using internet listings was possible, identifying million more adherents than in the and religion censuses (grammich et al. ). • old order amish adherents in and were estimated using an arbitrary congregational size based on the age of the church (quinn et al. ; bradley et al. ). in , the data were supplied from the mennonite publishing house and were more congregationally specific in estimation (jones et al. ). for , an exhaustive independent study was commissioned to conduct an accurate census using amish settlement directories (grammich et al. ). in summary, longitudinal analyses specific to these groups is limited. some of the caveats against overtime comparisons are negligible, depending on research questions and analytic plans. for instance, catholic and lds adherent data are comparable between and , and the congregational data is comparable through . researchers who wish to include the united methodists in their analyses must choose between the slightly less accurate county-level umc adherent estimates for a full – comparison, or use the newer adherent reports that are limited to and . similarly, some comparisons can be made among the amish between and , the jewish and independent church counts between and , and many orthodox groups can be compared between and . we strongly advise against making any comparisons at all among black protestant groups or the wesleyan church. missing data when merging the data, a third challenge is accounting for missing data in one or more of the collections. the vast majority of groups in the religion census have missing data in at least one of the datasets. due to the expanding scope of the for the collection, determined as per congregation for settlements established before and those established in and were assigned adherents per congregation. settlements established in and had per congregation (bradley et al. ). we include a flag variable in the merged file to identify groups with measurement problems that could prevent over-time comparisons. rev relig res ( ) : – collections as well as individual group’s partial or non-participation in one or more years, the pattern of missing data in the religion census is diverse. using two missing data strategies, we were able to estimate the missing data of religious groups. of these, groups become available across all four datasets, groups are limited to a or -year comparison, and the remaining four groups are included in an aggregate grouping (as noted in the merger and schism section). these strategies increased group participation across all four datasets from to , and from to in a -year comparison between and . appendix b lists all the affected groups and their new estimates. the first missing data strategy uses simple linear interpolation and extrapolation to estimate the number of adherents and congregations among groups who are missing both data types in only one of the four datasets. we limited our estimates to these groups in the interest of retaining as many groups as possible without compromising the reliability and validity of the counts. linear interpolation estimates the values between two points in time, and extrapolation estimates values beyond them, by continuing the line formed between the points. an interpolation and extrapolation strategy is commonly used in economics research to fill in missing data for entire variable values. past research has used interpolation/extrapolation with the religion census data to estimate values of total adherence in the years between and beyond the decennial datasets (hillary and hui ; dyreng et al. ; boone et al. ). the main assumption in this strategy is that adherent and congregation size has a linear relationship with time. this is the case for the vast majority of groups in the religion census data, and studies on church growth and decline usually observe a linear relationship with time (finke and stark ; blau et al. ; hadaway and roozen ; marcum ). because we limited our use of the interpolation/extrapolation strategy to select groups with nearly complete data, we believe that the estimates are reasonable within the assumption of linear growth/decline. we estimated the counts of groups via extrapolation for or , and another nine groups had their data estimated via interpolation for either or , adding a cumulative . million adherents to the longitudinal file (see table ). the second missing data strategy was applied to groups. these groups had congregation counts but did not have adherent counts in either the or dataset. we estimated adherent counts in the missing year by multiplying their congregation counts by the observed adherent-to-congregation ratios (i.e. congre- gation size) within each county in the other year. we focused on the – time period because the majority of adherent-only missing data occurs in these full group participation is reserved for groups with both adherent and congregation data. this count includes groups with changes in measurement (e.g. catholics). we used the ‘‘ipolate’’ command with the epolate option in stata , which uses the following general formula: y ¼ y �y x �x ðx � x Þ þ y : for some groups, the aggregate count does not appear linear. this is because the formula is applied at the county level. the group may be in decline in some counties, but growing in others, resulting in an overall shift in size contrary to expectations. in the merged file, a flag variable identifies the counts that are estimated using each missing data method. rev relig res ( ) : – years. this focus also improves the representation of eastern orthodox groups, for whom and are the only years when their measurement is comparable. estimations of adherents based on congregation-size have been used in the religion census data collections before, such as the membership size applied to some black protestant congregations in the dataset (grammich et al. ). such assigned congregation sizes, however, are relatively arbitrary and applied to counties of all characteristics. our strategy improves on past estimations by using data from another year to inform the congregation size unique to each county, thereby capturing a more accurate picture of each group’s geographic distribution and the addition/subtraction of adherents as congregations open or close. we used a few variations of the congregation-based strategy depending on the needs of the group. the adherents of three eastern orthodox groups were estimated in based on their adherent-to-congregation ratios in . another groups were missing adherents in , and so we used their congregation size from as the multiplier. for counties where there were congregations in year, but not another, we assigned a conservative ‘‘small church’’ size of adherents per congregation in that county. we also adjusted our congregation-size strategy to estimate the adherent counts of the four groups affected by mergers and schisms. these four groups are: the serbian orthodox church in the usa (new gracanica metropolitanate), friends unaffiliated local meetings, the anglican church in north america (acna), and the north american lutheran church (nalc). in appendix b, a value of ‘‘m’’ indicates that these groups’ data are merged with another group for that particular year. these four groups lack not only adherent counts in both and , but their congregation counts are also missing in one of the years. to address the data limitations, we drew the adherent to congregation ratios from larger religious groups with which they share history and ideology (e.g. other eastern orthodox or friends groups). in doing so, we are assuming that the groups with missing data have distributions similar to other groups with whom they share a theology and history, which is generally supported in the literature on religious regions (stump ; table total adherents added using missing data estimations total strategy , , , , , , strategy , , , total , , , , , , , totals are rounded; individual estimates are kept un-rounded there are groups that have congregation counts but are missing adherents in . we decided not to estimate these groups for two reasons: ) they do not have sufficient participation in and to allow comparisons beyond , or ) they are an eastern orthodox group for whom measurement changes in disallow comparisons before and after . adherents in = (adherents in /congregations in ) congregations in . adherents in = (adherents in /congregations in ) congregations in . rev relig res ( ) : – bauer ). for the serbian orthodox church, we used the ratio of all other orthodox groups that participated in the dataset and multiplied the ratio by the number of serbian congregations. for the friends unaffiliated local meetings we used the ratio from all other participating friends groups in . for the acna and nalc, we used all evangelical protestants. both the acna and the nalc have national-level statistics about their congregation and membership size on their official websites, which provide additional insight into the size that the congrega- tions of each group tend to be. their national-level congregational size was weighted by the geographical representation of other evangelical protestants in the dataset. the congregation-size estimate recovers nearly million adherents across and , and both strategies together add nearly . million across all years of data (table ). the two missing data strategies are not without caveats. the congregation-size strategy assumes that the average congregation size within the county for each group is the same over two decades. in reality, it is foreseeable that the addition or loss of a congregation could alter the average congregation size in a county, and recent evidence suggests that smaller congregations are more likely to close than large ones, which are becoming even larger in recent decades (chaves ). these factors indicate that change in average congregation size between decades does occur, and our approach masks the co-existence of small and large congregations that open or close at different rates within the same county. among the schism/ merger groups, we further assumed that the congregation size and/or distribution of the group matched that of ideologically similar religious groups, although there are likely counties where this is not the case. our interpolation and extrapolation techniques also provide relatively simplistic estimates of missing data, where the only relationship considered is a linear one with time. extrapolation also cannot predict future geographic expansion, but this problem is limited to only two groups for whom we extrapolated values in the dataset. the simplicity of our missing data methods, however, has future value; it is relatively easy for data users to update them using the religion census when it becomes available. we recommend that researchers use the missing data estimates within larger religious group traditions or families, such as measuring the size of all evangelical or friends groups, rather than to accurately represent the growth or decline of the specific religious group. overall, we believe our estimates improve the data by increasing group representation and we chose evangelical protestants as the larger category for the acna and nalc because the groups are more conservative than their mainline ‘parent’ denominations, and also because the evangelical adjustment produced estimates closer to each group’s national membership than the mainline adjustment would have. evangelical protestants in the dataset were identified using reltrad categorizations as a guide (steensland et al. ). we used the following formula: missing group adherents = group’s national congregation size (county evangelical protestant congregation size/national evangelical protestant congregation size) group congregations. the national congregation size for each group came from their official statistical reports available online. the acna’s most recent online report (anglican church in north america ) identified adherents per congregation; we used a size of as a more conservative estimate. the national congregation size for the nalc was in (north american lutheran church ); we used a size of as a more conservative estimate. rev relig res ( ) : – allowing for the adherent counts of groups involved in mergers or schisms to be included in aggregate groupings appropriate for longitudinal analyses. standardizing areal units whereas the first three challenges addressed how to offer comparable counts of congregations and adherents over time, the final challenge is concerned with the unit of analysis. while no changes in state boundaries have occurred in many decades, a total of counties are affected by changes between and that are problematic for data users. for instance, the creation of a county results in the re- allocation of other counties’ population into the new county, while the dissolution of a county results in its population being allocated to one or more surrounding counties. the and religion census datasets also are distinct from the and datasets in how they treat independent cities in virginia. in and , many (but not all) of the religious group counts in independent cities were attributed to their surrounding counties, making it appear that the independent cities have missing data and that the surrounding counties had more adherents than actual (quinn et al. ; bradley et al. ). in and , the counts in independent cities have adherent/congregation counts separate from their surround- ing counties. this problem makes it impossible to compare the counts in virginia independent cities and surrounding counties from / to / without aggregating them. to keep counties consistent across all four waves, we created aggregate county units to standardize their boundaries. for instance, the creation of broomfield county in colorado in took territory from four surrounding counties. we therefore merged all five of the counties for – to maintain consistent boundaries. likewise, counties that were dissolved over the time period were combined with the counties they dissolved into for the years prior to their dissolution. south boston city and clifton forge city counties in virginia were among the counties in the u.s. that dissolved over the time period, as are several territories in alaska. secondly, we addressed the problem of the independent cities in virginia, which affected county and county-equivalents. we merged the independent cities with their ‘parent’ counties in and , just as they appear in and . each of the county mergers are detailed in appendix c. in the original dataset, there are counties. after implementing the necessary county mergers between and , there are counties and county- equivalents in the new longitudinal file. the longitudinal file is not available with de-aggregated counties. aggregated county counts were necessary to calculate missing data and could not be deconstructed afterwards without additional bias. researchers may contact the authors to inquire about altering the data to accommodate fewer aggregations (e.g. examining only – data doesn’t require virginia independent city aggregations). rev relig res ( ) : – summary of improvements and remaining limitations table summarizes the consequences of our many adjustments. along with making the data more comparable overtime, the adjustments also sharply increased the number of adherents that could be included from each collection in the final merged files. the most substantial increases were for the white protestant groups. if we were to use the religion census datasets without any adjustments, several protestant groups would be omitted due to schisms, mergers, aggregations, measurement changes and missing data. accounting for schisms, mergers and other group aggregations allows for the full inclusion of the episcopal church, the evangelical lutheran churches in america, several additional mennonite groups, all of the friends groups and the moravian church in america (see table ). as shown in table , adjusting for mergers and schisms adds between six and nine million additional adherents in each year of the dataset, particularly benefiting the table summary of adjustments unadjusted a total , , , , , , , , mainline , , , , , , , , evangelical , , , , , , , , adjustments: schisms, mergers, and aggregations total , , , , , , , , mainline , , , , , , , , evangelical , , , , , , , , united methodist b total , , , , , , , , mainline , , , , , , , , evangelical , , , , , , , , missing data total , , , , , , , , mainline , , , , , , , , evangelical , , , , , , , , county merges total , , , , , , , , mainline , , , , , , , , evangelical , , , , , , , , a only includes groups with consistent adherent measures in all years b uses the ‘‘old’’ county-level adherent estimate mainline and evangelical categorization was based on the reltrad specification detailed by steensland et al.( ). appendix a identifies the reltrad category assigned to each group and a reltrad variable is also included in the longitudinal file. rev relig res ( ) : – mainline aggregate count. including the united methodist church after adjusting for their measurement change also greatly increases mainline adherents by about million each year. including the missing data estimates (net those involved in the mergers and schisms) adds approximately . million more adherents each year. we also can see the benefit of the county mergers in the last section of table . by including the merged county units, we added between two and three million protestant adherents to the dataset. taken altogether, the changes allowed for the more reliable inclusion of an additional – million protestant adherents in each year. despite these improvements, limitations in utilizing all years of data for longitudinal analyses remain. we did not estimate adherent and congregation counts of all the groups who had missing data, and not all groups involved in schisms are present in the years following their founding. the most significant limitations, however, are the unamendable measurement changes among some of the largest religious groups. adherent comparisons across all years are mostly limited to predominantly white mainline and evangelical christian denominations. if the analyses are limited to fewer years of data or to congregational counts, however, the new longitudinal files still can be used to study additional groups, such as catholics, jews, mormons, or some of the orthodox christian groups (see table ). unfortunately, the historically african-american denominations are not fully represented in any of the collections. limitations remain, but the new longitudinal files offer important improvements for using the religions censuses for overtime research. conclusion the decennial religious censuses now collected by the association of statisticians of american religious bodies have been used extensively by researchers; but the complexities of merging the files have prevented most from using the files for explaining religious change over time. schisms and mergers, changing geographical boundaries, modified methods of reporting and various sources of missing data have posed challenges that made the merging both complex and time consuming. some of the challenges required demographic training, others required an extensive knowledge of the specific groups being studied. addressing these challenges required both expertise and time. we have made several changes to the , , and religion census datasets in order to address challenges associated with merging the data collections into a longitudinal file. these changes included alterations to variable names, the creation of new combined groups to correct for schisms and mergers, introducing alternative counts of the united methodist church, providing estimates for missing data and merging county units in the county-level file. collectively, these changes produced new longitudinal files that increase religious group representation, reduce bias from missing data, improve the file’s ease of use and are readily accessible from thearda.com. rev relig res ( ) : – we have issued several warnings on the limitations of the data and on which groups can be meaningfully compared over time, but this shouldn’t distract from the many opportunities the merged files offer. for a core group of religious groups, meaningful comparisons among adherents and congregations now can be made using all four collections. for many of the remaining groups, comparable data is now available for at least two points in time. this allows researchers to explore how groups change in size and geography over time and how these changes are related to other social, demographic and economic changes. overall, we believe that our efforts greatly improve the quality of the data by reducing missing data and making the data more comparable over time, and will simplify the process of accessing and using a merged file for all users. acknowledgements we thank lauren arieux for providing the alternative and united methodist adherent counts, and daniel olson for sharing information about the religion census datasets. this project was made possible through the support of the lilly endowment, inc. and the john templeton foundation. the opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the lilly endowment, inc. or the john templeton foundation. funding was provided by lilly endowment, inc. (grant no. - ), john templeton foundation (grant no. ). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, dis- tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references anglican church in north america. . about the anglican church in north america. http://www. anglicanchurch.net/media/acna_fact_sheet_ - - .pdf. accessed oct . bauer, john t. . u.s. religious regions revisited. the professional geographer ( ): – . blau, judith r., kent redding, and kenneth c. land. . ethnocultural cleavages and the growth of church membership in the united states, – . sociological forum ( ): . https://doi. org/ . /bf . boone, jeff p., inder k. khurana, and k.k. raman. . religiosity and tax avoidance. american accounting association ( ): – . bradley, martin b., m. norman jr., dale e. green, mac lynn jones, and lou mcneil. . churches and church membership in the united states. washington, dc: glenmary research center. chaves, mark. . american religion: contemporary trends. princeton: princeton university press. dyreng, scott d., william j. mayew, and christopher d. williams. . religious social norms and corporate financial reporting. journal of business finance and accounting ( ): – . finke, roger, and christopher p. scheitle. . accounting for the uncounted: computing correctives for the rcms data. review of religious research ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . finke, roger, and rodney stark. . turning pews into people: estimating th century church membership. journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . six religious groups provided both adherent and congregation data in all years, but are excluded from this count due to measurement changes in either adherents or congregations. the excluded groups are: roman catholics, latter-day saints, southern baptists, old order amish, the armenian apostolic church of america (eastern prelancy), and archdiocese of the syrian orthodox church of antioch. rev relig res ( ) : – http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://www.anglicanchurch.net/media/acna_fact_sheet_ - - .pdf http://www.anglicanchurch.net/media/acna_fact_sheet_ - - .pdf https://doi.org/ . /bf https://doi.org/ . /bf https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / finke, roger, and rodney stark. . the churching of america, – : winners and losers in our religious economy, nd ed. new brunswick: rutgers university. grammich, clifford. . sources of change in catholic populations, to . paper presented at the joint annual meeting of the religious research association and society for the scientific study of religion, phoenix, az. grammich, clifford, c. kirk hadaway, richard houseal, dale e. jones, alexei krindatch, richie stanley, and richard h. taylor. . census: religious congregations and membership study. lenexa: association of statisticians of american religious bodies. hadaway, kirk c., and david a. roozen. . church and denominational growth. nashville, tn: abingdon press. hillary, giles, and kai wai hui. . does religion matter in corporate decision making in america? journal of financial economics ( ): – . johnson, douglas w., paul r. picard, and bernard quinn. . churches and church membership in the united states: an enumeration by region, state, and county. washington, dc: glenmary research center. jones, dale e., sherri doty, clifford grammich, james e. horsch, richard houseal, mac lynn, john p. marcum, kenneth m. sanchagrin, and richard h. taylor. . religious congregations and membership in the united states : an enumeration by region, state and county based on data reported for religious bodies. nashville, tn: glenmary research center. land, kenneth c., glenn deane, and judith r. blau. . religious pluralism and church membership: a spatial diffusion model. american sociological review ( ): – . lim, chaeyoon. . counting the faithful: measuring local religious contexts in the united states. journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . lindner, eileen w. . yearbook of american and canadian churches. in yearbook of american and canadian churches, ed. national council of the churches of christ. nashville, tn: abingdon press. lindner, eileen w. . yearbook of american and canadian churches. in yearbook of american and canadian churches, ed. national council of the churches of christ. nashville, tn: abingdon press. marcum, john p. . w(h)ither the mainline? trends and prospects. review of religious research : – . national council of churches. . churches and church membership in the united states: an enumeration and analysis by counties, states and regions. new york: national council of churches. north american lutheran church. . about the nalc. https://www.thenalc.org/about-us- /. accessed oct . quinn, bernard, herman anderson, martin b. bradley, paul goetting, and peggy shriver. . churches and church membership in the united states, . washington, dc: glenmary research center. steensland, brian, jerry park, mark regnerus, w. lynn robinson, bradford wilcox, and robert woodberry. . the measure of american religion: toward improving the state of the art. social forces : – . stump, roger w. . the effects of geographical variability on protestant church membership trends, – . journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . rev relig res ( ) : – https://www.thenalc.org/about-us- / 	merging the religious congregations and membership studies: a data file for documenting american religious change 	abstract 	collecting congregational and membership data 	addressing the challenges 	accounting for mergers, schisms, and other aggregations 	group measurement changes 	missing data 	standardizing areal units 	summary of improvements and remaining limitations 	conclusion 	acknowledgements 	references s jxx .. editors’ introduction this issue marks the first issue that we, the new editors, have assembled, although we bore no part in the processing of these manuscripts. beginning in january of this year, we took the reins from ted jelen and sabrina ramet, five years after they launched the journal. in issue ( ), they expressed the hopes that the journal would attract interdisciplinary work that covered the breadth of world politics and religions. even a cursory review of volumes – documents the fulfilment of those hopes. we seek nothing less than a continuation of ted and sabrina’s legacy and are thankful to them for providing us with a firm foundation for our term. from our point of view, politics and religion is an international journal publishing high quality peer-reviewed research on the multifaceted relationship between religion and politics around the world. the scope of published work is intentionally broad and we invite innovative work from all methodological approaches in the major subfields of political science, including international relations, american politics, comparative politics, and political theory, that seeks to improve our understanding of religion’s role in some aspect of world politics. we welcome normative and empirical investigations of the public representation of religion, the religious and political institutions that shape religious presence in the public square, and the role of religion in shaping citizenship, broadly con- sidered, as well as pieces that attempt to advance our methodological tools for examining religious influence in political life. as a result of a vote at the apsa religion and politics organized section meeting, the journal is expanding in . currently, politics and religion is published three times per year, but in this will increase to four issues per year. we will also increase the length of each issue from seven articles to eight. moving to a quarterly publication will expedite publication of articles and ensure that the journal reflects the most current research. knowing that our workload will increase as a result of the move to four issues, one of our first acts as editors was to begin moving management of the production process to the online editorial manager service. aside politics and religion, ( ), – © religion and politics section of the american political science association, doi: . /s - / $ . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core from streamlining our workflow, we believe this will enhance the effi- ciency and transparency of the publication process for authors and reviewers. the instructions for contributors are below and we look forward to your submissions through the new online system, which can be found here: http://www.editorialmanager.com/prj beginning july , articles accepted for publication will appear online first at the politics and religion cambridge website (http://journals. cambridge.org/action/displayjournal?jid=rap). this early online access before print publication will expedite the best research in our field quickly from the author to the broader academic readership. we are also happy to report that politics and religion continues to be indexed with more online databases, having recently been picked up by international political science abstracts. a complete list is available on the journal website. we would also like to welcome a new editorial board that is a bit slimmer ( versus ) and contains quite a bit of new personnel — by design only seven of the previous board members continue on in service. we hope to initiate a regular rotation so more scholars can serve the journal in this impor- tant position. we are quite fortunate that andrew murphy was willing to take on another stint as book review editor and look forward to the continued robust dialogue that section provides. the articles in this issue offer various perspectives on a central question for the discipline: what is the role of religion in politics? friesen and wagner conclude that attitudes about the intersection of faith and politics may be best understood in the context of denominational guidance. with a similar respect for the role of denominational leadership, but employing classic social movement theory, gordon and gillespie examine the mormons’ strategy against the era as well as the more contemporary issue of same-sex marriage. denominational guidance plays a role in kopko’s analysis of religious identity in the mennonite church and its effect on political participation. sokhey and mockabee evidence the role of church-based networks in exposing individuals to cross-cutting dis- course and providing a unique source of information within a larger elec- toral environment. taking a comparative approach, gu and bomhoff contrast the similarities and differences of catholic and muslim publics regarding support for democracy and toleration of civil values. two articles focus on the role of the catholic church particularly, with the first by gin considering the importance of coalition-building incentives and the second, by chu, calling on political scientists to engage more thoughtfully with theological statements that could in turn be seen as a commitment on behalf of the catholic church towards non-violent editors’ introduction terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core conflict resolution. finally, using a different lens, hays and, separately, liebell deliberate on aspects of judicial activism with the former looking at the process of reconstructing policies on school prayer in the reagan years and the latter detailing judicial interventions over intelligent design and challenging liberals to articulate a more positive frame about the importance of science in the construction of liberal citizenship. we hope you enjoy this array of contributions and consider submitting your own research to politics and religion. as new editors, we are excited about these new developments and look forward to the continued growth and success of politics and religion. sincerely, paul a. djupe angelia r. wilson co-editors editors’ introduction terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le choix des annales actas de las i jornadas de metodologîa aplicada de las ciencias histôricas, secreta- riado de publicaciones, departamento de historia moderna, universidad de santiago de compostela. avec le volume v (paleografia y archivîstica, santiago, ) se termine la publication des travaux du congrès de saint-jacques-de-compostelle en . l'ensemble — plus particulièrement le volume iii consacré aux x v i e - x v i i i e siècles — témoigne de la qualité de l'école historique espagnole. andré-jean a r n a u d , la justice, paris, seghers, coll. « clefs », , p. andré-jean a r n a u d , dont le lecteur des annales connaît les travaux sur les doctrines juridiques (et, tout récemment, la remarquable étude « une méthode d'analyse structurale en histoire du droit », dans vorstudien zur rechtshistorik, hrsg. v. j . m. scholz, francfort : klostermann, ), nous donne aujourd'hui un petit livre passionnant. a la fois description d'un appareil et de son langage, guide du consommateur-justiciable, c'est surtout le rappel, documenté et convaincant, de réformes indispensables. daniel b e a u v o i s , lumières et société en europe de l'est : l'université de vilna et les écoles polonaises de l'empire russe ( - ), lille, atelier de reproduction de l i l l e - l l l , , vol., p. comment l'europe de l'est, au début du xixe siècle, accouche d'une n o u - velle catégorie sociale : l'intelligentsia. la naissance, la vie et la mort d'une université, inconnue en occident et insuffisamment connue même en pologne et en russie ; les vicissitudes d'un immense réseau scolaire aux confins de ces deux pays. une contribution exemplaire à l'histoire des universités, à celle de l'enseignement et, plus généralement, à l'histoire socio-culturelle de l'europe de l'est. john bossy, the english catholic community, - , new york, oxford univ. press, , p. a n t h r o p o l o g i e des catholiques anglais entre le moment où ils sont privés de la hiérarchie ecclésiastique et celui où ils la retrouvent et se perdent dans le flot d'immigrants irlandais. non pas la minorité catholique per- sécutée — qui impliquerait une majorité opprimante — mais la communauté, voisine et contemporaine des innombrables communautés religieuses que l'imagination britannique a su inventer, avec sa stratégie d'auto-ségrégation, ses institutions, sa gentry surtout. chaque mot porte dans ce livre qui invite à réfléchir sur d'autres c o m m u - nautés et sur notre métier d'historien. corpus de l'architecture rurale française, paris, berger-levrault, . admirable exploitation du fichier de du musée des arts et traditions populaires, relatif au plan des maisons rurales. maison de bois (au nord de la savoie) contre maison de pierre (au sud). le début d'une collection complète sur les provinces françaises, vues sous cet angle. philip d. c u r t i n , economie change in precolonial africa. senegambia in the era of the slave trade, madison, the university of w i s c o n s i n press, , p. une belle analyse des populations comprises entre gambie et sénégal du x v i i au xixe siècle. pour rompre avec l'ethnocentrisme, ph. d. curtin voulait étudier la traite des esclaves du côté africain (chasse et commerce de l'homme en a f r i q u e ) . il s'aperçoit que donner la priorité à ce commerce, c'est encore privilégier le point de vue européen ou américain ; il analyse h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms donc le fonctionnement interne et l'évolution de la société sénégambienne, révèle des formes et des institutions originales, et associe avec talent l'étude anthropologique — celle des diasporas marchandes notamment — à l'histoire économique quantitative. e. fernÂndez de pinedo, crecimiento econômico y transformaciones sociales del pais vasco, - , madrid, , siglo xxi, p. par un jeune historien aux travaux prometteurs, cette riche étude du monde rural basque, conduite dans la longue durée, permet de mieux saisir les racines des problèmes actuels. richard d. french, antivivisection and médical science in victorian society, princeton univ. press, , p. au carrefour des conflits entre le pouvoir scientifique et la mentalité popu- laire, le dossier de cette lutte sur la vivisection sert de révélateur aux croyances sur la religion, sur la femme, sur l'État. jean gascÔ, la communauté paysanne de fontbouisse, « archives d'écologie préhistorique », - , toulouse, centre d'écologie humaine. a la découverte de la préhistoire méditerranéenne, jean gascô, géographe et préhistorien, a établi une typologie de l'habitat du groupe de fontbouisse en languedoc et esquissé une spatialisation des activités d'un monde paysan vieux de ans, organisé en communautés, villageoises déjà fortement structurées. une très belle tentative de reconstitution de l'éco- système néolithique. massimo guidetti et paul h. stahl, éd., // sangue e la terra. comunita di villagio e comunita familiari nell'europa dell' , milan, jaca book, , p. + ni. un recueil de travaux d'ethnologie européenne du siècle dernier; des noms illustres mais aussi beaucoup de re-découvertes. l'ouvrage propose tout ensemble une masse d'informations précieuses sur des formes sociales encore bien conservées au moment où elles ont été observées, et un voyage dans l'anthropologie du xixe siècle. gavino ledda, padre padrone. l'éducation d'un berger sarde, paris, gallimard, « témoins », , p. dans la lignée de thomas platter, rétif, guillaumin... un remarquable document d'autobiographie paysanne, sur le plus vieux métier du monde depuis le néolithique : la profession de berger. evelyne patlagean, pauvreté économique et pauvreté sociale à byzance, e- e siècle, paris-la haye, mouton, coll. « civilisations et sociétés », , , p. une grande thèse attendue. la pauvreté sert ici de révélateur à la société byzantine dans son ensemble. l'analyse de configurations originales débouche sur l'individualisation d'un modèle économique et d'un système de relations sociales au cœur d'une période de transformations profondes. une belle leçon de méthode. timothy tackett, priest and parish in eighteenth-century france, princeton univ. press, , p. le portrait convaincant d'un groupe social essentiel dans la société rurale d'ancien régime. la sociologie des curés (origine sociale, études, carrière, niveau de vie), la sociabilité paroissiale, la pénétration de la revendication politique dans le milieu clérical sont minutieusement étudiées. sans doute, le diocèse de gap n'est pas la france. mais cette très bonne monographie permet de poser quelques grandes questions. alain touraine, un désir d'histoire, paris, stock, , p. la meilleure exposition résumée, à ce jour, du système de pensée d'alain touraine. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms c r i t i q u e direction : jean piel n° - (juin-juillet) r o l a n d b a r t h e s philippe roger, c'est donc un amoureux qui p a r l e - patrick mauries, l'anonyme parisien * michel pierssens, l'interstice et la dissidence martine broda, don juan vers la perte andré clavel, tournier le jardinier jacques poulain, une lecture de rousseau jean-chr. cambier, lectures pour tous louis bolle, powys et ses personnages jean-michel salanskis, paradoxes, singularités, systèmes pierre pachet, noirs complots de sciascia rené thom, réponse à lévy-leblond notes par yves michaud, boris eizykman, hourya sinaceur, denise reuillard, elisabeth hagbarth abonnement* : france Étranger ce numéro: f mois f f an f f É d i t i o n s d e m i n u i t , rue bernard-palissy • paris c.c.p. paris . vii h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms une œuvre originale de l'École historique française qui n'a d'équivalant, ni en france, ni hors de france histoire Économique et sociale du monde en six volumes sous la direction de p i e r r e l É o n a paraître en novembre : t . . l ' o u v e r t u r e d u m o n d e xiv«-xvi« s i È c l e sous la direction de b. bennassar et de p . chaunu des univers multiples et fractionnés - la chrétienté latine occiden- tale désenclavante - vers la première ébauche d'une économie- monde. t . . g u e r r e s e t c r i s e s - sous la direction de g. d u p e u x le choc d'une guerre mondiale - nouveaux espoirs et solutions nouvelles - les ruptures des années t r e n t e - le poids d'une guerre totale. t . . l e s e c o n d xx* siÈcle a n o s j o u r s sous la direction de p . l É o n les dominantes de la civilisation nouvelle - les expansions : économies et sociétés développées - la réaction des régions pauvres - les incertitudes du monde évolué. a paraître en novembre : t . . - — t . . - — t . . - a r m a n d c o l i n h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms vient de paraître : l'orient musulman au moyen age n i k i t a e l i s s e e f f professeur à v université de lyon depuis l'avènement de l'islam au v n e siècle, jusqu'à l'échec de la poussée mongole en orient au x m e siècle, cet ouvrage retrace le déroulement de six siècles d'une histoire qui va transformer le monde. les faits essentiels situés, d'une part, dans leur cadre géographique, d'autre part, dans leur contexte spirituel et religieux, s'inscrivent dans la succession des grandes dynasties : des califes rashidun aux sultans seldjouqides. collection u, série « histoire médiévale » dirigée par georges duby x cm, p . , cartes, bibliogr , f armand colin h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms politique aujourd'hui recherches et pratiques socialistes dans le monde numéro - r.f.a.: l'Étouffement des libertÉs les mécanismes de la répression detlev claussen, heinrich grÛn, tradition prussienne et réalité impéria- liste : les berufsverbote else morzard, berufsverbote : exclusions et reniements jean-jacques de fÉlice, la négation des droits de la défense arnim golzem, avocat politique en r.f.a., un métier... difficile a. brunelli, d. heilbronn, a. schreider, m. waltz, l'université de brème : réforme et répression face à la répression oskar negt, quand le s.p.d. gère la crise reinhard dietrich, andréas wehr, les jusos face aux berufsverbote michel korinmann, l'extrême-gauçhe : problèmes et perspectives jacob moneta, crise économique, syndicalisme, consensus social dans les milieux culturels klaus ahleim, les églises devant la répression helmut gollwitzer, contre la peur des sorcières Éliane kaufholz, les écrivains allemands et les libertés gunter grass, quand il fallait rebaptiser le radis volker schlÔndorff, cinéma et consensus social un devoir: résister rudi dutschke, mes raisons d'espérer clara schÛltz, contre les berufsverbote, le comité d'action berlinois pour un tribunal russell-r.f.a. ont participé à la préparation de ce numéro : pierre maudet, elisabeth legris, hilde prince et luc favre pour les traductions, et jean-françois batellier, cagnat, demoulin et siegfrief kûhl pour les illustrations. les intertitres sont de la rédaction et n'engagent qu'elle seule, de même que les titres d'articles. le numéro : f . p o l i t i q u e aujourd'hui, - , rue des petits-hôtels, paris c.c.p. politique . - la source les lecteurs des 'annales bénéficient d'une remise de % sur le prix de l'abonnement. ix h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms statut personnel et famille au maghreb de a nos jours m a u r i c e b o r r m a n s libération et indépendance, ces réalités politiques que connaissent le maroc et la tunisie depuis , et l'algérie depuis , ont-elles entraîné une réforme du droit familial, une promotion de la condition féminine, une plus grande autonomie des personnes ? questions capitales pour celui qui interroge le devenir actuel du maghreb, en sociologue et en juriste. maurice borrmans essaie d'y répondre en analysant les mentalités officielles et officieuses, telles qu'elles se sont exprimées en afrique du nord avant et après les indépendances, après une longue enquête sur les évolutions vécues et exprimées entre-temps et une étude précise des codes de statut personnel et de la jurisprudence des trois pays intéressés. les structures familiales ont changé sous l'intervention de multiples facteurs : le droit précède-t-il ou suit-il la transformation des mœurs et le renouvellement de l'anthropologie de base ? pourquoi est-il profondément réformateur en tunisie et particulièrement conservateur au maroc, alors qu'il demeure hési- tant en algérie ? questions auxquelles on ne peut répondre que si l'on tient compte de l'histoire lointaine et récente, des personnes qui la font aujourd'hui, et du caractère propre à chaque peuple. pour le juriste, c'est l'occasion de découvrir certaines voies de l'acculturation juridique en pays musulmans ; pour le sociologue, c'est le moment de s'interroger sur le rôle social du droit dans les pays en voie de développement. de toute façon, en afrique du nord, la famille connaît une véritable mutation : il n'est pas sans importance de savoir si les droits des personnes, surtout ceux de la femme et de l'enfant, y seront fidèlement défendus, de chercher à com- prendre et d'interroger l'avenir, en pleine sympathie avec les hommes et les femmes du maghreb d'aujourd'hui. collection interaction. l'homme et son environnement social, t x » c m . xn- pages, relié toile sous jaquette f m o u t o n É d i t e u r diffusion : librairie de la nouvelle facultÉ , rue des saints-pÈres, -paris x h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms acta poloniae historica revue paraissant deux fois par an sous les auspices du comité des sciences historiques et de l'institut d'histoire de l'académie polonaise des sciences rédacteur en chef : jan baszkiewicz vol. xxxvi, prix $ j. m e y e r d . rlchet r . c h a r t i e r j.-m. constant m. flandrin m . sczaniecki a. wyczÀnski a. k e r s t e n j. tazbir w . dworzaczek Études s u r la n oblesse la noblesse française au x v m e siècle : aperçu des problèmes Élite et noblesse : la formation des grands serviteurs de l ' É t a t (fin xvi e -début x v n e siècles) la noblesse française et les É t a t s généraux de : une réaction aristocratique ? quelques problèmes de mobilité sociale et de vie matérielle chez les gentilshommes de beauce aux x v i e et x v n e siècles la noblesse parisienne face à la convocation des É t a t s généraux en les origines et la formation de la noblesse polonaise au moyen age la structure de la noblesse polonaise aux x v i e - x v i n e siècles (remarques méthodiques) les magnats, élite de la société nobiliaire les modèles personnels de la noblesse polonaise au x v n e siècle la mobilité sociale de la noblesse polonaise aux x v i e et x v n e siècles s. grodziski les devoirs et les droits politiques de la noblesse polonaise recherche historique, discussions, comptes rendus, notes, vie scientifique rédaction : i n s t y t ù t historii pan, rynek starego miasta / , warszawa, pologne pour commande à l'étranger s'adresser : centrale du commerce extérieur ars polona, krakowskie przedmieécie , - warszawa, pologne, bank handlowy s.a. warszawa, konto nr - - - ou à la boutique polonaise, , rue drouot, paris. xi h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms histoire des passions franÇaises france i - par t h É o d o r e z e l d i n - : un siècle d'histoire française fait de brillantes réussites culturelles, mais aussi des désastres politiques répétés : un siècle de confusions et de paradoxes. pour tenter d'en faire ressortir le sens, théodore zeldin articule son enquête autour de trois grands axes : une histoire des ambitions, des prétentions et des illusions des différentes classes sociales ; une histoire du pouvoir des intellectuels dans une société qui leur a fait une place si exceptionnelle et enfin une histoire de l'anxiété, du sentiment et de ' « individu ». france : -^ a été publié à londres en deux volumes (plus de deux mille pages). le premier volume ( ) a reçu le wolson literary prize for history ; le second volume vient de paraître à londres. l'édition française se composera de cinq volumes (de à pages). extraits de presse : « le lecteur français trouvera beaucoup à glaner dans le livre touffu, parfois contestable, toujours suggestif de théodore zeldin, dont aucun éditeur ne paraît encore avoir eu le courage d'entreprendre la traduction. » j _m m a y e u r _ le monde, février « c'est tout simplement le meilleur ouvrage du genre de ces quarante dernières années. avec le second tome, ce sera sans doute un grand ouvrage de référence. » j - ^ jyew statesman « quel livre ! le meilleur sans doute, incontestablement le plus alerte, dans une collection d'ouvrages de qualité. » e w e b e r _ american political science review « une somme... j'insiste encore sur l'intérêt de ce livre pour le lecteur français. aucun historien ne pourra plus parler de la france de ce siècle sans référence à la lecture qu'en fait zeldin- » e. labrousse - new left review « extrêmement stimulant et éclairant... voici sans conteste un ouvrage majeur... nous connaissons très peu de spécialistes français de la france post-révolutionnaire qui aient lu autant et qui en sachent autant sur leur pays. » j ^ agulhon - annales esc e n souscription à partir d'octobre les volumes i, ii, iii, iv, v de théodore z e l d i n , france -iÇ , au prix spécial de , f pour les cinq volumes au lieu de , f (franco de port). les volumes i et ii sortiront au printemps ; les volumes iii, iv et v sortiront au printemps . r e c h e r c h e s — collection e n c r e s , rue dalayrac - fontenay-sous-bois (tél. - - ) xii h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms m o u v e m e n t s o c i a l revue trimestrielle publiée avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et avec la collaboration du centre d'histoire du syndicalisme de l'université de parls-i (panthéon-sorbonne). avril-juin numÉro au p a y s de schneider prolétariat et militants ouvriers de la commune à nos jours présentation du colloque marcel evrard, l'Écomusée de la communauté urbaine le creusot - montceau-les-mines pierre ponsot, organisation et action dans le mouvement ouvrier : réflexion sur le cas de montceau-les-mines au tournant du x i x e et du x x e siècle discussion marcel massard, syndicalisme et milieu social ( - ) discussion rolande t r e m p É , sur le permanent dans le mouvement ouvrier discussion marc vuilleumier, les exilés communards en suisse discussion yves leÇjuin. mobilité géographique et organisation ouvrière ( - ) discussion pierre goujon, militants du mouvement ouvrier en saône-et-loire entre les deux guerres discussion michelle p e r r o t , le militant face à la grève dans la mine et la métallurgie au x i x e siècle discussion rené parize, les militants ouvriers au creusot pendant les grèves de - notes de lecture les É d i t i o n s ouvriÈres , avenue sœur-rosalie — paris - cedex c.c.p. paris - abonnement annuel : france, f; Étranger, f le numéro : france, f; Étranger, f xiii h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms un territoire encore inexploré : l'histoire de la statistique... ...un ouvrage original qui en montre toute l'étendue et la richesse. pour une histoire de la statistique tome i : contributions par : f. bedarida - j. bouvier - f. caron - i. cloulas - a. daumard - m. demonet - a. desrosières - j. dupaquier - m. dupaquier - g. garrier - m. hau - j. hecht - j. hoock - b. lecuyer - p. léon - m. levy - r. levy-bruhl - m. levy-leboyer - j. mairesse - e. malinvaud - t. markovitch - c. ménard - h. morsel - j. ozouf - j.d. pariset - j.c. perrot - m. perrot - j. vacher - a. vanoli - e. vilquin - m. voile. une étape importante la statistique a beaucoup évolué et s'exerce maintenant dans de multiples do- maines. mais quels ont été les facteurs décisifs de cette évolution ? ne faut-il pas la mettre en relation avec les transformations économiques et sociales ? c'est pour approfondir cette question qu'historiens et statisticiens ont organisé des journées d'étude en commun. chacun a apporté ses connaissances pour participer à l'élaboration d'une histoire de la statistique. des contributions variées le premier tome de « pour une histoire de la statistique » regroupe l'ensemble des contributions. elles traitent en général de la france et s'attachent le plus souvent à l'histoire de la statistique dans ses différents domaines. mais les exemples de l'allemagne et de la grande-bretagne sont aussi évoqués. d'autres aspects sont étudiés : l'histoire des nomenclatures socio-profession- nelles, le rôle de certaines institutions et personnalités dans le développement statistique, les relations qu'entretient la statistique avec la recherche historique, l'économie, la sociologie. des sujets de réflexion divers il y a plusieurs façons d'écrire l'histoire de la statistique. on peut simplement décrire l'évolution des méthodes, comme recenser l'utilisation des sources. mais on peut également étudier les conditions et les facteurs décisifs du déve- loppement de l'appareil statistique. a chaque contribution, le lecteur pourra se poser la question : quelle histoire ? et pour quelle statistique ? un volume broché - format x - pages. prix : f. en vente : - à l'observatoire économique de paris, tour gamma a, , rue de bercy, paris cedex - dans les observatoires économiques régionaux de l'insee - chez les libraires spécialisés. xiv h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms comparative studies in society and history volume ig number october editorial review of volume social s t r u c t u r e a n d politics i n two m o d e r n soc ieties ronald rogowski, the gauleiter and the social origins of fascism david e. sumler, subcultural persistence and political cleavage in the third french republic race a n d s t a t u s i n two colonial mexican c i t i e s john k. chance and william b. taylor, estate and class in a colonial city : oaxaca in patrick j. carrol, mandinga : the evolution of a mexican runaway slave community, - r e s p o n s e a n d review ronald skeldon, régional associations : a note on opposed interprétations thomas n. tentler, death and dying in many disciplines : a review article volume ( ) £ - (us$ . u.s.a. and canada) for institutions. £ . (us$ . u.s.a. and canada) for individuals. single parts £ . (us$ . u.s.a. and canada) each cambridge university press bentley house, euston road, london n w i dh e a s t th street, new york n.y. xv h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms centre de documentation sciences humaines / du e siÈcle a bibliographie annuelle de l'histoire de france (t. xxi/ ) c. albert-samuel, b. moreau, s. p o s t e l recensement en notices des textes parus en ; plus de périodiques, les actes de congrès, volumes de mélanges. • manuels généraux et sciences auxiliaires de l'histoire ; histoire politique de la france ; histoire des institutions ; histoire économique et sociale ; histoire reli- gieuse ; la france d'outre-mer ; histoire de la civilisation ; histoire locale • périodiques dépouillés ( pages) • index matières ( pages) • table des noms d'auteurs ( pages) x / p . / relié isbn . . - f quai anatole france. paris ccp. paris - • tél. - - m_ profession - adresse achète le livre. chez son libraire • à défaut aux editions du cnrs (chèque joint) g et demande votre documentation • sciences humaines d sciences exactes et naturelles d trésor de la langue française d revue de l'art •£ indus! rit: jervŒ h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms r e v u e t i e r s - m o n d e tome x v i i i , n° juillet-septembre des x s'interrogent sur le développement : une enquête internationale claude gruson, une politique de développement pour le tiers-monde. ses données technico- économiques nirina andriamanerasoa et rajaona andriamananjara, pour un développement au service des masses des pays sous-développés jean garnier, développement et satisfaction paul bourriÈres, transports, communications, travaux publics et développement pierre garrigues, la dimension écologique du développement jean bouscarle, formation et perfectionnement des cadres du tiers-monde en matière de gestion et d'organisation des entreprises jean werquin, la recherche appliquée française en agronomie tropicale, et son apport au développement du tiers-monde etienne crouzet, industrialisation, commerce et développement pierre seligmann, sur la concurrence entre pays industrialisés et pays en voie de dévelop- pement robert gibrat, l'opinion publique occidentale et les pays en voie de développement claude cheysson, quelle europe attendons-nous face au tiers-monde ? taki rifai, les fonds arabes de développement et leur impact sur le tiers-monde paul borel, le socialisme chinois après mao bernard de fontgalland, sous-développement et voie ferrée métrique la réforme agraire algérienne, portée et limites andré guichaoua, politique agricole et transformations sociales yves guillermou, les exploitations familiales, éléments d'analyse régionale migrations et développement gérard rÉmy, mobilité géographique et immobilisme social : un exemple voltaïque a l ' i e d e s l'a r a v (atelier de recherches audio-visuelles) chronique internationale colloque « atlas régionaux et régionalisation du plan du tchad ». — n'djamena, janvier colloque « Économie et sociologie de la famille ». — royaumont, janvier analyses bibliographiques direction-rédaction : i e d e s, , boulevard arago — paris — tel : . . abonnements et vente : p u f, , rue jean-de-beauvais — paris — tel : . . ccp : paris, n° - — france et communauté : , f., Étranger : , f. xvii h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms É c o l e d e s h a u t e s É t u d e s en sciences sociales m a u r i c e a g u l h o n une ville ouvrière au temps du socialisme utopique toulon de à comment les ouvriers de l'arsenal de toulon sont-ils devenus, peu a v a n t , la principale force de la république dans le département du var, et peut-être dans le sud-est ? la grande révolution de n'avait pas suffi à les ancrer définitivement dans cette opinion. on les voit par la suite tièdes, passifs, voire sensibles aux nostalgies traditionalistes qui dominent largement les milieux populaires de la provence « blanche » à la chute de napo- léon. le retournement rapide de l'extrémisme populaire royaliste à u n extrémisme radi- calement démocrate et socialiste est le problème général du midi dans la première moitié du e siècle, mais l'histoire de toulon le pose en termes particuliers, puisqu'il s'agit d'un milieu d'ouvriers salariés, employés par l ' É t a t dans une grande entreprise industrielle. deuxième édition (première édition ). p . planches hors texte, f . (civilisations et sociétés, .) l u c b o l t a n s k i prime éducation et morale de classe la diffusion de la puériculture est le résultat d'une entreprise systématique qui, commencée à la fin du siècle dernier, se poursuit aujourd'hui et constitue un élément à l'intérieur d'un projet plus vaste, plus ambitieux : régler la vie, particulièrement celle des membres des basses classes, régler tous les actes de la vie, y compris les plus intimes et les plus privés, ceux qui s'accomplissent à l'intérieur de la maison. deuxième édition (première édition ). p . f . (cahiers du centre de sociologie européenne, .) m o u t o n É d i t e u r diffusion en france : librairie de la nouvelle facultÉ , rue des saints-pÈres, paris xviii h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms terzo mondo rivista trimestrale di studi, ricerche e documentazione sui paesi afro-asiatici e latino-americani diretta da u m b e r t o melotti anno x n. p p . l. . (us$ ) — abbonamento annuo l. . (us$ . ) antonio carlo, imperialismo, monopoli, inflazione ; leone iraci f e d e l i , irrazionalizza- zione tecnologica e rapporti di scambio dei paesi sottosviluppati ; umberto melotti, il collettivismo burocratico ; antonio carlo e umberto melotti, in memoria di bruno rizzi ; jacek k u r o n , lettera aperta a enrico berlinguer sulla repressione in polonia ; umberto melotti, il problema délia disoccupazione giovanile : una risposta a francesco alberoni ; elena sala, crisi, pianificazione e nuovo modello di sviluppo ; lidia vacchi, hosea jaffe, uno sciocco o una canaglia ? i quaderni di terzo mondo adalberto pavan, aile sorgenti délia cultura africana, p p . , l. . (us$ . ) in « un libro moderno, fatto per uomini che non vogliono tradire l'uomo e desiderino introdursi alla conoscenza délia vera africa » (tullio tentori), l'autore raccoglie il risultato di una pluriennale ricerca affettuata in terra africana. il volume raccoglie e organizza documenti, note e osservazioni relative a oltre un centinaio di tribu di quasi t u t t e le regioni dell'africa, con particolare riferimento agli usi e ai costumi quotidiani, pressochè ignorati dalla corrente letteratura, ai riti, ai miti e allé credenze religiose. fotografie di grande interesse culturale integrano l'intéressante dossier. enzo bertinazzo, il lupo, el leon, la volpe, el cocodrilo l. . (usf . ) in queste venticinque favole di fedo, liberamente volte in veneto, con testo a fronte, enzo bertinazzo, uno dei nostri maggiori poeti dialettali, opéra un intervento pungente sulla nostra realtà, castigando ora dolcemente, ora ferocemente, i costumi dei nostro tempo. « bertinazzo sfrutta le grandi possibilità délia poesia satirica, con la parlata veneta che goldoni h a fatto diventare lingua ; se biagio marin ne ha reso gli accenti lirici e pasolini ha detto in friulano i suoi slanci più sofferti e umani, bertinazzo usa il bulino dell'ironia per ingaggiare la battaglia col suo tempo » (dalla prefazione di davide lajolo). corso di sociologia con la pubblicazione délie dispense n. (il processo di sviluppo storico, di umberto melotti), (elèmenti di antropologia culturale, di pietro scarduelli), (sociologia dei diritto, di antonio carlo), prosegue il corso di sociologia a dispense organizzate dal centro studi terzo mondo. abbonamento al corso completo l. . (us$ . ). r i c h i e s t e e a b b o n a m e n t i a " terzo m o n d o " via g . b . m o r g a g n i - m i l a n o , italia - conto corrente post. xix h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms É c o l e d e s h a u t e s É t u d e s en sciences sociales j e a n s É g u y les assemblées anabaptistes-mennonites de france comment des croyances religieuses se transmettent-elles ? jean séguy essaie de répondre à cette question en déroulant l'histoire des assemblées anabaptistes-mennonites de france (alsace, lorraine, montbéliardais et la région de belfort). issus de la branche pacifique de l'anabaptisme suisse du x v i e siècle, les mennonites français ont toujours formé un groupe restreint (environ membres baptisés aujour- d'hui). l'ouvrage étudie la formation, le fonctionnement et la transmission de leur tra- dition religieuse. il accorde aussi une place importante à leur activité professionnelle : les mennonites ont été et sont encore des « agriculteurs modèles ». . ° pages. relié. (société, mouvements sociaux et idéologies. Études, .) e v e l y n e p a t l a g e a n pauvreté économique et pauvreté sociale à byzance, e - e siècles la pauvreté occupe une position centrale dans l'histoire de byzance. a travers l'étude des pauvres, l'auteur observe la pérennité du village, le développement des formes neuves du monachisme, le gonflement des villes par les indigents et une main-d'œuvre non qualifiée, l'étalement d'une économie du non-développement. ainsi, la pauvreté est analysée comme le fondement d'un modèle économique et social et de ses transformations historiques, modèle qui ajoute une contribution d'historien à la typologie des sociétés dépourvues de croissance. . ^ p a g e s . planches hors texte. relié. (civilisations et sociétés, .) m o u t o n É d i t e u r diffusion en france : librairie de la nouvelle facultÉ , rue des saints-pÈres, paris xx h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms diogÈne n° — juillet-septembre luciana stegagno p i c c h i e , oppositions binaires en littérature : l'exemple brésilien andré chastel, fables, formes et figures viviane a l l e t o n , usages de l'écriture chinoise hillel schwartz, des jeux, des horloges et des hommes d'affaires paul v e y n e , l'idéologie selon marx et selon nietzsche elizar m. m e l e t i n s k y , d u m y t h e au folklore rÉdaction et administration (nouvelle adresse) : u.n.e.s.c.o., , rue miollis, paris. tél. - - revue trimestrielle paraissant en quatre langues : anglais, arabe, espagnol et français l'édition française est publiée p a r la librairie gallimard, , rue sébastien-bottin, paris les abonnements sont souscrits auprès de cette maison (c.c.p. - paris) prix de vente au numéro : f tarifs d'abonnement : france et communauté, f ; Étranger, f Économie appliquÉe archives de l'i.s.m.e.a. t o m e x x i x — — n° philip a. klein. — french stabilization policy, - , a quantitative appraisal maurice allais, jacqueline allais. — inflation, répartition des revenus et indexation avec références à l'économie française - andré thomas, pierre dardel. — incidence de l'inflation sur les comptes, les résultats et l'équilibre financier des entreprises m. mercier. — Étude de la structure de taux d'intérêt dans le cycle conjoncturel, par analyse factorielle et analyse spectrale christiane alcouffe. — détermination de l'évolution optimale des capacités de production et de stockage en avenir certain c. bidard. — théorie h.o.s. et théorie néo-classique : un point de vue de critique interne g. abraham-frois, e. berrebi. — le problème de la « transformation » : fin (?) d'une controverse jean-charles asselain. — crise de la planification socialiste ? librairie droz , rue massot - genÈve (suisse) xxi h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms cahiers des annales en vente à la librairie armand colin, , boulevard saint-michel, paris compte chèques postaux : paris, n° - . ch. morazÉ, trois essais sur histoire e t c u l t u r e , f . l. e. halkin, i n i t i a t i o n à la c r i t i q u e h i s t o r i q u e , " édition revue et corrigée , f . g. debien, en haut poitou : d é f r i c h e u r s a u t r a v a i l ( x v - x v i i * siècles) , f . m. bloch, la france sous les derniers c a p é t i e n s ( - ) ' édition , f . m. dommanget, blanqui e t l'opposition révolutionnaire & la f i n d u second empire , f . j. barnave, i n t r o d u c t i o n à la r é v o l u t i o n française (présentation de f. rude), e édition , f . m. bloch, seigneurie f r a n ç a i s e e t manoir anglais, e édition , f . m. delafosse et c. laveau, le c o m m e r c e d u sel de brouage aux x v i i » e t x v i i i * siècles , f . h. antoniadis-bibicou, recherches sur les douanes à byzance , f . t. platter, a u t o b i o g r a p h i e (texte traduit et présenté par marie helmer) , f . m. morineau, j a u g e s e t m é t h o d e s de j a u g e anciennes e t m o d e r n e s , f . j.-p. aron, essai sur la sensibilité a l i m e n t a i r e à paris au x i x * siècle , f . m. bloch, souvenirs d e g u e r r e , - , f . archéologie d u village d é s e r t é , volumes , f . j.-j. hÉmardinquer, pour une histoire d e l ' a l i m e n t a t i o n , f . g. et m. vovelle, v i s i o n de la m o r t e t de l'au-delà en provence , f . m. morineau, les f a u x - s e m b l a n t s d'un d é m a r r a g e é c o n o m i q u e : agriculture e t d é m o g r a p h i e en france au x v i i i * siècle , f . h.-d. mann, lucien f e b v r e . la pensée v i v a n t e d'un historien . . . . , f . j. meuvret, Études d'histoire é c o n o m i q u e , f . m. malowist, croissance e t régression en europe ( x i v * - x v i i * siè- cles) , f . w. frijhoff et d. julia, École e t société dans la france d ' a n c i e n r é g i m e , f . m. agulhon, le cercle dans la france bourgeoise ( - ) . . , f h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms É c o l e des h a u t e s É t u d e s en s c i e n c e s s o c i a l e s centre de recherches historiques c a h i e r s des a n n a l e s , maurice agulhon le cercle dans la france bourgeoise - Étude d'une mutation de sociabilitÉ le cercle est pour la france ce qu'est le club dans l'univers britannique; l'époque étudiée ici est celle où il apparaît puis se répand dans notre pays. avant d'être adoptée, cette innovation a un peu inquiété, parce qu'elle parut d'abord liée au genre de vie et à la conception du monde de la bourgeoisie libérale. de plus, le cercle (en principe société d'agrément) était la plus pra- tique des formes licites de la vie d'association, ce qui fit qu'on l'utilisa parfois à d'autres fins. envisagé sous cet angle, ce chapitre d'histoire de la vie quoti- dienne ouvre quelques horizons sur l'histoire de la culture et même sur celle de la politique dans le demi-siècle qui forme transition entre la chute de l'ancien régime et l'avènement de la démocratie moderne. . p. f. armand colin issn - h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms yoder, john howard: the jewish-christian schism revisited marburg journal of religion: volume , no. (dezember ) author: yoder, john howard year: title: the jewish-christian schism revisited. (radical traditions. theology in a postcritical key) editor: cartright, michael g. and ochs, peter publisher: scm press city: london price: $ , . isbn: - - -x review: the jewish-christian schism revisited contains ten essays by the mennonite theologian john howard yoder. they have been posthumously edited by the methodist theologian and dean for ecumenical & interfaith programs at the university of indianapolis, michael g. cartwright, and the jewish philosopher and theologian peter ochs, edgar bronfman professor of modern judaic studies at the university of virginia. yoder’s articles are predominantly based on lectures which he gave between and at conferences or universities in the united states. the pacifist theologian had already revised the partially unpublished texts to prepare their publication, and collected them in the “shalom desktop packet” before he died unexpectedly on the th december . in the edition presented here, these essays are embedded in introductions and notes by the editors with commentaries by peter ochs at the end of each article, an afterword by michael g. cartwright and two appendixes. one appendix is a sermon by yoder while the other was written by cartwright and gives some background information on mennonite mission activities in the near east. using this framework the editors enable readers to recognise yoder’s reasoning in its historical and theological context. the respect and gratitude ochs and cartwright display toward yoder does not prevent their remarks from dealing critically with his ideas. in his segment of the introduction peter ochs points out the significance of yoder’s teachings for jewish scholars and practitioners, but in his comments he also considers carefully the wider implications of his thought. michael g. cartwright merely summarises the central issues of yoder’s thoughts in the introduction, but reflects on some of them quite critically in his afterword. thus as a volume in the series “radical traditions. theology in a postcritical key” yoder’s remarks share the “community of dialogue in difference” which was presented two years earlier as a part of the same series in the volume textual reasoning. in the case of the jewish-christian schism revisited the interplay between introductions, commentaries, afterword and the two appendixes with the essays by yoder opens up a dynamic conversation between scholars who are on the one hand active and committed members of their religions and on the other established in the academic world. besides the author and the editors, rabbi steven s. schwarzschild, to whom yoder marburg journal of religion: volume , no. (dezember ) dedicated his remarks, shares this ‘community in difference’ like a ‘falcon in a novella’ (cf. p. - , and , , , or ). following the preface titled “what needs to change in the jewish-christian dialogue and why” yoder’s essays are divided into four chapters with likewise meaningful titles. these afford an appropriate overview of pivotal issues and theses which are discussed and argued in the current reasoning. part i is titled “tertium datur” and includes “ . 'it did not have to be' ”, “ . jesus the jewish pacifist” and “ . paul the judaizer”. under the title “the free church vision and the jewish tradition” part ii contains “ . the jewishness of the free church vision”, “ . the forms of a possible obedience” and “ . the restitution of the church: an alternative perspective on christian history”. part iii “refusing mis-located dualisms of judaism” embraces “ . judaism as a non-non-christian religion”, “ . earthly jerusalem and heavenly jerusalem: a mis-located dualism” and “ . on not being in charge”. part iv “christians and jews seeking the shalom of the city” includes only one essay: “ . ‘see how they go with their face to the sun’”. to this last section one might add, however, cartwright’s afterword “’if abraham is our father...’ the problem of christian supersessionism after yoder”, appendix a “salvation is of the jews - a sermon by john howard yoder” and his appendix b “mennonite missions in israel and the peacemaking of mennonite central committee palestine ( - ): two contexts for locating john howard yoder’s theological dialogue with judaism”. yoder’s notions are shaped by two leading paradigms: first, the essential jewish character of christianity from its beginning; and second, an ecclesiology which is based on the teachings of radical protestants in the th century. yoder displays a christian theological approach to contemporary judaistic studies, especially those of jacob neusner. as a result he describes jewishness since the times of jeremiah as characterised by its diaspora life and by the plurality of jewish groups. following jonathan z. smith the crucial step for constituting jewish lifestyle was the loss of the temple and its compensation by establishing a community around reading the torah and around rituals performable in a family without any priesthood or hierarchy. the mennonite theologian prefers, along with jacob neusner, to speak of jewish messianists as an appropriate description of early christians: “instead of thinking of ‘christianity’ and ‘judaism’ as systems, existing primordially in a ‘normative’ form, and instead of thinking of ‘christians’ and ‘jews’ in the early centuries as separate bodies existing over against each other, we must think of two initially largely overlapping circles. the circle ‘church’ and the circle ‘jewry’ overlapped for generations in the persons whom we may call either messianic jews or jewish christians” (p. ). these messianic jews were part of the widespread jewish plurality at that time. “there was no such thing as normative judaism in the first century of our era” (p. ). as a result of the destruction of the second temple in ce and the end of bar kochba in ce, following yoder, the situation changed “only gradually”: “there were the messianists, later called christians, and there were the rabbis. both of these movements were jewish. ... they differed from one another only about one very marburg journal of religion: volume , no. (dezember ) jewish but also very theological question, namely on whether the presence of the messianic age should be conceived of as future or also already as present.” (p. f) although yoder accuses common theological and historical interpretations of reading historical events, in particular the history of early christianity, from their institutionalized effect, and instead wants to look at the plurality of historical possibilities, his view is not as unbiased as he claims. yoder just changes the vantage point and looks at the history of christianity in opposition to the view of the established, state-compliant churches, from his free-church-perspective. the theological preference for the jewishness and nonconformism of christianity leads to an underestimation of the impact of hellenism on the development of jewish and christian religion. in giving reasons for his ecclesiological framework, yoder continues an old theological controversy on matters of grace, freewill, and the human ability after the fall of mankind to offer strict obedience to god’s commandments. this controversy became classical in the conflict between augustine and pelagius to which yoder refers when he argues for the possibility of obedience: “now i must walk a very narrow path”. therefore confesses yoder: “on one hand, i must continue to offend the augustinians ... by seeming ‘jewish’, in the apparent pride of thinking it possible to do the will of god. on the other hand i have to offend my jewish friends, by describing a possibility which could only become real if in jesus and pentecost the messianic age in fact began” (p. .) avoiding the allegation to use “an arbitrary scheme of my own” yoder seeks protection in “a text from one of the radical reformation movements, the ‘fraternal union’ of schleitheim, february , written largely by the former benedictine michael sattler” (p. .) cartwright is aware of these intrinsic limitations of yoder’s ecclesiological account as he points out in the afterword where he speaks of “the neo-neo-supersessionism of yoder’s project” (p. ). “christian supersessionism” is explained to the readers in the helpful glossary included in the book as “the theological claim that the church has replaced israel as god’s people for the salvation and blessing of the world” (p. .) countering the charge of being selective or eclectic yoder delineates his hermeneutical approach by specifying six criteria which should guarantee a fairer handling of history: . “criteria of literary coherence”, . “criteria of socio-historical viability”, . “mystical, doxological criteria of coherence”, . “criteria of narrative and causative coherence”, . “criteria of connaturality, congruence” and . “modes of clarification through conflict and contrast” (cf. p. f) “these six modes of verification hardly exhaust what is available. they do illustrate, even ‘prove’, that we are not boxed into a dilemma between relativity, which permits no firm statements and prejudice, which is subject to no validation, or between ‘objectivity’ so defined as to be unattainable and ‘subjectivity’ which abandons truth claims” (p. ). yoder considers the division between christianity and jewry as a process in which christianity lost its jewishness and jewry lost its missionary openness: jewry became judaism and christianity changed into christendom. therefore yoder speaks about “judaism as a non- marburg journal of religion: volume , no. (dezember ) non-christian religion” (subtitle of essay ) and about rabbinic judaism as “a post-christian phenomenon” (p. ): “whenever and why ever it happened, judaism slowed down and stopped its missionary openness before the onset of serious persecution of jews by christians,... this abandonment of missionary perspective on the part of judaism is an adjustment not to the gentile world but to christianity. non-missionary judaism is a part of, a product of, christian history” (p. ). at the same time christianity became the state religion of the roman empire and closed the door to jewry by absorbing the state supporting philosophy: “what christians borrowed from plotin through augustine, and from cicero through ambrose, nailed shut the door which justin had begun to close” (p. ). with the connection to jewry and its horizon, which transcended the boundaries of the roman empire geographically and socially, christians lost “some experimental base for the awareness of ‘otherness’ ... when they settled into provincial establishment”, explains yoder “by becoming imperially provincial” (p. ). this process of diversion was complete, but not necessary (“it did not have to be”), in the fourth century after the conversion of constantine, and one could add, following yoder, that it is still not irreversible: the jews would just have to revitalize their missionary openness and the christians would just have to rediscover their jewish roots. to initiate this seems to be one of the essential intentions of yoder’s reasoning. © fritz heinrich ( ) book reviews physicians to hone their clinical skills. however, german doctors seemingly felt that hospital training was a worthless preparation for private practice, since the individuality of the sick vanished in the wards and the hapless inmates were reduced to their diseases. this development stood in sharp contrast to conditions in france and readers might have expected a brief explanation concerning these differences in approach. another paper by alfons labisch discusses the roots of germany's sickness insurance law designed to prevent labourers and their families being adversely affected by illness and thus becoming paupers. the author stresses that, more than a health policy, this legislation should be seen as bismarck's attempts to regulate welfare and labour. although in the beginning medical services were infrequent, the intrusion of a third party payer ruled by trade unions in the patient/physician relationship cast the latter into the role of employees, eventually triggering the organization of vigorous professional associations and tribunals. labisch tells us that by , nearly per cent of german physicians faced lawsuits, instituted by the tribunals against nonconformist members practising alternative medicine. similarities with conditions in the us beg for further analysis. other valuable papers follow, arranged in a somewhat chronological form. rather than considering it simply an inevitable ingredient for hitler's ideology, richard evans' historiographical essay concerning the multifaceted aspects of social darwinism tries to show their development, especially in the context of world war i and its aftermath. charles mcclelland, in turn, examines the professionalization process of german physicians during the first decades of the twentieth century, opting for a set of economic and political reasons to explain its "arrest" and susceptibility to national socialism. there are also two contributions about psychiatry, an essay on sterilization, and another on the politics of abortion from the weimar republic to the postwar period. finally, geoffrey cocks eloquently discusses the background to the nuremberg doctors' trial, noting the growing corporatism of german medical professionals from the early s onward, their authority bolstered by the medicalization of society and perceived needs of the state. the collection concludes with the near- contemporary story of a former nazi physician, hans sewering, who in became the president elect of the world medical association. the events, lucidly narrated by a participant, the historian michael h kater, trace back sewering's membership in the party and the ss, as well as his participation in the third reich's euthanasia programme. following postwar "denazification" hearings, this physician became politically involved in german medical affairs, reaching the presidency of the german medical association in . kater's chronicle recounts the growing opposition to sewering's candidacy and his eventual withdrawal, while exposing the inherent political conservatism still prevailing in the highest circles of organized german medicine. as with another recent volume on institutions of confinement, the german historical institute is to be congratulated for its publication series and efforts to stimulate discussion about health related topics. gunter b risse, university of california, san franscisco marijke gijswijt-hofstra, hilary marland and hans de waardt (eds), illness and healing alternatives in western europe, studies in the social history of medicine, london and new york, routledge, , pp. xi, , £ . ( - - - ). this collaboration among social and medical historians, with one anthropologist thrown in for good measure, has resulted in a stimulating collection of essays which profitably comments on the connections between healing, magic and religious belief in europe from the sixteenth to the twentieth century. a central issue is to what available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews extent the approaches to illness and healing have become "disenchanted" during this period or not. the authors have drawn on a broad range of archival sources, medical literature and field studies (as far as the more recent history is concerned). the studies in this volume show that max weber's concept of the "disenchantment of the world" may be perfectly applicable to many phenomena, but lack of uniformity and divergent trends defeat the notion of "disenchantment" as a single, universal, scientific category. one might ask, however, why magic beliefs should interest medical historians. the argument that such a system of knowledge or belief has been subjected to criticism and labelling, both by contemporaries and by later historians or folklorists is not, in my opinion, sufficient. the best answer perhaps is given in matthew ramsey's essay on magical healing in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century france in which he points out that at the end of this millennium "witchcraft and magical healing, which lost their metaphysical authenticity three centuries ago, have regained a cultural authenticity" that would have astonished our ancestors. in the case of witchcraft this assumption is confirmed by hans de waardt for eighteenth-century holland and enrique perdiguero for nineteenth-and twentieth-century spain. gillian bennett and ineke van wetering present examples of old and new religious, occult or magical "repertoires" of illness and healing up to the present day, describing, for example, the persistent belief in the ability of snakes to inhabit the human body or the cultural transfer of the creole winti healing tradition to present-day amsterdam. the essays by cornelie usborne and sarah ferber indicate that illness and healing alternatives have to do with a different perception, which is deeply imbedded in the language people use to describe and explain sickness. the issue of rationality of past notions of illness and healing is also dealt with in this volume. stuart clark demonstrates that the notion that devils could cause disease was a rational belief in the context of academic medicine in the later medieval and early modern period. later the founder of homoeopathy, dr samuel hahnemann ( - ) and his many "converted" followers referred to his new art of healing as "rational", as marijke gijswijt-hofstra points out in her fascinating paper on religious metaphors and the complex relations between healing and belief. how an explanation of illness was considered rational in one context and rejected as irrational in another is elaborated by gary waite, showing that already in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the dutch spiritualists and mennonites faced the dilemma of accepting the notion of the devil causing diseases, preferring naturalistic explanations of supposed magical phenomena. albrecht burkhard and willem frijhoff provide two interesting biographical studies which demonstrate that in one case the authorities imposed their rationality over what they considered superstition, while in the other they did not. there can be no doubt that the new wave of alternative or complementary medicine in europe prompts us to think further about the ways in which sickness behaviour is historically determined. we should be grateful to the editors of this fine volume for opening up this promising avenue of research and proposing a powerful, if not always convincing, interpretation. robert jutte, institute fur geschichte der medizin der robert bosch stiftung, stuttgart marcos cueto, el regreso de las epidemias. salud y sociedad en el peru del siglo xx, lima, instituto de estudios peruanos, , pp. , illus., $ . (in the americas), £ . (rest of the world) ( - - - ). cueto's book is a collection of historical essays, some published previously, and it concludes with a chapter on a new development in the area of epidemic disease in peru: the cholera epidemics of . it is, however, more than just a loose collection of available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core a visit to german congregations in central asia* gerd stricker in june i was a member of a group of clergymen who visited german congregations in soviet central asia. the trip was organised by the pastoral college of the evangelical church of westphalia. although we visited only three cities (dushanbe, alma-ata and karaganda) we were able to meet a wide variety of congregations. in dushanbe we met lutherans, catholics, baptists (belonging to the all-union council of evangelical christians and· baptists); in alma-ata lutherans, catholics, baptists (aucecb), church mennonites (registered autonomously); in karaganda lutherans, catholics, baptists (aucecb), church mennonites (registered autonomously), new apostolic congregations (registered autono- mously), and unregistered baptists and mennonites. it is impossible to make broad generalisations on the basis of the varied experience of the different congregations, although there were some common concerns. notable was the almost universal fear expressed about the ignorance of german amongst young ethnic germans. what happens in the future will depend on how the language question is resolved - whether the ethnic germans will succeed in growing into the new language, as is happening with the '! baptists, whether they will succeed in preserving the language despite official shortcomings in teaching german, or whether german becomes stylised as a sacred language which young people no longer understand. the lutherans the figures which bishop harald kalnins, at that time the riga based superintendent for german congregations, gave at the end of have not yet been revised. then he spoke of congregations known *this is an edited version of an article which originally appeared in german in glaube in der welt, vol. no. ( ), pp. - . german congregations in central asia to him of which were registered. these were served by about preachers who had been ordained as pastors. conversations with members and leaders of the registered congregations suggest that most of the unregistered communities are small groups or house churches, as opposed to the registered congregations which can have hundreds, even thousands of members. harald kalnins, - bishop for the german lutherans on november , harald kalnins, a pastor of the latvian lutheran church, and superintendent of the registered german lutheran congregations in the soviet union, was unexpectedly raised to the office of bishop for the german lutherans. bishops from latvia, estonia, lithuania, finland and west germany, as well as the general secretary of the lutheran world federation, gunnar staalsett, took partin the consecration celebrations. the council for religious affairs in moscow had earlier summoned kalnins and informed him that the state had no more objections to him becoming bishop for the german lutherans - it was not therefore a matter of a church decision but of a state concession. in view of his new position as bishop for the germans, kalnins leaves his work as priest in the latvian lutheran church, the latvian consistory having made the appropriate decision to release him, so that he can concentrate fully on his new task. at the same time, he will stay vice-rector of the theological correspondence institute in riga, which gives cause for hope for the theological education of german lutherans there. the state permission for harald kalnins to become bishop for the germans would seem to indicate that the evangelical-lutheran church of russia, which was broken up in , can be re-established in the form of a german evangelical-lutheran church of the soviet union. amongst those who attended kalnins' consecration were prominent representatives of german lutheran congregations, mostly from asia, but also pastor ernst roga, at present serving in the small lutheran church in silute, lithuania. pastor roga had been assisting superintendent kalnins by occassionally visiting central asian congregations. b!shop kalnins referred to pastor roga and the other representatives as his future provosts. as "he will continue to live in riga they would represent him in the far east especially in central asia. the state now appears to be supporting the formation of a gennan lutheran church in an attempt to persuade the many· german lutherans proposing to depart to west germany to remain. the lutheran church serves as a means of enabling germans to accept the soviet union as their homeland. german congregations in central asia no theological training for german lutherans it is apparently due to the lack of organisational structure that german lutherans in the soviet union have no place for theological training. such a place is granted only to state recognised church bodies. moreover they are also refused admission to the theological correspondence courses in riga and tallinn. bearing in mind the fact that the german catholics in the ussr have for years been able to send candidates to the riga seminary (in there were nine germans out of roughly students), one has to ask whether responsibility rests with the lutheran sige rather than the state. since late , haralds kalnins has been vice-rector of the theological correspondence courses in riga. he hopes that in future german lutherans will be able to follow those courses. young people in dushanbe there are hardly any young people in the congregation, to the regret of hermann gevorsky, the ordained pastor of the community. the losses to the baptists are large, but also to the catholics, whose youthful priest and committed cantor hold a strong attraction for young people. in alma-ata it was difficult for us to form a judgement since we were there in the middle of the week and could attend only an extended choir practice which, in comparison to that of the baptists in alma-ata, struck us as of a rather poor standard. in any case, from many conversations with leaders of the congregation we inferred that the lack of young people, emigration and the losses to other faiths represent the major problems at present. baptisms when one looks at the register of baptisms, it is difficult to believe that there should be such concern over future growth. in dushanbe, for example, there were over baptisms in , , , and respectively. yet the figures are misleading as baptism often takes place now whether the candidate or his family is known to the congregation or not and with a minimum of preliminary discussion. even unbaptised godparents are now accepted. this reflects the underlying understanding of baptism as stamping the seal of christ on the individual whilst the other stated objective, christian education, assumes less importance. baptism of children is often seen as part of german tradition, as an acknowledgement of german nationality, german congregations in central asia and as a form of 'insurance' against all eventualities. this too reveals a certain change in the soviet climate for now families with only the slightest contact with the church do not fear to bring their children to baptism. state registration of religious rites for many years the state authorities, without any legal basis, had demanded lists of those baptised, confirmed and married in church, as well as the names and addresses of parents and godparents in the case of baptisms. we were told that every three months only the statistics were given to the local office of the council for religious affairs, but that lists of names and addresses had to be available for inspection by the authorities. such inspections happened rarely. young critics in karaganda in karaganda we attended a youth service which drew in some young people. conversations after the service revealed a strong apocalyptic strain among many: how do people in your country think about the forthcoming return of christ? how do you interpret the 'signs of the time'? what do you think about the , -year reign of christ? there was also a concern with legalistic matters such as the christian attitude to smoking or cardplaying. again and again the question of conversion and 'being born again' cropped up, as they asked us about our experience of being converted. with these theological concerns uppermost we were surprised to hear from the same young people critical opinions about leaders of the 'i congregation who were seen as too submissive in their dealings with the authorities, and too resistant to changes such as the introduction of russian into the service. on the whole, however, this has not led to open splits, though some young people have left to join the baptists, pentecostals or, more rarely, the catholics. moreover, these debates are generally carried out in a friendly fraternal spirit. theological questioning for the west german theologians in our group it was necessary, though not always easy, to put aside their own theological positions as they met believers whose central problem for many years had been simply survival. it was not our task to unsettle the preaching brothers german congregations in central asia and their congregations with moderb theological questioning. we could act only as informants imparting practical questions about the liturgy, baptism and preaching, and information about our own church life. catholics the character of the catholic congregations in central asia tends to reflect that of their priest far more than is the case among protestants. when a catholic group of more than believers applies for registration it has to be able to offer a priest who will be equally acceptable to the state authorities. there appear to be a considerable number of unregistered catholic circles and groups who gather around generally elderly ladies, but amongst these it is very difficult to carry out catechetical and pastoral work. alma-ata from a lengthy conversation with father georg, a -year-old ukrainian catholic priest of the byzantine rite, it appears that his congregation in alma-ata is predominantly elderly. he was particularly concerned at the lack of young people, something he blamed on parents who failed to offer a personal example or to cooperate in giving their children a religious education. earlier he used to carry out catechetical work, illegally, but now he has given it up. dushanbe and karaganda th~se towns served by energetic lithuanian priests - father benedict jurcis in dushanbe and father albinus in karaganda - present an entirely different picture. both have beautiful places of worship. here as elsewhere in an effort to keep on the right side of the law the pastors sought to prevent us from establishing any real contact with members of the congregation. on the other hand there was much evidence to suggest that ,they found ways "to get round official restrictions on certain activities such as youth work and catechism class. in dushanbe the catholics had an enthusiastic and relatively young choir master, georg gsell. he now works full time for the church, having earlier lost his job as a school music teacher because of his church involvement. in he composed a children's mass in german congregations in central asia german, followed in by one in russian. both have been performed in the church. quite calmly he stated: for the moment i am allowed to carry on with my activities but i am certain that some time i shall be called to account for my work with young people. this must not be allowed to stop us carrying out this most important task. it was reported in july that georg gsell is applying to emigrate to west germany. the position of the altar in dushanbe showed the impact of vatican , though father benedict said that only two or three catholic churches in the soviet union had made the alterations which created a new sense of community between priest and congregation.· all three priests we spoke to acknowledged that the innovations of vatican had had only a limited impact in the soviet union. episcopal care for the time being the council for religious affairs in moscow wants latvian bishops to fulfil episcopal duties in the soviet diaspora. only recently has a latvian bishop been allowed to visit central asia. hence most of the churches and prayer houses have not been consecrated and it has been difficult to arrange confirmations. the priests we spoke to in gave some indication that they would prefer to be under the jurisdiction of the lithuanian hierarchy, though they gave no reasons for this preference. leaving aside national (lithuanian) considerations it is likely that the priests would prefer to be under the jurisdiction of a strong lithuanian hierarchy rather than a relatively weak latvian hierarchy. ,at present the latter comprises the aged cardinal vaivods ( ), his 'lauxiliary - and the successor apparently favoured by the state - bishop cakuls, who is in poor health, and the recently consecrated auxiliary, bishop wilhelms nukss. the more dynamic candidate favoured by the cardinal was shunted off to a rural parish. the situation is not helped by the fact that rome itself does not seem to have clarified properly the jurisdictional question, though it still adheres to the fictjon of the archdiocese of mohilev, now in practice defunct. for many years the vacuum was filled by prelatf; michael kohler who in asia had de facto the authority of a bishop, but since his death in confusion over who is responsible for pastoral care of central asia has increased. the problem has been exacerbated by the growing number of roman catholic parishes in the region. in german congregations german congregations in central asia were registered in the towns of fergana (uzbekistan) and vakhsh (tadzhikistan), bringing the total up to approximately . most of these are mixed german and polish congregations, which hold services in both languages and in russian. where there is no priest there can be no legally recognised congregation, though sometimes registered priests ignore the law to provide these groups with pastoral care. on a day-to-day basis the spiritual life of such communities is often supervised by experienced and deeply committed elderly ladies ('church mothers'). the fact that the teaching of these ladies often blurs the fundamentals of the faith with superstition means that considerable catechetical work remains to be done, according to at least one of the priests we met. bishop nukss in central asia for probably the first time in soviet post-war history a catholic bishop has received state permission to pay official visits to catholic parishes in central asia: auxiliary bishop vilhelms nukss of the latvian roman catholic church was allowed to travel to central asia in june . he consecrated churches, altars, and administered the holy sacrament of confirmation. the parishioners greeted him with great joy and emotion. he hopes to carry out this service every year in future, so that the needs of the catholic parishes through- out the diaspora can be better met. as in the case of official cooperation with the german lutherans, the state's permission for a latvian bishop to visit central asia (as well as transcarpathian ukraine and white russia) demonstrates the efforts of the gorbachev administration to gain the support of believers by making concessions to them. evangelical christians and baptists (aucecb) of around , congregations within the all-union council about are german speaking. most of these are essentially mennonite congregations located in the southern urals area (orenburg region), in the omsk, novosibirsk ,and tomsk regions, and in the newer german settlement areas in central asia. many of them joined the aucecb in because there was no other means of gaining legal recognition. alongside the german congregations are 'ger- man sections' who form part of wider russian congregations but have separate german services. there are said to be about of these. german congregations in central asia the all-union council and the state the all-union council appears to be disliked by some of the other registered christian groups. both orthodox and lutherans sometimes expressed the opinion that 'the baptists are fishing in our pond ... let them gain converts from the communists.' there is also criticism of the apparently close dependence of the aucecb on the state. in alma-ata we were told that the state authorities had given the baptists , roubles for a new building. when i asked a baptist leader about this he explained that the old prayer building was demolished to make way for an extension to the local munitions factory in and that after tough negotiations the state paid , roubles in compensation. what was also striking about the baptists was the note of confidence and self-assurance in their behaviour, something which· contrasted clearly with the public caution of other groups. one's first impression is of a greater inner freedom than in the case of the religious communities which are not permitted to build up a nationwide church organisation. during our visits however, there were constant warnings from members of the congregations against 'informers in their own ranks' . in dushanbe and in karaganda we were introduced to children's and youth groups among the aucecbcongregations. these groups, - particularly in karaganda - were of considerable size with approximately young people, clearly under the age of . theological training the aucecb has evidently made no further progress towards obtaining its urgently needed preachers' seminary. the council has been making efforts for years to gain a building permit for a genuine theological college. the correspondence courses in biblical studies, which have been available for years, offer what amounts to further vocational training for recognised preachers. every ·year new participants are admitted to the courses. a central commission chooses the entrants from the total number of candidates put forward by the senior> presbyters (region"al leaders) of the separate districts. those chosen are almost invariably destined for positions of leadership; some of them even receive permission to study abroad - in switzerland, the gdr, the german federal republic, and britain. the all-union council's main hope and aim, however, is not to use the courses to build up a body of future leaders, but to ensure that all presbyters (by which term is meant the spiritual leaders of german congregations in central asia congregations) receive a regular course of study at the preachers' seminary. the building site is available, the architects' plans have been ready for years, the necessary funds are in hand. only state permission is lacking. the hope that the centenary in of the first baptist congress might be marked by the granting of state permission as a kind of 'birthday present' has proved an· empty one. the language question linguistically speaking, the situation of ethnically german congrega- tions and groups in the aucecb is characterised by a perceptible transition to russian as the language of worship. the german- speaking services were for the most part attended only by the older generation. it was indeed a depressing picture in dushanbe: barely out of a total of church members were present at the german service. (many had gone to a german baptist wedding, we were told.) during the service a sunday school took place, at which some children and young people from to years were present in various classes. a wedding in karaganda in karaganda we attended a wedding. on the previous day a group of about - women were busy with preparations. situated in a ghostly landscape of slagheaps, the prayer-house consists of a prayer-room proper, with seats for approximately worshippers, numerous side-rooms, including rooms for orchestral and choral rehearsals (the performances there were most impressive), and various outbuildings. fin'l'-lly there was a building with one side open to wind and weather, intended for use during the summer season - equipped with long tables and benches, gaily decorated, with room for at least people. at the time of the wedding we found this building full of people, their ages ranging from the very young to the very old. young people were serving those seated. what surprised us was the quietness and modest quality of the festivities (naturally there was lio alcohol!). we were able to hand the happy couple, who spoke little german, a bible. among the or so, mostly aged, participants at the german service there were about between the ages of and . of the to young people, only about half a dozen could follow what was being said in german over the loudspeakers. our impressions were very much the same when we visited the choral rehearsal in alma-ata. german congregations in central asia autonomously registered mennonite congregations besides the predominantly mennonite german-speaking congrega- tions in the all-union council, there is an as yet undetermined number of mennonite congregations which have resisted incorpora- tion into the council. only since the beginning of the s have they had the opportunity to register 'autonomously' - that is to say, independently of the all-union council. these are mainly the congregations of mennonite brethren, who fear (it would seem justly) that being merged in the baptist all-union council would cost them their mennonite identity, which they regard as inseparable from their german speech and their centuries-old traditions. they number about congregations. in karaganda we received the impression that state interference brought some unrest into their community. groups of church mennonites the so called 'old' or church mennonites, have not, up to now, been accepted in the aucecb, on the grounds that they do not regard 'conversion' and 'spiritual rebirth' as essential conditions for membership. baptism at the age of or thereabouts was in earlier times something of a formal act for the church mennonites, rather like confirmation in the protestant church. besides, even today they practise baptism by sprinkling, in contrast to the total immersion, customary amongst the mennonite brethren and evangelical christians and baptists. the custom of foot-washing has fallen into disuse. the distinction between church mennonites and mennonite brethren is becoming blurred. the church mennonites believe at all events that the experience of 'conversion' or 'awakening' of the mennonite brethren - inasmuch as these experiences are the necessary conditions for acceptance into the circle of brothers and sisters - are often brought about artificially by some kind of auto-suggestion, or specially cultivated, and are therefore often merely superficial. in the case of the church mennonites nobody is required to have experienced conversion, or the spiritual rebirth which is held to follow from it, as a condition of membership of the community. the total of autonomously registered church mennonite congregations is reckoned by them to be about . like lutherans and catholics, both autonomously registered mennonite brethren and church mennonite communities are not allowed to form a supra-regional organisation. despite what has been said, the church mennonite congregations of german congregations in central asia central asia (kazakhstan, uzbekistan, tadzhikistan, kirgiziya, turkmenistan) have set up a kind of standing conference which meets monthly to discuss current problems. these meetings are unofficial but are tolerated. each congregation sends between three and six brothers to the meeting place. the state authorities take no action; they do not hinder the meetings. (our lutheran partners had tried to explain the harmful isolation of the individual lutheran congrega- tions of central asia - lack of exchanges described as 'stewing in their own juice' - by claiming that informal supra-regional meetings were legally forbidden.) with regard to language some autonomous mennonite congrega- tions seem to be exemplary - although no general conclusions can be drawn from the small number of congregations we visited. my experience of meeting church members in this area who could understand german - though almost totally unable to speak it - was apparently exceptional. i was able to visit households in which four generations were living under the same roof (from the -year-old great-grandmother to the three year-old great-grandson) among whom a totally genuine werderplattdeutsch (a west prussian dialect, similar to that of east prussia but not the mennonite plattdeutsch) was spoken. it was a moving experience to hear werderplattdeutsch, as nowadays the dialects of east and west prussia, now part of poland, are dying out. the elder of the church mennonite congregation in karaganda, julius sievert, told me that at their conferences the leading brothers urged that a conscious effort be made to use german among all members of the congregations, and particularly at home. he added: the lutherans are inconsistent. they demand the use of the language of martin luther for religious services and meetings of the congregation. yet, for reasons of professional advancement, to avoid trouble with the authorities, and indeed to ensure their 'i children's future in school, they often speak russian - even in the home. it is no wonder that the young people are not able to follow religious services, especially the sermon; it is not surprising that they become bored, or stay away from services, or join the baptists. so we urge our people to speak german constantly, at home and with their children. it is a duty that we owe to our heritage. ' unregistered evangelicals and baptists in karaganda contact was established through my 'escort', a. goncharov, the russian executive committee chairman of the registered german german congregations in central asia aucecb congregation. he explained to me that there was a very good relationship between the registered and the unregistered communities, at any rate in karaganda; they were at odds only in their attitude to registration. goncharov obviously said nothing about the state control that results from registration. as soon became apparent, the unregistered congregations (the council of churches) regard with great disquiet the state tactics of approaching them via their contacts with those registered in the all-union council; the unregistered congregations feel that it could be an attempt to gain control over them. after a short visit to a meeting of the unregistered baptists, goncharov wanted to bring us back to the registered. great trouble - indeed vehement insistence - was needed to make sure that we had an undisturbed conversation with the brothers' council (rudolf klassen's schacht ) of the unregistered congregation. the conversations were concerned with the inner freedom of the congregations, their guerilla war with the authorities, and their gospel witness. there were two impressions: firstly, a certain carefree attitude, secondly, an attitude of calm defiance. these were qualities of which we had almost lost sight after two weeks among the german congregations of central asia. yet these qualities were clearly only symptomatic of something else - a deep inner freedom, which everybody seemed to possess despite the lack of outer freedom. it had already become second nature for us to make no more than oblique references to certain themes, as if to signal the message, 'we don't talk about that here!' or 'don't mention that when he is about!' we had soon got used to having to go out into the open air to discuss certain questions. among the 'separated brothers', however, there was none of this. using totally free speech - something that at first really startled us - the tactics used by the state were spoken of openly; trials were described, including the methods of manipulating them. what we were told was important; much more important, however, was the experience of this freedom and of the particular qualities of this community. it is quite out of the question to speak of an 'underground church', as is sometimes done in the west. believers do not live in hiding, they do not speak in whispers. the unregistered baptists regard it as their duty to bear witness and to make their· convictions known to the general public. sometimes their activities seem unduly provocative; we may reject as excessive or 'inappropriate' some of the things done by the congregations refusing registration, just as some of the activities of lehovah's witnesses are regarded with distaste here in the west - things like open-air services, or various practices associated with mission (such as the singing of choruses in trains or buses or other german congregations in central asia public places, door-to-door work, or the random accosting of members of the public). right from the first contact, with a disembodied voice, we were startled by the karaganda congregation's public work: in the village street, where we happened to be, we heard the testimony of a brother, speaking over a public address system in russian. a few young men, standing by a gate, asked what we wanted. when they heard that we came from the federal republic, they immediately answered us in german and led us into a courtyard, in which about people ( to per cent of them young) were sitting on benches in the open air; they were singing, praying aloud, and listening to the testimony of the brothers. after the particular brother who was preaching the word had finished with a russian hymn, we were greeted and the meeting continued informally in german - german addresses, german songs, prayers in german. the illegal congregations of the council of churches work in public, and their work is directed towards the public. it is a feature of present state policy, one indeed that goes back several years, to avoid systematic persecution or destruction of these communities, in order not to cause a high degree of public indignation, whether at home or abroad. undoubtedly there is careful and systematic surveillance, and efforts are made to infiltrate believers' rank,s. it seems that the state apparatus makes a move when there is a pressing need or a particularly favourable opportunity; perhaps the best comparison is with a permanent state of martial law that is but rarely made use of. the local press rages first and foremost against the illegal groupings of the council of churches and the believers who belong to them; in such articles the latter are starkly contrasted with the registered congregations of the all-union council, who are cited as shining examples of readiness to cooperate with the state. there is, at all events, a general belief that sinc,e the beginning of there has been a moderation - or at least a change - in the methods of state organs. on the whole gatherings for worship on the part of the unregistered in central asia are no longer interfered with; the authorities content themselves with surveillance. brothers who are caught transporting literature produced by the underground press khristianin are no longer sentenced to long periods of detention, their literature is simply confiscat~d. a sceptical attitude towards perestroika prevails: but there are also some signs of hope. the future so far as the inner strength of the congregations is concerned, one can be pretty sure that a stage has now been reached at which their future german congregations in central asia is being decided: will they remain german, or assume a russian character? such a transition, conceivable in the case of baptists and catholics, is almost unimaginable for the lutherans, who would, should the latter happen, lose members to the baptists. much hangs, in fact, upon the attitude of the soviet school authorities and the practice of the individual schools: will they actually put into practice the regulations which allow special instruction for germans in the german language? that is, of course, if it is not already too late for such efforts to be made. in another respect, too, the fate of the german-speaking congregations stands at a parting of the ways: the more liberal soviet emigration policy seems to aim at weakening congregations by granting permits to the specially committed leaders. one remembers the words of the elder of the autonomous church mennonite community in alma-ata, brother sundermann, spoken in the summer of : 'nowadays the fundamental problem of our congregations is not the religious policy of the state, but emigration to the german federal republic.' now he himself is in the west. during no fewer than , germans were able to leave the soviet union; during more than , . the figures speak for themselves. hence the comments made by members of congregations: 'those who are determined to remain german, and want their children to remain german, must get out of the country now!' perestroika - scepticism or hope? undoubtedly one hears the term perestroika used from time to time, but of the liberatinr quality of glasnost' we noticed little. if one enquires of german and russian christians, the similarity of the 'ianswers is astounding: when khrushchev loosened our chains after stalin's death [the so-called thaw we christians had great hopes of an improvement in our conditions. and what came of it? christians were persecuted and churches closed in a way that had not happened since the s. perhaps perestroika is no more than a gigantic piece of play-acting •. all the same one notices that people would like to be hopeful, and that paradoxically - despite all their scepticism - they indeed have hope. certainly the anti-alcohol campaign has enormously impressed both the german believers and the russian baptists - although nobody believes that it will be successful. yet gorbachev has tackled this thorny problem. will there be perestroika in church-state baptism in the lutheran prayer house, karaganda. a lutheran service in dushanbe. lutherans in central asia. see article on pp. - . (photos courtesy gerd stricker, glaube in der welt.) a wedding in the lutheran prayer house in dushanbe. outside the roman catholic church in alma-ata. roman catholics in central asia. see article on pp. - . (photos courtesy gerd stricker, glaube in der welt.) a side altar in the roman catholic church in karaganda. german congregations in central asia relations? despite millennium celebrations, despite the reception of orthodox church leaders in the kremlin, despite many promises, despite the churches' expressions of thanks for state concessions, such christians remain sceptical. believers in the country doubt whether a genuine separation of church and state will come about; they fear that the churches and congregations will remain under the direct control of the state, which will never abandon its hold over religious affairs. true, the state will allow the churches small freedoms, praised to the skies in propaganda, but will nevertheless deny true freedom of religion. for the german congregations in the soviet union, however, their problems today are of a different kind ... translated/rom german by arvan gordon and john gunnell doi: . / am. j. hum. genet. : – , renpenning syndrome maps to xp roger e. stevenson, j. fernando arena, elizabeth ouzts, alice gibson, m. h. k. shokeir, cindy vnencak-jones, herbert a. lubs, m. may, and charles e. schwartz greenwood genetic center, greenwood, sc; university of miami school of medicine, miami; university hospital, saskatoon; and vanderbilt university, nashville summary mutations in genes on the x chromosome are believed to be responsible for the excess of males among indi- viduals with mental retardation. such genes are numer- ous, certainly , and cause both syndromal and non- syndromal types of mental retardation. clinical and molecular studies have been conducted on the mennon- ite family with x-linked mental retardation (xlmr) re- ported, in , by renpenning et al. the clinical phe- notype includes severe mental retardation, microcephaly, up-slanting palpebral fissures, small testes, and stature shorter than that of nonaffected males. major malfor- mations, neuromuscular abnormalities, and behavioral disturbances were not seen. longevity is not impaired. carrier females do not show heterozygote manifesta- tions. the syndrome maps to xp . -p . , with a maximum lod score of . (recombination fraction ) for markers between dxs and dxs . ren- penning syndrome (also known as “mrxs ”; gene rens , mim ) shares phenotypic manifesta- tions with several other xlmr syndromes, notably the sutherland-haan syndrome. in none of these entities has the responsible gene been isolated; hence, the possibility that two or more of them may be allelic cannot be ex- cluded at present. introduction in , renpenning et al. ( ) reported mental re- tardation affecting males in three generations of a mennonite family in canada. the founding couple had emigrated from the ukraine to plum coulee, manitoba, during the s. from this location, subsequent gen- received december , ; accepted for publication february , ; electronically published april , . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. roger e. stevenson, j. c. self research institute of human genetics, greenwood genetic center, gregor mendel circle, greenwood, sc . e-mail: karen@ggc.org � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . erations dispersed throughout the farmlands of central and western canada (manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta, and british columbia). the founding mother is pre- sumed to have carried the mutation for this type of x- linked mental retardation (xlmr), since, in separate marriages, she had daughters who had affected sons. affected males were described as well built and phys- ically strong, with head circumferences at the lower lim- its of normal and with somewhat prominent ears. they learned to walk at age – years and said simple words at age – years. with one exception, intelligence was severely impaired, with iq measurements of – . two males had seizures, and two were blind (one in associ- ation with bilateral colobomas). carrier females showed no abnormality. prior to repenning et al.’s study, few families with xlmr had been reported (martin and bell ; allan et al. ; losowsky ), and, during the s and s, the designation “renpenning syndrome” (gene rens ; mim [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ htbin-post/omim]) came to be used as a generic desig- nation for xlmr, although some preferred to see the term used only for nonsyndromic xlmr (turner et al. ). fox et al. ( ) restudied the family in , reviewed the phenotype, and excluded fragile x syn- drome as the diagnosis, on the basis of negative cyto- genetic analysis for the xq . fragile site. the family has now been restudied by molecular techniques, and the gene has been mapped to xp . -p . . subjects and methods case reports a partial pedigree is shown in figure . renpenning et al. ( ) reported affected males, although one male (v- ) was noted to be less severely involved. this male had an iq measurement of , had years of public schooling, and now works in a restaurant and lives alone. one affected male (v- ) lived in mexico and was not evaluated. eighteen males were severely affected, with iq measurements of – , and were un- able to attend school. although some were able to per- form simple farm tasks, most eventually were placed in training schools or other institutions. only one (iii- ) stevenson et al.: renpenning syndrome maps to xp figure partial pedigree for kindred . bars over pedigree symbols denote individuals evaluated in the current study; asterisks above pedigree symbols denote individuals for whom fixed tissues were available. died during childhood. two were blind, one case (iii- ) of unknown cause and one case (iii- ) associated with bilateral colobomas and cataracts. three males had sei- zures, and four had diabetes mellitus (table ). an ad- ditional male with mental retardation, who was related through a normal male, was considered by renpenning et al. ( ) to be a coincidental occurrence and is not shown on the pedigree. obligate carriers were normal. at the time of this study, four affected males (iv- , iv- , v- , and v- ) and the male with mild mental impairment (v- ) were alive, and all were available for examination and blood samples. brief summaries on these individuals are given below. selected measurements are shown in table . five women and seven unaffected males also participated. only one obligate carrier (iv- ) was available. tissue samples were available on two additional affected males (iii- and iv- ). iv- (j. f.) has been institutionalized for mental re- tardation since age years. details of the pregnancy and childhood are not known. his measurements at age years are shown in table . he has microcephaly (occipitofrontal circumference . cm), and his height ( . cm) is shorter than that of unaffected relatives. the facies are characterized by central balding, up-slant- ing palpebral fissures ( . � on the right, . � on the left), and short philtrum (fig. ). iv- (i. f.) had global developmental delay from birth and has been institutionalized since age years. he is blind secondary to ocular colobomas and cataracts. measurements at age years are shown in table . v- (r. h.) had delay of developmental milestones, with walking at age years and initial speech at age years. he was placed in an institution at age years, and at present he lives in a group home. measurements at age years are given in table . r. h. had no speech but understood simple conversations. the facies was characterized by central balding, microcephaly, up-slant- ing palpebral fissures ( � on the right, � on the left), and short philtrum (fig. ). with the exception of pectus excavatum, no malformations were noted. there were partial amputations of four digits on the left hand, be- cause of an accident. v- (e. f.) was born of a full-term and uncomplicated pregnancy, experienced global developmental delay, with walking at age mo, never developed understandable speech, never attended school, and lives at home. he had several generalized seizures during childhood. meas- urements at age years are shown in table . the face had a squarish configuration, mildly up-slanting pal- pebral fissures, short philtrum, and everted lower lip (fig. ). deep-tendon reflexes were brisk, but clonus was not present. v- (d. o.) reported that he had attended school for years but had failed each year. he experienced the same learning difficulties in trade school. he now lives alone, drives a car, and works as an assistant in a res- taurant. measurements at age years are given in table . his head was obviously small and measured below � sd. he had central balding, up-slanting palpebral fissures ( � on the right, . � on the left), and nasal speech. renpenning et al. ( ) and fox et al. ( ) identified individual v- as having intellectual function much higher than that of other affected males in the family. they considered that he might be mentally im- paired for some reason other than that which affected the other males, but they could not establish a cause for his mental retardation. in addition to the foregoing information on v- , re- ports from the family suggested that mild mental im- pairment might be present among other males in branches of the kindred that were not investigated in this study. a prevailing consideration within the family was that these younger, mildly affected males might have the same disorder as affected the older, severely affected table selected measurements in kindred subject’s current designation (original designation) age(s) at examination(s) (years) iqa physical measurement (percentile)a commenta head circumference (cm) height (cm) ear length (cm) hand/palm length (cm/cm) testicular volume (ml) affected males: iii- ( ) , . (! ) – ) ) ) blind, diabetes iii- ( ) . (! ) ) ) ) ) iii- ( ) . (! ) ) ) ) ) seizures, diabetes iii- ( ) , , , . (! ) . (! ) . ( ) ) . / . diabetes iii- ( ) , . ( ) . (! ) . ( ) ) . / . iii- ( ) , . (! ) . (! ) . ( ) ) . / . iii- ( ) . (! ) ) ) ) ) diabetes iv- ( ) , , . (! ) . (! ) . ( ) . (! )/ . . / . iv- ( ) , . (! ) . ( ) . ( ) ) . / . iv- ( ) , . (! ) . (! ) . ( ) ) . / . iv- ( ) , , . (! ) . (! ) . ( ) . (! )/ . . / . colobomas, cataracts, seizures v- ( ) , . (! ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( )/ . ) pectus excavatum v- ( ) , , . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( )/ . . / . seizures mild mental impairment: v- b ( ) , , . (! ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( )/ . . / . not affected: iv- ( ) ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( )/ . ) ) iv- ( ) ) . ( ) . ( ) ) . ( )/ . ) ) a ellipses ()) indicate that an observation was not available. b individual has borderline mental retardation and, with regard to the xp . -p . haplotype, is discordant with the more severely males. stevenson et al.: renpenning syndrome maps to xp figure frontal facial views of, from left to right, iv- at age years, showing microcephaly, central balding, and up-slanting palpebral fissures; v- at age years, showing microcephaly, central balding, up-slanting palpebral fissures, and short philtrum ; and v- at age years, showing squarish facial configuration, short philtrum, and everted lower lip. males—but with modified expression, because of the ad- vantages of schooling and social opportunities. for this reason, v- has been designated by a hatch pattern in the pedigree shown in figure , and, for purposes of linkage analysis, his condition was considered “unknown.” brain anatomy brain imaging has not been performed, but postmor- tem examinations of two affected males were available. individual iii- died at age years. the brain weighed g (below the d percentile) and showed no devel- opmental, myelination, or degenerative changes. indi- vidual iv- died at age year.s the brain weighed g (below the d percentile) and showed arachnoid granulations on the external surface, a small cyst in the left frontal lobe, and arrangement of the neurons of the left temporal neocortex in vertical columns, which sug- gests a defect in neuronal migration or maturation. other laboratory studies renpenning et al. ( ) reported normal chromo- some analysis ( cases) and urine amino acid analysis ( cases), and fox et al. ( ) reported absence of the xq . fragile site in seven affected males. high-reso- lution chromosome analysis was normal in iv- , iv- , iv- , and v- . molecular analysis of fmr was nor- mal in iv- . molecular studies genomic dna was isolated from peripheral blood, as described elsewhere (schwartz et al. ). purified dna was diluted to a concentration of mg/ml and was stored at �c in te ( mm tris-hcl ph . , mm edta). for archival material, genomic dna was isolated from paraffin-embedded blocks according to the method described by sukpanichnant et al. ( ), with some modifications. five -mm sections were collected into a . -ml microfuge tube and were deparaffinized in # xylene for min. subsequently, the sections were washed in absolute # ethanol for min and were digested in mm tris ph . , mm edta, . % tween , and proteinase k ( mg/ml) for x h at �c. proteins were removed by extraction using phenol, phenol/chloroform, and chloroform. the aqueous layer was removed, ethanol precipitated, and resuspended in # te. varying amounts of template dna were used for each pcr-microsatellite reaction. only microsatellite markers with allele sizes ! bp were used for ampli- fication of this material. for southern blot analysis, mg of dna was digested with various restriction endonucleases, according to the supplier’s recommendations, and the resulting fragments were separated on a . % agarose gel and were trans- ferred to a nylon membrane (msi). subsequent prehy- bridization and hybridizations were performed accord- ing to the procedure of schwartz et al. ( ). for microsatellite analysis, specific dinucleotide or tri- am. j. hum. genet. : – , table two-point lod scores between x chromosome loci and rens locus (location) lod score at recombination fraction of maximum re- combination frcation maximum lod score. . . . . . dxs (xp . ) � . �. . . . . . . ’dmd (xp . ) � . � . � . � . � . �. . . dxs (xp . ) � . � . � . �. . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . maoa (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) � . �. . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xp . ) . . . . . . . . humara (xq ) � . �. . . . . . . dxs (xq ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xq ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . � . � . �. . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . � . � . �. . . dxs (xq . ) . . . . . . . . dxs (xq ) � . �. . . . . . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . �. �. �. . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . � . �. �. . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . � . � . �. . . hprt (xq ) � . � . �. �. . . . . dxs (xq ) � . � . � . � . �. �. . . nucleotide polymorphisms were generated, as reported by nelson et al. ( ) or dib et al. ( ). in most instances, the forward primers were synthesized and la- beled with fluorescein amidite (fluoreprime; pharmacia), by a beckman dna synthesizer, and were desalted through a sephadex g- (nap- columns; pharma- cia). in some amplifications, the forward primer was labeled with x-atp, by use t kinase. the polymor- phisms generated from lymphocyte dna were detected by an automated laser fluorescent sequencer (alf) (pharmacia) and the software package automated link- age preprocessor (alp) (mansfield et al. ). ra- diolabeled amplicons generated from archived dna were subjected to electrophoresis on a % denaturing polyacrylamide gel. autoradiography was at � �c for – h. two-point linkage analysis was conducted by means of the program mlink of the linkage package (la- throp and lalouel ), and multipoint analysis was by linkmap (lathrop et al. ). for the latter, ge- netic distances were calculated by means of haldane’s mapping function, based on previously published re- combination frequencies (nelson et al. ). the mu- tation rate and gene frequency were set at # � and . , respectively. penetrance was set at % for males and at % for females. the status of individual v- was coded as unknown because of his borderline iq and normal height. results two point disease-to-marker linkage analysis using markers spanning the x chromosome indicated possible linkage to xp . and xq (with lod scores of . and . at zero recombination), for dxs and dxs , respectively (table ). further analysis, using additional markers in xp . -p . , found markers dxs , dxs , and dxs to be tightly linked to the disease (v � . ) with lod scores of . , . , and . , respectively, whereas markers in xq (ar and dxs ) exhibited recombination (table and fig. ). the combination of these data indicates that the rens gene is likely located on the proximal short arm of the x chromosome, in the region flanked by dxs (proximal) and dxs (distal). multipoint analysis was used to determine, if possible, the most likely location for rens , within the region flanked by dxs and dxs . the results, as shown in figure , gave a maximum lod score of . for a broad region flanked by maoa and dxs . the region between dxs and dxs covers ∼ cm, whereas the region between maoa and dxs covers ∼ cm (nelson et al. ). stevenson et al.: renpenning syndrome maps to xp figure haplotype for markers in xp -p . the boxed haplotype segregates with mental retardation. studies of iii- and iv- used fixed tissues. the haplotype for individual v- , for microsatellite markers in xp . - . , was discordant vis-à-vis that of the other more severely impaired males (fig. ). he is thus considered not affected, on the basis of this linkage analysis. discussion during the s, the term “renpenning syndrome” came to be used as a generic term for xlmr (richards ; gerrard and renpenning ; steele and chor- azy ; howard-peebles et al. ; jennings et al. ; mclaughlin and kriegsmann ; proops and webb ; archidiacono et al. ). this broad usage was applied to syndromic xlmr, including fragile x syndrome, and to nonsyndromic xlmr. turner et al. ( , , ) argued that this term should be used only for nonsyndromic xlmr—specifically, for cases lacking macrocephaly or microcephaly, epilepsy, major malformations or more than one minor malformation, and neurological signs. we propose that these practices be abandoned and that the term “renpenning syn- drome” be reserved for that condition that maps to xp . - . and is characterized by severe mental im- pairment, microcephaly, short stature, and small testes. those males with xlmr who lack physical, behavioral, or neurological findings should be designated as having “nonsyndromic (or “nonspecific”) xlmr,” at least in the short term, until the responsible genes are isolated. robledo et al. ( ) reported evidence for linkage of rens to markers in both xp . -p . and xq . -xq , in a family previously reported by ar- am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure lod score of linkage of the rens locus, multipoint analysis vs. markers in xp . -p . the genetic distances, calculated as described in the subjects and methods section, were based on the following recombination frequencies: dxs –. –dxs –. –dxs –. –maoa–. –dxs –. –dxs –. – dxs –. –dxs . the multipoint lod-score values corre- spond to location scores divided by . . table summary of reports (prior to ) of x-linked conditions in which mental retardation was the predominant manifestation original report follow-up study syndrome gene localization martin and bell ( ) richards et al. ( ) fragile x xq . (fmr ) allan et al. ( ) schwartz et al. ( ), ste- venson et al. ( ) allan-herndon- dudley xq -q losowsky ( ) r. f. mueller, personal communica- tion fragile x xq . (fmr ) renpenning et al. ( ) fox et al. ( ), pres- ent report renpenning xp . –p . dunn et al. ( – ) fox et al. ( ) fragile x xq . (fmr ) snyder and robinson ( ) arena et al. ( ) snyder-robinson xp . –p . lubs ( ) ) fragile x xq . (fmr ) chidiacono et al. ( ). although a lod score of . was found for both locations, the authors considered one of the two locations to be erroneous and probably explainable by double recombinations between the dis- ease and one group of markers. localization of rens to xp . - . places the re- sponsible gene in a region overlapping the localizations of a number of xlmr syndromes (fig. ); these include prieto (mrxs ), sutherland-haan (mrxs ), porteous, west, hamel, wilson-turner (mrxs ), and miles-car- penter (mrxs ) syndromes (sutherland et al. ; miles and carpenter ; wilson et al. ; porteous et al. ; lubs et al. ; prieto et al. ; claes et al., in press; hamel et al., in press-a, in press-b). the genes for monoamine oxidase a deficiency and norrie disease are also located in this interval. renpenning syn- drome may be distinguished from these conditions on the basis of physical features, severity of mental im- pairment, and laboratory testing. such exclusion must be considered tenuous, at least with regard to suther- land-haan syndrome, with which renpenning syndrome shares several manifestations: short stature, microceph- aly, and small testes occur in both syndromes. males with sutherland-haan syndrome may have pectus ex- cavatum, scoliosis, stiffness of small joints, and pes ca- vus, skeletal findings that were not noted in the index family with renpenning syndrome. this degree of phe- notypic discordance should not exclude the possibility that the two conditions arise from mutations of the same gene. likewise, the localization of rens overlaps with that of a number of families with nonsyndromic xlmr. molecular technology has brought the capacity to dis- tinguish the nonsyndromic xlmr families on the basis of linkage analysis. since , families with non- syndromic xlmr have been assigned “mrx” (i.e., mental retardation caused by x-linked genes) numbers on the basis of linkage analysis, with lod scores . (lubs et al., in press). these families constitute x exclusive linkage groups (gedeon et al. ; lubs et al. ). since this partition of the x chromosome leaves room for additional intervening “mrx” condi- tions and does not preclude the presence of several “mrx” genes in each linkage group, the total number of “mrx” conditions cannot be given. it is quite possible that renpenning syndrome may be allelic with one or more of the “mrx” conditions that overlap the xp . -p . interval (fig. ). this pos- sibility can be examined only with identification and mutational analysis of the rens gene. until recently, no gene responsible for nonsyndromal xlmr had been isolated and characterized. two genes, the fmr gene, which causes fragile xe syndrome, and the gdi gene, which causes mrx and mrx , have now been stevenson et al.: renpenning syndrome maps to xp figure idiogram of xp . -p . , showing linkage limits for rens and for sutherland-haan, wilson-turner, west, hamel, and prieto syndromes and for families with nonsyndromal xlmr (claes et al., in press; hamel et al. in press-a, in press-b; lubs et al., in press). the megabase marker is according to the study by nelson et al. ( ). identified and mapped to xq (gecz et al. ; gu et al. ; hamel et al. ; des portes et al. ). microdeletions in xp have been described in two fam- ilies with nonsyndromic xlmr. billuart et al. ( ) found a deletion in xp . - . in a -year-old boy with isolated mental retardation, and raeymaekers et al. ( ) described a deletion of unknown size in xp in a family with six males with moderate mental retarda- tion. both of these short-arm deletions are located distal to the rens linkage limits. an x;autosome translo- cation with a breakpoint in xp has also been asso- ciated with nonsyndromic xlmr, but the gene inter- rupted by the translocation has not been isolated (van der maarel et al. ) a number of candidate genes located in the linkage interval must be systematically tested. they include those for synapsin i (syni), gata-binding protein (gata ), synaptophysin (syp), zinc-finger protein (znf , kox ), zinc-finger protein (hfz ), tran- scription factor e (tfe ), cell-surface glycoprotein a , ubiquitin-activating enzyme e , and zinc-finger protein (znf ). with the regional mapping of rens , all families with xlmr that have been reported prior to the initial report (by lubs in ) of the fragile x syndrome have now been restudied (table ). the family reported by martin and bell ( ) was restudied by richards et al. ( ) and was shown to have fragile x syndrome. likewise, the families reported by losowsky ( ) and dunn et al. ( – ) have fragile x syndrome (fox et al. ; r. f. mueller, personal communication). the miami- greenwood xlmr study group has clinically defined and mapped the entities reported by allan et al. ( ), snyder and robinson ( ), and the present report. the genes responsible for the latter three conditions have yet to be isolated. it is of interest that four of the seven families listed in table have fragile x syndrome. it seems appropriate to conclude with a historical note regarding the circumstances that, in , led to the description of this entity. hans renpenning was a med- ical student at the university of saskatchewan medical school (saskatoon) during the years – . after his sophomore year, he worked with dunn and gerrard, on the clinical delineation of a german family in which males with mental retardation had occurred in two gen- erations. in the course of discussing this project with his family in the swift current area, his father suggested that he might also study a local mennonite family in which a number of males had mental retardation. the suggestion was followed, and investigation of the family proceeded rapidly, culminating in the publication in the canadian medical association journal. an article on the first family being studied with dunn and gerrard was published mo later (dunn et al. – ). within that report is contained the first published photograph of a patient with the phenotype now recognized as fragile x syndrome. in light of current understanding of this syndrome, it is of interest that, in addition to noting craniofacial features (elongated face with large ears and prominent lower jaw), the authors found mild expres- sion in females and suspected transmission of the gene through a normal male. am. j. hum. genet. : – , hans renpenning thus joins the short list of physicians and scientists (including lesch, klinefelter, and best) who made a benchmark contribution to medicine during their student years. for years, he practiced ophthal- mology in saskatoon, retiring in . he now divides his time between arizona and saskatchewan. acknowledgment this work was supported in part by national institutes of health grant hd to h.a.l. and c.e.s. and by the south carolina department of disabilities and special needs. karen buchanan produced the manuscript and figures. we thank the family members of kindred for their participation and assistance. references allan w, herndon cn, dudley fc ( ) some examples of the inheritance of mental deficiency: apparently sex-linked idiocy and microcephaly. am j ment defic : – archidiacono n, rocchi m, rinalki a, filippi g ( ) x- linked mental retardation. ii. renpenning syndrome and other types (report of families). j genet hum : – arena jf, schwartz ce, ouzts l, stevenson re, miller m, garza j, nance m, et al ( ) x-linked mental retardation with thin habitus, asymmetric face and prominent lower lip: linkage to xp . -p . . am j med genet : – billuart p, vinet mc, portes v, llense s, richard l, moutard ml, recan d, et al ( ) identification by sts pcr screen- ing of a microdeletion in xp . – . associated with non- specific mental retardation. hum mol genet : – claes s, devriendt k, laga l, raeymaekers p, cassiman jj, fryns jp. mapping of a genetic factor for the x-linked in- fantile spasms syndrome (mim ) to xp . -xpter in two pedigrees. am j med genet (in press) des portes v, billuart p, carrie a, bachner l, bienvenu t, vinet mc, beldjord c, et al ( ) a gene for dominant nonspe- cific x-linked mental retardation is located in xq . am j hum genet : – dib c, faure s, fizames c, samson d, drouot n, vignal a, millasseau p, et al ( ) a comprehensive genetic map of the human genome based on , microsatellites. nature : – dunn hg, renpenning h, gerrard jw, tabata t, federoff s ( – ) mental retardation as a sex-linked defect. am j ment defic : – fox p, fox d, gerrard jw ( ) x-linked mental retardation: renpenning revisited. am j med genet : – gecz j, gedeon ak, sutherland gr, mulley jc ( ) iden- tification of the gene fmr , associated with fraxe mental retardation. nat genet : – gedeon ak, donnelly aj, mulley jc, kerr b, turner g ( ) how many x-linked genes for non-specific mental retar- dation (mrx) are there? am j med genet : – gerrard jw, renpenning hj ( ) sex-linked mental retar- dation. lancet : gu y, shen y, gibbs ra, nelson dl ( ) identification of fmr , a novel gene associated with the fraxe ccg repeat and cpg island. nat genet : – hamel bcj, kremer h, wesby-van swaay e, van den helm b, smits apt, oostra ba, ropers h-h, et al ( ) a gene for nonspecific x-linked mental retardation (mrx ) is lo- cated in the distal segment of xq . am j med genet : – hamel bcj, breslau-siderius lj, van bokhoven h, van den helm b, kremer h, heineman-de boer ja, ropers hh, et al. a new x-linked mental retardation syndrome with cleft lip/palate maps to xp . -q . . am j med genet (in press- a) hamel bcj, renier wo, wesseling p, van den helm ba, kre- mer h, ropers hh, mariman ecm. a new x-linked neu- rodegenerative syndrome with mental retardation, blind- ness, convulsions, spasticity, dysmyelination, and early death maps to the pericentromeric region. am j med genet (in press-b) howard-peebles pn, stoddard gr, mims mg ( ) familial x-linked mental retardation, verbal disability, and marker x chromosomes. am j hum genet : – jennings m, hall jg, hoehn h ( ) significance of phe- notypic and chromosomal abnormalities in x-linked mental retardation (martin-bell or renpenning syndrome). am j med genet : – lathrop gm, lalouel jm ( ) easy calculations of lod scores and genetic risks on small computers. am j hum genet : – lathrop gm, lalouel jm, julier c, ott j ( ) multilocus linkage analysis in humans: detections of linkage and esti- mation of recombination. am j hum genet : – losowsky ms ( ) hereditary mental defect showing the pattern of sex influence. j ment defic res : – lubs ha ( ) a marker x chromosome. am j hum genet : – lubs ha, chiurazzi p, arena jf, schwartz c, tranebjaerg l, neri g ( ) xlmr genes: update . am j med genet : – ———. xlmr genes: update . am j med genet (in press) mansfield dc, brown af, green dk, carothers ad, morris sw, evans hj, wright af ( ) automation of genetic linkage analysis using fluorescent microsatellite markers. genomics : – martin jp, bell j ( ) a pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage. j neurol psychiatry : – mclaughlin jf, kriegsmann e ( ) developmental dys- praxia in a family with x-linked mental retardation (ren- penning syndrome). dev med child neurol : – miles jh, carpenter nj ( ) unique x-linked mental re- tardation syndrome with fingertip arches and contractures linked to xq . . am j med genet : – nelson dl, ballabio a, cremers f, monaco ap, schlessinger d ( ) report of the sixth international workshop on x chromosome mapping . cytogenet cell genet : – porteous mem, johnson h, burm j, curtis a, lindsay s, bhattacharya ss, goodship ja ( ) a new mental retar- dation syndrome mapping to the pericentromeric region of the x-chromosome. am j hum genet suppl :a prieto f, badia l, mulas f, monfort a, mora f ( ) x- stevenson et al.: renpenning syndrome maps to xp linked dysmorphic syndrome with mental retardation. clin genet : – proops r, webb t ( ) the fragile x chromosome in the martin-bell-renpenning syndrome and in males with other forms of familial mental retardation. j med genet : – raeymaekers p, lin j, gu xx, sockarman d, cassiman j-j, fryns j-p, marynen p ( ) non-specific mental retarda- tion is probably caused by a microdeletion in belgian family. am j med genet : renpenning h, gerrard jw, zaleski wa, tabata t ( ) familial sex-linked mental retardation. can med assoc j : – richards bw ( ) renpenning syndrome. lancet : richards bw, sylvester pe, brooker c ( ) fragile x-linked mental retardation: the martin-bell syndrome. j ment defic res : – robledo r, melis p, siniscalco m, marchi j, laficara f, rinaldi a, rocchi m, et al ( ) � . lod score at zero recom- bination is not sufficient for establishing linkage between x- linked mental retardation and x-chromosome markers. am j med genet : – schwartz ce, ulmer j, brown a, pancoast i, goodman ho, stevenson re ( ) allan herndon syndrome. ii. linkage to dna markers in xq . am j hum genet : – snyder rd, robinson a ( ) recessive sex-linked mental retardation in the absence of other recognizable abnormal- ities. report of a family. clin pediatr : – steele mw, chorazy al ( ) renpenning’s syndrome. lan- cet : – stevenson re, goodman ho, schwartz, ce, simensen rj, mclean wt jr, herndon cn ( ) allan-herndon syn- drome. i. clinical studies. am j hum genet : – sukpanichnant s, vnencak-jones cl, mccurley tl ( ) detection of clonal immunoglobulin heavy chain gene re- arrangements by polymerase chain reaction in scrapings from archival hematoxylin and eosin-stained histologic sec- tions: implications for molecular genetic studies of focal pathologic lesions. diagn mol pathol : – sutherland gr, gedeon ak, haan ea, woodroffe p, mulley jc ( ) linkage studies with the gene for an x-linked syndrome of mental retardation, microcephaly and spastic diplegia (mrx ). am j med genet : – turner g, engisch b, lindsay dg, turner b ( ) x-linked mental retardation without physical abnormality (renpen- ning’s syndrome) in sibs in an institution. j med genet : – turner g, turner b, collins e ( ) renpenning’s syn- drome—x-linked mental retardation. lancet : – ——— ( ) x-linked mental retardation without physical abnormality: renpenning’s syndrome. dev med child neu- rol : – van der maarel s, scholten i, olde weghuis d, huber i, röhme d, gilgenkrantz s, kere j, et al ( ) cloning of candidate genes for x-linked mental retardation by use of chromo- somal aberrations. am j med genet : wilson m, mulley j, gedeon a, robinson h, turner g ( ) new x-linked syndrome of mental retardation, gyneco- mastia, and obesity is linked to dxs . am j med genet : – 	renpenning syndrome maps to xp 	summary 	introduction 	subjects and methods 	case reports 	brain anatomy 	other laboratory studies 	molecular studies 	results 	discussion 	acknowledgment 	references css volume issue cover and back matter the amazon rubber boom - barbara weinstein. this is a full-scale account of one of the most epic "boom and bust" cycles in latin american history—the ama- zon rubber trade's -year dominance of the brazilian economy. broken by the successful cultivation of rubber trees by the british in southeast asia, the long period of vigorous economic activity in the rubber trade left the basic structure of amazonian society relatively unchanged. one of the author's main concerns is to ex- plore why rubber exports did not generate substantial growth in either the industrial or the agricultural sectors. she also considers the impact of political decentralization and regionalism on the economy, draws comparisons with the coffee boom in sao paulo, and traces the consequences of the rubber economy's collapse on the social, political, and economic life of the region. $ . huarochiri an andean society under inca and spanish rule karen spaldinjj. this major work provides the first synthesis of the varied data—ethnographic, historical, archaeological, and archi- val—on the impact of the spanish conquest and spanish rule on indian society in peru. set in one of the two centers of spanish occupation and settled indian civilization in america, it is the story of a social relationship of inequality and oppression that en- dured for centuries, and inevitably led to the collapse of andean society. the author delineates the basic relationships upon which local andean society was based, and examines how the indians responded to or resisted the political structures imposed upon them, and how they dealt with, were exploited by, or benefitted from the europeans. illus. about $ . order from your bookstore, please stanford university press terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the world today students of current affairs, to be well informed, need the facts. in the world today, the monthly journal of the royal institute of international affairs, experts bring to the general reader up-to-date and reliable information on world affairs. authoritative and objective, the world today deals primarily with international problems but also includes articles on internal political and economic conditions in individual countries or regions, written by authors with first-hand knowledge. short comment in 'notes of the month' puts current developments into perspective and provides a background to events of international significance. annual subscription ( issues a year including postage inland and overseas) vol. usa $ . uk £ . elsewhere £ . published under the auspices of the royal institute of international affairs london by the oxford university press walton street, oxford ox dp terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core survey two special issues poland under jaruzelski part i, vol. , no. ( ) part ii, vol. , no. ( ) the "state of war" has been suspended, but the war goes on. these two special issues of survey on self- occupation and resistance in poland provide a vivid picture of the struggle of the polish people against the regime's attempt to re-impose totalitarian control over a society which recovered its sense of identity and free- dom in the period of solidarity. survey conveys to the western reader an understanding of the issues involved, a feeling of the continuing historical movement, and telling glimpses of some of the protagonists: jaruzelski, rakowski, urban, walesa, bujak, glemp. it gives a unique insight into the wider implications of polish developments in terms of east-west relations, and scrutinizes western attitudes to them. it also contains a sensational party document which has never been disclosed: the polish counterpart to khrushchev's secret speech annual subscription: uk £ us $ elsewhere £ single copies: uk £ us $ elsewhere £ survey editorial office: ilford house, oxford street, london w r td england (tel. - ) survey subscription office: st. martin's lane, london wc js, england (tel. - ) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies societes civilisations revue bimestrielle fondee en par lucien febvre et marc bloch publiee avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et de i'ecote des hautes etudes en sciences sociales comite de direction : fernand braudel - charles moraze andre burguiere - marc ferro - jacques le goff - emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel secretaire de la redaction : lucette valensi " annee - n° janvier-fevrier le spectacle du pouvoir daniel dayan et elihu katz, rituels publics a usage prive : metamorphose televisee d'un mariage royal emmanuel le roy ladurie, aupres du roi, la cour christian jouhaud, ecriture et action au xviis siecle : sur un corpus de mazarinades pour une histoire des formes martine grinberg et sam kinser, les combats de carnaval et de careme. trajets d'une metaphore philippe braunstein, le titre et le sujet: la tempete de giorgione (note critique) au moyen age richard m. smith, hypotheses sur la nuptialite en angleterre aux xllle-xive siecles gerard sivery, mouvements de capitaux et taux d'interet en occident au xiii siecle philippe aries, le purgatoire et la cosmologie de i'au-dela (note critique) giovanni ricci, naissance du pauvre honteux : entre i'histoire des idees et i'histoire sociale histoire du moyen age (comptes rendus et notes breves). redaction: boulevard raspail, paris abonnements • france : f - etudiants france : f • stranger : f • le numero : f - le numero special (double): f les abonnements doivent etre souscrits aupres d'armand colin izditeur, boulevard saint-michel, paris cedex (comptes cheques postaux : paris n" - ) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core comparative studies in society and history an international quarterly terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core raymond grew eric r. wolf sylvia l. thrupp aram a. yengoyan geoff eley editors history anthropology university of michigan herbert h. lehman college, cuny book review editors history anthropology history university of michigan university of michigan university of michigan editorial committee a l b e r t f e u e r w e r k e r east asian history university of michigan ancient history university of cambridge latin american history university of michigan economic history university of michigan economics university of michigan consulting editors sir moses finley charles gibson jacob m. price gavin wright bernard s. cohn natalie z. davis s. n . elsenstadt clifford geertz jack goody oleg grabar david gutmann david herlihy john higham george kubler gerhard lenski claude levi-strauss emmanuel le roy ladurie juan linz hans medick alfred g. meyer neil smelser charles tilly anthropology and history history sociology anthropology anthropology islamic art psychology history american history art history sociology anthropology history sociology history political science sociology sociology and history university of chicago princeton university hebrew university, jerusalem institute for advanced study, princeton university of cambridge harvard university northwestern university harvard university johns hopkins university yale university university of north carolina college de france college de france yale university max-planck institut fur geschichte, gottingen university of michigan university of california, berkeley university of michigan terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core mpaiiative tudie: iety hist an international quarterly volume cambridge university press cambridge london new york new rochelle melbourne sydney terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb rp east th street, new york, n.y. , usa © copyright by the society for the comparative study of society and history printed in the united states of america terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents, volume shahrough akhavi the ideology and praxis of shi' ism in the iranian revolution - peter h. amann vigilante fascism: the black legion as an american hybrid - peter burke from pioneers to settlers: recent studies of the history of popular culture. a review article - charles camic experience and ideas: education for universal- ism in eighteenth-century scotland - roger daniels the assimilation of ethnic groups: a comment - c. r. day the rustic man: the rural schoolmaster in nine- teenth-century france - larry diamond class, ethnicity, and the democratic state: nigeria - - raymond e. dumett african merchants of the gold coast, - —dynamics of indigenous entrepreneurship - susan eckstein transformation of a "revolution from be- low"—bolivia and international capital - mary lowenthal felstiner family metaphors: the lan- guage of independence revolution - joseph fewsmith from guild to interest group: the transfor- mation of public and private in late qing china - kaja finkler dissident sectarian movements, the catholic church, and social class in mexico - michael h. fisher political marriage alliances at the shi'i court of awadh - david fitzpatrick irish farming families before the first world war - p. gibbon and c. curtin irish farm families: facts and fanta- sies - p. gibbon and c. curtin some observations on " 'the stem family in ireland' reconsidered" - richard graham comparing elites: a review article - terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core daniel r. gross fetishism and functionalism: the political economy of capitalist development in latin america. a re- view article - robert hefner the culture problem in human ecology. a review article - e. brooks holifield religion and order in england and amer- ica. a review article - betty m. kuyk the african derivation of black fraternal orders in the united states - bruce lincoln ' 'the earth becomes flat''—a study of apoc- alyptic imagery - robert m c c a a and stuart b. schwartz measuring mar- riage patterns: percentages, cohen's kappa, and log-linear models - lenore o ' b o y l e learning for its own sake: the german university as nineteenth-century model - michael g. peletz moral and political economies in rural southeast asia. a review article - karl a. peter the certainty of salvation: ritualization of religion and economic rationality among hutterites - peter rigby time and historical consciousness: the case of ilparakuyo maasai - william r. roff whence cometh the law? dog saliva in kelantan, - william d. schorger mustapha and the ethnologist: an in- terim report. a review article - patricia seed and philip f. rust across the pages with estate and class - patricia seed and philip f. rust estate and class in colonial oaxaca revisited - leslie woodcock tentler who is the church? conflict in a polish immigrant parish in late nineteenth-century detroit - james urry "the snares of reason"—changing mennonite attitudes to "knowledge" in nineteenth-century russia - james allen vann german businessmen and professionals at the end of the old regime. a review article - anthony varley "the stem family in ireland" reconsidered - kit w. wesler trade politics and native polities in iroquoia and asante - terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core george m. wilson plots and motives in japan's meiji restora- tion - anthony winson the formation of capitalist agriculture in latin america and its relationship to political power and the state - terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core comparative studies in society and history is a forum for presentation and discussion of new research into problems of change and stability that recur in human societies through time or in the contemporary world. it sets up a working alliance between specialists in all branches of the social sciences and humanities. debate and review articles bring the general reader in touch with current findings and issues. notes for contributors contributions may be descriptive, analytical or theoretical. any article not in itself comparative may be accepted if it lends itself to comment that will place it in comparative perspective. correspondence with the editors prior to the submission of articles will help to enable them to obtain such comment or a companion study. emphasis in comparative studies may be either on similarities or, if these are significant enough and call for some recasting of generalizations, on differences. ah contributions and editorial corre- spondence should be sent to the editors, comparative studies in society and history, department of history, university of michigan, ann arbor, michi- gan . two copies of each contribution, preferably accompanied by a stamped, addressed envelope, should be submitted. both text and footnotes should be clearly typed with double spacing and wide margins; footnotes should appear on separate pages at the end of the article. illustrations may be included by arrangement with the editors. contributors will receive so offprints. any additional offprints must be ordered on receipt of the first proof. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core volume number october comparative studies in society and history editorial foreword - the adaptability of traditional culture betty m. kuyk the african derivation of black fraternal orders in the united states - michael h. fisher political marriage alliances at the shi'i court of awadh - joseph fewsmith from guild to interest group: the transformation of public and private in late qing china - the third world trader kit w. wesler trade politics and native polities in iroquoia and asante - raymond e. dumett african merchants of the gold coast, - —dynamics of indigenous entrepreneurship - daniel r. gross fetishism and functionalism: the political economy of capitalist development in latin america. a review article - cssh discussion measuring marriage by estate and class: a debate patricia seed and philip f. rust, robert mccaa and stuart b. schwartz - german businessmen and professionals at the end of the old regime. a review article james allen vann - moral and political economies in rural southeast asia. a review article michael g. peletz - index, volumes - - cambridge university press the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb rp east street, new york, n.y. beaconsfield parade, middle park, melbourne ) society for the comparative study of society and history printed in the united states of america terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core severity of cardiomyopathy associated with adenine nucleotide translocator- deficiency correlates with mtdna haplogroup severity of cardiomyopathy associated with adenine nucleotide translocator- deficiency correlates with mtdna haplogroup submitted by emmanuel lemoine on tue, / / - : titre severity of cardiomyopathy associated with adenine nucleotide translocator- deficiency correlates with mtdna haplogroup type de publication article de revue auteur strauss, k. a [ ], dubiner, l. [ ], simon, m. [ ], zaragoza, m. [ ], sengupta, p. p [ ], li, p. [ ], narula, n. [ ], dreike, s. [ ], platt, j. [ ], procaccio, vincent [ ], ortiz- gonzalez, x. r [ ], puffenberger, e. g [ ], kelley, r. i [ ], morton, d. h [ ], narula, j. [ ], wallace, d. c [ ] editeur national academy of sciences type article scientifique dans une revue à comité de lecture année langue anglais date numéro pagination - volume titre de la revue proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america issn - mots-clés adenine nucleotide translocator /deficiency/genetics [ ], adolescent [ ], cardiomyopathies/genetics/pathology/physiopathology [ ], disease progression [ ], dna, mitochondrial/genetics [ ], female [ ], haplotypes/genetics [ ], homozygote [ ], humans [ ], male [ ], mutation [ ], myocardium/pathology/ultrastructure [ ], pedigree [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/v.procaccio/publications http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= résumé en anglais mutations of both nuclear and mitochondrial dna (mtdna)-encoded mitochondrial proteins can cause cardiomyopathy associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. hence, the cardiac phenotype of nuclear dna mitochondrial mutations might be modulated by mtdna variation. we studied a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive myopathy and cardiomyopathy due to an slc a frameshift null mutation (c. delc, p.q rfsx ), which codes for the heart-muscle isoform of the adenine nucleotide translocator- . ten homozygous null (adenine nucleotide translocator- (-/-)) patients monitored over a median of years had a phenotype of progressive myocardial thickening, hyperalaninemia, lactic acidosis, exercise intolerance, and persistent adrenergic activation. electrocardiography and echocardiography with velocity vector imaging revealed abnormal contractile mechanics, myocardial repolarization abnormalities, and impaired left ventricular relaxation. end-stage heart disease was characterized by massive, symmetric, concentric cardiac hypertrophy; widespread cardiomyocyte degeneration; overabundant and structurally abnormal mitochondria; extensive subendocardial interstitial fibrosis; and marked hypertrophy of arteriolar smooth muscle. substantial variability in the progression and severity of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and sequencing of mtdna from five maternal lineages revealed two major european haplogroups, u and h. patients with the haplogroup u mtdnas had more rapid and severe cardiomyopathy than those with haplogroup h. url de la notice http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications/ua [ ] doi . /pnas. [ ] lien vers le document http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. [ ] titre abrégé proc natl acad sci u s a liens [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/v.procaccio/publications [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[author]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications/ua http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications?f[keyword]= [ ] http://okina.univ-angers.fr/publications/ua [ ] http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. publié sur okina (http://okina.univ-angers.fr) http://okina.univ-angers.fr wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ journal ofmedical genetics, , , - an epidemiological study of facial clefting in manitoba joan welch and alasdair g w hunter from the department ofpaediatrics, children's hospital of winnipeg, and university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba, canada summary the results of an epidemiological survey of facial clefting in the province of manitoba which covered the years to , inclusive, are reported. the mean annual incidence of total facial clefts was in births; the incidence of cleft lip ± cleft palate (clp), and of cleft palate (cp), unassociated with a syndrome or two or more major malformations, was in and . in , respectively. mennonite infants were over-represented in the clp group and amerindian infants in both the clp and cp groups. these ethnic groups also had more familial cases and showed higher average coefficients of inbreeding. recurrence rates among sibs were found to be influenced by the presence or absence of additional affected relatives and by the presence of mal- formations in the proband. it is possible that these latter two variables may not be independent. this study was undertaken in order to assess the incidence of facial clefting in manitoba, to search for possible associations of clefting with demo- graphic variables, and to determine the recurrence rates of facial clefting in families ascertained through an affected child. of particular interest was how the occurrence of affected second and third degree relatives of the proband, and the presence or absence of additional malformations, would influence recurrence rates. methods children born with facial clefts in the province of manitoba from january to december , inclusive, were ascertained through a direct search of the records of all winnipeg hospitals, the pro- vincial congenital anomalies registry, dental records of the orthodontic department of the university of manitoba and of private manitoba orthodontists, and through inquiries to other provincial hospitals and nursing stations. surgical repair of facial clefts in manitoba has been limited to winnipeg hospitals throughout the study period and there are no neighbouring extra- provincial centres that draw patients away from the province for surgery. treatment of facial clefts is the rule in surviving infants and ascertainment of this group is likely to be close to %. some infants who were stillborn or died in the perinatal period may have been missed. received for publication june an attempt was made to contact the families of affected children in order to complete a questionnaire and to supplement information contained in the various medical records. approximately half the families were contacted; appropriate adjustments were made for missing data. the data were coded for analysis by computer. each case was assigned first to either the cleft palate without cleft lip (cp), or to the lateral cleft lip with or without cleft palate (clp) group.' patients with a recognised syndrome or multiple congenital anomalies (mca) (defined here as two or more major malformations in addition to the cleft) were considered separately. in addition, for some aspects of the study, the cp and clp patients were further subdivided according to the type ofadditional malformations present: none, one minor, more than one minor, one major, one major plus minor. results and discussion a total of children with facial clefts from manitoba families was ascertained. in the event that more than one affected child was born into a family during the study period, the oldest child was normally considered the index case or proband. the proband of these multiply ascertained families is marked with an asterisk in the appendix.* all cases were used in such calculations as incidence and *the details of each case are shown in an appendix, available from the authors on request. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ joan welch and alasdair g whunter sex ratios, whereas each family was counted only once when considering associated variables that would have been biased by repeated inclusion of the same data. there was no evidence of any secular change in incidence over the study period and the average annual incidence of - per births is in the middle range of values reported from previous studies. in cases ( %) from families the cleft was part of a recognised syndrome or malformation complex. the remaining cases consisted of cases of clp from families, cases of cp from families, and cases lacking information as to cleft type or the presence or absence of associated malformations or both. the mean annual incidence of clp was - in births and of cp was ' in births; these figures are comparable to previous reports. in table the clp and cp patients are subdivided according to sex, and the location and severity of defect. a significant male excess in clp was con- firmed (pr<c ),l and more severe defects (cl + p and clefts of both the hard and soft palate) were more frequent than either isolated cl or cleft table sex ratio, location, and severity offacial clefting cleft lip and palate ( ) cleft palate ( ) total frequency total frequency male . * male - female - female . unknown * cleft lip only * secondary cleft lip and palate - palate . soft palate bilateral . only - right unilateral . submucous - left unilateral . unclassified . unclassified . *p < * . of the soft palate. previous studies have found an excess of left over right unilateral clp cases - ; although we observed this trend the difference was not significant. there was an excess of female cases of cp but this did not reach the level of significance noted in previous studies. emmanuel found that the deviation from : in the sex ratio usually observed for clp and cp patients was not seen in patients with associated major malformations. the male excess in clp was maintained for all subgroups in our sample except those with mcas and syndromes; the sex ratio did not differ from : in any of the cp subgroups. even after cases with recognised syndromes or multiple anomalies had been removed, % of clp and % of cp patients had at least one major or minor anomaly or both. seven of ( %) clp cases and four of ( %) cp cases had congenital heart defects (mostly ventricular septal defects). this incidence is significantly greater than that in the general population for the clp cases (p< ), but does not attain significance for the cp patients where the numbers are smaller. mean paternal age was years for the clp group, years for the cp group, and years for the general population. mean maternal age was years for both the clp and cp groups, compared to a population mean of - years. mean parity was for the clp and for the cp mothers, compared to - among the general population. parental age and parity appear to be increased, but the nature of the control data did not allow formal significance testing. several previous studies have suggested a possible parental age effect. racial and ethnic variation in the incidence of facial clefting is well established.' the population table distribution of cases by ethnic group ethnic group proportion of cl(p) cp population. mean of male and no of cases no of cases female observed expected observed expected british isles . - french . - - german/dutch (mennonite) . - * italian . slavic, slovak . . - native indian . . ** ** jewish * asian * . negro . scandinavian * - other * - total *statistically significant difference. **highly significant. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ an epidemiological study offacial clefting in manitoba of manitoba is ethnically diverse, and the observed and expected numbers of clefts based on the propor- tion that each ethnic group represents in the total manitoba population are shown in table . tables based on maternal and paternal origin were so similar that they have been combined. there was a significant excess of mennonite infants with clp and a highly significant excess of both clp and cp among amerindian infants. these ethnic variations may represent a difference in the incidence of clefting or they may simply reflect differences in fertility. unfortunately no ethnic specific fertility data are available for the general provincial popula- tion. however, it is difficult to attribute a specific increase in clp among the mennonites to a difference in fertility. moreover, the magnitude of the excess is partially hidden, as the control group contains all persons of german and dutch origin whereas the clefting population has been noted to be heavily weighted towards mennonites (considered german or dutch by statistics canada). the increased incidence among amerindians is of such a magnitude as to suggest that increased fertility is not the sole explanation. lowry and renwick and emmanuel et a! have reported an excess of facial clefting among amerindians. this ethnic distribution was reflected in a significant excess of clp in eastern and central manitoba, where many mennonite communities are located, and of cp in northern manitoba, where a larger proportion of the population is native. twenty-eight of ( %) clp cases and of ( - %; p< ) cp cases were illegitimate, compared to a % rate for the general population in the middle year of the study. fourteen of the illegitimate births in the cp group were amerindian and a higher frequency of both clefting and illegitimacy among the native group accounted for the excess of illegitimate births in the cp cases. although the numbers were small, there was a - and - -fold excess of consanguinity (third cousins or closer) between the parents of the clp and cp patients, respectively, over that of - % recorded for a local population (hamerton et al, unpublished data). most of the relatively limited data available do not support an association of con- sanguinity with clefting,l although a possible effect in cleft lip was noted by woolf and in cp by fujino et al. sixteen of ( . %) clp mothers and of ( - %) of cp mothers reported first trimester illnesses. the difference between the two groups is statistically significant (p< ). retro- spective maternal memory bias would be expected to be greater among mothers of the more visible and emotionally overlaid clp group and the frequency of first trimester illnesses reported is considerably greater than that reported by fraser,' who found no significant differences between normal controls and cleft palate mothers. previous stillbirths were significantly more frequent in clp mothers ( in ; %) than in the general population of manitoba ( %) (hamerton et al, unpublished data; p< ), whereas the frequency in cp mothers ( in ; %) was not significantly different from the expected rate. a past history of spontaneous abortion occurred with the same frequency among clp ( %), cp ( %), and women in the general population ( - %) (hamerton et al, unpublished data). an unexpected finding was that % of clp mothers and % of cp mothers had given birth to an additional child with a different malformation. variables that did not appear to have any relation- ship to the occurrence of clefting included birth- weight, gestational age, season of birth, twin births, maternal smoking during pregnancy, parental education, and occupation. family data the patients in the mca and syndrome groups represent a broad range of known and unknown aetiologies (included in appendix). as expected, a number of clefting syndromes are represented and some show a positive family history. on the other hand there are several syndromes (for example down's, goldenhar's, marfanoid hypermobility) where cleft palate is a less frequent component of the syndrome, and it is perhaps significant that a positive family history of isolated clefting (that is, without the syndrome) is common in these patients. this supports the concept that even in syndromes of known aetiology, the expression of a particular malformation may be influenced by the genetic background of the individual patient. the frequency of clefting among first and second degree relatives of clp and cp cases is given in table . clp occurred times more frequently among first degree relatives (sibs), and times more frequently among second degree relatives, than in the general population; the figures for cp were and - times, respectively. this increased rate in relatives with a rapid fall-off in incidence with degree of relationship is compatible with polygenic inheri- tance,l but we could not assess the rates in third degree relatives. the lower frequency of clefting in parents as compared to sibs of affected children is perhaps explained by a decreased genetic fitness among cleft patients. similar data were reported by woolf and bear. table shows that the recurrence rate in sibs is influenced by the presence or absence of other o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ table clefts in first and second degree relatives of probands first degree relatives second degree relatives sibs fathers mothers (grandparents, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews) clp total no no affected frequency affected - % - % . % - % parents = % cp total no no affected frequency affected . % . % * % . % parents = . % table family history and sib recurrence rate family history clp cp total sibs total sibs sibs affected sibs affected none ( * y.) ( . %) cleft in parent ( * %) cleft in nd degree relative ( . %/y) ( * %/) cleft in rd degree relative ( . %) ( - %) affected family members. sibs from clp and cp families where the index case is the sole affected member are at significantly lower risk than sibs from families where a second or third degree relative is affected. thus, the genetic component of both clp and cp appears to be high and the heritability, based on sib data, was calculated to be % and joan welch and alasdair g whunter %, respectively. there was the same increased number of mennonites among the familial clp and of amerindians among the familial clp and cp groups as was seen in the total groups. parental age data and sex ratio showed no significant difference between familial and sporadic cases for either clp or cp. there were few sibs born to families where a parent was also affected and this was apparently because of restriction of further reproduction once a child with a cleft was born. the mean sibship size for clp and cp families in this study was and , respectively, but in clp and cp families where a parent was also affected the mean number of sibs was i * and , respectively. woolf et al' suggested that most polygenic cases of clp lack associated malformations and that cases of clp with associated malformation either result from rare mutant genes, or from some teratological agent, or from chromosomal aberrations. in a study of clp in he found that the sib recurrence risk in cases where the index case had an associated malformation was significantly lower than in cases where there were no additional defects. bear found no variation dependent upon associated malforma- tions. although the numbers are small our frequency of affected relatives in the clp and cp groups was consistently greater when the proband had an associated major or minor malformation or both (table ). the affected relatives lacked the associated malformation. the excess of minor anomalies in the familial group could be considered equivalent to the fluctuating dermatoglyphic asymmetry noted in sibs and parents ofclp cases by woolfand gianas. the authors considered this as evidence of polygenic inheritance of clp. thus, recurrence rates among sibs of index cases table frequency ofaffected relatives as a function ofadditional major or minor malformation in proband additional malformations no of cases no of sibs no of sibs parents no of nd no of nd no of rd affected affected degree degree relatives degree relatives relatives affected affected clp pure ( - %) ( - %) ( - %) minor ( %) > minor imajor major + minor mca* syndromes ( %) ( . %) ( - %) > cp pure ( - %.) ( - %) ( - %) minor ( . %) ( %) ( . %) > > minor ? i major ( . %) major + minor ? ? ? ? ? mca* ( . %) ( - %y.) syndromes ( . %) ( - %) ( - %) *mca, multiple congenital anomalies (includes 'private' syndromes). o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ an epidemiological study offacial clefting in manitoba table sib recurrence rates as function ofpresence of cleft in relatives and malformations in proband affected proband cp clp relative total sibs no of affected frequency total sibs no of affected frequency none no malformation % . % > minor % . % major ± minor - % parent no malformation - % a minor % - i major ± minor - - nd degree no malformation . % % > minor - - i major ± minor - - > rd degree no malformation * % . % > minor . % % major ± minor - - are influenced by both the presence of clefts in relatives and of malformations in the proband. in table the sib recurrence rates are presented as a function of both these variables. the numbers are too small to draw any conclusions, but presented in this way the data could be combined with additional series. however, there is a suggestion that higher sib recurrence rates are associated with the presence of minor anomalies when either no relative or a third degree relative is affected, and with no minor anomalies when a second degree relative is affected. if this trend were to continue with larger numbers it might provide clues as to the aetiological hetero- geneity in cases of clp and cp. our numbers were not large enough to reflect meaningfully on the possible effects of the severity of the defect or the sex of the proband on recurrence rates. however, the data in the appendix are in a form that could be combined with additional studies. in addition, pedigrees of the familial cases are available from the authors on request. in conclusion, this study has provided incidence rates for the different forms of facial clefting in manitoba and has confirmed an ethnic variation in incidence. the recurrence rates among sibs have been shown to be strongly influenced by the presence of affected relatives other than the proband and of malformations in the proband. there is a suggestion that these latter two variables maynot be independent. it is clear that facial clefts have diverse aetiologies and that only by precise analysis of cases subdivided according to their physical and family history and demographic data will it be possible to obtain meaningful insights into the aetiologies and genetics of clp and cp. unfortunately, as one continues to subdivide into categories, the requirements for greater numbers of cases and for accuracy of recording increase and it becomes increasingly difficult for one centre to obtain adequate data. our study suffers the defects of a retrospective study, including loss of cases and incomplete data. this is particularly true with respect to family history information and the recording of minor anomalies. for this reason we believe that a long-term, pro- spective, multicentre study with standard recording of family history, assessment of minor and major malformations, face shape, and follow-up may be required to provide answers to the questions that remain regarding the genetics and counselling of clp and cp. we are grateful to the many patients and their physicians who co-operated in this study; to dr j l hamerton who allowed us to use population data collected in his newborn chromosome survey; to drs j a evans, p w hsu, and f c fraser for encourage- ment and guidance; and to mr ken carpenter and ms barb ruchkall of the university of manitoba computer department for assistance in analysing the data. this work was submitted as partial fulfil- ment of a b.sc in medicine at the university of manitoba and was funded by the children's hospital of winnipeg research foundation. mrs lilian gordon patiently typed the numerous revisions of the manuscript and the appendix. references fraser fc, the genetics of cleft lip and cleft palate. amjhum genet ; : - . drillien cm, ingram tts, wilkinson em. the causes and natural history of cleft lip and palate. edinburgh: living- stone, . hay s. incidence of selected congenital malformations in iowa. amjepidemiol ; : - . greene jc. epidemiology of congenital clefts of the lip and palate. public health rep ; : - . woolf cm. congenital cleft lip. j med genet ; : - . o bear jc. a genetic study of facial clefting in northern england. clin genet ; : - . chi scc. cleft lip and cleft palate in new south wales. aust dent j ; : - . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ emmanuel i, culver bh, erickson jd, guthrie b, schuldberg d. the further epidemiological differentiation of cleft lip and palate: a population study of clefts in king county, washington, - . teratology ; : - . mitchell sc, korones sb, berendes hw. incidence of congenital heart disease in , births. circulation ; : - . statistics canada. vital statistics. dominion bureau of statistics annual report, canada, . i burdi ar. epidemiology, etiology and pathogenesis of cleft lip and palate. cleft palate j ; : - . lowry rb, renwick dhg. incidence of cleft lip and palate in british columbia indians. j med genet ; : - . fujino h, tanaka k, sanui y. genetic study of cleft lips joan welch and alasdair g whunter and cleft palates based upon japanese cases. kyushi j med sci ; : - . falconer ds. the inheritance of liability to certain diseases, estimated from the incidence among relatives. ann hum genet ; : - . woolf cm, woolf rm, broadbent tr. cleft lip and palate in parent and child. plast reconstr surg ; : - . woolf cm, gianas ad. a study of fluctuating dermato- glyphic asymmetry in the sibs and parents of cleft lip propositi. amjhum genet ; : - . requests for reprints to dr joan welch, st anthony avenue, winnipeg, manitoba r v os , canada. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ the american archivist / vol. , no. / spring the international scene: news and abstracts ronald j. plavchan, editor michael j. kurtz, assistant editor we are indebted to the following correspondents: australia: r. g. neale; bahamas/car- ibbean: d. gail saunders; brazil: maria amelia gomes leite; canada: d. lee mcdonald; china: sun fangjiu; federal republic of germany: wolfram werner; france: michel duchein; german democratic republic: horst schetelich; great britain: michael cook; india/swarbica: n. h. kulkarnee; italy: donato tamble; malawi/east and central africa: steve m. mwiyeriwa; malaysia/sarbica: zakiah hanum nor; new zealand: ju- dith s. hornabrook; nigeria/west africa: j. c. enwere; organization of american states: celso rodriguez; peru: cesar gutierrez munoz; rhodesia/zimbabwe: r. g. s. douglas; scotland: andrew m. jackson; senegal/west africa: m. saliou mbaye; south africa: mar- yna fraser; spain: margarita vazquez de parga; and vatican city: claudio de dominicis. news australia new facilities planned for j.s. battye state library. construction of a new library services building in perth to house the j.s. battye state library of west australian history began in late . according to the architect's plan, the battye library will be situated on the third floor of the new building, and there will be four separate search rooms for archives, printed records, maps, and photographs. in addition, there will be special areas for an oral history unit, photographic laboratory, and conservation laboratory. the state film archives, placed under the jurisdiction of the library board in july , will be part of the battye library in the new building. plans also envision a small theatre for historical films, lectures, and other extension services, and possibly a publishing unit. transfer of victoria state public record office. in december , the victoria public record office (pro) was transferred to the newly created department of property and services. since passage of the public record act in , the victoria pro had been part of the chief secretary's office. conservation program at canberra college. canberra college of advanced education instituted in a two-year program on the conservation of materials. the aim of the program, offered at the undergraduate and graduate levels, is to provide a sound scientific d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / spring base for conservation practices. the graduate course includes the study of the conservation of a wide range of materials such as paintings, prints and drawings, paper and books, artifacts of aboriginal origin, and objects created from metal, wood, ceramics, and textiles. the graduate course requires a six-month internship upon completion of the two-year academic program. the undergraduate course concentrates on paper and ethnographic conservation and technology. both courses include the study of modern products such as plastics, films, and magnetic tapes. further information on the two programs may be ob- tained from the executive assistant, school of applied science, canberra c.a.e., bruce, a.c.t. canada abc a becomes first aca affiliate member. early in the association of canadian archivists (aca) amended its constitution to create an affiliate status. affiliated associa- tions are those canadian regional associations of archivists who want to advance the aims of aca through jointly sponsored projects, studies, and courses in archival education and who want to assist aca financially by means of an annual per capita assessment for each non-aca member in the regional association. at its april annual meeting, the mem- bership of the association of british columbia archivists (abca) voted to affiliate with aca; in june, abca became the first aca affiliate member. since the affiliation, abca has increased its dues by three dollars, and all non-aca members will receive the aca bulletin. free world war ii source guide available. the public records division, public ar- chives of canada (pac), has published sources for the study of the second world war. this new pamphlet will assist researchers in using all the record groups at pac that include documentation on this subject. also, the division has produced its annual list of new ma- terial, accessions / . both of these publications are available free of charge from pac. international archives week celebrated at pac. the public archives of canada cele- brated international archives week, - november . as part of the week's activi- ties, pac organized an open house, - november, the first since the opening of the building in . pac also organized a national conference on records management, - october, under the theme "new directions in records management." in addition to this conference, pac sponsored a conference, - november, on the development of standards for building a computerized inventory of iconographic works of art. information management meeting held. on june , at the government confer- ence centre in ottawa, the records management branch of pac sponsored a one-day seminar on information management. the main purpose of the seminar was to inform departmental managers, micrographic coordinators, edp coordinators, and privacy coor- dinators about the various services available through pac. a secondary goal was to de- scribe the time and resource limitations at pac and to stress those areas in which depart- ments must work out some of their own records management problems. photo exhibit marks century of service for public works. the public archives of canada mounted an exhibit, public works canada, - , to illustrate the use of pho- tography by the public works department in its planning, design, and construction of projects. the exhibit, which ran from january to march , consisted of fifty illus- trations. at the opening of the exhibit, dominion archivist wilfred smith hailed it as a visual document of the department's important role in the development of canada. aca annual meeting scheduled for montreal. the association of canadian ar- chivists will hold its annual meeting at the windsor hotel in montreal, - june. the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene theme of the conference is "the challenges of archives." some of the sessions will deal with such concrete problems and issues as the cultural property import and export act, the report of the consultative group on archives, archives display, freedom of informa- tion legislation, canadian studies, film archives, and archives inventory. york university archives becomes cbc television drama repository. officials of york university archives, toronto, ontario, announced they have reached an agreement with the canadian broadcasting company (cbc) concerning television drama produc- tions. under the agreement, the archives will become the repository for all scripts, pro- duction records, and financial papers of the cbc's english-language national television network dramas produced since . access to the cbc television drama collection is with the permission of cbc. archives booklet marks international archives week celebration. for international archives week, the provincial archives of alberta has published a booklet surveying major archival repositories in the province and their documentary collections. the title of the booklet is alberta's archives, : preserving our documentary heritage. computerized land records index available. the archives of ontario has prepared a computerized land records index of the crown land papers, canada company papers, and the peter robinson papers. the index includes the name of the individual owner, land location, type of transaction, and date. the provincial archives will make the printout of the index available on microfiche to various archival institutions throughout the province. new municipal archives established in british columbia. on october , the city council of trail city, b.c., passed a resolution establishing the trail city archives as a function of the municipal administration. previously, the archives was a part of the trail city historical society museum. the archives, now under the jurisdiction of the city clerk's office, is proceeding with plans to establish a records management program and to serve as the repository of all historic records of the city, both public and private. it is hoped that, with the establishment of an official city repository, the alarming exodus of relevant ma- terial from the area will stop. new arrangements for records of the evangelical mennonite mission conference. the conference of mennonites in canada built the mennonite heritage centre in win- nipeg, manitoba, in to serve all mennonite and other church groups in canada. one aspect of this mandate was that those church bodies that have no repository for their ar- chives may use the heritage centre. the first body to choose this option is the evangelical mennonite mission conference (emmc) which has twenty-seven congregations scattered across ontario, manitoba, and saskatchewan. the emmc education and publication board is encouraging its congregations to deposit in the heritage centre valuable historical material relating to the whole group. mennonite brethren archives moved. for the past ten years, the archives of the con- ference of mennonite brethren churches in canada (mb) has been housed in a small office, and later in a classroom, on the campus of the mennonite brethren bible college in winnipeg. both locations soon became inadequate. when the college began planning for an expansion of its library and music building, it was decided to include more space for the archives in the plans. upon completion of the expansion in the spring of , the centre for mennonite brethren studies moved to a new location in the basement of the new addition. the mb archives facility now includes , square feet of usable space, office for the archivist, a microfilm reading room, and a room to house the j.a. toews rare book collection. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / spring china first american contact with archivists of the people's republic of china. in july and august , marilyn ghausi, museum archivist at the detroit institute of arts, accom- panied scientists and a delegation of the institute of electrical and electronics engineers on a two-week tour of major cities in the people's republic of china. acting as a special saa representative, ghausi was delegated to try to make contact with chinese archivists and to explore the possibilities of an saa study tour of chinese archives. during the tour she was able not only to meet with chinese archivists; she had the rare privilege, granted to only a small number of western scholars, of visiting the archives of the forbidden city (also known as the palace museum ming ch'ing archives), in peking. as a result of her trip, ghausi has been able to compile a partial list of chinese archives and institutions with archival holdings. great britain international archives week is a success. british archivists sponsored more than special events throughout the country during to celebrate international archives week. one unusual feature of the nationwide celebration was the large number of record offices that held open-house activities for the general public. this was a new development in great britain. annual report issued by the society of archivists. according to figures released in its annual report, current membership of the society of archivists stands at . the figure includes fifty-five commonwealth members and twenty-one student associates. the slow growth in the society's membership, despite an increase in the number of archivists trained annually by the universities, is attributed to financial cutbacks in public administra- tion. the report also reveals that the society has established a regional fund of £ , , to be administered by the regional branches, to stimulate local and regional archival activities. report on the sales of aristocratic archives released. the royal commission on his- torical manuscripts makes reference in its report to the alarming tendency of aristocratic owners of personal or family papers to withdraw materials from deposit in record offices and to offer them for sale. during there were five major instances of this. the com- mission estimates that percent of the archival collections it has reported have been sold since . one encouraging check on this tendency has been a slight tightening of the export controls on documents. the new regulations now apply to fifty-year old documents instead of only to those seventy years old and over. wrap-up of business archives council activities. the business archives council completed an unusually active year with regional meetings and displays, a one-day sym- posium in london, and a reception at goldsmith's hall in london. its regional exhibition, scraps of paper, opened in liverpool during november and is the first archival exhibit entirely prepared by the northwestern museum and art galleries service. the exhibit, assembled to tour the country, will be available to the public for the next two years. burma recollections scheme now available. the india office library and records has opened the burma recollections scheme. these, consisting of memoirs written by prominent british participants in the government of burma during the pre-independence period ( ), were collected as part of the foreign and commonwealth office project. liberalization of time restrictions on municipal records. the carlisle city council has announced a liberalization of its policy on closing of records. adoption of a -year closure period by the city council runs counter to the -year rule for national govern- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene ment records. it also is counter to the national trend. government secretiveness intensified during by sudden closures of record series in the public record office and in north- ern ireland, and by introduction of the protection of information bill. seminars on manuscript indexing planned. the manuscript division of the british library has been organizing a series of seminars on the indexing of manuscripts. these seminars accompany publication of the division's new handbook, manuscripts indexing ( ), edited by j. p. hudson. archives catalogs available on microfiche. the contemporary scientific archives centre, oxford university, has now published its catalogs in microfiche. oxford micro- form publications, ltd., produced these in accordance with archival standards. the exist- ing fifteen catalogs will be periodically updated in further notices issued by the centre. business archives included in new museum. the international business firm of cable and wireless, ltd., has built and opened a telecommunications museum at mercury house, theobalds road, london. the company, now known as cable trust, ltd., has included its archives, which dates from , in the new museum. automated data processing activities. the network computer system prospec-sa has completed its experimental pilot project. the report has been published as british li- brary research and development report no. . also d u r i n g the data protection com- mittee published a report (hsmo, cmd. ) which includes archival clauses ( . - ). these clauses propose a code of practice on preservation of and access to machine-readable data bases. the report also proposes the licensing of holders of such information and fees for inspection. the society of archivists has indicated it would like to extend these meas- ures to cover paper documents. archives services in metropolitan counties. the society of archivists has issued a statement on archives services in metropolitan counties (major conurbations). the society recommends that archives services should be organized over large areas by the principal government agency, that is the county, while allowing local agencies to hold existing archi- val collections pertinent to their localities. such a policy would prevent the continuation of under-resourced and inefficient small archives services, and at the same time provide uni- form and better services in all districts. italy international seminar on latin paleography. in the international center of in- formation on the sources for balkan and mediterranean history (cibal) was founded at sophia, bulgaria, for the collection, publication, and microfilming of sources of balkan history. since then, cibal has promoted a series of seminars on the study of latin, greek, slav, and ottoman paleography. cibal, in cooperation with the archivio di stato di roma and the school of archival science, latin paleography and diplomatics, held a month-long seminar ( november- december ) at the archivio di stato di roma. this was the first seminar on latin paleography. netherlands new archives constructed in the netherlands. the dutch government has opened a new archival repository complex in the hague. it is nine stories high with two under- ground levels, and includes about , square feet of stack space as well as work areas, reading rooms, and exhibit space. six archival institutions, previously housed in separate d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist/ spring locations either in utrecht or the hague, were centralized at a single location on de- cember . the six institutions are the general state archives, central register for private archives (manuscript collections), iconographical office, central office for ge- nealogy, royal society for genealogy and heraldry, and the state school for the training of archivists (rijksarchiefschool). fl i | ulftcmsf bo«ir prins cluuslaan jc peru peruvian social security sponsors archival seminar. the seguro social del peru (pe- ruvian social security) held for its employees, - september , a seminar on ar- chives. members of the archivo general de la nacion conducted the four-day seminar that dealt with handling records of insured peruvians. departmental archives commemorates national independence. on the occasion of the th anniversary of the independence of peru ( july ), the archivo depart- mental de cajamarca organized a documentary exhibit of colonial and republican artifacts. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene - s . a d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / spring second archives training course offered. the archivo historico riva-aguero (cath- olic university) offered, - august , a second course on document description. the course was designed for archivists of historical repositories and university history students. [translated by mario f. lopez-gomez, national archives and records service] singapore renovation at the national archives and records centre. in early , after consid- ering several buildings as an alternative archives building and finding none suitable, the national archives and records centre (narc) resubmitted its proposal for a new pur- pose-built building. the government again rejected the proposal, and asked narc to reconsider the possible use of the hill street police building. after lengthy discussions with public works department architects and structural engineers, it was agreed that the hill street police building could be reinforced with additional support columns to meet archival floor load requirements. in november the proposal for narc to occupy the entire ground and first floors of the hill street police building was approved and the necessary renovation work begun. narc intends to move into the building as soon as the construction work has been completed. the new larger and more centrally located prem- ises will permit narc to expand its services to government bodies. oral history program established. during narc initiated a new activity, an oral history program. an advisory committee was formed to establish an oral history unit in narc whose purpose is to document on sound recordings peoples' reminiscences of im- portant historical events in singapore. these tape-recorded reminiscences will supplement or fill gaps in the textual records on singapore's history. spain adpa journal to be translated into spanish. the ica committee on automation has approved a proposal presented by the archivo historico nacional to translate into spanish its journal, adpa: archives & automationllnformatique, and other publications. previously, articles in the journal have appeared only in either english or french with accompanying abstracts in the other language. spanish archivists will start their translation of the adpa journal with volume , number ( ). there is also the likelihood that all back issues of adpa will be translated by the archivo historico nacional sometime in the future. judaica bund archives of the jewish labor movement celebrates its eightieth anniversary. in the bund archives of the jewish labor movement, now located at the atran center for jewish culture, in new york, celebrated its eightieth anniversary. this archives, originally established in geneva, switzerland, in by john mill and zermach kopelson, has successfully survived several geographical dislocations (geneva, berlin, paris, and new york) and nazi occupation. the bund archives currently contains approximately , feet of material in its book and manuscript collection. the materials date from the begin- ning of labor activity and social thought among jews in eastern europe and the united states in the late nineteenth century to the present. it also includes a sizeable collection of underground newspapers from eastern europe as well as large collections of photographs, posters, and handbills. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene international council on archives executive committee elects acting president. at its meeting, in san juan, puerto rico, on october , the executive committee unanimously elected oscar gauye to serve the remainder of the unexpired presidential term of james b. rhoads. since rhoads re- tired at the end of august as archivist of the united states, he was no longer eligible to serve as ica president. prior to his election, gauye, director of the schweizerischer bundesarchiv/archives federales suisses, in bern, was one of the two ica vice presidents. as acting ica president, he will preside over the ninth international congress on ar- chives, at london, - september . meeting of the section of archivists of international organizations. the fourth session of the section of archivists of international organizations was held, - septem- ber , at the inter-parliamentary union in geneva, switzerland. eighteen persons, rep- resenting various un agencies or other international organizations, attended the three-day meeting. topics of discussion included guidelines for preserving records related to tech- nical assistance to developing countries, the use and misuse of microforms, and standards for archives and records management services as well as the relationship between registries and archives services. the next session, scheduled for june , will be held either in brussels, belgium, to coincide with a planned symposium on international documentation, or in luxembourg. report on the third caribbean archives conference, - october . d. gail saunders for the past four years has served as the archivist of the bahamas, as president of the caribbean archives association, and as the planner of the third caribbean archives conference, at nassau. that she has succeeded beautifully would be the opinion of every- one who attended this conference. she had much assistance from her own staff, from the ministry of education and culture (the parent agency of the archives and library), and from the "friends of the archives." everyone coming to the meeting received an attrac- tive booklet entitled the first ten years, - , history of the bahamian archives. the third caribbean archives conference was much more than a celebration by the bahamians of their progress. held at the ambassador beach hotel, it was attended by twenty-seven official delegates, twenty-three official observers from other countries, and twenty-three observers from various caribbean colleges and universities. the theme of carbica iii was "the role of the archivist in nation building." major papers presented included "the involvement of the government and the status of the archivist," by a. f. paula, archives of the netherlands antilles; "education and training of archivists," by christine matthews, barbados archives; "oral archives," by jean paul hervieu, of guadeloupe; "the making of a guide to the caribbean archives," by liliane chauleau, of martinique; and "records management," by felix hull, kent record of- fice, england. the conference also included a round table meeting on archival develop- ment in the caribbean, with participation by representatives of unesco and ica. not all sessions were devoted to archives. participants enjoyed lavish entertainment each evening. on october the second general assembly of carbica met. a. f. paula, director of the archives of the netherlands antilles, was elected president, and presumably the next meeting will be held four years hence at an island in the netherland antilles. the caribbean islands were well represented at the meeting, and there were more eu- ropean participants than at earlier conferences. the united states, with its long caribbean shore line, should be much better represented at carbica meetings than it has been at the first three. let us hope that it will be, four years from now. [oliver w. holmes, washington, d.c.] d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / spring organization of american states new archives newsletter published. in january , the department of cultural affairs began publication of noticiero archivistico. the aim of the trimestral newsletter is to provide information on major activities at latin american archives and among regional associations of archivists in order to promote better communication among latin american archivists. at present the newsletter appears only in spanish, but eventually oas intends to publish both english and portuguese editions. requests for free copies of noticiero ar- chivistico should be sent to the department of cultural affairs, organization of american states, washington, dc . unesco records and archives management program (ramp) meeting held. unesco held a meeting, - may , at unesco house in paris to discuss development of ramp within the framework of the general information programme (pgi). experts from argen- tina, france, great britain, india, senegal, spain, sudan, and the united states, as well as observers from the international council on archives (ica), international federation for documentation (fid), and international federation of library associations (ifla), at- tended. ramp has been conceived as a coordinated component or subprogram of pgi. its dual purpose is: ( ) to promote and assist in the creation of an awareness of the value and uses of records and archives as basic information resources, and ( ) to help member states in the development of necessary records management and archives systems for effective ap- plication of the basic information resources. accordingly, the experts at this meeting ex- amined the working document and evaluated the concept of ramp in relation to current and anticipated needs. [unisist newsletter, vol. , no. ( )] abstracts editor's note: abstracts of archivaria and the merged, or reorganized, its functions or journal of the society of archivists will no longer rights are generally transferred to another appear in this section. both journals are in eng- administrative body. records follow func- lish and are readily accessible to our readers. t i o n s t h i s i s t h e p r i n c i p l e of functional the need for inclusion of abstracts from these • . t a i- i• • • j - u j i u u • sovereignty over records. in australia, thejournals has been diminished also by the regis- " ' tration of relevant articles in the annual bibli- administrative arrangements. o r d e r allo- ography and the professional reading lists com- cates functional responsibilities, and any piled by paul v. guite. changes to this o r d e r are promulgated in the commonwealth government gazette. al- most all commonwealth departments, al- australia. archives and manuscripts, though sometimes reluctantly, recognize vol. , no. (april ). in the second of the principle of functional sovereignty over a three-part article on archives and admin- records. istrative change, three archivists with the an analysis of the australian situation australian archives (peter j. scott, clive d. reveals five types of changes affecting rec- smith, and gail finlay) discuss (pp. - ords: location, name, department, status or ) the effect of administrative changes on level, and transfer of functions due to ab- records in the government since . ac- olition or creation of agencies. the types of cording to standard european and ameri- administrative changes depend upon the can archival theory, the rule is that, when number and nature of predecessor and an administrative body is abolished, successor agencies at the time of the change. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene the archivists believe that the transfer of functions causes the most complex archival problems—that is, the decision to transmit entire record series to a single successor agency or to split a series between several successor agencies. consequently, there has evolved in australia: ( ) the concept of principal successor agency, whereby the principal successor agency inherits the main functions and records of a predecessor agency; and ( ) the concept of shared se- ries, in which responsibility for a particular record series is shared between successor agencies under the principle of functional sovereignty over records. this latter con- cept may imply splitting a series between agencies, granting access to a series held by one successor agency to all successor agen- cies, or assigning drawing rights to all suc- cessor agencies without splitting the series. the australian experience has shown the valuable assistance a national archives can provide during periods of administra- tive change. by closely working with the departments, the australian archives has sought to ensure the orderly transfer of records with the least possible disruption of official business. it has also developed a set of general guidelines for departments to follow during these periods of change. these guidelines relate to registry files, file registers, subject and name indexes, ac- count and staff records, and other non-re- gistry records. according to the three ar- chivists, it may be too early to evaluate the degree of success of this involvement, but there is no dispute that departments are taking greater care in the transfer of rec- ords. czechoslovakia. slovenskd archi- vistiha, vol. , no. ( ). in an article analyzing the slovak archives law, which became effective on january , michal kusik describes (pp. - ) archival devel- opment in slovakia in relation to the new law. during the first twenty years of czech- oslovakia's national history ( - ), the central archives in prague functioned without a legal foundation. this hindered not only national archival progress, but impeded developments in the administra- tion of state archives. in slovakia the situ- ation gradually improved, especially dur- ing the post-world war ii period. the first impact on slovak archives occurred in with passage of a law organizing ar- chival work based on the soviet experience. a second boost came in with the fed- eralization of czechoslovakia. under the legislation the newly created state central archives of the slo- vak socialist republic, located in bratis- lava, was empowered to declare certain documents as "national cultural treasures" and to regulate the pre-archival arrange- ment process of historical material. it is also authorized to protect state documents, regulate the interchange of holdings with foreign countries, and supervise archival material remaining in the custody of pri- vate individuals and non-state organiza- tions. according to the law, archival mate- rial is to be used primarily for consultation and study. the law permits no export or sale of archives, but does provide for the limited transfer of records outside slovakia with the permission of the ministry of in- terior. items determined as national cul- tural treasures can only be loaned for ex- hibit purposes under special permission of the slovak government. the organization of archives is accord- ing to type of institution and its services. types of archives range from the state ar- chives, archives of state enterprises, to the archives of socialist organizations. a sepa- rate regulation provides for the archives of the army, security services, political parties, national front, and trade unions. in keep- ing with its soviet model, the archives of the czechoslovak communist party is ex- empt from state control and functions as a special archival fonds. slovenskd archivistika, vol. , n o . ( ). michal kusik in this issue describes (pp. - ) the administrative organization of the state central archives of the slovak socialist republic. in , the slovak state central archives became an autono- mous unit with major responsibility as a research institute. it is organized into nine research and administrative departments: ( ) history of feudalism, ( ) history of cap- italism, ( ) history of socialism, ( ) pre-ar- chival care, ( ) historical films, ( ) maps d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ spring and plans collections, ( ) conservation and reproduction laboratories, ( ) scientific in- formation, and ( ) economic administra- tion. plans are underway for the construc- tion of a more modern facility to enable the departments to expand their holdings and services. archivni zprdvy csav, n o . ( ). in an article on the intellectual control of ar- chival holdings, b. jezek discusses (pp. - ), traditional and modern methods of information preservation. he describes the more conventional methods of preserving original source information: paper docu- ments, photographs, motion picture film. as a consequence of technological ad- vances, archivists now deal with material in new mediums: microforms, magnetic and cassette tapes, video cassettes, and mini- computers. these new archival mediums, because of their nontraditional nature, pose special problems for the archivist and re- quire special handling. ijoseph stasko.jwu; york public library] india. the indian archives, vol. , nos. - (january-december ). the three major articles in this issue deal primarily with archival sources available to research- ers in the study of the various aspects of indian history. s. v. desikachar, who was special officer at the karnataka state ar- chives, urges (pp. - ) in his article on archival wealth and post-vijayanagara karnataka history that scholars research this neglected period. according to desi- kachar, most researchers have erred in be- lieving that there is nothing worthy of study in this area following the military de- feat of this previously powerful state. de- spite an apparent lack of glamour and the fact that documentation pertaining to kar- nataka has been dispersed, there are ample archival sources available at records centers and repositories both inside and outside india. renewed interest and research is contingent, however, upon development of the karnataka state archives and the dis- covery of lost archival materials by scholars and universities. b. d. gupta, chairman of the history department, bundelkhand university, dis- cusses (pp. - ) available primary sources for studying the history of bundelkhand under the moguls, between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries. according to gupta, primary sources on this subject fall into five categories: hindi, persian, mara- thi, travel accounts by europeans, and re- gional material. to insure scholars of the constant availability of these primary sources, gupta calls upon private owners of pertinent archival holdings to deposit their material in either the national ar- chives or one of the state archives. the last article, written by west german archivist ernst ritter, is a description (pp. - ) of archival holdings at the bundes- archiv and other german archives that document german-indian relations since the first decade of the sixteenth century. in addition to the christian mission records, there is much material in various reposito- ries in the federal german republic that relates to navigation, commerce, and eco- nomics. unsigned abstracts were prepared by the american archivist staff. other publications received argentina. el papel. fabrication—normalization preservation—restauracion ( ). belgium. miscellanea archivistica, vol. ( ); vol. ( ). czechoslovakia. archivni casopis, vol. , no. ( ); vol. , no. ( ); archivni zprdvy csav, no. ( ); slovenshd archivistika, vol. , no. ( ); vol. , no. ( ). denmark. erhvervshistorisk arbog ( ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene great britain. indian office library & records, report for the year ( ); university of warwick, coventry, modern records centre, report for the session - ( ). india. national archives of india annual report for . (hindi edition, ). international council on archives, south and west asian regional branch. swarbica journal, no. ( ). israel. central zionist archives, zionist literature, n.s., vol. , no. - (november- december ); vol. , no. - (january-february ); vol. , no. - (march-april ). central zionist archives, report of activities october -august ( ). judaica. american jewish history, vol. , no. (september ). mauritius. annual report of the archives department for the years - ( ). mexico. actas historia, letras y artes, no. ( a p r i l - j u n e ); bibliotecas y archivos, no. ( ); cb ciencia bibliotecaria, vol. , no. ( ); vol. , no. ( ). netherlands. archiefraad verslag ( ); jaarverslag van de rijksarchiefdienst ( ); gemeentelijke archiefdienst, verslagen der bedrijven diensten en commissies van am- sterdam ( ). new zealand. archifacts, no. & , n.s. (march ); no. , n.s. (june ); national archives of new zealand,^ summary of work / ( ). norway. nordisk arkivnyt, vol. , no. (december ); vol. , no. (march ); vol. , no. (j u n e ); vol. , no. (september ). romania. biblioteca centrala de stat a republicii socialiste romania, centrul national de schimb, catalogue ( ). singapore. national archives and records centre, annual report ( ); annual report jan. -mar. ( ). spain. rebi indices de revistas de bibliotecologia, no. (may ); no. (september ). corrections: the romanian abstracts in the october issue were erroneously attributed to the american archivist staff. joseph dwyer of the hoover institution on war, revolution, and peace prepared these abstracts. joseph stasko, who prepared the abstracts of slovenskd archivistika for the winter issue, was incorrectly listed as joseph staska. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . j n p w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril chh volume issue cover and back matter leonard bacon new england reformer and antislavery moderate hugh davis davis presents the first full treatment of the life and work of leonard bacon, the reformer, editor, church leader, and author who influenced northern protes- tants' thinking for more than fifty years. by detailing bacon's vigorous efforts to connect his church and community to arenas of national scope, davis offers new insights into the nineteenth-century protestant ministry, the evangelical mentality, and the attempts ^pf bacon's contemporaries to address the moral and social issues of their time. $ . plan ahead spring meeting - april santa fe, new mexico proposals for papers and sessions are welcomed by the program committee. send abstracts of papers and cvs of all participants to professor randi j. walker pacific school of religion scenic avenue berkeley, ca deadline for submitting proposals: september core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new in church history a. c. cheyne studies in scottish church history explores the history of the churches of scotland since the reformation, focusing on its leaders, including robert rollock, robert leighton, william carstares, thomas chalmers, john tulloch, john caird, henry drummond, john baillie and donald baillie. alec cheyne illuminates how much change and diversity in thought, worship, government and culture these years have witnessed. cloth - - - pp $ . studies in scottish church history a. c. cheyne markus bockmuehl and michael b. thompson, editors a vision for the church studies in early christian ecclesiology this stimulating collection of essays by an international group of new testament experts examines how early christians viewed the church; its origins, purpose and relation to jewish scriptures and to jesus christ; its place in the world and in god's plan; and its community life and worship, both in theory and practice. paper - - - pp $ . klaus deppermann melchior hoffman social unrest and apocalyptic visions in the age of reformation this comprehen- sive modern biography of melchior hoffman, one of the most important figures in the "radical reformation," traces not only his intellectual development but analyzes the various groups of his followers and relates his life and work closely to the social and political context of his time. paper - - - pp $ . send for our complete catalogue oki>i:k toll free - - - fax - - - use vour visa nr mastercard order by mail add $ first book, $ ca. add. for k&ll make check payable and mail to: t&t clark publishers dipt. c i p.o. box , herndon, va ( core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new books from cua press controversial concordats the vatican's relations with napoleon, mussolini, and hitler frank j. coppa, editor offers an engaging survey of the relation- ship of the roman catholic church with three dictatorial figures. the authors trace the evolution of each of the concordats, and assess their contributions and their impact on the church, the catholic faith, and international relations. $ . cloth ( - - - ) $ . paper ( - - -x) word, church, and state tyndale quincentenary essays john t. day, eric lund & anne m. o'donnell, eds. this collection of essays—based on papers from the washington international conference celebrating the th anniver- sary of tyndale's birth—contains cutting- edge work by some of the world's most established scholars currently working on tyndale. the essays makes fresh linguistic, historical, and theological contributions. $ . cloth ( - - - ) war and religion catholics in the churches of occupied paris vesna drapac an illuminating study of parisian catholic life from the european crisis of the late s to the end of nazi occupation in . drapac discusses the nature of catholic loyalty to the vichy regime and the range of religious responses to the ordeal. $ . cloth ( - - -x) varieties of ultramontanism jeffrey von arx, editor explores the differing views of six ultramontane cardinals on papal authority. the cardinals examined are: johannes von geissel, louis-edouard desire pie, paul cullen, henry edward manning, camillo mazzella, s.j., and william henry cconnell. $ . cloth ( - - - ) $ . paper ( - - - ) the history of philosophy in colonial mexico mauricio beuchot, o.p. presents a critical study of the wealth of philosophical activity in mexico from until . beuchot traces how ideas developed and how philosophers influenced each other. $ . cloth ( - - - ) of related interest hesburgh: a biography michael o'brien an compelling biography of one of the greatest catholic leaders in american history. o'brien chronicles father theodore hesburgh's career as notre dame president, political appointee, u.s. civil rights commission chairman, and priest. $ . cloth ( - - - ) the catholic university of america press p.o. box , hampden station, baltimore, md / - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core turn to tennessee for provocative reading! building a protestant left christianity and crisis magazine, - mark hulsether "a rich, nuanced history of the rise and fall of the most influential protestant journal of the post-world war ii period, hulsether's book fills a major hole in the cultural historiogra- phy of postwar liberalism."—doug mcadam, author of freedom summer feb., pages, isbn - - - , $ . fire in his heart bishop benjamin tucker tanner a n d the a.m.e. church william seraile "a very well-researched, well-organized biog- raphy of benjamin tucker tanner, one of the major leaders of the african methodist episco- pal church, who made significant intellectual and pastoral contributions in his roles as min- ister, editor, and bishop."—sandy dwayne martin, university of georgia pages, illus., isbn - - - , $ . the self and the sacred conversion a n d autobiography in early american protestantism rodgerm. payne examining the conversion narratives and spiritual autobiographies that proliferated in early america, rodger payne focuses on what they reveal about notions of selfhood. pages, isbn - - - , $ . declarations of independency in eighteenth-century american autobiography susan clair imbarrato this book examines the changes in the american autobiographical voice as it speaks through the transition from a colonial society to an independent republic. conversion nar- ratives are among the genres it considers. pages, isbn - - - , $ . shipping & handling: $ . for first book; $. for each additional book. presbyterian pluralism competition in a protestant house william i. weston "weston's rich analysis of two earlier presbyte- rian crises is replete with implications for the 'culture wars' which grip mainline protestant- ism in these latter days of the twentieth century.... weston provides a persuasive and welcome note of balance and hope as we head into an increasingly shrill and debilitating debate."—donald a. luidens, hope college pages, illus., isbn - - - , $ . reverend joseph tarkington, methodist circuit rider from frontier evangelism to refined religion david l kimbrough tracing the rise in fortunes of a methodist minister in nineteenth-century indiana, this book presents a vivid picture of the political, social, and religious culture of that time and place. pages, illus., isbn - - - , $ . wise as serpents, innocent as doves american mennonites encage washington keith craber miller this book examines the activities of the wash- ington office that was opened in by the mennonite central committee for monitor- ing the actions of the federal government. the author shows how the church's traditions of pacifism, humility, and service have informed the nature of its work in the nation's capital. pages, illus., isbn - - -x, $ . evangelicals and politics in antebellum america richard j. carwardine "this superbly researched and expertly written book makes a signal contribution to american history as well as to the history of religion."— mark noll, christianity today pages, isbn - - - , $ . pa ut press online: http://sunsite.utk.edu/utpress the university of tennessee press • knoxville core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new in paperback the ladies of zamora peter linehan " [linehan] paints a vivid and compelling picture of a community whose mem- bers found themselves caught up in larger con- flicts of authority within the church and between church and state. . . . a fine example of the way in which study of the local and the particular opens out on to the wider per- spectives of castilian his- tory and the problems a church as a whole faced with the rise of the mendicant orders." —colin thompson, times literary supplement pages illustrations si . paper for sale in the u.s. and canada only charlotte von kirschbaum and karl barth a study in biography and the history of theology suzanne selincer the first concentrated study of the longterm collabo- ration of the towering theologian karl barth and his secretary and theological assistant, charlotte von kirschbaum. pages si . paper penn state studies in lived religious experience apparitions of the madonna at oliveto citra local visions and cosmic drama paolo apolito translated by w i l l i a m a. christian, jr. an account of how modern reports of appearances of the virgin mary turned the italian village of oliveto citra into a pilgrimage site. pages s . cloth margherita of cortona and the lorenzetti sienese art and the cult of a holy woman in medieval tuscany joanna cannon and andre vauchez "a model of how art-historical sources should be used for the history of religious sentiment." —david d'avray, university college, london pages bstw / color illus. s . cloth state tress magic in history series forbidden rites a necromancer's manual of the fifteenth century richard kieckhefer ' horb'uiden kites is die best book on magic in the late middle ages and a great introduction to die problematic relations of magic and religion in general." — h. c. erik midelfort, university of"virginia . pages $ . paper conjuring spirits texts and traditions of late medieval ritual magic edited by claire fancer (jirtjitring spirits contains both general surveys and analyses of magical texts and manuscripts by distin- guished scholars in a variety of disciplines. pages illustrations f . paper ritual magic elizabeth butler 'butler's survey is the classic scholarly treatment of a tiaditiou that extends from the later middle ages into the early modern era: the tradition of texts that teach ceremonial magicians how to conjure good or evil spirits." --richard kieckhefer a j pages . paper the fortunes of faust elizabeth butler "the skill and precision with which butler delin- eates the phases of the faust tradition is no less im- pressive than [he elegant magnanimity which she displays in judging the great as well as that host of minor p o m whose labors equally testify tu the inex- haustible fascination of'the conflict between reli- gion and rationalism as in the ultimate fate of the faustian spirit, the desire tor infinite knowl- edge.'" — yale ret'teii' pages il . paper all booh in the series are for s,ik m the i !.s. and penn state university press usb , suite c • university park, pa orders: - - toll free fax: - p s u - b o o k http://www.psu.edu/psupress core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core united states postal service,. statement of ownership, management, and circulation (required by usc s) . publication tibe church history . issue frequency quarterly: mar, jun, sep, dec . publication number i l l . number of issues published annually . complete mailing aaqress of known office of publication (not pnnter) (street, ary, county, state, and ztpi-t) american society of church history p.o. box red bank nj . filing date s e p . , . annual subscription price $ . contact person telebhane ( ) - i. complete mailing aadress of headquarters or general business office of puolisner (not pnnter) american society;of church history p. . box red bank nj . full names and complete mailing addresses of publisher. editor, and managing editor (do not leave blarut) publisher (name and complete mailing address) american society of church history p.o. box red bank nj editor (name and complete mailing address) elizabeth clark richard heitzenrater hans hillerbrand, and grant wacker box duke university durham nc managing editor (name and complete mailing address) • . owner (do not leave blank. if the publication is owned by a corporation, give the name and address of the corporation immediately followed by the names and addresses of all stockholders owning or holding percent or more of the total amount ol stock. if not owned ty a corporation, give the names and addresses of the individual owners. if owned by a partnership or other unincorporated firm, give its name and aaaress as well as those of each individual owner. if the publication is published by a nonprofit organization, give its name and address.) full name i complete mailing address american society of church history p.o. box no stockholders red bank nj :. known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding percent or more of total amount of bonds. mortgages, or other swirrities. if none, checkbox •jit name none *- • none complete mailing address . tax status (for completion by nonprofit organizations authorized to mail at specal rates) (checx one) the purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt satus for federal income tax purposes: m has not changed during preceding months d has changed during preceding months (publisher must submit explanation of change with this statement) n . se-t*-*.*. (see instructions on sei core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core . publication title church history . issue date lor circulation data b«iow september extant and nature at circulation a. total number of cooies (net press run) b. paid and/or circulation ) sales through dealers and carriers. street vendors, and counter sales (not mailed) ( ) paid or requested mail subscriptions (include advertiser's proof copies ana exchange copies) c total paid and/or reauested circulation (sum of isbd) and isb( )) d. free distribution by mail (samples, complimentary, and other free) e. free distribution outside the mail (carriers or other means) f. total free distribution (sum of j£d and se) g. total distribution (sum at £cand h. copies not distributed ( ) office use, leftovers. spoiled ( ) returns from news agents i. total (sum of sg. h( ), and sh( )) percent paid and/or requested circulation ( c/ sgx ) • • average no. copies each issue | during preceding months none none none actual no. copies of single issue j published nearest to piling data none none none , . publication of statement of ownership d publication required. win be printed in the _ | * f t r , d publication not required. _ issue of this publication. s/r sep i cartfy mat all iftormation furnished on mis form is bue and complete. i understand mat anyone who furnishes false or misleading information on mis form or who omits materiaj or information requested on me form may be subject to criminal sanctions (inducing fines and imprisonment) and/or dvii sancaons (including multiple damages and civil penalties!. instructions to publishers . complete and file one copy of this form with your postmaster annuajly on or before october . keep a copy of the completed form for your records. in cases where the stockholder or security holder is a trustee, include in items and the name of the person or corporation lor whom the trustee is acting. also include the names and addresses of individuals who are stockholders who own or hold percent or more of the total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities of the publishing corporation. in item , if none, check the box. use blank sheets if more space is required. . e sure to furnish all circulation information called for in item i s . free circulation must be shewn in items d, e. and f. . if the publication had second-ciass aulhorization as a general or requester publication, this statement of ownership, management, and circulation must be published; it must be printed in any issue in october or, if the publication is not published during october, the first issue printed after october. . in item , indicate the date of the issue in which this statement of ownership will be published. . item must be signed. failure (o file or publish a statement of ownership may lead to suspension of second-class authorization. ps form s , september (beversej core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history: studies in christianity and cultures published four times per year (march, june, september, and december) by the american society of church history. membership dues for individuals are $ per year for regular membership, $ per year for retired persons who previously held regular membership for at least five years; and free for two years for graduate students with the approval of a professor who is a member of the society (after two years, graduate students pay $ annually until graduation). institutional subscriptions are $ per year. foreign postage is an additional $ per year. single issues are $ . please make remittances payable to "american society of church history." office of the secretary-treasurer: american society of church history, p.o. box , red bank, nj - . subscription applications, renewals, changes of address, claims for missing numbers, orders for single copies of current or back issues, and requests for permission to quote should be sent to the secretary-treasurer. claims for missing numbers will be honored without charge if made within two months of the regular month of publication. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series i and ii, and of church history, volumes - ( - ), are available from the atla preservation board. orders for these reproductions as well as inquiries about microfilm portions and photocopies should be sent to east th place, chicago, il . microfilm reproductions of church history starting with volume ( ) are available to subscribers and members of the society from university microfilms, north zeeb road, ann arbor, mi . the full text of church history is also available in the electronic versions of the humanities index. church history is indexed in religion index one: periodicals, index to book reviews in religion, religion indexes: rio/rit/ibrr - on cd-rom, and atla religion database on cd-rom, all published by the american theological library association, church street, suite , evanston, il - ; ( ) -atla; atla@atla.com; http://atla.library.vanderbilt.edu/atla/ home.html. the following indexes are available from the office of the secretary-treasurer: volumes — ( - ), volumes - ( - ), vols. - ( - ). each index costs $ . book reviews are indexed or abstracted in book review index, historical abstracts, and america: history and life. editorial office: church history, the divinity school, duke university, box , durham, nc - ; ( ) - ; fax ( ) - ; church-history@duke.edu. send manuscripts, books for review, and requests about advertising to the editorial office. manuscripts should run , - , words (or approximately - pages), not including endnotes, and should be printed double-spaced in - or -point font; endnotes must be printed double-spaced on separate pages following the text. the editors request ( ) three copies of the manuscript (in order to protect the author's anonymity during the review process, the author's name should appear only on the title page of the essay); ( ) three copies of a -word abstract (if church history publishes the essay, the abstract may be printed above the first line of the text of the article and/or it may be included on the forthcoming church history webpage); ( ) a '/rinch diskette containing the manuscript and abstract (instead of sending a diskette, you may submit your manuscript and abstract by electronic mail). further guidelines are available on request. church history is printed by the science press division of mack printing group, ephrata, pennsylvania. periodicals postage paid at red bank, new jersey and additional mailing offices. postmaster: send address changes to american society of church history, p.o. box , red bank, nj . church history (issn - ) the opinions expressed in this journal represent the views only of the individual contributors; they do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, duke university, or the american society of church history. advertising in church history does not necessarily imply endorsement. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents calvin: a prophet without a prophecy max engammare augustine and the amerindian in seventeenth-century new france peter a. goddard thomas jefferson, religious freedom, and the supreme court edivin s. gaustad revivals and revolution: historiographie turns since alan heimert's religion and the american mind philip goff the rise of southern gospel music james r. goff jr. books core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pii: - ( ) -z p e r g a m o n annals of tourism research, vol. , no. , pp. - , copyright © elsevier science ltd printed in the usa. all rights reserved - / $ . + . - ( ) - e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l t r a i n i n g i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s c h a r l o t t e m . e c h t n e r u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y , c a n a d a abstract: this paper advocates a three-pronged approach to tourism education consisting of professional, vocational, and entrepreneurial training. i n the past, the debate on appropriate tourism education in developing countries has centered on the relative merits of two of these approaches--professional education and vocational training. this discussion, however, focuses on the third component: entrepreneurial development. the importance of entrepreneurship in the tourism industry is discussed and some examples of existing programs are provided. four criteria for the design of a successful entrepreneurial development program are outlined. finally, the special economic, political, and social issues facing the educators of tourism entrepreneurs in developing, countries are addressed. k e y w o r d s : entrepreneurship, tourism education, develop- ing countries. r sum~: la formation de l'esprit d'entreprise dans les pays en voie de d veloppement. l'article pr conise une triple formation en tourisme: p o u r d velopper une compr hension th orique, des comp tences pratiques et u n esprit d'entreprise. d a n s le pass , le d bat sur la formation en tourisme dans les pays en voie de d veloppement a tourn sur la formation th orique et la formation pratique. la pr sente discussion se concentre sur le but d'animer u n esprit d'initiative. o n discute l'importance de cet esprit dans l'industrie touristique, et on en pr sente quelques exemples actuels. o n fait la liste de quatre critbres p o u r u n p r o g r a m m e r ussi p o u r d velopper resprit d'entreprise. o n rink par aborder les questions conomiques, politiques et sociales aux- quelles doivent faire face les ducateurs en tourisme aux pays en voie de d veloppement. mots- cl~s: esprit d'entreprise, formation en tourisme, pays en vole de d veloppement. i n t r o d u c t i o n it is evident that the v o l u m e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l tourists visiting the developing countries is on the rise. in the last decade, the average a n n u a l increase in the n u m b e r of tourist arrivals in the developing countries was . % , well above the worldwide average increase of . % . f u r t h e r m o r e , several developing countries, such as mexico, singapore, t h a i l a n d , a n d k o r e a , are a m o n g the world's top tourism earners (world t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a t i o n ). t h e c h a n g i n g travel p a t t e r n is due to m a n y interrelated factors. obviously, some developing countries are now m o r e accessible to tour- ists due to e x p a n d i n g a n d m o r e efficient air t r a n s p o r t a t i o n networks. several have been actively e n c o u r a g i n g t o u r i s m by b u i l d i n g the re- quired facilities a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d by e l i m i n a t i n g e n t r y barriers, such as visa a n d c u r r e n c y controls. as a result, m a n y now offer a charlotte echtner is a doctoral student (tourism major) in the faculty of management, university of calgary (calgary t n n , canada. e-mail: "echtner@acs.calgary.ca'). h e r research interests include tourism issues in developing countries, destination image, and the use of symbolism/semiotics in tourism marketing. training in developing countries readily accessible, inexpensive, alternative to the m o r e traditional des- tinations in the developed world. t h e i r p o p u l a r i t y is f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d because t h e y are unspoiled, a d v e n t u r o u s , a n d exotic. t h e s u d d e n a n d r a p i d g r o w t h o f t o u r i s m in certain developing coun- tries has c r e a t e d an i m m e d i a t e d e m a n d for the facilities a n d personnel r e q u i r e d to serve tourists. i n m a n y cases, developing countries have initially c o n c e n t r a t e d on p r o v i d i n g the " h a r d w a r e " o f the industry: buildings a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e such as hotels a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n (cullen : ). i n this rush to develop t o u r i s m facilities, the "software"-- t r a i n e d personnel n e e d e d to deliver t o u r i s m s e r v i c e s - - h a s often been given a lower priority. as a result, there is n o w a n acute shortage o f properly t r a i n e d local personnel. as the v o l u m e o f t o u r i s m to the developing countries continues to grow in the f u t u r e , the need for appropriate t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g b e c o m e s increasingly im- p o r t a n t a n d u r g e n t . but what does "appropriate t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n a n d training" entail? w h a t is the blend o f skills a n d knowledge n e e d e d to e n s u r e the success- ful d e v e l o p m e n t o f local h u m a n resources? this p a p e r advocates a "three-pronged" a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n in developing coun- tries. this a p p r o a c h involves the cultivation o f three types o f skills: professional, vocational, a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l (figure ). a b r i e f over- view of the professional a n d vocational c o m p o n e n t s is discussed first. h o w e v e r , since the relative m e r i t s o f the these two c o m p o n e n t s have b e e n d e b a t e d at length elsewhere (blanton ; c o o p e r a n d westlake ; h a w k i n s a n d h u n t ; howell a n d uysal ; j a f a r i a n d ritchie ; j e n k i n s ; ritchie ; t h e u n s a n d r a s h e e d ), this p a p e r focuses on the third, largely overlooked c o m p o n e n t o f tour- ism education: e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . existing types o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are diverse, differing greatly in d u r a t i o n , content, a n d context. h o w e v e r , t h e y can, in gen- eral, be g r o u p e d into two basic categories: professional e d u c a t i o n a n d vocational skills. t h e y comprise the first two c o m p o n e n t s o f the pro- posed t h r e e - p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . t h e first c o m p o n e n t , professional e d u c a t i o n , is generally typified by professional i education vocational skills entrepreneurial development figure . a t h r e e - p r o n g e d approach to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n in the t h i r d world charlotte echtner being m o r e a c a d e m i c in n a t u r e . such e d u c a t i o n is best accomplished at a t e r t i a r y (university) level. t h i s type o f e d u c a t i o n provides theoretical concepts a n d develops students' ability to i n t e r p r e t , evaluate, a n d ana- lyze ( c o o p e r a n d westlake : ). t h e result is a b r o a d e r a n d d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the n a t u r e a n d i m p a c t o f tourism. as such, professional t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o d u c e s the qualified m a n p o w e r n e e d e d at the strategic level in both the public a n d private sector. i n developing countries, there is a n increasingly u r g e n t n e e d for local individuals possessing a holistic b a c k g r o u n d . t h e accelerating growth o f t o u r i s m has, in m a n y cases, b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y inept p l a n n i n g a n d severe social, e c o n o m i c , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts on host c o m m u n i t i e s . f u r t h e r m o r e , the h a r m o n i z a t i o n o f private-sector t o u r i s m initiatives with public-sector goals for d e v e l o p m e n t a n d social progress has often b e e n i g n o r e d (jenkins : ). professionals, pre- p a r e d with the k n o w l e d g e a n d skills to u n d e r s t a n d t o u r i s m in its total- i t y - t h e interrelationships involved a n d the various impacts on the host c o m m u n i t y - - a r e n e e d e d to r e d u c e i n a p p r o p r i a t e forms o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t (howell a n d u y s a l : ). t h e m a i n objective o f the second type o f training, vocational, is to teach skills that c a n be applied to specific positions, such as chef, travel counsellor, o r h o u s e k e e p i n g supervisor. t h e c o n t e n t o f such p r o g r a m s is highly practical, focusing on specific on-the-job tasks ( c o o p e r a n d westlake : ). such t r a i n i n g is critical in o r d e r to effectively de- liver the products a n d services r e q u i r e d b y the t o u r i s m industry. how- ever, in most developing countries, there is a chronic shortage o f t r a i n e d local individuals, both on the front line a n d the supervisory levels ( h e g a r t y ). as a result, senior personnel are often attracted from a b r o a d a n d the locals a r e relegated to the most unskilled, a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y lowest p a y i n g , positions. t h e foreign personnel can be p r o b l e m a t i c as there is often a n insensitivity to the local social a n d cultural f r a m e w o r k . t h e r e f o r e , vocational t r a i n i n g is essential for the e m p l o y m e n t a n d the a d v a n c e m e n t o f local inhabitants a n d for the p r e v e n t i o n o f u n n e c e s s a r y cultural frictions. t h e d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g the c o n t e n t a n d a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m educa- tion p r o g r a m s has c e n t e r e d on the relative m e r i t s o f professional educa- tion versus vocational skills. t h e s e two types o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n are m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d with c r e a t i n g the h u m a n resources n e e d e d to work for others, either in the public or the private sectors o f tourism. i n developing countries, m a n y o f these p r o g r a m s have focused on provid- ing the t r a i n e d m a n p o w e r n e e d e d to efficiently r u n large scale t o u r i s m enterprises, particularly hotels ( t h e u n s a n d g o : ). t h e third c o m p o n e n t o f the proposed t h r e e - p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h , the d e v e l o p m e n t o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p o r the initiative to work for oneself, has been largely i g n o r e d in the t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n debate. this is a signifi- cant oversight. by n o t e n c o u r a g i n g a n d cultivating local t o u r i s m entre- p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , a n i m p o r t a n t p o r t i o n o f the h u m a n resource potential is n o t being tapped. i n fact, it has b e e n suggested that one o f the most critical needs o f the d e v e l o p i n g countries is the fostering o f both e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d a n e n v i r o n m e n t within which e n t r e p r e n e u r - ship can flourish ( n e h r t : ). t h e third a p p r o a c h m a k e s the a s s u m p t i o n that e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p can training in developing countries b e taught. h o w e v e r , s o m e w o u l d a r g u e that e n t r e p r e n e u r s are b o r n , not m a d e . c e r t a i n l y , it is difficult to d e n y that s o m e individuals s e e m to have innate e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l flair, j u s t as others h a v e n a t u r a l talents for mathe- matics o r music. nevertheless, success in a n y e n d e a v o r requires the ap- p r o p r i a t e mix o f i n g r a i n e d characteristics a n d l e a r n e d skills. aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r s n o t only n e e d certain b e h a v i o r a l traits b u t also n e e d to acquire k n o w l e d g e o f the v e n t u r e creation process, including an u n d e r - standing o f specific m a n a g e m e n t tools ( l o u c k s b: - ). w h i l e m a n y innovative individuals w o u l d like to b e c o m e e n t r e p r e n e u r s , they often lack the t e c h n i q u e s a n d skills n e e d e d to succeed. t h e role o f e d u c a t i o n can b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d b y b r e a k i n g entre- p r e n e u r s h i p into several c o m p o n e n t s . e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p can b e envis- aged as a c o m b i n a t i o n o f creativity a n d / o r i n n o v a t i o n , u n c e r t a i n t y a n d / o r risk taking, a n d m a n a g e r i a l a n d / o r business capabilities ( m c - m u l l a n a n d l o n g : - ). i n n o v a t i o n a n d risk taking are attri- b u t e s that are difficult to learn or change. i n fact, h a r p e r ( : ) c o m m e n t s that it is unlikely that risk averse, n o n i n n o v a t i v e individuals can be t r a i n e d to b e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l . t h e r e f o r e , it is often recom- m e n d e d that the presence or a b s e n c e o f these two personal attributes b e u s e d to screen a n d select potential e n t r a n t s to e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l devel- o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . h o w e v e r , the third c o m p o n e n t , m a n a g e r i a l a n d business capability, can be d e v e l o p e d a n d e n h a n c e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n . in o t h e r words, the role o f an e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m is to p r o v i d e business a n d m a n a g e m e n t tools to persons that h a v e b e e n screened for the a p p r o p r i a t e p e r s o n a l i t y traits. t h r o u g h the t r a i n i n g c f such individuals, the n u m b e r o f successful e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l e n d e a v o u r s can b e substantially increased. "since n e w v e n t u r e success is foremost a function o f k n o w l e d g e a n d k n o w - h o w , e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c a t i o n is an u n a v o i d a b l e c o m p o n e n t o f m o d e r n e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t strategy" ( m c m u l l a n a n d l o n g : ). p r o o f o f the success o f well-designed e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s in india, africa, a n d o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g areas is p r o v i d e d b y g u p t a ( ), d a i n o w ( ), a n d l o u c k s ( b). e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o u r i s m enterprises in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y r a n g e from large t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s (usually foreign o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d ) , to m e d i u m - s i z e d facilities (either foreign o r locally o w n e d ) , to small scale busineses (usually locally o w n e d ) . o n e o f the m o s t c o m m o n criticisms o f t o u r i s m in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s concerns the negative social, e c o n o m i c , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f the larger scale t o u r i s m projects. it has b e e n shown that large, t r a n s n a t i o n a l enterprises are often n o t as effective as originally believed in increasing foreign e x c h a n g e earnings a n d j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( r o d e n b u r g ). t h i s is b e c a u s e there is significant e c o n o m i c leakage d u e to the p u r c h a s e o f foreign supplies a n d l a b o r a n d to the c h a n n e l i n g o f profits o u t o f the d e v e l o p i n g countries. o n the o t h e r h a n d , locally-owned enterprises, albeit usually smaller in scale, offer greater direct e c o n o m i c p a y b a c k a n d control. "local o w n e r s h i p implies that e c o n o m i c success for the e n t r e p r e n e u r results in benefits to the local c o m m u n i t y " ( r o d e n b u r g : ). in o t h e r charlotte echtner words, such d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e m u c h m o r e likely to rely on local sources o f supplies a n d labor a n d are m u c h less likely to p r o d u c e the negative sociocultural effects associated with foreign ownership. local tolerance to tourist activities is significantly e n h a n c e d if opportunities exist for active resident i n v o l v e m e n t in the o w n e r s h i p a n d o p e r a t i o n o f facilities ( d ' a m o r e : ). m e d i u m - a n d small-scale operations c a n also r e s p o n d m o r e effectively to c h a n g e s in the m a r k e t p l a c e a n d fill gaps overlooked b y larger, m o r e b u r e a u c r a t i c organizations. i n sum, it has been a r g u e d that smaller-scale, locally-owned enterprises t e n d to en- h a n c e c o m m u n i t y stability, do less h a r m to the physical e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d generally raise the level o f p o p u l a r participation in the e c o n o m y (loucks b: ). e n t r e p r e n e u r s , in general, m a k e significant contributions to the de- v e l o p m e n t process o f the t h i r d w o r l d . t h e s e contributions include raising productivity; c r e a t i n g e m p l o y m e n t ; r e s t r u c t u r i n g a n d diversi- fying the e c o n o m y ; r e d u c i n g the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r t h r o u g h a w i d e r dispersal o f i n d u s t r y ownership; r e d u c i n g m a r k e t inef- ficiencies b y m a k i n g the m a r k e t p l a c e m o r e d y n a m i c a n d competitive; i m p r o v i n g the social welfare o f a c o u n t r y b y h a r n e s s i n g d o r m a n t , pre- viously overlooked talent; c o m m e r c i a l i z i n g innovative products a n d services; a n d c r e a t i n g n e w m a r k e t s ( r a y : - ). overall, e n t r e p r e - n e u r s h i p is t o u t e d as a low-cost strategy o f e c o n o m i c a n d social devel- o p m e n t . it has b e e n d e t e r m i n e d that the p a y b a c k is v e r y large relative to each unit o f g o v e r n m e n t assistance, w h e t h e r such assistance is in the form o f t r a i n i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s o r the provision o f low interest loans ( r a y : ). obviously, it w o u l d be difficult, a n d p e r h a p s even undesirable, to eliminate large-scale, f o r e i g n - o w n e d t o u r i s m projects in developing nations. h o w e v e r , t h e r e is still a n e e d to e n c o u r a g e local e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d to provide the t r a i n i n g necessary for these individuals to develop a n d o p e r a t e their t o u r i s m businesses. t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f this type o f resident-responsive, c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t is in- creasing as tourists d e m a n d m o r e a u t h e n t i c "alternative, grass-roots" forms o f tourism. t h e r e are m a n y types o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l activity that can be encour- aged in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . t h e n e w v e n t u r e m a y be the p r o p e r t y o f one individual o r a cooperative effect. s o m e examples o f smaller scale opportunities include selling handicrafts, e i t h e r from the h o m e o r a small shop; g u i d i n g service; h o m e s t a y o r b e d a n d breakfast; food ser- vices, such as tea stalls, small cafes, a n d r e s t a u r a n t s ; short distance s h u t t l e / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n service, for e x a m p l e , f r o m resorts to towns or attractions; tours o f the local area; rentals, for e x a m p l e , o f sporting e q u i p m e n t a n d bicycles; m e d i u m - s i z e d hotels o r guesthouses; souvenir stalls o r shops; folk e n t e r t a i n m e n t , such as d a n c e t r o u p e s a n d musi- cians; o p e n i n g o f traditional villages, h o m e s , o r p r i v a t e l y - o w n e d cul- t u r a l / n a t u r a l sites to tourists; opportunities to observe local activities, such as seeing p r o d u c t i o n o f handicrafts, pottery, baskets, a n d metal works; a n d opportunities to participate in local festivals a n d activities. this list, t h o u g h incomplete, provides some indications o f the large v a r i e t y o f options that are available to local e n t r e p r e n e u r s interested in the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . t h e p r o b l e m in the m a j o r i t y o f developing countries is that the training in developing countries private sector is small a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l experience in m a n y areas, including t o u r i s m , is lacking ( j e n k i n s : ). i n o r d e r to develop an i n d i g e n o u s business sector, k n o w l e d g e o f the skills n e e d e d to set u p and o p e r a t e t o u r i s m businesses is n e e d e d . t h i s is w h y the third a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n , e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , is so essential. examples of existing programs it w o u l d be useful, at this point, to i n t r o d u c e s o m e existing pro- grams as e x a m p l e s o f the successful i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e - neurial a p p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n . h o w e v e r , consultations with n u m e r o u s organizations, including the w o r l d t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a t i o n ( w t o ) , pacific asia t r a v e l association ( p a t a ) , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a b o r office ( i l o ) , a n d c o u n c i l on h o t e l , r e s t a u r a n t a n d institutional ed- ucation ( c h r i e ) , s e e m to indicate that, to date, no t o u r i s m entrepre- n e u r s h i p t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s have b e e n developed. t h e t o u r i s m sector could be i n c o r p o r a t e d into the existing u n i t e d states association for i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( a i d ) e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t pro- gram, particularly in e g y p t , the c a r i b b e a n , a n d c e n t r a l a m e r i c a . h o w e v e r , u p to this point, no action has b e e n t a k e n in this direction. o n e p i o n e e r i n g effort is a p r o p o s e d j o i n t effort b e t w e e n c a p i l a n o college in c a n a d a a n d the r a j a m a n g a l a t e c h n i c a l institute in t h a i - land ( w h i t e ). special e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l courses d e v e l o p e d at this c a n a d i a n college are to b e m o d i f i e d for use in t h a i l a n d . t h e courses include small business skills, a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m , t o u r i s m p r o d u c t de- v e l o p m e n t , small resort m a n a g e m e n t , a n d events a n d attractions m a n - a g e m e n t . e m p h a s i s is on " e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l a n d small business m a n a g e - m e n t skills suitable for smaller scale, rural a n d c o m m u n i t y b a s e d t o u r i s m operators" ( w h i t e : ). t h e r a j a m a n g a l a t e c h n i c a l insti- tute is to be actively involved in the a d a p t a t i o n , revision, a n d creation o f n e w materials a n d case studies to e n s u r e a strong sense o f o w n e r s h i p o f the p r o g r a m . after p r o g r a m s have b e e n a d e q u a t e l y modified, fac- ulty f r o m c a n a d a will b e individually p a i r e d with t h a i c o u n t e r p a r t s in a highly personalized "train the trainer" p r o g r a m . w h i l e not strictly dealing with the t o u r i s m industry, m o r e generic forms o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are in place in certain d e v e l o p i n g countries. t h e s e include the e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p - m e n t p r o g r a m in india, p r o g r a m a de i n c e n t i v o s y soportes a l a s mi- c r o e m p r e s a s ( p r i s m a ) in bolivia, a n d i m p r o v e y o u r business (iyb) in various african countries. t h e first o f these p r o g r a m s , the e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t pro- gram, was d e v e l o p e d in the s a n d is offered t h r o u g h the entrepre- n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t e o f india. t h e d u r a t i o n o f the p r o g r a m can v a r y from to days, d e p e n d i n g u p o n the degree o f detail a n d c o m p l e x i t y desired. t r a i n i n g focuses on a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n , busi- ness o p p o r t u n i t y guidance, a n d m a n a g e m e n t skills ( g u p t a : ). t h e second p r o g r a m , p r i s m a , was d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h the m e n - nonite e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t associates. it is a - h o u r course, de- signed o v e r a -week t i m e frame. o n e o f the features o f this p r o g r a m is the p r o m i n e n t role o f the c o n s u l t a n t / m e n t o r . i n a d d i t i o n to the regular instructor, a business p e r s o n is individually m a t c h e d to each c harlotte ec htner s t u d e n t in the p r o g r a m a n d provides support a n d practical advice. t h e c o n t e n t o f the p r o g r a m s centers a r o u n d the business skills necessary to develop a n d m a n a g e an e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e ( m e n n o n i t e eco- n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t associates ). t h e third p r o g r a m , i m p r o v e y o u r business (iyb), was originally designed in s w e d e n in the late s b y the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a b o r o r - ganization a n d the swedish i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a u t h o r i t y . it was s u b s e q u e n t l y a d a p t e d for use in various d e v e l o p i n g countries. t h e typical iyb delivery is a -day residential s e m i n a r , covering general e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l business skills. besides courses for aspiring e n t r e p r e - neurs, the p r o g r a m also offers individual counselling to existing entre- p r e n e u r s a n d "training o f trainers" workshops ( d a i n o w : ). i n countries w h e r e generic e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s a r e a l r e a d y available, c u s t o m i z e d i n d u s t r y specific m o d u l e s c a n easily be devel- oped from the existing f r a m e w o r k . f o r instance, the i n d i a n e n t r e p r e - neurship d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m has, in the past, b e e n tailored to the specific r e q u i r e m e n t s o f certain industries o r target groups. i n these cases, the basic core c o m p o n e n t s o f the p r o g r a m w e r e retained, b u t illustrations a n d cases w e r e replaced b y i n d u s t r y specific examples. i n addition, n e w m o d u l e s were often developed to address u n i q u e indus- try issues. t h e modifications o f p r o g r a m c o n t e n t were m a d e using the expertise o f individuals in the p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r y , i n c l u d i n g a c a d e m - ics, g o v e r n m e n t a l officials, a n d private sector business practitioners ( g u p t a : ). a l t h o u g h such existing generic e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s have n o t yet b e e n c u s t o m i z e d for the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y , this is a readily available, inexpensive option for the future. i n countries w h e r e such generic e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t pro- g r a m s are not yet available, o n e alternative is to i m p o r t a n d a d a p t successful p r o g r a m s a l r e a d y established in o t h e r nations. as m e n t i o n e d previously, the iyb p r o g r a m was originally developed in s w e d e n b u t was later a d a p t e d for use in countries in africa. i n each case, the materials h a d to be r e d e s i g n e d to o v e r c o m e the cultural a n d literacy differences b e t w e e n s w e d e n a n d the a f r i c a n countries. a h a n d b o o k was p r o d u c e d ; it p r e s e n t e d the t h e o r y in simple, practical t e r m s a n d used m a n y illustrations, graphics a n d local examples. i n addition, a customized workbook, specifically tailored to each set o f users, pro- vided exercises to apply the concepts ( d a i n o w : - ). i n o r d e r to be most effective in t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , such im- p o r t e d p r o g r a m s m u s t be a d a p t e d both for the p a r t i c u l a r cultural set- ting a n d specifically for use in the t o u r i s m industry. designing a program a n alternative to a d a p t i n g existing courses is to design a c u s t o m i z e d t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m . i n this case, it is useful to note four criteria central to the success o f such a p r o g r a m : p r o g r a m c o n t e n t a n d style, identification a n d selection o f trainees, follow-up, a n d qualified instructors. a detailed discussion o f the design o f entre- p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s can be f o u n d in loucks ( b) a n d h a r p e r ( ). training in developing countries . program content and style. t r a d i t i o n a l business e d u c a t i o n addresses m a n a g e m e n t issues t h r o u g h the s t u d y o f s t a n d a r d i z e d functional areas such as m a r k e t i n g , finance, a c c o u n t i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n systems, a n d or- ganizational behavior. i n general, this functional a p p r o a c h provides the skills n e e d e d b y m a n a g e r s in l a r g e r organizations. t h e r e f o r e , it has b e e n suggested that business m a n a g e m e n t in the context o f entre- p r e n e u r i a l t r a i n i n g should be a p p r o a c h e d chronologically r a t h e r t h a n cross-sectionally ( m c m u l l a n a n d l o n g : - ). i n o t h e r words, the d y n a m i c s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n the functional areas, b e c o m e the central t h e m e o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l business m a n a g e m e n t education. i n this m a n n e r , the e n t r e p r e n e u r is p r o v i d e d with the specific skills a n d techniques that are necessary to guide the n e w v e n t u r e t h r o u g h the earliest stages o f strategic d e v e l o p m e n t : o p p o r t u n i t y identification, feasibility analysis, initial financing, p r o d u c t design, a n d m a r k e t devel- o p m e n t . as a result, e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s are s o m e w h a t u n i q u e in t e r m s o f c u r r i c u l u m design a n d delivery w h e n c o m p a r e d to the m o r e traditional forms o f business m a n a g e m e n t edu- cation. topics generally c o v e r e d b y e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l p r o g r a m s include moti- vation a n d b e h a v i o r training, o p p o r t u n i t y assessment, v e n t u r e devel- o p m e n t , strategic decision m a k i n g , a n d general m a r k e t i n g skills. t h e level of detail r e q u i r e d for each o f these topics varies, d e p e n d i n g on the scale of the proposed e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e s , the sophistication o f the m a r k e t , the d e g r e e o f competition, a n d the b a c k g r o u n d o f the students. i n the case o f m a n y o f the existing p r o g r a m s discussed ear- lier, the level o f detail is quite basic. f o r the most part, these p r o g r a m s have dealt with small scale v e n t u r e s in fairly unsophisticated m a r k e t s a n d with students w h o have little o r no b a c k g r o u n d in business m a n - a g e m e n t . n o r m a l l y , the m a j o r p o r t i o n o f the p r o g r a m includes such topics as u n d e r s t a n d i n g credit, financial p l a n n i n g , m a r k e t i n g , p r o d u c t i o n , sales techniques, a n d success evaluation. it has b e e n shown that the most i m p o r t a n t factor in a successful e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t pro- g r a m is the r e q u i r e m e n t that students collect a n d analyze d a t a a n d d e f e n d the feasibility o f the start u p a n d o p e r a t i o n o f their o w n business (loucks b: ). t h e r e f o r e , most p r o g r a m s assist participants in completing a feasibility analysis, business plan, a n d financial proposal. a customized e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m should retain these core c o m p o n e n t s b u t should a d d m a t e r i a l relevant to a p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r y a n d to the cultural setting. f o r e x a m p l e , a t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e - neurial d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m in nepal should include the traditional core c o m p o n e n t s a n d also m o d u l e s that address the u n i q u e issues of the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y a n d the cultural setting o f the c o u n t r y . all illustra- tions, examples, a n d cases included in the course should also be custo- mized to the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y a n d to the specific national setting. as m e n t i o n e d previously, this c u s t o m i z a t i o n process is best accomplished by the use o f t o u r i s m experts f r o m the developing c o u n t r y , such as academics, g o v e r n m e n t a l officials, a n d private sector business prac- titioners ( g u p t a ). w i t h r e g a r d s to t e a c h i n g style, e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t pro- grams should e n c o u r a g e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d e p e n d e n t , self-reliant c harlotte ec htner individuals. t h e r e f o r e , a p p r o a c h e s such as case studies, real-life proj- ects, a n d experiential exercises are p r e f e r r e d to the traditional lecture style format. u s e f u l t e c h n i q u e s include m a n a g e m e n t games, field trips to existing businesses, role-play situations (for e x a m p l e , practice pre- sentations to b a n k e r s ) , a n d individual c o u n s e l i n g / m e n t o r i n g b y suc- cessful e n t r e p r e n e u r s ( l o u c k s a: ). e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l "mentors" h a v e b e e n s h o w n to b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t as t h e y often serve as role models for the s t u d e n t s ( n e h r t : ). t h e ability to b u i l d a strong w o r k i n g relationship with existing local industries is an integral factor to the success o f the smaller e n t r e p r e - neur. t h e r e f o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t that the p r i v a t e sector is e n c o u r a g e d to a s s u m e an active a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y role in the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m . o n e o f the m e a n s to stimulate such i n v o l v e m e n t , n a m e l y e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l m e n t o r i n g , was n o t e d earlier. h o w e v e r , there are n u m e r o u s o t h e r possibilities o f pri- vate sector c o o p e r a t i o n that should b e considered. t h e s e include in- d u s t r y a d v i s o r y b o a r d s ; guest speakers a n d / o r instructors from indus- try; field trips to v a r i o u s industries; provision o f "real life" projects for s t u d e n t course work; p a r t i c i p a t i o n in role p l a y situations; a n d involve- m e n t in counselling a n d c a r e e r p l a n n i n g ( c o o p e r a n d w e s t l a k e : ; m i d d l e t o n a n d d e m s k y : , ). . identification and selection of trainees. t h e careful screening a n d selec- tion o f trainees is f u n d a m e n t a l to the success rate o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m . as m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , individuals that lack the ability to i n n o v a t e o r that h a v e an aversion to risk are n o t likely to be e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l , e v e n with the a p p r o p r i a t e training. t h e r e f o r e , in m o s t existing p r o g r a m s , selection o f the trainees is b a s e d on certain p e r s o n a l i t y traits. characteristics such as the n e e d for a c h i e v e m e n t , capacity for risk-taking, originality, a positive self-concept, p r o b l e m - solving ability, a n d p e r s e v e r a n c e are good indicators o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l potential ( g u p t a : ). t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s are usually assessed t h r o u g h a series o f informal a n d formal interviews, r a t h e r t h a n b y m o r e rigid forms o f m e a s u r e m e n t , such as w r i t t e n tests. a n o t h e r factor that c o u l d b e t a k e n into c o n s i d e r a t i o n in choosing trainees is p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e with e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . a n individual that has a l r e a d y o p e r a t e d an e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l v e n t u r e , or b e e n e x p o s e d to one t h r o u g h w o r k i n g for relatives or friends, has a b e t t e r u n d e r - standing o f w h a t is involved in the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l process. s u c h a p e r s o n is likely to e n t e r the p r o g r a m with m o r e clearly defined goals a n d objectives a n d to h a v e a m o r e realistic p e r c e p t i o n o f w h a t is neces- sary to succeed. a final factor that is s o m e t i m e s c o n s i d e r e d is the individual's net- w o r k o f a c q u a i n t a n c e s . i n m o s t business v e n t u r e s , the likelihood o f success increases if an individual has an existing n e t w o r k o f contacts to d r a w u p o n for business leads, financial backing, a n d e v e n advice. . follow-up. w i t h r e g a r d to follow-up, o n g o i n g c o u n s e l i n g a n d advi- sory services should b e readily available to the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l gradu- ate. f o r instance, in s o m e p r o g r a m s , the i n s t r u c t o r a n d / o r the m e n t o r training in developing countries r e m a i n involved with the g r a d u a t e t h r o u g h o u t the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the e n t r e p r e n e u r ' s business idea ( g u p t a : ). . qualified instructors. o n c e the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l courses have b e e n de- veloped, suitable instructors m u s t be recruited. u n f o r t u n a t e l y , in m a n y developing countries, there is a chronic lack o f e x p e r i e n c e d edu- cators a n d trainers. such shortages o f faculty a n d expertise c a n result in curricula that a r e diluted a n d that t e n d to lack focus ( c u l l e n : ). a n initial solution is to e m p l o y foreign instructors f r o m institutions that c u r r e n t l y deliver e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s in o t h e r developing countries. f o r example, a n u m b e r o f e x p e r i e n c e d trainers f r o m the philippines a n d i n d i a h a v e c o n d u c t e d effective e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p devel- o p m e n t p r o g r a m s in o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g countries ( h a r p e r : ). h o w e v e r , such instructors n e e d to d r a w on local experts to provide the s u p p l e m e n t a r y knowledge relevant to t o u r i s m a n d to the n e w cultural setting. e v e n with such assistance, the use o f foreign trainers is often not desirable, or possible, d u e to various linguistic, cultural, o r social barriers. e v e n w h e n feasible, foreign instructors a r e only a n i n t e r i m solution. t h e l o n g - t e r m goal should be the indigenization o f the teach- ing staff. t h e r e f o r e , a p r o g r a m o f "training the trainers" needs to be established so that foreign t e a c h i n g staff is e v e n t u a l l y m i n i m i z e d . some existing e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s offer t r a i n i n g courses that are useful for establishing a core o f instructors in a n e w a r e a or c o u n t r y . e x p e r i e n c e d trainers should be assisted b y practicing e n t r e p r e n e u r s . w h e r e a s the trainers are specialists in knowledge f o r m a t i o n a n d dis- semination, the practitioners b r i n g expertise in "real-life" situations a n d c o m m u n i t y practices. t h e b a l a n c e d t e a c h i n g a p p r o a c h , trainers plus practitioners, is facilitated t h r o u g h such techniques as t e a m teach- ing, e n t r e p r e n e u r s in residence, a n d guest lecturers ( m c m u l l a n a n d l o n g : - ). special issues and problems t h e issues a n d problems associated with the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d imple- m e n t a t i o n o f a p p r o p r i a t e t o u r i s m t r a i n i n g policy c a n be quite complex. t h e design o f e d u c a t i o n policy at a national level is d e p e n d e n t u p o n several factors, i n c l u d i n g the state o f the p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l system, the i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d to the t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y , a n d the availability o f resources (fletcher a n d l a t h a m : ). effective i m p l e m e n t a t i o n requires the cooperation a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f various public a n d private organizations a n d institutions. since developing countries f r e q u e n t l y face unstable conditions, the resources a n d cooperation necessary for designing a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g effective t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n policy are often difficult to h a r n e s s a n d control. c o n d u c i v e e c o n o m i c , political, a n d social conditions are r e q u i r e d for the success o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s . i n some developing countries, issues such as i n a d e q u a t e financial assistance for n e w v e n t u r e s , complex b u r e a u c r a c i e s , a n d traditional social barriers m a y inhibit small scale e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . t h e s e barriers m u s t be ad- charlotte echtner dressed a n d resolved in o r d e r for the t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s to b e effective. . economic barriers. a lack o f financial r e s o u r c e s is the o v e r r i d i n g issue that faces the m a j o r i t y o f d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s in designing a n d imple- m e n t i n g t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . i n almost all cases, there are no or v e r y limited f u n d s available to d e v e l o p a d e q u a t e teaching materials and to train instructors. in view o f this, it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t that careful c o n s i d e r a t i o n should b e given to the e x p e n d i t u r e o f scarce re- sources so that highly cost effective t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s are p r o d u c e d . t o address a lack o f teaching materials, it is t e m p t i n g to i m p o r t existing p r o g r a m s o f e d u c a t i o n . h o w e v e r , as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , al- t h o u g h this course o f action is inexpensive in t e r m s o f initial expendi- tures for p r o g r a m d e v e l o p m e n t , it can b e costly in t e r m s o f inefficiency a n d ineffectiveness. p r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d in the first w o r l d are b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n o f sophisticated business, distribution, a n d techno- logical systems. t h e s e are rarely p r e s e n t in d e v e l o p i n g countries. fur- t h e r m o r e , differences in the culture, l e a r n i n g styles, c o m p o s i t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d o f the s t u d e n t b o d y , existing attitudes a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d j o b roles, a n d qualifications o f the trainers m a y seriously affect the usefulness o f externally d e v e l o p e d materials (blanton ). t h u s , existing p r o g r a m s o f e d u c a t i o n , course materials, a n d styles o f teaching m a y n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e in a p a r t i c u l a r t h i r d w o r l d setting. in fact, it c a n n o t e v e n b e a s s u m e d that a m o d e l d e v e l o p e d within one d e v e l o p i n g region can b e t r a n s f e r r e d w i t h o u t modifications a n d a d a p t a t i o n s to a n o t h e r . local, regional, a n d national factors, b o t h e c o n o m i c a n d sociocultural, m u s t b e t a k e n into consideration in de- signing the c o n t e n t a n d delivery o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . r a t h e r t h a n s u c c u m b to the seemingly "quick a n d cheap" solution o f the direct a d o p t i o n o f foreign course materials a n d instructors, a c o o p e r a t i v e p r o g r a m such as that p r e v i o u s l y outlined b e t w e e n capi- lano college in c a n a d a a n d the r a j a m a n g a l a t e c h n i c a l institute in t h a i l a n d could b e followed. t h i s kind o f effort provides a m o r e custo- m i z e d p r o g r a m a n d a pool o f well-trained i n d i g e n o u s instructors. it also f r e q u e n t l y results in increased access to f u n d i n g t h r o u g h the "sis- ter" c o u n t r y a n d v a r i o u s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e n d i n g agencies. f u r t h e r m o r e , it is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r that the potential students themselves m a y face financial b a r r i e r s that m u s t be a d d r e s s e d in o r d e r for the e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m to b e successful. i f tuition costs are too high, this will p r o h i b i t m e m b e r s o f l o w e r socioeconomic groups f r o m participating. in t e r m s o f the b r o a d e r issues o f social d e v e l o p m e n t , these are often the groups that should b e t a r g e t e d r a t h e r than excluded. u p o n c o m p l e t i n g the p r o g r a m , m o s t students will r e q u i r e "start up" loans a n d o t h e r financial assistance. g o v e r n m e n t s , o r o t h e r private organizations/institutions, m u s t b e p r e p a r e d to offer s o m e special fi- nancial concessions to e n c o u r a g e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l growth. f o r exam- ple, the n a t i o n a l t o u r i s m policy in i n d i a r e c o m m e n d e d to the federal g o v e r n m e n t that t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s b e g r a n t e d loans at l o w e r interest rates. i n response, the t o u r i s m financial c o r p o r a t i o n of i n d i a was established to p r o v i d e loans exclusively to the t o u r i s m training in developing countries industry. as a further incentive, it was also r e c o m m e n d e d that t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s b e allowed to d e d u c t % o f their foreign-exchange earnings from taxable i n c o m e ( a h m e d : ). . political barriers. t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s can be h a m p e r e d b y the degree o f stability in the existing political system. l a c k o f stability, a n d alternatively political stagnation, are c o m m o n p r o b l e m s in the d e v e l o p i n g world. in o t h e r words, m a n y t h i r d w o r l d c o u n t r i e s are either r u l e d b y a series o f f r e q u e n t l y chang- ing individuals a n d parties (instability) or are subject to l o n g - t e r m rule b y one individual or p a r t y (stagnation). either scenario can create complexities in the design a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n policies. i n the case o f lack o f stability, p r o g r a m s a n d policies d e s i g n a t e d as priorities b y one g o v e r n m e n t m a y b e d o w n scaled or a b a n d o n e d b y the succeeding a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . t h e r e f o r e , l o n g - t e r m projects, such as the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s , m a y b e initially ap- p r o v e d only to b e altered o r rejected b y s u b s e q u e n t g o v e r n m e n t s . a l t h o u g h changes o f g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e r e b y changes in priorities a n d policies, are also a p r o b l e m in d e v e l o p e d countries, t h i r d w o r l d nations are often characterized b y m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d severe swings in politics. i n d e e d , if political u n r e s t b e c o m e s too serious, the entire tour- ism i n d u s t r y m a y b e at j e o p a r d y . political stagnation, in the f o r m o f dictatorships o r one p a r t y sys- tems, can also be d e t r i m e n t a l . i f the g o v e r n m e n t in control has little interest or initiative in t o u r i s m , it is unlikely that t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n will b e p u r s u e d to a n y great extent. public sector participation in the f o r m u l a t i o n o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s should not b e limited to the national level o f g o v e r n m e n t . e a c h region should b e e n c o u r a g e d to f o r m u l a t e its o w n policies, a n d training facilities a n d p r o g r a m s should b e a d a p t e d to suit these local objectives. f o r e x a m p l e , in o r d e r to p r o v i d e easier local access to t o u r i s m p r o g r a m s , especially in e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t , it m a y b e necessary to decentralize training. as a result, o u t r e a c h p r o g r a m s m a y b e offered in v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s , r a t h e r t h a n courses only b e i n g offered at a central institutional location. b u t this t y p e o f c o o r d i n a t e d effort b e t w e e n the v a r i o u s levels o f g o v e r n m e n t is often fraught with difficulty, d u e to conflicts o f interests a n d chronic infighting. political o r i e n t a t i o n can also influence the design a n d c o n t e n t o f the p r o g r a m s . f o r e x a m p l e , in c o m m u n i s t / m a r x i s t countries, p r o g r a m s in e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p are c o u n t e r to the existing political a n d social ideologies. i n d e e d , in m a n y o f the d e v e l o p i n g regions o f the world, the past scarcity o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s can b e attrib- u t e d to c o m m u n i s t o r m a r x i s t policies. h o w e v e r , in view o f the dra- matic political shifts o c c u r r i n g in several regions, including the e a s t e r n c o m m u n i s t bloc, c h i n a , c e n t r a l a m e r i c a , a n d africa, there should be greatly increased future interest a n d potential for e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c a t i o n in the d e v e l o p i n g world. i n t e r m s o f the aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r s themselves, c u m b e r s o m e b u - reaucracies, c o r r u p t i o n , a n d lack o f a p p r o p r i a t e "connections" can b e m a j o r obstacles to b u s i n e s s start-up. since such t y p e s o f p r o b l e m s are charlotte echtner pervasive in m a n y d e v e l o p i n g countries, it follows that there is no point in t r a i n i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r s if these issues c a n n o t b e addressed. w o r k i n g closely with, a n d gaining the s u p p o r t of, local i n d u s t r y m e m - bers a n d officials is a g o o d place to start. u s i n g the "mentor" p r o g r a m discussed earlier can p r o v i d e the b u d d i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r with advice from an individual e x p e r i e n c e d in dealing with s o m e o f these p r o b - lems. it is i m p o r t a n t to note, h o w e v e r , that these t y p e s o f issues are often q u i t e t e n a c i o u s a n d , therefore, the t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m u s t pro- vide the e n t r e p r e n e u r s with the k n o w - h o w (the "street smarts") o f op- erating within a n d dealing with the existing system. . social barriers. t h e aspiring e n t r e p r e n e u r often faces traditional so- cial barriers. in a s t u d y o f t o u r i s m e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , d i n ( : - ) c o n c l u d e d that business o w n e r s h i p in m u l t i c u l t u r a l societies is usually controlled b y one or two ethnic groups. t h i s ethnic d o m i n a n c e in business v e n t u r e s is often b a s e d on factors such as historical o w n e r s h i p o f territory, religious p h i l o s o p h y , o r a high d e g r e e o f internal cohesion a n d c o o p e r a t i o n ( m i c h a u d : - ). as a result, the d o m i n a n t ethnic g r o u p s h a v e the e c o n o m i c , social, a n d political a d v a n t a g e s to i m m e d i a t e l y exploit a n y n e w business o p p o r t u n i t i e s that might arise. in addition to these ethnic groups, foreign investors, state agencies, local w e a l t h y speculators, a n d g o v e r n m e n t officials also h a v e distinct a d v a n t a g e s in exploiting lucrative business o p p o r t u n i t i e s . in contrast, s u b o r d i n a t e g r o u p s m a y n o t e v e n possess the c a p a c i t y to appreciate e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , let alone capitalize on them. since t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t should relate to a n d h a r m o n i z e with a country's overall social d e v e l o p m e n t plan, it is i m p o r t a n t to recognize a n d deal with these social inequities. in s o m e cases, sociocultural con- cerns should take p r e c e d e n c e o v e r the e c o n o m i c rate o f r e t u r n ( g o : ). f o r e x a m p l e , e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s m a y be offered to d i s a d v a n t a g e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p s (specific tribal m e m b e r s , ethnic groups, w o m e n ) e v e n t h o u g h the success rate m i g h t be higher if offered to the p o p u l a t i o n in general. in a similar vein, p r o g r a m s m a y b e offered in e c o n o m i c a l l y d e p r e s s e d areas, e v e n t h o u g h the m o s t cost- effective strategy w o u l d b e to c o n c e n t r a t e elsewhere. it is also i m p o r t a n t to m o n i t o r the m e t h o d s o f screening u s e d to e n s u r e that e n t r y to the p r o g r a m s is b a s e d as m u c h as possible on individual m e r i t versus social class o r ethnic b a c k g r o u n d . as a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , screening should b e b a s e d m a i n l y on desirable personality traits, such as the n e e d for a c h i e v e m e n t a n d capacity for risk-taking. o t h e r f r e q u e n t l y u s e d screening factors, n a m e l y p r e v i o u s experience with e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p a n d existing business contacts, should b e ap- plied with c a u t i o n , as t h e y m a y w o r k in favor o f the d o m i n a n t ethnic group(s). c o n c l u s i o n s a l t h o u g h a d e v e l o p i n g n a t i o n should ideally i n c o r p o r a t e all c o m p o - nents o f the three p r o n g e d a p p r o a c h into its t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n pro- g r a m , u l t i m a t e l y w h e t h e r o r n o t all are included, a n d the degree to which each is e m p h a s i z e d , d e p e n d s on the c o u n t r y ' s overall social a n d training in developing countries e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n s . i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , t h e f u n d a m e n - tal goals o f t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n n o t o n l y s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i m - p r o v i n g t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e t o u r i s m s e c t o r , b u t also s h o u l d a d d r e s s t h e n e e d to i n c r e a s e l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s in t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y . i n o t h e r w o r d s , " n e e d led" p r i o r i t i e s s h o u l d o f t e n t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r t h e t r a d i - t i o n a l " m a r k e t led" a p p r o a c h ( t h e u n s a n d g o : ) . g o v e r n m e n t s m u s t strike a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n w h a t is e s s e n t i a l , w h a t is d e s i r a b l e , a n d w h a t is p o s s i b l e ( h e g a r t y : ) . e a r l y o n in t h e t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , b u s i n e s s f o r m a t i o n will b e t a k i n g place. e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , o f c o u r s e , will o c c u r at t h e t o p o f t h e social s y s t e m t h r o u g h t h e i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m i c elite a n d t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l s , b u t it will also b e a t t e m p t e d in o t h e r l a y e r s o f t h e social s t r a t a ( r a y : ). i f local r e s i d e n t s a r e to h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e m e a n s m u s t b e f o u n d t o t a r g e t m o r e o f t h e m in t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n . t h r o u g h o u t this p a p e r , it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p p r o g r a m s m a y b e o n e o f t h e m o s t cost e f f e c t i v e m e a n s o f r e a c h i n g , e d u c a t i n g , a n d , s i g n i f i c a n t l y , e m p o w e r i n g local i n d i v i d u a l s . t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n y c o u n t r y d e p e n d s o n t h e e f f e c t i v e a n d p r o p e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f h u m a n r e s o u r c e s . a n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m m u s t b e c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g to t h e i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f p o v e r t y a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t ; it m u s t also b e c a p a b l e o f r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p r o b l e m o f d e p e n d e n c y ( h e g a r t y : ) . b y u t i l i z i n g a n e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l ap - p r o a c h to t o u r i s m e d u c a t i o n , a d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y c a n b u i l d t h e h u - m a n r e s o u r c e s it n e e d s to e n s u r e w e l l - q u a l i f i e d , i n d i g e n o u s e n t r e p r e - n e u r s . i n this w a y , t o u r i s m c a n o c c u r w i t h l o c a l l y - o w n e d a n d m a n a g e d b u s i n e s s e s at t h e h e l m . u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f local r e s i d e n t s , t o u r i s m is m o r e l i k e l y to p r o d u c e d i r e c t e c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s a n d less l i k el y to p r o - d u c e s e v e r e n e g a t i v e social a n d c u l t u r a l i m p a c t s . [ ] [ ] acknowledgment--the author wishes to acknowledge frank go for his useful comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of this paper. r e f e r e n c e s ahmed, zafar u. indian tourism: a victim of mismanagement. cornell hotel and restaurant administration quarterly ( ): - . blanton, david tourism training in developing countries: the social and cultural dimen- sion. annals of tourism research : - . cooper, chris, and john westlake tourism teaching into the s. tourism management : - . cullen, thomas p. filling china's staffing gap. the cornell hotel and restaurant administra- tion quarterly : - . dainow, rob evaluating entrepreneurship development programs: the case of the ilo and sida in africa. journal of small business and enterprise : - . o'amore, l. guidelines to planning harmony with the host community. in tourism in canada: selected issues and options, p. e. murphy, ed., pp. - . victoria: department of geography, the university of victoria department of geog- raphy. c h a r l o t t e e c h t n e r din, kadir h. the "involvement stage" in the evolution of a tourist destination. tourism recreation research ( ): - . fletcher, john, and j o h n latham international tourism training. tourism management : - . go, frank m. tourism education in the s: which way for the developing countries? unpublished manuscript. calgary: the university of calgary faculty of man- agement. gupta, s. k. entrepreneurship development: the indian case. j o u r n a l of small business management : - . harper, malcolm entrepreneurship for the poor. london: i t publications. hawkins, donald e., and j o h n d. h u n t travel and tourism professional education. hospitality and tourism educa- tor : - . hegarty, joseph a. tourism: education for all. paper presented at world tourism day symposium. lagos, nigeria. challenges and opportunities for creating hospitality and tourism educa- tion programs in developing countries. hospitality & tourism educator : - , - . howell, r., and m. uysal tourism education for developing countries. tourism management : - . jafari, j . , a n d j . r. brent ritchie toward a framework for tourism education: problems and prospects. an- nals of tourism research : - . jenkins, c. l. education for tourism policy makers in developing countries. tourism management : - . loucks, kenneth e. a entrepreneurship development in third world countries. research report no. - - a. st. catherines: the brock university centre for entrepreneur- ship. b t r a i n i n g entrepreneurs for small business creation: lessons from experi- ence. management development series no. . geneva: international labour office. mennonite economic development associates introductory management t r a i n i n g c o u r s e - - p r i s m a . santa cruz, bolivia: mennonite economic development associates. mcmullan, w., and wayne a. long developing new ventures: the entrepreneurial option. san diego: harcourt brace jovanovich. michaud, j e a n a social anthropology of tourism in ladakh, india. annals of tourism research : - . middleton, john, and terry demsky vocational education and training: a review of world bank investment. world bank discussion papers no. . washington dc: the world bank. nehrt, lee c. entrepreneurship education in bangladesh: a beginning. journal of small business management : - . pacific asia travel association travel and tourism education and t r a i n i n g institutions and programs. san francisco: pacific asia travel association. ray, dennis m. overview essay: the role of entrepreneurship in economic development. journal of development planning : - . ritchie, j. r. brent alternative approaches to teaching tourism. paper presented at teaching t r a i n i n g in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s tourism into the 's: an international conference for tourism educators. university of surrey, guildford, u k . rodenburg, eric e. the effects of scale in economic development: tourism in bali. in towards appropriate tourism: the case of developing countries, tej vir singh, h. leo theuns and frank m. go, eds., pp. - . frankfurt am main: peter lang. theuns, leo h., and frank go "need led" priorities in hospitality education for the third world. paper presented at new horizons in tourism and hospitality education, t r a i n i n g and research conference. university of calgary, canada. theuns, leo h., and amina rasheed alternative approaches to tertiary tourism education with special reference to developing countries. tourism management : - . white, brian p. entrepreneurial tourism management education: a sustainable develop- ment approach for thailand. unpublished manuscript. north vancouver: capi- lano college. world tourism organization world directory of tourism education and t r a i n i n g means. madrid: world tourism organization. yearbook of tourism statistics ( th ed.). madrid: world tourism organiza- tion. submitted j u n e resubmitted february accepted april refereed anonymously coordinating editor: neil leiper preliminary safety and tolerability of a novel subcutaneous intrathecal catheter system for repeated outpatient dosing of nusinersen to children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /bpo. corpus id: preliminary safety and tolerability of a novel subcutaneous intrathecal catheter system for repeated outpatient dosing of nusinersen to children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy @article{strauss preliminarysa, title={preliminary safety and tolerability of a novel subcutaneous intrathecal catheter system for repeated outpatient dosing of nusinersen to children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy}, author={k. strauss and v. carson and karlla w. brigatti and m. young and d. robinson and christine l hendrickson and m. fox and r. reed and e. puffenberger and william mackenzie and f. miller}, journal={journal of pediatric orthopedics}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={e - e } } 	k. strauss, v. carson, + authors f. miller 	published 	medicine 	journal of pediatric orthopedics background: many patients with spinal muscular atrophy (sma) who might benefit from intrathecal antisense oligonucleotide (nusinersen) therapy have scoliosis or spinal fusion that precludes safe drug delivery. to circumvent spinal pathology, we designed a novel subcutaneous intrathecal catheter (sic) system by connecting an intrathecal catheter to an implantable infusion port. methods: device safety and tolerability were tested in sma patients (age, . to .  y; % with copies of smn … expand view on wolters kluwer europepmc.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations methods citations view all topics from this paper 	nusinersen 	glucose 	juvenile spinal muscular atrophy 	specimen 	atrophic 	muscle 	cognition disorders 	standard industrial classification 	antisense therapy 	insurance carriers 	drug delivery systems 	implants 	blood cells 	scoliosis, unspecified 	cerebrospinal fluid 	large 	implantable venous access port 	leukocytes paper mentions news article sma, nuovo sistema sicuro di somministrazione intratecale per nusi pharmastar italy september news article new nusinersen drug delivery method identified for spinal muscular atrophy patients eurekalert! august citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency multicenter experience with nusinersen application via an intrathecal port and catheter system in spinal muscular atrophy. 	m. flotats-bastardas, a. hahn, + authors c. koehler 	medicine 	neuropediatrics 	 save alert research feed single-center experience with intrathecal administration of nusinersen in children with spinal muscular atrophy type . 	astrid pechmann, t. langer, s. wider, j. kirschner 	medicine 	european journal of paediatric neurology : ejpn : official journal of the european paediatric neurology society 	 	 save alert research feed transforaminal intrathecal delivery of nusinersen for older children and adults with spinal muscular atrophy and complex spinal anatomy: an analysis of consecutive injections 	j. weaver, d. hallam, + authors eric j monroe 	medicine 	journal of neurointerventional surgery 	 	 save alert research feed intrathecal administration of nusinersen in pediatric sma patients with and without spine deformities: experiences and challenges over years in a single center. 	j. johannsen, deike weiss, f. schlenker, m. groth, j. denecke 	medicine 	neuropediatrics 	 save alert research feed clinical implication of dosimetry of computed tomography- and fluoroscopy-guided intrathecal therapy with nusinersen in adult patients with spinal muscular atrophy 	k. kizina, b. stolte, + authors t. hagenacker 	medicine 	front. neurol. 	 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed nusinersen administration via an intrathecal port in a -year-old spinal muscular atrophy patient with profound scoliosis 	m. flotats-bastardas, s. linsler, m. zemlin, s. meyer 	medicine 	pediatric neurosurgery 	 	 save alert research feed new treatments in spinal muscular atrophy: an overview of currently available data 	s. ramdas, l. servais 	medicine 	expert opinion on pharmacotherapy 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed children with spinal muscular atrophy with prior growth-friendly spinal implants have better results after definite spinal fusion in comparison to untreated patients. 	a. hell, l. braunschweig, + authors h. m. lorenz 	medicine 	neurosurgery 	 	 save alert research feed treatment preference among patients with spinal muscular atrophy (sma): a discrete choice experiment 	a. monnette, er chen, + authors lizheng shi 	medicine 	orphanet journal of rare diseases 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed advances in treatment of spinal muscular atrophy – new phenotypes, new challenges, new implications for care 	d. schorling, astrid pechmann, j. kirschner 	medicine 	journal of neuromuscular diseases 	 	 	 	view excerpt save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency single-center experience with intrathecal administration of nusinersen in children with spinal muscular atrophy type . 	astrid pechmann, t. langer, s. wider, j. kirschner 	medicine 	european journal of paediatric neurology : ejpn : official journal of the european paediatric neurology society 	 	 save alert research feed clinical implication of dosimetry of computed tomography- and fluoroscopy-guided intrathecal therapy with nusinersen in adult patients with spinal muscular atrophy 	k. kizina, b. stolte, + authors t. hagenacker 	medicine 	front. neurol. 	 	 	 save alert research feed transforaminal intrathecal delivery of nusinersen using cone-beam computed tomography for children with spinal muscular atrophy and extensive surgical instrumentation: early results of technical success and safety 	j. weaver, n. natarajan, + authors e. monroe 	medicine 	pediatric radiology 	 	 save alert research feed intrathecal injections in children with spinal muscular atrophy 	manon haché, k. swoboda, + authors k. bishop 	medicine 	journal of child neurology 	 	 	 save alert research feed nusinersen versus sham control in later‐onset spinal muscular atrophy 	e. mercuri, b. darras, + authors r. finkel 	medicine 	the new england journal of medicine 	 	 	 save alert research feed general anaesthesia or conscious sedation for painful procedures in childhood cancer: the family‘s perspective 	c. crock, c. olsson, + authors p. monagle 	medicine 	archives of disease in childhood 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed nusinersen versus sham control in infantile‐onset spinal muscular atrophy 	r. finkel, e. mercuri, + authors d. d. de vivo 	medicine 	the new england journal of medicine 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed pediatric lumbar puncture and cerebrospinal fluid analysis. 	w. bonadio 	medicine 	the journal of emergency medicine 	 	 save alert research feed predictive value of cerebrospinal fluid parameters in neonates with intraventricular drainage devices. 	r. lenfestey, p. smith, + authors d. k. benjamin 	medicine 	journal of neurosurgery 	 	 save alert research feed reliability of telephone administration of the pedsql™ generic quality of life inventory™ and neuromuscular module™ in spinal muscular atrophy (sma) 	s. dunaway, j. montes, m. montgomery, v. battista, p. kaufmann 	medicine 	neuromuscular disorders 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	topics 	paper mentions 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue volume refuge number © jennifer bond and ania kwadrans, . this open-access work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international licence, which permits use, reproduction, and distribution in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original authorship is credited and the original publication in refuge: canada’s journal on refugees is cited. cette œuvre en libre accès fait l’objet d’une licence creative commons attribu- tion-noncommercial . international license, laquelle autorise l’utilisation, la reproduction et la distribution de l’œuvre sur tout support à des fins non commer- ciales, pourvu que l’auteur ou les auteurs originaux soient mentionnés et que la publication originale dans refuge : revue canadienne sur les réfugiés soit citée. resettling refugees through community sponsorship: a revolutionary operational approach built on traditional legal infrastructure jennifer bond and ania kwadrans abstract more than a dozen states are exploring the potential of introducing community sponsorship programs as a way of contributing to the global refugee protection regime. this article provides a comparative analysis of the legal and administrative frameworks that have underpinned the introduction of community sponsorship in four diverse countries: canada, the united kingdom, new zealand, and argentina. we also briefly examine the introduction of co-sponsorship in the united states, a country without any formal national program. we conclude that while com- munity sponsorship programs have the potential to revolu- tionize refugee resettlement, their operationalization is not contingent on revolutionary legal infrastructure. résumé plus d’une douzaine de pays à travers le monde envisagent activement la possibilité d’introduire des programmes de parrainage communautaires comme manière de contribuer au régime global de protection des réfugiés. cet article offre une analyse comparative des cadres légaux et administratifs sur lesquels s’est appuyée l’introduction du parrainage com- munautaire dans quatre pays: le canada, le royaume-uni, la nouvelle-zélande et l’argentine. nous examinons aussi brièvement l’introduction du co-parrainage aux États-unis, un pays qui ne possède pas formellement de programme national. nous concluons que bien que les programmes de parrainage communautaires aient le potentiel de révolu- tionner la réinstallation des réfugiés, leur mise en oeuvre ne dépend pas d’une infrastructure juridique révolutionnaire. volume refuge number introduction community sponsorship programs empower ordi-nary citizens to welcome and integrate refugee new-comers into their communities. more than a dozen countries are exploring the introduction of these programs as part of their global commitments to refugee protection, and each exploration includes an assessment of feasibil- ity—including considering what statutory, regulatory, and policy structures are required to operationalize the unique model. this article fills a gap in academic literature and policy documents by providing a comparative analysis of the legal and administrative frameworks that have underpinned the introduction of community sponsorship programs in four diverse countries: canada, the united kingdom, new zealand, and argentina. we also briefly examine the united states, a country that has recently seen the localized intro- duction of sponsorship-style programs, despite the absence of a dedicated national scheme or any formal framework. as discussed below, we term the us model “co-sponsorship.” since the inception of canada’s private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program in , ordinary individuals have resettled over , refugees to large and small communi- ties across the country. comparative data emanating from this program over the past forty years demonstrate that spon- sored refugees have better and quicker integration outcomes than refugees resettled through more traditional government programs. community sponsorship also engages a broad range of canadian citizens and enjoys consistent bipartisan political support. refugee sponsorship received increased attention in late , when a brewing political crisis over refugees spilled into the mainstream media and mobilized millions of people around the world looking to directly assist the vulnerable individuals flashing across their screens each day. in canada, sponsorship provided an ideal vehicle to organize and leverage this mobilization and—following a time-bound political commitment by a new national gov- ernment —tens of thousands of syrians were sponsored to the country in just a few months. canada’s psr program also provided a unique channel to sustain and broaden this engagement: since , over two million canadians from over communities have sponsored refugees —extraor- dinary figures that hint at the potential power and scope of the community sponsorship model. in september the government of canada, the un refugee agency (unhcr), and the open society founda- tions announced the formation of the global refugee spon- sorship initiative (grsi), a partnership aimed at sharing the community sponsorship model, and supporting its adoption around the world. the giustra foundation and the univer- sity of ottawa joined the grsi before it formally launched in december , and the new partnership articulated three goals: increasing and improving refugee resettlement; strengthening and supporting local host communities; and improving the narrative surrounding refugees and newcom- ers. in its first two years of operation, the grsi worked with over twenty countries around the world, supporting com- munity and government stakeholders as they assessed fea- sibility, designed, piloted, and/or implemented sponsorship programs. jennifer bond co-founded the grsi and serves as its chair, while ania kwadrans has played a critical role on the team since the initiative launched. while this article does not directly draw on that work, our understanding of community sponsorship is deeply informed by it. the grsi’s formation, and its subsequent high level of activity, is only one indication of growing global interest in community sponsorship programs. increasing engagement is also formally reflected in statements and initiatives by the european union and in the final draft of the global com- pact on refugees (gcr), a multilateral agreement that explic- itly encourages states to “establish private or community sponsorship programmes … including community-based programmes promoted through the global refugee spon- sorship initiative.” momentum is also visible in individual countries, as is clearly reflected in a strong joint statement issued by immigration ministers from canada, the united kingdom, ireland, argentina, spain, and new zealand. the statement notes the benefits of community sponsorship and encourages other countries to adopt these programs. collective experience with the process for introducing new community sponsorship programs is growing, but nascent. the case studies presented in this article aim to advance the field by providing examples of varying technical structures that have facilitated introduction of sponsorship across a range of countries. each of our case studies explores legislation, executive announcements and orders, and any operational infrastructure that may have been established through regulation and policy documents, and subsequently implemented by government organizations or entities with delegated authority. on the basis of our five country examples, we conclude that while the legislative and policy nuances of each community sponsorship program have emerged in ways tailored to each state’s particular context, the frameworks that underpin these programs contain key similarities, including reliance on the same basic infrastruc- ture as traditional refugee resettlement schemes. definitions and methodology the terms community sponsorship, private sponsorship, and refugee sponsorship have not been universally defined, resulting in conceptual confusion amongst stakeholders— a topic jennifer bond is exploring in a dedicated piece of volume refuge number writing. for the purposes of this contribution, we define community sponsorship programs as programs that empower groups of ordinary individuals—as opposed to governments or professionalized agencies—to lead in welcoming, sup- porting, and integrating refugees. while policy design features vary between countries, the basic model is a “public- private partnership between governments who, [at minimum,] facilitate legal admission of refugees, and private actors who provide financial, social and/or emotional support to receive and settle [those] refugees into [their] community.” under our conceptualization of community sponsorship, the model responds to the observation that “by redefining basic human needs as ‘problems’ that only professionals can resolve … over-professionalization alienates people from the helping relationships they could establish with neighbours and kin.” the deep engagement and high degree of respon- sibility undertaken by individual refugee sponsors reposi- tions newcomers from vulnerable outsiders whom private individuals watch fail or succeed, to partners in a project of collective interests: the newcomers’ success is inherently also the sponsors’ success. this profound partnership divides sponsorship programs from other forms of refugee support, including those that rely heavily on volunteers but are funda- mentally led by paid professionals. this article presents the legal and policy architecture that states have used to enable citizen sponsors to lead in reset- tling refugees. in addition to exploring four countries with government-created, national sponsorship programs, we also briefly examine the united states, a country with a large refugee resettlement program but no formal community sponsorship scheme at the legislative or policy level. despite this absence, several local resettlement organizations in the united states have developed de facto sponsorship-style ini- tiatives by sub-delegating authority in a way that manifests the type of citizen-led process at the core of our understand- ing of sponsorship. since professionalized agencies retain official responsibility for newcomers’ integration, these programs do not fall within the scope of our definition of community sponsorship, and we thus present them using a different but related term: co-sponsorship. we also deliberately restrict our analysis to countries that have introduced sponsorship programs in the context of resettlement—the relocation of a refugee from her country of asylum to a third country, usually with the support of the un refugee agency (unhcr). resettlement programs are voluntary: while the refugee convention codifies obligations for states to protect certain non-nationals who claim asylum from within their territory, they are not legally obliged to offer protection to refugees who remain in the jurisdiction of other states. despite this lack of formal requirement, the international community has repeatedly recognized the need for more “equitable sharing” of responsibility for refugees, and over forty states have established resettlement programs as one way of contributing to this objective. each resettle- ment country has established its own distinct national proce- dures for operationalizing its program, but canada’s psr pro- gram was, for many decades, unique because of the way that it empowered ordinary individuals to take primary responsibil- ity for all aspects of welcoming and integrating newcomers. our focus on community sponsorship in the context of resettlement means that our analysis does not consider community-driven models that support asylum seekers or other populations of newcomers. we also consciously omit programs where the “welcomers” are exclusively fam- ily members, as well as programs where costs are shared between private and public actors, but integration is led primarily by government or professionalized refugee sup- port organizations as opposed to community groups or indi- viduals. finally, because we are interested in exploring the infrastructure that has enabled the creation of sustainable, national sponsorship programs, we have not considered ad hoc, community-driven initiatives negotiated with single civil society groups via time-limited agreements. this article provides a technical analysis of the statutory, regulatory, and policy structures that were required to ini- tially operationalize a selection of community sponsorship programs. as a result, we take a historical view of our first case study—canada—and examine the legislative changes that created the foundations for the world’s largest and long- est-running community sponsorship program. canada enabling legislation and orders canada acceded to the refugee convention in . a detailed review of canada’s immigration policy followed in , culminating in the immigration act, which intro- duced canada’s first official resettlement program. prior to , refugee resettlement was based on ad hoc decisions and cabinet orders-in-council. the new legal framework explicitly recognized refugees as a distinct class of migrants and included a more transparent approach for overseas selec- tion and resettlement on humanitarian grounds. refugees who met the requirements of the act were to be granted per- manent resident status upon arrival to the country. since , canada has resettled over , refugees from all over the world. the resettlement framework also included a provi- sion that explicitly enabled refugee resettlement through community sponsorship. specifically, the new immigration act gave power to the governor-in-council to make regu- lations “prescribing classes of persons whose applications for landing may be sponsored by canadian citizens [or] volume refuge number … permanent residents,” and “establishing the require- ments to be met by any [sponsoring] person or organiza- tion including the provision of an undertaking to assist any such convention refugee, person or immigrant in becoming successfully established in canada.” these brief statutory references provided the foundation for the world’s first com- munity sponsorship program. canada’s new approach to resettlement was quickly oper- ationalized: in december the country pledged to accept , refugees from vietnam, cambodia, and laos as part of an international response to the forced displacement of mil- lions of indochinese refugees. the scale and visibility of the crisis continued to increase, however, prompting public calls for the government to further expand its commitment. in june the canadian government announced that it would admit , indochinese refugees— , of whom would be government-assisted and , of whom would be pri- vately sponsored by individual groups and organizations. that same month, the commitment was increased further to , resettled refugees by the end of . to manage the rapidly increasing numbers, the government established a special refugee task force to specifically manage cana- da’s resettlement of indochinese refugees. it also pledged to meet its ambitious new targets by offering a “matching” model to the canadian public, whereby it would admit one indochinese refugee to the government-supported stream for everyone who was privately sponsored. with this com- mitment, the country’s new psr program rapidly took hold as one of canada’s principal resettlement mechanisms. regulations and program administration canada’s immigration regulations, , contained pro- visions that contoured the country’s new psr program, including defining the eligibility parameters for a sponsored refugee and specifying that sponsor groups must be com- posed of at least five adult canadian citizens or permanent residents (or be a canadian corporation) residing or located in the expected community of settlement. eligible groups were permitted to resettle refugees after signing a written undertaking that they would provide one year of financial and settlement support and demonstrating sufficient finan- cial resources and a plan for “adequate arrangements … for the reception of the convention refugee and his accompany- ing dependants.” the new regulations were in place before the governor-in-council designated the first three classes of refugees eligible for the program on january . faith communities and ethno-cultural groups in canada had a long history of supporting resettled refugees before the psr program was introduced and were well positioned to support the influx of indochinese newcomers through the new sponsorship stream. these national organizations sought ways to leverage their own infrastructure, and beginning in march , developed master agreements” with the canadian government that allowed them to authorize individual con- gregations across canada to sponsor indochinese refugees. these agreements also allowed the government of canada to delegate sponsor-screening responsibilities to agreement- holding organizations, while government officials retained responsibility for vetting refugees and thousands of “groups of five” who were unaffiliated with a larger sponsorship organiza- tion. within weeks, the government had signed agreements with almost all the national church bodies in canada. today canada’s refugee law is governed by the immigra- tion and refugee protection act, (irpa) and its associ- ated immigration and refugee protection regulations, (irpr). the irpa retains the central provision that enables sponsorship, and the irpr sets out, inter alia, the eligibility criteria for sponsors and sponsored refugees. the dual track set in between master agreement holders (today, “sponsorship agreement holders”) and groups of five con- tinues to underpin the program’s modern form. however, canada’s sponsorship program has diversified and today includes dedicated and specialized programs for sponsor- identified refugees; unhcr-referred refugees; individu- als persecuted for sexual orientation or gender identity; refugees with complex medical needs; urgent cases; and post-secondary students. despite this evolution, the core of all of canada’s community sponsorship programs remains robust citizen responsibility and empowerment. as described above, the world’s first community sponsor- ship program was formed simultaneously with, and inte- grated into, canada’s new national resettlement program. its unique referral mechanism permitting sponsors to identify refugees they wished to resettle was enabled by an explicit provision in the immigration act, which also delineated very generally the parameters through which persons could seek protection, and gave scope for regulations to fill in myr- iad details. this model underscores the minimal legislative framework that was necessary to facilitate the introduction of this radically different approach to refugee resettlement. unlike canada, our next two case studies—the united kingdom and new zealand—each introduced community sponsorship into pre-existing and well-established refugee resettlement infrastructure. in the following sections, we examine the distinct approach each country took to doing so. united kingdom enabling legislation and orders the united kingdom ratified the refugee convention on march . it has been resettling refugees since the early s via a combination of two informal programs and ad hoc initiatives to respond to specific humanitarian volume refuge number crises. since the legal basis for refugees to be admit- ted to, and stay in, the united kingdom—including through resettlement—has been the immigration act, . the act requires any individuals who are neither uk citizens nor members of the european economic area to obtain leave from uk authorities before entering the country. building on its three decades of experience with informal and ad hoc resettlement programs, the united kingdom formalized its approach to resettlement in by introduc- ing the gateway protection program (gpp). the gpp was operationalized and continues to function by virtue of sec- tion of the nationality, immigration and asylum act, (nia), which enables the secretary of state to “participate in [projects] designed to … facilitate co-operation between states in matters relating to migration” and to “arrange or assist the settlement of migrants.” the nia further specifies that the secretary of state may provide financial support to international organizations in the united kingdom for their migration-related projects, and may partner with other gov- ernments that advance similar programs. the same broad provision in the nia that underpinned the gpp also facilitated the more recent introduction of two newer resettlement programs: the vulnerable persons resettlement scheme (vprs), and the vulnerable children’s resettlement scheme (vcrs). the vprs was announced on january in a statement to parliament by the home secretary, in which she committed to creating a new reset- tlement program for syrian refugees. the home secretary did not initially quantify the scope of the initiative, but on september it was announced that the vprs would reset- tle , syrians by . in july the scope of the program was expanded to include refugees not only of syrian nationality but also others affected by the syrian conflict. the vprs relies on the unhcr to refer eligible refugees resid- ing in egypt, iraq, turkey, jordan, and lebanon. a cross- government syrian resettlement team that includes the uk home office, the department for communities and local government, the department for international develop- ment, and several other ministries was created to implement the program. the united kingdom also pledged to resettle , at-risk children and their families from the middle east and north africa by , a commitment that resulted in the creation of the vcrs. refugees resettled through the vprs and vcrs programs are granted refugee status, which enables them to work and to access benefits in the united kingdom. after five years of residency in the united kingdom, resettled refugees may apply for indefinite leave to remain in the coun- try. the united kingdom resettled over , refugees from all over the world between and . the uk community sponsorship program was introduced as a component of the vprs and the vcrs in a separate and very brief political statement by the home secretary at the conservative party conference on october . there, it was announced that the united kingdom would “develop a community sponsorship scheme … to allow individuals, charities, faith groups, churches and businesses to support refugees directly.” this statement launched work to create a robust national sponsorship program. further, by putting no limits on the number of refugees who could be sponsored from within the broader resettlement scheme, the united kingdom established the most ambitious sponsorship initia- tive since the one canada introduced forty years ago. the uk sponsorship program relies entirely on the same legislative architecture that underpins its broader resettle- ment program: the only statutory reference to the commu- nity sponsorship scheme is a ministerial arrangement under the equality act, , a technical inclusion that addresses the fact that the program focuses only on syrian nationals and individuals affected by the syrian conflict. otherwise, the formal legal framework enabling resettlement is silent on the introduction of community sponsorship. regulations and program administration details of the uk community sponsorship scheme are delin- eated through policy instructions, guidelines, and forms produced by the uk home office. collectively, these documents establish that citizens and community groups chosen as sponsors have primary responsibility for welcom- ing and integrating unhcr-referred refugees to their local neighbourhoods. prospective sponsors must partner with registered charities or community interest companies, but these organizations are not required to have expertise in working with refugees and do not lead the process—thus preserving the core of the sponsorship model. sponsors must also obtain written approval of the local authority in the sponsored family’s future place of residence; demon- strate financial capacity to sponsor; and provide a detailed settlement plan that illustrates how they will deliver on their responsibilities, including securing housing for two years. after the uk home office provisionally approves a sponsor’s application, a formal agreement is signed, and the spon- sors must attend a training workshop before being author- ized to resettle a family. once authorized to sponsor, the uk home office works with the sponsors and local authority to allocate a suitable refugee family to each specific group. the uk community sponsorship scheme has inspired hundreds of local neighbourhoods to welcome refugees, and millions of pounds of public and private sector funding have been invested to develop capacity to recruit, vet, and sup- port sponsorship groups and to evolve the policy model. this has resulted in significant sponsorship-specific infra- structure at the government and community level, and volume refuge number the program has become an entrenched part of the united kingdom’s resettlement landscape, with its own unique and sustainable ecosystem. as a result of recent success in the united kingdom, many countries considering their own sponsorship programs are interested in learning from the uk experience. this makes the absence of any dedicated legal architecture to support the uk sponsorship scheme noteworthy: unlike the canadian pro- gram, which was introduced by a specific statutory reference, the robust uk program was enabled exclusively through a high-level political statement and detailed administrative processes. however, the program is part of a well-established overall resettlement program, and some of the state-level operations associated with that broader program—including the overseas refugee referral mechanism—have been largely retained. this means that the focus of the new sponsorship scheme has been exclusively on transitioning the modality for delivering post-arrival reception and support. our next case study, new zealand, also introduced spon- sorship within a well-established resettlement program. however, new zealand relied on the combination of exist- ing legal architecture and a robust cabinet document to pilot both a new community-based reception program and new refugee referral criteria. new zealand enabling legislation and orders new zealand acceded to the refugee convention on june and has a long history of welcoming newcomers fleeing persecution. it has been resettling unhcr-referred refu- gees since the early s and operating its formal refugee quota programme since . new zealand’s immigration act introduced an extensive framework for refugee protection. the immigration act, built on this framework and explicitly author- ized resettlement. the act also gave the minister a broad mandate to certify immigration instructions relating to, inter alia, residence class visas, and “any general or spe- cific objective of immigration policy.” these immigration instructions set out the criteria for granting visas and per- mitting entry into the country, and provided the legal basis for a resettlement program. between and , new zealand resettled over , refugees through its state-led refugee quota programme. in june the new zealand cabinet agreed to increase its annual resettlement quota from to , unhcr- referred refugees and to pilot “a community organisa- tion refugee sponsorship category … as a new form of admission.” a cabinet background paper on the commu- nity organization refugee sponsorship category (published on august ) informed this decision; proposing that the sponsorship program would be distinct from the refu- gee quota programme and would form a new “part of new zealand’s broader refugee and humanitarian programme.” in september , new zealand announced that it would also increase its core annual quota by an additional refu- gees per year, beginning in july . many specifics of new zealand’s pilot sponsorship pro- gram were laid out in the nz cabinet minute of decision ( august ). in particular, individuals selected for the community organization refugee sponsorship category needed to be recognized as refugees by the unhcr; to pos- sess a basic facility with english and a minimum of three years’ work experience (or a qualification requiring a mini- mum of two years’ tertiary study); and be between eighteen and forty-five years of age. sponsors under the program needed to be registered legal entities; to have demonstrated experience working with refugees or other vulnerable people (although they did not need not be professional resettlement agencies); to possess financial and settlement capacity to support the sponsored refugees; and be willing to enter into an outcomes agreement with immigration new zealand for the provision of their settlement and integration responsi- bilities. refugees resettled through the pilot community sponsorship program were to be granted permanent resident visas. the new zealand cabinet also agreed that sponsoring community organizations could either nominate refugees eligible for the sponsorship program or be matched to refu- gees referred to new zealand by the unhcr. the addition of new eligibility criteria and the option of sponsor-naming represented major cabinet-directed variations to new zea- land’s traditional resettlement program, and it is noteworthy that introducing these changes did not require legislative amendment. instead, the very general nature of the exist- ing statutory framework—focusing on visa criteria rather than the specifics of a particular resettlement stream—was deemed to provide the requisite legal authority for the pilot to be introduced and operationalized. regulation and program administration new zealand’s act is complemented by a series of regulations, and by the department of immigration’s “operational manual.” amongst other things, the “opera- tional manual” sets out specific details for the refugee quota programme, including its objectives and eligibility require- ments. it also establishes the requirement that resettled refugees receive an orientation at the mangere refugee resettlement centre —a component that was retained in the community sponsorship scheme. the cabinet deci- sion that gave rise to new zealand’s community sponsorship program was also implemented through the “operational volume refuge number manual.” in addition to repeating the specific program requirements mandated by the original cabinet decision, the “operational manual” also established the detailed process through which both sponsor groups and eligible refugees could apply to participate in new zealand’s pilot program. on october the ministry of business, innovation and employment issued a request for applications from com- munity organizations interested in becoming community sponsors under the new sponsorship stream. interested organizations needed to establish that they met the require- ments for sponsorship and were willing to sign a formal deed of agreement with the government of new zealand guaranteeing that they would provide the required settle- ment responsibilities. according to the deed, approved community sponsors were solely responsible for fulfilling and could not subcontract to any other entity without first obtaining the written permission of the ministry. the four community-based groups selected to participate in new zealand’s community sponsorship pilot were announced in january , and it is noteworthy that none were profes- sional refugee resettlement agencies. the first sponsored refugees arrived in new zealand in july . the government of new zealand is reviewing its pilot program and considering whether to continue with a more permanent commitment to refugee sponsorship. in antici- pation of this review, two distinct stakeholder groups—the core community partnership and amnesty international— each presented proposals to the government urging, inter alia, that the community sponsorship program be made per- manent; that funding be provided for a community-based “catalyst entity” to provide future sponsors with support; and that non-humanitarian criteria for refugee selection be reviewed. amnesty international also presented a petition with over , signatures, encouraging new zealand to continue the program. the new zealand immigration minister responded publicly to this petition by noting that it was “heartening to see so many signatures from people in new zealand saying they warmly support [the community sponsorship] program and encouraging the government to go beyond the pilot.” like the united kingdom, new zealand introduced its community sponsorship program by using the legal frame- work of its existing refugee resettlement scheme, rather than introducing any new statutory provisions. however, the new zealand cabinet both authorized the new program and pro- vided significant direction on its parameters. this is different from all other countries, where detailed policy parameters for sponsorship programs were developed under delegated regulatory or administrative authority. it is also noteworthy that, while new zealand, canada, and argentina (described below) have all experimented with allowing sponsorship groups to support either a unhcr- referred refugee or a sponsor-referred refugee (with some specific restrictions in each case), only canada has intro- duced legislation that has formally recognized distinct refer- ral mechanisms. in the other examples, the formal legislative instruments are silent on referral methodology. our next case study examines a newer resettlement country, argentina, and explains how administrative pro- cesses created a resettlement program delivered exclusively through a sponsorship model. argentina enabling legislation and orders argentina ratified the refugee convention on novem- ber and has a long history of welcoming newcom- ers through its asylum system. however, the country’s approach to resettlement has been noticeably iterative: in and its first formalized resettlement program focused on refugees from southeast asia, and in it participated in the regional solidarity resettlement pro- gram to resettle colombian refugees. the creation of this second resettlement initiative corresponded with a broader overall restructuring of the country’s formal legal architec- ture relating to refugees and immigrants, resulting first in introduction of the migration law in , and then in the enactment of the general law of recognition and pro- tection of refugees in . neither of these instruments specifically references either resettlement or sponsorship, but the migration law provides the legal basis for an indi- vidual’s admission to, permission to stay in, or removal from argentina and also enables humanitarian admissions using temporary status visas. individuals resettled to argentina with humanitarian visas may petition for refugee status once they arrive in the country. argentina’s most recent resettlement commitment has focused on syrian refugees, and operates under the com- bined authority of the humanitarian visa regime set out in the migration law and two presidential decrees. the first presidential decree was issued in and sets out more detailed parameters for implementing the migration law, including its humanitarian provisions. the presi- dential decree also established the national directorate for migration as the agency responsible for implementing and enforcing the migration law and for creating associated regulations. importantly, the presidential decree also delegated authority to argentine consulates abroad to issue entry permits and visas, including humanitarian visas. a second presidential decree was issued in september , shortly after argentina’s president announced at a un summit that the country would resettle , syrian refugees. the decree established a national cabinet for the syria volume refuge number program to coordinate efforts of the ministries involved in the integration of refugees. it also stipulated that the national directorate for migration would coordinate an inter-institutional working group to implement the national cabinet’s instructions and provide recommendations to the national cabinet. the result was that two key coordinating bodies for the syrian resettlement program were established through the and presidential decrees. further contours of argentina’s current resettlement commitment—the special humanitarian visa program for foreigners affected by the syrian conflict (syria program)— are delineated in a regulatory scheme established by the national directorate for migration pursuant to its authority under the migration act and the presidential decree. as we explain below, argentina’s entire commitment to resettle syrian refugees was designed to function as a national com- munity sponsorship program. regulations and program administration in response to international appeals for more states to resettle syrian refugees, argentina’s national directorate for migra- tion created an administrative provision on october (first syria program provision), which established the country’s syria program. the first syria program provision introduced the initial iteration of the country’s community sponsorship program by relying on the humanitarian admis- sions section of the migration law to enable argentinian relatives of syrian and palestinian refugees to sponsor their family members’ resettlement. under this original program, argentinian relatives (termed “callers” [llamantes]) needed to provide a letter of invitation attesting to their kinship bonds with the sponsored refugee; proof of identity; and proof of domicile. in and over sponsorship appli- cations were submitted under this original syria program, and the basic operational framework for argentina’s first community sponsorship program was formally established. momentum for argentina’s syria program was renewed in september when the country pledged to resettle , syrian refugees. responding to this commitment, the national directorate for migration issued a second pro- vision (second syria program provision), which updates the syria program by broadening the eligibility crite- ria for sponsors to include not only groups of individuals (“callers”) but also sponsoring organizations referred to as “requesters” (requirentes). the revised program allows both callers and requesters to initiate the humanitarian admission of individuals affected by the syrian conflict by presenting a letter of invitation explicitly assuming a one-year com- mitment to provide accommodation and other integration support. callers are also given the option of submitting a letter of endorsement from an organization, guaranteeing that callers will fulfil their commitments, and meaning that requestors may sponsor refugees directly or act as guar- antors for callers. significantly, the second syria program provision removes the requirement of familial ties between the sponsors and the sponsored refugees, enabling the introduction of a unhcr referral mechanism. argentina’s second syria program provision also enables the national directorate for migration to implement mecha- nisms to collaborate with, and support, callers and requesters with the integration process. this function is implemented by the inter-institutional working group coordinated by the national directorate for migration, which—by virtue of the presidential decree—also receives instructions from the national cabinet for the syria program. successful imple- mentation of argentina’s syria program and growth of its overall resettlement infrastructure is also supported by the unhcr’s emerging countries joint support mechanism and by a investment by the european union. as of july , argentinian callers and requesters had sponsored more than refugees. as we have seen, argentina relied on broad statutory provisions and two presidential decrees to authorize the issuance of humanitarian visas and create important infra- structure for resettlement, including the establishment of two key coordinating bodies. critically, argentina is the only country under examination that plans to deliver its entire resettlement program via community sponsorship. as with other examples, the details of this model were estab- lished and operationalized at the administrative level, but argentina is unique, both in relation to its degree of reli- ance on sponsorship and the fact that the model is neither mentioned in statutory instruments nor referenced explicitly by orders from the executive branch. the cumulative effect is that argentina used entirely administrative processes to translate its broad humanitarian visa regime and a political commitment to support syrian refugees into a well-deline- ated community sponsorship-based resettlement scheme. our final case study examines the united states—a large resettlement country that does not have a national commu- nity sponsorship program. nevertheless, a number of amer- ican civil society organizations have recognized the poten- tial of sponsorship and built their own mini infrastructure within the country’s broader overall resettlement scheme. united states resettlement framework the united states is not a party to the refugee convention but did accede to its additional protocol on november and is thus bound by articles – of the convention and to the core principle of non-refoulement. the country has a long history of accepting refugees from all over the world volume refuge number and in created the us refugee admission program (usrap) through the enactment of the refugee act of . introduction of the usrap created a “standardized system for identifying, vetting, and resettling” refugees and, since then, the united states has resettled more refugees than any other country: annual admissions peaked between and with an average of , refugees resettled annually, and remained high into the s, with , refugees resettled in . these numbers dropped precipitously to , in and to , in under a new us administration. between and the united states resettled over , refugees from all over the world. the backbone of us immigration and refugee policy is the immigration and nationality act (ina), a wide-ranging statutory regime introduced in . the ina continues the us resettlement program and gives the president abso- lute discretion to set the country’s annual refugee resettle- ment quota, taking into consideration both humanitarian concerns and the national interest. the scheme specifies that, once the president establishes the annual quota, the united states must work with the unhcr, other specially trained ngos, and its embassies abroad to receive referrals of individuals eligible for its refugee admissions program. resettled refugees are admitted to the united states with refugee status. after one year of residency, they may request permanent resident status, and after five years they are eligi- ble to apply for us citizenship. the ina also established the office of refugee resettle- ment (orr) within the department of health and human services. the orr is tasked with funding and administering the domestic implementation of the us resettlement pro- gram. specifically, the ina gives the orr authority to work with stakeholders to develop policies on resettlement and to provide grants and contracts to “public or private non- profit agencies for initial resettlement … of refugees in the united states.” to deliver on its resettlement mandate, the orr partners with nine professional resettlement agencies, each of which is responsible for ensuring that a refugee’s settlement needs are met, including housing, furnishings, food, clothing, and facilitated access to community and state-provided services. the orr’s nine resettlement partners in turn subcontract these responsibilities to hundreds of local service providers all across the united states. these organizations welcome and integrate refugees under authority delegated by the orr. there is wide variance in how these local partners operate, but the majority use a combination of professional case workers and volunteers to provide support. certain us organizations have, however, been inspired by the community sponsorship model and have chosen to further delegate core integration and decision-making responsibilities to highly empowered groups of sponsors. this has the effect of creating de facto community spon- sorship models within certain communities. since the us government did not create or formally acknowledge these programs, and since the refugee agencies retain ultimate oversight and responsibility for the groups, we term this model “co-sponsorship.” community-level co-sponsorship one example of a robust and successful community co- sponsorship program was introduced by integrated refugee & immigrant services (iris) in connecticut—a local affiliate of two of the nine us resettlement agencies. under the iris co-sponsorship model, community groups of at least ten people are empowered to take primary responsibility for welcoming and integrating resettled refugees into their communities. once these groups demonstrate to iris that they are prepared to welcome a refugee family, they must sign a formal agreement pledging to fulfill their responsi- bilities towards the resettled refugees. responsibilities include fundraising to provide housing and basic necessi- ties; welcoming the family on arrival; providing orientation and transportation assistance; assisting in connecting the family with health, education, and other services and ben- efits; helping the family manage its resources and secure employment; and offering overall logistical and emotional support. iris provides guidance and training to co-sponsorship groups as they prepare to meet their responsibilities, and subsequently provides light-touch support to sponsors as needed. it also delivers federally required case management for the refugee family through a number of check-ins during the initial resettlement period. however, the agency does not direct the activities of the co-sponsors, who become the key decision-makers and implementers of all aspects of the settlement process. this represents a radical shift from the more traditional, highly professionalized us resettlement model. in one-third of the refugees referred to iris were settled by community co-sponsorship groups, allow- ing the agency to increase its overall capacity, welcome more newcomers to its area, and significantly grow the number of individual citizens engaging in significant ways with newly arrived refugees. while the united states does not have a formal sponsorship program, the iris program demonstrates that key components of sponsorship can be implemented not only within existing legal frameworks, but also within traditional operational models. conclusion community sponsorship programs have the potential to be truly transformative. countries seeking new ways to volume refuge number contribute to global refugee protection, while simultane- ously improving integration outcomes and benefiting their own local communities, are examining canada’s long history with sponsorship and considering how similar models might be introduced in their own domestic contexts. our work with the grsi has shown us that one of the first steps for any country considering a community sponsorship program is an examination of what laws, regulations, and policies are necessary to make it operational. the case studies presented in this article illustrate some of the varying approaches that have been taken in this regard. canada is the only country to have embedded sponsor- ship into its principal immigration and refugee statute simultaneously with the introduction of a nascent resettle- ment program. the united kingdom and argentina provide interesting contrasts to this approach. both countries devel- oped and operationalized sponsorship programs subsequent to high-level political announcements. in argentina the commitment was a general one to resettle syrian refugees, while in the united kingdom it was a specific reference to the introduction of a community-led sponsorship program. after these announcements, both countries introduced their programs without any new supporting legislation: argentina by creating a new regulatory framework under the broad authority of its general immigration law; and the united kingdom by leveraging the administrative frameworks asso- ciated with two pre-existing resettlement programs. it is also noteworthy that, while both of these newer sponsorship pro- grams are limited to refugees affected by the syrian conflict, the specific regulatory infrastructure enabling the uk pro- gram does not reflect this restriction, while argentina’s does. this is consistent with argentina’s iterative approach to resettlement and may mean that additional political direc- tives or legal authority would be needed for the country to retain its sponsorship program as a longer-term feature of its overall refugee policy. like the united kingdom, new zealand introduced its community sponsorship program into a well-established resettlement framework. however, while both programs rely on existing resettlement infrastructure and were intro- duced without legislative amendment, a significant amount of programmatic detail for the new zealand program was included in the authorizing cabinet documents. as a result, any subsequent policy changes to new zealand’s program will presumably require renewed parliamentary approval. it is of course noteworthy that, at the time of writing, new zea- land’s sponsorship program was limited to a small-scale pilot initiative; it is possible that a future, longer-term commit- ment will be embedded into the country’s legal infrastruc- ture in a different way. finally, the development of co-sponsorship programs in the united states illustrates how the core elements of spon- sorship can be implemented by motivated and creative civil society actors willing to deliberately de-professionalize their approach to refugee resettlement. the successful program at iris is a particularly strong example of what can be achieved in the absence of any formal adjustments to the national infrastructure. of course, these initiatives rely on an exist- ing resettlement pathway that is legally and administratively embedded, and in this way the united states most closely resembles the uk example. while each of these situations is unique, our overall con- clusion is that community sponsorship programs do not require significant, dedicated legislative infrastructure. in fact, canada is the only country to have introduced a statu- tory provision explicitly authorizing community engage- ment in resettling refugees, and that provision is extremely broad. more frequently, sponsorship programs have been introduced through a combination of political will and administrative creativity. for the many countries considering new sponsorship programs, this is good news: while they may need to care- fully consider the political, policy, and operational realities of these systems, they likely do not need to undertake wide- scale legislative reform. as true believers in the power of sponsorship to transform the lives of both newcomers and the communities that welcome them, we hope this means that more programs will be introduced in the near term. indeed, with global capacity shrinking at an alarming rate and the world desperately in need of creative solutions, the future of refugee resettlement may depend on it. notes we owe thanks for research and editorial support to eliza bateman, christina clemente, rebecca dickey, mari gal- loway, jacintha gedeon, marcos gomez, shannon krist- janson, meghan steenhoek, and lyndsay scovil. all errors or omissions are of course our own. via an enactment of a law by the legislative branch of a government. merriam-webster online, s.v. “regulation,” accessed jan- uary , https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary /regulation. for the purposes of this article, we are using the following definitions of regulation from the merriam- webster dictionary: “an authoritative rule dealing with details or procedure” and “a rule or order issued by an executive authority or regulatory agency of a government and having the force of law.” merriam-webster online, s.v. “policy,” accessed janu- ary , https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ policy?src=search-dict-box. for the purposes of this article, volume refuge number we are using the following definition of policy from the merriam-webster dictionary: “an overall plan, principle, or guideline; especially: one formulated outside of the judiciary.” recent data suggest that refugees privately sponsored to canada find employment within their first five years of set- tlement at higher rates ( per cent) and earn higher incomes than their government-resettled counterparts ( per cent). penetration into the labour market levels out between these two groups after approximately ten years. twenty years after arrival, privately sponsored refugees have a median income better than other canadians. median income for govern- ment-resettled refugees after twenty years is just below that of other canadians. note that these studies do not disag- gregate between unhcr-referred sponsored refugees and sponsor-referred refugees. the latter may have family or other ties to canada and may not possess the same vulner- abilities as unhcr-referred refugees, who have additional integration challenges. see statistics canada, “immigrant income by world area, canada,” https://www .statcan. gc.ca/t /tbl /en/tv.action?pid= ; government of canada, “evaluation of the resettlement programs (gar, psr, bvor and rap),” july , https://www.canada.ca/ en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports- statistics/evaluations/resettlement-programs.html. a report published by the environics institute for survey research found that in / close to two mil- lion adult canadians were involved directly in community sponsorship of syrian refugees: environics institute for survey research, canada’s world survey : final report (toronto: environics institute for survey research, ), , https:// mea n d yn ri go-wpengine.netdna-ssl .com/wp-content/uploads/ / /canada-world-survey- .pdf. in september much of the federal election focused on the respective parties’ commitments to wel- coming syrian refugees, including through community sponsorship: mark kennedy, “where the parties stand on syrian refugees,” ottawa citizen, september , https:// ottawacitizen.com/news/politics/where-the-parties-stand- on-syrian-refugees. since the election, opposition par- ties have continued to urge the canadian government to expand and remove barriers to the community sponsorship program. see, e.g., michelle rempel, “urgent measures required to assist yazidi victims of genocide,” conserva- tive party of canada, july , https://www.conservative .ca/urgent-measures-required-to-assist-yazidi-victims-of- genocide/; national post, “opposition calls for liberals to be true to refugee rhetoric, change system,” june , https://nationalpost.com/pmn/news-pmn/canada-news- pmn/opposition-mps-press-liberals-to-be-true-to-refugee- rhetoric-change-system. see, e.g., bbc news, “migrant crisis: photo of drowned boy sparks outcry,” september , https://www.bbc. com/news/world-europe- ; bbc news, “migrant crisis: nine key moments from the last year,” september , https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe- ; gregor aisch, sarah almukhtar, josh keller, and wilson andrews, “the scale of the migrant crisis, from to mil- lions,” new york times, september , https://www .nytimes.com/interactive/ / / /world/europe/scale- of-migrant-crisis-in-europe.html; economist, “strangers in strange lands,” september , https://www.economist .com/briefing/ / / /strangers-in-strange-lands. see, e.g., joel gunter, “migrant crisis: the volunteers step- ping in to help,” bbc news, september , https://www .bbc.com/news/world-europe- ; emma graham- harrison, patrick kingsley, and tracy mcveigh, “cheer- ing german crowds greet refugees after long trek from budapest to munich,” guardian, september , https:// www.theguardian.com/world/ /sep/ /refugee-crisis- warm-welcome-for-people-bussed-from-budapest; eliza goroya, khairunissa dhala, and lorna hayes, “volunteers help refugees survive while europe’s leaders still search for solutions,” amnesty international, september , https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/ / / volunteers-help-refugees-survive-while-europes-leaders- still-search-for-solutions/; emily anne epstein, “wel- comed to europe,” atlantic, november , https://www .theatlantic.com/photo/ / /the-arms-outstretched/ /. in november a newly elected canadian government sought to fulfill a campaign commitment to bring , syrian refugees to canada before the end of . it ulti- mately succeeded in landing over , syrian refugees by the end of february , with over , of these being privately sponsored or sponsored through canada’s blended visa office–referred program. see immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, “canada’s syrian com- mitments,” last modified july , https://www.canada. ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/refugees/ welcome-syrian-refugees/canada-commitment.html. a total of , syrian refugees were resettled to canada by the end of , including , who were privately spon- sored or sponsored through canada’s blended visa office– referred program to over canadian communities from coast to coast to coast. see immigration, refugees and citi- zenship canada, “#welcomerefugees: key figures,” https:// www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/ services/refugees/welcome-syrian-refugees/key-figures .html#popup . an additional seven million know someone who spon- sored during this period: environics institute for survey research, canada’s world survey : final report. unhcr, “canada, unhcr and open society foundations seek to increase refugee resettlement through private sponsorship,” news release, september , http://www . u n h c r. o r g / n e w s / p r e s s / / / e e / c a n a d a - unhcr-open-society-foundations-seek-increase-refugee- resettlement.html. global refugee sponsorship initiative, “about grsi,” http:// refugeesponsorship.org/who-we-are. see also unhcr, volume refuge number “global refugee sponsorship initiative promotes canada’s private refugee sponsorship model,” december , http://www.unhcr.org/news/press/ / / e / global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative-promotes-canadas- private-refugee.html. the launch event brought together over ninety civil society and government official partici- pants from nine countries. the grsi works toward these goals by providing tailored, direct assistance to govern- ment officials and community leaders in countries around the world interested in learning about, designing, and implementing community sponsorship programs. support activities, inter alia, technical support in policy develop- ment, infrastructure planning, development of materials such as forms and guides, evaluation design, facilitating peer-to-peer learning, and providing training to sponsors. frank giustra, “it will take more than governments to solve the global refugee crisis,” globe and mail, april , https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/ article-it-will-take-more-than-governments-to-solve-the- global-refugee-crisis/. the european commission has encouraged eu member states to establish sponsorship schemes and has mandated the european asylum support office to coordinate a pilot sponsorship project. see european commission, “state of the union : commission presents next steps towards a stronger, more effective and fairer eu migration and asylum policy,” news release, september , http:// europa.eu/rapid/press-release_ip- - _en.htm. un general assembly, report of the united nations high commissioner for refugees—part ii: global com- pact on refugees, rd sess, un doc a/ (part ii), august , para , https://www.unhcr.org/excom/ unhcrannual/ ba a d /report-united-nations-high- commissioner-refugees-part-ii-global-compact.html. global refugee sponsorship initiative, “joint statement: ministers from canada, the united kingdom, ireland, argentina, spain and new zealand underline their sup- port for community-based refugee sponsorship in advance of the united nations general assembly and agreement on the global compacts on refugees,” news release, july , http://refugeesponsorship.org/_ uploads/ b ca e c .pdf. european commission, study on the feasibility and added value of sponsorship schemes as a possible pathway to safe channels for admission to the eu, including resettlement: final report (luxembourg: publication office of the euro- pean union, ), . jennifer bond, “conceptualizing sponsorship” (forthcoming). community-based refugee sponsors take on financial and settlement responsibilities for a designated period (usu- ally one to two years). these include initial reception and welcome; providing housing, furniture, and furnishings; orienting sponsored refugees to their communities and helping them access necessary public services (e.g., health, education); assisting in securing employment; supporting language training; and providing emotional and moral support. some programs allow sponsors themselves to nominate refugees for sponsorship, while others rely on unhcr or other agencies to refer eligible refugees, who are then matched to approved sponsors. criteria for sponsor and refugee eligibility may differ. the manner in and degree to which responsibilities are divided between the sponsors, government, and other service providers depends on the broader welfare context of a particular country. european resettlement network, private sponsorship in europe: expanding complementary pathways for refugee resettlement (brussels: icmc europe, ), . lester m. salamon, “the resilient sector: the state of the nonprofit america,” in the state of nonprofit america, ed. lester m. salamon (washington, dc: brookings institution, ), . see also emilia e. martinez-brawley and paz m-b zorita, “immigration and human services: the perils of professionalization,” families in society: the journal of contemporary human services , no. ( ): . while there is no settled, universally applicable defini- tion of resettlement, most definitions contain two key ele- ments: ( ) refugees moving from a country of asylum; ( ) to a country that has voluntarily agreed to provide them with protection. the most frequently used definition of resettlement, particularly by governments and refugee organizations, is that established by unhcr: “the selec- tion and transfer of refugees from a state in which they have sought protection to a third state which has agreed to admit them—as refugees—with permanent status.” see unhcr resettlement handbook (geneva: unhcr, ), , http://www.unhcr.org/ f c ee .pdf. the european union draws a distinction between resettlement and relocation to reflect its regional governance structure: european com- mission, “resettlement and relocation,” https://ec.europa .eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/ p o l i c i e s / e u rop e an - a ge n d a - m i g r at i on / b a c k g rou n d - information/docs/relocation_and_resettlement_factsheet_ en.pdf. there is greater variance in definition among academics, with some using similar definitions to that of unhcr, such as lyra jakuleviciene and mantas bileisis, “eu refugee resettlement: key challenges of expanding the practice into new member states,” baltic journal of law & politics , no. ( ): ; some adding to it, such as kristin bergtora sandvik, “a legal history: the emergence of the african resettlement candidate in international refugee management,” international journal of refugee law , no. ( ): – ; some combining resettlement with inte- gration, such as gillian morantz, cécile rousseau, anna banerji, carolina martin, and jody heymann, “resettle- ment challenges faced by refugee claimant families in montreal: lack of access to child care,” child & family social work , no. ( ): . volume refuge number convention relating to the status of refugees, july , unts at preamble (entered into force april ), https://treaties.un.org/doc/treaties/ / / % - % am/ch_v_ p.pdf. the refugee convention defines refugee in article a( ) as any person who “owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that coun- try; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, unwilling to return to it.” the refugee convention requires states to, inter alia, refrain from punishing refugees for their illegal entry or presence onto their territory for the purpose of making an asylum claim (article ); and refrain from returning refu- gees to a country where they would face a threat to their life or freedom on account of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opin- ion (the duty of non-refoulement in article ). refugee convention, at preamble; un general assembly, new york declaration for refugees and migrants, resolu- tion adopted by the general assembly, october , a/ res/ / para. ; un general assembly, global compact on refugees, para . see also global compact on refugees, paras. — referring to arrangement for “more equitable and predictable burden- and responsibility-sharing” and para. , which refers to responsibility sharing through community-based sponsorship. unhcr, unhcr projected global resettlement needs (geneva: unhcr, ), – , http://www.unhcr.org/ protection/resettlement/ b a df /projected-global- resettlement-needs- .html, which shows two tables documenting departures to resettlement countries from to , and per capita resettlement per country of resettlement in . for a detailed overview of the poli- tics and power dynamics of global resettlement practices, see adèle garnier, liliana lyra jubilut, and kristin berg- tora sandvik, eds., refugee resettlement: power, politics and humanitarian governance (new york: berghahn books, ). it is important to distinguish community sponsorship from volunteering in support of refugees. “although volunteers help professionals with important work, they are not ulti- mately responsible for the refugee’s well-being. sponsor- ship is special because ordinary citizens drive the process. while sponsors may sometimes contact outside organi- zations to access training and support, they are uniquely responsible for making key decisions and supporting the newcomer in every way.” see global refugee sponsorship initiative video, how communities sponsor refugees: cana- da’s program, youtube video, posted april , https:// youtu.be/kbdxzrbgxz . see, e.g., justice and peace, a dutch ngo that has developed a program called samen hier, which “connects groups of five dutch citizens or more to an individual newcomer or family to help status holders find their way in a new soci- ety.” see samen hier, “justice and peace,” https://www .justiceandpeace.nl/initiatives/samen-hier/. see, e.g., “refugees at home,” a “uk based charity aiming to connect those with spare room in their home with asylum seekers and refugees in need of accommodation”: refu- gees at home, “faq,” https://www.refugeesathome.org/faq/ index.html. for ireland and germany’s family reunification programs, see european commission, study on the feasibility and added value of sponsorship schemes. in australia’s community support program, “spon- sors” are primarily responsible for identifying and funding resettlement applications, while professional agencies—“approved proposing organizations”—“link applicants with secure, reputable employment and com- munity support [and] link entrants with other govern- ment services.” see australian department of home affairs, “community support program (csp),” https:// immi.home af fairs.gov.au/w hat-we-do/ref uge e-and- humanitarian-program/community-support-program/ approved-proposing-organisations. see humanitarian corridors programs belgium, france, and italy: see european commission, feasibility study. unhcr, “states parties to the convention relating to the status of refugees and the protocol,” june , http://www.unhcr.org/protection/basic/ b b d /states- parties- -convention-its- -protocol.html. for a detailed description of the policy review and legisla- tive drafting process, see gerald e. dirks, “a policy within a policy: the identification and admission of refugees to canada,” canadian journal of political science , no. ( ): . see also freda hawkins, critical years in immi- gration: canada and australia compared, nd ed. (mon- treal and kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), . the new legal framework explicitly recognized refugees as a distinct class of migrants and included a more transparent approach for overseas selection and resettlement: hawk- ins, critical years in immigration, – ; michael casasola, “the indochinese refugee movement and the subsequent evolution of unhcr resettlement selection policies,” ref- uge , no. ( ): . dirks, “policy within a policy,” ; ninette kelley and michael j. trebilcock, the making of the mosaic: a history of canadian immigration policy (toronto: university of toronto press, ), – . it is noteworthy that some of these orders-in-council even permitted community-based sponsorship arrangements, such as the june order for the admission of , mennonites from the soviet union on the condition that canadian mennonite communities volume refuge number ensure they would be cared for, they would not become a burden to the public, and they would be settled on agri- cultural land. see william janzen, “the mcc canada master agreement for the sponsorship of refugees in his- torical perspective,” journal of mennonite studies ( ): . at – janzen also describes a second movement of mennonite refugees from europe after the second world war under similar sponsorship arrangements. at – janzen describes a number of other resettlement efforts that, although they were not fully sponsorships, had sub- stantial involvement from community and church groups in the selection of refugees and their integration into cana- dian society. the immigration act, introduced admissibility criteria, as well as requirements for refugees to pass security, medi- cal, and criminality screenings before being admitted to canada. all immigrants—including refugees—were also required to demonstrate that they would be able to suc- cessfully settle in canada, although the act did allow for regulations to create exceptions in certain humanitarian situations: immigration act, , sc , c , s . immigration act, , sc , c , ss , ( ). section ( ) of the immigration act, enabled visa officers to “grant landing or entry” to canada if satisfied the applicant to canada satisfied the requirements of the act. the act defines landing as “lawful permission to come into canada to establish permanent residence.” unhcr canada, “refugee resettlement facts,” https://www . u n h c r. c a / w p - c o nt e nt / u p l o a d s / / / c a n a d i a n - resettlement-fact-sheet-eng-april- .pdf. immigration act, , s ( )(b). immigration act, , s ( )(b). immigration act, , s ( )(k. ). kelley and trebilcock, mosaic, . kelley and trebilcock, mosaic. kelley and trebilcock, mosaic. on top of the existing , pledged, an additional , indochinese refugees would be government-assisted and , would be privately sponsored: kelley and trebil- cock, mosaic, . the , quota was increased even further to , on april after the liberal party had returned to power. more than , private groups and organizations sponsored , indochinese refugees in the late s, outpacing government resettlement and giving birth to canada’s new and unique form of refugee resettlement: hawkins, critical years in immigration, – . hawkins, critical years in immigration, . kelley and trebilcock, mosaic, ; casasola, “indochi- nese refugee movement,” ; hawkins, critical years in immigration, – . the canadian immigration histori- cal society provides a flow chart detailing how canadian private sponsorship applications were processed from the first step of sponsors identifying the refugees they wished to sponsor, to the refugees’ arrival in canada. see canadian immigration historical society, “sponsorship system: algorith# —march ,” http://cihs-shic.ca/wp-content/ uploads/ / /sponsorship-chart- -corrected.pdf. however, the society notes that the “process was modi- fied on may to factor in the new destination match- ing centres that matched accepted refugees with potential sponsors in canada who did not have a particular refugee in mind to support.” for more details of the matching pro- cess, see canadian immigration historical society, “his- torical documents: the indochinese refugee movement,” http://cihs-shic.ca/indochina-historical-documents/. immigration regulations, , sor/ - . see hawkins, critical years in immigration, – , . immigration regulations, , reg. : defined as “con- vention refugee who has not become permanently reset- tled and is unlikely to be voluntarily repatriated or locally resettled.” immigration regulations, , reg. ( ). these general requirements remain the same today, although they have been formalized into several types of sponsorship groups: groups of five, community sponsors, sponsorship agree- ment holders, constituent groups, and co-sponsors. for more information, see government of canada, “ . pri- vate sponsorship of refugees program,” s . , accessed january , https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration- refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/ guide-private-sponsorship-refugees-program/section- .html#a . . immigration regulations, , reg. ( ). immigration regulations, , reg. ( )(e). the other two were the latin american political prison- ers and oppressed persons class for refugees from, and the eastern european self-exiled persons class: see kelley and trebilcock, mosaic, . see also hawkins, critical years in immigration, – . janzen, “mcc canada master agreement,” – ; casasola, “indochinese refugee movement,” ; barbara treviranus and michael casasola, “canada’s private sponsorship of refugees program: a practitioners perspective of its past and future,” journal of international migration and integra- tion , no. ( ): , . stephanie dyck, “advancing private refugee sponsor- ship: engaging and resourcing mcc manitoba’s constitu- ency” (master’s thesis, university of victoria, ), , accessed january , https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/ bitstream/handle/ / /dyck_stephanie_ma_ .pdf ?sequence= &isallowed=y. the master agreement also delineated the master agree- ment holders’ and the government’s respective roles and responsibilities, and how communications would flow between master agreement holders, their congregations, local immigration offices, and overseas embassies. by the end of , constituent groups of canada’s first master agreement holder—the mennonite central committee of volume refuge number canada—brought approximately , refugees to can- ada. janzen, “mcc canada master agreement,” ; dyck, “advancing private refugee sponsorship,” . janzen, “mcc canada master agreement,” ; casasola, “indochinese refugee movement,” – . casasola, “indochinese refugee movement,” – : “these organizations, initially mainly faith groups, serve as finan- cial guarantors, enabling the organization and its constitu- ent groups to apply to sponsor a refugee(s) without having to demonstrate the financial capability for each individual application as required of a group of five.” janzen, “mcc canada master agreement,” . immigration and refugee protection act, sc , c . immigration and refugee protection regulations, sor/ - . immigration and refugee protection act, s ( ): “a cana- dian citizen or permanent resident, or a group of canadian citizens or permanent residents, a corporation incorpo- rated under a law of canada or of a province or an unin- corporated organization or association under federal or provincial law—or any combination of them—may spon- sor a foreign national, subject to the regulations.” immigration and refugee protection regulations, reg. . immigration and refugee protection regulations, reg. . government of canada, “ . private sponsorship of refu- gees program,” s . . canadian sponsors may name the specific refugees they wish to sponsor through canada’s private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program. they may also be matched to unhcr-referred refugees in canada’s blended visa office– referred program. sponsors may also be matched to unhcr-referred and government-assisted refugees with special needs through the joint assistance sponsorship program. for a description of these programs, see immi- gration, refugees and citizenship canada, “guide to the private sponsorship of refugees program,” https://www . c a n a d a . c a / e n / i m m i g r a t i o n - r e f u g e e s - c i t i z e n s h i p / c o r p o r a t e / p u b l i c a t i o n s - m a n u a l s / g u i d e - p r i v a t e - sponsorship-refugees-program.html. see refugee sponsorship training program, “lgbti refu- gee sponsorship pilot project,” http://www.rstp.ca/en/ special-initiatives/lgbti-refugee-sponsorship-pilot-project/. see immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, guide to the private sponsorship of refugees program, s . , urgent protection program, https://www.canada.ca/en/ immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications- manuals/guide-private-sponsorship-refugees-program/ section- .html. immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, guide to the private sponsorship of refugees program, section . ; immigration, refugees and citizenship canada, “proce- dure: expedited processing and vulnerable cases,” https:// www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/ corporate/publications-manuals/operational-bulletins- manuals/refugee-protection/resettlement/processing- procedure-expedited-processing-vulnerable-cases.html. world university service canada, a sponsorship agreement holder, has developed its own infrastructure for the over- seas selection of post-secondary refugee students, bringing them to canada through the psr program, and engaging on- campus student groups to welcome sponsored refugees not only to life in canada, but to their new post-secondary edu- cational environment. see world university service canada, “student refugee program,” https://srp.wusc.ca/. today, canada’s immigration and refugee law is governed by the immigration and refugee protection act, and its immigration and refugee protection regulations. section ( ) of the act retains a central provision enabling spon- sorship. it states, “a canadian citizen or permanent resi- dent, or a group of canadian citizens or permanent resi- dents, a corporation incorporated under a law of canada or of a province or an unincorporated organization or associ- ation under federal or provincial law—or any combination of them—may sponsor a foreign national, subject to the regulations.” the regulations set out, inter alia, the eligibil- ity criteria for sponsors (reg. ) and sponsored refugees (reg. ). ratification status of the convention relating to the status of refugees, – . it also joined the additional protocol on september : unhcr, “states parties to the conven- tion,” . this consisted initially of two informal programs. through the first, the unhcr’s ten or more program, countries would commit to resettling ten or more refugees and their families annually: government of the united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, unhcr resettle- ment handbook, country chapter—uk,” september , https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/ f a ac .pdf; nadine el- enany and jeremy bernhaut, know reset: building knowl- edge for a concerted and sustainable approach to refugee resettlement in the eu and its member states—country profile—united kingdom (san domenico di fiesole, italy: european university institute, robert schuman centre for advance studies, ), http://www.know-reset.eu/ files/texts/ _ _knowresetcountryprofi- leunitedkingdom.pdf. the second, the mandate resettle- ment scheme (mrs), was established in and applies to mandate refugees, defined as “persons who are recognized as refugees by unhcr acting under the authority of its statute and relevant un general assembly resolution.” see canadian association for refugees and forced migration studies, “mandate refugees,” http://rfmsot.apps .yorku .ca/glossary-of-terms/mandate-refugees/. the mrs enables the resettlement of mandate refugees with a close family member living in the united kingdom: government of the united kingdom, unhcr resettlement handbook, . fur- ther details for processing mrs cases are provided in the asylum policy instructions for the program, although they volume refuge number remain very broad: katia bianchini, “the mandate refu- gee program: a critical discussion,” international journal of refugee law , no. (june ): ; uk border agency, “mandate refugees,” june , https://assets.publish- ing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_data/file/ /manadaterefugees.pdf. note: the uk border agency guidance cited above replaces a pre- vious asylum instruction on mandate refugees (described in bianchini), which has been withdrawn for review. the current instruction points to the unhcr resettlement handbook for further information about the gpp and mrs schemes. this included , ugandan asians ( – ); , indochinese ( – ); , bosnians (early s); , kosovars ( ): refugee council, “resettling to the uk: the gateway protection programme” (october ), accessed january , https://www.refugeecouncil.org .uk/latest/projects/gateway-protection-programme/. immigration act, , (uk), c . the act provides for two forms of leave: limited and indefi- nite: immigration act, , s ( ). the united kingdom makes it an offence to enter the coun- try without such leave: immigration act, , s ; immigra- tion rules, rule , https://www.gov.uk/guidance/immigra- tion-rules/immigration-rules-introduction#intro ; library of congress, “refugee law and policy: united kingdom,” http://www.loc.gov/law/help/refugee-law/unitedkingdom .php#_ftn . resettlement inter-agency partnership, “understand- ing resettlement to the uk: a guide to the gateway protection programme” (refugee council, june ), https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www .refugeecouncil.org.uk/resources/refugee% council/ downloads/howwehelp/understandinggppjune .pdf. established in , the gpp constitutes the united kingdom’s formal resettlement program, offering “a legal route for up to refugees to settle in the uk each year.” through the gpp, the united kingdom relies on unhcr to refer eligible refugees based on criteria set by the uk gov- ernment through its asylum policy instructions on the gpp. refugees resettled through the gpp receive indefinite leave to remain in the country. the gpp is overseen by a resettlement operations team within the uk home office: uk visas and immigration, “guidance: gateway protection programme,” https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/gateway- protection-programme-information-for-organisations/ gateway-protection-programme. see also el-enany and bernhaut, country profile: united kingdom; bianchini, “mandate refugee program,” . nationality, immigration and asylum act , (uk), c . nationality, immigration and asylum act , (uk), c , s ( )(c). nationality, immigration and asylum act , (uk), c , s ( )(e). nationality, immigration and asylum act , (uk), c , s ( ). uk home office, “resettlement: policy statement,” , https://assets.publishing.ser vice.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/ / resettlement_policy_document_.pdf. uk home office, “oral statement by the home secretary on syrian refugees delivered on january ,” january , https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/ oral-statement-by-the-home-secretary-on-syrian-refugees. uk home office, “syrian vulnerable persons resettlement scheme (vprs): guidance for local authorities and part- ners,” july , https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/ / _syrian_resettlement_updated_fact_ sheet_final.pdf, ; bbc news, “uk to accept , refu- gees from syria by ,” september , https://www .bbc.com/news/uk- . bbc news, “uk to accept , refugees.” terry mcguinness, “the uk response to the syrian refu- gee crisis,” house of commons library briefing paper number , june , ; carrie hough, “the uk government approach to syrian-conflict refugee reset- tlement,” , https://www.uts.edu.au/sites/default/files/arti- cle/downloads/carrie% hough.united% kingdom. the% uk% government% approach% to% syr- ian-conflict% refugee% resettlement.docx; uk home office, “integration of beneficiaries of international/ humanitarian protection into the labour market: poli- cies and good practices,” may , https://ec.europa .eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/ networks/european_migration_network/reports/docs/ e m n - s tu d i e s / e m n - s tu d i e s - a _ u k _ i nt e g r at i on _ of _ beneficiaries_of_international_protection.pdf, . hough, “uk government approach,” ; unhcr, “towards integration: the syrian vulnerable persons resettlement scheme in the united kingdom,” , https://reliefweb.int/ sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/ a .pdf. uk home office, “vprs guidance for local authorities,” . initially, refugees resettled through the vprs were granted five-year humanitarian protection status. on march , home secretary amber rudd announced that new vprs arrivals would receive refugee status, noting that humanitarian protection “does not carry the same entitle- ments as refugee status, in particular, access to particular benefits, swifter access to student support for higher edu- cation and the same travel documents as those granted ref- ugee status.” vprs refugees who arrived before july under humanitarian protection have the opportunity to request a change of status to refugee status: written state- ment by amber rudd (secretary of state for the home department), “syrian vulnerable persons resettlement scheme and vulnerable children’s resettlement scheme: arrangements,” march , https://www.parliament.uk/ volume refuge number written-questions-answers-statements/written-statement/ commons/ - - /hcws . see also “request to change humanitarian protection status to refugee status” form, july , last modified august , https:// www.gov.uk/government/publications/request-to-change- humanitarian-protection-status-to-refugee-status. uk home office, “community sponsorship: guidance for prospective sponsors,” last modified december , , https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/ / community_sponsorship_guidance_for_prospective_ sponsors_july_ .pdf. unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” uk data, https://rsq .unhcr.org/en/#ml . “speech by theresa may to conservative conference,” october , electronic immigration network, http://www .ein.org.uk/news/home-secretary-use-conservative-party- conference-speech-warn-uk-needs-have-immigration- limit. , c , schedule , s. ( )(d). the equality (community sponsorship) arrangement authorized an exception to the application of the equality act by allowing the uk com- munity sponsorship scheme to discriminate by limiting its application to syrian nationals, arriving to the united kingdom through the vprs, only, “equality (community sponsorship) arrangement ,” july , http://data .parliament.uk/depositedpapers/files/dep - / equality__community_sponsorship__arrangement _ _-_dated_ . . .pdf. see resources at the following uk home office webpages: uk home office, “apply for full community sponsor- ship,” last modified december , https://www.gov. uk/government/publications/apply-for-full-community- sponsorship; and uk home office, “community spon- sorship: how you can make it happen,” last modified april , https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ community-sponsorship-how-you-can-make-it-happen. government of the united kingdom, unhcr resettlement handbook uk, . uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . uk sponsors are required to provide initial reception sup- port and settlement support for the first year, as well as to have secured housing for two years. see resettlement plan template, ministry of housing, communities & local government, department for international develop- ment and home office, “apply for community sponsor- ship,” last modified december , https://www.gov.uk/ government/publications/apply-for-full-community- sponsorship; uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . resettlement responsibilities include initial reception support and settlement support for the first year, and hous- ing support for two years. the agreement includes requirements for safeguarding sen- sitive data and legally commits sponsors to fulfilling their responsibilities toward the sponsored refugees, as outlined in their settlement plan, which is attached as an annex to the agreement: uk home office, “sample agreement relating to the provision of full community sponsor- ship,” december , https://assets.publishing.service. gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ data/file/ / - - _sample_full_community_ sponsorship_agreement_for_govuk.pdf. uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . once a family is proposed, both the sponsors and the local authority must confirm the match within five days. uk home office, “community sponsorship,” . uk visas and immigration and the right honourable caroline nokes mp, “home office awards £ million to help communities support refugees” news story, june , https://www.gov.uk/government/news/home-office- awards- -million-to-help-communities-support-refugees. within a year of its new community sponsorship scheme, the united kingdom granted funding to reset, an umbrella organization mandated to help sponsors prepare to wel- come refugees into their communities: see reset’s website: https://www.resetuk.org/. by contrast, the development of training for sponsors in canada came two decades into its model through the refugee sponsorship training pro- gram (rstp), and national-level coordination of sponsor- ship agreement holders through the sah association. the rstp provides optional training and support to sponsors of all types across canada. the sah association represents the interests of sahs across canada, liaising with the gov- ernment of canada through an elected council funded by the government: see rstp website: http://www.rstp.ca/. see also website of the canadian sah association: http://www. sahassociation.com/. in the emergence of several dedicated full-time positions in the uk home office and multiple new ngos dedicated to growing and supporting the sponsorship scheme. see, e.g. sponsor refugees, http://www.sponsorrefugees.org/. including europeans escaping political oppression in the nineteenth century, chileans fleeing military dictatorship the s and s, indochinese refugees in the late s and s, and bosnian refugees in the s: marie-char- lotte de lapaillone, for the united nations association of new zealand, “new zealand’s approach to refugees: legal obligations and current practices,” policy paper (octo- ber ), – , http://nzcgs.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/ / / -unanz-policy-paper- - -refugees.pdf. see also j. marlowe and s. elliott, “global trends and ref- ugee settlement in new zealand,” kōtuitui: new zealand journal of social sciences online , no. ( ): , https:// doi.org/ . / x. . . marlowe and elliott, “global trends,” . until recently, the rate of resettlement has been per year. ministry volume refuge number of business, innovation & employment, “briefing for the incoming minister of immigration,” october , , https://www.beehive.govt.nz/sites/default/files/ - / immigration.pdf. see also immigration new zealand, “operational manual,” last modified december , f . (b), https://www.immigration.govt.nz/opsmanual/ # .htm. mike mika, “immigration act: key changes,” south- land times, november , http://www.stuff.co.nz/ southland-times/columns/ /immigration-act-key -changes. the immigration act already contained extensive provisions around refugee protection: see immi- gration act, , no , as repealed by no , s . immigration act, , no , s (a). nz immigration act, s (b). nz immigration act, ss ( ), ( )(b). nz immigration act, s ( )(a). ministry of business, innovation & employment, “briefing for the incoming minister,” . unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” nz data, https://rsq .unhcr.org/en/#do b. ministry of business, innovation & employment, “briefing for the incoming minister,” . cabinet office, “cabinet economic growth and infra- structure committee, minute of decision: community organisation refugee sponsorship category,” https://web .archive.org/web/ /http://www.mbie.govt .nz/info-ser vices/immigration/oia-responses/folder- community-organisation-refugee-sponsorship-category/ cabinet-egi-minute-community-organisation-refugee- sponsorship-category.pdf [nz cabinet minute of deci- sion]. the decision was heavily informed by a detailed background paper: cabinet economic growth and infra- structure committee, “community organisation refugee sponsorship category,” ( ) para , https://www.mbie .govt.nz/assets/a c f /cabinet-paper-community- organisation-refugee-sponsorship-category.pdf [nz cabinet paper ]. nz cabinet paper , at , para . jacinda ardern and iain lees-galloway, “refugee quota increases to , in ,” september , https://w w w.b eehive.govt.nz/releas e/refugee-quota- increases- - . which, in turn, reflects the adoption of recommendations set out in the detailed background paper, referenced in nz cabinet paper . nz cabinet minute of decision, . – . . nz cabinet minute of decision, . – . . the nz cabinet minute of decision also delineates the responsibilities of the new zealand government, which include: providing sponsored refugees with access to public welfare services, housing support, education, and health services, as well as assessing the selection and screening of sponsored refugees and their initial reception at the mangere refugee resettle- ment centre. nz cabinet minute of decision, – . nz cabinet minute of decision, . and . . see a list of regulations on the website of immigra- tion new zealand, ministry of business innova- tion & employment, “immigration law,” , https:// www.immigration.govt.nz/about-us/policy-and-law/ legal-framework-for-immigration. immigration new zealand, “operational manual,” f . . ministry of business, innovation & employment, “briefing to the incoming minister,” . nz cabinet minute of decision, . . the mangere refugee resettlement centre is a nationally run welcoming facility where newcomers receive orientation supports to prepare them for settlement in communities across the country. via instructions introduced through amendment circular - : ministry of business, innovation & employment, immigration new zealand instructions: amendment circu- lar no. / , december , https://www.immigra- tion.govt.nz/documents/amendment-circulars/amend- ment-circular- - .pdf. eligible refugees interested in the community sponsorship program may submit an expression of interest in the pro- gram to an immigration officer or be invited to submit such an expression of interest by an immigration officer. expres- sions of interest will be entered into a pool and remain valid for six months. refugees may submit an application for community sponsorship only if invited to do so. once an application is submitted, new zealand immigration will grant a permanent resident visa if there is a sponsorship group for that refugee and the principal applicant meets requirements outlined in the cabinet decision: immigra- tion new zealand, “operational manual,” f . . ; . . ; . . . new zealand ministry of business, innovation & employ- ment, “request for applications (rfa) for the pilot of the community organisation refugee sponsorship category,” october , https://web.archive.org/web/ / http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-ser vices/immigration/ community-organisation-refugee-sponsorship-category/ cors-request-for-application.pdf. new zealand ministry of business, innovation & employ- ment, “deed of agreement for services: pilot of the com- munity organisation refugee sponsorship category,” accessed october , https://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/ immigration/community-organisation-refugee-sponsor- ship-category/cors-deed-of-agreement-for-services.pdf. new zealand ministry of business, innovation & employ- ment, “request for applications (rfa),” - , . respon- sibilities include providing domestic travel from the mangere refugee resettlement centre to the settlement location in the community; the arrangement of housing, volume refuge number furniture, and furnishings; providing community orienta- tion and settlement assistance by connecting refugees to services in their new community; and providing support in employment search. new zealand ministry of business, innovation & employment, “deed of agreement,” annex of appendix a. new zealand ministry of business, innovation & employ- ment, “deed of agreement, . – . . new zealand government, “community organisations chosen to sponsor refugees in nz,” press release, com- munity scoop, january , http://community.scoop. co.nz/ / /community-organisations-chosen-to- sponsor-refugees-in-nz/. “first refugees arrive under new community sponsor- ship category,” newshub, july , https://www.newshub .co.nz/home/new-zealand/ / /first-refugees-arrive- under-new-community-sponsorship-category.html. core community partnership, “proposal to confirm com- munity sponsorship as a permanent pathway for reset- tlement,” november , https://www.swbc.org.nz/ wp-content/uploads/ / / -community-spon- sorship-proposal.pdf; amnesty international, community sponsorship of refugees: new zealand’s pilot programme and its potential, , https://static .squarespace.com/ static/ adea a c c aed f /t/ bf a f cd/ /ai_shadow_report_final_final_ web_spreads-ilovepdf-compressed.pdf. meg de ronde, “the community have proved they can change refugees’ lives. let’s not quit now,” spinoff, november , https://thespinoff.co.nz/ society/ - - /the-community-have-proved-they- can-change-refugees-lives-lets-not-quit-now/. see also amnesty international new zealand, “i welcome pledge,” https://www.iwelcome.org.nz/report. collette devlin, “govt urged to make refugee ‘commu- nity sponsorship’ pilot programme permanent,” stuff, november , https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/ /govt-urged-to-make-refugee-community- sponsorship-pilot-programme-permanent. unhcr, “states parties to the convention.” argentina also ratified the additional protocol on december . maria-julia contardi and nazli zaki, “through thick and thin: the evolution of unhcr’s work in argentina,” unhcr, april , http://www.unhcr.org/afr/news/ latest/ / / ed /thick-thin-evolution-unhcrs- work-argentina.html. refugees from countries like demo- cratic republic of the congo, pakistan, sierra leone, libe- ria, iraq, guinea, ghana, nigeria, armenia, and chechnya would seek asylum in argentina. see generally, dirección nacional de población, refugiados del sudeste asiático en la argentina, november , http:// www.mininterior.gov.ar/poblacion/pdf/documento . argentina created its solidarity resettlement program by signing a memorandum of understanding with the unhcr to implement its commitments to responsibility-sharing outlined in the mexico declaration and plan of action to strengthen the international protection of refugees in latin america, november , http://www.refworld .org/docid/ bf .html. the plan of action encouraged latin american states to introduce legislation relating to refugees and human rights and to “redouble their efforts to provide protection, assistance and find adequate solutions for refugees in the region” (preamble). the mexico declara- tion was adopted on the twentieth anniversary of the adop- tion of the cartagena declaration and was seen by signa- tory states as a means to demonstrate their commitment to the principles of refugee protection established in the latter. see hiram ruiz, “evaluation of resettlement programmes in argentina, brazil, chile, paraguay, and uruguay,” unhcr, december , http://www.unhcr.org/ c .pdf. see also paulo cavaleri, “argentina: resettling refugees within the context of an open migration policy,” forced migra- tion review ( ): , https://www.fmreview.org/sites/ fmr/files/fmrdownloads/en/young-and-out-of-place/ cavaleri.pdf. argentina’s general law of recognition and protection of refugees, law no. . ( november ) strengthened the legal infrastructure underpinning the solidarity resettlement program and argentina’s domestic refugee program by creating the national refugee com- mittee (conare) and “fully regulat[ing] the process for determining refugee status and the rights and guarantees of asylum and refugee applicants.” in relation to the solidarity resettlement program, conare was charged with liaising with the unhcr and its consulates abroad to identify eli- gible candidates for resettlement and coordinate the issu- ance of visas and travel documents in accordance with an annual work plan. see unhcr, unhcr resettlement hand- book: argentina country chapter (last modified june ), https://www.unhcr.org/ b bc a .pdf#zoom= . this program remained operational until . see s. michelle alfaro and martin lettieri, “in search of sustain- able refugee resettlement solutions for latin america,” revista jurídica de buenos aires , no. ( ): . see also ruiz, “evaluation of resettlement programs,” , . the solidarity resettlement program was unsustainable because it relied on international funds and insufficient domestic ownership over the programs. according to alfaro and lettieri, “in search of resettlement solutions for latin america,” , “without the continued financing of the international community and with the region slid- ing into an economic downturn, argentina was unlikely to prioritize the needed funding from its budget to support a resettlement program.” law , ( january ), arts , . argentina has also legislated refugee protection through its general law of recognition and protection of refugees. the general law of recognition and protection of refu- gees, art , incorporated the extended definition of refu- gee established in the third conclusion of the carta- gena declaration on refugees, which includes individuals volume refuge number forced to flee their homes in response to general violence, foreign aggression, internal conflict, widespread human rights violations, and other circumstances that gravely dis- turb public order: cartagena declaration on refugees in central america, mexico and panama, november , http://www.refworld.org/docid/ ae b ec.html; cavaleri, “argentina: resettling refugees.” argentina’s migration law, arts (m), . article (k) provides that recognized refugees and asylum seekers will be granted two-year renewable residence permits. while individuals resettled to argentina for humanitarian rea- sons by virtue of article (m) are not formally recognized as refugees under the refugee convention definition, they may petition argentina for convention refugee protection once they have arrived on its territory. argentina national directorate of migration, “special humanitarian visa program: integration,” july , https://www.argentina.gob.ar/programa-siria/acerca-del- programa. the presidential decrees were issued under the president’s constitutional authority to create “instructions and rules necessary for the enforcement of the laws of the nation, without altering their spirit with regulatory exceptions.” constitution of the argentine nation, , s. ( ), http:// www.biblioteca.jus.gov.ar/argentina-constitution.pdf. argentina: decreto / —reglamentación de la ley de migraciones no. . y sus modificatorias ( may ), https://www.refworld.org/docid/ be de .html [decree / ]. in argentina, decrees are orders prescribed by members of the executive and ministers. see ministerio de coordinación de gabinete, seguridad y trabajo, decreto no. / : reglamento para la elaboración de proyectos de leyes, decretos, resoluciones y disposiciones: decreto no. ( june ), http://capacitacion.hcdn.gob.ar/wp-content/ uploads/ / /dec.-n%c %ba- - -regl-elab- normas-neuquen.pdf. decree / , preamble. the decree set out the roles and responsibilities for this new agency, including its man- date to collaborate with other entities and levels of govern- ment to ensure the successful integration of newcomers: see annex i, arts , . decree / , annex i, art . gabinette nacional del programa siria, decreto no. / ( september ), http://servicios.infoleg.gob. ar/infoleginternet/anexos/ - / /norma .htm [decree / ]. the cabinet includes the chief of the cabinet of ministers and heads of the ministry of the interior, public works, and housing; ministry of foreign affairs; ministry of social development; ministry of educa- tion and sports; ministry of labour, employment and social security; ministry of health; ministry of justice and human rights; ministry of security; ministry of culture; and the federal intelligence agency: see decree / , art . decree / , preamble, art . as the program was structured at the time of writing, all refugees resettled through the syria program were resettled with the assis- tance of family or community sponsors. to facilitate its coordination function, the national cabinet was mandated to create general guidelines for the settlement and integra- tion of refugees affected by the syrian conflict. decree / , preamble, art . argentina has also pledged to grant , scholar- ships to syrian refugees on top of the , commit- ment. see oliver griffin, “argentina grants , schol- arships to syria refugees, urges others to follow,” reuters, april , https://www.reuters.com/article/ us-argentina-refugees-scholarships-iduskbn pu. provisions are decisions issued by senior administrative authorities such as undersecretaries and heads of decen- tralized administrative bodies on questions within their area of expertise. see decree no. / . see also min- isterio de coordinación de gabinete, seguridad y tra- bajo, “glosario de términos,” http://www.trabajo.gov.ar/ d o w n l o a d s / m a n u a l p r o c e d i m i e n t o s / t i t u l o - preliminar-capii.pdf. as further defined by the presidential decree. see decree / . disposición dnm / ( october ), https://www .refworld.org.es/pdfid/ a de c .pdf [provision / ], annex i, arts , (a)(i); family relationship understood in a broad sense, including relatives until the fourth degree, regardless of age. see provision / , annex i, art (a) (ii). provision / , annex i, art (a)(iii). provision / , annex i, art (a)(iii). demian bio, “macri says argentina will welcome even more syrian refugees,” bubble, september , http:// www.thebubble.com/macri-says-argentina-will-welcome- even-more-syrian-refugees/; frederick bernas, “syrian refugees reap benefits of argentina’s new visa rules” unhcr, november , http://www.unhcr.org/news/ stories/ / / a /syrian-refugees-reap-benefits- argentinas-new-visa-rules.html. ministerio del interior, obras públicas y vivienda, dis- posición dnm / ( september ), http://www. refworld.org.es/pdfid/ a de c .pdf [provision / ]. callers must be argentinian citizens or residents. in addi- tion to the letter of invitation cited above, they must also provide identification documents and a certificate proving residence from the argentinian federal policy. see provi- sion / , arts ( )(c); (a). provision / , art ( )(a); ( )(b). provision / , art ( )(b). applications submitted with guarantee letters will be treated with greater flexibility by the national directorate for migration. argentina dirección nacional de migraciones, “acerca del programa [about the program],” https://www.argentina .gob.ar/programa-siria/acerca-del-programa. if sponsor- ing directly, requesters must be enrolled in the national directorate for migration’s national registry for foreign volume refuge number applicants for organizations requesting admission of any foreigners into argentina. the registry establishes extra safeguards for the process of organizations (including, e.g., employers hiring foreign workers, or education institu- tions) to seek admission of foreigners to argentina by, inter alia, vetting their legal status and financial capacity, and imposing reporting requirements: “dirección nacional de migraciones, disposición . / : modificación de la disposición nº . / , mediante la cual se creó el registro nacional Único de requirentes de extranjeros” ( july ), http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/pdf_varios/ residencias/disposicion-dnm- - .pdf. in addition to non-government or other organizations, municipalities and provinces may also act as requestors, as demonstrated by the province of san luis: unhcr, “argentina: dos nue- vas familias llegaron a la provincia de san luis en el marco del programa siria,” july , http://www.acnur.org/ noticias/noticia/ / / b a c /argentina-dos-nuevas- familias-llegaron-a-la-provincia-de-san-luis-en-el.html. the syria program still requires, however, the specification of some link between sponsors and refugees. this link can be tangential, such as through an organization or institu- tion that matches callers and requestors to eligible refugee families in need of assistance: provision / , art ( ). specifically, the province of san luis has “requested the sup- port of the unhcr to identify and refer syrian refugees in lebanon to the humanitarian visa program.” see alfaro and lettieri, “resettlement solutions for latin america,” . provision / , art . decree / , art . the national directorate for migra- tion coordinates the activities of the working group with unhcr and the international organization for migration, which include holding regular meetings with key stake- holders at local, provincial, and national levels: argentina national directorate of migration, “special humanitar- ian visa program: integration,” july , https://www .argentina.gob.ar/programa-siria/acerca-del-programa. unhcr, “emerging resettlement countries joint support mechanism (ercm),” http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/ default/files/information% sheet% on% ercm% september% .pdf; bernas, “syrian refugees reap benefits.” this support is also authorized by art (c) of pro- vision / . the ercm provides financial support and technical assistance to emerging resettlement countries like argentina to achieve three main objectives: ( ) providing a mechanism for governments, private sponsors and donors to harness their expertise and contribute both financially and technically to supporting refugee resettlement and the world in a strategic and coordinated manner; ( ) assisting new and emerging resettlement countries in assessing the sustainability of their resettlement programme, helping to identify vulnerable areas in need of support and pro- viding, accordingly, targeted financial and/or technical assistance; ( ) channelling and supporting the sharing of technical expertise and good practices among resettlement countries, international organizations, international ngos and governmental and non-governmental actors in new and emerging resettlement countries. delegation of the european union to argentina, “la unión europea apoya a la argentina en su política de recep- ción e integración de refugiados,” press release, june , https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/argentina/ / node/ _es. unhcr, “argentina: dos nuevas familias llegaron a la provin- cia de san luis en el marco del programa siria,” july , http://www.acnur.org/noticias/noticia/ / / b a c / argentina-dos-nuevas-familias-llegaron-a-la-provincia- de-san-luis-en-el.html. argentina ministerio de relaciones exteriores y culto, “joint press release: meeting between foreign minister faurie and the united nations high commissioner for refugees (unhcr)” ( october ), http://enaun.mrecic .gov.ar/en/joint-press-release-meeting-between-foreign- minister-faurie-and-united-nations-high-commissioner. alfaro and lettieri, “resettlement solutions for latin america,” . unhcr, “states parties to the convention,” additional protocol, art ( ); joan fitzpatrick, “the international dimension of u.s. refugee law,” berkeley journal of inter- national law , no. ( ): , . refugee council usa, “history of the u.s. refugee reset- tlement program,” http://www.rcusa.org/history/. the usrap comprises the bureau of population, refugees and migration of the u.s. department of state; the u.s. cit- izenship and immigration service of the u.s. department of homeland security; the office of refugee resettlement of the u.s. department of health and human services; five international or non-governmental organizations that operate resettlement support centres around the world under the supervision and funding of the bureau of popu- lation, refugees and migration of the u.s. department of state; nine domestic nongovernmental organizations with about affiliated offices across the united states; and thousands of private citizens who volunteer their time and skills to help refugees resettle in the united states. see u.s. department of state, “refugee admissions,” https://www .state.gov/j/prm/ra/admissions/. claire felter and james mcbride, “how does the u.s. refu- gee system work?” council on foreign relations, last mod- ified october , https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/ how-does-us-refugee-system-work. felter and mcbride, “how does the u.s. refugee sys- tem work?”; jens manuel krogstad and jynnah radford, “key facts about refugees to the u.s.,” pew research center, january , http://www.pewresearch.org/ fact-tank/ / / /key-facts-about-refugees-to-the-u-s/; unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” us data, https:// rsq.unhcr.org/en/#lbz . unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” us data, https:// rsq.unhcr.org/en/#ebr . volume refuge number unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” us data, https:// rsq.unhcr.org/en/#ids . unhcr, “resettlement data finder,” us - data, https://rsq.unhcr.org/en/#jj r. u.s. citizenship and immigration services, “immigra- tion and nationality act,” https://www.uscis.gov/laws/ immigration-and-nationality-act. immigration and nationality act, (us), usc , s (a) ( ) [ina]. the provision further enables the president to permit the resettlement of certain refugees in specific emergencies in addition to the annual quotas ( (b)). the ina incorporates the refugee act of , which for the first time incorporated the convention definition of refu- gee into u.s. law: refugee council usa, “history of the u.s. refugee resettlement program,” http://www.rcusa.org/ history/. u.s. department of state, “u.s. refugee admission pro- gram,” https://www.state.gov/j/prm/ra/admissions/index. htm. potential cases are referred to one of nine resettle- ment support centres around the world operated by inter- national and non-governmental organizations and funded and managed by the u.s. department of state’s bureau of population, refugees and migration. refugees are inter- viewed and vetted by the u.s. department of homeland security and undergo a health screening before being approved for travel to the united states. ina, s. (a)( ); unhcr resettlement handbook, “coun- try chapter: usa,” (july ), accessed january , , http://www.unhcr.org/ c e a .html. ina, s . the ina further mandates the orr to ensure suf- ficient funding for employment training and placement, language training, and cash assistance to resettled refugees: ina, s ( )(a). it also provides that employable refugees should be placed in jobs as soon as possible after arrival in the united states, that available social services should be focused on employment acquisition, language training, and case management, and that “local voluntary agency activities should be conducted in close cooperation and advance con- sultation with state and local governments”: ina, s ( )(b). ina, s. ( )(c). ina, s. ( )(a)(ii). u.s. department of state, “refugee admissions,” https:// www.state.gov/j/prm/ra/admissions/; refugee process- ing centre, “r&p agency contacts,” http://www.wrapsnet .org/rp-agency-contacts/. the current nine resettlement agencies are church world services, ethiopian commu- nity development council, episcopal migration minis- tries, hebrew immigrant aid society, international rescue committee, lutheran immigration and refugee service, u.s. committee for refugees and immigrants, united states conference of catholic bishops/migration and ref- ugee services, and world relief. see also refugee council usa, “history of the u.s. refugee resettlement program,” http://www.rcusa.org/history/. the duration of this responsibility was a minimum of thirty days and up to ninety days after the refugees’ arrival. unhcr resettlement handbook usa, . unhcr resettlement handbook usa, . a map of reception and placement program affiliate sites in can be viewed on the website of cultural orientation resource exchange: “who we serve,” https:// coresourceexchange.org/who-we-serve/. some examples include refugeeone, “co-sponsorship pack- age,” http://www.refugeeone.org/uploads/ / / / / / co_sponsor_packet.pdf; canopy northwest arkansas, co- sponsorship handbook: , https://static .squarespace .com/static/ eaaa d b ed d fde/t/ f cd bff c d f / /co-sponsorship+handbook .pdf; minnesota council of churches refugee services, “co- sponsorship,” http://www.mnchurches.org/refugeeservices/ get-involved/church-and-group-opportunities/co-spon- sorship; hias chicago, “congregational co-sponsorship program,” http://static . .sqspcdn.com/static/f/ / / /hias+chicago+co-sponsorship +program_info+packet.pdf ?token=us% byk wlguom mb lp tkxclrgq% d. the closest the us government has come to a formal pro- gram was a announcement indicating interest in a pro- gram: “top state department officials voiced their support for private sector programs that can enhance resettlement capacity in the country. it was announced that the state department was working in conjunction with refugee council usa—the umbrella organization that represents the nine charities that resettle refugees across the country— in crafting details for a private refugee sponsorship pilot program [that was] to launch in .” however, the new administration elected in november did not continue this work: matthew la corte, “let the u.s. resettle refu- gees privately,” refugees deeply, november , https:// www.newsdeeply.com/refugees/community/ / / / let-the-u-s-resettle-refugees-privately. episcopal migration ministries and church world service. see integrated refugee & immigrant services, commu- nity co-sponsorship program: manual for refugee resettle- ment—august , – , http://www.irisct.org/wp-content/ uploads/ / /co-sponsorship-manual.august. .pdf. integrated refugee & immigrant services, “getting started: co-sponsorship,” september , http://www.irisct.org/ getting-started/. integrated refugee & immigrant services, community co- sponsorship program, . integration refugee & immigrant services, “getting started: co-sponsorship,” september , http://www. irisct.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /sept. .getting .started.pdf. integrated refugee & immigrant services, community co- sponsorship program, , . volume refuge number integrated refugee & immigrant services, “history,” http:// www.irisct.org/history/. integrated refugee & immigrant services, community co- sponsorship program manual—october edition, , http:// www.irisct.org/wp-content/uploads/cs-portal/forms/ r e s o u r c e % d o c s / p r e - a r r i va l / c o m m % c o - sponsorship% october% % master% copy .pdf. the united kingdom would be free to change its policy and apply its community sponsorship program to other reset- tlement programs like the gpp. jennifer bond is an associate professor at the university of ottawa, the founder and managing director of the univer- sity of ottawa refugee hub, and chair of the global refugee sponsorship initiative. she can be contacted at jennifer.bond@ uottawa.ca.  ania kwadrans is a human rights lawyer and senior legal and policy advisor at the refugee hub. she can be contacted at ania.kwadrans@refugeehub.ca. s fransen dissertation final mennonite identity and literate practices in high school students: a social practice multiple case study a dissertation submitted to the temple university graduate board in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy in education by sharon l. fransen may examining committee members: michael w. smith, advisory chair, department of teaching and learning wanda brooks, department of teaching and learning james p. byrnes, department of psychological studies in education mary juzwik, external member, michigan state university ii © copyright by name all rights reserved iii abstract this multiple case study describes the relationships between literate practices of five self-identified mennonite youth and their faith identities. it also examines other salient identity enactments for each participant and the relationships among salient identities. specifically, this research addresses the question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? participants were in th grade at a mennonite high school. theoretically based on the social practice theory of identity, data sources included field notes from nine weeks of observations in english and bible classes, interviews with each participant and the english and bible teachers, written documents from both classes, and two verbal protocols for each participant with self-selected texts, one of which was faith-related. multiple analytics were used to analyze the various data sources. findings suggest that the relationship between faith identity performances and literate practices plays out in different ways for different youth based, in part, on the salience of the faith identity. keywords: identity, literate practices, mennonite iv to my dad, whose strong mennonite faith first grounded mine, and who dreamed of this day before i did. and to my mom, who has shared books with me since the beginning, and believed in me every step of the way. v acknowledgments while it is, by now, cliché to use the phrase, “it takes a village…,” it is also true that many people have had an important role in helping me and my work get to this point. over the years, dr. michael w. smith has been a significant mentor, encouraging me and believing in me when i didn’t believe in myself, while also pushing me to places of deeper understanding and better research and writing than i would have achieved on my own. from the beginning, he acknowledged the importance of my faith identity and helped me participate in the figured world of academia and research. thank you, michael, for your trust, collaboration, time, wisdom, and guidance. i want to also thank my other committee members for their contributions to this work. dr. james byrnes added a thoughtful outside eye to the world of literacy research and asked pertinent questions that resulted in clarity to the final product. dr. wanda brooks taught the second course i took at temple and modeled critical reading and warm student-teacher relationships. she has served on my committee with the same dual focus. dr. mary juzwik encouraged me from afar with her own religious literacy research interests, affirming for me that faith-literacy research has a place in the literature. thank you, all. i want to also acknowledge dr. avi kaplan and dr. erin horvat, who were instrumental in their confidence in my scholarship over the years, and who helped me grow in my understanding of identity and qualitative research respectively. i could list many friends who offered encouragement through this journey, but nancy henry, jody hyatt, conrad swartzentruber, polly ann brown, and eric bishop vi have known the road themselves and, therefore, have given an additional level of understanding and support. thank you for not making this journey quite so lonely. i will never know how many hours my sister, suzanne marie hitt, spent proofreading my sections and offering editing advice, not to mention the phone calls for moral support. you’ve always been in my corner. thank you. i am deeply grateful for the freedom i received from my family to pursue this research. jeff, you allowed me all the time i needed, accepted my distractions and emotions with grace, and have patiently reassured me all along the way. thank you. hannah and kate, thanks for taking care of yourselves, for pitching in, for missing me, and for believing in me. i promise to start cooking again soon. i love you both. vii table of contents abstract ...................................................................................................................... iii	 acknowledgments ................................................................................................ v	 list of tables ......................................................................................................... xiv	 chapter – intellectual history ............................................................... 	 identity – the beginning .................................................................................................. 	 three waves of identity conceptions in literacy research ........................................ 	 five conceptions of identity in identity-literacy research ......................................... 	 the social practice theory of identity ........................................................................... 	 figured worlds ............................................................................................................. 	 positionality .................................................................................................................. 	 space of authoring ....................................................................................................... 	 making worlds ............................................................................................................. 	 the social practice theory of identity in education .................................................. 	 mennonite faith and literate practices through this lens ..................................... 	 identity-literacy research matters .............................................................................. 	 reading comprehension and identity .......................................................................... 	 the impacts of identity on reading .............................................................................. 	 the impacts of reading on identities ........................................................................... 	 writing and identity ....................................................................................................... 	 the impacts of identities on writing ............................................................................ 	 the impacts of writing on identities ............................................................................ 	 identity and religion ...................................................................................................... 	 qualitative research and the research question ........................................................ 	 chapter – reviewing and entering the conversation ............. 	 introduction ..................................................................................................................... 	 identity in education ...................................................................................................... 	 multiple identities ......................................................................................................... 	 separate. .................................................................................................................... 	 hierarchic .................................................................................................................. 	 hybrid ....................................................................................................................... 	 identity in literacy research ........................................................................................ 	 viii positioning and artifacts ............................................................................................... 	 figured worlds ............................................................................................................. 	 narrative ....................................................................................................................... 	 identity-as-mind .......................................................................................................... 	 identity in writing .......................................................................................................... 	 voluntary writing ......................................................................................................... 	 academic writing ......................................................................................................... 	 identity in reading ......................................................................................................... 	 voluntary reading ........................................................................................................ 	 multiple identities ..................................................................................................... 	 space for authoring ................................................................................................... 	 identity as pleasure ................................................................................................... 	 in-school reading ........................................................................................................ 	 multicultural literature .............................................................................................. 	 queer-inclusive literature .......................................................................................... 	 identity, literacy, and faith .......................................................................................... 	 muslim faith ................................................................................................................. 	 catholic faith ................................................................................................................ 	 baptist faith .................................................................................................................. 	 writing about faith ...................................................................................................... 	 religious literacies ......................................................................................................... 	 biblicism ....................................................................................................................... 	 religious literacies in the public classroom ............................................................... 	 the bible as context-specific ...................................................................................... 	 literacies studies in faith-based educational context .............................................. 	 mennonite educational research .................................................................................. 	 sociopolitical views ..................................................................................................... 	 self-concept .................................................................................................................. 	 literacy learning .......................................................................................................... 	 worldview ..................................................................................................................... 	 critique ............................................................................................................................ 	 chapter – methodology ............................................................................... 	 overview .......................................................................................................................... 	 study participants ........................................................................................................... 	 mennonites .................................................................................................................... 	 adolescents ................................................................................................................... 	 identifying participants ................................................................................................. 	 ix context of investigation ................................................................................................. 	 data collection ................................................................................................................ 	 interviews ...................................................................................................................... 	 observation ................................................................................................................... 	 written documents ....................................................................................................... 	 verbal protocol ............................................................................................................. 	 other sources ................................................................................................................ 	 data analysis ................................................................................................................... 	 interviews ...................................................................................................................... 	 observations ................................................................................................................. 	 written artifacts analysis ............................................................................................ 	 bible class artifacts. .................................................................................................. 	 english class artifacts ................................................................................................ 	 verbal protocol ............................................................................................................. 	 rigor ................................................................................................................................. 	 researcher’s role ........................................................................................................... 	 chapter – results and discussion ........................................................... 	 bible class figured world ............................................................................................. 	 the classroom .............................................................................................................. 	 actors ............................................................................................................................ 	 students. .................................................................................................................... 	 teacher. ................................................................................................................... 	 guest speaker. ......................................................................................................... 	 significant acts ........................................................................................................... 	 transferring knowledge .......................................................................................... 	 constructing knowledge ......................................................................................... 	 making connections ................................................................................................ 	 asking questions ..................................................................................................... 	 artifacts ....................................................................................................................... 	 specific language .................................................................................................... 	 films and texts ........................................................................................................ 	 valued outcomes ........................................................................................................ 	 meeting the requirements ....................................................................................... 	 ownership ............................................................................................................... 	 practice .................................................................................................................... 	 reading - bible class figured world intersection ..................................................... 	 positionality, space of authoring, and making worlds ............................................. 	 positionality. ........................................................................................................... 	 students ............................................................................................................... 	 mr. bennett. ........................................................................................................ 	 x researcher. .......................................................................................................... 	 space for authoring ................................................................................................. 	 making worlds ........................................................................................................ 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 english class figured world ....................................................................................... 	 the classroom ............................................................................................................ 	 actors .......................................................................................................................... 	 students. .................................................................................................................. 	 teacher. ................................................................................................................... 	 significant acts ........................................................................................................... 	 transfer of knowledge ............................................................................................ 	 attending to meaning .............................................................................................. 	 artifacts ....................................................................................................................... 	 specific language .................................................................................................... 	 written words .......................................................................................................... 	 valued outcomes ........................................................................................................ 	 mastery ................................................................................................................... 	 application .............................................................................................................. 	 faith-english class figured world intersection ......................................................... 	 positionality, space of authoring, and making worlds ............................................. 	 positionality. ........................................................................................................... 	 students. .............................................................................................................. 	 mrs. cooper ........................................................................................................ 	 researcher. .......................................................................................................... 	 space for authoring ................................................................................................. 	 making worlds ........................................................................................................ 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 case studies ................................................................................................................... 	 paige ............................................................................................................................... 	 other identities ............................................................................................................ 	 conscientious student ............................................................................................. 	 curious learner ........................................................................................................ 	 devoted runner ........................................................................................................ 	 faith identity ............................................................................................................... 	 reader identity and elective literate practices .......................................................... 	 identities in bible class .............................................................................................. 	 identities in english class ........................................................................................... 	 literate practices ......................................................................................................... 	 bible class writings. ................................................................................................ 	 english class writings ............................................................................................. 	 verbal protocols ...................................................................................................... 	 xi cassie .............................................................................................................................. 	 other identities ............................................................................................................ 	 good student. .......................................................................................................... 	 dedicated bowler .................................................................................................... 	 involved family member. ........................................................................................ 	 faith identity ............................................................................................................... 	 reader identity and elective literate practices .......................................................... 	 mennonite-christian-reader identity ......................................................................... 	 identities in bible class .............................................................................................. 	 identities in english class ........................................................................................... 	 literate practices ......................................................................................................... 	 bible class writings. ................................................................................................ 	 english class writings. ............................................................................................ 	 verbal protocols. ..................................................................................................... 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 jessica ............................................................................................................................. 	 other identities ............................................................................................................ 	 loving family member ........................................................................................... 	 conscientious student identity ................................................................................ 	 involved community member ................................................................................. 	 faith identity ............................................................................................................... 	 reader identity and elective literate practices .......................................................... 	 identities in bible class .............................................................................................. 	 identities in english class ........................................................................................... 	 literate practices ......................................................................................................... 	 bible class writings ................................................................................................. 	 english class writings. ............................................................................................ 	 verbal protocols ...................................................................................................... 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 shannon ......................................................................................................................... 	 other identities ............................................................................................................ 	 passionate christian soccer player .......................................................................... 	 engaged family member ......................................................................................... 	 good student identity .............................................................................................. 	 faith identity ............................................................................................................... 	 reader identity and elective literate practices .......................................................... 	 identities in bible class .............................................................................................. 	 identities in english class ........................................................................................... 	 literate practices ......................................................................................................... 	 bible class writings ................................................................................................. 	 english class writings ............................................................................................. 	 verbal protocols ...................................................................................................... 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 xii jacob .............................................................................................................................. 	 other identities ............................................................................................................ 	 student identity. ...................................................................................................... 	 maker/builder/innovator identity. ........................................................................... 	 car-enthusiast identity. ........................................................................................... 	 technology-lover identity. ...................................................................................... 	 faith identity ............................................................................................................... 	 reader identity and elective literate practices .......................................................... 	 identities within the figured world of bible class .................................................... 	 identities within the figured world of english class ................................................. 	 literate practices ......................................................................................................... 	 bible class writings. ................................................................................................ 	 english class writings. ............................................................................................ 	 verbal protocols. ..................................................................................................... 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 cross case analysis ...................................................................................................... 	 salient identities .......................................................................................................... 	 salient identities expressed in writing ....................................................................... 	 salient identities expressed in reading ...................................................................... 	 elective reading practices. ...................................................................................... 	 texts chosen ............................................................................................................ 	 summary ..................................................................................................................... 	 chapter – implications ................................................................................ 	 implications for research ............................................................................................ 	 what worked .............................................................................................................. 	 lessons learned .......................................................................................................... 	 future possibilities ...................................................................................................... 	 implications for theory ................................................................................................ 	 identity relationships ................................................................................................. 	 complete operationalized theory .............................................................................. 	 implications for practice .............................................................................................. 	 identities ...................................................................................................................... 	 identities and literate practices .................................................................................. 	 reading. .................................................................................................................. 	 writing .................................................................................................................... 	 xiii references cited ................................................................................................ 	 appendix a: survey to determine participant pool ................... 	 appendix b: consent form for parents of students under the age of .................................................................................................................... 	 appendix c: assent form for students under the age of .. 	 appendix d: consent form for teachers ............................................ 	 appendix e: activity log ............................................................................... 	 appendix f: first student interview protocol ............................. 	 appendix g: third student interview protocol ........................... 	 appendix h: interview protocol for teachers ............................ 	 appendix i: coding scheme ........................................................................... 	 xiv list of tables table : paige's bible writings ..................................................................................... 	 table : paige's english class writings ........................................................................ 	 table : paige's verbal protocol reponses ................................................................... 	 table : cassie’s bible class writings .......................................................................... 	 table : cassie’s english class writings ...................................................................... 	 table : cassie’s verbal protocol responses ................................................................. 	 table : jessica’s bible class writings .......................................................................... 	 table : jessica’s english class writings ..................................................................... 	 table : jessica’s verbal protocol responses ............................................................... 	 table : shannon’s bible class writings .................................................................... 	 table : shannon’s english class writings ................................................................. 	 table : shannon's verbal protocol responses ........................................................... 	 table : jacob's bible class writings .......................................................................... 	 table : jacob’s english class writings ..................................................................... 	 table : jacob’s verbal protocol responses ............................................................... 	 table : cross case bible class writings ................................................................... 	 table : cross case english class writings ................................................................ 	 table : cross case verbal protocols ......................................................................... 	 chapter – intellectual history identity – the beginning when i began a high school english teaching job right out of college, in spite of receiving a good education myself, i was reading for the first time many of the books i was teaching. when students asked me, “what happens next?” in canonical classics such as to kill a mockingbird or wuthering heights, my “just wait and see” response concealed my ignorance. the students with enough enthusiasm for reading to ask such questions inspired me, but much more frequently i met the kind of resistance reeves ( ) describes in adolescents talk about reading. too many of my students weren’t interested in reading at all, or at least not in what i was assigning, and too often i saw cliff notes peaking out of book bags. clearly, others did not have the same emotional relationship with reading that i did, nor did they view themselves as part of smith’s ( ) “literacy club.” by my second year, having begun a masters of education in literacy and having read theorists such as louise rosenblatt and frank smith, i quickly realized that whether the students thought of themselves as readers and writers and whether they read something was much more important to me than what they read or whether they read a prescribed canon of classics. these were some of my earliest thoughts about students’ self-understandings and their impacts on literacy practices. jargon such as reading and writing workshop, literature circles, young adult fiction, and independent reading became terminology shared between my students and me as i implemented curricular and text-related changes in my classroom. while these modifications affected my students’ reading and writing experiences, thoughts about oneself die hard, and i still saw how students who did not view themselves as readers and writers often didn’t see themselves as learners either. these self-labels impacted their self-efficacy in school, and sometimes in life beyond school, as well as influencing how they saw themselves compared to other students. although all my students were capable of reading and writing to complete assignments, i began to understand the additional power of literacy in terms of thinking about self, others, society, and the relationships among all three. fifteen years later, i sat down to write my statement of goals as part of the application process into temple’s then-doctoral program – curriculum, instruction, and technology in education: literacy. i had been out of the education field for several years, but i remained intrigued with the notion of how students view themselves and how that impacts reading and writing experiences. for my goal statement, i wrote: a topic that interests me is how a high school student’s identity as a reader is formed and how teachers can encourage that identity formation. i taught in a suburban christian high school where % of the students are from anabaptist- mennonite homes and congregations. does that environment shape an adolescent’s self-perceptions as a reader in any ways that differ significantly from other students? if it does, then are there specific teaching strategies that might be more effective than others in shaping and encouraging identity formation in those students as readers? within this environmental context, are there differences in gender regarding reading or writing identities? at that time, my understanding of identity was simple and colloquial. identity was how one viewed oneself. it did not occur to me to consider if identity was a singular, unified concept or if people had multiple identities. i did not, in a conscious way, contemplate the relevance of context to identity performance or formation – though my questions above suggest i was aware of context to some degree – and i certainly was not cognizant of other related and contested ideas such as subjectivities or roles. mostly, it seemed to me, circumstantially, that one aspect related to the level of participation in activities (such as reading and writing in class) was how students saw themselves in relation to those activities. i still believe in the link between self-understanding and behavioral actions, though i had a lot to learn about identity and its connection to literacy practices. early in my doctoral coursework, i found two fundamental issues related to my interest: how identity is defined and why identity matters in adolescent literacy research. i learned that i was not alone in not knowing how best to define identity and also in my belief that identity mattered to literacy practices. in fact, i found that researchers and academics agreed that identity is difficult to define and has been defined differently depending on the discipline and the time in history. researcher cynthia lewis has helped orient me around a more nuanced and complicated understanding of identity as well as clarified for me how that understanding affects what is studied and what one learns about identity’s impact on literacy practices. lewis and del valle ( ), who study adolescent literacy and social identities, give an historical perspective of the relationship between identity and adolescent literary research in which they describe three waves of identity conceptions within the socio-cultural framework. from this perspective, identity is not “just an individual matter. it is social, cultural, historical, institutional, and political, and all of these conditions mean that identity has material effects related to lived realities in the form of resources, goods, and emotional well-being” (lewis & del valle, , p. ). as a result, identity in relation to literacy creates opportunities to engage in agency and power relationships. locating identity in a socio-cultural perspective, then, greatly expands its bearing on literacy and learning. to introduce the landscape, i will begin with two theoretical reviews of identity in literacy research. three waves of identity conceptions in literacy research lewis and del valle’s ( ) three categories of identity do not represent a progression in development from simple to more complex but rather waves that ebb and flow. loosely chronological, these waves are also recursive, and, to some extent, it is the “larger social and cultural spheres” that determine which constructs of identity are needed and used (p. ). the first wave, chiefly used in the s and s, examines identity through the lens of “cultural conflict,” in which literacy research studies largely defined identity as “cultural affiliation, with a somewhat stable set of characteristics” (lewis & del valle, , p. ). this movement in identity definitions attempted to put an end to thinking of different cultures as deficient and instead acknowledged the value of many cultures, a monumental and significant effort in and of itself. generally, this wave focused on the divergence between school culture and home culture regarding literacy and language use. lewis and del valle ( ) title the second wave, “identity as negotiated and performative.” this wave, from the s through the present, concentrates on the “ways in which adolescents employ particular literacy practices to resourcefully mediate their identities in social settings. these negotiated or performed identities shape and are shaped by literacy practices that serve a social function, positioning the individual in relation to peers, family, or institutional authority” (p. ). here, the emphasis is on identity representation in social settings, and, for the first time, out-of-school literacies are studied and legitimized as literacy practices (lewis & del valle, ). there is acknowledgement that students have different identities or identity representations depending on the setting and that labels like “reader” and “writer” are only meaningful when they are situated in a context. one could have a very negative self-identity and institutional label regarding in-school literacies yet be very successful in out-of-school literacies (reeves, ; mccarthey & moje, ; lewis & del valle, ). this wave accentuates the difference between out-of-school literacy practices and in-school practices and identities, highlighting the depth of expertise and investment adolescents have in their own literacy practices, regardless of their in-school literacy practices or identities. identity is viewed as both “fluid” and “reified,” as it is performed based on the task and the context (lewis & del valle, , p. ), and literacy practices help define social identity at the same time that social identity helps define which literacy practices adolescents perform. in the third wave of identity and adolescent literacy research, identity is conceptualized as “hybrid, metadiscursive, and spatial” (lewis & del valle, , p. ). beginning around the turn of the twenty-first century, this wave acknowledges digital and transnational spaces in which literacy practices include both local and global activity. here literacy research and identity formation are positioned in the postmodern world; that is, both the world and our identities in it are characterized by instability, fragmentation, risk, and uncertainty. the research shows the paradoxes such a world creates. this wave pushes at the idea of identity and literacy because now not just texts, but also identities, are hybrid. this wave also situates identity creation in a specific time (enacted) and place (in space) and examines how schools are constructed as a particular kind of space with language and artifacts, and how student identity and literacy practices fit into that space (lewis & del valle, ). around the same time lewis and del valle were reviewing and categorizing identity-literacy research from a historical perspective, moje and luke ( ) were examining the field through another lens. five conceptions of identity in identity-literacy research another literacy researcher, elizabeth moje, has helped me to see that the concept of identity has been taken up in radically different ways and that these conceptions matter to literacy research. in , moje and luke categorized identity conceptions using five metaphors. all of the heuristic perspectives understand identities to be social, fluid, and recognized by others, and moje and luke acknowledge that these metaphors overlap rather than define distinct categories. each of these conceptions has been used as the basis of literacy research, and they argue not that one metaphor is better or more correct than another, but that each metaphor affords different allowances, moves, and interpretations for the researcher to make. i briefly present them here as a way to see how identity has been understood in different ways in literacy research. first, moje and luke ( ) identify identity as difference, in which identity is understood as how people are different from each other based on group membership and how different groups are different from each other. this metaphor is comparable to lewis and del valle’s ( ) first wave and is characterized in literacy research by studies such as shirley brice heath’s ( ) pioneering study, ways with words, which both moje and luke ( ) and lewis and del valle ( ) reference as an example of language and culture research that points to identities based on culture and differences between cultures. the second metaphor is identity as self. while similar to identity as difference, this concept of identity is focused on how selves develop. this metaphor encompasses both psychologist erik erikson’s ideas of a coherent, stable self that develops after a conflicted adolescence as well as social behaviorist george herbert mead’s idea that the self develops as a result of interactions with others and is, therefore, unpredictable. though mead’s concept was decidedly more socially focused than erikson’s, both theorists moved the concept of self from an internal, individual perspective to a socially determined one (moje & luke, ). a similar concept, identity as mind or consciousness, has roots with lev vygotsky and other sociohistorical, sociocultural, and activity theorists. here, identities develop through the activity-consciousness dialectic; that is, each new activity changes reality, which changes one’s consciousness or mind, which then shapes new activities. as the consciousness or mind changes through tool usage such as language, the identity changes also. literacy becomes a vehicle for self-formation (moje & luke, ). the fourth metaphor views identity as narrative, in which “identities are not only represented but also constructed in and through the stories people tell about themselves and their experiences” (moje & luke, , p. ). here, it is through the actual telling of stories about ourselves to oneself and to others that activities transition to self- understandings and identities are constructed. this metaphor, along with the final one, figures prominently in current literacy research. the fifth metaphor views identity as position. from this view, narratives and activities shape identities as well as how people are positioned or situated by others in a particular sociocultural, historical context. movement across space and time in relationship with others is the foundation of this metaphor, and the hybridity of lewis and del valle’s ( ) third wave is evident as well. as i continued to think about identity academically and in my research work, i noticed that different participants portrayed different manifestations of identities or self- understandings as they related to literacy practices. for example, in one study i conducted that focused only on reader identities, i discussed additional findings that were evident and interesting. first, in looking at the manifestations of reader identities, more than one manifestation occurred; that is, participants understood what it meant to be a reader and constructed reader identities in different ways. second, i realized that identities other than reader, such as sports player and conscientious student, were not only significant to the participants’ lived experience of self-understanding, but also that the way reader identities influenced and intersected with other identities varied across participants. some students’ identities seemed clearly connected to their voluntary reading choices; others did not. for some students, some identities appeared to influence or be influenced by their reading and other identities did not. i began looking for a comprehensive identity theory that was broad enough to encompass these various relationships. though i had been introduced to holland, lachicotte, skinner, and cain’s ( ) social practice theory of identity early in my graduate work, it was not until recently that i concluded that this theory provided the theoretical answer i was seeking. the more i read holland et al. ( ), the more i understood several seeming paradoxes to identity practices and also how literate practices could both influence and illuminate identities. the social practice theory of identity drawing from vygotsky, bakhtin, and bourdieu, holland et al.’s ( ) theoretical framework of self and identity purports that each person enacts multiple identities rather than constructing one integrated, unified identity, such as erik erikson proposed (holland et al., ; mccarthey & moje, ). holland et al. define identities as self-understandings within a social context that direct future behavior. these understandings are based on words and actions. as people tell stories about themselves to themselves and to others, they are driven to supportive behaviors; therefore, since identities exist through activity, they must be theorized within social practice (holland et al., ). for example, mary, a -year-old girl, would base her view of herself as a supportive sister and a committed daughter within the context of her family, where she attends her brother’s baseball games and helps her mother clean the house every week. she performs her identity as a faithful christian within the context of her church congregation, where she attends events regularly. identities continually form and re-form as persons engage in social activities. with the potential of agency, identity enactments are dynamic, co-constructed, fluid, and relational. still, over a person’s lifetime, durable identity performances develop and become a lens for him or her to care about and make sense of the world even as these identities are constantly interpreted (holland et al., ). holland et al. ( ) call this identity process “history-in-person.” mary will continue to be a sister, a daughter, and, perhaps, a christian, but her understanding of these identities and the enacted identities themselves will change as she continues to participate in activities. linking the individual and the cultural, identities are one way of labeling the complex and various links between the private and public aspects of social practice (holland et al., ). as such, holland et al. contend that identities can be understood in reference to four contexts of social activity: figured worlds, positionality, space of authoring, and making worlds. figured worlds extending pierre bourdieu’s concept of field, figured worlds are recognizable social contexts within which identity performances and specific behaviors are situated (holland et al., ). a figured world is “a socially and culturally constructed realm of interpretation in which particular characters and actors are recognized, significance is assigned to certain acts, and particular outcomes are valued over others” (holland et al., , p. ). more than a physical setting, a figured world is an active social community with acceptable behaviors, specific language, and understood symbols, all of which are negotiated by those participating in the world. as individuals participate in the activities of a figured world, they simultaneously help shape the world and are also shaped by it; thus, they engage in identity development and improvisation. holland et al.’s ( ) examples of figured worlds include alcoholics anonymous, mental illness, romance, and academia. in the world of education, figured worlds might include english classes, fifth grade, school sports, or social relations. in my study, possible relevant figured worlds could include the figured worlds of mennonite faith, teenage reading, and english and bible classes. the concept of figured worlds has been used in research to describe general societal contexts as well as specific schools and even classrooms. holland et al. ( ) explain that figured worlds are similar to communities of practice because both concepts view identities as an important outcome of participation within a group. they differ in that the main focus of communities of practice is learning, but in figured worlds the focus is on negotiated meanings and activities with others, taking into account position and privilege, which provide the basis for self-understanding (holland et al., ). holland et al. ( ) note that figured worlds allow several points to be made about identity development, which i will explain through the example of an english class. first, figured worlds are historically and culturally constructed contexts that participants enter or are recruited into and which develop through the activities of the participants. on the first day of school, mary, mentioned above, heads into mrs. hinkley’s english class. mrs. hinkley has taught at this school for ten years. she likes to hear student voices but has clearly established that students will raise their hands before speaking. mary likes to participate in her classes and has learned that raising one’s hand is generally expected. second, figured worlds include social interactions in which social rank or position matters (holland et al., ). mary and her classmates know that most teachers will create the seating chart and that the students will sit where they are assigned. they know mrs. hinkley will assign them to small discussion groups or decide that they can choose their own groups. mary has a certain social position; the teacher has another. third, figured worlds are socially structured and reproduced; that is, they depend on the interaction of participants for their existence and continuation; therefore, they are not fixed but shift over time (holland et al., ). several years ago, mrs. hinkley leaned toward whole group discussions, but now she more often uses small groups because she finds they work better with today’s students. finally, figured worlds distribute their participants across several fields of activity as certain types of actors. this distribution provides backdrops of action with human voice and form and gives the participant multiple constructed identities (holland et al., ). at noon, mary heads to the cafeteria, where she engages in peer, teenage girl conversation, and after school, she attends a church-led bible study; in each figured world, the rules, discourse, and participation are specific to that activity setting. the focus in figured worlds is on the figures or people, how they participate in the worlds they enter in their daily activities, and how, through this participation, they figure out who they are in these environments (holland et al., ). in some worlds, a person may stay on the fringe, never moving into full participation or fully embracing the related identity; in others, the person will enter completely. furthermore, figured worlds and their resulting identities can be interconnected, embedded within one another, or separate (holland et al., ). artifacts, both material and conceptual, are used to evoke these worlds and to mediate between the cultural context and the individual. artifacts are “the verbal, gestural, and material productions emerging from the situation,” including objects, events, discourses, and even people (holland et al., , p. ). they are used to develop, participate in, and understand a particular socio-cultural context, with their meaning specific to that context. for example, in the world of alcoholics anonymous, poker chips are artifacts that signify varying lengths of sobriety while in the world of gambling, poker chips signify accumulated money (holland et al., ). in the figured world of school, a worksheet often signifies a focus on factual knowledge, whereas a journal entry signifies individually constructed meaning. in an english class, the teacher might use the conceptual artifact of a writing prompt before a discussion to generate ideas. artifacts within a figured world change through the improvisations of the actors; conversely, actors are shaped and molded through the use of artifacts. through this use, humans begin to regulate their own behavior and gain a degree of agency (holland et al., ). positionality within the context of figured worlds, the other three contexts of identities are based. embedded in figured worlds, but separated by holland et al. ( ) as a second context, is positionality. while the figured part of enacted identities centers on known storylines and recognizable actors, the relational or positional part of identities centers on one’s social position and place relative to others in the figured world. positionality or positioning happens both moment by moment and over time as figures in a world relate to each other. one can position oneself and others, intentionally and unintentionally; artifacts can be positioned and can position the actors. all of these positions invoke and impact ways of being and understanding oneself: “who one is is always an open question with a shifting answer depending upon the positions made available” within discursive practices (davies & harré, , p. ) and participation in figured worlds. positionality matters more in some worlds than in others, centers on power and status, and is configured differently depending on the figured world (holland et al., ). actors in a figured world with more rank have more social and material resources, respect, and legitimacy. for example, in the figured world of christian faith, pastors, volunteers in leadership positions, and committed believers generally have more prestige and power than professed non-believers or persons talking the talk without walking the walk. in school, students position each other and the teacher, even as the teacher positions students. being positioned requires a response from the positioned person – to accept, reject, or negotiate in some way the social position she or he has been given. his or her response becomes the third context: space of authoring. space of authoring in the space of authoring, people are able to affect a degree of agency, to refigure and change their lives. holland et al. ( ) base this context on bakhtin’s notions of voice, dialogism, and orchestration as well as vygotsky’s sense of inner speech and the zone of proximal development. people make sense both of the world and of themselves through the inner dialogues that come from a person’s collective past experiences. people must answer the world and do so by using the social discourses/practices they have learned from others over time to craft a response in a specific time and space defined by others’ positions in the activity (holland et al., ). as one enters a figured world, hears its discourse and participates in it, she or he “tries on” various stances and voices, ventriloquizing in a zone of proximal development until she or he has mastered his or her own stance. over time, if one sufficiently engages in a world to the point of identity formation, one develops an authorial voice and stance that becomes relatively established; that is, the identity becomes habituated (holland et al., ). to continue the example of mary, during ninth and tenth grades, mary participated in every youth group event at her church. then, in th grade, mary’s attendance at weeknight events decreased due to conflicting sports practices, and, within a few months, she stopped attending youth group entirely. peers and adult leaders questioned mary’s choices, positioning her as a less committed christian. initially, mary rejected this position, naming daily devotions as evidence of her committed, enacted identity, which was something she’d heard her mother say. then, as mary continued an inner dialogue, her response changed, and she began to invite her peers to her house for a bible study on a day she did not have practice. making worlds the final context of identity is making worlds. employing vygotsky’s idea of serious play, holland et al. ( ) believe that people can envision new realities, try on altered social roles, and experiment with their behavior in ways that can result in new figured worlds or refigured existing worlds. they liken this concept to the imaginative play children engage in, in which they enact roles they are not – a pirate, a teacher, a father – and, in so doing, develop new symbolic competencies. adults can explore serious social play – “the activities of ‘free expression’” (holland et al., , p. ), often in liminal spaces of existing figured worlds. this play can lead to new dialogues and competencies in newly imagined worlds that, over time, have the potential to become a new concretized figured world, which, in turn, shapes identities. these worlds can be a refigured existing world or a combining of two existing worlds to create a new hybridized world (holland et al., ). to extend mary’s story, in her senior year, her sports- related time commitment increased again. unwilling to give up her faith identity or her sports practices, she began to think about ways she could do both – thus, effectively, “playing” with the time and space boundaries of each figured world. she started bringing her bible to read when traveling on the bus to and from games. as other teammates noticed this activity, a few others joined her and began a bus bible study; mary’s identity shifted to become a christian sports player. each of these four contexts provides a point from which identities in practice can be referenced and understood. within these contexts, identities are constantly forming, shifting, and sometimes stabilizing through activities, interactions, positioning, and improvisational responses. as i continued to read the field, i learned that the social practice theory of identity had been used to study education and specifically literacy practices. the social practice theory of identity in education the concept of figured worlds has been used repeatedly over the last number of years to study identity and literacy practices. luttrell and parker ( ) note how different curricular tracks at a high school (vocational and academic) lead to different socio-cultural contexts within one high school and, therefore, how students and teachers define and locate students’ identities according to the hierarchy of cultural worlds in the school. in another study, rubin ( ) describes the figured world of learning at oak city high school, in which learning was constructed to be “narrow, repetitive, meaning- free and unrelated to life” (p. ) as evident in teacher-student interaction, teacher discourse, assignments, and classroom activities. within this socio-cultural construction, smartness was conceived to be compliance to assigned tasks. in a third study considering the individual, blackburn ( ) describes how a self-identified high school lesbian used literacy performances in a lgbtq youth center and her english classroom to better understand her own sexual identity in these two social and historical contexts. additionally, holland et al.’s ( ) framework of figured worlds and identity in practice has been used to study adult (coffey & street, ) and elementary-aged language learners (dagenais, day & toohey, ), learner identities in elementary school (wilson & schallert, ) and high school (hatt, ; michael, andrade, & bartlett, ), pre-service educators (robinson, ; urrieta, ) and adult literacy programs (bartlett & holland, ). in all of these studies, figured worlds provide the context for complex, and sometimes multiple, identity formations and performances. mennonite faith and literate practices through this lens i chose the social practice theory of identity because it is comprehensive in a number of useful ways. first, this theory constructs identity in both words and actions, including not only the stories we tell about ourselves, but also the stories others tell about us. while anzaldúa ( ) and mishler ( ) agree that how others view us and tell stories about us are important, these theorists do not include the enactment of these stories in their definition of identity (mccarthey & moje, ). holland et al.’s ( ) theory, with its emphasis on semiotic mediation, dialogism, positioning, and activity, allows me to consider faith identity and literate practices through both the words and behaviors of the participants as well as how others speak about and interact with them. additionally, since this construct of identity includes participation in activities, i will be able to explore reader-related identities with the participants. second, unlike some postmodern theories that view identity as constantly changing, and unlike erikson’s work, which constructed identity as a singular, unified self (mccarthey and moje, ), the social practice theory of identity constructs identity as multiple, fluid, and changing as well as stabilizing over time for some enacted identities (holland et al., ). this understanding is useful in several ways. first, it allows me to consider multiple identities in practice. for example, in research for past coursework, my research question focused on reader identities, but as i collected data, i realized there were other salient identities in play. this theory allows me to see and include identity enactments other than faith identities that may be relevant to literate practices or to a faith identity, such as a family-related identity. second, it allows me to examine faith identity and literate practices over a period of time to see how the identity (and literate) practices may have shifted or stabilized. i can include present interactions in my data collection as well as past artifacts and ask interview questions about past and present literate practices and faith self-understandings. third, the social practice theory of identity uses both cultural and constructivist perspectives to understand identities in practice. it situates identities at the crossroads of living out historical-cultural understandings and the inner mediating work of improvising one’s response in particular contexts of social life to regulate one’s behavior and direct one’s self-understanding (holland et al., ). with this viewpoint, i will be able to see how participants’ practicing of faith identities are unique dialogical combinations of their understanding of the cultural forms of a person of faith and the specific, unique, social encounters they have with others. this dual perspective could be particularly valuable when studying adolescents’ faith identities because there are strong precepts about how to conduct oneself as a christian, yet adolescents can be at a point in life of constructing their own meanings through their interactions with others. fourth, the social practice theory of identity allows me to see multiple manifestations of the relationships among various self-understandings. that is, it permits me to see how different students construct different understandings of the domains of faith and reading and writing, including relationships between identities that are separate, hierarchic, and hybrid. this theory encompasses the possibility of figured worlds and performed identities that are independent of each other and separate (holland et al., ), such as a successful chef and a loving dog owner. these enacted identities may not intersect. at the same time, holland et al. ( ) acknowledge that persons enter into different figured worlds to varying degrees. the more an individual participates in the activities of a figured world, the more expertise she or he develops, the more she or he becomes emotionally attached, and the more salient the enacted identity becomes. as some identities have great salience and others remain marginal, a hierarchy of identities develops that reflects the centrality of each identity for the individual (holland et al., ). for example, in my past research, a student had a sports-enthusiast enacted identity that was so salient he wore professional team clothing several days a week, chose sports-related stories for independent reading projects, and engaged in social conversations that highlighted his knowledge of historic and up-to-date sports information. finally, two or more identities can be hybridized through the space of authoring and the making of a new world. in the same past research i conducted, molly, a student who had a competitive soccer player identity and a dedicated christian identity, found a conflict on sunday mornings when she was missing church to play soccer, and her mother said she must choose between the two. molly authored an alternative answer: they could have an afternoon worship service together as a family on game days, and an enacted hybrid identity began to develop of a dedicated christian soccer player. many theories that construct identity as multiple address one, but not all, of these manifestations, and some do not discuss the relationship among enacted identities at all, perhaps implying that identities are independent from each other. mccarthey and moje ( ) suggest that gee’s ( ) theory built around primary and secondary discourses is hierarchic with the identities forming from the primary discourse being more salient and those from secondary discourses being less so. several social psychologists, such as thoits ( ), stryker and serpe ( ), and greenhaus and powell ( ) also ascribe to hierarchic relationships among performed identities. anzaldúa is a hybridity theorist who believes identities are relational and shift in their relationships with each other, coming together from the boundaries of disparate contexts (mccarthey & moje, ). yet, none of these theorists allows for all three manifestations of relationships among multiple self-understandings. having described the landscape of identities theories related to literacy research and the theory i have selected as the foundation for this research, i now turn to the reasons why studying identity and its relationships to literacy practices is important and why i believe the social practice theory of identity is a good fit for such research. identity-literacy research matters moje confirmed my thought that identity is a significant factor to consider when studying literacy research for several reasons. first, one’s identity influences and is a part of how we “make sense of the world, and our experiences in it,” including writing and reading texts (mccarthey & moje, , p. ). second, identity matters because people understand us in certain ways and then use those understandings to inform their actions and language towards us – how they position us. moje (mccarthey & moje, ) offers the example of the various verbal and nonverbal responses she received from passersby when she took a group of latino teenagers to the mall. as another example, teachers often use their understandings of a particular student’s literate identity to make appropriate assignments. third, students, and who they understand themselves to be, have been influenced by past school and other experiences, race, gender, families, and larger social and political frameworks; all of this background has a bearing on how they learn, communicate, and respond in a classroom (mccarthey & moje, ). not only do mccarthey and moje ( ) argue that identity plays a role in literacy practices, but they also assert that the converse is true (mccarthey & moje, ), arguing that identities can change as a result of a literacy experience. moje gives the example of reading the red tent, by anita diamant, a novel about the biblical jacob’s daughter. this text challenged the way moje thought about her own religious childhood as well as her then current religion and changed her daily practices, including the way she read the bible and other texts. to use holland et al.’s framework, the activity of reading the red tent caused moje to rethink how biblical characters were positioned, or situated relative to other characters, and influenced her answering to the world of texts and her daily life. her reader and faith performed identities shifted. finally, mccarthey and moje ( ) suggest that it is important to question the concept of identity itself, acknowledging that new ways of conceptualizing identity have been proposed, including identity as a “social construction.” this view has an additional educational benefit. when we consider identities to be social constructions, and thus always open for change and conflict depending on the social interaction we find ourselves in, we open possibilities for rethinking the labels we so easily use to identify students. by considering identity as an important concept that needs to be embraced, challenged, and reconceptualized, we might be able to think about students and their literacy practices in ways that will help us reconsider those labels. (mccarthey & moje, , p. ) in describing her own research, mccarthey (mccarthey & moje, ) notes that in one classroom study, identities appeared to be fragmentary, contradictory, and context- dependent while in another study, there was overlap and consistency in identity performances, perhaps suggesting that identity performances vary depending on the context or the centrality of the identity. the social practice theory of identity encompasses both of these manifestations of self-understanding. moje (mccarthey & moje, ) adds that identities can be hybrid and complex, merging and shifting based on context and social relationships. she proposes that youth may be more prone to develop hybrid identities than children or adults because they employ so many different textual forms and literacy practices, and they live on many boundaries: “youth are popularly construed as being between many spaces: childhood and adulthood; work and play; home, school, peer group, and community; … science class, history class, and english class; comic book and internet” (p. ). holland et al.’s ( ) understanding that as people answer the world, their agentic responses can connect different worlds and result in hybridized identities, aligns with moje’s observations that youth live in liminal spaces and connect with multiple literacy texts and practices. while there is strong evidence and arguments for the reciprocal relationship between literacy practices and identity (cherland, ; lewis & del valle, ; luke & moje, : mccarthey & moje, ), there is much less scholarship that speaks directly to how enacted identities impact reading and reading impacts identities. reading comprehension and identity reading is defined as the activity of making meaning using written text and requiring motivation, word recognition, fluency, and comprehension (leipzig, ). the rand reading study group (rrsg) defines reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language,” including the reader, the text, and the activity – the purposes and outcomes of reading (snow, , p. ). readers bring cognitive abilities, motivations, knowledge, beliefs, and experiences to a text (snow, ), and these conditions are all situated in sociocultural contexts such as the reader’s family, peers, and other communities (ruddell & unrau, ). thus, even when reading alone, reading is a social practice (bloome & katz, ), in which the reader, the text, and the immediate context are inseparable from each other and the larger socio-historical-cultural contexts in which they are enacted (galda & beach, ), and subjective meaning is made. related to the idea of reading as a social practice is rosenblatt’s ( ) reader response theory. she explains that no two readings of a text by the same person at different times or by different people at the same time are ever the same because in every act of reading, the reader creates the meaning as a recursive, organic, self-correcting “evocation” of the text. even as the reader is forming this meaning, there is constant checking and rechecking with what rosenblatt calls the reader’s “linguistic-experiential reservoir,” that is, the purposes, present context, background knowledge, and the social, cultural, and personal history of the reader. this reservoir comes together with the words on the page in a transforming process in which meaning is constantly and dynamically constructed throughout the reading act, and it is this reservoir that is changed from the transaction (rosenblatt, ). while the literature emphasizes the importance of background knowledge, it does not explain the relationship of such knowledge to identities. identities are dynamic and fluid self-understandings, based on words and actions, within a sociocultural context (holland et al., ). identities are formed and informed by a person’s knowledge and experiences within those contexts, but they are not equivalent to that knowledge. background knowledge is broader than identities; persons have knowledge that is not encompassed in an identity. yet, identities are more than knowledge; while knowledge is gained in figured worlds or sociocultural contexts, holland et al. ( ) attest there are three other contexts that inform identities: how one is positioned, or located in a shared storyline, within such worlds by others; how one responds to this positioning; and how one then envisions new worlds and identity performances. also, prior knowledge and experiences are interpersonal and external to the individual but become intrapersonal as they mediate thinking, feeling and self-understanding (holland et al., ). the impacts of identity on reading i propose that enacted identities influence reading before, during, and after the reading act. ruddell and unrau ( ) name “a developing self” as a motivational component for reading, a concept that includes identity. students may choose texts that add to their understanding of a developing identity or refuse texts that do not align with an identity. additionally, an identity can set the purpose for reading; a “good student” may read a bible passage to get a high grade on a bible test while a “strong christian” may read the same passage to better understand how to live out her faith. during reading, performed identities affect the meaning-making process. identities provide a lens through which prior knowledge is understood; they also influence the activities in which one engages that result in background knowledge. in these ways, they impact comprehension. a “class clown,” for example, may not have read a previous chapter with sufficient focus to make sense out of the following chapter. furthermore, galda and beach ( ) explain that readers have expectations for how others should act and apply these expectations to characters’ behaviors as well. these values come from the figured worlds in which readers participate and define their self- understandings (holland et al., ). a reader’s identities then become a lens through which she evaluates the actions and roles of characters in texts. galda and beach ( ) describe a study in which honors students viewed story characters described as regular track students as lazy while regular students perceived the same characters as satisfied and content. i would surmise that the most salient identities for a reader or the most relevant identities to a text and their schemata are those most likely to be activated during a reading act. after reading, as a reader reflects on a text individually and with others, her identities and the figured worlds they reference will continue to be a lens through which she thinks and talks about the textual interpretation (galda & beach, ). for example, a pastor read the children’s story the giving tree to his congregation and then discussed the theme of selfless giving for others because the story described a tree giving of itself in different ways to a boy throughout his lifetime. read and discussed by women with strong feminist identities, this story is one of a female character depleting herself to please a man, who had little concern for her, and his desires. an avid environmentalist would transact yet a different meaning from the story. the impacts of reading on identities while performed identities impact reading, reading also influences identity performances. the rrgs suggests three direct consequences of reading: knowledge, application, and engagement; however, it also indicates there could be other, longer-term consequences (snow, ). i propose that a longer-term outcome is identity development. ruddell and unrau ( ) name gaining new knowledge about oneself as an outcome of reading, and hagood ( ) found that readers used texts to learn about and understand themselves as they observed characters of different enacted identities. richardson and eccles ( ) also found that their adolescent readers employed voluntary reading to contemplate who they were, who they might want to be, and who they didn’t want to become; reading was a “catalyst in the formation of identity” (p. ). sumara ( ) agrees that texts are significant “ongoing methods for the integration … of [reader’s] senses of remembered, presently experienced, and projected identities. … the reader’s relationship with fictional characters and situations, then, becomes as influential to the development of the self as any other experience” (p. ). wilhelm and smith ( ) concur as well. reading, then, is a way to participate in different worlds and identities. finally, holland et al.’s ( ) four contexts for the social practice of identities align with the reading process, as reading, too, is a social practice (bloome & katz, ). as a reader engages with a text, he or she will bring to the reading various enacted identities that may influence his or her comprehension. then, in the text, he or she will enter into a figured world constructed by the author, and he or she will be positioned in certain ways as the reader (bloome & katz, ). he or she will then have the opportunity to author his or her own space – to accept, reject, or negotiate the positioning – and to use the textual transaction as an artifact in the possible creation of a new world. since there might be differences in the ways identity is or can be connected to writing practices as opposed to reading practices, i now turn to a brief discussion on writing and identity. writing and identity in the seminal book writing and identity: the discoursal construction of identity in academic writing, roz ivanič ( ) explores both the theoretical grounds for writing as representation of self and her own research with eight students over the age of who were enrolled in higher education courses and their identity constructions in academic writing. like holland et al. ( ), she views identity as multiple, fluid, complex, socially and contextually constructed. additionally, and again like holland et al., she believes identity construction includes power, positioning, and some stabilization over a lifetime. a final similarity is the notion that people are agents, within social positions offered to them, of their enacted identities. similar to my description of reading practices above, ivanič ( ) views writing as a social practice in which the writer positions herself and performs coherent or contradicting identities depending on choices of discourse throughout the writing; she encapsulates her perspective in this statement she makes of her central argument: “writing is an act of identity in which people align themselves with socio-culturally shaped possibilities for self-hood, playing their part in reproducing or challenging dominant practices and discourses, and the values, beliefs and interests which they embody” (p. ). ivanič ( ) presents four understandings of identity performances related to writing. the “autobiographical self,” the identity related to writing that people bring to any writing event, is related to a “sense of their roots, of where they are coming from” (p. ). it is socially constructed and changes as a result of a developing “life-history” (p. ). a second and related understanding is the “self as author,” which is the extent to which the writer sees himself or herself as the author and establishes an “authorial presence.” a third construct is “discoursal self,” on which ivanič focuses her book: a writer’s ‘discoursal self’ is the impression – often multiple, sometimes contradictory – which [writers] consciously or unconsciously convey of themselves in a particular written text…. [i]t is constructed through the discourse characteristics of a text, which relate to values, beliefs and power relations in the social context in which they were written. (p. ) the fourth understanding of writer identity ivanič ( ) describes is “possibilities for self-hood in the socio-cultural and institutional context,” which addresses the socially available possible enacted identities, some more privileged than others, available to an individual within an institutional context. it is out of the socio-culturally supported possibilities of self-hood that individuals construct their discoursal selves. the impacts of identities on writing enacted identities impact writing because writing is not only an act of conveying content or subject matter in a written text, but, viewed as a social practice, it is also a portrayal of the writer’s self; readers and their relationship to the writer; the writer’s commitment to the ideas and content; and the writer’s assumptions of the reader’s knowledge and values (ivanič, ). therefore, as a writer brings multiple identities to the writing process, she brings with each of those identities the past history of knowledge and participation in the related figured worlds as well as past and current commitments to those identities. for example, a student in bible class may approach a class writing assignment with several performed identities, including student in previous bible classes, loyal family member in an involved christian family, and her own faith identity. writing out of identity performances from these or other identities, she will position herself within her writing, perhaps in complementary or contradictory ways, through various textual choices (ivanič, ). these impressions of themselves writers create, whether conveyed deliberately or not, can be considered by the reader. the impacts of writing on identities writers commit their thoughts to paper for others to see and understand. in the process, the written word motivates the writer to read, review, and reflect on what he or she wrote, which promotes mental growth and thinking. in this way, people think thoughts while in the process of writing they had not had before. ivanič ( ) suggests writing also helps people to learn the discourses of communities they want to enter. that is, writing is one way to participate in a figured world – to both learn the significant actions, specific language, and valued outcomes of the world and also to help shape and define that world, to answer back and revise the world. by examining literate practices, i intend to consider the reading and writing students do both in and out of school. i understand literate practices to be experiences in which subjective, individual meaning is made within a particular sociocultural context as well as the values related to and the specific ways of experiencing reading and writing in those contexts. this understanding allows me to consider not only the contextualized literate acts in which the students participate but also their thoughts specifically about reading and about themselves as persons who participate in the act of reading. my research interest is not as general as simply literacy-identity research. more specifically, i am interested in performed faith identities and explicitly in the religious denominational identity of mennonites. next, i will clarify how i define religion and how it differs from faith, and then introduce mennonites. identity and religion anthropologist clifford geertz ( ) defines culture as “an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” (p. ), and he posits religion as a cultural system. he defines religion as ( ) a system of symbols with acts to ( ) establish powerful, persuasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by ( ) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and ( ) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that ( ) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic (italics in original, p. ). thus, for the purposes here, i view religion as a culture, a figured world, in which one participates. religion is an organized set of beliefs, with specific guidelines and practices, through which one expresses and practices one’s faith. religion involves other people. usually this involvement includes interactions with living people, but it could also be interactions with texts or beliefs defined by other people. i am defining faith, in contrast, as beliefs held and enacted by an individual; however, i acknowledge that other understandings of faith exist, such as transcendental experiences, embodiment, and practice. although faith is not only associated with religion – people have faith that their cars will get them where they need to go – in this study, the term faith implies a particular worldview or spiritual lens. for example, for some christians, faith is a personal relationship with jesus and a belief in him as the risen lord. more specifically, i am interested in the religious group known as mennonites and their faith experiences. the mennonites are one of the religious groups that formed out of the protestant anabaptist movement; they are named after one of their leaders, menno simons, a dutch priest. in addition to doctrines, the term mennonite refers to “traditions, folkways, mores, and cultural heritage associated with this particular faith/religious group, much of which is determined by the geographic location of the group” (bishop, , p. - ). it is used both as an adjective as well as a noun referring to a follower of that faith. tenets of mennonite faith potentially significant to this study are: a strong sense of community; living out one’s faith or following the example of jesus in daily actions, behaviors, and decisions; simple living; serving others; peacemaking; and believer’s baptism. mennonites choose consciously and individually to believe in and follow jesus and publicly express this commitment through baptism as an adult, an age loosely defined as any time after early adolescence. the first generation of such believers during the reformation in europe had been baptized as infants and so were re-baptized as adults, resulting in the name ‘anabaptists,’ which is still used in reference to mennonites and related faith groups who ascribe to similar values. with this introduction to identity, literate practices, and mennonites, i present my research study and question. qualitative research and the research question willis ( ) explains that within the hermeneutic and storytelling/narrative frameworks of qualitative research when the purpose is to describe and understand the perspectives of participants within their context, our own background and experiences are strengths rather than liabilities. i openly admit my interest in this topic is based on several personal life experiences. two self-understandings i enact are being mennonite and being a reader. i was born to mennonite parents who themselves grew up in committed mennonite families. when there were services or events at church, we attended, regardless of convenience or personal interest. our family friends and most of my childhood friends came from the mennonite community. there were no k- mennonite educational opportunities where we lived, but my parents were alumni of a mennonite college, and there was never any question as to whether or not i would also attend a mennonite college. after college, i taught at a mennonite high school. mennonite people, writings, theology, and values have significantly shaped how i understand myself. identifying myself as a reader has also greatly influenced me. during my childhood, books, reading, and learning were unquestioningly, perhaps unconsciously, important in our house. the two pieces of furniture i remember most vividly are the bookshelf my sister and i shared, filled with books, and a child-sized roll-top desk, useful as a teacher’s desk, circulation center for our ‘library,’ or for letter-writing. my strongest childhood memory is of my mother, sitting on the floor of our room in her blue bathrobe with her back against the wall, reading to us as we lay in our bunk beds at bedtime. in the car on vacation, during services at church, waiting in restaurants, we brought books along, and had our noses in them. now i want to understand how the factors of literate practices and understanding oneself as mennonite interact with each other for a small group of students at a mennonite high school. my personal, professional, and research interests over the past number of years have led me to the research question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? chapter – reviewing and entering the conversation introduction in chapter , i outlined my own thinking and its development around identity, faith, and literacy. like bakhtin’s concept of heteroglossia, my thinking was influenced and modified by the written and real voices around me. kenneth burke ( ) writes: imagine that you enter a parlor. you come late. when you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. in fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. you listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. (p. - ) in this chapter, i will review the literature, ‘the conversation,’ that has preceded this study and into which i intend to ‘put in my oar.’ as one way to read the field, i begin by examining general identity studies in education, then studies of identity in literacy, followed by identity studies in reading and writing, studies of identity in literacy and religion, and, finally, mennonite educational research. identity in education there are many studies suggesting the concept of identity is important to consider in regards to learning and to educational settings. some research considers how classrooms and certain curricular activities can encourage “identity-exploration” (sinai, kaplan, flum, ) while other research explores how enacted identities can affect motivation and achievement in various subject areas, including science (e.g. brickhouse, lowery, schultz, ; tan & calabrese barton, ), mathematics (black et al., ; sfard & prusak, ), and literacy (e.g. sinai et al., ). still other studies examine how identity performances impact engagement in school (e.g. faircloth, ; hatt, ; lee, ), how school climate and teachers can affect identity development (rich & schachter, ), as well as how school assignments can impact students’ thinking about future, enacted identities (yeager, bundick, & johnson, ). there have been longitudinal mixed-method investigations (yeager et al., ) and longitudinal ethnographies (calabrese barton et al., ), between-subjects experimental designs (elmore & oyserman, ) and large-scale experimental design using structural equation modeling (rich & schachter, ). though different research questions have been asked and different methods used to explore those questions, the majority of recent researchers understand the construct of identity to be multiple (lewis & del valle, ; moje & luke, ). multiple identities within the agreement of identities as multiple and important to education, there are different perspectives on how identities are related. three conceptions of this relationship are identities as separate, hierarchic, and hybrid. some researchers do not address this relationship at all by focusing on only one identity, perhaps implicitly suggesting a belief that there is no relationship among identities – that each performed identity operates independently from any others. other researchers explicitly articulate relationships among multiple identities. separate. from this perspective, multiple enacted identities exist but have no relationship. for example, a high school student may have identities as a conscientious student, a caring friend, and a responsible babysitter, but these identities have no connection to each other. one does not dominate over the others or influence the others. this understanding of multiple identities is not explicitly stated in studies and, therefore, appears to be an implicit theoretical assumption when researchers acknowledge identities as multiple but then research one isolated identity (e.g. leander, ; moje, ). hierarchic. a second perspective is that some performed identities are more significant to a person than others. within a hierarchic conception of identities, thoits ( ) argues that different identities are more or less salient to a person’s entire self- concept and that a person gives his or her greatest time and energy to those identities that are most salient to him or her: “multiple identities must be organized hierarchically; …the more salient the role-identity, the more meaning, purpose, and behavioral guidance the individual should derive from its enactment” (p. - ). stryker and serpe ( ) suggest that a performed identity’s hierarchic position is based on its salience, which they define as a “readiness to act out an identity as a consequence of the identity’s properties as a cognitive structure or schema” in a given situation (p. ). for example, based on the salience of a fatherhood identity, one father may take his child to a baseball game on a free saturday afternoon while another father might go fishing with his buddies. some identities are believed to be more salient than others, and these identities are more likely to be enacted more often and also in new situations. black et al. ( ), for example, conducted interviews and narrative analysis to determine performed identities related to mathematics. they assert that multiple identities are based on participation in various activities and are hierarchically organized. [w]e argue that the precise hierarchical structure of our identities (i.e. those that are consciously reflected upon by the self as the most significant) at any one stage is essentially dependent upon the leading activity. thus, the leading activity provides a structural hierarchy to the internal life of the self where certain identities become more or less important to our developing self. (p. ) from this perspective, identities are distinct from one another, but are understood within an ordered relationship to each other. hybrid. another viewpoint on the relationship among enacted identities posits that the boundaries between identities are not so clearly defined – suggesting, in fact, that identities can merge to create new, blended identities. thoits ( ) asserts that sometimes identities combine into a more complex, higher-order combination, such as husband-father-worker identities working together to signify a breadwinner. tan and calabrese barton ( ) provide an example of a hybridized understanding of identities. they conducted an ethnographic study of two sixth-grade latinas’ identities-in-practice in their science classroom. in framing their argument, they suggest that as individuals enter a new figured world, they bring with them membership in other figured worlds (thus, multiple identities) that are hierarchically valued by themselves but also valued and positioned by others in the new figured world. therefore, as one works to “establish an identity in a new figured world, it is important to consider the influence of the other worlds in which one simultaneously inhabits” (p. ). even within a single classroom, a student can encounter various figured worlds depending on the activity at hand and, thus, develops a repertoire of identities. in observing the identities-in-practice of the two girls in science class, tan and calabrese barton ( ) found that each girl hybridized multiple identities, including their social identities, by asserting agency and authoring new ‘good science student’ identities as defined differently than originally determined by the teacher. tan and calabrese barton ( ) also emphasize the fluid nature of identities-in-practice in regards to time, space, and activity as well as how cumulative enactments of agency and authoring can result in transformed identities. in summary, i have outlined three possible types of relationships among multiple, enacted identities. from the separate viewpoint, performed identities are independent and distinct, with seemingly no connecting or influential relationship between them. imagine, for a moment, that identities are outfits in a closet. imagine a person with several outfits (identities) in his or her closet. from this theoretical stance, a person would choose what to wear depending on the activity, setting, and company, but the outfits have no connection to each other; each is separate and complete. the hierarchic position asserts that within a person, certain identities are more salient than others, and, therefore, there is a greater commitment to and increased performances of these identities. viewed hierarchically, a person has a closet full of outfits (identities), but he or she almost always chooses to wear the same clothes because he or she likes them best, they fit well, are comfortable, and best express how he or she thinks of himself or herself. from a hybrid identities perspective, enacted identities work together to form something new, while elements of the original identities remain distinct. in this closet, pieces of two or three outfits are worn together creating a new ensemble with recognizable portions of the separate outfits. in keeping with the idea that identities are fluid and dynamic, it would follow that the relationship between identities is also fluid with the potential to change as identities or contexts change. therefore, the relationships among identities must be seen as dynamic as well. identity in literacy research as stated in chapter , sociocultural studies of literacy that address the concept of identity began in the s and s (lewis & del valle, ) but became much more prolific during and since the s. within this burgeoning field of literacy-identity research, different researchers take up different literacy practices, conceptualize identity in different ways, and often focus on only one identity within an individual; however, there has not been enough examination of the relationships among identities to organize the literature review based on the theoretical understanding of the relationship among identities. instead, as a way to understand the geography of the scholarship, i have selected representative studies that are relevant to my research phenomenon. the first two studies employ the social practice theory of identity to frame their studies. positioning and artifacts one conception of identity is positioning (holland et al., ; moje & luke, ) or social place relative to others. moje and luke ( ) explain, “as people experience certain positions – what one might think of as labels, although not necessarily articulated discursively – they come to imagine future positions and their future selves moving within and across those positions” (p. ). leander’s ( ) seminal study highlights the power of positioning in the identity production of one african american th grade student, latanya. at the time of the study, students had created a banner of derogatory words, which a teacher read aloud objectively as part of a unit on racism (leander, ). a focal interaction, lasting almost six minutes, began with latanya’s use of the word “honky,” which quickly became an identity artifact. students in the class accused latanya of not using honky objectively, which students perceived as an example of her ghetto-ness. latanya first tried to defend her meaning in using honky and then the accusation of being ghetto, both of which reified the ghetto identity rather than repositioning her (leander, ). leander ( ) concludes that identity artifacts are paramount to stabilizing identities and understanding how and why some identities stabilize and others do not, arguing that as multiple artifacts are employed and interact in a context, certain identities gel. one’s body, stories, gestures, and texts can all be made available as identity artifacts, and once presented in a context, others can use the artifacts for a variety of identity positionings beyond the one intended. through this interaction of multiple artifacts and their reification knowingly and unknowingly by others, an identity is mediated and stabilized (leander, ). this conclusion aligns with the social practice theory of identity, which purports that artifacts are pivots into figured worlds, allowing participants to learn the world, interact, and form identities. leander agrees with holland et al.’s ( ) emphasis on the individual’s agency for new or altered identities, but he also notes that when latanya exercised agency, her actions were not embraced to modify her identity as intended; rather, her actions were used by others to further stabilize the marked identity. leander’s analysis on this point, in fact, is a helpful extension of holland et al.’s framework. figured worlds while leander ( ) highlights identity artifacts and positioning, luttrell and parker ( ) emphasize holland et al.’s ( ) concept of figured worlds to examine the literacy practices in one high school as well as the identity of one student, seeking to understand various school contexts in which students participate in literacy activities as well as the connections among students’ literacy tasks and their identities. luttrell and parker ( ) describe two figured worlds at the school: the academic figured world and the vocational figured world. they contend that literacy activities had different meanings in these two worlds, and that the school community did not equally value the worlds themselves. furthermore, the academic figured world consisted of three tracks creating varying positions of status and identity: regular, honors, and seminar – each of which valued different literacy experiences. luttrell and parker ( ) found that different teachers, depending on their place in various figured worlds, positioned the same students differently, suggesting the significance of the figured worlds when observing and understanding identity performances. by foregrounding the figured worlds or contexts within which identities are formed and performed, this study emphasizes the need to study literacy practices in multiple sociocultural settings to understand the various ways participating in literacy events in different contexts can influence identities. luttrell and parker ( ) also examine the literacy practices and identities of one student, alice, in the figured worlds of family and school. in the figured world of family, alice processed her feelings on family issues through her writing of poetry and journals. in the figured world of school, alice performed her identity as a compliant-though-not- highly-achieving student in the regular academic track, but she felt that context did not allow her to engage in the kinds of literacy practices that would develop her identity as an authentic writer and reader. luttrell and parker ( ) conclude that within the broader figured world of school, some students’ out-of-school literacy practices were accepted while others were not, largely based on one’s place in the hierarchy of the figured worlds. that is, the everyday literacy practices of students in the higher valued figured world were accepted; the out-of-school reading and writing of students in the lower-regarded worlds were not. this suggests that students’ out-of-school literacy practices had differing influences on their school-related identities. representative of the literature, both of these studies foreground some aspects of the social practice theory of identity to the exclusion or glossing over of others. for example, while the social practice theory of identity argues for shifting and dynamic identity construction, it also presents identities as histories-in-person – identities over time. though his study lasted months, leander’s ( ) micro lens on less than six minutes of interaction from the article referenced does not allow for much analysis of identity practice over time. second, leander’s finding of the importance of artifacts to identity practice leads him to minimize his discussion of other aspects of figured worlds – the array of actors, actions and outcomes that are valued. even as luttrell and parker ( ) focus on figured worlds, dismissing other aspects of the theory, they, too, do not fully engage all elements of the figured worlds. finally, while holland et al.’s theory emphasizes multiple identities and their possible interactions, leander and luttrell and parker study only one identity within the individual. my study aims to comprehensively employ the social practice theory of identity and to examine the potentially different influences literate practices have on multiple identities of a participant. narrative leander’s notion of identity as positioning is a prevalent understanding in the current scholarship. a second prevailing conception of identity in the identity-literacy literature is identity as narrative (moje & luke, ). situating identity as the stories we tell about ourselves and the way we write ourselves into narratives, moje ( ) examines the unsanctioned, out-of-school literacy practices of adolescents who self- identify as gangstas. while she acknowledges multiple identities in her findings, she concentrates her analysis on the gangsta identity. moje found that the literacy activities, including tagging, graffiti, poetry, parody, rap, narrative, journal, and letter writing, served expressive and communicative purposes and also supported identity formation and self-positioning. additionally, these literacy practices afforded the participant access into a gang, in the same way holland et al. ( ) describe the pivotal use of an artifact to enter a figured world. literacy practices helped the youth, once in the social space, to increase their status and participation in the world as well as enabling them to envision a new space or figured world. it allowed them a place to “be part of the story” (moje, , p. ), suggesting the identity-as-narrative conceptualization (moje & luke, ). moje ( ) notes instances when participants’ actions around a gangsta identity changed over time as well as times of varied manifestations of multiple identities, including faith identities; however, she does not highlight these differences, nor does she focus as directly on how the literacy practices as artifacts or improvisational responses to both specific situations and broader cultural mores contribute to identity formation. how were the gangsta identities understood in relation to other identities the participants claim, such as student or faith member? to what extent, if any, did the same unsanctioned literacy practices serve as identity artifacts for these other identities? as i have found in my previous research, it is important to be aware of any identities that are related to the literacy practices being studied, even if such identities are not initially part of the research question. it is also important to examine the relationships among various identities related to literacy practices as this exploration affords added robustness to the analysis and has shown to be different across individuals. i intend to be open to identities beyond faith identities that are relevant to my participants’ literacy practices as well as to study the relationships among multiple identities that may present themselves. identity-as-mind a third conception of identity is identity-as-mind (moje & luke, ). lewis and fabos’ ( ) study on instant messaging (im) and social identities demonstrates how literacies, and particularly new media, have sparked new ways of relating with others and thinking about oneself – literally changing the mind – (moje & luke, ) as well as changing how identities are negotiated (lewis & del valle, ). in this study, seven teenage participants were interviewed and also gave concurrent verbal protocols to document the im strategies they were using as they wrote messages to peers. data analysis revealed that the main function for im was socializing and a second function was surveillance of parents in the room and peers online (lewis & fabos, ). while it may appear that im damages the use of proper english, with its partial sentences and informal spelling of some words, lewis and fabos ( ) found instead that, in fact, the participants exhibited great understanding in using various stylistic techniques and in understanding their audiences. the participants were quite interested in correct spelling and responding intelligently as ways of impressing their peers, revealing that one’s identity as an imer was defined and important. in fact, being a savvy imer was felt to improve social standing with peers, but their im identities encompassed more than that: “they were busy, had lots of friends, were doing multiple things, and were interesting as a result” (lewis & fabos, , p. ). these identities were just as real as identities in real life and often aligned with their offline selves. while im shaped the adolescents’ identities, the identities they brought to their im sessions were also influential; for example, one participant would not take part in posing – appearing online to be someone other than who one is – because she valued honesty and found posing to be a breech of her identity as an honest person. in this situation, the identity as an honest person impacted her participation in the figured world of im and, consequently, her im identity. this study does not allow us to see other in- or out-of-school literacy practices or identities of the participants, though six of the seven adolescents were described by their parents as being good students, and two had begun writing an online book together (lewis & fabos, ). how do these literacy-related identities intersect with their social identities as constructed through im? this study also does not address the connections between numerous literacy identities or the connections between literacy practices and multiple identities; however, it does begin to examine particular engagements with texts as they are being written. that is, by examining the participants’ thoughts as they were composing, lewis and fabos ( ) considered how specific literacy events contribute as artifacts to identity development. this methodological move suggests that studying the transaction of a person and a text (rosenblatt, ) in a meaning-making process can reveal identity construction as well. both moje’s ( ) work with gangstas and lewis and fabos’ ( ) research with instant messaging focus on writing practices. as i intend to explore identity performances in both writing and reading acts, i will now highlight a few other studies that examine predominantly voluntary writing or text production and identity before discussing representative literature in reading and identity. identity in writing i have organized the studies that focus on the relationship between identity performances and writing events or practices into two categories: voluntary writing and academic writing. voluntary writing mahiri and sablo ( ) investigated the voluntary writing events of two urban african-american high school students and their purposes for writing. data included field notes, interviews, and written artifacts from both in- and out-of-school. findings included that the youth’s writings were primarily autobiographical, reflective of their own lived experiences and the tensions surrounding these realities. furthermore, their voluntary writing was an important piece of their identity development as their writing reflected their sense of self; however, neither youth was willing to embrace the writer identity based on his and her in-school writing due to content, style, and genre requirements. mahiri and sablo call for schools to find ways to acknowledge and accept the written material and authentic issues students experience outside of school as a way to bridge the gap between out-of-school and in-school writer identities. guzzetti and gamboa ( ) examined how three teenage girls created and used zines (small homemade magazines) to develop and express their identities. data collection included interviews, observation, and artifacts over two academic years. strong identities for each of the participants were punk rocker and social activist, and writing a zine was a way to express these and other identities. in writing together, “they not only used literacy to help themselves as individuals express their identities but also aided one another in forming and representing their multiple identities” (p. ). as the participants reread past issues, they realized how their writing represented their “changing identities and demonstrated the fluid nature of identity representation” (p. ). the zine allowed the teenagers a place to develop, explore, and express their punk rock and social activism identities: “they wrote to declare who they were at the moment even as they were evolving as individuals in their views and identities” (p. ). this research effectively shows adolescents’ negotiating and performing identities through writing practices as well as showing how those practices in turn shape their developing identities in writing and other areas of interest. this study does not show, however, the process the participants used in writing the articles and creating the zines, which might be helpful in further illuminating the possible relationships between writing and identity. hull and katz ( ) studied a -year-old girl, dara, and a -year-old male, randy, over three-and-a-half years as they produced multimodal texts of digital storytelling in a community technology center. the research, drawing on holland et al. ( ), included field notes, interviews, writing artifacts, observations, and digital stories – stories told with the aid of computer-based tools such as images, music, and video, along with written and speech text. dara developed identities as an “able writer, valued community member, and even a social critic,” which were very different from the identities she had at school (hull & katz, , p. ). randy had always identified himself as a writer and an artist, but had not done well in school and had not shared his writing there. while he wanted to turn his life around, he was not confident he would be able to do so. randy created his first digital story, combining his own poetry and photography with words and photos of famous african-american activists and artists to tell a story of his life. as a result of writing, both participants formed new identities and a new sense of agency about their present and future selves. academic writing ritchie ( ) complements the studies that consider voluntary writing and identity performances in her investigation of academic writing and identity. more specifically, she examined the points of opportunity and tension for identity development in a college writer’s workshop setting based on bakhtin’s theory of language. she found that this format allowed for multiple voices and perspectives to be articulated; from these voices and articulations, students could develop their own identities as they wrote. ritchie noted that the individual histories each student brought to the class were one of the factors that contributed to the “rich texture of possibilities for writing, thinking, and for negotiating personal identity” (p. ). for one participant, these possibilities included a faith identity. i turn now to the identity and reading body of research. identity in reading like the broader identity-literacy practices studies, there are identity studies that emphasize different aspects of the reading-identity relationship, including the context of the reading. voluntary reading in the following sections, i describe representative studies in the field that illustrate diversity in the identity-voluntary reading literature. in the first two studies below, multiple identities and their relationships to voluntary reading practices are discussed. in the following section, reading to resist identity positioning is explored, and the final study explores how reading pleasure impacts identity development. multiple identities. knoester ( ) explores the question of independent reading habits and identity development. he conducted semi-open interviews with students, aged - , their parents, and their teachers from a small public school in the eastern u.s. regarding their independent reading practices. the teachers and parents were asked about their own reading habits as well as those of the students. using gee’s ( ) lens of primary and secondary discourse, the findings of the case studies revealed that independent reading for these students is a social practice, in which some students enjoyed being read to and reading to others, actively discussed their reading materials with others, and chose texts based on the recommendations of trusted individuals. additionally, resistance to or engagement with independent reading was affected by students’ social identities regarding their peers. if students strongly identified with peers who resisted reading, they resisted as well, even if their home context was supportive of reading practices. if a student’s social identity was not strongly connected to the social center of the class, he or she was more likely to engage in reading. the findings of this study suggest that social peer identities were more salient than reader identities in the context of school. knoester ( ) situates the two identities in a hierarchical relationship, in which one is more central to the students’ cores than the other. this relationship is also suggested by knoester’s use of gee’s ( ) discourse theory, which gives the discourse learned at home primacy over discourses learned in other sociocultural settings (secondary discourses). not all studies are as clear about the relationships among identities, as in the next example. in a second study that examines voluntary reading, choice, and the development of possible selves and identities, richardson and eccles ( ) purport that through literacy practices “we directly and vicariously contemplate who we are at any one point in time, who we hope to be in the future, who we fear being, and who we expect to be” (p. ). focusing on data collected for the maryland adolescent development in context study, this research examined three to five successive interviews conducted with students over a three-year period from late adolescence through one-year post-high school. from these, six case studies were written. the data were analyzed and coded for nature and purposes of voluntary reading, impact on goals and choices, and “identity development through reading” (p. ). findings included that adolescents read voluntarily for a variety of purposes and that “reading was an important catalyst in the gestation of identity formation related to both gender and ethnicity and career-related possible selves” (p. ). in describing three participants’ identities in greater detail, richardson and eccles portray two kinds of relationships among identities. margorie thought of herself first and foremost as a female and only afterwards as an african american, indicating a hierarchical relationship, while clarence seemed to view himself as a reader, which was separate from a hybrid identity as an african-american male. while two of the students they include in their report strongly identified with their religious faiths, richardson and eccles ( ) did not study this aspect of identity even though one student clearly connected her faith with her reading literacies and the other identified more strongly with faith than with gender or ethnicity. this is a limitation in the study that my research will address. space for authoring. other research centers on the positioning aspect of identities and how reading can be a tool for answering back to the world in space for authoring. cherland ( ) offers an in-depth investigation of sixth-graders in canada, describing how their surrounding culture positioned them into particular gender constructions, leading them to think, feel, act, and understand themselves in certain ways. the girls used fiction reading as a strategy for resistance to and a way to exercise agency over these messages, which in turn, were often met with counter messages that reinforced the dominant gender constructions. while they were not successful in making new worlds, the girls employed reading as a tool to both understand themselves and to answer back to the world. identity as pleasure. in a recent examination of the kinds of pleasures adolescents experience from voluntary reading, wilhelm and smith ( ) acknowledge that identity work is part of social pleasure, one of four important pleasures youth receive from independent reading. their findings indicate that naming oneself as a reader, and defining oneself and one’s place in the world as such, is a culmination of the other pleasures (play, work, and intellectual pleasures) and can be both intense and enduring for youth. while they delve into how reading influences self-understanding and how such understanding impacts reading choices or process, they categorize this understanding as (inner) work pleasure, which, when added to play and intellectual pleasures, becomes one’s reader identity, offering a complex understanding of reader identity. in-school reading the aforementioned studies have examined out-of-school reading practices. other research foregrounds the types of texts read as part of classroom curriculum and how these choices impact self-perception. multicultural literature. sutherland’s ( ) work with six -year-old black girls is a useful study of race and gender identity. sutherland acknowledges that “as people read, write, and talk about text, those practices shape (and are shaped by) how those people think about themselves and their place in the world” (p. ); therefore, she asks the question, “how does the study of literature by and about african-american women shape adolescent african-american girls’ identity construction as they study that literature in school?” (p. ). all participants attended the same honors english class, which read the bluest eye by toni morrison as part of an identity study, and sutherland then conducted individual and group interviews. using discourse analysis and critical discourse analysis, she discovered two themes related to the participants’ sense of self: “how a) a eurocentric view of beauty acts as a boundary in black women’s lives, and b) others’ assumptions about who they are – thus – how they will and should behave – act as a boundary” (p. ). participants used the text to make personal connections to their own everyday experiences and, thus, made sense of their own struggles with daily interactions regarding race and gender identity. additionally, they used the text to resist identities imposed on them by broader society. sutherland concluded that literacy and identity are “inextricably intertwined” and that for some students, this “interconnectedness is especially deep and powerful” (p. ). of interest in this study is that sutherland foregrounded the text itself in considering the reciprocal effects of reading and identity. likewise, boston and baxley ( ) and blackburn and buckley ( ) advocate for certain types of literature to be included in classroom curriculum because texts themselves bring something to the interaction with the reader; different texts will afford and constrain different interactions. also researching gender identity, boston and baxley ( ) studied how reading multicultural novels with strong, positive black female protagonists can influence black middle school females’ gender identity. working from reader response, critical response, and gender construction theory, boston and baxley conducted a content analysis on four major young adult titles featuring female black protagonists. acknowledging that race, class, and culture all affect gender identity, they argue for not only the inclusion of such literature in the classroom but also for culturally relevant teaching that emphasizes higher order thinking around issues that connect to the students and are raised in the novels. when such inclusion and teaching occurs, students are motivated to read deeply and, therefore, are more academically successful (boston & baxley, ). queer-inclusive literature. similarly, blackburn and buckley ( ) advocate for the teaching of queer-inclusive literature as a way for all students, regardless of their sexual orientation, to be educated about the “interconnections among sexuality, identity, and literature” (p. ). their study examined the extent to which u.s. public high school english curricula address same-sex desire, finding that of the responding schools used some materials to address this issue. the authors then recommend several texts to address sexual identity in the classroom, arguing that all students benefit by examining their own sexual identity as well as their perceptions and knowledge of other sexual orientations. in summary, the reading-identity literature addresses both voluntary reading and required reading for school as well as the importance of certain genres of texts, and even particular texts, in relation to identity formation and performances; however, there is a lack of explanation on the micro level of the reading transaction as words are read and meaning is made in the moment. identity, literacy, and faith while a number of studies investigate reader, gender, class, and ethnic identities, a small but growing body of literature is turning toward the connections between religious identities from various faith traditions and literacy practices. this work generally includes both in- and out-of-school literacy events because the faith identity is examined across contexts. muslim faith sarroub’s ( ) ethnographic work with yemeni girls and their use of “in- betweenness” to be both good yemeni muslim girls and also enter the american culture examines multiple uses of texts at home, school, and in the community for the girls to build spaces for acceptable identities regarding gender, religion, ethnicity, and class. in this study, literacy practices were clearly influenced by religious beliefs, including the belief that the qur’an is infallible and, therefore, immune from critique (sarroub, ); however, sarroub also argues that their literacy practices helped the girls construct and enact yemini muslim identities as well as american teenager identities. participants recited and referred to sections of the qur’an at school to explain their thoughts about various topics. they also read the qur’an each night at home. at the same time, the girls used safe places such as lunchroom tables to read teen magazines and romantic poems, forbidden by their culture and religion at home, yet helpful as they constructed “american girl” identities. the idea of “in-betweenness” suggests that the borders of different identities shifted as the time and place shifted; furthermore, the literacy events and practices for the participants were influenced by the context (sarroub, ). sarroub argues that teachers need to be aware of out-of-school literacy practices because they impact classroom participation and performance; thus, knowledge of these practices allows teachers to better help students succeed. though sarroub ( ) leans on gee’s ( ) understanding of discourse to theoretically frame her study, using holland et al. ( ) would have afforded a more defined analysis of the relationships among the different identities for each girl. sarroub ( ) initially describes hierarchic relationships between the girls’ identities: yemini, family, and muslim identities were most salient, and american identities were secondary. later on, she describes the identities as independent from each other: “the girls maintained dual identities, which bifurcated according to the gendered, economic, and cultural spaces they inhabited” (p. ). ultimately, sarroub argues that the girls created hybrid identities of american yemeni girls. from this description, it would seem sarroub saw evidence of each of these relationships between identities. sarroub chooses to analyze the girls as a group, but with holland et al.’s ( ) theory, she could have analyzed each girl’s understanding of her identities, allowing for different understandings of the same identity (good yemeni daughter) from different girls as well as how each girl constructed the relationships among different identities, providing, arguably, a more comprehensive understanding of the lived experience of identity for the participants. catholic faith while sarroub ( ) highlights reading over writing practices, reyes ( ) examines the significance of a scrapbook created by zulmy, a bilingual, latina th grader, and suggests that this text, which evolved out of zulmy’s science club membership, came to be a safe space for her to voice her catholic identity in a public context. reyes’ analysis combines culturist and constructivist views of identity, suggesting that zulmy’s “church girl” identity is a blending of the cultural religious practices in her life – regular church attendance and listening to her mother’s spiritual stories – and zulmy’s agency to present herself in social contexts with actions that answer the historical, cultural context and positioning of public school, such as creating the scrapbook. though the book contained few references to science, it did reflect spiritualist and consumerist identities. zulmy also included pages of letters and pictures of her friends in the book, signifying her identity as a loved friend and suggesting positive positioning by others. overlap occurred in these identities and figured worlds as friends wrote on religious themes in their letters to zulmy. reyes argues that the scrapbook helps zulmy construct ever-changing, aligned, and contradictory identities; this artifact mediated multiple identities for zulmy. reyes concludes that teachers should be looking for the liminal spaces that students with religious identities create in public spaces. like leander ( ), reyes highlights the identity artifact above other aspects of identity construction. as in sarroub’s ( ) study, reyes’ study highlights how faith identities can influence students’ literacy practices, both in- and out-of-school. baptist faith sometimes youth participate in additional literacy practices as a part of their faith identities and related participation in faith-related communities that are not known or valued in a school setting. kelly ( ) examines the role of literacy practices in community and church contexts with racial and baptist identities in a study of six adolescent african-american males and a case study of one youth, anthony. these adolescents participated in a drumming group, a dance troupe, and a saturday school, all held in a church, where they engaged in literacy practices, learned about their cultural heritage, and developed positive racial identities. anthony was almost failing public school english; however, he appropriated reading and writing skills learned there for his own purposes both in saturday school and in personal literacy practices. “he loved to read, and what he read informed his identity as african american;” in fact, he was a strong reader and writer and often directed his personal literacy practices towards identity development (kelly, , p. ). he also focused on issues of racial and religious identity for school assignments. kelly comments that none of the public school teachers were aware of the extent to which anthony and other students were involved in church activities. she suggests that the “cultures of home, church, and community have a tremendous impact on the identity development of children,” (p. ) and these identities represent “on-going construction based in the negotiation of the multiple literacies” (p. ) that inform a person’s everyday experiences. therefore, kelly argues for schools to validate and build on these literacy practices and identities. writing about faith williams ( ) makes a similar point, contending that teachers must adequately address their students’ interest in writing about religion. acknowledging religion as a core identity factor, she also admits that teachers are more willing to discuss race, gender, or social class than religious beliefs. first, the questionable role of religion in u.s. public settings leads most teachers to respect their students’ religious values, but also to hope the students keep their beliefs to themselves so as not to make other students uncomfortable. second, student persuasive writing on religious topics can result in a literal, unchallengeable reading of the bible as the only source, which might conflict with the teacher’s belief in knowledge as rational or provable or in “truth” as socially constructed (williams, ). in spite of these concerns, where students are present, faith is present; teachers cannot bar faith from the classroom. williams ( ) suggests that one response to students’ desire to write about religious issues is to use the occasion to teach about audience awareness and the possible mismatch of religious topics and public school; however, when she has used this reasoning with her students and they change topics, the new writing “lacks passion and enthusiasm, and i sense i have turned an assignment from writing that matters deeply to the students into an assignment they are producing simply to fulfill the requirements of the class” (p. ). rather, williams seeks acceptable middle ground in which she responds to such writing in ways that allow the student to explore significant matters of faith while still adhering to academically rigorous standards. williams’ ( ) study points beyond the notion that students bring identities with them into the classroom to suggest that when students are denied access to those identities when making choices for texts, assignments can lose their authenticity and students their engagement. religious literacies while sutherland ( ), boston and baxley ( ), and blackburn and buckley ( ), have considered the role specific texts or types of texts play in identity development, others have explored the bible as a text separate from other texts and the role it plays in identity formation and literacy practices. biblicism mary juzwik ( ) studied evangelical christians and suggests that evangelical biblicism is a literate practice with a transitive relationship among the biblical text, proper beliefs, and honorable actions. because of this relationship, evangelical christians hold the tension between “the necessity of interpretive freedom, allowing the bible to live anew for each generation of believers (presence in the world), and the unchanging truth of god’s word (the purity of the word)” (p. ). these tensions and relationships between text, beliefs, and actions are mediated in what juzwik calls “textual communities,” such as congregations or bible study groups. in these communities, the reverence for the biblical text as distinct from all other texts is instilled and emphasized at the same time that it is discussed; thus, the bible becomes an identity artifact and identity work progresses (juzwik, ). even with textual readings, the bible is viewed as a literate interaction: “evangelicals tend to interact with their bibles as devoted english majors might engage with a much-studied literary text that speaks to them…. the idea is to talk back to and recontextualize the text in one’s everyday life” (juzwik, , p. ). in her conclusion, juzwik ( ) poses several questions for me to consider as well: “how much time do young people spend with the bible, and how do they spend that time? what are the features of interactions surrounding biblical reading for young people? what roles surround bible reading for young people?” (p. ). she argues for continued scholarship on how religious faiths and traditions influence language and literacy practice both in and out of educational settings, as well as how younger generations come to understand the bible as authoritative to families or congregations. my study will aim to add to this stream of scholarship by examining if and how mennonite youth make sense of the bible and other texts in defining their faith identities. religious literacies in the public classroom skerrett ( ) contributes to this field when she examines students’ christian religious literacies in a secular classroom, arguing that knowledge of students’ religious lives could provide distinct theoretical and instructional understandings for the classroom. framing religious literacies within new literacies theories, skerrett briefly traces the history of religious literacies in the protestant tradition, explaining that in order to spread the faith, it was necessary for the masses to be able to read and interpret the bible for themselves and in communities for application to their daily lives. in this way, religion and literacy are inextricably intertwined. like juzwik ( ), skerrett considers how religious literacies can affect persons’ transactions with non-religious texts as well as their engagements with texts in non-religious settings. ultimately, skerrett ( ) argues for the intertwining of literacy and religion within specific social, historical, and cultural contexts such that “religious (as with other) identities, literacy practices, values, and goals flow through, transform, and are transformed by the many contexts of people’s lives” (p. ). in this study, the teacher invited connections between students’ multiple identities, “lifeworlds,” and literacy practices and their academic activities and identities. specifically, she encouraged students to draw upon their religious expertise when making textual meaning. skerrett gives an example of the class reading a story in which a man is described as being beaten as he is up on a hill with his arms outstretched. individual members of the class read this image as a symbol for jesus with further discussion leading to communal discernment and then agreement, thus paralleling the importance of shared readings and interpretations in many faith communities (skerrett, ). unlike most studies in the field, skerrett ( ) begins to differentiate between the modalities of reading and writing, describing first how religious literacies, beliefs, and knowledge are used to advance academic literacies and identities when reading a short story and then, in a subsequent section, how religious literacies are engaged in writing a memoir, noting that while reading biblical texts was encouraged historically, religious writing was reserved for preachers, persons engaged in biblical scholarship, and copying scripture to aid in memorization (skerrett, ). in contrast, the students in the example above demonstrated clear understanding of central christian tenets and integrated them into their own socio-historical experiences and contexts. skerrett’s ( ) study, however, focuses more on religious literacies than explicitly on religious identities. the bible as context-specific by understanding religion as social practice in a figured world and reading as a social practice in a figured world, one must consider that the bible as a text and as an identity artifact will differ from group to group. kapitzke ( ) writes, cultural logic or conventional communal understandings and presuppositions about text, its interpretation and use, are paramount in knowing how to be a catholic, a baptist, an adventist, or member of any distinctive group sharing a common text and discourse. all christians employ the same constitutive text, but read and use it differently, and therefore read and use text per se differently…. joint possessions of cultural mores operate processes of text meaning and use, and contribute to diversity and variance between groups despite their engagement with the same text. selective cultural attitudes to issues of authority, power, and service differentially influence interpretation and social signification of text. (p. ) this notion of the biblical text as context-specific is perhaps best understood in light of fishman’s ( ) ethnography of the fisher family, a lancaster county amish family. fishman describes their literacy uses within their immediate community, the broader amish community, the church community, and the school community. the amish have related religious roots to mennonites, and there is some overlap of important religious texts; the fisher family orally read as a devotional, martyrs mirror: the story of seventeen centuries of christian martyrdom from the time of christ to a.d. (van braght, ), a tome of gruesome stories of early christians and anabaptists who were tortured and died for their faith. fishman ( ) aims to describe what literacy means to these people in different contexts and how their religious beliefs and knowledge influence their literacy practices. fishman found that this amish community believed that meaning was found in the words themselves, printed on the page, taken directly and literally. fishman quotes anna, the fisher mother as saying, “’what’s in the bible is supposed to be the truth. we don’t have second thoughts about what’s in there’” (p. ). sermons are crafted to deliver positive applications of the text to everyday life, and amish readers then employ this practice with all texts: the amish readers in my experience extend this approach to everything they read, finding personally applicable “up-building” meaning in both the positive and negative experiences of historical, fictional, and actual individuals, regardless of the text in which they’re encountered. so what the church actually teaches is that meaning comes through scrupulous attention to words, but that the attitude toward and meaning of those words is often predetermined by the community in which they are read. (p. ) understanding the bible as an identity artifact strengthens the tie between faith identities and literacy practices, though it does not assume any one particular meaning of that artifact or how the bible or knowledge from the bible will be used in other figured worlds. fishman ( ) and eakle ( ) are two of few literacy studies that situate at least part of their research in faith-based educational contexts. literacies studies in faith-based educational context eakle ( ) studied various literacy spaces in a christian faith-based school in a small town in mississippi. specifically, eakle examined the literacies within the th- grade curriculum through general class discussion, a class field trip to a local museum displaying african-american art, and a visit to a local theater to view and discuss mel gibson’s passion of christ. the students at the k- school were african-american, as were their teachers. eakle explains, “christianity is a source of power that has produced a range of spaces, effects and individuals who advance social causes and minister to those in need” (p. ). he then reflects that it is, therefore, surprising that there is so little literacy education research focused on christian faith. furthermore, he suggests that christian literacies have both local and global power implications. christian themes populated most texts used in the classrooms and also presented themselves in students’ out-of-school literacies, including rap. thus, in this school setting, “ruptures between invisible, possible spiritual worlds and everyday urban life were narrowed; much of this closure was made available through what were considered to be divine textual bridges” (eakle, , p. ). eakle also found literacy events that had the opportunity to produce identity statements valued by the local setting or to address issues of identity, but the teachers chose not to support these conversations. eakle’s study had a somewhat different focus – spaces and powers – in a different vein of christianity – fundamentalism – than i am presenting; however, it leaves room for my study to fill in some of the gaps in christian educational research, especially in terms of literacy education and identity in a faith-based educational setting. in fact, eakle calls for such further research. mennonite educational research there is a paucity of research on mennonite high school students, but i am aware of four studies. sociopolitical views sensenig ( ) studied two mennonite high schools with respect to their sociopolitical views. this ethnographic study examined how each school treated peace issues, nationalism, and ecological issues, and how they dealt with cultural changes. sensenig found patterns common between the two schools as well as differences regarding his four areas of study. this study does not address issues of reading or faith identity on an individual level, but it can help me understand questions and issues that may be at play at the mennonite high school i will use as my context. my study might be able to contribute to the understanding of how a school’s version of the “mennonite vision” influences individual students’ perceptions of themselves as mennonites. self-concept suzuki ( ) wondered if there were any significant differences in the self- concepts of mennonite teenagers and public-school teenagers. twenty-five students from each population completed a self-description inventory, which includes questions about the actual self and the ideal self. findings indicated there were no significant differences between the two groups, although the mennonite adolescents were more interested in religion and were more likely to think of themselves as non-conformers than the public school participants. this study most closely addresses a concept related to identity. literacy learning walker-brown’s ( ) ethnography studied the literacy practices of four mennonite students labeled as learning-disabled at a mennonite high school, exploring the interaction and relationship between context and the students’ reading attitudes, perspectives, and practices with the aim of constructing a model of dynamic assessment. using interviews, observations, artifacts, and verbal protocols, walker-brown found that a community’s literacy orientation, early school experiences, and the extent to which the students viewed themselves as readers and writers impacted their high school literacy experiences. she concluded that learning-disabled adolescents experienced a lot of separation and needed to experience greater integration in several areas, including instruction and assessment, home and school literacy understandings, and components of the reading process to improve the quality of their literacy learning experiences. walker-brown explores the literacy beliefs and attitudes of the mennonite community context within which her study is based and how these values impacted the literacy practices of her participants, but she does not explicitly explore the connection between a mennonite identity and literacy practices. worldview bishop’s ( ) research asks the question, “how does a young person (first-year college student) shape/re-shape a received worldview in the context of a democratically structured, constructivist english language arts classroom?” (p. ). he also examined how this person might be marginalized or silenced in this classroom. bishop chose seven young people who had been former students of his at a mennonite high school and who had attended mennonite schools for at least four years, k- . data sources included: interviews with the students, their former high school teachers and their present college professors; emails; journals kept by the students for the purpose of research; and written student work. the research design was case study, three of which were extended for further analysis of discourse and “core-to-core culture confrontation.” as a part of this work, bishop asked each student to read a chapter of chaim potok’s the chosen, the story of an unlikely friendship between a two teenage boys – one a hasidic jew and the other a modern orthodox jew. he then reviewed their responses to determine how a mennonite worldview and discourse influenced reading transactions. bishop found that the students encountered core-to-core cultural confrontations in their college classrooms and that they resolved them in different ways. in addition, students often experienced some level of silencing or marginalization in these classrooms. bishop’s ( ) study examines how mennonite students’ worldviews impact their experiences and responses in a college language arts classroom. it is one of few studies undertaken with a high school mennonite population, and while it does not address students’ self-understandings, it offers explicit and focused attention regarding the act of reading. this study is helpful for me regarding the population, but it leaves room for my study to add to the literature regarding reading, faith, and identity. critique in reading the field of identity-literacy research and listening to the conversation in the parlor, i contend there is some lack of clarity on the modalities of literacy practices and how they might influence or be influenced by enacted identities. that is, does reading a text or responding to one allow students to engage in a particular identity work or enactment that is different from what writing affords? even with in-depth analyses (cherland, ; sarroub, ), with a few exceptions (e.g. skerrett, ), there has not been a clear research focus on particular engagements with particular texts in terms of their reciprocal relationship with performed identities. furthermore, while many studies theoretically understand identities to be multiple and some acknowledge multiple identities in their findings, few consider the relationship among enacted identities. finally, the existing research base does not comprehensively investigate various manifestations of the same identities across different individuals. i intend to address each of these critiques with my research question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? chapter – methodology overview as stated, research in identity and literacy practices is becoming more and more significant, and holland et al.’s ( ) social practice theory of identity is one way to examine this topic. specifically, this theory views identities as social products, self- meanings, symbolic, reflexive, and a source of motivation for action. here, identities include agency, semiotic mediation with others, and higher order mental functioning within specific historical, sociocultural contexts (holland and lachicotte, ). using this theory creates imperatives for my methodology. my investigation of the relationships between enacted faith identities and literate practices for mennonite adolescents, like most identity-literacy research, is best suited to qualitative research methods. as reviewed in the last chapter, interview- and observation-based investigations in literacy practices and identities have been increasingly important in understanding adolescents’ identity development and performances as well as how reading and writing impact and are influenced by these identities both in-school and out-of-school; however, as i also posited in the last chapter, these studies too often lack specific attention to the actual reading and writing behaviors in which the adolescents engage. consequently, in my study, i included both interview and observation data collection, as well as written documents and verbal protocols, to be able to address this issue. the research method i used is multiple case studies (yin, ) because i wanted to understand the complex social phenomenon of my participants’ lived experiences regarding self-understandings or identities. mine is a “how” question, and i seek to describe the phenomenon of these self-understandings within specific socio-cultural contexts. study participants the participants for this study are five mennonite adolescents who engage in voluntary reading. a small number of participants, such as five to eight, is common in the field of literacy research for qualitative research (i.e., cherland, ; reeves, ; sarroub, ). the literature also establishes a study design of focusing on one population rather than doing a comparison study (e.g., juzwik, , kelly, ; reyes, ; sarroub, ; sutherland, .) many considerations have led me to study mennonite adolescents. mennonites first, i have personal knowledge about the mennonite faith and easier access to this group than to persons from other faith traditions. second, reading religious texts – most importantly, but not limited to, the bible – is an important part of faith development and performed identity for many people. most mennonites view the bible as the word of god, “inspired by god through the holy spirit” (confession, , p. ) and believe one’s faith community together discerns the meaning of the text and the interpretation for daily living (roth, ). thus, participation in a figured world is paramount for the mennonite understanding of scripture. third, there is a scarcity of research on protestant christian faith identities in the education literature even though % of youth in the united states self-identify as christian, % as protestant and % believe formal religious participation is important to them (king & roeser, ). adolescents research on mennonite youth is even rarer. because religion and spirituality are significant to many american adolescents – % of youth in the national study of youth and religion identify with some religion –, this identity warrants research (king & roeser, ). king and roeser further assert that adolescence is a time of faith-related searching, seeking, and questioning, and that religion and spirituality comprise one important influence on identity development during adolescence. more broadly, flum and kaplan ( ) cite erikson ( ) in their assertion that adolescence is a pivotal time for identity development due to the increased cognitive abilities, which support self- reflection capabilities. identifying participants i worked with one english teacher, mrs. cooper, who taught two sections of british literature honors to juniors. all juniors are required to take one semester of a bible class, called “story of the church,” either in the fall or spring semester. to identify possible participants, i asked mrs. cooper to distribute to her students a survey (appendix a), which asked if they were mennonite and how often (never, sometimes, often) they read various types of texts (books, newspapers, webpages) at home. i then obtained class rosters for the bible classes to determine which students were in both british literature honors and bible class. i examined the survey results of that group. based on the results, i met informally with those identifying as mennonite and reading any of the text types at home at least sometimes and explained the project. i gave them a letter of assent (see appendix b) to sign and a letter of consent (see appendix c) to give to their parents to sign and to inform them about the study, according to irb guidelines. i also asked the english and bible teachers to sign a letter of consent (appendix d). context of investigation menno high school (mhs) is a private, comprehensive, co-educational high school, that offers grades - and maintains an enrollment of approximately students. (all names of institutions and people have been changed to protect confidentiality.) located on a -acre campus, it is supported by the local mennonite conference. students at mhs live in twenty public school districts, and the student body connects to more than congregations from different denominations; approximately of these congregations are mennonite. about % percent of the students are international students, and % percent of all students identify as mennonite. a high majority of the faculty and all administrators are mennonite as are % of the board of trustees. more than % of the recent graduating classes chose to attend college upon graduation and about % entered voluntary service assignments. the mission statement of mhs, as found on their website, reads: menno high school, in partnership with the family and the church, seeks to develop the god-given abilities of students in preparation for responsible stewardship of life as members of god's people in a global society. mhs serves youth and families of ______ mennonite conference, _____ district conference and those who share anabaptist values. in , mhs adopted a graduate profile that provides focus and alignment for the educational program of the school. the graduate profile, also published on the school website, states: as one of the schools providing an anabaptist-mennonite education (framed within the context of the confession of faith in a mennonite perspective), menno high school recognizes that its graduates are in transition. the education process seeks to honor and develop the uniqueness of each student and his/her role within the community where their gifts, talents and learning are applied. to this end, a graduate of this educational system is a person who: academic • values and demonstrates life-long learning including skills of problem solving, problem posing, critical thinking and cooperation. • exhibits competency in the basic skills and knowledge of the academic disciplines. • communicates effectively through speaking and writing. • uses, recognizes and appreciates creativity and artistic expression. • incorporates available technology appropriately. spiritual • embraces a personal relationship with jesus christ. • exhibits a growing life of discipleship. • practices spiritual disciplines. • discovers defines and develops her/his god-given gifts. • cultivates a christian worldview informed by anabaptist-mennonite theology and tradition. • articulates his/her beliefs, values and convictions clearly. • accepts the scriptures as the word of god and as the fully reliable and trustworthy standard for christian faith and life. lifestyle • practices stewardship of all that god has entrusted to her/him. • thinks and operates with a global perspective. • promotes forgiveness, understanding, reconciliation and non-violent resolution of conflict. • participates in congregational/church life. • respects diversity. • models servanthood by participating in service opportunities. • practices wellness of mind and body. • values god's word, people and creation. while the graduate profile suggests that “a graduate of this educational system is a person who” ascribes to the various elements of academics, spiritual life, and lifestyle, it is perhaps more accurate to say that the school would hope their graduates would have or aspire to these characteristics. one assignment used to assess student outcomes in relation to the graduate profile is the “senior speech,” a -minute speech required of all seniors prior to graduation that is open to the public and constitutes the capstone of the building community curriculum (bishop & fransen, ). bishop ( ) notes, “in those speeches, the graduates reflect on their entire high school experience, and then demonstrate and articulate who they have been over that time period, addressing the categories of academics, spiritual life, and lifestyle choices according to the graduate profile” (p. ). these speeches are a reflection of how the students have understood themselves and often include deep reflection and revealing vulnerability. data collection in hopes of discovering a “converging line of inquiry” (yin, , p. ), the data for this study are qualitative data. qualitative research is useful in answering my research question because it acknowledges the importance of context – of the research setting, myself as the researcher, and the participants. it also invites a wide range of data sources, such as observation, interviews, and artifacts, which are helpful in increasing my understanding. finally, it allows the possibility of collaborative research, offers an avenue for students’ “voice” to be heard, and provides an avenue for research to impact practice. specifically, interpretivism fits my needs and research interests because it is grounded in a socially constructed reality and understands research to be subjective from the perspective of both the researcher and the participant. interpretivism will allow me to view a broader picture and include more of the picture in my research. in addition, while interpretive research begins with a clear question, it also evolves through the process as the researcher learns in depth about the situation, and it values the process as much as the product. while i know what my interests are, there could be factors or answers that arise out of the research that i am not anticipating. i also believe the process will be valuable for me as well as for the participants. finally, rather than primarily seeking truth or change, i desire a better understanding of how mennonite adolescents live through and develop their understanding of themselves with regard to literate practices and faith. data were gathered from four main sources: interviews, observations, written assignments from each class, and verbal protocols. the initial intention of the writing assignments was to be supplementary, along with activity logs (see appendix e) completed by the participants to help inform the interviews; however, as i collected data and began analyzing, i realized i wanted to include the written documents in a more significant way. through the various data sources, i wanted to get a thick and rich description of the participants’ enacted self-understandings of faith and its possible relationships to literate practices. interviews i conducted a set of interviews focused on each participant. first, an initial, individual, semi-structured interview of approximately - minutes at the school allowed me to learn about the participants’ self-understandings as persons of mennonite faith and their literate practices (see appendix f). to help establish rapport and address other salient identities that may have been missed otherwise, i asked questions such as: • walk me through a typical day in your life. • what is important to know about you in order to understand who you are? • if you have a free afternoon, how do you like to spend your time? to address faith identity, questions i used in the interviews included the following: • can you tell me about your faith? how do you define or describe it? (follow- up questions included: you talked about being mennonite; can you tell me more about what that means to you? or, i noticed you didn’t talk about being mennonite; why is that?) • what activities do you participate in that are connected to your faith? • can you tell me a story that illustrates your feelings about being mennonite? to address voluntary literate practices and personal literacy history, i asked questions such as: • why do you read? • have your reading practices or habits changed over time? • what do you read on your own? • do you consider yourself a reader? if so, is that important to you? • do you keep a journal or do other writing for yourself? the mennonite questions are based on personal experience. the reading questions come out of the literature (reeves, ; richardson & eccles, ) and are confirmed by my professional teaching experience. i proceeded with a second set of interviews four to five weeks into the observation data collection time period and conducted final interviews (see appendix g) at the conclusion of the observations. the purpose of these interviews was to clarify questions i had as well as to provide an opportunity for the participants to member check my evolving interpretations and provide their own reflections on that data. i used the activity logs and the field notes as stimuli for these interviews. the interviews allowed the participants to articulate faith understandings of themselves as well as describe their elective reading practices. interviews, through the lens of interpretivism, allow for new thoughts mediated through the socially constructed context. they also allow me, as the researcher, to learn in depth about each participant and the ways they understand themselves; however, interviews that are directed at self- reflection have limitations if used alone. because i believe identities are performed and understood in relation to actions and communications with other people in various contexts (holland et al., ), i also conducted semi-structured interviews with the participants’ english and bible teachers (see appendix h). these interviews, which occurred after the observation period, centered on how the teachers viewed the focus students and served to triangulate the data from the students (willis, ). questions included: • please tell me about participant a. how would you describe him/her? • please describe what, if anything, you notice about participant a’s reading and writing. • please tell me what, if anything, you observe about participant a’s faith. the field notes also functioned as stimuli for these interviews. all interviews were digitally audio recorded and then transcribed. transcription conventions are listed here: (…) a part of the interview that was omitted due to irrelevancy to the point under discussion (word/s) verbal utterance that was not a word, such as a laugh taken together, all of these interviews shed light on how this group of mennonite high school students described their understanding of their faith identities in relation to their reading practices, how others positioned them around these enacted identities, how they answered back, and how they imagined possible new worlds and new identities. observation although interviews address several aspects of the social practice theory of identity and the concept of identity as socially constructed, as holland et al. ( ) and others (mccarthey & moje, ) point out, identities are more than words; they are also based in actions, in the participatory activities within figured worlds with other actors. from the constructivist paradigm, the concept of identity is often understood as being multiple – dynamic social realities within a given context constructed by and inseparable from the individual’s actions. identities are given meaning, and individuals perform identities, based on interactions between themselves and their environment, including other persons, and the symbolic communications surrounding those actions. therefore, i observed the participants in their english and bible classes two days a week for the second quarter of the - school year, and i took field notes. my classroom observations were guided by the aspects of figured worlds identified by holland et al. ( ). thus, i was looking for artifacts, actors, actions, and valued outcomes of the figured world, as well as the ways the participants were positioned or situated within the activities and practices of the figured world relative to others in the figured world, and how the participants answered back to those positions that contributed to identity construction and performances within those figured worlds. i did not attend to others in the classroom when they were not interacting with the study participants. detailed field notes with direct quotations were typed on site during every observation and were reviewed and revised for accuracy promptly following the observation. the notes were then parsed into activities as units for coding. these observations allowed me to examine semiotic mediations such as dress, speech, and actions within specific figured worlds relevant to performed faith identities and reading practices; however, interviews and observations still do not systematically address how identities might influence or be influenced by specific reading or writing events. therefore, i collected documents and conducted verbal protocols with each participant. written documents at the first interviews, i asked the participants for writing assignments from their english and bible classes, and i collected any they happened to have with them. i asked again at the second and third interviews as i began creating a list of specific assignments generated from the documents i was receiving. sometimes during bible class when mr. bennett was returning papers, he’d ask the participants if i could have a copy. in these ways, i collected at least four documents from each participant from each class. verbal protocol my study differs from most literacy-identity studies in that i engaged specific reading behaviors as the participants made sense of self-selected, well-liked texts. because i understand reading practices to be reading experiences in which subjective meaning is constructed by individuals and communities of practice within a sociocultural context, it was important to see what meanings participants made of texts to understand the possible relationships between their reading experiences and their self- understandings. levine’s ( ) recent study examines affective evaluation when reading. she begins her article by referencing the book that changed my life: remarkable writers celebrate the books that matter most to them (coady & johannessen, ): “in a collection of essays, writers describe reading experiences that influenced their understandings of themselves and their worlds” (p. ). it is these kinds of reading experiences that i aimed to examine. also known as a think-aloud protocol, in the verbal protocol, the participant read a text aloud, pausing to verbalize what he or she was thinking, feelings, sensing, or doing while moving through the text. this method has been used to understand cognition (afflerbach, ), the strategies adolescents use when chatting online (lewis & fabos, ) and processes used before, during, and after reading (pressley & hilden, ). pressley and afflerbach ( ) reviewed more than separate verbal protocol studies related to reading and found that expert readers are constantly shifting the processes they use to constructively transact and make meaning with the text, including activating prior and related knowledge before reading, reflecting on and interpreting the text during reading, and reconstructing and continuing to reflect on a text after reading. my purpose for this protocol was to understand the possible impacts of enacted identities in the transactional, meaning-making activity of reading as well as the influences of reading specific texts on identities. therefore, to most closely approximate natural reading and have the best match of interests and possible identity influences, like wyatt et al. ( ) who studied the reading processes used by experts, i invited participants to choose their texts rather than using a common text for all participants. in order to invite students to bring these self-selected texts, i asked questions such as the following during the first interview: • tell me about your faith; next time we meet, can you bring in something you’ve read related to that in some way? • tell me the last few things you’ve read that you really liked; next time can you bring in one of those to read to me? in their study, wyatt et al. ( ) wanted the texts used to be “extremely well matched to the knowledge and interest of the readers” and, therefore, they prompted participants to choose articles they viewed as “extremely relevant to their interests” (p. ). in this study, i wanted participants to engage texts that were highly relevant to their sense of self as one who reads (a text they really liked) and as a person of faith (a faith- related text with which they resonated). i wanted them to choose texts they were invested in, texts that were salient to them, texts that were artifacts of their figured worlds, texts that allowed them entry into those figured worlds and then to participate fully in those worlds. therefore, participants chose a selection from a favorite text as well as a favorite faith-related text to use for the verbal protocols. consequently, the texts read were re- readings rather than first-time readings as is commonly the practice with verbal protocols. this activity was a part of the second, mid-point interview. i modeled the process with each participant and read the following directions: read the text you brought with you aloud. after each sentence or two, stop reading and tell me what you are thinking, feeling, asking, seeing, noticing, or connecting to. please tell me any response you have. i was as unobtrusive as possible but prompted participants by asking, “can you stop and say what’s going on now in your head?” if they read several sentences without stopping. these data helped me to see the relationship between enacted identities and the reading process at the micro-level. by asking for two texts from each participant, i was able examine the extent to which performed faith identities impact meaning-making with related and unrelated content. i also looked across texts to see how the two readings compared for each participant. i asked about their reading goals as well as their choice of texts. other sources to further triangulate the data sources above, i asked participants to keep a log of their out-of-school activities, including data such as reading, other activities, and time spent. though self-documented logs are not always accurately recorded, the logs allowed for information and reflection on activities and identities in the time between the interviews and helped guide the direction of the interviews. data analysis my knowledge about students’ performed identities in relation to their literacy practices is my interpretation of the meaning my participants construct from their lived experiences with literate practices and their understandings of identity. further, my knowledge was created in the interaction between myself and my participants and the consensus we drew after authentic and rich data collection and thorough analysis about the students’ understandings of their identities and their lived experiences with literacy activities in context. i transcribed all audio recordings of interviews and the verbal protocols with hypertranscribe and then enter them into hyperresearch, a qualitative research analysis software. field notes were typed as word processing documents. as i collected data, i began coding as well as writing conceptual memos to start interpreting and understanding the data for each student (willis, ). interviews in order to analyze the interview data, i first parsed the interview transcripts into clauses, examining students’ use of copulative verbs with noun complements as explicit identity markers, or ways they named themselves, and transitive verbs as expressions of participation in figured worlds. with these tools, i aimed to capture holland et al.’s ( ) notions that “people tell others who they are, but even more important, they tell themselves and then try to act as though they are who they say they are,” (p. ) and that “identities are lived in and through activity” (p. ). the explicit statements of identity served as markers from which i looked for supportive actions in the data. for example, jacob told me, “i am a maker.” this copulative verb-noun complement marks an identity, a self-understanding. later, jacob continued, “i’ve made, like, a homemade, like, dart blaster…and i made, like, potato cannons and slingshots and catapults.” here the transitive verbs provide actions that support the identity. as another example, early in the first interview, jessica expressed, “i’m a christian and i’ve been a christian for as long as i can remember. um, i believe in god and in jesus and the holy spirit, and um, i try to live like that. and i read the bible…” sometimes, even without explicit identity statements, there were identity-related actions in students’ statements. to link my analysis directly to my theoretical frame, i also coded the interviews based on the aspects of the social practice theory of identity for both faith and reader identities: figured worlds, positioning, space for authoring, and making worlds. using this a priori coding scheme allowed me to see how holland et. al’s ( ) theory played out in a way that open coding could not. finally, i coded for elements of the reading process including texts, context of reading, and purpose of reading. i used these a priori categories because i revised and added to the codes in order to comprehensively code the data (see appendix i). these analyses gave me insight into how the participants articulated and performed their self-understandings around faith and reading as well as how others viewed them within certain communities or figured worlds. observations after i coded the interview transcripts, i looked to see how the identity markers the participants used in the interviews played out in the observational field note data. in keeping with the notions that identity involves participation (mccaslin, ) and salience (holland, et al., ; stryker & serpe, ), i analyzed and coded the field notes, marking each time a student’s name appeared as well as the nature of the entry, as i had done in prior research along the same line of inquiry. i then looked in the field notes for evidence of participation based on these identities. i also coded for elements of a figured world, including actors, actions, outcomes, positioning, and space for authoring. any data points in which an out-of-school identity, such as sports fan or sports player, occur in the classroom were also noted. this analysis allowed me to examine the actions and artifacts that support faith and reading practices within a historical, cultural context that was socially constructed with others. written artifacts analysis i coded each written document in three ways. first, i used britton et al.’s ( ) categories of function to describe mature writing. the three main categories are transactional (informative), expressive, and poetic. they also describe special categories including pseudo-informative, in which the student focus on the audience role of the teacher-as-examiner “at the expense of the apparent informative function” (p. ), and dummy run, in which the writing simply demonstrates that the student can perform a certain kind of writing task. holland et al. ( ) focus on actors in figured worlds participating in significant actions and valued outcomes. britton et al.’s analytic tool allowed me to get a global sense of how the writing related to the valued outcomes of the figured world of the class. this analysis helped me to see the participants’ performance of their student identities within their writing. each participant wrote transactional or informative (britton et al., ) pieces; that is, all the writing i collected was coherent, organized, and conveyed meaning. this analysis afforded me a macro-level view of the writing and one angle into the identity performances of the student in a specific artifact as a whole. the second analysis i used was to count and examine self-mentions. because holland et al. ( ) posture self-authoring as a major part of their theory, i was looking for an analytic mechanism that captures how people chose to represent themselves in their writing. to understand the self-mentions, i applied tang and john’s ( ) typology of authorial presence in a written document based on first-person pronoun use in academic writing. tang and john ( ) describe six roles or identities that may be represented in academic writing by different uses of first-person pronouns: ‘i’ as the representative of some larger group (most often using we or us), ‘i’ as the tour guide through the writing (often using plural pronouns and verbs such as see, note, look), ‘i’ as the architect of the writing (foregrounds the author’s role in organizing and structuring the writing), ‘i’ as the describer of the research process (uses verbs like read, interview, collect), ‘i as the opinion-holder (uses verbs like agree, disagree, think), ‘i’ as the originator of new ideas in the writing (inserts new ideas into the writing). in this order, these identities suggest a continuum of least powerful authorial presence to most powerful. tang and john ( ) state that powerful authorial presence means knowledge or expertise but also means “belonging to an ‘author’” (p. s ) as someone who is a “‘maker of meaning.’” (ivanič, , p. quoted in tang & john, , p. s ). i coded each written document’s self-mentions with this typology as a way to understand the space of authoring and used the pronoun as the coding unit. while the number and type of self-mentions (personal pronouns) revealed to what extent a student’s identity was invested in a piece of writing, also examining the ideas expressed added a richness to the story of identity performance and writing practices. the third analysis was to code each sentence within the frame of the figured world. as artifacts, these writings functioned as a way for actors to participate in and help shape the figured world; they were one way for the students to enact identities — student identities as well as other identities. the written artifacts themselves, in one sense, were the students’ authoring or answering back. to the extent they completed the task and scored well, they accepted a positioning of good students; however, to get a more nuanced look at identities enacted in writing practices, i wanted to look more closely and apply the aspects of the figured world to the writings. bible class artifacts. because i collected the writings as a secondary data set, i did not have the same number of artifacts for each participant, but i coded and analyzed the data i had. i received between seven and ten bible class artifacts from each participant. each of these assignments was designed to review information shared in class and also asked each writer to share their own beliefs on the topic. my initial coding scheme included each of the significant actions and valued outcomes for the figured world as well as self-mentions and space for authoring. as i coded, i realized the significant actions mapped onto the valued outcomes and so i combined these categories to code for the following: • meeting requirements - transfer of knowledge from the teacher or class activities to the student through the writing (valued outcome) • ownership of personal beliefs (valued outcome) • practice of faith beliefs (valued outcome) • self-mentions - assertions of the writer’s authorial presence in the text along the tang & john ( ) continuum • space of authoring - statements that asserted direction beyond acceptance of the general positioning in the figured world or statements that served to shape the figured world english class artifacts. there were six main english class written documents: essays on the once and future king, frankenstein, great expectations, and beowulf; a written response to an independent novel; and an end-of-the-semester reflection (focusing on english class but also considering the semester as a whole for the student). mrs. cooper’s essay assignments based on literature positioned her students as competent writers who thoughtfully engaged with texts and expressed those thoughts in writing. the end-of-semester reflection paper positioned students as introspective and critical participants in the figured world. like the bible class artifacts, i did not have the same number of documents from each participant. i coded each sentence with the following coding scheme that aligned with the description of the british literature honors figured world: • quotation - quotations from texts that had been read as evidence for arguments in the writing (significant act) • language - use of language specific to the discourse of the figured world (artifact) • mastery - mastery of ideas or themes in the texts or mastery of the writing genre – the format of the academic essay (valued outcome) • applications - suggestions that the writer has or wants to apply learnings from the texts to his or her life (valued outcome) • faith connections - a specific application of a text to the writer’s life (valued outcome) • self-mentions - assertions of the writer’s authorial presence in the text along the tang & john ( ) continuum as described above • space of authoring - statements that asserted direction beyond acceptance of the general positioning in the figured world or statements that served to shape the figured world • description - sentences that described the class (e.g., “mrs. cooper brought up all sorts of different ideas and stories.”) verbal protocol holland et al. ( ) assert that participation in figured worlds contribute to a person’s values and knowledge and help define even fluid self-understandings; therefore, i was looking for analytics for the verbal protocols that would allow me to see the extent to which the participants’ values and background knowledge were evident in their responses. to this end, i analyzed the verbal protocol transcripts on two levels. first, i parsed the utterances between textual readings into content units – a segment of speech focused on one idea. my coding scheme for the content unit was as follows: • comprehending – understanding the literal words and making inferences • comprehension problems – difficulties in making meaning • visualizing – creating mental images of textual descriptions • connecting – relating the text to o the reader’s life experiences o figured worlds (other contexts and frames of action) o prior knowledge o another text • evaluating – a character, the author, the text, the reader • reacting – giving an emotional response to the text • valuing – importance ascribed to the text previous literacy research utilizing verbal protocols with reading responses informed my coding scheme (smith & wilhelm, ; wilhelm, ; wolfe & goldman, ) as did my emphasis on identity; that is, these codes allowed me a good description of how the reader was transacting with text as well as how that reading mapped onto my theoretical understanding of identity. for example, if the reader related the text to life experiences at church or youth group activities, this would map onto a faith identity enactment. if the reader made a connection between the text being read and another text that is faith-related, this move also would support a faith identity performance. if the connection was between the text and a class discussion, this move would support a student identity performance. pressley and gaskins ( ) argue that good readers “are very sensitive to the ideas in a text, responding to those ideas, most conspicuously through inferences and affective reactions” and that responses to texts are substantially based on prior knowledge (p. ). since salient identities for persons reflect high degrees of commitment to these identities (stryker & serpe, ) and strong participation in activities related to these identities (holland et al., ), a person’s prior knowledge related to those identities would also likely be strong. therefore, the ways the participants most strongly named themselves in the interviews likely would coincide with strong positive reactions and high valuing of texts or portions of texts that align with those named identities as well as connections to prior knowledge related to the figured worlds of salient identities. for example, i might expect to see evaluations of characters’ actions and words based on the faith understandings and beliefs of the reader. this first analysis produced a description of the response to each textual reading. with this description, i then compared the faith-related textual reading to the other textual reading to see in what ways enacted identities influenced the readings. additionally, this analysis helped me understand the nuances of the figured world of reading for these students; that is, examining the reading experience with a faith-related text and a non- sacred text allowed me to consider the connections and influences between the figured worlds and performed identities of readers and mennonites for these students. because i was again looking for how the participants chose to represent themselves, or author a space for themselves as holland et al. ( ) would say, i also examined the use of self-mentions (tang & john, ) and looked for connections between these responses and the elements of the figured worlds of english and bible class. for a second analytic lens, i used smith and wilhelm’s ( ) modification of vipond and hunt’s ( ) orientation analysis. this analysis focuses on the general, overall approach a student takes with a text and consists of six categories of readings: • information-driven (literal level reading focused on learning from text) • story-driven (focuses on entering the story and connecting with characters) • point-driven (focuses on the ideas, morals, and values of a text) • association-driven (focuses on personal connections illuminated by the text) • evaluation-driven (judges the quality of the text) • experience-driven (focuses on the in-the-moment emotions of the reader during the reading) • disengaged (focuses on finishing the exercise) this holistic analysis was useful in understanding, in sum, how a participant approached and transacted with a text and, more importantly, in considering how different orientations interacted with performed identities. because the participants selected the texts and enjoy reading, it seemed reasonable that some participants might have an experience-driven orientation; i did not expect any participant to have a disengaged orientation. through an identity lens, i expected i could find orientations that were association-driven, and given that one of the texts examined was faith-related, i thought there could also be point-driven readings. i felt that the overall approach a student used with a text could help me understand to what extent the text was being used as an artifact to perform a particular identity (holland et al., ). rigor to address trustworthiness and credibility of the analysis and interpretation, i took care in the collection, recording, and analysis of data, including keeping confidentiality and securing documents in password-protected storage; i triangulated the data by including multiple data sources from the participant as well as data from significant persons related to the participant. i included data from sources other than the individual because learning how others view and position the participant assisted me in developing follow-up interview questions for the participant and because how others position us can influence our own identities. to the extent that there might have been differences in identity performances across data sources from a participant, i accept this variance as an aspect of the phenomenon, given my understanding of identity as dynamic, socio- culturally constructed, and context-dependent, and not an issue of reliability. i conducted member checks with the participants as a means of confirming my interpretations, to create a chain of evidence (yin, ), and to allow their voices to co-construct the understandings of identities, literacy practices, and their relationships. with their voices and interpretations in mind, i wrote the concluding interpretation based on the greatest coherence to the entire data set. it is also important that my methods and analysis aligned with the selected theoretical framework to put my work in conversation with other studies and settings based on the same theory. it is, therefore, important that i thoroughly report on my study’s setting to allow the reader to determine the level of similarity to other settings. additionally, i attempted to be transparent in the reporting, including researcher influences, evolving changes during the study, and disconfirming evidence or rival explanations for the findings. in all, i aimed to achieve rigor by “telling a story so richly that the reader can feel it” (toma, , p. ). researcher’s role this study focuses on the intersection of reading, faith, and identity for teenage mennonites within the context of a mennonite high school. i am drawn to this question because of my own strong performed identities as a mennonite and as a reader, discussed in chapter . both of these labels have been an accepted part of my self-understanding for as long as i can remember and have always been as natural to me as the air i breathe. while there are times that i think critically and reflectively on these enacted identities, i often take them for granted, just like my next breath. in addition, i taught english for seven years in the school in which i did my research. it was this teaching experience, also described in chapter , which confirmed for me my enthusiasm for reading and enlightened me regarding my desire that every student love reading as well. while i have not taught in the school where this study was implemented for years, the fact that i taught there at one time does affect my perspective on the school. at the time of the study, i was still associated with the school through board membership and retained professional and personal relationships with several faculty members; however, it had been long enough since i was a teacher at the school that no students knew me from that context. my performed identities as a mennonite and as a reader do give me passion and personal understanding of what i researched. still, i continued to remind myself to be open to and look for all perspectives. i expected, in fact, that i would discover that there are many different stories about how faith, literate practices, and identity intersect. rather than being a liability, my personal identities, my teaching experience, and my knowledge of the study’s context proved helpful; however, i also tried to be cautious and aware of how my own beliefs about faith, education, and literate practices could bias or impact my outcomes. my values as the researcher are explicit and formative in choosing this phenomenon, in the development and execution of the study, and in the reporting of the findings. therefore, my role in the research is to be a “passionate participant” (guba & lincoln, , p. ) in all stages of the process and in constructing meaning in the analysis of the data. it is my role to confirm and validate my interpretations with the participants as well as to inform them of the findings so they can make agentic decisions if they so choose. it is also my role to inform the scholarly community about my findings. chapter – results and discussion this chapter will address my findings on the research question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? i will begin by describing the two school-related figured worlds most closely related to faith identities and literate practices – bible class and english class. following these descriptions, i will present a case study of each student. bible class figured world mr. bennett had been a bible and social studies teacher at mhs for years. he received his undergraduate degree from a mennonite university; he was an active member in a local mennonite church; and he had two children, one a student at mhs and the other at a local mennonite k- school. mr. bennett knew the worlds of mhs and mennonite faith intimately. at mhs, one semester of bible was required each year; the ninth-grade course was a survey of the old testament, and the tenth-grade course focused on jesus’ life and examined the gospels. the th-grade course was called “story of the church,” and the final required course, for seniors, was “kingdom living” and focused on the biblical understanding of the jesus way of peace and love. in fall , mr. bennett taught two sections of story of the church, the required course for juniors and a class he had taught for several years. the school curriculum guide described this class: the story of the people of god is studied from the birth of the church around a.d. to contemporary times. emphasis is placed on the anabaptist witness throughout the history of the church. the book of acts and other scriptures provide biblical foundations for the course. the textbook through fire and water provides an overview of mennonite history and the roots of historic peace churches. i observed the seventh-period section of story of the church twice a week for the second quarter of the year; the eighth-period section i observed once a week for a double period, resulting in approximately the same amount of time in each section. i wrote sets of field notes, representing approximately minutes of observation taken from both class sections. the following section describes the physical classroom in which the story of the church bible class was held. the classroom mr. bennett’s room was large. with desks grouped in sets of four in a semi- circle facing toward the front, plenty of room remained for several additional pieces of furniture and empty space. one entered the room from the front right corner of the classroom; a bulletin board and cork strips along the side wall here presented student work. titled “issues events,” the board displayed a few pictures from national geographic and u.s. news and world report magazines of current events such as fracking in pennsylvania, maps, graphs, and a picture of president obama. a school calendar was also posted. the pictures were more relevant to mr. bennett’s “social issues” class and figured world while the school calendar functioned as an artifact for everyone in their participation in the figured world of mhs. the strips of cork, which continued halfway across the back wall, supported easel-sized papers. during most of my observation time, the posters resulted from a group project from the bible class in which the students, in groups of four, presented their thoughts on what defined and influenced truth for them. by the end of my observation time, these posters were taken down; student-created posters about the book of acts were then displayed. using significant wall space to present student work positioned the students as important knowledge-constructors, suggesting that they, as actors in this world, actively participated in shaping the world. also along the side wall were two extra desks and, in the back corner, a square table with two chairs, while a clock hung high on the back wall in that corner. in the middle of the back wall, three large windows overlooked a parking lot. past the windows, mr. bennett had hung a framed family tree of his family’s genealogy that included nine generations; he occasionally referred to it during class discussions. this artifact provided a bridge for mr. bennett between his family identity and his teacher identity, but it also served as a way for him to author his space in the figured world of school, as it is an unusual artifact to find in a classroom. beyond the family tree, in the far back corner, was mr. bennett’s “office” space. a two-drawer filing cabinet and two six-shelf bookcases accompanied a desk that held his phone, computer, vhs and dvd players, and bins for student papers. the bookcases contained mhs yearbooks, vhs tapes and dvds, bibles, binders, some textbooks, and several shelves of personal books related to history and christian and mennonite theology. the bulletin board on the side wall above his desk boasted approximately pictures of his two children at various ages. a photo cube on his desk and a framed handmade painting with the word “dad” prominently written in the middle were other artifacts of his identity as a father and further evidenced his authoring of this space as something more than just the figured world of social studies and bible teaching. the far side wall included a countertop extending most of the length of the wall with cabinets underneath. the counter remained clear except for a basket of markers, two short stacks of books, a globe, and a classroom set of the primary text for this class, through fire and water: an overview of mennonite history (loewen & nolt, ). on the wall was a copy of the school’s graduate profile, and in the front corner of the room stood a round wooden table with three chairs. the front of the room lacked adornment other than mr. bennett’s masters of education diploma. centered on the front wall was a long white board, most of which was often covered by a pull-down screen to project lecture slides. on the left end of the whiteboard, mr. bennett listed assignments for each of his classes. attached to the white board on either side of the screen were maps of europe, asia, and the world, to which mr. bennett referred during his lectures. the room was spacious, sparse, and neutral in tone, allowing the actors to play an active role in physically and figuratively forming and shaping this figured world. holland et al. describe figured worlds as “a socially and culturally constructed realm of interpretation in which particular characters and actors are recognized, significance is assigned to certain acts, and particular outcomes are valued over others” ( , p. ). for clarity, i have organized the data into sections as specified by this definition, although there is overlap as each of the components of figured worlds interacts with the others. actors shannon and jessica were in the seventh-period section of story of the church, which met every day right after lunch. this class contained students: boys, girls; asians, and caucasians. paige, cassie, and jacob were in the eighth-period class that met four days a week, once for a block or double period ( minutes). this class also had students: boys, girls; asians, african american and caucasians. both sections were heterogeneously grouped; there were no honors bible courses. these two sections operated similarly enough that i will describe them as a single figured world. students. in this figured world, the main actors were students and the teacher. in general, mr. bennett positioned the students as a whole as engaged students, though not all students accepted this positioning. for example, during the third week, i wrote in my field notes: “some students are on their devices, doing different things unrelated to the lecture. writing something (texting?) on a phone, looking at cars, looking at pictures, playing a car racing game.” sometimes there were several side conversations occurring while mr. bennett was lecturing. all of these actions at least suggest an authoring by the students that redefined “engaged” as multi-tasking but perhaps more likely suggest the identity of an unengaged student. much of the time, mr. bennett allowed this negotiating of participation in the figured world, only occasionally using proximity to influence behavior by confiscating a phone or calling a student out on his or her behavior. mr. bennett did not appear angry or agitated by these disruptions, and i described the class atmosphere as “relaxed.” for example, when two students were unable to give their presentations, mr. bennett ended the formal class about minutes early and engaged different students in small conversations about their lives or interests, current events, or his own personal life and interests. students seemed to enjoy and value these interactions. sometimes this informal atmosphere led to students pushing back when mr. bennett was positioning the class as engaged learners. for example, the day after the announcement of the grand jury decision regarding the killing of michael brown in ferguson, missouri, a few students began a conversation with mr. bennett about the case and the evidence. while mr. bennett engaged a couple of students on this issue, four or five other conversations broke out among the rest of the students. on another day, mr. bennett invited the speaker from the morning’s chapel service, a muslim he had known for years, to come to his class to help them learn about muslim faith, life, and culture, positioning the students as curious and respectful learners. while many students listened respectfully during this whole group question and answer session, one student maintained his own conversation with another student and a third student left his seat to plug in his ipad. these actions signaled a rejection of the positioning as engaged learners and, instead, an authoring of a space and role that suited their immediate needs. it is important to note that not all students rejected or negotiated the positioning as engaged students or curious learners. the four girls in this study consistently kept quiet when someone else was speaking and appeared to be engaged in the planned actions of the class. of all of the participants, jacob most often negotiated mr. bennett’s positioning based on his behaviors, including looking at his phone, eating candy and sharing it with other students, and entering into side conversations during class. on four occasions, the students were organized into groups based on the seating arrangement. in each case, mr. bennett gave the class a topic and the task to discuss it among the group members and then share their thoughts with the whole class either by making a poster or by adding their thoughts to the white board. on each occasion, the groups received time in class to work and then to share their ideas; this small and then large group discussion and processing then served as knowledge that the students could use in writing individual reflections on the topics. mr. bennett positioned the students as constructors of knowledge, and they accepted this positioning. teacher. the teacher was the other significant actor in the figured world. mr. bennett, a medium-height, caucasian male in his mid- s wore casual pants with a collared shirt or sweater. he wore glasses and showed a quick, easy smile. this feature, along with his relaxed, laid-back manner, made him approachable, and students commented during class one day that he was a “very accepting” teacher. mr. bennett was willing to talk about his own life experiences and faith as they related to class content. for example, when discussing the pros and cons of mennonite community, he mentioned his neighbor who wondered why mr. bennett had so many beer bottles in his recycle bin – his family collected trash along the road. perhaps due to class content, or perhaps due to hybrid identities, mr. bennett’s teacher identity, faith identity, and family member identity co-mingled in the classroom space. mr. bennett was a caring teacher who wanted to have genuine relationships with his students. my participants positioned mr. bennett as a kind-hearted teacher who was open to listening to student perspectives. jacob liked mr. bennett’s teaching style, describing it as “open…. i like how he just, he’ll just off and start telling stories and, like, comment on people’s stuff, talking about, like, current events going on.” jessica noticed he didn’t give his own opinion as often as she’d like “because he wants us to know for ourselves and figure out what we believe.” guest speaker. occasionally, other actors entered into this figured world. as noted earlier, one day mr. bennett asked the chapel speaker to come to his eighth-period bible class to answer questions about muslims. mr. bennett referenced other speakers he had hosted in the past, indicating that others are invited to be a part of this figured world temporarily as a way to share knowledge and build relationships. in this way, mr. bennett did not author himself as the only authority but invited students, as well as others, to share their thoughts and experiences and, thus, to contribute to the construction of the world. significant acts holland et al. ( ) assert that in figured worlds, a limited range of actions are assigned significance, which helps to define the world. there were four meaningful acts in this figured world: transferring knowledge, constructing knowledge, making connections, and asking questions. transferring knowledge. often, mr. bennett gave knowledge to the students through a prepared visual presentation that guided a lecture on anabaptist history or theology. “get your notes ready,” he would say, “here we go.” or, he might ask, “did you get a shot of this one yet?” inviting the students to take a picture of the slide with their ipads. at other times, he strayed from his lecture to weave class content with personal stories. for example, after explaining that menno simons believed it was almost impossible to be a christian without having a faith community for accountability and support, he told the students this story: mennonites are good at helping people through times of crisis…. when i was , my brother was born in night. in the morning, my dad crashed the car with myself and two of my young siblings. the car … collapsed on my dad’s legs. i went through windshield and needed stitches. my dad was in hospital for months. i was in the hospital for one month and then they realized my leg was broken. a mennonite couple moved into our house and milked our cows for months for free. they lived with us and ate with us. the mennonite community also planted our crops. in two days, farmers from church plowed and planted acres, and all the women came and made food. for these reasons, my dad will never leave that community. additionally, mr. bennett would connect class content to current events, history, or other classes. for example, in explaining the mennonite stance on nonviolence, he suggested nonviolent alternative responses to isis, hitler in world war ii, north korea, and iraq. he also reflected back on the previous day, when he had led a field trip to arlington national cemetery in washington, d.c., with a different class. sometimes, he clearly shared his personal position, as on this issue: “i wish i could solve all war without war…. i wish we could spend more time and research on non-violent ways.” and later in the same class in reference to the iraq crisis, he pondered: what if we would have sent in peace-trained people and supplies for the people who were going to suffer? americans would have been heroes and we would have saved so much money. i don’t think we’re doing “whatever’s necessary.” i think we’re doing what hasn’t been proven and we’re still doing it. mr. bennett, however, was not the only authority in the class. there were also several student presentations on topics such as martin luther, menno simons, c. s. lewis, buddhism, and homosexuality in the church. in these events, the presenting student was the knowledge-giver and mr. bennett, along with the other students, became the knowledge-receiver. once, an outside speaker was the authority, as described above, and texts in the form of films also served as a medium of disseminating information, as i will describe below in the artifacts section. constructing knowledge. inviting student actors to construct meaning was also a significant action in this figured world. sometimes these experiences were individual, such as independently researching a topic or person or writing multiple assigned reflective journal essays. other experiences were collaborative, as when the students discussed journal topics in small groups, recorded their thoughts on easel paper or the white board, and shared their thinking with the whole class. in fact, even the individual artifacts had a corporate component in either the process or product (discussing with other before writing or sharing finished work with the class). the day the groups made posters, mr. bennett ended the class by saying, “on the way out, make a path by the posters so you can see what people said. we’ll go over them next time.” in these ways, mr. bennett positioned the students as significant contributors to the shared knowledge of the figured world. making connections. there were several ways connections were made in this figured world. mr. bennett connected anabaptist history or theology to his personal family, such as when he showed pictures from a recent family trip to europe in which they visited significant sites of mennonite persecution, execution, and worship. mr. bennett also connected class content to events and people in the real world. after a student presentation on buddhism, he responded, “do you think buddhists go to hell? let me tell you a story about a guy who goes to [local mennonite church]. he was buddhist, and then found jesus.” sometimes these links were between historic and current events, such as the day they watched a video about clayton kratz, a local - year-old relief worker who volunteered to help mennonites in russia devastated by war and famine in . first, mr. bennett explained that a clayton kratz award was given every year at mhs in honor of this man. then he said, we can ask what would we do, but that situation is actually happening right now so we can ask what are we doing? …in jordan the refugee camps are overloaded. there’s not enough food, water, space, but still people are fleeing there because of wars and isis. an absolute mess. anybody want to go? later, he paused the video to made reference to the mustache on the man in military uniform, which was customary of servicemen, and commented that to this day, amish men do not have mustaches because they consider them to represent the military. finally, making connections with students was important to mr. bennett. one day, when two students who were scheduled to present were unable to do so, mr. bennett concluded the formal class minutes before the end of the period. he proceeded to have conversations with small groups of students, making his way around the room. i noted this choice as a significant action, writing, “i believe mr. bennett wants to develop relationships with students and can do that during these times.” asking questions. a significant action in this class was asking questions. mr. bennett asked questions; for example, he asked, “would you agree that [gossip is] the biggest problem [in mennonite communities]? …what’s our understanding of community that makes us want to tell?” and a vigorous discussion ensued. mr. bennett also modeled asking authentic questions, such as asking a muslim guest speaker about the differences between the sunni and shiite muslims. he later admitted to the class, “my biggest mistake was thinking al-qaeda was not sunni. i thought they were shiite,” and, thus, authored a space (holland et al., ) in which it was permissible to admit misunderstandings. he also modeled reflective thinking: “what would jesus do in our community, our country? i would guess he’d talk about money and disparity of wealth.” students also asked thought-provoking questions. after a student presentation on homosexuality, another student asked, “if jesus never said anything about it, then why is it a big deal?” sometimes, student questions were tangentially related to the current topic but turned the discussion in a new direction. one day, mr. bennett asked, “is it a cop-out to say ‘whatever is necessary’ and then go to war? it would be cheaper to shower isis with dollar bills and send a note that says please stop killing us.” this comment was followed by a student’s question: “would there be a better way to have dealt with world war ii?” after a brief response by mr. bennett, another student asked, “has a more powerful group ever used non-violence against a weaker group?” and after another brief response, a third student asked, “why do you think we’re so fearful of other forms of government?” when students asked questions, mr. bennett often answered in some way and then asked the students how they would answer. in this way, he invited them to author their own spaces within the topics they discussed. artifacts artifacts allow actors access into a figured world and also help shape that world (holland et al., ). in addition to various artifacts around the room previously described, other artifacts in the bible class figured world included discourse, films, texts, and documents written by students. specific language. though figured worlds often include specific discourse with meanings relevant to that community, the importance or frequency of such language varies (holland et al., ). i found little evidence of such discourse in my observations of this class, though there must have been some emphasis on certain vocabulary, as jacob wrote in an essay before i arrived, “so far i am familiar with the terms and concepts introduced…. i am familiar with all the key words and phrases we have gone over so far except for hermeneutics.” mr. bennett did use this term once during my time there: “in proverbs, what’s the rod? … rod is a guiding tool, not a beat stick. hermeneutically, this is the best way we can understand the meaning of the scripture. yet parents take these verses as justification for spanking their children.” to the extent that specific discourse was used, the focus was on the concept behind the word. for example, one day the lecture focused on atonement. while mr. bennett did not dwell on the word itself, he did explain the mennonite theology of non- violent atonement. a second example would be the word christocentric. mr. bennett explained that anabaptists have a “non-flat view of bible – a christocentric view – that is, all scripture is seen through the lens of jesus’ ministry. read jesus before you read genesis and judges and the writings of paul. read the gospels first and a lot.” films and texts. several material artifacts evident in this figured world were used to participate in the world and help shape it. mr. bennett showed three films during the quarter to convey information to the class. the radicals (notwotny & carrera, ) tells the true story of michael and margaretha sattler, early anabaptist martyrs in europe; a shroud for a journey (king, ) tells the true story of clayton kratz, a mennonite relief worker who disappeared in the ukraine during the russian civil war; and the hutterites: to care and not to care (ruth, ) documents life in hutterites colonies. mr. bennett occasionally paused these films to add additional commentary or answer student questions. in addition to showing films, mr. bennett told me he assigned reading from the book, though fire and water (loewen & nolt, ) on mondays. the martyrs mirror (van braght, ), an account of the persecution and execution of thousands of christians, including anabaptists during the th and th centuries in europe, was also referred to in class but was not read or assigned while i was present. occasionally, class lectures included scripture references; sometimes mr. bennett simply talked about these verses, and sometimes he asked students to read them aloud. after a student presentation on homosexuality, mr. bennett read the genesis story of sodom and gomorrah to the class, saying, “we really should read the sodom story. we really need to read that story.” during a discussion about the same presentation, mr. bennett walked back to his bookshelf, pulled out confession of faith from a mennonite perspective ( ), and read the section on sexuality to the class. frequently, as he lectured, mr. bennett invited students to create artifacts by taking pictures of the slides from which he was presenting, an invitation that students accepted. my field notes read: “shannon is typing up her own notes of what is on the slide. jessica takes a picture of the slide,” and “cassie and paige take pic of pp slide. jacob does too with phone. rest of class does too.” mr. bennett also encouraged taking pictures of group work that was shared with the class on the whiteboard. the artifacts of written essays were also used at times as starting points for discussions and will be addressed in the following section. valued outcomes in addition to actors and actions, figured worlds have valued outcomes (holland et al., ). by virtue of being an educational figured world, one valued outcome for students in mr. bennett’s class was an acceptable grade. in order to achieve this outcome, students needed to meet the class requirements. thus, one valued outcome for all actors was meeting the requirements. additional outcomes were ownership and practice of beliefs. meeting the requirements. it was important that students made an effort to understand the content of the class; however, the effort itself and the idea of transacting with the ideas were the valued outcomes over mastering the content. for example, there were no objective tests to see if the students mastered the details or concepts of anabaptist history or theology, and notes could be referenced for the one test that was given. mr. bennett’s assignments focused on written reflections, which followed most lectures and often included both content and personal thought as in this essay prompt he displayed one day: “what is truth to you and how does it compare to the reformers of the s? (include notes from luther, zwingli, calvin, anabaptists/sattler, and menno).” mr. bennett told me that his grading was based on “did you meet the requirements, then you get the grade…. it’s not about right answers, no.” he continued by explaining that a student’s work needs to be “good enough in terms of effort, yes, but good enough in terms of having aligned with my theology, no.” grades on these assignments were high, usually full credit. i will discuss these written artifacts in each participant’s case study. one larger assignment was a research paper or presentation with a precise rubric, according to which several students, including paige, cassie, and jacob, lost points for their research or in-text documentation. in this instance, a valued outcome for them was high grades, as they each initiated a conversation with mr. bennett about the grade and if there were ways to earn more points. he offered that they could earn points back by fixing the areas in which they lost points. in this way, he demonstrated that he valued effort, regardless of timing, to get something right. ownership. another valued outcome was owning one’s beliefs. these beliefs did not need to be the same as mr. bennett’s personal ones or the ones promoted by the school, but mr. bennett wanted students to think through class content and use it to help them determine what they did believe; then he wanted them to own those beliefs. when jacob’s group was working on the truth poster project, mr. bennett remarked, “i’m always asking you to put this into your own thinking.” later, he told this group, “can you weave a little calvin and luther on this [poster]? …what i want to be able to observe is how you are or aren’t like these christian reformers.” in explaining the essay on mennonite community, he asked the class, “what is your personal reflection?” practice. beyond having and owning one’s beliefs, mr. bennett modeled and desired students to also strive for aligning their practices to their beliefs. he shared with the class, “do i want to try to have a practice that lines up with theology? i do…. i’m so much centered on putting practice and belief together,” and “if action is theology, and i think it is, action is linked to theology.” this idea was confirmed in his interview with me: i think that i've always been trying to get students interested and eager to keep going, and for me, that always means acting in some way, not just believing. so for me, … having somebody write, like, i believe in jesus, for example, didn't do as much as actually trying to encourage them to take it to the next notch and do something…. i think that teenagers normally would be very willing to just say something then walk out. so, i think my philosophy is: let's actually get them to interact and do something with it. mr. bennett tried to encourage this move toward practice in his lectures, class discussions, and assignments. for example, in early december, after talking about the refugees in jordan, mr. bennett suggested to the class, “there are christmas projects that mcc is doing, like sending [relief] bundles to [refugee] camps in jordan. so instead of giving your parents a gift, send a bundle to the refugees in their name. [your parents] would love it.” or, in talking about the muslim guest speaker’s life experience, mr. bennett told the class, “kadeen thought christians were fakers just like muslims are fakers until he met james [mhs teacher], who followed jesus in public as well as in his home, who was the same during the week as on sunday mornings.” or, in lecturing about being missional: “you look to the greatest need in the community and try to bring a mission to it. you look at what’s already happening and plug into it. we have money, resources, and volunteers so we partner with them.” this emphasis on action as a part of theological beliefs aligns well with holland et al.’s ( ) understanding that identity is based not only on valued beliefs but also significant actions and the idea that the more salient the identity, the more commitment there is to participating in the actions of that figured world. reading - bible class figured world intersection i observed no sustained reading during my time in bible class. students read minimally such texts as lecture notes, their own writing, online personality tests, and unrelated texts, such as emails, online games, or other online texts. on one occasion, mr. bennett asked students to look up and read aloud specific scripture verses. although there was little actual reading, mr. bennett shared the anabaptist view of scripture: scripture is the center and supreme authority – not on the same level as other books. it is a super, super important text that is to be addressed first before other sources. but the bible is not a flat document. you can’t just hold it up without clarification. you have to have a method of reading it that gives you more clarity. you’ve gotta take the sections of jesus as more authoritative than the rest. so the jesus sections would be our instruction rather than what the old testament says. jesus’ arguments win. if i look at you without my glasses, i can’t tell if your eyes are open or closed. when you look at the old testament without the lens of jesus, you won’t fully see god. you’ll get the wrong understanding of god. menno simons says put on the lens of jesus and then you can see. perhaps because of this emphasis on the anabaptist view of scripture, interestingly, the students posed four questions to the muslim guest speaker about sacred texts: “how does the qur’an relate to and is different from the bible?” “does the qur’an teach you can beat your wife if she disobeys you?” “do [muslims] believe in old testament stories?” “what does the qur’an say about fighting for allah?” as stated previously, references were made to other important mennonite-related texts, such as the martyrs mirror (van braght, ) and the writings of menno simons, which totaled more than pages of anabaptist peace theology. positionality, space of authoring, and making worlds embedded within a figured world are the three other contexts of identity performances and formation — positionality, space of authoring, and making of new worlds (holland et al., ). though i have touched on these areas throughout the discussion of the figured world of bible class, here i will further explore these contexts. positionality. in a figured world, all actors are continually positioning other actors and themselves (holland et al., ). in this section, i will address general patterns i saw in how the teacher and the students positioned the other. students. mr. bennett generally positioned the students as thoughtful, engaged students capable of meaningful articulations and productive dialogue. this position is evident in the written assignments he gave. it was also, and perhaps most, evident one day when he was not feeling well. he opened the class with four question prompts about truth and then asked who would like to lead the class discussion. in both sections, a student volunteered, and an extended, lively, on-topic conversation ensued. on another occasion, after some students had visited the arlington national cemetery on a field trip for another class he led, mr. bennett asked, do you think we were disrespectful at arlington? i don’t mean to be disrespectful to those that make that choice…. i was silent and standing. i was fully respecting that place. i felt like i was and wanted to…. if you feel future teachers are not respectful to arlington or any of these places, then you speak up. a final example occurred when mr. bennett shared a visual diagram for his personal understanding of truth. as he drew on the board, he told the students, “you can critique it.” in this figured world, student voices were valued and positioned with a degree of power and authority. mr. bennett also collectively positioned the students and himself as americans, saying, “we have illegally bombed more countries with drones than ever before. we’re just drone-striking at crazy rates. we’re not any more safe or peaceful than we were before,” and “we’re not getting better at using war to get to lasting peace. there has to be another way. we haven’t been able to get better and better at lasting peace.” in these instances, the collective pronoun “we” signified an identification as americans. mr. bennett. the students positioned mr. bennett as knowledgeable on current events and someone they respected for his opinions. the day after the decision in the michael brown case, in ferguson, missouri, was announced, a student asked him, “what do you think of the response of the african-american community?” shannon confirmed this respect in our interview: “i love the discussions and like the viewpoint that mr. bennett and the other classmates bring.” jessica wished she knew more of his thoughts: i wish mr. bennett would give his opinion more (laughs), and it's hard for me to tell whether he's giving his opinion or just presenting us with some information. i think it'd be interesting to hear, like, what he would think too, but i can understand him not giving his opinions as much because he wants us to know for ourselves and figure out what we believe. jessica’s preference to have mr. bennett “give his opinion more” might also suggest she positioned teachers as authority figures and, as such, desired to know their thoughts; however, as discussed above, students working out their beliefs was a valued outcome of this figured world. jessica continued, “i like watching him, too, in the class as he responds to other students, like how he, i don't know if avoids, but, like, even if, he can play, like, either part, like he could be devil's advocate.…” researcher. more often than mrs. cooper, the english teacher, mr. bennett referred to my presence. on my second day in the class, after a student presented information on c. s. lewis, mr. bennett commented, “that’s an interesting statement in light of our guest today – lewis was well-read; therefore, he was smarter because of it,” positioning me as a literacy supporter. on another occasion, he positioned me as a russian mennonite and asked me to share my grandfather’s immigration story, and on a third, he positioned me as a school board member interested in the process of naming the new integrated school. in addition, knowing i was from canada, he asked me to comment on the canadian medical system. mr. bennett also frequently brought me assignments from my participants or told them to bring them over to me, positioning me as a researcher, when passing back papers. space for authoring. with every positioning, a response is required: an acceptance of the position; a rejection, which can lead to the possibility of new worlds; or a negotiation (holland et al., ). some students in this figured world accepted the positioning as interested, engaged students and listened to or participated in class discussions or worked on the written assignments when class time was given. almost everyone engaged in small group activities and appeared to produce the required written responses. many students accepted the opportunity to shape class discussions by answering mr. bennett’s questions or asking their own. due to the openness to shared authority in the figured world, many students helped construct the knowledge in the world. one example in my field notes about jacob demonstrated this authoring: mr. bennett: no one expected the germans to do as well as they did for the first years. jacob has phone out and is scrolling down on it. jacob: there were battles in alaska, wasn’t there? i’m positive i’ve read this somewhere. i’m pretty sure there were battles there. i’m not sure against who. japanese took over some soil in the alaskan islands. it was the only soil that was taken…. then we killed them. it says on us history.com everyone says none of our land was taken in ww ii, but this proves there was. mr. bennett: it’s a stretch, but okay. jacob: but it’s true. here jacob worked to contribute to the knowledge of the class, accepting the positioning of an engaged, thoughtful student. mr. bennett also created a space for himself that included an identity as a lifelong learner. when a student asserted there were psychedelic drugs in ancient times in mesopotamia, mr. bennett replied, “there is not evidence of this so far. i’m learning something every day, though, so i’d love to learn this.” additional responses to these figured world positionings will be given in each participant’s case study. examination of the written artifacts and the interview data will add to the picture of how jacob, jessica, cassie, paige, and shannon authored space in this figured world. making worlds. discussions during bible class sometimes took a direction other than what mr. bennett had planned, such as when students asked him his thoughts on the ferguson verdict. in some classrooms, this question would be considered an attempt of the students to alter the world. in this world, students’ construction and contribution to the knowledge and content of the world was a significant action; therefore, such behavior here affected the content of the world but did not impact the governing principles of the world. summary the figured world of bible class included mr. bennett and the students as well as invited guests. in this world, transferring and constructing knowledge were meaningful actions along with making connections with the content and with each other and asking questions. specific discourse and material artifacts allowed actors access to participation in the world and to fulfill the valued outcomes of meeting the requirements, ownership of faith beliefs, and practice of faith beliefs. mostly, mr. bennett positioned the students as a whole as engaged students at various points on a faith journey. both the class in general and my participants specifically positioned mr. bennett as the respected leader of the class. mr. bennett’s posture in the figured world encouraged students to author their own spaces in response to authoritative voices, including his own, so that students did not have need to make an alternative new world. english class figured world mrs. cooper had been an english teacher at mhs for years and taught in several schools prior to this position, including a local mennonite middle school. her children graduated from mhs in the late s, and she was well-acquainted with the school; she was a well-established actor in this figured world. additionally, she attended a local mennonite church and, thus, was a participant in the figured world of mennonite faith as well. in the fall semester of , mrs. cooper taught three sections of american literature to sophomores and two sections of british literature honors to juniors. i observed each of her british literature honors sections twice a week for the second quarter of the year. analyzing sets of field notes, representing minutes of observation taken from both class sections, i will now describe the figured world of mrs. cooper’s british literature honors class. the classroom mrs. cooper’s room was light and spacious with large windows on one side wall, a countertop and cabinets on the opposite side wall, a long chalkboard across the front wall, and a soundproof partition across the back. mrs. cooper’s main desk sat in the front left corner; another, smaller desk in front of the chalkboard faced the class. the door was in the front right corner of the room. each time i entered this classroom, i was impressed with the life-sized suit of armor that stood next to the door and then by how many posters, pictures, and books were in the room. almost all available surfaces were covered with art, photographs, quotes, posters, or other artifacts related to the content of english class. a bulletin board on the back wall displayed square greeting cards, each with an inspirational or thought-provoking, unique quotation. mrs. cooper told me she incorporated these as writing prompts when she taught the elective “creative writing” in fourth quarter, but by posting them year-round, she was inviting students to read them. thus, she positioned students generally as readers and thinkers able to engage with the words and ideas of others such as winston churchill and eleanor roosevelt. to the left of this area hung a poster of the globe theatre, and in front of it was a cart with about copies of the one-year bible. mrs. cooper told me she was the only teacher that had these bibles in her room, so if a student wanted to borrow one, he or she came to her. housing the bibles in her room suggests they are an important artifact to mrs. cooper personally and are evidence of her space for authoring in the broader figured world of high school english classes. the bibles also positioned actors in this room as having or seeking a faith perspective. since students could borrow a copy, they could take action and, with that, author space for themselves as well as possibly figure new worlds. farther along the back wall was an area devoted to holocaust information, including a poster, pictures, books, and a life magazine. it was not clear that this theme related specifically to any course curriculum; therefore, it may suggest evidence of space of authoring for mrs. cooper. along the back wall in the corner to the outside wall stood two floor-to-ceiling bookshelves filled with books from mrs. cooper’s personal collection. some of these titles directly related to classes she taught (i.e., british classics); others were popular fiction (the harry potter fantasy series about the life of a young wizard and the fault in our stars, a romance between two teenagers with cancer); still others were less well-known works of fiction and nonfiction. in this physical space, mrs. cooper also enacted the space for authoring within the figured world of school and, in essence, blurred the boundaries between her reader and teacher identities. there were four more bookcases in the room, also housing books from her collection; the exception was a large bookshelf by her main desk, which held class texts, binders, and anthologies and positioned her in this corner of the room as “teacher.” the chalkboard itself had a map, four art prints, and pictures of the kings and queens of great britain attached to it. flanking the chalkboard were two floor-to-ceiling bulletin boards. the bulletin board to the left of the chalkboard was devoted to american literature classes and had children’s playing cards, biographical articles, pictures, and actual books attached featuring edgar allan poe, “rip van winkle,” and henry w. longfellow. the right bulletin board was dedicated to the british literature classes. when i began my observations, it featured macbeth with an equally varied array of artifacts, including a poster of the gates of hell rodin sculpture from philadelphia, which mrs. cooper discussed in class one day. during the quarter, macbeth paraphernalia came down and mementoes of frankenstein appeared, followed by a great expectations display. these boards, which positioned students as eager and thoughtful readers of specific texts, were completely covered and included additional items on the floor at times. similarly, the countertop and wall between that and the upper cabinets were used to display items that changed with the literature studied. when the students were reading a choice of five british novels, there were items such as cartoons, sketches, and magazine articles on the wall and various versions of videos or related books across the counter; mrs. cooper referred to these items during class. on the wall next to the windows were colorful posters from floor to ceiling describing different literary terms, such as plot, resolution, hyperbole, foreshadowing, simile, and irony. these posters introduced lexicon for the figured world of english classes and positioned students as active, if novice, participants in this discourse. thirteen plants hung in front of the windows or sat on the sill and stools along the wall. in the corner around mrs. cooper’s desk and around the chalkboard were several framed paintings, positioning mrs. copper as an art enthusiast and again demonstrating space for authoring. there were papers all over mrs. copper’s two desks and a lectern in front of the three rows of desks arranged in a semi-circle. circling back to the door, a wooden cross was affixed to the wall at eye level. the room burst with colors, words, books, and ideas. this description provides a physical context for the class, but figured worlds are not so much physical settings as contexts for social activity. as in the section on the figured world of bible class, i have organized the following sections along the components of figured worlds as described by holland et al. ( ) – actors, the significance of certain actions, artifacts, and the value of certain outcomes over others. actors jacob, cassie, shannon, and jessica were in the fifth-period section of brit lit honors, as they called it, which met right before lunch. this class consisted of students: boys, girls; african americans, asians, and caucasians. eight identified themselves as mennonite. paige was in the seventh-period class that met right after lunch. this class included students: boys, girls; asians and caucasians. five identified themselves as mennonite. in spite of these differences, the sections as sociocultural historical settings for identity performances operated similarly enough that i will describe them as a single figured world of brit lit honors class. to the extent that there were relevant differences, i will describe them in the following sections. students. in this figured world, the recognized actors were students and the teacher. for much of the time, the student role was non-differentiated during class; that is, the students were individual, non-differentiated actors or, perhaps more accurately, one corporate body, positioned by mrs. cooper at various times as engaged honors students, unprepared students, or good students. to the extent that individual students were identified or positioned singularly, these events usually occurred when assessments or assignments were returned, such as when mrs. cooper returned jacob’s macbeth test and commented, “the last question, absolutely the best thing you’ve done. the first ones, not so much.” on four occasions, the students were organized into groups or with partners. on my first day of observation, jacob and a partner were presenting a powerpoint project based on two of chaucer’s canterbury tales; in my last week of observations, students chose partners for a quiz on great expectations. in these two instances, group work was related to assessment. the other two groupings over the quarter served as a resource for the students. when i began observing, the students were grouped based on a writing aspect (character, plot, symbols, writer’s craft, theme, etc.) related to macbeth. i never learned how the groups were formed, but based on variations in the size of groups and mrs. cooper’s lack of knowledge of who was in which group, i surmised that the students selected the topic of their choice. mrs. cooper talked about the students’ using these groups to help them answer questions they had about the reading and to direct their attention (to their topic) as they read; however, there was no class time that i observed given to these group activities nor any reporting back from the groups or related assessment of which i was aware. part of the function of these groups was to work outside of class time. one day, mrs. cooper announced, “in your groupings, exchange emails to answer questions that you have,” and told a student who had been absent, “you should probably talk to the people in your group.” these groups only met once during my visits to complete a quotations worksheet unrelated to the initial purpose of the groups. students were also grouped later in the quarter according to which book (of five options) they had chosen for their independent reading. the implicit purpose seemed to be the same. these groups were then later used on one occasion to work together on a handout of quotations from frankenstein. in these two class situations, students were focused on the task and worked collaboratively. while using self-selected groups as resources for each other outside of class positioned students as having some control, the lack of class time given for groups to work or report in class perhaps minimized the effectiveness of the organizing structure. when mrs. cooper asked if students had contacted others in their group with questions, she was met with silence, and it appeared as though the students rejected this positioning and simply did not use the groups as intended beyond the classroom handout work. teacher. the teacher was the other significant actor in the figured world. mrs. cooper was a medium-height caucasian woman in her early s. she wore bright color- coordinated outfits with matching shoes and had short hair. her reading glasses, with the british flag on the temples, were often on top of her head. she was energetic, passionate, and dramatic when she spoke and taught: mrs. cooper: so what do you predict for act [of macbeth]? student: death. mrs. cooper: lots of it! wow. it’s fascinating, isn’t it? wow. this passion could be attributed to her strong desire to teach, which was motivated by a salient and committed enacted identity, as she told one class: i only wanted to be a teacher since i was . i wanted to be a nun, then an undertaker. i set upon to be a teacher. nothing replaced being a teacher. i even teach on sundays for sunday school. it’s not what i do, it’s what i am. you do what you are. it’s a fascinating concept. mrs. cooper moved around the front of the room or sat on the front desk when teaching, but when the students were taking a test or working in groups, she moved around the students, attentively engaging them as appropriate. my participants positioned mrs. cooper positively as i discuss in the section below. of the coded discrete actions i have for english class field notes, were coded for the teacher and were for the other actors as a whole, suggesting that the teacher’s talk and actions dominated the class time. knowing the actor roles in this figured world leads to discussing the significance of certain actions. significant acts every figured world has acts and actions that are significant to that sociocultural context and community (holland et al., ). in the brit lit honors class figured world, there were two main significant acts – transfer of knowledge and mastery of content. transfer of knowledge. as can be inferred by the number of teacher codes, much of the time, mrs. cooper directed the class, and the students received information. mrs. cooper shared different kinds of information. first, she presented material from the texts by either summarizing or reading sections of the text aloud. interspersed with relating these texts, she would extrapolate in one of three ways. she might explain the section and provide additional resources, such as character lists and maps, or offer tips on how to best read a particular writer based on her experience. of frankenstein, she told the class, this is how i read this kind of book. don’t stop as soon as you don’t know what it means. these kinds of books are often repetitive. keep reading on till the end of a paragraph and then if you’re still not sure, go back. at other times, mrs. cooper expounded on the culture and context of the writing, such as sharing about the author’s life – “dickens had a rotten childhood. he worked very hard. every book he wrote is about him. every one of his heroes is him. it gives him some power he didn’t have in childhood” – or society at the time of the writing: “rich people didn’t carry money, but working people did.” sometimes mrs. cooper connected themes in the texts to life today, either generally or specifically for the students, as she did when discussing england in the victorian era: if you were skinny and little, your job was probably a chimney sweep and you were probably dead by age . you would have to work for your job and then come home and do your own work. you would only have had one pair of clothes. you’ve had to wash your own clothes and dry them in the damp air. now, go home and look in your closet tonight and say, i’m a wealthy person, cuz you are. i am too. or here, as the class concluded their reading of frankenstein, and mrs. cooper commented: “you are responsible for the monsters you create. if you create a monster by taking too much on, don’t hate the monster, but take responsibility. try to get all kind of lessons out of the book.” in these times, students were positioned to listen attentively. a second way mrs. cooper exerted her role as a giver of knowledge was by giving directions or clarifications on assignments or assessments. sometimes mrs. cooper initiated these comments, and sometimes students did. third, mrs. copper frequently asked the class both before and during textual explanations, “what questions do you have?” – thereby soliciting questions for which she could provide the answers. these invitations were often met with silence, although occasionally a student would ask a question clarifying an assignment or a section of text. fourth, mrs. cooper asked the students questions about the readings, such as this example from great expectations: who should pip marry? bitty. will he do it? no, he won’t do that because we don’t do what the world wants us to do. we do what we want to do. who shows up? jaggers! what a name! is he going to be good? jaggers rhymes with daggers; he can’t be good. sometimes a few students quietly answered these questions. most students, including my participants, remained silent, even as they were engaged, suggesting that while mrs. cooper was positioning the students as active, verbal participants in literary discussions, they negotiated this positioning. their space for authoring was to participate by watching and listening to mrs. cooper rather than speaking. a notable exception was when she asked who didn’t know what iambic pentameter was. jacob was one of two who raised their hands initially, although after a minute or two, there were nine hands in the air. in fact, teacher-student interaction and student-initiated questions were valued acts by mrs. cooper, though neither happened often. attending to meaning. another important act was attending to meaning in texts. handouts with guiding questions for a text were given to help the students comprehend, but taking one’s own notes when material was presented or when reading a text was considered of greater value. mrs. cooper told the class, “you might want to think about the kind of notes you take when you read. you might want to take plot points, and list important quotations or things you feel you can tie to macbeth or lady macbeth.” specifically, selecting quotations from a text and knowing them for assessments were a valued way of closely reading and engaging with texts. class time and group work was devoted to identifying preselected quotations for macbeth, frankenstein, and great expectations on worksheets, and students were assessed on these quotations as well. artifacts artifacts can be “verbal, gestural, and material productions” (holland et al., , p. ) that emerge from and are used within a figured world. i have already described several physical artifacts displayed around the room; however, there were other artifacts as well, including discourse, texts, and documents written by students. specific language. mrs. cooper introduced literary vocabulary: prose, verse, rhyme, rhythm, blank verse, iambic pentameter, trochee, couplet, alliteration, assonance, rhyme scheme, shakespearean sonnet, italian sonnet, scansion, quatrain, and parody. a second valued discourse was college-preparatory vocabulary as determined by the sadler-oxford vocabulary workshop series, including words such as antipathy, imminent, banal, obdurate, peruse, and bedlam. third, mrs. cooper drew attention to the discourse of the novel genre, alerting students to the significance of book titles and character names as well as to the reliability of narrators. all three of these discourses positioned the students as high-level, college-bound english students. finally, mrs. cooper spoke a discourse herself that was at times lively and informal and positioned the students more informally; at other times her discourse was serious and thoughtful, positioning the students as introspective and meditative thinkers. for example, with animation, mrs. cooper interjected phrases like “oh, my gosh!” and “what the heck?!” when introducing the vocabulary word “sedulous,” she remarked, “it doesn’t sound like a good word, but it is. ha! didn’t see that one coming, did you?” when talking about dickens she exclaimed, “in tale of two cities – oh my! i almost said a bad word.” at other times, mrs. cooper was reflective and contemplative, such as when she discussed the ending of macbeth: if you read this play, it’s about nasty stuff. brutal. do you think this doesn’t happen today? how do you think countries get overthrown? they just beheaded the american who went to do humanitarian work, isis. this is the world we live in. we believe things get better but the truth is the human heart is still black, still evil. yes. yes. the world is still like this. why? because there is evil and because we often, like macbeth, choose to listen to it. there is a choice every person has to make. be macduff or be macbeth. or the end of frankenstein: do you think the creature has a soul? [no response from students.] the creature thinks he has a soul. does he have a right to take his own life? does he have the right to track down victor and kill him? were they appropriately named? just thoughts. and sometimes, these two styles combined as when she introduced great expectations: “can i tell ya? you’re going to need such a character list. it’s like opening the curtain to a freak show, and the scary thing is you will see yourself somewhere there as well.” written words. several material artifacts in this figured world were used to participate in the world and help shape it. books, such as canterbury tales, macbeth, frankenstein, and great expectations, were distributed at the beginning of units and collected at the end. mrs. cooper used handouts in multiple ways: to introduce content on topics such as shakespeare’s language use, the structure of sonnets, and meter in poetry; to emphasize ideas or important quotations or direct the reader’s attention in a text, as was the case with reading guides or lists of quotations that students were to identify; or to describe assignments or outline a unit. mrs. cooper also encouraged students to create their own artifacts by taking notes when she explained concepts in class and as they read. one day, mrs. cooper had students complete a handout identifying quotations from macbeth. she was not satisfied with their ability to complete this task quickly and afterwards said to them, “what have you learned about taking notes as you read? you need to list important quotes as you go through the play…. keep a record of the quotes. it will be easier to write the essay. scanning is not enough.” additional artifacts included vocabulary quizzes, quizzes and tests on texts, and written assignments. these artifacts served as another marker of a figured world – valued outcomes. valued outcomes the final element of figured worlds is valued outcomes (holland et al, ). mrs. cooper shared with me her goals for teaching british literature: i hope that, um, that, first of all, that they love literature more. and i hope they know how to work with it more. and i really hope they – i really hope they – become brit-philes. i really do. (laughs) …they’re just such cool stories, and you know, like, scientists say that the world is held together by atoms, but it's not; it's held together by stories. and there's some really ripping good ones out there, and why not – why not learn them? in addition to “loving literature,” mastery of content and application of content or skills from the figured world to other worlds were valued outcomes. mastery. assessment artifacts revealed mastery of content. mrs. cooper made remarks such as, “know you will have a quiz on this sometime this week, and you need to know this,” and, “you have this written down? because there will be a test on it this week,” and, “thirty questions, each worth / of a point, so you can miss three and still get a decent grade.” that the valued outcome was, in fact, mastery of content was evident the day of the sonnet quiz. when everyone finished, mrs. cooper commented, “if i grade them and they’re horrible, we’ll do it again.” in other words, learning the material was the valued outcome over moving forward with the curriculum. students also showed their understanding of material through partner presentations. on my first day of observation, jacob and a partner shared chaucer’s “the miller’s tale” and “the shipman’s tale” with the class using a powerpoint presentation, including insights about triadic relationships among characters. mrs. cooper commented to jacob as he left class that day, “that was really nice. i appreciated that you got those triangles in your presentation.” essays were another assessment that mrs. cooper often used. i will discuss these written artifacts in each participant’s case study. application. another valued outcome was applying class content authentically in the real world, as evidenced by mrs. cooper when she introduced the vocabulary words one week: “look at number , another ugly word. onerous. anything that’s burdensome. what work do you think is onerous? for me, grading vocab quizzes is onerous work; i’d much rather hear you use the words.” applying class content authentically also meant deeply engaging with the texts to the point that they impact one’s life. mrs. cooper remarked at the end of the unit on frankenstein, “you look at life differently after reading this book,” and in talking about their independent books, she noted, “just think of all the people you’ve read in life already through books. when you meet someone like lydia or heathcliff, you’ll know to walk the other way.” a related outcome was making connections between class content and other parts of life, including faith, as mrs. cooper described on the second to last day of the quarter: i feel like i’m able to talk about ideas with you. we can talk about the ideas in books and how they apply to your life. all of this is practice for reading the real book, which is what? the bible. that’s what real life is about. if you can receive these words, you can receive those. that’s what it’s for. it’s all practice. indeed, throughout the quarter, there were connections between class activities and faith identities. faith-english class figured world intersection holland et al. ( ) understand multiple identities and figured worlds can be interconnected. mrs. cooper connected her british literature classes to four faith figured worlds or identities times in class sessions. first, as seen in the quotation above, mrs. cooper drew a connection to bible reading. she told the students, “remember when you get to the king james bible, and you see some of the psalms; they are in this [sonnet] form.” she also mentioned, “psalm is called shakespeare’s song. it’s really probably not true, but these poets probably were called in to work on that. and you can imagine that in the original hebrew they were songs and poems.” finally, she commented, “there’s something about the relationship between evil and innocence that is incredibly dangerous. go back to the garden of eden. the snake comes in.” second, mrs. cooper referenced chapel services at mhs. during her introduction to poetry and sonnets, she stated: “we’re going to get our [macbeth] books tomorrow and then you’ll be all over it. o’er the land instead of ‘over’ to shorten the line. they do that in hymns all the time. next time we sing in chapel, check.” and, “a lot of sonnets are turned into songs. there’s a place at the back of the hymnal where you can look up meter. so at the next singing chapel, look it up.” while reviewing vocabulary words, mrs. cooper again referred to chapel: “sometimes in chapel i’ve seen some scurrilous behavior; it’s not just in saloons.” finally, introducing the convict at the beginning of great expectations, she said, “‘keep quiet or i’ll cut your throat.’ you don’t say that to a kid. what if i said that to you in chapel?!” third, mrs. cooper mentioned the broader figured world of mennonites twice, once when discussing macduff’s violent response to macbeth — “because macduff went to find help, his family suffered. and now he’s going back to get revenge. it’s not what a mennonite would tell you to do, but this is shakespeare,” — and then again when explaining that pip’s name, in great expectations, means “seed.” she charged the class, “sing, ‘in the seed, there is a harvest,’ —come on, you go to mennonite churches,” referring to a hymn. the second example was intended for students attending mennonite churches and positioned them as such. finally, mrs. cooper expressed statements relating texts to a christian figured world. when discussing the porter of hell’s gate in macbeth, mrs. cooper referred to her poster of rodin’s sculpture the gates of hell and then spoke directly in a personal way: like knocking on the gates of hell. these are in philadelphia. when you think of this, how can hell have doors…. satan is in the middle of hell in dante and in each mouth is a victim. who are they? cassius and brutus (each betrayed best friend) and judas who betrayed jesus. it’s the only entertainment that satan has – who is in his mouth. who would be there today…what would you put on the gates to your personal hell – chocolate, laziness, seven deadly sins? later, when discussing lady macbeth’s sleepwalking and hand washing, mrs. cooper recounted the story of pontius pilate walking around and around a lake in switzerland, trying to wash away his guilt and finally killing himself. during frankenstein, mrs. cooper positioned the students both as future college students and also as christian believers when she discussed krempy and waldman, two teacher characters: “be careful who you choose as a teacher. what did peter and james and john say when jesus asks, ‘why are you hanging around here?’ ‘because you have the words of life.’ this process is what you do at college.” and during the study of great expectations, mrs. cooper observed: “we all need a joe in our lives. his name starts with j because he’s a jesus figure. he loves pip because he’s pip. … he shepherds him, pays debts that he does not owe so that pip can go free.” additionally, mrs. cooper positioned the students as church-goers when she said, “when you were bad in church and you got back in the car, your parents would say, either ‘you know better,’ or ‘that’s not what we taught you.’ am i the only one that was bad in church? i don’t think so.” positionality, space of authoring, and making worlds as noted earlier, embedded within a figured world are the three other contexts of identity performances and formation — positionality, space of authoring, and the making of new worlds (holland et al., ). positionality. i have noted how various artifacts and class activities have positioned actors in this figured world; namely, students were engaged knowledge- receivers. now i want to further discuss some additional positionings. students. several times, mrs. cooper positioned the students collectively as honors students. this positioning was to assure them that they knew more than they thought they did: “you’re honors [students], so i think you know it; you’re just worried that you don’t,” and “do not doubt yourself. if you think you’re right, you’re probably right. you’re honors.” she also positioned them as students who cared about grades: “do you want to take it [vocabulary quiz] today? i know about your a’s! [silence.] let’s just take it.” later in the same class and later in the quarter with different literature, mrs. cooper elevated the students’ power and position when she asked for their input on assessment: “how would you like to be assessed? on a test? essay? presentation? a series of quotations and then you tell what they mean? i have options for all of those. maybe we should let you have all those options.” this more democratic positioning was only selectively used by mrs. cooper; most of the time, she retained the authority. at other times, mrs. cooper positioned the class collectively as lazy students, such as when they worked to complete a macbeth quotations worksheet: you should already have some of these written in your notebook and the line number and who said it. this is what we’re working on. you gotta step it up. finish the quotations and then we’re moving on to act two, which you already are supposed to have read. this positioning as unprepared students was primarily directed at the fifth-period section and reappeared throughout the quarter at times: “i may need to collect the study guides because we only have a few people answering, so i need some evidence that you’re reading.” in contrast, on one occasion, she counted off the students of the seventh- period section and called them “my disciples,” positioning them as devoted followers and making a biblical connection. in fact, this class was somewhat more willing to answer mrs. cooper’s questions and engage in discussion. lastly, mrs. cooper positioned her students, along with herself, as part of the larger world of engaged readers who find themselves reflected in texts. for example, she asked the class: was macbeth led on by the witches or was it totally his fault? the problem is, here is this man who we knew to be a good man who is now a bad man, and we’re stuck looking at his face and seeing ours in it. who among us hasn’t been duped? done something stupid? here, mrs. cooper identified with her students, using the collective “we.” at other times, as we have seen, she established a position as an authority who needed to help neophyte readers. “i want to give you time to read, but i want to make sure you’re on the right path first,” she said one day. in describing positionings, it is important to remember that while positions are repeated over time, as in the examples above, they are also dynamic with the possibility of changing moment by moment through the activities in a figured world (holland et al., ). the following section of field notes illustrates how positions can change even within a few moments. a. back to the teachers. krempy and waldman are the two kinds of teachers. dresses well. too enthusiastic. waldman is mysterious; kids are drawn to him because they think they’ll hear something mystical and awesome. you better be careful who you choose as a teacher. b. what did peter and james and john say when jesus asks, why are you hanging around here? because you have the words of life. c. this process is what you do at college – choose your classes. watch out. d. t - are you harvesting quotes and notes? you better. there could be a quiz. e. victor wants to know the secret of life. well, we all do. problem is, who’s his teacher? well, you’ll find out. in section a, mrs. cooper first talks about the text at hand and positions the students as students in her class. then she shifts and talks to them as agentic selves who are able to choose teachers. while this action could be relevant in their present lives, it is certainly true in college and she appears to be positioning them as future college students, as is confirmed by section c. in section b, mrs. cooper shifts to include a christian example. while not directly positioning the students as christians, this statement does assume their knowledge of this reference. after positioning them as future college students in c, mrs. cooper repositions the students back to this figured world in section d. lastly, in e, mrs. cooper moves from positioning the students as engaged readers, along with herself, in “we all do” to first-time-readers/students in “you’ll find out.” mrs. cooper. predominantly, the students positioned the teacher as the literary expert in the figured world. she knew the literature well, made interesting connections between the texts and other texts or life, told stories often and effectively, and was passionate about the literature. in an interview, jessica described mrs. cooper as “so smart in understanding the reading and helping us understand the reading.” jacob commented in his semester-end reflection, “i liked how we would be talking about some theme or topic in the book, and then mrs. cooper would have some story to go along with it…. this kind of teaching style makes a class enjoyable.” cassie loved that “she’s so enthusiastic.” researcher. finally, my presence was acknowledged three times in the class while i was there, though one of the participants told me i was referred to as “that lady” at other times when i was not present. once mrs. cooper positioned me as an outsider to the group, once as a fellow reader, and, finally, as a doctoral student. space for authoring. previously, i have noted some examples of space for authoring within the british literature honors figured world. as stated earlier, every positioning necessitates a response: acceptance; rejection, which can potentially and eventually lead to new worlds; or negotiation (holland et al., ). during class time, the students, including my participants, mainly accepted their positions of knowledge-receivers and as honors students as given them by mrs. cooper. most of the students were attentive most of the time; however, most also rejected the positioning to engage verbally during class. when given the opportunity to give their opinions about assessment or when mrs. cooper asked a question or asked for questions, most remained silent, in effect rejecting the positioning. in this case, the space of authoring was passive, a withdrawal from an opportunity to participate and engage more deeply. still, there were some occasions when students chose to author their own space. first, a few times, students did ask questions that initiated a new line of inquiry from the one mrs. cooper had established. second, after mrs. cooper chided the class for not knowing more of the macbeth quotations on the worksheet and positioning them as lazy, shannon remarked to jessica, “i wouldn’t have written this down. i wouldn’t have known these were important. now i know that they were important to her.” additional responses to in-class, figured-world positioning will be given in each participant’s case study. examination of the written artifacts and the interview data will add to the picture of how jacob, jessica, cassie, paige, and shannon authored space in this figured world. making worlds. there was little evidence to suggest that my participants tried to alter the figured world. one clear example came from jacob in his end-of-semester reflection, in which he suggested some technology-related changes; this example will be discussed in his case study. rather, the participants, including jacob, spoke favorably of the class, as captured by cassie: “i wish i could stay in her class and have her for english every semester but then no one else would get to enjoy it just as much as i have.” this appreciation and commitment suggests they acquiesced to the actions and values of the figured world. summary the figured world of british literature honors class was populated with two types of actors: students and the teacher. in this world, significant actions included transferring knowledge from the teacher or texts to students and attending to meaning in texts. various discourses and artifacts were used in this world to participate in the activities of the world. valued outcomes included mastery of content and applying class content to the world outside of the classroom. additionally, mrs. cooper regularly made connections between this figured world and faith-related figured worlds. she positioned students in various ways, most consistently as knowledge-receivers, honors students, and unprepared students collectively. predominantly, the students as a whole and, specifically, my students accepted the given positioning or authored a passive space to disagree. chiefly, they accepted the figured world as it was. case studies i have described the two school-related figured worlds most relevant to my research question about mennonite high school students and their literate practices. now i will share the story of each participant in terms of salient identities, faith identities, elective literate practices, performed identities in the two figured worlds, written documents from each class and responses during verbal protocols as a way of answering the question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? i have ordered the case studies according to the strength of the connection between faith identity and literate practices, starting with the strongest connection, though these distinctions are clearest in the first and last cases. paige paige was a bright-eyed, tall, slender, -year-old girl. she dressed modestly in jeans and a sweater or in athletic wear with her long brown hair in a ponytail. her blue backpack was usually full, with a small wooden cross hanging on one of the zipper pulls. paige described herself as shy, hardworking, and dependable. when i asked her what was important to know about her, she replied, “i would say that probably my faith is probably a big part of it. yeah, i would consider that to be one of the most important things that people would know about me.” in our interviews, paige used copulative verbs eight times to identify herself. from these identifications and her use of subsequent transitive verbs for supportive actions, i coded for the following enacted identities: conscientious student ( notations), curious learner ( ), devoted runner ( ), person of faith ( ), and reader ( ). as we shall see, for paige, her performed faith identity was the most salient. hierarchically, enacting a person of faith was the central identity that permeated the other understandings she had of herself. furthermore, her faith and her literate practices intersected regularly and influenced each other reciprocally. while this study focused on the faith identities and literate practices of the participants, my data included evidence of other enacted identities that were important to how the participants understood themselves, and some of these identities impacted or were impacted by faith or reading. i begin each case with these “other” identities. other identities i have drawn the following descriptions of paige’s other identities solely from the interview data, though there will be triangulation in other sections that incorporate other data. conscientious student. paige performed as a conscientious student who finished her homework and checked in with teachers if she needed help or if she missed a class due to her participation on the soccer, cross-country, or track teams. after supper each night, she did “all [her] homework” until she got ready for bed. referring to her weekend activities she said, “in my free time, um, probably just do homework.” she particularly liked four classes: concert choir, conflict resolution, chapel, and english. the first three connected to faith: the choir sang faith-related texts; reconciliation is at the center of anabaptist theology (becker, ); and chapel services at mhs supported the faith development of the school community. the fourth class, english, supported her reader identity. she really enjoyed mhs and her relationships with teachers and friends. curious learner. paige contrasted her conscientious student identity to enacting a learner or a curious person identity. she clarified: i mean, a student’s more, like, you know, you’re sitting in class, like, kind of the generic thought of what a student should be, but a learner is, like, you actually are curious and want to learn new things about, like, the world and life, and i think i like learning new things so i would consider myself a learner. yeah. it’s a difference. her enacted learner identity intersected with her student and faith identities, as in the following example when i asked why she chose to write about c.s. lewis for a bible assignment. she commented: i don’t know; i heard he was, like, a really good philosopher guy, like a christian philosopher, and i wanted to hear his, like, ideas about that, and i also heard he had a conversion to christianity and i wanted to hear, like, why and what made him do that, i guess…. and i also knew he was the author of the chronicles of narnia [high fantasy children’s series exploring several christian themes], and i really liked those books so i wanted to kinda know his, like, theology behind it more cuz i know he had, like, symbolism in that and …so i wanted to know more about that. paige performed her learner identity in service of her good student identity, in which an assignment was an opportunity to learn, and faith-related topics were of interest to her. devoted runner. a third self-understanding for paige was performing as a runner. she had been a successful long distance runner for the past three years, and she believed running enhanced her faith: before i started running, i wasn’t really strong in my faith, i’d say. but then i – it’s kind of taught me to depend on god more instead of myself cuz, like, when i pray i can rely on him instead of just relying on my strength because sometimes i feel like i don’t have enough strength to get through, like, a hard workout or a hard race or whatever. so yeah, i think that running has definitely been, like, a big part of helping me grow spiritually. additionally, paige felt her faith, particularly the practice of prayer, improved her running performances. as holland et al. ( ) attest, paige’s identity performances and practices in one world – faith – were woven throughout her activities in other worlds. faith identity paige’s enacted faith identity was central to how she saw herself. she described her faith as “a work in progress, still growing, trust…cuz i feel like trust in god is a big part. and, um, strengthening. like, it strengthens me to be able to do things that i wouldn’t be able to do without it.” paige’s understanding of herself as a person of faith permeated and affected other identities and her behaviors, as evidenced in her running and in the following example about bible class. i asked what she liked about the class. her response did not reflect a good student identity so much as a committed faith believer: “i really like hearing about [the martyrs] because it’s, like, encouraging that they would –, like, hearing the stories of those that actually died for what they believed.” after telling me her faith was a big part of who she was, she continued, “i still have struggles with it at some, like sometimes, but i think that’s okay because it shows that you actually care if you struggle with it.” paige was negotiating and authoring space for herself within the world. holland et al. ( ) would view this struggle as part of the dialogism that is constantly present in two ways: first, as each person interacts with others and the environment; and second, as the words and ideas we receive from others help us to author our own stories and lives. they would also say it is part of paige’s zone of proximal development within this identity as she works to author her own space in this world (holland et al., ). holland et al. ( ) assert that while identities are always changing, histories-of- persons develop whereby, over time, some identity performances stabilize and become more central to the individual. paige acknowledged that while her faith had grown overall as she had grown, the past couple of years her faith practices and identity had “had its ups and downs,” but that it was “pretty strong right now.” here she named both a fluidity and a stability to her faith identity. paige grew up with mennonite parents and had attended a mennonite church all her life as well as mennonite schools. she saw these influences as providing a strong foundation for her faith. over the past several years, paige moved from blindly accepting beliefs about god from those around her, to doubting, and now owning her beliefs and performances: “i did a lot of praying and, like, now i’m sure he exists because i’ve seen, like, signs, just my personal experiences, like, i’ve seen so many signs of him, like, everywhere.” holland et al. ( ) tie self-understandings to words and actions, so in sharing her view of herself as a person of faith, paige reinforced that identity. paige claimed both a christian and a mennonite identity, specifically identifying with the mennonite beliefs in nonviolence and adult baptism. as she described for me her past, present, and future actions pertaining to this self-understanding as a person of faith, she again bolstered this identity. paige also engaged in several actions, significant to the figured world of mennonite faith, that embodied her faith identity, including attending church, sunday school and youth group activities; attending mhs and chapel services; praying; and reading her bible. in fact, although she believed church attendance was important for her faith development, “other activities, like [attending a mennonite camp in the summer] and like reading my bible on my own,” were more significant, and she named her bible as the second most important object in her life after her house. a group of friends from school set out to read the bible in a year, suggesting the social practice of reading (knoester, ). paige stuck with it, and even though she did not finish in a year, she was committed to finishing when she could. paige believed reading the bible was vital to her christian identity: yes, i mean, there’s no way you’re gonna understand, like, how you’re supposed to live your life if you don’t read god’s word. like, you can’t expect to…know what you’re doing unless you have instructions. so i feel like reading the bible is, like, a big part of knowing how to live as a christian. paige read the bible as well as a devotional every night before going to bed. this voluntary commitment to the daily practice of bible reading indicated a strong faith identity. paige authored or envisioned a space for herself in the future mennonite church. she imagined that churches might meet as smaller groups rather than one large group. if this change were to occur, she would feel more comfortable sharing and even leading events. she also articulated a vision for her future faith identity performances: what i would hope it would be is that i would keep reading the bible and stuff like that, and i would keep trying to, like, live what i believe more and just keep following what god wants me to do, if i can figure that out. paige’s ability to articulate and foresee herself even more deeply involved in a future faith identity denotes a strong commitment to her present identity as a mennonite (holland et al., ). reader identity and elective literate practices paige described herself as “not a voracious reader, but a reader that reads for pleasure once in a while.” paige did read voraciously as an elementary and middle school student, but found that her sport and student identity-related commitments took up most of her free time in high school. still, this self-definition was important to her. she explained: in my free time, when i have free time, i enjoy, um, reading and learning from, like, i like getting outside of my own little bubble…. i like being a reader because it means that you are interested in, like, other people’s stories, and you want to learn more from other people. and i think reading is a good way to do that. paige’s enacted reader identity supported her learner identity as was evident in her reading goals: obviously, you can learn a ton through reading, like, about, i don’t know, anything. you could – there’s basically [books] about any subject on earth that you could possibly want so you can become really smart by reading and have a big huge vocabulary; so i like that about it. beyond learning facts or different perspectives, paige took an additional significant action in the figured world of reading – application: “even if they’re fictional, i think it’s still cool to learn about all the characters and …relate their struggles or whatever they’re going through to my life, and i think that’s really good to, like, make those connections in it.” in fact, paige’s comments for both texts in the verbal protocol support this move, and pride and prejudice, which she read for school and didn’t find very meaningful, was redeemed for her because she “learned stuff from it,” and it had “a little lesson at the end.” fantasy was her favorite genre – “i feel like it broadens my imagination to stuff that wouldn’t normally happen in this world” – though she would pick up a sports illustrated or national geographic that was sitting around the house if the issue looked interesting. though she didn’t have much time for elective reading and didn’t know of any good book series, she desired to get back into elective reading: “i’m still looking for, like, a really good book that i can sit down and read.” furthermore, paige liked the books she read for english class “cuz that’s when i’m actually, like, that’s when i actually get a chance to sit down and read a book.” uncle tom’s cabin was a particular favorite because it taught her lessons she could apply to her own life. specifically, paige made connections between reading and her enacted faith identity, like one of the participants in richardson and eccles’ ( ) study, which was evident in three ways. first, she read and enjoyed texts with faith-based themes, such as i lived to tell about it by joey perez, a personal narrative of a gang member who found god. perez later spoke in chapel at mhs, creating a link for paige between her reader identity and her student and faith identities; however, there were other faith-related books as well that she read. she told me: i like books about faith and stuff like that. like, that’s why i liked uncle tom’s cabin – cuz it was kind of about, um, uncle tom, like, going through his faith journey and stuff like that; so, i don’t know if [my faith] impacts …what books i read, but it impacts um what books i end up liking, enjoying…. that’s why i like great ex[pectations] – cuz i would kind of relate it to my faith. just as kelly ( ) found in her study of anthony, an african-american youth and the reading he did, paige’s reading informed her other identities. second, paige looked for christian connections in any text she read: when i read, like, i’m always looking for those, like, connections, and i don’t know if the author meant them to be there necessarily, but i think once, like, an author writes a book, it’s open to anyone’s interpretation, so that’s fine if we can, like, find metaphors or, like, i don’t know, similarities between, like, our faith and, like, the characters…. i don’t, like, stretch it if it’s, like, completely not there, but if it’s there, then i connect it. third, as previously stated, the main text paige read on her own was the bible: “i definitely read it every day…it’s kinda like part of my nightly routine…and even if it’s, like, really late, i’ll just do it.” this activity, related to her faith identity, was habituated (holland et al., ) and served a purpose: “it’s a good time to, like, think back and, like, reflect on what happened in the day and spend some time with god and myself.” paige highlighted passages that stood out to her, and viewed the bible as both an instruction book and also a source of inspiration: “it’s, like, motivation for us and it helps, like, bolster us up in our faith.” paige was also committed to reading jesus calling, a popular daily devotional. paige read the bible through the lens of jesus’ ministry, which helped her make sense of the old testament, and she thought it was important to take into account the context, culture, and time period in which the bible was written as she sought to interpret passages. she also believed it important to read scripture with other christians because hearing their interpretations could inform her own. reading the bible from a christocentric viewpoint and interpreting scripture with a body of believers are common mennonite practices, suggesting that paige’s enacted mennonite identity influenced her bible reading approach. in summary, paige used various texts, including the bible, as artifacts into the figured world of mennonite faith (holland et al., ). paige did do some elective writing, keeping a journal under her bed that she would write in “when something big happens or something that impacts” her and she “[feels] like writing about it.” she might write a couple of times a month. identities in bible class i had field notations for paige in bible class, of which i coded as conscientious student. paige took notes, photographed presentation slides, worked in groups to complete class activities, used given class time to write journal assignments, and sat attentively, looking at mr. bennett during lectures. she did not engage in class discussion. in fact, the first time she volunteered or spoke in class was during the final week of the quarter. still, there were no verbal participation requirements for the class, and paige could fully engage without speaking. in the figured world of bible class, paige most often performed a good student identity. a second identity paige performed was “other student identity.” in these instances, paige maintained some focus on the activities in the class, such as listening to mr. bennett, but also worked on assignments for other classes at the same time. for example, one field note reads, “paige is doing math? has calculator out. paige is asking questions of kid in front about math homework.” mr. bennett never called attention to these behaviors and may not have been aware of them as paige was inconspicuous in her actions. however, even if he had been, in this figured world, such behavior was generally tolerated. from his observations as the bible teacher, mr. bennett perceived paige as asking questions and thinking about faith: “she’s thinking of how to process the jesus teachings to our lives today…. she was respectfully understanding ‘mennonite’ – and it means more serious about jesus’ teaching – and i thought that was really good, to be able to get at that.” this observation aligns well with how paige described her own participation in the figured world of mennonite faith as we have seen and will also be evident in her writings. there were nine notations that described paige’s clothing, but none of these notations indicated that she performed her faith identity through her clothing. four other notations described a friend or social identity performance. most noteworthy, perhaps, of paige’s identity performances in bible class is that her faith identity was not evident in classroom activities except for her writing assignments. rather than speaking up in class, paige chose to remain quiet, saving her voice for her writing. in her writing, however, she participated in the figured world and in so doing, performed her faith identity as well. identities in english class in english class, paige’s exclusive identity performance was conscientious student. there were field notations for paige in english class. fourteen of these described her clothing, and the rest noted engaged student behaviors, such as participation in group work ( notations), in which she supplied many of the answers or gave leadership to the group, taking notes or completing a worksheet ( ), looking at the teacher and responding by nodding or looking in the texts ( ), and reading ( ). five times, paige asked questions to clarify an assignment, an assessment, or a grade, and eight notations evidenced interactions between paige and mrs. cooper initiated by mrs. cooper, such as mrs. cooper’s asking paige which independent book she was reading and whether or not she was writing a reader’s journal. only once did i note paige’s answering a content-related question. much like in bible class, she saved her identity performance for the written assignments, where her faith identity was evident, as i will discuss in a subsequent section. specific to the figured world of british literature, paige participated in the significant acts of receiving knowledge and attending to meaning by taking notes, listening to mrs. cooper, and reading the assigned texts. her mastery of material and application of ideas to her own life – the valued outcomes of the figured world – can be seen in her writings as well as in her discussions with me about certain texts, such as great expectations. though mrs. cooper rarely individually positioned students during class, on three occasions she did so with paige, all of which positioned her as a good student. first, when returning a test to paige, mrs. cooper gave her a thumbs-up sign and said, “really nice.” second, paige inquired about a low score on a summary she had written. mrs. cooper responded, “that can’t be right. that would be hilarious. i’ll look into it.” third, paige confirmed she was writing a reader’s journal and asked if hers was too long. mrs. cooper replied, “that’s not too much to read. your writing is fun to read.” paige accepted these positions. she liked mrs. cooper and enjoyed the books they read in class. while she preferred taking tests to writing essays on texts she didn’t like as well, she did not feel strongly enough to voice this preference to mrs. cooper or, in any other way, to make a new world or alter this one. literate practices paige’s literate practices evidenced her faith identity performances at the same time that her faith influenced her reading and writing practices. bible class writings. paige’s conscientious student and faith identities were both salient for her, which was evident in the bible class writing she did. although i did not have any codes for constructing knowledge, making connections, or asking questions, of the sentences she wrote collectively in seven essays met requirements for the assignment, and overall, the writing was informative (britton et al., ). this evidence indicates paige’s performance of her good student identity. furthering her good student identity performance, each of the seven essays included the other valued outcomes of the bible class figured world: ownership of personal faith beliefs, practice of faith beliefs, or both. these outcomes, however, serve as more than evidence of a good student identity; they are also indications of a performed faith identity as we shall see. additionally, each essay included between six and self-mentions; fifty-one of the total self-mentions i coded as originator, indicating a strong authorial presence in the writing (tang & john, ). these data, as seen in table , align with salient good student and mennonite faith identities as paige used the bible assignments not only to perform a good student identity but also as opportunities to describe and perform her faith identity and her commitment to it. this point is illustrated in the following three examples. table : paige's bible writings essay assignment total sentences meeting requirement ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions hermeneutics essay reforms essay schleitheim articles essay russian mennonites essay mennonite community essay truth essay final essay totals first, describing the benefits of mennonite community, paige wrote, “i have had personal experiences of this, as i have grown up in a mennonite church that places community and helping others in very high importance,” and continued with an example: i have tried to do the “bible in a year” reading plan on my own, and i [sic] eventually lost interest and forgot. however, this past year i did it with a group of my friends, and found it to be much more enjoyable and easy. in this way, we held each other accountable. reading the bible in a year is a commitment for anyone, but certainly for an active teenager. this activity of paige’s faith identity became more consistent with the encouragement and accountability of other actors in the figured world of mennonite faith. owning and performing a mennonite faith identity for paige was not an individual understanding, but a communal one, as holland et al. ( ) would argue is true for all identities. second, paige referred to reading the bible twice more, indicating the salience of this activity to her faith identity. comparing her beliefs to the those of the early anabaptists in the mid- s, she confirmed, “i also hold god’s word in high authority in my life and read scriptures though the lens of jesus’ ministry (christocentric).” the bible is an artifact into the figured world of mennonite faith and one way for paige to gain access to and participate in that world (holland et al., ). last, paige authors a space for herself (holland et al., ) in the figured world of mennonite faith when she envisioned ways she could participate in the future: if small-groups become a part of the church, i would feel more comfortable sharing my thoughts in that setting. i might even lead sometimes. also, if conflicts do arise, i could use my spiritual gift of mercy to be merciful instead of judging people. i also really like unity and togetherness, and that could be helpful to the future of the church. paige imagined a future church and a place for herself in it. holland et al. ( ) suggest that identities sediment over time as one takes past experiences and applies them to present contexts and positionings. here, paige’s present commitment to her faith identity is strong enough to allow her to imagine continued participation and even reshaping of that world. paige used the literate events of bible writing assignments to claim and imagine her mennonite faith identity. english class writings. the evidence of good student identity performances and the salience of paige’s faith identity continued in her english class writings. paige gave me five written documents from english class, with a combined total of sentences. paige strongly participated in the figured world’s significant action of close, attentive reading, which manifested in using quotations times in her writing and including discourse specific to the class eight times. additionally, i coded of the sentences as mastery, indicating paige’s success in this valued outcome of the figured world, and all of the writings were informative (britton et al., ). the quotations, discourse, and mastery all provide evidence for a conscientious student identity performance as do the seven instances of the valued outcome of life application to text ideas or themes, as seen in table . for example, paige wrote, “reading great expectations, above all, revealed to me what it was to be a true friend. joe was the faithful and steadfast father-figure throughout the whole book to pip. i want to be more like joe.” she then described a true friend as a christ-like friend, and, as paige wanted to be more like joe, she is suggesting a desire to deepen her participation in the figured world of faith. indeed, like others in the literature (richardson & eccles, ; sumara, ), paige used texts and characters to consider who she was and how she might want to change. table : paige's english class writings essay assignments total sentences significant action - quotations valued outcome- mastery valued outcome - applications faith connections self- mentions the once and future king essay beowulf essay chaucer essay frankenstein essay great expectations essay totals paige’s commitment to her faith identity can also be seen in the following example about the once and future king. she began, “arthur’s ideas … have stretched my mind and introduced new concepts that have changed my outlook on both the world and life as a whole.” she continued by writing about lancelot and his concept of god: lancelot’s view of god was one of the most influential things in this book for me, despite the fact that it is not one of the major themes of the book. the notion that god is like a person, and that you can be in love with him and have a personal relationship with him is…well, remarkable. this idea expanded my mind and way of thinking greatly. she concluded this essay by writing that lancelot’s perspective on god will “stick with” her for the rest of her life. the faith connection paige made here is noteworthy since, as she asserted, lancelot’s view of god is not a central theme of the book. although the beowulf and frankenstein essays do not include faith applications to her life, paige addressed faith topics in these essays as well. finally, paige had self-mentions across these writings, and all but three of the self-mentions were opinion-holders or originator roles, indicating a powerful authorial presence in the writings (tang & john, ) that aligns with her self-understanding as a reader. in addition to the personal pronoun uses above, which illustrate life application and faith connections, paige’s self-mentions suggested another kind of text transaction – connecting to the characters. of great expectations, she wrote: i felt myself empathizing with the characters and feeling their emotions…. pip’s journey to become a real gentleman was long and painful, and at times, i felt sorry for the miserable life he had gotten himself into. i must admit i really disliked his character throughout most of the book, but a small part of me was clinging to the hope that he would repent his selfishness, give up his quest for fortune, and return to joe and biddy. of course, i loved him again at the end when he did just that. paige’s english writings evidenced an engaged student and reader through her use of quotations and figured world discourse as well as her mastery and application of class content. her english class writings also substantiated her salient faith identity. verbal protocols. paige’s use of literacy events to both strengthen and perform her faith identity was also evident in her verbal protocols. both of her text choices clearly had faith themes, suggesting a faith identity performance since i had asked for one text related to faith while the other was the student’s choice. her first reading was from uncle tom’s cabin, in which tom, a slave, is beginning to doubt his faith. he then sees a vision of jesus and begins to feel joy. the second passage was ephesians, chapter , verses - from the message, which is titled “he tore down the wall.” the theme in this text is becoming alive and one in christ. paige’s overall orientation to each text was point-driven (smith & wilhelm, ); she focused on the morals or values evoked in the texts. as the ideas in both texts were faith-related, this orientation further confirms that her faith identity was enacted during these readings. table : paige's verbal protocol reponses uncle tom’s cabin ephesians total comprehending visualizing connecting to other texts connecting to reader’s life connecting to other figured worlds evaluating reacting total adding the responses from each text together, paige’s highest category of responses was positively evaluating the texts or characters in the texts and relating the texts to her life as seen in table above. reacting, again positively, and comprehending the texts were the other responses of note, and in total, evaluating, making connections to her life, and comprehending accounted for of responses. as noted above, paige did more evaluating than any other kind of response in her protocols. much like galda and beach’s ( ) study, in which students evaluated fictional characters positively or negatively based on their own identities, paige’s evaluation of tom in uncle tom’s cabin was based on his dedication to his faith. her admiration reflected her own valuing of faith, and it is through this lens that she evaluated his character: i just like how tom had a positive attitude through it all. i mean, like, throughout the book, he was, like, - he faced all sorts of troubles and … he was able to, like, keep his faith strong throughout this but this, was, like, the weakest point in his faith, and i thought that was really cool how god sent him a vision, like, right when he needed it most. and i think god does that for people when they really are at, like, rock bottom. not only did paige respect tom for his faith, but in her response she articulated some of her own theology. this artifact that allows her to participate in the figured world of reading also informed or reaffirmed her values within the figured world of faith. tom had even more influence on paige, though; his character provided an example for her own behavior or performances of her faith identity. that is, she connected the text to her own life, as can be seen in the table as well as in this example: when i read it, it, like, really, like, gave me hope because i felt like i could relate to it. like, when i go through tough times i try to focus on god instead of focusing on my troubles. and, i mean, i don’t always do very good at that. so, i guess, this passage, like, i was, like, really admiring how tom did it, and i wanted to kind of be like him when it happened to me. while paige admitted she has never been in such dire situations as tom, she did recount praying for strength before races when she had injuries and feeling that god helped her through those races. as also noted in the table, paige connected the ephesians passage to her life as well. after reading, “christ brought us together through his death on the cross,” she said: so i really like the idea of unity…. we had to take like a [team] captain quiz…and it was like what’s your leadership style, and i got togetherness so i like this idea that christ brings everyone together and there doesn't have to be any one like left out or anything. beyond making connections, paige viewed this passage as informing her faith identity performances such that the act of reading influenced her faith performances: i really like that it actually gives you practical advice on how to live once you, um, get into god’s kingdom and how it kind of describes god’s plan…. all we have to do is trust him enough to let him do it…. it’s kind of like a thought process that you have to, like, do because if you go around thinking that you’re the one who saved yourself then that doesn’t really work out so well. there were two other noteworthy areas of response as is evident in the table – comprehending and reacting. paige shared several responses to both texts which i coded as comprehending. in these instances, paige restated the text in her own words, beginning with phrases such as, “so i think that’s saying that…” these responses did not have as much identity presence in them as those that were evaluative, connecting, or reactive. in the reacting responses, paige responded with emotion, such as, “that just kind of made me feel, like, depressed,” or “well, that’s really awful.” she continued, “because if someone told you, like, your religion, which is your source of, like, hope, like, doesn’t work, and all the evidence around you, like, is pointing that way, then that would just crush you even more.” perhaps these emotional responses happened in uncle tom’s cabin and not in ephesians because of the narrative structure of the text, allowing paige to enter the text on a more emotional level. paige’s verbal protocols supported the strong relationship between her reading practices and her enacted faith identity. summary paige’s multiple identities were hierarchically related, with her faith identity performances being most central to how she understood herself. this identity crossed contextual boundaries to interact with her other enacted identities, such as conscientious student, curious learner, and devoted runner. furthermore, there was evidence that there was a consistent reciprocal relationship between her elective and required literate practices and her faith identity performances, as is seen in the themes across data sources such as the importance of reading the bible, looking for christian themes or metaphors in any reading, and applying textual ideas to her personal faith life. next, cassie’s story was similar to paige’s in that she enacted a strong faith identity and a strong connection between her faith and her literate practices, though for cassie, her family played a greater role in that connection. cassie when cassie smiled, her big brown eyes glimmered. tall and slender, this seventeen-year-old wore jeans and sweaters or athletic jackets, like many students at mhs. cassie described herself as “typically pretty happy,” “outgoing” with her friends and “very shy” with those she did not know. she thought of herself as “independent, strong, and hopeful.” cassie used a copulative verb-noun complement structure times in our interviews to identify herself. i categorized these usages, along with the complementary actions or behaviors, into the following identities: good student ( interview notations), dedicated bowler ( ), involved family member ( ), and a mennonite-christian reader ( ). like paige, cassie defined her faith identity as central to how she understood herself, and it impacted other identity performances, suggesting a hierarchical structure among her identities. the data also revealed a strong reciprocal relationship between cassie’s enacted faith identity and her literate practices. other identities the analysis of the enacted student, bowler, and family member identities is based solely on the data from the interviews i conducted with cassie. good student. cassie described a typical day as arriving home from school around pm, doing homework, and going to bed. she spent a lot of time on spanish class during the year and reading for english class during the summer. she found the class conflict resolution helpful and applicable to her life. cassie imagined that mrs. cooper and mr. bennett might describe her as “a little lazy” because she did not always succeed in turning assignments in on time, even though this was her goal. she also commented, “i don’t want to say something that’s not what they would think,” yet she also tried to “think through all the possibilities” when she wrote assignments. there were examples of faith identity performances in her class writing assignments as will be shown. dedicated bowler. cassie bowled for the school team and was also on community summer and fall leagues. when i asked if she saw herself as a bowler, in the first interview, she replied, “i’d say i am cuz i really enjoy it.” in the third interview, she answered, “um, not right now. because i’m not doing as good (laughs), but at other times i would.” these responses illustrate two points holland et al. ( ) make about identities. first, identities are dynamic and constructed out of participation in social activity. one’s commitment to an identity at any given time can wax and wane. second, even how a person talks about an identity, how they position themselves within a figured world, can change, as it did when cassie talked to me. cassie was captain of the school team. one routine she started was including scripture and prayer before and after a game: we kind of have a different person pray every week or every game. um, so i kinda – i bring up, like, a bible verse, and then i’ll say, you know, kinda reflect on this, and then we’ll come back together at the end, and we’ll pray about it. indeed, cassie’s faith identity filtered into her bowling figured world. cassie also played field hockey though she did not see this activity as an identity for herself. even so, cassie named sports as an activity connected to her faith; she saw a connection between the two. involved family member. cassie’s self-understanding included being part of a family. she told me, “i think of myself …as a sister, as a daughter,” and cassie named her paternal grandparents as important people. she also named her mother as influential in her life; her mother helped her see different perspectives on life that she might not see on her own. while cassie mentioned family vacations and working together, most of her comments about family included faith. her mother read a devotional to the three high- school-aged children each morning, and her father gave her his copy of in his steps, a novel that had belonged to her grandfather and recounts the story of a church that asks, “what would jesus do?” before making decisions. cassie also told me the story of going to her grandparents’ house with all of her cousins at christmastime and easter, when they read these stories from the bible: we pass around the bible, and there’s of us or something so we each read it. and we’ll help the little cousins cuz they can’t read sometimes, but we’ll each read it so we read it, like, -whatever times. i love it. cassie commented that sometimes her brother refused to read. he was “on the edge of what he believed,” yet she took him to youth events in the hopes it would help him. cassie’s performed faith identity was interwoven with her identity as a family member, perhaps to the point of a hybrid identity of a faith-filled, involved family member. faith identity understanding herself as a person of faith was central to cassie’s self-perception. when i first asked her to tell me about her faith, cassie was clear: “i’d say i’m definitely a mennonite, definitely christian. um, i’m very strong in what i believe in. i have opinions. if somebody says one thing and i believe the opposite, i will definitely stand up for it.” through words, cassie told herself and others who she was (holland et al., ). yet, cassie believed faith also included actions: “you can’t just have beliefs. you have to work those beliefs into your life. and make that known to other people. like, let them see that, too.” in fact, this statement aligned with mr. bennett’s goals for bible class, and holland et al. ( ) would echo this idea about identities: identities are based on more than words; they are also based on the actions that are driven by our words. interestingly, cassie was the only participant to initially volunteer the word “mennonite” in identifying herself during the interviews. to her, being mennonite meant believing in the beliefs of the early anabaptists and applying these beliefs to one’s life. such beliefs included believer’s baptism, pacifism, communion rituals, worship styles, and community interpretation of scripture. cassie had been baptized at age , applying that principle to her life. cassie also identified herself as a “daughter of god… a member of [a mennonite church], and sort of a member of [a non-mennonite church].” at the time of the study, cassie and her mother were attending both the mennonite church cassie had grown up in and held closely as well as a non-denominational church focused on the bible and its teachings. like paige, cassie acknowledged that her faith had changed over time, an experience holland et al. ( ) recognize as well. cassie told me, “i used to think of myself as, like, a really devoted christian, but lately it’s not been the same.” she felt that she had strayed in the recent past, but that talking and attending activities at the new church was helping her to feel more devoted, which she liked. cassie wanted to be more committed to enacting her faith identity and was changing her actions to align with this deeper commitment (holland et al., ). cassie participated in several activities related to her faith identity. she and her friends were about to start a prayer group to pray for needs they saw around school. cassie also attended youth group events at her mennonite church, where she was positioned as a leader and asked to serve as part of a team to provide input and feedback to the youth pastor. here, she was given a direct opportunity to help shape that figured world (holland et al., ). she also attended youth group activities at the non- denominational church, which she “love[d],” and which was focused on scriptural text: at the youth group services, they have games for, like, the first minutes, and then they’ll do a bible study where they dive straight into the scripture, and they’ll highlight every single verse of one chapter that night, and it takes about an hour. um, so you each bring your bibles, and you’re, like, highlighting stuff and writing down. so i have tons of notes in my bible. in fact, cassie held the bible above all other books because “god helped write it,” and she believed the bible was a resource for people: i would hold [the bible] as a book that, kind of, guides my life, not just a book that sits on my shelf that i’ll sometimes read. it’s a book that, you know, if i’m having trouble with something, i’ll go to that and look up a certain verse that i feel like it’s really going to help me. cassie frequently read the bible as well as devotionals. she tried to read the bible on her own every saturday, if she remembered, and she had tried to read through the bible in a year, but had not quite finished. the bible gave her “the full picture of life and how it’s supposed to be.” at the time of the study, she had four different devotionals that she read at various points throughout the day, including on the bus in the morning to help keep her centered: i do it to kind of give me something to think about throughout the day because otherwise i just think about, “what’s going to go on today? am i going to have problems with my friends, or am i gonna, you know – what’s for lunch?” these typical teenage thoughts were not where cassie wanted to direct her mind. instead, she proactively participated in faith identity activities, including giving her friends bible verses to encourage them when they were having problems. the bible and devotional books were important artifacts for cassie to enter the figured world of faith (holland et al., ). additionally, these readings impacted her faith, while at the same time, her faith impacted the reading that she did, which i will discuss further in a subsequent section. finally, as noted previously, the social practice theory of identity (holland et al., ) includes the idea that as people perform identities in the midst of social activity, they author spaces for themselves and sometimes imagine altered worlds. cassie wrote a paper for bible class in which she discussed her feelings about changes she had seen at her mennonite church and, in essence, answered back to those in authority at the church who were making decisions with which she did not agree. for the future, cassie imagined an altered world of the mennonite church in which her faith would be stronger, but also one in which there would be outside influences trying to distract her so that she would need to “go back to the bible” to keep herself grounded. she also envisioned staying involved in the church and working with youth, which would allow her to continue to shape that world. reader identity and elective literate practices cassie’s reading and faith reciprocally impacted the other. cassie saw herself as a reader, though she later qualified this assertion, noting that during the summer she was definitely not a reader as there were too many other activities. during the school year, she definitely was a reader. as seen in cassie’s bowling identity, this clarification aligns with the notion that identities, and people’s commitment to them, are dynamic (holland et al., ). being a reader to cassie meant paying attention to a text, thinking about what it meant, and applying it to faith, friends, or struggles. enacting a reader identity was important to cassie as a way to learn new things, as “something to do,” and as “an escape from everyday life,” giving her something else to think about. i asked if this last purpose also served for the faith-related reading she did. she replied, “yeah, especially, like, if i’m having a hard day at school, and i’ll turn to one of those, and i’ll just open it up and read.” cassie loved c. s. lewis because his books “kind of give the reader a picture of christianity but don’t actually show that it’s christianity,” but she also enjoyed adventure stories and mysteries, which she purchased at the local mennonite used bookstore. in fact, cassie’s bedroom bookshelves are organized by category: faith books, mysteries, biographies, and “deeper stuff that doesn’t really fit anywhere else.” cassie’s reading was organized in other ways as well. often she took diligent and thorough notes when reading for school or reading her bible. the consistency of interaction with texts across text types was more striking with cassie than the other participants. there was also consistency about the ways mrs. cooper and the non- denominational church pastor addressed texts, such as examining them closely, digging deep into each verse/chapter. on a quote wall above her bed, cassie collected quotations from texts she read, including the once and future king. she did not write in a journal, responding that she just did her underlining and writing in her bible, which became a faith journal of sorts. mennonite-christian reader identity although i have described cassie’s performed faith and reader identities separately, there is enough overlap for me to consider them as hybrid. furthermore, several family members were important actors that promoted the connection between reading and faith. she read lancaster farming, a community newspaper, with her dad, reading through the recipe section and clipping ones they wanted to try. she also took this newspaper to the bowling alley on saturdays and would text pictures of items of interest to her mom. her grandmother had a stack of books she was always encouraging cassie to read. perhaps more importantly, several family members were the source of faith- related reading experiences. as noted earlier, cassie’s aunt provided regular opportunities to read certain bible passages in community, and her mother read aloud daily devotionals, which cassie loved. friends and family had given her books. cassie’s father gave her in his steps: um, well, my dad passed it down to me and, at first, he was, like, you need to read this, it's, it's changed me, and i said, well, how's it changed you? and he said, it's just given me a different way to think about things. and i said, okay, well, if it's given you a different way to think about things, then i do need to read this. and then after reading the whole book, i said, i can't just read it one time, i need to read it multiple times. and then it'll help me understand it and hopefully understand even more about christ and about our church and other things. so, it's just been really helpful actually. so i have read it times, and hopefully i'll start reading it again, but i haven't had the time lately to. (laughs) cassie’s father’s experience with the book and the impact it had on him motivated cassie to enter into the text more than the fact that it was a gift. once reading, she found it powerful enough – “that book has completely changed what i’ve thought” – to read it repeatedly in an effort to deepen her faith understandings and enacted identity: like, is this what god wants for me? is this the way that i should be doing this? i never really thought that before and now, like, after reading it so many times, i’m like, why didn’t i think of this before?! cassie also used other texts to strengthen her faith identity with the goal of impacting her life. she had not always read devotionals but intentionally started because the past year had been “a little bit harder” and the devotionals kept her more “centered.” she went to her faith bookshelf when she needed sustenance: “if i feel like, okay, i really need to read this one right now, then i’ll just open that one up and start reading where i left off,” even if that last reading was months ago. non-religious books also impacted her faith as this example from the once and future king illustrates: arthur starts out as this little boy that didn’t have anything, and then he grew up into this really big king that nobody thought was going to be him. and i kind of want to do that with my life; like, i’m this little girl that nobody really thinks about, and then i’ll have this impact on somebody someday…. just being able to, like, maybe change somebody from a nonbeliever to a believer. reading affected her faith which affected her daily life. cassie’s faith also impacted her reading. for example, cassie said she would not choose to read a book about war “mostly because i’m a pacifist so i don’t believe in that kind of thing.” cassie’s pacifist stance came from her mennonite faith. sometimes she thought about how her faith was being impacted by her reading and sometimes not, depending on the book. generally, she felt she read most books with a faith lens, and that this stance impacted her interpretation of the text. like paige, she looked for character representations: “even if it’s, like, a mystery, i’ll try to look at it; like, is there a certain character in this book that might portray someone else?” cassie enacted a mennonite- christian reader identity whose reading and faith reciprocally influenced each other; both impacted her words and actions in daily living. identities in bible class cassie’s primary identity performance in bible class was good student as i coded of total field notations for this identity. cassie sat attentively and listened ( ), wrote essay assignments ( ), participated in group work ( ), spoke up in class ( ), had her bible on her desk ( ), and took photos of the teacher’s notes ( ). twice mr. bennett spoke directly to cassie in one-on-one settings, once about errors on a writing assignment. a second identity performance i noted was social teenager. i had notations coded as social in which cassie talked or laughed with friends, often while looking at a tablet or phone. these actions occurred during down-time and were acceptable actions in the figured world. twice i noted off-task behavior, and twice cassie was working on other homework. mr. bennett did not call attention to her or to others when this behavior transpired. eight of my notations referenced cassie’s clothes, twice she was absent, and twice i noted conversations she had with me as a participant in this study. mr. bennett shared that for most of the semester, he had positioned cassie as a good student “that tries really hard, that works really hard, that tries to follow guidelines and get a good score.” she had recently turned in an assignment in which she did not follow most of the guidelines, and he had also noticed she did not always pay attention to other students when they talked in class, causing him to question his original impression. this scenario demonstrates how positioning can shift over time (holland et al., ). mr. bennett’s perception of cassie’s faith, based on his observation, was that it was not entirely “self-owned” or “developed.” this perspective matched cassie’s own comments to me that her faith was influenced by others’ opinions. identities in english class cassie had always loved english class, and british literature honors was no exception. she loved mrs. cooper and how enthusiastic she was about the texts. in our conversation, there was nothing she wanted to change in this figured world. cassie performed her good student identity almost exclusively in this class in the areas of general engaged behavior, such as looking at the speaker ( notations), taking notes ( ), reading ( ), working in groups ( ), and working on or turning in assignments ( ). these behaviors aligned with the significant actions of the figured world such as transferring knowledge, attending to meaning, and creating artifacts in the service of these actions. of the remaining field notations, i coded as clothing ( of these sports- related; modest teenage clothing). i did note that one day she wore a cross necklace, though she did not appear to consistently dress as an identity performance. other codes included being absent ( ), study participant ( ), social ( ), and technology use during down-time ( ). there was little positioning of cassie individually by mrs. cooper during my observations. once she commented to the class that cassie’s group “was really good about looking for clues in the sentence” to discover who said the listed quotation. here cassie’s group was positioned as good students working successfully at the significant action of attending to meaning. in our interview, mrs. cooper positioned cassie as a student who worked on her own terms: “she’s much more willing to work on a paper late – read the whole book first, put down what she thinks. if she get’s a b, that’s okay…. she is very honest, and she’s refreshing.” mrs. cooper surmised cassie did not want to do a lot of intense work, suggesting that cassie did the work “her way,” and did not obsess about every point or deadline. mrs. cooper described her as “a good thinker and a competent writer,” sometimes losing points on usage or style. this positioning affirmed cassie’s own view of herself as a student; thus, her space of authoring would likely be to accept the positioning (holland et al., ). literate practices cassie’s literate practices further evidenced her commitment to enacting her faith identity and the influence of that identity on her reading and writing. bible class writings. cassie performed both her student and faith identities in her writings for bible class. cassie shared ten assignments with me, nine of which are represented in table below. the remaining text was an -page paper entitled, “do i fit with my church?” in which she articulated her attitude toward her mennonite church, including that she agreed “fully” with what her parents believed was right and wrong, suggesting the importance of her parents to her faith identity. as noted regarding the other participants, all of cassie’s bible class writings were informative (britton et al., ), and of total sentences i coded as fulfilling one of the three valued outcomes of the figured world, indicating cassie’s performance as a good student. two of these outcomes, ownership and practice of personal faith beliefs, also provide evidence for a faith identity performance as is illustrated in the following two examples. table : cassie’s bible class writings essay assignments total sentences meeting requirements ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions acts essay reforms essay zwingli-luther essay mennonite community essay schleitheim articles essay russian mennonites essay dock mennonite essay truth essay final essay totals in an essay describing how she defined truth, cassie concluded with the declaration, “i believe in adult baptism, symbolic communion and that scripture is the supreme authority over everything else.” here cassie clearly named and claimed mennonite theological values and with these words gave an identity performance that helped to define who she was to herself and to others (holland et al., ). living out her beliefs was also important to cassie’s faith identity and supports holland et al.’s ( ) premise that identities are word and actions. cassie wrote, “my view of scripture is that it is best if you read through the scripture first and then think about how it applies to your life…” while she moves from a first-person pronoun to second-person in this statement, her identification with this belief was confirmed later: “just as philip helped the ethiopian understand the passage, we should also be of help to others.” in another essay, she wrote about living in the world but not being of the world: “we constantly have to watch out for the language on the radio in songs we listen to, in t.v. shows we watch, and even in books we read.” through the bible writing assignments, cassie performed her faith identity. both the number and type of self-mentions cassie made, as noted in table , are also significant. cassie had more self-mentions than any other participant, overall indicating a strong presence in the writing (tang & john, ). forty-nine mentions were originator and opinion-holder uses, which tang and john ( ) argue are the most invested authorial presence. for example, cassie wrote, “i believe that infants are not old enough to make that decision by themselves and therefore should not be baptized until later in life.” another self-mentions were representative uses in which cassie used first-person plural pronouns to identify herself with either a small group in bible class – “we concluded at the end of discussing this story as a group, that prayer is a necessary part of our christian journey” – or with a broader faith group – “as mennonites, we are supposed to love everyone like jesus did, but yet it is one of the hardest things to do.” english class writings. cassie’s english class written artifacts illustrated both student and faith identity performances. like the other participants, cassie’s writing was informative (britton et al., ) and conveyed that she had the knowledge mrs. cooper was working to transfer; i coded of total sentences as mastery as seen in table below. cassie had seven quotations in her writings, which is fewer than most of the other participants; however, she clearly attended to meaning, which was another significant action in this figured world. table : cassie’s english class writings essay assignments total sentences significant action - quotations valued outcome- mastery valued outcome - applications faith connections self- mentions shaping the world the once and future king essay beowulf essay frankenstein essay great expectations essay end of semester essay totals regarding the other valued outcomes of this figured world, i also found two applications as noted in the table illustrating that cassie was, indeed, performing a good student identity. for example, cassie went beyond noting important quotations in the once and future king to applying these quotations to her bedroom wall: “i had so many different sticky notes, and i can honestly say, i think i went a bit overboard on it, but now because of that, i have a few more of my favorite quotes on my quote wall.” in an interview, she told me, “i’m never going to forget [those quotes].” the ideas conveyed in these lines were important to cassie, and she wanted to remember and embody them. i found faith connection responses in three of the essays, as seen in table . these responses were sentences with a personal faith component through which cassie identified herself. for example, in the frankenstein essay, cassie took the same theme as some other participants of comparing god’s creation to frankenstein’s; cassie included eight faith connections and personal pronouns while three of the other participants had none. she wrote about victor’s aborted attempt to create a bride for the monster, who was devastated, and then continued, “god will not break our heart in this way. he loves us too much and would never forsake us so.” she then ends the essay: god will never leave us because he is our spiritual best friend, and best friends stick together through thick and thin. deuteronomy : from the new living translation of the bible says, “so be strong and courageous! do not be afraid and do not panic before them. for the lord your god will personally go ahead of you. he will neither fail you nor abandon you. though not as strong an authorial presence as first-person-singular pronouns (tang & john, ), all of the representative self-mentions were of christians, an identity cassie considered central to how she understood herself and with which cassie identified. cassie’s enjoyment and love of the literature, the third valued outcome of the world, was evident in her semester-end reflection as she talked about her favorite books and having a “terrific learning experience reading these books.” cassie’s english documents contained a total of self-mentions, which illustrate enactments of both her faith identity as seen above and also her student identity. she began her end-of-semester-reflection: i came into brit lit. honors a bit overwhelmed and thinking i was never going to be able to accomplish the work that i needed to get done, but after having mrs. cooper for a few days, i knew it was going to be a fun, inviting, and exciting class. cassie expressed reservation about her ability to succeed in this world. she entered at the edges of the world, unsure as to what her role would be, yet found her place in time. cassie happily accepted her position of student-as-receiver-of knowledge, as this comment confirmed: “overall i had a terrific learning experience reading these books and would not have learned some of the lessons without mrs. cooper pushing us to read the books that we did and from all the talking that she did.” rather than authoring a new space or suggesting an altered world, cassie affirmed the world as it existed: “the only thoughts or suggestions i have from this year is for mrs. cooper to keep doing what she’s doing…. because of her positive energy i wish i could stay in her class and have her for english every semester.” verbal protocols. the strong reciprocal connection between cassie’s enacted faith identity and reading practices was illuminated in the verbal protocols in four ways. the connection was seen first in cassie’s choice of texts; cassie brought two faith-related texts to read aloud. i have already described in his steps and the significance that book held for her. the second text was a passage from little pilgrim’s progress, a simplified version of john bunyan’s pilgrim’s progress, the christian allegory in which the everyman character journeys from this world to heaven, with many pitfalls and burdens along the way. when asked why she selected this text, she replied: “i was looking at all the books on our shelves that i’ve read, and i pulled this one out. well, i need to read this one. i need to go through this.” cassie used texts to enter the figured world of her faith, to strengthen, develop, and enact that identity (holland et al., ). it is interesting to note that cassie did not choose the bible as one of her texts. the second connection between the readings and her performed faith identity was that the overall orientation for each text was point-driven (smith & wilhelm, ), as it was for paige’s selections and responses as well. while cassie engaged emotionally and personally with the texts, as we shall see, it was for the purpose of agreeing with the values and ideas each text expressed. third, when looking more closely at the responses themselves, the solid link between cassie’s performed faith identity and reading was evident in the high frequency of connecting responses ( of total responses), as seen in table below. table : cassie’s verbal protocol responses table : cassie’s verbal protocol in his steps little pilgrim’s progress total comprehending repeating text visualizing predicting connecting to other texts connecting to reader’s life connecting to prior knowledge evaluating reacting total furthermore, these responses consisted of different moves cassie made. some of the responses completely tied into her enacted faith identity. for example, after reading a passage from in his steps in which the pastor wanted everyone in the congregation to ask themselves what jesus would do before any actions for a full year, cassie responded: so then i thought, well, what if i did that? and i tried it for, like, a week or so and i was, like, oh my gosh. i can’t do this cuz it was so hard, but i’ve been trying to, like, do it again, but it’s – it’s just so hard. (laughs) cassie told me why this idea was so powerful for her: “we always put ourselves first – before everything, and we always think about the worldly things before jesus, so i figured it would draw me closer.” cassie not only tried to practice what she read about, but she also wanted to ask friends to make the same commitment and to ask her youth pastor to preach a similar sermon. other responses that started as comprehending turned into connections, such as this one which occurred after cassie read about little christian’s struggles: so if he can’t even get across – safely across the stream – how is he going to do this rest of his journey? he’s obviously going to have to look to king or jesus, um, and he does that a lot in this book, which is comforting to me that jesus is always there, that he’s going to look after us, that he’s watching us. here, cassie moved from comprehending to predicting to connecting, which suggests the importance to her of connecting her reading to her life, and in this case, her faith life. self-mentions are the fourth way the relationship between cassie’s faith and reading practices was evidenced. cassie shifted her use of pronouns within responses to include herself, thereby indicating identification (tang & john, ), as she did in this response to little pilgrim’s progress: that was comforting. just again knowing that the king, or jesus, is always going to be there for you. that he’s watching, he’s going to take hold of our hands and place our feet on solid ground and, you know, put us where we need to be. keep us safe. the connections cassie made to other texts and prior knowledge were also faith-based. worth noting, many of the non-connection responses, in fact, were intertwined with personal ownership, such as this evaluating response: “so, saying that the king will take care of you, that’s just – it’s so nice.” the idea is “nice” because cassie included herself in the group that “the king” will look after. she again included herself in this example of repeating text referring to living a christian life: “’perhaps i had better wait until i am older.’ maybe, sometimes, that is a good idea to wait, but there’s – there’s always something we can do when we’re younger to get us ready for that, older, um, thing.” cassie included herself in the “we.” a final example can be found in this reaction to in his steps: “i was, like, oh my gosh! if i can’t do it for a week, how are they doing it for an entire year?!” cassie’s emotional reaction conveyed investment in the concept, which was illustrative of her enacted faith identity. as noted in table , cassie made several comprehension responses. many of these responses included questions pertaining to the text that showed engagement. for example, after reading about groups discussing the pastor’s proposition in in his steps, cassie responded, “so then i was thinking, what would they be talking about? what would they be thinking? like, would they all have different opinions on it?” it is interesting to notice that predicting was not a frequent response for cassie or other participants, even though these passages were familiar texts and so the students would have been able to anticipate the texts. visualizing was also not a common response. summary a central identity cassie enacted was her faith identity, which was clearly visible in her involved family member and dedicated bowler identities. her faith identity was not performed in classroom observations, but it was performed in both her bible and english class writings, illustrating cassie had strong reciprocal interactions between her faith identity and her literate experiences. this relationship also surfaced in interview data and the verbal protocols in terms of text choices and connections cassie made to those texts. the next participant, jessica, relied on an enacted faith identity that was central and strongly connected to her reading and writing experiences, though perhaps not quite as clearly articulated as the other two girls’ faith-literacy relationships. jessica of medium height, -year-old jessica had long blond curly hair and sparkling blue eyes. dressed either in athletic wear or jeans and a neutral top, she carried her backpack and sometimes her flute. quiet in class, jessica appeared relaxed in our interviews, laughing frequently and maintaining good eye contact. in these settings, jessica used eight copulative verb-noun complements to describe herself as well as supportive actions that resulted in the following enacted identities: loving family member ( interview notations), conscientious student ( ), involved community member ( ), person of faith ( ), and reader ( ). in addition to hanging out with friends and making crafts or room decorations, jessica played soccer for mhs and participated in the school band. while she enjoyed these activities, they were not important to her understanding of herself. thus, even though jessica exhibited commitment to these activities, i did not count them as identities (holland et al., ). like paige and cassie, jessica performed a strong faith identity that had some bearing on her other identities though her faith identity performances were not as consistent as paige’s and cassie’s. i categorized her enacted identities as hierarchically- related. additionally, there was evidence across data sources that jessica’s faith identity and literate practices reciprocally influenced each other. other identities the following descriptions of the other identities are derived exclusively from the interview data. some of the identities will be corroborated with other data sources in subsequent sections. loving family member. jessica quickly named her family as “definitely” being the most important people in her life, and she continued, “specifically my parents because they have just been a huge impact on my life no matter what.” jessica had an emotional attachment (holland et al., ) to this enacted identity. her family hung out together, ate sunday lunch together, and attended church wednesday nights and sunday mornings together. jessica’s faith identity and loving family member identity also intersected as they had participated in family devotions together, and her brother’s opinions about bible reading had impacted her own: my older brother was really into, um, verses that people would take out of context (laughs), so whenever someone would quote a verse in church or say something, he’d be, like, that is so out of context (little laugh) and so just, like, making sure things, making sure that when i read, i read it how it was meant to be read when the author wrote it. being a part of jessica’s family included participating in faith activities on a regular basis, and these two figured worlds overlapped. conscientious student identity. when jessica arrived home from school, she did homework. saturdays she did homework, and sunday afternoons she did any remaining homework. she was committed to turning assignments in on time, and she wanted to be seen by her teachers as a good student. she enjoyed mrs. cooper’s teaching style and found bible class “fascinating” in terms of all the topics discussed and students’ reactions to these discussions, including her own. involved community member. jessica described herself as “an important part of the school,” which i coded as involved community member. when i asked her to elaborate, she mentioned three ways in which she saw herself as an important part of school: knowing students and being encouraging and friendly to them; knowing teachers personally and talking with them; and contributing to community life in roles such as student senator. in fact, jessica served as vice-president of the student senate, which she enjoyed: “i think it’s exciting to know what’s happening with the school and, like, have more of an input and more of a say than most people would have …and to learn how to run a good, successful event.” she helped organize a suicide awareness event and collected jeans for homeless teens. she was also an active member of both the banquet planning committee (mhs’s prom equivalent) and the arts day planning committee (a day of class competition based on artistic presentations and representations). for arts day, jessica researched speeches from four civil rights leaders and created a script of their quotations pieced together. jessica admitted she likes to lead. additionally, after hearing about the opportunity at school, jessica volunteered one afternoon a week at a neighboring, low- income housing community where she helped younger students with homework and other activities. jessica saw herself as an active community member, and this performed identity gave jessica access to resources, spaces, and power that other participants and other students did not have (holland et al., ). several of the activities in this identity involved serving or helping others, which is a central tenet in mennonite theology. thus, an argument could be made that jessica’s enacted faith identity was connected to the involved community member identity, but jessica did not explicitly make that link. faith identity as paige and cassie saw faith as essential to their sense of self, jessica’s faith identity performances were also central to how she saw herself. unlike the other participants, jessica attended public school until she chose to attend mhs for its faith perspective: “i came here wanting to, with the hope that i’d be able to express my faith more here.” when i asked if that had happened, her answer revealed that this enacted identity was salient enough that her performances were not bound by physical context, since she authored a faith space for herself in both schools’ figured worlds regardless of how she might be positioned by others (holland et al., ): in one way, it’s been harder actually because at [public school] i felt, like, the resistance, kind of, from some classmates or peers, and i was, like, more challenged to try to grow in my faith because i was closer to … more non- christians so i was more challenged to grow my faith, but then, as well, here, i’m more encouraged to grow my faith so it’s – i think it’s pushed me wherever i, kind of, went. additionally, this response indicated that jessica’s faith identity performances, while still evolving, had also been a part of her history-of-person (holland et al., ). jessica continued, “i’m a christian, and i’ve been a christian for as long as i can remember. um, i believe in god and in jesus and the holy spirit and, um, i try to live like that. and i read the bible.” this description highlights holland et al.’s ( ) depiction of an identity – using words and actions to convey a self-understanding. in our interview, jessica did not mention being mennonite. when i made that observation, she reflected: that’s interesting. i didn’t notice i didn’t say that…. i go to a mennonite church, but i don’t remember people saying all the time about being mennonite…. like we don’t discuss the title “mennonite” much and so i think when i came to mhs, i definitely heard the word mennonite a lot more…. i guess i would consider myself mennonite, but (pause) i think more so i’m just a christian....i’m just being a christian and trying to do that more than trying to be a mennonite. later, she commented, “i think peace is definitely the right way to go and that there’s, um, so many different paths we can probably take rather than being violent so i think in that area i would be mennonite.” in spite of jessica’s seeming hesitance to call herself mennonite, in her bible class writings, she enacts a mennonite identity, illustrating that identity performances are dynamic and dependent on socio-historical contexts (holland et al., ). jessica learned a lot about mennonite history and doctrine from bible classes and chapel services. being an actor in the figured world of mhs had greatly increased her exposure to the discourse and values of mennonite faith. while jessica may not presently fully embody a mennonite identity, holland et al. ( ) would argue that her greater participation in this figured world may lead to a deeper commitment to this identity in the future. in fact, jessica defined her faith as “growing.” while she said her beliefs haven’t changed, she had questioned more and tried to better understand the basis of her beliefs over time. jessica participated in many activities in the figured world of faith. she loved worship services on sundays and was baptized at age , an artifact (holland et al., ) in the mennonite figured world. jessica had also participated in mission work with her church, and she routinely attended and enjoyed wednesday evening activities at her church. at the time of this study, the teenage girls were reading a devotional together. there were additional ties between the figured world of jessica’s church and elective reading events. for the past few years, church members had been encouraged to memorize a scripture passage, which jessica did, and she brought one of these passages to the verbal protocol for this study. furthermore, when a baby is born in this congregation, the infant is assigned a prayer warrior. the couple who prayed for jessica also loaned her a copy of the other text she brought to the protocol, kisses from katie: a story of relentless love and redemption by katie davis, an autobiography about an eighteen-year-old who went to uganda for a year, stayed, adopted children and founded a ministry to feed and educate children there. jessica participated in a bible study at mhs, but she did not find it particularly meaningful because it was an open discussion on a faith topic: “for me, i like everything to come back to the bible, and so i’m always, like, wanting scripture verses, when the bible study, it’s usually just saying what we think or what we’ve been taught in the past.” the bible was an important artifact for jessica’s faith identity (holland et al., ). jessica read the bible most evenings before bed and sometimes in the mornings as well. she was in the process of reading through the entire text, which she reads “more than any other book.” she frequently writes notes, question marks, highlights, or underlines in her bible because it helps her connect to the text. jessica liked many of the new testament books because “they’re encouraging and motivating to, like, my everyday life,” and she liked the gospels because “it talks about jesus and, um, it shows us what his life was like, and, um, i feel like you kind of have to know the gospels for anything else to make sense.” jessica also received a “verse of the day” and short devotional from bible gateway, a bible website. though she did not read them every day, signing up for these daily emails indicated a commitment to enact her faith identity and reinforced the connection between that and her literate practices. reader identity and elective literate practices when i asked jessica if she considered herself a reader, she replied, “i think so. probably less and less though, sadly. i wish i read more but i don’t read as often as i used to, which i wish i did.” she then noted that this identity was important to her because reading opened up new ideas and made her “so much smarter” although she named her purpose for reading as enjoyment and getting lost in stories – realistic fiction about people her age. she liked books she could relate to and imagined herself as one of the characters. with free time, jessica generally read either realistic fiction or her bible, if she was behind on that reading. in fact, during the time of the study, jessica and jacob engaged in more elective reading than the other three participants. having earlier read the entire christy miller series by robin jones gunn about a christian girl’s growing up, jessica had recently reread one of these books, and during the data collection, she finished or read parts of i am malala: the schoolgirl who stood up to the taliban, kisses from katie: a story of relentless love and redemption, the sugar queen, and life on the refrigerator door: notes between a mother and daughter, two of which had faith connections and three of which she borrowed from mrs. cooper. mrs. cooper, then, was not only a teacher but a fellow actor in the figured world of reading; this double role illustrates the interrelatedness of figured worlds (holland et al., ). as in paige’s and cassie’s case studies, there was evidence that jessica’s enacted faith identity impacted her reading in multiple ways. first, it helped her evaluate characters and texts. for example, when i asked her if she liked jane eyre, she responded, “i thought it was alright. i liked it. it was interesting with, um, their, like, beliefs about god and stuff. they just didn’t seem to match up [with their actions],” which made jessica question the sincerity of their beliefs. this statement also reveals some of jessica’s theology – that beliefs need to be accompanied by actions, a core belief of mennonites. in a second example, her faith identity affected her evaluation of malala: i’m not sure of her religion and what she believes…. i really admire her, like, courage, and the things she’s done is, like, amazing but, um, for me, someone’s like, in my mind always higher – i don’t know if that’s the right way to say it – if they’re a christian, kind of. more generally, she told me her christian faith determined whether she agreed or disagreed with a character’s actions, much like galda and beach’s ( ) students’ identities impacted their interpretations of characters. second, jessica’s faith influenced the books she chose to read. although jessica acknowledged that most books did not completely align with her faith beliefs, and she was comfortable with that, she also admitted she would not read a book that appeared to be “real sinful” or would “not be pleasing to me or to god.” later, she explained she did not want to read books that she could not argue against: “i wouldn’t read a book about all the reasons god isn’t real by some famous scientist because i’d be scared i wouldn’t be able to – he’d sound too smart for me (little laugh), and i wouldn’t know what to say.” jessica’s faith, then, was a porous filter through which she chose texts and through which she evaluated characters and their actions. reciprocally, jessica’s reading at times impacted her faith. as an example, jessica told me that reading and discussing frankenstein caused her to think about the connection between the creator and the created: “i just thought that was interesting – how if we were the creators of anything it would be awful … and how thankful we can be that we have a good creator and how horrible off we would be if we didn’t.” jessica’s elective writing consisted of emails to her parents as a way of communicating during the school day and writing the arts day civils rights script. while jessica did not keep a journal per se, she did have a box where she kept prayers or other artifacts she had written based on working out her feelings. identities in bible class though jessica’s faith identity was significant for her, it was not evident in my field notes; instead she consistently performed her conscientious student identity in bible class. of field notations, evidenced a conscientious student – engaged behaviors such as looking at the teacher and listening ( ), group work ( ), presenting material ( ), taking photos of notes ( ), reading ( ), writing an assignment ( ), and asking a question ( ). of the remaining notations, described jessica’s clothing, which was either modest teenager or sports-related, but neither of which appeared to corroborate with other data as an identity performance. four notes related to social encounters outside of instructional class time, and two corresponded to talking to me as a participant in this study. mr. bennett positioned jessica as “a peacemaker” in the classroom: “you put her in a classroom, and you can put her in any group you want, and they’ll get stuff done and get along.” he also noted that she moved well between cooperative and independent activities, her writing was fluent, and her vocabulary was on a high level, which he attributed to her reading. this positioning of jessica aligned with her strong conscientious student identity performance in this class. though her performed faith identity was not reflected in the field notes, jessica was, in fact, engaged from a faith lens as well as a student lens. jessica acknowledged to me that she was quiet in this class, saying, “i just find it fascinating to think about all the topics we talk about…. and how the class responds – i think that’s interesting too.” for example, after a group project in which the students were to describe where they found “truth,” jessica told me she was sad: most people, when they made the posters, said that it’s not a lot from the bible, mostly from common sense, things they know or what they’ve been told – and i just thought, well, what about the bible? and it just seemed to me that if common sense is different for everyone, and if you don’t have, like, a foundation for truth, then how do you make decisions, and how do you know what you believe…? by internalizing class discussions, jessica was asking questions, making connections, and taking ownership of her beliefs, all significant actions and valued outcomes of this figured world. holland et al. ( ) would call these actions authoring space in the inter- related worlds of bible class and faith. jessica made one comment about the figured world of bible class that signified a desire to alter that world. she wished mr. bennett would share his own thoughts and opinions more often though she recognized he might have reasons for not doing so. mr. bennett also shared with me that from what he had observed, he would characterize jessica’s faith as “very strong” and “traditional,” in the sense of applying bible passages directly to one’s life. as she noted about the school bible study and in the example above, jessica did like faith conversations to tie strongly to scripture. identities in english class jessica consistently performed a conscientious student identity in the figured world of british literature honors class, where she sat in the second row toward the far right of the class. of total field notations for jessica in this class, indicated a conscientious student identity performance. she participated in group work ( ), took notes ( ), read ( ), asked clarifying questions ( ), and otherwise engaged in the class by looking at the teacher ( ). specific notations provide additional evidence as to the depth of participation jessica exhibited in significant acts in this figured world, such as attending to meaning: “jessica has sticky tabs throughout her macbeth book” (november ) and “j is taking a lot of notes” (december ). further solidifying a student identity, two of my notes reference her absence from class. upon her return, she stayed after class to ask about make-up work. the extent to which jessica produced the valued outcomes of this figured world will be evident in the section on english writings. mrs. cooper positioned jessica as a “good” and “methodical” writer and definitely situated jessica as a reader: “she’ll often come in and get a book and then take it home over the weekend, and come in and go, ‘oh, that was such a good book’.” actually, jessica and mrs. cooper talked often about books after school. when asked about jessica as a student, mrs. cooper quickly remarked, “you could clone her” and called jessica a “born learner,” continuing: she comes in like this: she’s got her notebook out and writes down everything you say, and then you have the feeling she goes home and reviews it because she knows all of the stuff, and it’s not in words that i use so it’s in her own words already. i know, she should be an english teacher. (laughs) she probably won’t. she’ll probably be a missionary. it is interesting to note that not only does mrs. cooper’s description of jessica as a student align with other data, but she also positions jessica as a missionary, which indeed is an interest of jessica’s, as we will see, and confirms a central, enacted faith identity. the second enacted identity that i noted in english class is involved community member ( ). one day after class, jessica looked at a book on the s mrs. cooper had mentioned during class and then borrowed it to help her garner ideas for the civil rights script. later in the semester, on a day when mrs. cooper was playing a dvd, jessica moved between watching the video and editing her script. this example illustrates that identity performances are dynamic and based on social activity in an historical context (holland et al., ). of the remaining notations, related to clothing, two to socializing at the end of class, and one to being a participant in this study. there was no evidence in the field notes of jessica’s performing a faith identity during english class though her writing for this class did reveal some focus on faith. jessica noted that she was quiet in both bible and english classes, choosing instead to listen to others and to share her thoughts in the writing assignments as her space of authoring (holland et al., ). in both the interviews and written assignments, jessica did not desire to change the figured world of english class or make a new world. literate practices jessica’s literate practices further evidenced her commitment to faith identity performances and the influence of that identity on her reading and writing. bible class writings. like paige and cassie, jessica evidenced her conscientious student and faith identities in her ten bible class writings. in the figured world of bible class, the significant action of transferring knowledge is seen in the valued outcome of meeting the requirements. of total sentences, i coded as meeting requirements, as evidenced in table . all of the pieces were informative (britton et al., ). jessica, indeed, was performing a conscientious student identity. table : jessica’s bible class writings essay assignments total sentences meeting requirements ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions mennonite community essay sword essay acts essay constantine essay reforms essay zwingli-luther essay truth essay russian mennonites essay amish essay final essay totals a second significant action was asking questions. in the sword essay, jessica asked four questions related to the context of whether she would engage in violence if her family’s lives were threatened as she wrestled with imagining how she would behave. in addition to meeting requirements, there were two additional valued outcomes for the figured world of bible class – ownership of faith-related beliefs and practice of those beliefs. jessica’s writing also supports a student identity in that there were instances in which she owned faith-related beliefs such as, “luther also believed in infant baptism, when i believe it should be one’s choice to be baptized;” “i think that it would be fine if mennonites were in government positions;” and “i also believe that everything should be tested with scriptures to see if it is right or wrong.” there were also seven instances when jessica wrote about faith practices or faith-related actions, as seen in this example: “i am [mennonite], and i enjoy going to a mennonite school where we talk about our beliefs…. as a mennonite, coming to a mennonite school has greatly benefited me.” while these examples provide evidence for a conscientious student identity, they also illuminate a committed and enacted faith identity as a mennonite. in both of these figured worlds, jessica uses these written artifacts as a way to both participate in the world and also, more specifically, to author her space in the world (holland et al., ). jessica had self-mentions, which occurred in nine of the ten bible class documents. all but of these mentions were originator uses or opinion-holders, indicating a strong authorial presence (tang & john, ). in addition to the examples above, a final example of one of these self-mentions also provides an illustration of making new worlds in which jessica predicts the church of the future: because the amount of youth and young people going to church is decreasing, the church will get smaller and smaller. i guess they would move out of buildings and begin to meet in small groups at a common place. i would enjoy being a part of these small groups, and would participate in conversation more. i would like being able to discuss things and learn, then take action and make a plan to help make a difference. jessica envisions a faith-related figured world in which she would feel more willing to participate in discussions, but also a world in which beliefs are linked to actions. this link of beliefs and actions aligns with the figured world of bible class, jessica’s involved community member identity, and mennonite theology. jessica is imagining an altered figured world of church life and also new ways for her to participate in and shape that figured world (holland et al., ). english class writings. while jessica’s conscientious student identity performance was the strongest enacted identity in her english class writings, some evidence exists of her performed faith identity as well. jessica gave me six papers she wrote for english class for a total of sentences. one hundred twenty-three of these sentences i coded as mastery, suggesting the writing was informative (britton et al., ), and as quotations, as seen in table . both of these categories indicate jessica’s successful participation in the figured world of british literature honors class. there was only one instance of applying ideas from the class to her life, and there were only two assignments in which there were self-mentions. therefore, it could be that jessica understood the structure of the other writings to not include first-person pronouns and direct life application. the connections between jessica’s enacted faith identity and her writings can be seen in two ways. first, as shown in the table, jessica referenced faith three times in her end-of-the-semester essay. she commented that when mrs. cooper taught, she brought the discussions around to faith: “everything comes back to real meanings, real christians, and a real god.” then, jessica writes that after she graduates, she would like to spend time overseas doing mission work. her last comment acknowledged that god knew her future even though she did not. in both the english classroom and in her life’s application, faith mattered to jessica. table : jessica’s english class writings essay assignments total sentences significant action - quotations valued outcome- mastery valued outcome - applications faith connections self- mentions shaping the world the once and future king essay beowulf essay frankenstein essay independent novel – jane eyre great expectations essay end of semester essay totals second, although jessica didn’t make personal faith connections in any other writings, she did choose faith-related topics in three other assignments. she wrote about the christian themes in jane eyre, contrasted frankenstein and god as creators, and compared beowulf to christ. furthermore, in the latter two essays, she included quotations from the bible to support her arguments. jessica included self-mentions combined in two of her pieces, as noted in table . all but seven of these instances were originator or opinion-holder uses, indicating a strong authorial presence (tang & john, ) in the writing. furthermore, several of these uses illustrated a reader identity performance. for example, in her end- of-the-semester essay, she wrote, “canterbury tales i also really enjoyed, and i think i even read more stories than we were supposed to…oops. i was disappointed when we didn’t read the whole book, but i know we had a lot of things to cover.” while jessica showed deference to the figured world of the class and its agenda, her enacted reader identity yearned to finish the text. there were also self-mentions that related to other identities, such as jessica’s student identity in the figured world of the class: “i absolutely loved this class! i learned so much and enjoyed a lot of the books.” the four data points i coded as shaping the world were affirmations of the figured world rather than attempts to change the world; yet, with affirmations, jessica was expressing her voice related to how the world functioned. jessica appreciated mrs. cooper’s teaching and felt as though she was always learning from her – “maybe it’s because she takes the books and finds something deeper in them. something more, something that i would have never noticed or looked twice at, and shows us how it points to something else.” verbal protocols. reciprocal influence between an enacted salient faith identity and jessica’s reading practices was also evident in the verbal protocols. first, jessica chose two faith-related pieces, indicating that her faith at times influenced her reading choices and that her faith identity was performed (holland et al., ). as noted earlier, kisses from katie recounts the true story of an eighteen-year-old american girl who volunteered in uganda and stayed to adopt orphaned girls. romans and from the new american standard bible translation was jessica’s second text. part of paul’s letter to the roman christians, this passage includes the titles “deliverance from bondage,” “our victory in christ,” and “solicitude for israel.” second, like paige’s and cassie’s, jessica’s overall approach to each text was point-driven (smith & wilhelm, ). that is, her responses were in service to a focus on the ideas presented in the texts – ideas that aligned with her enacted faith identity, such as serving others in the name of jesus and living into god’s love. jessica’s identity performances as a person of faith also influenced her transactions with the texts, and, finally, her readings influenced her faith identity, as is evidenced in connections she made with the texts. as noted in table , in order of frequency, jessica responded to the texts by connecting ( of total responses), evaluating ( ), comprehending ( ), and reacting ( ). jessica’s faith identity was enacted in each of these types of responses. jessica connected to the kisses from katie passage in three ways. first, she made a connection with the figured world of mhs when she referenced a chapel speaker who talked about doing mission work in philadelphia. second, she made a connection to prior knowledge she had about international mission trips, learned from a speaker at her church. finally, jessica connected the text to her life. for example, after reading a listing of what katie missed from home, jessica responded: so, she’s, like, listing all these things she still longs for in america in her old life, and this, um, kind of scares me because i want to go on missions sometime, and i know that i’m going to feel these things (laughs), and i’m wondering if that’s okay (laughs) to feel those things. table : jessica’s verbal protocol responses kisses from katie romans total comprehending comprehending problems connecting to other texts connecting to reader’s life connecting to prior knowledge connecting to other figured worlds evaluating reacting total jessica connected the romans passage to other texts (a faith song and other parts of the bible), to prior knowledge she had of the verse (“um, this is another verse i’ve also heard a lot, um, from people mostly who are struggling or suffering as a verse of encouragement.”), and to her life. the latter connections were both application-based and inclusion-based and, therefore, revealed a faith identity performance. for example, in response to romans : , jessica said, “i really like this because it’s like a reminder for me that even, like, our minds need to be set on things of the spirit and not things of the flesh or worldly things. i like that verse.” this example also shows that connecting and evaluating responses could be interwoven, and they often were. jessica gave several evaluating responses to each text, as can be seen in the table. in romans, she “really liked” verses and described verses as “encouraging.” referring to the passage as a whole, she told me, i’m able to relate to it and it, um, puts it in words that i can mostly understand. it’s like a pump-up speech (laugh) or like it’s just encouraging and just, i feel like it hits a lot of points that i believe in and – like, slavery into freedom, and nothing can separate us [from god], and it’s just encouraging. from kisses from katie, jessica read, “i wanted to be challenged endlessly; i wanted to be learning and growing every minute.” she then commented, “um, yeah, i guess i can relate cuz i don’t know – i want to be challenged, and it just shows her motivation, and it makes me admire her.” because jessica connected the texts to her performed faith identity, she also had positive evaluations of the text. for both texts, as the table shows, the third most frequent response type was comprehending. most of these responses did not have an explicit connection to an identity performance; however, in some of the comprehending responses for romans, jessica again used first-person plural pronouns to explain the text, suggesting she included herself in the audience, identified with the text, and performed her faith identity in her response. for example, romans : reads, “you will say to me then, ‘why does he still find fault? for who resists his will?’” jessica responded, “so, it’s like, well, do we have an excuse then, because (laughs), like, why does god still find fault with us because it says that he made us this way.” jessica also performed her reader identity twice when her responses focused on the structure of a verse, such as “um, when i read this structure, ‘who will bring a charge against god’s elect?’ and then kind of answers the question, ‘god is the one who justifies.’ and then it says, ‘who is the one who condemns?’ and then it says, ‘christ jesus is he who died.’ (laughs).” rather than responding to the content, here jessica noted the organization of the text. a surprise in the data, shown in table , is the comprehension problems jessica encountered with the romans passage, one she had identified as a favorite of hers and one previously memorized. she did admit she had to read these verses “like, five times” to understand some of them, and the context of my presence and needing to speak her responses aloud may have affected her. interestingly, in one of the responses, she again used a first-person pronoun. romans : reads, “for the anxious longing of the creation waits eagerly for the revealing of the sons of god.” jessica responded, “i don’t really get this because i’m not sure what it’s saying or cuz i thought that we were the sons of god, and i’m not sure how the anxious longing of the creation waits for the revealing?” jessica’s use of “we” again suggests that she identifies with people of faith and considers that a part of her self-understanding. jessica’s reacting responses, noted in the table, were embedded in connection responses, which illuminated a faith identity performance. in one response to kisses from katie, jessica said, “that’s just encouraging…. she’s really passionate about what she’s writing and doing what god wants her to do. i just feel – i get excited when i read what she writes because i want to do this kind of stuff….” summary jessica’s enacted faith identity was central to how she understood herself and hierarchically related to her other performed identities as loving family member and conscientious student. the data did not evidence an explicit relationship between her involved community member identity and her faith identity, though several of her actions within this identity aligned with a faith perspective. additionally, jessica’s elective and assigned reading and writing practices both confirmed and were supported by her faith identity in terms of reading choices, evaluations of texts and characters, and connections she made with texts. in contrast to jessica, though shannon’s story confirms salient faith identity performances, the connection to her literate practices was less frequent than the other girls’ stories. shannon often, shannon walked into class quietly talking with a friend, carrying her under armour backpack and dressed in athletic clothing – sometimes her team’s apparel, sometimes more general active wear. other days, she wore jeans and a sweater. once she sat down, her socializing stopped. for the rest of the class period, she was quiet but engaged, including in small group settings. she was medium height with brown hair, big eyes, and a quick smile. shannon used five copulative verb-noun complements in the interviews to describe how she saw herself; these statements of self-understanding, along with supportive action statements, aligned with four significant identities: passionate christian soccer player ( field notations), engaged family member ( notations), good student ( notations), and person of faith ( notations). she also described herself as “active” and “curious about life.” she enjoyed “spending time with friends” and “cleaning [her room].” shannon’s enacted faith identity was salient for her, though not as encompassing as it was for paige, cassie or jessica. like the other girls’, shannon’s faith identity performances intertwined with her other identity enactments, most strongly with her soccer player and family identities, leading me to characterize her overall identities relationship as hierarchical and her engaged family member and passionate soccer player identities as hybrid with her faith identity. yet, there was minimal interaction between her elective literate practices and her faith identity; instead, her soccer player identity appeared to have more influence. other identities before describing her faith identity, i will discuss other salient enacted identities with interview data alone, though some of these identities will be supported with other data in other sections. passionate christian soccer player. shannon defined herself as “a soccer player.” she had played soccer since she was four or five for community leagues, travel teams, and school teams; therefore, “a decent amount of weekends” she had tournaments, which “usually [took] up the entire weekend.” one of the important people shannon named was her club soccer coach, who had a “huge impact” on her. she received emails from college coaches and noted the results of college tournaments. soccer intersected with shannon’s reading and her faith. one of shannon’s texts for her verbal protocol was about a christian college female soccer team, and she did other elective reading related to soccer. when i asked her if she saw a connection between her soccer and her faith, her response was quick – “definitely.” she continued: it’s a passion that i know god gave me, and so wanting to do my best for him is important to me and, like, i’ve always prayed before games, and i don’t know, just somehow i feel like it strengthens my relationship with him. shannon also felt her faith impacted her playing behavior to be fair and avoid negative actions. engaged family member. shannon named herself as “part of a family.” she had three siblings, two of whom were adopted from the ukraine. shannon maintained that this experience had had a huge impact on her life: “i’m definitely a different person now…. i guess it, like, taught me how to, like, work with other people and become less self-focused and stuff like that.” furthermore, the actual adoption process included several roadblocks that were miraculously cleared. shannon explained, “just that whole, having to, like, lean on god and stuff helped build my trust in him and then seeing all that come together in the end; [that impacted me] even more.” all family members were expected to do chores, and they took regular trips together to visit extended family. enacting an engaged family member identity included an active faith component. all her life, shannon and her family had been a part of a church-related small group that met bi-weekly for bible study. moreover, sunday evenings were reserved for family time: “we have dinner together, and then sometimes we play games; sometimes we’ll have family devotions.” sometimes these devotions included scripture-based professional videos her grandfather produced. at the time of our interview, the family was reading through a devotional suggested by their church, and last summer during their family vacation, the family took turns reading aloud john ortberg’s soul keeping: caring for the most important part of you, which focused on being attuned to the state of one’s soul. shannon enjoyed this text. she saw herself as part of a family who valued christian faith. good student. shannon also saw herself as a good student. she worked on homework every night from supper until bedtime and usually did “a lot of homework” on saturdays. she named mhs as an important place for her and the teachers as important people in her life. she highly valued getting good grades as well as “doing the best” she could. data from the field notes and her writings also supported this performed identity. faith identity like paige, cassie, and jessica, shannon perceived her enacted faith identity as central to how she saw herself. her first description of herself was, “i’m a christian.” as holland et al. ( ) articulate, identities are self-understandings based on words and actions that affect future behavior, and words and actions informed shannon’s faith identity. since birth, shannon had attended a mennonite church, and once old enough, she had participated in youth events. she also read the bible and devotionals on her own on a semi-regular basis. yet shannon believed that any activity could reflect a faith identity: “like, i don’t think just, like, one action or, like, two or three actions, like, represent you being a christian. i think it’s, like, everything you do, what you’re doing when you’re doing whatever you’re doing (laugh).” for shannon, her performed faith identity pervaded much of what she did and was the lens through which her other identities were performed. in line with holland et al.’s ( ) notion of histories-in-person, shannon described her faith as having grown over time: “there’s obviously been ups and downs, but, like, as a whole, it’s definitely grown a ton stronger. and i still am confused and have doubts, but i, like, think i have a strong foundation and it’ll keep getting stronger.” later she added, “it has a foundation, but it, like – it isn’t, like, a straight progressive line. it’s, like, constantly going up and down.” here shannon articulates the fluidity of identities even as they can stabilize over time. as she makes meaning for herself regarding her faith, shannon, like paige, is working to author her place and space in that world (holland et al., ). like paige and jessica, shannon did not mention “mennonite” until i asked her about it, although she had indicated she was mennonite on my initial survey. her response explained her self-understanding: i guess i wouldn’t consider, like, a specific denomination, like naming yourself something that important to me…. i would agree with most, if not all, the mennonite values, but i guess it’s just not, like, something that i would consider, like, it’s important to consider myself a mennonite. like, i think being a christian and believing in god is more important than what denomination you are. later, she continued, “i would consider myself a mennonite; i just don’t consider that, like, title being too important.” in fact, as she stated above, several of her beliefs aligned with mennonite theology. for example, shannon was “very against killing other people or fighting in that way,” and she didn’t want to be baptized until eighth grade or later because if she were younger, she didn’t think “it would be meaningful.” while she acknowledged a mennonite identity, shannon viewed herself more as christian than as mennonite, even though most of her faith-related activities were in the figured world of mennonites and her theology aligned with mennonites. holland et al. ( ) suggest that at times persons use different words or labels to explain the same identity. therefore, at another point in her life, it is possible that shannon might be more inclined to use mennonite to describe her enacted faith identity rather than christian. shannon had not been baptized because she wanted her grandfather to baptize her, and he died when she was , too young for it to be meaningful. she said, “that threw me off…. i’ve thought about it since then, but it hasn’t happened.” these remarks also show the strong connection between shannon’s family members and enacted faith identities. they acknowledge the importance of the other actors in a figured world and one’s interactions with them as one participates in that world and claims an identity (holland et al., ). as previously stated, shannon saw a connection between her faith and her soccer playing, suggesting a hybrid identity as a passionate christian soccer player. more specifically, shannon believed her soccer player identity performances impacted her enacted faith identity: i think it’s helped me to, like, grow in my faith – if that makes any sense – but, like, i guess, like, our team or me personally and some teams i’ve been on, like, we’ll pray before games, and then it’s just, like, seeing things happen during the game and, like, what, like, not necessarily if we win or not but just, like, how people are acting and stuff. shannon described her faith presently as being “between middle and strong” and attributed some of that strength to the bible class she attended: “it gave me, i guess, minutes a day to just think, and that helped, like hearing what mr. bennett had to say and stuff…. it had me, you know, like, thinking a lot during class.” though this statement does not draw a connection between her faith and student identities, it does indicate that the figured world of bible class engaged her faith identity as well as her student identity. shannon was the only participant to name a pastor as an important person in her life. shannon always felt welcomed by her pastor who was “ready to hear anything you have to say.” here, shannon acknowledged another actor and named the significance of interaction with others within a figured world and the importance of words as a part of identity performance (holland et al., ). these points were also emphasized as she described a summer series in sunday school class in which youth and adults shared their faith journeys; sharing the history of one’s faith identity through narratives was a significant act in that figured world. while shannon did not like talking in front of people, she told me she would consider sharing her story, which would be an example of authoring a space for herself (holland et al., ). another indication of shannon’s commitment to her faith identity was evident in her response to whether her faith would be important to her in the future: “yeah, definitely. (quick response) yeah, i think – i hope it continues to grow.” quick, clear responses were not typical for shannon, but here she did not hesitate. later, she added that she saw herself as being involved in a church in the future. shannon was committed to this identity and, as holland et al. ( ) would say, authoring a space for herself in the world, however the future church might change or grow. reader identity and elective literate practices shannon did not consider herself an “avid reader” and, in fact, never directly answered my questions about reader identity, which suggests she did not enact a strong identity as a reader, if she identified herself in that way at all. however, she did respond to my questions by saying she enjoyed reading in the summer and during school breaks when she had time. she considered reading to be one of her hobbies. holland et al. ( ) state that individuals develop “different degrees of engagement” (p. ) in figured worlds and might consider shannon’s equivocation part of a developmental approach toward a deeper identification as a reader in the future. shannon read to learn, to “see someone else’s point of view or sometimes just, like, for fun or, like, getting away, like putting yourself in somewhere else for the time.” she did not have a favorite author. generally, if given a choice, shannon read realistic fiction, and recently she had read the fault in our stars by john green, the popular teen romance, which she “loved.” she had also done some reading about william wilberforce, a leader against the slave trade, for a bible paper, which she “really enjoyed actually.” in our first interview, she was interested in reading a book by c.s. lewis over christmas break, but found herself reading jane eyre and great expectations for english class instead. one night, however, when she was bored, she picked up a harry potter book; she’d read the series two or three times, and the books were “by far [her] favorites.” reading for shannon sometimes involved other identities such as engaged family member as her family read together on vacation and at home as part of their faith practices. additionally, the soccer team text she brought to the verbal protocol was one she and her father had read together a couple of years ago. her soccer player identity was also enacted when she read an article about leadership on a college soccer team the week before one of our interviews. finally, some of shannon’s reading aligned with her faith identity. she had a devotional that she really liked and which led her to read a few related bible verses; she read this devotional about half the time during the school year and every day during the summer. this difference in practice over different seasons or years resonates with the idea that identities and one’s participation in relevant activities in any given figured world ebb and flow over time (holland et al.’s ). while shannon did hold the bible in higher authority than other books and did consider reading the bible an important activity in seeing herself as a christian, she did not think reading the bible was the only important activity for this identity. shannon did not keep a journal or write much electively. identities in bible class of field notations for shannon in bible class, i coded as conscientious student identity performances. the other notations were for clothing ( ), off-task behavior, such as looking at the floor when someone was talking ( ), research participant ( ) and socializing ( ). the clothing was reflective of either an enacted sports player identity or a typical teenager identity performance. the minimal off-task behavior and socializing were not necessarily identity performances. in performing a conscientious student identity, shannon frequently copied presentation slides or typed her own notes into her ipad. mr. bennett noticed her organizational skills and dedication, explaining to me that she had all the notes taken in class on her ipad so that she could scan through to get the ones she needed for the open- note-essay test they were writing in class. thus, shannon consistently participated in the significant action of transferring knowledge by receiving it in ways that allowed her to enact the valued outcome of meeting the requirements. while shannon did not verbally contribute to group work, she would follow the conversation, which i called “passive participation” in my notes. likewise, during class discussions, shannon did not volunteer but listened as others spoke. on the few occasions that she didn’t appear engaged, she was quiet, looking out the window or at the floor for a few minutes before training her eyes back on the class activity. the one exception to her passive participation occurred the day the class went to the gym to play “cornerball,” an amish playground game that has some similarities to dodgeball. participation was voluntary, but shannon chose to play, and my notes indicated a different level of engagement: “she is smiling as she runs around avoiding the ball. she keeps eye contact with the ball, moving quickly and strategically to avoid getting hit…. shannon looks brighter than i have seen her in classes.” in the end, she won the game, and when i asked her about playing, she admitted, “i loved it…. there’s something to the moving around that i enjoy.” when mr. bennett returned a bible writing assignment to shannon, unlike the other participants, she wanted me to keep the document rather than making a copy for myself and returning the original to her. this move might suggest that the grade, not the content, was what mattered to her, which would support a performed student identity rather than a faith identity. in fact, as we shall see, she did not frequently use the assignments as a space to explore her faith. furthermore, this move might suggest a lower level of investment in the assignments of this figured world than perhaps she felt in other classes. mr. bennett described shannon as a “reserved genius” who did not reveal much about her faith in class or in writing. he wondered if she were “a kinesthetic learner” who “wants to speak her faith with body movement,” which wasn’t often possible in class. identities in english class the primary identity shannon performed in english class was conscientious student ( field notations). as i found in the bible class field notes, i also had notations related to clothing ( ), socializing ( ) and being a participant in this study ( ). three notations describe shannon’s place in the room and two were related to sports. in this world, where transferring knowledge from the teacher to the student and attending to meaning in texts were the significant actions, shannon took notes ( notations), participated in group work ( ), read ( ), and engaged in listening to mrs. cooper ( ). one of my notes read, “shannon appears to be past page in her book…. shannon takes a fair amount of notes on ipad.” shannon was also attentive to the valued outcome of mastery of the figured world, as she turned in or received back assignments and assessments ( ). regarding her reader’s journal on jane eyre, she told me, “it’s nice to get a good grade on it. but i also enjoyed reading it so that made me, like, want to make something good from the end of it.” in general, shannon appreciated the figured world of british literature honors class because it exposed her to texts she would not have read on her own and helped her have “greater understanding” than had she read them on her own. just as in bible class, shannon did not choose to use her voice in whole or small group settings. even during social time, shannon would listen to the conversations around her rather than join in. yet, shannon performed the identity of a conscientious student. there were other identities that impacted her participation in this figured world. for example, one day she was absent, and a student told mrs. cooper that shannon was on a college visit, possibly suggesting a self-understanding as a future college student. on another occasion, shannon had been absent the previous day for a soccer tournament. i also had three notes that i coded as participant when she and i had quick conversations or traded blank and filled activity logs; all of these interactions were initiated by me. mrs. cooper positioned shannon as “the quiet dynamo” who “puts all her thoughts on paper.” she continued, “she’s the kind of writer who, not because she wants points, but because she knows how to manipulate the text, can put things in there that shows she read it. or to back up points.” mrs. cooper believed shannon had done all the class reading. this perspective corresponds with shannon’s use of quotations in her writings for english class as well as her own admission that she completed the reading for class. mrs. cooper’s positioning of shannon aligned with shannon’s self- understanding and enactment of a conscientious student. literate practices shannon’s literate practices showed some evidence of the influence of her faith identity on her reading and writing, though this connection was not as strong as for the other girls in the study. bible class writings. shannon’s salient faith identity was enacted in her bible writings, but not to the extent that it was for some of the other girls. in nine writings, i coded of the sentences as meeting requirements, suggesting the writing was informative (britton et al., ). the high number of sentences coded as meeting requirements also suggests shannon’s performance of her good student identity was strong throughout these assignments, as meeting requirements was one of the valued outcomes of this figured world. the other valued outcomes of owning one’s personal faith beliefs and practicing them were also evident to a lesser extent, as can been seen in table . table : shannon’s bible class writings essay assignments total sentences meeting requirements ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions hermeneutics essay acts essay constantine essay reforms essay zwingli-luther essay the ban essay russian mennonites essay amish essay final essay totals as a comparison, whereas paige had examples of ownership and examples of faith practices in seven writings, shannon had examples of ownership and four examples of faith practices across nine documents. furthermore, although each essay had at least one self-mention, the highest category of shannon’s self-mentions was representative ( ), which tang and john ( ) consider the weakest authorial presence. still, she wrote clearly and owned her beliefs about salvation, communion, baptism, hermeneutics, and violence. the following two examples illustrate the presence of her enacted faith identity in her writings. first, in an essay describing hermeneutics, shannon explains her own bible interpretation practice as well as her beliefs about hermeneutics: through growing up in a mennonite church, i do interpret the bible (sometimes) through a “jesus lense.” it’s usually not easy to interpret the bible considering how different the culture/society is today compared to how it was in the old testament. because of this, i think it’s definitely important to look at what jesus said about the matter. jesus came as a model for us, so his teachings and actions should certainly play a large role in how we interpret the bible - but maybe it shouldn’t be the deciding factor in our interpretations all of the time. here shannon makes several moves. first, she aligns herself with her mennonite faith background and mennonite theology related to interpreting scripture and understanding jesus as a model. second, she moves from a first-person singular pronoun (“i do interpret…”) to a first-person plural pronoun (“how we interpret…), suggesting either less ownership in the idea or an alignment with a larger body of believers. third, she authors a space for herself in the figured world of mennonite faith by not fully agreeing with this practice but instead twice – one personally and once globally – asserting that using a ‘jesus lens’ is not an absolute strategy. in a second example, shannon asserts that each person must decide for himself or herself if participating in the military or supporting the government’s military action is acceptable; it is not for others to judge this decision. she then concludes the essay: “i personally wouldn’t be able to kill another person because in god’s eyes they’re just as precious.” in this case, shannon states not only a belief but also a plan of action. that is, her faith identity allows for some actions and precludes others, just as holland et al. ( ) suggest identities are based on words and actions. english class writings. as one would expect, shannon’s enacted good student identity was evident in her english class writings; however, there was no faith identity performance in these writings. from shannon, i received six documents from english class – five essays and a reader’s journal for jane eyre, her independent novel. the reader’s journal was pages, single-spaced, and -point font. it began with a list of characters and a page and a half of quotations from throughout the book. the rest consisted of bulleted entries for each of the chapters in the areas of “plot points,” “questions,” “words,” “thoughts,” “quotes,” and “other.” some chapters’ entries totaled more than a page long; others were as short as - lines. this reader’s journal was perhaps the quintessential artifact for participation in the significant action of attending to meaning in the british literature honors figured world. shannon engaged deeply with jane eyre, authoring a space for herself as a dedicated and reflective reader and english student. for this document, i did not count sentences. in the other five writings, there were a total of sentences. shannon’s dedication to and performance of a committed good student identity was evident not only in her reader’s journal but also in the other writings as well, with quotations and sentences that exhibited mastery of content. her writing was informative (britton et al., ). when these data points are compared with the two other valued outcomes of the figured world, however, the contrast is striking (see table ). while shannon was committed to enacting a good student identity and doing what was required of her – she told me it was “nice to get a good grade” on the reader’s journal – her writings contained little evidence of the other two valued outcomes of the figured world. table : shannon’s english class writings essay assignments total sentences significant action - quotations valued outcome- mastery valued outcome - applications faith connections self- mentions the once and future king essay beowulf essay frankenstein essay great expectations essay end of semester essay totals the application she did write about is noteworthy, though: this year i think i started to learn to look deeper into the books instead of just looking at the story line and rather seeing the themes and ideas and the humor that the authors meant for the readers to catch, that i guess i never picked up on before. i would love to reread a lot of the books we read this semester so i could learn more from them now and find all the little hints and ideas that need a second glance to find!” as stated earlier, shannon did not fully embrace or enact an identity as a reader, and she repeated this assertion as she started her final essay: “i’ve never been much of an english person.” yet, she desired to participate in significant actions in that figured world, such as re-readings. she saw a future for herself in that world that was more committed than her present action and self-understanding. a close look at the self-mentions, as noted in the table, reveals that all of the self- mentions in the frankenstein and great expectation essays were first-person plural pronouns, representative of humanity, and indicating shannon was not deeply “in” the writing. a contrast can be seen in the final reflection essay, in which self-mentions were originator uses and only six were representative, with four of these instances being representative of the english class, indicating shannon was identifying as a class member. in fact, shannon wrote that “this semester was by far the best english class i’ve ever been in,” that she “really enjoyed” some of the books they read, that she “loved loved loved jane eyre,” and that she wished the class would last all year. given that shannon did not think of herself as an “english person,” these responses denote a shift in her participation in the figured world of english classes, which could, in the future, lead to a shift in her self-understanding (holland et al., ). though mrs. cooper allowed space for shaping the world in asking for suggestions, shannon wrote, “i honestly don’t have any.” she saw no need to shape the world differently. verbal protocols. although shannon performed a salient faith identity, there was less reciprocal influence between her faith identity and her reading practices than there was for paige, jessica, and cassie, as was evident in her verbal protocols. shannon’s faith-related text was the first chapter of the book of james, which has the headings “trial and temptations” and “listening and doing.” shannon’s second text was a passage from the messiah method: the seven disciplines of the winningest college soccer program in america by michael zigarelli that introduced the method by which their soccer teams frequently win. as shannon read the james passage, her approach was point-driven (smith & wilhelm, ), focused on the major values portrayed in the text that related to her enacted faith identity. with the second passage, shannon also had a point-driven orientation, directed at the value of “team” over “individual.” this orientation aligned with her salient soccer player identity performances. as can be seen in table , shannon’s most common responses for both texts were comprehending and connecting to the reader’s life. in contrast, all of the other students were highest in connecting responses, perhaps suggesting they all had a stronger relationship to reading in general than shannon had, which the interview data would support. table : shannon's verbal protocol responses james the messiah method total comprehending comprehending issues visualizing connecting to prior knowledge connecting to reader’s life evaluating reacting totals given that shannon chose these texts and had read them before, it is not surprising that she had high response numbers for comprehending both texts, as shown in the table. instead, the fact that she struggled with comprehension and ultimately gave up on certain verses when reading james is unexpected after she told me she chose this passage because it was “probably one of [her] favorites in the bible,” and it was “easy to relate to and helpful.” as an example, after reading verse and following, she responded: “and i guess i can’t really say i understand what that is saying. (laugh) um. yeah.” interestingly, in three of the comprehending responses for james, she used second-person pronouns, distancing herself from the meaning of the text: “um, i guess it was just, like, when you go through trials or, like, hard times, it’s hard to see the good in it….” shannon had underlined several verses, including verses - and , which she said were favorites, and all of which address perseverance during trials. indeed, i coded these favorite verses as connecting to reader’s life though her responses consistently used the first-person plural pronoun and were of a more general nature. regardless, as noted in the table, shannon’s second highest response for each text was connections. james : reads, “blessed be the man who perseveres under trial, because when he has stood the test, he will receive the crown of life that god had promised to those who love him.” shannon responded, “i guess that’s just, like, encouraging that when we’re under trial, god will be there, and he promises us that we’ll get, like – when we get through it, he’s – like, he’s there the entire time, and that, like, he knows we can do it, and he has promises for us.” this verse had a heart next to it as well as “kayla [slwc ].” when i asked about this notation, shannon explained a more personal connection: “when i was at camp, …she, like, made us all bookmarks, and that was the verse on it and … and then that’s, like – i read that, and i liked it a lot, and then i read the whole chapter.” while this response did not address application of the texts to shannon’s daily life, it did illustrate a faith-reading event. shannon also associated this passage with the experience of adopting and transitioning to life with her brothers, which i learned in a follow-up interview. it is worth noting that shannon’s connective responses to the soccer text were longer and more personal than her responses to james, suggesting perhaps a stronger connection between the reading and her enacted soccer player identity than between james and her faith identity. for example, after reading about focusing on the team rather than the individual, she responded: the team over individual really strikes me, i guess. just, i’ve played with so many people that are just individual over team and it, like, the idea of playing on a team where that’s first, and it’s not about yourself, it’s about team, is appealing. and, like, playing for others instead of yourself. additionally, the two visualizing responses to the soccer text were instances of her seeing herself on the field practicing skills. summary shannon’s enacted faith identity was the most central for her and formed hybrid identity performances with her enacted soccer player and engaged family identities. a good student identity enactment was also important to her understanding of herself. while she enjoyed reading at times, she did not claim a reader identity. not as committed to bible or devotional reading as paige, cassie, or jessica, shannon did find reading faith-related texts to be one important activity of many for her faith identity. there also did not appear to be as strong a connection between her faith identity and other reading she did; instead, her soccer player identity seemed to play a more dominant role in her reading activities. though there were individual differences among them, paige, jessica, cassie, and shannon all performed salient faith identities that impacted and were impacted by their literate practices to varying degrees, both in- and out-of-school. in contrast, jacob also enacted a faith identity, but his story is different in how he understood that identity and to what extent his faith was connected to his literate practices. for jacob, there was little connection between reading, writing, and faith. jacob most days, jacob walked into class wearing khaki pants, canvas sneakers, a black wawa or outer banks (north carolina) sweatshirt, and sporting a black backpack slung over his shoulder. in addition to being on the school bowling team, jacob worked two jobs. jacob described himself as “intelligent.” he continued, “i do pretty well at school for the most part.…ah, i like working on stuff with my hands – cars, projects, like building stuff, designing things.” in the interviews, jacob used copulative verbs times to identify himself along with several supporting activity details, which together described five identities: student ( interview notations), maker ( ), car enthusiast ( ), technology lover ( ), and person of faith ( ). a cluster of the maker, car-enthusiast, and technology-lover identity performances were central to jacob and drove much of his behavior. additionally, these enacted identities and his elective literate practices reciprocally influenced each other. jacob enacted a faith identity but, unlike for the other participants, it was not salient. moreover, although he engaged in daily elective reading activities, unlike cassie, paige, and jessica, he did not see himself as a reader. other identities for jacob, a cluster of these “other” enacted identities were most salient to him and were connected reciprocally to his literate practices. i will introduce jacob’s performed identities, other than his faith identity, with data exclusively from the interviews. student identity. jacob saw himself as a student, who worked on homework in his free time and did “pretty well in school for the most part.” when i asked how he saw himself as a student, jacob answered, “i tend to think of myself as, ah, smart, i guess. like, i take all the honors classes and, like, ap.…so i try to go for the harder classes, get good grades.” grades were important for his future; he wanted to study mechanical engineering. additionally, jacob lamented that mhs did not have more courses related to engineering. in fact, jacob’s enacted student identity was somewhat driven by his present self-understanding as smart, but also motivated by his future desires, related to his most salient identity – a maker. that is, his student identity performances were motivated by and in service of his maker identity and his desire to commit further to this identity in the future (holland et al., ). maker/builder/innovator identity. multiples times on different occasions, jacob referenced an enacted identity as an innovator or in his words, “a maker; i like building things.” he liked working with his hands to design and produce gadgets: “like, i have a shop in my basement…. i’ve made, like, homemade, like, dart blasters and stuff with, ah, like, air seals and plungers and tubes, and i made, like, potato cannons and sling slots and catapults, trebuchets.” he also crafted a large magnifying device out of an old projection television and loved to tinker with his car. though at times jacob described this identity, his car-enthusiast identity, and his technology-lover identity independently, more often these identities clustered. holland et al. ( ) asserts that identities “bump up against one another” (p. ) such that performances and practices of one identity exist not in isolation but rather in varying degrees of interrelatedness. i suggest that jacob’s performed maker identity was most central to him because it motivated other identities, such as his student identity, as well as his elective reading events; at the same time, it was often hybridized with his car- enthusiast and technology-lover identity enactments. though the enacted maker identity, clustered with these other two identities, was most dominant, i have discussed it only briefly as the focus of the study was on faith identities; however, as we will see, these performed salient identities are woven throughout the case. car-enthusiast identity. jacob also saw himself as a “car-enthusiast,” which hybridized, at least at times, with his enacted builder identity. jacob owned a bmw -i that he liked to work on, and he sold items on ebay to have more money to put toward car projects. reading online was one way jacob gained knowledge about cars – how to take them apart and put them back together: i'll, like, read a bunch of stuff up on, like, certain cars and, like, that kind of stuff. and that – that'll get me to look at more stuff. and, just stuff that, um piques my interests. so, like, i was looking up, last night, things about this car i want to work on, like the motor. and most of the stuff i read is just, like, forums and articles on different – like, mostly instructional stuff or informational, that kind of stuff. jacob loved learning about cars and used elective reading in service of this identity, which, in turn, fed his identity as a maker and builder. technology-lover identity. jacob also enacted a technology-lover identity. this identity manifested itself in different behaviors. first, jacob had been a part of mhs’s robotics program for the past three years, including attending a world competition in california his freshman year: “i did the programming and i helped them with the design.” second, jacob used technology to gain knowledge necessary for his maker identity. though he loved technology itself, technology was also a tool to further his commitment to and performance as a maker. jacob’s attraction to technology was also evident in his use of his phone or ipad during classes and throughout the day. sometimes this usage enhanced his student identity performances, and sometimes it distracted him from them. technology also played a significant role in jacob’s reading practices in multiple ways as i will discuss in subsequent sections. faith identity jacob described his faith to me: “it's not the strongest; i'm not really that kind of person that screams faith at everyone. i mean, i pray once in a while. i read the bible occasionally, go to church, sunday school. i enjoy youth groups and worship.” he continued his description: um, probably behind the scenes. it's not really – like, i mean, i should – i should put more thought in, like, try making it a more prominent part of my life, but right now it's not that, not as big a part of my life as it should be…. there are several items to note here. first, he repeatedly described his faith by what it was not – “not the strongest,” “not as big a part of my life as it should be” – and also by what it “should” be. second, this hedging suggests an understanding from jacob that his behaviors in this figured world do not fully align with the significant actions, and, indeed, his prayer life and bible reading bear this out. still, he shifted in the middle to what he did participate in and enjoyed related to faith, suggesting at least a minimal level of commitment and ownership. jacob had attended local mennonite churches all his life, and he considered himself mennonite, but he did not consider that label to be important to him: ah, i mean, it's not the biggest part of me. i mean, yeah, i go to a mennonite school and a mennonite church. my family's always been mennonite, but i mean – i haven't really, there's nothing really about it that – about being mennonite that's that, like, crazily a part of my life. i'm being a christian; i'm a christian and all that but not necessarily like, like – i don't find – i don't find being mennonite the most important part. well, like, i think – i mean, all the denominations, they all have their differences and stuff, but as long as, like, god and jesus are part of it, it's not that big of a deal to me – all the small differences, like you're baptized as a child or as an adult. that's not as important to me. jacob’s mennonite identity was nested (holland et al., ) in his identity as a christian. furthermore, it was tied to relationships and institutions. for example, twice when asked what it meant to him to be a mennonite, jacob referenced to people and places: “i mean, for me, it's just, like, the kind of church and school i go to…. and i mean, not too terribly much other than, just, like, that's where my family's been.” in fact, other actors, relationships, and institutions did impact jacob’s enacted faith identity, such as his parents’ decision to attend mennonite churches and enroll jacob in mennonite schools. because his father worked at mhs, jacob had “grown up” there. because his extended family directed a mennonite camp, that camp became an important place for jacob. jacob claimed the importance of family and friends as “the most influential people in my life [who] teach me and influence me to be who i am.” jacob also named his church and youth group as important to him. relationships with people of faith and their institutions seemed to be more foundational to jacob’s faith identity than personal faith beliefs, as evidenced in this exchange about adult baptism, a central tenet of mennonite faith: i mean, i've never been baptized, i've – i mean – i've thought about it, but it's not something i, like, i'm rushed into. and, like, if – if i was baptized as a child, i mean, i don't think it would make too much of a difference, so, like, i don't think it, like, matters when you are as much. …i mean, yeah, i agree for some – for the most part that, yeah, you should – you should be baptized when you make the decision to for yourself. you shouldn't be, like, forced into it as a baby, but i don't know. i don't find it the most important aspect. jacob expressed some ambivalence about believer’s baptism and his language is again riddled with the word “should,” indicating perhaps a lack of centrality to his participation in the figured world of mennonite faith (holland et al., ). still, jacob’s personal choice to not be baptized at this point in his life ironically aligns with mennonite theology in the sense that jacob has not made faith a “prominent” part of his life at present. therefore, not getting baptized could be viewed by other actors in the mennonite world as a responsible decision. another core mennonite belief is that jesus preached and taught the way of peace and, thus, his followers should do likewise. when i asked if jacob associated any beliefs with his understanding of himself as mennonite, he claimed this one: “ah, well, i guess that pacifistic thing, like non-violence. i mean, i think there's some times where violence might be necessary, but for the most part – i mean, yeah, it's better to be peaceful.” even here, jacob was not resolute. jacob liked the mennonite church and surmised he would still attend a mennonite church in his future – “probably just cuz that's what i've grown up with. that's what i'm accustomed to,” – but he did not think he would be much more involved than he was presently – “i don't – i don't think i'll be, like, part of the – i don't know, committees or any of that.” perhaps because of his limited investment in the enacted identity, jacob did not imagine altered worlds (holland et al., ) or predict the future of the church. jacob’s teachers questioned his level of commitment to his faith identity but recognized they might be mistaken. mrs. cooper attended the same church: “actually, he was in my sunday school [class] for, like, three weeks, and he – he doesn't seem to be interested, but for all i know he's really listening, but … he doesn't present as an interested person.” mr. bennett agreed: “he just answers as best as he can, but i don't think he's being very real.…i think his faith is just sort of something to check off.” he continued: “i think he kind of likes his church and his youth group. but i would say he's not eager to even really develop his faith. it's probably not a high priority.” in fact, his teachers’ interpretations of his faith identity performances aligned with his own assessment. though not as salient to him as other identities, jacob was a social actor in the figured world of mennonite faith. reader identity and elective literate practices jacob did not consider himself a reader, but he did engage daily in literate practices that serviced several of his enacted identities. jacob did not hesitate to share this self-perception: “i wouldn’t say i was a reader, no. i don’t really like just sitting down with a book, like, in an afternoon or something.” yet, he also told me he read online two or three hours a day: yeah, like, at lunch or, like, between classes, i'll just, like, get on some forums and, like, read some stuff and continue it later. i mean, at home when i have more free time i'll, like, read more, like, consistently, like, in a row, but…yeah, whenever i can check stuff.…check it in one class, catch up in another. pretty interesting. this reading did not “count” for him in defining a reader, and, therefore, he did not view himself as a reader. he also admitted that with school reading he was “always behind, far behind.” and yet he read for himself “whenever” he got the opportunity. online reading was an almost constant activity for jacob around other obligations. reddit, an open source, online community, was a favorite website as were news sites and forums about cars. sometimes jacob read wired and car and driver at home, but he preferred online reading to print for two reasons. first, the access was greater and faster: “like, in print, it’s just what’s there. online you’ll read something, and if you want to get more information, you can just look up specific topics and, so, [if] something catches my interest, i’ll look up more stuff on it.” for jacob, reading often led to more reading, which is true of participation in figured worlds and especially for salient identities (holland et al., ). still, reader was not an image he had of himself. instead, he performed a technology-lover identity that included literate practices. the second reason jacob preferred online reading was that technology allowed for community involvement, another aspect of literacy jacob enjoyed and could not find in printed materials: i’ll read, like, the main articles and stuff, but the comments kind of make it interesting – gives everyone’s opinion – and then people comment on people’s comments, and you just get, like, a chain of people just talking about some stuff. they’ll just, like, go off on a certain aspect of an article…. i like reading the progression of, like – there’s, like, conversations that happen. not only did jacob like reading the transactions of other readers as they left comments, but he often commented, himself, as well. in this figured world of forums and blog posts, a significant act was not only reading text but also having an opportunity to author one’s own space with comments. jacob actively participated in both of these actions, which helped define and shape the figured world and position other readers and writers, all elements holland et al. ( ) suggest are part of identities. yet jacob did not have this self-understanding because of how he defined “reader.” the focus of forums on community and the invitation for anyone to comment and contribute has an interesting parallel in mennonite faith, in which there is a strong belief that it is difficult to be a christian alone. a faith community is needed for support and accountability as well as to interpret scriptures, as i have mentioned. in fact, mennonites believe that the only way to understand scripture is to read and discuss it together with others. jacob ascribed to the value of people reading the bible together: “i think that helps. yeah, to get different people’s opinions on it and see, like, different people get different things out of it. i think that’s important to, like, hear everyone else, like, how everyone else is getting, understanding it.” jacob’s reading supported his enacted identities, such as car-enthusiast (sites dedicated to nissans, bmws, mini-coopers), technology-lover (articles on wi-fi switching and operating system jailbreaks) or maker (how to build a go-cart and use of cad for d modeling). his reading also supported a curiosity about the world; he told me, “yeah, i like learning about different things.” his activity log included texts about self-portraits, the pope’s views on evolution, turning car batteries into solar panels, and an article on a new font: “yeah, it was an open source; he released it for free. it was a font that was supposed to help people who were dyslexic read better.” jacob’s bible reading was initiated by others or occurred in groups. for example, he read for bible class projects or in sunday school settings, behaviors which suggest a good student or group member identity performance rather than a belief-based faith identity. yet, surprisingly, at times, jacob read beyond the required passage: “sometimes we’ll have to, like, look at verses, and sometimes i’ll just, like, read the whole passage just to, just to, like, read, … just to kinda get more of the story.” he was drawn to stories in the bible, but these stories did not have much connection to jacob’s life, as he explained in a bible class assignment: while i think scripture is important [in determining truth], i don’t find it to be the thing that gives me the most truth. … i am more influenced by family and friends then [sic] the bible [sic]. jacob did not feel his faith impacted his choice of other texts that he read nor did he see reading as a way to learn about himself except in the sense of “discovering that … this [topic] interests me more.” rather than taking notes when reading voluntarily, he simply remembered information or saved and later reread texts. he found it more important when reading the bible to consider the author and context than with contemporary news articles because the bible “was written, like, forever ago, so, i mean, it was a completely different culture and society. like, now – stuff that’s written now is, like, i’m living in that culture and society; it’s easier to understand the context.” identities within the figured world of bible class i had field notations for jacob in bible class, more than for any other participant. jacob’s identity performances were dynamic. sometimes, he performed an engaged student identity – listening to presentations ( notations), writing journal responses ( ), using technology to engage ( ), and participating in class discussions ( ) that connected with his elective reading. for example, here jacob contended the japanese had taken us land during world war ii: jacob has phone out and is scrolling down on it. “there were battles in alaska, wasn’t there? i’m positive i’ve read this somewhere. i’m pretty sure there were battles there. i’m not sure against who. japanese took over some soil in the alaskan islands. it was the only soil that was taken. it says on ushistory.com. everyone says none of our land was taken in ww ii, but this proves there was.” jacob contributed a new line of thinking into the conversation and helped to construct knowledge, based on what he had read, and used technology to confirm his information. he accepted the positioning as an engaged student in the class and participated in the directed activities of the class, helping to shape the world. more often, however, jacob did not perform an engaged student identity and instead authored spaces that highlighted various other identities including technology- lover ( ) and car-enthusiast ( ). the quick movement between engaged student and other performances can be seen in the following field note. mr. bennett explained the activity to the class – “as a group, make a poster that answers the question, how do you determine your concept of truth? (right from wrong)”: jacob’s group is not coming together. one girl is talking to someone from another group. another is looking at a slide with jacob. jacob and other girl are starting to work. jacob is suggesting things to his group – scripture, church, movies, yourself. jacob makes an airplane and flies it. he wants it back but mr. bennett is looking his way so he refocuses. jacob has airplane back. he overhears mr. bennett talking to me about a field trip for another class and jacob joins the conversation. jacob starts talking to someone about his grades for another class. jacob says to mr. bennett, “we need some help.” mr. bennett: “this is looking very good. can you weave a little calvin and luther on this? what i want you to be able to observe is how you are or aren’t like these christian reformers. you’re acknowledging a lot of other influences that they are not.” jacob to his group: “so i guess we need to do something with zwingli and luther.” jacob threw airplane across the room to another group. now he’s helping his team get the right slide to write on paper. now he’s showing a group member pictures on phone, unrelated to class. jacob tells his group, “we still have to state our core belief.” jacob began by performing an engaged student identity. in fact, he even provided leadership, which continued throughout the exercise; however, it was interspersed with his authoring of other spaces. he flew an airplane, talked about other classwork, and showed classmates pictures from his phone. this pattern of inconsistent performance of an engaged student identity was indeed consistent with his participation in both figured worlds that i observed. i also coded for clothing ( ) and study participant ( ). identities within the figured world of english class i had field note entries for jacob. more so than other participants, jacob’s performance as an engaged student was inconsistent in this figured world, as it was in bible class. as stated previously, on the first day i observed, jacob shared a slide presentation. mrs. cooper responded favorably, as jacob had clearly put effort into the project. later that day, i wrote, “jacob does not take notes but is paying attention. slouched back in his seat.” although transfer of knowledge through note-taking was a significant act in this figured world, jacob chose to pay attention in a lounging posture without taking notes. he was authoring his own space (holland et al., ) rather than fully accepting the general positioning of a good-student identity. the pattern of inconsistent participation in significant actions continued. one day’s notes progress from “jacob is writing notes,” to “jacob has pencil to paper but doesn’t look like he’s writing,” to “jacob is falling asleep.” this inconsistency was evident in his work as well. when mrs. cooper returned the macbeth test, she told jacob, “the last [essay] question, absolutely the best thing you’ve done. the first one, not so much.” these examples show that a person’s participation in a figured world and, therefore, their authoring and positioning by others are dynamic, with the possibility of changing minute by minute as leander ( ) described. at the same time, there is a pattern of behavior or habit that builds to form a predominant identity within a figured world, even as the actor can still adapt his identity and participation with agentic change in the future (holland et al., ). mrs. cooper’s interpretation of jacob suggested one reason for this variance in behavior: when he wants to write, if he likes the book, …boy, he's all over it. and, he can be really good. sometimes to the point where you think, is this the same guy that wrote the last paper that got a, you know, crappy grade? but then you think, eh, yeah, the difference is, he was interested in this book. she further reflected that while “he doesn’t present as an interested person, … he’s a very capable thinker. he is.” jacob was a more consistent participant during group activities based on quotations from literature. in his group, jacob read quotes aloud, volunteered to find answers, and even took leadership: “okay, let’s go back and star all the ones that we think will be on there. let’s mark all the big ones, , , .” my notes continue: “jacob goes through and gives ideas of which could be on the quiz.” whether motivated by the social context of the small group setting, the desire to get the needed information to do well on the quiz without putting in all the work himself, wanting to perform a leader or conscientious student identity, or some other motivation, jacob took the opportunity to accept the general class positioning as engaged-conscientious reader-students. jacob was late to class ( ) and absent ( ); at no time did i hear him ask about what he missed. additional performed identities noted were technology-lover ( ), car- enthusiast ( ), and research-study participant ( ). there were notes for clothing. jacob’s interviews confirmed ambivalence about english class: “english class to me, it’s not my favorite class. it gets boring at times. …but, so, i like group work, like, that’s better than just sitting and reading along with the teacher.” english class was a figured world in which jacob was engaged, but not completely. literate practices jacob’s literate practices further evidenced the connection between his salient identities and his reading and writing practices, while also illuminating the limited relationship between these practices and his faith identity. bible class writings. i received eight essays from jacob with a total of sentences. i coded sentences as meeting requirements, suggesting jacob was successful in achieving this valued outcome. as evident in table , jacob also expressed ownership of his beliefs and some practice of his faith. these data indicate that jacob performed a student identity, while also aligning with the self-admission that jacob’s faith identity was not as important to him as other identities. still, the beliefs and practices here corroborate the interview data regarding certain beliefs. as table shows, jacob used personal pronouns in each of the eight bible essays with a total of more than self- mentions ( representative uses, opinion-holder uses, originator uses). these data suggest jacob had a strong authorial presence (tang & john, ). all of the writing was informative (britton et al, ). though jacob did not read the bible much, he had clear beliefs related to this practice, which he articulated in one essay: so i guess you are asking me how i interpret the biblical texts. i think the texts should not be taken literally as they are written word for word. i used to think this way – that what is written is what is meant, but now i have come to understand it differently. we have to take into account how things were back when the bible was written. we have to understand the culture in which these stories took place. it is interesting to note that jacob began with a statement of practice and then moved and sustained a position of ownership of belief, as if he did not want to commit to this significant action. jacob moved from a singular personal pronoun to the plural pronoun ‘we,’ perhaps distancing himself from personal bible reading. table : jacob's bible class writings essay assignments total sentences meeting requirements ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions hermeneutics essay mennonite, hutterite, amish essay zwingli-luther essay russian mennonite essay dock name essay mennonite community essay truth essay final essay totals in another essay, jacob clearly claimed and enacted his mennonite identity. in this piece, the self-mentions moved from a broad group (“there are a lot of mennonites in our community and i like most of them.”) to his family (“my family is mennonite and its [sic] not to [sic] bad.”) to an explicit identity statement: i am a fan of the mennonites [over the other two groups] mostly because i am one. i think the mennonites have the most positives about them. the biggest one being ok with technology and modern amenities. i would not like living without my car and social media. while owning his mennonite identity, the value he saw was not based on theology but on cultural allowances that connected to his technology-lover and car-enthusiast identities. jacob did orient his enacted mennonite identity around beliefs in a different essay: i’m not sure what i would do if i was a conscientious objector in lands where exemption from the military is unavailable. i would probably try my best to get thrown out or put on some peaceful duty such as cooking or repairing vehicles or the likes. i would do my best not to be involved with the actual conflict. here, jacob owned the mennonite pacifist position while also indicating a desire to live it out as well. his final thoughts in this essay suggest he is authoring some space (holland et al., ) within the figured world of mennonite faith when he commented: “i don’t really feel any conflict between allegiance to christ’s kingdom and my government…. i think we can be both loyal to out [sic] country and to god.” although some mennonites would agree with jacob’s stance, others would put allegiance to god above allegiance to any country. finally, jacob spoke to his anticipated future participation in the church: ten years from now my role at my church will be similar to what it is now. i took that spiritual church test and my results showed that i would not be working with the church very much. i expected this because for most of the questions i did not find myself wanting to do any of it. i’m not sure what others will do to change the church in the future but i don’t think i will be part of the change. jacob performed a mennonite faith identity, but it was not a salient one. english class writings. jacob’s english class writings were consistent with the findings that jacob’s student performance was changeable, that he did not connect with english class readings, and that he did not prioritize his enacted faith identity. jacob gave me four english written documents with a total of sentences. jacob included only four quotations, and there was only one example of class discourse. although these acts of the figured world were minimal, he did write with coherence to produce informative writing (britton et al., ). table : jacob’s english class writings essay assignments total sentences significant action - quotations valued outcome- mastery valued outcome - applications faith connections self- mentions shaping the world the once and future king essay frankenstein essay independent novel – pride & prejudice end-of- semester essay totals i coded sentences for mastery, indicating success in achieving this valued outcome; however, he told me there were several books he did not read. thus, the mastery came from transfer of knowledge from mrs. cooper rather than his own engaged reading. perhaps, because he was not focused on faith or did not like english class texts, faith connections and applications were not evident in the writing, as noted in table above. for example, in the once and future king essay, jacob explained the idea that right was more important than might as a powerful concept in the book. this notion aligns well with mennonite theology of peacemaking, but jacob did not make the move to insert his faith identity into this assignment. likewise, in the frankenstein essay, jacob compared victor’s creation of the monster with god’s creation of humans. while other participants included personal statements about their relationship to god, jacob did not. in fact, all six self-mentions in the frankenstein essay were representative of christians and, therefore, suggest limited authorial presence, as tang and john ( ) argue, “[u]sed in this way, the first person pronoun, far from giving the reader information about the writer, effectively reduces the writer to a non-entity” (p. s ). jacob’s ambivalence in performing a good-grade student identity can be seen in his writing in several ways. first, while he did not admit, as he did to me, that he did not read all the class-assigned texts in his end-of the-semester essay, he did comment on them: while i didn't always enjoy the reading, in the end most of the books were good. probably my favorite book was beowulf. it was a bit annoying to read sometimes with its odd style of writing, but i liked the plot, and it had good action. in these sentences, each with self-mentions, jacob answered mrs. cooper’s general positioning of the class as engaged, enthusiastic reader-students by negotiating this posture and distancing himself from the figured world and the positioning. he later noted that several texts were not in a genre or style that he enjoyed. jacob was trying to find a place for himself rather than being firmly established within the significant act of reading in this figured world. yet, jacob fully endorsed one method mrs. cooper used to transfer knowledge: mrs. cooper brought up all sorts of different ideas and stories. this is part of the reason i enjoy this class. i liked how we would be talking about some theme or topic in the book and then mrs. cooper would have some story to go along with it…. this kind of teaching style makes a class enjoyable and fun to be in. by acknowledging his pleasure in “this kind of teaching style,” jacob was endorsing this act of the figured world and his position as a knowledge-receiver; however, there was something more at play here regarding identity. mrs. cooper saw jacob as enacting a story-lover identity: “i see him as a story person, but i don’t know that he always does the reading.” this notion of liking stories aligns with jacob’s liking some stories in the bible, including revelation, which he commented had “weird stories that [caught] my interest.” finally, jacob offered a suggestion in his writing to alter the figured world of english class – to have assignments more consistently posted on the electronic learning management system: it would be nice to have things on powerschool. i always check powerschool at night when i am doing homework to find out what i need to do and brit lit stuff is never there. not a huge thing just one thing i would have like to have been done. otherwise i think everything else about the class is good. jacob was making a play to alter the figured world through an action that aligned with his enacted technology-lover identity for the service of his good-grade student identity. verbal protocols. jacob’s salient performed technology-lover, maker, and car- enthusiast identities were evident in his verbal protocols as was the lack of connection between his faith identity and his elective reading practices. first, jacob brought me copies of two online texts about cars that he then read from his ipad screen. jacob’s choices of how and what to read evidenced his salient identities. the first text, “how to build ka de,” was from a website called zilvia, a forum for nissan cars. he explained why he chose this text: “[it’s] the engine for the nissan sx, which is one of my favorite, low budget cars that i want to get. … i’ve been looking into this kind of stuff that i would do to the car once i got it.” the second article was entitled, “what would jesus drive? ranking the bible’s best cars.” jacob admitted, “yeah, i wasn’t too sure what to do for an article like that cuz i don’t really read too much, like, faith-based religious things.” this text was organized as a count down from ten to one with a photo of a vehicle followed by a bible verse and a short commentary. for example, a picture of a honda accord was followed by john : , “i do not speak of my own accord.” a sentence connecting the verse to the vehicle image followed: “in acts, the apostles pulled a classic clown stunt and gathered ‘all in one accord.’ how they knew about it though is anyone’s guess, since, as jesus never really talked about his honda.” unlike the other participants, jacob did not have point-driven orientations (smith & wilhelm, ) for either text. with the first text, his approach was information- driven, learning what he could in anticipation of owning such an engine some day. for the second text, jacob’s approach was experience-driven, in which his responses expressed emotions about the images suggested by the text or emotions based on his knowledge of the vehicles being discussed. interestingly, the faith piece resulted in a greater diversity of responses than the engine text, as table shows. jacob’s most frequent type of responses for both texts, however, were connections, though connections to his life were much stronger in the nissan text than in the faith-related piece. jacob made comments connecting the nissan text to prior knowledge as well as to his life, and, often, jacob’s prior knowledge came from life experiences – “so i’m thinking, yeah, i’ve had, i’ve had towels i’ve used on stuff that just, they rip apart and leave specks everywhere so getting good towels is a good idea.” or, “so, i’m just thinking, head gasket, that comes, um, from overheating the car, which i almost did to my other car.” table : jacob’s verbal protocol responses “how to build ka de” “what would jesus drive?” total comprehending connecting to other texts connecting to reader’s life connecting to prior knowledge visualizing evaluating predicting reacting totals other connecting comments were based on the future or the hypothetical: “just thinking about what it would take to rebuild one of these cuz i want this car at some point.” and later: ‘i’m thinking i would do arp head studs cuz they’re the best head studs.” even the connections to prior knowledge jacob made in the faith-related text were based on his car knowledge: “i knew it was a honda accord right away,” and “i knew it was a dodge dart from looking at it.” in fact, his lack of familiarity with scripture was evident in some responses. jacob read, “peter : , dry springs and mists are ‘driven by a storm, for whom the black darkness has been reserved.’ then he responded: “i'm just thinking, i've never heard that verse before.” jacob’s responses indicated a car-enthusiast/maker identity performance. as noted in the table, jacob made comprehending comments on both texts as well. most of these responses did not explicitly associate with identity, though a few included personal pronouns. for example, jacob read, “here i will explain start to finish {the} ka de build from {the} bare block up. in addition, i will add the hot cam install.” he then responded, “so i’m just thinking, this guy’s rebuilding a ka engine, which is an engine for a car i like, and he’s, uh, putting in a new cam, which will make it run faster, more horsepower.” with the phrase, “an engine for a car i like,” jacob inserted himself and his car-enthusiast identity into the response. jacob also evaluated and reacted to both texts as can be seen in table . he evaluated the writer’s car-related decisions rather than anything specific to the writing, indicating that he was reading from his car-enthusiast identity as in the following example: so i'm thinking, yeah, i, i wouldn't really buy that kind of stuff from ebay necessarily cuz ebay has crappy stuff for the most part. … and $ total sounds a little high considering you get a whole used motor for $ - . jacob had more reacting responses to the jesus driving piece than to the nissan text. again, some of these responses indicated prior knowledge coming from his car-enthusiast and maker identities. for example, after reading about the cost of machine work, jacob commented, “and i’m thinking $ is a lot for the machine work.” jacob’s reacting comments were based on his car knowledge: “god promises vintage muscle cars to bad people in the form of the pontiac tempest.” i find that amusing cuz the pontiac tempest wasn't that great of a car so god promises vintage muscle cars to bad people because it's not that great of a car. finally, for the jesus driving text, jacob made predictions, as seen in table . jacob read the scripture verse and then predicted which car was being featured: “’exodus : , only when the ram's horn sounds a long blast may they approach the mountain.’ so i'm thinking, yeah, this is definitely going to be about dodge ram.” jacob’s prior knowledge of car models was activated, indicating that his car-enthusiast identity was triggered and performed. jacob’s enacted car-enthusiast and maker identities aided his comprehension and influenced his evaluation of, reaction to, and prediction of texts because jacob brought both prior knowledge and prior experience to the reading. summary jacob enacted a salient cluster of identities, which included car-enthusiast, maker, and technology-lover. these three identities influenced the texts he chose to read as well as the transactions he had while reading. conversely, his elective reading added to his knowledge base of the figured worlds associated with these identities as well as his interest in learning about the world. jacob’s faith identity, based more on social relationships than beliefs or personal practices, intersected with literate events primarily as initiated by others. there was little self-directed interaction between reading and faith. cross case analysis in the previous pages, i have described my findings in the figured worlds of british literature honors class and story of the church bible class. i have also presented a case study of each participant, outlining salient identities including faith, elective literate practices, performed identities in english and bible classes, and the relationships between their identities and reading and writing events. now i will examine the data across participants by examining the findings in three sections – salient identities, how these identities were expressed in writing, and how they were expressed in reading – because when investigating phenomena in multiple-case studies, researchers look for commonalities across the cases as well as the “situational uniqueness” (stake, , p. ix- x) of the cases. salient identities four of the participants strongly identified themselves by their faith identities, whether they used the label christian, mennonite, or both. performances of this identity were central to how paige, jessica, shannon, and cassie understood themselves. not only did they make this assertion with their words in our interviews, but they also participated in activities from the figured world of faith (holland et al., ). in addition to attending church services with their families, which all five participants did, paige, jessica, and cassie participated in daily individual activities such as bible or devotional reading. furthermore, for all of the girls, their faith identities were hierarchically related to other identities they had. for example, paige, shannon, and cassie all enacted salient identities related to sports. in each of these cases, the participant’s faith identity became a lens through which they, at least partially, viewed and participated in their athletic experiences. paige believed she gained strength through answered prayer; shannon felt her faith impacted her actions on the field; cassie shared bible verses with her team before a match; and all of them prayed before competitions. cassie’s, jessica’s, and shannon’s enacted faith identities were also strongly connected to their performed identities as loving and involved family members. cassie’s family shared a daily devotional time, and her extended family read the bible together at gatherings, while jessica’s understanding of interpreting scripture was influenced by her brother. shannon’s family included two internationally adopted brothers who had impacted her faith greatly, as did family read-alouds of faith-related books. paige’s faith identity influenced her favorite classes and, accordingly, her conscientious student identity as well as her curious learner identity. jacob enacted a salient hybrid cluster identity of technology-lover, maker, and car-enthusiast, with his maker identity being primary. this hybrid identity was largely how he defined himself in terms of how he spent his free time – working on cars, programing robotics, or making contraptions at home. as he participated in these worlds, specifically the figured world of technology, he used that knowledge in the service of other identities, such as his student identity – typing most of his assignments, finding information on the internet to contribute to class discussions, and making technology suggestions to alter the figured world of english class. jacob admitted openly that his faith was not strong. his enacted faith identity was not as salient as other identities performances nor as significant for him as it was for the other participants. i also maintain that it had a different focus than the girls’ faith identities. while the girls’ faith identities centered around beliefs and living out those beliefs, jacob’s faith was based in social relationships, culture, and institutions. for jacob, mennonite meant his immediate and extended family as well as the church and school he attended and the social relationship and opportunities they afforded. salient identities expressed in writing all of the participants performed engaged student identities in the writing they did for both classes to the extent that they produced the valued outcomes of meeting the requirements (bible class) and mastering the material (english class); however, the other valued outcomes of these figured worlds that overlapped with reader and faith identities were not so clearly achieved by everyone, as can be seen in tables and below. bible class writings. the other two valued outcomes of the bible class figured world were ownership of personal faith beliefs and practice of those beliefs, which dovetail with an enacted faith identity. faith identity performances were salient for paige, shannon, cassie, and jessica. it is not surprising, then, to see that each of them owned faith beliefs in their bible class writings, and that their percentages for sentences with personal faith beliefs were higher than for jacob, whose enacted faith identity was not as central to how he saw himself. furthermore, jacob’s faith identity performances were not based on beliefs so much as relationships and culture. perhaps also to be expected, the percentage of self-mentions expressed by each of the girls was higher than jacob’s percentage, indicating the girls had a stronger presence (tang & john, ) in the writing than jacob did and aligning with the centrality of their faith identities. table : cross case bible class writings participant total assignments total sentences meeting requirements ownership of personal beliefs practice of faith beliefs self- mentions paige ( %) ( %) ( %) shannon ( %) ( %) ( %) cassie ( %) ( %) ( %) jessica ( %) ( %) ( %) jacob ( %) ( %) ( %) what is surprising is the minimal number of faith practice statements by shannon and jessica, compared to the percentages of these statements by paige and cassie, as noted in table . given the strong faith identities and the multiple activities related to these identities for each of the girls, i would have expected to find greater consistency across the references to faith-related practices. paige and cassie expressed their faith identity practices in their bible class writing more consistently than shannon and jessica, who did so minimally. mr. bennett did not explicitly ask for faith-based practices in the writing assignments; therefore, perhaps, shannon and jessica did not think to include mention of such activities. as might be expected, jacob also expressed his faith identity practices minimally. english class writings. for the figured world of english class, in addition to the valued outcome of mastery of material, two other minor, but still valued outcomes, were application of reading into one’s own life and making faith connections. as noted in table , each of the girls mentioned application to their elective reading practices in their english class writings. none of them had many instances of application, but that might be explained by the little amount of elective reading they did. on closer examination, the percentage of applications might indicate the degree to which the participant felt commitment to an enacted reader identity. for example, paige felt strongly about her reader identity, and she had the highest percentage of application comments in her writings. it is noteworthy that jacob, who did not perceive himself as a reader, had no mentions of application. ironically, he read more on a daily basis than any other participant. paige, cassie, and jessica also made faith connections in their english class writings, which would indicate that not only did they complete this valued outcome of the figured world, but also that their faith identity was found in these writing assignments, while shannon’s was not. again, not surprisingly, jacob had no faith connections in his writings. table : cross case english class writings participant total assignments total sentences quotations mastery applications faith connections self- mentions shaping the world paige ( %) ( . %) ( %) shannon ( . %) ( %) cassie ( . %) ( %) ( %) jessica ( . %) ( . %) ( %) jacob ( %) the self-mention data is somewhat skewed because paige’s end-of-the-semester essay, in which the most self-mentions occurred for each of the other participants, could not be located by mrs. cooper or paige. that notwithstanding, it is interesting that jacob’s authorial presence (tang & john, ) was as strong as the other participants even though he did not see himself as a reader. jacob’s salient hybrid identity of maker/car-enthusiast/technology-lover not prominently enacted in his writings, though it was evident in the following two examples; these appearances are noteworthy because there was no direct connection between class materials and assignments and these identities. first, in a bible essay, he expressed that he liked mennonites better than amish or hutterites because mennonites were “ok with technology and modern amenities.” he continued, “i would not like living without my phone and car and social media.” second, in an english essay, he suggested that consistent use of technology by mrs. cooper to post assignments and due dates would improve the course. salient identities expressed in reading in examining the cases for salient identities expressed in reading, i will note three areas: elective reading practices, types of texts chosen for the verbal protocol, and types of responses in the verbal protocol. elective reading practices. although each participant’s elective reading practices were unique, the data revealed some commonalities across participants. for example, paige and jessica read their bibles almost every day, if not daily, and participated with friends in trying to read through the bible in a year. cassie tried to read her bible every saturday and attended multiple church events per week that focused on in-depth bible study. furthermore, cassie and jessica interacted with the biblical text by underlining, highlighting, and writing notes or questions in the margins, thereby demonstrating the interaction between this text and their everyday lives as an identity artifact (juzwik, ). these girls also each read at least one devotional text regularly, and cassie read four. for paige, cassie, and jessica, a clear and strong reciprocal interaction existed between their performed salient faith identities and their bible and devotional reading practices. though shannon’s bible and devotional reading was less regular, at least during the school year, she named these activities as significant to developing and performing her faith identity. in her case, her family read faith-related books together, which shannon enjoyed and which impacted her faith identity performances. similarly, cassie’s mother read devotionals to the children, and her extended family read the bible together at certain gatherings. for cassie, shannon, jessica, and paige, who all saw their faith as being central to how they understood themselves, reading was an important component of their faith figured world. while not all of the elective reading they engaged in was overtly faith-related in nature, paige, jessica and cassie admitted they looked for faith connections or metaphors regardless of the text and evaluated characters through a faith lens as well. as jacob’s faith identity performances were not salient, his elective reading practices did not intersect with faith; however, when he was required to read scripture, he would sometimes read more than was required, suggesting either his faith identity or his curious person identity was triggered and enacted. jacob’s most salient identity enactment was a maker, and this identity was activated with his elective reading practices. he read informational and instructional texts allowing him to develop his knowledge base related to cars, technology/robotics, and general building of a number of side projects. texts chosen. the texts each participant chose for the verbal protocols can be seen as an identity performance in itself. paige, jessica, and cassie all chose two faith- related texts, suggesting the strong centrality of that identity for their self-understanding as well as the strong connection for them between reading and faith. interestingly, cassie, while selecting two overtly faith-related texts, did not include the bible. in contrast, shannon brought one faith-related text, as required, which was the bible, but the other text was about soccer, which evidenced a second strong identity for herself, that of a soccer player. while the text was about a soccer team at a christian college, the text did not mention faith, nor did shannon’s responses reflect faith in her protocol. similarly, jacob’s second text was not faith-related either, but rather explained how to rebuild a car engine for a car he hoped to own soon. in his case, he admitted that even finding a faith-related text to bring was difficult as he did not often read such material, thus evidencing the lack of connection between his faith identity and his regular reading practices. types of responses. each participant shared a range of responses during their verbal protocols, as can be seen in table . there are several items worth noting in the table. first, when combining the four categories of connection responses, connecting becomes the most frequent response of each participant ( % - % of total responses). in fact, of total responses across participants were from the connections categories. this robust emphasis on personal connections to the texts indicates an interaction between the texts and the students’ identities, such that they were both performing identities and also strengthening their identities by reading (holland et al., ). for example, for cassie, the most frequent response overall was connecting to reader’s life, perhaps indicating an even stronger association to her faith identity. it is also worth noting that for jessica, cassie, and shannon, the number of “connecting to reader’s life” responses were within one point of each other for each text, perhaps suggesting that each text associated equally with an identity, even though one of shannon’s texts focused on soccer and one on faith. table : cross case verbal protocols participant paige shannon cassie jessica jacob total connecting to reader’s life connecting to prior knowledge connecting to other texts connecting to other figured worlds comprehending comprehending problems visualizing predicting evaluating reacting repeating text total paige expressed more personal life connections to uncle tom’s cabin than to ephesians, though for her, both of these texts were faith-related. perhaps most telling is jacob’s data, in which he had personal life connections to “how to build ka de” and only two for “what would jesus drive?” as noted in the table, the second most frequent category was evaluating, in which the students positively judged the content or characters in a text. in the verbal protocols, the only negative evaluating responses came from jacob when he disagreed with the author’s choices in rebuilding the engine. the fact that the rest of the evaluations were positive suggests alignment between the values in the texts and the students’ identities. the third most frequent response type across the participants was comprehending, and the fourth most frequent was reacting, as seen in table . both of these response types were also positive and, again, indicate alignment and engagement between texts and identities. it was surprising, however, that two participants, shannon and jessica, had comprehension problems, given the texts were self-selected and well-liked. in both cases, the issues arose with the biblical passages they chose. regarding the overall orientation of each reader to each text, all of the girls had point-driven approaches (smith & wilhelm, ) with both of their texts, suggesting a strong alignment between the values represented in the texts and the significant values relevant to their salient identities. interestingly, jacob took an information-driven approach with the text that related to his salient maker identity; this approach aligns with jacob’s general purpose of any elective reading – “to gain more knowledge.” in this way, his orientation was true to his authentic reading practices. with the faith-related text, jacob’s orientation was experience-driven, enjoying the text based on his car knowledge and, thus, being influenced by his car-enthusiast identity rather than his faith identity. as expected, no one exhibited a disengaged orientation. summary as one would expect to find with participants who all claim a faith identity and engage in some elective reading practices, examining the data across the cases illuminates some commonalities in salient identities and how these are expressed in writing and reading events. paige, cassie, and jessica, who claimed salient faith identities, also performed them in their writings for school, their text selections for the verbal protocols, and their responses during the protocols. perhaps also as expected, there were distinct situations across the cases, too. while shannon claimed a strong faith identity, her enacted soccer player identity was also strong, which may have impacted her choice of texts for the verbal protocol. her writing also did not convey as strong a faith identity performance as the other girls’. jacob declared a faith identity, but it was not a leading identity for him in the way it was for the others. rather, his enacted maker identity was most central to him, as was evident in his text choices and the responses he made in the verbal protocols. while there was some evidence in his writings of his faith identity, like shannon’s, it was not as strong a performance as the other participants’. these findings suggest that a religious faith identity performances play out in different ways for different youth in terms of their literate practices. for paige, there was a strong and clear reciprocal relationship between her faith and her literate practices that manifested itself in multiple ways. likewise, jacob’s story is also uncomplicated, though with a different outcome; jacob experienced no interaction between the elective reading and writing he did and his enacted faith identity. cassie, jessica, and shannon each had more unique and complex interplays between their faith and their literacy practices, depending on a variety of factors, including family involvement in literacy events, the amount of reading they did, and the degree to which they saw themselves as readers. it also seems plausible that the relationship between literate practices and identities is strongest when both the identity and the literate practices are highly salient for the individual. that is, paige was deeply invested in her self-understanding as a christian and as a reader; jacob’s cluster maker identity was central to how he saw himself, and the time he invested in elective reading was significant. both of these participants had strong relationships between these enacted identities and their literate practices. chapter – implications in chapter , i described and discussed the findings of my research, and, ultimately, answered my research question by stating that identities, faith-related or otherwise, are enacted differently for different youth in relation to their literate practices. in this final chapter, i will discuss the implication of this study and my findings for research, theory, and practice. implications for research in reflecting on the work i did, i am satisfied with many choices i made, though some i will change in my future work. what worked there were several aspects of the study that worked well, including the social practice theory of identity, the different data sources, and the mennonite population. holland et al.’s ( ) social practice theory of identity allowed me to examine multiple identities for each participant and how the identities related to each other, to study both words and actions as identity markers, to consider how identity performances were stable or dynamic across time, and to reflect on the four contexts (figured worlds, positionality, space of authoring, making worlds) of these identity enactments. social practice theory of identity was comprehensive enough for me to be thorough in answering my research question. multiple data sources provided me with different perspectives from which to consider my question. in many respects, the data worked to corroborate and triangulate across each participant’s case study. although the words spoken by my participants in the interviews provided some of the most direct statements of self-understanding, it was important to be able to observe their actions in figured worlds relevant to faith and literate practices. hearing from the teachers in interviews and seeing their interactions in the classrooms allowed me to better understand the contexts of positioning and authoring space for the participants in these figured worlds. similarly, the written artifacts i collected from each class added both clarity and complexity to the student identity performances in these figured worlds as well as to the related identities of faith and reader. these artifacts were originally collected as a catch- all “other source” to triangulate the interviews, field notes, and verbal protocols and, therefore, i did not have the same documents or even the same number of documents for each student. even so, they became an important data source for both the identity performances in the classroom and as they related to faith and literate practices, partly because they were discrete writing events that i could then analyze against the reading events of the verbal protocols. inviting each participant to choose his or her own texts and bring in two texts for this event worked well, as the choices themselves were identity performances, and the texts were physical artifacts that helped the students participate in the figured worlds of their salient identities. finally, interviewing each participant three times proved worthwhile. i found these exchanges to be personally rewarding; they were fascinating interactions in which the allotted time flew by. related to the study, it was important to have multiple connections over time to allow for member checks and follow-up questions as i initially analyzed the other data sets. focusing on mennonites for this research was beneficial due to the paucity of research with this population. additionally, studying one group rather than two contrasting populations allowed me to concentrate on the similarities and nuanced differences within this group of mennonites, which might have been overlooked had i compared two groups. finally, my own identity as a mennonite allowed me access to and knowledge of both the specific mennonite population at mhs as well as the broader figured world of mennonite theology, history, and cultural context. lessons learned while many aspects of this research were successful, i would reconsider a couple of choices in future work. first, though some of the activity log entries were useful for me in focusing my second and third interview questions, they were sometimes too general to be helpful, and often the participants forgot to complete them or to give them to me despite my reminders and requests. they repeatedly apologized, but their behavior did not change. perhaps a different form or a different method of collection (maybe electronic) would have produced better results. i learned, or re-learned, that high school students are busy and involved, and so i was grateful for the logs i did receive. a second, related revision i would consider is choosing younger participants, due in part to the demanding schedule of upper-level high school students. originally, i planned to study seniors, but i did not have enough potential participants who fit the criteria. even the juniors who participated in the study did not do as much elective reading as i was initially expecting. i chose to study upperclassmen because i thought their age and maturity would allow for deeper reflection on their faith, and some of the participants did talk about how their faith had grown and changed in the recent past; however, some also talked about how their reading practices had declined during the same time period. ninth or tenth graders, or even middle school students, might have had more consistent and recent elective reading experiences to share. finally, engaging in a verbal protocol was a new experience for all of the participants. even though i read the prompt to each of them and modelled a protocol myself, several of the participants struggled to know when to stop reading or what to say. overall, the hesitations improved with the second text and the further into a text they read, but i would have liked to have had time for them to complete a “practice” protocol before they started on the two texts they chose. such a practice could have been with a mennonite-related piece that i chose and that would have been the same for each participant, allowing me to study responses to the same text across participants. future possibilities i continue to nurture interest in the topic of identities and literate practices, and throughout this study, i have entertained additional questions in related areas that would lend themselves to further research. it would be interesting to perform a longitudinal study starting with upper elementary students, perhaps fifth or sixth graders, and to collect data every several years through high school or into adulthood to better understand how identities develop, stabilize, and change over time as persons interact and participate in various figured worlds (holland et al., ). consequently, such a study might also reveal how the relationship between a faith identity and literate practices evolves, grows, or stagnates. i would also like to research mennonite youth who attend public school to learn if and how that figured world impacts the relationship between their enacted faith identities and their literate practices. relatedly, i am interested in how my findings might change if i studied mennonites from other geographic areas or mennonites from more conservative anabaptist branches, such as conservative mennonites or old order mennonites. it would also be intriguing to ask the same research question but to study a population from a different denomination or religion. while past history has put mennonites at odds with catholics, awareness is increasing that, in spite of continued differences, there is common ground and respect between the two groups (roth, ), making the idea of a comparison study with youth from both groups attractive. in terms of methodology, i would consider adding interviews with parents as well as other persons named by participants as significant to their faith development to better understand the figured world of faith for each participant. observing worship services, youth events, bible studies, and sunday school classes would also add to my understanding of the faith identities of the participants. additionally, asking all participants to write a faith-related piece based on the same prompt, or, as mentioned earlier, to respond to the same faith-related text, would allow for a more direct comparison of faith identity performances in the literate practices. implications for theory i noted two main gaps in the existing identity-literacy literature. first, studies generally did not address more than one performed identity, or, if they did, they did not address the relationship among different identities. the second gap i noted was that studies that used holland et al.’s ( ) theory tended to concentrate on a few aspects of the social practice theory of identity and then gloss over the other features of the theory or did not utilize them at all. i attempted to address these two gaps in my research. identity relationships as i analyzed the data, i accounted for any identities that were named by the participants, which included identities in addition to reader and faith identities. some of these other identities were related to their faith identities, and some influenced their elective reading. had i only focused on faith identities and reading, i may have missed these connections. for example, paige, shannon, and cassie had sports identities that were connected to their faith identities and practices while jacob’s hybrid maker-car enthusiast-technology lover identity greatly impacted his reading practices. by including more identities, i was able to see a more comprehensive view of both the participants’ multiple identities and also how any of these identities impacted or was impacted by literate practices. furthermore, i tried to understand the way the students constructed understandings of themselves as mennonites and other salient identities in relation to other activities in their lives such as literate practices. each of the girls quickly named themselves as christian, and, for paige, this performed identity was clearly the hierarchical identity lens through which she thought, evaluated, and acted in many other figured worlds. cassie enacted a similarly strong christian identity that she brought to her reading and her sports activities; this identity was supported by her family’s actions and values. the overlap between faith and reading was strong enough in this case that i suggested cassie had a mennonite-christian-reader identity. jessica performed a salient and central faith identity, but she also performed other identities that did not explicitly connect to her faith, such as her community leader identity, which appeared to be separate. her reading practices were sometimes impacted by her faith identity, but not consistently. shannon enacted intertwined faith and family identities and faith and sports identities. in the latter case, i suggested a hybrid identity of passionate christian-soccer player. for jacob, his performed faith identity and his maker hybrid identity were separate. in this way, the social practice theory of identity (holland et al., ) was a good theoretical choice because it allowed for the construction of self-understandings to manifest themselves in different ways. even as i describe these relationships, it is important to remember that they are located at a point in time and that the salience of any particular enacted identity or its relationship to any other identity can change, depending on the participation in related figured worlds and the accompanying sense of self-understanding (holland et al., ). i did wonder if, perhaps, weaker identities have fewer connections to other identities, such as jacob’s faith identity, which seemed to be a weaker performed identity for him and also separate from his other identities. additional research should be done to continue exploring the different relationships among enacted identities. complete operationalized theory in my study, i aimed to use the whole social practice theory of identity and apply it to my phenomenon. i wanted to think not only about artifacts or figured worlds, but to consider all of the elements of figured worlds: actors, significant actions, artifacts, discourse, and valued outcomes. i also wanted to include and analyze the positionality and the participants’ answering back in those figured worlds. how were teachers answering back to the positioning of traditional school spaces? how did they position students, and how did my participants respond – accept the positioning, reject it, negotiate? how did the students respond in their writing? did they take up opportunities to suggest new possible worlds? how did the performed student identities intersect with their faith identities or elective reading practices? rather than only using part of the theoretical framework as my lens as is more common in the literature, i was comprehensive in my theoretical foundation and my use of the social practice theory of identity (holland et al., ) as a theoretical scaffold. additionally, i needed a way to see how identities might be performed in reading and writing events. in order to try to get at performed identities in literacy events, i made two moves that i have not seen in the literature. first, i used multiple analytic tools for both the writing artifacts and the reading protocols, and second, i used the theoretical framework as one of the analytics on the data sources from the figured worlds. with the written artifacts, i first applied britton et al. ( )’s categories of function, which gave me a macro-view of their performed identities as students. while this analysis of the writing was the most general, it allowed me to see the informative function (britton et al., ) as a valued outcome of the figured world and the documents themselves as artifacts in the figured world of either english or bible class – as a way for the students to participate in the figured world, potentially to be shaped by it and also to shape it. the second analysis i conducted with the written documents was tang and john’s ( ) analytic of both counting self-mentions and examining how the personal pronouns were used to determine the level of authorial presence in the writing as well as with which communities or figured worlds students were identifying if they used plural pronouns. looking at how many times and in what ways the writer referenced himself or herself gave me another angle into the performed identities in the writing. finally, i worked to operationalize the social practice theory of identity itself in the writing, which i will describe below. i also used multiple analytics with the verbal protocols. on the macro-level, i applied smith and wilhelm’s ( ) orientation coding to help me understand the student’s overall approach with the text. this macro lens allowed me to consider a general level of identity performance with each student and each text. for example, for paige, cassie, jessica, and shannon, the faith-related text resulted in point-driven reading, suggesting their faith identities were engaged, whereas for jacob, the faith- related text resulted in an experience-driven reading, focused on his enjoyment of the text based on his knowledge of vehicles and, therefore, engaging his car-enthusiast identity. second, i coded content units within responses to see how the transactions with the text might suggest various identity performances. i also examined the use of person pronouns in the units to see when they might serve as identity markers (tang & john, ). finally, i wanted to see moves both within the classrooms and within the written documents that could serve as markers of actions, values, and outcomes of figured worlds; positionality; answering back; and posturing of new worlds. consequently, i coded field notes and interviews with the following categories: figured world (with subcategories for significant actions, artifacts, discourse, and valued outcomes), positioning, space for authoring, making worlds. i also applied the significant actions and valued outcomes of the bible and english class figured worlds to the writing assignments from those classes to connect student and other identities to the writings. operationalizing holland et al.’s ( ) social practice theory of identity in this way is not a move i have seen in the literature. thus, my study included not only multiple data sources but also multiple analytics in an attempt to be thorough and to provide thick and rich descriptions of the data. i worked to both consider the social practice theory of identity comprehensively and then to operationalize it as an analytic for the data. implications for practice i have recently accepted an administrative position related to curriculum and instruction in a mennonite k- school. from this frame of reference, i offer the following implications that this study might have on practice. identities first, this study shows that various identities are performed in the classroom. although several of the participants predominantly performed conscientious or good student identities most of the time within the classroom setting, not all participants did so all of the time. for example, jacob’s car-enthusiast, social, and technology-lover identities were performed as well as his student identity, and he moved fluidly among identities. it seems it could be important for teachers to be aware that students are constantly performing identities and that these performances shift and change over short and long time frames. i saw the potential power these other identities could have in the classroom, and i would like to work with teachers to figure out ways to investigate possible impacts to student engagement or achievement. at the same time, i acknowledge there could be barriers to the kinds of positive impact i envision. for example, a student’s “good student identity performance” could undermine attempts a teacher might make to include and invite other identities into the classroom. rather than reifying past identity performances, teachers could be alert to changes throughout a class period, from one assignment to another, and over the course of a semester. one example of such awareness was mr. bennett’s response regarding his observations (and subsequent positioning) of cassie as a student. he was surprised by her research paper entitled, “do i fit with my church?” in which she wrote her opinion but provided no research. he told me it “wasn’t an intellectual argument, and it wasn’t very academic.” she rewrote it, included research, and received a good grade; however, mr. bennett saw a different identity performance in the paper than he had previously: i think my opinion changed with that paper. so i would have said she’s – ah – one of the students that tries really hard, that works really hard, that tries to follow guidelines and get a good score. and then after that paper, she didn’t follow most of the guidelines. it’s like she didn’t even look at the rubric…. and then after that, i started noticing just the way she was behaving and i started noticing she wasn’t paying attention to a lot of the other students when they talked, and i was just, like, wonder what’s going on here. so, um, i started looking, you know, a little differently at her stuff. mr. bennett positioned cassie as a student differently based on the identity performance he noted in her writing. it could also be that cassie wrote this paper predominantly as a faith identity performance rather than a student performance, which could explain the inattention to the assignment guidelines. because identities are fluid, it might be wise for teachers to be prepared for identity performances to shift. additionally, teachers should be prepared for changeability in how students perform self-understandings and relate them or not to their literate practices, as mr. bennett observed in cassie. similarly, just because jacob, at this point in time, does not relate his understanding of himself as a person of faith to his elective reading does not mean that he cannot or will not relate them in the future. likewise, paige’s strong connection between her literate practices and her faith identity enactments may or may not continue or may shift as she enters college. identities and literate practices second, this study shows that the potential exists for relation-making between faith identities and literate practices – both school-related and elective. thus, as potential exists for such relations, and since faith identities are salient for some students, teachers could consider how, in the activities for their classes, they might trigger such connections. reading. there were several times when mrs. cooper created opportunities for such connections. for example, mrs. cooper often introduced faith-related interpretations for the texts read in class, such as describing joe in great expectations as a “jesus” figure or offering an essay option for frankenstein to compare god’s creation to the creation of the monster. in these instances, mrs. cooper led the students in reading a text through a faith lens, as paige, cassie, and jessica then also did in their verbal protocols. in fact, these girls clearly took the values they had as christians and applied these to their evaluations of literary characters in both school-related readings and elective reading events. the beliefs associated with their own enactedfaith identities became the lens through which they interpreted texts and judged characters, much like galda and beach’s ( ) students. paige and jessica also made faith connections in their writings, both citing and relating mhs chapel experiences to their experiences in english class. thus, teachers may want to acknowledge and have knowledge of the salient identities of their students as they study and interpret texts. a further suggestion that could trigger more relation-making between students’ performed faith identities and reading practices would be to create opportunities for individual text selection. during the time i observed in mrs. cooper’s class, the text selections were tightly controlled. the students’ “independent” reading for the quarter was a choice of one of five classic british novels. yet when i asked my participants to bring in one faith-related text and another of their choosing, three of the five chose a second faith-related text. when there is more freedom regarding texts, there is more opportunity for identities to influence text selection. this idea proved true for jacob and shannon, whose enacted maker and soccer player identities, respectively, were salient for them and drove their text selections. moreover, through reading, readers learn about themselves and think about themselves, who they are and who they might like to be (e.g., hagood, ; richardson & eccles, ; ruddell & unrau, ; wilhelm & smith, ). paige acknowledged this influence: reading great expectations, i can, like, relate to pip sometimes in the fact that, you know, i want, like, success and stuff like that, but i have to, like, remember not to get too caught up in it, i guess, which is kind of what pip did. and it kind of made me think about that for myself, i guess. and that i didn’t want to end up like pip and that i might end up like pip, but i hope i don’t because it’s – you have to, like, care about the people that have done – like, mean the most to you and have done stuff for you. you just can’t neglect them, like, and yeah, that kind of made me learn more about myself through reading about him. furthermore, the motivation to read, the amount of reading completed, and the length of and quality of responses can increase when there is a relationship between the text selection and the reader (ruddell & unrau, ). jacob, for example, read considerably on a daily basis but was consistently behind in reading for english class and completed little of the required reading because he did not see himself as an english- class-kind-of-reader, which was the only definition he had of “reader.” not surprisingly, he had little to say to me or in his written assignments about the british literature studied in class. yet he read for himself daily, and weeks after his elective online reading, he could tell me about the texts he had read, which fed his cluster maker identity. when the reading fit a salient identity for him, he read and transacted in meaningful ways. these data confirm ruddell and unrau’s ( ) finding that self-understanding can be a motivating force for reading. thus, if we want to encourage youth to read, we need to consider increasing the opportunities for connections between their salient identities and texts available or acceptable for in-school reading as well as expanding the definition of what it means to be a reader; as a result, youth like jacob might find themselves included in that characterization. additionally, three of the five students brought to the verbal protocol a bible passage for their faith-related text, suggesting that the bible was an important text for them. in private christian schools, then, where faith formation is a goal, there may be room to include the bible as a text in courses other than bible classes, or to at least converse about how reading the bible is the same as or different from reading other texts, what reading strategies might be relevant for bible study, and how this particular text relates to one’s faith. though mrs. cooper referred to scripture and kept a set of bibles in her room, students never accessed them as a text during my time in the classroom nor was there discussion about using the various comprehension strategies mrs. cooper suggested (i.e., character lists, noticing important quotations, taking notes) with scripture. writing. the explicitness of class activities can also impact the evidence of valued outcomes and affect the triggering effect of self-understandings. for example, mr. bennett told me in an interview that he highly valued practice of faith beliefs rather than only the beliefs themselves. this significance was evident in the stories and examples he shared in class; however, this value was not clear in the essay prompts he assigned, in which the focus was on the valued outcomes of meeting requirements and ownership of beliefs. while paige and cassie did, in fact, make the connection between their beliefs and their faith identities though practices and wrote about such in several instances, the other students only rarely related their faith practices to these written assignments. though jacob might not have had faith practices to write about, jessica and shannon would have had faith practices to describe. being explicit about including faith practices in the writing prompt might have encouraged more students to connect their actions based on their faith self-understanding to these writing events or to make deeper, more developed connections. while overt language in prompts may help, teachers may also need to be clear in welcoming identity performances other than student identities into their figured worlds, even in a situation as seemingly obvious as incorporating faith identities into bible class assignments. identities help set the purpose for reading (ruddell and unrau, ). if this relationship is perhaps true for writing as well, then not only the assignment prompt needs to be overt, but also the invitation to address the assignment from more than a “student” identity – in this case, from a faith identity. students can enact different identities within a given writing assignment (ivanič, ), yet the dominant identity from which the writing occurred could also have affected why jessica and shannon did not include many faith practice references. writing from a good student identity, they closely followed the assignment prompt and adding nothing more whereas paige and cassie, perhaps, wrote as much from a faith identity as from a student identity. this study aims to describe the ways in which a group of mennonite youth who read perform identities as they read and write, both for themselves and for others, such as teachers. the participants’ stories were different, and the relationship between their faith identities and their literate practices differed; yet overall, identity mattered in their literate practices, and their literate practices mattered to their salient identities (mccarthey & moje, ). it is my hope, as i have “put in my oar” (burke, , p. ) into the parlor conversation, that this research, indeed, has added to the discussion in helpful ways, perhaps directing future dialogue in different directions than had i stayed out of the room altogether. references cited afflerbach, p. ( ). the influence of prior knowledge and text genre on readers’ prediction strategies. journal of reading behavior, ( ), - . anzaldúa, g. ( ). borderlands = la frontera. ( nd ed.). san francisco, ca: aunt lute books. bartlett, l., & holland, d. ( ). theorizing the space of literacy practices. ways of knowing, , - . becker, p. ( ). what is an anabaptist christian? elkhart, in: mennonite mission network. bishop, j. e. ( ). the quiet in the land: core-to-core culture confrontation in a democratic english classroom. unpublished doctoral dissertation, kent state university, ohio. bishop, j. e., & fransen, s. ( ). building community: an alternative assessment. the phi delta kappan, ( ), - . black, l., williams, j., hernandez-martinez, p., davis, p., pampaka, m., & wake, g. ( ). developing a ‘leading identity’: the relationship between students’ mathematical identities and their career and higher education aspirations. educational studies in mathematics, , - . blackburn, m. v. ( ). disrupting the (hetero)normative: exploring literacy performances and identity work with queer youth. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, ( ), - . blackburn, m. v., & buckley, j. ( ). teaching queer-inclusive english language arts. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, ( ), - . bloome, d., & katz, l. ( ). literacy as social practice and classroom chronotopes. reading and writing quarterly: overcoming learning difficulties, , - . boston, g. h., & baxley, t. ( ). living the literature: race, gender construction, and black female adolescents. urban education, ( ), - . brickhouse, n. w., lowery, p., & schultz, k. ( ). what kind of girl does science? the construction of school science identities. journal of research in science teaching, ( ), - . britton, j., burgess, t., martin, n., mcleod, a. & rosen, h. ( ). the development of writing abilities ( - ). london, england: macmillan education. burke, k. ( ). the philosophy of literary form. berkeley, ca: university of california press. calabrese barton, a., kang, h., tan, e., o’neill, t. b., bautista-guerra, j., & brecklin, c. ( ). crafting a future in science: tracing middle school girls’ identity work over time and space. american educational research journal, ( ), - . cherland, m. r. ( ). private practices: girls reading fiction and constructing identity. bristol, pa: taylor & francis. coady, r., & johannessen, j. ( ). the book that changed my life: remarkable writers celebrate the books that matter most to them. new york, ny: avery. coffey, s., & street, b. ( ). narrative and identity in the “language learning project”. the modern language journal, , - . confession of faith in a mennonite perspective. ( ). scottdale, pa: herald press. dagenais, d., day, e., & toohey, k. ( ). a multilingual child’s literacy practices and contrasting identities in the figured worlds of french immersion classrooms. the international journal of bilingual education and bilingualism, ( ), - . davies, b., & harré, r. ( ). positioning: the discursive production of selves. journal for the theory of social behaviour, ( ), - . eakle, a. j. ( ). literacy spaces of a christian faith-based school. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . elmore, k. c., & oyserman, d. ( ). if ‘we’ can succeed, ‘i’ can too: identity-based motivation and gender in the classroom. contemporary education psychology, , - . erikson, e. h. ( ). identity: youth and crisis. new york, ny: norton. faircloth, b. s. ( ). “wearing a mask” vs. connecting identity with learning. contemporary educational psychology, , - . fishman, a. ( ). amish literacy: what and how it means. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. flum, h., & kaplan, a. ( ). identity formation in educational settings: a contextualized view of theory and research in practice. contemporary educational psychology, , - . galda, l., & beach, r. ( ). response to literature as a cultural activity. reading research quarterly, , - . gee, j. p. ( ). social linguistics and literacies: ideology in discourses ( nd ed.). london, england: falmer. geertz, c. ( ). the interpretation of cultures. new york, ny: basic books. greenhaus, j. h., & powell, g. n. ( ). when work and family are allies: a theory of work-family enrichment. academy of management review, ( ), - . guba, e. g., & lincoln, y. s. ( ). competing paradigms in qualitative research. in n. k. denzin, & y. s. lincoln (eds.), handbook of qualitative research (pp. - ). thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. guzzetti, b., & gamboa, m. ( ). zines for social justice: adolescent girls writing on their own. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . hagood, m. ( ). critical literacy for whom? reading research and instruction, ( ), - . hatt, b. ( ). street smarts vs. book smarts: the figured world of smartness in the lives of marginalized, urban youth. the urban review, ( ), - . heath, s. b. ( ). ways with words: language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. new york, ny: cambridge university press. holland, d., & lachicotte. w. ( ). vygotsky, mead and the new sociocultural studies of identity. in h. daniels, m. cole and j. wertsch (eds.), the cambridge companion to vygotsky, (pp. - ). cambridge, u.k.: cambridge university press. holland, d., lachicotte, w., skinner, d., & cain, c. ( ). identity and agency in cultural worlds. cambridge, ma: harvard university. hull, g. a., & katz, m. ( ). crafting an agentive self: case studies of digital storytelling. research in the teaching of english, ( ), - . ivanič, r. ( ). writing and identity: the discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. philadelphia, pa: john benjamins. juzwik, m. m. ( ). american evangelical biblicism as literate practice: a critical review. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . kaptizke, c. ( ). literacy and religion: the textual politics and practices of seventh-day adventism. amsterdam, the netherlands: john benjamins. kelly, m. ( ). the education of african american youth: literacy practices and identity representation in church and school. in e. moje & d. o'brien (eds.), constructions of literacy: studies of teaching and learning in and out of secondary schools. (pp. - ). mahwah, nj: l. erlbaum. king, p. e., & roeser, r. w. ( ). religion and spirituality in adolescent development. in r. m. lerner & l. steinberg (eds.), handbook of adolescent psychology. hoboken, nj: wiley & sons. king, s. (director). ( ). a shroud for a journey: the clayton kratz story. (motion picture). usa: urbania productions. knoester, m. ( ). inquiry into urban adolescent independent reading habits: can gee’s theory of discourses provide insight? journal of adolescent & adult literacy, ( ), - . leander, k. m. ( ). locating latanya: the situated production of identity artifacts in classroom interaction. research in the teaching of english, , - . lee, c. ( ). culture, literacy, and learning. new york, ny: teachers college press. leipzig, d. ( ). what is reading? weta. retrieved from: http://www.readingrockets.org/article/ levine, s. ( ). making interpretation visible with an affect‐based strategy. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . lewis, c., & del valle, a. ( ). literacy and identity: implications for research and practice. in l. christenbury, r. bomer, & p. smagorinsky (eds.), handbook of adolescent literacy research (pp. - ). new york, ny: guilford. lewis, c., & fabos, b. ( ). instant messaging, literacies, and social identities. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . loewen, h., & nolt, s. ( ). through fire and water: an overview of mennonite history. scottdale, pa: herald press. luttrell, w., & parker, c. ( ). high school students’ literacy practices and identities, and the figured world of school. journal of research in reading, ( ), - . mahiri, j., & sablo, s. ( ). writing for their lives: the non-school literacy of california’s urban african american youth. journal of negro education, , - . mccarthey, s. j., & moje, e. b. ( ). identity matters. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . mccaslin, m. ( ). co-regulation of student motivation and emergent identity. educational psychologist, ( ), - . michael, a., andrade, n., & bartlett, l. ( ). figuring “success” in a bilingual high school. the urban review, ( ), - . mishler, e. g. ( ). storylines: craftsartists’ narratives of identity. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. moje, e. b. ( ). “to be part of the story”: the literacy practices of gangsta adolescents. teachers college record, , - . moje, e. b., & luke, a. ( ). literacy and identity: examining the metaphors in history and contemporary research. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . notwotny, r. (producer), & carrera, r. (director). ( ). the radical [motion picture]. sisters and brothers production. pressley, m., & afflerbach, p. ( ). verbal protocols of reading: the nature of constructively responsive reading. hillsdale, nj: erlbaum. pressley, m., & gaskins, i. w. ( ). metacognitively competent reading comprehension is constructively responsive reading: how can such reading be developed in students? metacognition and learning, ( ), - . doi: . /s - - - pressley, m., & hilden, k. ( ). verbal protocols of reading. in n. duke & m. mallette (eds.), literacy research methodologies (pp. - ). new york, ny: guilford press. reeves, a. ( ). adolescents talk about reading: exploring resistance to and engagement with text. newark, de: international reading association. reyes, c. c. ( ). el libro de recuerdos [book of memories]: a latina student’s exploration of self and religion in public school. research in the teaching of english, ( ), - . rich, y., & schachter, e. ( ). high school identity climate and student identity development. contemporary educational psychology, , - . richardson, p. w., & eccles, j. s. ( ). rewards of reading: toward the development of possible selves and identities. international journal of educational research, ( ), - . ritchie, j. s. ( ). beginning writers: diverse voices and individual identity. college composition and communication, ( ), - . robinson, c. ( ). figured worlds of history learning in a social studies methods classroom. the urban review, ( ), - . rosenblatt, l. ( ). the transactional theory of reading and writing. in r. ruddell & n. unrau (eds.), theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. - ). newark, de: international reading association. roth, j. d. ( ). beliefs: mennonite faith and practice. scottdale, pa: herald press. roth, j. d. ( , may ). mennonites and the catholic church. retrieved from https://themennonite.org/opinion/mennonites-catholic-church/ rubin, b. c. ( ). learner identity amid figured worlds: constructing (in)competence at an urban high school. the urban review, ( ), - . ruddell, r., & unrau, n. ( ). reading as meaning-construction process: the reader, the text, and the teacher. in r. ruddell & n. unrau (eds.), theoretical models and processes of reading (pp. - ). newark, de: international reading association. ruth, j. (director). ( ). the hutterites: to care and not to care (motion picture). usa. sarroub, l. k. ( ). all american yemeni girls: being muslim in a public school. philadelphia, pa: university of pennsylvania press. sensenig, k. l. ( ). an ethnographic approach to the study of sociopolitical views in two mennonite high schools. unpublished doctoral dissertation. temple university, pennsylvania. sfard, a., & prusak, a. ( ). telling identities: in search of an analytic tool for investigating learning as a culturally shaped activity. educational researcher, ( ), - . sinai, m., kaplan, a., & flum, h. ( ). promoting identity exploration within the school curriculum: a design-based study in a junior high literature lesson in israel. contemporary educational psychology, , - . skerrett, a. ( ). religious literacies in a secular classroom. reading research quarterly, ( ), - . smith, f. ( ). reading without nonsense. new york, ny: teachers college press. smith, m. w., & wilhelm, j. d. ( ). reading don't fix no chevys: literacy in the lives of young men. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. snow, c. ( ). reading for understanding: toward an r&d program in reading comprehension. rand corporation. stake, r. e. ( ). multiple case study analysis. new york, ny: guilford press. stryker, s., & serpe, r. t. ( ). identity salience and psychological centrality: equivalent, overlapping, or complementary concepts? social psychology quarterly, ( ), - . sumara, d. ( ). critical issues: researching complexity. journal of literacy research, ( ), - . sutherland, l. ( ). black adolescent girls’ use of literacy practices to negotiate boundaries of ascribed identity, journal of literacy research, ( ), - . suzuki, m. g. ( ). differences between self-concepts of mennonite adolescents and public school adolescents. retrieved from eric database. ( ). tan, e., & calabrese barton, a. ( ). unpacking science for all through the lens of identities-in-practice: the stories of amelia and ginny. cultural studies of science education, , - . tang, r., & john, s. ( ). the ‘i’ in identity: exploring writer identity in student academic writing through the first person pronoun. english for specific purposes, , s -s . thoits, p. a. ( ). on merging identity theory and stress research. social psychology quarterly, ( ), - . toma, j. d. ( ). approaching rigor in applied qualitative research. in c. f. conrad & r. c. serlin (eds.), the sage handbook for research in education ( nd ed.), (pp. - ). thousand oaks, ca: sage. urrieta, l. ( ). figured worlds and education: an introduction to the special issue. the urban review, ( ), - . van braght, t. ( ). martyrs mirror: the story of seventeen centuries of christian martyrdom from the time of christ to a.d. . scottsdale, pa: herald press. vipond, d., & hunt, r. ( ). point-driven understanding: pragmatic and cognitive dimensions of literary reading. poetics, , - . walker-brown, p. a. ( ). toward a dynamic assessment model for understanding literacy learning difficulties of adolescents: case studies in a mennonite high school. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of pennsylvania, pennsylvania. wilhelm, j. d. ( ). you gotta be the book: teaching engaged and reflective reading with adolescents. new york, ny: teachers college press. wilhelm, j., & smith, m. w. ( ). reading unbound. new york, ny: scholastic. williams, b. t. ( ). taken on faith: religion and identity in writing classes. journal of adolescent & adult literacy, ( ), - . willis, j.w. ( ). foundations of qualitative research: interpretive and critical approaches. thousand oaks, ca: sage. wilson, j.c., & schallert, d.l. ( ). trading spaces: negotiating the discourse of a new classroom. the international journal of learning, ( ), - . wolfe, m. b. w., & goldman, s. r. ( ). relations between adolescents' text processing and reasoning. cognition and instruction, ( ), - . doi: . /s xci _ wyatt, d., pressley, m., el-dinary, p.b., stein, s., evans, p., & brown, r. ( ). comprehension strategies, worth and credibility monitoring, and evaluations: cold and hot cognition when experts read professional articles that are important to them. learning and individual differences, , - . yeager, d. s., bundick, m. j., & johnson, r. ( ). the role of future work goal motives in adolescent identity development: a longitudinal mixed-methods investigation. contemporary educational psychology, , - . yin, r. k. ( ). case study research: design and methods. ( nd ed.), thousand oaks, ca: sage. appendix a: survey to determine participant pool 	 	 	 .		i	am	a	mennonite.		 	 yes	 	 	 no	 	 	 	 .		how	often	do	you	read	a	newspaper/magazine	at	home?	 	 often	 	 sometimes	 	 never	 	 	 	 .		how	often	do	you	read	online	at	home?	 	 often	 	 sometimes	 	 never	 	 	 	 .		how	often	do	you	read	a	book	at	home?	 	 often	 	 sometimes	 	 never	 	 	 	 .		how	often	do	you	read	manga/comic	book/graphic	novel	at	home?	 	 often	 	 sometimes	 	 never	 	 	 	 .		do	you	read	any	other	kinds	of	text	at	home?	 	 yes	 	 no	 	 	 if	yes,	please	list	________________________________________________________	 	 	 	 	 name:		___________________________________________	 	 	 appendix b: consent form for parents of students under the age of 	 	 	 informed consent: parent permission form dear parent or guardian, my name is sharon fransen. i attend blooming glen mennonite church, and i am a doctoral student in education at temple university. i am conducting research as part of my doctoral dissertation. i have chosen to study dock seniors in their english and bible classes. i am interested in looking at students who see themselves as mennonites and like to read in their free time. i am writing to ask your permission to include your child in my study. the title of the study is: mennonite identity and reading practices in high school students: a social practice theory multiple case study.	 here are some things you should know about the research study: 	 • someone will explain this research study to your child. • your child can volunteer to be in a research study. • whether your child takes part is up to you. • your child can choose not to take part in the research study. • your child can agree to take part now and later change his or her mind. • whatever you decide, it will not be held against you. • feel free to ask all the questions you want before and after you decide. • by signing this consent form, you are not waiving any of the legal rights that your child otherwise would have as a participant in a research study. the estimated time in which your child will participate is october , to january , . the study will include the following things: • i will interview your child times for - minutes during a study hall or after school. these interviews will be audio recorded. • your child will be asked to keep a simple activity log of his or her activities outside of school. • your child will be asked to choose texts to read aloud to me and talk about that reading experience. • i will observe your child twice a week in their english and bible class during quarter . • your child will be given an opportunity to review and respond to my recorded data as well as my analyses of that data. the benefit you will obtain from the research is knowing that you have contributed to the understanding of this topic, and your child may benefit from reflecting on his or her faith and reading experiences. please contact me with questions, concerns, or complaints about the research and any research-related injuries by calling me - - or emailing me at sfransen@temple.edu. this research has been reviewed and approved by the temple university institutional review board. please contact them at ( ) - or e-mail them at: irb@temple.edu for any of the following: questions, concerns, or complaints about the research; questions about your rights; to obtain information; or to offer input. confidentiality: efforts will be made to limit the disclosure of your personal information, including research study records, to people who have a need to review this information. however, the study team cannot promise complete secrecy. for example, although the study team has put in safeguards to protect your information, there is always a potential risk of loss of confidentiality. there are several organizations that may inspect and copy your information to make sure that the study team is following the rules and regulations regarding research and the protection of human subjects. these organizations include the irb, temple university, its affiliates and agents, temple university health system, inc., its affiliates and agents, the study sponsor and its agents, and the office for human research protections. your child’s name will never be used in reporting the results of this study. signature block for children your signature documents your permission for the named child to take part in this research. printed name of child signature of parent or guardian date q parent q guardian printed name of parent or guardian signature of person obtaining consent and assent date printed name of person obtaining consent and assent date because the research requires recording your child’s voice, please indicate if you are willing to allow your child to be audiotaped by checking yes or no below. i give my permission for these tapes to be used from: october , to completion of the study. data will be stored for three ( ) years after completion of the study. i understand that i can withdraw my permission at any time. upon my request, the audiotape(s) will no longer be used. yes ____ no_____ 	 	 	 	 appendix c: assent form for students under the age of 	 	 informed consent: assent for participants under dear student, my name is sharon fransen. i attend blooming glen mennonite church, and i am a doctoral student in education at temple university. i am conducting research as part of my doctoral dissertation. i have chosen to study dock seniors in their english and bible classes. i am interested in looking at students who see themselves as mennonites and like to read in their free time. i am writing to ask your permission to participate in my study. the title of the study is: mennonite identity and reading practices in high school students: a social practice theory multiple case study.	 here are some things you should know about the research study: 	 • someone will explain this research study to you. • you volunteer to be in a part of the study. • whether you take part is up to you. • you can choose not to take part in the research study. • you can agree to take part now and later change your mind. • whatever you decide, it will not be held against you. • feel free to ask all the questions you want before and after you decide. • by signing this consent form, you are not waiving any of the legal rights that you otherwise would have as a participant in a research study. the estimated time in which you will participate in the study is october , to january , . the study will include the following things: • i will interview you times for - minutes during a study hall, after school, or at a time convenient for you. these interviews will be audio recorded. • you will be asked to keep a simple activity log of your activities outside of school. • you will be asked to choose texts to read aloud to me and talk about that reading experience. • i will observe you twice a week in your english and bible class during quarter . • you will be given an opportunity to review and respond to my recorded data as well as my analyses of that data. the benefit you will obtain from the research is knowing that you have contributed to the understanding of this topic, and you may benefit from reflecting on your faith and reading experiences. please contact me with questions, concerns, or complaints about the research and any research-related injuries by calling me - - or emailing me at sfransen@temple.edu. this research has been reviewed and approved by the temple university institutional review board. please contact them at ( ) - or e-mail them at: irb@temple.edu for any of the following: questions, concerns, or complaints about the research; questions about your rights; to obtain information; or to offer input. confidentiality: efforts will be made to limit the disclosure of your personal information, including research study records, to people who have a need to review this information. however, the study team cannot promise complete secrecy. for example, although the study team has put in safeguards to protect your information, there is always a potential risk of loss of confidentiality. there are several organizations that may inspect and copy your information to make sure that the study team is following the rules and regulations regarding research and the protection of human subjects. these organizations include the irb, temple university, its affiliates and agents, temple university health system, inc., its affiliates and agents, the study sponsor and its agents, and the office for human research protections. your name will never be used in reporting the results of this study. your signature documents your permission to take part in this research. signature of subject date printed name of subject signature of person obtaining consent date printed name of person obtaining consent because the research requires recording your voice, please indicate if you are willing to be audiotaped by checking either yes or no below. i give my permission for these tapes to be used from: october , to completion of the study. data will be stored for three ( ) years after completion of the study. i understand that i can withdraw my permission at any time. upon my request, the audiotape(s) will no longer be used. yes ____ no_____ appendix d: consent form for teachers 	 	 informed consent letter dear teacher, my name is sharon fransen. i attend blooming glen mennonite church, and i am a doctoral student in education at temple university. i am conducting research as part of my doctoral dissertation. i have chosen to study dock seniors in their english and bible classes. i am interested in looking at students who see themselves as mennonites and like to read in their free time. i am writing to ask your permission to participate in my study. the title of the study is: mennonite identity and reading practices in high school students: a social practice theory multiple case study.	 here are some things you should know about the research study: 	 • someone will explain this research study to you. • you volunteer to be part of the study. • whether you take part is up to you. • you can choose not to take part in the research study. • you can agree to take part now and later change your mind. • whatever you decide, it will not be held against you. • feel free to ask all the questions you want before and after you decide. • by signing this consent form, you are not waiving any of the legal rights that you otherwise would have as a participant in a research study. the estimated time in which you will participate in the study is october , to january , . the study will include the following things: • i will interview you time for approximately minutes during a planning period, after school, or at a time convenient for you. this interview will be audio recorded. • i will observe your senior level english or bible classes twice a week during quarter . • you will be given an opportunity to review and respond to my recorded data as well as my analyses of that data. the benefit you will obtain from the research is knowing that you have contributed to the understanding of this topic. please contact me with questions, concerns, or complaints about the research and any research-related injuries by calling me - - or emailing me at sfransen@temple.edu. this research has been reviewed and approved by the temple university institutional review board. please contact them at ( ) - or e-mail them at: irb@temple.edu for any of the following: questions, concerns, or complaints about the research; questions about your rights; to obtain information; or to offer input. confidentiality: efforts will be made to limit the disclosure of your personal information, including research study records, to people who have a need to review this information. however, the study team cannot promise complete secrecy. for example, although the study team has put in safeguards to protect your information, there is always a potential risk of loss of confidentiality. there are several organizations that may inspect and copy your information to make sure that the study team is following the rules and regulations regarding research and the protection of human subjects. these organizations include the irb, temple university, its affiliates and agents, temple university health system, inc., its affiliates and agents, the study sponsor and its agents, and the office for human research protections. your name will never be used in reporting the results of this study. your signature documents your permission to take part in this research. do not sign this form after this date à signature of subject date printed name of subject signature of person obtaining consent date printed name of person obtaining consent because the research requires recording your voice, please indicate if you are willing to be audiotaped by checking either yes or no below. i give my permission for these tapes to be used from: october , to completion of the study. data will be stored for three ( ) years after completion of the study. i understand that i can withdraw my permission at any time. upon my request, the audiotape(s) will no longer be used. yes ____ no_____ appendix e: activity log activity	log	-	fill	in	activities	&	reading	that	you	do.		reading	=	making	meaning	of	a	text	of	any	length	(books,	magazines,	newspapers,	websites,	pictures,	emails,	texts,	etc. week: monday	-	activities tuesday	-	activities wednesday	-	activities thursday	-	activities friday	-	activities saturday	-	activities sunday	-	activities am : am : am : am : am : am : am : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : pm : name: appendix f: first student interview protocol research question: how do mennonite high school students who engage in leisure reading enact identities in their literate practices? i am interested in learning more about you and what’s important to you. i’m also interested in reading and faith, so i have several questions i’ll ask you about yourself, reading, and faith. you can choose not to answer any question and you can choose to stop the interview at any time. no one will know what your answers are to any of the questions. while i write and talk about your answers, i’ll use a fake name to identify you that you may choose, so no one will know it’s you. general . what is your name and age? . walk me through a typical day in your life. . if you have a free afternoon, how do you like to spend your time? . how would you describe yourself? what is important to know about you in order to understand who you are? . what are some of the most important things, people, and places in your life? faith . can you tell me about your faith? . next time we meet, can you bring in something you’ve read related to that in some way? . how do you describe or define your faith? . are there any activities you participate in that are connected to your faith? . (follow up questions might include: you talked about being mennonite. can you tell me more about what that means to you? or, i noticed you didn’t talk about being mennonite. why is that?) . can you tell me a story that illustrates your feelings about being mennonite? . do you go to church? where? . do you read the bible? . what do you like about bible class? what don’t you like? ( nd interview) reading . tell me the last few things that you’ve read that you really liked. . next time, can you bring in one of those to read to me? . what do you read on your own? . if you could choose anything to read, what would you choose? . have your reading practices or habits changed over time? . why do you read? . do you consider yourself a reader? is that important to you? . what do you think it means to be a reader? . what are or things that you’ve read recently that you really liked? . what do you like about brit lit class? what don’t you like? ( nd interview) do you have anything else you want to tell me that would help me understand you? is there anything else you’d like to tell me about yourself or reading or faith? 	 	 appendix g: third student interview protocol general identity questions . what pseudonym did you choose? . when i think of myself and who i am, i think of different things in different places. for example, i am a mother, i am a student, i am a wife, i am a reader, i am a member of my church. how would you finish this sentence for yourself, i am … . what are your hobbies and school involvements? faith questions . would you say your faith has changed over time? in what ways? . what would you consider to be important things or symbols of your faith? would the bible be one? . would you say reading the bible is important to your faith? faith & reading questions . do you think your faith and your beliefs about god and jesus impact what you choose to read? . do you think they impact how you read? . does your family read the bible together as a family? reading questions . what did you read over christmas break? . do you consider yourself a reader? what does that mean? how would you define ‘reader?’ . what would you say your goals in reading for yourself are? class fw questions . how do you think mr. bennett or mrs. cooper sees you? other students in the class? how do you feel about that? . thinking about frankenstein, great expectations, and your independent novel for brit lit, what, if anything, did you learn about yourself from reading any of these books? . did reading any of them impact your faith? . did your faith impact how you read them? final questions . do you have a journal or other writing that talks about your faith or the reading that you do? would you be willing to share that with me? . if i have additional questions for you as i am working with the data, would it be okay if i contacted you? specific questions to each participant appendix h: interview protocol for teachers . how would you describe a. jacob b. jessica c. shannon d. cassie e. paige . what identity labels would you use to describe them? example - engaged student, conscientious student, baseball player . please tell me what you notice about their reading and writing. . please tell me what you observe about their faith. . how would you describe them as a student? . please describe your teaching style. . please describe the class context of period / / . appendix i: coding scheme interviews and field notes general codes class description mhs copulative verb – noun complement predicate adjectives transitive verbs verb choice language self-generalizations not-fully aligned with fw surprises writing faith-related codes bible class figured world (fw) faith activity faith identity – fw faith identity – positioning faith identity – space for authoring faith identity – making worlds faith-social mennonite identity mennonite theology mennonite vs christian faith-reading intersection figured worlds actors artifacts groups significant acts specific language teacher valued outcomes participants cassie jacob jessica paige shannon reading-related codes english class fw reader definition reader identity – fw reader identity – positioning reading identity – space for authoring reader identity – making worlds reading – bible reading – context reading practices reading purposes text type other identities family friends-social sports student technology teenager work cars builder/maker robotics runner outdoor/active learner/curious person written documents macro-level informative pseudo-informative dummy run self-mentions representative tour guide architect describer of research opinion-holder originator micro-level bible class meeting requirements language ownership of beliefs practice of beliefs self-mentions space of authoring english class quotations language mastery application faith connections self-mentions space of authoring description verbal protocol macro-level information-driven story-driven point-driven association-driven evaluation-driven experience-driven disengaged micro-level comprehending comprehending problems connecting to another text connecting to other fws connecting to prior knowledge connecting to reader’s life evaluating predicting repeating text valuing visualizing wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ css volume issue cover and back matter history fd theory and studies in the philosophy of history editor: george h. nadel executive editor: richard t. vann editorial committee: raymond aron, isaiah berlin, fernand braudel, sidney hook, maurice mandelbaum, a. d. momigliano, john passmore, w. h. walsh, c. vann woodward history and theory is the first international journal devoted to the philosophy of history. monographs, essays, exchanges, reviews, and bibliographies are published in four areas: the theory of history; the method of history; historiography; and the relationship between problems in historical theory and method and those in economics, psychology, and other social sciences. as one of the most important, vital, and comprehensive interdiscip- linary journals of our time, it has elicited enthusiastic world-wide res- ponse. frequency: three numbers and a beiheft per year. subscriptions: $ . per year. subscriptions accepted in advance for as many years as desired. established . the current volume is volume viii. complete runs and individual back numbers also available. write for more information. send subscrip- tions to: wesleyan university press riverview center middleton, connecticut literacy in traditional societies edited by jack goody contents: the consequences of literacy jack goody and ian watt implications of literacy in traditional china and india kathleen gough literacy in kerala kathleen gough literacy in a buddhist village s. j. tambiah the transmission of islamic learning in the western sudan ivor wilks restricted literacy in northern ghana jack goody some aspects of the literate tradition in somalia i. m. lewis astrology and writing in madagascar maurice block the uses of literacy in new guinea and melanesia m. meggitt the measurement of literacy in pre- industrial england r. s. schofield *. net cambridge university press paragon book gallery "the oriental book store of america" east th street, new york, n.y. we specialize exclusively in books on the far east, near east, and middle east more than , "in print" and "out of print" books on oriental history, religion, philosophy, literature, linguistic, and art in all languages are on our shelves. all libra- rians, scholars, and collectors are invited to send their want lists, which will receive our very best attention. we purchase single works and complete libraries on the orient and always pay full value. catalogues issued regularly core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core | war/peace report — an independent monthly magazine presenting fact and opinion on progress toward a world of peace with justice "war/peace report is one of the most perceptive and responsible periodicals devoted to matters of war and peace." u thant the only american magazine devoted solely to the peace question, war/peace report presents up-to-date coverage of world crisis areas such as vietnam and the middle east and in-depth analyses of the long-term problems of achieving peace. experts of various nations and outlooks express their views in the pages of war/peace report on such issues as disarmament, the development of world rule of law, the u.n. and u.s. foreign policy. on many of these questions, war/peace report has presented direct dialogues between spokesmen of the east and west. war/peace report regularly reviews the latest books on war/peace issues and offers a monthly round-up of the activities of the peace movement. in recent issues: george w. ball discusses "making world corporations into world citizens" . . . richard a . falk reports on his recent visit to north vietnam in " a vietnam settlement: the view from hanoi" . . . four experts on military and foreign policy, donald g. brennan, robert strausz-hup , jerome wiesner and adam yarmolinsky, participate in "the great nuclear debate: parity vs. superiority". other authors have included sena- tor george mcgovern, hans morgenthau, louis b. sohn, norman cousins, wilfred burchett, herman kahn and many others. war/peace report, dept. c s s h , e. th st., new york, n.y. i am enclosing a check or international money order for $ for a one year sub- scription ( issues) name address city state zip social research an international quarterly of political and social science published by the graduate faculty of the new school. the journal emphasizes interdisciplinary treat- ment of issues in the social sciences and seeks to main- tain the humanistic tradition by integration with the approaches of philosophy and history. special issues are focused on problems which are examined by scholars in different fields of the social sciences. editorial and business office new school for social research west twelfth street, new york , n.y. subscriptions $ . a year, domestic and foreign. single copies—$ . social research is published quarterly by the grad- uate faculty of political and social science of the new school for social research, and appears in spring, summer, autumn and winter issues. all correspondence concerning manuscripts should be addressed to dr. peter l. berger. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annale economies - societes - civilisations revue bimestrielle, fondee en par lucien febvre et marc bloch comite de direction: fernand braudel, georges friedmann, jacques le goff, emmanuel le roy ladurie, charles moraze secretaire du comite: paul leuilliot secretaire de redaction: marc ferro e annee-n°. janvier-fevrier etudes denis richet autour des origines ideologiques de la revolu- tion fran aise : elites et despotisme. c. s. l. davies les revokes populaires en angleterre ( - ). mariusz kulczykowski en pologne au xvilie siecle : l'activite indus- trielle des paysans et la formation du marche national. histoire et techniques nouvelles jacques bertin graphique et matheinatique : generalisation du traitement graphique de rinformation. mise au point gerald d. feldman les fondements politiques et sociaux de la mobilisation economique en allemagne ( ). polemiques et controverses : point de vue sur le catharisme. . les cathares languedociens et le "nichil" (jean, , ). (christine thou- zellier) . l'interpretation du catharisme (herve rousseau). note critique anthropologie politique et historie de pafrique noire (catherine coquery- vidrovitch). vie scientifique mouvements ouvriers et depression economique, - (madeleine reberi- oux). comptes rendus emigrants et immigrants (suite). — villes et campagnes depuis le moyen age.— fascismes et national-socialisme. redaction: , rue de la baume, paris vhie (bal ) administration: librarie a. colin, bd saint michel, paris ve comptes cheques postaux: paris, n° i - abonnements: france et union francaise: f.: etranger: f. le numero de p.: f. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the journal of ccn r e s () l v t i () \ a quarterly for research related to war and peace march (xhl ): political stability and instability: some manifestations and causes james c. davies stability and sudden change in interpersonal and international affairs dean g. pruitt the concept of a commitment in international relations franklin b. weinstein other articles; gaming section; book reviews $ . per year for individual, %io.oo for institutions; single issues $ . published by the center for research on conflict resolution the university of michigan, ann arbor, michigan the world today the monthly journal of the royal institute of international affairs provides the general reader with up-to-date and authoritative information on current world problems. recent numbers include articles on: the decline of the international monetary system by harry g. johnson. president nixon sets the stage by nancy balfour poland's political crisis by adam bromke military aspects of the soviet occupation of czecho- slovakia by lawrence l. whetten underdeveloped countries: shipping problems and policies by keith trace annual subscription: s. (u.s.a. and canada $ . ). s. per issue. orders may be sent to booksellers and newsagents, or to the oxford university press, press road, neasden, london, n.w. . (tel. dollis hill ). iv core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core estudios internacionales revista del instituto de estudios internacionales de la universidad de chile director: richard gott volumen ° numero enero-marzo phblip o'brien la alianza para el progreso y los prestamos por programa a chile james petras estados unidos y el nuevo equilibrio en america latina osvaldo sunkel la tarea politica y teorica del planificador en america latina alberto ciria la comunicadon politica en america latina: algunos de sus problemas alberto baltra america latina y la segunda unctad karl kaiser una nueva politica oriental en alemania mercedes acosta y carlos marla vilas santo domingo y checoslovaquia en la politica de bloques precio: suscripcidn anual: dirigirse a: us$ . cada ejemplar en america latina us $ . fuera de america latina us$ . departamento de suscripciones casilla santiago de chile core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of social issues january volume xxv number selected p a p e r s : issue editor: j . diedrick snoek kurt lewin memorial address: conflicts: productive and destructive presidential address: racially separate or together the responsibilities of the psychologist in world affairs war toys and the peace movement the visibility of evil for a sociology of evil is there a racial tipping point in changing schools? school integration: tumult and shame racial preference and social comparison processes to receive from kings the negative effect of group cohesiveness on intergroup negotiation beyond community integration and stability: a comparative study of oriental and mennonite children the study of sex roles biographical sketches abstracts the activists' corner morton deutsch thomas f. pettigrew joseph de rivera carol r. andreas lewis a. coser kurt h. wolff arthur l. stinchcombe, mary s. mcdill and dollle walker james e. teele and clara mayo steven r. asher and vernon l. allen carol r. andreas myles i. friedman and m. elizabeth jacka minako kurokawa shirley s. angrist nevitt san ford and david krech order from: journal of social issues p.o. box ann arbor, michigan annual subscription rates: institutions s . individuals . single copies . published quarterly by the society for the psychological study of social issues (a division of the american psychological association) v i core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core survey a journal of soviet and east european studies no. / double issue winter/spring ideologies: old and new new left students social democracy nationalism and communism western europe africa latin america soviet union and eastern europe intellectuals economy leadership military blocs today warsaw pact super-powers detente contributors include: donald macrae, maurice cranston neil mcinnes, roger salloch, russell warren howe werner klatt, alec nove, violet connoly, leonard schapiro victor s. frank, dennis austin annual subscription £ or $ . this issue: £ . or $ . editorial office: ilford house, oxford street, london w. . subscription office: research publications, nelson road, london s.e. . vll core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core studistorici sommario del fascicolo n. gennaio-marzo a. papa: guerra e terra - p. spriano: l'esperienza di tasca e il "socialfascismo" e. ragionieri: ii pci nella resistenza: la nacista del "partito nuovo" panorami storiografici f. de felice: l'eta giolittiana note critiche f. bosi: archeologia polacca f. bosi: la storia dello stato del congo g. procacci: una citta tra medioevo e rinascimento m. aymard: economia e societa nella calabria de cinquecento p. alatri: censura e ancien regime p. alatri: b. constant e madame de stael s. soldani: la torino operaia de carlo alberto libri ricevuti dirrettori rosario villari-renato zangheri un numero l. . , estero l. . ; abbonamento annuo l. . , estero l. . direzione redazione e amministrazione via delle zoccolette n. , tel. . , roma. via core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core comparative studies in society and history is a forum for presentation and discussion of new research into problems of change and stability that recur in human societies through time or in the contemporary world. it sets up a working alliance between specialists in all branches of the social sciences and humanities. debate and review articles bring the general reader in touch with current findings and issues. notes for contributors contributions may be descriptive, analytical or theoretical. any article not in itself comparative may be accepted if it lends itself to comment that will place it in comparative perspective. correspondence with the editors prior to the submission of articles will help to enable them to obtain such comment or a companion study. emphasis in comparative studies may be either on similarities or, if these are significant enough and call for some recasting of generalisations, on differences. all con- tributions and editorial correspondence should be sent to the editors, comparative studies in society and history, department of history, university of michigan, ann arbor, michigan . two copies of each contribution, preferably accompanied by a stamped, addressed envelope, should be submitted. both text and footnotes should be clearly typed with double spacing and wide margins; footnotes should appear on separate pages at the end of the article. illustrations may be included by arrangement with the editors. contributors will receive offprints bound in the journal covers. any additional offprints must be ordered on receipt of the first proof. © copyright by the society for the comparative study of society and history. requests for permission to quote or reproduce material in this journal should be sent to the london or new york offices of cambridge university press. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core volume number june comparative studies in society and history ideology carter jefferson communism and the french intellec- tuals, - - societies and cultures serif m a r d i n power, civil society and culture in the ottoman empire - w. e. willmott congregations and associations: the political structure of the chinese community in phnom- penh, cambodia - raymond c. m i l l e r the dockworker subculture and some problems in cross-cultural and cross-time general- izations - political development james c. scott the analysis of corruption in developing nations - edward j. williams comparative political develop- ment: latin america and afro-asia - review article raymond g r e w on reading six books in search of another - books received - cambridge university press bentley house, euston road, london, n.w.i american branch: east th street, new york, n.y. £ net in u.k.; $ . in u.s.a. subscription price £ net in u.k.; $ . in u.s.a. printed in great britain by alden & mowbray ltd at the alden press, oxfordcore terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the british journal of psychiatry | cambridge core skip to main content accessibility help we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. login alert cancel log in × × home only search content i have access to 	 	home 	log in 	register 	browse subjects 	what we publish 	services 	about cambridge core 	 cart 	 cart 	 	 	 	 access provided by 	 carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	logged in as: carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	 	 	 register 	 register 	 log in 	 	 cart 	 < back to search results 	home 	journals 	the british journal of psychiatry 	 english | français the british journal of psychiatry 	 	 	 	 	 search within full text search within journal search within society 	 	 	 	 	 submit your article 	 information submit your article you are leaving cambridge core and will be taken to this journal's article submission site. cancel leave now × 	 other actions 	 submit your article 	information 	 	 	 	 	 	 	visit: 	 	 	 	 journal home 	journal home 	accepted manuscripts 	firstview articles 	latest issue 	all issues 	most read 	subscribe 	open access articles there is currently a delay in the posting of accepted eletters to cambridge core. we apologise for the inconvenience. 	 access: subscribed 	 contains open access on the cover continues the asylum journal (  -  ), the asylum journal of mental science (  -  ), journal of mental science (  -  ) title history 	 issn: - (print), - (online) 	 editor: professor kamaldeep bhui cbe oxford university, uk 	editorial board the british journal of psychiatry (bjpsych) is a leading international peer-reviewed journal, covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. published monthly on behalf of the royal college of psychiatrists, the journal is committed to improving the prevention, investigation, diagnosis, treatment, and care of mental illness, as well as the promotion of mental health globally. in addition to authoritative original research papers from around the world, the journal publishes editorials, review articles, commentaries on contentious articles, short reports, a comprehensive book review section and a lively, well-informed correspondence column. bjpsych is essential reading for psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and all professionals with an interest in mental health. latest articles view all 	article 	 bjp volume issue cover and front matter 	 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose – psychiatry in history 	 stephen wilson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 robert hooke's bethlem hospital of : an architectural wonder – psychiatry in pictures 	 r.h.s. mindham 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘of the chaunge from one sex to another’: eye-witness accounts of pliny the elder ( – ) and ambroise paré ( – ) – psychiatry in literature 	 greg wilkinson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 kaleidoscope 	 derek k. tracy, dan w. joyce, dawn n. albertson, sukhwinder s. shergill 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘lone travelers’ – psychiatry in pictures 	 brent r. carr 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 the medical model in mental health: an explanation and evaluation by ahmed samei huda oup. . £ . (pb). pp. isbn 	 alistair stewart 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 highlights of this issue 	 kate adlington 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all rcpsych article of the month blog view all 	 are there ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic? 	 march , diana miconi, phd 	the rcpsych article of the month for february is ‘ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic: a cross-sectional study on the impact... view all tweets by bjpsych facebook loading https://www.facebook.com/rcpsych... . impact factor: out of psychiatry journal citation reports © clarivate analytics most read view all 	article 	 factors influencing the decision to use hanging as a method of suicide: qualitative study 	 lucy biddle, jenny donovan, amanda owen-smith, john potokar, damien longson, keith hawton, nav kapur, david gunnell 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all most cited view all 	article 	 a new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change 	 stuart a. montgomery, marie Åsberg 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all 	librarians 	authors 	publishing partners 	agents 	corporates 	 additional information 	accessibility 	our blog 	news 	contact and help 	cambridge core legal notices 	feedback 	sitemap join us online 	 	 	 	 	 	 legal information 	 	rights & permissions 	copyright 	privacy notice 	terms of use 	cookies policy 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top cancel confirm × a manual for church archivists by melvin gingerich* archives of the mennonite church l t h o u g h some church archivists develop their own tech- / \ niques through years of experience and never produce a written manual to guide them in their work, most archivists in charge of church records feel the need of a duplicated or printed guide not only for their own and their assistants' constant reference but also to insure the continuity of their work when others step into their positions. every denominational record collection has its unique features; thus it is impossible to produce a guide that will fit every situation in detail. nevertheless church archives have enough in common to make it possible to suggest certain general procedures that can be followed in organizing any collection. the guide below has been followed by those in charge of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind., and is adapted to the needs of a small denomination. the system was organized largely by my colleague nelson p. springer. background study a prerequisite for setting up a denominational archives program is a thorough knowledge of the administrative machinery of the church. the relationship of the various conferences, synods, pres- byteries, or bishoprics, the congregations or parishes, and the boards and committees to each other and to the central administra- tive body must be thoroughly understood by the archivist. further- more, he must be familiar with the history of his church, for the administrative arrangements may have changed through the years. he must also have some knowledge of the key personalities, past or present, whose records he has or plans to obtain. archives history with this background the archivist can then proceed to write a historical introduction covering the development of his own office • t h e author, a member of the committee on church records, society of american archivists, is executive secretary of the historical and research committee, mennonite general conference, college ave., goshen, ind. he is also archivist of the ar- chives of the mennonite church (owned and controlled by the historical and research committee) at goshen college, goshen, ind. this paper is a revision of one distributed for discussion on oct. , i , at the th annual meeting of the society, in boston. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist or the agency created to handle the records of his church, as well as the duties, responsibilities, and limitations imposed upon the office. this should cover not only the history of the archival agency but should state its exact name, its relation to the board which cre- ated it and to which it is responsible, its place of operation, its pur- pose, its definition of the archival materials in which it is interested, the officers and duties of the archival staff, its source of finances, and the nature of its reports. the "brief history and plan of administration of the archives of the church" can well be issued as a mimeographed bulletin for distribution to those in- terested. defining record groups when archival materials are received by the archivist, he must make a basic decision before he can complete the accession of the gift. he must decide whether the gift consists of one record group, more than one record group, or an additional part of a record group previously received and accessioned. he must be clear as to what constitutes a record group and his manual should contain his definition, with illustrations and elaboration. in our definition we say that "a record group shall consist of records which stand as a distinct unit," and we explain that the considerations to guide the archivist in determining whether the collection is one or more than one record group are (a) the agency or individual creating the rec- ords, (b) the distinctiveness of activities reflected in the records, and (c) the time of deposit. these points need clarification before the archivist is sure of his decisions. accessioning the manual should contain a number of forms that could be used in transferring official or personal records to the archives. the help of a lawyer in formulating these letters of agreement may well be obtained. suggested forms might include letters used to trans- fer records of an incorporated agency, those of an unincorporated agency, unrestricted private collections, and private collections with special restrictions. a form to be used in wills should be provided, as well as forms that could be used by an executor of the estate of a deceased person or by the heirs of a person who had formed a col- lection of records. these forms should cover the date of transfer, the nature of the records, the ownership of the records both before and after the transferral, the restrictions, if any, regarding their use, and the name of the person making the transfer. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a manual for church archivists records must be set up to show the arrangements on ownership as well as the source of each record group. a permanent accession record will show the source, the date of transfer, and the nature of each collection, as well as its quantity. there should be a letter file in which is placed a manila folder for each record group to hold all the correspondence and agreements relating to the accession. an accession sheet containing the basic information recorded in the permanent accession record should also be put in this folder, and a carbon copy of the sheet should go into the first box containing the record group material. because of the fact that additions to the archival holdings may be made more rapidly than they can be accessioned, it is necessary to have a preliminary registration book in which to record them. shelves should be reserved for storing these additions until they are accessioned and placed in their proper positions on the regular shelves. the manual will contain a page of instructions on accessioning materials. it will explain the accession folders, of which there will be one for each record group. the folder will contain all corre- spondence relating to the transfer of the gift and the restrictions, if any, on its use. as stated earlier, a form sheet summarizing this information as well as locating it in the record group by division and subdivision will also be placed in the folder and in the box where the materials are stored. a master accession book is necessary. this provides one line for each new accession. the looseleaf accession books used by libraries can be adapted for archival use. the line should list the agency or person making the gift, a short title describing the gift, the number assigned to this particular record group, the date of the receipt of the gift, and the quantity of materials received. the quantity can be stated in terms of folders, boxes, or cubic or linear feet. the record group number must be placed on each folder as well as on the box into which the materials are put at the time of ac- cessioning and filing. the archivist must constantly be on guard lest a folder or item lose its identification marks and in consequence become lost or misplaced. in accessioning materials by record group, account should be taken, as stated above, of the agency creating the records, and a place should be assigned on the shelves for each of these major agencies. as new agencies are created new numbers will be assigned them. i t is better to wait until records are received to assign classi- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist fication numbers rather than to work out a classification scheme in advance. in our case, our records to date fall under these nine cate- gories: ( i ) mennonite general conference, ( ) mennonite dis- trict conferences, ( ) local congregations, ( ) mennonite board of missions and charities, ( ) mennonite board of education, ( ) mennonite publication board, ( ) miscellaneous organiza- tions, ( ) other mennonite branches, and ( ) inter-mennonite agencies. we have also a historical manuscripts division, which contains personal collections of nonagency and noninstitutional ma- terials. as new agencies are created, they can be numbered suc- cessively , , and so on indefinitely. subdivisions are set up according to officers and committees of the agencies from whom the record groups are received and at the time the records are received. (numbers , , and do not appear as subdivisions of because they are semiautonomous boards.) retention and disposal policies if the archives is the official depository of a denomination, it is necessary for its governing body to determine what are its official records and what records its officers are required to preserve and what they may discard. it should also establish rules calling for the transfer of inactive records to its official depository. the men- nonite general conference in its session adopted a set of policies covering these points. these policies not only guide the archivist in determining what records are to be collected and what may be discarded but guide church agencies in the formation of their records. this three-page policy statement is available from the writer for ^. the official policy statement on the retention and disposal of records becomes a part of the archivist's manual. preparing finding aids the principle to be followed in the production of finding aids is to work from the general to the particular. the first aids are gen- neral in character and only after these are produced are the de- tailed name, place, and topic guides prepared as demand for them arises. the first finding aid is the accession book, which names and briefly describes the record group at the time it is received. the second is the preliminary inventory, which describes each series in a record group by giving information on its origin; its chronologi- cal, geographical, or subject matter coverage; its relation to other records; and its quantity and arrangement. we have found it helpful to place some of this information on " x " cards, thus pro- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a manual for church archivists ducing inventory cards, which are then filed in an alphabetical card catalog. after the inventorying is brought up to date it is possible to pre- pare a comprehensive general guide for the users of the archives. this will give them a view of the scope of the holdings as well as a clue as to whether a particular bit of information they desire may happen to be in the collection. the last stage in the preparation of finding aids is the making of place, name, and topical indexes. some of these steps, however, may go on simultaneously with the earlier ones. we have found that in accessioning and processing our materials we often discover certain information on persons, places, or topics that we might not rediscover for years to come if we did not immediately make an index card for it. one of the special finding aids that we have pre- pared is a card-file index to the letters written and received by john f. funk, who as a pioneer publisher and editor of a church periodical for over half a century had a large correspondence with church leaders. the letters of other prominent churchmen will be indexed in a similar way. another special index that we have pre- pared covers several hundred congregations about which we have informational records. equipment standards the archives manual should set forth certain standards pertain- ing to equipment. will flat or upright boxes be used for storing the holdings? what type of shelving will be used? will special folders made of acid-free paper be used? any policy regarding these mat- ters should be recorded in the manual for the guidance of future purchasers of supplies. it is well to list the companies from which the original equipment was purchased in order to simplify the process of replacements or additions to the equipment. if it is decided that a microfilm camera, a photocopy machine, or a laminator will be part of the equipment, a policy regarding the purpose and use of this equipment could well go into the man- ual. at this point in the manual there can also be an inventory of the archival equipment for insurance purposes. reference service the manual should have a sheet of instructions dealing with ref- erence service and the rules for using the archives, copies of which can be handed to those wishing to use the materials in the archives. this should clarify the type of information for which the archivist is willing to search in answer to written inquiries, the form which d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist users of the archives must fill out concerning the nature and pur- poses of their research, and the rules for the use of materials in the archives, including a clear statement of restrictions on the use of special categories of records. if study carrels are available for those wishing to do extended research, the conditions under which a special desk is assigned to the researcher should be clarified. the rules will also cover the conditions under which materials may be copied, and the regulations having to do with photographic or photostatic reproduction. finally there should be rules covering the publication of ma- terials in the archives. the archivist must have authority to de- cide what may be published and under what conditions. provision should be made for proper credit to the archives for any material published. publicity the manual should also clarify the type of report that the archi- vist must make regularly to the employing agency to which he is responsible. to facilitate the preparation of periodic reports, cer- tain records must be kept. a visitor's record as well as a user's rec- ord should be called for in this part of the manual. there should also be a record of clues received from visitors and others concern- ing the whereabouts of manuscripts that might be obtained for the archives. another record should list the number of letters calling for archival information and the number of telephone calls for in- formation. the manual should prescribe regular reports on the number, amounts, and the nature of the gifts of materials received during a given period. there should also be a report on the num- ber of new record groups and additions to former record groups accessioned during the year. the manual should outline a program of publicity calling for a certain number of articles in newspapers and in church periodicals each year. it should also set a goal of field trips by the archivist for archival publicity and for the purpose of finding archival ma- terials for his collection. providence a hospitable providence was the place of the society's birth. may a kindly providence bless and immortalize its career. — a. r. newsome, presidential address before the society of american archivists, june , . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . w by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril of april , . this information is current as box tcr signal transduction: opening the black arthur weiss http://www.jimmunol.org/content/ / / doi: . /jimmunol. ; : - ; ;j immunol references http://www.jimmunol.org/content/ / / .full#ref-list- , of which you can access for free at: cites articlesthis article average* weeks from acceptance to publicationfast publication! • every submission reviewed by practicing scientistsno triage! • from submission to initial decisionrapid reviews! days* • submit online. ?the jiwhy subscription http://jimmunol.org/subscription is online at: the journal of immunologyinformation about subscribing to permissions http://www.aai.org/about/publications/ji/copyright.html submit copyright permission requests at: email alerts http://jimmunol.org/alerts receive free email-alerts when new articles cite this article. sign up at: print issn: - online issn: - . immunologists, inc. all rights reserved. copyright © by the american association of rockville pike, suite , rockville, md the american association of immunologists, inc., is published twice each month bythe journal of immunology by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/cgi/adclick/?ad= &adclick=true&url=https% a% f% fwww.sonybiotechnology.com% fus% fwebinars% f% futm_source% dji% utm_medium% dbanner% utm_campaign% dwebinar-series% utm_content% d http://www.jimmunol.org/content/ / / http://www.jimmunol.org/content/ / / .full#ref-list- https://ji.msubmit.net http://jimmunol.org/subscription http://www.aai.org/about/publications/ji/copyright.html http://jimmunol.org/alerts http://www.jimmunol.org/ http://www.jimmunol.org/ presidential addresspresidential address tcr signal transduction: opening the black box arthur weiss i t has been a great honor and privilege to serve as your pres- ident of the american association of immunologists (aai). i have enjoyed interacting with the membership, the aai staff, particularly its executive director, michele hogan, and my colleagues on the council. i thank you all for your support and inspiration. the past several years have been challenging times for all of us in immunology and in science, in general. however, over my -plus years as a scientist it has been quite evident that such challenging times are cyclical, and better times are undoubtedly just around the corner. indeed, it is encouraging that our new government administration has made science and technology one of the engines on which to build our economic recovery. so, it is important to focus on the positive and why we enjoy and have committed ourselves to scientific discovery in the field of immunology. in this address, i would like to focus on my career in the last quarter of a century, during which time i have had the opportunity to participate in a tidal wave of scientific discovery, mentored a number of extremely talented students and postdoctoral fellows who have trained in my lab, and had the good fortune to collaborate with a large number of talented and inspirational colleagues. stumbling into the black box of signaling for those of you who know my current focus of work, it may be hard to imagine that i trained as a cellular immunologist when i was an md/phd student with frank fitch at the university of chicago studying the cellular mechanisms of rat renal allograft enhancement, a form of specific immunologic tolerance. many of you know frank because he was a former president of the aai and the editor-in-chief of the journal of immunology. in addition to exposing me to the complexity, elegance, and im- portance of the immune system and its regulation, the most im- portant things frank taught me were to think critically of the work of others and of my own work as well as to solve problems independently. i cherish those days in hyde park at the uni- versity of chicago when i interacted with a very inspiring group of immunology faculty members (frank fitch, don rowley, frank stuart, bob hunter, jose quintans, and heinz kohler) and fellow students (tom mckearn, andy glazebrook, charlie lutz, morris daley, terry duclos, and tony meyer). after a short, but stimulating and delightful postdoctoral fellow- ship in lausanne, switzerland with teddy brunner and jean- charles cerottini, i did my clinical training in internal medicine at the university of california at san francisco (ucsf). there, i de- veloped an interest in autoimmune diseases and rheumatologic dis- eases, in particular for the “fascinomas” (clinical puzzles) they pre- sented. i was drawn to the laboratory of jack stobo who was chief of rheumatology. jack inspired me with his enthusiasm for sci- ence, scientific insights, and encouragement to think out of the box. but, the “black box” of signaling is exactly what i fell into. in stobo’s lab, in , i set out with a rather modest goal: to discover the t cell ag receptor, tcr, by raising mabs that were clone specific. identifying the tcr had been a major target for immunologists in the s and had been elusive even into the division of rheumatology, rosalind russell medical research center for arthritis, howard hughes medical institute, department of medicine and department of micro- biology and immunology, university of california, san francisco, ca received for publication august , . accepted for publication september , . the costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. this article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with u.s.c. section solely to indicate this fact. this presidential address was presented at the th annual meeting of the amer- ican association of immunologists, may , , in seattle, wa. address correspondence and reprint requests to dr. arthur weiss, university of california at san francisco, box , parnassus avenue, room s- c, san francisco, ca . e-mail address: aweiss@medicine.ucsf.edu copyright © by the american association of immunologists, inc. - / /$ . arthur weiss www.jimmunol.org/cgi/doi/ . /jimmunol. by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ early s. but within months of entering the stobo lab, three groups (jim allison’s, ellis reinherz’s, and john kappler and pippa marrack’s) accomplished precisely this; they identified abs that reacted with a clone-specific ��-chain heterodimer, referred to as ti ( – ). a key finding that had come from the work of the reinherz group was there was an uncharacterized association of cd (then called t ) chains with the tcr het- erodimer ( ). at the time, i had obtained from kendall smith the human jurkat t cell leukemic line that could be stimulated with mitogenic plant lectins (i.e., con a or pha) to produce t cell growth factor (which was later named il- ). i had charac- terized jurkat and found that it could express cd and be ac- tivated to produce il- by anti-cd mabs (mabs) plus phor- bol esters (such as pma) ( ). i realized that jurkat cells might express a tcr. moreover, because cd chains were expressed on all mature cells and a mab against cd could activate jurkat cells or t cells much like an ag, i hypothesized that the cd might be the signal-transducing element of the tcr. to test this, i was inspired to do a somatic cell genetic experiment from some ongoing work in the fitch lab. the goal was to separate the ti chains from the cd chains on jurkat by selecting for mutants that would be deficient in cd . i did not yet have a mab for the ti chains on jurkat. after treating jurkat cells with a chemical mutagen, it was quite easy to select for cd -deficient mutants. however, once i had them i was not sure whether they still expressed ti chains on the plasma membrane, because we did not yet have a probe for the ti protein on jurkat. however, i decided to ask whether the mitogenic lec- tins (pha or con a) that stimulated t cells or jurkat cells could still induce the cd -deficient mutants to produce il- . they could not, but i wondered whether mutagenesis altered jurkat so that it lost the ability to produce il- . i decided that we had to bypass the cell surface stimuli and somehow stimulate jurkat cells via other means to see whether they still retained the ability to produce il- . some work was just beginning to show that calcium iono- phores could bypass receptors to stimulate mitogenesis in t cells and in other cells. in fact, i was inspired by work from a graduate student in peter nowell’s lab, gary koretzky (who was later to become a postdoc in my lab), who had found that cal- cium ionophores could induce t cell proliferation under appro- priate circumstances ( ). i asked whether a calcium ionophore could synergize with phorbol esters (frequently used to provide a second signal to boost proliferative or mitogenic responses back in those days) to induce the jurkat cd -deficient mutants to produce il- . indeed it did! this was an eye-opening exper- iment that stimulated a lot of discussion in the stobo lab. we began to hypothesize that the tcr and/or cd might induce biochemical changes leading to calcium elevation that might somehow control il- gene transcription. very little was gen- erally known about biochemical signaling downstream of any receptor, let alone the tcr. so, our studies were leading us into a “black box.” john imboden, another postdoc in the stobo lab, told his wife delores shoback, an endocrinologist studying calcium reg- ulation via parathyroid hormone, about the our studies. do- lores provided a means toward a key experiment. a calcium- sensitive dye, quin- , had just been synthesized by roger tsien ( ). dolores suggested that it could be used to measure changes in jurkat cells following cd or pha (or con a) stimulation. john and delores did the experiment in her lab that indeed demonstrated that cd or pha stimulation could induce cal- cium elevation within seconds in jurkat cells but not in the cd -deficient mutants ( ). however, only calcium ionophores could induce calcium elevation in the jurkat mutant cells. these were the first experiments to demonstrate that stimula- tion of components of the tcr could induce calcium eleva- tions in t lineage cells. i followed this work up by producing a mab (c ) that reacted with the clone-specific, disulfide-linked heterodimer on jurkat and found that jurkat could be activated to produce il- by stimulating it with either anti-cd or c in the presence of phorbol esters. we showed that stimulation of the ti com- ponent of the tcr could also induce calcium elevations ( ). john later showed that this was due to tcr-mediated activa- tion of the inositol phospholipid pathway ( ). a few years later, terri kadlecek, my technician and long-time collaborator, showed that the tcr activated the inositol phospholipid path- way by inducing the tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase c� ( ). these experiments opened the “black box” and introduced me to the field of signal transduction that has subsequently dominated my career. however, there is one other theme that also has long captured my interest and converges on the signal- ing theme: how the structural complexity of the tcr relates to its function. others had shown that the cd and ti chains cointernalized from the cell surface. as i mentioned, i had gen- erated a mab against the ti ��-chain heterodimer on jurkat cells and once again tried to select for ti �� or cd -deficient mutants but was unable to separate these structures from each other, regardless of the selections strategy ( ). we subse- quently showed, in collaboration with pam ohashi, tak mak, and cox terhorst, that all of these jurkat mutants, whether se- lecting for ti or cd deficiency, lacked either the ti �- or �-chains and contained cd chains trapped intracellularly ( ). the early days in the weiss lab: how the tcr induces signaling i set up my own lab at ucsf just as jack stobo left to become chair of medicine at johns hopkins. one of my first postdocs, lee tan, did what i considered to be a rather elegant experi- ment. we were interested in how the ti ��-chains and cd chains are associated. others had pointed out the unusually po- sitioned acidic and basic residues in the transmembrane of these proteins. we had previously tried to test the importance of these residues via mutagenesis but did not get very far ( ). lee de- cided to transfer the whole transmembrane domains of ti �� to a heterologous protein not associated with cd . she did this and was able to rescue cell surface cd expression of a jurkat ti �-chain mutant with cd /ti �-chain and cd /ti �-chain chimeras ( ). moreover, stimulation of these chimeric recep- tor complexes with cd mabs activated the cells. this was de- finitive evidence that the cd chains carried the signal-trans- ducing function of the tcr. lee’s work inspired a new graduate student, bryan irving, in my lab to suggest a new experiment to test the function of the cd chains and the tcr-associated �-chain, which had re- cently been discovered. it had been thought that the �-chain only modified the quality of the tcr signal but did not contain signal-transducing capacity itself ( ). bryan constructed cd /� chimeras, separating these chimeras from the endoge- nous tcr by eliminating the �-chain transmembrane domain. presidential address by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ not only could anti-cd mabs induce signaling in jurkat t cells, they could do so in jurkat tcr mutant cells that did not express an endogenous tcr ( ). thus, the �-chain was suffi- cient to confer signaling capability to a heterologous receptor expressed in t cells. similar work was done simultaneously in brian seed’s lab ( ). then, what was the function of the cd chains? work from bernard malissen’s lab subsequently showed that not only could the �-chain confer such signaling capacity, but so could the cytoplasmic domain of cd � ( ). the basis for this redundancy was ultimately explained by mu- tagenesis studies performed in many laboratories that identified a motif common to the cd chains, �-chain, ig �- and �-chains, fcr� �- and �-chains, dap- , etc. (fig. ). this motif, first noted by michael reth, was ultimately dubbed the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif or itam ( ). but how does a simple peptide sequence motif without cat- alytic function transduce signals? here, multiple approaches led to the answer. two approaches in my lab at the time involved somatic cell genetics and protein purification. mark goldsmith, my first graduate student, was interested in how the tcr signaled. he was impressed with our approach in developing jurkat cd - and ti-deficient mutants. mark de- cided he would use a mutagenesis screen to isolate jurkat mu- tants that failed to flux calcium. he used flow cytometry to iso- late cells that failed to increase calcium but still expressed a tcr. mark isolated three mutants, j.cam – , in three complementation groups ( – ). this approach has yielded many more mutants (table i) generated by others in my lab and bob abraham’s lab as well as in other labs. these mutants have proven invaluable in helping to identify key components in the tcr signaling pathway and demonstrate the power of somatic cell genetics to address such questions. although mark did not identify the defects in his three j.cam mutants, they ultimately provided critical reagents for our understanding of signaling events downstream of the tcr. work from carl june and larry samelson suggested that ty- rosine phosphorylation was initiated downstream of the tcr and that the tcr �-chain was inducibly phosphorylated fol- lowing receptor stimulation ( – ). this led us to study inducible tyrosine phosphorylation by the tcr in our mutants. terri kadlecek first noted defective tyrosine phosphorylation in all three mutants (unpublished data). but, david straus, a postdoctoral fellow in the lab, dis- covered that j.cam was deficient in lck protein expression and had abnormal transcripts ( ). the clue was the absence of the constitutive tyrosine-phosphorylated -kda band in western blots of whole cell lysates made from unstimulated cells. david showed that in j.cam there was no inducible phos- phorylation of the tcr �-chain or downstream proteins fol- lowing tcr stimulation and that a tyrosine kinase activity as- sociated in the tcr �-chain was lost. all of the lost signaling events were restored by reconstitution with normal lck. nicolai van oers, a postdoc who joined the lab later, showed that lck is required for tcr itam phosphorylation in jurkat and that lck plays the predominant role in thymocytes and t cells ( ). thus, david identified lck as the most proximal tyrosine ki- nase associated with tcr signaling. at the same time that brian irving was working on tcr � chimeras and david was working on j.cam and lck, the work of two other postdoctoral fellows in the lab converged on an- other protein. makio iwashima was trying to identify the tcr- associated tyrosine kinase using transfection approaches. andy chan was trying to purify a -kda phosphoprotein that terri kadlecek had found in tcr � immunoprecipitates from tcr- stimulated jurkat cells. we named this protein zap- . with the help of chris turck, who ran the howard hughes medical institute protein core facility, andy was able isolate sufficient cd /� chimera-associated zap- to get a peptide sequence. together with makio, who had superb molecular biological skills, andy isolated a cdna clone for zap- and we discov- ered that it was a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase with two sh domains. with the identification of the importance of the tcr �-chain and cd chain itams, the identification of lck as an figure . itams of the immunoreceptors and some pathogens known to usurp hematopoietic cell signaling machinery are depicted in red rectangles and their sequences are shown. table i. somatic cell mutants of the jurkat t cell line have identified key molecules and events in tcr signaling pathway molecule functiona cell ref. tcr chains receptor many , lck cytoplasmic ptk j.cam , lat adaptor j.cam , zap- cytoplasmic ptk p cd rptpase j . , slp- adaptor j . vav gef j.vav rasgrp gef j.prm a gef, guanine nucleotide exchange factor; ptk, protein tyrosine kinase; rpt- pase, receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase. the journal of immunology by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ initiating kinase required for the phosphorylation of the tcr � itams, and the identification of zap- , a kinase recruited to the stimulated and tyrosine phosphorylated tcr �-chain, a model (fig. ) for the initiation of tcr signaling that also in- corporated the function of coreceptor was at hand and has largely held up over the years ( ). this was probably the most exciting and stimulating time in my scientific career. the con- vergence of multiple discoveries by several very talented indi- viduals was remarkable and extremely exciting. the discussions in the lab at that time were not to be missed out on. i hope that all of you have the opportunity to experience such a “scientific rush.” although we had developed a model for how the tcr initi- ated signaling, the importance of zap- was not clear. at this point a lesson from “bedside to the bench” provided convincing evidence for the importance of zap- . melissa elder, a pedi- atric immunology fellow with tris parslow, was taking care of a patient with an unusual scid syndrome characterized by nor- mal numbers of remarkably nonfunctional cd t cells in her blood but a paucity of cd t cells. the patient had been re- ferred to ucsf for a bone marrow transplant. strangely, i had in my freezer blood samples sent by lisa filopovich from an- other group of canadian mennonite patients with a similar syndrome. melissa came over to our lab frequently to try to un- derstand the basis for her patient’s apparently signaling-defec- tive cd t cells. she had ruled out lck, and because we had just discovered zap- she decided to take a long shot with a western blot. amazingly, the patient’s t cells failed to express zap- , as did those of the canadian mennonite patients whose blood had been in my freezer for years ( , ). stimu- lation of the tcr in these patients failed to increase calcium or downstream tyrosine phosphorylation. chaim roifman and his colleagues made a similar discovery in different patients ( ). thus, we had evidence that zap- function is critical for tcr signaling. we now know from studies performed by many labs that zap- function is critical for tcr signaling transduction in many contexts. zap- function is required during thymic de- velopment and in peripheral t cells. mouse models have shown us that the absence of zap- results in a severe block in thy- mocyte positive selection ( – ). hypomorphic alleles of zap- have been associated with autoimmunity, at least in mice ( , ). zap- may also play a critical role in very early b cell development ( ). in the most common form of leuke- mia in the adult, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (a b cell leuke- mia), zap- expression is associated with a poor prognosis ( ). perhaps this is related to the increased bcr signaling in zap- -expressing cells ( ). what does zap- do? it was pretty clear that lck phosphor- ylates the tcr itams to initiate signaling and to recruit zap- to the tcr. based on the zap- scid patients as well as studies of the p mutant jurkat line that bob abra- ham’s lab isolated ( ), it was apparent that zap- is necessary for downstream signaling events. work from many labs, in- cluding those of larry samelson and gary koretzky ( – ), led to the identification of two critical zap- substrates, lat and slp- , which are adaptor molecules that are phosphory- lated by zap- . two of our jurkat signaling mutants (j.cam and j . ) proved to be lat and slp- deficient. work from the samelson and koretzky labs and others, as well as the studies of tim finco, joe lin, debbie yablonski, greg ku, and jen liou in my lab, has shown that these adaptor molecules help to nucleate and assemble a signaling complex (fig. ), which is critical for tcr signaling leading to activation of plc � , ras, rac, and hpk ( – ). these downstream events are critical for the many complex functions of t cells. what have we done lately? as critical molecules in the tcr signaling pathway have been identified, understanding the regulatory pathways including positive and negative feedback loops has become a focus of our activity. one major focus has been to understand how zap- is regulated. recent studies from tomas brdicka and terri kadlecek fol- lowed up on observations of qihong zhao focusing on the par- adoxical role of two tyrosines, y and y , which are phos- phorylated by lck and recruit downstream effector molecules ( ). studies by tomas and terri suggested that in the nonphos- phorylated state these two tyrosines are involved in the autoin- hibition of zap- ( ). conversely, when phosphorylated, the active state is stabilized. insights from these studies provided us with a strategy to “trap” zap- in its inactive conforma- tion, which permitted the crystallization of full-length auto- inhibited zap- in collaborative studies with sebastian deindl and john kuriyan ( ). the crystal structure reveals figure . model for the initiation of the activation of tcr signaling in a cd t cell via the sequential actions of lck and zap- . figure . schematic depiction of the lat and slp- signalosome that is required for plc � , ras, rac, and hpk activation. presidential address by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ that in the nonphosphorylated state y and y partic- ipate in hydrophobic interactions with residues in the inter- sh segment and the back of the catalytic domain, includ- ing the hinge region (fig. ). moreover, the structure suggests that the binding of a doubly phosphorylated itam sequence may induce or stabilize a conformational change that contributes to the activation of the zap- catalytic function. current collaborative studies with the kuriyan lab are aimed at testing this structural model. considerable data suggest that zap- would be an attrac- tive therapeutic target in clinical transplantation and for auto- immune diseases. yet, after years and considerable effort by the biotech and pharmaceutical industry, no specific inhibitor for zap- has been developed. recently, we have used a chemical/genetic system developed by our colleague kevan shokat at ucsf ( ) to set up a model system for zap- in- hibition. susan levin, a former graduate student in the lab, mu- tated the methionine gatekeeper residue in the catalytic site of zap- to alanine to enlarge the catalytic site. as a conse- quence, the mutant zap- could bind to bulkier atp-com- petitive inhibitors that would not be able to inhibit the wild- type zap- kinase or other kinases expressed in t cells. this allowed susan to screen a panel of pp analogues and identify some that inhibit the “analog-sensitive” mutant of zap- . one such inhibitor, -methylbenzyl-pp , specifically inhibits all tcr functions in jurkat cells expressing the analog-sensitive mutant but not the wild-type zap- kinase ( ). thus, this system is specific and is genetically controlled. recently, byron au-yeung, a postdoc in my lab, has extended the use of this inhibitor to zap- -deficient mice that have been reconsti- tuted with a bac transgene expressing the zap- analog-sen- sitive mutant. this system allows for the inhibition of normal t cells in a chemically/genetically controlled model and offers the promise of not only validating the preclinical therapeutic po- tential of zap- inhibition but also of revealing new insights into tcr signal transduction. studies to date show promising results ex vivo in the specific inhibition of naive and effector t cell functions using t cells expressing the analog-sensitive mu- tant of zap- but not wild-type cells. with the importance of tyrosine phosphorylation for tcr signaling, a second major focus for the lab is the study of the reversibility and dynamics of this posttranslational modifica- tion by studying not only the kinases but also the protein ty- rosine phosphatases. our lab currently focuses on two receptor- like protein tyrosine phosphatases expressed on hematopoietic lineage cells, cd (ptprc) and cd (ptprj). cd is more important in t cells, and i will focus on those studies here (reviewed in ref. ). cd is expressed at very high concen- trations on t cells, perhaps as high as �m in the two dimen- sions of the plasma membrane. cd transcripts undergo highly regulated alternative splicing, resulting in high m.w. iso- forms that are extensively o-glycosylated on naive t cells, but smaller isoforms with reduced o-glycosylation on activated t cells. deficiencies and mutations that specifically affect the splicing of cd result in immunodeficiency and autoimmu- nity, respectively. many years ago, gary koretzky and joel picus, who were then postdoc fellows in my lab, showed that jurkat t cells re- quire cd expression to initiate signaling, including tyrosine phosphorylation ( , ). this is a consequence of the negative regulatory site of the tyrosine phosphorylation of src family ki- nases, including lck and fyn in t cells, being a proximal sub- strate of cd catalytic function. recent work by previous lab members ravi majeti, michelle hermiston, and zheng xu has focused on the regulation of cd by dimerization, which seems to inhibit cd function ( , – ). julie zikherman, a postdoc fellow in the lab, presented work at this aai meeting addressing why so much cd is expressed on the cell surface. julie used an allelic series of mice expressing different levels of cd and showed that rather low levels of cd are sufficient to restore inducible signaling by the tcr, but very high levels are necessary to dephosphorylate the negative regulatory site of lck and restore basal signaling and development. moreover, the high levels dampen tcr inducible signaling, which may broaden the sensitivity of the tcr signaling apparatus during thymocyte development. the action of cd on the negative regulatory site of src family kinases is opposed by the cytoplasmic kinase csk (fig. ). due to the embryonic lethality of mice deficient in csk, it has been difficult to manipulate or study the dynamic equilib- rium of the actions of cd and csk in regulating lck. jamie schoenborn, a postdoc fellow currently in the lab, has tackled this difficult problem by creating an analog sensitive mutant of csk. her work with this system, presented at the aai meeting, shows great promise and reveals a dynamic system of basal sig- naling regulated by feedback control. tcr signaling remains a fascinating topic in the science of the immune system. it has engaged my interest for many years, and there is still so much to understand. i look forward to the work ahead with delight and anticipation. thank you once again for the opportunity and privilege of serving as your pres- ident of the aai and for allowing me to tell you about our stud- ies that have helped open up the “black box” of signaling in t cells. figure . schematic depiction of the autoinhibited structure of zap- . key features of the structure are labeled. figure . depiction of the opposed actions of cd and csk in reg- ulating src family function. the journal of immunology by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ acknowledgments it has been my good fortune to have two wonderful research mentors, frank fitch and jack stobo, to whom i am very grateful for their patience, insight, guidance, and friendship. the work in my lab has, in large mea- sure, been conducted by an extraordinarily talented and committed group of students and postdoctoral fellows. their hard work, insights, and enthu- siasm have enriched my professional life enormously. i can’t thank them enough and wish each of them continued success in their careers. two individuals, marianne mollenauer and terri kadlecek, have worked with me for more than two decades. they have been wonderful colleagues, collaborators, and friends who have ensured the continuity and success of the lab, in no small measure by making the lab a welcoming place to work. after years as a faculty member at ucsf, i would like to thank my colleagues at ucsf for helping to create a wonderful place in which to work and study immunology. finally, i thank my wife shirley for her support and encouragement during the many triumphs and disappointments in my studies of the immune system. disclosures the author has advisory relationships with cellzone, fiveprime therapeu- tics, lycera, plexxikon, and portola pharmaceuticals and recent consulting arrangements with: pfizer, f. hoffmann la roche, nodality, and progenics pharmaceuticals. references . allison, j. p., b. w. mcintyre, and d. bloch. . tumor-specific antigen of murine t-lymphoma defined with monoclonal antibody. j. immunol. : – . . haskins, k., r. kubo, j. white, m. pigeon, j. kappler, and p. marrack. . the major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen receptor on t cells. i. isola- tion with a monoclonal antibody. j. exp. med. : – . . meuer, s. c., k. a. fitzgerald, r. e. hussey, j. c. hodgdon, s. f. schlossman, and e. l. reinherz. . clonotypic structures involved in antigen-specific hu- man t cell function: relationship to the t molecular complex. j. exp. med. : – . . weiss, a., r. l. wiskocil, and j. d. stobo. . the role of t surface mole- cules in the activation of human t cells: a two-stimulus requirement for il- production reflects events occurring at a pre-translational level. j. immunol. : – . . koretzky, g. a., r. p. daniele, w. c. greene, and p. c. nowell. . evidence for an interleukin-independent pathway for human lymphocyte activation. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . tsien, r. y., t. pozzan, and t. j. rink. . calcium homeostasis in intact lymphocytes: cytoplasmic free calcium monitored with a new, intracellularly trapped fluorescent indicator. j. cell biol. : – . . weiss, a., j. imboden, d. shoback, and j. stobo. . role of t surface molecules in human t-cell activation: t -dependent activation results in an in- crease in cytoplasmic free calcium. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . imboden, j. b., a. weiss, and j. d. stobo. . the antigen receptor on a human t cell line initiates activation by increasing cytoplasmic free calcium. j. immunol. : – . . imboden, j. b., and j. d. stobo. . transmembrane signalling by the t cell antigen receptor: perturbation of the t -antigen receptor complex generates ino- sitol phosphates and releases calcium ions from intracellular stores. j. exp. med. : – . . weiss, a., g. koretzky, r. c. schatzman, and t. kadlecek. . functional activation of the t-cell antigen receptor induces tyrosine phosphorylation of phospholipase c-� . proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . weiss, a., and j. d. stobo. . requirement for the coexpression of t and the t cell antigen receptor on a malignant human t cell line. j. exp. med. : – . . ohashi, p. s., t. w. mak, p. van den elsen, y. yanagi, y. yoshikai, a. f. calman, c. terhorst, j. d. stobo, and a. weiss. . reconstitution of an active surface t /t-cell antigen receptor by dna transfer. nature : – . . morley, b. j., k. n. chin, m. e. newton, and a. weiss. . the lysine residue in the membrane-spanning domain of the � chain is necessary for cell surface expression of the t cell antigen receptor. j. exp. med. : – . . tan, l., j. turner, and a. weiss. . regions of the t cell receptor � and � chains that are responsible for interactions with cd . j. exp. med. : – . . mercep, m., j. s. bonifacino, p. garcia-morales, l. e. samelson, r. d. klausner, and j. d. ashwell. . t cell cd -�� heterodimer expression and coupling to phosphoinositide hydrolysis. science : – . . irving, b. a., and a. weiss. . the cytoplasmic domain of the t cell receptor � chain is sufficient to couple to receptor-associated signal transduction pathways. cell : – . . romeo, c., and b. seed. . cellular immunity to hiv activated by cd fused to t cell or fc receptor polypeptides. cell : – . . wegener, a. m., f. letourneur, a. hoeveler, t. brocker, f. luton, and b. malissen. . the t cell receptor/cd complex is composed of at least two autonomous transduction modules. cell : – . . cambier, j. c. . new nomenclature for the reth motif (or arh /tam/ aram/yxxl). immunol. today : . . goldsmith, m. a., p. f. dazin, and a. weiss. . at least two non-antigen- binding molecules are required for signal transduction by the t-cell antigen re- ceptor. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . goldsmith, m. a., d. m. desai, t. schultz, and a. weiss. . function of a heterologous muscarinic receptor in t cell antigen receptor signal transduction mutants. j. biol. chem. : – . . goldsmith, m. a., and a. weiss. . isolation and characterization of a t- lymphocyte somatic mutant with altered signal transduction by the antigen re- ceptor. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . june, c. h., m. c. fletcher, j. a. ledbetter, and l. e. samelson. . increases in tyrosine phosphorylation are detectable before phospholipase c activation after t cell receptor stimulation. j. immunol. : – . . june, c. h., m. c. fletcher, j. a. ledbetter, g. l. schieven, j. n. siegel, a. f. phillips, and l. e. samelson. . inhibition of tyrosine phosphorylation prevents t-cell receptor-mediated signal transduction. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . weissman, a. m., p. ross, e. t. luong, p. garcia-morales, m. l. jelachich, w. e. biddison, r. d. klausner, and l. e. samelson. . tyrosine phosphor- ylation of the human t cell antigen receptor �-chain: activation via cd but not cd . j. immunol. : – . . straus, d. b., and a. weiss. . genetic evidence for the involvement of the lck tyrosine kinase in signal transduction through the t cell antigen receptor. cell : – . . van oers, n. s., n. killeen, and a. weiss. . lck regulates the tyrosine phosphorylation of the t cell receptor subunits and zap- in murine thymo- cytes. j. exp. med. : – . . weiss, a. . t cell antigen receptor signal transduction: a tale of tails and cytoplasmic protein-tyrosine kinases. cell : – . . chan, a. c., t. a. kadlecek, m. e. elder, a. h. filipovich, w. l. kuo, m. iwashima, t. g. parslow, and a. weiss. . zap- deficiency in an autosomal recessive form of severe combined immunodeficiency. science : – . . elder, m. e., d. lin, j. clever, a. c. chan, t. j. hope, a. weiss, and t. g. parslow. . human severe combined immunodeficiency due to a defect in zap- , a t cell tyrosine kinase. science : – . . arpaia, e., m. shahar, h. dadi, a. cohen, and c. m. roifman. . defective t cell receptor signaling and cd � thymic selection in humans lacking zap- kinase. cell : – . . elder, m. e., s. skoda-smith, t. a. kadlecek, f. wang, j. wu, and a. weiss. . distinct t cell developmental consequences in humans and mice express- ing identical mutations in the dlaarn motif of zap- . j. immunol. : – . . kadlecek, t. a., n. s. van oers, l. lefrancois, s. olson, d. finlay, d. h. chu, k. connolly, n. killeen, and a. weiss. . differential requirements for zap- in tcr signaling and t cell development. j. immunol. : – . . negishi, i., n. motoyama, k. nakayama, k. nakayama, s. senju, s. hatakeyama, q. zhang, a. c. chan, and d. y. loh. . essential role for zap- in both positive and negative selection of thymocytes. nature : – . . sakaguchi, n., t. takahashi, h. hata, t. nomura, t. tagami, s. yamazaki, t. sakihama, t. matsutani, i. negishi, s. nakatsuru, and s. sakaguchi. . altered thymic t-cell selection due to a mutation of the zap- gene causes autoimmune arthritis in mice. nature : – . . siggs, o. m., l. a. miosge, a. l. yates, e. m. kucharska, d. sheahan, t. brdicka, a. weiss, a. liston, and c. c. goodnow. . opposing functions of the t cell receptor kinase zap- in immunity and tolerance differentially titrate in response to nucleotide substitutions. immunity : – . . schweighoffer, e., l. vanes, a. mathiot, t. nakamura, and v. l. tybulewicz. . unexpected requirement for zap- in pre-b cell development and allelic exclusion. immunity : – . . rassenti, l. z., l. huynh, t. l. toy, l. chen, m. j. keating, j. g. gribben, d. s. neuberg, i. w. flinn, k. r. rai, j. c. byrd, et al. . zap- compared with immunoglobulin heavy-chain gene mutation status as a predictor of disease progression in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. n. engl. j. med. : – . . chen, l., j. apgar, l. huynh, f. dicker, t. giago-mcgahan, l. rassenti, a. weiss, and t. j. kipps. . zap- directly enhances igm signaling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. blood : – . . williams, b. l., k. l. schreiber, w. zhang, r. l. wange, l. e. samelson, p. j. leibson, and r. t. abraham. . genetic evidence for differential cou- pling of syk family kinases to the t-cell receptor: reconstitution studies in a zap- -deficient jurkat t-cell line. mol. cell biol. : – . . zhang, w., j. sloan-lancaster, j. kitchen, r. p. trible, and l. e. samelson. . lat: the zap- tyrosine kinase substrate that links t cell receptor to cellular activation. cell : – . . fang, n., d. g. motto, s. e. ross, and g. a. koretzky. . tyrosines , , and of slp- are required for optimal augmentation of nfat promoter activity. j. immunol. : – . . motto, d. g., s. e. ross, j. wu, l. r. hendricks-taylor, and g. a. koretzky. . implication of the grb -associated phosphoprotein slp- in t cell re- ceptor-mediated interleukin production. j. exp. med. : – . presidential address by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ . finco, t. s., t. kadlecek, w. zhang, l. e. samelson, and a. weiss. . lat is required for tcr-mediated activation of plc� and the ras pathway. immu- nity : – . . ku, g. m., d. yablonski, e. manser, l. lim, and a. weiss. . a pak - pix-pkl complex is activated by the t-cell receptor independent of nck, slp- and lat. the embo j. : – . . lin, j., and a. weiss. . identification of the minimal tyrosine residues re- quired for linker for activation of t cell function. j. biol. chem. : – . . liou, j., f. kiefer, a. dang, a. hashimoto, m. h. cobb, t. kurosaki, and a. weiss. . hpk is activated by lymphocyte antigen receptors and nega- tively regulates ap- . immunity : – . . yablonski, d., m. r. kuhne, t. kadlecek, and a. weiss. . uncoupling of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases from plc-� in an slp- -deficient t cell. science : – . . zhao, q., b. l. williams, r. t. abraham, and a. weiss. . interdomain b in zap- regulates but is not required for zap- signaling function in lympho- cytes. mol. cell biol. : – . . brdicka, t., t. a. kadlecek, j. p. roose, a. w. pastuszak, and a. weiss. . intramolecular regulatory switch in zap- : analogy with receptor tyrosine ki- nases. mol. cell biol. : – . . deindl, s., t. a. kadlecek, t. brdicka, x. cao, a. weiss, and j. kuriyan. . structural basis for the inhibition of tyrosine kinase activity of zap- . cell : – . . shah, k., y. liu, c. deirmengian, and k. m. shokat. . engineering unnat- ural nucleotide specificity for rous sarcoma virus tyrosine kinase to uniquely label its direct substrates. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . levin, s. e., c. zhang, t. a. kadlecek, k. m. shokat, and a. weiss. . inhibition of zap- kinase activity via an analog-sensitive allele blocks t cell receptor and cd superagonist signaling. j. biol. chem. : – . . hermiston, m. l., z. xu, and a. weiss. . cd : a critical regulator of signaling thresholds in immune cells. annu. rev. immunol. : – . . koretzky, g. a., j. picus, t. schultz, and a. weiss. . tyrosine phosphatase cd is required for t-cell antigen receptor and cd -mediated activation of a protein tyrosine kinase and interleukin production. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . koretzky, g. a., j. picus, m. l. thomas, and a. weiss. . tyrosine phos- phatase cd is essential for coupling t-cell antigen receptor to the phosphatidyl inositol pathway. nature : – . . majeti, r., z. xu, t. g. parslow, j. l. olson, d. i. daikh, n. killeen, and a. weiss. . an inactivating point mutation in the inhibitory wedge of cd causes lymphoproliferation and autoimmunity. cell : – . . xu, z., and a. weiss. . negative regulation of cd by differential ho- modimerization of the alternatively spliced isoforms. nat. immunol. : – . . hermiston, m. l., j. zikherman, a. l. tan, v. c. lam, n. m. cresalia, n. oksenberg, n. goren, d. brassat, j. r. oksenberg, and a. weiss. . dif- ferential impact of the cd juxtamembrane wedge on central and peripheral t cell receptor responses. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . . cao, y., e. m. janssen, a. w. duncan, a. altman, d. d. billadeau, and r. t. abraham. . pleiotropic defects in tcr signaling in a vav- -null jurkat t-cell line. embo j. : – . . roose, j. p., m. mollenauer, v. a. gupta, j. stone, and a. weiss. . a diacylglycerol-protein kinase c-rasgrp pathway directs ras activation upon antigen receptor stimulation of t cells. mol. cell biol. : – . the journal of immunology by guest on a pril , http://w w w .jim m unol.org/ d ow nloaded from http://www.jimmunol.org/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ religion, state & society, vol. , no. , a carfax publishing _ taylor&francisgrotjp russian german lutheran 'brotherhoods' in the soviet union and in the cis: comments on their confessional identity and on their position in elcros joachim willems an article by sergei filatov appeared in religion, state and society vol. , no. (march ) entitled 'protestantism in postsoviet russia: an unacknowledged triumph'. i am taking the opportunity presented by this article to look back at the lutheran communities in soviet russia and to examine the question of their perception of their confessional identity. first, however, i shall summarise filatov's conclusions, which i also intend to discuss. filatov states that three protestant confessions existed in russia before perestroika, namely: the baptists (in the form of the officially recognised all-union council of evangelical christians-baptists (vsesoyuzny soyuz yevangel'skikh khristian-baptistov) and the illegal council of churches of evangelical christians- baptists (sovet tserkvei yevangel'skikh khristian-baptistov)); the pentecostals; and the seventh-day adventists.' most russian germans, he continues, were officially regarded as lutherans but 'in fact, the "lutheran" german congregations were far from being lutheran'. since before the revolution the majority of the lutheran communities had in fact been 'dissident pietist congregations trying to free them- selves from the control of the official lutheran clergymen imposed on them by the tsarist authorities'. the pietists had achieved this freedom as a result of the soviet authorities' liquidation of the evangelical lutheran church (elc). as a result most russian germans had become baptists or had joined the 'so-called lutheran "congregations of brethren" ("bratskiye obshchiny")' . filatov portrays the developments which followed perestroika as a 'struggle for power' between the native 'lutherans' on one side and a coalition of church, state and clergy from west germany on the other. 'pressure from the west germans led to a german citizen, bishop georg kretschmar, becoming head of the church and clergymen from west germany being appointed to almost all leading positions.' the aim of this coalition of german political and religious figures was, according to filatov, 'to organise the national and cultural life of russian germans. the elc was supposed to promote the social policy of the german government by discouraging german emigration from russia.' as a result of this 'short struggle for power ( - )', filatov claims, only a small number of the original russian german believers remain in the lutheran church in russia today. this concludes filatov's theory. issn - printjissn - online/ / - o © taylor & francis ltd dol: . / joachim willems in this article i contest the claim that the 'brotherhoods' of the soviet era were not in fact lutheran at all, drawing on conclusions i came to during the course of my most recent research trips to russia in and , as well as on other interviews and research materials. some of filatov' s other statements in my opinion require a more detailed examina- tion than is possible in the framework of this article. i shall only briefly mention the following points. on the subject of the claim that the 'brotherhoods' in the elc were already striving for independence before the revolution and achieved their goal as a result of the change of regime, i refer the reader to the work of wilhe m kahle, in particular to his book aujsiitze zur entwicklung der evangelischen gemeinden in russland, in which he describes the lives of the pietist brothers in old russia, both within and outside the elc. there were in fact a number of 'dissident pietist congregations' which never needed to free themselves from ecclesiastical authority: the separatist congregations in transcaucasia, for example, had already left the jurisdiction of the german lutheran church before they emigrated from germany; they were also legally independent of the elc when it was formed in , and joined it only at its second general synod in , shortly before its dissolution. it is certainly true that there were tensions between the 'brotherhoods' and the representatives of the official church. the brotherhoods, however, cover a wide spectrum of members, including not only the radical brothers who actively sought to cause and preserve divisions, but also a variety of elements who coexisted and co- operated with the official church in fulfilling and fruitful ways: the theory that the russian germans were driven out of the elc must also be examined more closely. the majority of russian germans who belonged to lutheran congregations in the period before are indeed no longer in the elc; however, this is a result of the emigration of considerably more than a million russian germans during the s. the majority of those who have remained in russia, if they still consider themselves to be lutherans, still belong to the evangelical- lutheran church in russia and other states (elcros). groups of 'brotherhoods' do exist outside the church in the area around kemerovo in southern central siberia and in ukraine. they left elcros mainly as a result of differences of opinion with the urban congregations of russian germans. this was, at least in part, an internal russian - or internal russian-german - problem. the relatively large number of west german pastors can be explained by the fact that only after perestroika was it possible to create a lutheran theological faculty in russia and that the congregations themselves, if they had no candidate locally to take on the role of preacher or pastor, consistently requested the services of german clergy. although the appointment of clergy with completely foreign background and experience is certainly causing some problems, at present there is no alternative.' it is also questionable whether, as filatov states, elcros is in some sense an instrument of the german government, used to discourage russian germans from emigrating to germany and to organise their national and cultural lifestyle in russia. quite aside from the fact that such a statement could have dangerous consequences if it were taken up by the wrong political elements in russia, there must be a distinction between the work of russian german secular groups (such as wiedergeburt for example) and the work of the church. in some areas the issue is confused by the fact that the german government has supported both the church and wiedergeburt in the same way; for example in orenburg the two are now housed in one building funded by the german state and the german lutheran church, while in omsk the church russian german lutheran 'brotherhoods' building (kirchen-und begegnungszentrum) is used for secular russian-german activities (german lessons, groups interested in german culture and so on). almost universally, however, those churches which had their origin in wiedergeburt circles are now, after undergoing a religious self-identification process, making efforts to move away from that cultural organisation. the interests of a church which is not totally identified with a particular nationality often conflict with those of an organisa- tion like wiedergeburt, which promotes specific ethnic issues. this has been the case in orenburg and krasnodar, to name two of many examples. but to return to the real subject of this article: how did the russian german brotherhoods perceive their confessional identity in the soviet era? some light is shed on this issue first of all by the historical context. lutheran congregations existed in russia from the sixteenth century onwards, and as groups composed of national minorities (german, scandinavian or baltic), they were to a greater or lesser extent isolated from the russian orthodox majority. in these congregations, confessional identity was inherited and usually unquestioned. with the founding in of a national ecclesiastical organisation, the elc, the question of a congregation's confessional identity could be defined through formal membership of this new national church. this was also the case for those groups which were critical of the church and tended more towards the baptists or to reformed (calvinistic) congrega- tionalism. in the mid- s, however, with the dissolution of the elc, the closure of the last premises used for worship and the arrest of the last active pastors, the situation was dramatically altered. the deportation of almost the entire russian german population of the soviet union in after hitler's offensive was another turning-point for the lutherans. time and again it has been reported how, shortly after their deportation and in the most difficult conditions - under guard and enduring forced labour - small groups of believers would gather to pray together, to sing, and to read and study the bible." how did they perceive their confessional indentity, these groups which had to hold their meetings in secret, often disguising them as birthday celebrations or other festivities, who sang the german words of their hymns to the melodies of communist songs, knowing that they would be incomprehensible to any russian informer? on what was their understanding of their identity based? it can be assumed that up until the restoration of the elc in the believers and congregations covered the whole spectrum, from those who were hostile towards or critical of ecclesiastical structure to those who belonged to it, and that even in the first postwar generation this spectrum remained, each congregation's identity predetermined by that of its pre- decessors before the deportations. radical pietists will certainly have felt the loss of the church structure less keenly than the majority of the congregation in tselinograd in kazakhstan, for example. it was in tselinograd that pastor eugen bachmann managed in to register a lutheran congregation with the soviet authorities for the first time since the second world war. he himself, the only clergyman ordained before the war to be officially recognised as pastor to a congregation, was the most prominent representative of 'the church'. nevertheless, bachmann himself also remarked on the existence of a radical element of brothers in tselinograd, who refused to accept either the authority of the pastor's office or the regulations of the church. the congregations' understanding of their identity must have varied from group to group, both in intensity and in perception of denominational differences, as can be seen from many reports of 'ecumenical' house-groups, attended by lutherans, baptists, catholics and pentecostals. in addition, it is important to remember when joachim willems considering the question of confessional identity that most of these religious groups were extremely isolated from each other. without pastors or traditional church structures there will have been less emphasis on issues of theological conflict than on the ways in which each congregation built up its parish life and which contacts they maintained. with these points in mind, two case studies demonstrate some of the ways in which the lutherans' sense of confessional identity could be expressed. the history of the congregation of sol' -iletsk is the first example. sol' -iletsk is on the border between europe and asia, south of the urals, a few kilometres north of kazakhstan. this town, with a current population of , , was built in as a fortification to guard the southern border of the russian empire against nomadic tribes from the south. prison camps were established in the town shortly after; the prisoners were put to work in the local salt mines ('sol" means 'salt'). the nearest town of any size is orenburg with , inhabitants, the administrative centre of the region which bears the same name. as early as the russian military in orenburg appointed a divisional pastor for the lutherans in its ranks. it is likely that there were germans in the russian army posted to sol' -iletsk, and that they were also tended to by the pastor in orenburg. it is not possible, however, to follow the roots of today's lutheran congregation back beyond the second world war. the oldest people i spoke to had come to sol'- iletsk as deportees. as in other towns, the atheist authorities had forbidden the lutherans to practise their church life. naturally, the congregation also had no pastor. for these reasons, as in other towns, christians of different confessions would meet, united above all by their common german language in which they read the bible and sang hymns. one -year-old woman, who had lived through the entire history of the lutherans after their deportation, told me that in the s her house-group had suffered in particular from a lack of men: the men were conscripted into the so-called 'labour army' (trudovaya armiya), a forced labour system under a military regime, or put into special camps, where the conditions were not much better than in the camps of the gulag. in any case, then as now women were more prominent than men in church life. she herself had read the sermons preserved in prerevolutionary collections and performed baptisms in private houses, even though, as she under- stood it, these tasks should really be carried out by a man. when a man was found to take over, a mennonite brother, she gladly relinquished her responsibilities to him. in the early s, when the political situation had eased, the congregation collected money and built a prayer-house. at the same time, the mennonite preacher also gained a lutheran 'assistant'. in addition, the congregation was now allowed to register with the authorities and achieve legal status. as it remained inter- confessional, it was officially known as the 'mennonite-lutheran congregation' (mennonitisch-lutherische gemeinde). up to this point the history of the sol' -iletsk community - which is far from atypical for the soviet union - appears to confirm filatov's theory. how can one speak of a lutheran identity when for decades the community has been 'infiltrated' by 'anabaptists', whose 'false teaching' is clearly rejected in all lutheran confes- sional texts? here we need to look at the inner life of the mennonite-lutheran congregation. according to members of the congregation, sermons were preached by brothers of both confessions, and - here was the link - always in german. however, although all those i spoke to assured me that the relationship between the two con- fessions was very good, the differences between the mennonites and the lutherans remained visible, especially on the question of baptism. the above-mentioned old russian german lutheran 'brotherhoods' woman told me that the lutherans had baptised their children during the course of the shared church service (and without this leading to any problems with the mennonites). other women, on the other hand, described open-air mennonite baptisms in the river and emergency lutheran baptisms in people's homes, although these had taken place in the period after perestroika. some members of the congrega- tion had had their children baptised by missionaries of the new apostolic church from germany, who also used the community's prayer-house for a short time. it appears to me that the crystallisation-point for confessional identity in this case was not a specific confessional text or the membership of a confessional organisa- tion. in the conditions at that time, neither would have been readily accessible. the members of the congregation relied much more on the rituals which they had learned as children. when some of the people i interviewed explained the reason for their refusal to be baptised into another confession it was clear to me that the reason did not lie in theology or in the failure of the other congregation to attract their interest but in the fact that they considered it sinful to give up their own faith, or, in other words, their own 'inherited' confession. a married couple, both over years old, told me that they had moved to another town where there was no lutheran congrega- tion and as a result they had attended the local baptist prayer-house. when after a while the baptist pastor had asked them if they would like to become full members of the congregation by undergoing a second, baptist, baptism, they refused indignantly and ceased to take part in any further services or meetings. it was clearly not the case that the couple had disliked the baptist congregation; they had been participating in the baptists' community life for a long time. rather, they perceived a second baptism - a 'rebaptism' or 'anabaptism' as they put it - to be a betrayal of their roots. elsewhere in the interview, both told me that one must not abandon the faith to which one was born. this echoes the situation as it really was in pre- revolutionary russia, where the borders of the confessional landscape followed those of the ethnic. at that time, equations of ethnic and religious identity were accepted as the norm: the russians were orthodox, the poles catholic, the germans lutheran and the tatars muslim. when coming into contact with members of related confessions, such as baptists or mennonites, who also share the same ethnicity, the lutherans' own sense of confessional identity can become somewhat muted. in many cases, however, as in this case, it has not been completely extinguished, even though those people i spoke to had lived for decades under the influence of an atheist state doctrine without any connection to church or religion. instead, the lutherans' confession regains its decisive importance as soon as it is called seriously into question - for example as above, when individuals are challenged to give up their 'inherited' faith. in this way, the 'mennonite-lutheran congregation' in sol' -iletsk could clearly withstand the differences between the two confessions for many years without either breaking up or being forced to amalgamate the two. the situation began to cause problems only when the congregation was forced to make a decision to join one confession or the other. this occurred in with the arrival of a young preacher from kazakhstan who refused to allow the lutherans to attend the communion service unless they accepted rebaptism. at about the same time there also arrived a pastor from the evangelical lutheran church who laid great emphasis on ecclesi- astical ambience and furnished the prayer-house with altar, cross, chancel and piano. he also held strictly confessional views. the congregation - or the congregations - do not seem to have been involved in any process of decision-making. one woman reported how an elderly mennonite joachim willems woman had been reduced to tears by the separation, whilst an old lutheran told me, drawing on corinthians : - , that division among christians (mennonites and lutherans) was a fault. the lutherans appear to be coming to terms with the separation by laying the blame on the young kazakh preacher. because he speaks russian instead of gennan and has baptist characteristics, the lutheran congregation now makes a distinction between the mennonites, whom they regard as 'good' and 'german', and the baptists, who are seen as 'bad', 'intolerant' and 'russian'. the innovations intro- duced into their own services, for example the piano accompaniment to the previously unaccompanied hymns, were accepted after a time, apparently because they could be assimilated into the congregation's own interpretational practices. the new lutheran pastor told me that at the very least the congregation had been convinced by his argument that churches in gennany also used pianos and the like during services. the case discussed above shows two details which have a bearing on the question of the lutherans' sense of their own identity. first, the lutherans display great openness towards others, as long as they are able to maintain their own identity. if they are unable to do so, however, divisions occur. second, we see the close relation- ship between confessional and ethnic identity. the congregation is bound together by the members' common gennan language and origins, and it is probably this which makes the interconfessional unity possible at all. alterations can even be accepted, if they are necessary for integration into the national identity. this can be seen, for instance, in the introduction of new elements into the service, which are justified by the authority of the lutheran churches in germany. another prerequisite for this acceptance is the wish of the congregation to meet the demands of their confession in the 'correct' way. the connection between confession and ethnic identity is also demonstrated in the way in which the lutherans came to tenns with their separation from the mennonite congregation: by now defining their fonner brothers and sisters as 'russian' (and 'baptist'). the question of national identity appears again and again especially among the older russian gennan lutherans. nevertheless, the fact that their lutheran identity contains a sizeable element of 'germanness' cannot be counted as an argument against the existence of their confessional profile. one might just as well ask whether the anglican church is actually anglican at all, if in the minds of some of its members it is also a part of their national identity. the same is true of greek or russian orthodoxy, italian catholicism, ludaism and countless other confessions. are there further indications as to how the congregations of the 'brotherhood' tradition have perceived and continue to perceive their lutheran status? in pre- revolutionary russia and during the first decades of the soviet union pastors and brotherhoods lived side by side or even together in many areas. as long as church life continued to function, the brothers could perceive themselves (at best) as the 'hard core' of the congregation, holding their own meetings in addition to attending church services, or (at worst) as the 'true' believers, those who maintained a distance from the 'secularised' church or even spoke out against it. the situation after the second world war, on the other hand, was fundamentally different, given that church life had now been destroyed. the role of the brotherhoods at that time was also no longer the same as it had been before the war. hannes schlundt draws attention to the fact that the groups which came into existence at this point (the lutheran congregations of the period from the s to the s) were 'no longer "brotherhoods" in the earlier sense', but russian german lutheran 'brotherhoods' rather church communities in which services are held according to the traditional church order of service and the sacraments are dispensed. these services are attended by those who have not joined the brother- hoods, but simply wish to maintain and cultivate their christian faith. as well as the services themselves, prayer-meetings or meetings of the brothers are held several times a week.' eugen bachmann reports that the services held by congregations in the s conformed largely to the pattern of read services as set out in the prerevolutionary agende fur die evangelisch-iutherischen gemeinden im russischen reich (liturgy for evangelical lutheran congregations in the russian empire).' if the congrega- tions were openly placing themselves in the tradition of the old lutheran church by using its liturgy, we must again question filatov's theory, and address the issue of how the lutheran congregations' identity during the soviet era can be more accurately described. as a second case study i shall examine the congregation in karaganda, kazakhstan. this congregation provides an example of what filatov may be referring to when he writes of a lack of lutheran identity among the brotherhoods. according to a parish record from the s the evangelical lutheran congregation in karaganda was the largest in the soviet union with members.' to date, this parish is not a member of elcros. heinrich rathke made regular visits to the soviet lutheran communities from the s onwards as bishop of the mecklenburg evangelical lutheran church and in - was elcros's episcopal visitor in kazakhstan. he reports that even in the past the atmosphere prevailing in karaganda was very different from that, for example, in tselinograd, the first lutheran com- munity to gain official registration from the soviet authorities after the second world war, and also one of the largest communities in the country." this is probably mainly because the tselinograd congregation had had the benefit of a pastor who had been ordained before the war, eugen bachmann, before his emigration. the pastors in tselinograd, according to former bishop rathke, wore robes, unlike those brothers who held the services in karaganda. so far, the example of karaganda seems to bear out filatov's claim. nevertheless, this case also deserves a more thorough inspection. rathke, for instance, attributes the decision of the karaganda brothers not to wear robes not to an opposition to liturgical vestments on principle but rather to the brothers' great sense of reverence, which prevented them as laymen from wearing clerical clothing. rathke further claims that he himself, as a lutheran bishop, encountered no fundamental rejection on the part of the brothers, although many members of brotherhoods were outspoken in their dislike of an excessive insistence on the importance of ecclesiastical rank - a trait which could be traced back in part to traditional anti ecclesiastical views. on the contrary, he had usually been allowed access to the congregations, although some- times after undergoing many questions from leading brothers on his biblical knowledge and personal faith. there are various reasons, according to rathke, for the lack of contact between the brotherhoods and elcros. aside from a strong anti- pastoral stance among the brotherhoods, there is also an equally strong sense of their own identity as separate from riga or st petersburg (the seat of the lutheran archbishop), which are both far distant. the karaganda congregation regards itself as the head diocese, the centre which itself oversees a large number of subsidiary dioceses in the area. added to this, the brothers have had difficulties with arch- bishop kretschmar's emphasis on hierarchy. joachim willems there is also however the following to consider. when in pastor harald kalnin of riga was made bishop of the evangelical lutheran parishes in the soviet union, his name was put forward in a letter produced by twenty leading repre- sentatives of lutheran congregations. one of the signatories was johann gudi from the congregation of karaganda!' the refusal of some lutheran brotherhoods to join elcros can therefore not be put down merely to a lack of a sense of common confessional identity, but appears instead to be the expression of differences of opinion amongst fellow-believers. this is also true of the unions of brotherhoods in ukraine and siberia which also remain outside elcros (see above). if once again the emphasis in these brotherhoods lies more on the 'evangelical' and less on the 'lutheran', this is still not enough to justify describing such congregations as 'so- called lutheran'. instead, this suggests that we should investigate further what these congregations themselves consider to be 'lutheran' and how their lutheran identity manifests itself. i used the issue of baptismal practices as a symbolic illustration of the sol' -iletsk congregation's confessional self-definition. in the case of karaganda, more light can be shed by examining the second sacrament recognised by lutherans: communion. in this respect, according to rathke, the karaganda congregation has continued pre- revolutionary traditions. before the elc was dissolved, it counted reformed congregations among its members (although the elc was a purely lutheran church and not a united lutheranlreformed movement). even before the revolution it was usual for one pastor to be responsible for the members of both denominations. this tradition was continued in karaganda and was noticeable above all in the communion service. the lutherans, who made up the great majority of the congregation, knelt to receive the body of christ and the wafer was placed directly in their mouths. the reformed, on the other hand, remained standing and received the bread in their hands. ' it is possible to argue that such external differences in form do not constitute proof of awareness of a particular confessional identity. however, if we were to allow ourselves to be convinced by such an argument, we would be making general- isations from the viewpoint of our modem, western, historically aware or scientific theological understanding of the 'core' of a confession. if believers have continued after decades of persecution to hold on not only to their faith but also to the differences within their congregation, then these must have significance for those concerned. if on the other hand a discussion about the meaning of the words used at the consecration of the elements (does the word 'est' in 'hoc est corpus meum' really mean 'est' or instead 'significat'?) does not take place and the congregation fails to follow in the directions set by the conflicts between the reformed and the lutherans in the sixteenth century, this is scarcely surprising. it reveals an evaluation of the importance of religious questions which one might expect to find in a persecuted congregation made up of a national minority which has not benefited from classical theological training. we discover the same qualities among the thousands of members of the karaganda congregation as in the tiny community of lutherans in sol' -iletsk. first, a great openness towards other denominations as long as this does not compromise one's own tradition and as long as there is some form of consensus. a common language and national identity are not unimportant in creating this consensus but it is primarily formed from common reliance on the bible and in karaganda in particular also from a common liturgy, the prerevolutionary liturgy of the elc. second, the determination to hold on to inherited tradition, in which it is clear that 'formalities' and rituals (in the sense in which the anthropologist mary douglas uses the word) make up a large part ofthe congregation's identity. russian german lutheran 'brotherhoods' if we now summarise to what extent a specific profile of those lutheran com- munities in the soviet union and in the cis influenced by the 'brotherhoods' can be established, the demarcations between the lutherans and the russian orthodox and roman catholic churches become obvious; among others in the widespread creation of a lutheran lay clergy, a development which enabled the congregations to survive the arrest or murder of their pastors, and in the lutherans' direct reliance on the bible (in lutheran tradition the 'sola scriptura'). the difference between the lutherans and the baptists is visible primarily in their different baptismal practices. the lutherans probably retained their own confession's baptismal rites precisely because of the contacts they had with the baptists and their very different practices. the example of the karaganda community reveals the differences between the lutherans and reformed, which appear in their different communion practices. much more could be said about the significance of german origins and language for the congregations i have discussed above, or about the conflicts within elcros on issues such as the ordination of women, but in this article i intended primarily to contest filatov's theory, which holds that there were no lutherans in the soviet union. above all, we must bear in mind that the question of what constitutes 'being lutheran' requires careful study. it is clear that filatov's sweeping statement cannot be accepted as it stands, regardless of how we choose to define lutheranism - on the criteria of the lutheran texts (for instance the confessio augustana vi), or on the criterion of membership of the international lutheran community, i" or simply on the basis of each individual's perception of his or her own confession. notes and references sergei filatov, 'protestantism in postsoviet russia: an unacknowledged triumph', religion, state and society, vol. , no. , march , pp. - , here pp. - . all the quotations referring to the germans in these two paragraphs are from ibid., p. . , wilhelm kahle, aujsiitze zur entwicklung der evangelischen gemeinden in russland (leidenikoln, ), p. l. see ibid.; also kahle, geschichte der evangelisch-lutherischen gemeinden in der sowjetunion - (leiden, ), kahle, die lutherischen kirchen und gemeinden in der sowjetunion - seit (gtitersloh, ), and lohannes schlundt, die gemeinschaftsbewegung unter der deutschen bevolkerung in russland bzw. der udssr in vergangenheit und gegenwart: erfahrungsbericht (steinau a.d.str., undated [after ]). see gerd stricker, 'lutherans in russia since ', religion, state and society, vol. , no. , , pp. - , here pp. f. ibid., p. . on the history of elcros, see georg kretschmar and heinrich rathke, evangelisch- lutherische kirche in russland, der ukraine, kasachstan und mittelasien (elkras) (st petersburg, ), and gerd stricker (ed.), deutsche geschichte im osten europas: russland (berlin, ), pp. - . , stricker, 'lutherans in russia .. .' , pp. - . • see eugen bachmann, 'in !hm geboren. ein personlicher bericht tiber den dienst in der evangelisch-lutherischen kirche in der sowjetunion - ', in lohannes schleuning, eugen bachmann, peter schellenberg, ... und siehe, wir leben! der weg der evangelich- lutherischen kirche in vier lahrhunderten (erlangen, ), pp. - , here p. . stricker, 'lutherans in russia ... ', p. . this point should not, of course, be taken as a general rule. russian germans who have been largely assimilated and can no longer speak german are frequently found in russian- speaking baptist congregations alongside russian baptists and mennonites. gerd stricker examines the migration of linguistically-assimilated russian germans from the lutheran joachim willems brotherhoods to the baptist faith in stricker, 'lutherans in russia .. .', pp. and . schlundt, op. cit., p. . bachmann, op. cit., p. . in my view the comments of schlundt and bachmann show that stricker's statement ('lutherans in russia .. .', p. ) that the three elc pastors remaining active after the second world war tried 'without great success' to revive the liturgical traditions of the lutheran church is too sweeping. either as a result of these pastors' work or quite independently, these liturgical traditions were indeed continued, at least in some areas. heinrich rathke, 'kirche unterwegs. der weite weg evangelisch-lutherischer christen und gemeinden in der ehemaligen sowjetunion', in kretschmar and rathke, op. cit., p. . former bishop rathke in an interview with the author, schwerin, november . see the copy of the letter reproduced in erich schacht, erinnerungen an russland (lahr, ),p. . for details of the different practices in the communion service in mixed congregations in the prerevolutionary era, see kahle, au!siitze ... , p. . for the period since the s i draw on comments made by former bishop rathke on november (see above, note ). although the elc was dissolved in the mid- s there were attempts - sometimes successful - to make contact, both on the part of the congregations in the soviet union themselves and on the part of the lutheran world federation and the protestant church in the german democratic republic. see rathke, in for example rathke, op. cit., pp. f. according to rathke, the little catechism was 'certainly' in use and 'next to the bible it was their [i.e. the lutheran congregations'] basic resource'. comments by rathke, november (see above, note ). (translated from the german by rachel kellett) the british journal of psychiatry | cambridge core skip to main content accessibility help we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. login alert cancel log in × × home only search content i have access to 	 	home 	log in 	register 	browse subjects 	what we publish 	services 	about cambridge core 	 cart 	 cart 	 	 	 	 access provided by 	 carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	logged in as: carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	 	 	 register 	 register 	 log in 	 	 cart 	 < back to search results 	home 	journals 	the british journal of psychiatry 	 english | français the british journal of psychiatry 	 	 	 	 	 search within full text search within journal search within society 	 	 	 	 	 submit your article 	 information submit your article you are leaving cambridge core and will be taken to this journal's article submission site. cancel leave now × 	 other actions 	 submit your article 	information 	 	 	 	 	 	 	visit: 	 	 	 	 journal home 	journal home 	accepted manuscripts 	firstview articles 	latest issue 	all issues 	most read 	subscribe 	open access articles there is currently a delay in the posting of accepted eletters to cambridge core. we apologise for the inconvenience. 	 access: subscribed 	 contains open access on the cover continues the asylum journal (  -  ), the asylum journal of mental science (  -  ), journal of mental science (  -  ) title history 	 issn: - (print), - (online) 	 editor: professor kamaldeep bhui cbe oxford university, uk 	editorial board the british journal of psychiatry (bjpsych) is a leading international peer-reviewed journal, covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. published monthly on behalf of the royal college of psychiatrists, the journal is committed to improving the prevention, investigation, diagnosis, treatment, and care of mental illness, as well as the promotion of mental health globally. in addition to authoritative original research papers from around the world, the journal publishes editorials, review articles, commentaries on contentious articles, short reports, a comprehensive book review section and a lively, well-informed correspondence column. bjpsych is essential reading for psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and all professionals with an interest in mental health. latest articles view all 	article 	 bjp volume issue cover and front matter 	 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose – psychiatry in history 	 stephen wilson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 robert hooke's bethlem hospital of : an architectural wonder – psychiatry in pictures 	 r.h.s. mindham 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘of the chaunge from one sex to another’: eye-witness accounts of pliny the elder ( – ) and ambroise paré ( – ) – psychiatry in literature 	 greg wilkinson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 kaleidoscope 	 derek k. tracy, dan w. joyce, dawn n. albertson, sukhwinder s. shergill 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘lone travelers’ – psychiatry in pictures 	 brent r. carr 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 the medical model in mental health: an explanation and evaluation by ahmed samei huda oup. . £ . (pb). pp. isbn 	 alistair stewart 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 highlights of this issue 	 kate adlington 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all rcpsych article of the month blog view all 	 are there ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic? 	 march , diana miconi, phd 	the rcpsych article of the month for february is ‘ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic: a cross-sectional study on the impact... view all tweets by bjpsych facebook loading https://www.facebook.com/rcpsych... . impact factor: out of psychiatry journal citation reports © clarivate analytics most read view all 	article 	 factors influencing the decision to use hanging as a method of suicide: qualitative study 	 lucy biddle, jenny donovan, amanda owen-smith, john potokar, damien longson, keith hawton, nav kapur, david gunnell 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all most cited view all 	article 	 a new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change 	 stuart a. montgomery, marie Åsberg 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all 	librarians 	authors 	publishing partners 	agents 	corporates 	 additional information 	accessibility 	our blog 	news 	contact and help 	cambridge core legal notices 	feedback 	sitemap join us online 	 	 	 	 	 	 legal information 	 	rights & permissions 	copyright 	privacy notice 	terms of use 	cookies policy 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top cancel confirm × balint.indd – /$ . © akadémiai kiadó, budapest acta ethnographica hungarica, ( ), pp. – ( ) doi: . / . . . . migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe emese bÁlint european university institute, florence, italy e-mail: balint.emese.z@gmail.com abstract: while the anabaptist movement was still fl uid in the early s, it soon crystallized into factions with sharp differences. although the moravian anabaptists never succeeded in creating common doctrines and practices, the central and east european experience was not merely a marginal part of the great anabaptist story. out of these divergent tendencies grew a strong sect that survived exile through a radical social experiment. hutterite colonies, settled in a hostile environment, fl ourished for a long period while other sects disappeared within a few years. the factors that determined the advance and survival of the hutterites point beyond religious motives. this social experiment was dependent on the integrated social structure enabling them to cope with an aggressive environment without assimilating. various epochs of the hutterite history show that communal life was never a uniform and perfect experience, but variants of the structure persisted in the colonies as they evolved in their local circumstances. keywords: anabaptism, hutterite, community of goods, moravia, hungary, transylvania in january , the three founders of the swiss brethren, georg blaurock, conrad grebel and felix mantz baptized one another in zürich. with this act a movement came into being that could not be stopped in spite of the imposition of the death penalty for those who accepted baptism as adults. persecution quickly ensued, yet anabaptism spread rap- idly across europe. from the outside it was seen as an aggregate movement and aroused the hostility of governments and theologians. originally, the name “wiedertäufer” was coined by the opponents of the movement, and referred to all reformation-era sects, which disapproved of the practice of infant baptism and practised baptism on believing adults. true, the swiss brethren, the hutterites and the mennonites – to name only the major groups that survived the initial turmoil – grew out of the same criticism of what for this reason, in german-language scholarship the term “wiedertäufer” was changed to “täufer” after the second world war in order to avoid the opprobrium used by their enemies. in the anglo-saxon tradi- tion, the term “anabaptist” was kept because “baptist”, although indebted to continental anabaptism, is a term denoting an entirely distinct entity. emese bÁlint seemed to be an unholy alliance of church and state, and of their high regard for scripture and the centrality of god’s grace. these major groups had certain basic beliefs in com- mon: they all rejected the established religious practices, customs, images, an elaborate hierarchy and the mass; they propagated adult baptism and the ‘priesthood of all believ- ers’ (equality of all believers’ relation to god and equality of all in christian community); they led a disciplined way of life and practised nonconformity (godly living) to the world (clasen : – ). from the inside, however, the anabaptists never managed to create one single cohesive group. the interconnectedness was shattered by bitter internal confl icts that led to insur- mountable divisions within the movement. these differences related to political matters such as rejecting the functions of the state, taking oaths, litigating in court or fi ghting in war. eschatological matters and christological differences also created ruptures between the groups. one of the projects dear to the swiss brethren was the liebeskommunismus (sharing and caring), which stemmed from their nonconformity; the hutterites promoted the restoration of the community of goods practised by the apostles in jerusalem after pentecost, while the dutch mennonites expressly rejected such a radical interpretation of the christian message (stayer ; friedmann ). they differed in other respects as well: the schwertler faction of the anabaptists in moravia advocated the use of the sword in wars of defence and defended the payment of war taxes, while the stäbler, the staff-bear- ers, stood for complete non-resistance (bender ). in addition to differences of opinion over doctrine, there was a considerable rivalry among the different anabaptist groups in attracting members in order to turn their respective groups into sustainable initiatives. systematic and intense repression, especially in switzerland, southern germany and austria, drove the anabaptist movement into isolation; nevertheless, the mennonites of holland and northern germany and the hutterites of moravia enjoyed signifi cant free- dom. the aim of my introductory essay is to draw a broad socio-historical background of the anabaptists in moravia, for whom it stood as a “promised land” from to . despite the fragmentation and mutual hostility of the many small anabaptist groups, a continuous stream of religious migrants moved towards moravia from the tyrol and other habsburg lands, from southern germany, bavaria, württemberg, hesse and from switzerland. this period coincides approximately with the fi rst century of habsburg rule over the lands of the bohemian crown (bohemia, moravia, silesia and lusatia). in the last king of bohemia and hungary, louis ii fell in a battle against the turks, and his successor archduke ferdinand of austria tried to make moravia thoroughly catholic, an endeavour in which all habsburgs failed up to . the centralizing tendencies of the habsburg politics were met with the critical loyalty of the moravian lords, articulated so as to defend their liberties and privileges. accordingly, when emperor charles v’s brother ferdinand became bohemian king in the autumn of , the moravian estates recognized him but required him to confi rm their traditional rights, including religious freedom. the local lords, some of them protestants, practised such a degree of religious toleration that moravia stood out as a unique area where the exiled religious radicals could establish their communities. the fi rst religious migrants in south-eastern moravia were protestants fl eeing persecution to this haven of refuge, where confessional pluralism was a legal guarantee left over from the hussite wars ( – ). migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe its capacity to accommodate a large number of religious migrants (utraquists, bohe- mian brethren, lutherans, calvinist, anti-trinitarians and anabaptists) was the strength of moravian religious liberty, while the fragmentation of these groups remained its weak- ness: the moravian estates paid little attention to protestant organizational unity and re- mained dispersed in different faiths (eberhard ). but local pride in independence and attempts at aggressive interference on the part of the government led to permanent strains between the catholic overlords and the predominantly protestant estates. these tensions ultimately culminated in the battle at the white mountain in . the defeat of the protestants was followed by drastic enforcement of the counter-reformation, and non-catholics faced the alternatives of conformity or emigration. in all anabaptists had to leave moravia (rothkegel ). according to contemporary sources, at least twenty anabaptist sects could be dis- tinguished in this area alone (clasen : ); as such, my essay will also address the changing ideological character of moravian anabaptism by focusing on its formative years and the survival of the hutterites, known in later periods as the habaner/habans. it will show how, under constant persecution from the outside and with numerous confl icts and schisms from the inside, the anabaptists started exile communities that, even with millen- nial expectations, could offer protection to their members. this meant nothing less than building a distinctive lifestyle and developing an accompanying doctrine. the introduc- tion will show how, over time, among the heterogeneous anabaptist groups, the hutterite movement acquired a stable, ideologically and structurally integrated character in the s. the diffi culties in the early decades of the reformation decimated the numerous anabaptist sects, and during the second half of the sixteenth century most of them dwin- dled away, while the hutterite brethren became the strongest and most dynamic sect in the region. settling new communities and recruiting fresh members in large numbers was not only their new norm but also a survival technique that involved a new way of organ- izing religious migration. through homogeneity, a strong identity was formed, and along with identity formation, a large number of incoming refugees could be accommodated. by retaining their original german language, their original garments, and living in a strictly closed social organization, the anabaptist colonies were cultural and social en- claves amidst the local population. strict religious principles drove these groups to give up their material effects and to conceive life as earthly exile, constantly awaiting the fi nal union with god. the reality faced by these anabaptists was, therefore, to live in religious and social exile, since joining a refugee community involved extreme risks, abandoning property and a dramatic change of identity. social and economic pressure in the immedi- ate environment, as well as sporadic persecutions and two major campaigns by the impe- rial government in vienna in – , and again in , radically changed the course of hutterite history by disrupting their settlements. the communities endured severe pre- dation by foreign armies, survived a series of forced migrations towards eastern europe, the term “habaner” is used only to designate those hutterites in hungary who under government pressure turned catholic in the th century. the name is mostly known through the pottery produced in these anabaptist communities. it should in fact be called “hutterite” or “anabaptist”, but the term “haban” is well accepted in the ceramics art literature in all countries and all languages. see horvath–krisztinko- vich : – . emese bÁlint fi rst to northern and western hungary and transylvania in , then into southern rus- sia in , and eventually to the united states and canada, where hutterite colonies have persisted since (schlachta ; clasen : – ). it is precisely the failure of so many other groups that makes the hutterite experiment so remarkable. formative years in moravia – dissent and schisms let us go back to the beginnings of the moravian experience in the s. the fi rst anabaptist leader of note to come to moravia was balthasar hubmaier. well-trained in scholastic theology, hubmaier received his baccalaureus biblicus in at the univer- sity of freiburg and his doctorate in theology at the university of ingolstadt shortly there- after, in (estep : – ). he was fi rst ordained as a university preacher and chaplain of the church of the virgin, and then became chief preacher at the new cathedral of regensburg where he successfully rid the town of its jewish population. in he became pastor at waldshut where he began to embrace certain reformation concepts. by the time of the october disputation in zürich ( ), he was openly championing the swiss reformation and began to reform the faith and order of his church in waldshut. his reform efforts were accompanied by a vigorous writing campaign in which he set forth a form of reformation teaching that was neither lutheran nor zwinglian but had an af- fi nity with the emerging anabaptism of zürich and advocated believers’ (adult) baptism. in hubmaier was baptized by wilhelm reublin along with sixty of his parishioners and he, in turn, baptized about others. the anabaptist movement in waldshut was short-lived because a threatened invasion by ferdinand of austria drove hubmaier from the city. after imprisonment and torture in zürich, he managed to escape, a chastened and subdued man. in hubmaier arrived in moravia and found refuge in nikolsburg (now mikulov) situated along the trade route from brünn (now brno) to vienna, on the lands owned by the lords of liechtenstein. the infl uence of huss was still felt in the area, and hubmaier soon won over the church leaders and two liechtensteins, leonhard and his nephew jo- hann, to believers’ baptism and began a ‘socially conservative, moderate and magisterial reformation’ (stayer : – ) explicitly based upon the patronage of the moravian nobility. as a schwertler (of-the-sword) anabaptist, the moderate hubmaier believed gov- ernment to be an institution ordained by god. according to the view expressed in his writings, christians have a responsibility to support governments and pay taxes. further- more, he clearly stated his beliefs regarding the government’s responsibility to defend the righteous, the innocent and the helpless. moreover, he believed that christians should take up the sword or temporal power for a just cause if ordered to do so by the ruling govern- ment (hubmaier ). although hubmaier did not encounter resistance on the part of the local authorities in nikolsburg, internal tensions were evident, both in matters of worship and in more fundamental questions of theology and social ethics such as ringing bells for prayers, the celebration of sunday and the high holidays, the desacralization of the com- munion, and questions about predestination, election and freedom of the will (rothkegel : – ). migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe although his radical approach was successful with the settled population of the area, hubmaier soon found his religious establishment threatened by large numbers of ana- baptist refugees, mainly from southern germany and switzerland. these refugees rallied around the travelling preacher hans hut who propagated chiliastic ideas (millennialism) and the community of goods (stayer : – ; estep : – ). he bore an in- tensely apocalyptic message, for he encouraged his listeners to sell their worldly goods in view of christ’s return to establish his kingdom on earth at the approaching pentecost of . much of the leadership of the nikolsburg community, including hubmaier, re- jected communitarian ideas, but some of the community, the gemeinschaffter (stayer : ), held to the principle of sharing what they have with those in need (packull ; estep : ). they willingly opened their homes and shared their property with numerous destitute strangers pouring into the area. jacob wiedemann, a fellow exile and preacher in hubmaier’s congregation born in swabia and baptised in augsburg, helped the refugees introduce a self-administered mutual aid program (packull : ). hubmaier and the local moravians in his congregation ferociously rejected hut’s anarchistic princi- ples and held different views about the return of christ and the place of the magistracy; hut was therefore expelled from moravia by hubmaier’s noble patron. nevertheless, his ideas concerning the restoration of the community of goods and non-resistance survived. hans hut’s communitarian ideas were soon embraced by wiedemann, who held that the community of goods should be a cardinal principle among new testament christians. wiedemann and his group held to an extreme form of non-resistance infl uenced by the swiss brethren, even to the point of refusing to pay taxes earmarked for war against the turks, an issue that further polarized the two camps. wiedemann’s supporters, the so- called stäbler (of-the-staff), joined forces with hut’s followers, grafting hut’s doctrine of the sword as the exclusive prerequisite of the saints (estep : ). despite overcoming the challenge of non-resistance and communitarianism, the so-called nikolsburg schism occurred shortly after the austrian government arrested hubmaier, imprisoned and then executed him in . the open friction of the opposition within the nikolsburg group and vain attempts at reconciliation compelled the lichtenstein barons to expel wiedemann and his party from their lands. thus, a group of about two hundred people, not counting children, split from the nikolsburg church and established a new congregation at austerl- itz (now slavkov u brna) on the manorial estates of the kaunitz family, where they distin- guished themselves by practising an early form of the community of goods. this controversy over communitarian ideas was just one of many disagreements to follow. several attempts at the restoration of communal practice, and disputes over the communitarian sharing of goods soon led to dissent and experimentation in moravia. in the years to follow, all newly created communities carried hut’s legacy by tailoring a church for the commoners, and discarded hubmaier’s attempt to create a magisterial ana- baptism by securing special places for the learned and the powerful (stayer : ). as the nikolsburg schism anticipated and the following examples will illustrate, distinct group theologies were only developed after the schisms had occurred. people did not split away from the congregations based on their theological belief; the separatists initially emerged from practical problems related to their conceptualization and commitment to the community of goods, which practically maintained exile communities and integrated emese bÁlint the refugees. personal rivalries among leaders just added a new dimension to these prob- lems. in spite of their divisive articles of faith, actual boundaries between these groups remained porous; the brethren could easily leave one congregation and join another. in numerous cases, brethren excluded from one community quickly joined the enemy. the position of the austerlitz brethren represented a synthesis between hut’s escha- tological teachings and the biblical norm of non-resistance. to these they added a new experiment, that of the community of goods (packull : – ; estep : ). they established the fi rst settlement (bruderhof) in which all property was held in com- mon and imposed a rigid hierarchy upon the commune. individual households were not at fi rst abandoned, much emphasis was placed upon the loving, voluntary character of the whole community, and there was no uniformity of practice, let alone equality of condition among their members. far less democratic than the other anabaptist groups, the stäbler in austerlitz were assisted by preachers or elders called the ‘servants of the word’ (di- ener des wortes), and by ‘stewards or servants of temporal needs’ (diener der nortdurf), all under the high-handed control of jacob wiedemann. they administered a school, a bakery, a bathhouse and a cotton factory. massive waves of new immigrants were ac- commodated. after they advocated an organized resettlement of anabaptists; in this fashion a group of – anabaptist refugees from austria and the tyrol, especially from sterzing (vipiteno) and the mining city rattenberg am inn, joined the austerlitz congre- gation (rothkegel : – ). shortly after their arrival, a clash between charismatic personalities within the austerlitz group led to open hostilities. this time the discontent was voiced by wilhelm reublin, a key fi gure of the swiss anabaptists, who had baptized hubmaier in waldshut. after he joined the austerlitz bruderhof in , reublin accused the elders of unequal distribution of goods and hypocrisy in their vacillating attitude toward paying the war tax, as well as of coercing young women to marry their eligible young men in order to prevent marriage with ‘heathen’ or non-believing wives. he also accused wiedemann of false doctrine regarding baptism (estep : ). thus a new schism was inevitable; in wilhelm reublin and jörg zaunring, co-workers of the charismatic leader jakob hutter in the tyrol, left the austerlitz congregation together with tyrolean followers. the new bruderhof was started at auspitz (now hustopece) under the patronage of johanka von boskowitz, a noblewoman and abbess of the queen’s nunnery in mariasaal near brno. she arranged for the settlement of the auspitz brethren on her family domain, and not on monastic lands (thiessen ), in the vicinity of two other pacifi st commu- nitarian groups, the philippites, with members from silesia, and the gabrielites, whose members had come from swabia. the three groups forged an alliance, which most likely involved mutual aid in both spiritual and material matters. a later schism affected the loose harmony of the three groups and furthered the sixteenth-century expression of the hutterite identity. following bitter strife, reciprocal accusations and excommunications, the hutterites were able to win over members of the other two groups, sometimes with large followings. the auspitz settlement was organized along the same communitarian lines as the austerlitz bruderhof, with reublin as the vorsteher (chief minister) who presented him- self as a new moses chosen to deliver the true followers of christ from the bondage of migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe wiedemann. nevertheless, opposition to the perceived failings of the austerlitz group did not translate into a harmonious community, and internal dissent plagued this new group too. within only a year, the leaders of the exodus would be disgraced: wilhelm reublin was excluded for excess of personal possessions, while his successor, jörg zaunring, was found guilty and expelled for tolerating his wife’s adultery. after a short interim period in which the congregation was entrusted to sigmund schützinger from north tyrol, who was subsequently found guilty and removed for lax discipline regarding the community of goods, the congregation found itself without a leader. the void was fi lled by schützinger’s rival, jakob hutter, a hat maker and ‘servant of the word’ from the tyrol, who had previously mediated between the anabaptists in moravia and in the fairly large congregation back in tyrol, and who took over control by transferring his leadership role and funds to auspitz in the summer of . after having secured his position of vorsteher with great diffi culty, hutter introduced drastic reforms. he truncated the union with the gabrielites and philippites; ‘members of these communities were no longer considered brothers or sisters’, and hutter and his supporters laid sole claim to representing the “congregation of god” in moravia (packull : ). the inability of the brethren in auspitz to arrive at a modus operandi had threatened the survival of the new development; thus hutter put the bruderhof on a fi rm footing by im- mediate reorganization, and introduced a rigid community of goods, in both production and consumption (estep : ). following a fi nancial confl ict with the abbess, the congregation transferred residence to the lands of the lord marshal of lippe at schackow- itz/schäkowitz (now sakvice) just three miles away from auspitz, and started building a large communal dwelling, the fi rst so-called ‘pigeon coop’ (taubenkobel) that stood as the symbol of heresy in one of the pamphlets of the jesuit polemicist christoph fischer (fischer ). while a considerable number of dissidents left the group to join the phili- pites or the gabrielites, a large number of tyrolean immigrants arrived, who considered hutter as a natural leader; their preponderance in the bruderhof, as well as their contribu- tion to the communal treasury, strengthened hutter’s infl uence in the community. at the time of hutter’s violent death in , the group took his name for its own, thus becoming known as an identifi able group – the hutterites. the hutterite system – forging an identity as one can see, the ideological character of the hutterites had been formed over a long period and by integrating ideas and practices from a plurality of anabaptist move- ments. the most important ideological traits that would characterise the hutterite breth- ren were outlined after the nikolsburg schism of , and the hutterites clearly owed their organizational principles to the auspitz group in three ways. first, they represented a commoners’ movement as opposed to hubmaier’s magisterial reforms; second, they con- tinued hut’s awareness of living in ‘these last dangerous times’ and expected the second coming (stayer : ); and fi nally, they lived according to the principles of non-re- sistance elaborated by the swiss brethren. once the ideological homogeneity was shaped, they added a new experiment to this mix, the community of goods. after the formative emese bÁlint years, the hutterites managed to turn from a heterogeneous collection of radical believers or a ‘heterogeneous gathering of bold apostles’ (estep : ) into a structurally and ideologically integrated community. integration, however, was achieved through nonconformity combined with a very special organizational structure. the bruderhof was a constructed religious space where the hutterites tried to live as true disciples of christ. to achieve this goal, they eliminated two basic institutions of european societies: private property and family life. voluntary converts joining the community had to hand over their earthly possessions to the com- munal treasury. all property was held in common and believers had no personal belong- ings and received everything they needed from the community – clothes, bed linen, etc. meals were taken in common, and special provisions were ensured for the sick and for the children. though hutterites retained the institution of marriage, the family was practi- cally limited to the task of procreation and marriage practices did not pay much attention to feelings. either hutterite elders assigned spouses to the young, or men chose from three prospective brides. married couples had small private bed-chambers in the com- mon house but men and women worked and ate separately. children were separated from their parents as soon as they were weaned. under the direction of nursery-school sisters they were cared for in large groups of two or three hundred, which were sometimes swept by illness. following a strict system of formal instruction, children entered school at the age of two, and attended all day, the year round. at the age of fi ve or six, children were transferred from nursery school to work under the schoolmaster. by the age of twelve, they were apprenticed in crafts. like the ‘servants of the word’, hutterite teachers were not usually graduates of universities but ordinary people. nevertheless, from time to time, priests were converted and served the brethren as schoolmasters. among the hutterites, women were usually assigned the duty of caring for the sick and for the youth, as well as sewing and spinning, as these were exclusively female occupations. each individual bruderhof was run in cooperation by a pastor and a ‘servant of tem- poral needs’. the selection of leaders has often been described as democratic; actually elders presented the candidate, and the community accepted or acclaimed the proposed person. if there were several candidates for an offi ce, the practice was to make decisions by lot, not by ballot (stayer : ). the ‘servant of temporal needs’ administered the fi nances of the community, directed the community’s agricultural business together with the weinzirl (winemaker), he was responsible for safety, and his duty was to provide the newly arrived believers with clothes and beds. while commoners could not step outside the community for any reason, the ‘servant of temporal needs’ was the link between the bruderhof and the outside world. he bought the necessary raw materials for the artisans and he sold the fi nal artefacts. finally, ‘servants of temporal needs’ had legal jurisdiction over hutterite offenders (clasen : – ). since hutterites refused to swear oaths, they excluded themselves from the possibility of gaining municipal citizenship rights. nor did they become regular subjects of the local lords on whose domains they lived. instead, they entered into a contractual relationship with the aristocracy, according to which they were freed from feudal labour obligations (hruby : – ). they contributed to the income of their protectors with precisely determined quantities of artisanal products or other types of services. in periods of peace migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe when the communities did not suffer persecution, and especially from the ‘golden years’ of the communities ( – ), hutterite craftsmen concentrated on the production of luxury goods targeted especially at the aristocracy – such as coaches and wagons, shoes, leather furniture, knives and tableware, and the famous faience pottery. in the centuries following the hutterite ‘golden years’, the production of luxury faience items became one of the trademarks of these religious settlements, not only in moravia but also during their eastward migration to the kingdom of hungary and transylvania. for the most part, they produced these goods to customer orders; nevertheless, their products were also sold at local fairs and supplied to the castles of the lower nobility and the houses of the wealthy bourgeoisie (krisztinkovich : – ). based on the wide diversity of crafts – well doc- umented through the numerous extant hutterite craft guild ordinances (friedmann ) – the bruderhof developed an economic profi le that produced everything under one roof. such a high standard of living was ensured by profi t from the crafts that moravia became not only the ‘new jerusalem’ but a centre of material well-being. the economic security and the prospect of care for widows and orphans may have further prompted some to leave their homes and join the hutterites in moravia, although religious incentives played an important role in emigration. accordingly, strong waves of emigration coincided with years of high prices and famine, although the principles of brotherhood were not to every- one’s liking and members often attacked the communitarian ideals (haude ). among the various utopian societies in the s, the hutterites founded a new form of society in which, apart from the leaders, all were equal and all had to do manual labour. but unlike the peasant armies of the black forest and tauber valley, or the classless peas- ant society envisaged by michael gaismaier in the tyrol (clasen : ), the hutterites were far less democratic, establishing an authoritarian hierarchy. building a new commu- nity proved to be a diffi cult task as individual vision and hierarchical control turned out to be limited and fragile. the governing elite lacked the capability to coerce and monopolize violence, since the ultimate sanction was ‘renunciation of the peace’ and outright expul- sion (clasen : ). it was a very fragile community experiment. authority was not based on a leader’s capacity to impose rules by the exclusive means of coercion; instead it relied on the following of a critical mass of members, and their readiness not just to live by the norms but to impose them on all members and newcomers. this voluntary nature of control, based on persuasion and inculcation of values, was enormously fragile. in a highly volatile political and economic environment, the cohesion allowed by this form of control increased chances of survival. less cohesive groups have a much weaker capac- ity to adjust and to fend off external shocks or intrusions. the hutterites were the fi rst to the archaeological research has documented twelve moravian production centres, and written sources refer to three others. the most important centre, fi rst mentioned in the great chronicle in , was in wätze- nobis (now vacenovice), a village on the estate of the zerotin family. second in size and production was the pottery centre in tracht (now strachotín), a market town where the anabaptist presence is dated from , while the oldest faience centre, and third in rank, was in teickowitz (now tavíkovice). the largest pottery- producing centres were alexovice (now alexowitz), podivín (now kostel), přibice (now pribitz) and tracht with approximately members. a further nine communities were middle-sized (with – members) and two small ones had members. see: pajer : – ; pajer : ; the chronicle of the hutterian brethren: , , , – , . emese bÁlint manage to enforce a homogeneity of practice, and that is what distinguished them from other anabaptist groups. for a number of years the so-called ‘austerlitz experiment’ became the norm in wide areas of southern germany, austria and the tyrol, lands which later provided a continu- ous fl ow of immigrants for the hutterites. the new identity and organizational form de- manded new dynamics of community building. there was no more inner fragmentation. the group had moved from a diverse to an integrated ideology, from a pluralistic social movement (goertz – stayer ) to an integrated social structure, and from a theo- logically heterogeneous to a homogeneous membership. after its identity was formed and integrated, the movement expanded rapidly by absorbing incoming persecuted refugees. new bruderhofs were formed in various parts of moravia following the same basic ideol- ogy, social pattern and function. the cohesive development of the hutterite communities, built on a very strict inner organization and backed by massive migratory reinforcements, proved indispensable for the long-term survival of the hutterites. those anabaptist groups in the bohemian lands who had remained integrated into their urban or rural social con- text, or who pursued a course of de-radicalization and social reintegration, were far less exposed to governmental persecution than were the hutterian brethren. this was evident during the two big waves of fi erce persecution in and (rothkegel : ). the fi rst big wave of persecution took place as a consequence of the revolt of the anabaptists in münster ( – ), when the bohemian king ferdinand of austria de- manded the expulsion of the hutterian brethren with such persistence that the moravian nobles did not dare to refuse his orders. unlike the other anabaptist groups in moravia, the hutterites used a survival strategy that proved fruitful, dividing the congregation into small groups of six to eight persons to seek employment and shelter. bigger groups re- treated into the forests and hid underground in caves. within a decade they were able to return to their abandoned houses and even establish more communities. by the beginning of the second persecution in , the brethren had twenty-six colonies in moravia, but the whole brotherhood was temporarily driven from moravia during this second upsurge. for a short time they found refuge in the kingdom of hungary, particularly on the estates of baron ferenc nyári (franz niary von prantsch) in sabatisch (Ószombat, szobotist, now sobotište, slovakia) and in deutsch-nussdorf (felsődiós, now horné orešany, slovakia), on the estates of peter bakith in holic (holics, in german holitsch, weisskirchen, now holíč, slovakia) and sassin (sasvár, in german schossberg, now Šaštín, slovakia), as well as on the nádasdy and batthyány estates (ridovics ; szebeni : ). within a short time, the brethren established twelve congregations in the kingdom of hungary. af- ter they were forced to depart from moravia, a chronicler related, there were many ‘who united with the church, became pious, amended their lives and took upon themselves the cross’ (beck : – ). the end of the second major wave of persecution brought about the ‘golden years’ ( – ) for the hutterites, a period that allowed the establishment of thriving new settlements. the (re)population of these new settlements required inventive techniques in bringing new members into the communities and organizing their migration to moravia. in order to be able to fulfi l the proselytizing task required of them by jesus’s great com- mission, the congregation semi-annually (usually in the spring and autumn) chose from migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe the preachers a number of brethren to perform a wide-ranging missionary service in all geographical directions, to preach the gospel in accordance with the commandment of christ, and to lead the converts to the ‘promised land’ of moravia. each missionary had his fi eld assigned to him; thus brethren went out to all parts of germany (bavaria, würtemberg, hesse, thuringia, rhineland, also silesia and prussia), to switzerland, to poland, to the tyrol and also to italy. the missionaries could always be found where magisterial mandates threatened the lives of the anabaptists; they invited the persecuted families to settle in moravia, promising toleration and the security of a large group fel- lowship. throughout this peaceful and creative period, the hutterite brotherhood experienced growth and unhindered development. on the larger political scene, emperor charles v and his brother ferdinand sought an amicable solution with the protestants in the treaty of passau of . with the peace of augsburg in and the declaration of cuius regio, eius religio, the persecution of the anabaptists in moravia temporarily decreased, and the hutterite settlements could grow in an unimpeded manner. according to estimates, there were colonies and twenty to thirty thousand inhabitants (clasen : ), but the number of hutterites fell dramatically after the ‘golden years’, due to wars (fi rst between the habsburgs and the turks, later the thirty years’ war) as well as the plague. after , when the initial bohemian revolt had been crushed, the anabaptists were ex- pelled from moravia. the hutterites attempted to gain a reprieve but in the end they had to accept their fate. approximately , obeyed the order and took refuge in northern, western and later eastern hungary and transylvania where they built new communities based on the functional models of the moravian bruderhof. those who remained decided to accept catholicism rather than face the diffi culties of emigration. after this fi rst break-up of the cohesive group, the year represented another important stage in the development of the hutterite organizational identity: the hutter- ites in hungary dissolved their community of goods and appealed to the government to consider them as individual householders. those in hungary did, however, retain some communal practices: their religious life and worship services were distinctively hutter- ite. the only colony among them that maintained the community of goods was the one that had been established earlier in transylvania, at alwintz (now vinţu de jos, roma- nia), on the estates of prince gábor bethlen. prince bethlen had invited the hutterites in and given them a charter and later a comprehensive letter of protection (zÁgoni : – ). the commune enjoyed religious freedom, the development of trades and protection. during the thirty years’ war, while settlements along the hungarian border suffered privation, this group still prospered. over the years, this colony also suffered the consequences of the war; it lost its communitarian organization but was revitalized by an immigrant group of carinthian lutherans in , who re-established communal living and, as a consequence of the so-called re-catholicisation in hungary’s eastern and northern regions, carried the movement fi rst to wallachia and southern russia in , and eventually to the united states and canada, where hutterite colonies have persisted since (schlachta ). emese bÁlint survival techniques – mission and migration with the intensifi cation of migration of anabaptists into moravia, the hutterite brethren maintained the functionality of the bruderhof by creating new colonies. after reaching a critical size of – members, a bruderhof would start a new house and a small group of believers would move to the new location. their new identity and the new organizational form allowed for extensive missionary work. according to their agree- ments with the protecting patrons, the brethren had to refrain from proselytizing among the local population, thus they had to engage in missionary work that targeted distant places. this became a standard principle, as their mission activities mobilized to assemble the elect in the last days awaiting christ’s imminent return. at the same time, it proved to be a survival strategy: from the very start of the movement, in order to sustain this dy- namic and a steady number of members, hutter organized emigration from the tyrol that provided a large part of the anabaptist population in moravia. hutter’s infl uence on both sides of the alps turned the brenner pass into a constant channel of migration and mutual stimulus between the small clandestine communities (firpo : – ). although their communities were situated in moravia, the hutterites were active in a larger area by systematically sending out missionaries. the s saw a lively spread of anabaptism throughout the austrian territories of the habsburg empire, especially in ty- rol and in carinthia. in tyrol in particular, anabaptism was by far the strongest trend, and remained so until far into the second half of the sixteenth century, in spite of a government that ruthlessly fought all ‘heretics’ wherever they could be ferreted out. in the other ger- man lands of the empire, hutterites generated powerful movements in swabia and hesse, and also sent missionaries into the rhine valley, bavaria and switzerland. claus-peter clasen ( : – ) has identifi ed more hutterite immigrants from swabia than from the tyrol, although he estimates that the tyroleans were more numerous in the hutterite leadership. only franconia and thuringia remained largely untouched by their infl uence. about four-fi fths of the missionaries who were sent out were martyred, but most of their converts managed to arrive in moravia. once arrived, they were directed by the elders to the host community where they had to follow the procedures of integration. according to one report, newly arrived believers were sent from one community to the next until they fi nally came to the bishop, who assigned them to various communities. believers from one area were not kept together but dispersed over several communities. in the s, for example, emigrants from hesse could be found in eighteen communities and from würt- temberg in no less than twenty-two. people from a single village, urbach, were living in seven different communities (clasen : ). migration to moravia was not on a mass scale but included a considerable number of families, sometimes neighbourhoods or a whole congregation. following the missionary work of francesco della sega, who made several trips between and , almost all the inhabitants of cinto, a little borgo situated on the road between pordenone and por- togruaro in northern italy, converted and migrated to pausram (now pouzdřany) in mora- via (firpo : – ). also, large numbers of venetians and friulans had headed to moravia via capodistria and trieste (stella : ). because it was dangerous, the journey was carried out in small groups called völker. from the tyrol, for example, these migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe small groups travelled the river routes on the inn and the danube, and then proceeded on foot through the forests to moravia. missionaries were also skilled in advising the emi- grants on how to get their money and property to moravia without their rulers’ knowledge (stayer : ). the numbers leaving were sometimes so large, or resources taken along so great, that the civil authorities took steps to stop the movement, both by counter-persuasion and by penalties, including confi scation of property and imprisonment, both of those departing and the missionaries. persecutions could be extremely brutal. one contemporary source claimed that prior to no less than one thousand people had been executed, and that stakes were burning all along the inn valley in the tyrol (clasen : – ). hut- terite missionaries could always be found where magisterial mandates threatened the lives of the anabaptists. brothers always had epistles and tracts in their knapsack beside a small notebook in which they entered notes during their mission trips, such as informa- tion on prospective emigrants (schlachta : ). when arrested and imprisoned by the venetian santo uffi zio in , the missionary giulio gherlandi, sent from pausram to northern italy, carried a long list of more than forty places and contact persons to be visited during his travel (suv, busta : – ). migration to the new settlements and the networks maintained by the hutterite mis- sionaries were intricately intertwined. in recent years, research on migration (and ethnic communities) has increasingly regarded networks as essential sources of social organiza- tion and resource mobilization. networks direct our attention toward a broad context of migration: to kinship groups, communities and economic activities in both countries of origin and settlement, and in between (gold ). the hutterite case follows a process of collective transformation involving the use of old social networks to produce new ones. instead of individual uprooting, disorganization and adjustment, with this new dimen- sion one can see collective action and shared struggle when discussing organized migrant networks. following the same logic, rather than wholesale importation (and subsequent degradation) of cultural traits, one can observe collective fabrication of new cultures from old materials. further, by understanding migration as a network-based process, we are better able to emphasize its embedded quality in a series of political, ethnic, familial and communal relationships and environments. the hutterite case is an outstanding example for understanding migration as not only the rational and economic outcome of individual agency but as an interlaced implication of a broader range of social, cultural, religious and symbolic issues. if we see anabaptist migration as defi ned by networks, one of the implications is that the integrated social structure of the hutterite brethren infl uenced and changed the types of migration. the importance of social networks becomes clearer when we stop thinking about migration as a single homogeneous experience, and start recognizing its sharply contrasting forms. a rough but useful typology distinguishes colonizing, coerced, circu- lar, chain and career migration (tilly : ). for our case, we can focus on two types: coerced and chain migrations. coerced migration entails obligatory departure, forced severing of most or all ties at the origin, and little or no personal connection between the migrants and people at the destination. the fi rst phase of hutterite migration illustrates this well. just to briefl y recapitulate: the infl ux of religious refugees to moravia resulted emese bÁlint in a rather heterogeneous collective of radical believers, some of them anabaptists, some anti-trinitarian, and some evangelical. after several internal crises, the hutterite move- ment acquired a stable character, which meant that it became ideologically and structur- ally integrated. this kind of homogeneity forged a strong identity, and a large number of incoming refugees could be accommodated. coerced migration thus transformed into chain migration. chain migration involved sets of related individuals or households who moved from one place to another through a set of social arrangements in which people at the desti- nation provided aid, information and encouragement to the newcomers. because of the risky nature of moving large numbers of refugees, they also had to think of safe routes, channels to take them from the origin to the destination. newcomers were received under pressure to obey hutterite rules; accordingly, they had to give up their possessions and the family-centred life that they had been previously practising. once in moravia, the groups were integrated into the existing colonies, some prosperous, others almost extinct, and yet others completely new. from this point on, the identity of the refugees was formed by the integrating force of the religion. they left tyrol as anabaptists (whatever that vague term meant) and in moravia became hutterites with very well defi ned internal rules and moral conduct. survival techniques – writing the faith while the anabaptist movement in moravia was still fl uid in the s, the crystal- lization of the hutterite faction ushered in a different strategy that was equally important for the survival of the group. by writing the history of their movement, the hutterites distinguished themselves among the other anabaptist groups. the bishop (vorsteher) of the entire brotherhood (gemeinde) had a very important role in keeping the community together, to strengthen the identity and cohesion of the group. alongside his spiritual and temporal duties, the bishop conducted an elaborate correspondence of the brotherhood, mainly with the missionaries abroad and with those who were held in captivity. with the epistles (sendbriefe), he had to comfort all who suffered tribulation and affl iction. franc- esco della sega, the hutterite missionary imprisoned and tortured in venice, received a letter from his bishop in moravia written in italian, his mother tongue (szebeni : – ). furthermore, the bishop oversaw the observance of the inner discipline of the church, and wrote down the essential regulations and ordinances of the brotherhood to serve as a permanent standard. in particular the vorsteher andreas ehrenpreis ( – in saba- tisch) excelled in this activity, collecting old orders and adding new ones to keep the brotherhood in good condition (loserth – friedmann ). at the bishop’s headquarters they seem to have kept orderly archives where all material of signifi cance was collected; incoming and outgoing epistles, offi cial writings, doctrinal statements, records about martyrs, records about the affairs of the brotherhood itself, notes on weather and prices of farm products, regulations, and elders’ speeches. many such archival sources have been collected in the publication project by the german society for reformation history migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe (verein für reformationsgeschichte) since the s. the series quellen zur geschichten der täufer (prior to , wiedertäufer) has published eighteen thematic volumes, and the quellen zur geschichten der täufer in der schweiz has four volumes. at present, we know of hutterite manuscripts that have survived and are dispersed in different collections worldwide (rauert – rothkegel ). among these sources, the chronicles, which are collections of the materials found in the archive of the vorsteher, are of great importance. these were wellsprings from which inspiration and strength could be drawn, as well as assurance that their way was the right one. the fi rst such chronicle, the so-called great chronicle was started under the guid- ance of vorsteher peter walpot ( – ). the original manuscript is no longer extant, what has survived is a copy in a bulky volume of folio leaves, continuously written until when it ends abruptly with a letter of supplication to the mennonite brethren in holland. more than one fi fth of the great chronicle is made up of inserts of doctrinal statements and epistles, and it also contains doctrinal material taken from proceedings of religious debates or from other documents in the archive. for instance, only the great chronicle has the ‘five articles of the greatest disagreement between us and the world’ ( ). at the year , a lengthy insert describes in detail the organization and the work of the brotherhood, a major source of our knowledge about the life of the hutterites (friedmann ). in the manner of annals, all important events were registered in the chronicle: appointment and confi rmation of pastors and stewards, the death of the pas- tors and of the ‘servants of temporal needs’, predation suffered by the community at the hands of different armies, loss of property, fi res, as well as the purchase of new properties, ‘starting new houses’. characteristic of this history-minded strategy of the hutterites, the great chronicle has been copied several times in smaller denkbüchlein, memorandum booklets or simply chronicles. to a certain extent they are only excerpts from the ‘larger’ chronicle, omit- ting much of the non-annalistic material, but partly they are original works with their own (unknown, mostly oral) sources. they partly overlap and have the same contents, but they also bring new data otherwise not available, thereby enriching our knowledge in many details. most of these chronicles continue their story almost to the end of the seventeenth century, several authors working successively on them, similar to the way the great chronicle was composed. nineteen such chronicles are known today; they were confi scated by the jesuits in the eighteenth century and kept in libraries. these chronicles (codices enumerated from a to t) were combined like a mosaic and published by josef beck ( ). the special interest surrounding the anabaptists is not a new one. up until the s there were sev- eral generations of mainly confessional researchers in germany, switzerland, the netherlands, the united kingdom, canada and the united states, who studied currents in the german reformation. more recently, “postconfessional” and secular scholars have studied the radicals, broadening religious issues and focusing on the social context and on the history of practice. a third generation of interpreters are bringing more weight to religious motives behind reformation radicalism (stayer ). geschichts-buch und kurzer durchgang vom anfang der welt . . . , also called unser gemain geschicht- buch. the manuscript was published by rudolf wolkan ( ), and a critical edition was published by a. j. f. ziegelschmid ( ). emese bÁlint there was no such continuation during the years of decline. after about years, bishop johannes waldner decided to write a sequel to the fi rst chronicle, and recorded events from to . he called the new chronicle denkwürdigkeiten (memorabilia), and fi rst repeated briefl y the entire story of the former book with new and signifi cant additions, then carried the story forward from the year to the moment when the carinthian migrants joined the nearly extinct brotherhood in transylvania around (taking his material from written and oral sources otherwise unknown). the new book, now called the small chronicle, consists of folio leaves. although the moravian anabaptists never succeeded in creating common doctrines and practices and their descendants have remained divided to this day, the moravian ex- perience was not merely a marginal part of the great anabaptist story. out of these di- vergent tendencies grew a strong sect that managed to survive exile through a radical social experiment and by building resource-providing solidarity and trust. the hutterite colonies fl ourished for a long period while other sects disappeared within a few years. the factors that determined the advance and survival of the hutterites point beyond religious motives. staying together to survive better was a successful practice only in case of a sin- gle cohesive group. nevertheless, cohesion did not come naturally but needed the strong intervention of several powerful leaders, who added ideology-based social components until its religious profi le and identity was forged. settled in a hostile environment, the most distinctive feature in the hutterites’ profi le was their model of control through the community of goods. between and a series of confl icts and divisions led to the emergence of a distinct and unifi ed body with a uniform faith, a homogeneous structure, uniform daily routines and standardized economic enterprises. this social experiment was dependent on their integrated social structure so they could cope with an aggressive environment and resist assimilation. bibliography beck, josef : die geschichtsbücher der wiedertäufer in oesterreich-ungarn, betreffend deren schicksale in der schweiz, .... und süd-russland in der zeit von bis . druck von adolf holzhausen. wien. bender, h. s. : schwertler. in: global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. retrieved january , from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=schwertler&oldid= . chronicle : the chronicle of the hutterian brethren vol. i-ii. translated and published by the hutterian breth- ren. plough publishing house, rifton, ny. clasen, claus-peter : anabaptism. a social history, – . cornell university press. ithaca. eberhard, w. : reformation and counterreformation in east central europe. in t. a. brady jr. – h. a. oberman – j. d. tracy (eds): handbook of european history – vol. . brill, leiden, – . the manuscript was published by a. j. f. ziegelschmid ( ). recently, the english translations of the ziegelschmid editions of the great chronicle and of the small chronicle were published by the hutterian brethren. migration and survival of the hutterite brethren in central europe estep, william r. : the anabaptist story. an introduction to sixteenth-century anabaptism. william b. eerdmans publishing company, grand rapids, mi. firpo, massimo : riforma protestante ed eresie nell’italia del cinquecento. editori laterza. roma. fischer, christoph : der hutterischen wiedertauffer taubenkobel, in welchem all ihr mist, kot und unfl at . . . zu fi nden, auch des grossen taubers, des jakob huters leben . . . angehängt. ingolstadt. friedmann, robert a: community of goods. in: global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. retrieved january , from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=community_of_goods &oldid= . b: hutterite chronicles. in: global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. retrieved feb from http://gameo.org/index.php?title =hutterite_ chronicles &oldid = . : gemeindeordnungen (hutterite brethren). in: global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online retrieved april , from http://www.gameo.org/ encyclopedia/contents/ g .html goertz, h-j – j.m. stayer : radikalität und dissent im . jahrhundert – radicalism and dissent in the sixteenth century. duncker & humblot, berlin. gold, s. j. : migrant networks: a summary and critique of relational approaches to international migration. in m. romero – e. margolis (eds): the blackwell companion to social inequalities. blackwell publishing, malden, ma, – . haude, sigrun : gender roles and perspectives among anabaptist and spiritualist groups. in j. d. roth – j. m. stayer (eds): a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, – . brill, leiden, – . horvath, eugene j. – maria krisztinkovich : a history of haban ceramics. a private view. vancouver. hruby, f. : die wiedertäfer in mähren. m. heinsius, leipzig. hubmaier, balthasar : on the sword. in w.r. estep jr. – b. de graaf (eds): anabaptist beginnings ( – ). a source book. nieuwkoop, – . krisztinkovich, béla : haban pottery. corvina press, budapest. loserth, johann – robert friedmann : diener am wort. in: global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. retrieved feb , from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=diener_am_wort&oldid= . packull, werner o. : hutterite beginnings. communitarian experiments during the reformation. the johns hopkins university press, baltimore and london. pajer, jiři : studie o novokřtěncích. nakladatelství etnos. strážnice, – . : anabaptist faience from moravia – . etnos publishing, strážnice. rauert, mathias h. – martin rothkegel : katalog der hutterischen handschriften und der drucke aus hutterischem besitz in europa, vol. – . gütersloher verlaghaus. ridovics anna : a magyar nemzeti múzeum habán kerámiái a - . századból. [ th– th century haban ceramics in the hungarian national museum]. in: folia historica / ( ), – . rothkegel, martin : anabaptism in moravia and silesia. in j. d. roth – j. m. stayer (eds): a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, – . brill, leiden, – . santo uffi cio di venezia, busta , ff. – . emese bÁlint schlachta, astrid von : searching through the nations: tasks and problems of sixteenth-century hutterian mission. the mennonite quarterly review ( ), – . : from the tyrol to north america. pandora press, kitchener, ontario. stayer, james m. : the german peasants’ war and anabaptist community of goods. mcgill-queen’s press, mon- treal. : the radical reformation. in t. a. brady jr. – h. a. oberman – j. d. tracy (eds): handbook of european history – , vol. . brill, leiden, – . : anabaptists and the sword. wipf and stock publishers, eugene, or. : introduction. in j. d. roth – j. m. stayer (eds): a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, – . brill, leiden, xiii–xxv. stella, aldo : anabattismo e antitrinitarismo in italia nel xvi secolo. liviana, padova. szebeni, olivér : anabaptisták [anabaptists]. magyarországi baptista egyház, budapest. thiessen, victor : enclaves of tolerance: noble patrons and anabaptist subjects to the s. in a. schubert – a. v. schlachta – m. driedger (eds): grenzen des taeufertums/boundaries of anabaptism. gütersloher verlaghaus, munich, – . tilly, charles : transplanted networks. in v. yans-mclaughlin (ed.): immigration reconsidered. oxford univer- sity press, oxford, – . wolkan, rudolf : geschicht-buch der hutterischen brüder. vienna. zÁgoni, jenő : hauß buech, darein wier brueder zu allwintz unser hauß, hof, acker, weingartten, gärtten, und alle liegende gietter beschreiben […]’. baptista levéltár, budapest. ziegelschmid, a. j. f. : die älteste chronik der hutterischen brüder. carl schurz memorial foundation, philadelphia. : das klein-geschichtsbuch der hutterischen brüder. carl schurz memorial foundation, philadel- phia, pa. n h u n g a ri a n k in g d o m h ut te ri te m ig ra tio ns in e ur op e – by k ar lis ; a va ila bl e un de r c re at iv e c om m on s a tt ri bu tio n – (s lig ht ly m od ifi ed ) museum collections [pdf] maple syrup urine disease hair reveals the importance of -methyleicosanoic acid in cuticular delamination. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /j.micron. . . corpus id: maple syrup urine disease hair reveals the importance of -methyleicosanoic acid in cuticular delamination. @article{smith maplesu, title={maple syrup urine disease hair reveals the importance of -methyleicosanoic acid in cuticular delamination.}, author={j. smith and j. a. swift}, journal={micron}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	j. smith, j. a. swift 	published 	chemistry, medicine 	micron -methyleicosanoic acid ( -mea) is thought to be covalently bound to the outer surface of human hair and is a major component of the outer beta-layer of the cuticular cell membrane complex (ccmc). cuticular delamination, whether this occurs between the outer beta- and delta-layers or within the plane of the beta-layer, results in a fresh layer of -mea being exposed at the newly-revealed surface. hair from patients with maple syrup urine disease (msud), however, does not contain -mea and… expand view on pubmed researchportal.port.ac.uk save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations view all figures and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure view all figures & tables 	maple syrup urine disease 	 -methyleicosanoic acid 	transmission electron microscopy 	scanning electron microscopy 	anatomical layer 	negative regulation of border follicle cell delamination 	microscopy, atomic force 	keto acids 	iridium 	thioctic acid 	hair 	cuticular layer of tympanic membrane 	twins, conjoined 	 -methyl- -oxobutanoate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) 	plasma membrane 	syrup drug form 	acer 	cuticle 	one thousand 	alpha-mannosidosis citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency lipid distribution and influence on hair structure 	m. maneli, k. mkentane, n. khumalo 	chemistry, medicine 	international journal of cosmetic science 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed determination of physicochemical properties of delipidized hair. 	r. mcmullen, d. laura, susan chen, d. koelmel, g. zhang, t. gillece 	medicine, chemistry 	journal of cosmetic science 	 	 save alert research feed investigation of gene and cellular therapies to cure maple syrup urine disease (msud) in a genetically engineered mouse model 	k. skvorak 	biology 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed developmental defects of caenorhabditis elegans lacking branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase are mainly caused by monomethyl branched-chain fatty acid deficiency* 	fan jia, mingxue cui, minh t than, m. han 	biology, medicine 	the journal of biological chemistry 	 	 	 save alert research feed genetic control/involvement in hair fiber traits 	c. robbins 	biology 	 	 save alert research feed the hair follicle enigma 	b. bernard 	medicine 	experimental dermatology 	 	 	 save alert research feed age‐dependent changes in damage processes of hair cuticle 	t. takahashi, a. mamada, steven breakspear, t. itou, n. tanji 	biology, medicine 	journal of cosmetic dermatology 	 	 save alert research feed physicochemical aspects of the performance of hair-conditioning formulations 	laura fernández-peña, e. guzmán 	materials science 	 	 	 save alert research feed hair medulla morphology and mechanical properties. 	r. wagner, i. joékes 	materials science, medicine 	journal of cosmetic science 	 	 save alert research feed recovery of covalently linked fatty acid monolayer on the hair surface using biomimetic lipid 	ei-suk kim, s. son, cheon-koo lee 	chemistry 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency hairs from patients with maple syrup urine disease show a structural defect in the fiber cuticle. 	l. jones, d. j. peet, d. danks, a. negri, d. e. rivett 	biology, medicine 	the journal of investigative dermatology 	 	 	highly influential 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the role of -methyleicosanoic acid in the structure and formation of mammalian hair fibres. 	l. jones, d. e. rivett 	chemistry, medicine 	micron 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed maple syrup urine disease: it has come a long way. 	d. chuang 	biology, medicine 	the journal of pediatrics 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed integral lipids of human hair 	p. w. wertz, d. downing 	chemistry, medicine 	lipids 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed degradation of human hair by papain 	a. holmes 	materials science 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed enzyme activity in classical and variant forms of maple syrup urine disease. 	j. dancis, j. hutzler, s. snyderman, r. cox 	medicine 	the journal of pediatrics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed integral lipids of mammalian hair. 	p. w. wertz, d. downing 	biology, medicine 	comparative biochemistry and physiology. b, comparative biochemistry 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed a novel deletion creating a new terminal exon of the dihydrolipoyl transacylase gene is a founder mutation of filipino maple syrup urine disease. 	c. l. silao, c. padilla, m. matsuo 	biology, medicine 	molecular genetics and metabolism 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed microscopical investigations on the epicuticle of mammalian keratin fibres 	j. a. swift, joshua r. smith 	biology, medicine 	journal of microscopy 	 	 	view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed cleavage of integral surface lipids of wool by aminolysis 	d. evans, miklos lanczki 	chemistry 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue eur volume issue cover and back matter table du tome xxviii b a e c h l e r , jean. des principes aux programmes politiques, p. s - e l s t e r, jon. the possibility of rational politics, p. j. f e r r a r e s i , franco. julius evola : tradition, reaction, and the radical right, p. ioj. j e r s c h i n a , jan. a vicious circle in polish circle in polish life ?, p. zji. k n a p p e r t , jan. the bantu languages : an appraisal, p. lyy. m e a d w e l l , hudson. exchange relations between lords and peasants, p- - m u l h a l l , stephen. the theoretical foundations of liberalism, p. . m u r r a y , oswyn. cities of reason, p. . m u t e l , jacques. edo et tdkyo : les continuity du pouvoir, p. . q v g l e y, ueclan. ethnicity without nationalism : the newars of nepal, p. . s a n t a h a r i a , —j black jews : the religious challenge or politics versus religion, p. . t a k e n o b o k , georges. l'institution militaire et le pouvoir sovigtiques apres brezhnev, p. . w a l d r o n, jeremy. can communal goods be human rights ?, p. . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core impr merie f. paillart a b b e v i l l e issn - le g rant : j a c q u e s l a u t m a n printed in france cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core european journal of sociology numiros spcciaux v - s p e c i a l i s s u e s •*> sondernummern i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i industrial society and rep- resentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. i le sabre et la loi. on the welfare state. i- universitst im umbau : anpassung oder wider- stand ? i in quest of political par- ticipation. trois etudes sur la science. i organisation der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. i simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. i alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. on suicide. i paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. i weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'ecole. zur problematik der mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. i survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass media. i la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. i permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. i permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? i the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... i faith and power. citoyens armes, pretoriens desarme's. i observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. i structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. i might and rite. whither the unwithered state ? xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi xxvii xxviii i i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de l'egalite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rise of religion. racines aristocratiques de la democratic michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. watersheds. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik? tending the roots : nation- alism and populism. necessity de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles outres. uber politisches handeln. liberalism: a communitar- ian critique. les smes completes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mentionnies page de la couverture. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies societes civilisations fondateurs : lucien febvre ef marc bloch. oirecleur : fernand braudel revue bimestrielle publiee depuis avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et de i'ecole des haules eludes en sciences sociales comit de direction : charles m o r a z g andre burguiere - marc ferro - jacques le goff emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel - lucette valensi secretaire de la redaction : bernard lepetit e annee - n° septembre-octobre organiser le travail, xix'-xxe siecles georges ribeill, gestion et organisation du travail dans les compagnies de chemins de fer, des origines a patrick fridenson, un tournant taylorien de la societe francaise ( - ) aimee moutet, une rationalisation du travail dans i'industrie francaise des annees alain dewerpe, miroirs d'usines : photographies industrielles et organisa- tion du travail a i'ansaldo ( - ) christophe charle, le pantouflage en france (vers -vers ) histoire sociale (comptes rendus) polemiques et controverses wladimir berelowitch, a propos de « sovietologie » marc ferro, trois remarques pour un debat l'imaginaire medieval marie-christine pouchelle, mots, fluides et vertiges : les fetes orales de la mystique chez gautier de coinci stanislaw bylina, l'enfer en pologne medievale (xive-xve siecles) redaction : boulevard raspail, paris abonnements . france : f - etudlants france : f • stranger : f • le numero : f - le numero special (double) : f les abonnements doivent stre souscrits aupres d'armand colin £diteur, b. p. - vineuil cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contributions d la connalssance des ilites africaines / tchad regards sur les elites ouaddaiennes issa hassan khayar • les elites tchadlennes, et plus particulierement ouaddaiennes, pendant les pirlodes pricolontale et co/on/o/e et (eur evolution : comment les systemes du- catlfs et les institutions politiques de ces ipoques ont produit leurs mites et quelk italt leur capaciti d'adaptatlon aux diverses volutions et a leur peuple • changement et continuity au tchad; termes de rifirence; mithodes de i'ftude • formation du tchad • le ouaddai et ses elites • rapports des illtes aux partis politiques x / p. / brocm cart. isbn - - - f quai anatole france. paris ccp paris - - t o . . . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core ocial problems established in , social problems is one of the most widely read and highly regarded journals in the social sciences. as a general journal of research and theory, it features work covering a wide range of topics, methods, and theoretical approaches to the study of social problems. recent issues include articles on political scandals, television violence and violent crime, mental illness among the homeless, the anti-nuclear power movement, abuse of the elderly, and the origins of sexual psychopath laws. occa- sionally, entire issues of the journal are devoted to important themes such as feminist thought ami women's problems or critical perspectives on social problems and critninologicai theory. throughout its history, the journal's editors hove emphasized both scholarly excefience- and stylistic clarify in publishing work that will b<? of interest to a broad readership. r i t forwbwriprtort/mambwh^informbrt^oth „ ; f . unsvenslyofcolifbfmaprattjomntau - ' ' ' ' ' ;'•'•:• •' berkrfiyvlfay ' ' * ' - ^ cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue frangaise de sociologie - , rue pouchet, paris cedex - tel. : ou janvier-mars , xxix- t r a v a i l : d'autres j a l o n s etudes reunies et presentees par jean-rene treanton regulation de controle et regulation autonoma dans les organisations l'amilioration des conditions de travail entre chec et institutionnalisation les hmong a i'usine le paritarisme contre les experts l'exemple du btp la formation des travailleurs qualifies en france et en grande-bretagne syndicalisme et society en am rique latine note de recherche les jeunes en stage « - ans » note critique technologie, qualification et division sexuelle du travail les livres jean-daniel reynaud frangoise piotet jean-pierre hassoun philippe casella, lucie tanguy, pierre tripier beatrice appay alain touraine philippe geminel helena hirata et chantal rogerat isbn : - - -x abonnements : l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser directemeni a : centrale des revues, cdr i i , rue gossin, montrouge cedex — tel. : (i) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numero de i'annee en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numeros) france f etranger f vente au numero : par correspondance : presses du cnrs, - , rue saint-armand. paris. tel. : ( ) . . . — telex : f. a la librairie du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris. tel. : ( ) . . . . tarif : le numero f cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv - a n i e i i , margaret s. process without system, xxiv . a r j o m a n d , said amir. the shi'ite hierocracy and the state in pre- modem iran : - , xxii . a u g u s t i n s , georges. esquisse d'une comparaison des systemes de per- petuation des groupes domestiques dans lei societes paysannes europeennes,- xxiii . b a b a d z a n , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquer des ritat ? xxv . b a i c b l k r , jean. les origines de la democratic grecque, xxi . la nourriture des hommes. essai sur le neoli- thique, xxiii . b k e t h a m , david* michels and his critics, xxii . b < k < t o h , philippe. la dynamlque revolutionnaire ou la logique du totalitarisme. a propos de l'interpretation de la revolution francaise par augustin cochin, xxii . b e n - r a f a e l , elieier and sasha whitman. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . c a h n m a n, werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h e r k a o u i , mohamed. changement social et anomie : essai de formali- tation de la theorie durkheimienne, xxii . c o s e r , lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . d r i e s s e n , henk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth- century andalusia, xxiv . b i s e n i t a d t , shmuel n. tbe axial age : the emergence of trancendental visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . elster, jon. negation active et negation passive. essai de sociologie ivanienne, xxi . farmer, mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : tome misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , renee c. is religion important in belgium ? xxiii . g o o d e l l , grace. from status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . g r a y , john n. lamb auctions on tht borders, xxv . g r x b n f e l d , liah. the role of the public in the success of artistic styles, xxv . g u r e v i c b , aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to tht new french historiography, xxiv . h a l l i d a y , terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv . h a l s k y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british post- war sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h e l l i n g , ingeborg. das erklarungsmodell der situationslogik bei popper : eine logiscbe rekonstruktion und kri- tik, xxiii . j a n i k , allan. schorske's vienna, xxii t. k a h a n e, reuven. religious diffusion and modernization : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indonesia and its impact on social change, x x i . k a n t o w s k y , detlef. die rezeption der hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max webers in siidasien : ein mipverstand- nis ? xxiii . k b d o u r i e , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, xxv a. k e m e h y , jim. professional ideologies and organizational struc- ture : tanks and the military, xxiv a. k e n n a , margaret e. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek internal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatoli! m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r n e , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'societe des observa- teurs de l'homme', xxiii . kumar, krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-century england : theoretical and comparative perspec- tives, xxiv . kuper, adam. the man in the study and the man in the field. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi x. l i e b e r s o h n , harry. leopold von wiese and the ambivalence of func- tionalist sociology, xxiii . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i n d h o l m , charles. linages of the pa than : th* uiefulnsu of colonial ethnography, xxi a. m a c h e r x l , claude. don et reciprocity en einope, xxiv . m a l a m o u d , charles. simantique et rhe'torique flans la hierarchic hin- doue des • buts de l'homme >, xxiii . m a n h , michael the autonomous power of the state, xxv . m e r q u o r, jo«< guilherme. mort a l'homo ceconomicus ? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'laws of nature', xxii . mo u s e n , wolfgang j. max weber and roberto mlchels. ai!""asymmet- rical partnership, xxii . m o t s , david. the kidnapping and murder oi aldo moro, xxii . o i i i l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t , sandra. blessed bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmetric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o o , glanfranoo. the place of political concern! in the early tocial science*, xxi . ray, laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum practice, xxii . r h o d e s , aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives in political machines, xxv . r o n i o e b , luis. modem patron-client relations and historical elientelism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv . r s s e l , jakob. the economy of an indian tempi*: landed endow ment and sacred food, xxiv z. r u l e , james b. law and strategy in aociologioal explanation, xxv . r u h c i u a x , w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history ? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of francs, xxiv . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in pott-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a k r m a n , e. m. zu problemen der sozialttkonomitcben gesehich- te roms, xxi . s w a u t z , david. classes, educational systems and labor mar- kets, xxii . t a p p e r, nancy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv x. t b a o o o t t , mark. dnrkheim and social movements, xxv . u r r y , james. who are the mennonite* ? xxiv . v a n p a r i j s , philippe. sociology as general economics, xxii . vvkxde, erich. ordnungspolitfk and slcherheitspolitik all el*> mente der sichenmgspolitik, xxv . w k i m o r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, xxii z. w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w e i t m a n , sasha and eliezer ben-rapaxl. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . wlkdolf, paul. l'expanskm de renseignement et la surquaufica- tlon sur le march* dn travail, xxv i. w o o d , geoffrey. frazer's magic wand of anthropology : inter- preting th* golden boutk, xxiii z. z a r e t , david. ideology and organization in puritaniem, xxi t . i s s n - n o v e m b e r c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpinrton street, cambridge cb irp east th street, new york n y , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core gesink et al. bmc public health , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / research article open access who are the under- and never- screened for cancer in ontario: a qualitative investigation dionne gesink *, alanna mihic , joan antal , brooke filsinger , c sarai racey , daniel felipe perez , todd norwood , farah ahmad , nancy kreiger , and paul ritvo , abstract background: observed breast, cervical and colon cancer screening rates are below provincial targets for the province of ontario, canada. the populations who are under- or never-screened for these cancers have not been described at the ontario provincial level. our objective was to use qualitative methods of inquiry to explore who are the never- or under-screened populations of ontario. methods: qualitative data were collected from two rounds of focus group discussions conducted in four communities selected using maps of screening rates by dissemination area. the communities selected were archetypical of the ontario context: urban, suburban, small city and rural. the first phase of focus groups was with health service providers. the second phase of focus groups was with community members from the under- and never- screened population. guided by a grounded theory methodology, data were collected and analyzed simultaneously to enable the core and related concepts about the under- and never-screened to emerge. results: the core concept that emerged from the data is that the under- and never-screened populations of ontario are characterized by diversity. group level characteristics of the under- and never- screened included: ) the uninsured (e.g., old order mennonites and illegal immigrants); ) sexual abuse survivors; ) people in crisis; ) immigrants; ) men; and ) individuals accessing traditional, alternative and complementary medicine for health and wellness. under- and never-screened could have one or multiple group characteristics. conclusion: the under- and never-screened in ontario comprise a diversity of groups. heterogeneity within and intersectionality among under- and never-screened groups adds complexity to cancer screening participation and program planning. keywords: cancer screening, qualitative methods, sexual abuse, mennonites, ethics background cancer screening rates are below targeted rates for breast, cervical and colon cancer for the province of ontario in canada [ ], despite the cost of screening being covered by health insurance (appendix i). we believe the difference between observed and targeted cancer screening rates is attributable to two populations: an under-screened popu- lation, comprising individuals who are eligible for screen- ing, and have been screened in the past, but are not up to date on their screening currently (e.g. women over years of age with more than three years between cervical cancer * correspondence: dionne.gesink@utoronto.ca dalla lana school of public health, university of toronto, college st, toronto, on m t m , canada full list of author information is available at the end of the article © gesink et al.; licensee biomed central commons attribution license (http://creativec reproduction in any medium, provided the or dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.or unless otherwise stated. screening tests); and a never-screened population com- prising individuals who have never been screened for can- cer despite being eligible (e.g. men over years of age who have never been screened with a fecal occult blood test or colonoscopy). most screening studies intended to increase cancer screening rates focus on specific vulnerable and margin- alized populations known to have low cancer screening rates [ - ], such as: immigrants [ - ], ethnic minor- ities [ , , , , ], underserved populations [ , ], uninsured [ , , ], individuals with mental health is- sues [ - ], indigenous populations [ , , , ] and rural residents [ , , ]. these vulnerable and margin- alized populations tend to be localized geographically, resulting in community or neighbourhood level studies ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative ommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and iginal work is properly credited. the creative commons public domain g/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, mailto:dionne.gesink@utoronto.ca http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / designed to inform changes at the local level and to be generalizable to other vulnerable and marginalized popu- lations in other geographic locations. few, if any, studies have sought to explore the under- and never-screened at larger geopolitical and population levels, such as the state or provincial level, or confirm that vulnerable and margin- alized groups have low cancer screening rates when ob- served over a larger area. our objective was to explore who the perceived under- and never- screened populations are for ontario, the sec- ond largest province in canada (covering % of canada’s land mass (total area = , , km ) and capturing two time zones). our intention is to use the results to inform cancer screening programs, intervention activities, policy and practice at the provincial level, and begin to validate the generalizability of other studies findings to the ontario context. methods grounded theory methodology [ ] was used to conduct this qualitative inquiry in an effort to build a substantive theory of who are the under- and never-screened popula- tions of ontario. a constant comparison method was employed iteratively moving back and forth between data collection, analysis, and selective theoretical sampling of participants and literature until the core concepts defining the under- and never-screened populations of ontario emerged from the data [ ]. focus groups were conducted until theoretical saturation was reached [ , ]. we identified communities with low cancer screening rates for all three cancers (below % for breast and cer- vical cancer and below % for colon cancer) using maps [ ] of breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screening rates at the dissemination area level for the province of ontario (maps not shown). twelve communities were identified. we excluded communities with immediately apparent explanations for low rates (e.g. industrial areas or university campus). we also excluded areas with re- gional cancer screening projects already focused on in- creasing cancer screening rates among the under- and never-screened in order to avoid conflicting studies. the remaining four communities were treated as archetype communities, generally representative of other similar communities across ontario: one urban community in a mega-city (population . million in ), one subur- ban community (population slightly over , in ), one small city (population slightly over , in ), and one rural community (population slightly over , in ). we learned who the perceived under-screened and never-screened populations were for each area using an iterative qualitative process involving two rounds of focus group discussions [ , ]. the first round of dis- cussions was with health service providers from each of the four low screening rate communities. health service providers included professionals providing frontline health care or assistance, predominantly in clinic settings, such as: physicians, clinic nurses, nurse practitioners, public health nurses, health promoters, health educators, out- reach workers, clinic directors, and social workers. health service providers were recruited in each community first by interviewing the health director of the local commu- nity health clinic. knowledge was exchanged between the health director, who acted as a key informant, and the re- search team about cancer screening, identifying under- and never- screened populations, and cancer screening priorities for both the clinic and research projects. each health director shared their insights, experiences and net- works of relevant health professional contacts, which re- sulted in a diverse pool of potential health service provider participants. each health director then extended an invi- tation to participate in a focus group to the professionals identified. the second round of focus group discussions was with community members from each of the under- and never- screened populations identified by health service providers in each of four low screening rate communities. recruitment of community members varied by commu- nity, because each under- or never- screened population identified had its own socio-cultural norms and processes around connecting with research, modes of communica- tion, and methods of participant recruitment. we relied on local health service providers and key community in- formants to guide us through the appropriate process. for example, for the urban and suburban communities, community outreach workers who participated in the health service providers focus group recruited community members using a relationship based approach [ ] and co- facilitated focus groups in the language of their commu- nity (e.g. spanish, urdu, and hindi). for the small city, we partnered and coordinated with the salvation army who recruited a volunteer sample of participants from their breakfast program using a venue-based approach [ , ]. finally, we recruited a volunteer sample of participants from the rural community using invitations to health care clinic clients and flyers posted in the local health clinic and around the community. potential participants called the clinic to register for the focus group. the university of toronto research ethics board reviewed and approved this project. the purpose of the study and focus group discussion was reviewed with participants, as was confidentiality of the discussion. potential participants were invited to ask questions and verbal consent to partici- pate was sought. cancer screening rates and maps were shared with con- senting participants, followed by a group discussion about who participants believed were the under- and never- screened, and the perceived barriers and facilitators to gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / screening. barriers and facilitators to cancer screening will be presented in depth elsewhere. the focus group discus- sion guide was the same for health care providers and community members, with the language around questions modified slightly to fit the context of the group. for ex- ample, health care providers were asked about who they do not see coming in for cancer screening, while commu- nity members were asked who they thought did not seek cancer screening. different team members led different focus groups (as appropriate, for example, male researcher led male focus groups) but all were trained in the spirit of what information was being sought from the discussions so there was consistency across groups. focus group dis- cussions lasted approximately one and a half to two hours each and were voice recorded and transcribed. field notes were also taken during each discussion and used to pro- vide context, inform the analysis, and assist interpretations of results. focus group discussions were held between june and may . a classic grounded theory approach was taken in the analysis of the data, where transcripts were read and re- read for familiarity and open coded [ , ] by six inde- pendent analysts [ ] using memoing to document the analysts’ conceptual and theoretical ideas that emerged throughout the process [ ]. analysts came together after independent open coding to review and reconcile similar- ities and differences in emergent categories and their properties. together they developed a delimited coding approach and returned to the data to begin selective coding [ ]. the analysts work was brought together by the main author and analyst dg to develop the substantive theory of who are the under- and never-screened in ontario. we ad- hered to the relevance, appropriateness, transparency and soundness (rats) guidelines while conducting and pre- senting this research (appendix ii). results we conducted four focus groups with health service pro- viders and focus groups with community members from communities with low screening rates for all three cancers (table ). the majority of community participants were under- or never-screened. all urban and suburban community participants were immigrants. the majority of small city and rural community participants were born in canada and white. saturation was reached by the third focus group with health service providers and by the th focus group with community members. we continued to focus groups both to confirm saturation and to honour the under- and never-screened community groups that had already been organized to share their perceptions and recommendations. the core concept that emerged from the data is that the under- and never-screened of ontario are a diverse body of people, similar to the diversity present in the general population of ontario. the related concepts that emerged delineate the qualities of the under- and never-screened populations, including marginal or vulnerable groups, most notably: the uninsured; sexual abuse survivors; and people in crisis; and large segments of the general population, in- cluding: immigrants; men; and individuals accessing trad- itional, alternative and complementary medicine for health and wellness. the related concepts are described with sup- porting quotes and the core concept is then further dis- cussed in the context of the relevant literature. the uninsured ontario residents have access to universal health care through the ontario health insurance program (ohip). unexpectedly, health service providers in urban, suburban and rural areas identified the uninsured, or individuals who do not access ohip coverage, as under- or never- screened in their community: “yes, it has been a taboo issue, even among service providers who acknowledge that part of their clients are uninsured.” (urban health service provider) in the urban setting, the uninsured are often immi- grants who had a claim for refugee status denied but never left canada. community members confirmed that some people were in canada illegally and therefore not insured, and consequently under- or never- screened for cancer. they indicated that the cost of health care and cancer treatment was so high for this group, that they could not afford to be screened: “if the person isn’t legal here, even the eye on the face costs them… if one is not here legally, you have to pay for everything that presents itself.” (urban community member) in the rural setting, health service providers identified old order mennonites as uninsured: “…we have two to three thousand people who are mennonite… they pay taxes… they don’t have ohip.” (rural health service provider) rural community members reviewing maps of cancer screening rates confirmed: “that is the mennonite population and they pay cash when they go to the doctor and the hospital.” (rural community member) rural community members further explained that seeking health care for health problems was rare for old order amish and old order mennonites: table summary characteristics of focus group attendees focus group location culture age gender language number of participants providers urban multicultural + both english suburban east indian and white + female english small city white + female english rural white + female english community urban latina + female spanish hindi-urdu + female hindi-urdu indo-caribbean + female english afro-caribbean + male english suburban indo-caribbean + male english small city street involved + female english ( groups) street involved + male english ( groups) rural rural (white) < female english ( groups) + ( groups) rural (white) + men english ( groups) gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / “there’s a lot of mennonites in this area and i’m not sure that isn’t affecting your [map] …the mennonites are more forward but even them, i’m not sure. but i’m sure the amish wouldn’t see you unless they were dying. they just don’t do that.” (rural community member) old order amish and old order mennonites are some- times called horse and buggy people, or plain people. traveling to town by horse and buggy for preventative care was unlikely: “it’s a half hour drive - if you have a car or somebody can take you there. what about people who don’t have a car or transportation? what about mennonite women? people who don’t have insurance? those are barriers.” (rural community member) sexual abuse survivors sexual abuse survivors were identified as an under- or never- screened group, which makes sense since breast, cervical, and colon cancer screening involve our most intimate sexual body sites. as one health service pro- vider explained: “i’ve been a psychotherapist for years in the community and a large group of female clients who were recovering from childhood sexual abuse and sexual trauma, would never go for a pap test. and part of my working in several cases was to help them consider the possibility of doing it. even women in their fifties and sixties who never had that test done….if they’re hurt may be one thing, but to be screened. no.” (urban health care provider) many sexual abuse survivors do not want physical contact with those areas of their body where screening is focused. some sexual abuse survivors have psychologic- ally dissociated with these areas as a way to cope with their trauma: “and there is a phenomenon that goes along with sexual abuse, particularly with childhood sexual abuse where you psychologically … remove those body parts from your body. like they don’t exist and you ignore that they are there because they’re the source of your trauma and it’s a division. like i have a body, it does not include those parts.” (rural health care provider) people in crisis health service providers also observed that people in cri- sis are usually focused on meeting their basic needs of food, shelter, and safety, and therefore, are unlikely to be screened for cancer: gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / “the folks at our centre, they’re mostly in crisis. so, they’re leading … marginalized lives, so cancer screening is really at the bottom of the list. that’s because there’s serious mental health stuff going on; there’s absolutely no money; there’s no food. how do you think about going for a pap when you can’t feed your kids, for example?” (suburban health service provider) this observation was later validated by several women in a small city: respondent : bus transportation is expensive. you, for a bus pass if you’re not on disability, respondent : you can’t afford it. respondent : you’re taking that from somewhere needed. and most succinctly put by one single mother in a small city when she stated: “i can’t afford to fall down and go boom” the implications of a positive screening test can be a barrier to screening for people living in crisis or poverty. immigrants as expected, health service providers identified several immigrant groups as having low cancer screening rates: “…among the indian population, cervical cancer rate is usually very high for a number of reasons. and they’re the ones who are least screened.” (suburban health care provider) immigrant community members explained that the health paradigms, attitudes, and health care seeking practices that existed in their country of origin, coupled with a lack of knowledge of the canadian health system or the ontario health insurance program (ohip) con- tributed to under-screening, or not getting screened at all: “…as a newcomer when you come, you don’t know what your ohip covers. you don’t know you get a full body check and even so issues like breast cancer, cervical cancer, it’s not something that people like the government in [many] countries would talk about…” (small city community member) “…if you look at the male west indian, particularly, or the male asian particularly, or the afro man, in developing countries, you know, you are taught to do certain things and so when you look at a mature adult, who has come to this country, you know, that mentality carries on.” (suburban community member) stigma and cultural taboos were also identified as im- portant factors that kept immigrants, particularly men, from seeking screening: respondent : “the stigma that is attached to, you know, going to the doctor’s office for things that are considered to be taboo from a testing perspective…” respondent : “especially for a male, yeah.” respondent : “we don’t want to deal with it…even if that word gets out on the street, well, there are so many different ways you’re going to get rubbed about this. it doesn’t sit very well with the ethnic community, in a developing country.” (suburban community members) immigrant community members also explained that lit- eracy and other communication barriers, including eng- lish as a second language, prevented some immigrants from learning about screening: “the reminder comes in english, and many people cannot read english. what do they do? their husband or children look at the envelope, see it’s from some hospital and put it aside. they don’t even bother to open it and see what it is about, let us know what its saying, and tell us to go.” (urban community member) men both health service providers and community members identified men as an under-screened population: “you have to threaten the men to the point where you push them in the door, right?” (rural community member) “most men around here are afraid to go to doctors, you know. unless somebody’s dying you know. actually dying. and if they don’t have somebody to push him to get him to the doctor, maybe he’ll die. they don’t like to go to the doctor .” (urban community member) though many men, if not most men, limit their inter- action with the medical system, there is some contact. rural health service providers described using these mo- ments of contact to address multiple health checks: “see that’s the problem, the men don’t tend to come as much for their health care, it’s hard to catch them for those things. we try and catch them at any visit that they come for…” (rural health service provider) gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / rural health service providers also described the con- ditions under which men will come in to the clinic to seek health care: interviewer: “and when do they finally come in?” respondent : “when they can’t actually walk anymore.” respondent : “their wife called and made the appointment cause she couldn’t stand listening to them anymore.” respondent : “or they’re bleeding from an orifice somewhere.” respondent : “or if it’s impacting their work.” respondent : “after a long time. they’ll put up with a lot before they’ll finally breakdown.” men had a generalized reputation of not accessing health care, and therefore, being under-screened or never- screened for cancer. women were perceived as having more, even regular contact with the medical system and hence, were perceived as being up-to-date with screening. however, similar to grunfeld’s finding with cancer survivors [ ], we found evidence that many women were only up-to-date for one or two of the three cancer screening tests, despite being eligible (fieldnotes). additionally, suburban and rural men indicated that we would find a difference in health care seeking behav- iours between working men and retired men, with re- tired men being more likely to interact regularly with the medical system, including for screening. people accessing traditional, complementary and alternative medicine health service providers indicated that many individuals and groups living in ontario seek traditional and alterna- tive forms of healthcare before, instead of, or in addition to seeking health care services from mainstream contem- porary health care providers and systems: “but i also think it’s not only the uninsured that subscribe to the use of alternative medicine. it’s others. i mean we have so many cultural groups. i know of many as well, you know the african community, the caribbean community who, they believe in traditional medicine, you know not the mainstream medicine, and they will be diagnosed and they will choose not to… they will go back home to drink something, or eat something, but that’s their belief and we have to respect that.” (urban health service provider) urban, suburban and rural community members indi- cated that many community members, especially men, do not want to seek medical care from a physician, preferring to rely on themselves, and described the use of traditional and alternative medicine to facilitate self-healing: “…one of my best friends lost his life this very last year, we went to the funeral. he had prostate cancer for years and years and not even his wife know, and he hide it from the doctor. and when he buy all this herb they tell him about and he boil it and he hide it from his wife. when he died his wife found a whole thing of herb. a whole thing of herb, he’s been drinking herbs for years and years and don’t check on his health, he’s scared of doctor.” (urban community member) “we have a majority of farmers here and the farmers take care of themselves. i’ve seen it where they’ll inject themselves with whatever they give their cows and stuff like that. … antibiotics and stuff. … no seriously. and they will not go to the doctors. their philosophy is … self-healing” (rural community member) discussion the populations perceived by health service providers and community members to have low cancer screening partici- pation in ontario were similar to other studies and included: the uninsured [ , , ], sexual abuse survivors [ - ], people living in crisis, immigrants [ - ], and men [ ]. there was substantial screening heterogeneity within each of these groups, from never-screened to under-screened for all eligible cancers; to up-to-date on some cancer screens but not all eligible screens; to fully screened for all eligible can- cers. there can also be significant overlap between groups. traditional, complementary and alternative medicine (tcam) users were perceived as being less likely to partici- pate in breast, cervical or colon cancer screening programs. this group has not been identified previously. in , % of canadians surveyed had used alternative therapies in their lifetime and % had used alternative therapies in the past year [ ]. this group is very diverse, comprising first nations, multi-generational canadians, farmers and other rural residents, specific ethnic and cultural groups, spiritual groups, philosophical groups, recent immigrants, estab- lished immigrants, and others. tcam users may be less likely to access mainstream cancer screening programs; however, typically this group is conscious of, and active in, their own health, wellbeing and healing, which extends to disease prevention. many will focus on cancer prevention and treatment through diet; exercise; balancing mental, emotional, physical and spiritual health; and following teachings for living a good life [ - ]. they may also seek alternative methods of cancer screening and treatment, and thus be up to date on their cancer screening. gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / the uninsured are a well-recognized group of under/ never screeners in the united states [ - ]. however, we did not expect to learn of an uninsured population in canada, which has a national ‘universal’ health care sys- tem. all canadian residents have health insurance and ac- cess to health care. in particular, old order mennonites presented an unexpected case of “uninsured” because they pay taxes and are eligible for ohip coverage. as explained by an old order mennonite community leader (personal communication, stratford, ontario, october , ), the old order mennonite community does not use ohip be- cause of its effect on their brotherhood, which refers to the community collective, or church, and the mechanism by which community members ask, receive and provide help for each other. the brotherhood is vital to the sur- vival of the community, and so, the old order menno- nites give to the brotherhood and turn to the brotherhood in times of need. turning to insurance in times of need undermines, and so jeopardizes, the brotherhood. conse- quently, the old order mennonites do not use any form of insurance and pay for health care “out of pocket”. in ontario, the uninsured population is relatively small, making cancer screening program decisions around priori- tizing cancer screening efforts and resources to the unin- sured challenging. there are also ethical considerations to balance regarding the cost of out-of-pocket cancer screen- ing and the frequent refusal of cases to follow-up with can- cer treatment. additionally, cervical cancer risk appears to be very low to negligible for the old order mennonites whose religious and cultural practices are highly protective when it comes to sexually transmitted diseases. the sexual abuse survivor population is large [ ] with estimates as high as one in three girls and one in six boys experiencing sexual abuse [ ]. the trauma of abuse impacts health care seeking behaviours among sur- vivors, especially with respect to preventative care [ , ]. dissociation is one complex psychological mechanism many sexual abuse survivors use to cope with their abuse [ , , ]. we were told dissociation may be a barrier to screening because survivors dissociate the parts of their body involved in cancer screening so screening is not even considered because those parts ‘do not exist’. however, dissociation may also facilitate cancer screening by helping some survivors endure an examination if they make it to a screening appointment [ ]. unfortunately, some survi- vors may subsequently dissociate in a negative way, if the screening exam causes them to relive some aspect of their trauma [ , ]. so far, we have presented the under- and never-screened as discrete groups. however, the under- and never- screened can also exist at the intersection of any of these group combinations; for example, abuse survivors living in crisis, or immigrant men relying on folk medicine for health and wellness. empirical data may be used to identify the individual groups; however, it is unlikely that cancer screening programs will routinely collect data that enable the overlap to be identified. intersectionality has its roots at the experiential intersection of gender and race [ , ] and, with minor modification can be expanded to include other social, cultural, demographic and economic factors. modified intersectionality may provide an import- ant and useful framework or tool by which to think through the identity and intervention or program needs of the under- and never-screened. we do not know which participants were under- or never-screened for breast, cervical or colon cancer. we only know that we specified under- and never-screened during recruitment. participants did not differentiate be- tween under- and never-screened characteristics, barriers, or facilitators during group or individual discussions, sug- gesting there may not be a difference between these groups beyond frequency of screening. we also do not know what proportion of the ontario population the different under- or never-screened groups represent, with the exception of “men”. although we know the population of men in ontario, many men are screened and do get screened regularly for colon cancer, so the characteristics of men who are under- or never-screened is still unknown. we did reach saturation with the groups we talked to about who is under and never screened for cancer. however, our initial seed groups were health care providers and so all focus groups were connected with mainstream western medicine, in some way. thus the communities identi- fied will have a history of interaction with mainstream western medicine and so be more likely to be screened for cancer. it is possible that we missed those groups who have limited or no contact with mainstream west- ern medicine. for instance, indigenous communities were not mentioned even though indigenous people are known to have lower cancer screening rates than the general population [ ]. additionally, more groups started to emerge as our project became more widely known, including indigenous communities. one of the lessons learned conducting these focus groups is that many under- and never-screened groups are hard-to-reach. it takes time to identify and reach those communities, and then to connect and build relationships with them. once a relationship has been established and the community is ready to collaborate, the collaboration must be followed through with because collaborations themselves are an intervention bringing under- and never- screened to a forum where ideas and concerns can be heard, misinformation corrected, knowledge exchanged and mutual understanding developed. stopping collabor- ation early can trivialize the relationship, and therefore the group, potentially causing irreparable damage and further marginalizing a population that is already hard to reach. gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / one question emerging from our research is: which, if any, of the under- or never- screened are open to, or willing to consider, regular screening, and which are not? it may be easier to return the under-screened to regular screening than the never-screened because the under-screened have participated in screening in the past. however, it is also possible that the under-screened had experiences, or made decisions, that will stop them from ever getting screened again. along these lines, understanding the reasons for stopping or delaying screening for the under-screened will lend insight into how to prevent individuals from stopping screening in the first place. this will also help distinguish between under-screened individuals who have made a vow, or permanent commitment, not to get screened in the fu- ture, compared to under-screened individuals who are still of two-minds about screening. it is also likely that there are never-screened populations who will never be screened for cancer, no matter how much effort is expended. if this is true, a public health eth- ics question emerges around cancer screening and in- formed freedom of choice, with respect to what might constitute too much external pressure to comply, or unfair manipulation or persuasion. for these individuals, it may be more important to maintain open communication without an emphasis on change. conclusion prioritizing cancer prevention activities is difficult for can- cer screening programs and the under- or never-screened groups identified. add the complexity of being at the inter- section of two or more under- or never-screened groups and cancer screening (and survival) quickly becomes for “one of the lucky ones” (addict, living in crisis, with liver failure) for the under- and never-screened. appendix i: breast, cervical and colon cancer screening program summary for ontario, canada breast cancer screening women years old and older are eligible for breast cancer screening with the ontario breast screening program (obsp) and may refer themselves to the obsp for a mam- mography. women between the ages of to who are at high risk for breast cancer are also eligible but need a referral from their doctor or nurse practitioner to be screened through the obsp. women are recommended to have a mammogram every - years, however, yearly mammograms are recommended for women at high risk for breast cancer. cervical cancer screening women year old and older, who have been sexually active, are eligible for cervical cancer screening every three years, unless their health care provider recom- mends more frequent screening. women must make an appointment with their clinician for pap testing, which is the only cervical cancer screening test covered by health in- surance currently. colon cancer screening women and men years old and older, and individuals at increased risk for colon cancer (i.e. with a family mem- ber – parent, child or sibling – with colorectal cancer) are eligible for colon cancer screening. colon cancer is screened using the fecal occult blood test, which looks for blood in stool, as the first pre-screening test. colonoscopy, which looks for cancer, is recommended for people with unexplained blood in their stool or at increased risk for colon cancer because of family history. some doctors pre- fer to send their patients straight to colonoscopy. the fecal occult blood test (recommended every two years) can be provided by doctors, nurse practitioners, or telehealth ontario. colonoscopy (recommended every years) is only available through a physician. appendix ii: relevance, appropriateness, transparency and soundness (rats) guidelines checklist relevance of study question: . research question explicitly stated – yes . research question justified and linked to existing knowledge base - yes appropriateness of qualitative method . study design described and justified – yes (focus groups for group perceptions, dynamics, higher level (e.g. group) experience and observation, non- sensitive topic) transparency of procedures . criteria for selecting study sample justified and explained – yes, purposive for diversity of opinion, volunteer because hard to reach . details of how recruitment was conducted and by whom - yes . details of who chose not to participate and why – not available . methods outlined and examples given (interview questions) - yes . study group and setting clearly described - yes . end of data collection justified and described - yes . role of researcher- influence on formulation of research question, data collection, interpretation? . informed consent process explicitly and clearly detailed - yes . anonymity and confidentiality discussed - yes . ethics approval cited - yes gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / soundness of interpretive approach . analytic approach described in depth and justified - yes . indicators of quality: description of how themes derived from data (inductive or deductive) . evidence of alternative explanations sought . analysis and presentation of negative or deviant cases - yes . description of the basis on which quotes chosen - yes . semi-quantification when appropriate - yes . illumination of context and/or meaning, richly detailed - yes . method of reliability check described and justified - yes a. six independent analysts reviewed data and contest themes; and b. resolution of disagreements . findings presented with reference to existing theoretical and empirical literature and how they contribute -yes . strengths and limitations explicitly described and discussed - yes . evidence of following guidelines - yes . detail of methods or additional quotes contained in appendix . written for health sciences audience - yes . grounded theory – not a simple content analysis but complex sociological theory generating approach. abbreviation ohip: ontario health insurance program. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors’ contributions dg, am, sr, bf, ja, pr and dfp have made substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; tn, fa and nk made substantial contributions to acquisition of data. dg drafted the manuscript. all authors have been involved in revising the manuscript critically for important intellectual content, given final approval of the version to be published, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. authors’ information dg is an associate professor with the dalla lana school of public health at the university of toronto; am and sr are doctoral candidates with the dalla lana school of public health at the university of toronto; bf and ja are research associates with cancer care ontario; pr and nk are senior scientists with cancer care ontario; pr and fa are associate professors at york university; and dfp is a doctoral student at york university. acknowledgements we thank our community partners, health service providers and community members who helped us with this project. this project was funded through the integrated cancer screening program supported by cancer care ontario. author details dalla lana school of public health, university of toronto, college st, toronto, on m t m , canada. cancer care ontario, toronto, on, canada. york university, toronto, on, canada. received: february accepted: may published: may references . cancer screening – breast, cervical and colorectal. [http://www.csqi.on. ca/comparisons/cancer_screening] . amankwah e, ngwakongnwi e, quan h: why many visible minority women in canada do not participate in cervical cancer screening. ethn health , ( ): – . . ferroni e, camilloni l, jimenez b, furnari g, borgia p, guasticchi g, giorgi rossi p, methods to increase participation working group: how to increase uptake in oncologic screening: a systematic review of studies comparing population-based screening programs and spontaneous access. prev med , ( ): – . . maar m, burchell a, little j, ogilvie g, severini a, yang jm, zehbe i: a qualitative study of provider perspectives of structural barriers to cervical cancer screening among first nations women. womens health issues , ( ):e –e . . red sn, kassan ec, williams rm, penek s, lynch j, ahaghotu c, taylor kl: underuse of colorectal cancer screening among men screened for prostate cancer: a teachable moment? cancer , ( ): – . . sabatino sa, lawrence b, elder r, mercer sl, wilson km, devinney b, melillo s, carvalho m, taplin s, bastani r, rimer bk, vernon sw, melvin cl, taylor v, fernandez m, glanz k, community preventive services task force: effectiveness of interventions to increase screening for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers: nine updated systematic reviews for the guide to community preventive services. am j prev med , ( ): – . . subrahmanian k, petereit dg, kanekar s, burhansstipanov l, esmond s, miner r, spotted tail c, guadagnolo ba: community-based participatory development, implementation, and evaluation of a cancer screening educational intervention among american indians in the northern plains. j cancer educ , ( ): – . . community preventive services task force: updated recommendations for client- and provider-oriented interventions to increase breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screening. am j prev med , ( ): – . . baron rc, melillo s, rimer bk, coates rj, kerner j, habarta n, chattopadhyay s, sabatino sa, elder r, leeks kj, task force on community preventive services: intervention to increase recommendation and delivery of screening for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers by healthcare providers a systematic review of provider reminders. am j prev med , ( ): – . . levy bt, daly jm, luxon b, merchant ml, xu y, levitz ce, wilbur jk: the “iowa get screened” colon cancer screening program. j prim care community health , ( ): – . . coronado gd, petrik a, spofford m, talbot j, do hh, sanchez j, kapka t, taylor v: perceptions of under and overutilization of cervical cancer screening services at latino-serving community health centers. j community health , ( ): – . . latif e: recent immigrants and the use of cervical cancer screening test in canada. j immigr minor health , ( ): – . . lofters ak, hwang sw, moineddin r, glazier rh: cervical cancer screening among urban immigrants by region of origin: a population-based cohort study. prev med , ( ): – . . lofters ak, moineddin r, hwang sw, glazier rh: low rates of cervical cancer screening among urban immigrants: a population-based study in ontario, canada. med care , ( ): – . . nuno t, gerald jk, harris r, martinez me, estrada a, garcia f: comparison of breast and cervical cancer screening utilization among rural and urban hispanic and american indian women in the southwestern united states. cancer causes control , ( ): – . . sun z, xiong h, kearney a, zhang j, liu w, huang g, wang pp: breast cancer screening among asian immigrant women in canada. cancer epidemiol , ( ): – . . xiong h, murphy m, mathews m, gadag v, wang pp: cervical cancer screening among asian canadian immigrant and nonimmigrant women. am j health behav , ( ): – . http://www.csqi.on.ca/comparisons/cancer_screening http://www.csqi.on.ca/comparisons/cancer_screening gesink et al. bmc public health , : page of http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / . chen hy, kessler cl, mori n, chauhan sp: cervical cancer screening in the united states, - : characteristics of women who are never screened. j womens health (larchmt) , ( ): – . . ogedegbe g, cassells an, robinson cm, duhamel k, tobin jn, sox ch, dietrich aj: perceptions of barriers and facilitators of cancer early detection among low-income minority women in community health centers. j natl med assoc , ( ): – . . ackerson k, gretebeck k: factors influencing cancer screening practices of underserved women. j am acad nurse pract , ( ): – . . tangka fk, o'hara b, gardner jg, turner j, royalty j, shaw k, sabatino s, hall ij, coates rj: meeting the cervical cancer screening needs of underserved women: the national breast and cervical cancer early detection program, - . cancer causes control , ( ): – . . aggarwal a, pandurangi a, smith w: disparities in breast and cervical cancer screening in women with mental illness: a systematic literature review. am j prev med , ( ): – . . tilbrook d, polsky j, lofters a: are women with psychosis receiving adequate cervical cancer screening? can fam physician , ( ): – . . yee ef, white r, lee sj, washington dl, yano em, murata g, handanos c, hoffman rm: mental illness: is there an association with cancer screening among women veterans? womens health issues , ( suppl):s –s . . mcdonald jt, trenholm r: cancer-related health behaviours and health service use among inuit and other residents of canada's north. soc sci med , ( ): – . . o'brien ba, mill j, wilson t: cervical screening in canadian first nation cree women. j transcult nurs , ( ): – . . carruth ak, browning s, reed db, skarke l, sealey l: the impact of farm lifestyle and health characteristics: cervical cancer screening among southern farmwomen. nurs res , ( ): – . . yabroff kr, lawrence wf, king jc, mangan p, washington ks, yi b, kerner jf, mandelblatt js: geographic disparities in cervical cancer mortality: what are the roles of risk factor prevalence, screening, and use of recommended treatment? j rural health , ( ): – . . glaser bg, strauss al: the discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitiative research. chicago: aldine publishing company; . . watling cj, lingard l: grounded theory in medical education research: amee guide no. . med teach , ( ): – . . lofters ak, gozdyra p, lobb r: using geographic methods to inform cancer screening interventions for south asians in ontario canada. bmc public health , : . . creswell js: qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among five approaches. nd edition. thousand oaks: sage publications; . . creswell js: research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. rd edition. thousand oaks, ca: sage publication; . . kovach m: indigenous methodologies: characteristics, conversations and contexts. toronto: university of toronto press; . . haley df, golin c, el-sadr w, hughes jp, wang j, roman isler m, mannheimer s, kuo i, lucas j, dinenno e, justman j, frew pm, emel l, rompalo a, polk s, adimora aa, rodriquez l, soto-torres l, hodder s: venue-based recruitment of women at elevated risk for hiv: an hiv prevention trials network study. j womens health (larchmt) : [epub ahead of print]. . muhib fb, lin ls, stueve a, miller rl, ford wl, johnson wd, smith pj, community intervention trial for youth study team: a venue-based method for sampling hard-to-reach populations. public health rep , (suppl ): – . . glaser bg: basics of grounded theory analysis: emergence vs. forcing. mill valley, ca: sociology press; . . walker d, myrick f: grounded theory: an exploration of process and procedure. qual health res , ( ): – . . mays n, pope c: rigour and qualitative research. bmj , ( ): – . . glaser bg: theoretical sensitivity: advances in the methodology of grounded theory. mill valley, calif: sociology press; . . grunfeld e, moineddin r, gunraj n, del giudice me, hodgson dc, kwon js, elit l: cancer screening practices of cancer survivors: population-based, longitudinal study. can fam physician , ( ): – . . farley m, golding jm, minkoff jr: is a history of trauma associated with a reduced likelihood of cervical cancer screening? j fam pract , ( ): – . . bates ck, carroll n, potter j: the challenging pelvic examination. j gen intern med , ( ): – . . olesen sc, butterworth p, jacomb p, tait rj: personal factors influence use of cervical cancer screening services: epidemiological survey and linked administrative data address the limitations of previous research. bmc health serv res , : . . ackerson k: a history of interpersonal trauma and the gynecological exam. qual health res , ( ): – . . cadman l, waller j, ashdown-barr l, szarewski a: barriers to cervical screening in women who have experienced sexual abuse: an exploratory study. j fam plann reprod health care , ( ): – . . kelly s: the effects of childhood sexual abuse on women's lives and their attitudes to cervical screening. j fam plann reprod health care , ( ): – . . esmail n: complementary and alternative medicine in canada: trends in use and public attitudes, - . public policy sources, volume , fraser institute; . . brown pj, carney pa: health beliefs and alternative medicine: a qualitative study of breast cancer patients. j cancer educ , ( ): – . . wanchai a, armer jm, stewart br: complementary and alternative medicine use among women with breast cancer: a systematic review. clin j oncol nurs , ( ):e –e . . maher p: a review of ‘traditional’ aboriginal health beliefs. aust j rural health , ( ): – . . oliver sj: the role of traditional medicine practice in primary health care within aboriginal australia: a review of the literature. j ethnobiol ethnomed , : . . brown me, bindman ab, lurie n: monitoring the consequences of uninsurance: a review of methodologies. med care res rev , ( ): – . . slatore cg, au dh, gould mk, american thoracic society disparities in healthcare group: an official american thoracic society systematic review: insurance status and disparities in lung cancer practices and outcomes. am j respir crit care med , ( ): – . . kennedy j, morgan s: health care access in three nations: canada, insured america, and uninsured america. int j health serv , ( ): – . . trocme nm, maclaurin bj, fallon ba, daciuk jf, tourigny m, billingsley da: canadian incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect: methodology. can j public health , ( ): – . . bagdley r: the report of the committee on sexual offences against children and youth. in two volumes. ottawa: supply and services canada; . . leeners b, stiller r, block e, gorres g, imthurn b, rath w: effect of childhood sexual abuse on gynecologic care as an adult. psychosomatics , ( ): – . . hetzel-riggin md, wilber el: to dissociate or suppress? predicting automatic vs. conscious cognitive avoidance. j trauma dissociation , ( ): – . . crenshaw k: demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: a black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. university of chicago legal forum : – . . crenshaw k: mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. stanford law rev , ( ): – . . assembly of first nations: access to cancer screening and first nations; . doi: . / - - - cite this article as: gesink et al.: who are the under- and never- screened for cancer in ontario: a qualitative investigation. bmc public health : . 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusion 	background 	methods 	results 	the uninsured 	sexual abuse survivors 	people in crisis 	immigrants 	men 	people accessing traditional, complementary and alternative medicine 	discussion 	conclusion 	appendix i: breast, cervical and colon cancer screening program summary for ontario, canada 	breast cancer screening 	cervical cancer screening 	colon cancer screening 	appendix ii: relevance, appropriateness, transparency and soundness (rats) guidelines checklist 	abbreviation 	competing interests 	authors’ contributions 	authors’ information 	acknowledgements 	author details 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ book reviews a r n o l d d y c k , collected w o r k s / werke, volume iv. edited b y g e o r g e k. e p p a n d elisabeth peters (winnipeg: m a n i t o b a m e n n o n i t e historical society, ). i x + pp. $ . this is the final volume in the edition of arnold dyck's collected w o r k s edited by victor g. doerksen, george i(. epp, harry loewen, elisabeth peters, and a reimer since . it consists of three main sections, including various editorial introductions and annotations, as well as an appendix. part i (pp. - ) offers dyck's only known poem, eight pieces of short fiction, and two previously unpublished literary items: the fantasy peter spatz and the polyglot drama daut jeburtsdach, which has never been staged. p a r t i i (pp. - ) features a portfolio of illustrations by and about dyclc, m o s t of them drawings and paintings by him. part i (pp. - ) presents eight essays and a selection of letters by dyck, most of them in the f o r m of excerpts. the appendix (pp. - ) comprises a synopsis of the four- volume edition, the essay mein vatet; ein wanderer zwisclze~z zwei welten by dyck's eldest daughter hedwig knoop, and three poems by fritz s e n n in memory of arnold dyck. because this is such a richly diverse volume, any reviewer wanting t o avoid a mehanical enumeration must be selective. a thematic approach t o these texts would seem to be particularly justified since arnold dyck dedicated most of his life to writing, primarily for a mennonite audience, a b o u t mennonite issues. most of the literary texts in this volume first appeared in the mennoni- tische volkswarte (later meniionitische warte) edited by dyck - , and the warte-jahrbuch ( - ). writing under his own name as well a s the pseudonyms fritz walden, hans ennen, and onkel peter, dyck applied the proven concept of prodesse et delecfare in a variety of narrative techniques, moods, and settings. while the delectare is most immediate in his low german writings, the prodesse is probably more pronounced in his high german prose. to be sure, narrative fiction lilce das kalb urzd die perzen (pp. - i), kanzpfe itz sarzssot~ci (pp. - ), and die kleineiz dirzge des leberzs (pp. - ) is as entertaining as any dyck authored in low german. these stories have their setting in rural southern manitoba and reflect the less than jocose daily life of the mennonites that had come here, like dyclc, after emigrating from russia in the s. for dyck, however, humour is never far removed from seriousness, as exemplified in die lzeue weltnzacht (pp. - ) and unter lcarzadischen busclzrnannern (pp. - ). in the former, a forstei veteran, after eating schmorkur zst for supper, has a dream vision of a j o u r r ~ a / of hfel ~ ji~e studies i'ol. , book re\~iruls modern mennonite state as an economic power to he reckoned with. underlying this is the serious concept of a mennostaat as contemplated by jakob hildebrandt (p. , fn. ) and dyck himself (cf. jms, vol. , [i - ). in the latter story, the views voiced by the kommerzienrat (canadian mennonites' neglect of their german heritage; skepticism about the canadian press and canadian politics; advocacy of what would nowadays be called m~~lticulturalism) are undoubtedly dyck's own. as the editors correctly observe (p. ), he was a volkserzielzer second only t o jakob r. janzen, and it was the vollcswarte's avowed purpose to counteract mennonite complacency (p. ). with essays like manitobaer schulwoclze (pp. - ) and ztn erziehungsfiage (pp. - ), dyck urged manitoba mennonites to overcome their bias against education as a necessary evil, t o participate actively in shaping the schools towards their own goals, and even to establish a mennonite college for training qualified teachers. in order t o live up to their talents and creative potential, mennonites must also rid themselves of their "national vice" of looking at the world too seriously, advises dyck in meirz freutzdvalz der diinen (pp. - ). for all great art, we are told, grows out of and, in turn, inspires enthusiasm. sustained sobriety (niiclztertzlzeit) stifles and kills the imagination. crucial to the pedagogical function underlying all of dyck's works is his concept of a distinct mennonite identity, which for him is based on pride in collective achievements as well as the german ethnic and cultural heritage. his poem keine heinzat (pp. - ), first published in die warte, is a lyric formulation of this premise. it shows the displacement of the russian father figure by the german mother image as well as the shift from belief t o knowledge. although the poem alludes to the bible and integrates a prayer, it expresses essentially an enlightened and secularized notion of mennonitism. no mennonite author before dyck would have written lines like ein kostlich pfand, jedoch wir heute mit uns nehmen, nachdem die wahre heimat wir geschaut. ganz tief im herzen liegt es still verborgen. das ist der grossen sehnsucht schmerz, das ist das heil'ge heimatweh. ( p . ) with reference to a specific worldly country. such insights did not come gratuitously, as the odyssey of dyck's own "official" nationalities illustrates (pp. - ). a corollary of dyck's definition of mennonitism was that he considered russia and canada the old and new stieji' einlar (p. ), and that mennonites would have to become conscious of their "profane" history (pp. , ), previously overshadowed by the pre-eminence of church affairs. it is obvious that dyck had to assign the utmost importance to the role of german as the language common to all mennonites. among canadian mennonites, however, the use of low and high german declined sharply and irreversably soon after world war . dyck's story der weilz~zaclztszug (pp. - ), published in , still expressed the modest hope that the german books written by the mennonite authors of his own generation would find jo~rrnal of menrzorzite studfes more buyers. in mein weihnachtsn~anr (pp. - ), published two years later, he resigned himself to the conclusion that it was easier to sell snake oil than those books. indeed, the bulk of the sixteen books published by the echo-verlag (funded mainly as a result of dyck's own efforts, and guided by h i m until ) remained unsold. a sense of disappointment pervades almost all that dyck wrote in his remaining years the fable-like fantasy peter spatz (p. - ), previously unpublished, shows the writer withdrawing t o the periphery of a shallow hedonistic society. and the short story nicht seine schuld (pp. - ), contrary to its ironic title, implies that the loss of a linguistic and cultural heritage is tantamount to murdering one's ancestors. dyck's growing sense of isolation and, at times, personal failure also marks the selection of letters and hedi knoop's biographical essay. both provide information pertaining mostly to dyck's life after world w a r , a period on which dyck's autobiographical sketch a ~ t s ~?zeinenz lebetz o f (published in volume one) is almost silent. most striking in the letters is the fact that almost all of dyck's friends and correspondents remained on a formal reserved sie basis. from its outset in , the now completed edition of dyck's works was intended to be selective. contrary to the announcement in the subscription brochure, however, volume four has omitted meine detltsch- latzcijhhrt as a "rather dated reiseplauderei" (p. ). also lacking is dyck's unpublished novel das steppefzdorf in? biirgerkrieg, for which the manu- script was not available to the editors. perhaps both of these works would warrant one or two additional volumes, which might also offer an alphabeti- cal index and a badly needed chronology of dyck's works (the one-page survey on p. is only quantitative and applies merely to his contributions t o mennonite periodicals and more information about (or from) the diaries mentioned by dyck's daughter (p. ). even a list of errata might be indicated in light of the following findings. like the previous volumes, the fourth one includes informative, lucid and, for, the most part, cogent introductions to the various sections and many specific works. by i t s very nature, however, editorial work also requires a vast amount of tedious and pedantic detail which a conscientious reviewer cannot simply ignore. t o be brief: . the german texts in volume four contain a number of minor misspellings as well as faulty divisions of german words and omissions of commas. according to the editorial practice defined in volume one (p. ), these errors should have been rectified or avoided. sample errors are for vor for vorz (p. , . from below); b. d. i/: for b. d.m. (p. ); sorzntagsstatt for sofz~ztagsstaai (p. ), and statt for staat (p. ); laiten for lappen (p. ). unfortunately the editorial vorwort (p. vii) is also marred by a number of errors, most conspicuous being a grammatical one in t h e very first sentence - in a statement (wisely omitted in the english foreword) that is in itself misleading. . the editors' endnotes are of inconsistent quality and quantity. dyck himself knew his readership and annotated his writings sparingly. the question his editors had to aslz themselves a generation later is: "who a r e our readers?" the answer would have to be: those with a reading knowledge of both english (for the introductions and notes) and german (the texts). why then are some words rendered in translations (e.g., pp. , , - ) and others not (e.g., pp. , ff.)? at least nine of the t e n items from das kalb za d die perlelz are glossed superfluously (p. ). i t would have been more helpful, for example, to find explanations of t h e literal meaning of the name sa~wsouci and the allusions to goethe (pp. , , ) or cervantes (p. ) which, otherwise, even "educated" readers of our time may not understand. . the editorial introduction to kei~ze heimat incorporates verbatim what victor doerksen previously published about this poem ( j m s , vol. , [ ], - ). should one therefore surmise that some of the other editorial commentaries in volume four have been written by someone other than the two editors named? why not give credit where credit is due? the above-mentioned three matters should be understood as legitimate criticisms that are not meant to invalidate the many merits of the volume under discussion. but, to use a phrase of dyck's, die lileine diizge des lebens apply to the making of books as well. gerhard k. friesen wilfrid laurier university tlze me~zizorzite eizcyclopedia. a co zprehe zsive reference w o r k o n t h e analzaptist-meizizoizite movenzerzt, volume v, a-z. e d i t e d b y c o r n e l i u s j. dyck a n d d e n n i s m a r t i n ( s c o t t d a l e , p e n n s y l v a n i a / w a t e r l o o , o n t a r i o : h e r a l d p r e s s , ), pp. . $ . ( c a n . ) the appearance of the original four-volume meiznonite eizcyclopedia ( - ) was a remarkable feat in its time, made possible no doubt in part by the pioneering work of the european mennonites and their merznoni- fisches lexikon ( - ). in the decades since its publcation there has been much activity and change in the "mennonite world." among other things, the very self-understanding of that world, the powerful and influential "anabaptist vision" put forward by the e? cyclopedia's editor, harold bender, has undergone serious revision. i n addition, some of the traditional mennonite energy has gone into new areas of creativity and research, especially the social sciences, and brought to bear the questions of those disciplines o n the nature of the movement. it is therefore not only a changed mennonite phenomenon which is presented here; new methodologies are now being seriously applied and are providing new forms of information. also, the "world" under consideration has both shrunk and grown; menno- nites in many parts of the world must be taken into account in a world that is coming closer to all of us as time goes on. these and many other concerns were involved in the discussions leading up to the production of t h e new, supplementary volume. at the time the decision was made to publish a supplement arguments were advanced for a revision of the whole encyclopedia, an approach which was ultimately dismissed as unrealistic, especially from a financial point of view. it is clear that such a project would have been much more long-term and only time perhaps will permit a judgement on the decision taken. that having been said, the editors, authors and all concerned with the production o f this volume have earned the gratitude of many for their labors; they have created both an extemely useful and endlessly fascinating volume, one which should surely be present in the home as well as in libraries and institutions of learning, both mennonite and otherwise. it is in the nature of such a volume that it contains everything from "abortion" to "john roe zook." by submitting to the discipline o f the alphabet many potential problems of organisation have been precluded. within this pragmatic arrangement the various agenda items find their place: it was of course necessary to update many of the substantial articles of the original erzcj~clopedia, as for example the article "historiography," which its author, john oyer, has of necessity supplied with an immense bibliography. oyer lists thirteen areas of revision as well as nine newer themes characteriz- ing recent research. due in part to its derivation from the lexikon, bender's eizc~~clopedia had a narrower range of method, leaning to traditional historical investigation. both social history and the social science disciplines have entered into anabaptist-mennonite studies to such a degree in t h e past several decades that it is not surprisng to see a great many articles i n this volume reporting the results of sociological research. the work of kauffmanl harder and leo driedger on socialization and urbanization informs u s on current attitudes and trends. it is more difficult to describe the welcome inclusion of many new articles on the mennonte presence in many places in the world little known to us. this kind of information is increasingly vital as world developments force us to make (or be complicit in) decisions which impact diverse parts of the globe. in an introductory "reader's guide" the editors rightly point out that some articles of a rather provisional nature were included because little or no research had been done in those areas, a good decision which may lead to useful future work. in a volume containing some , items the articles, by some h a n d s and on such a plethora of topics, will quite naturally be of varied range and quality. this is not the place to attempt any individual critiques of particular articles. it is apparent that a great deal of careful work has gone into these individual essays, some of them masterpieces of economy, and that we must accept that in the main the reader is left with the expertls or with the person most knowledgeable, and one cannot really ask for more. this volume does not boast illustrations, apart from some typically ascetic mennonite maps and the tables which are the sine qua i i o i ? of ~ o o k re ien.s sociology: there are plenty of mennonite "coffee table books" by now. crammed - sometimes tastefully arranged - with mennonite photographs and so this is a reasonable economy. also, the new me ite historical atlas of william schroeder and helmut huebert is a useful supplement. but the editors did add something distinctive t o this volume - the " h u m a n interest features" (listed o n p. xiv). this novel addition is perhaps of less relevance in a scholarly review of the eizc~~clopeclia, but its inclusion demonstrates a n effort t o place this work into a more general setting. anecdotes like "menno's white lie" put the reader in touch with traditional subtexts which undergird the official history. simlarly, the new articles o n mennonite literature, music and art recognize the increasingly important role played by the arts in the self-understanding sought by many if not all mennonites. many serious issues are dealt with in the substantial articles on faith a n d life a m o n g the mennonites. it would be wrong to consider these as definitive statements. encyclopedias in o u r period are at best reports f r o m ar! ongoing database, attempts t o inform a b o u t the current state of affairs. judged on this basis, the merzrzoizite eizcj~clopeclia vis a splendid success. it should stand o n many a domestic and institutional booltshelf, but it should not be allowed t o collect dust. victor g. doerksen university of m a n i t o b a william schroeder and helmut t. huebert, mer rzonite histori- cal atlas (winnipeg, ). maps and commentary, pp. f o r some time the need f o r a n atlas of mennonite sites has been apparent. decades of publishing have resulted in a n impressive number of historical and other books o n the mennonite tradition, usually accompanied by t h barest and most austere maps. t h e degree t o which those maps have been accurate is a matter for conjecture. in the atlas before us we have the result of a personal hobby which is offered - in a n attractive format - as a contribution t o filling the obvious gap. given this circumstance it is n o t surprising t o find that it does n o t measure u p t o the exacting standards of the professional geographer and it remains to ask a b o u t the degree t o which it supplies the perceived need. t h a t need is presumably more modest: the reader of the histories of p.m. friesen o r j a m e s urry and the tourist "mennoniting" his/her way across historical terrain, these are presumably the target audience. if it is true t h a t the devil is in the detail, then such a devil is particularly diabolical in a n atlas, where the detail is, in a sense, everything. those w h o have been involved with mennonite historical projects itnow how difficult it is to find consensus o n orthography and agreement on which names t o use - chortitza o r khortitsa? (here: chortiza), and so on. unfortunately, a n u m b e r jo~rrrzal oj'menrzorzire studies of errors quite apart from such considerations have a!so been committed: gronigen f o r groningen, hainaut for hainault, summerfeld for sommerfeld, warkentine f o r warkentin, blumengart for blumenort, prityat for pripyat, etc. a professional geographer has also pointed out that feature symbols have not been used consistently and that represented features (kurgany - burial mounds) have not been identified. another problem mentioned was t h a t the attribution of sources for maps is not complete. for a non-specialist it is not apparent which basic maps are in the public domain. clearly t h e r e is attribution of some of the maps, especially those outside the a r e a of schroeder's primary interest. at the same time it must be recognized that these maps (or cartograms or charts) d o not claim to be more than they are, graphic illustrations of where certain places are (or were) to be found, and n o more. perhaps the atlas would have had a more complete raison d'etre if it had been limited t o the "russian mennonite experience," since this is where william schroeder's own primary interest and much of his effort lies. i n moving t o encompass the whole world, s o t o speak, the authors may have been too ambitious. certainly there are some better maps of other parts o f t h e mennonite world. but these have been scatterd in places almost as r e m o t e as the geographic sites themselves, and so we have reason t o be thankful f o r this collection into one manageable volume. it has been a labor of love f o r the amateur mapmaker william schroeder, and in the same spirit the c o m m e n t a - ries by helmut huebert, often containing anecdotal narrative, can serve the reader well. a list of sources, glossary, table of weights and measures a n d a n index complete the volume. victor g. doerksen university of maniitoba james juhnke. vision, doctrine, war: meizrzonite identity and orgarzizatiorz irz arnericn, - . scottdale, pa: herald press, . pp. . $ . . here, in volume three of the merztzo ite experience it anzerica series, is a n outstanding expos of the dynamic interaction of mennonites w i t h the wider american society. it is rich in its description of the diversity o f the mennonites in the united states, but especially of the mennonites' diverse strategies f o r cultural continuity. j u h n k e reflects the maturity of a m e r i c a n ethnic historiography which no longer engages in the simplistic "change o r continuity" debate. he seeks evidence neither of assimilation nor of static continuity. h e does describe the abgejbllen, the leiseys of the cleveland breweries and the gordon friesens of flanzethro~~ers fame. and h e does describe the o ~ c j i i l i i i ~ among old order circles, the plain coats, the book revie~ps i bonnets, and the meetinghouses. but juhnke is more interested in how mennonites changed to survive culturally. this interaction between mennonites and american society is central in the book. unlike some historians who have charted the dose of american mennonitism by the growing acceptance of protestant church methods and ideology, juhnke argues that "the denominational pattern in america allowed mennonites to gain legitimacy and yet [to] maintain a distinctive and separate identity." ( ) hence, "mennonites borrowed the means of resist- ance from american culture itself." ( i ) sometimes the changes were overt: daniel kaufmann's marzual of bible doctrirze, for example, relegated "mennonite beliefs ... to a third-level status ... [and framed] the real gospel ... in terms borrowed from american evangelicalism." ( ) at other times the adaptations were more subtle, a conservative community "adapting at its own pace, for its own purposes" ( ), or humanist scholars, who, while "peer[s] in the halls of athens ... did not forsake jerusalem." ( ) the second theme in the book is american mennonite heterogeneity. according to juhnke "the american mennonite mosaic had a bipolar shape"; the , mennonites of were divided into swiss/american and dutch/russian components. juhnke boldly asserts that the former were characterized by their soft spoken nature, "humility, nonresistance, and separation"; the latter reflected a "low german folk culture," "an apprecia- tion of material culture" and "more dimensions of worldly involvement." ( ) this polarization also followed geographic divisions of east and west - pennsylvania, ohio and indiana on one hand, and kansas and california o n the other. the first region was more anglicized, but more conservative theologically and in lifestyle; the second was more congregational and liberal, being freed in the "crucibles of creative unsettlement." finally, the menno- nites were also divided by denomination: the large "old" mennonite church, moderately conservative, episcopal in church polity, was tied to pennsylvania by kin and historical identity; the conservative old order church, was especially relevant because it "lent definition" to the other mennonites; the mennonite brethren, exclusively dutch/ russian, exhibited the strongest elements of pietism; and the largest body, the general conference, an amalgam of the dutch and swiss streams, was characterized by "progressive and ecumenical intentions." this bipolarity, of well rooted swiss/ american mennonites and more accommodating dutch/russians, is woven throughout the book. it is the framework on which juhnke proceeds to describe different attitudes t o higher education, missions, politics, and military service. indeed, the book covers a wide spectrum of subjects. the title vision, doctrine, war, introduces the main features of the american mennonite debate. the vision of what it meant to be mennonite in modern america is carefully outlined for each of the major church groups. separate chapters account for the different visions of the "old order way of yieldedness," the dutch russian "congregation[al] christendom," and the "mennonitism" of the "old" mennonites. and there is jo~rrllal of merrrzonite studies a chapter on how world war i "caught mennonites in a permanent crisis of identity," as their easy identification with the american nation came t o an end. but the book covers other subjects as well. there are chapters on mennonite demography - an account of social and economic mobility, an analysis of the significance of private hospitals and colleges, a description of the fundamentalist/liberal debate, a portrait of the new breed of leaders that sometimes included women, and an expose of the growing missionary movement. juhnke's appreciation for the complex, the symbolic and the ironic has provided a history with few cardboard figures and caricatures. in fact each chapter begins with a real life situation, a snapshot of life in microcosm, and then proceeds to an empathetic portrayal of the main subjects in the story. his sense of the ironic allows juhnke to provide a balanced account o f the incredible diversity of the mennonite experience. dutch/ russian menno- nites developed a strong link with german culture and organizations such as the german teachers' associations, and in the process developed an unprecedented sense of ethnicity. swisslamerican mennonites accepted protestant church methods to reestablish mennonitism. mennonite colleges were "crucibles of contradictions," standing as they did between german mennonite culture and anglo american society, and helping mennonites to make the shift from farm to town. the book is also kind to both losers and winners. c. h. wedel's "opus" that spoke of genzei~zdekirche and "christen- tunz" failed to provide mennonites with a vision. harold bender and orie miller - two elkart men and "eldest sons" - succeeded in disarming their conservative opponents and articulating a new anabaptist vision that was strong on concern and love for others. juhnke reveals his strongest empathy in the description of the folkways of the most conservative and least literate of the mennonite churches, t h e old order. his approach is highly sympathetic. the old order use of the lot i s not seen as undemocratic but as a protection "against the consolidation of power"; separation by age and sex is not discriminatory but conducive t o the creation of "sacred space" and "communal activity"; opposition to music results in "rituals of active silence"; lack of formal theological training leads to a view of the bible as "a historic drama of redemption more than a body of specific laws." juhnke might be criticized for romanticizing this group. indeed, he has no similar portrayal of the conservative ideology of other groups like the dutch/russian krimmer mennonites and the united mennonite brethren (bmb); these groups are summarily dismissed as possessing a "tendency toward exclusion and division" and finding in "form of baptism ... a bone of contention." ( ) finally, juhnke alludes to subjects often ignored by standard mennonite histories: the ''language of the farm," the role of women, the migrations and the re-migrations, and the abgefalleiz, are not often written about. o n e can only wish that juhnke would have elaborated on this informal story. unfortunately the mennonite farm household, the foundation of mennonite society, is mentioned only in passing. while juhnke notes the value of hard farm work, he does not outline the changing shape of the household unit, its gender roles, its lines of authority, its life cycle, its social dynamics and its strategies for generational succession. and while the first woman preacher and the first female licensed doctor are listed, the lives of farm women are not; the household matriarchs, the brides who owned land and influenced settlement patterns, the female producers of farm products, the mothers who socialized their children in the mennonite culture, remain a people without a history. a final observation reflects my canadian perspective. is it possible that the meiznonite experieizce in anzerica series, like the merzi orzites ii canada series, has been too arbitrary in its separation of the american and canadian communities? does juhnke, for example, reflect a certain american paroch- ialism when he speaks of the migrations from the east to west within the united states, but fails to mention the significant migration of mennonites from the midwest to the canadian prairie? and what does he mean when he refers to changes among mennonites as "americanization'? does this mean anglicization, urbanization, the development of a gain mentality, an increa- singly nationalistic or patriotic spirit, a giving in to the inexorable force of modernization? to a canadian, it is not clear. despite these minor criticisms, which may be dismissed as alluding t o a book juhnke chose not to write, this work is an important and well-crafted contribution to mennonite historiography. here is a careful analysis, filled with both objective data and empathy, of real people charting a course in an integrative society to ensure the survival of what they considered the "essence of life." juhnke's sense of how mennonites chose various elements of mainstream society to ensure their own continuity will be the legacy of this book. royden loewen, st. paul's college university of manitoba abraham friesen, tlzornas m~lentzel; a destroyer of tlze godless. the making of a sixfeeiztlz-century religiotrs revolutionary (berkeley/ los angeles/ oxford: univ. of california press, ). hardcover, pp., $ . (u.s.). this important new study of one of the most controversial figures of the sixteenth century will no doubt cause a stir among students of the reformation. conservative lutheran scholars will be delighted to find confirmed what they have believed all along, namely that thomas muentzer had never really been a lutheran, even though he was initially drawn to and influenced by the german reformer. left-wing historians, on the other hand, will be disappointed to read that muentzer was not the great "proto- communist," as was thought by some earlier marxist writers, nor the fearless and charismatic leader of the oppressed common people. what emerges instead in this study is a radical reformer who was steeped in medieval mystical and patristic thinking and who sought to restore the apostolic church in his time, but who in the end became a defeated, weak, forsaken, and evcn disillusioned man. in the first few chapters the author traces meticulously muentzer's i-cading of j o h n tauler - or what he thought to be tauler - particularly this mystic's work on the holy spirit, eusebius' history of the church, a n d s t . augustine's interpretation of the parable of the tares. through the study of these thinkers muentzer came t o believe that the church had "fallen" s o o n after the original apostles had left the scene. the church thereafter degenerated, according to muentzer, because evil leaders, the clergy, had c a ~ ~ s e d the holy spirit to depart from it. however, while augustine believed that the tares should be left within the church until the time of harvest a t the end when god himself would weed them out, muentzer believed t h a t the end-time had actually arrived and that the godly, that is those who possessed the holy spirit, should become god's instruments of the destruction of the godless. this belief led muentzer to his involvement with the rebellious peasants in and their eventual defeat at the hands of the princes. although the sources concerning muentzer's life and movements are scant, the intellectual development of this radical reformer becomes fairly clear and convincing in this study. since this is an intellectual history, the author is not all that interested in the documentary gaps in muentzer's biography. friesen deals with muentzer's ideas and their origin, and with how he applied them to the religious and social issues of his day. thus the author's educated guesses, conjectures and deductions contribute t o believable probabilities. here is an example of friesen's argumentation: "once again, it probably was augustine who provided him [muentzer] with the context f o r his thinking about the time of harvest. for in his letters and sermons augustlne spoke of two harvests .... if muentzer took these two harvests as parallel ... and i f h e accepted luther's argument that the good seed h a d not been sown for at least four hundred years ... then we have the context within which muentzer's thinking o n this subject ust have taken place" (p. . italics mine). with regard to influences upon muentzer's thought, friesen goes t o considerable length demonstrating that this radical developed his ideas independently of luther and of the zwickau prophets. while muentzer at first hailed luther as a leader who like j o h n hus sought to reform the church, he, muentzer, did not consider himself a "martinian" but a reformer i n his own right. and with regard to the zwickau prophets, muentzer, according t o friesen, "had his own program well in hand upon arrival in zwicltau a n d lost no time in setting about trying to implement it" (p. ). eventually muentzer book revieli~s i came to see the prophets as "false brothers" and luther became f o r him a pharisee in alliance with the princes who resisted the holy spirit. the irony of muentzer's calling luther a servant of the princes is t h a t he himself sought to enlist the "pious christian" princes in his cause. while friesen does not point out this irony in so many words, his analysis of muentzer's fuersterzprecligt makes it quite clear that muentzer's appeal t o the "godly rulers" was more direct and pressing than that of luther. t h e main difference between the two reformers lay in the fact that muentzer failed to get his much desired princely support, whereas luther succeeded. at this point friesen might have shown briefly, at least in a footnote, how different muentzer and luther were f r o m some of the anabaptists, notably the swiss, who o n principle separated church and state. it might be added that the author merely mentions the grebe letter (september , ) t o muentzer without pointing out its significance. throughout the book friesen remains fairly objective with regard t o muentzer's intellectual and spiritual development, even sympathetic toward his subject. however, toward the end the author becomes most critical, even sarcastic, in his evaluation of muentzer the man. commenting on muent- zer's flight from allstedt, friesen writes: "muentzer once more chose escape as a better part of valor. his attack o n luther's conduct at the diet of worms was beginning t o sound more hollow" (p. ). and in the last chapter t h e a u t h o r asks: "why was not muentzer found among the vast majority who were killed?" his answer: "since he was one of the few to escape the field of battle, he must have been in the forefront of those who fled" (p. ). muentzer's human frailty and weakness in the face of overwhelming odds was of short duration. while he was critical of the peasants because of their inability or unwillingness t o rise t o the demands of the gospe ,he continued to believe in the rightness of their cause and in the truth of his own vision. he never recanted his beliefs and views concerning the nature of the church and his mission. as friesen rightly concludes: "there is no evidence to suggest that he changed his mind" (p. ). i n a preemptive response t o some possible critics of his book, friesen states that "one cannot d o justice t o muentzer's involvement in the events leading up to the peasants' war by ignoring the political context a n d emphasizing only the intellectual influences" (p. ). this study has purposely side-stepped the political, economic and social issues surround- ing muentzer and his intellectual-theological development. thus friesen's illuminating book must be read alongside other recent muentzer studies t o fill in the puzzling gaps in the life and thought of this illusive radical reformer. harry loewen the university of winnipeg g a r y k . waite, david joris arzd dutch ar~abaptisnz - (waterloo, o n t . : wilfrid l a u r i e r university press, ). pp., hardcover, $ . (can.), $ . (us). mennonite scholarship has not been kind to david joris and his followers. in his "brief biography of menno simons," included in the corliplete writirlgs of'meil o sitl orzs c. - , harold s. bender follows menno's assessment of joris and the "davidians." as is well known, menno condemned joris in his foundation book and other writings, calling h i m and his disciples a "corrupt sect." j. c. wenger, the editor of the conlplete writii gs. notes that joris was "unbalanced, fanatical, and unsound." "a study of the davidians reveals what a corrupt sect they were, and justifies the severity of menno's judgment" (p. ). and gerhard hein in the men onitiscl es lexilcoil and the mel~nonite encyclopeclia agrees with menno that joris under the pretext of humility and in the name of virtue promoted "devilish defiance ... various vices and shameful deeds" ( a f e i i , ). gary k . waite's more objective study of david joris and dutch anabaptism, originally a doctoral dissertation, reflects a post-bender approach t o the writing of anabaptist history, emphasizing the multiple origins and diversity of the anabaptist movement. following the work of james stayer and werner packull, waite demonstrates that muentzer and the rebellious peasants had a considerable influence upon the southern and northern anabaptists. the connecting links between the two groups were muentzer, hans hut, and melchior hoffman. it was hoffman, a south-german artisan, who put his stamp upon northern anabaptism in general and david joris in particular. the strength of this book lies in its careful analysis of the beginning of reform in the netherlands and of the social, economic, and religious factors which made this reform possible. as elsewhere in europe, anti-clericalism lay at the basis of the reform movement in the netherlands, with town-dwellers especially contributing greatly toward change. their radicalism included iconoclasm, rejection of the sacraments, and turning away from old-church dogma. the chambers of rhetoric which dramatized the pitiful state of the church and society played a significant role in the dutch reformation. david joris, like many other reformers in the netherlands, was at first influenced by lutheran ideas, but eventually turned to melchiorite teaching and radical anabaptism. especially the artisans, seeking to better their economic and social conditions, found the apocalypticism of melchior hoffman both attractive and useful. by means of tables waite shows that the anabaptists of amsterdam and the hague came primarily from the working class, that their leaders generally lacked a formal education, and that women played an important role among them. "a similar state of affairs with respect to leadership existed in friesland, where only one of anabaptists named in the sources could be considered formally educated" (pp. - ). book reviell s the author is careful t o point out that while joris and his followers sympathized with the more militant anabaptists of muenster and the netherlands, they rejected their violence, polygamy, and other excesses. j o r i s himself upheld and practised monogamy, but in the interest of winning the defeated muensterites and other diverse factions among the northern anabaptists, he de-emphasized the importance of strict monogamy. more- over, his view of sexuality was influenced by his spiritualism, stressing t h e restoration of a pre-adamic purity which enabled the believer to remain sinless in thought if not in deed. it was n o doubt this mystical view of sexual ethics which caused the biblicist menno simons to reject the davidians. it appears from this study that until about there existed a power struggle between joris and other anabaptist leaders like menno simons. joris' appearance at the bocholt and strasbourg conferences, for example, were attempts on his part to gain a greater leadership role among t h e anabaptists. waite suggests that joris' failure in this regard, particularly in strasbourg, was due t o the anabaptists' suspicion of charismatic leadership of the northern type. this may be true in part. it seems to me that spiritualists with their disregard for structures, institutions, and externals, were not successful church builders and organizers. it was thus left to biblicist leaders like menno simons t o organize the scattered anabaptists into congregations and chart their theological and ethical course. waite's study is concise and focused.the author resists the temptation to dwell on issues and details, however interesting, which have been dealt with elsewhere. f o r example, joris' relationship t o anna jans is just briefly told, so as to explain the man's visions and spiritualistic tendencies. it is unfortunate, however, that other relationships and issues have not been dealt with sufficiently in this book. the relationship between joris and menno simons could have been explored more fully, for this is, after all, a study of dutch anabaptism and its leadership. also, joris' spiritualism would have become clearer had the author probed in greater depth the relationships between joris and contemporaries such as sebastian franck, caspar von schwenckfeld, and castellio. the most serious omission in this study, it seems to me, is an explanation of joris' work as a glass painter and the significance of his wonder book. waite's study includes excellent illustrations from joris' work and art, but little information and analysis are provided. what the reader would like to know is how joris'glass painting and symbolic art reflect the mysticism and spiritualism of this man. this well-written book includes six appendices, an extensive bibliogra- phy, and a useful index of names and subjects. the book is relatively free of misprints. wilfrid laurier university press is to be commended for produ- cing another fine publication. and the price is to be noted - less in c a n a d a than in the united states! harry loewen the university of winnipeg j o r ~ r r ~ a l of merlrlot~ire studies w. eruce lincoln, red victory: a history of the rtcssion civi! wnr (new york: s i m o n & schuster, ), pp. lars t. lih, bread and atlthority in russia, - (berkeley: university of california press, ), xvii, pp. the russian revolution of and subsequent civil war and famine have been incorporated into the martyrdom mythology so important to mennonite self-identity. indeed, for mennonites from the dutch/ prussianl russian wing, these events, along with the tyrannies of the stalin years and the post world war i diaspora, are central to such self-understanding. a s is so often the case when confessional history is told, the events are seen purely from an internal perspective. outsiders are considered in a one-dimensional manner, their story being of interest only to the extent that it impinges directly on the mennonite community. thus, for example, the anarchist leader makhno appears only in the role of an evil intruder who from time t o time leads his murderous bands on looting expeditions into the peaceful m e a n o - nite communities. some mennonite voices have been raised within the community in an effort to tell the story from a less parochial perspective, but they are a minority. these two books are of interest exactly to those who want to see and understand the events of this period from a broader perspective. in red victory: a history of' the russian civil war, lincoln tells an incredible story of the unprecedented savagery which was the russian civil war. he records atrocities perpetrated by all participants. in the winter of three railway freight cars marked "fresh meat, destination petrograd" were discovered to contain the naked bodies of red guard soldiers frozen in obscene positions. a white army detachment in taganrog captured s o m e factory workers who had expressed red sympathies. they were tortured and mutilated before being buried alive. red partisans tied weights to the feet of some white army officers and drowned them in novorossiisk harbour where they were discovered swaying to and fro in ranks as if talking to one another. scenes such as these were commonplace, with the bolshevik secret police, the notorious cheka, behind many of the most atrocious acts. by the combination of atrocities, executions, battles, famine and epidemics had claimed some million lives to be added to the million russian dead f r o m world war i. the author tries to understand and lay bare the roots of such unspeakable slaughter. perhaps this is an impossible task, but he does help to clarify some of the issues for us. although he is evenhanded in handling the evidence and does not spare any faction in his treatment, the reader has t o conclude t h a t the blame for starting the horror ultimately rests with the bolsheviks. fearful of mass starvation in petrograd, lenin authorized a rural food requisitioning programme. groups of armed worlcers fanned out over the countryside, authorized to use force as they saw fit to confiscate grain from any peasant suspected of hoarding it, unleashing a reign of terror which engulfed the whole society. book re\~ie~r~s ultimate victory belonged to the bolsheviks. lenin had shown himself t o be masterful at marshalling human and material resources to defend t h e revolutian staged in the name of the masses, even while the principles of empowerment of the people were being subverted under the rubric of "democratic centralism." readers of this journal will perhaps be most interested in the events in t h e ukraine and the role makhno played in them. the german occupation of - had been welcomed a t first. when they experienced f o o d shortages a t home, the germans initiated a draconian food requisition programme, causing much bitterness. when the german army left in late the stage was set for a complex struggle involving denikin's white army, malchno's anarchist bands and the bolsheviks. denikin and his a r m y were closely identified with the germans and resentment over their f o o d procurement programme created an opportunity for malchno t o ally himself with the bolsheviks. the havoc this caused behind the white army lines was of tremendous importance t o the reds in their ultimate victory. makhno, a s a true anarchist, did not gain political power from this. he fought all authority. his subsequent aid t o the white army trapped in the crimea under wrangel led t o his exile in paris. lenin's use of nationalistic animosities within the country goes a long way toward explaining some of the bitter feelings which are bubbling up in t h e soviet union in these days of perestroika and glasnost. cheka members were recruited f r o m all different nationalities but were invariably sent t o other parts of the country. in the ukraine, for example, with its long record of anti-semitism, seven out of ten cheka agents were jews. a latvian by the name of iakov peters ( a possible mennonite connection?), a chief deputy t o dzerzhinskii, head of the cheka, led the final assault on the left socialist revolutionaries in moscow o n july , . to be fair, it was not only lenin's policy which exacerbated nationalist animosities. i n the baltic states t h e white army organized so-called freikorps units, seen by many as a vanguard of nazism, who unleashed a veritable reign of terror in latvia and estonia. red victoly is a well-written book, one which not only provides some much-needed background t o help understand the mennonite experience in russia, but also provides a useful perspective for the events in eastern europe today. i n bread alzd a ~ l t h o r i t j , it rtwsia, - , lih examines the period from the disintegration of the romanov dynasty and its ultimate downfall t o the final consolidation of bolshevik power with the proclamation of the new economic policy (nep) in march , . he calls this period "the time of troubles" which he defines as "...a period of disruption of society-wide coordinating institutions, accompanied by a breakdown of central political authority." journal of mennonite studies a central feature of this period, one which was both a symptom and intensifier of the institutional breakdown, was the ongoing food-supply crisis. lih uses the food procurement policies of the various regimes, f r o m the tsar to kerensky to the bolsheviks, as the umbrella mechanism for organizing his analysis. lih sees two possibilities for the re-establishment of central political authority after a "time of trouble." on the one hand, there is the possibility of agztberrzaforial solzctioiz, where order is imposed from above. this approach, one which is clearly identified with the tsarist regime, needs a strong central political base. the other possibility is an eizlistineizf solzction, where the central government's authority rests on the earned confidence of the governed who, so to speak, have been enlisted in the political class. both the liberal democratic centre and the socialist left advocated this approach, at least a t the beginning of the period. lenin's hope for an enlistment solution foundered on the rocks of the perceived need for a food procurement policy dictated from the centre. eih feels that fairness requires us to note that this implied distrust ofthe market as a food allocation mechanism was shared by all shades of the political spectrum, not just the centre and the left. political differences showed u p as variations in approach to the problem, not in attitude toward reliance o n the market. enforcement of food procurement regulations became ever more draco- nian as the crisis lengthened and intensified. peasants with grain surpluses refused to hand them over to collection committees sent out from the cities. demands for stronger authority to back up the workers led to stiffer resistance. the growth of sackmanism, where itinerant peddlers would buy small quantities of grain at black market prices in surplus areas and carry them in sacks to deficit areas, led to more demands for control. blockades were set up on the rail lines to intercept these sackmen in their travels, thus creating bottleneclcs in the rail transport network and exacerbating the food crisis. it became increasingly clear that the enlistment solution was not working. increasingly, it was abandoned in favour cf the gubernatorial solution under the "democratic centralism" rubric. by the time that the new economic policy was implemented in the internal divisions and suspicions were so deeply ingrained that their legacy is still with us. a s lih puts it, "..the bolsheviks discovered the new economic policy just as columbus discovered the new world - by hoping it was something else." bread aizd authority in russia, - is worthwhile reading for anyone interested in this period of traumatic change in russia. it is an excellent companion to red victory. although lih perhaps is more understanding of the dilemma that faced lenin and the bolsheviks in trying to consolidate political authority after their successful revolution, both books arrive at the conclusion that responsibility for the worst features of the soviet system ultimately rests with them. book revieltls although neither of these two books sheds direct light on the mennonite experience in russia, they are of interest either for the background they give for the events which play such a large role in our self-understanding or for the light that they shed on the events of the last few years in the ussr and eastern europe. p a . koop king's college, london, ontario peter i? klassen, die deutsclz-vdlcisclze zeit in der kolo~zie fern- izeirn, chaco paraguay, - (bolanden-weierhof: mennoni- tischer geschichtsverein e.v, ), paperback, pp. , $ . . peter klassen has chosen the title "deutsch-volkische zeit" for his book, which deals with a period when german nationalism found considerable resonance among the settlers of the fernheim colony. these were a remnant of the , refugees who had escaped russia in after revolution, civil war, anarchy and dictatorship, and had settled in the most inhospitable region of paraguay, the gran chaco. three years earlier canadian mennonites had made a courageous start in that region, at great cost in human life. the canadians had come of their own free will, but for the fernheim refugees from russia, who had had their eyes on canada, the "green hell" of the chaco was the only place left for them to go. poor and destitute, they felt rejected and betrayed by the world, and many were convinced that the chaco could not be a home for their agricultural colonies. no sooner had they made their difficult start when the chaco war between bolivia and paraguay broke out and once more they were threatened by a violent conflict that ultimately claimed , lives. miraculously the mennonite settlements survived this ordeal, but the number of those who were determined to get out had grown substantially. and just at that time, in , the ideas of a new "fatherland" began to reach fernheim from germany. could there be hope for the desperate chaco settlers in these new ideas? when one of their young men, the gifted teacher fritz kliewer, returned home from his studies in germany, the new german nationalism entered the colony in a serious way. tensions rose. the ministerial of the three churches almost unanimously opposed the trend, but kliewer had a strong following among the young people and also among some older members of the community, who saw in the new movement the solution to the problems of the settlement. the situation became even more complicated when at least one of the mcc workers from the usa introduced his american nationalism into this situation, involving the american embassy and american army officers in the affairs of the mennonite colony in the chaco. this sad and tragic period for the fernheim settlers has now found its historian in peter klassen. there were earlier attempts but they have never jo~irnol of m e ~ l t ~ o n i t e studies reached the stage of publication. j.s.postma s attempt in the early s to record the events on the basis of the available documentation was a valuable aid for future researchers but, as postma later commented, he was simply too close to the events and its actors. gerhard ratzlaff's thesis (fresno, ) added to an understanding of the events, and the same can be said about h a n s (juan) neufeld's boolclet die affare dr. fritz kliewer; - , " w i e es war" (asuncion, ). however, a more thorough and objective historical account based on critical analysis of the available sources was not available until now. peter klassen was an eye witness of the vollcische zeit in fernheim; he knew the mennonite churches and the administrative authorities of that critical period. although he was young at the time of the events he was a keen observer and thus he brings some valuable assets to his task. klassen traces the gradual spread of nationalistic propaganda and its effect o n the fernheim colony. as well, he throws light on the role played by american and european mennonite leaders in these "un-mennonite" activities. harold bender, orie miller and benjamin unruh, who enjoyed high respect i n the international mennonite community, all attempted to influence events. unfortunately, letters were slow and what might have been resolved in consultation remained unresolved. no one seems to have understood the dictator hitler at that time and b.h.unruhys well-meaning efforts in connection with the movement heiin ins reich can perhaps best be characterized as naive. of great interest are peter klassen's reflections on the way the three fernheim churches, the mennonite brethren, the alliatzzge~neinde a n d the kirclzliclze responded to the challenges of the s. there were significant differences of attitude, which in part may be attributed to the individual leaders. although the author uncovers the painful experiences of this community in considerable detail, he at no point makes himself the judge of history or of its actors. we are grateful to peter klassen for this balanced account, as we are to the fernheim colony for opening its records t o this research. george k. epp menno simons college the university of winnipeg william j a n z e n . limits on liberty: tlze experietzce of merznoizite, h~ctterite arzcl douklzobor co~? ztazities in carznda ( t o r o n t o : u n i v e r - sity o f t o r o n t o press, ), p p . . bibliography, index. $ . (cloth). this book examines the manner in which the canadian government has responded to demands for special privileges from ethno-religious minorities. book revieirjs janzen has chosen three agrarian groups for the study, the mennonites, hutterites and doukhobors. he suggests they shared a common "pursuit. .. of living in a more communal manner somewhat separate from the larger society." (janzen does not indicate why other group settlers such as the icelanders, mormons, jews, english utopians and ukrainians who also negotiated special settlement arrangements or sought communal-oriented rights were not chosen.) to understand the complex interaction between a modern liberal-democratic government and these religious minorities janzen has selected four historical issues that pitted government against minority. three sections of the book describe the mennonite, hutterite and douk- hobor negotiations for special land blocs, their desires for parochial schools, and their demand for total exemption from military service in the two world wars. a fourth section considers the recent demand of hutterites and old order ontario mennonites for exemption from universal social programs, particularly the canada pension plan. janzen's central argument is that canadian governments have been characterized by a "liberal culture that has emphasized individualism ... majority rule, integration and participation ...." ( ). although it is apolitical culture that has celebrated liberty, it is a liberty with limits. those limits become clear when minority groups seek more than simple freedom of personal religious belief, but also the right to pursue ways of life demanded by their religion. according to janzen, there is a conflict between the state's "narrow view of liberty" and minority groups' "broad view of liberty." he suggests that the state is often ambivalent in its approach to minority requests, usually practicing the narrow view but occasionally allowing for the broader view. janzen thoroughly recounts how the narrow and broad views of liberty interacted in each of the four issues. he notes how the government pursued a "fairly broad liberty" ( ) and bent its own homestead act to allow for mennonite villages in the s; he describes the manner in which doukho- bors received even more accommodating land reserves in the s; and he shows how governments showed new flexibility when hutterite colonies were allowed to continue despite rising nativism in the s. but each of the cases had its "limit on liberty." mennonites were not granted land reserves in northern alberta in the late s; doukhobor land was reclaimed when they refused canadian citizenship; hutterites were forced to compromise with various restrictive provincial land statutes. the same interaction between government generosity and restriction was exhibited in the schools question, conscientious objection to war, and opposition to the welfare state. the dichotomy between narrow and broad liberties, however, was never simplistic. sometimes, as in the schools question, the "limits on liberty" evolved, being broader for mennonites in than during the xenophobic, anglo-conformity days of world war i. sometimes those limits differed from place to place; doukhobors, for example, had a more difficult time in anglo-dominant, centralized british columbia than they did on the prairies. jourtzal o f metztzonite studies sometimes those limits were challenged by one group but not by another; hutterites may have demanded communal-land privileges but were quite accommodating in matters of public education ( ). often the "limits to liberty" were not overt; hutterites, for example, often failed to benefit f r o m the social welfare state simply because it was biased towards individuals who owned land or homes ( ). readers will find two aspects of janzen's book especially noteworthy. the first is the magnitude of janzen's research. despite dealing with three different ethnic groups and covering four issues janzen makes a t h o r o u g h case for each. in the process janzen has accomplished a comparative study of ethnic groups in canada and added to our understanding of an important dimension of canadian society. for mennonite scholars, here is a book by a mennonite about mennonites without the hagiographical claim for m e n - nonite peculiarity. and because janzen has thoroughly documented the experience of each group with records from the national archives of canada and from an exhaustive survey of relevant secondary sources, this book will also become a tool for further historical research. the s t o r y of mennonite bloc settlement, for example, has been advanced by showing how the provisions of the "privilegium" were kept alive only b y a constant barrage of new orders in council, rulings by the minister of the interior, changes to the dominion lands act, and by correspondence between different officials over the years. a second noteworthy feature of the book is janzen's interpretation. his argument that canadian political culture is innately "liberal" counters the views of gad horowitz, s.m. lipset, allan smith, and others. these writers have argued that canadian society is not "liberal," but "tory," w i t h a tradition of communal-orientation and a n openness t o group privileges t h a t is deeply rooted in canada's antipathy to the tenets of the american revolution. janzen's careful analysis of the liberal character of c a n a d a is not matched by an analysis of "broad liberties" that contradicted t h a t character. his argument that government overtures t o minorities reflect "elements of sympathy in the culture" ( ) and that they are rooted i n a "sentiment rather than a precise principle" ( ) begs a more elaborate analysis of the "tory" principles in canada. janzen also counters a widely held view that the charter of rights will have an individualizing effect on canadian society. his references to recent cases in which minority g r o u p rights were protected is impressive, but he does not sufficiently explain his implicit hope that the charter may "allow certain restrictions o n the freedom of individuals if they are needed for such groups t o continue"( ). such a ruling would certainly contradict the intentions of the authors o f the charter. nor does he address the implications of the charter o n the governments' ability to extend informal group privileges that are not undergirded with the rule of law. without doubt, janzen's ideas will stimulate debate on the political nature of canada. ~ o o k ~ e v i e t t - s here is a thoroughly researched and well-conceived study that will add to our historical knowledge of certain aspects of mennonite, hutterite a n d doukhobor history, but also t o the debate about the real nature of canadian society. royden loewen st. paul's college university of manitoba d e l b e r t p l e t t , e d . , pioi eers arzd pilgrims. the mennonite kleine genzeiizde in manitoba, nebraslca and karzsas, to ( s t e i n - b a c h : d.f.p. p u b l i c a t i o n s , ). p b . , pp. $ . as volume in the mei~izonite kleine geineirzde historical series, this title brings the productivity of that series to a total of pages. t h e translation and publication of documents related to the kleine gemeinde story, beginning in , remains a primary goal - though not exclusively t h e content - of this volume, as it was of the others. in something of a pot-pourri collection of materials one should mention the themes of the five parts which make up the book. part i consists of previously unpublished correspondence and writings from the settlement period (from on). contains reminiscences and accounts written by pioneers themselves. their descend- ants have contributed writings which are included in . then follows a series of family history sketches with much genealogical d a t a in part iv. in the final section (v) there are a number of short biographies of persons, mostly aeltester, who were involved in some way in the division. (this schism led many members to join the church of god in christ mennonite church at that time.) faced with this enormous amount of detailed d a t a the reviewer will be forgiven for limiting himself to some general observations on what is presented here. here it must be said again, as earlier, that this series has broken new ground in making such abundant new material available f o r current research. this is the kind of enterprise which has been lacking in some other areas of mennonite research, and to judge by the plans for a sixth volume, editor delbert plett is not done yet. the material is basically well organized and readable - though in the oft-decried small print - and equipped with an index (mostly of names). a few editorial "bugs" persist. foreign words continue to be a problem, russian words particularly. terms like sarai (appearing as serrei), senzljanka, versl, etc. have come through the translated german manuscripts uncorrected f o r accurate transliteration. then there are the german umlauts, which have been omitted here and there (e.g. p. ). a more serious problem in this reviewer's copy of the book was the fact that pp. - were missing altogether (no doubt a printing defect). one might suggest that introductory material would be more helpful if it were prepared for each individual section, especially when the content of the materials varies so considerably from section to section. there may well be good justification for gathering such a variety of documents, since social historians are interested in less formal or official materials which give information which is different from the traditional diplomatic documenta- tion. historians will be grateful to delbert plett for the project he is carrying out, making available such a cornucopia of source materials for an understanding of a particular part of mennonite history. lawrence klippenstein mennonite heritage center canadian mennonite bible college arzabaptist -mc~zrzotziie idc~zrities in fernzeizt, edited by leo d r i e d g e r a n d l e l a n d h a r d e r (elkhart, ind.: institute of m e n n o n i t e s t u d i e s , ind., ). this volume arises from the participation of forty mennonite and brethren in christ scholars in a consultation on the church member profile i i research project in november of . the research project, an extensive survey of mennonites in north america, was launched a year earlier by howard kauffman and leland harder as a followup to their survey of mennonites. the consultation featured major papers by two theologians and five sociologists, with responses to each paper and an introduction by editors driedger and harder. from a theological perspective, walter klaassen provides a review of mennonite history and describes the call to nonconformity that has been central to anabaptist identity. a paper by norman kraus identifies a range of contemporary theological trends which may be influencing mennonite attitudes. the major contributions by sociologists include a discussion of the concepts of sect by calvin redekop, modernization by donald kraybill, and secularization by peter hamm. also included is a discourse o n the relationship between communal commitment and individualism by stephen ainlay, and an essay by leo driedger on the relationship between identity and assimilation. each of these papers is in turn followed by responses f r o m a range of scholars. initial comparisons of this volume with the publication merzrzonite irlenfitjj: historical and co~itenzporaiy perspectives, edited by calvin redelcop and samuel steiner, and based on contributions of a gathering of mennonite scholars, are inevitable. the focus of this earlier collection was also on mennonite identity, with the same kind of format involving a combination of major papers and responses. as well, many if not most of the authors included in the present volume contributed to this earlier publication. booli reviews the question must be asked, then, why we needed another so similar a volume. in response, it is possible to point to at least one significant difference between the two: the fact that the contributers to the present volume are bounded by the constraints of the focus on empirical research in the form of the church member profile. it must be said that the authors for the most part have taken this task seriously, and have focused their discussions on concepts and definitions that are at least in principle empirically measurable. as a result, we have several clear and straightforward explanations of basic concepts by veteran researchers like redekop, kraybill and driedger which can provide guidance for present and future researchers. the articles in the first two sections of this volume in particular point out some of the hazards of the adoption of the concepts of secular social science to understand the anabaptist-mennonite reality. such concepts as moderniza- tion and secularization, o r troeltch's church-state model seem to assume the decline of the traditional and the sacred in the face of powerful and inevitable social forces. the preservation of something like anabaptist-mennonite identity becomes by implication a kind of holding action against these profound worldly forces. some corrective, and hence a more optimistic element, is introduced by peter hamm's article, in which he describes a dialectical relationship between secularization and the alternate forces of sacralization, which can account for the renewal and persistence of religion in contrast with the corrosive forces of secularization. in a similar vein, driedger speaks of "countervailing sources of identity" in his article. in keeping with the workmanlike approach adhered to by the major presenters, responders have clearly made an effort to address the issues at hand. generally, they avoid the kind of tendency to self-promotion that scholars in such circumstances are prone to. in a number of cases, they in fact provide useful clarifications and extensions of the papers they are responding to. it would have been helpful, though, for the editors to have taken greater care with the inclusion of responses. at one point, for example, the reader is left to puzzle through a response by tom meyers to calvin redekop's paper, wondering how the response can be to the same paper one has just read, only to be informed at the end that in fact professor myers was responding t o an earlier and substantially different version. as well, some of the responses have quite a casual kind of off-the-cuff quality which does not come off as well in print as it perhaps did in the spontaneity of the moment. overall, this volume does provide the reader with a good overview of some basic concepts in the field of mennonite studies, and may serve as a useful reference point for others contemplating research into the question of mennonite identity. paul redekop menno simons college the university of winnipeg fire data as proxy for anthropogenic landscape change in the yucatán land article fire data as proxy for anthropogenic landscape change in the yucatán marco millones ,*, john rogan , b.l. turner ii , benoit parmentier , robert clary harris and daniel a. griffith department of geography, university of mary washington, college ave, fredericksburg, va , usa graduate school of geography, clark university, main st. worcester, ma , usa; jrogan@clarku.edu school of geographical sciences and urban planning, and school of sustainability, arizona state university, tempe, az - , usa; billie.l.turner@asu.edu sustainability solutions initiative, mitchell center, norman smith hall, university of maine, orono, me , usa; benoit.parmentier@maine.edu independent scholar; clay.harris@cgcid.org school of economic, political and policy sciences, university of texas at dallas, w campbell rd, richardson, tx , usa; dagriffith@utd.edu * correspondence: mmillone@umw.edu; tel.: + - - - received: august ; accepted: september ; published: september abstract: fire is one of the earliest and most common tools used by humans to modify the earth surface. landscapes in the yucatán peninsula are composed of a mosaic of old growth subtropical forest, secondary vegetation, grasslands, and agricultural land that represent a well-documented example of anthropogenic intervention, much of which involves the use of fire. this research characterizes land use systems and land cover changes in the yucatán during the – time period. we used an active fire remotely sensed data time series from the moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (modis), in combination with forest loss, and anthrome map sources to ( ) establish the association between fire and land use change in the region; and ( ) explore links between the spatial and temporal patterns of fire and specific types of land use practices, including within- and between-anthromes variability. a spatial multinomial logit model was constructed using fire, landscape configuration, and a set of commonly used control variables to estimate forest persistence, non-forest persistence, and change. cross-tabulations and descriptive statistics were used to explore the relationships between fire occurrence, location, and timing with respect to the geography of land use. we also compared fire frequencies within and between anthrome groups using a negative binomial model and tukey pairwise comparisons. results show that fire data broadly reproduce the geography and timing of anthropogenic land change. findings indicate that fire and landscape configuration is useful in explaining forest change and non-forest persistence, especially in fragmented (mosaicked) landscapes. absence of fire occurrence is related usefully to the persistence of spatially continuous core areas of older growth forest. fire has a positive relationship with forest to non-forest change and a negative relationship with forest persistence. fire is also a good indicator to distinguish between anthrome groups (e.g., croplands and villages). our study suggests that active fire data series are a reasonable proxy for anthropogenic land persistence/change in the context of the yucatán and are useful to differentiate quantitatively and qualitatively between and within anthromes. keywords: tropical fire; land use/land cover change; modis; anthrome; yucatán peninsula; spatial model land , , ; doi: . /land www.mdpi.com/journal/land http://www.mdpi.com/journal/land http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /land http://www.mdpi.com/journal/land land , , of . introduction this study examines anthropogenic land cover change and persistence across the yucatán peninsula of mexico by incorporating fire occurrence as a geographic context-specific indicator of human land practices. land use and land cover change (i.e., land change) is an international council for science (icsu) millennial research challenge [ ] and has been addressed by various research communities [ – ]. a consensus has emerged that human-induced land changes have increased at unprecedented rates throughout the last century [ – ] to such an extent that the long-term well-being of human-environment relationships now requires more sustainable management of land uses [ , ]. without disagreeing with the previous assertion, other researchers have argued that humans have altered ecosystems to such a degree that present landscapes would be best characterized in terms of anthropogenic biomes or anthromes, as they occupy the largest portion of the terrestrial land surface [ ]. these concerns have guided numerous efforts to detect, map, and monitor land change, especially with the aid of remote sensing technology (e.g., [ , ]). complementary mapping efforts have been undertaken to understand the level of direct human influence, as well as efforts to model the causes, constraints, mechanisms, and trajectories of land change and persistence (e.g., [ , , – ]). while much has been learned from these research efforts, certain research challenges remain unaddressed [ , , ]. two of these challenges are pertinent for highly dynamic and spatially heterogeneous mosaicked humanized landscapes: the need for additional explicit studies seeking to untangle region-specific human-environment interactions and the need to incorporate context and temporal information from satellite data sources into the analysis [ , – ]. the accuracy and spatial explicitness of land use and land cover maps has improved in the past years with the refinement of the spatial and spectral resolution of remotely sensed data [ , , ]. for local-to-regional scale mapping, land change research has relied heavily on cross-sectional assessments (e.g., two or three map dates; [ ]). although valuable, cross-sectional approaches often overlook high frequency land dynamics occurring between land cover map dates [ ] and can potentially misrepresent recurrent changes as unidirectional trends, leading to over- or under-estimation of change [ ]. in the last decade, high temporal frequency remotely sensed datasets having km spatial resolution and improved calibration such as the advanced very high resolution radiometer (avhrr), the global inventory modeling and mapping studies (gimms) ndvi data and the modis data product suite [ ] have been made available. while avhrr and gimms data are ideal for monitoring dynamic, long-term environmental processes at continental and global scales [ , , , ], their application is limited at sub-national scales [ ]. the modis product suite in contrast, although limited by its shorter time-span, offers not only better or equivalent spatial, spectral and temporal capacity [ ], but also the potential use of the modis archive of derived products (e.g., sea ice, active fire) as ancillary data to yield improvements in land cover mapping and change detection (e.g., [ , ]). in addition to improvements in spatial and temporal details of land cover mapping, researchers have made significant progress to specify and even re-conceptualize traditional land cover/land use categories. specifically, the re-framing of categories in terms anthropogenic land use intensity (e.g., anthromes) places the focus on human activities. many of these efforts have relied on population density to characterize differences between areas that are highly or sparsely intervened by humans. heterogeneity is another criterion commonly used to characterize anthropogenic landscapes. in those instances, landscapes are often measured on a homogeneity continuum from highly heterogeneous areas of “built” landscapes combining many different land uses in relatively small areas, to others presenting large swaths of homogenous features [ ]. fire is one of the earliest and most significant tools used by humans to modify landscapes and to extract benefits from ecosystem goods and services (e.g., land clearing for agriculture or urban development, forest thinning). at the same time, human land use and management (e.g., fuel load quantity and distribution, regulation and ignition sources) have altered naturally occurring fire regimes [ – ]. the “pyric transition” model has been proposed to describe the relationship land , , of between human intervention and the intensity of fire use across time and space (e.g., none in dense urban contexts, high in agricultural extensive systems, low or background in relatively “untouched” ecosystems) [ ]. this relationship, however, is highly context-specific, in terms of the biophysical and the cultural characteristics of a region. the present study takes advantage of that potential by using modis active fire data time-series in combination with categorical land cover/use maps to examine the link between land change, human activities and fire in the yucatán peninsula. . study area the yucatán peninsula (henceforth, the yucatan), defined in this study by the mexican states of campeche, quintana roo and yucatán (figure ), is a region characterized by a mostly flat, karstic, quaternary plain. the region is a highly dynamic and complex mosaic of subtropical dry forest in different states of ecological succession driven by human and environmental disturbance (e.g., fire, tropical storms, agriculture) [ – ]. unless interrupted by specific disturbances such as fire-friendly plant invasion or management practices, post-fire vegetation grows back at a rapid rate after a burn. in much of the yucatán peninsula, secondary vegetation can reach a height of m within-five years of clearing [ – ]. as a consequence, there is typically only a short window of time to detect land change. land , , of ecosystems) [ ]. this relationship, however, is highly context-specific, in terms of the biophysical and the cultural characteristics of a region. the present study takes advantage of that potential by using modis active fire data time-series in combination with categorical land cover/use maps to examine the link between land change, human activities and fire in the yucatán peninsula. . study area the yucatán peninsula (henceforth, the yucatan), defined in this study by the mexican states of campeche, quintana roo and yucatán (figure ), is a region characterized by a mostly flat, karstic, quaternary plain. the region is a highly dynamic and complex mosaic of subtropical dry forest in different states of ecological succession driven by human and environmental disturbance (e.g., fire, tropical storms, agriculture) [ – ]. unless interrupted by specific disturbances such as fire-friendly plant invasion or management practices, post-fire vegetation grows back at a rapid rate after a burn. in much of the yucatán peninsula, secondary vegetation can reach a height of m within-five years of clearing [ – ]. as a consequence, there is typically only a short window of time to detect land change. figure . study area: mexico’s yucatán peninsula. major federal roads, main cities and towns, state boundaries, and protected areas. fire in the yucatán is not only an environmental disturbance, but also the main land-clearing tool in the region. it precedes most land conversion (e.g., urbanization, clear-cut deforestation) and land modification events such as shifting cultivation, pasture maintenance, and secondary vegetation regrowth [ , – ]. persistence and maintenance of non-forest land cover types (e.g., pasture, various crops, early secondary vegetation) are also controlled by fire. in the yucatán, two types of fire are commonly distinguished by local population and regulation: quemas and incendios. quemas (~agricultural burns) are, in theory, legally registered and strictly regulated and scheduled for the purpose of swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture. this includes subsistence maize-based cropping (milpa), pasture maintenance and mechanized agriculture (e.g., sugar cane, commercial corn). incendios forestales (wildfires) are, in theory, accidental fires that are ignited by cigarette butts, broken glass, or lightning. they typically occur during the dry season (march–may), can affect large areas and last for several days. these fires, if a consequence of human action, are illegal and usually generate government agency response, especially if they grow out of control and affect farming, forest extraction and natural protected areas (npa) [ , ]. although the distinction can be easily figure . study area: mexico’s yucatán peninsula. major federal roads, main cities and towns, state boundaries, and protected areas. fire in the yucatán is not only an environmental disturbance, but also the main land-clearing tool in the region. it precedes most land conversion (e.g., urbanization, clear-cut deforestation) and land modification events such as shifting cultivation, pasture maintenance, and secondary vegetation regrowth [ , – ]. persistence and maintenance of non-forest land cover types (e.g., pasture, various crops, early secondary vegetation) are also controlled by fire. in the yucatán, two types of fire are commonly distinguished by local population and regulation: quemas and incendios. quemas (~agricultural burns) are, in theory, legally registered and strictly regulated and scheduled for the purpose of swidden (slash-and-burn) agriculture. this includes subsistence maize-based cropping (milpa), pasture maintenance and mechanized agriculture (e.g., sugar cane, commercial corn). incendios forestales (wildfires) are, in theory, accidental fires that are ignited by cigarette butts, broken glass, or lightning. they typically occur during the dry season (march–may), can affect large areas and land , , of last for several days. these fires, if a consequence of human action, are illegal and usually generate government agency response, especially if they grow out of control and affect farming, forest extraction and natural protected areas (npa) [ , ]. although the distinction can be easily blurred (e.g., escaped burns), quemas tend to be more ubiquitous in the region, are smaller in area, and shorter in duration than incendios. in contrast, incendios are less frequent, cover large areas, and temporally discrete events that are often amplified in contact with hurricane blow downs [ ]. given the previously described links between various human activities and fire practices, we expect that the spatio-temporal pattern of fire can serve as a proxy for certain anthropogenic land use practices in the yucatán (e.g., milpa, mechanized agriculture, sugar cane cultivation and new urban development). naturally occurring wild fires are less frequent in this region than fire of anthropogenic origin. this characteristic represents an opportunity to evaluate fire as a proxy for various land uses and land cover changes in the region. the primary goal of this study is to assess land cover change and persistence across the yucatán peninsula by incorporating modis active fire occurrence data as a site-specific indicator of human-induced land change. the specific objectives are to: (a) describe the spatio-temporal dynamics of fire and its association with land use practices and land change; (b) determine the importance of fire presence to explain types of land persistence and change using a spatial multinomial logit model; and, (c) explore the ability of fire frequency to discriminate between anthropogenic landscape types (anthropogenic biomes or anthromes). beside the specific goal stated, lessons learned in this study may be of wider interest in other regions of the world. spatial driver variables used for land-change modeling and prediction are typically expensive to produce or not frequently updated as most countries and regions do not possess such information at the level of detail required. similarly, land cover maps are rarely produced annually. most land cover maps are commonly produced using a census like approach with – years gaps at the country or regional levels. for an increasing number of applications, mapping rapid changes within-these temporal gaps across countries boundaries may be crucial. it is in this context that active fire data becomes useful as a predictor. it has both high temporal frequency and is readily available worldwide. to evaluate the usefulness of fire as predictor in both data poor and rich areas, we modeled land change with and without the presence of additional spatial drivers. results reported in this specific study should therefore be of potential interest to a wider audience of researchers and land management practitioners. . methodological approach . . data a comprehensive active fire dataset was constructed using nasa’s km mod a (from terra) and myd a (from aqua) -day composite product, using various time ranges within-the time period – [ ] in order to match fire data and land cover data availability. both data products provide detection confidence levels [ ] of which only high and medium were used in order to minimize potential false positive detections [ , ] (figure ). the km fire grid cell locations were converted to centroid points to match and extract the m grid cell land cover attributes [ ]. land change/persistence information was obtained from southern mexico forest cover and clearance from c. to c. and to c. digital maps developed by the center for applied biodiversity science (cabs) at conservation international [ ]. the original maps are based on the interpretation of (~ m resolution) landsat- thematic mapper satellite imagery, and are composed of five categories: forest, non-forest, mangrove, water, and cloud/shadow. forest cover is defined as mature forest > m closed canopy [ ]. thematic map accuracy was reported to have a kappa index of % with an error of commission of . % and an error of omission of . % for the dominant tropical dry forest class prevalent in the study area [ ]. forest and mangrove classes were merged, whereas water, clouds and shadow pixels were masked and removed from further analysis to produce land , , of a map of land persistence and change for – , with three resulting categories: forest persistence (fp), non-forest persistence (nfp), and forest-to-non-forest (ch) (figure ). it must be noted that in contrast with fp (“old growth” forest persistence), nfp by definition, allows for land changes between sub-classes within-a broad non-forest category. for example, a transition from agriculture to pasture or from pasture to secondary forests would be included in nfp. although lacking detailed land categories, the resulting three-category map has the advantage of being more consistent than most multi-temporal assessments because it was produced using a consistent methodology by the same research team explicitly for the purpose of forest change mapping [ , ]. land , , of lacking detailed land categories, the resulting three-category map has the advantage of being more consistent than most multi-temporal assessments because it was produced using a consistent methodology by the same research team explicitly for the purpose of forest change mapping [ , ]. figure . fire frequency map, – modis terra-only series. significant getis-ord gi statistic ( . level) hot spots and lisa-based clusters are shown in inset (upper left). = post-hurricane wilma fires, and urban development related fires; and = mennonite land clearing for commercial maize cultivation; = pemex oil processing plant; and, and = high yield commercial corn and bean cultivation. figure . land change/persistence classes based on the cabs ( ) land cover maps. figure . fire frequency map, – modis terra-only series. significant getis-ord gi statistic ( . level) hot spots and lisa-based clusters are shown in inset (upper left). = post-hurricane wilma fires, and urban development related fires; and = mennonite land clearing for commercial maize cultivation; = pemex oil processing plant; and, and = high yield commercial corn and bean cultivation. anthrome map data corresponding to time interval – were obtained from the sedac website [ ]) in geotiff format. we cropped and match the dataset to the yucatán region and aggregated the original anthrome categories using the six anthrome group classification: dense settlements, villages, croplands, rangelands, forested, wildlands. in order to match the temporal and spatial resolutions, an additional fire variable was created from the modis time series by aggregating years ( – ), matching projection and, coarsening the cell size. this resulted in a × km fire frequency map used for the anthrome analysis. additional variables commonly used in land-change modeling were included in the analysis to control for environmental and socio-economic factors. elevation and slope were derived from a m srtm digital elevation model. precipitation data were derived from tropical rainfall measuring mission (trmm). protected areas from conanp (mexican natural protected area commission) were processed to match the study area. communal property lands (ejidos), population density change, as well as the distance to road variable were derived from the mexican census bureau [ ]. cattle density by municipality was obtained from the censo agropecuario [ ]. land , , of land , , of lacking detailed land categories, the resulting three-category map has the advantage of being more consistent than most multi-temporal assessments because it was produced using a consistent methodology by the same research team explicitly for the purpose of forest change mapping [ , ]. figure . fire frequency map, – modis terra-only series. significant getis-ord gi statistic ( . level) hot spots and lisa-based clusters are shown in inset (upper left). = post-hurricane wilma fires, and urban development related fires; and = mennonite land clearing for commercial maize cultivation; = pemex oil processing plant; and, and = high yield commercial corn and bean cultivation. figure . land change/persistence classes based on the cabs ( ) land cover maps. figure . land change/persistence classes based on the cabs ( ) land cover maps. even though modis fire data are constantly updated, in this study, we only include data to the year . we consider the – ten-year period sufficient to describe the salient points about the spatio-temporal patterns of a fire in the region. more importantly, the land cover data and anthrome data that we use do not go beyond and , respectively. for this same reason, the multinomial modeling component of this study does not use any fire data from after (see methods section). . . methods the methodology has three components: (a) a characterization of the spatio-temporal patterns and co-location of land change/persistence and fire; (b) an assessment of the effect of fire presence, landscape patch size and other covariates land-change outcomes (fp, nfp and ch), using a spatial multinomial logit model for the period – ; and, (c) an exploration of the ability of fire frequency to distinguish human landscape categories defined in anthrome groups and anthrome classes. . . characterization of land change and fire patterns a cross-tabulation-based change analysis was performed on the simplified cabs land cover map pairs – and – , resulting in one map with two persistence classes (fp and nfp) and one change class (ch) (figure ). spatio-temporal dynamics of fire occurrence were derived by manipulating the modis fire archive via map algebra operations (e.g., overlay, reclassification) into map and graph summaries of annual and multi-year fire frequency. after accounting for the different time-spans of the terra and aqua series and adjusting for double counting, three separate fire occurrence sets were created: a terra ten-year summary map ( – ) (figure ) and a terra-aqua combined annual time-series graph ( – ) (figure ). global (moran’i) and local (getis-ord gi* and lisa) measures of spatial autocorrelation were calculated for all sets of maps [ – ]. finally, a second cross-tabulation analysis was performed for the land change/persistence map (fp, nfp and ch) (figure ) and the binary fire (reclassification of figure ) maps in order to describe and explore the spatial correspondence between them and the relationship between fire occurrence and the different land cover categories. the result of this cross-tabulation map is shown in figure . land , , of land , , of figure . cumulative annual and -day frequency (counts) of fire occurrence (fire), – in the three-state yucatán peninsula: blue = morning purple = afternoon. inset shows detail of intra-annual fire season for . figure . cross-tabulation of land change/persistence classes (figure ) and fire frequency (figure ). . . effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model a spatial multinomial logit model using – fire “density” or “intensity” (fire count/five years) as independent variable (fire), and control variables was performed. this model specification is used in the literature (e.g., [ , ]) and is preferred because the dependent variable consists of three possible outcomes that are categorical/nominal in nature [ – ]. to account for the positive spatial autocorrelation present in remotely sensed data [ , ] spatial lags variables based on rook-case adjacency were calculated. this was done by generating, for each observation, the terra annual aqua annual terra -day r december february april june august octoberr december february april june august october fire season annual -day terra annual aqua annual terra -day r december february april june august octoberr december february april june august october fire season annual -day figure . cumulative annual and -day frequency (counts) of fire occurrence (fire), – in the three-state yucatán peninsula: blue = morning purple = afternoon. inset shows detail of intra-annual fire season for . land , , of figure . cumulative annual and -day frequency (counts) of fire occurrence (fire), – in the three-state yucatán peninsula: blue = morning purple = afternoon. inset shows detail of intra-annual fire season for . figure . cross-tabulation of land change/persistence classes (figure ) and fire frequency (figure ). . . effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model a spatial multinomial logit model using – fire “density” or “intensity” (fire count/five years) as independent variable (fire), and control variables was performed. this model specification is used in the literature (e.g., [ , ]) and is preferred because the dependent variable consists of three possible outcomes that are categorical/nominal in nature [ – ]. to account for the positive spatial autocorrelation present in remotely sensed data [ , ] spatial lags variables based on rook-case adjacency were calculated. this was done by generating, for each observation, the terra annual aqua annual terra -day r december february april june august octoberr december february april june august october fire season annual -day terra annual aqua annual terra -day r december february april june august octoberr december february april june august october fire season annual -day figure . cross-tabulation of land change/persistence classes (figure ) and fire frequency (figure ). . . effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model a spatial multinomial logit model using – fire “density” or “intensity” (fire count/five years) as independent variable (fire), and control variables was performed. this model specification is used in the literature (e.g., [ , ]) and is preferred because the dependent variable consists of land , , of three possible outcomes that are categorical/nominal in nature [ – ]. to account for the positive spatial autocorrelation present in remotely sensed data [ , ] spatial lags variables based on rook-case adjacency were calculated. this was done by generating, for each observation, the average sum of its neighbors of the same class (cfp, cnfp, and cch), and including the lag variable in the model (see equation ( )) [ , ]. lag values range from (no like neighbors) to (all four like neighbors), while average moran’s i values range from virtually random for cch ( . ) to weak-moderate positive for cnfp ( . ) and cfp ( . ). in this particular case, spatial lags also serve as an indicator of landscape configuration and heterogeneity (i.e., similar to patch size and cohesion). pseudo-likelihood estimates were calculated for the main effects and spatial lag parameters of the multinomial model as follows (equation ( )): log(πhij/πhir) = αj + x ′ hi βj ( ) where πhij is the probability that a pixel h in the map of any class i for which fire has been detected will become one of land change/persistence category j (fp, nfp or ch), j = r, with land change/persistence category r being the reference category. there are separate sets of intercept parameters αj and regression parameters βj for each of the logit models. the matrix x ′ hi is the set of explanatory variables: spatial lag (cy), fire (fire), and the commonly used control variables described. two logits equations are modeled for each fire and cy population: the logit comparing non-forest persistence (nfp) to forest persistence (fp) and the logit comparing change (ch) to forest persistence (fp) [ ]. . . fire frequency and anthromes characterization anthromes map datasets were processed to match them to the study area, and temporal fire count data were aggregated to generate a fire frequency variable (figure ). in order to explore the association between fire counts and anthrome groups graphically, we used boxplots of mean fire frequency by each category present in the study area: dense settlements, villages (in effect, village and surrounding areas), croplands, rangelands, forested, wildlands. we measured the differences in mean fire frequency across anthromes using a negative binomial model and a tukey pairwise comparison. a binomial model was preferred over poisson model because the overall (as well as per category) mean and variance are noticeably different (by a factor ), which suggests over-dispersion in the poisson parameter. we also conducted tukey comparisons for fire frequency within the cropland anthromes group to assess the potential of using fire count for finer definition of the human imprint of landscape. land , , of average sum of its neighbors of the same class (cfp, cnfp, and cch), and including the lag variable in the model (see equation ( )) [ , ]. lag values range from (no like neighbors) to (all four like neighbors), while average moran’s i values range from virtually random for cch ( . ) to weak- moderate positive for cnfp ( . ) and cfp ( . ). in this particular case, spatial lags also serve as an indicator of landscape configuration and heterogeneity (i.e., similar to patch size and cohesion). pseudo-likelihood estimates were calculated for the main effects and spatial lag parameters of the multinomial model as follows (equation ( )): log(πhij/πhir) = αj + x′hi βj ( ) where πhij is the probability that a pixel h in the map of any class i for which fire has been detected will become one of land change/persistence category j (fp, nfp or ch), j ≠ r, with land change/persistence category r being the reference category. there are separate sets of intercept parameters αj and regression parameters βj for each of the logit models. the matrix x′hi is the set of explanatory variables: spatial lag (cy), fire (fire), and the commonly used control variables described. two logits equations are modeled for each fire and cy population: the logit comparing non-forest persistence (nfp) to forest persistence (fp) and the logit comparing change (ch) to forest persistence (fp) [ ]. . . fire frequency and anthromes characterization anthromes map datasets were processed to match them to the study area, and temporal fire count data were aggregated to generate a fire frequency variable (figure ). in order to explore the association between fire counts and anthrome groups graphically, we used boxplots of mean fire frequency by each category present in the study area: dense settlements, villages (in effect, village and surrounding areas), croplands, rangelands, forested, wildlands. we measured the differences in mean fire frequency across anthromes using a negative binomial model and a tukey pairwise comparison. a binomial model was preferred over poisson model because the overall (as well as per category) mean and variance are noticeably different (by a factor ), which suggests over- dispersion in the poisson parameter. we also conducted tukey comparisons for fire frequency within the cropland anthromes group to assess the potential of using fire count for finer definition of the human imprint of landscape. for the data processing, we used the raster (version . - ), sp (version . - ) and rgdal (version . - ) packages to perform some of the preprocessing for the spatial inputs. the raster package was also used for aggregation of the fire occurrences, cropping and reclassification of anthromes data. we used the implementation of multinomial model in the r “nnet” package (version . - ) for analyses. we also ran the negative binomial model using the “mass” package (version . - ) in r version . and used the glht method from the multcomp r package ( . - ) to perform the tukey comparison. figure . fire frequency aggregation for anthrome comparison (left) and anthrome groups (right). figure . fire frequency aggregation for anthrome comparison (left) and anthrome groups (right). for the data processing, we used the raster (version . - ), sp (version . - ) and rgdal (version . - ) packages to perform some of the preprocessing for the spatial inputs. the raster package was also used for aggregation of the fire occurrences, cropping and reclassification of anthromes land , , of data. we used the implementation of multinomial model in the r “nnet” package (version . - ) for analyses. we also ran the negative binomial model using the “mass” package (version . - ) in r version . and used the glht method from the multcomp r package ( . - ) to perform the tukey comparison. . results . . spatio-temporal patterns of fire and land change as a proxy indicator of human land use, fire frequency can be interpreted as a quantitative measure of “density” (in space and time) of land use in this case. it corresponds to how actively “used” or “under-used” a km parcel of land is in relation to the types of land use that require burning (e.g., high for pasture and cultivation land). fire occurrence for the period – presents a distinct non-random spatial pattern across the study area (moran’s i = . ) (figure ). the individual observations presenting the highest detection frequencies (> per year) appear in spatial clusters and are concentrated in the northern and western section of the peninsula in the states of campeche and the yucatán. quintana roo has comparatively fewer and less clustering fire detections. areas with less fire frequency are observed in campeche and quintana roo, especially in the presence of federal and state run natural protected areas (e.g., sian ka’an and calakmul bioreserves) (figure ), and in locations where road and settlement density is low. this road-settlement-fire co-location is more explicit in the yucatán and northern campeche, and less so in southern campeche, where road density decreases. locations affected by fire (figure and table ) cover roughly % of the study area. more than half of the fire occurrences concentrate in nfp areas, followed by % of fp, and % in ch areas ( % of the total). locations with no fire occurrence cover more than % of the study area. no-fire occurrences are two times more common in fp than in nfp, and they are minimally present in ch areas. land change/persistence figures (total rows percentage in table ) indicate that roughly / of the fp shows no fire detections, whereas % of nfp presents fire occurrence. ch shows % of its area as having burned at some time (although it is hardly visible in figure , because ch covers only % of the total area). land , , of table . cross-tabulation of fire occurrence and land change/persistence: row, column and total percentages per class. preliminary interpretation matrix (extended/detailed legend for figure ). fire no fire row total % total study area % forest persistence . % -error resulting from database mismatch -error of commission in modis active fire product -error induced by aggregation of land cover data . % -core areas of mature forest that have persisted for at least years ( – ) -protected areas with a predominance of mature forest -areas of planned selective forest extraction that have not been extracted in years or longer (under rotation management) non forest persistence . % -areas where fire is used to convert from non-forest vegetation land covers to other non-forest vegetation land covers (e.g., agriculture to urban) -areas of active non-forest land-uses -error resulting from database mismatches . % -areas under intensive land-uses that do not require land clearing for prolonged periods (e.g., citrus agriculture, urban) -secondary vegetation of at least years including forest not considered mature by cab . this can include forest regrowth (forest transition). -forested areas of forest communities that have been extracted in the last years and are growing back -seasonal agricultural areas currently fallow (e.g., milpa) change (forest to non-forest) . % -all land cover changes (conversion and some modification) preceded by land clearing by fire (i.e., deforestation) -core forest areas that are heavily deforested with more intense use of land clearing by fire . % -error of omission in modis active fire product -error resulting from database mismatches -land changes that do not require fire -fringe areas that are cleared without fire after the core area has been cleared with fire -fringe areas that are cleared with low intensity fire that is not detected by modis active fire product column total% % % land , , of . . effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model results from the spatial multinomial logit model agree with the analysis presented above (section . ) and indicate that past fire occurrence (pre- ) is a useful predictor of land change/ persistence categories. the resulting equations and model statistics are summarized in table and in the supplementary appendix a. the akaike information criterion (aic) indicates that the model with covariates (intercept + fire and lag + control variables) performs better than alternative models (see appendix a). the likelihood ratio (lr) has two degrees of freedom and is significant, which confirms that at least one of the variables in the model improves the model description. table . spatial multinomial logit model summary of trends. fp = forest persistence, nfp = non forest persistence, ch = change, inte = intercept, odds = odds ratio effects point estimates. this table contains only fire and cy variables, the full variable list is available in the appendix a. cat ref inte cy fire odds cy odds fire ch ( ) fp ( ) − . − . . . . nfp ( ) − . − . . . . ch average − . − . . . . fp ( ) ch ( ) . . − . . . nfp ( ) − . . − . . . fp average . . − . . . nfp ( ) ch ( ) . . − . . . fp ( ) . − . . . . fp average . . . . . the maximum pseudo-likelihood and odds ratio point estimates (table and appendix a) show the effect and relative importance of fire and cy for each land change/persistence outcome in the model. at a % level, the difference between fire = (fire occurrence) and fire = is statistically different for all cases (fp, nfp and ch), for all three states separately and the three-state aggregated study area. cy is a significant covariate in the model for all of these cases. additional models were run with control variables. these full model results are presented in the appendix a and confirm the usefulness of fire as predictor. an inspection of the pseudo-likelihood estimates for the aggregated study area (table and appendix a) indicates that for each unit increase in fire (intensity), the log of the ratio of p(ch)/p(fp) increases by ~ . , and the log of the ratio of p(ch)/p(nfp) increases by ~ . . in other words, for each unit increase in fire (intensity) in a given pixel (in figure ), the odds of that same pixel belonging to category ch (forest to non-forest change) rather than category fp (forest persistence in figure ) are multiplied by ~ . . unit increases in fire also increase the odds of a pixel belonging to category ch rather than nfp (no forest persistence) by . . for every increase in one unit of fire, the odds of a pixel belonging to category nfp instead of ch are multiplied by . . for every increase in one unit of fire, the odds of a pixel belonging to category nfp instead of fp are multiplied by . . for every increase in one unit of fire, the odds of a pixel belonging to category fp instead of ch are multiplied by . (almost none). for every increase in one unit of fire, the odds of a pixel belonging to category fp instead of nfp are multiplied by . (almost none). overall fire estimates are negative when predicting forest persistence (fp) and positive when predicting ch. the calculated spatial lag (cy) terms are significant for all cases. cy, as mentioned earlier, can be interpreted as cohesiveness of land cover patches [ ]. larger cy values correspond to more similar values among neighboring cells (i.e., a larger patches of a category). estimates of the model for the aggregated peninsula indicate that a unit increase in cy decreases the log of p(fp)/p(ch) by ~− . , while the log of p(fp)/p(nfp) decreases by ~− . . this finding indicates that persistent forest areas located in large patches are very likely to remain forest ( times more than ch) (table and land , , of appendix a). fp is also . times more likely than nfp. in general, ch has a negative relationship with cy. this relationship can be attributed to ch occurring more often in isolated pixels corresponding to fragmented patches. conversely, fp and nfp occur in larger continuous areas (figure ). . . comparison of fire by anthromes boxplots of mean fire frequency by anthromes groups suggest that fire can be used to distinguish among anthromes groups thereby serving as an additional potential variable to examine human imprints in the context of the yucatán region (figure ). the croplands anthromes group has a higher fire frequency on average compared to most other anthromes categories. we note that rangelands display a very large variance and thus may be difficult to distinguish from croplands and villages. finer anthropogenic categories within the cropland groups also appear to be contrasted by the fire frequency variable (see boxplots figure ). land , , of corresponding to fragmented patches. conversely, fp and nfp occur in larger continuous areas (figure ). . . comparison of fire by anthromes boxplots of mean fire frequency by anthromes groups suggest that fire can be used to distinguish among anthromes groups thereby serving as an additional potential variable to examine human imprints in the context of the yucatán region (figure ). the croplands anthromes group has a higher fire frequency on average compared to most other anthromes categories. we note that rangelands display a very large variance and thus may be difficult to distinguish from croplands and villages. finer anthropogenic categories within the cropland groups also appear to be contrasted by the fire frequency variable (see boxplots figure ). tukey pairwise comparison tests between anthromes groups (applied to the negative binomial model table ) highlight that six and seven pairwise comparisons are significantly different at % and % level respectively. coefficients indicate relative increase or decrease of the expected log of fire frequency for categorical change in relation to the reference variable. for instance, there is a − . decrease in the log of fire frequency when an observation is found in the dense settlements rather than in croplands. we find that fire frequency variable is useful to differentiate croplands with almost all categories with the exception of villages and rangelands. both overlap substantially on the boxplots (figure ). figure . between group comparison: fire frequency by anthrome groups boxplots (left). within group comparison: fire frequency boxplots within cropland anthrome (right). table . between-anthromes tukey pairwise comparison for the negative binomial models with fire count and anthromes groups. note that the reference variable is in italic. pairwise comparison coefficients standard error t-stat p-values dense settlements–croplands − . . − . . forested–croplands − . . − . rangelands–croplands − . . − . . villages–croplands − . . − . . wildlands–croplands − . . − . forested–dense settlements . . . . rangelands–dense settlements . . . . villages–dense settlements . . . . wildlands–dense settlements − . . − . . rangelands–forested . . . . figure . between group comparison: fire frequency by anthrome groups boxplots (left). within group comparison: fire frequency boxplots within cropland anthrome (right). tukey pairwise comparison tests between anthromes groups (applied to the negative binomial model table ) highlight that six and seven pairwise comparisons are significantly different at % and % level respectively. coefficients indicate relative increase or decrease of the expected log of fire frequency for categorical change in relation to the reference variable. for instance, there is a − . decrease in the log of fire frequency when an observation is found in the dense settlements rather than in croplands. we find that fire frequency variable is useful to differentiate croplands with almost all categories with the exception of villages and rangelands. both overlap substantially on the boxplots (figure ). tukey comparisons were also performed for fire frequency within the cropland anthromes group to assess the potential of using fire frequency for finer definition of the human imprint of landscape. we found that within croplands two out and four out of comparison results in significant differences in the log of fire frequency (table ) at and percent significance level, respectively. this suggests that fire frequency is less useful at distinguishing within the cropland anthromes. the strongest contrasts are found between “residential rainfed mosaics–remote croplands mosaic” and between “residential irrigated cropland–remote croplands”. both indicate decreases in the log of fire frequency for locations that are found in residential rainfed and irrigated cropland compared to remote croplands. land , , of table . between-anthromes tukey pairwise comparison for the negative binomial models with fire count and anthromes groups. note that the reference variable is in italic. pairwise comparison coefficients standard error t-stat p-values dense settlements–croplands − . . − . . forested–croplands − . . − . rangelands–croplands − . . − . . villages–croplands − . . − . . wildlands–croplands − . . − . forested–dense settlements . . . . rangelands–dense settlements . . . . villages–dense settlements . . . . wildlands–dense settlements − . . − . . rangelands–forested . . . . villages–forested . . . . wildlands–forested − . . − . villages–rangelands . . . wildlands–rangelands − . . − . wildlands–villages − . . − . table . within-anthrome tukey pairwise comparisons using the negative binomial models with fire count and anthromes croplands categories. note that the reference variable is in italic. pairwise–comparison coefficients standard error t-stat p-values populated rainfed cropland–populated irrigated cropland . . . . remote croplands–populated irrigated cropland . . . . residential irrigated cropland–populated irrigated cropland − . . − . . residential rainfed mosaic–populated irrigated cropland . . . . remote croplands–populated rainfed cropland . . . . residential irrigated cropland–populated rainfed cropland − . . − . . residential rainfed mosaic–populated rainfed cropland − . . − . . residential irrigated cropland–remote croplands − . . − . . residential rainfed mosaic–remote croplands − . . − . . residential rainfed mosaic–residential irrigated cropland . . . . . discussion and conclusions analysis of the spatial patterns of fire in the yucatán using fire data visually reproduces the geography of human land-based activities during – , including the influence of roads, settlements, and natural protected areas. the intra-annual temporal dimensions of fire data approximate key moments of seasonal agriculture and other land-based activities (figure ). these findings are consistent with studies finding higher fire frequencies in the proximity to roads and settlements region [ ], and with research about fire and deforestation in other tropical settings (e.g., [ , – ]) and more generally, about the relationship between land change, road development and market accessibility [ , , , ]. the multinomial model confirms the significance of fire intensity (defined as count of fire flagged pixels over time) and landscape configuration (represented by the spatial lag variable cy) for the peninsula for all three types of land change/persistence outcomes. notably all change is strongly affected by the presence of fire. the odds of a forested area becoming non-forested multiply by six in the presence of fire. this is not surprising given that the cross-tabulation analysis showed that nearly % of pixels that changed from to had been flagged as fire by modis at some point. the dominance of no-fire observations over fire occurrence, the (pseudo) absence of fire, makes for a better predictor of forest persistence than fire occurrence per se, especially for large patches (high cy values). predicting non-forest persistence proved more difficult, signaling the diversity of ecological and land use practices and transitions between them that define the nfp category as discussed in the data section. what exactly accounts for the remaining % is difficult to determine. we can speculate land , , of however that possible factors include data error and accuracy mismatches. as some have noted, modis products do omit fires for various reasons [ ]. we can also speculate on some detected fires being non-agricultural. finally, we can also imagine some fires starting as agricultural burns but becoming large multiday forest fires as they grow out of control [ ]. fire also proves to be a reasonable indicator to distinguish between anthromes groups (figure ) but less among finer anthromes categories. our analysis shows that, for example, with the aid of a fire frequency croplands are separable from the rest of categories and that dense settlements are clearly distinct from villages. other categories like rangeland prove more difficult to separate since they present larger variance. some within-variation within anthropogenic categories is also distinguishable. for example, populated irrigated is clearly separable from populated rainfed and from remote croplands. these two former categories, however are not as separable from each other with the aid of fire frequency alone. perhaps some insight about differences distinguishing between- and within-anthropogenic landscapes can be gained by looking into the distinction between quemas (legally regulated agricultural fires) from incendios (large escape non-regulated forest fires). both can be addressed through the use of modis active fire data, but cannot be thoroughly distinguished with these data alone. within-variation exists in both categories. on the one hand, quemas can be due to subsistence and commercial agriculture, such as sugar cane cultivation along the border with belize (i.e., either rain fed or irrigated anthrome categories), or mennonite corn fields in bacalar,( i.e., the populated irrigated anthrome category), as their spatial and temporal signatures can differ quite noticeably (figures and ). on the other hand, incendios can be truly accidental or be the result of purposeful burning with nonagricultural goals (e.g., forcing land zoning code changes for urban development, hunting practices). future research should exploit these differences in order to account for a more nuanced description of the relationships between fire and human-induced land change in the region. we conclude that in subtropical forest settings, in which burning is a fundamental landscape tool, fire is a reasonable proxy for land change. use of fire data improves the estimation of land change and expands our understanding of human-environment relationships that produce complex mosaics of highly dynamic landscapes, such as those in the mexican yucatán. acknowledgments: this study was part of the sypr (http://sypr.asu.edu) and edgy (http://landchange. rutgers.edu) projects. sypr received support from the nasa lcluc program (nag- , and gd g) and the nsf bcs program ( ). edgy was sponsored by the gordon and betty moore foundation under grant # . the authors thank drs. birgit schmook (el colegio de la frontera sur), laura schneider (rutgers university) and zachary christman (rowan university) for their support and advice. the staff of clark labs facilitated the work by creating and maintaining the idrisi® software (http://www.clarklabs.org/) with which preliminary analysis was performed. subsequent and final analysis was performed with r packages: nnet, mass, multcomp, and raster. author contributions: marco millones, john rogan, b.l. turner ii conceived and designed the original research and fieldwork; marco millones performed the fieldwork; marco millones performed preliminary data analysis with daniel a. griffith, robert clay harris and benoit parmentier executed the final data analysis; john rogan, b.l. turner ii revised earlier versions of the manuscript; marco millones, benoit parmentier and robert clay harris wrote the paper. john rogan revised the manuscript. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflicts of interest. http://sypr.asu.edu http://landchange.rutgers.edu http://landchange.rutgers.edu http://www.clarklabs.org/ land , , of appendix a table a . multinomial logistic model results (variable definitions below). ln[p(nfp)/(fp)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept . . . . , . cy − . . . . − . fire density . . . . , . distance to roads − . . . . − . elevation − . . . . − . slope (degrees) − . . . . − . cattle density . . . . . ejido lands − . . . . − . population density change . . . . . precipitation . . . . − . protected areas . . . . . soil − . . . . − . ln[p(fp)/(nfp)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept − . . . . − , . cy . . . . . fire_intensity − . . . . − , . dist_roads . . . . . elevation . . . . . slope_deg . . . . . cattledensity − . . . . − . ejido . . . . . popdens_chenge . . . . − . precip . . . . . protegidas − . . . . − . soil . . . . . ln[p(nfp)/(ch)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept . . . . , . cy . . . . , . fire_intensity − . . . . − , . dist_roads − . . . . − . elevation . . . . − . slope_deg . . . . . cattledensity . . . . . ejido − . . . . − . popdens_chenge − . . . . − . precip . . . . − . protegidas . . . . , . soil . . . . , . land , , of table a . cont. ln[p(ch)/(fp)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept − . . . . − , , . cy − . . . . − , . fire density . . . . , , . distance to roads − . . . . − . elevation − . . . . − . slope (degrees) − . . . . − , . cattle density − . . . . − . ejido lands − . . . . − , . population density chanve . . . . . precipitation . . . . . protected areas − . . . . − , , . soil − . . . . − , . ln[p(ch)/(nfp)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept − . . . . − , , . cy − . . . . − , . fire_intensity . . . . , . dist_roads . . . . , . elevation . . . . . slope_deg − . . . . − , . cattledensity − . . . . − . ejido . . . . , . popdens_chenge . . . . . precip . . . . . protegidas − . . . . − , , . soil − . . . . − , . ln[p(fp)/(ch)] estimate odds p-value standard error z-score intercept . . . . , . cy . . . . , . fire_intensity − . . . . − , . dist_roads . . . . . elevation . . . . . slope_deg . . . . . cattledensity . . . . . ejido . . . . . popdens_chenge − . . . . − . precip . . . . − . protegidas . . . . , . soil . . . . , . intercept, cy = spatial lag; fire_intensity = fire flagged pixel count divided by five years; dist_roads = distance to roads; elevation = srtm dem derived elevation; slope_deg = dem derived slope; cattle density = cattle density; ejido = communal land property status (binary); popdens_change = population density change; precipitation = precipitation derived from trmm; protegidas = natural protected areas (binary); soil = binary soil. references . reid, w.v.; chen, d.; goldfarb, l.; hackmann, h.; lee, y.t.; mokhele, k.; ostrom, e.; raivio, k.; rockström, j.; schellnhuber, h.j.; et al. earth system science for global sustainability: grand challenges. science , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . irwin, e.g.; geoghegan, j. theory, data, methods: developing spatially explicit economic models of land use change. agric. ecosyst. environ. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /science. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - land , , of . agarwal, c.; green, g.m.; grove, j.m.; evans, t.p.; schweik, c.m. a review and assessment of land-use change models: dynamics of space, time and human choice; technical report ne- ; united states department of agriculture (usda): burlington, vt, usa, . . turner, b.l.; lambin, e.f.; reenberg, a. the emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . griggs, d.; stafford-smith, m.; gaffney, o.; rockström, j.; Öhman, m.c.; shyamsundar, p.; steffen, w.; glaser, g.; kanie, n.; noble, i. policy: sustainable development goals for people and planet. nature , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . steffen, w.; sanderson, r.a.; tyson, p.d.; jäger, j.; matson, p.a.; moore, b., iii; oldfield, f.; richardson, k.; schellnhuber, h.j.; turner, b.l.; et al. global change and the earth system: a planet under pressure; springer: berlin/heidelberg, germany; new york, ny, usa, . . foley, j.a.; defries, r.; asner, g.p.; barford, c.; bonan, g.; carpenter, s.r.; chapin, f.s.; coe, m.t.; daily, g.c.; gibbs, h.k. global consequences of land use. science , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . turner, b.l., ii; skole, d.; sanderson, s.; fischer, g.; fresco, l.; leemans, r. land-use and land-cover change science/research plan; igbp report no. ; the international geosphere-biosphere programme igbp: stockholm, sweden, . . kates, r.w.; clark, w.; corell, r. sustainability science; ksg working paper no. - ; john f kennedy school of government (ksg), harvard university: cambridge, ma, usa, . . ellis, e.c.; ramankutty, n. putting people in the map: anthropogenic biomes of the world. front. ecol. environ. , , – . [crossref] . loveland, t.r.; sohl, t.l.; stehman, s.v.; gallant, a.l.; sayler, k.l.; napton, d.e. a strategy for estimating the rates of recent united states land-cover changes. photogramm. eng. remote sens. , , – . . rogan, j.; chen, d. remote sensing technology for mapping and monitoring land-cover and land-use change. prog. plan. , , – . [crossref] . mertens, b.; lambin, e.f. land-cover-change trajectories in southern cameroon. ann. assoc. am. geogr. , , – . [crossref] . defries, r.s.; foley, j.a.; asner, g.p. land use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function. front. ecol. environ. , , – . [crossref] . csiszar, i.; justice, c.o.; mcguire, a.d.; cochrane, m.a.; roy, d.p.; brown, f.; conard, s.g.; frost, p.g.h.; giglio, l.; elvidge, c.; et al. land use and fires. in land change science: observing, monitoring and understanding trajectories of change on the earth’s surface; gutman, g., janetos, a.c., justice, c.o., moran, e.f., mustard, j.f., rinfuss, r.r., skole, d., turner, b.l., ii, cochrane, m.a., eds.; springer: berlin, germany, ; pp. – . . brown, d.; band, l.e.; green, k.o.; irwin, e.g.; jain, a.; lambin, e.f.; pontius, r.g.; seto, k.c.; turner, b.l., ii; verburg, p.h. advancing land change modeling: opportunities and research requirements; the national academies press: washington, dc, usa, . . verburg, p.h.; crossman, n.; ellis, e.c.; heinimann, a.; hostert, p.; mertz, o.; nagendra, h.; sikor, t.; erb, k.-h.; golubiewski, n.e.; et al. land system science and sustainable development of the earth system: a global land project perspective. anthropocene , , – . [crossref] . ronald eastman, j.; sangermano, f.; ghimire, b.; zhu, h.; chen, h.; neeti, n.; cai, y.; machado, e.a.; crema, s.c. seasonal trend analysis of image time series. int. j. remote sens. , , – . [crossref] . congalton, r.g.; gu, j.; yadav, k.; thenkabail, p.; ozdogan, m. global land cover mapping: a review and uncertainty analysis. remote sens. , , – . [crossref] . mcdermid, g.j.; franklin, s.e.; ledrew, e.f. remote sensing for large-area habitat mapping. prog. phys. geogr. , , – . [crossref] . woodcock, c.e.; ozdogan, m. trends in land-cover mapping and monitoring. remote sens. digit. image process. , , – . . rogan, j.; franklin, j.; roberts, d.a. a comparison of methods for monitoring multitemporal vegetation change using thematic mapper imagery. remote sens. environ. , , – . [crossref] . justice, c.o.; giglio, l.; korontzi, s.; owens, j.; morisette, j.t.; roy, d.; descloitres, j.; alleaume, s.; petitcolin, f.; kaufman, y. the modis fire products. remote sens. environ. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / a http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /science. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) [ :lcbhna] . .co; http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ancene. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /rs http://dx.doi.org/ . / pp ra http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - land , , of . neeti, n.; rogan, j.; christman, z.; eastman, j.r.; millones, m.; schneider, l.; nickl, e.; schmook, b.; turner, b.l.; ghimire, b. mapping seasonal trends in vegetation using avhrr-ndvi time series in the yucatán peninsula, mexico. remote sens. lett. , , – . [crossref] . parmentier, b.; eastman, j.r. land transitions from multivariate time series: using seasonal trend analysis and segmentation to detect land-cover changes. int. j. remote sens. , , – . [crossref] . friedl, m.a.; mciver, d.k.; hodges, j.c.; zhang, x.y.; muchoney, d.; strahler, a.h.; woodcock, c.e.; gopal, s.; schneider, a.; cooper, a.; et al. global land-cover mapping from modis: algorithms and early results. remote sens. environ. , , – . [crossref] . miller, j.; rogan, j. using gis and remote sensing for ecological mapping and monitoring. in integration of gis and remote sensing; masev, v., ed.; wiley and sons: west sussex, uk, ; pp. – . . morton, d.c.; defries, r.s.; randerson, j.t.; giglio, l.; schroeder, w.; van der werf, g.r. agricultural intensification increases deforestation fire activity in amazonia. glob. chang. biol. , , – . [crossref] . pausas, j.g.; keeley, j.e. a burning story: the role of fire in the history of life. bioscience , , – . [crossref] . bowman, d.m.; balch, j.; artaxo, p.; bond, w.j.; cochrane, m.a.; d’antonio, c.m.; defries, r.; johnston, f.h.; keeley, j.e.; krawchuk, m.a.; et al. the human dimension of fire regimes on earth. j. biogeogr. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . butsic, v.; kelly, m.; moritz, m.a. land use and wildfire: a review of local interactions and teleconnections. land , , – . [crossref] . lutz, w.; prieto, l.; sanderson, w.c. (eds.) population, development and environment on the yucatan peninsula: from ancient maya to ; international institute for applied systems analysis: luxemburg, . . turner, b.l., ii; geoghegan, j.; foster, d.r. (eds.) integrated land change science and tropical deforestation in the southern yucatán: final frontiers; oxford university press: oxford, uk, . . rogan, j.; schneider, l.; christman, z.; millones, m.; lawrence, d.; schmook, b. hurricane disturbance mapping using modis evi data in the south-eastern yucatán, mexico. remote sens. lett. , , – . [crossref] . islebe, g.a.; calmé, s.; león-cortés, j.l.; schmook, b. biodiversity and conservation of the yucatán peninsula; springer international publishing: new york, ny, usa, . . vester, h.f.; lawrence, d.; eastman, j.r. land change in the southern yucatán and calakmul biosphere reserve: implications for habitat and biodiversity. ecol. appl. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . schmook, b. shifting maize cultivation and secondary vegetation in the southern yucatán: forest impacts of temporal intensification. reg. environ. chang. , , – . [crossref] . schmook, b.; van vliet, n.; radel, c.; de jesús manzón-che, m.; mccandless, s. persistence of swidden cultivation in the face of globalization: a case study from communities in calakmul, mexico. hum. ecol. , , – . [crossref] . xolocotzi, h.; baltazar, e.b. (eds.) la milpa de yucatán: un sistema de producción agrícola tradicional; colegio de postgraduados: montecillo, mexico, ; tome ii. . ressl, r.; lopez, g.; cruz, i.; colditz, r.r.; schmidt, m.; ressl, s.; jiménez, r. operational active fire mapping and burnt area identification applicable to mexican nature protecion areas using modis and noaa-avhrr direct redout data. remote sens. envrion. , , – . [crossref] . comision nacional forestal (conafor). los incendios forestales en mexico; technical report; comision nacional forestal: mexico city, mexico, . . cheng, d.; rogan, j.; schneider, l.; cochrane, m. evaluating modis active fire products in subtropical yucatán forest. remote sens. lett. , , – . [crossref] . giglio, l.; descloitres, j.; justice, c.o.; kaufman, y.j. an enhanced contextual fire detection algorithm for modis. remote sens. environ. , , – . [crossref] . giglio, l. modis collection active fire product user’s guide revision a. unpublished manuscript, department of geographical sciences, university of maryland. available online: https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/ sites/default/files/public/product_documentation/mod _user_guide.pdf (accessed on february ). . schroeder, w.; prins, e.; giglio, l.; csiszar, i.; schmidt, c.; morisette, j.; morton, d. validation of goes and modis active fire detection products using aster and etm+ data. remote sens. environ. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /bio. . . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /land http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.rse. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / x. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/sites/default/files/public/product_documentation/mod _user_guide.pdf https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/sites/default/files/public/product_documentation/mod _user_guide.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.rse. . . land , , of . vaca, r.a.; golicher, d.j.; cayuela, l.; hewson, j.; steininger, m. evidence of incipient forest transition in southern mexico. plos one , , e . available online: http://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. (accessed on march ). [crossref] [pubmed] . steininger, m.k.; tucker, c.j.; ersts, p.; killeen, t.j.; villegas, z.; hecht, s.b. clearance and fragmentation of tropical deciduous forest in the tierras bajas, santa cruz, bolivia. conserv. biol. , , – . [crossref] . ellis, e.c.; ramankutty, n. anthropogenic biomes of the world; version ; socioeconomic data and applications center (sedac), national aeronautics and space administration (nasa): palisades, ny, usa, . available online: http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h zxd (accessed on january ). . instituto nacional de estadística, geografía e inofrmática (inegi). datos básicos de la geografía de méxico. available online: www.inegi.gob.mx (accessed on february ). . getis, a.; ord, j.k. the analysis of spatial association by use of distance statistics. geogr. anal. , , – . [crossref] . anselin, l. local indicators of spatial association-lisa. geogr. anal. , , – . [crossref] . griffith, d.a. moran coefficient for non-normal data. j. stat. plan. inference , , – . [crossref] . chomitz, k.m.; gray, d.a. roads, land-use, and deforestation: a spatial model applied to belize. world bank econ. rev. , , – . [crossref] . verburg, p.h.; overmars, k.p.; witte, n. accessibility and land-use patterns at the forest fringe in the northeastern part of the philippines. geogr. j. , , – . [crossref] . agresti, a. categorical data analysis, nd ed.; john wiley & sons: new york, ny, usa, . . hosmer, d.; lemeshow, s. applied logistic regression, nd ed.; john wiley & sons: new york, ny, usa, . . millington, j.d.; perry, g.l.; romero-calcerrada, r. regression techniques for examining land use/cover change: a case study of a mediterranean landscape. ecosystems , , – . [crossref] . lyapustin, a.i.; kaufman, y.j. role of adjacency effect in the remote sensing of aerosol. j. geophys. res. , , – . [crossref] . griffith, d.a. spatial autocorrelation and spatial filtering: gaining understanding through theory and scientific visualization; springer: berlin/heidelberg, germany; new york, ny, usa, . . griffith, d.a.; layne, l.j. a casebook for spatial statistical data analysis; oxford university press: oxford, uk; new york, ny, usa, . . turner, m.g.; gardner, r.h.; o’neill, r.v. landscape ecology in theory and in practice: pattern and process; springer: new york, ny, usa, . . walker, r.; moran, e.; anselin, l. deforestation and cattle ranching in the brazilian amazon: external capital and household processes. world dev. , , – . [crossref] . bradley, a.v.; millington, a.c. spatial and temporal scale issues in determining biomass burning regimes in bolivia and peru. int. j. remote sens. , , – . [crossref] . munroe, d.k.; wolfinbarger, s.r.; calder, c.a.; shi, t.; xiao, n.; lam, c.q.; li, d. the relationships between biomass burning, land-cover change and the distribution of carbonaceous aerosols in main land southeast asia: a review and synthesis; department of statistics preprint ; the ohio state university: columbus, oh, usa, . . pfaff, a.j. what drives tropical deforestation in the brazilian amazon? evidence from satellite and socioeconomic data. j. environ. econ. manag. , , – . [crossref] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /h h zxd www.inegi.gob.mx http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jspi. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /wber/ . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / jd http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - x( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /jeem. . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	study area 	methodological approach 	data 	methods 	characterization of land change and fire patterns 	effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model 	fire frequency and anthromes characterization 	results 	spatio-temporal patterns of fire and land change 	effect of fire and patch size on land change/persistence: a spatial multinomial logit model 	comparison of fire by anthromes 	discussion and conclusions 	 acknowledgment the editor acknowledges the assistance of morris rieger, deputy secretary general of the international council on archives, and frank b. evans, unesco pro- gramme specialist on archives, in the planning of this international issue of the american archivist. a generous subvention from the national archives and records service to offset the additional costs of the enlarged size of the issue and its distribution to international visitors to the ica-saa conference in washington in september-october is also acknowledged with special thanks. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the president's page elizabeth hamer kegan t h i s is a year of celebration, not only the celebration of the th anniversary of our emergence as a nation, but, for archivists in this country, another celebration. forty years ago, at providence, rhode island, a group of historians, many of them from the staff of the then recently established national archives, who were con- cerned about the preservation and uses of records, founded the society of american archivists. this event marked our emergence in this country as an organized profes- sion, yet most of us still had much to learn before we became professionals. to celebrate that event, we have chosen three themes for the program which reflect the enormous changes that have taken place in archival practice since : changes in the media of records, changes in technological applications, and changes in the archivist's perception of his or her role. three major sessions are devoted specifically to these topics, and more than fifty sessions, workshops, and special events focus on aspects of them. consider a few titles: the media o£ records—change agents or carrier pigeons? revolutionary age materials and modern methods the activist archivist—a reevaluation the archivist and the law—security, liability, and authority files, tapes, and coding sheets—the archivist confronts the computer the archivist as administrator—challenges and constraints the state archivist—casualty of the s? archival diffusion—organizing and managing regional research networks the changing status of women in the archival profession—an international roundtable going where the money is—grants and funding and more—all intended to offer to the beginning archivist information about sophisticated techniques and insights and to the experienced archivist reflection and refreshment. join us in washington, september -october , to celebrate the th and the th. it will be a special privilege for saa members to welcome our colleagues from around the world who will attend the viii th congress of the international council on archives, september -october . the theme of the ica meeting is' 'the archi- val revolution of our time." there will be four plenary sessions devoted, in order, to the pre-archival revolution, the technological revolution, the revolution in access and use, and the geo-archival revolution. together, we expect that our national and international meetings will offer com- radeship and rare fare for the enrichment of our professional lives. the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american university department of history in cooperation with the national archives and records service, gsa library of congress and maryland hall of records announces three offerings during - the institute: introduction to modern archives administration national archives building pennsylvania avenue and th street, n.w. washington, d.c. november - , february -march , june - , for details and application forms, write department of history the american university massachusetts and nebraska avenues, n.w. washington, d.c. the american university provides equal opportunity for all qualified persons in its educational programs and activities. the university does not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, color, national and ethnic origin, age or sex. the policy of equal opportunity applies to every aspect of the university's operations and activities generally and that indeed extends to admissions and to employment. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril document v_cises • • • now with added alkaline buffers. *mm free a stronger alkaline buffer has been added to our document cases. this provides the same high ph for archival longevity, but more protection against atmospheric pol- lutants and migrating acids from stored documents. full " storage width: (above) # letter size ( / " x " x ") # legal size ( / " x cm" x ") # oversize legal ( / " x % " x ") v " storage width: (left) # letter size ( / " x a" x /z") # legal size ( / " x / " x v ") the hollinger corporation write today for prices and complete catalog for permanent durable acid free storage materials p.o. box -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! acid free "x " "x " "x " " x " "x " " x " museum mounting board • archival board with a professional appearance • designed lor absolute protection of your prints • will last to years • completely acid tree hollinger off-white mounting board is alkaline (ph . ), and is buffered to combat atmosphere pollutants and acids that may migrate from papers attached to it. available in s i x sizes . . . order in units of or more. the hollinger corporation write today tor free information, sample and prices -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril specialists in microfilm rofiche readers, reader printers, and supplies microfilming to specifications microform enlargements microform publishing microform systems book catalogs/catalog cards inman st. cambridge, ma work done in your plant or ours call - for fast, dependable service d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril modern archives and manuscripts:, a select bibliography ^ compiled / j>°o*« frank b. evans /i? << published by /^»c?-qe the society of american archivists /n°s /'*<v < / %s*o ^^j^f^>, ' portions of the table of contents are reproduced above. a revision of evans' earlier guide, this comprehensive work is published in a new format with many new entries, including new chapters on machine-readable records and archives, and chapters on international aspects of archives. additional chapter subheadings, the expanded subject index, and the new and separate author index facilitate the use of this expanded guide. softbound. $ . saa members, $ others. add $ postage and handling charge on orders under $ not prepaid. society of american archivists po box , university of illinois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril anuscript clamshell boxes all boxes have card holders clamshell drop front i x i i { x } stock boxes available for immediate shipment long-life protection for valuable documents, such as manuscripts, first editions, folios and flat-stored newspapers, archives and legal instruments. easy to store . . . easy to open for frequent reference. these clamshell manuscript boxes were especially designed to serve libraries, museums, law offices and government agen- cies. all clamshell boxes are cloth cov- ered, triple-strength cloth hinged and lined with permalife paper, which has a life expectancy of years. unsurpassed dur- ability for preserving valuable documents. boxes shown are our most popular mod- els. for many uses the style, with hinged lid for ready access from the top, is pre- ferred. other models have a drop front, or drop side. send for price quotation, stating size, model and quantity requirements. these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined with permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents. pohlig bros. inc. ^ ?^g th & franklin streets l " l \vj richmond, virginia o r » . ^ ,. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril down with dog ears! preserve and protect your copies of the saa newsletter as well as the forthcoming membership directory and manual series. durable and attractive " notebook, $ . retail value. $ . when check or money order accompanies order. $ . if billing is re- quired. mail to: society of american archivists university of illinois at chicago circle box , chicago, illinois i i • city/state/zip , _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ please send me saa notebook(s) payment enclosed. bill me. name. address . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril professional reading paul v. g u i t e , compiler t h e following list of articles of current interest to archivists and manuscript curators has been compiled from recent archival and library periodicals received by the national archives library. t h e listing is selective and is not intended to sup- plant the more complete annual bibliographies published in the american archi- vist. it is meant to provide the reader with more immediate access to current profes- sional literature. avram, henriette d. "international standards for the interchange of bibliographic records in machine-readable form." library resources ir technical services (winter ): - . berkeley, edmund, jr. "archival security: a personal and circumstantial view." georgia archive (winter ): - . berner, richard c. "perspectives on the record group concept." georgia archive (winter ): - . burckel, nicholas c. "establishing a college archives: possibilities and priorities." college ir research libraries (sept. ): - . . "the expanding role of a college or university archives." midwestern archivist ( ); - . burne, b. t. "the microfilm programme of the western pacific archives." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . cook, michael. "the planning of an archives school." society of archivists, journal (oct. ): - . coss, john. "haymarket riot records." for the record . . . (feb. ): - . crespo, carmen. "the spanish microfilm service." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . crush, p. j. "records management and archival services in south australia." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): - . "dialogue on standards: archival permanence." journal of micrographics (march/april ): - . dixon, william j. "a simple procedure for up-dating catalogues of archived data." ss data (dec. ): . dolgih, f. i. "the importance of archives for science and technology." unesco bulletin for libraries (nov.-dec. ): - . dryden, jean e. "copyright in manuscript sources." archivaria (winter - ): - . ede, j. r. "the record office: central and local." society of archivists, journal (oct. ): - . the compiler is a librarian on the staff of the national archives and records service. the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july elston, charles b. "university student records: research use, privacy rights and the buck- ley law." midwestern archivist ( ): - . emmons, julia voorhees. "taking the man out of manuscripts: atlanta's pilot project for the women's history sources survey." georgia archive (winter ): - . evans, frank b. "archival training in the united states: an unresolved problem." archives et bibliotheques de belgique ( ): - . fogerty, james e. "four new regional networks: a progress report." midwestern archivist ( ): - . gifford, daphne h. "microfilm policies, practice and holdings of national archives." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . gracy, david b., ii. "finding aids are like streakers." georgia archive (winter ): - . haaker, david. "preservation of glass negatives from lincoln state school." for the record . . . (feb. ): . haight, david. "the papers of c. d. jackson: a glimpse at president eisenhower's psycho- logical warfare expert." manuscripts (winter ): - . haverling, sven- g. "a swedish report on the preservation of microfilm in hermetically sealed wrappers." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . horn, david e. "access to archives." georgia archive (winter ): - . hruneni, george a., jr. "bicentennial potpourri in the archives of the catholic university of america." manuscripts (winter ): - . intergovernmental copyright committee on reprographic reproduction of works pro- tected by copyright, washington, d.c., june - , . sub-committee. report. copy- right bulletin , nos. / ( ): - . kerry, s. g. "notes on the production of public records." archives (autumn ): - . kidd, betty and james knight. "architectural archives: blueprint of the past." archivist (jan.-feb. ): - . kies, cosette. "copyright versus free access: cbs and vanderbilt university square off?" wilson library bulletin (nov. ): - . lambert, james. "public archives and religious records: marriage proposals." archwaria (winter - ): - . lucas, lydia. "massive collections from warehouse to reading room." georgia archive (winter ): - . mcgregor, lee. "arrangement and description of records at queensland state archives." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): - . "microfilm making available data on county tax roles." texas libraries (summer ): - . "on archival replevining." the collectorno. ( ): - . rayska, urszula. "the archives section of the birmingham reference library." archives (autumn ): - . "revising the archives act." archifacts no. (dec. ): - . rhoads, james b. and wilfred i. smith. "why records management is important?" records management quarterly (jan. ): - , . rowell, h. j. "the control records microfilming programme in the australian archives." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril professional reading slot, b. j. "microfiche in dutch archives." international council on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . "state of north carolina, plaintiff v. b. c. west, jr., defendant. manuscripts (spring ): - . teresko, john. "should you keep an archives?" reprinted from industry week (march , ): [ ] pp. walch, timothy. "student correspondence: a new source for the history of higher educa- tion." midwestern archivist ( ): - . whealey, robert h. "opportunities and disappointments in the spanish foreign ministry archives." archives (autumn ): - . wheeler, william d. "the status of microfilm in canadian archives." international coun- cil on archives. microfilm committee. bulletin ( ): - . for people who know all about records storage paige boxes are for professionals, experienced people who have learned all about the equipment available for handling, transporting, and storage of records, microfilm, data processing material, and computer printouts. those people know that paige files are durable equipment at lowest possible cost. prices at wholesale level. no sales people. no distributors. no stores. write for brochure, prices, case histories. the paige company park avenue south new york, n.y. • or - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril one is soon after information design's microfilm reader was intro- duced in , it was rated "best" in side-by-side tests with virtually every mm roll film viewer in use. it's still the easiest reader for patrons to use. and it's still the only reader that offers you all of these advantages: a big " screen that pro- jects an entire newspaper page; an automatic film gate that protects your film from being scratched; full ° image rotation. since , we've made dozens of engineering modifications to improve the i.d. 's performance and ease of operation. prove it to yourself—the big one's still the best and better than ever! for a copy of the study entitled "user evaluations of micro- film readers," or to arrange a demonstration of the model - microfilm reader, write to information design, inc., middlefield road, menlo park, ca . or telephone ( ) - . information design, inc. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril wwm for those government officials who are serious about obtaining operational efficiency (available on g.s.a. schedule) for more facts about fuji microfilm, call or write: u. s. microfilm sales corporation, montgomery st., san francisco, ca . ( ) - . distributed exclusively by: u.s. microfilm sales corporation boston • st. louis • san francisco j ^ - ^ % . sustaining member d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes f. p. dowling, editor this department includes brief reports of events, new programs, significant new accessions and openings, publications, education and training opportunities, and other news of professional interest to members of the society. much of the infor- mation has been furnished by one or more of the several reporters listed below. in addition, news notes have been abstracted from publicity releases and newsletters sent to the american archivist and to the national archives library. more current information about training opportunities, professional meetings, and legislative trends can be found in the saa newsletter. members are urged to contribute items to these news notes. information can be sent direct to the editor, american archivist, national archives building, washington, d.c. , or to one of the following reporters: news of state and local archives to julian l. minis, south carolina depart- ment of archives and history, box , capitol station, columbia, s.c. ; news of manuscript repositories to carolyn h. sung, manuscript division, library of congress, washington, d.c. ; news of scientific and technologi- cal archives to maynard j. brichford, uni- versity archivist, library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, illinois ; news of religious archives to f. donald yost, general conference of seventh-day adventists, eastern avenue, nw, washington, d.c. ; news of regional and state archival asso- ciations to alice m. vestal, special collec- tions dept., main library, room , uni- versity of cincinnati, cincinnati, ohio ; bicentennial news to adrienne thomas, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. ; and news of canadian institutions to jay atherton, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa, ontario k a on a survey of sources for the history of biochemistry and molecular biology has been initiated by a joint committee of the american philosophical society and the american academy of arts and sciences. two principal components of the project are the development of biographical files of individuals who have made contributions to biochemistry and molecular biology, regardless of their disciplinary associa- tions, and an archival survey and preserva- tion project. the latter project has recently been extended to cover collections in all areas of experimental life science, since biochemists and molecular biologists have frequently been in touch with experimen- talists in bordering fields. inquiries may be addressed to david bearman, secretary to the committee, american philosophical society library, south fifth street, philadelphia, pennsylvania . the arkansas history commission reports the following accessions: scrap- books of the pulaski county democratic central committee ( - ); files of the arkansas national council of defense (world war i); state soil and water con- servation district files ( - ); pulaski county loose probate files ( - ); and saline county loose probate files ( - ). map and photograph files have been revamped and new inventories prepared. the filming of early county rec- ords has been completed for the following counties: arkansas, ashley, bradley, cal- houn, chicot, cleveland, columbia, dal- las, desha, drew, grant, jefferson, la- fayette, lincoln, miller, ouachita, and union. the u.s. army military history research collection, carlisle barracks, the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july pennsylvania , announces the fol- lowing additions to its manuscript hold- ings: the general isaac h. duval papers of the civil war times illustrated collection, memoirs covering his pre-civil war expe- riences ( - ), as a civilian in the build- ing of fort smith, the butler negotiations with the texas indians in , and the california gold rush; the world war i survey, a rapidly growing collection pres- ently containing bodies of personal and official papers, reminiscences, photo- graphs, and artifacts of veterans of the great war, representing thirty-nine divi- sions and many staff and support elements; the george hofmann collection of th armored division papers, a corpus of research notes, interviews, wartime pa- pers, recollections, and other primary sources gathered by hofmann for his book on the th armored division in world war ii. the mhrc is sponsoring an ' 'advanced research program in military history" as one means of stimulating research and study at the army's major repository for materials in the history of military affairs. awards will be made to cover expenses incurred while conducting research and writing at this facility. recipients will be designated "advanced research project associates." applicants must submit a written pro- posal describing the subject, scope, and character of their project; the time esti- mated for residence at mhrc; how mhrc facilities, personnel, and materials will aid in their research project; and a careful esti- mate of expenses to be incurred for which the grant is requested. careful consideration will be given to each project's usefulness for mhrc and the professional field of military history, as well as for the united states army. inter- disciplinary projects are encouraged. both civilian and military scholars in the field of military history are invited to apply to director, us army military history research collection, carlisle barracks, pennsylvania . completed applica- tions must be returned by december . seven boxes of books, pamphlets, pos- ters, and other documents on black history collected by a washington amateur histo- rian have been given to atlanta university by the national archives. the material will be deposited in the university's trevor arnett library. the collection— cubic feet of material—was amassed by the late henry p. slaughter, a washington printer. slaughter spent a lifetime acquiring docu- mentation on the history of black ameri- cans. the collection was given to the national archives by wilma w. bidwell, of alexandria, virginia, who purchased it at auction. included in the material is a first edition book of poems dated by phillis wheatly, a slave in boston, and two letters by black abolitionist frederick douglass. the leo baeck institute, e. rd street, new york, new york , has received a grant of $ , from the national endowment for the humanities to support the cataloging of the institute's , volume library and its extensive archival collections. the national endow- ment further indicated it would match all contributions collected by the lbi for this project up to the amount of $ , , thus bringing the grant to a total of $ , . the following records have been acces- sioned: the comprehensive berthold ro- senthal collection of materials relating to the history of the jews in baden and the palatinate; the alsace-lorraine collection ( - ), consisting of jewish commu- nal papers, primarily from - . included are general and jewish census and population statistics for the upper and lower rhine communities, including communal budgets, consistorial tax rec- ords, and material on rabbinical elections, on the construction of synagogues and schools, and on societies for the stras- bourg, nancy, and metz regional consis- tories ( - ). also included are yearly lists of consistorial taxes in the lower rhine ( - ); budgets of jewish com- munities and documents on the legal and social status of jews in the lower rhine department from to ; debts and budgets of the jewish communities of metz (moselle) prior to , in french and ger- man. recently accessioned papers of individu- als include correspondence ( - ) of erich kahler ( - ), cultural histo- rian, sociologist, and educator, including correspondence with friedrich gundolf, martin buber, and albert einstein; papers of emil julius gumbel ( - ), mathematician in germany and the unit- ed states, author of the statistics of the extreme and a leading pacifist and polemi- cist against nationalism, fascism, and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes nazism; and papers of william graetz ( - ), banker, founder and president of the organization for rehabilitation through training (ort) in germany, and a member of the executive board of the ber- lin jewish gemeinde. a major portion of this collection pertains to ort, including correspondence, minutes, reports, finan- cial records, and newspaper clippings and circulars ( - ) of ort in germany; france ( - ); argentina ( - ); and the united states ( - ). also included are brochures and clippings about ort in south africa ( - ), bolivia ( ), brazil ( ), and switzerland ( ). this collection also contains material relating to the executive board of the berlin jewish gemeinde from to , including correspondence with leo baeck and albert einstein. the virginia gearhart gray endow- ment fund has been established in memory of the former assistant curator of manu- scripts at duke university. this fund, amounting to over $ , , includes mem- orial contributions given in honor of gray and royalties from the sale of the microfilm edition of a major portion of the socialist party of america papers. the fund will support the acquisition of manuscripts and other related materials pertaining to american history and culture. the archives of the edison national his- toric site in west orange, new jersey, has begun the arrangement of thomas a. edi- son's records, including correspondence, notebooks, photographs, motion pictures, scrapbooks, and legal records of edison's "invention factory." the james duncan phillips library of the essex institute, salem, massachusetts, has recently accessioned two very impor- tant collections. an heir of nathaniel hawthorne has donated a collection of pa- pers belonging to the hawthorne and manning families, consisting of nearly two thousand items, including bills for the early education of nathaniel hawthorne and his sister elizabeth, letters of sophia, una, and julian hawthorne, and those of rose hawthorne lathrop and elizabeth palmer peabody. also included in this col- lection are early papers of the manning family, letters and documents of richard c. manning, and letters of manning haw- thorne. the library has also acquired recently a collection of holyoke family papers, belonging primarily to edward holyoke ( - ), a president of harvard col- lege ( - ), and to his son, edward august holyoke ( - ), a prominent salem physician and a founder of the mas- sachusetts medical society and the essex historical society. these papers consist of family and business correspondence, accounts, legal papers, sermons, diaries, and scientific and medical papers. in addition, the library has received pa- pers relating to the life and work of frank w. benson ( - ), a noted artist; the diaries of george wheatland ( - ), a prominent salem lawyer; and the family and business papers of the pingree family ( - ), which are restricted. the library has also received a collection of architectural drawings and specifications from the firm of emmerton and foster of salem ( - ) and has added material to the following collections: nathan dane, george francis dow, lucy larcom, george peabody, and john greenleaf whittier. the forest history society, santa cruz, california, has accessioned papers of tho- mas harvey gill ( - ), including correspondence, diaries, and photo- graphs. a professional forester, gill pro- vided leadership in tropical forestry in his capacity as executive director of the charles lathrop pack forestry foundation and as a member of the editorial staff of the ameri- can forestry association. the georgetown university library, washington, d.c., reports the following accessions: records ( -), including files, correspondence, and research material, of the center for public financing of elec- tions; the taeuber collection of books, journals, pamphlets, and documents col- lected by the demographers, conrad and irene taeuber, including documents from the ussr, china, japan, india, pakistan, korea, malaysia, manchuria, and mongo- lia published from - . the archives and library of the american political science association has been given to georgetown. the archives includes rec- ords amassed during sixty years of the asso- ciation's history. the collection of letters and manu- scripts of fulton oursler has received new accessions including letters to oursler d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july from herbert hoover, franklin d. roose- velt, albert einstein, h. l. mencken, theodore dreiser, upton sinclair, eugene o'neill, booth tarkington, and many oth- ers. an inventory is in preparation. a substantial portion of richard x. evans family papers dating from about to the twentieth century has been ac- cessioned. the collection includes p'apers and correspondence of robert mills, an american architect of the early nineteenth century, and letters and papers of alex- ander dimitry, georgetown alumnus (m.a. , ll.d. ), diplomat, and founder of the louisiana public school sys- tem. the houghton mifflin company has presented to georgetown university library a large collection of language information used in preparation of the american heritage school dictionary. the collection was assembled during the research and analytical work of assembling a five-million word sample, , word sets, citations for several thousand words of interest, and the original marked and coded sampling texts. houghton mifflin's presi- dent, harold t. miller, said in making the gift to georgetown that this is the first time such an extensive collection of dictionary research and development material has been made available to scholars and researchers for their use. the archives of the society of historians of american foreign relations are being deposited in the special collections divi- sion where they will be preserved for histor- ical and scholarly purposes. the georgetown university archives are preserved in the special collections divi- sion of the library. the archives include official records of georgetown from its es- tablishment in , extensive correspon- dence, photographs of faculty and stu- dents, university publications, yearbooks, and a variety of material pertaining to all aspects of georgetown life. in preparation for the bicentennial of its founding, georgetown is making a special effort to locate and obtain early georgetown rec- ords, both documentary and photograph- ic. alumni and others who have records, letters, publications, photographs, or any other material pertaining to georgetown are invited to write or call the university archivist or librarian. the southern labor archives at georgia state university has accessioned records ( - ) of adair, goldthwaite, stanford & daniel, case files from the iue local suit against the jefferson city, tennessee, cabinet company; and the itu suit against the dixie color printing corpora- tion; records ( ) of afl-cio region vi, primarily correspondence of regional director oliver singleton and afl-cio director of organization william kircher; and records ( - ) of the united textile workers of america, including correspon- dence, minutes, financial documents, news stories, statistical data, several kinds of printed material, and case documents of the union's work in the us and canada since the utwa was rechartered by the afl in . the houston public library's new houston metropolitan research center (hmrc) is currently renovating the julia ideason building, the site of its expanding archives and research program, located in downtown houston adjacent to the new houston public library building. hmrc is a member of the texas state regional historical resource depository system, making it the depository for public rec- ords in a seven-county area on the gulf coast, including those of harris, galves- ton, brazoria, fort bend, and matagorda counties. in addition, hmrc is actively collecting archives and manuscripts relat- ing to the houston area, including those of local government, businesses, and private associations. papers recently deposited include those of two u.s. congressmen: bill archer, r-texas (b. ), representa- tive from seventh district ( -), and bob eckhardt, d-texas (b. ), representa- tive from eighth district ( -); and pa- pers of louis welch, mayor ( - ) of houston. the hmrc program in reli- gious archives, instead of microfilming church and synagogue records, has pro- vided assistance to archivists of participat- ing religious congregations in inventory- ing holdings, and from their inventories has compiled a master inventory kept at hmrc for research use. participating con- gregations have agreed in advance to accommodate researchers from hmrc, who are supplied at hmrc with an ap- proval form to present to the archivists of the participating congregations whose rec- ords the researchers wish to examine. among the religious archives participat- ing in the program are those of the catholic diocese of galveston-houston d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes and temple beth israel, inventories of whose records are available to researchers. hmrc is also willing to accept for deposit archives of any religious congregations wishing this assistance. the oral history collection has compiled over taped interviews with notable houstonians. also an architectural archives is being assembled, with assistance from the hous- ton chapter of the american institute of architects, which has a committee for the preservation of architectural records. one notable architectural collection on deposit is the drawings of alfred c. finn, early twentieth-century houston architect, and personal architect for jesse jones, fdr's secretary of commerce, who owned con- siderable real estate in downtown hous- ton. the finn drawings include several hundred original drawings of buildings in downtown houston. the hmrc is coop- erating closely with local universities, including the university of houston, tex- as southern, and rice university. an advi- sory council made up of research scholars from the universities in various fields of competence has been set up to assist the director, don e. carleton. the southwest center for urban research, a funding agency, is currently projecting a black archives to come under hmrc. the strength of the new program, according to director don carleton, is the interinstitu- tional collaboration of universities; reli- gious institutions; national, state, and local government officials; and business and private associations, to produce the richest possible resource on the houston area. inquiries may be addressed to the director, hmrc, houston public library, mckinney, houston, texas . the illinois state archives has acces- sioned some , cubic feet of records in a recent reorganization. records acces- sioned include supreme court case files ( - ); secretary of state records ( - ); municipal corporation file ( - ); governor's proclamations ( - ); official oaths of the general assembly ( - ); third party petitions for entry on ballot ( - ); superinten- dent of public instruction correspondence ( - ); minutes of state board of education ( - ); annual reports of county superintendents of schools ( - ); basic state aid claims, summaries, and correspondence ( - ); and high school annual reports ( - ). included among the records of the secretary of state's office are documents pertaining to the hay market riot and trial of , consist- ing of petitions and correspondence con- cerning the convicted anarchists. also among the records of the lincoln state school ( - ) are glass negatives and photographs ( - ). the images of the glass negatives have been protected by a special photographic reproduction and preservation project. the illinois state historical society at springfield has accessioned the following: family papers ( - ) of john albert kennicott ( - ), nurseryman and agriculturist; the illinois papers ( - ) of charles lanman ( - ), author, artist, librarian, explorer, who published the first edition of his dictionary of the united states congress and the general government, in ; papers (ca. - ) of family service center of sangamon county, founded in as the springfield home for the friendless; papers ( - ) of the american baptist churches of the great rivers regions; papers ( - ) of the illinois federation of women's clubs; and diary ( - ) of princess nadezhda lvova turchaninova ( - ), wife of brigadier general ivan vasilevitch turchaninov, russian noble who served in the united states army ( - ). an educated european steeped in russian military tradition, she accom- panied her husband on the battlefield and the diary is a combination of detached, reflective thought and on-the-scene report- ing. the maryland historical society has ac- cessioned a group of manuscripts ( - ) addressed to the american diplomat wil- liam carmichael from charles carroll of carrollton, george washington, gouver- neur morris, and richard carmichael; and an account book ( - ) from rutter and etting, baltimore merchants. among recent accessions of the radcliffe maritime museum are business ledgers of the mer- chants and miners transportation com- pany, baltimore, dating to the s; and two previously unused company house flags, the only extant house flags of any of the numerous lines that traded out of the port of baltimore. the radcliffe museum, a section of the maryland historical society, has as its purpose the collection, preservation, and study of items bearing on d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july maryland maritime history, and includes a research library and collections of manu- scripts, photographs, and motion pictures, with finding aids in preparation. it is located at w. monument street, balti- more, and the curator is ferdinand cha- tard. the maryland room, mckeldin library, university of maryland, has recently accessioned the papers of bock ark ( - ), an active member of the balti- more chinese community; the dawkins family papers; diaries of gilbert fraser, british consul-general in baltimore from - ; the papers of adele stamp, dean of women at the university of maryland, - ; and the papers of william s. james, president of the maryland senate. additional accessions include the records of the chesapeake bay foundation, the central atlantic environment center, and the cigar makers international union of america. the cigar makers records cover the years - and are concerned with strikes, negotiations, cigar machines, organizing efforts, co-ops, the union label, a shorter work day, and insurance benefits. the milwaukee public library announ- ces the accessioning of the papers ( - ) of the socialist party-social democratic federation of wisconsin ( - ). the papers deal mainly with state affairs and with party activities in milwaukee, and substantial correspondence with the national party offices is included. there is material on such figures as norman thomas, daniel hoan, frank zeidler, meta berger, darlington hoopes, and john work. a finding aid is available for $ . from the local history and marine room, milwaukee public library, west wisconsin avenue, milwaukee, wis- consin . the former minnesota historical society manuscripts division and state archives have been combined and renamed the division of archives and manuscripts. the new division has been reorganized into four sections: reference, technical, field, and administrative services. the reorganization integrates the state archives into the total program of the di- vision and precedes consolidation of all dam staff and collections in the recently expanded facility at mississippi street. james e. fogerty, whose new title is field director/regional research centers co-ordinator, will add the direction of an expanded field program and responsibili- ties in local public records planning and management to his work with the centers. currently he chairs the governing board of the newly formed minnesota association of collecting agencies (maca) and will serve as the division's liaison with maca. the society has accessioned the records of the united power association, which operated the first commercial nuclear reac- tor built in america for a cooperative electric power system. constructed by the atomic energy commission, the elk river plant operated from to and fig- ured prominently in a national nuclear de- velopment program. it was the first such facility built, operated, and dismantled as part of a total program and became an international model. the society has also accessioned the charles w. hughes journal ( ) of the sully expedition from fort snelling to the yellowstone river in pursuit of dakota indians; papers ( - ) of allen n. and violet j. sollie, relating to labor unions and farmer-labor party activities in hen- nepin county (minn.); and microfilm cop- ies of episcopal church records in south central, west central, northwest, and south- east minnesota. the papers ( - ) of mary chapman ghostley, northern minnesota physician who pioneered in the field of tuberculosis treatment, have been accessioned by the minnesota regional history centers. the papers include correspondence, speech notes, maps, and clippings. ghostley was superintendent of the lake julia sanito- rium and later director of the first district of the minnesota department of health. also accessioned were records ( - ) of the verzlunarfelag islendinga [icelandic general store], including journals, cash books, day books, produce books, ledgers, and correspondence. the store, founded by immigrants in minneota, lyon county, contains data on most of the original group of icelandic settlers. the single volume of thomas r. stewart reminiscences ( ) records the recollections of the edwin h. stewart family from the time of their settle- ment in the town of caledonia, houston county, in , including local history and an account of the sioux war. the establishment of the state historical records advisory board in minnesota implements the public law reorganizing d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the national historical publications and records commission enacted by congress in . the board of twelve members was named by governor wendell r. anderson to implement the program, primarily to formulate projects that identify histori- cally valuable manuscripts and records and facilitate their preservation, restoration, organization, and availability and to sub- mit the projects to nhprc for funding. a grant of $ , has been awarded the board by nhprc to evaluate a mounting backlog of district court records in the state. it is among the first projects approved under the new program. the immigration history research cen- ter of the university of minnesota announ- ces the accessions of dramatic materials in the italian, polish, finnish, south slavic, and hungarian collections, and in the rec- ords of the croatian and ukrainian sing- ing societies. the italian collection includes manuscript plays of alessandro sisca, called the creator of the italian- american neapolitan songs. these include nearly two hundred songs and bal- lads, some first performed by enrico caruso, and manuscripts of plays per- formed in the united states, italy, france, and south america; manuscripts of plays of rocco de russo ( - ), whose com- pany, arte vera, toured the united states; materials of fortune gallo ( - ), president and manager of the san carlo opera company, the major italian- american touring company of the interwar years. it was gallo who first inaugurated regular open-air operas at jones beach state park and who produced the first sound-motion picture in of a com- plete opera, / pagliacci. he also managed the north american tours of anna pavlova and her ballet russe. the finnish dramatic holdings are pri- marily vehicles for leftist political propa- ganda. the tyomies society collection includes over two hundred plays from the lending library operated by the newspaper tyomies. the south slavic drama mate- rials, also leftist, consist of three sizable col- lections of plays and other documents from the nada dramatic society, the ivan can- kar society, and the dramatic section of the union of canadian croatians. in addi- tion, the center holds limited materials on the dramatic activities of the yugoslav socialist federation. the hungarian collection includes the work of lajos egri ( - ), poet and playwright. croatian singing societies materials are found in the zlatko i. kehrin collection, which contains correspon- dence and promotion literature respecting the performances of the societies. the ukrainian holdings contain material on the bandura ensembles which have flour- ished in the united states since world war ii. the university of missouri-columbia has deposited part of the western histori- cal manuscripts collection in the university-wide records center in kansas city. retrieval of materials requires notice on the previous day. prospective patrons are urged to contact the western historical manuscripts collection, ellis library, university of missouri-columbia, colum- bia, missouri , in advance of their arrival so that better service can be pro- vided. the archives and manuscripts division of the university of missouri-st. louis has received the records of the missouri and metropolitan st. louis league of women voters. currently being processed, the league records contain correspondence, photographs, newspaper clippings, scrap- books, and memorabilia dating from the league's creation ( - ). in addition, the minutes ( - ) of the missouri equal suffrage association are included. national archives and records service. the national archives and national pub- lic radio recently agreed to the transfer to nars of news and public affairs radio pro- grams either produced or acquired by npr. one copy of each news and public affairs program will be transferred to nars when the programs are five years old. included in the broadcast material to be accessioned by nars are programs of congressional hearings such as those on the watergate matter; vice presidential confir- mation of gerald ford; and on the vietnam war amnesty issue, oil shortages, and the sst controversy. the national archives has agreed to accept from movietonews, inc., approxi- mately one and a half million feet of edited and unedited film which comprised the fox-movietonews silent newsreel library, - . the seventh international conference on the history of cartography will be held in washington, august - , , under the joint sponsorship of the national d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july archives, library of congress, folger shakespeare library, and smithsonian institution. after twelve years of efforts to determine the site of the john f. kennedy library and museum, the trustees of the library- museum complex have decided to build on the new campus of the university of massa- chusetts at columbia point, in south bos- ton. among security-classified records recently declassified by the national archives are various pre- confidential files of the bureau of indian affairs; var- ious pre- records of the bureau of the budget; records of myron taylor, personal representative of the president to the pope, for a period through ; state department-maintained files of the state- war-navy coordinating committee, through ; various world war ii rec- ords of the bureau of ships; state depart- ment foreign service post records, - , for paris, athens, salonika, marseilles, and posts in the soviet union; conference notes of the secretary of the general staff, - ; minutes and notes of conferences relating to the emergency planning pro- gram, - ; reports relating to the post- war organization of the war department, - ; general correspondence of the administrative branch, public relations division, war department, - ; and various records of the combined produc- tion and resources board, - . national archives accessions. more complete details about recent accessions and openings of records by the national archives will be found in prologue: the journal of the national archives. the archives has recently received records doc- umenting the activities of ambassador edwin m. pauley and the u.s. reparations missions in - to germany, japan, manchuria, and soviet-occupied korea; office files of g. mennen williams, assis- tant secretary of state for african affairs, - ; records from the presidential study commission on international radio broadcasting, - ; records of the puerto rico reconstruction administra- tion, - ; correspondence files of u.s. navy missions in latin america, - ; correspondence of the u.s. representatives to the tripartite naval commission, - ; records of the ship characteristics board, - ; records of the chief, army reserve and rotc affairs, - ; notes and drafts written by col. henry hessfield, among others, and copies of war depart- ment and american expeditionary forces issuances assembled for use in compiling the order of battle of the united states land forces in the world war ( - ); files of troyer anderson, a historian in the office of the under secretary of war and later in the office of the chief of military history, - ; original records and copies relat- ing to activities of the war plans division and operations division, collected by ray s. cline for use in writing washington command post: the operations divi- sion, - ; and a large quantity of still photographs from the office of communi- cations, department of agriculture, - . national historical publications and records commission. the nhprc has announced the publication of the docu- mentary history of the ratification of the constitution, by the state historical society of wisconsin, under the editorship of merrill jensen. the ratification project is one of three major documentary pub- lication projects under the sponsorship of the nhprc since , related to the for- mation of the united states government. in the commission began gathering materials for the projects, and searchers were directed to collect copies of contem- porary documents dated between sep- tember and march relating to the ratification of the constitution, the first federal elections under the constitution, the work of the first federal congress, and the writing and ratification of the first ten amendments to the constitution. after searches had continued several years and had resulted in substantial bodies of docu- ments, editors were chosen for the projects. in frank e. cushman was appointed editor of the ratification project and the project continued at the national archives until his death in . when merrill jensen succeeded him in , the project moved to the university of wisconsin- madison, where jensen is professor of his- tory. in jensen was also chosen as editor of the second project, related to the first fed- eral elections. at that time, the project moved to the university of wisconsin- madison. volume , the documentary history of the first federal elections, - , contains the record of the calling of the first federal elections by the confedera- tion congress, and the record of the elec- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes don of representatives, senators, and presi- dential electors in south carolina, pennsylvania, massachusetts, and new hampshire. the documents illustrate the continuity of debate over the constitution and over other issues as well. volume may be purchased for $ . from the univer- sity of wisconsin press, box , madi- son, wisconsin . a third project, expected to total sixteen volumes, entitled the documentary his- tory of the first federal congress, has been edited by linda grant de pauw since , when it moved from the national archives to george washington university, where de pauw is a member of the department of history. volume , senate legislative journal, was published by johns hopkins university press in ; volume , senate executive journal and related docu- ments, appeared in ; and volume , house of representatives journal, is pro- jected for spring . each volume may be purchased for $ . from the johns hop- kins university press, baltimore, mary- land . cornell university libraries have pub- lished an nhprc-sponsored microfilm edition of the papers of emily howland, a prominent nineteenth-century educator. the publication contains materials of par- ticular interest to students of the history of women and minorities. emily howland, who was reared in a western new york state quaker family, was an abolitionist before the civil war and a leader in the education of young blacks afterward. with a substantial inheritance, she founded and sustained several schools in virginia and new york for the education of the chil- dren of freedmen. an illustrated guide to the microfilm edition includes brief biographies of how- land and her associate caroline f. putnam, an account of the provenance of the collec- tion, a description of its arrangement, and detailed reel notes. the film may be ordered from micro photo division, bell c howell, inc., old mansfield road, woos- ter, ohio , for $ . complete, $ . for single reels, and $ for the guide alone. the commission's project to revise and update the guide to archives and manu- scripts in the united states has reached a new stage as part of the records program. the staff has altered some original plans and procedures and has decided to issue a directory of repositories as the first step of the comprehensive project. nearly , institutions have received repository information forms, from which the direc- tory will be compiled. the completed forms will provide basic information about each repository, such as location, hours, copying facilities, conditions of access, and summary descriptions of the holdings. the second stage of the guide project will be the assembly and publication of brief collection descriptions for each repos- itory. to avoid inconveniencing repository staff members, the commission's guide staff will prepare as many of these entries as possible from existing guides, inventories, articles, and other published materials. anne harris henry, of the staff assembled by philip m. hamer to prepare the guide and at present a half-time employee of the commission, has coordi- nated the exhaustive and careful effort to assemble a mailing list, develop a biblio- graphy, and establish basic office proce- dures. the project has recently been placed under the general supervision of larry j. hackman, deputy executive director for the records program, and the day-to-day coor- dination of nancy sahli, a commission staff archivist. presidential libraries accessions and openings. additional details are pub- lished in prologue: the journal of the national archives; nars also suggests that prospective users of these and other records in the presidential libraries make further inquiry of the particular library concerned. franklin d. roosevelt library, hyde park, n.y. . recent accessions and openings include additions to the personal correspondence, - , in the henry field papers; an addition to the adolph a. berle papers relating to the international civil aviation conference, ; papers ( - ) of john h. fahey; papers ( - ) of marshall e. dimock; formerly classi- fied or donor-restricted material in the president's secretary's file, the official file, the records of the war refugee board, and the papers of john m. carmody, harry hopkins, henry m. morgenthau, leland olds, eleanor roosevelt, harold d. smith, and john cooper wiley. herbert hoover presidential library, west branch, iowa . donor-re- stricted material from the following files has been reviewed and opened for d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july research: hoover commerce papers, hoover pre-presidential papers, hoover presidential papers, hoover post- presidential papers, and the papers of john agnew, jacob d. allen, ray j. barber, thomas e. campbell, senator arthur capper, agnew morely cleveland, raoul desvernine, james couzens, joseph r. martin, joseph p. kennedy, franklin d. roosevelt, lawrence richey, walter tro- han, and william r. castle. harry s. truman library, independ- ence, missouri . accessions include the papers of donald f. carpenter, - , and john c. young, ; and the con- fidential file from the white house central files, - . also recently accessioned were oral history interviews with durward v. sandifer, shaw livermore, harold e. stassen, charles e. saltzman, john mak- tos, edward s. mason, arthur r. ringwalt, frank a. southard, jr., john parke young, joseph c. satterthwaite, willis c. arm- strong, josiah e. dubois, mark f. ethridge, isador lubin, wesley adams, loy w. henderson, robert w. barnett, benjamin m. hulley, and nathan m. becker. recent openings include addi- tional materials in the historical file, korean data file, frank e. lowe file, intelligence file, "mr. president" file, and gift file. dwight d. eisenhower library, abilene, kansas . accessions include addi- tional papers of gordon gray ( , - ), j. lawton collins ( - ), and mil- ton s. eisenhower ( and ). recent openings include the dwight d. eisen- hower diaries series for the period - (ann whitman file), consisting of an esti- mated , pages of diary entries made by the president and his personal secretary, ann whitman, and containing memoran- dums of telephone conversations and other conversations and meetings in the white house, correspondence dictated by the president, notes summarizing activities of various government departments, intelli- gence briefings, and appointment sched- ules. john f. kennedy library, trapelo rd., waltham, massachusetts . accessions include papers of charles barlett, samuel beer, and leon higgenbo- tham; a collection of scrapbooks main- tained by rose kennedy, - ; and film, viodeotape, and production files of charles guggenheim, consisting of extensive cam- paign footage of robert kennedy, george mcgovern, and numerous senate and gub- ernational candidates. recent openings include additional segments of the papers of walter heller, speech files of lincoln gordon, the general correspondence series of robert f. kennedy when attorney gen- eral, and oral history interviews with donaldwilson, elie able, earle wheeler, millard cass, and fowler hamilton. lyndon baines johnson library, aus- tin, texas . recent openings of white house central file categories include those under "president" and "white house administration." additionally, the library has recently made available for research records dated - of endicott peabody, director, sports working group of the u.s.-mexico border development commission. nars publications. recent microfilm publications by the national archives include , rolls of compiled service records of soldiers who served in the american army during the revolutionary war. a separate name index ( rolls) is also available. other microfilm pub- lications include letters and telegrams sent by the confederate quartermaster general, - ( rolls), records of the united states nuernberg war crimes trials: united states of america v. wil- helm von leeb el al. (case xii), nov. , -october , ( rolls), and guides to german records microfilmed at a lexandria, va. no. records of german field commands: division ( th- st), part xi ( rolls). other recent nars publications are pre- liminary inventory no. , records of the social security administration; inventory no. , records of the united states naval academy; revised preliminary inventory no. , records of the commission of fine arts, and preliminary inventory no. , records of the children's bureau. the north carolina division of archives and history reports the following accessions: original records from ashe, durham, hyde, nash, perquimans, tyr- rell, and wake counties; and church rec- ords and security microfilm from bladen, martin, northampton, pitt, and wilson counties. among new private collections received were the roberta blair collection, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the peter b. smith papers, and microfilm copies of the asa biggs journal, the ste- phen s. burrill diary, the john randolph family papers, and the elias ellis robeson papers. the new north carolina state records center building was dedicated at the clos- ing ceremony of the south atlantic archives and records conference in raleigh, may and . construction of the building, which has a capacity of , cubic feet of records, began august , , and the building was completed and turned over to the state on september , . records were moved into the new building beginning in october . the building has seven storage levels, with offi- ces, work areas, and central microfilm facilities located on the main floor. the archives of northwestern university reports the accession of the following uni- versity records: the harris lectures com- mittee files, evening divisions class rolls ( - ), school of journalism-national high school institute files, school of speech files including student record cards ( - ), department of student guid- ance and counseling, administrative departmental files of the department of biological sciences, alumni biographical files ( - ), and the records, virtually complete, of the school of speech's radio program "northwestern reviewing stand." recently processed papers of indi- viduals include the papers of nathan w. macchesney, board of trustees member who was instrumental in developing the chicago campus; papers of vladimir ipa- tieff, russian emigre chemist and a member of the chemistry department; pa- pers of william mcgovern, professor of political science, who led an expedition to tibet in the s; papers of ernest melby, former dean of the school of education and a pioneer in the field of progressive educa- tion; papers of winifred ward, member of the school of speech faculty and founder of children's theater of evanston; papers of writer and poet lew sarett, a member of the school of speech; papers of the charles pearson family, including correspondence over three generations. pearson, secretary of the faculty and professor of english, was dismissed from the university in on charges of heresy. all of the above are arranged and descriptive inventories are available in the archives reading room. the archives of the university of notre dame recently announced the accession of the papers of joseph a. breig (b. ), author and editor; robert e. lucey (b. ), retired archbishop of san antonio; mark g. mcgrath, csc (b. ), archbi- shop of panama; frederick d. rossini (b. ), chemist and educator; the liturgical arts society, - ; the vernacular society, - ; and our sunday visitor, inc., - . old dominion university, norfolk, vir- ginia, has announced the opening of a department of archives and manuscripts, housed in the new library in a section designated for archives and equipped with a reading room, and stack, storage, and office space. holdings include noncurrent records of the university and papers of business and political figures of the tide- water area of norfolk, virginia beach, and portsmouth. among these are the papers of henry howell, jr., consisting of howell's files as virginia's lieutenant governor ( - ) as well as selected legal case files, legislative files from his service in the vir- ginia general assembly ( - , - ), and political files ( - ); the thomas r. mcnamara papers, consisting of legislative files from his service in the virginia general assembly ( - ) and the records accumulated during his tenure on the virginia state water control board ( - ); the joseph d. wood papers, consisting of wood's personal, business, and political papers and his files from his term as mayor of norfolk ( - ); the james w. roberts papers, consisting of legislative correspondence collected dur- ing two years ( - ) of his service in the virginia general assembly; and the for- rest p. white papers, consisting of material related to white's presidency of the nor- folk committee of public schools. further information may be obtained from james sweeney, university archivist, p.o. box , norfolk, virginia , telephone ( ) - . recent accessions by the oregon state archives include records ( - ) of the education department, of the energy department ( - ), the transportation department ( - ), public utility commissioners ( - ), division of state lands ( - ), state treasurer ( - ), treasury department ( - ), and secretary of state ( - ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july the archives of the university of penn- sylvania has received papers ( - ) of the kintzing and kane families of philadel- phia, including manuscripts and memora- bilia of arctic explorer elisha kent kane; papers ( - ) of george arthur pier- sol, professor of anatomy, including manuscripts of joseph leidy and sir wil- liam osier; records ( - ) of the mask and wig club, including librettos, lyrics, scores, photographs, and programs; rec- ords ( - ) of delta psi fraternity ("st. anthony hall"), both national and local chapters; blueprints and linens ( - ) of work on university buildings by philadelphia architects wilson eyre, jr., cope & stewardson, frank miles day & bros., stewardson & page, day bros. & klauder, and trautwein & howard. located at the university of pennsyl- vania, the general von steuben papers pro- ject is preparing a definitive microfilm edi- tion of the steuben papers, to be published under the auspices of the national histori- cal publications and records commission. the project staff is interested in all corre- spondence to and from von steuben and all other materials concerning him. informa- tion and inquiries should be directed to: general von steuben papers, van pelt library, university of pennsylvania, walnut street, philadelphia, pennsyl- vania . the archives of industrial society, hill- man library, university of pittsburgh, has become the depository for the archives of the united electrical, radio, and machine workers of america (ue). the archives include union publications; cor- respondence; minutes of executive board meetings, district councils, and industry conference boards; files on districts and locals; and records of special conferences. records of the most recent twenty-five years will remain closed. scholars wishing to make use of the material should make initial application to mark mccolloch, curator, mineral industries building, university of pittsburgh, pittsburgh, pennsylvania ; telephone ( ) - . the university of rochester library announces the accession of the family rec- ords of isaac post ( - ), a western new york antislavery leader in the mid- ninteenth century. the papers include cor- respondence with frederick douglass, susan b. anthony, the fox sisters, and sojourner truth, black woman lecturer, and describe the friendship of the post fam- ily with frederick douglass and other free black leaders, and of maintenance by the posts of a station in rochester of the underground railroad. six other collections relate to the suf- frage movement. the anthony-avery pa- pers include correspondence of susan b. anthony with rachel foster avery, corre- sponding secretary of the national ameri- can woman suffrage association. a collec- tion loaned permanently to the library by the board of directors of the susan b. anthony memorial, inc., custodians of anthony's rochester residence, includes papers relating to suffrage. another group of papers, given by the first unitarian church of rochester, contains letters from church members active in the suffrage movement in anthony's era. the library's anthony collection includes letters of emma b. sweet, secretary ( - ) to anthony. complementing those collec- tions are the letters of kate gannett wells, antisuffragist, author, and lecturer, to her brother, william channing gannett, min- ister of the first unitarian church of rochester. these letters are part of the col- lection of william channing gannett pa- pers, including letters to gannett from susan b. anthony. the south carolina department of archives and history has accessioned the following from state agencies: records of the attorney general, special reports from state agencies to the general assembly, working copies ( ); the budget and control board, sinking fund commis- sion, cashbooks ( - ); records of the committee to study the educational sys- tem, proceedings of the th southern regional educational board legislative work conference ( ); records of the department of education, state board of education, attachments to minutes ( - ); records of the election commission, voter registration master list ( - ); rec- ords of general assembly, conference committee on indian affairs, report ( ); records of the public service com- mission, judicial division, sample rec- ords ( - ); utilities division, u.s. corps of engineers, reports ( ). also records of oconee county and sumter county have been accessioned. among the more than one hundred new rolls of microfilm records of south caroli- na now available for sale are records of the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes city of florence, and records of anderson, charleston, lee, newberry, and williams- burg counties. each mm. roll sells for $ and may be purchased from the publi- cations division, south carolina depart- ment of archives and history, box , columbia, s.c. . san diego state university announces the inauguration of the san diego history research center. this urban archives and research center will acquire materials relat- ing to the city's social, ethnocultural, demographic, economic, political, and military history. the center will also en- courage the support of multidisciplinary studies of the urban environment and pre- pare bibliographic resources and guides to the history of the san diego area. in addi- tion, the center will play an active role in developing urban educational programs for the community. for further informa- tion write: daniel e. weinberg, director, san diego history research center, love library, san diego state university, san diego, california . the south dakota archives has begun a systematic inventory of records stored within state agencies. recent accessions include minute books ( - ) of the railroad commission; minutes ( s- s) of the public welfare commission; office files from the world war ii history commission; civilian conservation corps personnel files; national youth adminis- tration personnel files; records of defunct stock-issuing corporations operating in south dakota; and consumer complaint files from the consumer protection divi- sion. the attorney general has turned over his case files for microfilming, and these will be made available to researchers after consultation with the attorney general's office. the case files frequently involve twentieth-century indian law. the marriott library of the university of utah has recently accessioned the fol- lowing: records of the international molders union local , salt lake city, including minute books ( - ), account books ( - ), financial pa- pers, and publications. this collection is an addition to the university of utah labor archives, designated in as the official labor archives of the state of utah. also accessioned were records of the deseret land and livestock company, including correspondence ( - ), subject files (ca. - ), legal papers, and stock certificate books, as well as minute books of the echo land and livestock company ( - ) and chapman canal company ( - ). manuscripts accessioned include papers of writers madeline reeder mcquown ( - ) and charles kelly ( - ), superintendent of capitol reef national monument; mis- sionaries arthur d. crawford and joseph young ( - ), of the first council of seventy, lds church; paleontologist and geologist earl douglass ( - ), who developed the site called national dino- saur monument quarry; and politician louis e. holley, salt lake city auditor and commissioner (ca. - ). the manuscript department of the uni- versity of virginia library has recently ac- cessioned the swan music collection ( - ) which reflects the career of alfred j. swan ( - ) as composer, scholar, teacher, and historian of russian music. born in st. petersburg, russia, swan stu- died music there and at oxford and came to the united states to teach and write, first at the university of virginia, then at haver- ford and swarthmore colleges. materials for his life of nicholas medtner comprise the major part of the collection, which also includes correspondence with alexander cherepnin, m.i. glinka, paul hindemith, ralph vaughan-williams, serge rachma- ninoff, and john ireland. also accessioned were miscellaneous pa- pers ( - ) from the american revolu- tion, including receipts of paymaster for the continental army, capt. william lane; a rental book ( - ) for "belvoir" and "berkeley" plantations and other lands in loudoun county, kept for the widow of george william fairfax; and a deposition (march , ) by thomas jef- ferson in the case of john doe for john fry et al. v. thomas and samuel bell; two nineteenth-century recipe books: that of maryann miller wood harper (ca. ), a commonplace and recipe book, and a vol- ume of recipes (ca. ) possibly recorded by clara b. baldwin; papers ( - ) of virginia senator j. harry michael, from the twenty-fifth senatorial district; and anonymous typescripts from occupied france during world war i, entitled: "deux annees a lille sous le joug allemand—souvenirs d'une jeune franchise [two years at lille under the german yoke—memories of a young french woman]." d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july the archives of labor and urban affairs of wayne state university announ- ces the accession of the papers ( - ) of dan gallagher, a uaw organizer, interna- tional representative, and member of the national war labor board for region . he served as member of the executive board of uaw local , the west side local, and operated as an organizer from the local ( - ). the collection contains corre- spondence, minutes of local executive board, joint council, and shop commit- tee; radio speeches of uaw officers and board members; material relative to labor's non-partisan league; and min- utes, correspondence, petitions, and cases relative to the national war labor board ( - ). the archives has also acquired the pa- pers of lewis michener, former regional director for the united automobile workers in the western states in the s, member of the international executive board, officer in uaw locals and , and president of the southern california uaw retirees council. the papers con- tain correspondence, clippings, photo- graphs, and phonograph records concern- ing the north american aviation strike in ; negotiations and activities of locals and ; and pol itical and retiree activi- ties in california. the files of byron silvis, a member and officer in uaw local at southgate, california, containing newsletters, bulle- tins, leaflets, pamphlets on local union elections, platforms, and officer slates since the s have recently been received by the archives of labor and urban affairs. t h e state historical society of wiscon- sin has been awarded a grant of over $ , by the national historical publi- cations and records commission to com- plete a new guide to the lyman c. draper collection. the state archives division of the society has recently accessioned active employee welfare fund files ( - ) of the insurance department and records ( - ) of the criminal code advisory committee of the joint legislative coun- cil. county and local records accessioned include records of the register of deeds ( s- s) of brown county, and affin- ity files ( s- s) of the madison police department in dane county. manuscripts accessioned include papers ( - ) of george epstein ( - ), kenosha busi- nessman, civic leader, and local historian; news stories ( - ) of paul ghali ( ?- ), reporter in the paris bureau of the chicago daily news, including information on yugoslavia, world war ii, and the united nations; and papers ( - ) of frank zeidler ( -), former mayor of milwaukee ( - ), concern- ing socialism. the newberry library, chicago, and the university of wisconsin cartographic laboratory, madison, have begun work on a data file recording boundary changes ( - ) of counties, congressional dis- tricts, and other administrative units, using new jersey and pennsylvania as sample states. maps in a wide range of scales can eventually be produced on demand for selected areas when the machine-readable file is used with a com- puter directed plotter. the data file is being designed at the university of wisconsin cartographic laboratory, and the histori- cal research is being performed at the new- berry library, which is sponsoring the pro- ject with financial support from the national endowment for the humanities. canada the public archives of canada has become custodian of the records of the can- adian council of churches, according to an agreement concluded during the annual meeting held october - , , atcha- teauguay, quebec. the pac had asked church organizations to work toward sys- tematizing and centralizing religious archives, and the agreement was signed by norman berner, president of the canadian council of churches, and hugh taylor, director of the historical branch of the pac. the records of the council, estab- lished in , reflect the religious and social character of this national organiza- tion. because of its historical significance, the recently restored stanczykowski collection of documents, entitled campagne de rus- sie, , has had a special portfolio in leather designed and made for it at the pac. the collection includes letters (december -june ) from napo- leon's minister of foreign affairs, hugues maret, duke of bassano, to the french ambassadors to poland (louis bignon and the abbe de pradt) transmitting the emper- or's orders and recommendations concern- ing preparations for the invasion of rus- sia. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the pac has also accessioned the pa- pers, consisting of correspondence and memorandums, of hon. robert l. stan- field, party chief and official leader of the opposition ( - ). the public records division has received the archives of the company of young canadians, and these records are now open for research. established in as a crown corporation, the cyc created and administered, during its ten-year his- tory, projects in all parts of canada. the records cover the activities of the com- pany's head office in ottawa, its projects in the field, and its governing council. also accessioned are the records ( - ) of the food prices review board, including cor- respondence, minutes and tapes of meet- ings, speeches, research studies and reports, survey results, and newspaper clippings. the archives has recently refilmed the census returns. for the first time, the com- plete industrial returns as well as the nomi- nal and agricultural schedules will be available to researchers on microfilm. they therefore may be borrowed on interli- brary loan or purchased at a cost of $ . per roll, prepaid. the returns include the provinces of ontario, quebec, new bruns- wick, and nova scotia. information about specific reels for particular geographical locations may be obtained from the public service section. the manuscript division of the pac recently acquired records of the canadian council of churches, established in , and its predecessors and affiliated institu- tions. the council's interdenominational work has gradually shifted to social work, including sponsoring of immigrants. sixty-seven reels of colonial office , dominions (war of - ); co. , register of correspondence; and co. , register of out-letters, arrived from the london office of the public archives. a checklist of parish registers is a guide to all the parish registers available on microfilm at the pac. of interest to genealogists and historians alike, this booklet lists records from across canada and from early french settlements in the eastern united states. it is available from information canada for cents. t h e provincial archives of alberta recently acquired the passport of former premier a. l. sifton; plans of early school buildings in the province ( - ); rec- ords of the county of minburn; records ( - ) of the st. mary river irrigation district; records ( - ) of the catholic women's league, edmonton diocese; rec- ords ( - ) of the consumers associa- tion of canada; records ( - ) of the edmonton weavers guild; minute books ( - ) of the edmonton chapter of hadassah; the autobiography of paul lloyd, a pioneer settler and tax assessor and collector during the depression; and a photograph album and files of french- canadian women pioneers in alberta ( - ). during the archives published an explanatory leaflet on its col- lections and three books entitled alberta at the turn of the century, writing a local history, and alberta government house. the british columbia provincial archives manuscript division has recently accessioned records of star shipbuilding (mercer), ltd., of new westminster, including general correspondence files, work record files on more than ships built during - , photographs of ships, launching ceremonies and shipyard activities, and a detailed series of ships' plans; a microfilm copy of the minute books, - , of the b. c. amateur hockey association; correspondence, notes, and personal papers of laura jamie- son, member of the legislative assembly and juvenile court judge; diaries ( - ) of thomas m. and daisy edwards, dairy farmers and members of fraser valley milk producers association, chilliwack, b.c.; and minute book, proceedings of first annual convention, briefs and reports of international woodworkers of america local - , haney, b.c. in continuing its aural history program, the b.c. archives has accessioned tapes of the hearings on the international habitat conference to be held in vancouver in ; twenty hours of tape from the b. c. federation of labour convention including sessions on wage and price controls, the provincial election and women's rights; thirteen hours of tapes from hearings before the government of british columbia redistribution commis- sion and twenty-four hours of tapes from the canadian radio and television com- mission hearings on broadcasting in van- couver. the university of british columbia has recently accessioned records ( - ) of the cariboo gold quartz mining com- pany, including minutes, reports, corre- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july spondence, photographs, and clippings relating to the activities of the company; minutes ( - ) of the wells townsite company; and minutes ( - ) of the gold quartz hospital, ltd.; papers ( - ) of dorothy gretchen steeves, includ- ing letters, addresses, photographs, clip- pings, scrapbooks, documents, and a research collection. these papers reflect her activities as an executive at the provin- cial and federal level of the co-operative commonwealth federation, a democratic- socialist party founded in and a prede- cessor of the new democratic party. steeves was a member of the legislative assembly for north vancouver ( - ). the archives of the glenbow-alberta institute has recently acquired the minute books, reports, and miscellaneous papers of the calgary board of trade, later cal- gary chamber of commerce, from its in- ception in to ; diaries, correspon- dence, photographs, clippings, and various papers relating to d. w. davis, pio- neer trader and member of parliament for alberta, dating from ; journals, gen- eral papers, and photographs of w. e. buchanan relating to his alberta provin- cial police and royal canadian mounted police careers, ca. - ; records of foot- hills school division and its constituent school districts, - ; correspondence, financial records, and general papers of the e. p. ranch, pekisko (formerly owned by edward, prince of wales), - ; and a collection of blueprints, building specifi- cations, etc., of calgary architect w. s. bates, - s. the new address of the archives and library is glenbow centre, ninth avenue and first street, s.e., cal- gary, alberta t gop . the mcmaster university library has accessioned a collection relating to world war ii, consisting of books, archival mate- rial, and maps relating to the war in great britain. in addition to this special world war ii collection, the papers of colonel v.c. steer-webster, prominent in the design and development of the "mulberry harbour" system used for the d-day inva- sion, have also been accessioned. the new brunswick provincial archives has completed the first volume of a calendar of the records of the legisla- tive assembly, - , and is preparing a second volume. the calendar is arranged chronologically and includes petitions, legislation, and committee reports originating in the house of assembly. the archives undertook a systematic sorting program on j udicial records and a survey of the inferior, probate, city, chancery, vice- admiralty, and supreme courts has been completed. inventories are in preparation. business records recently acquired include papers ( - ) of the maritime electric company, including correspondence and accounts; records ( - ) of the chatham gas light company; files ( - ) of the board of public utilities; records of the moncton tramway, electricity, and gas company; and the minutes ( - ) of the motor carrier board. queen's university archives in king- ston, ontario, has accessioned local busi- ness records including photographs of kingston in the s- s by the studio of mr. lealle, a kingston photographer; records ( - ) of the kingston branch of the emergency measures organization; and those of a local law firm, king and smythe ( - ), and the hotel randolph ( - ). a project to publish many of the letters of benjamin disraeli, earl of bea- consfield, is underway and a collection of papers is being assembled. inventories have been completed for the campbell pa- pers, records of the canadian federation of mayors and municipalities, the oberon press additions, the wilton papers, the edgar papers, the papers of the jones fam- ily of gananoque, and papers of f. x. o'connor. recent accessions of the city of toronto archives include the historical records of the childrens aid society of metropolitan toronto, and material from the toronto bureau of municipal research and the citizens research institute of canada. the childrens aid society records include the surviving committee minutes, operating records, scrapbooks, and information files of the former childrens aid society of toronto ( - ); infants home and infirmary of toronto ( - ); and childrens aid and infants home of toronto ( - ); as well as some records of the childrens aid society of metropoli- tan toronto dating from . the bureau of municipal research and citizens research institute material consists of minutes and publications ( -ca. ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the city of ottawa appointed its first archivist at the beginning of , edwin welch, formerly archivist of the cities of plymouth and southampton and of chur- chill college, cambridge, all of england. welch has located many of the city records thought lost in the fire of and is con- tinually discovering records in different buildings throughout the city. the most frequently requested records, such as min- ute books, by-laws, and annual reports, are housed in a vault, with some records inac- cessible and research accommodations lim- ited. despite crowded conditions, welch has produced a finding aid for the city council minute books and lists of bylaws and has submitted a report proposing a full archives and records management program to the city council. religious archives jewish. the philadelphia jewish archives center has recently accessioned the following: records ( - ) of beth judah of logan, conservative synagogue; records ( - ) of the jewish sheltering home for the aged; records ( - ) of shochtim union, local no. , ritual slaughterers of kosher poultry; records ( - ) of dirshu tove congregation; records ( - ) of the hebrew litera- ture society; and records ( - ) of the vitebsker beneficial association. manu- scripts accessioned include papers ( - ) of albert balno, associated with kosher butchers of philadelphia; and papers ( - ), in english and yiddish, of morry helzner, associated with yiddish or- ganizations. lutheran. the concordia historical institute, st. louis, missouri, announces the accession of the following records: files from the office of the secretary, the lu- theran church—missouri synod, relating to the , , and conventions; copies of letters of transmittal covering de- cisions of the board of directors. lcms; minutes of the joint commission on inter- lutheran relationships of the lutheran council in canada; minutes of the middle east conference of the middle east lu- theran mission; files of the board for mis- sions, lcms; sermons, class notes, and syl- labi of emil w. luecke, professor at concordia college, bronxville, new york; files of paul m. breescher relating to euro- pean trips and bad boll theological dis- cussions, - ; files relating to the commission on fraternal organizations, lcms; files of the board for missions, lcms, relating to its worker priest proj- ect; files relating to the relief effort in nige- ria during the civil war; translations of doc- uments and letters relating to the settlement of frankenmuth, michigan, - ; files of rev. leroy hass relating to his missionary service in china and japan, - . the concordia historical institute has recently recovered an important collection which had been missing for about eight years, of coins and medals relating to the lutheran reformation. the pieces were recovered through the efforts of the tuc- son, arizona, police and the federal bureau of investigation after an attempt was made earlier this year to sell some of the pieces. a total of seventy-seven coins and medals and a martin luther betrothal ring were recovered. the concordia historical institute is the department of archives and history of the lutheran church-missouri synod. its holdings consist of collections of records and manuscripts relating to the work of the synod, personal papers of synodical lead- ers, an extensive historical library on the history of lutheranism in america, as well as museum artifacts which depict luther- an activities in america since the seven- teenth century. the collection of coins and medals, numbering over a thousand pieces, forms a special part of these holdings. the gathering and preservation of this collec- tion for the benefit of future generations is one of the prime objectives which the in- stitute has pursued vigorously and success- fully since it was incorporated in . the lutheran microfilm project, now in its twenty-second year of operation, has filmed more than . million pages of rare periodicals and books, manuscript collec- tions from depositories around the world, theses and dissertations on lutheran his- torical subjects, congregational records, and security copies of some of the insti- tute's own manuscript treasures. an exten- sive bibliography of lutheran serial pub- l i c a t i o n s has been p r e p a r e d and information may be obtained by writing to the concordia historical institute, demun avenue, st. louis, missouri . the american lutheran church main- tains two archival repositories: luther seminary, st. paul, minnesota, and wart- burg seminary, dubuque, iowa. this d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july. arrangement results from the merger of four lutheran bodies ( - ) which formed the present american lutheran church: the evangelical lutheran church (norwegian), the united evangelical lutheran church (danish), the american lutheran church, the largest body and composed of americans of german ances- try, and the lutheran free church (norwe- gian). the pre- records of the elc and the lfc are found in the st. paul reposi- tory and those of the alc & elc are at dubuque. among the major accessions of records are the minutes ( - ) of the wisconsin district mission committee; parochial statistics ( - ); tapes of the general convention; elc and alc women's radio hour talks, papers, and tapes ( - ); elc lutheran daughters of the reformation, an organization for single women organized on national, dis- trict, and circuit levels: agendas, minutes, reports ( - ); women's missionary federation, histories of the women's mis- sionary activities in the circuits dating from the s- s, booklets and leaflets ( - ); minutes ( - ) of the west- ern conference, northern district, ohio synod; minutes ( - ) of the mission committee, wisconsin district, ohio synod; and lutheran literature society for the chinese (formerly of china), minutes and reports ( - ). records of dissolved congregations on deposit include those of moreland parish, chicago; the metro par- ish, denver; the olivet parish, minneapo- lis; and good shepherd parish, jackson- ville, florida. audiovisual records have been accessioned and an inventory of hold- ings is in preparation. the microfilming and microfiche pro- ject begun by the elc in the early s has now microfilmed about half of the records of the conference. among recent acces- sions is pre- miscellaneous correspon- dence of the world mission division, church council minutes ( - ) of non- current synods, lfc conference minutes ( - ) of madagascar, received just prior to announcement by the government of madagascar forbidding the transporting of historical records outside of the country; and personal papers ( - ) of sivert nesdal of norway ( - ), american missionary to madagascar, including cor- respondence ( - ) from student days at university of paris in theology and career in madagascar as seminary professor, including miscellaneous notebooks and photographs. mennonite. the conference of menno- nites in canada has expanded its facilities into a new wing of the canadian menno- nite bible college, winnipeg, where it has stack and research areas. among the hold- ings of the archives are records ( - ) of the waisenant organization, now entitled mennonite trust company, founded in waldheim, saskatchewan, for the assis- tance of the poor and needy; papers (ca. ) of david w. friesen ( - ), postmaster, altona, manitoba, and founder of friesen and sons, printers, including correspondence; and papers ( -) of j. j. thiessen (b. ca. ), chair- man of the board of canadian mennonite bible college, and i nfluential in the found- ing of the college and in the archival pro- gram of the conference. he also was chair- man of the colonization board ( - ), records of which are accessioned. the colonization board was instrumental in assisting russian immigrants to settle in canada following the bolshevik revolu- tion. the mennonites in the five western provinces of the conference of mennonites in canada (ontario, manitoba, saskatche- wan, alberta, and british columbia) are primarily descendants of russian immi- grants who came in three main groups: - , - , and following world war ii. records of mennonite women's activi- ties are being compiled by each congrega- tion for a projected history of their organi- zation ( - ), known as canadian women in mission. microfilm projects include the filming of the records of the waisenant organization and the friesen papers, with the thiessen papers projected for filming. inventories are in prepara- tion. inquiries may be addressed to law- rence klippenstein, conference of menno- nites in canada, shaftesbury blvd., winnipeg, manitoba r p m . methodist. the baltimore conference of the united methodist church, northeast- ern jurisdiction, has completed a new archival vault under the south porch of lovely lane church to house the archival materials of the conference. the baltimore conference was established in , although there were annual meetings from on. one of six original conferences, it extended geographically from western pennsylvania to chesapeake bay, with williamsport, pennsylvania, and freder- icksburg, virginia, serving as the north- ern and southern extremeties. over the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes years, the geographical extent was nar- rowed. the earliest minute books date from , but there are manuscript mate- rials dating from . records of the cir- cuits and closed churches are also to be found. inquiries may be addressed to lovely lane museum, st. paul street, baltimore, maryland . moravian. the moravian archives, bethlehem, pennsylvania, has erected a new archives building at west locust street, bethlehem, near the new moravian theological seminary. the new building includes reception and gallery areas, spe- cial exhibit facilities, micro-darkroom, audiovisual facilities, separate vaults for books and manuscripts, and a large staff and research area. bicentennial news as a bicentennial project, records of the fairfax (virginia) county court from to are being indexed by subj ect and by name under direction of edith sprouse, chairman of the fairfax county history commission. compiled from eighteen ledger volumes, the index presents details not only of civil disputes and criminal con- victions but also of daily life during the late colonial period. during this period, county courts in virginia served legisla- tive and administrative as well as judicial functions. the index, completed through , is available for purchase on microfiche cards. court records for - are missing, and the index for - is being prepared. inquiries should be addressed to edith m. sprouse, chairman of the fairfax county history commission, office of compre- hensive planning, fairfax county gov- ernment, fairfax, virginia . as its bicentennial volume, the minne- sota historical society press published the journals of jonathan carver and related documents, - . edited by john parker, curator of the james ford bell library at the university of minnesota, the book presents for the first time carver's own story of his controversial eighteenth- century expedition to the midwest. carver was the only explorer to leave a written account of his journey to the minnesota country during the period of british con- trol that immediately preceded the revolu- tionary war. publication of carver's jour- nals sheds light on antiexpansionist british policy of the s and is appropri- ate to mark the bicentennial. parker has pieced together a daily narrative of carver's journey by using four manuscript versions of the journals located in the british museum. three appendixes provide addi- tional documents relating to the expedi- tion: carver's dakota dictionary (the earli- est one known) and a selected bibliography listing the principal editions of carver's travels, originally published in . the volume is available from the mhs order department, mississippi street, st. paul, minnesota , for $ . . the national endowment for the humanities has awarded the new york state american revolution bicentennial commission its largest grant yet given for a single film program. the award, a $ , grant, will be used by the com- mission for production of a ninety-minute public television film currently titled "winter soldiers." the film, written by richard wormser and edward adler, explores revolutionary history during the last months of —a period of recurring defeat and dwindling resources for the continental army. rather than concern itself with specific military victories or the heroes associated with such victories, the film will examine the lives of ordinary soldiers and junior officers. its setting will be westchester county, new york. script- ing for the film was developed under a pre- vious neh planning grant. louis l. tucker, executive director of the nysarbc, will serve as project director for the film. serving as historical advisor will be james thomas flexner, winner of a pultizer prize citation for his four-volume work on george washington. the bicentennial commission has pro- duced a film entitled "don't tread on me—voices from the american revolu- tion," a collection of dramatized scenes and vignettes depicting the attitudes and con- cerns of ordinary people whose actions changed the course of history. made possible by grants from the state commis- sion and the arba, the film was produced and directed by bowling green films, box -d, hudson, n.y. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril sometimes research involves looking under rocks don't forget this one there are , rolls of microfilm underneath national archives write for a free catalogue. css. microfilm sales department b national archives and records service (neps) washington, d.c. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor the committee on reference and access policies, chaired by sylvie turner of the john f. kennedy library, prepared the statement that follows. the statement was reviewed in by the committee on professional standards, and approved by the society's council at its april meeting. statement on the reproduction of manuscripts and archives for reference use . it is the responsibility of a library, archives, or manuscript repository to assist researchers by making or having made reproductions of any material in its possession, for research purposes, subject to certain conditions. manuscript and archival materials may be repro- duced if: a. the condition of the originals will permit such reproduction. b. the originals have no gift, purchase, or legal restrictions on reproduction. . in the interest of making research collections more generally available, the orderly micro- filming of archives and entire manuscript collections, together with appropriate guides, is to be encouraged, within the available resources of the repository. . the price of reproductions shall be set by the repository, which should endeavor to keep charges to a minimum. . copies should be made for reference use as follows: a. repositories which permit their manuscript and archival holdings to be reproduced in whole or in part must specify before the copies are made what restrictions, if any, have been placed on the use or further reproduction of copies. b. repositories may require that purchasers agree in writing to abide by any restrictions. c. all reproductions should identify the source of the original manuscript collection or archival record group. . the repository should inform the researcher: a. when and under what conditions permission to make extensive direct quotation from or to print in full any reproduction must be obtained from the institution owning the originals. b. that in the case of material under copyright, the right to quote or print, beyond fair use, must also be obtained by the researcher from the copyright owner. c. that the researcher assumes legal responsibility for observing common law literary rights, property rights, and libel laws. d. of known retention of literary rights. . a repository may decline to furnish reproductions when fulfilling mail requests requires subjective criteria for selection of material to be duplicated or the commitment of an unreasonable amount of staff time for extended research to identify the material. . in cases when researchers request the reproduction of large amounts of material which they have identified in the course of their research, the repository may prescribe a preferred method of copying (i.e., microfilm vs. xerox) and may provide for a reasonable time period in which to produce the copies. t h e committee on archives of science has initiated a project to assist american scientists and archivists in the preservation of scientific records. t o assist in placing material for this department should be sent to the executive director, society of american archivists, university of illinois at chicago circle, box , chicago, illinois . the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july the papers of scientists in appropriate repositories, the committee has planned the project in two phases: the goal of the first phase is to locate papers of scientists; of the second, to locate repositories. in the first phase, questionnaires were sent to all members of the national academy of sciences prior to mid-may, asking for infor- mation about their personal papers and the papers of other scientists. in the second phase, planned for the fall, the committee will compile lists of repositories which will preserve records of science. repositories are requested to contact the committee if they would be willing to preserve scientific records, and to inform the committee if they would like to collect papers from a particular geographic area or field of science. the committee can provide suggestions on how to approach scientists, what papers to save, and other guidance for those with questions. further informa- tion is available from joan n. warnow, american institute of physics, east street, new york, new york . minutes of the society council meeting, january , . president elizabeth hamer kegan called the meeting to order at : a.m. in the society's headquarters at the university of illi- nois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois. also present were vice president robert m. warner, treasurer howard l. applegate, and council members richard c. berner, j. frank cook, elsie f. freivogel, ruth w. helmuth, andrea hinding, j. r. k. kantor, hugh a. taylor, and edward weldon. editor c. f. w. coker and execu- tive director ann morgan campbell attended without vote. the minutes of the sep- tember , september , and october , , council meetings were approved. national historical publications and records commission. president kegan reported that the first grant in nhprc's new records program was made to the saa to support the publication of a series of five basic archival manuals. program committee. frank b. evans, program chairperson, has noti- fied mrs. kegan that he has accepted a two year appointment with unesco in paris. he will not be able to continue his program planning responsibilities. mrs. kegan announced that she had appointed elsie f. freivogel to replace mr. evans as chairperson. the program committee met with mr. evans and ms. freivogel in december in washington to review program suggestions received from the membership and to prepare session outlines. "the american archival revolution" was adopted as the meeting's theme. review of constitution and bylaws. mrs. kegan announced the appointment of mr. applegate to chair a committee to review the society's constitution and bylaws. an announcement of this undertaking will be made in the march newsletter and members' suggestions will be solicited. the committee's draft report will be con- sidered at the washington annual meeting. if constitutional changes are deemed necessary, they will be considered at the salt lake city annual meeting in . financial management. noting that the society's recent success in obtaining grants has greatly increased the workload of the day-to-day management of saa funds, treasurer applegate reported the executive committee's recommendation that this activity be systematically transferred to the executive director's office dur- ing . it is anticipated that the transfer will be completed prior to the time when the newly elected treasurer assumes office. to implement this plan, mr. applegate moved the adoption of the following bylaw revisions: (editor's note: changes in the bylaws are noted in italics) d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists article the secretary [executive director] shall keep the minutes of the society and of the council, prepare and mail notices, present at each annual meeting a report of the activities of the society, and perform such other duties as may be directed by council. in the absence of the president and the vice president, the secretary shall preside. the secretary shall have custody of and preserve the corporate seal of the society and shall affix the seal under the direction of the president and the council. the secretary shall also receive and disburse all funds in the general operating budget of the society and the funds in the various society budgets sup- ported by external grants under guidelines established by council. quarterly reports of all receipts and disbursements for all budgets shall be made to council by the secretary. article the treasurer shall be responsible for financial planning and policy formulation, the internal auditing of all society financial operations, the preparation of the society's annual budget for submission to the executive committee and council, and the investment of special funds and endowments on the advice and consent of the investments committee. a rticle there shall be an executive committee comprised of the president, the vice president, the secretary, the treasurer, and one member from the council who shall be elected annually by the eight council members for a term of one year. the president shall serve as chairman of the executive committee and shall call the committee into session. the executive committee shall act as the executive arm of the council in conducting the affairs of the society between meetings of the council. the executive committee shall approve all investments and shall approve a budget for submission to the council. the executive committee shall circulate min- utes of its meeting to the council and shall report all of its actions and recommendations at each council meeting. mr. applegate's motion was seconded and passed. the executive director reported that she has begun negotiations with the federal government to establish an indirect cost ratio for the grants the society has received. treasurer's report. mr. applegate reported that the society's unaudited general fund ledger for showed receipts of $ , . and disbursements of $ , . . in addition, during the last two quarters of the year, $ , . was received and disbursed for special projects (paper permanence fund and archival security program). receipts for exceeded receipts for in all major catego- ries. income from membership fees rose from $ , . to $ , . . publications sales (including subscriptions to the american archivist) were up from $ , . to $ , . . revenue from the annual meeting was up from $ , . to $ , . . the budget, as approved by the executive committee, was presented for the council's consideration. income was projected at $ , while projected disburse- ments reached $ , . the budget was adopted by the council as presented. the treasurer asked the council's permission to consolidate various separate endowment accounts to facilitate the management of the society's funds. mrs. hel- muth moved that the treasurer be given authority to pool saa investments wherever possible. the motion was seconded and passed. saa memorial fund. vice president warner's motion that a special saa memo- rial fund be established was seconded and passed. first donations were made, in expectation of the fund being established, in memory of herman kahn. guidelines for the fund will be developed by a committee to be appointed by mrs. kegan. annual meeting. the philadelphia annual meeting was the best attended in the society's history. the net profit to the general fund, approximately $ , , was also a record. a motion made by edward weldon to express the appreciation of the council to mary lynn mccree and her program committee and to philip mooney and his local arrangements committee was seconded and passed. preparation of grant proposals. on behalf of an ad hoc committee which he chaired, mr. warner presented the following procedures for council consideration and moved their adoption: d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july i. any member of the society may prepare a grant proposal for society implementation. the written proposal should be submitted to the executive director. the executive director shall then prepare a written summary of the proposal and submit it with recommendations to the executive committee. this committee may then reject it, approve it and authorize final draft- ing, or refer it to the entire council. ii. all professional personnel financed by society grants and not a part of the executive direc- tor's own staff shall be nominated by the executive director and approved by the executive committee. mr. warner's motion was seconded and passed. a project designed to locate the material produced by the historical records sur- vey and a second project which anticipated a series of archival research workshops were discussed. the council approved in principle the submission of the proposals to appropriate foundations. annual meeting. mr. warner announced that he has appointed c. herbert finch as program chairperson for the annual meeting. andrea hinding will serve as vice chairperson. jay m. haymond is directing the local arrangements com- mittee for the meeting which will be held at the hotel utah, salt lake city. membership. ms. campbell reported the following comparative membership figures: individuals institutions subscriptions total january january the growth of is percent of the original loss of which occurred after the dues increase. public papers. the executive director noted that the constitutionality of the law (pl - ) which placed former president nixon's papers and tapes in govern- ment custody was upheld in a january , , ruling by a three-judge panel of the u.s. district court. in accordance with the resolution passed at the annual business meeting, ms. campbell reported that she had investigated the possibility of the saa joining the suit in which the decision was rendered. the investigation revealed that because all oral arguments had been heard in the suit, and all materials submitted for the consideration of the court, it was too late for the society to join the suit. ms. hind- ing's motion that the executive director had fulfilled the mandate of the business meeting to explore the feasibility of joining the then-current suit was seconded and passed. mr. cook abstained from the vote. ms. campbell reported that she was preparing testimony for a january , , meeting of the subcommittee on printing of the house of representatives, which is considering gsa's revised regulations for administration of nixon presidential materials, under pl - . her statement will emphasize the importance of hav- ing archivists make those decisions during the project which require professional expertise. the council discussed the various ways in which the society could continue to play a constructive role in the public papers issue. it was concluded that the decision made at the annual business meeting, to endorse the concept of a study com- mission on the issue rather than to seek judicial remedies, was still sound. the national study commission on the records and documents of public officials held its organizational meeting in december. ms. campbell is the society's repre- sentative. mrs. kegan attended the first meeting representing the librarian of con- gress. james b. rhoads represents the gsa administrator. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists it was suggested that the executive director prepare an analysis of the society's role in the public papers issue. mr. applegate moved that the council authorize the executive director to create an ad hoc task force to study the major issues which the commission is expected to consider. the motion was seconded and passed. it is anticipated that the results of the task force's work will be presented as a program at the washington annual meeting. editor's report. mr. coker reported that the expenses of printing the american archivist in exceeded costs and the budget estimate by $ , . the number of pages published in was, however, marginally lower than the figure for . a new printer, capital city press, montpelier, vermont, has been engaged to produce the journal in . firm estimates from the company indicate that the society can anticipate significant savings over printing costs. the april issue will contain several articles relating to preservation. mr. coker reported that the july issue of the journal would be a special over-size international issue. david b. gracy ii and lucile kane have been appointed by president kegan to the editorial board. mr. coker reported that members of the editorial board had examined the draft of frank b. evans's bibliography on the international history of archives and expressed the opinion that the work was excellent and thoroughly deserving of pub- lication. the editor also observed, however, that he and his staff would not be able to see the typescript through to publication this year. the executive director reported that an analysis of current publications sales indicated that the society would require funding assistance in order to break even on the publication of the bibliography. mr. applegate moved that the council accept the favorable recom- mendation of the editorial board regarding the evans bibliography and that the publication project be contingent on the acquisition of supplemental external funding. the motion was seconded and passed. saa awards program. in president rhoads appointed an ad hoc subcom- mittee of the awards committee to review the nature and administration of the society's awards program and make recommendations for improvements. commit- tee members were mary c. lethbridge, frank b. evans, and herbert e. angel, chair- man. the subcommittee concluded that the present awards program is largely fortui- tous and should be systematized before greater complexity is incurred. specifically, the subcommittee recommended the following measures: . adoption of criteria to be followed in establishing new awards. . adoption of uniform practices in administering society awards. . publication of individual leaflets to describe each award. . modification of the criteria and administration of present awards to bring them into conformity with the standards adopted, beginning with the awards for pre- sentation in the fall of . after reviewing the recommendations of the subcommittee, the following guide- lines were adopted by the council: criteria for the establishment of society awards purpose. the purpose of each award is to further one or more of the objectives of the society, as stated in its constitution, by recognizing persons or institutions for accomplishments relevant to those objectives. if the title of an award includes the name of an individual/institution, the individual or institution so honored should have been identified with the particular objectives furthered by that award. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july accomplishment. accomplishments should be defined in sufficiently broad and general terms as to promote wide and continuous competition over a long period of time avoiding unnecessary limitations. eligibility. eligibility should be prescribed in sufficiently broad and general terms as to promote wide and continuous competition over a long period of time, cover- ing such factors, if relevant, as membership or position in the society, professional qualifications, and nationality. funding. funding should be provided by endowment or by the society itself. if oth- erwise provided, funds are to be assured at least one year in advance of the announce- ment of competition, preferably by deposit with the treasurer of the society. size and prestige of the award should be sufficient to attract serious competition. selection subcommittee. appointment to the selection subcommittee will be made by the society. guidelines for the qualifications of subcommittee members may be suggested by donors. modification. provision should be made for modification by the society of the pur- pose, accomplishment to be recognized, eligibility requirements, and funding as necessary to meet changing circumstances. uniform practices in administration of society awards competition announcement. competition will be announced in the saa newslet- ter reaching the membership no later than may of each year. separate leaflets de- scribing each award will be available for distribution by the executive director. period. accomplishments being recognized must have occurred during the calendar year preceding the annual meeting of the society at which the awards will be given. accomplishments requiring performance over a continuing period of time must include the calendar year preceding the year in which the award will be given. pub- lications must bear the publication date of the year preceding that in which the award is given. nominations. persons or institutions that are members of the society, including persons or institutions that are themselves candidates for the award in question, and members of the awards committee and its subcommittees, may make nominations. nominations should include the name, address, and curriculum vitae (for indi- viduals) of nominee, evidence of eligibility (if required), and description of the accomplishment with supporting documentation or exhibits if necessary. nomina- tion forms may be provided for specific awards. nominations must be received in the office of the executive director by july of the year in which the award is to be given. composition of awards committee. the awards committee will consist of a chair- person and enough additional members to provide three members to serve as a selec- tion subcommittee for each society award. no member will serve on more than one subcommittee. the chairperson and other members will be appointed by the presi- dent for staggered three-year terms of office. terms of subcommittee members will be arranged so that one member is added and one leaves each year; the member hav- ing the longest service on each subcommittee will serve as chairperson. duties of awards committee. members of each award selection subcommittee will determine the recipient of the award for each year, or determine that no award will be given. the subcommittee chairperson will inform the chairperson of the awards committee of their decision. the awards committee chairperson will communi- cate the decisions to the executive director by september . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists announcement. recipients of the awards will be announced at the annual meeting of the society during which the awards are presented, in the first issue of the saa newsletter following the annual meeting, and in the january issue of the american archivist following the annual meeting. distinguished service award background and present administrative practices. the distinguished service award was established in by three fellows of the society, leon de valinger, jr., the late mary givens bryan, and dolores renze. the award, in the form of a trophy, is presented annually to an archival institu- tion or organization which has given outstanding service to its public and has made an exemplary contribution to the archival profession. at the end of the year during which the institution/organization is honored, a larger circulating trophy is replaced by a smaller replica. the institution or organization being nominated should have achieved distinction in one or more of the following ways: demonstrably contributing to archival theory and the development of new archival practices. serving its constituency in an outstanding fashion. showing extraordinary ingenuity and resourcefulness in improving efficiency of operations or improving methods of work. going well beyond the normal performance requirements expected of an archival agency and so being an incentive to others. publishing exemplary and meritorious finding aids, collection guides, statements of available service, and the like. developing over a period of years an archival program of such depth and scope as to warrant especial recognition. subcommittees handling this award in the past have had difficulties in defining archival institutions or organizations, geographical eligibility requirements, and other aspects of the award. they have also had the responsibility to obtain the large trophy from the previous recipient and have it suitably engraved and to ask one of the original donors, mrs. renze, to donate a small replica. council actions. . council defined archival institutions or organizations eligible for the award as any archival institution, records center, or manuscript repository on the continent of north america. . council decided to accept the procurement of a small replica of the trophy as a continuing charge against the society's funds, not a responsibility of the original donors. . council directed the executive director to handle the trophies upon instructions from the chairman of the dsa subcommittee—to recover the permanent trophy and have it suitably engraved in time for presentation at the annual meeting and to have a replica sent to the previous recipient for permanent retention. colonial dames scholarship background and present a dministrative practices. the colonial dames of america chapter hi, washington, d.c., makes available to the saa an annual sum of not less than $ , , which is paid by july to the saa treasurer to support a minimum d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july of two students attending the introduction to modern archives institute. the insti- tute is offered periodically by the american university in cooperation with the national archives and records service, the library of congress, and the maryland hall of records. the scholarship, established in , covers basic registration fee, i.e., tuition, and reasonable travel and per diem expenses while attending the insti- tute in washington, d.c. the colonial dames subcommittee, upon receipt of applications, judges entries on their merits and makes awards on the basis of an agreement signed between the chapter and the saa. to be eligible for a scholarship an applicant must be: working with archives and manuscripts in an institution whose collection includes a fair percentage of material pre-dating , and which is not in a position to sup- port this kind of training for its younger staff members; and employed two years or less in the field of archives and manuscripts with an intent to make the field their career. gondos memorial award background and present a dministrative practices. for a number of years this award has consisted of a $ cash prize given annually by victor and dorothy gondos in memory of victor gondos, sr. the award is given for the best manuscript essay, pre- viously unpublished, submitted on the history or administration of archives. the winning essay is published in the american archivist. in the gondos memor- ial award subcommittee noted that for the previous several years the submissions had "dwindled in number and been erratic in quality." it therefore proposed that if no manuscript, or none of sufficient merit, was submitted in a particular year, the award should be made for the best contribution to the american archivist during the previous year. this proposal was accepted by victor gondos in with one major change; if awarded for a contribution published in the previous year the award would be for $ , rather than for $ . although documented in an exchange of correspondence, this change was apparently not known to recent offi- cers of the society, and was omitted in the and announcement of the award that appeared in the american archivist. also not generally recognized is a second goal of the board. as expressed by victor gondos in a letter dated december , to mr. fritz p. witti, vice president, de- velopment and university relations, the american university, the award is also "to assist the american university in maintaining interest in academic courses on archives history and administration, which were originally instituted by dr. ernst posner. . . . " the award is thus made through a special account at the university, and is jointly administered by the university and the society. apparently there is a further requirement that a designee of the university serve on the award subcommit- tee. the december , , letter quoted above notes that "the first representative of the university on the award jury was the late helen l. chatfield, university archi- vist. by appointment of president george h. williams, her successor, the present university representative is dr. frank b. evans, adjunct professor of history." the first gondos memorial award was made in . council actions. . council has agreed to ask the donors to change the amount and conditions of the award to a $ cash prize to be given annually to the author, compiler, editor, or other contributor who, during the preceding calendar year, has made the most valu- able contribution to the profession and to the society through the american archi- vist. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists . council will request that the representative from american university be elimi- nated from the awards subcommittee, and that the award account be transferred from the american university to the society treasurer. waldo gifford leland prize background and present a dministrative practices. the waldo gifford leland prize was first awarded in . the leland prize fund, which was increased by $ , in , is to be "held as permanent endowment, the income of which shall be used for the following purpose, namely; the making of awards at intervals of one, two, or three years, for the encouragement, reward or publication of writing of superior excellence and usefulness which deal with the description, history, preservation, administration and values of public and private archives or with the education or biography of archivists, as may be determined from time to time absolutely by the trustees of said fund." this phrasing is from dr. leland's will, according to a letter of january , , from mrs. gertrude d. leland to robert m. warner. presumably this wording would supersede or modify any earlier instrument of gift at the time the award was originally established. to date this award has always been regarded as a publications award, but a careful reading of the above paragraph permits broader use of the funds. for example, they could be used to assist in the preparation or publication of a manuscript—this would be the "encouragement" of writing of "superior excellence and usefulness." in , the awards committee chairman informed members that "the regulations for the prize have been rewritten to permit separate prizes for finding aids and monographs, if the subcommittee wishes to award more than one prize in a year. documentary publications have been ruled out of competition, unless the content of the documents is significant in the history, theory or administration of archives. no copy of these "rewritten rules," was available to this ad hoc committee, nor was any indication of who rewrote the rules and with whose concurrence. in the last years, the leland prize has had recipients, one honorable mention, and one citation (not an award) for a scholarly journal. prizes have been awarded for monographs and treatises; guides, inventories, and catalogs; and documentary pub- lications. these volumes have been written both by members and nonmembers of the society, printed by offset as well as letterpress, and published in other countries as well as the united states. so far no prize has gone to a work published in micro- film or audio-visual form, though these may well become candidates. council actions. . council will determine from year to year, depending on the annual income from the prize fund, the total amount of the prize(s) to be awarded. . with reference to published works, council directs that monographs, finding aids, and documentary publications are all eligible types; separate awards may be given to each type. council has determined that the method of publication may be letterpress, offset, microform, audio-visual, and other media of publication; and that the place of publication shall be north america. philip m. hamer award background and present administrative practices. upon receipt of a gift totaling f from elizabeth hamer kegan (then mrs. hamer), the philip m. hamer award was established to recognize high quality work in documentary publication by a junior editor. an award of $ will be given each year for years. the philip m. hamer award was first given in , the final award will be given in . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist july council actions. . council decided this award should be retained as part of the society's permanent awards program. . council will announce the award as a memorial to philip m. hamer, invite con- tributions other than mrs. kegan's, and establish a fund the income of which should be used for the annual award. sister m. claude lane award background and present administrative practices. the m. claude lane award was established by the society of southwest archivists in memory of sister m. claude lane to recognize individuals who have made significant contributions in the field of religious archives. the ssa asked that it be administered by the society of ameri- can archivists, with the selection of a recipient to be made each year by the reli- gious archives committee. in february the saa council agreed to an saa suggestion that the award be handled instead by a subcommittee of the awards committee. the award is $ . , which is contributed annually by ssa. the first sister m. claude lane award was made in . annual meeting sites. after considering the merits of a number of possible annual meeting sites, the council authorized the executive director to attempt to schedule the meeting in boston and the meeting in kansas city. mr. applegate suggested that consideration be given to moving the saa annual meeting date to the third week in october. mr. cook noted that the chance of bad weather in northern sites would be increased later in october. mrs. helmuth felt that if saa met later in october it would complicate the meeting schedules of regional archival organizations. institute of certified records managers. the society has received an invitation from the icrm to become a sponsor of the institute. the institute was established in january to promote standards of professional achievement and conduct and to recognize those who met their standards by awarding the designation "certified records manager." recognizing the close relationship which should exist between records management and archives, the council approved mr. applegate's motion which authorized the executive director to investigate the possibility of saa having a seat on icrm's board of regents. mr. kantor opposed the motion. saa archives. although the greatest volume of the society's archives are now located at the state historical society of wisconsin, there are additional segments of the records in the custody of several former saa officers. the council instructed the executive director to investigate the possibility of housing the archives in chicago. mr. cook will coordinate an effort to collect additional documentation relating to the society's history during the washington annual meeting. nominations/elections procedures. the council determined that proposals for revisions in the society's nomination and election procedures received from david olson, who chaired the nominations committee, and council member j. frank cook be referred to mr. applegate's constitution and bylaws review committee. the nominations committee recommended that a certified public accoun- tant be engaged to tally the votes cast in the upcoming election. mrs. helmuth moved that the council not adopt the recommendation of the committee, and that the current procedure of the count being performed by the chairperson of the com- mittee and other society members delegated by the president be continued. the motion was seconded and passed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril saa application formembership or subscription individual membership regular contributing regular • $ enclosed • $ enclosed • $ enclosed d $ enclosed • $ enclosed student sustaining • $ enclosed • $ enclosed" • $ enclosed • $ enclosed insitutional membership subscription only • $ usa, canada, mexico • $ all others name_ institution- street- . city- statl zip_ signature of faculty member institution dues individual regular cross annual salary $ -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , contributing regular dues, as above, plus student institutional regular sustaining dues $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ . . . $ individual and institutional members of the society receive the american archivist, the bimonthly saa news- letter, and the annual meeting program. members are eligible for special discounts on professional publications, and may utilize the society's placement service. subscriptions to the american archivist without membership in the saa are available only to institutions. applications for membership or subscrip- tion should be addressed t o : society of american archivists university of illinois, chicago circle library, r o o m chicago, illinois sustaining membership includes two copies of all society publications during year of membership d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril th annual meeting of the society of american archivists september -october , vhith international congress of the international council on archives september -october , washington, d. c. statler-hilton hotel ica d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .v r l by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril reviews materials will be impressed by their apparent richness and variety. the general survey, for example, with its associated "economic notes," provides coverage of thirty-four of the fifty-four provinces then in existence and contains detailed in- formation on land use, population, crafts, industries, and physical conditions in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. the central state archive of an- cient acts contains well over one million items related to the general survey, offer- ing the potential, when combined with other materials described by the author, to reconstruct much of the historical geography of russia. the translation itself is handsomely produced, but in size and concept this publication falls short of what one might expect in a separate issue of a monograph series. as an historical geographer, professor gibson could well have enhanced the volume by providing a substantial foreword and by using editorial comments to update the original version. unfortunately this was not done, and as a result the usefulness of the volume as a reference for historians and geographers is less than might have been expected. robert g. jensen syracuse university studies on the interior of russia. by august von haxthausen. translated by eleanore l. m. schmidt. introduction by *. frederick starr. chicago and london: university of chicago press, . xlv, pp. $ . . teachers and students of russian history will welcome this abbreviated one-volume english translation of august von haxthausen's celebrated three-volume german account of his travels in russia in . the only other english translation (also drastically shortened), that of , is now difficult to obtain. moreover, the present version is accompanied by an extensive scholarly apparatus, and it is attractively presented. the book opens with professor starr's lengthy and fasci- nating study of the author, which emphasizes not only the voyage itself but also haxthausen's continued active interest in russia, and even suggests that he, by means of a meeting and a memorandum, influenced alexander ii toward inau- gurating the emancipation of the serfs. (khomiakov's name, however, was alexis, not alexander, pp. xxiv, xxxi.) to squeeze three volumes into one "the frequent repetitions that encumber the german original have been deleted," always with appropriate markings. more important, numerous chapters and parts of chapters have been eliminated. to summarize what remains, in the scholars' own words: "the principle of selection applied throughout has been to translate those sections most closely connected with haxthausen's own deepest concerns and with those of contemporary social thought in western europe and russia. accordingly, the descriptions of village life in central russia and especially the extensive accounts of iaroslavl and nizhnii novgorod provinces are translated almost in full from volume . also included from volume is the excellent discussion of the sectarian communities, a theme followed up later in the chapter on the mennonites from volume . haxthausen's thoughtful analysis of colonization and national integration from volume is translated and abridged. finally the lengthy essays from volume on moscow, the nobility, the religiosity of russians, and the peasant commune are included. these passages, along with the analysis of colonization, present con- venient summary of haxthausen's investigations and form the basis for the author's concluding prognostications in 'the mission of russia'" (p. xliv). the translation reads well. the editor's notes are on the whole useful, although slavic review they do not indicate an expert knowledge of the period and are occasionally er- roneous. (at the bottom of page granovsky is assigned a wrong subject for his lectures, pogodin a wrong view of the origin of the russian state, and peter ki- reevsky a wrong year of death.) the russian is also shaky at times, in translitera- tion and terminology. to cite a recurrent problem, although an initial russian s can properly be translated into german with an s, this should not be done in an english text. the volume contains an index of personal names and a subject index. nicholas v. riasanovsky university of california, berkeley a tour of russia, siberia and the crimea, - . by john parkinson. edited with an introduction by william collier. russia through european eyes, no. . london: frank cass, . xix, pp. £ . . this book is a condensed version of the diary of john parkinson, a clergyman and "oxford don," who as a companion to a young british nobleman made a "grand tour" of europe which led him via stockholm to russia. the first hundred pages deal with the three-quarters of a year which parkinson spent in stockholm, st. petersburg, and moscow. there is not much of interest in this account. the writer relates chiefly the conventional, deals with court stories, dinners, balls, and love affairs, and says little about life in general or, except for the hermitage and the interior of some palaces, of the sights. he met many well- known figures, and speaks of dr. pallas, quarenghi, the imperial family, catherine's favorites, and the upper crust of the nobility. he sometimes makes acid remarks— about a lady "almost too foolish to laugh at and too lousy to be approached" (p. ) —and seldom misses an occasion to disparage the late potemkin. the diary changes in character, and in interest to the historian, when parkin- son leaves moscow, which he calls "forlorn and uncomfortable" (p. ), and travels via kazan and perm to tobolsk. he begins to describe the scenery and takes an interest also in the life of peasants (with whom he stays on his journey) and in some social and political affairs. we are surprised to hear him say that he found beyond perm "the manners, the language, and the luxuries of every other place" so that he could "fancy himself" in some "great capital rather than in a village on the borders of siberia" (p. ). since very few english travelers penetrated so deeply into the russian empire and left accounts, his diary, though he lacks sensi- bility, is a useful supplement to other travel reports, such as those by the swiss surgeon jacob fries and the american john ledyard. on his return, he spent some time in sarepta, which (with its german-swiss colony) he described as a place unequaled for the "goodness of the people and for all the comforts of life" (p. ). going on to astrakhan, georgievsk, and bakchisarai, he describes scenery, people, curiosities, and native habits. though a clergyman, he never mentions attending divine service, except occasionally for orthodox, mohammedan, or buddhist worship. a brief account of his return via kiev and moscow to st. petersburg concludes the journey. parkinson shows little sympathy for the russians. quoting quarenghi, he speaks of them "from first to last as a set of rascals" (p. ). he states that they are "totally destitute of principle" (p. ), "destruction being an enjoyment and pleasure to them" (p. ), and that the foreign colonists in sarepta "look on the ech volume issue cover and back matter bare ruined choirs the dissolution of the english monastries the late david knowles an abridged and illustrated edition, prepared for press by the author himself, of volume iii of the late david knowles' monumental history the religious orders in england. over illustrations—engravings and photo- graphs of monastic buildings and treasures—heighten the author's descrip- tions of the splendours of the monastic setting and the desolation that followed so swiftly upon the suppression. £ . net the king's council in the reign of edward vi dale e. hoak this book describes the membership, business and procedure of the privy council during the royal minority of edward vi. it examines the policy- making, administrative and quasi-judicial functions of this central institution of tudor government. £ . net the secularisation of the european mind in the nineteenth century owen chadwick this book is based on lectures given by professor chadwick as the gifford lecturer for - . the author studies from many sides the absorbing question, how does the historian account for the declining hold of the church and its doctrines on men's minds and lives in later nineteenth- century europe? £ . net liberalism and tradition aspects of catholic thought in nineteenth-century france bernard chadwick a survey of french catholic thought — theological, philosophical and political — during a period of marked spiritual and intellectual revival.the thinkers and scholars include such diverse figures as maistre, lamennais, lacordaire, bautin, gratry, olle-laprune, maurice blondel and alfred loisy. £ . net cambridge university press downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core pop the theolcgist... new books from eerdmans, the church studies in dogmatics: volume by g. c. berkouwer in this fourteenth volume of the studies in dogmatics series, berk- ouwer discusses the attributes of the church as they are expressed in the nicene creed. "(berkouwer's work) approaches the magnitude of the work of barth and brunner in europe and ferre in amer- ica. it unquestionably marks the author as one of the genuinely significant leaders o/ christian thought in our day." —e. t. ramsdel! - - - cloth, pages, $ . poet and peasant a literary-cultural approach to the parables in luke by kenneth e. bailey concentrating on luke's record, the chairman of the biblical depart- ment at the near eastern school of theology, beirut, lebanon, draws on years of experience with middle eastern culture to study the most sig- nificant parables of jesus. he exposes the misunderstandings often imposed on those parables by later greek and modern western interpretations, and clarifies the meaning they had in their original cultural setting. - - - cloth, pages, $ . new international commentary on the old testament: volume ii commentary on the book of deuteronomy by p. c. craigie this second volume of the new international commentary on the old testament begins with an introductory discussion of matters of dates, author- ship, historical setting, state of the text, unity of composition, and theology of the book of deuteronomy. the com- mentary analyzes the structure of the book, provides a select bibliography, and includes the author's own transla- tion from the biblical text. - - - cloth, pages, $ . new international commentary on the new testament commentary on the epistle of james by james b. adamson this addition to the n.i.c.n.t. series replaces an earlier volume, the epistles of james and john by alex- ander ross. the commentary on james includes a paraphrasing summary of the epistle, an introductory discussion of style, jewish background, and unity of thought, and an in-depth exegetical interpretation from the commentator's own working translation of the text. - - - cloth, pages, $ . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core today rudolf bultmann's theology: a critical interpretation by robert roberts based on the thesis that the exis- tence/world dichotomy is essential to understanding and evaluating bult- mann's thought, robert roberts makes an important theological-philosophical contribution to the understanding of a significant figure in contemporary theology. - - - paper, pages, $ . christians and marxists: the mutual challenge to revolution by jose miguez-bonino in this provocative work, a latin american christian theologian con- tends that fundamental insights and socioanalytic tools of marxism are in- dispensable for revolutionary change. christians and marxists probes into the mutual concerns of and differences be- tween these world views; and it chal- lenges christians to repossess their revolutionary heritage, and marxists to re-evaluate their concept of revolution. - - - cloth, pages, $ . theology in reconciliation by thomas f. torrance • throughout its history the church has been embarrassed by division and dissention within—by its own need for reconciliation. in this collection of six essays, thomas torrance sets the agenda for a new christian theology that will reconcile the church to itself and thereby allow a more effective pre- sentation of its message to the world. - - - cloth, pages, $ . historical transcendence and the reality of god by ray s. anderson a significant, new study of the problem of the transcendence of god: how do we assert simultaneously the absolute difference of god from every- thing else and his relationship to everything else? the author's depth of vision and wide range of documenta- tion make this an important explication of a highly complex theological question. - - - cloth, pages, $ . continental pietism and early american christianity edited by f. ernest stoeffler providing a new perspective on america's religious heritage, these seven essays point out the profound in- fluence of pietism in colonial america. the chapters include discussions of lutheran, mennonite, moravian, breth- ren and methodist pietism, separatism and communitarianism. - - -x paper, pages, $ . a history of the criticism of the acts of the apostles by w. ward gasque "we are deeply indebted to pro- fessor gasque for ottering us an ob- jective and clear view ot the history of the interpretation ot this important bib- lical book."—oscar cullman "all students ot the new testa- ment will find themselves greatly in his debt."—george eldon ladd - - - cloth, pages, $ . the anatomy of a hybrid: a study of church-state relationships by leonard verduin clarifying what he regards as a basic misunderstanding of'new testa- ment christianity, verduin traces the history of church-state relationships throughout the centuries, providing unique insights into baptism, the re- formation, and freedom of religion. - - - paper, pages, $ . write for the spring theologist . . . the latest catalog of scholarly books, including details of eerdmans' examination copy policy. ,wm. b. eerdmans publishing co. jefferson ave. s e,. grand rapios. mich downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core the volume , no. articles justin taylor, s.m.: g. e. gorman: russell e. richey: m. j. lynch: maurice french: wendy davis: conference report: book reviews journal of religious history december, contents the early papacy at work: gelasius i ( - ) a laudian attempt to 'tune the pulpit': peter heylyn a n d his sermon against the feoffees for the purchase of impropriations effects of toleration on th century dissent was gladstone a tractarian? w. e. gladstone a n d the oxford movement, - the church extension crisis in south australia: the impact of depression a n d demographic changes on church organization in the late th century the celtic church australian religious history annual subscription: institutions as . ; single copy as . individuals as . ; single copy as . sydney university press, university of sydney sydney, n.s.w. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context — vrije universiteit amsterdam 	 skip to main navigation 	 skip to search 	 skip to main content 	 help & faq 	 home 	 profiles 	 research units 	 research output 	 datasets 	 activities 	 prizes 	 press / media search by expertise, name or affiliation the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context m.d.n. popma, c.h. roessingh research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review downloads (pure) 	 overview 	 fingerprint abstract purpose – the paper aims to give an account to describe the way the south-south development programme is realized between taiwan and belize. design/methodology/approach – the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. findings – the development of the newly industrialized country taiwan can be characterized by a drastic transformation from an impoverished agrarian society towards an affluent industrial economy. now, taiwan is aiming to help other developing countries to walk the same path by drawing lessons from their so-called “taiwan experience”. in order to transfer their experience, taiwan has established an overseas development organization, the international cooperation and development fund. this organization offers development assistance to countries of which taiwan receives political recognition. central and south america are the regions where most of taiwan's diplomatic ties exist. one of the recipients of taiwanese assistance in this area is belize, a small english speaking, central american country in the caribbean sea, with a multi-ethnic, densely populated, relatively poor population. research limitations/implications – future research might examine the ways in which these taiwanese farmers have integrated in belize and how their entrepreneurial activities contribute in this process. practical implications – after visiting taiwan's project sites in belize and interviewing government officials, taiwanese-belizeans, belizean farmers, and non-farmers, it was found that much of what the taiwanese brought was indeed considered beneficial, although incomplete. the links between the taiwanese development organization and the wider society, belize, were not clearly developed at the time, not least because of the problems in communicating with the taiwanese development workers(for instance due to language issues). it would be wrong to suggest, however, that taiwan's development project was only perceived as raising problems for it did have a positive impact. originality/value – although the first taiwanese project in belize was launched in it has until recently received little attention. this paper explores the social impact of this development project from the taiwanese in belize. © , emerald group publishing limited 	original language	english 	pages (from-to)	 - 	number of pages	 	journal	journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy 	volume	 	issue number	 	dois		https://doi.org/ . / 	publication status	published - access to document 	 . / 	popmaroessinghfinal published version, kb 	roesschoonfinal published version, kb 	roesbrasfinal published version, . kb 	ijbg roesfinal published version, kb 	ara roesduijnberendsefinal published version, kb 	ijird roessmitsfinal published version, kb 	ijtp berendroesfinal published version, kb fingerprint dive into the research topics of 'the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context'. together they form a unique fingerprint. 	 taiwan business & economics 	 development projects business & economics 	 development organization business & economics 	 development assistance business & economics 	 farmers business & economics 	 international cooperation business & economics 	 central america business & economics 	 international development business & economics view full fingerprint cite this 	 apa 	 author 	 bibtex 	 harvard 	 standard 	 ris 	 vancouver popma, m. d. n., & roessingh, c. h. ( ). the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context. journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / popma, m.d.n. ; roessingh, c.h. / the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context. in: journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy. ; vol. , no. . pp. - . @article{ d b bf a ba ee d ace , title = "the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context", abstract = "purpose – the paper aims to give an account to describe the way the south-south development programme is realized between taiwan and belize. design/methodology/approach – the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. findings – the development of the newly industrialized country taiwan can be characterized by a drastic transformation from an impoverished agrarian society towards an affluent industrial economy. now, taiwan is aiming to help other developing countries to walk the same path by drawing lessons from their so-called “taiwan experience”. in order to transfer their experience, taiwan has established an overseas development organization, the international cooperation and development fund. this organization offers development assistance to countries of which taiwan receives political recognition. central and south america are the regions where most of taiwan's diplomatic ties exist. one of the recipients of taiwanese assistance in this area is belize, a small english speaking, central american country in the caribbean sea, with a multi-ethnic, densely populated, relatively poor population. research limitations/implications – future research might examine the ways in which these taiwanese farmers have integrated in belize and how their entrepreneurial activities contribute in this process. practical implications – after visiting taiwan's project sites in belize and interviewing government officials, taiwanese-belizeans, belizean farmers, and non-farmers, it was found that much of what the taiwanese brought was indeed considered beneficial, although incomplete. the links between the taiwanese development organization and the wider society, belize, were not clearly developed at the time, not least because of the problems in communicating with the taiwanese development workers(for instance due to language issues). it would be wrong to suggest, however, that taiwan's development project was only perceived as raising problems for it did have a positive impact. originality/value – although the first taiwanese project in belize was launched in it has until recently received little attention. this paper explores the social impact of this development project from the taiwanese in belize. {\textcopyright} , emerald group publishing limited", author = "m.d.n. popma and c.h. roessingh", year = " ", doi = " . / ", language = "english", volume = " ", pages = " -- ", journal = "journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy", issn = " - ", publisher = "emerald group publishing ltd.", number = " ", } popma, mdn & roessingh, ch , 'the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context', journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy, vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . / the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context. / popma, m.d.n.; roessingh, c.h. in: journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy, vol. , no. , , p. - .research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review ty - jour t - the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context au - popma, m.d.n. au - roessingh, c.h. py - y - n - purpose – the paper aims to give an account to describe the way the south-south development programme is realized between taiwan and belize. design/methodology/approach – the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. findings – the development of the newly industrialized country taiwan can be characterized by a drastic transformation from an impoverished agrarian society towards an affluent industrial economy. now, taiwan is aiming to help other developing countries to walk the same path by drawing lessons from their so-called “taiwan experience”. in order to transfer their experience, taiwan has established an overseas development organization, the international cooperation and development fund. this organization offers development assistance to countries of which taiwan receives political recognition. central and south america are the regions where most of taiwan's diplomatic ties exist. one of the recipients of taiwanese assistance in this area is belize, a small english speaking, central american country in the caribbean sea, with a multi-ethnic, densely populated, relatively poor population. research limitations/implications – future research might examine the ways in which these taiwanese farmers have integrated in belize and how their entrepreneurial activities contribute in this process. practical implications – after visiting taiwan's project sites in belize and interviewing government officials, taiwanese-belizeans, belizean farmers, and non-farmers, it was found that much of what the taiwanese brought was indeed considered beneficial, although incomplete. the links between the taiwanese development organization and the wider society, belize, were not clearly developed at the time, not least because of the problems in communicating with the taiwanese development workers(for instance due to language issues). it would be wrong to suggest, however, that taiwan's development project was only perceived as raising problems for it did have a positive impact. originality/value – although the first taiwanese project in belize was launched in it has until recently received little attention. this paper explores the social impact of this development project from the taiwanese in belize. © , emerald group publishing limited ab - purpose – the paper aims to give an account to describe the way the south-south development programme is realized between taiwan and belize. design/methodology/approach – the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. findings – the development of the newly industrialized country taiwan can be characterized by a drastic transformation from an impoverished agrarian society towards an affluent industrial economy. now, taiwan is aiming to help other developing countries to walk the same path by drawing lessons from their so-called “taiwan experience”. in order to transfer their experience, taiwan has established an overseas development organization, the international cooperation and development fund. this organization offers development assistance to countries of which taiwan receives political recognition. central and south america are the regions where most of taiwan's diplomatic ties exist. one of the recipients of taiwanese assistance in this area is belize, a small english speaking, central american country in the caribbean sea, with a multi-ethnic, densely populated, relatively poor population. research limitations/implications – future research might examine the ways in which these taiwanese farmers have integrated in belize and how their entrepreneurial activities contribute in this process. practical implications – after visiting taiwan's project sites in belize and interviewing government officials, taiwanese-belizeans, belizean farmers, and non-farmers, it was found that much of what the taiwanese brought was indeed considered beneficial, although incomplete. the links between the taiwanese development organization and the wider society, belize, were not clearly developed at the time, not least because of the problems in communicating with the taiwanese development workers(for instance due to language issues). it would be wrong to suggest, however, that taiwan's development project was only perceived as raising problems for it did have a positive impact. originality/value – although the first taiwanese project in belize was launched in it has until recently received little attention. this paper explores the social impact of this development project from the taiwanese in belize. © , emerald group publishing limited u - . / do - . / m - article vl - sp - ep - jo - journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy jf - journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy sn - - is - er - popma mdn, roessingh ch. the overseas taiwanese in belize: an exploration of a south-south development project in a belizean context. journal of enterprising communities: people and places in the global economy. ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . / 	 	 	 	 	 powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure vrije universiteit amsterdam data protection policy about web accessibility woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - by laurence neufeld and monika mckillen, eds., hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen copyright © the ontario historical society, this document is protected by copyright law. use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ this article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the université de montréal, université laval, and the université du québec à montréal. its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ document generated on / / : p.m. ontario history woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - by laurence neufeld and monika mckillen, eds., hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen tom smart imagining new worlds in the new world: entertainment, agency, and power in upper canada volume , number , fall uri: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi: https://doi.org/ . / ar see table of contents publisher(s) the ontario historical society issn - (print) - (digital) explore this journal cite this review smart, t. ( ). review of [woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - by laurence neufeld and monika mckillen, eds., hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ ontario history campus, in scarborough. in both cases for- estry could have been a big fish in newer, smaller ponds (and ponds surrounded by actual forests!). kuhlberg believes that the failed scarborough move may have set in motion the termination of toronto’s un- dergraduate forestry program, concluded in . yet one hundred rings and counting ends on an optimistic note. in , the centennial year, kuhlberg had found forestry—now a faculty for gradu- ate study only—to have become a research powerhouse with a strong conservation ethic and a firm national and international reputation. in contemporary times, however, i note (as does kuhlberg ) a relapse into old denials, particularly the belief that cana- dian forests were inexhaustible. in com- parison with most developed countries, can we honestly label ourselves today as exemplary environmental stewards? as of early , forestry at the university of toronto also sits on another precipice of major restructuring. can one imagine the outcome, had queen’s or guelph been home to forestry? is lakehead university poised to be home for the leading (or only) forestry faculty in ontario in the present century? the title of the concluding chap- ter— “all that is old is new again”—rings on even beyond the end of one hundred rings and counting. i greatly enjoyed one hundred rings and counting, both as an exciting and easy read and as an important historical summary of a yet broadly undocumented and important piece of ontario’s forestry legacy. it should appeal to anyone with a concern for resource management and will have a particular pull for those with an interest in forestry or the inner work- ings of canadian universities. i hope that this book also finds a place in the courses of canada’s (remaining ) forestry programs. nathan basiliko university of toronto mississauga one of the gratifying events in the life of a curator or art historian is discovering a new voice. rarely does an artist appear fully formed with a body of work that is unique, deeply felt and resonant. all the more is the pleasure when the artist’s life and work are digested between the covers of a book that explores the art fully, in depth and with an intelli- gence that accords the artist a proper place woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - by laurence neufeld and monika mckillen, eds., hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, . vi + pages. $ . hard- cover. isbn - - - - (www.wlupress.wlu.ca) in the landscape of canadian art. hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen have done such a service in their sensitive and nuanced analysis of the art of wolde- mar neufeld, a mennonite artist whose work is deceptively simple, yet speaks to the great feelings of loss and longing clothed in the garments of what the artist saw in front of his eyes and in the back of his mind. book rev�ews neufeld the person was formed out of the traumatic convulsions of the russian revolution. his father was executed by the revolutionaries and, with his mother and stepfather, young woldemar fled to can- ada. there he grew up in the company of a large step-family and in the bosom of the mennonite com- munity in central ontario. neufeld the artist channelled the contemporary canadian landscape idioms, spawned by the group of seven and their acolytes, and displayed an acute visual mem- ory, absorbing the crafts of commercial art, graphic illustra- tion and woodblock printing. an art edu- cation in cleveland gave this precocious young man an avenue to break out of what must have been claustrophobic worlds: ca- nadian art at mid-century, and the mores and conventions of his community. neufeld travelled across the country painting, and it would seem that he was in many ways self-taught. to be sure, he was well trained, yet his personal style and idio- syncratic voice prevented him from merely aping modes, movements and contempo- rary trends. as the tiessens so ably convey, neufeld answered to his own muse, dis- playing a confidence to remain aloof from fashion; he never fully embraced one way of painting or image-making that could rightly be claimed as his alone. neufeld’s work betrays a deeply el- egaic sense, though. the over-riding theme is diaspora—a theme that the tiessens highlight but hesitate to explore in all its dimensions. there is a sense of anxious movement in neufeld’s images, a kind of furtiveness that persists in his images of al- leys and backyards, farm fields or broken limbs. neufeld the artist appears to look with fondness at the idyllic civic parks, but there are surreal elements in each image that take them beyond the saccharine to a place that is neither real nor completely imagined. this is the tension in the art that the authors suggest. neufeld’s journey as an art- ist mirrors a kind of existential wander- ing that took hold in north america as the europe of his youth collapsed. its exiles, particularly young artists like neufeld, had to subsume loss and find new metaphors of home in a distant and strange land. his was the plight of the alien, and his art traces his search for the home he lost. woldemar neufeld can rightly be placed in the company of such fellow ca- nadian artists as william kurelek, ernest lindner and others—artists whose unique voices rendered them regionalists, or curi- osities whose work would never comfort- ably fit in the canon or the rubrics of mod- ernism. the tiessens have done a great service by introducing us to this gifted, idi- osyncratic and generous man whose relent- less search for home still resonates. tom smart mcmichael canadian collection m e n n o n i t e s a n d higher e d u c a t i o n in t h e s t h e s t o r y of t w o c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e c o l l e g e s in winnipeg, m a n i t o b a by g a y l y n n v o t h b . a . university of winnipeg, a thesis s u b m i t t e d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e of m a s t e r of a r t s in t h e f a c u l t y of g r a d u a t e studies (religious studies programme) (department of classical, near eastern & religious studies) we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard t h e u n i v e r s i t y of british c o l u m b i a april © gay lynn v o t h , in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. / the university of british columbia vancouver, canada de- ( / ) a b s t r a c t the mennonites are a religious, social and ethnic group with origins in the time of the sixteenth century reformation. the group was named after a dutch anabaptist leader, menno simons, who provided the members with substantial theological leadership. throughout the last four centuries, the mennonites have migrated around the world and divided into over a hundred different sub-groups. in , canada was home to over , mennonite members who belonged to church congregations that were part of separate groups. the two largest mennonite groups in canada are the conference of mennonite brethren churches (mb) and the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc). these two groups, and the colleges they own and operate, are the focus of this thesis topic - mennonites and higher education in the s. by , the mennonite brethren bible college (mbbc) and the canadian mennonite bible college (cmbc) had become involved in the process of opening their communities to the professional and vocational opportunities available in canada while selectively closing the community to secular influences. the colleges made institutional decisions which allowed them to offer a university standard education in a parochial setting. these decisions created an active discussion within the two sponsoring mennonite constituencies. some members, within each group, were less inclined to embrace the influences of a growing urban, modern worldview because involvement in modern canadian society would require the adaptation of their traditional, rural identity. the colleges, on the other hand, encouraged changes while attempting to maintain continuity with essential community ideals. this process of change is the focus of this thesis. ii) t a b l e of c o n t e n t s abstract ii list of tables v abbreviations vi preface vii acknowledgements xii - c h a p t e r o n e introduction . introduction . the method of the study . review of the current literature related to this study . reasons for this study c h a p t e r t w o mennonite education - a n ambivalent attitude . mennonites and education: european background ... c h a p t e r t h r e e the ambivalence continues . mennonite education in manitoba: - . the early period - a need for elementary education . the early s - secondary schools & schisms ... . the bible school e r a - - . a n urban setting creates the need for urban schools c h a p t e r f o u r here come the ' s ... a new frontier c h a p t e r f i v e creating a new mennonite institution: is it possible? c h a p t e r six the mennonite brethren bible college . introduction iv . unity of the brotherhood and institutional developments . defining and defending the new mission of m b b c . the new mission is applied - language and hymnology . a sudden change in direction c h a p t e r s e v e n canadian mennonite bible college . introduction . expanding horizons influence institutional changes . learning to work together - the c m c and their college . a new mission - growing to fulfill two tasks ... . listening to new voices c h a p t e r e i g h t two ways of opening while closing . conclusion bibliography appendix a mennonite brethren distinctives appendix b educational background of m b b c faculty appendix c attendance and degrees granted at m b b c - appendix d attendance and degrees granted at c m b c - appendix e curriculum at m b b c - and - appendix f curriculum at c m b c - and - v l i s t o f t a b l e s table : bible schools in manitoba - table : numbers of mennonites in the two groups studied table : educational institutions opened in winnipeg - table : canadian mennonite brethren students in table : canadian university full-time undergraduate enrollment table : level of schooling/ mennonite and brethren in christ denominations table : moral opinion and educational levels table : religiousity and educational levels table : social and political opinion and educational attainment v i a b b r e v i a t i o n s c m b c - canadian mennonite bible college c m c - conference of mennonites in canada jms - journal of mennonite studies m b - mennonite brethren m b b c - mennonite brethren bible college m c i - mennonite collegiate institute m e i - mennonite educational institute m q r - mennonite quarterly review vii p r e f a c e the earliest anabaptists, who later became known as the mennonites, were well known for their radical attempts to be the true christian church during the sixteenth century. they were openly critical of the predominant catholic church and separated themselves from other reformers of the s by defying certain church polities. they received their name "anabaptists" (re-baptizers) because they rejected the catholic view of infant baptism and re-baptized their converts upon a voluntary confession of the faith in christ. this adult baptism was conducted in open defiance to church and state orders that all citizens were to continue baptizing their infant children. a n ideology of separation evolved from the use of this primary symbol, especially when those who were re-baptized, or refused to baptize their babies, were severely persecuted for their opposition. the radical tendencies of this new sect gave way to a number of anti-clerical and iconclastic expressions throughout switzerland, south german and the netherlands in the s and s. initially, there was no distinct anabaptist center and no definite leadership. the group sprang up as a grass-roots movement within the midst of the social, economic, political and religious unrest of the reformation. the movement developed some cohesiveness as various individuals deliberately or incidentally crossed paths and exchanged ideas. there was no monolithic anabaptist ideal till after when a dutch anabaptist, menno simons began articulating theological views that united various anabaptists into the group who would become his namesake - the mennonites. it was under menno's influence, between - , that the mennonite community more strongly defined the nature of the "ideal" christian church. the v l l l mennonite ideals at that time included having "correct" theology and a disciplined ethical lifestyle. the emphasis on ethics, in some ways, overshadowed theological thinking because the right lifestyle was thought to be evidence of correct theology. since many of the early mennonites belonged to the artisan or farming populace, theological articulations were the work of a few leaders, some of whom had been catholic priests before joining the anabaptist movement. as a former priest, menno simons spared no words of condemnation for the immoral lifestyle and corrupt theology he believed had taken hold of the catholic church. he taught his followers to be suspicious of the "deception of worldly knowledge" and to rely on the "correct" theology that came from a direct reading of the bible. exposure to the "word of the lord" was to lead individuals to a religious conversion experience that would then be demonstrated in an ethical lifestyle. true christians belonged to the kingdom of god and were encouraged to remain separated from the ways of the world around them. persecution for their beliefs drove mennonites into exile. as the following chapters will indicate, after they found new places to settle, they began to develop in- house education for pragmatic purposes. essentially, religious training was intended to instill and reinforce the two early ideals (as noted above) in all members of the community. first, the study of scripture was used to pass on the parochial views of "correct" theology. second, religious education was to ensure the maintenance and perpetuation of a disciplined lifestyle, as prescribed by mennonite communal standards. religious leaders assumed responsibility for education, however, each member of the community was expected to support and reinforce the communal worldview. to a large ix degree, mennonite education served to preserve the religious, social and cultural ideology of the mennonite people. originally, when i began considering this project in , was curious about how a religious, social and ethnic people, like the mennonites, sikhs and/or jews, were able to transmit values and ideals from one generation to another - especially when there were large cultural gaps between the two generations. the topic interested me because, as a mennonite and the mother of three daughters, i realized that parts of the mennonite faith held meaning for me but were irrelevant for my children. how would i be able to describe what made our particular faith tradition unique? was there, in fact, any difference between being "mennonite" and being "christian"? at that time, i had just completed a bachelor of religious studies (theology) degree at mennonite brethren bible college in winnipeg, manitoba, and i was taking some courses at canadian mennonite bible college (as part of a masters of divinity program offered through a consortium associated with the university of winnipeg school of theology). the program of studies at both mennonite colleges was theologically challenging to my "church-pew" faith. though i had attended a bible school in the early seventies after high school, i was not well prepared for the new "assault" to my faith. the material presented at both colleges was logical, rational, and met the standards of scholarly academia. believing that bible college training would substantiate my subjective, spiritual and lay reading of the biblical text, i was surprised to discover that i had to deconstruct many of my previous theological opinions. the process was terrifying. i objected, vehemently at times, to the new material presented to me but yet i continued. after a short time, i began to realize the importance of what i was being taught. i had been asked to think about my christian faith, within the two communities of mennonites, in new ways. some of the ethnic or evangelical ideas i had considered to be essentially significant for "true" christianity, were left behind when confronted with the reasonable arguments in favor of ecumenical understanding and tolerance. a new set of ethical standards replaced the ones i had previously embraced. increasingly, i valued ideals like dialogue, understanding, respect and social responsibility. m y colleagues supported these values and the theology from which they developed. m y children appreciated the changes because they seemed more fitting for their worldview. not all my fellow church members could understand the shift i had made until i would spend time carefully dialoguing with them. i slowly realized the important role both m b b c and c m b c had played in my worldview. when i went on to complete a bachelor of arts degree in religious studies at the university of winnipeg and a pre-masters year in religion at the university of manitoba, i was well-prepared for most of material with which i needed to interact. my religious faith had been carefully balanced with rationality and academia. i was able to enjoy relationships and hearty conversations with students of other religious faiths (or no religion at all). often when i needed to understand the mentality of my daughters' generation, i recognized the enormous benefit my post-secondary education had given me. it seemed that higher education had played a crucial part in reshaping my mennonite theology and ethics for contemporary relevance. i was curious to find out if this was generally true. hence, the topic for this thesis - "mennonites and higher education". xi early research indicated that both c m b c and m b b c had made controversial changes during the s that had created the environment i encountered at the colleges during the early s. i chose to focus on the two winnipeg mennonite institutions of higher learning and to narrow the primary study to the tumultuous decade of the sixties. the two mennonites constituencies that sponsor the colleges - the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc) and the mennonite brethren (mb)- are included as part of this thesis. i have been intimately connected with both of these church groups. during my childhood, i attended a number of c m c churches with my family. at the age of seventeen, i became a baptized member of one of the c m c congregations - the bergthaler mennonite church in altona, manitoba. at the time of my marriage to a mennonite brethren church member, i chose to become a member of the m b church. i became acutely aware of how institutional changes were made when i served on the four-member executive committee of the mennonite brethren church of manitoba in the early s. as already mentioned, i attended both of the colleges included in this study. m y personal interest in all aspects of this thesis has made the experience a rich and fulfilling one, despite the hours and hours of research, writing and re-writing. (as a bonus, almost half my personal library is now devoted to mennonite history, sociology and theology.) xii acknowledgements to make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee, one clover, and a bee, and revery, the revery alone will do, if bees are few. emily dickenson i would like to take this opportunity to thank those people in my life who were a source of encouragement while i wrote this thesis. thank you to my husband, rick, for listening, reading and sharing the struggle -"only you!" to my daughters - you were the best cheerleading team - i love you! tamara (i have written my "book", now it's your turn), krista (together we tried to produce our "great works"), and shana (next time i plan to use your new expertise), to my mother for being my first "reader" - it meant more than i can tell you! to my official readers at ubc - valued the time each of you gave this project dr. elvi whittaker - a great role model and professor - i was honored to have you participate. thank-you so much! dr. dietmar neufeld - thanks for the "family" reading - even if it might have felt like stepping into the "tunnel of yesteryear". you had the needed insight. dr. richardmenkis - what can i say! you challenged me to do the best i could do (and sometimes more). your help and direction were exactly what i needed. i'm proud to say that i completed my masters' thesis with you as my advisor. thanks for everything! - to god - for leading in "strange, unfamiliar ways" so we learn to trust you. i n t r o d u c t i o n the general failure to educate is not the result of the lack of goodwill, but rather the result of the immense complexities and difficulties involved in the educational experience - andrew m . greeley the s were a period of rapid change for the mennonites living in canada. as a community, they were quickly becoming a more modernized, urbanized and better - educated group. many mennonites became concerned that the values and ideals of the past would not survive life in the new, modern world. it became apparent, to some, that if the mennonite community wanted to maintain continuity with historical traditions, certain values and ideals would need to be adapted to fit the new environment. between the s and the s, numerous discussions within the community focused on how the mennonite identity could be reformulated to fit into the modern world. the two mennonites colleges in winnipeg, manitoba - mennonite brethren bible college (mbbc) and the canadian mennonite bible college (cmbc) - were actively involved in these discussions. research conducted for this thesis indicated that both colleges reclaimed and adapted historical mennonite ideals to validate the changes that were being made at an institutional level. as a result, the two schools became agents for both continuity and change within constituencies where some members resisted leaving their attachments to the past while others were eager to embrace the modern world. the canadian mennonite community existed as a pre-modern society until the s. typical for a pre-modern society (as described by durkheim and other as used in daniel hertzler, mennonite education: why and how? (scottdale: herald press, ), . sociologists) the mennonite community population lived in a number of small and relatively isolated rural or quasi-rural pockets of canada. there was little technological sophistication and little division of labor since the economic foundation of the community rested primarily on an agricultural industry. social relationships were personal, intimate and generally based on kinship. in this relatively homogeneous community tied together, by ethnic, social and religious ties, a small elite group usually held a traditionally sanctioned authority. social solidarity was based on a similarity of roles and worldviews. all spheres of human life were bound by deeply rooted traditional modes of thought and behavior that were essentially religious in character. at mid- twentieth century, however, this pre-modern worldview of many mennonites was being replaced with a modern perspective. some sociologists describe a modern society as having a number of typological characteristics. these include: ) a population that is concentrated in centralized urban areas, ) a higher degree of vocational specialization and segmentation, ) social relationships that are largely impersonal and organized primarily in a bureaucracy, ) political power is based (at least ideologically) in the populace, ) a socio-cultural pluralism where various social and cultural worlds live together with various degrees of contract with each other, ) a worldview that is typically rational and secular, not bound by traditional sanctions but critical and open to innovation and experimentation, philip sampson et all, eds., faith and modernity (oxford: regnum, ), - . ) and a solidarity that is maintained by interdependence between diverse groups and institutions. by the s, many of these characteristics of the modern world were having a direct influence on mennonites living in the city of winnipeg. the implications were openly discussed at both m b b c and c m b c as the communities they represented struggled to adjust to a new worldview. the colleges, as urban mennonite institutions were, in some ways, best equipped to deal with the transition. both m b b c and c m b c were founded in winnipeg during the forties when the number of mennonites living in the city was just beginning to grow. the development of the schools, therefore, mirrored the increased mennonite exposure to modern society. constituency members who continued to live in primarily rural settings were less exposed to the forces of modernity and so it was difficult for them to recognize a need for the discussions, or for the changes being proposed, at the colleges. tensions escalated as the two groups, with very different worldviews, met to make institutional decisions. the colleges were forced to reconcile past traditions with modern inclinations in order to maintain the support of both groups. their continued survival indicates that, to some degree, they were able to do so. t h e m e t h o d of this s t u d y this study is a social historical analysis of mennonite post-secondary education in winnipeg, manitoba during the s. information related to m b b c and c m b c provided the basis for this study. available sources included numerous historical accounts, autobiographies and biographical works, records of the mennonite brethren conference of canada and the conference of mennonites in canada, mennonite sampson, . academic journals and church publications, scholarly works related to mennonite studies, as well as college papers and records. personal interview and questionnaire material was also gathered specifically for this study by the author. the study is divided into eight chapters covering: a brief historical overview of the mennonite attitude toward education, the development of mennonite education in manitoba prior to the sixties, mennonites and higher education in the context of their modern canadian environment, and a detailed look at both m b b c , and c m b c during the s. social historians look at the ordinary events in the life of an educational institution with the intent to make critical assessments. these studies are often directed by anthropological questions such as "who are the students?" and "what are they doing?" for example, current studies have dealt with the experience of women in the university or the nature of student life at a particular period of time. social historians also consider social dynamics, such as the influence of professionalization on educational institutions or the effect of the world wars on educational endeavors. recent studies have looked at the role of social class and secularization on canadian colleges. in mennonite educational studies, t.d. regehr's for everything a season: a history of the alexanderkron zentralschule. as a social history, describes the development of the mennonite school system in a russian village within the context of the tumultuous social and political climate of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. a social historical perspective is just one of a number of general categories for historical studies of higher education. an intellectual history of higher education studies contributions to paul axelrod and john g. reid, eds. youth, university and canadian society: essays in the social history of higher education (kingston, montreal, london: mcgill-queen's university press, ). the effect of intellectual currents across disciplines within the educational institutions. the effect of darwinism, for example, as it implicated biological, psychological, theological, geological studies would be a case in point. intellectual histories can be descriptive and/or analytical, depending on the author's direction. currently, very little work related to mennonite education would qualify as an intellectual history. for example, few studies have qualitatively assessed the effect of popular educational philosophies on mennonite educational techniques or methodologies and little has been written about how mennonite schools maintain a preventative stance against the contemporary ideologies of individualization and secularization. the intellectual discussion of academic matters is not the explicit purpose of the third approach - single institutional history. the history of a single institution is often written for its public relation value. these studies are frequently written from the perspective of an "in-house" author who organizes information around a key person or a central idea. common themes include the struggle, endurance, survival and accomplishment of the institution. occasionally, external sponsors will publish studies promoting the benefit of their links to an educational institution. at least two mennonite institutional histories published in follow this model. both mennonite idealism and higher education: the story of the fresno pacific college idea, edited by paul toews, and lead us on: a history of rockway mennonite collegiate - , written by sam steiner, discuss the value of mennonite schools in light of the common themes of struggle, survival and accomplishment. john w. friesen, "studies in mennonite education: the state of the art", jms vol. ( ), . many of the mennonite educational studies of the last thirty years have leaned in the direction of sociology rather than social history. a number of these studies have been grounded in the structural-functional sociological theory where the focus has been to assess the level of assimilation of mennonite young people. two recent studies published in the journal of mennonite studies reveal this interest. both "growing roots and wings: emergence of mennonite teens", a study conducted by leo driedger and abe bergen, as well as sharin and eduard schludermann's "values of winnipeg adolosecents in mennonite and catholic schools" are social science studies which rely heavily on statistical methods of data analysis. a n earlier social sciences project, continuity and change among the mennonite brethren ( )̂ also relied heavily on statistical data for its analysis. for this study in religious sociology, peter hamm examined the canadian mennonite brethren "to gain a better understanding of the processes of growth and decline, of continuity and change, and of the ongoing tension resulting from the religious movement's confrontation with society." he relied heavily on statistical data gathered for the church member profile, a survey of five mennonite and brethren in christ denominations conducted in by j. howard kauffman and leland d. harder to draw his conclusions. though the data used for hamm's study was collected during the earlier seventies, it is particularly useful as a reference point for this thesis. there was an increased interest in the discipline of sociology between the s and the s so many of the studies conducted among mennonites were of that nature. for examples, see the work of leo driedger, leland harder, howard, kaufmann, calvin redekop, et.al. peter m . hamm, continuity and change among canadian mennonite brethren (waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, ), xv-xvi. their own findings were summarized in howard kauffman and leland harder, anabaptists four centuries later: a profile of five mennonite and brethren in christ denominations (scottdale: herald press, ). the current thesis used the statistics included in hamm's study to provide some of the quanitative data to support the qualitative evidence gathered by the method of this study. hamm discovered that both continuity and change were part of the mennonite response to canadian society and his analysis validates this current study. as a social historical study, this thesis was less reliant on statistical data, however, than it was on underlying questions. the historical evidence gathered was examined in light of questions like "how do the ideas and aspirations of the mennonites in manitoba change with increased cultural openness?" and "how are ideas related to education exchanged, strengthened, refuted and implemented within the mennonite community?" the study also recognized that institutional decisions made at c m b c and m b b c needed to be viewed within the context of the broader canadian society. it is the author's perspective that mennonites, and the mennonite colleges, were deeply influenced by the modern society surrounding them. the mennonite community was able, however, to escape wholesale accommodation or assimilation into the broader culture because intentional attempts were made to adapt traditional ideals and values for meaning in the modern world. the two mennonite colleges in winnipeg played a crucial role in helping their constituencies adjust to a new environment while retaining a mennonite identity. r e v i e w of t h e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o this s t u d y recent historians of the mennonite community have criticized the work of early mennonite historians because they lacked a proper understanding of the broader context in which mennonite life took place. in his article "studies in mennonite education: the state of the art", john friesen stated that many of the studies in the past perpetuated parochial biases or neglected to examine the larger context in which mennonite education was taking place. there was more work to be done. james urry agreed and added that there was a need to "reassert a sense of balance in mennonite history". the aim of his book, none but saints, was to emphasize that "the transformation of mennonite life involved external as well as internal factors and was concerned with issues greater than matters of faith or the state of individual mennonite souls." this trend has changed since . studies conducted since that time have related aspects of mennonite post- secondary education to cultural influence. in , the journal of mennonite studies published a brief paper by ross t. bender - "private mennonite education in ontario after world war ii". bender's quick analysis of the development of educational institutions in ontario revealed that while the pioneer days focused on elementary schools, the - 's were the bible school era and the later years saw the development of mennonite bible colleges in canada. decade by decade, the need for successively higher academic training, in canada generally, resulted in higher levels of education being offered by mennonite schools. bender stated, this was not without vigorous debate, however, nor was it without significant sacrifice. some schools have folded or merged as circumstances changed. new ones have been brought into being. in each generation there were those who had a vision and who were able to inspire others. f r i e s e n , . james u r r y , n o n e b u t saints: t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e l i f e i n r u s s i a - (canada: h y p e r i o n press, ), . r o s s t . b e n d e r , " p r i v a t e m e n n o n i t e e d u c a t i o n i n o n t a r i o after w o r l d w a r ii", j m s v o l . ( ), - . research gathered for this present study discovered that the educational development in manitoba followed the pattern bender noted in the ontario mennonite community. the second chapter of this thesis draws attention to the same progression of educational levels, as well as the debate it engendered. other mennonite scholars have also drawn attention to both the tension and the benefits created by increased educational levels among the mennonites. john redekop, in his article "the influence of rising educational levels", argued that while "the influence of higher education on conservative evangelical or anabaptist (mennonite) groups has been a controversial topic for generations if not centuries" there is evidence to suggest that the mennonites who attained advanced levels of education, and remained within the mennonite church, tended to strengthen the mennonite community as a whole. l z he suggests that more highly educated mennonites were able to work for the good of the community even though the process often created tensions and problems. as a result, redekop argues that mennonite brethren should not view higher education mainly as a threat to the faithful church but as a means to achieve a more balanced and more thorough development. similarly, bruno dyck argues for the benefits of higher education within the mennonite community in his brief organization history of c m b c . he writes that since its inception c m b c has had a substantial direct and indirect influence on its constituency. in addition to educating and shaping the students who have attended the college, c m b c has served to unite, to provide vision for, and to develop j o h n r e d e k o p , " t h e influence o f r i s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s , d i r e c t i o n ( ), . r e d e k o p , . leaders for its parent organization, the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc). dyck goes on to question why, considering the breadth of c m b c ' s impact, so little has been written about its history. the lack of qualitative and historical research related to mennonite post- secondary institutions is also noted by leo driedger in the summary of his sociological study mennonite college and seminary enrollments. driedger notes that research related to policies and curricula, as well as the future goals and aims of individual institutions, is especially lacking. currently most research studies of mennonite education have been limited to secondary students or have only indirectly been interested in the work of the colleges. abe dueck, for example, used his quick overview of m b b c and c m b c to argue that the canadian mennonite brethren (sponsors of m b b c ) were more interested in evangelical anabaptism than the canadian conference of mennonites (supporters of c m b c ) . dueck's paper "canadian mennonites and the anabaptist vision" includes information related to curricula at the two colleges to prove his thesis. in part, validation for his premise lies in the fact that a specific course on anabaptist theology was never offered at c m b c "whereas at m b b c (this) course was consistently offered beginning in the late s". dueck began this argument in a paper where he examined "the changing role of biblical/theological education" in the m b community. dueck argued that bruno dyck, "half a century of canadian mennonite bible college: a brief organizational history", jms vol. ( ), . even the writing of dyck's paper is directly related to the fifty year anniversary celebration of c m b c and not an independent piece of analysis. leo driedger, "monastry or marketplace? changing mennonite college/seminary enrollments", jms vol. ( ), . abe dueck, "canadian mennonites and the anabaptist vision", jms vol. ( ), . m b b c was able to gain academic respectability during the past four decades because it brought together two of major modern theological influences - the new anabaptism and the new evangelicalism. these influences stood in considerable tension with some of the past and current theological thought within the m b community. the tensions, dueck argues, are best understood by examining m b theological development in light of the distinctive historical and cultural forces that were at work. the unique history and culture of the m b community has created certain attitudes toward education and theology that make it difficult to resolve this theological struggle easily. this is true for both of the mennonite groups included in this study. r e a s o n s f o r this s t u d y : theological tensions were evident at both m b b c and c m b c during the sixties but they were only part of a number of problems. one of the major areas of debate involved the changes to the liberal arts curriculum at the colleges. this thesis includes this debate as part of its study. this study is significant since little research has been conducted on the context for changes to the liberal arts or general education curricula in bible colleges. in , norman rempel conducted a study of general education in accredited bible colleges in the u s a and noted: relatively little research has been conducted on bible college education, despite the fact that nearly , students attend such institutions each year. the curriculum of the bible college is divided into three major components: biblical/theological, professional and general education. until this present study, only one researcher, timothy warner ( ), abe dueck, "the changing role in biblical/theological education" in the bible and the church:essavs in honor of david ewert aj dueck, et al. eds. (winnipeg: kindred press, ), - . examined this part of the curriculum in depth. rempel's findings indicate that while bible college educators affirm and promote the importance of general education (the liberal arts disciplines) in the overall curriculum, there are ongoing difficulties: ) there is within the bible college movement a lingering tendency toward anti-intellectualism, a suspicion of what is often considered "secular" learning. ) despite its promise, in many general education programs there is a lack of quality integration of "faith and learning". ) the need for faculty in general education to have expertise both in theology and one or more disciplines makes the securing of quality general education faculty especially challenging. ) the number of bible college students taking their general education elsewhere makes quality worldview development particularly difficult. these four findings, drawn from rempel's study of the bible colleges in the u s a , are related to this study of the canadian mennonite bible colleges in winnipeg, manitoba. this thesis demonstrates that, during the sixties, some mennonites in canada were deeply concerned about the effect of too much "secular" education. other mennonites were applauding the benefits of a liberal arts education because it was the way to enter the growing professional world. some heartily endorsed the idea of providing university level courses within the "safety" of a religious institution. since the mennonite colleges in winnipeg were small, however, they could not supply adequate "in-house" faculty for all the general arts and science requirements necessary to earn a norman rempel, "general education in accredited bible colleges (usa): recent finding", direction vol. ( ), . bachelor of arts degree. alternatives needed to be considered so that students could transfer their liberal arts courses to other institutions for academic credit. alliances were forged with the universities for this purpose but this required the colleges to align their programs and curriculum with those of the university. subsequently, the education offered by the mennonite colleges included two very different perspectives - the worldview of a traditionalized religious community and the modern mentality of the university. this duality raised a number of concerns for the winnipeg institutions. did the blended "mennonite" and "university" education lead to a full integration of "faith and learning"? was it possible to mix "faith" and "learning" in the modern context? were the colleges able to help the christian student develop a richer christian worldview, or did the influence of the university weaken the mennonite's religious faith? these questions were legitimate. the university was a primary carrier for the modern worldview that emphasized a rational, secular and critical way of thinking. pedagogically, a liberal education was to supply the student with enough background information that they could understand "why" things worked the way they did. this knowledge was then to serve as the foundation for innovation and experimentation - specifically the ability to create something new from what already existed. inevitably, this way of thinking challenged the presuppositions of past knowledge. "old" or "traditional" ideas were increasingly exposed to the process of critical thought, and were sometimes found wanting. religious concepts were particularly vulnerable when they were analyzed according to the rational, secular standard prevalent in the modern world. m b b c and c m b c , as religious institutions, faced particular challenges in light of this modern criterion. now they were responsible to assess critically the traditional ideas rempel, . supported by their members. constituency concerns continually raised the question of each college's purpose. some questioned whether it was necessary to expand the liberal arts programs at the colleges if it meant opening the community to critique; others thought it was essential. some thought that the mennonite community would be better served by schools that offered primarily biblical, theological and/or church-related courses while others argued that exposure to secular thought was essential for a fully developed christian worldview. in an attempt to resolve these differences, mennonites began to formulate a mennonite philosophy of education for the first time. the new mennonite philosophy of education was concerned with the comprehensive issues that addressed the very existence of education: the question of purposes and the question of process. in answer to the question, what are the purposes of education?, some mennonites discovered that the purposes of mennonite education could only be defined in the context of the purposes of a people. educational goals needed to emphasize identity and loyalty, development of skills needed for an adequate supply of workers, together with additional emphases which arose from the community's concept of the good life. as a religious group, it was stressed that mennonites should educate to make their history and identity clear, in part to counteract the influence of the larger society, but largely to train themselves to serve god and others. the purposes of education needed to set alongside the "how to" educate. the question of educational process needed to addressed as well. it was determined that education was not concerned simply with transmitting a tradition. the background d a n i e l h e r t z l e r , m e n n o n i t e e d u c a t i o n : w h y a n d h o w ? a p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n f o r the m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h (scottdale: h e r a l d press, ), - . t h e purposes and processes described i n this particular p h i l o s o p h y o f education are easily detected i n many o f the m b a n d c m c material d u r i n g the sixties, e s p e c i a l l y at the end o f the decade. information and perspective offered to a young person within the context of a people was to be an invitation for the student to join in the continual process of restating, redefining and reformulating the, community's uniqueness. changing circumstances required evaluation and innovation. the pattern of openness would allow for adjustment to changes as a result of new insights offered by both instructors and students. a quality mennonite education would also offer training in the skills needed to function in the society of which the learner was a part, and teach the values (conception... of the desirable) of their community. during the s, the goals of both m b b c and c m b c were defined by this kind of philosophy of education. though it took almost a full decade to articulate these purposes and processes definitively, the effect was already evident. constituency members studied graduates of the colleges to determine how valuable the schools were for the mennonite community. the standards by which the colleges wanted to be measured were the standards set by a new philosophy of education: the goal of mennonite education is a person who will be informed about his or her heritage and articulate his or her faith. students will have a sense of identity and vocation as a christian and will see their occupation as a way in which to serve christ. they will see themselves as people of value and so will respect themselves and others. students will possess emotional independence, the capacity for critical judgement, and the willingness to be unpopular. they will be concerned about spiritual, social and economic opportunity for the poor and the oppressed and will themselves not become a slave of affluence... but the christian mennonite h e r t z l e r , - . is not only an individual; he or she is also a person in community. the ultimate goal of church education is christian maturity and this is more properly designated as group than as individual maturity. the following chapters will allow the reader to see if, and how, these goals were met within the history of mennonite education and, in particular, at the mennonite colleges winnipeg in the s. hertzler, - . c h a p t e r t w o mennonite education: an ambivalent attitude i. m e n n o n i t e s a n d e d u c a t i o n : e u r o p e a n b a c k g r o u n d historically, mennonites have been ambivalent about the value and purpose of education. on the one hand, mennonites have valued and encouraged literacy as a means of fulfilling a community ideal referred to as "the priesthood of all believers". this sixteenth century distinctive, while not unique to the mennonites, gave all church members the personal responsibility of reading the bible. a community hermeneutical model was emphasized rather than the theological interpretations of a clerical elite and it was therefore essential for most of the members to be literate. learning to read and write would enable the mennonite community member to have direct access to the biblical word of god. as a result, mennonites recognized the need to offer their children a basic elementary education. supplementary religious training became part of the educational curriculum in the form of catechismal memorization and this was to give the young person a basic understanding of the mennonite faith and prepare him or her for the voluntary decision of adult baptism. the overall purpose of mennonite education was practical, eventually enabling the young person to participate in the religious community. abstract theological developments or philosophical analysis were usually not part of a traditional mennonite education because it was believed that god, through the holy spirit, would guide the mennonite community to "right thinking" directly - not through theological or philosophical reflections which, according to mennonite thought, were associated with "worldly learning". this literal biblicism encouraged literacy at an elementary level but delayed the development of institutions of "higher learning" till the late nineteenth century. the emphasis on the practical function of education and the hesitation to encourage critical thought and abstract reasoning has its roots in the earliest movements of the anabaptists (as the first mennonites were called) in europe during the sixteenth century. while a number of the early anabaptist leaders were fairly well-educated, a general mistrust of "worldly learning" developed early in the mennonite self-awareness. this understanding was encouraged by menno simons, the early mennonite leader from whom the mennonites derived their name. menno simons had been educated within the catholic religious system and assumed the duties of a catholic priest in in the frisian village of pingjum. later he claimed he had not received an extensive theological training from the catholic church and was taught little latin or greek and no scripture. simons did, however, have exposure to the writings of luther which were circulating throughout dutch monasteries at the time and, according to mennonite historian, c. henry smith, menno simons became convinced the catholic church was wrong in its understanding of two important religious doctrines - infant baptism and transubstantiation. though menno simons began to confront these beliefs of his church opponents, he directed his most forceful arguments at the ethical corruption and spiritual unfruitfiilness of the church clergy and t h e anabaptists received this name because o f their emphasis o n r e - b a p t i z i n g adults u p o n the confession o f their f a i t h i n jesus christ. a number o f influential leaders i n the early a n a b a p t i s t movement, such as b a l t h a s e r h u b m a i e r a n d m e n n o s i m o n s spent a great deal o f effort debating the role and v a l u e o f infant b a p t i s m vs. adult baptism, i n o p p o s i t i o n to the c a t h o l i c c h u r c h . c a l v i n r e d e k o p , m e n n o n i t e society ( b a l t i m o r e a n d l o n d o n : johns h o p k i n s u n i v e r s i t y press, ), . c. h e n r y s m i t h , smith's story o f the m e n n o n i t e s ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : f a i t h a n d l i f e press, ), . s m i t h , . laity. the mennonites who followed simon's ideal of the christian church as the "regenerated" without "spot or wrinkle", "pure and undefiled" in belief and in moral conduct, also criticized the laxity and lack of ethical correction within the catholic church. the catholic church condemned and punished the mennonites for their critical views and soon anabaptist self-awareness associated the role of educated religious and secular authorities with their persecution. as the mennonite sociologist calvin redekop pointed out, it was the "learned professors and doctors who provided the rational justification of the rejection, prosecution, and oppression of the anabaptists". redekop argues that the teachings of the mennonite leader, menno simons, encouraged a negative understanding of their "educated" opposition. for example, simons wrote: i repeat, do not hear, do not follow, and do not believe the many learned ones who let themselves be called doctors, lords, and masters, for they mind but flesh and blood ... therefore do not hear those who are after fat salaries and a lazy life. they deceive you. ... they preach to you empty inventions out of their own imagination and not out of the mouth of the lord. this statement, along with others from some early anabaptists, helped to create a suspicion of "worldly learning and sophistication" and a basic mistrust emerged toward learning which took place outside of the private domain of the mennonite church and home. smith, . redekop, . menno simons, the complete writings of menno simons (scottdale: herald press, ), . redekop, . while education that took place outside of the mennonite community was viewed with skepticism, education within mennonites groups was not disparaged. european beginnings reveal, at the least, a mild enthusiasm for education among anabaptists. calvin redekop argues that mennonites would tend to establish their own schools as soon as they were able to gain some control over their own lives and activities. the mennonites in switzerland, france, germany and austria did not acquire the necessary autonomy to develop their own educational institutions and so their children were presumably trained informally in the home until the early nineteenth century when a keener interest in the educational needs of young people, in general, developed. the elementary village schools in these regions were not, however, of a high order and, initially, there was no religious education for mennonite children outside of the home. occasionally, on estates where the population was largely mennonite, or in communities where a sufficient number of mennonite children were present, an educated pastor would become the village teacher or start a private school for the children of his church. educational pursuits in mennonite schools were matched to the mennonite ideal of the christian church. generally, attention was directed to the study of scripture and the maintenance and perpetuation of a disciplined life. the earliest example are the hutterites - an early anabaptist group - who in the 's were already conducting their own schools with a simple philosophy of education. in these closed communities, according to john hoestetler, "the school-master, along with the entire brotherhood, was j o h n f r i e s e n , " s t u d i e s i n m e n n o n i t e e d u c a t i o n : t h e state o f the a r t " , j m s ( u n i v e r s i t y o f w i n n i p e g , ), . s m i t h , . students o f m e n n o n i t e history are w e l l aware that often general statements about the m e n n o n i t e s / a n a b a p t i s t s do not apply to a l l groups o f m e n n o n i t e s . d u r i n g the twentieth century numerous arguments i n f a v o r o f a polygenesis theory o f a n a b a p t i s t roots have been articulated, thereby r a i s i n g a consciousness o f diversity a m o n g m e n n o n i t e groups. to raise the children in the honor and fear of god, and to subdue any evil inclination from the time of their youth." hoestetler goes on to note that the hutterites valued education "not for self-improvement but as a means of 'planting' in children 'the knowledge and fear of god' " and for shaping the individual will to conform with group expectations as early as the kindergarten years. there is some debate concerning how typical the hutterite educational endeavors are for other mennonite groups. calvin redekop argues that while the educational thrust of other mennonite groups may vary somewhat, to a large extent, the hutterite philosophy and practice of education can be generalized to the other mennonite groups. john w. friesen, on the other hand, in his discussion of "the state of the art of mennonite education", argues that the hutterites are not an adequate comparison for all other mennonite groups. friesen argues that the hutterites are usually satisfied with minimal literacy and do not necessarily connect schooling with the attainment of biblical awareness or theological arguments. he adds that the hutterites, as a conservative anabaptist group, "have conceptualized education as a means of assuring cultural preservation among the young", and then goes on to argue that this may not be the case for every mennonite group. he adds that "only the knowledgeable student of mennonite life will be aware of the many acute differences among mennonite orientations", and the impact of these "divergences" on mennonite education emphases within different groups. the connection between the desire for mennonite autonomy and the r e d e k o p , . j o h n a . hostetler, hutterite society ( b a l t i m o r e : johns h o p k i n s u n i v e r s i t y press, ), . r e d e k o p , . f r i e s e n , . establishment of mennonite schools became evident earlier in mennonite history. the dutch mennonites who migrated to west prussia requested, and were granted, a charter of privilege (privilegium) numerous times by the reigning monarchs between 's and 's, guaranteeing a degree of religious toleration and independence. at that time it was the conviction of mennonite parents that at least an elementary education should be provided for their children so private schools were established very soon after their arrival, some as early as the 's. the education offered in these schools as consisting of instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic and religion with a great deal of emphasis on memorization, drill and penmanship. the current language of the mennonite community would be used for instruction, or taught as a second language, in hopes of perpetuating community identity. language played a significant role in maintaining mennonite identity. for example, while in prussia where german was the common language, the dutch mennonite immigrants continued to speak dutch, till the middle of the eighteenth century. the initial use of the dutch language served as a community distinctive in prussia and then, when some of the mennonites moved from prussia to russia later in the eighteenth century, they used the german language to distinguish them from the russian speaking populace. the move to russia took place after when fredrick the great ( - ) of prussia declared he would grant the mennonites a special charter of autonomy only on the condition that they paid an annual sum of money in support of a military academy. friesen, . adolf ens, subjects or citizens? the mennonite experience in canada, - (university of ottawa press, ), . redekop, . friesen, . the dutch immigrants to prussia spoke dutch till the middle of the eighteenth century when high german became the language of the mennonites there. since the mennonites, as pacifists, were resistant to this association to military service almost half of the mennonite population of the prussian delta region migrated to new russia during the fifty years of fredrich's reign. in new russia, czarina catherine ii allowed the mennonites to have the autonomy they sought. she granted them a charter of privilege in that promised "complete freedom of religious practice according to mennonite church order and usage" as well as "exemption from all military service for all time for the mennonite immigrants and their descendants". the autonomy granted the mennonite colonists included control over their schools. since public school attendance was not compulsory in russia, nor anywhere else in europe at that time, not all villages had schools. the mennonites, however, placed an elementary school in every village from the time they arrived, and developed an extensive educational system of their own design. at first, the teachers were not well- educated or well-paid. they were usually farmers, craftsmen or herdsmen who, for the most part, operated the schools out of their homes because they needed the extra income. typically the teacher was left completely in charge though the leaders of the community were responsible for supervision of the schools. the first educational reforms were introduced in through an organization called the society for christian education that also directed the construction of the first secondary school. by , johann cornies, a mennonite individual associated with the society for christian education, had established an agricultural commission which was granted considerable control over the school system by the russian government. the developments instituted by cornies included the creation of school districts, compulsory ens, - . smith, . attendance, licensing of teachers, a planned curriculum and teacher conferences. the response to these educational reforms was not unanimously positive. the molotschna mennonites were generally more responsive to educational changes than the chortitza mennonites. the molotschna and chortitza colonies developed quite different personalities early in their history and the distinctions governed the community response to educational progress. initially, the two colonies were established when approximately , mennonites arrived at chortitza in and at molotschna in . many of the first to leave prussia for russia were the poorer, the less able and less educated settlers and they began the chortitza colony. when they arrived in the chortitza river region, the settlers were greeted by the seemingly poor land and dilapidated, vacated villages. it took years of hard, pioneering work to bring the land into productivity and the hardships and poor spiritual leadership of the early years permitted a rather low cultural level to become dominant. as a result, not much effort was expended on education during this time. the type of educational system in chortitza was very primitive at first. attendance was sporadic because the children were needed at home, the teacher had little formal training and there were no textbooks. the bible and mennonite catechism formed the basis for the reading program and, since in most villages the church building was used as the school, there were no special educational furnishings or teaching aids. it was impossible for the students to make rapid progress under these conditions and yet, strong ties to tradition meant that many of these primitive educational patterns, forged during the "discouraged pioneer years" were still evident decades later when they became the ideal f r i e s e n , . h j gerbrandt, a d v e n t u r e i n f a i t h , ( a l t o n a , m a n i t o b a : d . w . friesen & sons l t d . , ) , . school image for many of their (chortitza) descendants of the latter half of the twentieth century. molotschna, on the other hand, attracted later settlers who had remained in prussia till they too began to find the prussian government increasingly oppressive. the second migration movement, which began to develop in , included "wealthy land and industry owners, educators and ministers". conditions for the families who settled in the molotschna river area were quite different than they had been for the earliest settlers in chortitza, miles to the southeast. gerbrandt writes that with the advantages of "material wealth, the educational and spiritual leadership and the experience of the chortitza colony", the molotschna colony made rapid progress economically. daughter colonies were established as new crown lands became available to accommodate the numerical growth within these russian mennonite colonies. the privileges granted to the mennonites in russia, including large grants of land, meant that mennonites remained geographically separated from the russian people. this isolation created an environment with little intellectual stimulus in many russian mennonite villages and gerhard lohrenz, mennonite leader and a russian immigrant to canada in the 's, recalls: though the german language was used in all church services, it was understood rather poorly; the low german, piatt deutsch, constituted the primary medium of communication. there were few books. few gerbrandt, . gerbrandt, . t h e temporary stay o f the m o l o t s c h n a v i s i t o r s at c h o r t i t z a and the e m p l o y m e n t they p r o v i d e d w h e n they b u i l t their o w n v i l l a g e s helped the economy o f c h o r t i t z a colony. leaders of intellectual and spiritual stature had accompanied them to their new home. their ministers were elected from the laity without formal training. since no remuneration was given for their services they struggled as others, to wrest a living from the hostile soil. under these conditions, a slow stagnation crept into the intellectual and spiritual life of the group. many others have described the spiritual climate during the mid- 's as low, with little moral or ethical concern. this created an ideal setting for the message of klaus reimer, a travelling evangelist, who first visited chortitza and then molotschna. reimer's message of repentance and total separation from all cultural and educational influences appealed to those who later became his converts and subsequently separated into the kleine gemeinde (the "small church"). edward wuest, a pietistic lutheran minister who began visiting the mennonite villages, was also able to draw attention with his message of "free grace and holy living". those who became converts began meeting in small groups to study the bible. these meetings began to include extreme emotional expressions of spiritual freedom that were not considered suitable in their mennonite communities. this group organized itself as the mennonite brethren church on january , despite persecution by the larger mennonite church. as these new mennonite church groups were forming, another kind of mennonite union was forged in russia. the mennonites who possessed a secondary education, though they tended to come from a number of distinct groups, were becoming united gerbrandt, . gerbrandt, . f o r the reasons w h y the m e n n o n i t e brethren felt they needed to separate f r o m the larger m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h ( w h i c h i n c l u d e d accusations against the church that might have l e d to some o f the persecution the m e n n o n i t e brethren experienced) see a p p e n d i x a . through their approval of higher education. some of the supporters of secondary education were the prosperous, progressively minded settlers - a few of whom were ministers, successful farmers and estate owners. the largest number of secondary students, however, were the children of entrepreneurs, merchants and artisans or teachers. orphans or children from poor families who were especially academically inclined were selected and sponsored for further education by the educational supporters. generally, the mennonites who valued the secondary schools reflected a worldview quite different from the average mennonite colonist. they believed that an education was necessary for their children so that they could pursue successful careers that lay outside of farming. secondary education provided mennonite children of both rich and poor back- grounds with an opportunity to escape the social confines of colony life. teaching was the first occupation other than farmer to be widely accepted in the russian mennonite colonies in the nineteenth century. the picture depicted above by gerhard lohrenz may have been the experience within many mennonite communities but not necessarily all. james urry, an anthropologist who has extensively studied the mennonites, argues that "images of dark, cluttered rooms ruled by despotic teachers, where cowed and dulled children were inculcated with unimaginative information are probably based on folklore". urry argues that the quality of education likely varied depending on the ability of the teacher and the community attitude toward education. generally, in the earliest mennonite village schools, teaching was not a distinct profession but rather a part-time occupation with a very low social standing. frequently, james u r r y , n o n e b u t saints: t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e l i f e i n r u s s i a - ( w i n n i p e g : h y p e r i o n press l t d . , ), . the task of teaching was assigned to someone who needed to supplement a poor income and the teacher's ability barely exceeded those of his oldest student. eventually, however, after the s, some qualified and capable teachers were able to raise the standard of education in their colonies and teachers became models of achievement and progress for the young. in these instances, urry argues: a degree of solidarity was established among teachers, fostered by formal and informal meetings and a sense of being intellectually superior to most colonists. they often joined others to form the basis of what was much later to become an emergent intelligentsia in the colonies. in both chortitza and molotschna, there were a number of outstanding teachers as well as groups with positive attitudes toward education. in molotschna, mennonite groups interested in intellectual development had met since the 's. they were stimulated by the new immigrants from prussia during the nineteenth century. these prussian mennonites brought with them many of the ideas of leading educational theorists, such as johann pestalozzi and friedrich froebel, who were influencing the prussian educational system at that time. some of the immigrants had been teachers in the prussian schools and went on to greatly influence the structure and content of mennonite schooling in russia. an example of change inspired by the prussian reforms included the new centralized educational system organized by johann cornies which contrasted sharply with the older village system. the new system was aimed at producing an educated elite while earlier mennonite education stressed social urry, . urry, . td regehr, for everything a season: a history of the alexanderkrone zentralschule (winnipeg, manitoba: c m b c publications, ) - . cohesiveness and only developed a level of competence necessary to preserve traditions. according to mennonite historian ted regehr, cornies was primarily interested in replacing the "the deadly methods of memorization, rote learning, and decorative art and penmanship" with a more enlightened and progressive learning of basic concepts and essential skills, "all based on accurate observations of actual objects". the early foundation of mennonite education was to be replaced with an emphasis on reason and science. in this model competition recognized and rewarded individual achievement and children were encouraged to see education as assisting in the progressive transformation of their colonies. educational reforms were also implemented to improve farming techniques and to encourage the adoption of new crops. while these advances in agriculture were of a practical nature, the new system expected students to question the accepted truths of the past and to prepare for a future that was different from the past. while some educational reforms began to take place in the russian colonies after the s, the most drastic changes occurred after . some of these educational advances caused disagreements to erupt between progressive and conservative mennonites living in russia. government enforced instruction in the russian language in (except for religion and german language instruction) and the occasional russian teacher for mennonite schools (when no qualified mennonite teacher was available) were seen, by conservative mennonites, as dangerous compromises with outside cultural urry, - . regehr, . urry, . urry, . urry, . influences. mennonite leaders in chortitza (and particularly its two daughter colonies, bergthal and fuerstenland) resisted many of the innovations. most of the educational progress took place in molotschna where russian influences were also criticized by conservative members. others saw the benefit of increased mennonite education, regardless of the association with outside forces. as mentioned above, johann cornies was one of the progressive mennonites interested in educational reform. cornies' interest was matched by an official russian interest in educational improvements and this allowed him to seize the control of the educational institutions in the mennonite colonies. although cornies was largely self- educated, he believed that educational reform could be the way to overcome the stubborn conservatism of many mennonites who he disliked. he wished to ensure that the next generation would be more responsive to change than their parents and grandparents had been. he began to develop an intensive educational system in the mennonite colonies during the s and it was fully operational by the s in spite of opposition. the s also saw the beginnings of educational advances made by wuest and his followers who would soon become the mennonite brethren. the early members of this group showed remarkable similarity in terms of occupation and education. most of the wuest "brethren" (as they were first known) had more than an elementary level education, many were school teachers or members of upwardly mobile social groups such as merchants, millers, or estate owners. even though the majority of the adult male population in the mennonite colonies were farmers, proportionally few farmers were part f r i e s e n , . u r r y , . part of the wuest group. the educational background of many of wuest "brethren" likely influenced the group's support of the establishment of a new secondary school from onwards. this school, known as the brotherhood school, was officially opened in with the financial assistance of some of the wealthier members of the wuest group. the brotherhood school was based on religious principles similar to those of german institutions that combined education with religious and philanthropic ideals. both progress and piety were emphasized and these were closely linked to an increased individualism. the school reflected the religious innovation that had developed in the colonies among the educated and progressive elite. cornies' progressive policies were already stressing the involvement of individual mennonites in the competitive, secular world. some thought that economic development could bring about an improvement in the moral quality of the mennonite community. progressive mennonites believed there was need for such an improvement as well as the improvement which an individual religious commitment could make. the school stressed both the individual's personal salvation experience and the individual's economic development as means of raising the moral standard among mennonites. the wuest "brethren" became organized as the mennonite brethren (mb) in , the year after the brotherhood school was officially opened. their active support of mennonite education in the russian villages of chortitza and molotschna was diminished, however, when a number of moderately conservative m b s joined over u r r y , . f o r more about the early m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n see a p p e n d i x a a n d chapter four. u r r y , . , other mennonites in a migration to the united states during the s. a more conservative group of mennonites had begun to emigrate from the russian colonies to canada a decade earlier. this conservative group favored migration to canada because the canadian government was willing to offer them the religious autonomy they wanted. these mennonites, for a large part, left russia because they did not appreciate the growing russian presence within the mennonite communities there. both the conservative and the moderate groups were particularly unhappy about the direct influence the russian government began to have in mennonite educational institutions. the decision to leave for north america was influenced by this concern. o f the , mennonites living in russia before the migrations began, two- thirds chose to remain. in general, those who stayed were the more culturally progressive and, under their influence, the mennonite educational system in russia experienced a phenomenal expansion during the period of - . similar advances in mennonite institutional development could not occur in canada during the same period of time. the conservative nature of the earliest mennonite settlers in canada, along with the demands of beginning a new community life and a smaller population, deterred the kind of growth that took place in russia. overall, the mennonite educational system in russia grew to the extent that by , for a population of approximately , , the russian mennonites operated: . elementary schools with about , pupils and teachers (including a school for the deaf); a relatively s m a l l number o f m b s came to c a n a d a as part o f a later m i g r a t i o n i n the early s. j . a . t o e w s , a h i s t o r y o f the m e n n o n i t e brethren c h u r c h (fresno: b o a r d o f c h r i s t i a n literature, general conference o f the m e n n o n i t e brethren churches, ). a b e d u e c k , m o v i n g b e y o n d secession: d e f i n i n g r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n m i s s i o n and identity - ( w i n n i p e g : k i n d r e d press, ), . . secondary schools, two of which were considered business schools, with about , pupils enrolled and teachers; . teacher training schools with approximately students; . one eight year business school for boys with about students; . a girls' gymnasium with enrolled; and . four bible schools. the content and direction of these mennonite schools generally pleased the russian government and so some concessions were made. the mennonites were allowed to offer instruction in religion and to teach german (the community language) in ten of a total of thirty hours per week. the advances made in the educational system reflected growth in other areas as well. according to frank epp, who has written a current canadian mennonite history covering this period, the , mennonites who chose to remain in russia enjoyed fifty years of "unprecedented prosperity and expansion of their communities and institutions". with the difficult pioneer years behind them, the mennonite communities in russia began to develop a vigorous economy based on agriculture, the manufacturing of farm equipment and flour milling. their population nearly tripled and the number of settlements increased to over fifty colonies from an original four mother colonies. these colonies included over villages and mennonites held over three million acres of land. the mennonites became well known for their agricultural excellence and industrial friesen, . friesen, . frank h. epp, mennonites in canada - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), - . endeavors, including innovations in farming equipment. epp sees the links between the strong economy of the mennonites in russia and the rapid development of educational institutions that contributed to, and supported, the cultural and welfare of the total mennonite community. since the sustenance of the mennonite communities now required more than just basic literacy, advances were made in mennonite education to prepare the mennonite young person for the additional tasks of an increasingly industrialized mennonite world. alternative higher education was also available to the hundreds of mennonite students who received a university, college or seminary education outside of the mennonite community, predominately in germany and switzerland. graduates from these institutions included teachers, medical doctors and others who then returned to russia to reinforce the mennonite schools, hospitals and other welfare institutions. increasingly, mennonites in russia appreciated the pragmatic value of higher education within the community. the russian revolution and civil war prompted the another large migration to canada. after their arrival during the s, the displaced russian mennonite leadership attempted to reconstruct institutional structures in canada to resemble those they were part of in pre-revolutionary russia. this was not easily accomplished, however, without the powerful support of the mennonite industrial and business elite they had experienced there. education continued to be a major concern and a weekly paper, der bote (the messenger), became a voice for the immigrant community. dietrich h . epp founded the paper as a vehicle by which the mennonite people could be educated by the russian leaders for life in a new domain. epp expressed a great deal of confidence in the ability of the russian immigrants to make a difference in canada. in , he wrote: "we... did not come here to live in isolation, but...to build the kingdom of god on earth for the realization of ethical ideals that teach us our beliefs and allow us to raise up our people's spiritual culture". he strongly believed that to that end his paper was able to convey religious values and grounded christianity, affect the political landscape of canada, build heart and courage within the mennonite community and influence agriculture, trade and industry. initially, the canadian russian mennonite leadership lost a great deal of power in the move to canada. in pre-revolutionary russia they had exercised considerable influence in political, economic and religious spheres. now, they were needed to make new links with the mennonite conferences and churches already existing in canada. the russian mennonite influence quickly became noticeable in the educational initiatives that followed their arrival. (this influence will be discussed in the next chapter.) a number of recurring themes related to education are evident throughout the history of the anabaptist mennonites from the sixteenth century till the twentieth. first, though many of the early anabaptists were well educated, a general distrust of secular education developed early in mennonite self-identity. as a result, many mennonites have tended to favor an education that takes place within the confines of a parochial school and have developed mennonite educational institutions to meet the changing needs of the mennonite people. secondly, the institutional developments and educational reforms are often brought about mennonite individuals who experienced influences outside of the mennonite community. these reforms were financially supported by some epp, , . dietrich h. epp, "zum anfang," der bote. january , . krista taves, jms, , , . of the wealthier community members who often had a greater degree of contact with the outside world through business developments. third, the advancements initiated by the more progressive mennonite leaders were usually met with resistance and criticism from conservative elements. sometimes these disagreements led to schisms, the formation of other mennonite groups, and /or further migrations. fourth, with almost every migration, mennonites have sought a substantial degree of religious and educational autonomy in their new home. as the migrant communities reached some level of economic security, more cultural and institutional development was able to take place. lastly, there seems to be no monolithic mennonite educational ideal. mennonites continued to disagree about the value and purpose of mennonite education throughout their early history. separate mennonite groups would promote and establish educational institutions to reflect their particular values and emphases. at times, mennonites co-operated across group lines - with both other mennonite communities and outside groups - especially when the strength of an alliance would help accomplish educational goals they could agree upon. the diversity of early anabaptist beginnings is clearly represented in the diversity of opinion and approach to education among the various mennonite groups who have their roots in a common history. throughout the mennonite story, the lines in the sand keep shifting. c h a p t e r t h r e e the ambivalence continues mennonite education in manitoba: - p r a i r i e y o u t h rmaatan educated man i'm not an educated man with a college degree to my name; i'm not classed among the learned who know from where the normans came. i don't wear a suit or tie to show the world the knowledge of mine; in overalls i feel quite at home; i'm o.k., and mighty fine. but i have my college degrees, not written on paper; on my face and hands - that's strange! by the teacher that is nature. each day the sun, the wind, and the rain paint deep the degrees of honour; i'm a scholar of the wide world, taking lessons from that donor. the development of mennonite education in manitoba between the s and the s repeated many of the patterns set in russia before . mennonites continued to be suspicious of education that took place outside of the parochial school and were eager to develop mennonite institutions to ensure community responsibility for the education of j o h n e l i a s as quoted i n c u l t i v a t i n g d r e a m s . a l a n w a r k e n t i n ( m o r d e n : w i l l o w c r e e k p u b l i s h i n g , ), . t h i s p o e m represents the attitude o f a number o f y o u n g m e n n o n i t e m e n w h o l i v e d i n the rural areas o f m a n i t o b a d u r i n g the twenties and thirties. t h i s p o e m is c i r c a . mennonite youth. the development of mennonite educational institutions in manitoba includes successively higher academic levels through the decades. during the first two decades ( - ) the mennonites focused on setting up elementary schools in their rural communities. by , the first secondary school was established in southern manitoba. this school also served as the teacher training center for the numerous mennonite village elementary schools. the development of six bible schools in manitoba between - mirrored the general bible school movement throughout canada. non-mennonite bible schools appeared on the scene in the earlier s and mennonites hurried to develop their own institutions so they could attract the mennonite students who began attending these schools. during the s, the increased number of mennonites moving to the city led to the development of four mennonite secondary and post-secondary educational institutions in winnipeg by . two major mennonite groups in manitoba - the mennonite brethren of canada (mbs) and the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc) - are the focus of this thesis and both groups opened a parochial high school and a bible college between - . (these schools all survive to the present day.) though the major emphasis of this thesis is to discuss the life of the two bible colleges during the s, it is important to discuss the nature of earlier developments in mennonite education so a clear picture of the historical and cultural influences of the manitoba mennonite community emerges. a basic pattern can be detected. decade by decade, as higher educational levels became the norm in canadian society, mennonite groups organized to provide institutions that could meet the changing academic needs of their members. these institutional changes were r o s s t. b e n d e r conducted a study o f " p r i v a t e m e n n o n i t e e d u c a t i o n i n ontario after w w i i " a n d noted a s i m i l a r pattern o f educational development i n ontario, as referred to here. j m s ( ), - . often initiated by the more progressive mennonites and encountered resistance and criticism from the conservative elements. as in the past, sometimes the disagreements resulted in schism, the formation of new alliances between mennonite groups, and/or further migrations. the major emigration from canada to latin america in the s stemmed from the desire of the most conservative mennonites to have religious and educational autonomy in their new home. the conclusions drawn in the brief overview of life in russia before , as described in the first chapter, prove to be true for the period of - in manitoba, as well. t h e e a r l y period - a need for e l e m e n t a r y education: early mennonite education in manitoba was first shaped by the four distinct mennonite groups who arrived in manitoba during the s. almost the entire bergthal colony (daughter colony of the larger and older chortitza colony) came to manitoba during the first wave of immigration. this group settled on the east reserve (east of the red river and south of winnipeg) as well as on the eastern part of the west reserve (a large tract of land west of the red river and south of winnipeg). by the early s, the two geographically separate sections of the congregation began developing into fairly distinct groups. the west reserve group retained the name bergthaler, while the east reserve church came to be known as the chortitzer. the east reserve also became home to nearly seven hundred members of the kleine gemeinde congregation who settled half a dozen villages. these mennonites were a minority group among the mennonite immigrants living on the east reserve. a d o l f e n s , subjects or c i t i z e n s ? t h e m e n n o n i t e e x p e r i e n c e i n canada. - ( u n i v e r s i t y o f o t t a w a press, ), . they administered their own village affairs but left the majority group of bergthal mennonites to handle the administration of the reserve, as well as relations with the federal government. during the winter of - , the number of kleine gemeinde in manitoba dropped significantly when about half of the congregation moved to the u s a to join with the mennonite church of god in christ. the fourth mennonite group took the name reinlander and settled the western portion of the west reserve. these immigrants, numbering just over , , came from the chortitza colony in russia and its newest daughter colonies. this largest group was the strongest and most influential for a while and preferred to deal with the federal government directly through mennonite intermediaries rather than with the provincial authorities. a l l four groups looked for a privilegium with the canadian government - similar to those arranged in prussia and russia - insuring religious autonomy that included educational independence. at this time, manitoba's public schools were established on local or denominational initiative and administered by local trustees and the schools were eligible for government support if they placed themselves under the superintendence of either the protestant or catholic section of the provincial board of education. the kleine gemeinde was the first to explore the possibility of such an arrangement while the bergthal group was more cautious. the kleine gemeinde was a minority mennonite group and recognized the benefit of a government alliance. the larger group of bergthalers had less need of the government's financial assistance and worried about the loss of educational independence if they came under the supervision of government e n s , . e n s , . officials. upon meeting with the provincial government, the congregations were offered various conditions. they were invited to organize their various villages into school districts according to their own discretion. they were assured of the continued use of their own teachers and of the right to teach in their own language. as well, their congregations were given full control over all instruction and they were assured that the government support of eighty to a hundred dollars per year would not in any way affect their rights and freedoms. the only strings attached to this agreement involved the examination and licensing of mennonite teachers as early as . not all mennonite villages agreed to the above conditions. in , thirty-five villages were organized into school districts. this number was reduced to twenty-two during - the main cause lying in mennonite dissension regarding educational alliances with the government. gerhard wiebe, a bergthaler mennonite, described the situtation: it did not take long until we realized where matters were leading and we speedily withdrew and accepted no more funds. oh how we wished that the kleine gemeinde had acted in the same way ... but they said that as soon as they would see any danger, they would also refuse the money. the protestant section of the board of education tried to be as accommodating as e n s , . e n s , . g e r h a r d w i e b e , p. . j o h n j . b e r g e r , " t h e m a n i t o b a m e n n o n i t e s and t h e i r s c h o o l s f r o m to " ( m . e d term paper, u n i v e r s i t y o f m a n i t o b a , ) pp. - , gives the summary o f this p e r i o d o f m e n n o n i t e education i n m a n i t o b a . t h i s source is used by a d o l f e n s , . possible. even though the mennonite teachers were examined by their fellow mennonites for licensing, the distrust of government involvement grew so that by only seven mennonite school districts remained in operation, six of them kleine gemeinde. the bergthal schools dropped from twenty-nine to sixteen in and within three years had almost totally withdrawn. the largest mennonite group, the reinlander, were strongly opposed to any government involvement in education and disciplined parents who sent their children to district schools by excommunicating them. since they had settled in the west reserve, few school districts formed there in the first few years. however, in , a district school was opened in the village of reinland (the administrative center for the reinlander church) with an enrollment of twenty- three students. this school was opened against the wishes of the church leadership and in competition with the local church-operated school. the three earliest mennonite communities in manitoba reflect the diversity of opinion regarding education. wilhelm rempel, one of the best-educated and most capable mennonite teachers and inspector of mennonite schools, was pessimistic about the reactions of many mennonites to public education in particular. he noticed that some of the communities believed the advancing of the school would lead the mennonites into "inconvenience and conscientious troubles". other communities were either indifferent or strongly opposed to several of the subjects being taught, and it seemed to rempel that the more progressive mennonites would have to wait for years till "our wrongly informed people surmount that aversion prevailing amongst them regarding the better education of ens, . ens, . our rising generation". in summary, the various manitoba mennonite communities responded to the public school district system quite differently. the bergthal communities were somewhat hesitant and converted to the public school system quite slowly because they feared the exposure to a broader education that government involvement might create. in contrast, the kleine gemeinde supported the idea of district schools since they were too small in number to offer a suitable education without the help of the government. the reinlander church remained closed to the idea of public education on principle and chose to manage their own alternative schools, with the exception of a small group of reinlander who decided to break away from the church decision on this matter and opened a public school. t h e e a r l y 's - s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s & s c h i s m s with the kleine gemeinde and bergthaler support, the number of mennonite public school districts in manitoba increased quite quickly from eight in to forty- one in but declined again in - when the mandatory national flag-flying policy created anxiety for the mennonite community. h . h . ewert, noted mennonite educator in manitoba during this time, expressed one of the community fears in a mennonite paper. he wrote that the daily flying of the flag could ignite a militaristic spirit in the mennonite young people and thereby bring them into conflict with the mennonite pacifist stance. the bergthaler mennonites found some comfort in the government's explanation that in british tradition the flag was not primarily a military symbol. nevertheless, eleven " r e p o r t o f the superintendent o f e d u c a t i o n f o r protestant s c h o o l s f o r the y e a r e n d i n g st january ", pp. - and " r e p o r t ... ", pp. - i n a d o l f e n s , . school districts, including all the kleine gemeinde ones, reverted to a private school status because they did not want to be charged with non-compliance to a government standard. the flag-flying tension, coupled with the introduction of mandatory school attendance in and the imposition of public schools on non-co-operating mennonite school districts, beginning in , caused a strong reaction within some mennonite communities. by the s, when organized efforts to lessen governmental control of education proved unsuccessful, almost eight thousand canadian mennonites immigrated to latin america to again establish religious and educational freedom. those who left canada belonged to the most conservative mennonite church communities in manitoba at that time: the reinlander, sommerfelder and chortitzer. the members of these communities who stayed behind did so because they were either unable or unwilling to risk the move. the resistance of the large reinland community in manitoba to government involvement in education was greatly reduced by this migration and they were forced to join the majority of mennonite churches that had already accepted the public school system. the mennonite church leaders in manitoba, in the early twenties, accepted the fact that they were operating within a new situation and began to develop strategies to give their village public schools a "mennonite" identity. in late , a committee representing six mennonite groups - the chortitzer, sommerfelder, kleine gemeinde, holdemann, bergthaler, and mennonite brethren - was created to meet with the manitoba government to negotiate a number of basic points. the committee requested permission to teach german, as well as english, in the h . h . e w e r t . d e r a r b e i t e r ( n o v e m b e r ) pp. - as used i n e n s , . e n s , . mennonite schools but this request was rebuffed by the government. the committee also asked the government to return the administration of public schools in mennonite districts into the hands of local school boards however, this request was only partially met. alternative efforts were put in place to retain training in the german language and religion. these subjects were taught in half-hour classes that were added before and after the official school day, and/or at saturday school. the district teacher was responsible for this additional educational training and so it became imperative that the village teacher be a mennonite, if at all possible. the need for mennonite teachers was recognized earlier at the end of the nineteenth century with the growing number of elementary schools in the manitoba villages. the first secondary school, mennonite educational institute (mei) had been established in southern manitoba in to train teachers. it was a widely held notion in the mennonite community that a student went to high school to become a teacher, so the high school co-existed as a teacher training center. at the turn of the twentieth century, m e i was not able to graduate qualified teachers fast enough to meet the demand of mennonite school districts so some districts recruited their teachers from the mennonite communities in kansas and minnesota. the efforts to expand m e i between - , so that the need for canadian mennonite teachers could be met, resulted in a great deal of controversy and nearly split the bergthaler church. two opposing mennonites groups began to argue about whether the new facilities should be located in gretna or, seven miles north, in altona. after a great deal of cross accusations, m e i moved to altona in , from its original location in gretna. it remained in operation in altona till the school building burned in . meanwhile, during those sixteen years, the school facility in gretna had continued to operate under the new name of mennonite collegiate institute (mci). (this school is currently still in operation.) both m e i and m c i had received government recognition as secondary school and as teacher training centers between and . as m e i and m c i developed during this period, there was a shortage of canadian mennonite teachers for these secondary schools. the migration of mennonites to canada in the s had not included very many professionally trained teachers so in the early decades a number of the instructors at these schools came from either non-mennonite backgrounds or american mennonite communities. these teachers contributed a different emphasis to the traditional cultural values of manitoba mennonites during their time at these institutions. the presence of so many non-manitoba mennonites was so influential at m e i that the whole town community of altona was given a different cultural outlook as result. the altona bergthaler church experienced the pressure to use english in their worship services as early as which was much ahead of many other communities. it is also thought that the strong non-mennonite influence in altona discouraged the new mennonite immigrants, arriving during the s, from settling there. the new group of mennonite immigrants to manitoba during the s came as part of the second major wave of mennonites out of russia. the seven thousand new h e n r y gerbrandt, a d v e n t u r e i n f a i t h : t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n e u r o p e and the d e v e l o p m e n t i n c a n a d a o f the b e r g t h a l e r m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h o f m a n i t o b a ( a l t o n a : bergthaler m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h o f m a n i t o b a , ), . gerbrandt, pp. - . gerbrandt, p . t h e a m e r i c a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y has a m u c h longer history than its counterpart i n canada. some m e n n o n i t e settlements i n the u n i t e d states began i n the late eighteenth century. gerbrandt, . russian mennonites immediately began to look for mennonite educational institutions that could replace those they had left behind in russia. the institutional developments in canada did not nearly match those that had taken place in the russia between the s and the s (a list of institutional developments in russia is included as part of chapter one), nonetheless, the russian mennonites were eager to attend mci, as the one secondary/teacher training school left in manitoba by . proportionately, a good number of the russian immigrants were professionally trained teachers, however, they needed to spend time at m c i so they could learn the english language and to obtain canadian teaching certification. in a short time, the russian-born students represented a numerical majority at mci. many of these graduates went on to teach in the manitoba mennonite school districts. new problems arose. the more recent mennonites immigrants (referred to as the russlander to distinguish them from the earlier mennonite immigrants who now referred to themselves as the kanadier) were very different from their new neighbors. the different experiences of the two groups had created significant distinctions and this caused considerable tensions between some of them. a key differences was how each group viewed education, in general, and higher education, in particular. many of the earlier immigrants looked back on their decision to leave russia during the s as a morally superior, "right" decision. they had come to canada and struggled through the early pioneer days because they had feared the accelerated russification, especially of the educational system. these kanadier looked down on those newly arrived from russia because these mennonites were part of the group who had chosen to stay in russia during the s. the russlander had stayed behind, compromised with the russian government, especially in regards to educational matters, and been very successful because of their accommodation. by the s, there had been an explosion of mennonite educational facilities and an increased number of mennonite young people had become highly educated, both inside and outside of the mennonite institutions. unlike their kanadier counterparts, the russlander had experienced a diversity of professional and business education as well. the new ventures were necessitated by a land shortage in the two large russian colonies. members of the russian mennonite community had organized to provide their young people with as many educational opportunities, as possible, so they would not need to go outside of the community for their training. this move was heightened by the fact that, in , at least russian mennonite young people were studying at non-mennonite secondary and post-secondary institutions. the community had noticed that when they studied elsewhere, many of the students broke out of the old community structures because of the exposure to "alien religious, social, intellectual and political ideas and attitudes." t. d. regehr states that the mennonites in russia were eager to expand their educational facilities because they wanted to avoid sending their young people into an environment that they could not control. for example: the radicalism and revolutionary fervor of many secondary school and university students during the political disturbances were regarded with suspicion and fear by many mennonite leaders who believed that great danger lurked in the various russian cities and institutions of higher learning. they consequently urged that more and better mennonite t . d . regehr, f o r e v e r y t h i n g a season: a h i s t o r y o f the a l e x a n d e r k r o n e zentralschule ( w i n n i p e g : c m b c p u b l i c a t i o n s , ), . intermediate and secondary schools be established so that young people would not be exposed to undesirable outside influences and temptations. in particular, mennonites recognized the need to provide educational institutions that could prepare mennonite young people for entry into the professions or business opportunities which were available to other russians. the mennonites who didn't leave russia till the s were proud of their efforts to maintain a strong mennonite identity with the creation of alternative mennonite educational institutions. not all of the mennonites already living in canada shared these sentiments. in fact, in manitoba, a number of kanadier viewed the russlanders with contempt or suspicion and spoke of their interest in higher education in derogatory ways. generally, as anna ens states, for the early kanadier especially, the russlander were too proud, too aggressive, too enthusiastic about higher education, too anxious to exercise leadership, too ready to compromise with the state, too ready to move to the cities, and too unappreciative of the pioneering done by the kanadier. as far as the russlander were concerned, the kanadier were too withdrawn, too simple-minded, too uncultured, too weak in their high german because of their excessive dependence on low german, too afraid of schools and education, and too satisfied to follow traditions, social or liturgical. such distinctions were drawn on numerous occasions. the s immigrants would refer to the mennonites as natives or aboriginals (einheimische) while the minutes regehr, . a n n a e n s , in search o f u n i t y : story o f the conference o f m e n n o n i t e s i n m a n i t o b a ( w i n n i p e g : c m b c p u b l i c a t i o n s , ), . of the manitoba ministers' conference of refer to the kanadier as mennonites of the first category ^mennoniten erster kategorie") and to the russlander as mennonites of the second category ("mennoniten zweiter kategorie") regardless of the prejudices on both sides, the influx of russian mennonites during the s helped the existing canadian mennonites to accomplish two purposes. first, when the large group of conservative mennonites left manitoba for latin america, the mennonites living in rural manitoba were concerned that non-mennonites would purchase the agricultural land the mennonites were selling when they left. this would mean that the mennonite rural enclaves would be disrupted. the public school district was able to serve the educational purposes of the mennonites only as long as they lived in areas that were predominently mennonite and relatively seperated geographically. in that way, the majority of the students in the public schools would be mennonite and cultural continuity could be maintained. these fears were allayed when the russian mennonites purchased the village lands. rural mennonites who wished to relocate to the city also found ready buyers for their land. second, canadian mennonites who were trying to boost the level of interest in mennonite education welcomed the assistance of the russian newcomers. there was an immediate increase of students in the secondary school and soon the russian born mennonites were actively working at building up institutions to replace those they had benefited from in russia. the development of mennonite education after the s was greatly influenced by the new joint efforts. within the first decade, co-operation led to the establishment of the first mennonite bible school - a new venture for manitoba a n n a e n s , . mennonites. t h e b i b l e s c h o o l e r a - - : the first mennonite bible school was started in with the help of a h unruh, a newly arrived immigrant from russia. unruh had been teaching at a mennonite brethren bible school in tschongrow, russia till it was closed by the communist government in . at that time unruh and his family decided to emigrate to canada where they settled in winkler, manitoba. even though many of the kanadier who had in the west reserve did not always appreciate the highly educated mennonite russlander, unruh immediately took on the challenge of starting a bible school. initially the school was named the penial bible school but the name was later changed to the winkler bible school. even though unruh was a highly-educated russlander, he had the ability and grace to build bridges in the community and he was quickly recognized to be a gifted teacher by many of the mennonites in the local community and beyond. . the school opened in the fall of with thirteen students and followed the curriculum of the mennonite brethren school in russia where unruh had previously taught. the curriculum of the bible school in russia was modeled on the curriculum of the baptist seminary in hamburg. the first year included studies in german language, old testament history and interpretation, church history, bible geography, and homiletics. second year studies dealt with the new testament, prophets, bible doctrine, homiletics and more german language - as well as english grammar. the third year in three years included much of the same along with hymnology, which d a v i d e w e r t , h o n o r s u c h people ( w i n n i p e g : centre f o r m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n studies, ), . was part of all three years. other general knowledge subjects were also offered. within the first few years, johann g. wiens, a graduate of the german baptist seminary in hamburg and president of the russian bible school, and gerhard reimer, colleagues of unruh's from tschongraw, joined the faculty of winkler bible school. the influence of these russian-born men, and others continued to be experienced at mennonite schools, especially during these formative years when the constituency was in need of the well- educated leadership they were able to provide. the russlander influence in manitoba has been credited by kanadier for adding new vitality to the educational initiatives already in place, and for providing the impetus for new endeavors, like the bible schools. the bible school movement in manitoba was motivated by two important directives. first, the bible schools were created to train leaders for work in the mennonite churches. the schools prepared and trained future preachers, church leaders, choristers, choir conductors, sunday school teachers, missionaries, and other mennonite church workers. secondly, the bible schools helped preserve mennonite identity in the midst of increased exposure to outside influences. mennonite young people were initially attracted to the non-mennonite bible schools because they were the first bible schools to arrive on the scene in canada at the beginning of the twentieth century. mennonites attended these burgeoning bible schools for the religious and social opportunities the schools provided. the bible school movement, generally in canada, had its antecedents in a similar movement in the u.s.a. these schools were viewed as "bastions of the faith" where a d a v i d e w e r t , stalwart f o r the t r u t h : t h e l i f e and l e g a c y o f a h u n r u h ( w i n n i p e g : b o a r d o f c h r i s t i a n literature g e n e r a l conference o f the m e n n o n i t e brethren ), - . gerbrandt, . e w e r t ( ), . fundamentalist/evangelical theology was advocated. the schools were set up in opposition to secular education and also over against other church colleges that were viewed as "hotbeds" of religious liberalism and modernism. these views arose in light of the fact that church colleges combined biblical and theological education with the liberal arts and the natural sciences. the bible schools left the arts and sciences alone. some mennonites feared that the students who attended non-mennonite bible schools would become alienated from their mennonite communities, either theologically and/or through exogamy. in response, various mennonite groups organized their own bible schools to protect what they believed to be "the biblical way" for their young people. a number of new mennonite bible colleges opened throughout canada between - . t a b l e : b i b l e s c h o o l s i n m a n i t o b a - d a t e p l a c e i n s t i t u t i o n a f f i l i a t i o n w i n k l e r p e n i e l ( w i n k l e r ) b i b l e s c h o o l m b g r e t n a e l i m b i b l e s c h o o l c m c w i n n i p e g w i n n i p e g b i b l e s c h o o l * m b steinbach steinbach b i b l e s c h o o l m b + w i n n i p e g m e n n o n i t e b i b l e s c h o o l * c m c st. e l i z a b e t h st. e l i z a b e t h b i b l e s c h o o l * c m c * indicates those schools that were no longer open by . + the steinbach school became an interdenominational school after a few years. generally, these schools were well-suited to sustain a traditional mennonite f r a n k e p p , m e n n o n i t e s i n c a n a d a - (toronto: m a c m i l l a n o f c a n a d a , ), . e p p , . t a b l e gathered f r o m data i n c l u d e d i n t a b l e " a c h r o n o l o g y o f c a n a d i a n b i b l e s c h o o l s " i n m e n n o n i t e s i n c a n a d a - (toronto: m a c m i l l i a n o f canada, ) f r a n k e p p , . worldview and lifestyle even though the theology they embraced was not specifically parochial. these schools did not articulate an anabaptist/mennonite theology that was very different from the fundamentalist or evangelical theology taught at other the other bible schools. the importance of the mennonite bible schools lay in the fact that mennonites were in control of the schools and, since the schools attracted primarily mennonite students, the traditional worldview of the community could be supported by the educational institutions. supporters of the mennonite bible schools typically favored a rural, agricultural way of life as the only "true" mennonite way and considered the german language as the language of the mennonites. the values and ideals of these rural communities were generally reflected in the standards set at the schools. students were discouraged from wearing contemporary clothing, smoking, drinking alcoholic beverages, dancing and gambling. though there was some variability in what each mennonite bible school emphasized as the key elements of mennonite faith and culture during the s- s, the social and religious cohesiveness achieved through the work of the schools had a tremendous influence in the mennonite communities and churches throughout canada. a n u r b a n s e t t i n g c r e a t e s t h e n e e d f o r u r b a n s c h o o l s : the mennonite community in canada was changed by the arrival of almost , refugee mennonite immigrants from the soviet union after the wwii. most of the mennonites who arrived after settled in the urban areas of canada. the immigrants chose not to participate in the typically rural mennonite lifestyle for a number of reasons. epp ( ), . epp ( ), . mostly women and children arrived in canada because many mennonite men had been killed or evacuated to remote parts of the soviet union before their families emigrated. these immigrants lacked the capital to acquire even marginal land and the machinery to begin farming. as well, their commitment to traditional, rural and agricultural life-styles had been weakened under soviet collectivization and the terror of forced evacuation from their land in the soviet union. the newly arrived immigrants needed the factory or industrial related jobs that were available to them in the cities and so many of them chose to settle in an urban area. winnipeg was attractive to a number of mennonite immigrants, especially those who found work in an urban, mennonite-owned factory or business. these most recent immigrants to manitoba were joined in winnipeg by increasing numbers of rural manitobans who were choosing to move to the city as well. the larger numbers of mennonites necessitated the development of urban educational institutions. two mennonite groups are the particular focus of this thesis in the next chapters. both the mennonite brethren church of canada (mbs) and the conference of mennonites of canada (cmc) organized to establish secondary schools and bible colleges in winnipeg between the s and s. these two church bodies were the largest sub-groups of mennonites in canada and were concerned about keeping their constituencies strong. members of each group worked hard at creating private academic institutions that could reinforce the values and ideals of their particular communities while offering students an education that equalled the standards of canadian public schools. the emphasis at each parochial school was unique to that school. t . d . regehr, m e n n o n i t e s i n canada: - ftoronto: u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o press, ), . t a b l e : n u m b e r s o f m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e t w o g r o u p s s t u d i e d m e n n o n i t e p o p u l a t i o n i n c a n a d a total mennonite population , mennonite brethren church , , , , conference of mennonites in canada , , , , t a b l e : i n s t i t u t i o n s o p e n e d i n w i n n d e g : - d a t e o p e n e d i n s t i t u t i o n c h u r c h g r o u p - mennonite brethren bible college (mbbc) m b - mennonite brethren collegiate institute m b - canadian mennonite bible college (cmbc) c m c - westgate mennonite collegiate c m c the purpose of mennonite secondary education did not change very much from through to the s. while the goals of mennonite education for young people were expressed in contemporary terms through the years, the basic intent remains the same. the basic objectives were "to educate their own people to live as christians in spite of the influences of the larger society" while "helping learners find out who they are and how they relate to others, and preparing them for service". promotions for a mennonite brethren high school during the s outlined similar goals: . direct unsaved students to a conversion experience; . train the students in the nuture and admonition of the lord; . lay the foundation for a fruitful life of service in the kingdom of god; . seek to preserve the spiritual heritage with which god has blessed our church; information complied from material included in regehr ( ). daniel hertzler, mennonite education: why and how? (scottsdate: herald press, ), . . offer a course of studies in which scholarship and academic thoroughness are fostered in a truly christian atmosphere. along with the educational goals, there was clearly a perceived pattern of faith and behaviour into which the mennonite high school student was to fit. m b c i , for example, attempted to regulate the students' behavior with an intimidatingly long list of rules that was enforced with disciplinary acts. most of the rules stayed throughout the s till a new generation of teachers brought a more open and free approach to discipline and self- control. at that time the school began to rely on evangelistic revival meetings (held during the school year) to change the behavior of students. teachers observed that the difficult students would often change their attitudes and behaviors after they experienced a religious conversion at the meetings. teachers also noticed that when there were too many students at m b c i with a negative attitude toward spiritual concerns, these revival services did not have the same effect. the school was expected to make a difference in the students' religious life and criticism would come from all corners when the spiritual quality of the students sank too l o w . westgate collegiate institute did not have quite the same expectations placed on it because it developed in a different time and under different circumstances. even though there were persistent demands for a c m c high school in winnipeg, the church conference did not established westgate till because they already sponsored and operated the m c i , the high school in gretna. mci, as the oldest mennonite high school in manitoba, was quite a conservative school and slow to make institutional changes. the members of the c m c who wanted a more conservative environment for their young m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n h e r a l d i v : ( m a r c h ), . r e g e h r ( ), - . people could send them to m c i (since it operated as a boarding school). as a result, westgate did not need to please as many elements within the constituency. the school was recognized to be more open and tolerant of the arts and social issues than other mennonite high schools. some argued that this was a result of its late start, in an urban setting, by urban mennonites. the major emphasis at westgate was the preservation of the german language. the two c m c churches that took the initiative to start westgate in placed a heavy emphasis on german and so all the religious subjects were taught in german and on tuesdays and thursdays, students could only speak german. it appears that the preservation of the mennonite "language" was used to reinforce mennonite identity at westgate during its early years. it was the wish to preserve a mennonite identity that initially led the mennonite brethren conference (canada) to recognize the need for a college-level bible training institute. as early as , rev. j.a. toews sr. officially stressed the acute problem of finding properly qualified mennonite teachers for the numerous m b bible schools that had emerged in canada after the s. at that time rev. toews sr. stated: advanced theological training and a broad general secular education must be required of our bible school teachers if the schools are to survive and progress. the young men of our churches who are called to the teaching ministry should be offered an opportunity to attend an advanced bible college or seminary. this concern led to the establishment of the mennonite brethren bible college (mbbc), winnipeg, manitoba in and a. h . unruh left his post at winkler bible school to r e g e h r ( ), . m b b c catalogue, t h issue ( - ), . take the presidency at the new college. a similar need for "an advanced bible school" was felt by the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc) and discussions for such a school sponsored by the c m c began in . committees were formed to discuss the possibility of opening a c m c bible college and at first some leaders suggested a cooperative arrangement with m b b c . when two winnipeg c m c ministers - benjamin ewert and isaac i. friesen - met with the president of m b b c in they were disappointed to hear that while the mennonite brethren would welcome the conference of mennonites' students and support, the mbs would need to retain control of any joint venture. the c m c felt this decision left them with no alternative but to begin a college of their own and winnipeg was tentatively chosen as the location for the canadian mennonite bible college (cmbc) in . an urban site was considered to be ideal because then the college would be situated close to a university and other schools that could offer good library facilities. the city of winnipeg offered this benefit to both colleges, as well as plenty of opportunities for practical service, mission work and part- time employment. facilities were available but finding a "properly-credentialed person" to become the president of c m b c proved to be difficult. in , arnold j. regier was invited to serve as the first president in a letter from committee-chairman j j . thiessen: "we had hoped to secure (a different individual) as president of the school and you as dean, but he has now definitely declined. this means that we expect you to take the lead, and are making an announcement in our papers to that effect"! regier was left with the responsibility of designing a program of studies that would be offered just three months regehr, . b r u n o d y c k , " h a i f a century o f c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b i b l e c o l l e g e " , j m s ( ) . later regier envisioned c m b c to be more than just a place for training full-time church workers. this vision was not shared by all members of the c m c and those who had concerns about the college scrutinized both the appropriateness of textbooks and pedagogy. earlier tensions within the conference of mennonites in manitoba probably added to the perceived need for scrutiny at c m b c . a growing suspicion of one of the c m c congregations had been building for some time when an incident at a ministers' conference in september, brought the simmering tension to the surface. the congregation in question was the schonwieser gemeinde, a mennonite group that had arrived in manitoba from russia during the s immigration movement. j.h. enns, their leader, like his predecessor johann p. klassen and many of his schonwieser colleagues, was a well-educated man and some thought that he was seeking the presidency at the newly proposed college. a l l these men were viewed with suspicion by their conference partners because they appeared too modernistic, rationalistic and critically assessed the bible. the maxim for the schonwieser leaders was: in essentials unity and in non-essentials liberty, but in all things love. for most ministers in the c m c , however, correct doctrine belonged to the category of essentials. therefore a nasty confrontation erupted when enns offered a controversial interpretation of the doctrine of salvation in a public message at the c m c conference. enns used one of the early anabaptist leaders to argue for "an eventual pardon for all" - a form of universalism - which caused the other mennonite leaders to raise a number of complaints against enns and the schonwieser church group. dyck, . a n n a e n s , . some argued that enns' theology was obviously wrong because the evidence pointed in that direction. a "true spiritual life" seemed to be lacking in his congregation because some members were taking part in dancing and drinking alcohol (practices which were generally avoided and preached against in mennonite circles). questions were raised about how enns could be a good influence on young people within the conference if his advice on lifestyle issues was merely - "don't overdo it!" in part, the urban setting was blamed for facilitating some of these problems. one complainant wrote: "the schonwieser church, perhaps because it is located in the city of winnipeg, seems to consider itself as a sort of rome and thus shows a domineering attitude." there were misunderstandings and prejudices on the part of rural groups toward the city, and vice versa, of which education and lifestyle were a factor. however, some rural ministers stood alongside enns, while some urban ministers didn't know which side to choose. eventually, the controversy became so intense that the schonwieser gemeinde felt it could not remain in the c m c , and it withdrew. some interpretations of this controversy brought to light the tensions between the newer russian immigrants (who were more educated, urbanized and who practiced a slightly looser moral standard) and the more conservative mennonites who had been in southern manitoba since the s. some of the older leaders felt they were being overlooked in the conference as the newer leaders began to dominate the scene. some of these men sought to gain stature in the community by vehemently defending "pure doctrine". rural/urban tensions also lay at the heart of this battle since enns and the offending schonwieser church were located in the city of winnipeg. for those who a n n a e n s , . a n n a e n s , - . already distrusted the influence of the city on mennonites, this conflict seemed to prove that the urban setting did, in fact, lead to theological and lifestyle digressions from the traditional mennonite norm. the tension c m b c faced during its formative years persisted throughout its entire history and m b b c faced similar challenges. the mennonite colleges survived in their urban setting, despite the fears and criticism, as did the mennonite high schools. each institution went on to be shaped by and to embody the values and ideals of those who were their students and supporters. each school took its unique approach to establishing a mennonite identity, as mennonite institutions of the past had. as in the past, there was tension and schism throughout the period of - . again there appeared to be no monolithic mennonite educational ideal. mennonites continued to disagree about the value and purpose of mennonite education as they had in the last four centuries. however, despite the struggle (and sometimes because of it) the mennonite community was successful at creating educational institutions that met some of the changing needs of its people. anna ens, . c h a p t e r f o u r here come the ' s a new frontier ben sawatsky and susie falk grew up in the mennonite west reserve of southern manitoba during the first half of the twentieth century. ben didn't enjoy school very much and he was relieved when the "magic age of had come and school was finished once and for all for me". susie, on the other hand, hoped to finish high school but just before her fourteenth birthday, two months short of finishing grade eight, she had to quit school to help at home. her father wanted to her to return in the fall but her stepmother decided that susie was needed to babysit her younger brothers and sisters. ben and susie met at the mennonite church they attended and got married. in their late thirties, they moved to winnipeg and worked together as a pastor couple at the gospel mennonite church. it was the s and a good number of mennonite young people in manitoba were coming to the city for an education or to find a job. some of the students attended gospel mennonite and ben said he was always "on the lookout" for those bible college students who would be willing to volunteer for church work. even though he appreciated the help of the college students, ben admitted that, at the time, he had a negative attitude toward higher education. things were about to change, however. his daughter suggested he return to a high school the winnipeg school board had just opened for "dropouts" and older students, and in , at the age of , ben began his grade twelve studies. ben and susie sawatsky, our journey by faith (winnipeg ), . sawatsky, . graduation day in june of was a time to reflect on life in winnipeg. ben recollected: we discovered we could raise a family in a large city environment, even better than on a farm. gospel mennonite helped us so that our children became better christians, had good musical training and obtained a higher education. there were an increasing number of young people moving to the city to find employment. for many of them (gospel mennonite) ... would be recommended by parents and friends. (it) would also be a home church for the many students attending a college or university. as began, ben and susie were off to a mennonite college in virginia for more education. friends and relatives sent them off with a wide variety of comments: "beware of being led astray from your faith", "you know enough already", and "i am plain jealous". for ben, the time ended up being "a lonely road" as well as "a wonderful few years". by age , he was able to complete a bachelor degree with a double major in history and bible, while susie had a chance to work on her grade twelve education by correspondence. their children were also busy studying at other institutions. their oldest son graduated with a doctorate in modern russian history, their daughter began studying music at a mennonite college and later graduated with a bachelor of education and a degree in accounting from the university of manitoba. their youngest son earned a doctorate in religious studies at the university of toronto. the story of the sawatsky family is the story of many mennonites during the s. mennonites of both genders, and from all age brackets, went back to school to either upgrade their secondary education or to pursue a post-secondary education. some young women would begin studies in the fields traditionally chosen, like music or education, and then pursue one of the burgeoning new professions. both men and women alike were attracted to history, sociology, psychology, philosophy, religion and theology, bringing their new insights to bear on their understand of the mennonite faith and culture. as higher academic degrees were becoming necessary for certain occupations, middle-aged mennonite pastors, teachers and professors would join younger colleagues as they completed higher academic degrees. frequently, they needed to attend a secular or non-mennonite religious institution to do so. the public university was increasingly drawing more mennonite students than any other institution. the following table is a sample of where mennonite brethren students were studying in . table : canadian mennonite brethren students in number of students institution a mennonite brethren bible school non-mennonite bible schools mbbc university the universities saw the largest increase in student numbers, up from in . the rising number of mennonite students choosing to attend canadian universities during the s paralleled a general trend in canadian society at that time. a dramatic change in university enrollment began at the end of the second world war when the government paid for the education of returned veterans, and many of them sawatsky, . john wall, "the church and its students", mb herald ( october ), . chose to attend the university. by , the number of men in undergraduate programs in canadian universities had almost doubled from fifteen years earlier. during this same period, the percentage of women attending university declined (in part because of the pressure on women to return to family obligations, leaving the world of paid employment or education for the men who had returned to civilian life). the most important increase for women at canadian universities began during the s when their numbers increased by almost three hundred percent. table : canadian university full-time undergraduate enrollment year men women % women total - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , - , , . , sources: statistics canada, historical compendium of education statistics, pp. - . statistics canada, education in canada. # - . bold emphasis added by thesis author. fflgh hopes f o r t h e university: during the sixties, increased university attendance was linked to canadian hopes for economic, political and social progress. as the fifties came to an end, north americans were deeply concerned about economic and political well-being. along with a public preoccupation with material security, there was a continued concern about the perceived soviet threat and a "simmering cold war". during the s, soviet progress was generated by a remarkably sophisticated technology that nearly paralleled that of the united states. lurid accounts of soviet ambitions and the potential of a new world war began circulating throughout canada. one opinion poll conducted in indicated that % of canadians predicted the potential of warfare with russia. higher levels of educational training in specific fields were considered a solution to these canadian concerns. it seemed that advances made by the soviet union were directly linked to the increase numbers they had trained to be technologists, engineers, and scientists. the communist government was the financing university education of over a million graduates in pure science during the s, compared to the thousand graduates in the u s a . for canadians, the perceived link between the economy, the cold war, and higher education was reinforced by the ideas reflected in a statement made by james duncan (chairman of ontario hydro, and a member of the industrial foundation on education), made during the time: in my opinion we are in danger of losing the cold war unless we do something about it and education is very close to the core of our problem. science and engineering have made such remarkable progress in recent decades that the nation which holds the lead paul axelrod, "service or captivity? business-university relations in the twentieth century", universities in crisis: a medieval institution in the twenty-first century, eds. william aw neilson and chad garfield (montreal: institute for research on public policy, ), . in these fields holds the initiative in world affairs. the race was on and, in , the industrial foundation on education indicated that the institutions of higher education in canada would need to increase the numbers of engineers and scientists by three or four times and the number of technicians by ten times, within the next years, to keep pace with the growing need of the technological industry. when surveys discovered that fifty percent of canadian employers of professional personnel were having trouble finding qualified staff it became obvious that economic expansion in canada was being curtailed because of the shortfall. businesses who were understaffed would not be able to expand their production capacity. the message went out that professional jobs and increased earnings waited for those canadians who would be willing to get the right education. the enthusiasm for increased levels of education began to develop in canada and changed public perceptions of what constituted an adequate education. by , a poll revealed that sixty percent of canadians believed young men should not leave school at age sixteen, even if they wanted to do so. all forms of post-secondary education - from engineering to fine arts - were seen as a worthwhile public investment - as long as the economy was booming, and everyone would be able to participate. paul axelrod, historian of higher education, states: while support for the expansion of higher education was shaped by broadly based economic demands, the system felt as well pressures to "democratize" access to canadian universities. indeed, the "equality of opportunity" argument, heard increasingly in the late s, became axelrod ( ), - . axelrod ( ), . axelrod ( ), . almost an article of faith among liberal-minded citizens and politicians in the s. traditionally, only a small minority of canadians attended universities - a kind of social elite. however, as a result of this political support, the sixties witnessed a widening of educational opportunities and a period of rapid growth in every facet of education in canada. there was an enormous increase in the numbers of students seeking some form of post-secondary education. the universities, in particular, experienced an almost unquestioned growth. the swell of students headed for the university included older canadians returning for further education, young people who were financially assisted by the increased public dollar, and those who sought the specialized education which would lead to a professional job. this increased demand for further education was spurred by widely publicized assertions about the social benefits of post-secondary education. the general public believed that education was, if not a "higher good", at least the means of obtaining a better job. taxpayers appeared willing to pay the price for the expansion of post-secondary education, throughout the sixties, because it was widely accepted that universities and colleges were the route up the social scale for their children. new institutions were opened, old institutions were expanded, faculty members and professorial salaries soared - almost entirely at public expense. c o m p o n e n t s of a w e l l - r o u n d e d e d u c a t i o n : the s brought sweeping changes throughout the canadian academic scene. since axelrod ( ), . jan morgan, ed., report of the task force on post-secondary education in manitoba ( ), . higher education had now been linked to the technological and economic growth of canada, governments were only too willing to pour large sums of public money into post-secondary education - hoping to give canada a competitive edge. governments viewed their contribution as an investment in canada's industrial, scientific and technological well-being. new institutions were created and older institutions were changed to qualify for the new public agenda. the university, in particular, felt the influence of the new direction. since the crucial relationship of educational training to the economic development of canada was unanimously accepted, close ties were drawn between the universities and the business sector. the increased urbanization of much of canada, along with a corresponding commercial and industrial development, created new occupations for which specialized training was required and it was expected that the universities would supply the needed professional engineers, geologists, research scientists, and others who would lead canada forward toward technological excellence. universities were also expected to produce the economists, the accountants, the investment people and those for whom a professional economic training would be essential. for the business community, the prime function of higher education was to produce the workforce necessary to contribute to the economic growth and prosperity of canada. the university was no longer presented as the "traditional custodian of morality, truth and knowledge" but as a vehicle by which economic progress could be achieved. it was at this time that some of the older institutions with long-standing religious affiliations decided to distance themselves from these affiliations. the university's new paul axelrod, scholars and dollars: politics, economics, and the universities of ontario - (toronto: university of toronto press, ), - . business partners felt that strong religious ties might jeopardize the autonomy and academic freedom believed necessary to accomplish the new goals. a l l interests and all ideas were to be considered equally - as open to research and development. while the economic value of post-secondary education was stressed during this era, many businessmen and academics did not believe that a purely technical training was sufficient for the professional. the liberal arts were still considered a necessary component of a well-rounded education since it provided an essential background for professional training and employment. while the liberal arts professors did not directly prepare students for careers in science and business, the business community considered the subjects they taught as basic knowledge for the professional life. arguments for a liberal arts education described the rapid transformation of canadian life during the last hundred years and the new needs the changes had created. now urban centers were much larger, commerce was expanding and canada's industrial development seemed to be proceeding at an almost bewildering rate. it seemed natural that if canadian education was to bear any significant relationship to contemporary life it would need to keep pace. while dramatic changes had created a diversity of occupational and professional opportunities for canadians, and demanded higher degrees of technical and professional skill than in earlier times, it was also recognized that the requirements of community life, in terms of public service and the scope of participation, had increased with the urbanization of canada. educators and social scientists argued that the early pioneers living in small communities, or rural districts, had less occasion than those who lived in modern communities to study the social and physical world in which margaret fulton , "historical commitments in new times: the restructuring and reorientation of teaching and research". universities in crisis. - . they lived. their participation in activities beyond their local setting was usually much more limited. now, a broader canadian worldview required a greater social conscience and civic responsibility. the universities were faced with the challenge of creating a sense of social responsibility in its students. there were some within the canadian university academy who believed that, in the midst of all the changes, the classic ideals of the university, as expressed through the liberal arts, would be able to provide a moral anchor for the new technological world and the professional person. some feared that otherwise the standards of the university would become those shaped by an increasingly materialistic world -one in which the standards of success and achievement would be measured only in terms of wealth, power and/or production. to curtail this possibility, the university's task was to transmit a body of knowledge that would help discipline the mind and "knock windows in the soul". universities were asked to present the importance of social responsibilities as a moral duty and to equip the student to intelligently exercise those responsibilities. the argument was offered that if students were helped to understand their duty to themselves, their fellow men and society they would hopefully accept that duty as a normal and desirable aspect of life. it was believed that openness, understanding, civic duty and social responsibility would be able to refine and shape the increased technological training that took place on the university campus and edify the professional a x e l r o d ( ), . s . n . f . chant, " a c a n a d i a n e d u c a t i o n " , ed. joseph k a t z , c a n a d i a n e d u c a t i o n (toronto: m c g r a w - h i l l c o . o f c a n a d a , ) . n . a . m . m a c k e n z i e , " t h e w o r k o f the u n i v e r s i t i e s " , c a n a d i a n e d u c a t i o n , . m a c k e n z i e , . graduate. some mennonite educators echoed these sentiments. a few placed a similar confidence in a university liberal arts education to temper the parochial mentality of their mennonite community. j.b. toews, a prominent russian-born mennonite leader and educator was thoroughly convinced that a university education could serve to enrich a mennonite student's life, if they allowed it have that opportunity. he believed many students were attending the universities to gain a professional degree but were not realizing the full benefit of a post-secondary education. they allowed no windows to be knocked into the soul. toews argued: there are, sad to say, many christian students whose faith remains unaffected by the new dimensions of university life. for them it is not a question of "losing" or "not losing" (i.e. their faith) but of obtaining the courses necessary for a degree and a job. a challenging encounter with god is simply not reckoned with, or expected. these students emerge from their university experience with antiquated religious patterns that subject christ to a series of rigid concepts and inflexible practices... it is disturbing to see that many christian university graduates are only really capable of functioning within the "safe" framework of well-organized congregations. they will eventually become religious schizophrenics, incapable of integrating their faith with their working situation. there is nothing sadder on campus than the maladjusted christian who refuses to identify himself with any aspect of campus life, and whose self-righteousness and aloofness mackenzie, - . contributes nothing toward making christ known. toews put the challenge to mennonite young people to risk exposure to the outside world and to break away from the "holy huddle". he encouraged them to allow their university experience to create more questions "relative to the faith" than lead to a collection of answers. many in the mennonite community disagreed with toews because they found the openness and challenge he encouraged too threatening and unsettling. his critics pronounced the dangers of secular influences in the academic world - such as cynicism, agnosticism, and relativism. (this discussion will be picked up in the next chapters with a closer look at the mennonite community response to the increased university attendance.) needless to say, while there were loud dissenting voices in some pockets of the mennonite community, a good number wanted to take advantage of the increased opportunities a higher education would give them. these opportunities included new avenues of vocation and profession that were soon lauded with an evangelistic zeal. often, the unprecedented potential for ministry and witness "in the world" was highlighted as a unique opportunity and challenge that needed to be met with enthusiasm. the following excerpt from a mennonite brethren church periodical written in highlights how positively an entrance into the academic world was viewed by some within the mennonite community during that time: today's world is characterized by tremendous acceleration in the acquistion of knowledge. it is claimed that in recent decades the fund of available knowledge has doubled every ten years. if this j o h n b . t o e w s , " t o w a r d s a c h r i s t i a n u n i v e r s i t y e x p e r i e n c e " , m b h e r a l d ( oct. ), . j . b . t o e w s , . is true, we must agree that the challenge of today with respect to new frontiers, is to be found in the academic world...thrust into the frontiers of today's world, students might well become the ears of the church, detecting the needs of men, spelling out the questions they ask, so that the message of the church might be brought to bear on contemporary life as it was in the time of the prophets or the time of the apostles... students need to recognize their unique opportunity to witness to jesus christ where the action is and where leaders of society and the world are being molded. on campuses, where almost complete freedom seems to prevail for public expression of any kind of view or conviction, students need to take greater initiative in making known a person who deserves a hearing. to be a christian student on campus, therefore, means to be an ambassador for jesus christ to people who are in the vanguard. numerous canadian mennonites welcomed the new frontier opened to them by urbanization and professionalization as a biblical mandate to get "into all the world". as members within the mennonite community became as eager as the rest of canada to embrace the benefits offered by increased educational levels, opinions favoring a broader worldview were expressed with the vigor of religious validation: our opportunities to be a church in mission are unprecendented in our j o h n w a l l , " t h e c h u r c h and its students", m b h e r a l d ( oct. ), . b a s e d o n m a t t h e w w h i c h includes c h r i s t ' s c o m m i s s i o n to his disciples to go into a l l the w o r l d w i t h the gospel. generation. we no longer form tight ethnic centered communities as we did a generation ago. like the jerusalem church, we have been "scattered abroad" by economic pressures and opportunities, the urbanization pattern, and the drive for achievement in business, education, and professional life. our membership is in touch with virtually every segment of our society. the mennonites of the s faced the world outside of the community with the awareness of a new set of responsibilities. the heightened levels of economic, social, and political opportunities that went alongside a university education introduced a new dimension to their world. as will be demonstrated in the next two chapters, mennonites would not be content to let academic institutions outside of the community take care of the new need for higher education. as in the past, members would organize to try to offer their young people a university level post secondary education within the confines of the mennonite world. v i c t o r a d r i a n , " a r e w e a c h u r c h i n m i s s i o n ? " t h e v o i c e , x i x , no. (july ), . c h a p t e r f i v e creating a new mennonite institution as approached, and increased numbers of mennonite young people began studying at canadian universities, members within the mennonite community began to discuss the possibility of developing a university-level liberal arts education. the pattern had been set. as educational levels rose in canada generally, the mennonites kept pace in the development of their educational facilities. by the s, the mennonites had established elementary and secondary schools, teacher-training institutes and bible schools, as well as bible colleges. if the community was now going to offer a higher education at a university level in manitoba, the two colleges, m b b c and c m b c , seemed to be the logical choice for development. during the forties and fifties, the purpose of the mennonite bible colleges in winnipeg was to provide a college-level christian education that emphasized "mennonite principles" and promoted "an understanding of the mennonite heritage" while being "based upon the bible as the word of god and the only adequate foundation for a christian education". the colleges sought to provide their students with "advanced theological training and a broad general secular education" so that members would not need to go "to schools of other denominations to receive this type of preparation" and then return to the community with "ideals and interpretations foreign" to mennonite principles. the degrees offered by the colleges were bachelor degrees in christian education, biblical studies and theology, and most often the graduates would become c m b c calendar, - . w i n n i p e g : c m b c , . m b b c calendar, - . w i n n i p e g : c h r i s t i a n press, . pastors, church workers and/or missionaries. as the sixties approached, the colleges were providing a fairly high level of education for leaders within the constituency, which some believed could be adapted to a university-level standard. many members expressed a desire for a university education so that they could be move ahead professionally and vocationally. if manitoba mennonites wished to accomplish their next goal, they basically had four options: ) the individual colleges could try to offer a well-rounded liberal arts education on their own; ) a college could join with other evangelical groups to provide such an education; ) the two mennonite colleges could participate in a joint venture; ) each college could accredit its programs with a major university. during the sixties, the fourth option was the only one that was able to work for m b b c and c m b c . first, neither of the colleges had a supporting body that was large enough to financially sustain the faculty or facilities to offer a complete biblical, theological and liberal arts education. during the forties and fifties, selective liberal arts and science courses were taught to supplement the religious training for work in the churches or on the mission field. for example, during the - school years, m b b c had a small faculty of the medical department under the supervision of dr. n.j. neufeld. three doctors taught minor surgery, obstetrics, physiology and anatomy and tropical v e r i f i e d by the questionnaires distributed to m e n n o n i t e s w h o attended post-secondary institutions d u r i n g the sixties. m a r g a r e t l o e w e n r e i m e r , o n e q u i l t m a n y p i e c e s : a reference g u i d e to m e n n o n i t e g r o u p s i n c a n a d a diseases, which held special appeal for the trained nurses who were attending the bible college since theses courses prepared them for missionary assignments around the world. supplementary liberal arts courses included philosophy, anthropology, history, english literature, languages (greek, german, russian), and a number of music theory courses. it would have been an incredible undertaking to develop these minor courses into complete liberal arts and/or science programs necessary to qualify as a full-fledged liberal arts college. with under a hundred students each, the first option was an impossible undertaking for each of the colleges. the second option appealed to some constituents in the mennonite communities who were already sending their children to bible schools and colleges that were affiliated with other denominations. this option was never seriously considered because as, both m b b c and c m b c calendars stressed, the purpose of the schools was to preserve and promote the mennonite faith and heritage. a number of manitoba mennonites were deliberate about providing a parochial education that would "safeguard" their young people from non-mennonite influences. the third option became difficult to negotiate because of a historical schism between the mennonite brethren (mbs), who controlled m b b c , and the conference of mennonites (com), who owned and operated c m b c . as recounted in chapter three, when the c o m were hoping to co-operate with the mbs during the s, at the time the colleges were first organized, the mbs refused to do so unless they could be in control of the joint educational institution. this was not feasible since the m b constituency in (waterloo: m e n n o n i t e p u b l i s h i n g service, ), , . m a n i t o b a m b s - , members b y , m a n i t o b a c o m ' s - , members. a s w e l l , refer to statistics i n c l u d e d i n chapter . m b b c calendars, - . d r . n j n e u f e l d was j o i n e d by d r . h . gunther and dr. t h w i l l i a m s . c m b c calendar, - , and m b b c calendars, - , . manitoba was only half the size of the c o m membership, and so the c o m decided to begin a college for its own constituency. the mbs wanted to be in charge of a joint venture because they did not trust other mennonites to be responsible for the two ideals noted above: correct theology and correct lifestyle. past prejudices within the m b constituency, toward other mennonite groups, were still very much in evidence in the twentieth century. a brief examination of the past story bears telling at this point. the mennonite brethren and the conference of mennonites are just two of many mennonite sub-groups throughout the world. each mennonite group has an ideology, implicit or explicit, which forms the basis for its identity and boundary creation. serious divisions and conflicts within the mennonite community have led to the formation of over a hundred separated mennonite groups during its five hundred year history. during the s, the influence of a number of lutheran pietists, like eduard wuest ( - ) and wilhelm lange, contributed to the schismatic break-away of the mennonite brethren from the larger russian mennonite church. the first mennonite brethren considered the large mennonite church, of which they were a part, to be spiritually dead and ethically corrupt. they believed that a conversion experience was necessary to bring an individual into the true christian community and certain ethical behavior (e.g. temperance) would necessarily follow. generally, the mennonite brethren would choose to identify with other christians who also emphasized repentance and conversion rather than with their fellow ethnic mennonites who they believed were not genuinely converted. the first mennonite brethren claimed to be restoring the original anabaptist t e d regehr. m e n n o n i t e i n canada: - : a people t r a n s f o r m e d (toronto: u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o press, ), . c a n a d a - w i d e , the two groups were almost the same size however. j o h n a . t o e w s , h i s t o r y o f the m e n n o n i t e brethren c h u r c h (fresno: b o a r d o f c h r i s t i a n literature, general conference o f m b churches, ), . t o e w s writes that the m e n n o n i t e brethren c r i t i c i z e d the vision of the faithful community of believers. similarly, the mid-twentieth century canadian mennonite brethren felt they were being faithful to the original ideal of the community (gemeinde) of anabaptist mennonites. numerous references indicate that the mennonite brethren (mb) believed they were more true to this original vision than other mennonites were. the mbs felt quite strongly that church membership for other mennonites seemed to be a matter of birth (being born into a mennonite family) rather than a voluntary decision of rebirth. for the mennonite brethren, the experience of being "born again" resulted in eternal salvation and a visibly new life and character for the believer. the conversion experience was not considered genuine unless it was accompanied by a changed ethical life that could be observed. this remained the normative experience for mennonite brethren past the s and has historically influenced the m b relationship with other mennonite groups. since the past prejudices of the mennonite brethren toward other mennonites stood in the way of a joint venture between m b b c and c m b c in the s, the only option left open to the two colleges was the fourth one. each college developed alliances with a university to strengthen the liberal arts component of their curriculum. c m b c was the first to make these arrangements. in the school year of - , the college was able to announce that the university of manitoba had agreed to recognize the courses that c h u r c h f o r a l a c k o f v i t a l c h r i s t i a n experience and a l i v i n g , d y n a m i c faith. t h e early m b s considered f e w preachers at the time to be " c o n v e r t e d " . t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n have objected to the use o f tobacco, a l c o h o l , etc. since their inception i n . a t that time they accused other m e n n o n i t e s f o r h a v i n g l o w e r m o r a l standards. h e i n r i c h b a l z e r i n " f a i t h and r e a s o n " , translated a n d edited by r o b e r t f r i e d m a n n , m q r , x x i i ( ), notes that the m b s objected to the " p r i d e , ostentation, vanity, greed f o r money a n d lust f o r w e a l t h , avarice, drunkenness, luxury, v i c i o u s l i f e , masquerades, obscene songs, g a m b l i n g , and above a l l the miserable s m o k i n g o f tobacco" that was part o f the m e n n o n i t e lifestyle d u r i n g the s. j o h n b . t o e w s , p i l g r i m a g e o f f a i t h : t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n c h u r c h i n r u s s i a a n d n o r t h a m e r i c a ( w i n n i p e g : k i n d r e d press, ), . were equivalent in both institutions. this accreditation was lost in when the university of manitoba reorganized its relationship with its affiliated colleges and then re-established in . at that time, c m b c became an approved teaching center of the u m . (more details of this development are included in the story of c m b c as told in chapter seven.) m b b c was able to make arrangements to become affiliated with waterloo lutheran university in ontario in . in , m b b c was able to become associated with the university of winnipeg. (this story is developed more fully in chapter six.) the benefits of these affiliations and associations with the universities were promoted because they allowed younger students to begin their liberal arts studies at a mennonite college and then receive credit for them later when they went on to finish their university degree. there were benefits as well for the older students who were coming to the bible colleges with post-secondary degrees from the universities. the stronger relationship of the colleges with the universities should help these students feel that their previous educational background would be understood and respected at the schools. for both types of students, the colleges were hoping to be a place where the integration of faith and learning could take place. with accreditation in place for most of the sixties, the colleges carried the similar purpose of being both a religious and an academic community. the schools hoped to encourage a personal dialogue between the faculty and students that would confront the students with the "living issues of the twentieth century" and help them "meet the challenges of our age". the college community was there to guide and direct the c m b c catalogue, - , . regehr, . individual student toward a "fuller comprehension of the meaning and purpose of life and the fulfillment of his (or her) potential". the colleges were inviting the following students, as outlined in a solicitation brochure: . high school graduates who are looking forward to christian service. who seek an orientation in their christian life before they enter upon professional training. - who want to get their basic training in the liberal arts in a christian college. . bible school students who seek further training for christian service. - who wish to study for a b. a. in a christian atmosphere. . public school teachers who wish to enrich their teaching ministry through theological education. who want to improve their standing by enrolling in liberal arts, concurrently with biblical subjects. . professional people - who want to make their professional work more meaningful in a deeper understanding of the christian faith. . university graduates - who are not yet certain as to what the lord would have them do, and who seek a better knowledge of the scriptures. m b b c student s o l i c i t a t i o n brochure, - . who feel the call of the lord to christian service and wish to prepare themselves by the study of theology. it was the goal of the schools that students become equipped to "re-enter the larger society and make a positive contribution to the cause of christ in the place where he (or she) finds himself. in their new task of becoming university-level academic institutions, c m b c and m b b c played a crucial role in the development of the mennonite community in manitoba. the colleges played the role of "brokers" or "middlemen" - social networks that stood in the middle of the traditional community and the liberated society represented by the university. leo driedger argues that the "middlemen" social networks can bridge the gap between the two worldviews and select the best of both worlds to mold new "saved" networks in the middle. driedger states that for this to happen effectively, the brokers/middlemen must understand their community and its aspirations, be respected and accepted as legitimate leaders of their community, and at the same time also be a part of important social networks and contracts outside of their community. brokers are crucial because they can help to link independent (and frequently isolated) ethnic networks with the outside world, providing fresh opportunities. essentially, the colleges were able to open the mennonite world to the vocational and professional opportunities a university education offered while playing the vital role of redefining the boundaries of the mennonite people so total assimilation would not take place. leo driedger, mennonite sociologist and faculty member of c m b c during the m b b c brochure used f o r s o l i c i t i n g students i n - . c m b c used s i m i l a r promotions. r u d y r e g e h r , student c o u n c i l president. c m b c yearbook. - . l e o d r i e d g e r . m e n n o n i t e identity i n c o n f l i c t . ((queenston, ontario: e d w i n m e l l e n press, ), . d r i e d g e r , - . sixties, described this vital process in terms of good opening and closing in mennonite social structures. driedger argued that it was necessary to have "a continuous oscillation between relative openness and closedness" if a community is to make a "resilient adjustment to intakes of information and states of entrophy". vitality was not created by continual intake but by the ability of a social system to "open" and "close" appropriately. opening and closing can be thought of as part of the shifting process to get the most of the best information while blocking out what can be harmful. good opening occurred for the mennonite community when the gains of the new information flowing into the community assisted the development and growth of the individual and/or the social system. on the other hand, bad opening would have allowed necessary boundaries (which existed for the welfare of the system) to be transgressed, thereby creating a loss or lack of identity for the mennonites. good closing would emphasize norms, restraints and rituals that could give the mennonite a positive identity and serve as a reinforcing mechanism. bad closing, on the other hand, would overstress boundaries and restrictions, and the group, in a crisis of collective identity, would close the community to outside influences, try to protect common values, and more clearly define an enemy. the mennonite community in manitoba responded with all four categories of opening and closing during the s. as already discussed throughout this thesis, the response of mennonites to rising educational levels has historically been one of ambivalence. some members welcomed the new opportunities while others were intensely opposed to changes. acceptance, hesitation, resistance, schism and migration driedger, - . d r i e d g e r draws f r o m o r r i n k l a p p ' s work. see footnote . were the varying responses to educational innovations in the past. the academic changes proposed at the colleges now evoked a number of similar responses. as already stated, some were eager to get going. others hesitated but were soon convinced that the institutional changes proposed would not significantly threaten the original purpose of the colleges. some, however, became deeply resistant toward any move to strengthen the liberal arts component at the schools. these members were deeply convinced that too much new secular information would destroy the biblical/theological character of the colleges. for the strongly resistant members, the "overly educated" became the enemy. at the beginning of the sixties, there were not very many university trained people within the mennonite community. things were quickly changing, however, especially among urban mennonites. the dividing lines, in the community response to college developments, were generally drawn between those with more academic training and those with less formal education. at times these groups paralleled the urban/rural divisions but that was not strictly the case. those who had attended post-secondary institutions (other than the rural bible schools) generally had a different body of background information than those with less education. this created a major difference in worldview and, in a different way, each group used the common mennonite symbol system. tension, controversy and conflict became inevitable. the conflict that erupted within the mennonite community, in manitoba during the s, was not unique to the mennonites. the same difficulties were being o r r i n k l a p p . " o p e n i n g and c l o s i n g i n o p e n systems." b e h a v i o r a l sciences : - ( ), as f o u n d i n d r i e d g e r , . studies l i k e k a u f f m a n a n d harder, argue that the move to urbanization also raised the educational levels o f the m e n n o n i t e s so they were parallel devlopments rather than one b e i n g a priori to the other. experienced by various christian denominations in canada at that time. for example, john stackhouse, in his discussion of canadian evangelicalism, notes that the evangelical free church experienced a similar struggle when they founded trinity western college in . (twc later became known as trinity western university in .) quoting calvin hanson, t w c ' s first president, stackhouse wrote: ... there was a general spirit of skepticism concerning the value of higher education as evidenced by flippant and disparaging remarks which made fun of college degrees. it was apparently felt by many that a university education was quite incompatible with a strong and warm commitment to jesus christ. furthermore, because many of the university educated clergy were within the liberal church element a kind of cause and effect relationship was summarily assumed between one's training and one's doctrine. parochial institutions offering a higher education are often caught in the middle of a conflict between two groups of people with differing sets of information. during the sixties, conflict within religious denominations was often one between theology professors, the professional clergy and church bureaucrats on the one hand, and the common folk on the other. the problem centered on the fact that while both groups of people had an allegiance to a common symbol system of their religious faith, each group now attributed entirely different meanings to that symbol system. often the one group, consisting of theology professors, publications' editors, directors of boards of social concerns and others in the bureaucratic structure constitute the official version of a c a l v i n h a n s o n , o n the r a w e d g e o f f a i t h ; t h e t r i n i t y story. i n c l u d e d i n j o h n stackhouse jr., c a n a d i a n e v a n g e l i c a l i s m i n the t w e n t i e t h century: a n introduction to its character (toronto: u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o press, ), . jeffrey k . h a d d e n , t h e g a t h e r i n g storm i n the churches (garden c i t y , n . y . : d o u b l e d a y , ). religion while the common lay folk practice a localized, or non-official, version of the faith. this was clearly the situation in both of the mb and cmc communities. faculty, board members, and students were usually concerned with developing, defending and elaborating a reasoned theology and ethics professional group is usually concerned with protecting, preserving and elaborating the theology and ethics of the mennonite faith, while others wanted to preserve the faith by maintaining the traditional culture and customs. the theological elite developed the theology, which was to be logically consistent and coherent, even if it could not be directly related to the everyday experiences of the laity. biblical stories, for example, were sometimes demythologized and/or remythologized to support the logical coherence of the new theology. the revised version was often too rational, professional and sterile to provide a convincing system of meaning for the average person. while modern theology could offer a logical worldview it did not necessarily generate an ethos that produced a vibrant and alive religion, without special effort. in addition to formulating a logical theology, the faculty and students of the bible colleges also worked at making their faith relevant for other cultures and peoples. the theology and the ethical principles of the faith were articulated in such a way that the faith did not appear as culture bound. there was a desire to emphasize the principles of the faith, that had universal appeal, and to downplay some of the values and attitudes, that were specific to mennonites only. the traditional version of the mennonite faith may, on the other hand, involved a synthesis of the historic faith with ethnic customs, keith a.roberts, religion in sociological perspective (chicago: dorsey press, ), - . roberts, - . values, and beliefs. existing concepts of morality were supported and reinforced by previous interpretations of religious stories and symbols. in some cases, the ethnocentric biases of a community was so strong the traditional version of the religion was considered to be the only true understanding of the faith. while a good number within the mennonite community in manitoba supported the traditional version of the mennonite faith during the s, the colleges needed to move in the direction of increased rationalization and critical assessment of traditional ideas if they wished to maintain association with the universities. faculty at both colleges attempted to articulate a theology that was intellectually satisfying, and able to move beyond some of the ethnocentric biases of the mennonite community. these efforts put pressures on the some constituents to stretch out of their traditions, many of which they still found meaningful. many of the mennonites with less formal education did not find the answers provided by the trained professionals to be applicable to their lives. those, however, who had experienced the challenges of secular post-secondary education and/or a professional career, welcomed the discussions and changes taking place at the schools as necessary for the future survival of a mennonite identity in an urban setting. a considerable gap was growing between those with less formal education and those with a college/university education. these two groups literally had a different worldview and yet they shared the same church conferences. members attended individual church congregations that promoted one ideology over another but, at the m b and/or c m c conference level, they needed to come together at least once a year to make corporate decisions concerning their schools. while the potential for disagreement lay in roberts, - . numerous areas, when conflicts arose between those with a higher education and their less educated fellow members, the colleges was frequently blamed for the disagreements. the focus turned to the schools because often faculty members and students became vocal representatives of those who had adapted their theology and ethics to fit a more modern worldview. for example, life in the modern, urban world led to the reevaluation of traditional ethical ideals. m b b c continued to ask their students to abstain from smoking, drinking, gambling, movie attendance and social dancing and c m b c generally affirmed similar ethical ideals till the end of the sixties but there were indications that those who were more educated did not uniformly agree with all of the traditional standards. those with more education argued they had changed their mind, not because they were losing their ethical standards, but, rather, because they now recognized that traditional ethical standards were secondary to a new set of ethical principles they had discerned in their study of scripture. those with higher educational backgrounds generally believed that racial tolerance, political participation and the willingness to share in the ministry of the church were more essential to an ethical life than some of the traditional mandates which included no smoking, drinking of alcoholic beverages or social dancing. the following tables have been complied from a survey conducted throughout five mennonite and brethren in christ denominations in and represent some of these disparities between groups with different levels of formal education. generally, it can be observed that opposition to smoking, drinking, gambling, dancing and premarital sexual relations, and other vices that the churches traditionally taught against decreased with rising educational levels. mennonite and b r e t h r e n in christ denominations t a b l e : l e v e l o f s c h o o l i n g s a m p l i n g # a g e g r o u p s g r a d e s c h o o l h i g h c o l l e g e p o s t - c o l l e g e ( ) - . % . . . ( ) - . % . . . ( ) & over . . . . t a b l e : m o r a l o p i n i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s g r a d e s c h o o l h i g h c o l l e g e p o s t - c o l l e g e believe it is always wrong to: d r i n k a l c o h o l i c beverage . . . . s m o k e tobacco . . . . a t t e n d adult m o v i e s . . . . e n g a g e i n premarital sex . . . . e n g a g e i n h o m o s e x u a l sex . . . . g a m b l e . . . . d a n c e s o c i a l l y . . . . t a b l e : r e l i g i o s i t y a n d e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s w h e n y o u m a k e decisions i n y o u r everyday l i f e , h o w often do y o u ask y o u r s e l f w h a t g o d w o u l d want y o u to do (often) other than mealtime, h o w often do y o u pray p r i v a t e l y (daily) d o the members o f y o u r house- h o l d have f a m i l y w o r s h i p ( y e s ) o n the average, h o w often have y o u attended c h u r c h w o r s h i p services (once a week) d o y o u attend sunday s c h o o l every sunday possible (yes) d o y o u presendy h o l d , or have h e l d w i t h i n the past three years, a positions o f leadership i n y o u r l o c a l congregation (yes) i believe g o d created the earth and a l l l i v i n g creatures i n s i x hour days (definitely) g r a d e s c h o o l h i g h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c o l l e g e . . . . . . . p o s t - c o l l e g e . . . . . . . t a b l e : s o c i a l & p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t g r a d e h i g h c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e / p r o f e s s i o n a l t h e c h r i s t i a n s h o u l d take no part i n w a r (agree) . . . . a l t h o u g h there is no essential difference between b l a c k s and whites, it is preferable f o r them not to m i n g l e s o c i a l l y (disagree) . . . . t h e national government s h o u l d take every opportunity to stamp out c o m m u n i s m at home & abroad (disagree) . . . . a c h u r c h member s h o u l d not j o i n a labor u n i o n even i f getting or h o l d i n g a j o b depends o n u n i o n membership (agree) . . . . there are certain offices i n our government the tasks o f w h i c h a true c h r i s t i a n c o u l d not i n clear conscience p e r f o r m (agree) . . . . the tables above summarize some of the basic differences in opinion between those with less or more education. for example, table and indicate that those with a college degree were much less likely to believe that some traditional restrictions should still be upheld. this did not mean that those with higher educational levels were less religious, however. conversely, they prayed more frequently, attended church more regularly and held positions of leadership with their churches. a marked difference is also noted in how the more highly educated groups understood some of the biblical stories. for example, exposure to broader theological arguments, which responded to t h i s data was c o l l e c t e d i n w h e n the m e n n o n i t e brethren and c o m were surveyed as t w o o f f i v e m e n n o n i t e and b r e t h r e n i n c h r i s t denominations. it was subsequently a n a l y z e d and s u m m a r i z e d i n h o w a r d k a u f m a r m and l e l a n d harder, anabaptists f o u r centuries l a t e r (scottsdale: h e r a l d press, ) and peter h . h a m m , c o n t i n u i t y a n d change (waterloo: w i l f r e d l a u r i e r u n i v e r s i t y press, ). b o t h sources have been used to develop this c o m p i l a t i o n o f data. scientific observations, led many of those with advanced education to differ with the more literal, traditional conclusion that god created the world in six hour days. table reveals that there were also some differences in how those with varying educational backgrounds viewed social and political participation. all community prejudices were exposed to critical assessment. therefore, racial tolerance, for example, was especially high among those with a college degree. correlating table with table i indicates that over % of those with a college degree at the time of the survey ( ) were between the ages of - . the younger generation had been exposed a social environment, during the sixties, that had made great strides in breaking down traditional, but irrational, prejudices. age may have played a factor in other areas of the survey. fifty-two percent of those surveyed with a grade school education belonged to the older generation of age sixty and over. many in this group tended to be the most conservative and, as they feared, this survey proved that many of their traditional opinions were being challenged as younger members received higher levels of education. there appeared to be a marked change in the ethical opinion of those with more or less formal education and therefore those who favored the traditional way continued to believe that higher education was destroying the moral fabric of the mennonite churches. the voice of the traditional group was being increasingly challenged, according to table , as more members with a higher education were holding leadership positions within the churches, where they offered their counter-arguments. positive development of the mennonite faith at this significant point would require co-operation on the part of all members. good opening and closing would allow for educational development while re-defining and reinforcing the mennonite identity. as leaders, the educated church members and the church schools were cautioned not to deepen the gaps between those with more or less of an education within their constituencies and encouraged to become bridge builders between the two groups. as such, they provided challenging leadership at a time when the community, as a whole, was encouraged to reexamine its traditional ethnic religious beliefs and to exchange a "superficial compliance which may be nothing more than lingering conformity to an outdated standard" with authentic obedience to g o d . some had confidence that m b b c and c m b c would be able to assist the mennonite community as they attempted the reexamination of their traditional faith in a modern time and setting. j o h n h . r e d e k o p , " t h e influence o f r i s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s " , d i r e c t i o n ( ), . c h a p t e r six the mennonite brethren bible college i n t r o d u c t i o n : vern was a tall, handsome, canadian mennonite teenager. he grew up a pre- dominantly mennonite small town during the s. the town was located less than a hundred kilometers from a major canadian city but retained a distinctively rural character because miles of farmland lay between the main street of vern's hometown and the bustling metropolis a hour's drive away. vern attended a local mennonite brethren church, and the private mennonite high school in town. he was better known as a athlete than for any other outstanding quality and so when it came time for vern to graduate in , he wasn't sure what direction to take next. he considered his options and chose to attend m b b c , in the city of winnipeg. vern did not have any clear professional or vocational goals at the time but he thought that attending the mennonite brethren college would be a good choice for a number of reasons. he looked forward to living in the city because he found life in his small town to be somewhat limiting. he anticipated meeting other mennonite young people who he hoped would share some of his interests. in particular, he was excited to meet all the professors at the college. at that time, the faculty of m b b c was well-known throughout the mennonite brethren community, and vern respected their academic prowess and stature within the constituency. he hoped some of their "greatness", as he called it, would rub off on him. vern was not content to follow the small-town mentality he grew up with. he had always felt he was "different" from most of his buddies who were content to go into farming, or to stay in town to get a job and get married. he wanted more but he wasn't sure what that was. going away to a city college helped to set vern apart from his friends, and he remembers the respect he received when he returned at christmas: you know, when i left for m b b c in the fall, i don't think anyone in my home church would have thought twice about asking me to speak from the pulpit. i mean, who was i? a eighteen-year old guy who could only think about playing basketball - so why would they give any special notice to a guy like that for church work. but, you know, it was so interesting. i returned home for christmas from bible college, and the pastor immediately asked me to say a few words in front of the whole church. from that point on, i was considered to be in preparation for church leadership, and the church was eager to help me along the way. i never looked back - the course had been set. in the s, vern, along with many of his fellow classmates in the s are well- known personalities within the mennonite brethren community. a quick glance through one of the yearbooks of the early sixties parallels the "who's who" of the nineties. sarah klassen was a graduate of m b b c in . she stayed in winnipeg where she spent years teaching high school while becoming a prolific poet. sarah joined a small number of fellow mennonite artists (emerging during and after the sixties) in a controversial literary examination of their community. the poetry and fictional works of these artists began to deliberately deconstruct the existing mennonite self-image, exposing what lay behind the traditional facade. these artists were, at times, severely interview material gathered o n n o v e m b e r , from v e r n heidebrecht, a w e l l - k n o w n pastor o f n o r t h v i e w m b , a b b o t s f o r d , b . c . , one o f the largest m b churches i n c a n a d a i n the s. criticized for their work because it seemed secular and irreverent. their artistic expressions, however, served as a powerful way of telling the mennonite story. in one of her poems, sarah vividly portrays the life of the s russian immigrants to canada as they struggled to make a new life for themselves in the urban setting of winnipeg. the poem dramatizes the establishment of a religious community within a new and challenging setting. sarah's fellow mennonite brethren needed to be reminded of that possibility as they faced the prospect of maintaining their religious faith in the midst of the modern and secular era of the sixties. a brief history of edison avenue when you find it the promised land is a narrow river of mud that wraps itself like glue around your russian boots and bicycle wheels. the fierce sun grinds it to a dust the wind flings howling in your face. winters your children get lost in its white raging. trees are enemies you didn't expect you must take the axe to their trunks burn out their everlasting roots. evenings you will dream of the lost paradise. wind breathing through gold-bright wheatfields, fragrance of apple orchards in spring. you will pore over pictures of majestic horses you harnessed to your sunday carriages, camels, herds of fat cattle. such dreaming must be unlearned you must never forget god brought you here to tend one tethered cow a small barnful of leghorns a kitchen garden where the trees grew. he wants you to love him in a clapboard church you build when you've made the long way home from peddling onions eggs your first ripe corn to the ladies in river heights. you will purify your flesh, scrub from it the sweat of foundries and sewing factories purge from your soul the street car's jangling. joined with the saints yearning in fixed rows for worthiness, you will listen to the choir singing (in four-part harmony, in german, a capella) about camelian, topaz, dazzling rubies that adorn the new jerusalem, god's shimmering bride beyond the wide crystal river, its fertile banks moist and cool in the shade of green cedars forever. sarah and vern, along with many of the graduates of m b b c , went on to become active leaders within the mennonite brethren church community, as well as outside of it. during the s, students were encouraged to interact in all aspects of contemporary canadian life in light of the mennonite brethren mandate to "take the gospel into all the world". those associated with m b b c helped to define and defend this mission, straining the historical m b ideal of communal unity. a number of fears and tensions were exposed as the community discussed institutional changes at the college. these discussions are the basis for this chapter. "unity of t h e b r o t h e r h o o d " a n d institutional d e v e l o p m e n t s historically, mennonites have always gathered together for conferences at which time they make corporate decisions. areas of concern and criticism would be raised by various members and then discussed with the hopes of reaching a consensus. discussions at the conference of the mennonite brethren church of north america in revealed a new fear that had emerged within the community. the mennonite brethren had always valued the "unity of the brotherhood'' as a community distinctive and now it seemed that this unity was being threatened by a burgeoning diversity within the group. during the mid-twentieth century, cohesion within the mennonite brethren community had rapidly diminished because of the loss of solidarity in beliefs and values. conference minutes from indicate that unprecedented "educational opportunities" were considered to be partially responsible. at that time it was strongly stated that educational advancements had introduced "organizational and instructional" policies which were "seriously weakening" the "unity in church polity and practice". this major concern was linked to the loss of the traditional selection of leadership from within the congregation. lay ministers were being quickly replaced by pastoral "professionals" who were being educated and trained in divergent educational institutions. the broadening of educational backgrounds was seen as contributing to an increasing sarah k l a s s e n , " a b r i e f history o f e d i s o n a v e n u e " , i n c l u d e d i n a c t s o f c o n c e a l m e n t : mennonite(s') w r i t i n g i n canada. h i l d a froese t i e s s e n and peter h i n c h c l i f f e , eds. (waterloo: u n i v e r s i t y o f w a t e r l o o "indefiniteness and difference(s) of interpretation" and a "hesitancy in accepting defined statements of ethical, social and spiritual standards" necessary for the maintenance of a mennonite brethren people who could be "separated" from the world. the theological diversity was amply demonstrated in the conference enumeration of the denominations and schools at which m b church workers had received their training. the alliance, lutheran, baptist (southern and swedish), presbyterian, interdenominational, grace, moody, conservative baptist, california baptist, pasadena college (pentecostal), phillips university, princeton theological seminary, united seminary were all cited. unlisted were other schools which mennonite brethren had recently attended: winona lake, southwestern baptist, central baptist, northwestern evangelical university of western ontario, hartford seminary, united college (winnipeg), western baptist, northern baptist, and perhaps others. it was time to do something about this problem. it was strongly suggested that mennonite brethren should be able to offer a competitive, quality education to their members so that they would not need to attend these other institutions. this, in fact, had been the specific purpose of the canadian mennonite brethren when they founded m b b c in . now it seemed more needed to be done. after , numerous discussions took place about the possibility of developing a seminary program at the college to meet the new need. this option was nearly press, ), - . r e p o r t o f the f o r t y - f i f t h g e n e r a l conference o f the m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n c h u r c h o f n o r t h a m e r i c a . j u l y - , w i n k l e r , m a n i t o b a , canada. " a statement to the c o n f e r e n c e " presented by the b o a r d o f reference and c o u n s e l . c o m m e n t s related to this statement are raised i n the i n t r o d u c t i o n to p a u l t o e w s , ed., b r i d g i n g t r o u b l e d waters (fresno: center f o r m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n studies, ). r e p o r t o f the f o r t y - f i f t h general conference o f the m b c h u r c h o f n a . " s u m m a r i z e d r e p o r t o f the m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n conference seminary c o m m i s s i o n " , - : p a u l t o e w s , ed., b r i d g i n g t r o u b l e d waters: t h e m e n n o n i t e brethren at m i d - t w e n t i e t h century ( w i n n i p e g : k i n d r e d press, ). eliminated, however, when the north american conference of the mennonite brethren decided to open a seminary for church leadership development in fresno, california. it seemed unlikely that the m b community in north america could support two schools that carried similar purposes. this meant that m b b c was free to develop in another direction. until , the original objective of the college had not been changed. it continued to be driven by the aims of a bible college even though it had a liberal arts component. the immediate goal of the school was to "prepare students for an effective witness in specific christian ministries but also for a witness of informed and committed disciples in the general stream of life" even when the college became officially affiliated with the waterloo lutheran university in , the college board reassured the church constituency that this arrangement would not affect the bible college objective of m b b c . a significant change did take place, however, because of this affiliation. since the university could not be affiliated with a bible college, m b b c needed to divide into two separate entities - the mennonite brethren bible college and the mennonite brethren college of arts - the latter of which signed the articles of agreement with waterloo lutheran university. this administrative division between the bible college courses and the liberal arts offerings raised questions within the constituency. n o t everyone was happy w i t h this decision. j . a . t o e w s , i n particular, thought that it w o u l d be great i f m b b c c o u l d be b o t h a c a n a d i a n seminary and a l i b e r a l a r t s c o l l e g e . h e was unhappy w i t h the idea that c a n a d i a n pastors w o u l d be trained i n a n a m e r i c a n environment, even i f it was m b . f c . peters, " t o w a r d s a p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n at the m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n b i b l e c o l l e g e " , taken f r o m the m i n u t e s o f m e e t i n g s o f the c o l l e g e boards ( ). t h e association between the m b c o l l e g e a n d the university was described to the m b constituency i n the f o l l o w i n g w a y : a f f i l i a t i o n i s the c a n a d i a n approach to " a c c r e d i t a t i o n " on the university l e v e l . c o l l e g e s are accepted into a f f i l i a t i o n b y a chartered university have membership i n the n a t i o n a l conference o f c a n a d i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d c o l l e g e s . s u c h colleges then accept the c u r r i c u l u m o f those university a n d entrance requirements, faculty appointments, a n d course examinations as supervised b y the university. s u c h credit is then readily transferable to other institutions i n canada. m b b c school catalogue ( ), . some constituency members became concerned that the new affiliation with waterloo lutheran university would lead to an emphasis on the arts that could overshadow the theological dimensions of the school. these members raised their questions at a number of conferences that convened in the early sixties. those in favor of the proposed changes reassured the hesitant members that the new developments would be beneficial for m b students. faculty of m b b c , in particular, welcomed the college affiliation with the university. they encouraged the constituency that this was a practical opportunity for students to transfer some of the credits they earned at m b b c to other educational institutions in canada. to calm the fears of those who worried that the school would no longer be producing church workers, each of the three college presidents, during the sixties, cited statistics to demonstrate the high number of graduates who became directly involved in the work of the church. during this period of time, statistics were also cited to verify that students were responding to the opportunity of achieving a bachelor of arts degree in a mennonite environment. the student needs were presented as outweighing the concerns of more conservative members. between - , graduates of the college attained a b a . sixty-two of these degrees were earned outside of m b b c since the school only began to offer its own b a degree in , however, the additional thirteen students were able to graduate with a bachelor of arts degree from m b b c between - . until , the presidents and faculty of m b b c were actively supportive of program changes that would enhance the liberal arts component at the college. they, along with a substantial number of influential supporters, believed that a move in this direction would help m b b c school catalogue, , . see a p p e n d i x c strengthen the mennonite brethren church spiritually as it rapidly became more modernized and encountered a broader worldview. the challenge would be to adapt key aspects of the mennonite brethren identity for contemporary relevance while retaining the confidence of those within the community who did not see a need for change. those who favored institutional change were well aware of their critics and m b b c faculty, for example, used a number of public opportunities to offer their proactive arguments. these arguments often became part of official community records. conversely, many of those who feared the changes held no official power within the mennonite brethren church during the early sixties, and the arguments they raised were often veiled in the official records. church members, reflecting on the disagreements of this time, spoke of those who questioned change in relatively generic terms. the group was not well-defined and there was no organized leadership for the dissenting voices. individuals who raised their concerns on the conference floor were not named but merely included in a brief mention that some discussion had followed the presentations of those officially invited to speak. most of those who spoke at the conferences and/or wrote for the monthly church publication, the mennonite brethren herald , held positions of power and leadership in the community. these public records indicate that many of the leaders in the m b community favored the proposed developments at m b b c . the general substance of the opposing arguments can be inferred from the responses the leaders offered. a direct indication of how many members favored changes at the college can be deferred from the decisions made at the conferences. a significant majority vote was needed to make an official institutional change. therefore, when a decision in favor of change was made at the annual conference, it can be assumed that the majority of m b s were ready to move in that direction. based on communal records of the s, it becomes clear that most m b members wanted to retain some of the original ideals that had given the community a unique identity since the s. the point of disagreement lay in the arguments of how community values could best be preserved. as already indicated, one group of m b s believed that the implementation of change and the adaptation of key ideals were crucial for mennonite life in the modern era. another group of members feared that any significant change could completely disintegrate the m b ethos. discussions about institutional development at the mennonite brethren bible college during the s reflected the debate between these two groups. since the m b community cherished the ideal of corporate unity, a great deal of effort was exerted to bring church members to an agreement about the identity and tasks of m b b c . essentially, three distinct community ideals were highlighted to encourage the support of all the members as mennonite brethren tried to decide which direction their college should take. first, the primary emphasis on being converted or "born again" (which originally led to the schismatic separation of the mennonite brethren from the larger mennonite church in ) continued to be called upon as the basis for mennonite brethren identity a century later. second, the mennonite brethren continued to believe that a genuine conversion experience led to an inner transformation that was demonstrated in an ethical lifestyle. any individual could be transformed into part of the "genuine people of god" by becoming converted to christianity. third, the mennonite brethren actively promoted the benefits of good church education. during the nineteenth century, the purpose of church education was to produce a higher spiritual and intellectual caliber of leader for work within the mennonite brethren community. during the s, all members remained confident that the church school should produce good leaders. the controversy lay in what kind of leader the college should produce. those who resisted institutional changes wanted the school to continue with the specific task of providing the community with dedicated church workers. in response, the group favoring an increased liberal arts component began to argue that the purpose of a good mennonite brethren education was to prepare every student for the task of spiritual leadership in north american society, regardless of their vocation or profession. since increasing numbers of mennonite brethren were becoming active within the domain of larger canadian society, it was argued that the primary ideals of conversion, ethical transformation and education should be articulated for a broader social context and not limited to the m b community. new or adapted interpretations were needed to provide a spiritual foundation for the practical desire of mennonites who were already participating in the burgeoning vocational and professional opportunities in canada. m b b c attracted a good number of older students who had already received some training at a university or professional school. many of these had been involved in a variety of careers before attending m b b c . the purposes of the college, as described above, appealed to those who wished to continue working within their chosen professions after their time at the college. the average age of students attending m b b c , during the s, was or years of age. many of students arrived at m b b c with some post- secondary education because admission to the bachelor of theology program at m b b c required at least two years of university training. similarly, the bachelor of divinity j . h . q u i r i n g . r e p o r t o f the president to the m b conference, - j u l y , - . see a p p e n d i x e . program appealed to the older student because it was specifically designed for those already involved in church work who now wanted to upgrade their education. o f the students at m b b c , during the year - , sixty-two had attended university. thirty- three of these students had been engaged in teaching, eleven were nurses and ten were either ministers or involved in the mission work of the church. sixty-three of the students had some bible school training. bible college was considered, by some, as a finishing school for work in both the church and the community. increasingly, the college presented the professional career as having the same religious integrity as work within the church. the secular world was now a new frontier for evangelistic efforts and the secular career was seen as a new opportunity to meet those who needed to hear the christian message. church members were encouraged to get out into the world with the gospel of jesus christ so that many of their fellow canadians could be converted or "born again". it appeared that the threat of secularization could be significantly diminished if members viewed their involvement in the secular world as a sacred "mission field" rather than just an opportunity to make social and economic advances. the mandate left by jesus christ to - "go into all the world and make disciples"- was now interpreted to include the secular workplace as well as the foreign mission field. consequently, all members were encouraged to participate in this primary goal, not just those who were involved in local church leadership or in missions. the new social realities raised arguments for a revised corporate confession of faith and a contemporary ethical code for the mennonite brethren community. some d a v i d e w e r t , " n e w c o l l e g e president talks about his hopes" m b h e r a l d ( n o v . , ), . m a t t h e w . became deeply convinced that not all of the traditional norms were suitable for the new environment. these members believed that a more fitting religious and moral standard needed to be developed. these discussions escalated throughout the sixties and majority decisions in favor of change were negotiated. for example, in , the decision to revise the confession of faith was made by the general conference of mennonite brethren in north america. then in , a record crowd of mennonite brethren gathered in clearbrook, british columbia, for the annual convention of the mennonite brethren conference of canada to discuss the reformulation of the m b ethical standards. while a good number of members agreed that some of the older mandates were irrelevant for the sixties, it was recognized by most that changes would need to be made carefully, and only by consensus. it was strongly feared that group unity would be severely damaged if each member were suddenly given the individual freedom to decide which beliefs or ethical standard he, or she, would adopt. there were those who argued, however, that some action was necessary. they hoped that the religious and ethical relativism prevalent in general society could be curtailed within the m b community with the development and articulation of an appropriate set of contemporary community standards. generally, all mennonite brethren affirmed the importance of being set apart from secular society's values and norms. most agreed that the mbs, as a christian community, should reflect ideals that differed from their non-christian neighbors. discussions centered on how the objective of community distinctiveness could best be j . b . t o e w s . p i l g r i m a g e o f f a i t h : t h e m e n n o n i t e brethren c h u r c h - (fresno, w i n n i p e g , h i l l s b o r o : centres f o r m e n n o n i t e brethren studies, ), . y e a r b o o k o f the c a n a d i a n m b conference, . achieved and what the distinctions should be. the college became involved in the task of addressing these questions because most mbs agreed that the role of a parochial institution included defining and maintaining the community ethos. traditional mennonite brethren members believed that the college was encouraging too much participation with the outside world. surely this would lead to the relativization of traditional mennonite beliefs and values. while this group may have agreed that the purpose of the christian church was to evangelize the world, they were more concerned that "worldly" values would seduce some members. during the sixties, many mennonites in manitoba still relied on a distinct identity which included an enmeshment of ethnic, social and religious values. the cohesion and insularity provided by a primarily rural environment had helped to maintain a distinct traditional identity for years. some now feared that direct involvement in the modern world would destroy this unity, leaving nothing substantial behind. genuine anxiety was expressed about whether it was possible to have a mennonite religious faith outside of ethnic and geographical boundaries. those who argued for an expanded worldview needed to articulate how a unified religious faith could be preserved in the new environment before hesitant members would be convinced that greater involvement in canadian society was worth the risk. this became the task of many faculty members at m b b c . defining a n d d e f e n d i n g t h e n e w mission of m b b c : during the fifties and sixties, the faculty of m b b c held a substantial degree of respect and leadership within the mennonite brethren community. a good number of students were attracted to the college because of the great admiration they held for their instructors. some faculty members were regularly invited to preach in the m b churches across canada and this gave young people a chance to be exposed to the college. peter hamm, a student who later became a faculty member at m b b c , recalls how meaningful his time at the college was. although i took other biblical training besides the two years at m b b c , no other training seemed to meet my needs so specifically and productively. these years gave stability and direction to my life, and while all theological matters were by no means settled, a certain theological orientation was acquired which enabled me to live with some uncertainties... while denominational loyalty was involuntarily cultivated, one did in fact come away with a fairly open theology, without being narrowly sectarian. and such a preparation for life was valuable. hamm was not alone in expressing these thoughts and feelings. as this chapter's introductory stories indicate, some young people, like bob, found their time at the college opened doors to church ministry that they would not have been possible otherwise. many of the m b b c graduates during the sixties continued to work within the m b church for the rest of their lives. others, like sarah, welcomed their time at the college because it gave them an opportunity to develop a more open way of viewing the mennonite community. while sarah's freedom to critically assess her faith is evident in her poetry, she continues to actively support the college till today. in particular, students of that decade comment on the influence of the faculty of m b b c in shaping their lives. the role of the faculty was so significant that the voice of the students was overshadowed by their strong presence. during the sixties, the faculty of m b b c was meant to be competent in the classroom as well as in the pulpit and in conference positions. collectively, they were a powerful group within the m b church. individually, they represented a variety of theological opinion and personality types. students reflect on the fact that some were stern and academic, others more easy-going and pastoral, some quite casual and entertaining. all, however, demonstrated a personal warmth and interest in the individual students that made up the small student body of under two hundred. the variety within the faculty meant that students from differing backgrounds could often find someone with whom they identified. students at the college represented the two constituent groups outlined above - those who wanted the school to train church workers and those who appreciated m b b c ' s links to the standards of the university. some students attended the school to receive training for practical work within the church and held a suspicious view of academia while other students were university graduates and thoroughly enjoyed the scholarly emphasis at the college. while individual students would share their reflections about the college within their local churches there is no record of their involvement in the debates about the school's direction during the sixties. dissension on campus was limited by a number of factors. first, many of the students were older (in their mid-twenties) and given credit by those leading the college for raising "the standards of conduct and of instruction by their maturity, wider experience, greater intellectual demands and their peter m . h a m m . r e f l e c t i o n o n my journey ( a b b o t s f o r d : s e l f - p u b l i s h e d , ), . h a m m , - . h a m m , - . t h i s changed i n later decades w h e n , f o r example, the students rose up to contest the d i s c i p l i n e o f a faculty member f o r " l i b e r a l " theology i n the s. ill manifest purpose in life". second, the conduct of the students was carefully regulated to insure that the school body was as unified as possible. all students were "obligated to maintain a high standard of christian conduct". the use of tobacco and intoxicants was prohibited, as were other "questionable amusements, card playing, dancing (and) theaters of any kind" that "might defile mind and body and bring reproach upon the christian testimony of the individual and the college". as well, "for the purpose of maintaining the highest social and ethical standards of christian principles", the college required all women students to wear a uniform consisting of a navy jumper and a blouse of their own choice, as long as it did not have a low neck line nor sleeves shorter than elbow length. for public meetings, female students were expected to wear three-quarter or full-length sleeves. the college reserved the right to dismiss any student who did not conform to "the spiritual and ethical standards of christian conduct as accepted by the college". the general conduct rules stayed in place throughout the sixties, however, the uniform requirement was dropped in - . it appears that students may have been complaining about the need for women to wear uniforms, causing the school to change this policy. in a letter to a faculty member, the new president of m b b c in , victor adrian, wrote, "we have revised some of our policies ... and our pattern of approach to the students here. it seems to me it should work much smoother next year". the shift of policy at the time of adrian's arrival will be examined in more detail at the end of this chapter. essentially, however, student conduct at m b b c , throughout the sixties, was j . h . q u i r i n g , r e p o r t o f the president to the m b conference, - j u l y , - . m b b c s c h o o l catalogues f r o m - t i l l - reveal that the conduct rules were unchanged during those twenty years. in the - catalogue the w o r d i n g was changed but the essential c o n d u c t rules were unchanged a n d f a i l u r e to c o m p l y carried the same penalty. a l l m b b c catalogues throughout the sixties. l a s t part o f the quote taken f r o m - catalogue, . m b b c catalogues - t i l l - . quote taken f r o m - catalogue, . m b b c catalogue - , . t h e c o l l e g e continued this p o l i c y throughout the sixties. carefully regulated according to the biblical mandate included in the student handbook ( - ): study to show thyself approved unto god, a workman that needth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth. ii timothy : students were responsible to reflect the vision and ideals of the college while they attended m b b c . meanwhile, the mission of m b b c would be defined and defended by the predominant voice of the college faculty. a notable mennonite brethren leader engaged in these discussions during the sixties was john a. toews. toews was the president of m b b c during - and was a faculty member at the college for twenty years. toews was deeply influential in furthering the liberal arts program at the college while maintaining a strong theological presence within the church conference. toews was at the helm of the college during the exciting period of growth and development at the end of the s as faculty began imagining the possibilities for expansion. a number of faculty members returned to school during the summer months or in the evenings to pursue the higher academic degrees they needed to earn now that the college was working on accreditation with the university. j. a. toews also returned to ph.d. studies at the university of minnesota ( - ) while he served as president and teaching faculty member at m b b c . in his keynote address at the centennial celebration of the m b church, toews drew comparisons between the m b church of and . he expressed his concern that the current generation, as the third generation of mbs, would lose the presidential correspondence o f v i c t o r a d r i a n to peter k l a s s e n , j u l y . a n increased academic l e v e l was required o f the m b b c professors, especially w h e n efforts were made to a l i g n w i t h the university accreditation. in , none o f the faculty at m b b c h e l d a doctorate degree and only one h a d a masters. b y , however, most h e l d either a m a s t e r o f a r t s degree or a m a s t e r o f essence of the original dynamic faith and retain only the form because this often happened in the third generation of other religious movements. he reiterated his concern that various other religious influences had effected the m b views in a negative way and called all members to restore the true mennonite brethren faith. toews believed that the time had come for the mennonite brethren to restore their relationship with the larger mennonite community. he preferred this association to the ones some mennonite brethren had forged with fundamentalist/evangelical groups in canada. toews feared that alliances with other evangelical groups would pull the m b s even further away from their anabaptist mennonite roots which he believed were uniquely able to "bear witness to the truth as it is in christ for such a time as this". to show his support for the larger mennonite community, toews attended the mennonite world conference of . this conference was held with the specific intention "to bring the mennonites of the world together". a number of his m b colleagues disagreed with toews' decision to attend because participation in the mennonite world conference required m b association with liberal-minded european mennonite theologians. generally, the m b members who criticized toews were more comfortable associating with other non-mennonite evangelical groups than they were participating with fellow mennonites who held a broad range of theological opinions. increasingly, it was the more highly educated mennonite brethren who realized that it was possible to be engaged with a variety of mennonite groups and mennonite thought, t h e o l o g y degree, t w o faculty members had earned a p h . d . and other faculty members were engaged i n doctoral studies. e l f r i e d a t o e w s n a f z i g e r , a m a n o f h i s w o r d : a b i o g r a p h y o f j o h n a . t o e w s ( w i n n i p e g : c h r i s t i a n press, ), - . " t h e c a l l to b e a r w i t n e s s " , c o r n e l i u s j . d y c k , ed., t h e l o r d s h i p o f c h r i s t : p r o c e e d i n g s o f the seventh m e n n o n i t e w o r l d conference, - a u g u s t (elkhart, i n : m e n n o n i t e w o r l d conference, ) - . without the fear of compromise. they too had been exposed to a diversity of theological opinions during their educational careers. david ewert, another prominent faculty member at m b b c during the sixties, also attended the mennonite world conference in august, . he returned with some strong words for the m b constituency, (which were published half a year later in the m b herald). ewert suggested that the m b church needed to have the "nobility of soul to acknowledge what god had wrought in other branches of the mennonite faith". according to ewert, the world conference had provided a setting in which some of the m b weaknesses had become obvious. first, he stated that the m b s needed to realize that did not have a monopoly on theological insight. mennonite brethren were fooling themselves if they believed that god had reserved certain areas of divine revelation just for the m b church. ewert argued that it was obvious there were many other mennonites who were also sincerely seeking to be faithful to the word of god. secondly, ewert said he became aware of the fact that many of the mennonite brethren members in attendance at the conference could not carry on a theological conversation without becoming polemical. at that time he wrote: the only explanation i can give for this is, that they have become accustomed to their own views and have little use for the other's opinion, and, therefore, feel called to defend biblical truth, which quite often means their understanding of the bible. some have read mainly the kind of theological literature which moves in the old fundamentalist-liberal spirit of controversy, and so they f o r e w o r d to t h e l o r d s h i p o f christ, . see a p p e n d i x b . t h e h e r a l d was a m b c h u r c h p u b l i c a t i o n that was sent to every member o f the constituency. d a v i d e w e r t was a key m b leader a n d d u r i n g the s he became president o f m b b c . d a v i d e w e r t , " w h a t w e m i g h t l e a r n f r o m the m e n n o n i t e w o r l d c o n f e r e n c e " m b h e r a l d feb. , . tend to be suspicious of every theological statement that comes from other circles. ewert continued with his criticism of the mennonite brethren who were too quick to attach labels to those who belong to other denominational communities. he also warned that the mbs should not believe they had "always and everywhere guarded the truth of god in all its purity". david ewert chastised the church for its arrogance and self-centeredness and articulated a new mennonite brethren vision in his third point. he challenged the mennonite brethren to confess its error and to take up the "kingdom work". this work would take seriously the role of christian education, publications, and the service of love to the hurting world all around them. other mennonites were leading the way and the mennonite brethren needed to catch up by developing a more balanced and less ethnocentric approach to the christian faith. j. a. toews, and others, shared these sentiments. as toews ended his seven years as president of m b b c in , he spoke openly about the difficulty some m b s had with inter-mennonite relationships. he also noted the struggle the mennonite brethren church had experienced as the college expanded its liberal arts program during the early sixties. unafraid of controversy within the m b church, toews had actively promoted this expansion and strongly endorsed the affiliation arrangement with waterloo lutheran university as a means of accomplishing this purpose. toews did his best to allay the fears of the constituency while stating firmly that change was necessary because e w e r t , . e w e r t , . t o e w s , m b b c p r e s i d e n t ' s r e p o r t to the a n n u a l conference o f the m b c h u r c h o f c a n a d a , june - we are living in an age of rapid cultural, economic and educational change, and a reorientation in our philosophy of christian education, as well as a rethinking of the program, to achieve the above objective is not only desirable but imperative. j.a. toews worked hard to promote the liberal arts program at m b b c . it was his close relationship with a fellow faculty member, f. c. peters that led to a fuller development of the program. when frank peters was offered a position at the college in , he had considerable training in theology and psychology and was working on his ph.d. dissertation at central baptist seminary in kansas city. peters hesitated to come to m b b c unless the college's offerings in the liberal arts were expanded. after consulting with the faculty, toews reassured peters that he would be able to work with the college on developing the curriculum. as a result, peters was appointed the first academic dean of m b b c in and he remained on faculty till . peters was instrumental in facilitating mbbc's affiliation with waterloo lutheran university in . in the early s peters had been appointed lecturer at the waterloo college (after he received a bachelor of divinity degree from waterloo lutheran seminary) and his association with the school proved helpful for the later negotiations between m b b c and waterloo lutheran university. in peters returned to waterloo to take a teaching position at sir wilfred laurier university and in he became president of that university. during his presidency, peters became aware of the fact that out-of-province affiliations (such as m b b c enjoyed with waterloo) would eventually july, (conference r e c o r d s : ), . toews, m b b c p r e s i d e n t ' s r e p o r t to the b o a r d , january ( m b b c b o a r d m i n u t e s , ). come to an end and he prodded the college to begin negotiations with the university of winnipeg for affiliation. frank c. peters was also actively involved in the promotion of the liberal arts program at m b b c within the church constituency during the s. peters was asked to write a paper describing the m b b c philosophy of education, which he then presented to the college board in . in the paper, he argues that the liberal arts courses were viewed in the bible college setting as both cultural education (one which all educated people should have) and as contributing to a general understanding of "the world in which and to which the christian seeks to witness." this idea would be stressed repeatedly throughout the s by many of his colleagues and would fuel a mennonite brethren identity customized for the modern vocational/professional m b church member. j. a. toews set the tone for this new identity in his last report to the m b conference as president of m b b c in . toews used the new testament imagery of spiritual warfare to describe the new task of m b b c . he addressed the mennonite brethren church with a biblical exhortation to be "fellow soldiers in contending for the faith that was once delivered to the saints" and encouraged them to "take up god's armor", for then they would be able to stand their ground in the face of difficulty and change the world. toews presented the christian church as caught in "the great battle for truth and for the right", constantly struggling to both preserve and propagate the christian faith. christian schools, toews argued, could play a decisive role in this task and, since its inception, m b b c had taken its place at the "front line of this battle". d a v i d e w e r t , h o n o r s u c h p e o p l e ( w i n n i p e g : center f o r m e n n o n i t e brethren studies, ), - . peters, m i n u t e s o f the m e e t i n g s o f the c o l l e g e b o a r d , . reference to e p h e s i a n s : . t o e w s , m b b c p r e s i d e n t ' s r e p o r t o f the conference ( ), . the use of warfare imagery reveals the general attitude of the college toward secular society during the sixties. religious groups, generally, respond in one of three ways to the values and patterns of the dominant society. while each group may rebel against some values while strongly affirming others, generally a religious group will either withdraw from the larger society around them, seek to transform the secular world, or accept the ideology of the prevailing culture. m b b c became a primary agent in the new m b task of transforming their world for christ. rather than retreating, which some suggested was a more faithful response, or simply adopting the secular mentality of the institutions around them, a number of mennonite brethren began to view their church as a key agent for societal change. some mennonite groups have chosen the first option and attempted to withdraw from secular culture. while withdrawal from society was never the explicit intention of the mennonite brethren community, living in relatively isolated rural enclaves had created a similar effect. therefore, some rural mennonite brethren still favored the separate, distinct ethnicity of the first generation mennonite identity. implicitly, they felt that they were a faithful remnant of true believers and they indicated this to their fellow mbs. as already indicated, a growing number of mennonite brethren were not comfortable with the older mennonite identity and were actively looking for one to replace it. while they were not prepared to adopt all of the values and structures of the dominant society, they were also not content to withdraw into their own communities. increasingly, mennonite brethren participated in secular society by moving to the cities, attending secular schools and expanding their career options. a new spiritual agenda was roberts, - . increasingly articulated at the college that justified mennonite participation in a secular society. this new agenda was based on the great commission left to the church by jesus christ, "go into all the world with the gospel" (matthew ). both the faculty and the students at m b b c became interested in fulfilling this role in contemporary society. for example, the topic of the january , panel discussion organized for the m b b c student night was "our problem of tradition and ethics in communicating the gospel to the community". four m b b c faculty members participated on the panel. david ewert opened the discussion that evening by defining the terms of the topic. he indicated that tradition could be viewed both optimistically and pessimistically. in an optimistic sense, tradition attempts to carry truth through the generations via a "spiritual heritage and unique emphases." confidence should be placed, however, in biblical principles, which undergird traditional ideas not in the specific applications of those principles. ewert argued that reinterpretation was always possible for contemporary situations. ewert's opening view was subsequently supported by the other three faculty members who were part of the panel - peter klassen, victor adrian and j.j. toews. the points raised by all of these men highlighted the direction the college was taking. klassen noted that the mbs lacked a comprehensive philosophy that could define the areas of culture, race and religion. he suggested that the m b leaders needed to begin working in this direction so members could be assisted in their new task of witnessing to their neighbors. klassen also argued that mennonite brethren were weak in communicating the gospel to their world because they were resisting opportunities to have mutual contact with non-christians. he suggested that participation in community and state affairs would be helpful. victor adrian, faculty member who became president of the college in , continued to press the idea that mbs were ill prepared to communicate the gospel. he believed however, that unfamiliarity with the gospel and/or a lack of enthusiasm for witnessing was contributing to the problem. j. j. toews was confident that this was changing because there appeared to be a general awakening to the idea that each individual member was responsible for the work of the church in the world. j. a. toews echoed his colleagues' ideas later that year at the annual conference. although he expressed concern about the lax spirituality of the third generation mennonites in canada, he did not feel that that they were in a losing battle. he argued that mbs did not need to acquiesce to the secular values of those around them but could, and should, rather join in the battle for the christian gospel in canada. toews went on to link the purpose of m b b c with this mandate when he delineated the objectives of the school in the following way: we are contending for the foundation of our faith - the authority of the scriptures; we are contending for the unity of our faith - the church as a brotherhood of believers; we are contending for the proper expression of our faith - a life of christian discipleship; we are contending for the effective propagation of the faith - the training of soldiers of the cross who will rise to the challenge of the present hour toews concluded his address by encouraging the constituency to offer constructive criticism as well as wholehearted moral and financial support of the college as it a s reported i n the m b h e r a l d ( f e b . ). t o e w s , m b b c p r e s i d e n t ' s r e p o r t to the conference ( ), . attempted to meet these objectives. not all members of the mennonite brethren church were able to offer either constructive criticism or wholehearted support of the college because they were unclear about the role of m b b c within the overall christian education program of the church. while toews was able to list the objectives of m b b c at the conference in and f c . peters had presented the college philosophy of education to the college board in , the m b conference did not have a clearly articulated philosophy of education by which members could assess the college's purposes at this time. the m b board of christian education reported to the canadian m b conference that an implicit philosophy of education existed (since the m b s owned and operated schools), however an explicit definition of that philosophy was non-existent. john wiebe, board chairman, argued the lack of a clear philosophy of education created an imbalanced perspective within the constituency. the needs of the various church schools were being raised individually and, frequently, in isolation from the other institutional concerns and without an overall educational objective. members were often unfamiliar with the whole spectrum of mennonite brethren education and therefore were not willing to support all of the schools. this frequently led to inter-school tensions since a spirit of competition was fostered by the enthusiastic support of one school rather than another. while the constituency had been encouraged to view the whole program of m b christian education as one united whole in , this remained a difficult task because the inter-school tensions (between the m b bible college and the m b bible schools) r e p o r t o f the m b b o a r d o f c h r i s t i a n e d u c a t i o n . y e a r b o o k o f the c a n a d i a n m b conference, . r e p o r t o f the c o l l e g e b o a r d . y e a r b o o k o f the c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n conference, . reflected the growing gap between more highly educated mbs and those with less formal education. many of the students at m b b c had post-secondary training while students at the m b bible schools were not required to have a high school diploma. additionally, the purpose of the bible college was very different from that of the bible schools. a statement by a bible school president during the s summarized the most basic difference. when asked whether the school should upgrade its supposedly "rurally- oriented, juvenile curriculum", h.r. baerg replied with the following: to operate on an intellectual par with the university is not our aim. nor are we out to equip students intellectually for the higher criticism of the university. few issues are resolved by argument. rather, we must zero in on the bible and in this way foster an attitude of love for christ and the gospel - thus fortified a student will best face the attacks of the world. while both the college and the bible schools identified the bible and the gospel as foundational, the understanding and approach to these two symbols was not uniform. college faculty demonstrated that the role of the college was to question, criticize and reflect on the past in order to determine meaning and relevance for mbs within the context of the whole of society. supporters of the bible schools believed faithfulness to the bible's claims required obedience to a set of dogmatic theological and religious mandates, which were prescribed by mennonite brethren traditions and passed on without question. as already mentioned, the inter-school tensions were frequently presented at the h.r. baerg, wbi alumni newsletter (vol. # ) undated. interestmgly, when one of the bible schools did try to break the traditional educational patterns it operated under in , it is severely criticized by its supporting constituency. the school came under the same type of scrutiny and critique the college was exposed to. the faculty was feared as untrustworthy and annual church conferences as resulting from the lack of a comprehensive philosophy of education. the purpose of each school and the relationship of one institution to another within the constituency was not clearly outlined. at times it seemed like the programs were overlapping while at other times there appeared to be incompatible divergences. victor adrian, president of m b b c ( - ), gave an unofficial description of the two institutions at the time of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the college in . adrian suggested that the bible college uniquely attempted to integrate the liberal arts with biblical training and theological studies while the bible schools, on the other hand, were more concerned to give their students a survey of biblical subjects and church related areas of study. he acknowledged that it was precisely in the attempted integration of theology with other disciplines of studies that cauased the greatest problems with some of the constituency. eventually, by , the college faculty was invited to work on a philosophy of education for the m b church. the m b herald published a series of five articles written by m b b c professors under the heading "toward a philosophy of christian education". the submissions came from five of the younger members of the faculty: vernon ratzlaff, herbert swartz, allen guenther, herbert giesbrecht and john regehr. all were recent graduates from university programs. ratzlaff, professor of philosophy and church history, held both a b a and a bsw in and was pursuing further studies at the university of manitoba in . swartz, who served as registrar and taught greek at the college, received a b a in addition to his bachelor of divinity in . allen guenther held a bachelor of theology and a b a when he received his m a in . he served as dean of students and the hebrew instructor at the college. herbert giesbrecht taught the a i m s a n d objectives o f the school were reassessed. english at the time with a b a , a bth. and a m a he earned in . he went on to earn a masters in library studies in the late s and served as librarian at the college until his retirement. regehr was responsible for the department of practical theology and by held a bachelor of divinity, a b e d and an m a . the articles written by these newcomers to the m b b c faculty continued to declare the purposes of the college that had been set in place earlier by their older colleagues. in his article, "what makes a christian college christian?", ratzlaff delineated between two types of education - one which maintains the traditional status quo and one which has a sense of mission. m b b c , he argued should be interested in the latter. he wrote: if the function of education is to transmit the existing values of the sponsoring society, to maintain the status quo, to perpetuate the received text, a college will do one thing; if the function of education is seen to be more than a task of transmission and also a task of mission (discovery/probing), a college will do another, or at least more than the former. in short, it is important to know whether the community is as concerned with making history as it is interested in learning it... a christian college does not provide pre-professional training in a "safe atmosphere"; it provides pre-professional training so that the individual may be better prepared to bring his faith to bear, within his vocational framework, on his society. it is a sense of mission that recognizes that the only calling considered valid by the christian is that which asks him ... to "devote his whole life to the service of christ and the church". ratzlaff argued that the validity of all learning areas was to be accepted by the christian college since these areas are interpreted within a theistic framework and utilized to prepare the student for the primary concern of preparation for mission. herbert swartz continued this argument in his article "why combine liberal arts and theological studies?" swartz argued that the liberal arts and science were a pre- requisite of all human learning since these studies taught the student to i) reason logically, ii) communicate clearly, iii) inquire accurately, and iv) evaluate wisely. however, swartz argued that the "neutral facts" of the arts and sciences were usually delivered within the body of convictions or presuppositions of an institutional system. the bible college, therefore, would seek to combine elements of the liberal education with the unique emphasis provided by a thorough knowledge of the bible. the purpose of such an education was to relate all the parts to whole so that the "man of god is 'fitted' to live." such an education took place within the context of a community of scholars and students where, as allen guenther described it, the "whole is equal to more than the sum of the separate parts". in his discussion of "the christian college community - opportunities and perils", guenther repeats the primary goal of m b b c as "the training ground for a task force of believers who penetrate the world at every level with the christian witness" but he added a corresponding dimension. guenther suggested that it was not just important for christians to promote their ideas "out in the world" but it was imperative that church members have contact with "the world". there needed to be a fruitful interchange of ideas between the christian and non-christian world to keep the mennonite brethren church organism from withering away. he believed that the vern ratzlaff, "what makes a christian college christian?" mb herald july , - . herbert swartz, "why combine liberal arts and theological studies?" m b herald july , . christian campuses needed to be ventilated "with winds from the non-christian world" so that meaningful involvement could begin. guenther was clearly convinced that a transformation of both church and society was possible as a result. this is evident in the following argument: involvement with the outside world must become one of the goals of the christian school. this requires a joint effort by administration and students; neither can do the job by itself. by working together they can transform the evangelical college from a mere "religious" school into a driving force for christ, for a new community, and for a new world. the possibilities and problems of co-operation were experienced right within the college community as an increasing diversity was noted among the students on campus. at the end of the sixties there was less homogeneity in terms of age, sex, experience, denominational affiliation and theological orientation. according to herbert giesbrecht in his article " a christian attitude to contemporary thought", the "greater diversity of new ideas and new theologies" was not to be evaded in "timidity or spiritual arrogance". giesbrecht argued that while the knowledge of the world had "something of the serpent" in it, it could also reflect something of god's truth. he notes: if we are such as seek truth honestly and diligently, we will not seek it only "in church or during devotions or in bible class or during some activity which is specifically designated as christian service", but will seek it in many places and we shall not be surprised to find facets of it even in the unlikeliest corners a l l e n guenther, " t h e c h r i s t i a n c o l l e g e c o m m u n i t y - opportunities and p e r i l s " m b h e r a l d a u g u s t , . of contemporary thought. the ideal for the christian, according to giesbrecht, was to learn to enter more fully into the thoughts and concerns of both the religious and the secular man, "even while he tightens his hold on supernatural realities." the ideal of awareness is highlighted by john regehr in his contribution to a philosophy of christian education. in his article "training for a dynamic home church", regehr primarily emphasized the role of the student when they return to their home congregations. he suggested that it is important for the student to have developed a responsible self-awareness while at college. this involves training that will allow for both " insight into and acceptance of self, and a sensitive and appreciative awareness of others". regehr believed that students who achieved this balance would be able to contribute positively to a dynamic church life in which inter-personal relationships are nurtured. it is such a church that will be able to effectively communicate the abundance of life in jesus to the secular world. this short review of the five articles reveals that the faculty at m b b c , throughout the sixties, continued to belief that it was the purpose of the college to prepare students to "get out into the world for christ" as leaders of the church and society. mennonite brethren students and constituency were expected to embrace this ideal and actively support it. church work need no longer be confined to the tasks of pastor, worship leader or sunday school teacher. now all of those who were involved in various vocations and professions could also become involved in the "work of the church". the m b community no longer needed to be divided by the growing involvement of some herbert giesbrecht, "a christian attitude to contemporary thought" mb herald august , - . giesbrecht, . members in secular pursuits. a l l could be leaders in their sphere of influence and all could be united in the task of bringing the gospel to a world that needed to be ethically transformed. t h e n e w mission is applied - l a n g u a g e a n d h y m n o l o g y at his first presidential report to the m b conference, j.h. quiring ( - ) noted how difficult it was to give satisfactory answers to the continued questions about the college's purpose. he emphatically declared that "the college is o u r school". since the primary purpose of m b b c was to serve the m b church, he believed the entire constituency should be required to give the school wholehearted support. he acknowledged that much of the concern about the college was driven by anxieties related to the development of the liberal arts component. quiring indicated that the interest in, and demand for, liberal arts training continued to increase. he reassured the constituency however, that though it was the school's conviction that a liberal arts education was essential for the total training for christian workers, the college had no ambitions to expand the liberal arts offerings at that time. quiring outlined the program of studies offered by m b b c and then appealed to the constituency to give the college a definite mandate for the years ahead, along with the means to accomplish it, if they disagreed with the current direction. p r o g r a m of studies ( - ) bachelor of divinity degree - three years of study requiring an (undergraduate) degree for admission (e.g. b r e or bth). designed for pastors, missionaries and teachers. john regehr, "training for a dynamic home church", mb herald sept. , . bachelor of theology degree - three years of study requiring two years of arts studies for admission. emphasis on theology, exegesis and preaching. bachelor of religious education degree - three years above senior matriculation. majors in christian education, mission and music sacred music course - a diploma course in sacred music requiring three years about senior matriculation. liberal arts courses - the college offers two years toward the degree at waterloo university college. a special degree program in music (ba) may be completed at m b b c and waterloo university college. while much of the debate at the college during the early part of the sixties was centered on the development of the liberal arts program at a mennonite bible college, another source of tension emerged. the diminished emphasis on the german language at m b b c became a hotly debated issue. in , m b b c was still committed to produce pastors who could speak the german language in the pulpit and for the purpose of visiting parishioners. as in the past, it was still mandatory for every theology student at m b b c to take a course in the german language during his or her first year of studies. it was soon apparent, however, that a few courses in the german language were not going to prepare a student (who primarily spoke english) to lead a predominantly german- speaking congregation when he graduated. those who wanted m b b c to produce bi- lingual graduates complained that ignoring the german language showed a great jh quiring, report of the president to the mb conference, - july , - . disrespect for those who had "suffered so much to bring the schools into being." abandoning the german language was considered the new generation's ultimate sign of ingratitude for the contributions of the previous generation. as the controversy around the use of german escalated during the early sixties, the move to the primary use of the english language was supported by the new evangelistic vision of some mennonite brethren. it was argued that mennonites would not be able to invite their neighbors to church services unless the sermons were in english. the need to make the mennonite churches amicable to outsiders began to raise other similar issues of ethnocentrism. the question was asked: "how many of our mennonite ethnicities, like language, can we drop and still be just as effective in our christian witness to the world?" it was suggested that traits like "willingness to work, togetherness, ambition, frugality and thoroughness" could still set the mennonite brethren apart even if the language of their services were changed. some hoped that a higher education would help the mennonite brethren move away from so their ethnocentric biases and broaden the worldview of the mennonites. since many of the faculty of m b b c were actively promoting the evangelistic potential of widened horizons, this group viewed the college, optimistically, as a vehicle for change and renewal within the m b community. during the latter half of the sixties, m b b c became involved in a second issue. the christian church, in general, was noticing the apparent stagnancy of hymnody in the sixties. members of the mennonite brethren church were also making this observation. c c peters for the committee for the german language, report of the general conference of the mennonite brethren church of canada. , . cc. peters for the committee for the german language, . d.d. duerksen, mennonite brethren herald. feb. , . many of the younger generation found the standard hymns to be antiquated and obsolete in light of the contemporary music of joan baez, pete seeger and peter, paul and mary. some even found the lyrics of contemporary music to be more expressive of their spiritual feelings than those they duly sang on sunday mornings. as william baerg, one of the music professors at m b b c , noted: seemingly the world of experience in our hymnbook no longer overlaps with the existential experiences of the day. this may in part be due to the fact that the majority of hymns existent in our hymnals were written a hundred or more years ago, in a time when all conditions important to living were indeed different from those of this day... at one point in history (these hymns) were very meaningful to the mennonite people, and rightly so... many older mennonites were dismayed by the apparent disregard of the old hymns by the younger generation. disturbed by this trend, some constituent members began to blame the college for the shift away from the standard music of the church. it seemed that music students were not returning to their congregations with a restored passion for hymnody after their time at m b b c . this was partly due to the fact that the music professors at m b b c were also enthused about the new m b mission. baerg offered the following argument to express the new sentiment: we cannot exaggerate the importance of hymns that are relevant to the present teaching of the church. it would appear to me that the concept of the role and purpose, or possibly better said, the mission of the church has undergone considerable change. today we seem to ... speak of services on a broad basis. our hymnody however has wm. baerg, "in search of new hymns", the voice of the m b b c xvii: sept.-oct. , - . not caught up with us on that point... presently we deem it more important to speak of the mission of the church and its individual member in the community... presently our mennonite brethren conference is appealing to its constituency at large to become involved in the creative process of writing hymns... we need a more contemporary expression if a renewal is to take place within a church. what we need is new hymns for a new day. the older generation did not appreciate the call for new hymns to replace those that, for them, had become almost as meaningful as the biblical text. old favorites carried a significance that would not be discarded lightly or without a fight. complaints and questions about the purpose of the music program were raised quite forcefully. victor adrian, president of m b b c ( - ), responded to such concerns at the annual conference. as the newly appointed president, he promised the constituency that the college would be examining the needs of hymnology in the local churches, particularly at that time when there was also a transition from the german to the english language. adrian believed there was a need to teach hymns and that it was the purpose of the college to serve the churches in that capacity. he expressed his concerns to the music faculty and pressed victor martens, director of the music department to clearly spell out how "the whole music department is to relate to the present and future work of the church". adrian's questions to the music faculty were to the point and reflected some of the concerns that were openly expressed to him by constituency members. as a result, he questioned if the department was producing the right people for the churches "as they baerg, - . adrian, correspondence to victor martens, march . now exist". for example, by , the college a cappella choir was of such a high quality that it was selected for a prestigious b b c competition. it appeared to some within the constituency that the emphasis within the music faculty was on professional musical performance rather than on church-related hymnology. some members complained that the m b b c music graduates were not adequately prepared to lead the churches in the type of music the churches were accustomed to. in response, adrian encouraged the members of the music faculty to get out into the churches where they could interact with the current choir directors and pastors to determine the current needs. in this situation, adrian placed the emphasis on addressing the criticisms the school received from within the constituency. his presidency began a temporary shift in the direction of the school. he attempted to use the college to meet the immediate concerns of the congregations, rather than proactively (and, at times, controversially) anticipating the nature needs of the constituency as his predecessors had done, and as some of his colleagues continued to do. a s u d d e n c h a n g e in direction: as the sixties came to a close, adrian, as the president of m b b c , wished to increase the confidence of the constituency and reduce some of the confusion that surrounded the school. he spoke openly about involving the churches in a more direct way in decision-making for the college programs, rather than allowing the school to set the agenda for the constituency. he stated openly that his vision for m b b c was a d r i a n , p r e s i d e n t i a l correspondence to letters o f c o m p l a i n t received d u r i n g . o n e example, letter to a l f r e d h . q u i r i n g , n o v . . a d r i a n , correspondence to faculty members: v i c t o r m a r t e n s , m a r c h , peter k l a s s e n , july . a d r i a n , correspondence to the c h a i r m a n o f b o a r d o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n and the c h a i r m a n o f the c o l l e g e s u b - c o m m i t t e e , july . focused on promoting the theological program at the school rather than the liberal arts component. even though adrian was deeply supportive of the new mission of the college, he became adamant that m b b c was recommitting itself to training students specifically for church-related ministries, rather than continuing an additional focus on university students. this decision did not ease the tension surrounding the college, however, it did redirect it. many of the faculty, who had been major leaders in the development of the school during the earlier part of the sixties, now felt disenchanted with where the school was headed under adrian's leadership. j.a. toews, a major supporter of the arts program at m b b c , resigned in when victor adrian was chosen as president-elect. tensions between faculty members at the time intensified his desire to leave. in a letter to the out-going president, j.h. quiring, toews expressed concern about the future role of the college. david ewert, also expressed concern about the tensions at the college immediately after adrian assumed the leadership of m b b c . the future of the college was put before a commission appointed by the canadian m b conference and, as various briefs were presented, it became apparent that, for the first time in many years, there was a division at r e p o r t o f the president. y e a r b o o k o f the c a n a d i a n conference o f the m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n , - j u l y , - . a d r i a n wrote an article " a r e w e a c h u r c h i n m i s s i o n ? " t h e v o i c e (july, ), - . h e r e a d r i a n articulated some o f the same arguments offered earlier by his colleagues. h e agreed that the m b c h u r c h was i n a situation " o f unprecedented opportunities to share the g o s p e l w i t h others" because they h a d been "scattered abroad by e c o n o m i c pressures and opportunities, the urbanization pattern, and the drive f o r achievement i n business, education and professional l i f e . " " o u r membership is i n t o u c h w i t h v i r t u a l l y every segment o f society. t h i s is important." n a f z i g e r , . the college about what kind school m b b c should be. the dissension was centered on the question of whether the college should continue to develop its mission of integrating the liberal arts component with a theological emphasis, or primarily stress preparation for church-related ministries. when adrian choose to emphasize the theological program at m b b c during his tenure, he indicated he was being sensitive to the complaints within the constituency. in correspondence with the chairmen of various committees linked with the college, adrian wrote that he believed they should move unitedly ... to give the impression to all our young people coming up in the ranks that we have a good theological program to offer to them ... and that we may thus unitedly encourage them to enter into it. to accomplish these purposes, adrian narrowed the flexibility of the core program. options were limited by the fact that now every student at m b b c was required to take a minimum of two courses in bible or theology throughout his or her enrollment. this meant that every graduate would have to concentrate forty percent of their course load in theological studies, severely restricting the liberal arts options. this decision became a major source of contention within the constituency. it appeared that adrian had misunderstood the majority of the constituency when he shifted the direction of the college. by , the controversy came to a head on the floor of the delegate sessions of the canadian m b conference, and directly, or indirectly, resulted in the resignation of adrian and the academic dean. following the conference, a thorough d a v i d e w e r t , journey o f f a i t h : a n a u t o b i o g r a p h y ( w i n n i p e g : centre f o r m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n studies, ), . letter f r o m v i c t o r a d r i a n to herbert brandt, d. n e u m a n ( c h a i r m a n o f the m b b o a r d o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ) and h . r . b a e r g ( c h a i r m a n , c o l l e g e s u b - c o m m i t t e e ) , j u l y , . review of the future role of the college, by the board of higher education, confirmed the following: (i) that the canadian constituency continues to want an institution of higher education. (ii) that the role of the college will be to offer courses at the bachelor degree level in theology, arts and music in conjunction with the affiliation agreement with the university of winnipeg. such a program will provide the student with an opportunity to integrate his general program education with a theological perspective during his formative years, to face key life issues in an evangelical, christian college setting and to take the necessary courses towards meeting the bachelor's degree requirements. (iii) such a program will avoid major overlapping with the bible institutes and will also provide students with the bachelor's degree admission requirements for seminary. (iv) future requirement programs are to emphasize the admission of students to degree programs in theology, music and arts on an equal basis. these changes reaffirmed the new mission of m b b c as promoted prior to adrian's presidency. the shifts made between - did not go unnoticed by newcomers to the faculty of m b b c . peter hamm came on faculty in and did not expect the problems he was about to encounter. as a former student at the college in the late fifties, he found that the very features, which had appealed to him about the school, were now being questioned. he indicated that "the university connection, the quality programme in " m b b i b l e c o l l e g e w i l l ' d e f i n i t e l y ' continue" m e n n o n i t e reporter v o l . , n o . . music, the openness to current theological insights, and the less legalistic position on ethical issues" were the result of a great deal of hard work at the college, and it troubled him that these qualities were not unnecessarily questioned. later training in the social sciences, led hamm to recognize that much of the tension at m b b c had been a normal "part of the turmoil of social change in which a conservative denomination finds its niche in the world of modernity." the mennonite brethren community's struggle with its identity in the modern world during the sixties had a direct influence on its college. the arguments developed during this period of time to validate the institutional changes at m b b c were part of formulating a theology of change for the constituency. this thesis has demonstrated that there was a definite move to defend the idea that the secular world was no longer to be avoided, but presented a new challenge to the church in its task to bring the gospel to the whole world. increased exposure to the modern world outside of the parochial limits was encouraged with a new theological significance. faculty and students, during the sixties, were caught up in the new mission of the m b church. observations made by howard dyck, a former student ( - ), upon his return to m b b c as a faculty member in indicate that students at m b b c were eager to embrace all the opportunities and challenges of this new world. he wrote: today's student at m b b c is quite possibly more keenly aware of the world we live in than any previous generation of mbbc'ers. he (or she) exhibits a profound concern for his (or her) world, and wants to say something to it. so perhaps there's some rather peter m . h a m m , r e f l e c t i o n s o n my journey ( a b b o t s f o r d : self-published, ), . naive expression of faith around here from time to time, but then isn't naivete a relative thing? if there's an impatience with the mistakes of the past, there's also a genuine openness to new, • • fresh ideas, and an unparalleled intellectual curiosity. expressing the sentiments of other faculty members at the college, dyck concluded his observations with an expression of delight. it was evident to him that the m b b c student of - had a renewed sense of urgency and a vital desire to have a relevant faith which could be communicated to the world. faculty and students were a mutual source of encouragement to each other as m b b c tried to fulfill this vision. h a m m , . h o w a r d d y c k , as quoted in h . s w a r t z " t h e c l a s s o f ' " m b h e r a l d oct. , . c h a p t e r seven canadian mennonite bible college in the s i n t r o d u c t i o n : marking exams it is : a.m. i have finished reading the last of some forty literary essays. it was a drudgery. marking exams is the worst part of teaching. after some hours of it one doesn't trust one's own spelling of the most ordinary words any more, and one hardly knows what the short story under discussion means, says, intends, expresses, wants to say, seems to say ... reading papers is not only drudgery. it is meeting people. it is a conversation, and a taxing one at that. no, i do not sit there in full command of the subject, detachedly underlining mistakes and handing down a verdict in the form of a grade. my mind is active to the fullest; i have a difficult task to perform, i am grappling to understand a person. that person is not i. he (she) thinks differently and speaks differently and brings a different background to the subject at hand. if i am successful, i will work myself into an understanding of his (her) essay. i will understand him (her) in his (her), but also in his (her) blundering and inexperience. whatever intelligence, experience and learning i may have, will be taxed fully by this task to understand. it is my defeat, just as my student's i have to conclude: "i just do not understand you; it does not make sense to me." no, i won't give in easily! it must make sense in terms of the person, though it may not make academically negotiable sense, the kind of sense for which alone - alas - i can give a good mark. my emotions are involved too. i rejoice, debate, frown, am surprised, get depressed, or sad, or angry. who would have expected such insight from john or ruth or dorothy? what excellent formulation. but how could anyone miss that point and write such nonsense. finally, i have to speak back. a grade and few comments may not seem much. i must be concise. what can i do for my student? i would like to make him feel good, but my means are limited. he, himself, has set up the measure. i can return to him his own blessing only. a good word, a good grade, based on falsehood, is not a blessing. my response in word and grade must be truthful, above all. it should also be helpful. it should say what is needed, and that in such a way that it can be received. even the poorest student should know i have listened to what he has had to say, and that i have given my response seriously, as to a person i respect. whether i will be able to convey that is a test in itself, both for me and for the student. we may both pass or fail in this examination of life. not every good mark makes one happy. i give some good marks with uneasy feelings; they are wrested from me, as it were. i include a caution with them. often students accustomed to good marks are not open to that which - if heeded - might help them. often they are not open to the meaning of lower marks than expected; they tend to rationalize. a student accustomed to good marks faces a test of maturity when he (she) receives a mediocre grade. some good marks given represent more than academic currency. " a. thank you for a good paper." we have understood each other. understanding is the goal of language, of teaching. the remark can remain short; for this occasion i have ceased to be your teacher. the "thank you" is not a cliche; it is meant fully. w a l d e m a r janzen, " m a r k i n g e x a m s " . t h e c o l l e g e s c r o l l v o l . , no. ( a p r i l ) - . the above article was written, in , by waldemar janzen, faculty member at c m b c ( - ), and published in the school paper the college scroll. as janzen described the process of marking essays, he succinctly conveyed the reciprocal relationship of student with teacher at c m b c during the s. faculty members did not have the primary voice of authority at the school. students played a vocal and dynamic role at the college. the individuality of each student was recognized, encouraged and challenged within a community ethos that emphasized mutual respect and responsibility. the majority of the public records of c m b c life include the students' voices and/or their interests. after their time of studies, students continued to play a significant role in developing and supporting the vision of the college as alumni. the volume of material, provided by students during the sixties, provides an insight into the life of c m b c that is personal and direct. the diversity represented by those associated with the college is readily evident in much of their writing. the following student editorial, for example, presents a vivid picture of student diversity at c m b c and the ethos of the college throughout the sixties: after having been at cmbc for a few months, one soon becomes aware of the fact that the reasons for students' coming here are as varied as the students are varied. some come with the motive to make another attempt at resolving certain problems, either spiritual or social; some come to get educated (whatever that can mean), either out of their own volition or because of social, parental, or group pressures; others come for no other reason than that they do not know what else they could do after high school. out of a large variety of students and such a conglomeration of reasons for attending cmbc, the college life is born. the question is, will it grow, and how. it appears that most students have already passed through or at least arrived at that agonizing period of self-awarenss by the time they reach college. self- awareness is the realization of the value of one's self and the realization that as an individual one must meet life and its issues on an individual and personal, rather than on a more anonymous group level. when we have reached this period of self-awareness, personal growth can occur. at college, personal growth can continue spiritually, intellectually, and socially. spiritual growth sometimes appears slow or even non-existent. many students are not content with the often shallow solutions and answers of the parents and churches to various theological, moral, and ethical problems and issues. thus the often confusion-creating confrontations with these issues seem to make our spiritual growth lag because of newly created confusion or intensified scepticism. related to this scepticism is intellectual growth. with the gaining of more knowledge, confusion and scepticism result because the new has not yet been integrated into one's view of life. but spiritual growth can and will occur if one is sincere in the search for truth and a meaningful life. social growth should occur simultaneously with intellectual and spiritual growth. social growth comes with the ability to communicate with others and with the desire to live responsibly with others. being oneself by no means allows for or excuses petty jealousies, voluntary ignorance, purposeful snobbishness, selfishness, or evasion of responsibility. the individual must try to eliminate such deficiencies of character if a group is to grow. and it is only when there is personal growth that the college life can grow. while a number of constituents, within the mennonite churches that owned and operated c m b c , could have echoed the sentiments expressed in the article above, not every member would have endorsed them. the broader constituency of the college represented the same diversity of opinion held by students. e x p a n d i n g horizons i n f l u e n c e institutional c h a n g e s : since its inception in , canadian mennonite bible college carried the clear mandate to educate its students for a life of christian ministry generally. the college's responsibility to train members for professional ministry was more open, however. as numerous catalogue descriptions indicate, the college tried to fulfill the dual capacity of being both a mennonite biblical training center and a canadian college offering a university-approved post-secondary education in a christian environment. generally, this two-fold purpose of c m b c resulted in three basic responses from those within its sponsoring mennonite constituency in canada. some thought that professional theological training should be the primary emphasis of the school and they looked to the college to supply pastors and ministers for their congregations. frequently, these members criticized the college for not producing enough graduates who were interested in church ministry as their vocational goal. others jake goertzen, " e d i t o r i a l " , t h e c o l l e g e s c r o l l v o l . , n o . l ( a p r i l ), - . w a l d e m a r janzen, " p r e p a r a t i o n f o r m i n i s t r y at c m b c " , a l u m n i b u l l e t i n ( f a l l ), - . in the churches, however, recognized that many members, not just the pastor and choir director, needed theological training to be effective as the church in the modern world. this group argued that the average mennonite needed a theological education so that each could know what they believed, why they believed it, and how they could influence others to believe it. it was strongly suggested that all christians were called to the crucial task of witnessing for christ in whatever place god has placed them and it was expected that the college could prepare them for this task. this group viewed the college, with optimism, as a place where the voice of the mennonite constituency, and especially that of mennonite theologians, was being developed for a wider acceptance than ever before in the history of the mennonite church. a third response focused primarily on the objective of offering a quality post-secondary education that equaled university standards. this group argued that students needed an education that would allow them to lay aside their prejudices and prior concepts of life so they could be fully "enlightened". receiving such an education in a mennonite school would hopefully reduce the risk of students losing their mennonite identity. this group wanted the benefits of a liberal arts university education that would teach students "to think" in an environment that would prevent mennonite students from becoming fully absorbed into general canadian society. it was argued that some assimilation was beneficial since there were "certainly favorable characteristics in our anglo saxon neighborhood which would enhance our own mennonite culture" but "wholesale assimilation" should be avoided. most students, faculty and alumni were part of the second or third group, which student reflections, c m b c c o l l e g e s c r o l l . , no. ( d e c . ). b i l l k r u e g e r , c o l l e g e s c r o l l . x v i i i (december ), . students and f a c u l t y i n v o l v e d i n a panel d i s c u s s i o n on " e d u c a t i o n - a s s i m i l a t i o n or e n l i g h t e n m e n t ? " , oct. , as reported i n the c o l l e g e s c r o l l . , no. ( n o v e m b e r ). favored the development of a larger mennonite worldview at the school. in , peter sawatsky, a graduate of c m b c , argued the following for the college paper in response to the question "what is the greatest need in the mennonite church today?" until recently, the rural churches were the backbone of our conference, and the city was a mission outreach. unless our leadership is such as to make the city churches assume greater responsibilities than in the past, our entire work is in danger of a relapse. mennonites moving into the cities are entering new and varied vocations, and again it is up to the leaders to be able to give counsel and direction. no longer are we "die stille im lande", nor do we feel justified in maintaining ourselves irrespective of what happens on the political scene or in an international crisis. the society in which we live - even the christian church - extends far beyond our church, and we feel that the mennonite church has a message of love, peace, and reconciliation to share with a confused, bewildered and lost world. such leadership must be well trained, experienced and above all, dedicated to god. the college was expected to produce leaders qualified and capable of meeting the manifold needs of the world inside, and outside, of the mennonite community. the college moved through two major phases between - in response to the three options listed above. until the s, a majority of students attended c m b c as preparation for church work and, generally, those promoting the college included statistics that would reassure the first group of constituents mentioned above. for peter s a w a t z k y , " w h a t is the greatest need i n the m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h today?" c o l l e g e s c r o l l , x v i i i (december i ), . example, in , david schroeder (a c m b c faculty member who later became president of the college) gave the following criteria for assessing whether or not the college was doing what it needed to be doing: one way of checking whether the college is fulfilling its task is to see what the graduates and ex-students are doing. we are all too conscious of the many things that could be done by c m b c to meet present needs in the world and in the churches, but it is a comfort to know that most of our graduates and some of the ex-students are even now active in many and varied fields of christian service... graduates have entered rather directly into christian service of one kind or another. schroeder indicated that over half of the one hundred and fifteen graduates from c m b c by were directly involved in church work as missionaries, private school teachers and ministers. a number of the remaining graduates were still studying or had already been trained as teachers and nurses prior to attending c m b c and had returned to those positions. at that time, graduates and former students were involved in the following areas: graduates - teachers in private mennonite bible and high schools graduates - teachers in other schools graduates - missionaries with the c m c mission board + students - missionaries with the c m c mission board students - missionaries with other organizations graduates - ordained as ministers. d a v i d schroeder, "is the c o l l e g e f u l f i l l i n g its t a s k ? " c m b c a l u m n i b u l l e t i n (june ), . schroeder, . schroeder went on to note, however, that many students, were attending the college for just one or two years, and not continuing through to graduation. these students were coming to college for reasons that necessitated the second option - preparing the christian students for a vocational or professional life in a secular world. since this group was growing in number, the college would need to expand its task accordingly. schroeder believed that, while a suitable curriculum was in place, more could be done. the last half of the sixties, and especially during the seventies, increasing numbers of students continued to indicate, both through their younger ages and vocational aspirations, that they did indeed view their studies at c m b c as a broad and general preparation for christian life and service, and not as preparation for church ministry. as the sixties progressed, it became increasingly clear to many that it was imperative for c m b c to offer an education that would suit the purposes of a new generation. to do an adequate job of this task, some in the constituency realized that the college would probably need to become affiliated with a major university. this would make it possible for students to attend the bible college for a year or two, and then transfer some of their work to another institution for academic credit. in one short decade, c m b c realized the need to expand to adequately fulfill not just two, but three, visions of its constituency. l e a r n i n g t o w o r k t o g e t h e r - t h e c m c a n d their c o l l e g e most of the students who attended c m b c during the s came from church congregations belonging to the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc), the official schroeder, . sponsor of the college. the organization of the c m c was established in as a means of linking the bergthaler mennonite church in manitoba with the rosenorter mennonite church in saskatchewan. the history of the c m c , until the mid-seventies, can be divided into two relatively distinct structural eras that mirror the changes at c m b c . between - , the conference was governed by a very simple associational structure. elected and appointed committees executed conference matters under the leadership of a three-man executive committee that consisted of the chairman (vorsitzer), a vice-chairman and a secretary. however, during those fifty years, a relatively entrenched ecclesiastical elite began to control the affairs of c m c and concerns about authoritarian leadership led to a reorganization of the conference into a board structure. the area of education initiated this structural change. the first discussions related to restructuring began in the early fifties when significant overlap developed in the work of committees related to the area of education, and the first attempt at change occurred in when conference delegates accepted the recommendation to reorganize the educational committee into a board structure. the reorganization of the educational committee also created the first salaried position in the c m c with the appointment of a half-time field secretary. by , a second constitution describing the board system was put into place for the entire conference. this board structure remained in place till a third constitution, adopted in , reduced the number of boards and ushered in an era that reflected more consultation and cooperation with the congregational members. initially, the shift to a board structure in the early fifties did not reduce the strong w a l d e m a r janzen, "preparation f o r m i n i s t r y at c m b c " , a l u m n i b u l l e t i n ( f a l l ), - . c m c y e a r b o o k , - . jacob peters, " c h a n g i n g l e a d e r s h i p patterns: conference o f m e n n o n i t e s i n c a n a d a " , j m s ( ), - . ecclesiastical influence at c m b c . many of the board members, and especially its chairman, j.j. thiessen, held a great deal of power within the c m c community at this time. all of the board members were elders (reverends) of the church and therefore their authority was largely unquestioned by the constituency. the board held much control of the school until a major crisis in the late fifties brought the faculty into confrontation with the board. the crisis occurred, in , when the contract with a c m b c faculty member, david janzen ( - ), was not renewed by the board because of growing concerns about janzen's liberal theology. the initial board vote on january , was - in favor of retaining janzen with two members abstaining. at that point, president i.i. friesen ( - ) announced that he would not continue his presidency under those circumstances and the matter was brought to a re-vote at which time the secret ballot resulted in votes for reappointment and against, with one member abstaining. outrage was expressed by both faculty and students at the college when they learned of the decision to dismiss janzen. a number of faculty members argued that if janzen's contract was not to be renewed, neither should theirs be since they shared janzen's theological views. faculty and students petitioned the board with appeals that the dismissal would jeopardize the recent accreditation c m b c had arranged with the university of manitoba, as well as greatly decrease the morale at the college. the board persisted, however, with its decision to dismiss janzen. it is unclear what type of theological ideas created the call for janzen's dismissal. the faculty response to the issue, however, revealed the need for improved board-faculty b r u n o d y c k , " h a i f a century o f c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b i b l e c o l l e g e : a b r i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l h i s t o r y " , j m s ( ), . relations. a series of special meetings were arranged for the board and faculty of c m b c to meet. the first meeting took place on september , and brought to light a number of issues. first, since janzen was dismissed for expressing theological views that were considered "liberal" within the c m c , there was the need to decide how much theological diversity would be acceptable at the school. at this meeting, the opinion was voiced that c m b c did not carry the responsibility to convey only the accepted theology of the local church members but had the right to expose students to ideas that went beyond a traditional mennonite worldview. second, it was recognized the constituency did not fully trust the faculty at c m b c . generally, the college was judged on the basis of the maturity and quality of its students, and it was argued that this was, perhaps, an inadequate assessment of the school. it was suggested that the time had come for the board to place more confidence in the college faculty. at that time, faculty members were under continual scrutiny and contracts were renewed on a yearly basis. this arrangement needed to be changed to depict a more significant trust relationship between board and faculty. by , the board was discussing three year trial appointments for faculty members, with the decision of tenure to follow. this decision helped to create a greater spirit of co-operation between the board and faculty of c m b c . a n e w mission - g r o w i n g t o f u l f i l l t h r e e t a s k s while the board worked at strengthening its relationship with the faculty, it was faced with another major concern. in , c m b c lost its accreditation with the university of manitoba because of reorganization within the u m and its affiliated colleges. at this time c m b c was considered to be primarily a professional school for dyck, . theological studies at the undergraduate level and the university was reassessing its decision to associate with such a school. a number of changes needed to take place at c m b c to prepare it for re-accreditation. first, cmbc's purpose changed from being specifically a place to prepare mennonite church ministers to offering a "non- professional theological education" on a "college level". secondly, the courses and structure of the academic departments at c m b c were re-arranged to more closely parallel the u m . eventually, on october , , the university of manitoba senate again approved c m b c as a teaching center empowered to offer selected coursed in the faculty of arts and science. c m b c faculty member, waldemar janzen ( - ), was a key player in re- establishing an academic association with the u m . janzen recounted that he, as registrar/dean along with c m b c president, henry poettcker ( - ), were both confident and daring in their requests to the university. when they approached the u m for accreditation, c m b c had only been in existence for seventeen years and had fewer than a hundred students. janzen reflected that the university had almost nothing to gain in terms of numerical, political or image benefits when it responded to c m b c with the innovative and creative proposal that the college become an approved teaching centre for the university. on the contrary, the u of m "laid itself open to severe criticism" from the public at large and "within its own academic ranks" when it chose to become associated with a church institution like c m b c . the approved teaching centre set in place a policy to both safeguard the f. stambrook, " a sensible r e s o l u t i o n : t h e c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b i b l e c o l l e g e a n d the u n i v e r s i t y o f m a n i t o b a " , c m b c a l u m n i b u l l e t i n ( s p r i n g ), . c m b c catalogues - and - . see a p p e n d i x f f o r programs offered d u r i n g the sixties. stambrook, . independence of c m b c and to insure the college would be teaching on a post-secondary level according to the academic standards commensurate with the u m . janzen stated that over the years, trust grew between the two institutions and certain restrictions fell away as the policy was revised throughout the years. this liaison was definitely enhanced by the fact that the school was recognized, by the university, for demonstrating "that it is possible to offer an education that emphasizes logic, analysis and critical thinking as taught in the university, and still to allow the biblical message to determine the objectives." it was recognized, as well, that some of the students "who have come to the university to complete degree programs in philosophy, religious studies, etc. have been students of an exceptionally high caliber who, but for the university's connection with the (approved teaching) centers, would have studied elsewhere in canada." the commendations offered to c m b c by the university of manitoba were not echoed by those in the mennonite constituency who wanted to see the school reflect the goals of the previous era. this group, which included some former students, continued to judge the college on the basis of its graduates and in comparison to other bible institutes across canada. the questions were asked, "why is it that c m b c doesn't produce evangelists? how come c m b c students don't have that real spiritual zeal? why is the student enrollment so low at the college?" menno wiebe, alumni president in offered the opinion that c m b c was consciously knocking down the communal criteria for measuring the school. many at the college were deliberately not interested in "a criteria of success and of numbers and of pulpit oratory" because they believed it was an w a l d e m a r janzen, " c m b c t h e n and n o w " , a l u m n i b u l l e t i n ( s p r i n g ), . janzen ( ), . inadequate one. the measurements of numbers, oratory and performance were those held up by the business world and the world of entertainment and it was strongly suggested that c m b c did not want to let the "criterions of the world be the yardstick" for measuring the church or the college. the argument was that it would be possible to produce a "lush growth of spiritual enthusiasts coming from the school who are perpetuators of someone else's enthusiasm" but that this was dishonest. the faith those at the college were interested in producing was not an imposed faith but one that was germinated in the word of god and grew out of thorough conviction. wiebe noted that a few students had been unhappy with their experience at the college when professors would "work at" the faith of their students by exposing them to new ideas and causing them to reevaluate what they believed. later, however, many of them discovered that, in reality, the type of theological training they had received at c m b c had become the "fertile soil for the growth of a wholesome faith". students had been given a theology that was able to sustain a faith in jesus christ that was able to handle both the successful moments of life and the less successful times. c m b c was interested in producing a faith in its students that would also be able to stand against the popular spiritual movements that were currently available. wiebe describes this kind of faith: am i talking about an orthodox inflexible, purely dogmatic faith? i certainly hope not... it is a faith that is able to stand off and evaluate what is going on in the life of the church - and then let it proceed to make us talk, and live, and c m b c catalogue reference quoted by d r . f. stambrook, v i c e president ( a c a d e m i c ) at the u n i v e r s i t y o f m a n i t o b a i n the c m b c a l u m n i b u l l e t i n (spring ), . stambrook, . m e n n o w i e b e , a l u m n i b u l l e t i n i v , no. ( m a r c h ). convince our families and our fellow employees that christ is the determining person in our life... both the students and the college were viewed as a prophetic voice within the mennonite community and in the world at large. to fulfill this mandate, the students were responsible for examining their faith and, as a teaching center, c m b c was obligated to set the direction of the church in the future. the school could not simply be an embellishment of what had always been taught and believed in sunday school. the board, faculty and students were given the mandate to work very hard at discovering what god was telling the church at that time and to not be satisfied with borrowing from the resources of a past generation. l i s t e n i n g t o a l l t h e voices: c m b c did have a reputation for breaking with the traditions of the past. both students and faculty, in their own way, challenged the churches to break out of the trends and ideas of previous generations. as noted above, whether rightly so or not, c m b c was often judged on the basis of its graduates and its students. the vocational choices, theological opinions and conduct of students were continually under review by the constituency. controversy often accompanied the activities and developments taking place at c m b c . a review of the school paper the college scroll reveals that a number of the students were not afraid to initiate changes which threatened the existing mennonite ethos during the sixties. the first social of the school year created a significant disturbance. the event was held in early november and was intended to mimic a halloween party even though it was slightly late. wiebe, . the party was surrounded by controversy. not all of the students or the members of the larger constituency agreed that halloween should be celebrated by christians. some were concerned about a school-sponsored social, in general, because partying was considered "worldly". others just wanted to insure that the college reputation would not be damaged by any of the activities. not enough concern was expressed for those troubled by the social event. the party was a masquerade social and a number of "border-line" costumes were worn by the students. the comment was made that these costumes "were not seen on the supposedly immature freshman, but on upperclassmen who one might have expected to show more discretion, especially in view of the controversy which already existed". even a few of those who attended the party and enjoyed the chance to "unravel (their) threads of tension" doubted that the school could boast of the halloween social "as being up to the level of a good christian social". concern was expressed that "quite a few people will be disappointed in the college when they hear about it." a month later, another social event created a similar opportunity for disappointment. approximately twenty-five young men from the college went swimming at a municipal pool in early december and were described "as taking the pool in force, acting crazy, out-clowning each other, having some good fights and in general doing everything which the management (lifeguard) insists shouldn't be done." the indiscretions were mainly confined to crude behavior but it was acknowledged that the students did allow their actions to "fall a little below par". even though the young men participated in some rowdy social behavior, they were able to conclude the evening with " s o c i a l l i f e at c m b c " , c o l l e g e s c r o l l , no. ( n o v e m b e r ). c o l l e g e s c r o l l , no. (december ). a religious devotional dealing with their faith. though it was an awkward effort, the students had attempted integrate their faith with their social life. a number of articles written by students and included in the college scroll during the early sixties reveal a latent frustration with an outdated mennonite ethical standard and so students tried to redefine the limits of what was acceptable behavior. it is apparent that a number of students felt their extended mennonite communities continued to uphold a moral code that could not be fully supported by their religious belief system. the ethical standards of the mennonite community were being described in religious terms but did not seem to be logically or philosophically integrated into an explicit mennonite theology. the questions of "why do we do what we do?" or "why can't we do what we want to do?" became a crucial question for many students. many were willing to rethink the standards that were assumed by the constituency at large. community prejudices, for example, became open for examination much to the chagrin of the members who preferred the status quo. a social event in revealed to some students that at least one prejudice needed to broken down. the first mennonite church, a c m c congregation in winnipeg, had the reputation of being a "liberal" church. many of the rural c m c churches, in particular, consider the members of this church to be too "worldly" in theology and conduct. the c m b c students were invited to play volleyball with the young people from the first mennonite church in october, . the event triggered the following response: for some reason we at the college have not been able to make good contact with various city young people. our public relations in this area is negligible. the problem presumably lies in the area of communication. we do not fellowship together, and we do not understand each other the church took the initiative. getting together informally helped to break down some of the prejudices standing between the two groups. the important thing is that we get together. in the past we have been guilty of formulating hasty, biased, and unfounded judgments on some of the youth groups in the city. because of this they see us as pious, egotistical pharisees. let's break down these walls that pervert our christian fellowship. the prejudices ran in two directions. the more progressive, urban churches and the generally more conservative, rural congregations did not understand each other well and did often hold strong negative opinions of each other. the fact that many rural students were attending an urban centered school increased the opportunity for the two differing parts of the mennonite community to connect and created a hybrid of mennonite thought at the college. this way of thinking was not necessarily mirrored in the local congregations to which the students returned. the dichotomy led many to view the college as a place where traditional ideas and values were being challenged. some appreciated the challenge, others did not. throughout the s, c m b c struggled to please the differing elements within the community. students, faculty, and alumni all worked at negotiating the transitions taking place. members of the student government at c m b c in indicated that it was difficult to represent a student body of ninety-five because of the varying ideas the students held. this was magnified when the opinions of all the others involved with the c o l l e g e s c r o l l , no. ( n o v e m b e r ). school were to be kept in mind. the school council felt a sense of responsibility to the students, as well as to the faculty and the constituency. a council member stated that it was frustrating and problematic to try to "satisfy a group of progressive students, an accomplished faculty, and a conservative constituency". the faculty of the college was well aware of these three groups and the interaction between them. college president, h . poettcker indicated that the students, faculty and constituency were all a vital part of the school, and the college existed for the benefit of all. when disagreements erupted between any of the three groups, it could become difficult to determine whom to please. it was especially problematic when displeasing the constituency meant that they would withhold financial assistance as a means of communicating their dissatisfaction. dissatisfaction was plentiful. poettcker wrote the following to describe the situation: critics on every side describe the school as too radical or too conservative, as too ambitious or too cautious, too mediocre or too innovative. one group suggests the faculty just dig in and hold the line. this they say, is the only way that we will manage to safeguard some of the values which our brotherhood, our churches, have acknowledge over the past decades. poettcker suggested that these concerns raised a number of basic questions: "whom does the school serve - the constituency, the student, or both?" "how should the college serve - by holding the line or letting the majority opinion determine specific actions?" poettcker asked the alumni of college to join in the discussion because he felt that c o l l e g e s c r o l l x i i i , no. ( a p r i l , ), . e m p h a s i s is mine. h e n r y poettcker, a l u m n i b u l l e t i n x , no. (december ), . they, in a real sense, belonged to two of the groups. they had been students at c m b c and therefore had an intimate knowledge of how the school operated, and they were now a part of the larger constituency. poettcker believed that the alumni's concerns and criticism were necessary for future decision making at the school. alumni did speak out. while some were critical, the overwhelming number of past students were supportive of the school for various reasons. lydia harder, a graduate, wrote of her experiences as being "the richest years of her life". she came to the college after teaching for two years. she, like many of the other students during the early sixties, was in her early twenties and had some post-secondary education when she attended c m b c . lydia appreciated the luxury of reading and studying, and the opportunity to reflect on "many questions of ultimate reality in the midst of a community that treasured both worship and critical thought". c m b c became a safe place to ask questions, including those she had about her home community. her experiences within the mennonite community had led her to become disillusioned with the local church. the time of study at c m b c did not pull her further away from the mennonite church but, rather, helped her to see the community in a new light and to recognize her responsibility to it. lydia wrote the following for an alumni publication: i came to believe that god had chosen to communicate with us not outside human mediation but through the human bible and the human church. the possibility that god, in grace and love, could then also use me became a promise that brought meaning and purpose to my poettcker, . l y d i a harder, a l u m n i b u l l e t i n , n o . l (winter - ), . harder, . the sentiments expressed by lydia harder were echoed by others. generally, it seemed that the students spoke of the college as having invigorated a sense of individuality and purpose in them. many students during the sixties felt repressed by the conservative nature of their mennonite communities and were eager to break out of traditional conformity. some of their peers were choosing to leave the mennonite church to associate with other denominational groups. bernie wiebe, a young mennonite man, was in middle of making this move when he made the decision to attend c m b c . bernie and his wife were working for the gideons, an inter-denominational group and worshipping with a baptist congregation when bernie felt the need for further biblical training. the baptists offered a scholarship to their college in minnesota however bernie decided he should explore his mennonite roots rather than becoming more involved in the baptist church. he chose to attend c m b c in order to do so. as an older, married student, bernie quickly became involved in the ministry activities of the school. at times he would travel with a small group to visit small congregations outside of winnipeg and occasionally these trips meant he would be away from his own congregation on sundays. at one point he was criticized for missing a communion service at his own congregation because he was away ministering to another church. bernie thought it was silly that he would be chastised for missing a local church service especially when he had been busy working at another. he resisted conforming to standards he could not agree with and responded to the criticism by publicly exploring the issue of conformity for the college paper. according to bernie, student conformity took place in a number of ways at c m b c in . he described four situations where he thought students had been confronted with the issue of conformity. first, he noticed that a number of the college women began to openly wear makeup at the school after some american female visitors to the school did so. most young women attending c m b c did not wear make-up because it was frowned on by many in the constituency. bernie suggested that sometimes strength lay in numbers - "it is easier to become a non-conformist together with a group than as individuals". second, he observed that some of the older students had been quite persuasive in getting other students to choose roller-skating rather than church on a sunday night. he noted that" there were those present who heartily disapproved (of the roller-skating) but wouldn't risk being called non-conformists by telling them so". third, bernie noticed that the very students who had criticized him for missing church on a sunday night were now joining other students in skipping church to do their homework on sunday nights. bernie then described hearing a mother speaking a very poor german to her young child. he noted how parents at c m b c were trying to teach german to their children even though they didn't know the language well because they were following the custom of some mennonites to speak german in the home. bernie closed his article with the warning that christians could not afford to compromise with "the group" or with "the world" for an instant. in a day of conformity, wiebe put out a challenge to other students at c m b c to be non-conformists. this message of non-conformity was repeated by other students at c m b c . ernie klassen, a student in , noted that conformity was a "persistent threat to the b e r n i e w i e b e , " b y c h a n c e and by g o d ' s g r a c e " i n w h y i a m a m e n n o n i t e : e s s a y s o n m e n n o n i t e identity. h a r r y l o e w e n , ed. (kitchner: h e r a l d press, ), . b e r n i e w i e b e , c o l l e g e s c r o l l x i i i , n o . l (feb. ), . wiebe, . individual". while there was a great deal of comfort to be derived from "being in line with the set standards of a group", conformity was to be kept in its "rightful place". unreasoned conformity, ernie argued, was dull and dangerous within a christian community because it was this that "numbs the brain, stifles all creative possibilities, and obstructs the working of the holy spirit in the individual and therefore also in the group". both wiebe and klassen were able to express their sentiments openly at the college because c m b c was a place where non-conformity could be practiced, in moderation at least. the students were asked to engage in critical thought and to explore the possibilities of their individual creativity under the sanction of god and the church. college standards reflected this emphasis on the development of the critical- minded individual. throughout the sixties, the c m b c catalogue stated that "the priesthood of all believers" lay behind both the purpose and the basic orientation of the school. the college sought to provide a christian context in which each student would find their individual, personal faith deepened and strengthened. the college consciously chose to give students the principles for making ethical and vocational decisions rather than a handbook with specific rules and mandates. to reflect this choice, the college called the school standards "principles" rather than "regulations". some students felt that "dead-set conformity" was avoided in this way. one student argued that this method worked, however, only as long as students didn't begin to "confuse principles with prejudice and try to force these on others". the only way to avoid the extremes of conformity were seen as stemming from "respecting the rights of others and showing interest in others as persons and not regarding non-conformity as necessarily a sign of w i e b e , . e r n i e k l a s s e n , c o l l e g e s c r o l l x v f f l , no. ( a p r i l ), . neurotic disturbance." college publications written during the sixties reveal that students and faculty were continually challenging one another to respect and tolerate others. self-critique was held up as a continual process for both the institution and the individual students. comments like, "there is a constant need for our vision to become clearer, so that we may fulfill our task faithfully - the task of presenting god's love to man in word and action" are frequently found. the institution struggled to be respectful of both the community and the students. the college attempted to "stick with the conference and its churches" it sought to understand the constituency's criticisms of and aspirations for the school. c m b c consciously tried to resist moves into "academic circles and ambitious strivings that would cut (its) close ties to the community of faith". at the same time, the college tried to gain the confidence of their students by being aware of the world and context in which the younger generation were growing up. those working at the college did not believe they were breaking the ties between the generations represented in the pew and in the classroom but that at many points they were helping to mend them. c m b c carried a conscientious mandate of inviting students to c m b c " for serious study, for genuine conversation, and for building christian fellowship". the principles of diligence, respect and love were upheld for all at the school. the graduates of c m b c were presented with the responsibility of respect for others. in the early s, c m b c alumni had to transfer their credits to other schools to receive a recognized degree. for years, many students attended bethel college in the united k l a s s e n , . h e n r y d u e c k , " a greater v i s i o n " i n the c o l l e g e s c r o l l , x i i i , n o . l (feb. ), . w a l d e m a r janzen, " c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b i b l e c o l l e g e - years o f ministry to y o u t h " i n m e n n o n i t e reporter, j u l y , s e c t i o n a , . states for a year to obtain a b a degree. bethel college had a reputation of being a fairly "liberal" mennonite institution and, therefore, some c m b c students approached the school with a certain trepidation. this fear was directly challenged by some students and faculty at c m b c . an editorial in the school paper describes the situation in the following way: some would say " c m b c students attending bethel rush through their courses so as not to "get their feet dirty". what is there about us that gives the people the impression that we have a "holier-than-thou attitude". is there a trace of self-righteousness? do we consider that people who are in any way different from us cannot possibly be true christians? and woe betide anyone that tries to tell us something about theology that we don't know. we've been to bible college... two types of students are not needed: those who have all the answers to bethel's needs and those who, because they consider themselves superior, withdraw to the point of remaining uninvolved even in scf activities. the tendancy is to forget that bethel's ideals are as high as any school's and that its faculty is dedicated to the cause of christian education. the school must not be judged by those students who do not share the convictions of those who administer and support it. in every location, in every group of people there are differences, and adjustments need to be made. but before condemning - or condoning - careful and prayerful evaluations must be made. those who left c m b c continued to be challenged by the college ideals of respect janzen, . e d i t o r i a l , c o l l e g e s c r o l l x i i i , no. (feb. ), . for each individual, tolerance and good will toward fellow believers. these ideals were prevalent in the bible week lectures held in the fall of . c.j. dyck, noted american mennonite historian, came to c m b c to address the students and constituency on the matter of the christian calling and ecumenicity. dyck challenged the audience with the idea that the new testament abolished the laity and designated all believers as "priests". he argued that all christians had been called to be ministers in the world. dyck asked the mennonite community to rethink its ideas of seperateness when he stated: "our problem is not so much to get people into the church, but to get the church out into the world. we must penetrate the world and its social order". this would not be accomplished, he argued, if christians continued to disagree with each other and condemn one another. dyck is quoted as saying: all schism is sin. division makes a mockery of the gospel. no christian ever breaks communion with a fellow man. we do not recognize the faithful ones by building ecclesiastical bulwarks and firing broadside at each other. despite the warnings, criticism and division were continual realities for those related to c m b c . both the students and the faculty of the college encouraged a spirit of openness and universality that was subject to constituency critique. one student expressed her discomfort when she went home at christmas in . expecting to enjoy a quiet holiday, she was surprised by the response from members in home church. she found it hard to share her college experiences because those at home did not seem to understand her, or her new christian colleagues, and were quick to h e l m u t harder, " s o m e r e f l e c t i o n s f r o m the b i b l e w e e k l e c t u r e s " , c o l l e g e s c r o l l . , no. (oct. , ), . criticize them severely. she felt alienated from her home that seemed to have "more form than spirit", hindering her from having a meaningful religious experience. similar sentiments were expressed by other students. a fellow student wrote insightful piece entitled "looking into a mirror" in for the college paper: often we laugh at the type of questions people ask concerning c m b c . we think they are 'out to get us'. they usually begin their questions by saying, "we hear that ..., is that right?" and so one tries to explain what really happened, possibly making it sound as if it really wasn't anything at all. they also ask straight forward questions, such as, "are the students living a dedicated christian life? are they seeking god's will for their lives? what is their relationship to the lord?" these are questions hard to answer, yet to leave them unanswered would not be right either. so one stereotypes and says, "yes, in most cases there is a genuine concern, first of all, to know what our relationship to god is, and secondly, to seek the will of god for our life." a n answer like that makes them happy and me too, hoping that the interrogation period is over. but it isn't. another favorite question asked is, "what type of entertainment do the students participate in?" why does he have to ask that question? again i try to explain but get caught in a snare. i'm not as slick or as smooth as some people are in explaining the reasons why for all the types of entertainment in which we participate. possibly our field of entertainment is too wide. maybe we should evaluate some of the things we do or to which we go. or maybe we should ask ourselves if what we a n n i e janzen, " c h r i s t m a s w a s n ' t easy", c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. (jan. , ), . do corresponds with what we say; does it help to establish a closer relationship to god, or is it only a personal matter? i am confused about this last one, i really am. the confusion was not unique to this one student. others were equally unsure of themselves in an environment that forced them to individually examine the implications of their religious faith. c m b c did not have a uniform, static ideal of the christian life that the students could embrace. the opposite was considered to be the genuine expression of the christian faith. diversity and variety were valued. peter fast, a new faculty member to c m b c in , expressed this opinion clearly for the college students in : members of christ's body are not like a collection of stamps in an album, not like a specimen of a species nor like a member of a class or a club. similarity is not the feature which characterizes the body of christ, but rather diversity. health is not determined on the basis of conformity. uniformity is not the return of the temperature of the body to normalcy and thus a sign of health. on the contrary, uniformity of the members of christ's body is a sign that the body is sick, critically sick! chances of survival are slim unless one injects several shots of diversity to bring down the fantastically high temperatures of uniformity. the religious devotion of the students at c m b c was not going to be strait-jacketed. nor were students to view their spirituality as something they could measure. rather, they were to let the internal reality of their christian faith become more significant than their werner froese, " l o o k i n g into a m i r r o r ' ' , c o l l e g e s c r o l l . , no. (jan. , ), , . peter fast, " c h r i s t i n a strait-jacket?" c o l l e g e s c r o l l . , no. ( m a r c h , ), . outward signs of devotion. the kind of faith experience, advocated for at c m b c , took time to develop. some students recognized that it would take more than one year of studies at the college to "do justice to oneself and to the school". those who attended for less than two years often found they had more questions than answers when they left. these students often had the poorest impression of the college and, as one student expressed it, "do its public image the most harm by making remarks such as 'they study all about the bible but not the bible'". some students recognized that during the first year academic expectations were fairly high, and it could feel like nothing was being gained in a spiritual sense. during the second year, however, the learning began to become an internal part of themselves, as they continued to live together in community dormitories and were exposed to more teaching and discussion. additional time and the relatively small student numbers allowed for a significant level of student-student and student-teacher relationships to occur. a student in described the dynamic experience of living within the c m b c environment: that c m b c is a bible college, a christian community, increases the opportunities, as well as the responsibilities. this is especially as with respect to discipline. the absence of strict laws can be abused, but if viewed responsibly, it both tests and increases the individual and communal maturity. it is more desirable and acceptable to share in mutual admonition and to be subject to internal discipline than to be e . l o r n e b r a n d t , " r e f l e c t i o n s o n a c m b c e x p e r i e n c e " , c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. ( a p r i , ), - . brandt, . subjected to an outside law. this student reflection went on to describe c m b c as a place where intellectual, personal and spiritual development were all part of his three year stay. he left the college hoping that he had been able to give something in return. a fellow colleague, ruth heinrichs, left the college at the same time enthused with her new found knowledge. she was eager to get back to her home church to make a difference. no longer satisfied to be part of the status quo, she was ready to address what she had come to believe were theological inaccuracies. it was likely that, in doing so, she would create a great deal of controversy. she was particularly upset that children in sunday school were being spoon-fed "bunk" - "i feel uneasy about telling stories such as the creation, the fall of man, noah's ark, the plagues and the red sea as though these events literally happened". she disliked giving the children the impression that god had been reduced to the status of a magician, and she described her vision for christian education in the church: we must also keep in mind that primary aged children read books about evolution now-a-days! ... it would help if some of these 'literal' ideas were given a good shaking up in high school sunday school classes. this is usually not the case. in my experience, at least, the lessons took on a moralizing tone. there was little theologizing (presumably because it would upset too many people). instead, the lessons had to do with generalities such as why we shouldn't go to war, hate our neighbor or smoke. (i am not saying we should not discuss these things.) but too brandt, . r u t h h e i n r i c h s , " d o w n w i t h our sunday s c h o o l s ! " , c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. (nov. , ) - . much of a good thing is bad, as the saying goes. the result of this type of training is clearly seen when the young people go into the world. the sunday school dogma just doesn't stand up. i have seen too many young people decide to dismiss the whole bible as "myth". there they are, with nothing... we need a "new curriculum" for the young people of our day. i admit that i don't know the answers but i feel that something has got to happen if the church is too grow in our time... surely, i am not the only one with this problem! these ideas, or the enthusiasm with which she would approach the c o m constituency of which she was a part, were not welcomed by all. once again, some members would accuse c m b c of filling students heads with "strange ideas" that did not conform with what they considered to be "right theology". other members would take the time to respond to the opinions held by the students, recognizing that many influences were responsible for shaping students' thoughts. a few months after the college scroll published ruth's ideas, the school paper printed a response from a well-known c m c preacher, d.d. klassen, together with a reply from ms. heinrichs. klassen indicated that it had been a shock to read ruth's article but he did not condemn her for her thoughts. offering what he hoped would be helpful, klassen added: one would expect this kind of an approach from a young university student who is constantly confronted with so-called "higher criticism" of the contents of the bible. apparently she is in her first year at college and has not yet found her bearing in the controversial issues in contemporary theology. or else she has read only books by negative theologians who take pleasure in tearing down, but give no specifics on how to build positively... behind ruth's desire to have a discussion of the problem, it seems to me, is a hidden plea for help. and where else than in our bible college, in the midst of a group of bible-believing professors, could this help be found? klassen encouraged ruth to get help from her professors in her interpretations of the biblical texts and offered a few insights of his own, closing his letter with the reassurance that he intended to be her "co-helper". ruth responded to klassen's letter by clarifying some of her earlier opinions. for example, she maintained her position that the genesis account of creation was "an imaginative representation of an abstract truth", rather than a historical account dictated by god to a secretary. it seems likely that some of ruth's ideas were encouraged by the instruction she received at c m b c because they represented reliable, contemporary theological opinions. no c m b c professor was publicly associated with her views, however. perhaps the dismissal of david janzen, in , discouraged other faculty members from expressing the newest theological propositions in a public forum, for fear of being misunderstood by more conservative members. ruth, as student, did not fear the community's reprisal and, while acknowledging that she had stated her views "rather crassly" at first, she believed it was important to "be blunt and to the point and quit all this pussyfooting around". as noted above, many students, like ruth, were not afraid to get involved in community discussions even if they created controversy by doing so. faculty members, h e i n r i c h s , , . d d k l a s s e n , " l e t t e r to the e d i t o r " t h e c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. ( f e b r u a r y , ) - . on the other hand, were not getting involved in public theological debates but focused on the need for those associated with the c m b c to work together, despite the differences. in , the college acknowledged that c m b c students, in general, held an anti- institutional attitude even though they were well aware of the financial support the broader constituency offered. faculty felt the need to respond. they chose to invite students, alumni, educators and ministers to participate in a faculty evaluation of the entire c m b c program. the findings of this "self-study" were compiled into a "white paper" and presented to the college board. essentially, those involved with the college and its constituency recognized that the "educational system was under siege" and the c m c "church was under stress". c m b c , as a part of both institutions, would need to continually review its work to assess its relevance within the community. this would not be an easy task in light of the diverse college constituency. the wide spectrum of the c m b c constituency was discussed by rudy regehr, (who joined the college faculty in ) in . at that time, the c m c had , members spread throughout congregations. while the majority of members were typically middle-class canadians, moderately wealthy, and educationally above the national average (and still climbing), the student body continued to represent a variety of mennonite groups - each of which stressed particular cultural distinctions. there were the "russlaender", "kanadier", "sommerfelder", "alt-kolonier", "danziger", "paraguayer", "displaced persons", as well as a few students from non-mennonite backgrounds. this cultural variety was compounded by the theological diversity of h e i n r i c h s , " r e p l y to d d k l a s s e n " c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. (feb. , ), - . r e f l e c t i o n o n - i n c l u d e d i n t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s : a t i m e to g r o w c m b c - ( c m b c p u b l i c a t i o n , ). r o d sawatsky, c o l l e g e s c r o l l , no. ( n o v ). members within the c m c . according to regehr, there were four general groups that played some role in the constituency as the sixties came to a close. arguments and opinions came from the "conservatives", the "fundamentalists", the "liberals", and the "anabaptists". the conservatives tended to approach the bible in a literal and/or allegorical way and distrusted other interpretations. fundamentalists were looking for a pure church where the "social gospel" and "modernism" would have no place. the liberals, on the other hand, were equally as dogmatic as the fundamentalists but their idea of the pure church was one of broadmindedness, which "very often would rather shatter a person's simplistic faith then to let him (or her) live meaningfully with it". the anabaptists, meanwhile, were looking for a theological option other than the old "fundamentalist- liberal" choice. the latter option, according to rodney sawatsky (faculty member between - ) formed the general theological approach at c m b c leaned during the s. the orientation of many of his colleagues at the college could not be described as conservative, fundamentalist or liberal. generally, all critical methodologies were employed to assist in gaining the meaning of biblical text. sawatsky stated that, during both his time as a student and a faculty member, he heard little debate about liberalism or fundamentalism at the college. he credits the faculty for being able to apply a both/and approach so that aspects of each perspective were affirmed while they simultaneously rejected the weaknesses of both. in this way, they were able to adapt and contribute to the formation of an approach to the bible that was appropriate for that time, r u d y regehr, " w h o are the c o n s t i t u e n c y ? " c o l l e g e s c r o l l , , no. ( n o v . , ), - . regehr, - . • while reflecting on its meaning for the anabaptist/mennonite tradition. throughout the sixties, c m b c increasingly allowed for and encouraged intellectual, theological, and social diversity, without being polemic. the community was intentionally shaped by the idea that all members of the constituency were equal, and needed to be respected as such. though criticism abounded, the college managed to remain deliberate about allowing students, faculty, board members, alumni, and other church constituents, to set its direction. each student was encouraged to be a responsible participant in their world, regardless of the professional or vocational choices they made. while one quarter of all c m b c alumni continued to be involved in church-related professions by the end of the sixties, the majority were spread over a wide spectrum of society. the college had actively faced the challenge of meeting three tasks. c m b c provided a university academic standard while preparing a variety of mennonite students for a responsible life, within their church community and within secular society. r o d n e y sawatsky " w o r d s b e c o m i n g f l e s h " , t h e c h u r c h as t h e o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y , h a r r y huebner, ed. ( w i n n i p e g : c m b c p u b l i c a t i o n s , ), - . c o n c l u s i o n two ways of opening while closing the earliest anabaptists, some of whom became known as the mennonites, were well known for their radical attempts to be the true christian church during the time of the reformation. historically, the mennonites continued to place value on sixteenth century anabaptist ideals that, originally, were an attempt to restore the church to the early christian model, as described in the new testament. generally, the mennonites believed an authentic christian needed to have both "correct" theology and a disciplined, ethical lifestyle. when the mennonites migrated to new "homelands", they quickly developed "in-house" education to instill these ideals in their children. pragmatically, all children needed to learn to read so they could eventually participate in the communal, lay study of scripture. offering this necessary education in a parochial setting helped to shelter their young from any contravening influences and perpetuated a lifestyle that met mennonite ethical standards. even though the religious leaders assumed responsibility for education, each member of the community was expected to support and reinforce the communal worldview. education within the mennonite community played a significant role in maintaining the religious, social and cultural ethos of the community. the mennonites migrated from switzerland, south germany (palatinate) and the netherlands to prussia, poland, russia and north america between the sixteenth century and the twentieth century. they were attracted to the regions where they could establish religious and educational autonomy. this meant that the countries they settled in often favored a political or cultural climate that allowed for the independence of minority groups. other ethnic minority groups in prussia and russia, for example, enjoyed the same freedom as the mennonites did. a climate of pluralism did not concern the mennonites as long they were allowed to live in separated communities, removed from the direct influences of the state. this isolation meant that mennonites became insulated by various boundaries - geographic, cultural and religious. at a number of points in mennonite history, circumstances would begin to erode the communal borders. in response, some mennonites would choose to relocate to another region where they could remain relatively autonomous, while other members would stay and reestablish suitable community boundaries. the latter process called for an appropriate balance of opening and closing. usually social, economic or political changes in the larger environment would require some degree of adaptation within the mennonite community. the community needed to be open to needed information and responsive to societal influences while resisting total assimilation into general society. parochial educational institutions became the vehicles through which change could be introduced to the community while maintaining continuity with community interests. historically, there was a typical correlation between the economic stability of a mennonite community and the development of their educational institutions. groups of mennonites migrated to a number of new regions, including prussia, poland, russia and north america, between the s to the s. usually, the period of time after a migration was a time of struggle for the mennonites. the first years would be largely dedicated to the development of an economic base - one that was often agricultural. educational endeavors would be meager till the communities became more fully established. when an adequate level of financial means within the community was in place, educational facilities could be developed. initially, mennonite education emphasized religious training along with the teaching of elementary rudiments. additionally, communal educational institutions would train members for work within the developing mennonite communities. mennonite educational facilities in russia between - , for example, supplied workers for the growing community businesses and industries while providing a parochial environment in which mennonite students could learn the necessary skills. the need for alternative occupations was created by two major factors. first, a land shortage in the russian communities of chortitza and molotschna meant that not all young people could become directly involved in farming. new opportunities would need to be found if all were to be adequately employed. second, expanding communities needed workers with new business and industrial skills for the development of a stronger economy. increasingly, students were leaving the mennonite communities to seek an education that would train them for jobs other than farming. groups of mennonites quickly organized to develop communal educational facilities so that students could acquire the education they needed, at home. mennonites wanted to keep their students within the community while responding to the need for alternative employment skills. the further development of mennonite schools, in russia, allowed the community to be open to additional economic opportunities while safeguarding communal boundaries. the community was able to expand and develop with the benefits of higher levels of education, while minimizing the possibility of students assimilating into mainstream society. the history of mennonite educational institutions in canada between the s and the s repeats this basic pattern. increased levels of education and the development of a variety of educational facilities enabled the mennonite communities to be open to new social and economic opportunities while simultaneously bearing the responsibility of keeping mennonite students within the bounds of community life. the means by which this was achieved varied from institution to institution but, essentially, parochial schools were able to maintain some level of mennonite identity for their students. mennonite schools played the crucial role of opening their community to increased social and economic opportunities while preserving a mennonite identity, thereby closing the doors to complete assimilation into larger society. new parochial educational facilities helped the supporting constituencies adapt to the changing challenges of the contemporary world while providing a sense of continuity for the mennonite community. during the s, the two mennonite bible colleges in winnipeg, manitoba played this vital role for their constituencies. increased opportunities existed in the broader canadian society, and a specific type of higher education was needed to take advantage of the professional and vocational openings. as in the past, the new occupations appealed to a growing number of urban mennonites who were no longer involved in the rural, farming industry. the colleges wished to follow the historical mandate of offering the new, necessary education within a mennonite institution, however, not all members agreed that the changes were needed. the colleges required the financial cooperation of many members if they wished to continue or to expand their programs. they could not afford to alienate a good number of their constituents. it proved difficult, however, to convince members with less formal education, who still adhered to the traditional, rural lifestyle as the "correct" mennonite way of life, to whole-heartedly support colleges that were openly associating with a modern, urban worldview. these members did not recognize the need for further development of the liberal arts programs at the schools. they wanted the schools to continue with their first priority as a biblical training center for all members, and particularly for those who would become church workers. the colleges needed to communicate the new needs in terms that all members could relate to. they looked to the past values of their communities and reclaimed some of those ideals to help them do so. some of those involved with m b b c called for the continued "unity of the brotherhood". all members were asked to be supportive of their school in a corporate effort. it was essential to have a m b college that was able to instill the m b focus on conversion in its students. this emphasis acquired larger significance when it was articulated as part of the biblical mandate to "go into all the world". mennonite brethren were encouraged to reach out to secular society so that all could hear the gospel and be given the opportunity to convert to christianity. faculty members, as active and respected leaders with the m b church conference, were largely responsible for articulating the theological arguments that justified broader association with general canadian society. they argued that the task of the college was not just to train those who would participate in church work but to educate students to enter all avenues of the world boldly and confidently, to "build the kingdom of god". c m b c reclaimed the historical anabaptist ideal that valued the participation of each member of the church, not just the religious leaders. the "priesthood of all believers" was highlighted as students, faculty and board members worked together in a new, less authoritarian style. the earlier moves to decentralize the authority structure within the c m c were motivated by issues related to c m b c and the college continued to be an active forerunner in listening to the voices of many members, including those of their young people. all were to work together to serve the c m c constituency so that each member could fulfill his or her christian responsibility to the world. the colleges played a vital role in their communities because they allowed for discussions, about the new responsibilities of christians, to take place within an "open" and yet "closed" environment. students, at both colleges, were stretched to think about their childhood faith in more rational and logical terms, within an environment that affirmed the values of a common religion. a mennonite/christian environment allowed some students to feel safer about articulating their biblical and/ or theological concerns. a university setting, alone, might not have provided the same level of security. while the students were exposed to a critical, academic examination of their religious belief system at the college, commitment to community life helped to keep their faith viable. the previous two chapters demonstrated that the two colleges accomplished the same vital purpose of "opening while closing" in unique ways. m b b c relied on the expertise of an accomplished faculty, many of whom had recently attended a number of respected theological institutions to complete higher academic degrees. the faculty was well-prepared to tackle questions within the classroom, and in the church community. their frequent visits to constituency churches allowed other members to hear some of the theological arguments students were hearing in the classroom. there was a general effort to bring all m b members to a consensus on particular controversial issues. as illustrated in chapter six, the canadian mennonite brethren conference, in , was one occasion where a record number of mbs gathered to discuss possible changes to some of their ethical standards. faculty members were actively involved in these discussions and others throughout the decade. on the other hand, faculty at c m b c did not carry the same level of authority within the c m c community. the moves, during the fifties, to shift communal authority away from a powerful elite leadership made it was unlikely for another group to have a prominent status just a few years later. all the research related to c m b c during the sixties revealed that a familial attitude existed between the faculty and the students. the voice of the students was clearly present in all the public records of the school. students at c m b c represented a diverse constituency and the "in-house" college discussions reveal that there wasn't any concentrated effort to get students to agree on particular issues. all students were given the freedom to develop and promote their individual ideas. the students' opinions could be challenged by other members of the community but a general rule existed that each member was to be treated with respect and dignity. a fitting illustration is included in chapter seven. a female student voiced a critical biblical interpretation in the school paper. a well known and respected c m c pastor read the article and choose to respond to the young woman. the college paper printed his kind but direct reply to her comments, along with an answer from the student. the exchange revealed an equal dialogue between two members of one constituency. even though the pastor was considerably older and held a high profile with the community, his young, female conversation partner was able to participate fully. the college served as a context in which this equitable conversation was able to take place. as this thesis has demonstrated, church colleges can play an interesting role in the life of a religious community such as the mennonites. the two colleges included in this study were able to call their constituencies to critique and commitment. the schools served the vital role of "opening" an ethnocentric community to critical self-examination and the recognition that it was important for mennonites to get involved in their larger canadian society. at the same time, m b b c and c m b c were also able to ignite a sense of purpose and commitment in their members, thereby "closing" the community with a renewed corporate identity. the mennonite brethren united to "build the kingdom of god" while the conference of mennonites in canada embraced the challenges of dialogue and diversity within their community. though the colleges made similar institutional changes to open their constituents to the professional and vocational opportunities during the s, each community was invigorated by a unique vision for the future. postscript: both of the colleges included in this study continue to operate in the s. in , m b b c was renamed concord college. the college confers two four year undergraduate degrees in bachelor of christian studies (bsc) and bachelor of church music (bcm). the b s c enables students to complete two degrees concurrently with the university of winnipeg in four or five years. this allows students to plan their undergraduate work at concord with a double concentration: christian studies and another chosen minor within the university. courses at concord college are to provide a foundation for reflection on christian worldview and faith perspectives as students complete a bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree at the university. the mission statement of concord college in indicates that the college was adamant about offering a university education that integrated high standards of academic excellence with the formation of christian character. this kind of education was to prepare students to be servant leaders in the church, the professions and the marketplace. c m b c also stresses that its association with the university of manitoba supported its commitment to academic thoroughness. the college continues to be an approved teaching centre of the u m and through this arrangement c m b c students can receive up to two years of university credit for courses they take at c m b c . the college affirms the idea that education best serves the christian church when the pursuit of truth is undertaken with the rigor and discipline of the university's academic standards at c m b c . these academic values are offered in the context of a christian community atmosphere that can prepare students for effective participation in the life and work of their congregations, as well as in the context of their vocation, their community and the ecumenical and cross-cultural world. as well, both concord college and c m b c continue to state that their college communities foster a view of life that was consistent with their anabaptist/ mennonite heritage. since , a new development has strengthened the presence of mennonite higher education in the city of winnipeg. a chair in mennonite studies was started at the university of winnipeg to expand options for students who were interested in c o n c o r d c o l l e g e in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f w i n n i p e g pamphlet used f o r student recruitment. . pursuing anabaptist-mennonite studies. in , a group of mennonite businessmen and educators in winnipeg, had a vision for future developments in mennonite education. this group, known as the "friends of mennonite higher learning", came up with the idea of starting a mennonite co-operative effort in post-secondary education in manitoba. the proposed model integrated the work of c m b c , m b b c and steinbach bible college. in this model each college would have continued to teach bible, theology and missions according to their own perspectives, while the liberal arts programs would have been a joint effort. a mennonite business association would have funded the establishment of endowed chairs in liberal arts, along with an endowed operational fund for a complete liberal arts complex (library, gym and music hall). apparently, the colleges would have been able to cut their college budgets by - % and enhanced their effectiveness considerably. the proposal of the "friends of mennonite higher learning" was not accepted, however. after meeting with representatives from the conferences supporting the colleges, it became clear that the groups would not be able to work together in this joint effort at that time. the project was shelved, but not forgotten. in , members of the "friends of higher learning" applied for a charter with "degree-granting powers" for the potential college. then, in , the university of winnipeg opened a mennonite studies centre with the expressed mandate to develop a new mennonite under-graduate studies program. in , after thorough research into university-college relations across canada, a program known as menno simons college (msc), was accepted into an affiliation c m b c catalogue - , - , m e n n o s i m o n s c o l l e g e : e d u c a t i o n f o r international development, t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f w i n n i p e g , ( n o v e m b e r ), , . agreement with the university of winnipeg. beginning in the - academic year, m s c initially offered two programs of study along with the university: social and economic development studies and conflict resolution studies. like the two other mennonite colleges in winnipeg, the philosophy of education at the new college was rooted in the value system of the anabaptist/mennonite community and sought to foster good citizenship in their students who could then meet the needs of the day. in , menno simons college joined c m b c and m b b c to form the "mennonite college federation committee (mcfc). for the next two years, six representatives from each college met regularly to discuss the possibility of bringing the three schools together in a joint educational effort. an earlier task force ( - ) had determined that there was strong constituency support for greater co-operation among the colleges, as long as the current colleges could maintain their own identity. on january , , representatives of c m b c , concord, and menno simons signed a memorandum of understanding with the government of manitoba which provided financial assistance for the joint educational effort, and enacted a charter giving it university-level status. the co-operative venture became known as the mennonite college federation (mcf) and, beginning in september , m c f will be offering its first courses. academic options will include a bachelor of arts degree with a broad variety of majors, music programs, church ministry programs, and pre-professional tracks. promotional material indicates that m c f will seek to create a living, dynamic learning community that . m s c ( ), , . m s c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n calendar. u s e d as a supplement to t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f w i n n i p e g calendar. - , . m s c calendar, - , - . c m b c b u l l e t i n ( s p r i n g ), - . integrates career and faith by offering an academic education along with christian values and beliefs. rationale for the federation of the three colleges argues that their co- operation will consolidate "the mennonite witness in higher education" and significantly increase the number of mennonite students and other students "who will benefit from an anabaptist christian college education because of the greatly expanded academic program". it is believed that the college constituencies will be better served by a cross- disciplinary dialogue that can address the critical issues currently facing the church, and by the additional financial support from the government. this financial assistance will help the colleges build a strong educational enterprise while retaining control of the federation. as in the past, the mennonite community has been able to find the necessary means to accomplish its educational purposes while maintaining control of their expanding parochial educational endeavors. the resistance to a joint venture of the colleges, which was noted in the forties as well as the eighties, was substantially overcome so that the three groups could begin to work together. as in the past, government involvement is tolerated (and welcomed by some) as long as educational autonomy remains possible. the canadian pluralistic value system is viewed as an opportunity to strengthen the distinctive identity of the mennonites in manitoba. as one of many ethnic groups in canada with a deep sense of "religious" and "cultural" identity, the mennonites seek to offer an education grounded in value systems which, while affirming a traditional heritage, also provides a setting in which personal growth and m c f advertisement, c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e ( january ), . c o n c o r d c o l l e g e and m e n n o n i t e c o l l e g e federation, september , . c o n c o r d c o l l e g e and m c f ( ), . change is nurtured. an education that is based on the high standards of university-level studies is believed to encourage mature and responsible community participation. the students graduating from this new mennonite educational institution continue to carry the mandate to make a positive difference in their world, as did those who attended the colleges in winnipeg during the s. the manitoba government is assisting the federation with an annual operating grant of $ . million for a minimum of years. cmbc bulletin (spring ), . rationale for government bursuries for students at religiously-affiliated post-secondary institutions and to theological students, draft , mbbc files, - . b i b l i o g r a p h y . m e n n o n i t e sources books, official documents, college publications bellah, robert n , richard madsen, william m . sullivan, ann swidler and steven m . tipton. . habits of the heart: individualism and commitment in american life. new york: harper & row publishers. bender, harold s. . mennonites and their heritage. pennsylvania: mennonite central committee. calendar: canadian mennonite bible college. - . winnipeg. c m b c publications. calendar: mennonite brethren bible college. - . winnipeg: christian press. calendar: mennonite brethren college of arts. - . winnipeg: christian press. canadian mennonite bible college alumni bulletin. - , published quarterly. winnipeg: c m b c . canadian mennonite bible college yearbook, - . . winnipeg: inter- collegiate press. canadian mennonite bible college yearbook, - . . winnipeg: inter- collegiate press. canadian mennonite bible college yearbook, - . . winnipeg: inter- collegiate press. college scroll. winnipeg: c m b c . - . published bi-annually. defehr, c a . . memories of my life. altona: d w friesen & sons, ltd.. driedger, leo. . mennonite identity in conflict. studies in religion and society, vol. , lewiston & queenston: edwin mellen press. — . . mennonites in winnipeg. winnipeg: kindred press. driedger, leo and leland harder, eds. . anabaptist-mennonite identities in ferment. occasional papers no. , elkhart: institute of mennonite studies. doerksen, john george. . mennonite brethren bible college and college of arts: its history, philosophy, and development. a doctoral dissertation submitted to the university of north dakota. grand forks, north dakota: university of north dakota. dueck, a.j. . moving beyond secession: defining russian mennonite brethren mission and identity - . winnipeg: kindred press. dueck, a . j . , h j giesbrecht and v g shillington. eds. . the bible and the church. winnipeg: kindred press. dueck, a.j. . moving beyond secession: defining russian mennonite brethren mission and identity - . winnipeg: kindred press. dyck, abe. jr. . he leadeth men. winnipeg: christian press. dyck, cornelius j., ed. . an introduction to mennonite history. kitchner, herald press. enns, f.f. . elder enns. winnipeg: f.f. enns. enns, mary m . mia: the story of a remarkable woman. winnipeg: christian press. ens, adolf. . subjects or citizens? the mennonite experience in canada, - . canada: university of ottawa press. ens, anna. . in search of unity: story of the conference of mennonites in manitoba. canada: c m b c publications. epp, frank h . . mennonite exodus: the rescue and resettlement of the russian mennonites since the communist revolution. altona: d w friesen & sons ltd.. . mennonites in canada - : the history of a separate people. canada: mennonite historical society of canada. . mennonites in canada - : a people's struggle for survival. canada: macmillan of canada. epp, george k. . the educational policies of catherine //. european university studies, frankfurt/m.: peter lang. epp, reuben. . the story of low german & plautdietsch. hillsboro, kansas: the reader's press. esau, john a. ed. . understanding ministerial leadership: essays contributing to a developing theology of ministry. text reader series , elkhart: institute of mennonite studies. ewert, david. . stalwart for the truth: the life and legacy of ah unruh. winnipeg: board of christian literature, general conference of the mennonite brethren churches of north america. a journey of faith: an autobiography. winnipeg: christian press. . honor such people. winnipeg: center for mennonite brethren studies. friesen, abraham, ed. . p.m. friesen and his history: understanding mennonite brethren beginnings. fresno: center for mennonite brethren studies. . history and renewal in the anabaptist/mennonite tradition. north newton, kansas: bethel college, . friesen, john d . . holding forth the word of life. saskatoon: john d . friesen in co- operation with board of radio ministries of e m m c . friesen, rudy p. . into the past. winnipeg: raduga publications. gerbrandt, henry j. . adventure in faith: the background in europe and the development in canada of the bergthaler mennonite church of manitoba. altona: the bergthaler mennonite church of manitoba. en route. winnipeg: c m b c publications. goossen, walfried. . anabaptism: a dying candle. winnipeg: henderson books. hamm, peter m . . continuity and change: among canadian mennonite brethren. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press. . reflections on my journey. abbotsford: peter m . hamm. hertzler, daniel. . mennonite education: why and how? a philosophy of education for the mennonite church. scottsdale: herald press. heubner, harry, ed. . the church as theological community: essays in honor of david schroeder. winnipeg: c m b c publications. kauffman, j. howard and leland harder, eds. . anabaptists four centuries later: a profile of five mennonite and brethren in christ denominations. kitchener: herald press. kaufman, james ri chard. . traditional religious belief and the local cosmopolitan orientation among the general conference mennonites. a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy. manhattan, kansas: kansas state university. klaasen, walter, ed. . anabaptism in outline: selected primary sources. waterloo: herald press. klassen, aj. ed. . the seminary story: twenty years of education in ministry: - . fresno: mennonite brethren biblical seminary. kraybill, donald b. mennonite education: issues, facts, and changes. kitchener: herald press, . loewen, harry, ed. . why i am a mennonite: essays on mennonite identity. kitchener: herald press. loewen, royden k. . family, church and market: a mennonite community in the old and the new worlds, - . urbana and chicago: university of illinois press. martens, katherine. . all in a row: the klassens of homewood. winnipeg: mennonite literary society. martens, katherine and heidi harms, eds. . in her own voice. winnipeg: university of manitoba press. nafziger, elfrieda toews. . a man of his word: a biography of john a. toews. winnipeg: christian press. pipkin, h . wayne, ed. . essays in anabaptist theology. text reader series , elkhart: institute of mennonite studies. rainbow: annual yearbook of mbbc. . winnipeg: inter-collegiate press. redekop, calvin, stephen c. ainlay and robert siemens, eds. . mennonite entrpreneurs. baltimore: the john hopkins university press. redekop, calvin w. and samuel j. steiner. eds. . mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. waterloo: university press of america, institute for anabaptism and mennonite studies. redekop, gloria neufeld. . the work of their hands: mennonite women's societies in canada. studies in women and religion vol. . canada: canadian corporation for studies in religion. redekop, john h . . a people apart: ethnicity and the mennonite brethren. winnipeg: kindred press. regehr. t.d. . for everything a season. winnipeg: c m b c publications. mennonites in canada, - : a people transformed. volume of mennonite in canada, toronto: university of toronto press, . reimer, a l . . mennonite literary voices: past and present. north newton, kansas: bethel college. reimer, margaret loewen. . one quilt, many pieces: a reference guide to mennonite groups in canada. waterloo: mennonite publishing services. reimer, mavis. . cornelius w. wiebe: a beloved physician. winnipeg: hyperion press. sawatsky, ben w. and susie. . our journey by faith. winnipeg: ben sawatsky. schroeder, william. . revised ed. the bergthal colony. winnipeg: c m b c publications. smith, c. henry. . fifth ed. revised by cornelius krahn. smith's story of the mennonites. newton, kansas: faith and life press. steiner, sam. . lead us on. kitchener: rockway mennonite collegiate. synder, c. arnold and linda a. huebert hecht, eds. . profiles of anabaptist women: sixteenth-century reforming pioneers. studies in women and religion vol. . canada: canadian corporation for studies in religion. tiessen, hildi froese and peter hinchcliffe, eds. .. acts of concealment: mennonite/s writing in canada waterloo: university of waterloo press. toews, j.a. . a history of the mennonite brethren church. fresno: board of christian literature, general conference of the mennonite brethren churches. toews, john b. . perilous journey: the mennonite brethren in russia - . winnipeg: kindred press. . pilgrimage of faith: the mennonite brethren church - . winnipeg: kindred press. toews, john e . , valerie rempel, katie funk wiebe. eds. . your daughters shall prophesy: women in ministry in the church. winnipeg: kindred press. toews, paul. ed. . bridging troubled waters: the mennonite brethren at mid- twentieth century. winnipeg: kindred press. e d . . mennonite idealism and higher education. fresno: center for mennonite brethren studies. twenty-fifth anniversery publication of mbbc, - . . winnipeg: m b b c . twenty-five years: a time to grow, canadian mennonite bible college - . . winnipeg: c m b c . urry, james. . none but saints: the transformation of mennonite life in russia - . winnipeg: hyperion press. voice of mennonite brethren bible college. - . winnipeg: christian press. voice of mennonite brethren bible college quarterly. - . winnipeg: m b b c . waltner-toews, david. . the impossible uprooting. toronto: mcclelland & stewart. warkentin, alan. . cultivating dreams. morden, manitoba: willow creek publishing. weaver, alain epp. ed. . mennonite theology in face of modernity: essays in honor of gordon k. kaufmann. north newton, kansas: bethel college. weaver, j. denny. . becoming anabaptist: the origin and significance of sixteenth- century anabaptism. scottdale: herald press. wedel, helen. . a museum ojmemories: an autobiography. canada: self- published. wiebe, armin. . the salvation of yasch siemens. winnipeg: turnstone press. wiebe, katie funk. . the storekeeper's daughter: a memoir. waterloo: herald press. year book of the canadian conference of the mennonite brethren churches. - . winnipeg: christian press. year book of the conferences of mennonites in canada. - . winnipeg: c m b c . articles in mennonite journals ainley, stephen c. . the seminary movement: a failed attempt at formal theological education in the mennonite church. mennonite quarterly review lxlv: - . bender, ross t. . private mennonite education in ontario after world war ii. journal of mennonite studies : - . bergen, john j. . the world wars and education among mennonites in canada. journal of mennonite studies : - . driedeger, leo. . post-war canadian mennonites: from rural to urban dominance. journal of mennonite studies : - . . monastry or marketplace?: changing mennonite college/seminary enrollments. journal of mennonite studies : - . driedger, leo and abe bergen. . growing roots and wings: emergence of mennonite teens. journal of mennonite studies : - . driedger, leo and calvin redekop. . sociology of mennonites: state of the art and science. journal of mennonite studies : - . dueck, abe j. . canadian mennonites and the anabaptist vision. journal of mennonite studies : - . . the "russlaender" evangelical mennonite brethren (allianz) in canada. journal of mennonite studies : - . dyck, bruno. . half a century of canadian mennonite bible college: a brief organizational history. journal of mennonite studies : - . ediger, gerry. . balancing the denominations: a perspective on mennonites in canada, vol. iii. journal of mennonite studies : - . ens, gerhard j. . preparing for the world: the modernist romance approach in mennonites in canada, vol. iii. journal of mennonite studies : - . epp, george k. . mennonite immigration to canada after world war ii. journal of mennonite studies : - . epp, marlene. . women in canadian mennonite history: uncovering the "underside". journal of mennonite studies : - . erb, peter. . a reflection on mennonite theology in canada. journal of mennonite studies : - . friesen, gerald. . apeople's struggle for survival: areview. journal of mennonite studies : - . friesen, john j. . the transformation of theology in mennonites in canada, vol. . journal of mennonite studies : - . friesen, john w. . studies in mennonite education: the state of the art. journal of mennonite studies .t - . janzen, waldemar. . response to william klassen's paper. journal of mennonite studies : - . juhnke, james and leo driedger. . balancing community and outreach visions: edmund george kaufman, mennonite sociologist. mennonite quarterly review lxviii: - . klassen, william. . mennonite studies as a part of religious studies. journal of mennonite studies : - . klippenstein, frieda esau. . gender and mennonites in t d regehr's mennonites in canada. journal of mennonite studies : - . koontz, ted. . mennonites and "postmodernity". mennonite quarterly review lxiii: - . kraybill, donald b. . from enclave to engagement: m c c and the transformation of the mennonite identity. mennonite quarterly review lxx: - . lapp, john a. . mennonite studies: preparing for the next agenda. journal of mennonite studies : - . loewen, harry. . intellectual developments among the mennonites of russia: - . journal of mennonite studies : - . loewen, royden. . cars, commerce, church: religious conflicts in steinbach, manitoba, - . journal of mennonite studies : - . mccormack, a. ross. . mainstreaming mennonites: t d regehr, group identity and ethnic studies. journal of mennonite studies : - . peters, jacob. . changing leadership patterns: conference of mennonites in canada. journal of mennonite studies : - . regehr, t d . . the writing of canadian mennonite history. journal of mennonite studies : - . . from agriculture to big business: canadian mennonite entrepreneurs after . journal of mennonite studies : - . . many voices, one story? accounting for diversity in canadian mennonite history. journal of mennonite studies : - . reimer, james. . mennonites, theology and nationalism. journal of mennonite studies : - . sawatsky, rodney j. . mennonite ethnicity: medium, messaaage and mission. journal of mennonite studies : - . schluderman, shirin and eduard. . beliefs and practices of students in mennonite and catholic schools. journal of mennonite studies : - . . values of winnipeg adolescents in mennonite and catholic schools. journal of mennonite studies : - . taves, krista m . . dividing the righteous: soviet mennonites as cultural icons in the canadian russian mennonite narrative, - . journal of mennonite studies : - . toews, john b. . the early mennonite brethren and conversion. journal of mennonite studies : - . toews, paul. . faith in culture and culture in faith: the mennonite brethren in north america. journal of mennonite studies : - . vogt, roy. . entrepreneurs, labourers, professionals, and farmers: a response to mennonites in canada, a people transformed. journal of mennonite studies : - . mennonite periodicals and papers: bote, der canadian mennonite, the canadian reporter, the direction mennonite brethren herald mennonite historian mennonite life mennonite mirror mennonite reporter voice, the . g e n e r a l sources general books: axelrod, paul. . scholars and dollars: politics, economics, and the universities of ontario - . toronto: university of toronto press. axelrod, paul and john g. reid. eds. . youth, university and canadian society: essays in the social history of higher education. kingston: mcgill-queen's university press. barrett, stanley r. . anthropology: a student's guide to theory and method. toronto: university of toronto press. berger, joseph, etal. eds. . sociology theories in progress: new formulations. newbury park: sage publications. berger, peter l . . invitation to sociology: a humanistic perspective. n y : anchor books. berry, j. w. and j.a. laponce, eds. . ethnicity and culture in canada: the research landscape. toronto: university of toronto press. bibby, reginald w. . mosaic madness. toronto: stoddart publishing. canadian society for the study of higher education. research on postsecondary education in canada, . carpenter, joel a. and kenneth w. shipps, eds. '. making higher education christian: the history and mission of evangelical colleges in america. grand rapids: christian university press. council of ministers of education, canada. postsecondary education issues in the s: proceedings of the cmec conference on postsecondary education toronto, october - , . . toronto: council of ministers of education, canada. emerson, robert, etal. . writing ethnographic fieldnotes. chicago: the university of chicago press. gaskell, jane and arlene mclaren, eds. . women and education: a canadian perspective. calgary: detselig enterprises ltd.. geertz, clifford. . the interpretation of cultures. harper collins: basic books, . gluck, sherna berger and daphne patai. . women's words: the feminist practice of oral history. n y : routledge. grenz, stanley j. . revisioning evangelical theology. downers grove: inter varsity press. gundry, stanley n . and alan f. johnson, eds. . tensions in contemporary theology. chicago: moody press. hammersley, martyn and paul atkinson, eds. . n d ed. ethnography: principles in practice. london & n y : routledge. johnstone, ronald l . , t h reprint . religion in society: a sociology of religion. new jersey: prentice hall. katz, joseph, ed. . canadian education today: a symposium. toronto: mcgraw- hill co. of canada ltd.. mcdiarmid, garnet, ed. . from quantitative to qualitative change in ontario education. toronto: the ontario institute for studies in education. mckillop, a . b . . matters of mind: the university in ontario - . toronto: university of toronto press. mayers, marvin k. eds. . reshaping evangelical higher education. grand rapids: zondervan publishing house. morgan jan, ed. . report of the task force on post-secondary education in manitoba. manitoba: government publication. moscovici, serge and willem doise. . conflict and consensus: a general theory of collective decisions. london: s a g e publications. neilson, william a . w . and chad gaffield, eds. . universities in crisis: a mediaeval institution in the twenty-first century. canada: the institute for research on public policy. niblett, w. roy. . universities between two worlds. london: university of london press ltd.. noll, mark a. . a history of christianity in the united states and canada. grand rapids: william b. eerdmans. roberts, keith a. . religion in sociological perspective. chicago: the dorsey press. sampson, philip, etal. eds. . faith and modernity. oxford: regnum books international. stackhouse, john g. jr. . canadian evangelicalism in the twentieth century: an introduction to its character. toronto: university of toronto press. stewin, leonard l . and stewart j.h. mccann, eds. . contemporary educational issues: the canadian mosaic. toronto: copp, clark pitman ltd.. synder, ross. . young people and their culture. nashville & n y : abingdon press. turner, stephen p. . social theory and sociology. cambridge: blackwell publishers. wagner, peter. . a sociology of modernity. london & n y : routledge. appendix a m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n distinctives a statement first released in outlined the reasons for the separation, and the ways which the mennonite brethren believed they differed from the other mennonites: main reasons why we left the general mennonite churches since our people's behavior and lifestyle is very inconsistent with existing confession, we profess the mennonite church to be spiritually dead. because of this we feared the judgement of god and the disfavor of our highest authorities, since we immigrated to russia as a quiet and peaceful people. convicted by the word of god, we exposed their godless life. to some extent we were excommunicated by them and to some extent we departed from them. therefore, we found it necessary to establish our own church. then the church council of the molotschna and chortitza mennonites (except for two elders) tried to expel us not only from their own organization but also from the colonies. nevertheless, we survived as a church under god's protection and the favor of our highest authorities, and enjoyed freedom under the same, with a few exceptions. main isssues on which we differ from the other mennonites . accepting members into the church among other mennonites baptism and acceptance into membership is based on a memorized confession, without examination of the condition of the heart and, as a rule, occurs between the ages of eighteen and twenty. in our church an individual may only be accepted into membership on the following conditions a) if the individual has given a voluntary testimony of his faith to the gathered church; b) if the church is persuaded on that basis that the individual has experienced a real change of heart, such as jesus referred to in john : "unless one is born anew," etc. c) if the individual's daily life is consistent with the confession. . baptism whereas other mennonites baptize by pouring, among us baptism by immersion is the only mode. the candidate is baptized in clean garments to prevent offence against indecency. . a) among other mennonites only harlots and occasionally drunkards are excommunicated. by contrast, the godless, the scoffers and the greedy are tolerated. among us, not only are those named above excommunicated but also all those who are living disreputable lives. b) among other mennonites excommunication is usually for only fourteen days, whereas among us the time depends on improvement in behaviour and genuine remorse about wrongdoing. the excommunicated person may attend the worship service to hear the word of god, and he is admonished to repent and return to god and the church. appendix b the educational background of the faculty of the mennonite brethren bible college (mbbc) during the s reflects a wide range of theological and liberal arts exposure. for example, by the school year of - faculty members had received advanced training in the following diverse institutions. c a n a d i a n universities a n d n o n - m b l i b e r a l a r t s & t h e o l o g i c a l c o l l e g e s t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f saskatchewan, u n i t e d c o l l e g e ( w i n n i p e g ) , u n i v e r s i t y o f m a n i t o b a , waterloo u n i v e r s i t y c o l l e g e , u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , e m m a n u e l c o l l e g e (toronto), u n i v e r s i t y o f w e s t e r n ontario, v i c t o r i a u n i v e r s i t y (toronto). a m e r i c a n t h e o l o g i c a l c o l l e g e s a n d seminaries t a b o r c o l l e g e ( m b , h i l l s b o r o , k a n s a s ) , w h e a t o n c o l l e g e (minnesota), westminister t h e o l o g i c a l seminary o^hiladelphia), c e n t r a l b a p t i s t seminary ( k a n s a s c i t y ) , l u t h e r t h e o l o g i c a l seminary (minnesota), c h i c a g o l u t h e r a n t h e o l o g i c a l seminary, southwestern b a p t i s t seminary (texas), e v a n g e l i c a l l u t h e r a n seminary (waterloo), f u l l e r t h e o l o g i c a l seminary ( w i n o n a l a k e , illinois). a m e r i c a n a n d e u r o p e a n universities, c o l l e g e s a n d a c a d e m i e s w i l l i a m e t t e u n i v e r s i t y (oregon), san fransisco state c o l l e g e , u n i v e r s i t y o f m i n n e s o t a , u n i v e r s i t y o f m i n n e s o t a , n o r d w e s t m u s i k a k a d e m i e ( d e r m o i d , germany). m b b c s c h o o l catalogue, - , - . appendix c a t t e n d a n c e a n d d e g r e e s g r a n t e d a t m b b c - - c h u r c h d e n o m i n a t i o n d e g r e e g r a n t e d y e a r a t t e n d a n c e m e n w o m e n m b o t h e r b r e b t h . m u s i c b d b a - * - ** - *** - **** - - - * part time * * unclassified/evening * * * part time * * * * special/ part time source: mennonite quarterly review - appendix d a t t e n d a n c e a n d d e g r e e s g r a n t e d a t c m b c - - c h u r c h d e n o m i n a t i o n d e g r e e g r a n t e d y e a r a t t e n d a n c e m e n w o m e n m e n n o n i t e n o n - m e n n o . b . c h r . e d b t h . m u s i c - - * - ** - *** - - - - - evening/not college grade ** not college grade *** not college grade source: silas hertzler, "attendance in mennonite and affiliated colleges". mennonite quarterly review - . appendix e c u r r i c u l u m a t m b b c - courses of study t h e educational p r o g r a m o f our c o l l e g e is not the result o f b l i n d g r o p i n g , nor o f arbitrary d e c i s i o n . it has been determined i n part b y present day educational standards, i n part by the great variety o f interests, ambitions a n d needs o f our y o u n g people, and i n part by the demands o f the constantly e x p a n d i n g ministry and educational program o f our conference. w e are definitely c h a l l e n g e d to "enlarge the place o f thy t e n t . . . , lengthen thy cords, and strengthen they stakes". m a n y o f our c h r i s t i a n y o u n g people are w i l l i n g to accept this challenge. that brings us under the sacred o b l i g a t i o n to provide t h e m w i t h the opportunity f o r an adequate preparation that w i l l be b o t h general and specific enough to meet this challenge. f o l l o w i n g a careful analysis and consideration o f the various determining factors, the b o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n has authorized the faculty to offer the courses o f instruction listed b e l o w : (p. ) the theological degree course graduation requirements: a) second year university standing b) hours of credit. the religious education course graduation requirements: a) first year university standing b) hours of credit. the general bible course graduation requirements: a) junior matriculation or its equivalent b) hours of credit the sacred music course graduation requirements: a) junior matriculation b) hours of credit. program of instruction at m b b c in - division of biblical studies a. old testament - ot history, o t poetry, o t prophets ( courses) and elementary hebrew b. new testament - life of christ, book of acts, pauline epistles, general epistles, johannine writings, introductory greek and greek exegesis ( courses) division of systematic theology bible doctrine, christian ethics, false cults, christian evidence, m b church principles and polity, biblical theology, systematic theology ( courses). a p p e n d i x e (continued) division of practical theology a. preaching and evangelism - evangelism ( courses), homiletics, hermeneutics, expository preaching, pastoral theology b. missions - history, mission of the m b church, missionary principles & methods, missionary survey ( courses). c. christian education - principles of christian education, educational work of the church, history of religious education, christian education o f children, christian ed. o f youth, the christian home, psychology. division of historical studies history of missions, early church history, medieval church history, reformation church history, american church history, history of the mennonites, history of medieval europe. history of christian ed. division of liberal arts german language and literature, english language and literature, history of philosophy, general psychology, introductory sociology, biblical languages. division of music studies notation theory, hymnology, harmony, ear and sight training, conducting, music appreciation, history of music, counterpoint, form and analysis, composition, choir, applied music courses. schedule of courses generally, each semester required o t course, n t and/or theology courses, language/ music, history and liberal arts course. c u r r i c u l u m a t m b b c - objectives it is the purpose o f the m b c o l l e g e o f a r t s to provide opportunities f o r its students to secure a broad and l i b e r a l education i n an atmosphere w h i c h acknowledges jesus c h r i s t as l o r d . t h e r e l i g i o u s emphasis is not incidental i n the institution but it is made to pervade the entire spirit o f the c o l l e g e . p e r s o n a l guidance by a competent faculty h e l p the student to engage i n l e a r n i n g experiences w h i c h develop a broader outlook on l i f e , a keener sense o f personal responsibility, and a refinement o f abilities to enable w o r t h y service, (p. ) a p p e n d i x e (continued) program of studies for a b a degree program i the general b . a . courses offered in conjunction with the waterloo lutheran university - ( r d year courses taken off campus) curriculum divisions a. humanities - english, other languages, music, philosophy, religious studies b. social sciences - economics, geography, history, politics, psychology, sociology c. mathematics and sciences - biology, chemistry, geography, geology, mathematics, physics. d. others - business, physical education program h the general b . a . with pretheological options - as above; include hebrew & greek program general b . a . with m u s i c options - courses (equivalent to full courses) a p p e n d i x f c u r r i c u l u m a t c m b c - t h e c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e b i b l e c o l l e g e seeks to provide an opportunity f o r earnest y o u n g m e n and w o m e n to prepare f o r c h r i s t i a n service as ministers, missionaries, y o u t h workers, teachers, c h o i r directors, s o c i a l workers, and as w o r k e r s i n other f i e l d s o f c h r i s t i a n endeavor. its a i m is: ) t o p r o v i d e a c h r i s t i a n atmosphere i n w h i c h the spiritual l i f e o f its students may become deeper and more f i r m l y established. ) t o lead students to a f u l l e r k n o w l e d g e a n d appreciation o f the b i b l e as the i n s p i r e d w o r d o f g o d , and as m a n ' s authoritative role i n faith a n d practice. ) t o help students to understand a n d appreciate the tenets o f the m e n n o n i t e faith. ) t o emphasize the importance o f a f u l l y consecrated l i f e , r e v e a l i n g i t s e l f i n a w i l l i n g n e s s to do g o d ' s w i l l i n whatever f i e l d o f service to w h i c h h e may c a l l . ) t o p r o v i d e l e a r n i n g i n a c h r i s t i a n atmosphere f o r those d e s i r i n g to receive u n i v e r s i t y accreditation. ( c m b c calendar, ) courses of instruction . bible department o t history, n t introduction, acts and the early church, life of christ, corinthians, o t prophets, gospel and epistles of john, romans, pastoral epistles, galatians, revelation, prison epistles, ephesians, james and hebrew, peter and jude, greek, psalms and wisdom literature. . theology greek exegesis, bible doctrine, systematic theology, n t theology, o t theology, apologetics. . christian education department evangelism, devotional life, christian ethics, homeletics, the family in present-day society, youth work, pastoral work, principles of christian education, methods of christian ed. . church history our christian heritage, church history, history of missions, mennonite missions, history and work of general conference ( ), modern cults . languages german language and literature ( courses), english literature, english composition, greek and hebrew . social science department psychology, sociology, philosophy, mental hygiene, european history . music department voice, harmony, counterpoint, music theory, sightseeing, history. appendix f (continued) c u r r i c u l u m a t c m b c - w e seek to serve the student by p r o v i d i n g a c h r i s t i a n context i n w h i c h personal f a i t h may be f o u n d , deepened, and strengthened, i n w h i c h a f u l l e r k n o w l e d g e o f the b i b l e as the i n s p i r e d w o r d o f g o d may be gained, i n w h i c h the p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h h e l p the student to make ethical and v o c a t i o n a l decisions may be l a i d d o w n , and i n w h i c h the student may develop the necessary methods a n d s k i l l s f o r c h r i s t i a n service. ( ) programmes of study . christian education - bachelor of christian education ( yrs.) bachelor of theology ( yrs.) . sacred music - dipoloma of sacred music ( yrs. & gr. x standing) bachelor of sacred music ( yrs & a r c t standing) course requirements for the degree of bachelor of christian education first year - n t , ot, church history, arts elective, elective second year - n t , ot or biblical language, church history, elective, elective third year - n t or biblical language, ot, theology, elective, elective bachelor of theology requires year - courses selected with academic dean program of studies in sacred music first year - n t , german, english, theory, choral studies, applied studies. second year - ot, theology, music history, theory, choral studies, applied studies third year - bible elective, non-music elective, fine arts, theory, choral and applied studies. courses of instruction department of religion bible - o t introduction, n t introduction, o t prophets, writings of luke, letters of paul, general epistles, writings of john, o t literature, o t seminar, n t seminar theology - the church in mission, christian education, practical theology, biblical theology, church and society, n t theology, systematic theology church history - introduction to church history, mennonite studies a p p e n d i x f (continued) department of arts greek, greek exegesis, german ( courses), english literature, history, music in western civilization, philosophy, psychology, sociology, world religions, anthropology, sociology (the family), fine arts, journalism. department of music theory, sightseeing, harmony, counterpoint, instrumental techniques, ear training, choir, conducting, form and analysis, pedagogy, composition. e v e r y student must e n r o l l i n one o f the two basic courses and choose h i s course l o a d f o r each year i n accordance w i t h the respective course requirements, regardless o f the number o f years o f study at the c o l l e g e that he anticipates. adjustments i n course requirements may be made by s p e c i a l faculty d e c i s i o n where warranted, but such adjustments are exceptional and are made only o n the basis o f c o m p e l l i n g reasons. mennofolk: mennonite and amish folk traditions (review) mennofolk: mennonite and amish folk traditions (review) alan l. chan journal of american folklore, volume , number , winter , pp. - (review) published by american folklore society doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ 	 journal of american folklore	 	( ) ideology	and	gender	politics,	especially	in	its	 relationship	to	the	classical	jewish	languages	 and	the	majority	tongues	that	surrounded	and	 overlapped	its	territory. 	 although	katz	painstakingly	charts	the	his- tory	of	speakers	of	yiddish	and	provides	an	excel- lent	framework	for	understanding	how	the	lan- guage	 emerged	 and	 grew,	 he	 is	 rather	 parsimonious	with	the	details	of	how	the	lan- guage	itself	changed	over	time	and	distance.	he	 delves	into	this	subject	most	deeply	in	the	chap- ter	“genesis,”	in	which	he	shows	not	only	how	 historical	analysis	of	word	variants	and	grammar	 allows	for	a	rough	estimate	of	the	place	and	time	 of	the	language’s	origin	but	also	how	newly	ar- rived	jewish	immigrants	from	southern	europe	 and	the	near	east	to	germany	acclimated	to	the	 environment,	playfully	assigning	biblical	names	 to	the	european	territories	in	which	they	found	 themselves.	(ashkenaz,	the	name	given	to	ger- many	and	later	to	all	of	yiddishland,	comes	from	 the	book	of	jeremiah.)	then	again,	katz	is	clearly	 concerned	primarily	with	elucidating	the	social	 contexts	of	yiddish	rather	than	linguistic	nuts	 and	bolts.	as	a	professional	linguist,	katz	has	 covered	the	technical	details	of	yiddish	in	depth	 in	many	previous	publications. 	 the	final	chapter	of	the	book	addresses	the	 most	controversial	aspect	of	yiddish:	its	future.	 katz	treats	this	topic	with	admirable	clarity	and	 honesty,	and	he	states	unapologetically	what	yid- dish	enthusiasts	consider,	to	put	it	gently,	to	be	 a	bitter	pill	to	swallow:	the	linguistic	and	demo- graphic	evidence	suggests	that,	outside	of	aca- demia,	the	world	of	secular	yiddish	is	doomed	 to	die	a	natural	death,	albeit	one	tragically	has- tened	by	the	holocaust	and	stalin’s	purges.	the	 future	of	yiddish	lies	with	the	hasidic	sects	for	 whom	the	language	has	always	been	their	native	 tongue	and	an	important	literary	vehicle.	katz	 makes	the	claim	that	yiddish	as	a	living	language	 cannot	exist	without	its	speakers	maintaining	 intimate	contact	with	the	world	of	traditional	 jewish	scholarship	and	its	associated	classical	 languages—what	he	summarizes	as	the	“trilin- gualism	of	old	ashkenaz”	(p.	 )	—as	well	as	 retaining	a	privileged	place	in	the	home	and	in	 daily	life.	as	he	observes,	even	the	most	radical	 leftist	yiddish	writers	were	steeped	in	traditional	 learning	before	breaking	with	religion.	without	 the	classical	teaching,	katz	argues,	too	many	of	 the	nuanced	expressions	of	hebrew	or	aramaic	 derivation	lose	their	psychosocial	significance	 and	disappear	from	the	lexicon.	likewise,	with- out	pride	of	place	in	ordinary	communication,	 yiddish	will	gradually	cede	ground	to	the	host	 languages	that	surround	it	in	every	community.	 in	short,	yiddish	cannot	long	survive	outside	of	 a	jewish	community	that	largely	keeps	to	itself	 and	uses	yiddish	in	at	least	some	aspects	of	daily	 life.	katz	therefore	ends	with	a	call	for	linguists	 to	focus	seriously	upon	the	living	language	of	 the	hasidim,	even	as	masters	of	secular	yiddish	 literature	offer	a	few	last	pearls	of	their	craft	for	 us	to	appreciate. mennofolk: mennonite and amish folk tra- ditions. by	ervin	beck.	(scottsdale,	ny:	herald	 press,	 .	pp.	 ,	foreword,	preface,	 	pho- tographs	 and	 illustrations,	 notes,	 suggested	 readings,	credits.) alan l. chan lutheran theological seminary, hong kong the	forty-sixth	addition	to	the	studies	in	ana- baptist	 and	 mennonite	 history	 book	 series	 published	by	herald	press,	ervin	beck’s	men- nofolk: mennonite and amish folk traditions	 demonstrates	that	mennonites	and	amish	con- stitute	a	religious	faith	with	folk	traditions	that	 can	be	traced	to	the	anabaptists	in	europe	in	 the	sixteenth	century.	the	nine	chapters	cover	 diverse	traditional	genres	such	as	ethnic	slurs,	 origin	tales	and	beliefs,	trickster	tales,	urban	 legends,	 protest	 songs,	 material	 culture,	 and	 festival.	the	author	was	an	english	professor	at	 goshen	college	from	 	to	 	and	is	con- sidered	to	be	an	insider	of	the	mennonite	and	 amish	culture. 	 beck’s	 purpose	 for	 writing	 this	 book	 is	 to	 make	 both	 mennonites	 and	 interested	 non- mennonites	more	aware	of	the	group’s	cultural	 traditions.	these	traditions	have	been	learned	 by	word	of	mouth	or	customary	example	and	 have	been	transmitted	to	succeeding	generations	 of	mennonites.	they	involve	both	long-estab- lished	materials	and	creative	variants,	and	they	 express	feelings,	ideas,	and	values	that	are	im- portant	for	the	individuals	who	pass	them	on	in	 informal	performance	venues	and	also	for	the	 community	 that	 unselfconsciously	 sponsors	 them	(pp.	 – ).	the	study	does	not	only	focus	 on	narrative.	as	the	mennonites	and	amish	are	 famous	for	their	conscientious	objection	to	war,	 there	is	a	chapter	on	protest	songs.	glass	paint- ings	of	flowers,	birds,	and	butterflies	with	moral	 statements	are	a	common	genre	of	folk	art	in	the	 culture,	and	beck	provides	an	examination	of	 this	kind	of	cultural	production.	almost	every	 mennonite	home	has	a	family	record	book,	and	 genealogy	is	a	vigorous	form	of	historical	mem- ory	practiced	within	the	community,	including	 the	maintenance	of	detailed	birth,	marriage,	and	 death	records.	the	relief	sale	festival	is	a	folk	 festival,	not	a	fair,	organized	by	the	mennonites	 and	for	the	mennonites.	beyond	these	genres,	 this	is,	most	importantly,	a	book	of	countless	 tales.	it	shows	how	individual	stories	can	be	re- told	in	differing	versions	with	various	under- standings	and	interpretations,	and	it	also	ex- plores	humorous	narratives. 	 in	sum,	beck’s	mennofolk	is	an	interesting	 introduction	 to	 the	 mennonite	 folk	 culture	 through	stories	and	other	traditions.	the	lan- guage	used	in	the	book	is	plain	and	clear,	and	the	 concepts	conveyed	are	easy	to	grasp.	if	a	picture	 is	worth	a	thousand	words,	the	generous	inclu- sion	of	photographs	and	illustrations	in	the	book	 has	definitely	aided	my	understanding	of	the	 mennonites’	uniqueness	as	a	people.	finally,	this	 study	is	recommended	to	all	who	want	to	gain	a	 general	knowledge	of	mennonite	religious	and	 folk	traditions	from	an	insider’s	perspective. bodies: sex, violence, disease, and death in contemporary legend.	 by	 gillian	 bennett.	 (jackson:	university	of	mississippi	press,	 .	 pp.	x	+	 ,	preface,	key	texts,	references,	after- word,	index.) stiofán Ó cadhla university college cork, ireland when	we	consider	the	 s,	our	attention	can- not	help	but	be	drawn	to	urban	and	contempo- rary	legends.	this	decade	has	taken	on	the	con- notations	 of	 revolution,	 rock	 and	 roll,	 sex,	 hippies,	and	feminism,	all	jostling	in	the	final	 and	fateful	confrontation	of	tradition	and	mo- dernity.	here,	fairies	and	monsters	are	replaced	 by	aliens	and	hook-handed	killers,	and	myth	and	 folktale	are	replaced	by	news	and	history—but	 legend	continues	to	partake	of	both.	this	is,	per- haps,	legend’s	central	problematic.	in	her	mar- velously	accessible	but	scholarly	style,	gillian	 bennett	goes	straight	to	the	heart	of	this	prob- lematic,	“the	cultural	clash	of	discordant	catego- ries	and	concepts”	(p.	xv).	she	reminds	us	that	 one	of	the	key	facts	about	the	legend	is	that	it	is	 difficult	to	define.	legends	are	marked	by	their	 longevity,	geographical	spread,	style,	the	multi- plicity	of	audio	and	visual	media	through	which	 they	 are	 disseminated,	 and	 the	 recurrence	 of	 specific	details	or	motifs.	avoiding	the	carto- graphic	 pedantry	 (that	 is,	 the	 historical-geo- graphical	or	finnish	method)	of	definition	and	 delimitation,	bennett	points	out	that	legend	is	 not	a	scientific	term	and,	as	such,	it	has	no	real	 referent.	legend	can	be	superstition,	relic,	delu- sion,	and	curiosity,	or	it	can	be	cool,	new,	sexy,	 urban,	and	teenaged.	in	the	unfolding	reassess- ments	of	the	discipline,	legend	has	been	decon- structed	or	at	least	“declassified”—the	distinc- tion	 between	 reality	 and	 legend	 is	 no	 longer	 considered	to	be	clear-cut.	contemporary	leg- end,	itself	an	orphan	of	the	 s,	has	in	many	 ways	become	an	exemplar	of	the	contemporary	 life	of	the	discipline. 	 bennett’s	bodies,	therefore,	is	about	folklore	 as	much	as	it	is	about	contemporary	legend.	in	 her	encyclopedic	detail	and	analysis,	bennett	 draws	attention	away	from	the	supposed	nov- elty	 of	 the	 genre	 to	 broader	 generalizations	 about	the	discipline.	following	paul	klee’s	ap- proach	to	painting,	bennett	takes	“a	line	for	a	 walk,”	 exploring	 thematically	 the	 evolving	 shape	and	form	of	six	particular	legend	case	 studies	from	their	early	variants	to	their	con- temporary	inflections	(p.	xv).	here	the	shape- shifting	element	of	story	is	exemplified.	story	 is	information,	entertainment,	strategy,	news,	 gossip,	rumor,	warning,	lesson,	joke,	photocopy,	 graffiti,	fallacy,	or	political	commentary—in	 short,	a	palimpsest	of	life.	as	a	popular	poetics	 of	interpretation,	legends	may	be	better	under- stood	within	contemporary	discursive	para- digms	or	contexts.	they	are	a	kind	of	social,	 	 book	reviews	 conference proceedings dialogizing the scriptures: a bakhtinian reading of rudy weibe's peace shall destroy many penny van toorn rudy wiebe is one of canada's foremost contemporary novelists, and an active member of a liberal branch of the mennonite brethn:n church. when the mennonites migrated en mass from russia to canada in the s and the s, many sought to continue their tradition of living in closed communities as "a people apart." the more conservative mennonite colonies put as much geographical distance as they could between themselves and the outside world. they established self-sufficient communal farming settlements on large tracts of land in the prairie provinces of manitoba, saskatchewan, and alberta, where they set up their own schools, financial institutions, and local government bodies. but the most effective barrier the mennonites erected between themselves and the outside world was the barrier of language. in order to keep the secular world out of earshot, many mennonite communities strenuously resisted assimilation into either of canada's two major language groups - english or french. instead, they used low german in day-to-day affairs and high german in church matters, just as they had done during their hundred and fifty-year sojourn in russia. rudy wiebe was typical of a generation of mennonite children in that he spoke no english at all until he entered school in at six years of age, by which time the german-language mennonite schools had been absorbed involuntarily into the anglophone canadian provincial school system. like other traditional anabaptist groups, canada 's mennonite church communities are extremely bible-centred, and highly literalistic in their interpretation of the scriptures. this literalism is underpinned by certain assumptions about language, assumptions which are sustained by the mennonites' ability to live as "a people apart". by separating themselves from alien cultural influences, and by resisting change from within their own communities, conservative mennonites religion, literature and the arts project endeavoured to lock the scriptures into a fixed ethno-historical context. by fixing th e context in which they read the scripture they effectively protected the authority apd semantic stability of their received version of tbc bihlical text. the mennonites' german bible, (or example was shielded by the barrier of language from possible assault by voices issuing either from secular mainstream culture, or from the francophone catholic and anglophone protestant churches in canada. in effect, the conservative mennonites carried the scriptures - or more precisely, a certain reading of them - down through history and across several national borders as if it were in a cocoon, cut off from alien cultural influence and historical change. in bakhtinian terms, these conservative, separatist mennonite communities forced the scriptures to function monologically, that is, as a single-voiced, unambiguous, internally consistent encoding of a unitary order of truth. to the extent that the closed mennonite communities were able to fix the context in which the scriptures could be read, they effectively stabilized the meaning of the text and caused its authority to seem axiomatic. they saw the bible as issuing from a single centre of authorial control, and resolved the question of the text's manifest multivoicedness by ranking its parts into a hierarchy, with the voice of jesus - especially the sermon on the mount - as supremely authoritative. for these closed mennonite communities, the bible was their "sole source of spiritual authority" (smith ); and they ensured that the scriptures always said the same thing by interpreting them always in the same context. but what happens to this monologized sacred text, and to the unitary truth encoded therein, when the cocoon of the closed, conservative society breaks open? what happens when the community can no longer live as "a people apart"? in one way or another, rudy wiebe has devoted his entire creative life to answering this question. whether writing about mennonites or metis, lnnuit or native indians, he is intrigued by that crucial moment when the boundaries of a closed community disappear, and a people hitherto united in voice, language, and religious vision find themselves suddenly exposed to the confusing plurality of authoritative alien voices which vie for dominance in the wider social world. wiebe opens chapter one of his first novel peace shall destroy many ( ), with a symbolic breaching of the narrow horizon of a closed mennonite community. in the spring of thorn wiens ploughs his wheatfield in the isolated mennonite farming settlement of wapiti in northern saskatchewan. suddenly, a group of canadian conference proceedings fighter planes comes roaring out from above the trees that encircle thorn 's world. the plane pass low overhead, ter rifying the plough horses and engulfing thorn 's world in their noise. t he planes are engaged in a training exercise. they pose no physical threat to thorn. what they signify, however, is that world war ii has arrived. thorn can no longer dismiss the war as just another story on the radio, a far- away turmoil fought by other people somewhere else. the planes are tangi ble, irrefutable evidence that the war - world history - is here, for eve ryone, now. no one escapes it! this breaching of the boundary of the closed social world involves thorn in a moral quandary. as a mennonite, thorn is morally committed to a pacifist stance. but as a canadian citizen, a member of a wider national community with its own laws, thorn is required to register for military service, to aid in the defence of the country that gave his people asylum. wiebe's novel peace shall destroy many traces thorn's attempt to find an answer to this dilemma: should he respond to canada's "call" to join the armed forces, or act in accordance with the mennonites' long-respected scriptural prohibition against involvement in violence? with the breaching of the closed social world, the secular authority of canadian law clashes directly for the first time with the moral authority of the scriptural text. thorn has been taught to make moral choices by electing to follow the voice of christ rather than the voices of men. what confuses him most profoundly in this instance, however, is that he begins to "hear" the scriptures differently. the opening of the closed community is crucial because it creates possibilities for the scriptures to function dialogically rather than as monologue. with the arrival of joseph dueck, an "outsider" to the wapiti church community, thorn's mind opens for the first time to the possibility of multiple readings of the , 'criptural text. the "voice" of the bi ble "doubles" as it we re, leading thorn to the rea lization that what he thought were "the scriptures" were really only one of many possible readings of a canonical text that has been mediated--translated, re-voiced--many times over throughout its history. the historicity of the biblical text makes impossible any clear-cut choice between the voice of christ and the voices of men: the words of jesus are accessible only as mediated by other human voices. in peace shall destroy many the biblical text becomes a site of struggle between joseph dueck's dialogizing "outsider's" reading of it, and the reading imposed by the tyrannical local church leader, deacon peter block, whose voice has hitherto monopolized - and monologized - the scriptures in wapiti . religion, literature and the arts project throughout wiebe's narrative in peace shall destroy many block and dueck are respectively identified with monologizing and dialogizing forces. deacon block acts consistently to force the scriptures to function as monologue. to do so, he must force the mennonite church community into a state of monovocatity. as his name suggests, block cements the separate mennonite families and individuals of wapiti into a single-voiced social monolith. he insists that they always speak with one voice - his! he ignores, peaks over, or physically removes any voice which does not say "amen" to his own. hurch policy "originated almost exclusively with b ck" (p. ), his "big voice covering" all (p. ). deacon block maintains his power over the mennonites of wapiti not only by shouting loudest, but also by intervening in their dialogue with god. block appropriates lhe authority the mennonite community accords the bible by taking it upon himself to interpret the criptures to the congregation: "on every ubject" we are told, block "must place the on ly word in every man's mouth and they go h roe and re.-chew it for their family " (p. ). until the arrival of joseph dueck, deacon block monologizes the bible by presuming himself the sole qualified mediator between the mennonite community and their sacred text. block's voice delivers the scriptures to the community in a definitive, finalized, monologic form, rather than as a piece of contested £extual territory the meaning of which must be socially negotiated through free and open dialogue between different readers. block also monologizes the scriptures by limiting the extent to which non-mennonites can enter into dialogue with the mennonites' sacred text. block attempts to preserve the language barrier which separates the mennonites' german language version of tlte bible from the english, french, ree, and russian speaking inhabitants of the wapiti area. he thunders against the new minister, joseph dueck, for addres ing an ethnically mixed audience of young people in the english language instead of in the high german traditionally reserved for religious matters. dueck s choice of english (and wiebe's as well one might add) signiries that he places a higher priority on cbri tian outreach than on preserving the ethnocentricity of the mennonites' religious beliefs. dueck opens possi ilities for religious dialogue between the mennonites and their non-mennonite neighbours by using a language that is common to both groups, rather than a language exclusive to "insiders." as well as fending off voices that enter the mennonite community from without, block attempt to prevent changes in thought or belief conference proceedings that arise from within the closed community across time. block rigidly upholds the tradjtions of those he calls "the fathers" of the mennonite church. he rejects any possibility that a younger gene ration might have a right to re-evaluate the inherited moral code. block e levates cultura l trailitlons to the status of ete rna l mora l la ws. be lieving that the mcnnorute "fathe rs found the right m ora l and spiritual ac ti on" (pp. - ), be bluntly de nies the cultura l re la tivity and histo rica l contingency f hi s own moral absolutes, and the scriptural inter pretati on. upon which they depend. in opposition to deacon bl ck, joseph dueck, a rgues that even if the church fath ers bad found a mora lly correct mode of living in nine teenth century russia, their code of behavi our wa s right and good in that context only. und er different ocio-political circum sta nces, and in othe r hi storica l contex ts, the sa me action s might not be right at a ll. dueck contend s that the moral significance of any give n ourse of action mu st be re-evaluated ove r and ve r in each new context in which it is practised. no action is rig ht or wrong in itself. it can only be judged within its particular contexl. the second world war poses a seemingly unprecedented moral dilemma fo r the me nn nile community. strict pacifi ts, me nnorutes ha ve traditionally avoided pa rticipating in wa r at a ll costs. in the pa l, in the ru ssian menn onj te farming villages, "right wa right and wrong wa. wrong. any situa tion c< uld be quickly placed into one or the othe r category" (p. ). but in canada in , "the circumstances are more involved" (p. ), both in a legal and a moral sense. canadian law requires each adult male of military age in wapiti to choose one of three options: t take up arm aga in st canada's enemies to join the restricted med ica l orps or to avoid any form of pa rticipati on by procla iming th ei r conscie ntious objection. deacon block and his son, pete, mechanically invoke the ways of the fathers, but abuse the mennonite id eal of pacifism by using it as a convenient excuse to stay sa fe ly at home on the farm to reap the considerable financial rewards of growing food under favourable wartime market conditions. the bl cks re fu e to concede to the effect of context on the meaning of a give n action; that i , they refuse to acknowledge the historicity or the dialogicity of the act-a s-sign. as deacon block advocates a monol ogic theory of the significance of actions, joseph dueck proposes a dia logic mod el. dueck urge the mennonite community to acce pt that tim es have changed, and that time-honoured action no longer nece sa rily mean what they once meant. he points out that the church community no longer enjoys religion, literature and the arts project exclusive control over the meaning of its time-honoured actions: "outsiders"--the canadian government--now claim a right to interpret and judge the mennonites' desire to avoid involvement in the war. joseph dueck cau es thorn and other young people in the community i wapiti to understand that even the most sincere conscientious objectors find themselves participating in the war involuntarily. the ption of not participating no longer exists, as one o( thorn' friends explains when she says ft was fine to say "we can have nothing to do with war" when ... wars were skirmishes on the next quarter and the king wh led his troop t a day's victory won. then it was po sib le--[not to join in. but] the whole world is now in it. we can't avoid it. father raises pigs because the price is high: some men charged up the normandy bea hes last tue day witlt our bacon in their stomachs (p. ) . .jo eph dueck pu hes tbis argument to its moral conclu ion: "given a war situation, we mennonites an practi e our belief in canada only because other canadians are kind enough to fight for our right to our belief. the godless man then die for the belief of the chri tian! (p. ). as thom vacillates over whether or not he should exempt himself from the canadian war effort, wiebe explores what might be called the diachronic dialogicity of action. an unprecedented historical situation - the second world war -makes ambiva lent the morality of the mennonites' traditional refusal to fight, which previously had been only right. the action itse lf does not change, but its meaning becomes subject to reinterpretation or revoking in each new socio-historica l context. under jo eph dueck !s influence, the mennonites of wapiti begin to understand that they must contend at once with the shock of the new and with the h ck of the ocia ll y "other." the econd world war brings a powerfu l, invasive "other" - the canadian government - into the mennonites' sequestered live , an "other" which claims an equal, if not superior right to confer meaning on their action . as the legal authority of the stale comes into clirect onflict with the moral authority of the bible, the act of "non-participation" fits into two completely separate systems of meaning, each recognized as supremely authoritative by the society which prop unds it. what the slate condemns as treachery the church praises as pacifism. as the mennonites begin to engage with socially alien interpretations of their way of lire, their tradition of "not participating" in wars acquires the ambiguity and ambivalence or a non-verbal pun. "non-participation '' in short, becomes a sign. conference proceedings the sa me di alogic principle ca n be a pplied to lingui stic significa ti o n. all words -including text of the sc riptures - a rc gene rated a nd interpreted unde r specific historica l and cultural circumsta nces, in c nlext which dete rmine perceptions of meaning and a uthor it y as much as d the words of the text itself. prevent contex tu a l va ria ti on as did the co n e rva tive me nn onite co mmunities, a nd one ta bili zcs mea ning and preserves pe rce ption. of te xtu a l auth orit y. but wh at ha ppens to the mea ning a nd a uth ority of the scriptures if one a ll ow. that each reading (or voicing) i unique beca use conditioned by unprecedented hi storical and cultura l contingencies att ac hing to the inte rprc live c nte xt ? potentia lly, god ' w >rd co uld dissolve into a cacophony of conflicting relative truths and moral laws. in peace half destroy many thorn is convinced that "the teachings of christ rightly a pplied" (p. ) offer the solution to all moral proble ms· the bible carries th ese "teachings" down through hist )ry . but strictly spea king, each reading or voicing of the bible i. hi tori a ll y unprecede nted , unique, diffe re nt. the tex t is neve r voiced or read the sa me way twice. and if the bible ca n be re- inte rpreted in ea ch cont ext of re- reading - by reinflecting it word s ra nking its pa rts int new hie ra rchic , a nd anne xing it into new historica l and di scur. ive contex ts - how may thoro o r an yone else kno w whethe r o r nm they a pply jesu ' teachings "rightly "? take n t l its furth est extre me, the dia logic princi.ple dis tribute. e ma ntic a uthor ity eq ua lly between aji read rs, and indeed be tween all "voiciogs'' f rhe bi b lica l tex t. a dia logic m de l of the criptures would uph old all readings a. equ ally a uth oritative and semantically "right. " what ha ppens, th ough to rhe noti on of sc riptura l truth in the fac e of a theory of language that re nde rs aji reading or voicings of a text equa lly valid and a ll a bs lute truth culturall y a nd hist rica lly contingent ? what happe n to long- te rm theologica l . ure ty if the received scriptura l te xt i ackn wledged as sub jec t to pa t, present, and future (mi s)a ppro pria ti n'? in the face of ques tion u h a these thorn yea rn t und o th e long hi story of human media tion of jesus' voice, to go back to the distant past, and recover the lost original meaning of jesus' words: "christ's teachings stood clea r in the scriptures," he maintains, "could he but scrape them bare of all their acquired meanings and see the m as those first disciples had done, their feet in the dust of ga lilee" (p. ). so in peace shall destroy many wiebe po itions his young pr tagonist in a space between two equally una cce ptable theories of textuality: between, on the one ha nd , deacon bl ock s nai ve, monologic, fundame ntalist, politically oppressive model of the scriptures, in which religion, literature and the arts project the voice of one dogmatic man stands presumptuously for the voice of god; and, on the other hand, joseph dueck's more democratic, dialogic model of the scriptures which views the text as a site where voices enter into dialogue to negotiate meaning, but which decentres sematic authority to so great an extent that truth and certainty threaten to dissipate into a spiritually disabling relativity. as thorn searches for "the path of god's revelation" (p. ), he finds the polyphonic "void of splintered dogmas" · (p. ) no less repugnant than "one man's mi guided interpretation of tradition" (p. ). now acros the course of his career so far, novel by novel, beginning with peace shall des/roy many rudy wiebe has articulated lhis theoretical dilemma in increasingly complex ways. in fact, when his novels are viewed in chronological order, they form a series of experiments in which wiebe progressively compounds the dialogicity of his own texts to see just how far he can go without relinquishing his position at the centre of authorial control. in other words, what we ,see in wiebe's writing - not simply at the thematic level i've been discussing o far but also in hi s narrative and linguistic strategies - is an increasing tension between dialogizing and monologizing mechanisms. it is as if wiebe's writing were itself subject to a law of textua l dynamics which demanded that every dialogizing action has an equal and opposite monologizing reaction. in peace shall destroy many the mennonite community experiences a dialogization of the scriptures due to an entry of alien voices into their hitherto closed community. as a novelist, wiebe dialogizes the scriptures in a converse manner: by taking the sacred word out of the closed mennonite church community to disseminate it across heteroglossic or mujtivoiced social space. in a mennonite brethren herald editorial wiebe wrote in , he asserts that "the written word is still the most effective means of spreading the gospel. " he makes this point in the context of a broader argument for more active prose lytizing in the english language on the part of the mennonite brethren church. recognizing that the mennonites' message must compete against, and enter into dialogue with "thousands of voices clamouring for people's attention" (herald ), wiebe sees a particular need to effect evangelical outreach using discursive forms which do not repel, intimidate, or bore the unconverted. unlike a sermon or a religious treatise, the novel is a genre which does not preach only to the converted. nor does it address a specialized readership of theologians. its utility for wiebe lies in its capacity to scatter the word into the territory of "others," the wider, conference proceedings more audie nce not add ressed by tradit iona l forms of rc ligiou. litera tu re. wieb ·'s novels tra ns mil port ion. of th e • 'c riptures int a u unforc eea ble vu riety of di cur. ivc, hi st()ri <.t l, a nd cultural contex ts whe re lhc mea ning and a uthority of th e text become open to negoti atio n. the usuul social, linguis ti c, in stitutional (lnd ritua listi c boundaries insula ting the sac red word from "other" words disa ppea rs. by their very ex.iste nce, as we ll as through the storie s they tell, wie be 's novels liberate the b.ible from wh at bakhlin calls "the dungeon of a ingle c ntext" ( ) into a space whe re it may potenti ally e ngage dia logically with the manifold voice s that speak in the wider social world. so wiebe finds himself facing the same theoretical dilemma as his character, tho rn wiens, does in the nove l peace shall destroy many. wiebe does not want to preach to his to be have like a deacon block , hoarding all auth ority to him se lf so he can more forcefully imp se his overt message on his audie nce. novelists who do that sort of thing succeed only in inspiring readerly impulses to throw the novel in the fire and never buy another by that a uthor. wiebe is very aware of the politics of address, the variety of power relationships that c(l n exist between speakers or writers and their audiences. he therefore avoids the practice of verbal coercion . yet to some extent, wiebe's intentions as a novelist are not only exploratory but also rhetorical and perhaps even didactic. he therefore he finds himself in something of a theoretical quandary: the dialogizing mechanisms he activates in his own texts, and the di alogizing influe nces he e xe rt on the scriptures by dissemin ating them int o alien te rritory, run counter to hi rhetorical purposes (which are implicitly monologizing) . the political question wiebe faces as an evangelical writer is this: how can a non-coercive novelist disseminate his reading of the scriptures into heteroglossic space without letting the meaning he articulates become lost in a diversity of readers' voicings of his novel? in the six major novels wiebe has published so far, (which arc not all about mennonites, by the way) he has experimented with various narrative techniques and modes of refracting his authorial voice in an effort to negotia te a path between a politically coercive m onologis m that is intellectually naive, and a more de mocratic dialogism that threatens the textual foundation of religious certainty. time doesn ' t permit me to discuss wiebe's strategies in detail, however, one point deserves particular emphasis: although wiebe's novels disseminate the scriptures into a diversity of contexts in heteroglossic space, there is a sense in which he still fixes their context and hence stabilizes their religion, literature and the arts project meaning, not by locking them into an ethno-historical cocoon as the conservative mennonites did, but by setting them in a fixed immediate verbal context. wiebe's novels disseminate the sacred word wrapped up in other words. as a consequence, readers of wiebe's novels engage dialogically with the words of the scriptures only as those words are mediated by the larger utterance which is the text of wiebe's novel. in what is perhaps wiebe's best-known and most widely acclaimed novel, the temptations of big bear ( ), there is a wonderful image which makes concrete the idea of what wiebe is trying to do. big bear was a leader of the plains cree people in the s and s. his leadership was based not on physical prowess but on his voice and his powers as a religious visionary. everywhere he went, big bear carried a "sacred bundle" called chief's son's hand, a tanned bear's paw wrapped up in many layers of cloth, and consulted whenever he needed divine guidance from the great bear spirit. when big bear wished to consult chief's son's hand, he would ritually unwrap the bundle, opening up the pieces of cloth layer by layer, until the sacred bear's paw at the centre of the bundle was revealed. in similar manner, wiebe ritualizes his readers' approach to the scriptural word. by wrapping it up in a bundle of other words which must be negotiated before and after, he controls his readers' orientation to the scriptural word. wiebe's novels may be viewed as word-bundles. each one forms a protective framing context for certain scriptural words, a context designed to shape readers' perceptions of their meaning and their authority. but in the context of the theoretical questions i've been addressing today, the image of big bear's sacred bundle has more profound ramifications. each time big bear consulted chief's son's hand, he would place a new piece of cloth around the sacred bear's paw, not on the outside of the bundle, but on the inside, immediately around the paw itself. as wiebe found out when he tracked big bear's sacred bundle down in a museum in new york, the outside wrappings - the oldest - were faded and worn, but as one unwrapped the concentric layers of cloth, they became progressively brighter and newer looking, with the most radiant being of course right next to the paw itself. the cloth wrappings around the paw formed a type of historical record of big bear's past consultations of this sacred object. each time big bear unwrapped chief's son's hand, each time a new situation arose in which he needed guidance, he would have to handle, but ultimately put aside, all these layers of cloth to get to the sacred object at the centre. conference proceedings for me, the image of big bear's sacred bundle, with the newest cl oth a t lhe ce ntre a nd the oldest oo the o ut side, addre-sses the prob le m of the hi sto ricity of the scri ptures in a n intriguing wa y. wie he suggc ts that ove r time, each ne w rea ding or re vo icing of th e scripture. i. like tha t la st la ye r of cl oth , lhc bright one a t the cent re, right nex t to the sacred bear's paw. this mode l run contra ry to o ur usua l a .. sum pti on that because each ne w reading follows chronol ogica lly afte r its predecessors, it i. "furth e r a wa y" from the historica l origi nal co ntext in which jesus utte red the w ord. recorded in tb e g ospels. in peace s hafl destroy many thorn wiens wisbes be could undo tbe historicit y of the scripture . he belie ves that "christ' teaching stood clear in the scriptures" (p ), but be find s the m ob cured by other pe )pies' readings, smothered by all the human voice. th a t medi a te ' hrist' words . for thorn, the prospect of the "tradition " - pa st readings, the laye rs of cloth - forms a daunting barrie r be tween him self and the "true" meaning of the scriptural word. which wa s cle ar, he imagi nes, in the originary context of the ir utterance. but in the image of big bea r '. sacred bundle, whe re each new reading of the sacred objec t is litc raljy closer to originary sign, successive readings of the gospels are e nvis aged as m oving pr gressivel y cl oser to the mea ning of je. us' words in their original conte xt , ra the r than furlh e r a way from tha t mea ning. each unwrapping of the sa cred bundle each new re rea ding or re voicjng of th e bible, is an a u e mpt to fulli thorn wiens' wi sh in peace shall destroy many to dchistoricizc the scriptures, and to ". crape [jesus' teachings] bare of all their acquired mea nings a nd sec the m as those first disciples had done, their feet in the du , t of ga jjlce" (p. ). university of sydney i. wiebe describes his own experience of suddenly expanded social horizons to shirley neuman in "unearthing language: an interview with rudy wiebe and ro bert kroetsch," in ji vo ice jn the la nd: essnvs by a nd a bout rud y wie he (ed) w.j. ke ith (edmonton: university of albe rta press, ) p. . . mennonite church leaden; were at that time invariably male. notes . all page numb e rs cited parenthetically refer to peate s ha ll des troy mmw ( \ ) (toronto: mccle lland and stewart . ed) . . in the first world war all mennonites living in canada we re a utomatically exempted fr o m military service unde r the terms of the mennonites · origin a l immigrati o n a greement with the dominion government. but those wh o ente red religion, literature and the arts project canada between and , in the second great migration from russia , were ad mitted on the understanding that they were legally obliged to participate like any other canadian citizens in the defence of their adopted country. wiebe establishes that the mennonites of wapiti came to canada in the second wave of migration. for a more detailed analysis of the complexities of the "russlander" mennonites' legal and moral position, see e.k. francis. ln search of topia: the lcnnonitcs in iviu nitoba (altona, manitoba: d.w. friesen. ) pp. - . . see wiebe's "church prospect : writing," in the len nonitc brethren herald ( january ), p. . . l'eace sholl destroy man y ( ). fir t and vital qi ndl c ( ), the blue mountain. of china ( ), the temptation of big dear ( ? ). the to rched-wood people ( ) and m,y love ly · nemy ( ). works cited l. m. bakhtin, the nialogic llll!ll!,i nntion (ed) m. holquist, trans. c. emerson (austin: university of texas press. ). . e.k. francis, in search of topia: the mennonites in manitoba (altona. manitoba: d .w. friesen. ? ). . s. neuman, "unearthing language: an interview with rudy wiebe and robert kroetsch" in a voice in the land: .es.<;ays by and about rudy wiebe (ed) w.j. keith (edmonton: university of alberta press, ), pp. - . . c.h. smith, the story of the mennonites th ed revised and enlarged by c. krahn (newton. kansas: mennonite publications office, ? ). . r. wiebe, l'cace shall destroy many ( ) (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ? ). . r. weihe, "church prospect : writing" an editorial in the lcnno nitc brethren ll era ld, january. , p. . . r. weihe, the te mptations of big bear (toronto: mcclelland and stewart. ). . r. weihe, "bear spirit in a strange land" in a voice in the land: "ssu ys by and about rudy wiebe op.cit. pp. - . an effective acquisition program for the religious archives by melvin gingerich historical and research committee mennonite general conference who should take the initiative in setting up specific archivalpolicies for the religious archives, including acquisitionpolicies and programs? the answer would seem to be that the suggestion should come from the person or persons in the religious denomination who have had the most experience in work- ing with manuscripts and other forms of records. such a person might be a church historian or an experienced archivist. one would guess that not all members of a church historical committee would be sufficiently informed in this area to be able to act wisely without expert advice and that such a policymaking body would seek the help of professionals in the field, who might be among their own number or who might be archivists of business firms or governmental agencies. if the denomination acts through committees that have church-wide authority, then the historical committee, or its counter- part, should be responsible for collecting and preserving the records of the church and for setting up the policies governing these activi- ties. it may, however, be necessary for concerned individuals, among whom might be trained archivists, to take the initiative by prodding their historical committees into action. for example, the historical committee of which the writer is a member existed years before it drew up a set of "rules and regulations for the archives of the mennonite church." these were adopted in and slightly revised in and in . it was through the vision of one member of the committee that this set of guiding prin- ciples came into being, although records had been accumulated for many years previously, without much design or strategy. the rules, however, covered only the ownership, control, and use of the ar- chival materials that in one way or another had come into the possession of the historical committee. there had been no policy statement on what types of records were to constitute the archives of the denomination. consequently the committee prepared a list the author, executive secretary and archivist, mennonite historical and re- search committee, and church news reporter for the american archivist, read this paper on oct. , , at the church archives workshop of the th annual meeting of the society of american archivists, in new york city. volume , number , october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril melvin gingerich of "recommended policies regarding the retention and disposal of the records of officers and committees of the agencies of the mennonite church." this statement was adopted by mennonite general conference in august , and thus it became the official archival policy of this denomination. the statement of policy contains at least two points that should appear in any similar declaration of other church bodies. first, it makes clear that any officer or committee member of a church agency is a steward of the records he creates while acting in his official capacity; such records are not his personal property but rather belong to the church agency he serves. second, not all rec- ords are equally valuable, and church committees, agencies, and officers should have guidance on what kinds of records may even- tually be discarded and which ones must be carefully preserved. these two points are well covered by the new policy statement prepared by the commission of archives and history, composed of members of the evangelical united brethren and the methodist church, working under the assumption that the two denominations may merge. the statement's section on "archives" declares that the bishops, general conference officers, general boards, commis- sions, committees, and agencies of the united methodist church shall deposit official minutes or journals in the archives and shall transfer correspondence, records, papers, and other archival ma- terials from their offices to the archives when they no longer have operational usefulness. the document goes on to describe in de- tail the types of records that are archival materials. when once the two points are established, the archivist becomes more than a beggar, for he can act with authority in calling in the inactive files of church agencies. nevertheless, he still faces the problem of educating the church so that the two points will be understood, accepted, and acted on. publicity materials must be prepared for pastors and church leaders, reminding them of the policies, reporting the progress being made, and persuading them of the truth of a statement conspicuously displayed in the entrance hall of the archives of the concordia historical institute: " t o know nothing of the past is to understand little of the present and to have no conception of the future." this writer in collecting "church archives news notes" for the american archivist during the past several years has asked all church archives listed in the directory of religious archival and historical depositories in america to submit to him samples of t h e statement is printed at the end of this article. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril acquisition program for religious archives their publicity materials. it is his judgment that the regular re- leases from the information service of concordia historical insti- tute are the best and most effective employed by an american church archives. the occasional lengthier releases prepared by august suelflow, the institute's director, are also noteworthy. among them are such articles as "the ideal congregational ar- chives and history," "compiling a congregational history," "what is archival-historical material?" "the congregational archivist," "gathering biographical sketches of pastors and teachers," and "when you reach retirement." what is being said here is simply that there can be no really effective acquisition program unless the historical committees and archivists succeed in educating their constituencies on the value of preserving records and of depositing them in places where they will be protected and made accessible. it must also be emphasized that, regardless of the excellent regu- lations that general conference agencies may have adopted concern- ing the nature of archival materials and the obligation of all agen- cies to transfer their records to authorized archives, the archivist remains the key figure in the organization. first of all, he must have thorough understanding of his denomination's history as well as familiarity with its organizational structure as it now exists and as it was in the past. only by having this understanding and familiarity can he be aware of the gaps in his holdings and therefore take initiative in searching for lost records and in reminding delin- quent officers and organizations of the need to send their records to the central archives. an archivist many years ago related to the writer his experience of searching through the attics of eastern penn- sylvania for several weeks and finding there rich archival and his- torical library materials. after the writer conducted a long search for the earliest secretary book of the mennonite general confer- ence, it was located in a basement in central illinois. it had become musty there, but fortunately the mold had not destroyed its legibil- ity. an effective acquisition program is based in part on the ability of the archivist to serve as a detective who is persistent in his pur- suit of clues leading to the solution of the mystery of lost valuables. but what if the denomination is not structured in such a manner as to make possible the establishment and enforcement of standard practices relating to archival deposits? in such a case the responsi- bility rests upon concerned individuals to establish a society to preserve the records of the denomination. education and persua- de mun ave., st. louis, mo. . volume , number , october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril melvin gingerich sion through church periodicals, publicity releases to pastors, and periodic addresses before district and local meetings of the con- stituency must be used when there can be no rules to insure the preservation of the priceless records that otherwise might be lost or completely destroyed. it has been this writer's experience that many families and organizations were grateful when the archivist offered to accept records that they no longer wanted but that they could not in good conscience destroy. some of these contacts with such families or organizations can be made by mail; others must be made in person. the church archivist must also be vigilant to obtain the private papers of deceased church leaders—the diaries, journals, sermon notes, and private letters that are not agency or board properties. often the tendency is for the sons and daughters to divide these mementos among themselves, thus breaking the unity of the collec- tion. often the third generation will have no interest in preserving the records. the best solution to the problem would appear to be to persuade church leaders to bequeath their personal papers to the archives of their denomination, either by will or by personal letter that can be used after their death to prove their wishes. others are willing to turn over to their church archives the bulk of their papers at the time of their retirement. t h e archivist's actions should not be so precipitate as those of many tombstone salesman, but neither should he wait very long to inform the family of his interest in the deceased's private papers, lest the family should dispose of or divide the records. the writer recently had an unhappy experience in this regard. a certain woman had a church record book, which she prized highly and with which she was unwilling to part. shortly after her death the writer ap- proached her children concerning the book. not one of them had any idea of what had become of it, and after weeks of search they reported their failure to locate it. perhaps it was disposed of with wastepaper and other "junk." this paper has presented the case ( i ) for a clear denominational policy on what constitutes church records, ( ) for a program of publicity and education to make church constituencies records con- scious, and ( ) for archivists who not only know their church his- tory and structure but will take the initiative in tracking down records and in persuading families to deposit important papers in responsible depositories. n o attempt has been made to delineate the particular kinds of agreements that should be made between the donor or depositor and the archival agency. t h a t is a topic that merits another paper. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril acquisition program for religious archives recommended policies regarding the retention and disposal of the records of officers and committees of the agencies of the mennonite church a. introduction this statement of policies was prepared because of the action given below. item —general council minutes, nov. , , . h. s. bender spoke on records of boards and committees for the archives. action . moved, seconded, and passed that the historical committee study policies covering the definition of what constitutes official church papers and documents; recom- mend principles for bringing together of these materials into the archives; that these findings be presented for consideration at the spring council, . b. a policy regarding records in the past our church agencies have not defined their policies in regard to the records of their officers, committees, and other persons who have had a part in the work of the agency. in some instances difficulties have arisen. records have disappeared which should have been retained. one cannot say that the loss was willful. rather, it was the result of a lack of awareness of the value of the records. families have clung to records created by a deceased relative, when these records were more properly the property of a congrega- tion, a conference, or a board, and were essential to the history of that agency. occasionally a board officer or committee member has retained records because he honestly believed they were his personal property. a person holding an office in an agency of the church acts as a servant of the church, not as a private individual. our major boards are incorporated, hold property, and have legal responsibilities. their major work is performed by committees, chief of which is the executive committee. these committees have specific responsibilities defined by the constitution or official agency, which brings the committee into being. they use the letterhead of the agency, or sign correspondence in such a way as to denote their official relation to the agency. in a large commercial agency, men in similar positions would have offices in a central location in space provided by the agency. many of the officers and members of our incorporated boards maintain their offices in space which they themselves provide, frequently in their own homes. does this accident of the location of records change the nature of the records, so that they become private records of the individual rather than the records of the corporate group? should it not be true that any records created by an indi- vidual acting in the name of the corporate agency, or using the official sta- tionery of that agency be the property of the agency, and the matter of the retention or disposal of these records be determined by the agency in an ob- jective manner, aside from any personal interests which might prejudice their treatment? and should not records of unincorporated agencies be considered in the same light? as a committee, we maintain that an office in any agency of the church, from the major boards down to the smallest local organization, is a steward- volume , number , october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril m e l v i n g i n g e r i c h ship to be held in sacred trust. the distribution of official letterheads for such an agency does not provide the steward with free stationery for his personal correspondence, but lays upon him the obligation to use it only when he speaks in the name of the agency whose imprint it bears. at the same time it re- quires of him that he maintain the records of that agency as the property of that agency, subject to the control of that agency. the only exception would be when an official wishes to write unofficially or privately, but then he should so mark his documents and should not use official letterheads. when these principles become the accepted principles of our various agen- cies, the role of the archives of the mennonite church takes meaning. a sense of stewardship of records as outlined in the preceding paragraph will result in problems of records storage, particularly of the records created by a person no longer in office. adequate records storage involves protection from theft, from fire, and from damage from light, heat, moisture, vermin, etc. it also requires the filing of the records in such a way that they be available when they are needed. these services are specialized services not available in the ordinary home and usually not in our institutional offices. mennonite general conference has established the archives of the mennonite church for these very reasons. the sense of stewardship of records demands it. the degree to which the archives can serve the agencies depends in part upon the agencies and the individuals who create these records. we propose the above principles as guides to a general policy regarding records. the following sec- tion outlines recommendations regarding the retention and disposal of spe- cific types of records. c. recommendations records of the secretary keep: constitution and by-laws in original and revised forms, including pre- liminary drafts of the original and its revisions and a copy of the charter. minutes of all meetings with complete set of records attached. deeds; records of bequests, annuities, and endowments (some of which may be in the file of the treasurer). correspondence, except routine matters which do not give important in- formation, such as routine notices calling a meeting of the agency or its committees. publicity releases. promotional and informational pamphlets. discard: routine notices of coming meetings. question: proxy notices. records of the treasurer keep: all books of final entry, particularly ledgers. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a c q u i s i t i o n p r o g r a m for r e l i g i o u s archives certain books of intermediate entry, such as journals from which ledger entries are made, provided they give information not readily available in the books of final entry. (for instance, a journal might give a chronological history of the financial activities of the agency, which would be difficult to reconstruct from a ledger. pledge slips might serve as an index to journal entries.) correspondence which gives information not available in the books of entry. records of bequests, annuities, and endowments which are in the files of the treasurer, rather than in those of the secretary. discard: canceled checks, check stubs, requisition slips, pledge slips, statements, invoices, receipts for payments made and received. keep for years and then discard, provided entries have been made in the treasurer's books of final entry, and these records of the treasurer have been properly audited. samples might be kept at stated intervals. correspondence of a routine nature, for instance, covering letters ac- companying statements, payments, and receipts. records of other officers: keep : correspondence, except routine correspondence as above. records of committees keep: minutes and reports. correspondence, except routine correspondence as above. personnel records from the files of any officer or committee: such records might well be filed in personal folders under the name of the person. in cases where personnel records are kept by various officers and/or committees, it would be well to authorize the merging of personal folders upon transfer to the archives of the mennonite church, so that the complete records for a given individual might be available and so that duplicates might be removed. caution: all records which are required to be kept by the laws of the united states, the state, or any other political unit in which the agency oper- ates, should be preserved for the period of time required by such laws. all records which protect the legal rights of the agency, its employees, or its patrons should be preserved. transfer to the archives of the mennonite church the records of the agency, committee, or officer should stay in the working files of said agency, committee, or officer, as long as the records are active, that is, as long as they are referred to so frequently that the agency, committee, volume , number , october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril m e l v i n g n g e r i c h or officer would be handicapped by the fact that they had been transferred. when they are no longer active in this sense, they should be transferred to the archives of the mennonite church, particularly in those cases where the files are not located in a fireproof building. at the time of their transfer they should be accompanied by clear statements regarding the use that may be made of them, unless a statement covering the first transfer in a series of continuous transfers has been filed with the custodian of the archives. such statements should make clear to the custodian any restrictions regarding the use of these records by the officers or committees of the agency making the deposit as well as their use by research scholars and others who might request to use them. the custodian will be responsible for the care and use of these records accord- ing to rules and regulations adopted by the historical committee of men- nonite general conference in the light of any restrictions which might be imposed by the depositing agency. materials to be discarded should be re- moved from the files before their transfer, except by special agreement with the custodian of the archives. —adopted by mennonite general conference, aug. . official minutes, , p. - . clamshell manuscript boxes these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined w i t h permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents. send for price pohug bros. inc. quotation on your established size and ouantity t h & franklin streets minu yumin y richmond, virginia requirements. "our th anniversary" the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g pu m g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril workers, growers and monopolists: the "labour problem" in the alberta beet sugar industry during the s by john herd thompson mcgill university and allen seager york university unions of agricultural workers have been rare in canada. although the agricultural sector was the largest single component of the canadian labour force until the s, a majority of this group was always made up of farm operators whose ownership of land set them apart from traditional definitions of a working class, however miserable their lives and working conditions and however low their cash incomes. but even those agricultural workers who sold their labour to earn their living remained largely untouched by labour unions. isolated on farms, they were written off as unorganizable by the trade union movement and with the exception of the industrial workers of the world no labour union made a serious attempt to enroll farm hands. an exception to this rule was provided by those unusual situations in which agricultural work closely paralleled an industrial occupation. one of the best examples of this was the sugar beet growing area of southern alberta, where farmers hired workers to thin, cultivate and harvest beets planted on small acreages of irrigated land. faced with a situation more like factory work than work on a prairie farm, beet workers formed a radical industrial union during the s and struck against their employers. the and strikes of the beet workers' industrial union were a phenomenon for western canada, a class struggle within agriculture, unlike the "agrarian protest" against the national policy which has been such an enduring theme in canadian his- toriography. labour/le travailleur i the sugar beet industry in alberta began in when jesse knight of provo, utah built a factory for processing beets into sugar at raymond, twenty miles south of lethbridge. knight was a devout latter day saint, as were many of the settlers in the area, and his motivation in creating the knight sugar company was not to create "a commercial enterprise so much as a benefit for the settlers of the surrounding countryside." a further spur to this philanthropy was a promise of a twelve year exemption from taxation and a bonus of so cents for each hundredweight of sugar his factory produced. but despite the tax holiday and the subsidy provided by the provincial and dominion governments, the company was not a financial success. many reasons were advanced for the factory's closing in , but all could be reduced to one common denominator, the "labour problem" when the sugar beet was introduced to canada, the labour-intensive nature of beet growing was held to be one of its benefits, a way to keep boys and girls on the farm and prevent rural depopulation. as the editor of one western paper rhapsodized, "children working but a few hours a day participate with pleasure in a task which helps themselves, helps father, and upbuilds health by free outdoor l i f e . . . . neighbourhood and community are better altogether.' the less pleasant realities of sugar beet husbandry soon became well known to those farmers who tried to grow them. beet cultivation was tedious, back-aching stoop labour, and a farmer and his family had to sweat long hours under the summer sun for every acre of beets they produced. until the s sugar beets were grown from a multigerm seed which produced a bunch rather than a single beet plant. once the seed germinated the bunch had to be hand thinned until only one plant remained. to perfonn this task properly a worker had to crawl along the rows on his knees. then the tiny seedlings had to be weeded — sometimes as many as three times during the growing season — for the beets never grow tall enough to kill the weeds by cutting off their sunshine. finally in the autumn the crop had to be harvested by hand, knocked together to remove excess dirt and "topped" — the leaves and crown cut away — to be ready for shipment to the sugar factory. these operations could not be done mechanically. beets could be planted with a seed drill but all subsequent work had to be done with hand tools. about hours of hand labour was required to produce an acre of beets, more than ten times the labour required for an acre of grain. most farmers who tried beets gave them up after a season or two. those who tried to hire workers to thin, hoe and harvest their beets found that most farm hands would do almost anything else o.s. longman, "the beet sugar industry in alberta" (unpublished mss.. archives of (he glenbow-alberta institute [glenbow], i ), p. . strathmore and bow valley standard, december . for similar enthusiastic comments see the testimony given before the house of commons tariff commission, . published as the beet sugar industry (ottawa ), pp. - . workers. growers and monopolists before they would accept beet work. thinning a large beet acreage, 's. (glenbow-alberta institute) harvesting sugar beets. 's. (manitoba archives) for descriptions of the effort necessary to cultivate sugar beets see franklin a. harris. the sugar beet in america (new york ), pp. - , - , - ; heather robertson, sugar farmers of manitoba (altona ), pp. - ; l. s. labour/le travailleur t h u s the knight sugar company was never able to obtain enough beets to operate at an efficient level, even with an attractive price of $ a ton. beet acreage in alberta reached a maximum of , in and then decreased annually. the company tried to provide its own beets by planting as many as , acres on its own and hiring labour to work them, but it had no more success than the local farmers. few whites wanted to hoe sugar beets. japanese and chinese labour could not be obtained in sufficient quantities without arousing community opposition to the importation of orientals. indians were less productive, sometimes damaged plants at the critical thinning stage and could not be counted upon to remain on the j o b throughout the season. when the twelve year tax exemption ended in , the knight sugar c o m p a n y ' s board of directors voted to cease operations, and the factory was dismantled and moved to the united states. japanese contract labourers of the knight sugar co., . (glenbow-alberta institute) arnington. beet sugar in the west: a history of the utah-idaho sugar company (seattle ). pp. - . the estimate of the number of hours of labour per acre is from f.r. taylor, "twenty-five years show many improvements*' in alberta sugar beet growers, twenty-fifth annual report (lethbridge ), pp. - . mechani- zation came slowly to the beet industry. machines that could handle the beets without damage at all stages of the growing cycle were slowly developed, but until complete mechanization could be achieved there were always •'bottlenecks" at which large concentrations of labour were required. to be available when needed, workers usually demanded a season's employment. alberta department of agriculture, a historical series of agricultural statistics for alberta (edmonton ). pp. - . complaints about the inability to obtain beets can be found in the minutes of the knight sugar company. glenbow. see especially the annual report of e. p. ellison, manager for . for an editorial comment see canadian farm implements. april , p. . glenbow, papers of the knight sugar company. e. p. ellison to john hallstead. february , j. e. ellison to joseph friedl, january : beet sugar industry, testimony of e. p. ellison, p. . alberta's sweetest industry, pamphlet in glenbow. canadian pacific railway collection, f. . workers, growers and monopolists a decade passed before the industry could be revived. the agricultural depression which followed tbe great war convinced southern alberta far- mers that they needed a cash crop which would be less soil exhaustive and which could make weed control easier. in addition more irrigated land was available to make possible greater tonnage of beets per acre. boards of trade in raymond and cardston initiated beet growing projects to convince pros- pective investors that farmers would grow enough beets to support a new factory. the lethbridge herald promised editorially that a new sugar factory would have "beets shooting in from all over the horizon", and a group of farmers who promised to devote land to beet growing lent support to this pledge. the stumbling block to the creation of a factory was the question of an adequate supply of cheap labour. when the utah-idaho sugar company agreed to begin operating in raymond for the season it did so on the understanding that not only would there be sufficient beet production but that the prospective beet growers would assume full responsibility for providing their own labour." the growers could give this assurance because the canadian pacific railway had suggested what they hoped would be the solution to the "labour problem.' * under an agreement with the dominion government, the railway was given the privilege of importing immigrants of the "non-preferred nationalities'' — those from eastern central and southern europe — if farm work could be guaranteed for them on arrival in canada. when the idea of importing europeans to do beet work had been first proposed by james colley, the c.p.r.'s assistant superintendent of colonization, not all far- mers accepted it. at a meeting of the united farmers of alberta in coaldale, colley was "sharply challenged" by those who felt that "it would be detrimental... to the country to import a class of settlers whose standards of living are so much lower man our own." but the alternatives — japanese labour or no sugar beet factory — were even less palatable. the "little yellow fellows" were specifically rejected and the c.p.r.'s colonist's service association at lethbridge began to transport eastern europeans to alberta for the beet "campaign" of ." arrivals continued throughout the s lethbridge herald, january - this association became the basis of the alberta cooperative beet growers' association, which represented the growers in their dealings with labour, the sugar company and with governments. since the association was not a true cooperative and did not pool production for sale the "cooperative" was later deleted. * in its american operations the utah-idaho company, like most other american beet sugar companies, was responsible for providing workers to their growers at a pre-arranged cost. * see j.b. hedges, budding the canadian west (new york ), ch. xii for a discussion of this agreement. lethbridge herald, february . ibid., "no need for japs", may ; interview with mr. a. e. palmer, lethbridge, , quoted in longman, "beet sugar industry in alberta", p. . labour/le travailleur until over , european immigrants were employed as beet labour by , and beet acreage underwent a parallel expansion given a reliable supply of workers. just as it differed from the rest of prairie agriculture, the beet industry differed from the simple worker-capitalist dichotomy of marxist class strug- gle. like the nineteenth century british agriculture described in hobsbawm and rude's study of rural class relationships. captain swing, there were three classes in the sugar beet system. at the top was the "aristocracy", canadian sugar factories — as the utah-idaho company called its alberta subsidiary. with an absolute monopoly over all beet sugar production in the province the company owned the indispensible means of making and market- ing the finished product. next in line came the growers, who signed contracts to deliver the total tonnage of beets produced on a certain acreage of land at a price stipulated by the company. at the bottom were the beet workers, who signed contracts with the growers to cultivate and harvest an acreage of beets. contracts provided for a fixed fee for each stage of the cultivation, with a "hold back" of about percent which was not paid until all operations had been completed. a bonus system was incorporated into the contract based on the tonnage of beets grown per acre, to encourage workers to strive for maximum production. during the to period it was possible for a beet worker to earn a good living at his trade. his work was unpleasant but if he could handle the average contract of ten acres a year he could earn more than $ for his efforts. beet thinning and weeding was finished in late july, and since harvest did not begin until early october, a beet worker could add another $ to his annual income by working in the grain harvest in august and september. a beet contract also stipulated that a worker be provided with a "habitable house" for himself and his family. unlike other farm workers, beet labourers provided their own food. it was customary, however, for growers to allow their contract workers an area for a vegetable garden and space to raise a cow, a hog or a few chickens. nationalities most represented among the newcomers were hungarians, followed by yugoslavs and czechs. the c.p.r. also brought mennonite settlers into the area. although the mennonites usually worked as share-croppers on rented land or were assisted to make small land purchases by the mennonite colonization board, estab- lished by the c.p.r.'s department of colonization. e. j. hobsbawm and george rude. captain swin% (london ). sample labour contracts can be found in glenbow. c.p.r. collection. f. and in glenbow, beet sugar papers [bsp], through various files. the "hold back" system was introduced in , after high wages in the grain harvest made workers reluctant to return to dig beets. there were eventually three types of contract: straight cash contract, as described above: a tonnage contract which paid for each ton of beets produced: and a crop share contract which gave the worker a share of the value of the beets produced. the first examples of crop share contracts do not appear in bsp until . most workers could not afford to wait for the sale of the crop to receive their pay workers. growers and monopolists ii the depression of the s upset the relationships among sugar com- pany. growers, and workers. its first effect was to force out the utah-idaho sugar company and in control of canadian sugar factories passed to e. t. rogers' b.c. sugar. rogers had a monopoly of cane sugar production in western canada, and his initial intention seems to have been to shut the factory in raymond and eliminate beet sugar competition. the utah-idaho sugar company, however, was "more or less controlled by the latter day saint church", which did not want to see its members in southern alberta without a place to sell their beets. when utah-idaho insisted as a condition of the sale that the factory operate for another ten years, rogers determined to make a profit on his new alberta operation. the price his factory paid for beets was not determined on an open market as the beet growers had no alternative purchaser for their crop, and as the operator of the only game in town rogers could make his own rules. by reducing the price he paid for his raw material — sugar beets — he was able to put canadian sugar factories into the black with a per cent profit in the first year after the takeover. * despite the reductions, beet growers had no alternative to growing beets. the prices of grains and animal products had declined even more precipi- tously and growers actually increased the acreage they devoted to beets in , the year following the takeover. their response to the price cut was a traditional agrarian protest which took the form of pressure group action by the growers' association to obtain government help to establish a competi- tive beet sugar factory in southern alberta. the growers' association tried to convince the dominion government to rebate half of the two cent sugar tax to beet sugar producers, while leaving the tax on cane sugar untouched. this advantage, it was argued, would attract a second factory and the resulting competition would increase beet prices. when their attempts to have the tax removed were unsuccessful, the beet growers responded in the outraged tones typical of western farmers, denouncing the "big interests" —the cane sugar and chose the cash option. see glenbow. c.p.r. collection. art dahl to j. e. brownlee. febmary , . . beet workers. like most agricultural worker*, lived in quarters that are heller described as shacks than houses. growers provided them with whatever was available — an abandoned chicken coop, an unused granary, or what was left of the house once occupied by the grower and his family. " longman. "beet sugar industry in alberta", pp. . - . "glenbow. bsp. j. s. siewan. mp. to j. m. macdonnell. mp, june . f. . the weighted average beei price for to . when utah-idaho operated the factory, was $ . a ton. from to the weighted average price was $ . a ion. authors* calculations using data from agricultural statistics for alberta. pp. - . glenbow. bsp. w. f. russell to r. b. bennetl and h. h. stevens. november . f.i. labour/le trava lleur producers — which had "too much influence" in ottawa. w. f. russell, secretary of the growers' association development committee, described the situation as "war" and promised that the beet growers would "keep on fighting until we root out the evil." * one a be nan even warned r. b- bennett of the danger that the growers, although "not fundamentally red", would become easy converts for the radical farmers unity league.* the f.u.l., organized in , was the communist party of canada's "mass organization" devoted to the western farmer. the league was never made a priority of the party, which concen- trated on the urban industrial worker, but it was an active and vocal critic of the established farm organizations as well as of capitalist agriculture. the league found most of its members among non-anglo-saxon farmers in the northern park belt, where it was responsible for organizing several farm delivery strikes and for preventing evictions with large demonstrations. with the price of beets declining, the f.u.l. moved to establish a foothold in southern alberta. but it was not the petit bourgeois growers who provided receptive audiences for the communist organizers, it was their beet workers. squeezed by rogers sugar the growers squeezed the final link in the chain, the beet worker. between and the contract rate for beet labour declined from $ an acre to $ , despite the fact that the productivity of each worker, as measured by the number of tons of beets produced on each acre, increased. the worker's share of the farmer's return from the beet crop was reduced from an average of . % in the - period to . % between and , and during the autumn of rumours spread that the growers' association intended to make further wage cuts in . l this reduction in wages would have been bad enough in normal times, but because of the glut of farm workers available and the masses of urban unemployed, it was impossible for beet workers to supplement their incomes with harvest work. it is not surpris- ing that the initial impetus for organization came from the communist party. communists had been active in the coal fields of the lethbridge and drumhel- ler areas and as early as there were complaints about "agitators" trying to ' 'discourage men from accepting [sugar beet] work on the regular contract basis."" the f.u.l. conducted a series of rallies in the beet growing areas over the winter of - , rallies directed by george palmer, an english war i a ibid., russell lo j. s. stewart. march , f- . »ibid. *°ibid., j. sutton to r. b. bennett, march , f. . on the f.u.l. see ivan a vakumovic. "the communist party of canada and the prairie farmer: the interwar years" in david j. bercuson. ed.. western perspectives (toronto ), pp. - . this is a weighted average, calculated from contract rates in glen bow, bsp. f. - . rumours of further cuts are reported in the beet worker, may . various copies of this paper may be found in glenbow, bsp. glenbow, c.p.r. collection, james colley to c a. van scoy, june , f- . workers. growers and monopolists veteran who had been active in the one big union and was now the party's chief propagandist in the frustrating debate against social credit fantasies in the alberta countryside." palmer found the going slow with the growers at whom his work was aimed, and as wage labourers, beet workers were constitutionally excluded from membership in the f.u.l. instead, the work- ers were organized into the beet workers' industrial union which affiliated with the workers' unity league. the president of the new b.w.i.u- was peter meronik, a ukrainian coal miner from lethbridge, a communist and former organizer for the mine workers* union of canada, blacklisted in coal, meronik made a living teaching music, and helping out on his father's beet farm near coal dale. according to meronik, when the beet workers "found out had a little bit of union history they asked me if i'd be their president to present their de- mands." meronik brought to the job the firm conviction that only through higher productivity and better co-operation between worker and farmer could a higher standard of living for the beet labourers be obtained. as he admitted, this approach sometimes came into conflict with the "gut " reaction of the labourers against their immediate oppressors: [with] the beet workers [it] was always "fight the farmer! fight the farmer!", and was trying to teach them to educate the farmer well, having a background as a grower on our farm... i seen that the fight wasn't between the growers and the beet workers, it was a fight with ihe sugar company that was getting excessive profits. the strategy of the b.w.i.u. was predicated upon this basic assumption of a unity of interest between farmer and worker. while withholding, or threaten- ing to withhold the labour of its members from the farmers, the union nevertheless appealed to the latter to join with it in a joint struggle with the sugar company, the '"rear" enemy which the union could not confront directly. these tactics reflected the prevailing ideological conceptions of the communist party in the s, which considered the bulk of the farming population to be a potentially revolutionary class. this was the rationale behind the formation of the farmers* unity league. as the party moved into the popular front era in the mid-thirties, even the "middle class" came to be included among the progressive forces in society, an ideological twist which could not help but reinforce the idea of farmer/labour unity against monopoly. the decision to appeal to the growers for unity against the sugar com- pany perhaps doomed the b.w.i.u. to failure from the moment of its creation, for there is little to suggest that the communist party's assessment of the potential militancy of the growers was realistic. the only beet growers who sympathized with the communist-led f.u.l., and thus with the the worker, ll may . palmer ran as a communist in drumheller in the provincial election of . interview with peter meronik by the authors. june . at coleman. alberta. a transcript of this interview is available in the glenbow archives. labour/le travailleur b . w . i . u . , were small operators, some of whom were tenants, who did their beet labour themselves. the only articulate radical among the more suc- cessful growers was w . h. childress of iron springs, whose name is to be found in the ranks of the most efficient beet producers. class one of the "fifteen ton c l u b " . an article by childress appeared in the communist party's newspaper the worker in early . childress described the beet industry in alberta as a "sugar swindle" in which farmers, beet workers and sugar factory workers were annually fleeced by the c.p.r. and the rogers sugar company. but only a tiny minority of his fellow growers could have been prepared to accept childress' analysis or to share his views on co- operation with the workers. nor was the rogers sugar company — not the most popular of institutions in southern alberta — about to sil idle while a working class organization led by the communist party challenged its hegemony by appealing to the grievances of the beet growers. the company actively worked to divide grower and beet worker to enable itself to emerge ultimately with its control of the industry intact. the b w . i . u . presented its demands for $ an acre for beet labour and improved living quarters to the growers' association at its february conven- tion. the growers* original tactic was to deny that the b . w . i . u . existed and to offer beet workers, on an individual basis, a continuation of the $ rate that had been in effect in . m peter meronik's claim that the union had the support of the "vast majority" of the , beet workers is substantiated by what happened next. unwilling to work any longer at starvation wages, hundreds of beet workers refused to sign their individual contracts for the season. reports of roving mobs of trade unionists tramping through the countryside enlisting or intimidating other workers into their ranks spread throughout the area. even more alarming were stories of striking workmen making threats against persons and property. one taber man wrote the premier that rebellious "roumanians, bulgarians, slaves [sic] and some others" were "threatening to do away with anyone who attempts to go to work . . . and to bum any farmer's home who hires any other labour.'' bleakly he predicted that "from the present outlook it is doubtful if the beets will be details of radical activity among the growers are sketchy. from press reports of f.u.l. meetings it appears that the workers got their greatest degree of grower support from those areas north and west of lethbridge which were furthest from the factory in raymond. these were the areas that had the largest percentages of growers with less than acres of beets and the smallest percentages of growers with acres of beets and more. authors' calculations based on bsp, "division of growers by acreage classes", f. . lethbridge herald, march . membership in the "fifteen ton club" was an honour bestowed by the growers' association and the herald upon those farmers who raised more than is tons of beets to an acre. " w. h.childress, "rich spoils in alberta handed to big capiial", the worker april . ** glenbow, bsp, j. sutton to hon. f. s. grisdale, april . f. . workers. growers and monopolists planted at all this year!" another "concerned citizen" fearfully noted the fact that "there is no doubt that some of our police are in full sympathy with the strikers." both correspondents urged that punitive action be taken, at least against the ring leaders of the operation. although the local daily, the lethbridge herald, thought it wisest not to repon the strike in its columns, it constituted in fact a social crisis in the countryside. on may day. the royal canadian mounted police was dispatched to iron springs to supervise a "monster demonstration" of the beet strikers, and the growers* association instructed its members to evict all recalcitrant labourers from their shacks by may. the power of eviction was one of the most effective weapons in the hands of the growers. being thrown out of shelter, regardless of how humble, was a hard blow indeed for a family, and most of the beet workers had wives and children. individual farmers, however, seem to have been reluctant to carry out the order to evict their labourers. many growers, no doubt, had satisfactory personal relations with their workers, while others feared the future consequences of poisoning their labour relations by taking draconian measures. according to meronik, those who did "had a hell of a time getting beet workers'' after they had dispossessed their staff, and for this reason the power of eviction does not seem to have been widely used. nevertheless, may did not pass without incident. according to the account in the worker, several evictions and numerous acts of vandalism were carried out by "fascist gangs of , made up of storekeepers, school teachers, preachers, elevator men, reactionary, exploiting farmers, and two r.c.m.p. men. * * it is unfortunate that we have no means to corroborate this interesting description of the class nature of the opponents of the beet workers in the community. once it became obvious that the b.w.i.u. could not be simply ignored the tactics of the growers' association changed. shouting "communism", they "dragged the red herring over the whole situation" and appealed to the provincial government to protect them. ted sundal, representing the growers, wrote piously to the alberta minister of agriculture that "we do not deny the rights to organize on fundamental lines, but most of our growers believe the affiliation is a branch of the communist party", and so were reluctant to enter into any contractual agreement with it. similarly, a * lbid., t. h. harris to premier reid. april , f. . //»«/., j. gragan to attorney general. april . f. . *l w. a. buchanan, editor and publisher of the herald, was a member of the board of directors of canadian sugar factories. the worker, may . there is a copy of the eviction announcement in bsp. mo. the worker, may . m the quotation is from the interview with peter meronik. « glenbow. bsp. ted sundal to hon. j. s. grisdale. may , f. . labour/le travailleur spokesman for the lethbridge northern irrigation district argued that the "main point at issue" was not the workers' demands for s an acre, but recognition of the workers' unity league. in reply, the b . w . i . u . accused the growers' leadership of taking a ' 'kulak stand of aligning themselves with the sugar company" and reiterated its "standing invitation" to all growers to "unite with the workers... in their own interest." the two sides did ultimately come to terms before the onset of the thinning season. the b . w . i . u . was not formally recognized, nor did it sign a collective agreement with the growers* association or gain check-off privileges. nevertheless, the strike had wrenched important concessions from the growers. in the taber-barnwell district strikers signed individual contracts which provided for a basic pay rate of $ an acre, a two dollar increase, with extra work such as irrigation to be paid for by the farmer on a daily basis. in the raymond area, the workers signed for$ an acre, with no special payment for extra work. the strike was at an end by may. the worker admitted that "had they [the strikers] been successful in uniting the growers with them . . . much more could have been achieved", but claimed that "many growers are saying that the strike has been an example which can be copied." the strike had most certainly put the fledgling beet workers' union on the map. during the summer the b.w.i.u. called a "harvesters'conference", attended by representatives from the miners, farmers, and unemployed, who pledged themselves to initiate the ambitious task of organizing labour in the wheat fields." the communist party itself scored direct gains from the beet strike. the worker reported the founding of a new branch in iron springs in august, attributing the growth of party influence in the area to its "good work" of the previous spring. although no communist candidate ran in the provincial election of that summer in the lethbridge area, beet workers from turin were reported to have attended a fund raising picnic for pat lenihan, candidate in calgary. the beet workers lost no time in preparing for , calling on the growers' association for talks even before christmas. the local at picture butte wrote to the sugar company itself requesting direct negotiations. one wonders how many farmers would have agreed with the reply of company spokesman george wood, who denied any interest in the matter, saying that "the growers themselves have full control of the rates which they will pay.'* the b . w . i . u . had no intention of simply withering away, as its ** ibid., l. c. charlesworth to grisdale, may . b.w.i.u. circular, "to all workers" in bsp, f. . this was the position taken by the agricultural and cannery workers union, w.u.l., which conducted a small scale attempt to organize ontario beet labour at the same time. m the worker, may . "ibid., august . "ibid., - august . glen bow, bsp, nick wilwenh to t. g. wood. january and reply, workers. growers and monopolists opponents hoped it would. the new union, of course, suffered from many organizational problems, compounded by the agricultural context in which it functioned and the fact that its membership was scattered over an area of hundreds of square miles. during the first year of its existence, the union was said to have "functioned in a very loose manner, and many members failed to pay their d u e s . . . [and] the centre had to carry on under very difficult conditions." meeting in convention on february, b.w.i.u. delegates resolved to strengthen and consolidate their organization, to open an office in lethbridge. and to raise annual dues to $ . in order to "bring the union out of financial difficulties and to build the union on a sound basis." during the next two months, a " % improvement" in the union's affairs was reported, along with an increase in membership. according to meronik, the b.w.i.u. enrolled , beet workers of a total labour force of approxi- mately , . in a circular entitled "beet growers, protect your crop", the b.w.i.u. laid down its position towards the farmers in . the tract concluded: last year we won an increase in wages because we organized and fought for our demands, while you were left holding the bag. you lost out... while the sugar company was able to sit back and feel that they had pulled a fast one over the growers. this year we propose that all growers unite with us- our demand is $ per acre for labour and per ton for beets. we ask you to . . . present a united fight against those who have in the past so politely robbed you of your beet crops, while the producers were left with a meagre existence. let our slogan be: for unity of growers and labourers to make the sugar company pay! initially, there were signs of a more positive relationship between work- ers and fanners. a workers' committee composed of meronik, john beluch of barnwell, secretary of the b.w.i.u., and two other workers, andy konti and joe semoly, met with ted sundal and phil baker of the growers association on - february . the agreement which they reached, presented in the form of recommendations to the upcoming annual convention of the growers association, represented real gains for the workers. the representatives agreed on a wage rate of $ . an acre for the ten ton yield, and a scale ranging from si . to $ . a ton for those who chose to work on a tonnage basis. irrigation and extra work was to be paid for at a daily wage, although rates were not laid down. ten per cent extra would be paid if the beets were planted in narrow rows. the proposed agreement also provided for improvements in working and living conditions, and a grievance procedure which would bring representatives from both sides together in case of local or individual disputes. the contract, however, was still to be signed by workers on an individual, and not a collective basis. january , f. . the beet worker, may . ** b.w.i.u. circular, "beet growers protect your crop", bsp, f. . "glenbow, bsp, "recommendations for labour contracts". february labour/le trava lleur the draft agreement was a model of the sort of farmer/labour co- operation which had been the original objective of the union. the workers' hopes were dashed, however, by the attitude of the members of the growers* association. their convention "absolutely rejected" the contract proposal in a "lengthy and sometimes stormy discussion." although a faction led by w. h. childress held out for ratification of the original proposal, it was defeated and the rate reduced to $ an acre. even this reduced rate was accepted with difficulty. the convention also elected phil baker to the presidency after he supported an attack on a contract which he himself had helped negotiate. the new executive seemed to be more anti-labour than its predecessor. denunciations of the sugar company, standard rhetoric at previ- ous conventions, were replaced with platitudes about the "straightforward" and "friendly'' relationship between the growers' association and canadian sugar factories. the new villain was the b.w.i.u. the decision to renege on the agreement with the beet workers demon- strated the stiff-necked resistance of many farmers to collective bargaining with a labour union, but it also reflected the work of the sugar company to prevent any rapprochement between growers and labourers which could be catastrophic to its interests. during - e. t. rogers made two signifi- cant concessions which won the support, if not the affection, of the growers for the sugar company. although the company did not formally grant a higher price for beets, it agreed to the introduction of the " - " split", a form of profit sharing in which beet growers were guaranteed half of the value of the white sugar produced by canadian sugar factories. under the new system, to take effect on the crop, growers received an initial payment which was almost as high as the old price for beets and a bonus payment later in the winter when the sugar had been marketed. this arrangement would probably have been enough to detach the growers geographically close to the factory in raymond from any possible alliance with labour. but to sweeten the pot rogers agreed — after tax concessions from the alberta government — to establish a new factory at picture butte, north of lethbridge. any chance of a worker-grower common front against the sugar monopoly was now dead. despite the drastically different situation, the leaders of the b.w.i.u. did not give up hope for a peaceful settlement. they warned the board of directors of the association that the growers' stand "will only lead to deadlock which w i l l . . . impair co-operation", and suggested that "if the beet growers do not consider they can pay a higher w a g e . . . because of low prices for beets, our union is prepared to back the just demands of the growers , f. . <* lethbridge herald, - february . for a discussion of the operation of this contract, see canada. restrictive trade practices commission, report concerning the sugar industry in western canada (ottawa ). p. . glenbow. bsp, f. . workers. growers and monopolists canadian sugar factories second alberta factory. picture butte, . (glenbow- albertu institute) to the limit." the association was not interested in any such offer, yet by capitulating to the growers on the wage issue, the b.w.i.u. was able to come to yet another tentative agreement by late march. it included clauses concern- ing working conditions satisfactory to the union, provided for a basic rate of $ per acre, with similar tonnage increases for those on volume contracts. if ever a union was prepared to sacrifice its immediate demands in the interests of "co-operation", it was the communist-dominated beet workers industrial union of . yet even this did not appear to be enough for the growers. sure of the support of the company, they were determined to provoke a fight in the course of which the b.w.i.u. could be destroyed, and the previous status quo restored. the second contract agreement had not been finalized, and in further discussions the growers' representatives dragged their heels over a contentious clause permitting scrutiny of individual contracts by union offi- cers to prevent deviation from general norms. on april, baker made a speech in which he decried "agitation" in the beet fields, and "impossible de- mands" on the part of the workers. that same week the sugar company distributed $ , to beet growers, as an extra bonus for the crop. on april, b.w.i.u. representatives were turned away from ibid., peter meronik and john beluch to growers' association, march . ibid., "recommendations for labour contracts ", march . "lethbridge herald, april . " ibid., april . labour/le travailleur baker's office, with the weak explanation from russell that the two sides had met as often as was necessary. * it was obvious that the leadership of the association had set its face against coming to any formal agreement with the b.w.i.u. which would be binding on its members.-to the union leaders there was "no doubt that this policy has been instigated by the sugar company, working through their henchmen in the beet growers' association." the company, they maintained, "recognizes the dangers which lie in the co-operation . . .between beet growers and labourers. " t o prevent this, peter meronik concluded, "the sugar company would like to see a fight between labourers and growers." that fight now became unavoidable. raising demand' that the original offer of $ be honoured, priority for work be given to local labour, no discrimination be shown against union members, and the b.w.i.u. be given the right to scrutinize all contracts, union leaders prepared for another strike. at the may day celebration at lethbridge, meronik called for solidarity amongst the beet workers, who were to be put to the test in the next few days, when contracts for the season were supposed to be signed. encouraged by the success of , the majority refused' * until such time as a settlement is reached between your association and ours." although an- nouncing that the union intended "to retain the sympathy and good feeling" of the growers, meronik declared to growers' association secretary w. f. russell that "we have tried hard to develop co-operation . . . but it seems to us that you would like the co-operation to be a one sided affair." the first priority from the growers' point of view was the procurement of enough "scab" labour to smash the strike before the beet crop could be damaged. in early april, russell had requested the aid of the provincial department of labour in recruiting non-union beet workers, cynically ex- plaining that the b.w.i.u. had been responsible for sabotaging the negotiations. * any labour that would be forthcoming from alberta, how- ever, would most likely be drawn from the ragged ranks of the urban unemployed, and would not have included "specialists", skilled beet work- ers . an official of the sugar company, frank taylor, tried to ine up a group of experienced belgians who were living on relief in st. boniface, manitoba. taylor advised russell to take to of this group, "as a possible source [of] . . .additional labourers, as these belgians would make a very good break up in the general (ethnic] type." publicly the canadian sugar factories threatened the union with the prospect of belgians coming into the beet fields. most of the scabs who arrived, however, were not experienced beet workers but unemployed city dwellers. « b.w.i.u. circular, "to all sugar beet growers", bsp, f. . " the worker, may ; the beet worker, may . the worker, may . glenbow, bsp, meronik to russell, may , f. . ** ibid., russell to walter smitten, provincial labour commissioner, april . ibid., frank taylor to russell, march . manitoba farmers experimented workers, growers and monopolists the strike breakers were recruited by the alberta department of labour in calgary and edmonton and transported to the beet fields in buses chartered by the growers' association, protected by the r.c.m.p. * although com- munists in the cities printed handbills warning of the situation in the lethbridge area and urged the unemployed not to serve the "interests of the rich", most of the strike breakers did not know that they were being sent to southern alberta to work as scabs. many would not have cared if they had known. one eager scab wrote to frank taylor that he and his son "were not concerned with the so-called strike, but with the opportunity to fill whatever the agreement calls for.' '*° although some of the imported workers protested that they had been deceived, most went to work and although they were "slow, not being used to that labour" the growers were able to increase beet acreage to a record level. this successful importation of relief recipients could not be countered by the b.w.i.u- picketing the beet fields was an impossible task, although the strikers demonstrated at the bus depots where the imported workers arrived. while the growers had automobiles, the workers had to rely on bicycles for transportation and communication. the r.c.m.p. patrolled what the uthbridge herald called the "strike front", work which earned the force a letter of thanks from the growers association to commend its "excellent service" and "cooperation in handling the labour situation in the sugar beet fields." this "cooperation" took the formof telling strikers to "move on" if they attempted to demonstrate at the farms of prominent growers. only one arrest was made, that of steve koleszar who was charged with "intimida- tion" of scabs working the beets of growers' association president phil baker. * the growers supplemented their use of strike breakers and police with a policy of evicting strikers from their beet shacks. the evictions were carried out in a more aggressive manner than in . the most tense moments of the strike occurred in connection with the evictions and threatened evictions of beet workers in the taber area, the strikers' strongest base. while hundreds of with beets in but did not succeed in obtaining a factory until . this created unemployment among skilled beeiworkers in . see j. h. ellis. the ministry of agriculture in manitoba (winnipeg ), pp, - . m glen bow, bsp, ernest bennion to russell, june ; russell to smitten, june ; russell to greyhound bus lines, june , f. . «• w.u-l. circular, "workers on strike on lethbridge northern", bsp, f. . «° glenbow, bsp, s. c. cain to taylor, may , f. . agricultural statistics for alberta, pp. - . since beets were planted by machine this stage of the operation was carried out without reliance on hired labour. •• meronik interview. •»/*«/. glenbow, bsp, russell, to h. m. newsome, assistant commissionerr.cm.p., june , f. . •• uthbridge herald, may . labour/le travailleur angry strikers demonstrated outside, hearings to determine the legality of the evictions took place in the taber courthouse. the arguments soon turned away from the subtleties of the case to the merits of the beet workers' struggle. speaking for the growers, lawyerb. l. cooke claimed that "fearof communism or foreign influence, call it what you will" was the main motivation of his clients. on behalf of the strikers, l. c. hendry, counsel for the b.w.i.u., charged that the labourers had been ready to sign the agree- ment, "but had got no chance", and added "whether communist or hindu did not affect contract matters." in the end the presiding judge approved the eviction orders, but urged delay in implementing them pending further negotiations between the opposing parties. the next day half a dozen families were thrown out of their homes in the taber area.* the strike had turned into a disaster for the union, and it made a tactical retreat by announcing its intention to disaffiliate from the workers' unity league, in response to employer claims that the w.u.l. lay at the heart of the dispute. the b.w.i.u. announcement stated that the union was expecting to receive a charter from the trades and labour congress, and that communica- tions to that effect had already been sent to paddy draper, the president of the t.l.c. this, of course, was no great concession, since the w.u.l. was in the process of dissolving itself at that very moment, yet the union was hopeful that the move would deprive the growers' association of an effective rhetori- cal weapon which had been "poisoning public opinion against the b.w.i.u-" the growers* association had maintained from the beginning that its objection was to communism, not to labour unions, and had promised to negotiate if the workers were represented by a "legitimate" union. but the officers of the growers' association were not impressed by the disaffiliation. sensing that they had their adversary on the run, they refused further negotiations as suggested by the judge, and handed down a simple ultimatum. this demanded that both the union and individual workmen formally renounce any connection "directly or indirectly", with the "com- munistic party of canada." further, rates for those workers who contracted on a share rather than a straight cash basis were to be negotiated individually. the grower was to "retain the privilege o f . . . hiring or dismissing any unsatisfactory employee." union officers were to sign immediately, while the strikers were given hours to "negotiate" their contracts with the farmers. although the leaders of the union disregarded the ultimatum — probably because the growers' threat "to secure other labour" if they did not sign must have seemed rather ludicrous in the light of the scabbing of previous weeks — the end was drawing near. on wednesday, may, the day after the ultimatum was handed down, meronik chaired a meeting in taber at which "ibid., - may . • glenbow, bsp, "statement of theceniral executive board of ihe b.w.i.u. of c. on national affiliation io (he w.u.l. and relation to political parties", f. . " ibid., phillip baker and w. f. russell to peter meronik. may . workers. growers and monopolists the strikers voted with but one dissenting voice, to return to the fields. the next day, the second and last strike of the beet labourers of southern alberta came to an end. in a final statement the b w.i u declared that the strikers had gone back to work in order to preserve the basis of * 'co-operation between growers and workers" necessary to ' 'overcome the problems connected with the raising of beets." * rather than see the crop destroyed and the future of the industry damaged, the union would "temporarily call off the fight" against the sugar company . despite this face-saving posture, it was obvious to all parties that the b.w.l.u. had been soundly defeated. workers went back to the fields, and though over of the scabs stayed on the job, the large acreage of — planted in response to the "so-so" agreement with the sugar company — provided work for most of the now humble strikers. there is little evidence of any large scale blacklisting of beet workers for their union activities, although there was certainly some discrimination. the man who suffered most from the strike was rebel grower w. h. childress, who had tried to unify his fellow growers with their workers against the sugar com- pany. childress was expelled from the growers association and the rogers sugar company refused to contract with him for his beets. he was left with no choice but to give up beet culture. in the growers were determined to consolidate their victory of and to crush the last vestiges of trade unionism among their workers. president baker told the growers' convention that "the grower is the one to determine what he can pay labour.'' "negotiations with the present organiza- tion," he continued, "cannot be carried on." the growers' association resumed a policy of ignoring the union, pretending that it simply did not exist. steve varju, union secretary, had written to request that the union executive be allowed to appear before the convention. the request was rejected on the ground that "the amount of business" made this impossible. this letter of refusal was the last written communication between growers' and workers' representatives. the union persisted in a one-way dialogue with the grow- ers' association until . pathetically clinging to this line of "worker- grower co-operation" to produce "increased yields and incomes." but requests, never demands, for negotiations and discussions of grievances continued to go unanswered. a name change to the alberta beet workers' "leihbridge herald. may . the worker, june . glen bow. bsp. f. contains a report of a grower named c. m. quam refusing lo re-employ a union beetworker, andy saly. n/bid., george babini to t. g. wood and phillip baker, . f. * lethbridge herald. february . glenbow, bsp. sieve varju to w. f. russell. february . f. . */bid., russell to varju, february . labour/le travailleur union, to demonstrate fun her independence from the communist party, had no effect on the growers* determination to treat the union as if it were not there. in and again in the union tried to invoke alberta's labour legislation to force the creation of a board of conciliation, and appealed to the alberta board of industrial relations for its support. after correspondence with the growers' association, however, the board accepted the growers' argument that "beet workers should come underthe heading of farm labour" and thus be ineligible for any legal protection. with the outbreak of war the union suffered a blow with the internment of its only full-time organizer. bill repka, a member of the communist party who was arrested in the general roundup of communists after canada declared war. repka, who describes himself as having been "a small fry in the party organization" feels his arrest was designed more to intimidate the immigrant beet workers than to remove a serious threat to national security. the second world war, however, provided the union with more favourable circumstances in which to operate. wartime sugar shortages increased beet sugar's share of the domestic market, but the necessary increase in beet production had to be carried out with labour in short supply because of mobilization and the revival of the rest of the prairie agricultural economy. armed with a charter as local ofunited cannery, agricultural, packing and allied workers, a canadian congress of labour affiliate, the alberta beet workers union reappeared in to request, "in a spirit of co-operation and good w i l l " , negotiations on wages and working conditions. the growers' association maintained its "no negotiations" stance and appealed to federal and provincial governments to "protect us from unfair labour demands." the a.b.w.u. refused to disappear. on february , it once again requested negotiations, promising that its members were "prepared to do our utmost towards the war effort by produc- ing vast quantities of sugar beets" if assured of "a decent living wage." less than a week later, over the vociferous protests of those southern albertans who were not associated with the beet industry, the growers' association, with the support and encouragement of p. t. rogers of cana- dian sugar factories. began to negotiate with the b. c. security commission to import more than , japanese from internment camps to the beet fields. these indentured japanese workers unwittingly and unwillingly "ibid.. clayton adams to russell. may , f. . this decision also had the effect of denying beet workers coverage by the workmen's compensation and minimum wage acts. interview with bill repka by allen seager, toronto. march . ™ glenbow, sp, john beiuch to w. f. russell. february . f. . "ibid.. phillip baker to hon. j. a. mackinnon, july . *°lbid.. william tarasoff to w. f- russell. february . f. . ibid.. a. macnamara. assistant deputy minister of labour to russell. feb- ruary . for examples of local opposition see phil baker to humphrey mitchell. workers, growers and monopolists drove the last nails into the coffin of attempts to unionize alberta's beet workers. a japanese family in the beetfields, ., (glenbow-alberta institute) iv the outcome of the struggles of the mid s calls into question the viability of the radicals' model of a farmer/labour coalition against monopoly. was it in fact soundly based? the fanners manifestly had failed to take their place shoulder to shoulder with their workers. what had caused their failure to do so — subjective factors which might not have inevitably determined the outcome, or "objective" ones, of conflicting class interest between themselves and the working class? in the former category might be placed the effectiveness of anti-radical propaganda, and its underlying ethnic context. after all, as frank taylor of the canadian sugar factories noted, "the unity league... comprises mostly of the hungarian and south euro- pean workers.' ' the farmers, on the other hand, were, by and large, "true'' canadians, anglo-saxons, immune to "communism." in a pattern familiar to students of western canadian society class lines tended to be strongly reinforced by ethnicity. if this facilitated, in many cases, the organization of the working class by the radicals, it made the prospect of the kind of class alliance which the beet workers' union sought with the farmers all the more difficult to cement. there was, of course, a certain impetus towards the march . mayor david elton of lethbridge led the opposition to the use of japanese labour, calling the japanese "ourang-outangs" who would cause problems which outweighed their advantages to the beet growers. lethbridge herald, june . see also david b. iwaasa "the japanese in southern alberta - ", alberta history, (summer ), pp. - . glenbow, bsp, frank taylor to s. c. cain, may , f. . officers and directors of alberta cooperative sugar beet growers were without exception of british isles, american or scandinavian descent, as far as one may judge from their names, despite the fact that many small growers were mennonite or eastern european. it is interesting to compare a list of a.c.s.bg. officers with the names of labour/le travailleur "united front" amongst some of the more discontented and "progressive' farmers, but if the rank and file could be convinced that the workers' aim was to "bolshevize" them, to drag them down into the ranks of the proletariat, this could be nipped in the bud. the "natural" antipathy of the farmers towards organized labour generally did not hurt the campaign against the beet workers' programme of action. perhaps this programme was presented in a manner too crude, too dogmatic by the beet workers and their left-wing friends to be effective in reaching the farmer-grower. on the other hand, although it could be argued that both groups were being "fleeced" by the sugar monopolists, there were objective factors standing in the way of farmer/labour unity. the beet growers belonged to a fortunate group of prairie agriculturalists that was not ruined economically by the depression. if their relative prosperity was rather precariously balanced on the backs of the labouring class, it is not to be expected that they would be among the first to want to upset this arrangement. despite the overall hegemony of the sugar monopolists, it was the fanners who were the actual employers of labour. it was their profits that were most directly threatened by demands for higher wages. the union answered that both groups should join hands against the company. yet where did the path of struggle outlined by the workers lead? to risky, perhaps ruinous confrontations with corporate power or even to the closure of canadian sugar factories? rogers sugar by no means depended upon alberta sugar beets alone for profits. by means of small but significant concessions, the sugar interests were able to keep the farmers in line. the growers' leadership was shrewd enough to turn the labour situation to account, as a bargaining lever, to improve their association's position in relation to the sugar company. the " - " split and the con- struction of a new plant at picture butte provide two important examples of this. ironically, the agitation by the beet workers, designed ostensibly to unite grower and worker, drew the company and the growers closer together. c. c. spencer, president of the growers* association during the strike, later commented that "we got closer to our company" during the strike and that the executive decided from then onward "not to buck them on large issues." the most symbolic demonstration of this new grower-company relationship came during the growers' convention of . after the mem- bers unanimously re-elected phil baker to a fifth consecutive term as presi- dent of the association, they rose, bowed their heads and remained silent to commemorate the memory of the recently-departed president of the sugar monopoly, the late e. t. rogers! members of the "fifteen ton club." since the smaller farmers, the europeans, did most of their own work, they qualified for this honour more often than the members of the executive of the growers' association! glenbow, bsp, c. c. spencer to russell, december , f. , emphasis added. **lethbridge herald, february . chh volume issue cover and front matter church history studies in christianity & culture american society of church history june use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president john van engen, university of notre dame president-elect grant wacker, duke university executive secretary kenneth p. minkema, yale university editors j o h n corrigan amanda porterfield florida state university members of the council class of keith a. francis " robin margaret jensen barbara j. newman dana l. robert merry wiesner-hanks class of susan mcarver anne thayer elaine s. caldbeck lesue callahan constance furey class of john m. giggie patricia z. beckman timothy tseng j. patout burns candy gunther brown t h e society was founded in by philip schaff, was reorganized in , and was incorporated by act of the legislature of the state of new york in . use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. june no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history © , the american society of church history use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors john corrigan amanda porterfield senior assistant to the editors d. e. "gene" mills, jr. assistants to the editors karen heitzenrater shawntel ensminger brooke sherrard florida state university associate editors elizabeth a. clark duke university thomas noble notre dame university carlos eire yale university hugh mcleod university of birmingham dana robert boston university myung soo park seoul theological university enrique dussel universidad nacional autonoma de mexico church history: studies in christianity and culture (issn - ) is publish- ed quarterly by the american society of church history, prospect street, new haven, ct . periodicals postage paid at new haven, ct, and additional entry offices. post- master: send address changes to american society of church history, prospect street, new haven, ct . use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core a r t i c l e s from peoplehood to church membership: mormonism's trajectory since world war ii jan shipps the lives and literary roles of children in advancing conversion to christianity: hagiography from the caucasus in late antiquity and the middle ages cornelia b. horn agnes of harcourt, felipa of porcelet, and marguerite of oingt: women writing about women at the end of the thirteenth century sean l. field fasting, piety, and political anxiety among french reformed protestants : raymond a. mentzer. "bad things" and "good hearts": mediation, meaning, and the language of illinois christianity tracy neal leavelle book reviews and notes markus, robert a., ed., christianity and the secular james wetzel grafton, anthony, and megan williams, eds., christianity and the transformation of the book: origen, eusebius, and the library of caesarea joseph w. trigg millar, fergus, a greek roman empire: power and belief under theodosius ii - michael g. azar jensen, robin margaret, face to face: portraits of the divine in early christianity thomas j. davis harvey, susan ashbrook, scenting salvation: ancient christianity and the olfactory imagination christine shepardson ramseyer, valerie, the transformation of a religious landscape: medieval southern italy, - thomas f. x. noble burgtorf, jochen, and helen nicholson, international mobility in the military orders (twelfth to fifteenth centuries): traveling on christ's business malcolm barber templin, j. alton, pre-reformation religious dissent in the netherlands, - christine kooi zachman, randall c , john calvin as teacher, pastor, and theologian: the shape of his writings and thought john kelsay roper., lyndal, witch craze: terror and fantasy in baroque germany jeffrey burton russell little, katherine, confession and resistance: defining the self in late medieval england nancy bradley warren bilinkoff, jodi, related lives: confessors and their female penitents, - charmarie j. blaisdell use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core schofield, john, philip melanchthon and the english reformation donald k. mckim duffy, eamon, and david loades, the church of mary tudor michael questier marotti, arthur f., religious ideology and cultural fantasy: catholic and anti-catholic discourses in early modern england w. clark gilpin mcknight, stephen a., the religious foundations of francis bacon's thought michael ruse boran, elizabethanne, and crawford gribben, enforcing reformation in ireland and scotland, - dale walden johnson larkin, emmet, the pastoral role of the roman catholic church in pre-famine ireland, - garry j. crites grass, tim, gathering to his name: the story of open brethren in britain and ireland richard e. wood kirsch, arthur, auden and christianity allen dunn h o w a r d , thomas albert, protestant theology and the making of the modern german university james o. duke coppa, frank j., the papacy, the jews, and the holocaust suzanne brown-fleming basil, john d., church and state in late imperial russia: critics of the synodal system of church government ( - ) scott m. kenworthy lara, jaime, city, temple, stage: eschatological architecture and liturgical theatrics in new spain santa arias weber, david j., barbaras: spaniards and their savages in the age of enlightenment john m. headley bremer, francis j., and lynn a. botelho, the world of john winthrop: essays on england and new england - james g. moseley salerno, beth a., sister societies: women's antislavery organizations in antebellum america dan mckanan carroll, michael p., the penitente brotherhood: patriarchy and hispano- catholicism in new mexico christopher vecsey townsend, craig d., faith in their own color: black episcopalians in antebellum new york city sandy dwayne martin thomas e. woods, jr., the church confronts modernity: catholic intellectuals and the progressive era kathryn lofton noll, mark a., and edith l. blumhofer, sing them over again to me: hymns and hymnbooks in america paul westermeyer conser, jr., walter h., a coat of many colors: religion and society along the cape fear river of north carolina suzanne geissler callahan, allen dwight, the talking book: african americans and the bible curtis j. evans kraybill, donald b., and james p. h u r d , horse-and-buggy mennonites: hoofbeats of humility in a postmodern world richard g. kyle madden, etta m., and martha l. finch, eating in eden: food and american utopias daniel sack delfattore, joan, the fourth r: conflicts over religion in america's public schools tracy fessenden albanese, catherine l., a republic of mind and spirit: a cultural history of american metaphysical religion robert c. fuller toulouse, mark g., god in public: four ways american christianity and public life relate mark silk craig, barry l., apostle to the wilderness: bishop john medley and the evolution of the anglican church alan l. hayes gauvreau, michael, the catholic origins of quebec's quiet revolution, - mark a. noll van deusen, nancy e., the souls of purgatory: the spiritual diary of a seventeenth-century afro-peruvian mystic, ursula de jesus rachel sarah o'toole shorter, aylward, cross and flag in africa: the "white fathers" during the colonial scramble ( - ) emma wild-wood barnes, linda l., needles, herbs, gods, and ghosts: china, healing, and the west to michael c. lazich use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core stow, kenneth, jezvish dogs: an image and its interpreters: continuity in the catholic-jewish encounter kevin madigan frankfurter, david, evil incarnate: rumors of demonic conspiracy and satanic abuse in history dale b. martin senn, frank c , the people's work: a social history of the liturgy peter w. williams books received society notices use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pq p steroid disorders in children: congenital adrenal hyperplasia and apparent mineralocorticoid excess maria i. new* and robert c. wilson pediatric endocrinology, new york presbyterian hospital and the weill medical college of cornell university, east th street, new york, ny this contribution is part of the special series of inaugural articles by members of the national academy of sciences elected on april , . contributed by maria iandolo new, july , our research team and laboratories have concentrated on two inher- ited endocrine disorders, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (cah) and apparent mineralocorticoid excess, in thier investigations of the pathophysiology of adrenal steroid hormone disorders in children. cah refers to a family of inherited disorders in which defects occur in one of the enzymatic steps required to synthesize cortisol from cholesterol in the adrenal gland. because of the impaired cortisol secretion, adrenocorticotropic hormone levels rise due to impairment of a negative feedback system, which results in hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex. the majority of cases is due to -hydroxylase defi- ciency ( -ohd). owing to the blocked enzymatic step, cortisol precursors accumulate in excess and are converted to potent andro- gens, which are secreted and cause in utero virilization of the affected female fetus genitalia in the classical form of cah. a mild form of the -ohd, termed nonclassical -ohd, is the most common autosomal recessive disorder in humans, and occurs in y ashkenazic jews. mutations in the cyp gene have been identified that cause both classical and nonclassical cah. apparent mineralocorticoid excess is a potentially fatal genetic disorder causing severe juvenile hyperten- sion, pre- and postnatal growth failure, and low to undetectable levels of potassium, renin, and aldosterone. it is caused by autosomal recessive mutations in the hsd b gene, which result in a deficiency of b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type . in , we reported a mild form of this disease, which may represent an important cause of low-renin hypertension. our laboratory has dedicated itself to two severe disorders ofchildhood— congenital adrenal hyperplasia (cah) and apparent mineralocorticoid excess (ame)—which can be seen as paradigms of the process of identification, characterization, and treatment of an autosomal recessive disease. for both of these steroid disorders, we have used a combination of clinical observation and investigation, hormonal assays, epidemiological and population studies, and molecular genetics analyses. cah caused by -hydroxylase deficiency ( -ohd). cah refers to a family of inherited disorders in which defects occur in one of the enzymatic steps required to synthesize cortisol from cholesterol in the adrenal gland. because of the impaired cortisol secretion, adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth) levels rise via a negative feedback system, which results in hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex. in -ohd, responsible for – % of cah cases, there is an accumulation of the precursors immediately proximal to the - hydroxylation step in the pathway of cortisol synthesis. these excess precursors are converted to potent androgens, which cause in utero virilization of the external genitalia of the female fetus in the classical form of cah. newborn males have normal genitalia although, as with females, they may develop other signs of androgen excess in childhood. the earliest documented description of cah was in by a neapolitan anatomist named luigi de crecchio ( ), in which he described a cadaver as having a penis with urethral openings on its underside and undescended testes. to the surprise of de crecchio, the post mortem dissection also revealed a vagina, a uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, as well as markedly enlarged adrenal glands. the patient had had a sex reassignment, having been declared a female at birth and a male years later. as an adult, he conducted himself as a male socially and sexually. the patient died in his s after the last of several episodes of vomiting, diarrhea, and prostration. this was certainly a case of a genetic female with masculinization of the external genitalia, caused by excess adrenal androgens, who had symptoms consis- tent with adrenal insufficiency ( ). this remarkable description, written almost years ago, could apply to present-day cases. biochemical features. adrenal steroidogenesis and fetal develop- ment. the adrenal cortex produces the glucocorticoid, cortisol, and the mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, under the control of regulatory systems that largely function independently. the cortex is divided into three distinct zones—the outer zona glomerulosa, the middle zona fasciculata, and the inner zona reticularis— defined by different cellular arrangements. these zones are functionally distinct: i.e., mineralocorticoids are syn- thesized in the zona glomerulosa, glucocorticoids are produced by the zona fasciculatayreticularis, and androgens are synthe- sized in the zona reticularis. the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein shuttles choles- terol to the inner mitochondrial membrane ( ). the production of cortisol in the zona fasciculata occurs in five steps: cleavage of the cholesterol side chain by the cholesterol desmolase enzyme, cytochrome cyp a (p scc), to yield preg- nenolone; conversion of pregnenolone to progesterone by b- hydrox ysteroid dehydrogenase w ith ac c ompanying d , - isomerization; and successive hydroxylations at the a, , and b positions, each mediated by a distinct cytochrome p , resulting in cortisol (fig. ) ( ). cortisol is synthesized under the trophic control of acth and in turn regulates acth synthesis via a negative feedback loop. male genital differentiation in embryonic and fetal life de- pends on two functions of the testes ( ): (i) the secretion of testosterone by the leydig cells directs the formation of the internal male urogenital tract (i.e., the epididymides, vasa def- erentia, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts) from the wolf- fian (mesonephric) ducts, and testosterone, which is reduced to dihydrotestosterone by a-reductase, virilizes the external gen- italia; and (ii) the secretion of the anti-mullerian hormone (amh) from the sertoli cells suppresses development of the mullerian ducts, thus preventing formation of the female inter- nal structures (i.e., the fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and upper vagina). amh is not secreted by the fetal ovary. thus, even females with extreme external virilization from androgen excess will have normal development of the uterus and fallopian tubes, making later childbearing possible with proper treatment. in females with cah, the degree of virilization of external genitalia toward the male type in genetic females has been classified abbreviations: cah, congenital adrenal hyperplasia; ame, apparent mineralocorticoid excess; acth, adrenocorticotropic hormone; b-hsd , b-hydroxysteroid dehydroge- nase type ; -ohd, -hydroxylase deficiency; -ohp, a-hydroxyprogesterone; mr, mineralocorticoid receptor; thf, tetrahydrocortisol; the, tetrahydrocortisone. *to whom reprint requests should be addressed. e-mail: minew@mail.med.cornell.edu – u pnas u october , u vol. u no. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , in five stages by prader ( ), where on a scale of to (i–v) the genitalia can be scored from slightly virilized (e.g., mildly enlarged clitoris) to indistinguishable from a male. most classical cases of -ohd are born with prader iv genitalia. abnormalities in steroid production.the hormonal imbalances in cah result from the combination of impaired enzymatic activity and subsequent impaired cortisol synthesis. clinical syndromes ref lect the resultant increased levels of steroids proximal to the nonfunctioning enzymatic step and hyperstimu- lation of the adrenal gland by acth. in -ohd, the conver- sion of a-hydroxyprogesterone ( -ohp), the main substrate of the -hydroxylase enzyme, to -deoxycortisol in the path- way of cortisol synthesis is impaired (fig. ). the enzyme defect also impairs the conversion of progesterone to -deoxycorti- costerone in the pathway of aldosterone synthesis. when cortisol production is decreased, pituitary secretion of acth increases via the negative feedback system. thus, the unblocked precur- sors -ohp, pregnenolone, -hydroxypregnenolone, and pro- gesterone accumulate. these steroid precursors can serve as substrates for androgen biosynthesis and are diverted in the adrenals to androgen pathways, resulting in excess secretion of the androgens dehydroepiandrosterone, d -androstenedione, and testosterone. in classic -ohd, the production of these androgens early in gestation virilizes the external genitalia in the genetic female fetus. clinical features. there are three forms of -ohd: (i) classic simple virilizing; (ii) classic salt wasting; and (iii) nonclassical, a mild form of the disease (fig. ). classic simple virilizing. the prominent features of classic simple virilizing -ohd are progressive virilism with accelerated growth and advanced bone ages but no evidence of mineralocorticoid deficiency. females with this type of cah have ambiguity of the external genitalia (including clitoromegaly and fusion and scrotal- ization of the labial folds with a urogenital sinus). diagnosis at the birth of a female with virilizing cah is usually made immediately because of the apparent genital ambiguity. for newborn males, however, differentiation of the external genitalia is not affected. diagnosis in the newborn male depends on screening. postnatally, genitalia may continue to virilize because of an excess of adrenal androgens, and pseudoprecocious puberty can occur. signs of hyperandrogenism include facial, axillary, and pubic hair; adult body odor; temporal balding; and severe acne. poor control of the disease in boys with classic cah has been associated with small testes and infertility with reduced sperm counts. this occurs because the excess androgens are aromatized peripherally to es- trogens, which suppress pituitary gonadotropins and impair the growth and function of the testes. the high levels of androgens can also accelerate growth in early childhood, producing an unusually tall and muscular child. however, this early growth spurt is followed by premature epiphyseal maturation and closure, resulting in a final height that is below that expected from parental heights ( ). thus, the patients are tall children but short adults. classic salt wasting. blocks in the activity of -hydroxylase result in genital ambiguity in the simple virilizing form and additionally in salt wasting in three-fourths of cases ( ). with the use of double isotope-dilution techniques, our team demon- strated that aldosterone synthesis is impaired in some patients with -ohd cah, which is associated with electrolyte abnor- malities, but is normal in those with no electrolyte abnormalities ( , ), thus biochemically distinguishing a salt-wasting form from the simple virilizing form. because of a deficiency of aldosterone, a salt-retaining hormone, renal salt wasting causes low serum concentrations of sodium (hyponatremia), high serum potassium levels (hyperkalemia), high plasma renin levels, and f luid volume depletion. this hormonal milieu may be manifested by a life-threatening shock-like hypoten- sion and hyperkalemia. we and others have shown that salt losing in infancy from an aldosterone biosynthetic defect may improve with age in some cases ( – ). nonclassical. an attenuated late-onset form of adrenal hyper- plasia, which we have called ‘‘nonclassical cah,’’ was first suspected during the s by gynecologists in clinical practice who treated women with glucocorticoids for physical signs of hyperandrogenism, including infertility. the first biochemical documentation of a late-appearing -ohd was by decourt and colleagues in ( ). it was determined by the studies of our group and others that this form was in fact an allelic variant at the genetic locus of the -hydroxylase enzyme ( – ). in nonclassical -ohd, partial deficiencies of -hydroxylation cause postnatal androgen excess and milder symptoms. females do not have genital ambiguity at birth, though both males and females may manifest signs of androgen excess at any phase of postnatal development, such as precocious pubic hair. in pubertal-age girls, menarche may be delayed, and in adolescent and young adult women, secondary amenorrhea is common. in women, hirsutism, fig. . pathways of steroid biosynthesis. fig. . clinical spectrum of steroid -ohd. there is a wide spectrum of clinical presentations ranging from prenatal virilization with labial fusion to precocious adrenarche to pubertal or postpubertal virilization. [reproduced with permission from ref. (copyright , mcgraw–hill)]. new and wilson pnas u october , u vol. u no. u m ed ic a l sc ie n c es d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , male-pattern baldness, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, andyor polycystic ovary disease may occur. in males, oligospermia has been found in some cases. for men and women, short adult stature, insulin resistance, severe cystic acne, and reduced fertility can also be seen in untreated groups. epidemiology. newborn screening worldwide of almost . mil- lion babies has demonstrated an overall incidence of : , live births for the classic form of -ohd ( – ). the incidence of classic cah in either homogeneous or heterogeneous general populations is as high as in , live births (brazil) ( ). in , we demonstrated that the overall frequency of nonclassic -ohd is surprisingly high in the population at large and even higher in certain ethnic groups ( ). it is in fact the most common human autosomal recessive disorder in humans. the disease frequency in the general heterogeneous population of new york city was y . the highest ethnic-specific disease frequency was found among ashkenazic jews at y . other ethnic groups with high disease frequency included hispanics ( y ), slavs ( y ), and italians ( y ) ( ). these results have been confirmed by others ( , ). diagnosis. in classical -ohd, progesterone, -ohp, andro- stenedione, and testosterone are secreted in excess. diagnosis can be made by measuring the urinary excretion of the metab- olites of c steroids, which are increased ( , ). however, hormonal diagnosis of all types of -ohd is best achieved by an acth stimulation test, in which the serum -ohp concen- tration is measured before and min after intravenous admin- istration of synthetic acth (cortrosyn). in , we set the hormonal standards for a diagnostic acth-stimulation test: plots on a logarithmic scale of baseline vs. acth-stimulated -ohp concentrations result in a regression line with three distinguishable groups ( , ) (fig. ). these nomograms clearly distinguish the patient with (i) classical -oh deficiency from (ii) those with the milder symptomatic and asymptomatic nonclassical forms of -oh deficiency, as well as (iii) heterozy- gotes for all of the forms and those subjects predicted by genotyping to be unaffected. the nomograms can also identify individuals heterozygous for -oh deficiency in the general population who have a characteristic heterozygote response. these nomograms provide a powerful tool by which to assign the -oh deficiency genotype. genetics. cyp mutations. the gene encoding -hydroxylase (a microsomal cytochrome p termed cyp [previously p c ]) is located on the short arm of chromosome in the human lymphocyte antigen complex ( ), and the gene for the -oh enzyme is termed cyp ( ). our group advanced the understanding of the cyp gene, adding to its characterization in terms of location, duplication in tandem with complement c isotypes, structure, and the sequencing of the gene and its pseudogene and their arrangement on the chromosome ( – ). cyp and its homologue, the pseudogene cyp p, alternate with two genes called c b and c a ( , ) that encode the two isoforms of the fourth component (c ) of serum complement ( ). cyp and cyp p, which each contain exons, share % sequence homology in exons and approximately % sequence homology in introns ( , ). approximately mutations in the cyp gene causing -ohd have been identified thus far ( ). of those, we demonstrated deletional mutations of the -ohd genes and characterized specific point mutations in many patients at our center ( , – ). the most common mutations appear to be the result of either of two types of meiotic recombination between cyp and cyp p: (i) misalignment and unequal crossing over, resulting in large-scale dna deletions, and (ii) apparent gene conversion events that result in the transfer to cyp of smaller-scale deleterious mutations present in the cyp p pseudogene. correlationynoncorrelation of genotype to phenotype. in gen- eral, the genotype of cyp correlates with the phenotype of -ohd. in , we compared the genotypes and phenotypes in approximately patients and divided them into mutation- identical groups ( ). this study demonstrated that the most common mutations observed in cyp cause variable phenotype effects and are not always concordant with genotype. we have subsequently genotyped over patients and identified mutational groups, groups of which had more than one phenotype. dna sequencing analysis could enable us to rule out rare undetected mutations on the same allele. the noncorrelation of genotype to phenotype may present a difficulty for the clinician in directing prenatal treatment. how- ever, in general, prenatal treatment for cah is safe and is warranted even when the doubt exists. prenatal diagnosis and treatment. prenatal diagnosis is appropriate in families where a previous family member has been affected. pre- natal treatment with dexamethasone suppresses the formation of androgens by the fetal adrenal gland and can prevent or minimize the ambiguity of the female genitalia, thus precluding an incorrect sex assignment, and the ensuing psychiatric problem of gender confusion in affected females. prenatal diagnosis has now been utilized for over a decade in the prenatal treatment of -ohd (approximately at-risk pregnancies were referred to our hos- pital). dexamethasone was chosen because it crosses the placenta, crossing from the maternal to the fetal circulation. it enters the fetus to suppress acth because it is not bound to high-affinity transport proteins in the blood and because it cannot be metabolized by the placental b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. our group developed an algorithm for the prenatal diagnosis of -ohd using direct molecular analysis of the cyp gene fig. . -ohp nomogram for the diagnosis of steroid -ohd ( -min cortrosyn stimulation test). the data for this nomogram was collected be- tween and at the department of pediatrics. the new york hospital– cornell medical center, new york, ny . u www.pnas.org new and wilson d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , and for treatment of the disorder with dexamethasone (fig. ) ( ). dexamethasone ( mgykgyday in three divided doses) is administered to the pregnant mother beginning before weeks gestation, blind to whether the fetus is female or is affected, to suppress excess adrenal androgen secretion and to prevent virilization should the fetus be an affected female (fig. ). from the timetable of sexual differentiation, it is evident that the urogenital sinus has already begun to be formed by the ninth week of gestation, and thus treatment must begin before this to prevent virilization of the genitalia (fig. ). diagnosis by dna analysis can be made after chorionic villus sampling in the eighth to tenth week gestation or by sampling amniotic f luid cells (amniocentesis) in the second trimester. the fetal dna is analyzed by pcr ( ) and southern blotting ( ). treatment is discontinued if the fetus is shown to be an unaffected female on dna analysis or a male on karyotype analysis. since , prenatal diagnosis and treatment for cah caused by -ohd has been carried out in over pregnancies at the new york hospital–cornell medical center. of those pregnancies evaluated, approximately fetuses were found to be affected with classical -ohd; of those, approximately were female, and of those were treated prenatally with dexamethasone until term. dexamethasone administered at or before the ninth week of gestation was effective in reducing virilization in the genetic female so that genitoplasty was not needed (fig. ). as reported in previous studies ( – ), prenatally treated newborns did not differ signif- icantly in birth weight from untreated newborns in our study. mean birth weight was . kg for dexamethasone-treated fetuses and . kg (p . ) for controls. fetal wastage was slightly less for dexamethasone-treated than untreated pregnancies. followup studies are in progress to evaluate cognition, gender, temperament, and handedness (an indicator of prenatal androgen effect) in children and adults to evaluate the long-term consequences of prenatal dexamethasone treatment. in initial studies, we have not identified significant or enduring differences in side effects in the mothers who were treated with dexamethasone from the mothers who were not. however, by report, mothers who were not treated with dexamethasone gained an average of . lb, whereas treated mothers gained an average of . lbs. (p , . ). there were no significant differences in regard to the presence of striae (p . ), edema (p . ), hypertension (p . ), or gestational diabetes (p . ) by report, either. further, when we surveyed treated mothers at fig. . algorithm depicting prenatal management of pregnancy in families at risk for a fetus with -ohd. hcg, human chorionic gonadotropin [repro- duced with permission from ref. (copyright , the endocrine society)]. fig. . timetable of prenatal sexual differentiation. fig. . genitalia of prenatally untreated ( a) and treated (b) sisters with salt-wasting -ohd. the untreated newborn girl exhibits ambiguous geni- talia with an enlarged clitoris and scrotalization of the labia majora (prader iv). the sib treated prenatally with dexamethasone was born with normal genitalia, and surgical recession will not be necessary. new and wilson pnas u october , u vol. u no. u m ed ic a l sc ie n c es d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , random, of them had had cah-affected girls, and all were satisfied with the outcome of prenatal dexamethasone treatment. based on our experience and other large human studies ( – ), proper prenatal diagnosis and treatment of -ohd is safe and is effective in significantly reducing or eliminating virilization in the affected female. now that a mouse model for steroid -ohd has been found, we have begun a project to develop gene therapy for cah. apparent mineralocorticoid excess (ame). ame is a genetic disor- der that typically causes severe hypertension in children, pre- and postnatal growth failure, low to undetectable levels of potas- sium, renin, and aldosterone levels, and is caused by a deficiency of b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type ( b-hsd ). this potentially fatal disease is caused by autosomal recessive muta- tions in the hsd b gene. the exploration and elucidation of this disease at our center and others has opened up a new area in receptor biology as a result of the demonstration that the specificity of the mineralocorticoid receptor (mr) function depends on a metabolic enzyme rather than the receptor itself. historical background. although werder et al. described a patient with similar clinical features in , the first biochemical description of this disease was made by us in a -year-old native american child from the zuni tribe ( , ). detailed clinical and endocrine evaluations of this child established the presence of features that could not be explained by any known syndrome. aldosterone regulates electrolyte excretion and intravascular volume by stimulating increased resorption of sodium from the urine. it is the most potent mineralocorticoid synthesized, yet, despite strong evidence of mineralocorticoid excess and hyper- aldosteronism, aldosterone was undetectable in the prismatic case and in similar cases that were subsequently identified. thus it was initially thought that the condition was caused by an unknown mineralocorticoid ( , ). however, our attempts to identify one were unsuccessful. using tritiated cortisol, we then observed that the metabolism of cortisol to biologically inactive cortisone was decreased and serum cortisol half-life was pro- longed, whereas the conversion of cortisone to cortisol was normal ( ). this implied that b-hydroxysteroid dehydroge- nase, the enzyme that converts cortisol to cortisone, may be deficient. we and others postulated that the mineralocorticoid speci- ficity of the mr was lost in these patients, allowing cortisol to bind to the mr and act as a mineralocorticoid ( – ). it was demonstrated that the mr has equal affinity for aldosterone and cortisol in vitro ( – ). however, circulating levels of cortisol are - to , -fold higher than those of aldosterone, hence it appeared that endogenous exposure of the mr to cortisol could preempt the ability of aldosterone to be its ligand. in , we proposed that cortisol was the mineralocorticoid inducing hy- pertension. ( ). the role b-hsd plays in mineralocorticoid action was con- firmed from studies of the effects of the drug carbenoxolone and of extracts from the root of the licorice plant, glycyrrhiza glabra. licorice ingestion in large amounts can cause sodium retention, elevated blood pressure, and potassium wasting, resulting in a hypertensive state resembling ame ( ). glycyrrhetinic acid, the hydrolytic derivative of the active steroid in licorice extracts, is a competitive inhibitor of b-hsd ( , ). carbenoxolone is a semisynthetic analog of glycyrrhetinic acid and can also induce ame-like side effects, including sodium retention, hypokalemic alkalosis, low levels of plasma renin, and hypertension. however, unlike glycyrrhetinic acid, which inhibits only the dehydrogenase function of b-hsd, carbenoxolone inhibits both the dehydroge- nase and the oxoreductase (i.e., converting cortisone to cortisol) function of the enzyme in the liver ( , ). although defective b-hsd appeared to be a likely candi- date for the cause of ame, the only form of the enzyme, the gene for which had been cloned at that time, was shown to be normal ( ). the mrna was found to be expressed predomi- nantly in the liver ( ). because aldosterone acts primarily through its effects on the renal distal convoluted tubules and cortical collecting ducts, it was predicted that the mrs should exist in these locations. however, this b-hsd, which was nadp dependent, was shown to be expressed only in the proximal tubules ( – ), suggesting the presence of another isoform of b-hsd in the distal tubules. further, no mutations were detected in the gene for ‘‘hsd ’’ (later described as type ) in patients with ame ( ). a separate nad-dependent isoform (type ) that colocalized with the mr in the distal nephron was subsequently discovered by naray-fejes-toth ( – ).† it possessed all of the properties nec- essary for protecting the mr: a very high affinity for endogenous glucocorticoids, a high abundance in target cells, and irreversible dehydrogenase activity. these data suggested that a defect in a type isoform was responsible for ame ( , – ). in , cdna encoding rabbit-collecting duct b-hsd type was isolated, sequenced, and characterized by naray-fejes- toth ( ). the human cdna for the type isoform ( b-hsd ) was cloned, sequenced ( ), and localized to chromosome q by krozowski et al. ( ) and by agarwal et al. ( ) by as well. the b-hsd enzyme is nad-dependent and appears to have dehydrogenase activity only ( , ). the km of b-hsd for cortisol is – nm ( , , , ), indicating that b-hsd has a - to , -fold higher affinity for cortisol than does b-hsd . in humans, b-hsd mrna was expressed in kidney cortex and medulla, sigmoid and rectal colon, and salivary gland ( ), and in the pancreas, prostate, ovary, small intestine, placenta, spleen, and testes ( ). in , we discovered the first mutation in the hsd b gene in a consanguineous iranian family with three sibs suffering from ame (a c to t transition resulting in a r c mutation) ( ). we and others have subsequently identified mutations in the hsd b gene in patients affected with ame (fig. ) (refs. – ; p. m. stewart, personal communication). we have also shown, by in vitro expression studies, that the mutations impair the conversion of cortisol to cortisone ( , ). epidemiology. ame is rare, having been identified in only approximately patients worldwide in the past years. owing †provencher, p. h., mercer, w. r., funder, j. w. & krozowski, z. s., endocrine society th annual meeting, june – , , san antonio, tx, vol. , p. (abstr). fig. . mutations in the gene for b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type in patients with ame who were investigated by our group. the hsd b gene has five exons, is . kb long, and has been mapped to chromosome q . all mutations found in affected patients are homozygous except for one patient, who is a compound heterozygote (d nyl r). u www.pnas.org new and wilson d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , to our primary role in the discovery and characterization of ame, we have been referred a large number of these patients and have been able to analyze the phenotype and genotype of these cases ( ). to date, most patients with ame who have had molecular genetic analysis have been homozygotes for one of the different mutations. rare autosomal recessive mutations are classically ex- plained by consanguinity, endogamy (a high coefficient of inbreed- ing), or by a founder effect. in our study in of eight families with members affected by ame, seven of the families appeared to fit one of these three explanations ( ). four families came from ancestry where consanguinity and tribal inbreeding were the cus- tom, and three came from a zoroastrian population that originated in iran and was driven out by muslims in the seventh century. in the remaining family, african-americans from north carolina, con- sanguinity was not proven. few compound heterozygotes have been identified. clinical and biochemical features. classic ame. we are one of the few centers in which a comprehensive ame study population was examined clinically, biochemically, and genetically. ame usually presents early in life. clinical features include severe hypertension, failure to thrive, and persistent polydipsia and polyuria. biochemical profiles demonstrate metabolic alka- losis and severe hypokalemia. plasma renin activity is low, suggesting a volume-expansion hypertension, which responds to dietary sodium restriction. all steroid levels, including aldoste- rone, are very low. biochemical diagnosis of ame can be made by measuring the ratio of cortisol to cortisone by the ratios of their urinary metabolites. in our report in of ame patients studied at our center, urinary metabolites of cortisol demonstrated an abnormal ratio of tetrahydrocortisoneytetrahydrocortisone (thfythe) with a predominance of thf ( ). the ratio of thf athf to the was . to , whereas the normal ratio is . . the optimal diagnostic test is to measure the generation of tritiated water in plasma samples when -tritiated cortisol is injected, as described by hellman et al. ( ). infusion of [ - h]cortisol in our patients revealed the conversion of cortisol to cortisone to be – % in typical ame patients, whereas the normal conversion is – % (table ). in our report ( ), all patients studied had characteristic signs of a severe b-hsd defect, which were consistent with patients reported worldwide ( , , , , – , – ): birth weights were lower than in their unaffected sibs, and the patients were short, underweight, and hypertensive for age. damage of one or more organs (kidneys, retina, heart, and central nervous system) because of hypertension was found in all of the patients except one. in addition, most of these patients also had nephrocalcinosis and left ventricular hypertrophy. the followup studies of end-organ damage in six patients who had had to years of treatment revealed significant improvement in all patients, demonstrating the importance of early diagnosis and treatment. in our review of ame and suspected ame patients worldwide, of died of ame-related illnesses, and diagnosed genetically were stillborn ( ). mild form of ame. all of the ame patients reported until had the characteristic signs of a severe b-hsd defect. we have recently reported the first patient with a mild form of ame. asymptomatic hypertension was diagnosed in an american girl at age . years during a sports physical in . she had normal serum electrolytes, undetectable plasma renin, serum aldosterone of , . ngydl, normal urinalysis, normal urine culture, normal intravenous pyelography, normal arteriogram of the kidney, normal renal scan, and normal heart size on chest x-ray. birth weight was lb oz. the parents are consanguineous mennonites of prussian descent (alexanderwohl church) (fig. ). the only family member with hypertension is the maternal grandmother. although the patient lacked hypokalemia and low birth weight and had only mild hypertension, we established a diagnosis of ame genetically. she exhibited only a moderately abnor mal ratio of c ortisol to c ortisone met abolites [thf athfythe was . ] and metabolism of cortisol to cortisone as determined by the measurement of tritiated water table . review of ame patients studied at the new york hospital–cornell medical center: signs and biochemical features at presentation and subsequent biochemical and genetic evaluation patient kindred ethnicity age, yr sex birth weight, kg bp, mmhg bp ( th centile for age) serum k , mmol/l thf athfy the f secretion rate, mg/d % conversion f e hsd b mutation * american indian . f . y y . . . e frameshift zoroastrian . m . y y . . † . r h, dy italian- moroccan . m . y y . . . nd l ryd n african- american . f . y y . . . r c african- american . f . y y . . . . r c east indian . m . y y . . . r h, dy east indian . m . y y . . . r h, dy middle eastern . m . y y . . . nd r c middle eastern . m . y y . . . nd r c american indian . m . y y . . . . l p, l s persian . f . y y . . nd nd r c persian . m . y y . nd nd r c persian . f . y y . . nd nd r c turkish . m . y y . . nd . n frameshift mennonite . f . y y . . . . p l normal values . . . – . . . – % nd, not done; bp, blood pressure; f, cortisol; b, cortisone. *, patient died; †, thfythe. new and wilson pnas u october , u vol. u no. u m ed ic a l sc ie n c es d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , release after [ - h]cortisol infusion ( %) (typical patients are , %) (table ). the patient clearly had ame based on biochemical evidence and later was proven to be homozygous for the p l mutation in the hsd b gene. kinetic analysis, performed by our collaborator z. krozowski, showed an intermediary km in this patient as compared with a severe ame patient ( ). in whole cells, the p l construct gave a km for cortisol of nm as compared with a km nm for the wild-type construct; in cell homogenates, the p l construct gave a km for cortisol of nm and a km of nm for the wild-type construct. another study of a severe ame patient demonstrated a km of , nm as compared with the normal control of nm ( , ). the km of nm in this patient suggests a less severe defect than in other patients, resulting in her mild phenotype. we believe that this mild form of a me may be prevalent in the inbred mennonite population to which our patient belongs. we are in the process of studying this population of , members (i) to determine whether there are other cases of this mild form of a me and (ii) to establish the heterozygote frequency of the mutation found in the hsd b gene of our patient in the mennonites to ascertain the frequency of this disease in the european counterpart. so far, approximately blood samples have been sent to us for dna analysis from the mennonite population in goessel, ks, from which our patient comes. in our preliminar y findings of samples tested thus far, we identified nine carriers of the p l mutation. this results in a heterozygote frequency of . %.§ considering there are only approximately patients known worldwide with a me, this heterozygote frequency is ver y high. essential hypertension (the second highest cause of death) has been estimated to occur in million residents in the united states, and approximately % are associated with low renin. if patients unrelated to the mennonite community have similar mild muta- tions in the hsd b gene, we may find that this disorder is an unrecognized cause of low-renin hypertension. §ugrasbul-eksinar, f., new, m. i. & wilson, r. c., endocrine society st annual meeting, june – , , san diego, ca. significant sections of the work on which the data are reported herein were supported by u.s. public health service grant hd and general clinical research center grant rr . we express our appreciation to laurie vandermolen for her editorial assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. . de crecchio, l. ( ) morgagni , – . . new, m. i., dupont, b., grumbach, k. & levine, l. s. ( ) in the metabolic basis of inherited disease, eds. stanbury, j. b., wyngaarden, j. b., fredrickson, d. s., goldstein, j. l. & brown, m. d. (mcgraw–hill, new york), pp. – . . lin, d., sugawara, t., strauss, j. f., rd, clark, b. j., stocco, d. m., saenger, p., rogol, a. & miller, w. l. ( ) science , – . . new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) in genetic and molecular biological aspects of endocrine disease., ed. thakker, r. v. (bailliere tindall, london), pp. – . . jost, a. ( ) in hermaphroditism, genital anomalies and related endocrine disorders, eds. jones, h. w. & scott, w. w. (williams & wilkins, baltimore), pp. . . prader, a. ( ) helv. paediatr. acta , . . new, m. i., gertner, j. m., speiser, p. w. & del balzo, p. ( ) j. endocrinol. invest. , – . . new, m. i., miller, b. & peterson, r. e. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . new, m. i. & seaman, m. p. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . luetscher, j. a. ( ) recent prog. horm. res. , . . rosler, a., levine, l. s., schneider, b., novogroder, m. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . stoner, e., dimartino-nardi, j., kuhnle, u., levine, l. s., oberfield, s. e. & new, m. i. ( ) clin. endocrinol. (oxford) , – . . speiser, p. w., agdere, l., ueshiba, h., white, p. c. & new, m. i. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , – . . decourt, m. j., jayle, m. f. & baulieu, e. ( ) ann. endocrinol. (paris) , . . new, m. i., lorenzen, f., pang, s., gunczler, p., dupont, b. & levine, l. s. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . rosenwaks, z., lee, p. a., jones, g. s., migeon, c. j. & wentz, a. c. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , . . levine, l. s., dupont, b., lorenzen, f., pang, s., pollack, m., oberfield, s., kohn, b., lerner, a., cacciari, e., mantero, f., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . laron, z., pollack, m. s., zamir, r., roitman, a., dickerman, z., levine, l. s., lorenzen, f., o’neill, g. j., pang, s., new, m. i. , et al. ( ) hum. immunol. , – . . pollack, m. s., levine, l. s., o’neill, g. j., pang, s., lorenzen, f., kohn, b., rondanini, g. f., chiumello, g., new, m. i. & dupont, b. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . levine, l. s., dupont, b., lorenzen, f., pang, s., pollack, m., oberfield, s. e., kohn, b., lerner, a., cacciari, e., mantero, f., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . kohn, b., levine, l. s., pollack, m. s., pang, s., lorenzen, f., levy, d., lerner, a. j., rondanini, g. f., dupont, b. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . pang, s. y., wallace, m. a., hofman, l., thuline, h. c., dorche, c., lyon, i. c., dobbins, r. h., kling, s., fujieda, k. & suwa, s. ( ) pediatrics , – . . pang, s. & clark, a. ( ) trends endocrinol. metab. , – . . pang, s. & clark, a. ( ) screening , – . . speiser, p. w., dupont, b., rubinstein, p., piazza, a., kastelan, a. & new, i. m. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . sherman, s. l., aston, c. e., morton, n. e., speiser, p. w. & new, m. i. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . zerah, m., ueshiba, h., wood, e., speiser, p. w., crawford, c., mcdonald, t., pareira, j., gruen, d. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . bongiovanni, a. m., eberlein, w. r. & cara, j. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , . . butler, g. c. & marrian, g. f. ( ) j. biol. chem. , . . new, m. i., lorenzen, f., lerner, a. j., kohn, b., oberfield, s. e., pollack, m. s., dupont, b., stoner, e., levy, d. j., pang, s., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . white, p. c., new, m. i. & dupont, b. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , – . . dupont, b., oberfield, s. e., smithwick, e. m., lee, t. d. & levine, l. s. ( ) lancet , – . . nebert, d. w., nelson, d. r. & coon, m. j. ( ) dna cell biol. , – . . white, p. c., new, m. i. & dupont, b. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . white, p. c., new, m. i. & dupont, b. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . white, p. c., chaplin, d. d., weis, j. h., dupont, b., new, m. i. & seidman, j. g. ( ) nature (london) , – . . white, p. c., grossberger, d., onufer, b. j., chaplin, d. d., new, m. i., dupont, b. & strominger, j. l. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . white, p. c., new, m. i. & dupont, b. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . carroll, m. c., campbell, r. d. & porter, r. r. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . belt, k. t., carroll, m. c. & porter, r. r. ( ) cell , – . fig. . pedigree of mennonite family showing consanguinity ( ). u www.pnas.org new and wilson d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , . higashi, y., yoshioka, h., yamane, m., gotoh, o. & fujii-kuriyama, y. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . krawczak, m. & cooper, d. n. ( ) trends genet. , – . . werkmeister, j. w., new, m. i., dupont, b. & white, p. c. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . amor, m., parker, k. l., globerman, h., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . globerman, h., amor, m., parker, k. l., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . white, p. c., vitek, a., dupont, b. & new, m. i. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . speiser, p. w., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , – . . tusie-luna, m., speiser, p. w., dumic, m., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) mol. endocrinol. , – . . wilson, r. c., mercado, a. b., cheng, k. c. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . speiser, p. w., laforgia, n., kato, k., pareira, j., khan, r., yang, s. y., whorwood, c., white, p. c., elias, s., schriock, e., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . wilson, r. c., wei, j. q., cheng, k. c., mercado, a. b. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . white, p. c., vitek, a., dupont, b. & new, i. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . forest, m. g., betuel, h. & david, m. ( ) endocr. res. , – . . forest, m. g., david, m. & morel, y. ( ) j. steroid biochem. mol. biol. , – . . mercado, a. b., wilson, r. c., cheng, k. c., wei, j. q. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . werder, e. a., zachmann, m., vollmin, j. a., veyrat, r. & prader, a. ( ) res. steroids , – . . new, m. i., levine, l. s., biglieri, e. g., pareira, j. & ulick, s. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . ulick, s., ramirez, l. c. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . ulick, s., levine, l. s., gunczler, p., zanconato, g., ramirez, l. c., rauh, w., rosler, a., bradlow, h. l. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . new, m. i., oberfield, s. e., carey, r. m., greig, f., ulick, s. & levine, l. s. ( ) in endocrinology of hypertension, serono symposia no. , eds. mantero, f., biglieri, e. g. & edwards, e. r. w. (academic, new york), pp. – . . oberfield, s. e., levine, l. s., carey, r. m., greig, f., ulick, s. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . funder, j. w., pearce, p. t., smith, r. & smith, a. i. ( ) science , – . . arriza, j. l., weinberger, c., cerelli, g., glaser, t. m., handelin, b. l., housman, d. e. & evans, r. m. ( ) science , – . . krozowski, z. s. & funder, j. w. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . marver, d., stewart, j., funder, j. w., feldman, d. & edelman, i. s. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . new, m. i., oberfield, s. e., carey, r. m., greig, f., ulick, s. & levine, l. s. ( ) endocrinology of hypertension, serono symposia no. (academic, new york), pp. – . . stewart, p. m., wallace, a. m., valentino, r., burt, d., shackleton, c. h. & edwards, c. r. ( ) lancet ii, – . . stewart, p. m., wallace, a. m., atherden, s. m., shearing, c. h. & edwards, c. r. ( ) clin. sci. , – . . farese, r. v., jr., biglieri, e. g., shackleton, c. h., irony, i. & gomez-fontes, r. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , – . . funder, j. w. ( ) endocr. res. , – . . tannin, g. m., agarwal, a. k., monder, c., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . edwards, c. r., stewart, p. m., burt, d., brett, l., mcintyre, m. a., sutanto, w. s., de kloet, e. r. & monder, c. ( ) lancet , – . . castello, r., schwarting, r., muller, c. & hierholzer, k. ( ) renal physiol. biochem. , – . . rundle, s. e., funder, j. w., lakshmi, v. & monder, c. ( ) endocrinology , – . . nikkila, h., tannin, g. m., new, m. i., taylor, n. f., kalaitzoglou, g., monder, c. & white, p. c. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a., watlington, c. o. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) endocri- nology , – . . mercer, w. r. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) endocrinology , – . . brown, r. w., chapman, k. e., edwards, c. r. & seckl, j. r. ( ) endocrinology , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) steroids , – . . rusvai, e. & naray-fejes-toth, a. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . krozowski, z., ma guire, j. a., stein-oakley, a. n., dowling, j., smith, r. e. & andrews, r. k. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) endocrinology , – . . albiston, a. l., obeyesekere, v. r., smith, r. e. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) mol. cell endocrinol. , r –r . . krozowski, z. s., baker, e., obeyesekere, v. & callen, d. f. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , – . . agarwal, a. k., rogerson, f. m., mune, t. & white, p. c. ( ) genomics , – . . agarwal, a. k., mune, t., monder, c. & white, p. c. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . whorwood, c. b., mason, j. i., rickets, m. l., howie, a. j. & stewart, p. m. ( ) mol. cell endocrinol. , r –r . . wilson, r. c., krozowski, z. s., li, k., obeyesekere, v. r., razzaghy-azar, m., harbison, m. d., wei, j. q., shackleton, c. h. l., funder, j. w. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . wilson, r. c., harbison, m. d., krozowski, z. s., funder, j. w., shackleton, c. h. l., hanauske-able, h. m., wei, j. q., hertecant, j., moran, a., neiberger, r. e., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . dave-sharma, s., wilson, r. c., harbison, m. d., newfield, r., razzaghy- azar, m., krozowski, z., funder, j. w., shackleton, c. h. l., bradlow, h. l., wei, j., et al. ( ) j. clin. endo. metab. , – . . mune, t., rogerson, f. m., nikkila, h., agarwal, a. k. & white, p. c. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . stewart, p. m., krozowski, z. s., gupta, a., milford, d. v., howie, j. a. & sheppard, m. c. ( ) lancet , – . . kitanaka, s., katsumata, n., tanae, a., hibi, i., takeyama, k., fuse, h., kato, s. & tanaka, t. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . li, a., li, k. x. z., marui, s., krozowski, z. s., batista, m. c., whorwood, c. b., arnhold, i. j. p., shackleton, c. h. l., mendonca, b. b. & stewart, p. m. ( ) j. hypertens. , – . . obeyesekere, v. r., ferrari, p., andrews, r. k., wilson, r. c., new, m. i., funder, j. w. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . ferrari, p., obeyesekere, v. r., li, k., wilson, r. c., new, m. i., funder, j. w. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) mol. cell endocrinol. , – . . hellman, l., nakada, f., zumoff, b., fukushima, d., bradlow, h. l. & gallagher, t. f. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . shackleton, c. h., rodriguez, j., arteaga, e., lopez, j. m. & winter, j. s. ( ) clin. endocrinol. (oxford) , – . . stewart, p. m., corrie, j. e., shackleton, c. h. & edwards, c. r. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . batista, m. c., mendonca, b. b., kater, c. e., arnhold, i. j., rocha, a., nicolau, w. & bloise, w. ( ) j. pediatr. , – . . monder, c., shackleton, c. h., bradlow, h. l., new, m. i., stoner, e., iohan, f. & lakshmi, v. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . kitanaka, s., tanae, a. & hibi, i. ( ) clin. endocrinol. (oxford) , – . . sann, l., revol, a., zachmann, m., legrand, j. c. & bethenod, m. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . shackleton, c. h., honour, j. w., dillon, m. j., chantler, c. & jones, r. w. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . honour, j. w., dillon, m. j., levin, m. & shah, v. ( ) arch. dis. child. , – . . milford, d. v., shackleton, c. h. l. & stewart, p. m. ( ) clin. endocrinol. (oxford) , – . . muller-berghaus, j., homoki, j., michalk, d. v. & querfeld, u. ( ) acta paediatr. , – . . fiselier, t. j., otten, b. j., monnens, l. a., honour, j. w. & van munster, p. j. ( ) horm. res. , – . . harinck, h. i., van brummelen, p., van seters, a. p. & moolenaar, a. j. ( ) clin. endocrinol. (oxford) , – . . winter, j. s. d. & mckenzie, j. k. ( ) in juvenile hypertension, eds. new, m. i. & levine, s. (raven, new york), pp. – . . gourmelen, m., saint-jacques, i., morineau, g., soliman, h., julien, r. & fiet, j. ( ) eur. j. endocrinol. , – . . wilson, r. c., dave-sharma, s., wei, j., obeyesekere, v. r., li, k., ferrari, p., krozowski, z. s., shackleton, c. h. l., bradlow, l., wiens, t., et al. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . new, m. i., dupont, b., grumbach, k. & levine, l. s. ( ) in the metabolic basis of inherited disease, eds. stanbury, j. b., wyngaarden, j. b., fredrickson, d. s., goldstein, j. l. & brown, m. s. (mcgraw–hill, new york), p. – . . wedel, d. c. ( ) the story of alexanderwohl (mennonite press, newton, ka). . mercado, a. b., wilson, r. c., chung, k. c., wei, j.-q. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . new and wilson pnas u october , u vol. u no. u m ed ic a l sc ie n c es d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , pii: - ( ) -r volume , number , - febs federation of european biochemical societies / /s . adonis une structure of the gene encoding the entire mature ha subunit of human branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex nahid dariushi, charles w. fisher’, rody p. cox and david t. chuangl departments of ‘biochemistry and nternal medicine, the university of texas southwestern medical center. dallas, tx , usa received april we report the isolation of a -kb human gcnomic clone (g ) that contains exons encoding a partial mitochondrial presequence, the entire mature peptide and the complete ’ untranslated region of the e icr mrna of human branched-chain cr-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. based on this gene structure, exon contains the tytig -+ asn mutation previously identified in the eik subunit of mennonite and other maple syrup urine disease (msud) patients. moreover, the homozygous mutation appears to cause skipping of exon in the mutant elu transcript. the information on the gene structure for the entire mature elol subunit will facilitate investigations into the molecular basis of msud involving this subunit. elk gent structure (human); maple syrup urine disease; elr mutation; exon skipping . introduction the mammalian branched-chain a-keto acid de- hydrogenase (bckad) complex catalyzes the oxidaltive decarboxylation of the cr-keto acids derived from leucine, isoleucine and valine. the mitochondrial multi- enzyme complex consists of three catalytic components: a branched-chain ru-keto acid decarboxylase or e com- prised two ly (mr = ) and two , (mi = ) subunits, a dihydrolipoyl transacylase or e with a -mer structure (monomer mi = ) forming the core of the enzyme complex, and a dihydrolipoyl de- hydrogenase that exists as a homodimer (monomer mr = ) and is a common component shared with pyruvate and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes [ . in addition, the mammalian bckad complex con- tains two regulatory enzymes, a specific kinase and a specific phosphatase that control the activity of the en- zyme complex through reversible phosphorylation/de- phosphorylation mechanism [ ]. elc~ subunit of a compound heterozygous msud pa- tient [ ]. the same mutation was later shown to be pres- ent in homozygous state in msud patients from a men- nonite population [ , ]. to facilitate analysis of muta- tions in msud affecting the elcv subunit, we have undertaken the cloning of the human elcv gene. we report here the gene structure for the entire mature elcr subunit of the human bckad complex, and the precise skipping of an exon in the mutant elcr transcript. . materials and methods . i, cdna probes partial human ela cdna clones used in the present study were described previously [ ]. the regions of the human ela cdna se- quence present in these cdna clones were as follows: hela-i ( . kb), bases - ; hela- ( . kb), bases - and hela- ( . kb), bases l- . cdna probes were radiolabeled by the random priming method [ ]. . . genontic screening and subcloning maple syrup urine disease (msud) is an autosomal recessive disorder, in which the activity of the bckad complex is deficient leading to ketoacidosis, mental retardation and a high mortality among patients. the disease is genetically heterogeneous. deficiencies in dif- ferent subunits of the bckad complex have been shown using cultured cells from msud patients j , ]. a t-a transition resulting in a tyr-asn missense mutation was described by zhang ct al. to occur in the a human leukocyte genomic library in aembl- (clontech) was screened by plaque hybridization. plaques producing positive signals were purified, and phage dna prenxred from minilysates as describ- ed previously [ ]. the purified phage dna was digested with restric- tion enzymes, followed by fractionation in agarose gels. exon- containing fragments were identified by southern blotting analysis, and subcloned into the bluescript ks vector (stratagene). . . nucleotide sequencing cbrres/jondrnce address: d. chuang, dcpartmcnt of biocl:cmistry, ulliwrsity of texas southwestern medical center, harry i-lines blvd., dallas, ‘i-x - , usa. fax: (i) ( ) . . plasmids containing genomic dna or cdna inserts were obtained from the minipreparations of transformed e. culi xl- blue cells [ ]. nuclrotide sequencing was carried out by the dideoxy chain termina- !inn method [lo] using t dna polymerase (pharmacia) on double- stranded tcmplatcs [ l] i . . cdna synrlresis arrd primm poly(a)’ rna was isolated from cultured fibroblasts [ ) and puolislrad .s blsekr sclorcc publishers .!i. ’. volume , number i feb. letters .fuae e . lb e i .j e . hb e i j s . kb i- i b . kb s i kb fig. . restriction map and exon organization of the human elr~ gene. the exons ( - ) present in the g clone ( kb) are represented by closed boxes, and numbered after the putative exon . restriction fragments (horizontat bars) were generated with soli (s). ecori (e) and barnhi (b). cdna synthesized and amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) [ ]. the primers used in the amplification of different regions of the elm cdna ( ’ --+ ‘) [ ] and restriction sites contained were as foliows: : cggggcgatcgatgcagcga (cm) (bases l- ), ’ : ctcatagaggatccggtcca (brrinli i) (bases - ), : tgctgcagctctacaagagca (psri) (bases - ), ’ : gtaacagatgtcgacccctgtt (sue (bases - ), : actcgccacgcggatccct (bumhi) (bases - ), ’ : gctcagcagatagtgctgctgcag (psri) (bases -l ), :gggtaccacagcaccagtgac (kpnl) (bases %lols), ' : tctcggggtacctgaggatgg (bases (kpnl) - ). . results and discussion a tota of . x lo pfu from the embl- genomic library were screened using helru- cdna (bases - ) as a probe. one of the positive clones (g ) purified contained a -kb insert for the ela! gene. a restriction map of the entire genomic insert is shown in fig. . digestion of the g clone witfi ecori produced gene fragments of . and . kb. hybridization with hela- cdna (bases - ) [ ], and subsequent nucleotide sequencing showed that these two j!zcori fragments in combination contained the ’ end of exon (bases to in the ela, cdna) and exons , and . the ecori site in exon was identical to the one pres- ent in the human e~cx cdna [ ]. double digestion of the g clone with san and barnhi resulted in gene fragments of i . , . and . kb (fig. ). wybridiza- tion with hei@- cdna (bases i- ) indicated that the . kb ~~~i-~~~~ fragment contained exons in the so valmetg~ualaphegluglnalacluarglysprolysproas~roasnleuleuph~seraspvaltyrglnglumet acagctgatgga~ctttgagcaggccgagc~~gccc~cccaaccccaacctgctcttctcagacgtgtatcaggagatg proalaglnleuarglysglnglncluserleualaargh~sleuglnthrtyrglyglui~i~~yrproleuasphispheasp cccgcccagctccgc.~gcagcaggagtcgccccccacctgcagacctacggggagcac~acccactggatcacttcgat lys*** aagtgagacctgctcagcccacccccacccrtcctcctcagc~acccc~agaggta~ccccactct~ggggagcagggggacctga cagcacaccactgtcttccccagtcagctccctct~tactca~ggcca~ggcggctgcca~tcttcacccctgctcctcc cggctgttacattgtcaggggacagcatctgcagcagttgctga~ctccgtcagccccctcttcacctgttgttacagtgcct $ tctcccagccgctgcgtgac;cgcacattcagcactag~gcccctctgggce,tggggtggacatggcaggtcagcctgtgg~c ttgcgcacgtgcgagtcgccagcagaggtcacgaataaactgcatctctgcgcctggctctct fig. . nuclsulidc and &~liwj tllliillu acid sequences ut the ehc)m of llulllilll elcv yer~o. eujii~~ seyucllccs ate in cawls, atld ilat ciitl ill(lullir: sc~iiciiccs at cxon/intron boundaricsorc in lower case. theapproximatc sizes of introns (except intron i) are indicated. the highly conscrvcd region (undcrlh~cd) flanking the two phosphoscrinc (asterisk) r&dues is encoded by cxon . the complete ’ ->---” end of the gene, which includes the polyadenylatioa signal (aataaa) (underlined) tcrmhlatcs at base . nuclcotide numbers arc accordine ihe ilulllan lila cdna scqlleilcc ). volume , number febs letters june aa- q_/) 'y=jy-j ( ) - " ' fig. . subclones of the amplified regions of the elcv cdna from a mennonite msud patient (p.k.). open boxes represent the coding region and solid lines the non-coding region of the elm cdna. stippled boxes depict primer pairs used for pcr amplification as described in section . . the number in parentheses indicates the number of subclones isolated and sequenced. the deleted exon is shown by a peak line. the t-a conversion at base is present in the amplified - ’ region. ’ portion of the gene. probing with helcr- cdna showed that the . kb wi-barnhi fragment carried exons in the ’ region. further restriction analysis, subcloning and sequencing established that exons and were located in the . kb wi-barnhi fragment and exons , , , and in the . kb sali-bumhi fragment. the organization of exons to of the elcv gene is depicted in fig. . fig. shows the complete coding sequences for exons - and exon-intron boundaries of the elcv gene. the exons encode a partial mitochondrial presequence from his-(-g) to phe-(-i), the entire mature elcv subunit (ser- to lys- ) and the complete ’ un- translated region including the single polyadenylation signal (aataaa). the sizes of exon are as follows: ex- on ( bases), exon ( bases), exon ( bases), exon ( bases), exon ( bases), exon ( bases), exon ( bases) and exon ( bases). the introns range from bases (between exons and ) to kb (between exons and ) in length. all intronic ’ and ’ splice sites conform to the gt-ag rule [ ]. the g clone does not contain the genomic sequence encoding the ’ untranslated region of the elcv mrna that is not present in the cdna. the upstream mitochondrial presequence from gly-(- ) to ala- (- ) in the ela cdna is also absent in the genomic clone (fig. ). these two regions are putatively encoded by exon by analogy with the gene for thefl subunit of human mitochondrial atp synthase [ ]. in the past two years we have isolated and purified approximately additional clones from four different genomic libraries, but none of these clones contained the putative exon and the ’ flanking regions of the elcv gene. the reason for the inability to clone the extreme ’ region is presently unknown. one possibility is that this region contains inverted repeats forming a cruciform structure, which prevents cloning in the a phage vector [ ]. based on the gene structure for the mature elcv subunit, the homozygous t-a transition that causes msud in mennonites [ , ] is present in exon . this mutation appears to affect the assembly of the ela and el, subunits into an cr& structure (fisher et al., in preparation). moreover, during amplification of dif- ferent regions of the mutant elcv cdna from a men- nonite msud patient (p-k.), a deletion that cor- responds precisely to exon was found (fig. ). the deleted mutant transcript is a minor species, and ap- pears to be a secondary event related to the homozygous primary mutation. the mechanism for this exon dele- tion in the mutant ela transcript remains to be elucidated. however, one can speculate that the primary mutation in exon may have disruptive effects on the entire secondary structure of the mutant elc~ pre-mrna. exon deletions may arise as a result of the failure of the splicing complex to recognize the correct splice site. acknow/edger,le,frs: this work was supported by grants dk- and dk- from the national institutes of health, and grant l-l from the march of dimes birth defects foundation. references [l] pettit, f.h., yeaman, s.j. and reed, l.j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . [ ] randle. p.j., fatania, h.r. and lau, ks. ( ) in: enzyme regulation by reversible phosphorylation-advances (cohen, p. ed.) pp. l- , elsevier, amsterdam, new york. [ j danner, d.j. and elsas, l.j. ( ) in: the metabolic basis of inherited disease (&river, c.r., beaudet, a.l., sly, w.s. and valle. d. eds) th edn., pp. - , mcgraw-hill, new york. -- fig. . subcloncs of the amplified regions of the ela cdna from a mennonite msud patient (p.k.). open boxes represent the coding region and solid lines the non-coding region of the elo cdna. stippled boxes depict primer pairs used for pcr amplification as dcscrlbcd in section , . the number in parcnthsscs indicates the nutnbcr of subcloncs isolated and scqucnccd. the deleted cxon is shown by n peak linr. tbc t---+a conversion at base is prcssnr in the amplified - ’ region. volume , number febsletters june - - - - glyalaifealaalaalaargvaltrparqleuas~rgglyleusergl~l~laleuleuleule~r~lnproglyals cggggcgatcgctgcagcgagggtctggcggctplaacccct - argglyleualaargser xisproproargglnglnglnglnpheserserleuaspasplyspro cggggactggctagatct...... ..ctcttccccagcacccccccagrggcagcagcagcagttttcatctct~atgac~gccc glnpheproglyalaseralaglupheileasplysleugluphei~egl~roasnvalileser~ly~leproiletyrarg cagttcccaggggcctcggcggagtttatagttggtccccatctaccgc valmetaspargglnglyglnileileasnprosergluaspprohis gtcatggaccgccaaggccagatcatcaacccccagcgaggacccccacgtgagaggcggcctcccccact~cccgtgcccccca leu?rolysglulysvalleu cgcccaggcc...../o.l kb/... ccaactgccccacgtctatctgtgcctccacccycagctcggtgctg lyslentyrl:rssermettrleuleuasnthrmetaspargileleutyrglusergl~rggln hrgctctacaagagcatgacactgctt~caccatggaccgcatcctctatgagtctcagcggcaggtgcgtgg..../ . glyargilephephetyrmetthrasntyrglyglug~uglythrhisvalglyserala i&/...... .ccactccacccccagggccggatctccttctacatgacc~ctatggtga~agggcacgcacgtggggagtgcc alaalaleuaspasnthraspleuvalpheglyglntyrargglualag gccgccctggacaacacg;acctggtgtttggccagtaccgggaggcaggtacgtct...../ . kb/......ctcctcccct lyvalleumettyrargasptyrproleugluleuphemotalaglncy~tyrglyasnileseraspleuglyl~sgly cctaggtgtgctgatgtatcgggactaccccctacatcagtgacttgggcaagggg argglnmetprovalhistyrglycyslyscluarghi~pheval~~~ileserserproleualathrgl~ilepr~g~~ cgccagatgcctgtccactacggctgcaaccaacgccacttcgtcactatctcctctccactggccacgcagatccctcagggtg la lavalglyalaalatyralaalalysargalaasnalaasnargval aggat.... ./ . kb/..... tctcatcccctgcagcggtgggggcggcgtacgcaacagggtc vaiilecystyrpheglygluglyalaalasargluglyasphlahisalaglypheasnph~al~lathrleuglucyspro gtcatctgttacttccgcgagggggcagccagggggcttcgctgccacacttgagtgcccc ileilephephecysargasnasnglytyralaileserthrprothrsergluglntyrargglyaspg~yilea atcatcttcttctgccggaacaatcgctacgccatctccacgcccacctctgagcagtatcgcggcgatggcattggta~gggc.. laalaargglyprogl~yrglyilemetserxleargva~a~p~lya~~sp . ../ . kb/...... tctgtgtccccacagcagcacgaggccccgggtatggcatcatgtc~tccgcg~ggatgg ~tgat valphealavaltyrasnalathrlysglualaargargargalavalalagluasnglnpropheleuileglualame~thr gtctttgccgtatacaacgccacaaaggaggcccgacggcgggctgtggcagag~ccagccctttctcatcgaggccatg~cc * tyrar ~ l~gly~i~~i~serthrseras~as~serseralatyr tacaggtgcctgc...../c. kb/..... cttgcccctgtgcaggatcgggcaccacagcaccagtgacgacagttc. ~cgtac * ar~servalas~gluvalasntyrtrpasdlysglnasphisproi~eserargleuarghis~yrleuleuserglnglytrp cgctcggtggatghggtc~~t~actgggat~caggacchcccc~tctcccggctgcggcactat~rgct~ag~~aa~~~~~~ trpaspglugluglnglulysalatrparglysglnserargarglys tgggatgaccagcaggagaaggcctggagtcccggtg~gg~~.,.. ./l.i ti/. . . ..cccatqtcccc vo!umc , number fees letters june [ ] fisher, c.w., chuang, j.l., griffin, t.a., lau, ks., cox, r.p. and chuang. d.t. ( ) j. biol. chem. . - . is] z<ang. b., edenberg, i%j., crabb, d. w. and harris, r.a. ( ) j. clin. invest. , - . [ ] matsuda, .. nobukuni. y., mitsubuchi, i-i.. indo, y., endo. f., asaka, j. and harada, a. ( ) biwhem. biophys. res. commun. . - . [ ] fisher, c.r., fisher, c.w., chuang, d.t. and cox, r.p. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. (submirted). @j feinberg, a.p. and vogelstein, b. ( ) anal. biochem, , - . [ ] davis, l.g., dibner, m.d. and battey. j.f. ( ) basic methods in molecular biology, elscvier, new york. ( sanger, f., nicklen, s. and coulson, a.r. ( ) proc. nat!. acad. sci. usa , - . [i chen, e.j. and seeburg, p.h. ( ) dna , - . [i chirgwin, j.m., przybyia, a.e.. macdonald, r.j. and rutter, w.j. ( ) biochemistry , - . saiki, r.k., gelfand, d.h., stofeel, s., scharf, s.j., highchi, r., horn, g.t., mullis, kb. and erlich, h.a. ( ) science , - . breathnach, r. and chambon. p. ( ) annu. rev. biochem. so, - . [is] ohta, s.. tomura. h., matsuda, k. and kagawa. y. ( ) j. biol. chem. , -i . [ leach, d.r.f. and stahl, f.w. ( ) nature , - . to the editors: i read the april issue of worldview with double interest: as a vietnamese and as a daughter of lawyer tran van tuyen, a political detainee mentioned in "they are us, were we vietnamese" by theodore jacqueney. my grief is so very much deeper since not only such a great number of viet- namese people are being detained un- justly, but also among them are mem- bers of my own family: my father, con- fined under very inhuman conditions since june, , without a single word on his whereabouts from the hanoi government; my brother, now in a labor camp somewhere in north vietnam, according to some sources; my brother- in-law and a cousin (my father's nephew) in "reeducation" camps still awaiting their " g r a d u a t i o n " after twenty months. the response from the hanoi officials to the forest appeal (discussed in "fighting among the doves" by james finn in the same issue of worldview) with regard to violations of human rights in vietnam is both a lie and an insult to the civilized world. if we have not seen the bloodbath it is because the vietnamese communists have a better means of killing: starvation, mental tor- ture, and physical exhaustion. sincerely hope the two articles on vietnam in worldview will wake up those who still believe in the sweet language and promises of the com- munists. i would like to take this opportunity to express my deep appreciation and my gratitude to ted jacqueney, james finn, and richard neuhaus and to all the people concerned about those who have suffered and are still suffering under the oppressive and undemocratic regimes in vietnam. tran thi dam-phuong haworth, n.j. to the editors: james finn ("fighting among the doves," april, )see.ms unaware that we have american dissidents—thousands of them, mainly in canada. they do not have the right to come into the usa even to visit their parents. why is he so disregardful of their civil rights while sympathizing with dissidents in communist coun- tries? conditions in some of our veterans' hospitals are not good. moreover, we have more than , people imprisoned in the u.s., and our own prison conditions are bad. if we restored civil rights to our own dissidents in canada and sweden and reformed our prisons, our good example might be catching—and the human race would be safer. alice franklin bryant seattle, wash. james finn responds: ms. bryant seems unaware that pages - of the april issue deal with american dissidents. of course, there are remediable faults in this country. but must we rehearse that list each time we criticize massive abuses abroad? a dreary prospect. good and bad dictatorships? to the editors: i read with great interest "christianity and communism: the di- lemma of dialogue," "two ways to forget vietnam," and "latin ameri- ca and the u.s.—that-special rela- t i o n s h i p " in the april issue of worldview. all those articles treat very up-to-date subjects, such as relations between developed and underdeveloped countries, perspectives on the increase of population tensions, disrespect for the rights, liberties, and guarantees stated in the universal declaration of human rights. as a social democrat, i consider these problems of major impor- tance, since they are conditions for the via to a humanistic socialism by means of reforms and, therefore, in democracy and in freedom. it is not fair to condemn the absence of democratic liberties in latin america and to omit the disrespect for the more elementary rights of the human being in the eastern countries, in cambodia or in ethiopia. in fact, there can be no divi- sion into good or bad dictatorships. all of them must be openly condemned by all democrats, who have the responsibil- ity of contributing to man's liberation from every kind of oppression, wher- ever it exists and whatever might be the veil thrown over injustices, inequalities of opportunity, and every form of man's manipulation. within this point of view i cannot help expressing my total accordance with president jimmy carter's new foreign policy, which stands for funda- mental rights, liberties, and guarantees. president carter has been proving that he has a' more progressive and a wiser character than his predecessors, his pol- icy being truly appreciated in portugal and, more widely speaking, all over western europe. antonio rebelo de sousa member of parliament social democratic party lisbon, portugal afsc to the editors: the american friends service committee has been taking a beating of late in the pages of worldview. i am of the opinion also that criticism is in order; that the afsc has not, in regard to vietnam, lived up to the quaker tradition of "speaking tru;h to power." however, i draw the line on the type of criticism in abraham martin murray's "more on updated pacifism" ("a view of the world," april). as all but a few realize, the middle east conflict is an extremely complex problem and there is no individual or organization that can be credited with coming up with a perfectly satisfactory analysis of the problem and scenario for change. what is the terrible com- promise of pacifist principles that the afsc is guilty of? urging israel to negotiate with the plo! yet who else is there but the plo if negotiations are to be at all meaningful and fruitful? cer- tainly no party in the middle east can claim that its hands are not bloody. perhaps if the afsc had suggested that israel bomb the plo, the american jewish committee would not have been nearly as indignant about compromising of principles. their analogy of the middle east conflict to the naacp's confrontations with the ku klux klan is but another example of the puerile tendency of americans to simplify everything in terms of our domestic issues, as if the world is but our mirror image. fair- minded objectivity is not a hallmark of the american jewish congress, as i am sure most of your readers are aware. they are more than eager to practice the double standard in relation to israel. you won't find them out beating the bushes about human rights violations in israel, where they are known to occur, as in many other countries of the world. if the palestinians silently vanished, the ajc would probably be quite happy about it. fortunately, president carter does not seem to be of such mind. joseph d. mccarty milwaukee, wis. mennonit£ & quaker visits to vietnam to the editors: the may, , issue of worldview has a short, one-paragraph item on page that is factually incor- rect. it states that the group sponsored by the mennonites and the american friends service committee returned in mid-march from vietnam. there was a joint mcc-afsc visit to vietnam in november, , but that is the only joint visit that has occurred. mennonite central committee had another visit in june, , and then again in january, . every time a mennonite delegation has gone to vietnam human rights is- sues were very high on the agenda. we asked frank, penetrating questions and expressed concerns. the statement you make in the may issue of worldview does not apply to mennonite visitors to vietnam. vern preheim secretary for asia mennonite central committee akron, pa. the editors respond: our apologies. the quotation from an afsc (not mennonite) leader appeared in a march news report that gave the impression .that an afsc-mennonite group had just recently visited vietnam. perhaps the leader who was quoted to the effect that americans have no right to ask at>out human rights in vietnam was speaking on the basis of the earlier visit mentioned by mr. preheim. perhaps he had not been to vietnam at all. on this one we just know what we read in the papers. in any case, we are pleased to learn that the mennonites have pressed the question of human rights when visiting vietnam. we hope they will continue in that good work. portions omitted from the text pub- lished in the april issue of worldview. we the undersigned were actively en- gaged in opposition to the war suffered at america's hands by the vietnamese people. some of our efforts are well known to you. we fought for the end of america's intervention in vietnam and lived in grief for the horrors suffered beneath america's bombers. we realize, of course, that our resistance to that war can bring none of the dead back to life nor restore maimed bodies, nor purge america of its immense burden of responsibility. j h u s we are now in- volved in encouraging the u.s. gov- ernment to welcome vietnam into the united nations, to provide massive rep- arations for the destruction it wrought in your homeland. at the same time we are involved in private efforts to relieve sufferings caused by the war and to contribute to the process of reconcilia- tion between american and vietnamese people. in fidelity to the same values that led us to these commitments, however, we find ourselves obliged in conscience to speak on behalf of those vietnamese who reportedly are being denied funda- mental human rights. appeal to the government of vietnam in our criticisms, which cannot be separated from our friendship, we do not wish to single out your government unfairly. we are familiar with the double-standard of various states, in- cluding our own, in the human rights area. there are client states of the u.s. .. .we could not in conscience keep silent when general thieu filled the american-funded prisons with thousands upon thousands of innocent people. we cannot be silent now, even though america's intervention is ended. we voice our protest in the hope that your government can avoid repeti- tion of the tragic historical pattern in which liberators gain power only to impose a new oppression. the sacrifices made by buddhists and christians to end the war, to assist its victims, and to reunite the country—a witness which helped build world sup- port for peace in vietnam. we appeal to you to reassess your policies regarding religious bodies, not to limit the defini- .we recall with immense gratitude tion of religious freedom merely to cul- tic practice, and to welcome and en- courage the social contributions of buddhist, christian and humanitarian agencies of the vietnamese people. in addition, we express a concern motivated by caring for families living in endless uncertainty about the fate of lost relatives who were among the forces that invaded your country. we ask you to make public any unreleased information you may possess regarding americans who died or were imprisoned in vietnam. while we have no knowl- edge that you possess unreleased infor- ' matiqn, we are concerned at the cynical way in which the united states govern- ment has exploited this issue and used it as an excuse for withholding economic assistance and to veto vietnam's admis- sion into the united nations. at the same time, we express our grief for those vietnamese families who lost children, parents and grandparents in the war and who, in many thousands of cases, know nothing of the fate of those victims of america's war and for whom no compassion has been expressed by the united states government. we continue to feel a deep friendship toward the people of vietnam and to nourish the hope that you who are en- trusted with the government will do everything in your power to encourage the conditions of a better life in peace, justice and tolerance. we pledge our continuing readiness to do all we can to be of help. government (chile, brazil and iran among them) in which reliance on im- prisonment and torture is routine. we are also aware of the many socialist states in which suppression of human rights has been widely accepted. we are also painfully aware of the violence and injustice of the united states in its domestic and foreign policies, the abyss that separates american profession from american practice. many of us have viewed this society from within court rooms, prison walls and slum neighborhoods. nonetheless, the history of the last two decades has made vietnam a place of special concern and hope for millions of people throughout the world—in its crises and hopes our own lives have been bound.up. to you who are vietnam's leaders, we say: invasion, imperialism and civil war for years made your country's name synonymous with the worst horrors of violence and brutal repression. with the. end of the war and of the saigon regime, many hoped that the name of vietnam might be transfigured into a symbol of that liberation from fear and terror which we desire for ourselves and for all people. as you repair the physical de- vastation of your land, we appeal to you to create a society of tolerance and compassion worthy of the hopes and sacrifices of all those vietnamese who died, "and which inspired the sympathy and support of millions throughout the world. eur volume issue cover and back matter european journal of sociology numeros speciaux s p e c i a l i s s u e s - sondernummern i ii iii iv v vi vii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i industrial society and rep- presentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. i le sabre et la loi. - universitat im umbau : anspassung oder wider- stand ? i in quest of political par- ticipation. trois etudes sur la science. i organisation, der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. i simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. i alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. i weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'ecole. zur problematik des mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. i survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass media. i la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. i permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. i permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? i the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... i faith and power. citoyens armes, pretoriens desarmes. i observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. i structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. i might and rite. whither the unwithered state. xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv x x v xxvi xxvii xxviii xxix i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de l'egalite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rite of religion. racines aristocratiques de la democratic michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik? tending the roots : nation- alism and populism. necessite de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles ou- tres. ober politisches handeln. liberalism: a communitar- ian critique. (a) le pouvoir et l'entre- prise. (b) an enquiry into pa- tronage. "homes fit for heroes". ijs series completes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mentionne'es page de la couverture. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core imprimerie f. paillart abbeville issn - le gerant : jacques lautman printed in france cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies soclitis civilisations fondataun: lucian febvre at marc bloch. dlraclaur : farnand braudel revue bimestrielle p u b l i l e depuis avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et de i'ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales comlm da direction : charles moraze a n d r * burguiere • marc ferro • jacques le goff emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel - lucette valensi sacrttaira da la redaction : barnard lepetit * annee - n° j u i l l e t - a o o t oral annie schnapp-gourbeillon, homere, hipparque et la bonne parole armando petrucci, pouvoir de i'scriture, pouvoir sur l' criture dans la renaissance italienne christian jouhaud, histoire et histoire litte'raire : naissance de i'gcrivain (note critique) dominique blanc, les saisonniers de i'gcriture. regents de villages en languedoc au xviii' siecle mariapia dl bella, langues et possession : le cas des penteedtistes en italie meridionals hisioire culturelle (comptes rendus) monnaie et pouvoir jean bouvier, sur la banque de france au xix* siecle marie-the"rese boyer-xambeu, ghislain deleplace, lucien gillard, m taux d'ame'rique et monnaies d'europe alain guery, gilles postel-vinay, aux origines de la monnaie moderne les villes et leur arriere-pays jacques bottin, structures et mutations d'un espace protoindustriel a la fin du xvi* siecle jeanne chase, l'organisation de i'espace conomique dans le nord-est des etats-unis apres la guerre d'lndspendance summaries of articles le choix des annales livres recus redaction : , boulevard raspail, paris abonnements • france : f - etudiants france : f • stranger : f • le numeio : f - le num ro special (double): f les abonnements dolvent tre souscrtts aupres d'armand colin fdlteur, b. p. - vineuilcambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core du^cnrs / , roe st a m a n d / . p a r i s f r a n c e t e l : ( ) t e l e x b f fl.c. p a r i s b t t s a c a p i t a l : .flo . dd de f sociologie francaise et francophone annuaire aucun annuaire n'avait jusqu'a maintenant tente de reunir les sociologues francophones, tant du monde universitaire que du secteur prive. la societe francaise de sociologie, ('association inter- nationale des sociologues de langue francaise et i'association professionnelle des sociologues ont contri- bue a la realisation de cet instrument de travail. cet annuaire rassemble notices individuelles ainsi que des index par domaine de recherche, par aires geographiques et une table des sociologues consultants. x - pages - prix : isbn - - - les presses du cnrs diffusent en les editions du cnrs exclusivite bondecommande a computer et a retoumer accompagne de votre reglement aux presses du cnrs, - rue saint-amand, paris nom adresse ouvragecommande quantite total reglement par: cheque bancaire a i'ordre des presses du cnrs mandat-lettre prix unilaire participation aux irais d'envois: f cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue francaise de sociologie publie'e avec le concours de l'institut de recherche sur les societes contemporaines centre national de la recherche scientifique - , rue pouchet, paris cedex - tel. : . . . ou janvier-mars , xxx- isbn - - - emploi et destins sociaux rapport a i'emploi, protection sociale et statuts sociaux dominique schnapper statut social et modes d'emplois margaret maruani l'utilisation des services sociaux: de i'exclusion a la conquete d'un statut michel messu strategies professionnelles et organisation des families chantal nicole-drancourt • les rumeurs de mourmelon jean-noel kapferer complots et avertissements: legendes dans la ville veronique campion-vincent • les militaires dans la societe bolivienne jean-pierre lavaud la sociologie en urss laure mandeville les livres abonnements : l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser directement a : centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex - tel. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier num£ro de fanned en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numiros) france f etranger f vente au numiro : par correspondance : presses du cnrs, - , rue saint-armand, paris. tel. : ( ) . . . - telex : f. a la librairie du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris. tel. ( ) . . . . tarif : le numero f cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core p h ilo s o p h y & s o c ia l c ri ti c is m v o l u m e n o . ag ne s he lle r | ca n ev er yd ay lif e be e nd an ge re d? je ffn er a lle n | w om en w ho b eg et w om en m us t t hw ar t m aj or s op hi sm s ro na w h. m ck hn ey | sa rtr e an d th e po lit ic s of d ec on st ru ct io n ll ew el yn n eg rin i tw o cr iti qu es o f t he a ut on om y of th e ae st he tic c on sc io us ne ss : i a co m pa ris on o f b en ja m in a nd g ad am er ja m es j -v al on e | w om en a nd c ul tu re : a re co ns id er at io n of s im m el 's ap pr ai sa ls st ep he n k. w hi te i be tw ee n m od er ni ty a nd p os tm od er ni ty : | th e po lit ic al th in ki ng o f f re d. r . d al lm ay r ph ilo so ph y & s oc ia l c rit ic is m p .o . b ox , l aw re nc e, k s cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale d k s t o m i i s x x i a x x v i o - i a r c; m k. r, margaret s. process without system, xxiv i. a r j o m a m ) , said amir. the shi'iie htcnkracy and the state in pre modern iran : - , xxii . a k . l ' m i n s , georges. f.squisse d'une comparaison des systcmes de perpetuation des groupes domcstiques dans lev societes paysanncs curopccnncs, xxiii . ii a h a d / a s, alain. in venter des mythes, fabnquer des rites? xxv . b a m : h l k r , jean ixs ongines dc la democratic grecque, xxi . i.a nourriturc des hommes. hssai sur c ncolithique, xxiii . b y k h a m, david. michcls and his critics, xxii . hf \ k t o n , philippe. i .a dynarnkjue rcvolutionnatrc ou la logiquc du totahtansme. a propos dc i'lntcrprctation dc la revolution franchise par augustin (!o- chin, xxii . h f . m ' r a c a y l, mliezer and sasha \ x ' k i t m a n. the recunstirution of the family in the kib- butz, xxv . c a h n m a n , werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . ( j i t r k a v i, mohamcd. oiangemcnt social ct anomie : essai de forma- itsation tie la thcoric durkheimienne, xxii . c o s f. h, i.cwis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . oflik^s i.n, mcnk the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth-century andalusia, xxiv . i", i s i . n m a i i r , shmucl n. the axial age : the emergence of trancendcntal visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . e*.lstf.r, jon. negation active et negation passive. eissai de sociologie ivanicnne, xxi . f a r m l r, mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , rcnee c is religion important in belgium? xxi . c» o o d e l l, ciracc. rrom status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . c r a y , john n i.amb auctions on the borders, x x v . g r f . e n k e . l u , liah. the role of the public in the success of asiatic styles, xxv . g i ' r i . v i c h , aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv h a l l i p a y , terence c professions, class and capitalism, xxiv . h a l s f . v . a. h. provincials and professionals : the british postwar sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . hhllin'o, ingeborg. das f.rklarungsmodell der situationslogik bci popper : cine logische reltonstruktion und kntik, xxiii . j a n k, allan schorske's vienna, xxii . k a h a s k, rcuvcn. rcligk)us diffusion and modcrrusaiton : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indo- nesia and its impact on social change, xxi . k a n t o w s k y , detlef. die reception dcr hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max weber in siidasicn : cm mitjver- standms? xxiii . k e d o u r i f . , flic. minorities and majorities in the middle f.ast, xxv . k f. \i kn y, jim. professional ideologies and organisational structure : tanks and the military, xxiv . k y n s a, margaret f.. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : circck inter- nal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatoht m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r n k , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'societc des obscrva- teurs de phommc', xxiii . ki'ma r, knshan. class and political action in nineteenth-centu- ry f.ngland : theoretical and comparative perspectives, xxiv . k v p f. r, adam. the man in the study and the man in the held. uthnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi . i . i m t r i o h n , harry. i-eopold von wiese and the ambivalence of functionalist sociology, xxiii . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i n o h o l m . charles. images of the pathan . the usefulness of colonial ethnography, xxi . mtchcrel, claude. don et reciprocity en europe, xxiv i. m a l a m o v d, charles. serr.antiquc et rhetorique dans la hierarchic hindoue des « buts de t'homme <», xxih z. m a n n , michael. the autonomous power of the state, xxv i. mf. r q i ' i c r , jose guilherme. mort a i'homo ccconomicus? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'laws of nature', xxii . m o m m s e n , wolfgang j. max weber and roberto michels. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii . m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o s i e l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t , sandra. blessed bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmet- ric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o g c i , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in the early social sciences, xxi . r a y , laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum prac- tice, x x i i . rhodes, aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives in politi- cal machines, xxv i. r o n i c f. r, luis. modern patron-client relations and historical clientclism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv . roskl, jakob. the economy of an indian temple : landed endowment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociological explanation, x x v . runciman, w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history ? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of france, xxiv . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e r m a n , e. m. zu problemen der socialokonomischcn ge- schichte roms, xxi . s w a r t z , david. classes, educational systems and labor markets, xxii . t a p p e r , nancy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv . t r a u c o t t , mark. durkheim and social movements, xxv . u r r y , james. who are the mennonites? xxiv . v a n p a r i j s , philippe. sociology as general economics, xxii . w e e d e, erich. ordnungspolitik und sicherbeltspolitik als ele- mente dcr sicherungspolitik, xxv . w e i n c r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, xxii . w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w e i t m a n , sasha and eliezer ben-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . wlndolf, paul. i.'expansion dc i'enseignement et la surqualitica- tion sur le marche du travail, xxv . w o o d , geoffrey. frazer's magic wand of anthropology : interpre- ting the golden bough, xxiii . z a r et, david. ideology and organization in punonism, xxi . issn - may c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb i r p j f.ast th street, new york ny , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core archival storage supplies envelopes acid free mount board acid free portfolio boxes print & negative storage envelopes polyester folders acid free file folders archival adhesives acid free linen tape interleaving tissue acid free mounting board framing tools & supplies custom matting service dry mounting supplies photographic materials kodak & m products • custom cut uf- plexiglass printfile storage preservers • ph testing pens slide storage envelopes • deacidification print shipping cases • florescent uv filtering light impressions offers the highest quality conservation products for archival preservation and restoration, framing and mounting, bookbinding and library restoration. we're interested in preserving the past for the future. and providing conservation materials for housing quality art works created today. p.o. box rochester, ny send for our free page archival supplies catalog. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril prevention is a* than restoration historians, curators, and preservationists know that the most effective method of preserving valuable books, manuscripts, maps, and other materials is to prevent their deterioration whenever this is possible. we cannot control the condition in which such materials are received or the environmental condi- tions in which they may be stored, but we can and do provide the finest in materials designed to prevent deterioration: acid- free manuscript boxes, file and map folders, protective boxes for rare books and a complete selection of other materials. our unique lignin-free papers and boards are ideal for many pur- poses—especially for the storage of microfilm and other photo- graphic materials. write or call for our new catalog and price list. no obligation, of course. conservation resources international, inc. north royal st. alexandria, virginia usa - - cn london, englandcaracas, venezuelabrisbane, australiaottawa, canada d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril paper and preservation: no. in a series of discussions on paper products for conservation. are papers made for permanence necessarily durable as well? not always cellulose fibers, the basic con- stituents of paper, are made up of long, polymerized chains of glucose. the longer the chains, the stronger the fibers. and the paper. over the centuries, paper has been made from a vast variety of raw materials: grasses, hemp, linen, bark, wasps' nests, straw, silk, algae and, of course, wood and cotton. of these, cotton is one of the purest natural forms of cellulose. its fibers are long to begin with, and they require less processing—cooking, bleach- ing, beating, washing—so they remain longer and stronger. durability, as noted by the amer- ican society for testing and materials (in ansi/astm d ) is "the ability of a paper to resist the effects of wear and tear in performance situations. for example, paper currency should be made durable, but permanence is not a problem." long-fibered papers, such as those made from cotton, are by nature durable. permanence is also related to fiber length, but in a somewhat different way. while cellulose is inert, it is subject to attack. heat, light, moisture, vermin, atmo- spheric gases, dust, molds and acids—especially acids— break the chains. the main source of acid in paper is alum. used for years as a fixative for chemical dyes and for the rosin which sizes the fibers to make them moisture-resistant, any alum permitted to remain in pa- per will quickly destroy the fiber chains. in an astonishingly short time, the paper will self-destruct. discolored and weakened, it shatters easily, and will even in- fect adjacent papers which are themselves free of acid. acid-free papers are made with- out alum. a synthetic sizing is used, as well as dyes or pig- ments which require no acid fixatives, so these papers have no internal source of deteriora- tion. further, in papers made for conservation applications, an alkaline buffering agent is added to neutralize atmo- spheric pollution. these are the papers we call permanent. if their fibers are long at the outset and not short- ened by intensive processing, they are also more durable. the papers and boards sup- plied by process materials corporation for conservation use are all acid-free, to a ph stan- dard of or higher, and buffered against acid deterioration. these include both cotton fiber papers and those made from refined chemical pulp. they range from % cotton archivart* museum board, in a subtle range of art- compatible shades, to print pa- pers, acid-free corrugated boards, folding storage con- tainers in a range of shapes and sizes, as well as backing, wrap- ping, filing and restoration materials all designed to meet specific requirements of perfor- mance and permanence. we welcome your inquiry for samples of any of these prod- ucts, and for our comprehensive catalogue, and we invite your comments on the material in these discussions. archmfj acid-free conservation products from process materials corporation a lindenmeyr company veterans boulevard. rutherford nj ( ) - 'archivart is a trademark of lindenmeyr paper corporation. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / summer technical notes ben dewh itt, .editor howard paper poster offer. howard paper mills, inc., is making a special, limited-time offer to the readers of the american archivist. for $ to cover handling and mailing, howard will send fifteen posters (mostly " x ") featuring the work of famous photog- raphers and artists. to order, send your name, address, and $ to: poster offer jj, howard paper mills, inc., po box , dayton, ohio . new west coast source for archival products. the hollinger corporation has opened a new assembly plant in reno, nevada, in order to overcome the problem of high shipping costs to the west coast. the facility will provide archival products for eleven western states and three canadian provinces. hollinger estimates that california buyers can save percent of shipping costs previously charged for delivery from their virginia plant. catalogs available. for a catalog including adhesive set tissue, polyester film, conser- vation board, latex-impregnated reinforcing paper, and archival storage boxes, contact: process materials corporation, veterans boulevard, rutherford, nj . tele- phone: ( ) - . pohlig bros., inc., offers a catalog of metal-edge archival boxes constructed of solid- fiber century board; the catalog contains technical information about the products. con- tact: pohlig bros., inc.—century division, po box , richmond, va . tele- phone: ( ) - . environmentally controlled archival storage cupboard. g. crayfourd and sons, of london, is producing "the parish cupboard" to provide fully vented, stable, storage conditions for registers and records. the equipment was designed in collaboration with the council for places of worship, to conform to requirements of the parochial registers and records measure of . their goal was to provide acceptable conditions for the storage of archives without the costly introduction of powered air-conditioning units. features of the cabinet are: a rust-resistant steel outer shell; a fire-resistant blockboard inner lining with high moisture absorbency and heat insulation for buffered relative hu- midity and temperature within; a venting and circulatory system to allow renewal of air with minimum climatic variation; a panel with fitted hygrometer and thermometer; a security lock and concealed hinges; and adjustable shelves. the cupboard's capacity is readers are encouraged to send contributions to "technical notes." address them to ben dewhitt, nars(nnr), washington, dc . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer seventeen cubic feet. the manufacturer is interested in marketing the cabinet in the united states. contact: g. crayfourd and sons, / / new mount street, stratford, lon- don e lr, england. washington post available electronically. the washington post can now be received electronically by anyone with a home or office computer, through compuserve infor- mation service of columbus, ohio. subscribers to the home service pay $ per hour to use the system between p.m. and a.m. and all day on weekends and holidays. the post is among eleven leading newspapers around the country chosen to go "elec- tronic" through compuserve's national computer network. for further information contact: virginia rodriguez, public relations manager, the washington post. telephone ( ) - . nuclear testing for roof leaks. consolidated protective coatings corporation now provides a nuclear moisure detection service, for analysis of problem areas on roofs. the testing procedure is non-destructive and uses a very safe, low output, radiation source to detect the presence of moisture. it records readings on a detailed blueprint of the roof and can pinpoint areas of leakage and energy loss. the method measures concentration levels as well as the presence of moisture, which can indicate the source of a leak. for further information contact: consolidated protective coatings corporation, cleveland, ohio . telephone: ( ) - . ncac seeks conservation data. the national conservation advisory council has un- dertaken a study to quantify the conservation needs of museums, archives, libraries, and historic buildings. in developing an approach, ncac is seeking information on past sur- veys and reports on collection conditions. institutions wishing to share information sum- marizing and quantifying the overall condition of collections should contact: quantifica- tion committee, national conservation advisory council, a and i , smithsonian institution, washington, dc . telephone: ( ) - . new books on fire service. three new publications for the fire service and other emergency services are available from the national fire protection association. fire terms: a guide to their meaning and use is a practical guide to the definitions of over , fire service and fire protection terms. it includes illustrations, cross references, alternate usages, and a list of the names and addresses of over federal agencies and national associations. ($ . catalog no. spp- .) fire prevention planning and leadership for small communities, by david a. lucht, provides steps for planning fire prevention programs involving both fire departments and private citizens. the book also includes fire loss statistics, case studies, listings of over eighty-five resource materials, sample "meeting worksheets," and a directory of programs and gov- ernment agencies. ($ . . catalog no. fsp .) hydraulics for fire protection, by harry e. hickey, can help students solve practical fire protection and extinguishment problems. it is organized into eight subject areas and in- cludes essential definitions and application formulas. an instructor's manual to this text will be available in the spring of . ($ . . catalog no. txt- .) all three publications are currently available from the national fire protection associ- ation, publications sales division, batterymarch park, quincy, ma . telephone: ( ) - . national archives reviewing microfilming program. after more than forty years of microfilming selected series of records, the national archives and records service has undertaken a comprehensive reassessment of microfilming as a preservation technique. the action follows a sharp increase in microfilming by the national archives in the past d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes two years, following congressional recommendations to do so. while conceding that mi- crofilm has served a useful purpose in making records available for reference in many places, the archives wished to study the costs and benefits as well as possible alternative methods. the archives' current investigation of microfilming is proceeding on five fronts: ( ) an eighteen-member archives advisory committee on preservation, headed by nor- bert baer, of the new york institute of fine arts, has established a subcommittee to study alternative forms of copying, and their durability. the subcommittee includes several micrographics experts. a report is due this year. ( ) under a national archives contract, coulter systems, of bedford, massachusetts, is surveying transparent electrophotography (tep) as an archival storage medium. more durable than the silver-gelatin film in common use, tep is being studied to determine its suitability for preservation microfilming. a report is due shortly. ( ) the national bureau of standards is conducting a five-year study of the durability of polyester as a microfilm base. cellulose is the normal base for microfilm. ( ) the archives itself is conducting an evaluation of nars microfilming policies and procedures to ascertain precise microfilming costs and to identify and estimate alternatives. ( ) finally, an inspection of a representative sample of the archives' vast microfilm hold- ings has been undertaken. a small but significant number of rolls were found to have reduction and oxidation ("redox") blemishes. these microscopic spots are sometimes found on microfilm stored in less-than-ideal environments, but there are several other known causes. since these blemishes are progressive, periodic inspections must be con- ducted to avoid serious deterioration and loss of information. while the spots can be prevented and arrested, they cannot, unfortunately, be eradicated. affected microfilm must be recopied, an expensive remedy. therefore, before placing full reliance on microfilm, or any other non-paper medium, archivists need to be certain that it will save money and, more important, will outlast the paper. in spite of space problems, which may never really be solved, archivists will remain cautious about recommending destruction of original records. the archives is also reevaluating traditional microfilming practices, because hidden costs, such as the costs of environmental controls, inspections, and recopying, are increas- ing. in addition, new technologies are emerging that promise alternatives worthy of con- sideration. photocopying in archives t h e michigan historical collections, faced with the usual limitations of staff time and institutional resources, has had to accommodate the modern researcher's preference for electrostatic copies of materials. lengthy travel and extended research at distant re- positories are no longer possible or efficient in many instances. today, more patrons are researching briefly and photocopying heavily. archivists are familiar with the difficulties involved in photocopying many primary source materials—letterbooks, pencil originals, carbons, other photocopies, and any doc- ument written in blue ink. experiments at the mhc proved that the use of a sheet of clear yellow acetate between the machine and the problem document resulted in greatly im- proved copies. the use of yellow acetate serves to mitigate the problem of photocopying any type of blue ink. in effect, the blue ink is transformed into green, and the quality of the photocopy is greatly enhanced. yellow acetate can also be of benefit when placed behind certain documents, instead of between the item and the photocopying surface; the acetate im- proves the background on which the print appears, especially for thin carbon copies. the implications of such a process are varied. photocopying requests have inundated many repositories similar in size to the michigan historical collections. it is incumbent d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer upon archivists to promote the widest possible use of their holdings, and improvements in photocopying techniques can ease the difficulty of the task. photocopying with yellow acetate both promotes and facilitates the use of historical documents. other institutional advantages can be discovered; for example, important documents may now remain safely stored in security areas and not be removed for every photocopy request. many items are loaned in their original form—diaries, letters, notes—to be photocopied and returned to their owners. it is now possible to create a more legible copy, and one that can be better copied when the occasion arises. additionally, a photocopy made using yellow acetate is sometimes preferable to the original document. fragile and fading items may thus be copied onto highly durable paper as invaluable replacements for originals. (timothy prentiss a n d bill brown, bentley historical library, the university of michigan) religious archives: an introduction by august r. suelflow written by a distinguished pioneer in north american religious archives, religious archives: an introduction provides needed guidance in this period of unprecedented growth in the field. topics addressed include the history and nature of religious archives, the place of the archives in religious organizations, collections policies, basic requirements for an archival program, acquisitions and processing, reference services, exhibits, publications, photoduplication, and microfilming. over photographs illustrate the test. pages of sample forms are also included. pp., paper. $ . saa members, $ . others. order directly from the society of american archivists, s. wells, suite , chicago, il . a postage and handling charge will be added to all non-prepaid orders. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / summer the international scene: ronald j. plavchan, editor we are indebted to the following correspondents: australia: r. g. neale; austria: josef riegler; bahamas/caribbean: d. gail saunders; brazil: maria amelia gomes leite; china: sun fangjiu; federal republic of germany: wolfram werner; finland: eljas orr- man; france: michel duchein; german democratic republic: horst schetelich; england & wales: bruce jackson; india/swarbica: n. h. kulkarnee; israel: haya wolovsky; italy: donato tamble; malawi/east and central africa: steve m. mwiyeriwa; malaysia/ sarbica: zakiah hanum nor; netherlands: t. p. huijs; new zealand: judith s. hor- nabrook; nigeria/west africa: j.c. enwere; organization of american states: celso rod- riguez; peru/ala: cesar gutierrez munoz; poland: jerzy szczepariski; scotland: andrew m. jackson; senegal/west africa: m. saliou mbaye; solomon islands/oceania: r. g. a. chesterman; south africa: maryna fraser; spain: margarita vazquez de parga; vatican city: claudio de dominicis; and zimbabwe: r. g. s. douglas. australia retirement of ian maclean. on july , after a long and distinguished career as an archivist, during which he played a leading role in the development of archival practice in australia and elsewhere, ian maclean retired as principal archivist, archives office of new south wales. he was for twenty-four years the commonwealth's chief archives officer, for four years as head of australia's second largest government archives, the archives office of new south wales, and for five years as archivist of seato. maclean has also acted as an adviser on national archival development, most recently in east africa, under the aus- pices of unesco. soon after the commonwealth national library and the australian war memorial were designated as the federal government's first archival authorities, in , maclean was appointed archives officer in charge of the library's archives section (later division). he continued to be in charge of the commonwealth archives office, so renamed upon its separation from the national library in , until , when he resigned as chief ar- chivist to assume the seato post in bangkok, thailand. in , when the commonwealth archives office was renamed the australian archives, maclean again served as chief ar- chivist before becoming deputy keeper of public records in the public record office, victoria. following the separation of the state library from the archives office of new south wales, in , he became its first full-time principal archivist. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer new south wales university archives. australia's largest in terms of student body, the university of new south wales appointed in february its first university archivist, laurie t. dillon. sisters of mercy establishing an archives. in response to an invitation from the newly- formed national secretariat of the sisters of mercy of australia, m. felicitas powers, rsm, recently retired archivist for the sisters of mercy of the union, bethesda, maryland, is on a four to five-month leave of absence to assist in the establishment and preservation of the religious order's archives. the order has been in australia for over a hundred years and its archives contains a wealth of documentation on the history of the catholic church in what was considered missionary territory. national library acquires large private film collection. the national library of aus- tralia has acquired the unique private film collections of harry e. davidson, internationally known melbourne film collector, who died in february . the collections consist of australian gazette, cinesound, and movietone newsreels, as well as , reels of feature films, shorts, and documentaries. most notable items include prints of fritz lang's silent masterpiece metropolis; a german production of faust by friedrich murnau; a sound feature film of a yank in australia (no other copy is known to have survived); several of a series of s industrial documentaries, made in australia; and film footage from a australian feature film with a world war i theme, a hero of the dardanelles. the collections will be preserved in the library's national film archives in canberra, as the harry davidson collection. bangladesh work progressing on new archives building. in accordance with a second five-year plan ( - ), the bangladesh government is erecting two, seven-story buildings in dacca. the national archives will take over one of these buildings, whereas the other will become the new national library. k. m. karim, director of archives and libraries, intends to occupy a portion of the new archives building in december . the first occupants will be the administrative staff. completion date of the archives building is . as storage areas are finished, records from the elephant road facility and other temporary records storage centers will be transferred in sections to the new archives building. another project under the second five-year plan is the drafting of proposed legislation for the national archives system. this will provide the national archives with a legal basis which currently does not exist in bangladesh. canada pac federal records centres celebrate twenty-fifth anniversary. as part of the twenty-fifth anniversary celebration of the opening of the first federal records centre on april , the public archives (pac) marked the occasion with a three-day open house for pac employees, records managers, and senior officials from government institutions in the national capital region. in addition to a tour of the records center, invited guests viewed a special exhibit and a slide and sound presentation. the theme of the anniversary celebration was "public archives records centres—twenty-five years of service, expansion and progress." pilot project of the federal regional records centres. a pilot project has been set up between information services and the federal regional records centres in an attempt to promote the dissemination of pac information, its services to the general public, and pac publications. publications produced by information services of the public archives have been distributed to the toronto and montreal federal regional records centres for display. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene these publications are available at no charge to the public. the aim of the project is to decentralize the services and goods produced by pac in ottawa, to facilitate easy access by people in other parts of canada, and to make use of valuable resources of the records centers. if the pilot project is successful, and a better link can be developed between ottawa and the regions, the same procedure will be adopted with the other records centers in edmonton, halifax, vancouver, and winnipeg. mennonite archives committee meeting. the archives committee of the mennonite historical society of canada met at the mennonite brethren bible college in winnipeg, manitoba, on december , the day prior to the annual meeting of the society. members of the committee representing the centre of mennonite brethren studies in winnipeg, the evangelical mennonite conference, rosthern junior college archives, conrad grebel col- lege, and the mennonite heritage centre in winnipeg reviewed various archival programs and microfilming projects in progress. it was also reported that a new archives center is now located at the evangelical mennonite conference office in steinback, manitoba. second mennonite genealogy seminar. the mennonite genealogy, inc., sponsored a second seminar, held on november at the mennonite heritage centre in winnipeg. fifty persons attended and heard john friesen stress the importance of "fleshing out" the family story, so that it would not only be a "tree," but also include experiences and stories. name change for lutheran archives in western canada. on july , the con- cordia college board of regents approved a name change of the archives of the alberta- british columbia district of the lutheran church—missouri synod. the archives is now called the concordia lutheran archives of western canada. the archives has been located on the campus of concordia college, edmonton, alberta, since except for the period - . hilda m. robinson, who was appointed in october , is archivist for both concordia college and concordia lutheran archives of western canada. new photo identification policy in effect at pac. the public archives is now requiring that publishers and authors who purchase pac prints for use in publications, cite the image or negative identification code in addition to crediting the public archives. this policy is designed to eliminate the need to re-research previously identified images, save valuable staff time for other endeavors, and assure success for requesters in locating the images they have seen in a particular publication. in a period of shrinking budgets and limited staff, this policy is a simple and logical alternative. a number of american archival institutions are adopting the pac policy. the special libraries association, picture division, is compiling a list of institutions which have adopted the identification policy. such institutions are being requested to send a copy of their policy statement to project identification, th street, se., washington, dc , usa. positive results from pilot videodisc project in an effort to find cheaper ways to store, retrieve, and prolong the life expectancy of archival materials, pac began a pilot project in september to determine the feasibility of storing material on videodiscs, using laser recording. the system used by pac in its pilot project consisted of a videodisc player manufactured by thompson c.s.f. ltd. of paris, a vectographic mz microcomputer, a hewlett packard a keyboard and terminal, and a sony -inch television monitor. in the weeks and months that followed, a wide range of sample items from pac holdings were selected for the experiment. these included prints, paintings, artistic and architectural drawings, photographs, textual documents, medals, posters, maps, and motion pictures. the sample items were then photographed, and the resulting film placed on a videodisc. the results of the pilot project show promise for pac. it has also shown that a wide variety of materials from the holdings of pac can be recorded and played back using laser tech- nology. the pilot videodisc project has demonstrated that a technology is available that provides for the economic integration of the storage of moving and still images, in addition d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer to the related catalog and control data, in one consolidated machine-readable medium. no other available technology offers such a combination of longevity, accessibility, and univer- sality. international cooperation between canada and finland. during a recent visit by olavi koivukangas, director of the siirtolaisuusinstituutti (institute for migration), turku, fin- land, representatives of the public archives agreed to closer cooperation between finland and canada in the exchange of archival and research information of mutual interest. it was further agreed to designate one institution in each country to serve as a central clearing- house and coordinator in the exchange of data. the siirtolaisuusinstituutti is already the clearinghouse for finland with regard to migration studies, and pac as the national archives of canada will assume the function for canada. xerox establishes an archives program. in december xerox canada, inc., its head office located in don mills, ontario, established an archives program to support all xerox operations in canada. xerox canada, inc., coordinates and directs all facets of the company's canadian business and has branch offices in all major cities. it also operates the xerox research centre, the canadian manufacturing centre, xerox learning systems, and ginn and company. the records management department, in conjunction with the cor- porate affairs department, is responsible for maintaining the company's archives. the secretary of the company will maintain material related to shareholders and directors. as envisioned by the company, the archives program will be an ongoing acquisition process for relevant archival material. for further information about the archives program, contact george zarra, manager, security and records management, or barbara braznick, forms analyst and archivist, xerox canada, inc., don mills road, don mills, ontario m c s canada. chile national archives sponsors archives course. one problem of chilean archivists has been the lack of a school for archivists. to provide formal training to archivists living outside the national capital area, the archivo nacional de chile is sponsoring a course in archives under the auspices of the united nations development programme (undp). teachers will be sent to the home districts of the students rather than requiring them to come to a central location. the course requires three semesters, which started on march and will end on june . during the last semester, however, the students will have to spend about twenty days at the archivo nacional de chile, in santiago. colombia second national congress of colombian archivists. the asociacion colombiana de archivistas (acar) sponsored the second national congress of archivists, - october , in medelh'n. the purpose of this conference was to bring together all colombian archivists and the heads of various institutions, to stimulate a sense of intellectual commu- nity, and to provide an occasion for the discussion of archival matters. some of the topics discussed were: archives and its function to history, archival terminology, analysis and eval- uation of documents for disposal, security, free access to and use of archives, microfilming, and the development of archives in colombia. costa rica new archivist of the archivo nacional. luz alba chacon de umaria is the new director general of the archivo nacional in san jose. she succeeds jose luis coto conde, who retired at the end of . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene although planning for a new archives building was started under the director-generalship of coto conde, the new archivist will lay the cornerstone of the new national archives under construction. the ceremony is scheduled to take place in and coincide with the hun- dredth anniversary of the establishment of the archivo nacional. no date, however, has been set for completion of the new national archives building. el salvador newsletter published for salvadoran archivists. despite the mounting political turmoil in this central american nation, the centro salvadorerio de ensenanza archivi'stica (csea) celebrated, in april , its first anniversary by publishing the first issue of sepan cuantor (january-march ). this new quarterly newsletter is intended to provide salvadoran archivists with relevant news items and articles on subjects of interest. for more information about the newsletter, write to csea, apartado postal ( ), -san salvador, el salvador, c.a. england & wales permanent closing of chancery lane pro under consideration. discussion in the house of lords has revealed that the government is actively considering the closing of the old public record office (pro) at chancery lane, in london, and the concentrating of the records at the new site at kew, which at present houses the more modern government departmental records. several speakers seemed to be more concerned with "convenience" to academic researchers in the central city location, but the lord chancellor stated that "there are advantages in keeping public records in one place, and i do not think one ought to overlook desirability of concentration." sale of codrington papers causes concern. the recent auction at sotheby's of the codrington family papers, which contain much information about the slave trade and plan- tation system in antigua and barbuda, has highlighted some problems british archivists are facing. the papers have been stored, cataloged, and repaired in a local record office since , and have now been withdrawn and sold to an unknown private buyer overseas. the first difficulty revealed was the high asking price, which the gloucestershire ro could not match. at the auction, the selling price was four times its valuation, which meant the price was beyond the reach of the antiguan government. only the british government's refusal to grant an export license will now keep the codrington papers in great britain, and this seems unlikely, since it would require someone in the country to match the selling price. the purchase price was not the sole problem. as market values soar for archival materials, more collections will undoubtedly be removed from record offices for sale. at present, it is almost impossible to prevent this, especially since most collections are stored as loans rather than as outright donations. the sale of the codrington papers has attracted much attention in the press, and various suggestions have been made; but surprisingly few of these suggestions have come from professional archivists. there is, however, general agree- ment that some form of preventative legislation is needed. code of practice. the annual general meeting of the society of archivists, held in london on december , accepted in principle the proposed code of practice, but referred it back to council for some changes, including more particular attention to the role of the archivist/records manager. (these two positions are not separate disciplines in great britain.) recent events, notably the leakage of information by a staff member in the records center of a nationalized industry, suggest that more guidance and definition is needed for individuals working in this field. also, the appearance at auction of love letters of madelaine smith, presumed murderess of her lover in nineteenth-century glasgow, has d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer raised questions as to how these state records (they were used in evidence at the trial) came into public hands within the past forty years. a freedom of information bill submitted. a private member's bill to increase public access to government information, including a provision to reduce the present thirty-year rule to a ten-year limitation, was introduced in parliament by f. hooley. the first reading of the bill was on january and the second was on february, but debate has been adjourned. although the freedom of information bill will almost certainly be opposed by the government, there is some hope that it may be carried if enough conservative mps lend their support. development of study groups within the society of archivists. after the establishment of the records management group, the society of archivists adopted a rule at the lancaster conference permitting study groups. this adoption seems to be leading toward the creation of other kinds of groups that are, perhaps, more clearly described as affinity groups. the society has two study groups: conservation, and records management. there has also been an unofficial affinity group representing local government archivists in the local government trade union, nalgo (national and local government officers associ- ation). at the annual conference, at leicester, a number of archivists from non-local gov- ernment record offices informally met under the title "national, university, and special repositories forum." a steering committee was chosen to consider further action, and subsequently it was decided to seek a more formal status as a study group of the society. ninety persons attended an open meeting of the renamed "specialist repositories group," held in london in april . the council of the society has considered the status of the group twice, and in september agreed to give support in principle to the formation of a specialist repositories group within the society. discussions between officers of the society and the groups are under way to draft a constitution for further consideration. records management group starts occasional papers series. the records management group of the society of archivists is preparing to publish a series of occasional papers on specific aspects of records management, or problems encountered and solved by members of the group. michael cook, archivist of the university of liverpool, is the general editor of the series. the first paper, by jill hampson of the british steel corporation, deals with the moving of a records center. leather conservation centre in final phase of establishment the leather conservation centre, incorporated in , is the brainchild of john waterer, a former leather goods manufacturer, who died in april . this new organization is designed to provide a service to museums and other bodies holding valuable objects made of leather. in addition, the centre will undertake research into methods and techniques and to train conservators in the special skills required in leather restoration and conservation. the leverhulme trust fund has provided a grant of £ , to hire a consultant to determine the likely demand for the services of the centre in the museum, archaeological, and related fields. the centre will be located in hampton court palace. new journal for catholic archivists. the first issue of catholic archives, a new periodical describing the archives of catholic religious orders, dioceses, and institutions in the united kingdom and ireland, was published in march . cost of the new journal is about £ l . for more information, write r.m. gard, editor, oakland, gosforth, newcastle-upon-tyne ne tq, england. federal republic of germany unpublished nazi diaries soon to be available for research. the munich institute for contemporary history has announced that plans are underway to make available to his- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene torians some , previously unknown pages of the private diaries of joseph goebbels, propaganda minister of the third reich. american military forces had confiscated, shortly after world war ii, some , pages of the diaries pertaining to the - period; and these eventually were published in the united states. in , german journalist erwin fischer located in soviet military archives the goebbels materials, recorded on microfilm, and bought back to the federal republic copies of the microfilm. the pages to be made available are part of an estimated , pages of the goebbels diaries which he had begun to microfilm shortly before the reich propaganda ministry was destroyed by allied bombing in march . soviet troops found the diaries in the berlin bunker, where both goebbels and adolf hitler committed suicide in the final hours of the third reich, and transferred the diaries and other captured nazi items to soviet military archives. controversial documentary aired on german television. the bavarian television net- work sponsored in january and february a politically sensitive, three-part documen- tary entitled "flight and expulsion," detailing complaints of mistreatment from germans driven out of eastern europe at the end of world war ii. the documentary blended previously unpublicized film from american, soviet, and czechoslovak archives with first- person accounts of middle-aged or elderly germans who had been forced from their homes by people who had suffered nazi atrocities. the first segment, televised on january , dealt with the forced exodus of germans from east prussia, now part of poland and the soviet union; the sudetenland of czechoslovakia; and from romania and yugoslavia. after this first part, czechoslovak officials filed a formal protest with the west german embassy in prague, and czechoslovakia's communist party newspaper rude pravo de- nounced the series as one-sided and designed "to revive revanchism." italy church archivists meet in brescia. the ecclesiastical archives association held its bien- nial meeting ( - november ) at the instituto paolo vi in brescia, near milan. the theme of the thirteenth conference was "today's ecclesiastical archives." participants included church archivists from austria, france, italy, spain, yugoslavia, and several other european countries. coincidental with the conference was the release of a volume of the association's journal, archiva ecclesiae. this issue contained the proceedings of the twelfth biennial conference, held in naples in . the italian ecclesiastical association seeks american contacts. the associazione ar- chivistica ecclesiastica has expressed interest in establishing contacts with similar organiza- tions of church archivists in the united states. for more information, write to the associ- ation, piazza s. calisto, - roma, italia. aerial photography exhibit at the british school. the central institute for catalog and documentation of the ministry for the cultural property, organized at the british school, rome, an exhibit entitled "aerial photography—from war material to cultural property." this exhibit, held june-— july , consisted of aerial photographs made by the royal air force during world war ii in italy. this photographic archives has become an important cultural resource for archaeology, geography, and urban and environmental studies. loreto medieval conference held. the archivio di stato di napoli sponsored an inter- national conference, held at loreto, - october . the theme of the meeting was "southern italy society in the parchment documents of montevergine." special italian and anglo-american exhibit. the palazzo braschi (rome museum) was the site of a special exhibition on "english romantic poets and italy." promoters of this exhibit include the keats-shelley memorial association, the italian ministry for cultural d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer property, the british council, and the municipality of rome. the exhibition, which ran from december to january , attempted to underline the particular signif- icance of the cultural interrelations between italy and the anglo-american world since the last century. many cultural institutions, archives, libraries, and private individuals contrib- uted documents and artistic works. new zealand fourth annual aranz conference. the archives and records association of new zealand (aranz) held its fourth annual conference and general meeting in auckland's institute and museum, - august . the general theme during the conference was the immigration and settlement in the auckland region. during the general meeting, dis- cussion centered on the scheduling for retention of archives, and a strong resolution con- demning the national library's intention to destroy newspapers in its custody after micro- filming. delegates approved a resolution to keep the current format and frequency of the aranz official bulletin, archifacts, but to increase subscriptions to nz $ (individual) and nz $ (institutional) for the year beginning april . a feature of the conference was a resolution to promote archives in the auckland area. jolyon firth, deputy mayor of auckland city, had urged the establishment of a polytechnic course for volunteers (retirees, housewives, and hobbyists) that would provide a sufficiently trained workforce for appraisal and processing. he also suggested the formation of a steer- ing committee to serve as an auckland regional archives council in which the national archives' auckland appointee would be the chief executive officer. conference participants enthusiastically adopted this suggestion and set up a steering committee, which then pro- ceeded to take steps to provide a training course for curators of archives, and other inter- ested individuals. the course will be conducted by aranz in conjunction with the uni- versity of auckland centre for continuing education with support from the national archives. fifth aranz branch formed. the new zealand historical association sponsored a seminar on canterbury regional and provincial history, in christchurch, on august . from this seminar about thirty-five interested persons decided to form a canterbury branch of aranz, and set up a steering committee. this is the second south island aranz branch. proposed housing of the national archives stirs debate. early in aranz dis- tributed to all members a circular outlining current government proposals for the accom- modation of the national archives. in the circular, aranz expressed concern that a major proposal of the smith report—provision of a separate and specifically designed ar- chives building—was to be abandoned. members were requested to convey their sentiments to the minister of internal affairs. since the initial response, the aranz council is reportedly disturbed to learn that its members have received a form letter from the office of the minister suggesting that the expressed alarm is needless. according to the letter, the best possible solution to the housing of the national archives has been adopted—that is, the national library building. furthermore, the letter implies that the aranz position has been misdirected the council has responded to the letter and concentrated on countering three of the minister's major arguments: the alarm is needless, the national library pro- posal is the best possible solution under the circumstances, and the position taken by aranz is ill-considered. the aranz position in the controversy is contained in archifacts no. , n.s. (september ). nigeria first seminar on archives/records management archival affairs in this west african country is under the federal ministry of social development, youth, sports and culture. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene although the national archives has existed for almost a quarter of a century, archivists have had to justify to government officials the usefulness of the archives to nigerian society. to publicize the existence and value of the national archives, nigerian archivists at their first national conference, held february- march , in kano, agreed to sponsor a seminar on archives and records management. eighty people from various segments of nigerian society attended the seminar, held in port harcourt, - november . the theme of the seminar was "the nation and her records." sponsors sought four objectives: ( ) to stress the importance of maintaining accurate records of all public and private insti- tutions, ( ) to promote greater awareness of the kinds of information available at the na- tional archives and the access rights of the general public to that information, ( ) to dis- courage the sale of historical manuscripts to non-nigerians, and ( ) to mobilize public opinion in seeking passage of new archival legislation. one result of the successful seminar was a resolution to expand participation in any subsequent conferences or seminars. ini- tially, invitations will be sent to all english-speaking states in west africa, and later to all members of the west african regional branch of ica (warbica). peru pgi pilot project on records management the peruvian government has accepted a proposal of unesco's general information programme (pgi) to initiate a pilot project on records management in cooperation with the archivo general de la nacion. the project is intended to assist a history-oriented national archival agency in developing a modern records management program, to provide not only basic and traditional archival services but also new and expanded user-oriented services to governmental agencies. assistance will be limited to the creation within the capital region of a records center to serve as a model for other records centers in a future network at the national, provincial, and local govern- mental levels. [unisist newsletter , no. ( )] cortes mission to peru. vicenta cortes alonso, inspectora general of the spanish ar- chives and unesco expert, visited peru, may- august , as part of the unesco ramp (records and archives management program) pilot project. during her visit, the inspectora general toured the archives of administration publica and the departmental archives in la libertad, cajamarca, and arequipa. she met and talked with various officials about the administration of documents. exhibition of historical documents. the banco continental, in collaboration with the academia national de la historia and the archivo general de la nacion, organized an exhibition of significant historic documents in peruvian history. the documents were on display, - august , at the bank's office in lima. poland franco-polish archival exhibit. as a prelude to the larger joint franco-polish exhibit to be opened in paris in , polish archivists opened in warsaw, on september , a smaller exhibit on scientific and cultural relations between france and poland. silver jubilee of the central archives of mechanical documentation. the archiwum dokumentacji mechanicznej, warsaw, celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary, in . to mark the occasion, the archives issued a guide on the archival fonds and an audio cassette of sound recordings relating to warsaw and its history. in addition, the archives organized a popular scientific conference and a photographic exhibit entitled "from an old album." polish television broadcast three special programs on the work and resources of the ar- chives, and polish newspapers carried numerous stories on the celebration of the silver jubilee. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer exhibition on the polish revolution. in commemoration of the th anniversary of the short-lived polish revolution against czar nicholas i, a documentary exhibit was organized in warsaw's archeological museum in november . more than historical documents were on display, showing the full course of events from immediately preceding the insurrection to its consequences. also on exhibit was wojciech jastrzebowski's treatise entitled the leisure moments of the polish soldier: thoughts of alliance among civilized nations. historians have generally recognized this treatise as describing the archetype of the league of nations. turkey unesco report on modernization of the basjbakanlik ar§iv. at the request of the turkish government, ivan borsa of the magyar orszagos leveltar (national archives of hungary) visited turkey, - april , as a unesco consultant. his mission was "to study the present situation of the national archives in istanbul, giving particular attention to the legislation now in force and the structure, functions, and activities of the various services." borsa limited his survey in istanbul to the bas,bakanlik ars,iv (archives of the prime minister's office), which is the national repository for most of the surviving archives of the former ottoman empire. the bas,bakanlik arsjv operates independently of the national archives of the turkish republic, in ankara. the consultant's findings and rec- ommendations were published by unesco in october as a technical report, which contains the interesting point that the situation of the archives has changed little since the unesco technical assistance mission visited turkey and made recommendations in . vatican city expansion of the vatican secret archives completed. in october , pope john paul ii solemnly dedicated a new underground addition to the vatican secret archives. the dedication coincided with the one hundredth anniversary of the opening by pope leo xiii of the vatican secret archives to scholarly research. the new, huge two-level reinforced concrete underground addition, situated under the cortile della pigna and alongside the old archives, is surrounded by the building that houses the vatican museums. construction work was begun in . the new addition is equipped with the latest in archival shelving, as well as security and smoke detection systems; and temperature and humidity are precisely controlled to preserve the most fragile documents. the capacity of the new addition is about equal to that of the old archives, so storage space of the vatican secret archives has now been almost doubled from thirty to fifty-six miles of shelves. vatican archivists expect the new facility to serve the needs of the vatican for the next fifty years. vatican opens archives for historic exhibition. with little prior announcement, pope john paul ii opened, on april , the first public exhibition of selected items from the vatican secret archives. the exhibit, consisting of more than priceless historic docu- ments, marks not only completion of the major new addition to the archives, but also celebrates the centennial of the opening of the secret archives to a limited number of qualified scholars. the collection of letters, manuscripts, and papers are on exhibit for two hours a day through the rest of the year, in the entrance hall of the expanded archives. among the most impressive items on display is a letter from genghis kahn to pope innocent iv, written in both persian and arabic, inviting the pontiff to visit the mongol emperor. another document is a huge parchment, dated july , addressed to pope clement vii and signed by eighty-five british lords of the realm petitioning the pope for an annulment of the marriage bonds between henry viii and catherine of aragon. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene international training in microfilm technology available to international archivists. the genea- logical society of utah has reached an agreement with ica whereby the genealogical society will provide training in micrographics to groups of archivists from foreign countries. there is no cost for this training, but travel costs to salt lake city and living expenses must be borne by the trainee or the sponsoring government or institution. funds for these purposes can be secured from many organizations, and the genealogical society will arrange eco- nomical accommodations in salt lake city to lessen the burden on any sponsor. a knowl- edge of the english language is not a prerequisite for this training, applications for which should be submitted to the ica executive secretary, rue des francs-bourgeois, paris, france. ica bureau meeting, . the ica bureau, governing body of the executive com- mittee, met at the magyar orszagos leveltar (national archives), budapest, - may . at this meeting the bureau accepted the applications for membership from the people's republic of china and from the solomon islands. items discussed include reorganization of the committee for archival development (cad), the publications committee, and the secretariat, to achieve better coordination and implementation of their programs; creation of three additional positions in the secretariat (secretaries for development, publications, and standardizations); and support of efforts to establish ica regional branches in equa- torial africa and in the south pacific. it was also reported to the bureau that unesco intends to increase its action in the archives field during the - triennium, especially through implementation of the ramp program. first meeting of fid committee on social science information & documentation (fid/ sd). during the th congress and conference of the international federation for doc- umentation (fid), held in copenhagen, - august , the social science information & documentation committee (fid/sd) met for the first time, - august . parti- cipants for the two-day meeting came from canada, finland, federal republic of germany, great britain, hungary, japan, the netherlands, norway, united states, international or- ganizations of cidss (international committees for social science information and doc- umentation), and the league of arab states. the committee decided to draft a comparative study of the information needs of high- level decision making bodies, and ways to meet them, and a comparative study of nonprofit and commercial organizations in social science information. in the opinion of the committee, one of its most important duties is to promote contact with international organizations. the committee has already established contacts with several organizations including ifla (in- ternational federation of library associations), unesco, and various fid committees. ala newsletter fills a need. on august , the executive secretary of the aso- ciacion latinoamericana de archivos (ala) began a new service for members. latin-amer- ican archivists have long acknowledged a need for more communication among themselves, especially about what is taking place in the different countries in the area. publication of the ala newsletter, nota informativa, is intended to remedy this situation. eighth anniversary of the founding of ala. despite numerous financial and other problems, ala celebrated, on april , its eighth year in existence. in a letter to the membership (nota informativa, no. ), guillermo durand florez, ala president, recalled the difficult years and expressed hope in the future vitality of the association by pointing out the existence of the newsletter. colloquium on the professional situation of latin-american archivists. under the sponsorship of ala, the international council on archives, and the brazilian national archives, a colloquium on the professional situation of latin-american archivists was held, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer - august , in rio de janeiro, brazil. those persons who attended the meeting represented a cross-section of the profession in latin america, as well as ica, the orga- nization of american states, the archivos de espana, and the centro de informacion do- cumental in madrid. during the four-day meeting, a wide range of profession-related topics were discussed and a series of recommendations drafted. some of the topics included official recognition of specific university degrees, archival training, closer cooperation between government and archives, proper government funding of archives, professional associa- tions, document preservation, and establishment of national archives systems. adp seminar for third world archivists co-sponsored by two ica committees. the ica automation committee and the committee on archival development co-sponsored an adp (automated data processing) seminar for senior personnel of national archival insti- tutions in the more developed countries of the third world. it was held at university college, london university, - september , to take advantage of the presence of archivists who were converging upon london for the ninth ica congress ( - septem- ber ). seven third world countries (ghana, indonesia, kenya, malaysia, nigeria, singapore, and yugoslavia) sent representatives to the two-day seminar. topics covered included an introduction to computer technology and terminology, the management of machine-readable records, administrative uses of automation, and archival controls through the use of automated systems. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / summer news notes f. l. eaton and thomas e. weir, jr., editors send notes for publication to the news notes editor, the american archivist, na- tional archives building, washington, dc , or to one of the following reporters: state and local archives to richard j. cox, records management division, department of legislative reference, city of baltimore, md ; religious archives to john r. woodard, p.o. box , reynolda station, winston-salem, nc ; scientific and technical archives to arthur r. abel, national park service, edison national historic site, main street and lakeside avenue, west orange, nj ; business archives to linda edgerly, w. th street, new york, ny ; state and regional archival associations to alice vestal, special collections department, main library, room , university of cincinnati, cincinnati, oh ; and manuscript repositories to peter j. parker, historical society of pennsylvania, manuscripts department, locust street, philadelphia, pa . the charles babbage institute for the history of information processing has se- lected the university of minnesota as the site of its permanent home. the institute already has an active program including archival preservation and fellowship awards. archivists at the leo baeck institute, new york, have prepared a summary of documentary material available in the in- stitute's archives about nazi germany, world war ii, and the holocaust. a de- scription of relevant materials begins with the may issue (no. ) of library &f archives news, and is continued in the december issue. the chicago public library is establish- ing a "blues archives" to be housed in the music section of the library's fine arts division. the library will first collect rec- ords and tapes of recordings of chicago blues artists. future acquisitions may in- clude master tapes of recordings and cop- ies of correspondence and contracts be- tween artists and records producers and between composers and sheet-music pub- lishers. other future projects might in- clude oral history, videotapes of perfor- mances, sheet music (published or in manuscript), posters, photographs, clip- pings, and pamphlets. in march , a "scrapbook" exhibi- tion illustrating the lives of italian-ameri- cans, residents of ten chicago area neigh- borhoods and suburbs, opened at the chicago public library cultural center. entitled "italians in chicago: collections d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer from three generations, - ," the exhibition displays for the first time photographs, documents, films, and arti- facts collected during a two-year research project based at the history department of the university of illinois at chicago circle. the project was funded by a grant from neh. an archives for the cleveland clinic foundation was established by its board of governors, effective january . founded in , the cleveland clinic foundation is one of the largest medical group-practices in this country. its facilities include an outpatient clinic, a , bed hospital, a research division, and an edu- cational foundation that provides post- graduate training for graduate and prac- ticing physicians. more than , patients are treated annually by phy- sicians in more than forty medical and surgical specialities. the cleveland clinic foundation ar- chives will house institutional records and personal papers of professional staff, ad- ministrative officers, and members of the board of trustees, reflecting contributions made to the foundation, the community, and the development of the medical profession. inquiries should be directed to mrs. carol m. kelleher, archivist, the cleve- land clinic foundation archives, eu- clid avenue, cleveland, oh . tele- phone: ( ) - . the regional history center at north- ern illinois university, with the assistance of an neh grant, has recently completed a three-year project to collect manuscript materials documenting the history of the northern illinois region. with the comple- tion of the grant period, the center became a fully integrated department within the university and contains three major collec- tions: regional collections, university ar- chives, and the local public records collec- tion that is a part of the illinois regional archives depository system. the center's spindex-generated guide will be com- pleted in . for additional information please contact regional history center, swen parson, northern illinois uni- versity, dekalb, il . telephone: ( ) - . to help stimulate the growth and devel- opment of local historical societies in the united states, the american jewish his- torical society (ajhs) has published a list- ing of local, state, and regional jewish his- torical societies. copies are available to individuals and groups, upon request. ajhs hopes the lists will serve as catalysts to action, because the information pro- vided includes data on programming and ancillary activities. for further informa- tion, write: ajhs, thornton road, wal- tham, ma . the council of archives and research libraries in jewish studies (carljs) sponsored an archival conference in may at shearith israel, spanish-portuguese syn- agogue in new york city. the conference included seminars and workshops in- tended to acquaint federation executives, librarians, archivists, and lay people from the new york and philadelphia areas with the importance of saving historic jewish records. the hispanic division, library of con- gress, held a two-day workshop, - january, on a proposed national-level "guide to hispanic manuscripts in the united states." twenty-four people at- tended the workshop, representing major libraries and archives from ten states, as well as the national archives, the organi- zation of american states, the manuscript and hispanic divisions of the library of congress, and the national union catalog of manuscript collections. the workshop was organized by the conference on latin- american history and funded by an neh grant. after papers were presented dis- cussing different types of repositories and earlier descriptions of material, the parti- cipants resolved that a new guide should be prepared by the conference on latin- american history. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes "america's library," an audiovisual presentation used to orient visitors to the library of congress, is now available in a new format that makes it easier to distrib- ute. the presentation uses over slides and nine projectors. the version for gen- eral use is on mm. film or videotape and is available from film, inc., green bay rd., wilmette, il . the eighteen- minute film presents a brief history of the library, together with a sampler of its holdings from dime novels to the guten- berg bible, including houdini's library, whitman's poetry, beethoven's scores, early maps, manuscripts, prints, and pho- tographs. an accompanying study guide is provided for teachers who wish to use the film to supplement class work in american history, government, literature, or art. the library of congress is undertaking projects to develop supplemental manuals to two chapters of the anglo-american cat- aloguing rules, d edition. the revision of chapter (graphics) is intended to apply to individual two-dimensional pictorial works such as prints, drawings, paintings, posters, photographs, negatives, transpar- encies, or slides; groups of such objects is- sued in sets or portfolios; photographic or photomechanical reproductions of such works, whether single or in sets; and col- lections or reproductions of such works organized around a person, family group, or corporate body, or gathered together because of the creator or a thematic coher- ence. a draft of the manual will be avail- able this summer, and comments are solic- ited. for a copy of the revisions of chapter , or for further information, write to eliz- abeth betz, picture cataloging specialist, prints and photographs division, library of congress, washington, dc . a revision of chapter (manuscripts) is also underway. for further information write to steven hensen, senior manu- scripts cataloger, manuscripts division, library of congress, washington, dc . in january , the emergency board of the louisiana state legislature ap- proved a $ , appropriation to the louisiana state archives and records service for a conservation laboratory. the archives also has initiated a program for the microfilming of privately held histori- cal photographs and postcards. cincinnati, ohio, and baltimore, mary- land, have been chosen as the two cities to receive neh grants to establish metro his- tory fairs. this innovative educational program adapts the science-fair model to history as a way of involving large numbers of metropolitan-area students in research- ing their family and community heritage. the program will work with teachers and students in area junior and senior high schools. student projects may take a variety of forms—exhibits, performances, movies, or papers—and will be judged by a wide range of community representatives. the winners will be eligible for statewide and national competition as part of history day. when henry kissinger removed tran- scripts of his telephone conversations from the department of state, at the end of his tenure, and placed them in the library of congress, a number of organizations rep- resenting journalists and historians sued him for return of the transcripts as federal records. if the transcripts could be re- moved from the department of state as non-record material, access was no longer attainable through the freedom of infor- mation act. lower courts affirmed the po- sition of the plaintiffs; but the supreme court decided in that the plaintiffs had no standing in court in the matter, and that the question of the transcripts' status as federal records was to be decided within the government. the state department asserted that as the creating agency it had the sole respon- sibility for making the decision. the na- tional archives and records service con- tended that the archival agency should make such determinations. nars and the general services administration, of which nars is a part, then tried to resolve the problem through negotiation with state. the parties could not agree. in such cases of impasse, the office of legal counsel of the department of justice decides. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer the january opinion of the office of legal counsel stated that nothing in the governing statutes required an agency to follow the nars decision as to whether documents are federal records, or even to allow gsa and nars to participate in the identification process. the impact of this opinion goes far beyond the issue of kis- singer's transcripts by denying nars final authority to determine what constitutes of- ficial records, and placing that authority with the creating agency. nars has gen- erally operated under the assumption that it had a role in determining the status of records. gsa plans to draft remedial leg- islation aimed at nullifying the justice de- partment's decision and clarifying the au- thority of nars. neiman- marcus has begun a search for material to document its seventy-five year history. richard marcus, chairman, stated that the collection of records and memor- abilia will be used to establish a permanent display at the neiman-marcus store in dal- las, about the history of the company and of retailing. temporary displays reflecting special events will be prepared as well. the neiman-marcus archives will be "intro- duced" in , during the company's anniversary celebrations. it is intended that the documentation will be made available to the public, especially to students of re- tailing. the photograph on the cover of this issue of the american archivist is of stanley marcus, founder of neiman-mar- cus, and was featured on a poster asking employees to bring in material that might be useful to the archives. the new hampshire historical society has an interesting and imaginative pro- gram to preserve its map collection. the society encourages people to "adopt-a- map" and pay for the necessary treatment to ensure the map's continued preserva- tion and usefulness. at its december meeting, the ar- chivists' round table of metropolitan new york elected its first officers: michael lutzker, new york university, chair; anne van camp, chase manhattan bank, vice chair; mary b. bowling, columbia univer- sity, secretary/treasurer. founded in , the organization meets monthly during the academic year for a social hour followed by varied programs of archival and local in- terest, frequently centered around tours and introductions to area repositories. yearly dues are $ . checks should be pay- able to archivists' round table of met- ropolitan new york, and sent to mary b. bowling, butler library, columbia university, new york, ny . deering lumber, inc., of biddeford, maine, has supported an oral history pro- gram run by the northeast archives of folklore and oral history, at the univer- sity of maine. the program included a se- ries of interviews with river drivers who worked for predecessor companies on the saco river. the last drive took place in . rutgers, the state university of new jersey, has announced plans to produce a microfilm edition of all surviving catalogs published by motion picture production and distribution companies before . these catalogs frequently provide elabo- rate descriptions of films offered and con- tain information not obvious from the con- tent of a film, such as the date and location of production, names of people in the film, and information about plots and charac- ters. these catalogs describe films both lost and extant. the city of san diego initiated a com- prehensive records-management program in august to be administered by the city clerk. based on an initial review of the state of the records by its records manage- ment officer, many problems have been identified: the inadequacy of the current records retention schedule in meeting legal and administrative requirements; inappro- priate records classification systems that reduce retrieval capabilities; inefficient storage space to accommodate additional records; and technological alternatives to records storage. the records management officer is working closely with department heads in d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes solving records problems and developing policies, standards, and procedures for program implementation. the texas county records inventory project, in conjunction with the texas state library, archives division, com- pleted and released for distribution thir- teen county records inventories in , , and january . the project is responsible for cataloging records housed in courthouse and storage areas in the counties of texas. the inventories serve as valuable reference sources for researchers, and aid county officials in establishing a records management system as provided for by law. in , inventories of fayette (volumes and ), guadalupe, hidalgo (volumes and ), kenedy, llano, schleicher, ster- ling, travis (volumes and ), and van zandt counties were published. in the harrison, king, and throckmorton county inventories were published. the orange county inventory was published in january . inventories completed and awaiting publication at the texas state library are bosque, brazoria (volumes and ), chambers, galveston (volumes , , and ), knox, lamar, matagorda, and milan coun- ties. the project, begun in , has pub- lished inventories of fifty-four texas coun- ties, and an additional forty-one counties are in some phase of the inventory process. inquiries regarding the project may be addressed to the texas county records inventory project, box nt station, denton, tx . inventories may be or- dered through the local records division, texas state archives, box capitol station, austin, tx . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril photofile the ultimate in archival record preservation acid-free envelopes rare manuscripts and documents can be stored and preserved indefinitely in these high qualify acid-free envelopes. stock is completely free of any contaminating or deteriorating chemical agents. available in ivory only, with or without flap. acid-free adhesive secures binding seams. manuscript sizes. photographic negative sizes. manuscript and photograph protectors clear see-thru polyester binders. inside binding edge grips manuscript firmly in place. completely protects contents from fingerprints and out- side contamination while document is being read or copied for referral purposes. available in sizes. transparent mylar sleeves. negative protection with ample space for indexing. negatives can be easily viewed without removal from envelope. jbl send for free brochure. p h o t o f i l e lewis avenue • zion, illinois • ( ) - ems supply co. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ vol. , no. / summer the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor minutes: council meeting, september president maynard brichford called the meeting to order in the julep room of the netherland hilton hotel, cincinnati, ohio, at : p.m. present were vice president ruth w. helmuth, treasurer mary lynn mccree, and council members edmund berkeley, jr., lynn bonfield, frank g. burke, shonnie finnegan, meyer h. fishbein, richard h. lytle, and paul h. mccarthy, jr. virginia c. purdy, editor and council member-elect, and ex- ecutive director ann morgan campbell attended without vote. council member david b. gracy ii did not attend. the agenda for the meeting was adopted. the meeting began with a review of the report on the council's dues increase proposal, to be presented by mccree and mccarthy at the open forum with saa officers and council on october . president's report. president brichford reported that the membership of the stan- dard reporting practices task force, chaired by katherine emerson, is almost complete. the group will hold its first meeting in cincinnati. the joint committee on archives of science and technology has submitted a proposal to nhprc for additional funding for its activities. the proposal was not provided to the executive committee of the society in advance of its submission. procedures for obtaining grant funding approved by council in , require that all proposals for extra funding be received by the executive committee. the constitutional revision task force, chaired by j. frank cook, will hold its first meeting in cincinnati. the group has already begun to conduct its business by mail, al- though very few suggestions have been received from the membership. treasurer's report. mccree reported that the society's financial performance in the last fiscal year was somewhat better than had been expected due to two major factors: ( ) sales of publications exceeded projections, ( ) staff time devoted to grant-funded activ- ities was greater than had been anticipated. however, the year still ended with a deficit of around $ , . the treasurer also reported that all of the society's stock portfolio had been sold over the past few months. a small profit was made on the investment. additionally, a small return in dividends of approximately percent per annum was realized. the funds are now invested in money market certificates which will return over percent per annum. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer executive director's report. campbell reported that the society received a grant of $ , from the council on library resources to support a pilot project in the field of institutional evaluation. a task force headed by william joyce will implement this project. mary lynn ritzenthaler has joined the society's staff to conduct the basic archival conservation program, funded by neh. the plan of work entails basic workshops, con- sultant visits, and the preparation of a basic manual. another project discussed by council in , defining procedures for dealing with rec- ords of united states senators, may be sponsored by the organization of american his- torians. campbell reported that twelve new publications have been issued by the society in the past twelve months. they are available for examination at saa's booth in the exhibit area. the meeting was recessed at : p.m. september council convened at : a.m., september . all persons attending the sep- tember meeting were again present. policy committee report. burke reported that the policy committee received a query from an saa representative regarding the limits of authority to speak and act on behalf of the society. the committee recommended that saa representatives need not consult elected officials or staff when engaged in ordinary committee activity not involving policy or financial commitments. however, any matter which would bind the society to a policy not previously enunciated, or to a commitment of funds from the society's treasury, should be submitted to the executive director for transmission to council. burke noted that it is advisable that the society representatives submit summary reports to the president at least annually, detailing the activities of the group on which they serve. the recommen- dation of the committee was approved on a motion made by burke and seconded by mccree. the policy committee considered two requests received from regional organizations for financial support from saa. the new england archivists proposed the creation of a re- volving fund from which regional organizations could borrow funds to support the devel- opment of publications projects or education programs. the tennessee archivists had requested support for travel expenses for speakers for a fall meeting. a motion made by fishbein and seconded by mccree instructed the executive director to respond that, given the society's financial condition, no positive action on the requests could be taken at this time. the society received a request from the office of personnel management to comment on the present federal position descriptions and qualifications statements for archivists and archives technicians. the policy committee recommended that a task force be appointed by helmuth to prepare a response for review by council. the committee's recommendation was adopted on a motion made by burke and seconded by fishbein. programs committee. reporting for the programs committee, mccarthy recom- mended that council approve the creation of a task force to prepare a proposal for a new forms manual. patrick quinn will chair the group which will be composed of representatives of each institutional professional affinity group. the forms manual task force was au- thorized on a motion made by mccarthy, seconded by finnegan. mccarthy reported that philip p. mason, chair of the replevin task force, has notified him that the group will submit a final report to council in the near future. after a discussion of implementation of the society's new code of ethics, a motion made by berkeley, seconded by lytle, directed that the policy committee, or such successor body d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists as the president may designate, be asked to recommend procedures for handling charges of violations of the code. the motion was passed. council received a draft proposal for external support from the aam/aaslh/saa joint committee on minorities. the committee will be notified that council wishes to examine the final proposal prior to approving its submission to funding sources. publications committee. berkeley reported on the status of various saa publi- cations in progress. on a motion made by berkeley, seconded by mccree, the publication of a "business archives bibliography," compiled by karen benedict, was authorized. president brichford asked that the committee turn its attention to planning for future publications projects. other business women in the profession. council discussed opportunities for women in the profession. consideration of a proposal for monitoring employment practices, received from the committee on the status of women, was deferred to allow time for duplication and review by the council. council's meeting was recessed at : p.m., until september. september the meeting was reconvened at : a.m., september. all persons attending the september meeting were present. in addition, vice president-elect edward weldon and council member-elect robert gordon attended without vote. other business (continued) american national standards institute. on a motion made by bonfield, seconded by finnegan, the council decided to suspend participation by saa representatives on two ansi com- mittees. rather, the executive director was instructed to ask ansi to furnish materials permitting a comprehensive review of saa's potential involvement. institute of certified records managers. the executive director was instructed to pay the assessment made by icrm for saa representation, while reiterating the request of the society for a more complete definition of the method by which the assessment was calculated and what assessments are anticipated in the future. american archivist. the inspector general of the general services administration is making an investigation of the support given to the american archivist by the national archives. investigators have interviewed editor purdy; douglas stickley, assistant editor; and ex- ecutive djrector campbell, and others. the council noted precedents for the arrangement elsewhere in the government, as well as precedents internationally for the national archives providing editorial assistance to the national archival journal. several short-term contingency plans have been developed in case support is withdrawn abruptly. all would entail increased financial support from saa funds. berkeley reported that it appears a minimum investment of $ , -$ , per annum would probably be required to place the journal in another institution. national archives independence. campbell reported that bills have been introduced in the house and senate providing for independence of the national archives from the general services administration. no action is anticipated in this session of congress. maynard brichford expressed his appreciation to council and to the saa staff for sup- port during the term of his presidency. the meeting was adjourned at : p.m. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / summer october president ruth helmuth called the meeting to order at : p.m. present were vice president edward weldon, treasurer mary lynn mccree, and council members edmund berkeley, jr., lynn bonfield, shonnie finnegan, meyer h. fishbein, robert s. gordon, paul h. mccarthy, jr., virginia c. purdy. council met in executive session, after which executive director ann morgan campbell attended without vote. during executive session, council approved the motion that follows: whereas, the society of american archivists has been exceedingly fortunate in an executive director and central office staff who provide service to the society far above and beyond the levels reasonably expected of them, and whereas, the success of many of the society's currently active programs is due in large part to the interest, planning, coordination and hard work provided by the executive di- rector and her staff, and whereas, recognition of such splendid service is often overlooked in the course of busy personal and professional lives, be it resolved by the council of the society of american archivists, that the ap- preciation of the society be and is hereby expressed to executive director ann morgan campbell and to each member of her staff for providing to the society an enviable record of interest, effort, service, and support to all of the members and programs of the society. be it further resolved, that executive director ann morgan campbell be, and is hereby especially, commended for her efforts on behalf of all members of the society in recognizing the problem that extremely high hotel costs at the original meeting site would have presented to many members of the society who hoped to attend the annual meeting in san francisco, and for her imagination and persistent efforts that have enabled the site of that meeting to be successfully relocated to the campus of the university of california at berkeley where far lower room fees should enable many more members to attend this meeting. president's report. ruth helmuth announced that the executive committee will meet in early november. she made the following assignments to members of council: berkeley, fishbein, and purdy, chair, will serve as members of the publications committee. lytle will prepare proposed procedures for administration of the pending nis grant. fin- negan and bonfield will each prepare position statements on the pag structure to be distributed not later than two weeks prior to council's january meeting. helmuth an- nounced that she depends on individual members of council to perform the tasks which had been assigned to the policy and programs committees during - . treasurer's report. mccree noted the importance of careful analyses of the impact of the new dues structure. she suggested that there be an investigation of sources of support from corporations and from an neh challenge grant. helmuth asked mccree to prepare a study of the options for the society when its lease on office space in chicago expires in three years. campbell reported that the present space will probably be adequate for the period although some off-site space for storage may have to be arranged. mccarthy suggested that a study be prepared of the impact of making the american archivist an optional feature of membership. purdy will ask the journal's printer for an estimate of incremental printing costs and campbell will then complete the study. bonfield left the meeting. other business committee on education and professional development. a statement on archival careers and archival education prepared as the text for a new saa education brochure by the committee d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists on education and professional development (cepd) was approved on a motion by mc- carthy, seconded by berkeley. the statement was transmitted to the publications commit- tee. a plan submitted by the cepd for a pilot effort in the approval of archival education programs was considered by the council. the council passed a motion by mccarthy, sec- onded by mccree, which instructed the committee to proceed with the self-study aspects of the plan. after it has received a report of this phase of the program, council will consider authorization of site visits, the second major facet of the plan. status of women committee report. council reviewed a proposal to monitor archival employ- ment practices, from the status of women committee. president helmuth will contact the committee to recommend changes in the work plan. these included suggestions that the survey be anonymous to encourage a greater participation, and that a pre-test of twenty- five questionnaires be made so that an analysis could be made of the response rate, findings, etc. the committee's revised plan will be reviewed by the executive committee. annual meeting. weldon announced the appointment of larry hackman to chair the program committee, and james o'toole to chair the boston local arrangements committee. cosla statement. the government records pag presented a resolution responding to the "guidelines for library functions at the state level (draft # )," of the chief officers of state library agencies. on a motion by berkeley, seconded by weldon, council passed the following resolution: whereas, the proposed "guidelines for library functions at the state level (draft # )," of the chief officers of state library agencies, identifies "the appropriate unit of state government responsible for the function specified in each standard" (chapter , second paragraph), and sections . through . require the placement of state archival records and records management programs within the state library agency, and section . would "make clear administrative and legal provision for each of the following library- related responsibilities at the state level" with "( ) preservation of the state's history; ( ) management of the state's records and conservation;" and, whereas, the council of the society of american archivists agrees that every state should have a records management and an archival program for the disposition and pres- ervation of state and local government records, the council believes that experience has shown that these programs are not necessarily carried out most effectively as state library functions, therefore, be it resolved that the council of the society of american archivists objects to the restrictive nature of the guidelines relating to archives and records manage- ment and requests that these guidelines be stricken. ica business archives committee meeting. council authorized the business archives pag to explore the possibilities of sponsoring a meeting of the business archives committee of the international council on archives, in the united states. the acquisition of financial support will be necessary in order to hold the meeting. national center for state courts. council discussed a resolution received from the government records pag regarding the records management and archives activities of the national center for state courts. council action was deferred pending weldon's acquisition of additional information regarding the isssues addressed in the resolution. working group on public records. a recommendation was received from the government records pag that a working group of representatives of professional organizations in the fields of archival and records management, public administration, public service, and in- formation processing, be convened under the aegis of the council of state governments or d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ summer a similar organization. a motion by berkeley, seconded by mccree, directed the executive director to recommend the proposal to the attention of the council of state governments. the meeting was adjourned at : p.m. ann morgan campbell, executive director for people who know all about records storage paige boxes are for professionals, experienced people who have learned all about the equipment available for handling, transporting, and storage of records, microfilm, data processing material, and computer printouts. those people know that paige files are durable equipment at lowest possible cost. available acid free. prices at wholesale level. no sales people. no distributors. no stores. write for brochure, prices, case histories. the paige company park avenue south new york, n.y. d or - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / summer the president's page ruth w. helmuth information is our stock in trade. everything we do as archivists and manuscripts curators culminates in the information transfer process, whether we serve genealogists, administrators, or "serious scholars." it seems likely that whatever new theory we develop as archivists will derive from, or be strongly influenced by, research in information science. dick lytle's pioneering dissertation, portions of which were published in the american archivist (volume , nos. and ), is a conspicuous example. what i found most interesting about his work was the recognition, again, of how little we really know about our users, and about how we search for and retrieve information. have you ever tried to think about all of the steps involved in searching? my quick instinctive answer is that we search, of course, by function (we arrange by provenance; we search by function); which office, which publication would have been most likely to deal with a matter like this in ? once having established a search strategy based on function—these series, these publications are good places to start—we go on to what are essentially subject-oriented finding aids, the container lists. we browse in folders to pick up leads of other possible series to consult. or in a university, especially, we have chronological access through those marvelous shelves of bulletins and yearbooks and directories and annual reports. the permutations and combinations of search by function, by subject, by chronology are dazzling; the prospect of trying to analyze the process is overwhelming. user studies have been a traditional and very useful tool for librarians; why have archivists not utilized this technique more widely? at case western reserve university, we have for a long time made periodic analyses of our users, their questions and how we answered them—this last in very broad categories, no great subtleties as to search methods. one persistent finding is that we are regarded as a general information source about the university, and many of these questions can be answered without using original source materials at all. another large group of questions involves the retrieval of a single document or folder or photograph, a situation that requires minimal searching. those questions that demand extended search, browsing, following leads from one series to another, are a relatively small percentage of our requests. certainly the kind of statistics being proposed by the current task force, chaired by katherine emerson, would weigh these questions by counting the number of sources consulted and the number of researcher visits. at best, however, how are we to deal with user studies indicating that substantial portions of our holdings are in effect not used—not in ten years, not in fifteen years. i welcome leonard rapport's paper on reappraisal; we should reappraise some of those dusty records, and discard them with a clear conscience. and yet, there is something operating that i can only call a faith factor. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / summer user statistics are never going to change our original judgment that certain records are important and should be preserved (you will excuse the expression) because of their intrinsic value. how else can we justify the conviction that some day they will be needed to enlighten an administrator we will never meet, or by a scholar who may not yet have learned to write? our records are unique—in the proper sense of the word—and that fact imposes some special obligations. granting all this—that our search methods are exceedingly complex, and the nature of our holdings poses special problems—still we are in the information business. in a world where the fittest survive, we have to learn and use the methodology of that field if we are going to claim our portion of the future. to tmtn th annual meeting university of californic -berkeley september - , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril is there something you'd like to last oo years? howard permalife® is the world's standard for a permanent/durable paper. under archival storage conditions it will last years. under "reasonable" conditions, at least a century. permalife has a slightly alkaline ph to counteract atmospheric acidity and is free from trace metals. it has excellent flex strengths. ask your howard paper merchant for samples or write "permalife" at the address below. howard paper mills, inc. columbia street, p.o. box dayton, ohio hiiiiiiiftr the nation's printing papers hom^ird d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril thewpa historical records survey a guide to the unpublished inventories, indexes, and transcripts compiled by loretta l. hefner this guide is the product of a survey of unpublished hrs materials conducted by the society of american archivists with a grant from the national endowment for the humanities. it lists repositories in the united states which hold hrs materials. the guide contains summaries of hrs activity in each state, separate entries for repositories in which hrs materials have been located and lists of specific holdings in each repository. detailed lists of counties, municipalities, and denominations that are covered by inventory forms in specific project areas are included on microfiche. ( ) pp., paper. $ saa members, $ others. a postage and handling charge will be added to all non-prepaid orders. to place an order or to obtain a complete list of saa publications, write the society of american archivists, s.weils st.,suite , chicago, il . ' fqtt] d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the modem archives institute of the national archives and records service announces for introduction to modern archives administration (in cooperation with the library of congress) january - , june - , for information and applications, please write: modern archives institute (nax) national archives and records service, gsa washington, dc modgrn archives institutc d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril acid-free protection drop front gallery print boxes • available in four sizes up to " x " • shipped flat for storing convenience __ & reduced shipping costs • exclusive perma/dur® solid box board • extra strong for years of safe dependable service • convenient drop front design just one of the many items in our new - catalog of archival storage materials. send for your free copy today! university products, inc. p. o. box • so. canal st. • holyoke, ma d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . v by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize — vrije universiteit amsterdam 	 skip to main navigation 	 skip to search 	 skip to main content 	 help & faq 	 home 	 profiles 	 research units 	 research output 	 datasets 	 activities 	 prizes 	 press / media search by expertise, name or affiliation working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize c.h. roessingh, l. mol research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review downloads (pure) 	 overview 	 fingerprint abstract this article addresses the role of women in the labour system of the mennonite entrepreneurs in a community in belize, central america. the labour system of the mennonite enterprises is mainly organised independently of the general belizean labour system. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years, however, their role has changed and they have increasingly started to work outside of the home. this has had major implications for the position of women in the community. in this article a description of the position of women in the mennonite labour system will be provided using literature on the mennonite women, combined with empirical data from the mennonite community of spanish lookout, belize. © , inderscience publishers. 	original language	english 	pages (from-to)	 - 	number of pages	 	journal	international journal of entrepreneurship and small business 	volume	 	issue number	 / 	dois		https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . 	publication status	published - access to document 	 . /ijesb. . 	ijesb roesmolfinal published version, kb fingerprint dive into the research topics of 'working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize'. together they form a unique fingerprint. 	 labor business & economics 	 central america business & economics 	 empirical data business & economics 	 entrepreneurs business & economics view full fingerprint cite this 	 apa 	 author 	 bibtex 	 harvard 	 standard 	 ris 	 vancouver roessingh, c. h., & mol, l. ( ). working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize. international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, ( / ), - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . roessingh, c.h. ; mol, l. / working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize. in: international journal of entrepreneurship and small business. ; vol. , no. / . pp. - . @article{d bb bdfdb c a e c a f b, title = "working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize", abstract = "this article addresses the role of women in the labour system of the mennonite entrepreneurs in a community in belize, central america. the labour system of the mennonite enterprises is mainly organised independently of the general belizean labour system. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years, however, their role has changed and they have increasingly started to work outside of the home. this has had major implications for the position of women in the community. in this article a description of the position of women in the mennonite labour system will be provided using literature on the mennonite women, combined with empirical data from the mennonite community of spanish lookout, belize. {\textcopyright} , inderscience publishers.", author = "c.h. roessingh and l. mol", year = " ", doi = " . /ijesb. . ", language = "english", volume = " ", pages = " -- ", journal = "international journal of entrepreneurship and small business", issn = " - ", publisher = "inderscience enterprises ltd", number = " / ", } roessingh, ch & mol, l , 'working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize', international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. / , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize. / roessingh, c.h.; mol, l. in: international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. / , , p. - .research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review ty - jour t - working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize au - roessingh, c.h. au - mol, l. py - y - n - this article addresses the role of women in the labour system of the mennonite entrepreneurs in a community in belize, central america. the labour system of the mennonite enterprises is mainly organised independently of the general belizean labour system. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years, however, their role has changed and they have increasingly started to work outside of the home. this has had major implications for the position of women in the community. in this article a description of the position of women in the mennonite labour system will be provided using literature on the mennonite women, combined with empirical data from the mennonite community of spanish lookout, belize. © , inderscience publishers. ab - this article addresses the role of women in the labour system of the mennonite entrepreneurs in a community in belize, central america. the labour system of the mennonite enterprises is mainly organised independently of the general belizean labour system. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years, however, their role has changed and they have increasingly started to work outside of the home. this has had major implications for the position of women in the community. in this article a description of the position of women in the mennonite labour system will be provided using literature on the mennonite women, combined with empirical data from the mennonite community of spanish lookout, belize. © , inderscience publishers. u - . /ijesb. . do - . /ijesb. . m - article vl - sp - ep - jo - international journal of entrepreneurship and small business jf - international journal of entrepreneurship and small business sn - - is - / er - roessingh ch, mol l. working ladies: mennonite women in the enterprise of spanish lookout, belize. international journal of entrepreneurship and small business. ; ( / ): - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . 	 	 	 	 	 powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure vrije universiteit amsterdam data protection policy about web accessibility .. eze et al. malaria journal , : http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / research open access mass distribution of free insecticide-treated nets do not interfere with continuous net distribution in tanzania ikenna c eze , *, karen kramer , , amina msengwa , , renata mandike and christian lengeler , abstract background: to protect the most vulnerable groups from malaria (pregnant women and infants) the tanzanian government introduced a subsidy (voucher) scheme in , on the basis of a public-private partnership. these vouchers are provided to pregnant women at their first antenatal care visit and mothers of infants at first vaccination. the vouchers are redeemed at registered retailers for a long-lasting insecticidal net against the payment of a modest top-up price. the present work analysed a large body of data from the tanzanian national voucher scheme, focusing on interactions with concurrent mass distribution campaigns of free nets. methods: in an ecologic study involving all regions of tanzania, voucher redemption data for the period – , as well as data on potential determinants of voucher redemption were analysed. the four outcome variables were: pregnant woman and infant voucher redemption rates, use of treated bed nets by all household members and by under- five children. each of the outcomes was regressed with selected determinants, using a generalized estimating equation model and accounting for regional data clustering. results: there was a consistent improvement in voucher redemption rates over the selected time period, with rates > % in . the major determinants of redemption rates were the top-up price paid by the voucher beneficiary, the retailer- clinic ratio, and socio-economic status. improved redemption rates after were most likely due to reduced top-up prices (following a change in policy). redemption rates were not affected by two major free net distribution campaigns. during this period, there was a consistent improvement in net use across all the regions, with rates of up to % in . conclusion: the key components of the national treated nets programme (natnets) seem to work harmoniously, leading to a high level of net use in the entire population. this calls for the continuation of this effort in tanzania and for emulation by other countries with endemic malaria. keywords: malaria, malaria control, voucher scheme, long-lasting insecticidal nets, ecological study, tanzania background malaria continues to be a large burden of disease in the world [ ]. in tanzania alone it kills about , chil- dren annually [ ], with enormous economic implications [ ]. the burden of malaria is most felt across the most vulnerable groups, which include pregnant women and under-five children. in the light of this, the tanzanian government developed a subsidy (voucher) scheme to * correspondence: ikenna.eze@unibas.ch swiss tropical and public health institute, p.o. box, , basel, switzerland university of basel, basel, switzerland full list of author information is available at the end of the article © eze et al.; licensee biomed central ltd commons attribution license (http://creativec reproduction in any medium, provided the or dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.or unless otherwise stated. distribute long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (llin) to pregnant women and under-five children in a public- private partnership called the tanzanian national voucher scheme (tnvs) [ , ]. this scheme, which has a very active private sector involvement, started in following a number of projects aimed at making itns more affordable for the population. smartnet was the biggest of these projects and contributed to a strong development of the private sector for nets from until [ ]. the infant vouchers (iv) are given to mothers/fathers of infant com- ing for their first vaccination in mother-and-child clinics, while the pregnant woman vouchers (pwv) are given to . this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative ommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and iginal work is properly credited. the creative commons public domain g/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, mailto:ikenna.eze@unibas.ch http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / pregnant women in antenatal clinics. the women/parents/ guardians later redeem the vouchers for an llin from accredited retailers with a small top-up payment (figure ). the tnvs is part of the national insecticide-treated nets programme (natnets), which involves also other net distribution strategies such as the mass campaigns of free llins [ , ]. the vouchers are handled by a non-governmental contractor (mennonite economic development associates - meda), which also track the vouchers across the entire cycle. the vouchers are dispatched from dar es salaam to the district medical offices (dmos) on request, and are la- beled “dispatched vouchers”. the dmos send the vouchers to the clinics on request, as the “sent out vouchers”. the clinics give the vouchers to pregnant women and mothers of infants, which are then tagged as “issued vouchers”. the women use these issued vouchers to redeem an llin at a retail shop upon payment of a top-up fee, which varied over time and was set to tzs (about us$ . ) in . these vouchers are “exchanged vouchers”. the retailers submit the redeemed vouchers to the manufacturers (suppliers) in exchange for more llins as “swapped vouchers”. the manufacturer then returns them to meda for payment, and at this point they are “returned vouchers”. the returned vouchers are then matched with the corre- sponding voucher stubs that have been returned from the clinics for final reconciliation. the matched vouchers be- come the “redeemed vouchers” and it is on this basis that the manufacturers are paid (figure ), while fraudulent vouchers are voided. the tnvs started with the pwv in and included the iv in . by december , over figure tnvs voucher/llin cycle. arrows represent direction of voucher economic development associates. four million infant vouchers and nine million pregnant woman vouchers had been redeemed for a llin [ ]. since , an e-voucher scheme involving the use of mobile phones to transmit codes used in the voucher supply chain is being gradually introduced into the tnvs to replace the paper voucher system. the e-voucher became necessary for three reasons: (i) to enhance the timely voucher usage by the beneficiaries, (ii) to help reduce the financial liability created by unredeemed vouchers, (iii) to allow real-time data handling and eliminating voucher stock-outs at clinics. it is also useful in reducing llin stock-outs at retailers and in better control- ling voucher misuse and fraud. the tnvs undergoes continuous monitoring and evalu- ation in the forms of household surveys [ - ], retail audits [ , ], voucher tracking [ , ] and qualitative studies [ , ]. a evaluation of the precursor of tnvs in the frame of the kinet project in two rural districts of southern tanzania showed high voucher return rates but low awareness and voucher use two years after initi- ation of the programme. this prompted more activities in behaviour change communication (bcc) [ ]. mulligan and colleagues [ ] explored the cost effectiveness of the scheme, whereas tami et al. explored issues sur- rounding voucher misuse [ ]. in , marchant and colleagues assessed coverage equity of the voucher scheme and proposed steps to improve deficiencies [ ], whereas donaldson and thiede, evaluated in the general performance of the voucher scheme, without investigating the determinants of voucher redemption across the re- gions of tanzania [ ]. and net flow. llin: long-lasting insecticidal nets; meda: mennonite eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / following voucher redemption trends and assessing determinants of redemption rates is crucial in ensuring effectiveness of the tnvs and the efficient use of resources. in addition, there was considerable concern as to whether mass distributions of free llins, which took place between and , would negatively affect the demand for vouchers and their redemption, possibly leading to a loss of interest in the tnvs by the private net sector, which is crucial for its functioning. this was studied, in order to support the future planning of natnets components. methods this was an ecologic study involving a time series analysis of the key factors influencing voucher redemption rates and bed net coverage in tanzania between and . the unit of data collection was the administrative region (the second administrative level in the country). as of , mainland tanzania had regions and districts. district-level analysis was not possible because of lack of uniformity in the available data. study outcomes the primary outcomes were pwv and iv redemption rates, whereas the secondary outcomes were household (all ages) and under-five use of treated bed nets. voucher redemption rates were expressed as percentages and were defined as total number of vouchers redeemed divided by the total number of stubs returned in a given time period. bed net use was defined as sleeping under an insecticide- treated bed net the night preceding the household surveys, and the rate of bed net use was expressed as a percentage of all relevant population in the relevant household sur- vey. “household bed net use” considered everyone in the household regardless of age and sex, while under-five bed net use only considered children below the age of five years. the study outcomes, data sources and years of availability are shown in table . table summarizes the potential determinants, data source, years of data availabil- ity and their hypothesized effect on the key outcomes. potential determinants of redemption rates/bed net use potential determinants of redemption rates/bed net use included: retailer-clinic ratio (ratio of the number of retailers to the number of clinics issuing vouchers in table outcomes of present study outcome years available source infant voucher redemption rates - meda pregnant woman voucher redemption rates - meda household bed net use - nmcp under-five bed net use - nmcp meda: mennonite economic development associates; nmcp: national malaria control programme. every region in a given year); top-up price (additional fee paid in cash by a woman redeeming a voucher for a llin at a retailer in each region in a given year); under-five coverage campaign (u cc) ( / : year in which free nets were distributed to every registered under-five child in every region between and ). universal coverage campaign ( / : year in which free nets were dis- tributed to cover every registered sleeping space not cov- ered by the under-five campaign between and ); prevalence of malaria (number of positive cases detected by microscopy (and/or rapid diagnostic test) divided by the total number of individuals in each regional sample); mass media as a form of behavioural change communication (bcc) activity of the national malaria control programme (nmcp): percentage of men and women exposed to at least one source of mass media in one week, and relative wealth index (socio-economic score assigned to each region based on their wealth as compared to the national average). data sources included meda, nmcp, tanzania hiv malaria indicator surveys (thmis) [ ], and tanzania demography and health surveys (tdhs) [ ]. these potential determinants, data sources and years of avail- ability are shown in table , along with their presumed effect on redemption rates. data collection the redemption rates for both voucher types were computed from the meda database. the retailer-clinic ra- tios were also computed from same source. since meda coordinated the distribution of free nets during the under- and universal coverage campaigns, they also provided us with the detailed schedule of both campaigns. household survey and retail audit data (from surveys carried out by the ifakara health institute) were sourced from the database of the nmcp. the average top-up price paid in surveyed districts in the different years was computed from the retail audit data. since the samples of these surveys were sample district-based, the top-up prices in the sampled districts, for the period before when a fixed top-up was introduced, were applied as the regional prices and one or two non-surveyed regions in each year were given the national average top-up price for that year. these average top-up prices were converted to their dollar equivalent based on the average exchange rates for the respective years [ ]. bed net use data for all household members and under- children were sourced from the thmis done in [ ]. the same source also provided the regional malaria prevalence data in [ ]. the regional relative wealth indices (in quintiles) was sourced from the tdhs [ ]. this regional wealth index was computed using information on household assets at regional level and then derived by principal component analysis [ ]. asset information involved household owner- ship of certain items as well as housing characteristics. each table selected determinants of voucher redemption rates and bed net use, with data sources variable years available hypothesized effect on outcome source retailer-clinic ratio - increase in the ratio will increase redemption rates meda average top-up price - increase in top-up price will decrease redemption rates nmcp under- coverage campaign (u cc) - free net campaign will decrease redemption rates meda universal coverage campaign (ucc) - free net campaign will decrease redemption rates meda prevalence of malaria , higher prevalence will increase redemption rates thmis exposure to mass media higher exposure to media will increase redemption rates tdhs relative wealth index (of region versus national average) increase in wealth index will increase redemption rates tdhs meda: mennonite economic development associates; nmcp: national malaria control programme; thmis: tanzania hiv/aids malaria indicator survey; tdhs: tanzania demography and health survey. eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / asset was assigned a score and each household was then assigned a summary score for each owned asset. the sample was then divided into quintiles [ ] and each region put into an average wealth quintile in com- parison to all other regions. finally, the average exposure of men and women to various means of mass media in one week were sourced from the tdhs [ ]. data analyses the outcome variables were summarized by year and re- gion and the effects of potential determinants on selected outcomes were analysed using a generalized estimating equation (gee) model (binomial family for redemption rates and gaussian family for bed net coverage). the models were selected to adjust for between-cluster var- iations. the voucher redemption rates, average top-up prices, retailer-clinic ratios and malaria prevalence rates were used as continuous quantitative variables. the cam- paigns were a no ( ) or yes ( ). prior to the campaign date, a ‘ ’ was assigned to each region and a ‘ ’ was assigned from the campaign year onward until the end of the study. for the net use model, the redemption rates were used as categorical variables. the final model for the voucher redemption rate ana- lysis included average top-up price, retailer-clinic ratio, ucc, u cc, malaria prevalence, socio-economic status and exposure of men and women to mass media. the net use model additionally included the voucher re- demption rates but did not include average top-up price and retailer-clinic ratio. all statistical analyses were done with stata version [stata corporation, texas]. results the distribution of voucher redemption rates over the years of study is shown in figures and . there was a marked improvement in regional voucher redemption rates after (figures and ). these improvements occurred following three major interventions: ( ) a change towards a uniform low top-up of tshs (usd . ) in , the u cc in – and ( ) the ucc in – . both the pwv and iv redemption rates in- creased up to > % in . this change corresponded to the reduction in top-up prices paid by the women after from about $ to $ . ) (figure ) and this trend was seen regardless of the concurrent mass distribu- tions of free nets. there were also marked improvements in the regional use data of bed nets, especially after (figures and ). this coincided with both the change in top-up price for vouchers and both mass campaigns of free nets (figure ). determinants of voucher redemption the redemption of vouchers appeared to be influenced by the average top up price, retailer-clinic ratio and socio-economic status (table ). for every dollar increase in top up price, the pregnant woman voucher redemption rate decreased by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ) whereas the infant voucher redemption rate decreased non-significantly by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ). an increase in the retailer-clinic ratio by increased the pwv redemption rate by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ) whereas the iv redemption rate increased by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ). an increase in one socio- economic category increased iv redemption rate by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ) and pwv redemption rate by %: or = . ( % ci . - . ). neither malaria prevalence nor exposure to mass media affected voucher redemption rates. interestingly, the ucc seemed to in- dependently improve redemption rates of the pwv: or = . ( % ci . - . ) and also the iv redemp- tion rates, although this was not statistically significant: or = . ( % ci . - . ). similar results were observed for the u cc. for pwv redemption rates: or = . ( % ci . - . ), hence a non-significant improvement, while it was significant for iv redemption rates: or = . ( % ci . - . ). determinants of bed net use the u cc was a major determinant of bed net use, with or = . ( % ci . - . ) for household net use and . ( % ci . - . ) for under-five bed net use (table ). figure regional trends in infant voucher redemption rates. iv: infant voucher; u cc: under-five coverage campaign; ucc: universal coverage campaign. figure regional trends in pregnant woman voucher redemption rates. pwv: pregnant woman voucher; u cc: under-five coverage campaign; ucc: universal coverage campaign. eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / figure trends of study outcomes and interventions. topup- average top-up price (usd); u cc- under-five coverage campaign; ucc- universal coverage campaign; pwvrr- pregnant woman voucher redemption rate; ivrr- infant voucher redemption rate; hh- household; u - under-five. eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / unexpectedly, this was not the case for the ucc. for households (all ages) or = . ( % ci . - . ) and for under-fives or = . ( % ci . - . ). the use of treated bed nets by both population groups slightly varied by malaria prevalence, increasing by % for every % increase in malaria prevalence but with only borderline significance: or = . ( % ci . - . ). the socio- economic status and exposure to mass media were not significant determinants of bed net use in our model. figure regional trends in household bed net use. u cc: under-five c discussion determinants of pregnant woman voucher redemption rate the trend of the redemption rates over the years – we describe were in line with another evaluation done by the nmcp [ ]. the consistent drop in redemption rates since was attributed to the rising top-up prices paid by women, up to an average of more than one dollar in . when the top-up mechanism was transformed in the last quarter of into a fixed and much lower cost of overage campaign; ucc: universal coverage campaign. figure regional trends in under-five bed net use. u cc: under-five coverage campaign; ucc: universal coverage campaign. eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / tzs (around usd . in and usd . in ) rates climbed steadily. the retailer-clinic ratio (the average number of par- ticipant net retailer per voucher issuing clinic) was also a significant determinant of redemption rates. for in- stance, if a region had two retailers for every clinic, the table determinants of voucher redemption rates determinant outcome top-up price pwv iv retailer-clinic ratio pwv iv universal coverage campaign pwv iv under-five coverage campaign pwv iv malaria prevalence pwv iv socio-economic status pwv iv exposure of men to mass media pwv iv exposure of women to mass media pwv iv pwv: pregnant woman voucher; iv: infant voucher; or: odds ratio; ci: confidence in redemption rate, per unit increase in variable. chances of voucher redemption would increase by % compared to a region having only one retailer on average. this confirmed the importance of a vibrant commercial sector for the successful running of the tnvs. the logis- tic contractor for the tnvs (meda) has a target of two registered retailers for every registered clinic participating unadjusted or ( % ci) fully adjusted or ( % ci) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) terval. or values represent per cent increase or decrease in voucher table determinants of bed net use determinant net use unadjusted or ( % ci) fully adjusted or ( % ci) pwv redemption rate hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) iv redemption rate hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) universal coverage campaign hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) under-five coverage campaign hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) malaria prevalence hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) socio-economic status hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) exposure of men to mass media hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) exposure of women to mass media hh . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) u . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) hh: household – i.e. all ages; u : under-five; or: odds ratio; ci: confidence interval. or values represent per cent increase or decrease in voucher redemption rate, per unit increase in variable. eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / in the tnvs and is working towards that goal. from a trend analysis as well as from the regression analysis, the top-up price was the most important factor in redemption rate variations over the years, regardless of national cam- paigns of free nets. the odds of voucher redemption were reduced by % for every $ increase in top-up fee. this was consistent with findings from the qualitative survey done in tanzania to assess reasons for non-redemption of vouchers by pregnant women, which showed inability to afford a high top-up as the major reason for non-redemption ( . %). other reasons included lack of voucher nets in shops ( %), loss of vouchers before redemption ( %), already had a net / don’t need a net ( %) and no knowledge of any retail shops ( . %) [ ]. contrary to present hypotheses, and also contrary to the fears by natnets stakeholders, neither the u cc nor the ucc had a detrimental impact on the voucher redemption rates. this is a very important finding, which shows that mass campaigns of free nets and routine dis- tribution systems relying on some cost participation are compatible, a point hotly debated in the mid ’s [ , ]. one anecdotal reason for this might be that the small size and quality of the nets distributed during the campaigns were less popular among the population than the tnvs nets. the absence of effect of the campaigns is also sup- ported by the work of jean-richard [ ], which showed that free nets distributed in lindi and mtwara regions in did not affect net sales in the commercial sec- tor during that period. on the other side, a study by gingrich et al. [ ] to assess price and income elasticity of itn demand suggested that free itns reduced demand for itn by voucher recipients in the short term. this dif- ference is best explained by the different data sources, covering different time periods. strengths and limitations of the study a major strength of the present study is that the avail- able data volume was very was large and covering a wide time range. it is believed that the findings are robust as well as highly relevant, since they result from a com- prehensive national sample. however, there were also several inconsistencies and obvious mistakes in the available data, such as a region having a pwv redemption rate of > % in a particular year. this is a drawback for reliance on routine data. the regional clinic history did not go further back than in the meda quarterly reports. hence, this history was worked out assuming no change in the clinic count, from the number that was registered at the start of the scheme. also, the retailer count was sometimes inconsistent, as meda initially reported figures from the net suppliers rather than their own counts. these numbers were noted to be inflated when meda began registration of retailers in . some regions had docu- mented top-up prices even when the scheme had not been launched in those regions. efforts were made to correct these errors in close collaboration with meda and the nmcp; there were no other ways of validating the remaining data. clearly, data quality is important for eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / better assessments and monitoring of the tnvs, and this needs to improve. other problems of the tnvs during its existence the tnvs was also facing operational problems, which affected the general performance of the scheme. these included funding gaps, voucher finan- cial liability, insufficient clinics and retail outlets, llin stock-outs in retail shops and so on. obviously, for a national-level programme over such a long time period this was to be expected. the retailers are still not numer- ous enough, partly because shop owners do not see the tzs paid by the women/mothers as being enough as a profit [ ]. this is especially a problem since nets are relatively expensive compared to other goods in a typical shop, and hence they represent a large capital outlay. as of march , there were , registered retailers in the tnvs. but in the rural areas, the aim to have at least % of the villages with at least one retail shop to redeem vouchers has not yet been achieved, let alone having two. this usually generates extra costs for the voucher recipi- ents to travel to participating retailers. not even all the clinics in tanzania are registered with the tnvs. as of march , there were , registered clinics, out of the estimated , health facilities in the country [ ] the overall clinic-retailer ratio was . (target: retailers per clinic). a-z textiles limited, producer of the olyset net, has been the sole supplier of llins for the natnets programme since . this has created a monopoly and removed competition from the supply of llins to registered retailers, limiting choice and possibly lead- ing to higher prices. some retailers in the rural areas complained about not seeing the suppliers for over one year, thus making them unable to stock llins. despite these problems, the tnvs has achieved a lot in ensuring access to inexpensive llins among the vulnerable groups. it provides an effective “keep-up” mechanism, with an outreach record matched by few other programmes in sub-saharan africa. since tanzania is the only en- demic country known to operate such a national-level voucher scheme with a strong private sector component (and hence cost-sharing), the lessons for other programmes are limited. but the demonstration on this large scale of the great price elasticity of demand (beyond usd the uptake of llins is greatly reduced) could be useful to any other programme aiming to develop a commercial sector approach. the main finding of the present study that voucher redemption rates were not harmed by the two massive campaigns of free nets shows that the different natnets components are synergistic rather than antagonistic. this suggests that free campaigns and continuous distri- bution systems such as the voucher scheme can continue to co-exist in the future, but ongoing evaluation of the complementarity of different distribution mechanisms remains essential. abbreviations aids: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; bcc: behavioural change communication; dmo: district medical officer; e-voucher: electronic voucher; gee: generalized estimating equations; hh: household; hiv: human immunodeficiency virus; itn: insecticide-treated nets; iv: infant voucher; llin: long-lasting insecticidal nets; meda: mennonite economic development associates; natnets: tanzanian national nets programme; nmcp: national malaria control programme; or: odds ratio; pwv: pregnant woman voucher; sdc: swiss agency for development and cooperation; smitn: social marketing of insecticide-treated nets; tdhs: tanzania demography and health survey; thmis: tanzania hiv/aids malaria indicator survey; tnvs: tanzanian national voucher scheme; u cc: under- coverage campaign; ucc: universal coverage campaign. competing interests the authors hereby declare no competing financial or non-financial interests. authors’ contributions the authors contributed equally to the conception of this study and the development of this manuscript. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. acknowledgements over the review period, the tnvs was supported by the global fund to fight aids, tuberculosis and malaria (gfatm), the us president’s malaria initiative (pmi), and the uk’s department for international development (dfid). its co-ordination is facilitated by the swiss tropical and public health institute (swiss tph), through a grant from the swiss agency for development and cooperation (sdc) in the frame of the netcell project. we also wish to thank meda staff for providing us with data from the meda database. author details swiss tropical and public health institute, p.o. box, , basel, switzerland. university of basel, basel, switzerland. national malaria control programme, dar es salaam, tanzania. university of dar es salaam, dar es salaam, tanzania. received: march accepted: may published: may references . world health organization: world malaria report . geneva: world health organization; : . . tanzania commission for aids (tacaids) zacz, national bureau of statistics (nbs), office of the chief government statistician (ocgs) and macro international inc: tanzania hiv and malaria indicator survey: – . dar es salaam; . . jowett m, miller nj: the financial burden of malaria in tanzania: implications for future government policy. int j health plann manage , : – . . heierli u, lengeler c: should bed nets be sold or given free? the role of the private sector in malaria control. bern: swiss agency for development and cooperation; . . donaldson d, thiede m: tanzania national voucher scheme evaluation: public private partnership to distribute insecticide-treated bed nets tp pregnant women and infants. washington dc: united states agency for international development; . . bonner k, mwita a, mcelroy pd, omari s, mzava a, lengeler c, kaspar n, nathan r, ngegba j, mtung'e r, brown n: design, implementation and evaluation of a national campaign to distribute nine million free llins to children under five years of age in tanzania. malar j , : . . renggli s, mandike r, kramer k, patrick f, brown nj, mcelroy pd, rimisho w, msengwa a, mnzava a, nathan r: design, implementation and evaluation of a national campaign to deliver million free long-lasting insecticidal nets to uncovered sleeping spaces in tanzania. malar j , : . . hanson k, marchant t, mponda h, nathan r, bruce j: monitoring and evaluation of the tnvs: report on tnvs household, facility services and eze et al. malaria journal , : page of http://www.malariajournal.com/content/ / / users surveys (a comparison between baseline and months follow-up). dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . marchant t, bruce j, nathan r, mponda h, sedekia y, hanson k: monitoring and evaluation of the tanzanian national net strategy report on natnets household, facility services and facility users surveys. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . nathan r, sedekia y: monitoring and evaluation of the tanzania national net strategy: under-five catch up campaign. dar es salaam: ihi and usaid; . . stephen g, mulligan j, ebenezeri s, mtawa e, hanson k: tanzanian national voucher scheme: report of first round of retail census. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . mulligan j, ebenezeri s, mtawa e, stephen g, hanson k: monitoring and evaluation of tnvs: report on the second round of evaluation of tnvs. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . nathan r, mponda h, marchant t, hanson k: tanzanian national voucher scheme: preliminary report on voucher tracking study. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . nathan r, sedekia y: tanzanian national voucher scheme: report on / voucher tracking study. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . jones c, mponda h: monitoring and evaluation of the tnvs: report on the qualitative monitoring undertaken during january and february in four districts. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . mushi ak, sedekia y, nathan r: monitoring and evaluation of the tanzania national net strategy: qualitative investigations of u cc and upgraded vouchers. dar es salaam: ihrdc and lshtm; . . mushi ak, schellenberg jr, mponda h, lengeler c: targeted subsidy for malaria control with treated nets using a discount voucher system in tanzania. health policy plan , : – . . mulligan ja, yukich j, hanson k: costs and effects of the tanzanian national voucher scheme for insecticide-treated nets. malar j , : . . tami a, mbati j, nathan r, mponda h, lengeler c, schellenberg jr: use and misuse of a discount voucher scheme as a subsidy for insecticide-treated nets for malaria control in southern tanzania. health policy plan , : – . . marchant t, schellenberg d, nathan r, armstrong-schellenberg j, mponda h, jones c, sedekia y, bruce j, hanson k: assessment of a national voucher scheme to deliver insecticide-treated mosquito nets to pregnant women. cmaj , : – . . national bureau of statistics: tanzania demography and health survey . dar es salaam: nbs and macro international inc; . . historical exchange rates from with graphs and charts. http://www. fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?ma= accessed july . . national malaria control programme: global fund round bednet evaluation report. dar es salaam: ministry of health and social welfare (mohsw); . . lengeler c, grabowsky m, mcguire d, desavigny d: quick wins versus sustainability: options for the upscaling of insecticide-treated nets. am j trop med hyg , : – . . roberts l: combating malaria. battling over bed nets. science , : – . . jean-richard v: quantification of key operational parameters of the tanzanian national voucher scheme to protect pregnant women and infants against malaria. basel, switzerland, epidemiology and public health: swiss tropical and public health institute; . . gingrich cd, hanson kg, marchant tj, mulligan ja, mponda h: household demand for insecticide-treated bednets in tanzania and policy options for increasing uptake. health policy plan , : – . . koenker hm, yukich jo, mkindi a, mandike r, brown n, kilian a, lengeler c: analysing and recommending options for maintaining universal coverage with long-lasting insecticidal nets: the case of tanzania in . malar j , : . . mohsw: tanzania service availability and readiness assessment (sara) . dar es salaam: ifakara health institute; . doi: . / - - - cite this article as: eze et al.: mass distribution of free insecticide-treated nets do not interfere with continuous net distribution in tanzania. malaria journal : . submit your next manuscript to biomed central and take full advantage of: • convenient online submission • thorough peer review • no space constraints or color figure charges • immediate publication on acceptance • inclusion in pubmed, cas, scopus and google scholar • research which is freely available for redistribution submit your manuscript at www.biomedcentral.com/submit http://www.fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?ma= http://www.fxtop.com/en/historical-exchange-rates.php?ma= 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusion 	background 	methods 	study outcomes 	potential determinants of redemption rates/bed net use 	data collection 	data analyses 	results 	determinants of voucher redemption 	determinants of bed net use 	discussion 	determinants of pregnant woman voucher redemption rate 	strengths and limitations of the study 	other problems of the tnvs 	abbreviations 	competing interests 	authors’ contributions 	acknowledgements 	author details 	references << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /pagebypage /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails true /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /ara <feff a e f f f a b f a a c f a e a a a c c a b a a d b a e f f f f e f a d f b e f c c c f a a e f f b a a d b a e f f f f e f a d f b e> /bgr <feff f e b d e a c a f e a c d a d f d d e b d f d e f d f e d f a e a d e a c d c e e f f f e b e> /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa ef a fc c a c f f fdb c ad d cf a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef ef c a f c f f e a f ad c cea c a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /cze <feff f e e ed f e a b e e ed f b d e f f f b c e ed b e f c e ed b e e e e e b f fd a ed a e ed e f e e f b d e d f e e e f ed f d f f e e f b a ed e> /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c b c b e e c c b f b c e e e e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f b b f d b e e f f d e e a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f e d f e c e d f f f d e f f e e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /eti <feff b e e c d a b f e f c c f d d e a f b b c f d f b d e c f f d b e e c f f d f b d e f d d f e e f e a d f f e e d a> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e d f e c e d d e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /gre <feff a c b c b bc bf c bf b ae c c b b c c ad c c b c c c b bc af c b b c b b b bd b b b bc b bf c c b ae c b c b ad b b c b c b f b b b b ba c cd c c c b c bf b cc c b c b c c b b ba c c c c c ad c b c b c b af bf c ba b b b bf ba b bc b c c ad c e a b ad b b c b c b c bf c ad c b c b b b bc b bf c c b ae c b b bc c bf c bf cd bd bd b b bd bf b c c bf cd bd bc b c bf f c c bf f e ba b b bc b c b b b bd ad c c b c b c b ba b cc c b b c e> /heb <feff d e ea de e d d d d d e d ea d dc d db d d dc d e d e de e de db d f e d d e d d e e d d d db d ea d ea d de d e e d ea e d dc d e d d ea d db dc d d d d d e de e de db d d d e e d e e d dd e d ea e d dd dc e ea d d d d d de e e d ea f d d f e d d e e d d ea de ea e d de d ea d d ea e e> /hrv <feff a e a f f b d e a b c e e d d c f f a d e f e f b d e d f f f f f e b e a d a a d e> /hun <feff d e e e f d f b b e a ed e e a a c e f d f b f e e f e f d f b f e a b b c e c c ed e f b b c c f a a f e c e f f b d e d f b e c e f a f f b d e d f b a f c a f e e a f c b e a f b b c e f b d e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f e d c e d e f f b f e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea fa b f f e f c b f f e e b cea b fdd c d e c b af c c d d ea f bf e e f f d eb fc d b e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec b c a d cd d d b b d bc f ad c ae c d c c ace d c c b c c c c d f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /lth <feff e f b f d e f d b f f b d e c b b b f b b e c e e d f e e b f b d e c b f d f f e c e d a f d e> /lvi <feff a d e f a f b a d c c a f f f b d e b c b b e c e d e e f c b d a d e a f a f b d e c b f f e f e c b b f a e b d a d e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken voor kwaliteitsafdrukken op desktopprinters en proofers. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f b f b c e f b c c f f e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /pol <feff e f f a e f b d e f a c a f a a c a f b f a b f c a e a c a a b f b b f e f b d e d f c e f f d f f e e f a d e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f c d d f b f f f f e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /rum <feff c a e f d e f e c c d d e b f f e f e f d e c f f c f e f e c c f e> /rus <feff f e b c d d b d e a b f e d f e a c d e f c f d d d d b b f a d d e f d d e b c d b f d e b f f e b d f f e d b e a e e e d d b d e a c d b c e d e e a b c f e c e c e f f e e b f e d e> /sky <feff f e e f e e e e f b d e f f b c e fa c d e f c e fd c d c d f fd a e e f e e f b d e d f e e e f f f d f f f e e f ed e d a> /slv <feff e f a a e a f b d e f f a b b f f e f b e a e e d a e b c e b e a c e b e a e f b d e a d f f d f a f e f e e e f a d e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c b f f e c f a f e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f b c b e e c b f f b f b e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /tur <feff d fc fc a c b d b e c e b c c b d c f c c f c f d b e e c b c c e e e f c f c e c c f f e f e e b fc fc d c c e c c e> /ukr <feff a e e f c b f e d d f e a c d f c f a d a f e f c b f e a e f a d e e a d d b c d f d f e f b f e c d d f f e d e d c e e d e a c d c e d a f f e e f d e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents for quality printing on desktop printers and proofers. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /noconversion /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /na /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure true /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /na /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /leaveuntagged /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice contributors to this issue adam a. blackler is an assistant professor of history at black hills state university (department of history, university street, unit # , spearfish, sd ; email: adam.blackler@bhsu.edu). his book manuscript, heathens, “hottentots,” and heimat: the boundaries of germanness in southwest africa, – , exposes the other side of imperial domina- tion by looking specifically at how africans confronted german rule and at the degree to which colonial encounters altered german identity in the metropole. he is coediting after the imperialist imagination: a quarter centuryof research on global germanyand its legacies, a forthcoming anthology on german interactions across the globe, and will publish “the consequences of genocide” in a cultural history of genocide: the long nineteenth century (forthcoming, ). alex burkhardt was awarded his phd in june from the university of st. andrews (school of history, university of st. andrews, st. katharine’s lodge, the scores, st. andrews, fife, ky ba, united kingdom; email: ahcburkhardt@gmail.com). his research was entirely sup- ported by a st. andrews’s -year-anniversary scholarship, and the resulting thesis, democrats into nazis: the radicalisation of the bürgertum in hof-an-der-saale, examines the shifting political culture of the middle classes in a single german town during the first tumultuous half-decade of the weimar republic. he is currently preparing the manuscript for publication. jason p. coy is a professorof historyat the college of charleston (department of history, college of charleston, charleston, sc ; email: coyj@cofc.edu). he is the author of strangers and misfits: banishment, social control, and authority in early modern germany ( ). he has co- edited several volumes, including the holy roman empire, reconsidered (with benjamin marschke and david sabean, ) and migrations in the german lands, – (with jared poley and alexander schunka, ). coy is currently completing a study of divination in early modern germany. stephen g. gross is an assistant professor in the department of history and at the center for european and mediterranean studies at new york university (department of history, washington square south, floor e, new york, ny, ; email: stephengross@nyu.edu). his research explores the history of german political economy during the twentieth century, and his first book is export empire: german soft power in southeastern europe, – ( ). he is now working on a new book project with support from the andrew carnegie fellows program on the history of german energy policy from to the present. len scales is an associate professor of history at durham university (department of history, durham university, north bailey, durham dh ex, united kingdom; email: l.e.scales@- durham.ac.uk). scales has published widely on germany and the holy roman empire in the later middle ages and is the author of the shaping of german identity: authority and crisis, – ( ). he is currently writing a book on myths about medieval emperors in germany between the tenth century and the present day. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s &domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core sagi schaefer is an assistant professor of modern german and european history at tel aviv university (department of history, tel aviv university, tel aviv, israel; email: sagisc@- post.tau.ac.il). he is the author of states of division: border and boundary formation in cold war rural germany ( ). he has also published several articles, including “hidden behind the wall: west german state-building and the division of germany” ( ). his current research deals with the development of transportation infrastructure and its implications for social struc- tures in the peripheries of east and west germany during the cold war. tom scott is an honorary professor in the reformation studies institute of the university of st. andrews (reformation studies institute, university of st. andrews, st john’s house, south street, st. andrews, fife, ky qw, united kingdom; e-mail: ts @st-andrews.ac.uk.). his principal research interests focus on the social and economic history of germany in the late med- ieval and early modern periods. he is the author or editor of fourteen books, including, most recently, the city-state in europe, - : hinterland—territory—region ( ); the early reformation in germany: between secular impact and radical vision ( ); and the swiss and their neighbours: between accommodation and aggression ( ). barbara stollberg-rilinger, fba, is a professor of early modern history at the university of münster (historisches seminar der universität münster, domplatz – , münster, germany; email: stollb@uni-muenster.de). her research focuses on the cultural history of politics, especially the historyof political rituals and procedures, as well as symbols and metaphors in the early modern period. she isthe authorof severalbooks, including the emperor’s old clothes: constitutional history and symbolic language of the holy roman empire ( ), and a short history of the holy roman empire: from the end of the middle ages to ( , english translation forthcoming). her most recent book is the biography maria theresa: the empress in her time ( ; english translation forthcoming). peter h. wilson is chichele professor of the history of war at the university of oxford and a fellow of all souls college (all souls college, high street, oxford ox al, united kingdom; e-mail: peter.wilson@history.ox.ac.uk). he worked previously at the universities of hull, newcastle, and sunderland, and has been a visiting fellow at the university of münster in germany. his books include the holy roman empire: a thousand years of europe’s history ( ), with chinese and italian translations forthcoming, and europe’s tragedy: a history of the thirty years war ( ), which won the society for military history’s distinguished book award; the latter has been translated into polish, german, and spanish, with chinese and macedonian translations appearing in . his latest book, lützen, will be published in . contributors to this issue https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core forthcoming volume number special commemorative issue: central european history at fifty ( – ) letter from the editor memorial douglas a. unfug ( – ) james v. h. melton reflections on the past, present, and future of central european history and central european studies: taking stock of the journal and the field, with contributions by celia applegate, shelley baranowski, doris bergen, chad bryant, robert citino, john deak, richard j. evans, matthew fitzpatrick, michael geyer, kees gispen, will gray, karen hagemann, donna harsch, christina von hodenberg, konrad h. jarausch, jürgen kocka, sandrine kott, kenneth ledford, charles s. maier, michael meng, pamela potter, helmut puff, mark roseman, james sheehan, julia torrie, joachim whaley, george williamson, and others forum in memory of the “two helmuts”: a discussion of the lives, legacies, and historical impact of helmut schmidt and helmut kohl clayton m. clemens, mathias haeussler, ronald granieri, mary elise sarotte, kristina spohr, christian wicke book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core author index for volume , adam, thomas, agnew, hugh, althammer, beate, baranowski, shelley, bavaj, riccardo, beorn, waitman wade, bettag, alexandra, biess, frank, blackler, adam a., blobaum, robert, buenger, barbara copeland, burkhardt, alex, bowman, william, caldwell, peter c., cary, noel d., cioc, mark, coché, stefanie, cohen, gary b., colla, marcus, coy, jason, davis, sacha e., demshuk, andrew, dillon, christopher, dworok, gerrit, , eley, geoff, evans, richard j., fried, marvin benjamin, fulbrook, mary, goltz, anna von der, , griech-polelle, beth a., gross, stephen g., häberlen, joachim c., hewitson, mark, huener, jonathan, imlay, talbot c., jefferies, matthew, johnston, jean-michel, , jones, larry eugene, joseph, lawrence, judson, pieter m., kaplan, thomas pegelow, kauffman, jesse, komska, yuliya, kosto, adam j., lamberti, marjorie, ledford, kenneth f., lerner, robert e., lockenour, jay, lower, wendy, menninger, margaret eleanor, millington, richard, moranda, scott, moses, a. dirk, mouton, michelle, newman, john paul, olick, jeffrey k., poley, jared, port, andrew i., , , , , risser, nicole dombrowski, ritzheimer, kara, röskau-rydel, isabel, scales, len, schaefer, sagi, schreiter, katrin, scott, tom, smith, helmut w., snyder, timothy d., spickermann, roland, central european history ( ), – . © central european history of the american historical association, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core steinacher, gerald j., steinberg, jonathan, stollberg-rilinger, barbara, stoltzfus, nathan, swett, pamela e., taschka, sylvia, trommler, frank, tworek, heidi j. s., unangst, matthew, vendrell, javier samper, volovici, marc, waite, gary k., werner, hans, wilson, peter, yonan, michael, zahra, tara, zayarnyuk, andriy, ziemann, benjamin, author index for volume , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core title index for volume , articles competitive civilizing missions: hungarian germans, modernization, and ethno- graphic descriptions of the zigeuner before world war i, sacha e. davis, “crime has no chance”: the discourse of everyday criminality in the east german press, – , richard millington, the death of news? the problem of paper in the weimar republic, heidi j. s. tworek, from boondoggle to settlement colony: hendrik witbooi and the evolution of germany’s imperial project in southwest africa, – , adam a. blackler, growing apart: farmers and the division of germany, – , sagi schaefer, leon pinsker’s autoemancipation! and the emergence of german as a language of jewish nationalism, marc volovici, men of science and action: the celebrity of explorers and german national identity, – , matthew unangst, other ’ ers in west berlin: christian democratic students and the cold war city, anna von der goltz, power and society in the gdr reconsid- ered: involuntary psychiatric commit- ment, – , stefanie coché, prussian palimpsests: historic architecture and urban spaces in east germany, – , marcus colla, reimagining energy and growth: decou- pling and the rise of a new energy paradigm in west germany, – , stephen g. gross, a republican potential: the rise and fall of the german democratic party in hof-an- der-saale, – , alex burkhardt, revisiting morale under the bombs: the gender of affect in darmstadt, – , katrin schreiter, the time and the place to network: werner siemens during the era of prussian indus- trialization, – , jean-michel johnston, review forums an empire for our times? a discussion of peter wilson’s the holy roman empire: a thousand years of europe’s history, jason coy, len scales, tom scott, barbara stollberg-rilinger, peter wilson, “imperial dynamo”? a discussion of pieter m. judson’s the habsburg empire: a new history, william bowman, gary b. cohen, pieter m. judson, michael yonan, tara zahra, forum holocaust scholarship and politics in the public sphere: reexamining the causes, consequences, and controversy of the historikerstreit and the goldhagen debate, gerrit dworok, richard j. evans, mary fulbrook, wendy lower, a. dirk moses, jeffrey k. olick, timothy d. snyder (annotated and with an introduction by andrew i. port), exhibition review “europe in the renaissance: metamor- phoses, – ”, alexandra bettag, central european history ( ), – . © central european history of the american historical association, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core featured reviews “ein drittes reich, wie ich es auffasse”: politik, gesellschaft und privates leben in tagebüchern, – , janosch steuwer, reviewed by joachim c. häberlen, europe since : a history, philipp ther, reviewed by noel d. cary, geschichte der schweiz im . jahrhundert, jakob tanner, reviewed by jonathan steinberg, the great departure: mass migration from eastern europe and the making of the free world, tara zahra, reviewed by helmut w. smith, der historiker ohne eigenschaften. eine problemgeschichte des mediävisten frie- drich baethgen, joseph lemberg, reviewed by robert e. lerner, book reviews “der amtssitz der opposition”? politik und staatsumbaupläne im büro des stellvertr- eters des reichskanzlers in den jahren – , rainer orth, reviewed by larry eugene jones, artists under hitler: collaboration and sur- vival in nazi germany, jonathan petro- poulos, reviewed by barbara copeland buenger, austro-hungarian war aims in the balkans during world war one, marvin benjamin fried, reviewed by john paul newman, brody: a galician border city in the long nineteenth century, börris kuzmany, reviewed by andriy zayarnyuk, coming of age: youth and juvenile delin- quency in munich, – , martin kalb, reviewed by beth a. griech- polelle, the corrigible and the incorrigible: science, medicine, and the convict in twentieth- century germany, greg eghigian, reviewed by frank biess, defining deutschtum: political ideology, german identity, and music-critical discourse in liberal vienna, david brod- beck, reviewed by hugh agnew, ernst kantorowicz: a life, robert e. lerner, reviewed by adam j. kosto, “erst stirbt der wald, dann du!” das wald- sterben als westdeutsches politikum ( – ), birgit metzger, reviewed by sylvia taschka, the executioner’s journal: meister frantz schmidt of the imperial city of nurem- berg, joel f. harrington, ed., reviewed by jared poley, european mennonites and the challenge of modernity over five centuries: contri- butors, detractors, and adapters, mark jantzen, mary s. sprunger and john d. thiesen, eds., reviewed by hans werner, final sale in berlin: the destruction of jewish commercial activity – , christoph kreutzmüller, reviewed by pamela e. swett, founding weimar: violence and the german revolution of – , mark jones, reviewed by peter c. caldwell, german modernities from wilhelm to weimar: a contest of futures, geoff eley, jennifer l. jenkins, and tracie matysik, eds., reviewed by matthew jefferies, germans against nazism: nonconformity, opposition and resistance in the third reich. essays in honour of peter hoff- mann, francis r. nicosia and lawrence d. stokes, eds., reviewed by nathan stoltz- fus, hans-ulrich wehler: historiker und zeit- genosse, paul nolte, reviewed by geoff eley, harmful and undesirable: book censorship in nazi germany, guenter lewy, reviewed by kara ritzheimer, hitler versus hindenburg: the presi- dential elections and the end of the weimar republic, larry eugene jones, reviewed by anna von der goltz, hometown religion: regimes of coexis- tence in early modern westphalia, david luebke, reviewed by gary k. waite, title index for volume , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core die internationale der konservativen. transnationale elitenzirkel und private außenpolitik in westeuropa seit , johannes großmann, reviewed by ric- cardo bavaj, im spiegel des wassers. eine transnationale umweltgeschichte des oberrheins ( – ), christoph bernhardt, reviewed by mark cioc, an iron wind: europe under hitler, peter fritzsche, reviewed by shelley bara- nowski, the kingdom of württemberg and the making of germany, – , bodie a. ashton, reviewed by mark hewitson, kriegsbeziehungen. intimität, gewalt und prostitution im besetzten polen – , maren röger, reviewed by jonathan huener, the league of nations and the refugees from nazi germany: james g. mcdonald and hitler’s victims, greg burgess, reviewed by nicole dombrowski risser, life and times in nazi germany, lisa pine, ed., reviewed by michelle mouton, the making of an ss killer: the life of colonel alfred filbert, – , alex j. kay, reviewed by christopher dillon, natur und industrie im sozialismus. eine umweltgeschichte der ddr, tobias huff, reviewed by scott moranda, the nazi-fascist new order for european culture, benjamin g. martin, reviewed by frank trommler, the necessity of music: variations on a german theme, celia applegate, reviewed by margaret eleanor mennin- ger, occupation in the east: the daily lives of german occupiers in warsaw and minsk, – , stephan lehnstaedt, reviewed by waitman wade beorn, ein paradigma der moderne. jüdische geschichte in schlüsselbegriffen, arndt engelhardt et al., eds., reviewed by thomas pegelow kaplan, philanthropy, civil society, and the state in german history, – , thomas adam, reviewed by beate althammer, die polenpolitk des kaiserreichs. prolog zum zeitalter der weltkriege, hans-erich volkmann, reviewed by roland spick- ermann, the politics of cultural retreat: imperial bureaucracy in austrian galicia, – , iryna vushko, reviewed by isabel röskau-rydel, les prisonniers de guerre allemands. france, – , fabien théofilakis, reviewed by talbot c. imlay, rescuing the vulnerable: poverty, welfare and social ties in modern europe, beate althammer, lutz raphael, and tamara stazic-wendt, eds., reviewed by thomas adam, sacrifice and rebirth: the legacy of the last habsburg war, mark cornwall and john paul newman, eds., reviewed by benja- min ziemann, schwarzhörer, schwarzseher und heimliche leser. die ddr und die westmedien, franziska kuschel, reviewed by yuliya komska, thieves in court: the making of the german legal system in the nineteenth century, rebekka habermas, reviewed by kenneth f. ledford, the transatlantic kindergarten: education and women’s movements in germany and the united states, ann taylor allen, reviewed by marjorie lamberti, “trash,” censorship, and national identity in early twentieth-century germany, kara l. ritzheimer, reviewed by javier samper vendrell, twilight of empire: the brest-litovsk conference and the remaking of east- central europe, – , borislav chernev, reviewed by robert blobaum, title index for volume , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vertriebene and pieds-noirs in postwar germany and france: comparative per- spectives, manuel borutta and jan c. jansen, eds., reviewed by andrew demshuk, vor dem sprung ins dunkle. die militärische debatte über den krieg der zukunft, - , stig förster, ed., reviewed by jesse kauffman, wandel, umbruch, absturz: perspektiven auf das jahr , jürgen angelow and johannes grossman, eds., reviewed by marvin benjamin fried, the war in their minds: german soldiers and their violent pasts in west germany, svenja goltermann, reviewed by jay lockenour, werner von siemens, – . eine biografie, johannes bähr, reviewed by jean-michel johnston, zwischen apologie und ablehnung. schweizer spanien-wahrnehmung vom späten franco-regime bis zur demokra- tisierung ( – ), moisés prieto, reviewed by gerald j. steinacher, memorials allan mitchell ( – ), lawrence joseph, ernst nolte ( – ), gerrit dworok, contributors to this issue, , , , forthcoming, , , , letter from the editor, , , , author index for volume , title index for volume , title index for volume , https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core subscription information: central european history (issn - ) is published quarterly in march, june, september, and december by cambridge university press, one liberty plaza, new york, ny , usa/uph, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb bs, england for the central european history society of the american historical association. annual subscription rates for volume ( ): institutional subscription rates, print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, online only: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. individual subscription rates include membership in the central european history society of the american historical association and are as follows: print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. graduate students enrolled at accredited universities may subscribe and become members at rates that are as follows: print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. single part prices: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription correspondence should be sent to cambridge university press, one liberty plaza, new york, ny , usa, for customers in the usa, canada, or mexico. customers elsewhere should contact cambridge university press, uph, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb bs, england. editorial office: all correspondence concerning submissions and manuscripts under review should be sent to andrew i. port, editor, central european history, wayne state university, fab, west kirby, detroit, mi usa. email: centraleuropeanhistory@ wayne.edu. abstracting and indexing information: articles in central european history are indexed or abstracted in historical abstracts, america: history and life, humanities index, book review index, internationale bibliographie der zeitschriftenliteratur (ibz), current contents/social and behavioral science, social science citation index, universal index system, combined retrospective index sets in history (cris), international bibliography of book reviews of scholarly literature on the humanities and social sciences (ibr), rambi. © central european history society of the american historical association, . all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, elec- tronic, photocopy, or otherwise, without permission in writing from cambridge university press, rights and permissions manager, one liberty plaza, new york, ny usa. for further information see http://us.cambridge.org/information/rights/. postmaster: send address changes to central european history, cambridge university press, one liberty plaza, new york, ny , usa. photocopying information for users in the usa: the item-fee code for the publication ( - / $ . ) indicates that copying for internal or personal use beyond that per- mitted by sec. or of the u.s. copyright law is authorized for users duly registered with the copyright clearance center (ccc), provided that the appropriate remittance of $ . per article is paid directly to ccc, rosewood drive, danvers, ma . specific written permission must be obtained for all other copying. internet access: this journal is included in the cambridge core service which can be found at cambridge.org/core/journals/central-european-history. for further information on other press titles, access http://www.cambridge.org/core. advertising: in the usa: usadsales@cambridge.org. in the uk: ad_sales@cambridge.org cover illustration: a street scene in berlin, by edward b. gordon (http://www.edwardbgordon.blogspot.com/) editorial policy central european history publishes articles, review essays, and book reviews that range widely through the history of germany, austria, and other german-speaking regions of central europe from the medieval era to the present. all topics and approaches to history are welcome: cultural, social, political, diplomatic, intellectual, economic, and military history, as well as historiography and methodology. contributions that treat new fields, such as post- and post- history, maturing fields such as gender hist- ory, and less-represented fields such as medieval history and the history of the habsburg lands are especially desired. the journal thus aims to be the primary venue for scholarly exchange and debate among scholars of the history of central europe. because space is limited, articles that have been or soon will be published elsewhere are not accepted. manuscripts submitted to ceh should not be under consideration by another journal pending decision of the editor on publication. if it is learned that an article is under submission to another journal while being considered at ceh, consideration will cease immediately. unsolicited book reviews are not accepted. manuscripts and correspondence should be directed to: andrew i. port editor, central european history wayne state university fab west kirby detroit, mi , usa email: centraleuropeanhistory@wayne.edu the editor prefers that manuscripts be submitted via scholarone (https://mc. manuscriptcentral.com/ccc). please take care to remove author identifying information, following the prompts in scholarone, to make your manuscript anonymous. the entire text of all manuscripts, including endnotes and headings, must be prepared in double-spaced typescript with generous margins to allow for copyediting. endnotes must be numbered consecutively and should be placed in a separate section at the end of the text. correspondence concerning book reviews should be sent to: julia s. torrie associate editor, book reviews central european history st. thomas university dineen dr. fredericton, nb e b g canada email: ceh@stu.ca further guidelines for the preparation of manuscripts for publication in central european history will be sent upon acceptance of materials by the editor. all materials will be edited to conform with the chicago manual of style in matters regarding punctuation, capitalization, and format. the final decision on style remains with the editor. _ - .indd - _ - .indd - / / : am / / : am https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core c e n t r a l e u r o p e a n h i s t o ry c e n t r a l e u r o p e a n h i s t o r y v o l u m e | n u m b e r | d e c e m b e r v o l u m e | n u m b e r | d e c e m b e r published for the central european history society of the american historical association cambridge core for further information about this journal please go to the journal web site at: cambridge.org/cehj _ - .indd - _ - .indd - / / : am / / : am https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	ccc_ _ _contributors 	ccc_ _ _forthcoming 	ccc_ _ _author-index 	ccc_ _ _title-index 	ccc_advert 	ibc 	obc << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice kult_online. review journal for the study of culture journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online (issn - ) issue (july ) emergent forms of life in contemporary english and american fic- tion conceptual frameworks, cultural contexts, and aesthetic explo- rations international graduate center for the study of culture (gcsc) - april ioanna kipourou and snežana vuletić how to cite: kipourou, ioanna and snežana vuletić: „emergent forms of life in contemporary english and american fiction conceptual frameworks, cultural contexts, and aesthetic explorations", - april , international graduate center for the study of culture (gcsc)“. in: kult_online ( ). doi: https://doi.org/ . /ko. . © by the authors and by kult_online https://doi.org/ . /ko. . kult_online. review journal for the study of culture / journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online - - emergent forms of life in contemporary english and american fiction conceptual frameworks, cultural contexts, and aesthetic explorations international graduate center for the study of culture (gcsc) - april ioanna kipourou and snežana vuletić forms of life within philosophy and beyond taking its key concepts and cue from ludwig wittgenstein’s suggestive observation that the speaking of a language is an integral part of a form of life, the conference attempted to move beyond the traditions of analytic philosophy and philosophy of language. its main purpose was to gauge the theoretical and heuristic potential of the philosophical, anthropological, and sociological notions of forms of life in literary and cultural studies. exemplary discussions of a wide range of contemporary english and american novels and short stories strived for critical analysis of the interlinkage between stylistic devices, formal procedures, and narratives techniques on the on hand, and changing forms of life on the other. by reframing, developing, and theorizing wittgenstein’s concept of “forms of life” the conference aimed to enlarge the conceptual and interpretative repertoire of literary and cultural studies and to furnish the study of narrative fiction as well as of other genres with new descriptive and analytical resources. the conference gathered researchers interested in conceptual frameworks, cultural contexts, and aesthetic explorations in the field of contemporary english and american fiction. entitled “emergent forms of life in contemporary english and american fiction”, wittgenstein’s multi- applicable concept of 'forms of life' was addressed with relation to autobiographical end-of- life stories, contemporary caribbean and nigerian anglophone literature, mennonite writing, politics of style, globalization, collective voices in narrative fiction, as well as new social and human 'forms of life'. https://journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online kult_online. review journal for the study of culture / journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online - - in the following report we intend to give an overview of highlights of the conference; for the variety of issues addressed, please have a look at the conference outline. narratives, literature, and cultural phenomena on wednesday, april rd, professor ansgar nÜnning, the director of the international graduate centre for the study of culture (gcsc), opened the conference with a kind welcome to all the distinguished speakers and numerous participants who came from within germany, as well as from other european countries, such as austria and spain. professor nünning also expressed his gratitude to michael basseler, who organized the conference with great professionalism and dynamism, and succeeded in creating a truly inspiring and productive working environment. michael basseler, as the academic director of the gcsc, and professor nünning then together provided an overview and a framework of concepts with specific focus on forms of life as cultural phenomena (cf. jaeggi ). professor margit gaffal (toledo) followed with a brief yet insightful overview of possible readings of wittgensteinian philosophy, with particular focus on the dynamics between language games and forms of life. following gaffal’s speech, michael basseler’s pre- sentation on narrative techniques and genres in literature initiated a thought-provoking discussion on the relationship between forms and life in literature, only to ultimately lead to the conclusion that “it is not a human form of life that serves as the reference pattern to understand and interpret other more distant forms; on the contrary, it is by the representation of other fictitious, unlikely or even unreal forms that it is possible to reconstruct our specific human form of life” (marques : ). the first section ended with an equally interesting presentation on autobiographical end-of-life stories given by nora berning (giessen). after the coffee break – during which numerous participants engaged in an informal discussion of the issues presented with the above-mentioned speakers – three doctoral students, ioanna kipourou (giessen), snezana vuletic (giessen), and julia michael (giessen) shared their thoughts on wittgenstein’s notion of forms of life in specific literary case studies. namely, they discussed emergent forms of life present in contemporary caribbean literature, contemporary nigerian anglophone literature, and mennonite writing respectively. as the first day of the conference came to an end, the participants continued the discussion over an enjoyable dinner at the center of giessen in a friendly atmosphere. https://journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online kult_online. review journal for the study of culture / journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online - - literary case studies on the second day, april th, two visiting scholars, stella butter (mannheim) and philipp lÖffler (heidelberg) contributed to the discussion on the role of literature in the process of modernization and the production of american postwar intellectual life respectively. afterwards, elizabeth kovach (giessen) addressed the issue of globalized labor, life, and letters in dave eggers’ a hologram for the king ( ), while christine schwanecke (giessen) discussed the notions of 'artifice' and 'emergence' in paul auster’s leviathan ( ). the conference proceeded with dan hartley (giessen) conceptualizing the relationship between the politics of style and changing forms of life in george saunder’s tenth of december ( ) and natalya bekhta’s (giessen) innovative talk on collective voices and dystopia in chang-rae lee’s on such a full sea ( ). it was sabine schÖnfellner (graz) and alexander scherr (giessen) who brought the conference to an end with their contributions on emergent forms of human life in margaret atwood’s oryx and crake trilogy ( ) or social forms of life in a.s. byatt’s “morpho eugenia” ( ) and e.o. wilson’s anthill: a novel ( ). conclusion at the end of the two-day conference, michael basseler invited the participants to a roundtable discussion on the challenging points that surfaced during the conference; and he wrapped up the discussion with concluding remarks on specific papers and future contributions, parti- cularly regarding the forthcoming publication of the articles presented. the volume will attempt to adapt, reframe, and theorize both the concept of forms of life and philosophical or sociological typologies of various kinds of life forms. furthermore the volume applies the concept/typologies as theoretical frameworks and analytical tools in literary and cultural studies, as well as finally exploring how changing cultural contexts (including, e.g., rapid technological and biological innovation, new media, ongoing acceleration, globalization, worldwide migration, terrorism as well as specific events and developments like catastrophes and crises) have inflected all forms of life in contemporary societies. in the end, all contributions gathered within the upcoming book will enlarge the conceptual and interpretative repertoire of literary and cultural studies, and furnish the study of narrative fiction as well as of other genres with new descriptive and analytical resources. https://journals.ub.uni-giessen.de/kult-online one hundred years of adventism in russia and the soviet union marite sapiets the seventh-day adve~tist chur~h in russia is now one hundred years old. today there are about , - , members of officially registered adventist communities in the ussr as well as an unknown number who belong to unregistered bodies such as the true and free seventh-day adventists. the story of the adventist church's beginnings in the russian empire has some interesting parallels with the present .. seveilth- day adventists have never had an easy life in russia. the state authorities were hostile to the adventist church before as well as after - though for different reasons. the late vladimir shelkov, leader of the true and free adventists, often referred to the pre-revolutionary period as one of persecution by "state orthodoxy" ("gospravoslaviye"), drawing a parallel with later persecution by soviet "state atheism" ("gosateizm"). seventh-day adventist ideas reached the russian empire in the s, some twenty years after the evangelical churches, mainly baptists, made their first converts in russia. the first adventist converts, like the first baptists, were not russians by nationality but germans - settlers in the volga river basin and ukraine, who were already non-orthodox in their religion but were tolerated by the state as long as they kept their religious beliefs within the german community. adventists were regarded at first as a "german sect" like the mennonites, but ran into trouble with the state authorities as soon as they began to attract russians, members of the orthodox state church. laws passed in by tsar nicholas i to discourage old believers and molokans - native russian "sects" - were now applied to the new western sectarians. proselytising among members of the russian orthodox church was punished by fines or exile to some remote region of the empire. "sectarian" meeting houses were sometimes boarded up and production of "sectarian" literature forbidden or severely restricted. in the early period of adventist growth in russia, however, most adventist literature was imported from the usa or germany. the first adventist publications were sent to relatives and friends by russian one hundred years of adv(mtism german emigrants to the usa who had become adventists there. copies of die stimme der wahrheit (voice of truth) , an american adventist magazine for german immigrants, first reached german settlements on the volga in . in , the main adventist newspaper in the usa, the review and herald, first received a request from moscow for a catalogue of adventist literature. in , gerhard perk, a young mennonite working as a bookseller for the british and foreign bible society, was shown an adventist pamphlet by a neighbour in wiesenfeld, a german village in ukraine. the neighbour had kept it hidden, as he considered it a dangerous publication and feared itmight lead to trouble. perk borrowed the pamphlet, the third angel's message, read it in the secrecy of his own hayloft and then wrote to the publishers inthe usa for more literature. he began to correspond with adventist headquarters at battle creek, michigan, and also with german adventists: when he finally became convinced that adventists were right in their beliefs, he undertook to sell adventist publications to german settlers in russia, as he had hitherto sold the bible. gerhard perk was to be one oftheleading lights of the adventist movement in the russian empire . . not only literature came from the united states: former emigrants returned to their homes in russia to bring the adventist message to others. among these were individuals like philip' reiswig, who arrived in the crimea in with a huge trunkful of adventist literature, and very little else, having sold his boots to pay for the last stage of his journey. the first few groups of seventh"day adventists among the germans of the volga were established by another re,immigrantirom kansas, konrad laubhan, who returned to his former home, the village of shcherbakovka, in . . . ' in the same year; perhaps the most important date in the establishment of the adventist church in russia; a well, known adventist preacher, ludwig r. conradi, arrived in odessa.conradi had been sent from america to work in switzerland and germany, on the authority of the seventh,day adventist general conference. however, he received so many appeals from gerhard perk to visit· adventist sympathisers in russia that finally he agreed to come to the crimea to meet perk. conradi and perk then set off on a . "missionary journey" round the crimea, southern ukraine, the volgaregion and the northern caucasus, visiting groups of german sabbath keepers, preaching, baptising and encouraging converts. ' it was not long before conradi experienced for himself difficulties adventists were to encounter in russian conditions. at berdebulat he decided to hold a baptism service for converts, thus officially establishing the first seventh,day adventist church in russia. the new congregation consisted of members, including one who was later to be a great pioneer for the adventist cause in siberia -' g. tertz. most of these one hundred years of adventism converts were former baptists and mennonites, who had already undergone baptism by immersibn as adults and so joined the adventist church by professing their faith. however, two men were baptised in the black sea by conradi during the open-air service, which was watched by russian villagers standing on the roof tops of houses by the shore. immediately after the baptism,. while russia's first adventists were taking pllrt in a communion service, a police officer appeared and took conradi and .perk to ,the local. police-station, where they. were interrogated. the chief. of police accused them of publicly teaching a jewi.sh heresy,' conducting a non-orthodox baptism in public and proselytising russians. it turned outthat one of the sabbath-keepers who had attended the service and asked for bllptism, though he had not been one of those baptised on this occasion; was a russian. by nationality. after this man had volunteered a statement to the police that he had left the orthodox church eleven years ago and that conradi had not baptised him, the two adventists were allowed to return to their fellow-believers and continued the interrupted service. however, next day they were arrested again and imprisoned in the local jail for forty days. they were allowed to share a cell as conradiknew no russian and gerhard perk had .to interpret for him. although the cell was bare and verminous, they were allowed to keep theit german bibles and, after paying the jailers, were also allowed to wear their own clothes and eat food brought to them by the local adventist brethren instead of prison broth.· .. finally,' after an· adventist· representative from switzerland had arrived in the crimea to plead their cause and the american ambassador in st petersburghad assured the russian ministry of internal affairs that seventh-day adventists were a recognised christiandenomihatibn, conradi and perk were released and allowed to continue their joumey .. from the crimea they travelled up the river dnepr to gerhard perk's old home in wiesenfeld, visiting his adventist converts there, and then went on by train to the german settlements on the volga - first to saratov, where meetings had to be restricted because of hostility from the local lutheran clergy, and then to meet konrad laubhan and his followers in shcher.bakovka. : . .. conradi then left for switzerland, but his visit had been a great success --c' both in the evangelistic sense and in reminding the small groups of adventists in russia that they were part of a world-wide movement. the church which conradi had founded in berdebulat in the crimea began to grow ~ and spread almost immediately to bessarabia (now moldavia), where two of the berdebulat congregation travelled to preach the adventist message a few weeks after conradi's visit. two other members of the crimean church visited their former homes on the river don, set up aible study groups and gained twenty converts in less. than a year. by scattered adventist communities existed as far as western ukraine and one hundred years of adventism the part of poland then under russian rule. russians were already being attracted to adventist meetings. the unknown russian sympathiser on whose account conradi and perk were imprisoned was soon followed by many more. a typical early rl(ssian convert was teofilbabiyenko, from tarashcha in smith ukraine. originally a member of the orthodox church, he was a psalm-reader and was therefore allowed to take the church bible home with him. in the evenings, he used to gather his neighbours together to listen to readings from the bible, but after this had been going on for some time, he became troubled by the fact that many orthodox doctrines were not mentioned in the bible and asked the priest about this. the priest, however, refused to discuss the subject and asked him toreturn the bible. babiyenko then journeyed to kiev, the nearest large town, and bought a bible of his own. in he left the orthodox church,. together with a group of like- minded friends; they called themselves a "community of bible believers". in they decided to build themselves a church and sent babiyenko, as their leader, to obtain building permissionirom the governor's office in kiev. babiyenko did not return - he was arrested and exiled to stavropol' in the northern caucasus. there he again began to study the bible and independently came to two conclusions very similar to adventist beliefs: that the seventh day of the week, saturday, should be observed as the sabbath; and that the second coming of jesus christ to this earth was to be expected in the near future .. it was early in or , however, that babiyeriko first came into contact with seventh-day adventists.· adventist ideas had already penetrated mennonite and baptist communities. in the northern caucasus - by there were small adventist groups of believers in the german settlements of alexanderfeld, wohldemfurst and eigenheim. in konrad laubhan, who had been ordained as an adventist minister after studying abroad for a year at the mission college in basel, was sent to instruct the new adventist groups in the caucasus and soon established a church of members. one of the new members was teofil babiyenko, whom laubhan had met while visiting .his german employer. after discovering that they shared certain basic beliefs, laubhan 'instructed babiyenko further concerning seventh-day adventism' and ended by receiving him into the adventist church. over the next two years, thirteen of babiyenko's russian friends also became adventists. an adventist group consisting entirely of russians, rather than germans, grew up in stavropol'. other russian groups started to meet in the surrounding villages of mikhailovka and pelageyevka. russian converts soon came to outnumber adventists of· ··german origin: by they formed the overwhelming majority of adventists in the russian empire. like babiyenko, many were disillusioned with the russian orthodox church (in , % of adventists in russia were one hundred years of adventism former members of the orthodox church). the adventists, like the baptists, offered a new approach to religion - bible study on a popular level, services in russian instead of old church slavonic, spontaneous_ prayer in church and a sense of personal spiritual experience, as well as a close church fellowship that was able to help in cases of material hardship. the particular attractions of seventh-day adventism, as distinct from the evangelical churches in general, are more difficult to define. certain adventist doctrines had precedents among the native russian sects: for example, the molokans and dukhobors were opposed to bearing arms and, like the baptists, were also against alcohol and tobacco. opposition to tobacco, whether it was smoked or sniffed, dated back to the time of peter the great, when it was first imported from the west. according to a russian proverb current among the old believers, "he who sniffs tobacco is the brother of the dog". however, it was perhaps the adventist observance of the sabbath which had the most interesting historical precedent in russia. there was already a russian sect of "subbotniki" (sabbath-keepers), which dated back to the th century. they were judaisers, who rejected the new testament and replaced baptism by circumcision. nowadays they are almost extinct as a religious group but the name "subbotniki" began to be used of adventists as well. to this day; the soviet press refers to adventists not only as "adventisty" but also as "subbotniki". the first seventh-day adventist literature in russian was produced in , but had to be printed in basel and sent to russia by post or smuggled across the russian border. because of the regulations against proselytising russian orthodox believers, pamphlets in russian·were far more qifficult to send through the post than the earlier pamphlets in german. it was impossible to obtain permission from the russian govemmentto print adventist literature within the borders of the russianempire. other protestant denominations with russian members had the same difficulties. the procurator of the holy synod, konstantin pobedonostsev, had an extreme dislike of ~'sectarians" and passed a number of decrees restricting their activities during his period of office ( " ) .. supplies of adventist literature in russian were at first organised from switzerland and germany by gerhard perk, who had to leave russia in because of his religious activities. german protestant pastors,had complained to the police about his selling· adventist books and tracts and he would undoubtedly have been arrested if he had not emigrated. the first adventist pamphlet in russian, which day do you keep and why?, was sent to russia in parcels from basel, but almost all of them were confiscated by the censor. when the adventist printers moved to hamburg in , sending literature to russia became easier. basel was known to russian state officials as a centre ,for russian revolutionaries ont! hundred years of adventism abroad and was consequently kept under closer scrutiny. just before the turn of the century, some adventistpublications were at last produced inside the russian empire - though not as yet in russian. in the baltic provinces of latvia and estonia, where the population was largely non-russian, religious censorship was slacker. even the russians in this area were often old believers or sectarians who· had moved there because of the greater tolerance shown to them. the ,landowning aristocracy in both latvia and estonia were german lutherans and although they had little liking for "egalitarian sects" such as the baptists or the moravian brethren, as protestants they were more inured to religious dispute than the ru~sian orthodox and therefore allowed more "sectarian" literature to be printed. in gerhard perk moved to riga and began to lead bible study groups there, also asking for permission to sell adventist pamphlets in latvia and estonia. the. local authorities agreed to his request and in' adventist pamphlets, translated into latvian and estonian, were legally being sold in the two provinces. however, it was only in that permission was. gh-:en to publish adventist literature in riga, in the latvian and estonian languages, but not in russian. by this time, the adventists were firmly established in the baltic provinces, with a church of twenty members in riga (founded in ) ~md groups of adventist sympathisers in tallinn. adventist bible study groups, led by gerhard perk's brotherjohann, had also been meeting in vilnius, in catholic lithuania, since . . . in november , the first general meeting of seventh-day adventists in the russian empire was held ---.:... in eigenheim, one of the adventist centres in the caucasus. one hundred delegates attended, representing the members the adventist church had gained in russia over ten years, as well as the wider group of sympathisetswho had not'yet become members. in eigenheim itself, sabbath meetings were regularly being attended by about two hundred people. the general meeting had a guest of honour from abroad - l. r. conradi, who was viewing the fruits of his earlier work before setting off on another long trip round adventist groups in the caucasus and ukraine. something of a stir was caused. at the meeting by the presence of delegates from the russian adventist congregation in stavropor. including teofil· babiyenko and' his sister. the gennan-russian adventists were pleased at having the native russian converts among them, but a little apprehensive at the thought of the trouble they might cause with the authorities. however, by the end of the general meeting a decision had been taken to ordain babiyenko as a church elder ~ the first of russian descent. about a year. after his ordination, babiyenko and seven other members of the stavropol' church were arrested because of their evangelistic activities in russian villages and exiled to the settlement of one hundred years of adventism herusy on the other side of the caucasus mountains. the german convert in whose home they had held their meetings was exiled to siberia for five years. herusy, however, was the terminus of a stage-coach route and babiyenko succeeded in spreading his message to many of the coachmen and travellers. within three years he had a congregation f two hundred, at sabbath meetings. babiyenko's sister, who preserved the adventist community in stavropol' by using her savings to buy a house where adventist meetings could be held on the sabbath, was soon herself condemned to exile. in a farewell letter to her family she described her interview with the police: oh august i was summoned to the police station and asked , whether i preferred to go to an island for one year and nine months or to be exiled to a place where no russian is spoken. i , was allowed three hours to consider it. left alone in the room, i , prayed for guidance ... finally i chose the second proposition, yet it will be hard to leave my relatives and all the dear rriembers of the church, especially since i do not know for how long. my, trust is in the lord. i am gniteful to god that they have not imprisoned me before. however, my heart is often depressed , when i think of my future. today i received the order to be ready by september, ... god willing, i shall let you know how we prosper amongtheforeigri people. pray for us. to , the tsarist government's practice of exiling religious "sectarians" to the caucasus, siberia and central asia merely gave them the opportunity to preach their message in. the farthest regions of the empire. as adventists began to,share the fate of earlier religious exiles, such as the dukhobors and the stundists,they too began to establish church groups in siberia and turkestan. a joke current among the exiles was that the government had paid for their missionary journeys.!! the most frequent offences leading to exile were evangelisation and distribution of adventist literature. there was no possibility of establishing a training college for adventist clergy inside russia, so students from russia were educated in germany - at first at the adventist college in hamburg, then in friedensau mission school, where a special russian department was set up in .! " courses for adventist students from russia first began in hamburg in . two of the first students to be ordained as adventist ministers after completing the course were j acob kleinand heinrich j. loebsack. both were germans from russia. klein was a protege of l. r. conradi; he had become a convert after emigrating to the usa, but when he was ordained in he returned to his former home in frank, a german settlement on the volga, and established a church there. loebsack, who had worked in one hundred years of adventism russia all his life, was ordained in . he had to take over jacob klein's church in frank almost as soon· as he returned from germany, as klein had been forced to leave the. area after the local orthodox priest had lodged a complaint against him. when his home was searched by the police; they found a copy;of which day.do you keep and why? and charged him with trying to convert the russian orthodox. moving to southern russia was the only way klein could avoid imprisonment in frank. the friedensau mission school was able to take more students from the russian empire: in there were ,about half being russian , the rest germans, latvians and estonians. there were -also qualified teachers from russia ~ hertha .bartel from st petersburgand teodor itzmann, a russian jewish convert from riga. the .establishment of a missionary school in russia itself was often discussed; especially after , but none of these plans ever materialised, . for'the first ten years of adventist activity in the russian empire, almost all members of the adventist church iivedin villages- and rural areas around german settlements in the volga and don riverba:sins, the caucasus and the crimea. the establishment of adventist churches in large towns, beginning with riga in , was a new.development. in an adventist church was established in the capital of the russian empire - st petersburg. its founder. was gerhard perk, who had moved from riga in to set up bible study groups in the capital city. "by god's grace," he wrote ina letter to fellow adventists in riga, "i have managed to make a start in the capital city of this greatiand ---.:... it is the will of god that souls have come to accepuhe truth. ,, by therewere two adventist churches in st petersburg - one german; the other russian. in there ·were four. .. . the number of adventists in the russian empire was steadily growing, though they were still a very small f oc~. in there were adventist churches and , members. after , adventists increased in number far more rapidly, due to the fateful events ofthat year. as.a result ofthe strikes and armed revolts of , tsar nicholas iiwas forced to grant a constitution as well as certain civil and religious freedoms. on april the tsar promised full religious toleration and full civil rights to all schismatics and sectarians and legally permitted a change of faith from orthodoxy to another religious creed. his manifesto of october, which promised a constitution; also promised freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and association. in addition,. the. man. many sectarians saw as their chief enemy - k. p. pobedbnostsev~ resigned as procurator of the holy synod in october. in. the seventh-day adventists were officially recognised as a. church by the, russian authorities. the adventist conference in october addressed a letter of· thanks to tsar nicholas , stating that they were praying for the one hundred years of advent ism government. , the most useful gain of for the adventists was the right to publish literature and propagate their teach~ngs. the demand for adventist publications had increased during the russo-japanese war, possibly because of their pacifist content. in ellen white's steps to christ, one of the founding works of adventism, was published in russian, as well as latvian and estonian, in'the finnish city of helsinki (then part of the russian empire). the adventist publishing house in hamburg began publishing sabbath school quarterlies in russian and in produced a monthly adventist paper in russian, maslina (olive tree), which continued until the first world war. these were sent to adventists in the russian empire, as were russian translations of adventist books. by there were adventist publishing houses in kiev and saratov;though the riga publishing house had been closed down in , a private printing house in the city continued ·to produce adventist literature. in an eight"page monthly blagaya vest' (good news) was launched in st petersburg, with i. al'vov as editor. is ' in ' , the adventist church in russia was given, the status of a separate union conference, with j. t. boettcher as its first president. it now had , members and churches. in j. t. boettcher became the first adventist to address an orthodox congress, attended bya thousand priests, in kiev. hearing that the congress had put forward some anti-adventist resolutions, he obtained permission to speak and spent over an hour explaining the fundamental principles of adventism to an attentive audience. unfortunately, adventist public speakers were not always so politely received. after freedom of assembly and speech had been promised by the tsar in , an evangelical meeting which created an ,unfavourable precedent was held in aleksandrovsk, a town in southern russia. the loca.lclergy, mostly orthodox, incited the crowd against the adventist speakers; the meeting ended in a riot and was used as an excuse by the local authorities for banning further adventist public meetings. in spite of the tsar's edict on religious toleration, it 'was possible for local authorities to obstruct adventist meetings, and even services, because of the many legal restrictions attached to the edict - for example, former orthodox believers attending such meetings were supposed to have an officialletfer of dismissal from their priest. to add to their troubles, the adventists became an object of attack forthe "black hundreds" terrorist organisation, an anti~semitic group dedicated to the preservation of russia and orthodoxy'. j. ebel, an early adventist minister in siberia; was assassinated by members ofthis organisation. ' nevertheless, on balance the' situation was better for adventists in russia after than before. the adventist church was expanding rapidly into new areas - in - the first adventist churches were \ one hundred years of a dventism established in georgia and armenia, in the russian settlement of harbin in north-east china (in ) and in russian-ruled central asia. by there were six adventist churches in turkestan, four of them in tashkent and the surrounding area. adventist exiles in siberia, who first arrived in the s, often settled there hoping to enjoy greater freedom of worship far from the central government. the first minister in siberia as a whole had arrived only in : he was k. a. reifschneider, a german from ,pyatigorsk in· the caucasus, who made the town of omsk his base and from there travelled about two thousand miles by sleigh all over siberia to visit adventist groups. in the first adventist minister of russian descent - e. gnedin- was ordained in aleksandrovsk, after studying at the.friedensau college' in germany. two years later, he was serving in an adventist community in manchuria, where he baptised converts in the first two months after his arrival. between and , the number of aqventists in the russian empire more than doubled: on the eve of the first world war there were , members of the adventist church. the number of churches had risen to , ranging from the baltic coast tp the borders of china, though most ofthem still lacked ministers - of whom there were only . in the russian union conference of adventists· became completely self- sustaining, but one of its most important expenses was the contribution sent each year to the russian department at. the friedensau mission school. in , in order to keep pace with the rapid growth ofthe adventist church in the russian empire,it was divided into two administrative areas, the eastern and western union conferences. the eastern union conference had its headquarters in st petersburg; with o. e. reinke as president, while the western union conference was centred on riga, with j. t. boettcher as president. . the outbreak of the first world war created difficulties for the adventist church in russia - largely because so many of its adherents were of german origin. in the first year of the war, most german- speaking adventists in the baltic provinces, western ukraine and poland were deported to the interior of russia, as were most citizens of german extraction in the . "front-line " areas. however, the adventists were often regarded by the russian government not only as a "german sect" but also as a "revolutionary sect". this resulted in the exile of a number of adventist ministers and elders to siberia in the early years of the war, because of their evangelistic activities. j. t. boettcher was forced to leave russia in and o. e. reinke took charge of adventist work in russia as a whole. the "nadezhda" (hope) publishing house in saratov was closed down soon after the 'outbreak of war; the "patmos" publishing house in kiev continued for a while, but was then forced to one hundred years of adventism close down for lack of paper. it was during the first world war that internal dissension began in the russian adventist church over the question of bearing arms and how far refusal to do so was a religious obligation. this argument had already led to a split in the adventistmovement in germany and was to end in russia in the creation of the true and free adventist church in the early s. most adventists conscripted into the russian army (about ) were apparently allowed to serve in medical and non-combatant units. about , however, received sentences of two to sixteen years imprisonment for refusing to bear arms or trying" to persuade fellow soldiers to do the same. some, like a. birulya, were regularly flogged for refusing- to work on saturdays in the disciplinary battalion to which they had been sentenced. on the other hand, some adventist soldiers succeeded in converting other soldiers and even organising adventist prayer groups in army units or prisoner of war camps. in the structure of society in what was to become the soviet union began to change completely. the adventists, like other religious groups, found themselves faced with a wholly new situation. despite the anti-religious ideology of the bolshevik party,the first years of soviet power ( - ) were some of the most successful for adventist missionary activity. although some of the largest adventist communities of the former russian empire - those in the baltic states - were no longer part of the soviet union,- the adventist church doubled its membership to , by . the adventist movement in the soviet union was wholly reorganised from the centre by its new leader, j. loebsack, after his appointment in . the adventist congregations were united in five regional unions and' one all-union council. a congress of delegates from all adventist churches was held in moscow almost every year, and called for further evangelisation and youth work. three adventist newspapers - golos istiny (voice of truth), blagovestik (good news) and the germanlanguage adventsbote were published. - " the soviet regime in the early s" was still somewhat more favourably disposed towards the protestant'~sects" than towards the orthodox church. their main asset in the eyes of the soviet government was their opposition to the former state church - the russian orthodox church - which was then being forcibly disestabli~hed .. even before the revolution, the social democrats and bolsheviks had tried to win over religious sectarians to their cause, as they had realised that many of the protestant 'sects were" opposed to tsarist legislation (for example, conscription into the army) and were being persecuted by both the tsarist authorities and the orthodox church. v. c i. lenin himself had attacked the absence of freedom of religion in the russian empire and the "shameless"censorship suffered by one hundred years of a dventism sectarians. he had called for an amnesty for imprisoned sectarians as well as political prisoners. in lenin supported the social democrat decision to launch a newspaper directed at sectarians - "in many ways among the most democratic movements in russia". the aim was to involve religious sects, especially the poorer peasants, in political protest and to wean them away from the principle of non-resistance and non- involvement in "the things of this world". the new publication, rassvet (dawn), appeared in and during its short-lived existence was edited by vladimir bonch-bruyevich, a future bolshevik who was to become deeply involved in deciding the party's religious policy after the revolution. bonch-bruyevich's leading article "to the sectarians" in the first number of rassvet sympathised in every detail with the sectarians' lack of liberty: in russia only those are not. . . persecuted who are willing to bow to any pressure, to give in and endure anything forced on them by the people who have seized power .... why are sectarians and schismatics particularly persecuted? they are persecuted because sectarians have always insisted on the same thing. . . . they said, "we want to pray and express our religion in our own way ,as our conscience dictates, to preach at our meetings and in other places what ever comes into our minds. finally, we want to write, copy, print ... and disseminate our writings and booklets anywhere we like." . . . this is what the russian tsar, the russian government and the russian priests won't permit! at this point bonch-bruyevich tried to prod the sectarianstowards the right solution: . we often read of some sectarians' saying "all men are brothers." : .. in re;ility we see exactly the opposite. we see that all men are far from being brothers . . . it is time for sectarians to stop relying once and for all on the kindness of tsarist government wolves . .. and rely instead on their own forces and on their true allies, the downtrodden workers of factories and towns. only if all anti-tsarist forces were to unite, said rassvet, could a time come "when everyone will have the right to believe what he wants, preach what he wants, publish and distribute all over the country whatever he wants. ,, the paper's failure was due at least in part to a vigorous campaign against it conducted by the tolstoyans. in their own journal svobodnoye slovo ("free word") they denounced rassvet as a cynical attempt to gain one hundred years of adventism support from sectarians while not sharing their basic world outlook. the social democrat attitude towards the sectarians was admittedly opportunistic: even those like bonch-bruyevich, who were openly sympathetic to the protestant sects, calling them the "most enlightened" elements of the peasantry and stressing the "commune" of early christianity, were opposed to. the sectarians' basic beliefs, such as non- resistance and biblical authority. "we must try to lower the bible in people's consciousness to the status ofa common book" wrote bonch- bruyevich. . after the reforms of and the split between the bolsheviks and menshevil<.s, the bolsheviks showed little interest in the sectarians until , partly because the various non-orthodox groups now had hopes of legitimate advancement and were becoming much less interested in links with the revolutionaries. in and during the civil war the' main preoccupation of the seventh~day' adventists seems to have been trying to keep out of both camps. they supported the provisional government in february, publishing a special issue of blagaya vest' in its honour ,an action later recalled to their discredit by the bolsheviks. h like many other religious groups they at first saw the october revolution as the triumph of antichrist and the civil war as an apocalyptic "time of suffering and expectation of misery". ' . in - , the bolsheviks again tried to gain the support of sectarian groups such as the . adventists, • baptists, evai;lgelical christians, mennonites and others by allowing them partial or complete exemption from military service. this was sparked off in spring by the return to petrograd of religious conscientious objectors who had been imprisoned by tsarist courts. they now appealed to the soviet government for exemption from military service on religious grounds. "after an all-round discussion of this appeal with a delegation of these original and very convinced people," says bonch-bruyevich, "vladimir it'ich (lenin) promised to set up a commission to look into the question and draw up a special decree concerning it. ,, exemption from military service on religious grounds was already allowed in practice in many cases (there were - such instances in ) if the men concerned were vouched for by dehominationalleaders. in october an order (no. ) of the revolutionary military soviet was passed to this effect and on january a decree issued by the soviet of people's commissars confirmed it. v. i. lenin gave three reasons for adopting this decree: "to calm and satisfy those who have already suffered terrible tortures and persecution from the tsarist government", especially since the numbers involved were very small; to avoid the possibility of a "foreign element" in the red army disturbing other soldiers (the conscientious objectors were wont to preach in the ranks); and his conviction that "this decree will be short- one hundred years of a dventism lived" , as both religion and pacifism would decline under bolshevik rule. it was emphasised, however, that the pacifist principles of the religious sects involved were at variance with communist convictions and that the concession was temporary. it was the decree on exemption from military service which created the general adventist esteem for lenin still apparent today among both the official and unofficial wings of the adventist movement in the ussr. in addition, the last years of lenin's life coincided with that period of the s when various religious freedoms still existed - for adventists, perhaps to a greater extent than under tsarism - for example, the opportunity to evangelise openly and hold private religious classes . . in october sectarian groups, including seventh-day adventists, were allowed to apply collectively for land in order to form communes. after being awarded land, these religious collective farmers were even given financial grants by the people's commissariat of agriculture. the seventh-day adventists had several collective farms in ukraine, one called the "commune of brotherly love". ! the idea of allowing such communes to be farmed by. religious sects came from certain party members, headed by bonch-bruyevich and m. kalinin; who regarded the sectarians as primitive socialists in their ideology and "exemplary toilers,, in practice. it was a bolshevik joke to refer to this group as "the party bloc with religious tendencies,, but,unlike gor'ky, lunacharsky and the "god-builders", bonch-bruyevich and kalinin'had no mystical tendencies whatever: theirinterest in cooperation with the sectarians was purely practical. at the thirteenth congress of the communist party in , kalinin referred to the widespread activity ofsectarians, calling on the party leadership to "ensure that the considerable economic and cultural potential of the sectarians is directed into the channels of soviet labour.,, from to the seventh-day adventist church prospered as never before. by they had , members in congregations: in a "sectarian bible" was published in ; copies, the cost being shared amongst the adventi!'ts, the· baptists and other evangelicals. adventist representatives from russia were finding it increasingly hard, however, to keep in touch with the worldwide adventist church. in soviet . adventists could not obtain permission from the soviet government to attend the european division council in ziirich, the fifth all-union conference of seventh-day adventists in addressed a rather carefully worded declaration of loyalty to the central committee. the growing differences among adventists which were to emerge fully four years later in were probably already making themselves felt: making use of the freedom of conscience and religious belief one hundred years of a dventism granted by soviet authorities, we on our part consider ourselves bound to carry out all state duties. therefore, recognising the soviet government as lawful and established by god, we give it honour and respect and pay our taxes according to the holy . scriptures. we recognise military service and each sda member serves in accordance with the dictates of his conscience. sda members must carry out honestly and sincerely the duties they have agreed to assume. however, the period of bolshevik tolerance towards sectarians was beginning to come to an end. the religious collective farms, despite their admitted agricultural successes, were disliked by the party leadership and were abolished in . the reasons for this were the soviet state's inability to see the religious communes in other than political terms and the failure of the communes themselves to develop politically along the right lines, although they were not anti-soviet. some in fact were embarrassingly pro-soviet the communes' leaders were not the "progressive" "poor peasants" hoped for by the bolsheviks but rather the "bourgeois-kulak" middle peasants they disliked. the religious collective farmers were retaining their "narrow world view" despite educational campaigns and paid more attention to the religious leaders of their own denomination than to. the central government, thus showing their potential disloyalty. they were still organising boycotts of military service. in addition many of the sects, particularly the adventists and tolstoyans, had grown in numbers during the s rather than declining . . in , as the soviet authorities also began to put more pressure on the adventist leaders to restrict evangelisation and teaching of children, to register their congregations and to encourage service in. the army, the final split occurred between the official adventist church and the reform adventists, who later became the "true and free" adventists. the latter, led by g. ostval'd and p. manzhura, refused to register their congregations or to compromise on the question of army service. [the later soviet period, and particularly the history of the "true and free" adventists, has been covered in more detail in my earlier article "v.a. shelkov and the true and free seventh-day adventists of the ussr" in rclvol. no. . i will conclude this present article with a summary of the later fortunes of the adventist church as a whole in the ussr.] the laws on religious cults passed in restricted religious activity in every sphere, limiting specifically permitted activity to the holding of religious services in registered premises. adventist publications were banned. many adventist church leaders were arrested and served long sentences in stalin'slabour camps. adventist churches were closed and membership fell to , . the second world war led to more arrests of adventists because of their german links and their pacifist inclinations. one hundred years of a dventism in the s, the adventist church recovered somewhat - its surviving leaders were amnestied, membership increased again, largely as a consequence of the return of the baltic states to the ussr, and new congregations were again allowed to register. however, just as the adventists were beginning to return to a more normal religious life, they were struck by another disaster - khrushchev's anti-religious campaign of. - . once .again, adventist congregations were deregistered, while leading adventists, headed by p. matsanov, left the official church rath~r than accept the new restrictive regulations imposed by the state. the publicity received by soviet adventists in the s was due largely to the efforts of the unofficial true and free adventist church, especially the. documentation of soviet state persecution sent by them to the madrid conference in *. the death in prison of the true and free adventist leader v. a. shelkov in and the long sentences imposed on his probable successor r. galetsky formed part of the general suppression of dissent under brezhnev's administration. as a result of this clampdown and the reluctance of the worldwide adventist leadership to support the true .and free adventists, as a breakaway movement from the official adventist church, the true and free adventists withdrew almost completely from the open religious "dissent" movement and returned to the underground existence they had led before . the official seventh-day adventist church, however, made a number of gains. denials by official adventist leaders of the accusations of religious persecution made by the true and free adventists resulted in certain concessions from the soviet authorities to the official adventist church, especially since the official adventist leaders were openly opposed to the "true and free" group on theological as well as pragmatic grounds, and made this clear to western adventist leaders. the official adventist church was allowed to publish a hymn book in and a new testament in , as well as a yearbook siace . although the latter appears only once a year, it has the same format as the orthodox and baptist monthly journals and indeed is often referred to by the adventists as their "journal". as well as publishing the usual sermons on peace by adventist leaders, it includes articles by ellen white, the founder of the adventist church, and attacks on the theological position taken up by the true and free adventists (often without mentioning them by name). it is also a valuable source of information on adventist gains and officially permitted activities, announcing for example the recent restoration of certain adventist churches and the opening of some new churches in the s, notably in l'vov and frunze. . *the third in the series of conferences on security and cooperation in europe- ed. one hundred years of adventism however, in the wake of the shelkov trial and the attendant furore in the west, the official adventist leadership in the ussr had preferred to avoid rather than seek publicity for its activities. invitations for western adventist leaders in recent years to visit fellow adventists in the ussr have sufficed to keep up contacts with the worldwide church and to produce generally favourable reports on their visits by those invited. in addition, opportunities were thus created, though not on a regular basis, for a few soviet adventists to study theology outside the ussr - two in england, the rest in east germany. taking into account both the present availability of contacts with adventists abroad and the concessions granted to them at home in the last ten years (which will however undoubtedly run parallel· to state suppression of the true and free adventists), the official seventh-day adventists in the ussr sometimes see their present position as the best they have known since the s. isee st~teme~ts by m. k~lakov in spectru",n, yol. ( ) no. , pp. - ; and a. ginzburg in la sierra today, winter . seventh-day adventist encyclopaedia, washington dc, , pp. , . a. w. spalding, origin and history of the seventh-day adventists, washington dc, , yol. , pp. - . l. r. conradi, "a visit to russia", historical sketches of the foreign missions of the seventh-day adventists, basel, ,'pp. - . review and herald, june , p. . . seventh-day adventist encyclopaedia, pp. - . a. y. belov, adventizm, moscow, , pp. - . be. g. howell, the great advent movement, washington dc, , p. . seventh-day adventist encyclopaedia, p. . ioreview and herald, december . l m. e; olsen, history of origin and progress of seventh-day adventists, washington dc, , pp. - . bid., p. . a. y. belov, adventizm, p. . jbid., p. . . seventh-day adventist encyclopaedia, p. .. m. e. olsen, history of origin and progress of seventh-day adventists, p. . ibid., p. . lbw. kolarz, religion in the soviet union, london, , p. . seventh-day adventist encyclopaedia, p. , . olbid., p. . a recurrence of misanthropy (retsidiv chelovekonenavistnichestva), samizdat, or , p. . .. . a. belov, advimtizm, pp. , . nw.k. ising, "the printed page in russia", missionary worker, april ; w. kolarz, religion in the soviet union, p. . iskra, march , pp. - . y. i. lenin, sochineniya, yol. , p. . . y. d. bonch-bruyevich, izbrannyye sochineniya, yol. , pp. - . ibid., p. . . yezhegodnik muzeya istorii religii i ateizma, yol. ( ), p. . . a. l. klibanov, religioznoye sektantstvo i sovremennost', moscow, , p. . lbid., pp. - . w. kolarz, religion in the soviet union, p. . pravda, no. , . . voprosy nauchnogo ateizma, moscow, yol. ( ), p. .. above: the baptism of new members of the kiev seventh-day adventist church, in the dnepr river. see article on pp. - . (photo courtesy nastolny kalendar, moscow). below: pastor mikhail p. kulakov, chairman of the republican council of the seventh- day adventists in the rsfsr, and acting head of the adventists in the soviet union. (photo courtesy keston college). ru<'a ..... u". nevsky calthe<lral article on the bulgarian orthodox church on pp. - . the towers of khreljo church bulgarian orthodox monastery at rila. below: a view of the rila monastery. (all photos courtesy keston college). one hundred years of adventism w. kolarz, religion in the soviet union, p. + . ibid. , p. . n missionary worker, july .' .... yezhogodnik muzeya istorii religii i ateizma, vo!. ( ), pp. - . jk voprosy nauchnogo ateizma, vo!. ( ), pp. - . the rld·today· the monthly journal oftheroyallnstitute of international affairs provides the general reader with up-to-date and authoritative information on current world problems .. recent issues include: jeane kirkpatrick . ronald d. asmus farhang jahanpour roland dallas' a correspondent peter beck . .' ., . - the superpowers: is there a moral difference? east and west germany: continuity and change . iran:the rise and f;:tll ofthe tudeh party democracy and debt in latin america' uganda: lithe pearl of africa . loses its lustre antarctica: a caseforthe un? annual.subscription (incl~ding postage): ... (vol ) uk £ us . $ · . elsewhere £ orders may be sent to booksellers and newsagents, or to the journals department, oxford university press, walton street, oxford ox dp'(tel: ) primary ciliary dyskinesia: kartagener syndrome in a family with a novel dnah gene mutation and variable phenotypes the egyptian journal of medical human genetics ( ) , – h o s t e d by ain shams university the egyptian journal of medical human genetics www.ejmhg.eg.net www.sciencedirect.com case report primary ciliary dyskinesia: kartagener syndrome in a family with a novel dnah gene mutation and variable phenotypes abbreviations: b–t shunt, blalock–taussig shunt; ivf, in vitro fertilization; ks, kartagener syndrome; kmgc, kuwait medical genetics centre; pgd, preimplantation genetic diagnosis; s/p, syste- mic-to-pulmonary. * corresponding author. tel.: + ; fax: + . e-mail address: mj_marafie@yahoo.com (m.j. marafie). peer review under responsibility of ain shams university. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ejmhg. . . - � production and hosting by elsevier b.v. on behalf of ain shams university. makia j. marafie *, ibrahim s. al suliman, abdullah m. redha, abdulrahman m. alshati kuwait medical genetics centre, maternity hospital, sabah medical area, p.o. box , safat , kuwait received june ; accepted august available online december keywords arab; consanguinity; dnah ; kartagener syndrome; preimplantation genetic diagnosis; primary ciliary dyskinesia abstract background: primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetically heterogeneous autosomal recessive disorder with variable clinical manifestations, including chronic rhinosinusitis, otitis media, bronchitis, pneumonia, bronchiectasis, situs inversus totalis, reduced fertility in female patients and male infertility. the condition occurs as a result of abnormal ciliary structure and func- tion. it is presented in early life with an estimated incidence of approximately / , – , . about % of the affected patients have situs inversus totalis leading to kartagener syndrome (mim: ). so far more than causative genes have been associated with primary ciliary dyskinesia. case report: here we are presenting kartagener syndrome in a consanguineous kuwaiti family with a novel pathogenic dnah gene mutation; namely c. dupa; [p.pro thrfsstop ], which is predicted to result in protein truncation. in this family several homozygous individuals showed variable disease manifestations. conclusion: molecular test helped in confirmation of the clinical diagnosis and in providing bet- ter management of the affected family members, which in turn could significantly improve overall quality of their life. consequently, preimplantation genetic diagnosis, which is the most acceptable procedure in the islamic countries, was offered to the heterozygous-carrier couple in order to pre- vent recurrence of the disease in their future generations. � production and hosting by elsevier b.v. on behalf of ain shams university. . introduction the name kartagener syndrome (ks) came after the first author who in described the triad of situs inversus, chronic sinusitis and bronchiectasis as a distinct hereditary disorder [ ]. ks (mim: ) is a rare primary ciliary dyskinesia disease (pcd). pcd is a genetically heterogeneous class of disorders http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.ejmhg. . . &domain=pdf mailto:mj_marafie@yahoo.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ejmhg. . . http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ejmhg. . . m.j. marafie et al. known as ciliopathies, which are generally transmitted in an autosomal recessive manner. however, other modes of inheri- tance have been reported as well. these diseases have variable clinical manifestations including chronic rhinosinusitis, otitis media, bronchitis, pneumonia, bronchiectasis, situs inversus totalis (mirror image orientation of thoraco-abdominal organs), reduced fertility in female patients and male infertility. pcd occurs as a result of abnormal ciliary structure and func- tion affecting many tissues and organs. the disorganized ciliary motions lead to impaired mucociliary clearance in the associ- ated organs. these include the respiratory tract cilia, paranasal sinuses, eustachian tube, middle ear, oviduct, spermaductus, flagella of sperm tail, brain and spinal cord ependyma [ ]. many syndromes are linked to ciliopathies including, pcd/ks syn- drome, bardet–biedl syndrome, hydrocephalus, polycystic kid- ney disease, polycystic liver disease, nephrolithiasis, meckel– gruber syndrome and joubert syndrome. about % of the affected patients have situs inversus totalis leading to ks. pcd is presented in early life with an estimated incidence of approximately / , – , live births [ ]. so far more than causative genes have been associated with pcd: dnah , dnah , dnai , dnai , rsph , rsph a, txndc , ktu/pf , lrrc , ccdc , ccdc , ccdc , heatr , lrrc , dnal , dnaaf , hydin, ccdc , ccdc , ccdc , c orf , spag , zmynd , rsph , armc , and dyx c /dnaaf . moreover, rpgr, and ofd are additional genes involved in syndromic forms of pcd [ ]. mutations in dnah gene located on chromosome p, is responsible for ks. dnah encodes a protein associated with the outer dynein arm of the cilia, and highly similar to the chlamydomonas c-dynein heavy chain [ , ]. variable pheno- types were observed with different mutations [ ]. in this report we discuss a kuwaiti family with several cases of ks carrying a novel homozygous dnah gene mutation, and presenting dif- ferent phenotypes. . . family data the family presented here is a highly consanguineous kuwaiti family, in which double first cousin marriages have been fre- quently practiced. in this family cases of ks of variable severity were observed. . . patient this is the proband, a year old female, who was referred by the ivf unit at the maternity hospital, for genetic counseling and testing in preparation for preimplantation genetic diagno- sis (pgd). she is the first cousin of her husband, had two chil- dren with congenital heart disease (fig. ). the first child was a boy, diagnosed antenatally with situs inversus totalis. he was born at full term, after an uncomplicated pregnancy, with complex cyanotic congenital heart disease. his medical report revealed right atrial isomerism with dextrocardia, complete atrioventricular septal defect with pulmonary atresia, supra- cardiac total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (tap- vc) to left sided superior caval vein (right sided inferior caval vein), and with s/p left sided bt shunt. he died postopera- tively at the age of weeks. two years later she had her second child (patient ), a girl, born at full term with situs inversus totalis (dextrocardia), but with no complication. she is cur- rently years old and doing well. . . patient proband’s mother was aged years. her parents were double first cousins. she was also diagnosed with situs inversus totalis with no complications throughout her life. she gave a history of chronic sinusitis since childhood, requiring drainage and myringotomy. her mother had also situs inversus totalis, but with a healthy life and no medical complications. however, she died at the age of years from stroke. . . patient she was the first cousin of the proband, seen at the age of years. her parents were also consanguineous (fig. ). she had no cardiac abnormalities. however, she gave a history of recurrent middle ear infections and chronic sinusitis that was treated several times with steroids. her maxillary sinuses were drained at the age of years. she had myringotomy, for three times, in both ears with pressure equalization tubes. her latest ct scan showed chronic inflammatory changes of frontal and maxillary sinuses along with nasal septum devia- tion, hypertrophic turbinates and nasal polyps. an endoscopic sinus surgery with image guidance was planned for her. she had two normal elder sisters and a younger brother. addition- ally, she had another brother who died at the age of months due to complex cyanotic congenital heart disease. . methods the written informed consent was obtained from the proband and her adult relatives for blood collection and molecular test- ing. the process involved family members approaching kmgc and requesting predictive gene testing. the genomic dna was extracted from the peripheral blood for defining the carrier status of the involved subjects. following pcr amplifi- cation of the dna, primary sequence analysis of the entire cod- ing region of the commonly involved dnah gene was performed for the affected child (patient ) and her grandmother (patient ). for other relatives targeted sequencing of both familial mutation and alteration was performed separately, by utilizing the following forward and reverse primers for each exon respectively: exon primers [f- -tgcatttt- cagctggatgtt- , and r - gtctgcctcttaagcc ctaa- ]; exon primers [f- -ggggctgacattga- tatgat- and r- -gaagaggggttcccatgatt- ]. . result patients , and were found to be homozygous carrier for the c. dupa; [p.pro thrfsstop ], in exon of dnh gene (fig. ). this is a pathogenic mutation predicted to result in protein truncation, and describing the associated clinical features. additionally, all of them carried a homozy- gous alteration in exon of dnah gene. this sequence var- iant is defined as c. g>a, and predicted to result in the amino acid substitution p.arg gln. this sequence variant figure family pedigree. the proband (p ) is indicated by an arrow. the couple embarking on pgd is indicated by the star sign (*). p : patient , p : patient , p : patient , p : patient . primary ciliary dyskinesia is not predicted to abrogate known splice sites or disrupt splic- ing. however, the mutation taster program (http://www.muta- tiontaster.or) predicts the c. g>a; [p.arg gln] to be a disease causing variant. moreover, other relatives were found heterozygous carri- ers for the same pathogenic mutation in exon as well as for the sequence variant found in exon of the same gene. these were parents of patient (patient and her husband), grand- father of patient , parents of patient , elder sister of patient that was married to her first cousin, who was a carrier too, and their two children (fig. ). . discussion ks is one of the pcd diseases that are inherited in an autoso- mal recessive fashion. in kuwait, similar to other arab coun- tries, the prevalence of consanguineous marriages is high and it reached . % [ ]. consequently, this leads to an increased incidence of autosomal recessive disorders some of which are rare and lethal [ , ]. in this report, pedigree analysis revealed that the concerned family had practiced consanguinity over many generations, and with many first cousin couples (fig. ). moreover, parents of patient were first cousins, her paternal grandparents were double first cousins, while the maternal grandparents were second cousins. there is a his- tory of other affected infants who died of similar heart condi- tions, but we could not clarify this, as medical reports were no longer available. clinical manifestations varied between affected individuals in this family; some had situs inversus totalis with/or without respiratory tract disorders, one had only respiratory tract problems and the closely related dead boy had heterotaxy (lethal complex heart disease with right atrial isomerism). in pcd, situs inversus was proposed to occur as a random phenomenon due to loss of nodal ciliary function, which is important for organ orientation during embryogenesis [ ]. intra-familial phenotypic variability had been observed in the literature [ , ]. heterotaxy was detected in . % of individuals with pcd, and most of those carried cardiovascular abnormalities. moreover, it was fre- quently associated with mutations in dnai and dnah genes [ ]. however, no genotype phenotype correlation had been detected in a cohort of patients selected from different european and north american families, who were tested for dnah gene mutation in a study by hornef et al. [ ]. on the contrary, screening of patients from amish and mennonite communities revealed phenotypic variability in homozygous carriers of the dnah gene with c>t founder mutation [ ]. therefore, we are not sure whether the phenotypic vari- ability in our family is associated with the mutation position in the dnah gene, or is simply due to the randomization of left–right asymmetry. hence genetic screening is a valuable approach for assisting the diagnosis in patients with these types of anomalies and should be applied in the clinical setting. we have identified a disease-causing mutation in exon of the dnah gene; namely c. dupa; [p.pro thrfs- stop ] in a high-risk family. this pathogenic mutation is novel and occurred in a homozygous state in the available affected individuals, and in a heterozygous state in closely related members of their family. another variant was also found in exon ; c. g>a, in the same individuals; which was in a homozygous state in the affected members and in a heterozygous state in the same carriers of the pathogenic exon ; c. dupa mutation. since we are not sure of the pathogenicity of the latest, this will be screened for in the embryos during the pgd processes. molecular test helped in confirmation of the clinical diagnosis in the affected members, and in planning the future reproductive health strategy for the heterozygous couples from this family. patient is currently under preparation for pgd using in vitro http://www.mutationtaster.or http://www.mutationtaster.or figure electropherogram of the homozygous mutation c. dupa (arrow), exon of dnah gene found in patient and her relatives. (a) wild type. (b) homozygous carrier. (c) heterozygous carrier. m.j. marafie et al. fertilization, in order to prevent recurring of the disorder in the next pregnancy. . conclusions in the arab communities the rate of autosomal recessive dis- eases is high due frequently practiced consanguineous mar- riages. a large number of these diseases are rare and devastating. therefore, efforts should be directed toward planning intensive educational programs to increase the aware- ness of the public about the possible outcome risks of consanguineous marriages. moreover, special emphasis should be given to educate the health care professionals who are involved in providing the premarital genetic services, in order to recognize high-risk families with varieties of debilitating dis- orders, to better manage these cases and to refer the selected primary ciliary dyskinesia couples to the genetics clinics. whereas clinical geneticists should be trained for providing genetic counseling and screen- ing, describing the reproduction options to couples at risk, and for long term family health care management for the benefit of their new generations. finally, pgd procedure is the best pre- vention option to avoid the birth of children with genetic dis- orders in families who do not want to terminate the pregnancy for any reason. however, it remains a financial problem for the unfortunate low income families. note there is no conflict of interest to the publication of this article. funding no funding body was involved. references [ ] kartagener m. zur pathogenese der bronchiektasien. bronchiekta- sien bei situs inversus viscerum. beitr klin tuberk ; : – . [ ] afzelius ba. a human syndrome caused by immotile cilia. science ; : – . [ ] zariwala ma , omran h, ferkol tw. the emerging genetics of primary ciliary dyskinesia. proc am thorac soc ; ( ): – . [ ] geremek m, ziętkiewicz e, bruinenberg m, franke l, pogorzel- ski a, wijmenga c, et al. ciliary genes are down-regulated in bronchial tissue of primary ciliary dyskinesia patients. plos one ; ( ):e . [ ] olbrich h , häffner k, kispert a, völkel a, volz a, sasmaz g, et al. mutations in dnah cause primary ciliary dyskinesia and randomization of left-right asymmetry. nat genet ; ( ): – . [ ] kispert a, petry m, olbrich h, volz a, ketelsen up, horvath j, et al. genotype-phenotype correlations in pcd patients carrying dnah mutations. thorax ; ( ): – . [ ] al-awadi sa, moussa ma, naguib kk, farag ti, teebi as, el- khalifa m, et al. consanguinity among the kuwaiti population. clin gen ; ( ): – . [ ] tadmouri go, nair p, obeid t, al ali mt, al khaja n, hamamy ha. consanguinity and reproductive health among arabs. reprod health ; : – . [ ] abdalla b, zaher a. consanguineous marriages in the middle east: nature versus nurture. open complement med j ; : – . [ ] noone pg , bali d, carson jl, sannuti a, gipson cl, ostrowski le, et al. discordant organ laterality in monozygotic twins with primary ciliary dyskinesia. am j med genet ; ( ): – . [ ] kennedy mp , omran h, leigh mw, dell s, morgan l, molina pl, et al. congenital heart disease and other heterotaxic defects in a large cohort of patients with primary ciliary dyskinesia. circulation ; ( ): – . [ ] hornef n, olbrich h, horvath j, zariwala ma, fliegauf m, loges nt, et al. dnah mutations are a common cause of primary ciliary dyskinesia with outer dynein arm defects. am j respir crit care med ; ( ): – . [ ] ferkol tw, puffenberger eg, lie h, helms c, strauss ka, bowcock a, et al. primary ciliary dyskinesia-causing mutations in amish and mennonite communities. j pediatr ; ( ): – . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) -x/h 	primary ciliary dyskinesia: kartagener syndrome in a family with a novel dnah gene mutation and variable phenotypes 	 introduction 	 . family data 	 . patient 	 . patient 	 . patient 	 methods 	 result 	 discussion 	 conclusions 	note 	funding 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ ( . % and . %, p-value . and . , respectively). there was a trend towards a higher rate of favorable clinical outcomes (mrs – ) at days in the adapt only group ( %) compared to the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( %, p-value . ). conclusion among patients treated with mechanical thrombec- tomy using an adapt-first approach, those requiring solum- bra salvage had significantly-higher rates of unfavorable clinical outcome and death at days. abstract e- table clinical outcomes all patients (n = ) adapt only (n = ) adapt with solumbra salvage (n = ) p- value symptomatic intraparenchymal hemorrhage . % . % symptomatic subarachnoid h . % . % . neuro-icu length of stay, days . . . . hospital length of stay, days . . . discharge to home: % % % . in-hospital mortality / discharge to hospice % % % . day mortality % % % . day mrs – % % % . day mrs – % % % . disclosures j. delgado almandoz: ; c; medtronic neurovas- cular, penumbra, inc. y. kayan: ; c; medtronic neurovascu- lar, penumbra, inc. m. young: none. j. fease: none. j. scholz: none. a. milner: none. p. roohani: none. t. hehr: none. m. mulder: none. r. tarrel: none. e- prolongation of polymethylmethacrylate cement working time during percutaneous kyphoplasty with ice bath cooling b kim. texas stroke institute, plano, tx . /neurintsurg- - . aim to study the effect of cooling of polymethylmethacrylate dough in an ice bath to prolong working time of cement dur- ing percutaneous kyphoplasty. materials and methods polymethylmethacrylate dough filled cement cartridges were placed in a saline ice bath for varying lengths of time to study the effect of cooling cartridges on working time of cement during percutaneous kyphoplasty using the kyphon® (medtronic spine, sunnyvale, ca, usa) balloon kyphoplasty system. results cement dough was easily injectable through the bone filler with the injection gun immediately after removal from an ice bath at , , and minutes of storage. consistency of the mixture was ideally doughy at all time points. after minutes at room temperature, the mixture continued to be injectable with slightly more resistance at these time points. the mixture was more firm yet maintained a doughy consis- tency. cement dough could not be injected after minutes of storage, either immediately after removal or after minutes at room temperature. conclusion we demonstrate the prolongation of working time of polymethylmethacrylate cement in percutaneous kyphoplasty using ice bath cooling of dough filled cement cartridges. cement dough was injectable after storage in an ice bath for up to minutes. in the clinical setting, intraprocedual cool- ing using this simple, low cost technique may extend the working time of polymethylmethacrylate for the operator and may improve the utility of a single balloon kyphoplasty kit when treating multiple vertebral compression fractures. disclosures b. kim: none. e- evaluation of strategies to reduce time to revascularization in acute ischemic stroke a doerr, s jenkins, j davis. northwestern medicine, chicago, il; mennonite college of nursing, illinois state university, normal, il; central dupage hospital, winfield, il . /neurintsurg- - . background stroke is significant cause of morbidity, disability and mortality in the united states today. there is growing support for the need for process improvement, specifically, reducing time to reperfusion in endovascular stroke therapy (evt) to improve functional outcomes. it is suggested that every minutes delay in revascularization of acute ischemic stroke leads to a . % decrease in the potential for a good functional outcome (khatri et al., ). purpose to identify the impact on specific hospital based proc- ess improvement strategies in the acute ischemic stroke patient population undergoing endovascular therapy with specific intent to decrease median arrival to revascularization time, thus increasing the potential for good functional outcome. we abstract e- figure electronic poster abstracts jnis ; ( ):a –a a board news pisacano scholars the pisacano leadership foundation, the philan- thropic arm of the american board of family med- icine, recently selected its pisacano scholars. these medical students follow in the footsteps of scholar alumni who are practicing physicians and current scholars who are enrolled in family medicine residency programs across the country. the pisacano leadership foundation was created in by the american board of family medicine in tribute to its founder and first executive director, nicholas j. pisacano, md ( – ). each pisacano scholar has demonstrated the highest level of leadership, academic achievement, commu- nication skills, community service, and character and integrity. bethany enoch, a pisacano scholar, is a fourth-year medical student at the university of kansas school of medicine. she graduated summa cum laude from midamerica nazarene university with a bachelor of arts in biology and music per- formance. as an undergraduate, bethany received a number of honors and awards, including the pres- ident’s award, a half-tuition scholarship based on act scores. she also received the phyllis m. crocker memorial scholarship, awarded annually to outstanding music major students at mid- america nazarene. in addition, she was chosen twice to perform in the school’s honor’s recital, a recital highlighting the best musical performances each semester. as a medical student, bethany has continued to receive numerous awards and has achieved significant leadership positions. at kansas, she served as the president of the family medicine interest group and the vice president of the kansas alpha omega alpha chapter. bethany also served as a student representative to the kansas academy of family physicians board of directors, and at the national level she was elected as the student chair of the american academy of family physicians’ national confer- ence of the family medicine residents and stu- dents. she previously served as a student repre- sentative to the commission on practice and enhancement. bethany has also volunteered with jaydoc, a student-run free clinic, since beginning medical school. after moving to kenya at the age of with her parents who became missionaries and witnessing the disadvantages that so much of the world en- dures, bethany decided in sixth grade that she wanted to become a doctor. at a very young age, she served children of aids victims who were living in orphanages and delivered food and blan- kets to victims of tribal violence near her school. bethany is confident that her experience as a child is what led her to medical school. as a doctor, bethany plans to provide full-spectrum care from delivering babies to providing end-of-life care. she plans to be active in her community and work for her patients by helping to implement healthy mea- sures in the community. pamela ferry, a pisacano scholar, is a pamela ferry bethany enoch jabfm january–february vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n ja n u a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ fourth-year medical student at baylor college of medicine. a national merit scholar, she graduated from stanford university with a bachelor of arts in human biology. she also received a master of health science with a major in international health from johns hopkins university. as a lib- erty hyde bailey fellow at cornell university, pamela completed doctoral coursework for her phd before deciding to pursue her medical degree. from to , pamela served as a mis- sionary with the mennonite central committee in yapacani, bolivia, working as a regional coor- dinator and health educator. during her years there, she coordinated health promotion activi- ties, including community health and nutrition education; training of community health promot- ers; water and sanitation projects; immunization campaigns; and agriculture and animal husbandry projects to improve economic and nutritional status. after returning from bolivia, pamela joined baylor, where she is currently the assistant director for the center for educational outreach and assistant professor of allied health sciences. at baylor, she oversees programs to increase ac- cess to medical careers for underrepresented col- lege students, including enrichment experiences, mentoring, and educational research. pamela was instrumental in the development of the texas joint admission medical program (jamp), which is now a well established state-wide pro- gram available to economically disadvantaged students. during a brief hiatus from baylor, pamela spent years directing a community-based breast cancer project for uninsured women. she has also volun- teered with a number of organizations, including the texas children’s hospital and a teen girls’ discipleship group at her local church. in addition, for the last years pamela has served as a team leader on annual mission trips to montero, bolivia. she organizes, leads, and translates for a team of medical professionals and volunteers who provide care to indigent families and a girls’ orphanage. last year, pamela also participated in a medical mission trip to riobamba, ecuador. most recently, pamela received the debakey scholar award from baylor, which is awarded each year to a fourth-year medical student in honor of dr. michael e. de- bakey. pamela’s professional goals include a commit- ment to advocacy and involvement in research on underserved care, international medical and public health work, and a patient-centered medical home- model medical practice in an underserved popula- tion. anthony lim, a pisacano scholar, is a fourth-year medical student at boston university school of medicine (bu). he graduated phi beta kappa and with distinction from stanford univer- sity with a bachelor of arts in human biology. after graduation, he spent a year in taiwan and china, fulfilling a lifelong dream to learn manda- rin. on returning to the united states, anthony gained a year of valuable business experience work- ing at a management consulting firm. he subse- quently attended harvard law school, graduating with cum laude honors. while at harvard, he obtained certification as a mediator under massa- chusetts law and worked as a mediator for the harvard mediation program. he also worked as a summer law clerk at the san diego public defend- er’s office and as an intern with health law advo- cates, where he provided legal counsel to low-in- come residents in massachusetts who had been denied medically necessary services for insurance reasons. anthony was also the recipient of an ameri- corps educational award for year of public service within an underserved community. during this time, he taught math at a tuition-free middle school for children from economically disadvantaged fam- ilies. before attending medical school, anthony spent a year as a clinical research assistant at the joslin diabetes center, working on a nationwide national institutes of health study examining treatment options for type diabetes in adoles- cents. as a medical student at bu, anthony has con- tinued his commitment to service. anthony was awarded a – albert schweitzer fellow- anthony lim doi: . /jabfm. . . board news o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n ja n u a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ ship. during his fellowship, he organized and led weekly therapeutic sessions for homeless individuals recovering from illness, and he co-organized and moderated a homeless symposium. he is currently participating in the selection process for this year’s schweitzer fellows. anthony also cofounded and coled bu’s christian medical and dental association (cmda). the organization has grown from to more than student members since its inception. anthony was recently inducted into the gold hu- manism honor society, which honors medical stu- dents for “demonstrating excellence in clinical care, leadership, compassion, and dedication to service.” in addition, anthony participates in bu’s family med- icine student track, regularly participating in family medicine and primary care events, workshops, and meetings. outside of school, anthony enjoys hiking, bicycling, and spending time with his wife, jean, and their -year old son, joshua. as a family physician, anthony looks forward to a career that combines patient care, clinical teach- ing, and working with the underserved. he intends to work relentlessly at the individual, community, and policy-wide level toward building healthier communities. steven lin, a pisacano scholar, is a fourth-year medical student at stanford school of medicine. he graduated summa cum laude and phi beta kappa from duke university with a bachelor of science in biology. his work on eliminating health inequities nationally made him the american red cross “person of the year” at duke, where he was also elected chapter president. he received major fellowships, including a howard hughes medical institute award, for his research on creat- ing cancer vaccines. for his academic and human- itarian accomplishments, he was named a national semifinalist for the rhodes scholarship. at stanford, steven joined the asian liver cen- ter, the first nonprofit organization in the country that addresses the disproportionate burden of hep- atitis b and liver cancer in asians. while spear- heading outreach and educational projects both do- mestically and internationally in china, he conducted one of the largest epidemiologic studies of hepatitis b in asian americans, which won hon- ors from the american college of preventive med- icine and became a landmark paper in hepatology. he was also a key contributor to the asian liver center’s “physician’s guide to hepatitis b”—an evidence-based practice guideline funded by the centers for disease control and prevention, now used by health departments across the country to educate their doctors and serve their communities. later, he joined the steering committee for san francisco hep b free, a citywide campaign to turn san francisco into the first hepatitis b-free city in the nation. working with the department of public health and the california state assembly, he helped create public and provider awareness about the im- portance of routine hepatitis b testing and vaccination and ensuring access to treatment for chronically in- fected individuals, especially for those who are unable to pay. during this time, he gave over a dozen pre- sentations at major national conferences. next, steven received the albert schweitzer fel- lowship to start a free clinic for underserved asians at risk for hepatitis b and liver cancer. in year, the clinic served more than uninsured immigrants with no access to care and identified nearly indi- viduals with chronic hepatitis b or liver cancer. his clinic attracted national media attention and was in- ducted into the national task force on hepatitis b. in recognition of his work, steven was awarded the american academy of family physicians’ student community outreach award. karl metzger, a pisacano scholar, is a karl metzger steven lin jabfm january–february vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n ja n u a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ fourth-year medical student at the university of kansas school of medicine. he graduated from the university of nebraska – lincoln with a bachelor of science in mechanical engineering. while at- tending night school to obtain his undergraduate degree, karl also began his -year career in the engineering field. during his engineering career, he put close to two dozen products on the market and earned separate patents. during this time, he also joined the us marine corps reserve and con- tinued to serve years in the reserves. he was awarded the meritorious mast for leadership for outstanding leadership as a programming team leader. karl’s management experience in his engineer- ing career subsequently led to a new career as the business manager of large health club. here, karl discovered his passion for helping others, which subsequently ignited his desire to enter medical school. as a medical student, karl has continued his leadership and academic excellence. during his first years of medical school, he participated in the kansas university medical center international outreach’s (kumcio) medical mission trip to be- lize. he served as the assistant to the trip leader his first year and as the trip leader for both trips the following year. he described his experience on these trips as not only enriching and rewarding but also as one which anchored his commitment to family medicine. karl also served as the project director for the kansas university medical center community health project, which places second- year medical students in community safety net clin- ics. he comanaged the placements of the students and monitored their experiences with the commu- nity organizations. in addition, karl has also vol- unteered with the jaydoc student-run free clinic since his first year of medical school. karl describes himself by the priorities in his life. first is his deep sense of spirituality which gives him the strength and peace to be effective in the rest of his life; next is his commitment as a husband, a father, and a son; following that is his dedication to becoming a physician; and lastly are his own interests such as martial arts and ironman triathlete events. after residency, karl envisions his future career in an integrated practice that offers a variety of services in both conventional and complementary medicine as well as small groups, social/community support, psychiatry, counseling, exercise, and nu- trition. he also plans to volunteer for the under- served both nationally and internationally. jane ireland american board of family medicine doi: . /jabfm. . . board news o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n ja n u a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ genetics of recessive cognitive disorders genetics of recessive cognitive disorders luciana musante and h. hilger ropers max planck institute of molecular genetics, berlin, germany review most severe forms of intellectual disability (id) have spe- cific genetic causes. numerous x chromosome gene defects and disease-causing copy-number variants have been linked to id and related disorders, and recent studies have revealed that sporadic cases are often due to domi- nant de novo mutations with low recurrence risk. for autosomal recessive id (arid) the recurrence risk is high and, in populations with frequent parental consanguinity, arid is the most common form of id. even so, its eluci- dation has lagged behind. here we review recent progress in this field, show that arid is not rare even in outbred western populations, and discuss the prospects for im- proving its diagnosis and prevention. id: a major unsolved problem of healthcare early-onset cognitive impairment, commonly referred to as mental retardation or, more recently, id [ ], is defined as a disability ‘characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior’, and which ‘originates before the age of ’ [ ] with an iq below (= iq – sd) which is generally considered to be the threshold for id. according to this definition, id is esti- mated to affect – % of western populations [ ] but is significantly more common elsewhere, with malnutrition, cultural deprivation, poor healthcare, and parental con- sanguinity as predisposing factors. worldwide, id is a major socioeconomic problem, the most costly of all diag- noses listed in the international classification of diseases (icd , http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd .htm), and the most frequent reason for referral to genetic services [ ]. id may be the only clinical symptom or it may be part of a clinically recognizable syndrome, but specific clinical fea- tures will often only be apparent when comparing several patients [ ], and a sharp distinction between syndromic and non-syndromic forms (ns-id) is not possible. most autosomal recessive gene defects are still unknown since , the year when common fragile x syndrome was elucidated, more than x-linked gene defects have - /$ – see front matter � elsevier ltd. all rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tig. . . corresponding author: ropers, h.h. (ropers@molgen.mpg.de). keywords: autosomal recessive id; homozygosity mapping; next-generation sequencing; healthcare. trends in genetics, january , vol. , no. been implicated in id, as reported and reviewed else- where [ , ]. during the past decade numerous de novo and recurrent copy-number variants (cnvs) have been identified that cause or predispose to id [ ] and more recently, sequencing of affected individuals and their healthy parents has indicated that in sporadic patients, de novo basepair changes are another important cause of id ([ – ] and references therein). by contrast, research into autosomal recessive id (arid) has lagged behind, possibly because in western societies where most of the genetic research takes place, families are usually small, which has hampered mapping and identification of the underlying gene defects. this problem has been partly overcome by the introduction of high-throughput dna sequencing techniques (box ). however, it has been shown that arid is extremely heterogeneous, that the total number of arid genes may run into the thousands (reviewed in [ ]), and that the vast majority of these are still unknown. homozygosity mapping in consanguineous families homozygosity (or autozygosity) mapping in consanguine- ous families is the strategy of choice for mapping genes for recessive disorders in the human genome [ ] (box ). before , virtually nothing was known about the mo- lecular causes of arid and, until , no more than three genes for non-syndromic arid had been identified, all by microsatellite-based homozygosity mapping in large con- sanguineous families and subsequent mutation screening of functionally plausible positional candidate genes [ ] (table ). the first large study employing single-nucleotide poly- morphism (snp) arrays to map id genes [ ] identified single homozygous linkage intervals in of consanguin- eous iranian families with two or more affected children. none of these intervals overlapped, indicating that arid is highly heterogeneous. this was confirmed by subsequent studies [ , ]. thus, in contrast to non-syndromic reces- sive deafness, where % of the patients have mutations in a single gene (reviewed in [ ]), these studies did not identify any frequent forms of arid. many of the homozygous intervals in these families were large, which meant that hundreds of genes often had to be screened to identify the causative mutation. nevertheless, systematic sanger sequencing has led to the identification of numerous novel genes for non- syndromic arid (table ) ([ ] and references therein; [ , ]). http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd/icd .htm http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tig. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.tig. . . &domain=pdf http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.tig. . . &domain=pdf mailto:ropers@molgen.mpg.de box . traditional strategies to map arid genes screening for disease-associated cnvs by array-comparative genomic hybridization (a-cgh) cnvs are structural variations in the genome which consist in gains and losses of large chunks of dna sequence with a range in length from bp to mb (cytogenetic level of resolution). because cnvs change the structure of the genome, their functional effect could crucially depend on whether they change the sequence or relative location of specific segments of genomic dna. linkage mapping in multiple-affected families genetic linkage is the tendency whereby alleles at loci close to each other on a chromosome will be inherited together during meiosis because they are less likely to be separated by a crossover event. conversely, if loci are far apart or on different chromosomes then recombination will occur by chance in % of meioses. the recombination fraction ranges from (tight linkage) to . (no linkage) and is a measure of genetic distance. linkage can be used to map disease genes by typing dna markers (i.e., snps) and seeing if their alleles cosegregate with the disease phenotype. homozygosity mapping in consanguineous families consanguineous families are common in countries belonging to the ‘consanguinity belt’ that extends from morocco to india, and in migrant communities now permanently resident in western europe, north america, and australasia [ ] (see also http://www.consang. net/). it is estimated that about % of the human population live in communities with a preference for consanguineous marriage and that at least . % of children have consanguineous parents ([ ] and references therein). globally, the most common form of consangui- neous union is between first cousins, who share / of their genes, and their progeny therefore show autozygosity at / of all loci. conventionally, this is expressed as the coefficient of inbreeding (f), and for first-cousin offspring f = . [ ]. the children of consanguineous individuals will have more homozygous dna than the offspring of an outbred marriage. this leads to an increased likelihood of rare, recessive disease-causing variants being inherited from a common ancestor via both maternal and paternal lineages. homozygosity mapping is based on the fact that the affected offspring of consanguineous matings will not only be homozygous by descent for the causative gene defect, but also for flanking genetic markers located on the same chromosomal segment. table . ns-arid genes identified before the ngs era ( – genea hgnc id number of families reported ethnicity mu prss algerian del crbn closed population (north america) r cc d a israeli arab g grik iranian del tusc iranian french pakistani italian del n del del trappc israeli arab tunisian pakistani iranian syrian italian r r r l r t zc h iranian r med algerian r a gene symbol approved by human gene nomenclature committee, hgnc (http://ww b abbreviations: c, coding region; del, deletion; fs, frameshift; inv, inversion; x, stop c c mrt, mental retardation, autosomal recessive, phenotypic series, omim, online m syndromic intellectual disability. d omim number (#), phenotypic description, molecular basis known, version octobe box . disease gene identification by ngs in the past a traditional way to identify mendelian disease genes was sanger sequencing of candidate genes selected by positional mapping (i.e., linkage analysis, homozygosity mapping), by their relation to other genes responsible for similar phenotypes, or because the encoded proteins were known to be physiologically or function- ally relevant to the disease in question. the introduction of ngs has revolutionized the genetic dissection of monogenic diseases, allow- ing the identification of gene defects underlying id in familial cases even where linkage analysis would be impossible due to insufficient family information (size of the family, number of affected per family, etc.) as well as in sporadic cases and encompassing diverse models of inheritance. moreover, it can be applied to the detection of cnvs. few major ngs platforms exist (reviewed in [ ]). although they use different enzymology, chemistry, high resolution optics, hardware and software, nevertheless they share some commonalities – they generally start with fragmented genomic dna, ligated with platform specific linker, then selectively amplified by pcr, ready for massively parallel sequencing resulting in millions of short reads. ngs can be applied to sequencing of the entire human genome (referred to as whole-genome sequencing, wgs), to the entire protein-coding sequences (known as whole-exome sequencing, wes), and also to a subset of genomic regions (i.e., exons within the homozygous loci or linkage intervals) or to a subset of target genes. despite the advantage of ngs technologies compared to previous methods, including increased speed and reduced costs, the major challenge resides now in the interpretation of the large number of variants identified. it will be crucial to develop strategies for disease variant prioritization, including robust bioinformatics procedures to filter the relevant changes. this process could take advantage also of the development of databases of genetic variants present in affected and healthy individuals. review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. next-generation sequencing (ngs): a new dimension in the elucidation of arid the introduction of high-throughput ngs techniques (box ) has revolutionized the genetic dissection of id and the identification of gene defects underlying arid. tecr was the first gene for which a causative homozygous variant was identified by whole-exome enrichment and ) tationb disorderc omimd first description acgt - mrt , ns-id # [ ] x mrt , ns-id # [ ] fsx mrt , ns-id # [ ] /inv, ex – mrt , ns-id # [ ] kb; q x tfsx kb kb mrt , ns-id # [ , ] x x x; c. + g>t wfsx x yfsx mrt , ns-id # [ – ] x ns-id [ ] q ns-id # [ ] w.genenames.org/). odon. endelian inheritance in man (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim); ns-id, non- r . http://www.consang.net/ http://www.consang.net/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim table . ns-arid (candidate) genes identified by ngs (since )a gene hgnc id number of families reported ethnicity mutation disorder omim first description adk iranian h r ns-id asd [ ] adra b iranian r g ns-id [ ] ascc iranian s p ns-id [ ] ascl iranian a s ns-id [ ] c orf iranian r h ns-id [ ] tti iranian p l ns-id [ ] rabl pakistani a p ns-id [ ] casp iranian q x ns-id [ ] ccna iranian splice site ns-id [ ] coq iranian g s ns-id [ ] cradd old order amish and mennonite g r mrt , ns-id # [ ] eef b iranian splice site ns-id [ ] elp lebanese iranian t p r l ns-id [ ] entpd iranian y c ns-id [ ] fasn iranian r w ns-id [ ] hist h omani r c ns-id [ ] inpp a iranian d fsx ns-id [ ] kiaa omani p r ns-id [ ] man b pakistani e k mrt , ns-id # [ , ] w x iranian r c ndst iranian r q ns-id [ ] pecr iranian l v ns-id asd [ ] prmt iranian g r ns-id [ ] prrt iranian a fsx ns-id [ ] ralgds iranian a v ns-id [ ] rgs iranian n fsx ns-id asd [ ] scaper iranian y fsx ns-id [ ] st gal iranian a d d y mrt , ns-id # [ ] tecr endogamic population; hutterites p l mrt , ns-id # [ ] trmt iranian i fsx ns-id [ ] ubr iranian n s ns-id asd [ ] zcchc iranian l x ns-id [ ] znf iranian r q q h ns-id [ ] a abbreviation: asd, autism spectrum disorder; other abbreviations are given in table legend. review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. sequencing (wes) of a large consanguineous family with ns-id [ ], and a missense mutation in this gene was recently found to be a common cause of ns-id in hutterites [ ]. tecr codes for trans- , -enoyl-coa reductase (also referred to as synaptic glycoprotein ), which reduces trans- , -stearoyl-coa to stearoyl-coa of long and very long chain fatty acids (vlcfa). perturbations of vlcfa metabolism have also been observed in other neurological disorders such as adrenoleukodystrophy and zellweger syndrome, and mutations affecting facl , which is in- volved in the degradation of vlcfa and the production of key intermediates in the synthesis of complex lipids, are known to cause x-linked id [ ]. more recently, a large study highlighted the extraordi- nary potential of ngs for unraveling the molecular basis of arid [ ]. instead of performing wes, these authors opted for the enrichment and sequencing of exons from homozygous linkage intervals in consanguineous iranian families. in of families investigated a single, appar- ently disease-causing sequence variant was identified. of these families, had homozygous mutations in genes previously implicated in id or related neurological disor- ders and, in addition, single homozygous mutations were found in novel candidate genes for arid, mostly in patients with apparently ‘pure’ or ns-id (table ). follow- up studies have revealed additional clinical symptoms in patients with mutations involving the same genes, thereby confirming their postulated role in id, but also illustrating the clinical variability of these gene defects. it is noteworthy that, in about % of the families studied, potentially causative gene defects could not be identified. in populations where parental consanguinity is common, not all recessive conditions are due to autozygous changes, which were the only target of this study; other review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. defects including compound heterozygosity or mutations in intronic, promoter, or other non-coding sequences could not be detected by this approach. in other families, pathogenic changes may have been overlooked due to overly-stringent filtering of sequence variants, including all synonymous changes. in outbred populations, most patients with recessive forms of id or related disorders will be sporadic cases. id families are mostly non-consanguineous and only a small proportion have multiple affected siblings [ ]. recently, the first systematic wes study including such families revealed compound heterozygous frameshift changes in the ddhd gene, which encodes one of the three mamma- lian intracellular phospholipases a( ) [ ], as well as pathogenic mutations in two known x-linked id genes. potentially pathogenic mutations, including three com- pound heterozygous and two homozygous changes, were identified in five candidate genes not previously implicated in id [ ]. thus, the diagnostic yield of this study ( %) was only slightly inferior to one performed in consanguin- eous families ( %) [ ], although it remains to be seen how many will be confirmed by validation studies. most novel candidates are bona fide arid genes many of the recently reported novel candidate genes are very attractive candidates because of their synapse- or brain-specific function; others involve basic cellular pro- cesses which have been repeatedly implicated in id, such as dna transcription and translation, protein degrada- tion, mrna splicing, energy metabolism, or fatty-acid synthesis and turnover [ ]. conclusive proof for their indispensable role in the brain has been obtained for a growing number of these genes through the identification of additional mutations in unrelated families, studies in mouse or fly models, or by other means. for example, mutations in the larp gene have now been observed in two unrelated families. larp encodes a negative transcriptional regulator of polymerase ii genes, acting by means of the sk ribonucleoprotein (rnp) sys- tem [ ]. after the first description [ ], a second loss-of- function mutation in larp was described in a family from saudi arabia with primordial dwarfism, intellectual disability, and dysmorphic facial features [ ]. in a consanguineous family with id, facial dysmorph- isms, and cataracts, a homozygous intragenic cacna g deletion was described that is predicted to remove at least amino acids of cacna g, abolishing its function. cac- na g is a t-type calcium channel with a crucial role in the generation of gabab receptor-mediated spike and wave discharges in the thalamo-cortical pathway ([ ] and refer- ences therein). a second homozygous cacna g mutation has been found that removes a single but apparently essen- tial amino acid (f.s. alkuraya, riyadh, personal communi- cation) in several members of a previously described arab family with a severe syndromic form of arid [ ]. moreover, a de novo deletion removing one copy of the cacna g gene has been found in a male patient [ ] whose clinical features closely resembled that of iranian patients with a homozy- gous intragenic cacna g deletion [ ]. mutations in the nsun gene have been identified in five unrelated consanguineous families. together, these findings revealed the syndromic nature of this condition, which includes characteristic facial features and variable other clinical signs [ – ]. nsun encodes an rna methyltransferase which methylates cytosine to -methyl- cytosine (m c) at position of intron-containing trna(- leu)(caa) precursors [ ]. a drosophila model of this was generated by deleting the nsun ortholog, which resulted in severe short-term memory (stm) deficits, pointing to an important role of rna methylation in cognition [ ]. nsun is now the third rna-methyltransferase gene linked to id. previously, ftsj (mrx , mim # ) had been implicated in x-linked ns-id [ ], and recently trmt , which encodes a trna (g ) dimethyltransfer- ase, was identified as a novel candidate gene for arid [ ]. zc h , mutated in a consanguineous family with ns- arid, is another gene whose indispensable role in the central nervous system has been supported by a drosophi- la model. zc h is the human ortholog of the drosophila nab protein, which binds to polyadenylated mrna and restricts the length of the poly(a) tail, and this protein was also found to be indispensable for normal behavior in the fly [ ] (see table ). zc h is a new member of the growing list of id genes with a role in mrna metabolism, including fmrp, fmr p, pqbp , ufp b, dyrk a, and cdkl ([ ] for review). arid is extremely heterogeneous and clinically variable at the time of writing, genes have been implicated in ns-id (tables and ). in of these, apparently patho- genic mutations have been detected in more than one family. a mutation in the neurotrypsin gene (prss ) has been found in two apparently unrelated algerian families with ns-id (reviewed in [ ] and references there- in). a mutation in the cc d a gene, the product of which regulates expression of the serotonin receptor a gene in neuronal cells, had been identified in nine nuclear families and more recently in a pakistani family ([ ] and refer- ences therein). other established arid genes include tusc which is required for cellular mg + uptake, traf- ficking protein particle complex (trappc ), and st b- galactoside a- , -sialyltransferase (st gal ) ([ ] and references therein; [ – ]), man b encoding an enzyme which functions in n-glycan biosynthesis [ , ], the tran- scriptional regulator znf , and elp [ ] which encodes a subunit of the rna polymerase ii elongator complex [ ]. finally, cradd has been identified as new gene for ns-arid in affected children from different old order amish and mennonite sibships [ ]. cradd codes for a caspase recruitment domain and death domain- containing adaptor protein that activates caspase , a novel candidate gene for ns-arid [ ], and is required for neuronal apoptosis [ ]. for many of the recently described gene defects that give rise to arid the clinical picture has turned out to be complex and variable. adk deficiency may lead to ns- arid or present with severe developmental delay, persis- tent hypermethioninemia, and mild liver dysfunction [ ], and kif mutations have been reported in two different, clinically distinguishable id-malformation syndromes ([ ] and references therein). arid genes have also been implicated in conditions that are apparently unrelated to review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. id, pointing to pleiotropic functions of these genes. for example, overexpression of the fatty acid synthase fasn, a strong positional and functional candidate gene for arid [ ], predisposes to leiomyomatosis [ ], and homozygous inactivation of fto, which encodes an rna demethylase and has been previously implicated in obesity [ ], has been shown to result in severe developmental delay with malformations [ ]. a role for recessive factors in epilepsy, autism, and other psychiatric disorders? id is frequently associated with psychiatric and/or neuro- logical disorders (reviewed in [ ]). based on the interna- tional classification of diseases (icd, th revision) it has been estimated that between % and % of individuals with id present with comorbid psychiatric diagnoses. epilepsy is among the most frequently associated dis- orders [ ], with a frequency ranging from . % to %, which is similar to the – % reported by population- based studies of children with epilepsy and some degree of id ([ ] and references therein). in patients with mild to moderate id its frequency is %, but it may exceed % if the id is severe or profound [ ]. moreover, epilepsy is seen in about half of the x-linked id syndromes (reviewed in [ ]). a number of well-known genetic disorders share id, epilepsy, and autism as prominent clinical features, in- cluding tuberous sclerosis, rett syndrome, and fragile x [ ]. in recent years, the contribution of structural genome variation to epilepsy has become increasingly evident. the most common cnvs associated with epilepsy, at q . , q . , and p . , also confer susceptibility for learn- ing disabilities (reviewed in [ ] and references therein) suggesting that common genetic factors could have a caus- ative role. ngs has also been instrumental in identifying genes for recessive syndromes encompassing epilepsy and id. one of the earliest applications of this technology was the identification of homozygous and compound heterozy- gous changes in the tbc d gene, which encodes a rab gtpase activator, in an arab family with seizures and id [ ], and in an italian family with infantile myoclonic epilepsy (mim # ) [ ], respectively. since then, two additional families with recessive mutations in tbc d have been described with early infantile epilep- tic encephalopathy (mim # ) [ , ]. recently, homozygous frameshift mutations in the prrt (proline-rich transmembrane protein ) gene have been identified in two families with id and epilepsy in infancy [ , ], whereas heterozygous truncating and mis- sense mutations were shown to cause dominant infantile epilepsy (mim # ) and episodic dyskinesia (mim # ) ([ ] and references therein). these findings again highlight the stunning clinical variability of muta- tions involving the same gene. in patients with id autistic signs are also common, and most patients with autism have some degree of cognitive impairment [ ]. numerous genetic defects have been implicated in id and autism, including mutations in x- linked genes (e.g., nlg , nlg [ , ], tmlhe [ ], and cnvs (reviewed in [ ]) or apparently dominant de novo mutations ([ ] and references therein), and it is likely that the strong comorbidity between id and other major psy- chiatric disorders [ ] is also due, at least in part, to shared genetic factors (e.g., [ – ]). in several genes for autosomal recessive id, including kdm b (lysine demethylase b), med l, which encodes for a subunit of the mediator complex, and nude nuclear distribution e homolog (nde ) [ , ], dominant de novo mutations or loss of one entire gene copy have been de- scribed in autistic patients [ , ]. nevertheless, there is little direct evidence for a causative role of recessive gene defects in autism and other psychiatric disorders. in part this may be due to the focus of autism and schizophrenia research on common genetic risk factors (e.g., [ ]) and, recently, on dominant de novo mutations (e.g., [ , – ]) which may account for about % the sporadic cases [ ]. array cgh studies in consanguineous families have identified several homozygous deletions encompassing autism candidate genes, one of which was also found to be mutated in a non-consanguineous family with autism spectrum disorder (asd) [ ]. in simplex asd families, affected individuals with iq< have longer homozygous segments in their genome than unaffected siblings, but probands with an iq> do not show this excess. thus, long stretches of homozygosity may confer susceptibility to autism with low iq or to low iq alone [ ]. homozygous, compound heterozygous, or homozygous hypomorphic mutations in disease genes are known to associate with monogenic autosomal or x-linked recessive neurodevelopmental disorders, and potentially causative mutations in candidate genes were found in consanguine- ous and outbred asd families by wes [ , ]. this find- ing, together with the identification of a twofold increase in rare complete knockout mutations in asd patients com- pared to controls [ ], provide convincing evidence that autosomal recessive gene defects play a role in autism, but their frequency is still unknown. finally, consanguinity has also been suggested as a risk factor for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia [ , ], but even less is known about the contribution of autosomal recessive mutations to the pathogenesis of these diseases. how frequent are recessive forms of id? in the small families of outbred western societies, most patients with recessive forms of id or related disorders will be sporadic cases. if couples with offspring have two chil- dren on average, which is close to the actual situation in europe ([ ]; m. kreyenfeld, rostock, personal communi- cation), only one of four patients will have an affected sibling and will be identified as a familial case. in central europe, between . and % of patients with id referred to genetic services are familial cases [ , ]. taken at face value, this suggests that recessive forms of id account for – % of the cases in europe. however, this may be an overestimate because it is based on the assumption that parents with a single affected child will be equally likely to seek genetic advice as parents with two or more affected children, which is probably not true. given the low rate of parental consanguinity in devel- oped countries, most patients with arid are expected to be compound heterozygotes carrying two different disease- causing alleles [ ]. this is in keeping with a recent study review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. focusing on dominant de novo mutations in sporadic id [ ]. no homozygous disease-causing mutation was found in sporadic patients, but some carried two allelic and probably pathogenic mutations in functional candidate genes, suggesting that a minor proportion of the cases may be due to arid. however, the true proportion of arid must be higher because familial cases and consanguineous families were not included in this study, some compound heterozygotes may have been overlooked because they are more difficult to detect by ngs, and mutations in non- coding dna have not been taken into consideration. de- tectable and submicroscopic chromosomal rearrangements account for approximately % of all individuals with severe id, and x-linked factors are thought to be responsi- ble for – %. de novo mutations have been found in and %, respectively, of sporadic patients [ , ], but their true frequency may be even higher. taken together, in outbred populations arid may account for about – % of the cases, which leaves room for oligogenic/polygen- ic forms of id, which have been the subject of a recent review [ ]. in populations where parental consanguinity is com- mon, autosomal recessive gene defects must be an even more important cause of id. in families from the middle east, autosomal recessive disorders were found to be al- most threefold more frequent among inbred as among non- inbred cases [ ]. in jordan, autosomal recessive inheri- tance was observed in % of the families counseled and, of the � % sporadic cases without a definite diagnosis, % were also ascribed to autosomal recessive gene defects [ ]. thus, in these countries, arid should be the most common genetic cause of id – and a particularly promising target for diagnosis and prevention. implications for research and healthcare despite the remarkable progress in the elucidation of autosomal recessive forms of id, it is likely that the several hundred genes already implicated in syndromic or non- syndromic arid (see [ ] and references therein) and related disorders are vastly outnumbered by the many arid genes still waiting to be found. considering that on the x chromosome alone, which carries % of all human genes, already more than id genes have been identi- fied [ , ], there should be at least autosomal id genes, and most of the novel forms of id should be autosomal recessive, which is supported by functional considerations and evidence from model organisms. ngs in families with two or more affected individuals has proven to be an extraordinarily effective approach for identifying novel recessive causes of id, and international collaborations including the gencodys consortium (http://www.gencodys.eu/) have set out to identify the molecular causes of arid in a systematic fashion. al- though autozygosity mapping followed by targeted exon sequencing [ ] is a successful and cost-effective strategy for finding causative gene defects in consanguineous fam- ilies, it will only detect homozygous mutations. however, in families from western industrialized countries, com- pound heterozygous mutations are common, and even in countries with frequent parental consanguinity, com- pound heterozygosity is not rare (h. najmabadi, tehran, personal communication). this argues for using wes as a more comprehensive strategy to elucidate novel causes of arid, even though, as with targeted exon sequencing, it will miss most non-exonic mutations. intronic changes [ ] and mutations in non-coding regulatory sequences are only detectable by whole-genome sequencing (wgs), and another advantage of wgs is its more even coverage. this is why wgs does not require very high sequencing depths, and it may soon become an affordable alternative to wes. increasingly, wes has been proposed as a comprehen- sive diagnostic tool for detecting mutations in patients with id and related disorders [ , ]. in a diagnostic setting, targeted ngs-based tests encompassing all genes implicated in id or related disorders could be equally useful, but much cheaper and easier to read, and they will not yield any unsolicited results. targeted tests of this kind have been developed for a variety of genetically heteroge- neous conditions such as deafness and blindness, and a broad test for severe recessive childhood diseases is al- ready routinely employed in healthcare [ , ]. concluding remarks after having been disregarded for a long time, recessive gene defects are being discovered at a rapid pace as impor- tant causes of id. comprehensive and affordable tests to rule out all known forms of arid will have a major effect on the diagnosis and prevention of id, not only in developing countries where parental consanguinity is common but also elsewhere. acknowledgments we thank hossein najmabadi and kimia kahrizi, hao hu, masoud garshasbi, andreas kuss, wei chen, and thomas wienker for their essential contributions to our past and ongoing arid research, and gabriele eder for help with the preparation of the manuscript. this work was supported by the max planck society and by the european commission framework program (fp ) project gencodys, grant no (coordinator: hans van bokhoven, nijmegen). references schalock, r.l. et al. ( ) the renaming of mental retardation: understanding the change to the term intellectual disability. intellect. dev. disabil. , – american psychiatric association ( ) diagnostic and statistic manual of mental disorders ( th revision: dsm-iv-tr), american psychiatric association leonard, h. and wen, x. ( ) the epidemiology of mental retardation: challenges and opportunities in the new millennium. ment. retard. dev. disabil. res. rev. , – ropers, h.h. ( ) genetics of early onset cognitive impairment. annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. , – kleefstra, t. and hamel, b.c. ( ) x-linked mental retardation: further lumping, splitting and emerging phenotypes. clin. genet. , – lubs, h.a. et al. ( ) fragile x and x-linked intellectual disability: four decades of discovery. am. j. hum. genet. , – piton, a. et al. ( ) xlid-causing mutations and associated genes challenged in light of data form large-scale human exome sequencing. am. j. hum. genet. , – mefford, h.c. et al. ( ) genomics, intellectual disability, and autism. n. engl. j. med. , – veltman, j.a. and brunner, h.g. ( ) de novo mutations in human genetic disease. nat. rev. genet. , – rauch, a. et al. ( ) diagnostic yield of various genetic approaches in patients with unexplained developmental delay or mental retardation. am. j. med. genet. a , – http://www.gencodys.eu/ http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. de ligt, j. et al. ( ) diagnostic exome sequencing in persons with severe intellectual disability. n. engl. j. med. , – lander, e.s. and botstein, d. ( ) homozygosity mapping: a way to map human recessive traits with the dna of inbred children. science , – najmabadi, h. et al. ( ) homozygosity mapping in consanguineous families reveals extreme heterogeneity of non-syndromic autosomal recessive mental retardation and identifies novel gene loci. hum. genet. , – kuss, a.w. et al. ( ) autosomal recessive mental retardation: homozygosity mapping identifies single linkage intervals, at least novel loci and several mutation hotspots. hum. genet. , – abou jamra, r. et al. ( ) homozygosity mapping in syrian consanguineous families with non-specific intellectual disability reveals novel loci and high heterogeneity. eur. j. hum. genet. , – duman, d. and tekin, m. ( ) autosomal recessive nonsyndromic deafness genes: a review. front. biosci. , – pak, c. et al. ( ) mutation of the conserved polyadenosine rna binding protein, zc h /dnab , impairs neural function in drosophila and humans. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – hashimoto, s. et al. ( ) med mutation links intellectual disability to dysregulation of immediate early gene expression. science , – caliskan, m. et al. ( ) exome sequencing reveals a novel mutation for autosomal recessive non-syndromic mental retardation in the tecr gene on chromosome p . hum. mol. genet. , – chong, j.x. et al. ( ) a population-based study of autosomal- recessive disease-causing mutations in a founder population. am. j. hum. genet. , – meloni, i. et al. ( ) facl , encoding fatty acid-coa ligase , is mutated in nonspecific x-linked mental retardation. nat. genet. , – najmabadi, h. et al. ( ) deep sequencing reveals novel genes for recessive cognitive disorders. nature , – schuurs-hoeijmakers, j.h.m. ( ) gene identification in intellectual disability, radboud university nijmegen schuurs-hoeijmakers, j.h. et al. ( ) mutations in ddhd , encoding an intracellular phospholipase a( ), cause a recessive form of complex hereditary spastic paraplegia. am. j. hum. genet. , – markert, a. et al. ( ) the la-related protein larp is a component of the sk ribonucleoprotein and affects transcription of cellular and viral polymerase ii genes. embo rep. , – alazami, a.m. et al. ( ) loss of function mutation in larp , chaperone of sk ncrna, causes a syndrome of facial dysmorphism, intellectual disability, and primordial dwarfism. hum. mutat. , – zamponi, g.w. et al. ( ) role of voltage-gated calcium channels in epilepsy. pflugers arch. , – al-owain, m. et al. ( ) an autosomal recessive syndrome of severe cognitive impairment, dysmorphic facies and skeletal abnormalities maps to the long arm of chromosome . clin. genet. , – preiksaitiene, e. et al. ( ) a novel de novo . mb microdeletion of q . associated with intellectual disability and dysmorphic features. eur. j. med. genet. , – abbasi-moheb, l. et al. ( ) mutations in nsun cause autosomal- recessive intellectual disability. am. j. hum. genet. , – khan, m.a. et al. ( ) mutation in nsun , which encodes an rna methyltransferase, causes autosomal-recessive intellectual disability. am. j. hum. genet. , – martinez, f.j. et al. ( ) whole exome sequencing identifies a splicing mutation in nsun as a cause of a dubowitz-like syndrome. j. med. genet. , – brzezicha, b. et al. ( ) identification of human trna:m c methyltransferase catalysing intron-dependent m c formation in the first position of the anticodon of the pre-trna leu (caa). nucleic acids res. , – freude, k. et al. ( ) mutations in the ftsj gene coding for a novel s-adenosylmethionine-binding protein cause nonsyndromic x-linked mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – bardoni, b. et al. ( ) intellectual disabilities, neuronal posttranscriptional rna metabolism, and rna-binding proteins: three actors for a complex scenario. prog. brain res. , – noor, a. et al. ( ) cc d a, encoding a coiled-coil and c domain protein, causes autosomal-recessive mental retardation with retinitis pigmentosa. am. j. hum. genet. , – khan, m.a. et al. ( ) a novel deletion mutation in the tusc gene in a consanguineous pakistani family with autosomal recessive nonsyndromic intellectual disability. bmc med. genet. , loddo, s. et al. ( ) homozygous deletion in tusc causing syndromic intellectual disability: a new patient. am. j. med. genet. a , – hu, h. et al. ( ) st gal mutations impair the development of higher cognitive functions. am. j. hum. genet. , – marangi, g. et al. ( ) trappc -related autosomal recessive intellectual disability: report of a new mutation and clinical phenotype. eur. j. hum. genet. , – rafiq, m.a. et al. ( ) mutations in the alpha , -mannosidase gene, man b , cause autosomal-recessive intellectual disability. am. j. hum. genet. , – winkler, g.s. et al. ( ) rna polymerase ii elongator holoenzyme is composed of two discrete subcomplexes. j. biol. chem. , – puffenberger, e.g. et al. ( ) genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel diseases. plos one , e ribe, e.m. et al. ( ) neuronal caspase activity and function requires raidd, but not pidd. biochem. j. , – bjursell, m.k. et al. ( ) adenosine kinase deficiency disrupts the methionine cycle and causes hypermethioninemia, encephalopathy, and abnormal liver function. am. j. hum. genet. , – ali, b.r. et al. ( ) a mutation in kif is responsible for the autosomal recessive syndrome of macrocephaly, multiple epiphyseal dysplasia and distinctive facial appearance. orphanet j. rare dis. , eggert, s.l. et al. ( ) genome-wide linkage and association analyses implicate fasn in predisposition to uterine leiomyomata. am. j. hum. genet. , – frayling, t.m. et al. ( ) a common variant in the fto gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity. science , – boissel, s. et al. ( ) loss-of-function mutation in the dioxygenase- encoding fto gene causes severe growth retardation and multiple malformations. am. j. hum. genet. , – oeseburg, b. et al. ( ) prevalence of chronic health conditions in children with intellectual disability: a systematic literature review. intellect. dev. disabil. , – berg, a.t. and plioplys, s. ( ) epilepsy and autism: is there a special relationship? epilepsy behav. , – prince, e. and ring, h. ( ) causes of learning disability and epilepsy: a review. curr. opin. neurol. , – stevenson, r.e. et al. ( ) seizures and x-linked intellectual disability. eur. j. med. genet. , – leung, h.t. and ring, h. ( ) epilepsy in four genetically determined syndromes of intellectual disability. j. intellect. disabil. res. , – corbett, m.a. et al. ( ) a focal epilepsy and intellectual disability syndrome is due to a mutation in tbc d . am. j. hum. genet. , – falace, a. et al. ( ) tbc d , an arf -interacting protein, is mutated in familial infantile myoclonic epilepsy. am. j. hum. genet. , – guven, a. and tolun, a. ( ) tbc d truncating mutation resulting in severe neurodegeneration. j. med. genet. , – milh, m. et al. ( ) novel compound heterozygous mutations in tbc d cause familial malignant migrating partial seizures of infancy. hum. mutat. , – labate, a. et al. ( ) homozygous c. dupc mutation in prrt worsens the bfis/pkd phenotype with mental retardation, episodic ataxia, and absences. epilepsia , e –e helbig, i. and lowenstein, d.h. ( ) genetics of the epilepsies: where are we and where are we going? curr. opin. neurol. , – http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref review trends in genetics january , vol. , no. fombonne, e. ( ) epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders: an update. j. autism dev. disord. , – jamain, s. et al. ( ) mutations of the x-linked genes encoding neuroligins nlgn and nlgn are associated with autism. nat. genet. , – laumonnier, f. et al. ( ) x-linked mental retardation and autism are associated with a mutation in the nlgn gene, a member of the neuroligin family. am. j. hum. genet. , – celestino-soper, p.b. et al. ( ) a common x-linked inborn error of carnitine biosynthesis may be a risk factor for nondysmorphic autism. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – jiang, y.h. et al. ( ) detection of clinically relevant genetic variants in autism spectrum disorder by whole-genome sequencing. am. j. hum. genet. , – morgan, v.a. et al. ( ) intellectual disability co-occurring with schizophrenia and other psychiatric illness: population-based study. br. j. psychiatry , – kirov, g. et al. ( ) support for the involvement of large copy number variants in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. hum. mol. genet. , – de kovel, c.g. et al. ( ) recurrent microdeletions at q . and p . predispose to idiopathic generalized epilepsies. brain , – betancur, c. ( ) etiological heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: more than genetic and genomic disorders and still counting. brain res. , – guven, a. et al. ( ) novel nde homozygous mutation resulting in microhydranencephaly and not microlyssencephaly. neurogenetics , – iossifov, i. et al. ( ) de novo gene disruptions in children on the autistic spectrum. neuron , – ullmann, r. et al. ( ) array cgh identifies reciprocal p . duplications and deletions that predispose to autism and/or mental retardation. hum. mutat. , – nicolson, r. and szatmari, p. ( ) genetic and neurodevelopmental influences in autistic disorder. can. j. psychiatry , – sanders, s.j. et al. ( ) de novo mutations revealed by whole- exome sequencing are strongly associated with autism. nature , – o’roak, b.j. et al. ( ) sporadic autism exomes reveal a highly interconnected protein network of de novo mutations. nature , – neale, b.m. et al. ( ) patterns and rates of exonic de novo mutations in autism spectrum disorders. nature , – morrow, e.m. et al. ( ) identifying autism loci and genes by tracing recent shared ancestry. science , – gamsiz, e.d. et al. ( ) intellectual disability is associated with increased runs of homozygosity in simplex autism. am. j. hum. genet. , – yu, t.w. et al. ( ) using whole-exome sequencing to identify inherited causes of autism. neuron , – chahrour, m.h. et al. ( ) whole-exome sequencing and homozygosity analysis implicate depolarization-regulated neuronal genes in autism. plos genet. , e lim, e.t. et al. ( ) rare complete knockouts in humans: population distribution and significant role in autism spectrum disorders. neuron , – mansour, h.a. et al. ( ) association study of circadian genes with bipolar i disorder, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophrenia. bipolar disord. , – mansour, h. et al. ( ) consanguinity and increased risk for schizophrenia in egypt. schizophr. res. , – dratva, j. et al. ( ) variability of reproductive history across the swiss sapaldia cohort – patterns and main determinants. ann. hum. biol. , – ten kate, l.p. et al. ( ) autosomal recessive disease in children of consanguineous parents: inferences from the proportion of compound heterozygotes. j. community genet. , – rauch, a. et al. ( ) range of genetic mutations associated with severe non-syndromic sporadic intellectual disability: an exome sequencing study. lancet , – ellison, j.w. et al. ( ) genetic basis of intellectual disability. annu. rev. med. , – hoodfar, e. and teebi, a.s. ( ) genetic referrals of middle eastern origin in a western city: inbreeding and disease profile. j. med. genet. , – hamamy, h.a. et al. ( ) consanguinity and genetic disorders. profile from jordan. saudi med. j. , – zoghbi, h.y. and warren, s.t. ( ) neurogenetics: advancing the ‘next-generation’ of brain research. neuron , – lynch, m. ( ) rate, molecular spectrum, and consequences of human mutation. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – vissers, l.e. et al. ( ) a de novo paradigm for mental retardation. nat. genet. , – dixon-salazar, t.j. et al. ( ) exome sequencing can improve diagnosis and alter patient management. sci. transl. med. , ra bell, c.j. et al. ( ) carrier testing for severe childhood recessive diseases by next-generation sequencing. sci. transl. med. , ra kingsmore, s. ( ) comprehensive carrier screening and molecular diagnostic testing for recessive childhood diseases. plos curr. , – http://dx.doi.org/ . /e f ab ffa [edition ] bittles, a.h. ( ) a community genetics perspective on consanguineous marriage. community genet. , – modell, b. and darr, a. ( ) science and society: genetic counselling and customary consanguineous marriage. nat. rev. genet. , – wright, s. ( ) coefficients of inbreeding and relationship. am. nat. , – molinari, f. et al. ( ) truncating neurotrypsin mutation in autosomal recessive nonsyndromic mental retardation. science , – higgins, j.j. et al. ( ) a mutation in a novel atp-dependent lon protease gene in a kindred with mild mental retardation. neurology , – basel-vanagaite, l. et al. ( ) the cc d a, a member of a new gene family with c domains, is involved in autosomal recessive non- syndromic mental retardation. j. med. genet. , – motazacker, m.m. et al. ( ) a defect in the ionotropic glutamate receptor gene (grik ) is associated with autosomal recessive mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – garshasbi, m. et al. ( ) a defect in the tusc gene is associated with autosomal recessive mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – molinari, f. et al. ( ) oligosaccharyltransferase-subunit mutations in nonsyndromic mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – mir, a. et al. ( ) identification of mutations in trappc , which encodes the nik- and ikk-beta-binding protein, in nonsyndromic autosomal-recessive mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – philippe, o. et al. ( ) combination of linkage mapping and microarray-expression analysis identifies nf-kappab signaling defect as a cause of autosomal-recessive mental retardation. am. j. hum. genet. , – mochida, g.h. et al. ( ) a truncating mutation of trappc is associated with autosomal-recessive intellectual disability and postnatal microcephaly. am. j. hum. genet. , – ratan, a. et al. ( ) comparison of sequencing platforms for single nucleotide variant calls in a human sample. plos one , e ropers, f. et al. ( ) identification of a novel candidate gene for non- syndromic autosomal recessive intellectual disability: the wash complex member swip. hum. mol. genet. , – http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://dx.doi.org/ . /e f ab ffa http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sbref 	genetics of recessive cognitive disorders 	id: a major unsolved problem of healthcare 	most autosomal recessive gene defects are still unknown 	homozygosity mapping in consanguineous families 	next-generation sequencing (ngs): a new dimension in the elucidation of arid 	most novel candidates are bona fide arid genes 	arid is extremely heterogeneous and clinically variable 	a role for recessive factors in epilepsy, autism, and other psychiatric disorders? 	how frequent are recessive forms of id? 	implications for research and healthcare 	concluding remarks 	acknowledgments 	references arch. dis. childh., , , . thymic alymphoplasia j. c. haworth*, j. hoogstraten, and h. taylor from the departments of pathology and paediatrics, the children's hospital, winnipeg, and the university of manitoba, canada in glanzmann and riniker described two infants who died at and months of age following severe infection. these infants during life exhibit- ed profound lymphopenia, and at necropsy were found to have generalized hypoplasia of lymphoid tissues including the thymus. the authors named the condition 'essential lymphocytophthisis'. dur- ing the next decade additional cases were described from europe and it was soon recognized that hypo- y-globulinaemia was an essential feature of the condition (kosenow and schiimmelfeder, ; tobler and cottier, ; hitzig, biro, bosch, and huser, ; hitzig and willi, ; jeune, larbre, germain, and freycon, ). the disorder has also been called 'thymic alymphoplasia' or the 'swiss type' of congenital hypo-y-globulinaemia. it has attracted much interest recently because it may represent an 'experiment of nature' which is analo- gous to the immunological defects observed in some animal species which have been thymectomized in the neonatal period. the relation of the experi- mental data to human immunological deficiency disease has recently been extensively reviewed by peterson, cooper, and good ( ). twelve cases of thymic alymphoplasia have been recognized in winnipeg during the past years. another case was seen at the university hospital, saskatoon, and we are indebted to professor j. w. gerrard for details of this patient. case reports the clinical, laboratory, and pathological findings in the cases are summarized in tables i and ii. the more recent cases were diagnosed during life from the clinical and laboratory features, with ultimate verification at necropsy. the earlier cases were recovered from the necropsy records by reviewing those necropsies which had exhibited marked thymic 'involu- tion', lymphoid hypoplasia, and unusual pneumonitis. below follows in greater detail a description of the 'f' received june , . * address: the children's hospital, bannatyne avenue, winnipeg , manitoba, canada. family (cases and ) and also case , which was our most recent case and the most fully investigated. the 'f' family. both parents are mennonite and, as far as is known, unrelated. the father is one of children, all but one of whom are alive and well (fig. ). a sister died of burns at years of age. two male children of the father's paternal uncle are reported to have died in infancy but no details are known. the mother also comes of a large family, having sibs. her father's brother had a daughter who died from unknown causes when less than year of age. in september , the first child, a boy, was born and died at weeks (case ). two years later another boy was born and is alive and well. in the third son was born and he died at months (case ). a fourth child, another boy, was born in and when seen at weeks of age was healthy. serum protein electrophoresis was recently performed on both parents and on the surviv- ing children, and was normal. assay of the immuno- globulins by an immunodiffusion technique (haworth, norris, and dilling, ) gave the results shown in table iii. these values are within the normal range for the age of the subjects. the peripheral blood smear of the -week- old infant appeared normal, though at that age it was not possible to assess full immunological competence. case . this infant appeared normal at birth (weight - kg.) but was reported as being unusually irritable. at months he was admitted to a local hospital because of a sore mouth and difficulty in swallowing. there he did not improve, failed to gain weight, and developed diarrhoea, vomiting, and a cough, whereupon he was transferred to st. boniface hospital in winnipeg at months. examination revealed pallor, generalized wasting, oral thrush, and scattered rales in the chest. he weighed kg. ( rd centile) and his length was cm. ( th centile). radiographs of the chest showed increased hilar markings but were otherwise normal. candida albicans was cultured from the mouth and proteus vulgaris from the throat, stool, and urine. white blood cell counts over the -week period before death were , , and /mm. with total lymphocyte counts of , , and /mm.', respectively. the results of serum protein electrophoresis are shown in table iv. therapy included nystatin, amphotericin, and y- co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia table i clinical details of cases of thymic alymphoplasia age at onset age at lymphopenia* racial origin and case no. sex of death ( or more counts hypo-y-globulinaemia* family history symptoms (mth.) < /mm. ) half-breed n. i f mth. k not done sib american indian f kmth. + is and swiss: normal sibs m mth. + + sib mennonite: m birth k + + is normal sibs f birth + + sb ennt m birth + not done sibs mennonite m birth not done not done mennonite: sibs died in infancy; normal sibs m dy. + not done normal sibs f dy. + + mennonite: normal sib m birth + not done mennonite: normal sibs m kmth. + + normal sibs f wk. + not done sib died at years f mth. + sibs died in infancy; l________ _____________________ normal sibs * + indicates patient exhibited this feature; indicates patient did not exhibit this feature. table ii necropsy findings of cases of thymic alymphoplasia thymus nodes and spleen case no. absent lymphoid showing lung other findings weight (g.) hassall's hypoplasia* lymphoid bodies* hypoplasia* 'quite + + + pneumocystis carinii; moniliasis vocal cord; small' adenovirus pneumonia; fatty metamorphosis alveolar proteinosis liver, patent ductus + + + cytomegalic inclusion cytomegalic inclusion disease; pyogenic disease of kidneys, pneumonia gut, adrenals, ovary; colonic haemorrbage + + + giant cell pneumonia; alveolar proteinosis < + + + alveolar proteinosis; enlarged spleen lung abscesses no histology + pyogenic pneumonia; alveolar proteinosis not examined + pyogenic pneumonia; alveolar proteinosis - + + + alveolar proteinosis + + + giant cell pneumonia mitral atresia, single ventricle, anomalous pulmonary drainage < + + + tracheobronchitis pyelonephritis, staphylococcal no histology + pseudomonas pneumonia meningitis < + + + pneumocystis carinii moniliasis 'barely no histology + pseudomonas pneumonia identifiable' + + + pneumocystis carinii * + indicates patient exhibited this feature. table iii results of assay of immunoglobulins in surviving members of 'f' family (mg./ ml.) ya ym yg father .. mother ... brother ( years old) brother ( weeks old) .. < - co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor table iv serum protein concentrations (g./ ml.) in cases of thymic alymphoplasia paper electrophoresis immunoassay case ______________________ ________ _ no. total oc y y myprotein albumin globulin globulin globulin globulin ya ym yg . - - - - - - - . * * * nd* * nd y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - nd nd y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - - - - y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - - nd - y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - - - - - - y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - nd - - - - - y-globulin ml. i.m. - - - - * nd = not detectable. the immunodiffusion method used (haworth et al., ) was capable of detecting ya-globulin in excess of - mg./ ml., ym-globulin in excess of - mg./ ml., and yg-globulin in excess of mg./ ml. globulin, intramuscularly. his general condition re- mained poor, and the signs in the chest increased in severity. a further chest radiograph shortly before death showed diffuse infiltration in both hilar areas and in the left lower lobe. death occurred at the age of weeks. the necropsy findings are presented in table ii. case . the third child was born after a normal pregnancy and delivery (birthweight - kg.). at week of age he developed an infected napkin rash for which he was given local medication and penicillin. he was first admitted to hospital at months, because the rash had spread to involve the whole body. he was an emaciated, irritable, and pale infant, weighing kg., who had a generalized rash, considered to be seborrhoea, with secondary bacterial infection. the chest was clinically and radiologically clear. there was no lymphadeno- pathy. local treatment of the skin resulted in improve- ment, but a few days after admission he developed a purulent rhinorrhoea and an abscess of the scalp from both of which sites staphylococcus aureus was cultured. following treatment, his condition improved and he was discharged home. at i months he developed diarrhoea, vomiting, and anorexia, and was readmitted to hospital. examination showed a toxic, malnourished, and dehydrated infant. his weight was - kg. and his length cm. (both less than the rd centile). he had seborrhoeic dermatitis of the scalp and trunk and an otorrhoea. there was cervical, axillary, and inguinal lymphadenopathy, but the liver and spleen were not enlarged. the chest was clinically clear with the exception of a few riles at the base of the right lung. laboratory findings. hb on the first admission was * g./ ml. and the white blood count , /mm. , with lymphocytes /mm. . hb on the second admission was - g./ ml. and white blood cell counts ranged from - /mm. , with lymphocyte counts of - /mm. . throat culture yielded pneumococci and a staphylococcus was recovered from the blood. the bone-marrow showed a granulo- poietic hyperplasia. radiographs of the chest showed infiltration in both lower and both upper lobes. the results of serum protein electrophoresis and assay of the immunoglobulins are shown in table iv. the blood group was and no anti-a or anti-b isohaemoagglutinins could be detected in the serum. a drop of , - dinitrofluorobenzene (dnfb) was placed on his skin, and challenge days later with m dnfb produced an area of erythema ( x mm.) on two occasions. the schick test was positive and he did not form antibodies following diphtheria toxoid immunization. the baby was treated with oxacillin, intravenous fluids, and blood. following the diagnosis of hypo-y- globulinaemia, a total of ml. y-globulin was given intramuscularly. he seemed to improve at first but co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia soon there was a return of anorexia, abdominal disten- sion, diarrhoea, and vomiting, necessitating further intravenous fluid therapy. the chest deteriorated clinically and radiologically. the feet became red and puffy, and there was an erythematous mottled rash on the face and trunk. death occurred at months. the necropsy findings are summarized in table ii. case . this baby boy was the fourth child of healthy parents who have three other healthy children, aged to years. he was born after a normal pregnancy and delivery (weight * kg.), and was well until weeks when he developed diarrhoea. he continued to gain weight in spite of this, but at weeks he became more ill and was admitted to the children's hospital, winni- peg. examination revealed a pale, wasted, and dehydrated baby, weighing - kg. (less than the rd centile). the chest was clear. the tip of the spleen could just be felt. there were no palpable lymph nodes. pertinent laboratoryfindings. hb was - g./ ml. white blood counts ranged from - , /mm. , with lymphocyte counts of - /mm. radiographs of the chest showed infiltration in the upper lobe of the right lung. pneumococci and haemolytic streptococci were isolated from the throat and pseudomonas aeruginosa was grown from the nasopharynx. serum protein estimations are shown in table iv. a fat balance showed that % of ingested fat was excreted in the stool. sensitization with % dnfb and challenge with m dnfb days later resulted in an area of indura- tion x mm. the schick test was positive and he did not form antitoxin following diphtheria toxoid immuni- zation. two attempts to culture the peripheral lympho- cytes were unsuccessful. initially the baby was treated for gastro-enteritis. however, diarrhoea, anorexia, and weight loss continued. he also developed signs of respiratory infection and oral moniliasis. because of the hypoproteinaemia and hypo-y- globulinaemia, he was given g. albumin intravenously and ml. y-globulin intramuscularly. the immuno- logical defect, the deteriorating general condition, and the increasing respiratory difficulty suggested the possibility ofpneumocystis carinii infection, and efforts were made to obtain a supply ofpentamidine. since this was not at first possible, stilbamidine was given in a daily dose of mg. intramuscularly. attempts were also made to obtain foetal thymus tissue to implant into the patient, but he died before this could be done. at the time of death he was - weeks old. the necropsy findings are summar- ized in table ii. discussion it was possible to find detailed reports of cases of thymic alymphoplasia or the swiss type of hypo- y-globulinaemia (kosenow and schummelfeder, ; tobler and cottier, ; hitzig et al., ; jeune et al., ; hitzig and willi, ; rosen, gitlin, and janeway, ; gitlin and craig, ; sacrez, willard, beauvais, and korn, ; gitlin, rosen, and janeway, ; bonnevier, killander, olding, and vahlquist, ; nezelof, jammet, lortholary, labrune, and lamy, ; beltaos and mccreadie, ; hitzig, kay, and cottier, ; kadowaki, thompson, zuelzer, woolley, brough, and gruber, ; rosen, gotoff, craig, ritchie, and janeway, ; fireman, johnson, and gitlin, ). in addition to these cases there were reported cases of vaccinia gangrenosa or progressive vaccinia (keidan, mccarthy, and haworth, ; kozinn, sigel, and gorrie, ; somers, ; jarkowski, mohagheghi, and nolting, ; white, ; flewett and ker, ; allibone, goldie, and marmion, ; hathaway, githens, blackburn, fulginiti, and kempe, ) and cases dying of generalized bcg infection (bonnevier et al., ; falkmer, lind, and ploman, ; ariztia, moreno, garces, and montero, ; bouton, main- waring, and smithells, ) which almost certainly had the same disorder. a number of other cases were mentioned, notably by hitzig and willi ( ), barandun, stampfli, spengler, and riva ( ), and peterson et al. ( ), but insufficient detail was available to make an adequate review of these cases. the case of 'alymphocytosis' described by donohue ( ) has been included in most previous reviews of thymic alymphoplasia, but in our opinion does not fall into this group. the symptoms appeared much later than is usual in this disorder and the patient survived until months of age: at necropsy hassall's corpuscles were present in the thymus, and the liver and spleen were much enlarged for which there was no adequate histological explanation. hypoplasia of the thymus has been found in association with other disease syndromes: ( ) 'reticular dysgenesis' or 'aleucocytosis' in which, as well as hypoplasia of all lymphoid tissues, there is complete myeloid aplasia with absent or very few circulating leucocytes (de vaal and seynhaeve, ; gitlin, vawter, and craig, ); the children with this disorder, who were described, died within a few days of birth of overwhelming infection; ( ) ataxia-telangiectasia (peterson et al., ); ( ) the leprechaun syndrome (salmon and webb, ). the case described by robbins, miller, arean, and pearson ( ) may represent another variant and possibly an incomplete form of the disorder. this was a girl who had suffered from respiratory infection all her life. at years of age she was small and underweight and had signs of pulmonary infection. she had lymphopenia and hypo-y- globulinaemia, and a lung biopsy showed pneumo- cystis carinii pneumonia. she was treated with co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor table v principal presenting symptoms in previously reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia (cases of progressive vaccinia and generalized bcg infection not included) and in cases in present series reported cases ( ) present series ( ) presenting symptoms. no. of cases % cases no. of cases % cases cough .. . diarrhoea anorexia and feeding difficulty rash (seborrhoea, impetigo, pustules) vomiting . . . loss of weight and 'failure to thrive' . . . fever .. . mouth 'sores' . . . pentamidine and recovered. another patient, a boy, is also difficult to classify (breton, walbaum, boniface, goudemand, and dupont, ): he had recurrent infections from the age of months, and showed lymphopenia, low levels of yg and ya- globulins, but raised levels of ym-globulin in the serum. he also had a haemolytic anaemia and the direct coombs' test was positive. he was treated with corticosteroids and thymic extracts and was alive and apparently improving at months. it was thought that it might be of value to com- pare the clinical and pathological features of our patients with the published reports of those with the swiss type of hypo-y-globulinaemia. sex. of our patients, were boys and were girls. this approximately equal sex distribution is similar to that reported by european writers and could be explained by the defect being inherited as an autosomal recessive. the reported by gitlin and craig ( ) in the united states were male as were close relatives who died in infancy and who it seems probably had the same defect. these authors suggested that the condition was probably inherited as a sex-linked recessive trait. it appears possible that the disorder in the patient reported by white ( ) from britain, a case of progressive vaccinia, was also inherited in the same manner, since other boys on the mother's side of the family had died in infancy. of the remaining fully reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia, were male and were female. thus, thymic alympho- plasia may possibly be inherited in two different ways: as a sex-linked recessive and as an autosomal recessive. birth history and age of onset of symptoms. all of our patients were born at term and birth- weights ranged from to ' kg. the birth- weight was recorded in of the published reports and ranged from * to * kg. in of the patients in the present series the symptoms began during the first week of life; in other between week and month of age; in between and months of age; and in the remain- ing patients at , , and months of age. in of reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia the symptoms dated from the first week of life; in between week and month; in between and months; in between and months; and in between and months. in one case the symp- toms dated from months of age (gitlin and craig, ). thus, the onset of symptoms began before months of age in % of all cases. of the patients with vaccinia, were apparently well until vaccinated between and months of age; the other, who was vaccinated at months of age, had had oral moniliasis at months (white, ). the patients who died of generalized bcg infection were vaccinated between and days of age, and symptoms of generalized infection began at months in and at months in the other . clinical symptoms and signs. table v shows the principal presenting symptoms in the previously reported cases and in the present series. cough, often of a spasmodic nature, was one of the earliest symptoms in all cases. anorexia, feeding difficulty, and gastro-intestinal symptoms were also common in our cases. on physical examination, respiratory system signs predominated in our series. evidence of malnutri- tion was also a common feature. in infants the weight on admission to hospital was at or below the rd centile, and the other were at the th centile. the length of of the children approximated to the rd centile. table vi summarizes the clinical features of the reported cases as well as of our own series. signs of lung infection, diarrhoea, vomiting, oral moniliasis, and wasting predominated. the patients with progressive vaccinia and generalized bcg co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia table vi principal signs and symptoms exhibited during course of illness in previously reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia and in present series reported cases* ( ) present series ( ) signs and symptoms no. cases % cases no. cases % cases signs of respiratory infection . diarrhoea thrush . morbilliform rash wasting. vomiting hepatomegaly . oedema. convulsions . skin sepsis * lymphadenopathy. splenomegaly . * the specific manifestations of progressive vaccinia and of bcg infection are not included in this analysis. infection originally presented with the characteristics of these conditions, but most of the cases later show- ed signs and symptoms similar to those of the other cases. a morbilliform rash was seen in only one of our patients. this rash was reported to be one of the characteristic features of the condition by hitzig and willi ( ). it commonly occurs following injec- tion of y-globulin, and it has been postulated that it may be due to histamine release provoked by the reaction of antibody in the y-globulin with some antigen in the patient. case in the series of hitzig and willi also developed urticaria following y-globulin administration. in of our cases the possibility of fibrocystic disease was considered in the differential diagnosis, because of the chronic respiratory infection and diarrhoea. one case described by hitzig and willi ( ) exhibited the clinical manifestations of the coeliac syndrome. laboratory investigations. white blood cell counts: total white blood cell counts and differential counts from of our patients were available for analysis. in one (case ) no white cell count was performed, and another (case ) had only a differential count. the highest and lowest total white cell and abso- lute lymphocyte counts of our patients and those published are analysed in tables vii and viii. total white cell counts were very variable. leucocytosis (counts of more than , /mm. ) was fairly common. terminal leucopenia and neutropenia were also frequently observed, includ- ing case in the present series. the lymphocyte count in normal infants between and months of age is to /mm. (tobler and cottier, ; smith and vaughan, ). two of the published cases had isolated total lymphocyte counts greater than /mm. , one following a thymic transplant and the intravenous injection of foetal liver (hitzig et al., ; hitzig et al., ). in another case an isolated count of /mm. was recorded (gitlin and craig, ). a male negro infant with thymic alymphoplasia described by kadowaki et al. ( ) had xx/xy chimerism in the peripheral lymphocytes. the authors postulated an early intrauterine graft of table vii highest and lowest total wbc counts in previously reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia and in present series reported cases ( ) present series ( ) count/mm. lowest highest lowest highest < . ( ) - ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - - ( ) ( ) ( ) - - ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , - , . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) > , ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) the figures show the number of cases with total wbc counts in the group indicated and figures in parentheses are percentages of the total cases. co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor table viii highest and lowest absolute lymphocyte counts in previously published cases of thymic alymphoplasia and in present series reported cases ( ) present series ( ) counts/mm. lowest highest lowest highest - ( ) - ( ) ( ) - . ( ) ( ) ( ) - . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) - . ( ) ( ) ( ) > . ( ) ( ) - ( ) the figures show the number of cases with lymphocyte counts in the range indicated and figures in parentheses are percentages of the total cases. maternal cells. this patient showed total lympho- cyte counts of - /mm. , but when a calcula- tion was made of the circulating lymphocytes formed by the patient's own system, lymphopenic values prevailed. five of our patients showed lymphocyte counts greater than /mm. on one or more occasions (cases , , , , and ). case had a peripheral lymphocyte count of /mm. on occasions, and cases , , and each had a single lymphocyte count of approximately /mm. the latter , however, had other lymphocyte counts of less than /mm. on one or more occasions. it has been suggested that in these patients the lymphocyte counts decrease towards the end of their lives. this was so in a number of the reported cases, but in our experience it was not an invariable finding. of the patients in whom two or more lymphocyte counts were recorded, had lower counts terminally than on initial examination, and in the other patients the final counts were higher. thus, the lymphocyte count is obviously variable in this condition. lymphopenia may be present at birth or may develop later in the course of the disease. other haematological findings. of the infants in the present series, developed anaemia severe enough to require blood transfusion; in one (case ) the anaemia was preceded by gastro-intestinal haemorrhage and was associated with thromboctyo- penia. the other had microcytic hypochromic anaemias and no source of blood loss was detected. other infants in whom hb values were recorded showed no anaemia. a terminal pancytopenia was recorded in of the previously published cases (hitzig et al., ; hathaway et al., ) and others had thrombo- cytopenia (gitlin and craig, ). four in our series had bone-marrow examinations during life. in all of them plasma cells were absent. three of them showed granulopoietic hyperplasia, and in the fourth (case ) with neutropenia, there was granulopoietic hypoplasia. serum protein concentrations. serum protein estimations were performed by paper electrophoresis in patients in the present series, and in another, the albumin and globulin fractions were measured. in of the patients the immunoglobulins were estimat- ed by immunoassay. the results are shown in table iv. hypo-y-globulinaemia was found in patients; in the seventh (case ) the y-globulin levels were within the normal range for an infant of to months of age. immunoassay showed no detectable ya-globulin and very low or undetectable amounts of ym-globulin. in case , yg-globulin could not be detected by immunoassay despite a y-globulin concentration of mg./ ml., as estimated by paper electrophoresis. absence or gross deficiency of the immuno- globulins was found in most of the cases of thymic alymphoplasia reported. however, in one the concentration of the immunoglobulins in the serum was normal (nezelof et al., ), in another yg-globulin was decreased, but ya- and ym- globulins were normal (kadowaki et al., ), and in a third yg and ya were deficient but the concen- tration of ym-globulin was increased (fireman et al., ). in each of these three cases plasma cells were seen in various lymphoid tissues. it thus appears that in man, plasma cells, the immuno- globulin-producing cells, may develop independent- ly of the thymus and the small lymphocyte. in the chick the bursa of fabricius is necessary for the development of the immunoglobulin-producing system, and petersen et al. ( ) suggested that in man the palatine tonsil, and perhaps other lymphoid tissue in the gastro-intestinal tract, may be the homologue of the chick bursa. however, in the case described by fireman et al. ( ) there was hypoplasia of the lymphoid tissue in the gastro- co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia intestinal tract, including the tonsil, with absence of germinal centres and plasma cells, and so evidently the site of origin of plasma cells in man remains uncertain. immunologicalfindings. as stated above, cases and did not form antibodies following immuniza- tion with diphtheria toxoid, and the schick test remained positive. case also had no isohaemag- glutinins in the serum. both cases, however, show- ed delayed hypersensitivity when challenged with dnfb and this was a most unexpected finding. these were of the cases which showed the greatest number of circulating lymphocytes, and it must be presumed that the lymphocytes in these infants were capable of producing a degree of cellular immunity. gitlin et al. ( ) could demonstrate no delayed hypersensitivity in one patient following challenge with dnfb, dinitrochlorobenzene (dncb), and candida albicans antigen (though the latter became positive following a thymic transplant, the donor being hypersensitive to the antigen). in addition, rejection of skin and thymic tissue grafts did not occur in this patient. hitzig et al. ( ) reported absence of the delayed hypersensitivity reaction following challenge with dncb on a number of occasions, and that a skin homograft was not rejected. fireman et al. ( ) also found that the skin did not result in any demonstrable sensitivity to challenge with dnfb. in the cases of generalized bcg infection, tuberculin skin tests were negative. no neutraliz- ing antibodies to vaccinia virus or antibodies in low titre were found in of the cases of progressive vaccinia. radiographic findings. one or more chest radiographs were obtained in all cases with one exception (case ). case was found to have pneumothorax on admission to hospital, and in the others diffuse densities were reported in one or more lobes of the lungs. the radiographs of patients have recently been reviewed by dr. a. e. childe: in all of them the thymus looked small, giving rise to a narrow superior mediastinal shadow in the antero- posterior view and a translucent area behind the sternum in the lateral view. we are doubtful whether the failure to demonstrate thymus radio- graphically can be used as a diagnostic aid in thymic alymphoplasia, because in many chronic debilitating illnesses in patients of this age the thymus is very small. radiographs of the pharynx in patients revealed no adenoid tissue: this abnormality may be an important aid in diagnosis, as it is in the bruton type of hypo-y-globulinaemia (margulis, feinberg, lester, and good, ). age at death. in our series the average age at death was months and all were dead by the age of months. the average age of death in the pre- viously reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia was rather greater than in ours (mean * months, range - months) and girls died younger than boys (mean ages and months, respectively). some of the cases which survived longest were in the series of gitlin and craig ( ), in which the disorder was possibly inherited as a sex-linked recessive trait. the immediate cause of death in all our cases appeared to be pneumonia, with a coexisting congenital heart lesion in one. case inhaled a milk feeding just before death. two of the reported cases had terminal cor pulmonale (gitlin and craig, ), and another, who had oedema and ascites, also probably died in cardiac failure (tobler and cottier, ). three infants had terminal convulsions, one associated with a haemorrhagic uraemic syndrome (hitzig et al., ; gitlin and craig, ). racial origin and family history. seven of the patients reported here were from mennonite families. this ethnic group immigrated to central canada from russia and eastern europe during the latter decades of the last century and have generally married within their own order. it has not been possible to link the families together, though cousin marriages are common in the mennonite group, and it seems likely that the families may be distantly related. as far as can be determined, these mennonite families did not originate in switzerland, and we can trace no connexion between them and the cases of thymic alymphoplasia reported from that country (w. h. hitzig, , personal com- munication). cases and were brother and sister and came of a large family. there is consanguinity on the father's side, the grandparents being second cousins. as far as is known there have been no infant deaths on this side of the family but several of the maternal great grandmother's children by her first marriage are reported to have died in infancy. case was also a mennonite. he died in and it has not been possible to trace the family recently. he was the sixth child of whom only , both girls age and years, were living. three other children, boys and a girl, had died at , , and months of age, respectively, the first two from pneumonia and the third following an illness which had included skin pustules, diarrhoea, and pneu- monia. co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor part n. american indian <i yr. ), months swiss fig. .-pedigrees of family 'e' (above) and family 'f' (below). case , another mennonite who lived in northern saskatchewan, had one brother aged year who is alive and well. there is no consanguinity. the family of case is also mennonite. our patient had healthy sibs and the mother is now pregnant again. serum was obtained from the mother for immunoglobulin assay and this was normal. unfortunately the father and other children could not be prevailed upon to submit to venepuncture. the only finding of possible significance in this family is that sisters of the father died in infancy, one at a few months of age from 'stomach-ache' and the other at weeks of age from pneumonia. the fifth mennonite family ('f', cases and ) has already been described in greater detail (fig. ). the other patients were not mennonites. the parents of cases and were first cousins, their mothers being half sisters (family 'e', fig. ). the patients' paternal grandfather was swiss and the paternal grandmother part north american indian. case was almost certainly anglo-saxon. the racial origins of the other patients are unknown. the remaining patient with a significant family history is case . this infant was the fifth child of unrelated parents and the only girl. the first- born children were alive and well, being and years old at the time of admission of our patient. the next boy was well until weeks of age when he developed a cough, sores in the mouth, and was admitted to hospital in another province. total white blood counts ranged from to /mm. , with lymphocytes to /mm. sputum culture revealed candida albicans. he died at months of age and at necropsy was found to have suppurative bronchopneumonia and a low-grade meningitis. the next child developed thrush, salmonella dysentery, and pneumonia at weeks of age. one white blood cell count showed /mm. , with only lymphocytes/mm. he also died at months of age. no necropsy was performed. there seems little doubt that these children also had thymic alymphoplasia. previously reported cases, including those with progressive vaccinia and disseminated bcg infec- tion, were seen in switzerland, france, britain, and infancy * thymic alymphoplasia ( possible thymic alymphoplasia co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia the united states. family 'fi' reported by hitzig (hitzig and willi, ; hitzig et al., ) were jewish and the cases of gitlin and craig ( ) were probably ofbritish descent (d. gitlin, , personal communication). two cases have been reported in american negro infants (kadowaki et al., ; rosen et al., ). the racial origins of the other cases were not specifically stated. the reported cases belonged to different families. in one family (family 'fi' previously referred to), of children were affected. in the other families there were sibs who died in early infancy and it seems they likely also had thymic alymphoplasia. in these families there were also unaffected children. the parents of only two of our cases were known to have been related before marriage (cases and ). consanguinity was present in parents of of the published cases. treatment. at the present time no treatment has been shown to prolong life in this disorder. most of the reported cases, as well as those in the present series, were treated with antibiotics and y-globulin. four of our patients (cases , , , and ) received corticosteroids for varying periods during their last illnesses. the steroids had no obvious effect upon the patients' lymphocyte counts; indeed cases and were the children who never exhibited lymphopenia. the patients with progressive vaccinia received hyperimmune vaccinial y-globulin, and of them were treated with n-methylisatin-/-thiosemi- carbazone. in six reported cases, attempts have been made to populate the patients' lymphoid tissues with small lymphocytes and replace deficient immunological activity by the transplantation or intravenous infusion of thymus, liver, spleen, bone-marrow, or combinations of these tissues (rosen et al., ; gitlin et al., ; hitzig et al., ; 'white, ; allibone et al., ; rosen et al., ). all these patients died of their disorder, but in one hitzig et al. ( ) restored the peripheral lymphocyte count to normal and produced temporary clinical improvement by transplants of foetal thymus tissue with simultaneous and subsequent infusions of foetal liver cells. in another case (rosen et al., ) thymic transplants did not restore immunological competence, but the subsequent infusion of matern- al bone-marrow cells resulted in a rise in the lymphocyte count and the transfer of delayed hyper- sensitivity. it has been suggested that the failure to date to replace the deficient immunological activity in thymic alymphoplasia by these means may be partly because of the development of graft versus host reactions (hitzig et al., ). hathaway et al. ( ) speculated whether the transfusion of leucocytes into patients with progressive vaccinia and thymic alymphoplasia might have produced a graft versus host reaction, because of the development of an erythematous rash, diarrhoea, and pancytopenia, but these symptoms are commonly seen in patients with this disorder who have not been transfused. necropsy findings. the pathiological findings in thymic alymphoplasia have recently been fully reviewed by gitlin and craig ( ). the findings in our patients conform to those previously described (table ii). all infants exhibited the anatomical features of lymphoid hypoplasia with complete absence of plasma cells. twelve of the children possessed abnormally small thymuses, a not unusual feature in any child who has died of a chronic illness associated with fig. .-case . small thymic lobules virtually devoid of lymphocytes, and containing no hassall's bodies. (h. and e. x .) co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor v~~~' fig. .-case . vascular thymic stroma containing few lymphocytes and no hassall's bodies. (h. and e. x .) infection. in the infants in whom thymic tissue was available for histological study, however, the features were not merely those of 'accidental involu- tion', for not only was there a marked depletion of lymphocytes from the stroma, but there was a complete absence of hassall's bodies (fig. ). in , there was complete absence of lymphocytes, but in there were very minimal collections of cells resembling lymphocytes. the remaining reticular stroma of the thymus often appeared unusually vascular (fig. ). in of the infants where thymic tissue was not available for histological study, the thymus was described as minute or weighing less than g., except in case where it weighed g. these children showed marked lymphoid hypoplasia in sites other than the thymus, with absence of malpighian bodies in the spleen (fig. ) and absence of lymphocytes from lymph nodes (as in fig. ), and intestinal tract. those children who exhibited a histologically abnormal thymus, with absence of hassall's bodies fig. .-case . spleen containing virtually no lymphocytes and no periarteriolar lymphoid aggregates. (h. and e. x .) and absence of lymphocytes, exhibited variable degrees of lymphoid hypoplasia in other sites. in some, for example, there was complete absence of malpighian bodies from the spleen, while in others the malpighian bodies were present but small. in , the malpighian bodies were quite prominent and numerous, with the presence of small secondary centres in one case (fig. ). the degree of lymph- oid hypoplasia was similarly variable in lymph nodes and intestinal tract (fig. ), despite the fact that the thymus was histologically abnormal with complete lack of hassall's bodies. one infant (case ) with thymic alymphoplasia and absence of hassall's bodies exhibited palpable lymphadenopathy during life. these lymph nodes, although moderately enlarged, were nevertheless histologically abnormal (fig. ) possessing only ill-defined follicles. case exhibited marked granulopoietic hypo- plasia in addition to thymic alymphoplasia, absent hassall's bodies, and lymphopoietic hypoplasia. pulmonary complications were the cause of death in all children, and in all cases the pulmonary co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia fig. .-case . spleen, with fairly prominent mal- pighian bodies, one containing a small secondary centre. (h. and e. x .) histology was unusual. the following pulmonary histological lesions being noted: pseudomonas aeruginosa pneumonia, giant cell pneumonia, adenovirus pneumonia, cytomegalic inclusion dis- ease, pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (fig. ), and a lesion closely resembling if not identical to alveolar proteinosis (fig. ). the pulmonary lesion in any one child often consisted of a combination of some of the above lesions. for example, the lungs of one child (case ) exhibited the histological features of adenovirus pneumonia, pneumocystis carinii pneu- monia, and alveolar proteinosis. pneumocystis carinii pneumonia was evident in children, giant cell pneumonia in children, and generalized cytomegalic inclusion disease was present in one child. a lesion closely resembling if not identical to alveolar proteinosis was present in children (fig. ). further studies of this latter lesion and its possible relationship to hypo-y-globulinaemia are in progress. in summary, in our experience, thymic alympho- plasia with complete absence of hassall's bodies may fig. .-case . mesenteric lymph node devoid of lymphocytes, and constising only of stromal cells. (h. and e. x .) be associated with a variable degree of lymphoid hypoplasia in other sites. plasma cells were consis- tently absent. enlarged lymph nodes may be evident during life, or may be found at necropsy in children with thymic alymphoplasia and absent hassall's bodies. in no case was the spleen smaller than normal, while in one case the spleen was twice normal weight (case ). while younger infants tended to exhibit a greater degree of lymphoid hypoplasia than older infants with this disorder, this was not consistent. there was no established evidence in this series that greater degrees of lymphoid hypoplasia were associated with greater immunological defects. necropsies were performed on of the recorded cases: the thymus is specifically mentioned in of these. in , no thymic tissue could be found in spite of being specifically looked for (white, ; allibone et al., ). other descriptions vary, e.g. 'practically non-existent', 'a few strands identified', 'hypoplastic'. in some cases the thymus had not descended to its normal position and remnants were co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor x - eix$~ n ; fig. .-case . enlarged axillary lymph node consisting predominantly ofstromal cells, but containing small primary follicles. (h. and e. x .) dit. j.*f- m*' . found in the neck. in cases weights of the thymuses were recorded and ranged from to g. hassall's bodies were absent in most of them but in one case a few atrophic hassall's bodies were seen (bonnevier et al., ). many different forms of pulmonary lesions were observed in the previously reported cases. these included pneumonia ofvarious types, bronchiectasis, and necrotizing bronchitis, emphysema, fibrinous pleurisy, moniliasis, etc. five of the cases had pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (gitlin and craig, ; sacrez et al., ; bonnevier et al., ; hathaway et al., ; falkmer et al., ; bouton et al., ). those cases, which in addition to thymic alympho- plasia had progressive vaccinia and generalized bcg infection, naturally showed the pathological changes due to these conditions, which will not be discussed here. summary thirteen infants ( male and female) with thymic alymphoplasia have been described. of the infants were from mennonite families. the mennonite sect is a much interbred group which immigrated to canada from eastern europe around the turn of the century. the clinical, laboratory, and pathological findings in the present series have been compared with those in previously reported cases of thymic alymphoplasia. affected infants appeared normal at birth, but .-ca lyp o a th iem d t .a . a . x .) fig. .--ase . prominent iymphoid aggregates within ileum, despite thymic alymphoplasia. (h. and e. x .) co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ thymic alymphoplasia fig. .-case . pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. (h. and e. x .) within a few days or weeks they developed respira- tory and gastro-intestinal symptoms and began to lose weight. in more than three-quarters of the cases symptoms appeared before the age of months. the condition was characterized by a progressively downhill course, with increasing signs of respiratory infection, diarrhoea, vomiting, and loss of weight. staphylococcal, monilial, and gram-negative micro- organisms were often isolated from the respiratory tract, skin, stool, and urine. the condition was invariably fatal, and death occurred on an average to months after the onset of symptoms and all patients in the present series were dead by months of age. a peripheral lymphopenia (less than lymphocytes/mm. ) was an almost invariable finding at some stage of the disease. however, normal or even high lymphocyte counts were found on occasion. hypo-y-globulinaemia was present in of the cases in the present series and in most of the cases reported in the literature. in reported cases, however, levels of one or more of the y-globulins fig. .-case . amorphous proteinaceous alveolar contents in lung. (h. and e. x .) were normal, and in these plasma cells were seen in various lymphoid tissues. circulating antibodies were absent and could not be stimulated by the injection of antigens. delayed hypersensitivity in previously published cases was absent. in the present series showed delayed hypersensitivity to dnfb. necropsies were performed in all cases in the present series. in , the thymus was examined and was abnormally small, and in , where the thymic tissue was available for histological examination, there was a marked depletion of lymphocytes and absence of hassall's corpuscles. lymphoid hypo- plasia was generally prominent in lymph nodes, spleen, and gastro-intestinal tract but was not invariable, for some had prominent malpighian bodies in the spleen. pulmonary infection was almost invariable, and findings included pneumonia due to pseudomonas aeruginosa, pneumocystis carinii, candida albicans, and various viruses. in cases a lesion closely resembling pulmonary alveolar proteinosis was found. co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ haworth, hoogstraten, and taylor this report could not have been made without the generous help given by the following people, to whom we express our sincere thanks: dr. j. e. arnott, dr. s. a. boyd, dr. a. e. childe, mrs. l. dilling, dr. j. w. gerrard, mr. d. a. gibson, dr. d. grewar, miss r. holunga, dr. s. israels, dr. a. j. lewis, dr. l. t. mcdonald, dr. h. medovy, dr. m. quinto, and dr. t. williams. we would also like to thank dr. w. h. hitzig of zurich for his help and comments during the preparation of this report. references allibone, e. c., goldie, w., and marmion, b. p. ( ). pneumo- cystis carinii pneumonia and progressive vaccinia in siblings. arch. dis. childh., , . ariztia, a., moreno, l., garces, c., and montero, r. ( ). caso fatal de generalizacion, de bcg. rev. chil. pediat., , . barandun, s., stampfli, k., spengler, g. a., and riva, g. ( ). die klinik des antikorpermangelsyndroms. helv. med. acta, , . beltaos, e., and mccreadie, s. r. ( ). thymic alymphoplasia with pancreatic fibrosis and mucoviscidosis. j.-lancet, , . bonnevier, j. o., killander, j., olding, l., and vahlquist, b. ( ). congenital agammaglobulinaemia in the brother of a boy who died of generalized b.c.g. infection. acta paediat. (uppsala), , . bouton, j., mainwaring, d., and smithells, r. w. ( ). bcg dissemination in congenital hypogammaglobulinaemia. brit. med. j., , . breton, a., walbaum, r., boniface, l., goudemand, m., and dupont, a. ( ). lymphocytophtisie avec dysgammaglobu- linemie chez un nourisson. arch. franc. pediat., , . donohue, w. l. ( ) alymphocytosis. pediatrics, , . falkmer, s., lind, a., and ploman, l. ( ). fatal tuberculosis from bcg vaccination. acta paediat. (uppsala), , . fireman, p., johnson, h. a., and gitlin, d. ( ). presence of plasma cells and ylm-globulin synthesis in a patient with thymic alymphoplasia. pediatrics, , . flewett, t. h., and ker, f. l. ( ). a case of vaccinia necrosum (or progressive vaccinia), with severe hypogammaglobulinaemia, treated with n-methylisatin beta-thiosemicarbazone ( t ). j. clin. path., , . gitlin, d., and craig, j. m. ( ). the thymus and other lym- phoid tissues in congenital agammaglobulinemia. i. thymic alymphoplasia and lymphatic hypoplasia and their relation to infection. pediatrics, , . , rosen, f. s., and janeway, c. a. ( ). the thymus and other lymphoid tissues in congenital agammaglobulinemia. ii. delayed hypersensitivity and homograft survival in a child with thymic alymphoplasia. ibid., , . , vawter, g., and craig, j. m. ( ). thymic alymphoplasia and congenital aleukocytosis. ibid., , . glanzmann, e., and riniker, p. ( ). essentielle lymphocyto- phthise. ein neues krankheitsbild aus der sauglingspatholo- gie. ann. paediat. (basel), , . hathaway, w. e., githens, j. h., blackburn, w. r., fulginiti, v., and kempe, c. h. ( ). aplastic anemia, histiocytosis and erythrodermia in immunologically deficient children. probable human runt disease. new engl. j. med., , . haworth, j. c., norris, m., and dilling, l. ( ). a study of the immunoglobulins in premature infants. arch. dis. childh., , . hitzig, w. h., bir , z., bosch, h., and huser, h. j. ( .) agammaglobulinamie und alymphocytose mit schwund des lymphatischen gewebes. helv. paediat. acta, , . -, kay, h. e. m., and cottier, h. ( ). familial lymphopenia with agammaglobulinaemia. lancet, , . - , and willi, h. ( ). hereditare lympho-plasmocytare dysgenesie ("alymphocytose mit agammaglobulinaxmie"). schweiz. med. wschr., , . jarkowski, t. l., mohagheghi, h. a., and nolting, w. s. ( ). vaccinia gangrenosa: report of a case with hypogammaglobuli- nemia. clin. pediat. (philad.), , . jeune, j., larbre, f., germain, d., and freycon, f. ( ). lym- phocytophtisie, alymphocytose, et hypogammaglobulinemie. arch. franc. pediat., , . kadowaki, j., thompson, r. i., zuelzer, w. w., woolley, p. v., jr., brough, a. j., and gruber, d. ( ). xx/xy lymphoid chimacrism in congenital immunological deficiency syndrome with thymic alymphoplasia. lancet, , . keidan, s. e., mccarthy, k., and haworth, j. c. ( ). fatal generalized vaccinia with failure of antibody production and absence of serum gamma globulin. arch. dis. childh., , . kosenow, w., and schummelfeder, n. ( ). allgemeiner lymphocytensschwund (lymphocytophthise). ein beitrag zur pathologie des fruihen kindersalters. klin. wschr., , . kozinn, p. j., sigel, m. m., and gorrie, r. ( ). progressive vaccinia associated with agammaglobulinemia and defects in immune mechanism. pediatrics, , . margulis, a. r., feinberg, s. b., lester, r. g., and good, r. a. ( ). roentgen manifestations of congenital agammaglobu- linemia. radiology, , . nezelof, c., jammet, m. l., lortholary, p., labrune, b., and lamy, m. ( ). l'hypoplasie hereditaire du thymus. arch. franc. pidiat., , . peterson, r. d. a., cooper, m. d., and good, r. a. ( ). the pathogenesis of immunologic deficiency diseases. amer. . med., , . robbins, j. b., miller, r. h., arean, v. m., and pearson, h. a. ( ). successful treatment of pneumocystis carinii pneu- monitis in a patient with congenital hypogammaglobulinemia. new engl. j. med., , . rosen, f. s., gitlin, d., and janeway, c. a. ( ). alympho- cytosis, agammaglobulinaemia, homografts, and delayed hypersensitivity: study of a case. lancet, , . -, gotoff, s. p., craig, j. m., ritchie, j., and janeway, c. a. ( ). further observations on the swiss type of agamma- globulinemia (alymphocytosis). the effect of syngeneic bone- marrow cells. new engl. j . med., , . sacrez, r., willard, d., beauvais, p., and korn, r. ( ). etude des troubles digestits et respiratoires dans un cas de lympho- cytophtisie du nourisson. arch. franf. pediat., , . salmon, m. a., and webb, j. n. ( ). dystrophic changes associated with leprechaunism in a male infant. arch. dis. childh., , . smith, n. j., and vaughan, v. c., iii ( ). disorders of red blood cells. in textbook ofpediatrics, ed. w. e. nelson, th edn., p. . saunders, philadelphia and london. somers, k. ( ). vaccinia gangrenosa and agammaglobulinaemia. arch. dis. childh., , . tobler, r., and cottier, h. ( ). familiare lymphopenia mit agammaglobulinamie und schwerer moniliasis. die 'essen- tielle lymphocytophthise' als besondere form des friuhkind- lichen agammaglobulinamie. helv. paediat. acta, , . de vaal, . m., and seynhaeve, v. ( ). reticular dysgenesia. lancet, , . white, c. m. ( ). vaccinia gangrenosa due to hypogamma- globulinaemia. ibid., , . co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://a d c.b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild : first p u b lish e d a s . /a d c. . . o n f e b ru a ry . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://adc.bmj.com/ notes and comments: the metropolis: a conference in honour of hans blumenfeld; urban parks in canada: life cycle of a landscape, march ; cities of the world supplement; recent publications all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine notes and comments the metropolis: a conference in honour of hans blumenfeld; urban parks in canada: life cycle of a landscape, march ; cities of the world supplement; recent publications notes et commentaires perspectives on sports and urban studies volume , numéro , october uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce document ( ). notes and comments: the metropolis: a conference in honour of hans blumenfeld; urban parks in canada: life cycle of a landscape, march ; cities of the world supplement; recent publications. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ notes and comments/notes et commentaires the metropolis: a conference in honour of hans blumenfeld when the united nations held its conference on human settlements in vancouver in (habitat), the man cho- sen by the canadian institute of planners to present a position paper entitled "canadian planning issues" was hans blu- menfeld. it is not hard to understand the reasons for this choice. his extraordinarily long and varied professional life in architecture, urban design and planning spans two conti- nents, five countries and more than six decades of distinguished work. there can be few planners in canada or the united states who remain unfamiliar with his work. the topics for the sessions of this conference — the changing metropolis, transportation in the metropolis, housing in the metropolis and the liveable urban envi- ronment — were chosen to reflect the types of issues he has addressed most frequently in his professional life in north america. it is no accident that they provide an appropriate framework for reviewing our knowledge of the metropolis, as well as honouring a man who has contributed so much to that knowledge. the metropolis conference is scheduled for november - , , at the university of toronto. complete pro- gramme, registration and accommodation information can be obtained by contacting: centre for urban and community studies university of toronto spadina avenue, room toronto, ontario m s g telephone: ( ) - urban parks in canada: life cycle of a landscape, march the variety of people and disciplines that have been involved with parks since their emergence as an expected part of industrialized society, is an indication of the richness and importance of this feature of urban life. whether or not directly involved with their planning and design, virtually everyone concerned with urban environments has some interest or connection with parks. the purpose of this gathering is to rediscover some of the characteristic features of parks in towns and cities and to reassess the assumptions that have determined their form for over a century. papers are invited on topics that relate to the history, design, use, purpose and future of parks and similar spaces in canadian towns and cities. it is expected that papers will address such issues as: — the nature of leisure and recreation in parks — methods of design and evaluation — changes in park form, purpose, use and meaning over time — the use of nature in achieving park purposes — the relative roles of users, designers, public agencies. please submit abstracts or make further enquiries to: professor sue donaldson faculty of environmental design the university of calgary calgary, alberta t n n telephone: ( ) - new supplement volume expands coverage of cities of the world gale's cities of the world-supplement ( pp./$ . ) compiles current information on the cultural, geographical and political conditions in major cities located in coun- tries throughout the world. this new volume supplements gale's -volume compilation, cities of the world (published ), by presenting updated information on major cities and adding information on major cities not previously covered. also covered briefly in the work are minor cit- ies. the supplement is based on the newest diplo- matic personnel briefings, or post records, issued by the u.s. department of state. countries covered in the supple- ment are: algeria, argentina, australia, austria, bermuda, bulgaria, burma, canada, cape verde, colombia, ethiopia, geneva (separate report from switzerland), german dem- ocratic republic, greece, guinea-bissau, hong kong, indonesia, the ivory coast, jordan, kenya, malta, morocco, mozambique, norway, papua new guinea, paraguay, sur- iname, uganda, upper volta and yugoslavia. information in the supplement is arranged alphabeti- cally by country. major cities are listed at the beginning of each country report for easier reference, and new sections on "schools for foreigners," "local holidays," and "rec- ommended readings" provide additional scope. a comprehensive index provides access to information on all major cities and the minor cities covered. * * * cities of the world—supplement. edited by margaret walsh young. pages. (based on the post reports issued by the u.s. department of state.) published by gale research co., detroit, . l.c. card no. - . isbn - - - . $ . . (ready september ) recent publications j.m.s. careless, toronto b : an illustrated history (toronto: james lorimer and co. and national museum of man, ). this volume is the latest in the history of canadian cit- ies series, joining histories of winnipeg, calgary, vancouver and hamilton. in the easy writing style that has graced his many works, careless traces the steps in toronto's evolution: the fur trade depot, the village of york founded by john graves simcoe in , the port and commercial town of the pre-confed- eration era, the railway and regional hub of mid-century, and the industrializing city of the late s. between and , toronto was the "nearly national metropolis," as the queen city sought to extend its control over much of canada and battled with montreal for supremacy. in each period, careless weaves together the city's economic, politi- cal and social history, as well as descriptions of the city's changing population and landscape. the text is illustrated with maps and historical engravings and photo- graphs. the companion volume to this book, toronto since : an illustrated history, by james lemon, is scheduled for publication during , toronto's sesquicentennial year. * * * john english and kenneth mclaughlin, kitchener: an illustrated history (kitchener: wilfrid laurier university press, ). the history of kitchener is unique among cities in south- ern ontario. although kitchener shares so much of the character of the region today, its past was considerably dif- ferent. unitl , kitchener was berlin, "canada's german capital." over two-thirds of the residents were of german origin; many retained strong traces of that past. these became controversial when canada fought two wars against germany. by the middle of world war i, the idea of "a patch of germany" in the heart of southern ontario became untenable. berlin became kitchener, but not without a bat- tle which split the small city. this is the first scholarly history of kitchener. based on wide-ranging research, it illustrates how a community so unlike its neighbours became a part of the broader cana- dian community in the twentieth century. much of the information is new, and many myths are punctured. the romantic mists which have surrounded the story of the early mennonite settlers are lifted. the full story of the great con- troversies of world war i is told for the first time. the impact of the depression and the extraordinary economic boom which accompanied world war ii are analyzed. kitchener's sometimes-eccentric politicans are seen, not as deviations, but as representatives of a long tradition of civic populism. over photographs accompany the text. maps and tables further illuminate kitchener's development. edwinna von baeyer, a preliminary bibliography for garden history in canada (ottawa: parks canada, ). this publication is available, free of charge, by writing to: research publications, parks canada, liverpool court, ottawa, ontario, kl a g . * * * institute of urban studies university of winnipeg portage avenue winnipeg, manitoba r b e — stewart clatworthy and johnathan r gunn, economic circumstances of native people in selected metropolitan centres in western canada ( ), pp., tables. $ . . — proceedings of the infill housing seminar. held decem- ber , at the university of winnipeg, pp., appendices. $ . . — stewart clatworthy, native housing conditions in win- nipeg ( ), pp., tables. $ . . — johnathan p. gunn, housing for the disabled in winni- peg ( ), pp., tables. $ . . — johnathan r gunn, profiles of housing alternatives available to manitoba's disabled ( ), pp., tables. (second of three reports). — johnathan r gunn, housing manitoba's disabled: case studies of representative housing types ( ), pp., tables. (third of three reports). — robert fenton, the distribution of government assisted insulation activities in the city of winnipeg ( ), pp., tables. $ . . — robert fenton, residential energy conservation behav- iour of winnipeg households ( ), pp., tables, appendices. $ . . * * * centre for urban and community studies university of toronto spadena avenue toronto, ontario m s g book j.r. miron and j.b. cullingworth, rent control: impacts on income redistribution affordability, and security of ten- ure (april ), pp., $ . . research paper series s.e. corke, land use control in british columbia: a con- tribution to a comparative study of canadian planning systems (april ), pp., $ . . paper no. . d. hooper, j.w. simmons, l.s. bourne, the changing eco- nomic basis of canadian urban growth, - (may ), pp., $ . . paper no. . b.h. erickson, t.a. nosanchuk, the size and composition of personal networks in a voluntary association (may ), pp., $ . . paper no. . j.w. simmons, the canadian urban system as a political system, part : one conceptual framework (may ), pp., $ . . paper no. . conference proceedings women and planning: proceedings of a conference held in toronto, may , . (may ), pp., $ . . extreme hyperopia is the result of null mutations in mfrp, which encodes a frizzled-related protein olof h. sundina,b,c, gregory s. lepperta,d, eduardo d. silvaa,e,f, jun-ming yanga,g, sharola dharmaraja,e,h, irene h. maumeneee, luisa coutinho santosi, cameron f. parsaj, elias i. traboulsik, karl w. bromanl, cathy dibernardom, janet s. sunnessm,n, jeffrey toya,o, and ethan m. weinberga alaboratory of developmental genetics, ejohns hopkins clinic for hereditary eye diseases, jkrieger center for pediatric ophthalmology, mocular imaging and low vision clinics, wilmer eye institute, bdepartment of molecular biology and genetics, school of medicine, and ldepartment of biostatistics, bloomberg school of public health, the johns hopkins university, baltimore, md ; fdepartment of ophthalmology, university of coimbra, - coimbra, portugal; iinstituto de oftalmologia dr. gama pinto, - lisbon, portugal; and kcole eye institute, cleveland clinic foundation, cleveland, oh edited by jeremy nathans, the johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, md, and approved may , (received for review february , ) nanophthalmos is a rare disorder of eye development character- ized by extreme hyperopia (farsightedness), with refractive error in the range of � . to � . diopters. because the cornea and lens are normal in size and shape, hyperopia occurs because insufficient growth along the visual axis places these lensing components too close to the retina. nanophthalmic eyes show considerable thickening of both the choroidal vascular bed and scleral coat, which provide nutritive and structural support for the retina. thickening of these tissues is a general feature of axial hyperopia, whereas the opposite occurs in myopia. we have mapped recessive nanophthalmos to a unique locus at q . and identified four independent mutations in mfrp, a gene that is selectively expressed in the eye and encodes a protein with homology to tolloid proteases and the wnt-binding domain of the frizzled transmembrane receptors. this gene is not critical for retinal function, as patients entirely lacking mfrp can still have good refraction-corrected vision, produce clinically normal electro- retinograms, and show only modest anomalies in the dark adap- tation of photoreceptors. mfrp appears primarily devoted to regulating axial length of the eye. it remains to be determined whether natural variation in its activity plays a role in common refractive errors. eye � genetics � morphology � nanophthalmos the general problem of how organs in the body regulate theirsize is illustrated by the human eye, which during postnatal growth normally maintains the distance between cornea and fovea to within % of its optimal focal length ( ). studies in birds and mammals have revealed that this process is driven by visual experience. focus quality is evaluated locally within the retina, which in turn signals underlying tissues to promote or restrict elongation of the optic axis ( ). the use of mouse genetics to identify essential components of the underlying mechanism has, so far, not been feasible because this species appears unable to adjust ocular focus by regulating axial growth ( ). to approach this problem, we have mapped and identified a mutation causing nanophthalmos, a rare human genetic disorder in which both eyes are small, functional, and without major structural faults ( , , ). the cornea and lens are normal in size and refractive power, but the distance from lens to retina is unusually short. this places the focal point of the eye well behind the retina (fig. b), causing a hyperopic refractive error of � . diopters or more. additional characteristics are a narrow angle between the iris and cornea, expansion of the choroidal vascular bed underlying the retinal pigment epithelium (rpe), and thickening of the scleral connective tissue surrounding the eye. more moderate examples of these same histological changes are found in high hyperopia ( , ), which differs from nanophthal- mos only in degree. secondar y complications are common with extreme hyper- opia, in which supporting tissues of the developing eye reach less than half their normal area, yet must accommodate growth of a full-sized neural retina. this lateral crowding causes localized slippage between retina and rpe, leading to defor- mation or loss of the foveal pit and the formation of crescent- shaped macular folds, both of which impair visual acuity ( , ). as adults, additional complications can develop, including angle closure glaucoma, cystic edema, and retinal detachment. the thick scleral connective tissue is thought to constrict outf low vessels of the choroidal vascular bed, causing accu- mulation of f luid between rpe and retina, which in turn drives retinal detachment. glaucoma occurs when the forwardly displaced iris obstructs passages in the corneal margin, which this paper was submitted directly (track ii) to the pnas office. abbreviations: rpe, retinal pigment epithelium; erg, electroretinography; mfrp, mem- brane-type frizzled-related protein; crd, cysteine-rich domain; mb, megabase; re, right eye. cto whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: osundin@jhmi.edu. dpresent address: national institutes of health�foundation for advanced education in the sciences, bethesda, md . gpresent address: national institutes of health�national cancer institute, bethesda, md . hpresent address: massachusetts eye and ear infirmary, boston, ma . npresent address: department of ophthalmology, greater baltimore medical center, towson, md . opresent address: food and drug administration, rockville, md . © by the national academy of sciences of the usa fig. . morphological features of nanophthalmos. a diagram of the eye, sagittal section, and light path is shown. (a) normal, closer view. (b) nanoph- thalmic. adapted from ref. to reflect eye morphology of individual in kindred a. www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. pnas � july , � vol. � no. � – g en et ic s are needed for the outf low of aqueous humor, leading to elevated pressure within the eye ( ). nanophthalmos is typically sporadic and rare. a dominantly inherited form maps to the nno locus (online mendelian inheritance in man accession no. ), a -megabase (mb) interval of chromosome ( ). although the nno gene remains unknown, one candidate is vmd , the best’s macular dystrophy gene, in which a small subset of splicing mutations cause syndromic vitreoretinopathy accompanied by nanophthal- mos ( ). large families showing recessive or semidominant inheritance of nonsyndromic nanophthalmos are known ( , , – ), but no loci have been reported. this article describes a locus for recessive nanophthalmos and its association with mutations in the mfrp gene. materials and methods human subjects and clinical examinations. informed consent was obtained and research was conducted in accord with the dec- laration of helsinki at the johns hopkins university, university of coimbra, instituto gama pinto, and the cole eye institute. standard clinical exams evaluated visual acuity, objective refrac- tion with cycloplegia, immersion a-scan ultrasonography, and electroretinography (erg). dark adaptation used a goldmann- weekers dark adaptometer or an equivalent visual stimulus set up in an lkc technologies (gaithersburg, md) ganzfeld apparatus. genotypes and genetic linkage analysis. human genomic dna was obtained from buccal epithelium or blood as described ( ). for manual genotyping of autosomal tandem repeat poly- morphisms, we used p end-labeled chlc�weber version primers (research genetics, huntsville, al) ( ). more mark- ers were obtained from the marshfield genetic maps ( ). for each marker, amplimers of subjects – (fig. ), two ceph- généthon dna standards, and a sequence ladder were run on the same gel. two-point linkage was obtained with liped ( ), assuming recessive inheritance and full penetrance. marker allele frequencies were taken from ceph genotype data, where available, or estimated from current data ( ). exon and genomic sequencing to detect mutations. amplification of exons from genomic dna was as described ( ), followed by automated sequencing with dye terminators. primer se- quences and a map are available in supporting text and fig. , which are published as supporting information on the pnas web site. amplimers of normal controls were tested for q x by bstn digestion and for insc, delc, or i t by t-track sequencing. results recessive inheritance of extreme axial hyperopia. a -year-old woman presented with nanophthalmos, angle closure glaucoma, and massive retinal detachment in the left eye (figs. and d, patient ). four other members of her amish-mennonite kin- dred were also affected by nanophthalmos, but had neither glaucoma nor retinal detachment. inheritance followed an au- tosomal recessive pattern. in addition, three deceased relatives (fig. , patients – ) had been described in a classic study of nanophthalmos by cross and yoder ( ). outwardly, affected eyes showed prominent forward bowing of the iris and a narrow angle between iris and cornea (fig. a). diameter and curvature of the cornea were within normal range. examination of the retina revealed absence of a normal foveal pit, presence of macular folds ( , ), and slight tortuosity of blood vessels in patients (fig. b and c) and and the left eye of patient . aside from these common secondary effects of extreme hyperopia, these retinas appeared healthy, with the exception of patches of hypopigmentation in the lateral fundus (fig. c, arrows). there was no evidence of the distinctive rpe pigment clumping that accompanies photoreceptor degenera- tion ( ). this eye had a refractive error of � . , an unusually short axial length of . mm, and visual acuity of � with glasses (fig. d). ultrasonography (fig. e) revealed forward placement of a slightly longer lens, a vitreous cavity of half normal length, and . times the normal thickness of sclera and choroid ( , ). those affected had extreme hyperopia and short axial lengths, whereas parents and unaffected siblings showed normal variation, suggesting a fully recessive mutation. lens-corrected visual acuity of these patients ranged from normal ( � ) to very poor ( � ) and appeared correlated with secondary consequences of extreme hyperopia, such as foveal deformation, retinal folds, and macular edema. the right eye of patient had a normally shaped foveal pit, as indicated by a distinctive optical ref lection. this may explain � visual acuity of this eye and opens the possibility that the acuity deficits seen in others were caused entirely by secondary conditions affecting retinal structure, rather than by a primary dysfunction of photoreception. the most mildly affected, an uncle, age , had hyperopia of � . , strabismus, early cataracts, normal foveal pits, and no signs of retinal hypopigmentation (fig. d, patient ). erg and dark adaptation. erg tests, which measure light-evoked primary electrical responses of photoreceptors (a-waves) and secondary responses of other retinal cells (b-waves), were clin- ically normal for patients and . amplitudes of the rod photoreceptor response to dim light were near the low end of the normal range, whereas cone photoreceptor responses were stronger. response times of both rods and cones and of other cells were completely normal (fig. f). dark-adaptation kinetics revealed moderate anomalies. for patient , cone photorecep- tors adapted significantly more slowly, and once dark-adapted, they were times less sensitive than normal (fig. g). rods also adapted more slowly, although once dark-adapted they were as sensitive to dim light as a normal eye. patient showed a similar delay in the adaptation of rod photoreceptors, which were five times less sensitive once adapted. surprisingly, her cone adap- tation appeared identical to the control, both in rate or dark- adapted threshold. genetic linkage to q . . to map the disease, we genotyped dna samples from family members – (fig. ) by using short tandem repeat markers. a logarithm of odds score of . at d s and � . at three nearby loci established linkage to q . (fig. a). all nanophthalmos patients in generation vi shared a single homozygous haplotype between d s and d s (fig. ). a crossover in the maternal chromosome of one unaffected sister (patient ) placed the disease locus above d s , defining a . -mb disease interval between d s and d s . the uncle, patient , was heterozygous for this interval, but homozygous within a -kb subregion (fig. b). fig. . inheritance of nanophthalmos. kindred a, showing individuals relevant to the current study, and participants in an earlier study (patients – ) ( ) are shown. all offspring are shown only in vi. � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. sundin et al. independent null mutations in a membrane-type frizzled-related protein (mfrp). exons of genes in the -kb interval (fig. b) revealed homozygous polymorphic variants, but no mutations. returning to the larger interval, we screened mfrp, a -exon gene encoding mfrp ( ). exon of mfrp contained a frameshift insertion, insc, that was homozygous in all of those affected in generation vi (fig. a). this mutation truncated the protein at glycine and added seven frameshift codons. it was not found in normal controls. patient was heterozygous for the insc allele but had no other mutations in exons of mfrp or c qtnf , an adjoining retinopathy gene ( ). after screening independent nanophthalmos kindreds, two fig. . clinical features of nanophthalmos in kindred a. (a) right eye (re) of patient , with vertical slit lamp illumination. (b) central retinal fundus, re of patient . (c) lateral retina, re of patient . (d) ocular features of individuals – . refraction indicates spherical � � cylindrical. le, left eye; nd, not determined. (e) a-scan immersion ultrasound, re of patient . shown are the return times of echo peaks along the optic axis. an interpretation, in mm, is based on independent scans. (f left) erg tracings, re of patient . time of a brief whole-field flash administered in the dark to a dark-adapted eye (scotopic) is indicated by vertical dashed lines. electrical response of the retina, as measured between body and cornea, is indicated in �v. a bright flash over background illumination (photopic) or a repeating train of flashes was used to isolate cone responses. (f right) results from a second clinical examination of patient , indicating peak amplitudes in �v for a-waves (photoreceptor hyperpolarization) and b-waves (postsynaptic depolarization of retina). (g) (upper) dark-adaptation kinetics. visual pigment of the whole eye is bleached by min of bright white light ( , candelas per m ). time in darkness immediately after the bleaching is indicated on the x axis. the y axis indicates minimum light intensity in microapostilbs that can be seen by the subject at a given time. the testing stimulus for rods and cones is a flashing disk ° in diameter, placed ° below a dim red focal target. (lower) dark adaptation, re of patient , using lkc technologies ganzfeld. sundin et al. pnas � july , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s caucasian families revealed mutations in mfrp. a boy, age , was homozygous for q x, an amber mutation in exon , whereas each parent was heterozygous for the mutation (fig. b). his refractive error was � . and � . , with � acuity in each eye. the rpe showed no pigmentary anomalies. in the second family, two sisters, ages and , had average refractive errors of � . and � . . each had patches of rpe hypopigmentation in the lateral retina. both sisters were compound heterozygotes for delc, a frameshift deletion, and i t in exon (fig. c). q x, delc, and i t were not found in normal caucasians. three mutations truncated mfrp in one of the cubilin domains and removed the cysteine-rich domain (crd) (fig. d). i t substituted threonine at an extremely conserved hydrophobic site, one of which is retained as isoleucine in cubilin domains of very different proteins, including cubn, tll , lrp , and the serum complement subunit c s. an alignment illustrating this is shown in supporting text. buried within the c s structure (see supporting text and fig. , which is published as supporting information on the pnas web site), this isoleucine makes contact with conserved hydrophobic residues of two closely apposed �-sheets (protein data bank id code nzi). substitution of a polar threonine would likely destabilize the structure. discussion mfrp. mfrp ( ) has no close relative elsewhere in the genome. however, portions show homology to individual domains of genes involved in cell– cell signaling, endocytosis, and proteol- ysis. its c-terminal domain is related to the wnt-binding crd fig. . genetic linkage to the nno disease locus. (a) chromosomal position marked in mb and cm. two-point logarithm of odds (lod) scores are shown. for z, at � � (mutation coincident with marker), and for zmax, maximum lod score, at �max (recombination frequency between mutation and marker). (b) map of . -mb disease interval and known genes, homozygous for all affected in generation vi. black bar indicates -kb interval homozygous in patient . fig. . haplotypes. chromosome marker allele haplotypes for the linkage pedigree are shown below genotyped individuals. boxes contain haplotypes of the disease chromosome. � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. sundin et al. of the frizzled family of transmembrane proteins ( ). frizzled proteins are receptors for the wnts, a family of cell– cell signaling molecules that mediate the regulation of growth, differentiation, and cell polarity during development ( ). mutations in fzd and some alleles of lrp , which encodes its coreceptor, cause the vascular eye disease familial exudative vitreo-retinopathy ( ). mutations in lrp typically cause pseudoglioma and vascular defects in the fetal eye and affect bone accrual ( ). the norrie disease gene encodes a non-wnt ligand of fzd , one that is essential to eye and ear development ( ). secreted frizzled- related proteins, which contain homologues of the wnt-binding crd ( ), are thought to act as competitive inhibitors of wnt signaling, and a similar function has been proposed for mfrp ( , ). however, this idea is still speculative, because mfrp binding to wnt proteins has yet to be demonstrated. other roles are suggested by its closest crd homologue, corin, a membrane- bound protease that cleaves the precursor of atrial natriuretic factor ( ). although mfrp has no obvious peptidase catalytic site, involvement in proteolytic pathways is also suggested by two tolloid repeat units, each of which is comprised of globular domains related to cubulin and the low-density lipoprotein receptor (fig. d). these are homologous to the tolloid me- talloproteinase family, which includes bmp , a regulator of procollagen processing and bone development ( ). sites of expression and function. rna blot hybridization ( , ) and public cdna databases show that mfrp and its mouse orthologue are expressed prominently only in the eye and at very low levels in the brain. this result is consistent with our finding that null homozygotes manifested no disease outside of the eye. in the mouse, in situ hybridization has revealed substantial mfrp mrna in the rpe and ciliary body but no other ocular tissues ( ). our preliminary rt-pcr analysis of human and mouse tissues (data not shown) confirms these results, including the absence of expression in choroid and sclera. on the basis of changes in collagen fibril ultrastructure and sulfated proteoglycan metabolism documented in scleral ex- plants, nanophthalmos has been considered a primary defect of connective tissue ( ). our finding that the disease is caused by loss of a gene expressed in the rpe introduces a different perspective on this disorder. although the rpe is a very thin tissue layer of the eye (fig. ), it plays an important role in regulating differentiation and growth of more massive underly- ing tissues. in early development, the rpe induces formation of periocular choroid and sclera from undifferentiated neural crest mesenchyme ( ). in postnatal development, the retina adjusts ocular focus by altering extensibility of the sclera, and the rpe has been postulated, but not proven, to relay these regulatory signals from the retina ( ). retinoic acid in the retina is markedly decreased during lens-induced hyperopia in mammals ( ), and a similar decrease might also occur in nanophthalmos. because retinoic acid and -cis retinal both arise from vitamin a and undergo metabolism in the rpe, the mechanism used to down- regulate retinoic acid synthesis could have secondary effects on the recycling of visual pigment. the moderate and differing delays in dark adaptation observed in the two patients examined (fig. g) could ref lect secondary deficiencies in the regenera- tion of -cis retinal ( ) or availability of vitamin a ( ). differences in phenotype between human and mouse. the recessive mouse retinal degeneration mutation rd is a splicing defect in the orthologous mfrp gene that causes an in-frame deletion of exon from the mrna ( ). by weeks of age, rd mice show a myriad of small, round, pigment-free f lecks in fundoscopic views of the rpe. these f lecks are accompanied by progressive dysfunction and death of photoreceptors. shed rod outer seg- ments accumulate in the subretinal space, suggesting a possible decrease in phagocytosis by the rpe. the cause of focal depigmentation remains unknown, but appears related to the presence of single large macrophages at the center of each spot. human mfrp disease has larger, irregular patches that retain fig. . mutations in mfrp. (a) automated sequencing trace of a homozy- gous exon mutation in the amish-mennonite kindred. (b) a homozygous exon amber stop codon mutation in the proband from kindred b. (c) compound heterozygosity in exon shows a frameshift deletion and a point substitution in two affected sisters of kindred c. (d) diagram of normal mfrp (top row). below are encoded mutant proteins in kindreds a–c and mouse rd . n, amino terminus; c, carboxyl terminus; p, proline-rich interval; mem, mem- brane spanning helix; stp, serine-threonine-proline-rich interval; cub, cubi- lin-related; l, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related. crd, frizzled-related crd. sundin et al. pnas � july , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s partial pigmentation. a more basic difference is the apparent absence of photoreceptor degeneration in our patients or in patients , , and , who, at ages , and , respectively, had glaucoma and extensive hypopigmentation and no report of night blindness ( ). although the phenotype of mfrprd mice has been compre- hensively described ( , , ), microphthalmia is not part of this description, and sections of rd eyes show a choroid of apparently normal histology and thickness ( ). if these mice do have small eyes, the defect is subtle. because the mouse eye already has an extremely short distance from lens to retina and appears to lack the ability to adjust ocular focus ( ), develop- mental differences between mice and primates may be great enough that mouse mfrp plays no significant role in ocular growth. basis of the affected heterozygote. as yet, we cannot explain the phenotype of patient , the only affected insc heterozy- gote in kindred a. one possibility is that his nanophthalmos results from digenic interaction of the mfrp heterozygote and functional polymorphisms in another gene. other possibilities are that the trait is semidominant with partial penetrance related to gene dosage and to unknown genetic or environmental factors ( ). alternatively, a rare somatic crossover or uniparental disomy of chromosome in the early embryo could have rendered insc homozygous in the rpe, while leaving the locus heterozygous in buccal epithelium and blood. the simplest explanation is that patient is a compound heterozygote of insc and a second mutant allele of mfrp. a normal fovea, no hypopigmentation, and an average refraction of � . at age suggest that this second mutant allele retains some mfrp function. a noncoding mutation, for example, could decrease transcription, splicing, or message stability ( ). be- cause the family was ascertained entirely on the basis of ho- mozygosity for the rare mutation insc, and the second allele is therefore gratuitous, hypomorphic mutations of this type should be more frequent than %. individuals homozygous for this particular hypomorphic allele could be relatively common and should have twice the mfrp function of patient . they should therefore exhibit more moderate hyperopia, perhaps within the range of common refractive error ( ). we thank the patients and their families for their participation; neal peachey and tom thompson for erg analysis; nathan congdon, sheila west, and jeremy nathans (the johns hopkins university) for control dnas; mike brodsky, tom glaser, morton goldberg, pete mathers, rod mcinnes, thomas rosenberg, mette warburg, and frieda yoder for discussions on nanophthalmos; and jerry lutty for reading the manuscript. this work was supported by national institutes of health grants ey and ey (to o.h.s.), a wasserman award from research to prevent blindness (to o.h.s.), a knights templar eye foundation grant (to o.h.s.), a wilmer collaborative grant (to o.h.s. and i.h.m.), a national institutes of health�national research service award fellowship (to g.s.l.), a knights templar grant (to g.s.l.), and a fellowship from praxis xxi of the portuguese foundation for science and technology (to e.d.s.). . duke-elder, s. ( ) in opthalmic optics and refraction, ed. duke-elder, s. (mosby, st. louis), vo . , pp. – . . wallman, j. & winawer, j. ( ) neuron , – . . schmucker, c. & schaeffel, f. ( ) vision res. , – . . singh, o. s. & sofinski, s. j. ( ) in principles and practice of ophthal- mology, eds. albert, d. m. & jakobiec, f. a. (saunders, philadelphia), vol. , pp. – . . traboulsi, e. i. ( ) in genetic diseases of the eye: a textbook and atlas, ed. traboulsi, e. i. (oxford univ. press, new york), pp. – . . fledelius, h. c., fuchs, h. j. & rosenberg, t. ( ) optom. vis. sci. , – . . warburg, m. ( ) trans. ophthalmol. soc. uk , – . . serrano, j. c., hodgkins, p. r., taylor, d. s., gole, g. a. & kriss, a. ( ) br. j. ophthalmol. , – . . othman, m. i., sullivan, s. a., skuta, g. l., crockrell, d. a., stringham, h. m., downs, c. a., fornes, a., mick, a., boehnke, m., vollrath, d. & richards, j. e. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . yardley, j., leroy, b. p., hart-holden, n., lafaut, b. a., loeys, b., messiaen, l. m., perveen, r., reddy, m. a., bhattacharya, s. s., traboulsi, e., et al. ( ) invest. ophthalmol. visual sci. , – . . cross, h. e. & yoder, f. ( ) am. j. ophthalmol. , – . . altintas, a. k., acar, m. a., yalvac, i. s., kocak, i., nurozler, a. & duman, s. ( ) acta ophthalmol. scand. , – . . mackay, c. j., shek, m. s., carr, r. e., yanuzzi, l. a. & gouras, p. ( ) arch. ophthalmol. , – . . sundin, o. h., yang, j. m., li, y., zhu, d., hurd, j. n., mitchell, t. n., silva, e. d. & maumenee, i. h. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . sheffield, v. c., weber, j. l., buetow, k. h, murray, j. c., even, d. a., wiles, k., gastier, j. m., pulido, j. c., yandava, c., sunden, s. l., et al. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . broman, k. w., murray, j. c., sheffield, v. c., white, r. l. & weber, j. l. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . ott, j. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . broman, k. w. ( ) genet. epidemiol. , – . . katoh, m. ( ) biochem. biophys. res. commun. , – . . hayward, c., shu, x., cideciyan, a. v., lennon, a., barran, p., zareparsi, s., sawyer, l., hendry, g., dhillon, b., milam, a. h., et al. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . wang, y., macke, j. p., abella, b. s., andreasson, k., worley, p., gilbert, d. j., copeland, n. g., jenkins, n. a. & nathans, j. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . bhanot, p., brink, m., samos, c. h., hsieh, j. c., wang, y., macke, j. p., andrew, d., nathans, j. & nusse, r. ( ) nature , – . . robitaille, j., macdonald, m. l., kaykas, a., sheldahl, l. c., zeisler, j., dube, m. p., zhang, l. h., singaraja, r. r., guernsey, d. l., zheng, b., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . gong, y., slee, r. b., fukai, n., rawadi, g., roman-roman, s., reginato, a. m., wang, h., cundy, t. j., glorieux, f. h., lev, d., et al. ( ) cell , – . . xu, q., wang, y., dabdoub, a., smallwood, p. m., williams, j., woods, c., kelley, m. w., jiang, l., tasman, w., zhang, k. & nathans, j. ( ) cell , – . . kawano, y. & kypta, r. ( ) j. cell sci. , – . . kameya, s., hawes, n. l., chang, b., heckenlively, j. r., naggert, j. k. & nishina, p. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . knappe, s., wu, f., madlansacay, m. r. & wu, q. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . sarras, m. p. ( ) bioessays. , – . . yue, b. y., duvall, j., goldberg, m. f., puck, a., tso, m. o. m. & sugar, j. ( ) ophthalmology , – . . seko, y., tanaka, y. & tokoro, t. ( ) graefes arch. clin. exp. ophthalmol. , – . . mcfadden, s. a., howlett, m. h. c. & mertz, j. r. ( ) vision res. , – . . yamamoto, h., simon, a., eriksson, u., harris, e., berson, e. l. & dryja, t. p. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . lamb, t. d. & pugh, e. n. ( ) progr. ret. eye res. , – . . hawes, n. l., chang, b., hageman, g. s., nusinowitz, s., nishina, p. m., schneider, b. s., smith, r. s., roderick, t. h., davisson, m. t. & heckenlively, j. r. ( ) invest. ophthalmol. visual sci. , – . . chang, b., hawes, n. l., hurd, r. e., davisson, m. t., nusinowitz, s. & heckenlively, j. r. ( ) vision res. , – . . nadeau, j. h. ( ) nat. rev. genet. , – . � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. sundin et al. http://tcn.sagepub.com journal of transcultural nursing doi: . / ; ; j transcult nurs carol savrin sharon m. weyer, victoria r. hustey, lesley rathbun, vickie l. armstrong, samantha reed anna, jeanne ronyak and a look into the amish culture: what should we learn? http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/ / / the online version of this article can be found at: published by: http://www.sagepublications.com on behalf of: transcultural nursing society can be found at:journal of transcultural nursing additional services and information for http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts email alerts: http://tcn.sagepub.com/subscriptions subscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.navreprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.navpermissions: http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/ / / citations by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://www.tcns.org http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://tcn.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/ / / http://tcn.sagepub.com . / articlejournal of transcultural nursing / april weyer et al. / a look into the amish culture a look into the amish culture: what should we learn? sharon m. weyer, msn, rn, np-c case western reserve university victoria r. hustey, msn, aprn, bc rainbow babies and children’s hospital, university hospitals of cleveland lesley rathbun, msn, rn, cnm vickie l. armstrong, msn, rn samantha reed anna, msn, rn jeanne ronyak, msn, rn carol savrin, nd, cpnp, fnp-c case western reserve university it is important to understand the amish culture in order to provide appropriate, acceptable, and accessible health care to this culturally diverse group. a case study pertaining to the care of a dying elderly amish woman living in a rural amish community is examined. this allows for exploration into the world of the amish community in greater detail. their overall beliefs, values, and behavior are discussed as well as how their lifestyle affects their health care decisions, access to health care, and reimbursement of services. nurse practitio- ners can offer culturally sensitive and appropriate health care to the amish population by recognizing important cul- tural values that have survived for more than three hundred years. keywords: amish culture; nurse practitioner; human caring; health care exploitation; culturally sensitive health care the amish community is a unique culture. as a group the members are religious, hard-working persons who value humility and focus their lives on maintaining family and com- munity values. the amish have many health care issues and needs. they strive to take care of their own; however, they will seek help from the outside world when necessary (banks & benchot, ). their culture has many differences from oth- ers living in the united states. it is vital for health care profes- sionals to respect these differences when dealing with amish individuals. nurse practitioners can play a vital role in caring for the amish community by providing education on disease prevention, health care maintenance, and avoidance of quack- ery medicine. the amish have continued to live simple lives with minimal technology in an ever-changing world around them. it is important to look into their culture and appreciate some of the aspects that have continued to thrive and grow despite these changes. the following is a case study that allows a glimpse into the amish world. case study on a cold, snowy, windy morning in january, a phone call was received from an amish family asking for assistance for their mother. mrs. t., a -year-old amish woman was diag- nosed with congestive heart failure (chf) months ago. prior to her symptoms of heart failure she had been healthy without chronic health problems, routine medications, and had never been hospitalized. mrs. t’s son stated she was not authors’ note: this case study occurred during a clinical rotation at a rural family practice office that served a large amish population. the authors de- veloped the article for a class assignment for a family nurse practitioner clini- cal course at frances payne bolton school of nursing at case western reserve university. journal of transcultural nursing, vol. no. , april - doi: . / © sage publications clinical practice department by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com resting at night. she had been awake, anxious, and short of breath last night. mrs. t. had been taking digoxin (lanoxin) and furosemide (lasix) for the past months. a prescription was called to the pharmacy in town for alprazolam (xanax). the prescription was picked up and taken to the family. in this small, rural town with a fairly large amish population there is an understanding among shop owners and the amish, which allowed for the prescription to be charged to the family. we drove the miles to the home in a ford bronco in approximately to minutes. the horse and buggy ride to town would have taken half an hour for mrs. t and her family. mrs. t would have been most uncomfortable. along the way we passed an amish school, the children were sled riding down a large hill in front of their school. the roads to the home were narrow, winding, and composed of chip and seal. on arrival to the home, we pulled into the gravel drive and parked next to the hitching post. the driveways are usually circular so the horse and buggy do not have to back up. the house was a one-story, white ranch. there was no electric line going to the home. we entered the home through the back door; wooden steps led to the kitchen. the home was very neat, warm, and welcoming. a pie was cooling on the kitchen counter; the smell permeated the home. the hardwood floors were covered with rugs. decoration was sparse and what was present was of a religious nature. there were no electric plugs or light switches. the lights on the walls were kerosene lamps. mrs. t’s son and daughter greeted us and answered our questions about her condition. her activity had declined over the past weeks. they were providing assistance with all her activities of daily living. mrs. t’s daughter is the teacher at the school we passed. she has taken the past days off to help care for her mother. another woman from the amish church is covering for her at the school. mrs. t and her family had decided they wanted no heroic measures to prolong her life. they only wanted to provide comfort care. over the past days her food intake had decreased; she was taking intermittent sips of liquids. her uri- nation had decreased despite the furosemide. mrs. t was lying on the sofa in the living room. she was sitting at an degree angle, supported by three pillows. although she was frail looking, her white hair was neatly combed into a bun. she was wearing a crisp, white, cotton nightgown. her legs were covered with an afghan embroi- dered with the religious poem, “footsteps in the sand.” a small table was beside the couch; it contained a teacup and saucer. mrs. t was sleeping; her breathing was labored and irregu- lar with cheyne-stokes respirations. she aroused to verbal and tactile stimulation. despite being hard of hearing, she answered our questions appropriately. her pale skin was cool and dry with no rashes or lesions. her lips were moist and she displayed no sign of dehydration. her assessment was consis- tent with chf. crackles were auscultated bilaterally in her lungs an s gallop was audible. her bowel sounds were hypoactive. peripheral + pitting edema was noted in both lower extremities and her nail beds were slightly cyanotic. we explained the purpose and use of the new medication to the family and offered oxygen as an additional comfort mea- sure. at this point the family did not feel the oxygen was nec- essary. a return visit was planned in days and the family was encouraged to contact the office if they needed anything in the mean time. as we left the house, the family’s horse was wait- ing at the fence next to the driveway watching us leave, as if sensing something was going on. literature review there is a wide variety of literature pertaining to the amish community. some articles focus primarily on specific disease processes that are prevalent throughout the amish population; however, multiple articles were found detailing an overall view of the amish lifestyle, beliefs, culture, and views on childbirth and death. in addition, books have also been written about the amish community. it is first important to understand the background of the amish population. the amish are a branch of christianity that began in europe soon after the protestant reformation. a new group of believers around zurich, switzerland did not believe in government sponsorship of religion or infant bap- tism. they felt it was contrary to the teachings of christ in the new testament (kreps, donnermeyer, & kreps, ). it was believed that baptism should be reserved for consenting adults (o’neil, ). led by ulrich zwingli, the formal break came on january , , when the protestors symbol- ically rebaptized themselves (brewer & bonalumi, ). anabaptist means to be rebaptized and this was the original name given to the group. the group later split over differ- ences of anabaptist beliefs and laxity of practices (kreps et al., ). the separation from zwingli led to the formation of the mennonites, who are found throughout the world today, including pennsylvania (brewer & bonalumi, ). followers of a more conservative group led by jacob ammann, who separated from the mennonite church, came to be known as the amish (beachy, hershberger, davidhizar, & giger, ). many of the amish, today, consider themselves cousins of the mennonites (brewer & bonalumi, ). the first record of amish immigration to america was in , the settlements were in berks and lancaster counties of pennsylvania (kreps et al., ). there is no amish commu- nity remaining in europe, today. amish groups who remained in europe suffered through conditions of persecution and financial hardships during the th and th centuries. even- tually, the amish that stayed behind converted to local men- nonite and various protestant denominations (kreps et al., ). pennsylvania has the greatest number of settlements, but ohio has the largest population of amish. the largest set- journal of transcultural nursing / april by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com tlement of amish is in a five-county area in ohio known as the holmes county and vicinity settlement area (kreps et al., ). the amish follow five basic tenets: adult baptism, separa- tion of church and state, ex-communication from the church for those who break moral law, living life in accordance to the teachings of christ, and refusal to bear arms, take oaths, or hold political office (andreoli & miller, ). historically, amish have been farmers. “they refer to the old testament passage from genesis when god commanded adam and eve to ‘dress’ and cultivate the garden” (kreps et al., , p. ). in some areas, about one in three amish breadwinners primarily make their living from agriculture (kreps et al., ). even in amish families where the bread- winner works in a factory, the woman of the house maintains a garden. the amish live in rural areas surrounded by farmland (brewer & bonalumi, ). the amish live by a code of conduct that forms their behavior, speech, and manner of dressing (banks & benchot, ). according to kreps et al. ( ), the ordnung (ott- nuing) is a set of rules and regulations for living the amish faith. it is largely oral, with only a few parts written down. it is what distinguishes between those in fellowship with the amish faith and all others. the amish are organized into church districts, each composed of several dozen families headed by a group of elders, including a bishop, two minis- ters, and one deacon. church leaders have no formal training or qualifications. they are nominated by the group based on their upholding of the amish beliefs. a piece of paper with a biblical quote is placed in a hymnbook. the nominees chose one of the hymnbooks. the one choosing the hymnbook with the piece of paper is considered chosen by god. each church district has its own diverse ordnung. “the amish are like the quilts they make, each patch may be different, but the amish are sewn together by their common history and religious val- ues” (kreps et al., ). two additional terms that are important in the amish com- munity are meidung and gelassenheit. meidung (mide-ung), or shunning, means cutting off fellowship with and avoiding former members who have been excommunicated, that is, told to leave the amish faith due to serious acts against the ordnung. only baptized adults are subject to the meidung. shunning is considered the last resort. fellowship can be restored, however, if the person sincerely repents (kreps et al., ). gelassenheit (gay las en hite) means yielding to god’s authority. this, also, helps guide amish behavior. it is the belief in living a simple life and giving thanks to god for their blessings. amish school children are taught the favorite motto of “joy”: j stands for jesus who comes first, o is for others that are second, and finally y stands for you that should come last (andreoli & miller, ). the amish avoid abu- sive, violent, and threatening words due to the belief that words can cause harm and disharmony (banks & benchot, ; kreps et al., ). aspects of the amish culture the amish are a diverse society with many traditions. they are changing all the time and have always changed to accommodate the challenges in the world around them. there are many unique characteristics that set the amish commu- nity apart from others living in the united states. first, they believe in living simply. one example of this is that electricity is not permitted in their homes and the use of electricity from public power lines is discouraged even outside the home. some compromises have been made, however. batteries and large diesel engines can be used to cool milk tanks and oper- ate workshops (kreps et al., ). also, if an ill family mem- ber needs to use electricity they have to get permission from the elders. another example of the simple living that the amish popu- lation follow is their dress. according to brewer and bonalumi ( ), their plain style of dress is to reject worldli- ness, vanity, and materialism. traditionally, men’s wear in the amish community includes button-front trousers with sus- penders and a black felt hat in the winter and a straw wide- brimmed hat in the summer. men shave until marriage and then grow a beard. the upper lip is always clean because church law forbids mustaches. women, who hand-make most of the clothing, wear solid colored dresses in blue, green, gray, purple, or wine along with a white organdy head cover- ing. a black bonnet is placed over the white covering when outdoors. black dresses are, also, worn for religious occa- sions. some communities use straight pins to fasten the bod- ice of their dresses and secure their head covering. the use of hooks and eyes versus snaps and buttons for construction of clothing varies by each community’s ordnung (beachy et al., ). the amish formal education system includes grades one through eight, taught by one or two amish teachers who are picked by the school board. the school board is made up of parents of the amish children. teachers do not have formal education beyond the eighth grade and are not required to have certification. they are selected by the school board based on their ability to uphold and teach amish values to the children. children attend school from september until the end of april, monday through friday. their only vacation days are usually thanksgiving and christmas. subjects con- sist of spelling, phonics, reading, vocabulary, english, geog- raphy, arithmetic, penmanship, and bible lessons. children are required to take both english and german (kreps et al., ). amish parents pay approximately $ , in tuition fees annually regardless of the number of children attending school (kreps et al., ). most amish parents refuse to send their children to high school in fear that non-amish chil- dren and advanced education will alter their thinking and weyer et al. / a look into the amish culture by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com behavior in ways inconsistent with amish beliefs. some uni- versities offer vocational classes and workshops for the amish. some of the topics are farming, milk production, cul- tivation, buggy safety, and sawmill production (kreps et al., ). as mentioned previously, most amish are farmers. some, however, do work as laborers, carpenters, carriage makers, and other craftsmen. the amish prefer not to work for outsid- ers, but rather on family-owned farms and businesses. amish families can often be found selling homemade food or quilts at their homes or in nearby markets (brewer & bonalumi, ). children are often working full-time at home or in a nearby shop by age because school is completed by eighth grade (kreps et al., ). according to brewer and bonalumi ( ), the amish population speaks a mixture of german, english, and penn- sylvania dutch. children do not learn english until they attend school and speak pennsylvania dutch in the home. “in amish society, the pennsylvania dutch dialect is the lan- guage of work, family, friendship, play and intimacy” (kreps et al., , p. ). the amish also refer to the non-amish community as “english” because that is the language used by others around them (beachy et al., ). a characteristic that distinguishes the amish from many other denominations is that they conduct their church service in members’ homes. families in the community rotate ser- vices from one home to another, which means that or more people may attend at one time. services begin about : a.m. and last about three and one half hours. a meal, pre- pared by the host family, follows the service along with talk and visiting among the guests until afternoon chore time (kreps et al., ). meetings usually take place twice a month and scriptures from the bible are read. the amish dis- courage boasting of their bible learning and intimidation of others with bible quotes (o’neil, ). they also believe that “those who worship god, obey the church, provide for family and community will enjoy salvation” (o’neil, , p. ). the majority of the amish live in a household with six or more persons that often include extended family members. it is common for aunts, uncles, and cousins to live across the road or on the farm next door. a dawdy haus, which is right next to or often attached to the original house, is where elderly parents move when they “retire,” and the larger house is given to the youngest of their children. in amish society, the elderly are considered important sources of information for the youn- ger generation. they give advice on topics that include health and illness, household chores, cooking, gardening, farming, and predicting the weather (kreps et al., ). the amish do not believe in retirement homes; instead, they reside at home where they are cared for by their family (palmer, ). the average age of death in the amish population is approxi- mately years old (mitchell et al., ). the amish also believe in taking care of their young, therefore there are no day care centers. the amish community thinks they are responsible for the young, elderly, and the sick. the daily life of the amish is centered on the home. children, often born at home, play at home and attend a school that is within easy walking distance. many amish individuals work full-time in the home. recreational activi- ties take place at home or with nearby neighbors. church ser- vices and marriage ceremonies are held at the home. most meals are prepared and eaten at home. social gatherings and clothing making are also performed at home. finally, retire- ment occurs at home as well as end-of-life care and the funeral service (kreps et al., ). life almost always begins and ends in the amish home. members of the amish community do not practice divorce or birth control. therefore, large families are encouraged. the average amish family has six children (o’neil, ). they also tend to socialize with and marry their own. inter- marriages are very common among the amish and the major- ity of couples who marry are usually related to each other in some way (mckusick, ). this puts the amish population at risk for a high incidence of genetic diseases. recessive genetic disorders are increased among the amish (mckusick, ). finally, the amish view death as a natural part of life. they believe in eternal life. death is seen as “god’s will” and the amish often take their loved ones home to die rather than have death occur in a hospital setting (banks & benchot, ). when an individual in the amish community dies, friends and families gather at the home as soon as they receive word of the death. family members of the same gender dress the body for burial. men are dressed in a white shirt, vest, and pants and women are dressed in white with a white cape and apron. the coffin is wide at the head and narrows at the feet and is void of ornamentation (palmer, ). amish members of the community outside the family prepare the grave. the person is then buried in an amish cemetery (girod, ). the leading causes of death in the amish are heart disease and accidents and most men outlive the women (palmer, ). genetic diseases can also have a big impact on life expectancy and chronic health conditions. effects on health care decisions there are many factors that affect the health care of the amish population (see table ). the amish brought with them from the old country many home remedies and folk medicine. some amish still practice powwowing; also know as braucha or braucheri, which is an old world brand of faith healing. the belief holds that certain people inherit the power to heal by touch, or moving around a sick person, or through audible or silent incantations (adams & loverland, ). the amish are often preyed upon by quackery fraud and med- ical exploitation. journal of transcultural nursing / april by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com modern health quacks are expert salesmen. they use sci- entific terms and many who target the amish quote bible scriptures. the amish cultural belief in rural living and rigor- ous physical labor as a means to good health makes “natural” treatments attractive. the quacks will use convincing testi- monials from amish community members to spread the word of their cure. many dishonest salesmen will discredit the medical establishment by claiming a massive conspiracy by licensed health care providers, drug companies, and medical associations. the budget, an amish newspaper written by correspondents from amish communities in north and south america is published in sugarcreek, ohio. it contains news, announcements of births, deaths, and marriages as well as a number of advertisements for questionable alternative health products and services (palmer, ). types of health fraud popular among the amish include chelation therapy, radon mines, tijuana clinics, medical devices, and herbal supplements. chelation therapy is a series of intravenous infusions containing disodium ethylene- diamine-tetra-acetic acid (edta) and is approved for hypercalcemia and heavy metal poisoning (sampson, ). some amish seek chelation therapy for atherosclerosis and neutralization of free radicals. chelation therapy can cause hypotension, shock, acute renal failure, and sudden cardiac death from hypocalcemia, however, and has been shown to have no effect on atherosclerosis or reduction in free radicals (sampson, ). also, many amish often visit abandoned mines and pay to purposely expose themselves to radon gas in the belief that it will cure arthritis, asthma, migraines, diabe- tes, and other ailments. radon gas is blamed for many lung cancer deaths (cannon, ). many clinics found in tijuana, mexico offer treatments appealing to the amish such as cof- fee enemas, goat blood therapy, and the healing power of cow embryos. some clinics also offer discounted surgeries includ- ing hip replacement and hysterectomy (barrett, ). finally, the amish use herbal remedies. often herbal tablets, garlic, and vitamins are their self-prescribed first-line treat- ment against illness and injury (mccollum, ). they believe strongly that vitamins and health foods are significant in maintaining one’s health and will often pay expensive herbal remedy prices (palmer, ). the functional ability to work, as well as the attitude of wanting to work, is important in the amish perception of health. significant disability, such as blindness or inability to walk, does not inhibit productivity. the amish primarily work as a team; therefore a person with a disability can per- form tasks that are contributory yet less physically demand- ing (hewner, ). these may include duties such as clean- ing vegetables or cutting scraps for rugs. disability, therefore, is minimized in large amish households. as mentioned ear- lier, the elderly live with their adult children, a practice that places less emphasis on individual function and more empha- sis on group function. independent function is much less important in amish culture than among the non-amish (hewner, ). the amish population will seek out westernized medical care and technology when necessary. the amish are not pro- hibited by church law from taking medication or seeking care from a doctor, however, as discussed earlier, they will often use other remedies first (girod, ). the amish define ill- ness as a failure to function in the work role instead of in terms of symptoms. for this reason, they may be more likely to seek care for acute traumatic conditions as opposed to chronic ill- nesses (palmer, ). when the amish do seek medical attention, they often have severe symptoms and increased risk of mortality secondary to delay in seeking care. the amish often do not practice preventative medicine, as well. this is partly due to a lack of education and understanding of micro- organisms and disease. many amish also believe that sins cause illness. if sins are the cause of illness, “they believe, then no amount of prevention or immunization will prevent illness, and there is no need to participate in preventive pro- grams” (adams & leverland, , p. ). this is an area that nurse practitioners can work closely with the amish and play a vital role in education. effects on access to care there are several factors that affect the amish’s access to health care. transportation is one factor. the horse and buggy is a distinct symbol of amish religious values and unique life- style. a medical appointment may be missed due to a horse that will not leave the barnyard (mcginn, ). the horse and buggy can usually travel about miles an hour, so the amish tend to live relatively close to their amish neighbors in weyer et al. / a look into the amish culture table reasons for medical exploitation of the amish education the amish only attend school through the eighth grade. they have a limited background in math and science. the amish do not use the internet or other electronic sources of information. insurance many amish do not have health insurance and mainstream medicine is too expensive. money the amish are cash paying customers who pay their bills in a timely manner. distrust many amish distrust mainstream medicine. some may have had a bad experience with doctors or hospitals. pacifism the amish are forbidden by their religious beliefs from suing. they rarely alert authorities. culture the amish have a strong cultural belief in folk medicine and home remedies. source: data from adams and loverland ( ). by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com order to visit others in their community regularly and attend church services (kreps et al., ). this may make travel to health care facilities and hospitals a difficult task. many of the facilities are often located outside of their rural setting. traveling in bad weather is also another obstacle. transporta- tion by car or van from an “english” neighbor or friend is arranged for long distance travel or when traveling in larger groups. the majority of the amish do not have telephones in their homes, which affects access to immediate care particu- larly in times of emergency. the amish usually have to use a public phone or travel to a neighbor’s house to use a phone. effects on reimbursement or payment of services health care can be costly to the amish population, because they are self-pay clients who do not use commercial health insurance. the amish believe that they are responsible for their own group (dickinson, slesinger, & raftery, ). communities form their own type of insurance fund in which amish individuals contribute an initial amount and then again when someone has a need (brewer & bonalumi, ). this contribution is called “church aid” or “amish aid.” if an amish person incurs an unmanageable expense, the amish community will step forward and help with medical pay- ments or money for repairs (beachy et al., ; palmer, ). therefore, it is easy to see how medical payments can be trying on the amish community and how many often pro- long medical attention for what they believe may be minor ill- nesses or injuries. in many situations, however, delays in seeking treatment increase medical expenses (mccollum, ). implication for practice nurse practitioners, with physician collaboration, can play a vital role in the care of the amish. nurse practitioners specializing in family medicine and midwifery may provide an excellent source of care for this population because of the family and community needs in a rural setting. there are often fewer physicians in these settings, opening the door for nurse practitioners. nurse practitioners can remind their amish patients that there is no religious rule prohibiting immunizations against disease, and can use education to combat superstition and promote disease prevention (adams & leverland, ). education can be very vital in helping the amish avoid quackery medicine. nurse practitioners can play a big part through education in preventing the amish from getting caught up in scams and ineffective health treatments. acceptance of the amish for who they are will help in the development of a trusting relationship. according to watson (n.d., p. ; see also, mcgraw, ), developing and sustain- ing a helping-trusting, authentic, caring relationship is one of the necessary steps in providing human caring; she describes this as the essence of nursing practice. human caring is actualized in the moment based on the actions and choices made by both the one-caring and the one- being cared for . . . the goal in the relationship is the protec- tion, enhancement, and preservation of patient dignity, humanity, wholeness, and inner harmony. (mcgraw, , p. ) nurse practitioners should take the time to understand the different beliefs of the amish to provide the best care possible (adams & leverland, ). “they must be acutely aware of their own cultural biases, especially when those may be at odds with the amish orientation” (wiggins, , p. ). the best approach that the nurse practitioner can take with the amish is to talk simply and honestly with them. they are not impressed with increased education and are disinterested in individuals who act arrogantly or are bossy (beachy et al., ). nurse practitioners can reinforce an amish person’s health care practices, such as the use of creams and supple- ments, as long as it is not detrimental to his or her health (palmer, ). however, they may also want to offer the bio- medical perspective for consideration and develop a mutually agreed on plan of care. promoting mutual understanding and respect is always better than encouraging intolerance because intolerance leads to conflict (kreps et al., ). this article has discussed the amish culture and its rela- tionship to medical care. it has given us a look into a culture that continues to thrive with simple surroundings, despite the advances in technology and daily changes in the world. the amish have continued to maintain their faith, values, and strong sense of family and community. they have not allowed outside influences to penetrate their beliefs or alter their cul- ture. if we continue to look closely at the amish community, perhaps they can teach us some valuable lessons in life. as mrs. t was peacefully dying at home, surrounded by her friends and family, she was comfortable in her own surround- ings. she was not in a foreign place being cared for by strang- ers or being monitored by technology. she was dying in her home, with her family, in her community. it is easy for us to get caught up in our society with all the increased technology and medical advances, but perhaps we have lost some impor- tant things along the way. we may have lost sight of some valuable qualities that the amish can help us regain, if we let them. a quote from an amish man in the , summer issue of the small farm journal (as cited in kreps et al. ) sum- marizes some of what we can learn from the amish. we realize that not everyone is cut out to be one of the plain people. many have not the opportunity, but here is the chal- lenge. if you admire our faith—strengthen yours. if you admire our sense of commitment—deepen yours. if you admire our community spirit, build your own. if you admire journal of transcultural nursing / april by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com the simple life—cut back. if you admire deep character and enduring values, live them yourself. (p. iv) references adams, c. e., & leverland, m. b. ( ). the effects of religious beliefs on the health care practices of the amish. nurse practitioner, ( ), , , . andreoli, e. m., & miller, j. s. ( ). aging in the amish community. nursing connections, ( ), - . banks, m. j., & benchot, r. j. ( ). unique aspects of nursing care for amish children. american journal of maternal child nursing, ( ), - . barrett, s. ( ). quackwatch. retrieved may , from http:// www.quackwatch.com/ beachy, a., hershberger, e., davidhizar, r., & giger, j. n. ( ). cultural implications for nursing care of the amish. journal of cultural diversity, ( ), - . brewer, j. a., & bonalumi, n. m. ( ). cultural diversity in the emergency department. journal of emergency nursing, ( ), - . cannon, s. ( ). plain prey. old mines yielding new bonanza: radioactive gas. retrieved april , , from http://www.kcstar.com/plain/stories/ mine .htm dickinson, n., slesinger, d. & raftery, p. ( ). a comparison of the per- ceived health needs of amish and non-amish families in cashton, wisc. wisconsin medical journal, ( ), - . girod, j. ( ). a sustainable medicine: lessons from the old order amish. journal of medical humanities, ( ), - . hewner, s. j. ( ). fertility, migration, and mortality in an old order amish community. american journal of human biology, , - . kreps, g. m., donnermeyer, j. f., & kreps, m. w. ( ). a quiet moment in time: a contemporary view of amish society. sugarcreek: carlisle press. mccollum, c. ( ). physicians’ perspectives on treating amish patients. wisconsin medical journal, ( ), - . mcginn, k. ( ). debbie laberge: caring for amish and mennonite fam- ilies. nurse practitioner forum, ( ), - . mcgraw, m. j. ( ). watson’s philosophy in nursing practice. in m. r. alligood & a. m. tomey (eds.), nursing theory: utilization and appli- cation (pp. - ). st. louis, mo: mosby. mckusick, v. a. ( ). the amish. endeavour, ( ), - . mitchell, b. d., hsueh, w., king, t. m., pollin, t. i., sorkin, j., agarwala, r., et al. ( ). heritability of life span in the old order amish. american journal of medical genetics, , - . o’neil, d. j. ( ). explaining the amish. international journal of social economics, ( ), - . palmer, c. v. ( ). the health beliefs and practices of an old order amish family. journal of the american academy of nurse practitioners, ( ), - . sampson, w. ( , fall/winter). the pharmacology of chelation therapy. scientific review of alternative medicine. retrieved june , from: http://www.quackwatch.com/ watson, j. (n.d.). watson’s caring theory. retrieved october , , from: http//www .uchsc.edu/son/caring/content/wct.asp wiggins, l. r. ( ). health and illness beliefs and practices among the old older amish. health values: achieving high level wellness, ( ), - . sharon m. weyer, msn, rn, np-c, is a research nurse in the de- partment of family medicine, research division at case western reserve university and a family nurse practitioner at the viola startzman free clinic in wooster, ohio. her research, teaching, and clinical interests include health promotion/disease prevention and access to health care for the uninsured. victoria r. hustey, msn, aprn, bc, is a registered nurse in the department of pediatric intensive care at university hospitals of cleveland, rainbow babies and children’s hospital, and pediatric clinical instructor at kent state univeristy, ashtabula. her clinical interests include family nurse practitioning. lesley rathbun, msn, rn, cnm, is an obstetrical staff nurse in the department of nursing at middlefield care center—amish birthing center. her clinical interests include midwifery and family practice. she is a master’s student in midwifery and family nurse practitioner at case western reserve university, frances payne bolton school of nursing. vickie l. armstrong, msn, rn, is a clinical nurse in the de- partment of medical/surgical nursing at university hospitals of cleveland. her clinical interests include geriatrics. she is currently a master’s student in the gerontological nurse practitioner pro- gram. she also serves on the clinical faculty for case western re- serve university, frances payne bolton school of nursing. samantha reed anna, msn, rn, is a staff nurse in the postanesthesia care unit at the cleveland clinic foundation. her teaching interests include undergraduate clinical education. she is currently a master’s student in the family nurse practitioner pro- gram at case western reserve university. she also serves on the clinical faculty at the frances payne bolton school of nursing. jeanne ronyak, msn, rn, is a clinical nurse in the family birth center at st. francis health center. her clinical interests include maternal and child health nursing and family nurse practitioning. carol savrin, nd, cpnp, fnp-c, is an assistant professor in the department of nursing at case western reserve university. her re- search interests include cardiovascular risk factors in adolescents. she is also lead faculty in the pediatric and family nurse practitioner programs at case western reserve university. weyer et al. / a look into the amish culture by books editorial on january , http://tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com 'med genet ; : - a syndrome including thumb malformations, microcephaly, short stature, and hypogonadism joel zlotogora, judith dagan, adnan ganen, mazen abu-libdeh, ziva ben-neriah, tirza cohen abstract we report on eight patients from seven different families affected with a syn- drome which includes thumb defects, short stature, microcephaly, and mental retardation. most of the patients had additional malformations, in particular amenorrhoea and azoospermia in the adults. there were no haematological manifestations and the chromosomes were normal without evidence ofbreakage even after stimulation. in five of the cases the probands' mother received hormonal treatment before or at the beginning of her pregnancy or both. the syndrome may be inherited as an autosomal recessive trait since the pa- tients included both males and females and their parents were related in most cases. in addition, supporting this possibility, they all originated from a small village which may be considered as an isolate. however, in all cases but one, only one person was affected in each fam- ily and there was a significant apparent excess of healthy sibs of the probands. these observations may be the result of the variability of the syndrome or a more complex type ofinheritance. ( med genet ; : - ) keywords: hypogonadism; fanconi anaemia, micro- cephaly; thumb malformations department ofhuman genetics, hadassah university hospital, hadassah medical school, hebrew university, jerusalem, israel j zlotogora j dagan z ben-neriah t cohen kupat holim sick fund, israel a ganen m abu-libdeh correspondence to: dr ziotogora, hadassah university hospital, pob , jerusalem il , israel. received january revised version accepted for publication may congenital malformations of the thumbs are variable and often bilateral. they may include triphalangism, hypoplasia, aplasia, or polysyn- dactyly. in some cases the malformations are mild, such as short, large, or proximally placed thumbs. malformations of the thumbs may be found together with other radial defects, such as hypoplasia or aplasia of the radius, or with other malformations, often as part of known syndromes.' among the most frequent organs involved together with the thumbs are the heart, urinary tract system, skeleton, and blood. the vacterl association includes radial ray deformities, defects of the vertebrae, anal atresia, tracheo-oesophageal fistula, renal malformations, and congenital heart defects. many syndromes associated with thumb mal- formations are included in entries in omim.' in some of the syndromes with absence of thumbs or radial rays or both, the major additional features are orofacial malfor- mations, such as in nager syndrome and juberg-hayward syndrome, or cardiovascular malformations, such as in holt oram syn- drome. in other syndromes blood dyscrasia is the pathognomonic feature, such as in fanconi anaemia and the syndrome of thrombocyto- penia and absent radius (tar).' we report here on a group of patients presenting with thumb malformations together with microcephaly, mental retardation, short stature, and hypogonadism and discuss possi- ble diagnosis and aetiology. patients and methods all the patients originated from a small muslim israeli arab village located near jerusalem, fully integrated into the life of the state of israel. almost all the inhabitants can trace their ancestry back less than generations from a very small number of founders. the village includes three large kindreds which each represent almost % of the household units (ar, ja, and ib) and three smaller kindreds (ot, ak, and sa). the inhabitants of the vil- lage are devout followers of their islamic tradi- tions and have maintained their isolation mainly by marriages within the family or within the village or both. in , there were approximately inhabitants of the village. malformations of the thumbs were diag- nosed in the genetic clinic at hadassah medical center in seven patients originating from the village. in addition, a severely retarded female living in the village, never seen in the genetic clinic, was examined because of the similarity of her symptoms to those of the other patients. she had a proximal insertion of both thumbs with mild hypoplasia of the left thumb and therefore she was also included in the present study (ot f). a clinical summary of the eight patients is given in table and the pedigree of the families in fig . the thumb malformations were variable, often different in the right and left thumb in the same patient as well as from patient to patient, and included aplasia, hypoplasia, and malposi- tion. none of the patients had large or bifid thumbs, none had radial aplasia or hypoplasia, and their toes were normal. one patient was born with severe hydrocephalus with alobar holoprosencephaly and died in infancy. the other seven patients were affected with various degrees of mental retardation and had signifi- cant microcephaly (less than sd for age). four of the adult patients are mildly retarded, but integrated into daily life, and the other is severely retarded. both adult males are working and one of them is married; the three adult females are single and helping at home. all but o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ zlotogora, dagan, ganen, abu-libdeh, ben-neriah, cohen ._ tr- oo - r u u e m m ; a c).; u , e ° e i e s c+ e bed + b c) ~ o c) m. - ~ v c - + co co ) v c ° )c,; ) - : -c °- + + ew ec-. u cl . (i. :o.°>e uncc+l . coz r. e.b ) c. su - . . s ,c . co u = *pcoe u rc- r)c . =. s one patient had a low or very low birth weight; short stature was present in all the patients and the adults reached a height between to cm. the three adult females had primary amenorrhoea. in one of them, an abdominal ultrasound was performed in which the ovaries were not seen. the male patient who was mar- ried was infertile because of azoospermia. none of the patients had any haematological problems and no malignancies have been diag- nosed. in all the patients studied the chromo- somes were normal and there was no induced chromosomal breakage after deb stimulation performed in two unrelated patients. fertility problems were present in four of the patients' mothers. they received hormonal treatment (details on the type of treatment were not available to us) before and during the pregnancy of the affected patient. in three of these women the hormonal treatment was given only for the pregnancy of the proband; in the fourth, the mother also received treatment in another pregnancy from which a normal child was born. in a fifth family, the pregnancy was unwanted and the patient's mother took medication to have an abortion (ja f). three of the families were from the ja kindred (four patients), two from the ar kindred, and two from the ot kindred. in six out the seven families the probands' parents were closely related and in the last family the parents did not know of any relationship but originated from the same kindred (ja). among the total of children in the seven different families, there were two affected sibs in only one family (ja h and s). on the assumption that the syndrome was inherited as an auto- somal recessive trait, eight of the probands' sibs would have been expected to be affected instead of only one observed (x = . , p< . ) . . cpo r. s. ~cr sz c' v v - cn cx eu 'a u -t co u au . discussion the similarity between the patients was evident, in particular when they were all exam- ined over a short period of time, and we have no doubt that they are affected with the same syndrome. among the numerous syndromes including thumb/radial malformations searched for in omim, lddb, and pos- sum, most could be easily ruled out. in com- paring those syndromes in which more than one family with affected patients was reported, the main differential diagnosis includes fan- coni anaemia and the juberg-hayward syn- drome, since in both syndromes the major malformations overlap those present in our patients (table ). all the malformations found in our patients have been reported in patients with fanconi anaemia and the variability from one patient to another is similar in both syndromes. the major clinical differences are the rarity of mental retardation in fanconi anaemia and the absence of bone marrow fail- ure in our patients. it should be noted that recently two adult sibs affected with fanconi anaemia were reported with microcephaly, hypogonadism, and mental retardation. the sister had no haematological manifestation or malignancy up to the age of years, and fan- coni anaemia was diagnosed by the presence of v t ; _t q. _^ -. . 't + o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ thumb malformations, microcephaly, short stature, and hypogonadism i- b d b~ b jaa ar a ot b b <ff- l-~ ja f b i jaa figure the pedigrees of the seven families. the affected children are identified by the same initials as in the tables. the date of birth is given under the symbols. a small triangle is usedfor spontaneous abortions and their number is indicated under the symbol. the pregnancies are indicated according to their order. in the families of j a a and ot e, the parents did not remember the exact order of the spontaneous abortions after the birth of the proband. chromosome breaks after mitomycin c stimu- lation. in our patients, however, the absence of chromosomal breakage after deb stimulation excluded the diagnosis of fanconi anaemia. still, it may be speculated that the gene involved may be one of those causing fanconi anaemia but with a different type of mutation or that it is a gene participating in a parallel developmental pathway. the juberg-hayward syndrome has been reported in relatively few patients up to now and includes the major malformations found in our patients: thumb malformations, growth retardation, micro- cephaly, and mental retardation (table ). the patients with the juberg-hayward syndrome were young and no data were available on their gonadal function. the major differences were the absence of skin hyperpigmentation and congenital dislocation of hips in the patients with the juberg-hayward syndrome and the absence of characteristic facial features in our patients, in particular the cleft lip/palate. at this stage the possibility that the syndrome table comparison of the features of the syndrome with those offanconi anaemia and the _uberg-hayward syndrome fanconi anaemia juberg-hayward (%) syndrome' ourpatients growth retardation / / skin hyperpigmentation - / hypogenitalia - / combined radial ray deformities / / thumb anomaly, absence / / hypoplastic/absent radius / - microcephaly / / renal anomalies / / mental retardation / / ear anomaly / - mild microphthalmia - / cardiac murmur - / cdh - / pancytopenia + - - chromosomal breakage + - cleft lip/palate, typical facial features - + reported here is the juberg-hayward syndrome cannot be completely ruled out, in particular since most of the facial features are subtle and probably variable in different ethnic back- grounds. in addition, since only a few patients have been reported, the full spectrum of malformations which may be present in the juberg-hayward syndrome is still unknown. all the patients originated from a small village which may be considered almost as an isolate. in the village most of the marriages are by preference within the family and almost always within the larger kindred. indeed the patients' parents were closely related in six out of the seven families. in addition, the patients included males and females and their parents were all healthy. all these observations are in favour of autosomal recessive inheritance. however, only one of the sibs of the probands was affected, which is significantly different from that expected in an autosomal recessive disorder. a possible explanation may be that some of the sibs have mild features because of the variability of the syndrome. however, even though we could not examine most of the patients' sibs for this study, they are under the medical supervision of the authors working in the village. no major malformations are known and all the married sibs are fertile. another possibility may be that the syndrome has a more complex inheritance. an observa- tion which may be in favour of such a possibility is that five of the seven probands' mothers had hormonal treatment at the begin- ning of the pregnancy. this may be particularly relevant since in all cases but one the treatment was given only during the pregnancy of the affected child. it can be envisaged that the risk of developing the syndrome exists both for homozygotes and heterozygotes of an unknown ar s * )bbbbb ot f ja s o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ zlotogora, dagan, ganen, abu-libdeh, ben-neriah, cohen gene mutation, the possibility of developing the clinical syndrome being high in the people who inherit two copies of the abnormal gene but also existing in the heterozygotes. heterozy- gotes will be affected only if additional factors are present, such as hormonal treatment at the beginning of the pregnancy. a similar situation has been reported which explains the relatively high frequency of hirschsprung disease among the mennonites. in this isolate, both homozy- gotes and heterozygotes for a mutation in the endothelin-b receptor gene have a high risk of being affected with hirschsprung disease. the risk is higher for the homozygotes ( %) than for the heterozygotes ( %) since the mutation is only one of the risk factors for the development of hirschsprung disease. temtamy s, mckusick v. the genetics of hand malforma- tions. birth defects ; : - . on line mendelian inheritance in man (tm). center for medical genetics, johns hopkins university (baltimore, md) and national center of biotechnology information, national library of medicine (bethesda, md), . glanz a, fraser cf. spectrum of anomalies in fanconi anaemia. med genet ; : - . kwee ml, van der kleij jm, van essen aj, et al. an atypical case of fanconi anemia in eldery siblings. am med genet ; : - . verloes a, le merrer m, davin jc, et al. the orocraniodig- ital syndrome of juberg and hayward. med genet ; : - . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, et al. a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung disease. cell ; : - . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ the society of american archivists d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e r v i c e a w a r d the society of american archivists welcomes nominations for the distinguished service award. the organization nominated should have achieved distinction in one or more of the following ways: demonstrably contributing to archival theory and the development of new archival practices. serving its constituency in an outstanding fashion. showing extraordinary ingenuity and resourcefulness in improving efficiency of operations or improving methods of work. going well beyond the normal performance requirements expected of an archival agency and so being an incentive to others. publishing exemplary and meritorious finding aids, collection guides, statements of available service, and the like. developing over a period of years an archival program of such depth and scope as to warrant especial recognition. since the first award in , five institutions have been selected: north carolina department of archives and history maryland hall of records state historical society of wisconsin colorado division of state archives and public records pennsylvania division of archives and manuscripts for nomination forms one should write to robert m. war- ner, secretary, society of american archivists, michigan historical collections, rackham bldg., ann arbor, mich. . all nominations must be received by august, i , . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril wanted program suggestions society of american archivists th annual meeting october -november , columbus, ohio program committee herman j. viola, chairman robert l. clark, jr. albert leisinger, jr. frank b. evans andrea lentz shonnie finnegan mary c. lethbridge donald f. harrison donald mccoy philip p. mason program planning for next year's annual meeting is underway. chairman viola and the committee invite all saa members to make suggestions par- ticularly in the areas of • innovations in format • new topics • possible participants • specific themes and papers please send all communications concerning the program to dr. herman j. viola chairman, society of american archivists program committee prologue, room -e, national archives building pennsylvania ave. at eighth st. n.w., washington, d.c. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes clark w. nelson, editor n e w products & data patterns on glass new techniques for placing decorative and functional imagery on glass surfaces have been developed by eastman kodak co. the announce- ment of the new technique tells how minute, sharp details can be placed on almost any glass surface—including the front surfaces of mirrors. the basic process involves the use of an epoxy paint or ink, a paint solvent, and photosensitive resist. the results are said to be often quite beauti- ful and should broaden the field of glass decorating. it is expected that the process will be of extreme interest to exhibit designers as well as glass fabricators and decorators. kodak has decided to make the new procedures freely available to anyone interested in using them. accord- ing to kodak, it is possible to inlay the image etched in glass with a vari- ety of colored paints, plastics or ceramic-type materials. additional effects can be produced by edge lighting the etched images. backlight- ing of painted images in the silvering on back of mirrors is another pos- sibility. a variety of interesting effects may also be produced with a mirror by selective etching the silvered reflective mirror back using nor- mal photofabrication procedures and etching patterns on the front glass surface of the mirror using the new techniques. in this manner, depth relationships can be produced where the major subject would be in the foreground and the scenery would be in the background. the possible variety of effects which can be produced by these procedures according to kodak is limited only by one's imagination. additional information about this new technique can be obtained by contacting photofabrication sales, eastman kodak co., state street, rochester, new york . demonstration and instruction on how to use the new procedure can also be arranged through photofabrication sales. microfilm catalogs in a step toward meeting the problem of badly deteriorating card cata- logs, the new york public library has begun an experiment to deter- mine the feasibility of putting the present and prospective catalogs of its research libraries on microfilm. the council on library resources, contributions to this department should be addressed to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo clinic/foundation, rochester, minn. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes inc., has made a $ , grant toward the project and is also assist- ing in a consultive capacity. the physical condition of the main pub- lic catalog of the research libraries of the new york public library has been of concern for some years. a study indicated that , ,- of the then million cards contained in the heavily used catalog were in need of replacement. conversion of the retrospective card catalog, following rehabilitation, to machine-readable form for book publication was considered. further investigation, supported in large part by the council, resulted in a report in which some other al- ternatives were considered. in the first part of the present experiment the usefulness of microfilm reproduction of a segment of the public catalog is being tested. among the factors for consideration are: user acceptability, mechanical feasibility of the microfilm readers, and the means by which this service can be administered by the staff. the second part of the experiment will deal with the use of microfilm in production of the authority file for an automated prospective catalog. the third phase will investigate the use of microfilm for monthly cumulative cata- log supplements of the prospective catalog and will evaluate ease of access to them in this form by the staff and by the public. security photo systems eastman kodak co. has introduced two new super systems specifically designed to fill a pressing need common to many institutions—security— either on an "as needed" basis or on a time-lapse basis where a frame is exposed at predetermined intervals of to seconds. two new super , black-and-white films, kodak mfx film and kodak mfa film, created specifically for security purposes, as well as the signing of distributors who will offer a total-service package, were also announced. designated the kodak monitor super camera and kodak analyst super camera, the new units are priced at less than $ and $ , respectively, thus bringing this important security measure within reach of small concerns vulnerable to robbery, burglary, or pilferage. similarly, the analyst super camera, with its programable time-lapse intervals, will find widespread use not only in security applications but also in research studies. among the many features offered by both new cameras are the following: automatic exposure; to mm. f/ . zoom lens; end of film indicator; battery operated; a.c. convertor (optional); and zone or scale focusing. both the monitor and analyst cameras are supplied with a sound-absorbent box, mounting bracket, and an ingenious sighting mirror that aids in aiming the cameras. the monitor camera comes with a -foot remote-control cord that also can be used on the analyst camera. if the cameras are not to be battery powered, a -volt con- verter for a.c. operation is available as an option, as is a radio-control unit. the new kodak mfa film, available in -foot cartridges ( , frames), was designed for use in both new cameras, whereas the new kodak mfx film, available in -foot cartridges ( , frames) was de- signed for use in the analyst camera. kodak mfx film is a particularly significant advancement as it is the first super film created specifically d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist <no october for time-lapse photography. it can be used to film periods ranging from y hours to hours ( /̂ days)—on a single cartridge that will run % minutes at normal projection speeds. further, kodak mfx film is coated on thin estar-ah base, so that feet of this film will fit a stan- dard-size super cartridge. another advantage of both new films is that they can be processed rapidly to a negative for making prints or reversal processed to produce an image suitable for projection. the total service provided by distributors of kodak security products will include survey- ing the concerned store, factory, bank, etc., for its photographic needs; selling, installing and maintaining the camera system and the appropriate film; storing the exposed film; processing the film; providing selected prints on a request basis; and providing general photographic service. kodak has also made available a -page data book that contains infor- mation on the use of the new super equipment for security and sur- veillance photography as well as information for proper super photog- raphy. the booklet presents detailed information on the steps necessary for surveying a given area to determine its security photography requirements. important considerations such as the number of cameras required, their placement, the area covered by the lens, and the lighting conditions are discussed. in addition, basic information on processing and print making is included for those interested in processing their own security films. the y - x -inch book contains illustrations and several charts and graphs. the new data book is available for $i from eastman kodak co., department , rochester, n.y. . ask for kodak publication no. p- . delamination vera dadic and tatjana ribkin describe their "techniques of delam- inating polyethylene laminates" beginning on page of restaurator, vol. , no. ( ). their article also covers the delamination of cel- lulose acetate documents, both those using adhesive and those without. the abstract of the article is as follows: the article describes experience in delaminating cellulose acetate and polyethylene laminates, stressing the delamination of the latter. polyethylene laminates can be delaminated at c. because polyethylene does not dissolve in any known solvent at room temperature. from the wide range of solvents, the authors chose benzene and decalyne. having compared the complexity of the delamination of polyethylene lam- inates with that of cellulose acetate laminates, the authors conclude that they are approximately equally difficult. much simpler is the delamination of cellulose acetate laminates with paste. the solvents mentioned do not damage paper. some inks smudge more readily in acetone and alcohol than in decalyne and benzene. the delamination is always ac- companied by the ablation of a very thin surface layer of the printing ink (this phenom- enon is the basis of the restoration technique called «print transfer*), but the prob- ability of mechanical damage to documents does not depend on whether they are polyethylene or cellulose acetate laminates. the article concludes that it is in every respect possible to delaminate the polyethylene and cellulose acetate laminates. microfilm book cradle those involved with microfilming know the difficulty that books pre- sent. the few cradles that are available to hold volumes flat still make d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes the microfilming task cumbersome and slow. micro-scan systems, inc., south main st., pearl river, n.y. , have introduced their model book cradle which should make the filming of books more convenient. the cradle employs two friction surface platforms, one for each side of the book. each platform is equipped with a completely independent, four-coil spring suspension. according to micro-scan, the number of pages on one side or the other of a book is irrelevant. both sides will be held completely flat against the cradle's glass top. the independent suspension automatically adjusts each platform's height as the book's pages are turned. the focus remains constant with no need for adjust- ment. the cradle handles books up to " x " x ". it is con- structed of heavy gauge steel and is inches high, i/ inches wide, and inches deep. the unit weighs pounds and sells for $ . oversize flat file box among those producing lightweight storage containers for oversize materials is mr. boxman of america corp., southwest fifth ct., pompano beach, fla. . this firm offers wide-area flat files in a variety of sizes. these include: i/ " x i i/ " x ", " x " x ", / " x / " x ", " x " x ", and i/ " x / " x ". they range in price from $ . to $ . per box. originally designed for stor- ing large art works, negatives, etc., the wide-area flat files are made of -pound or -pound marbleized corrugated board. they are stack- able and have a centerfold lid with indexing space on it. the files are reinforced on all four edges and come with a cutout handhold for easy carrying. dividers are available in each size to accommodate smaller documents. xerox xerox business products group, dept. , xerox sq., rochester, n.y. , has introduced a model copier. the unit is a floor model book copier that takes less space than the / . the new copier is capable of automatically copying (duplexing) on both sides of the paper. within the machine, two paper trays accommodate a variety of paper sizes. for duplexing, the original is placed on the platen in the usual way, the start button depressed, and the finished one-sided copies are fed into a second tray. the second original is then placed on the platen, the button is depressed, and the image is produced on the reverse side of the sheet. a control allows one-sided copying to be done. according to xerox, the edge-mounted flat platen ensures distortionless copying of bound volumes. toner is supplied from a cartridge capable of produc- ing about , copies. copier speed is about one every seconds. when duplexing is not needed, the two-tray system permits stocking different size or different color papers that may be frequently needed. the trays each hold up to sheets of -pound paper. one tray can be loaded while the other is in use. a light-original button permits copying low-contrast originals. according to xerox, the model "brings a new richness of density and contrast to the reproduction of solids and half tones." the minimum monthly rental charge is $ , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c+j> october ! $ of which is for equipment use and the $ for a minimum number of copies at /j.c each. used microfilm equipment with the proliferation of microfilm equipment, several concerns have undertaken to recondition existing equipment for resale. alan gordon industries, inc., a north cahuenga blvd., north hollywood, calif. , offers a variety of reconditioned units. these include readers, printers, cameras, etc. some sample prices include: recordak microfile planetary cameras model c , $ , ; dukane aperture card reader, $ ; and recordak model mpc microfilm reader, $ . another firm recon- ditioning such equipment is microsystems, inc., barnum ave., bridgeport, conn. . they offer such equipment as m reader printer model c cartridge, $ ; micro design a microfiche reader, $ ; and an ncr com reader, $ . both firms feature a -month war- ranty. microsystems also offers a i-month trial rental on its units. pro- vided the type of equipment is available, one can save to percent of the list price by investing in reconditioned units. technical mailbag microfilm storage containers information has been received from r. w. henn, kodak research laboratories, relating to the protection of microfilm from blemish forma- tion. he notes that kodak agrees with the current recommendations of good storage conditions—temperatures under f. and percent rh—as an important aspect of preventing microspots. kodak has also recommended the addition of a small quantity of potassium iodide (o.a g/ ) to microfilm fixing baths. this has been routinely done in kodak processing laboratories since . following recommendations by the national bureau of standards that cans would be the preferred method of storage, the eastman kodak co. designed a square metal can specifi cally for the storage of microfilm. these cans may be purchased through the business systems markets division of the eastman kodak co. a plastic container is being designed as an alternative and will presumably be announced in the near future. conservation proceedings george m. cunha, conservator of the boston athenaeum, has recently indicated that the athenzeum has published the proceedings of its seminar on the conservation of library and archival materials. the seminar was held in the spring of the year and included a survey of mod- ern conservation techniques along with laboratory demonstrations of them. orders for the volume will be filled upon request. the price is $ . the work is available from the library of the boston athenaeum, beacon st., boston, mass. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes helen t. finneran, editor society of american archivists minutes of the council new orleans, louisiana april , the meeting was called to order by president philip p. mason at : a.m. in his suite at the jung hotel. present: charles e. lee, vice president; f. gerald ham, secretary; a. k. johnson, jr., treasurer; harold t. pinkett, editor; and council members frank b. evans, c. herbert finch, james b. rhoads, wilfred i. smith, robert m. warner, and dorman h. winfrey. council member elizabeth e. hamer was absent owing to the death of her husband. on a motion by mr. warner, seconded by mr. smith, the minutes of the council meeting of december , , were approved as circulated and corrected. the secretary reported that returns from the spring mailing had been coming in at a satisfactory rate. the mailing included a detailed ques- tionnaire, which will provide data for a new edition of the directory of . .. members, and a statistical profile to be used by the committee for the 's, for committee assignments, and for other purposes. he re- ported that membership for the past months had shown a gradual increase; nearly , members and subscribers, including contributing members, are now on the society's rolls. secretary ham also pointed out that because of the recent addition of a part-time clerical employee, his office had been able to resume membership development activities and to handle members' requests and inquiries more promptly. in commenting on society placement service activities, the secretary noted that the number of available jobs had markedly decreased while the number of applicants for positions had greatly increased, indicating that the generally depressed conditions affecting the academic marketplace are affecting the archival profession as well. the secretary then dis- tributed a mockup of a proposed brochure listing available archival education and training courses in the united states and canada. he requested council members to review the brochure carefully and to send him their comments. the council instructed the secretary to insert in the brochure a statement to the effect that at present the saa does not accredit or endorse any such programs, institutes, or courses. news for the next issue should be sent to miss helen t. finneran, social and economic records division, national archives, washington, d.c. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o the american archivist c-*i> october the treasurer summarized saa finances as of april , - re- ceipts placed in the general operating account totaled $ , , disburse- ments came to $ , . , and cash reserves were $ , . . based on these figures, the treasurer anticipated that society expenditures for the year will be well within the approved budget. the editor reported that procedural details involved in working with a new printer and changes in postal regulations had delayed mailing the january issue of the american archivist; as these problems had been worked out and copy for the april issue had been sent to the printer, mr. pinkett hoped that forthcoming issues of the journal would be more nearly on schedule. the editor stated that he was less dependent on papers given at the saa annual meeting; he has been receiving more and more useful manuscripts on archival topics from historians, but there has continued to be a dearth of manuscripts dealing with basic archival principles and methodology. mr. pinkett also stated that after reviewing current policy on the commercial reprinting of articles orig- inally published in the journal, the editorial board had raised the com- mercial reprint fee from $ to $ . the fee will apply to commercially distributed publications only. the editor also distributed a progress report on the index to volumes - of the journal, prepared by as- sociate editor mary jane dowd. in miss dowd's estimation the index when composed will contain - pages (text only) of camera-ready copy. a more accurate estimate could not be made because of the im- possibility of determining the number of typed lines on the index cards. specifications inviting bids on offset printing and binding will not be submitted to printers until the index is composed by the government printing office. the council instructed the officers to make all neces- sary arrangements for printing and distributing the index. mr. pinkett then noted that the society had to pay a special postal fee for enclosing the contents to the ig o volume of the journal as a separate in the octo- ber issue. the council asked the editor to study methods by which the annual table of contents could be incorporated into the october issue, thereby avoiding a special mailing fee. the president commented on the interim reports recently submitted by committee chairmen, noting that although the reports showed in- creased activity by some committees, too many committees still thought their main task was preparing a session for the annual meeting. mr. finch noted reports indicating that some committees wanted more spe- cific instructions from the council. president mason stated that he would send committee chairmen copies of interim reports to inform them of activities of other committees, provide for better cooperation among committees, and prevent unnecessary overlap of activities. the pres- ident also announced a luncheon meeting of committee chairmen for tues- day, october , , in san francisco. he reported briefly on the work of the committee for the 's, which is preparing a planning report with recommendations for the coming decade. at the march meeting of the committee most of the eight subcommittees had presented d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes interim reports dealing with saa organization and structure; the com- mittee system; finances; publications, particularly the american ar- chivist; relations with related professional organizations and the federal government; and saa-sponsored meetings and symposia. other sub- committees will deal with membership involvement, education and train- ing, and research and development. the president stated that these reports had been thoughtful and suggestive; the committee has been func- tioning on schedule and will present an interim report to the membership at the saa annual meeting. president mason also presented the report of the publications committee concerning a proposed brochure, the records of scientific and technological achievement. the report commended members of the former committee on scientific and tech- nological manuscripts for their effort in preparing the brochure but suggested that certain changes be made in the text before final committee approval is given for publication. a motion to approve the publications committee's report was approved. the secretary was directed to for- ward the report to maynard brichford requesting that changes be made in line with committee suggestions and that when the manuscript is resubmitted to the committee, publication cost estimates and suggestions on how to fund costs also be included. the president reported on several activities of the committee on paper research. ( ) the research director, william k. wilson, has completed his report on interim specifications for permanent/durable papers for "carbon" copies. his report has been revised but not substantially changed by the committee chairman, gordon l. williams; revised speci- fications will be circulated to committee members for their critical review before the june committee meeting. if the specifications are approved at that meeting, they will be presented for council approval in october and will then be published. the matter of national bureau of stan- dards endorsement still has to be worked out. ( ) mr. wilson is proceed- ing with tests that will result in specifications for permanent/durable writing papers; he will also be testing file folders during the year. ( ) messrs. williams, mason, and ham met on april , , to draw up a request for proposal for testing the permanence and durability of elec- trostatic copy images and paper. the request for proposal will be submitted to several research laboratories including the nbs because the committee thinks other research laboratories should be involved in the paper research project. mr. rhoads noted that the saa brochure and the prospectus on the project state that all work will be done by the nbs. the council agreed that in future fundraising solicitation, prospective donors would be in- formed that the committee might use research laboratories other than the nbs for certain phases of the proposed research. mr. rhoads also called to the council's attention an october conference in augusta, ga., on paper permanence and related topics. he has tentatively accepted an invitation to participate in the conference sponsored jointly by the american paper institute and the technical association of pulp and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o the american archivist c*i> october paper industries. a motion by mr. warner, seconded by mr. evans, to appoint mr. rhoads as the official representative of the saa and the archival profession at the meeting was approved. herman kahn, chairman of the professional standards committee, sub- mitted the written report on criteria for honorary membership in the society that the council had requested at its september , , meeting. mr. kahn listed the following criteria: ( ) the nominee must be some- one whose principal career has been in the archival or a closely related field. ( ) the nominee must have achieved extraordinary distinction in his field because of his leadership and contributions. ( ) the nom- inee should be close to retirement age. ( ) nominations should be limited to citizens of the united states and canada. ( ) the number of honorary members should not exceed five. a motion by mr. lee, seconded by mr. warner, to approve mr. kahn's report and adopt the above criteria for selecting honorary members was approved. it was moved by mr. rhoads and seconded by mr. finch that the council reexamine the current procedure of creating a separate financial reserve for life and honorary members and that at the next council meeting the finance committee report on alternative ways to administer funding such memberships. the motion was approved. president mason reported on the march meeting and other ac- tivities of the program committee. during the coming annual meet- ing committee meetings will be held on tuesday afternoon, october ; they will be opened to all interested saa members after : p.m. on wednesday morning there will be a general session to discuss the interim report of the committee for the 's. during each of the remaining four sessions five concurrent meetings—two of a general nature and three devoted to special areas and interested groups— will be offered. joint sessions with the american library and the oral history associations and three sessions on records management will be held. mr. evans moved that the preliminary report of the program committee be adopted, provided that the committee review ( ) the pro- posed topics of the three records management sessions and ( ) the program on the "local historical society and local records" to be pre- sented by the california historical society with a view to broadening its focus. the motion was seconded by mr. winfrey and was approved. the president informed the council that the finance committee had met the previous day with william eastman, chairman of the local arrangements committee- , and commended mr. eastman for the thorough work he and his committee had done in planning the san francisco meeting. the finance committee believes that the cost of attending this year's meeting will probably be substantially higher than that of attending previous meetings. the committee had, therefore, approved a $ registration fee and had directed mr. eastman to keep other costs as low as possible. the council endorsed the committee's recommendation to keep registration and meal fees as low as possible and authorized it to review the final registration and other fees recom- mended by the local arrangements committee. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes ° the council recessed for the annual saa-oah joint luncheon at : a.m. and reconvened at : p.m. the first item of old business concerned mr. rhoads's previously circu- lated proposal calling for more effective support of the saa endowment fund. the report was based on the premise that there are several saa members who, if property approached, might donate, either now or on a deferred basis, a minimum of $ , . the proposal outlined the steps the society should take to implement a plan of action and included a list of potential donors. following discussion the council suggested that the president appoint a special committee to implement the proposal and to proceed with fundraising activities. the editor, as requested at the previous council meeting, presented a proposed revision of rates for advertising in the american archivist. to bring current rates more into line with those charged by similar journals mr. pinkett recommended increasing the cost of a half-page advertisement from $ to $ and that of a full-page ad from $ to $ . advertisers would continue to receive a percent discount for running the same advertisement in consecutive issues of the journal. a motion to make the new rates effective with the october issue was seconded and approved, and the secretary was requested to draw up an attractive one-sheet prospectus for advertisers, to furnish the advertis- ing editor and the local arrangements committee chairman with a list of potential advertisers, and to prepare a covering letter for the pros- pectus. the third item of old business was the cost-estimate report for the automated cumulative indexing of the american archivist on an annual basis. according to the report prepared by mr. rhoads it would cost between $ and $ , to convert an index for volumes - ( - ) into a machine-readable format. in addition it would currently cost approximately $ , to update the index annually. these cost figures, mr. rhoads pointed out, do not include abstracting and prepar- ing index entries for conversion to machine-readable form or editing the published lists. acting on the report, the council requested mr. pinkett and miss dowd to consult john butler of the nars staff on the prob- lems and technicalities involved in automating the index and to provide the council with additional information, if requested. at the previous council meeting it had been agreed that the editor's budget allocation would be reviewed following receipt of the printing bill for the january issue of the journal. though in line with the current allocation, the bill for the january issue included some nonrecurring costs. conse- quently, the council thought a more realistic appraisal of the allocation could be made after receiving the bill for the july issue and ac- cordingly postponed this budget review until its next meeting. at its last meeting the council, acting on mr. rhoads's proposal, had requested the president to explore the possibility of forming a joint com- mittee representing the american historical association, the organiza- tion of american historians, the american association for state and local history, and the society to deal with problems common to the historian and the archivist. mr. mason reported that william t. alder- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril io the american archivist c+j> october son, the aaslh director, had expressed interest in such a committee; the aha council had referred mr. rhoads's request for such a commit- tee to the oah-aha joint committee on the historian and the federal government; and the oah had recently created a special archival com- mittee on which the saa secretary would be serving. the president also said he would continue to pursue the matter of such a joint commit- tee. the first item of new business was the report of the nominations com- mittee concerning the council vacancy created by william benedon's resignation. to fill his unexpired term, the committee nominated bar- bara fisher, archivist of the university of oregon. mr. evans's motion to close nominations was seconded by mr. smith and approved; a motion by mr. warner to accept the report of the nominations committee was seconded by mr. winfrey and passed unanimously. the secretary was directed to inform miss fisher of her election to the council. next the council considered the selection of a site for the saa's annual meeting. following the secretary's review of invitations received by his office and council discussion of membership distribution, transportation conveniences, and accommodations costs, it was moved by mr. finch that the society accept the invitation of the city of toronto. the mo- tion was seconded by mr. evans and approved. the secretary presented the next item of new business, the finance committee's recommended fee schedule for nonmember use of the placement newsletter. the committee recommended that nonmembers seeking positions and non- member institutions listing positions be charged $ and $ , respectively, per insertion and that the fee schedule be effective with the september issue. a motion by mr. warner to accept the committee recommenda- tion was seconded by mr. rhoads and approved. a motion by mr. finch, seconded by mr. johnson, that institutions listing notices of ar- chival education and training courses, institutes, and workshops be charged $ per notice was defeated. mr. mason introduced for discussion a letter from the society's rep- resentative on the national archives advisory council, herman kahn. mr. kahn's letter suggested that the council request the bureau of the census, in line with its agreement with the archivist of the united states, to open bureau population schedules for the census. mr. rhoads summarized the legal status of the census records, the history of negotiations between the national archives and the bureau of the cen- sus, and current discussions with the bureau concerning the schedules. after a discussion, the council passed the following resolution, intro- duced by mr. winfrey and seconded by mr. warner: whereas, the society of american archivists (a professional association of about , archivists, manuscript curators, librarians, and records managers and about institu- tional members—chiefly public and private archives and manuscript repositories) de- sires to grant maximum access to documents, subject to necessary limitations to protect privacy and the national security; whereas, census population schedules provide unique and significant social indica- tors, such as family size, occupation, education, and place of birth, useful in studying the characteristics and mobility of the american people; d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes whereas, the archivist of the united states and the director of the bureau of the census agreed in that population schedules be opened to general research after years; and whereas, granting access under that agreement to earlier population schedules, which contain far more detailed data than the schedules, has apparently not been detrimental to any person; be it resolved, that the society petitions the general services administration and its national archives and records service and the department of commerce and its bureau of the census to grant researchers access to the population schedules on june , , years after the census day for the decennial of , in accordance with the agreement of . the secretary was instructed to send the resolution to the archivist of the united states and the director of the bureau of the census. president mason informed the council that the profession had lost one of its most valued friends in the passing of philip m. hamer on april , . mr. hamer, a founding member, fellow, and president of the society, will long be remembered for the unparalleled service he rendered to the scholarly community. mr. finch moved that the secretary com- municate to mrs. hamer the council's deepest sympathy and profound regret. the motion was seconded by mr. lee and approved. mr. rhoads called the council's attention to a bill (s. ) introduced on march , , by senator frank church of idaho. the church amendment would modify the tax law, allowing the donor of pa- pers, if he is the creator and provided he is not a public official, to de- duct up to percent of the fair market value of his papers as a charitable contribution. following discussion mr. smith moved that the president ( ) inform senator church of the vital interest of the archival profession in the bill as a means to encourage the donation of historically valuable papers to archival repositories and ( ) request that the society be repre- sented at hearings on the bill and that mr. rhoads circulate a copy of the bill, together with any relevant commentary or information from mr. rhoads and mrs. hamer, to council members for possible further action at their october meeting. the motion was seconded by mr. evans and approved. the president informed the council that selecting a new secretary has placed a formidable burden on the nominations committee and sug- gested that two council members be appointed to assist the committee. mr. evans moved that the president be empowered to appoint two coun- cil members to perform that task. the motion was seconded by mr. smith and approved. president mason then appointed mr. rhoads and secretary ham to assist the committee. the treasurer reported that last year mrs. hamer gave the society a generous gift to be used as the officers and council members deemed best. messrs. johnson and ham suggested using the money to honor the memory of philip m. hamer by providing a scholarship to enable a qualified student to enroll in an accredited archives administration course. mr. rhoads moved that the president appoint three members of the awards committee to develop criteria and selection procedures for awarding the scholarship and that he submit a report for council d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist <nj> october consideration at the october meeting. the motion was seconded by mr. warner and approved. the meeting was adjourned at : p.m. deaths of members william james van schreeven, former state archivist of the com- monwealth of virginia; on july , , in richmond. born in sioux city, iowa, on march , , he received bachelor's and master's degrees in american history from the university of iowa in and , re- spectively. there also he was elected to phi beta kappa in . from to he did further graduate work in american history at co- lumbia university and the university of london and held a lydia e. roberts traveling fellowship in europe during and . he joined the staff of the national archives as a junior archivist in , became an assistant archivist in , from which he left to become state archivist of virginia in . in this position he was extensively in- volved in programs dealing with varied areas of the state's history. in he was named to the advisory council of the virginia civil war centennial commission, which published the wartime papers of general robert e. lee. he was chairman of the virginia committee on colonial records from to and contributed importantly to the commit- tee's success in locating, listing, and microfilming virginia's colonial records in british repositories. since he had served as general editor of the virginia independence bicentennial commission and as a member of an advisory committee created to assist in compiling and editing the papers of george washington. he was the author of a book- let entitled the conventions and constitutions of virginia, - , and several articles in the american archivist dealing with arrangement and description of archives. from to he was vice president of the society of american archivists and in became a fellow of the society. surveying the work of state archivists several years ago, morris l. radoff expressed the view that van schreeven was directing one of the best archival operations in the best state facility in the country, perhaps, and called him "one of the distinguished members of our pro- gram." national archives and records service office of the archivist james e. o'neill, director of the franklin d. roosevelt library, has been appointed special assistant to the archivist. his first assignment will be surveying reference services given researchers to determine the responsiveness of the present national archives system. william j. stewart, assistant director, will serve as acting director, roosevelt li- brary. a $ , grant from the american philosophical society has been awarded to herman j. viola, editor of prologue: the journal of the na- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes tional archives, to locate, catalog, and compare surviving indian por- traits by charles bird king, a prominent th-century washington artist. most of king's portraits were destroyed in the smithsonian institution fire, but many copies are in public and private hands in the united states and abroad. office of the national archives the national archives has established the center for the documentary study of the american revolution. located in the national archives building, it is almost a "one-stop" center for research relating to the american revolution. the center, with the aid of a -year $ , grant from the ford foundation, is planning a computer-assisted index to the papers of the continental congress, scheduled for completion in . a guide to pre-federal records in the national archives, which should be available before the observance of the nation's bicentennial, is also being prepared. henry bartholomew cox, formerly of the na- tional historical publications commission, has been appointed director of the center. plans are underway for a conference on research in federal records relating to the american indian, to be held at the national archives building, june - , . on the advisory committee for the con- ference, the th in a nars-sponsored series, are francis p. prucha, s.j., professor of american history, marquette university; william t. hagan, acting vice president for academic affairs, state university of new york college at fredonia; and lawrence c. kelly, professor of american history, north texas state university. further information is available from jane f. smith, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . mary m. johnson, an archivist on the na central reference staff, has retired after nearly years of service. recent accessions include records of the president's commission on campus unrest, established to ascertain the causes of discontent and upheaval on american campuses, including transcripts of commission hearings and staff and consultant reports on individual campuses, philoso- phies of higher education, black students, and campus law enforcement. the university task force reports contain notes and published materials from schools encountering severe disturbances in may . also ac- cessioned are records of the commission on obscenity and pornography, consisting of transcripts of commission hearings, research papers, and correspondence that include records of the traffic and distribution and effects panels documenting commission studies and the executive director's office files recording the national debate on pornography in the united states (information concerning restrictions can be obtained from nars); records ( - ) of the department of commerce office of production research and development, which planned and directed the war production board's scientific and engineering research and development work, chiefly correspondence and reports relating to the evaluation of proposals and to projects let out on contract; continuations d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c*j october of series already in the national archives—the final installment of the office files ( -january , ) of secretary of labor w. willard wirtz, general files ( - ) of deputy under secretary millard cass, and correspondence ( ) of assistant secretary for administration leo r. werts; and draft and final versons ( - ) of letters, orders, memo- randums, regulations, and bulletins that document the development of bureau of employment security directives. also accessioned are gen- eral land office records that document public domain disposal, includ- ing reference files ( - ) that relate to land grants to states for schools, agricultural colleges, public buildings, and saline lands; tract books ( - ) for st. stephens, ala., and the principal meridian; regis- ters and indexes of rights-of-way ( - ) for tramroads, railroads, and irrigation projects; dockets of registers and receivers returns of monthly abstracts of land entries ( - ); national forest proclama- tions ( - ); and tax lists ( - ) for oregon and california re- vested lands in oregon. among other recent accessions are maps and plans ( - ) of fort jefferson, fla., compiled by the u.s. army corps of engineers and later transferred to the national park service. constructed on garden key in , the fort was used as a federal prison during the civil war and was abandoned years later. also accessioned are the first motion picture films ( - ) received from the department of labor, in- cluding "harvest of shame," a i cbs television special on migrant labor in the united states and films that depict departmental activities and contain televised interviews with departmental officials; "thomas edison" donated by james g. cook, a film which augments the — coverage of edison in the ford film collection, showing edison in discussing his work; and "power and the land" ( ) from the office of the secretary of agriculture, a film produced by the u.s. film service for the rural electrification administration and directed by joris ivens. three series of motion picture films ( - ) are being accessioned from the naval photographic center. included are newsreel outtakes and edited commercial newsreel footage relating to world war ii and the korean action, captured enemy footage showing naval activities during world war ii, and generally unedited footage from the navy central motion picture file. recent national archives publications include the administration of modern archives: a select bibliographic guide and general in- formation leaflets nos. , , and , respectively, select picture list: united states navy ships, - ; select list of sound recordings: voices of world war ii, - ; and select picture list: indians in the united states. federal population censuses, - , has been revised. records recently microfilmed by the national archives are despatches from united states consuls in amsterdam, netherlands, - ( rolls); internal revenue assessment lists for indiana, - ( rolls); selected photographs of franklin d. roosevelt, - ( roll); min- utes, trial notes, and rolls of attorneys of the u.s. circuit court for d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the southern district of new york, - ( rolls); and the terri- torial papers of the united states: the territory of wisconsin, - ( rolls). washington national records center the archives branch has accessioned record copies of bureau of land management land patents ( - ) for the public domain in ari- zona, california, colorado, idaho, kansas, montana, nebraska, nevada, new mexico, north dakota, oklahoma, oregon, south dakota, utah, washington, and wyoming. land patents are the documents by which the federal government transferred land titles to homesteaders and other private persons. the branch had previously accessioned case files of land entry papers and documents establishing entitlements to patents for land in the same states during that period and tract books for all of the states except california. also accessioned are records of the bureau of home economics relating to what is believed to be the first cookbook published in braille, the edition of the bureau's aunt sammy's radio recipes revised, by ruth van deman and fanny walker yeat- man. regional archives the federal records centers have begun a campaign to ensure that all records in their custody—totaling over million cubic feet—are assigned retention periods. at the centers records having archival value are maintained in archives branches; records of temporary value are peri- odically disposed of after predetermined periods. cl the national ar- chives is circulating to federal agencies proposed microfilm regulations that specify standards for film, filming, processing, and storing. issued in title , chapter of the code of federal regulations as part of the general services administration's federal property management regulations, they will authorize the disposal of permanent records, pro- vided that adequate microfilm copies are maintained. waltham, mass.: the archives branch has accessioned records ( - ) of u.s. district and circuit courts for the districts of massachu- setts, connecticut, and vermont, including dockets; minutes; term pa- pers; final, bankruptcy, prize, and naturalization records; "old," criminal, admiralty, equity, law, and civil case files; and records of several u.s. commissioners. chicago: the archives branch has accessioned records on bankrupt- cies and civil and criminal actions from the u.s. district court, eastern district of illinois, including files ( - ) of the east st. louis and danville courts and files ( - ) of the circuit court; records ( - ) of the u.s. district court, eastern district of wisconsin, milwau- kee, including some records that relate to the confiscation act, july , , and admiralty cases, - ; and records of the u.s. district court, northern district of indiana, including those of courts in ham- mond, fort wayne, and south bend that contain data on court opera- tions, bankruptcy, and criminal and civil actions. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c*s october denver: the archives branch has accessioned general land office records documenting the survey and sale of federal land in utah, in- cluding most of the utah surveyor general's correspondence ( - ) and registers and abstracts of the salt lake city, - , and the vernal, - , land offices. the latter records, useful in locating names of early settlers and in defining backgrounds of original landhold- ers in the west, include lists describing land allotted in to the uintah, white river, and uncompahgre utes. c. a symposium spon- sored by the society of american archivists, arizona state university, the arizona department of libraries, and the region national ar- chives and records service and archives advisory council was scheduled to be held at arizona state university on october , - invited speakers include richard n. ellis, university of new mexico, to discuss research opportunities in bureau of indian affairs records; james moore, director, nars audiovisual archives division, to describe the audio- visual records in the national archives that relate to posts and forts in the west; and senator barry m. goldwater, to deliver the luncheon address. san francisco: the archives branch has accessioned records ( - ) of the district director of customs, port of san francisco, and the deputy collector for the port of eureka, calif., chiefly correspondence, press-copy books, and indexes and record volumes of the entrance and clearance of vessels engaged in coastal foreign trade. seattle: the archives branch has accessioned records ( - ) of the oregon office of the bureau of land management, including cor- respondence, district land office registers, tract books, applications for donation land claims, and lists of available railroad lands. herbert hoover library an addition to the library, scheduled to be completed this autumn, is proceeding on schedule and has already provided additional space for the museum, which reopened may . franklin d. roosevelt library an addition to the library, scheduled for completion in spring , will provide additional exhibit, stack and research space. approxi- mately half of the cost is being assumed by the eleanor roosevelt me- morial foundation. among recent accessions of the library are an addition to the elbert d. thomas papers donated, with the permission of the thomas family, by the university of utah library, consisting of photographs, drafts of the senator's books, printed and processed materials on lend lease, ma- terial ( ) on greece and turkey, documents about air force targets in germany, certificates of appointment and honorary degrees, corre- spondence and photographs relating to the thomas jefferson memorial, and other correspondence; mm.-nitrate films including "the cabinet's forecast for "; mm. films from james roosevelt's papers, including the nbc news film of mrs. roosevelt's burial; recordings of rexford g. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes » tugwell's interviewing presidential friends and neighbors in georgia, speeches by the president and james roosevelt, and an address by louis howe; and an addition to the samuel i. rosenman papers, including home movies ( ) of roosevelt at warm springs, judge rosenman's trip with governor roosevelt along the erie barge canal, and roosevelt's departure for chicago to accept the presidential nom- ination, d the library is opening joint chiefs of staff and combined chiefs of staff records declassified by joint chiefs memorandum / - , including records in roosevelt's map room and in the harry hopkins papers. churchill-roosevelt messages in the map room papers for , published in the department of state foreign relations volume for the third washington conference and the first quebec conference, were also opened as were some records in the president's official file. c the opening of most of eleanor roosevelt's papers (those through april , ) is scheduled for october . the papers chiefly con- cern the - period when mrs. roosevelt was first lady, but a small part relates to her childhood, marriage, early family life, and her life during her husband's governorship of new york. the second microfilm edition of president roosevelt's , press conferences, based on stenographic notes, has been designed for easy use in modern microfilm readers. originally microfilmed in , it contains formal and informal exchanges with newsmen and "back- ground" and "off-the-record" remarks on rolls of mm. microfilm. each indexed roll covers press conferences for one year and costs $ . the entire set, which covers the - period, can be purchased for $ . further information is available from the library, hyde park, n.y. . harry s. truman library the harry s. truman library institute awarded the $ , tom l. evans research grant for to thomas p. raynor, russian institute, columbia university, for a study of foreign relations, march-june . an examination of the initial statements of the greek-turkish aid pro- gram and the marshall plan was included in the study. the library has recently accessioned jonathan daniels's research notes compiled in preparing his biography of truman, man of independence (philadelphia, ). mr. daniels, who served briefly as presidential press secretary, joined truman's campaign staff in and accompanied him on whistlestop tours across the country. the notes include mr. daniels's interviews with members of the truman administration and truman's associates from boyhood, his early political career as a judge on the jackson county (administrative) court, and his term as u.s. sena- tor from missouri; interviews with truman and clark clifford, white house special counsel, - ; genealogical and other reference ma- terials relating to truman and his family; and extracts from newspapers, magazines, books, and official records concerning the administration. researchers must obtain written permission from mr. daniels to use the records. the library has also received one of the two sets of official, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ĉ > october certified lists of votes of the electoral college for the presidential election. before such lists were sent to the secretary of state. c the library staff has completed a review of white house staff files in the truman papers. now open for research are files of john t. gibson, dallas c. halverstadt, kenneth hechler, charles w. jackson, maj. gen. robert b. landry, david d. lloyd, edwin a. locke, jr., james i. loeb, jr., charles s. murphy, philleo nash, richard i. neu- stadt, spencer r. quick, george j. schoeneman, joseph h. short, stephen j. spingarn, david h. stowe, raymond r. zimmerman, and the office of the assistant to the president relating to truman's unem- ployment relief programs during the recession. dwight d. eisenhower library the addition to the eisenhower museum was opened during the summer. its dedication is scheduled for october , the anniversary of the president's birth. the library has recently received papers ( - ) of william e. robinson, former president and chairman of the board of coca-cola, inc., and a close friend of eisenhower, consisting of appointment books; correspondence with sherman adams, john eisenhower, alfred gruen- ther, sigurd larmon, richard nixon, and others; speeches; scrapbooks; and clippings. most of the material pertains to robinson's associations with eisenhower from to but also covers the publication of eisenhower's crusade in europe, his decision to run for president, and the campaign. the library has also accessioned correspondence, photographs, and diaries, - , of brig. gen. william l. lee, friend and military associate of general eisenhower. the early correspondence and diaries cover the period during which lee was stationed in the philip- pines with then lt. col. dwight eisenhower. john f. kennedy library construction of the library, delayed by the massachusetts bay transit authority's inability to vacate the cambridge site, will begin by october . on may the authority began to plan its move to a location purchased from the penn central railroad. over oral history interviews were opened for research during early , including interviews with winthrop brown, william o. douglas, james farmer, joseph kraft, peter lisagor, george mcghee, wilbur mills, edmund muskie, and leonard reinsch. national historical publications commission at its may , , meeting the commission gave continuing support to documentary publication enterprises. five of the projects are supported by a ford foundation grant: the adams papers, massachu- setts historical society; the papers of benjamin franklin, yale uni- versity; the papers of alexander hamilton, columbia university press; the papers of thomas jefferson, princeton university; and the papers of james madison, university of virginia. the other six projects are d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes financed from appropriated funds: the letters of william cullen bry- ant, tusculum college; the papers of john c. calhoun, south carolina department of archives and history; the papers of jefferson davis, rice university; the papers of ulysses s. grant, southern illinois university; the correspondence of james k. polk, vanderbilt university; and the papers of booker t. washington, university of maryland. the com- mission also endorsed two long-term enterprises—a project at cornell university to assemble and list copies of the marquis de lafayette's papers as the first step in a major documentary publication project and a commission-sponsored project to collect and edit benjamin h. latrobe's papers. c. recently completed and released to the public by participating repositories in the commission's microfilm publication program were: bexar archives, - ( rolls), university of texas at austin; robert goodloe harper papers ( rolls), maryland historical society; henry demarest lloyd papers ( rolls), state historical society of wisconsin; david bailie warden papers ( rolls), maryland historical society; daniel webster papers ( rolls), dartmouth college; and an- drew d. white papers ( rolls), cornell university. office of the federal register a new feature providing brief, easy-to-read descriptions of the federal regulations printed in each edition was introduced in the may , , issue of the daily federal register. the "highlights of this issue" sec- tion will assist the news media and consumer-oriented publications in pinpointing and disseminating information. office of records management two new records management handbooks have been issued. in- formation retrieval systems ( pages) describes different information retrieval applications in government offices and other organizations. the systems range from simple, manually searched coordinate card in- dexes to sophisticated computerized data bases involving telecommuni- cations networks. each system description includes a brief narrative statement covering the objective, background, and methods and equip- ment adopted and also a flow chart illustrating input processing, storage, and search and retrieval operations. the other, microform retrieval equipment guide ( pages), provides detailed guidance on the selection of microfilm readers, reader printers, and other microform display and reference equipment. it defines the critical factors in selecting the vari- ous types of microfilm equipment used in information retrieval and then describes the equipment of various manufacturers in terms of these critical factors. separate comparative charts are included for conven- tional roll film, motorized roll film, microfiche and microfilm jacket, and aperture card readers and reader printers. federal personnel can pur- chase copies of either from the federal supply service depot serving their office. others may purchase them, at $ . and c respectively, from the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office, washington, d.c. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t h e american a r c h i v i s t < ^ o c t o b e r manuscript division, library of congress among recent acquisitions of the division are the journals of benja- min brown french ( - ), new hampshire state legislator, assistant clerk of the u.s. house of representatives, - , clerk of the house, - ; associate of samuel f. b. morse in the operation of the magnetic telegraph co., - ; and commissioner of public buildings, - , - . t h e journals cover the period - and fill approxi- mately , pages, presenting a panoramic view of life in the united states for over years. french knew presidents, from andrew jack- son to ulysses s. grant, and men of both high and low station move in and out of this significant narrative. permission to consult the french journals must be sought through the chief of the manuscript division. t h e library has recently received the final segment of the papers of journalist carl w. ackerman ( - ), who first gained public notice as the united press war correspondent for the central powers, - . ackerman began his donations to the library in , and the present acquisition includes most of his papers. especially valuable to the his- torian are his files and scrapbooks kept while a war correspondent, but his years as dean of the columbia university school of journalism are also well documented in this collection of over , items. t h r e e other significant th-century collections have recently been acquired by the library. these include the papers of rep. ross a. collins of mississippi, consisting of , items documenting mr. col- lins' legislative career, especially his endeavor to control military ex- penditures. t h e division has also acquired the main body of the papers of herbert feis, economist and state department officer. t h e feis papers number some , items consisting of extensive correspondence and material relating to his academic life and government service. a third collection, small but important, is the papers of frederick j. libby, executive secretary of the national society for the prevention of war. this collection includes journals, correspondence, and lec- tures relating to his work in the peace movement. t h r o u g h the generosity of an anonymous donor, the library was recently able to purchase a major addition to the sigmund freud col- lection, letters and four cards ( - ) from freud to carl jung. c another major group of freud materials recently acquired is an im- portant segment of freud family papers. among these are the "braut- briefe," a series of almost , letters ( - ) exchanged between freud and martha bernays during their engagement, and the "reisebriefe," over letters ( - ) written from freud to martha during his various travels. other freud-bernays family correspondence spans the dates - . among the almost , items of the freud family gift are numerous exchanges between freud and other correspondents from until his death. important among these are a series of letters ( - ) to freud from his close associate, the viennese psychoanalyst hanns sachs, and over letters ( - ) from freud to one of his d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes closest friends, the berlin physician wilhelm fleiss. most of the sig- mund freud collection is closed for research purposes until . the october issue of the quarterly journal of the library of congress contains a comprehensive report on acquisitions of the division for . other federal government naval history division the division has prepared an annotated checklist of unpublished naval histories located in one segment of the naval records collection of the office of naval records and library (national archives record group ). most of the histories described in the -page checklist re- late to the activities of u.s. naval commands in the world war i period, but some additional topics during the - period are also covered. copies of the checklist may be obtained by writing the direc- tor of naval history, building , washington navy yard, washington, d.c. . smithsonian institution the archives has accessioned, processed, and described the papers ( - ) of wilhelm h. dall, naturalist, paleontologist, and honorary curator of the united states coast survey, united states geological survey, and the division of mollusks of the united states national mu- seum, relating to the western union telegraph expedition to alaska ( - ) and the alaskan boundary disputes of and ; the ar- chives has also accessioned, processed, and described the records ( - ) of the division of mollusks of the united states national museum, principally outgoing letters ( - ) of dall, curator paul bartsch, and assistant curator harold a. rhaeder. the papers ( - 's) of rockwell kent, painter, illustrator, writer and political activist were acquired by the archives of american art (now part of the smithsonian). kent's correspondents include a number of artists: philip evergood, stuart davis, arthur b. davies, marsden hartley, kenneth hayes miller, alfred stieglitz, and union organizers, writers, explorers and political figures; other papers of painters, sculp- tors, and filmmakers acquired to provide a view of modern american art history include karl gruppe, william baziotes, james edward davis, seymour lipton, jose de rivera and the sketchbooks of chaim gross, anthony candido and palmer hayden. state and local archives of the united states illinois the lincoln fellowship of wisconsin has issued alexander william- son—tutor to the lincoln boys (madison, ) by wayne c. temple, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist c-*j> october archivist, illinois state archives. the pamphlet contains a biography of williamson and records his previously unknown reminiscences of lincoln written in . maine the state archives began operations in the new maine state cultural building last june. the archives provides complete archival and rec- ords management services including automated indexing/retrieval capa- bilities, microphotoreproduction, and document restoration. accessions of records will be made after the agency move is completed, and reference service will soon be expanded. requests for information on records available for research and regulations governing their use should be sent to caroline j. collamore, director of reference services, maine state archives, augusta, maine . mississippi the new archives and history building was dedicated by gov. john bell williams on june . the building, begun december , , on the jackson capitol green, is administered by the department of ar- chives and history. it was completed in april, and the department was moved from the war memorial building in may. the new building comprises floors, with a gross floor area of , square feet. the structural system is designed to provide for two additional floors. new jersey assembly bill has been introduced to establish a new jersey archives publication fund. the bill is accompanied by the following statement of purpose: "the advent in of the bicentennial of the american revolution and of the first new jersey constitution makes timely the resumption of publication by the state for distribution and sale to the public of the new jersey archives, a series consisting of re- prints of documents and historical source materials in the state archives compiled and published by the state beginning in but which has not been published since ." the bill has been referred to the as- sembly committee on education. new york gov. nelson rockefeller has signed a bill establishing the office of state history and state archives. all state archives, including those found in college cellars and private bookstores and those now in the state education department library, the office of general services, and originating state departments, will be placed in the state museum in albany. the museum is scheduled for completion in late . north carolina the state department of archives and history has published the regulators in north carolina: a documentary history, j - jj , com- piled and edited by william s. powell, james k. huhta, and thomas j. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes farnham. the -page book may be ordered from the division of publications, state department of archives and history, box , ra- leigh, n.c. , for $ . a copy. also published was messages, addresses, and public papers of daniel killian moore, a continuation of the series of governors' official messages and statements since . it is available from the division of publications of the department. account books concerning william hollister & co., an early th- century shipping and mercantile company of new bern, are being micro- filmed by the state archives. c. the local records section, division of archives and records management, has arranged and transferred to the state archives records of alexander, chatham, columbus, haywood, iredell, onslow, and rutherford counties. ohio moving the state archives from the old governor's mansion to the new ohio historical center, the columbus headquarters of the ohio historical society, has facilitated a greatly expanded accessions program. state archivist gerald g. newborg has compiled a -page state archives manual that is being distributed to all state agencies as a transfer pro- cedures guide. records of the department of insurance, auditor of state, and lieutenant governor have already been accessioned. under a legal agreement recently signed by the eight member institu- tions of the ohio network of american history research centers, au- thority over county and municipal government records has been assigned to each center on a regional basis. the ohio historical society co- ordinates the local records program by approving records schedules and keeping control reference files and in addition is responsible for central ohio. the other centers and their areas are: western reserve his- torical society (metropolitan cleveland), kent state university (east northeast ohio), university of akron (central northeast), ohio univer- sity (southeast), cincinnati historical society (south southwest), wright state university (central southwest), and bowling green state univer- sity—university of toledo (northwest). ^ a -year model survey by the society of all local government records of ohio municipalities is completed, and the results will be published in book form this winter. south carolina the new wing of the archives building was officially opened and dedi- cated in may. the new area doubles the size of searchroom and stack areas and provides office space for the increased staff. <l the last volume of the state records of south carolina series begun under the leadership of the late j. h. easterby, journals of the privy council, - , was published by the university of south carolina press in may. ^ the county records survey has been completed in laurens and fairfield counties. records recovered in lexington county included minutes ( - and - ) of the board of county commissioners. in- ventorying spartanburg county records has been started, and a journal ( - ) of an intermediate court has been discovered. the court, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c+j> october under the supervision of county judges, handled estrays and the business of licensed taverns and appointed constables and overseers of the roads. records of ante bellum black courts are extensive for the county. washington legislation now provides for the preservation of records of the state legislature and their transfer to the state archives. some records have always been maintained, but other types such as committee hearings, minutes, and transcripts of testimony have not. the law also provides that sound recordings of floor debates be transferred to the archives years after the session. ^ new publications include genealogical sources in washington state and district court records disposition management guideline. q the state archives has begun to accession and microfilm records of the washington state supreme court, to the present; the territorial supreme court; and water rights from the state department of ecology, beginning in . other accessions in- clude minutes ( - ) of the state liquor control board, minutes ( - ) of the state highway commission, and records ( ) of the governor's office. wisconsin additions to the state archives include resolution review files ( - ) of the board of regents of the state universities; closed gambling complaints ( - ) and closed arrest files ( - ) of the enforcement division, department of justice; pardons and extraditions ( ) of the executive office; and the file ( - ) of the commissioner of the tax- ation department. church archives reported by william b. miller items for this section should be sent direct to william b. miller, presbyterian historical society, lombard st., philadelphia, pa. . baptist recently elected as the fourth executive secretary of the historical commission of the southern baptist convention was lynn e. may, jr., research director of the commission for years. dr. may succeeds the late davis c. woolley. the commission adopted a resolution honoring dr. woolley for his role as managing editor of volume of the encyclo- pedia of southern baptists and calling that work "the crowning achieve- ment of his life." ^ the state convention of baptists, indiana, north high school rd., indianapolis, ind., has elected ron tonks of indiana central college to write a -year history of the southern bap- tists in indiana. roman catholic received by the diocese of charleston archives, broad st., charles- ton, s.c., was microfilm of all records of st. mary's church, charleston, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the mother church of south carolina, north carolina, and georgia. the records date from the late 's. charles h. rowland is archivist. ^ parish records from all churches in the san diego diocese are being microfilmed by the san diego diocesan archives, alcala park, san diego, calif. alfred f. geimer has been appointed diocesan archivist. ^ holdings of the archives of the diocese of syracuse, east onon- daga st., syracuse, n.y., include the t. j. o'connor collection of un- published and published materials on catholic ecclesiastical history in the state of new york. congregational evelyn e. vradenburgh has been elected librarian of the congrega- tional and new england history library, beacon st., boston, mass. in progress at the archives are biographical sketches of danish and norwegian clergymen serving scandinavian churches, - , and a study on negroes in colonial boston. protestant episcopal james i. robertson, jr., chairman of the history department of vir- ginia polytechnic institute and state university, was elected registrar of the diocese of southwestern virginia. plans are underway to deposit for safekeeping and microfilming all diocesan records in the newman library of the university. c. a history of the episcopal church in kansas, - , is being written by blanche m. taylor, historiog- rapher of the diocese of kansas. holdings of the archives, located at bethany pl, topeka, kans., include all records of the episcopal church in kansas except the local records, which are in the parish or mission. evangelical covenant microfilm collections of covenant churches in indiana and illinois are in the covenant archives, north spaulding ave., chicago, . eric g. hawkinson has been named interim archivist, succeeding a. milton freedholm. society of friends papers of george arthur walton ( - ), principal of george school, bucks county, pa., and active member of the religious society of friends, are in the friends historical library, swarthmore college, swarthmore, pa. effective july , , john m. moore, professor of religion at the college, was appointed director of the friends historical library. the archives of the new england yearly meeting of friends has been moved from the john carter brown library to the rhode island his- torical society. it has completed microfilming all its archives. , min- utes of friends churches in western indiana and three eastern counties of illinois are available in the western yearly meeting of friends church, south east st., plainfield, ind. although there are gaps in the records because some churches have not sent their records, a card file giving the locations of these records is available. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ĉ > october lutheran the north carolina synod, lutheran church in america, p.o. box , salisbury, n.c., encourages the deposit of congregational records. recent accessions include records of the mount pleasant collegiate institute and mont amoena seminary. mennonite recent accessions received by the lancaster mennonite conference historical society library and archives, mill stream rd., lan- caster, pa., include two rare volumes produced by the amish christian church, erklarungs-spiegel and deutsches christlich.es gesangbuch der amischen christlichen kirche. <[ in a current issue of the mennonite quarterly review, archivist of the mennonite church melvin gingerich has listed topics that should be fruitful for research in mennonite his- tory. research topics concerning the mennonite central committee illustrate the types of information needed. most of the committee records are in the archives of the mennonite church, goshen college, goshen, ind. united methodist the tennessee conference commission on archives and history, martin college, pulaski, tenn., reported the dedication of the asbury- bobb house near lebanon, tenn., on june , . the old log home, now completely restored, was the site of bishop francis asbury's last annual conference in . ^ cecil bolding has been named chairman of the oklahoma commission on archives & history, oklahoma city university, oklahoma city, okla. rev. bolding succeeds o. l. fontaine, who spent last year in ireland gathering materials on early wesleyana for the commission. q the holdings of the former sus- quehanna evangelical united brethren conference depositories at quincy and central oak heights, pa., have been transferred to the baltimore conference united methodist historical society, st. paul st., baltimore, md. <l zach c. hayes has been named executive secretary of the commission on archives and history, north georgia conference, forrest ave., n.e., atlanta, ga. moravian during june the archives of the moravian church, bethlehem, pa., conducted a -week course on the study of german script. participants were trained in reading the script, beginning with early script but con- centrating mainly on that from the period of colonial america to the civil war. examples from the archives were used by instructors ver- non h. nelson, archivist, and lothar madeheim, assistant archivist. mormon (church of jesus christ of latter-day saints) studies in progress at the library of the archives of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, east south temple st., salt lake city, utah, are: the image of joseph smith in american history; the his- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes tory of utah politics, - ; mining in pioche, nevada; the es- tablishment of the presbyterian church in the rocky mountain fron- tier; and the life of silas smith. united church of christ herbert j. lennox, retired history professor at the university of puerto rico, is writing a biography of samuel kirkland, missionary to american indians and founder of hamilton college, clinton, n.y., at the archives of the connecticut conference, sherman st., hartford, conn. the archives possesses th-century letters and journals dealing primarily with the missionary society of connecticut, which was organized in . other in the manuscript department, perkins library, duke university, durham, n.c., are records of the north carolina and western north carolina conferences of the methodist church and the methodist epis- copal church collection of records ( - ) of american missions in north africa (tunis and algiers). publication of an updated edition of the book of a thousand tongues has been scheduled for by the american bible society, broadway, new york, n.y. the archives, case memorial library, hartford seminary foundation, elizabeth st., hartford, conn., has received records ( - ) of the connecticut river valley theological club and papers of courtland van deusen containing some nestorian stone rubbings. a large body of material on the early home missionaries of the con- gregational church in iowa are available for research in the grinnell college archives, grinnell, iowa. the archives also possesses papers of george d. herron, a leader of the "social gospel" movement of the i go's. university archives and manuscript repositories personal kenneth m. glazier, former western language collections librarian at the hoover institution on war, revolution and peace, stanford uni- versity, has been named deputy chief librarian at the university of cal- gary, canada. dorothy burnett porter, supervisor of the negro col- lection, howard university, received an honorary degree of doctor of letters from susquehanna university in june. jon k. reynolds has been appointed university archivist and manuscripts librarian in the special collections division, georgetown university library. sister mary peter fowle, former archivist of mercy hospital, denver, has retired from teaching. francis james dallett has been appointed administrator of the uni- versity of pennsylvania archives. nancy e. peace has joined the staff of the rhode island historical society as librarian of its collection. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c*j october frank h. goodyear, jr., has been named curator of john brown house, the society museum. mary-elizabeth murdock has been appointed col- lege archivist and director of the sophia smith collection at smith col- lege; grace b. howes is assistant archivist. program the university of denver has signed contracts for the design and con- struction of the $ . million penrose library. construction began in july and should be completed in september . at the university of illinois archives, the programed annual report and digital infor- mation generation matrix (paradigm) system is operational. the sys- tem provides a basic punched-card control over , record series. each card shows series number, inclusive dates, dates of accessioning and pro- cessing, volume and type of document. a computer program tabulates this data for statistical reports. the cards also record restrictions, the extent of finding aids, six subject descriptors, one location descriptor, and three name descriptors. future plans involve the extension of descriptor capability for selected series and the production of subject indexes. ad- ditional information may be obtained from wendell barbour, assistant archivist, room , library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, . . the marine historical association of mystic, conn., is engaged in compiling a union list of ships' logbooks and seamen's journals in american repositories. information about such books and journals in other institutions would be welcome from indi- viduals responsible for the custody of such materials. four libraries in bergen county, new jersey, as part of the hacken- sack-ridgewood local history project have microfilmed and listed their manuscript collections to preserve and make them more widely available. an index is in preparation. the project, aided by a state library incentive grant of $ , , includes the bergen county historical society, johnson free public library of hackensack, fairleigh dickin- son university library, and the ridgewood public library. it is also assisted by the bergen community college. the manuscript list may be purchased for $ . microfilm rolls are also available. address: john- son free public library, main st., hackensack, n.j. . the papers, drawings, and paintings of benjamin henry latrobe will be edited and published by the maryland historical society. the so- ciety, which owns the largest collection of latrobe material in the country, has undertaken initial sponsorship of the project. the editor is edward c. carter ii, associate professor of early american history at catholic university, washington, d.c. the national endowment for the humanities has awarded the latrobe project a bicentennial match- ing grant of $ , for the next years, and the national historical publications commission has formally endorsed the publication plans. these plans call for a microfilm edition of all material, intended for scholars' use, and a multivolume letterpress edition for the general pub- lic. the new york state historical association in cooperstown, n.y., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes as part of its observance of the bicentennial, is soliciting revolutionary era articles, which it proposes to publish in its quarterly journal new york history and then republish at -year intervals— , , —in a series of bicentennial anthologies. the volume will include those articles that appeared in new york history between january and october . the articles may be either narrative or documentary and may be concerned with social, political, economic, military, or other themes. all accepted articles are eligible for the paul s. kerr history prize, an annual award of $ for the best article published each year in the journal. the ohio historical society received a $ , grant to help finance a -year newspaper project. a statewide newspaper acquisitions pro- gram will be conducted to accession all newspapers not now in one of the eight libraries belonging to the ohio network of american history research centers. the final product of the project will be a union guide to ohio newspapers available in ohio, which will have biblio- graphical data on about , different general and special titles pub- lished in ohio since . it will also include entries showing holdings of about ohio libraries. david r. larson, chief of the archives and manuscripts division, is project director, and will be assisted by paul f. hill and gary j. arnold. publications american missionary association manuscripts are now available on microfilm. for libraries wishing to obtain the complete collection, the price is $ , . purchase orders should be directed to: microfilm pro- ject, amistad research center, dillard university, new orleans, la. . cl the ohio historical society has completed microfilm pub- lication of three manuscript collections. the warren g. harding pa- pers [reviewed in american archivist, : (july )—ed.], edited by andrea d. lentz, are available in rolls for $ , ; the paul lau- rence dunbar papers, a literary collection on one of america's greatest black poets, were edited by sara s. fuller on seven rolls at a cost of $ ; and the james m. comly papers, relating to american journalism and the hayes administration, have been edited in a -roll edition by andrea d. lentz for a sale price of $ . all three publications have printed guides that are included in each order. <[_ a -page analytical and de- scriptive catalog of selected primary and secondary sources relating to women's intellectual and social history may be obtained from the di- rector, sophia smith collection, smith college, northampton, mass. . collections the american catholic historical society of philadelphia has ac- quired the records ( - ) of the philadelphia archdiocesan super- intendent of education and from the archives of the archdioces of baltimore copies of the letters of th-century roman agent of the arch- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t h e american archivist c+j> o c t o b e r diocese, robert gradwell, and copies of several hundred letters ( - ) of archbishop frederic wood and of msgr. james corcoran, both of philadelphia. t h e library of the california historical society has ac- quired the archives of the greater san francisco chamber of commerce ( - ) and those of san francisco linen and clothing importer, edmund taylor & sons ( - ). recently processed collections include the papers of george clement perkins, - , and louise a. sorbier, - . further details can be obtained from the manu- script librarian, jackson street, san francisco, calif. . t h e connecticut historical society has acquired the papers ( - ) of joseph r. hawley, consisting of correspondence, documents, and memorabilia chiefly for the period of hawley's senatorship, - ; the famly correspondence of benjamin huntington ( - ), much of it during his terms as representative in the general assembly, member of the continental congress, and representative in the first u.s. con- gress. t h e collection of regional history and university archives at cor- nell university has accessioned papers ( - ) of edward roe east- man, journalist, who served as editor of the american agriculturist, and charles william holman ( - ), secretary, national milk pro- ducers federation; and records of the medical societies of monroe ( — ) and onondaga ( - ) counties, the national committee for an effective congress ( - ), the west virginia pulp and paper co. ( - ), the medical society of the state of new york ( - ), and the american medical women's association ( - ). manuscripts acquired by the illinois state historical library include letters of john d. gillett and william p. whittle ( - ) concerning nauvoo, ., land transactions; the diaries and miscellaneous papers ( - ) of charles s. zane, law partner of william herndon and circuit judge at springfield and chief justice of utah territory and the state of utah; the papers ( - ) of anson miller, lawyer; and the records ( - ) of a former secretary of three state agencies, wilson coburn garrard. t h e department of special collections of the iowa state university library has recently completed processing the papers of earle d. ross, professor of history at the university; the mccall family records ( - ig ); the papers ( - ) of herbert plambeck, head of the farm de- partment radio station, des moines; and the papers ( - ) of nils a. olsen, former chief, bureau of agricultural economics, u.s. depart- ment of agriculture. finding aids are available for the collections. t h e official records of senator thruston b. morton in the special collec- tions department of the university of kentucky have been read, sorted and labeled. t h e collection includes the records and other materials accumulated by the kentucky senator while serving in the u.s. senate ( - ) and those accumulated during his term as chairman of the national republican committee ( - ). t h e maryland historical society has acquired the records of the baltimore eastern dispensary ( - , - ), a charitable institution for the poor living in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes fells point-harford run area of baltimore; a small body of letters ( - ) of george cooke, maryland-born itinerant artist; the minutes of the trustees of the poor for baltimore city and county and board minutes of subsequent agencies, - ; letters, scrapbooks, and clippings ( - ) of rose laura and ottilee sutro, baltimore concert pianists, also including correspondence of the national conservatory of music and the papers of the salon sutro; and the civil war papers of col. benjamin franklin taylor of the second regiment, infantry, maryland volunteers. the michigan historical collections of the university of michigan has completed processing the papers of george romney, republican gover- nor of michigan, - , and currently secretary of housing and urban development. the feet of correspondence, reports, memorandums, tapes and films, and newspaper clippings include romney's guberna- torial records and materials compiled during his quest of the presidency in - . among the topics covered by the papers are state reappor- tionment, the implementation of the new michigan constitution in , the detroit riot of , and romney's presidential campaign and strategy. a detailed inventory of contents and a comprehensive index of correspondents have been compiled. the papers are closed during mr. romney's tenure in public office. other accessions include papers ( - ) of thomas francis and papers ( - ) of frederick g. novy. francis, chairman of the department of epidemiology at the university, was recognized for his work as director of the polio vaccine evaluation program that conducted the field trials for the salk polio vaccine. novy was dean of the medical school of the university and professor of bacteriology. he worked with the u.s. commission to investigate the bubonic plague in california in . numbered among novy's correspondents are paul dekruif, paul ehrlich, robert koch, howard t. ricketts, and william osier. recent accessions of the ohio historical society include papers of gustavus a. doren ( - ), superintendent of the ohio institution for feeble-minded youth, - ; robert scott ( - ), civil war general and reconstruction governor of south carolina, - ; kingsley a. taft, judge and chief justice of the ohio supreme court, - ; john bentley ( - ), columbus banker and united states congressman; frank a. seiberling ( - ), akron businessman, founder and president of goodyear rubber co. and seiberling rubber co.; james a. rhodes, governor of ohio, - ; the lazarus family, a merchandising family in columbus and cincinnati, i go-ig o; and rec- ords of friends of the land, an ohio ecology lobby; naacp of ohio ( - ); the ohio league of women voters ( - ); and the colum- bus area chamber of commerce ( - ). two oral history series were completed for the columbus urban research collection: one a series on the arts in franklin county, - , with participants; and the other on social welfare in franklin county, - , with re- spondents. talladega college historical collections, talladega, ala., has recently d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c+s october accessioned the papers ( - ) of e. c. silsby, educator, relating to congregational work among negroes in alabama, negro education and economic betterment, and negroes in world war i; and the records ( - ) of the first congregational church of talladega, relating to negro congregationalists in alabama. the urban archives at temple university has acquired the records of several ywca branches, among them southwest-belmont branch ( - ), which accumulated financial records, executive files, and records pertaining to world war ii activi- ties and community affairs. this y branch was and is concerned with the black community of south philadelphia. the u.s. army military history research collection, carlisle bar- racks, pa., includes the papers of generals george crook and lyman kennon. the crook papers consist of his diaries, - , and three versions of his autobiography ( - , - , and - ), newspaper clippings, and correspondence ( - ). in crook appointed kennon his aide-de-camp, and thereafter the junior officer noted in his diaries ( - ) many of the general's recollections of his career, espe- cially of his operations in the shenandoah valley in . also avail- able is kennon's correspondence with other participants in civil war battles, including henry a. du pont, jubal a. early, jebediah hotchkiss, thomas t. munford, and james harrison wilson. other manuscript holdings include the spanish-american war collection. the institution is asking every living veteran and the widow of every veteran of the war, the philippine insurrection, and the boxer rebellion to donate manu- scripts, publications, photographs, and artifacts dealing with those opera- tions. a partial survey has brought in over , donations. the three sons of the late virginia senator harry flood byrd have presented his papers ( - ) to the university of virginia. they include extensive correspondence with constituents, colleagues, and apple-business associ- ates. there are also extensive memoranda, documents, reports, and other materials he accumulated while serving in the virginia senate, as governor, and as u.s. senator. as access to, and publication from, the collection is restricted, researchers should write the curator of manu- scripts for further information before visiting the library. the univer- sity has also acquired a register ( - ) of free negroes of washington county, and pamphlets, bulletins, and speeches ( - ) on industry and the humanities of the southern humanities conference. accessions of the state historical society of wisconsin include records ( - ) of the congress of racial equality, monroe, la., chapter; papers ( - ) of sheldon harnick, lyricist and composer; papers ( - ) of alexander meiklejohn, philosopher, teacher, author, and educator; papers ( - ) of michael myerberg, theatrical and motion picture producer, artists' manager, inventor, and owner and operator of a new york theater and discotheque; papers ( - ) of max otto, philosophy professor, author, and controversial figure because of his atheism, pacifism, and defense of academic freedom; and records ( - ) of the public relations society of america. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes scientific and technological manuscripts reported by maynard brichford items for this section should be sent direct to maynard j. brichford, university archivist, university of illinois library, urbana, . . american institute of physics—center for history and philosophy of physics the niels bohr library has received records ( - ) of the rochester high energy physics conference and an oral history tape of its founder, robert e. marshak. american philosophical society the june issue of the mendel newsletter contains a seven-page content note on the richard b. goldschmidt papers ( — ) at the university of california, berkeley. cambridge university the churchill college archives has papers of physicists max born, - , sir john cockcroft, - , lise meitner, - , sir george thomson, - , charles t. r. wilson, - ; physiologist archi- bald v. hill, - ; and mechanical engineer sir harry ricardo, - . questions concerning access and finding aids to the papers should be directed to c. edwin welch, archivist. library of congress the manuscripts division has acquired papers ( - ) of lloyd v. berkner, physicist, engineer, and science administrator with the bureau of standards, carnegie institution, and associated universities, inc., in- cluding correspondence, speeches, lectures, and photographs. harvard university the university archives has received papers ( - ) of frederick v. hunt, physicist and communications engineer, including material relat- ing to the acoustical society of america and the harvard underwater sound laboratory. university of illinois at urbana-champaign the university archives has processed papers of walter v. balduf, entomologist, - , arthur b. coble, mathematician, - , and g. frederick smith, chemist, - . it has received papers of frederic a. steggerda, physiologist, - , and lyell j. thomas, zoologist, - . processing the first transfer of records of the american society for quality control is nearly complete. iowa state university of science and technology the special collections department of the library has completed pro- cessing the papers ( - ) of louis h. pammel, head of the botany department, a leader in conservation at both the state and national levels, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c+s october and a founder of the iowa park system. a finding aid to the papers is available. university of nebraska the university is processing the extensive correspondence ( - ) of the mechanical engineering department. letterpress books and cor- respondence ( - ) of the agricultural experiment station are available for research. purdue university received by the university libraries were books and papers ( - ) of llewellyn m. k. boelter, visiting professor of engineering in . dr. boelter was known for his work in automotive and aeronautical engineering, heat transfer, and engineering education at several cali- fornia institutions ( - ). his papers include reports, published articles, a technical library, and research and lecture notes. a catalog of the collection can be obtained from helen q. schroyer, archives assis- tant, purdue university libraries, lafayette, ind. . canada reported by alan d. ridge items for this section should be sent direct to alan d. ridge, provincial archivist, provincial museum and archives of alberta, io d ave., edmonton, alta., canada the second annual conference of provincial and dominion archivists was held in ottawa on april and , enabling senior government archivists to discuss matters of common interest. the second meeting of the prairie archivists was held at the provincial museum and archives of alberta on may . nineteen archivists from eight repositories in saskatchewan and alberta spent the day inspecting the modern facilities of the archives and discussing professional matters. repositories agreed to share information on holdings of west canadian newspapers; a committee was set up to consider aspects of professionalism and education. the next meeting is planned for spring in saska- toon. advantages of such regional meetings are that junior staff mem- bers who are normally ineligible to attend national conferences are able to meet the staff of other offices; in-depth discussions of topics of special regional interest can be held; and archivists attending the meetings are able to see the physical facilities of the host repositories and to learn from their experiences. alberta provincial museum, and archives: recent accessions include stage set and costume designs ( - ) by phil silver, tapes of legislative as- sembly sessions, records ( - ) of the alberta association of architects, aerial photographs ( ) of the athabasca delta region, and records ( - ) of the provincial planning board. with the abolition of the provincial secretary's department responsibility for the public docu- ments act was vested in the attorney general during april and may d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes . effective june , responsibility for the act was vested in the minister of culture, youth, and recreation, who also administers the archives. three students at the university of alberta were employed last summer to reduce the backlog of accession inventories and prepare an index to government departmental organization, - . over new inventories have been prepared, and a -page list of the ernest brown manuscripts has been completed. material has been loaned for exhibits in the sports hall of fame at flare square during the calgary stampede and at the archives of the canadian rockies in banff. glenbow-alberta institute archives: the problem of space shortage in the stack area has been alleviated by the introduction of several lundia full-space or sliding shelf units. deacidification equipment was recently acquired by the bookbindery, and deacidification of important docu- ments has been undertaken. a program to collect material relating to the depression era in the west has been very successful. among acces- sions recently received are records relating to the north west mounted police, including personal papers of captain william parker, a diary of constable william metzler, a journal of major fred bagley, photographs, and a songbook of waltzes, covering the period to ca. ; an addition to the records of the calgary exhibition and stampede board, dating from ; records ( - ) of the coal operators of western canada; and photographs ( ) taken during the riel rebellion. im- migration posters, broadsides, and photographs were loaned to the library of the public archives for an exhibition on the settlement of the west. newfoundland and labrador provincial archives: burnham gill has been appointed provincial archivist. a voluntary committee of memorial university faculty mem- bers has been set up with the approval of the university president and the minister of provincial affairs to guide and advise the archives in its development. the archives publishes news of recent events in its monthly publication, we have news for you. ontario metropolitan toronto central library: recent accessions include ca- nadian posters ( - and - ), records of old toronto street railway companies, early canadian sheet music, and original designs for canadian theatrical productions. el salvador a ceremony to install officers of the asociaci n general de archivistas (general association of archivists) of el salvador was held on january , . the officers, who will serve during - are: agustin leonidas soriano, president; j. arturo zepeda, secretary general; c&ar augusto mene'ndez, secretary for records and correspondence; rodolfo ramos choto, secretary for public relations; gladys de martinez, secretary for publicity and organization; jose" maria herrera, treasurer; and julio ge"sar duran, secretary for legislation. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c*j> october england and wales reported by michael cook archivist of the university of liverpool society of archivists the society held its annual conference at liverpool on april - , . the conference, held at the university, was attended by people, out of a total membership of . events included lecture-discussions on the significance and handling of maps as records and the relationships between local record offices and museums, particularly over collecting policy and discussion on the problems posed by the government's re- vised policy for local government reform. a visit was paid to the archives, museum, and works of pilkington bros., ltd., at st. helens, lancashire. the firm is the major provider of plate glass for the british isles and to some extent for the world. it has a history going back to the th century and is very proud of its work in archives and archaeology of glass technology. a working party on professional education also met at this time under the chairmanship of prof. a. r. myers, who is responsible for the postgraduate course leading to the diploma in ar- chives administration at liverpool university. the speakers at the so- ciety's annual dinner were president of the library association b. c. jones (archivist of cumberland, westmorland and carlisle), our own president, roger h. ellis, and professor myers. a discussion on the use of record offices by scholars and universities closed the ses- sions. c. displays were provided by bruynzeel equipment, ltd., who showed mobile shelving operated by compressed air, and david & charles, ltd., publishers, who showed their extensive historical and reprint literature. <l albert h. leisinger jr., of the national archives of the united states attended as the society's guest. the first of the society's handbooks has now been published. this is document repair, by d. b. wardle, formerly of the public record office. the society plans to publish two more handbooks during , formu- lary of deeds by a. a. dibben, and reprography for the record office by g. f. osborn. the society has also published a comprehensive report on the disposal of records of children's departments in local government, drawn up by f. hull of the kent record office. this was intended as a start in pub- lishing systematic retention and disposal schedules for groups of records that are found in different record offices throughout the kingdom. un- fortunately since this schedule was begun, children's departments have been merged, administratively, with other social service departments, and are no longer distinct local government departments. the report, however, remains a valuable if tardy start. it may be obtained through the national register of archives (chancery lane, london w c ) at £ . . public record office it has now been announced which records will be stored at the new repository to be built at kew, opening . after this date the p.r.o. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes holdings will of course be divided between kew and the existing office in chancery lane. it was decided that it was impossible to divide the archives on the basis of a "vertical" division of departmental groups, or a "horizontal" division by date, although a general division between older and more modern records was the basis on which the choice had been made. broadly, the oldest archives, and those of the courts of law (including accruing legal records), and archives of the state paper (c. -c. ), privy seal and signet offices will all remain at chancery lane. at kew will be all departmental records, including those of the treasury, board of trade, and colonial offices, which are most of in- terest to americans. c. a new microfilm searchroom will be provided at chancery lane to contain microfilm of the census records, which are in great demand from genealogists. the p.r.o. now contains a total of , foot-run of shelving of records scheduled for permanent preservation, and , feet were received during . the holdings are divided between chancery lane ( , ft), the repository at ashridge ( , ft), the records centre at hayes ( , ft), and the new temporary searchroom and store at portu- gal street ( , ft). the survey conducted by market and opinion research international, ltd., in the summer of has now been published. it appears that percent of readers were students or academics, and of these percent came from north america ( percent from the usa, percent from canada). the subjects most commonly pursued were "social and eco- nomic" ( percent), "administrative and political" ( percent), and "genealogical" ( percent). of the readers percent were concerned with the th century and percent with the th; but reading both subjects and periods together, the typical reader might be engaged in genealogical research in the i th-igth centuries, "diplomatic and inter- national affairs" in the igth- oth centuries, or "administrative and polit- ical" subjects in the igth- oth centuries. modern political and adminis- trative research is clearly the big growth area in london as elsewhere. on the subject of opening hours, the readers seem to favour late eve- ning opening on days a week, with closure on saturdays and sundays, though the second most favoured solution is late opening on day, with opening on saturday morning. current opening hours were not supported by many, but there seemed no significant demand for a radical extension of hours. personal l. j. mcdonald, group archivist of pilkington bros., ltd., plate-glass manufacturers, has been appointed government archivist at bermuda, effective september . he was educated at the training school at the archives of the federation of rhodesia and nyasaland (as it then was) and came to pilkington's after serving there for some years. c. f. g. emmison, formerly county archivist of essex and one of the pioneers of local record offices in england, was awarded an honorary doctorate by the university of essex. c. c. e. welch, archivist at churchill college, cambridge, is to cross the atlantic to take up a post as university ar- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c+j> october chivist at ottawa. dr. welch has been treasurer of the society of ar- chivists for years and was one of its founders. transfer of power the first two volumes have now appeared in a major series of pub- lished official records. this is the transfer of power series, concerned with the granting of independence to india in . the series will cover the period from january to independence, and the first two volumes deal with the cripps mission, january-april , and the "quit india" campaign, april-september . there will be at least volumes; the first volumes together weigh pounds and occupy more than inches of shelf space: this is the most lavish archival publi- cation thus far to appear in this country. each volume contains about , pages, and about documents. the editorial apparatus by pro- fessor mansergh and mr. lumby is impeccable, and no pains have been spared to make the series entirely reliable. the documents are printed chronologically, so that the reader's impression is of a continuous story, but in the introduction the individual documents are allocated to chap- ters with appropriate subject headings. this is an ingenious solution to the problems presented by printing a long series of archives. the documents are taken from the records of the india office records and library, blackfriars road, london. this establishment has recently moved into new quarters, consisting of a modern -story block, and the high standard of staffing and equipment there make it one of the most impressive archival institutions in europe. the documents printed in the transfer of power series will contain many of interest to american scholars. among those already published are several letters and telegrams of president roosevelt, showing him in a not altogether favourable light. his interventions in indian negotia- tions in were based on an interpretation of american colonial history which had little relevance to the state of things in india at the time of the japanese advance. royal commission on historical manuscripts the commission has published the fourth edition of its guide to record repositories in great britain (london, hmso, ). this replaces the third edition, which appeared in . although no com- ment is made editorially in the guide, there have been some changes in this period of years. where there were establishments listed in , there are now . as there have been few additions to the list of local government record offices (kingston upon hull is one such), the increase has been in the archives offices of firms or specialist organisa- tions, such as the national society for promoting religious education, the british theatre museum, or the british steel corp. on the whole most of the new entries are in london and few relate to specialist ar- chives establishments. the great expansion in record offices that oc- curred in the previous decade has not yet been repeated, though there has clearly been an expansion in interest. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes archivists and the computer in may the business archives council and international com- puters, ltd., held a seminar on the archivist and the computer at icl house in london. the seminar was attended by archivists, includ- ing archivists of business firms, from national institutions (including representatives from the republic of ireland as well as northern ireland and scotland), from a university and from local governments. the central session dealt with the exploitation of the computer by the archivist, but the general feeling of those who attended was that, although valuable information had been given on the capabilities of computers, it had not been possible to give precise applications in archive work. a second seminar will be arranged. meanwhile one local government record office, the county record office of east sussex, has introduced what is thought to be a pioneer programme for computer indexing and cataloguing. the programme, inspired by the newly appointed county archivist, s. c. newton, was devised by the county treasurer's department. copies of the programme, which is entitled systems description, computer indexing and cata- loguing, can be obtained from the county record office, pelham house, lewes, sussex. the system is now in active operation, and this is thought to be the only case of active use of a computer by a record office in great britain. france the administration of the diplomatic archives of the french ministry of foreign affairs has recently reported to the society for historians of american foreign relations the following information: the archives prior to may , , are actually open to the public (with the excep- tion of private papers and personnel files subject to special regulations). the so- called rule of years could not be applied until now because of the destruction of the foreign office (central administration) archives which occurred during the last war. reconstitution and reconstruction of the archives has progressed so that the files for the period from june through will be opened in early . the necessary reorganization of the files for the period from to prior to their opening for research has now begun. by it may be possible to apply normally the so-called rule of years. japan an -year old plan to house under one roof all the important official records of the japanese government entered its final stage with the opening of the new national archives building in tokyo on july . situated in kitamaru park, near the imperial palace, the recently com- pleted structure has four stories above ground and two below. it has a total floor space of , square feet. the shelves in the building have a total length of miles. about , volumes of official documents accumulated before the end of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist c*j> october world war ii that are now kept by separate government agencies will be moved to the new site by the fall of . among them are the originals of the imperial rescripts of the declaration of war and the termination of world war ii and the originals of the old and new con- stitutions of japan with imperial signatures. many historical documents created hundreds of years ago that are now kept in the cabinet archives will also be moved to the new archives building. professional instruction more detailed information about the archives administration courses described here may be obtained from the september issue of the saa placement newsletter. to be placed on the mailing list for future issues please write robert m. warner, secretary, society of american ar- chivists, michigan historical collections, rackham building, ann arbor, mich. . american university archives administration: modern practice will be offered spring by the university in cooperation with the national archives, with frank b. evans, adjunct professor, as instructor. if interested, please write the department of history, american university, washington, d.c. . bates college (lewiston, maine) during a -week "short term" from late april to early june, historical archives will be offered. students will live in portland and work full- time with the maine historical society. for further information write prof. james s. leamon, history department, bates college, lewiston, maine . case western reserve university open only to regularly enrolled graduate students at the university is archives and historical manuscripts, to be given in spring by mrs. ruth helmuth, the instructor, and guest lecturers. this course serves as the prerequisite for the directed reading in archival litera- ture and the supervised practicum in archival administration (inservice training: ohio historical society, western reserve historical society, or the university archives). for further information please write mrs. helmuth, university archivist, case western reserve university, cleve- land, ohio . university of illinois at urbana-champaign administration and use of archival materials will be taught spring by prof. maynard brichford. the course is open only to graduate degree candidates in library science, with the permission of the instructor. more information and a copy of the course outline are available from professor brichford, university archivist, room library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes north carolina state university (raleigh) applications of principles and practices, part of the two-course se- quence administration of archives and manuscripts, which is open to graduate students and seniors, will be presented in the spring of . for a brochure and more information please write h. g. jones, director, state department of archives and history, raleigh, n.c. . sacramento state college w. n. davis, jr., chief of archives, california state archives, will be the instructor for uses of national and state archives, to be given in spring . the course is open to graduate and upper division stu- dents only. if interested, write director of admissions and records, sacramento state college, j street, sacramento, calif. . texas christian university archives agencies and activities, part two of a three-course sequence offered by the history department in cooperation with the national ar- chives and records service, regional archives branch, fort worth, will be given in the spring of , with c. george younkin as instructor. for more information write mr. younkin at quail lane, arlington, tex. or the tcu evening college, fort worth tex. . university of texas at arlington a new sequence of courses in the history department, open only to master's candidates in history, has been inaugurated this fall with a course on historical development of archives and manuscripts collections. others in the series (not yet scheduled) include historical agencies and research facilities, historiography, and archival internship (supervised inservice training at the federal records center in fort worth, the texas labor archives, and the university archives). for scheduling and other information please write the director of admissions, uni- versity of texas at arlington, arlington, tex., . wayne state university the history department program in administration of archives and historical manuscripts being offered - by philip p. mason, profes- sor of history, is open to graduate students. more specific information can be had from dr. mason, general library, wayne state uni- versity, detroit, mich. . university of wisconsin the university has a three-course sequence in archives administration, of which the practice of archives-manuscripts administration may be scheduled individually at any time by arrangement with the instructor, f. gerald ham. for a brochure and further data please write dr. ham, state historical society of wisconsin, state street, madison, wis. ° - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril bainbridge all rag museum mat and mount board no. i ivory — no. white museum size — x ) } and ply framers size — x ) jumbo size — x and ply (made to neutral ph reading) information available charles t. bainbridge's sons cumberland st. brooklyn, n.y. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the future won't take care of itself! it's up to you to make sure that important documents in your care are protected from unnecessary deterioration in storage. how? by using permalife whenever your documents come in contact with other paper products—file folders, interleav- ing sheets, storage envelopes, mounting boards, box linings. permalife is acid free (ph . ), lasts at least years, and is more economical than rag stocks. both physical and aesthetic damage can result from the migration of impurities when documents of value are kept in continual contact with low-grade papers. don't leave the future to chance. specify by standard paper manufacturing company richmond, virginia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril to meet your archival storage needs a complete selection of quality, acid-free storage materials envelopes. made of permalife, the permanent/durable paper, hollinger envelopes will last for hundreds of years. they are stocked in four sizes: x , / x , x and % x . microfiche and negative envelop-es are also available. boxes. acid-free corrugated heavy fibreboard, mill certified to be ph . , is used for these boxes. this special fibreboard contains no sulphur, chlorine or alum. document cases. fibredex document cases come in a variety of sizes and offer protection and convenience at especially low cost. they are made of acid free material, at ph . . file folders. high endurance and unusual tear resistance is offered by these permalife file folders. they are available in letter and legal as well as larger sizes. map and print folders. these hollinger folders are available in a variety of sizes from x up to x and are made of acid- free permalife. for further information and prices write to: the hollinger corporation -b south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril tandem. the inner space vehicle. storing " of correspondence in a space " deep sounds like the new math. but it works. and volume orders from government and the "top " prove it! tandem, like most good ideas, is very simple. you save filing space because you use two trays back-to-back, or in tandem, in each shell. then, as you can see by the photo, you file letter size records sideways to give you x " or " of letters in only " of depth. you eliminate shelving completely. the strong, factory-installed stacker bars on each shell build their own steel framework. you'll also like tandem's lightweight, "girl-size" trays. they make transferring files easy. please ask your office products dealer or write today for specs and prices on the tandem . . . and all the space-saving ideas in our new, -page, /color catalog . . . from bankers box: specialists in space age technology. i* records storage systems n. th ave. • franklin park, iii. anaheim, california • cranbury, new jersey makers of l i b e r t y * . st««oristiel*. r-kivett, tandem»\ oata-paks. stor/orawer® records storage systems d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril gendex corporation so. main st. # * salt lake city, utah " n e w y o r k c e n s u s i n d e x " — , names— pages — / " x " / hardbound — each entry doublechecked — preface by mr. winston deville — two state maps ( & ) — cost $ . ; prepaid-$ . — complete surname search $ . " g r a s s r o o t s o f a m e r i c a " — a computerized index to the american state paper: land grants and claims ( - ) — major & minor grants & claims for: alabama, arkansas, florida, georgia, illinois, indiana, iowa, kentucky, louisiana, michigan, minnesota, mississippi, missouri, ohio, tennessee, wisconsin, indian tribes, canadian refugees, and early french and spanish settlers. — , entries/ pages — % " x l l " bound in buckram — extensive maps of all claims — cost: prepaid by dec. — $ . ordered by dec. — $ . regular cost —$ . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril - - - - protect your historical collections and prevent expensive property loss and work interruptions from fire or similar dangers. call the telephone numbers above or write the address below. consultation will be given on important matters such as weighing environ- mental effects on cost, selecting the appropriate protection system, training personnel for emergencies, and planning a comprehensive security program. horatio bond consulting engineer p.o. box , hyannis port, massachusetts american water works association society of fire protection engineers american society for industrial security contributor encyclopedia britannica and handbook of fire protection former chief engineer, national fire protection association registered professional engineer massachusetts winter meeting joint luncheon american historical association society of american archivists a report from the national archives advisory council sidney f i n e and norman graebner, speaking charles e . l e e , presiding tuesday, december , new york hilton hotel tickets may be purchased at the aha registration desk. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • society publications available the following publications may be ordered from a. k. johnson, jr., treas- urer, society of american archivists, p.o. box , atlanta, ga. . american archivist: july ; july ; july and october ; october ; april, july, and october ; july ; july i ; all issues for ; july and october ; and all issues for , , , and . all copies $ . each. general index to the american archivist, volumes i-xx, january to october . $ . directory of individual and institutional members, . $ . directory, society of american archivists, , - , . $ each. directory of state and provincial archivists, . free. directory oi state and provincial archivists and records administra- tors, - . $ each. directory oi state archival agencies, . $ . college and university archives in the united states and canada, . $ . directory oi business archives, . $ . archives & the public interest by ernst posner. . $ . . reader ior archives and records center buildings by victor gondos, jr. . $ . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist volume published quarterly by the society of american archivists d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril contents of volume number , january some comments on the archival vocation herman kahn t h e archives of the history of american psychology j o h n a. popplestone and marion w h i t e mcpherson administrative relationships in a large manuscript repository herbert finch archives in the soviet union: their organization and the problem of access patricia kennedy grimsted t h e th annual meeting of the society of american archivists david j. delgado in memoriam reviews of books abstracts of foreign periodicals technical notes news notes number , april a crisis of confidence: foreign policy research and the federal government richard w. leopold american archivists and their society: a composite view frank b. evans and robert m. warner university archives: relationships with faculty maynard j. brichford personal data from university archives walter rundell, j r . president's page d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril reviews of books abstracts of foreign periodicals technical notes news notes number , july i n search of pre-american ancestors—a new approach robert s. gordon t r u e valor seen: historical editing paul h. bergeron t h e long-range implications for historians and archivists of the charges against the franklin d. roosevelt library herman kahn t h e roosevelt library case: a review article richard polenberg in memoriam bibliography reviews of books abstracts of foreign periodicals technical notes news notes number , october buried treasure: t h e official correspondence of the connecticut governors robert schnare and herbert janick manuscript catalogs and other finding aids: what are t h e i r relationships? richard c. berner st. albans archives sherrod east d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the archivist: link between scientist and historian j. frank cook reviews of books abstracts of foreign periodicals technical notes news notes d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril calendar notices for insertion in this section should be sent to miss kathryn m. murphy, national archives, washington, d.c. . december - /symposium on the results of the u.s. census of population sponsored by the american association for the advancement of science, philadelphia, pa. apply to: department of political science, massachusetts institute of technology, cambridge, mass. . - /annual meeting of the american association for the advancement of science, philadelphia, pa. apply to: the american association for the advancement of science registration desk, dept. r, massachusetts ave. n.w., washington, d.c. . - /annual meeting of the american society of church history, new york, n.y. apply to: james h. smylie, secretary, brook rd., richmond, va. . - /annual meeting of the society for the history of technology, americana hotel, new york, n.y. apply to: melvin kranzberg, case western reserve university, cleve- land, ohio . - /annual meeting of the american historical association, hilton hotel, new york, n.y. apply to: ari hoogenboom, chairman of local arrangements, brooklyn college, brooklyn, n.y. /joint meeting of the american jewish historical society with the american catholic historical association and the american historical association, hilton hotel, new york, n.y. apply to: bernard wax, director, american jewish historical society, thornton rd., waltham, mass. . - /joint conference of the american historical association and the agricultural history society: "landholding in three nations," statler hotel, new york, n.y. apply to: wayne d. rasmussen, economic research service, u.s. department of agriculture, th st. s.w., washington, d.c. . - /fifty-second annual meeting of the catholic historical association, fordham university, the bronx, new york city. apply to: rev. robert trisco, american catholic historical association, mullen library, room , catholic university of america, washington, d.c. . january - /american association for state and local history regional workshop: administration of historical societies and museums, oklahoma city, okla. apply to: john kerwood, american association for state and local history, eighth ave. south, nashville, tenn. . - /annual meeting of the society of architectural historians in joint session with the college art association, san francisco hilton hotel, san francisco, calif. apply to: roasann s. berry, executive secretary, room , walnut st., philadel- phia, pa. . february - /american association for state and local history regional workshop: ad- ministration of historical societies and museums, sacramento, calif. apply to: john kerwood, american association for state and local history, eighth ave. south, nashville, tenn. . april - /annual meeting of the organization of american historians, washington, d.c. apply to: david e. miller, department of history, university of utah, salt lake city, utah . , /regional meeting of the catholic historical association, center for continuing education, university of notre dame, south bend, ind. apply to: dr. james e. ward, sylvan glen drive rd., south bend, ind. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril religion, education, security religions editorial religion, education, security liam francis gearon department of education, university of oxford, oxford ox py, uk; liam.gearon@education.ox.ac.uk received: april ; accepted: may ; published: may ���������� ������� abstract: on first glance the politicization and securitization of religion may seem remote from education. a second look reveals widespread international initiatives aimed at the uses of education precisely for political and security purposes, notably in the countering of terrorism, violent extremism and ideologies opposed to liberal democratic values. this editorial presents a critical framing on how scholars from a range of interrelated disciplines analyze the interface of religion, education and security. the purpose of this special issue is thus critically to engage scholars across religious studies and theology, politics and international relations, security and intelligence studies, to explore through empirical evidence and reasoned argument the role here for religion in education. the volume aims to make some ground-breaking cross-disciplinary theoretical advances and methodological innovations not simply to further debate but to provide the tools for asking new questions and opening new pathways and frameworks for exploring the critical interface of religion, education and security. keywords: religion; security; education; terrorism; counter-terrorism; security studies; intelligence studies; political theology in schmitt ( ) political theology, a critical historicity allowed him to claim that ‘all significant concepts of the modern theory of the state are secularized theological concepts’ (schmitt , p. ). schmitt, above all theorists, demonstrates how the political becomes ‘theological’. voegelin ( ) analysis of the ‘political religions’ (maier , ; maier and schafer ) here draws theorists to the enduring legacies of autocracy, dictatorship and totalitarianism (arendt ; casanova , ; friedrich and brzezinski ; popper ; power ; talmon ). in the present, the resurgence of religion in public life has been marked by intense debates over global governance (burleigh ; davis et al. ; habermas , ; haynes , ; huntington ; wood et al. ), issues which now permeate international religious education (davis and miroshnikova ). these debates have often been framed as variant forms of political theology (de vries and sullivan ; schussler fiorenza et al. ; scott and cavanaugh ). critically, the resurgence of religion in the public sphere has marked too by reconsiderations of secularization theory (berger ; bruce ; davie et al. ; habermas ; habermas and ratzinger ; stark ; taylor ). concurrently, across security and intelligence studies, theorists have noted a marked expansion or ‘securitization’ to a number of different domains (albert and buzan ; buzan ; collins ; dunn cavelty and balzacq ; taureck ; wæver ; huysmans ; also seiple et al. ). securitization theory presents a means of exposure, a frame of exposition and a method of analysis of this claimed expansion of security across five such areas of human experience: military, political, societal, economic, and environmental (huysmans ; van munster ). bagge laustsen and wæver ( ), even prior to / , suggested adding a sixth category of religion. on first glance the politicization and securitization of religion may seem remote from education. a second look reveals widespread international initiatives aimed at the uses of education precisely for political and security purposes, notably in the countering of terrorism, violent extremism and ideologies opposed to liberal democratic values (ghosh et al. ). the european agenda on security religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of (eas ) has here increasingly drawn universities into the fray, while in the uk specifically, the counter terrorism and security act has given public bodies, including educational institutions, legislative responsibilities for maintaining and enhancing security and preventing terrorism, and the ideologies which allow terrorism to flourish. the editor’s conceptualisations of the ‘counter-terrorist classroom’ (gearon ) and the ‘counter-terrorist campus’ (gearon a, b, c, ; gearon and prud’homme ) have sparked at times vituperative debate (jackson ; lewin ). the central aim of this volume is critically to engage scholars across religious studies and theology, politics and international relations, security and intelligence studies, to explore through empirical evidence and reasoned argument the role here for religion in education. in the opening article joseph prud’homme’s ‘security, religion, and political culture: a defense of weak disestablishment’ provides a critical analysis of the role of religion, religion, the state and education in the united states. drawing on a thesis advanced in gearon and prud’homme ( ), prud’homme notes that many in the west have long argued against state religious establishments on the ethical grounds of the rights of freedom of conscience and personal autonomy. prud’homme extends such analyses to explore the impact of religious disestablishment on state provision of security and preventing violent extremism in education. pia-maria niemi, arto kallioniemi and ratna ghosh’ s ‘religion as a human right and a security threat—investigating young adults’ experiences of religion in finland’ examines the pedagogical and wider educational implications of the emergence of religiously motivated terrorist attacks and xenophobia across europe from a scandinavian perspective. finely juxtaposing the tensions between rights and threats, or security and liberty, their empirical data highlights findings which open the field for further comparative and international study. pia-maria niemi, saija benjamin, arniika kuusisto and liam gearon’s ‘how and why education counters ideological extremism in finland’ also examines the finnish context, examining how the intensification of radical and extremist thinking has become an international cause of concern and the fear related to terrorism has increased worldwide, and, while mindful of such international contexts, shows what such impacts have meant in practical, pedagogical terms for finnish education. the renowned scholar on religion and global politics, jeffrey haynes examines religion, education and security from precisely such a worldwide perspective by assessing the relationship between the united nations alliance of civilisations and educational and policy notions of global citizenship. robyn sneath’s article is ‘fancy schools for fancy people: risks and rewards in fieldwork research among the low german mennonites of canada and mexico’. detailing her research on modern-day mennonites she provides an historical note on the s exodus of mennonites from the canadian prairie provinces of manitoba and saskatchewan to mexico and paraguay, as a matter of particular as well as wider theoretical importance to the special issue’s theme. providing a methodological addendum on historical and ethnographic approaches to the study of religion, education and security, sneath reminds us that history can teach us much about these matters of acute contemporary relevance. isaac calvert’s ‘sanctifying security: jewish approaches to religious education in jerusalem’ demonstrates precisely how the historical and contemporary significance of religion and security in education still have momentous geopolitical charge. drawing on his groundbreaking ethnographic fieldwork in jerusalem, calvert treats in situ of the critical pedagogical meeting place of politics and theology in twenty-first century jewish education. liam gearon’s ‘the educational sociology and political theology of disenchantment: from the secularization to the securitization of the sacred’ draws significantly on two theorists who have helped shape sociological and political theological thinking—weber ( , ) and carl schmitt ( )—gearon provides an outline theoretical synthesis of educational sociological and political theology, through the concept of ‘disenchantment’ to afford insights on critical current debates around secularization and securitization in education. religions , , of terence lovat’s ‘securing security in education: the role of public theology and a case study in global jihadism’ argues for the theoretical and methodological tool of public theology as a vital adjunct to contemporary education’s addressing of security issues in light of current world events with indisputable religious and arguably quasi-theological foundations. the volume here initiates some ground-breaking cross-disciplinary theoretical advances and methodological innovations not simply to further debate but to provide the tools for asking new questions and opening new pathways and frameworks for exploring the critical interface of religion, education and security. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references albert, mathias, and barry buzan. . securitization, sectors and functional differentiation. security dialogue : – . [crossref] arendt, hannah. . the origins of totalitarianism. new york: schocken books. berger, peter, ed. . the desecularization of the world: resurgent religion and world politics. grand rapids: eerdmans. bruce, steve. . god is dead. oxford: blackwell. burleigh, michael. . sacred causes: religion and politics from the european dictators to al qaeda. london: harper. buzan, barry. . people, states, and fear, nd ed. boulder: lynne rienner. casanova, jose. . public religions in the modern world. chicago: chicago university press. casanova, jose. . the secular and secularism. social research : – . collins, alan, ed. . contemporary security studies. oxford: oxford university press. davie, grace, peter berger, and effie fokas. . religious america, secular europe? aldershot: ashgate. davis, derek, and elena miroshnikova, eds. . the routledge international handbook of religious education. london and new york: routledge. davis, creston, john milbank, and slavoj zizek. . theology and the political: the new debate. durham: duke university press. de vries, hent, and lawrence e. sullivan, eds. . political theologies: public religions in a post-secular world. new york: fordham. dunn cavelty, myriam, and thierry balzacq, eds. . the routledge handbook of security studies. london: routledge. eas. . european agenda on security. brussels: european commission, available online: https://ec.europa.eu/ home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-security_en (accessed on april ). friedrich, carl joachim, and zbigniew k. brzezinski. . totalitarian dictatorship and autocracy. new york: praeger. gearon, liam. . the counter terrorist classroom: religion, education, and security. religious education : – . [crossref] gearon, liam. a. secularisation and the securitisation of the sacred: a response to lewin’s framing of the gearon-jackson debate. british journal of educational studies : – . [crossref] gearon, liam. b. paradigm shift in religious education: a reply to jackson, or why religious education goes to war. journal of beliefs and values : – . [crossref] gearon, liam. c. the counter-terrorist campus: securitisation theory and university securitisation—three models. transformation in higher education . available online: https://thejournal.org.za/index.php/thejournal/ article/view/ / (accessed on december ). [crossref] gearon, liam. . terrorism and counter-terrorism policy and research in uk universities ( – ): an analytic-structural review of the literature and related sources. policy reviews in higher education : – . [crossref] gearon, liam, and joseph prud’homme. . state religious education and the state of the religious life. eugene: wipf and stock. ghosh, ratna, ashley manuel, w. y. alice chan, maihemuti dilimulati, and mehdi babaei. . education and security: a global literature review on the role of education in countering violent religious extremism. london: http://dx.doi.org/ . / https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-security_en https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-security_en http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . https://thejournal.org.za/index.php/thejournal/article/view/ / https://thejournal.org.za/index.php/thejournal/article/view/ / http://dx.doi.org/ . /the.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . religions , , of tony blair institute for global change, available online: https://institute.global/sites/default/files/inline-files/ igc_education% and% security.pdf (accessed on april ). habermas, jurgen. . religion in the public sphere. european journal of philosophy : – . [crossref] habermas, jurgen. . notes on post secular society. new perspectives quarterly : – . [crossref] habermas, jurgen, and joseph ratzinger. . the dialectics of secularization: on reason and religion. san francisco: ignatius press. haynes, jeffrey, ed. . the handbook of religion and politics. london: routledge. haynes, jeffrey, ed. . religion and politics. london: routledge. huntington, samuel. . the clash of civilizations. new york: simon & schuster. huysmans, jeff. . revisiting copenhagen: or, on the creative development of a security studies agenda in europe. european journal of international relations : – . [crossref] jackson, robert. . the politicization and securitization of religious education? a rejoinder. british journal of educational studies : – . [crossref] laustsen, carsten bagge, and ole wæver. . in defence of religion: sacred referent objects for securitization. millennium: journal for international studies : – . [crossref] lewin, david. . who’s afraid of secularization? reframing the debate between gearon and jackson. british journal of educational studies : – . [crossref] maier, hans, ed. . totalitarianism and political religions. london: routledge, vol. i. maier, hans, ed. . totalitarianism and political religions. london: routledge, vol. iii. maier, hans, and michael schafer schafer, eds. . totalitarianism and political religions. london: routledge, vol. ii. popper, karl. . the open society and its enemies. london: routledge. power, samantha. . a problem from hell: america in the age of genocide. london: flamingo. schussler fiorenza, francis, klaus tanner, and michael welker, eds. . political theology: contemporary challenges and future directions. louisville: westminster john knox press. schmitt, carl. . political theology: four chapters on the concept of sovereignty. chicago: chicago university press. scott, pete, and william t. cavanaugh, eds. . the blackwell companion of political theology. oxford: wiley-blackwell. seiple, chris, dennis r. hooper, and pauletta otis, eds. . routledge handbook of religion and security: theory and practice. london and new york: routledge. stark, rodney. . secularization, rip. sociology of religion : – . [crossref] talmon, jacob l. . the origins of totalitarian democracy. london: mercury books. taureck, rita. . securitization theory and securitization studies. journal of international relations and development : – . [crossref] taylor, charles. . a secular age. cambridge: harvard university press. van munster, rens. . securitization. oxford bibliographies. available online: http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/ . /obo/ - (accessed on december ). voegelin, eric. . the collected works of eric voegelin, volume : modernity without restraint: the political religions, the new science of politics and science, politics and gnosticism. edited by manfred henningsen. columbia: university of missouri. weber, max. . science as a vocation. in from max weber: essays in sociology. new york: oxford university press, pp. – . weber, max. . max weber’s ‘science as a vocation’. edited by peter lassman, irving velody and herminio martins. london: routledge. wæver, ole. . securitization and desecuritization. in on security. edited by r. d. lipschuts. new york: columbia university press, pp. – . wood, linda, david partridge, and hiroko kawanami, eds. . religions in the modern world. london: routledge. © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). https://institute.global/sites/default/files/inline-files/igc_education% and% security.pdf https://institute.global/sites/default/files/inline-files/igc_education% and% security.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /palgrave.jird. http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/ . /obo/ - http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/ . /obo/ - http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	references in search of promised lands: a religious history of mennonites in ontario by samuel j. steiner copyright © the ontario historical society, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : ontario history in search of promised lands: a religious history of mennonites in ontario by samuel j. steiner julia rady-shaw volume , numéro , spring uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the ontario historical society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu rady-shaw, j. ( ). compte rendu de [in search of promised lands: a religious history of mennonites in ontario by samuel j. steiner]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ ontario history samuel j. steiner’s the search of promised lands: a religious history of mennon- ites in ontario is a comprehensive account of the rich past of one of the province’s ear- ly settler groups. steiner’s archival record is voluminous, yet he weaves the evidence together into a rich, cogent, and accessi- ble history of the mennonites in ontario. drawing upon personal narratives, mu- nicipal records, the census, newspapers, and denominational records (to name a few), steiner’s book explores the nuances of mennonite origins in upper canada and follows those threads through to the near present. steiner incorporates the themes of religiousity, assimilation, conflict, and iden- tity politics throughout his book to trace the fragmentation and realignment that constantly occurred within the denomi- nation in order to sketch the spectrum of mennonite faith and practice in ontario. the promised lands of the title pro- vide a rich metaphor for the way early in search of promised lands a religious history of mennonites in ontario by samuel j. steiner kitchener, ontario: mennomedia, . pages. $ . hardback isbn: . $ . e-pub. (www.mennomedia.org ) mennonite, amish and quaker commu- nities sought a new life in north america upon which to build their faith. this prom- ise continued to animate settlement and emigration patterns as mennonites from pennsylvania traveled north to the niaga- ra region, the grand river valley, and the huron shores of present-day ontario, or when other mennonite communities im- migrated to canada in the twentieth cen- tury from places like the ussr, germany, asia, or south america. although not dissimilar from other immigration sto- about student health led to the creation of new sites through which administrators could exert their moral vision of the uni- versity and shape the student body” ( ). in doing so, gidney expands the understand- ing of the historical relationships between youth’s health, citizenship, and morality. her history of how university administra- tors tended the student body in the past also sheds light onto the ways universities are tending the student body today. she exposes the current conceptualization of universities as moral communities where students are seen as “immature youth, to be guided to full adulthood” ( ) and the university as their moral and intellec- tual guide. karissa patton university of saskatchewan book reviews ries, steiner’s history of the mennonites ably captures the way religion fundamen- tally and prominently directed the actions and reactions of this particular immigrant group to their new home. over the span of two centuries on this new frontier, mennonites adjusted and re- adjusted what constituted their “promised lands.” while people claimed allegiance to their mennonite identification, that identi- fication underwent internal change and was comprised of many variations. congrega- tions aligned and realigned their faith and faith practices in relation to conflicts, shift- ing religious trends, generational changes, and social changes. some groups held firm to conservative and fundamentalist practic- es, while others became much more liberal. steiner’s work pays great attention to the broader economic, political, and reli- gious climates. for example, in the early chapters on settlement in the thirteen colonies, steiner observes how the story of the mennonites, amish, and quakers was not atypical of the time. like the puritans or members of the church of england who settled in new england or virginia, respec- tively, the pacifist groups existed within this same immigration narrative. they all sought out a new opportunity in a new world where religion could factor prominently into daily life. examples from the twentieth century illuminate the way mennonite self-identifi- cation was a category in a constant state of flux. the great war bred greater acceptance of fundamentalist theology and cooperation as mennonites stood united in their pacifist stance to the war. after , the influx of mennonite settlers from the soviet union again reshaped broader patterns of belief and culture as new ideas emigrated with the new groups. the post-second world war moment and the evangelical zeal of the s and ’ s reshaped mennonite groups on the basis of practice, theology, and mis- sionary work as they attempted to “bring the church up to date” in the new world or- der. finally, later-twentieth century immi- gration of lowland german mennonites as well as groups from other parts of the world such as asia and south america forced the established mennonite churches in ontario to re-evaluate their core values as new inter- national ideas influenced traditions. why did some mennonites shift away from old order practices and others did not? this central question helps steiner to maintain cohesion in his encyclopaedic volume. he points to the effects of emigra- tion, of change over time, of the broader forces of secularization and modernization in society as just a few of the key reasons that division took place amongst the men- nonites. in one of the most interesting dis- cussions of the book, steiner explores the challenges of divorce and remarriage to the various orders. divorce posed a significant issue to involvement in the mennonite church; divorced individuals were denied membership. against the backdrop of the s and the rapid social change that oc- curred, this issue exemplified the way some orders like the mennonite brethren re-ex- amined their positions in order to reflect broader society and their choice to assimi- late more than their companion orders. steiner is meticulous in paying heed to the vast array of complicated themes and ideas that accompany the history of a de- nominational group over such a long period of time. debates such as the effect of secu- larization upon the religious community or the place of ecumenism certainly receive attention in the book; however, teasing out the implications of these weighty historical issues are sometimes of secondary concern. in a history as comprehensive as steiner’s this is not so much a criticism but a desire for a continued discussion. steiner’s book would be of interest to ontario history armchair historian and academic alike. his writing is accessible and his history sharp. his briskly-paced book would be of par- ticular use to students of ontario, religion, and the church. for teachers, in search of promised lands is an excellent example of archival history done well. it would help to augment discussions on the place of conflict in society, immigration in ontario, and how modernizing or changing society profound- ly impacted religious and cultural groups. most importantly, steiner’s concluding dis- cussion about the broad spectrum of men- nonite practices raises important questions about how secularization affected specific religious groups—an area of inquiry not yet fully enough explored in the historical record. for the mennonites, it has meant a history of debating the preservation of shared values, faith, and rituals and the mer- its of assimilation into broader society. julia rady-shaw university of toronto with the centennial of the first world war upon us, a large number of books have been published recently about canadian participation in that conflict. some cover old ground with fresh insight, while others venture into areas not previ- ously looked at in any detail. old enough to fight: canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boile- au attempts the latter. of the roughly , men and women canada put into uniform, an estimated - , soldiers (or just over %) were boys younger than military regulations allowed. the authors note there is a literature on the history of boy soldiers in the commonwealth, but no detailed examination of the phenomena in canada. historians like desmond morton in when your number’s up: the canadian soldier in the first world war ( ) and old enough to fight canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boileau toronto: james lorimer, . pages. $ . softcover. isbn - - - - . $ . hardback . $ . ebook . (www.lorimer.ca) tim cook in at the sharp end: canadians fighting the great war, - ( ) have noted the existence of recruits young- er than years of age, but this new book is the first detailed treatment of the topic. the question of how the canadian ex- peditionary force came to have underage soldiers is answered in the introduction and first chapter. the british and canadi- doi: . /s - ( ) -x iii-vs review the advanced semiconductor magazine vol - no - september/october biofunctional led roles as we delve further into the effects of light on human and animal biology, some regions of the visible spectrum are being found to have specific effects on animal and insect behaviour, even at fairly low intensities. therefore, light sources such as incandes- cent, fluorescent, or led lamps, must now be considered as more than just a light source, because of their potential control over important bio-functions, depending on the relative spectral intensities of the activating wavelengths. factors such as melatonin output and the related circadian rhythms (the natural . hour cycle of behaviour and metabol- ic changes exhibited by all plants and ani- mals) are mostly influenced by the light- dark cycle. however, it has been recently shown that melatonin output can alter cancer growth rates and colour related wavelengths are showing evidence of physiological activity that may affect both behaviour and/or health. it is already known that exposure to light is at least a partial cure for a seasonal form of depression (winter blues [not led related] or seasonal affective disorder), which is common in northern winter cli- mates (due to the long nights). exposure to bright light can cure this condition and can also assist night shift workers. in the latter case, minute exposures to bright lighting at the beginning, middle and end of the shifts is found to improve worker performance and well being.these effects are observed from either sunlight or artifi- cial lighting. however, beneficial wave- length-specific effects from led sources have been sought after and, to the poten- tial benefit of led demand, are now being discovered. red (white) & blue for health! in a recent report, mariana figueiro et al, from the lighting research center at rensselayer polytechnic institute, described the results of a pilot study where patients suffering from alzheimer’s disease (ad), with ambient fluorescent lighting levels of lux at the table top, were also exposed to rela- tively low intensity levels ( lux at the eye) of nm (blue) and/or red ( nm) light from led sources.the leds were arranged along the vertical sides of rectangular frames near to the patients to provide the required led intensities.when the patients received blue led exposure, their sleep behaviour became more normal, approaching day- time awake ness and – hours of sleep rather than the erratic sleep behaviour of short periods of sleep and awake ness common for ad patients. additional studies are planned with larg- er sample sizes and optimistically, light sources for this therapy are being designed.what will the blue leds do next? it is hoped that other led thera- pies can be developed, such as led exposure in the morning to help teenagers ward off their late morning awakenings. red led exposure appeared to cause little behaviour change for ad patients, but it has been shown to improve the rate of wound healing, a useful aid for the submariner. what other health related uses for leds lie in store for us? acne treatment and rosacea are both skin problems where the fda has given clearance for blue led use [iii-vs review, august page ]. led safety for the amish in the ever widening panorama of appli- cation categories for high brightness leds, one of the most novel must be the acceptance of led illumination for their transportation vehicles by the deeply reli- gious amish group. this historic sect of pennsylvanian farmers, part of the anabaptist group, (mennonites, quakers et al) have long believed that a simple and devout lifestyle will ease the way to heaven.the amish have existed on the meager livelihood of a simple farmer relying on horse power, oil lamps and a simple lifestyle with horse drawn bug- gies (see figure .) providing the essence of their transportation system, especially for religious duties.a characteristic that tends to restrict long distance travel and maintain their tightly knit, self-sufficient communities.thus, they have long eschewed many of the trappings of dr alan mills po box , mountain view, ca , usa tel/fax: + - - - / email :amills@inreach.com led’s in health and safetym a r k e t f o c u s horse power and oil lamps can be at risk in bad road conditions. but wind & solar powered leds could provide safer lighting ethically. pp - .qxd / / : page modern day civilization, including auto- mobiles, tractors, telephones, electricity, street lighting etc. present in several states and ontario, canada, the total population of the amish community in north america now exceeds one million and they are provid- ing unique market opportunities and novel outlets for high brightness leds. they may not constitute the largest mar- ket opportunities in the world, but they are leading to the development of advanced lighting concepts that have the potential to fulfill lighting needs in the less developed regions of the world, for other religious groups that do not accept all the modernities of the st century and for those that have to work in remote geographic locations. in this new application, the white led headlight units were found to be more effective than the high intensity dis- charge lamps (the hated blue tinted ones!), which draw six to eight amps per lamp at v. however, the high and directed lumi- nance efficiency of the led enables the use of (smaller) batteries that can be charged by solar or wind power and that provide about a fold increase in the time between charges.the new led headlight, which contains eight of the lat- est luxeon leds per unit (from lumileds, san jose, california), each modi- fied with individual optics, is made by sunline solar, a partially amish owned alternative energy business, located in gordonville, pa, deep in the pennsylvania dutch countryside. according to jerry stern from sunline, their white-led headlight design pro- vides wider beam coverage and about % extra viewing range, yet only draws . amps.as part of the total led solu- tion sunline also manufactures tail lamps [red leds] and yellow/amber running light/turn signals [amber leds], both of which have the ability to operate in the flashing mode.thus, sunline solar is the front runner (excuse the pun) in the buggy light-generation race. one up for the amish in transportation applications! the car manufacturers come second, with led-headlight introduction, not expected for three or four more years. the armed forces also have requirements for led headlights. but the present mil spec. design uses to small leds, yet having a performance comparable to the sunline product. the only negative factor for the led headlights appears to be cost. at about $ per unit, they are two to four times as expensive as the existing buggy headlights, but as usual, external factors such as longer bulb and battery life and the related safety issues are winning the day for the led system. the total cost for the full led buggy lighting system, including two to four marker or running lights and tail lamps, is about $ . the extended battery life, which improves from to hours, greatly increases safety margins by reducing the chances of lighting fail- ure —- at the same time increasing the life expectancy of the horse and the buggy passengers on dark country- nights. just think, the latest high bright- ness leds could become standard equipment on the new buggy —- back in your hp power unit and off you go! in spite of the new led-headlight advan- tages, life can be even more difficult for some of the stricter religious sects, because they still do not allow the use of headlights. however, in a meeting of the ancient and exceedingly modern, sunline has recently provided a different led solution for these travelers by devel- oping new tail lamp units that contain one forward facing white led per unit, providing some forward illumination and recognition, while still meeting their more stringent group regulations. other specialty led products in the ‘thanks to the government’ cate- gory, pennsylvania introduced a law that will soon require all milking houses in the state to have lighting, a service not normally demanded by amish cows. again, sunline came to the rescue with another led product.the dairy-farm special is based on an eight d-battery format and uses x mm white leds (this time from nichia). it provides ade- quate lighting, meets the legal and reli- gious requirement, lasts for hundreds of hours and from the state’s point of view, makes for happier, more produc- tive cows. stern also mentioned an additional new product soon to be released, a personal security light, suitable for most emer- gency applications.also based on dry batteries and x mm leds, this portable light will provide many hun- dreds of hours of useful light in disaster and other emergency situations, for an anticipated cost of $ retail. steve mellinger, also from sunline, men- tioned another recent and unique local application for their dry battery lights. in the amish communities, where midwives often have to assist in child birth by flashlight or candle light and the flash- light batteries are known to run down, one of these boxed led lights has been evaluated and requests from other mid- wives are pouring in. obviously, either in the d-battery or solar-rechargeable format, all of these led products developed in pennsylvania will have wider market appeal to mis- sionaries, residents and professionals in underdeveloped regions of the world, where electricity is not available or is an irregular commodity. but, the biggest hurdle to their market growth will probably be spreading their gospel around to all these remote locations! www.three-fives.com led’s in health and safety m a r k e t f o c u s $ for full led buggy lighting system a fine tailpiece for greater safety pp - .qxd / / : page short report allele dosage-dependent penetrance of ret proto-oncogene in an israeli-arab inbred family segregating hirschsprung disease lina basel-vanagaite*, , anna pelet , zvi steiner , arnold munnich , yoram rozenbach , mordechai shohat and stanislas lyonnet department of medical genetics, rabin medical center, beilinson campus, petah tikva, israel; université paris- descartes, faculté de médecine, hôpital necker-enfant malades, paris, france; division of pediatric surgery, hillel- yaffe medical center, hadera, affiliated with the rappaport faculty of medicine, the technion, haifa, israel; division of gastroenterology and nutrition, schneider children’s medical center of israel, petah tikva, israel hirschsprung disease (hscr) is characterised by intestinal obstruction resulting from an absence of ganglion cells in the intestinal tract. the mutations in the major gene, ret, associated with isolated hscr, are dominant loss-of-function mutations with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity. we have ascertained a large inbred israeli-arab family segregating hscr. sequencing of the ret gene showed a splicing mutation, ivs þ g� a, in the homozygous state in all the females with severe forms of hscr and in the heterozygous state in the male patient with short-segment hscr. the recently described hypomorphic-ret predisposing allele, rs , was transmitted in the heterozygous state to the male patient, but was not transmitted to the three affected females. although the heterozygous ivs þ g� a is of low-penetrance for short-segment hscr disease, the homozygous state is fully penetrant for total aganglionosis or long-segment hscr. as in other inbred populations segregating a weakly penetrant ret allele (mennonite), our findings support the hypothesis that the penetrance of ret gene mutations for the hscr phenotype depends on: (i) the nature of the mutation, (ii) the allele dosage and (iii) modifier-loci. european journal of human genetics ( ) , – . doi: . /sj.ejhg. ; published online november keywords: hirschsprung; ret mutation; penetrance introduction hirschsprung disease (hscr) is characterised by intestinal obstruction resulting from the absence of ganglion cells in a variable portion of the intestinal tract. the incidence of hscr is : live-births in caucasian populations. symptoms range from abdominal distension and failure to pass stools in neonates, to chronic constipation and enterocolitis in childhood. in % of individuals, agan- glionosis is restricted to the rectosigmoid colon (short- segment disease, s-hscr), but in b % the aganglionosis extends proximal to the sigmoid colon (long-segment disease, l-hscr). in b % of individuals, aganglionosis affects the entire large intestine (total colonic aganglio- nosis, tca). total intestinal aganglionosis (tia) extending from the duodenum to the rectum is the rarest form and is usually fatal. the ret gene, located on chromosome q . , is the major gene in nonsyndromic hscr. , the vast majority of families with hscr show linkage to the ret locus. heterozygous mutations within the ret gene coding sequence are identified only in % of (linked) families and – % of sporadic cases – and are char- acterised by incomplete sex biased penetrance and a received july ; revised september ; accepted october ; published online november *correspondence: dr l basel-vanagaite, department of medical genetics, rabin medical center, beilinson campus, petah tikva , israel. tel: þ ; fax: þ ; e-mail: basel@post.tau.ac.il european journal of human genetics ( ) , – & nature publishing group all rights reserved - / $ . www.nature.com/ejhg variable extension of aganglionosis. , the estimated penetrance is % in males and % in females. recently a major role of noncoding variations in intron of ret (hypomorphic alleles) has been demonstrated by several studies. , – in this report, we describe an inbred israeli-arab family with hscr where a splicing mutation segregates in affected family members either in the homozygous state resulting in tca or l-hscr (females) or in the heterozygous state resulting in s-hscr (male). patients the patients are all members of a large consanguineous israeli-arab family. in one branch of the family three female siblings have tca (individuals iii- (deceased), iii- and iii- , figure ) and one female has l-hscr (individual iii- , figure ), and in the second branch of the family one male has s-hscr (individual iii- , figure ). patients iii- , iii- and iii- also have congenital autosomal recessive ichthyosis, which is unrelated to the hscr. the clinical features of the patients are summarized in table . the research study was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee (ccpprb approval - - , ap-hp, paris). methods dna was isolated by standard methods. linkage analysis to the ret gene locus was performed using polymorphic genetic markers d s , ret int- and stcl , followed by sequencing of the snp rs (ivs -c t). mutation screening of the coding sequence of the ret gene was performed with primers designed for exons and the flanking splice sites. pcr products were directly sequenced in both directions on an abi prism dna sequencer (perkin elmer-applied biosystems) using the big dye terminator method according to the manufacturer’s instructions. results linkage to the ret gene locus was established. the haplotype -c- - segregated with the hscr pheno- type (figure ). a splice-mutation, ivs þ g� a, was identified; this was not found in control chromo- somes. after the complete sequencing of the ret gene, no other sequence changes were found. the mutation ivs þ g� a involves a known canonical splice site, where the intronic nucleotide þ is known to participate in the donor splice site processes. when the ivs þ g� a mutation was tested with a programme (http://www.fruitfly.org/seq_tools/splice.html), which is designed to predict the efficiency of splice sites, the score of the wild donor site sequence decreased from one to . . all the patients with tca and the patient with l-hscr were homozygous for the mutation (figure ). the same mutation in heterozygous state was found in the boy with figure the haplotypes and mutation analysis in the affected and unaffected family members in the families with hscr. the order of the genetic markers analysed is shown in the upper left-hand corner. the arrow indicates the proband. penetrance of ret depends on allele dosage l basel-vanagaite et al european journal of human genetics s-hscr and in seven healthy family members (figure ). individuals ii- , ii- and iii- carried the hypomorphic allele t (snp rs ) in trans. the rs allele was not present in any of the females homozygous for the ivs þ g� a mutation. discussion heterozygous mutations of the ret proto-oncogene occur in families with tca, l- or s-hscr. , – homozygous ret gene mutations causing hscr are extremely rare. only one patient with tia and three with tca owing to homozygous ret mutations have been reported in the literature (table ). in the family described by geneste et al, as in our patients, tca was caused by a homozygous ret gene mutation, whereas in contrast to our family, l-hscr in another set of their patients was caused by the same mutation in the heterozygous state. in this study, we illustrate the effect of ret gene dosage on the penetrance and expressivity of the hscr pheno- type. although the ivs þ g� a mutation in hetero- zygous state is of low penetrance for s-hscr disease (less than . % if the obligate untyped carriers in generation i are included), there is full penetrance ( %) in the homozygous state. homozygous patients show little varia- bility of expression (tca with small bowel involvement and l-hscr). in a study describing homozygous mutation inheritance in the ednrb in a large inbred mennonite kindred with hscr, most of the affected individuals were homozygous for the mutated allele, although some heterozygotes were also described. homozygotes and heterozygotes for the ednrb mutation w c had a and % risk, respec- tively, of developing hscr. the ednrb-mutation showed incomplete penetrance, as some unaffected individuals from this family were also found to be homozygous. in addition, some affected individuals did not carry the mutation, suggesting the presence of additional suscept- ibility loci contributing to hscr inheritance. even in an isolated population, such as the mennonites, hscr is a multigenically inherited disease involving interaction between the hypomorphic-ednrb allele and one or more ret hscr-susceptibility variants. in our study, all the family members who are homozygous for the ret gene mutation have severe forms of hscr. none of them carries the hypomorphic allele rs , which we chose because of homology and evolutionary conservation between rodents and primates and because in vitro studies have highlighted an enhancer role for this region. , two males, ii- and iii- , are heterozygotes for the splice mutation and the hypomorphic allele; however, individual table clinical characteristics of the patients patient age age at onset of the disease clinical presentation age at operation extension of aganglionosis iii- years mo constipation mo s-hscr iii- died at the age of years from liver failure days abdominal distension, vomiting mo tca iii- years days abdominal distension mo tca+ cm of terminal ileum iii- years days abdominal distension, bilious vomiting mo tca+ cm of terminal ileum iii- year day abdominal distension, vomiting mo l-hscr ( / of colon up to hepatic flexure) mo ¼ months. table reported patients with homozygous ret mutations and their heterozygous siblings mutation genotype gender extension of aganglionosis reference r q m/m ? tca with small bowel involvement seri et al a t m/m or m/� male tia inoue et al ; shimotake et al l p m/m female tca geneste et al m/m female tca m/wt male l-hscr ivs + g� a m/m female tca with small bowel involvement this study m/m female tca with small bowel involvement m/m female l-hscr m/wt male s-hscr m ¼ mutated allele, wt ¼ wild-type allele, � ¼ deletion of entire ret exon(s). penetrance of ret depends on allele dosage l basel-vanagaite et al european journal of human genetics iii- is affected (s-hscr), whereas his haplo-identical father, ii- , is unaffected. additional genetic changes are thought to be responsible for the variable expressivity of the disease in the homozygous and heterozygous patients described in this study. as suggested in other inbred populations segregating a weakly penetrant ret predisposing allele, our findings support the hypothesis that the penetrance of ret gene mutations for the hscr phenotype depend on: (i) the nature of the mutation, (ii) the allele dosage and (iii) the modifier-loci. the results of this study emphasise the importance of ascertaining the molecular basis of hscr in families with more than one affected individual, especially if they originate from a small-inbred population. the detection of a ret gene mutation allows the families to be offered genetic counselling and enables early disease detection in the homozygous individuals. acknowledgements we are grateful to the families who participated in this study. we thank dr gabrielle halpern for her help with editing the manuscript and irit lis for preparing the figures. references bodian m, carter c: a family study of hirschsprung disease. ann hum genet ; : – . edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm et al: mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature ; : – . romeo g, ronchetto p, luo y et al: point mutations affecting the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in hirsch- sprung’s disease. nature ; : – . bolk s, pelet a, hofstra rm et al: a human model for multigenic inheritance: phenotypic expression in hirschsprung disease requires both the ret gene and a new q locus. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . attié t, pelet a, edery p et al: diversity of ret proto-oncogene mutations in familial and sporadic hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . angrist m, bolk s, thiel b et al: mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . seri m, yin l, barone v et al: frequency of ret mutations in long- and short-segment hirschsprung disease. hum mutat ; : – . gabriel sb, salomon r, pelet a et al: segregation at three loci explains familial and population risk in hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . pelet a, de pontual l, clement-ziza m et al: homozygosity for a frequent and weakly penetrant predisposing allele at the ret locus in sporadic hirschsprung disease. j med genet ; : e . lyonnet s, bolino a, pelet a et al: a gene for hirschsprung disease maps to the proximal long arm of chromosome . nat genet ; : – . angrist m, kauffman e, slaugenhaupt sa et al: a gene for hirschsprung disease (megacolon) in the pericentromeric region of human chromosome . nat genet ; : – . fitze g, schierz m, kuhlisch e et al: novel intronic polymor- phisms in the ret proto-oncogene and their association with hirschsprung disease. hum mutat ; : . garcia barcelo mm, sham mh, lui vc et al: chinese patients with sporadic hirschsprung’s disease are predominantly represented by a single ret haplotype. j med genet ; : e . burzynski gm, nolte im, osinga j et al: localizing a putative mutation as the major contributor to the development of sporadic hirschsprung disease to the ret genomic sequence between the promoter region and exon . eur j hum genet ; : – . emison es, mccallion as, kashuk cs et al: a common sex- dependent mutation in a ret enhancer underlies hirschsprung disease risk. nature ; : – . edery p, pelet a, mulligan lm et al: long segment and short segment familial hirschsprung’s disease: variable clinical expres- sion at the ret locus. j med genet ; : – . inoue k, shimotake t, iwai n: mutational analysis of ret/gdnf/ ntn genes in children with total colonic aganglionosis with small bowel involvement. am j med genet ; : – . shimotake t, go s, inoue k, tomiyama h, iwai n: a homozygous missense mutation in the tyrosine e kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in an infant with total intestinal aganglionosis. am j gastroenterol ; : – . geneste o, bidaud c, de vita g et al: two distinct mutations of the ret receptor causing hirschsprung’s disease impair the binding of signalling effectors to a multifunctional docking site. hum mol genet ; : – . puffenberger eg, kauffman er, bolk s et al: identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet ; : – . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss et al: a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell ; : – . carrasquillo mm, mccallion as, puffenberger eg, kashuk cs, nouri n, chakravarti a: genome-wide association study and mouse model identify interaction between ret and ednrb pathways in hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . mccallion as, stames e, conlon ra, chakravarti a: phenotype variation in two-locus mouse models of hirschsprung disease: tissue-specific interaction between ret and ednrb. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . penetrance of ret depends on allele dosage l basel-vanagaite et al european journal of human genetics 	allele dosage-dependent penetrance of ret proto-oncogene in an israeli-arab inbred family segregating hirschsprung disease 	introduction 	patients 	methods 	results 	discussion 	acknowledgements 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ isabelle backouche. la trace du fleuve. la seine et paris ( – ), paris : Éditions de l’École des hautes Études en sciences sociales, , pp. . glossaire, bibliographie, cartes, figures, tableaux, index all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine isabelle backouche. la trace du fleuve. la seine et paris ( – ), paris : Éditions de l’École des hautes Études en sciences sociales, , pp. . glossaire, bibliographie, cartes, figures, tableaux, index dany fougères volume , numéro , march uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu fougères, d. ( ). compte rendu de [isabelle backouche. la trace du fleuve. la seine et paris ( – ), paris : Éditions de l’École des hautes Études en sciences sociales, , pp. . glossaire, bibliographie, cartes, figures, tableaux, index]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews i comptes rendus the conquistadors. the assimilative message of the public schools diminished immigrant cultures initially, but the assimila- tive language of "acceptance" propelled the immigrant mind not into a cultural acquiescence but towards ethnic assertions of worthiness. full acceptance may have been presented to the im- migrant in terms of minority-majority relations, but the fact was that the greatest challenge to being accepted lay in outwitting other ethnic groups willing to wage acrimonious interethnic "homemaking wars," each group seeking to weaken the other groups' claims to legitimacy. thus ethnicity was not about conti- nuity, but was in fact the final act of discontinuity. its assertion was always an attempt by the immigrant to be integrated into a nation that itself was obsessed with questions of belonging, le- gitimacy, merit, and acceptance. ethnic identities did not mark the shibboleth of americanism, they were its very expression ( ). a second strength of the book is that overland has identified a phenomenon that is dynamic. the book is specifically about contestation; "how organized groups responded to the problem of being considered foreigners." ( ) much information is offered on the western european immigrant elite - the journalists, the editors, the novelists, the preachers - but their writings are never one-dimensional. they arise in the context of immigrant in- feriority complexes, anglo-american exceptionalism, the anomie of assimilation, and the desire to be american. the immigrant groups could see what the host society and its historians could not and that was that the great divide between "history" and "heritage", to employ david lowenthal's concepts, was duplici- tous: the mayflower compact was as interwoven with teleology as the most "grotesque" filiopietist narrative of contribution his- tory. and the book is also historical, arguing that the ethnic proc- lamations marked a particular stage in the integration of european groups; after the birth of racial theories of anglo- saxon superiority, but mostly before world war ii when waning immigrant waves weakened american xenophobia ( ). each of the three sections of the book carries this message of irony and dynamism. these sections describe three kinds of identity creating myths, the stories placing the immigrant at the very seat of the nation founding, stories suggesting that the im- migrant was a truer voice of the nation's ideals that the host so- ciety itself, and stories recounting the valour of sacrifice. in this wide coverage the book leaves few gaps. still some questions remain. how did the many sectarian immi- grants, such as the amish and hutterites, who placed their very legitimacy as people on a successful rejection of the wider soci- ety, jibe with the book's sweeping explanation of ethnicisation? how can one still argue that the phenomenon of ethnic identi- ties was a new world phenomenon, when scholarship has shown that the mindset of european groups was shaped by monarchical patriotism, religious wars and internal migrations? how can one suggest that ethnicisation ended in the context of the tolerant post-world war ii era, when hostilities were directed to such groups as the haitians, koreans, and arabs who in turn were compelled to assert athletic prowess, entrepreneurial skill, or peaceful tradition. the story may just be even more complex than overland's evocative portrayal demonstrates. royden loewen chair of mennonite studies university of winnipeg isabelle backouche. la trace du fleuve. la seine et paris ( - ), paris : Éditions de l'École des hautes Études en sciences sociales, , pp. . glossaire, bibliographie, cartes, figures, tableaux, index. la seine « était dynamique au xviiie siècle, animée par une grande diversité de pratiques et d'acteurs et dominée par une tension permanente entre les usages et leur régulation. elle dev- ient statique au xixe siècle, la ceinture de quais ayant pour ob- jectif principal d'enfermer et de contenir le fleuve » (p. ). depuis nous dit isabelle backouche, le fleuve - et ses abords - est un « espace étranger à la vie de la capitale ». il est « musée », il est architecture, il est esthétique; il n'est plus le moteur d'urbanité qu'il a été, l'« espace urbain » au cœur de la vie parisienne. partant de ce constat, l'objectif backouche est de faire con- naître la relation entre paris et son fleuve avant et pendant la « rupture » opérée au cours de la première moitié du xixe siècle. comment la seine a-t-elle perdu le rôle prédominant qu'elle tenait dans paris? comment le lien entre paris et son fleuve a été tissé puis, quand et comment s'est opérée la rupture? divisé en trois parties, l'ouvrage couvre la période à , soit au moment où de « réels enjeux, économiques et politiques, s'at- tachent aux relations entre paris et son fleuve », jusqu'au mo- ment où le devenir de paris devient indépendant de son fleuve. dans la première partie de l'ouvrage (un espace partagé), l'au- teure dresse le portrait des pratiques sur le fleuve et ses abords au tournant des années . grâce à un usage judicieux des documents légaux et administratifs de l'époque, l'auteure re- trace les multiples rôles du fleuve : réception de produits de toutes sortes, accueil de migrants, constitution de « dynasties fluviales » familiales propriétaires de nombreux bateaux. en examinant la disposition des bateaux et des quais, des ponts et des rues avoisinantes au fleuve, l'auteure dévoile le processus de « zoning » dont la seine est à l'époque l'objet et l'instigatrice. le fleuve est « un espace qui envahit la vie urbaine » (p. ) en . il agrémente ou impose des contraintes aux déplace- ments de tous les parisiens, se pose comme un lieu de rassem- blement et de consommation, permet à tout un chacun de s'investir d'une appartenance géographique intra-parisienne (ap- partenance à la rive gauche, à la rive droite). enfin, backouche démontre que, de par son rôle central, la seine bénéficie d'un statut - juridique notamment - complexe qui la distingue dans la cité (p. ) et dont le contrôle est jalousement gardé par les autorités locales et leurs représentants (inspecteurs, con- trôleurs, receveurs). urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxx, no. (march ) book reviews i comptes rendus après les années , l'équilibre au pourtour du fleuve est rompu en raison de l'afflux de nouveaux venus en quête d'une « parcelle » de quai ou d'une « lisière » de berge pour s'affairer à leurs activités. se multiplient alors les conflits d'usages et paris assiste à la « dénonciation d'une saturation de l'espace flu- vial » (p. ). une réflexion sur l'aménagement du fleuve et ses abords prend alors forme. l'auteure consacre la seconde partie de son ouvrage, la seine en travaux ( - ), à cet enjeu. elle y présente les principaux projets d'urbanisme, dont celui de - (dont les travaux de réalisation débuteront en ). backouche identifie les multiples instigateurs de ces projets, tout en révélant les oppositions et les alliances entre les uns et les autres. malgré cette multiplicité d'intérêts, tous partagent une notion commune de l'« embellissement » du fleuve, axée à la fois sur des préoccupations concrètes (assainissement et fa- cilité d'accès) et sur la conviction qu'il y a nécessité d'adopter une solution d'aménagement à l'échelle de la seine dans son ensemble. backouche soutient que l'urbanisme parisien du xixe siècle, avec à sa tête haussmann, est en lien direct avec l'urbanisme de la seconde moitié du xviiie siècle. toutefois, les aménagistes du xixe siècle ignoreront la place qu'on accordait au fleuve en : « bien des jalons sont déjà posés pour le siècle suivant qui donnera une toute autre ampleur aux souhaits exprimés depuis » (p. ). en effet, l'idée exprimée en de faire du fleuve le centre de la vie parisienne ne sera pas retenue. il deviendra uniquement une voie de transport et il sera séparé définitivement (et physiquement) de la vie parisienne suite à la confection d'ouvrages de génie civil destinés à maîtriser et à contenir son lit. c'est ce que back- ouche démontre dans la dernière partie de son ouvrage, la seine loin de paris. ce processus « d'éloignement » du fleuve tient de facteurs multiples : l'après révolution où sont revus les régimes juridiques publics et privés, les prérogatives de la ville et de la jeune république à l'égard de la seine et le rôle, sans équivoque à partir de ce moment, concédé aux ingénieurs des ponts et chaussées. « l'avènement d'une voie de communica- tion répondant aux critères des ingénieurs et de l'inspecteur de la navigation est incompatible avec l'épaisseur des usages sur lesquels reposait la situation particulière de la seine dans l'espace parisien » (p. ). on peut se demander si une muta- tion de l'économie, propice au redéploiement spatial des ac- tivités, était par ailleurs déjà à l'œuvre. cela aurait possiblement favorisé, à moyen ou à long terme, une désertion de la seine. l'auteure n'en dit mot. donc, alors que les années font ap- paraître la seine comme une lieu d'urbanité, la première moitié du xixe siècle voit une ville désireuse de se « protéger » du fleuve par la confection de travaux de délimitation de la ligne du fleuve (p. ) et la confiscation des abords du fleuve pour uniquement le déchargement des marchandises. en , les destinés de la seine deviennent nationales plutôt que locales. cet ouvrage est à lire pour tout ce qu'il dévoile : histoire ur- baine, histoire de l'urbanisme, histoire de paris, histoire d'un fleuve. par ailleurs, sa grande qualité est sans doute d'avoir re- connu à la seine le « statut » d'espace urbain et de l'avoir ana- lysé comme tel. aussi, l'édition est remarquable et richement composée de cartes, plans et tableaux. cela dit, la trace du fleuve est un ouvrage dense et chacune des trois parties auraient pu constituer un livre. backouche a déjà obtenu deux prix d'excellence pour le travail contenu dans cet ouvrage. cela est de toute évidence mérité. dany fougères inrs urbanisation, culture et société urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxx, no. (march ) a role for english language teachers in trauma healing communities of participation in tesol a role for english language teachers in trauma healing michael medley eastern mennonite university because english language teachers should take into account the social-psychological situation of the students they teach, they must be sensitive to the effects of traumatic stress among learn- ers. refugee and immigrant children are frequently survivors of trauma, along with their peers in crisis-torn english as a foreign language settings around the world. without experiencing some measure of healing from trauma, children will be frustrated in their language learning. this article explains how what we know about trauma can be aligned with effective language instructional practices. the author first provides information about the effects of trauma and then identifies teaching approaches that are sensitive to the needs of those affected by trauma. the author suggests ways that teachers can (a) include intelligences that may be neglected in traditional language class- rooms as a way to address the needs of trauma-affected youth in order to have multiple channels for self-expression and language learning; (b) integrate language instruction with self-expression and exploration of social relationships; and (c) incorporate content-based language instruction that explains the trauma healing process. although further investigations are needed, english language teachers can play a role in trauma healing for learners because artful acts of instruction are thera- peutic, promoting both wholeness and effective instruction for all learners. doi: . /tesj. hussain (not his real name) is a -year-old placed in an intensive english program at his u.s. high school. having fled iraq years ago, his family managed months ago to reach the united states. hussain’s father was kidnapped in iraq and has not been seen or heard from. when asked to share anything about his tesol journal . , march © tesol international association experience of coming to the united states, hussain begins by mentioning what happened to his father. in almost every discussion, the topic of his father arises. hussain likes to play soccer, which prompts him to share the memory that he played soccer with his father and his father’s friends when he was only years old. one thing that hussain never mentions is that when his father was kidnapped, hussain also was taken by the kidnappers. he was tortured and eventually released and reunited with his mother and siblings. he never mentions such things, but his sister has told me that he still wakes up sometimes screaming in the night. while his english lesson is in progress, hussain often blurts out remarks to other students in english or arabic—even sometimes in spanish because he has many latino/a classmates. when it is his turn to do computer-assisted learning, he often pesters those sitting near him. he rarely remains focused on his own computer screen for more than a couple of minutes—in sharp contrast to many others in this class. hussain is not a rare case. many language learners around the world suffer the after-effects of trauma induced by natural disaster (tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.) or human cruelty (war, civil unrest, displacement, gang or domestic violence, etc.). even decades after a disaster or crisis has ended, the trauma responses persist in the minds and behavior of these people. the aftermath of trauma is carried to countries of refuge, where those who have fled from horrific situations are sometimes overwhelmed by the experiences of immigration. many of these sufferers are children enrolled in schools where english is a required subject or the medium of instruction. filling a gap many valuable resources are available for those working with traumatically stressed adult language learners (e.g., finn, ; international institute of boston, ), but to date very little research and almost no special resources for trauma-affected younger language learners have been published. general resources provided by cole et al. ( ) and levine and kline ( ) are a a role for english language teachers in trauma healing great help for those working with trauma-affected children, but they do not focus on language and literacy acquisition. just as culturally and linguistically responsive teaching approaches are necessary (e.g., gibbons, ; nykiel-herbert, ; santamaria, ), it is also necessary to address the special needs created by learners’ past traumas. young learners are not disembodied cognitive devices for processing language input, but persons with histories. they are the products of what they have seen, heard, smelled, touched, acted on, and been subjected to—as well as the products of their ancestors’ experiences. through stories passed down over generations, they have absorbed and processed interpretations of who they are, how they have become what they are, and what they have the potential to become. their personal histories have profoundly affected their psychological states and their stakes in the classroom. this article suggests that (a) without experiencing some measure of healing from trauma, most language learners will be frustrated; (b) teaching approaches that are sensitive to the needs of the trauma-affected comprise good instructional practice for all learners; and (c) artful acts of instruction in themselves can be therapeutic and build resilience in all language learners. trauma and its effects the opening anecdote about hussain illustrates several important points about trauma. his case shows us that trauma from the infliction of torture can be overwhelming and long-lasting. hussain’s behavior, cognition, and emotions all manifest some effects of trauma. like hussain, victims sometimes suppress memories of their trauma or conceal information from others as a mechanism for coping with pain or because they feel shame or guilt for being victimized. as levine and kline ( ) emphasize, however, trauma lies not in the event itself but in the response of the person. this means, for example, that the trauma does not have to involve physical harm. and certain events can overwhelm one person’s capacity to cope, but leave others relatively unscathed. even though it was traumatic for hussain’s sister to lose her father, she appears not to have been overwhelmed in the same way that hussain has been. tesol journal what is trauma? according to cole et al. ( ), trauma is “a response to a stressful experience in which a person’s ability to cope is dramatically undermined” (p. ). for learners who are and younger, it is also worthwhile to note terr’s definition of “childhood trauma as the impact of external forces that ‘[render] the young person temporarily helpless and [break] past ordinary coping and defensive operation’” (as cited in cole et al., , p. ). trauma has both physical and psychological dimensions (levine & kline, ). cole et al. ( ) describe the three broad classic symptoms of traumatic stress as “hyperarousal, re-experiencing (i.e., involuntarily ‘reliving’ the traumatic experience), and avoidance (i.e., avoiding traumatic reminders and/or emotions associated with the initial traumatic event)” (pp. – ). the key point to remember is that traumatic stress is relatively unpredictable: its effects lie not in the traumatizing event itself but in the capacity of the individual to cope—in that individual’s level of resilience (levine & kline, ). responses of school-aged children and youth responses to trauma exhibited by children vary with age and oscillate between acting out (engaging in socially disruptive behavior) and acting in (engaging in withdrawal or self- destructive thought and behavior; hart, b; levine & kline, ). kerka ( ) refers to these as forms of learning, what the trauma has taught the child to do as a way of coping with the overwhelming pain or loss. the learned responses of school-aged children most relevant to classrooms include those suggested in table (hart, b; levine & kline, ). many of the trauma responses listed in table relate directly to issues of classroom management and methods of lesson delivery. a teacher who responds to behavior problems simply by clamping down on learners with tighter discipline ignores the child’s inner wounds from which the behavior emanates. clamping down will probably not erase the behavior problems, and the student will still face difficulties learning (hart, b). a role for english language teachers in trauma healing what is needed, rather, is a consistent pedagogical strategy that aspires to the following goals: • including intelligences that may be neglected in traditional language class- rooms, such as bodily-kinesthetic, musical, spatial, interpersonal and intra- personal, and naturalist intelligences as a way to address the needs of trauma-affected youth and to help them access multiple channels for self- expression and language learning • integrating language instruction with self-expression and exploration of social relationships in order to build a community that will be a safe envi- ronment for mourning traumas and considering nonviolent options for transforming conflict • incorporating content-based language instruction that explains the trauma healing process and indirectly addresses local violence by examining similar but geographically distant conflicts inclusion of multiple intelligences the theory of multiple intelligences provides a compelling response to the several competing discourses about educational methods that disadvantage “special learners” of any kind, including trauma-affected learners. kerka ( ) identifies four detrimental discourses. one is the familiar discourse of deficit, which claims there is something wrong with the student; the institution is blameless and doesn’t need to change. the medical discourse, a variation of the deficit discourse, stipulates that trauma victims first need therapeutic treatment, and then they can be taught. another perspective is what kerka calls the discourse of table . responses of school-aged children to emotional trauma emotional cognitive behavioral fear, moodiness, anger, depression loss of interest in school trouble with memory and poor concentration possible desire to understand why the trauma occurred or thoughts about death aggressiveness toward others hypervigilance/hyperarousal withdrawal/isolation attention-seeking behaviors difficulty trusting others or loss of trust in others participation in high-risk or illegal behaviors (e.g., substance abuse)—adolescents tesol journal educational practice, which explains trauma-affected learners’ taciturn withdrawal or chronic inattention or disruptive acting out as a lack of motivation or self-discipline instead of viewing these behaviors as learned responses to trauma. finally, there is the discourse of standards and accountability, which places simplistic demands for achieving certain outcomes on learners without understanding how their complex condition affects their negotiation of the drill-and-test regime. a fifth discourse type could be added to the list. this is the discourse of teacher despair, which says, “you are adding another kind of special learner to my classroom and expecting me to make special accommodations for this learner? you’re asking me to deal with mental health issues when i’m a teacher and not a therapist!” one response to these discourses is to embrace the theory and practice of multiple intelligences (christison, ; gardner, ; haley, ). this perspective demands an end to unwarranted assumptions that language must be learned mainly through linguistic and logico-mathematical approaches and that “good” language learners must be strong in these forms of intelligence. a multiple intelligences approach to language teaching assumes that the full range of intelligences is represented in every classroom—with most children having strengths in more than one intelligence. it assumes that most learners acquire a language best by accessing multiple avenues for input. in short, this perspective affirms that trauma-affected learners are like all the other learners in the classroom: they can process new language better if they are able to draw on the intelligences that work the best for them. because linguistic intelligence itself is of paramount importance in a language classroom, the teaching profession sometimes neglects incorporation of other intelligences identified by gardner ( ), such as bodily-kinesthetic, musical, visual- spatial, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal, although most classrooms that are moderately communicative make some use of the last two in this list in providing for journaling and pair or group work. intentionally planning for multiple intelligences offers learners multiple channels for self-expression, a role for english language teachers in trauma healing such as music, journaling, art, drama, and movement (yoder, ). integration of language study with self-exploration and social relationships earl w. stevick ( ) pithily identifies “what goes on inside and between” (p. ) people as foundational for understanding successful language teaching and learning. trauma-affected language learners need a safe place in community with others where they can do the internal work that brings healing. safety victims of trauma must believe that their lives are no longer under threat. for healing to begin, they must live in a safe environment (hart, b; yoder, ). language classrooms are inherently risky places, but they can also become sanctuaries for the traumatized. we know that learners who stick their necks out and try using the new language are more likely to attain some measure of proficiency, but the risks that a language teacher proposes need to be measured by the capacity of the learners. making a language classroom safe for trauma-affected youth creates a healthy environment for all members of the class. steps that can be taken include maintaining a predictable routine, posting the daily schedule on the board and notifying students ahead of time if there will be a major deviation from the schedule (cole et al., ), not introducing too many new task types too quickly, using elicitation techniques that do not expose students to high risk, engaging students in choral practice, using correction techniques that do not expose learners to embarrassment, and having students participate in small-group work as a way of avoiding situations in which the whole class focuses attention on one learner. as standard advice for creating a safe classroom environment given in methods textbooks (e.g., brown, ), these measures are crucial for language learners recovering from trauma. take, for example, the maxim “maintain a predictable environment.” as cole et al. ( ), hart ( b), and others point out, children suffering from traumatic stress have lived in unstable tesol journal environments; whether through abuse, social violence, or natural disaster, their expectations about how the world operates have been turned upside down. as cole et al. note, “children living in circumstances that do not allow them to make connections between their actions and the responses they trigger can be left wary of the future, which feels to them both unpredictable and out of their control” (p. ). this loss of connection between causes and effects can also create problems for managing behavior, as motivation wanes and children lose the will to persevere in academic tasks. to help learners restore the link between cause and effect, the teacher needs to build rewards into the system so that children can see that effort results in positive effects. however, the rewards need to be intrinsic, if possible, based on forming positive relationships with the instructor who works to personalize the learning process while building the learner’s self-confidence. community traumatized children need to redevelop trust with adults, peers, and the world (hart, b). teachers must work on community building in a classroom, such that the teacher and learners increasingly become more deeply acquainted with each other as whole persons. community building is part of the work of creating a safe space for language learners. community flourishes as people grow to know, understand, and respect each other. hart ( a) emphasizes the importance of playing ice- breaker games as a way of building and sustaining rapport. she points out that these games serve the multiple functions of increasing trust and caring, evoking laughter, increasing ability to focus, and bringing multiple intelligences into play. these activities attenuate hypervigilance as children relax in the game setting. they also serve multiple language learning functions, allowing for repetition in listening and speaking and for practicing a wide range of vocabulary. the greeting game, for example, practices the names for body parts using total physical response (hart, a). the teacher gives commands such as “greet each other with a handshake (a fist bump, an elbow bump, a pat on the back, etc.).” the teacher begins with the a role for english language teachers in trauma healing least embarrassing commands first, and participants have a right to challenge what they think is an inappropriate greeting. this game adds critical as well as interpersonal dimensions to a total physical response technique in which language is wedded with movement. another way of building community among class members is to integrate language instruction with self-expression and exploration of social relationships. the united states institute of peace’s (usip; n.d.) peace education for english language learners presents many activities that promote interpersonal knowledge. through these activities, learners put english to use at levels appropriate to their proficiency. for example, in the name game participants share the meaning of their names, how they got their names, and how they feel about their names. the language required in this communicative activity is easily accessible for intermediate-level learners and above, but those whose english is more elementary could be supported with sentence frames. another activity, we belong to many groups (usip, n.d.), allows learners to explore those groups that play a role in shaping their identities (e.g., family, clubs, teams, religious affiliations). it can be done as a total physical response activity based on reading or listening. the teacher either shows or says a series of statements such as “one of the most important groups i belong to is ____________ ,” filling in the blank with various group names. learners respond by standing or perhaps by grouping themselves in different areas of the room that bear labels for the groups. students may respond positively to more than one of the statements, signifying that they “belong to many groups.” building a classroom culture in which all class members learn how to encourage and affirm each other is a good goal for all language classrooms, but is especially important to trauma- affected learners. hart (personal communication) stresses the importance of including, in addition to reflective types of learning, actions that build healthy relationships, giving children opportunities to “fill one another’s bucket” with happiness and gratitude by doing acts of kindness or uttering kind words. resources available on the bucket fillers website tesol journal (www.bucketfillers .com) suggest ways for teachers and learners to say and write simple words that build up others and integrate language practice with caring deeds. mourning victims of violence need to mourn their traumas. they need to acknowledge that a trauma has occurred and be willing to talk about it instead of hiding or suppressing it. of course, teachers should never force the trauma-affected learner to mourn, and sometimes should even steer classroom topics away from reminders of the trauma. but choosing not to mourn locks the wounded person in a cycle of victimhood and potential violence (star, ; yoder, ). by contrast, yoder ( ) points out that “when all of the story is acknowledged and mourned—the valor, heroism, sacrifice, pain, fear, resilience, betrayals, humiliations, shortcomings, atrocities, and guilt—then shame and humiliation can be shed, forgiveness sought, courage celebrated, and reenactment ended” (p. ). elt professionals working among trauma-affected populations must learn to strike a balance between language learning goals and sensitivity to the learners’ environment and their emergent needs. in the english teaching that she did in postwar kosovo in , paula huntley ( ) learned the importance of creating space for sharing stories. she flexibly allowed learners to tell their stories even though that was not the direction she had planned for the lesson. she devised writing assignments that allowed these students, mainly adolescents, to document the horrors of their war experiences. as huntley learned to do, teachers can elicit stories from learners related to their traumatic experiences. while working on specific tenses or narrative structures, the teacher can ask students to remember the routines they had while in the environment where the trauma occurred: what was a day like in a refugee camp? what was life like while they endured weeks of bombing? what happened on the train journey? the teacher becomes a learner in this situation, discovering what topics to avoid for the moment because they might trigger trauma responses, what additional content to integrate, and what to recognize and affirm about students’ experiences. healing can a role for english language teachers in trauma healing begin when others stop pretending that a traumatic experience never occurred and acknowledge the pain that is felt. hart ( b) provides a structure for story sharing by asking learners to create a dust cover for their biography. learners identify three or four defining moments in their life. they invent a title for the book and design a picture for the cover. then they narrate one of the defining moments for the front inside flap. they write a brief bio statement for the back inside flap and provide quotations from reviewers or important persons in their lives for the back cover. this assignment makes space for, but does not force, sharing about traumatic experiences. in providing a chance for learners to use their new language to (re)construct the meaning of their experiences, this activity encourages intrapersonal intelligence. it also exercises visual-spatial and kinesthetic intelligences in the design of the cover and interpersonal intelligence as the developing writers consider how best to attract and communicate with their audience through the covers. integrating language instruction with self-expression and exploration of social relationships addresses three issues important for trauma healing to take place: creating a safe environment, building trust among class members, and acknowledging traumas so that they can be properly mourned. the self-exploration piece also focuses learners’ attention on recovering meaning in their lives. how language teachers deliver such lessons is as important as the content focus. incorporation of trauma healing content as already mentioned, responses to crises, catastrophes, or chronic stressors are highly variable. the power to traumatize lies not in the event itself, but in the individual’s inability to endure the stress. some individuals are more resilient than others. how did they become resilient? if their secrets can be taught to children who have been traumatized, then this might act as a road map leading them out of the cycles of violence onto a path toward complete healing (star, ). there are many stages in the healing journey toward greater resilience for trauma-affected youth. the two highlighted here are conflict transformation and movement toward forgiveness. tesol journal conflict transformation because many traumatized children have witnessed or experienced violence being used to solve problems, they need another model for resolving interpersonal and social conflicts. teaching about nonviolent ways of handling conflict can become language course content as suitable as any other topic that often appears in english language curricula—food, fashions, marriage customs, environmental sustainability, and so on. but the most powerful way of integrating language teaching and conflict transformation is through providing children with the language to solve practical problems in the classroom. students should be invited to work collaboratively in establishing class guidelines for behavior, arranging special events, co-constructing the curriculum, and settling small conflicts and matters of discipline in the classroom. learning and experiencing new ways of resolving conflicts takes learners several steps forward in the healing journey. related steps include developing a concern for the truth about who harmed whom and for what reasons, a concern for justice that brings restoration of right relationships, and a concern for forgiveness that releases the victim or survivor from the “dark ruminations that erode health and enjoyment” (star, , p. iii. ). this approach will have immediate as well as long-term benefits for all learners. movement toward forgiveness arriving at the ability to forgive the perpetrators of violence is a point far along in the trauma healing journey; it is nothing to be rushed, and not something that can be demanded from the victim. although the act of forgiving may be supported by an active faith, religion is not needed to justify forgiveness as “an act of great courage” through which survivors of violence gain “freedom from the power [and] control the offender or another group has over” them (star, , p. iii. ; see also resources provide by the forgiveness project, http://theforgivenessproject.com). teachers from outside the conflict area must tread very delicately in working with the traumatized on this issue. for example, when paula huntley ( ) broached the issue of a role for english language teachers in trauma healing negative stereotypes of “the other” (i.e., serbian perpetrators) held by the kosovar albanian students in her hemingway book club, she realized, “i am in way over my head. who can read another’s heart? who am i to try to teach tolerance to these who have suffered so much so recently?” (p. ). yet, as yoder ( ) argues, forgiveness is one of those desirable steps that a traumatized person may take to escape the survivor/victim cycle, achieve freedom from self-harm, and avoid the perpetuation of violence through revenge. one way that i have tried to raise awareness of the need to forgive is through developing a unit of material on the horrors of apartheid in south africa and how south africans responded through the work of the truth and reconciliation committee to the traumas they had collectively suffered. the most powerful experiences i have had with this material have occurred when students read brief excerpts adapted from desmond tutu’s ( ) book no future without forgiveness. learners recast the excerpts into dialogue and acted them out. it was a moving experience to hear students who had suffered voicing the sufferings of south africans, requesting and granting forgiveness. collaboratively preparing the script and then physically staging the scene draws on class members’ linguistic, interpersonal, visual-spatial, and kinesthetic intelligences. conclusion this article invites english language educators to exchange their discourse of despair about trauma-affected learners for a discourse of multiple intelligences that not only meets the needs of all learners but offers an opportunity for healing to trauma-affected youth by opening up alternative avenues for expression. integrating language instruction with self-expression and exploration of social relationships creates a safe environment and supportive community in which all learners thrive and the trauma-affected among them learn to trust others and regain self- efficacy. incorporating content-based language instruction related to conflict transformation and forgiveness can fortify students’ resilience while facilitating language learning. tesol journal many teachers may feel that none of this matters to them because they aren’t aware of any trauma-affected learners in their classrooms. but what about that child whose attention continually wanders? we should not let ourselves be fooled by learners’ silence about their past traumas. neither should we squander the chance to build resilience proactively by following the approaches suggested here. as teachers, we might also consider how we have successfully weathered traumatic events and become wiser and more compassionate persons. in so reflecting, we may become better equipped to walk beside students and build them up. additional resources the victorian foundation for survivors of torture, in australia, has produced some comprehensive materials for welcoming and orienting refugee children and families that take into account the effects of traumatic experiences. these materials contain lesson plans and activities that could be adapted by an english language or mainstream classroom teacher. the publications the rainbow program for children in refugee families and a guide to working with young people who are refugees may be downloaded from the foundation’s website (www. foundationhouse.org.au). acknowledgments i am indebted to elaine zook barge, vesna hart, and carolyn yoder for sharing their knowledge of trauma and for their encouragement. tom scovel, don snow, vesna hart, and christi kramer provided helpful critiques of an early draft of this article. my deepest thanks go to the trauma-affected learners who originally inspired me—neris, j.c., and hero. the author michael medley coordinates the minor in tesol and regularly teaches tesol-related courses in both the graduate and undergraduate divisions at eastern mennonite university, in harrisonburg, virginia, in the united states. his current projects are creation of an enl course book based on the content of a role for english language teachers in trauma healing eastern mennonite university’s trauma healing curriculum and a multiple case study of trauma-affected adolescent english language learners. references brown, h. d. ( ). teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy ( rd ed.). white plains, ny: pearson longman. christison, m. a. ( ). a guidebook for applying multiple intelligences theory in the esl/efl classroom. burlingame, ca: alta book center. cole, s. f., o’brien, j. g., gadd, m. g., ristuccia, j., wallace, d. l., & gregory, m. ( ). helping traumatized children learn: supportive school environments for children traumatized by family violence. boston, ma: massachusetts advocates for children. finn, h. b. ( ). overcoming barriers: adult refugee trauma survivors in a learning community. tesol quarterly, ( ), – . doi: . /tq. . gardner, h. ( ). multiple intelligences: new horizons in theory and practice. new york, ny: basic books. gibbons, p. ( ). scaffolding language, scaffolding learning. portsmouth, nh: heinemann. haley, m. h. ( ). brain-compatible differentiated instruction for english language learners. boston, ma: pearson education. hart, v. ( a). when violence and trauma impact youth: facilitator’s training manual. harrisonburg, va: eastern mennonite university. hart, v. ( b). when violence and trauma impact youth: guide for working with youth. harrisonburg, va: eastern mennonite university. huntley, p. ( ). the hemingway book club of kosovo. new york, ny: jeremy p. tarcher/penguin. international institute of boston. ( ). mental health and the esl classroom: a guide for teachers working with refugees. boston, ma: international institute of boston and immigration and refugee services in america. tesol journal kerka, s. ( ). trauma and adult learning. washington, dc: national clearinghouse for esl literacy education. retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf levine, p. a., & kline, m. ( ). trauma through a child’s eyes. berkeley, ca: north atlantic press. nykiel-herbert, b. ( ). iraqi refugee students: from a collection of aliens to a community of learners—the role of cultural factors in the acquisition of literacy by iraqi refugee students with interrupted formal education. multicultural education, ( ), – . santamaria, l. j. ( ). culturally responsive differentiated instruction: narrowing gaps between best pedagogical practices benefiting all learners. teachers college record, , – . star. ( ). strategies for trauma awareness and resilience: seminar participant manual. harrisonburg, va: eastern mennonite university. stevick, e. w. ( ). working with teaching methods: what’s at stake? boston, ma: heinle & heinle. tutu, d. ( ). no future without forgiveness. new york, ny: doubleday. united states institute of peace. (n.d.). peace education for english language learners: teaching guide. washington, dc: author. yoder, c. ( ). the little book of trauma healing: when violence strikes and community security is threatened. intercourse, pa: good books. a role for english language teachers in trauma healing untitled evaluating the effectiveness of professionally-facilitated volunteerism in the community-based management of high-risk sexual offenders: part one – effects on participants and stakeholders robin j. wilson, janice e. picheca and michelle prinzo robin j. wilson is director of research, school of social and community services, humber institute of technology and advanced learning; janice e. picheca is psychologist, correctional service of canada; michelle prinzo is psychological associate, york district catholic school board, toronto abstract: this study presents evaluation data from the circles of support and accountability (cosa) pilot project in south-central ontario, canada – specifically regarding the effect that cosa has had on the community and those personally involved in the project. results suggest that the cosa initiative has had a profound effect on all stakeholders: offenders, community volunteers, affiliated professionals, and the community-at-large. being involved in a cosa appears to have greatly assisted many high-risk sexual offenders released to the community in remaining crime-free, with many reporting that they likely would have returned to offending without help from cosa. community volunteers involved in the project reported a perceived increase in community safety as a result of cosa, as well as a belief that core members were motivated to succeed in the community. professionals and agencies (for example, police officers, social services professionals, administrators, and other similar professionals) identified increased offender responsibility and accountability, as well as enhanced community safety. survey results obtained from members of the community-at-large showed substantial increases in perceived community safety in knowing that high-risk sexual offenders in the community were involved in the project. the results of this study are discussed within a framework of empowering communities to participate in the effective risk management of released sexual offenders. risk management of sexual offenders in community settings is perhaps the most controversial of all contemporary correctional issues. silverman and the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – r the authors journal compilation r the howard league published by blackwell publishing ltd, garsington road, oxford ox dq, uk wilson ( ) have likened the community’s abhorrence and, sometimes, morbid fascination with these offenders to a ‘moral panic’. the typical release of a ‘high-risk’ sexual offender goes something like this: offender released . . . police conduct community notification . . . media frenzy . . . community panic . . . offender driven out of said community or into hiding. this pattern of events appears to be universal, and there are countless examples on both sides of the atlantic. however, despite repeated experience of this progression, few have ever seriously questioned whether such practices are actually effective in managing the community-based risk of released sexual offenders. the latter part of the th century was witness to a flurry of legislative attempts at increasing offender accountability, with an assumed attendant degree of increased community safety. however, some have questioned whether those practices have really done either. typical examples are found in ‘three strikes’ laws, civil commitment, lifetime probation, and offender registries, the latter being particularly popular of late in canada. the first canadian sexual offender registry was instituted in the province of ontario in , with a national registry being proclaimed in december . the ontario registry was heralded as a ‘bold measure in community safety’; however, some have questioned whether the community is really any safer since the establishment of the registry (wilson ; john howard society of alberta ). the primary criticism of sexual offender registries is that they are only as good as their compliance rates, and it is widely believed that the most problematic offenders (that is, those most likely to reoffend) are also those most likely to thwart efforts to maintain accurate data on a registry. while we accept and fully support the contention that law-enforcement agencies must have access to accurate information when investigating crimes, we also assert that sexual offender reoffence statistics are such that a majority of crimes being investigated are more likely than not to have been committed by offenders not presently on a registry. these difficulties have begged the question: is there another way? restorative approaches the latter part of the th century was also witness to considerable renewed interest in restorative approaches to crime and offender management. ironically, professional interest in restoration increased as the public’s cries for more punitive measures rang out loud and clear. politically, such measures as detention (that is, denial of conditional release), specialised peace bonds, registries, and long-term supervision orders, were instituted as a means to demonstrate that the system was serious about ‘getting tough on crime’. meanwhile, meta-analytic reviews of the effects of incarceration and rehabilitative programming continued to suggest that longer, harsher sentences were not likely to achieve the sort of value-added that either the public wanted or the government hoped to achieve. no offender population has been more affected by these perspectives than have sexual offenders. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – understandably, the public has rather strong views about sexual offender risk management, and this has been reflected to a degree in policy and practice. however, one simple truth remains: most sexual offenders receive determinate sentences and, as such, will return to the community. experiences in the past ten years have clearly demonstrated the need for a co-ordinated approach to sexual offender reintegration, but serious short- falls in both service provision and offender accountability have remained. the circles of support and accountability initiative (see wilson, picheca and prinzo ; wilson et al. ) began, quite simply, as an innovative response to a single set of circumstances: a high-risk, repeat, child sexual abuser was released to the community from a federal penitentiary. the response of the community was swift – picketing, angry calls for political intervention, heightened media attention, and -hour police surveillance. in response to the offender’s pleas for assistance, a mennonite pastor agreed to gather a group of congregants around him, to offer both humane support and a realistic accountability framework. following a similar intervention with another offender a few months later, the mennonite central committee of ontario (mcco) agreed to sponsor a pilot project called the community reintegration project, and the circles of support and accountability (cosa) movement was born. thorough descriptions of the cosa model are available elsewhere (correctional service of canada ; wilson and picheca ; wilson et al. ). ten years after the initiation of the first circle, similar projects have been seeded in all canadian provinces, several jurisdictions in the united states of america, each of the member countries of the united kingdom, and interest has been indicated by such countries as the netherlands, south africa, and bermuda. these projects have come about as a result of positive outcome data originating from the mcco pilot project. this article represents the first part of a formal review of this project, and focuses on the effects that involvement in this project have had on participants and the community-at-large. method measures survey questionnaires were produced to sample the experiences of each of four cosa stakeholder groups: core members, circle volunteers, professionals affiliated with the project, and members of the community- at-large. a survey was constructed specifically for each group, with all surveys including a section requesting demographic data. for the circle volunteers, survey content included previous volunteer and cosa experience and attitudes regarding cosa. the core member survey addressed criminal history, initial experience with cosa (that is, upon release), current experience with cosa, and attitudes regarding cosa. the questionnaire devised for professionals and agency members surveyed experience with cosa and attitudes regarding cosa. members of the community-at-large were asked to share their feelings and attitudes regarding cosa and its existence in their community. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – procedure surveys were distributed to the core members, circle volunteers, and professional/agency members through several means. some question- naires were distributed to core members and circle volunteers following a brief presentation regarding the purpose of the survey. surveys were also circulated during administrative meetings, with the questionnaires then being distributed to core members and circle volunteers during subsequent meetings (for example, surveys were provided to the project co-ordinator who then gave them to relevant circle volunteers, who then passed them on to associated core members). otherwise, surveys were emailed to administrators and circle volunteers, who then distributed them to other circle volunteers or to core members, or the surveys were mailed directly to potential participants. the surveys were distributed to the community sample primarily through pre-arranged workshops/lectures, faith communities, and places of employment. regardless of the means of distribution, all respondents were provided with a package that included a letter of introduction and consent, one of the four survey questionnaires constructed specific to the particular group, and a stamped addressed envelope in which to return the completed survey. participants core members thirty-seven surveys were distributed to past and current core members. twenty-three surveys were returned completed, one was returned incomplete, and the survey of one past core member was returned undeliverable (‘return to sender’). overall, there was a % response rate ( / ). the core member sample consisted of male offenders convicted of a sexual offence, who had since completed their sentence and were living in the community. to address the relatively low response rate in this group, we attempted to ascertain why some core members had refused to complete questionnaires. in some cases, literacy was a major issue. the most common reason for a core member’s refusal to complete the survey was due to a generalised mistrust of researchers and other persons affiliated with the correctional system. simply put, when they found out that the researchers were employees of the correctional service of canada (csc), they flatly refused to be involved. circle volunteers eighty-four surveys were distributed to past and present circle volunteers, of which were returned completed, three were returned incomplete, and the survey of one past volunteer was returned undeliverable (‘return to sender’). the response rate was % ( / ). the circle volunteer sample consisted of men, women, and one case where gender was not specified (total n ). in terms of occupation, % identified themselves as being retired. of the remaining %, the majority ( %) reported working in the helping services field (for example, counselling). r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – professional/agency members twenty surveys were distributed to professionals and agency personnel who had provided consultation services to the project on at least one occasion. sixteen were returned, for a response rate of %. the professional/agency sample consisted of twelve men and four women. in terms of employment, there were several different types of occupations represented. one-quarter of the sample was employed in law enforcement and % worked in social services. the remaining respondents were either administrators, managers, or did not specify their occupation. community-at-large initially, there were community respondents ( men, women, and four did not specify gender). however, respondents who indicated that they were employed in the area of criminal justice or who had prior volunteer experience in the correctional system were selected out, as we did not wish to bias this particular sample by including persons who might be favourably disposed towards the correctional system. as a result, this sample was reduced to ( men, women, and two did not specify gender). analyses were conducted only on this subsample. in terms of occupation, % were students, % worked in the helping service field, and % worked as administrators/managers. thirty per cent did not specify their occupation. the response rate for the community sample is unknown as surveys were distributed in large quantities. table outlines the demographic characteristics of the four samples. results core members the majority of respondents were repeat offenders (provincially or federally). while % reported having a previous conviction for a sexual offence, % reported having a previous conviction for an assault-related offence. twenty-nine per cent of the respondents also indicated that they had previous conviction(s) for property related offence(s). for the % of respondents who indicated previous incarcerations, % reported having an inter-incarceration period (that is, time in the community between sentences) of less than six months, whereas approximately one-half reported being in the community for two years or longer before being incarcerated again. in terms of inter-incarceration experience, % reported experiencing loneliness and % experienced lack of support. sixty-seven per cent found the experience of being out and alone challenging. the respondents reported that they first learned of the cosa project from various sources; namely, other inmates ( %), psychologists ( %), volunteers ( %), and community chaplains while on institutional visits ( %). approximately two-thirds of the respondents were in the commu- nity for more than two years and % were in the community for less than six months prior to responding to this survey. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – initial and current experiences with the cosa several of the survey items addressed the core members’ experiences at the onset of their joining a circle (‘initially’) and at the time of completing the survey (‘currently’). initially, why did you enter a circle? eighty-three per cent of the respondents reported that they decided to enter a circle because they did not have any other form of social support. approximately two-thirds reported that they were willing to try anything that would help them with their reintegration into the community. negative community reaction to their release was the motivation for just over half of the respondents entering into a circle. initially/currently, how did you feel about being in a circle? in terms of their initial feelings about being in a circle, almost all of the respondents expressed that they were thankful, anxious, or relieved at having this type of help available. sixty-one per cent were proud of their involvement, and one-third felt supported by others and were confident that they would be able to cope with difficult situations that may arise. one-third of the respondents experienced negative feelings, such as concerns about lack of confidentiality, skepticism that their involvement would make a table demographic information core members (n ) volunteers (n ) professionals (n ) community (n ) gender male % % % % female % % % % age (years) mean (sd) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) marital status married/common-law % % % % divorced/separated % % % % widowed % % % % never married % % % % education � years % % % % – years % % % % college % % % % university % % % % graduate school % % % % other % % % % dependant children % % % % % % % % % % % % r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – difference, and feeling pressured by others to participate in a circle. twenty- nine per cent were angry about having to be involved in the project. in terms of their current feelings about being involved in a circle, reductions in negative feelings were noted. specifically, fearful feelings dropped by approximately % and anger feelings dropped by approxi- mately %, while feelings of confidence increased by approximately %. initially/currently, i thought/think the cosa was/is going to . . . at the onset of their participation in a circle, % of the respondents reported that they believed that the circle was going to help them adjust to life in the community. three-quarters believed that the circle was going to provide them with supportive people to talk with. seventeen per cent of the respondents thought the circle would provide them with a role model. after having at least some experience with the project, however, some respondents changed their perceptions. in particular, % believed that the project helped them adjust to the community and % thought the project provided a role model. initially/currently, how would you describe your relationship with circle volunteers? initial experiences with the circle volunteers were quite positive. between % and % of respondents reported that they got along with everyone, that the circle volunteers were very supportive of them, and that they were very honest and went out of their way to help them. the way in which core members described their relationships with circle volunteers became considerably more positive after having some experience with the project. in fact, more core members reported that they got along with everyone ( % then versus % now) and that the circle volunteers were very supportive of them ( % then versus % now). how did the circle help you cope or adjust to the community when you were first released? when first released, approximately two-thirds of the respondents reported that the circle helped them cope/adjust to the community by providing assistance with practical issues such as finding a job or getting identification papers and providing emotional support. sixty-five per cent reported the circle provided them with an opportunity to socialise. these results remained constant after having some experience with a circle. when you first joined, what do you think you got from the circle? the majority of the respondents ( %) reported that when they first joined the circle they experienced a sense of support and acceptance by others. an increase in anxiety/pressure in terms of attending to accountability structures (for example, circle contract, peace bonds, prohibition orders imposed by the court) was experienced by % of the respondents. finally, % reported that the circle provided them with a realistic perspective of their position in the community. briefly, many core members failed to grasp that they had to earn the trust and acceptance of society. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – when considering their current experience with their circle, the rates regarding support and acceptance and anxiety/pressure changed mini- mally: % reported experiencing a sense of support and acceptance by others and % experienced an increase in anxiety/pressure. more importantly, offenders became more realistic about their position in the community ( % now versus % then). what do you think might have happened if the programme did not exist? the respondents were asked to reflect upon what their experience would have been like if the cosa project did not exist. the vast majority of the respondents reported that they would have become lonely, isolated, and powerless. ninety per cent reported they would have had more difficulty adjusting to the community. approximately two-thirds reported they would have had difficulty with relationships and would have returned to crime. circle volunteers sixty-three per cent of circle volunteers reported that they were first made aware of the cosa project through friends or family members who either had information about it or who were actually participating in a circle. previous experience with corrections or contact with a core member provided % of the circle volunteers with knowledge of the cosa project. twenty-eight per cent of circle volunteers learned of this project through interactions with their faith community. for a large number of the circle volunteers ( %), the transition from first becoming aware of the project to actually becoming involved was motivated by an interest in working with this population. approximately % of the circle volunteers were motivated by wanting to give something back to their community. identification with the offenders (through personal experiences or family histories of victimisation) was the impetus for approximately one- fifth of the circle volunteers to become involved in a circle. slightly more than % thought this would be an exciting experience. approximately % felt that the circle volunteers experienced a sense of community and % reported that they experienced increased self-worth as a consequence of their involvement in the project. approximately % reported that they experienced an emotional bond to others and one- quarter reported that they experienced friendship within the context of the cosa project. experience working with core members some interesting differences were revealed when initial and current experiences of circle volunteers with core members were examined. initially, % of volunteers felt anxious that they would not be able to deal with difficult situations. however, this reduced drastically when consider- ing their current experience, with only % reporting such feelings. in addition, % initially indicated fear that they would be unable to cope with difficult situations; however, only % felt this way currently. sixty per cent of the circle volunteers felt they were initially supported by the organisation; however, this was reduced to % when considering their r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – current experience. lastly, % were initially hopeful that they would be making a difference in a former offender’s life; however, this was reduced to % when considering their current experience. in terms of the circle volunteers’ relationship with the core members, the vast majority of respondents ( %) felt they were at least somewhat positively received. only % reported that they experienced some pressure to assist the core member in a way that made them uncomfortable. among those circles with core members who experienced difficulties (for example, lapses or a breach of conditions), % of the respondents noted that the circle was extremely supportive of the core member, % reported a moderately supportive approach, and % reported that the circle was only somewhat supportive. a majority of the circle volunteers also noted that their circle was effective at recognising when a core member was experiencing difficulties. technical requirements regarding the time commitment required in being a part of a circle, % of the circle volunteers felt it was moderately or totally manageable. no respondents reported that the commitment was unmanageable. circle volunteers reported that the frequency of circle meetings often depended on the needs of the core member ( %), although weekly meetings were also common ( %). circle volunteers reported that they were available to respond to the needs of the core member in approximately % of instances. in cases where they were not available, they were always able to ensure that another circle volunteer made telephone contact. while the vast majority of circle volunteers reported that they were at least moderately satisfied with their circle ( %), only % reported that they would not change anything about their circle if they had the opportunity. of the changes that they would like to see, % reported they would make the circle larger, % reported they would include more social activities, and % reported they would like to see more youthful members. how cosa benefits the various parties almost all of the circle volunteers ( %) reported that they believed the core member felt supported by the circle. ninety per cent believed that the core member received a sense of acceptance by others and % believed the core member was able to establish friendships. in addition, % of the circle volunteers reported that they felt the core member experienced an increase in self-worth, and % felt the core member experienced a sense of self-acceptance as a result of their participation in a circle. volunteers were asked to anticipate what would have happened had the core member not been involved in a circle. sixty-one per cent of the respondents reported that they felt the core member would have reoffended. most believed that the core member would have had a difficult time adjusting to the community ( %) or in leading a stable life r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – ( %). seventy-three per cent reported that the core member would have become isolated and % believed he would have experienced loneliness. the vast majority of the circle volunteers ( %) felt the circle was at least moderately helpful for the core member. in terms of benefits to the community, % of the circle volunteers felt the community experienced an increase in safety. seventy-eight per cent felt that circles were a rational approach to integrating the core member back into the community, and % of the circle volunteer reported that the fear of a reoffence is reduced. at the personal level, three-quarters of the circle volunteers felt that their participation in the project gave them a sense of community. in addition, % reported it provided them with friendship. finally, just over half ( %) felt they had an emotional bond with others. professional/organisation support, training and teamwork just over half of the circle volunteers felt that they were working as part of a team with the other professionals involved with the project. in terms of the perception of support provided by the organisation and associated professionals, the majority of circle volunteers found it to be helpful. in particular, % found the members of the organisation to be generally helpful and % thought the organisation provided support when needed. only % found that the support provided by the organisation was inadequate. in terms of associated professional support, % found it to be generally helpful, and approximately half ( %) found that the profes- sionals provided direction when needed. fifteen per cent reported that the professional support provided failed to meet their expectations. part of being a volunteer with the cosa project involves working with other volunteers in a circle. in the survey, almost % felt they were working as a team with other individuals in the circle. although a quarter of the respondents experienced a sense of teamwork only some of the time, % did not feel like they were working as part of a team at all. training was received prior to volunteering in a circle for % of the respondents. approximately % reported that more training would have helped prepare them for this experience, and % were not sure if more training would have been beneficial for them. while a variety of topics were covered in different training sessions, most received training in restorative justice ( %). in terms of more training opportunities, the area that received the most interest was listening skills and responding to resistance ( %). in terms of improving training sessions, % suggested having more sessions available prior to joining a circle, and % suggested having more ongoing sessions while in a circle. only % reported that no improvement was necessary. professional/agency members in addition to the circle volunteers and the core members, there are also several professionals and agency members involved with the cosa project. of the professionals and agency members who responded to this r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – survey, approximately one-quarter were police officers, % were psychologists, and % were part of the advisory board/working group. a considerable majority of these respondents had been involved with the cosa project for more than three years. in terms of motivation behind their involvement, one-third reported that they wanted to work with offenders who are being given a second chance, and % reported they felt a sense of ‘call’ to work with this population. most of the respondents ( %) reported that they are still motivated to be involved. adequacy of training for volunteers the professional/agency members were asked a series of questions regarding the training provided to the circle volunteers. more than half of the respondents reported that they felt the circle volunteers should receive more intensive training in particular topics, and % felt more extensive training opportunities should be provided. approximately half of the respondents reported they had been asked to provide training workshops or consultations to the circle volunteers. of these respondents, % reported that they provided workshops on self- care, and % provided workshops on the use of relapse prevention methods with sexual offenders. twenty-seven per cent reported being asked to provide training on more than three occasions. perceptions of the project most of the professional/agency respondents reported a belief that participa- tion in cosa provides a core member with a positive experience. in particular, % believed core members felt supported by others and % believed that core members experienced increased self-worth and a sense of acceptance by others. sixty-three per cent reported that the core members experienced a sense of community. interestingly, % also reported that they did not think core members derived much from this experience. approximately % of the professional/agency respondents believed that the community-at-large would experience an increase in safety in knowing that a high-risk sexual offender is part of a cosa and % felt the fear of reoffence would be reduced. in addition, % reported that the community would also get a contributing member of society as the core member became more functional. professional/agency respondents reported that what they liked most about cosas was that they increase offender responsibility and account- ability ( %) and that community safety and support are the focus ( %). what the professional/agency members liked the least about this project was that they felt it was difficult for circle volunteers to maintain boundaries ( %) and % didn’t like the lack of structure or formality. along these lines, % reported they would change the project by adding more guidelines regarding boundaries for the circle volunteers. nine per cent felt more structure and more treatment opportunities were needed. three-quarters of the respondents felt their agency was part of a ‘team’ with the other professionals involved with the project. three-quarters also felt that the project should be expanded. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – community prior to this survey, % of the respondents reported having prior knowledge of the cosa through corrections experience, news coverage, courses at school, or word of mouth. how do you feel knowing that such a programme exists? knowing that the cosa project exists, % reported that they were ‘glad’ that these offenders got extra support, and % reported feeling relieved that they were getting help. while % reported being positively surprised, approximately % reported being skeptical that it would actually reduce crime. a few respondents reported negative feelings, such as anger that these offenders were getting extra support ( %) and irritation that people would want to help these offenders ( %). how would you feel if you knew that a high-risk offender moved into your community/neighbourhood? given hypothetical knowledge that a high-risk offender had moved into their community/neighbourhood, % of the respondents reported that they would feel unsafe, % would feel afraid for their safety, and % would feel shocked. about one-fifth reported that they would feel angry that this offender was in their neighbourhood and % would feel angry that the offender was let out of prison. however, % of the respondents reported that these feelings would change in a positive direction if they knew that the offender in question belonged to a circle. they felt that participation in a circle would indicate that the offender was receiving additional support from others ( %), that he was under some kind of supervision ( %), and that he was motivated not to reoffend ( %). discussion overall, it appears that the cosa project has been viewed favourably by all stakeholders surveyed in this component of the pilot project evaluation. although the professional/agency members continue to express concerns regarding boundary issues with volunteers and former offenders, it is likely that these concerns are borne of their natural tendency to avoid dual relationships. unlike psychologists or physicians, however, volunteers are not professionally inclined in this endeavour and, as such, are not bound by such proscriptions. indeed, the development of friendly relationships between volunteers and core members is an intentional component of the cosa project. both the volunteers and core members spoke clearly in describing the reciprocal positive influences their relationships have produced. one area of potential concern is the perceived negative drift in organisational support for circle volunteers and core members. we believe that this is a side-effect of the call to provide more circles without necessarily matching that call with increased human or financial resources. as the community becomes more aware of the successes of the project via various media reports, this shortfall is further exacerbated. the former r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – commissioner of the correctional service of canada frequently spoke of her wish to see ‘circles’ in place for all or most offenders coming out of federal institutions. however, funding and recruitment continue to be the biggest hurdles to the more widespread proliferation of the model. while attempts have been made to solicit support from sources outside corrections, those efforts have been met with only mediocre success. however, we are very much inclined to believe that if the cosa model is to achieve broad acceptance and implementation, the community itself must accept ultimate responsibility for ensuring its long-term success. the future of cosa rests fully in the hands of the community. all levels of government are reticent to carry the full burden of financially supporting this endeavour. in many respects, sexual offending is a community-based problem that should, perhaps, be managed in a more intentional manner by the community itself. in this regard, we whole- heartedly agree with silverman and wilson ( ), who suggest that a viable solution to community violence is found in community engagement of the criminal justice system. cosa is an excellent example of the community taking an active role in managing risk in its midst. however, the unpalatable nature of our target population continues to make solicitation of both volunteers and funding particularly difficult. we believe that support of initiatives like cosa represents a more efficacious means by which to manage offender risk in the community. one criticism that has been leveled at sexual offender registries is that they fail to distinguish between offenders of varying risk levels. that is, a high-risk offender committing a crime under a certain section of the criminal code of canada is registered in the same fashion as a lower-risk offender committing the same criminal code offence, although the details of the individual offences might be quite different. because they are only offered to those offenders with demonstrated high potential for reoffending and low potential for reintegration, cosas represent a means by which to increase community safety over and above registration. based on the dramatic positive results achieved by the cosa pilot project in south-central ontario, fledgling cosa projects have been initiated in all canadian provinces. projects are well-established in victoria, winnipeg, montreal, and ottawa. as we write this article, we are aware of several cosa- type projects in development in the united states, including a relatively well- established endeavour in minnesota and a very enthusiastic group in denver, co. in addition, projects based on the canadian cosa model are also in progress or development in all of the member nations of the united kingdom (that is, northern ireland, scotland, wales, england and, interestingly, the isle of man), the republic of ireland, and the netherlands. the main uk project in the thames valley has published a three-year evaluation report, having formed almost two dozen cosas (quaker peace and social witness ). interest in the cosa model has also been generated in south africa, bermuda, and australia. despite the oft-noted unpalatable character of sexual offenders, there is clearly an international will to try other means by which to increase offender accountability and community safety. as it has always been, ‘no more victims’ is our shared goal. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – generally, we have been struck by the positive elements of public education and engagement noted in the questionnaire responses of the community-at-large. in several instances in canada where public outcry has followed the release of a ‘high-risk sexual offender’, the popular media has eventually focused on the cosa project as a bright light in an otherwise troubling state of affairs. with each piece of television or newspaper coverage, more citizens learn about the challenging work being undertaken by their compatriots. we hope that the eventual result will be that the community learns that risk management is something within their grasp. note acknowledgements: portions of this article were adapted from a research report prepared for the correctional service of canada (wilson, picheca and prinzo ). the views expressed in this article are not necessarily those of the humber institute of technology and advanced learning, the government of canada, the correctional service of canada, or the york district catholic school board. the authors would like to thank eileen henderson, rev. harry nigh, drew mcwhinnie, rev. hugh kirkegaard, det. wendy leaver, gerry minard, evan heise, ed vandenburg, rick cober bauman, and rev. david molzahn for their assistance in facilitating this review. we are also thankful for the research grant provided by the research branch of the correctional service of canada, as well as the support and assistance of drs franca cortoni and ralph serin from the branch. references correctional service of canada ( ) circles of support and accountability: a guide to training potential volunteers. training manual , ottawa, on.: correctional service of canada. john howard society of alberta ( ) offender registry. available at: http:// www.johnhoward.ab.ca/pub/offender.htm (accessed march ). quaker peace and social witness ( ) circles of support and accountability in the thames valley: the first three years april to march , london: quaker peace and social witness. silverman, j. and wilson, d. ( ) innocence betrayed: paedophilia, the media and society, cambridge: polity press. wilson, r.j. ( ) ‘risk, reintegration, and registration: a canadian perspective on community sex offender risk management’, atsa forum, . wilson, r.j. and picheca, j.e. ( ) ‘circles of support & accountability: engaging the community in sexual offender risk management’, in: b.k. schwartz (ed.), the sexual offender, vol. , new york, ny.: civic research institute. wilson, r.j., picheca, j.e. and prinzo, m. ( ) circles of support & accountability: an evaluation of the pilot project in south-central ontario (research report r- ), ottawa, on.: correctional service of canada. wilson, r.j., mcwhinnie, a., picheca, j.e., prinzo, m. and cortoni, f. ( ) ‘circles of support and accountability: engaging community volunteers in the management of high-risk sexual offenders’, howard journal, , – . date submitted: november date accepted: january r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . july issn - , pp. – prevalence and characteristics of suicidal ideation among elderly inpatients with surgical or medical conditions in taiwan | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /s - - - corpus id: prevalence and characteristics of suicidal ideation among elderly inpatients with surgical or medical conditions in taiwan @article{liao prevalenceac, title={prevalence and characteristics of suicidal ideation among elderly inpatients with surgical or medical conditions in taiwan}, author={s. liao and bo-jian wu and t. liu and chao-ping chou and j. rong}, journal={bmc psychiatry}, year={ }, volume={ } } 	s. liao, bo-jian wu, + authors j. rong 	published 	medicine 	bmc psychiatry backgroundworldwide, the elderly are at a greater risk of suicide than other age groups. there is a paucity of research exploring risk factors for suicide in hospitalized elderly patients. therefore, a study designed to explore the prevalence and characteristic of suicidal ideation (si), such as qol (quality of life), a wish to die (wtd), and other factors in elderly inpatients with medical or surgical conditions in taiwan was warranted.methodsa total of hospitalized elderly patients over… expand view on springer bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 table 	 figure 	 table 	 table 	 table 	 table 	 table 	 table 	 table view all figures & tables 	depressive disorder 	sleeplessness 	inpatient 	receiver operating characteristic 	confidence intervals 	mental disorders 	behavior 	numerous paper mentions blog post prevalence and characteristics of suicidal ideation among elderly inpatients with surgical or medical conditions in taiwan information for practice december one citation citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency do older adults with parent(s) alive experience higher psychological pain and suicidal ideation? a cross-sectional study in china 	y. yang, shizhen wang, + authors z. mao 	medicine 	international journal of environmental research and public health 	 	pdf save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency prevalence and correlates of suicidal thought and self-destructive behavior among an elderly hospital population in iran 	sahra ekramzadeh, a. javadpour, b. draper, a. mani, a. withall, a. sahraian 	medicine 	international psychogeriatrics 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background, results and methods save alert research feed suicidal ideation and associated factors among community‐dwelling elders in taiwan 	y. yen, m. yang, + authors h. lo 	psychology, medicine 	psychiatry and clinical neurosciences 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed [psychosocial risk factors of the wish to be dead in the elderly]. 	s. barnow, m. linden 	medicine 	fortschritte der neurologie-psychiatrie 	 	 	view excerpt, references results save alert research feed suicidal ideation, depression and quality of life in the elderly: study in a gerontopsychiatric consultation. 	c. ponte, v. almeida, l. fernandes 	psychology, medicine 	the spanish journal of psychology 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references background and results save alert research feed case-control study of suicide attempts in the elderly 	i-chao liu, chen-huan chiu 	medicine 	international psychogeriatrics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed factors associated with suicidal ideation in an elderly urban japanese population: a community‐based, cross‐sectional study 	s. awata, toru seki, + authors i. tsuji 	psychology, medicine 	psychiatry and clinical neurosciences 	 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed the impact of health-related quality of life on suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among korean older adults. 	j. kim, j. kwon 	medicine 	journal of gerontological nursing 	 	 	view excerpts, references background and results save alert research feed perception of health, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempt among adults in the community. 	r. goodwin, a. marušič 	medicine 	crisis 	 	 save alert research feed medical illness and the risk of suicide in the elderly. 	d. juurlink, n. herrmann, j. szalai, a. kopp, d. redelmeier 	medicine 	archives of internal medicine 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed lifetime prevalence of and risk factors for suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in a korean community sample 	t. r. bagalkot, j. park, + authors y. chung 	psychology, medicine 	psychiatry 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	paper mentions 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators blog posts, news articles and tweet counts and ids sourced by altmetric.com terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue _lam.indd can respir j vol no january/february the respiratory presentation of severe combined immunodeficiency in two mennonite children at a tertiary centre highlighting the importance of recognizing this pediatric emergency simon lam md , fotini d kavadas md , seemab haider md , mary e noseworthy md department of pediatrics; section of allergy and immunology; department of diagnostic imaging; section of respiratory medicine, alberta children’s hospital, calgary, alberta correspondence and reprints: dr mary e noseworthy, section of respiratory medicine, alberta children’s hospital, shaganappi trail northwest, calgary, alberta t b a . telephone - - , e-mail mary.noseworthy@albertahealthservices.ca learning objectives •	 to	recognize	that	a	respiratory	focus	is	a	common	presentation	 for	patients	with	severe	combined	immunodeficency	(scid). •	 lymphopenia	may	be	a	good	marker	of	scid. •	 absent	or	abnormal	thymic	shadow	may	be	an	indicator	of	an	 immunodeficiency. canmeds competency: medical expert pretest •	 what	characteristics	of	a	respiratory	tract	infection	are	 concerning	for	an	underlying	immunodeficiency? •	 can	lymphopenia	be	a	useful	marker	in	screening	patients	for	 an	underlying	immunodeficiency? case presentation case a	 two-month-old	 male	 infant	 of	 nonconsanguineous	 mexican	 mennonite	descent	presented	to	a	rural	hospital	for	respiratory	distress	 treated	with	nebulized	budesonide	(pulmicort,	astrazeneca,	sweden)	 and	salbutamol.	he	was	discharged	after	two	days	without	any	home	 oxygen	requirement.	he	was	readmitted	two	months	later	with	respira- tory	distress	and	 failure	 to	 thrive.	a	chest	 radiograph	at	 that	 time	 revealed	bilateral	perihilar	densities	that	were	treated	with	cefotaxime.	 he	had	a	history	of	persistent	oral	candidiasis	unresponsive	to	nystatin	 and	diarrhea	starting	within	the	first	few	weeks	of	life.	there	was	no	 family	history	of	immunodeficiency	or	early	infantile	deaths,	and	the	 patient	had	two	healthy	older	siblings.		 bloodwork	revealed	a		hemoglobin	level	of	 	g/l,	a	white	blood	 cell	 count	 of	 . × /l,	 neutrophils	 . × /l,	 lymphocytes	 . × /l	and	platelet	count	of	 × /l.	a	nasopharyngeal	swab	 was	 positive	 for	 entero/rhino/metapneumovirus.	 urine,	 stool	 and	 blood	cultures	were	negative.	 he	was	transferred	to	a	tertiary	pediatric	centre	(alberta	children’s	 hospital,	calgary,	alberta)	for	further	investigations	for	his	persistent	 respiratory	distress.	on	initial	assessment,	his	weight	was	< rd	per- centile	and	his	length	was	at	the	 th	percentile.	he	was	afebrile,	with	 an	arterial	oxygen	saturation	(spo )	of	 %	on	 . 	l/min	of	oxygen.	 significant	examination	findings	included	tachypnea	(respiratory	rate	 	to	 	breaths/min),	with	tracheal	tug	and	intercostal	indrawing.	he	 had	decreased	air	entry	to	the	bases,	oral	candidiasis	and	small	bilateral	 cervical	lymph	nodes,	but	the	tonsils	were	not	appreciated. chest	radiographs	on	admission	revealed	bilateral	perihilar	infil- trates	and	an	absent	thymic	shadow	(figure	 ).	on	review	of	previous	 films,	the	thymic	shadow	was	also	absent.	a	computed	tomography	 scan	confirmed	the	absence	of	a	thymus	(figure	 ). because	of	his	worsening	clinical	status,	a	bronchoscopy	with	bron- choalveolar	 lavage	 was	 performed,	 with	 pneumocystis jiroveci (pjp)	 noted;	 treatment	 with	 high-dose	 trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole	 (septra,	glaxosmithkline,	usa)	was	initiated.	 an	immunodeficiency	workup	revealed	an	undetectable	immuno- globulin	(ig)	a	level	< . 	g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l),	a	 very	low	igg	level	of	 . 	g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l)	and	 clinico-pathologic conferences © 	pulsus	group	inc.	all	rights	reserved s lam, fd kavadas, s haider, me noseworthy. the respiratory presentation of severe combined immunodeficiency in two mennonite children at a tertiary centre highlighting the importance of recognizing this pediatric emergency. can respir j ; ( ): - . severe	combined	immunodeficiency	(scid)	is	considered	to	be	a	pediatric	 emergency,	with	respiratory	distress	being	the	most	common	presenting	 symptom.	the	authors	present	two	cases	of	scid	in	children	< 	months	of	 age	 with	 respiratory	 distress	 at	 a	 tertiary	 care	 centre	 due	 to	 a	 recently	 described	homozygous	cd 	delta	mutation	found	only	in	the	mexican	 mennonite	population.	failure	to	respond	to	broad-spectrum	antibiotics	 prompted	investigation	for	possible	scid.	bronchial	alveolar	lavage	fluid	 from	 both	 patients	 grew	 pneumocystis jiroveci,	 and	 flow	 cytometry	 revealed	absent	t	cells.	the cd delta 	gene	is	believed	to	be	important	 in	 t	 cell	 differentiation	 and	 maturation.	 the	 present	 article	 reminds	 pediatricians	and	pediatric	respirologists	that	the	key	to	diagnosing	scid	 is	to	have	a	high	index	of	suspicion	if	there	is	poor	response	to	conven- tional	therapies. key words: cd delta; infant; mennonite; respiratory distress; severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) la présentation respiratoire du déficit immunitaire combiné sévère chez deux enfants mennonites dans un centre de soins tertiaires fait ressortir l’importance de dépister cette urgence pédiatrique le	 déficit	 immunitaire	 combiné	 sévère	 (dics)	 est	 considéré	 comme	 une	urgence	pédiatrique,	la	détresse	pédiatrique	en	étant	le	symptôme	 révélateur	 le	 plus	 courant.	 les	 auteurs	 présentent	 deux	 cas	 de	 dics	 chez	des	enfants	de	moins	de	quatre	mois	ayant	une	détresse	respiratoire	 dans	 un	 centre	 de	 soins	 tertiaires	 en	 raison	 d’une	 mutation	 homozy- gote	du	gène	cd 	delta	décrite	récemment,	qu’on	observe	seulement	 dans	 la	 population	 mennonite	 mexicaine.	 l’absence	 de	 réponse	 à	 un	 antibiotique	à	large	spectre	a	suscité	des	examens	afin	de	diagnostiquer	 une	dics	potentielle.	le	liquide	de	lavage	broncho-alvéolaire	des	deux	 patients	a	mis	en	évidence	le	pneumocystis jiroveci,	et	la	cytométrie	de	 flux	a	révélé	l’absence	de	lymphocytes	t.	on	croit	que	le	gène	cd 	delta	 est	important	pour	la	différenciation	et	la	maturation	des	lymphocytes	t.	 le	présent	article	rappelle	aux	pédiatres	et	aux	pneumologues	pédia- tres	que	le	secret	du	diagnostic	de	dics	consiste	à	présenter	un	fort	 indice	de	présomption	lorsque	les	patients	répondent	peu	aux	thérapies	 habituelles. lam et al can respir j vol no january/february normal	igm	 . 	g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l).	flow	cytom- etry	showed	absent	t	cells	with	normal	b	cell	and	natural	killer	(nk)	 cell	populations.	hiv	polymerase	chain	reaction	testing	was	negative	 and,	therefore,	a	diagnosis	of	t–b+nk+	scid	was	presumed.	this	was	 further	confirmed	when	genetic	testing	found	a	homozygous	mutation	 in	the	cd delta	gene. case a	two-month-old	boy	of	nonconsanguineous	mexican	mennonite	des- cent	was	seen	for	an	apneic	spell,	cyanosis	and	increased	work	of	breath- ing.	 he	 was	 diagnosed	 with	 respiratory	 syncytial	 virus	 bronchiolitis,	 admitted	for	seven	days	and	treated	with	nebulized	epinephrine.	he	was	 discharged	without	any	home	oxygen	requirements.	two	weeks	later,	he	 returned	with	fever,	cough	and	increased	work	of	breathing.	the	chest	 radiograph	was	consistent	with	right	upper	lobe	and	left	lower	lobe	(lll)	 pneumonia.	he	was	readmitted	and	treated	with	ceftriaxone.	on	day	 ,	 vancomycin	was	added	and	he	was	then	transferred	to	the	centre	for	per- sistent	 respiratory	 distress.	 family	 history	 revealed	 eight	 infant	 deaths	 from	 ‘fungal	 infections’.	 none	 of	 these	 infants	 had	 received	 a	 formal	 diagnosis	 of	 scid.	 the	 parents	 were	 also	 from	 the	 same	 mexican	 mennonite	colony.	this	particular	patient	was	an	only	child.	 on	presentation,	he	was	at	the	 th	to	 th	percentile	for	weight	 and	 th	percentile	for	length.	he	was	afebrile,	with	an	spo 	of	 %	on	 	l/min	of	oxygen.	significant	examination	findings	included	tachypnea	 (respiratory	rate	of	 	to	 	breaths/min)	with	increased	work	of	breathing	 (nasal	 flaring,	 intercostals	 and	 supracostal	 indrawing).	 air	 entry	 was	 decreased	and	crackles	were	noted	in	the	upper	lobes	bilaterally.	small	 lymph	nodes	in	the	cervical	region	noted	but	tonsils	were	absent.			 bloodwork	showed	hemoglobin	level	of	 	g/l,	a	white	blood	cell	 count	 of	 . × /l,	 neutrophils	 × /l,	 lymphocytes	 . × /l	 and	a	platelet	count	of	 × /l.	chest	radiograph	showed	right	 upper	lobe	consolidation	and	a	smaller	than	expected	thymic	shadow	 (figure	 ). bronchoalveolar	 lavage	 was	 performed	 on	 day	 	 of	 admission	 because	 of	 worsening	 clinical	 status	 and	 was	 positive	 for	 pjp.	 the	 patient	was	started	on	high-dose	trimethprim-sulfamethoxazole. in	 light	of	 the	pjp,	an	 immunodeficiency	evaluation	revealed	an	 undetectable	iga	level	of	< . g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l),	 low	igg	of	 . 	g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l)	and	normal	 igm	of	 . 	g/l	(normal	range	 . 	g/l	to	 . 	g/l).	flow	cytometry	 revealed	the	absence	of		t	cells,	with	a	normal	number	of	b	cell	and	nk	 cell	populations.	genetic	testing	found	a	homozygous	mutation	in	the	 cd delta	gene	that	confirmed	the	etiology	of	scid	in	this	patient. discussion scid	is	a	group	of	genetically	distinct	entities	that	lead	to	defective	t	cell	 development	affecting	both	adaptive	and	humoral	 immunity.	more	 than	 	gene	mutations	involving	cytokine	receptors,	antigen	recep- tors,	intracellular	signalling	and	t	cell	apoptosis	have	been	identified	 to	be	causative	for	scid	( ). with	 an	 estimated	 incidence	 of	 one	 in	 , 	 to	 , 	 live	 births,	the	most	common	manifestations	of	scid	are	chronic	diarrhea	 and	 pneumonitis	 ( , ).	 other	 frequent	 features	 include	 failure	 to	 thrive,	oral	candidiasis	that	responds	poorly	to	topical	antifungals,	lack	 of	 palpable	 lymphatic	 tissue	 and	 absent	 thymic	 shadow	 on	 chest	 radiograph. the	key	to	diagnosis	is	having	a	high	index	of	suspicion	for	scid	 in	infants	with	chronic,	recurrent	infections	that	are	not	responsive	to	 conventional	treatment.	a	positive	family	history	of	infantile	death	is	 also	an	alarming	indicator	that	an	evaluation	should	be	performed.	in	 case	 ,	the	family	history	of	numerous	infantile	deaths	was	overwhelm- ing.	in	ideal	circumstances,	a	family	with	such	a	history	could	have	 undergone	prenatal	evaluation	and	testing	at	birth,	with	immediate	 isolation	of	the	newborn	if	scid	was	suspected.		 figure ) chest radiograph of the patient described in case on presenta- tion revealing bilateral perihilar infiltrates without a thymic shadow figure ) computed tomography of the chest of the patient described in case , revealing absent thymic tissue in the anterior mediastinum. a axial section. b sagittal section figure ) chest radiograph of the patient described in case on presenta- tion, revealing a right upper lobe consolidation and a smaller than expected thymic shadow scid in two mennonite children can respir j vol no january/february the	initial	evaluation	of	a	patient	with	scid	involves	a	com- plete	blood	count.	lymphopenia	< 	lymphocytes/µl	is	common;	 however,	up	to	 %	to	 %	of	scid	patients	may	have	a	normal	 lymphocyte	count	( ).	flow	cytometry	is	used	to	determine	the	com- position	of	the	lymphocyte	subset,	determining	the	individual	num- ber	of	t	cells,	b	cells	and	nk	cells,	which	is	helpful	to	decipher	the	 genetic	etiology	of	scid.		 for	example,	our	cases	demonstrated	a	total	lack	of	t	cell	develop- ment	but	a	preservation	of	b	and	nk	cell	numbers,	which	significantly	 narrowed	the	potential	genetic	causes	that	required	investigation.	the	 invasive	procedure	of	a	thymic	biopsy	can	be	used	to	demonstrate	the	 dysplastic	nature	of	a	scid	thymus.	this	was	particularly	performed	in	 the	past	when	less	was	known	about	the	molecular	basis	of	scid	and	 patients	often	received	a	bone	marrow	transplant	with	a	phenotype	of	 scid	but	not	necessarily	a	genotype.	thankfully,	this	procedure	can	 now	often	be	replaced	with	the	real-time	genetic	analysis	of	thymic	 output	known	as	trec.	trec	are	the	byproduct	of	efficient	and	 comprehensive	dna	rearrangement	of	t	cell	receptors	when	new	 t	cells	are	maturing	in	the	thymus.	lack	of	trec	suggests	that	the	 thymus	is	not	producing	the	expansive	repertoire	of	t	cell	receptors	 needed	 for	 a	 mature	 and	 functional	 immune	 system.	 patients	 with	 scid	typically	have	low	to	absent	trec,	making	it	a	more	sensitive	 and	specific	marker	than	the	overall	lymphocyte	count	of	a	complete	 blood	count	for	detecting	scid.	as	a	result,	this	technology	has	been	 proposed	as	the	best	way	to	perform	neonatal	screening	for	scid	( ). with	the	recent	advent	of	trec,	it	is	now	possible	to	screen	for	 scid	 using	 dried	 blood	 spots	 ( ).	 as	 a	 result,	 newborn	 screening	 (nbs)	for	scid	has	been	an	increasingly	debated	topic	in	the	litera- ture.	several	american	states,	such	as	wisconsin,	massachusetts	and	 california,	have	trialled	nbs	programs	based	on	trec.	from	the	suc- cess	of	these	programs,	the	secretary	of	the	department	of	health	and	 human	services	approved	the	recommendation	to	add	scid	to	nbs	 protocols	throughout	the	united	states	( )	in	 .	although	beyond	 the	scope	of	the	present	report,	there	certainly	are	barriers	to	wide- spread	 implementation	of	nbs	 for	scid	such	as	 significant	 initial	 laboratory	set-up	costs,	lack	of	familiarity	with	scid	among	primary	 care	physicians,	an	inadequate	number	of	immunologists	in	some	areas	 and	the	lack	of	the	ability	to	perform	hematopoietic	stem	cell	trans- plant	(hsct)	in	some	centres	( ).	 the	current	 literature	 almost	exclusively	describes	 the	 status	of	 nbs	for	scid	in	the	united	states.	however,	with	the	recent	imple- mentation	of	nbs	for	scid	in	ontario	in	 ,	it	will	be	interesting	 to	follow	the	outcomes	of	this	novel	canadian	program. scid	 is	a	pediatric	emergency	because	 infection-induced	organ	 damage	 –	 particularly	 to	 the	 lungs	 –	 worsens	 outcome	 ( ).	 scid	 patients	 who	 underwent	 hsct	 in	 the	 neonatal	 period	 had	 much	 higher	levels	of	t	cell	reconstitution,	thymic	output	and	less	mortality	 than	those	transplanted	after	the	neonatal	period	( ).	mortality	and	 morbidity	increase	with	delayed	diagnosis	due	to	an	increased	burden	 of	infection.	survival	rates	decline	from	infection	with	delayed	diag- nosis.	a	recent	study	over	a	 . -year	period	demonstrated	improved	 survival	( %)	if	the	transplant	was	received	within	 . 	months	com- pared	with	 %	survival	if	transplanted	after	this	age	( ). with	hsct	enabling	the	strong	possibility	of	cure	and	a	normal	 life	for	affected	children,	the	stark	differences	in	outcome	and	health- care	costs	resulting	from	delays	in	diagnosis	are	the	main	impetus	for	 expediting	nbs	with	trec	analysis. both	of	these	mennonite	cases	presented	with	a	homozygous	muta- tion	 in	the	 cd delta gene,	which	has	only	been	relatively	recently	 described	( ).	this	gene	is	important	for	downstream	signalling,	differ- entiation	and	maturation	of	early	t	cells	( ).	this	mutation	results	in	a	 t	 cell-negative,	 b	 cell-positive,	 nk	 cell-positive	 (t–b+nk+)	 scid,	 which	is	frequently	associated	with	a	small	dysplastic	thymus	( ).	 case the	 patient	 underwent	 a	 sibling-matched	 hsct	 at	 . 	 months	 of	 age,	 and	 developed	 complications	 of	 veno-occlusive	 disease	 and	 hypertension.	 one	 month	 post-transplant,	 he	 deteriorated	 with	 an	 aggressive	human	metapneumovirus	infection	and	died	at	 . 	months	of	 age. case the	patient’s	siblings	were	not	a	match	for	his	bone	marrow	transplant.	 his	respiratory	status	continued	to	deteriorate,	with	respiratory	syncytial	 virus	and	coronavirus	infection.	the	patient	died	at	 . 	months	of	age. summary respiratory	distress	is	a	presenting	feature	in	the	majority	of	infants	 diagnosed	with	scid.	the	key	to	rapid	diagnosis	is	a	high	index	of	 suspicion.	lymphopenia	(< 	lymphocytes/µl)	can	be	helpful,	but	 %	to	 %	of	scid	patients	may	have	a	normal	lymphocyte	counts.	 a	timely	diagnosis	with	early	hsct	leads	to	best	outcomes.	the	phys- ician	should	consider	scid	in	a	patient	with	failure	to	thrive,	recur- rent	 and	 resistant	 respiratory	 infections,	 family	 history	 of	 early	 infantile	deaths,	or	with	in	patients	with	absent	or	reduced	thymic	 shadow	chest	radiograph.	 post-test •	 what	 characteristics	 of	 a	 respiratory	 tract	 infection	 are	 concerning	for	an	underlying	immunodeficiency?	 these	include	any	respiratory	tract	infection	with	failure	to	thrive,	 chronic	diarrhea,	resistant	thrush,	with	absent	or	reduced	thymic	 shadow	chest	radiograph,	as	well	any	recurrent	and	resistant	respira- tory	infections	despite	intervention	with	appropriate	therapies. •	 can	lymphopenia	be	a	useful	marker	in	screening	patients	for	an	 underlying	immunodeficiency? yes,	a	low	lymphocyte	count	(< /µl)	can	be	helpful	as	well	in	 making	the	diagnosis.	however,	as	many	as	 %	of	patients	with	 scid	can	have	a	normal	lymphocyte	count. author contributions:	 mn	 was	 the	 primary	 respirologist	 involved	with	both	cases.	fk	was	one	of	the	immunologists	in	both	cases.	 mn	and	fk	were	vital	in	the	conception	of	this	case	report.	sl	performed	 the	chart	review	for	both	patients	and	wrote	the	case	report.	sh	reviewed	 the	diagnostic	imaging	for	both	cases,	prepared	the	images	for	submissions	 and	 provided	 information	 regarding	 imaging	 in	 immunocompromised	 patients.	mn,	fk	and	sh	were	heavily	involved	with	editing	and	revising	 the	case	report	written	by	sl. references .	myers	la,	patel	dd,	puck	jm,	buckley	rh.	hematopoietic	stem	 cell	transplantation	for	severe	combined	immunodeficiency	in	the	 neonatal	period	leads	to	superior	thymic	output	and	improved	 survival.	blood	 ; : - . .	lipstein	ea,	vorono	s,	browning	mf,	et	al.	systematic	evidence	 review	of	newborn	screening	and	treatment	of	severe	combined	 immunodeficiency.	pediatrics	 ; :e - . .	hague	ra,	rassam	s,	morgan	g,	cant	aj.	early	diagnosis	of	severe	 combined	immunodeficiency	syndrome.	arch	dis	child	 ; : - . .	buckley	rh.	the	long	quest	for	neonatal	screening	for	severe	 combined	immunodeficiency.	j	allergy	clin	immunol	 ; : - . .	accetta	pedersen	dj,	verbsky	j,	routes	jm.	screening	newborns	for	 primary	t-cell	immunodeficiencies:	consensus	and	controversy.	 expert	rev	clin	immunol	 ; : - . .	fischer	a,	landais	p,	friedrich	w,	et	al.	european	experience	of	 bone-marrow	transplantation	for	severe	combined	 immunodeficiency.	lancet	 ; : - . .	dadi	hk,	simon	aj,	roifman	cm.	effect	of	cd delta	deficiency	on	 maturation	of	alpha/beta	and	gamma/delta	t-cell	lineages	in	severe	 combined	immunodeficiency.	n	engl	j	med	 ; : - . .	fischer	a,	de	saint	basile	g,	le	deist	f.	cd 	deficiencies.		 curr	opin	allergy	clin	immunol	 ; : - . submit your manuscripts at http://www.hindawi.com stem cells international hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume mediators inflammation of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume behavioural neurology endocrinology international journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume disease markers hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume biomed research international oncology journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume oxidative medicine and cellular longevity hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume ppar research the scientific world journal hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume immunology research hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume journal of obesity journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume computational and mathematical methods in medicine ophthalmology journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume diabetes research journal of hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume research and treatment aids hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume gastroenterology research and practice hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume parkinson’s disease evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com editorial foreword editorial foreword religion and communal power. probably no subject has been more writ- ten about in cssh than religion. social analysts who think comparatively are drawn to religion, for they are naturally attracted to points of conflict and moments of change at which belief, culture, custom, and institutions inter- sect. of the six articles on religion in this issue, two treat aspects of islam, two are about roman catholic dissidents, and two consider protestant sects. each article identifies a cluster of problems; and these, rather than the great religions, invite the most fruitful comparison. although shahrough akhavi provides additional categories for comparison (including corporatism and rev- olution itself) in his study of shi'ism in the iranian revolution, he emphasizes religion, noting its importance in the passion plays, in moral visions of eco- nomic equality, and in the organization of revolutionary power. his assertion that shi'ism is not, however, a uniquely revolutionary religion received im- plied support in earlier treatments of the taiping rebellion (see kuhn, cssh : ; levenson, : ), the jewish bund (tobias and woodhouse, : , : ), the campaign for cow protection in north india (freitag, : ), and in lan- ternari's discussion of nativist movements ( : ). in contrast, the hutterites whom karl peter analyzes sought not to capture an established society but to form a new one; yet in maintaining a communal enterprise, they too con- fronted the practical difficulties of wielding political power built on a re- ligious base. not surprisingly, both akhavi and peter refer to and directly test some of the ideas of max weber (an exercise with many possibilities; note stewart, schweitzer, and sanders on political charisma, : ). religious dissidents. religion as a source of group identity is most readily measured among religious minorities (tessler, : ) like the hutterites them- selves or the rastafarians (kitzinger, : ), the molokan sect (lane, : ), or the jews in yemen (katzir, : ). when, however, a religious minority sees itself not as the local enclave of a larger movement but rather in terms of its legitimate participation in—and conflict with—a dominant religion, then the issues shift somewhat and the scholar's questions change a great deal. leslie tentler used her study of a dissident, polish, roman catholic parish in detroit to modify our views of american catholicism by showing how an immigrant population could combine ethnic community and american political values to assert autonomy within the hierarchical church to which it remained intensely loyal. kaja finkler's mexican dissidents are more distant from the roman catholicism that has nevertheless greatly influenced them, and her study explores the appeal of spiritualism to socially marginal people who have often been as unfortunate in their lives as in the status to which they were born. in terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editorial foreward these two studies the daily concerns of dissidents lead to fresh perceptions of the american church and the mexican society that weigh upon but must also acknowledge these intense believers. adapting religion to society changed. mennonites in russia and mus- lims in kelantan could both be seen as having in some sense been distant outposts, liable to that cultural rigidification that displaced communities sometimes experience. their efforts to adapt, likely to be explicit and deliber- ate, have special interest, while the mechanisms they use prove remarkably varied (compare jayawardena on hinduism in british guiana, : , or the articles on missionaries by beidelman, rigby, shapiro, and schieffelin in : ). in a larger sense, of course, adaptation is the lot of any living religion (see deshen on religious change, : ; eickelman on islamic education and levine on catholicism in latin america, : ; obeyesekere on theravada buddhism, : ; and vovelle on american epitaphs and wilson on the cult of saints in paris, : ). one challenge is to allow change in practice without conceding it in principle. for the mennonites, james urry finds education to have been an acceptable means; william roff shows a formal legal ruling to have served that purpose in kelantan. in both instances, adjusting to new demands while preserving old definitions of community required complex compromise and careful manipulation of integrative symbols. these six stud- ies of religion in action reveal some of the flexibility that is possible when a coherent weltanschauung persists in a changing world. cssh discussion. from time to time this new section will offer a forum for further discussion of important questions. the second enlargement of cssh in two years will thus make it easier to publish statements—in the form of reflections, suggestions, and hypotheses—that can be significant even with- out the fuller development or scholarly trappings of a formal article. roger daniels's thoughtful comment is a good example, and directs us not only to the essays of wong and thompson to which he refers, but to many other articles on ethnic minorities, some of which were mentioned above. the section will also be a place for debates like the one here among david fitzpatrick, p. gibbon and c. curtin, and anthony varley. at its best debate can both clarify issues and widen horizons; note how demography here ex- pands into considerations of rural sociology and economy. finally, review essays, such as richard graham's, that take stock of current research on broad topics will also sometimes appear in this section. cssh was founded twenty-five years ago to stimulate dialogue across the hedgerows of special- ization; and the added section with a freer format that more pages now permit should serve to show that rigor is not incompatible with wit nor the expert's restricted focus with recognition that our most exciting quests are widely shared. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril newly available reprints american archivist (society of american archivists) catalogus bibliothecae historico-naturalis josephi banks dryander, jonas ( - ) the scottish text society publications vols. i, . washington, d.c. , per volume, paper bound $ . vol. , nos. , , vol. , no. , vol. , nos. , , vol. , no. , vol. , no. , per number, paper bound . vol. (in the original edition) unbound . london - . bound in vols. with a preface by mr. a. c. townsend, librarian of the general library, british museum (nat. history) cloth bound set $ . single volumes vol. i: scriptores generates. . cloth bound volume . vol. ii: zoologici. . cloth bound volume _ _ . vol. ill: botanici. . cloth bound volume . vol. iv: mineralogi. . cloth bound volume - . vol. v: supplementum et index auctorum. . cloth bound volume . index auctorum cloth bound volume . tristan, sir tristrem edited by g. p. mcneil (publication no. , ) cloth $ . scottish alliterative poems in riming stanzas edited by f. j. amours (publications no. , , ) cloth .. $ . the poems of alexander scott edited by j. cranstoun (publication no. , ) cloth .„ $ . a compendious book of godly and spiritual songs, commonly known as "the gude and godlie ballatis" edited by a. mitchell (publication no. , ) cloth $ . robert lindsay of pitscottie, t h e historie and chronicle of scotland edited by a. mackay (publications no. , , , - ) vols. cloth $ . john barbour, the bruce in preparation edited by w. w. skeat (publications no. , , , ) vols. cloth $ . j o h n s o n reprint corporation fifth avenue, new york, n.y. johnson reprint company ltd. berkeley square house, london w . i , england d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the complete paper for the complete program you can have a well rounded printing, storage and filing program when you use permalife, a thorographic paper by standard of richmond. permalife is acid-free and absolutely dependable. a life of several hundred to a thousand and more years is assured.* use permalife with confidence for library catalog card stock envelopes for storage of documents and manuscripts file folders for storage of maps and large documents letterheads reprints permalife is beautiful in look and feel, and will give true copies by photo offset. permalife text and permalife bond are water- marked for your protection. for permanency use permalife and be sure. •according to tests made of permalife by the w . j. barrow research laboratory. details upon request. standard p a p e r manufacturing co. richmond, virginia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the unique paige miracle box cuts record retention costs % in equipment— % in space! the unique paige miracle box has created a new sys- tem for efficient a n d e c o n o m i c a l record r e t e n t i o n , utilizing full floor- to-ceiling space. unique-because it sets up instantly and automatically—no taping or stapling required. unique—because it is the only corrugated container that is completely double-walled and double-cor- nered, providing amazing strength and durability. unique—because it is double-floored, providing a bottom that can't "fall through." unique—because it has a separate, telescopic cover. unique—because it is rugged, though light in weight. easy to lift and move by its comfortable hand-holds; even when full, can easily be carried by a girl. our brochure explains how the use of ortc lin i i i t h m h t i p i i i v t h e u n i c l u e p a i g e miracle box has sets up automatically developed a new system of retaining records . . . how leading companies " " get maximum use of available space, highest efficiency in operations, greatest immcniatc iicc convenience for personnel. we'll be glad llyllyltuiall uot to send you a copy. the paige co., park ave. $., new york, n. y. send your new, illustrated miracle box brochure. name title company street city state aa the paige company park avenue south new york, n. y. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril president's page in reflecting on the principles which guide the archival profes-sion, it seems to me that we generally limit ourselves to those which apply to the science or techniques of archives or that we may view them in terms of a code of ethics by which we strive to conduct ourselves as archivists. both of the foregoing are nat- ural and essential basics for a profession. there are, however, other principles to which we must, as professional archivists, give serious consideration. i mean those principles which relate to the kind, quantity, and quality of archival work to be performed in any given setting or situation. a major responsibility—shared by the governing body, admin- istrative officers, and the professional staff of any archival com- plex—is achievement at reasonable cost of the high standards de- manded by the archival profession, which is epitomized in the membership of the society of american archivists. as i see it, there are three essential requirements for the exercise of this re- sponsibility that should be kept in mind: . the work done must be of a kind that is needed to achieve the values sought. if a need be for secretarial service, the provi- sion for typing service only will not adequately serve. if the need of an archival program be for an experienced professional archivist, then a historian, sociologist, accountant, or librarian will not answer. . the work must be of a quality that promotes the values sought. inferior quality of archival programing, inefficient admin- istration and services, inappropriate or inadequate budgeting, and inappropriate space and equipment and facilities are examples of services that impede rather than promote the achievement of ob- jectives. . the quantity of the service is essential and should be just equal to the need. an excess is useless; too little detracts from achievement. needless proliferation of programs, a physical plant larger or smaller than the requirement, duplication of records or functions not germane to the task, are examples of workloads that do not advance institutional or agency achievement. determina- communications to the society president may be addressed to mrs. dolores c. renze, division of state archives and public records, sherman st., denver, colo. . volume q, number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril president's page tion of the work that is essential demands judgments based on ex- perience. and this exercise of judgment is of first importance in meeting archival standards at reasonable cost. how well each member of our profession hews to these prin- ciples—archivally, ethically, and administratively—will in the long run be the standard by which we may be judged as responsible in- dividuals dedicated to a broad concept of the "compleat archivist." dolores c. r e n z e , president society of american archivists reference service: solutions for two problems t h e urgent need for a subject index to the many and varied calendars, inventories, and lists already prepared was canvassed last year. it is, there- fore, particularly heartening to report that this is now well under way and already proving its value. instead of having to rely on someone's memory or leaving the student to wade through thick volumes of calendars and the like, it will be increasingly possible to direct students in the future to the subject index—or to the indexes of persons and places in the case of enquiries of a topographical or personal kind—where they can find the necessary references for themselves, so saving staff time. the indexing programme proceeds smoothly and well and its contribution to the smooth functioning of the office in dealing with all manner of enquiries becomes greater month by month. in the past, a form of serial numeral reference system was given to all deposited, purchased, or presented documents, with no attempt to differen- tiate the different sources from which records came or to identify these dif- ferent sources. this means, in effect, that if a document reference is picked at random from an index, there is no quick and ready way to locate that reference in a calendar or to discover whence it came. t h e difficulties are rendered greater by the fact that, with rare exceptions, the serial numeral references do not run in continuous order in any calendar or list. it is plainly impossible to undo the system and start again, but it is clear that some means of tying a document reference to a particular list or calendar and to a partic- ular source must be provided, not merely for the student but for the staff as well since this thoroughly unarchival system, now discontinued, is a source of constant frustration and difficulty. t o overcome the problem, two concor- dances are being provided; one, virtually completed, gives block serial numeral references tied to their sources; the other, a longer, more difficult job but vastly the more important of the two, will tie serial numeral references to pages of calendars and lists. it is anticipated that this work will take well over a year to complete but in view of the crying need for the production of these concordances, every effort is being made to do the job as quickly but as accurately as possible. —peter walne, annual report of the [hertfordshire] county archi- vist, , p. . the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the gondos memorial award of t h e society of american archivists and t h e american university for an essay on the history or administration of archives competition the author of the winning entry in will receive a certificate of award and a prize of two hundred dollars, donated by victor, dorothy, and robert gondos in memory of the late dr. victor gondos, sr. contest rules . the contest is open to all archivists, all manuscript curators, and all graduate archival students in the united states and canada except elected officers of the so- ciety of american archivists, the faculty of the american university, and mem- bers of the award committee. retired or professionally inactive archivists and manuscript curators are also eligible to compete. . the award committee will consist of the editorial board of the society of american archivists and representatives of the american university. miss helen chatfield is senior representative of the university. entries for the award should be addressed to the chairman of the editorial board : ken munden, editor, american archivist, national archives, washington, d.c. . . as the purpose of the contest is to encourage research and writing on some aspect of the history or administration of archives, the essay must be especially pre- pared for submission for the award. a contestant may submit several essays. a submission will not be accepted if (a) it has been published or issued in any form for general distribution or (b) it has been prepared primarily for other pur- poses, e.g., for a professional meeting. . each submission must bear a title and must be double-spaced typewritten ribbon copy, on letter-size white bond paper. it must consist of not less than , words and not more than , . . to maintain the anonymity of con- testants the author's name should not appear on any sheet of the essay. within a sealed envelope stapled to the first page should be inserted a " x " card show- ing the following information about the author: name, essay title, address, organi- zational affiliation (if any), a statement of present or past professional activity, and signature. the author's return ad- dress should not appear on the outer envelope in which the submission is mailed; instead, the following return ad- dress should be used: american archivist, national archives, washington, d.c. . . to be considered for the current year's award an essay must be received by the award committee by july , . . the award committee is exclusively responsible for the evaluation criteria and reserves the right to withhold the award if in its judgment no submission meets the criteria. . the winning essay will be selected in sufficient time to bestow the award at the annual meeting of the society. . the winning essay will be published in the american archivist. other essays will be eligible for publication in the society's journal, subject to the judgment of the editor. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes clark w. nelson, editor mayo clinic n e w products & data plastiklips fred baumgarten, iooo virginia ave. n.e., atlanta, ga. , is import- ing plastic paperclips from germany. available in four sizes and six colors, plastiklips are said to grip better than metal. they are rustproof, feather- light, and weigh less than their metal counterparts. samples used in the editor's office have proven acceptable. they are more fragile than metal, however, more bulky, and somewhat less smooth handling. bell sf howell microfiche equipment the micro-data division, mccormick rd., chicago, . , has introduced two microfiche machines. the bell & howell microfiche reader accepts "x " microfiche and magnifies it x on a -in. screen. the machine weighs lbs., features a direct dual-control dial for image location and image rotation. the bell & howell microfiche camera handles ft. of mm. roll film. it features a variable reduction ratio of to , automatic focus and exposure control, push-button operation, and automatic column and row advance. videofile ampex corp., broadway, redwood city, calif. , has now made available its videofile for document storage and retrieval. it is said to be the first automated system offering the following major advantages: records documents and files on magnetic tape, makes files instantly available and printed copies also available, automates both the retrieval and filing process, enables files to be easily updated, fits into one room, and stores several million documents. the system photographs each document with a television camera and records it on tape electronically. it is filed either at random as received or under a subject heading. just as in a regular file, these subject files can be easily expanded. instead of more drawer space, more rolls of tape are added. retrieval is by a document's code with the image appearing either on a t v screen or as a hard copy. a legal-size document takes vs in. of tape allowing a half million documents to be stored on a -in. roll of tape. magnetic tape literature m e m o r e x corp., shulman ave., santa c l a r a , calif., has published a series of four monographs on magnetic tape t h a t are available for th e asking. conveniently punched for looseleaf binding, th e monographs cover the fol- contributions to this department should be addressed to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo clinic, rochester, minn. . . the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l n o t e s lowing: "glossary of terms used in magnetic tape recording," "head wear considerations in magnetic tape recording," "causes of failure in magnetic tapes," and "magnetic tape production and coating tech- niques." for the uninitiated as well as the advanced user, these short, well- written, and well-illustrated booklets contain useful summaries of informa- tion about a medium that is playing an ever-increasing role in the life of the archivist. ibm photo image retrieval system another retrieval system has been announced that provides control over large files of microfilm images. the ibm photo-image retrieval system uses a photo-image chip or film as its basic unit of storage. this film is mm. x mm. and contains a diazo emulsion on one side and a magnetic oxide strip on the other. a microfilm aperture card is used as both the input and output medium. it initially prints its image on the diazo side of the chip and places the system address on the magnetic oxide strip. the chip is then stored in the system in cells, each containing chips. these cells are further stored in individual compartments within movable trays from which they can be re- trieved by pneumatic tubes. activating the system by the correct address will retrieve the chip and print it out on a microfilm aperture card for the searcher's subsequent use. mosler automated file automation appears to be the word in many records operations today. mosler safe co., hamilton, ohio, has now automated the handling of file folders. its newly introduced mosler scan file is supposed to be able to find the wanted folder within to seconds. when punched, an electronic key- board will search a random file of folders for the right one. the unit will then either push out the correct folder and signal its location or indicate that it is not in the file. this system requires no changeover in file folders. the only preparation required is the coding of folders. for complex searching, a tape reader releases the operator from the system's keyboard control. the system is custom built to the user's requirements. oral-history tape transcriber fidelity sound co., th st. n.w., washington, d.c. , features a machine especially made for transcribing any standard magnetic tape. the fidelitape ( m p - ) is engineered to help the secretary produce accurate transcriptions of a recorded voice. it has a footpedal control that backspaces, stops, or starts the unit. it also includes three standard speeds, plays either full or half-track recordings (quarter and stereo available on order), automatic volume control, low wow and flutter, and automatic tape cutoff. the machine weighs lbs. and sells for $ . microfilm readers and printers beginning on p. of the march issue of systems a six-page tabula- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l n o t e s tion is featured describing currently available microfilm readers and reader- printers. the listing includes the company, model number, film size, format, magnification ratio, screen size, manual or motor, print size, print process, accessories, indexing system, and price. these specifications are given for over a hundred machines. computer duplicator general aniline & film corp., west st st., new york, n.y. , has introduced a copier that will cheaply print continuous forms from a computer. the ozamatic uses the diazo process to reproduce auto- matically forms between % in. to in. in width and up to ft. in length at speeds of ft. per minute. the unit features an anhydrous ammonia developing system that is said to save up to percent over liquid ammonia costs. the machine saves expensive computer and printer time when extra copies of lengthy, continuous forms are needed. ultrasonic aperture cards kleer-vu industries, inc., park ave. south, new york, n.y., , has introduced sonicards. these ibm type punched cards are supposed to be not only cheaper but better than other cards. they feature diazo or kalvar microfilm that has been ultrasonically sealed to them. the lack of adhesives and buildup in areas where the film meets the card makes them superior. the larger microfilm area gained allows percent more space for the image. according to laboratory tests, the ultrasonic bond is supposed to improve with age rather than deteriorate. international microfilm guide the council on library resources, inc., has made a $ , grant to the international micrographic congress for the preparation of an international guide to microfilm equipment. the proposed guide will be in english and be devoted to equipment manufactured outside the united states. it will supplement the guide to microreproduction equipment, first published in by the national microfilm association with funds from the council. this guide is limited to american-made equipment. the international guide will be prepared by jack rubin of ibm, assisted by hubbard ballou of columbia university and carl nelson of ibm. distribution of the com- pleted work is planned for the spring of . xerox copier xerox corp., rochester, n.y., has introduced another compact copier in its line of electrostatic copying machines. the xerox is similar in size and appearance to the xerox . it features, however, a sliding-scale pricing plan. meter charges on this unit are c each for the first copies from a single document. for the fourth through tenth copy from the same original, the meter registers c per copy. beyond the tenth copy from an original, the meter the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l n o t e s charge is ic per copy. with this pricing plan, copies from a single original can be produced for a meter charge of i%c per copy. supply costs, excluding ordinary paper, are slightly more than %c per copy. a monthly use charge of $ plus a minimum invoice of $ per month will apply. xerox toner both xerox corp. and copy shine products co., p.o. box , char- lotte, n.c., have a new volume pricing plan for toners used by xerox copiers. xerox has announced new pricing beginning with a net cost of $ per pound of toner. buying in a quantity of to lbs. results in a percent discount; to lbs. in a percent discount; to lbs. in a percent discount; and lbs. or more, a percent discount. copy shine, which produces reprocessed toner at considerable savings, has also lowered its prices in quanti- ties of more than pounds. its prices apply to a single order, which may be shipped to several different locations. inexpensive microfilm reader university microfilms, inc., ann arbor, mich. , has introduced an inexpensive microfilm reader selling for $ . the machine is relatively portable, weighing only lbs. it features a fixed x magnification, a g"x " screen, a low-power automotive-type bulb, and a variable light-intensity switch. both mm. and mm. roll film can be accommodated. a micro- fiche attachment is available for $ . in demonstrations, the reader has per- formed rather well. the roll film mechanism is somewhat delicate but, with care, should last. cheap silver recovery eastman kodak co., rochester, n.y. , has announced a simple and inexpensive silver recovery system for use with automatic and semiautomatic film and paper processors, as well as tank or tray methods. t h e unit consists of a compact replaceable recovery cartridge and a circulating unit connected to the processor. it is said to be capable of separating percent of the silver from fixing solutions. the kodak chemical recovery cartridge, type or , is available from kodak dealers for less than $ . the recovery cartridge is a small drum filled with spun metal. a circulating unit screws into a bunghole in the top of the drum and is connected by flexible hose to the fixer overflow of the processor. when the processor is flushed, the used chemical is forced to circulate through the spun metal, depositing the silver among the filtering material, and out through an overflow. when a maximum number of gallons of used chemical have been passed through it, the unit is returned to kodak, where a small handling charge is made for assaying etc. ; but kodak predicts that the savings to the user will be greater than those with recovery systems previously available. manuscripts guide the american association for state and local history, ninth ave. north, nashville, tenn. , has just published the second edition of a volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes guide to the care and administration of manuscripts by lucile m . kane. originally published in i , the new edition has been revised and updated. it now contains references to microfilming. the -page work features chap- ters on establishing the first controls over manuscripts, organizing a collec- tion, sorting, evaluation, preservation, cataloging, and a bibliography. miss kane notes that since the first edition appeared, ". . . there is less negative concern about whether custodians of historical manuscripts borrow techniques from librarians, records managers, or archivists, and a more positive inclina- tion toward an open-minded examination of every idea which will help solve our problem." smaller hollinger box hollinger corp., south four mile run dr., arlington, va. , has been supplying on special order an archival box with the inside dimension reduced to inches. for those faced with problems of shelf width, the new dimension may be an answer. the box features a one-piece drop front, a pull hole, . -caliper board, and a gray color. available in both legal and letter size, a minimum order of , is required. the cost in that quantity is c each for letter size and c each for legal size. quantities of , reduce the cost further to nearly c each. microfiche planning guide microcard corp., south oak st., west salem, wis. , has issued a revision of its microfiche planning guide for technical document distri- bution systems. the -page booklet is available without cost and contains a well-written description of microfiche and how it can be applied to the handling of technical documents. printed in a large letter-size format, the guide is edited by a. l. baptie, vice president of microcard corp. data/v' eyor monarch metal products, new windsor, n.y. , has announced its unique, mechanized data/veyor for magnetic tapes or letter files. within the same space data/veyor is said to increase the capacity for tapes up to percent and for letters up to percent. the units are custom built to fit the user's present layout. they feature a flattened circle of back-to-back shelving units about ft. in width and ft. in height suspended on tracks that are automatically controlled by push buttons to move a given stack of shelving anywhere along either side of the double track system. traveling at ft. per minute, the conveyor is said to retrieve easily the required tape or letter folder. permanence of estar polyester base films kodak scientists p. z. adelstein and j. l. mccrea have published a report, "permanence of processed estar polyester base photographic films," in the september-october issue of photographic science and engineer- ing. the report states that the "use of photographic films as permanent the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes records is of importance to a great many archivists. excellent experience has been obtained with films coated on safety cellulose-ester type supports, but there has been little experience with the newer type polyester supports. stud- ies have been made on the chemical stability of estar polyethylene terephthal- ate, both as uncoated base and as emulsion-coated film. the stability compares very favorably with cellulose triacetate. no effect of the base on the stability of the emulsion layer was found. adequate adhesion between gelatin emulsion and polyethylene terephthalate base is more difficult to obtain and is not yet quite as good as with an acetate base. however, it is believed that estar base films have satisfactory emulsion adhesion when stored under moderate condi- tions. the stability of the silver image is unaffected by estar base." technical mailbag new classification system janet k. white, manuscripts cataloger, minnesota historical society, st. paul, has provided us with the following description of the society's new classification system: in mid- the manuscripts department of the minnesota historical society began using a new classification system in cataloging its collections. this is a simple numerical system with prefixes used to designate the physical type of the materials. the five categories are: papers (designated by the letter p), maps—cartographic (c), microfilm (m), tapes ( t ) , and oversize ( + ) ; additions are made by consecu- tive numbers at the end of each category. the content and size of the collections are no longer taken into consideration when assigning classification numbers. personal and business papers as well as secondary source materials are all included in the p category. small collections measuring less than one hollinger box are cataloged at one time and numbered consecutively. by following this procedure, several groups may be filed in the same container without interrupting the consecutive numbering. an inventory sheet is made for each number in each classification category. the shelflist card bears only the collection title, catalog number, quantity, and accession number. maps, microfilm, tapes, and oversize items that are part of a larger group of papers are numbered and filed with items of a similar physical grouping. cross-ref- erences are made on the inventory sheets to indicate relationship to the proper group, and supplementary main cards are also made for the items that have been separated physically from their group. the treatment of the papers of the quetico-superior council will serve as an example. the main card for the papers will bear the catalog number p , as they are the th such group cataloged since the new system was adopted. the main card for the microfilm bears the number m , the th unit of microfilm processed. catalog number t i o will be assigned to the tape recordings in the collection. all appear in the catalog under quetico-superior council papers, with the differentiation specified. this new system helps to solve two major problems that existed. supplanting a highly complex subject-matter, size, and manuscript-type approach to classification, it simplifies the work of the cataloger in assigning collection numbers. it also elimi- nates the great amount of shifting in the stacks necessitated by the addition of new collections within the numerous classification categories formerly in use. since shift- ing consumed a great deal of staff time, this advantage was an important considera- tion in the adoption of a new classification program. it is also expected that the adoption of this simpler system will reduce errors in refiling manuscripts. the new system is not without disadvantages. reference personnel must take par- ticular care in bringing to the attention of readers all portions of a collection that have been separated physically, and catalogers preparing reports for the national volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t e c h n i c a l n o t e s union catalog of manuscript collections must take the same precaution. too, a problem still remains when substantial additions are made to groups of papers already cataloged, for the processor must decide pragmatically whether to make the stack shift necessary to include the new material with the old under the same catalog number or to avoid the shift by assigning a new number to the addition. box label inventory maxine b. clapp and clodaugh neiderheiser of the university of min- nesota archives, minneapolis, have developed a method of making preliminary inventories by using carbons of their box labels. they describe the method as follows: to meet the demand for retrieval inherent in any archives program in these days of proliferating records and constantly increasing backlogs, the university of minne- sota archives has developed a technique of "preliminary processing." a brief de- scription of this method may be of interest to institutions which, like minnesota, have as yet no formal records management program and face a situation where the archi- vist has no control over the creation of records, their handling in the office of origin, the timing of their eventual deposit, or the condition in which they may be received. using this technique, incoming records are given minimal physical care and arrangement, are refoldered only when absolutely necessary, and are filed in standard record storage boxes. detailed contents are listed on each box and as these box labels are prepared a carbon copy, which serves as an inventory or finding aid, is made on % " x n " bond. temporary cards are interfiled in the card catalog under appropri- ate subject headings as well as a main or office of origin entry with a standard note: "for detailed holdings see preliminary inventory." because of this inventory no indication of the size of the collection or of peculiarities of form need be given on the catalog cards. they need carry only enough information to lead to the descriptive inventory. the preliminary inventories are filed under the classification number or locator symbol for each specific collection and filed adjacent to the descriptions and inventories of completely processed collections. this technique is also effective for large personal manuscript collections and business records, where research demand is likely to be immediate or frequent. although this is by no means recommended in lieu of complete inventorying, descrip- tion, and appropriate physical care, it does serve as a device for rapidly gaining control over large record series and making possible the rapid retrieval which is so frequently required from the archives of any organization. population explosion: final solution t h e patent office announced today it would put its . million parents on microfilm, permitting patent searchers around the country to obtain copies faster and even keep files in their own field. — the [washington, d.c.] evening star, july , , p. b- . the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril ...workhorse microfilm reader with the no-nonsense features compact "x " base takes up less space than a letterhead, yet outperforms many readers regardless of size or cost. there has to be a reason why dagmar super—sold direct on a satisfaction- or-your-money-back guarantee— continues its strong sales popularity. the reason is optimum performance through built-in design features— offered at an honest price. l only lbs. complete with carrying case. ::u instantly adjustable exclusive zoom projection from x to x with fingertip focusing. -second change—to handle all sizes and types of microfilm forms. normal reading position — sharp images in moderate light with- out glare of screens or without peering into darkened hoods. silent operation-no noisy cool- ing fan. or volt, -cycle alter- nating current. -year guarantee—except for lamps or mishandling. reader, incl. take-up reels, carrying case, extra lamp. $ f.o.b. waseca. "x "microfilm holder, w i t h reader $ ^ prices subject to change without notice. inquire about favorable adjusted prices jor canada. avr order on days' approval-ready for shipment audio-visual research th st. s.e., waseca, minn. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril your attention is called to a product that fills a long-standing need in the archival and manuscripts fields the proven czrfxahiual available in a full range of sizes and weights for documents—maps and protective folders and for other uses where permanence is essential for direct use or protection. ph neutral guaranteed by independent tests. approved by leading authorities. samples and price quotations on request write or wire "milletex" n. th street harrisburg, pa. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes dorothy hill gersack, editor office of federal records centers national archives and records service international council on archives extraordinary congress with the permission of the editor of the library of congress information bulletin we reprint the account of the recent extraordinary congress of the international council on archives, sponsored by the national archives and records service and the society of american archivists, that appeared as the appendix of the bulletin of may , ( : - ) : the extraordinary congress of the international council on archives held in the international conference room, u.s. department of state, washington, d.c., may — , this congress, devoted to "archives for scholarship—encouraging greater ease of access," was made possible by a grant to the national archives by the council on library resources, inc. it was called "extraordinary" because it was not one of the regularly scheduled ica congresses, which are usually held every . years, the next to be in spain in . the organizing committee consisted of robert h. bahmer, the archivist of the united states, as chairman; wayne c. grover, who recently re- tired from the post of archivist of the united states; l. quincy mumford, librarian of congress; w. kaye lamb of canada, dominion archivist and librarian; ernst posner, former professor of the history and theory of archives at the american uni- versity; and morris rieger and kenneth w. munden, both of the staff of the na- tional archives. the -day meeting—the th day was devoted to a tour of monticello, the university of virginia, and the shenandoah national park—was attended by persons (delegates and observers) representing countries, vatican city, the united nations, and puerto rico. the inaugural session opened on monday afternoon, may , with the archivist of the united states, presiding. in his welcoming remarks, charles frankel, assistant secretary of state for educational and cultural affairs, wished the delegates a profitable meeting. inaugural remarks were presented by etienne sabbe, archivist general of belgium and president of the international council on archives. noting that this was the first time the council had met in the united states, he commented that its meeting here was especially appropriate since the united states is particularly advanced in the technical aspects of the archival profession. lyman h. butterfield of boston, editor-in-chief of the adams papers, gave the principal address. his subject, "the scholar's one world," was, he said, an echo of "the archivist's 'one world,' " the title the late solon j. buck (then archivist of the united states, later chief of lc's manuscript division, and then assistant li- brarian) chose for his presidential address to the society of american archivists in . it was this concept that led to the organization of the international council on archives under the sponsorship of unesco in . news for the next issue should be sent by august to mrs. dorothy hill gersack, office of federal records centers, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes dr. butterfield cited some of the difficulties historian henry adams encountered in seville and paris in as typical of the uncertainties and delays even a well-known scholar experienced in being permitted to consult archival records at that time. there have been great advances in allowing access to historical sources since then, but much remains to be accomplished. dr. butterfield surveyed the steps by which the large adams family archives, which were not accessible until fairly recently, were opened and are now available to scholars in a complete microfilm edition. the microfilm has not been a handicap to the pub- lication; indeed, he said, it has proved in some respects an advantage to the letter- press editing by permitting greater selectivity, for example. three generations of the adams family served in highest diplomatic posts in times of hazard, and the separation of families during this service resulted in a correspondence that forms a wonderfully rich fabric and gives the papers an international spread. although the adamses were remarkably cosmopolitan for their times, their world was narrow, he pointed out, and the editors of the adams papers had to consider fewer centers in comparison to those needed by scholars studying the world of our time. dr. butterfield observed, as a working scholar, that no true archives were formed here until years after the country was founded; autograph hunters preceded archivists, and, although they saved documents from destruction, they left a dreadful disarray behind them. americans are still supplementing early records by copying material abroad; he hoped that recent filming of diplomatic records in the u.s.s.r. for the period of john quincy adams' mission to russia may be continued and expanded. in the early days of copying foreign archives, benjamin f. stevens raised the level of transcription to an art, and his facsimiles were a rationale for the modern practice of photocopying. j. franklin jameson inspired a generation of scholars to go straight to the sources rather than to secondary works, oversaw the preparation of the carnegie institution's series of guides to american material in foreign repositories (which widened the copying program of the library of congress), and was a great force in the achievement of the national archives. (dr. jameson served lc as chief of the manuscript division in - , after an already full career.) with the national archives program of microfilming, the indexing and filming by the library of congress of its papers of presidents and of other prominent persons [e.g., benjamin franklin, john paul jones, alexander hamilton], and the microfilming program now being sponsored by the national historical publications commission, dr. butterfield noted, the united states will eventually place much of its important his- torical sources in the public domain. there is still a long way to go. the national archives, which was made a part of the general services administration in , should have its independent status restored, dr. butterfield stated, adding that such a return is vital to a restoration of its full scholarly powers. he called it ironical that this situation exists when the public, the congress, and the executive have agreed that the support of scholarship is a truly national obligation. archivists and librarians at all levels should strive toward greater bibliographical control of their materials and of recording copies of those materials, he advised, or scholars will continue to be unreasonable in their demands. [dorothy s. eaton] [dr. butterfield's address is published in this issue of the american archivist.—ed.] the first working session, which was concerned with "liberalization of restric- tions on access to archives," was convened on tuesday morning, may . it was called to order at : by chairman wayne c. grover. the principal reporter of this session, w. kaye lamb of canada, presented a synopsis of his pre-congress survey on access, noting that there was no pattern to the rules of various countries, although there was a discernible trend toward greater liberalization. he acknowledged the delicacy of the question of access, partially answered by more extensive micro- filming. associate reporter herman hardenberg of the netherlands briefly sum- the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril international council on archives marized his paper on the legal and juridical problems associated with access and spoke in favor of a -year period of restriction for sensitive material. panelists who commented on the theme were robert-henri bautier of france, who counseled prudence to the too-liberal archivist; e. w. dadzie, speaking on behalf of the international organization for the development of librarians, who outlined some of the problems of the various countries in africa and suggested that each of the well-developed countries should "adopt and assist" a nascent system in a younger country; juan eyzaguirre e. of chile, who outlined the nature of access in his coun- try; olof jagerskiold of sweden, who addressed himself to the impossibility of gen- eralizing from one nation to another; and alexander solovjev of the u.s.s.r., who urged worldwide cooperation in a search for historical truth and for minimum re- strictions on access. he noted that access is open to all in the soviet union and to foreigners on reciprocity. mr. lamb then spoke again on the problems raised by copyright and literary property, stating that he felt all burdens should be assumed by the user, not by the archivist. mr. hardenberg decried the director of an archives who grants access as a favor to a chosen few. suggestions from the floor included the formation of a per- manent committee to codify rules of access. etienne sabbe of belgium pointed out that access is usually controlled by the agencies that created the archives and that, although he considered himself a conservative, he wished for a more liberal policy for belgium. antonino lombardo of italy then made a plea for the rights of the historian, saying that the generally favored -year period of delay should be shortened to years. dr. grover closed the session at : . [john d. knowlton] the second working session, held on wednesday morning, may , under the chairmanship of franjo biljan of yugoslavia, was devoted to the subject of "national documentary publication programing." extended pre-congress reports on this theme had been prepared by ghennady belov of the u.s.s.r. and oliver w. holmes of the united states. since copies of the reports had been distributed earlier, the re- porters limited themselves to -minute summaries. mr. belov based his report on a questionnaire he had circulated in an attempt to discover how archives in the countries of the eastern hemisphere contributed to historical studies by publishing. he therefore reviewed the programs of several countries, discussed the role of historical and scientific associations in cooperating with the archival institutions, and expressed the hope that many new national pro- grams might be undertaken and that international cooperation might result in pro- grams of interest to two or more countries. mr. holmes stressed the responsibility of archival agencies for publishing docu- ments, feeling that this is an extension of reference service to its highest level, and elaborated on the role of a national commission in planning, promoting, and coordinat- ing the publication of the records of the past, whether they be archival materials or private papers. microfilm publication, he felt, should be resorted to when a letter- press edition appeared unlikely. he urged upon editors of both letterpress and mi- crofilm publications, the adoption of only the highest standards, noting that nothing should be reserved if the scholarly community is to have any confidence in the work. panelists commenting on the papers and statements of the reporters included marcel baudot (france), roger ellis (united kingdom), k. d. bhargava (india), antonino lombardo (italy), and gunnar mendoza (bolivia). each touched briefly upon the national publication efforts of his own country, while mr. mendoza ex- panded his remarks to include problems common to much of latin america. all the panelists, as well as some of the delegates who afterwards contributed remarks from the floor, seemed to believe that archival publication of lists, inventories, registers, and other finding aids was as essential as the publication of the documents themselves. [john mcdonough] volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the third working session, held on thursday morning, may , under the chair- manship of sir david evans of the united kingdom, continued the council's ex- pressions of harmony on basic principles and of willingness to recognize and work out solutions to problems in a meeting on the microreproduction of archives for refer- ence and publication purposes. microfilm exchange is a new example of human solidarity, antal szedo of hungary stated to the council in the principal address of the day. mr. szedo referred to the post—world war ii development, particularly in europe, of the exchange between nations of microfilm copies of pertinent records. this exchange grew out of an im- mediate reaction to the war as it was in progress: the microfilming of records for security purposes. at the end of the war countries began to exchange film copies for both reference and publication. problems of rulings on the access and extent of copying which differ from one nation to another were confronted, and it was proposed that unesco act as a mediator in this problem. access for scientific scholarly study, the council readily agreed, should be liberal. albert leisinger, jr., of the national archives of the united states, spoke of the microfilming programs of the national archives and other microfilming programs carried on by american organizations both in this country and abroad. he stated the position of the united states in preferring to film entire series or fonds, and he proposed, in addition, establishing a priority for filming records for nations that lack adequate documentation of their past, exchanging with other nations microfilm copies of entire series of records, liberalizing control over use of microfilm copies, and requesting from unesco financial and technical assistance to implement these proposals. serving as panelists were franjo biljan of yugoslavia, harald j rgensen of den- mark, heinz lieberich of the federal republic of germany, luis m. rodriguez morales of puerto rico, and antonio matilla tascon of spain. panelists and speakers from the floor indicated that some resistance to uncontrolled filming does exist in some archives, but it was generally agreed that there should be reasonable access to the various collections for the scholar in person or through microfilm. there was full discussion of a need to arrange and classify records before filming and for care in storing completed microfilm in accordance with approved storage recommendations. discussion during the sessions indicated that archivists are using microfilm as a tool to provide researchers with exact copies of documents at a cost far less than that of manual transcription, typing, or full-size photocopies; to provide security copies in the event that original records are destroyed by the calamities of fire, flood, war, etc.; to protect valuable original records against wear-and-tear during use; to prevent eventual loss of information through deterioration of the materials on which the original documents are recorded; to publish facsimile copies of series of records; to acquire records contained in other depositories; and to save space. [russell m. smith and donald c. holmes] the fourth working session, held on friday morning, may , was devoted to "international cooperation in facilitating access to archives," under the chairman- ship of jorge ignacio rubio-mane of mexico. reporters were aurelio tanodi of argentina and charles kecskemeti of france. mr. tanodi proposed the systematic preparation of finding aids and their exchange as forms of international coopera- tion. he also discussed special projects, such as the proposal by israel to film archival materials relating to the history of jews in europe, northern africa, and asia, and malaysia's proposal for a regional cooperative program for southeast asia. mr. kecskemeti reviewed the history of the international council on archives, of which he is secretary, and advocated the creation of regional branches and direct archival collaboration among various nations. panelists included alexandre bein of israel, morris rieger of the u.s. national archives, jean valette of the malagasy republic, peter walne of the united kingdom, the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril international council on archives and igor zemskov of the u.s.s.r. among the suggestions offered was greater technical assistance for training of archivists for new countries, with the cooperation of unesco and the international council on archives. many panelists reported on procedures for international cooperation within their own countries. ernst posner of the united states was among the delegates who spoke from the floor and urged an archival peace corps, a suggestion that was endorsed by other delegates. [george o. kent] the closing session of the congress, with ica president etienne sabbe of belgium in the chair, took place on friday afternoon. robert h. bahmer, archivist of the united states, read a message from . . . president lyndon b. johnson, stressing "the profound responsibility" of the archivists "for bringing together and preserving the invaluable historical records" that constitute "the collective memory of mankind," and j. e. moody, acting administrator of the general services administration, of which the national archives and records service is a part, spoke briefly on the great need for international cooperation among archivists "to encourage scholarship founded on the free and objective examination of basic source materials." ica secretary charles kecskemeti of france presented the conclusions and recom- mendations of the resolutions committee, consisting of ghennady belov (u.s.s.r.), e. w. dadzie (mauritania), guy duboscq (france), johan hvidfeldt (denmark), w. kaye lamb (canada), heinz lieberich (frederal republic of germany), antonio matilla tascon (spain), gunnar mendoza (bolivia), mr. sabbe, leopoldo sandri (italy), and s. s. wilson (u.k.), with dr. bahmer as chairman and mr. kecskemeti as secretary. after a second reading, they were all adopted. the official text will be distributed to all official delegates and observers at the congress and will, in time, be published in the american archivist, unesco's bulletin for libraries, and archivum, ica's publication. they may be summarized as follows: . the extraordinary congress reaffirms that one of the principal objectives of the ica is to facilitate the use of archives, as well as the effective and impartial study of the documents they contain, by making them more widely known and more easily accessible. . the congress feels that researchers, irrespective of nationality, should every- where have equal and easy access to archives and that steps to implement this prin- ciple should be taken. it further wishes ica's executive committee to study the feasibility of creating an international reader's card, which will be generally accepted by archival establishments, and to submit a report to the next congress in . . realizing the current requirements of research in history, economics, and social sciences, the congress wishes to obtain a substantial liberalization of regulations re- lating to access, by reducing the time limits now in force and by making available certain catagories of documents even sooner than the general time limits would permit. . because finding aids are essential, the congress wishes that their preparation be expedited and that guides to whole series of documentary sources be published. it also hopes that adequate qualified personnel will be available so that the voluminous archives of contemporary times may be made available for research. . in view of the fact that present-day concepts in the field of copyright may have an influence upon research in archives, the congress wishes that the international round table put this problem on the agenda of its next session. . in order to facilitate the publication of documentary sources, the congress wishes the executive committee of ica to set up a committee to study the most economical and the most rapid procedures and methods, giving special attention to the use of microfilm as a means of publication. . the congress would like to have the committee of archives of the inter- american [i.e., pan american] institute of geography and history and the inter- american technical council on archives undertake a survey by means of a question- naire on conditions under which historical documents are being published in countries of latin america, this constituting the first stage toward the formulation of national volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes programs for publication. the congress furthermore hopes that these organizations and the ica can concentrate their efforts in order to obtain assistance from unesco as well as from foundations with a view toward developing national publication programs for documentary sources in latin america. . the congress recommends increasing microfilm programs, extending such pro- grams, if possible, to whole series or fonds, and including, in agreements dealing with the exchange or furnishing of microfilms, clauses regulating the reproduction or the transmission to a third party of such microfilms it also wishes that special attention should be given in microfilm programs to documentation relating to nations whose history is dependent upon sources preserved in other countries. . the congress recommends that the ica executive committee take the initia- tive in having a study made of the conditions under which films may be preserved in tropical climates. . the congress wishes that all national members of the ica, all member insti- tutions, and all professional associations send to the ica secretariat, within months, a list of well-qualified candidates for the archival peace corps. . the congress approves wholeheartedly a unesco pilot project for archives work in africa. the congress feels that two sub-regional projects ought to be con- templated—one in english-speaking east africa and another in french-speaking west africa. . it would also be useful to strengthen the mobile microfilm units of unesco and to combine this operation later with the sub-regional projects in africa. . the training of qualified personnel for african archives should be undertaken immediately, using all local facilities and all local opportunities in africa. . the congress wholeheartedly approves the initiative taken by unesco to as- sociate ica with it in the vast undertaking of a general history of africa. . it would be appropriate for each national member of ica to request its unesco national commission and the government of its country to request unesco to increase the subsidy granted to ica in order that it may create a permanent secretariat and implement the following plans: to resume an international archival bibliography in archivum; to create an international documentation center of archives; to enable the terminology committee to resume its work and to add to this committee members from additional language areas; to create a committee to study restoration problems and to exchange experience in this area; to establish a committee to study interna- tional law in the field of archives; and to set up regional ica branches in french- speaking africa, in english-speaking africa, and in southeast asia. unesco should also be encouraged to include a special item in its budget for technical archival assistance to the developing countries. . pending the creation of an international commission for archival assistance to the under-developed countries, the congress approves the creation of a working group made up of representatives of the executive committee of ica and of ap- propriate unesco offices to follow up on work done in the area of archival assistance to developing countries. . the congress wishes that a small working group be created by the president of ica to continue the work started by the extraordinary congress; that the ex- ecutive committee of ica give special attention to the problems raised; and that the round table study the implementation of the measures recommended by the congress. a report should be submitted to the next congress, to be held in madrid, regarding developments. . the concluding resolution voted thanks to all concerned with the congress. mr. duboscq of france, observing the th anniversary of unesco, recounted its history and paid eloquent tribute to the organization for its fostering of the ica. the archivist of the united states introduced waldo g. leland (lc's honorary consultant in the history of international intellectual relations) and hailed him for more than years of service to the archival profession, including his major role in the establishment of the national archives of the united states. mr. sabbe re- the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril international council on archives gretted that ica's honorary president, charles braibant of france, could not be present and spoke warmly of his contributions to the council. in summarizing the extraordinary congress, he characterized archivists as "a noble family" and expressed gratification that the congress had brought together archivists and countries not represented in the small, informal "round table" of european archivists or even in the larger ica, spoke optimistically of freer access to archives, and even foresaw the day when rockets full of archives would be sent on loan between countries. the delegates to the extraordinary congress were widely entertained—at official conference functions, by their friends and their embassies, and by the white house. on tuesday afternoon mrs. lyndon b. johnson, with the archivist of the united states, personally received the delegates and their wives in the blue room of the white house, and, after tea in the state dining room, the visitors were taken, in small groups, on a tour. there was a reception at the washington hotel by the society of american archivists on monday evening; luncheons were given at the department of state on tuesday and friday and at hotels on wednesday and thurs- day; and on wednesday the national archives had tours for the foreign delegates followed by a reception in the conference room for all the delegates. on thursday afternoon, may , foreign delegates toured the library of congress. divided into groups with leaders speaking each of the official languages and several others, the visitors were taken through the library buildings. everyone had an op- portunity to see the main reading room with its domed ceiling from high in one of the galleries, and everyone had a good visit in the manuscript division, where storage, handling, indexing, and preserving personal papers were discussed. some of the guests went to the map division and also saw some of the treasures from the rare book room, while those from spanish and portuguese speaking countries visited the prints and photographs division and then the hispanic foundation. following the tours, the visitors assembled in the coolidge auditorium for a brief talk on lc's plans for automation. all the official delegates were then guests of the library at a reception in the whittall pavilion, where they were greeted by the librarian, the deputy librarian, and the assistant librarian. the congress ended with a banquet at the washington hilton hotel. there were no speeches, but the archivist spoke briefly, offering a toast to the congress, and ica president sabbe responded, in english, with warmth and wit, thus bringing to a close a congress widely acclaimed as extremely successful. [elizabeth e. hamer] reports prepared for the extraordinary congress a limited number of copies of the eight reports prepared for the extra- ordinary congress are still available for distribution. in ordering please specify the author and title of the report and the language desired (english, french, german, or spanish). send order to ken m u n d e n , i c a extra- ordinary congress organizing committee, national archives and records service, room g- , national archives building, washington, d . c . . a list of these reports, giving their titles in english, follows: w. kaye lamb, "liberalization of restrictions on access to archives: general sur- vey." with addenda. h. hardenberg, "liberalization of restrictions on access to archives: legal and juridical problems associated with access to archives." g h . a. belov, "national programmes for the publication of documents in countries of the eastern hemisphere." oliver w. holmes, "national documentary publication programing: documentary publication in the western hemisphere." antal szedo, "microreproduction of archives for reference and publication purposes". problems of microfilming." volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes albert h. leisinger, jr., "microreproduction of archives for reference and publica- tion purposes: selected aspects of microreproduction in the united states." aurelio tanodi, "international cooperation in facilitating access to archives." with annex. charles kecskemeti, "activities and problems of the international council on ar- chives." evaluation of the extraordinary congress since the congress the archivist of the united states and the president of the society of american archivists have received, especially from abroad, a good many letters expressing considerable gratification with the program, organization, and achievements of the congress. among the letters received by president dolores c. renze is one from ica president etienne sabbe, archiviste general du royaume de belgique, dated june , ; his letter is printed below: a l'issue des travaux du congres international extraordinaire de washington, je voudrais vous presenter, au nom du conseil international des archives et de toutes les delegations nationales qui ont assiste au congres, mes sentiments de profonde re- connaissance envers nos collegues americains et leur societe dont vous assumez si brillamment la presidence. votre geste confraternel de nous recevoir, des le lendemain de notre arrivee, nous a tres vivement touches. cette premiere reunion amicale a puissamment contribue a assurer le ton cordial et le climat serein des debats. un des grands resultats du congres, dont je me rejouis personnellement, a ete le resserrement des liens entre les archivistes des deux hemispheres, et, en particulier, entre les archivistes d'europe et des etats-unis. la grande valeur intellectuelle et professionnelle de nos collegues americains etait connue de nous tous depuis long- temps, mais pour la plupart des delegues c'etait la premiere occasion de se rendre compte sur place combien cette reputation est juste. les echanges de vues avec les collegues americains et la visite d'institutions ar- chivistiques des etats-unis a valu a tous les congressistes un enrichissement sur le plan professionnel que je ne saurais souligner assez fort. qu'il me soit permis d'adresser, en ma qualite de president du conseil international des archives, mes felicitations les plus chaleureuses a la societe des archivistes americains pour son oeuvre inlassable en faveur de la cooperation internationale et le progres de notre discipline. je suis convaincu que notre collaboration ne cessera de se renforcer dans 'avenir, dans l'esprit du congres de washington. je vous prie de transmettre mes remerciements et mes salutations confraternelles a la societe des archivistes americains, et d'agreer, madame, l'expression de mes hommages les plus respectueux. m . sabbe sends also the following letter, of the same date, which he ad- dresses to american archivists in general: au nom du conseil international des archives et de toutes les delegations nationales presentes au congres de washington, j'ai l'honneur de vous adresser mes remercie- ments les plus vifs pour votre genereuse hospitalite. votre geste aimable et confraternel illustre magnifiquement cette verite dont nous sommes tous conscients: il n'y a qu'un seul metier d'archiviste, chacun de nous, a quel poste qu'il soit, remplit une double mission, servant a la fois l'administration et la science. vous avez la charge de gerer les documents vivants de votre gouvernement et par la meme vous preparez le succes des recherches historiques a venir. votre activite fait des etats-unis un des pays-pilotes dans le domaine archivistique, votre experience professionnelle est d'une valeur exceptionnelle dont nous esperons tous pouvoir profiter. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists en vous reiterant l'expression de ma reconnaissance tres sincere, je vous prie d' agreer, messieurs et chers collegues, mes salutations les plus cordiales et les plus chaleureuses. archivum t h e editor of archivum, the international review published under the auspices of the international council on archives, plans to devote the next volume ( ) to the most important repositories for international historical re- search. this will fit in very well with the council's extensive program of producing guides intended to make access easier to sources of history in non- european countries. volume will contain the proceedings of the extraor- dinary congress on archives that was held in washington, may - , . the proposal of dr. bein, archivist of israel, has been accepted as the plan for volume : it will be devoted to the archives of states that have gained independence since the end of world war i i . o t h e r international organizations unesco unesco has issued the directory of archives, libraries and schools of li- brianship in africa (no. of the unesco bibliographical handbooks), com- piled by e. w . dadzie and j. t . strickland. the archival institutions are listed separately, alphabetically by country, with dates, publications, and rela- tive importance of the archives of the institutions that replied. the data, obtained by a -item questionnaire and assembled in july , are in english ( ) or french ( ). local and mission archives are excluded. the -page directory (copyrighted in ) can be purchased from unesco pub- lications center, east th st., new york, n.y., , for $ . second international congress on reprography the second international congress on reprography will be held at cologne october - , . deutsche gesellschaft fur photographie has been entrusted with the organization of this congress. there will be two sections of the congress, one scientific and the other applied and technical. concurrent with the congress will be an international exhibition of apparatus and materials for technical photography, microfilm, photocopy, office copy, electro- and thermo-copy, diazo print, and small offset printing. the west german of- fice equipment exhibition will be offered at the same time in the exhibition halls in cologne deutz. further information may be obtained from the con- gress office of the deutsche gesellschaft fur photographie, neumarkt, cologne, federal republic of germany. society of american archivists joint saa-aaslh meeting atlanta will be the place for this year's meeting (october - , ), and the marriott motor hotel, courtland and cain sts., will be local headquarters. the program committee (herbert e. angel, chairman, and members clark volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s w . nelson, icko iben, v. nelle bellamy, herbert finch, lester k. born, vernon b. santen, f. gerald ham, richard c. berner, james l. gear, s. j. pomrenze, a. k. johnson, jr., and richard g. wood) has plans well underway for the th annual meeting of the saa in conjunction with the th annual meeting of the american association for state and local history. the tentative program outlined below includes the aaslh sessions where information is available on them. morning sessions will begin at = a.m.; they will run to : o a.m. all afternoon sessions will start at p.m. and close at : c* p.m. these hours will allow time for other events on the program and for visiting with colleagues. the first day's sessions, wednesday, october , will be devoted to work- shops, the church archives workshop will have a daylong meeting: the morning session on records management for denominational archives and the afternoon session on microfilm policies in church archives, the records man- agement workshop will consider records management surveys and records appraisal in its two sessions. other one-session morning workshops are the college and university workshop on building the college archives and the microfilming workshop on proposed new standard practices. c j n *he afternoon there will be a manuscripts and special collections work- s h o p on arrangement and description of manuscripts and a scientific and t e c h n i c a l archives workshop on development, maintenance, and use of scientific archives of industry. one aaslh workshop on collecting man- uscripts is scheduled for the morning and one on local history and the social studies for the afternoon. on thursday, october , the regular sessions •will begin. there will be five in the morning. different approaches to archival training: h. g. jones will discuss "archival training in universities," and t . r. schellen- berg will speak on "archival training in library schools." evaluation of the microfilm publications program of the national historical publications commission: julian p. boyd, chairman; the evaluation will be by an editor, herbert finch; by a microfilm technician, thomas deahl; and by a librarian and scholar, stephen t . riley. church archives—strengths and weaknesses: v. nelle bellamy, presiding; william a. hogan will present a paper on "insights from a research historian," and "insights from a church ar- chivist" will be given by august r. suelflow. southern historical institu- tions and urban history are other planned sessions. cun the afternoon there will be five concurrent sessions. extraordinary congress of the international council on archives: daniel j. reed, chairman; morris rieger will give the "general report," and there will be reports on "liberalization of restrictions on access," "national documentary publications programs" by richardson dougall, "microreproduction of archives as a publications medium" by albert h. leisinger, jr., and "international cooperative exchange and pub- lications program" by robert claus. a session on preservation of special classes of records will present papers on preservation of microfilm, still pic- tures and negatives, motion picture film, sound recordings, and magnetic tapes. in the session on new national programs in the humanities papers will be the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists presented on the "program of the national endowment for the humanities," the "smithsonian institution grants for the humanities," and "contributions of the higher education act and the library services and construction act." two additional sessions, historical society publications and appraisal of manuscripts and museum objects, are scheduled for that afternoon. there are five sessions scheduled for friday morning, october . public records and public relations: the archivist as adman; charles e. lee, chairman. in this session maynard j. brichford will discuss "informing the government about its archives" and david j. delgado will speak on "in- terpreting archives to a non-governmental public." archives and records center buildings: victor gondos, jr., chairman; in this session there will be discussion of "features of new archives buildings" by kenneth w . richards, "features of new records center buildings" by william benedon, "logistics of moving into new archives and records center buildings" by edward g. campbell, and "fire protection for archives and records center build- ings" by harold e. nelson. accessibility of archives and manuscript collec- tions for photocopying: richard c. berner, chairman; a statement "pro" by walter rundell, "con" by another speaker, and comments by archibald han- na. evaluating the effectiveness of records management programs will have four papers dealing with practices in the federal government, in a military department, in a local government, and in a business corporation. a session ar- ranged by the aaslh is entitled editing papers. c.friday afternoon ses- sions will be three in number. application of automation to the control of ar- chives and manuscripts: frank evans, chairman; there will be papers on "subject retrieval through use of the jonker optical coincidence system" by elizabeth ingerman wood, "item-indexing by automated processes" by russell m . smith, "bibliographic and administrative control of manuscript collections with computers" by frank g. burke, "automated techniques in the creation and publication of a comprehensive index" by sister m . claudia, and comments by rita campbell. the two remaining sessions will deal with business archives and salaries in historical and archival institu- tions. the joint local arrangements committee (carroll hart, chairman, and a. k. johnson, jr., vice chairman) has scheduled a tour of the new georgia de- partment of archives and history and tours on saturday, october : a half day tour to the civil war cyclorama and stone mountain or a full day tour of cherokee georgia, the northwest part of the state. tours of the facilities of the communicable disease center, the lockheed-georgia information center, and other places of interest in the city can be arranged. c^a memorial plaque to mary givens bryan, president of the society ( - ) and director of the georgia department of archives and history ( - ), will be dedicated in the new georgia archives on october . archivist of the united states robert h. bahmer and secretary of state of georgia ben w . fortson, jr., will speak at the ceremony. volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes new members individual candida c. agcaoili (mrs.), manila, philippines, chief librarian, catholic university of the philippines. judy beck (mrs.), st. louis, mo., records consultant, remington office systems. robert h. becker, kensington, calif., assistant director, bancroft library. philip bryant (mrs.), decatur, ga., georgia department of archives and history. g. h. m. campbell (mrs.), montreal, que., canada. mildred m. carmichael, knoxville, tenn., records officer, tennessee valley authority. phillip c. chrisman, overland, md., supervisor-archival technician. francis p. clark, louisville, ky., director of microfilming, catholic newspaper archives of america. earle connette, pullman, washington, librarian and chief of manuscripts, washington state university. ruth corry, atlanta, ga., georgia department of archives and history. consuelo damaso, quezon city, philippines, associate professor of library science, university of the philippines. bernard k. dehmelt, annapolis, md., assistant professor, naval academy. raymond h. downs, baton rouge, la. carl j. dye, jr., st. charles, mo., management analysis, national archives and records service. elliot a. p. evans, san francisco, calif., curator, society of california pioneers. donald c. ewing, dearborn, mich., librarian, wayne state university. raymond n. falconer, granite city, ., management technician, records, granite city army depot. gerald w. gillette, philadelphia, pa., presbyterian historical society. kenneth m. glazier, stanford, calif., librarian, stanford university. david b. gracy ii, lubbock, tex. thomas j. headlee, jr., richmond, va., assistant archivist, virginia state li- brary. gerald hegel, columbia, mo., supervisor of records, university of missouri. mary david homan (sister), winona, minn., chairman, history department, college of st. teresa. claude w. horton (mrs.), austin, tex., professional researcher, texas state archives. thomas f. johnston, braintree, mass., photoduplicating clerk, massachusetts archives. sandra kamtman, baltimore, md., keeper of manuscripts, maryland historical society. edwin f. klotz, sacramento, calif., administrative consultant, california state department of education. kenneth f. krapf, st. louis, mo., record center supervisor. wilbur g. kurtz, jr., atlanta, ga., representative, coca-cola co. stella t. lieb (mrs.), chattanooga, tenn., supervisor, records, tennessee valley authority. dorothy j. mahon, st. louis, mo., representative, national research council. j. w. mcelroy, washington, d.c. nicholas a. moramarco, berkeley, mo., supervisory archives assistant. mitchel c. morrow (mrs.), atlanta, ga., georgia department of archives and history. janie near, atlanta, ga., georgia department of archives and history. anthony s. nicolosi, south bound brook, n.j., assistant curator of special collections, rutgers university. anne e. polk, decatur, ga., georgia department of archives and history. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists frantisek radvanovsky, syracuse, n.y., assistant archivist, syracuse uni- versity. f. garner ranney, baltimore, md., archivist, diocese of maryland, protestant episcopal church. aimee sanders (mrs.), reading, pa., director, historical society of berks county. jack schanfeld, dover, del., lecturer, u.s. air force. william f. shonkwiler, st. louis, mo., archivist, military personnel records center. samuel a. sizer, little rock, ark., archivist, arkansas history commission hollister s. smith (mrs.), st. louis, mo., archivist, st. louis medical society. frederic stewart, new york, n.y., archivist, hunter college. jesse p. surles, asheville, n.c., records administrator, buncombe county. joseph a. tamerin, m.d., new york, n.y. enid t. thompson (mrs.), denver, colo., librarian, historical society of colo- rado. mary truher, santa clara, calif., assistant archivist, university of santa clara. robert v. williams, atlanta, ga., georgia department of archives and history. donald a. woods, milwaukee, wis., curator, university of wisconsin-milwau- kee archives. institutional american medical association, chicago, . american optometric association, mrs. maria dablemont, st. louis, mo. antioch college, yellow springs, ohio. central state university, w. e. dunlap, wilberforce, ohio. diocese of kansas city-st. joseph (roman catholic), kansas city, mo. fort leavenworth museum, miss m. cox, fort leavenworth, kans. diocese of missouri, protestant episcopal church, charles rehkopf, st. louis, mo. texas technological college, southwest collection, lubbock, tex. deaths of members elizabeth meade t h o m a s , on april , , in annapolis, md. an editor in the presidential papers section of the manuscript division of the library of congress since , mrs. thomas had served as editor of indexes to the papers of presidents washington, madison, william henry harrison, taylor, pierce, andrew johnson, lincoln, and coolidge and was working on president wilson's letters at the time of her death. she was assistant ar- chivist of maryland, - , and an archivist at the national archives, where she specialized in naval records, - . she prepared the general index to the - issues of the american historical review and edited the calendar of black books, maryland state papers. saa symposia on april , in raleigh, the society with the north carolina department of archives and history and the north carolina literary and historical asso- ciation as cosponsors held a symposium on archives and manuscripts for north carolinians concerned with the preservation of original source materials. among the speakers were a. k. johnson, jr., regional director of the national archives and records service, and carroll hart, director of the georgia de- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s partment of archives and history. session topics included necessity of archival institutions, appraisal standards, arrangement and description of archives and private papers, reference service, exhibition of documents, and preservation facilities and techniques. this meeting was held in conjunction with the first south atlantic regional conference of the american association for state and local history, april - . c.on may the georgia department of ar- chives and history was host to "tri-state archives and records conference," cosponsored by the society of american archivists, the national archives and records service, and the state archives of north carolina, south carolina, and georgia. sessions included "records management," "inventorying and scheduling of records," "preservation, reproduction and restoration," and "appraisal standards." minutes of the council cincinnati, ohio, april , the meeting was called to order by president dolores c. renze at : o a.m. in room of the netherland-hilton hotel. present were herbert angel, vice president; philip p. mason, secretary; h. g. jones, treasurer; and council members william t . alderson, maynard brichford, lewis darter, and robert lovett. the secretary reported that he had circulated the council minutes of the december , , meeting to the members not in attendance and had re- ceived replies from maynard brichford, lewis darter, elizabeth drewry, robert lovett, and clifford shipton. all approved of the actions taken by the council. dr. alddson moved to dispense with the reading of the minutes of december , , and approve them as mailed. president renze reported that she planned to represent the society at the forthcoming meetings of the council of national library associations in new york city and the special libraries association in minneapolis. the secretary reported that membership in the society has continued to increase steadily. as of april , , the society had a total of , members and subscribers. the most effective single method of member solicita- tion has been a personal invitation to those persons who have attended the society-sponsored symposia in various parts of the country. the secretary re- ported also that state archives have become $ sustaining members and that others are planning to take similar action in the coming year. the council approved the secretary's recommendation to invite other large archival organizations to become sustaining members. the council discussed the problem of fellows who have fallen in arrears in dues after retirement. it was the concensus of the council that such persons should be allowed to retain the title of fellow although they should not be counted as part of the percent eligible for that class of members. it was emphasized also that only members in good standing would receive the american archivist and other perquisites of membership. since a change in the constitution is necessary to carry out such a proposal, the secretary was asked to present a formal proposal to the council at a future meeting. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists on behalf of ken munden, editor, the secretary proposed that an ad hoc committee be appointed to consider the design of a suitable seal for the so- ciety. such a seal would be used on society publications including the cover of the american archivist. the council approved the proposal and president renze agreed to appoint a special committee to consider the matter. treasurer h. g. jones presented the financial report of the society for the first quarter of . it was discussed by the council and filed with the secretary. the treasurer also reported that the membership development committee had adopted his recommendation for a standard reporting of finan- cial procedures of future symposia meetings. the president and council members who serve in a liaison capacity reported on the activities of the society's committees. the reports revealed that most of the committees were actively engaged in professional projects. of particular interest to the council was the report of the membership development com- mittee. on behalf of the committee, lewis darter reported on five symposia held since october . they were: portland, oreg., nashville, tenn., san francisco, calif., los angeles, calif., and raleigh, n.c. mr. darter announced also that symposia are now being planned for boston, mass., san francisco, calif., atlanta, ga., fort worth, tex., columbus, ohio, seattle, washington, richmond, va., minneapolis, minn., salt lake city, utah, palo alto, calif., and los angeles, calif. president renze read a letter from robert bahmer, chairman of the so- ciety's committee on copyright revision. dr. bahmer noted that he was pleased with the following statement issued by a. l. kaminstein, register of copyrights, in a closing statement to the house committee considering the proposed copyright revision: for the most part the opposition [to the life-plus- -year period] has appeared to be isolated or of less than primary concern to the opponents. at the same time, i was strongly impressed by the arguments advanced by the deputy archivist of the united states and by professor julian boyd on behalf of archivists and historians. their proposal that libraries, archives, and other repositories be permitted to dupli- cate manuscripts for the preservation of their own collections and for research use in other archival institutions struck me as reasonable and worthy of adoption. following the committee reports the council expressed an interest in re- ceiving any committee progress reports which were available. president renze agreed to duplicate all pertinent reports and forward them to council members and officers. the secretary reported that eastman kodak company had given the society $ , to sponsor a special reception on may for the delegates and observers at the forthcoming extraordinary congress of the ica, may — . the council approved a motion by william alderson (seconded by h. g. jones) that dr. robert bahmer, archivist of the united states, represent the united states in voting on the resolutions presented at the congress. william alderson reported on the progress of the salary survey sponsored jointly by the society and the american association for state and local history. a significant number of institutions had already answered the ques- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news n o t e s tionnaire, giving sufficient data for a meaningful analysis of professional salaries in archives and historical agencies. the final report will be pre- sented to the council in october before the public program scheduled for october . new business the council considered a proposal by maynard brichford to endorse the statement of principles on academic freedom and tenure adopted by the american association of university professors and the association of american colleges in . since that time, approximately forty educational and pro- fessional organizations have officially endorsed the statement. following a brief discussion in which there was general approval of the recommendation, the secretary was requested to prepare a resolution, circulate it to all council members, and solicit their advice on whether such endorsement required full membership approval. the council considered the memorandum circulated by the secretary re- lating to the increasing work load of that office. the secretary described in detail the growing responsibilities resulting from a steady increase in mem- bership and the expansion of the society's professional program. on behalf of the finance committee, h. g. jones recommended that the budget of the secretary be increased immediately by the sum of $ , to make it possible to hire a full-time typist-clerk to assist the secretary. mr. jones re- ported that it was the intent of the finance committee that future budgets include an appropriation of $ , for a full-time clerical position in the secretary's budget. mr. jones' recommendation passed unanimously. president renze recommended that the council give consideration to changes in the constitution and bylaws to reduce a quorum for a council meeting from seven to five; increase the term of the president to years; and increase dues. herbert angel announced that walter rundell, jr., of the national his- torical publications commission would be the speaker at the joint luncheon during the annual meeting of the american historical association in de- cember in new york city. mr. rundell will discuss his survey of the use of original sources in graduate history training. the meeting adjourned at : p.m. p h i l i p p. mason, secretary o t h e r professional associations association for recorded sound collections the association, a national organization of archivists, curators, and collec- tors of sound recordings, was founded on february , at syracuse univer- sity. philip miller, the new president, who is chief of the music division, research library and museum of the performing arts, lincoln center, said that the organization will have its headquarters in new york. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril other professional associations international institute of municipal clerks the institute held its annual conference from may to in new york city. among the informative sessions were those considering microfilming by saa member t . t . greitz, federal records center, new york city; filing and indexing; records management by saa member p. s. iacullo, nars; and "english municipal records" by peter walne, ar- chivist, hertfordshire, england. mr. walne, also a member of the saa, was in the united states to attend the ica extraordinary congress. israel archives association the fourth conference of the israel archives association took place in tel-aviv on february , , with the chairman of the association, alexander bein, presiding. the conference heard papers on "statistics in the service of archives" and on "facsimile copies and their use in archival exhibitions." the conference adopted six general resolutions, three of which express satisfaction with training courses for archivists at the university level and for nonacademic employees in archives and with the civil service com- mission's recognition of the profession of archivist as entitled to academic grading. the remaining resolutions express the conference's dismay at em- ployment conditions for archivists that do not take into consideration their professional training, at conditions in which archival material is being stored in most central and local archives, and at the lack of progress in archival security microfilming programs. national microfilm association the theme of the association's th annual convention, in washington, d.c., may - , was "microfilm—the record holder for better business systems." some technical papers were given in general sessions, and panel discussions highlighted seminars. considered were the operation of microfilm systems, microfiche, microfilm for engineering, microfilm service bureaus, fully automated microfilm systems, and data processing. saa mem- ber joseph halpin, records administrator and archivist of new mexico, participated in the second general session, summarizing recent state and local studies of numerous aperture card, microfiche, roll film and filmstrip systems for storage and manual retrieval. c. s. mccamy of the institute for basic standards, national bureau of standards, reported on the bureau's research on aging blemishes on microfilms. an extensive survey points con- clusively to excessive humidity as an important element in the production of blemishes. laboratory work also indicates that chlorine (as found in urban water systems) is a factor to be considered. further research must be done, however, before definitive conclusions are reached or any new recommenda- tions are made regarding the production and storage of archival-quality mi- crofilm. the next association meeting, scheduled for april - , , in miami beach, fla., will host the international micrographic congress. volume q, number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o news notes american records management association the association announces a special "top management" seminar to be held in connection with its n t h annual conference, october — , in houston, texas. "the special seminar will be dedicated to the principle that executive officers cannot secure true costs of records activities from their operating statements. it will prove that much of record administration is masked under the heading of general and administrative expenses. in fact only a knowledge- able records manager has the ability to develop reasonable cost and efficiency figures." the seminar will be held on monday, october , and will include attendance at the annual arma banquet that evening. for more informa- tion concerning the seminar and the arma conference, one should write to the general conference chairman, arma, p.o. box , houston, texas . national archives and records service james b. rhoads was appointed deputy archivist of the united states on april , . sherrod e. east was appointed acting assistant archivist for civil archives on june . (mr. east is already assistant archivist for military archives.) national archives eight pages of manuscript notes, written in by chief justice john marshall, were given to the national archives on may , . the president of the prudential insurance company, orville e. beal, presented the manuscript to the chief justice of the united states, the honorable earl warren, who in turn presented it to robert h. bahmer, the archivist of the united states. the chief justice attended the presentation in the conference room of the national archives; also present were other justices of the court and lester j. cappon, director of the institute of early amer- ican history and culture. the document had long been filed away in the company's library. it was discovered last year by donald s. fuerth, associate general solicitor, who came across an index card on "marshall and hand- written notes" that led to the document. his research established the fact that the document had been given to the president of prudential, john f. dry- den, by william rankin, a newark resident who had practiced law some years before in cincinnati. rankin, in turn, had received it from daniel j. casewell, another cincinnati lawyer, who had been given it by richard peters, jr., official reporter of the supreme court in marshall's day. chief justice marshall had given the notes to peters. the prudential board of directors, through its executive committee, decided to give the manu- script to the national archives so that it would be a permanent addition to the records of the supreme court of the united states and to the many marshall manuscripts preserved in the national archives. the manuscript consists of notes taken by the chief justice, then years old, during oral arguments before the supreme court in six cases at the january term: the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril national archives and records service united states v. robertson, simonton v. winter, livingston v. smith, ferrar and brown v. united states, smith v. united states, and fowle v. lawrason, all concerning monetary obligations. the notes, on both sides of four sheets of legal size paper, are in a firm, legible hand, and the ink is only slightly faded. other recent national archives accessions include records, — , of leo r. werts, assistant secretary of labor for administration; selected parts of the files of the office of science and technology, ; files of the battle of new orleans sesquicentennial celebration commission and its chairman, maj. gen. edward s. bres (ret.) ; and the records of four out- standing ichthyologists (j. l. r. agassiz, - , s. f. baird, - , t . n. gill, - , and h. m. smith, - ) associated with the smithsonian institution. still other accessions include miscellaneous record books of the american embassies at port-au-prince, - , baghdad, - , and the american consulates general at calcutta, - , and niagara falls, - ; and a "detailed list of seamen or mariners" by the american consulate general at sydney, australia, - . also ac- cessioned were photographs of reclamation projects in idaho, nevada, utah, and colorado, - ; films collected or produced by the u.s. air force or its predecessors, - , pertaining to the wright brothers and including scenes of early flights and later dedication ceremonies; and films covering the entire scope of air force activities from to . ^records of the department of state that have been microfilmed recently include rec- ords from the decimal file, - , relating to internal affairs of haiti ( rolls) and the dominican republic ( rolls) ; to political relations be- tween the u.s. and haiti ( rolls) ; and to political relations between haiti and other states ( rolls). also recently completed are letters sent by the lands and railroads division of the office of the secretary of the interior, — ( rolls) ; and records of the geological and geographical survey of the territories ("hayden survey"), - ( rolls). military records filmed included the index to compiled service records of volunteer union soldiers who served in the veteran reserve corps ( rolls) and the compiled service records of volunteer soldiers who served during the mexican war in organizations from the state of tennessee ( rolls). crecent publications of the national archives include the edition of the list of national archives microfilm publications; guide to german records microfilmed at alexandria, va., no. , records of german field commands: panzer armies (part i); and preliminary inventory no. , cartographic records of the american expeditionary forces, igij— , com- piled by franklin w . burch. further information about copies of publica- tions and the microfilm may be obtained from the exhibits and publications division, national archives, washington, d.c. . current acquisitions, issued monthly by the central office library, office of finance and administration, general services administration, now lists, in a separate section, the latest acquisitions to the national archives library. volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s herbert hoover library the herbert hoover presidential library was officially opened for research on march , . stefan t . possony of the hoover institution on war, revolution, and peace delivered the principal address at the opening cere- monies. the library is a one-story stone and concrete structure providing space for manuscript and book storage, research activities, administrative offices, museum galleries, work areas, and a -seat auditorium. there is stack space for , cubic feet of records. the building is fully air conditioned and is protected by a security alarm system and an automatic fire-extinguishing system in the archival storage area. c,diiring the summer of , legislation authorizing the establishment of the herbert hoover national historic site was passed by congress and signed into law by president johnson. in the near future the control of most of the grounds and all structures except the presidential library will be transferred to the national park service. cpreliminary inventorying and processing of the materials deposited at the library have been completed. more than percent of the holdings have been opened for research, including most of president hoover's public papers and some of his personal correspondence. mr. hoover was secretary of commerce from to , and his commerce department files have also been opened; also open are some hoover commission materials, se- lected speech files, drafts and galleys of a number of books, campaign materials, and audiovisual materials. clthe book collection consists at present of about , volumes dealing chiefly with the economic, political, and social history of th-century america. the library will continue to build its manuscript holdings and to develop its book collection. franklin d. roosevelt library among recent accessions are the papers, - , of the late herbert e. gaston, assistant to secretary of the treasury henry morgenthau, jr., from to , and assistant secretary of the treasury from to . other accessions include a small group of papers, - , of howard brubaker ( - ), editor and writer, and records of the franklin d. roosevelt memorial committee, inc., for — . the committee's records consist of correspondence on the organization of a board of directors, sugges- tions for various types of memorials, and lists of contributors to the memorial fund. harry s. truman library recent accessions include the papers of sherman minton, associate justice of the supreme court, - , and harold l. enarson, special assistant to the chairman of the wage stabilization board, - ; and accretions to the papers of stanley woodward, ambassador to canada, - ; and stanley andrews, administrator, technical cooperation administration, - . d . t h e grants-in-aid committee of the harry s. truman library institute has awarded grants to alonzo l. hamby, ohio university, for a the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril manuscript division, library of congress study on harry s. truman and american liberalism, and harold v. urban, university of san francisco, for a study of truman's first months as presi- dent. national historical publications commission at its meeting on march i i , , the commission voted to recommend a grant to aid the letterpress publication of the papers of john c. fremont sponsored by the university of illinois press. grants were also recom- mended for continuing support for letterpress publication of james k. polk's correspondence (vanderbilt university) and the papers of henry clay (uni- versity of kentucky), ulysses s. grant (southern illinois university), jefferson davis (rice university), and henry r. schoolcraft (wayne state university). continuing support was recommended also for microfilm pub- lication projects at the universities of north carolina, notre dame, and virginia. office of the federal register the th annual edition of the guide to record retention requirements, which informs the public what records to keep for possible government audit, may now be purchased at c a copy from the superintendent of documents, government printing office, washington, d.c. . the guide is based on federal laws and on regulations issued by federal agencies. manuscript division, library of congress francis bowes sayre has presented his papers to the library of congress. the approximately , manuscripts reflect all aspects of mr. sayre's long and distinguished career as teacher and in public service, but they illus- trate primarily his service as assistant secretary of state ( - ), united states high commissioner to the philippines ( - ), and united states representative to the united nations ( - ). the list of mr. sayre's correspondents is impressive; there are letters from president franklin d. roosevelt and letters from many persons prominent in the roosevelt ad- ministration. the papers also include mr. sayre's speeches and articles and the manuscript of an autobiography, glad adventure. t o his generosity the library is also indebted for the printer's copy of president wilson's historic "fourteen points" address to congress, delivered january , ; a fine letter his wife, jessie wilson sayre, wrote to him while she waited at the white house to accompany her father to the capitol on this occasion; and some letters from woodrow wilson to mr. sayre and members of his family. c.shortly before his death, allen b. du mont presented his papers to the library. these number about , pieces. dr. du mont, who was known as "the father of television" and for his development of the cathode- ray tube, also conceived the technique which led to radar and, in the mid- 's, established the first television network to carry commercial programs. his papers include correspondence, notebooks, laboratory reports, and pic- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s torial material that reflect his own activities and those of the companies with which he was associated. d_the papers of the late harold gatty, one of the foremost navigators and authorities on navigation in his time, have been received. many of the papers are mr. gatty's research notes pertaining to the history of land and nautical navigation. comparatively little material concerns the famous wiley post—harold gatty flight around the world in j - c,edward l. bernays, who gave the name of "counsel on public relations" to the profession in which he pioneered, and mrs. bernays have presented their personal papers to the library. recording the work of more than half a century, the , items not only document mr. bernays' career but also chronicle the rise of the profession of public relations. letters, diaries, memoranda, reports, surveys, and memorabilia reflect the role of mr. bernays and his wife, doris fleischman bernays, as advisers to many outstanding in- dividuals and organizations. the bernays papers are closed for the time being. c.an addition to the library's rich a. e. housman holdings is the grant richards collection, which consists mainly of papers assembled for prepara- tion of richards' housman, — (new york, ). the collection contains a great deal of material that was omitted from the published work. besides manuscript chapters, interviews, galleys, and page proofs, there is correspondence mr. richards exchanged with laurence housman and mrs. katherine e. symons (the poet's brother and sister) and with john drink- water, sir william rothenstein, ronald firbank, b. w . huebsch, george macaulay trevelyan, and others. ^ m a t e r i a l relating to the civil war is among smaller accessions. mrs. j. w . bortner of baltimore, md., has given some papers of the scott family of baltimore. these include letters from judge t . parkin scott to his wife, which were written during his im- prisonment as a strong confederate sympathizer, and papers of their son, john white scott ( - ). from mrs. elizabeth lewis of washing- ton, d.c., have come diary volumes kept between and by the reverend james thomas ward, a minister of the methodist church and later president of western maryland college in westminister. during the civil war, the diarist lived for -year periods near scenes of military action in and near washington, d.c. george o. kent, formerly diplomatic historian in the department of state, has been appointed officer of the center for the coordination of foreign manuscript copying in the manuscript division. he succeeds j. jean hecht in this position. a specialist in modern european history, dr. kent, who is a native of vienna, has worked on the series foreign relations of the united states and coedited the series documents on german foreign policy, — . he is editing a four-volume publication, a catalog of files and mi- crofilms of the german foreign ministry/ archives, — , of which two volumes have been published. state and local archives of the u n i t e d states arkansas an article by bill lewis in the arkansas gazette of february , , the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril state and local archives of the u.s. is based on an interview with samuel a. sizer, who has been appointed archivist by the arkansas history commission. according to the article, m r . sizer's "first concern . . . is to develop guides and tools for the use of the collection, principally by serious historians and scholars." california following senate concurrent resolution no. , "relative to california archives month," gov. edmund g. brown, on june , proclaimed the period october through november , , as california archives month. october is california constitution day and november is california citizenship day, commemorating, respectively, the signing in of the original state constitution by the delegates to the constitutional con- vention and the adoption of the constitution, a month later, by the people of the state. "the original documents which record those events are in permanent collection in the california state archives; there are many other documents which also record and bring to our current attention and study the rich historical past of this state; and . . . these documents are open for public examination and study, and all citizens of the state of california are invited and encouraged to visit the california state archives and there find the priceless heritage of this great state. . . ." colorado lack of space has forced the state archives to acquire another building by july . the new center of about , sq. ft. of space will house both the records center and the archival operation, except for the administrative, re- search, and technical services staff and the central microfilming unit, plus some selected records, which will remain at the main headquarters, sherman st. this is a purely temporary measure until an archival building "designed to meet the best and most exacting archival standards" is built. cresearch in the state archives has increased percent over the same period in . a major increase in master's and doctoral and even post- doctoral research has been noted. clthe records before of hinsdale county, one of colorado's oldest counties, important because of its mining history, have been microfilmed. these include old county court, clerk, and recorder records; maps; and other records. the maps were cleaned and re- paired before being microfilmed. c,the colorado state supreme court has authorized the state archives to microfilm its current records (briefs, tran- scripts, and supporting papers). copies of the microfilmed records will be available for sale to interested institutions under arrangement with the court. c t h e state public health department has sought the assistance of the state archives to microfilm , , birth and death records dating back to , including , marriage and divorce papers. this will be a con- tinuing program for servicing vital statistics. c,the state archives is playing its part in the war on poverty. about people from the youth corps, volume , number , july iq d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes title v trainees, and welfare workers have received training while working with archival staff members. two of these workers have been hired as per- manent employees and five others have been employed for seasonal work. d_the personnel division of the colorado civil service commission has completed an archives classification survey and study that has resulted in the establishment of a comprehensive archival series for the state archives. the series is divided into professional, subprofessional, and technical levels. point of departure for professional and/or subprofessional levels is a college degree and/or related work experience. titles in the professional archival series are: state archivist, deputy archivist, principal archivist, administrative archivist (to be established), archival specialist, senior archivist (to be es- tablished), archivist, and junior archivist. subprofessional level includes: principal archivist aide, senior archivist aide, archivist aide, and junior ar- chivist aide. regular series titles include: principal machine reproduction operator, senior reproduction machine operator, and reproduction machine operator. the clerical and accounting series includes an archives registrar (to be established). as a result of this survey, the state archives staffing pattern has been increased to . positions have been upgraded, sometimes several grades, with commensurate salary increases. georgia the wsb radio (atlanta) "shining light award" has been con- ferred posthumously upon mary givens bryan, former director of the georgia department of archives and history. mrs. bryan was selected from hundreds of nominees and nominations in the fourth annual competi- tion, cosponsored by the atlanta gas-light company. a continually burn- ing light with an engraved plaque honoring mrs. bryan will be erected at an appropriate location in atlanta. the prize-winning nomination by a. k. johnson, jr., reads: mary givens bryan was indeed a shining light. she, through her untiring devo- tion and efforts, brought about in georgia an awareness of the importance of pre- serving for future generations those documents and records reflecting the history of this state. she developed equally important programs to assure proper preservation of records to protect the rights of its citizens. the magnificent new state department of archives and history building, dedicated this past october, is the result of her farsightedness and thoughtful planning. had she been less dedicated, less interested in her state, she well might have lived to see it completed. we, in the national archives and records service, consider the georgia state department of archives and history building to be one of the finest of its kind in the country attracting not only national interest but international as well. if a shining light is indicative of one who leads the way, then this can truly be said of mary givens bryan. the department sponsored, on march , the first annual conference of representatives of georgia historical societies and agencies. mary frances morrow, head of the department's educational services, informs us: "it is the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril state and local archives of the u.s. hoped that the conference will be an annual occurrence, affording an oppor- tunity for georgians interested in state and local history to exchange informa- tion, ideas, and procedures." illinois secretary of state and state archivist paul powell and wayne c. temple, archivist for the state records section of the illinois state archives, have received citations from the illinois state dental society. at the io d annual session of the society mr. powell was cited "in recognition of his interest in the health and safety of the citizens of illinois." dr. temple was awarded a citation plaque "in recognition of his interest in and support of the history of dentistry in illinois." dr. temple addressed the illinois state dental so- ciety luncheon meeting on may on "the state of illinois honors dr. greene vardiman black." indiana indiana is celebrating its sesquicentennial anniversary. on april the opening ceremonies were held at corydon, the capital of the state in . special programs are being held in many cities. a historymobile depicting the various aspects of state history is visiting all parts of the state. copies of documents for the historymobile exhibits were provided by the archives and indiana divisions of the indiana state library and the indiana historical society library. the celebration will close on the anniversary date, de- cember , . kansas the kansas state historical society has on microfilm a quantity of manu- script and printed material pertaining to the construction and operation of the atchison, topeka & santa fe railway, dating from the late 's to . d_nearly railroad photographs made since by howard killam are being copied by the society. among the kansas lines represented are the santa fe, rock island, missouri pacific, union pacific, burlington, frisco, katy, kansas city southern, and the now defunct kansas city & kaw valley electric line. included are views of railroad name boards, freight and passenger depots, sidings, switches, crossings, towers, branchline and mainline trackage, locomotives, and rolling stock. c,the society has acces- sioned a small collection of business correspondence from the topeka firm of f. m. steves & sons, a dealer for briscoe automobiles in - ; it includes letters referring to marion, argo, krit, dodge, and oldsmobile automobiles. massachusetts a new city hall is being built in boston as part of the government center project, to be ready early in the summer of . there will be a volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes place in the new building for active city records and for inactive records that have been selected for permanent retention. there may also be an archives exhibition area. the records in the present building and annex have the aspect of a "mountain of municipal records which have already overflowed the coal bins in the annex and have crept to the foot of the basement stairs." the city undertook a records inventory study—a program of selective transfer and disposal of original records—employing college students to catalog and list the contents of the vaults and storage areas beneath the present city hall and annex. it has been estimated that at least percent of the records now maintained were accumulated since . the law provides that no records made before may be destroyed. lists of records to be destroyed —some to be microfilmed before destruction—have been made and reviewed and approved by the city departments concerned, the corporation counsel, and the state supervisor of public records. the records disposal program has already been applied to the records of the registry and assessing depart- ments, and the results have been encouraging. for other details, see report on tenth municipal administration conferama [of boston municipal employ- ees], november— . minnesota franklin w . burch was appointed archivist and records administrator of minnesota on april . a native of wadena, minn., dr. burch, formerly with the u.s. national archives and records service, succeeds the late robert m . brown, minnesota's first archivist. mississippi the march issue of history news ( : - ) contains an illustrated article on the "mississippi department of archives and history" written by director charlotte capers. nebraska douglas a. bakken has been appointed archivist on the staff of the ne- braska state historical society. he replaces william schmidt. c.the ex- ecutive board of the society accepted a grant from the national historical publications commission on march . nationally important collections, such as those relating to julius sterling morton ( - ) and of robert wilkinson furnas ( - ) and others, will be microfilmed. new jersey the new jersey state library, one of the buildings in the state's new cultural center in trenton, has received a national award of merit from the third library buildings award program sponsored jointly by the american institute of architects, the american library association, and the national book committee. the state library was one of libraries throughout the country to receive recognition. the awards were bestowed the american arc hi fist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril state and local archives of the u.s. by a jury of nationally prominent architects and librarians. c,since the buildings were opened a year ago, the cultural center has attracted thousands of visitors from throughout new jersey as well as other states and foreign countries. the library's archives exhibit room, with its display of historical documents, is widely visited, particularly by school children studying new jersey and american history. new york louis l. tucker, former director of the cincinnati historical society, has accepted the post of state historian of new york. a native of connecticut, dr. tucker served as a fellow at the institute of early american history and culture in williamsburg, va., before going to cincinnati in i . he is the author of a biography of thomas clapp, first president of yale university, and cincinnati during the civil war, published by the ohio historical so- ciety. north carolina recent accessions include the official papers of governor terry sanford, ; of the committee on cooperative research of the north carolina col- lege conference, - ; and of st. agnes hospital, raleigh, - . d_the first in a proposed series of archives information circulars, entitled "north carolina's revolutionary war pay records," has been issued and is available at c a copy. edited by c. f. w . coker and donald r. lennon, the -page illustrated leaflet explains in layman's terms the revolutionary army accounts and pay vouchers, which are among the most frequently used records in the archives. cl-a total of "memorandums of understanding" have been signed listing essential records of as many agencies and specifying the method of protecting those records from disaster. c.the colonial rec- ords project has been moved to the former heart of raleigh motel building, east edenton st. the additional space has made it possible to expand the staff to seven employees. it is hoped that the first volume of th-century court records will be ready for distribution in the spring of . c.the first volume of north carolina troops, — : a roster, edited by louis h. manarin, should be published in july. this volume, covering the artillery units, 'will sell for $ and may be ordered from the division of publications, state department of archives and history. the publication of the second volume, a cavalry roster, is delayed pending action by the legislature. dr. manarin is continuing research for the infantry volumes. ohio david r. larson was named manuscripts librarian of the ohio historical society, effective july . he has served as a manuscript curator of the western reserve historical society since december . as manuscript librarian of the ohio historical society, mr. larson will be administrator of the . -million-piece collection of personal and private papers of prominent volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s ohioans, including most governors, leaders in the fields of politics, business, and religion, and others. the society's manuscripts department is also a presi- dential papers depository since acquisition of the warren g. harding collec- tion in . utah state archivist t . harold jacobsen reports that the th legislature of utah, meeting during the first part of , created the commission on the organization of the executive branch of the government, which was com- monly known as the "little hoover commission." this commission became effective march , , and studied all the departments in the executive branch, making recommendations for reorganization and improvement. its report was issued in january . a few extracts from the report of the commission pertaining to the utah state archives follow: a comprehensive and professional records management program can produce signifi- cant and continuing savings for the state if properly conceived and administered. to date the importance of this function has not been recognized organizationally. in fact, placement of archival and records management functions within the his- torical society has obscured it from executive and legislative attention and diluted its effectiveness in dealing with state agencies. considering the long-range importance of effective records management, the sav- ings which can be effected in this area, and its direct relationship to other "house- keeping" services, this commission recommends that archival and records manage- ment activities be transferred from the historical society and assigned to the pro- posed department of general services. . . . financial restrictions have stifled efforts to achieve a records management pro- gram which can keep abreast with the increasing needs of the state in this area. likewise, lack of funds has prevented development of forms control and central microfilming programs. such restrictions have been expensive in terms of the cost reduction opportunities which have been missed. the scope of records management should be carefully assessed with a view toward expanding the present range of services. plans should also be developed for a more suitable archives and records facility to replace the dispersed and generally inadequate spaces being used in kearn's man- sion and the sub-basement of the capitol. this is another example of the state's past reluctance to spend money in order to achieve greater long-range savings. the state records committee is presently composed of the attorney general, auditor, archivist, and the custodian of the records concerned. . . . it is recommended that the director of the historical society be added to this committee. it was recommended that these changes should be considered at a special session of the legislature. the various recommendations are now being studied. wisconsin recent accessions of the state historical society include: papers, - , of william m . leiserson ( — ), professor of labor and economics (a student of john r. commons) and member of various state and national unemployment and labor relations boards including the wisconsin industrial commission, the national labor board, the national mediation board, and the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives the president's commission on migratory labor; records, — , of the textile workers union of america; records, - , of the united pack- inghouse food and allied workers, afl-cio. c,the mass communica- tions history center has received the papers, - , of art buchwald and the papers, - , of howard k. smith. clthe state archives has received bank examination reports, - ; the minutes of the state board of agriculture, - ; reports, minutes, director's correspondence, and other records of the governor's commission on human rights, - ; and the inmate case history records, - , of the state reformatory and the inmate conduct records, - , of the state prison. wyoming neal e. miller, director of the state archives and historical department, has announced the resignation of bonnie forsyth svoboda as chief of the archives and records division, effective june . she has been with the department for years, serving as division chief since march . mrs. svoboda resigned to join her husband, joseph, who recently accepted the post of archivist with the case institute of technology library in cleveland, ohio. mr. svoboda was also associated with the department in the county archival program until their recent marriage. julia a. yelvington has been appointed to succeed mrs. svoboda as chief of the archives and records division. mrs. yelvington was previously associated with the california fact finding committee on education and the california heritage preserva- tion commission. other changes in the staff have been made with the resignation of lewis k. demand, assistant archivist. james crosson, a long- term staff member, will assume his duties. c h u r c h archives reported by melvin gingerich items for this section should be sent direct to dr. melvin gingerich, archives of the mennonite church, goshen, ind. . baptist the new library building of bethel theological seminary, north hamline ave., st. paul, minn., now houses the archives of the baptist general conference. roman catholic a bibliographical listing and evaluation of the entire field of catholic writings pertaining to the history of california has been compiled and edited by the archivist of the los angeles archdiocese, the reverend francis j. weber. father weber has spent many years collecting, reading, evaluating, and listing this material in the archives of the los angeles archdiocese. under the title a select guide to california history, the book was published in the spring of . volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s protestant episcopal f. garner ranney, archivist of the diocese of maryland, has spent years sorting, arranging, and cataloging the large collection of manuscripts be- longing to the diocese of maryland of the protestant episcopal church, which is on deposit in the peabody institute library, baltimore, md. the bulk of the collection consists of the correspondence of the first five bishops of maryland: thomas john claggett ( - ), james kemp ( - ), william murray stone ( - ), william rollinson whitting- ham ( - ), and william pinkney ( - ). society of friends records of friends meetings were deposited in the friends historical library of swarthmore college during the - fiscal year. among the most noteworthy gifts during the year were the three manuscript volumes of the journal of sarah foulke for the years - . church of jesus christ of latter-day saints the library-archives section under the office of the church historian, the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, salt lake city, utah, employed persons in . a "record management program" was adopted by the office during the past year. for this activity a report and forms analyst and a files systems analyst were added to the staff. the supervisor of the historian's office vault became the supervisor of the vault and records center. an additional , sq. ft. of floor space for the historian's office vault was prepared for occupancy during the summer of . by the end of the archives had filed reels of film produced by the church and its organizations. lutheran following the merger of the lutheran free church with the american lutheran church in the archival records of the former have gradually been transferred to the archives of the latter located at the lutheran theo- logical seminary, st. paul, minn. the minnesota synod archives of the lutheran church in america has indexed the minutes of the minnesota conference of the augustana lutheran church. they will be mimeographed for distribution. two other indexes related to this archives should be noted. one is a card index to biographical obituaries published in the official organs of the augustana church and in other publications. information from this index may be obtained by writing to the minnesota synod archives, gustavus adolphus college, st. peter, minn. the other index details information about all congregations that have at some time belonged to the minnesota conference. before the area of the minnesota conference included all of minnesota, south dakota, part of wisconsin, and the canadian provinces of manitoba, saskatchewan, the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril church archives alberta, and western ontario. c,the march lutheran historical con- ference news letter (vol. , no. ) contains a description of the lutheran [lutheran church in america] historical society collections, — , now in the abdel ross wentz library of the lutheran theological seminary in gettysburg, pa. . the indiana district archives of the lutheran church-missouri synod (fort wayne, ind.) is headed by the reverend carl a. eberhard, ar- chivist, louisville, ky. the collection of materials known as the "central district archives," turned over to the fort wayne archives in april , has been appraised, accessioned, arranged, and stored in acid-free folders in archives boxes by a staff of three volunteers. the ohio district records ( documents) were separated and transferred to its archives in the summer of . most of the central district archives ( , items) are biographical and congregational records. a number of people are translating the original constitution and old minute books from german script. csteve carter has been appointed to the archival staff of concordia historical institute, st. louis, mo. cljo n n william heussman has been appointed archivist for the concordia theological seminary, springfield, ., where the records of the central illinois district of the lutheran church-missouri synod are deposited. mennonite the bethel college historical library, north newton, kans., has recently added to its archival collection the ludwig keller correspondence ( ft.), book manuscripts, and personal memorabilia. keller ( - ) was ar- chivist of westphalia ( - ) and archivist in berlin ( - ). he founded the comenius society and its monatshefte. a prolific writer on ref- ormation subjects, he wrote approximately a dozen books on the reforma- tion and anabaptism in particular. his writings elicited correspondence with european and american religious leaders, among whom were men- nonites. the archives has also recently obtained considerable correspondence and other records of the russian mennonite migration to north america in - and to canada in - . c.the lancaster mennonite confer- ence historical society, mill stream rd., lancaster, pa., has issued a brochure, mennonite library and archives, in which the statement is made that its genealogical file has more than o cards. the archives contains boxes of records "about and from denominations, conferences, congrega- tions, men, movements and church related organizations, mostly mennonite." c,the mennon simons historical library and archives, eastern mennonite college, harrisonburg, va., has acquired the personal collections of aaron mast and timothy showalter and records pertaining to the driver family. c,the mennonite historical library of bluffton college, bluffton, ohio, begun by the late c. henry smith when he came to bluffton in , has recently been moved into the new wing of the musselman library. the library and archives are strong in their swiss, south german, and eastern american mennonite materials, as well as mennonite family histories. a volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s significant set of records is the grubb collection of mennonite history, the life-time collection of father and son, nathaniel b. grubb and silas m . grubb, both mennonite ministers of philadelphia, pa. d_the most recent annual report of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen, ind., showed that collections had been accessioned during the year, the most extensive of which consisted of letter-file drawers of mennonite civilian public service records covering the world war ii period. methodist the methodist publishing house library, nashville, tenn., has acquired a microfilm of the philip gatch papers. the publishing house has released a three-page report describing the contents of the philip gatch film, among which are gatch's handwritten accounts of the - annual conferences of early american methodism. the original gatch papers are deposited with the methodist theological school of delaware, ohio, but because of their fragility and value they are not available for use. c.i n february the new england methodist historical society library of old church rec- ords and minutes of annual conferences ceased having its own staff; it is now serviced by the staff of the boston university school of theology library. cleleanore cammack, archivist of indiana methodism, green- castle, ind., regularly issues a publicity sheet entitled circuit writer, which lists the accessions of the archives. a recent accession was an autobiography, on microfilm, of eli farmer, born in , a methodist circuit rider in indiana in the 's and 's. moravian mrs. john l. eggleston has been appointed archivist of the moravian province at winston-salem, n.c., and grace l. siewers has been named archivist emeritus. the moravian music foundation transferred its col- lection from the archives building to a new location, thus releasing this space for the expansion of the archives. the vault on the first floor now holds the most valuable documents, such as earliest church registers, minutes of governing bodies of the church, and financial records. presbyterian the synod of virginia of the presbyterian church, u.s., is filming all records having to do with the presbyterian church in virginia. cltn e historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches, mon- treat, n.c., has recently obtained from rome a rich collection of basic ma- terials for scholarly study of the waldensian church. archives and special collections of colleges and universities california institute of technology the papers of george ellery hale ( - ) have been transferred the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril colleges and universities to the campus of the institute from the hale solar laboratory in pasadena. the file drawers of this material and additional hale papers in the mt. wilson and palomar observatories will be organized, cataloged, and made available for scholarly research. the project is being supported by the carnegie institution of washington, the american institute of physics, and caltech. for over four decades hale was a major figure in both the re- search and organization of astronomy and astrophysics. through his efforts the yerkes, mt. wilson, and palomar observatories were all planned, financed, and built. hale also played a key role in the institute's origin and development. c,the papers of robert a. millikan will be cataloged as a joint project of caltech and the center for history and philosophy, amer- ican institute of physics, under a grant from the national science founda- tion. the papers will ultimately be housed in the millikan library, now under construction at caltech. university of california at san diego ronald silveira de braganza has been appointed head of special collec- tions and university archivist, university of california, san diego, effec- tive july , . recently he has been head librarian and managing editor of historical abstracts. special collections is a rapidly developing section of the ucsd library. university of california at santa barbara the university library has added to the william wyles collection by purchase about a thousand photographs, mostly of outstanding leaders of the civil war, pieces of confederate national, state, and local currency, and confederate song sheets. there are almost seven hundred manuscripts, both union and confederate, including seven by jefferson davis. east carolina college, greenville, n.c. the department of history at the college has established the east carolina manuscript collection in the college library. prof. charles l. price, director, is being assisted by prof. fred d. ragan and henry c. ferrell, jr. the collection will emphasize tobacco and business records. there will be an oral history project. university of georgia the university libraries have acquired the large collection of papers, notes, and manuscripts of olin downes, music critic for the new york times from until his death in . the collection filled large wooden boxes and weighed , pounds when received. the materials are not yet ar- ranged. harvard university erika chadborne has been appointed manuscript librarian at the harvard law library. volume q, number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes archivist robert w . lovett, baker library, has acquired some volumes of records of the stetson family interests of bangor, maine ( — ). the stetson family were general merchants who dealt in lumber, timberlands, and other enterprises, such as bruce mills (records, - ), kenduskeag log driving co. (folder, - ), bangor & brewer railroad (records, - ), and the aroostook construction co. (letterbook, - ). ibadan university, nigeria the university library's / annual report recounts in detail the acquisition of several sets of microcopies of archival materials. these include certain records from the archives of the society of african missions (lyon), papers of sir john hawley glover "during his lagos period and immediately afterwards ( - )"; a selection of the records of the ministere des affaires etrangeres and the ministere de la france d'outre-mer, received from paris; records selected from the archives of the propaganda fide (rome) ; and a collection of official correspondence to and from the sardinian consul at lagos, - , received from the archives of the ministro dei affari esteri at rome. t o the library's arabic collection was added the complete collection, on microfilm, of the de gironcourt manuscripts, the originals of which are in paris. university of illinois the university has announced plans to publish the journals and papers of john charles fremont ( - ). in a series of books to be edited by prof. donald d. jackson, editor of the university of illinois press, every avail- able letter and journal produced by the th-century figure during his long career as an explorer, politician, and civil war commander will be brought together. professor jackson has previously issued a volume containing the letters of lewis and clark and will soon publish the journals of zebulon pike in two volumes. t o advise the university in the fremont project an editorial board has been formed consisting of allan nevins, dale l. morgan, herman r. friis, and robert w . johannsen. a series of volumes will be published over a period of years by the university press of illinois. no publication dates have been announced, since the first volumes will not be available for at least years. they are being prepared with the endorse- ment and assistance of the national historical publications commission. c,the university library has purchased a rare collection that includes four volumes of manuscripts of material relating to sir john richardson's history of arctic exploration and the natural history of the north american arctic. among the manuscripts are richardson's personal journal of sir john franklin's first polar expedition ( - ) and richardson's complete dossier of documents on the organization of his franklin search of - . indiana university the "morgue" (more than file drawers) of the indianapolis times, which published from until october , has been given to the uni- versity. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril colleges and universities university of kansas the university has received from the kenneth a. and helen f. spencer foundation a gift of $ million for construction of a new research library. the spencer library will be essentially a rare books and manuscripts library, but it will also include university archives and supporting collections. louisiana state university one of the great private collections of , books, pamphlets, and other material on lincoln and the civil war has been donated to the university by federal circuit judge warren l. jones. massachusetts institute of technology in accordance with the institute's plans to expand its archives, e. neal hartley, a specialist in the study of the impact of science and technology on modern society, has been appointed to the newly-created position of archivist. greater emphasis on archives is desired because many of m.i.t.'s records and documents are of interest not only to institute historians but to any researcher concerned with m.i.t.'s continuing role in the technological revolution in this country. professor hartley, associate professor in the hu- manities department, will work part-time on the duties of his new assignment. university of michigan the michigan historical collections recently has cataloged , theses of the university medical school, - . the medical theses serve as a valuable tool in studying victorian presuppositions and social and intellectual development, especially attitudes toward women, child rearing, the psychology of medicine, and the social position of the physician. they also describe medical practice during the civil war. c.ruth b. bordin, until recently curator of manuscripts of the michigan historical collection, is the co- author (with robert m . warner) of the modern manuscript library, which was published in may by scarecrow ( p., forms). new york university editorial archives from the first years of the new american library have been presented by the firm to the university library. many important authors—including william faulkner, edith hamilton, margaret mead, d. h. lawrence, henry miller, c. p. snow, edmund wilson, and truman capote—are represented in the confidential material of the file drawers, which cannot be opened until . oberlin college william e. bigglestone has been named to the newly created position of archivist at oberlin college. mr. bigglestone's responsibilities will include a program of assembling, identifying, and organizing archival material of historical and research value. such materials include official papers of former presidents and administrative officers, files of college departments and com- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes mittees, correspondence, and photographs. before coming to oberlin, he was archivist for the firestone xire and rubber company in akron and has also served as an archivist at the national archives in washington, d.c. mr. bigglestone is the advertising editor of the american archivist. ohio state university the university has acquired the personal papers and manuscripts of nelson algren. university of oregon the personal papers of john t . flynn, editor, writer, and radio com- mentator, have been placed by his son in the university library, which has been gathering a sizeable collection of papers of conservative spokesmen. clthe university has inventoried its collection of western pine association records, the brice p. disque papers ( — ); corporate records of the lewis investment company, portland ( — ) ; corporate records of the leland land co., portland ( - ); and records of the oregon-columbia chap- ter, associated general contractors of america, inc. ( - ). oregon state university william schmidt is now archivist and records administrator at the university, corvallis, oreg. he was formerly archivist of the nebraska state historical society. pennsylvania state university vance packard has donated his manuscripts and papers to the pattee li- brary of the university. queen's university, kingston, ontario e. c. beer, the university archivist and editor of douglas library news, left in january to become associate director of a project at dartmouth col- lege, n.h., for publishing the daniel webster papers. no replacement has yet been made. c.the archives tries to maintain a complete file of university publications, faculty writing, and publications resulting from research done on the queen's campus, together with the deposit copies of theses and dis- sertations. faculty members have been asked to contribute to this growing collection. university of the south isabel howell has joined the university library as archivist and docu- ments librarian. university of virginia among recent acquisitions of the manuscripts division of the university library are: items, — , from the papers of thomas sydnor kirk- the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril other special collections patrick, and items, ^ , constituting the papers of brig. gen. jefferson randolph kean, including many items from his period of service in the u.s. army medical corps in cuba. wayne state university the university has been given $ , , by the united automobile workers for a new building for its labor history archives. the gift, the largest of its kind ever made by a labor union, was voted at the oth con- stitutional convention of the u a w in long beach, calif., on may , , to honor its president, walter p. reuther, for his years of service to the u a w . mr. reuther announced at the meeting that he was de- positing his voluminous collection of personal papers in the archives in the near future. the archives now has more than three million items relating to the development of the u a w including the inactive files of the interna- tional, key u a w local unions, and the personal papers of more than four hundred u a w leaders. the scope of the archives' collecting program com- prises labor, political, social, and economic reform movements in america. o t h e r special collections air force cambridge research laboratories the laboratories, at bedford, mass., recently held a daylong ceremony to celebrate the dedication of the "rayleigh archives." the discovery and acquisition of the experimental notebooks of robert j. strutt, the fourth lord rayleigh, was owing to a search by one of the laboratory's researchers who hoped to find additional information for his own work in any existing notebooks. found at a london book dealer's, they included notebooks in the hand of robert strutt and in the hand of his father, john w . strutt, the third lord rayleigh (english mathematician and physicist). a second purchase, a trunkload of manuscripts, notebooks, and other materials of john w . strutt, primarily theoretical work, supplements the experimental notebooks. the john w . strutt notebooks are particularly important to the historian of science because they represent almost the only materials avail- able to scholars who wish to explore the processes, not simply the results, of his scientific thinking. the collection has been indexed and cataloged at the afcrl library and is available to scholars. a photocopied set of the note- books will be sent to the center for history and philosophy of physics of the american institute of physics in new york city and one to the lyon playfair library of the imperial college of science and technology in london. american institute of physics university archivists and librarians continue to add valuable lists of ma- terials to the national catalog of sources being created by the center for history and philosophy of physics ( east th st., new york, n.y. ), and the center welcomes information on the whereabouts of docu- volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o n e w s n o t e s ments and apparatus related to its mission. c.orie of the center's continuing projects is helping the families of deceased physicists to find appropriate repositories for significant source materials and apparatus. after an exam- ination of papers of the late j. barton hoag by the director of the center, selected papers were received at the center. hoag, head of the science depart- ment of the coast guard academy, - , had studied and taught physics at the university of chicago physics department from to °- american jewish archives the archives has announced that a revised edition of its manual is avail- able, without charge, to anyone interested. copies may be obtained by writing to dr. stanley f. chyet, american jewish archives, clifton ave., cincinnati, ohio . american jewish historical library bernard wax, now field services supervisor for the illinois state his- torical library, will become director of the american jewish historical society on august . a new library and headquarters building for the society will be erected at waltham, mass., adjacent to the campus of brandeis university. the society, founded in , now has offices in new york city and a national membership of more than , . it collects, preserves, and disseminates information on the history of american jewry. mr. wax, as a member of the staff of the illinois state historical library, has had an active role in acquiring for illinois several collections of private papers, including those of congressman kent keller, gov. len small, and bishop philander c. chase. archives of american art among the archives' acquisitions for the first quarter of are the records of the sculptors guild. organized in "to unite sculptors of progressive tendencies, to promote sculpture as an art and profession, and increase its standing in the community," the guild has preserved minutes of meetings, financial reports, general and committee correspondence, pub- licity material, photographs, catalogs of exhibitions, and scrapbooks. the collection, about , items, is especially useful as a complement to similar records in the archives of the older national sculpture society. c t h e archives' board of trustees, on may , elected russell lynes to succeed lawrence a. fleischman to the presidency of the archives. in announcing his resignation, mr. fleischman promises that he "will continue an un- diminished interest in the growth of the archives and will exert all effort to add what i can to the expansion of its services in the fields of scholarship, publications, and research." president lynes has recently served as managing editor of harper's magazine. leo baeck institute, new york the leo baeck institute in new york, founded years ago as a central the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t h e r special c o l l e c t i o n s agency for the collection and study of documents on jewish life in germany, will expand its archives and library with a grant from the volkswagen foundation of west germany. state historical society of colorado the society's collection of denver and rio grande documents is being re- organized by edward t . bollinger, railroad historian and coauthor of the moffat road. besides manuscripts the collection includes old photographs, bound volumes, maps, advertising leaflets, timetables, periodicals, and other materials. some seven thousand uncataloged photographs are now being in- dexed. the collection is housed in a special room of the colorado state museum. foreign documents centre, imperial war museum, london principal archivist leo kahn of the foreign documents centre of the imperial war museum provides a summary of operations in the introduc- tion to the first report issued: the centre owes its origin to a grant from the leverhulme trust. it was estab- lished in as a section in the department of records in the museum. its chief function is to serve as a clearing house for information on the nature and location of unpublished records of former enemy powers and formerly enemy-occupied countries, documenting the history of the two world wars and the inter-war years. closely related material, war crimes trial records, personal papers, declassified interrogation reports etc., are also included in its survey. the centre is in addition a place of deposit for such material, particularly documents no longer required in official de- partments of the united kingdom. in the first eighteen months of its activities the foreign documents centre has assembled information on n o record repositories and private collections in eighteen countries. the information ranges from detailed catalogues in some cases to rough summaries of holdings in others. [two provisional reports documenting this in- formation have been issued: no. , repositories in great britain, and no. , reposi- tories in the german federal republic^ . . . some of the information is based on outside reports the accuracy of which has still to be checked. these deficiencies may be reflected in these reports. it is hoped that those who can correct errors or add to the information contained in them will write to the . . . centre. in due course a comprehensive analytical guide should materialize to bring up to date such pioneering works as the "guide to captured german documents" by weinberg and epstein, published in , and the supplement to that guide, pub- lished in . in the meantime, these provisional reports should be taken as no more than their name implies. they are meant to encourage students to consult the much fuller information available at the foreign documents centre. at the same time they are an invitation to record offices, research institutes and historians to co-operate in a much needed effort to facilitate systematic research into the available primary sources of contemporary history. maryland historical society the maryland historical society library, closed from june i, will re- open when the thomas and hugg addition is completed, probably late this year. until then, printed and graphic material will not be available, but volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news n o t e s anyone wishing to use the manuscript collections should communicate with p. w . filby, librarian. pimlico race course fire destroyed the records of the pimlico race course (baltimore, md.) when the members' clubhouse burned during the night of june — . racing director chick lang, as reported by u p i , said, "the archives con- tained the records of every horse that ever raced at pimlico, dating back to ." canada among the staff changes at the public archives of canada in recent months the most significant is the retirement of pierre brunet, who has been at the public archives for years and assistant dominion archivist since . he was succeeded by wilfred smith. r. s. gordon has been appointed chief of the manuscript division. brian hallett is in charge of the first regional records centre, in operation at toronto. (^work on the new na- tional library and public archives building is progressing satisfactorily, and it is expected to be completed by the end of the year. c,the picture division and the reproduction section are collaborating in a rephotographing project, the production of film negatives from glass plates. thousands of the fragile plates are being processed, and the results are most satisfactory, since the prints are even better than the originals. c.the map division has under- taken responsibility for a collection of current topographical survey maps to cover the world. the first stage in the development of this collection was marked by the transfer of , maps from the geographic branch, de- partment of mines and technical surveys. kenya according to a note in library journal (may , , p. ), the national archives of kenya will be microfilmed under a grant to syracuse university from the national science foundation. fred g. burke, director of the syracuse east africa studies program, will head the project in co- operation with kenya national archivist nathan fedha, who will work closely with the syracuse researchers. the archives date from . two negative microfilm copies of the material will be made, one to remain in the national library in nairobi, the other to go to syracuse university. u n i t e d arab republic according to a note in the library of congress information bulletin, : (mar. , ), abdel moneim omar, formerly director general of the national library in cairo, has been appointed undersecretary of state for libraries and archives in the ministry of culture and national guidance of the united arab republic. mr. omar succeeds mohammed ahmel hussein. the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril professional instruction professional instruction north carolina state university the north carolina state department of archives and history and the department of history of the university jointly announce the inauguration of studies in the administration of archives and manuscripts. the courses will be taught by h. g. jones, state archivist, who will also serve as adjunct professor of history at the university. history , to be given in the fall semester, will cover the history, nature, principles, and practices of archival and manuscript preservation and administration. in the spring semester, history will be devoted to the application of the principles and practices. the first course will be a prerequisite to the second. enrollment will be open to advanced undergraduates and graduate students majoring in history. spe- cial students and those majoring in related fields may be admitted upon approval of the university's department of history. class size will be limited. students passing both courses will receive a certificate of completion, and each course will carry three semester hours' credit. inquiries concerning the courses may be addressed to dr. h. g. jones, state archivist, state de- partment of archives and history, raleigh, n.c., or dr. ralph w . green- law, chairman, department of history, north carolina state university, raleigh, n.c. . university of illinois the graduate school of library science and the division of university extension of the university of illinois will sponsor a conference to provide basic training in archival theory and methodology for librarians, historians, and others who may be assigned archival responsibilities in institutions of higher education. the conference will be held september — , , at the illini union, urbana, . the conference leaders for the -day program are assistant state archivist theodore cassady, southern illinois university archivist kenneth duckett, saa council member (and university of illinois archivist) maynard brichford, and black hawk college archivist ralph havener. the fee is $ , not including meals or lodging. arrange- ments may be made for billeting at the illini union. although the con- ference is intended for illinois archivists, applications will be accepted from out-of-state registrants, space permitting. registration forms and additional information may be obtained from conference supervisor, b illini hall, champaign, . . th institute: introduction to modern archives administration. this institute, continuing under the joint sponsorship of the national archives and records service, the american university center for tech- nology and administration, the library of congress, and the maryland hall of records, was held june - at the national archives. there were enrollees, and more than additional applicants could not be admitted be- cause of limited physical facilities. of those attending, came from federal volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n e w s n o t e s agencies, from state and local governmental agencies, from college and university archives, from church archives, from business archives, and from manuscript repositories and libraries. institutions in different states, including alaska, and in two foreign countries, australia and israel, were represented. the institute was again directed by frank b. evans, director, archival projects division, office of civil archives, national archives and records service, with the able assistance of staff members of the national archives and records service. the first week was devoted primarily to an introduc- tion to archival administration and to a survey of basic archival responsibilities and activities—appraisal and disposition, buildings and storage facilities, preservation and rehabilitaton, arrangement, description, reference service, microfilming, exhibits and publications, management of personal papers, and problems relating to non-textual records; and the second week was used for a survey of archival opportunities and problems in the fields of state and local, college and university, business and labor, and church archives. the institute was the guest of the maryland hall of records during one field trip, and of the library of congress for a second field trip. guest lec- turers included gust skordas and rex beach of the maryland hall of rec- ords, helen l. chatfield, archivist of the american university, capt. victor gondos, jr., formerly of the national archives, frank burke of the library of congress, and philip p. mason, archivist of wayne state university and secretary of the society of american archivists. the institute staff, the guest lecturers, and the enrollees were the guests of the american university for a closing luncheon on friday, june , at which james b. rhoads, deputy archivist of the united states, spoke on the extraor- dinary congress of the international council on archives. enrollees who passed a comprehensive examination were awarded certificates. t h e st institute is scheduled for june — , . all inquiries re- garding it should be addressed to professor paul w . howerton, director, center for technology and administration, the american university, " g " street, n.w., washington, d.c. . institute in managing state and local records an institute for those interested in managing records at state and local levels was sponsored jointly by american university's center for technology and administration and the national archives and records service, june - . lectures and workshop discussion sessions were led by specialists on the staff of the national archives and records service. besides reporting and evaluating current developments in the field of records management, special attention was given to modern principles, methods, and techniques. special services union list of serials the third edition of the union list of serials in libraries of the united the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril special services states and canada was published this past february by the h. w . wilson co., new york. the five large folio volumes contain entries for , serial titles held by north american libraries and indicate libraries in which they may be found. compilation and publication took more than years. in order to take advantage of the new "abstracting" method of photo- graphic reproduction developed by a british firm, the union list was printed in england. a permanent and durable paper was used. the project was financed by two grants from the council on library resources, inc., and was carried out by the library of congress under a contract with the joint committee on the union list of serials, inc. on june , , the joint committee issued a final report . . . (viii, p.), which recounts the early history of efforts to control serial resources, describes the scope and character of the new union list, and discusses the planning and operation of the project. canadian newspapers on microfilm the canadian library association is well along on its centenary project to microfilm newspapers for the confederation period, - . it issues periodic news notes that contain bibliographic data and historical notes about newspapers newly available on film. readers interested in details may address the association at sparks st., ottawa. national lending library for science and technology this library, located at boston spa, yorkshire, england, is building up a comprehensive collection of the world's scientific and technical literature and wishes to acquire the published proceedings of all conferences, symposia, and other meetings at which scientific, technical, and social science reports are presented. w. j. barrow research laboratory a "history of the barrow lab, or, the thirty years that revolutionized paper" appears in the april , , issue of publishers' weekly. oral history colloquium the first national colloquium on oral history will be presented by the university of california at los angeles from september to , at the university conference center, lake arrowhead. sponsored by the oral history program of the university library, the colloquium will explore prob- lems and functions of oral history with a view to establishing an organization to coordinate oral history programs in the united states. further information may be obtained by writing to james v. mink, director, oral history program, university library, hilgard ave., los angeles, calif. . volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril george eliot startled . . . said mr. brooke with an easy smile, " . . . i have documents. i began a long while ago to collect documents. they want arranging, but when a question has struck me, i have written to somebody and got an answer. i have documents at my back. but now, how do you arrange your documents?" "in pigeon-holes partly," said mr. casaubon, with rather a startled air of effort. "ah, pigeon-holes will not do. i have tried pigeon-holes, but everything gets mixed in pigeon-holes: i never know whether a paper is in a or z." "i wish you would let me sort your papers for you, uncle," said dorothea. "i would letter them all, and then make a list of subjects under each letter." mr. casaubon gravely smiled approval . . . "you have an excellent secre- tary at hand, you perceive." "no, no," said mr. brooke, shaking his head; "i cannot let young ladies meddle with my documents. young ladies are too flighty." —george eliot, middle-march, ch. ii. plasti ' klips for archive storage plasti • klips are ideal for archive storage because they * will not rust • will not tear papers * are lightweight, not bulky * retain tension, but not tight original sizes: small medium large u. s. patent no. giant available in colors (red, blue, green, white, yellow and clear) • sizes as shown available at your local stationer send one dollar for sample bag containing all sizes all colors to baumgarten's exclusive imports inc. virginia avenue n. e. atlanta, georgia the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a new reference service . . . america: history and life a guide to periodical literature specimen abstract : . tra:rail. hss bib ( - ) andreassen, john c. l. (system archivist. can. national rail- ways). canadian national records. business hist. r. ( ): - . on july an archivist was employed by the ottawa government to fulfill its self-imposed duty of mak- ing the national railways historically accountable. on august this archivist submitted eight proposals, later accepted as the plan of action for compiling this monumental segment of ca- nadian national history. the eighth proposal provides for a pub- lished index which will make available this great fund of knowl- edge which is hoped to "provide a better understanding of how we came to be what we are today. " j. h. krenkel • , informative abstracts each year • devoted to united states and canadian history and life • from more than , american and foreign periodicals • new 'cue' index system shows years, topics and loca- tions with each entry ' personal names index how often have you wished you had information such as this for the many periodicals you cannot afford, as well as those you have? america: history and life fills a need in your reference section which no other publica- tion can satisfy. for more information, request a free specimen copy of america: history and life from: jmerican lljibi iograpiiical r e n t e r east micheltorena street santa barbara, california d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril bainbridge all rag museum mat and mount board ply and ply museum size — x framers size — x (made to neutral ph reading) information available charles t. bainbriage's sons cumberland st. brooklyn, n. y. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril placement register this section in the american archi- vist is published for the convenience of our readers. no charge is made for the insertion of notices by either an institution in need of personnel or a candidate for placement. the editor, however, reserves the right to refuse obviously unsuitable notices and to condense or otherwise edit the copy submitted. candidates or institutions may, if they wish, withhold their names from these notices and may direct that answers be addressed to philip p. mason, secretary, society of american archivists, wayne state university, detroit, mich. . positions wanted archives/records management: male in early 's desires employment in archi- val or records management field in busi- ness or government. five years' experi- ence as administrator of state archival and records management agency. em- phasis on microfilm applications in state government and in the establishment of records management program including planning for new building. m.a. degree in american history, course requirements for doctorate completed. no location pref- erence but prefer opportunity to develop new program. write secretary. a- . archivist/manuscripts: male, mid o's, desires employment in college, university, government, or business. six years' pro- fessional experience in library of con- gress and major university special collec- tions department. ph. d. candidate in american history, at comprehensive ex- aminations stage. salary negotiable. write secretary. a- . archivist: male desires employment in college or university archives or state ar- chives. b.a. and m.s.l.s. degrees. ex- perience in university archives and manu- script collection. salary negotiable. write secretary. a- . volume , number , july archives/research: male in mid 's de- sires employment in archives or manu- scripts. two years of graduate work with m.a. degree expected in june . pub- lications. experience in museums and re- search library. salary negotiable. write secretary. a- . positions open archivist, to administer manuscripts di- vision of historical research library. min- imum prerequisites: master's degree in american history (or equivalent), with specialization in history of the american west, and some training or experience in arranging and cataloging manuscript ma- terials. starting salary $ , per year. other benefits: work adjacent to large state university, time off for further graduate study. opportunity to research and publish in southwestern u.s. history. travel expenses for work outside library. annual vacation and state retirement plan. write director, arizona pioneers' historical society, e. d st., tucson, ariz. . o- . archivist/records management offi- cer: several posts in archives and/or records management are now open or will be in the near future at the united nations in new york and elsewhere. basic requirements are good english, working knowledge of french, the equiv- alent of at least an a.b. degree, and several years of specialized training and work experience in archives or records, preferably in a government agency. sal- aries will range from $ , to $ , after taxation. certain additional allow- ances. write office of personnel, united nations, new york, n.y. o- . historian/librarian : western historian with an interest in books to assume posi- tion as librarian in maintaining and building museum library on all facets of human history and adaptation in the great plains of north america. should be familiar with library of congress catalog system, but not necessarily a trained librarian. prefer candidate with m.a. in history or equivalent experience. excellent working library already estab- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril placement register lished with assistant. employee benefits available. salary $ , to $ , depend- ing upon experience. write director, museum of the great plains, p.o. box , lawton, okla. o- . archivist: trained archivist with inter- est in western history and the great plains to assume curatorship of great plains archives, with at least or years' experience in archival procedures, cata- loging, accessioning, and related duties. employee benefits available, excellent working conditions. prefer b.a. in his- tory or related field or its equivalent. salary $ , to $ , depending upon experience. write director, museum of the great plains, p.o. box , lawton, okla. o- o. state historian v: department of state historical commission, lansing, mich. salary $ , to $ , . qualifications: ph. d. in history, with administrative ex- perience in historical agency and editorial experience. supervision over state ar- chives, state museum, state historical markers program, research, and publi- cation of michigan history and other publications. apply michigan civil ser- vice commission, lansing, mich. o- . syracuse university library. openings in special collections: ( i ) manuscript cataloger—to catalog new collections re- quiring individual carding and to main- tain departmental card catalog in accord- ance with maximum professional stan- dards. m.s.l.s. and/or cataloging experi- ence required and subject background in american history and literature strongly recommended. ( ) two manuscript analysts—to supervise the final process- ing steps and to prepare finding guides for manuscript collections in accordance with archival standards. b.a. degree re- quired and l.s. training or experience rec- ommended. one analyst's position requires strong subject background in fine arts or american social and cultural history. the other analyst's position requires subject background in american history and lit- erature. salaries open. one month's va- cation ; sick leave ; tiaa retirement plan ; life and health insurance; social security; educational and other fringe benefits. ap- ply with resume to: howard l. apple- gate, administrator of manuscripts, carnegie library, syracuse university, syracuse, n.y. . o— . coordinator of information retrieval services: open salary with fringe bene- fits depending on the qualifications of the applicant. master's degree in some phase of library science desirable and applicant must be able to determine needs for and work with sophisticated storage and re- trieval equipment. additional graduate work and/or a doctorate is desired. ap- plicant to supervise supporting staff and should be interested in the scientific man- agement of knowledge and research in this field. personnel are also sought for the following positions: indexing and ab- stracting editor, acquisition specialist, and dissemination specialist. for further in- formation contact dr. robert e. taylor, director, the center for vocational and technical education, ohio state univer- sity, kinnear road, columbus, ohio . o- . archivists ii and iv: two archivists to organize and catalog growing collections relating primarily to institutions and or- ganizations in the chicago area. initially no field work, but this may develop later as the section develops. m.a. in history acceptable; ph. d. preferred; minimum of to years' experience in cataloging archival materials and some administrative experience. beginning salaries: $ , - $ , range, with rank of instructor or assistant professor, depending upon aca- demic qualifications and experience. lib- eral fringe benefits. write frazer g. poole, director, library, university of illinois at chicago circle, p.o. box , chicago, . . o- . chief, archives division: salary $ , - $ , . applicants must be college gradu- ates with major work in history, political science or social sciences, supplemented by graduate work in archives and records administration and years' experience in the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril placement register responsible records or administrative ical association. minimum requirement: work; or any equivalent combination of m.a. degree in history, as well as train- experience and training. write neal e. ing or practical experience in archival miller, director, wyoming state archives organization. will supervise two assist- and historical department, state office ants. beginning salary $ , -$ ,ooo. building, cheyenne, wyo. . o- . write warren albert, associate director, . _ . ... , . , archive-library department, american archivist: duties will be to organize, de- . . ,. , . . . . . '. „ , , , . . . £• medical association, north dearborn velop, and administer an archival pro- „ ,,, . t , ' ~. ,t t-u a r* at u st-> chicago, . . o- .gram tor liberal arts college. must have professional training in archival science. archivist: position in a military records salary open. write e. williams, publica- depository in virginia. responsibilities in- tions officer, loyola college, sher- c ] u d e cataloging, indexing, assisting with brooke west, montreal, que., canada. t h e r eference activity, and related duties. o— degree required. prefer experience with associate archivist: t o assist in de- military records. salary begins at about veloping archive of the american med- $ , . write secretary. - . proper recognition in administrative circles is it sufficient to hold ad hoc accelerated courses as we have done hitherto, or is it now the time for laying down a generally acceptable course of training provided by an institution of higher learning and leading to a degree or diploma in archives administration and records management? in the business of managing and appraising records and in recommending their disposition, an archivist should be primus inter pares, whose voice is listened to with respect. those conflicts between archivists and their superiors (or committees) when the institution and experience of the former are pitted against the seniority and business training of the latter, will surely more often end in triumph for the archivist if he is recognized as a qualified specialist—qualified academically as well as by nature and by experience. in the age of the technocrat everyone in administrative circles, it seems, needs a paper testify- ing to his qualifications (regrettable though it may be) and the archivist ignores this trend at his peril. by arranging for the regular academic instruc- tion of potential archivists we shall help to foster the proper recognition of an archivist's position in administrative circles. as a result of our efforts we could well hope that in the course of time the point of the following comment, once made by an archivist about a particularly difficult committee, would be lost upon a new generation of archivists: "why do they hire a watchdog if they are going to do the barking themselves?" —alan d. ridge, "chairman's letter," in canadian archivist, vol. , nc. ( ), p. . volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril antiques: n e w and used for sale, barter and exchange, and restoration genuine originals and authentic reproductions; treasures and trash, from the forgotten attics of the remembered historical past; abandoned and obsolete property! old books, old furniture, old ideas, old lands, old friendships, and other types of real or personal property and possessions of value, discarded but worthy of salvage and preservation for future restoration, liberation, profit, and enlightenment; dead scrolls, unused but usable archives, osbolete records, rejected non-records, closed books, unopened minds, and undocumented wisdom of historical interest; forgotten recollections, or ignored ones, of the joys and sorrows and the riches and rewards of our historical past; outworn or neglected genetic backgrounds and rejected genealogies of all kinds— of families, of localities, of bureaucracies, of churches, of nations, of races, of universes, etc. etc.; discarded traditions and unappreciated and unread history; antiquated methods and time-tested recipes; out-of-date ideas, abandoned ideals, old-fashioned syllogisms, and ancient and rejected truths; lost causes, dead issues, tired "isms," and obsolescing "ologies", vogues, fads, nuances, and innovations of all kinds; faded and tarnished images, idols, heroes, and other more ephemeral, fragile, and elusive historical objets d'art of all kinds, preferably unbroken, unshattered, and unretouched by the passage of time and by interim time-servers; historical myths and realities, new and old and obsolescing; discarded historical facts and fictions, true or false; and obsolete historical revisionism, history revisited, and history not yet revisited; unreconstructed liberals and unshaken conservatives, and conservationists too; worn out, cast off, exploited, and/or forgotten friends and relatives and business associates, and exhausted and inexhaustible ones too, along with exhausted but restorable past friendships and associations that are worthy of being re-collected and restored; also, likewise ••• forgotten and forgetful enemies, former enemies and would-be enemies, strangers at the gates, and miscellaneous mountains and molehills, pretentious and otherwise; retired, exhausted, and/or wearied historians, archivists, librarians, curators, col- lectors, buffs (and bluffs), time-servers, hindsight experts, and related type of dealers and wheelers in any of the above antiquities, whether classed as amateur or professional antiquarians, preferably men, women, and children of good will and restorable to the faith; and ••• "miscellaneous articles too numerous to mention": any other types of restorable goods and services and usable parts of our fascinating, imperfect, perfectible, and inspiring heritage, all of it but prologue to the future and to its exciting prospects ahead, for all enterprising prospectors who can see the many frontiers before us, applt to: m. f. clausen d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril editor's forum archivy to the editor: basically, i am in agreement with frank g. burke's strictures on jenkin- son's philosophy (the american archivist, jan. , p. ) although i think mr. burke exaggerates a bit ("accept blindly," ignore "rational order"). but when i was a practicing archivist, it often occurred to me that jenkinson's views on accessioning ("accept blindly") had certain operative virtues. in the first place, they dissolve the otherwise virtually insoluble dilemma of "value," on which few archivists can either agree or be self-consistent; in the second—since archivists will in fact continue to refuse to accept some proffered accessions—jenkinson's position would inevitably lead to the ex- ercise of more discrimination as to "value" among operating bureaucrats. in both these respects, our profession has been remiss, and shows no sign of reform. it has developed no real standards of evaluation (which is not at all the same thing as standards of value), geared to specific kinds of records, record producers, or record users. and it has accomplished little or nothing in enlisting the cooperation of substantive operating personnel (not files people or "top echelons") in confronting the problems of evaluation. in this connection, may i recommend a thoughtful perusal of dr. lamb's presidential address (in the same issue as mr. burke's letter) from the bottom of p. through the top of p. ? dr. lamb agrees with t . r. schellenberg that "a profession should represent systematized and widely accepted principles and techniques in its field of activity," and adds in his own behalf: "these we have not yet formulated as yet in any final form." accessioning is the point at which archivy begins (disposal is merely its negative aspect). surely this is, then, a crucial point for the erection of a philosophy—call it a method, a system, a technique, even a procedure, if you prefer. when we have gotten into this assignment, we will be on the way to ridding ourselves of the dilemma of "accepting blindly" vs. acting and advising capriciously. at the same time we will find ourselves enlisting sub- stantive operating bureaucrats—lawyers, economists, scientists, soldiers, dip- lomats, and the rest—as our allies and counselors, and will ourselves become, to a degree, better specialists, having—in mr. burke's words—"empathy with the materials under [our] control." paul lewinson, fsaa arlington, va. to the editor: just a note in your defense regarding the letter from frank burke on p. , january issue. keep up your present policy. publication of the jenkin- son statement was worthwhile because: volume , number , july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril editor's forum ) it demonstrated that jenkinson wrote some pretty stupid things and that persons in high esteem should never be accepted uncritically. ) it is evidence that a reader must rely upon his own judgment. an editor should not have to hold his hand. i suspect you printed this one to stimulate discussion and, by golly, it did. bill bigglestone oberlin, ohio aa bibliographical lists new titles available: no. , list of articles published in the american archivist concerning the archives of africa, asia, and australasia; and no. i i , . . . concerning the archives of canada and latin america. t h e first nine titles were listed in our issues of july (p. ) and january (p. ). copies of the lists will be sent to persons requesting them upon receipt by the editor of a c stamp for each list ordered, to cover mailing costs. t h e editor is developing these lists in anticipation of planning the production, after , of an index to vols. — of the american archivist, and he will be happy to prepare one on any subject that any reader would care to suggest. = make plans now to attend joint § society of american arch ivists | | american association for state and local s history = = meeting = ( th annual meeting, society of american archivists) s = october - , atlanta, georgia == = headquarters: marriott motor hotel j = iii the american archivist d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! archival file folder • % rope manila paper. • p h neutral guaranteed. • tested and approved by leading authorities. • minimum thickness, maximum strength. write for free sample from the firm that brings you fibrcdex® document cases. tne ho/linger corporation s. four mile run drive arlington, virginia u d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .e g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril do-it-yourselfers as lead users for environmentally conscious behavior procedia cirp ( ) – available online at www.sciencedirect.com - © elsevier b.v. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientific committee of the st cirp conference on life cycle engineering in the person of the conference chair prof. terje k. lien doi: . /j.procir. . . sciencedirect st cirp conference on life cycle engineering do-it-yourselfers as lead users for environmentally conscious behavior song-liang lai, l.h. shu* university of toronto, dept .of mechanical and industrial engineering, king’s college road, toronto, ontario m s g , canada * corresponding author. tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - . e-mail address: shu@mie.utoronto.ca abstract much engineering effort has focused on developing more resource-efficient products. however, use behavior is clearly relevant to resource conservation. wasteful behavior offsets at least part of the anticipated gains in resource efficiency intended by resource-saving modes and technologies. therefore, in addition to creating more efficient products, designers should also develop products that encourage and enable users to behave in more resource-efficient ways. we identified do-it-yourselfers as lead users to gain insights on product design to support environmentally conscious behavior (ecb). specifically, we studied do-it-yourselfers who repurpose rather than replace furniture items when their original functions are no longer required. © the authors. published by elsevier b.v. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientific committee of the st cirp conference on life cycle engineering in the person of the conference chair prof. terje k. lien. keywords: sustainable behavior; pro-environmental behavior. . introduction the long-term objective of our work is to increase sustainable, or environmentally conscious behavior (ecb) in individuals. much engineering effort has focused on developing more resource-efficient products. however, use behavior is clearly relevant to resource conservation. also, technically efficient products may cause consumers to be more complacent about their use, such that overall resource consumption continues to rise after an initial decline, described as the rebound effect (sorrell, ). that is, resource-efficient devices may be used longer and remain left on unnecessarily more so than their less-efficient predecessors. such behavior offsets at least part of the anticipated gains in resource efficiency intended by resource- saving modes and technologies. therefore, in addition to creating more efficient products, designers should also develop products that encourage and enable users to behave in more resource-efficient ways. our short-term objectives are to determine and further develop methods that ) identify innovative principles relevant to ecb, ) incorporate such principles through product affordances and ) investigate the effectiveness of affordances and other interventions. . literature review in his environmentally significant behavior framework, stern ( ) categorized people’s behavior that affects the material and energy flows of the environment as: active vs. passive, intentional vs. unintentional, and public vs. private. shove & warde ( ) noted that although the consumption of utilities, e.g., electricity and water, is a private matter, the trend toward higher consumption rates makes related behaviors increasingly relevant. abrahamse et al. ( ) review the many types of socio-psychological interventions aimed to encourage pro-environmental behavior. steg & vlek ( ) identify two categorizations for such interventions, antecedent vs. consequence, and informational vs. structural. antecedent strategies target factors that precede behavior, by increasing problem awareness, giving information about options and positive or negative consequences. consequence strategies aim to change consequences after behavior and include feedback, rewards and penalties. informational © elsevier b.v. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. selection and peer-review under responsibility of the international scientific committee of the st cirp conference on life cycle engineering in the person of the conference chair prof. terje k. lien http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / song-liang lai and l.h. shu / procedia cirp ( ) – strategies are effective when the desired behavior does not significantly inconvenience, cost, or constrain individuals. structural strategies are more suitable when the desired behaviors are costly or difficult, as they aim to change the circumstances, e.g., costs and benefits, under which behavioral choices are made. while rewards are observed as more effective than penalties in encouraging pro- environmental behavior, they tend to have short-lasting effects, i.e., only as long as the reward is available. due to the persistent barriers to pro-environmental behavior, we wish to exploit product design to supplement the above intervention categories, and increase the rate of ecb participation. from a product design perspective, zachrisson & boks ( ) discuss the range of interventions for sustainable behavior with respect to how much the user versus product is in control. at the informing end, information / feedback allows the user to be in full control. at the determining end, forcing / automatic performance of desired actions gives control to the product. in the middle, persuading includes enabling, encouraging, guiding, and steering. lilley et al. ( ) describe the same range as: eco-feedback, scripting and behavioral steering, and ‘intelligent’ products / services. lockton et al. ( ) categorize interventions as feedback / persuasion versus affordances / constraints / mistake proofing, and describes context-based approaches as those that combine the two categories. zachrisson & boks ( ) and lockton et al. ( ) agree that the cognitive workload required is proportional to the amount of user control. table shows various terminologies for interventions along the spectrum of user / product control. an ontology was developed to unify behavior-change literature (srivastava & shu, a). as the basis of persuasive technologies, fogg ( ) identifies strategies including: simplifying or guiding through a procedure, tailoring / individual customization, conditioning / reinforcement and opportune suggestion / intervention, self- monitoring vs. allowing others to track users’ behavior. . our approach our approach focuses on the use of affordances to persuade, i.e., enable, encourage, guide, or steer desired behavior. mccalley and midden ( ) conclude that information/feedback is effective only if it helps a user achieve a preexisting goal. however, greater impact is possible if designers can affect the consumption behaviors of those who do not have a preexisting goal of resource conservation. while behavior is believed to follow attitude, a change in behavior may also lead to a change in attitude, perhaps to reduce cognitive dissonance (lockton, , festinger & carlsmith, ). therefore, persuading users to perform the desired behavior may have benefits over simply performing the desired behavior for them. automation has other limitations (srivastava & shu, b). lack of standardization may cause users to neglect performing the required action, e.g., turning off a manual faucet, when they’ve become accustomed to such actions being automated by sensor-operated faucets. sensor-operated faucets require batteries/electricity, with both environmental and logistical implications. also, faulty sensors waste resources, e.g., auto- flush toilets triggered to flush times instead of once. . . our recent work on lead-user strategies and ecb we had identified lead users (von hippel, ) in resource conservation to abstract principles that may encourage conservation in mainstream users. for example, we observed how old-order mennonites in ontario, whose discrete-unit resources, e.g., logs of firewood, buckets of water, and cans of kerosene, contrast with the continuously flowing electricity and water of the mainstream. next, we confirmed experimentally that participants performing a washing task using discrete quantities of water (in containers) used less water than when using continuous-flow water from a faucet. we then studied how these strategies may be transferable to mainstream users by developing products that incorporate them. for example, we studied how discretization can be incorporated in practical ways into mainstream products such as faucets and showers, as shown in figure (srivastava and shu, a). we next plan to validate the effectiveness of such products by studying how and whether they reduce resource consumption over extended periods. figure . water-conserving shower concept that incorporates discretization. user in control (high cognitive load) product in control (low cognitive load) zachrisson & boks informing persuading determining information, feedback enabling, encouraging, guiding, steering forcing, automatic lilley et al. eco-feedback scripting and behavioral steering intelligent products lockton context-based = feedback & persuasion +affordances, constraints, mistake-proofing table . intervention terminology of various researchers with respect to user versus product control song-liang lai and l.h. shu / procedia cirp ( ) – . . our recent work on affordances and ecb while studying products that support ecb, we noted that characteristics of products that enable ecb tend to be more accurately described as affordances than functions. thus, we became interested in affordances, and specifically how they can be used to design products that support ecb. affordances have been described as possible ways of interacting with products, which may be independent of designer intention. for example, all physical objects with a horizontal flat surface allow users to place objects upon them. we abstracted affordances that correspond to lead-user insights, and developed the affordance-transfer method to add desired features from products that support resource conservation. affordances corresponding to resource discretization (e.g. figure ) include imparting a suggested quantity for consumption, awareness of the rate of use, and the amount of resource remaining. we performed initial validation of the affordance-transfer method and observed that it can improve the usefulness of the concepts that novice designers generate to support ecb (srivastava & shu, b). . do-it-yourselfers (diyers) as lead users this paper reports continuing work on how lead users may uncover affordances that are not obvious to everyday users, thus revealing principles relevant to ecb. we focused this study on home furniture products. the online community known as “ikea hackers” (www.ikeahackers.net) comprised our main source of lead users. users on the website are do-it- yourselfers (diyers) who post “hacks” or modifications that consist of reusing or repurposing ikea products and putting them to new uses. a differentiating feature of ikea hackers is that users sometimes build a diy project purely from newly purchased products instead of reusing existing items. ikea hackers are familiar with ikea’s product range and many take part in a continuous cycle of customizing ikea’s standard products and tailoring them to their unique individual needs. the ikea hacker diy community of expert lead users, who provide continued input and improvements to existing projects, leads to a fast-paced and evolving understanding of how products can be altered. other online diy communities studied include www.reddit.com/r/diy and www.lifehacker.com. such environments provide ample opportunity to discover affordances and other factors involved with diy projects. one long-term goal of our research is to identify design principles that suggest novel usage or interactions with customers. by studying ikea hackers, we investigate users in their own domestic settings and also glean affordances and other factors that encourage ecb. an ikea hacker’s mentality has the effect of prolonging product life, which greatly reduces resources used in product manufacture, delivery, and disposal. novel uses of products may lead to niche, or even widely marketable, improved products. although we had noticed that past lead users, i.e., the old- order mennonites, also repaired and repurposed their furniture, diyers may provide ideas and strategies that are relevant to more modern users. . categories of diy projects an initial search led us to identify the following categories for diy projects: ) change in aesthetics, ) change in form and ) change in function. change in aesthetics involves altering the appearance of the original product with no motive other than to make it more aesthetically pleasing for the user. the other two categories of diy projects overcome functional fixedness to varying extents. german and barrett ( ) define functional fixedness as “difficulty in considering an item for a function other than the one for which it is typically used.” the effects of fixation have been studied by design researchers and are highly relevant in the user-to-designer role of diyers. change in form describes a modification where the user aims to meet a similar or related function of the original product by reconfiguring, reorganizing, or performing substitutions. the function generally remains closely related, and the form is modified to adapt. we include examples below where diyers modified product forms in response to minor updates in required functions. change in function describes product repurposing to fulfill a function that is entirely different from the original. this is the category we believe leads to the most novel forms of diy, and thus the category where affordances can most readily be extracted. here the user is not fixated with the original function of the product, and maximizes utility of its resources by applying them anywhere that is appropriate. we expected fewer diy projects in the change in function category due to users’ prolonged exposure to their products. as noted by german and barrett ( ), users develop functional fixedness and find it difficult to think of purposes beyond original product functions. it would be interesting to also compare the length of project time between change in form and change in function diy outcomes. we would expect that change in function diy projects would occur over more time compared to their change in form counterparts, which allows more opportunity for incubation and external stimuli to overcome fixation. we developed our diy categories by studying postings on the ikea hackers website submitted in the month of october . we chose to sample a month of submissions to reduce bias in sample selection. the selection of october was arbitrary other than being most recent to paper submission. of the hacks posted in that month, involved change in aesthetics, involved change in form, involved change in function, and posting referred to a museum installation. . . change in aesthetics changes in aesthetics from the sampled month include painting and adding/replacing handles of a dresser for an updated look. the same strategy can be used with dramatic results to update rather than replace kitchen cabinetry as well. figure shows a cover crocheted for a lounge chair to avoid buying a new cushion. the associated hacker noted the difficulty of producing a sewn cover that fits the cushion well. replacement seat covers have also been used to postpone replacement of more significant furniture items, e.g., sofas. song-liang lai and l.h. shu / procedia cirp ( ) – figure . crocheted cover for chair. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /field-of-flowers-crochet-poang-chair.html figure shows solid-maple cutting boards substituted for the standard white tops of a set of nesting tables. figure . replacing white tops of nesting tables with maple cutting boards. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /klassy- butcherblock-tops-for-klubbo-tables.html there were fewer purely cosmetic hacks in the sampled month than we anticipated, as these appear to be the simplest hacks to perform. while changes in aesthetics provide fewer insights on affordances, they likely increase product life significantly, as furniture is often replaced purely due to aesthetic preferences. . . change in form we categorized as change in form, when an existing product is reconfigured to better meet updated or slightly modified functions. when the original function becomes less relevant, the form of the product is modified to make the product relevant again. the hack fulfills the same or similar functions as the original product, but with an updated form. examples include reconfiguring an unused wardrobe into a cleaning cupboard to store mops, vacuum cleaners, and cleaning supplies. figure shows an old coffee table converted into an ottoman by attaching a top cushion. figure . coffee table converted to ottoman. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /klubbo-turns-lovely-peony-printed- ottoman.html a third example repurposed a tv unit as a seating bench, and bookcase as storage in a mudroom, shown in figure . figure . repurposing furniture for a mudroom. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /ikea-hemnes-mudroom-hack.html two reddit users also described how they reconfigured and repurposed furniture originally intended for obsolete products and media. for example, an old television cabinet made for a cathode-ray tube television was reconfigured to accommodate a newer and larger flat-screen television. (www.reddit.com/r/diy/comments/ sjeb/altered_my_old_i mpractical_tv_cabinet_to). an old compact-disk rack was repurposed, with paint and new shelving, into a wine bottle holder. the modified product still performs the same function of storing items, but now wine bottles instead of no-longer needed compact disks. (http://www.reddit.com/r/diy/comments/ wkqud/diy_what_t o_do_with_an_old_cdrack/). as consumer electronics and associated media become obsolete so quickly, making the furniture that store and display them reconfigurable increases its useful life. song-liang lai and l.h. shu / procedia cirp ( ) – . . change in function we used change in function to describe when a user re- purposes a product to fulfill a significantly different function than intended for the product. for example, figure shows an inexpensive, stainless-steel breadbox repurposed into a mail box because existing similar products were too expensive. figure . mailbox repurposed from breadbox. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /ordning-stainless-steel-breadbox-to-modern- mailbox.html figure shows custom lampshades made using fruit bowls to emulate expensive lampshades. figure . fruit bowl repurposed into lampshade. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /a-fruitful-bit-of-hacking-for-a-lamp.html figure shows a crib transformed into a children’s table by installing a hard surface at the preferred height in lieu of the mattress. this hacker overcame the functional fixation that cribs are for sleeping in, and recognized that significant parts of an existing, no longer useful product can form the basis of a more useful product. the rectangular shapes of both the sleeping and working surfaces facilitate this transition. the categories overlap in multiple ways. a change in function may result in changes to both aesthetics and forms. change in form often involves the same function acting, e.g., storing, supporting, etc., on different objects. however, a literal modification in form is often required to accommodate the shape and weight of different objects, e.g., clothes vs. cleaning supplies vs. books. change in function applies a product to different uses, sometimes primarily by using in a different orientation, e.g., sideways (breadbox to mailbox), inverted (fruit bowl to lampshade), etc. other cases involve the use of products as partially finished raw material (crib to table). an inexpensive coffee table provided the raw material for many hacks, e.g., headboard, coat rack, etc. figure . children’s table repurposed from crib. image used with permission. www.ikeahackers.net/ / /kids-artcrafthomework-table-from-ikea- gulliver-cot.html . factors contributing to hacks . . material product material is an important factor that affects hackability. for example, a metal rather than wooden television stand was modified into a toolbox/bike stand. metal works better for this purpose, as it is generally more durable and easier to clean than other furniture material. wood on the other hand is preferable to laminated particle board for ease of cutting, drilling, as well as repairing. . . modularity, geometry and symmetry modular and simple products, with regular and symmetric parts, afford hacking. for example, rectangular drawer fronts can be more easily replaced or fitted with new knobs and handles than the ones with handle cutouts. rectangular shapes also make furniture pieces work better next to or on top of each other. flat edges are easier to clamp during repairs and afford hanging of items when in use. symmetry enables the use of another side when one side is damaged. . . overcoming fixation key to their ability to transform products is how users perceive objects. a more recent hacker used a set of head- and foot- boards as an extra-wide dog gate. this hacker recognized that normally stationary items may be made moveable to accomplish the gates’ function. song-liang lai and l.h. shu / procedia cirp ( ) – figure . dog gate repurposed from head- and foot- boards. image used with permission. http://www.ikeahackers.net/ / /hemnes-dog-gate.html . conclusion on affordances, diy, and ecb not only are diyers lead users for ecb, they also often manage to overcome functional fixedness by examining affordances of products. affordances guide diyers to repurpose rather than replace products. we originally became interested in affordances as a way of devising product concepts that encourage resource-efficient behavior. we have since become interested in finding ways to identify novel affordances and propose three approaches (shu et al., ). common themes include involving lead users, conserving resources, and overcoming functional fixedness. due to the limited end-of-life options for furniture products especially, reuse is likely the most environmentally sound option. however, most consumers require more support in pursuing this option. for instance, many repairs to even low- cost furniture are simple, reliable, and do not necessarily affect appearance, yet many consumers do not perform such repairs. perhaps repair instructions and replacement parts can be made available online. the existence of online resources such as ikeahackers.net provides similarly minded consumers ideas for repurposing, rather than replacing furniture. in addition to enabling consumers to feel more attached to personalized rather than generic pieces, the skills learned may also enable them to perform more repairs. by emphasizing affordances of products that hint towards certain paths for alteration, a product’s life could be lengthened, significantly reducing its environmental impact. shove & warde ( ) highlight the shifting standards and norms in expectations of cleanliness, comfort and convenience. much consumption behavior is driven by commercial interests, e.g., advertising that prescribe what people desire and require. our long-term goal is to effect more objective and resource-conserving standards. ando et al. ( ) observed that personal behavior is significantly affected by others’ behaviors. by using product design to increase the number of people who take part in ecb beyond a critical mass, other people will follow, further increasing the proportion of participation needed to justify corresponding shifts in infrastructure and thus set new norms in behavior. acknowledgements the authors are grateful to ikeahackers.net for permission to reuse images and the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada (nserc) for financial support. references abrahamse w, steg l, vlek c, rothengatter t ( ) a review of intervention studies aimed at household energy conservation. journal of environmental psychology ( ): - . ando k, ohnuma s, chang e ( ) comparing normative influences as determinants of environmentally conscious behaviours b/w usa & japan. asian j social psychology : – . festinger l, carlsmith jm ( ) cognitive consequences of forced compliance. journal of abnormal and social psychology : - . fogg bj ( ) persuasive technology: using computers to change what we think and do. morgan kaufmann publishers, san francisco, ca. german t, barrett h ( ) functional fixedness in a technology sparse culture, psychological science ( ): - . lilley d, lofthouse v, bhamra t ( ) towards instinctive sustainable product use. nd int. conf: sustainability creating the culture, ,aberdeen exhibition & conf. centre, aberdeen uk, nov. - . lockton d, harrison d, stanton n ( ) making the user more efficient: design for sustainable behaviour. int. j. sustainable engineering ( ): - . lockton d, harrison d, stanton n ( ) the design with intent method: a design tool for influencing user behaviour. applied ergonomics ( ): – . lockton d ( ) attitudes, meaning, emotion and motivation in design for behavior change. working paper, last accessed october , from danlockton.co.uk mccalley l, midden c ( ) energy conservation through product- integrated feedback: the roles of goal-setting and social orientation. j economic psychology : - . montazeri s, gonzalez rd, yoon c & papalambros py ( ) color, cognition and recycling: how the design of everyday objects prompt behavior change, design , dubrovnik croatia, may - . shove e, warde a ( ) inconspicuous consumption: the sociology of consumption and the environment. lancaster university, www.lancaster.ac.uk/sociology, last accessed oct. , . shu lh, srivastava j, chou a, lai s ( ) three methods for identifying novel affordances. to appear in artificial intelligence for engineering design, analysis and manufacturing: special issue on affordances. ( ) sorrell s ( ) the rebound effect: an assessment of the evidence for economy-wide energy savings from improved energy efficiency. uk energy research centre, www.ukerc.ac.uk, acc’d oct , . srivastava j, shu lh ( a) encouraging resource-conscious behavior through product design: the principle of discretization. asme j. mechanical design ( ) . srivastava j, shu lh ( b) affordances, product design and environmentally conscious behavior. asme j. mechanical design ( ) . srivastava j, shu lh ( a) an ontology for unifying behavior-change literature. to appear in the annals of the cirp. ( ) srivastava j, shu lh ( b) applying human-factors knowledge of automation to product design that reduces resource consumption. submitted to th international conference on design computing and cognition, london uk, june - . steg l, vlek c ( ) encouraging pro-environmental behavior: an integrative review and research agenda. j. environmental psychology ( ): - . stern p ( ) toward a coherent theory of environmentally significant behavior. j. social issues ( ): - . von hippel e ( ) lead users: a source of novel product concepts. management sci ( ): - . zachrisson j, boks c ( ) when to apply different design for sustainable strategies. proc. knowledge collaboration & learning for sustainable innovation conference, delft, the netherlands, oct - . genotyping an immunodeficiency causing c. – g>a zap mutation in canadian mennonites research article open access genotyping an immunodeficiency causing c. – g>a zap mutation in canadian mennonites m. l. schroeder , b. triggs-raine , and t. zelinski , * abstract background: primary immunodeficiency is a life-threatening genetic disease that appeared to have an increased incidence in manitoba mennonites. determining the genetic basis of this immunodeficiency was an essential step for providing early and appropriate medical intervention. methods: initially, dna from probands affected with primary immunodeficiency and their family members was assessed for linkage to genes previously associated with immunodeficiency. candidate genes were sequenced to identify the causative mutation. the frequency of the mutation among first and second degree relatives, as well as apparently unrelated community members was analyzed using a pcr-based assay. results: a previously described c. – g>a mutation in zap was identified as the causative mutation in all affected probands that were analyzed. among study participants of mennonite descent, genotyped as normal, were carriers and seven were affected. none of non-mennonite random individuals carried the mutation, whereas one of ten random dna samples from individuals who self-identified as mennonite was a carrier. conclusions: in collaboration with the target community, we have developed a robust screening test for determining zap genotype. early identification of affected individuals has provided an opportunity for timely clinical intervention, while carrier identification has allowed for genetic counselling of at risk couples. background primary immune deficiencies comprise a broad spectrum of diseases, ranging from severe combined immunodefi- ciency syndrome (scid) which is uniformly lethal without a stem cell transplant, to several milder forms [ ]. among these is an autosomal recessively inherited zap- (zeta- chain associated protein kinase ) deficiency, which des- pite having a less severe clinical phenotype, typically results in death by two years of age due to overwhelming sepsis. arpaia et al., [ ] defined the underlying mutation in three patients of mennonite descent as a homozygous intronic zap single nucleotide substitution (c. – g>a). this mutation creates a new acceptor splice site, resulting in the insertion of nine nucleotides to the mrna. the altered protein product is unstable, leading to a complete loss of kinase activity. since zap- kinase is involved in t cell receptor signaling and is critical for t cell maturation, loss of function mutations lead to an absence of cd + t cells and inactive cd + t cells [ – ]. mennonites are anabaptists who descended from swiss, dutch and german ancestors. persecuted for their religious beliefs and pacifism, mennonite communities settled in various parts of europe, seeking regions that were either sympathetic to, or tolerant of, their way of life. the first mennonites (swiss/german) immigrated to north america in the late th century, settling primarily in southern ontario and pennsylvania [ ]. the dutch/ german mennonites eventually settled in russia and then immigrated to the canadian prairies in two major waves, with about , immigrants arriving in the early s, and another approximately , after world war i ( - ) [ ]. * correspondence: teresa.zelinski@umanitoba.ca department of pediatrics and child health, max rady college of medicine, rady faculty of health sciences, university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba, canada department of biochemistry and medical genetics, max rady college of medicine, rady faculty of health sciences, university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba, canada © the author(s). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. schroeder et al. bmc medical genetics ( ) : doi . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:teresa.zelinski@umanitoba.ca http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / for cultural and religious reasons mennonites consti- tute a genetic isolate, where founding alleles continue to be expressed in the current population. we identified the zap c. – g>a mutation as the cause of a primary immunodeficiency in an extended mennonite kindred. prompted by the local mennonite community and because timely diagnosis and treatment [ ] are essential to reducing mortality due to zap- kinase deficiency, we developed a screening test which identi- fied the c. – g>a mutation as a frequent cause of immunodeficiency in this population. methods subjects in total, mennonite subjects were enrolled in our study. initially all test subjects were first or second degree relatives ( individuals) of an affected indi- vidual. as the results became available to the family members, other individuals of the broader commu- nity volunteered samples for zap genotyping. these included young married couples expecting their first child, newly married couples (including two spouses of successfully treated affected individuals) and unmarried young adults. dna from random individuals, of whom self-reported as mennonite, was also used in this study. clinical synopsis all affected children were well at birth, and presented between the ages of and months. two were diagnosed shortly after birth before they became unwell because of an affected sibling. the method of presentation varied, how- ever recurrent respiratory infection was seen in all of them. pneumocystis jirovecci pneumonia requiring ventilation was the presenting symptom in one at the age of months. a generalized failure to thrive, skin rash, enteritis, feeding difficulties, otitis media, thrush and pneumonia were seen with variable severity in all. b- and t-lymphocytes were present within the normal range in all patients, however the cd + count was decreased in all. the absence of a t-cell response to phytohemagglutinin was universal. im- mune function was reconstituted by hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and all seven patients are currently alive and well ( to years post-transplant). sanger sequencing sanger sequencing was performed at the centre for applied genomics, (the hospital for sick children, toronto, canada), using the same primers and under the same conditions as were used for genotyping. the dna sequence was determined for both strands of all fragments. the sequences obtained were compared with the reference allele sequence zap (genbank accession number: ng_ . for gdna). fig. ancestral pedigree depicting the relationship between three affected individuals. the common ancestor for three individuals homozygous (shaded symbols; designated with arrows) for the c. – g>a mutation in zap is an individual who was born in . individuals heterozygous for c. – g>a are depicted as half-shaded circles and squares, and consanguineous marriages are depicted by double solid lines. open circles in the bottom generation represent individuals who do not carry the zap mutation. not all individuals depicted were tested for the zap mutation schroeder et al. bmc medical genetics ( ) : page of c. – g>a zap genotyping genomic dna isolated from whole or cord blood ( – ng) or buccal swab ( – ng), was pcr amplified for three min at °c for one cycle, one min at °c, one min at °c and min at °c for cycles, followed by min at °c for one cycle, using the forward ( ′-gtgatgcccgactggatg- ′) and the re- verse ( ′-ggctttgggtgagatgaca- ′) primers. an aliquot of the resulting bp product was incubated at °c for hr with u alui. products were resolved on a % agarose gel for hr at v. each genotyping result was determined by comparison, on the same gel, with dna from known normal, carrier and affected individuals. results the recognition of an apparent increased frequency of im- munodeficiency among mennonite children in manitoba [ ] provided the impetus to search for the cause of this disorder in three affected individuals and their immediate families (pedigree depicted in fig. ). each of the affected individuals depicted descend from a common ancestor, born in . initially, microsatellite markers surrounding genes known to cause primary immunodeficiency were analyzed in these families. all three affected individuals were identically homozygous for six markers flanking zap (data not shown). subsequently, sanger sequen- cing (fig. a) of dna from these three affected individuals revealed that all were homozygous for the previously defined [ ] zap mutation (c. – g>a). the extended families of the other four affected individuals from this study also display consanguinity loops (pedigrees not shown), but a single ancestor common to all seven affected individuals was not identified. because the causative mutation, c. – g>a in zap has been shown to cause protein deficiency underscoring the phenotype [ – ], we developed a pcr- based assay to determine the genotypes of related and unrelated mennonite individuals. the g to a intronic mutation (fig. b and c) creates an alui site (ggct to agct) that allows carriers, non-carriers and affected indi- viduals to be readily differentiated (fig. d). genotyping was conducted on genomic dna isolated from whole or cord blood, or buccal swab. all genotypes determined from cord blood were confirmed with a peripheral blood sample, as a way to exclude possible maternal contamin- ation of the cord sample. in all cases genotypes of the peripheral sample were concordant with those deter- mined on the cord sample. of the study subjects, typed as normal (gg), as carriers (ag), and as affected (aa). in addition, we determined zap geno- types for random individuals, all of whom typed as normal, and also from ten random individuals who self- identified as of mennonite descent, one of whom geno- typed as a carrier. discussion because immune deficiencies in children should be considered pediatric emergencies, early diagnosis and treatment [ , ] is the very best option for affected individuals. however, recognizing immune deficiency caused by a loss of function mutation in zap can be difficult and even delayed because most patients have detectable lymphoid tissue, normal lymphocyte counts and immunoglobulin levels [ , , ]. additionally, the age of presentation can vary from about – months, and in the case of mennonites, affected children living fig. analyzing the c. − g >a mutation of zap . panel a - sanger sequencing of genomic dna from an affected individual depicting a homozygous intronic g >a mutation. panel b – a schematic representation of a portion of the zap gene indicating how the mutation generates a new acceptor sequence in affected individuals. panel c – a restriction map of the pcr amplified product depicting the position of a second alui cutting site (↑) in mutated alleles. panel d - bp pcr products were digested with alui and the resulting fragments separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. lane is a bp dna standard and lane is a water blank (b). lanes through depict fragments generated from individuals of normal (n) genotype ( bp and bp), affected (a) genotype ( bp, bp and bp) or carrier (c) genotype ( bp, bp, bp and bp) schroeder et al. bmc medical genetics ( ) : page of in rural communities may not be referred to the pediatric tertiary care center in a timely manner. our study underscores the importance of developing a targeted screening test for zap- kinase deficiency in mennonites and for engaging the community at the on- set. all of our study subjects belong to the same genetic isolate and can trace their roots to a group of immi- grants arriving to canada in the s. because of a high birth rate and large family size, the founding c. – g>a allele of zap has been maintained in the current population. our identification of carriers among study subjects is not surprising since most participants were directly related to an affected individ- ual, but the identification of a carrier in random mennonite samples is concerning. we do acknowledge that estimates of carrier allele prevalence using just samples may not accurately reflect the true frequency, but finding random samples for such calculations in a closed population is impossible. despite these limita- tions, we have identified affected individuals in multiple families, suggesting that the c. – g>a allele of zap is frequent enough in the canadian mennonite community. further, because members of this cohort have moved to mexico (including one of the families we stud- ied with two affected children), belize, paraguay and other south american countries, screening for the c. – g>a allele of zap should also be undertaken in these countries. conclusion the development of a definitive screening test for zap- kinase deficiency in mennonites will ensure prompt diagnosis and treatment for affected children, and will also provide pregnancy counselling opportunities for at risk couples in canada and around the world. acknowledgments we are grateful to the family members for participating in this study. we thank gail coghlan, sunita khatkar and judi barnes for genealogical and technical assistance, and most importantly for the ongoing communication with the family members. we also thank dr. geoff cuvelier for providing us the opportunity to include one four member family and dr. kirk mcmanus for preparing fig. . parts of this study were funded by operating grants from cancercare manitoba (to mls and tz) and the winnipeg rh institute foundation (to tz). some of the research was conducted in facilities provided by the children’s hospital of manitoba research institute (to btr). the funders of this project had no role in the study design, or the analysis and interpretation of the data. authors’ contributions mls, btr and tz conceived and designed the study, and analyzed and interpreted the results. tz wrote the manuscript with critical input from mls and btr. all three authors approved the submitted version of the manuscript. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. consent for publication signed informed consent was obtained from all participants, and the study was approved by the health research ethics board of the university of manitoba (study #h : ). received: october accepted: june references . buckley rh. primary cellular immunodeficiencies. j allergy clin immunol. ; : – . . arpaia e, shahar m, dadi h, cohen a, roifman cm. defective t cell receptor signaling and cd + thymic selection in humans lacking zap- kinase. cell. ; : – . . elder me, lin d, clever j, chan ac, hope tj, weiss a, parslow tg. human severe combined immunodeficiency due to a defect in zap- , a t cell tyrosine kinase. science. ; : – . . chan ac, kadlecek ta, elder me, filipovich ah, kuo wl, iwashima m, et al. zap- deficiency in an autosomal recessive form of severe combined immunodeficiency. science. ; : – . . wang h, kadlecek ta, au-yeung bb, goodfellow he, hsu ly, freedman ts, weiss a. zap- : an essential kinase in t-cell signaling. cold spring harb perspect biol. ; :a . . puffenberger eg. genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet c: semin med genet. ; c: – . . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet part a. ; : – . . brown l, xu-bayford j, allwood z, slatter m, cant a, davies eg, et al. neonatal diagnosis of severe combined immunodeficiency leads to significantly improved survival outcome: the case for newborn screening. blood. ; : – . . jilkina o, thompson jr, kwan l, van caeseele p, rockman-greenberg c, schroeder ml. retrospective trec testing of newborns with severe combined immunodeficiency and other primary immunodeficiency diseases. mgm reports. ; : – . . pai sy, logan br, griffith lm, buckley rh, parrott re, dvorak cc, et al. transplantation outcomes for severe combined immunodeficiency, – . n engl j med. ; : – . . turul t, tezcan i, artac h, de bruin-versteeg s, barendregt bh, reisli i, et al. clinical heterogeneity can hamper the diagnosis of patients with zap deficiency. eur j pediatr. ; : – . . roifman cm, dadi h, somech r, nahum a, sharfe n. characterization of ζ-associated protein, kd (zap )-deficient human lymphocytes. j allergy clin immunol. ; : – . • we accept pre-submission inquiries • our selector tool helps you to find the most relevant journal • we provide round the clock customer support • convenient online submission • thorough peer review • inclusion in pubmed and all major indexing services • maximum visibility for your research submit your manuscript at www.biomedcentral.com/submit submit your next manuscript to biomed central and we will help you at every step: schroeder et al. bmc medical genetics ( ) : page of 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusions 	background 	methods 	subjects 	clinical synopsis 	sanger sequencing 	c. – g>a zap genotyping 	results 	discussion 	conclusion 	acknowledgments 	authors’ contributions 	competing interests 	consent for publication 	references goucher college "in the world but not of it" the kingdom of god as radical refusal and new creation katrina kniss senior honors thesis advised by: yousuf al-bulushi steven decaroli ann duncan ailish hopper kniss dedication: to my great grandfather, lloy a. kniss, who taught me my first lesson in the importance of refusing to compromise my values. he was one of the first conscientious objectors to the military draft in world war i. while i never met him, his legacy has been passed down through my family. you can read his story in his book, i couldn’t fight. all my gratitude and due acknowledgement: …to steve for making philosophy accessible to me for the first time, and for inspiring and encouraging my lofty goals for this paper. … to ann for encouraging organization and precision, and supporting me through my first foray into academia. … to professor ailish for sparking my imagination, exposing my blind spots, and never letting me settle for what is easy. … to professor al-bulushi for sharing your wealth of knowledge, constantly challenging me to produce more than what i think i am capable of, and going above and beyond every point of your job description as my adviser. this project would never have been possible without you. …to yuka and marissa for sharing the struggles and joys of the research process with me. table of contents introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….. the radical reformation as a christian anarchist movement……………………………………… beyond revolution, beyond the law: christian anarchism in conversation with giorgio agamben ………………………………………………………………………………….. from production to creation: an autonomist marxist critique of work…………….……………. the wisdom of god is foolishness to the world: mennonites, blackness, and nothingness…….… conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………...… works cited……………………………………………………………………………………………… kniss introduction throughout most of my life, i have been steeped in a heritage that has formed the kind of questions i ask about the world. my upbringing in the mennonite church, an historic peace church in the anabaptist tradition, instilled in me the importance of community, simple living, social justice, and pacifism. an idea at the core of the mennonite theological disposition is the concept of being “in the world but not of it”; to live into the counterculture of jesus’s “upside down kingdom” by denying nationalism, militarism, and consumerist materialism, as well as the harmful influences of popular culture. starting from a young age, i began wrestling with the question of how to distance myself from the ways of the world while still working for the good of the world in my role as a global citizen: should i say the pledge of allegiance in school? should i vote? however, when i started examining broader questions outside of the mennonite communities i belonged to, i saw that my theology lacked teeth, or a critical understanding of the world outside of our culturally isolated communities. i claimed a social justice narrative, but without a robust power analysis. i criticized the war-making of the state and lifted up good stewardship of the earth’s resources, but i had no understanding of the functions of global capitalism. i wanted to love the whole world, no exceptions, but i had never even heard the term “white privilege”. even if the ideas of the mennonite church held revolutionary potential, they weren’t necessarily being lived in a way that centered the struggles of the marginalized. it is from this background and viewpoint of the world that i entered into the academic field of peace studies, not at a mennonite higher education institution, but at a private liberal arts college. my interests and lines of inquiry over the past four years have grown in ways i never could have imagined. in my work through peace studies i have continued to view peace work through a theological lens, but my experiences and academic studies have centered my personal kniss discovery of the shaping forces of capitalism and white supremacy, and what it means to promote self-determination and autonomy. i first became interested in the idea of autonomy through my training as a mediator. the inclusive model of mediation decenters the facilitators and prioritizes the knowledge and lived experience of the participants, understanding that those living the conflict are in the best position to offer up solutions. this experience began forming my belief that in conversations around conflict and development, it is communities themselves who understand best what they need and what kind of world they want to imagine. i had the opportunity to further explore this theme through my studies in colombia and india. in colombia, i interned with a grassroots peacebuilding organization that modeled a commitment to the self-determination of afro-colombian and indigenous campesino communities, as they negotiated the extent to which they depended on the state for reparations, despite its complicity in the violence that displaced them from their land and damaged their formerly interdependent community structures. in india, i studied mainstream narratives of development and the types of alternatives to development that are being posed by various communities. i had the unique opportunity to learn from the lepcha indigenous tribe about their struggles to exist as an autonomous group within a global context of nation states pursuing development at any cost. this line of thought points toward the emerging focus of my intellectual pursuits: the problem of the sovereign nation-state. while many mainstream political and intellectual movements advocate for the strengthening of rights and a more just state, growing bodies of thought and political projects exist that decenter the state as the primary achievement of humanity. fields such as christian anarchism, afro-pessimism, and autonomist marxism, as well as thinkers such as giorgio agamben, all engage in a critique of the state and expose its inherent violence, while also operating at a distance from the state in their creation of newly kniss imagined political communities. these projects all work towards the conception of a new political community by centering the voices and experiences of the oppressed, and a political community where existence itself is resistance to the dominant powers in society. however, each of these projects faces similar obstacles in the transition from theory to praxis, as communities of practice often reify the very structures against which they are fighting. research questions within this broader personal and academic context, i will engage these different bodies of literature to explore the unique perspectives each can add to answering the following questions: • what could it look like to conceive of a political community beyond the state, imagined from the subject position of the marginalized? • how can the fields of christian anarchism, autonomist marxism, afro-pessimism, and the work of agamben be mutually informative towards a praxis of the formation of such communities? literature review christian anarchism to this end, i will begin my exploration in the tradition of christian anarchism. while there is more to christianity than anarchism, christian anarchists engage in a political reading of the gospel that claims that a true adherence to the teachings of jesus, as well as an examination of other major themes throughout scripture, necessarily leads to an anarchic, or anti-authority disposition (christoyannopoulos ). among radical christian traditions, christian anarchism is similar to both liberation theology and pacifism in its critique of the state, but differs in the discussion of means. pacifism often lacks a positive political understanding beyond refraining kniss from war, while liberation theology has the tendency to fall into the familiar cycle of advocating violent power struggles for state power (ellul ). christian anarchists focus on the life and teachings of jesus, and specifically the sermon on the mount, to elaborate a critique of and engagement with the state that is based in nonresistance to evil. this nonresistance is not passivity, nor is it active rebellion, but a third way which harnesses the creative potential of nonviolence to expose the violence of the state and rid it of its legitimacy (wink ). taking seriously the call to break cycles of violence through love of enemy, christian anarchists aggregate this concept to the level of the state, thereby critiquing the state’s use of force and coercion for political goals (christoyannopoulos ). while still engaged in a concern for the welfare of the world, christian anarchists place their primary allegiance and identity in god’s kingdom, not the kingdom of the world or a national identity (christoyannopoulos , yoder , york ). the kingdom of the world is based in hierarchy, violence, and exploitation, while god’s kingdom is one of love, forgiveness, and nonresistance (christoyannopoulos ). christian anarchism is a diverse, scattered tradition, and many of the thinkers and theologians whose work adds to the christian anarchist conversation would not label themselves as such. most scholars name leo tolstoy as the first explicit and perhaps most influential christian anarchist thinker. while there are multiple lines of thought that can be traced throughout the field, this research will center the theological work of writers such as jacques ellul, vernard eller, john howard yoder, stanley hauerwas, and walter wink, who name christians as exiles from the world and are concerned with the creation of viable communities as alternatives to the state (yoder , york ). through their radical refusal to take part in political games of power and through their rejection of state authority, these communities rid the state of its legitimacy (eller , ellul , christoyannopoulos ). the creation of communities kniss which embody the principles of the kingdom of god mark the inbreaking of this kingdom, the arrival of the messiah in the present, and are therefore engaged in apocalyptic politics (hauerwas, york ). agamben the christian anarchist political project closely aligns with the work of italian philosopher giorgio agamben. in contrast to mainstream political traditions, agamben defines state sovereignty as holding the monopoly on the legitimate use of violence and names the state of exception, the power of the sovereign to use violence indiscriminately in exception to the law, as the originary political moment (agamben ). homo sacer is the result of the sovereign ban, a figure produced in bare life, outside of the protection of the law, but still in an exceptional relationship to it (agamben ). furthermore, agamben posits the positionality of the subject in bare life, such as the stateless refugee, or more relevant to the conversation with christian anarchism- the exile, not simply as a negation of rights, but as a potential place of a new positive political project (decaroli ). the refugee is therefore the paradigmatic figure, or limit concept, throughout agamben’s work. through the refusal of authority and rights, a juridical poverty is created that renders the law indecipherable from life, therefore a form-of-life. this form-of-life moves not as revolution, but beyond revolution, through the creation of a new political community; the unveiling not of an alternative politic, but the genuine one – the already-here-yet-future politic (agamben , york ). in his theorization of form-of-life, agamben engages with the christian monastic tradition, specifically the franciscan order, emphasizing the concept of voluntary poverty (the highest poverty). kniss autonomist marxism despite its radical potential to point toward an alternative to the politics of the world, christian anarchist theory in practice can lack a critical understanding of the functions of the state and the types of programs necessary to disarm it. examined in light of marxist analyses of capital, the church clearly has been complicit in the veneration of the work ethic and furthering the exploitation inherent to capitalism (weeks ). this question of economics is shaped by my academic study as well. as an economics minor, i have gained a strong foundation in mainstream neoliberal economic models, and their emphasis on equilibrium, cost-benefit analysis, and the explanation of value through marginal cost and utility. these models impart a normative force on the functions of the world that leave concepts such as work and growth at any cost completely unquestioned. in their conversations on radical history, lynd and grubacic claim, “we need marxism to understand the structure of society and anarchism to prefigure or anticipate a new society” (xiii). when bringing christian anarchist ideas into conversation with the alternative economic understandings of marxism, the autonomist marxist tradition can provide a theory of the radical potential of nonresistance to capitalist hegemony, through the strategy of refusal. emerging out of radical communities in italy in the s and s, the autonomist marxists insist on the primacy of working class struggle. the working class is made up of autonomous groups that shape the direction of capitalist development, while the capitalist class accumulates surplus and becomes more sophisticated in its exploitation of the working class (cleaver , reading capital , tronti ). the strategy of refusal therefore refers to the potential for the working class to the extraction of a surplus for the purpose of extracting future surplus. kniss present an organized refusal to cooperate or to even improve the conditions within the capitalist system, as these actions help to resolve capitalism’s inherent contradictions and crises (tronti ). the refusal of work, specifically, is a strategy that rejects the ideology of work and exposes even socialist accumulation as a reification of the same capitalist relations (cleaver ). by centering the analysis on a diversity of autonomous groups in the struggle against capitalist hegemony, autonomist marxists point to the creation of new forms of subjectivity that move beyond the worker-capitalist dialectic, not simply in a return to unalienated labor , but in a liberation of time and space from the concept of reproduction itself (cleaver ). here, subjectivity refers to the agency of workers as subjects, and the potential power of the human labor of creation. a marxist understanding of capital finds its foundation in the labor theory of value, which claims that the value attributed to a product is the value of the socially necessary labor time needed to produce it, as well as the labor necessary to allow the worker to reproduce his labor, such as food and shelter (mason ). however, in our contemporary context of the social factory , the value of labor becomes a value without measure. autonomist marxist antonio negri analogizes the immeasurability of labor to the lack of measure of justice in the world and the immeasurability of the suffering of workers. negri then argues for a conception of an ontology of suffering, which points to pain as the key to community, as well as the human power of creativity. it is this “creation beyond measure that characterizes human labor as the true figure of the divine” (negri xv). this framework can provide a new conception of christian labor, through the work of creation, not of production. full control of production by workers themselves. a phenomenon where labor extends beyond the factory walls to subsume all activities and areas of life for the purpose of reproduction. kniss afro-pessimism even with a radical understanding of economics and a strategy of refusal, when viewed through the lens of afro-pessimism, christian anarchist practice is susceptible to a naïve view of race. afropessimists emphasize the importance of dwelling in the suffering and totality of antiblack violence, before speaking of a positive political project. attempts to gain rights within civil society simply reify the coherence of a society that is predicated on the incoherence of black social death (hardt , wilderson ). the black subject is an antagonism that threatens the entire political order, an antagonism stronger than that of the worker, as the worker calls into question the legitimacy of productive practices, while the slave questions productivity itself (wilderson , ). some black studies scholars, such as fred moten, engage with afro- pessimism and work through it to find the possibility of the operations of a positive political project. blackness may be an antagonism to civil society, but it is not a non-being (“the subprime” ). moten outlines the constitution of blackness as a radical force, exploring the possibilities for a conception of black life that threatens the destruction of civil society, a blackness that can claim anyone and be claimed by anyone ( ). it is by a further engagement with the work of afro-pessimism, in conversation with black liberation theology, that christian anarchist practice can come to encompass a politics that is not based in the grammar of civil society, but rather embraces the creative power of suffering in order to take the position of the slave in society, seeing in black life the potential for a new world order. this shift in paradigm places agamben’s limit concept of the refugee in relation with the figure of the slave. case study because christian anarchism is more a field of thought than a cohesive tradition of practice, my case study through this research will be the anabaptist tradition. this tradition kniss emerged during the protestant reformation as a radical refusal of the colluded power of the church and the state. persecuted by both the catholic church and those in luther’s movement, the very existence of the anabaptist movement posed a radical, nonviolent resistance to the power structures of the day and constituted a viable alternative formation of a political community. it is on these grounds of nonresistance, refusal of state authority, and the formation of an alternative political community that i name the anabaptist vision as an embodiment of the christian anarchist project. from the very beginning, anabaptist existence was resistance to structures of power and domination. if this is no longer the case, however, what has changed, and what can be learned from that historical evolution? as the anabaptist tradition has evolved and taken different forms over the past years, certain tendencies and patterns in communal practice have emerged as well. my case study will follow these evolutionary tendencies by investigating specific moments and community experiments in anabaptist, and specifically mennonite, history. today, the anabaptist legacy lives on primarily in the mennonites, brethren, amish, and hutterites. the case study i trace throughout this paper focuses primarily on the mennonite church, as it is the church of my own heritage, and perhaps the most prominent branch of contemporary anabaptism, both in the amount of scholarly attention given to it and its engagement in broader social issues. while it may be difficult to pinpoint the anarchist tendencies of the contemporary mennonite church, the core values of the early anabaptist movement most clearly live on in mennonites’ personal and institutional commitment to peace work. there are currently an estimated . million people in countries who are members of the mennonite church, with % of those members living in africa, asia, and latin america (edmund ). my explicit focus on the mennonite church in north america is intentional, as it kniss is most closely tied to my own personal experience, and the region still holds much of the global institutional power and resources, despite being a minority in membership numbers. while mennonites’ historical involvement in peace work included principled pacifism and advocating for conscientious objector status, contemporary mennonite institutions continue to be involved in peacebuilding activities that include “formal education, activism in justice making and peacebuilding, with goals of repairing harm, building community, reconciling traditionally hateful groups, and protesting injustices throughout the world” ( ). these activities are carried out by mennonite congregations, higher educational institutions, and international peacebuilding organizations such as mennonite central committee and christian peacemaker teams. the work of advocacy and activism within the mennonite church is most intense outside of north america and europe, “in areas where traditional hostility, new social development, or reparative development is taking place… the dialogue between these regions often provides the fuel for the advancement of anabaptist theological understandings” (edmund ). while peace work is foundational to the mennonite church’s identity and mission, this paper serves as a challenge to the mennonite church in north america to tie its identity more closely to the radical values of the early anabaptist movement and to confront the structures of power and violence it continues to perpetuate through its very emphasis on these peaceful, separatist values. the anabaptist tradition is but one example of a community that works to embody an alternative to the state. recognizing that versions of community existence can take many different forms, this case study from the anabaptist tradition will be integrated alongside my presentation of the political projects of agamben, autonomist marxism, and afro-pessimism, to discuss the ways they can be mutually informative to each other as communities of praxis. kniss methodology my approach to methodology is grounded in my discipline of peace studies. the decision to begin my introduction with a personal narrative was a conscious one, as peace studies seeks to preserve humanity within academic inquiry and recognize the impact and importance of lived experience for understanding the world. an interdisciplinary approach is integral to peace studies as well. according to johan galtung: the basic concern of peace research is the reduction of violence of all kinds; this is done by progressively removing barriers in space (transnational, global studies), in the organization of knowledge (transdisciplinary, holistic studies), in time (integrating empirical studies of the past, critical studies of the present and constructive studies of the future). as such peace research can also be seen as an effort… to counteract fragmentation in the social sciences. i am therefore at home in my engagement with multiple, seemingly-unconnected fields of thought. in approaching this research, i will be exploring the fields of christian anarchism, autonomist marxism, afro-pessimism, and the work of giorgio agamben, among other peripheral thinkers within these conversations. primarily employing the method of textual analysis, i will outline the main arguments and goals of each field, honing in on the lines of thought that connect them to one another and the unique perspective each field contains to add to the understanding of the research questions. textual analysis provides tools to answer the following types of research questions: what kinds of meanings are there and why do these people produce them from this particular text in this particular historical place and time? what kinds of effects do texts have regarding the subjectivity, identity and empowerment or disempowerment of the readers? lehtonen textual analysis serves as an effective methodology to address my research questions, as it gets to the heart of the cultural effects texts have for their readers in a specific context. it allows me to explore not only the frameworks of meaning created by a writer to understand power relations, kniss politics and being, and dreams for the future, but also the practical effects of these texts for the communities that are influenced by them. lehtonen encourages researchers to “develop a model of analysis which goes beyond the horizon of mere text and also takes into account the contextual and reader-related matters that participate in the formation of meanings” ( ). to that end, i will engage with texts i as a reader have interpreted to have complementary political projects and systems of meaning-making, but i will also bring to bear the context from which each field of thought emerges, and the tendencies of certain readers to interpret their meanings in different ways, based on examples of anabaptist community practice. i will use primarily secondary texts, but some primary texts as well which are relevant to anabaptist history. i will additionally use critical discourse analysis to engage with my case studies within the anabaptist tradition, in relation to the political project i am laying out. critical research aims to investigate and analyze power relations in society and to formulate normative perspectives from which a critique of such relations can be made with an eye on the possibilities for social change. critical discourse analysis is a method which recognizes the way language constructs meaning and leads to social action, and draws on intertextuality – the borrowing of meanings from other texts to create new meanings (jorgenson and phillips). intertextuality is an important place to find commonalities between the fields i am studying, as many of them are already in conversation with one another or pull meaning from common texts. the language within discourse and texts shape the practice of communities. therefore, the language with which a community imagines itself and its purpose in the world, as well as the way it understands power and meaning, demonstrates the social and political impact of a community on a theoretical level. engaging with texts also allows me to pull examples from a variety of times and places throughout history and the present. textual and discourse analysis are best suited as the kniss methodology to address my research questions, because this focus on theory allows for an in- depth inquiry that can spark new questions of ontology, subjectivity, and the meaning and function of community, questions that directly relate to practice. while nearly all of the sources i pull from are scholarly books, peer-reviewed journals, and historical primary sources, i do cite a few blogs and even a reddit thread. in an age where information is abundant, there are worlds of thought, specifically in radical political spheres, that are unable to be contained by the markets of intellectual property. by examining these nontraditional texts and discourses through the same analytic precision and comparing them to other traditional scholarly sources, these digital, open-source, nontraditional sources can be used for the production of knowledge. conclusion i have still returned time and time again to the truths and questions that formed my upbringing, and at moments, they resonate with new-found clarity and meaning. if this research is grounded in an understanding of the merits of a diversity of autonomous movements, i must recognize the best parts of my own tradition and heritage, and what those values can bring to the conversation of radical practice. however, the concepts of christian anarchism cannot continue to be understood in isolation, in a religious, depoliticized sphere. we must recognize their place in the larger dialogue of critiques of the state and allow them to be informed by the radical tradition, without losing their integrity and unique perspective. we must reclaim the radical nature of the gospel. only then can we understand the valuable insights that christian anarchism, informed by the political project of agamben, autonomist marxism, and the critiques of afro- pessimism, can bring to the project of creating a new political community, one that is not tied down in the same frameworks of sovereignty and revolution. kniss chapter the radical reformation as a christian anarchist movement this study must begin in a place of historical perspective in order to establish the theological and political concepts to come. because christian anarchism is a scattered field of thought rather than a coherent tradition, there is no obvious trajectory of community practice to examine as a case study. however, as i have studied christian anarchist thought, i have read it through the lens of my own experience within the anabaptist tradition, and specifically the mennonite church. my study of the origins of the anabaptist movement further concretized what i see as a clear link between the two traditions of anabaptism and christian anarchism. christian anarchism and anabaptism share a common theological core, but christian anarchism understands the ramifications of this theology in an explicitly political way. therefore, i am presenting a political reading of anabaptism, and in doing so, claim it for the christian anarchist tradition. christian anarchism engages in a political reading of scripture that illuminates the inherently anarchic nature of christianity. while some christian anarchist thinkers engage with the old testament, most place primacy on the life and teachings of jesus christ, as told by the gospels in the new testament. just as anarchists reject the state due to a prioritized value which is then interpreted as logically incompatible with the state (christoyannopoulos ), christian anarchists reject the state because of the primacy of jesus's teachings of love, nonresistance, and egalitarianism. christian anarchism is not alone within the realm of christianity in its political engagement. to most christian anarchists, their tradition is a necessary corollary to christian pacifism. latin american liberation theology and black liberation theology are two other examples of theological traditions that center the voices of the oppressed and marginalized, and kniss tend toward the left in their politics. some christian anarchists, however, profess a more fundamentalist view of scripture, and claim they base their politics in their reading of the bible, rather than allowing their reading of the bible to be led by their politics (eller, ellul). in both cases, christian anarchists are more action-oriented than pacifists, and less willing to engage in power plays with the state than those who follow liberation theology. there are many thinkers who could be welcomed into the fold of christian anarchism, but for the purposes of this research, i will pull from the work of leo tolstoy, jacques ellul, and vernard eller, as well as contemporary theologians of christian ethics such as john howard yoder, stanley hauerwas, and walter wink. i choose these thinkers both because of their level of influence on the tradition, as well as the relevance of their work in conversation with the anabaptist tradition. some scholars have named russian author and aristocrat leo tolstoy ( - ) as the father of christian anarchism, although he stands apart from many in the tradition due to his unorthodox version of christianity, based in rationalism and moralism (christoyannopoulos ). while tolstoy's version of christian anarchism may not necessarily mesh with anabaptist or mennonite sensibilities in regards to the sacredness of scripture and the importance of the church, this dissonance simply demonstrates the many diverse strains of both christian anarchism and the anabaptist tradition. tolstoy was intrigued by the mennonites in reference to their beliefs in pacifism and nonresistance, and many individual mennonites were influenced by tolstoy in some way (miller). jacques ellul ( - ) was a french scholar whose specific work in anarchism and christianity brings a crucial understanding of secular radical history and theory, and demonstrates the relevance of christian anarchism in response to the modern state. within the american context, vernard eller draws from his own background in kniss the anabaptist brethren tradition to present a version of christian anarchy which advocates for the strictest, most submissive interpretation of nonresistance of the authors listed here. yoder, hauerwas, and wink do not self-identify within the christian anarchist tradition, but i include their work in this research to recognize their addition to the conversation. john howard yoder ( - ) is generally named as the most influential contemporary mennonite theologian, and his seminal book the politics of jesus lays a groundwork for a politics derived from the life and teachings of jesus, within the vein of christian anarchist ideals. stanley hauerwas's relevance to this research is his work on the church as a social ethic, the peaceable community set apart from the world that embodies the kingdom of god in the present. finally, walter wink ( - ), in his series of books the powers that be, provides an understanding of the biblical teachings of nonresistance that leads to a course of action he names "jesus' third way". taken together, these thinkers articulate my particular path through the christian anarchist literature, and set the foundation on which i will build the case for the inclusion of the anabaptist tradition within christian anarchism, both in this chapter, and the chapters to come. the anabaptist movement emerged in europe in reaction to the movement of evangelical reform sparked by martin luther in , and now known as the protestant reformation. in the era of historical transition from feudalism to capitalism, europe was dominated by the phenomenon of christendom, in which all aspects of society – social, economic, political, and religious – in effect made up one unified christian body (snyder ). luther and his followers addressed some of the inherent contradictions of this collusion of church and state power, but remained tied to the institution and its potential for reform. this moderate reform failed to eller’s term for christian anarchism. kniss address the economic and political grievances of the peasant class, or their spiritual hunger ( ). the german peasants’ war of was a search for redress which found ideological legitimation in reformation concepts, such as equality of persons under god. in the th century, religious dissent was also civil dissent, and a group of leaders known as the radical reformers carried these reformation ideals to their logical, anti-establishment end ( ). the radical reformers, such as thomas müntzer, acted as a mediating influence between the evangelical reformers and the anabaptists ( ). snyder considers the anabaptists as one grove of trees in the forest of radical reformers and explains, “the radical reformers belong in another theological ‘forest’ than did luther; moreover, the radical reformers share a kinship that places them together in the same theological forest, apart from luther” ( ). the anabaptist movement emerged in this tumultuous context and embraced both biblical and reformation writings, embodying “strong communitarian, egalitarian, and anticlerical sentiments whose roots lay in the socioeconomic abuses of preceding centuries” ( ). exploring the theological themes of the early anabaptist movement through the framework of christian anarchism lends insight into the radical political impact of the movement. the connection between anabaptism and christian anarchism must first be established through a comparison of their shared theological themes: the biblical interpretations of christian anarchists, which anabaptists embodied in practice. christian anarchists center their biblical interpretation in jesus’ teachings, and specifically in the sermon on the mount, which some have referred to as the christian anarchist manifesto (christoyannopoulos ). the basis of much of christian anarchist thought is the call of nonresistance to evil. most christian anarchists refuse to justify violence, because violence becomes a habit of simplification and allows evil to seep into communities and movements ( , ). this virtue is then expanded from the personal to the kniss structural, aggregated to the level of the state, to result in a rejection of state authority. christians should not use coercion; therefore they should not empower others to do so through the law or military might ( ). the anabaptists had a similar conviction of non-coercion, as evidenced by their movement of believers’ churches. the most radical aspect of the first anabaptist communities was their rejection of infant baptism, a mechanism of the church which allowed for state control over its citizens. in rejecting infant baptism, they were thereby calling for un- coerced, voluntary commitment to the church and the way of jesus (snyder ). this rejection of state authority was also carried by anabaptists in the refusal to swear oaths, a mandate taken directly from the sermon on the mount. according to tolstoy’s exegesis of the passage, it is impossible to swear allegiance to the state and at the same time commit to following jesus (christoyannopoulos ). because the state’s power is based on an oath of allegiance by the disciplined unity of a large population, to refuse to swear oaths is to deny the state the basis of its power ( ). for christian anarchists, the litmus test of christianity is the ability to live into the invitation to love one’s enemies. this not only brings to light the question of violence, but the question of economics and institutions as well. tolstoy was a harsh critic of the enslavement of the wage system, and ellul rejected the idolatry of the state as the sole provider of security and protection (christoyannopoulos , ). in the midst of the capitalist revolution, the anabaptists themselves rejected the charging of interest and the accumulation of surplus capital, claiming that the norms of the kingdom of heaven are sufficiency, not surplus (snyder , ). snyder asserts, “where there is true love of god, there must be a radical love of neighbor. what kind of discipleship is left when the economic dimensions of the love of neighbor are passed over in polite silence?” ( ). christian anarchists are also wary of deceptive religious dogma kniss and the institutionalized church. the early christian church was not an institution, but a movement of jesus followers, and the creation of rituals, dogmas, and beliefs are a distraction from jesus’ original radical teaching (christoyannopoulos ). similarly, the anabaptists framed their movement as a restoration to jesus’ principles and the example set by the early church in the new testament (snyder ). the political impact of the anabaptist movement is well-evidenced by the violent persecution of the state against the anabaptists, and yet the persistent, widespread appeal of the movement, whose followers willingly faced exile, torture, and martyrdom for their beliefs. american anarchist activist staughton lynd is one scholar who has drawn a line of connection between the anabaptists and anarchist movements to come, in his comparison of the anti- institutional witness of the anabaptists to anarchists who rebelled against social democratic institutionalization (lynd and grubacic ). in addition, thiessen refers to “the role of the sixteenth-century anabaptist movement in the resistance to the development of proto- capitalism,” noting that friedrich engels, in his book socialism: utopian and scientific, “had declared that, during the german peasants war, anabaptists such as thomas müntzer were forerunners of a radicalized proletariat” (thiessen ). while the political project of christian anarchism will be explored in the next chapter in further detail, it can be said here that christian anarchists do not aspire to take over state power, nor to destroy the state through violence, but rather to reject the authority of the state and expose its inherent violence through their embodiment of a viable alternative in community, based on the example of jesus. the early anabaptists are a clear example of this political vision in practice. because anabaptists were not united by a set doctrine, but rather discerned looser confessions of faith in small communities across vast geographical regions, the task of defining kniss the core of anabaptism has been long disputed by anabaptist studies scholars. although anabaptism is an umbrella term used to identify diverse communal articulations of a movement, there were core values which marked the anabaptists as a “visible community of saints”: adult baptism, the ban, the supper, and mutual aid (snyder ). other writers point to a variety of characteristics which they claim were definitive of anabaptism (dyck, hays, etc.), but there is a general consensus that the schleitheim confession, written by a community of swiss anabaptists in , represents a foundational anabaptist text and can be generalized in most cases to fit the early anabaptist experience (dyck ). the first three articles of the confession are baptism, the ban, and the supper. snyder explains, they called for the baptism of adults following confession of faith; those who accepted such a baptism signified by that baptism that they placed themselves under the discipline of the community (the ban) to be corrected if they erred; and those who accepted baptism and community discipline then celebrated the supper of remembrance, unity, and fellowship together. even as communities migrated across europe, russia, and north america, and evolved in their own contexts over the following centuries, the original anabaptist movement continues to shape the practice of contemporary communities. in his famous essay, “the anabaptist vision”, harold s. bender draws upon the schleitheim confessions to define the core of anabaptism and call contemporary churches back to their radical roots. however, bender also adhered to the later anabaptist preference to personal and communal over societal transformation, emphasizing the distinctive boundaries between the kingdom of god and the kingdom of the world, calling the church to separate from the world (thiessen ). bender outlines three areas of emphasis: the essence of christianity as discipleship; a new conception of the church as a brotherhood; and a new ethic of love and nonresistance ( ). the popularity of the essay, and the impact it had on anabaptist faith communities for the following decades, demonstrates the resonance of the historical values of anabaptism, still felt by its descendants centuries later. kniss the anabaptist movement also demonstrates some of the tensions, difficulties, and common pitfalls communities face in the creation of a communal order of life, based in theory and theology. the tensions within anabaptist theology and practice are by no means resolved, and the remaining anabaptist communities today are a direct result of these distinct evolutions of practice around the questions of integration into the world and hermeneutics. the centuries following the radical reformation have seen the anabaptist movement evolving along different tendencies of theological thought and practice, as communities spread across broad regions of europe, russia, and north america and adapted to their contextual environment. the original sectarian groups were the swiss brethren, south german anabaptists, the hutterites, and the mennonites who reorganized after the violent fall of münster (loewen ). the dutch mennonites were the most fully integrated into society, and the russian mennonites in effect established a mennonite state within the tsarist empire ( ). returning to the schleitheim confession, while the first three articles articulated a common understanding of the anabaptist experience up to that point, articles four through ten established an ethic of separation from the world, giving up on the utopian pattern of reforming the world, in favor of withdrawal into an alternative society (snyder ). this tension along the spectrum of withdrawal from and integration into the world has remained a central question within anabaptist communities and their descendants. while this argument today falls along theological lines, the original question of withdrawn anabaptist communities was not based in ideology, but in a necessity for survival in the encounter with a hostile world ( ). while the zeal of the early anabaptists meant a willingness to embrace and even celebrate suffering and persecution, in many places, simply being a member of the anabaptist movement meant a death sentence. in others, anabaptism was still not tolerated, but anabaptists were not specifically kniss sought out ( ). in those places where persecution was harshest, anabaptists embraced an apocalyptic framework for the church. in one unique case, the city of münster, anabaptist leaders took control and became “the state”, justifying their actions by claiming the town as the new jerusalem of the last days ( , ). moravia was originally the only place where anabaptists were openly tolerated. here, communalism flourished and anabaptists became an integral part of local economies ( ). these original articulations of the sectarian vs. integrated community tension carry on in anabaptist discourse today. the other central conflict relevant to this research is the tension between the inner and outer life of the believer, which is closely related to the tension between law and spirit. this tension was directly related to the issue of how to balance the role of biblical interpretation and the work of the holy spirit in forming community principles and discerning the will of god. while belief through free will and adult baptism were radically individual acts, this baptism then bonded the individual to the limitation of choice by the community (snyder ). this unresolved tension between authority and freedom lingers in anabaptist communities today (hays ). is christian life spiritual, experiential, and inward-focused, or does it appear through outward, legislated marks of the true church (snyder )? is the true church meant to be a perfectionist community of saints set apart from the world through dogmatic communal law, or is it meant to be a community without bounds of exclusion but also indistinguishable from the rest of the world? the call of this research is to challenge the church to a relationship of nonconformity to the world, and at the same time active involvement. the true church is a community that withdraws through a refusal of the authority, power, and violence of the state, thereby radically transforming the world through their embodied existence as an alternative. this kniss path involves a call to generative suffering and an imagination open to the movement of the spirit. kniss chapter beyond revolution, beyond the law: christian anarchism in conversation with giorgio agamben the modern political tradition speaks to the contractual origins of the state as the emergence of rights and a legal structure established by a bond of trust between people, which prevents civilization from regressing to the chaos of the state of nature (hobbes and locke). furthermore, hegel has posited the state as the culmination of rationality by autonomous actors, where violence has been bracketed outside of the sphere of politics. therefore, mainstream political projects are guided and enabled by the centrality of the state paradigm, with the goal of strengthening the state and the expansion of the rights and protections it confers. there exist, however, growing bodies of thought and political projects that decenter the state as the foremost achievement of humanity. the political projects which have emerged from the field of thought of christian anarchism, as well as the ideas of italian philosopher giorgio agamben, engage in a critique of the state paradigm and expose its inherent violence, while also operating at a distance from the state in their creation of newly imagined political communities. examining the works of agamben in conversation with christian anarchism reveals the common themes of moving beyond revolution, voluntary exile, and apocalyptic politics, a discovery which can be mutually informative to both traditions in the transition from theory to community practice. the work of giorgio agamben centers around the concepts of the state of exception and homo sacer, the figure of bare life. for agamben, the sovereign is “he who decides on the state of exception”, who decides when the law can be suspended, and therefore is an exceptional figure. agamben is also influenced in his understanding of power by french philosopher michel foucault, who studies the formations of power in different historical periods, naming the most kniss recent power formation as biopolitics, a phenomenon in which the state is increasingly concerned with populations rather than individuals and its primary goal becomes the regulation of biological life, rather than the sovereign power of killing (foucault ). in his book homo sacer: sovereign power and bare life, agamben explores the concepts of “zones of indistinction” and “threshold” as they relate to the relationship between sovereign power and bare life, especially as exemplified in the ban. for agamben, bare life is not a pre-political life, the purely biological life of zoe, but a life that has been stripped of the law, while still being in relationship to it, in a state of exception. calling into question theories of the contractual origin of state power, agamben claims that the ban is the “originary political relation” ( ). the ban is a state of exception that is a “zone of indistinction between outside and inside, exclusion and inclusion” ( ). the state has the ability to ban a human life to be “delivered over to its own separateness” ( ). in this way, the exile is excluded. however, since this exile is in a form of bare life, they are still completely at the mercy of the state and able to be killed without being sacrificed. therefore the exile is also included, as they are “caught in the sovereign ban and must reckon with it at every moment” ( ). the ban is what holds together bare life and power in this zone of indiscernibility ( ). because the production of bare life is the originary political element, agamben argues western politics has been a biopolitics from the very beginning ( ). it is within the arena of the production of bare life, in the figure of homo sacer, that agamben posits his political project. the positionality of the subject in bare life, such as the stateless refugee is not simply a negation of the law, but a potential place of a new positive political project. because homo sacer represents the absence of rights and is excluded from the law, agamben argues that this figure holds the unique potential to point to the formation of a political community outside of the law, beyond the current formations of western political kniss ontology. through the refusal of authority and rights, a juridical poverty can be created that renders the law indistinguishable from life, therefore a form-of-life. this juridical poverty cannot be realized outside of a community of practitioners, which agamben explores through his engagement with the christian monastic tradition. it is as this point that agamben’s political project overlaps with the concepts of christian anarchism. the first point of overlap between christian anarchism and agamben’s work is a conversation around power that moves the political project beyond the idea of revolution. in homo sacer, agamben explores in detail the relation between constituting power and constituted power, as well as potentiality and actuality. constituting power is power creating, like in a revolution, while constituted power is power in place, such as that of a state (homo sacer ). the question that remains then, is what distinguishes these two types of power and how closely related they are. italian marxist antonio negri claims that constituting and constituted power are irreducible to each other, as sovereignty marks the end of constituting power in its complete consumption of it ( ). foucault, on the other hand, remarks that “the state consists in the codification of a whole number of power relations which render its functioning possible, and revolution is a different type of codification of the same relations” (qtd. in york ). agamben seems to side more with foucault in this instance, as he fails to see any isolation of sovereign power from constituting power in negri’s argument (homo sacer ). christian anarchists also add to this conversation in their disposition towards revolution. vernard eller frames the intersection of relative and absolute choices as two perpendicular axes. on one axis are the poles of the arkys (hierarchical power and coercion) of the establishment (constituted power) and the arkys of revolution (constituting power) and on the other axis are the two poles of god and the world ( ). the only absolute choice is that between god and the kniss world, while the choices between human-created alternatives are relative. “with the relative human choices, we must recognize the essential commonality of the two poles; they are two varieties of the same thing ( ). both revolutionary movements and established governments demand we follow them as truth, as god, or be damned, but only god can demand such universal allegiance. christians must recognize that history is not decided by the clash of human arkys, but is governed by the divine arky of god ( ). the label of christian anarchy therefore derives from the disposition of refusing the authority of worldly powers in full submission to the power of god alone, or “jesus’ primacy over the powers” (eller). recognizing the close relationship of sovereignty and constituting power, walter wink says “rebellion simply acknowledges the absoluteness and ultimacy of the emperor’s powers and attempts to seize it” (qtd. in york ). similarly, john howard yoder implores christians not to “glorify the power structure of the state even by the attempt to topple it” ( ). tripp york, a commentator on christian anarchism, affirms the idea of non-teleological politics through his assertion that “effectiveness is not how we gauge faithfulness” to jesus’s kingdom (xv). the type of change jesus came to earth to enact “was not a restoration of the monarchy, but a bringing down of the proud and mighty. the kingdom jesus proclaims will not take the familiar hierarchic form of a state” ( ). agamben brings his discussion of constituting and constituted power further into focus by relating it to aristotle’s ontological concepts of potentiality and actuality. the traditional reading of aristotle is that potentiality disappears into actuality, just as negri argues constituting power is consumed by sovereignty. agamben, however, emphasizes aristotle’s oft- misunderstood point that potentiality keeps its relationship to actuality in the sense that potentiality will only be actualized when there is no longer the potential not to be. it is this same potential not to be that keeps the sovereign ban in relation to the exception by no longer applying kniss (homo sacer ). in support of eller’s point of the relativity of choices between human-created categories, agamben affirms that western ontology is characterized by categorization and teleological structure, which drive our practice and politics (“ / ”). the only way to release constituting power from sovereign power is “to think the relation between potentiality and actuality differently – and even to think beyond this relation” ( ). to this end, agamben proposes a new understanding of the ontology of potentiality which is grounded in the potential not to be. this ontology is a non-teleological politics that refuses to slip from practice into dogma or final achievement, thereby displacing the ontological categories of potentiality and actuality themselves (“ / ”). agamben names this displacement as inoperativeness, which he defines as “a generic mode of potentiality that is not exhausted in the transition from potentiality to actuality” (homo sacer ). the next logical question then is how the christian anarchist response to the inherently violent state should look. one example to consider is the figure of bartleby the scrivener. in herman melville’s classic short story, to which i will refer later in more detail, bartleby radically embodies the potential not to be through his enduring refrain of refusal: “i would prefer not to” (“ / ”). this phrase is similar to the christian anarchists’ radical refusal to take part in the political game, to denounce not merely the abuses of power, but power itself (ellul , ). one of the biggest scriptural challenges thrown against christian anarchists is the seeming justification of the state as ordained by god in romans . in his letter to the roman church, paul writes, “let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. for there is no power but of god: the powers that be are ordained of god” (romans : ). while some christian anarchist thinkers simply disregard this passage, others engage with it to come to an understanding of the call to “subversive subjection” (christoyannopoulos ). these thinkers claim that god has ordained kniss the powers of the world only in the sense that god has ordered them, to govern those who choose not to live into the way of the kingdom of god. therefore, the call to be subject to the state is simply an extension of the call to love your enemies. according to eller, “to ‘be subject to’ does not mean to worship, to ‘recognise the legitimacy of’ or to ‘owe allegiance to’. it is a sheerly neutral and anarchical counsel of ‘not-doing’—not doing resistance, anger, assault, power play, or anything contrary to ‘loving the enemy’” ( ). in this sense, subversive subjection encompasses what some theologians call “jesus’ third way”. this concept falls within the context of debate over the means christians should use when facing evil in the world. specifically, whether the call to nonresistance allows room for civil disobedience. one clear example of the disparate ethics that result from differing interpretations of scripture is commentary around matthew : . this passage is used as the proof text from the gospel of jesus for both just war theory and isolationist pacifism: “but i say unto you, that ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.” this verse has generally been taken to mean jesus is advocating for nonresistance to evil. for proponents of just war theory, this interpretation means that one should never act in self-defense. however, the prima facie duty to the law of love requires action in defense of an unprotected neighbor, which will sometimes call for violence. in contrast, pacifists use this verse to justify their rejection of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, as these methods of action are coercive and therefore in violation of their interpretation of christ’s law. walter wink, author of the powers that be: theology for a new millennium, blames the king james translation for the creation of the idea that the only reaction to evil can be that of fight or flight. he argues, the greek word translated "resist" in matt. : is antistenai, meaning literally to stand (stenai) against (anti). what translators have over-looked is that antistenai is most often kniss used in the greek version of the old testament as a technical term for warfare. it describes the way opposing armies would march toward each other until their ranks met. then they would "take a stand," that is, fight. seen in this light, “resist not evil” is better translated as “do not repay evil for evil,” or “don’t react violently against the one who is evil.” herein lies the fundamental ethics of jesus’s teachings. wink’s interpretation of antistenai leads to a new understanding of the second part of matthew : when examined in historical context. “…but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.” in jesus’s time, the left hand was considered unclean. therefore, to hit someone on the right cheek would require the aggressor to use the back of their right hand to hit their victim, a blow only inflicted on inferiors. if the victim then turned their cheek so that their left cheek was facing their attacker, however, the only way for the attacker to give a second blow would be with the right fist, a sign of equality. wink explains, this act of defiance renders the master incapable of asserting his dominance in this relationship. by turning the cheek, then, the ‘inferior’ is saying: ‘i'm a human being, just like you. i refuse to be humiliated any longer. i am your equal. i am a child of god. i won't take it anymore. the action was neither a passive acceptance of domination nor a forthright violent opposition to it. instead, this action asserted the victim’s dignity while still honoring the humanity of the oppressor, a creative response known as “jesus’s third way.” when this violence christians face is aggregated to the level of the state, subversive subjection “does not legitimize the state, but it also makes a point of not legitimizing any insurrection against it” (christoyannopoulos ). returning to bartleby’s refrain of “i would prefer not to”, agamben explains bartleby’s phrase as a “liminal zone suspended between affirmation and negation, being and nonbeing, kniss predicated on the renunciation of any will or reason to choose either option”, just as subversive subjection will not legitimize either the state or insurrection against it (whyte ). he argues that bartleby is engaging in an “experiment in potentiality itself, which requires the overturning of the principle of the irrevocability of the past”, which makes him the new figure of the messiah ( ). bartleby is not acting in order to actualize his power, but rather remains in potentiality, in the liminal zone that can be compared to jesus’ third way. bartleby’s messianic modality shows that “potentiality does not precede actuality but follows it, restoring it to contingency and enabling the forgotten to act on the present” ( ). the political implications of this modality can be captured by the positing of the redemptive role of remembrance given by walter benjamin: remembrance, for benjamin, challenges the irrevocability of the past, making both what happened and what did not possible again. if benjamin sees remembrance as intimately bound to redemption, this is because redemption, in his view, is not a passage through empty time to a brighter future, but a relation between the present and its past, in which the struggles of the past are seized and re-actualised in the “time of the now”. , those hopes and dreams of the marginalized which never came to pass, are made possible again through the redemptive work of the messiah in the present. furthermore, for agamben, the messiah “transforms temporality itself, enabling ‘another world and another time’ to make themselves present in this world and in this time” (homo sacer ). christian anarchists also claim the redemptive role of the church, as it embodies the messianic characteristics of the kingdom of god. according to york, “the church embodies the very hope that is the history of the world, which is, ultimately, a redemptive history… as political ambassadors of the city of god, we are eschatological witnesses to the way the world was created, was meant to be, and one day will be again” ( , ). the way of subversive subjection, however, is not easy, though it brings about salvation. bartleby dies hungry and alone, imprisoned for his refusal to decide between the options given him. yet agamben affirms, kniss “the walled courtyard [where bartleby meets his end] is not a sad place.” rather, he sees the jail as a site of universal salvation (whyte ). similarly, voices from the catholic worker movement, as summarized by christoyannopoulos, tell us, “the penalty for disobedience should thus be patiently and forgivingly endured. besides, for christian anarchists, prison is a kind of resting place in today’s world, a ‘new monastery’ in which christians can ‘abide with honour’” ( ). the messiah figure and the messianic act of rendering the law inoperative is important to both agamben’s work and that of christian anarchism. messianism is the mode in which monotheism confronts the question of law (“ / ”). the messiah is the one who fulfills the law, thereby transgressing it, as the messiah’s arrival makes the old laws lose their meaning (homo sacer ). the heart of messianism is anti-law, because the messiah reveals the law’s authority as provisional by its own logic, thereby deactivating the notion of consistency in authority itself (“ / ”). in the case of the state of exception, the law is in force without significance (homo sacer ). the state of exception has suspended the law; thus it is without significance. yet insofar as homo sacer is still in an exclusionary relationship to the law, the law is in force. the coming of the messiah marks the end of the law’s being in force without significance, when “we have moved out of the paradox of sovereignty toward a politics freed from every ban” ( ). it is this politics beyond sovereignty that agamben searches for and which the messiah brings about. york labels the christian anarchist approach as apocalyptic politics, explaining, an apocalypse is a revelation, and in the biblical sense it is that moment in which we see the world as it really is… this apocalyptic politic is not an alternative politic, it is the genuine politic by which other politics are measured. it is the politic of the in-breaking kingdom of god.” , kniss when does the kingdom of god break in? in a passage from kafka’s notebooks, mentioned by both agamben and york, he writes, “the messiah will only come when he is no longer necessary, he will only come after his arrival, he will come not on the last day, but on the very last day” (qtd. in homo sacer ). as the messiah’s coming is the hope of a politics beyond sovereignty, it is a hope of the future, but also a hope available and able to be acted on in the present, as exemplified by the figure of bartleby. per york, “it is this day after the last day that christians are called to embody in order that the world, and all her rebellious structures and institutions, may too be redeemed” ( ). christians are not only engaged in an apocalyptic politics of revealing the illegitimacy of the state and rendering the law inoperative, but they are also called to actively create those communities which embody the forthcoming redemption of the world, the revelation of the genuine politic, thereby making it a reality. as individuals living in messianic times, embodying the politics of jesus, the messiah, christians must further conceive of themselves as a community living within the colony of the world. within the conversation of responses to the state, the next point of convergence of agamben’s work and christian anarchism is the concept of exile through the refusal of participation and an abdication of rights. agamben, in one instance in his discussion of the sovereign ban, examines the figure of the exile in roman society. this exile was not forcibly cast out of the city, but instead was stripped of every right, including the right to water and shelter, thereby necessitating his physical exile (“ / ”). christian anarchists describe the positionality of christians in the world within this vein, as voluntary exiles. while this is not a physical exile, york calls on christians to distance themselves from imperial seduction ( ). therefore, christians must understand themselves as dual citizens of both god’s kingdom and the kingdom of the world, while giving primary allegiance to god’s kingdom. yoder advocates for the kniss abandonment of nationhood as a form of peoplehood, through the creation of relatively independent counter-communities of exiles within a foreign nation ( , ). in this sense, a peoplehood of exiles, not revolution, is prior to liberation ( ). this voluntary placement of oneself in the subject position of the exile demonstrates a refusal of authority, what agamben describes as a refusal to make operative the work of law and sovereignty (decaroli ). yoder recognizes the radical nature of this refusal of participation when he names the expectation of state violence in reaction to such a withdrawal ( ). positioning themselves as exiles, as homo sacer, exposes christians to the unmediated violence of the sovereign state. however, it is this revelation of the inherent violence of the state that calls into question the legitimacy of the law and the sovereign as the sole bearer of the right to exert violence. herein lies the true power of jesus’s violent crucifixion at the hands of the roman state. christoyannopoulos explains, “jesus refused to support [the state] in [its] self-glorification. the unmasking of the powers is their defeat” ( ). while the role of the church as a collective witness to the politics of jesus the messiah is indisputable, how to create a community which embodies the inbreaking kingdom of god remains a central argument within christian anarchist communities of practice and agamben’s political project. agamben is often criticized for being overly pessimistic, for focusing more on individual identity rather than a communal politics (vacarme). understanding the constructedness of western ontological categories is one thing, but moving past them is another. the search is for a positive political project that is lived out beyond just opposition to the law and individual acts of passive resistance. decaroli explains agamben’s political project of form-of- life as “the sustained practice of exposing the effects of this awareness… of the largely hidden attitudes that sustain juridical existence and determine the scope of what is valid within it” ( ). kniss this practice, however, can only be sustained in a community of practitioners ( ). agamben chooses to engage in an in-depth inquiry into one specific christian community: the franciscan monastic order. although it ultimately failed, this community had the possibility to demonstrate agamben’s concept of form-of-life, which he defines as a life “that is linked so closely to its form that it proves to be inseparable from it (agamben xi). the franciscan form of life was modeled after the life of christ, and was marked by a voluntary poverty. this material poverty was also a judicial poverty, as it appeared as an abdication of all rights, including the right to property. the franciscans, however, were unable to find “a definition of use in itself and not only in opposition to law,” thereby only hinting at the possibilities of a form-of-life, but not fully deconstructing the relationship to law (decaroli ). agamben argues the franciscans could have learned from a specific passage from paul in corinthians : - , which speaks of treating categories of the law, such as marriage, as if they do not hold force of significance. agamben names this passage as a theory of use which entails “using the world as not using it or not abusing it” (agamben ). elaborated by decaroli, “in its full and proper sense, form-of- life names the habit of putting into practice the pauline [as-if] as a means of making visible what olivi called our ‘mental intentions’ so as to deactivate the social status and privilege [sovereignty] sustains” ( ). the work of the messiah, to which christians are called, is the work of rendering the law, and the sovereignty it holds over life, inoperative. when the messiah comes, the same ontological categories will exist, but they will cease to be burdensome or definitive of life. therefore, christians must live as if they are not citizens of this world, even though they are. they must live as if the kingdom of god covers the earth, although it does not yet. kniss perhaps the most valuable lesson to be drawn from the franciscan monastics is the living legacy of their attempt to live a life that is indistinguishable from the law through their refusal of rights. this voluntary refusal of rights is the willing placement of oneself in the subject position of homo sacer. the franciscans were therefore an experiment in embodying a christian anarchist praxis based in the subject position of the exile, a form of resistance that moves beyond revolution in the sphere of apocalyptic politics. communities within the christian anarchist tradition continue to struggle and experiment together how best to embody the example of jesus christ in their life together and in relationship to the world. christian anarchists explicitly model their understanding of politics and community after their messiah’s life. as an example, jesus proclaimed a new social order and proposed an alternative type of community to that of the sovereign state, yet he did so not through force or power, but through “leadership by suffering servanthood” (christoyannopoulos ). speaking of example, agamben noted, as summarized by decaroli, “there is no separation between the example and the thing it exemplifies. the example exercises a normative force without relying on law” (decaroli ). jesus’ life is therefore a form-of-life. expanded by york: the son of god did not come to alter or enhance our current modes of politics. the incarnation displaces not only what we think it means to be political, but the very category of politics itself. for christians, jesus does not have a politic nor is [he] representative of one, but as he is fully human and fully divine, jesus is a politic. the early anabaptists were another such community that aimed to embody the example of jesus in their communal life. although the form and specific theological emphases of anabaptist communities varied across geographic regions, the movement began in an attempt to return to the example of the early christian church (snyder ). these early christians to whom the anabaptists aspired, as portrayed in the book of acts and paul’s letters, were among the first disciples of jesus, a leader who proclaimed he had come not to destroy the jewish law, but to kniss fulfill it (christoyannopoulos ). the messianic witness of jesus “punched through the torah to get to the giver who stands behind it” (eller qtd. in christoyannopoulos ). in this way, jesus does not destroy the law, but “reinterprets it beyond the strictures which contemporary interpreters had confined it to” (christoyannopoulos ). as discussed earlier, this messianic modality marks the end of the law being in force without significance and points toward a “politics freed from every ban” (homo sacer ). yet have communities hailing from the anabaptist tradition truly followed jesus’ messianic example toward the end of law and sovereignty within the community? richard b. hays names the anabaptists and franciscans as two communities that embody a radical call to discipleship ( ). the specific contribution of the anabaptist tradition that came out of the radical reformation is the centrality of life in community ( ). while agamben is at times criticized for his over-emphasis on the individual, the anabaptists claimed true discipleship could only be lived out in community, and the community must be allowed to shape the trajectory of christian doctrine and practice ( ). these sectarian communities take agamben’s radical refusal of sovereignty to the communal level. snyder claims the term “nonresistance” is inadequate to capture the full anabaptist position, which preached nonresistance to the state/church until the point it commanded actions which went against the teachings of jesus ( ), an ethic which fits within the christian anarchist concept of subversive subjection (christoyannopoulos ). it was this disposition that drove anabaptists to embody a radical alternative to sovereignty in their communities, creating an egalitarian sharing community, and conceiving of themselves as a people set apart. the movement was met almost everywhere with a violent reaction by the powers that be, through banishment, torture, and execution. at the inception of the radical reformation, kniss anabaptists themselves were the ones being banned and stripped of their rights, reduced to bare life and the unmediated violence of the state. while sectarianism is a characteristic that has come to define the anabaptist tradition that survived, according to snyder, “the strong ‘separation from the world’ ethic that pervaded later anabaptism was not a necessary original component of believers’ church ecclesiology, but was a further theological interpretation that was encouraged, in part, by the encounter with a decidedly hostile world” ( ). this persecution forced later anabaptist communities to spread extensively over europe and north america. the first mennonites settled in north america in , on land in pennsylvania granted to them by william penn (dyck ). in this utopian experiment of religious freedom, the anabaptist and mennonite tradition could progress and evolve without the defining pressure of persecution. therefore those who worked to maintain strict community lines and a sectarian ethic did so from a place of theological choice, and no longer as a necessity for survival. the community life of the mennonite church in north america represents the problematic of how to maintain a community set apart, distinct from the world, without reinforcing the ban and exclusion, the same tools of law that define sovereignty in the world. since the inception of the movement, a defining, universal aspect of anabaptist communities was the implementation of the ban as a form of discipline within the community. in order to unify the spiritual inner life of believers and the outer life in discipleship and community, community members aspired to gelassenheit, a spirit of yieldedness of the individual to the community (snyder ). the ban was implemented in the extreme case of an individual’s “refusal to be reconciled to the brother or to desist from sin,” always with the intent to restore the relationship once the sinner had repented ( ). however, snyder claims the practice of the ban another term for the anabaptist movement. kniss exemplifies the perfectionist/pietist tendency of anabaptist communities, as later communities became more attuned to spiritual failure, not spiritual growth ( ). among mennonite groups that immigrated to north america, an early split occurred between the mennonites and amish about the severity with which the ban should be carried out (macmaster ). the mennonites of dutch heritage and the amish were the most extreme in their implementation of the ban, not only excluding the errant community member from church life, but even from contact with family ( ). the severity of such a ban is reminiscent of agamben’s analysis of roman banishment, which used social ostracization to strip the individual of all rights. such a legalistic framework of community discipline recapitulates a state of exception and sovereign power, only on a smaller level than that of the state. the inner/outer tension present in anabaptist theology and practice translates directly into the tension between spirit and law. while certain aspects of anabaptist theology stressed a fundamental reading of scripture, many early leaders diverged from luther’s tenet of “scripture alone” to allow for revelations of the sprit within the counsel of the community, apart from direct interpretations of the scriptures (snyder ). however, as the tradition progressed and moved out of the revolutionary time period of the radical reformation, the tradition evolved into a general tendency to limit pneumatic expression ( ). the church and elders became the enforcers of divine law, and a definition of community boundaries became the norm for all surviving anabaptist groups ( ). this disposition led to a tendency towards division and schism within the tradition. the case of increasing dogmatism and legalism within the anabaptist tradition begs the question of how a community born from revolutionary spirit is to remain in that radical potentiality, without exhausting it into actuality. even in our imagination of a new community, our embodiment of the kingdom of god on earth, christians are stuck in kniss the throes of sovereignty, employing imagery of the sovereignty of god and jesus’ primacy over all the powers, rather than deconstructing the concepts of sovereignty and power themselves. snyder therefore challenges remaining anabaptist communities to imagine “a believers’ church marked by love rather than law” (snyder ). although the “heuristic principle of the law of the ‘love of christ’ weakens visible, enforceable community boundaries,” it acts as a call to follow jesus’ law of love as an example and form-of-life ( ). it is a call to remember the redemptive work of the messiah in the present; the dreams of the early anabaptists have not been forgotten. it is a call back to a tendency towards spiritualism in interpreting scripture and the spirit’s work in the world, to recognize the voice of god who is still speaking, reinvigorating our imagination of possibilities not yet seen. it is a call that opens space for finding resonance of truth in other community experiences and traditions, outside of strict scriptural revelation, a posture that will be needed for the analysis in the chapters to come. through exploring the connections and overlaps between christian anarchism and the work of agamben, we can see clearly the powerful, creative, and redemptive potential of those who inhabit the place of the exile in society, and act through a third-way politics, a politics that renders the law inoperative. these traditions of thought can also be mutually informative in the transition from theory to practice. agamben can learn from the primacy of community in the christian anarchist tradition, which speaks of a peoplehood of exiles, in contrast to agamben’s focus on the individual figure of homo sacer. agamben’s theory of use is also important for instructing christian anarchist communities in how to create a communal rule of life without reverting to dogma and the harshness of the law, a common pitfall among these types of communities, especially within the anabaptist tradition. christians may never perfectly embody a form of community life that completely disrupts the categories of law and sovereignty. kniss however, the actualization of this ideal is not the point. through continuous striving, each act made by faith, in community, and informed by history and theory, brings the day of the messiah’s coming closer at hand. kniss chapter from production to creation: an autonomist marxist critique of work the analysis thus far has examined anarchism from a distinctly christian perspective, and its political project of the creation of an alternative political community, formed through exile from the world, that renders the sovereignty of the law inoperative. this chapter will question the possibility of exodus from a globalized, capitalist world order, by exploring the intersections of christian anarchist, specifically anabaptist-mennonite, and autonomist marxist thought. staughton lynd and andrec grubacic argue in the book wobblies and zapatistas that we need both anarchism and marxism: marxism to understand the structure of society, and anarchism to prefigure a new society (xiii). marxism provides an understanding of the composition of capitalism that structures our world and progresses its development, while anarchism imagines the possibilities of community praxis that can exist within those structures, pointing to a world where these structures no longer need to exist. christian anarchism and certain communities within the anabaptist tradition clearly center the project of prefiguring a new society, thereby bringing the kingdom of god into being on earth. what is missing from anabaptist community practice, specifically economic practice, is a critical understanding of the role of capitalism in ordering the norms of the world from which they are attempting to withdraw. once we turn this critical lens on the anabaptist tradition, and the mennonites in particular, it becomes clear that these communities have assimilated to the norms of capitalism and the ideology of work. if christian anarchists are to refuse to participate in the violence of the state, they must also examine their role in perpetuating economic violence. the language of withdraw and non- conformity cannot just be framed in rhetoric, but must be accompanied by a willingness to suffer alongside the marginalized, seeing in suffering the generative potential of creation. kniss this chapter will provide a critique of the ideology of work from an autonomist marxist perspective. in her book the problem with work, kathi weeks explains that because the idea of work has been so naturalized and goes unquestioned in the realm of politics, we must provide a context for why work itself needs to be questioned, not just the conditions of work. we need to first “render it strange” to be able to understand its impact on our lives (weeks ). work has been privatized, depoliticized, normatized, and moralized. work is understood as a part of the natural order, rather than a social convention, and so much of policy, social work, and education is based on making people work-ready ( , ). according to weeks, “work is not just defended on grounds of economic necessity and social duty; it is widely understood as an individual moral practice and collective ethical obligation” ( ). because basic material necessity alone is not enough to justify hard work and long hours, this moralization of work is strongly influenced and maintained by the phenomenon known as the protestant work ethic ( ). the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism is a foundational work by max weber that sets the parameters of the moral rise of capitalism. with the concurrent rise of protestantism and capitalism in the outgrowth of the reformation, work acquired more meaning as an act of signification than as an act of production. this meaning came to life through the ritualistic adherence to the discipline of ascetic puritanism. ascetic puritanism sought to fashion a “life in the world, but neither of or for this world” (weeks ). their disciplined work ethic and principled lives were not meant to better the living conditions of the world, but to bring about later glory in the afterlife. through a focus on both productivity and a denial of consumption, these groups came by an “accumulation of capital through the ascetic compulsion to save” ( ). their otherworldly, religious asceticism was an integral factor in the accumulation of capital, the disciplining of productive workers, and therefore the development of early capitalism. while kniss christian asceticism is most often associated with puritan and calvinist theology, weber also outlines the development of the “this-worldly asceticism” of baptizing sects, such as the anabaptists, mennonites, and quakers. these communities were known as sects, not as churches, because of their voluntary nature, which therefore contributed to the intensity of their asceticism (weber ). membership within these sects was not ordained by the church-state, but was rather an inward choice, manifested in an asceticism of outward actions that set them apart from others in the world. within these movements, salvation could not be found through works alone, but only through a sincere testifying to belief, which was manifested through a methodically supervised discipline of life that set the individual apart from “the style of life of the ‘natural’ human being” ( ). for the early anabaptists, the secular and the sacred were indistinguishable, as the validity of spiritual beliefs was revealed by their application in the material world (thiessen ). the inward beliefs of the anabaptists were therefore applied in the aesthetic values of simplicity and mutual aid. snyder reaffirms this anabaptist connection to asceticism when he claims that the formation of anabaptist community practice looked back to medieval social and ascetic economic ideals ( ). anabaptist economic reform was directed inward, toward the development of the “sharing community”. sharing communities were nearly universal across all forms of anabaptism, and appeared as both voluntary and legislated communities of goods, which shared all property in common and practiced mutual aid ( ). these communities posed a direct confrontation to early capitalist values within their own communities, but in other ways contributed to broader capitalist development in their veneration of the work ethic. while christian asceticism first appeared in monasteries closed off from the world, such as in the franciscan monastic tradition discussed in chapter two, contemporary christians are made to kniss live a rational life in the world, while still remaining morally distinct from it (weber ). this is one iteration of the mennonite value to be “in the world but not of the world”. the effect of these societal forces is the creation of the myth of a distinctly mennonite work ethic. nafziger, a contemporary mennonite economist, analyzes the mennonite ethic through the lens of weber’s analysis, observing that mennonites connect prosperity with righteousness, emphasize stewardship of wealth, and believe in the value of hard work and accumulation of capital when used for spiritual ends (thiessen ). as discussed in the first chapter, persecution forced early anabaptist communities in most regions to adopt a separatist stance from the world. others however, in areas such as moravia and the netherlands, were permitted to establish flourishing communities. this acceptance was largely motivated by economics, as these lands needed settled and anabaptists were industrious and good for local economies (snyder ). a large portion of north american mennonite immigrants are direct descendants of the dutch communities and continue this industrious trend (dyck ). the most prevalent conception of mennonite identity throughout the latter half of the th century was articulated by bender’s essay “the anabaptist vision”, and allowed mennonites to integrate into the world while preserving a rhetoric of difference. although mennonites today remain, to some extent, withdrawn from the world in their identity and church, they have always been active participants in the economic marketplace. this participation has been guided by cultural norms that privilege agricultural work over other forms of business, reject the use of force and exploitation in labor relations, and emphasize the importance of a simple lifestyle with a loose hold on material possessions (thiessen ). however, mennonite values have also led to great economic success for some individuals. in her study of three mennonite-owned canadian corporations, janis thiessen names the institutionalization of the mennonite work ethic as kniss “mennonite corporate mythology”. according to thiessen, mennonite corporate mythology takes the already-existent work ethic within mennonite culture and transfers it to the workplace through a combination of the language of religious humility and yieldedness ( ). the use of religious vocabulary to frame economic behavior places the content beyond doubt or question, as sacred truth, not simply ideology ( ). far from signifying a withdrawal from dominant economic structures, thiessen claims, “the creation of mennonite corporate mythology – both conscious and unconscious – serves capitalist economic needs by promoting worker assiduity, loyalty, and deference, and reinforces class relations” ( ). the imposition of mennonite values in the workplace is based in a static definition of mennonitism that emphasizes the values of peace, obedience, and humility (thiessen ). yieldedness, as translated from the anabaptist concept of gelassenheit, is a submission of the individual to both god and the community, which is lived out in the process of discipleship and mutual discernment ( ). when employed as a value in the work place, yieldedness takes on a transcendent significance ( ). for example, in a work place infused by this distinct mennonite value, workers are coerced to submit to the will of the management in the name of yielding to the good of the community. thiessen names this scenario as a form of paternalism, which discourages class consciousness through the promotion of the “illusion of community” ( ). greater trends in mennonite communities also reveal a general sense of wariness of class struggle, due to the biblical mandate to nonresistance and nonconformity. many discourage union membership due to the prevalent use of “coercive methods and powerful maneuverings” (vogt ). besides traditional agricultural activities, a study by roy vogt revealed a strong affinity among mennonites to professional careers. these types of careers allow mennonites to remain aloof from the class struggle between workers and management and kniss nurture a purity acceptable to god ( ). the desire to withdraw from the world and its violent economic systems is misdirected as a perceived withdraw from the class struggle itself through an escape to professionalism ( ). overall, mennonite work and business ethics undermine any radical political stance their rhetoric might suggest by incorporating religious values to advance capitalist development. nonresistance to economic violence through an apathetic withdrawal, rather than an active refusal, is simply an acquiescence to capitalist hegemony. those who claim the mantle of christian anarchism must critically examine their current methods of withdrawal and direct those energies to a place which most aligns with their rhetoric of resistance and does not fall into apathetic integration. the christian anarchist mode of refusal, which rejects the authority of the state and refuses to participate in the violence of law and sovereignty, can be further informed by the autonomist marxist strategy of the refusal of work. autonomist marxism, also known as autonomism, is an umbrella term for a diverse field of movements and thinkers which finds its origins in the italian new left of the s. during this time, american writers and activists of the johnson-forest tendency created a working-class sociology which outlined the ways the new unions and workplace policies of autoworkers in detroit were co-opted by management to continue to exploit their labor in new ways. inspired by this work, italian thinkers such as mario tronti and antonio negri began researching the working class and its autonomous power. this initial movement, known as operaismo, or workerism, developed a theory of a cycle of struggles which spoke to the power of the working class to shape the development of capitalism (jimichangas). the autonomists focused less on labor and more on the refusal of work, not only by factory workers, but by all others who contribute to the reproduction of capitalism but may not be traditionally included in the working class, such as women, students, and non-waged kniss workers. autonomism engages in an unorthodox reading of marx, searching for the marxist insight beyond just marx’s writings and their traditional interpretation. this movement also more closely resembles anarchism in its refusal of the hierarchy of a party structure and labor unions, a socialist state, and even reproduction itself. autonomists focus on worker's own self-activity rather than on the representation of workers by parties or unions. for example, members of the united automobile workers union during world war ii staged a series of strikes unauthorized by the party. marty glaberman records his experience during these wildcat strikes, saying: you’ve got to take workers as they are, with all their contradictions, with all their nonsense. but the fact that society forces them to struggle begins to transform the working class. if white workers realize they can’t organize steel unless they organize black workers, that doesn’t mean they’re not racist. it means that they have to deal with their own reality, and that transforms them. who were the workers who made the russian revolution? sexists, nationalists, half of them illiterate. who were the workers in polish solidarity? anti-semitic, whatever. that kind of struggle begins to transform people. lynd and grubacic these strikes demonstrate the autonomist principle that it is the experience of struggle, not the ideological purity of a party that transforms the working class. in order to understand the strategy of refusal, it is important to outline the autonomist marxist conception of the composition of the working class in struggle with the capitalist class. marx primarily wrote about the composition of capital, not of the working class. the composition of capital is both organic and technical, a relationship between fixed capital (machines and technology) and variable capital (labor). technical composition refers to the ratio of the use of capital to labor in the production process, and simply describes the configuration of the factory (“the inversion” ). marx’s concept of the organic composition of capital is concerned with factors outside of input prices that effect the ratio of capital to labor. a change in organic composition is usually due to a new technology which not only increases the kniss productivity of workers, but in the long-term also allows capitalists to exchange easily- controllable machines for less-easily-controllable workers. marx describes this trajectory of capitalism, where “a rise in the organic composition of capital [tends] to lead to the displacement of workers, a rise in unemployment and systemic crisis” ( ). autonomists, however, center their analysis on the composition of the working class itself and its role in the development of capital, not only looking at how capital dominates, but also how workers resist (“inversion” ). this enrichment was their intervention into marxism, using marx and capital observation to understand the working class. the capitalist class is made up of those who provide the conditions of labor, while the working class provides the conditions of capital, bringing it to life through the valorization of their labor (tronti ). capital cannot be understood as an outside force independent of the working class; it must be understood as the class relation itself (reading capital ). the working class is therefore a direct political subjectivity that precedes capital and births the class struggle into being. this means the capitalist class is subordinate to and its existence dependent upon the working class, hence the need for exploitation of the working class by the capitalist class in order to keep its power (tronti). autonomists are unique in their emphasis on the autonomy of the working class and the primacy of their struggle to break through the capitalist dialectic. class struggle is traditionally viewed as a dialectical process in which two or more actors are engaged in a struggle with each other for recognition. in a dialectical relationship, they are opposed, but also mutually interdependent, as both actors are transformed through the process of opposition and synthesis. capital expresses its objective through the subjective demands of workers (tronti ). in the ongoing process of composition, workers interact with capital and form a force from which to challenge it. this composition is then faced with the capitalist response of decomposition. kniss because the existence of capital is dependent on workers, the capitalist class cannot destroy the working class, but it can adapt and institute new organizational forms that counteract this composition, through technology, management, or economic policy. finally, the recomposition of these new organizational forms marks the start of a new cycle (jimichangas). the ultimate power of the working class to overthrow capital is grounded in its existing power to initiate struggle and force capital to reorganize and develop itself (reading capital ). instead of remaining in this dialectical struggle, autonomists ask how the working class can compose themselves in a way that breaks the dialectical relationship altogether. autonomism advocates that in order to separate from the capitalist dialectic, the working class must refuse to resolve the contradictions of capitalism. they must refuse work. some mennonites may believe that withdrawing from class by escaping to professionalism is an act that removes them from the force and coercion that is inherent in the capitalist dialectic between managers and worker. one might argue this act is reminiscent of the autonomist strategy of refusal. this passive escape, however, begins to break down when seen in light of the pervasiveness of exploitable labor within the social factory. the social factory is a concept within autonomism that departs from a traditional understanding that work constitutes only the waged labor within the four walls of a factory. tronti defines the social factory in the following way: at the highest level of capitalist development, the social relation becomes a moment of the relation of production, the whole society becomes an articulation of production; in other words, the whole of society exists as a function of the factory and the factory extends its exclusive domination over the whole of society. qtd. in cuninghame within the social factory, the question of who qualifies as a worker and who is part of the proletariat is problematized and expanded due to the increasingly invisible line between waged and unwaged labor. within the social factory all social relationships and interactions can be kniss harnessed for the reproduction of capital and societal structures. to bring about liberation from the production of capital, the proletariat must engage in a diversity of demands which bursts through capitalist hegemony. anabaptists have a tradition of exiling themselves from the world by withdrawing into geographically distinct communities. yet in a world dominated by the social factory, there is no longer a geographical outside. one cannot simply move to an isolated countryside to escape systems of power, because the social factory exploits every type of labor within society for the development of capital. therefore, autonomists introduce the strategy of refusal as a possible mode of operation to withdraw from the dialectical struggle against capitalism. two important aspects of this refusal are separation from the object of critique and antagonism. weeks explains: separation is conceived as something different from dialectical conflict; resistance born of separation is imagined more along lines of flight than lines of opposition. its task is to organize struggles that neither take the form nor mirror the logic of what they contest. separation is the path of difference, not an antithesis to be subsumed in a synthesis, but a singularity that might invent something new. these lines of flight toward the invention of something new can also be labeled as exodus. autonomists, as well as theologians of liberation theology, draw upon the biblical theme of exodus within their writings and rhetoric. while exodus will be discussed further in the next chapter, it is important to note that anabaptist theologian john howard yoder speaks critically of this use of exodus imagery, as he sees it being used by liberation theologians to justify a violent overthrow of the state. while his choice of language differs, the way he describes the concept fits the autonomist definition of exodus. yoder carefully specifies that the biblical exodus was not a takeover, but a withdrawal (yoder ). what must be understood, however, is that this withdrawal is not passive, because the autonomist separation holds an antagonistic logic. while dialectical contradiction is a system of objective categories, the struggle of antagonism kniss speaks to historical needs and desires in such a way that the contradiction is subjectivized. the struggle is not simply between the objective forces of worker versus capitalist, but the greater “conflicts between what we have and what we might want, between what we are and what we could become, between what we do and what we can do” (weeks ). it is this antagonism which challenges not only the means and conditions of production, but productivity itself. what this separation and antagonism makes possible is a process of self-valorization. the autonomist project is not simply a negative project of the refusal of work, but a positive project of self-valorization beyond capitalist systems of value dependent on the exploitation of surplus. self-valorization is originally a marxist concept of capital, which speaks to the development of capital through technology and other projects to increase inherent value (organic composition), which diminishes the dependence of the capitalist class on the working class. autonomists, however, use the concept of self-valorization of the working class, which “designates not the valorization of the self, but autonomous projects of value-creating practices” (“subject” ). it is at this point of a positive project that autonomism offers a new perspective. according to cleaver, “all existing ‘socialisms’ fail to offer any real alternative to capitalist development” (cleaver ). socialism is unable to constitute a true negation of capitalist development, because the socialist state critiques capitalist control of development, but not surplus itself. the socialist project fails to articulate any new positive content for a future beyond work, besides regaining control of the means of production. the autonomist project, however, involves the liberation of time and space from reproduction itself. this liberation is brought about by worker-led struggle, both negative (refusal) and positive (self-activity in new directions) demands, and a diversity that explodes capitalist hegemony. as weeks explains, “the defection enacted through the refusal of work is not predicated upon what we lack or cannot do; it is predicated instead on our ‘latent kniss wealth, on an abundance of possibilities’” ( ). this is the point where marxism can best learn from anarchist, prefigurative communities. while there is no universal project of self- valorization, these activities certainly must not reify capitalist relations. alternative projects of value-creating practices can look like communes, gift economies, mutual aid, or even simply working less so as to have the time to cook our own food (frayne). as harry cleaver tells us, in looking beyond work, the possibility of self-valorizing activities means a refusal of utopianism, in favor of an open-ended revolutionary project of invention. while utopia speaks to a predetermined end goal and is a teleological process, self-valorization “explodes all binary formulae… bursting the dialectical integument and liberating a multidimensional and ever- changing set of human needs and projects” (“introduction” xxvi). in order to synthesize the connections between autonomist marxism and christian anarchist readings of the bible, i will end this chapter with a discussion of the labor of job by antonio negri. with this book, negri is speaking into a tradition of radical re-readings of biblical texts, reading christianity against the traditional grain of interpretation, just as autonomists read marxism against the grain. the biblical book of job tells the story of a righteous, wealthy man of god who loses his fortune and his family through a series of disasters at the hand of satan, whom god has allowed to test job’s faith. job remains distraught despite the attempts of his friends to console him with different justifications of the tragedies in his life, yet job refuses to curse god. seeing the faithfulness of god’s servant, god restores job to his former wealth and prosperity. traditional readings of job focus on a job who is desperate and a blasphemer, affirming as the moral of the story “the total mercifulness of god, the gratuity of grace before the sinner” (negri ). negri more directly draws from a second movement of interpretation that comes to a theology of liberation by showing “the scandal of the ‘silence’ of kniss god in the face of the suffering of man” ( ). negri walks alongside the intellectual work of ernst bloch who suggests, “it is really in the book of job that the great reversal of values begins – the discovery of the utopian potency within the religious sphere… there is always an exodus in the world, an exodus from the particular status quo. and there is always a hope, which is connected with rebellion – a hope founded in the concrete given possibilities for new being” ( ). negri offers up the story of job as an analogy for the story of the worker, in an attempt to understand the value of labor and its creative procedures. dialectics are impossible between god and job, just as in the autonomist view, dialectics are impossible between the capitalist and the worker. just as the existence of capital is dependent on the working class, god and man have a constitutive relationship. “god and man form a relation that defines reality: a relationship that is so profound as to be the condition of being. divine omnipotence is relative for human existence. (is a god ever imaginable without someone to honor him?)” (negri ). the basis of this analogy lies in immeasurability and an ontology of suffering. in negri’s conception of the social factory, labor has ceased to become a value. because it can no longer be measured, it becomes evil. labor is no longer one activity among many, but life itself (negri ). this immeasurability of the value of labor contributes to the impossibility of a dialectical relationship between the worker and the capitalist, or between job and god. just as the class struggle brings the working class into existence, job’s protests against god establish a relationship that defines reality and is the condition of being ( ). “to suffer is to resist; it is to insist in ontology,” negri explains ( ). ontological suffering is without measure or justification. there is no way to justify the pain in the world with the existence of a good god, nor is there any ideology which can justify the immeasurable pain of exploited workers. kniss the first key to liberation is knowing ( ). in order to break the dialectical relationship between god and man, between the capitalist and working classes, there must be a constitutive tear, which is marked by the appearance of the messiah ( ). for negri, job is the symbol of the messiah, “the discovery of the most abject misery that explodes toward the light” ( ). job refuses to hear talk of the transcendence and omnipotence of god’s love, because human pain cannot be rationalized. therefore, job asserts it is necessary to go beyond the justification of pain to fully comprehend the practical transfiguration of pain. insofar as the messiah points to this beyond, the messiah signifies the resurrection of the flesh. similarly, within the realm of capital, the messiah signifies the reconstruction of value in reverse, through the destruction of every fetish ( ). through the messiah, the power of man escapes from [divine] power and frees itself from chaos without repeating power’s destiny ( ), just as the autonomists and christian anarchists aim to free themselves from the exploitation of labor by capital and the violence of the state, without using those same methods in their resistance. negri explains that when power opposes power (when job opposes god, when the worker opposes the capitalist), it becomes divine. this power that creates has no measure of value, because all transcendence and exploitation has been destroyed, and there is no longer any master ( ). this is the work of the messiah in the world, but it is the work of creation, not of production or reproduction. from this escape from the constitutive dialectic, springs the possibility of creation. job has seen god; therefore god is torn from the absolute transcendence that constitutes the idea of him ( ). just as workers take full control of the means of production when the capitalist dialectic is destroyed, the human and the divine become ontologically linked in this moment of the tendency to attribute to commodities (including money) a power that really inheres only in the labor expended to create commodities. (felluga, dino. "modules on marx: on fetishism." introductory guide to critical theory. purdue u, january , http://www.purdue.edu/guidetotheory/marxism/modules/marxfetishism. html. accessed april .) kniss the death of god’s transcendence ( ). “the antagonism of life and death is resolved in favor of life… creation is the going beyond death, creation is the content of the vision of god. creation is the meaning of life” ( ). it is in truly seeing the pain and injustice of the world that humans see god. we bring the work of god into being in the world when we emerge from this place of immeasurability and incoherence, bringing forth the creation of something new. in this way, “pain is a key that opens the door to community” because it “overflows logic, the rational, language” ( ). as negri tells us, “power is established in pain, it is the power of non-being, it is the power of the community – an inconclusive essence within an indefinitely creative process” ( ). this idea can act as a prophetic call for anabaptist mennonites to remember the voluntary suffering that was the foundation of the early movement. it is a call to renew our intention and resolve to join with all exiled and marginalized peoples toward the creation that marks the inbreaking of the kingdom of god on earth. as mennonites we must understand our exodus from the violent economic structures of society not simply as a passive escape to professionalism and quiet pastoral life, but as an active refusal to contribute to capitalist development through an exodus from the capitalist dialectic itself. this work is a call to bring mennonites out of our comfort and acquiescence to power, toward a nonconformity of radical engagement and the willingness to suffer, not only through our faith but through our works, or the refusal thereof. as negri challenges, “will we be able to lead our wretchedness through an analytic of being and pain, and from that ontological depth rise up again to a theory of action, or better still, to the practice of the reconstruction of the world?” ( ). kniss chapter the wisdom of god is foolishness to the world: mennonites, blackness, and nothingness from rendering the law inoperative, to bursting the capitalist dialectic, the multifaceted role of the messiah in the world also has the potential to destroy the world as we know it. this final chapter explores the unique perspective of afro-pessimist thinkers to guide anabaptist theology to a liberatory understanding of blackness. the work of afro-pessimism is closely tied to autonomist marxist concepts of antagonism and refusal, but takes the argument of the refusal of work even further, toward an argument for the necessity of a refusal of civil society. within the social factory, every type of labor is incorporated into the development of capital. civil society can also function in a similar way to harness and redirect all work for justice and the strengthening of rights toward the perpetuation of antiblack violence. this chapter outlines the foundations of the intellectual work of afro-pessimism and its conception of civil society and blackness. i then explore the possibility of a political project grounded in the refusal of civil society and the voluntary embodiment of blackness/nothingness. i connect this project to the themes of exodus and the liberatory power of blackness that are central to black liberation theology. by drawing preliminary connections between black theology and anabaptism, i then present the case of mennonites in the civil rights movement, the intervention of vincent harding, and the connections to thomas müntzer’s theology. this exploration leads to a call toward higher spiritualism, suffering, and embracing the foolishness of the kingdom of god. afro-pessimism is a field of thought which emerged out of the black studies movement and refers to the work of frank b. wilderson and jared sexton. these two foundational thinkers draw from a conversational lineage that includes important figures such as saidiya hartman, hortense spillers, orlando patterson, loic wacquant, and frantz fanon. while these thinkers are kniss not afro-pessimists, sexton and wilderson draw from this rich body of literature to form their theories. afro-pessimism is based in the fundamental understanding that all attempts to configure a positive political project are misguided and oppressive when unaccompanied by an examination of the depths of antiblackness and gratuitous violence against the black subject in the united states. what first must be understood is the afro-pessimist concept of the afterlife of slavery, a term which they borrow from hartman. afro-pessimists maintain a structuralist view that while the form and manifestation has evolved, the basic social relations and functions of chattel slavery remain unchanged. loic wacquant explains the relative permanence of these structures in american history though the categorization of four “peculiar institutions”: slavery ( - ), jim crow (south, - ), the ghetto (north - ), and the hyperghetto & prison ( - ) (wacquant ). the first three institutions “were all instruments for the conjoint extraction of labour and social ostracization of an outcast group,” and all of these institutions continue to actively produce racial categories and divisions to support the function of the institution ( ). our current institution, the hyperghetto and prison, is “the practical revivification and official solidification of the centuries-old association of blackness within criminality and devious violence.” however, this institution has shifted in social function from the exploitation of labor to the housing of what is now a surplus labor population ( ). even after the official institution of chattel slavery ended, the function of the figure of the slave within society has continued. in orlando patterson’s seminal book, slavery and social death, he embarks on a structuralist analysis of the slave relation across all forms of slavery throughout societies in different regions of the world and eras of history. according to patterson’s study, the constitutive elements of the master-slave relation are the processes of social death and natal alienation. for kniss patterson, property is not the key element in all forms of slavery. rather, the master-slave relation represents a social category and relationship, as there is no such thing as disembodied service ( ). this relationship is defined by the “permanent, violent domination of natally alienated and generally dishonored persons” ( ), where natal alienation is “a loss of ties of birth in both ascending and descending generations” and “alienation… from any attachment to groups or localities other than those chosen for him by the master” ( ). in the cultural aspect of the master-slave relation, natal alienation also cuts enslaved people off from a sense of the past as heritage or collective memory ( ). in this way, the enslaved person is a socially dead person. the socially dead slave cannot be brought back to social life, even when slavery ends. another defining structure for afro-pessimists is the construct of “civil society” and the black subject’s antagonistic relationship to it. the concept of civil society has a long history in political philosophy. hegel originally established the concept of civil society as a contrast to political society, or the state (hardt ). for hegel, civil society is the society of the organization of abstract labor ( ). civil society plays both an economic and an educative role, and is the entity which mediates the state of nature in its process of continual progression toward the political sphere ( ). gramsci, however, stands this relationship on its feet, and argues that the state’s goal is its own end, or the re-absorption of political society within civil society ( ). through a plurality of institutions, civil society will continue to expand until it becomes the hegemonic force, where state elements will exist only as tools to serve civil society. gramsci claims that the hegemony of civil society poses a threat to the state and structures of capitalism, because civil society is made up of revolutionary workers who challenge the wage slavery, exploitation, and hegemony of capitalism (wilderson prison slave hegemony ). the eventual reign of civil society means self-government. kniss for afro-pessimists, however, the work of gramsci, hegel, and even marx fails to center racism as a foundational phenomenon in the structures of capitalism and civil society, because these traditional thinkers see white supremacy as a derivative effect of capitalism, rather than the base itself (wilderson ). in marxist cultural theory, the base structure of society is the material relations of production that gives rise to the superstructure, which refers to the institutions, forms of consciousness, and political and cultural practices of a society (williams ). a change in the mode of production causes a social revolution that redefines all the aspects of the superstructure. gramsci argues the superstructure can also impact what happens at the base; therefore, civil society is an appropriate place of intervention. in this traditional formulation, racism is simply an aspect of the superstructure, a result of the capitalistic relations of production. afro-pessimists refute this formulation and place anti-blackness as the base of civil society. wilderson claims, “the scandal with which the black subject position ‘threatens’ gramscian and coalition discourse is manifest in the black subject's incommensurability with, or disarticulation of, gramscian categories: work, progress, production, exploitation, hegemony, and historical self-awareness” ( ). afro-pessimists replace the worker with the black subject (the slave) as the subaltern figure, who is the subject in antagonism to civil society. while critiquing traditional marxist analysis, afro-pessimists in fact present an argument similar to autonomist marxists critiques of what wilderson calls the “conceptual anxiety” of marxism. the socialist project fails to question the values of productivity and progress, which leads to a “crowding-out scenario for other post-revolutionary possibilities, i.e. idleness,” or the refusal of work ( ). wilderson also echoes autonomist claims about antagonism when he says, “the black subject extends the demand and intensity of the antagonism ( )…while the worker calls kniss into question the legitimacy of productive practices, the slave questions productivity itself” ( ). another aspect of the black subject’s antagonism is the impossibility of coalition- building with other oppressed groups for increased rights within civil society. this is the case, afro-pessimists argue, because civil society is built upon black death. similar to the autonomist thesis in marxism that claims the resistance of labor drives capitalist formation, moten explains that “black is a disordering, deformational force, but also indispensable to the dominant order” (“the case” ). reformulated, white life finds its coherence through the incoherence of black death. there is no room for a dialectical relationship between the black subject and civil society, because the antagonism of the black subject threatens the very existence of the world as we know it (“the subprime” ). other constituents of civil society can work within the system to create change by engaging with the codes of american discourse, while the black subject cannot. these american subjects generate historical categories and their integration presents no significant threat to existing structures. for example, native americans can bargain for equality through the language of sovereignty and rights, and immigrants through the language of the american dream (wilderson ). however, leveled by the experience of social death and natal alienation through slavery, the black subject generates no historical categories and has no grammar through which to describe their suffering. any attempt to work to increase rights within civil society only perpetuates and further develops a system based on the incoherence of black death. therefore, the question that must be asked by those who seek black liberation is not “what does it mean to be free?”, but “what does it mean to suffer?” ( ). for afro-pessimists, blackness is positioned as the chaotic underbelly of civil society, as social death and nothingness. it is through the incoherence of black death that “whites gain their kniss coherence by knowing what they are not” ( ). in a society where whiteness is superior, blackness is always seen as pathology, as foolishness, as disease. in fact, any action of resistance against the pathologization of blackness is seen as a symptom of that same pathology (moten ). blackness is defined by disembodiment and non-being. one aspect of this disembodiment, fungibility, refers to the characteristic of black bodies that defines them as a commodity due to their replaceability and interchangeability (scenes ). while the worker is affected by the modalities of exploitation and alienation of labor, the black subject is marked by accumulation and fungibility, where the black body is expendable and a blank slate able to be used for any purpose (red ). saidiya hartman in her book scenes of subjection explains, “the fungibility of the commodity makes the captive body an abstract and empty vessel vulnerable to the projection of other’s feelings, ideas, desires, and values” ( ). this ontological reality functions in a way that allows those in a position of power to experience the pleasure and terror of blackness through an appropriation that reinforces the material relations of chattel slavery. hartman continues, “the dispossessed body of the enslaved is the surrogate for the master’s body since it guarantees his disembodied universality and acts as the sign of his power and dominion” ( ). these dynamics show themselves even in the actions of those who attempt to work against racist structures by empathizing with black suffering, a paradox hartman names as “the difficulty and slipperiness of empathy” ( ). she explains an example of a white abolitionist who wrote vivid slave narratives to “reenact… the grotesqueries enumerated in documenting the injustice of slavery and intended to shock and to disrupt the comfortable remove of the reader/spectator,” in order to, “rouse the sensibility of those indifferent to slavery” ( , ). in this experiment, he imagined himself and his family as enslaved, but soon came to feel more pain for himself than for those actually enslaved. hartman argues the ease with which he identified kniss with the enslaved is an example of the fungibility of the black body (wilcoxen). these aspects of blackness define for afro-pessimists the nature of the antagonism, nothingness, and non- communicability of the black subject. another field of thought concerned with the essential nature of blackness is black liberation theology. even as we keep in mind the christian anarchist critiques of liberation theology for its tendency to perpetuate the cycle of sovereignty through struggle for state power, i argue that black liberation theology is a crucial piece to understanding a path through afro- pessimism to arrive at a political project, because it is a systematic theology that centers blackness. black liberation theology, specifically as articulated by james cone, emerged in the ’s during the era of the black power movement as a way of situating the liberation of the african american community as central within christianity. cone, in his work a black theology of liberation, follows this systematic foundation to articulate further that because god is unconditionally on the side of the oppressed, god is black. blackness, for black theologians such as cone, has both a physical and a symbolic meaning. the physical meaning of blackness is blackness as an embodied reality, such as the color of one’s skin. much more relevant to black theology is the symbolic meaning of blackness, which encompasses the moral implications of and social constructions placed upon the understanding of blackness. for example, cone notes that in a white racist society, the symbol of whiteness represents everything good, placing blackness as its antithesis. because god is unconditionally on the side of the oppressed, in order to find god and join in god’s work, one must make the black condition one’s own (cone, ch. ). blackness is god’s intention for humanity, not whiteness. god’s revelation is god’s movement through history on the side of the oppressed. therefore, the jesus-event in america is the black kniss event, as the black community throws off the chains of white oppression by whatever means necessary. therefore, the ultimate concern of black liberation theology is symbolic blackness and its liberating power, not physical life (ch. ). in the overlapping conversation of the essential nature of blackness as both pathological and liberatory, afro-pessimism and black theology have the opportunity to create a positive definition of blackness beyond its negation of whiteness. by moving through the critiques of afro-pessimism, we can begin imagining a different type of political project. even in the incomprehensible state of social death, wilderson is still able to speak about the possibility of black life. “obviously i’m not saying that in this space of negation, which is blackness, there is no life. we have tremendous life. but this life is not analogous to those touchstones of cohesion that hold civil society together” (hartman and wilderson ). blackness “gives the nation its coherence because [it is] its underbelly,” but it also is an antagonism that poses a fatal threat to civil society ( ). fred moten, whom some have deemed a black optimist, imagines a political project that works its way through the structuralist view of afro-pessimism. moten gives voice to the possibility that defining the black social life that exists in the space of negation could harness its disruptive power to create a “program of complete disorder” directed at the end of the world order as it currently exists (“the subprime” ). if blackness in the space of negation is not a non-being, then the question that must be answered is what black social life actually is and how it can bring about liberation. the foundational liberatory motif in black theological thought is the biblical story of the exodus. this story reinforces the image of god as liberator, as god frees the israelites from slavery in egypt and delivers them to the promised land. exodus, however, must be re-examined and its radical potential positioned in light of afro-pessimist thought. in his book is god a white kniss racist?, william jones poses a challenge to black theology’s claim of god as liberator by asking, “where is the black exodus?”. according to the argument presented by jared sexton and other afro-pessimists, jones is asking the wrong question, focusing on the wrong liberative goal, because american slaves have no home or land to return to, and no “promised land” like the israelites had. due to natal alienation and social death, the slave “suffers the status of being neither the native nor the foreigner, neither the colonizer nor the colonized” (sexton ). the slave has no home to return to after being cut off from all family and history, and the slave also has no home to work towards in the current society, as the black subject is socially dead and outside of the workings of civil society. in this way, “what qualifies the condition of the slave is a suffering that not only wrecks the coordinates of any humanism but also, for the same reason, precludes the generation of a proper political demand at a definable object or objective” ( ). in the afro-pessimist view, the ontological totality of anti-blackness robs the black community of their search for the promised land, rendering the question of the black exodus irrelevant. yet as yoder reminds us, the exodus was not a takeover of state power, but a withdrawal ( ). blackness is a kind of exodus, because as an antagonism to civil society, a withdraw to blackness is a withdraw from the world. moten begins his search for a positive definition of blackness by asking, “what if blackness is the refusal to defer to, given the withdraw from the eternal delay of, sovereignty?” ( ). instead of trying to create an ontology or meaning of life and being that is inclusive of black life within civil society, moten suggests discovering the pathology and nothingness of blackness, and then entering it ( ). this voluntary refusal of sovereignty and identification with the socially dead is within the same modality of exodus as the refusal of work by the worker, and the refusal of rights by the voluntary exile. sexton, however, specifically names the black subject as the figure of the unsovereign, and replaces the kniss figure of the refugee with the figure of the slave when he quotes agamben, saying, “the only means to forge solidarity with the slave (for free and enslaved alike) is to ‘abandon decidedly, without reservation, the fundamental concepts through which we have so far represented the subject of the political and build our political philosophy anew starting from the one and only figure of the [slave]’” (sexton ). moten makes a distinction between blackness and blacks (just as black liberation theology does), which “allows us to detach blackness from the question of the meaning of being” ( ). in this paraontological condition, beyond questions of essential being, blackness can claim anyone and be claimed by anyone (“the subprime” ), and it is up to us “to structure an accurate sense of what nothing is” (moten ). moten suggests the possibility that blackness is not only pathological, but also pathogenic; not only an illness, but capable of spreading its disease. he declares, “i bear the hope that blackness bears or is the potential to end the world” (moten ). when blackness and imagination interact, blackness no longer consents to be a single being, to be an undefinable negation to civil life ( ). in this liminal space, moten attempts to reinstate an attentiveness to eschatology, which in political thought has traditionally been displaced by “the teleological and appropriated by a retributive desire for a kind of finality and sentencing” ( ). in other words, the process of defining and inhabiting blackness has the destructive potential to end the world, but this end of the world does not look like a finality or complete actualization. in practice, blackness in community life takes the form of improvisation, of constant movement and creation, of unending potentiality ( ). this path is not without suffering, but it is the only possible movement through afro-pessimist critiques to come to an understanding of a positive project. as moten explains, “choosing to be black implies paying the cost; it is a kind of ethical gesture to claim this dispossession, this nothingness, this radical kniss poverty-in-spirit. this is what afro-pessimism performs, in and as theory—an affirmative gesture toward nothingness, an affirmation of negation and its destructive force” ( ). joining in blackness does not mean demonstrating an empathy that is imaginary or fantastical. it is not an empathy that attempts to filter the experience of black suffering through a white lens in order to make it visible and comprehensible. instead, empathy, as can be concluded from moten’s analysis, is allowing oneself to be claimed by the foolishness and pathology of symbolic blackness, which black theology defines as the movement of god in the world. this willingness to suffer is not a performative act to empathize with the black experience in america, but rather a willingness to face the most-likely violent consequences of fully aligning oneself with the cause of black liberation. indeed, scripture itself names the divinity of this act of affirming negation, nothingness, foolishness, blackness. in corinthians : - , the apostle paul writes to the church in corinth: but god chose the foolish things of the world to shame the wise; god chose the weak things of the world to shame the strong. god chose the lowly things of this world and the despised thing – and the things that are not – to nullify the things that are. here, we arrive back at the original claim of black theology surrounding god’s blackness, but with a new-found significance. if god is the liberator and god is black, then god must liberate the black subject through god’s blackness. blackness may be the antithesis of whiteness, but the essential being of blackness is the movement of god through human history. it is this divine movement that stands as an antagonism in direct threat to all structures of power and oppression. cone declares, “it is the biblical concept of the image of god which makes black rebellion in america human” (ch. ). the image of god in blackness provides the means to imagine a new world order based not on black death, but on the embrace of blackness itself, a blackness with its kniss rightful symbolic meaning of life and humanity. this is the black event, the jesus-event, in america. blackness, as the foundation of the new world order, is not essentialized, but represents the full life-giving force of the presence of god. as moten explains, blackness can claim anyone and be claimed by anyone (“the subprime” ). the oppressed lose their chains, as do the oppressors, when they let go of the evil of whiteness and immerse their whole being in the blackness that god intended for humanity. bringing this conversation into the context of the anabaptist tradition, cone’s black theology of liberation and anabaptist theology as systems of god-talk have many foundational aspects in common. for example, both systematic theologies center the community as the primary meaning-making force in life. cone states, “it is in community that values are chosen, because the community provides the structure in which our beings as persons is realized” (ch. ). therefore, all talk about god is tested against the norm of the community and the relevancy of it to that community’s situation in society. following this train of thought, sin is not viewed as individual impiety but as collective and systemic injustice. these theologies also share the belief that jesus is “the point of departure for everything to be said about god, humankind, and the world” (ch. ). this focus on god’s revelation through jesus, god incarnate, and god’s involvement in human history, allows the traditions to confess a faith in concrete truth with concrete applications in today’s world. most importantly, these systems of theology envision a god who is on the side of the oppressed, the poor, the meek, the voiceless, the disinherited, the very least of these. influenced by the teachings of black liberation theology, some mennonites have also observed the close connection between the two traditions. in , hubert l. brown published kniss the book, black and mennonite, detailing his own formation in both traditions and his initial attempts to synthesize them. brown writes: in american theological circles, black theology has a double perspective. it brings to theological reflection the particular and peculiar experiences of black people, and because that experience has been shaped in the vortex of oppression and persecution, it fundamentally relates to anabaptist heritage. anabaptist theology reflects the ethnic and social experiences that include themes such as conversion, faithfulness, and the relational quality of mutual aid and brotherhood. these are linked to the black experience of oppression. we have in common a history of suffering and a drive for liberation as god’s elect. while these commonalities exist between black liberation theology and the original anabaptist movement, the way the tradition evolved has resulted in a somewhat disparate reality. dr. drew hart has recently taken up the mantle set by brown and others with his concept of anablacktivism: that is anabaptism + black theology + activism. a theological discourse and praxis- oriented approach like this is capable of learning from both communities, while disentangling the problems of white dominance that have plagued many historic anabaptist communities since landing in north america. beyond white separatist mennonitism or the cultural hegemony and white blinders of neo-anabaptism, anablacktivism dares to allow two different christian traditions both born on the underside of western christendom to shape its vision of christian life. “join greg boyd” therefore, we must ask, what does cone’s black theology of liberation have to say to the contemporary mennonite church in america? it seems that the more religious “freedoms” the mennonite church gains, the more disengaged it becomes from the world, and the further it strays from god’s true freedom, which cone defines as a participation of the whole person in the liberation struggle. for example, the separatist ethic began as a tool for survival, but evolved into a cultural norm. once religious tolerance was extended to them, the existence of anabaptist communities ceased to be a resistance to the powers that be, and the only way to differentiate themselves from the world at large was to isolate into distinct communities with identifiable kniss ways of life and dress. the central conflicts in the community therefore become the style of music or the length of a woman’s bonnet strings, rather than how to address the injustices in contemporary society. therefore, black liberation theology acts as a prophetic call to the mennonite church to renounce the false freedom of the world and embrace god’s freedom by continually following god to the places of the oppressed. indeed, brown asserts that “mennonites seeking to find themselves ought to look to black theology” ( ). the church must re-identify itself not simply as the “peaceable kingdom” (hauerwas), but as black. in order to do this, cone tells us we must “cease being white by denying whiteness as an acceptable form of human existence and affirming blackness as god’s intention for humanity” (ch. ). furthermore, the kingdom of god in black theology is not a separate community or existential reality, but a happening. according to cone, “it is what happens to persons when their being is confronted with the reality of god’s historical liberation of the oppressed” (ch. ). in our contemporary context, “the black revolution is god’s kingdom becoming a reality in america” (ch. ). god’s gift to the mennonite church in the th century is black (brown ). this radically different conceptualization necessitates that the mennonite church identify itself with the particular struggle for black liberation in america in order to identify itself with the kingdom of god and the originary radical nature of the anabaptist movement. as brown tells us, “mennonites will discover that to be a black christian is in effect to be an anabaptist” ( ). tobin miller shearer’s study of mennonites in the civil rights movement in his book daily demonstrators provides an insightful account of how mennonites tend to approach race relations. while most mennonites were conspicuously absent from participation in nonviolent civil rights demonstrations, miller shearer argues mennonites engaged in subtler, though perhaps no less disruptive “daily demonstrations” inside their homes and churches. through kniss integrated church services and initiatives such as the “fresh air” urban-rural exchange program for children, white mennonites allowed black people into their spaces under the banner of equality under god. while the white mennonites expected a certain level of assimilation to their “superior” cultural values, the presence of these black individuals inside white mennonite homes and churches, according to miller shearer, created a mutually transformative process. the daily disruptions of cross-cultural and interracial relationships, as well as strong leadership by black members, appeared to lead to greater understanding across difference and continually challenged the respectability of traditional white ethnic mennonite cultural norms. afro-pessimists and other black scholars, however, critique this view of multiracialism as the solution to racism. the white mennonites involved in these interracial relationships may have felt they were being transformed, but there was still an assimilation that was expected of the black individuals, bringing black people into the mennonite community by expanding the hegemony of the anabaptist church and their specific version of the civil society to come, the “kingdom of god”. bell hooks, in her essay “eating the other”, names the desire for the other, the desire for interracial relationships, to be a form of “mournful imperialist nostalgia” ( ). she further explains, “the desire to make contact with those bodies deemed other, with no apparent will to dominate, assuages the guilt of the past, even takes the form of a defiant gesture where one denies accountability and historical connection” ( ). the desire of white mennonites to incorporate black people into their communities stems from the need to separate themselves from the guilt of being associated with the racist american society, without recognizing their current and historical culpability in reifying those same violent structures within their own communities. hooks explains that: subject to subject contact between white and black which signals the absence of domination, of an oppressor/oppressed relationship, must emerge through mutual choice kniss and negotiation. that simply by expressing their desire for “intimate” contact with black people, white people do not eradicate the politics of racial domination as they are made manifest in personal interaction. mutual recognition of racism, its impact both on those who are dominated and those who dominate, is the only standpoint that makes possible an encounter between races that is not based on denial and fantasy. the test of the white mennonite community’s commitment to a multiracial, integrated church is their willingness to confront the mennonite church’s own racism and tolerate the disruption of these structures and institutions that true relationship with the other would require. indeed, black mennonite leaders such as vincent harding found that white mennonite tolerance for disruption could only extend so far. in reaction to his outspoken support of and involvement in civil rights demonstrations, once resulting in jail time, a prominent white mennonite leader “criticized harding for his flamboyance and showmanship, giving evidence of not only stereotypical thinking about black preachers but also of the conflict between mennonite values of humility and the prominence of black leaders no longer willing to conform to values of respectability and humility” (prophet pushed out ). harding, like so many other black mennonites before and after him, eventually left the church, choosing from then on to focus “on the struggle for black freedom, rather than on white mennonites’ struggles with black freedom” ( ). miller shearer notes: harding himself returned to his core vision in a sojourners magazine article where he noted, “we have to take our lives away from the foolishness that the society wants us to be wrapped up in and to focus ourselves on the building of a new world.” during his time with the mennonites, harding poured his energies into a community he hoped could be a part of building that new world. he had been attracted to mennonites’ ability to spurn some of society’s folly, but he became deeply disappointed and disillusioned when he discovered just how extensively the community had internalized the foolishness of racism. at this point, i want to offer up a theoretical conversation between moten and the anabaptist forefather thomas müntzer as a possible way forward for the mennonite church, kniss through a return to original anabaptist thought. while müntzer was not himself an anabaptist, his prominent teachings during the peasant’s war, directly leading up to the birth of the movement, provide insight into two crucial theological themes: the role of the spirit and suffering. first of all, müntzer believed the end times were near and therefore operated from an eschatological framework, just as moten encourages. according to moten, an attentiveness to eschatology centers the destructive power of blackness to end the world. müntzer also believed in the hermeneutical role of the living spirit, which was more mystical and spiritualistic than strictly exegetical (based in biblical interpretation) (snyder ). this emphasis on the “inner world” of the believer allowed for the possibility of direct, non-scriptural revelations. for müntzer and his followers, true faith was not found in books, but in “poverty of spirit” – the same radical poverty of spirit that moten claims is an ethical gesture toward the affirmation of blackness, and which agamben posits as an act which renders sovereignty inoperative (snyder ). again, paul’s words in corinthians : - speak to the role of the spirit in this process of affirmation of what the world deems foolishness and pathology: what we have received is not the spirit of the world, but the spirit who is from god, so that we may understand what god has freely given us. this is what we speak, not in words taught us by human wisdom but in words taught by the spirit, explaining spiritual realities with spirit-taught words. the person without the spirit does not accept the things that come from the spirit of god but considers them foolishness, and cannot understand them because they are discerned only through the spirit. müntzer emphasized that the inner birth of the spirit comes only through suffering. led by the spirit and the constant movement of god in the world, muntzer’s theological praxis is an example of moten’s praxis of improvisation as a form of community life. in the course of daily demonstrations and disruptions, white and black mennonites in the civil rights era appeared to have a transformative, mutual impact on one another, a true dialectical relationship. afro- pessimists, however, remind us of the antagonism of the black subject, who is not an equal in the kniss relationship and cannot be communicated with in the standard terms of civil society, thereby rendering dialectics impossible. harding and brown both name the fakeness of mennonites claiming to be “anabaptists” in this way (“a prophet”, brown ). anabaptism, as i have shown throughout this paper, is by definition a radical embodiment of the refusal of sovereignty, capitalism, and civil society. anabaptism is an antagonism to the powers that be. while at the inception of the movement, in their historical context, anabaptists were themselves the poor and marginalized, that is obviously no longer the case in contemporary american society. we have assimilated, withdrawn to our isolated communities, maintaining our cultural distinctiveness only in rhetoric. this desire of mennonites in the civil rights era to differentiate themselves from the world and critique mainstream movements for equal rights under the law has a strategic basis, according to afro-pessimist critiques of civil society. however, mennonites cannot passively withdraw from society and expect others to assimilate to our communal acquiescence to power. mennonites must become black, must join in the blackness of the movement of god in the world, just as the early anabaptists did from the beginning. this willingness to join in the suffering of blackness does not look like simply bringing black people into our communities, thereby maintaining the supremacy of the white ethnic mennonite church as god’s chosen people. instead, the message of anablacktivism is a call to align the church with the true movement of god in the world, the movement toward black liberation and the end of all forms of oppression. it means rupturing the false dialectic between white and black by joining the black subject through a willingness to suffer. following vincent harding’s call to reject the “foolishness” of white racism, mennonites must instead embrace what moten calls the foolishness of blackness, harnessing the affirmative power of blackness to end the world as we know it. the apostle paul’s letter to the church in corinth in corinthians : - provides a powerful conclusion: kniss do not deceive yourselves. if any of you think you are wise by the standards of this age, you should become “fools” so that you may become wise. for the wisdom of this world is foolishness in god’s sight. as it is written: “he catches the wise in their craftiness” [a]; and again, “the lord knows that the thoughts of the wise are futile.” [b] so then, no more boasting about human leaders! all things are yours, whether…the world or life or death or the present or the future—all are yours, and you are of christ, and christ is of god. and god is black. kniss conclusion at the beginning of this research, i set out to trace the lines of connection between christian anarchism, agamben’s philosophy, autonomist marxism, and afro-pessimism. along the way, i have come to understand more deeply the implications of this conversation for the future of the anabaptist tradition, the christian church, and the very definition of political community. the anabaptist tradition started with radical roots, but over time has become complicit with the violent worldly systems that surround it. from its inception during the radical reformation, the anabaptist movement was a movement of the poor and marginalized, to address their economic and political needs, as well as their spiritual hunger. this formation of community put into practice the christian anarchist ideals of refusing the authority of state and church institutions, as well as becoming voluntary exiles to the world, eschatological witnesses to the world yet to come. due to their anti-institutional values and their resistance to the development of proto-capitalism, anabaptists faced violent backlash from the state. yet through their willingness to embrace and even celebrate suffering and persecution, the anabaptist movement lived on. through its evolution over the past five centuries, the anabaptist movement has spread geographically across the globe and splintered off into various sects. the mennonite church in north america is a collection of communities whose practices differ in their level of engagement with the outside world. some communities maintain strict boundaries and are legalistic in their enforcement of communal conformity. others are more integrated into the broader culture, working in all types of professions, which at times further the exploitation of capitalism through their adherence to transcendent religious values. although professing a desire for racial equity, the mennonite church overall continues to struggle with valuing the preservation of white ethic kniss cultural values over the disruption that would be caused by a full commitment to black liberation. the mandate of the mennonite church is to be “in the world but not of the world.” as jesus declares in john : , "my kingdom is not of this world. if it were, my servants would fight to prevent my arrest by the jewish leaders. but now my kingdom is from another place." it is this middle road that jesus’s followers are called to, jesus’ third way: refusing the violence of the world while creatively transforming it, bringing the kingdom of heaven into being on earth. the threads of connection between agamben’s philosophy, autonomist marxism, and afro- pessimism provide an intervention that enlivens the radical potential of anabaptism, by challenging the church to deeper refusal and critique (negative politics) while also embodying an alternative (positive politics). the work of these fields of thought, which decenter the state as the primary political community, finds the seeds of a new system in the figure of the marginalized, whether the exile, the refugee, the worker, or the slave. the cast-out and marginalized have become the center, and this process transforms everything. to borrow biblical language, the stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone of a new world order (psalm : ). they also describe the positionality and actions required to bring about this break from a dialectical relationship with power: voluntary exile, the refusal of rights, the refusal of work, and the destructive force of blackness. the task at hand is to “organize struggles that neither take the form nor mirror the logic of what they contest” (weeks ). in this formulation of political action, “there is always an exodus in the world, an exodus from the particular status quo. and there is always a hope, which is connected with rebellion – a hope founded in the concrete given possibilities for new being” (negri ). the true church operates through apocalyptic politics, as an eschatological witness to the way the world was meant to be and will one day be again. kniss such a withdraw from the world is accompanied by the willingness to suffer the consequences of these actions, whether due to state violence or social upheaval. the question at the heart of black liberation is “what does it mean to suffer?” (wilderson ). thomas müntzer speaks of the inner birth of the spirit through suffering, and negri names pain as the key to community. in this affirmation of suffering, this “affirmative gesture toward nothingness, an affirmation of negation and its destructive force” (moten ), the messiah works to redeem suffering for the creation of something new. it is in truly seeing the pain and injustice of the world that humans see god. the messiah appears in the constitutive tear, which breaks humans away from the violence of power and sovereignty and allows us to walk a new path. the messiah is the one who fulfills the law, thereby transgressing it, as the messiah’s arrival makes the old laws lose their meaning. the messiah “transforms temporality itself, enabling ‘another world and another time’ to make themselves present in this world and in this time (homo sacer )”. christians are called to act in this messianic modality as they follow the example of jesus as their form of community life. from this escape from the constitutive dialectic, springs the possibility of creation. for negri, “creation is the going beyond death, creation is the content of the vision of god” (negri ). the creation that springs from suffering is the formation of a political community outside of the law, beyond the current formations of western political ontology. this community moves beyond the idea of revolution, embracing a politics beyond sovereignty, free from every type of ban. the new political community embraces projects of self-valorization, which present a diversity of demands that burst through capitalist hegemony, liberating time and space from reproduction itself. improvisation becomes a form of community life, in constant movement and kniss creation, in unending potentiality. we are left with an abundance of possibilities, because the kingdom jesus proclaims will not take the familiar hierarchic form of a state. as an educated, white, mennonite, queer, cis-woman, i recognize that the research and resulting political vision i present here is challenging in many ways, whether due to its unfinished nature or my own positionality. at the very least i aim for this research to be a challenge to the comfortable existence of much of the mennonite church in north america. as kathi weeks recognizes, when what is to be destroyed is the world that makes us possible, the world in which we can exist as legible subjects, the task of creating a new world can be a frightening, even dystopian, prospect…cultivating utopian hope as a political project of remaking the world is a struggle to become not just able to think a different future but to become willing to become otherwise. “what,” brown asks, “sustains a willingness to risk becoming different kinds of beings, a desire to alter the architecture of the social world from the perspective of being disenfranchised in it, a conviction that the goods of the current order are worth less than the making of a different one?” ( , ). the project of hope as conceived here requires the affirmation of what we have become as the constitutive ground from which we can become otherwise…thus the project of hope must struggle against both the resentment of what has come to be and the fear of what might replace it, not because the future is settled – on the contrary, it could be a catastrophe – but because a different and better world remains a possibility. my hope is that this research convicts and encourages those that read it to continue questioning, to never remain static or tied to identity, and to be willing to change. we as a church must imagine ourselves as a community beyond institutions and beyond dogma, constantly recreating and imagining new forms of community which refuse to remain complacent in the face of injustice. to truly be in the world but not of it, this is the stance we must take: actively joining with the cause of the oppressed, while refusing the hierarchy and authority of the state, the sovereignty of the law, and the hegemony of capitalism and civil society. this movement makes kniss possible a community of perpetual creation, which brings the kingdom of god into being on earth. but what does this theoretical vision look like in practice? that is a question for the church to pick up and run with, as we discern in community with one another. translating theory into practice is fundamentally an exercise in imagination. i see this research as but one example of an act of imaginative labor. throughout this journey, i have enlivened my own faith and theological perspective by engaging with social theory and finding new meaning in my heritage and sacred texts. this same exercise could be taken up in community to determine the living call of the spirit and new ways to do kingdom work in our local settings. for now, as one final exercise in imagination, i return to the original christian anarchist manifesto, the sermon on the mount, by adding to it my lingering questions and thoughts as i conclude this year of research. matthew : - (revisions in italics) jesus said: “blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. the poor in spirit embrace an antagonism of nonbeing that is the potential to end the world. blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. pain and suffering are the key to community and creation. blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. not by violent, flashy revolution, but through quiet, active refusal and the potential not to be. blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled. they strive not for utopia and final actualization, but for a process of perpetual creation. kniss blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy only love can construct and reconstruct the world. blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see god. in seeing god, they tear the dialectic of transcendence and become equal partners in the redemption of the world. blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of god. they not only refuse the current world order, but build a new future of abundance. blessed are those who are persecuted because of righteousness, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. those without rights, without control, without being: they show us the seeds of the new creation to come. “blessed are you when people insult you, persecute you and falsely say all kinds of evil against you, when you suffer, because of me. rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven which you have brought to earth today, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. remember those ancestors, and walk faithfully the path they marked for you. blessed are those who are in the world, but not of the world, for they will destroy the world, continuously reconstruct it, and live in a new community marked by the law of love. kniss works cited agamben, giorgio. the highest poverty. stanford university, . ---. homo sacer: sovereign power and bare life. stanford university, . bender, harold s. “the anabaptist vision.” church history, vol. , no. , , pp. - . brown, hubert l. black and mennonite: a search for identity. wipf and stock, . christoyannopoulos, alexandre. christian anarchism: a political commentary on the gospel. imprint academic, . cleaver, harry m. “from development to autonomy.” texas liberal arts, http://la.utexas.edu/ users/hcleaver/devauta.html. ---. “introduction.” marx beyond marx: lessons on the grundrisse, by antonio negri, autonomedia, , pp. xix-xxvii. ---. “the inversion of class perspective in marxian theory: from valorization to self- valorization.” libcom.org, august , https://libcom.org/library/inversion-class- perspective-marxian-theory-valorization-self-valorization. ---. reading capital politically. university of texas, . cone, james. a black theology of liberation. new york: orbis, . kindle file. cuninghame, patrick. “mapping the terrain of struggle: autonomous movements in s italy.” viewpoint magazine, november , https://www.viewpointmag.com/ / / /feminism-autonomism- s-italy/. kniss decaroli, steven. “what is a form-of-life?: giorgio agamben and the practice of poverty.” agamben and radical politics, edited by daniel mcloughlin, edinburgh, , pp. - . dyck, cornelius j. an introduction to mennonite history. herald, . ---. “ / .” states of exception, philosophy and peace studies departments, september , goucher college, baltimore, md. class lecture. ---. “ / .” states of exception, philosophy and peace studies departments, september , goucher college, baltimore, md. class lecture. edmund, lois. “the anabaptist mennonite perspective.” peace on earth: the role of religion in peace and conflict studies, edited by thomas matyók, maureen flaherty, hamdesa tuso, jessica senehi, and sean byrne, lexington, , pp. - . eller, vernard. christian anarchy: jesus’ primacy over the powers. wipf and stock, . ellul, jacques. anarchy and christianity. wipf and stock, . foucault, michel. “eleven.” society must be defended: lectures at the college de france, - , edited by mauro pertani and alessandro fontana, picador, , pp. - . frayne, david. the refusal of work: the theory and practice of resistance to work. zed, . galtung, johan. “twenty-five years of peace research: ten challenges and some responses.” journal of peace research, vol. , no. , , pp. - . sage, http://www.jstor.org/ stable/ . hardt, michael. “the withering of civil society.” social text, vol. , no. , , pp. - . jstor, http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . kniss hart, drew g.i. “join greg boyd and drew hart in a webinar on anablacktivism november .” christian century, november , https://www.christiancentury.org/blogs/archi ve/ - /join-greg-boyd-and-drew-hart-webinar-anablacktivism-november- . hartman, saidiya. scenes of subjection. new york: oxford university, . print. hartman, saidiya v. and frank b. wilderson. “the position of the unthought: an interview with saidiya v. hartman conducted by frank b. wilderson.” qui parle, vol. , no. , , pp. - . jstor. hays, richard b. “embodying the gospel in community.” engaging anabaptism: conversations with a radical tradition, edited by john d. roth, herald, , pp. - . holy bible. new international version, biblica inc., . jimichangas. “ ama on autonomous marxism.” debate anarchism, reddit, august , https://www.reddit.com/r/debateanarchism/comments/ z ib/ _ama_ on_autonomous_marxism/. jorgenson, marianne, and louise phillips. discourse analysis: as theory and method. sage, . lehtonen, mikko. the cultural analysis of texts. sage, . loewen, harry. “the anabaptist view of the world: the beginning of a mennonite continuum?” mennonite images: historical, cultural, and literary essays dealing with mennonite issues, edited by harry loewen, hyperion, , pp. - . kniss lynd, staughton and andrej grubacic. wobblies and zapatistas: conversations on anarchism, marxism and radical history. pm, . macmaster, richard k. land, piety, peoplehood: the establishment of mennonite communities in america, - . herald, . mason, paul. postcapitalism: a guide to our future. farrar, straus, and giroux, . miller, levi. “leo tolstoy and the mennonites.” journal of mennonite studies, vol. , , pp. - . miller shearer, tobin. daily demonstrators: the civil rights movement in mennonite homes and sanctuaries. johns hopkins university, . ---. “a prophet pushed out: vincent harding and the mennonites.” mennonite life, vol. , . moten, fred. “blackness and nothingness (mysticism in the flesh).” the south atlantic quarterly, vol. , no. , , pp. - . ---. “the case of blackness.” criticism, vol. , no. , , pp. - . project muse. ---. “the subprime and the beautiful.” african identities, vol. , no. , , pp. - . routledge. negri, antonio. the labor of job: the biblical text as a parable of human labor. duke university, . patterson, orlando. slavery and social death: a comparative study. harvard university, . kniss sexton, jared. “african american studies.” a concise companion to american studies, edited by john carlos rowe, wiley-blackwell, , pp. - . ---. “people-of-color-blindness: notes of the afterlife of slavery.” social text, vol. , no. , , pp. - . snyder, c. arnold. anabaptist history and theology: an introduction. pandora, . thiessen, janis. manufacturing mennonites: work and religion in post-war manitoba. university of toronto, . tronti, mario. “the strategy of refusal – mario tronti.” libcom, https://libcom.org/library/ strategy-refusal-mario-tronti. vacarme. “‘i am sure that you are more pessimistic than i am . . .’: an interview with giorgio agamben.” rethinking marxism, vol. , no. , , pp. - . vogt, roy. “the impact of economic and social class on mennonite theology.” mennonite images: historical, cultural, and literary essays dealing with mennonite issues, edited by harry loewen, hyperion, , pp. - . wacquant, loic. “from slavery to mass incarceration: rethinking the ‘race question’ in the us.” new left review, vol. , jan feb , pp. - . weber, max. the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism: with other writings on the rise of the west. oxford university, . weeks, kathi. the problem with work: feminism, marxism, antiwork politics, and postwork imaginaries. duke university, . kniss ---. “subject for a feminist standpoint.” marxism beyond marxism, edited by saree makdiski, cesare casarino, and rebecca karl, routeledge, , pp. - . whyte, jessica. “‘i would prefer not to’: giorgio agamben, bartleby and the potentiality of the law”. law critique, vol. , no. , , pp. - . academia. doi: . /s - - - . wilcoxen, stephanie. “the repressive effects of empathy.” speculative fiction, suny geneseo english, may , http://speculative.sunygeneseoenglish.org/ / / /the- repressive-effects-of-empathy/. accessed april . wilderson, frank b. iii. “gramsci’s black marx: whither the slave in civil society?” social identities, vol. , no. , , pp. - . ---. “the prison slave as hegemony’s (silent) scandal.” warfare in the american homeland: policing and prison in a penal democracy, edited by joy james, duke university, , pp. - . ---. red, white, and black: cinema and the structure of u.s. antagonisms. duke university, . williams, raymond. marxism and literature. oxford, . wink, walter. the powers that be: theology for a new millennium. doubleday, . yoder, john howard. “exodus and exile: the two faces of liberation.” crosscurrents, vol. , no. , fall , pp. - . york, tripp. living on hope while living in babylon: the christian anarchists of the th century. wipf and stock, . eur volume issue cover and back matter european journal of sociology numeros speciaux < s p e c i a l i s s u e s sondernummern i ii iii iv v vi vii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i i industrial society and rep- resentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. le sabre et la loi. - universitat im umbau : i i i i i i i i i i i anspassung oder wider- stand ? in quest of political par- ticipation. trois etudes sur la science. organisation . der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'ecole. zur problematik des mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass medua. la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les mceurs or faith and morals. permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... faith and power. citoyens armes, pretoriens desarmes. observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. might and rite. whither the unwithered state. xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi xxvii xxviii xxix i i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de l'egalite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rite of religion. racines aristocratiques de la democratic. michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik? tending the roots : nation- alism and populism. necessite de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles ou- tres. uber politisches handeln. liberalism: a communitar- ian critique. (a) le pouvoir et l'entre- prise. (b) an enquiry into patro- nage. "homes fit for heroes". les series completes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mentionnees page de la couverture. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core imprimerie f. paillart abbeville issn - le gerant : j a c q u e s l a u t m a n printed in france core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue francaise de sociologie publie'e avec le concours de l'institut de recherche sur les societes contemporaines centre national de la recherche scientifique - , rue pouchet, paris cedex — tel. : ou juillet-septembre , xxix- isbn - - - l'ecole en croissance l' volution de i'inegalite des chances modelisation statistique louis-andre vallet la croissance du nombre des philippe cibois, bacheliers est-elle previsible ? jean-jacques droesbeke la reussite scolaire des enfants d'immigres za'i'hia zeroulou la dissidence institutionnelle maryvonne david-jougneau l'institution du repas nicolas herpin les livres abonnements : l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser directemeat a : centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex — tel. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numero de panne'e en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numeros) france f etranger f vente au numero : par correspondance : presses du cnrs, - , rue saint-armand. paris. t . : ( ) . . . — telex : f. a la librairie du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris. tel. : ( ) . . . . tarif : le numero f core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies soclilis civilisations fondnteurf : lucian febvre al marc bloch. dlractaur : farnand braudel revue bimestrielle publiee depuis avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et de i'ecole des hautes etudes en sciences sociales comlte da direction : charles moraze andre burguiere - marc ferro - jacques le goff emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel - lucette valens! secretaire de la redaction : bernard lepetit * ann£e - n° mai-juin fascisme, nazisme marc ferro, ouverture emilio gentile, le role du parti dans le laboratoire totalitaire italien ian kershaw, le « mythe du fiihrer » et la dynamique de l'£tat nazi philippe burrin, politique et societe : les structures du pouvoir dans i'ltalie fasciste et i'allemagne nazie denis peschanski, vichy au singulier, vichy au pluriel. une tentative avortee d'encadrement de la societe ( - ) l'europe fasciste et nazie (comptes rendus) le pouvoir monarchique michel sot, her^dite royale et pouvoir sacre avant jocelyne dakhlia, dans la mouvance du prince : la symbolique du pouvoir itinerant au maghreb la revolution francaise dominique julia, la revolution, i'eglise et la france (note critique) claude langlois, les derives vende"ennes de i'imaginaire revolutionnaire redaction : , boulevard raspail, paris abonnements • france • stranger • le nume>o f - etudiants france : f f f - le nume>o special (double) : f les abonnements doivent etre souscrits aupres d'armand colin editeur, b. p. - vineuil core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv - a r c h e r , margaret s. process without system, xxiv . a r j o m a n d, said amir. the shi'ite hierocracy and the state in pre- modern iran : - , xxii . a u g u s t i n s , georges. esquisse d'une comparaison des systemes de perpetuation des groupes domestiques dans les societes paysannes europeennes, xxiii . b a b a d z a n , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquer des rites? xxv . b a e c h l e r , jean. les origines de la democratic grecque, xxi . la nourriture des hommes. essai sur le neolithique, xxiii . b e e t ham, david. michels and his critics, xxii . b e n e t o n , philippe. la dynamique revolutionnaire ou la logique du totalitarisme. a propos de interpretation de la revolution francaise par augustin co- chin, xxii . b e n - r a f a e l , eliezer and sasha w e i i m a n . the reconstitution of the family in the kib- butz, xxv . c a h n m a n , werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h e r k a o u i , mohamed. changement social et anomie : essai de forma- lisation de la theorie durkheimienne, xxii . coser, lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . d r i e s s e n , henk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth-century andalusia, xxiv . e i s e n s t a d t , shmuel n. the axial age : the emergence of trancendental visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . e l s t e r , jon. negation active et negation passive. essai de sociologie ivanienne, xxi . f a r m e r , mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . fox, renee c. is religion important in belgium? xxiii . g o o dell, grace. from status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . g r a y , john n. lamb auctions on the borders, xxv . g r e e n f e l d , liah. the role of the public in the success of asiatic styles, xxv . g u r e v c h, aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv . h a l l i d a y , terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv . h a l s e y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british postwar sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h e l l i n g , ingeborg. das erklarungsmodell der situationslogik bei popper : eine logische rekonstruktion und kritik, xxiii . j a n k, allan. schorske's vienna, xxii . k a h a n e , reuven. religious diffusion and modernisation : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indo- nesia and its impact on social change, xxi . k a n t o w s k y , detlef. die rezeption der hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max weber in siidasien : ein mibver- standnis? xxiii . k e d o u r i e , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, xxv . k e m e n y , jim. professional ideologies and organisational structure : tanks and the military, xxiv . k e n n a , margaret e. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek inter- nal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatolii m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r n e , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'societe des observa- teurs de phomme', xxiii . k u m a r , krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-centu- ry england : theoretical and comparative perspectives, xxiv . k u p e r , adam. the man in the study and the man in the field. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi . l i e b e r s o h n , harry. leopold von wiese and the ambivalence of functionalist sociology, xxiii . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i n d h o l m , charles. images of the pathan : the usefulness of colonial ethnography, xxi . m a c h e r e l , claude. don et reciprocity en europe, xxiv . m a u u o o d , charles. semantique et rhetorique dans la hierarchie hindoue des « buts de l'homme », xxiii . m a n n , michael. the autonomous power of the state, xxv . m e r q u i o r , jose guilherme. mort a l'homo ceconomicus? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'laws of nature', xxii . m o m u s en, wolfgang j. max weber and roberto michels. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii . m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o s i e l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t, sandra. blessed bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmet- ric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o c g i , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in the early social sciences, xxi . r a y , laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum prac- tice, xxii . r h o d e s , aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives in politi- cal machines, xxv . r o n i g e r , luis. modern patron-client relations and historical clientelism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv . r o s e l , jakob. the economy of an indian temple : landed endowment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociological explanation, xxv . ru n ci m a n, w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of france xxiv . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e r m a n , e. m. zu problemen der socialokonomischen ge- schichte roms, xxi . s w a r t z , david. classes, educational systems and labor markets, xxii . t a p p e r , nancy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv . t r a u g o t t , mark. durkheim and social movements, xxv . u r r y , james. who are the mennonites? xxiv . v a n p a r i j s , philippe. sociology as general economics, xxii . w e e d e , erich. ordnungspolitik und sicherbeltspolitik als ele- mente der sicherungspolitik, xxv . w e i n g r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, xxii - w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w e i t m a n , sasha and eliezer ben-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . wlndolf, paul. l'expansion de l'enseignement et la surqualifica- tion sur le marche du travail, xxv . w o o d , geoffrey. frazer's magic wand of anthropology : interpre- ting tit gouen bough, xxiii . z a r e t , david. ideology and organization in puritanism, xxi . issn - may c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb irp east th street, new york ny , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core fancy schools for fancy people: risks and rewards in fieldwork research among the low german mennonites of canada and mexico religions article fancy schools for fancy people: risks and rewards in fieldwork research among the low german mennonites of canada and mexico robyn sneath department of education, the university of oxford, oxford ox jd, uk; robynsneath@gmail.com received: december ; accepted: december ; published: january ���������� ������� abstract: in the s, conflict over schooling prompted the exodus of nearly mennonites from the canadian prairie provinces of manitoba and saskatchewan to mexico and paraguay; this is the largest voluntary exodus of a single people group in canadian history. mennonites—whose roots are found in the s reformation—are an anabaptist, pacifist, isolationist ethnic, and religious minority group, and victims of a fledgling canada’s nation-building efforts. it is estimated that approximately , descendants of the original emigrants have subsequently returned to canada, where tensions over schooling have persisted. the tensions—then, as now—are rooted in a fundamentally different understanding of the purposes of education—and it is this tension that interests me as an ethnographer and education researcher. my research is concerned with assessing attitudes towards education within the low german mennonite (lgm) community in both canada and mexico. too often academic research is presented as a tidy finished product, with little insight shed into the messy, highly iterative process of data collection. the purpose of this article is to pull back the curtain and discuss the messiness of the process, including security risks involved with methodology, site selection, research participants, and gaining access to the community. keywords: education; religion; mennonites; methodology; ethnography; fieldwork; canada; mexico; transnational; security in the s, conflict over schooling prompted the exodus of nearly conservative, low german-speaking mennonites (lgm) from the canadian prairie provinces of manitoba and saskatchewan to mexico and paraguay; this is the largest voluntary exodus of a single people group in canadian history (ens ; janzen ; loewen ). mennonites—whose roots are found in the s reformation—are an anabaptist, non-resistant, isolationist ethnic and religious minority group, and, in this particular case, victims of a fledgling canada’s nation-building efforts (ens ). it is estimated that approximately , descendants of the original emigrants have subsequently returned to canada, where tensions over schooling have persisted (loewen ). the tensions—then, as now—are rooted in a fundamentally different understanding of the purposes of education. though the content of my broader research agenda focuses explicitly on issues of religion, education, and security, the focus of this particular paper is on methodological issues arising from research within this relatively closed community. too often, academic research is presented as a tidy finished product, with little insight shed into the messy, highly iterative process of data collection (mills and morton ). the purpose of this article is to pull back the curtain and discuss the messiness of the process, including challenges with methodology, site selection, research participants, and gaining access to the community. education research among this ethno-religious minority group involved a number of security risks—or perceived risks—as well as challenges, and it is a discussion of these issues which shall occupy the bulk of the article. it is my contention that ethnographic research—time in the field—invariably poses risks to both researcher and researched, but that these risks are rarely religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of considered within the broader framework of the finished research product. in this particular case, the security hazards encountered in the field had little to do with the community itself, rather it was peripheral, environmental, and political threats that influenced the research. these risks, in this case, were compounded by the fact that the research was multi-sited, necessitating a constant renegotiation of my position as researcher. this paper is based on fieldwork that i conducted among mennonites in the canadian prairie province of manitoba and the northern mexican state of chihuahua between december and january . it is based on visits to several schools, and roughly interviews, conducted with students, parents of students, teachers, administrators, and school support staff. ‘low german mennonite’ has become common parlance to refer to those mennonites whose first language is low german, but it also connotes a host of unspoken markers of distinctive otherness—living a life set apart from mainstream society, dressing differently, possessing a strong network of connections to other low german mennonites spread throughout the diaspora, and belonging to an imagined community (anderson ) of fellow low german-speaking mennonites. while referring to the community by their vernacular is common practice (loewen ), there are several sub-groups that fit under the lgm umbrella, including altkolonier or old colony, which was known as reinlaender from c. – s (and is distinct from the reinlaender church that was established in the s and which exists today in southern ontario, southern manitoba, and western kansas, but which is not affiliated with the old colony), sommerfelder, bergthaler, gemeinde gottes, kleine gemeinde, and evangelical mennonite mission conference (emmc) and conferencia mennonites in mexico. these are all splinter groups who have broken off because of competing theologies. old colony represents the most conservative end of the lgm spectrum. visible intra-group markers of difference—such as the use of horses and buggies as a mode of transportation —are evident to outside observers, whereas other distinguishing features, like nuances in soteriology and eschatology, are less discernable. the ‘problem’ as it were, in this particular case, is the schooling of lgm children in canada and mexico. the schooling practices of the most conservative elements of the lgm community have remained largely unchanged since they immigrated to manitoba from russia in the s—it is the schooling practices of the world around them which have changed dramatically, thereby rendering lgm schooling deviant. the ‘problem’ is also that historically, schools have served as the primary site through which lgm children have been initiated into the language, religion, culture, and worldview of their closed communities; however, as schools respond and adapt to modern influences—introduced largely by significant transnational connections—the schools of the lgm community have increasingly become sites where the very things they have sought to preserve are the things they now destroy. as the first to argue that lgm schools are the key site through which to examine the unresolved tension of adapting to elements of the outside world (introduced by transnationalism) while concurrently maintaining what is essential about their faith, culture, and tradition—this work contributes not only to the field of mennonite studies, but to conversations about the relationship between religion and education. as stambach ( ) argues, ‘schools are often pivotal social institutions around which the configuration of society as a whole is imagined, contested, and transformed, and that schooling provides one of the clearest institutions for observing debates about culture, generation, gender, and history’ (stambach , p. ). as the first of its kind—an exploration of a world often closed to outsiders—my work provides an examination of lgm schooling practices—in its many and varied iterations. while others have touched on aspects of the schooling practices (leonard ; hedges ; crocker ; good gingrich ; saunders-currie ), my work is an explicit and holistic assessment of their schools and the first to examine the effects of transnationalism on lgm schooling practices. in discipline and punish ( ), foucault uses the prison to illuminate previously unidentified aspects of modern life, issues which are most evident in the setting of the prison but this is still the common practice among old colony mennonites in bolivia, and some remote parts of mexico. religions , , of with implications across the breadth of modern society. in the same vein, i argue that for the lgm community, the social institution of the school serves a similarly illustrative function, revealing a conflict that is most clearly expressed in the school setting but which exists across the spectrum of lgm lived experience. by rooting the current practices carefully within the context of their history of migration and past tensions with the canadian government over schools, i demonstrate that contemporary practices are an extension of the ongoing conflict over their interpretation of their collective past. additionally, by situating the current practices in canada and mexico within the framework of their past, i have shown that now, as then, lgm schools serve to sustain a commitment to a particular vision for society—and that the shape and content of each different type of school creates and sustains often drastically different iterations of society, even within a community that to the outside observer may be perceived as relatively homogenous. the choices made by families about their children’s schooling is always a manifestation of multiple factors, a mix of ideological, pragmatic, and economic impulses resulting in a decision that invariably involves some degree of ambivalence. in canada, for some families sending their children to public schools is economically motivated, a commitment to a different future than their own present. but for other families, sending their children to public schools is simply a matter of getting by, the least expensive, most expedient means of educating their children and a necessary compromise of life in canada. ultimately, the decisions families make about their children’s schooling determines not only their individual futures, but also the fate of the community. as schmiedehaus, an early scholar of old colony mennonites, wrote ‘die schule bestimmt das schicksal der altkolonie,’ —‘the school determines the fate of the old colony’ (schmiedehaus , p. ). schmiedehaus was echoing the claim made by one of the central old colony leaders, aeltester isaak m. dyck ( – ), who, in his memoir of emigration from canada to mexico, auswanderung von kanada nach mexiko, presciently noted that ‘the school of today represents the church of tomorrow’ (dyck , p. , translation mine). it is a reciprocal relationship of influence—the community influences the shape and content of the schools, and then the schools—as they shape the beliefs and values of their students—in turn shape the future of the communities to which the young people belong. what i propose is a dialectical relationship between transnational influences and lgm perceptions about the role schools ought to play in preserving the group’s tradition. transnationalism, in this instance, engenders a particular approach to education and sustains the commitment to their specific purposes of education. sociologist urry ( ) argues that it is not only humans who move between states and societies, but that non-animate movers such as images, information, and objects—and i would add institutions, in this case, the school—are all mobile and ‘hence produce and reproduce social life and cultural forms’ (urry , p. ). for old colony mennonites, this has been especially true, as they have recreated their schools in each new country of settlement, with the school historically being the first common building constructed in a community (francis ; peters ). mennonites, a conservative protestant ethnic and religious minority group, originated in europe in the s. from the earliest decades, there have been two dominant strands—the swiss/south german strand, and the dutch/northern german strand, and it is the dutch element from which the mennonites of this particular study are descended. and though menno simons ( – ), a dutch ex-catholic priest, was not the founder of the movement, he was an influential early leader under whom the disparate pacifist-inclined anabaptist groups began to consolidate and it is from him that mennonites derive their name. ‘the schools determine the fate of the old colony’ (translation mine, in schmiedehaus ( , p. )). the version of the memoir i use is the most recent one, published in (with slight amendments), and which i translated in from high german into english as a contract translator. it is an unpublished translation. the original memoir was published in , and subsequently in and was split into two volumes. i rely on the first here, as it focuses on the migration period. religions , , of because of religious persecution over the course of a few centuries, northern european mennonites migrated from the netherlands (mostly flanders, but also friesland) to poland (near present-day gdansk) to russia before immigrating to canada in the s (urry ). the designation ‘old colony mennonite’ refers to the fact that this particular group of mennonites were the first to migrate to russia and establish the chortitz colony, which became known as the ‘old colony.’ over time, the term has acquired an increasingly religious connotation and now refers to a particular mennonite denomination (ens ). conflict with the russian authorities in the late nineteenth century over issues of schooling and exemption from military service prompted the exodus to the canadian prairies in manitoba in the s, where the mennonites settled in two primary blocs—the east and west reserves. during the second generation of mennonite settlement in canada, the provincial governments of manitoba and saskatchewan introduced several pieces of legislation which sought to loosen the boundaries between the mennonites and their neighbours, in an attempt to assimilate the polyglot immigrants of the prairies into a common anglo-british culture, including the manitoba schools act, legislation mandating that the union jack flag be flown outside all schools in manitoba; and the schools act (francis ; ens ). in fact, the provinces went so far as to expropriate mennonite land, erect public schools, hire non-mennonite teachers, and demand attendance in an attempt to acculturate the non-conformists (janzen ). this attempted coercion only served to further alienate the isolationist agriculturalists and spurred them on to emigration (ens ). in several instances, the mennonites refused to comply, resulting in fines and imprisonment for parents and village leaders (janzen ). by the s—when post-wwi-anti-german sentiment was high—the situation had deteriorated to such an extent that the emigration seemed the best option. in the s, a third of manitoba’s of old colonists relocated from canada to mexico (ens ). and while tens of thousands have returned to canada (ca. , over the past years, loewen ), thousands have left mexico in favour of more remote locales of bolivia and belize in order to avoid what they perceive as the encroaching secular influence in their communities. the low german mennonite diaspora today numbers approximately , (krahn and sawatzky ; loewen ) and unlike the host nations in which dietsche find themselves, theirs is a relatively closed community organized almost exclusively around the jemeent, the low german term for the congregation, the gemeinschaft, not the gesellschaft (tönnies ; weber ; loewen ), a network of affective relations based around a central governing axis—the church. the sacred/secular divide, espoused by weber ( ) and embraced by geertz ( ) in many ways feels like an obsolete relic of modernism, and is completely foreign to the lgm world. religion scholar robert orsi emphasizes that religion permeates throughout the entire range of lived experience, including in its most pedestrian iterations (orsi ), which for the dietsche community includes such seemingly mundane phenomena as the range of acceptable free play activities available to children during school recess. for low german mennonites, schooling has historically served as the primary locus through which their language, faith, and worldview have been transmitted and these goals have often conflicted directly with concepts of schooling as a vehicle through which to promote autonomy, social mobility, and loyalty to the state. and while the canadian federal government—through minister of agriculture john lowe—initially promised the mennonites freedom to conduct their schools as they saw fit, between and the provincial governments of manitoba and saskatchewan introduced legislation that increasingly curtailed the religious and linguistic freedoms enjoyed by the mennonites in their schools (francis ; janzen ; ens ). what the mennonites may not have realized was that, according to the british north america act of , schooling was regulated provincially in canada, not federally (gregor and wilson ; bruno-jofre ). the situation deteriorated to such an extent that, in the s, the mennonites emigrated en masse to mexico, where alvaro obregon’s present-day ukraine. religions , , of government promised them the right to exercise their religious freedom in their schools—a promise which has been largely kept, other than a brief hiatus in (schmiedehaus ). old colony mennonite village schools in mexico are conducted in a manner that has changed little since the mennonites were in russia in the nineteenth century (hedges ). schoolhouses are single-room, taught by a man from the community, children attend for six to seven years, and the focus of the curriculum is largely religious with the bible and catechism serving as the primary texts. the language of instruction is high german, a language reserved for school and church. low german, largely considered to be an oral dialect, comprises the language of home and commerce. the focus is on memorization of religious texts, not reading comprehension, and subjects like science, geography, history, and spanish are all dismissed as worldly. the schools of the other mennonite denominations on the colonies range in their level of progressiveness—with old colony komitee schools, kleine gemeinde and gemeinde gottes schools in the middle and the conferencia offering a full university preparatory program. in canada, most lgm immigrant families send their children to public elementary schools simply because of economic constraints—it is free. in southern manitoba, there are a few small unaccredited lgm independent schools that emphasize separation from the world, and there are a number of families who have opted to homeschool their children. most families do not send their children to school past grade eight even though the legal school leaving age in manitoba is (manitoba schools act ). most lgm communities practice voluntary social exclusion (good gingrich ); gaining access was a gradual process which was ultimately achieved by emphasizing my shared lineage. my interest in this community and in their experiences with education arose from a personal connection; my grandfather participated in the migration to mexico and his father was one of the first schoolteachers in mexico. my grandfather, however, left the community as an adolescent, and thus, my connection to the community was more symbolic than real. i was familiar with their schooling practices and curious about how their frequent transnational migrations shaped their schooling experiences in each respective country. my ability to communicate in high german, and my faltering attempts at low german, also aided my entry into the community. although the ‘counter-terrorist classroom’ (gearon ) is a recent concept, the notion of using classrooms and schools to instill particular cultural values into the nation’s young is hardly new. as ghosh et al. ( ) note, education has often been used to counter values that would threaten liberal democratic society. interestingly, ramirez and boli ( ) argue that using schools to further a political, assimilationist, nationalist agenda became ubiquitous in the late nineteenth century in the west. in their work on the evolution of mass schooling throughout the long nineteenth century, they argue that european nation states began to construct national school systems in an attempt to create ‘a unified national polity’, where the individual was the primary social actor, and one’s principal loyalty lay with the state, rather than with one’s family, church, or ethnicity (ramirez and boli ). i would argue that the counter-terrorist classroom is an extension of the same underlying impulse—that of using schools to cultivate a desired polis, ready to defend the nation against any perceived threat—whether terrorists today or germans during wwi. in fact, during the height of tension surrounding the mennonite schools question, the goal was indeed to inspire loyalty to the empire, as then manitoba premier roblin stated (in ), ‘what we need is to get the youth filled with the traditions of the british flag and then, when they are men . . . they will be able to defend it’ (roblin, quoted in francis , p. ). this association between the flag and militarism was clearly sensed by aeltester isaak m. dyck in his memoir: ‘it was impossible for us to allow our children to be raised under the flag and under the enthusiastic expression of military zeal’ (dyck , p. , translation mine). the task of the ethnographer, according to clifford geertz, ‘is first to grasp and then to render’ (geertz , p. ). geertz ( , p. ) likens the ethnographic process to a conversation, one in which it is the responsibility of the researcher to learn to listen, but also to observe, with the ultimate goal of being able to decipher ‘what it is . . . that . . . is getting said’ (geertz , p. ). this paper elaborates religions , , of on this essential concept, clarifying how it is that i sought to understand, interpret and ultimately communicate what was gleaned from dozens of conversations in schools, churches, and around kitchen tables in both canada and mexico. what constitutes ethnography, as both a method and mode of analysis, varies widely in the literature. cultural anthropologists of the early–mid-twentieth century defined ethnography as a methodology (malinowski ; mead ; evans-pritchard ), and it was gradually adopted by the social sciences because of its potential to provide a holistic and highly specific account of the topic or people under investigation. initially, ethnography relied on participant observation and extensive periods of time spent in the field, immersed in the world of one’s subjects. it has since become a widely used methodological approach and mode of analysis within the field of education and the term has now expanded to include a wider set of approaches, which in my case included interviewing, typically in an unstructured or semi-structured format, and multi-sited school observations, as well as more informal visits to churches, homes, and places of work. the requisite time spent in the field has become a matter of considerable debate (marcus ; mills and morton ), particularly in the case of multi-sited ethnographies (brockmann ). while the techniques of recording field notes, conducting interviews, and building relationships with subjects all comprise important facets of ethnography, the enterprise is, as geertz ( , p. ), an elaborate venture in ‘thick description’, that is to say, an intricately detailed depiction of the world (or a sliver of the world) of one’s subjects (parker , ; boo ; martin ). as an ethnographer, this joint construction is profound; i hear the stories of my participants, and, as an active listener, i cannot help but ‘give shape to what [i] hear, and in so doing, have made their stories ‘into something of [my] own’ (coles , p. ). my methodology—a multi-sited historical ethnography (marcus , p. )—refers not only to the fact that the study took place in two countries, but also to the fact that in each location multiple sites were visited—including several schools, homes, businesses, and churches. marcus defines several types of multi-sited ethnographies (marcus ), two of which apply to this study and are what he terms ‘follow the people’ and ‘follow the plot, story, or allegory’ (marcus , pp. , ). in the first instance, ‘follow the people’ (marcus , p. ), the multi-sitedness comes from tracing a single group of individuals across multiple physical spaces. this clearly applies to this study, as the movement of the low german mennonites is traced in the first instance from russia to canada in the s and then from canada to mexico in the s and ultimately back to canada over the course of the past several decades. the second category, ‘follow the plot, story, or allegory’ (marcus , p. ), is equally relevant but in this instance the focus of the plot or story is the schooling practices and how these are carried across space and time and how they are shaped by (and sometimes shape) these frequent migrations. the research process has been a dialogical process between the research questions and the data collected, what srivastava and hopwood describe as a negotiation between ‘what the data are telling me,’ and ‘what i want to know’ (srivastava and hopwood , p. ). this project is a historical ethnography in that it draws heavily on attitudes of the past to try to inform current attitudes towards schooling held by the low german mennonites of canada and mexico. comaroff and comaroff ( , p. xi) argue compellingly for the combination of history and ethnography: ‘no ethnography can ever hope to penetrate beyond the surface planes of everyday life, to plumb its invisible forms, unless it is informed by the historical imagination’. drawing on the ‘historical imagination’ strengthens my research in that it provides nuance and texture to the current state of schooling. this combination of historical and anthropological approaches is underscored by cohn and guha ( , p. ), who proposes that history and anthropology share a common epistemological pursuit—they are both preoccupied with constructing and then communicating the ‘other’: ‘one field constructs otherness in space, the other in time . . . both aim . . . at explicating the meaning of actions of people rooted in one time and place, to people in another . . . both forms of knowledge entail the act of translation’. in addition to the literal act of translating much of the data—interviews, archival religions , , of evidence, school materials—from high and low german into english, there was the further act of translating conversations and archival data into a comprehensive whole. the emphasis on the historical context surrounding the present situation is further underscored by hammersley ( , p. ), who cautions that neglecting the wider history and context of both the group or institution and the individual is not only a methodological concern, but an ethical one as well, insofar as ignoring the historical context of the group under consideration may leave the researcher particularly vulnerable to the temptation to manipulate the data to suit current political agendas. by devoting a considerable amount of time to a historical analysis of lgm attitudes towards schooling, my work serves as a sort of corrective to ahistorical understandings of the lgm population (hall and kulig ; saunders-currie ). by appealing to the group’s history to explain the current state of schooling, i hope to avoid another pitfall common among work about the old colony mennonites—that of partisanship. in many cases, work about old colonists either glorifies them as the true protectors of the mennonite faith, under siege by more progressive mennonites (plett ; quiring ), or condemns them as pitiful souls who have lost their way (old colony support ). the historical part of the research was based on school inspector reports from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, in which non-mennonites or non-old colony mennonites, inspected mennonite schools and submitted an annual report to the department of education (ewert , , ; thornton ). i also drew on aeltester isaac m. dyck’s memoir, auswanderung von kanada nach mexiko (dyck ) as the ‘official’ narrative of the migration, as recalled by one of the most influential old colony leaders. even though the canadian province of ontario, with its high demand for seasonal agricultural workers, has attracted the highest number of low german mennonites, manitoba seemed the better site for study because of the historical roots of this group. the small prairie city in southern manitoba around which the interviews took place was one of two hubs of original settlement by the mennonites in the s, and is located in the west reserve, being the westernmost tract of land that the mennonites settled in the province. it remains a predominantly mennonite region today, with a wide range of mennonite denominations represented in the community, with returnees from latin america representing the most conservative faction. i selected the manitoba colony, mexico, again, primarily because it was the original old colony settlement site, but also because there is still a large, thriving lgm community there, with a population of approximately , people of the total , in mexico (giesbrecht , personal communication). the manitoba colony in mexico is among the most progressive colonies in mexico, and on the more progressive end of all the colonies in latin america. most community members now drive vehicles, have electricity in their homes and workplaces, use cellular phones, and can speak a little spanish. many of these changes are relatively new. as recently as twenty or thirty years ago, community members might still have been excommunicated for some of these infractions. although there are pockets of conservative colonies left in mexico, the most conservative colonies are typically located in bolivia, where no electricity and horse and buggies are still the norm (loewen ). many of the migrants to manitoba have come from the manitoba colony in mexico which provides a nice sort of symmetry for the interviews and triangulation of experience in the two locales. fieldwork in canada included a dozen trips to various towns and cities in southern manitoba to meet with and interview old colony mennonites who had come from mexico as well as those who worked with them in areas related to education. these trips ranged in length from one day to several days. in manitoba, i interviewed families who had availed themselves of a wide variety of schooling options, including home schooling, private schooling, public schooling, and no formal schooling. in canada, i visited three public schools with low german mennonite students, two independent schools, and one home school. including a broad swath of schooling arrangements enabled me to most accurately assess the educational ideas and aspirations of the broadest spectrum of low german mennonites. in mexico, i visited twelve mennonite schools within the manitoba colony: five village schools, three komitee schools, three mennonite private schools run by those who have left the old religions , , of colony church, and one bible school that is conducted in low german, the only such school in the world. subjects interviewed included individuals from the following groups: old colony civic leaders, teachers, current and former students, and parents of children in lgm independent, public, and home schools. in the manitoba setting, certain interviewees had come recently from mexico while others had been in canada for more than years. in mexico, i included both individuals who had migrated to canada and then returned to mexico, and therefore had experiences with both settings, as well as those who had never left mexico. setting the boundaries for participation was complicated. initially i hoped to focus solely on the old colony mennonites—one of the most conservative variants of mennonites, but soon realized the difficulty of fixing the borders of who might qualify—did old colony ancestry suffice? if so, then i would fit into this group. did they need to be active members in an old colony church? many participants were members of the old colony church in mexico but then switched to a slightly more progressive church when in canada. was it necessary for the participants to have been born in mexico? establishing the parameters was an iterative process. the families in canada needed to be ‘from’ mexico, by which i meant that their ancestors needed to have participated in the migration to mexico from canada and the participants needed to self-identify as lgm or work directly with them on matters related to schooling. the demographics of participants varied widely. interview subjects ranged from to approximately years old. school children who were observed ranged from five to years old. interview subjects included a roughly even split of men and women in mexico and more women than men in canada, as interviews tended to take place during the day when women were at home and men were working, and because my initial contacts to the community also happened to be women whose networks consisted largely of other women. prior to embarking on this study, i had no contacts in the community and, therefore, as i began to make contacts, i relied on opportunistic sampling, that is, whomever i could find who was willing to participate and who met the above-stated criteria. as the research continued, participant recruitment became more discriminate, as i sought to ‘saturate categories . . . and enhance comparative analysis’ (rudestam and newton , p. ). in canada, i conducted interviews, ranging from one-and-a-half-hour formal interviews to several hours spread casually over several days. typically, interviews would occur in the homes of the interviewees, at their places of work, or in a public space such as a restaurant or a café, although one was conducted via email and one via telephone. meeting people in their homes was preferable, because it allowed me to see how they constituted their own personal space, and how they moved within it, and how they interacted with their children, some of whom were invariably home. seeing people in their homes also gave clues as to their material wealth, their personal preferences, and often their degree of assimilation, which provided greater insight into their life choices and sometimes helped to elucidate their beliefs about schooling. for instance, in a surprising number of homes, small children played with new iphones or handheld gaming devices while i interviewed their mothers. there were television sets in many homes, which all acted as clues to the extent to which interviewees were willing to adopt the trappings of middle-class canadian life. interviews in canada were conducted either in english or in low german. low german interviews were conducted with the assistance of a translator, who in this instance also served as a gatekeeper, as she worked as the liaison whose job it was to help integrate new immigrants into the public school system. she was also of old colony descent, and her own parents had come from mexico. in addition to serving as a gatekeeper to the community, she also participated as an interviewee. over the course of april and may i travelled to the manitoba colony, located in the northern mexican state of chihuahua. while in mexico, i visited twelve schools and interviewed close to people, although many of these interviews were conducted with husbands and wives together, where the husbands did the majority of the talking. i made contacts in mexico through acquaintances in canada who had ties to mennonites in mexico. although my grandfather was raised in mexico religions , , of on the manitoba colony, he did little to maintain ties to the conservative group after he returned to canada as an adult in the mid- s. i was, therefore, delighted to be connected with relatives whom i had never met, and was welcomed into their home for the duration of my stay in mexico. interviews in mexico were either conducted in people’s homes or their places of work. in the case of the school reformers and community leaders, interviews were almost all conducted in the evenings in private residences. invariably, i would be led to the groote stuw, a large sitting room typically off the kitchen but separated by a closed door, and usually only used for entertaining visitors on sunday afternoons, the time in the week designated for socializing. these rooms, like most rooms, tended to be sparsely furnished, with couches flanking the perimeter of what, by north american standards, were unusually large rooms. i would be instructed to sit on one side of the room and my interviewees, typically a husband and wife, would sit on the other. this created in many instances a considerable physical distance between my interviewees and me. in both canada and mexico, i experimented with a range of interview techniques and adjusted the technique to fit the circumstance and the dynamic of each particular interview. interviews tended towards semi-structured, although some were unstructured, depending usually on the inclination of the interviewee. initially, i hesitated to use a recording device, heeding the warnings of others who had worked with similar groups (hedges ; johnson-weiner ). i relied on a small blue moleskin notebook and a pen, and wrote frantically while people shared their stories with me. this technique created the most stilted interviews, as i struggled to take accurate notes while trying to keep a natural flow to the conversation. i experimented briefly with writing no notes, heeding hedges’s ( , p. ) admonition that the very sight of a pencil and notebook seemed to make her lgm interviewees uncomfortable. while this approach did make for easier conversation, i was left craving their exact words, wanting to quote directly but not being able to do so; it also left a murkier set of post-interview notes, as i struggled to recall all the specifics of a several-hours-long conversation. finally, i decided, against the advice of other scholars in the field, to record conversations using my cellular phone (hedges ; johnson-weiner ). given the fact that hedges’ fieldwork was carried out in the mid- s, and johnson weiner’s in the early s, i suspected that the growing ubiquity of cellular telephone use in the intervening years had inoculated many of my interviewees to the dangers of technology use. in almost every case, interviewees agreed with little hesitation to being recorded, and where i sensed any reservation, i reverted to the use of my notebook. after interviews or school observations were completed, i would record my impressions surrounding the interview or experience, with a description of the physical space, a description of the physical appearance and general affect of the interviewee and anything that struck me as noteworthy. these field notes have become a rich repository of images and memories that helped me to conjure the interviews as i reviewed the transcripts. these notes have contributed significantly to the ‘thick’ description of ethnography coined by geertz. the details in the following note, written after visiting a teacher training meeting at a traditional old colony village school in mexico, reveals how critically important the notes became as a way to recall more than simply the words of the interview: when i arrived most students were already there. solomon met me at the door and directed me to sit on the girls’ side; because all of the teachers are men, they were seated in the boys’ benches across the way. there were of them in total, i would guess that they ranged from early twenties to late forties, about half were clad in overalls and i think they all wore plaid shirts. if you saw this group you wouldn’t guess they were teachers; they looked like farmers. they chatted amongst themselves, all in low german, i introduced myself awkwardly in pd, and received mostly blank stares. for the first part they didn’t look at me openly, but i could see a few looking when they thought i didn’t see. solomon opened with a few songs out of the gesangbuch. luckily there was a little girl’s gesangbuch in the bench and i was able to sing along. in it i found a drawing of a kitten and the foil wrapper of an easter bunny candy pressed neatly into one of the pages. after the singing the men went back to chatting. unfortunately i found most of it difficult if not impossible to understand. i could tell most of religions , , of it wasn’t related to schooling. they did, however, debate the names of the large numbers (i.e., a billion, etc.) and they also compared how many students each of them had. the one only had and one had as many as . more visiting followed the snacks [coke, crackers and huge chunks of salami], and around : the lesson began. i could see all of the teachers take out a notebook and pen so i did the same. solomon began a dictation and motioned for me to participate. he dictated seven sentences about ‘die eichhoernchenjagd’ and then each teacher had to spell out the word as solomon wrote it on the board . . . there was one young teacher who started to ask me a few questions in english. he was under the impression that i was from england, which means that they had discussed me and that solomon read the letter i left with him last week. that helped to break the ice and they started to slowly ask me more questions. i could tell they were discussing the issue of ‘buchstabieren vs. lautieren’ and i was desperate to understand what they were saying. thankfully the young teacher who spoke english (he had spent summers working on farms in ontario) asked me how i had been taught. from then on i was an active part of the discussion . . . i was quite bold in my questioning, asking them what they thought of the komitee schools [more progressive schools that were opening in the community] and if they thought that the village schools were destined to close. they, in turn, asked me what i thought of the komitee schools and their schools and asked which group should give up . . . none of them has ever been to an komitee school. one said that only proud people go there, that no humble person would ever go there. the one who could speak english said that they are ‘fancy schools for fancy people.’ i asked if they thought the ds would eventually close and said yes, they would. i asked if they would become teachers there and they said no they wouldn’t bc they didn’t want people who weren’t teachers telling them what to teach and how to teach it. i told him that sounded rather proud to me, and everyone laughed. they said that in they are teaching what comes from heaven but that the komitee schools are no longer christian. it’s interesting that they speak rarely of being ‘mennonite’ rather of being christlich (christian) or deutsch (german). for them the boundaries of the world are quite clear—deutsch, english, mexa, or spanish. they think that to learn anything beyond what they teach is to learn ‘worldly’ things, that only lead to pride. . . . they also said that there is no need for sunday school because the kids learn about ‘himmlische sachen’ (heavenly things) all week so there is no need for them to go to church on sunday. this encounter, which lasted about two hours, represented a pivotal moment for me because, until then, i had heard the progressive voices in the community, but this more traditional perspective was missing. ethnography on the ground is every bit as iterative as i anticipated. hall and kulig ( ) note that they encountered several methodological challenges when doing research on/with old colony mennonites, and while the focus of my research is on educational experiences of the community, many of the challenges were similar. in the following section, i discuss a number of the key challenges encountered in the field, particularly issues related to conducting interviews with adults and children—issues encountered by other ethnographers working with vulnerable groups (danby and farrell ; davies ; dennis ), the difficulty of participant observation in a multi-sited study, and conclude with a discussion of risks to my personal safety. holding myself accountable to interviewees and being respectful of their stories, and beliefs remained a constant prioirity throughout (law ; levinson ). the use of interviews is not without its difficulties, particularly when dealing with the distant past of childhood memories; however, the potential histories hold the promise of ‘refining the bland messages inscribed in the official documents’ (gardner , p. ). one of the main reasons for incorporating interviews into the account of lgm schooling is that it sheds light on the actual process religions , , of of education and people’s personal attitudes and recollections—which has been largely missing from academic conversations surrounding the lgm community. one of the strengths of ethnography is its ability to use the minutiae of the specific to ‘speak to large issues’ (geertz , p. ). boo ( , p. ), ‘i [have] no pretense that i [can] judge a whole by a sliver,’ nevertheless, it is the ‘complex specificness’ of the ethnographer’s findings that make it possible to ‘think realistically and concretely’ about larger concepts, such as modernization and integration (geertz , p. ). during the interview with wall ( ), for instance, a mother who had come alone from mexico with her five children while her husband was incarcerated in mexico (reportedly for participation in the drug trade), i gained a sense that for her, public schooling in canada was far superior to what she encountered in mexico (personal interview, march ): nellie: when the children go to school, i like it when they learn, so that they are able to do something, right, they should go to school so they could do something, not, not like me, i couldn’t read anything, nothing, like when they would want to get married, when they get married that they could read those so that, that they knew what it was, but i couldn’t do anything . . . nellie: oh, my schooling, what i did there, it was nothing. robyn: it was nothing? nellie: it was just like when you would go somewhere and they babysat you, that was all. [dry laugh] nellie: (inaudible) babysitting, babysitting was all that they did. other than that they don’t teach anything . . . this was a sentiment shared by some but certainly not all research participants. maria friesen, another lgm mother in the winkler area with several children, expressed considerably more ambivalence about her children participating in a secular school experience: sometimes i feel sad, i wish i could do my kids the same way my parents did me [chuckle] . . . because i learned more respect for my parents then my, my children do for, for us [children speaking] . . . the longer we stay here the more they would be, uh, like a canadian . . . i would like to see them stay the way i was taught . . . (loewen ) brockmann describes one of the key challenges of multi-sited ethnography as a constant feeling of disorientation ( ). similarly, marcus ( , p. ) notes that multi-sited research requires a ‘constantly mobile, recalibrating practice of positioning’. geertz and emerson ( , p. ) note that the unnerving process of ‘finding our feet’ defines the personal experience of conducting ethnographic fieldwork and, according to him, is never more than moderately successful, a sentiment which resonated as i reflected on my time in the field. each new encounter required that i try to orient myself to my surroundings as quickly and unobtrusively as possible. occasionally, it was possible to alert someone ahead of time that i wished to visit their school, but more often i would arrive, knock on the door, and explain my intentions to the teacher or director and see if he was amenable to me visiting his school. the following excerpt is from my fieldnotes, in which i described my first visit to a village school: when i first saw the school i thought it was old, as far as i could tell initially it could have been a hundred years old. it was a single room, with a small house attached where the teacher and his family lived. the schoolyard was covered in gravel and had two single outhouses in the back—one for girls and the other for boys. as i discovered at lunchtime when i ventured out there was nowhere to wash my hands. there were windows down i was surprised to learn later that the school was less than years old. religions , , of both of the long walls of the school, all of which are covered with billowing white curtains. for the most part the curtains remained closed throughout the day, only for a brief period, after a little girl vomited, was the one opened to expose the beautiful view of the sun and the foothills in the distance, and presumably, to allow for greater air flow. two solitary light bulbs hung from a lightly stippled white ceiling, a stove sat in the centre of the room for heat. the walls and floor were cement, the walls painted white on top and light grey on the bottom, six rows of long low tables with child-sized benches painted a high lacquer grey, separated by a wide aisle down the centre of the room, one side for girls, the other for boys. hooks lined the walls at the back of the class, one for the girls’ wide-brimmed straw hats, and the other for boy’s caps. the teacher’s cowboy hat hung with the boys’ caps. there was a blue plastic bucket filled with water on each side of the classroom, one for the boys and the other for the girls, each with three plastic cups for the students to share, including the little girl who was ill. there was a small platform at the front of the room, where the teacher occasionally stood, and on which his desk was set. there were a couple of instances, with village schools in mexico, where it was made clear that i was not welcome, and i was turned away at the door or my request to come and observe a class was denied. generally, however, after explaining my intentions, i was invited to enter and observe. though most of the teachers invited me to sit at the front of the room, near to where they sat or stood, i usually preferred to tuck myself into a child-sized bench in the back row, always on the girls’ side, where i hoped not to disrupt. in hindsight, this may not have been the best approach, as it simply caused curious heads to turn repeatedly to inspect this unexpected visitor to their school. working with children added another level of complexity to the interviews—particularly in mexico where communication was exceedingly difficult given the language barrier (hood et al. ). while in the schools, i would participate in activities where possible, such as in the singing of hymns, or i would sit quietly as the students recited their work. occasionally, i would record observations in my notebook (although i tried to do this as furtively as possible after the teacher in the first school i visited stopped the class and insisted in front of all the students that i tell him exactly what i was writing). during times when students were working independently on tasks, such as copying out passages to practice their penmanship, doing math problems, or—if it happened to be friday afternoon—colouring or drawing, i would engage with students directly. over the lunch hour, i would eat with either teachers or students and would join students in their play in the schoolyard, either kicking a ball with the girls, or, in the case of a more progressive komitee school, playing volleyball with girls and boys together, under the careful gaze of the teacher, who also played along. fieldwork in both canada and mexico included both real and perceived risks to my personal safety—and the risks were not necessarily what i had anticipated at the outset. in fact, there was only a single instance where i truly felt my safety was in jeopardy, and this occurred in canada, not mexico. the rather exhaustive pre-fieldwork risk assessment i conducted through the university of oxford involved only a consideration of the risks of work in mexico—including a detailed discussion of the possibility of being kidnapped and held for ransom—a relatively common occurrence in the region during that period and related to the spike in gang-related crime. it also included recommendations from the university’s safety officer that all interviews be conducted in public places such as cafés—a venue that turned out not to exist within most of the communities. in mexico, while the safety concerns were similar to what i had anticipated during the risk assessment, it was nevertheless a challenge practically to adhere to the ‘common sense’ recommendations laid out therein. during the time of my travel there, the canadian government advised against all but essential travel to the region where the mennonites live due to ongoing drug-related violence. it affected my route into the country, as i had to avoid the shared border with the united states, which was particularly high risk. i was advised by people familiar with the situation to avoid highways, particularly at night, and not to travel alone. while this was reasonable advice, it was difficult to heed these warnings in practice. religions , , of my hosts lent me one of their cars, and, after escorting me to my first school via a winding path through farmers’ fields—their late model car scraping the rocks on the path as i drove—they sent me out on my own. gaining trust of community members was certainly not a given, and did not always come easily. many old colonists are wary of outsiders, particularly because of aggressive evangelization from north american mennonites. because my hosts had recently disaffected from the old colony church, and had recently started their own church, they were no longer welcome in most of the places i wished to visit; therefore, i set out alone to make contacts with community members. although the main commercial corridor is well marked by signs denoting each passing kilometer, streets off the highway are rarely marked and directions are given orally by landmarks. i spent a lot of time visiting with people on their yards as i pulled over to ask directions while trying to navigate my way to schools and homes throughout a colony that spans dozens of kilometers of undulating barrenness checkered with tidy homes and farms, small oases of productivity. in mexico, under the guidance of my gatekeepers there, i determined not to seek out a translator or a local guide, rather, i travelled alone and conducted interviews without the assistance of an intermediary. i was advised by my initial contacts in the community that a translator would compromise the integrity of the responses i might receive, because of social pressure to represent things in a certain way in front of other community members. to be sure, a translator would have made things easier, as the interviewees could have used more low german, their primary language of communication. however, having to communicate in a mix of high german and low german created a shared vulnerability—my low german competence is very low and my interviewees almost without exception expressed shame about their limited fluency in high german. perhaps the risk, if any, that i felt most acutely was that of being a woman alone among men who were unknown to me. there is an emerging body of research discussing the risks posed to researchers in the field (kenyon and hawker ; paterson et al. ) and increasingly on women conducting fieldwork (sharp and kremer ; fry ). the overwhelming majority of interviewees in mexico were men—teachers and community leaders—and i was a woman alone, often meeting alone with a man or groups of men whom i had never met—with no one knowing my whereabouts. for instance, by attending the village teachers’ meeting i risked being alone in a remote location with a group of unknown men, but this exchange was one of the most enlightening of the entire research journey and became pivotal to my understanding of lgm schooling. because most of the interviewees were men, it also meant that they were away working all day and were only free to meet in the evenings. that meant that i had no choice but to ignore the advice to avoid the highways after dark. and though many interviewees recounted stories of neighbours and relatives being kidnapped or robbed at gunpoint, at no point did i feel like my own safety was in jeopardy. as the mother of an infant son at the time, the safety warnings added another dimension of complication. in a less volatile environment, i would have brought my son along; however, given the safety concerns about the region, i decided against this. leaving him behind with other family members limited the time i was able to spend in the field. in canada, i had to contend with safety concerns of another kind—the threat of the natural environment. winnipeg, recognized as one of the coldest cities in the world, was experiencing the coldest winter in over a hundred years (turner ). because the geographic area of research was located several hours from my house, this required driving on remote snow-covered highways through snow storms to meet interviewees. the fact that this is an unavoidable part of life on the canadian prairies makes it no less terrifying. in fact, one of the first people i interviewed for this project, david friesen, an early school reformer from mexico, was killed in january of in a motor vehicle incident in winter driving conditions in manitoba. on one particular instance, in january of , i had travelled to southern manitoba to conduct a round of interviews. i stayed at a hotel in winkler and planned to spend a couple of days travelling to surrounding communities conducting interviews. the hotel did not have an outlet in the parking lot to plug in the block heater overnight on my aging suv so when i went to start the truck in the morning, it simply refused to cooperate after sitting out overnight in − ◦c temperatures. not wanting to miss religions , , of the interviews, i quickly called a car rental company and rented their least expensive car. as soon as i left town, i regretted my decision—the car was not up to the challenge of a prairie blizzard, and neither was i. i clutched the steering wheel and crept along the barren stretch of road between towns, hazard lights flashing into a wall of white and praying that i would manage to ‘keep it between the ditches’ as my mennonite grandfather would say. eventually i did arrive at the home of my first interviewee—frazzled, late, and relieved to be alive. she was shocked to see that i had ventured out in these conditions; she had simply assumed that i would not be making the trip. as i settled in for a discussion, helen shared with me the story of her own much more harrowing journey of coming to canada in the s by bus as a young family, hoping for a more economically stable future for their children. today, her daughter possesses a master ’s degree and is a strong advocate for the public school system, whereas her son and his wife homeschool their children as a way to insulate them from what they regard as the state’s secularizing agenda. while the lgm migration experience is certainly unique in its particularities, it is but one of many migrations to canada, a receiving nation which prides itself on its welcoming and inclusive stance towards immigrants (good gingrich ), although the voluntary social exclusion practiced by low german mennonite migrants complicates the trope of grateful immigrant, eager to integrate into canadian society (good gingrich ). when the mennonites came to manitoba in the s, it was with the goal of living out their lives quietly and educating their children in a way that was consistent with their faith and worldview (epp ). government intervention made this increasingly less tenable and resulted in a mass exodus to mexico. over time, tens of thousands of the descendants of the original emigrants have made return migrations to canada, where they continue to struggle with the government’s secular educational agenda—some resisting by keeping their children out of school altogether and others participating reluctantly. as an ethnographer, i feel a duty to my participants to share this little-known story, and to place it within the proper historical context. the multi-sitedness required a constant renegotiation of my position vis-à-vis my research participants, but in the end helped to establish a fuller portrait of lgm schooling. it is my hope that by shedding light on the iterative, messy process, and by discussing both the real and perceived security risks attendant with conducting research, that others working with other communities of faith may gain some insight that may be applicable across disciplines. this article also highlights the complicated and often fraught relationship between academic researchers and the institutions which provide ethics and security approval and support for their work. drawing on a range of methods—interviewing, participant observation, and archival analysis—in a variety of contexts: in canada and mexico, in homes and in schools—has enabled me to most effectively elucidate the attitudes among my research subjects towards schooling and to clarify their beliefs about the purpose that schooling serves. collecting the data required nimbleness and reflexivity on my part—a willingness to position my project and myself in such a way that was comprehensible to my research subjects. my limited low german language skills and relative outsider status created a vulnerability that necessitated that i frequently reposition myself in relation to my research subjects, emphasizing a shared profession and common ancestry. ultimately, my own vulnerability diminished the power imbalance that often exists between researcher and researched, both with children and with adults, and fostered a safer space which led to richer and, i suspect, more open conversations with my interviewees. working through a gatekeeper brought challenges of how to establish rapport with subjects while working through a translator. the fact that in canada the translator was also the representative of the school—the institution about which i wished to interview my subjects—complicated matters further. working without a translator, as i did in mexico, limited my ability to converse freely with some subjects, but fostered a more open atmosphere because of the lack of other community representatives. building on coles’s ( ) and geertz’s ( ) notions of the interview as a co-constructed story, as a conversation, religions , , of facilitated the telling of this story and enabled me to ‘grasp and to render’ (geertz ) issues coalescing around the schools. as lgm migrants return to canada to reclaim their lost citizenship, it is often with a sense of ambivalence towards schooling and the implications that accompany each particular schooling option. as one piece of the patchwork quilt that is canadian multiculturalism, the lgm example highlights many of the issues attendant with integrating newcomers (sweet ). and while mennonite migrants are not generally considered a threat to national security, their general lack of assimilation into school culture and wider culture raises important questions about the extent to which newcomers ought to be accommodated. and as long as the mennonites maintain their threads of connection across borders, carrying ideas and experiences of schooling back and forth between canada and mexico, ‘the schools question,’ as it was known in the early twentieth century, will be one which needs to be continually negotiated. the powerful and relatively unknown story of low german mennonite schooling in canada is a compelling case of a minority group using education to preserve its religious and linguistic boundaries vis-à-vis the dominant culture. nearly years after the exodus to mexico, tension over schooling continues, as it seems that many mennonites still do not comply with laws related to education. contemporary schooling practices in both canada and mexico demonstrate that it is their history of transnationalism and consequent lack of loyalty to a particular nation state that characterizes their attitude towards schooling. as citizens of a godly kingdom, not an earthly one, attempts to assimilate and inculcate in them the values of a particular nation have been, and often continue to be, resisted. funding: this research was funded by doctoral research fellowships through the p.e. trudeau foundation and the social sciences and humanities research council of canada, grant number - - . conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references anderson, benedict. . imagined communities: the origin and spread of nationalism. london and new york: verso. boo, katherine. . behind the beautiful forevers. new york: random house llc. brockmann, michaela. . problematizing short-term participant observation and multi-method ethnographic studies. ethnography and education : – . [crossref] bruno-jofre, rosa, ed. . issues in the history of education in manitoba: from the construction of the common school to the politics of voices. lewiston: the edwin mellen press. old colony support. . called to mexico: bringing hope and literacy to the old colony mennonites. walnut creek: carlisle printing. cohn, bernard s., and ranajit guha. . an anthropologist among the historians and other essays. oxford: oxford university press. coles, robert. . the call of stories: teaching and the moral imagination. new york: houghton, mifflin and company. comaroff, john, and jean comaroff. . ethnography and the historical imagination. boulder: westview press, pp. – . crocker, wendy a. . telling tales out of school: principals’ narratives of the relationship between school literacy and the home literacy practices of a minoritized culture. ph.d. dissertation, the university of western ontario, london, on, canada. danby, susan, and ann farrell. . accounting for young children’s competence in educational research: new perspectives on research ethics. australian educational researcher : – . [crossref] davies, hayley. . reflexivity in research practice: informed consent with children at school and at home. available online: http://www.socresonline.org.uk/ / / .html (accessed on december ). dennis, barbara. . ethical dilemmas in the field: the complex nature of doing education ethnography. ethnography and education : – . [crossref] dyck, m. isaak. . auswanderung von kanada nach mexiko ano , rd ed. mexico city: gedruckt bei imprenta colonial, vols. – . ens, adolf. . subjects or citizens? the mennonite experience in canada, – . ottawa: university of ottawa press, vol. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://www.socresonline.org.uk/ / / .html http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . religions , , of epp, frank. h. . mennonites in canada, – : the history of a separate people. toronto: macmillan of canada, vol. . evans-pritchard, edward evan. . the nuer. oxford: clarendon. ewert, henry h. . school inspector report, , report of the department of education, year ending dec , , accession fonds, - . winnipeg: mennonite heritage centre archives. ewert, henry h. . cameron, jd report of the department of education for the year ending dec , . sessional papers, (no. ). . accession papers, - . winnipeg: mennonite heritage centre archives. ewert, henry h. . manitoba free press, february , , in accession fonds, - . winnipeg: mennonite heritage centre archives. francis, emerich k. . search of utopia: the mennonites of manitoba. steinbach: crossway publications. fry, lincoln. . gender and dangers inherent in fieldwork. gender and behaviour : – . gardner, philip. . the giant at the front: young teachers and corporal punishment in inter-war elementary schools. history of education : – . [crossref] gearon, liam. . the counter terrorist classroom: religion, education, and security. religious education : – . [crossref] geertz, clifford. . the interpretation of cultures: selected essays. arizona: basic books, vol. . geertz, clifford, and robert m. emerson. . thick description: toward an interpretive theory of culture. in contemporary field research. long grove: waveland press. ghosh, ratna, ashley manuel, w. y. alice chan, dilmurat mahmut, and mehdi babaei. . education and security: a global literature review on the role of education in countering violent religious extremism. montreal: mcgill university press. giesbrecht, kennert. . winnipeg, mb, canada. personal communication. good gingrich, luann. . out of place: social exclusion and mennonite migrants in canada. toronto: university of toronto press. gregor, alexander, and keith wilson. . the development of education in manitoba. dubuque: kendall/hunt publishing. hall, barry l., and judith kulig. . kanadier mennonites: a case study examining research challenges among religious groups. journal of qualitative research : – . [crossref] [pubmed] hammersley, martyn. . ethnography: problems and prospects. ethnography and education : – . [crossref] hedges, kelly lynn. . “plautdietsch” and “huuchdietsch” in chihuahua: language, literacy, and identity among the old colony mennonites in northern mexico. doctoral dissertation, yale university, new haven, ct, usa. available online: http://search.proquest.com/docview/ ?accountid= ( ) (accessed on december ). hood, suzanne, peter kelley, and berry mayall. . children as research subjects: a risky enterprise. children & society : – . janzen, william. . limits on liberty: the experience of mennonite, hutterite, and doukhobor communities in canada. toronto: university of toronto press. johnson-weiner, karen. . train up a child: old order amish & mennonite schools. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. kenyon, elizabeth, and sheila hawker. . ‘once would be enough’: some reflections on the issue of safety for lone researchers. international journal of social research methodology : – . [crossref] krahn, cornelius, and h. leonard sawatzky. . old colony mennonites. global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. available online: http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/o me.html (accessed on may ). law, john. . after method: mess in social science research. london: psychology press. levinson, martin p. . accountability to research participants: unresolved dilemmas and unravelling ethics. ethnography and education : – . [crossref] loewen, royden. . village among nations: “canadian” mennonites in a transnational world. toronto: university of toronto press. loewen, bernie. . winnipeg, mb, canada. personal communication. loewen, royden. . a village among the nations: low german migrants and the idea of transnationalism in the history of mennonites in canada. available online: https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/publications/conrad-grebel- review/issues/winter- /village-among-nations-low-german-migrants-and-idea (accessed on december ). http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://search.proquest.com/docview/ ?accountid= ( ) http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/o me.html http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/publications/conrad-grebel-review/issues/winter- /village-among-nations-low-german-migrants-and-idea https://uwaterloo.ca/grebel/publications/conrad-grebel-review/issues/winter- /village-among-nations-low-german-migrants-and-idea religions , , of malinowski, bronislaw. . argonauts of the western pacific. new york: dutton. manitoba schools act. . manitoba education. available online: http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k /schools/ ind/non_fund_ind.html (accessed on march ). marcus, george e. . ethnography in/of the world system: the emergence of multi-sited ethnography. annual review of anthropology : – . [crossref] marcus, george e. . how short can fieldwork be? social anthropology : – . [crossref] martin, wednesday. . primates of park avenue: a memoir. new york: simon and schuster. mead, margaret. . coming of age in samoa. new york: morrow. mills, david, and missy morton. . ethnography in education. thousand oaks: sage. orsi, robert. . everyday miracles: the study of lived religion. in lived religion in america: towards a history of practice. edited by david d. hall. princeton: princeton university press. parker, tony. . the unknown citizen. london: faber & faber. parker, tony. . bird, kansas. new york: knopf. paterson, barbara l., david gregory, and sally thorne. . a protocol for researcher safety. qualitative health research : – . [crossref] [pubmed] peters, jake. . mennonite private schools in manitoba and saskatchewan, – . historical series ii. steinbach: mennonite heritage village. plett, delbert. . old colony mennonites in canada, to . steinbach: crossway publications. quiring, david menno. . the mennonite old colony vision: under siege in mexico and the canadian connection. wheaton: crossway publications. ramirez, francisco, and john boli. . the political construction of mass schooling: european origins and worldwide institutionalization. sociology of education : – . [crossref] rudestam, kjell erik, and rae r. newton. . surviving your dissertation: a comprehensive guide to content and process. thousand oaks: sage publications. saunders-currie, avril. . alternative education for low german mennonite students: a negotiation of education for equity and inclusion. ph.d. dissertation, university of toronto, toronto, on, canada. leonard, sawatzky harry. . they sought a country: mennonite colonization in mexico. berkeley: university of california press. schmiedehaus, walter. . die altkolonier-mennoniten in mexiko. steinbach: cmbc publications. sharp, gwen, and emily kremer. . the safety dance: confronting harassment, intimidation, and violence in the field. sociological methodology : – . [crossref] srivastava, prachi, and nick hopwood. . a practical iterative framework for qualitative data analysis. international journal of qualitative methods : – . [crossref] stambach, amy. . lessons from mount kilimanjaro: schooling, community, and gender in east africa. london: routledge. sweet, lois. . god in the classroom: the controversial issue of religion in canada’s schools. toronto: mclelland and stewart. thornton, robert s. . minister of education, address to the manitoba legislature, accession fonds, - . winnipeg: mennonite heritage centre archives. tönnies, jose. . community and civil society. cambridge: cambridge university press. turner, randy. . city’s worst winter since canada’s national forecaster has hard, cold facts to prove it. available online: https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/citys-worst-winter-since- ---- - .html (accessed on december ). urry, james. . mennonites, politics, and peoplehood: europe, russia, canada, to . winnipeg: university of manitoba press. urry, john. . sociology beyond societies: mobilities for the twenty-first century. london: routledge. weber, max. . economy and society. edited by g. roth and c. wittich. berkeley: university of california press. wall, nellie. . personal interview. winkler, mb, canada, march . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k /schools/ind/non_fund_ind.html http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k /schools/ind/non_fund_ind.html http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.an. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . _ .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/citys-worst-winter-since- ---- - .html https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/citys-worst-winter-since- ---- - .html http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	references operationalization of urbanicity and its role in examining variations in the relationship between county level suicide rates and social integration in late twentieth century united states county level suicide rates and social integration: urbanicity and its role in the relationship by jacob travis walker a thesis submitted to the faculty of mississippi state university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of science in sociology in the department of sociology, anthropology, and social work mississippi state, mississippi may county level suicide rates and social integration: urbanicity and its role in the relationship by jacob travis walker approved: _____________________________ ______________________________ jeralynn s. cossman xiaohe xu associate professor of sociology graduate coordinator of the department (director of thesis) of sociology, anthropology, and social work _____________________________ ______________________________ martin l. levin philip b. oldham professor of sociology dean of the college of (committee member) arts and sciences _____________________________ troy c. blanchard associate professor of sociology (committee member) name: jacob travis walker date of degree: may , institution: mississippi state university major field: sociology major professor: dr. jeralynn s. cossman title of study: county level suicide rates and social integration: urbanicity and its role in the relationship pages in study: candidate for degree of master of science this study adds to the existing research concerning ecological relationships between suicide rates, social integration, and urbanicity in the u.s. age-sex-race adjusted five-year averaged suicide rates for - and various measures of urbanicity are used. some proposed relationships held true, while others indicate that social integration and urbanicity are so intertwined in their effects on suicide that no clear, unidirectional pattern emerges. the religious affiliation measure captured unique variations in the role religion plays in this relationship; depending on how urbanicity was measured. findings suggest closer attention needs to be paid to how both urbanicity and religious affiliation are measured. overall, vast regional variation exists in suicide rates and the role of urbanization can be misunderstood if not properly specified. ii dedication this thesis is dedicated to my loving parents cheryl and charles green who have always provided council and encouragement and have never failed to offer positive affirmations when they were most needed. this thesis is also dedicated to my grandfathers jewel walker and pete peterson who have been inspirations throughout my life to persevere and succeed no matter the odds. also, i would like to dedicate this thesis to dr. jeralynn cossman, a true friend and an outstanding advisor, who never gave up on me and whose council personally and professionally will forever be remembered. above all, it is with great honor that i dedicate this thesis in loving memory of my grandmother marilyn peterson who left this world on february , , as i was finishing this work. as a former nurse, she inspired me years ago to begin studying euthanasia eventually leading me to my current research focus. i am truly a lucky individual to have had such an intelligent, strong, compassionate, and loving woman be part of my life for so many years. i love you grandma, and you will always be remembered by those of us you loved and touched so deeply. may i always make all of you proud with the work i do. iii acknowledgements the author expresses genuine appreciation to those who made this research a reality. first, i would like to commend dr. jeralynn s. cossman, my committee chairperson, for her valuable direction, guidance, professionalism, understanding, time, and friendship. her guidance throughout my undergraduate and graduate academic life has been invaluable in my development as a professional. extreme appreciation is also due to the other members of my thesis committee, namely, dr. troy c. blanchard and dr. martin l. levin, for providing direction, assistance, and much needed feedback throughout this process. finally, the author would like to express tremendous gratitude to dr. cathy grace and the early childhood institute for providing support during this entire process. iv table of contents dedication ............................................................................................... ii acknowledgements............................................................................. iii list of tables ......................................................................................... vi list of figures ....................................................................................... vii chapter i. introduction and review of literature................ introduction ............................................................................. review of literature and rationale for inclusion of specific integration measures ...................................... suicide.......................................................................... social integration.......................................................... female labor force participation ................................ divorce ......................................................................... migration....................................................................... religion ........................................................................ urbanization ................................................................. income.......................................................................... income inequality ......................................................... education ..................................................................... hypotheses ............................................................................. ii. methodology.................................................................... introduction ............................................................................. data sources .......................................................................... dependent variable-suicide ................................................... control variables..................................................................... income.......................................................................... income inequality ......................................................... v education ..................................................................... independent variables ............................................................ female labor force participation ................................ divorce rates............................................................... net migration ................................................................ religion ........................................................................ urbanicity ..................................................................... procedures.............................................................................. iii. findings and conclusions ........................................... introduction ............................................................................. descriptive statistics ............................................................... weighted least squares regression...................................... hypotheses revisited ............................................................. conclusions ............................................................................ limitations ............................................................................... directions for future research ............................................... references ............................................................................................. appendix a. listing of the congregations composing each of the religious traditions measures: the four division religious traditions measure and eight division religious family measure ................................................................ b. division urbanicity measure rural-urban beale codes ............................................................ vi list of tables table page summary of variables used ......................................................... descriptive statistics for all counties & the category urbanicity models ........................................ descriptive statistics for all counties and the division rural-urban codes to ..................................................... summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for all counties (n= )..................................................... summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for division measure of urbanicity least urban (n= ), middle urban (n= ), and most urban (n= ) ............ summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for division measure rural-urban codes - ....................... vii list of figures figure page - u.s. age-sex-race adjusted suicide rates........... chapter i introduction and review of literature introduction many sociologists have examined social integration and its relationship to social phenomena such as divorce, crime, inequality, modernization, and urbanization. with advances in technology, quality of data sets, and statistical techniques, it is now possible to examine contemporary county-level variations in one of the earliest phenomena to be studied from the standpoint of social integration, suicide. researchers of suicide and social integration have operationalized social integration using a number of different variables such as divorce rates, labor statistics, migration, religion, and urbanization to name a few (breault, ; stack, ; trovato & vos. ; and wasserman, ). however, no one has yet examined small-area explanations of suicide using these specific measures of social integration. the variables used to operationalize social integration vary as much within a researcher’s body of work, as among researchers (see for example: breault, & ; breault & kposowa, ; lester, a, b, a, & b; and stack, a, b, , , , , , & ). previous studies of suicide tend to look at multiple measures of social integration simultaneously; unfortunately, religion and urbanization, arguably two of the most important indicators of social integration, have not been measured consistently, nor have these various measures been tested side by side. more recent research has begun to address this issue, specifically examining the effect of various measures of religion in urban settings on suicide rates (ellison, burr, & mccall, ). as a result of the lack of a central work that compares various measures of integration variables as they relate to suicide rates, the unique contribution of the current research is to test and compare how different measures of two of the most frequently tested social integration variables—religion and urbanization— can yield varying results. this will also allow a better understanding of those relationships as a result. suicide has been a focus of sociological research since the infancy of the discipline. early sociologists in england and france were concerned with understanding and explaining the social disruptions that accompanied modernization, including the increase in the number of people living in urban places, working in manufacturing plants, and moving away from their villages (anderson, ). these social disruptions had both positive and negative effects on societal development, progress, and social integration. one of the most noted negative effects associated with these social disruptions has been their link with suicide rates. specifically, as durkheim ([ ] ) contended, the greater the level of social integration—measured with church participation—in a population, the lower the occurrence of suicide with catholics having a lower occurrence than protestants. the relationship between suicide and social integration has been examined more recently using divorce rates, percent female labor force participation, religious adherents, and net migration as proxies for more contemporary measures of social integration (breault, ; stack, ; trovato & vos. ; and wasserman, ). regional variation was key to durkheim’s ([ ] ) argument that social integration and suicide are related, though he tested the relationships at the nation-state level. present-day researchers have noted the continued necessity to look at regional variation in social integration and suicide rates (e.g., baller & richardson, ; breault & kposowa, ; chuang huang, ; ellison et. al., ; and faupel, kowalski, & starr, ). for example, between and , counties in western states had the highest rates of suicide in the u.s., along with the highest rates of divorce and population growth, and the lowest rates of church attendance (breault, ). breault ( ) also found a % increase in suicide rates for all states between and , with southern states continuing to have the fastest rate of growth ( %+) in suicide rates. county level data allow sociologists to note nonrandom variation that may only be seen at lower levels of analysis; highly aggregated data from nations or states average these sources of nonrandom variation (breault & kposowa, ). as technology and statistical methods have evolved, researchers have extended durkheim’s empirical test of the relationship between suicide and social integration to smaller levels of geography. studies of social integration and suicide rates using sub-national units, such as state, county, or smsa, have frequently failed to support durkheim’s original assertion (baller & richardson, ; faupel et. al, ; stack, ; whitt, gordan, & hofley, ). county level suicide data, though available, have received the least amount of attention from scholars to this point, when studied, researchers usually examine a short time frame with mixed results (e.g., baller, ; kowalski, faupel, & starr, ). in this study, variations in county-level suicide rates in the u. s. are examined using measures of social integration, including female labor force participation rates, divorce rates, net migration rates, rates of religious adherence and the percent of county population in urban settings. controls for per capita income, income inequality, and education were also used. the relationships between these measures and county-level age-sex-race adjusted suicide rates in the united states are examined for deaths between - . this research addresses two important limitations in the existing research: ) small area analysis of suicide rates and social integration and ) comparisons of how religion and urbanicity—as measures of social integration—are operationalized and their impact on analyses. this research addresses these limitations in two ways: ) using small area analyses to examine the relationship between suicide rates and the level of social integration, in contemporary u.s. counties and ) using multiple measures of the integration variables of religion and urbanization are tested and compared. first, age-race-sex adjusted suicide rates were calculated for each u.s. county, standardized to the standard million. these suicide rates were then used in multiple models with various measures of religion and urbanization and single measures of integration concerning female labor force participation, divorce rate, and net migration, and controls for per capita income, income inequality, and education. these analyses give sociologists a clearer picture of the effect of social integration on suicide in late twentieth century american society. review of literature and rationale for inclusion of specific integration measures suicide suicide is the number one preventable cause of death in the world, the eighth leading cause of death for americans, and the third leading cause of death for americans aged - . according to the world health organization (who, ), in nearly one million people committed suicide worldwide with to times more people attempting suicide the same year, representing one death every seconds and one attempt every three seconds. the centers for disease control (cdc, ) reported that in there were . suicides for each homicide in the u.s. suicide was one of the earliest studied phenomena in the field of sociology, with two of the first works being thomas masaryk’s ([ ] ) book, suicide and the meaning of civilization, and emile durkheim’s ([ ] ) book suicide. according to masaryk ([ ] : ), the rise in suicide rates towards the end of the th century could be the result of a decrease in the number of socially insulating and integrating mechanisms in society, believing that “progress and education are the seeds of suicide.” on the other hand, durkheim ([ ] ) explained this same increase as being related to the loss of traditional forms of social organization and integration. studying phenomena, such as suicide rates, at the aggregate level requires a great deal of attention to which variables are used, as well as the level at which they are measured to prevent commission of the ecological fallacy. recent work by congdon ( ) points out that while unobserved factors relate to differentials in suicide risk and rates at various geographic scales, there is a large body of literature that has found ecological correlations between suicide rates and variables related to socioeconomic structures and cultural beliefs. social integration social integration refers to the degree that a person belongs to a cohesive social group or population with generally accepted norms and values (breault, ). the first empirical work to quantify social integration was conducted by durkheim ([ ] ) in suicide. the act of suicide is very individualistic, but durkheim was concerned with the social aspects of suicide, specifically, he focused on changes in suicide rates. he believed that suicide rates were affected by social facts demonstrating the level of social integration in a population (durkheim, [ ] ). social integration is facilitated through various pathways, such as role accumulation/expansion, family, religious, and economic integration (durkheim, [ ] ). durkheim ([ ] ) argued that the strength or weakness of social ties in a population was directly reflective of the level of social integration in that population with egoistic suicide occurring from a lack of social integration. to illustrate the insulating effects of integration, durkheim ([ ] ) created maps of egoistic suicide rates and family density—as a measure of integration— demonstrating that areas with high rates of egoistic suicide also exhibited low rates of family density. durkheim viewed the collective energy of large families as a powerful safeguard against suicide specifically, “in a family of small numbers, common sentiments and memories cannot be very intense; for there are not enough consciences in which they can be represented and reinforced by sharing them.... but for a group to be said to have less common life than another means that it is less powerfully integrated; for the state of integration of a social aggregate can only reflect the intensity of the collective life circulating in it” (durkheim, [ ] : ). the gradual decay of the underlying structure of social order and the dissolution of the ties of social integration has been a continuing concern of social scientists. durkheim saw the foundation of social integration as changing from pre-modern to modern times. in pre-modern societies social integration was achieved through a high level of social homogeneity, with members sharing similar lifestyles and low levels of specialization. in a modern society, social integration increases and is characterized by high levels of social heterogeneity, dissimilarity, and specialization (durkheim, [ ] ; masaryk, [ ] ). with increases in specialization the individual becomes less self-sufficient; so, integration becomes less dependent on group similarities and more dependent on the interdependence of the various parts. since durkheim’s original work, many have tried to replicate the techniques he used to measure social integration, some with greater success than others. measures used more recently and included in this study are female labor force participation, divorce, migration, urbanization, religion, income, income inequality, and education. female labor force participation females’ formal labor force participation has been on the rise over the last century and is approaching the level of men’s formal labor force participation (stack, & ). during world war ii, america saw a large increase in women participating in the formal work force (schweitzer, ). as men were either enlisted or drafted, jobs of all types were being left vacant; to build national morale and fill the vacancies, the american government conducted a mass campaign to place women in some of these positions. once the war was over and the soldiers began to return, women were forced to leave the workplace and surrender their jobs to men (schweitzer, ). not all women were forced out of the labor market, as the high number of war time fatalities left a number of jobs vacant and many families with only one parent to provide for them, the mother. since then, changes in the economic environment, family structure, and gender role expectations have shaped the way female labor force participation is viewed. female labor force participation (flfp) is now seen as normative for adult women in american society, increasing their level of social integration (stack, ; simpson and conklin, ). empirical research into the role flfp plays in social integration and, therefore, suicide has provided myriad results. gibbs and martin ( ) found a strong positive relationship between flfp and suicide rates for both men and women. prior to , female labor force participation was linked to higher suicide rates for both women and men (gibbs, and stack, ). soon thereafter, women’s workplace roles changed the trend of increasing suicide rates, with flfp being inversely related to suicide rates for women, and positively related for men as flfp became socially normative (gibbs, ; marks, ; and stack, & ). other researchers have found a negative relationship; so as flfp increases suicide rates decrease (breault, ; marks, ; sieber, ; stack, ; stack, ; and trovato and vos, ). sieber ( ) and marks ( ), both theorized that the addition of roles to one’s life increased the level of happiness one experienced no matter whether the role brought role conflict. for example, women increase their social interaction with others via work and, in turn, increase social integration in the community (stack, ). so, from the late ’s through the early ’s, through the women’s rights movement, increases in flfp rates were seen to reduce suicide rates for an area (austin, bologna, & dodge, ; breault, ; stack, & ; and trovato and vos, ). in the late s, the benefits of participation in the work force for women were developing: higher incomes, more personal freedom, and self-esteem gained from balancing roles in the domestic and economic arena (marks, ). these benefits all worked to decrease the strain on women thereby reducing their suicide rates (marks, ; sieber, ; and stack, ). given the natural social process of changing normative structures, the timeframe under examination needs to be taken into consideration when studying the relationship between flfp and suicide rates. divorce durkheim ([ ] ) examined marital status as a form of family integration, finding that marriage increased the level of integration an individual experienced in the family unit and that integration was further increased when children were added into the equation. on the other end of the marriage spectrum, kowalski et al. ( ) found that divorce increased the level of vulnerability and stress within the family unit, resulting in poor family integration and reducing overall social integration. at the ecological level, kowalski et al. ( ) found that integration —as measured by percent divorced— contributed a % increase in the overall suicide rate of all populations studied, and through further analyses they found that in the urban setting divorce made the largest independent contribution. also, gibbs ( ) found that for the years of , , and , as marital integration in a population (percent married) increased, the suicide rate decreased, but this effect was substantially reduced by . since the early ’s divorce has become a much more common martial status in america and the original contention that divorce was an incompatible status no longer exists (stack, a). to support stack’s and gibbs’ findings wasserman ( ) argues that it is not that divorced people commit suicide more but the reduction in the level of social integration resulting from high rates of divorce in a population will cause an increase in the suicide rate for the population due to the reduction in the integrative effects of the kinship structure. migration residential stability is a crucial condition necessary for understanding social organization and integration (schieman, ). high levels of migration are not conducive to building a cohesive population. excessive migration inhibits extensive, long-term family, friendship, and communal connections. generally speaking, over time, the relationship between suicide rates and residential mobility has strengthened with the increased accessibility to various modes of transportation and the reduction in family dependence, characteristic of a modern society (schnaiberg, ). for example, breault ( ) found a weak relationship between suicide and migration from to , and after till the mid- ’s, the relationship was strong at both the county level and state level. residential stability promotes integration by increasing likelihood that members know each other, reducing feelings of estrangement from the group (schieman, ). the positive relationship between residential stability and higher social integration also holds in populations that are highly disadvantaged, due to the stability created by high levels of interdependence within such populations (schieman, ). in these areas of disadvantaged populations, a negative relationship exists between residential stability and violent crime, specifically homicide and suicide (hansmann and quigley, ; smith & jarjourn, ; and whitt et al., ). lantz and harper ( ) also found that migratory behavior influenced suicide in all populations studied. the level of net migration an area experiences also has an effect on the development of community ties (baller and richardson, ; chuang and huang, ; pampel and williamson, ; mmwr, aug. ; stack, ). strong community ties act as insulators to suicidal tendencies. as people in a society become more mobile, the likelihood of migration increases, resulting in the loss of established community ties. this loss of ties is related to an increase in suicide rates in places where the level of net migration is high (baller and richardson, ; chuang and huang, ; pampel and williamson, ; mmwr, aug. ; stack, ). breault and kposowa ( ) found that counties with stable populations are more highly integrated than those with more transient populations. transient populations have higher rates of change in geographic location, increasing anomie, disrupting social relationships creating anonymity and impeding the enforcement of at least the norms that pertain to the more private aspects of behavior (schnaiberg, ). for example, hansmann and quigley ( ) found that “population heterogeneity” (percent change in county of residence within five years) affects both homicide and suicide rates. high rates of population change also relate to a weakening of ties within voluntary organizations like churches, and are associated with increases in divorce, criminal deviance and suicide (hansmann and quigley, ; lester, a and b; and quinney, ). lester ( a and b) extends this idea by noting that individuals perceive themselves as deviant when they are quite different from the community’s characteristics; as a result, they experience more stress and exhibit more psychiatric disorders and suicidal behavior. potter et al. ( ) saw that moving resulted in lower levels of social integration and a higher likelihood of experiencing new situations without the normal structures of social regulation that would be present in one’s original locale, causing social isolation and stress in the new location. they found that moving in the previous months was highly associated with an increased likelihood of suicide (potter et al., ). in support of this assertion at the aggregate level, stack ( b) found that a % increase in residential mobility (change in county of residence in past years) resulted in an increase of . % in the suicide rate. so, as residential stability increases, community ties become stronger and there is a higher participation in voluntary organizations; both indicators of social integration. since social integration is related to lower rates of suicide; it is logical to conclude that residential stability is therefore related to lower rates of suicide. religion one of the most classic relationships that exists in the study of suicide is that of sociology’s “one law” (faupel et. al, )—the assertion put forth by durkheim that catholicism has an inverse relationship with suicide rates (durkheim, [ ] ). examined at an ecological level, the percent of a given population that is catholic has had varying results depending on the sample, level of analysis, and time studied. early studies focused on the idea that countries with a large catholic population had lower rates of suicide. in many studies this relationship holds true; and in others it is not as important as once thought. durkheim saw religion as a mechanism through which individuals developed a sense of moral obligation to submit and adhere to societies’ demands—increasing social order and integration (durkheim, [ ] ). he defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a church, all those that adhere to them” (durkheim, [ ] : ). the various religious experiences of individuals were not durkheim’s ([ ] ) concern; instead, he thought of religion as a common group activity with common group bonds facilitated through the participation in religious activities. as such, religion is a good tool for studying social integration of a population. in traditional times, religion was much more ritualistic with well- defined and maintained beliefs and practices. religion in modern times has been characterized by a shift towards a system that is much more individualistic and freethinking (lester a and stack, ). the construct of religious practices has changed with time, though the role it plays in relation to social order and social integration has held. simply put, areas that have higher rates of religious integration experience lower levels of deviance and higher levels of overall social integration (lee & bartkowski, and lester, a). recent works looking at religion’s role in social integration by lee and bartkowski ( ) and tolbert, lyson and irwin ( ) have looked at “civically engaged denominations” and the role they play in deterring deviant behavior at the ecological level. the civically engaged denominations hypothesis states that participation in local associations and churches increases civic participation, and reduces out migration by connecting people to the local community, increasing social integration. stemming from putnam’s ( ) “bowling alone” hypothesis, which asserts that declines in informal associations result in a loss of social capital leading to declines in civic engagement in society which can result in a reduction in social integration and, consequently, an increase in suicide rates. making use of a similar stance to that of putnam ( ) and tolbert, lyson, and irwin ( ), beyerlein and hipp ( ) examined the relationship between social capital building and various religious traditions. instead of examining specific denominations beyerlein and hipp ( ) grouped protestant denominations into various traditions based on how believers either stressed engagement in the church or engagement in the broader community. to further examine the role of various religious traditions in building an engaged and integrated community beyerlein and hipp ( ) also made use of an institutional measure that took into account the presence of congregations belonging to each of the traditions. their findings indicate a positive relationship between mainline protestants and catholics and the building of social capital within the community while an inverse relationship exists for evangelical protestants (beyerlein and hipp, ). while the use of a religion measure in studying suicide rates is important, roof ( ) cautions against leaning too heavily on these findings in contemporary american society. reliability of religion measures has been found to have some problems. specifically inconsistencies in reporting of membership rates as well as in the areas of self-reported attendance and prayer practices, a sizable number of americans take liberties when describing their religious lives (roof, ). urbanization urbanization is the movement of people from rural, agricultural-based areas to urban city centers due to increased levels of industrialization. the increased industrialization creates the need for increased educational opportunities to support the emerging economic environment (kowalski et.al., ; potter et al., ). during urbanization, secularization increases, leading to a decrease in population homogeneity through increased questioning of religious organizations and beliefs (lester, a and masaryk, [ ] ). this lack of homogeneity creates a disconnect from the rest of the group and in turn causes a reduction in the insulating effects of religion, and other socially integrating mechanisms such as community and family (masaryk, [ ] and stack, ). additionally, urban areas experience relatively low levels of moral and social control due to the heightened effect of low homogeneity and economic relations on social life and the corresponding reduction in social integration (breault and kposowa, ). the consequences of urbanization used to include inadequate/overcrowded housing, illiteracy, poverty, pollution, poor sanitation, disease and high childhood mortality rates. these problems made it difficult to have a high quality of life conducive to high levels of social integration. while urbanization may still be a problem, in current day america the consequences related to urbanization have changed somewhat to include problems of violent crime, poor education, and strained economic conditions to name a few (breault and kposowa, ; and pample and williamson, ). examining the literature that addresses the ecological connection between suicide and level of urbanization shows no definitive answer to the empirical relationship between suicide and urbanization. stack ( ) and quinney ( ) found a strong positive relationship between urbanization and suicide rates illustrating what they viewed as the effect of diminished social networks of community and kinship that traditionally exist in rural settings. contrary to these findings research conducted by anderson ( ), found a higher rate of suicide among rural counties (n= ) than the urban counties (n= ) in england. while kowalski et al. ( ) found the percent urban of an area’s population in the u.s. is inversely related to suicide rates; however, the variation across urban, mid-urban and rural locations was minimal—they were all within one suicide death per , in the population studied. so, although this may be a statistically significant relationship, researchers should question whether it is substantively important. further supporting the use of smaller levels of aggregation, shaw et al. ( ) found an intra-country effect with regard to suicide rates. specifically, areas in greece had both the highest and lowest rates of suicide of all the countries examined. by overlooking the intra-country effect of suicide rates in a nation as large as the u.s. and others, could lead to biased or egregious conclusions when trying to compare countries to one another, and should be examined further with longitudinal cross-national data. income one of the earliest assertions made by durkheim ( ) concerning income and suicide was that poverty tends to impose greater social- and self- restraint resulting in a lower suicide rate; but current research has shown the inverse to be the actual case (faupel et. al, ). the argument states that high poverty rates tend to reduce the level of economic integration experienced by a group and increases the likelihood of suicide. contrary to durkheim’s original assertion, some sociologists have found an inverse relationship between income and suicide rates (faupel et al., ; kowalski et al., ; pappas et al., ; and stack, b, , , ). chuang and huang ( ) found that economic factors, such as per capita income, had a greater effect on suicide rates than sociological variables of marital status and migration; depending on region being studied, reinforcing the need to examine this relationship further. others who have examined the relationship between income and suicide have had mixed results as well. for example, kowalski et al. ( ) found that median income made the greatest unit decrease in suicide rates in urban-rural differences in suicide rates (of variables included in their models). at the next level of aggregation, simpson & conklin ( ) show that as a nation’s level of income increases, so does its suicide rate. income inequality income inequality refers to the extent of disparity between high and low incomes of groups in a specific area. when looking at mortality as a whole, as income inequality decreases, life expectancy increases for a population (muller, ). when examining suicide as a specific cause of mortality, the greater the income equality the lower the level of social exclusion and sense of being disadvantaged (faupel et al., ; kowalski et al., ; pample, ; and stack, ). more simply put, the greater the income equality the greater the social integration and lower suicide rates. the literature is mixed when it comes to the effect, if any, of income inequality on suicide rates; so, it is important to examine. breault ( ) found that income inequality and suicide were completely unrelated, and pample’s ( ) results only demonstrated a minimal effect between income inequality and suicide. in support of the connection between suicide rates and income inequality, multiple researchers have found that not only is income inequality related to suicide, at times it can be one of the strongest contributors to suicide rates (see faupel et al., ; & kowalski et al., ). a positive correlation between income inequality and violent crime, suicide specifically, has been found by others as well (see hansmann and quigley, and kowalski et al., ). in one case, this relationship only holds true for more urban areas, while not having as strong an effect on more rural areas (kowalski et al., ). this distinction is tested in the current research. education the generally accepted relationship between mortality and education has been that as the level of education of a place increases, the mortality rate for that area will decrease (hummer, rogers, & eberstein, ), largely due to the increased access to goods and services resulting from increased education. however, earlier studies of suicide as a cause-specific mortality do not support this relationship. according to thomas masaryk, “progress and education are the seeds of suicide” (masaryk, [ ] : ). he and other scholars have looked at the effect of the rate of education on suicide rates, arguing that the positive relationship is a result of a growing superficial culture in which members have a “disorganized, heterogeneous set of ideas with no connecting worldview” (masaryk, [ ] : , lester , stack, ). this lack of a connecting worldview causes suicide rates to increase due to a reduction in the insulating effects of religion, and other socially integrating mechanisms such as community and family (masaryk, [ ] and stack, ). during modernization, an increase in the education level of an area occurs due to the expanding need for occupational diversity in pursuit of economic advancement. as the level of education increases, suicide rates increase (quinney, ; sawyer & sobal, ; and simpson et al., ). simpson et al. ( ) specifically saw that suicide rates were closely related to increases in education of an area. current studies looking at the relationship between educational attainment and suicide rates in america are difficult to find. abel & kruger ( ) examined the relationship between the percentage of a state’s population that are college graduates in with concurrent state-level suicide rates and found a significantly negative correlation (r=-. , p<. ), supporting the assertion of hummer and colleges ( ) that increased education reduces mortality rates, even with regards to suicide mortality. hypotheses the literature indicates that divorce rates, net migration rates, and income inequality are positively related to suicide rates at the county level. it is also noted that female labor force participation rates, rates of religious adherents, per capita income, and percentage of the population that are college graduates are negatively related to suicide rates. percent in rural areas is expected be inversely related to suicide rates, with variation occurring among suburban and urban areas. building on the previous findings in regard to suicide rates and integration, this study will test the following hypotheses: hypothesis one: the relationship between urbanicity and suicide rates in counties will vary depending on how urbanicity is operationalized. this hypothesis is tested using the three different measures of urbanicity: ( ) percent urban, ( ) least, middle, and most urban, and ( ) - rural-urban continuum codes. hypothesis two: social integration and suicide are correlated at the county level. this hypothesis is tested with twelve different measures of social integration and three control variables using each of the three measures of urbanicity: integration variables . female labor force participation rates (negatively related), . divorce rates (positively related), . net migration rate (positively related), . percent urban (positively related), . percent catholic (negatively related), . percent of religious adherents to mainline protestant denominations (positively related), . percent of religious adherents to evangelical protestant denominations (positively related), . percent of religious adherents to other denominations (positively related), . catholic congregations per , people (positively related), . mainline protestant congregations per , people (positively related), . evangelical protestant congregations per , people (positively related), . other congregations per , people (positively related) control variables . per capita income (negatively related), . gini index of income inequality (negatively related), . percentage of population that are college graduates (negatively related). hypothesis three: the social integration variables vary in direction, magnitude and statistical significance depending on how urbanicity is operationalized. this hypothesis is tested by performing weighted least squares regression using the variables mentioned in hypothesis two and the three different urbanicity measures from hypothesis one. hypothesis four: sociology’s one-law that percent catholic in an area reduces the suicide rate while percent protestant will cause an increase in suicide rates will vary, depending on the operationalization of religion and urbanicity. this hypothesis is tested using the eight religion measures of: . percent catholic, . percent religious adherents to mainline protestants, . percent religious adherents to evangelical protestants, . percent religious adherents to other denominations, . catholic congregations per , people, . mainline protestant congregations per , people, . evangelical protestant congregations per , people, and . other congregations per , people. these are examined for each of the three measures of urbanicity outlined in hypothesis one, resulting in variation in the direction and magnitude of the effect of the various religious measures at each level of measurement. chapter ii methodology introduction this chapter is organized in the following manner. first a description of the data sources is presented, a brief description of how each of the dependent, control, and independent variables is operationalized is provided, and the chapter concludes by describing the statistical procedures used. data sources mortality data are from the compressed mortality file - (cmf) produced by the national center for health statistics and based on information collected from every death record in the united states (national center for health statistics, , a, and b). county-level population and socioeconomic variables are from the ( ) area resource file (arf), developed and maintained by the health resources and services administration (hrsa) (office of data analysis and management, ), ( ) census of population and housing summary tape file a (office of data analysis and management, ), ( ) county-specific net migration by -year age groups, hispanic origin, race, and sex, - (vos et. al., ), and ( ) income inequality as measured by the gini index taken from james & cossman ( ). county-level religion data come from the churches and church membership in the united states, counties produced by the glenmary research center (association of statisticians of american religious bodies, ), available online at the american religion data archive (www.thearda.com). the specific variables in the analysis, definitions, and source are detailed below. table summary of variables used concept measure source year of data mortality suicide rate/ , population cmf - social % female labor force arf integration % and older divorced us census net migration voss et. al., - % urban us census religious % catholic census of churches traditions % mainline protestant census of churches adherents % evangelical protestant census of churches % other denominations census of churches congregations catholic congregations census of churches per , mainline congregations census of churches population evangelical congregations census of churches other congregations census of churches controls per capita income ($ , ) arf income inequality (gini) james & cossman, % college graduates arf interaction (per capita*gini) james & cossman, dependent variable-suicide the dependent variable for this study is five-year county suicide rates calculated from the compressed mortality file using the international classification of diseases- codes e - for the years of - . these rates are age-sex-race adjusted to the united states standard million so that rates can be compared across counties (james & cossman, ). the five year rate is used due to data restrictions on the cmf and to improve rate stability, as annual suicide rates vary considerably in smaller populations (breault, ). control variables income the relationship between income and suicide rates is most commonly measured in one of two ways: as income per capita (chuang & huang, ; eckersley & dear, ; hansmann & quigley, ; mclaughlin & stokes, ; mclaughlin, stokes, & nonoyama, ; and pampel & williamson, ) or as median family income (ellison et. al., ; faupel et.al., ; and kowalski et. al., ). given current restraints this research makes use of the measure that appears to be the standard in most recent publications, per capita income. using the us census definition of every man, woman, and child, per capita income is expressed in $ , per person. the measure is taken from the area resource file (arf) (office of data analysis and management, ). income inequality the measure of income inequality in the current research is a gini index of inequality (gini); it has extreme values of zero (no income inequality) and one (perfect income inequality) (nielsen, ). researchers have found that in areas of high income inequality, as measured by the gini index, violent crime rates, all-cause mortality rates, and specifically suicide rates are higher (see: eckersley & dear, ; hansmann & quigley, ; lynch, smith, harper, & hillemeier, ; kowalski et. al., ; mclaughlin & stokes, ; mclaughlin, stokes, & nonoyama, ; and pampel & williamson, ). education recent literature has mixed results for the ecological relationship between suicide rates and level of education. for example kowalski, faupel, and starr ( ), using the median level of education for a county, discovered areas with higher median education also had higher suicide rates, but this was only apparent in the most urbanized third of counties, and further analysis revealed that this same increase was also seen in the middle third of urbanized counties (faupel et. al., ). later results from breault ( ) show no relationship present, when using median education as the measure of interest. the documentation related to the area resource file explains that while median years of education is available, caution must be used with this measure due to a lack of clarity in the u.s. census question of highest year of education completed, and the resulting inconsistencies in reporting the percent of the population that are high school or college graduates (office of data analysis and management, ). due to these inconsistencies and the limited number of recent suicide studies that have used an educational measure, this research will make use of the measure outlined by abel & kruger ( ) and focus on the percentage of the population who are college graduates, taken from the area resource file (office of data analysis and management, ). independent variables female labor force participation the u.s. department of labor, bureau of labor statistics ( ) defines the female labor force participation (flfp) rate as the share of the population that is female and years or older working or seeking work. over time researchers have used a number of ways to measure flfp; some have used the percentage of females that are wage and salary workers of all wage and salary workers (stack, and trovato & vos, ), while others have used a similar technique but limited it to those females who are married and working (stack, ). a more common measure expresses flfp as the percentage of economically active females in a population (faupel et. al., , and simpson & conklin, ). researchers have found flfp to be highly correlated with suicide rates at various levels of aggregation using these various techniques (see; faupel et. al. ; simpson & conklin, ; stack, a, , , , and ; trovato & vos, ). following the more recent literature, the current research will measure flfp using the percentage of females in a county who are economically active from the area resource file (office of data analysis and management, ). divorce rates breault ( ) and others (e.g., breault & kposowa, ; chuang & huang, ; and pampel & wiliamson, ) argue that divorce is currently the most appropriate indicator of family integration, having a positive relationship with suicide rates at various levels of aggregation. in this study the relationship between divorce rates and suicide rates is tested using the percentage of people age and older in a county who gave the response of “divorced” on the marital status question on the census of population and housing summary tape file a (office of data analysis and management, ). net migration net migration has been found to be a general indicator of social integration and associated with u.s. suicide rates (see: hansmann & quigley, ; potter et. al., ; shaw & orford, ; schieman, ; and stack, b). net migration is traditionally defined as the difference between those who move in and those who move out of a particular place in a given time period and is one of the more common measures used in suicide research (ellison et. al., ; faupel et. al., ; ; schieman, ; and stack, b). a precise measure of net county migration that has been used in studying mortality rates comes from county-specific net migration by -year age groups, hispanic origin, race, and sex, - (voss et. al., ). this computes net migration using the vital statistics method, taking into account in-migration, out- migration, births, and deaths (see voss et. al., for full description of this technique). since this measure is a mathematically thorough measure of the actual population change in an area, the vital statistics measure (voss et. al., ) is used. religion the operationalization of the religion measure in suicide research has varied by researcher and time of study. to address classical and contemporary variations in technique four different measures are tested in this study with the most contemporary measure being presented. the four techniques included: ) no religious measure, ) a dichotomous measure of catholic and protestant excluding all others (breault, ), ) an eight category herfindahl index that categorizes denominations into religious families (conservative protestant, moderate protestant, liberal protestants, miscellaneous protestant, catholic, orthodox, jewish, and mormon) and is measured as the percentage belonging to each (see ellison et. al., for a full explanation of this measure), and ) a more recently constructed measure by beyerlein and hipp ( ) that examines the percent adherents to specific religious traditions (catholic, mainline protestants, evangelical protestants, and others) based on how they assist in increasing social capital and integration in the community as well as the presence of their congregations per , population (see appendix a and beyerlein and hipp, for a full description of this measure). data for the three religion measures came from the churches and church membership in the united states, counties produced by the glenmary research center (association of statisticians of american religious bodies, ), which contains information on over religious denominations at the county level, calculated as the percentage of adherents to each of these categories as well as the number of congregations per , population. urbanicity urbanicity is operationalized as the percent of the county population living in urban areas. the connection between urbanicity and suicide rates has been measured in various ways. suicide researchers have typically used one of three measures: a strictly percent urban classification (kowalski et al., ), a lesser used division measure that divides counties into thirds and classifies u.s. counties as rural, middle-urban, and high-urban based on the percentage of the population living in urban settings (faupel et. al., ), and a division measure using rural-urban continuum codes developed by the usda (singh and siahpush, ). while all of these measures have resulted in statistically significant relationships with suicide rates, the direction and strength of the association has varied across studies. also, no study was found that tests more than one measure of urbanization or compared various measures of urbanization as they relate to suicide rates; this study does. the percentage of the population that is urban, created by the u.s. bureau of the census, is used to estimate the proportion of the population in urban areas. the division measure collapses the first measure into a trichotomy based on percentage urban. the division measure is based on the rural-urban continuum codes and are defined as metropolitan, nonmetropolitan, or completely rural using the following classifications: ) central counties of metropolitan areas of million people or more, ) fringe counties of metropolitan areas of million people or more, ) counties in metropolitan areas of , to million people, ) counties in metropolitan areas of less than , people, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population of , or more and adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population of , or more and not adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population between , to , and adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with a population between , and , and not adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) completely rural counties or counties with less than , urban population and adjacent to a metropolitan area, and ) completely rural counties or counties with less than , urban population not adjacent to a metropolitan area (singh and siahpush, ). the data necessary to create these measures come from the area resource file (office of data analysis and management, ). procedures since there have been changes in the definitions of counties some data manipulation was required to simplify analysis. all independent cities were merged into their respective counties for all measures. also, since the county definitions changed from to , county definitions were used and counties were merged with each other accordingly. this, combined with restrictions related to the use of the compressed mortality file, result in an effective n for this study of , counties. since variance in death rates is greater in counties with smaller populations, weighted least squares regression is used, weighting the dependent variable by using the inverse of the variance of the county-level suicide rates (mclaughlin and stokes, ). regression is also used to make comparisons concerning suicide rates at the various levels of urbanicity. while multiple definitions of the religion measure were tested, only the civically engaged denominations measure is presented. to assist the reader in understanding variations in county-level suicide rates, figure below is a map of five year average age-sex-race adjusted county level suicide rates for u.s. counties between - with lighter colors having lower suicide rates and darker colors higher suicide rates. from a simple, visual inspection there appears to be higher rates of suicide in the west and southern portions of the country with lower rates in the midwest and northeast. f ig ur e - u .s . a ge -s ex -r ac e a dj us te d s ui ci de r at es chapter iii findings and conclusions introduction this chapter is presented in the following format: first, descriptive statistics for the three models are compared to each other with all counties (model ) compared to the division measure (model ); then, all counties compared to the division measure (model ) then, within the division measure, comparisons are discussed between metropolitan (codes - ) versus nonmetropolitan (codes - ) counties, and comparisons are made within the metropolitan (codes - ) counties based on decreasing population, and within nonmetropolitan (codes - ) counties based on adjacent (codes , , and ) versus not adjacent (codes , , and ) to a metropolitan area, with special consideration being made for codes and which are completely rural counties. next the weighted least squares regression analyses are presented following the same order as the descriptive statistics, followed by a discussion of how this information is used to answer the research hypotheses presented earlier, and concluding with limitations and directions for future research. descriptive statistics in table the descriptive statistics for the all counties measure (column ) and the division measure (columns - ) are presented. for all counties, the overall suicide rate is . per , , but the suicide rate changes as percentage of the population in urban settings varies. the least urban counties have the highest rate of suicide . , the middle urban counties follow with a rate of . , and the most urban counties having the lowest rate of . per , . so, the most rural counties have a % higher suicide rate than the most urban counties, this equates to approximately one additional suicide per , people in rural counties. looking at the other measures of integration the least urban counties have lower rates than the most urban counties on female labor force participation, divorce, migration, percent urban, percent catholics, percent other denominations, per capita income, percent college graduate, and the interaction between per capita income and income inequality. while the least urban counties have higher rates than the most urban counties for percent civically engaged mainline protestants, percent evangelical protestants, catholic congregations per , people, mainline protestant congregations per , people, evangelical protestant congregations per , people, and other congregations per , people. as far as income inequality is concerned there is no real change associated with urbanicity. table descriptive statistics for all counties & the category urbanicity models all least middle most counties urban urban urban n= n= n= n= mean mean mean mean (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) mortality ( - ) suicide rate/ , population . . . . - . - . - . - . integration measures % female labor force ( ) . . . . - . - . - . - . % and older divorced ( ) . . . . - . - . - . - . net migration ( - ) . - . . . - . - . - . - . % urban ( ) . . . . - . - . - - . adherents ( ) % catholic . . . - . - . - . - . % mainline protestant . . . . - . - . - . - . % evangelical protestant . . . - . - . - . - . % other denominations . . . . - . - . - . - . congregations/ , population ( ) catholic congregations . . . . - . - . - . - . mainline congregations . . . . - . - . - . - . evangelical congregations . . . . - . - . - . - . other congregations . . . . - . - . - . - . control variables ( ) per capita income ($ , ) . . . . - . - . - . - . income inequality (gini) . . . . - . - . - . - . % college graduates . . . . - . - . - . - . interaction (per capita*gini) . . . . - . - . - . - . in table the descriptive statistics for the all county measure (column ) are presented again along with those for the division rural-urban continuum codes measure (columns - ). there are obvious differences in rates comparing all counties to the individual rural-urban continuum codes, but that is not all that is important here. the division rural-urban continuum codes measure, as mentioned earlier, must be looked at from many angles. comparing metropolitan ( - ) and nonmetropolitan ( - ) in table provides similar results to table in that suicide rates in the metropolitan counties are lower than those in the nonmetropolitan counties. also within the metropolitan counties, counties with lower population have a . % higher suicide rate than those with higher population (i.e. compare level counties to level counties where suicide rates range from . in central counties of metropolitan areas of million or more people to . in counties in metropolitan areas of fewer than , people). within the nonmetropolitan counties, counties adjacent to metropolitan areas ( and ) have lower average suicide rates than counties not adjacent to a metropolitan area ( and ), with the exception of those that are completely rural (code ). while the adjacent areas have a lower suicide rate, the rate still increases as population density decreases. also the highest average suicide rates are in nonadjacent or completely rural counties. table descriptive statistics for all counties and the division rural-urban codes to all n= n= n= n= n= n= n= n= n= n= n= mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean mean (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) (st.dev) mortality ( - ) . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . integration measures . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . - . . - . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . adherents ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . congregations/ , population ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . control variables ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . . . . . . . . . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . % college graduates interaction (per capita*gini) evangelical congregations other congregations per capita income ($ , ) income inequality (gini) % evangelical protestant % other denominations catholic congregations mainline congregations net migration ( - ) % urban ( ) % catholic % mainline protestant suicide rate/ , population % female labor force ( ) % and older divorced ( ) experienced the greatest net loss (- . ) having a % lower average suicide rate ( . to . ) than those that had the least net loss (- . ) in population. there is also a higher rate of college education in areas not adjacent to a metropolitan area and a higher per capita income than those adjacent to metropolitan areas with the exception of level counties. weighted least squares regression the unstandardized regression coefficients for each variable, which indicates the average unit change in suicide rate for each unit change in the independent variables, for all counties using three different measures of urbanicity are shown in table . the coefficients for all counties using percent urban as the measure of urbanicity are shown in the first column. the coefficients for all counties with a dummy coded division measure of urbanicity with middle urban as the reference group are in column two. and, the coefficients for all counties using the division rural-urban continuum codes dummy coded with level being the reference group are shown in column three. for all counties, the variables of percent divorced, net migration change, percent urban, percent catholic, percent mainline protestants, the number of catholic and mainline protestant congregations per , people, per capita income, income inequality, and the interaction between income and income inequality are all moderate predictors of suicide rates. the directions of these coefficients are as hypothesized. overall, the interaction between per capita income and income inequality, percent divorced, and net migration provide the greatest unit increase to suicide rates, with income inequality and per capita income providing the greatest unit decrease. as seen in the beyerlein and hipp ( ), while the percent of a population belonging to a certain religion has an insulating effect against suicide, the actual congregations per , people has the opposite effect: increasing table . summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for all counties (n= ) b sig b sig b sig - . - . - . . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** - . *** - . ** - . ** - . *** - . *** - . *** . . . . . . . *** . ** . *** . *** . *** . *** . . . . . . - . *** - . *** - . *** - . *** - . *** - . *** . . . . *** . *** . *** - . *** . . . . . . ** . . - . - . * . . . beale code= r-squared *. , **. , ***. beale code= beale code= beale code= beale code= beale code= beale code= beale code= beale code= division dummy ( ) least urban most urban division dummy ( ) per capita income ($ , ) income inequality (gini) % college graduates interaction (per capita*gini) mainline congregations evangelical congregations other congregations controls ( ) % evangelical protestant % other denominations congregations/ , population ( ) catholic congregations % urban ( ) adherents ( ) % catholic % mainline protestant integration measures % female labor force ( ) % and older divorced ( ) net migration ( - ) all counties % urban division dummy division dummy all counties model model model suicide rates. the magnitude of the coefficients for the religion variables requires attention; while the magnitude of these variables may be low, the effect they have on the variance explained is noticeable. removal of the percent catholic variable in some models resulted in up to a percent reduction in the variance explained. also since the southern baptist convention was not included (due to their failure to report membership data for the census of churches and church membership) limited conclusions can be drawn concerning the effect of the religion variables used. to further examine the effect of urbanicity and how the manner in which it is measured affects the results, the division measure of urbanicity using middle urban counties as the reference group in a dummy coded regression is shown in table column . there are significantly lower suicide rates in the least urban areas compared to the middle urban areas. this effect is also shown in the third model where the rural-urban continuum code is used as the reference group in a dummy coded regression. level counties have significantly higher suicide rates compared to level counties and level counties have significantly lower average suicide rates compared to level counties. as can be seen from table , there is a difference in suicide rates depending on how urbanicity is measured. to clarify this relationship, examine table where the base model uses the division urbanization measure; the first sub-model uses percent urban in the model, whereas the second does not. the factors affecting suicide rates in table are not only different from the all counties measure but different from each other and change depending on whether percent urban is in the model. in the least urban model the interaction term, percent divorced, and percent urban provide the greatest unit increase in suicide rates, while income inequality, per capita income, and mainline protestants provide the greatest unit decrease in suicide rates. percent catholic and congregational measures are statistically significant but substantially weak predictors. in the middle urban model, similar results to the least urban model, with a few notable differences, are seen. in the middle urban model, net migration is a significant moderate predictor; percent catholic and income inequality are not significant. also, there have been changes in which religion and congregational variables are significant from the least urban model. in the most urban model percent urban and the economic measures are not statistically significant, while all religious and congregational measures are significant. in table , percent urban is still a significant factor at the divisions level of measurement leading to the need to refine the level of measurement even further. in table urbanicity is measured using the u.s. rural-urban continuum codes with being the most urban and being the most rural with variations in between (see chapter for explanation of codes). table summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for division measure of urbanicity least urban (n= ), middle urban (n= ), and most urban (n= ) w/o w/o w/o % urban % urban % urban b b b - . - . . . * . *** . *** . . *** . *** - . ** . - . * - . *** - . . * - . . *** - . *** - . . . *** . ** - . ** . *** . ** . - . *** . - . * . *** . . * - . *** - . * - . * - . - . *** - . . . . - . . * . * - . . . . *=. , **=. , ***=. r-squared . . . interaction (per capita*gini) . * . * - . % college graduates . . - . income inequality (gini) - . *** - . . per capita income ($ , ) - . * - . * - . controls ( ) other congregations . . * - . *** evangelical congregations . - . * . *** mainline congregations . *** . * - . *** catholic congregations . ** - . * . *** congregations/ , population ( ) % other denominations - . . . *** % evangelical protestant - . . *** - . *** % mainline protestant - . *** - . * . * % catholic - . *** . - . * adherents ( ) % urban ( ) . *** . *** . net migration ( - ) . . *** . *** % and older divorced ( ) . * . *** . *** % female labor force ( ) - . - . . integration measures % urban % urban % urban b b b least urban middle urban most urban a closer look at how the use of a more refined measure of urbanicity can highlight key differences in which variables affect suicide rates is provided in table . for example in levels , , and only one or two variables are significant predictors, while in other levels (e.g., and ) many are. this level of detail helps expose why magnitude and directional differences are seen between the all counties model and the division model, as well as what influences the differences in the latter. only at this level of detail do female labor force participation and college education emerge as significant predictors of suicide rates. this is especially interesting because these measures tended to be fairly strong predictors of suicide rates in earlier suicide studies, but have until this point failed to show significance in this study, providing further support for the idea that a refined urbanicity measure is needed in contemporary suicide research. consistently, percent divorced maintains the greatest significant predictive magnitude across all county levels except level counties. net migration also plays a fairly consistent role across counties, having the second greatest predictive magnitude in the counties in which it presents as significant. on closer inspection of the net migration relationship in the nonmetropolitan counties ( - ) a pattern emerges. the only counties in which net migration has a significant effect are those adjacent to a metropolitan area county ( , , and ). examination of the eight religion measures shows similar results to the all county and division models. the division model is much clearer though as to which types of religious groups play significant roles in affecting the suicide rate at the various levels of county urbanization. the division model further exposes the change in direction of magnitude that percent membership versus the number of congregations per , people seen in the other models. table summary of weighted least squares regression, - u.s. suicide rate/ , population dependent for division measure rural-urban codes - - . ** . . - . - . - . - . . . . . *** . . *** . *** . ** . *** . *** . *** - . *** . * . . ** . *** . . ** . . *** . - . ** . - . - . . . - . - . . - . * - . *** - . . - . . * . - . . - . - . - . *** - . *** . - . - . . . - . * . - . - . ** . - . . . *** . . ** . ** . ** . - . . - . . . * . . * . - . . . *** . *** . - . - . . . - . * . - . * . . *** - . . . * . . . . . . . . . - . * . * - . - . - . - . - . . - . . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . - . . . - . - . - . - . . - . - . . - . - . - . - . . . . . * . . - . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b bb b b b (n= )(n= )(n= ) b b b (n= )(n= )(n= )(n= ) (n= )(n= ) % college graduates interaction (per capita*gini) r-square *=. , **=. , ***=. other congregations controls ( ) per capita income ($ , ) income inequality (gini) congregations/ , population ( ) catholic congregations mainline congregations evangelical congregations % catholic % mainline protestant % evangelical protestant % other denominations % female labor force ( ) % and older divorced ( ) net migration ( - ) adherents ( ) variable integration measures (n= ) b hypotheses revisited from table , support for hypothesis one, the mean difference hypothesis, is found. examining column two using middle urban counties as a reference category in a dummy coded regression there is a significant difference in the mean suicide rates for least urban compared to middle urban counties. while in column three, using the most urban counties (level ) as a reference group in a dummy coded regression, there is a significant difference in the mean suicide rates of levels and counties compared to level counties. with respect to hypothesis two, the social integration hypothesis that higher rates of social integration will result in lower suicide rates using the all counties model the following expectations were supported: divorce, migration, percent urban, and congregations per , had a significant positive effect on suicide rates, while percent catholic, per capita income, and gini index had a significant negative effect on suicide rates. not only was the direction of the effect of protestantism contrary to what was hypothesized, it had almost three times the insulatory effect of catholicism. by examining the three different urbanicity models, support for hypothesis three was found. when compared to one another, the variables that present as significant vary from model to model. magnitude and direction change across and within models as well. it can be concluded from these two models that something is going on in the more middle urban or suburban areas resulting in higher suicide rates. perhaps, in these areas people are withdrawing from their neighbors or perhaps these areas are not established enough to have developed the insulatory characteristics of established urban and rural areas. as far as the sociology’s one law, hypothesis four, higher rates of catholicism are associated with lower suicide rates and higher rates of protestantism are associated with higher suicide rates, these results only indicate supporting evidence in the most urban counties of the division urbanicity model. this relationship disappears when examined at a finer level of measurement, using the division rural-urban continuum codes. looking at the all counties model, both percent catholic and percent mainline protestant have an insulating effect against suicide. and, as mentioned earlier, not only does percent mainline protestant have an insulating effect against suicide it is nearly three times the magnitude of that of percent catholic. examining this classic hypothesis at this fine of a level in a nation as large as the united states is important in that it highlights the fact that the rate of adherents to specific religious groups can vary drastically from place to place within a nation. as mentioned earlier, previous research has shown that not taking into account regional differences within a country can misrepresent the true nature of suicide rates in ecological studies. specifically, shaw et al. ( ) found an intra-country effect with regard to suicide rates. they found areas in greece that had both the highest and lowest rates of suicide of all the countries examined. so if this effect is seen in a country as small as greece what could this mean for a country as large and diverse as the united states? as shaw et al. ( ) pointed out this could possibly lead to biased results when comparing countries to one another, and in the united states’ case comparing states to states. conclusions while many conclusions can be drawn from this research, the most important concerns the differences in the explanations for variation in suicide rates at the county level and how that changes depending on the operationalization of urbanization/urbanicity. the importance is not so much which measure of urbanicity has the greatest predictive power as much as it is important that how urbanization/urbanicity is operationalized can have a noticeable effect on what sociological variables explain the county level variations. this information is helpful in reinforcing the importance of looking at county level data to explain the effects of urbanization/urbanicity on other social phenomena. the importance of how urbanization/urbanicity is operationalized can be seen in how in the division measure the number of significant variables ranges from as few as one to as many as seven out of fifteen with r-square values ranging from as low as . up to . . the difference in amount of variance explained seen in the division measure is important because when compared to previous research the most urban counties (level ) have the highest r-square value ( . ) which is consistent with the previous research, but contradictory to earlier findings; nonmetropolitan counties (level ) and completely rural counties (level ) have the second ( . ) and third ( . ) highest r-square values respectively. this could be easily overlooked if operationalizations of urbanization/urbanicity used simpler definitions such as the division measure or just simply the percentage of the population in urban settings. to draw connections to previous research related to urbanicity’s relationship to suicide rates and how this relationship can change over time, kowalski et al. ( ), using the division measure, found that most sociological explanations for suicide primarily applied to the most urban environments and not to the rural ones. while similar findings are present in this research when looking at the division measure, the findings are not nearly as pronounced. just one or two variables play a significant role, and the difference between variance explained for the various levels of urbanicity is not as large as was seen in their research. the current research highlights that these differences are even more pronounced in the division measure. another important conclusion from this research concerns religion’s relationship to county level suicide rates. the religion measure used here not only helps to explain integration based on similar religious traditions, it expounds upon this by including the number of congregations per , people as a measure of institutional resources that the various traditions contribute to counties (beyerlein & hipp, ). the inclusion of both aspects of the religion measure allows for a more clear explanation of the role adherents to a particular religious group have in relation to suicide rates. the inclusion of a congregational measure also provides clarification of the role that the mere presence of religious institutions providing resources to the county effects suicide rates. while only the beyerlein and hipp’s ( ) religious measure is presented, multiple models (not presented) were tested using the four different techniques mentioned earlier using each of the different urbanization measures. not only did the religious traditions measures highlight variations between the various religious traditions, it highlighted how these varied by level of urbanization/urbanicity. limitations as with any ecological level study there are certain limitations that must be acknowledged. first of all not all counties were included in this study due to restrictions of the compressed mortality file, requiring the exclusion of counties if the rate is such that an incident could be possibly traced back to an individual. this is an unfortunate result of using smaller level aggregate data on such a sensitive topic. some of the most important limitations are those that surround the religion measures used. the findings as they relate to religion have to be taken lightly though. given the way in which religious statistics are reported, the constant restructuring of denominations, and the low magnitude of the coefficients, care must be taken when making any firm conclusions about religion’s role in suicide rates in america. also making use of the glenmary data from this time frame can cause some problems when looking at certain counties in the united states, as the southern baptist convention did not report their membership statistics for the census of churches and church membership and, as one of the largest protestant groups in the southern portion of the nation; this can lead to inaccurate results. as this research was conducted there was only one other study that made use of the religious traditions measure as it has been used here, and none that used it to examine suicide rates. while other studies have used civically engaged denominations measures to look at other social phenomena, this was the first to use this specific measure as it applies to county level suicide rates in america. therefore the ability to make comparisons of the results with previous research was limited. likewise, with respect to the net migration measure used this was also the first suicide study —to the researcher’s knowledge— conducted to make use of this specific measure . and, finally, there are dozens of different variables used to study variations in suicide rates, over the centuries that researchers have studied suicide. this research only presents a limited number of such variables leaving room for criticism and interpretation. directions for future research looking to the future research into county level suicide rates, the techniques used here to examine the various measures of urbanization/urbanicity and religion could be used to examine different measures of the other variables examined in this study. for example, one could test alternative definitions of variables used in various combinations. while little focus is related to the religion measures in this manuscript, future research could focus more on how religion is related to the social capital literature examining types of networks. recently, beyerlein and hipp ( ) examined how the social capital building/civically engaged denominations measure can be used to examine how differences in bonding and bridging networks affect violent crime. using beyerlein and hipp’s ( ) technique could shed new light on a very murky lens of how social capital is defined as well as how it is measured. the increased accessibility of large datasets such as those used here could lead to reinterpretation of previous works. for example, the variations in which variables show significance at the different measures of urbanicity as well as which variables are significant compared to previous research could lead to a new understanding of suicide in the united states. as mentioned earlier female labor force participation had a positive relationship with suicide rates for both men and women in the past, but more recently the trend is that flfp is inversely related for females while still positively related for males. future research could focus on age-race adjusted suicide rates to help highlight gender variations in rates. also, since female labor force participation seems to be the most common workforce measure used to examine suicide rates, with changing roles of men in the family the relationship between male labor force participation and suicide rates would be of interest to examine. research could look at the combined effect of male and female labor force participation on over all suicide rates or compare how female labor force participation affects male suicide rates and how male labor force participation affects female suicide rates. the net migration measure used here could be used to look at more than just suicide rates. it could also be used to determine if there is a connection in the migration rate for specific age-sex-race groups that may have a greater effect on suicide rates than others. this would provide further information as to specifically where and what groups would benefit more from a large scale suicide prevention campaign. spatial analysis is another important direction to take this type of research. the same way that more recent research has begun to examine spatial variations in various forms of disease based mortality such as heart disease, diabetes, and pulmonary disease, suicide could be examined. this would be useful in creating regionally focused public health campaigns that the spatial research conducted on the other forms of mortality has lead to in recent years. this is especially important for suicide mortality, since it is the number one most preventable form of mortality not only for the u.s. but also for the entire world. references abel, e.l. & m.l. kruger. . “educational attainment and suicide rates in the united states.” psychological reports ( ): - . anderson, o. . “did suicide increase with industrialization in victorian england?” past and present (feb) - . association of statisticians of american religious bodies. . “churches and church membership in the united states, counties (computer file). glenmary research center, washington d.c. (www.thearda.com). austin, r.l. m. bologna, & h.h. dodge. . “sex-role change, anomie and female suicide: a test of alternative durkheimian explanations.” suicide & life threatening behavior ( ): - . baller, r. & k. richardson. . “social integration, imitation and the geographic patterning of suicide.” american sociological review ( ): - . beyerlein, k. & j. hipp. . “social capital, too much of a good thing? american religious traditions and community crime.” social forces ( ): - . breault, k. d. . “suicide in america: a test of durkheim’s theory of religious and family integration - .” the american journal of sociology ( ): - . breault, k.d. . “beyond the quick and dirty: reply to girard.” american journal of sociology : - . breault, k.d. and a.j. kposowa. . “explaining divorce in the united states a study of , counties, .” journal of marriage and the family ( ): - . centers for disease control and prevention. . “regional variations in suicide rates—united states – .” mmwr ( ): - . http://www.thearda.com/ centers for disease control and prevention, national center for injury prevention and control [producer]. web-based injury statistics query and reporting system (wisqars) chuang, h. & w. huang. “economic and social correlates of regional suicide rates: a pooled cross-section and time series analysis.” journal of socioeconomics ( ) - . churches and church membership in the united states. ( , , and ) (counties). glenmary research center, washington, d.c. congdon, peter. . “monitoring suicide mortality: a bayesian approach.” european journal of population : - . durkheim, e. [ ] . suicide. new york: free press. durkheim, e. [ ] . the elementary forms of religious life. new york: free press. durkheim, e. [ ] . moral education: a study in the theory and application of the sociology of education. new york: free press of glencoe. eckersley, r. & k. dear. . “correlates of youth suicide.” social science & medicine ( ): - . ellison, c.g., j.a. burr, & p.l. mccall. . “religious homogeneity and metropolitan suicide rates.” social forces ( ): - . faupel, c.e., g.s. kowalski, & p.d. starr. . “sociology’s one law: religion and suicide in the urban context.” journal of the scientific study of religion ( ) - . gibbs, j. . “status integration and suicide: occupational, marital, or both?” social forces ( ): - . gibbs, j. & w. martin. . status integration and suicide. eugene: university of oregon press. hansmann, h.b. & j.m. quigley. . “population heterogeneity and the sociogenisis of homicide.” social forces ( ): - . hummer, r. a., r.g. rogers, & i.w. eberstein. . “sociodemographic differentials in adult mortality: a review of analytic approaches.” population and development review ( ): - . james, w. l. & j. s. cossman. . “does regional variation affect ecological mortality research? an examination of mortality, income inequality and health infrastructure in the mississippi delta” for publication in population research and policy review. accepted november . kposowa, a.j. . “marital status and suicide in the national longitudinal mortality study.” journal of epidemiological community health ( ): - . kelleher, m.j., d. chambers, & p. corcoran. . “suicide and religion in ireland: an investigation of thomas masaryk’s theory of suicide.” archives of suicide research : - . kowalski, g., c.e. faupel, & p. starr. . “urbanism and suicide: a study of american counties.” social forces ( ): - . lantz, j., & k. harper. . “anomic depression and the migrating family.” contemporary family therapy : - . lee, m.r. & j.p. bartkowski. . “love thy neighbor? moral communities, civic engagement, and juvenile homicide in rural areas.” social forces ( ): - . lester, d. a. ”exploring the regional variation of suicide and homicide.” archives of suicide research : - . lester, d. b. “combining opposing methodologies in studies of suicide and homicide.” quality and quantity : - . lester, d. a. “an empirical examination of thomas masaryk’s theory of suicide.” archives of suicide research : - . lester, d. b. “operationalizing ‘modernization’: a response to stack’s comments.” archives of suicide research : - . lynch, j., s.g. davey, s. harper, & m. hillemeier. . “is income inequality a determinant of population health? part . us national and regional trends in income inequality and age- and cause-specific mortality.” milbank quarterly ( ): - . mclaughlin, d. k., c. s. stokes, & a. nonoyama. . “residence and income inequality: effects on mortality amoung us counties.” rural sociology ( ): - . mclaughlin, d. k. & c. s. stokes. . “income inequality and mortality in us counties: does minority racial concentration matter?” american journal of public health ( ): - . marks, s. . “multiple roles and role strain: some notes on human energy, time, and commitment.” american sociological review : - . masaryk, t. g. [ ] . suicide and the meaning of civilization chicago: chicago press. muller, a. . “education, income inequality, and mortality: multiple regression analysis.” british journal of medicine : - . national center for health statistics. . compressed mortality file: - . centers for disease control and prevention, u.s. department of health and human services, hyattsville, maryland. national center for health statistics. a. compressed mortality file: - . centers for diseasecontrol and prevention, u.s. department of health and human services, hyattsville, maryland. national center for health statistics. b. documentation for the compressed mortality file: - . centers for disease control and prevention, u.s. department of health and human services, hyattsville, maryland. nielsen, d. . “suicidality and -hydroxyindoleactic acid concentration associated with a tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphism.” archives of general psychology jan: - . nielsen, f. . income inequality in u.s. counties (gini coefficients) department of sociology, university of north carolina, chapel hill nc - . office of data analysis and management. . technical documentation with field numbers for the area resource file. washington, dc: bureau of health professions. pampel, f., & j. williamson. . age patterns of suicide and homicide mortality rates in high-income nations.” social forces ( ) - . pappas, g., s. queen, w. hadden, & g. fisher. . “the increasing disparity in mortality between socioeconomic groups in the united states, and .” the new england journal of medicine ( ): - . potter, l.b., et al. . “the influence of geographic mobility on nearly lethal suicide attempts.” suicide & life-threatening behavior : - . putnam, r. d. . “bowling alone: america’s declining social capital.” the journal of democracy ( ): - . quinney, r. . “suicide, homicide, and economic development.” social forces ( ): - . roof, w.c. . “god is in the details: reflections on religion’s public presence in the united states in the mid- ’s.” sociology of religion ( ): - . sawyer, d. & j. sobal. . “public attitudes toward suicide demographic and ideological correlates.” the public opinion quarterly ( ): - . schalkwyk, j. . “another look at status integration and suicide.” social forces ( ): - . schieman, s. . “residential stability and stability and the social impact of neighborhood disadvantage: a study of gender- and race-contingent effects.” social forces ( ): - . schnaiberg, a. . “measuring modernism: theoretical and empirical explorations.” the american journal of sociology ( ): - . schweitzer, m.m. . “world war ii and female labor force participation rates.” the journal of economic history ( ): - . shaw, m. & s. orford. . “widening inequality in mortality between regions of european countries in the early ’s.” social science and medicine : - . sieber, s.d. . “toward a theory of role accumulation.” american sociological review : - . simpson, m. & g.h. conklin. . “socioeconomic development, suicide and religion: a test of durkheim’s theory of religion and suicide.” social forces ( ): - . singh, g.k. & m. siahpush. . “increasing rural-urban gradients in us suicide mortality, - .” american journal of public health ( ): - . smith d.a. & r.g. jarjoura. . “social structure and criminal victimization.” journal of research in crime & delinquency ( ): - . stack, s. a. “the effects of marital dissolution on suicide.” journal of marriage and family ( ): - . stack, s. b. “the effects of interstate migration on suicide.” international journal of social psychiatry : - . stack, s. . “the effects of religious commitment on suicide: a cross- national analysis.” journal of health and social behavior ( ): - . stack, s. . “the effects of female participation in the labor force on suicide: a time series analysis, - .” sociological forum ( ) - . stack, s. . “gender and suicide risk among laborers.” archives of suicide research : - . stack, s. . “effect of female labor force participation on female suicide attitudes.” death studies : - . stack, s. . “modernization and suicide: a comment on: “an empirical examination of thomas masaryk’s theory of suicide.’” archives of suicide research : - . stack, s. . “suicide: a - year review of the sociological literature part i: cultural and economic factors and part ii: modernization and social integration perspectives.” suicide and life threatening behavior ( ): - . stack, s. & n. danigelis. . “modernization and gender suicide rates.” comparative sociology : - . tolbert, c.m., t.a. lyson, & m.d. irwim. . “local capitalism, civic engagement, and socioeconomic well-being.” social forces ( ): - . trovato, f. & r. vos. . “married female labor force participation and suicide in canada, and . sociological forum : - . u.s. department of labor. . “women in the labor force: a databook.” u.s. bureau of labor statistics [producer, ]. voss, p.r., s. mcniven, r.b. hammer, k.m. johnson, & g.v. fuguitt. . county-specific net migration by five-year age groups, hispanic origin, race, and sex, - : [united states] [computer file]. icpsr -v . madison, wi: university of wisconsin- madison, department of rural sociology [producer]. ann arbor, mi: inter- university consortium for political and social research [distributor], - - . wasserman, i.m. . “a longitudinal analysis of the linkage between suicide, unemployment, and marital dissolution.” journal of marriage and family ( ): . whitt, h., c. gordon, & j. hofley. . “religion economic development and letha aggression.” american sociological review (apr): - . world health organization (who). . “figures and facts about suicide.” mental and behavioral disorders: department of mental health publication, geneva. appendix a listing of the congregations composing each of the religious traditions measures: the four division religious traditions measure and eight division religious family measure four division religious traditions (beyerlein & hipp, ) evangelical protestant traditions advent christian church allegheny wesleyan methodist connection american baptist association, the amish; other groups apostolic christian church of america, inc. apostolic christian churches (nazarean) apostolic lutheran church of america assemblies of god associate reformed presbyterian church association of free lutheran congregations, the baptist general conference baptist missionary association of america barren river missionary baptists beachy amish mennonite churches berean fundamental church bethel ministeral association, inc. bible church of christ, inc. bohemian and moravian brethren brethren church (progressive) brethren church, the (ashland, ohio) brethren in christ church bruderhof communities, inc. calvary chapel fellowship churches central baptist association ministries christ catholic church christian and missionary alliance, the christian brethren christian catholic church christian churches and churches of christ christian reformed church in north america christian union christian unity baptist association church of god (anderson, indiana) church of god (apostolic) church of god (cleveland, tennessee) church of god (new dunkards) church of god (seventh day) church of god general conference church of god in christ, mennonite church of god of prophecy church of god, mountain assembly, inc. church of the brethren church of the lutheran brethren of america church of the lutheran confession church of the nazarene churches of christ churches of god, general conference conference of the evangelical mennonite church congregational holiness church conservative baptist association of america conservative congregational christian conference conservative mennonite conference cumberland presbyterian church duck river and kindred baptists associations eastern pennsylvania mennonite church enterprise baptists association estonian evangelical lutheran church evangelical and reformed church evangelical church, the evangelical congregational church, the evangelical covenant church, the evangelical free church of america, the evangelical lutheran synod evangelical mennonite church evangelical methodist church evangelical presbyterian church evangelical united brethren church fellowship of evangelical bible churches fellowship of fundamentalist bible churches fire baptized holiness church, (wesleyan), the free methodist church of north america fundamental methodist conference, inc. general association of general baptists general association of regular baptist churches general six principle baptists grace brethren churches, fellowship of holiness church of god, inc., the holiness methodist church hutterian brethren independent free will baptists associations independent fundamental churches of america independent, charismatic churches independent, non-charismatic churches international church of the foursquare gospel international churches of christ international council of community churches international pentecostal church of christ international pentecostal holiness church interstate & foreign landmark missionary baptists association jasper baptist and pleasant valley baptist associations landmark missionary baptists, independent associations and unaffiliated churches life and advent union lumber river annual conference of the holiness methodist church lutheran church--missouri synod mennonite brethren churches, u.s. conference of mennonite church mennonite church usa mennonite church, the general conference mennonite; other groups midwest congregational christian fellowship missionary bands of the world, inc. missionary church association missionary church, the national association of free will baptists netherlands reformed congregations new hope baptist association new testament association of independent baptist churches and other fundamental baptist associations/fellowships north american baptist conference old order amish church old order mennonite old order river brethren old regular baptists old" missionary baptists associations open bible standard churches, inc. original free will baptists orthodox presbyterian church, the pentecostal church of god pentecostal free will baptist church, inc. pilgrim holiness church presbyterian church in america primitive advent christian church primitive baptist churches--old line primitive baptists associations primitive baptists, eastern district association of primitive methodist church in the usa progressive primitive baptists protestant reformed churches in america reformed baptist churches reformed episcopal church reformed mennonite church reformed presbyterian church of north america reformed presbyterian church, evangelical synod reformed zion union apostolic church regular baptists salvation army, the separate baptists in christ seventh day baptist general conference, usa and canada seventh-day adventist church slovak evangelical lutheran church social brethren southern baptist convention southern methodist church southwide baptist fellowship stauffer mennonite church strict baptists the protestant conference (lutheran) truevine baptists association two-seed-in-the-spirit predestinarian baptists unaffiliated conservative amish mennonite church united baptists united christian church united missionary church united presbyterian church of north america united reformed churches in north america vineyard usa volunteers of america wayne trail missionary baptist association wesleyan church, the wisconsin evangelical lutheran synod mainline protestant traditions american association of lutheran churches american baptist churches in the usa american evangelical lutheran church american lutheran church, the augustana evangelical lutheran church central yearly meeting of friends christian church (disciples of christ) church of the united brethren in christ congregational christian churches congregational christian churches, additional (not part of any national ccc body) episcopal church evangelical lutheran church evangelical lutheran church in america evangelical lutheran church in america (eielsen synod) evangelical lutheran churches, association of finnish evangelical lutheran church (suomi synod) five years meeting of friends friends (quakers) latvian evangelical lutheran church in america lutheran church in america moravian church in america moravian church in america--alaska province moravian church in america--northern province moravian church in america--southern province national association of congregational christian churches oregon yearly meeting of friends church pacific yearly meeting of friends presbyterian church (u.s.a.) presbyterian church in the u.s.a. presbyterian church in the united states reformed church in america reformed church in the united states religious society of friends (conservative) religious society of friends (general conference) religious society of friends (philadelphia and vicinity) schwenkfelder church united church of christ united evangelical lutheran church united lutheran church in america united methodist church, the united presbyterian church in the united states of america united zion church unity of the brethren universal fellowship of metropolitan community churches other denominations all other religious traditions listed except for catholic eight division religious traditions measure (ellison et. al., ) conservative protestant advent christian church apostolic christian church (nazarene) assemblies of god baptist general conference baptist missionary association of america brethren church of christ , inc., the brethren church (ashland, ohio) brethren in christ church christian and missionary alliance, the christian churches and churches of christ christian union church of god general conference (abrahamic faith), oregon, il church of god (cleveland, in) church of god (seventh day), denver, co, the church of god in christ (mennonite) church of the brethren church of the lutheran brethren of america church of the lutheran confession church of the nazarene churches of christ congregational holiness church conservative baptist association of america conservative congressional christian conference estonian evangelical lutheran church evangelical church of north america, the evangelical congregational church evangelical covenant church of america, the evangelical free church america, the evangelical methodist church fire baptized holiness church, (wesleyan), the free lutheran congregations, the association of free methodist church of north america grace brethren churches, fellowship of holiness church of god, inc., the international church of the foursqaure gospel latvian evangelical lutheran church in america, the lutheran church--missouri synod, the missionary church, the north america baptist conference open bible standard churches, inc. liberal protestant congregational christian churches, national association of episcopal church, the presbyterian church in america presbyterian church in the united states reformed episcopal church unitarian universalist association united church of christ united presbyterian church in the usa, the moderate protestant african methodist episcopal zion church american baptist association american baptist churches in the usa american lutheran church, the apostolic lutheran church of america associate reformed presbyterian church (gen. synod) christian church (disciples of christ) christian reformed church cumberland presbyterian church evangelical lutheran churches, association of evangelical lutheran synod lutheran church in america moravian church in america (unitas fratrum), northern province moravian church in america (unitas fratrum), southern province protestant reformed churches in america reformed church in america southern methodist church, the united methodist church, the miscellaneous protestant amana church society beachy amish mennonite churches evangelical mennonite churches evangelical mennonite church, inc. friends general church of the new jerusalem general convention of the new jerusalem in the usa, "swedenborgian church" mennonite community churches, universal fellowship of old order amish church catholic catholic church christ catholic church mormon church of jesus christ, the (bickertonites) church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, the orthodox armenian apostolic church of american, eastern prelacy romanian orthodox church in america, the syrian orthodox church of antioch (archdiocese of the usa and canada) ukrainian orthodox church of america jewish conservative judaism reform judaism orthodox presbyterian church, the pentecostal free will baptist church, inc., the pentecostal holiness church, inc. christian brethren primitive advent christian church primitive methodist church, usa protestant conference of the wisconsin synod, the reformed presbyterian church, evangelical synod reformed presbyterian church of north america salvation army, the separate baptist in christ seventh-day adventists seventh day baptist general conference social brethren southern baptist convention united zion church wisconsin evangelical lutheran synod appendix b division urbanicity measure rural-urban beale codes the division measure is based on the rural-urban continuum codes and are defined as metropolitan, nonmetropolitan, or completely rural using the following classifications: ) central counties of metropolitan areas of million people or more, ) fringe counties of metropolitan areas of million people or more, ) counties in metropolitan areas of , to million people, ) counties in metropolitan areas of less than , people, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population of , or more and adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population of , or more and not adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with an urban population between , to , and adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) nonmetropolitan counties with a population between , and , and not adjacent to a metropolitan area, ) completely rural counties or counties with less than , urban population and adjacent to a metropolitan area, and ) completely rural counties or counties with less than , urban population not adjacent to a metropolitan area (singh and siahpush, ). 	preliminary pages final.pdf 	walker thesis final.pdf 	advent christian church 	mainline protestant traditions church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. note to the repmnt edition: full page advertisements which do not add to the scholarly value of this volume have been omitted. this accounts for the irregular pagination found in this reprint edition. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman vol. ii published by the american society of church history ams reprint company new york , n.y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for conrad henry moehlman president frederick william loetscher vice president frederick william loetscher secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer matthew spinka assistant secretary other members of the council shirley jackson case william david schermerhorn w i l l i a m walker rockwell abdel ross w e n t z george warren richards william warren sweet w i n f r e d ernest garrison j o h n t h o m a s m c n e i l l edward strong worcester james moffatt wllhelm pauck e d i t o r i a l b o a r d of church h i s t o r y matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman, ex officio publication office, scottdale, pennsylvania executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois reprinted w i t h the permission op the original publisher ams reprint company new york . n. y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles breen, q., domine everhardus bogardus - gaddis, merrill e., religious ideas and attitudes in the early frontier - hardy, edward rochie, jr., national elements in the career of st. athanasius - harkness, r. e. e., early relations of baptists and quakers.. - higgins, john s., ultramontanism of st. boniface - knappen, m. m., the early puritanism of lancelot andrewes - lyttle, charles h., deistic piety in the cults of the french revolution - mccutchan, robert g., american church music composers of the early nineteenth century - oborn, george t., why did decius and valerian proscribe christianity? - richards, george w., was troeltsch right? - riddle, donald w., factors in the development of modern biblical study - schaff, david s., cardinal bellarmine—now saint and doctor of the church - scott, e. f., the opposition to caesar worship - sweet, william w., the churches as moral courts of the frontier - in memoriam: arthur cushman mcgiffert - franklin p. manhart albert henry newman - , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core books reviewed baynes, norman h., constantine the great and the christian church - booth, h. k., the world of jesus buckley, george t., atheism in the english renaissance - butler, pierce, comp., fifteenth century books case, s. x, the social triumph of the ancient church case, s. j., and schermerhorn, w. d., church history deputation report - the catholic church in contemporary europe -. clayton, joseph, saint anselm cory, david m., faustus socinus - dearmer, p., songs of praise discussed dobree, b., william penn, quaker and pioneer - edwards, m., john wesley and the eighteenth century - friess, h. l., and schneider, h. w., religion in various cultures « - garrison, w. e., the march of faith - griffin, joseph a., the contribution of belgium to the catholic church in america - horsch, john, the hutterian brethren kaufman, e. g., the development of missionary and philanthropic interest among the mennonites - kidd, b. j., the counter reformation - knappen, m. m., two elizabethan puritan diaries - koch, g. adolph, republican religion - leslie, shane, the oxford movement - levison, n., the jewish background of christianity , - lietzmann, hans von, geschichte der alter kirche, b. - macfarland, c , christian unity in practice and prophecy - mcgiffert, a. c., a history of christian thought, vol. i i - mackay, john a., the other spanish christ - maiden, r. h., the roman catholic church and the church of england mathews, s., new testament times in palestine - maxwell, william, john knox's genevan service book, nebelthau, j. h., ed., the diary of a circuit rider palm, f . c , calvinism and the religious wars - plooij, d., the pilgrim fathers from a dutch point of view - posey, w. b., the development of methodism in the old southwest, - ross, j. e., john henry newman - spinka, matthew, a history of christianity in the balkans - stackhouse, p. j., chicago and the baptists - sweet, w. w., methodism in american history - tillich, paul, the religious situation - vander velde, lewis g., the presbyterian churches and the federal union, - - walter, joh. von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i - wentz, a. r., the lutheran church in american history - westin, g., protestantismens historie i amerikas forenta stater westin, g., negotiations about church unity, - white, hugh g. e., the history of the monasteries of nitria and scetis - wilbur, e. m., tr., servetus on the trinity «. - worcester, e., studies in the birth of the lord - wright, luella m., the literary life of the early friends , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of mennonite studies for access to some consumer goods. the relationship between these two groups became so close that, when the shortage of farm land led old colony mennonites to emigrate to mexico in the s, the jewish population also departed from winkler ( , - ). werner attributes the post-war economic success of winkler to the creation of non-agricultural industries within the town, particularly a sewing factory and a recreational vehicle manufacturer (triple e). he excerpts heather robertson’s condemnation of the “hucksterism” of winkler’s annual sidewalk sale, known as old time value days. he himself is less critical of employer-employee relationships in winkler businesses. the tensions between school and business, for example, are left unexplored – specifically the connection between exploitation of a pool of uneducated (though skilled) labour and comparatively low high school graduation rates. this despite noting that “it was always a challenge” to see rural students graduate from garden valley col- legiate ( ). more effective is his brief explanation of the link between the absence of labour unions and the religious beliefs of mennonite business owners and workers alike in winkler. the production qualities of this book are excellent. interesting sidebars – ranging from quotations, letters to the editor, and newspaper articles, to poems – are interspersed with the text. numerous maps, photographs, and statistical tables are included, all with sources provided (too often a rarity in local histories). two appendices of early winkler families and of civic officials are included, as well as a bibliography, copious endnotes, and an index. werner, and the winkler heritage society, are to be congratulated on producing such an informative, well researched, and well written history. janis thiessen westgate mennonite collegiate reviews of religious studies and social science ray gingerich and ted grimsrud, eds., transforming the powers: peace, justice and the domination system. minneapolis: augsburg fortress press, . $ . (us). walter wink is well known for his work on “the powers,” which can be summed up in three statements: the powers are good, the powers book reviews are fallen, the powers must be redeemed. wink himself continues to develop his work (which draws on insights developed by hendrikus berkhof, g.b. caird, william stringfellow, john howard yoder, and so on), and others are also engaged in exploring and extending that work in various directions. transforming the powers: peace, justice and the domination system comes out of a conference at eastern men- nonite university, and includes essays, mostly by mennonite scholars, which seek to offer tribute to wink and to contribute to the task of testing and applying his insights in ever-broader spheres of life. transforming the powers is organized in three parts, including several contributions by wink. part , “worldviews and the powers,” focuses largely on discussions of wink’s notion of worldviews (funda- mental presuppositions about reality) in relation to the social sciences. in the second part, “understanding the powers,” the focus shifts to an attempt to gain clarity regarding the relationship of the powers to the difficult question of the existence and influence of evil in the world, and the distorting effects of fallen powers in areas such as epistemology, economics and politics. part , “engaging the powers,” includes essays that address questions of transformation, justice, nonresistance, and peacemaking. one of the interesting contributions made by this particular collec- tion of essays is that it nicely brings to view the fact that wink’s work can be taken in several different directions, both represented within the larger framework of anabaptist thought. that is, wink’s work can be taken up and extended further into the world of social science, as shown clearly by daniel liechty’s essay. liechty argues strongly that it is possible to arrive at a “social-scientific understanding of the biblical-theological category of the principalities and powers,” that “wink definitely designates as principalities and powers the same unseen forces toward which a social scientist would point.” in fact, argues liechty, “many paragraphs wink has written on what he calls the world domination system could have flowed from the pen of a phenomenological sociologist without any significant alterations.” this kind of an attempt to uncover common ground between biblical/theological notions and social-scientific view of the same phenonema is quite different from the direction that wink’s work is taken by scholars such as willard swartley. instead of seeking the kind of common ground in which liechty is interested, swartley believes wink is misleading in viewing the powers “primarily in the spirit- personality manifestations of structures and institutions.” swartley wants to rehabilitate an understanding of biblical teaching that pays closer attention to specific spiritual beings that act in this world. he is concerned that we are so steeped in the scientific worldview that we are prone to reduce all reality to the empirical. while he is not journal of mennonite studies explicit in saying so, swartley would undoubtedly see liechty’s essay as reductionist in exactly this way. in fact, swartley insists that “even god-talk points only to function of belief, not to an actual being,” which also holds true for talk of fallen powers and principalities. the divergent responses to wink’s work serve minimally to show the richness of his work, and the possibilities that lie within these insights. especially interesting to me are the essays which, in seeking to extend wink’s biblical/theological insights even further, take seri- ously spiritual realities, the life of the church, the life of jesus and the power of the spirit, and in doing so, engage the world within which these realities are manifested. paul doerksen mennonite brethren collegiate institute helmut isaak, menno simons and the new jerusalem. kitchener, on: pandora press, . pp. . paperback. $ . cdn., $ . u.s. this new book is important in that it seeks to alter the traditional portrait of menno simons. walter klaassen writes in the preface: “helmut isaak has moved the work of recovering menno simons ahead, in considerable measure. anyone working on menno from now on will need to engage this work.” the first chapter of the book, “the social and religious context for the emergence of anabaptism in the netherlands,” is in my view the best chapter in the book, describing the society in which menno lived and worked. most previous biographies of menno have not dealt in detail with the religious, social and economic world into which menno was born. the subsequent three chapters trace menno’s spiritual and theological development, dealing with: menno and münster: a vision of the new jerusalem; the heavenly jerusalem has descended upon this earth; and the eschatological anticipation of the new jerusalem. the concluding chapter summarizes isaak’s findings. of the pages, there are forty-two pages of notes and bibliography. mennonites who thought they knew their menno simons well, will be surprised to find that there are aspects to their spiritual leader they did not know before. having read and worked from the complete writings of menno simons (translated by leonard verduin and edited by j. c. wenger, published in ), i found, after reading this new book, that my portrait of menno did not quite fit the one painted by helmut isaak. isaak’s close reading of menno’s earlier and then his book reviews revised later works lead him to a more nuanced portrait of menno and a fresh understanding of his theology. this new portrait is different from the one readers of the complete writings and of bender’s biography have been familiar with. the new image brings menno closer to the fanatics of münster, the radical anabaptists from which he later sought to separate himself. historiographically, this book puts isaak into the so-called “polygenesis” camp of historians. the complete writings, according to isaak, do not always convey the exact meaning of menno’s words. for example, the english translation uses “polygamy” to translate the dutch “veelheyt der wijven” (plural- ity of wives?), but according to isaak, menno “is very reluctant to use this term in regard to münster” (p. , note ). or, verduin’s transla- tion of “dat uytwendige rijck christi op aerden” with “the visible kingdom of christ” is, according to isaak, “not correct.” isaak explains: “the difference between ‘external’ and ‘visible’ is very basic for the understanding of menno’s concept of the kingdom of god. münster was only external because it was motivated by selfish ambition, greed and lust. the truly spiritual kingdom of christ becomes visible reality through repentance, regeneration and new life” (p. , note ). while isaak deals primarily with menno’s original writings and does not rely much on the secondary literature, he does include second- ary works in his bibliography, and notes which agree with his view of menno and excludes those which don’t. for example, menno’s peace position might have received more attention in this book. scholars, including abraham friesen, have shown that menno was influenced especially by erasmus in this regard. there is, however, no reference to friesen’s work, nor to c. arnold snyder’s anabaptist history and theology which shows menno as an opponent of münster from the beginning. egil grislis’ insightful four articles in the journal of mennonite studies ( / , / , / , / ) on menno’s views of the incarnation, “good works,” the lords supper, and the apostle paul, are not referred to nor included in the book’s bibliography. had the above works been taken into account, menno simons would have retained more aspects of his traditional image. as it is, in isaak’s study menno appears as a sympathizer of the münsterites, whom he continued to call his “dear brothers and sisters.” only in his later works did he fight them because it was dangerous for menno and his followers to be identified with them. it is at this point that the book becomes contradictory in my view. on the one hand, menno is seen as a near-münsterite and on the other as a leader who seeks to follow scriptures in matters of a pure church, congregational discipline, and the eventual victory of the kingdom of god. the more traditional portrait of menno as one who grieved over those of his followers who were led astray by the münsterites, and then journal of mennonite studies wrote against the grave errors of his former followers, seems more convincing to me than the contradicting image which emerges in this book. isaak’s analysis of menno’s view of governments, while not all that novel, is an important part of this book’s theme, namely the kingdom of god (the new jerusalem) in menno’s thinking. it is known that menno did not follow the “schleitheim confession” ( ) of the swiss in regard to christians’ relationship to the state. he believed, at least at first, that the kingdom of god would transform society and rulers would play an important part in this transformation. in many of his writings he appealed to rulers and governments to repent and then govern as “christians.” in the end, however, menno was disappointed that rulers did not follow his advice, but he continued to believe in the possibility of the existence of pious christian rulers. at the end of the book (p. ) it comes as a bit of a surprise when isaak suggests that mennonites who established states within the state in th-century russia and in th-century latin american countries, may have realized, at least in part, menno’s vision of a “mennonite government.” i doubt that menno had such states as developed in russia and latin america in mind. were/are these “states” really christian? about fantasies to create a “mennostaat” in the s, see james urry’s article in journal of mennonite studies, vol. , . so mennonites and other believers will no doubt have to wait with menno simons for a real “new jerusalem” in the future! harry loewen kelowna, british columbia karl koop, editor and introduction, confessions of faith in the anabaptist tradition - . classics of the radical reformation . kitchener, on: pandora press (co-published with herald press), . pp. . paperback, $ . cdn, $ . u.s. in recent years we are learning that the earlier assumption was untrue that sixteenth-century anabaptists (and mennonites of the next generations) were non-creedal and more interested in ethics than in theology. relatively recent works that counter this stereotype include howard john loewen, one lord, one church, one hope, and one god, j. denny weaver, keeping salvation ethical, thomas finger, a contemporary anabaptist theology, gerald biesecker-mast, separation and the sword in anabaptist persuasion, and karl koop, book reviews anabaptist-mennonite confessions of faith. confessions now joins this last book as a companion volume, presenting the primary source material on which koop’s first book was based. confessions is a welcome addition to our growing resources for ana- baptist theology in english translation. the volume presents fourteen anabaptist and mennonite confessions of faith from four anabaptist streams. the time period of these confessions, to , bridges the era from the emergence of early anabaptism to the end of the first phase of anabaptist and mennonite doctrinal development. factors that brought an end to the confessional age of dutch mennonites in the s include early enlightenment influences, the rise of early pietism, and distaste for the divisions among mennonites brought about by strict confessionalism (p. ). selections for this volume from the swiss/south german anabaptist tradition include the swiss congregational order, the schleitheim brotherly union, jörg maler’s confession and the swiss brethren confession of hesse. from north german/dutch anabaptism are the kempen confession, the wismar articles and the concept of cologne. three documents come from the waterlander stream of anabaptism – the waterlander confession, the short confession and the thirteen articles. the final section has four confessions from the frisian, flem- ish and high german anabaptist tradition, namely the thirty-three articles, the jan cents confession, the dordrecht confession, and the continuation of this stream in a prussian confession. the book’s introduction provides an overview of scholarship on anabaptist confessions, along with brief discussions of the function, authority, and theological orientation of confessions. brief comments introduce each confession as well. reading these confessions side by side one after the other, impresses one as much with the variety of expression they contain as by any elements of a unifying theological tradition. putting these confessions in close proximity provides ample discussion fodder for both sides in the arguments about whether early anabaptist and mennonite theology is primarily orthodox christianity with a few additions or rather one or more new streams posing a contrast to inherited, standard orthodoxy. the introductions to the book and to the various individual confes- sions hint at an issue that needs further analysis. during the time frame of this book, mennonites produced a great many confessions, perhaps more than any other reformation group. these confessions frequently provoked divisions. but they were written with other goals in mind – discovering the identity of a group or providing a basis for unity among groups in conflict. what characteristics of anabaptists and mennonites produced the need for this number of confessions, and journal of mennonite studies what accounts for the two, apparently conflicting results of attaining unity and provoking divisions? what the introduction does not explain is that whether a confession provokes division or creates unity depends less on the character of the confession than on how it is used. to define identity by describing what a group believes or to develop a confession to discover what groups can agree on for unity purposes are primarily descriptive tasks. however, once the descriptive task is finished, an inevitable shift occurs. the moment it is declared, “this we believe,” the active impulse of the confession shifts from description to prescrip- tion and the confession begins to function as a norm that divides those inside from those outside the group. in other words, the one confession plays two roles, first as a uniting document and then as a potentially dividing document. this fine collection of documents invites extended historical analysis of the history that produced these confessions in light of the contrasting functions of description and prescription, or of uniting and dividing. a book designed for serious study needs an index. this book is no exception. a user misses being able quickly to locate theological themes throughout the confessions or to track the authorities quoted in the introductions. j. denny weaver bluffton university donald kraybill and james p. hurd, horse-and-buggy mennonites – hoofbeats of humility in a postmodern world. university park, pa: pennsylvania state university press, . hard cover, $ . us; paperback, $ . us. most people identify horse and buggy people as amish. in manitoba this summer, when a group of old order mennonites began a set- tlement, the press identified them as amish, because they assumed this was the identification that would communicate. in this volume, kraybill and hurd discuss the origin, faith, and history of old order mennonites, and as such, provide a much-needed corrective to popular misunderstandings about both old order mennonites and amish. old order mennonites in the united states began in , within the lancaster mennonite conference. the conference had been expe- riencing tensions over issues of modernization for some time. these tensions came to a head in the early s. the issue was not dress or use of technology, as one might have assumed since these are often the most visible signs of the old orders, but rather religious innovation book reviews and forms of worship.( ) as the division developed, other issues of modernity and relationship to the world were included, and gradually the two groups moved further and further apart. the long list of issues that divided the two groups primarily arose out of two major influences upon mennonites. one was evangelical- ism, and the innovations it promoted, like revival crusades, sunday schools, use of the english language in worship, evening church services, new hymnody, foreign missions, and higher education. all of these things seemed to be leading to pride, individualism, and “worldliness.” the other influence was the rapid increase in technol- ogy after the american civil war. new innovations like telephones and automobiles in the early twentieth century created new issues of how to relate to the “world.” on the issue of automobiles, the conviction not to use automobiles only developed gradually, with numerous members initially owning cars. the old orders eventually felt that owning a car was an expression of pride and individualism, and disruptive to community. the groffdale old order mennonite church initially consisted of about members, all living in lancaster county, pennsylvania. over the years the church has multiplied into many districts, each centred around a meetinghouse. (the term “church” is used for the people gathered, not the building.) because of the high cost of land in pennsylvania, the old order mennonites have moved into nine states, and number about , baptized members.( ) the total number of people in their communities, including children, is about , . they are scattered from new york in the east to iowa in the west, and from missouri and kentucky in the south to michigan in the north. they have been remarkably successful in passing on their faith from one generation to the next. groffdale old order mennonites are organized in about church districts. they meet in meetinghouses, and not in homes as do the amish. ministers from the districts meet twice a year to discuss issues related to the ordnung (principles and rules about life and faith), and thereby maintain a remarkable unity and similarity in all the church districts. they work together to make changes gradually, rationally, and in ways that will maintain community. they are in fel- lowship with old order mennonites in ontario and virginia, although neither of those groups is formally part of their conference. there are multiple names for this group of old order mennonites. they are also called horse-and-buggy mennonites, groffdale confer- ence mennonites, because their founding bishop, joseph o. wenger, was a preacher at the groffdale churchhouse in pennsylvania, wenger mennonites, because of their first bishop, and team mennonites, because they use the horse and buggy team. journal of mennonite studies none of the descendents of the groffdale old order mennonites have settled in canada. the old order mennonites in ontario began locally a few years earlier, in , when mennonites near waterloo divided between progressives and conservatives. their story is told very well in a recent publication by donald martin, old order mennon- ites in ontario: gelassenheit, discipleship, brotherhood. (kitchener, on: pandora press, ). after a very fine historical introduction to the groffdale old orders mennonites, kraybill and hurd discuss their faith and life under eight different topics. the topics range from “the fabric of faith and cul- ture” to “the rhythm of sacred ritual” to “pilgrims in a postmodern world.” the authors sensitively help readers see the older orders’ profound christian faith, their deep commitment to follow faithfully the teachings of the bible, their conviction that resources for renewal and change can be found within their own heritage, and their humble commitment to christian discipleship. the authors end their book with a very appropriate summary state- ment, “they [the old order mennonites] believe that true progress and deep satisfaction emerge when people yield to the collective wisdom of a redemptive community and that those who surrender to the precepts of providence, embedded in communal wisdom, will receive the bless- ings of contentment and fulfillment.”( ) john j. friesen canadian mennonite university wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ un/covering: female religious converts learning the problems and pragmatics of physical observance in the secular world un/covering: female religious converts learning the problems and pragmatics of physical observance in the secular world sally campbell galman university of massachusetts-amherst this article presents the experiences of three women who have chosen to move from secular, assimilated lives to lives characterized by the distinctive dress and practice associated with obser- vant islam, orthodox judaism, and orthodox christianity, respectively. all three relied upon informal, peer, and distance learning strategies for their religious education. the article analyzes both experiences in informal adult religious education and contemporary u.s. experiences with identity and assimilation, or covering (yoshino ). [women, religious identity, religious education, patriarchy] “in the american dream, assimilation helps us become not just americans, but the kind of americans we seek to be. just conform, the dream whispers, and you will be respected, protected, accepted.” kenji yoshino, covering ( : ). religious conversion often involves instruction in the pragmatics and physicality of observance that can be as important and meaningful as the convert’s spiritual awakening and profession of faith. the learning associated with conversion is often characterized by relearning to belong, to be in the world, to shed former selves, and, for many, to simulta- neously coexist with and nonconform to secular society (stromberg ). more than merely a spiritual shift, conversion can also be a complex physical and cultural process that requires intense instruction and mentoring in an observant community (luria ; taylor ). in this article, i explore some of the religious conversion experiences of three women learning what it means to nonconform with secular culture, or to stop covering (yoshino ). as yoshino writes, we are currently in an era where many religious minorities in particular are “covering”; to that end i explore the multiple meanings of covering: from yoshino’s interpretation of “toning down unfavorable identities” ( : ) to the funda- mentalist christian and jewish shorthand for a woman’s covering her hair or wearing modest dress, and the muslim woman’s hijab, also a form of covering one’s hair and wearing modest dress (abu-lughod ; bronner ; el-guindi ; krakowski ; mahmood ). i suggest that for some religious women, then, the act of covering their hair or bodies in accordance with religious identity and observance is really, and para- doxically, an act of uncovering, in the sense that they are choosing to actively resist the pressure to cover in the sense of choosing to nonconform, even if there are consequences to that resistance, as has been the case in france since its ban on “conspicuous religious symbols” (economist : ). these analyses use ethnographic case studies of three middle-class female religious converts, each of whom has been learning about and adopting a new religious identity using a variety of teaching and learning strategies as an adult. while independent learning using online, text, peer, didactic, and face-to-face instructional formats is commonly used by many adult learners, these women are further distinguished in that their learning is not solely about spiritual change but is also a pragmatic lesson in the physical changes of bs_bs_banner anthropology & education quarterly, vol. , issue , pp. – , issn - , online issn - . © by the american anthropological association. all rights reserved. doi: . /aeq. uncovering. as stephanie, amanda, and rebecca move from secular, “covered” lives to lives characterized by forms of “uncovered” religious orthodoxy and its often distinctive dress, they grapple with learning to “uncover” in different ways: stephanie struggles with isolation and hostility and seeks solace in a robust online community of fundamentalist christian women; amanda turns to the qur’an itself and to other progressive muslims to reinterpret hijab from a feminist perspective; rebecca puts her conversion and orthodox observance on hold for several years as she struggles with her own complex and layered identity as a multiracial woman uncovering in a different way. fundamentally, these women’s experiences suggest that choosing to nonconform and “uncover” is more than a personal change. instead it speaks to the larger complexities of self, learning, and agency in a cultural climate that yoshino calls a “renaissance of assimi- lation” ( : ). while the mechanisms by which we all learn to cover in the first place are part of the intricacies of symbolic interaction and socialization, culturally reproduced and reinforced over time (blumer ; bourdieu and passeron ), the mechanisms by which one might learn to “uncover” are less clear. critical incidents such as spiritual shifts play a role in awakening critical consciousness (zamudio et al. ) and providing the why of uncovering. however, i suggest that the religious education offered to/undertaken by the convert provides the how. while a great deal of attention has been paid to religious conversion in the psychological literature, somewhat less research has been done from an anthropological perspective, and an even smaller percentage of that work has focused on women’s personal enactment of practical religious education (connelly ; cucchiari ; bryant and lamb ; buckser and glasier ; deeb ; mahmood ). regardless of an individual’s religious affiliation and/or practice, the concept of un-covering in the context of the convert’s education raises questions: what does it mean to “un-cover”? how do individuals learn to, and think about, resisting the pressure to cover (i.e., assimilate into a dominant culture or norm)? the paper begins with a discussion of theories of assimilation and passing followed by a brief methodological overview. partici- pant vignettes, discussion of key themes, and final conclusions bring the paper to a close. covering and identities yoshino draws a distinction between “passing” and covering. the former is about hiding a stigmatized identity from others; for example, the main character in nella larsen’s novel, passing, is a light-skinned african-american woman who passes for white, marries a white man, and is subsequently consumed with hiding her african american identity from a hostile, racist world that perceives her as white. covering, meanwhile, is about downplaying a stigmatized identity. borrowing from goffman, yoshino illustrates the difference between passing and covering: goffman [notes] that passing pertains to the visibility of a particular trait, while covering pertains to its obtrusiveness. he relates how franklin roosevelt always stationed himself behind a table before his advisers came in for meetings. roosevelt was not passing, since everyone knew he used a wheelchair. he was covering, downplaying his disability so people would focus on his more conventionally presidential qualities. [yoshino : ] yoshino writes that women are encouraged to cover by being “told to ‘play like men’ at work and to make their child care responsibilities invisible” ( : ), and to avoid feminist affiliations and, for academic women, feminist scholarship. similarly, fordham and ogbu’s work documenting the world of “acting white” (fordham and ogbu ) has illustrated how black youth are encouraged to cover their blackness to assimilate to racist conceptualizations of the good student; such “acting white” is a burden “imposed on black students within a white dominated institution in which black culture is marginal- anthropology & education quarterly volume , ized and stigmatized and an alienating racialized performance is the price of academic success” (fordham : ). so also men who occupy subaltern masculinities may adopt stances associated with hegemonic masculinity in order to compete and succeed (connell ; griffiths ). ethnographies of obese persons reveal that men and women alike cover their size by becoming less present in the public sphere; this can be through avoiding public situations, silencing themselves, or through distancing themselves from their own physicality (and from non-obese persons) by a skewed kind of “acting thin,” namely adopting pejorative, often crude, self-deprecating language around fatness and size (brown ; monaghan and hardey ). in exemplars from the ethnography of dis- ability, disabled persons and their families go to great lengths to diminish the visibility of disability, employing a range of functional covers like prosthetic eyes and limbs, as well as the discourse of fitting in among the normal and “achieving” equality in the face of adversity (bridgens ; jenks ). finally, zine describes canadian muslim youth being openly exhorted by school administrators to “act like christians” ( : ). yoshino reminds us that when individuals uncover, identities become choices. for example, when a participant wears hijab to publicly identify herself and uncover as a muslim, she is refusing to “tone down that unfavorable identity” ( : ). this is also a choice not to “act christian” or otherwise assimilate. so, refusal to cover (by refusing to “act christian,” or “act white,” or “act straight” or similar) by uncovering as muslim, as black, as gay, and so on, those identities become choices. choices, unlike things one “cannot help,” are not protected by civil rights legislation. for example, by this logic, one “cannot help” but be black, but one can choose to cover that blackness by acting as white as possible. the pressure to cover means that “individuals no longer needed to be white, male, straight, protestant and able-bodied; they only needed to act white, male, straight, protestant and able-bodied . . . [the message was clear:] don’t uncover yourself” ( : ). the subtext here borrows from neoliberal discourses of fault, consequence, and social amorality; a person is protected as long as they assimilate and don’t “act like a minority.” to wit: by choosing to uncover the marginalized self, the individual who is uncovering has somehow forfeited social protection against all kinds of micro- and macro-aggressions. they are, effectively, “asking for it.” in this universe, the participant who uncovers as a muslim has no recourse should negative outcomes result from her uncovering. when confronted with anti-muslim aggression, threats, and scrutiny the prevailing discourse of choice demands that she has only herself to blame for not “blending in”; she uncovers at her own risk. method the three individual cases presented in this article are part of a larger study of western women and religious/ethnic identity. data were collected between january and december . three participants are presented here as individual cases for analysis. several study participants were geographically far flung, so being able to use telephone and internet communication was essential. artifact collection included both physical and digital materials, including archives, blogs, websites, and emails. where possible, data collection also included nonparticipant observation of women in their places of worship and with their families, though these opportunities were rare given the geographic chal- lenges of the participant pool. participants were recruited via community connections and snowball sampling, and many of these were additionally part of online communities participating in the e-universe of the countless blogs, websites, and facebook pages dedi- cated to women’s religious meaning making, identities, and practice. participants were forthcoming in telephone and in-person interviews, emails, and in some cases directing me to websites, blogs, chat rooms, and other distance learning sites where they themselves had experienced adult religious education. the interview process galman un/covering was guided largely by the work of seidman ( ) and spradley ( ), focusing on open-ended protocols asking questions about how individuals came to their new faith, their process of learning about conversion, and the learning communities of which they were a part both before and after their conversion and how they felt about physically standing out where they had not before. finally, as several participants were professional academics or students and self-described feminists with progressive politics both before and after their religious conversion, i spent time exploring how their understanding of feminist identity both jibed and conflicted with their new religious identities. participants were interviewed several times over the course of the data collection period. throughout data analysis, i paid special attention to participants’ interpretations of their experiences of relearning, through education, what we might call the “uncovering” of the self. the themes emerging from analyses were used to frame ongoing data collection, cross-analysis of themes, and triangulation of findings across and between the data sources. these findings were then used to craft participant vignettes and inform discussion about learn- ing and community. researcher identity, role, and representational concerns my interest in this topic is theoretical as well as personal: ) my own professional interest in feminist perspectives on religion, identity, and education; and ) my identity as a moderately observant feminist jewish woman increasing her own level of uncovering, albeit in small ways, in everyday life. amanda and i have common friends and several common interests, but i only learned of her conversion after the fact when i learned of her marriage. her experience in particular intrigued me, and i was inspired to begin formal inquiry after learning more about how she made the transition to wearing hijab and what it meant to her. when i initially met rebecca, she and i were both attending an autoethnography workshop at a national conference and paired together in a small dis- cussion group where we connected as observant jews, academics, and west-coast, warm- weather enthusiasts. while i often go out of my way to talk to women in my community and others, i’m not sure that rebecca and i would have connected were it not for the unusual setting—a workshop where we were each to share specifics about community and religion. sometime after this initial conversation, i contacted her to participate in my study of women and religious conversion, and she was very forthcoming in sharing her experiences. after i had begun collecting data for the project, i was able to connect with a range of online communities for religious women, and it was through one of these that i found stephanie. she described herself in her online biography as a “newly saved cana- dian christian” who was trying to begin covering her hair not just at church but in everyday life but was struggling with others’ reactions to it and her own “burning desire” to increase observance. i was very interested in diversifying the participant pool to the greatest degree possible and contacted her via email, eventually having several phone conversations and email exchanges. my role in the research settings was that of a nonparticipant observer and “professional stranger” (agar ). that said, even with what i held in common with many of the participants, i was still wary of transposing upon it too much of my own experience, especially as a critical feminist, and allowing subjectivity too much of an unchecked foothold in the project. so, i used member checking of all interview transcripts and written vignettes by sending written products to participants for them to review for accuracy. in this way, i tried to maintain what ashcraft ( ) calls a “dual perspective” that privileges participant voices and presents their narratives as they occurred, but despite an intention- ally emic perspective, still does not seek to separate them from “the material conditions in which these voices emerge and the ways they may be complicit with oppressive practices” anthropology & education quarterly volume , (ashcraft : ). finally, it is important to emphasize that the experiences of the participants are in no way representative of the experience of all female religious converts and are absolutely located in the relatively privileged, north american middle-class milieu. while the themes and questions arising from these analyses may be generally illuminative, the paper in no way seeks to speak beyond the context of these participants in these particular locations. participants my project began with looking at how north american religious converts learn ) to be practicing members of their new faiths and faith communities and ) to “uncover” (make themselves known) as members of those communities by adopting distinctive practice and dress. because so many people learn to be practicing members of one faith or another as a result of childhood socialization, i realized that in order to make this learning visible i would need to look at adult converts. some interpretations of islam, orthodox judaism, and more orthodox forms of evangelical or fundamentalist christianity were all associ- ated with a specific, visible identity kit and behaviors, and these were even more visible and more concentrated among female adherents. stephanie, amanda, and rebecca are three middle-class women just beginning to “uncover.” they are a new fundamentalist christian wearing the veil, a convert to islam getting used to wearing hijab, and a convert to orthodox judaism struggling with identity and practice—all of whom are experiencing becoming “uncovered” by leaving life defined by secularism and assimilation to one marked by the distinctive practices and identity kits of their chosen faith. stephanie: empowerment and the veil stephanie is a white canadian in her late thirties who has recently become a self- described fundamentalist christian. previously a member of the moderate church of england in canada, she joined a fundamentalist christian group after searching for more observant christian practice and subsequently connecting with other christian women online. “i was looking for physically present meaning,” she says, “and an intense, every- day, living relationship with christ.” she began wearing a veil in early as a “properly plain” fundamentalist. the theological roots of stephanie’s veil are partially rooted in the doctrines of simplicity and modesty drawn from a single passage in the book of corin- thians that directs a woman to cover her hair for prayer. stephanie and other members of her faith interpret this as meaning a woman should not cut or style her hair, and that a woman’s hair is implicitly sensual, corporeal, and private and should be reserved only for her husband and children in the home and covered with a veil in all public settings. stephanie described her veiling as varied over time in both degree of coverage and veil style. she explains, “i was drawn by conscience and conviction to reclaim covering and modesty [and tried] . . . several different scarves, hijabs, and buncovers until i found something that worked from a website.” while some fundamentalist baptist, mennonite, and orthodox christian women wear veils similar to the hijab, covering the head, ears, and neck, stephanie’s veils and those typically worn by fundamentalist christian women in the united states are much more like those worn by u.s. mennonite, old quaker (or “plain”), or amish communities: small, light cotton bonnets covering the ears and back of the head, often tying under the chin, with some variations in length of covering in the back. while often small, simply sewn, and without adornment, these veils are highly conspicu- ous in public; unlike bandanas or scarves that may pass as a secular fashion statement for assimilated women, the veil is iconic, at least in the united states and canada, as christian galman un/covering religious headgear. stephanie has certainly felt conspicuous, noting that “fear of standing out (especially in context of modesty, etc.) is a hurdle many women struggle with . . . our own fear; that first day or two is often fraught with panic and terror as the [veil] can feel white-hot upon our head.” stephanie asserts that the act of veiling is “an incredibly liberating and empowering practice” in the midst of a christian context that “seems all too hyperfocused upon the internal, often ignoring or veering away from the enriching aspect of the physical elements of faith, such as veiling, modesty, fasting, fixed hour prayer, etc.” stephanie interprets faith as a whole body experience and insists the rules of faith should be followed with “clarity, beauty, and gentleness whilst not compromising.” unlike amanda and rebecca, stepha- nie never identified as a feminist, but much of her narrative emphasizes women’s empow- erment through faith, even in the christian fundamentalist community where empowerment may look to the outsider like submission. “[outsiders] may think that i have lost my mind, that suddenly i’m no longer thinking for myself or cowed by religious order, but what i have is greater,” she says. one example she offered was that of the fashion industry, saying, “why should i let the fashion industry tell me how to wear my hair and to dress?” she continues, modest attire and veiling removes the emphasis from the fetishised cult of the body redirecting us to consider the other as a whole person. sexuality is denigrated when it is dragged into the public arena, as are both men and women denigrated by this propensity of our postmodern culture . . . to me, the covering is very much a symbol of power upon my head, a very special and intimate sacramental, that i, as a woman, am privileged to be able to wear. it is a quiet witness and a sign against all that is so destructive in our postmodern culture. amanda: solidarity and hijab amanda is a white, middle-class woman in her thirties living in a major u.s. urban center who was raised as a protestant christian in the midwestern united states before converting to islam in the last year. a daughter of politically progressive, spiritually moderate parents, her decision to convert was met with some surprise by her family and friends. amanda herself was particularly surprised to find that she was comfortable wearing hijab. she has identified as a feminist throughout her adult life, and while she found the hijab itself problematic from a qur’anic point of view as a religious requirement for women, wearing it became a potent symbol of shared identity with other muslim women. amanda converted to islam shortly before her marriage. when her fiancé, a devout and observant muslim himself, asked if she would consider converting, her initial response was to refuse. however, after some further thought and consideration, she began to consider the possibility and set to researching about islam. as a feminist, she said that her “main concern was about the treatment of women,” so the first book she picked up was a qur’an with an index in which she could specifically look up everything about women, including marriage, clothing, and other expectations. she also used the internet and discovered many feminist critiques of islam that were eye opening. she noted that these were particularly important “insofar as they made it clear to me that there is a space for feminists within islam and that those aspects of mainstream/orthodox islam which appear to be repressive of women can be, and have been, interpreted in other ways.” it was only after her marriage that amanda began wearing the hijab regularly. at first, she wore the hijab “just to try it out,” and [in the end] i felt like i was just used to it. i felt really comfortable wearing it, but self-conscious of what my [non-muslim] friends would say—i first wore it on new year’s eve, but then the second time i saw people, they asked, “so, are you wearing this all the time now?” . . . and the first week at work, i felt self-conscious, and i wondered if people would say anything. anthropology & education quarterly volume , initially amanda wore a headscarf only when attending muslim events and not the rest of the time. “i started to get frustrated by living two different lives,” she said, “feeling kind of hypocritical. the style of wearing it as i do now [that does not cover the ears and neck], though many muslim women do not consider it [legitimate] hijab, is a middle ground for me where i can feel comfortable both in muslim groups and non-muslim groups, and yet is me, not changing to please others.” she explains that it enables her to be visibly identified as muslim; “i don’t think people notice right away but [when] i see someone who is visibly muslim, either wearing full hijab or i know from an event, if i greet them with salaam aleikum they look and try to sum me up as to whether i am muslim or not. [the hijab] lets them know that i am.” amanda’s reasons for wearing hijab have less to do with religious obligation, obser- vance, or the pressure some female converts feel to show their commitment to faith by wearing distinctive dress than about making a choice to be in solidarity with other muslim women. this includes making the choice to wear hijab even when it is not comfortable or convenient, such as during recent travel and the tension of going through security for the first time as a visible muslim. for amanda, wearing hijab in solidarity with other muslim women hinges on her belief that it is a choice to wear hijab. “i feel really strongly that it is not required and that women do not need to be more covered up than men,” she says, “hijab literally means ‘to cover’ and i don’t feel that i am covering anything. intention is a major part of islam and my intention in wearing a scarf is not to cover my hair, but simply to be visible. i don’t believe that women need to cover up. i’m doing it because i want to be visibly identified as muslim.” rebecca: identity and orthodoxy rebecca is a self-described multiracial woman in her early thirties who was raised in what she describes as a “nominally catholic family—i had agnostic parents, basically, but it was catholic in flavor.” in the conservative, middle-class west coast u.s. community where she grew up the most vocal group were “the religious right—christians who lobbied against teaching evolution in our high school—that kind of thing,” and while she didn’t share their beliefs, she was also uncertain about her own. her explorations, which began in high school and continued into college, led her to judaism. when a classmate invited her to visit the campus hillel, rebecca said she remembers walking up the stairs and “grabbing every flier and for the next six months going to every single thing hillel put on—every seminar, every dinner, every discussion.” she remembers that “something clicked, and a friend of a friend who was jewish, we started talking, and it turns out he would go to one family’s house for shabbes [the sabbath], and to the modern orthodox shul [synagogue] in town, and he invited me to go with him.” after several visits to the family’s home with her friend, she began to feel a sense of belonging. after a while she met with the rabbi and told him she wanted to convert. “at that point i was still trying to get grounded, get observant, keeping kosher, becoming shomer shabbes, not wearing pants as often—and certainly dressing the frum [observant, modest] part when i went to shul.” then rebecca went to israel. this was a life-changing experience that made her realize her positionality and question her identity. i realized how american i was—i really began to question myself on so many levels. at this point i realized it wasn’t just a religion, it was an incredible history, and so ancient and in my little west coast mind we’re all first generation and there it’s mind blowing . . . so that was just heavy. i was young. i’m mixed race and have many different ethnicities and i didn’t grow up in a heavily cultural household. we assimilated; i was still learning who i was. i was still involved, but i decided to table conversion. i felt like i couldn’t go into it having these complicated feelings. and i needed to know who i was before i took on this new, huge identity. galman un/covering years passed, but rebecca returned to observance, finishing her conversion during the data collection period. in some ways “uncovering” has spoken to her own complex identity. i didn’t finish my first orthodox conversion because when i went to israel, it shut me down, i thought judaism is also a culture, it’s a country, it’s complex and somewhat painful politically that i do not agree with everything, i didn’t know how to merge it—being mixed race, with a divorced family, coming from a community where my family didn’t fit in politically, racially, culturally, and so on, i was young and figuring it out back then. as time has passed rebecca has become much more comfortable in addressing people’s curiosity about how a person of color became a jew. but now it’s like, discuss all you want, doubt all you want, but at the end of the day you ate kosher, said your b’racha before you ate, went through the motions of observance. nobody can doubt you if you are observant and living a jewish life. [other people] can stare all they want, but i am singing all of the words [of the service]. i love orthodoxy—the minutiae of observance—but i am also [becoming orthodox] because i definitely want to do whatever i can to make sure my own kids are a little more secure in their jewish identity. . . being mixed myself, any kid i have is going to be ethnically mixed, so i don’t want them to have any doubt about where they belong, if they are really jewish or not. like amanda, rebecca is interested in belonging and community; she is concerned about being visibly acknowledged as a member of the jewish community and addresses this by pursuing the most stringent standard of conversion, the time-consuming, expensive, and intense orthodox conversion process. further, and as will be explored more deeply later in this discussion, as a person who identifies as multiracial, the need to address any ambiguity by acts of clear and obvious uncovering are important for rebecca. also like amanda, rebecca doesn’t see a necessary conflict between religious observance and feminism. from the ritual separation of men and women in the synagogue to the requirements for family purity and modest dress for women, “i embrace it from a feminist perspective,” she says, “there isn’t anything disempowering about embracing womanliness, being beautiful in a different way than the commercial ideal out there, and seeing differences in men and women.” she is comfortable wearing modest clothing that covers her arms, collarbones, and legs, foregoing pants and other masculine-associated clothing items and, when she marries, covering her hair. while she does stand out as religious, and this is undeniably gendered, she is more comfortable with this than with the liturgical aspects of gender in her religious practice, such as being required to stand behind the mehitzah (barrier separating men and women in the synagogue) during services at the synagogue. “that’s the rub there—the men are having fun and the rabbi is talking to them and we’re [the women] up in the rafters trying to follow along—but i’m still okay,” she says. she resolves to live with and accept what she perceives is a somewhat intractable imperfection, adding, “just like with theory, or with a family, nothing is % to your liking. you take the good with the bad.” “stand next to me”: community religious education and experience all three women relied upon religious education to learn how to “uncover” in a culture that values—even mandates—covering or hiding that which does not fit the mainstream, norm, or “covered” ideal. additionally, all three drew a distinction between learning about their newfound faith as a text-based theoretical exercise and learning how be muslim/jewish/fundamentalist women in practice. while both forms of learning were clearly important, the latter was greatly facilitated by learning in communities. all three relied upon their immersion in uncovered communities to help them learn how to “uncover,” and how to live as uncovered religious minorities. these communities anthropology & education quarterly volume , included in-person, face-to-face communities, online communities, and a mixture of the two. for both stephanie and amanda, their online communities became informal distance learning communities as well. while online learning is commonly used in formal seminary contexts, and many religious groups use social networking, chat room, and other sites for community building, limited research has been done on nonseminarian adult learners using online sources for religious education (harlow ; hines et al. ). religious educators who work with specific cultural groups acknowledge the power of computer use in identity development and encourage religious educators to approach online teach- ing and learning with full understanding of its unique capacities as well as its shortcom- ings, especially with regard to online community (arroyo ; dinter ). stephanie, by far the most isolated of the three, relied entirely on the online community of fundamentalist christian veiled women. despite living in a relatively populous sub- urban area, she felt very much alone in her fundamentalist practice of the christian faith. her decision to convert to a fundamentalist form of practice was the product of “prayer and meditation, and the support and influence of other like-minded christian women in the online community.” in the chat rooms and websites she learned new ways to pray, where to purchase veils and how to wear them, and even strategies for dealing with others’ response to her uncovering. when uncovering in public resulted in open hostility more than once and resistance from her husband who “at first doubted the importance of veiling,” she was able to use her knowledge of the online christian fundamentalist community to connect with women who not only interpreted religious practice the same way she did but could also give her advice on how to address these practical concerns. stephanie explains: “it was actually a friend from a plain website who told me that hostile responses from other women were common in her experience, and that i shouldn’t respond to them with hatred, or fear, or feel pressure to take off my veil, but instead understand that the veil brings feelings up from within them that can be unpleasant.” stephanie affirms that her online community helped foster that understanding and provided a venue for her to assist other women struggling with the multifaceted challenges associated with veiling: a woman once shouted at me [and i learned] that they may see that the veiled woman is judging non-veiled women, and the non-veiled woman’s own self-consciousness about visibility and doubts about her level of observance could bubble up. [similarly] i heard from so many women that their husbands didn’t like the veil, and wanted them to take it off, to avoid the looks and stares and questions. i had been there too. i would love to become even more plain, but my husband would have a coronary i fear! still, some of us [in the chat rooms] were only just beginning to wear a small bandana, having not yet begun to veil or even change from pants to skirts, they were worried that their husbands would be unhappy with their new appearance . . . some women suggested strategies for helping their husbands adjust to the change . . . through the online groups i know scores of women whose husbands are dead against covering or convincement on modesty! it takes much prayer and patience to bring our husbands or male family members around to this as being a good thing, but we are not alone doing it. this was a theme that came up multiple times in stephanie’s narrative: that in learning with her online community, she was not alone, nor were her compatriots. while prayer did provide a kind of solace and ameliorated feelings of isolation for stephanie, it was prayer along with the companionship of her learning community that was most significant. amanda also benefited from an online community; she began with online and text self-teaching and remote learning before developing an online community, being matched with a formal mentor and finally reaching out to a face-to-face religious community of progressive muslim women wearing hijab. a private person, she was first reluctant to reach out to area muslims so she relied primarily on texts, including those related to progressive islam and feminist interpretations of islam. prior to, and even after her galman un/covering conversion, her primary modes of learning about and interacting with islam were through books, the internet, and online groups on her own. while learning in isolation was familiar and comfortable for amanda, she was nervous about “coming out” as a new muslim. her independent learning did not teach her how to “be” a muslim in daily life. she says: i felt isolated [and] i didn’t feel like i belonged. i didn’t feel like i had a community. then a colleague of mine who is involved in the muslim student group invited me to go to an iftar [breaking of the fast after ramadan] and before they served the dinner they had the prayer. i had never prayed in a congregation before—i had just been trying to do it on my own based on what i had read. this was my first chance and i wasn’t sure [what to do]. my colleague had introduced me to the woman student who was the head of the muslim women’s organization. she said i was a recent convert and would she teach me. she said, “stand next to me” and i felt like i was finally more public about things. i think i got on their mailing list and i learned that they have prayer group on campus—so sometime later i went to another dinner and a woman came up to me—who was another white american wearing hijab and she came over and introduced herself and asked if i was a new convert. she emailed me the next week. she was in charge of matching up new converts with a mentor—i remember she said “a mentor can help you learn how to pray” . . . we met and really hit it off. she helped me learn how to pray and how to do the ritualized ablutions before you pray [especially when] wearing hijab. this is all very complicated and basically i had to learn it in person instead of reading about it. it would be hard to have learned all of this online. also she was able to answer questions that i could not have asked online, such as how to pray when you’re out of the house, or how to do the ablutions in a public restroom— everyday life. amanda now authors her own blog about islam and feminism, and continues to educate and be educated by other muslims grappling with similar questions. this includes more conservative muslims and others unsure about how progressive and feminist viewpoints jibe with contemporary islamic practices and identities. unlike stephanie, whose religious education was exclusively online, or amanda, who learned in both online and face-to-face communities, rebecca never engaged in online learning or isolated self-teaching. historically, jewish religious education, like muslim and christian practice, has been community based, focusing on face-to-face formal and infor- mal religious and cultural instruction (short ). so rebecca sought out face-to-face community from the beginning of her conversion/learning experience, first by going to a family’s home for friday night shabbat dinners and to the orthodox synagogue for services with a jewish friend. after several visits she began to feel a sense of belonging that she says was the cornerstone of her decision to convert. another friend tutored her in hebrew, and after a while she met with the rabbi and told him she wanted to convert. her first passover was at the rabbi’s home. “he made space for me,” she said, to learn both the intricacies of orthodox observance but also as a member of the community. all of her learning, she notes, was primarily in the communities and families, and while formal conversion required a “huge amount of reading,” rebecca observed that the pragmatics of being a visible, practicing orthodox jew was through “a lot of people welcoming me and through personal home rituals”: i went to shul and took the formal classes at school so i had a textual knowledge and learning but the thing that, looking back, shabbat dinners, going through the whole kiddush and talking through the traditions, and holidays seeing even, like, going to an orthodox family’s home on shabbat and seeing the toilet paper pre-torn, that’s what stands out in my mind. judaism is all about community and looking back it’s seeing other people model it that helped me connect to texts later on and understand. for me judaism was a personal community first, and it felt like home before the learning happened—maybe that makes me more comfortable too. i can “do” it—a lot of the learning comes with the doing. judaism is very action based—it’s not about faith as much as there’s space to doubt that—from day to day it’s about doing what you have to do. anthropology & education quarterly volume , rebecca’s insistence that orthodox judaism is a religion of practice, of “doing what you have to do,” as well as the intense face-to-face work involved in both living an orthodox life and the formal conversion process itself, made online learning, or other purely doc- trinal learning in isolation, not as useful. it is possible that for rebecca, the vibrancy and availability of such community was one of the major attractors to the faith, and she conveys this when she talks about wanting her children to belong (in addition to her belief in her own yiddishe neshama—jewish soul). amanda came to islam initially through travels and her partner, while stephanie was a christian who began exploring ways of deepening her christianity online. so it is possible, then, that each woman’s path to the faith, religious education, and physical process of uncovering is connected to her motivation for conversion and the meaning she makes of uncovering. “taking the good with bad”: gendered and political problems and positionalities uncovering by wearing distinctive dress or participating in distinctive practices often serves the internal devotional purposes as well as external purpose as a show of political and religious solidarity with others (brenner ; deeb ; mahmood ). all three women learned to “uncover” in communities that emphasized the dual internal/external purpose of the practice. rebecca described wearing modest dress as an inwardly directed symbolic enactment of her devotion but also a sign to others that she belonged and was an observant orthodox jew for whom wearing gender-specific modest dress highlighted her “womanliness.” amanda’s hijab was a sign of solidarity with muslim women and also a spiritual practice to “get in the zone” before prayer—though she was always careful to construct her choice to wear hijab as a choice from a feminist, progressive muslim stance. stephanie’s veil was a physical embodiment of religious commitment but also communi- cated resistance to what stephanie sees as distorted, hyper-sexualized western beauty standards. all three women engaged with uncovering by adopting an identity kit that resists both the pressure to cover and constructed their uncovering as resistance to ele- ments of patriarchy as well. this is not uncommon among religious women; many see religious observance as a form of resistance to secular objectification and hegemonic masculinity (greenberg ; mcginty ; van nieuwkerk ). the participants inter- preted uncovering as a way to actively nonconform with contemporary racist, sizist, eurocentric beauty standards, most of which aggressively market conforming to certain standards of beauty—covering (rooks ). however, religious women’s uncovering viewed from a critical vantage point can also render it less benign. as neiterman and rapoport write, “studies on women’s participation in religious organizations, movements and communities show how they . . . empower women and strengthen their status on the one hand, yet on the other hand reinforce patriarchy by regulating and controlling women, thereby preserving women’s traditional identity and positions” ( : ). while many would disagree about the connection between tradition and control, it is difficult to dismiss the ways in which many forms of religious uncovering reinforce patriarchy while simultaneously limiting the means by which women might respond to it (alumkal ; hartman ). certainly some doctrinal discourses in islam, christianity, judaism, and beyond decenter modesty as the enactment of feminine agency by framing the purpose of modest, distinctive dress as solely a function of male desire (hartman ; mahmood ). having come across both thoughtful feminist critiques of hijab as well as facile orientalist arguments about islamic women and “oppression,” amanda struggled with her own interpretation of women’s participation in islam. she pored over qur’anic requirements for modesty from a doctrinal perspective; in problematizing everything galman un/covering from where women were allowed to pray in relation to men, to women’s role in prayer, to the popular expectation that she would wear hijab solely because she was a woman, she utilized the tools of critical scholarship to directly question the theological underpinnings of practice. rebecca pragmatically resolved to take the “good with the bad,” acknowledg- ing that no one thing can be perfect; she frequented conservative synagogues where she could participate in the service while also attending orthodox services where, even though she had to sit in the women’s section behind the mehitzah and substitute words for prayers she found offensive, she felt the comforting rhythms of her own orthodox observance and the importance orthodoxy places on women in the family context (callister et al. ; kaufman ). stephanie also massaged the rough edges of her faith into something that felt empow- ering and meaningful to her as a woman, and sought out other fundamentalist women who interpreted it the same way. she observed on more than one occasion that this may have been one reason for her heavy reliance on the internet because so few christian women were “coming around to [her] way of thinking . . . that the veil is about strength, and women should be strong.” on first glance, it appears that something has happened to patriarchy here; stephanie and other women in her community don the veil often in the midst of their husbands’ initial objections, each providing strategies for the others to help bring the reluctant men around to the idea. it is important to note that these women did endeavor to convince their husbands, often increasing observance by small steps to help them adjust, rather than simply going ahead without consent, or flying in the face of family harmony. similarly, the men’s objections seemed to be about the public consequences of uncovering rather than about their wives’ subscription to a gendered form of observance. they were not bothered by their wives’ insistence that women must cover their heads but rather by the “looks and stares and questions.” so, patriarchy remains relatively intact. considering that many fundamentalist christian churches and movements emphasize women’s subservience, obedience, and self-sacrifice while de-emphasizing empower- ment, choice, and independence (joyce ; keysar and kosmin ), stephanie’s per- spective highlights how her interpretation of women’s empowerment, and her learning from like-minded women in online communities, may be one example of contradictory practices thriving in the (online) margins. however, even with such conflict, this would certainly not be the first time women in religious communities developed strategies to “subvert the patriarchal norms of their religious belief system . . . engage[ing] in dialectic of conformity and resistance to male domination” (alumkal : ). it is also possible that aspects of each woman’s religious education included tools for not only uncovering but also strategies for the “dialectic” alumkal describes. such tools provide pragmatic ways of balancing the demands of complex layers of gendered identity and belonging (brasher ; pevey et al. ). while the purpose of formal religious education is typically centered on doctrine, the religious education of the women converts here was not only doctrinal but procedural: learning how to be uncovered in a secular culture was of equal import, if not greater personal significance. it is possible that adult converts’ unique religious education creates a space for alumkul’s dialectic that may not be as readily accessible for those whose religious socialization takes place in childhood home and family life. adult converts, meanwhile, learn by synthesizing an array of simultaneously discordant and confirming prior life experiences with new practices and belief. both formal and informal religious education have historically served multiple, simultaneous goals, often emphasizing not only doctrinal conformity and confirmation of faith but also other community and cultural goals (baquedano-lópez ). for these three participants, self-teaching and learning in isolation could only take them so far. anthropology & education quarterly volume , notes on choice and privilege amanda and stephanie, both white, educated, and middle class, occupied positions of relative race and class privilege both before and after their conversions. for them, uncov- ering meant, to some degree, truncating the experience of privilege associated with being mainstream white christians in western culture. amanda described her first forays into being “uncovered” as a muslim by describing her discomfort and insecurity in interac- tions with friends, colleagues, and finally, airport security, where a previously routine security pat down took on new, self-conscious meaning. she affirmed that uncovering by wearing the hijab and visibly identifying as a muslim is a choice, one that she can make or umake at any time, but a choice made in solidarity with others with full understanding of the positive and negative consequences. stephanie was painfully aware of the costs of un-covering, and has met with hostility for wearing the veil, from intimates and strangers alike. however, even though she was a fundamentalist christian, and part of a small subset of christian fundamentalist women who wear a veil and distinctive “plain” dress, she was still a christian and as such occupied a position of relative privilege in western cultures. though it is unlikely, both amanda and stephanie could conceivably alter their identity kit and can return with some ease to the covered identity of the nondescript white person should they wish to do so. rebecca, the only person of color in the group, occupied a somewhat different position. she had, as she said, grappled her whole life with questions of identity and assimilation, occupying spaces that made it difficult for her to fit into any one group or setting. in choosing to live as an orthodox jew she was effectively choosing that identity and affirming it through observance and through her willingness to “uncover” as an orthodox jewish woman—despite having lived as a person of color throughout her life. she was choosing a new community—notably an insular one that has historically neither prosely- tized nor warmly welcomed conversion—and in doing so finding new layers of belonging (as a member of that community, distinguished by practice and modest dress) and differ- ence (as a jew of color in the orthodox community, and as an orthodox jew in the secular world). however, in the seemingly paradoxical endeavor of learning to resist sociocultural pressure to cover unassimilated religious and gendered identities by wearing distinctive, modest dress as a matter of religious observance, rebecca’s religious education empha- sized simultaneous resistance and belonging: resisting the pressure to cover by “uncover- ing” as an orthodox jew in secular contexts and “uncovering” as a sign of belonging in the orthodox community context. in conversations she continually went back to concerns about her future children and her need for them to be in no doubt as to their identity as jews and that this was her primary reason for uncovering. it is possible to argue that by becoming an orthodox jew, an “autonomous minority” (ogbu ), she was augmenting an involuntary minority status by choosing a more voluntary one, even though being a person of color does create its own complexities for her belonging in jewish communities. her uncovering as a jew does not diminish the daily experience of confronting racism as a person of color, a jew of color, and a multiracial woman in contemporary culture. for amanda and stephanie, who have joined religious communities that both actively pros- elytize and are made up of many converts, religious education has emphasized uncover- ing perhaps more directly. amanda noted that many new female muslims feel pressured to wear hijab. while stephanie’s community of veiling christian women does self-select, there is a decided drive among online community members to become ever more “prop- erly plain” over time. addressing the complex issues of choice and privilege is challenging largely because of the difficulties inherent in disentangling covering and uncovering from the larger, systemic matrices of privilege and oppression. galman un/covering conclusion: the mainstream is a myth in the perverse logic of covering there is an underlying assumption of the benignity and desirability of the mainstream. like zine’s ( ) muslim youth who are exhorted to solve everyone’s problems by simply “act[ing] christian,” french muslims are forbidden to wear headscarves in favor of adherence to the french national culture and identity (keaton ). the latter assumes that being french is both mutually exclusive with and more desirable than being muslim, and those who persist in being muslim should be required at the very least to appear to be as french as possible—covering their muslim identities by, paradoxically, uncovering their heads. in the u.s. context, social pressure to cover begins early and effectively: any casual glance through popular young adult literature in the united states reveals the dominance of “fitting in” and “belonging” as desired outcomes for every protagonist, and this is often more important than the other iconic american narrative theme of “finding oneself” (indeed, one should only “find” a “self” that aligns with mainstream identity norms and cover the rest). in sum, the mainstream is con- structed as so universally accessible, and so commonsensical, that anyone who does not cover must be actively choosing not to “fit in.” however, what if the assumptions driving the concept of a “mainstream” were problematized? urrieta challenges the assumptions of benignity, desirability, and neutral- ity from a critical race perspective, writing that the so-called “mainstream” is really a “whitestream” ( : ): a system that actively promotes the idea of whiteness and white experience as the norm of human experience, when in fact society is far from being entirely white (or male, or christian, or straight, or thin, or able, and so on). yoshino goes on to suggest that the “mainstream is a myth” ( : ) that ultimately hurts everyone, includ- ing straight, white men who he has observed to “[angrily deny] that covering is a civil rights issue . . . [asking] why shouldn’t racial minorities or women or gays have to cover?” but why should they receive protection for behaviors within their control—wearing cornrows, acting “feminine,” or flaunting their sexuality? after all, the questioner says, i have to cover all the time. i have to mute my depression, or my obesity, or my alcoholism, or my schizophrenia, or my shyness, or my working-class background, or my nameless anomie. i, too am one of the mass of men leading a life of quiet desperation. why should classic civil rights groups have a right to self-expression i do not? why should my struggle for an authentic self matter less? i surprise these individuals when i agree. [ : – ] so, if the norms or standards to which individuals are pressured to submit to covering are undesirable, unobtainable, and unreasonable for the majority of humanity, questions remain about what it means for individuals to “choose” to cover and “uncover” and what it means when identities become coded as “choices.” choice implies some degree of agency, just as the rhetoric of having “no choice” implies the absolute undesirability and piteousness lack of agency associated with identities one cannot cover. the logic of covering suggests that because a person can assimilate (meaning, they can code switch, or dress the part, or associate in ways to act white/straight/male/middle- class, and so on) they must. individuals who do not may be punished in a variety of ways. for rebecca, stephanie, and amanda, the act of resisting the pressure to cover was also an act of resistance to the so-called mainstream and its underlying assumptions. the “pun- ishments” they faced—the stigmatizing stares, the negative reactions from friends and strangers alike, the anxiety provoked by extra attention at airport security—pale in the face of the sweeping legal and educational penalties imposed on muslim women and other outwardly religious students in france since , but they smarted nonetheless. further, it is against this backdrop that veiled women become the most frequent targets of anti- muslim harassment and hate crimes as, “uncovered,” they are the most visible (cainkar ). anthropology & education quarterly volume , that said, why did rebecca, stephanie, and amanda persist in presenting uncovered selves when these presentations, like those of the muslim women and girls in france (and more recently other contexts), incited punishment? on a very concrete level, the three participants discussed here had their communities and identities at stake, and those are powerful motivators for nonconformity to secular norms, as well as conformity to the chosen group. on a larger level, perhaps their performances and those of others like them are small but effective reminders of the fallacy of the so-called mainstream. finally, these data suggest that the concept of “choice” is complex. when covering becomes the expectation and “unfavorable” (yoshino : ) identities become “choices,” it follows that desirable identities become “choices” as well—in other words, those who cover successfully are making “good choices” while others are making “bad choices.” rebecca, stephanie, and amanda all effectively made “bad choices” (in this system, at least) by adopting so-called “unfavorable” identities and by resisting the pres- sure to mute said identities through learning to “uncover.” while some religious women from a variety of faith communities claim that “uncovering” by wearing distinctive dress is not a choice but rather an inflexible dictate of faith, all three participants here framed it as a choice, even as all three noted that as a choice it may not have made sense to their families and some friends. but as middle-class north american women, their “bad choices” must be contextualized somewhat differently from those of other women in other communities. for example, their realities cannot be generalized with those of immigrant african and french african women and girls who must “choose” observance, identity, and survival over schooling—or the other way around (keaton )—or mayan women who persist in creating and wearing ropa typica—traditional dress—de- spite the risks of oppression and violence (ludwig ). in both of these cases, as well as in others, uncovering is done against the backdrop of an escalated taxonomy of choice where the survival of self/identity is often pitted against literal physical survival. so, choice is contextual, as is the valuation and legitimation assigned to a given choice and the logic behind it. that said, the “good choices” are also context dependent. as yoshino illustrates with his example of the “angry white man” ( : ) who has made the “good choice” to cover all his life only to reap the bitter rewards of self-abnegation and inauthenticity, even the “good choices” have consequences, though all consequences are certainly not equal. sally campbell galman is an associate professor of child and family studies in the school of education at the university of massachusetts–amherst (sally@educ.umass.edu). notes acknowledgments. the author wishes to thank the study participants for sharing their stories, insights, and wisdom throughout the project. the author also wishes to thank mary ann campbell for her continued inspiration in uncovering experiences of faith. . thanks to kevin kumashiro for introducing me to kenji yoshino’s work in kumashiro’s keynote address at first nordic conference on feminist pedagogies, june ,- , at the uni- versity of uppsala in uppsala, sweden. . pseudonyms, . many christians refer to themselves as “saved” once they are baptized or otherwise formally enter into a relationship with jesus christ. this implies that they will be “saved” from hell by being absolved of any sins and live life everlasting after death. . it was also more likely that some members of these faiths would be more comfortable talking to and spending time with a member of their own sex. . the insider terms used to describe modest, distinctive dress are many; muslim women wear a wide variety of distinct coverings including but not limited to hijab, niqab, abeyah, and chador, to galman un/covering mailto:sally@educ.umass.edu name a few. christian women, including amish and mennonite as well as fundamentalist women describe their head and hair coverings as bonnets, veils, or buncovers. for the purposes of clarity in this discussion i am choosing to use the words the participants themselves use: hijab and veil, respectively. . christian fundamentalism varies widely from one congregation to the next, however most could accurately be described as politically and socially conservative, antimodernist groups that believe in both the literal interpretation of the christian bible, including “biblical guidelines of male headship” (joyce : ) as well as women’s simultaneous subservience to men and elevation as bearers of children (pevey et al. ). . “i wasn’t sure how to do it at first, how to actually convert. but it turned out to be a fairly straightforward process—i called my host family in [east africa] to ask what i needed to do to convert before i married, and they said all i had to do was recite the shahada [the muslim decla- ration of faith]—right then, over the phone—with my host father. i did it in arabic, and in swahili, and in english and that was it. i was kind of shocked because i hadn’t planned to do it that day. interestingly, later on i found out that, apparently, there is a – number people can use to convert.” . “i almost decided not to wear it, since i don’t feel any religious obligation to do so, but decided that was cowardly and plus i was really curious as to how i would be treated. so i wore it, but knowing that unlike women who wear it for religious reasons i would take it off if asked to do so.” . a person who is shomer shabbes is someone who is completely observant of the jewish sabbath, meaning that from sundown on friday evening until sundown on saturday they do no “work,” which includes everything from turning on and off light switches, cooking, writing, exchanging money, watching television (or operating any electric appliance) for some, and even tearing toilet paper for others. instead, observance typically includes lighting the sabbath candles, relaxing, attend- ing religious services, and having the sabbath meals with family and friends. . women in stephanie’s christian fundamentalist community, and others among the amish, mennonite, and some quaker denominations, refer to themselves as “plain,” meaning that they wear distinctive “plain” dress usually consisting of monochromatic or simply patterned, unadorned blouses and long skirts with simple work shoes or boots, no makeup and typically unprocessed long hair covered in a buncover or veil. historically among “plain people” in the united states like the anabaptists, quakers, brethren, amish, mennonites, and others, adherents believe that “excessive display in clothing manifests on the outside what is hidden in the heart” (gingerich : ). . the prayer rebecca referenced is the “she-lo assani isha,” which gives thanks for not being born an idolater, a slave, or a woman—in that order. many jewish women and men alike substitute with the words “thank you for making me who i am.” references abu-lughod lila do muslim women really need saving? anthropological reflections on cultural relativism and its others. american anthropologist : – . agar, michael h. the professional stranger: an informal introduction to ethnography. new york: academic press. alumkal, anthony w. preserving patriarchy: assimilation, gender norms and second-generation korean ameri- can evangelicals. qualitative sociology ( ): – . arroyo, andrew t. it’s not a colorless classroom: teaching religion online to black college students using transformative, postmodern pedagogy. teaching theology and religion ( ): – . ashcraft, catherine . ready or not . . .? teen sexuality and the troubling discourse of readiness. anthropology & education quarterly ( ): – . baquedano-lópez, patricia traversing the center: the politics of language use in a catholic religious education program for immigrant mexican children. anthropology & education quarterly ( ): – . blumer, herbert symbolic interactionism: perspective and method. berkeley: university of california press. anthropology & education quarterly volume , bourdieu, pierre, and jean-claude passeron reproduction in education, society and culture. london: sage publications, ltd. brasher, brenda e. my beloved is all radiant: two case studies of congregational-based christian fundamen- talist female enclaves and the religious experiences they cultivate among women. review of religious research ( ): – . brenner, suzanne reconstructing self and society: javanese muslim women and “the veil.” american eth- nologist ( ): – . bridgens, ruth disability and being “normal”: a response to mclaughlin and goodley. sociology ( ): – . bronner, leila l. from veil to wig: jewish women’s hair coverings. judaism ( ): – . brown, laura a. fat-oppressive attitudes and the feminist therapist: directions for change. in fat oppres- sion and psychotherapy: a feminist perspective. laura brown and esther d. rothblum, eds. pp. – . new york: the hawthorn press. bryant, m. darrol, and christopher lamb introduction: conversion: contours of controversy and commitment in a plural world. in religious conversion: contemporary practices and controversies. christopher lamb and m. darrol bryant, eds. pp. – . london and new york: cassell. buckser, andrew, and stephen d. glasier preface. in the anthropology of religious conversion. andrew buckser and stephen d. glasier, eds. pp. – . lanham: rowman and littlefield. cainkar, louise a. homeland insecurity: the arab american and muslim american experience after / . new york: russell sage foundation publications. callister, lynn c., sonya semenic, and joyce c. foster cultural and spiritual meanings of childbirth: orthodox jewish and mormon women. journal of holistic nursing ( ): – . connell, raewyn masculinities. berkeley: university of california press. connelly, jennifer forbidden intimacies: christian-muslim intermarriage in east kalimantan, indonesia. american ethnologist ( ): – . cucchiari, salvatore “adapted for heaven”: conversion and culture in western sicily. american ethnologist ( ): – . deeb, lara emulating and/or embodying the ideal: the gendering of temporal frameworks and islamic role models in shi’i lebanon. american ethnologist ( ): – . dinter, astrid adolescence and computers: dimensions of media-related identity formation, self- formation and religious value as challenges for religious education. british journal of religious education ( ): – . economist the war of the headscarves. february : – . el-guindi, fadwah veil: modesty, privacy and resistance. oxford: berg publishers. fordham, signithia rejoinder to a. a. akom’s comment on fordham’s “strange career of ‘acting white’. ″ anthropology & education quarterly ( ): – . fordham, signithia, and john u. ogbu black students’ school success: coping with the burden of “acting white.” urban review ( ): – . gingerich, melvin change and uniformity in mennonite attire. mennonite quarterly review ( ): – . greenberg, blu orthodox, feminist and proud of it. in best of jewish writing. arthur kurzweil, ed. pp. – . san francisco: wiley. galman un/covering griffiths, morwenna the feminization of teaching and the practice of teaching: threat or opportunity. educa- tional theory ( ): – . harlow, joel successfully teaching biblical languages online at the seminary level: guiding principles of course design and delivery. teaching theology and religion ( ): – . hartman, tova restorative feminism and religious tradition. common knowledge ( ): – . hines, travis s., thomas r. mcgee, lee waller, and sharon kay online theological education: a case study of trinity school for ministry. christian higher education ( ): – . jenks, elaine b. explaining disability: parents’ stories of raising children with visual impairments in a sighted world. journal of contemporary ethnography ( ): – . joyce, kathryn the quiverfull conviction: christian mothers breed “arrows for the war.” the nation ( ): – . kaufman, debra r. women who return to orthodox judaism: a feminist analysis. journal of marriage and family ( ): – . keaton, tricia arrogant assimilation: national identity politics and african-origin muslim girls in the other france. anthropology & education quarterly ( ): – . keysar, ariela, and barry a. kosmin the impact of religious identification on differences in educational attainment among american women in . journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . krakowski, lili further on women’s hair covering: an exchange—reacts to marc shapiro. judaism ( ): – . larsen, nella passing. new york: random house. ludwig, sheryl a. making fast the thread: cultural maintenance and transmission of maya women who weave on backstrap looms. unpublished doctoral dissertation, university of colorado: boulder, co. luria, keith p. the politics of protestant conversion to catholicism in seventheeth-century france. in conversion to modernities: the globalization of christianity. peter van der veer, ed. pp. – . new york: routledge. mahmood, saba the politics of piety: the islamic revival and the feminist subject. princeton: princeton university press. mcginty, anna m. becoming muslim: western women’s conversions to islam. new york: palgrave macmillan. monaghan, lee f., and michael hardey body sensibility: vocabularies of the discredited male body. critical public health ( – ): – . neiterman, elena, and tamar rapoport converting to belong: immigration, education and nationalization among young “russian” immigrant women. gender and education ( ): – . ogbu, john cultural-ecological influences on minority education. language arts ( ): – . pevey, carolyn, christine l. williams, and christopher c. ellison male god imagery and female submission: lessons from a southern baptist ladies’ bible class. qualitative sociology ( ): – . rooks, noliwe m. hair raising: beauty, culture and african american women. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press. seidman, irving interviewing as qualitative research: a guide for researchers in education and the social sciences. new york: teachers college press. anthropology & education quarterly volume , short, geoffrey the role of education in jewish continuity: a response to jonathan sacks. british journal of religious education ( ): – . spradley, james p. the ethnographic interview. fort worth, tx: holt, reinhardt and winston. stromberg, peter g. ideological language in the transformation of identity. american anthropologist : – . taylor, donald conversion: inward, outward and awkward. in religious conversion: contemporary prac- tices and controversies. christopher lamb and m. darrol bryant, eds. pp. – . london and new york: cassell. urrieta, luis jr. community identity discourse and the heritage academy: colorblind educational policy and white supremacy. international journal of qualitative studies in education ( ): – . van nieuwkerk, karin biography and choice: female converts to islam in the netherlands. islam and christian- muslim relations ( ): – . yoshino, kenji covering: the hidden assault on our civil rights. new york: random house. zamudio, margaret, jacquelyn bridgeman, caskey russell, and francesco rios developing a critical consciousness: positionality, pedagogy and problems. race, ethnicity and education ( ): – . zine, jasmin muslim youth in canadian schools: education and the politics of religious identity. anthro- pology & education quarterly ( ): – . galman un/covering environmental, social and governance investing by college and university endowments in the united states: social responsibility, sustainability, and stakeholder relations july the analyses, opinions and perspectives herein are the sole responsibility of the authors. the copyright for this report is held by irrc institute. the material in this report may be reproduced and distributed without advance permission, but only if attributed. if reproduced substantially or entirely, it should include all copyright and trademark notices. acknowledgments this study was prepared by a team of researchers from tellus institute led by principal investigator and lead author joshua humphreys. tellus researchers christi electris, catie ferrara and ann solomon co-authored the study with humphreys, and additional research assistance was provided by bryant mason and jaime silverstein. an external expert advisory panel, including dan apfel, peter conti-brown, mark orlowski, and luther ragin, provided valuable guidance that greatly enhanced this project. the irrc institute initiated and funded this study, and the authors gratefully acknowledge the institute’s generous support as well as the advice provided by the institute’s executive director jon lukomnik throughout the project. additionally, the authors would like to acknowledge the insights provided by the many endowment officers, campus administrators, students, stakeholders and experts who responded to our queries. particular thanks go to martin bourqui of responsible endowments coalition, al cantor of the new hampshire community loan fund and alan cantor consulting, evan covington-chavez of self- help, justin conway and patrick davis of calvert foundation, emily flynn of sustainable endowments institute, john griswold and william jarvis of commonfund institute, lisa heinz of the mennonite education agency, dewitt jones of boston community capital, david kienzler of the conflict risk network, anuradha mittal of oakland institute, oliver platts-mills of investure llc, kevin stephenson and other consultants at cambridge associates llc, michael swack of the carsey institute at the university of new hampshire, michael whelchel of watershed capital group, heidi welsh of sustainable investments institute (si ), and megan fay zahniser at the association for the advancement of sustainability in higher education (aashe). any errors or omissions remain the responsibility of the authors. expert advisory panel dan apfel executive director, responsible endowments coalition peter conti-brown academic fellow, rock center for corporate governance, stanford university mark orlowski executive director, sustainable endowments institute luther m. ragin, jr. chief executive officer, global impact investing network, and adjunct lecturer in public policy, harvard kennedy school tellus institute research team joshua humphreys, fellow and principal investigator christi electris, associate catie ferrara, analyst ann solomon, analyst bryant mason, summer analyst jaime silverstein, summer analyst corresponding author joshua humphreys tellus institute arlington street boston, massachusetts ( ) - e-mail: jhumphreys@tellus.org mailto:jhumphreys@tellus.org tellus institute is a boston-based interdisciplinary, non-profit think tank pursuing a “great transition” to a future of enriched lives, human solidarity, and environmental sustainability. since its founding in , the institute has worked at every geographic level, bringing analytic rigor and a systemic, global perspective to a wide range of critical problems, from energy and environmental resource use to climate change, corporate responsibility and sustainable development. among the institute’s current research and action initiatives are major projects on global citizenship, sustainable consumption, green job creation, finance and fairness, food systems and social equity, ownership design and impact investing. for more information, visit www.tellus.org. the investor responsibility research center institute is a not‐for‐profit organization established in to provide thought leadership at the intersection of corporate responsibility and the informational needs of investors. the irrc institute ensures its research is available at no charge to investors, corporate officials, academics, policymakers, the media, and all interested stakeholders. for more information, please contact: jon lukomnik, executive director irrc institute one exchange plaza, broadway, th floor new york, ny ( ) - info@irrcinstitute.org www.irrcinstitute.org http://www.tellus.org/ mailto:info@irrcinstitute.org http://www.irrcinstitute.org/ iii table of contents acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................................. i executive summary ........................................................................................................................................... v introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ a note on terminology ..................................................................................................................................... the incorporation of esg criteria into endowment management ................................................................ from divestment to labor and human rights risk management ............................................................. faith-based investing ................................................................................................................................... environmental investing .............................................................................................................................. community investing and microfinance .................................................................................................... shareholder advocacy and active-ownership activities .............................................................................. proxy voting ................................................................................................................................................ resolution filing ........................................................................................................................................... dialogue ........................................................................................................................................................ governance and transparency of esg investing ............................................................................................ committees on investor responsibility ...................................................................................................... student-run funds ....................................................................................................................................... endowment transparency .......................................................................................................................... conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... file:///c:/users/jhumphreys/documents/c-socphil/clients/irrci/irrci% esg% endowments% study% final% .docx% _toc iv table of figures figure . relative scale and notional overlap of underlying datasets .................................................................. figure . schools reporting sri/esg criteria to nacubo/commonfund ........................................................... figure . esg criteria incorporated by endowments fy , us sif foundation .............................................. figure . esg criteria incorporated by endowments (asset-weighted, in billions) ........................................ figure . number of institutions incorporating esg criteria , ncse ............................................................. figure . existing data on environmental investing by college endowments ..................................................... figure . existing data available on community investing by endowments ....................................................... figure . college and university community investments (in thousands) ........................................................... figure . existing data on shareholder advocacy by college endowments ......................................................... figure . self-reported proxy voting by college endowments ............................................................................ figure . shareholder engagement grades, college sustainability report card, ......................................... figure . identified student-run funds incorporating esg criteria ................................................................... figure : self-reported percentage of institutions providing information to different audiences ................... figure : self-reported percentage of institutions providing investment holdings to different audiences ..... figure . self-reported accessibility of investment holdings .............................................................................. figure . endowment transparency grades, college sustainability report card, ....................................... v executive summary ith more than $ billion in combined assets under management, us college and university endowments constitute an important segment of institutional investors involved in sustainable and responsible investing – defined here as the explicit incorporation of environmental, social and corporate-governance (esg) issues into investment decision- making and active-ownership activities. this study provides one of the most comprehensive analyses to date of the state of esg investing by educational endowments. in it, we aggregate multiple survey datasets that address three broad areas of esg investing activity: ) the incorporation of esg criteria into endowment management; ) shareholder advocacy and active- ownership initiatives; and ) the governance and transparency of esg investment decision-making. in addition to analyzing existing survey data, the study advances a novel interpretation about the distinctiveness of endowments’ involvement in esg investing. what differentiates educational endowments from the adoption of sustainable and responsible investing strategies by other institutional investors, such as foundations, hospitals, public pensions, corporations, unions or faith-based investors, is the particular constellation of stakeholder relations within which the vast majority of esg investment practices have been adopted by colleges and universities. students, alumni, donors, faculty, staff and administrators, trustees, community groups and broader civil society organizations all have competing stakes in endowment management and repeatedly exert claims on the environmental, social and governance implications of college investments. indeed, stakeholders often drive changes to investment policies and practices around esg issues, whether through campaigns for divestment or proactive sustainable and responsible investment or student involvement in shareholder advocacy initiatives. in response to these dynamics in the s and s, endowments were among the pioneering institutional investors to adopt new policies and institutions to address social and environmental considerations in investment. yet three decades later, endowments no longer appear to be leaders in the greatly evolved institutional esg investment space, with very limited exceptions. among our chief findings that lead to this conclusion are the following trends: w vi  the primary forms of esg investing activity by endowments tend to remain confined to single- issue negative screening of public-equity portfolios, related to issues such as tobacco, sin stocks, and targeted divestment from the sudan.  considerable focus is put on proxy-voting recommendations even though the widely adopted “endowment model of investing” has lead many colleges to shift their investments away from directly held, publicly traded securities into indirect investments in commingled vehicles and more opaque, illiquid investments in alternative asset classes, where very little consideration has been made by endowments of esg issues, despite growing opportunities to do so across asset classes. advisory “committees on investor responsibility” developed to focus on esg proxy voting have consequently seen their relevance diminished.  the endowment community, on the whole, exhibits a very weak understanding of esg investing strategies, trends, opportunities, and language. in the areas of around sustainable investing and community development finance, in particular, we found wide spread confusion about the meaning of these investments. there is not yet a standardized conceptualization among endowments of sustainable and responsible investment activities that are widely practiced by others actors in the capital markets.  endowments are widely absent from leading investor networks where esg investment issues are routinely discussed – which explains, in part, the wide spread lack of understanding of common esg investing practices.  misperceptions about esg investing open immense learning opportunities for the endowment community, though a much greater openness to discussions of sustainable and responsible investing will be needed. endowments desiring to understand the current state of esg research and application will need to join these conversations and begin convening their own dedicated, multi-stakeholder networks.  small-scale experimentation is occurring at the margins in areas such as microfinance investment, student-run sri funds, green revolving loan funds, and shareholder advocacy.  increasing numbers of surveys and reporting mechanisms have emerged over the last decade to obtain information about sustainable and responsible endowment management, but there remains widespread lack of independent verification of self-reported data.  despite the proliferation of surveys, transparency of esg investments remains particularly poor.  more case studies are needed of specific experiences with the incorporation of esg issues into investment decision-making and active-ownership initiatives. introduction ith more than $ billion in combined assets under management, us college and university endowments constitute an important segment of institutional investors involved in sustainable and responsible investing – defined here as the explicit incorporation of environmental, social and corporate-governance (esg) issues into investment decision- making and active-ownership activities. colleges have historically played a key role in the development of new institutions that have addressed issues of ethical investment and corporate social responsibility. as early as the s, some of the most well-endowed american universities, such as harvard, stanford and yale, created the first multi-constituent committees on investment responsibility to advise their institutions on how best to handle social issues related to investment. leading colleges also joined major foundations and pension-fund managers such as the ford and rockefeller foundations, the carnegie corporation and tiaa-cref in the founding in of the nonprofit investor responsibility research center (irrc), which was charged with providing institutional investors objective analysis of the many social, environmental and other corporate responsibility issues raised by shareholder activists. since that time, colleges have recurrently played noteworthy roles in major divestment campaigns, such as those related to companies doing business in apartheid-era south africa, tobacco manufacturers, and businesses that continued to operate in the sudan during the genocide in darfur. despite this long history of endowment involvement in various forms of socially responsible investment, there have been few efforts to analyze endowment investing around esg themes in any focused way. although the last decade has witnessed an increasing number of efforts to survey endowments about their esg investing policies and practices, our understanding of sri among endowments remains strikingly fragmented. this paper therefore seeks to develop a more robust conceptualization of endowments and esg investing. it should be noted that irrc was a predecessor organization of the irrc institute, the sponsor of the current study. the irrc’s first chairman was steven b. farber, a special assistant to harvard’s president at the time, derek bok, who also played an important leadership role in irrc’s founding in . irrc was sold in to what is now msci. the irrc institute, funded with the proceeds from that sale, is an independent, not-for-profit organization dedicated to providing thought leadership around issues of corporate responsibility and the informational needs of investors. it is not related to msci, nor does it provide proxy advisory services. w among institutional investors, endowments have very distinctive features that help to explain colleges’ particular involvement in sri. stakeholder relations loom especially large over the esg investment activities of college endowments. indeed, the primary driver behind sri on college campuses – unlike many other institutional investors – has repeatedly been the demands of a sometimes bewildering array of voices, including students, faculty, alumni, donors, campus staff, labor unions, surrounding communities, and nonprofit and civil society organizations concerned about the underlying environmental, social and governance issues that endowment investments commonly affect. this study aims to provide a deeper analysis of sri trends among endowments within this wider context of stakeholder relations, including a review and assessment of the state of existing data related to sri as reported by the schools themselves. however, given the poor transparency and the lack of independent verification of self-reported data, quantitative measurements of endowment involvement in sri are inadequate for analyzing how, why and to what extent endowments embrace esg investing. the analysis therefore seeks to go beyond the content of existing data, whether in the form of aggregate measurements of endowment involvement in esg or the individual grading and rating systems based on self-reported data that have emerged over the last several years. existing data raise as many questions as they answer, so one of the main objectives of this study is to clarify more precisely what those questions are. colleges and universities played pioneering roles in responsible investing during the early and mid- s, but today endowments in using the term of art “endowment,” we refer specifically to the endowment assets of higher-educational institutions in this study. we acknowledge that many other nonprofit institutions not included in this study, such as philanthropic foundations, charities, museums, faith-based institutions, and other civil society organizations, not to mention secondary schools, are also supported by endowments, but our focus here is exclusively on college and university endowments. a note on terminology throughout this paper, we use terms such as “esg investing,” “sustainable and responsible investing,” and the acronym sri interchangeably. it should be noted from the outset that a wide array of concepts – some complementary, others competing – are used to refer to the incorporation of environmental, social, and governance criteria or impact into investment. “socially responsible investing,” or sri, has been a widely used term in the investment industry over the last three decades. however, we observe that leading sri practitioners, including many members of us sif – the forum for sustainable and responsible investment, now use the sri acronym to mean “sustainable and responsible investment.” “mission-related investing” is another relevant term used primarily by philanthropic foundations and other mission-driven organizations over the last decade to signify the incorporation of those esg issues that are explicitly related to an organization’s mission. over the last five years, the term “impact investment” has arisen to describe the proactive pursuit of positive social and environmental impact in addition to a financial return. regardless of the term employed, we observe a fundamental difference between investments that make explicit reference to environmental, social or governance matters, in whatever form, and the predominant mode of endowment management that makes no explicit effort to take esg considerations into account. this study focuses on the former, as it relates to college endowment management, and gives ample attention to the many differences of degree in esg investing embraced by endowments. are no longer innovators when it comes to esg investing. as endowment allocations have increasingly shifted into alternative asset classes, governance structures for esg investing that many schools created in the past – which have typically focused narrowly on proxy voting on esg issues in directly held public equities – have seen their relative roles diminish in importance. meanwhile, as other asset-owning and asset-managing institutions, such as public and labor pension funds, faith-based groups, philanthropic foundations, leading money managers and investment consultants have made increasingly broad commitments to incorporating sustainable and responsible investing policies and practices into their investment decision-making and active-ownership activities, college endowments – as a whole – have made fewer strides in deeply incorporating esg factors into investment management, beyond limited, single-issue exclusions, than their other institutional investing peers. indeed, over the last four decades, sustainable and responsible investing has grown within the us capital markets to become a $ trillion space, involving a diverse array of investment activities that extend well beyond single-issue divestment and active proxy voting: from the incorporation of growing numbers of esg factors into investment analysis and portfolio construction to pro-active investing in pursuit of positive social and environmental impact, and to much more active shareholder advocacy and engagement around esg concerns. despite measurable increases in various kinds of sri activities, quantifiable across multiple indicators, the endowment community exhibits a relatively weak understanding of the various forms of sustainable and responsible investing. to some extent this weakness is hardly surprising, since endowments are largely absent from wider networks in the field where the most advanced discussions of esg investing are occurring. not a single college endowment, for example, has become a signatory to the united nations- backed principles for responsible investment, an initiative that more than global investors with more than $ trillion in combined assets have signed, committing themselves to the incorporation of esg factors into investment decision-making and active-ownership activities. and while philanthropic the responsible endowment project at yale university has provided a concise analysis of these changes over the last four decades and constructive proposals for modernizing yale’s advisory committee accordingly. currently the acir, the yale investments office, and the responsible endowment project are in dialogue about the acir’s reform. see the two reports, the responsible endowment project, responsible returns: a modern approach to ethical investing for the yale endowment, july ; and id., realizing responsibility: a modern responsible investment framework for the yale advisory committee on investor responsibility, december , both available at http://www.responsibleendowment.com/proposals.html. on the broader shift in allocation by endowments into alternative asset classes, see joshua humphreys, et al., “educational endowments and the financial crisis: social costs and systemic risks in the shadow banking system,” tellus institute, , available at http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf. the most recent attempt to estimate the size of the esg investing market in the us can be found in us sif foundation’s report on sri trends in the united states [hereinafter sri trends report], available at http://ussif.org/resources/research/ (accessed october , ). it should be noted that the paper’s lead author has been actively involved in the research and surveying that underlie the sri trends report since , and tellus institute has recurrently undertaken research sponsored by us sif foundation since . on the principles for responsible investment (pri), see the annual report of the pri initiative, unep finance initiative and un global compact, at http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf. the student-run flyer fund, housed at the university of http://www.responsibleendowment.com/proposals.html http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://ussif.org/resources/research/ http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf foundations have increasingly come together into organized networks and affinity groups, such as the more for mission investing campaign, to share best practices in so-called “mission-related” investing around esg issues, college endowments have done little to foster discussions of best practices in the esg investing arena. similarly, although institutional interest in so-called “impact investments” – investments proactively seeking positive social and environmental impact in addition to financial returns – has rapidly expanded over the last several years, not a single college endowment has joined the global impact investing network, the leading forum for dialogue about these kinds of investments. in comparative terms, even as some universities have created new committees on investor responsibility or made minor commitments to sustainable investing, endowments on the whole look more like laggards than leaders in the institutional esg investing space. assessing endowments’ involvement in esg investing immediately raises the question of transparency. although public and private surveying of endowments on their esg or sri activities has proliferated considerably over the last half decade, generating considerable data about endowments, schools themselves make very limited, if any, information about their esg policies and practices to stakeholders or the public in transparent, easily accessible ways. rather than exacerbate survey fatigue among endowments and generate yet another set of survey data, this study analyzes existing data within present limits of disclosure, making transparency itself a key element of our analysis. in addition to aggregating existing data, we also conducted primary research and independent verification of self-reported data among a select subset of schools. we have reviewed recent aggregate data on endowments and sri published by commonfund institute, the national association of college and university business officers (nacubo), and us sif foundation, each of which has regularly surveyed endowments on their involvement in sri and esg investing. we have also developed unique datasets using publicly available school-specific responses to survey dayton’s center for portfolio management, is a signatory to the pri, but the fund’s adoption of the principles does not appear to implicate the investments of the university’s wider endowment. on more for mission, whose campaign resource center is housed at the initiative for responsible investment at harvard kennedy school’s hauser center for nonprofit organizations, see http://www.moreformission.org/. more for mission has recently joined with the pri makers network to create a new network known as mission investors exchange (http://www.missioninvestors.org). on the global impact investing network (giin), see http://www.thegiin.org/. the nacubo-commonfund study of endowments (ncse) is the most comprehensive survey on endowment management, with the largest sample size of any of the datasets we analyzed, representing $ billion in endowment assets among schools in and $ billion among schools in . a subset of survey questions and of respondents addresses sri and esg issues, but school- specific information is not available. only aggregate, not school-specific, asset data on endowments are made available by us sif foundation, but a list of endowments included in the us sif foundation’s sri trends report can be found in an appendix to that report. http://www.moreformission.org/ http://www.missioninvestors.org/ http://www.thegiin.org/ questions on sustainable investing in research published by the sustainable endowments institute (sei) for its annual college sustainability report card, by the association for the advancement of sustainability in higher education (aashe) for its sustainability tracking, assessment & rating system (stars), and by sierra magazine for the sierra club’s annual “america’s coolest schools” rankings. we have adjusted these third-party data sources to isolate us-based endowments and to harmonize the names of endowments based primarily upon the standards used by nacubo. the adjusted datasets include a total of endowments, representing total assets of more than $ billion as of the fiscal year ending june , : endowments from the sei college sustainability report card, a subset that skews toward the largest endowments, institutions from aashe stars, which includes dozens of smaller endowments, and institutions from sierra. each survey presents its own sets of survey questions related to endowments and esg investments, each asked in different ways for different purposes, yet none focuses exclusively on sri and endowments. we combined these third-party data with our own independently collected data based on research on more than schools and interviews with college officials, investment consultants and endowment experts and stakeholders to construct a multifaceted dataset on the endowments. the venn diagram in figure provides a notional sense of the relative size of the overlapping datasets that underlie this study. these fragmentary data are by no means comprehensive; each underlying dataset presents certain problems for analysis, highlighted throughout this study. nevertheless, the merged dataset provides a multiplicity of data across three broad domains of esg investing: ( ) the incorporation of esg issues into endowment management and investment decision-making and analysis, ranging from divestment activities and exclusionary social restrictions to more proactive forms of environmental investing and community development finance; ( ) active ownership activities related to esg issues, whether through proxy voting, shareholder resolution filing, or dialogue and engagement with companies directly or indirectly through investor networks; and ( ) governance, disclosure and transparency of esg investments and decision-making, including the role of special, multi-stakeholder committees on investor responsibility. our analysis of the data proceeds along precisely these three axes. for more on the college sustainability report card developed by sustainable endowments institute, a special project of rockefeller philanthropy advisors, visit http://greenreportcard.org/. for more on aashe stars, visit https://stars.aashe.org/. we note that team members at tellus institute have actively collaborated on research with sustainable endowments institute, and that the executive director of sustainable endowments institute, mark orlowski, has served as an expert advisory panelist for this study. we were unable to identify endowment asset values readily for of the schools in our dataset. these were primarily community colleges and smaller state schools and regional private colleges, where endowments are typically small. http://greenreportcard.org/ https://stars.aashe.org/ figure . relative scale and notional overlap of underlying datasets note: * the circle representing the nacubo/commonfund study of endowments includes only the subsample of endowments reporting esg or social responsibility criteria. the incorporation of esg criteria into endowment management he incorporation of esg factors into investment can take a variety of forms, from restrictive policies to more positive screening or proactive investment postures, and more recently to the “integration” of esg criteria into broadened financial analysis. some schools have exclusionary restrictions against investing in certain kinds of companies or sectors, such as those related to tobacco manufacturers. numerous religious schools apply faith-based exclusions, or “sin-stock screening,” to companies involved in alcohol, gambling, pornography or other industries that run counter to their faith traditions. some investors also have created restrictive divestment policies in response to concerns us sif sierra sei aashe ncse* t brought by stakeholders. many schools divested selectively from chinese companies doing business in the sudan in order to register concerns about the genocide in darfur. in response to labor concerns at the portfolio companies owned by the widely used private-equity firm hei hotels and resorts, several prominent endowments including brown university, the university of pennsylvania, and yale university, have recently agreed not to reinvest in hei funds, though they do not appear to have redeemed their existing investments or sold their existing holdings in the private-equity secondary markets. whether restrictive policies apply to the whole portfolio, only to directly held securities, or to certain asset classes or investment vehicles can differ widely from school to school. although many endowment officers still associate sri exclusively with “negative screening” of public equities, esg criteria incorporation can also be a more proactive exercise applied across asset classes. rather than merely restrict investments because of esg concerns, sustainable and responsible investors often also actively filter portfolios for positive esg attributes. investing in clean technology funds or “eco-efficient” companies (whether in public or private equity), supporting certified sustainable timberland in real assets, and making responsible community investments – generally in fixed income and cash allocations – are common examples of more proactive forms of esg incorporation we observe among endowments. increasing numbers of investors in general are using the language of “impact investing” to describe proactive investments that generate social and environmental benefits in addition to financial returns, but we have been unable to identify any college endowment actively and materially involved in the impact-investing space. esg criteria can also be used in a variety of other analytical ways: to benchmark portfolios, to manage numerous forms of risk, or to identify “best-in-class” investments in any particular sector. although few endowments appear to be integrating esg factors in order to deepen their financial analysis in these ways, it is important to note that esg criteria incorporation by investment managers today involves far more than simply avoiding or excluding certain kinds of investments based on esg concerns. us sif foundation’s sri trends report provides a concise overview of leading trends in esg incorporation. for recent discussions of competing approaches to esg incorporation, sri, and impact investing, see tessa hebb, ed., the next generation of responsible investing (new york: springer, ); meg voorhes and joshua humphreys, “recent trends in sustainable and responsible investing in the united states,” journal of investing ( ): - ; céline louche and steve lydenberg, dilemmas in responsible investment (sheffield, uk: greenleaf publishing, ); antony bugg-levine and jed emerson, impact investing: transforming how we make money while making a difference (san francisco: jossey-bass, ); mark o’donohoe, antony bugg-levine, and margot brandenburg, “impact investments: an emerging asset class,” j. p. morgan, global research, november , available at http://www.jpmorgan.com/cm/blobserver/impact_investments_nov .pdf (accessed march , ); jessica freireich and katherine fulton, “investing for social and environmental impact,” monitor institute, january , available at http://www.jpmorgan.com/cm/blobserver/impact_investments_nov .pdf measuring the precise involvement of college endowments in esg incorporation is difficult, especially over time. in the nacubo-commonfund study of endowments (ncse), of the participating endowments ( percent) reported applying some form of esg criteria to portfolio holdings, a decline from the percent (n= ) that reported “having some form of social investing policy” in and the ( percent) that reported in . before nacubo and commonfund institute each ran its own survey of endowments, with notably smaller sample sizes, making further comparisons over time challenging. in the most recent ncse, the sri-related questions were also substantially revised to focus on “e/s/g” criteria. in previous editions, as seen in figure below, much more narrowly specified social issues were tracked, making it difficult to assess any significant changes from year to year. figure . schools reporting sri/esg criteria to nacubo/commonfund report year total survey participants sri/esg criteria % of respondents % % % source: ncse , , thirty-one institutions in the ncse reported applying “negative screens” to an average of . percent of the portfolio, while eight reported using “sustainability investing” and just two reported “impact investing.” according to the ncse, percent of these endowments involved in sri reported that they “screen all of their portfolios,” while percent screen only some unspecified portion of their portfolio, highlighting the challenge of measuring the asset-weighted effects of esg factor incorporation. from to , ncse identified a decline in the number of endowments that reported having a social investing policy as well as a decline in the percentage of schools reporting that they screen their entire portfolio – from percent to percent. the study’s authors attributed this decline to the difficulty of screening a diversified portfolio with significant allocations “to less-transparent alternative strategies.” the ncse data also provide no asset-weighting of the application of esg criteria in disaggregated form. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf (accessed march , ); valerie lavoie and david wood, handbook on climate-related investing across asset classes (institute for responsible investment, boston college, ); cary krosinsky and nick robins, eds., sustainable investing: the art of long-term performance (london: earthscan, ); and david wood and belinda hoff, handbook on responsible investment across asset classes (institute for responsible investment, boston college, ). the remaining percent reported being unsure whether the policies applied across the whole portfolio or only to a portion thereof. ncse, p. . http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf using a different, though partially overlapping, sample of endowments, us sif foundation has estimated that $ billion in endowment assets are subject to at least one esg criterion, as of , but the number of endowments included in this asset-weighted figure is not published, making the degree of discrepancy between ncse’s subsample and the aggregate estimates published by us sif difficult to assess. us sif foundation’s asset-weighted data have tracked considerable growth in esg incorporation by college endowments, with a more than seven-fold increase over the estimated $ . billion in endowment assets estimated to be subject to esg policies in . most of those assets were subject to tobacco restrictions ($ billion) or sudan divestment policies ($ billion). by us sif foundation’s estimates, this would make college endowments the second largest pool of institutional capital subject to some form of sustainable or responsible investment policy, following only public pooled funds such as state and local pension plans. sudan divestment has largely accounted for the increase in apparent aggregate involvement by endowments in this sri space, as numerous schools adopted divestiture policies to express concern over the human-rights crisis in the darfur region, in much the same way that many colleges ultimately adopted divestment policies related to south africa in the late s to register their concern about the apartheid regime. the recent de-escalation of the darfur crisis will likely render these divestment policies irrelevant, so it is unlikely that as many assets will be subject to esg criteria in the future using this method of accounting. nevertheless, the sudan case highlights the large potential asset effects that endowments can have in the capital markets when a galvanizing campaign occurs. as figure highlights, us sif foundation documented various other esg criteria incorporated by endowments, including labor and human rights, defense and weapons, environmental criteria, and faith-based factors, but the assets affected by these other criteria amounted to substantially less than those affected by tobacco restrictions or sudan-related policies. see sri trends report, p. . cf. id., sri trends report ( ), pp. - . the estimate is based on our analysis of data presented in the report’s figure . and the accompanying discussion in ibid., p. . figure . esg criteria incorporated by endowments fy , us sif foundation (asset-weighted, in billions) source: us sif foundation, report on sri trends in the united states, p. . in the course of this research, we confirmed that sudan-related investment policies remain the most widespread esg issue incorporated by endowments in both numerical and asset-weighted terms. some endowments incorporate sudan-related investment criteria, affecting $ billion of assets. although the vast majority of portfolio holdings are hypothetically subject to these policies, real divestment from sudan was in many cases highly targeted, often to only a small number of directly held chinese companies. many schools with divestment policies that purportedly affected their whole portfolios continued to invest in the companies slated for divestment through externally managed commingled funds and passively managed index funds – even though sudan-free and “sudan-compliant” index funds and screening tools were readily available. harvard university provides a notable case in point. the university was one of the first endowments to announce in april its plans to divest from companies such as petrochina and sinopec involved in the sudan, in response to a student divestment campaign that mobilized dozens of campus organizations and hundreds of students. yet two years later, reporters from the campus paper, the harvard crimson, a useful account of the divestment campaign at harvard can be found in sam graham-felsen, “harvard divests,” the nation, may , , available at http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests (accessed february , ). its subsequent widening to campuses across the country is discussed in philip rucker, “student-driven sudan divestment campaign grows,” new york times, april , , available at http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html (accessed february , ). $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ . $ $ $ $ $ $ sudan tobacco human rights defense/weapons abortion eeo faith-based labor pornography environment http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html identified approximately $ million worth of investments in those same blacklisted companies through passively managed index funds and exchange-traded funds used by harvard management company for exposure to chinese markets. when confronted with the apparent violation of the divestment policy, the university’s spokesman john longbrake initially declined to comment on any of the endowment’s individual investments but then later claimed that the university’s divestment policy simply did not apply to such indirect investments. policy and principle can easily diverge from investment practice. from divestment to labor and human rights risk management whether at harvard or on other campuses where sudan-related policies took hold, the dynamic of divestment was deeply indebted to stakeholders. students on campuses around the country were joined by humanitarian civil society organizations such as the sudan divestment task force, a project of the genocide intervention network (gi-net), which helped to coordinate research and advocacy around darfur. with the support of a diverse coalition of institutional investors, gi-net ultimately created a conflict risk network to support research and engagement of companies operating in areas where genocide and mass atrocities are occurring. amherst college and wheaton college in massachusetts were the only us colleges to join the network’s founding group of members, which counted leading asset managers, foundations and public funds among its ranks. colby college, roosevelt university, rutgers, and the university of colorado foundation have since joined the network as well. although darfur was its first area of interest, conflict risk network has expanded its mission to encompass business and human rights more broadly, with a special emphasis on conflict zones, including south sudan, syria and libya, where crn members have engaged with oil companies. we discuss shareholder engagement as an esg strategy used by endowments in greater detail below. one of the most recent campaigns to galvanize students focuses on labor relations at hotels owned by hei hotels and resorts, a private-equity firm with more than $ billion in committed capital, much of it daniel j. hemel, “harvard still holds sudan stake,” the harvard crimson, january , , available at http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ (accessed february , ); and nathan c. strauss, “students pressure harvard to divest,” the harvard crimson, march , , available at http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /students-pressure-harvard-to-divest-more/ (accessed february , ). nathan c. strauss, “holdings still tied to sudan,” the harvard crimson, february , , available at http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ (accessed february , ). in november , genocide intervention network merged with save darfur coalition; the combined entity is now known as united to end genocide. for more on conflict risk network, see the useful brochure genocide intervention network, “conflict risk network,” , available at http://crn.genocideintervention.net/files/crn% brochure_ _ .pdf (accessed november , ). according to crn staff, additional colleges participate in the network but do not make their membership known to the public. http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /students-pressure-harvard-to-divest-more/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://crn.genocideintervention.net/files/crn% brochure_ _ .pdf provided, according to hei’s own website, by “the country’s most prestigious university endowments.” allegations of labor-rights violations at the hotels owned and operated by hei have led student-labor activists to call for their schools to pull out of the various hei hospitality funds. many of the students have been working closely with the nationwide network known as united students against sweatshops as well as unions and labor-related groups such as jobs with justice and unite-here. because these are private-equity funds, endowment assets are largely “locked up” in the funds for a period of years, so divestment is not as easy to effect as with publicly listed equities. (“lock-ups” are multi-year commitments that restrict investors from withdrawing their money without incurring financial penalties.) the secondary markets for private-equity interests are relatively small, and generally sales in them command a substantial discount to an investor’s initial purchase price. early last year, however, brown university became the first endowment to agree not to reinvest additional capital into hei funds. this has been followed by announcements by several other prominent hei investors, including the university of pennsylvania, yale, and princeton, though the chief investment officers at the latter two schools went to great lengths to convey that their refusal to make future investments was financial rather than “social” or “ethical.” numerous “occupy campus” movements have provided added support to the campaign for hei divestment and shaped the stakeholder dynamic that has led schools such as harvard and dartmouth to initiate a formal review of each school’s investments in the firm as well. clearly, the dynamic of divestment differs greatly from the routine incorporation of labor and human rights issues into the investment decision-making process. as figure highlights, we have found far fewer endowment assets affected by labor-related or human rights criteria. we identified less than $ billion in endowment assets subject to general human-rights policies(not including a narrow geographic mandate such as the sudan or burma restrictions), and less than $ billion in endowment assets appear to be constrained by labor-related investment policies. while a limited number of endowments in the conflict risk network have joined other investors in taking a broader view of business and human rights hei hotels & resorts, managed funds: hei funds, available at http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html (accessed february , ). for the recommendation as made by brown’s advisory committee on corporate responsibility in investment practice (accrip), see http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html (accessed february , ). for upenn’s announcement, see statement to the penn community from the executive vice president regarding hei hotels & resorts, march , , available at http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts (accessed february , ). on yale and princeton, see gavan gideon, “yale will halt future investments in hei,” yale daily news, november , , available at http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ (accessed november , ) and catherine lei, “university to stop hei investments,” the daily princetonian, march , , available at http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / (accessed march , ). http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / issues within conflict zones, few appear to be incorporating labor and human rights issues into portfolio risk management, as many other leading pension funds and sri asset managers are increasingly doing. figure . esg criteria incorporated by endowments (asset-weighted, in billions) source: tellus institute for an introduction to labor and human rights (lhr) investment risk management, see aaron bernstein, “incorporating labor and human rights risk into investment decisions,” occasional paper no. , pensions and capital stewardship project, harvard law school, september ; id., “quantifying labor and human rights portfolio risk,” occasional paper no. , pensions and capital stewardship project, harvard law school, june ; and elizabeth umlas, “investing in the workforce: social investors and international labour standards,” employment working paper no. , international labour office, . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ sudan tobacco human rights burma eeo abortion defense/weapons faith-based labor other pornography environment gambling alcohol community board issues other governance executive pay faith-based investing beyond single-issue exclusions such as divestment campaigns related to tobacco and the sudan, some of the most common ways that endowments incorporate esg criteria stem from the faith-based traditions of their schools: in short, sin-stock screening. in effect, endowments that incorporate faith-based esg criteria aim to eschew investments in companies involved in businesses that compromise strongly held religious tenets, whether related to abortion for some catholic schools, or defense contractors and weapons manufacturers for certain quaker or mennonite schools instilled with pacifist values. how these faith-based issues are incorporated into investment policy and decision-making ranges widely. one of the largest endowments to incorporate esg criteria along these lines is the $ billion endowment of the university of notre dame, where the chief investment officer scott malpass has managed to generate enviable long-term returns while also observing the us conference of catholic bishops’ guidelines for socially responsible investing. the guidelines provide a no-buy list of some companies whose products, policies or charitable corporate giving support abortion, embryonic stem-cell research, contraceptives, or pornography, or companies involved in arms manufacturing, discrimination or “sweatshop” labor practices. notre dame also joined other schools that divested from energy companies doing business in the sudan due to human rights concerns over the genocide in darfur. given that under malpass’s leadership the university has radically diversified its endowment into alternative asset classes, the case of notre dame highlights that the incorporation of a broad array of esg criteria is not necessarily at odds with the so-called “endowment model of investing.” however, it remains unclear to what extent catholic sri guidelines are also applied to alternative asset classes, such as private equity, especially since the school is one of the high-profile endowments invested in hei. in , student activists went on a hunger strike to protest “the way in which hei treats its workers [which] is in direct conflict with catholic social teaching on workers’ rights, including the right to dignity, respect, fair wages and to organize.” with $ . million in endowment assets, goshen college in goshen, indiana, provides an example of a smaller religious endowment drawn from a different faith tradition: the anabaptist christian tradition of tae andrews, “malpass & co. take high road to bottom line,” notre dame magazine, winter - , available at http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ (accessed november , ). on the us conference of catholic bishops’ socially responsible investment guidelines, last promulgated on november , , see http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm (accessed march , ). cited in liz o’donnell, “students protest hei, go on hunger strike,” the observer, april , , available at http://www.ndsmcobserver.com/news/students-protest-hei-go-on-hunger-strike- . #.t xosuxmu w (accessed march , ). http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.ndsmcobserver.com/news/students-protest-hei-go-on-hunger-strike- . #.t xosuxmu w the mennonite church. the school’s use of esg criteria is informed by its “historically peaceful” mennonite values. in addition to eschewing investments in defense and weapons-related companies, the endowment screens out other “sin stocks” such as tobacco, alcohol and gambling and also incorporates criteria related to labor and human rights, diversity and equal opportunity, environmental issues, animal welfare, and governance issues such as executive compensation. as we discuss further below, it also has community investments in microfinance institutions. figure . number of institutions incorporating esg criteria , ncse source: ncse environmental investing endowments increasingly appear to be incorporating environmental investing criteria, and students and stakeholders have become increasingly vocal in demands for more sustainable investment by colleges and universities, most notably in a recently launched coal divestment campaign. yet the lack of transparency and of standardized definitions for environmentally sustainable investing makes it difficult to measure precisely the level of environmental investing by colleges and universities. - tobacco geopolitical/location specific alcohol abortion gambling pornography armaments/weapons cloning birth control unfair labor practices environmental protection other standards of corporate governance animal welfare corporate philanthropy community reinvestment act (cra compliance) among the endowments with some form of sri policy reported to the ncse, percent reported that sustainability influences investment decision making in , down from percent in . in the ncse, only eight schools reported using sustainability investing, while only five percent of the full sample, or schools, incorporated environmental criteria, without further specification. according to sei’s college sustainability report card, colleges and universities reported having investment policies that consider environmental issues or use investment managers that have such policies. the sei data do not specify what portion of the endowment is affected by sustainability policies. aashe stars tracked schools’ sustainable investments in three categories: value of holdings in “sustainable industries such as renewable energy and sustainable forestry,” in “sustainability investment funds, such as renewable energy funds,” and in “businesses selected for exemplary sustainability performance.” thirty-three schools, percent of the adjusted sample of stars participating schools, reported holdings in at least one of these types of environmental investments with several schools reporting holdings in more than one type. the most common type of environmental investing in both numeric and asset-weighted terms was investment in sustainable industries. twenty-two schools reported holdings in sustainable industries with a collective total of $ . billion invested. sixteen schools reported holdings in “sustainability investment funds” with $ million collectively invested. and just four schools reported collective holdings of $ . million in businesses selected for exceptional sustainability performance. the proportion of endowment invested by each school in any of the three types of sustainable investing defined by aashe ranges from one percent to percent. the largest capital investment by any school, representing just over half of the total sustainable investments reported to stars, is yale university’s $ . billon holdings in sustainable timber, renewable energy, and clean technology. yale highlighted its sustainable timber and cleantech investments in its endowment report. at that time, yale touted $ million in venture capital investments in early-stage cleantech companies and three million acres of timberlands certified by either forest stewardship council or the industry-backed standards of the sustainable forestry initiative. though sustainable investing was not discussed in yale’s endowment report, based on the university’s aashe response and recent press, its investments in sustainability continue to grow. in march , yale announced an endowment investment in the record see “the yale endowment: .” available from the yale university investments office at http://www.yale.edu/investments/ http://www.yale.edu/investments/ hill -turbine wind power project near roxbury, maine. the case of yale highlights how alternative asset classes such as private equity and venture capital and real assets such as timber can be particularly well suited for investments in environmental sustainability. sei’s college sustainability report card data suggest a much higher level of environmental investing by schools. one-hundred-fifty-two colleges and universities, over half of the adjusted sample of sei schools, indicate a current investment in “renewable energy funds or [a] similar investment vehicle.” sei reports additional schools to be exploring such an investment. one-hundred-twenty schools apparently have an investment policy that includes environmental factors or use an investment manager with such a policy. the disparate findings from the aashe and sei surveys can be explained, in part, by a lack of clarity around what constitutes a sustainable investment. repeatedly during our interviews, consultants and investment officers expressed a sense of confusion as to what “counts” as a sustainable investment. although aashe provided schools with a more specific categorization for reporting sustainable investments, schools’ written responses illustrate that there remains wide variation in interpretation of aashe’s three types. whereas some schools such as yale highlighted sustainable timber and other direct investments as among their “holdings in sustainable industries,” others such as the university of nevada, las vegas, simply reviewed their portfolio holdings against components in the dow jones sustainability index. several schools noted that they do not track their sustainable investing per aashe’s categories and therefore responded as they saw fit. ultimately, this variation in how schools have interpreted sustainable investment and the general lack of endowment investment transparency make it challenging to account for such wide dispersion in the data or to provide a more robust measurement of endowment investing in environmental sustainability. one of the few public announcements of environmentally sustainable investments among endowments was made in by middlebury and dickinson colleges, who have joined with rockefeller brothers fund in a sustainable investments initiative being implemented by investure llc, a boutique investment management firm founded by the former chief investment officer of the university of virginia that provides outsourced cio services to endowments and foundations. although rbf has been the main driver behind the initiative by committing the bulk of the capital to it, dickinson has invested $ million, slightly more than one percent of its $ million endowment, and middlebury has committed $ million see yale news, “endowment invests in maine wind power project,” march , , available at http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project (accessed december , ). http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. with an initial reported goal of raising an additional $ million, amounting to nearly one percent of its $ million endowment. although specific investments have not been disclosed, initial commitments have reportedly been made to sustainability-focused funds in global public equities and in more targeted cleantech private equity. given the increasing trend toward outsourcing of the cio function by endowments, the pooling of multiple endowments into this sustainable investments initiative managed by investure llc is noteworthy not only for its sustainability attributes but also for its structure of intermediation. figure . existing data on environmental investing by college endowments source criteria # assets (millions) nacubo/commonfund n/a sustainability informing sri policy n/a environmental protection n/a us sif foundation - environmental investment criteria: n/a cleantech/climate n/a toxics n/a other environmental n/a aashe - reported holdings in sustainable industries, such as renewable energy or sustainable forestry $ , businesses selected for exemplary sustainability performance $ sustainability investment funds, such as renewable energy investment fund $ sustainable endowments institute renewable energy funds- currently investing n/a renewable energy funds- exploring investing n/a renewable energy funds - currently or considering investing n/a revolving green loan fund sierra club's coolest schools ranking n/a has an investment-responsibility committee that considers and acts on environmental issues n/a has, or is it planning to implement, a formal policy that restricts or prohibits investments in fossil fuels n/a some portion of endowment is invested in companies or funds that further renewable energy and clean technology n/a see “sustainable investments initiative: rockefeller brothers fund, middlebury and dickinson focus on socially responsible investments,” dickinson college, june , , available at http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and-events/news/ - /dickinson-joins- sustainable-investments-initiative/ (accessed april , ). on the trend toward outsourced cios, see britt erica tunick, “the outsourcing option,” institutional investor, july , , available at http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/popups/printarticle.aspx?articleid= (accessed march , ). http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and-events/news/ - /dickinson-joins-sustainable-investments-initiative/ http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and-events/news/ - /dickinson-joins-sustainable-investments-initiative/ http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/popups/printarticle.aspx?articleid= a very limited number of schools are using their endowments to invest in return-generating environmental projects on their own campuses through revolving loan funds. the green revolving fund – a revolving loan fund model particularly aimed at sustainability and energy efficiency projects – is growing in popularity as colleges and universities recognize their potential to reap the benefits of substantial cost-saving opportunities by investing in energy efficiency. green revolving funds can have slight variations across institutions, but their common feature is a commitment to calculate and reinvest the savings generated from the on-campus efficiency projects that they fund, such as lighting, energy and water retrofits. the model allows schools to set aside money that will be invested in particular projects and repaid over time so that the fund is maintained for future initiatives. over campuses in north america are currently operating green revolving funds, according to a study by sei, and at least two of them are using the funds as endowment investments. the caltech energy conservation investment program (cecip), for example, is a fund of $ million committed from the california institute of technology’s $ . billion endowment. the fund’s first investment, $ , in a led lighting retrofitting of two parking structures, generated $ , in cost savings in its first year, paying back the initial investment in a year and a half. overall, the investment has achieved an average payback period of three years and an average return on investment of percent per year. weber state university in utah also seeded its green revolving fund as an endowment investment of $ million, representing eight percent of its $ million endowment in may . its first project, insulating hot water pipes, required an investment of $ , , but was calculated to achieve over $ , in annual savings, which were returned to the fund. cases like caltech and weber state, however, are exceptions to the rule: most revolving green funds are funded out of operating accounts, rather than from endowment assets. sustainable endowments institute’s “greening the bottom line” report and the case studies of green revolving loan funds that sei has begun to produce for its billion dollar green challenge provide a model for the kinds of in-depth analyses that need to be undertaken across the full range of endowments’ dano weisbord, julian dautremont-smith, and mark orlowski, “greening the bottom line: the trend toward green revolving funds on campus,” sustainable endowments institute, february , available at http://greenbillion.org/wp- content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf. rebecca caine, “california institute of technology,” green revolving funds in action: case study series, sustainable endowments institute, , available at http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf (accessed december , ). christina billingsly, “weber state university,” green revolving funds in action: case study series, sustainable endowments institute, , available at http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf (accessed december , ). http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf sustainable and responsible investments. currently we lack transparent data and case studies on most all of the other kinds of esg investments that endowments may be pursuing. understanding the financial characteristics and environmental and social benefits of these investments would greatly advance our knowledge of these activities, which are otherwise so difficult to quantify, as we have repeatedly seen. community investing and microfinance the other primary area where more proactive investments are being made by endowments is in international microfinance and domestic community development finance. however, as with green revolving loan funds, many schools have made community investments from operating accounts rather than from endowment funds, and as in other esg areas, we observed a lack of common understanding among endowments of what “community investing” entails. for many sri practitioners, community investing directs capital from investors and lenders to individuals, institutions or enterprises in communities underserved by traditional financial services. community investment provides access to capital, credit, and other responsible lending and financial products and services that low- and moderate- income communities would otherwise lack. there are a wide variety of community investment institutions and opportunities that span asset classes, from cash and fixed income to alternative investments in community development venture capital or responsible property funds, as well as international microfinance institutions. some of the most well-known community investment institutions are community development financial institutions (cdfis), certified by the us department of treasury because of their specialization in market niches that are underserved by traditional financial institutions. cdfis include both regulated depository institutions such as community development banks and credit unions and non-regulated institutions such as community development loan and venture capital funds. the financing and equity provided by cdfis support a range of community development activities such as construction of affordable housing, creation of living-wage jobs, and provision of social services like healthcare and education. weisbord, dautremont-smith, and orlowski, “greening the bottom line.” useful introductions to community investing can be found in us sif foundation’s sri trends report. for useful resources on community investing specific to colleges and universities, see michael swack, “maximizing returns to colleges and communities: a handbook on community investment,” responsible endowments coalition, , available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / ; and responsible endowments coalition, “move our money: a community investment toolkit for students,” , available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / figure . existing data available on community investing by endowments source criteria # assets (millions) nacubo/commonfund community reinvestment act (cra compliance) na us sif foundation community-related investing na na aashe value of holdings in community development financial institutions (cdfis) $ sei $ current investing in community development financial institutions or community development loan funds $ exploring investing in community development financial institutions or community development loan funds $ currently investing or exploring investing in in community development financial institutions or community development loan funds $ at the same time, responsible community investing opportunities abound beyond cdfis. internationally, investments in responsible microfinance institutions (mfis) can direct capital to support small-scale entrepreneurship abroad. public-equity managers can filter portfolios based on corporate community relations and impact, and alternative asset managers can pursue sustainable community development through a variety of different vehicles. upon first glance at existing data, dozens of colleges and universities appear to be making community investments from their endowment. in the endowment portion of sei’s college sustainability report card, of schools are reported as currently investing in “community development financial institutions or community development loan funds,” and an additional schools are listed as considering commitments to community investment in the future. at the same time, only nine endowments from the adjusted sample of aashe stars-rated schools reported a current investment in a cdfi. as with environmental investing, this discrepancy between sei’s and aashe's data on the scope of community investing seems to result from a lack of common understanding among colleges about what constitutes a community investment. many colleges and universities that have reported making community investments appear to be referencing “university-community partnerships” established to support development in their local communities. these “town and gown” partnerships take myriad forms. many partnerships are primarily philanthropic or volunteer efforts rather than investments that generate a financial return. some schools, such as clark university in worcester, massachusetts, the university of pennsylvania, the ohio state university, trinity college in hartford, conn., and the university of cincinnati, have made significant endowment investments into real estate projects to catalyze development in the communities surrounding their campuses. while these are investments that clearly expect financial returns, without a clearer sense of who the primary beneficiary of these investments is, it is difficult to assess whether these community partnerships meet the basic expectation that community investing serve the underserved. follow-up research with schools reporting community investments to aashe or sei has revealed other definitional issues. the university of louisville in kentucky, for example, reported $ . million in cdfi investments to aashe. yet the investments reported were investments not in community development financial institutions, but rather in conventional private equity funds, such as the kentucky seed capital fund and capital south partners, that have local or regional geographic foci but lack a clear market specialization to serve underserved low- and moderate-income communities – and this in a state with more than a dozen cdfis, including some of the pioneering community development venture capital groups such as kentucky highlands investment corp. when we asked whether these funds were in fact cdfis, as reported to aashe, representatives from the investment office clarified that they were not. however, the university had made a $ , deposit from the foundation’s short-term investment pool in metro bank, a local community development bank located in central louisville, which was not reported to aashe. louisville was hardly alone; the university of oregon and lehigh were among schools to report similar regional investments as community investments. while local or regional investment may stimulate economic development in targeted geographies, geographically targeted private equity in and of itself does not constitute community investing as is commonly understood unless its emphasis is on investing capital responsibly in financially underserved communities. in this case, far less community investment through certified cdfis is actually occurring than one might otherwise be led to believe from self-reported, publicly available information. a thoughtful discussion of these partnerships, including examples of and opportunities for endowment investments, can be found in steve dubb, with ted howard, “linking colleges to communities: engaging the university for community development,” the democracy collaborative, university of maryland, august , available at http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/news/recent-articles/ - /report-linking.pdf (accessed april , ). http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/news/recent-articles/ - /report-linking.pdf http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/news/recent-articles/ - /report-linking.pdf figure . college and university community investments (in thousands) institution fund or initiative name/community investment institutions endow- ment non- endow- ment unknown duke university latino community credit union $ , self help $ , goshen college microvest $ harvard university / / initiative : boston community capital, cambridge affordable housing trust, local initiatives support corporation $ , macalester college community banking: university bank $ mount holyoke college responsible investment fund : cooperative fund of new england $ seattle university global partnerships $ community capital development $ tufts university the omidyar-tufts microfinance fund $ , undisclosed local community bank $ university of louisville metro bank $ source: tellus institute given the more constrained definition, an analysis of the colleges and universities in our dataset finds that only three could be confirmed to have made community investments from endowment, not through cdfis, but rather exclusively through international microfinance institutions. those three confirmed institutions are goshen college, seattle university, and tufts university. goshen college has invested just over $ , of its endowment with microvest, a private, for-profit investment firm that makes debt and equity investments in microfinance institutions. microvest was founded by care, mennonite economic development associates, and seed capital development fund in , so goshen’s mennonite background gives it a faith-based connection to this particular microfinance investment vehicle. microvest has grown to manage more than $ million in assets across mfis in countries. though microvest is the college’s only current community investment, goshen is currently considering expanding its investments in microfinance. seattle university made its first investment in a microfinance fund in , committing $ , from its endowment to global partnerships, a seattle-based non-profit that invests in microfinance institutions and cooperatives that serve impoverished people in latin america and the caribbean and provides technical assistance as well. the university viewed the investment as a safe, fixed-income component to its portfolio. stu rolfe, an investment committee member who had personally invested in global partnerships’ first fund, told the local business press that he “felt [microfinance] was increasingly viable as an option for institutions to invest in,” and seattle university’s vice president for finance, ron smith, later said that the university’s investment in global partnerships “has been one of [the] best investments in the economic downturn,” because of stable, long-term returns. recently, the university renewed its $ , commitment to global partnerships’ social investment fund , a five-year debt fund that provides moderate fixed-income returns alongside social impact. it is global partnerships’ fourth and largest fund with a total of $ million committed, over $ million of which has been deployed to cooperatives and microfinance institutions in nine latin american and caribbean countries as of december , . tufts university has made the largest community investment from endowment funds, through the omidyar-tufts microfinance fund (otmf). although focused on microfinance like other schools, the fund’s scale, design and donor involvement differentiate it greatly from other school’s community investments. tufts alumnus pierre omidyar, creator of ebay and co-founder of the omidyar network, and his wife pam established the fund by donating $ million in ebay stock to tufts in , and it is by their stipulation as donors that the fund incorporates explicit social investing guidelines. the fund is part of tufts’ endowment, but is structured as a trust separate from the university’s other investments, with its own separate board of trustees, which includes the university president, tufts board of trustees chairman james a. stern, trustee seth merrin, pierre omidyar himself, and michael mohr, a financial adviser to omidyar and his philanthropic organization, the omidyar network. the otmf aims to use microfinance to fight poverty in developing countries by empowering the poor with access to microcredit see microvest, “ annual report,” available at http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf (accessed december , ). rolfe is quoted in puget sound business journal, march , , available at http://www.globalpartnerships.org/sections/aboutus/documents/ - - psbj-gpmff .pdf (accessed march , ); and smith’s remarks are taken from chris clem, “community investment proves to be beneficial,” responsible endowments coalition, november , , available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/wordpress/archives/ (accessed march , ). http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.globalpartnerships.org/sections/aboutus/documents/ - - psbj-gpmff .pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/wordpress/archives/ and financial services. it also seeks to demonstrate the commercial viability of microfinance for other institutional investors in order to accelerate the sector’s growth and enable the creation of $ billion in small loans to the poor within a -year timeframe. fifty percent of the fund’s earnings support tufts programs and the other half is reinvested into the fund. the omidyar-tufts microfinance fund has invested in microfinance institutions across various asset classes: in both high-grade and high-yield fixed income, private equity, venture capital, and hedge funds. at the end of the fiscal year, the fund had reported investing $ million of its $ . million in microfinance institutions, which have reportedly enabled microloans in countries in africa, central asia, eastern and central europe, and latin america. however, the university does not transparently disclose the fund’s investments, despite its educational mission to serve as a demonstration project for microfinance. nevertheless, we were able to identify several of the microfinance institutions to which it has committed capital. one of its earliest investments was in non-voting preferential shares of procredit holding ag, a public-private partnership based in germany and consisting of financial institutions in eastern and southeastern europe, sub-saharan africa, and latin america. procredit counts among its shareholders tiaa-cref, the dutch doen foundation, swiss social investment firms, and a variety of public investors, including german, dutch and belgian development banks and the international finance corporation (ifc), the private sector arm of the world bank. at the end of , otmf’s stake in procredit holding was valued at € . million in , voting shares and € . million in , , non- voting preferential shares (the equivalent of approximately $ . million, a full percent of the fund’s value). in , otmf invested in shares of the german-based commercial microbanking group access microfinance holding ag (accessholding), which has equity investments in six microlending banks in azerbaijan, liberia, madagascar, nigeria, tajikistan and tanzania. at the beginning of , otmf held € , worth of voting shares of accessholding, alongside international financial institutions and various european development banks. it is noteworthy that this detailed holding information on the fund’s investments in procredit and accessholding, although published by the german banking groups, is not readily disclosed by tufts. tufts university, “omidyar-tufts microfinance fund,” available at http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ (accessed december , ). the omidyar-tufts microfinance fund, irs form , available via www.guidestar.org. procredit holding, annual report, april , available at http://www.procredit- holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf (accessed november , ). accessholding, shareholders, available at http://www.accessholding.com/index.php?cat=about&scat= (accessed november , ). http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.guidestar.org/ http://www.procredit-holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf http://www.procredit-holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf http://www.accessholding.com/index.php?cat=about&scat= the omidyar-tufts microfinance fund was also among several private investors to make commitments to senior notes of the european fund for southeast europe (efse), a luxemburg-based mfi with more than € million in assets that lends to micro- and small enterprises across eastern and southeastern europe. according to the legatum group, the otmf was also a co-investor, alongside the omidyar network, in a $ million indian venture capital fund, elevar equity ii, lp, that provides equity capital to high-growth companies catering to the poor in underserved markets primarily in india, but also in mexico, the philippines and peru. in , it also took a controlling $ million stake in a mexican financial firm, called velifin (vehículos líquidos financieros s.a.p.i. de c.v., sofom, e.n.r.), providing wholesale, structured credit to micro- and small business lenders in mexico. finally, during our consultations, multiple sources independently reported that the otmf had committed $ million to an offshore microfinance hedge fund managed by minlam asset management. it is unclear what the fair market value of these private-equity and hedge-fund investments is, and we were unable to confirm the fund’s remaining microfinance investments through readily available public information. in addition to its international microfinance investing through the otmf, tufts has recently initiated domestic community investment in response to student demands that the university invest in a community development financial institution. modeled on the responsible endowments coalition’s community investment campaign, two campus student groups, the advisory committee on shareholder responsibility and students at tufts for investment responsibility (stir), approached the administration with a proposal to invest a portion of the endowment’s cash allocation locally in a certified community development financial institution. the proposal was supported by a tufts alumni organization, and more than students signed a petition in favor of the proposal as well. ultimately, the university’s trustees agreed to make a $ , deposit in a local community bank; however, the funds came not from the endowment, but from the university’s short-term operating reserves. the university has also not disclosed the community bank that received the deposit, raising questions whether the chosen local bank is a certified cdfi as stakeholders had requested. although tufts appears to be embracing community investing in various ways, both domestically and abroad, its poor disclosure practices make it difficult to assess the full extent of the investments being see efse investment portfolio & funding, quarterly fact sheet, q / , august , available at http://www.mixmarket.org/sites/default/files/investment_portfolio_q _ _ .pdf (accessed november , ). legatum ventures, case study: elevar equity ii, lp, may , available at http://www.legatum.com/casedisplay.aspx?id= (accessed november , ). corinne segal, “university invests $ , in community bank,” the tufts daily, october , , available at http://www.tuftsdaily.com/university-invests- - -in-community-bank- . #.t unodhmwfq (accessed october , ). http://www.mixmarket.org/sites/default/files/investment_portfolio_q _ _ .pdf http://www.legatum.com/casedisplay.aspx?id= http://www.tuftsdaily.com/university-invests- - -in-community-bank- . #.t unodhmwfq made. indeed, transparency of investment has been a recurrent issue for students, alumni and donors at tufts, particularly following revelations that the university was forced to write down $ million due to its exposure to a feeder fund that had invested in bernard madoff’s ponzi scheme. last spring controversies over endowment transparency came to a head when a group of activists “wikileaked” a confidential list of directly held investments that the university had long refused to disclose to tufts students. tufts’ involvement in responsible investment therefore needs to be seen through the lens of recurring stakeholder dynamics and demands, whether of donor restriction by a prominent alumnus in the case of international microfinance or of student and alumni pressure in the case of more local community investment. the few schools that we could confirm as having made community investments in certified cdfis have done so similarly to tufts, not from endowment funds but rather out of operating accounts. duke university, macalester college, seattle university, and the university of louisville are among schools that have made community investments in cdfis from operating cash pools, and fordham university has recently agreed to invest $ , from its operating account into two local cdfis following a successful student-led responsible investing campaign. figure presents the community investing institutions these schools have used and, where available, the size of their investments in them. other schools such as harvard, mt. holyoke, and williams have made community investments in cdfis in the past decade, but officials at the schools did not respond to repeated efforts on our part to obtain information about whether these investments have continued as endowment investments. as in the case of tufts, rarely did any of these community investing initiatives emerge from college board rooms or administrative offices. instead, it was repeatedly students, alumni and stakeholders on campus and in surrounding communities who undertook research initiatives and launched campaigns to push campus decision-makers to commit allocations to responsible community investing institutions. in tufts had invested in ascot partners, j. ezra merkin’s hedge fund that fed its assets fully to bernard l. madoff investment securities, llc, a fact of which the board of trustees’ investment committee was aware at the time, according to a university spokeswoman. see “tufts loses $ million in madoff scandal,” boston globe, december , ; and rob silverblatt, “after $ million loss in madoff scandal, tufts maintains it met investing standards,” the tufts daily, december , . because the university invested indirectly through a feeder fund, it has recently been denied its claims in the madoff liquidation proceedings. see the trustees of tufts college v. sipc and irving h. picard, civ. (dlc), us district court, southern district of new york, opinion and order, january , [sic: ], available at http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new- york/nysdce/ : cv / / / .pdf?ts= (accessed march , ). the launch of jumboleaks as “a little wikileaks for tufts” in april by an anonymous group of students and alumni garnered widespread controversy on campus and some attention in the national press. see http://jumboleaks.org (accessed april , ). harvard’s domestic cdfi investments, the largest among the schools in our study with $ million committed in to three boston- area cdfis over years to support affordable housing development, were widely seen at the time as an effort to mend community relations after the university’s secretive acquisition of large tracts of real estate in the boston neighborhood of allston. “harvard’s http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/ : cv / / / .pdf?ts= http://docs.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/new-york/nysdce/ : cv / / / .pdf?ts= http://jumboleaks.org/ based on reporting to groups such as sei and aashe, dozens of schools say they are making community investments. however, deeper analysis suggests those funds are not necessarily endowment assets, nor are they being invested through recognized community investing institutions that provide access to capital and financial services to low- and moderate-income groups. much greater education about definitions and opportunities in community investment is clearly needed. in order to have accountability, schools will have to provide deeper and more consistent disclosure of their investments, based on commonly understood definitions of community investing, and outside auditing of self- reported claims may be needed. shareholder advocacy and active-ownership activities he incorporation of esg considerations into active-ownership activities is another key locus of sri activity. shareholder activities such as proxy voting, shareholder resolution filing, engaging in dialogue directly with companies or indirectly through investor networks are also commonly referred to as shareholder, or shareowner, advocacy, activism, or engagement. these activities allow institutional investors to exercise their voices as asset owners or their concerns as investors. we have already discussed investor engagement through the conflict risk network with companies doing business in regimes such as the sudan, libya or syria, where human-rights issues are at the forefront of stakeholder concern. although shareholder advocacy is often thought of exclusively in relationship to proxy voting and shareholder resolution filing at publicly traded companies, the notion of active ownership readily extends to other asset classes as well. private equity and certain real assets such as land used for farming, ranching or forestry lend themselves readily to an active stewardship posture by investors concerned with esg issues, and limited partners such as endowments can sometimes influence / / affordable housing initiative helped build, renovate , units in boston and cambridge,” harvard gazette, november , , available at http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped- build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge (accessed november, , ). on seattle university’s $ , debt investment in community capital development, see maura rendes, “a different kind of community investment at seattle university engages students,” responsible endowments coalition, available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ (accessed march , ). the case of macalester is discussed in swack, “maximizing returns to colleges and communities,” - . also see macalester’s webpage dedicated to its partnership with university bank: http://www.macalester.edu/cec/civicengagement/universitybank.html. for holyoke, see noelle danian, et al., “community investment in an institutional portfolio,” mt. holyoke college, , available via the responsible endowments coalition at http://www.endowmentethics.org/downloads/mtholyoke.pdf; and rose levine and moki macias, “community investing at mount holyoke college,” responsible endowments coalition, spring , available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college (accessed november , ). t http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/civicengagement/universitybank.html http://www.endowmentethics.org/downloads/mtholyoke.pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college fund managers by sitting on advisory councils that private equity funds establish from time to time. as for hedge funds, some have gained considerable notoriety for their shareholder activism, although traditionally hedge-fund activism has focused more narrowly on short-term shareholder value propositions than long-term esg issues. as we highlighted at the outset, many high-profile endowments have invested considerable time and energy to the governance of decisions of proxy voting, and our data make that clear. beyond proxy voting, though, few colleges and universities have engaged in other active ownership activities around esg issues. figure . existing data on shareholder advocacy by college endowments source criteria # nacubo/commonfund vote proxies consistent with sri or e/s/g us sif foundation resolution filing (sri issues) proxy voting on sri issues dialogue aashe shareholder resolution data letter-writing (dialogue) data sei how is esg proxy voting handled? lack ability to vote proxies, all holdings in mutual funds investment managers asked to handle proxy voting general guidelines provided to investment managers specific guidelines provided to investment managers school administrator determines proxy votes committee of administrators and/or trustees deliberates/decides committee including student reps deliberates/advises/decides school community feedback incorporated into proxy voting proxy voting proxy voting is the process of voting an institution’s shares on issues raised at corporate annual general meetings. shareholder resolutions relating to companies’ environmental, social and corporate governance policies and practices frequently appear on proxy ballots, so investors have the opportunity to communicate with companies they own by casting their votes. although much of the sri focus of endowments can be devoted to proxy voting on college campuses, the diversification of many endowments away from directly held public equities into alternative asset classes, where investors do not exercise shareholder rights in the same way as with listed securities, has diminished the relative importance of proxy voting as a strategy of sustainable and responsible endowment management. the widespread use of commingled equity funds by endowments, in lieu of direct holdings in publicly traded corporations, has also constrained the ability of schools to use proxy voting as a tool for addressing esg issues through their investments. according to the ncse, percent of the schools with some sort of social investment policy reported voting “proxies consistent with sri screening criteria.” this proportion was up slightly from the previous year’s report, when percent of institutions with social investment criteria stated that they voted proxies for sri. because of the decrease between and of total institutions reporting having an sri policy, the actual number of institutions voting proxies in favor of sri actually decreased from about in to about in . the percentage of schools reporting that “they vote proxies consistent with their e/s/g policies” held steady in . of the various datasets under review, sei’s college sustainability report card provided the most detailed breakdowns of how proxy voting is handled with regard to esg resolutions, as figure highlights. most schools (n= ) reported that they simply delegate proxy voting to investment managers. a large plurality of schools in the sei sample are reported to lack the ability to vote proxies due to their use of commingled funds or to delegate the task to managers. of the sei-surveyed institutions that reported that they could not cast proxy votes because they do not directly own shares, also explained that they do vote proxies for the fraction of a percent of their equities not held in commingled funds. figure . self-reported proxy voting by college endowments how is esg proxy voting handled? # associated endowment values (millions) lack ability to vote proxies, all holdings in mutual funds $ , investment managers asked to handle proxy voting $ , general guidelines provided to investment managers $ , specific guidelines provided to investment managers $ , school administrator determines proxy votes $ , committee of administrators and/or trustees deliberates/decides $ , committee including student reps deliberates/advises/decides $ , school community feedback incorporated into proxy voting $ , source: sustainable endowments institute fifty schools in the sei sample controlling nearly $ billion in combined assets, including many large endowments, provide opportunities for students and stakeholders to shape proxy-voting decisions around esg issues, either through committees or town-hall meetings. the role of advisory committees on investor responsibility and similar structures is discussed in the third section devoted to governance and transparency below. forty schools with nearly $ billion in combined assets provide general proxy- voting guidelines on esg issues to their managers, while with $ billion in reported providing specific guidelines to their investment managers. at sei-surveyed schools, with $ billion in combined assets, a school administrator determines proxy votes. another schools with $ billion in combined assets relies on a committee of administrators or trustees to handle proxy voting, without any student or broader involvement from the campus community. resolution filing for endowments that want to take a more active role, filing shareholder resolutions on esg issues of concern, or co-filing with other investors, is a strategy that deepens involvement. we identified institutions reportedly willing to engage in esg shareholder resolution filing, and eight of those institutions were confirmed as having filed or co-filed over the period of - . they include bard college, creighton university, loyola university chicago, regis university, rockhurst university, university of san francisco, university of scranton, and university of vermont. many of these schools are catholic universities, engaging on shareholder issues as an extension of their values and often in cooperation with other faith-based investors that participate in the interfaith center on corporate responsibility (iccr), the leading network for religious investors. in reporting to aashe stars, six institutions out of stated that they filed or co-filed on the subject of sustainability in the past three years, but we have been unable to confirm four of them as filers: colorado state university, dickinson college, university of oregon in eugene, and the university of colorado foundation in boulder. these discrepancies appear to be related to misunderstanding by respondents of what it means to file a resolution. one school, goshen college, reported that it participated in the shareholder resolution filing process not directly, but through its investment manager: everence, a faith- based money manager that is, like goshen itself, affiliated with the mennonite church usa and active in shareholder advocacy. see appendix in sri trends report, based on data compiled by us sif foundation from riskmetrics group, the interfaith center on corporate responsibility (iccr) and sustainable investments institute (si ). many of these schools have embraced shareholder resolution filing because of the concrete social and environmental outcomes and impacts that can follow from them. for example, in , bard college in annandale-on-hudson, ny, filed a shareholder resolution with mcdonald’s corporation requesting the fast food chain to review and to reduce pesticide usage on its potato crops. with the co-filing support of the investor environmental health network, the afl-cio office of investment, and newground social investment, the resolution was successful in getting mcdonald’s to make the changes, resulting in the withdrawal of the shareowner resolution. this instance became an example of the power of institutional investors to influence the esg practices of a major global corporation, and in bard’s case, the process was initiated and driven by students themselves who were concerned about environmental issues and food security. although it has not filed shareholder resolutions for nearly a decade, swarthmore college successfully filed several shareholder resolutions in and at companies such as lockheed martin, masco and dover on corporate equal opportunity policies related to sexual orientation. again students played a major role in encouraging the college to use its ownership stakes to promote change. although the resolution at lockheed received only around five percent of shareholder support, the company ultimately agreed to change its corporate policies, highlighting the catalytic role that an endowment can play in the proxy process. loyola university in chicago has become an increasingly active shareholder in the resolution filing process over the last decade. the school has sought to incorporate responsible investing policies aligned with its jesuit mission into endowment management since the s, but in the board of trustees established a new shareholder advocacy committee that has pursued a wide array of shareholder advocacy initiatives that align with the school’s “educational and social mission” to promote “social justice and the dignity of the individual.” the initiative was pushed by students and other campus stakeholders who were concerned that certain investments did not reflect the university’s social mission and that more needed to be done to engage with corporations in which the endowment invested. in , for example, the university co-filed a shareholder resolution with jp morgan chase expressing concern about its financing of mountaintop removal coal mining by companies such as massey energy, where the committee also publicly announced that it was withholding its support for board members involved in the oversight committee responsible for the failures that lead to the upper big branch mine disaster that killed miners in west virginia earlier in the year. working in concert with a wide array of environmental, labor, faith-based, and responsible endowment groups, the university’s efforts helped investor environmental health network, “historic shareholder agreement reached with mcdonald's on pesticide use reduction,” press release, march , , available at http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php (accessed november , ). http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php to create the climate of concern that ultimately resulted in a review of its financing practices, the development of new guidelines, and the announcement that jpmorgan would no longer be providing finance to massey. dialogue the case of loyola highlights how endowments can also engage in dialogue with the companies in which they invest by writing letters of concern or communicating with them publicly or privately about esg issues, even without going so far as to file a shareholder resolution. seattle university sent a similar letter to massey energy following the upper big branch mining tragedy. despite these noteworthy cases, dialogue does not appear to be a widespread activity among endowments, although most dialogues occur in private so verification can be difficult. nine aashe-surveyed schools reported having “sent one or more letters about social or environmental responsibility to a company in which it holds investment during the previous three years.” they include bard, colorado state university, dickinson, goshen, the universities of colorado, dayton, denver, and new hampshire, as well as vassar college. we were not able to obtain independent confirmation, but we did observe participation in shareholder dialogue by at least four other schools: columbia, stanford, swarthmore and yale. even across such a small set of schools, dialogue has taken a variety of forms. practices range from simple letter-writing to direct and extended conversations with companies and fund managers. in , for example, the columbia university committee on investor responsibility wrote a letter to chevron regarding the university’s concern over the company’s connections with the military-led government of burma. dickinson college has taken a different approach by organizing teleconferences with representatives of schlumberger, in which the college held investments, in order to determine the extent and impact of the company’s practices in the sudan. in addition to engaging in direct dialogue, institutional investors can also join a number of investor networks that provide platforms for active-ownership activities around esg issues. an evaluation of the member and signatory lists of seven prominent investor networks, however, revealed minimal participation across the board by colleges and universities. among the total institutions in this responsible endowments coalition, “on the issues: oppressive governments,” available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the- issues (accessed november , ); and aashe stars, “dickinson college, pae- : shareholder advocacy,” june , , available at https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / (accessed november , ). http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/dickinson-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / dataset, none were signatories to the carbon disclosure project (cdp). only one institution, the university of connecticut foundation, was a member of the council of institutional investors (cii). only the university of dayton davis center for portfolio management’s flyer investments is a signatory to the un principles for responsible investment (un pri), and only the university of california berkeley haas sri fund was a member of the us sif, the forum for sustainable and responsible investment. both of these funds are student-run, and their participation in these networks does not extend to the wider endowment. despite the several hundreds of colleges that have made commitments to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions in their campus facilities as part of the american college and university presidents’ climate commitment, only two colleges – brown university and the university of vermont – have joined the investor network on climate risk, a project of ceres that has brought together more than a hundred leading institutional investors and asset managers with some $ trillion in combined assets. the interfaith center on corporate responsibility (iccr) includes limited numbers of religious college and university endowments including loyola university chicago, saint joseph’s college, and siena college. also, as noted previously, a half dozen us schools are publicly listed as members of genocide intervention network’s conflict risk network, focused on engaging with companies over human rights in conflict zones. finally, as of this writing, no endowments participate in the global impact investing network (giin), the leading forum for enhancing the burgeoning field of social and environmental impact investing. a burgeoning area of shareholder advocacy and active ownership is in the policy arena, but we found no evidence of endowments engaging in public policy in order to promote shareholder rights or ensure that esg issues are being taken seriously in the context of financial reform and regulation. although several of the investor networks discussed above are increasingly active in policy debates, none of the surveys we reviewed presented questions about active ownership initiatives within the policy arena. carbon disclosure project, “cdp signatory investors ,” available at https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig- investor-list.aspx (accessed november , ). council of institutional investors, “list of general members,” available at http://www.cii.org/listofgms (accessed november , ). un principles for responsible investment, “signatories to the principles for responsible investment,” available at http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ (accessed november , ); us sif, “organization directory,” available at https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch (accessed november , ). on the presidents’ climate commitment, which schools have endorsed, see http://www.presidentsclimatecommitment.org/. on incr, a project of the nonprofit ceres, see http://www.ceres.org/incr/. interfaith center on corporate responsibility, “list of members,” available at http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php (accessed november , ). https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx https://www.cdproject.net/en-us/programmes/pages/sig-investor-list.aspx http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.cii.org/listofgms http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ http://www.unpri.org/signatories/ https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch https://netforum.avectra.com/eweb/dynamicpage.aspx?site=ussif.org&webcode=orgsearch http://www.presidentsclimatecommitment.org/ http://www.ceres.org/incr/ http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php http://www.iccr.org/about/listofmembers.php figure . shareholder engagement grades, college sustainability report card, grade shareholder engagement overall grade a a- - b+ - b b- - c+ - c c- - d+ - d d- - f (not graded) total graded note: the college sustainability report card awards +/- grades only for overall grades. source: sustainable endowments institute overall, endowments scored low on shareholder engagement in sei’s college sustainability report card. as figure highlights, the majority of schools that were graded on shareholder engagement received failing d or f grades, by a wide margin, far more than the number that received overall failing grades. thirty-eight schools received c grades, three received b grades, while got a marks, far fewer than those who received comparable overall grades. governance and transparency of esg investing ehind the practices of esg investing by college and university endowments themselves lies an architecture of decision-making: governing boards of trustees, investment officers, investment and finance committees, committees on investor responsibility that involve wider campus constituencies, and various intermediaries, such as fund managers and investment consulting firms. at the schools that were not graded on shareholder engagement were either too small or invested fully in commingled funds, rendering it difficult for sei to grade their activities, though as the case of goshen college highlights, schools can certainly engage actively as shareholder by selecting investment managers that actively vote their proxies, file resolutions on esg issues, dialogue with companies, participate in networks and develop a robust policy presence. b some schools students are involved in esg investment decision-making in limited ways, often through student-run funds and committees on investor responsibility. transparency is a basic requisite to hold decision-makers accountable, but as suggested throughout this study, current transparency is limited. in this final section, we give particular emphasis to three main leading trends and indicators in governance and transparency: the roles of multi-stakeholder committees on investor responsibility, the development of student-run sri funds, and the availability of esg investment information. committees on investor responsibility committees on investor responsibility can play a range of roles in engaging campuses on esg issues in their investments. these committees often include and are sometimes spearheaded by concerned students, though they also often include faculty, staff, alumni, trustees, and other kinds of stakeholders. often their primary role is to provide recommendations on proxy voting on esg issues to investment committees or boards of trustees, and some also provide recommendations for investment or divestment or on matters of investment policy. we have already described the role played by several committees at schools in shareholder engagement activities going beyond proxy voting. in the sei survey, institutions responded that they had “a committee that offers recommendations or makes decisions on proxy voting.” of those, our analysis found that only appear to be committees with an investor responsibility focus that include input from outside the investment office. aashe also surveyed its respondents on this topic, asking “does the institution have a committee on investor responsibility or similar body?” thirty-four institutions responded affirmatively. however, of these we were able to confirm only based on the committee charter or mission statements provided to aashe. the majority of the institutions that claimed to have committees on investor responsibility provided details on their university investment committees that listed their primary duties as determining and managing investments, with occasional reference to a policy document on esg considerations. aashe defines a committee on investor responsibility as a “body that makes recommendations to the board of trustees on socially and environmentally responsible investment opportunities across asset classes, including proxy voting. the body has multi-stakeholder representation, which means its membership includes faculty, staff, and students and may include alumni, trustees, and/or other parties.” however, in eleven cases, aashe accepted and awarded credit to institutions that reported investor responsibility aashe stars, “version . technical manual,” available at http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf (accessed november , ). http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf committees that do not appear to meet these criteria because they lack multi-stakeholder and student involvement. ball state university, delta college, goshen college, haywood community college, new mexico state university, oregon state university, pacific lutheran university, university of california san diego, university of colorado, university of florida, and the university of south florida are among the schools that reported investment committees that do not appear to meet aashe’s definition of a committee on investor responsibility. student-run funds one noteworthy development in the architecture of investment decision-making around esg issues is the emergence of increasing numbers of endowed funds that are managed by students. alumni, faculty and student appetite for esg investing has led some groups to create smaller sri funds within the endowment, as demonstration experiential-learning projects in which students have direct say in the governance of smaller pools of capital. seventeen schools reported having a “student-managed sri fund” in their aashe stars responses, though some schools appear to have included student-run funds that do not incorporate esg factors or student-run philanthropic funds that make charitable gifts. our research identified student-run funds that incorporate esg criteria at the schools analyzed for this report. many have been established by entrepreneurial students, but not all appear to be part of a college or university’s endowment. several of them have been explicitly designed to serve as models, with participants hoping to show their school and other investors how the incorporation of esg criteria into asset management can yield responsible, risk-adjusted returns and create positive impact. managing these funds also provides students with first-hand experience in responsible investment practice. many are still in start-up mode at present, raising capital and formulating investment strategies, but groups appear to be actively managing an investment portfolio. student-run funds at bard college, colorado state university college of business, franklin and marshall college in lancaster, pennsylvania, the haas school of business at the university of california berkeley, the university of dayton in ohio, the university of virginia darden school of business, and yale are investing in public equities, either by actively managing a portfolio according to internal sri guidelines or through an esg-screened mutual fund. the haas socially responsible investment fund has been one of the largest and most prominent student-run sri funds. the fund was launched in with donations from haas alumni, who wanted students to have hands-on sri investment management experience. the haas sri fund is a long-only public equity fund that evaluates potential investments using not only financial performance, but also the following esg criteria: citizenship concept, strategic intent, leadership, structure, issues management, stakeholder relations and transparency. at the end of fiscal year , it had $ . million in assets invested in a concentrated portfolio of directly held stocks. figure . identified student-run funds incorporating esg criteria institution student-run fund name (investment focus) aum (millions) actively investing bard college social choice fund (mutual fund investing) * y bentley college bentley microfinance group (domestic microfinance) $ . y colorado state university summit student investment fund $ . y (active public equity investing) columbia university microlumbia fund (international microfinance) $ . y franklin and marshall college student managed investment portfolio (smip) $ . y (active public equity investing) ithaca college core trading consultants (active public equity investing) $ . y northwestern university lend: lending for evanston & northwestern * y development (domestic microfinance) ohio state university student social venture fund (social enterprise) * rice university owl microfinance (microfinance) * saint cloud state university scsu micro loan program (domestic microfinance) * y seattle university su microfund (domestic microfinance) * st. john's university global microloan program (international microfinance) * y university of alaska at fairbanks project ummid (international microfinance) * y university of california berkeley haas sri fund (active public equity investing) $ . y university of dayton davis center flyer investments $ . y (active public equity investing) university of michigan social venture fund (social enterprise) * university of nevada, las vegas rebel investment group (active public equity investing) * y university of notre dame applied investment management $ . y active public equity investing university of pennsylvania wharton social venture fund (social enterprise) * university of utah, brigham young university, and westminster college university impact fund (social enterprise) * university of virginia sustainable investment group * y (active public equity investing) university of virginia the rotunda fund (active public equity investing) $ . y villanova arnone-lerer social responsibility fund $ . y (active public equity investing) washington and lee university general development initiative * (international microfinance) yale university the yale dwight hall sri fund $ . y (mutual fund investing) note: * unable to confirm assets under management. source: tellus institute, aashe. haas socially responsible investment fund, “annual report,” university of california berkeley, haas school of business, may , available at http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf. http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf the rotunda fund at the university of virginia darden school of business is a student-run sustainable investment fund, one of five funds in the school’s student capital management program. the fund was launched three years ago in response to widespread student interest in sustainable investing, and it currently manages $ , . roughly percent of the fund is invested in publicly traded companies selected for superior esg and financial performance with the remaining percent invested in “pure play” companies, such as renewable energy firms. flyer investments at the university of dayton davis center for portfolio management is the largest identified student-run fund incorporating esg criteria. the $ million fund is a signatory of the united nations principles for responsible investment (pri), and its student managers are required to become familiar with the pri through an associated investment course curriculum. flyer investments’ esg approach focuses primarily on governance issues, including transparency and political contributions. the university of dayton also has a long-standing affiliation with the united nations global compact, with which they host the annual redefining investment strategy education conference. many of the more recently established student funds are investing in social enterprises and microfinance institutions rather than public equities. the increasing popularity of microfinance among students is reflected not only in the growing number of student-run microfinance funds, but also the networks that have arisen to support them. the campus microfinance alliance was founded in , with support from the aspen institute as well as the charles stewart mott and schoenfeld foundations, to provide a collaborative network, technical assistance, and grants to the emerging field of student-run funds focused on domestic microfinance. the alliance currently has member funds that are either student-led or originally founded by students. mfi connect is an international network of student microfinance funds and interest groups. the organization aims to support microfinance clubs globally and organize campaigns to encourage mfi investment. the microlumbia fund at columbia university is an example of a young student-run fund focused on mfis. microlumbia focuses on direct investment in and consulting services for international mfis. currently, the microlumbia portfolio consists of one $ , debt investment in ruhiira millennium see campus microfinance alliance’s website at http://www.campusmfi.org/. http://www.campusmfi.org/ savings and credit cooperative, a microlender in uganda. in the - school year, microlumbia’s managers also provided consulting services to four mfis in africa and asia. the student-run funds currently raising capital are similarly focused on alternative investments rather than public equity. the university of michigan social venture fund (svf), housed at the university’s ross school of business in ann arbor, has raised over $ , . the svf will invest in early-stage social enterprises in the us with a particular interest in businesses in health, education, environment, and urban revitalization serving the detroit metropolitan area. the fund aims to earn a portfolio-wide financial return on par with the -year treasury rate in addition to the social and environmental returns on its investments. the svf’s student managers are currently providing capacity-building services to three companies and expect the fund to make its initial investments in spring . endowment transparency as we observed with the case of sudan divestment at harvard, transparency provides basic accountability mechanisms to the stakeholders whose concerns are ultimately reflected in esg policies implemented at endowments. opacity makes it difficult for analysts, peers, and stakeholders to develop an adequate understanding of investment activities. as part of its evaluation and grading of transparency, sei examined the degree of investment transparency at institutions through its survey and follow-up research. in its survey, sei requested that schools indicate which stakeholder gr ups have access to various levels of investment information, such as asset allocation, lists of external managers, lists of mutual funds, and investment holdings in specific asset classes, such as public equity, fixed income, real estate, hedge funds, private equity, venture capital, natural resources, and cash. figure : self-reported percentage of institutions providing information to different audiences investment information available trustees senior administrators and select individuals entire school community general public per open records law general public asset allocation % % % % % list of external managers % % % % % list of mutual funds % % % % % source: sustainable endowments institute microlumbia fund, “ - annual report,” columbia university, available at http://microlumbia.org/wp- content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf (accessed december , ). http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf on average trustees, senior administrators and select individuals have broad access to endowment holdings information. eighty-three to ninety percent of institutions reported making a wide range of holdings information available to these groups. while three quarters of institutions make asset- allocation information available to their entire school communities, on average only percent grant the entire school community access to any information about investment holdings. less than a quarter of institutions make endowment holdings information available to the general public, with slightly more, primarily public colleges, making it open via open-records requests rather than directly. figure : self-reported percentage of institutions providing investment holdings to different audiences investment holdings available trustees senior administrators and select individuals entire school community general public per open records law general public equity % % % % % fixed income % % % % % real estate % % % % % hedge fund % % % % % private equity % % % % % venture capital % % % % % natural resource % % % % % cash % % % % % source: sustainable endowments institute sei also sought to uncover “where information about endowment holdings is made available to the school community and the general public” for schools that indicated that it was accessible. the college sustainability report card separated this inquiry into two questions, asking separately whether the school community and the general public could access investment holdings information in the investment office, by request, through a password-protected website, on a public website, or not at all. figure summarizes the number of schools that sei found to use each method of sharing information about holdings. based on sei’s data, schools indicated that they make all information about their endowment holdings available on publicly-accessible, non-password protected websites. in fact, upon verification, we found that only eight of the schools made financial holdings readily accessible. seven schools made only asset allocation accessible, though generally those were buried within annual financial reports. two schools, fairfield university in connecticut and virginia commonwealth university in richmond, made no information readily available to the public. in short, more than half of the schools indicating to sei that comprehensive endowment holdings information is publicly available actually provide very limited, if any, transparency about the composition of endowment holdings. figure . self-reported accessibility of investment holdings aashe also gathered transparency data in its stars evaluation tool by including the question, “does the institution make a snapshot of its investment holdings, including the amount invested in each fund and/or company and proxy voting records, available to the public?” out of participating institutions, indicated that they did make such snapshots public. however, when given the opportunity to describe their investment disclosure practices, many schools clarified that that while information on investment policy and asset allocation could be found online, further information would have to be requested, and specific holdings were often available only to trustees and administrators. haverford college, for example, reported the following: we make available a five-year summary of endowment holdings in our annual factbook, which is available to the public online at haverford’s website. this includes asset allocation information and holdings amounts for each asset class. we also provide detailed information on our portfolio holdings to a number of external organizations, such as nacubo, cambridge associates and other data-sharing groups. holdings and proxy- voting records of the cisr portfolio are publicly available at http://www.haverford.edu/business/financial.php. all endowment holdings are made available, and detailed reports of holdings and asset allocation are produced for the board school community general public not made available at investment office upon request password-protected website school website note: information was available for only of the institutions included in sei’s study. source: sustainable endowments institute http://www.haverford.edu/business/financial.php of managers and senior administrators. the information is available to all other members of the college community upon request. in other words, the college does not in fact provide a snapshot of endowment holdings, including the amount invested in each fund and/or company, to the public. instead, it limits that information to members of the college community. unlike the college sustainability report card survey, the stars survey gave respondents the opportunity to provide a url web link “where information about investment disclosure [would be] available.” of the schools that claimed to provide snapshots of investment holdings, only provided urls leading to those snapshots or information on how to access them. of those schools, we found that only six actually provided their endowments’ allocations to specific fund managers by name. green mountain college in poultney, vt., provides a “best-practice” example of disclosure in this respect. the school presented the specific investments of its $ million endowment directly on its endowment’s web page rather than buried within a report or presentation. twelve schools provided links to financial statements or other reports, most of which included asset allocation. four schools explained on the stars survey that such snapshots were not available online, but only in hardcopy or by request. the link provided by bard college led to a page explaining that a snapshot was not online because “a partial list of the college endowment’s holdings [was] available in the campus library.” the university of nevada las vegas foundation, which reported to aashe that “snapshots of investment holdings are available upon request,” provided a link that takes the reader to a text of state legislation requiring the foundation’s meetings to be open to the public, but it provides no investment information or even a description of how to obtain holdings information. the evergreen state college in olympia, wash., explained to aashe that its endowment was held within the university of washington’s combined endowment fund, the details of which were available upon request, but the link it provided directed the user to the university of washington’s response to the sustainable endowments institute’s college sustainability report card, which confirmed this information but offered aashe stars, “haverford college, investment disclosure,” july , , available at stars.aashe.org/institutions/haverford-college- pa/report/ - - / / / / (accessed january , ). green mountain college, “our endowment,” available at http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our- endowment.aspx (accessed march , ). aashe stars, “university of nevada las vegas, investment disclosure,” june , , available at stars.aashe.org/institutions/university-of-nevada-las-vegas-nv/report/ - - / / / / (accessed january , ). aashe stars, “the evergreen state college, investment disclosure,” july , , available at https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/evergreen-state-college-wa/report/ - - / / / / (accessed january , ). http://stars.aashe.org/institutions/haverford-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / http://stars.aashe.org/institutions/haverford-college-pa/report/ - - / / / / http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://stars.aashe.org/institutions/university-of-nevada-las-vegas-nv/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/evergreen-state-college-wa/report/ - - / / / / no further resources for requesting endowment details. similarly, the oswego college foundation, part of the state university of new york system, stated that they respond to endowment inquiries, but directed readers to the ncse, which provides no school-specific data about oswego or any other institution. one school, also within the state university of new york system, provided irrelevant information regarding endowment disclosure on its stars survey. the fredonia college foundation, on behalf of suny fredonia, described and provided a link to the new york state comptroller’s annual comprehensive annual financial report and directed aashe viewers to its data regarding the new york state common retirement fund, which makes no reference to suny fredonia’s endowment investments. at far too many schools, the trend appears to be toward obfuscation rather than transparency. all of these institutions, along with the others that claimed to disclose investment snapshots but did not provide urls with any further information, were awarded full credit for this category by aashe, despite the wide variation in the quality of the data provided. the varied responses imply that there is not a uniform understanding of what constitutes a “snapshot of investment holdings,” nor a commitment to transparency. the stars technical manual does not clarify the term, and aashe’s acceptance of any positive response to this question implies that schools do not have to adhere to any standards. finally, transparency can be gauged not only in the way that schools report their disclosure practices to third parties and in surveys, but also in their responsiveness to basic information requests from the public. over the course of follow-up research during late and early , we reached out to investment and financial offices at more than institutions via email and telephone. in messages and direct conversations, we requested straightforward information to confirm institution-specific information often drawn from school’s aashe or sei surveys related to student-run investment funds, assets subject to esg policies, community investing and microfinance activity, and other forms of esg sustainable endowments institute, “university of washington, endowment survey,” the college sustainability report card , available at http://www.greenreportcard.org/report-card- /schools/university-of-washington/surveys/endowment-survey (accessed january , ). aashe stars, “state university of new york at oswego, investment disclosure,” august , , available at https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/state-university-of-new-york-at-oswego-ny/report/ - - / / / / (accessed january , ). aashe stars, “state university of new york at fredonia, investment disclosure,” january , , available at https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/state-university-of-new-york-at-fredonia-ny/report/ - - / / / / (accessed january , ). aashe stars, “stars version . technical manual administrative update one,” available at http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf (accessed january , ). http://www.greenreportcard.org/report-card- /schools/university-of-washington/surveys/endowment-survey https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/state-university-of-new-york-at-oswego-ny/report/ - - / / / / https://stars.aashe.org/institutions/state-university-of-new-york-at-fredonia-ny/report/ - - / / / / http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf criteria incorporation into endowment portfolio management. twenty institutions – just under one-third of this subset – provided helpful responses in which they shared the requested information or clarified why the request did not apply to their investment pool or policies. ten institutions provided minimal, inadequate responses, sharing only restatements of information that could already be found in the surveys we referenced or disregarding the substance of our queries after simply acknowledging our requests. twenty-six institutions never responded to multiple attempts to reach them via e-mail or telephone. five institutions simply declined to engage in conversations about endowment investments. saint joseph’s university in philadelphia and saint mary’s college of california in moraga, for example, cited policies against responding to “surveys” even though we were not conducting a survey, but rather simply seeking clarification on their self-reported survey responses to other third parties. depauw university in greencastle, ind., and st. john’s university in collegeville, minn., stated that they would not share any information about their endowments. a representative of the business office at college of the ozarks in point lookout, missouri, was simply “not interested.” given the broad unresponsiveness we encountered from schools, it should come as little surprise that of the many areas evaluated on the college sustainability report card, endowment transparency is among the lowest grades on average. figure . endowment transparency grades, college sustainability report card, grade endowment transparency overall grade a a- - b+ - b b- - c+ - c c- - d+ - d d- - f (not graded) total graded note: the college sustainability report card awards +/- grades only for overall grades. source: sustainable endowments institute as figure highlights, far more schools receive grades averaging c or lower for endowment transparency than they do for their overall grades, which evaluate schools not only on endowment matters but also on areas such as food and recycling, green building, student involvement, and administration. in other words, schools consistently make better grades when it comes to sustainable campus operations and participation than they do on endowment-related issues in general and endowment transparency in particular. conclusion ndowment investing around esg issues today is rather less than meets the eye. on one hand, there appears to be a proliferation of initiatives to encourage more sustainable and responsible forms of endowment management. yet on the other hand, as we have repeatedly seen, some colleges are regularly self-reporting unverifiable data about their esg investment policies and practices, which upon investigation prove to be overstated. whether deliberate or due simply to a lack of understanding of esg investment activities, the poor reporting that we have found across surveys creates basic obstacles to understanding and analyzing in a robust manner the diversity of approaches to esg investing that is occurring among college endowments. in an effort to change this dynamic, concerned students and alumni at campuses around the country have begun to share resources about their efforts in unprecedented ways through organizations such as the responsible endowments coalition. over the last half decade, nonprofit groups such as sustainable endowments institute have emerged to conduct research and rate various investment practices by college endowments, creating new monitoring and accountability mechanisms that numerous other ratings groups, such as aashe and the sierra club, have taken into new directions. although we have repeatedly highlighted data discrepancies and inconsistencies in survey language and the wording of questions that may be exacerbating misinterpretation by respondents, groups such sei, aashe, sierra magazine and the princeton review have acknowledged the problems of “survey fatigue” and announced in may that they would be collaborating toward the goal of establishing common survey language. sustainable endowments institute, “green report card joins survey collaboration effort,” press release, may , , available at http://greenreportcard.org/media (accessed november , ). subsequently, sei has announced that it will no longer be conducting e http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media although the groups do not plan to consolidate and combine their individual surveys at this time, this collaboration represents an important step toward developing more standardized language with clearer definitions that will allow schools to report their activities with accuracy and precision and provide stakeholders with the basic information needed to hold schools accountable for the sustainability of their endowment practices. ultimately, the lack of transparency and of common understanding of leading esg investment practices is the responsibility of endowment managers, who remain aloof from leading investor networks where opportunities and best practices in sustainable and responsible investment are routinely discussed. we have documented the widespread absence of college endowments from groups such as the un principles for responsible investment, the investor network on climate risk, the investor environmental health network, the council of institutional investors, us sif, and the global impact investing network. unlike faith-based investors involved in the interfaith center on corporate responsibility or philanthropic foundations involved in the mission investors exchange, endowments have yet to take the initiative to create their own networks for sharing resources and best practices around esg investing. it therefore comes as little surprise that misunderstandings about esg investing are so commonplace among schools. the lack of understanding found among endowment managers and finance officers has led many schools repeatedly to report involvement in esg activities in ways that prove to be illusory upon independent verification. moreover, schools may have policies around certain esg issues, but then limit their application to narrow slivers of their portfolios, primarily to directly held, publicly traded equities, despite ample evidence from the field that esg criteria incorporation is a discipline that can be applied across asset classes. other institutional investors investing in the esg space certainly continue to place considerable emphasis on public equities, but emerging practice finds esg investing opportunities across the full spectrum of institutional portfolios, even alternative asset classes so deeply prized in the endowment model of investing. we have also found that schools repeatedly report making “community investments” that do not reflect community-investing imperatives of meeting the needs of financially underserved communities. many schools also report having governance structures devoted to esg issues in proxy voting but fail to distinguish between traditional investment committees and committees on investment responsibility which provide for student and stakeholder feedback into the process. its college sustainability report card in order to focus its efforts on its green billion dollar challenge, focused on financing energy efficiency initiatives on campuses, often through green revolving loan funds. for more information, visit http://greenbillion.org/. http://greenbillion.org/ the limited, verifiable esg investing activity that is observable among endowments can generally be traced back to faith-based traditions of religious schools, on one hand, and the specific demands of stakeholders, on the other, particularly those of students and alumni-donors, though staff, faculty, and community and nonprofit groups have also contributed to the dynamic of stakeholder relations that we have found to be such a distinctive feature of the college and university endowment landscape. whereas many institutional investors appear to be moving toward the incorporation and integration of esg factors into their investment decision-making and active-ownership activities, endowments appear to be more immobilized, viewing esg investing in a mode of stakeholder crisis management, rather than as a prudent approach to risk management or as an opportunity to generate positive social or environmental impact. in this sense, the category of “foundations and endowments” so widely used within the investment consulting and asset management communities needs to be de-coupled. foundations, after all, have played vital roles in catalyzing the emerging impact investment space, convening groups such as the mission investors exchange, and encouraging the development of a mission-related investing practice at cambridge associates, one of the leading investment consultants for foundations and endowments. even in the case of investure llc’s recently announced sustainability investments initiative, one of the most explicit efforts to incorporate sustainability into endowment management, the prime mover of the initiative was ultimately not the firm’s college clients, but instead the rockefeller brothers fund, which has committed the most capital and a much larger percentage of its portfolio to the program. instead of seizing opportunities to generate social and environmental benefits through endowment investments, and sharing best practices in the leading communities of practice around sustainable, responsible and impact investing, endowment managers are largely missing in action. the human-rights crisis in darfur did admittedly lead a broad range of endowments to adopt sudan- related investing policies, affecting the investment of more than $ billion in endowed wealth, at least in principle. out of this campaign, in which students and other stakeholders again played pivotal roles, a conflict risk network did emerge, as one of the few platforms for investor engagement in which colleges play any noticeable role. however, with the crisis in darfur no longer in the headlines, other issues inevitably arise, and most schools continue to lack any comprehensive approach to managing esg issues or the stakeholder relations that drive them. recently, for example, labor, environmental and human rights concerns, in particular, have come to the fore on campuses around the country, whether related to labor relations in private equity, oakland institute’s recent findings of “land-grab” investments by prominent endowments in sub-saharan africa, or calls for colleges to divest from coal companies by a widening coalition of student groups and nonprofit organizations. the “occupy campus” movement has similarly made endowment transparency and investment responsibility key elements of its activities. in response to these student and stakeholder demands for colleges to invest with a greater consideration for esg issues, many colleges remain marred by a siege mentality. yet the fundamental questions of responsible investment of college endowments will not recede. such was the wisdom of university leaders in the aftermath of the crisis of the s: to create new multi-constituent forms of discussion and decision-making around social issues of investment. learning opportunities abound for endowments, and as we have seen, small numbers of colleges are grappling with the challenges of esg investing more concertedly than others – by committing capital to responsible microfinance, leveraging their endowments to create economic opportunities in underserved communities, engaging in dialogue with companies and managers about environmental and social issues, exercising the rights and responsibilities of active shareownership, funding green revolving loan funds from endowment in order to support sustainability, and being more transparent with their stakeholders, both on campus and off. while the broader trends in responsible endowment management appear to be lagging the wider world of institutional esg investment, particularly vis-à-vis colleges’ foundation counterparts, experiments are clearly occurring at the margin that merit closer attention and deeper analysis, both as case studies and at more aggregate levels. however, in order to advance more research on sustainable and responsible endowment investment, colleges and universities will need to be more forthcoming and transparent about their activities in the space, particularly with the many groups that have a stake in them. see “deciphering emergent’s investments in africa,” land deal brief, oakland institute, june , available at http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/oi_eam_brief_ .pdf (accessed july , ); and on the coal divestment campaign led by students at colby, cornell, earlham, swarthmore, and the universities of illinois and north carolina, and supported by a wide coalition of nonprofits, including as you sow, the energy action coalition, responsible endowments coalition, sierra student coalition, and the sustainable endowments institute, visit http://www.wearepowershift.org/campaigns/divestcoal/. http://www.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/oi_eam_brief_ .pdf http://www.wearepowershift.org/campaigns/divestcoal/ bibliography association for the advancement of sustainability in higher education (aashe). “stars version . technical manual.” aashe, november . available at http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf. accessed november , . ________. “stars version . technical manual administrative update one.” aashe, september . available at http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf. accessed january , . amnesty international usa and responsible endowments coalition. “integrating environmental, social and governance issues into institutional investment: a handbook for colleges and universities.” amnesty international usa and responsible endowments coalition, . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . accessed november , . andrews, tae. “malpass & co. take high road to bottom line.” notre dame magazine, winter - . available at http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/. accessed november , . armoza, natalie. “socially responsible investing: it’s time for schools to get on board.” independent school, fall . available at http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= . accessed october , . bernstein, aaron. “incorporating labor and human rights risk into investment decisions.” occasional paper no. , pensions and capital stewardship project, harvard law school, september . ________. “quantifying labor and human rights portfolio risk.” occasional paper no. , pensions and capital stewardship project, harvard law school, june . bier, jerilyn klein. “college students drive sri efforts.” fa green, december . available at http://www.fa- mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= . accessed november , . billingsly, christina. “weber state university.” green revolving funds in action: case study series. sustainable endowments institute, . available at http://greenbillion.org/wp- content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf. accessed december , . brown university advisory committee on corporate responsibility in investment practice (accrip). “major actions and divestments.” office of finance and administration, n.d. available at http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html. accessed february , . http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _technical_manual_admin_update_ .pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.aashe.org/files/documents/stars/stars_ . _administrative_update_one_technical_manual.pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://magazine.nd.edu/news/ -malpass-co-take-high-road-to-bottom-line/ http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.nais.org/publications/ismagazinearticle.cfm?itemnumber= &sn.itemnumber= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://www.fa-mag.com/component/content/article/ -features/ .html?itemid= http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /weberstate.pdf http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html http://brown.edu/administration/finance_and_admin/accrip/divestments.html bugg-levine, antony, and jed emerson. impact investing: transforming how we make money while making a difference. san francisco: jossey-bass, . caine, rebecca. “california institute of technology.” green revolving funds in action: case study series. sustainable endowments institute, . available at http://greenbillion.org/wp- content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf. accessed december , . clem, chris. “community investment proves to be beneficial.” responsible endowments coalition, november , . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/wordpress/archives/ . accessed march , . danian, noelle, vanessa di cecco, rose levine, mo ki macias, alexandra martin, elizabeth oshel, clare robbins, and elizabeth warth. “community investment in an institutional portfolio.” mount holyoke college, . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/downloads/mtholyoke.pdf. accessed march , . dickinson college. “proxy voting records.” office of financial operations, n.d. available at http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/. accessed november , . ________. “sustainable investments initiative: rockefeller brothers fund, middlebury and dickinson focus on socially responsible investments.” june , . available at http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and- events/news/ - /dickinson-joins-sustainable-investments-initiative/. accessed april , . freireich, jessica, and katherine fulton. “investing for social and environmental impact.” monitor institute, january . available at http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullrepor t_ .pdf. accessed march , . gideon, gavan. “yale will halt future investments in hei.” yale daily news, november , . available at http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/. accessed november , . graham-felsen, sam. “harvard divests.” the nation, may , . available at http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests. accessed february , . green mountain college. “our endowment.” business and financial services office, n.d. available at http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx. accessed march , . haas socially responsible investment fund. “annual report.” university of california berkeley, haas school of business, may . available at http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf. “harvard’s / / affordable housing initiative helped build, renovate , units in boston and cambridge.” harvard gazette, november , . available at http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing- initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge. accessed november, , . http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /caltech.pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/wordpress/archives/ http://www.endowmentethics.org/downloads/mtholyoke.pdf http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/about/offices/financial-operations/content/investments/proxy-voting-records/ http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and-events/news/ - /dickinson-joins-sustainable-investments-initiative/ http://www.dickinson.edu/news-and-events/news/ - /dickinson-joins-sustainable-investments-initiative/ http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.monitorinstitute.com/impactinvesting/documents/investingforsocialandenvimpact_fullreport_ .pdf. http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.yaledailynews.com/news/ /nov/ /yale-will-halt-future-investments-in-hei/ http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.thenation.com/article/harvard-divests http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://www.greenmtn.edu/administration/business_office/our-endowment.aspx http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://responsiblebusiness.haas.berkeley.edu/documents/ % hsrif% annual% report.pdf http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/ / /harvard%e % % s- -affordable-housing-initiative-helped-build-renovate- -units-in-boston-and-cambridge harvard university committee on governance. harvard and money: a memorandum on issues and choices. harvard university, november . available at http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf. hebb, tessa, ed. the next generation of responsible investing. new york: springer, . hei hotels & resorts. “managed funds: hei funds.” hei hotels & resorts, n.d. available at http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html. accessed february , . hemel, daniel j. “harvard still holds sudan stake.” the harvard crimson, january , . available at http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/. accessed february , . hignite, karla. “mission-based investing.” business officer, september . available at http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission- based_investing.html. accessed march , . humphreys, joshua. “educational endowments and the financial crisis: social costs and systemic risks in the shadow banking system (a study of six new england schools).” tellus institute, . available at http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf. accessed october , . investor environmental health network (iehn). “historic shareholder agreement reached with mcdonald’s on pesticide use reduction.” iehn press release, march , . available at http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php. accessed november , . kalwat, janet. “community investing: opportunities across asset classes.” white paper, evaluation associates, october . available at http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper- kalwat.pdf. krosinsky, cary, and nick robins, eds. sustainable investing: the art of long-term performance. london: earthscan, . lei, catherine. “university to stop hei investments.” the daily princetonian, march , . available at http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / /. accessed march , . lavoie, valerie, and david wood. handbook on climate-related investing across asset classes. institute for responsible investment, boston college, . louche, céline and steve lydenberg. dilemmas in responsible investment. sheffield, uk: greenleaf publishing, . macias, moki, and rose levine. “community investing at mount holyoke college.” responsible endowments coalition, spring . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college. accessed november , . http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.heihotels.com/managed_funds/hei_funds.html http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /harvard-still-holds-sudan-stake-p/ http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.nacubo.org/business_officer_magazine/magazine_archives/september_ /mission-based_investing.html http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.tellus.org/publications/files/endowmentcrisis.pdf http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.iehn.org/news.press.mcdonalds.php http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.community-wealth.org/_pdfs/articles-publications/pris/paper-kalwat.pdf. http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/ / / / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college http://www.endowmentethics.org/mt-holyoke-college macalester college. “macalester college - community bank partnership.” civic engagement center, n.d. available at http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/. accessed march , . microlumbia fund. “ - annual report.” columbia university, . available at http://microlumbia.org/wp- content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf. accessed december , . microvest. “ annual report.” available at http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf. accessed december , . national association of college and university business officers (nacubo). “nacubo-commonfund study of endowments.” nacubo, . available at http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo- commonfund_study_of_endowments.html. accessed january , . o’donnell, liz. “students protest hei, go on hunger strike.” the observer, april , . available at http://www.ndsmcobserver.com/news/students-protest-hei-go-on-hunger-strike- . - .t xosuxmu w. accessed march , . o’donohoe, nick, et al. “impact investments: an emerging asset class.” global research, j. p. morgan, november , . available at http://www.jpmorgan.com/cm/blobserver/impact_investments_nov .pdf. accessed march , . procredit holding. annual report. april . available at http://www.procredit- holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf. accessed november , . rendes, maura. “a different kind of community investment at seattle university engages students.” responsible endowments coalition, . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . accessed march , . responsible endowment project, the. realizing responsibility: a modern responsible investment framework for the yale advisory committee on investor responsibility. december . available at http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf. ________. responsible returns: a modern approach to ethical investing for the yale endowment. july . available at http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf. responsible endowments coalition. “on the issues: oppressive governments.” n.d. available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues. accessed november , . ________. “move our money: a community investment toolkit for students.” . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . rucker, philip. “student-driven sudan divestment campaign grows.” new york times, april , . available at http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. accessed february , . http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://www.macalester.edu/cec/institutionalcivicengagement/communitybanking/ http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://microlumbia.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /microlumbia- - -ar-final- page.pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.microvestfund.com/docs/ - - - .pdf http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.nacubo.org/research/nacubo-commonfund_study_of_endowments.html http://www.ndsmcobserver.com/news/students-protest-hei-go-on-hunger-strike- . #.t xosuxmu w http://www.ndsmcobserver.com/news/students-protest-hei-go-on-hunger-strike- . #.t xosuxmu w http://www.jpmorgan.com/cm/blobserver/impact_investments_nov .pdf http://www.procredit-holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf http://www.procredit-holding.com/upload/pdf/annualreports/annual_report_ /pch_ar _ - .pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.endowmentethics.org/news-media/archives/ . http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /realizing_responsibility.pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.responsibleendowment.com/uploads/ / / / / /responsible_returns_ _july_ .pdf http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/on-the-issues http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /nyregion/ divest.html. simon, john, charles powers, and john gunnemann. the ethical investor: universities and corporate responsibility. new haven, conn.: yale university press, . available at http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf. strauss, nathan c. “holdings still tied to sudan.” the harvard crimson, february , . available at http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/. accessed february , . sustainable endowments institute. “green report card joins survey collaboration effort.” press release, may , . available at http://greenreportcard.org/media. accessed november , . ________. “reducing survey fatigue: a collaboration with aashe, sei, the princeton review, and sierra magazine.” press release, february , . available at http://greenreportcard.org/media. accessed november , . swack, michael. “maximizing returns to colleges and communities: a handbook on community investment.” responsible endowments coalition, . available at http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . tiaa-cref. “socially responsible investing: community investing.” tiaa-cref, n.d. available at http://www.tiaa- cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html. accessed december , . tufts university. “omidyar-tufts microfinance fund.” tufts university, n.d. available at http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/. accessed december , . tunick, britt erica tunick. “the outsourcing option.” institutional investor, july , . available at http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/popups/printarticle.aspx?articleid= . accessed march , . umlas, elizabeth. “investing in the workforce: social investors and international labour standards.” employment working paper no. , international labour office, . unep finance initiative and un global compact. “annual report of the pri initiative.” unep finance initiative and un global compact, . available at http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf. university of pennsylvania. “statement to the penn community from the executive vice president regarding hei hotels & resorts.” university of pennsylvania, march , . available at http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts. accessed february , . us conference of catholic bishops. “socially responsible investment guidelines.” us conference of catholic bishops, november , . available at http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially- responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm. accessed march , . us sif foundation. report on socially responsible investing trends in the united states. washington, dc. . http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://acir.yale.edu/pdf/ethicalinvestor.pdf http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://www.thecrimson.com/article/ / / /holdings-still-tied-to-sudan-span/ http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://greenreportcard.org/media http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.endowmentethics.org/component/jdownloads/finish/ / / . http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tiaa-cref.org/public/about/how-we-invest/sri/community-investing/index.html http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.tufts.edu/microfinancefund/ http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/popups/printarticle.aspx?articleid= http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.unpri.org/publications/annual_report .pdf http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/news/statement-penn-community-hei-hotels-resorts http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm http://www.usccb.org/about/financial-reporting/socially-responsible-investment-guidelines.cfm ________. report on socially responsible investing trends in the united states. washington, dc. . available at https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/. ________. “community investing toolkit for the faith community.” . voorhes, meg, and joshua humphreys. “recent trends in sustainable and responsible investing in the united states.” journal of investing ( ): - . weisbord, dano, julian dautremont-smith, and mark orlowski. “greening the bottom line: the trend toward green revolving funds on campus.” sustainable endowments institute, . available at http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf. wood, david, and belinda hoff. handbook on responsible investment across asset classes. institute for responsible investment, boston college, . yale news. “endowment invests in maine wind power project.” yale news, march , . available at http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. accessed december , . yale university. the yale endowment . investments office, n.d. [ ]. available at http://www.yale.edu/investments/. accessed december , . https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ https://ussif.org/resources/pubs/trends/ http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://greenbillion.org/wp-content/uploads/ / /greeningthebottomline.pdf http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://news.yale.edu/ / / /endowment-invests-maine-wind-power-project. http://www.yale.edu/investments/ bodies: sex, violence, disease, and death in contemporary legend (review) bodies: sex, violence, disease, and death in contemporary legend (review) stiofán Ó cadhla journal of american folklore, volume , number , winter , pp. - (review) published by american folklore society doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ portant for the individuals who pass them on in informal performance venues and also for the community that unselfconsciously sponsors them (pp. – ). the study does not only focus on narrative. as the mennonites and amish are famous for their conscientious objection to war, there is a chapter on protest songs. glass paint- ings of flowers, birds, and butterflies with moral statements are a common genre of folk art in the culture, and beck provides an examination of this kind of cultural production. almost every mennonite home has a family record book, and genealogy is a vigorous form of historical mem- ory practiced within the community, including the maintenance of detailed birth, marriage, and death records. the relief sale festival is a folk festival, not a fair, organized by the mennonites and for the mennonites. beyond these genres, this is, most importantly, a book of countless tales. it shows how individual stories can be re- told in differing versions with various under- standings and interpretations, and it also ex- plores humorous narratives. in sum, beck’s mennofolk is an interesting introduction to the mennonite folk culture through stories and other traditions. the lan- guage used in the book is plain and clear, and the concepts conveyed are easy to grasp. if a picture is worth a thousand words, the generous inclu- sion of photographs and illustrations in the book has definitely aided my understanding of the mennonites’ uniqueness as a people. finally, this study is recommended to all who want to gain a general knowledge of mennonite religious and folk traditions from an insider’s perspective. bodies: sex, violence, disease, and death in contemporary legend. by gillian bennett. (jackson: university of mississippi press, . pp. x + , preface, key texts, references, after- word, index.) stiofán Ó cadhla university college cork, ireland when we consider the s, our attention can- not help but be drawn to urban and contempo- rary legends. this decade has taken on the con- notations of revolution, rock and roll, sex, hippies, and feminism, all jostling in the final and fateful confrontation of tradition and mo- dernity. here, fairies and monsters are replaced by aliens and hook-handed killers, and myth and folktale are replaced by news and history—but legend continues to partake of both. this is, per- haps, legend’s central problematic. in her mar- velously accessible but scholarly style, gillian bennett goes straight to the heart of this prob- lematic, “the cultural clash of discordant catego- ries and concepts” (p. xv). she reminds us that one of the key facts about the legend is that it is difficult to define. legends are marked by their longevity, geographical spread, style, the multi- plicity of audio and visual media through which they are disseminated, and the recurrence of specific details or motifs. avoiding the carto- graphic pedantry (that is, the historical-geo- graphical or finnish method) of definition and delimitation, bennett points out that legend is not a scientific term and, as such, it has no real referent. legend can be superstition, relic, delu- sion, and curiosity, or it can be cool, new, sexy, urban, and teenaged. in the unfolding reassess- ments of the discipline, legend has been decon- structed or at least “declassified”—the distinc- tion between reality and legend is no longer considered to be clear-cut. contemporary leg- end, itself an orphan of the s, has in many ways become an exemplar of the contemporary life of the discipline. bennett’s bodies, therefore, is about folklore as much as it is about contemporary legend. in her encyclopedic detail and analysis, bennett draws attention away from the supposed nov- elty of the genre to broader generalizations about the discipline. following paul klee’s ap- proach to painting, bennett takes “a line for a walk,” exploring thematically the evolving shape and form of six particular legend case studies from their early variants to their con- temporary inflections (p. xv). here the shape- shifting element of story is exemplified. story is information, entertainment, strategy, news, gossip, rumor, warning, lesson, joke, photocopy, graffiti, fallacy, or political commentary—in short, a palimpsest of life. as a popular poetics of interpretation, legends may be better under- stood within contemporary discursive para- digms or contexts. they are a kind of social, book reviews journal of american folklore ( ) psychological, and cultural diary full of scrib- bles, and yet they cannot be reduced to the encoded fears of society. defying national and generic boundaries in literature, journalism, theater, television, or the internet, legends appear both homeless and uni- versal, old and modern, urban and rural. at a, “the murdered son” (or “the killing of the prodigal son,” as bennett prefers to call it), has a life of four centuries. the bosom serpent complex can be traced back to twelfth-century ireland; indeed, the idea of reptiles infesting the body was orthodox medicine. ancient greek and roman literature and european medieval monk- ish culture are saturated with similar themes. one could be tempted to see the tale-type or motif indices themselves as inventories of uni- versal themes, veritable handbooks of humanity, rather than exclusively folkloric checklists. one might ask, if urban legends remained seamlessly hidden in the streams of discourse for so long, are there other unlisted, sleeping genres? bennett includes examples drawn from china, india, ireland, and greece as well as from biblical or apocryphal narratives. the protagonist of legend may be rock hudson, and the storyteller may be jackie collins. legends do not end hap- pily ever after but in death or madness. current contamination themes echo earlier epidemics of typhoid, cholera, plague, syphilis, and leprosy. what if aids mary is just a newer version of typhoid mary? how does the researcher avoid jaded or jaundiced reductionist analysis that ap- pears to debunk folklore, legend, or the gullibil- ity of humanity? according to bennett, the sto- ries themselves “are enough,” and folklorists should consider documenting the presentation and use of legends as more than a trivial pursuit (p. ). bennett’s interpretations here are as diverse as the symbolic, cultural, and psychological meanings implicit in the genre. the approaches to contemporary legend cobbled together in this book confront the ideas that legends are false or trivial stories; are told to discredit certain com- panies; are derived from private fear, anxiety, or distrust; are cautionary tales; are a psychocul- tural response; are a vernacular etiology; are symbolic or metaphorical truths; are a reflection of gendered psychology; are serious and danger- ous; and are a projection of a desolate view of the human condition. the preferred approaches to legend study used in the book involve sam- pling the cultural complex that involves the leg- end or including all related material associated with the particular case study, highlighting a specific example with local behavioral and cul- tural norms, or viewing legend as a sociopolitical language where the pathology or symptomatol- ogy of the body mirrors the sociological or eth- nographic analysis of the social body. legend might create mainstream opinion, but it also fol- lows it. for example, aids legends might absolve heterosexuals from culpability in the spread of the disease, or stories of street urchin syringe aggressors may relocate danger beyond the en- virons of the home. bennett’s analysis is more revealing and intriguing for its careful consider- ation of vernacular gender perceptions that shape and create the imaginative undercurrents in the ocean of stories that she presents. the legend is an emotionally powerful and challenging genre. gillian bennett’s innovative and questioning exploration of this topic re- minds us that folklore studies sometimes has a tendency to trivialize reality as mere urban leg- end. folklore studies was long a romantic hob- byhorse, and today it must insist on its right to explore the social and cultural fallout caused by the quarrying of “mere folklore” from the most grotesque nadir of human behavior. leg- end tends to echo life, and life echoes legend as well; as a result, a common rejoinder to ac- counts of legends should be, perhaps, that they are not in fact legend, but truth. types of the folktale in the arab world: a demographically oriented tale-type index. by hasan m. el-shamy. (bloomington: indiana university press, . pp. xxviii + , bibli- ography, register of tale types, list of changed tale-type numbers, register of motifs, index of authors and sources, register of countries, tale- type subject index, addendum.) david elton gay indiana university as hasan el-shamy notes, the classification scheme of aarne and thompson’s tale-type index “is seldom adequate for identifying folk wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ notes and news oxford university expedition to uganda a team of four, including an anthropologist (john middleton), a botanist (r. j. chancellor), a soil chemist (d. j. greenland) and a geographer (j. m. holland), spent three months in uganda—from june to october —engaged in making village surveys in various areas in the west nile district. the surveys were based on general information as to economy and land-use collected by john middleton on an earlier research expedition. each survey in- cluded detailed mapping, the collection of genealogies (in order to obtain the structure of the village society), study of land-use, including crop types and rotations, farming and grazing methods, livestock ownership and use, as well as soil types, plant varieties, &c. an attempt was made to compile a detailed study of the economy of each group, taking into account cash incomes from sales of crops and from migrant labour. from this material it is hoped to prepare three reports for eventual publication: a combined report on four village surveys; an ecological paper describing land and vegetation types; a report on lugbara social and religious organization. the expedition was jointly sponsored by oxford university, the royal geographical society, the alexander allan patch memorial fund, with financial contributions from other individuals and societies. journees d'etudes sociologiques sur la situation des religions en afrique noire a paris, du juin au juillet , se sont tenues des journees d'etudes sociologiques sur la situation des religions en afrique noire. les reunions etaient organisees au centre d'etudes sociologiques, sous la presidence de monsieur gabriel le bras, rassemblant nombre de personnes s'interessant a ces questions autour des personnalites appartenant au monde scientifique et aux diverses organisations missionnaires chretiennes. au debut de ces journees m. gabriel le bras indiqua que l'etude qu'il a menee depuis plus de ans sur 'etat present du catholicisme en france l'a amene au desk d'etendre cette enquete a toutes les religions. se tournant vers les hommes competents, il leur demanda d'etablir les criteres, et d'inventorier les sources, permettant d'edaircir les problemes et les methodes qui leur seront soumises. dans cet esprit, le pasteur leenhart avait bien voulu mettre a la disposition du groupe d'enquete ses informations et le questionnaire sur les religions africaines qu'il venait de rediger et qui a ete publie par le bulletin de i'institut franfais d'afrique noire (avril ). de meme le centre de hautes etudes d'administration musulmane proposa comme sup- port cartographique de l'enquete une carte des populations noires d'afrique qu'il a entrepris d'etablir et dont une premiere feuille' dakar-tchad-bassin du congo' est deja pratiquement terminee. la premiere journee fut consacree a un examen rapide de l'lslam en afrique noire. monsieur g. le bras, president, rappela brievement comment cette entreprise d'etudes des religions s'efforcait avant tout d'apprecier leur vitalite reelle et se felitita de voir re- presentes autour de la table de travail, non seulement tous les organismes missionnaires, mais encore les etablissements scientifiques interessds: musee de l'homme, centre de hautes etudes d'administration musulmane, centre d'etudes sociologiques, institut de geogra- phie, institut franfais d'afrique noire, office de la recherche scientifique outre-mer. m. robert montagne, directeur du centre de hautes etudes d'administration musul- mane, traca, en fonction de l'enquete prevue, un tableau de la situation actuelle de itslam. ii situa l'lslam par rapport aux autres religions et definit, ensuite, ses criteres de vitalite. cet expose fut suivi d'une longue discussion au cours de laquelle m. robert mauny, de i'institut fran$ais d'afrique noire de dakar, presenta une serie de croquis particulierement suggestifs sur l'expansion de l'lslam en afrique noire. available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core notes and news la seconde journee, dirigee par m. theodore monod, directeur de l'lnstitut francois d'afrique noire, fut consacree a l'etude de l'expansion du christianisme en afrique noire. la discussion porta sur la possibilite de faire figurer sur une carte les differentes categories de chretiens et sur la qualite des sources a consulter. la encore, les interessants croquis de m. mauny serviront a preciser un grand nombre de donnees. la &ne journee fut consacree aux religions traditionnelles d'afrique noire. m. le gouverneur beyries presenta le probleme en general et examina plus specialement la situation en senegal ou les religions traditionnelles ont ete particulierement touchees par les monotheismes. m. rouch a projete trois films: ceremonie de circoncision dans la boucle du niger; danse de possession pour la pluie; enterrement d'un noye dogon. apres avoir ainsi envisage les tres grandes lignes du probleme, les congressistes tom- berent d'accord sur l'interet primordial qu'il y aurait a ce qu'un inventaire soit fait de la situation presente des religions en afrique noire et a ce qu'elles soient representees sur des documents graphiques permettant d'envisager la situation avec clarte. ii est apparu qu'il importait, tout d'abord, d'etablir un document cartographique inter- national indiquant de fagon claire les differents groupements humains d'afrique noire. dans cet esprit, on constata que la carte au i/ .ooo.ooo^me en cours d'etablissement par le c.h.e. a.m. offre, avec ses croquis d'etablissement au millionieme, une base acceptable pour porter les indications qui seront recueillies. d'autre part, les congressistes ont estime qu'il etait souhaitable d'associer a ces recherches les personnes competentes de toutes nationalites, publiques ou privees, missionnaires ou laiques, et d'obtenir sur place la collaboration d'enqueteurs avises. en outre ils ont trouve indispensable d'organiser a paris un secretariat permanent qui etablirait les canevas d'enquete et les soumettrait aux personnalites compe'tentes. ce secretariat permanent devra egalement mettre au point une methode de representation graphique destinee a donner la situation presente des religions mise en evidence sur une carte renseignee et accompagne'e de docu- ments i'mprimes. en attendant que soient determinees les conditions de fonctionnement du secretariat permanent, les correspondances le concernant peuvent etre adressees au conseil superieur des recherches sociologiques outre-mer, section sociologie des religions, rue monsieur, paris vii. the bible in african languages a new bible in the nupe language has recently been published by the british and foreign bible society. nupe is a language spoken by some million people living round the upper niger; it was reduced to writing for the first time by bishop samuel adjai crowther, the rescued slave boy who later became the first bishop of the niger and was the translator of the yoruba bible. in a committee was formed and the translation of the bible was begun by the rev. a. w. banfield of the mennonite mission, later b.f.b.s. secretary for west africa. the new testament was finished in and now the bible has appeared. also recently published is the old testament in luo, the work of a committee representing the three missions working the area: the church missionary society, the africa inland mission, and the seventh day adventists. there are about , dho luo christians. the first luo scriptures were published in and the new testament was completed in . the gospel of st. john has been published in pana, the language of a small group number- ing about , in the province of ubangi-chari, french equatorial africa. the translator is miss estelle myers. m available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core ajc would probably be quite happy about it. fortunately, president carter does not seem to be of such mind. joseph d. mccarty milwaukee, wis. mennonit£ & quaker visits to vietnam to the editors: the may, , issue of worldview has a short, one-paragraph item on page that is factually incor- rect. it states that the group sponsored by the mennonites and the american friends service committee returned in mid-march from vietnam. there was a joint mcc-afsc visit to vietnam in november, , but that is the only joint visit that has occurred. mennonite central committee had another visit in june, , and then again in january, . every time a mennonite delegation has gone to vietnam human rights is- sues were very high on the agenda. we asked frank, penetrating questions and expressed concerns. the statement you make in the may issue of worldview does not apply to mennonite visitors to vietnam. vern preheim secretary for asia mennonite central committee akron, pa. the editors respond: our apologies. the quotation from an afsc (not mennonite) leader appeared in a march news report that gave the impression .that an afsc-mennonite group had just recently visited vietnam. perhaps the leader who was quoted to the effect that americans have no right to ask at>out human rights in vietnam was speaking on the basis of the earlier visit mentioned by mr. preheim. perhaps he had not been to vietnam at all. on this one we just know what we read in the papers. in any case, we are pleased to learn that the mennonites have pressed the question of human rights when visiting vietnam. we hope they will continue in that good work. portions omitted from the text pub- lished in the april issue of worldview. we the undersigned were actively en- gaged in opposition to the war suffered at america's hands by the vietnamese people. some of our efforts are well known to you. we fought for the end of america's intervention in vietnam and lived in grief for the horrors suffered beneath america's bombers. we realize, of course, that our resistance to that war can bring none of the dead back to life nor restore maimed bodies, nor purge america of its immense burden of responsibility. j h u s we are now in- volved in encouraging the u.s. gov- ernment to welcome vietnam into the united nations, to provide massive rep- arations for the destruction it wrought in your homeland. at the same time we are involved in private efforts to relieve sufferings caused by the war and to contribute to the process of reconcilia- tion between american and vietnamese people. in fidelity to the same values that led us to these commitments, however, we find ourselves obliged in conscience to speak on behalf of those vietnamese who reportedly are being denied funda- mental human rights. appeal to the government of vietnam in our criticisms, which cannot be separated from our friendship, we do not wish to single out your government unfairly. we are familiar with the double-standard of various states, in- cluding our own, in the human rights area. there are client states of the u.s. .. .we could not in conscience keep silent when general thieu filled the american-funded prisons with thousands upon thousands of innocent people. we cannot be silent now, even though america's intervention is ended. we voice our protest in the hope that your government can avoid repeti- tion of the tragic historical pattern in which liberators gain power only to impose a new oppression. the sacrifices made by buddhists and christians to end the war, to assist its victims, and to reunite the country—a witness which helped build world sup- port for peace in vietnam. we appeal to you to reassess your policies regarding religious bodies, not to limit the defini- .we recall with immense gratitude tion of religious freedom merely to cul- tic practice, and to welcome and en- courage the social contributions of buddhist, christian and humanitarian agencies of the vietnamese people. in addition, we express a concern motivated by caring for families living in endless uncertainty about the fate of lost relatives who were among the forces that invaded your country. we ask you to make public any unreleased information you may possess regarding americans who died or were imprisoned in vietnam. while we have no knowl- edge that you possess unreleased infor- ' matiqn, we are concerned at the cynical way in which the united states govern- ment has exploited this issue and used it as an excuse for withholding economic assistance and to veto vietnam's admis- sion into the united nations. at the same time, we express our grief for those vietnamese families who lost children, parents and grandparents in the war and who, in many thousands of cases, know nothing of the fate of those victims of america's war and for whom no compassion has been expressed by the united states government. we continue to feel a deep friendship toward the people of vietnam and to nourish the hope that you who are en- trusted with the government will do everything in your power to encourage the conditions of a better life in peace, justice and tolerance. we pledge our continuing readiness to do all we can to be of help. government (chile, brazil and iran among them) in which reliance on im- prisonment and torture is routine. we are also aware of the many socialist states in which suppression of human rights has been widely accepted. we are also painfully aware of the violence and injustice of the united states in its domestic and foreign policies, the abyss that separates american profession from american practice. many of us have viewed this society from within court rooms, prison walls and slum neighborhoods. nonetheless, the history of the last two decades has made vietnam a place of special concern and hope for millions of people throughout the world—in its crises and hopes our own lives have been bound.up. to you who are vietnam's leaders, we say: invasion, imperialism and civil war for years made your country's name synonymous with the worst horrors of violence and brutal repression. with the. end of the war and of the saigon regime, many hoped that the name of vietnam might be transfigured into a symbol of that liberation from fear and terror which we desire for ourselves and for all people. as you repair the physical de- vastation of your land, we appeal to you to create a society of tolerance and compassion worthy of the hopes and sacrifices of all those vietnamese who died, "and which inspired the sympathy and support of millions throughout the world. the health beliefs of old order mennonite women in rural ontario, canada <fre>les croyances en matière de santé des femmes du vieil ordre mennonite de l'ontario rural au canada</fre> résumé les croyances en matière de santé des femmes du vieil ordre mennonite de l’ontario rural au canada ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cette étude qualitative vise à explorer les questions de santé touchant les femmes appartenant au vieil ordre mennonite, une communauté ethno-religieuse fermée établie en ontario rural au canada. c’est la première fois que des femmes issues de ce groupe, qui parle l’allemand pennsylvanien, un dialecte du haut allemand, participent à un projet de recherche sur la santé. les auteures s’appuient sur un cadre d’analyse des effets du lieu sur la santé pour étudier les perceptions de ces femmes vivant dans une région où l’environnement est contaminé. elles concluent que la socialisation religieuse a inculqué chez elles un système de croyances ainsi qu’un attachement au lieu qui les amènent à considérer ce dernier comme un espace sanctifié, qui serait protégé des effets sur la santé que peut entraîner un milieu hautement toxique. un phénomène que les auteures décrivent comme « les effets du lieu modelés par les croyances ». mots clés : vieil ordre mennonite, allemand pennsylvanien, santé des femmes, rural, lieu cjnr , vol. no , – the health beliefs of old order mennonite women in rural ontario, canada ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates the purpose of this qualitative study was to explore women’s health issues in a closed, ethno-religious old order mennonite (oom) community in rural ontario, canada. this is the first time that conservative oom women from this community, who speak pennsylvania deutsch, a high german dialect, have participated in health research. the theoretical framework of “place effects” on health is used to examine how oom women perceive their health in an envi- ronmentally contaminated area. the authors conclude that the belief system and attachment to place developed through the religious socialization of these rural oom women have created a presumed sanctified space protected from the health effects of a highly contaminated environment. they refer to this phenom- enon as “belief-informed place effects.” keywords: old order mennonite, pennsylvania deutsch, women’s health, rural, place, ethnography background marginalized ethnic groups whose culture sets them apart from contem- porary canadian society can present challenges to nurses, midwives, and other health professionals (hall & kulig, ; kulig, babcock, wall, & hill, ; kulig et al., ). these challenges may be exacerbated when such groups live in a rural environment that has a long history of indus- trial environmental pollution. this article examines understandings of health among women from an old order mennonite (oom) commu- nity in a highly contaminated area of rural ontario. conservative reli- gious beliefs and isolation from the outside world are central features of this oom group, who speak pennsylvania deutsch, a high german dialect (horst, ) often referred to as pennsylvania dutch. theoretical framework the theoretical framework of belief-informed place effects is applied to examine conceptions of health experienced by rural mennonite women in woolwich township, ontario. geographical variations in conceptions of health can be accounted for using compositional, contextual, and col- cjnr , vol. no , – © mcgill university school of nursing lective explanations (macintyre, ellaway, & cummins, ). collective explanations, such as those associated with “religious affiliation, kinship systems, domestic division of labour, gender, age” and culturally appro- priate roles within the family and the community, have been shown to be important in accounting for sociocultural differences in conceptions of health in various places (macintyre et al., , p. ). the character- istics of place can inspire spirituality and tranquillity and may alter con- ceptions of health within a community of believers (gesler, ). the valuing of place is not something that individuals are born with, but it can be learned through a process of religious socialization (mazumdar & mazumdar, ). we propose in this article that the belief system of oom women and their attachment to place, developed through reli- gious socialization, have created a presumed sanctified space that protects them from the negative health effects of a contaminated environment. we refer to this phenomenon as “belief-informed place effects.” literature review numerous scholars have developed theories concerning the environment and its impact on the health and well-being of people physically, socially, culturally, and politically at a variety of geographical scales (day, ; elliott, ; krewski et al., ; wakefield & mcmullan, ). an approach grounded in health geography introduces “place and land- scape” as a theoretical framework for examining how perceptions of environment may be related to place in explaining health inequalities (see curtis, , for a review). studies of the ecological landscape or of the distribution of physical or biological environmental risk factors include investigations of environmental health disasters such as a recent outbreak of e. coli in walkerton, ontario (harris, ), and an examination of environment-health links in the canadian farm family health study (arbuckle et al., ). exposure to environmental chemicals poses sig- nificant hazards to physical health (schettler, solomon, valenti, & huddle, ) and may cause behavioural and lifestyle changes among residents of rural/remote areas (leipert & george, ). for example, in a study with a first nations group living on a reserve near sarnia, ontario, mackenzie, lockridge, and keith ( ) found that the “close proximity of this community to a large aggregation of industries and potential exposures to compounds” (p. ) could influence the sex ratio of the aamjiwnaang first nation. however, examination of an ecological land- scape does not provide a full understanding of how environments can influence health, particularly when health is defined as total well-being, in the cultural context of communities. ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no a number of scholars have argued that social dimensions, such as gender, ethnicity, and minority status, are important in the conceptual- ization of place, since these dimensions contribute to the experience of health (gesler & kearns, ). the construction of images and inter- pretation of place in the human mind occur through complex processes and, as jackson ( ) notes, “the same physical environment has given rise to quite different cultural landscapes because of different cultural processes” (p. ). symbolic environments are created by human acts of giving meaning to nature in geographic locations through particular filters of beliefs and values that are grounded in culture (greider & garkovich, ). people’s spirituality, sense of place, and identification with community are critical to the shaping of their perceptions of health. for example, in rural central and eastern north carolina, part of the so- called bible belt where religious beliefs are strong, scholars have identi- fied links between health and religion and have demonstrated that strong religious beliefs and practices are related to better mental health, better physical health, and stronger immune systems, especially in older popu- lations (gesler, arcury, & koenig, ). in her research with first nations communities in ontario, wilson ( ) has recognized the culturally specific, spiritual links between health and place in the conceptualization of wellness by aboriginal com- munities. rural women living in poverty in canada have limited access to medical care and their poverty precludes good nutrition and access to medical services not covered by provincial health plans (sutherns & bourgeault, ). we focus on a canadian rural landscape where gender and ethno-religious identities among a conservative anabaptist group have rarely (brunt, lindsey, & hopkinson, ; kulig et al., ) been the subject of studies by health professionals. gavin andrews ( ) introduces the geographical concept of place to nursing research, noting its importance in qualitative analyses of human-environmental interactions in professional health practices. bender, clune, and guruge ( ) acknowledge that among nurses and clients in community work “place matters — as geographical location and lived experience, as demarcation of space, as a site of meaning cre- ation” (p. ). the theoretical importance of place in health studies is growing, and health research is incorporating multidisciplinary examina- tions of health inequalities. macintyre and colleagues ( ) propose three types of explanation for geographical variations in health: composi- tional (characteristics of individuals), contextual (local physical and social environment), and collective (sociocultural and historical features of com- munities). the collective explanation highlights the importance of an anthropological perspective (shared norms, traditions, and values) in cre- ating area effects. the authors argue for a more comprehensive examina- health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no tion of variations in health, including features of non-material culture such as identity (ethnic, regional, and national), religious affiliation, polit- ical ideologies, legal systems, shared stories, kinship system, and domestic division of labour. the multiple perspectives used to conceptualize place effects should be seen as complementary, each contributing to the overall place effects. religion affects people’s attachment to place — their emotional bonds with places — and imbues places with symbolic meaning (low, ). religious place attachments are significant in the lives of many people. physical and social elements of the environment cause the believer and the non-believer to see a place differently and thus generate dissimilar experiences (gesler, ). religious place attachments affect people’s perceptions of security in place, as demonstrated by jewish set- tlers in gaza, where individuals with strong spiritual values have devel- oped the means to cope with extreme situations (billing, ). one’s attachment to place is often developed through religious social- ization. it is learned through rituals, artifacts, prayers, stories, and symbols. children learn from parents, from educators such as priests, and from peers within the community of believers (mazumdar & mazumdar, ). religious socialization contributes to one’s identification with a particular place, which, as noted by hummon ( ), extends across gen- erations, thus providing a continuous sense of identity. theoretically, reli- gious values (reimer kirkham, pesut, myerhoff, & sawatzky, ), sense of place (andrews & moon, ), and ethnicity and culture (clarke, ) are important in the context of different health outcomes in com- munities. purpose this article reports on research conducted among oom women, members of an ethno-religious minority living in rural ontario, to elicit their perceptions of health. using ethnographic methodologies, we examine how rural women perceive their health in a discourse of place. the research question was how do oom women living in rural southern ontario understand their health? old order mennonites in ontario the mennonite faith is a christian denomination that traces its origins to the swiss anabaptists of the th century. seeking to escape from per- secution and to enjoy religious freedom, some four thousand members of the swiss mennonite group immigrated to pennsylvania in the united states during the first half of the th century. around the year , descendants of these families began arriving in ontario to establish farms ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no and agricultural enterprises (fretz, ). in the late s, groups of mennonites founded several religious communities in rural ontario. one of these groups established a community called the old order mennonite church, whose members followed very traditional and strict cultural practices (snyder & bowman, ). it is women from this group of ooms who are the focus of the present study. the oom church is an orthodox group whose members are con- strained from using modern conveniences in their homes. land owner- ship is held individually and generations of the same family work the land together. horse-and-buggy transportation, traditional clothing, and a legacy of mennonite quilt-making are outward symbols of their cul- tural identity. since they value self-sufficiency and as pacifists have chosen not to engage in war, ooms believe that they should not make use of federal or provincial social benefits, including the ontario health insurance program (peters, ). these practices make them responsi- ble for paying % of the cost of health care and other government- funded services. community structure old order mennonites are members of a rural community that is orga- nized on the basis of shared values and norms and strong emotional ties among members — in other words, a gemeinschaft-like community (fretz, ). fretz argues that the mennonites’ long history of religious perse- cution has shaped their community structures: “they had no other place to turn for help than to fellow church members. therefore the church fellowship was always more than a worshipping community” (p. ). their church fellowship and religious values are combined with their culture in a process of religious socialization. parents teach their young how to be faithful community members, an essential component in the preservation of the social system operating within the community. in their beliefs, separation from the world and avoidance of the temptations of the “world” are emphasized, since they are essential aspects of their holy way of living, their simplicity, and their obligation to gelassenheit — or their willingness to yield to god’s will in all matters (horst, ). this religious doctrine requires acceptance of gender roles, including the submission of women to men in a patriarchal social order that demands women’s silence, obedience, and self-denial and acceptance of a clearly defined community hierarchy (epp, ). all oom members are committed to community. their theology reinforces moral codes and places the needs of the community above the needs of the individual. the historical, religious, social, and contextual circumstances of people united in a gemeinschaft community frame their sense of place (eyles, health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no ). this background provides the context within which our study of women in the oom community is undertaken. study site farming communities located downstream from the town of elmira, along the canagagigue creek in ontario’s woolwich township, have been exposed to chemical contamination for more than half a century (conestoga-rovers & associates, ). the source of the contamination is a plant that manufactures highly toxic pesticides, herbicides, and other chemicals, including , -d and , , t, commonly known as agent orange, which was used by the us army as a defoliant during the vietnam war. following years of complaints by concerned elmira residents, in the potential health effects of the contamination were analyzed in a human health risk assessment. the study found exten- sive health risks associated with the plant and noted that users of the canagagigue creek floodplain, downstream from elmira, face a cancer risk estimated at . cases per million above the national rate (conestoga- rovers & associates, ). since all those living along the creek, including farmers, face a cancer risk estimated to be above the national rate, the ministry of the environment ( ) recommended the adop- tion of measures to protect the ooms from exposure. in , residents along the creek were advised to fence off the floodplain and creek so as to reduce exposure to toxins accumulated in the banks. old order mennonites were selected for the present study because members of this group include farm families living in very close proxim- ity to the highly polluted canagagigue creek. method using ethnographic methodologies (hall & kulig, ; williams, ), semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of oom women to explore their perceptions of health in their place. since the ooms are a special minority group, three levels of ethics approval were required and received from the research ethics board of wilfrid laurier university. during the -year preparatory stage of the project, the researchers conducted interviews with a group of medical and health professionals, including nurses, midwives, and family physicians, as well as with some community leaders. our purpose was to gain a full under- standing of the health problems that could arise as a result of the conta- mination over a prolonged period to which members of the elmira com- munity and ooms in the region had been exposed (waterloo region community health department, ). during a period of participant observation, the principal researcher attended multiple meetings with ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no representatives of the waterloo region community health department, the local environmental organization assuring protection for tomorrow’s environment, the regional municipality of waterloo, and the (uniroyal) crompton chemical company through the crompton public advisory committee, as well as with community members in elmira. introductory letters, consent forms, and interview guides were pre- pared with help from an oom woman who had been raised in the oom community but was no longer a member. previously, this woman had participated in a research project and was able to guide the principal researcher with regard to potential cultural biases in the questions and interpretation of meanings. the culturally sensitive nature of the research necessitated a particular focus with respect to the preparation of the doc- umentation. as the nature of the inquiry was intrusive for members of this religious community, the researcher followed the interview guide closely and limited the number of probing questions. in a short ques- tionnaire, participants provided demographic information as well as information on their health status. access to the community was made possible through the help of two non-mennonite community leaders who had worked in elmira for more than years and were acquainted with members of the oom commu- nity. these community leaders introduced the researchers to an oom family in which the adult male was a “cultural broker” (good gingrich & lightman, ). this family agreed to seek out members of their community who might be interested in participating in the study. because of this assistance, a total of oom women agreed to partici- pate. arrangements were made to interview each of these women. the sample was clearly purposive and limited, but, given the exploratory and unique nature of the study, we decided to proceed despite the conditions of access imposed on us. the cultural traditions of oom women prevent them from meeting outsiders alone, so in all cases wives followed the formal procedure of confirming the interview arrangements with their spouses and in several cases the spouse also attended the interview. over a period of months in and , the principal researcher interviewed women from oom families. due to patriarchal relations within the community, three male spouses were present for interviews. over time, the researcher gained the confidence of community members and was received by the woman alone or was able to interview the woman on their own after being welcomed briefly by her husband. out of respect for mennonite cultural values, the interviews were not audiorecorded. immediately following each interview, the researcher checked her handwritten notes, observations, and reflections from the meeting as well as any memorized quotations. this method has been health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no used in research with the kanadier mennonites (hall & kulig, ). the data were subsequently typed into an electronic document. the interviews were analyzed and themes were identified and coded using qualitative data analysis software. the researchers paid close attention to ensure that the data were interpreted according to the cultural context of the ethnographic paradigm (quinn-patton, ) and undertook to ensure the rigour of the research by focusing on credibility, which refers to the “accuracy of the description of the phenomenon under investiga- tion” (jackson, , p. ). four data-quality measures were introduced to ensure the rigour and trustworthiness of the research: ( ) the inter- view questions were pilot tested with researchers who previously had conducted cross-cultural research. ( ) despite limited access, the researchers used diversity in sampling and selected oom women of various ages, of different marital status, and living at different distances from the creek. ( ) all interviews were conducted by the principal researcher for the purpose of maintaining consistency. ( ) the findings from the interview data were presented first to the family of the cultural broker for checking to ensure accuracy of the data, and later to medical professionals in woolwich township. threats to rigour and trustworthi- ness were minimized through the use of strategic measures for ensuring excellence in qualitative methods (baxter & eyles, ). the participants were assured of anonymity and confidentiality throughout the study and were given pseudonyms to protect their identity. results the sample consisted of female members of the oom church living in separate households in woolwich township. the women were aged between and years, with an average age of . years. twelve of the women were married and three were single or never married. members of this oom community are prohibited from attaining a high level of education, so participants had not gone beyond grade . all but one of the participants lived on a family-owned farm and each of the married women had lived in her present home since her marriage. the length of residency on the farm varied from to years. the women had given birth to live children, or an average of . . in the short ques- tionnaire, the women all reported their health as good or very good. perceptions of health among oom women in this section we provide the findings from the interviews. all of the oom women expressed the universal understanding among members of the oom community that health is a great gift from god. members of the community believe that god gives them the blessing of good health. ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no the women spoke about their health in terms of accepting god’s will: “we are not in control of our health” (melinda). the women also referred to their commitment to take care of their own health. in this highly patriarchal society, women consider their husbands’ opinions more important than their own, even when it comes to deter- mining their own health. their husband’s evaluation of their ability to undertake their predetermined role in society influences women’s per- ception of their health and their sense of well-being: my husband should answer the question how my health is. i had one kidney removed because of cancer years ago. now i am fine. (viola) my wife works hard milking cows. she is in good health. (melinda’s husband) the description of “good health” for this ethnic community includes tending to others’ needs before their own. in discussing general aspects of her health and well-being, rhoda noted that her health was very good and linked her good health to her social role. she provided an example of her obligation to other women in her community: a woman from mount forest was asking if i have any work and can i help sell her quilting because she needs money to pay for gas [for the stove]. isn’t it our role to help other people, when they need help? i will not sell my quilting but i will sell hers. maria, who was chronically ill with multiple sclerosis, described the help that she received on weekends from other women in the community: i can spend a lot of time with you today. on sunday my friend came and she cooked meals for our family for days. i am always getting help during the weekend. despite refusing to take advantage of government-funded social pro- grams, including the ontario provincial health insurance plan, almost all oom women in the sample delivered their children at the local city hospital, paying for the medical services out of their own pockets: all my children were born in kitchener hospital. we went there in case of complications. (ellen) members of this oom church community are permitted to use electricity, rubber-tired tractors, and modern agricultural equipment in their farming practices. they may also install telephones, though these are rarely used. women understood the advantages of telephone service for the health and well-being of their family members: now we call for help when we need it. (barbara) health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no families without access to a telephone are much more vulnerable to delays in receiving necessary health care: all my sons had appendixes removed. they had complications because they were reported very late. (lucinda) these delays were also the result of the high cost of medical care for fam- ilies. the women’s reproductive health was discussed, but most women showed discomfort in speaking at length about their pregnancies. few of the women had experienced complications with childbirth, but three acknowledged having multiple spontaneous abortions. a miscarriage was understood as a “better place for a child to be. child will be in heaven with god.” (ellen) one woman spoke of the support she received from her husband after several miscarriages. her response illustrates her reli- gious beliefs: i have a loving husband and a son. not everybody can have everything. maybe it is better that the other children died. (martha) the strong social networks among mennonite families were appar- ent, especially among farm families and in the workshops, where male children find work. children from neighbouring farms play together and the girls help their mothers in the home and with farm and garden chores, while the boys are kept occupied helping their fathers. the women talked about their close relationships with their mothers, sisters, and other women in the community. grandparents have a special respon- sibility for caring for young and sick children. naomi explained: i came from a family of children. my youngest brother was a “special child.” i remember that grandparents were always around his bed. the close connections were evident not only among family members but also among other community members: there are no secrets in our community. when we have high bills, our com- munity helps to pay for our stay in hospital. (anna) these reciprocal relations, based on the religious commitment to “being your brother’s keeper,” help to alleviate the economic burden of health care and other costs. networks of social relations have penetrated the lives of oom women by constructing meaningful links among church members, neighbours, and interconnected families who live in close proximity to one another in woolwich township. ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no understandings among oom women of environmental links to health two themes, religiosity and attachment to place, were essential to the women’s understanding about their health and environment. first, the women felt they were safe on their land because they did not violate god’s rules. in the past, dead fish were commonly found on the banks of the creek. in response to a question about environmental degradation and the presence of dead fish, hannah said: i knew about the issues but i never worried. in our language, to worry means to lose sleep over it. it is all in the hands of god. i never worried about the environment. martha explained: grandpa can tell you stories about his problems with dying cattle in the s. this doesn’t mean that we are not happy here at the farm. we trust god. the second theme in the understanding of environmental links to health was attachment to place. the women viewed their land as a benign landscape that provided them with food and economic security and that would provide for their children and grandchildren: our children have a better life on the farm. we provide for their well-being in the future. yes, they are better here than the children in town. (lucinda) the lives of women in the community are linked to their environment through manual labour on the farm. they value their simple way of life and view their homes and farms as healthy places: i think we are healthy here at the farm. our immune system is built up. (minerva, supported by her husband) we are healthy here. when i go to the city i am always thankful that i live on the farm. it is so nice to have wildlife coming and to be able to drink the water as well. (mary ann) most of the oom women seemed to be unaware of the fact that they were living in a contaminated environment and that the pollutants posed considerable dangers to their health: i think it was safe here. my husband swam in the creek when he was a little boy. my children swam in the creek since they were little. (barbara) most of the oom women were not interested in discussing the environ- mental contamination, as this was their “husband’s department” (marlene) and “our work is at home, with children” (barbara). the women were health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no aware of bacterial water contamination, as members of the oom com- munity are obliged to follow provincial water-testing regulations for private wells. despite the preservation of conservative traditions, most oom fam- ilies have adopted modern agricultural technology in their farming prac- tices, and they consider the use of pesticides a necessity. they do not question the scientific validity of information provided on the labels of the chemical products, and they believe that “used properly, pesticides are not dangerous” (martha). two women were aware of the toxicity of these chemicals since their husbands were required to take training on the safe use of pesticides, yet they appeared to be in denial about the dangers of living alongside a pol- luted creek. the oom women spoke about their attachment to their land acquired by working on it, the strong community social and economic networks that structure their social ties, offer assistance when disaster strikes, and provide work for their children. in addition, they noted that their sunday church rituals, visits with family, and weekly schedules (baking days, laundry days, trips to town) unite the members of the com- munity. it was evident that these women relied on collective support from their family, friends, and community networks. martha briefly described her understanding of her social environment: we are the mennonites. we need to honour the past and to safeguard our future. we pray together and we work together — that’s the most important. discussion the findings of this study indicate that oom women perceive their health to be good. the interviews provide clear evidence that oom women conceptualize their health in a culturally unique way, in relation to their ability to serve their community. unlike women in contempo- rary society who are part of “city culture,” oom women do not appear to have developed individualistic conceptualizations of their health. they believe that god is in control of their health and well-being, that their health is in god’s hands. the oom women spoke of their connections to their land but did not report any health concerns related to environ- mental risk factors. the results confirm the importance of religious values, the signifi- cance of trusting god, and epistemic differences in the construction of knowledge and perceptions of risks (douglas & wildavsky, ). old order mennonite women do not consider the linkages between physi- ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no cal environmental hazards and poor health — an attitude that serves as a protective barrier and separates them from modernity and the hazards of contemporary society (beck, ). to interpret the results of our research using conceptualizations of place effects on health (macintyre et al., ), we offer the following explanations. first, a compositional explanation of place effects accounts for this religious community’s way of constructing knowledge of health issues and problems that is based on their faith in god. old order mennonite women, as members of a traditional community, construct their knowledge and manage threats to well-being based on a foundation of religious beliefs (alaszewski & brown, ). they believe that their environment is healthy for them, as god is protecting them. their knowledge system is based on their trust in god, not on their trust in modern scientific theories. in contrast to the broader canadian society, oom women might not believe that their health is compromised because they do not associate environmental degradation with disease and poor health outcomes (krewski et al., ). second, a contextual explanation reflects the social reality of their lives and their religious obligation to remain separate from mainstream society. because of their lack of access to the media due to their separa- tion from the general population, women in this community are not educated about current global threats. old order mennonite women never listen to the radio, watch television, or read newspapers, so they are unaware that they are at risk in their environment. this might result in a positive outcome and serve as an additional protective factor (wakefield & elliott, ). third, a collective explanation accounts for the religious values of the community regarding obedience to god and the primacy of god’s will. old order mennonite women believe that human actions have little importance relative to god’s will and are therefore beyond their concern. while their lack of perception about environmental risks is a part of their conception of place, their belief system might serve to protect these women from the negative health effects of a contaminated environment. the compositional, contextual, and collective explanations should be seen as complementary, each contributing to the overall effects of place (macintyre et al., ). based on the positive effects of place on the health of oom women observed in our study, we suggest that religious faith and trust in god are protective factors in the health of these women. the positive health effects of religion are well known; they range from physically measured lower blood pressure in religiously active adults to non-biomedical healing in a “biopsychosocialspiritual” model (see koenig, ). a number of scholars have identified religion and spirituality as important health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no factors in the determination of health status (kulig et al., ; wengler, ; wilson, ). the concept of place effects on health is complex, and it incorporates more factors than discussed above. these include social cohesion, social capital, the socio-economic position of the community (in this case in woolwich township), the rules of gelassenheit, and aspects of collective community functioning (good gingrich & lightman, ). in their rural ontario landscape, oom women value their social networks and the contribution of these networks to their well-being (leipert & george, ). membership in a religious community and a high level of social support might serve as protective factors in terms of health (miller et al., ). furthermore, because of their gendered roles in the com- munity, oom women cannot concern themselves with environmental problems; according to their value system, only their husbands and male community leaders may make decisions on important issues such as how to deal with environmental degradation (another collective explanation of place effects). women’s roles are viewed through their religious beliefs, which are integrated into their lives. individuals must take care of themselves and other community members, but god has control over their lives and without his help life cannot be sustained. because of ooms’ attachment to their land, they see their farms as an ideal place in which to live, work, and raise their children despite the industrial contamination. attachment to place, developed through their religious beliefs, is also a significant factor in their health experiences. a failure to perceive their place as safe could be interpreted as a failure to put their trust in god, since god has placed them there and their people have lived on this land for two cen- turies. the religious and cultural links with place construct their experi- ence of health. our results are consistent with those of fretz ( ), who observes that, for this conservative group, cultural and religious links are inseparable. we cannot know whether the oom women are in good health. we analyzed their responses to the interview questions and considered their self-rated health assessments. in our sample of women, reported no health problems, one had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, one had had a kidney removed due to cancer, and one had been diagnosed with diabetes (of an unknown type). while oom communities generally do not access social services, they do make use of local doctors and health- care providers and pay the full cost of the service. the women tend to rely on self-health assessments and to seek medical care only when health concerns are serious. while we are not able to provide more information about their health or determine how our status as “outsiders” affected the data, we acknowledge that in-depth discussion of reproductive health ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no issues that could be related to environmental conditions was not possible owing to discomfort on the part of oom women (see kulig et al., ). it is worth noting that a community ethic valuing truthfulness in communication may have served to minimize bias in this ethnographic research. our findings support the research argument that understandings of environmental contamination are complex. a poor-quality environment may be experienced as either unhealthy or healthy by diverse communi- ties through multidimensional perspectives (day, ; wakefield & mcmullan, ). in order to determine the health status of this religious oom community using a larger sample, further work should consider mixing qualitative and quantitative methodologies in a detailed study with conservative mennonites in woolwich township. old order mennonite women are able to thrive in their separate place guided by their beliefs, strong community networks, and self- reliance. our study was concerned with whether a particular under - standing of place creates a true barrier to environmental pollution. among this community, it appears that this is the case, but we note the existence of epistemic differences between participants and researchers. informing these unaware women about possible environmental hazards could have consequences for the psychological well-being of the population (pidgeon, simmons, sarre, henwood, & smith, ). the role of nurses and public health officials is to examine these issues using a scientific approach, to study the health of marginalized communities, and to promote healthy environments for all, including communities that choose to be separate and that present challenges to the notion of environmental health equity. conclusions this study documents the health experiences of old order mennonite women in a rural community and contributes to our knowledge of health challenges faced by these women. our findings suggest that belief- informed place effects and an attachment to place, combined with strong community identification, play a critical role in shaping the health expe- riences of oom women. people’s experiences of place are essential to their well-being but cannot protect them against environmental hazards. this study has iden- tified the need to provide health education programs on environmental hazards to oom women without compromising their religious beliefs. effective policies and culturally sensitive nursing practices are essential to protect ethnic minorities from health risks associated with environmental contamination in rural communities. health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no references alaszewski, a., & brown, p. ( ). risk, uncertainty and knowledge. health, risk and society, ( ), – . andrews, g. j. ( ). towards a more place-sensitive nursing research: an invi- tation to medical and health geography. nursing inquiry, , – . andrews, g. j., & moon, g. ( ). space, place, and the evidence base. part i: an introduction to health geography. worldviews on evidence-based nursing, , – . arbuckle, t. e., savitz, d. a., mery, l. s., & curtis, k. m. ( ). exposure to phenoxy herbicides and the risk of spontaneous abortion. epidemiology, ( ), – . baxter, j., & eyles, j. ( ). evaluating qualitative research in social geography: establishing “rigour” in interview analysis. transactions of the institute of british geographers, , – . beck, u. ( ). risk society: towards a new modernity. london: sage. bender, a., clune, l., & guruge, s. ( ). considering place in community health nursing. canadian journal of nursing research, ( ), – . billing, m. ( ). is my home my castle? place attachment, risk perception, and religious faith. environment and behavior, ( ), – . brunt, h. j., lindsey, e., & hopkinson, j. ( ). health promotion in the hutterite community and the ethnocentricity of empowerment. canadian journal of nursing research, ( ), – . clarke, n. j. ( ). health, illness, and medicine in canada ( th ed.). toronto: oxford university press. conestoga-rovers & associates. ( ). human health risk assessment for canagagigue creek. waterloo, on: author. curtis, s. ( ). health and inequality: geographical perspectives. london, thousand oaks, new delhi: sage. day, r. ( ). place and the experience of air quality. health and place, , – . douglas, m., & wildavsky, a. ( ). risk and culture: an essay on the selection of technological and environmental dangers. berkeley: university of california press. elliott, s. j. ( ). “and the question shall determine the method.” professional geographer, , – . epp, m. ( ). mennonite women in canada: a history. winnipeg: university of manitoba press. eyles, j. ( ). senses of place. london: silverbrook press. fretz, w. ( ). the waterloo mennonites: a community in paradox. waterloo, on: wilfrid laurier university press. gesler, w. ( ). lourdes: healing in a place of pilgrimage. health and place, ( ), – . gesler, w. ( ). healing places. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield. gesler, w., arcury, t. a., & koenig, h. g. ( ). an introduction to three studies of rural elderly people: effects of religion and culture on health. journal of cross-cultural gerontology, , – . ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no gesler, w., & kearns, r. ( ). culture/place/health. new york: routledge. good gingrich, l., & lightman, e. ( ). mediating communities and cultures: a case study of informal helpers in an old order mennonite community. families in society: journal of contemporary social services, ( ), – . greider, t., & garkovich, l. ( ). landscapes: the social construction of nature and the environment. rural sociology, ( ), – . hall, b., & kulig, j. ( ). kanadier mennonites: a case study examining research challenges among religious groups. qualitative health research, ( ), – . harris, a. ( ). a socio-ecological autopsy of the e. coli o :h outbreak in walkerton, ontario. social science and medicine, , – . horst, i. r. ( ). a separate people: an insider’s view of old order mennonite customs and traditions. waterloo, on: herald press. hummon, d. m. ( ). house, home and identity in contemporary american culture. in s. m. low & e. chambers (eds.), housing, culture and design: a com- parative perspective (pp. – ). philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. jackson, p. ( ). maps of meaning: an introduction to cultural geography. london: unwin hyman. jackson, w. ( ). methods: doing social research ( rd ed.). toronto: pearson education. koenig, h. g. ( ). the healing power of faith: science explores medicine’s last great frontier. new york: simon & schuster. krewski, d., lemyre, l., turner, m., lee, j., dallaire, c., bouchard, l., et al. ( ). public perception of population health risks in canada: risk per- ception beliefs. health, risk and society, ( ), – . kulig, j., babcock, r., wall, m., & hill, s. ( ). being a woman: perspectives of low-german-speaking mennonite women. health care for women international, , – . kulig, j., meyer, c., hill, s., handley, c., lichtenberger, s., & myck, s. ( ). refusals and delay of immunization within southwest alberta. canadian journal of public health, ( ), – . leipert, b., & george, j. ( ). determinants of rural women’s health: a quali- tative study in southwest ontario. journal of rural health, ( ), – . low, s. m. ( ). symbolic ties that bind. in i. altman & y. s. low (eds.), place attachment, human behavior and environment (pp. – ). new york: plenum. macintyre, s., ellaway, a., & cummins, s. ( ). place effects on health: how can we conceptualise, operationalise and measure them? social science and medicine, , – . mackenzie, a. c., lockridge, a., & keith, m. ( ). declining sex ratio in a first nation community. environmental health perspectives, ( ), – . mazumdar, s., & mazumdar, s. ( ). religion and place attachment: a study of sacred places. journal of environmental psychology, , – . miller, k., berwood, y., flahery, s., hillemeier, m., chase, g., weisman, c., et al. ( ). health status, health conditions, and health behaviors among amish health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no women: results from the central pennsylvania women’s health study (cepawhs). women’s health issues, , – . ministry of the environment. ( ). response letter to the cpac committee in elmira, ontario. comment . toronto: author. peters, j. f. ( ). the plain people: a glimpse at life among the old order mennonites of ontario. kitchener, on: herald press. pidgeon, n., simmons, p., sarre, s., henwood, k., & smith, n. ( ). the ethics of socio-cultural risk research. health, risk and society, ( ), – . quinn-patton, m. ( ). qualitative research and evaluation methods ( rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. reimer kirkham, s., pesut, b., myerhoff, h., & sawatzky, r. ( ). spiritual caregiving at the juncture of religion, culture, and state. canadian journal of nursing research, ( ), – . schettler, t., solomon, g., valenti, m., & huddle, a. ( ). generations at risk: reproductive health and the environment. cambridge, ma: mit press. snyder, l., & bowman, s. ( ). communities in cooperation: human services work with old order mennonites. journal of ethnic and cultural diversity in social work, ( ), – . sutherns, r., & bourgeault, i. l. ( ). accessing maternity care in rural canada: there’s more to the story than distance to a doctor. health care for women international, ( / ), – . wakefield, s., & elliott, s. ( ). constructing the news: the role of local news- papers in environmental risk communication. professional geographer, ( ), . wakefield, s., & mcmullan, c. ( ). healing in places of decline: (re)imag- ining everyday landscapes in hamilton, ontario. health and place, , – . waterloo region community health department. ( ). health of elmira resi- dents. waterloo, on: author. wengler, l. ( ). unser satt leit: our sort of people. health understandings in the old order mennonite and amish community. unpublished master’s thesis, university of waterloo, ontario. williams, a. ( ). the politics of feminist ethnography. canadian journal of nursing research, ( ), – . wilson, k. j. ( ). therapeutic landscapes and first nations peoples: an explo- ration of culture, health and place. health and place, , – . acknowledgements we are grateful to the women of the old order mennonite community and the health professionals in woolwich township who participated in the study. we also wish to express our gratitude to the cjnr editor and reviewers for their helpful suggestions for revisions to the article. ewa m. dabrowska, judy bates cjnr , vol. no ewa m. dabrowska, phd, is senior lecturer, department of earth and atmospheric sciences, university of alberta, edmonton, canada. judy bates, phd, is associate professor, department of geography and environmental studies, wilfrid laurier university, waterloo, ontario, canada. health beliefs of old order mennonite women cjnr , vol. no community attitudes towards wildlife management in the bolivian chaco oryx vol no october community attitudes towards wildlife management in the bolivian chaco andrew j. noss and rosa leny cuellar abstract the process of community wildlife manage- ment in the izozog area of the bolivian chaco began with participatory field research - self-monitoring of hunting activities and research on key game species. on-going discussions in community meetings have elicited seven wildlife management recommendations: ( ) establishing hunting zones, ( ) hunting only adults, ( ) hunting only males during the reproductive season, ( ) hunting only for the family's needs, ( ) hunting only abundant animals, ( ) protecting plants that are import- ant to wildlife, and ( ) prohibiting hunting by outsiders. we compare community attitudes towards these man- agement measures. a majority of communities favour, in decreasing order, measures , , and , communities are divided with respect to measures and , and most communities oppose measure . two socio-economic characteristics of communities - location and ethnicity - are associated with patterns of attitudes towards wild- life management among communities, whereas religion, economic activity and community size are not. izoceno communities are currently reinterpreting traditional beliefs both to support and to oppose active wildlife management measures. keywords bolivia, community wildlife management, hunting, indigenous peoples, perceptions. introduction community wildlife management is increasingly wide- spread as an approach for conserving biodiversity through sustainable exploitation by indigenous peoples (western & wright, ; campos et al, ; ortiz & mazzuchelli, ; robinson & bennett, ). accord- ing to the context, the approach can benefit from cultural traditions with respect to stewardship and conservation ethic (kleymeyer, ; colchester, ; schwartzman et al, a). traditional hunting practices such as taboos, exclusive hunting territories, and hunting zone rotation through trekking or distant camps may pro- mote conservation and sustainable wildlife management (redford & mansour, ; bennett & robinson, ). at the same time, however, numerous studies indicate that indigenous peoples, just like people everywhere, act opportunistically in their economic self-interest in exploiting wildlife (harcourt et al, ; hames, ; johnson, ; mordi, ; parry & campbell, ; robinson & redford, ; noss, ; de boer & baquete, ; redford & sanderson, ; terborgh, ). furthermore, changes in the physical, social, cultural and economic contexts of hunting activities undermine the sustainability of traditional systems (redford & mansour, ; bennett & robinson, ; andrew j. noss (corresponding author) wcs-bolivia, casilla , santa cruz, bolivia. e-mail: anoss@infonet.com.bo rosa leny cuellar proyecto kaa-lya, casilla , santa cruz, bolivia revised manuscript accepted for publication june colchester, ). the following case study of the izoceno people in the bolivian chaco investigates the current relationship between socio-economic factors and community attitudes towards wildlife management practices, and discusses the implications of these socio- economic factors as well as inter-community differences in attitudes towards community wildlife management efforts by the izoceno people. background and study area the izoceno communities are located outside the kaa-lya del gran chaco national park's western boundary (fig. ). the izoceno people, represented by their traditional political organization the capitania del alto y bajo izozog (cabi), have actively pursued wildlife conservation and management programmes since the early s. they successfully lobbied for the creation in of the . million ha kaa-lya del gran chaco national park, and the bolivian government charged cabi with the administration of the protected area (taber et al, ). the wildlife conservation society (wcs) and the united states agency for international development (usaid) have supported cabi's conservation efforts in and around the protec- ted area since through the kaa-lya project (painter & noss, ). at the regional level, cabi strongly supports wildlife management programmes to demonstrate its continued capacity to co-administer the kaa-lya national park. in addition the land reform law permitted the izoceno people to claim an indigenous territory (tco) of > ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms attitudes to wildlife in the chaco fig. location of izoceno communities and kaa-iya del gran chaco national park, santa cruz department, bolivia (izozog zones - defined by beneria-surkin, ). izoceno communities parapeti river km kuariranda # lone paraboca « <§aguarati tamane a * . - sansilvestre • ^koropo — — — — ~ t > lyobi mini/yuqul £ j^aguaralgua rancho nuevo flfcfe— „ ,. „ , , ^ v w rancho vtejo tamachindi j „ la brecha r ibasinn a yapiroa a.-. kapeatindi kopere loma a^* **-~ kopere brecha "_ kopere montenegro £ ,, karaparl m isiporenda ^ izozog indigenous territory ° ' ° ' i kaa-iya national park ° ' . million ha, an area that is currently being titled. within the tco the izocenos will have both the right and the responsibility to sustainably manage wildlife, and must produce formal management plans. finally, the bolivian government has begun to legalize, after a -year ban, commercial wildlife exploitation on a pilot basis for single species for particular land owners. the izoceno people have demonstrated interest in producing commercial hunting proposals for the tco for a number of species including parrots (amazona aestiva and myiopsitta monachus), tegu lizards tupinambis rufescens, and collared peccaries tayassu tajacu. apart from these formal motivations, cultural objectives for participating in wildlife management activities should not be under- estimated: to ensure that future generations of izocenos are able to utilize wildlife resources (redford & man- sour, ), and to maintain natural resource use alternatives within the cultural and geographical space that the izocenos are defending as they continually redefine their identity as a people (schwartzman et ah, b). methods participative research similar to the community wildlife management work pioneered by bodmer and colleagues in peru (bodmer & puertas, ), the kaa-iya project has emphasized participative research as a basis for discussions with communities in order to collectively design and imple- ment community wildlife management plans in the izozog (ayala, ; painter & noss, ). the research activities, including hunter self-monitoring and biologi- cal studies of principal game species, are described in detail elsewhere (noss, ; cabrera et al, ; guerrero et ah, ). hunter self-monitoring has identified the principal game species on which we © ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a. j. noss and r. l. cuellar subsequently focused species-specific biological studies. although the izocenos did not specifically define the objectives of biological research on species hunted for subsistence purposes, it provides the basis for cabi to produce the indigenous territory management plans that land titling requires. in the case of commercial exploitation, cabi and individual hunters specifically requested research by our team on parrots as the basis for a proposal that commercial hunting be legalized for these species. community meetings in the kaa-iya project initiated a bi-annual series of meetings to inform the izoceno public concerning project activities and discuss management issues in each of the communities. participation was voluntary. although most izocenos speak spanish, all meetings were conducted in both spanish and guarani, with questions or responses translated as necessary. the bulk of the meetings were directed by izoceno members of the kaa-iya project. we devoted time to presenting information and slides of our activities during the previous months, whenever possible having community members (monitors, parabiologists and hunters) who had been directly involved in the activities providing the explanations. the principal purpose of the meetings was to engage the communities in a discussion of wildlife management issues. in the series of meetings held in january and february we posed several open questions intended to elicit opinions and beliefs from the communities regarding wildlife and wildlife man- agement: (a) what activities do you pursue? (b) what purpose does wildlife serve? (c) what problems does wildlife cause? and (d) is it possible to care for wildlife? supported by considerable data from the field research, the most recent meetings in november and december reviewed the wildlife management ideas proposed by the communities in the earlier meetings. for each proposal we provided concrete examples, from our experience with izoceno hunters and from our field research on the game species, of what the management idea meant in practice and how it could be applied. in each community we asked which of these ideas were valuable and which were feasible in that hunters were willing to implement them to ensure that they and their children could continue hunting without causing wild- life species to disappear in the izozog. community characterization we attempted to understand the differences among communities in relation to proposed management measures by comparing responses expressed in the community meetings with a set of socio-economic characteristics describing the communities. beneria- surkin ( ) defines five geographical zones within the izozog (fig. ) and provides three socio-economic factors that could account for differences in beliefs and practice relating to resource use among izoceno com- munities: ethnicity, religion and economic activity. we further hypothesized that two additional factors, com- munity size and location, could affect perceptions towards wildlife management. we present below a rough codification for each of the five factors. with respect to ethnicity and religion, the categorization is intended to emphasize the extremes as opposed to the large group of mixed communities. with respect to economic activity, community size, and location, the categorization is intended to create groups of roughly equivalent numbers of communities. based on our knowledge of the izozog and relevant literature, we predict how each factor would be expected to influence community attitudes towards wildlife management. finally we present community responses to each of the management measures, and evaluate statistically the relationship between community attitudes and commu- nity socio-economic characteristics. ethnicity the izocenos can be divided into two ethnic groups: guarani and kami or non-guaranf. we categorized communities as ( ) > per cent guarani, ( ) mixed, and ( ) > per cent kami. guarani cultural traditions emphasize the role of kaa-iya spirit guardians, rather than humans, in conserving wildlife. in contrast, kami beliefs view wildlife as a resource that can be managed in similar ways to domestic livestock. on this basis we predicted that kami communities will favour active wildlife management. religion virtually all izocenos affiliate themselves with either the catholic church or the protestant evangelical church. we categorized communities as ( ) > per cent cath- olic, ( ) mixed, or ( ) > per cent evangelical. the catholic church, with its longer history in the izozog, is more tolerant than evangelical churches of traditional cultural beliefs and their respect for nature. in contrast, evangelical churches emphasize humans' dominance over nature. on this basis we predicted that evangelical communities will favour active wildlife management. economic activity although economic activity centres around agriculture and livestock, an important segment of the izoceno population engages in seasonal migration to the sugar cane harvest (zafra) north of santa cruz. we categorized ) ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms attitudes to wildlife in the chaco communities according to economic activity: ( ) > per cent migration to the zafra, ( ) - per cent migration, and ( ) < per cent migration. compared to permanent residents, seasonal migrants are more dependent on opportunistic hunting during the months when they reside in the izozog and feel less long-term commitment to the community and its resources. on this basis we predicted that communities with a high proportion of seasonal migrants will oppose active wildlife manage- ment. community size we also categorized communities according to size: ( ) < inhabitants, ( ) - inhabitants, and ( ) > inhabitants. small community size facilitates consensus for subsequent implementation and enforcement of management measures at the community level. on this basis we predicted that small communities will favour active wildlife management. location the five geographical zones in fig. are distinguished primarily by their respective access to economic forces external to the izozog (markets, hunting pressure, land pressure). on this basis we predicted that communities facing greater resource pressure from external forces will favour active wildlife management. results during the january-february series of meetings we registered participants, women and men, and compiled a list of seven management proposals from all the communities (table ). irrelevant. below we detail responses to each manage- ment proposal. ) to establish hunting zones or a hunting rotation system we suggested two examples familiar to izocenos: ( ) the fallow system with crops, and ( ) a community cattle project based on a rotational grazing system. responses indicated that de facto temporal as well as spatial hunting rotation exists in the izozog (the number of communities responding is in parentheses): • from january-june water levels in the parapeti river impede hunters from crossing to hunt on the opposite bank from their communities ( ); • from march-october emigration by - per cent of hunters to the sugar cane harvest near santa cruz reduces hunting pressure ( ); • from may-july the abundance of fish, as the parapeti river is drying up, diverts potential hunters ( ); • from november-december the planting season inter- feres with hunting ( ); • hunters automatically rotate hunting zones, leaving areas to recover where they find little game and concentrating on areas where game is more abun- dant ( ). communities opposed to this measure provided two reasons. firstly, individual hunters have hunting zones where the kaa-iya (spirit guardians) consistently provide them with game, and hunting zone rotation is therefore impossible (five communities); if these hunters go elsewhere they will be unsuccessful, as will other hunters who enter these zones. secondly, hunting rotation is unnecessary because the community's terri- tory is relatively large for a small number of hunters (four communities). community wildlife management practices during the november-december meetings we registered participants - women and men. the communities provided three types of res- ponses to each of the proposed management practices (table ): ( ) explanations of how current hunting practices in fact represent management, ( ) outright acceptance, and ( ) outright rejection as impossible or ) to hunt only adult animals in the case of brocket deer mazama gouazoubira, peccaries (tayassu pecari and t. tajacu) and tapir tapirus terrestris, hunters can often distinguish juvenile from adult animals and could choose not to hunt young animals. half the communities accepted outright to implement this management proposal. others argued that they could not pass up any animal of these game species that they encountered because they may not find anything table management practices proposed by izoceno communities. number summary proposal establish hunting zones or a hunting rotation system hunt only adult animals hunt only male animals when females are pregnant hunt only what the family needs without exaggerating hunt animals that are abundant and protect those that are rare conserve plants that are important food sources for wildlife prohibit hunting in the izozog by outsiders zones adults males need abundant plants outsiders © ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a. j. noss and r. l. cuellar table attitudes towards management practices and socio-economic characteristics by community. community aguaraigua aguarati ibasiriri isiporenda iyobi kopere brecha kopere loma kopere montenegro kapeatindi karapari koropo kuarirenda la brecha mini/yuqui paraboca rancho nuevo rancho viejo san silvestre tamachindi tamane yapiroa attitudes towards management zones adults males ( ) per cent of all communities already practice accept reject ( ) ( ) i need ( ) practices abundant ( ) plants ( ) outsiders ( ) community characteristics ethnicity religion economic activity size location notes: attitudes towards management practices: = already do, = accept, = reject. ethnicity: = > per cent guarani, = mixed, = > per cent kami (non-guarani). religion: = > per cent catholic, = mixed, = > per cent evangelical. economic activity: = > per cent seasonal migrants to zafra (sugar cane harvest), = - per cent, = < per cent. size: = < inhabitants, = - , = > . location: see zones - in fig. (beneria-surkin, ). else that day, or even that the kaa-iya who provided the animal would punish them for rejecting the gift. ) to hunt only male animals when females are pregnant all hunters recognize the sharply defined reproductive season for armadillos (august-october). ten communi- ties indicated that their current practice is not to hunt armadillos at all from august to march because they are not fat and the females are almost all pregnant. in addition, one community added that they do not hunt chachalacas ortalis canicollis (cracidae) during the se- ason when they are nesting. one community pointed out that the reproductive period for many animals coincides with the sugar cane harvest when many hunters are absent from the community. however, others repeated that they hunt in order to put meat on their tables, and could not pass up game animals that they encountered. ) to hunt only what the family needs white-lipped peccaries tayassu pecari form herds of or more individuals, offering hunters the opportunity to kill several animals at once. everyone responded that all izocenos hunt only to satisfy the needs of their family, although in some cases meaning one or two animals, and in others three or more. two communities sugges- ted that if surplus animals were killed the meat could be exchanged for other food items or shared with extended family. ) to hunt animals that are abundant and relatively resilient to hunting pressure (brocket deer, collared peccary, nine- banded armadillo dasypus novemcinctus, chachalaca) and protect those that are rare or vulnerable (primates, guanaco lama guanicoe, chacoan peccary catagonus wagneri, tapir, white-lipped peccary, three-banded armadillo tolypeutes matacus) again, communities disagreed about what was appro- priate and feasible. those rejecting this proposal reiter- ated their need for meat and their obligation to accept any gift from the kaa-iya, or argued that no species have declined, although animals may have moved further away from communities. on the other hand, six ) ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms attitudes to wildlife in the chaco communities recognized that certain species have become less abundant during the past few decades, and accepted to not hunt animals that they rarely encounter anyway - chacoan peccary, tapir and white-lipped peccary. all accepted to not hunt guanacos, whose very restricted distribution ensures that they are seldom encountered. in addition, because they do not consider the meat to be edible, no izocenos hunt any of the three species of primates frequently encountered near the communities: black howler monkey alouatta caraya, titi monkey callicebus moloch and night monkey aotus azarae. ) to conserve plants that are important food sources for wildlife prosopis chilensis (leguminosae) and ziziphus mistol (rhamnaceae) are two tree species that produce fruits favoured by many animals, but they are also exploited for lumber. the three communities that accepted this proposal said that they exploit for lumber alternative trees that are not such important fruit producers: schinopsis cornuta (anacardiaceae), aspidosperma quebra- cho bianco (apocynaceae), madura tinctoria (moraceae), diplokeleba floribunda (sapindaceae) and phyllostylon rhamnoides (urticaceae). two other communities claimed that fruiting tree species are not used for lumber, or are harvested selectively based on their form and lower quality of fruit. finally, five communities pointed out that people no longer consume wild fruits, and that game is hunted away from the river, whereas prosopis trees in particular are concentrated along the river, thereby reducing competition between humans and wildlife for these resources. ) to prohibit hunting in the izozog by outsiders sport hunters from neighbouring towns and cities such as charagua, camiri and santa cruz travel as far as the izozog on weekend or holiday hunting outings. com- mercial hunters also enter the izozog to collect the turquoise-fronted parrot amazona aestiva and several other species of marketable birds. all the communities agreed with this proposal and asked for action by cabi at the regional level with support from the national park and the national land titling institute. with respect to measures already practised, over two- thirds of communities claim that they hunt only what they need, and one half conserves useful plants (table ). combining what communities already prac- tice with measures they accept to implement, the favoured management practices, in decreasing order, are the following: prohibit the entry of outsiders, hunt according to one's needs, conserve useful plants, and establish hunting zones or a rotation (table ). only about half the communities favour hunting only adult or only male animals. finally, the least popular measure, with one-third of communities in favour, is to hunt only abundant animals. attitudes towards wildlife management and community characteristics using our method of categorizing socio-economic char- acteristics into intervals, two of our five predictions regarding community attitudes towards wildlife man- agement held, one factor was significant but contrary to our prediction, and two predictions did not hold. the kruskall-wallis h-test (df = , a < . ) suggests that an association exists between ethnicity and support for two management measures: kami communities favour active management in the form of measure - the establish- ment of hunting zones (h = . ) - and measure - the prohibition on hunting juvenile animals (h = . ). a significant association (df = , a < . , h < - . ) also exists between location and each of the management measures tested except the prohibition of hunting in the izozog by outsiders, which is a measure that was supported by all communities. as we had predicted, communities facing greater pressure from external forces support active management measures. although reli- gion is a significant factor influencing support for active management, contrary to our prediction, predominantly catholic rather than evangelical communities support measure - the conservation of important plants (h = . ). according to this statistical analysis, econo- mic activity and community size are not associated with patterns of attitudes towards management measures. two predictions did not hold: that communities with a higher proportion of seasonal migrants would oppose active management measures, and that small communi- ties would support active management measures. discussion the data supported our prediction that kami commu- nities will favour active wildlife management, but only with respect to two of the seven management measures. guarani cultural traditions described by riester ( ) and combes et al. ( ) emphasize the role of the kaa-iya as spirit guardians responsible for managing each species of wild animal. these beliefs are similar to those of other indigenous groups in south america, for example the embera in colombia (torgler et al., ), the siona-secoya of ecuador (vickers, ) and the kuna in panama (ventocilla et al., ). rather than strictly determining community attitudes towards wildlife in the izozog, traditional beliefs are continuously reinterpreted according to people's experi- ence with changing environmental and socio-economic ) ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a. j. noss and r. l. cuellar conditions (geertz, ; schwartzman et al, b). in kami communities elements of the traditional belief system are interpreted in support of active conservation measures. hunters must ask permission of the kaa-iya to hunt in an area, showing respect for the kaa-iya and the wildlife in the area. hunters are not to hunt juvenile animals, mistreat animals (allowing injured animals to escape), hunt more than a family needs (one or two animals), or cause disturbances, for example making noise by hunting with firearms or dogs (combes et al., ). these elements of rational sustainable exploita- tion are reflected in management practices and proposed by the communities and can form the basis for further scientific and active management (ulloa et al., ; bennett & robinson, ). kami communities, perhaps because they depend to a greater degree on active livestock management, more readily extend their attitudes towards management from livestock to wild- life. they consider wildlife to be a limited resource that has been depleted in certain areas of the izozog because of excessive or indiscriminate hunting practices, in other words because hunters are violating the kaa-iya's prohi- bitions. furthermore they argue that while god (or the kaa-iya) provides wildlife, people can care for that which god or the kaa-iya provides. in contrast, the guarani communities at present tend to interpret traditional beliefs in opposition to active management: animals encountered are gifts that cannot be rejected (even if they are juvenile, female, pregnant, rare or diseased), and the kaa-iya will ensure that wildlife is not exterminated. rare species are therefore ones that the kaa-iya is protecting by keeping in a distant place or by not allowing hunters to encounter them. in the past hunting for the family's needs may have meant meat for dinner, but now may mean earning a steady income from commercial hunting. likewise none but the oldest hunters would consider firearms or dogs to be inappropriate noise in a hunting area, since they know no other hunting techniques. enforcement of the prohibitions is also the domain of the kaa-iya rather than the community: in addition to failing to provide game, the kaa-iya can frighten, harm, kill or steal the spirit of a recalcitrant hunter. this theistic view of nature produces passivity in wildlife management: wildlife populations are controlled by supernatural beings and therefore human action is futile (mordi, ). supernatural control coincides with the belief that wildlife resources are infinite, again a view shared by numerous indigenous groups (johnson, ; mordi, ). although a statistically significant relationship exists between religion and support for active wildlife man- agement, contrary to our prediction predominantly catholic communities favour active wildlife manage- ment in the case of measure , the conservation of important plants. this result may derive from a catholic emphasis on community cohesion, whereas protestant emphasis on individual accumulation and god's inex- haustible bounty may undermine resource management by the community. the relationship between religion and support for wildlife management measures, how- ever, remains unclear in the izozog. religious affiliation among izocenos is exceedingly fluid with many indi- viduals participating in events held by both denomina- tions. we did not identify any explicit differences among these two christian religious groups in the izozog with respect to doctrine regarding wildlife exploitation. however, similar to the malleability of kaa-iya beliefs in the izozog, christian tradition has been widely interpreted both to undermine conservation - humans' god-given right and religious duty to domin- ate nature (white, ) - and to support stewardship, with humans accountable for conserving nature (barr, ; ehrenfeld, ; baker, ). finally the data support our expectation that commu- nities facing greater resource pressure from external forces will favour active wildlife management. this is in accordance with research elsewhere indicating that support for active management is more likely to exist among communities experiencing resource scarcity (redford & mansour, ). the southernmost izoceno communities, zones and , are distinguished by their proximity to colonies established in the past - years by farmers of german mennonite descent immigrating to bolivia from paraguay, mexico and belize (beneria- surkin, ). the mennonite colonies represent a recent and strong pressure on natural resources, converting vast areas of former forested hunting zones to clearcut intensive farming. zone and communities also experience the most constant access to and from popu- lation centres outside the izozog. the northernmost izocefio communities, zones and , also face compe- tition from non-izocenos for land and natural resources, but from ranching rather than farming properties. natural resource use in the izozog results from a combination of opportunism on one hand, and response to environmental and socio-economic pressures on the other hand. current belief systems grow out of agricul- tural production systems (irrigated farming and small- scale livestock) organized at the family and, to a lesser degree, community levels. with an area of only , ha currently titled to the inhabitants of the izozog, wildlife remains on the periphery in people's perceptions of managed resources. the impending titling of an indigenous territory exceeding . million ha brings the izocenos to a critical turning point as they must begin to manage the entire territory and develop production systems at this scale, where wildlife and © ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms attitudes to wildlife in the chaco other natural resources will necessarily become explicit objects of management. the first wildlife management measure unanimously accepted by all communities is to prohibit the entry of non-izoceno hunters to the izozog. this type of measure does not incur direct costs for izocenos, and for this reason received unanimous support among the com- munities. more importantly, controlling the izoceno territory's boundaries is fundamental for any further management measures inside the territory: competition with outside hunters reduces options and alters prior- ities in resource use. implementing this measure could unify izocenos to take action with respect to wildlife management at the scale of the territory as a whole. the preceding analysis suggests that two socio- economic characteristics of izoceno communities, namely location and ethnicity, influence community attitudes towards wildlife management measures. the role of a third characteristic, religion, is unclear. it appears that community size and economic activity do not influence community attitudes. this knowledge will permit us to adapt future community discussions and activities, advancing more rapidly towards implemen- tation of community wildlife management plans in those communities facing greater external pressure on wildlife resources. finally, predominantly kami com- munities provide concrete local examples for discussing appropriate forms of integrating traditional and 'scientific' management principles in other communities less supportive of active wildlife management. acknowledgements this publication was made possible by financial support from the united states agency for international devel- opment (usaid, cooperative agreement no. -a- - - ). the opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the criteria of usaid. we thank the communities of the izozog for their participation and support. we thank michael painter, gery ryan and four anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. references ayala, w. ( ) la participation de los comunarios izocenos en el manejo de fauna. in manejo de fauna silvestre en amazonia y latinoamerica (eds e. cabrera, c. mercolli and r. resquin), pp. - . fundacion moises bertoni, asuncion, paraguay. baker, b. ( ) a reverent approach to the natural world. bioscience, , ^ . barr, j. ( ) man and nature: the ecological controversy and the old testament. bulletin of the john rylands library, , - . beneria-surkin, j. ( ) socio-economic study of five izoceno communities. technical paper # . kaa-iya project, santa cruz, bolivia. bennett, e.l. & robinson, j.g. ( ) hunting for sustainability: the start of a synthesis. in hunting for sustainability in tropical forests (eds j. g. robinson and e. l. bennett), pp. - . columbia university press, new york, usa. bodmer, r. & puertas, p.e. ( ) community-based coman- agement of wildlife in the peruvian amazon. in hunting for sustainability in tropical forests (eds j. g. robinson and e. l. bennett), pp. - . columbia university press, new york, usa. cabrera, e., mercolli, c. & resquin, r. (eds) ( ) manejo de fauna silvestre en amazonia y latinoame'rica. fundacion moises bertoni, asuncion, paraguay. campos, c, ulloa, a. & torgler, h.r. (eds) ( ) manejo de fauna con comunidades rurales. fundacion natura, bogota, colombia. colchester, m. ( ) self-determination or environmental determinism for indigenous peoples in tropical forest con- servation. conservation biology, , - . combes, i., justiniano, n., segundo, i., vaca, d., vaca, r., yandura, a. & yandura, j. ( ) kaa iya reta: los duenos del monte. technical paper # . kaa-iya project, santa cruz, bolivia. de boer, w.f. & baquete, d.s. ( ) natural resource use, crop damage and attitudes of rural people in the vicinity of the maputo elephant reserve, mozambique. environmental con- servation, , - . ehrenfeld, d.w. ( ) why put a value on biodiversity? in biodiversity (eds e. o. wilson and f. m. peter), pp. - . national academy press, washington dc. geertz, c. ( ) the interpretation of cultures. basic books, new york, usa. guerrero, m.j., arambiza, a., gonzalez, l. & ity, e. ( ) contribution al conocimiento de los psittacidae sometidos a caceria por comunidades guaranies-izocenas y propuestas para su conservation, izozog, provincia cordillera, santa cruz, bolivia. technical paper # . kaa-iya project, santa cruz, bolivia. hames, r. ( ) game conservation or efficient hunting? in the question of the commons: the culture and ecology of communal resources (eds b. j. mccay and j. m. acheson), pp. - . university of arizona, tucson, az, usa. harcourt, a., pennington, h.h. & weber, a.w. ( ) public attitudes to wildlife and conservation in the third world. oryx, , - . lohnson, a. ( ) how the machiguenga manage resources: conservation or exploitation of nature? in resource manage- ment in amazonia: indigenous and folk strategies (eds d. a. posey and w. balee), pp. - . new york botanical garden, new york, usa. kleymeyer, cd. ( ) cultural traditions and community- based conservation. in natural connections: perspectives in community-based conservation (eds d. western and r. m. wright), pp. - . island press, washington dc, usa. mordi, a.r. ( ) attitudes toward wildlife in botswana. gartland, new york, usa. noss, a.j. ( ) challenges to nature conservation with community development in central african forests. oryx, , - . ) ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a. j. noss and r. l. cuellar noss, a. ( ) manejo de fauna comunitario en el gran chaco, bolivia. in manejo y conservation de fauna silvestre en america latina (eds o. l. montenegro, r. e. bodmer and t. g. fang), pp. - . instituto de ecologia, la paz, bolivia. ortiz, b. & mazzuchelli, s. (eds) ( ) evaluating eden: community wildlife management. iucn/iied, quito, ecua- dor/buenos aires, argentina. painter, m. & noss, a. ( ) la conservation de fauna con organizaciones comunales: experienda con el pueblo izocefio de bolivia. in manejo de fauna silvestre en amazonia y latinoame'rica (eds e. cabrera, c. mercolli and r. resquin), pp. - . fundacion moises bertoni, asuncion, paraguay. parry, j. & campbell, b. ( ) attitudes of rural communities to animal wildlife and its utilization in chobe enclave and mababe depression, botswana. environmental conservation, , - . redford, k.h. & mansour, j.a. (eds) ( ) traditional peoples and biodiversity conservation in large tropical landscapes. nature conservancy, washington dc, usa. redford, k.h. & sanderson, s.e. ( ) extracting humans from nature. conservation biology, , - . riester, j. ( ) textos sagrados de los guaranies en bolivia: una cacen'a en el izozog. los amigos del libro, la paz, bolivia. robinson, j.g. & bennett, e.l. (eds) ( ) hunting for sustain- ability in tropical forests. columbia university press, new york, usa. robinson, j.g. & redford, k.h. ( ) community-based approaches to wildlife conservation in neotropical forests. in natural connections: perspectives in community-based conser- vation (eds d. western and r. m. wright), pp. - . island press, washington dc, usa. schwartzman, s., moreira, a. & nepstad, d. ( a) rethinking tropical forest conservation: perils in parks. conservation biology, , - . schwartzman, s., nepstad, d. & moreira, a. ( b) arguing tropical forest conservation: people versus parks. conserva- tion biology, , - . taber, a., navarro, g. & arribas, m.a. ( ) a new park in the bolivian gran chaco - an advance in tropical dry forest conservation and community-based management. oryx, , - . terborgh, j. ( ) the fate of tropical forests: a matter of stewardship. conservation biology, , - . torgler, h.r., ulloa, a. & torgler, m.r. ( ) tras las huellas de los animales: especies del chocd biogeogra'fico. fundacion natura, bogota, colombia. ulloa, a., torgler, h.r. & campos, c. ( ) conceptos y metodologias para la preseleccion y analisis de alternativas de manejo de fauna de caza con indigenas embera en el parque nacional natural utria, pnnu, choco, colombia. in manejo de fauna con comunidades rurales (eds c. campos, a. ulloa and h. r. torgler), pp. - . fundacion natura, bogota, colombia. ventocilla, j., nunez, v., herrera, h., herrera, f. & chapin, m. ( ) the kuna indians and conservation. in traditional peoples and biodiversity conservation in large tropical land- scapes (eds k. h. redford and j. a. mansour), pp. - . the nature conservancy, washington dc, usa. vickers, w.t. ( ) from opportunism to nascent conserva- tion: the case of the siona-secoya. human nature, , - . western, d. & wright, r.m. (eds) ( ) natural connections: perspectives in community-based conservation. island press, washington dc, usa. white, l.w. ( ) the historical roots of our ecological crisis. science, , - . biographical sketches andrew noss has worked for the wildlife conservation society in the izozog since . rosa leny cuellar has worked for the capitania del alto y bajo izozog since . together and within the usaid-funded kaa-iya project, they have developed a community wildlife management programme with the communities and inhabitants of the izozog. the programme reflects their research interests in combining hunter self-monitoring with research on primary game species and community-level activities in order to promote sustainable wildlife exploitation in indigenous territories. ) ffi, oryx, ( ), - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the contribution of the voluntary agency hospital to cancer epidemiology d. p. burkitt, e. h. williams* and l. eshlemant from the external scientific staff, medical research council, tottenham court road, londont w. received for publication january , it has been repeatedly stressed that the detection of localised areas in which a particular disease is seen to be unduly prevalent or unusually rare is likely to be much more epidemiologically fruitful than the demonstration of variations between larger areas (hutt and burkitt, ). it has also been pointed out that the recognition of potentially responsible environmental factors is likely to be possible only if the population groups investigated have not engaged in repeated movement. if these postulates are accepted it is evident that comparisons between hospitals serving particular tribal areas are likely to provide important information which tends to be overlooked when comparisons are made between large medical centres which are considered representative of the counties which they serve. moreover, the peculiar opportunities of the up-country rural hospital vis-a-vys the large urban centre will be appreciated. these considerations demand that more attention be paid to " up-country" government and voluntary agency hospitals in developing countries where popula- tion movement is still much less than in more sophisticated parts of the world. although government hospitals are often better equipped and may therefore be suitable for certain types of medical research, mission hospitals have been able to make a distinctive contribution in the field of cancer epidemiology in view of the fact that they have been much less subject to medical staff changes than appears to be inevitable in many government institutions. this doctor continuity not only enables a better understanding of local conditions but encourages better maintenance of records. this is an exercise, the fruit of which is rarely reaped by the initiator when subject to short term postings. let it be freely admitted at the outset that diagnoses in poorly equipped mission hospitals inevitably lack the precision that is possible in modern institu- tions aind that records are far from complete both qualitatively and quantitatively. nevertheless, we venture to suggest that the experience recorded below may help to indicate possible areas for more intensive studies, and we particularly hope that these studies may encourage others working in professionally isolated circum- stances to realise that the more elaborate institutions do not have the sole preroga- tive, nor necessarily have the greatest potential for making contributions in the field of geographical pathology. hospitals and figures analysed the seven church hospitals whose experience is recorded below are situated withini a radius of miles in east africa (fig. ). * kultuva hospital, uganda. t shirati hospital, tanzania. d. p. burkitt, e. h. williams and l. eshleman fig. .-map of east africa showing the situation of hospitals referred to in the text. insert shows map area relative to africa. the records surveyed include those already published by williams ( ), eshleman ( ), buckley ( ), burkitt et al. ( ) and kisia and burkitt ( ). available figures from many mission hospitals indicate that in most hospitals between and % of admissions are for malignant disease. kuluva.-this african inland mission hospital is situated miles from the congo border in extreme north-west uganda. the majority of patients belong to the lugbara and mali tribes. the surrounding country consists of low hills and lies between and feet above sea level. there is a government hospital miles away at arua. ishaka.-this seventh day adventist hospital is in the high country in south- west uganda, most of which is at an altitude of - feet above sea level. the patients are mostly banyankole, which include the bahima and banyarunguru and are for the most part cattle herdsmen and cultivators. cancer epidemiology shirati. this mennonite church hospital is situated on the east shore of lake victoria and immediately south of the kenya-tanzania border. about half the population served are luo and the remainder represent nearly a dozen small bantu tribes. patients are seen from the lake level of feet to an escarpment ridge of feet. kaimosi.-this society of friends hospital is situated miles east of lake victoria at an altitude of just over feet. the luhya are the predominent tribe, but a considerable proportion of patients are luo and nandi. maseno. this hospital, founded by the church missionary society, is situated on the equator, which traverses the hospital compound. it is barely miles from lake victoria, at an altitude of a little over feet. it serves mainly the luo and luhya tribes who, like most east african peoples, are peasant farmers. kagondo.- this catholic hospital is situated barely miles west of lake victoria at an altitude of approximately feet. the main tribe is the haya. almost immediately to the west the land rises steeply to the mountain ranges of rwanda and burundi. ndolage. this lutheran hospital is in the hills between lake victoria and the eastern border of rwanda at an altitude of just over feet. the terrain to the west is part of the mountainous range which comprises rwanda, burundi, south- west uganda, eastern kivu and extreme north-west tanzania. the hospital is only some miles west of kagondo but road communication is considerablv longer. the people mainly belong to the haya tribe. some significant variations observed the proportions of total cancer cases which various types of cancer represent in each hospital are given in table i. many of these figures must be considered merely approximate, particularly with regard to details abstracted from old records. it is contended, however, that they reflect very real and considerable differences in cancer patterns in the different areas. the fact that some tumours, for example those of the breast and cervix, appear to have a relatively constant incidence helps to underline the changes in incidence apparent in others. a few tumours which show marked variations will be selected for discussion in order to show that considerable incidence variations can be demonstrated within a relatively small geographical area. table i.-relative proportions of some cancers recorded at different east african ho.spitals ca. oeso- burkitt's kaposi's hospital ca. stomach phagus lymphoma sarcoma ca. cervix ca. penis ca. breast kuluva ( ) ( ) ( ). ( ) . ( ) ( ) ( ) shirati ( ) . ( ) . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ishaka ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . ( ) ndolage . . ( ) . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . ( ) kagondo. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) alaseno ( ) ) ( ) ( ) ? ( ) ( ) ( ) kaimosi . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) . ( ) * ( ) ( ) percentage of all patients with cancer wxith nulmber of cases in brackets. i d. p. burkitt, e. h. williams and l. eshleman cancer of the oesophagus this is taken first as one ofthe two tumours whose incidence in the hospitals listed varies from unknown to the commonest type of cancer recorded. oesophageal cancer is apparently unknown in rwanda, burundi and south- west uganda where ishaka hospital is situated. only two cases have been recognised at kuluva hospital in years. in contrast, this tumour headed the list at maseno, and with the exception of cervical cancer, which is more readily diagnosed, and an unexpected prevalence of gastric cancer, it was the most fre- quently reported neoplasm at kaimosi. maseno and kaimosi hospitals are situated in the former nyanza province in kenya, with its provincial hospital at kisumu where for a long time oesophageal cancer has been known to be the most frequently recorded form of cancer (ahmed, ; ahmed and cook, ). this local concentration appears to fall off rapidly towards the north and south. only six cases were seen in a -year period at shirati, - % of all cancer (eshleman, ). two -bed hospitals in eastern uganda, both within miles of the area of minimum incidence of oesophageal cancer have only been recording an average of three cases a year between them. oesophageal cancer is relatively common at kagondo. this is the only hospital in an area comprising south-west uganda, rwanda, burundi and north- west tanzania, where this tumour is frequently recorded. burkitt's lymphoma this is another tumour whose incidence in the series studied varies from zero to top of the cancer list. no case has been recorded at ishaka or ndolage in spite of active awareness of the condition for many years. the only two cases seen at kagondo in the past years both came from over miles away, one from the south-east and the other from the south-west. in contrast this is the most frequently recorded tumour at kuluva and is pos- sibly one of the commonest at maseno. only the jaw manifestations of burkitt's lymphoma have been included in the series from the latter hospital so the actual total cases are almost certainly at least double this figure. at shirati, burkitt's lymphoma was the most frequently recorded neoplasm after cervical cancer. the high incidence of the latter was almost certainly inflated owing to ease of recogni- tion, especially before burkitt's lymphoma was a recognised syndrome. gastric cancer cancer of the stomach appears to be rare over most of tropical africa. in east african countries it accounts for less than % of total cancer (hutt et al., ; linsell, ). comparable figures are reported from west africa, where edington and easmon ( ) have reported figures of - % and . % for accra and ibadan respectively. in mozambique it accounts for only less than % (prates and torres, ). against this background of relative rarity local areas of high incidence stand out in contrast. kagondo and ndolage hospitals are on the edge of the moun- tainous area in central africa which includes rwanda, burundi, eastern kivi, south-west uganda and extreme north-west tanzania, in which gastric cancer appears unduly common. it is not therefore surprising that in these two hospitals gastric cancer is the most frequently recorded malignant tumour, amounting to cancer epidemiology % and % of total malignancy respectively. ishaka is only just outside this region and the incidence (nearly %) recorded there, which is the highest incidence recorded in any of the east african territories, might on the whole be expected. the unexpectedly high incidence at kaimosi, with a relatively high incidence miles south at shirati, suggests that there may be localised pockets of high gastric cancer incidence east of the lake that have hitherto been missed. the great rarity of this tumour at kuluva reflects the experience of nearly all northern uganda. penile cancer the incidence of this tumour is largely dependent on circumcision (dodge et al., ; kyalwazi, ). significant differences in incidence have been observed, however, between non-circumcising tribes. the relatively high incidence of this tumour at ishaka corresponds to the experience of other hospitals immediately to the north and south. likewise the low incidence at kuluva is reflected in the figures from the three other hospitals in the extreme north-west ofuganda. tribal circumcision is not practised in either of these areas. kaposi's sarcoma although this tumour is commoner further inland in east africa than near the coast, we are hesitant at this stage to suggest distribution patterns. tumour s almost universally rare in east africa several forms of cancer particularly prevalent in other continents are seldom encountered in tropical africa. tumours of the bronchus, colon and rectum are perhaps the most obvious examples. discussion studies in the nature of these described here inevitably fall far short of rate surveys. we do however contend that when no more ambitious programme than ratio studies can be attempted the results thus obtained can act as pilot studies aiding the selection of particular areas and particular problems for more sophisti- cated study. we would like to stress that these records were compiled in the simplest of hospitals, some of which were at times even without x-ray facilities. they can, we believe be copied in almost any circumstances and it is our hope that they may serve to encourage those who may never have considered that their " bush hospital" could make a really worthwhile contribution in the field of research. we are particularly grateful to doctors r. buckley, m. bundschuh, k. dahlin, l. dahlin and r. neale for access to the records of ishaka, kagondo, ndolage and maseno hospitals. we wish to thank the clerical and other staff at the hospitals concerned who assisted in the laborious task of retrospectively reviewing records. we would also like to thank the pathologists at kampala, nairobi and dar-es- salaam who kindly do the histopathology for mission hospitals free of charge. d. p. burkitt, e. h. williams and l. eshleman references ahmed, n. ( ) e. afr. med. j., , . ahmed, n. and cook, p. ( ) br. j. cancer, , . buckley, r. m.- ( ) e. afr. med. j., , . burkitt, d., bundschuh, m., dahlin, k., dahlin, l. and neale, r.-( ) e. afr. med. j. (in press). dodge, . g., linsell, c. a. and davies, j. n. p.-( ) e. afr. med. j., , . edington, g. and easmon, c. o.-( ) incidence of cancer of the alimentary tract in accra, ghana and ibadan, western nigeria. natn. cancer inst. monogr. no. , p. . eshleman, j. l.-( ) e. afr. med. j., , . hutt, m. s. r. and burkitt, d. p.-( ) br. med. j., ii, . hutt, m. s. r., burkitt, d. p., shepherd, j. j., wright, b., mati, j. k. g. and auma, s.-( ) malignant tumours of the gastro-intestinal tract in ugandans. natn. cancer inst. monogr. no. , p. . kisia, i. a. and burkitt, d. p.-( ) e. afr. med. j., , . kyalwazi, s. k.-( ) e. afr. med. j., , . linsell, c. a.-( ) tumors of the alimentary tract in kenyans. natn. cancer inst. monograph no. , p. . prates, m. d. and torres, f. c.-( ) malignant tumors of the alimentary canal in africans of mozambique. natn. cancer inst. monogr. no. , p. . williams, e. hi. ( ) e. afr. med. j., , . 	the contribution of the voluntary agency hospital to cancer epidemiology 	hospitals and figures analysed 	some significant variations observed 	cancer of the oesophagus 	burkitt's lymphoma 	gastric cancer 	penile cancer 	kaposi's sarcoma 	tumour s almost universally rare in east africa 	discussion 	references review notes all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine review notes john h. taylor volume , numéro , october uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu taylor, j. h. ( ). compte rendu de [review notes]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ review notes john h. taylor fletcher, katharine. capital walks: walking tours of ottawa. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . pp. . illustrations. maps. $ . paper. capital walks is the latest and probably the best of books describing walking tours of ottawa, though it tends, like its predecessors, to see the "city" through the prism of the "capital." what fletcher brings to this guide, however, is the expe- rience of prior publication—her historical walks ofgatineau far/c—and of an abid- ing interest and activity in the heritage community of the city. as well, this book is more field-tested than most. it also has the added virtue of envelop- ing the artefacts of the city, notably its buildings, with the history of the people who made and use them. it is rich in de- tail, and useable for touring and as a quick introduction to the history of ottawa. l'aménagement urbain: promesses et défis. sous la direction de annick germain. montreal: institut québécois de recherche sur la culture, . pp. . illus. maps. $ . paper. this volume when first published was one of in an iqrc series entitled "questions de culture." it consists of an introduction by prof. germain, followed by seven separately-authored chapters by scholars from many disciplines in the social sciences, though all are attached to centres of planning, urbanism, or archi- tecture. in a broad sense, all of the articles revolve around the question posed by denise piché for quebec city: how does one place people and their culture at the heart of planning? in even posing the question, the author (and her colleagues) are reflecting on what is probably the major planning trend of the past or years, one that has seen "science" as the heart of the planning enterprise at least partially replaced by "art." these are thoughtful articles for scholars engaged in the study of planning or in its application. bloomfield, elizabeth, with linda foster and jane forgay. waterloo county to : an annotated bibliography of regional history. kitchener: waterloo regional heritage foundation, . pp. . $ . . this bibliography must rank as one of the finest of its type published in ontario. it is part of the foundation of the waterloo regional project, but the occasion of its birth was the twentieth anniversary of the regional municipality. it is comprehensive, embracing , items, and it is accessible, organized the- matically and cross-referenced to author, place, and subject. it is available in both machine-readable and print formats. what is especially impressive is the strength of the annotations, which have both breadth and depth, and as an added bonus are literate. clearly the three bibliographers brought extensive prior knowledge to the material. more- over, it was knowledge that required mastery not only of the english material but the german mennonite and scottish material found in the county. rounding out the volume is a brief introduction to the county. this is a marvellous example of what happens when capable scholars and bibliog- raphers make the best of what computers can do. grenier a., and j.-m.m. dubois. publications et recherches en géographie et télédétection a l'université de sherbrooke ( - ). sherbrooke: département de géographie et télédétection, . pp. . this is a bibliography of a different kind, essentially a compendium of the aca- demic product of a university department over a period of more than years. it includes theses and research essays, publications, and even a list of research grants awarded through the years. for the most part, the material focuses on the sherbrooke area, though some does go farther afield. it is a potentially important resource for urban historians, especially those with an interest in the area of the eastern townships. roger, richard. research in urban history: a classified survey of doctoral and master theses. brookfield, vermont: scolar press, . pp. . $ . cloth. this bibliography classifies and cross- references some , british theses chronologically, thematically, and by place. it is one of three new publications with a british focus but released through this american press. the others are helen dingwall's late th century edinburgh: a demographic study, and neil collins's politics and elections in th century liverpool. spry, irene m., and bennett mccardle. the records of the department of the interior and research concerning canada's western frontier of settlement. regina: canadian plains research centre, university of regina, . pp. . $ . paper. in some ways this remarkable volume is an archivist's version of putting humpty- dumpty back together again. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine vol xxiv, no. (october, octobre) review notes when the prairie provinces gained con- trol over their resources in , the re- cords of the federal department of the interior ( - ), which had man- aged these resources, were dispersed. the coherence of the record of the "west- ern frontier of settlement" was thus lost. this is an attempt to recover it, in part by locating the elements of the dispersed re- cords, but also through a fine introduc- tory essay of t.d. regehr on pioneer scholarly work, and by noting additional material, for example on local government and the territorial lieutenant-governors. an examplar of reproductions of maps, pictures, prints, and documents comple- ments the printed sections of the volume. this volume should receive first-order consideration for the shelves of scholars of the prairie provinces. wilson, r.d., and eric mclean. the living past of montreal. montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen's, . pp. n/a. eric mclean was the first person to restore a house in old montreal as a private residence, marking perhaps the beginning of the heritage restoration movement. the first edition of the living past of montreal in was also part of that process, mclean as now, providing the text. the volume was revised in , and the current edition further revised, with some new drawings by r.d. wilson, to bring the total to . this is among the most sympathetic of the urban histories of montreal, though probably the least comprehensive (the emphasis is on buildings) and in many ways the most personal and idiosyn- cratic. it is nonetheless a joy to look at and to read. smith, donald, ed. centennial city: calgary - . calgary: university of calgary, . pp. . mus. $ . . paper (limited edition). this volume is a collaboration of scholars at the university of calgary and the com- munity (as contributors and sponsors) in celebration of the city's centennial. in addition to the seven substantive chapters, it contains a useful timeline and bibliography. and while all articles are necessarily short and directed to a school-age audience (two copies were given to every calgary school), they are serious for the most part, and include (rare in such volumes) the usual aca- demic apparatus. they also include players often ignored—notably natives, women, and artists. centennial city is not an urban history, nor even history in the usual sense of the word, but rather a number of forays into the city's past from (mainly) specialists in other areas. it is a collage, and in this sense is an interesting experiment in bringing together (integrating is not quite the right word) pluralized historical practice to bear on one subject. hutchinson, t.p.. version (history and archaeology) of essentials of statistical methods. sydney, australia: rumsby scientific publishing, . pp. . $ . paper. this small volume provides one of the best short reviews available for those who use statistics historically. it presumes prior knowledge and is thus intended as a quick review or reference, one easily carried about. it is a rare example among volumes on statistics that actually uses examples from history (and archaeology). urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine vol xxiv, no. (october, octobre) the knitting circle (review) the knitting circle (review) lisa hoashi the missouri review, volume , number , summer , pp. - (review) published by university of missouri doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /mis. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /mis. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ t h e m i s s o u r i r e v i e w / s u m m e r ellen tends to think in absolutes, and � e bird woman’s greatest strength is its portrayal of the cultural division between protestants and catholics, north and south. hardie shows how politics aff ects everyone in northern ireland, how the political climate encourages a self-imposed divide. “up there we were too afraid to talk face to face, so silence seemed the only way. we talked among ourselves of course, told one another what they thought, what they were after, we stoked our own fears till they blazed up and licked at the rafters. for the rest, we left it to the politicians who de- fended and accused from the safety of the television studios. we listened to our own and turned away from theirs, unable to hear, deafened by the anger that rose in our blood and beat in our eyes before they were through the fi rst sentence.” in the republic, ellen isolates herself from her former life. she has left her judgmental mother. her family knows little of her life beyond her address, and they have never seen her children. although ellen feels that her break from her past is complete, her unwanted healing ability seems to arise from the denial of her clairvoyance. hardie describes ellen’s abilities with an un- sentimental physicality—there’s no melting into showy, new-age swooning. but ellen is not truly in control of her gifts. she’s an angry woman, whose abilities work even when she does not want to engage those who come to her for help. � e novel opens with ellen being summoned home because her mother is dying. initially she doesn’t want to go, but the novel ends a year after her mother’s death, and in the transit of the novel, we have come a long way with ellen. when she fi nally returns to the north, she learns a family secret that disarms her previous assumptions and sets her on the path to an uneasy acceptance of her own failings and those of others, an unsentimental and startling acceptance of the world as it is. (eo) the knitting circle by ann hood w. w. norton & company, , pp., $ . in the last several years, grief has become a recurring theme in the literary world. in memoir, joan didion wrote about her husband’s death in � e year of magi- cal � inking, and calvin trillin recently memorialized cal � inking, and calvin trillin recently memorialized cal � inking his wife in about alice. in fi ction, cheryl strayed wrote her fi rst novel, torch, about the devastation of losing a mother. now ann s u m m e r / t h e m i s s o u r i r e v i e w hood, best known for her short stories, has written � e knitting circle, a novel about a mother who has lost her fi ve-year-old daughter, suddenly and tragically, to meningitis. both strayed and hood drew on their own experience for their novels. in , hood’s fi ve-year-old daughter, grace, died suddenly from a virulent form of strep. of that experience, hood has written, “in this time of most enormous grief after grace died, there is no day or night. � ere is just loss.” we encounter � e knitting circle’s mary baxter at a similar place, shortly after the death of her fi ve-year-old daughter, stella. since her loss, mary has been unable to return to any semblance of her life, either as a wife or as a writer for a small providence newspaper. “what you need,” her mother tells her, “is to learn to knit.” simply because she fi nds herself incapable of anything else, mary reluc- tantly joins a local knitting circle. � ere, she meets scarlet, lulu, beth, har- riet, alice and ellen. as they spend time together talking and knitting, mary discovers that each of the women has come to the circle with her own story of loss, using knitting as therapy when everything else has failed. as scarlet knowingly tells mary in the beginning, “� at’s how it is at fi rst. you knit to save your life.” over time, inspired by the honesty and courage of these women, mary is fi nally able to tell them her own story and begin recovering, however slowly and imperfectly. centered so fully on mary’s paralyzing grief, the story is a diffi cult one to dramatize. hood uses mary’s knitting circle to enliven the narrative, dedi- cating entire chapters to each woman’s story. while intriguing and rich in detail, these stories are mostly vignettes. � ey are also told through conver- sation, which often doesn’t work. for example, when alice reaches a moment of tension in her own story, she tells mary, “� e air conditioner came on noisily, as if it had to work very hard to send out cold air.” such detail works fi ne in straight narrative but sounds improbable coming out a character’s mouth. with her last short-story collection, an ornithologist’s guide to life, hood established herself as a talented writer. her stories often create an uncom- fortable sense that, despite all appearances, everyone has secrets. in one story in that collection, “� e rightness of � ings,” rachel, a young mother, learns to reshape her life after her husband has left her, having lost her original vi- sion of how things would always be. � e knitting circle continues to explore this question of how a woman who has become one type of person—in this case a mother—is suddenly t h e m i s s o u r i r e v i e w / s u m m e r forced by a loss to start anew. as mary’s husband, dylan, says to her, “with- out stella, it’s hard to remember who we are.” hood shows us how mary starts over—though she does so just barely, and only through the friendship of her knitting circle. as so many writers have recently shown, the emotion of deep loss is enor- mously compelling when translated into art. yet it is diffi cult to write about one’s own personal grief while still maintaining the necessary distance to craft a piece of art. � ough her novel lacks the toughness, independence and imagination that characterize her short stories, hood has done remarkably well in distancing her experience from � e knitting circle, allowing her per- sonal story to become the stories of others. (lh) stray by sheri joseph macadam/cage, , pp., $ sheri joseph’s debut novel, stray, is a fearless examina-stray, is a fearless examina-stray tion of the myriad deeds and relationships love inhab- its—from charitable acts of kindness, to marriage, to sexual liaisons so unlikely that they appear to make no sense. a lover’s triangle of two men and a woman would usually be thought to consist of a wife cheating on her husband, a woman with two lovers. in stray, stray, stray it’s the husband who has two lovers—one his wife and the other his boy- friend. � e husband is a thirty-year-old musician just beginning to settle into married life. his wife, maggie, is a mennonite lawyer of unshakable faith in her place in the world, and the lover is a college student surviving on the tired kindness of an ailing professor. it is more than the seductive storyline that drives this novel, though; it is the unrelenting mess created when good intentions overlap again and again with unavoidable physical en- tanglement. joseph’s fi rst book, bear me safely over, is a cycle of stories that features bear me safely over, is a cycle of stories that features bear me safely over two of the characters from stray, kent and paul, and describes the awkward stray, kent and paul, and describes the awkward stray genesis of their relationship. love and how it blends and mutes the bound- aries between straight and gay are themes of both books. in stray, however, stray, however, stray there are few traces of previous characters’ homophobia; rather, what occurs is a manifestation of genuine compassion through the portrayal of modern- day mennonites and the quiet tolerance evident in daily private acts of kind- ness and pacifi sm. a.t. van deursen. plain lives in a golden age. popular culture, religion and society in seventeenth-century holland. transl. by maarten ultee. cambridge university press, cambridge [etc.] . ix, pp. ill. £ . . (paper: £ . .) book reviews deursen, a.t. van. plain lives in a golden age. popular culture, reli- gion and society in seventeenth-century holland. transl. by maarten ultee. cambridge university press, cambridge [etc.] . ix, pp. . £ . . (paper: £ . .) between and a.t. van deursen published four small volumes on the daily lives of ordinary people in holland during the golden age. van deursen, a professor of history at the calvinist free university of amsterdam and an expert on the period, had set himself an ambitious goal: to explore, in the wake of the work of such notable scholars as e.p. thompson, kenneth m. stampp and eugene d. genovese, the entirety of holland's popular culture. that goal was, however, circumscribed from the very beginning. the text would limit itself to the province of holland, no doubt the most important part of the dutch republic but not necessarily typical. moreover, van deursen does not go beyond the middle of the seventeenth century. and in the present english edition, which contains all four of the original volumes, he tempers our expectations still further by remarking that his aim was merely to describe "rather than . . . analysing or exploring in depth". although the four volumes were generally well received at the time of their publication, their reputation was much enhanced by the publication in of another book on the same subject: simon schama's amazing bestseller, the embarrassment of riches: an interpretation of dutch culture in the golden age. schama's book, though very popular with the general public, received a less than enthusiastic reception from the dutch scholarly community. many dutch histor- ians, not least van deursen, thought schama had caricatured his subject. accord- ing to van deursen, schama's book revealed an essentially twentieth-century con- ception imposed upon seventeenth-century sources. other dutch critics, looking for examples of an alternative approach, and at the same time feeling obliged to explain to their readers how such an attractive topic had been annexed by a foreign author, all started to point to van deursen's four volumes as a superior study of the same subject. so, by an ironical twist of fate, van deursen's work got a new lease of life, and single-volume editions appeared both in dutch and in english thanks to the success of its great competitor. nevertheless, plain lives in a golden age merits our attention for its own sake, as a pioneering work on an important subject. van deursen's book is pioneering because he was one of the first modern histor- ians in the netherlands working in this field. like their colleagues in most other european countries, dutch historians of the s and ' s were cither pursuing the traditional topics of political and economic history, or they were following the example of the annales school, investigating long-term trends in population change and the availability of food. what was just then becoming known as the history of mentalities, or popular culture, was not yet fashionable. thus, when van deursen included these very terms, more or less in passing, in his preface to the first volume (not, however reprinted in this english edition), he modestly reconnected dutch historiography with the latest international trends. international review of social history ( ), pp. - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews van deursen's work is also pioneering because, so far, little research had been done in this field, and as a result little material was available to him other than primary sources. van deursen therefore returned to the two types of sources he had already worked on extensively in his other research: the resolutions of the states of holland, and the acts of the local councils of the dutch reformed (calvinist) church. these sources are available in serial form, but it was not the author's purpose to utilize that particular aspect. instead, van deursen looked for the telling anecdote that seemed to enlighten a specific situation or an aspect of his subject. to similar ends he also used some literary sources, such as the plays of the popular bredero. the rewards of this exploration of the sources, picking up seemingly odd, or unimportant details, were sifted into four distinct categories. thus, the first part of his book deals with the material circumstances of ordinary people's lives. it discussed wages and poverty, immigrants and vagrancy, and social ambitions of painters. in van deursen's opinion, the age was not necessarily "golden" for the common man of holland, but he was generally better off than his contemporaries in other european countries. part two is entitled "popular culture", and tells us about holland's women and girls (they were considered very beautiful by foreigners), of prostitutes and bars (somewhat old-fashionedly presented as "nat- ural life"), of education and of popular reading. part three discussed the govern- ment, the taxation it imposed upon local communities, resistance against this taxa- tion, and the ultimate purpose of this taxation, to finance the war with spain. holland's government emerges here as having been relatively honest, and the citizens had little to complain about. part four is entirely devoted to religion: popular beliefs, and the calvinist, catholic and mennonite churches. the churches are not primarily presented as institutions but as communities of believers; here van deursen remains faithful to his subject. although van deursen's book may at first glance look like a synthesis, it is better understood as an exploration. the author explicitly rejects the use of general schemes of interpretation, let along theories, that may help to connect and explain the various expressions of popular culture he has observed. thus, there is no comment on muchembled's well-known ideas concerning elite versus popular cul- ture, or on peter burke's thesis concerning the changes that affected european popular culture in the early modern period; both authors, who published their works in , are in fact conspicuously absent from the bibliography. the author's method of presenting small sketches that together create an image works best with non-material subjects. the chapters on drinking and gambling, on popular reading, and in particular the chapters on religion, are all marvellously evocative. here the author obviously feels very much at home. other chapters, however, are not always so compelling. the chapters on wages, on poverty, on social mobility and on taxation give the impression of arbitrariness: their contents seem to have been dictated by what was found in sources that are not always particularly helpful in illuminating these subjects. there is another reservation i have about the book. it was published over a decade ago, and this english edition includes little of the literature published since then. jan de vries and leo noordegraaf s work on wages, jan lucassen's book on immigration, marjolein 't hart's work on taxation, and rudolf dekker's on popular protest and rebellion have given us a better picture of those subjects than one will find in this book. most of these authors have also published in english, core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews but only noordegraaps work is referred to in the bibliography. the result is a work that in some aspects is already dated. these asides should not, however, stop us from noting that this book meets the very high standards that johan huizinga set in with his dutch civilisation in the th century. whether one prefers the baroque intellectual and literary style of schama or van deursen's restrained tone is perhaps a matter of taste. social historians may also deplore the somewhat superficial treatment of some of their favourite topics. but in those aspects that are central to van deursen's study, i.e. the components of the mental world of the common man in seventeenth-century holland, he is very much in command. maarten prak boydston, jeanne. h o m e and work. housework, wages, and the ideo- logy of labor in the early republic. oxford university press, new york [etc.] . xx, p p . £ . . this valuable study of the transformation of housework and gender roles in amer- ica, from colonial days to the s, summarizes and elaborates much recent research in the social history of the period. it thus provides a useful vehicle for assessing how the field has evolved in the united states since the end of the s. initially, social history merely aimed to add the history of common people to that of elites, leaving standard categories, periodizations, and interpretations pretty much alone. only later did we find that as social history filled in the blanks of traditional accounts, some of the boxes already completed turned out to be incor- rect, while others began to change their very shape, and even to bleed into each other. eventually, of course, social historians abandoned the crossword puzzle approach to history, discarding the old compartments for economics, culture, polit- ics, and even seemingly "natural" categories, such as masculinity, femininity, and the family. we had first sought answers to the questions posed in bertolt brecht's famous poem, "a worker looks at history". "who built the seven towers of thebes? [. . .] was it kings who hauled the craggy blocks of stone? in the evening when the chinese wall was finished, where did the masons go?" next we began asking how kings and stone masons, queens and prostitutes, shaped each others' lives and transformed the very conditions that gave rise to their original relationships. the historiography of women in america exemplifies this transition. early work by historians of women sought to fill in the gaps in traditional history, searching for the female counterparts to the male roles we already knew. raised to believe that women had not worked outside the home before the s, we were delighted to find that there were female blacksmiths, butchers, barbers, tavern owners, hunters, attorneys, physicians, undertakers, loggers, shipwrights, gunsmiths, jail- ers, and typesetters in colonial days. it was particularly intriguing to discover that the ideology of separate spheres, long assumed to be a natural outgrowth of "the" sexual division of labor, was actually a historically specific development that could be dated from the late eighteenth century. in that period, the duties and images of men and women began to be demarcated far more sharply than in colonial days, core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american archivist / vol. , no. / fall theodore r. schellenberg: americanizer and popularizer jane f. smith a s theoretician, scholar, author of two principal textbooks, lecturer, and teacher, theodore r. schellenberg made enduring contributions toward develop- ment of a truly american archival profes- sion. following his death in january , he was eulogized as a "prodigious worker, propelled by that germanic persistence and thoroughness that leave no source uninvestigated"; an archivist of keen intel- lect with a "gift of lucid expression"; and as "an archival world leader" who gave "dignity to archival work" and "broke new ground" in archives administration. while these tributes reflect a consensus about schellenberg the archivist, it is more difficult to characterize him as a person. tall and broad shouldered, physically impressive, he was a soft-spoken man who conveyed an aura of "quiet power." therefore, he inspired awe among his subordinates and the young archivists in his training classes, most of whom initially perceived him as a "remote authority fig- ure." proud almost to arrogance, espe- cially with peers and superiors, schellen- berg was a man of strong convictions, even prejudices, who seemed to enjoy raising controversial issues that often sparked sharp rejoinders. he was viewed as cold, egotistical, and difficult to get along with; few of his colleagues understood him or felt that they really knew him personally. interesting to note, however, is the vastly different perception of him by the archivists, government officials, and stu- dents whom he met as archival envoy to other countries. in comments on his visits he is repeatedly referred to as "a relaxed, amiable, and, above all, humorous man" whose "great knowledge and cordial, like- able personality won for him the friend- ship of those who had an opportunity to meet him." it is unfortunate that more of his american colleagues did not get to see this side of his personality and, in the words of former archivist james b. rhoads, catch "a glimpse of the shy and sensitive man beneath that cool, business- like exterior." '"in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg, - ," american archivist (april ): - . "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg" consists of eulogies by seven colleagues; each eulogy has its own title. hereafter, references to this piece will show the author, the eulogy, and the page number from which the reference comes. james b. rhoads, "an archivist of intellect and industry," ibid., p. . ibid.,p. . ian maclean, "archival world leader," p. ; and aurelio tanodi, "giving dignity to archival work," p. ; both in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg." rhoads, "an archivist of intellect and industry," in ibid., p. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ fall some keys to a better understanding of his complex personality might be found in his family background and youthful expe- riences. theodore r. (ted) schellenberg was born in harvey county, kansas, on february , son of abraham l. and sarah schroeder schellenberg, and grand- son of abraham schellenberg, an elder of the mennonite brethren church, who emigrated to america from southern russia in . the family was among the many german mennonites who settled there in the early nineteenth century. on arriving in the united states, elder schel- lenberg and his family settled in harvey county. young abraham found the move from russia to the prairies of the midwest very exciting, and was soon involved in the hard work that was the lot of farm boys in pioneer days. in his biography of his father, ted schellenberg observes that his father's "experiences probably led him to formulate the precept, which he applied later in rearing his own children, that the first duty of a parent is to teach his child to work." abraham had considerable intellectual curiosity, and he struggled to obtain a formal education. he read exten- sively in the german classics; scientific treatises by bacon and newton; and works of philosophy, particularly those of immanuel kant. obviously, this reading developed in him a questioning attitude about the religion of his forefathers, and only gradually was he able to reconcile his doubts with his inborn faith. although received into the mennonite brethren church in , his experiences led him to declare later to his own children that "he who increases knowledge increases sorrow." abraham l. schellenberg bought a farm, married, and began raising a family. his first-born, named, of course, abra- ham, died in infancy. the next three chil- dren were also boys: henry george, named after the single-tax advocate; theodore roosevelt, "after a president who at that time gave promise of making his surname a respectable one"; and abra- ham lincoln. in the words of ted schel- lenberg: "fortunately none of these names were officially recorded in birth registries, so his children were not forced to live with them."" doubtless, this explains why he invariably signed his name t. r. schellen- berg. at the general conference of the men- nonite brethren church, in , abra- ham l. schellenberg was unanimously elected editor of the church publications, and began the work to which he subse- quently devoted most of his life. in the publishing business was moved to hillsboro, kansas, and in a new building was constructed to house the mennonite brethren publishing house. ted schellenberg's characterization of the inhabitants of hillsboro is perhaps reveal- ing of his own personality. "their convic- tions," he noted, "were so strong that, if one were not aware of their sincerity, one would consider them opinionated; and their manners were frank to the point of bluntness." although there was little room for shades of opinion, he felt that his father "introduced the leaven of humor through his newspapers." the son asserted, however, that in one respect "editor schellenberg shared the penchant of his community for absolutism. this was in his search for the truth. to his way of think- ing there were no half-truths, for a thing was either true or false, and if it were true it was to be told, no matter how much the truth might hurt." the world war i period was a difficult one for editor schellenberg and his fam- ily. from the beginning of the conflict, his newspaper, the vorwaerts, like most ger- man-language newspapers, supported t. r. schellenberg, "editor abraham l. schellenberg," reprinted from mennonite life (january ): . 'ibid., pp. - . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg germany; and what it published seemed to contravene the allied propaganda about german atrocities. the american men- nonites were pacifists, however; so they faced a dilemma of conscience in directly helping the fatherland. schellenberg sug- gested that they donate money to the ger- man red cross and other relief programs. by december his weekly paper had received over $ , in contributions. in the presidential election of , schellenberg, like many of his fellow-pro- gressives, endorsed the gop candidates. before the election, however, schellen- berg changed his mind. he finally endorsed wilson; perhaps, according to his son, on a "rather naive assumption" that he would continue to keep america out of war. in any event, schellenberg's outspoken opposition to american involvement in the conflict "led to his being hooted on the streets as a 'yellow- back' and 'slacker'." the american declaration of war left most german-language newspapers in a difficult position. although editor schel- lenberg virtually ceased to write editorials about the war, he was eventually reported to a federal investigative agency as dis- loyal. according to his accuser, he was "radically pro-german and always has been making light of the government. . . . some of his utterances come very near inciting riot." after an investigation, schellenberg was ordered to "file with the local postmaster an english, as well as a german, version of every item in his papers that pertained to public affairs." to schellenberg this procedure "was but a minor vexation" and, notes his son, had the "salutary effect" of making his father "thoroughly bi-lingual, so that he wrote and spoke english and german with equal fluency." these wartime experiences, however, were traumatic for teen-age theodore, and left bitter memories and psychological scars that apparently never completely healed. in , unhappy with government pol- icies and "petty spite" within the commu- nity, schellenberg resigned his job and moved his family to a farm in littlefield, texas, where they remained until , when, in response to "the overwhelming preference of the church membership . . . and upon petition of the hillsboro businessmen," he again became editor of the church publications. the next seven years were rewarding, for during this period he was a community leader and his publishing business flourished. it was during these prosperous years of the twenties that theodore r. schellen- berg went to the university of kansas, from which he received his a.b. degree in and his m.a. in . a phi beta kappa, he then did graduate work in his- tory at the university of pennsylvania, where he studied under distinguished scholars and further developed his keen interest in historical method. shortly after completing work for his doctorate, in , schellenberg was fortunate to be appointed executive secretary of the joint committee on materials for research, of the american council of learned societ- ies and the social science research coun- cil. schellenberg worked closely with robert c. binkley of western reserve university, chairman of the joint com- mittee and a pioneer in the study of doc- umentary publication devices; and with vernon d. tate, who in was appointed chief of the national archives division of photographic reproduction and research. also, schellenberg collabo- "gregory j. stucky, "fighting against war: the mennonite vorwaerts from to ," kansas historical quarterly (summer ): - . n t . r. schellenberg, "editor," p. . ibid., p. . ibid., pp. - . lester j. cappon, "prodigious worker and archival envoy," p. , in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg." biographical statement, theodore r. schellenberg papers, kansas state historical society (hereafter cited as schellenberg papers). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ fall rated in preparation of the joint commit- tee's prestigious and influential report on methods of reproducing research materials, published in , a volume that was to have significant impact on the operations of the national archives. the transition from rural mennonite kansas to such an assignment in new deal washington, d.c., must have been diffi- cult for schellenberg; but he apparently took it all in stride. he was active in the committee's operations and was interested in tentative plans for a national survey of state and local archives. when these plans died with the passage of the federal emergency relief act of , he was one of the first to advocate a national archives survey, particularly if the depression became more serious. schellenberg was trying, of course, to find permanent professional employment, and he corresponded with vernon tate, philip c. brooks, and others, especially at the national park service and the national archives. in , after a few months as a national park service historian, schel- lenberg received his long-awaited appoint- ment to the staff of the national archives. there he joined the group of young and able scholars known as deputy examiners, who were busily engaged in a massive sur- vey of the records of washington execu- tive agencies. he worked in this capacity for several years, although he took leave in to serve for a time as associate national director of the newly established survey of federal archives, a project headed by philip m. hamer and sponsored by the national archives. in , as part of a major reorganization of the national archives that gave the custodial divisions greater prestige and responsibility, schel- lenberg was designated chief of the divi- sion of agriculture department archives, his first important administrative position in the national archives. the assignment enabled him to make an initial contribu- tion to what was to be his life-long con- cern: the development, systematization, and standardization of archival principles and techniques. schellenberg's first paper, entitled european archival practices in arranging records (national archives staff information circular no. , july ), "cleared the ground," in the words of ernst posner, "for his future constructive efforts by pointing out that european experience has only limited applicability to the processing of records in this country." from the beginning of his archival career, schellenberg seemed to realize that amer- ican archivists must attempt to develop principles and techniques peculiarly appli- cable to modern archives, which would enable american archivists to deal with records en masse. he knew that the over- whelming volume of documentation gen- erated by government agencies must be reduced to be useable. it is not surprising, therefore, that schellenberg played a lead- ing role in developing procedures for the effective disposition of records and that the first records disposal schedules pre- pared in the national archives emanated from his division. in , at the end of world war ii, he left the national archives to serve for three years as records officer at the office of price administration. his expe- rience there undoubtedly sharpened his awareness of the problems inherent in managing and appraising the huge quan- tities of records being produced by the government, and increased his determi- nation to help solve the problems. it was donald r. mccoy, the national archives: america's ministry of documents, - (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ), p. ; edward f. barrese, "the historical records survey: a nation acts to save its memory" (ph.d. diss., george washington university, ), pp. - . barrese, "the historical records survey," p. . "tate to schellenberg, january and march ; brooks to schellenberg, february . professional correspondence, schellenberg papers. lsernst posner, "he broke new ground," p. , in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg." d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg not by chance that schellenberg's first major professional publication, after he returned to the national archives in as program adviser to the archivist, was entitled disposition of federal records: how to develop an effective program for the pres- ervation and disposal of federal records (washington, ), followed in by the widely acclaimed na bulletin, the appraisal of modern public records. schellenberg returned to the national archives during a period of change, even turmoil. in , solon j. buck retired as archivist of the united states and was suc- ceeded by wayne c. grover; on july , the national archives became part of the new general services administra- tion (gsa). by january , the internal structure of the national archives was reorganized. now called the national archives and records service (nars), it was divided into two principal units: the national archives division, and the rec- ords management division. schellenberg was selected to head the national archives division, as director of archival manage- ment. the position, however, was rather less than it seemed. although he had performed outstand- ingly in a variety of jobs, schellenberg's return to the national archives in was not greeted with unalloyed enthusi- asm by either top management or his peers. grover and robert h. bahmer, assistant archivist, felt that he had con- siderable ability and much energy, but that it was necessary to control him to "keep him on the track" they wanted the institution to follow. so instead of heading a records division, he was brought back initially as program adviser to the archi- vist, a staff position. it was not until two years later that he was designated director of archival management, the counterpart of herbert e. angel as head of records management. even then the title implied rightly, according to bahmer, that the archivist "didn't want him to have full authority over the archivists who were heads of records divisions." this was intended in part to placate several division directors who felt that they should con- tinue to report directly to the archivist of the united states. in view of these circumstances, it is per- haps not surprising that the eleven years, - , schellenberg spent as institu- tional head of the national archives (heading the office of the national archives), were at once the most produc- tive, rewarding, and frustrating years of his professional career. as director of archival management he faced myriad problems, particularly with regard to space, professional standards, and staff- ing. he felt that his first task was to devise "administrative policies and procedures clearly and simply set forth in manual form . . . and clearly defined technical and professional procedures set forth in a series of staff information circulars for the guidance and instruction of the staff." only in this way would it be possible to achieve the division's objectives "progres- sively and systematically." it is probable that the serious problems he faced as an administrator reinforced schellenberg's already deep interest in improving archi- val methods and techniques, and in estab- lishing standards for the performance of basic archival functions, especially in the areas of appraisal, arrangement, and description. in any event, he threw him- self into the task at hand with character- istic energy, and the results were edifying. '"the appraisal of modern public records (bulletin of the national archives, no. , washington, ), pp. official circular - , march , , central files . , record group , records of the national archives and records service. hereafter cited as rg . robert h. bahmer, oral history transcript, may , , p. , national archives oral history project, rg . "oliver w. holmes, oral history transcript, july , , pp. - , rg . "statement made in in defense of my plans of administering the national archives," staff member, national archives, analytical reports. schellenberg papers. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall thus, in his report on archival devel- opments for fiscal year , schellen- berg was able to cite the issuance of staff information papers on the preparation of records for publication on microfilm and principles of arrangement, as well as com- pletion of work on the national archives handbook of procedures, published later in . he noted, however, that much was needed to clarify basic thinking regarding two phases of national archives work— namely, appraisal of records, and their analysis and description in finding aids "that go beyond those now being pro- duced." staffing was, however, schellenberg's most pressing problem. reduced position authorizations for the national archives, in part caused by government-wide econ- omy drives, coupled with difficulty in recruiting and retaining qualified profes- sionals, resulted in a deteriorating situa- tion. many archivists found it difficult "to work together and with gsa," while oth- ers felt there were few chances for advancement in the archival profession because records management and other new programs were being developed at the expense of the national archives. in an effort to deal with these problems and to upgrade the efficiency and com- petence of his staff, schellenberg, with bahmer's strong backing, decided to insti- tute an intensive in-service training and promotion program. training had, of course, always been an important objective of the national archives; and, indeed, the first archival science course given in the united states was taught by solon j. buck at columbia university in academic year - . many national archives staff members enrolled in archives courses offered at outside institutions. it was clear, however, by the time schellenberg became director of archival management, that more effective and intensive training was necessary. the groundwork was laid by schellenberg and his assistant, g. philip bauer, in drafting standards for the clas- sification of professional positions and preparing uniform job descriptions. the actual training program, begun in , provided that all gs- archivist positions were merely training jobs and that the basic grade for fully qualified, profes- sional archivists would henceforth be grade gs- . all gs- archivists during their first year were to receive an in-house course of training in archival theory and practice and a series of "fairly exacting tests." those who passed, and performed their regular duties satisfactorily, were promoted to gs- at the end of the year as vacancies occurred. those with civil service status who failed were reassigned to gs- sub-professional positions. schellenberg was intensely interested in every aspect of this training program, and he participated in its development by lec- turing and by supervising the preparation of extensive reading materials. this expe- rience undoubtedly heightened his already strong conviction that american archivist trainees were handicapped by the "paucity of good literature dealing with problems that arise most often in the national archives," and that the british and dutch manuals were "not wholly applicable" and failed to meet our needs. " an opportu- nity to contribute significantly to the solu- tion of this problem came the following year when he undertook the first of two "report on archival developments by director of archival management, for fiscal year ." quarterly and annual reports, rg . "mccoy, the national archives, pp. - ; schellenberg to grover, september , pp. - . staff member, national archives. schellenberg papers. oliver w. holmes, "statement for civil service committee of names of national archives employees who have accepted pay from outside sources for serving as instructors in archival science," central files, training-general. rg . g. philip bauer, "recruitment, training and promotion in the national archives," american archivist (october ): - . ibid., p. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg important ventures abroad as an archival envoy. throughout the s, the national archives was increasingly interested in the idea of international cooperation in archi- val affairs, but obviously little could be accomplished until the war ended. begin- ning in , the national archives became involved in a variety of interna- tional projects, including the establish- ment of an archives for the united nations and the founding of the inter- national council on archives, which held its first international congress of archi- vists, in paris in august . meanwhile, archivists from all over the world, attracted by the american archival education offered under ernst posner's supervision at amer- ican university, and the technically advanced operations of the national archives, began to visit the agency in ever increasing numbers and to request assis- tance in handling archival problems. the australians had long been inter- ested in developing their own archival sys- tem; in response to their request, schel- lenberg was selected to visit australia to lecture on various archival topics. sup- ported by a fulbright grant, he arrived in australia in , accompanied by his wife, alma, and spent almost half a year giving lectures and holding seminars for archivists, librarians, and other interested persons. he visited tasmania, western australia, south australia, victoria, and new south wales, making his services available as generously as possible to the state archival authorities and senior public officials concerned with records manage- ment. in addition, he somehow found time to give addresses to quasi-govern- mental and civic groups, and even to make a short visit to new zealand. schellen- berg's was a whirlwind, virtuoso perfor- mance that left him tired "physically, men- tally, and every other way." he felt at ease in australia and generally liked the peo- ple, whom he described as open-minded and "a fine lot." he also liked the coun- tryside, the climate, and australian beer, but confessed, in a letter to a friend, that "like greta garbo, i want to go home." schellenberg's visit was widely acclaimed, but its greatest significance may be that during his stay schellenberg decided to incorporate the substance of his notes and statements in a book on archival admin- istration that might replace hilary jenkin- son's manual of archive administration as the authoritative work on the subject in the english language. his strong feelings in this regard were revealed in a letter to a friend in july , in which he declared: "in my professional work i'm tired of having an old fossil cited to me as an authority in archival matters. i refer to sir hilary jenkinson, former deputy keeper of records at the british public record office, who wrote a book that is not only unreadable but that has given the australians a wrong start in their archival work." he returned to washington in late ; he completed his textbook the following year, and it was published in in australia and the united states under the title, modern archives: principles and techniques. immediately acclaimed by such distinguished reviewers as ernst posner and waldo g. leland, the book was translated into spanish, hebrew, and german. in , schellenberg received a meritorious service award from the gen- eral services administration "for devel- oping archival methods and techniques especially suited to the needs of american archivists, and embodying them in the mccoy, the national archives, pp. - . h. l. white to g. g. rossiter, november , p. . professional correspondence, schellen- berg papers. t. r. schellenberg to albert c. schwarting, july . personal letters file, schellenberg papers. ibid. t. r. schellenberg, modern archives: principles and techniques (melbourne: f. w. cheshire, ; chicago: university of chicago press, ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ fall first comprehensive textbook thus far written in the united states." shortly after his return from australia, schellenberg again became heavily involved in development of the archival instruction program that he had initiated in . he planned for gs- 's an advanced, two- semester course which was labeled as an american university course and could be taken for academic credit by students enrolled at the university. given during regular working hours, it paralleled the evening course taught by ernst posner. schellenberg also organized a series, begun in september , of seminar confer- ences for senior archivists. beginning in , he served for several years as direc- tor of the summer institute in the admin- istration and preservation of archives, sponsored jointly by the national archives, the library of congress, the maryland hall of records, and the american uni- versity. finally, in the late s his train- ing efforts were extended to professional- level employees working in the records centers. although herbert angel and his deputy, everett alldredge, had attempted for several years to provide in-service rec- ords management training to these employees, angel and alldredge believed that some training in archival administra- tion was also desirable. thus, in and schellenberg visited the centers and nearby institutions all over the united states, giving intensive three-day courses in various aspects of archives administra- tion. although intended primarily for rec- ords center personnel, the course was opened to non-federal archivists, librari- ans, historians, and manuscript curators, who attended in large numbers. the tour was another resounding success for the national archives theoretician-in-charge. "' the latin-american countries had always been of special interest to ameri- can archivists, and it was in latin america that schellenberg's most intensive work as an archival envoy focused. in he accepted an invitation from the archivist of brazil to visit that country, study the archival situation, and recommend improvements. however, his visit grew into a three-month tour, as part of the international educational exchange pro- gram of the department of state. during this period, too, schellenberg chaired the ad hoc committee that planned an inter- american archival seminar which, in turn, led to the formation of an inter- american technical council on archives. organized and directed by schellenberg, it represented the culmination of his efforts to modernize latin-american archives and to increase the professional- ism of their staffs. schellenberg's many writing and teach- ing activities, particularly those abroad, further enhanced his growing reputation as a world archival leader, and his achieve- ments undoubtedly added to the national and international prestige of nars. it must be said, however, that they also con- tributed heavily to the ever increasing frustrations he experienced as the insti- tutional head of the national archives and to a rapidly developing estrangement between him and his superiors, the archi- vist of the united states and his deputy. personality conflicts, of course, contrib- uted. bahmer and grover felt that schel- wayne c. grover to chairman, incentive awards committee, may . day file, grover papers. rg , national archives. for detailed information re schellenberg's archival training program, see: bauer, "recruitment, training and promotion," p. ; mccoy, the national archives, p. ; grover to regional direc- tors, april , day file, grover papers, rg ; records management office, numbered memoranda, nr — , april , rg ; and schellenberg to grover, "archival instruction at federal records centers," may , schellenberg papers. for information re schellenberg's latin-american activities, see: american archivist (october ): ; planning and control case no. - , - , rg ; george s. ulibarri, "the inter-american technical council on archives," american archivist (january ): - ; mccoy, the national archives, p p . - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg lenberg was unhappy for reasons they were never able to fathom, and that he was a "prima donna who tended to sulk if he didn't get his way." schellenberg, on the other hand, believed that his many contributions to nars were unappre- ciated and had not been properly recog- nized by top management. in early janu- ary he demanded that his title be changed from director of archival man- agement to director of the national archives, citing the former title as "mean- ingless" and a source of frequent embar- rassment while he was a fulbright lecturer abroad. when grover adamantly opposed the change, schellenberg was described as "wrathful." he achieved his goal, however, in november when, as part of an internal reorganization, he became assistant archivist for the national archives. the basic cause of the growing animos- ity between the men stemmed from strong differences of opinion about the operation of the national archives. grover believed that schellenberg gave too much attention to his teaching and writing activities and that he should become personally more involved in the administration of the national archives. schellenberg com- plained that grover did not keep him informed of major policies or problems, that grover encouraged senior staff mem- bers to come directly to him with their problems, and that he had not delegated to schellenberg "any real authority for the administration of the institution." fur- thermore, he believed that the records management division was receiving pref- erential treatment, particularly in financial allocations, and that the programs of that division and the national archives divi- sion were being judged by double stan- dards. in his diary schellenberg defended his actions, stating that he had given so much attention to writing and teaching primarily because grover insisted upon running the national archives himself. in any case, he concluded: "i do not believe it would be possible for me to satisfy grover in my administration of the national archives, nor in my public rela- tions activities, nor even in the production of professional literature." there is little official documentation of the deteriorating relations between schel- lenberg and grover, but the diary entries show that the warfare became increasingly bitter. this is described in considerable detail in donald r. mccoy's book, the national archives: americas ministry of doc- uments, - , and it is unnecessary and perhaps inappropriate to do more here than indicate the dimensions of the battle. the sharpest conflicts were waged, between and , over the grover and bahmer proposal that the national archives be reorganized on a functional basis, and, in august , when the archivist established an accessioning pol- icies review board to "review past acces- sioning policies and actions" and to for- mulate "more detailed policies and stan- dards governing records accepted for deposit in the national archives." schellenberg held that "archivists should be subject-matter specialists capable of performing all archival functions on a given body of records." he viewed the proposed reorganization of the national archives as "a big step backward" that "would create temporary anarchy, and would render the institution sterile from a scholarly point of view." apparently "robert h. bahmer, oral history transcript, may , p. . rg . schellenberg diary, january , p. . schellenberg papers. hereafter cited as schellenberg diary. aibid., pp. - ; bahmer, oral history transcript, may , p. . mccoy, the national archives, p . ; american archivist (april ): . "schellenberg diary, february . ibid. see also the diary entries for and january . mccoy, the national archives, p p . - . ""planning and control case - , rg ; gsa order nar . , august . "schellenberg diary, march and january . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall however, it was schellenberg's bitter com- plaint about the establishment of the accessioning policies review board that provided the proverbial last straw. he denounced the new board as "unnecessary and highly inappropriate." further, he was angered by the appointment of her- man kahn, whom he associated with pres- idential libraries, as head of the board. he regarded kahn's assignment as "a deroga- tion of my authority, as well as a personal affront, as i believe it was intended to be." it was perhaps schellenberg's tendency almost invariably to personalize the con- flict, that sealed his fate. both grover and bahmer were essentially fair-minded peo- ple, but they became convinced that schel- lenberg was too controversial and too divi- sive to continue functioning effectively as assistant archivist for the national archives. therefore, they carefully worked out for nars a reorganization plan that would result in schellenberg's reassign- ment and enable them to attain their joint goals of functionalism and increased attention to appraisal, which grover had long considered "by all odds our most dif- ficult problem." in mid-december, grover and bahmer informed schellenberg of their intention to reorganize nars along functional lines effective january . he was told that his position had been abolished and that the office of the national archives was to be divided into an office of military archives, an office of civil archives, and a new office of records appraisal, each headed by an assistant archivist who would rank with the head of the office of records management. g. philip bauer, schellenberg's long-time assistant, and herman kahn were to head up military and civil archives, respectively. schellen- berg was offered the office of records appraisal post. schellenberg was understandably stunned by the news, since he had not been drawn into any of the discussions about the reorganization. he observed to grover that it involved quite a comedown for him, and inquired about the possibility of retiring. he was assured, however, that they did not wish his retirement and that his proposed new job was an important and difficult one. schellenberg's diary shows that his "immediate reactions to the organizational changes were those of utter consternation and despair." he was par- ticularly hurt by the implication that his intensive efforts "in developing instruc- tional and professional literature" were of "no consequence," and by grover's orders that his teaching activities were to be ter- minated summarily. although he viewed the reorganization plan as basically a com- pound of personal vindictiveness and favoritism with political overtones, he admitted that it included some valid administrative elements and that some- thing must be done to improve records schedules, which he regarded as "practi- cally worthless" in identifying records of research value. he therefore informed grover that he would accept the job and do the best he could with it. having made this decision, schellen- berg characteristically sublimated his per- sonal bitterness to the demands of the job, and, in the two years that elapsed before his retirement, threw all his energy into studying disposal procedures and analyz- ing methods that might improve disposal and accessioning by the national archives. the result was successful implementation of a new and positive approach to records appraisal, based on identification of the permanently valu- able agency documentation that should be retained, rather than on the conventional negative approach of focusing attention on agency lists and schedules of records ""ibid., august . grover to deputy archivist, office of the national archives, and office of records manage- ment, november . day file, grover papers. rg . schellenberg diary, and december ; american archivist (april ): - . "schellenberg diary, and december . meyer h. fishbein, interview, august . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg proposed for destruction. this change in emphasis was an imaginative and signifi- cant development in the appraisal of mod- ern public records, and a fitting capstone to schellenberg's distinguished career as an archival theoretician. schellenberg continued to believe, how- ever, that his reassignment was a "punitive measure" designed to destroy him profes- sionally by removing him from the main- stream of "professional archival activities and contacts." consequently, his retire- ment in december was tinged with deep bitterness toward the staff of the national archives, especially top manage- ment, and the conviction that his many contributions to nars had not been appreciated—a feeling that the passage of time did not assuage. the six years that elapsed between his retirement and his death in january were, however, busy and productive, and, on the whole, seemed to bring schellen- berg a considerable measure of profes- sional and personal satisfaction. in great demand as a teacher and lecturer, his advice was constantly sought by archivists, manuscript curators, historians, and oth- ers at home and abroad. in a mere six- year period he taught courses in archives administration at a number of universities; published seven professional papers; gave two important papers at the first carib- bean archives conference, and completed work on his second full-scale textbook, the controversial the management of archives, published by columbia university press in . this book was really the outgrowth of his philosophical conviction that the "prin- ciples and techniques now applied to pub- lic records may be applied also, with some modification, to private records, especially to private manuscript material of recent origin, much of which has the organic character of archival material." although not everyone agreed with this assumption, it was really schellenberg's observations about archival training that sparked heated controversy. his thesis, developed at some length in the management of archives, is that "library schools are the proper places in which to provide archival training, for they reach the most important class of rec- ord custodians, i.e., the librarians them- selves." furthermore, he contended, such courses "can be given more system- atically" in library schools, "which are con- cerned with methodological training." during the annual meeting of the society of american archivists, at atlanta, this subject was further explored at a ses- sion on "different approaches to archival training." in excellent papers presented by h. g. jones, state archivist of north carolina, and schellenberg, the issues involved in archival training were thor- oughly reviewed and debated, followed by a lengthy discussion that "was halted only when it became necessary to vacate the room." " the discussion, it might be added, continues still. in addition to these professional activi- ties, schellenberg somehow found time to carry on extensive correspondence on a variety of subjects, ranging from step-by- step instructions to a lay archivist on how to arrange a small collection of manuscript materials, to an exchange of letters with julian p. boyd and h. g. jones regarding the independence issue, to the bitter debate in over the report of the joint "schellenberg diary, january . george s. ulibarri, "bibliography of selected writings of theodore r. schellenberg," p. , and clinton v. black, "the complete archivist," pp. - ; both in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg." professional correspondence, - , schellenberg papers. t. r. schellenberg, the management of archives (new york: columbia university press, ), p. ix. ibid., p. . ibid., p. ix. b"news notes: society of american archivists," american archivist (january ): - ; h. g. jones, "archival training in american universities, - ," american archivist (april ): - ; t. r. schellenberg, "archival training in library schools," ibid.: - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall committee appointed by the aha, the oah, and the saa to investigate the sta- tus of the national archives in the federal government. schellenberg strongly sup- ported most of the basic findings of the report and in march , at the sugges- tion of h. g. jones, he prepared a candid, -page "analysis of developments within the national archives and records ser- vice," incorporating his views on the sub- ject and his comments on the rebuttal report prepared by nars. tt his corre- spondence further reveals, not surpris- ingly, that schellenberg, with his challeng- ing intellect and passion for work, was planning several additional professional undertakings, including a possible collab- oration with everett alldredge on a book on records management. it is not difficult to assess the profes- sional impact of ted schellenberg's career and achievements, for most reasonably objective observers will agree with ernst posner that "he broke new ground" in many areas of archival administration—as a theorist, writer, teacher, and archival envoy. in the early years of the national archives the principles and techniques of the archival profession were not well defined, and little guidance was available to the staff on doing its work. gradually, however, the national archives method- ology evolved. schellenberg felt that the greatest progress in the development of methodology was made in the s "when the scheduling procedure, the find- ing aid program, and criteria for the appraisal of records were developed," and the record group and inventory concepts were introduced as operating devices to ensure adequate initial control of national archives holdings and to facilitate records description. of course, the national archives did not invent finding aids or even the record group concept, which was based on the french idea of fonds. the staff did build on european experience that was relevant, but it went on to develop new archival standards and a more truly american archival profession. thus, as schellenberg noted: "it is diffi- cult to attribute to any one archivist major accomplishments in the development of archival principles and techniques, for one archivist built on the contributions of his predecessors." members of the finding mediums committee, including solon j. buck, oliver holmes, and others, made major contributions to the development of the finding aids program, as did schellen- berg. progress in developing the micro- film publication program, and several other aspects of archival operations, may also be attributed in part to the collective thinking of the senior staff members; but it was schellenberg who had the unusual ability to analyze complex archival prob- lems, to develop and systematize archival doctrine, and to express it clearly and log- ically. in the difficult area of records appraisal, moreover, schellenberg made significant and unique contributions as an archival theoretician. that he fully understood the situation faced by the american archivist- records manager trying to cope with the mass production of modern records, is clearly evidenced in his widely acclaimed bulletin on the appraisal of modern records, published in . this detailed exposi- tion of the principles of appraisal, together t. r. schellenberg to james j. kiepper, july ; schellenberg to julian p. boyd, feb- ruary ; boyd to schellenberg, february ; h. g. jones to schellenberg, february ; schellenberg to jones, march . professional correspondence, schellenberg papers. ltt. r. schellenberg, "analysis of developments within the national archives and records ser- vice." professional correspondence, schellenberg papers, march . t. r. schellenberg to everett o. alldredge, february ; alldredge to schellenberg, february . ernst posner, "he broke new ground," pp. - , in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellen- berg." schellenberg, "analysis of developments," p. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril theodore r. schellenberg with the statement on "appraisal stan- dards," so admirably defined in modern archives, comprise an invaluable legacy to archival theory and to the practicing archivist. nor should one forget his work in helping to develop the procedures fol- lowed in the u.s. government in sched- uling records for disposition, particularly in developing and implementing the new identification of permanently valuable documentation. as contributor to archival literature and as a teacher, schellenberg's main objective was to systematize and standardize archi- val principles and techniques. in the words of ernst posner, modern archives "brought the objectives and techniques of the management of current records within the purview of the archivist, in contrast to the previous attitude that their genesis and management in the agencies were not his concern." in advocating extension to private records of the principles and tech- niques now applied to public records, schellenberg also broke new ground in the management of archives. both works were designed to serve as academic text- books, for he felt strongly that archival methodology must be "clearly and fully defined" before "it can be taught effec- tively in training courses." imbued with these convictions, schellenberg taught with great authority and had a low tolerance level for students who failed to meet his rigorous standards of professionalism. when, in his later years, he advocated archival training in library schools because, unlike university history departments, they are "concerned with methodological train- ing," he contended that this would "not subordinate the archival profession to the library profession." "if properly taught," he wrote a former colleague, "such courses will clearly differentiate between the tech- niques of the archivist and the librarian, and will actually result in the development of a professional knowledge of tech- niques— which is now lacking among most manuscript curators and archivists." he never changed his life-long conviction that the well-trained archivist should be well grounded in history, and for most posi- tions should have an advanced degree in the social sciences. the impact of schellenberg's activities as an archival envoy, and his influence in the countries he visited as a scholar and teacher, were tremendous and have proved to be enduring. the interest generated in australia by schellenberg's seminars and lectures not only led to the establishment of new archival positions and to the gen- eral adoption of american rationale and techniques, but gave impetus to the move- ment for archival reform. schellenberg's archival activities in latin america were no less rewarding, culmi- nating in the meeting of the first inter-american archival seminar and in the subsequent creation of the inter- american technical council on archives, to continue the work begun in the seminar "and to seek ways and means of imple- menting the program agreed upon for the improvement of the archival profession in the americas." schellenberg was chosen chairman of the council and served in that capacity until he was forced by ill health to resign, in . certainly it may be said that he was a brilliantly successful archival envoy and that his contributions to the profession were u n d e r s t o o d and a p p r e c i a t e d abroad—perhaps more than at home. how else can it be explained that, despite his renown, he never received the honor and privilege of being elected to serve as schellenberg, modern archives: principles and techniques, p p . - . ernst posner, "he broke new ground," p. , in "in memoriam: theodore r. schellenberg." t. r. schellenberg, the management of archives, p. ix. t. r. schellenberg to h. baumhofer, november . professional correspondence. schel- lenberg papers. george s. ulibarri, "the inter-american technical council on archives," american archivist (january ): . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall president of the society of american archivists? at the annual meeting of the saa, in salt lake city, ted schellenberg gave a perceptive address on "the future of the archival profession," and concluded with these often quoted words: "in the course of time archivists will create their own profession. it will be a profession with techniques and principles as well defined as those of the library profession, but quite distinct from them. and these techniques and principles will be embod- ied in literature that will constitute the basis for a separate discipline—for sepa- rate training courses taught in library schools and universities."" much remains to be accomplished before this objective will be fully attained; but as an archival theorist, writer, and lecturer, schellenberg certainly played a major role in pointing the profession in that direc- tion. indeed, as americanizer and publi- cizer, he probably made more significant and enduring contributions to the devel- opment and maturation of the archival profession than any american archivist, with the sole exception of ernst posner. and, like posner, ted schellenberg made an indelible imprint on those who were fortunate enough to know him. t. r. schellenberg, "the future of the archival profession," american archivist (january ): . jane f. smith recently retired as director, civil archives division, national archives and records service. her article, slightly revised for publication, is the paper she presented on october at the saa annual meeting, in cincinnati. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . r gnx r p by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ gene extinction and allelic origins in complex genealogies proc. r. soc. lond. b , - ( ) printed in great britain gene e x tin c tio n a n d allelic origins in com plex genealogies b y e l i z a b e t h a. t h o m p s o n statistical l a b o r a t o r y ,depart ment of pure mathematics and mathematical statistics, mill lane, cambridge cb u.k. w ith the increasing em phasis on d a ta analysis in m athem atical genetics, problem s of param etrizing genealogical stru ctu re become of practical im portance. a complete specification of the genetic effects of genealogical stru ctu re is provided by th e probabilities of genetically d istin ct states of gene id en tity by descent. a lthough this provides a direct p aram etrizatio n for the jo in t d istrib u tio n of tra its on a set of related individuals, it is an unwieldy tool in the analysis of large and complex genealogies. p ro b ­ abilities of jo in t descent of founder genes and likely ancestries of alleles provide altern ativ e characterizations of relationship and have direct application in practical problems. j o in t extinction probabilities of founder genes can also be derived as ancestral likelihoods: evolutionarily, the m ost significant characteristic of a genealogical stru ctu re m ust be its effect on the survival and extinction of genes. . p o p u l a t i o n s t r u c t u r e genetic v ariab ility is the basis of evolution, and much of the evolution of higher organisms, and especially of m an, m ay have tak en place w ithin small isolated groups of individuals, w ithin which short-term history m ay have had long-term consequences. an analysis of the stru ctu re of such groups is an im p o rtan t p a rt of an understanding of the role of detailed genealogical history in the determ ination of cu rren t genetic distributions. over the last few years the em phasis in m a th e ­ m atical genetics has m oved from analyses of genetic models of evolutionary processes tow ards m ethods for the analysis of d a ta , and th u s tow ards more detailed descriptions of small-scale phenom ena. in a small population or population sample, it is the genealogical stru c tu re which provides th e essential link between observable characteristics of individuals and genetic models for the determ ination of such observations. i shall restrict discussion of population stru ctu re to the context of a single mendelian autosom al locus. t h a t is, for the p articu lar characteristic of interest, the ty p e of an individual is determ ined by the types of the two genes th a t he carries, one of which he received from his fath er and the other from his m o th e r; to each of his offspring he will pass on a random ly chosen one of these two genes. a gene in an individual will refer to one of these two homologous genes, and a trait will be an observable characteristic of individuals determ ined by the unordered pair of types of these two genes. of course, evolutionary processes involve very much more th a n the segregation of discrete mendelian autosom al genes: but, w hatever the ram ifications of dna sequences and complex multi-locus systems, it rem ains the fact th a t much of th e norm al v ariation observed w ithin populations is of [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il elizabeth a. thompson f ig u r e i . genealogy used for the purposes of example throughout this paper. males are denoted by squares and females by circles. oblique strokes denote current and current carrier individuals (see table ). t a b l e . spe c if ic at io n of t h e e x a m p l e ge n e a l o g y of f ig u r e individual mother father sex comment i founder founder founder — — founder founder — — — — — current current carrier current carrier current carrier founder current current v arian ts w ith o u t m arked selective effects, n o t closely linked to oth er m arkers, and segregating according to m endel’s first law. such tra its are involved in m any of the open questions of d a ta analysis. in principle, a genealogy is a graph w ith some special characteristics. everyone has precisely two parents, and a specification of the p aren ts of all individuals p a st [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il and present is the genealogy (see figure and table ). in practice, only the p aren ts of some lim ited set of individuals can be specified. genealogical relationships are thus defined relative to some set of individuals w ith unspecified p a ren ts; the founders of the genealogy. these m ay be actual im m igrants to an isolated population or th ey m ay be designated founders in a purely artificial sense. a lthough this specification of offsp rin g -m o th er-fath er trip lets is the genealogy, it is of little use as it stands. a useful param etrizatio n of stru ctu re m ust relate to relevant genetic events, such as the survival or ancestry of certain genes, and m ethods of param etrizatio n m ust provide m ethods of d a ta analysis. as an exam ple i shall use th e small genealogy of figure , which shows useful complex features, b u t is still easily analysed. six individuals are assum ed to constitute the current p o p u la tio n ; three of them are supposed to carry a certain ty p e of gene of interest (table ). . g e n e i d e n t i t y b y d e s c e n t specified genes in a set of individuals are said to be identical by descent if all are received by repeated segregation from a single gene in some common ancestor. in this paper, id en tity of genes will refer always to id en tity by descent ra th e r th a n of type. the genes of n specified individuals m ay be considered as an ordered set of n unordered pairs of genes. the ngenes fall into disjoint subsets, the genes w ithin any subset being identical. however, m any of the partitio n s of the genes are genetically equivalent, due to the fact th a t the two genes w ithin an individual act as an unordered pair in the determ ination of tra its. by defining equivalence relations between partitio n s obtained from each other from interchanging the two genes of some subset of individuals, one obtains equivalence classes th a t are genetically distinct states of gene id en tity (thompson ). the num ber of equivalence classes increases rapidly w ith n, although n o t as quickly as the num ber of partitions. f o r n = there are p artitio n s in genetically d istinct gene id en tity states. f o r convenience of exam ple and reference, consider here two sum m ary statistics of the probabilities of gene id en tity states. the kinship coefficient, \}r, between two (not necessarily distinct) individuals b x and is the probability th a t a gene random ly chosen from b is identical to a gene independently selected from the inbreeding coefficient of an individual is th e kinship coefficient between his parents, or the probability th a t he is autozygous\ th a t is, th a t he carries two identical genes. i f the two paren ts of an individual share no ancestors (relative to the specified genealogy), the individual has zero probability of autozygosity. between two such individuals there are only three possible states of gene id e n tity : the individuals have i genes in common w ith probability kt, , , (k + k + k = ). their kinship coefficient is b ) = \ k (bx, b ) + \ k (b , b ), ( ) for when the individuals have ( ) gene(s) in common there is p robability \ (|) th a t the gene chosen from each will be identical to each other. more generally, ^ is a linear com bination of gene id en tity state probabilities. gene extinction and allelic origins [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il the genealogy of individuals determ ines a p ro b ab ility of each of the possible states. the converse is n o t t r u e ; sta te probabilities do n o t uniquely determ ine a genealogy. f o r exam ple, uncle, half-sib and g ra n d p a ren t all have the same sta te probabilities (table ). however, th e genealogical relationship affects th e jo in t probability d istrib u tio n of observable genetic tra its only through th e sta te probabilities. p (d a ta | genealogy) = x p ( d a ta | state) p (state|genealogy). ( ) states f u rth er, any p robability sta te m e n t a b o u t types of fu tu re jo in t descendants of the individuals is dependent on th e ancestral genealogy only th ro u g h these cu rren t t a bl e . p r o b a b il it ie s of g e n e id e n t it y st a t e s b e t w e e n a p a ir of no n -inbred relatives elizabeth a. thompson kt = p(i genes in common) & k k kinship, \]r parent-offspring l full-sib uncle, half-sib, grandparent double-first-cousin x _ _ jl quadruple-half-first cousin x m t a b l e . p r o b a b il it ie s of st a t e s of g e n e id e n t it y b y d e sc e n t for individuals and of figure x probability all four genes identical both autozygous, with distinct genes only autozygous; gene shared with only autozygous; genes shared with only autozygous; gene shared with only autozygous; genes shared with neither autozygous; common genes neither autozygous; common gene (kx) neither autozygous; common genes total state probabilities. in th is precise sense, the genetic consequences of genealogical relationship are sum m arized by th e state probabilities th a t the genealogy determ ines. a lthough directly related to tr a it distributions, th e set of gene id en tity state probabilities has two m ajor disadvantages as a p aram etrizatio n of a genealogy. n ot only is there a large num ber of possible states, b u t the set of states of positive [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il probability is n o t easily recognizable from the genealogy. even between two individuals, each of whom m ay be autozygous, there are in general states, and, for example, these all have positive probability for the two individuals and of figure (see table ). on the oth er hand, only of the states between six individuals have non-zero probability for the six current individuals of figure . this can only be determ ined essentially by counting, and a set of probabilities is in any case an unwieldy specification of th eir jo in t relationship. the other disadvantage is more serious. genealogical relationships cannot be characterized as probability distributions on the set of gene id en tity states, for not all distributions are a tta in ab le even in the lim it. in general the tru e space of state probabilities is unknown. in the sim plest case of relationships between two non-inbred individuals, thom pson ( ) has shown th a t k\ ^ & & . ( ) f u rth er, given any specified dyadic-rational ) satisfying ( ) a genealogy providing these ktcan be constructed. i t is of interest th a t both restriction and construction derive from a consideration of th e cross-parental kinship coefficients. any dyadic-rational value in [ , ] is a ttain ab le as a kinship coefficient between two individuals in some genealogical structure. k inship co­ efficients th u s seem to provide a more n a tu ra l param etrizatio n of relationship. however, they are an insufficient sum m ary of relationship: half-sibs, double- first-cousins and quadruple-half-first-cousins all have the same coefficient of kinship (table ), b u t different &r values and hence different jo in t distributions of genetic tra its. gene extinction and allelic origins . d e s c e n t p r o b a b i l i t i e s despite th eir inadequacies, kinship coefficients are the one universally recognized sum m ary of genealogical structure. they are also readily com puted for th ey satisfy a simple recursive equation. provided b x is n o t nor a direct ancestor of t ( b x, b ) = h m m , b )}, ( ) where m x and fx are the p aren ts of b x, since when a gene of b x is random ly selected it is a gene of m x (fx) w ith probability | (|). f u rth e r xlr{bx, b x) = £{ ( ) for the genes chosen ‘ w ith replacem ent ’ from b x are the same gene w ith probability and are the two distinct genes of b x (one from m x and one from fx) also w ith probability k arigl ( ) has extended the definition of kinship coefficients to a rb itra ry num bers of genes. he defines xjr{bx, b . .. ) to be the probability th a t one gene chosen from each of the n individuals, b x, b .. .,b n, ( n > ), are all identical. these generalized kinship coefficients satisfy generalizations of ( ) and ( ), and are related to probabilities of gene id en tity states by generalizations of ( ). since gene id en tity state probabilities are uniquely determ ined by a sufficient set of these generalized multiple kinships, the la tte r provide an equivalent param etrization of genealogical [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il structure. this p aram etrizatio n is less directly related to jo in t distributions of genetic tra its (equation ( )), b u t is more closely related to the original genealogical specification in term s of individuals and th eir two parents, and to ancestry of genes. t a bl e . d e s c e n t p r o b a b il it ie s from f o u n d e r g e n e s to c u r r e n t individuals (the notation ( ) denotes that both genes of individual are included in set s, ( ) that gene of is included, and so on. probabilities are given as a pair, denoting i/ ?.) ancestral set, s current set elizabeth a. thompson { , , , } { , , } { , } { } { } { ( )} , , , , , ( ( )} , , , , , { ( )} , , , , , { ( ), ( )} , , , , , { ( ), ( )} , , , , , { ( ), ( )} , , , , , however, m ultiple kinships are ra th e r stric t in insisting on id e n tity of all of a large num ber of genes, and ra th e r loose in allowing id e n tity to any ancestral gene. an altern ativ e generalization is to define d s ( b , b , . . . , b , to be the p robability th a t genes chosen from each of the n individuals are all descended from some gene in a specified set of founder genes s (not necessarily from the same gene w ithin this set). provided b is d istin ct from individuals b , __ , b n (if any) and is n o t an ancestor of any of them , clearly gs (blt b „ . . . , b n) = (i) {gs (mvb „ ., b n) + ( ) f u rth er, if b x = . . . = b r( < r ̂ n )is d istin ct from and n o t ancestral to any of the oth er (n — r) individuals (not them selves necessarily distinct) s (bi , b , . . . , b n) = (!) r̂ ^{dsibi, b r+ , . . . , b n) + ( (r- ) - )gs {mx, b r+ , . . . , ( ) since th e p robability th a t the same gene is selected from b x on each of r occasions is (|)(r_ ), and if two different genes are selected th ey consist of a random gene from each of the p aren ts m x and fx of b x. (the functions are, like \jr, sym m etric in th eir argum ents.) these probabilities m ay th u s be com puted readily for a rb itarily specified founder sets s, gssatisfying simple boundary conditions where individuals b t have genes specified to be in . c om putationally, the num ber n is lim ited b u t the num ber of genes in is not. thus we can com pute probabilities th a t specified current genes descend from various ancestral sets, and, more im p o rtan t, the dependence between descent from certain ancestors to different current individuals. consider, for example, the genealogy of figure . the jo in t descent probabilities to various of the current individuals from various ancestral sets are given in table . n ote th a t descent of [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il a given gene can only increase the probability of descent of the same gene to a relative, and only decrease the probability of descent of other genes. j o in t descent to and from th e couple ( , ) has probability whereas the pro d u ct of the separate probabilities is only on the other hand descent to and from ( , ) makes descent to and from ( , ) less probable. in this small genealogy with only four generations interactions are small, b u t on a large and complex genealogy thom pson ( ) has shown jo in t descent probabilities more th a n tim es the pro d u ct of separate values. gene extinction and allelic origins . i n f e r r i n g a nc est ral t y p e s of g e n e s the descent probabilities of the previous section have direct practical application in inferring the ancestral origins of certain alleles (th a t is, genes of a certain type) in the current population. we shall denote the p articu lar allele of in terest by and a gene of any oth er ty p e by a . suppose we have some num ber of individuals (bx, b n) known to carry a x, and consider a set s of hypothesized ancestral copies of th is allele. then gs {bx, b , . .. ,b is th e probability th a t a random ly chosen gene in each of these current individuals derives from the ancestral set s, and com paring these probabilities for altern ativ e sets provides relative likelihoods of these sets as the ancestral allelic ax copies. there are two m ajor oversimplifications here. f irst, descent only to individuals carrying th e a x allelle is considered. any inform ation on its non-descent to other individuals is n o t included. in figure descent to the assum ed carriers ( , and ) is sym m etric between couples ( , ) and ( , ) (see table ) b u t the fact th a t and are n o t carriers m ust make ( , ) the more likely founder carriers. f u rth er, analysis of descent only to carriers m ust bias the analysis tow ards the conclusion of more ancestral copies. h ypotheses involving different num bers of original copies are n o t com parable. secondly, n o t only are d a ta on current non-carriers disregarded, b u t also inform ation on types of ancestors. f o r example, individuals carrying two copies of th e ax allele m ay have decreased survival probabilities: often, tra its of interest in large and complex genealogies are of this recessive type. ancestors th en have some reduced (perhaps even zero) probability of having carried two such alleles. in a complex genealogy over m any generations inclusion of this fact can alter inferences. against these disadvantages there are two advantages. a lthough for sim plicity the genes of s were above specified as being genes of founders, in fact, provided s does not involve individuals who are ancestors of each other, th ey m ay be any ancestral genes. hence descent of a p articu lar allele m ay be traced down the genealogy, by hypothesizing ancestral sets s a t different generations. the second advantage is the ease of c o m p u ta tio n : m any altern ativ e hypotheses m ay be very rapidly assessed. these advantages are a p p aren t in a re-analysis of the d a ta of k idd et al. ( ) on the ancestry of propionic acidaem ia in a m ennonite-amish genealogy. the two disadvantages also apply, b u t n o t w ith strong force, since individuals w ith two copies of the allele can be w ithout clinical sym ptom s, and few individuals among the ancestors have a 'priori high probability of carrying two genes identical by descent. thom pson ( ) shows th a t p a tte rn s of joint descent, [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il jointly between current carrier p aren ts of affected individuals and jointly between altern ativ e founder carriers, are im p o rta n t in a q u a n tita tiv e assessm ent of the possible hypotheses. i f the above is an oversimplified approxim ation, w h at is th e full solution? suppose th a t, for a given com bination of ty p es of original founder genes, one could com pute the pro b ab ility of th e d a ta observed on cu rren t individuals of all types, under a given genetic model, perhaps involving inform ation a b o u t varying t a bl e . p art of t he a n c es t r a l l ik e l ih oo d for t he p e d i g r e e of f ig u r e under the data of table (carriers are known to carry one ax gene, the other current individuals none. founders and are here taken as the most likely combination a a , and the marginal likelihood for the other two founder couples is tabulated, the full function being given by symmetry between the two members of each couple. figures in brackets give the likelihood when no ancestor can have carried two a genes. the numbers each divided by give the exact probability of data under the ancestral combination.) elizabeth a. thompson couple ( , ) x juj axax x axa couple ( , ) x a a cl̂ cl x cl-̂cl axa x a a a a x a a a a x a a axax x axa x cb cb axa x axa ( ) ( ) ( ) axa x a a ( ) ( ) ( ) a a x ( ) ( ) ( ) viability of ty p es of ancestors. this would th en be a likelihood for th a t com bination of founder types. in principle this can be done, using th e m ethod of cannings et al. ( ), th e basis of which is th e following. define a cutset of individuals to be a set who to g eth er divide th e genealogy. f o r present purposes it will be sufficient to consider cutsets dividing a cu rren t set of individuals from a set of ancestors including all the founders of the genealogy; for exam ple, individuals { , , , , } in figure . i f the types of th e genes carried by such a set of individuals are specified, genetic events in sets of individuals on different sides of the cutset are statistically independent. d a ta on individual , for exam ple, convey no inform ation a b o u t th e tra its of and , and vice versa. we th en consider probabilities of d a ta below a given cutset, conditional on each possible com bination of types of genes in individuals in th e cutset, and work sequentially back through the genealogy from one cu tset to the next, incorporating parent-offspring segre­ gation probabilities and any oth er inform ation on tra its of individuals of types of ancestral genes. f inally we o btain the probability of all d a ta observed on the genealogy given each possible (ordered) com bination of founder gene types, or sim ultaneously the likelihoods of every possible founder com bination. in table is shown p a r t of the ancestral likelihood function for the exam ple genealogy. n ote th a t couple ( , ) are indeed the more likely ancestral ax carriers, it being m ost likely th a t both members of the couple are so. n ote also the ordering of th e likelihoods, which m ay be unexpected a priori. the different orderings [ d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il between rows and between columns show the necessity for joint inferences on the two couples, even in this small exam ple. the effect of excluding possible cqaq ancestors is here to reduce th e likelihood of x axa founder couples; not surprisingly, since the o th er ancestors of the current population consist m ainly of offspring of these couples. in a larger genealogy th e decreased likelihood of any such ancestral couples can have varied effects on inferences a b o u t original founders. in a large complex genealogy, th is approach m ay n o t be com putationally feasible. a t each stage all possible com binations of types of genes for all members of the current cu tset m ust be considered. a lthough it is sometimes possible to work sequentially through large genealogies of isolated populations w ith cutsets of no more th a n or individuals, this is n o t always feasible and determ ining the optim al cutset sequence is in general an unsolved problem. f u rth er, the num ber of founders m ay be prohibitive. in m any cases it will be necessary to consider jointly only some subset of the founders, under some (probabilistic) assum ptions ab o u t the types of the rem ainder. one population for which this can be done is the small isolated population of t ristan da cunha, where eleven early founders contribute % of current genes. here thom pson ( ) has shown th a t inferences can be made ab o u t the jo in t types of genes in founders living before . the m ultiple complex p a th s of relationship increase com putational difficulty, b u t provide the inform ation required. such inferences are lim ited to simple genetic tra its. nonetheless, the power to make inferences ab o u t th e types of genes seven generations ago indicates th a t, conversely, these types can affect current tra it distributions. this exam ple of the t ristan da cunha population is considered fu rth er below. gene extinction and allelic origins . g e n e s u r v i v a l a n d g e n e e x t i n c t i o n this analysis of ancestry in term s of jo in t likelihoods on sets of founders leads to an altern ativ e characterization of genealogical stru ctu re. f o r the essence of evolution in a population is gene survival: the num ber and v ariety of distinct surviving genes. so instead of ancestry let us consider gene survival, or equivalently extinction. j u s t as descent probabilities have in terp retatio n as approxim ate ancestral likelihoods, so th e complete ancestral likelihoods provide extinction probabilities. consider a tr a it for which there are ju st two alleles oq and and a specified com bination of alleles am ong original founders. then the probability of extinction of (at least) those founder genes labelled oq is th e probability th a t, given the ancestral com bination, the population now consists entirely of individuals w ith two a genes. b u t this is also th e ancestral likelihood of the p articu lar com bination of ancestral oq and a genes, given this cu rren t population. w orking backw ards from a current population in which all individuals are assumed to carry two a genes, we can therefore com pute sim ultaneously the extinction probabilities of all com binations of founder genes. again a joint analysis is im p o rtan t. survival of th e genes of a given founder over a specified genealogy decreases the survival probabilities of genes in other founder individuals who share descendants w ith the first. p articularly, therefore, [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il survival decreases survival of spouse genes, and, indeed, survival of one gene in a founder decreases the survival p ro b ab ility of th e other. sim ilarly extinction of some genes decreases extinction probabilities of o th e rs : some genes m ust survive in an e x ta n t population. the six individuals of figure carry a t least three and a t m ost nine distin ct genes, although there are six founders to the genealogy. n o t all four genes of either original couple can be ex tin ct, nor b o th those of . a lthough there is little interaction betw een th e tw o couples, since th e population consists m ainly of th eir grandchildren, survival of a gene of decreases the p ro b ab ility of survival of all four genes of ( , ) from to ŝ. survival of b o th genes of decreases th e survival p ro b ab ility of both genes of from to a- the e x te n t to which survival or extinction of certain subsets of founder genes precludes survival or extinction of o th er disjoint subsets provides a m easure of th e stru c tu re of th e genealogy w ith respect to th e lim ited p a th s for descent of genes. how m any genes do survive in a small isolated p o pulation ? questions a b o u t th e exact num bers of genes are n o t precisely th e same as those a b o u t th e fate of (at least) a certain labelled set of genes. however, answers to th e la tte r, which are provided by th e ancestral likelihoods, can be transform ed to provide th e required p robability distributions. to tu rn finally to a real exam ple again, th e eleven early founders of th e t ristan de c unha population provided p o ten tial genes, b u t n o t all can be present now. thom as & thom pson ( ) have shown th a t w ith p robability . betw een an d genes survive, these being m ade up of betw een and of th e six genes in the three founder females an d of betw een and of th e sixteen genes in the eight founder males. a lthough interactions are generally small in this expanding population, survival of some founder genes does reduce survival probabilities for others; note th a t (female genes) + (male genes) > (total genes). such analyses emphasize ju s t how rap id th e loss of variab ility can be in a small isolated population, and ju st how crucial certain segregations can be in determ ining the cu rren t genetic constitution. elizabeth a. thompson r e f e r e n c e s cannings, c., thompson, e. a. & skolnick, m. h. probability functions on complex pedigrees. adv. appl. prob. , - . karigl, g. a recursive algorithm for the calculation of identity coefficients. ann. hum. genet. , - . kidd, j. r., wolf, b., hsia, y. e. & kidd, k. k. genetics of propionic acidemia in a mennonite-amish kindred. am. j. hum. genet. , - . thomas, a. & thompson, e. a. the number of genes on tristan da cunha. (submitted.) thompson, e. a. gene identities and multiple relationships. biometrika , - . thompson, e. a. a restriction on the space of genetic relationships. ann. hum. genet. , - . thompson, e. a. ancestral inference. ii. the founders of tristan da cunha. ann. hum. genet. , - . thompson, e. a. a recursive algorithm for inferring gene origins. ann. hum. genet. , - . discussion a. w . f . e d w a r d s ( caiuscollege, cambridge university, u.k.). how does one prove th a t every dyadic ratio for a kinship coefficient corresponds to some genealogical relationship ? [ ] d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il e lizab eth a. t h o m p s o n. the form of equations ( ) and ( ) shows th a t this m ust be so, and the fact has been known for a very long tim e. however, th e nicest proof i know is a constructive dem onstration given only recently by dr g. k arigl. expressing the required kinship coefficient as a binary expansion, the sequence of zeros and ones can be used to define an explicit sequence of outbreeding and backcrossing which produces the required result. a lthough such a genealogy is unlikely in hum an populations, this n eatly proves th e theoretical result. a t the meeting, professor felsenstein, professor hill, professor bodm er and professor k ingm an raised questions of com plexity of genealogies, inaccuracies in genealogies, complex genetic models and the approxim ations it is then necessary to introduce into com putations. in principle, the m ethods of obtaining ancestral likelihoods apply to arb itra rily complex genetic models on a rb itrarily complex genealogies. in practice, there are of course com putational lim itations, although really quite complex situations can be considered. in my paper i have covered w hat m ight be referred to as ‘ the theory of exact com putations on genealogies ’. the n ex t stage, which requires both theoretical and practical work, is a stu d y of approxim ate com putations. by how much are results altered by om itting ap p aren tly uninform ative sections of genealogy ? how dependent are results on certain critical links in a genealogy, and how can we determ ine which th ey are? w h at is the expected gain in using linked loci to increase th e power to make inferences ? how much is lost by having only phenotypic ra th e r th a n genotypic d a ta? although some work has been done in this area, these rem ain im p o rtan t open questions. gene extinction and allelic origins i o [ ] vol. . b d ow nl oa de d fr om h tt ps :/ /r oy al so ci et yp ub li sh in g. or g/ o n a pr il the occurrence of multiple sclerosis in the hutterites of north america walter j. hader, t. peter seland, mary b. hader, colleen j. harris and dennis w. dietrich abstract: objective: to report the occurrence, clinical characteristics and genealogical analysis of multiple sclerosis in the hutterites of north-western united states and western canada. background: the incidence of multiple sclerosis is reported to be lower or rare in certain ethnic groups and genetic isolates and was previously observed to be absent in the hutterite population. methods: after long- term surveillance, six patients were identified and clinical examinations and laboratory investigations including ver and mri were completed. results: the six cases included two brothers, two first cousins, male and female, another male and female, all representing two of the three endogamous groups of hutterites, are linked to two common ancestors through lines of descent dating to . the individual pedigrees were analyzed from extensive genealogical records covering eight generations. conclusion: the incidence of multiple sclerosis in hutterites is low in a high risk area of north america. a specific mode of inheritance pattern has not been established and a common founder effect may play a role in the development of multiple sclerosis. the genetic contribution of the hutterites seems greater than previously recognized. resume: la sclerose en plaques chez les hutterites d'amerique du nord. objectif: de rapporter la frequence, les caracteyistiques cliniques et l'analyse g ndalogique des cas de sclerose en plaques chez les hutterites du nord-ouest des ijtats-unis et de l'ouest du canada. introduction: l'incidence de la sclerose en plaques est rap- portde comme etant plus basse ou rare dans certains groupes ethniques et isolats g£n£tiques et on a observe' anterieurement que cette maladie etait absente chez les hutterites. methodes: apres une surveillance prolongee, six patients ont l identifies et nous avons precede chez eux a des examens cliniques et a une investigation qui incluait les potentiels voqu s visuels et la resonance magn tique nucieaire. resultats: les six cas incluaient deux freres, deux cousins germains, soit un homme et une femme, ainsi qu'un autre homme et une autre femme, tous membres de deux des trois groupes endogames de hutterites. ces cas remontent a deux ancetres communs en . les arbres g£n alogiques individuels ont &x tires de fichiers g n alogiques considerables couvrant huit generations. conclusions: l'incidence de la sclerose en plaques chez les hutterites est faible dans les regions a haut risque de l'amevique du nord. un mode d'h£r dit£ sp£cifique n'a pas t etabli et un effet fondateur pourrait jouer un role dans le developpement de la sclerose en plaques. la contribution genetique des hutterites semble plus grande qu'on ne le croyait anterieurement. can. j. neurol. sci. ; : - the incidence of multiple sclerosis (ms) is reported to be lower or rarer in certain ethnic groups residing in high risk areas, including the orientals, blacks, hungarian gypsies, north american indians, lapps and arabs, than in caucasoids. racial variations, higher familial incidence for ms than in the general population, and the higher concordance in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins provide evidence for a genetic contribution to the cause of the disease. associations have been reported between ms and certain histocompatibility antigens (hla) on chromosome . the influence of t-cell receptor genes at other loci, which regulate the immune response con- tributing to the pathogenesis remains unproven. geographic and racial differences, studies in migration and clustering, can be interpreted to support roles for genetics and/or environment in the etiology of ms. the western canadian provinces and the north-western united states comprise an area of high incidence and prevalence for ms. "" ms was observed to be rare or absent in the hutterite population. after long-term surveillance, we report six cases in the hutterite population. the family data are believed to sup- port the hypothesis of a genetic factor in the etiology of ms. from the department of rehabilitation medicine, college of medicine, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon. (w.j.h., m.b.h.); calgary general hospital. department of clinical neurosciences, calgary. (p.t.s., c.j.h.); and columbus professional building. adult and child neurology, great falls. montana, (d.w.d.) received january , . accepted in final form may , . reprint requests to: dr. w.j. hader. department of rehabilitation medicine. saskatoon city hospital, saskatoon, saskatchewan, canada s k m https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences t h e population the hutterite brethren constitute a religious and genetic iso- late residing on highly mechanized communal farms (colonies) in the four western canadian provinces and in the states of north dakota, south dakota, w a s h i n g t o n , m o n t a n a and minnesota. the hutterites, a swiss anabaptist movement, originated in the tyrol region of austria around .'" following numerous migrations an original group of , hutterites emigrated to the dakota territories in the usa from the ukraine in russia between - . a population of settlers formed three original colonies in south dakota and the establishment of these colonies formally initiated three endogamous subdivisions, the dariusleut, lehrerleut and schmiedeleut and have maintained their separate identities and endogamous marriage patterns. the remaining two-thirds, the prairieleut settled on individual home- steads in the same region. the individual leuts expanded and subdivided into further colonies and eventually moved to the canadian prairie provinces of manitoba and alberta in and to saskatchewan in . the hutterite population is closed to immigration and there has been very little intermarriage between the groups since . the three leuts form the legal entity of the hutterian brethren church. t h e r e are c o l o n i e s in the t h r e e c a n a d i a n p r a i r i e provinces and the north-western united states with an average of persons per colony and a range of - . the population of hutterites in western canada is , (canada census ) and , (estimated ) in the north-western states. there are traditional family names among the colonies. a base population of people is believed to have given rise to the current population. because of the small number of immigrant ancestries, it has been estimated that the average rela- tionship among the hutterites is closer than second-cousins. the schmiedeleut of south dakota and manitoba trace their ancestry to founders, the dariusleut to founders and the lehrerleut to founders. each colony has a council with a head minister and a secretary (or "boss") who manages the economic affairs. m e t h o d s we investigated six cases of ms in the hutterite population of saskatchewan and alberta, canada, and montana, united states of america who were ascertained over a five year period. the study was initiated by contacting the neurologists and neuromuscular clinics listed in the american academy of neurology registry. contacts were also made with the ms clin- ics in western canada. information of potential cases was first provided by a colony minister and on follow-up visits to the colonies, these persons had a form of limb-girdle dystrophy that has been p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d in the d a r i u s l e u t and schmiedeleut but not in the lehrerleut population. similar cases were observed in alberta. the people were unfamiliar with the distinction between ms and md and some cases of ms could have been missed. there is close communication between the colonies through the minister's council. the population is very health conscious and open to research in the communities. the utilization rate of medical services is high and they are quite open to receiving medical information and care, including some forms of alternative therapies. the first or index female case was identified by a hutterite member in saskatchewan who led to a second person, a male first cousin. both were visited on two separate lehrerleut colonies in montana. a third person identified by the male cousin but unknown to the first case, was living in southwestern alberta, and provided the history of an affected brother living in s o u t h e a s t e r n s a s k a t c h e w a n . a fifth c a s e listed on the saskatchewan clinic registry was now confirmed and the sixth person was identified by a case informant upon a follow-up by telephone. the colonies to which the six cases belonged were in saskatchewan and montana, approximately miles apart. visits were also made to south dakota and to the first schmiedeleut colony established in near yankton, south dakota. the local records keeper/historian recalled no cases of ms in this leut. the medical records for the index and the five other cases were obtained through family physicians and neurologists. the results of previous laboratory investigations and spinal fluid examinations were accepted if available. five of the six patients had been seen by at least two neurologists and arrangements were made for review of the first four cases at the calgary ms clinic by the study neurologist who confirmed the diagnosis based on standard diagnostic criteria. the visual evoked responses (ver) and mri scanning were done on all six indi- viduals. urine homocystine and methylmalonic acid, and plasma methionine levels were determined on the first four cases. c a s e histories patient the index case is a -year-old female who at age complained of left-sided weakness, incoordination and diplopia which resolved with minimum residual. the incoordination of the left leg and tingling of the left hand recurred in and persisted months. there was a com- plete loss of vision in the left eye, with subsequent recovery of light per- ception at this time. six months later weakness and ataxia occurred in both legs and recovery was incomplete. five years later, in , the gait remained mildly impaired with mild left hemiparesis. vibration was impaired in the left foot. left optic disc pallor and pupillary afferent defect were present. the course has been relatively quiescent since . patient this -year-old male, a first cousin of the index case, developed right optic neuritis in at age with full recovery. fourteen years later he developed moderately severe quadraparesis with bowel and bladder reten- tion and a sensory level to the shoulders. he was unable to feed himself and had severe difficulty with walking. after six weeks he had slight impairment of tandem gait and was fully recovered in to months. he experienced similar severe attacks each of the next four years, characterized by diplopia and incoordination of the legs lasting about weeks. in he developed some stiffness of the right leg with limp, dysarthria and fatigue. approximately a year later he developed some dragging and stiffness of the left leg which recovered. there has been no recurrence since. patient this -year-old left handed male, had developed coldness of the left leg and arm with gradual weakness in at age . he also had fatigue and aching and numbness in the fingers of the right hand. all of these symptoms resolved. two months later he developed bilateral blurred vision with inability to read followed by recovery in one month. four years later he developed acute weakness, loss of balance and inco- ordination, intermittent diplopia and intermittent urgency and frequency of micturation. three years later the visual acuity in the left eye was / , mild left-sided ataxia was present with impaired vibration and a gait difficulty. this course has been slowly progressive and the patient remains ambulatory without aides. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques patient this -year-old male, a brother of patient , experienced "difficulty with legs" and pain and burning sensation of the feet at age , followed by improvement over the next year. in he developed unsteady gait, the right leg affected more than the left. examination revealed visual acuity of / on the left and / on the right. the patient had rotatory nystagmus, increased tone and brisk reflexes in the legs and extensor plantar response on the left. the numbness and stiffness of the legs have slowly progressed and he now requires a wheelchair for long- distance mobility. patient this -year-old male first complained of increasing weakness on the left side, with nocturnal spasms in the legs in at age and left pyramidal signs were recorded. the course was very slowly progressive with appearance of bilateral signs in when an ankle brace was required. he developed paresthesia in the fingers two years later. in he was ambulatory with a brace. there was moderate weakness on the left side and laboratory investigations confirmed the diagnosis. patient this -year-old female noticed numbness and tingling of the left little finger in at age . these symptoms spread to involve the whole left arm and the right hand over several months. in she developed numbness of the chest and vaginal area followed by improve- ment. she experienced lhermitte's phenomenon with tingling down the left arm, back and abdomen, that was still present two years later. examination showed mild left arm weakness and diffuse decrease to light touch and pain, possibly related to a wringer washing machine accident as a child. these findings were similar two years later and the dysesthesia of the left arm had improved. laboratory evidence in each c a s e . three cases are in the lehrerleut and three in the dariusleut subdivisions in this large hutterite kinship. the female index case and her male first cousin, and a third female live on separate lehrerleut colonies in montana. the two brothers on dariusleut colonies, one in saskatchewan and one in alberta, prior to this investigation had no previous contact with the three relatives in montana. the two brothers had lived together years. each of the six live and had the onset of the disease in separate rural colonies. the six cases, representing family names, all trace back to two common founders (figure). there are a total of siblings in the family branches of the patients. two brothers have four children each, under age . the index case has one child age and the male first cousin has no children. the remaining male has four children, ages - . the clinical course has been remitting and exacerbating in three cases, primary progressive in one and secondary progres- sive in two cases (table). all remain independent in their life skills and ambulatory with very mild to moderate disability. five cases had abnormal prolonged visual evoked responses and only three had a history of optic neuritis. the mri reports of white matter abnormalities were consistent with ms in all six patients. testing for urinary and plasma organic amino acids and serum methionine levels were all within normal limits. results six clinical cases of definite multiple sclerosis are reported, with the diagnosis supported by neurological examination and discussion the six cases of ms occur in two of the three endogamous groups, the dariusleut and lehrerleut, representing approximately o- d ~ ^ ^y -o o-z - d d o h>~rr; o d o s? n -n i ) d o u b q ", d-ro d- viii o d=r= d=r= =rd d i = i = d - t - jl. i = figure: pedigree of multiple sclerosis cases in hutterites. the condensed pedigrees show affected members of sibships (dark sym- bols, female ( ) and male (o). the arrow indicates the index case. the double lines indicate consanguineous matings. the roman numerals indicate the generations, and the right hand column the years of birth of successive generations. volume , no. — november https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences table: clinical characteristics of multiple sclerosis in hutterites. patient date of birth place & year of onset age at onset clinical course kedss visual evoked mri response (msec) . female montana rr . r- + l-nil . male montana rr . r- + l- . male alberta sp . r- + l- . male saskatchewan sp . r- + l- . male saskatchewan pp . r- + l- . female montana rr . r- . + l- . i kedss - kurtzke expanded disability status scale clinical course - rr - relapsing and remitting - pp - primary progressive - sp - secondary progressive , individuals. these religious, genetic isolates live in high- risk areas where the prevalence is reported to be between - / , . "" the estimated prevalence rate in these two groups is low at / , . the expected number of cases was - . the genealogy records made it possible to trace the ancestry of the parents of the six cases back to a single couple (figure). the average relationship of spouses is closer than second cousins. consanguinity increases the likelihood of homozygous expression of a recessive gene in a population. ms was not reported to be present in the previous or succeeding generations of each of the cases. the small number of cases in this study may reflect the age of the population in which it is estimated that % are under the age of years, and have not reached the average age of onset of years in the hutterites. numerous occurrences of rare recessive disorders are found in related hutterite sibships. " in the old order amish, another genetic isolate, two cases of ms are reported with no immediate genealogical connection between the two families affected. three cases of ms are reported in the old colony (chortitza) mennonites and multifac- torial causation has been proposed. an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance with reduced penetrance, first proposed in twin studies, may be operative in this large isolate of inbreed families in the form of a single mutant gene. the founder effect may play an important role in the etiology. in the general population, however, family studies data excludes simple mendelian inheritance and the data are best interpreted as support for susceptibility being poly- genic. evidence from studies in the outbred canadian population strongly support the view that ms is a complex trait in which the genetic component comprises the effects of several loci. these findings in the hutterites suggest that one or more loci may be recessive. the occurrence of ms in a genetic isolate as restricted as the hutterites may help to solve the vexing problem of getting from linkage to locus in this complex trait. when linkages are found the presence of linkage disequilibrium in affected individuals may help in defining the susceptibility loci. there is ongoing surveillance of the hutterite population for further cases to provide resources for genetic analysis. this genetic isolate offers potential for the study of genetic epidemi- ology and molecular biology of multiple sclerosis. acknowledgements we are indebted to the patients and their families for their assistance and cooperation, to rev. j. kleinsasser, dr. robert griebel and dr. barry boardman who provided the first links to the proband; to dr. marcus johnson, great falls, montana; dr. john noseworthy, mayo clinic, rochester, minnesota; dr. jim hook and dr. ramsey suidan, medicine hat, alberta; dr. c.t. hing, calgary; dr. carla wallace (mri) and dr. mary ann lee, foothills hospital, calgary; dr. ken koob, sioux falls, south dakota, dr. d.j. macfadyen, dr. j.r. donat, university of saskatchewan and ms clinics western canada for clini- cal information; to dr. robin casey and wayne hunter, metabolic disease unit, university of saskatchewan; the medical librarians, university hospital, saskatoon city hospital, st. paul's hospital; cheryl salt, ms clinic coordinator and bev atkinson for data entry, saskatoon city hospital, saskatoon, and rita casciano, university hospital, london, ontario for manuscript typing. we are grateful to dr. g. ebers, london, ontario and dr. d. sadovnick, vancouver, british columbia for reviewing the manuscript. study supported by ms society of canada (saskatchewan division), and birch hills ms group, birch hills, saskatchewan. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques references . kurtzke jf. epidemiologic contributions to multiple sclerosis: an overview. neurology (ny) ; : - . . ebers gc, bulman d. the geography of multiple sclerosis reflects genetic susceptibility. neurology ; : (suppl.) . . compston a. genetic factors in the aetiology of multiple sclerosis. in: mcalpines' multiple sclerosis. matthew wb, ed. churchill livingstone, : - . . ebers gc, bulman d, sadovnick ad, et al. a population based study of multiple sclerosis in twins. n engl j med ; : - . . mcdonald wl, batchelor jr, francis da. the immunogenetics of multiple sclerosis. trends neurosci ; : - . . lynch gs, rose jw, petajan jh, leppert m. discordance of the t- cell receptor alpha-chain gene in familial multiple sclerosis. neurology ; : - . . wynn dr, rodriguez m, o'fallon m, kurland lt. a reappraisal of the epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in olmstead county, minnesota. neurology ; : - . . hader wj. prevalence of multiple sclerosis in saskatoon. can med j ; : - . . siedler hd, nicoll w, kurland lt. the prevalence and incidence of multiple sclerosis in missoula county, montana. journal lancet ; : - . . svenson l, woodhead s, piatt gh. regional variations in the prevalence rates of multiple sclerosis in the province of alberta, canada. neuroepidemiology ; : - . . warren sa, warren kg. prevalence of multiple sclerosis in barrhead county, alberta, canada. can j neurol sci ; : - . . lowry rb, morgan k, holmes tm, gilroy sw. congenital anoma- lies in the hutterite population: a preliminary survey and hypoth- esis. am j med gen ; : - . . mcfarlin de, lachmann pj. hopeful genes and immunology. nature ; : - . . hostetler ja. the hutterite society. baltimore and london. the john hopkins university press, . . steinberg ag, bleibtreu hk, kurchynski tw, martin ao, kurchynski em. in: genetic studies on an inbred human isolate. proceedings of the third international congress of human genetics. james f crow, ed. : - . . hostetler ja. history and relevance of the hutterite population for genetic studies. am j med gen ; : - . . martin ao. the founder effect in a human isolate. am j phys anthrop ; : - . . fowlow b, holmes mt, morgan k, snyder ff. screening for methylmalonic aciduria in alberta. a voluntary program with particular significance for the hutterite brethern. am j med gen ; : - . . poser cm, paty dw, scheinberg l, et al. new diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines for research protocols. ann neurol ; : - . . carmel r, watkins d, goodman si, rosenblatt ds. hereditary defect of cobalamin metabolism (cblg mutation) presenting as a neurologic disorder in adulthood. n engl j med : : - . . shevell mi, carson w, gavsie a, et al. protein-bound homocys- teine levels in familial multiple sclerosis. clin invest med ; : . . mckusick va. selected aspects of the population genetics of reces- sive diseases. in: medical genetic studies of the amish. baltimore: the john hopkins university press, : - . . schurig v, orman va, bowen p. nonprogressive cerebellar disor- der with mental retardation and autosomal recessive inheritance in hutterites. am j med gen ; : - . . pallister pd, opitz jm. brief clinical report: disequilibrium syndrome in montana hutterites. am j med gen ; : - . . fujiwara tm, morgan k, schwartz rh, et al. genealogical analy- sis of cystic fibrosis families and chromosome q rflp haplo- types in the hutterite brethern. am j hum genet ; : - . . shokeir mh, rozdilsky b. muscular dystrophy in saskatchewan hutterites. am j med genet ; : - . . boldt ed. the recent development of a unique population: the hutterites of north america. prairie forum ; : - . . cross he, mckusick va. a survey of neurological disorders in a genetic isolate. neurology ; : - . . jaworski ma, serverini a, mansour g, et al. genetic conditions among canadian mennonites: evidence for a founder effect among the old colony (chortitza) mennonites. clin invest med ; : - . . mackay rp, myrianthopoulos nc. multiple sclerosis in twins and their relatives. final report. arch neurol ; : - . . nora jj, fraser fc. genetic basis of heredity. in: medical genetics: principles and practice. lea and febiger philadelphia, london, : - . . sadovnick ad, compston a. epidemiology and genetics of multi- ple sclerosis. current opinion. neurol neurosurg ; : - . . pratt rt, compston nd, mcalpine d. the familial incidence of multiple sclerosis and its significance. brain ; : - . . sadovnick ad, ebers gc. genetics of multiple sclerosis. in: antel jp, ed. neurologic clinics. philadelphia: w.b. saunders co., ; : - . volume , no. — november https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core � wiley-liss, inc. american journal of medical genetics part a a: – ( ) homozygosity for a novel splice site mutation in the cardiac myosin-binding protein c gene causes severe neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy baozhong xin, erik puffenberger, john tumbush, j.r. bockoven, and heng wang , , * das deutsch center (ddc) clinic for special needs children, middlefield, ohio the clinic for special children, strasburg, pennsylvania the heart center, akron children’s hospital, akron, ohio department of pediatrics, rainbow babies & children’s hospital, cleveland, ohio department of molecular cardiology, cleveland clinic foundation, cleveland, ohio received may ; accepted july hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is typically inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern and has a variable age of onset and prognosis. mutations in the myosin-binding protein c (mybpc ) gene are one of the most frequent genetic causes of the disease. patients with mybpc mutations generally have a late onset and a relatively good prognosis. we report here more than old order amish children with severe neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by a novel homozygous splice site mutation in the mybpc gene. the affected children typically presented with signs and symptoms of congestive heart failure during the first weeks of life. echocardiography revealed hypertrophic non- obstructive cardiomyopathy. these children had a life span averaging – months. all patients died from heart failure before year of age unless they received a heart transplant. a genome-wide mapping study was performed in three patients. the disease related gene was localized to a . mb region on chromosome p . -p . . this homozygous block contained mybpc , a previously identified cardiomy- opathy related gene. we identified a novel homozygous mutation, c. þ t > g, in the splice-donor site of mybpc intron . the mutation resulted in skipping of the -bp exon , which led to a frame shift and premature stop codon in exon (p.asp glyfsx ). we have found a substantial incidence of this phenotype in old order amish communities. it is also concerning that many unidentified heterozygous individuals who are at risk for development of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy do not receive proper medical attention in the communities. � wiley-liss, inc. key words: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; mybpc ; old order amish; mennonite how to cite this article: xin b, puffenberger e, tumbush j, bockoven jr, wang h. . homozygosity for a novel splice site mutation in the cardiac myosin-binding protein c gene causes severe neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. am j med genet part a a: – . introduction hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, clinically defined as thickening of the myocardial wall in the absence of other causes for left ventricular hypertrophy, affects one of every people [maron et al., ; zou et al., ]. the disease, generally being inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, has a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations from a benign asymptomatic course to a malignant course with serious arrhythmias, heart failure, and sudden cardiac death. genetic causes of hyper- trophic cardiomyopathy are also fairly diverse with more than mutations identified in at least nine genes encoding sarcomeric proteins [ho and seidman, ; ashrafian and watkins, ]. one of most common genetic causes for hyper- trophic cardiomyopathy involves mutations in cardiac myosin-binding protein c (mybpc ) gene [charron et al., ; niimura et al., , ; erdmann et al., , ; konno et al., ; richard et al., ; van driest et al., ]. there are approximately this article contains supplementary material, which may be viewed at the american journal of medical genetics website at http:// www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/ - /suppmat/index.html. *correspondence to: heng wang, m.d., ph.d., ddc clinic for special needs children, po box , madison road, middlefield, oh . e-mail: wang@ddcclinic.org doi . /ajmg.a. mutations identified so far as listed in the website (http://www.cardiogenomics.org) devel- oped by genomics of cardiovascular development [ ], adaptation, and remodeling program since the first disease-causing mutations were found in [bonne et al., ; watkins et al., ]. cardiac myosin-binding protein c is a sarcomeric protein belonging to the intracellular immunoglobulin super- family [einheber and fischman, ]. by binding to the myosin heavy chain and cytoskeleton protein titin, cardiac myosin-binding protein c contributes to the structural integrity of the sarcomere. the protein may also play a role in regulating cardiac contractility [flashman et al., ]. in general, patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by mybpc gene mutations seem to have a more favorable clinical profile, characterized by a late onset and a relatively good prognosis [niimura et al., ]. the clinical expression of the mutations in the mybpc is often delayed until middle age or old age. homo- zygous mutation in the mybpc gene causing severe hypertrophic cardiomyopathy has not been reported to our knowledge, although two cases of severe hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by compound heterozygous mutations have been found recently [lekanne deprez et al., ]. here we describe a cohort of patients with severe hypertrophic cardiomyopathy presenting in the neonatal period, caused by homozygosity for a novel mutation in the mybpc gene. materials and methods subjects the study was approved by ddc clinic for special needs children (ddc clinic) institutional review board. all affected infants were old order amish, with of them from the geauga county settlement in ohio, one from the holmes county settlement in ohio, and two from a settlement in new york. the patients were clinically evaluated by at least one clinician in the list of authors and the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was established based on family history, physical examination, and the characteristic clinical course of the disease. confirmation was made by both electrocardiogram and two-dimensional echocardiography reviewed by pediatric cardiologists. dna samples from three patients, their parents and siblings were acquired with informed consent. all three patients died before the study was completed. one of them expired before the study started, thus the dna sample preserved by another research laboratory was transferred to us per parent’s request. genotyping and mutation detection the dna isolation, genotyping, linkage analysis and mutation detection were performed as described previously [puffenberger et al., ; strauss et al., , ]. polymerase chain reaction (pcr) primers were designed to amplify each of the protein-coding exons and their flanking intronic sequences of mybpc . primer sequences are pro- vided in table of online supplementary material, which is published as supporting information on the ajmg web site (see the online table at http://www. interscience.wiley.com/jpages/ - /suppmat/ index.html). rna isolation and cdna amplification total rna was isolated from whole blood using qiaamp rna blood kit (qiagen, valencia, ca) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. the cdna was synthesized and amplified using primers f and r located in exons and . the primers were determined according to the mrna sequence nm_ . results clinical phenotype the children affected with hypertrophic cardio- myopathy were typically born after an uneventful pregnancy and delivery. they were usually full term with birth weight, length and occipitofrontal circum- ference all within normal ranges. there were no significant dysmorphic features noticed in any of those newborns at birth and afterwards. all patients passed the routine state newborn screening. a routine chromosomal analysis was performed on at least one newborn, which was reported as normal. approximately one third of the affected infants in this cohort presented with respiratory distress, an audible heart murmur or gallop rhythm soon after birth, which led to further evaluation before or soon after discharge from the hospital. the remaining two thirds of infants presented to the primary care physicians’ office during the first – weeks of life with poor feeding, excessive sweating during feed- ing, lethargy, difficulty with breathing, irritability and intermittent perioral cyanosis. abnormal find- ings from the initial physical examinations often included excessive sweating, poor perfusion with prolonged capillary refill time, tachypnea, sinus tachycardia, gallop rhythm and enlarged liver. chest x rays showed cardiomegaly. echocardiography revealed hypertrophic non-obstructive cardio- myopathy in the right or left ventricle or in both ventricles with ventricular dysfunction. mild to moderate ventricular dilation was observed in some patients. except for small ventricular defects discov- ered in several patients, a normal segmental anatomy without other significant structural heart defects was found in all the patients. the heart failure initially found in all our patients was progressive despite treatment with mybpc homozygosity causes severe cardiomyopathy american journal of medical genetics part a: doi . /ajmg.a beta-blockers, diuretics and inotropes. all patients died from heart failure before year of age unless they received a heart transplant. the life span of the affected children ranged from seven to days (average days with a median of days for infants with such information available to us). two patients who successfully received heart trans- plants remained fairly healthy except for some minor transplant related issues. genotyping and mapping we carried out a genome-wide mapping analysis using the affymetrix genechip mapping k snp arrays to identify the disease locus with three affected children from different families (fig. ). a large, shared block of homozygous snps was identified on chromosome p . -p . in the three affected individuals (see the online fig. s at http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/ - /suppmat/index.html). the homozygous seg- ment contains contiguous snps and spans . mb. examination of the minimal shared region which was flanked by snps rs and rs in the affected individuals, revealed known or predicted genes based on both the ncbi and celera annota- tions, of which are characterized. among these genes, a known hypertrophic cardiomyopathy- related gene, mybpc , was selected for mutation analysis. mutation analysis genomic dna sequence analysis of the mybpc gene in one affected patient revealed a novel homozygous mutation in the consensus splice donor site of intron , c. þ t > g (fig. ). further sequencing analysis revealed that all three patients from the pedigrees (fig. ) were homozy- gous for the mutation, their parents were hetero- zygous, and no unaffected siblings (n ¼ ) were homozygous for the change (fig. ). rna analysis to further investigate the consequence of this mutation at the transcript level, lymphocyte rna from two heterozygous carriers was amplified by rt- pcr. amplification of mybpc cdna with primers f and r yielded two products: the expected -bp fragment and an abnormal shorter product (fig. ). direct sequencing of the pcr products after gel extraction revealed skipping of the -bp exon in the shorter fragment which led to a frame shift and premature stop codon in exon (p.asp glyfsx ). as a control, amplification of lymphocyte rna from two homozygous normal individuals only gave rise to the expected -bp product (fig. ). discussion in this study, we performed whole-genome linkage analysis and mutational analysis in three patients who suffered from severe unexplained hypertrophic cardiomyopathy from three consan- guineous families. we mapped the disease locus to a . mb region on chromosome p . -p . . we further identified a novel homozygous mutation, c. þ t > g, in a putative splice-donor site of the mybpc gene within this region that is associated with this severe condition. the c. þ t > g mutation in the mybpc gene has not been reported previously or been listed on the public database (http://www. cardiogenomics.org). due to the unavailability of rna or protein samples from cardiac tissue of the affected individuals at the current time, the con- sequence of the mutation was determined using lymphocyte rna from heterozygous carriers of the c. þ t > g mutation. it was demonstrated that the mutated allele produces an aberrant transcript with skipping of the associated exon . skipping of the -bp exon led to a frame shift. the aberrant mrna was predicted to encode a truncated protein fig. . pedigrees of the three families used in the mapping study and mutational analysis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. the probands are indicated with an arrow in each family. xin et al. american journal of medical genetics part a: doi . /ajmg.a (p.asp glyfsx ). as a consequence, amino acids of the conserved cooh terminus are deleted. we expect the same consequences of the splice donor site mutation in the myocardium. cardiac myosin-binding protein c is composed of domains referred to as c –c [carrier et al., ]. previous functional studies have demon- strated that the major myosin binding domain is located within the c consisting of the last amino acids [okagaki et al., ; alyonycheva et al., ]. the c. þ t > g mutation is predicted to produce a truncated protein with complete missing of c domain, which is required for the incorpo- ration of cardiac myosin-binding protein c into the a band, titin interaction and myosin binding [freiburg and gautel, ; gilbert et al., ]. it is speculated that homozygosity of the mutation reported in the present study acts as null alleles and leads to complete loss of function of cardiac myosin-binding protein c, which may explain the severity of the disease phenotype in these patients. indeed, all individuals affected with the disease present with signs and symptoms of heart failure during the neonatal period with an average life span of – months, and all patients die before year of age unless they receive a heart transplant. a recent report has described two lethal cases of neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by compound heterozygoity for mybpc mutations [lekanne deprez et al., ]. however, this is the first time, to our knowledge, that a homozygous mutation in the mybpc gene is reported causing a severe type of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. it is noted that majority of children ( ) affected by this severe neonate hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in this study are from the geauga settlement of ohio and all of them were born during the last years. based on the number of amish births in this settlement during this interval, we estimate that a birth incidence of the disease is approximately in . by using the hardy-weinberg equilibrium and the incidence estimate, the heterozygous carrier frequency is calculated as approximately %. however, we are somewhat surprised with the prevalence of this severe type of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy beyond this settlement. during the study, we have been contacted by affected amish families or health professionals from delaware, illinois, indiana, kentucky, mississippi, new york, north carolina and pennsylvania with many similar cases as we reported here. the genotype of these affected children remains to be determined, but may be reasonably speculated as the same as reported here. in fact, we have been contacted by two mennonite families from different states, and each of them has one deceased child with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. not unexpectedly, dna analysis in one of the mennonite couples with an affected infant has revealed that both parents carry the same single c. þ t > g mutation in the mybpc gene. thus, we speculate that this infant suffered from the same type of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy as well, thus the disease also affects the mennonite community. it has been illustrated that old order amish and old order mennonite populations have unique genetic heritages despite a common religious and geographic history [puffenberger, ]. the hypertrophic cardiomyopathy presented in this study might be one of a few diseases where fig. . identification of c. þ t > g mutation in the mybpc gene. partial sequence of the boundary region of exon and intron is shown and the three genotypes with respect to c. þ t > g mutation are presented (arrows). [color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.wiley.com.] fig. . detection of the aberrant transcript as a consequence of c. þ t > g mutation. the mybpc cdna was amplified by rt-pcr from lymphocyte rna from homozygous normal individuals (n) and heterozygous carriers (c) using primers f and r located in exons and . samples from heterozygous carriers contain the normal -bp product and also a -bp product resulting from skipping of the -bp exon . m, dna molecular marker. mybpc homozygosity causes severe cardiomyopathy american journal of medical genetics part a: doi . /ajmg.a identical mutations segregate in both populations, as is the case for crigler-najjar syndrome and propionic acidemia in the amish and mennonites of lancaster county, pa. higher prevalence and larger geographic distribution of severe hyper- trophic cardiomyopathy might imply more distant common ancestors. in the past, many genetic disorders identified in the old order amish and mennonite communities have been autosomal recessive diseases related to the founder effect [mckusick, ; morton et al., ; puffenberger, ], and the parents of probands generally do not have any signs or symptoms of the disease. here, we are apparently dealing with disorder with a disease inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with very severe phenotype in the homozygotes. although incom- plete penetrance often occurs in this autosomal dominant disorder, it remains concerning that many unidentified heterozygotes in the community are carrying a single c. þ t > g mutation and therefore might have, or have the potential to develop hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. indeed, we have noticed many reports of cardiac symptoms, such as chest pain, fatigue and palpitation from probands’ parents or relatives during the study. these individuals, presumably being heterozygotes of c. þ t > g mutation, have been one of our major concerns throughout the study. notably, a previously reported mutation c. þ g > c, very similar to the mutation c. þ t > g found in this study, has been documented as a cause of hyper- trophic cardiomyopathy in those heterozygous carriers [watkins et al., ]. the consequence of being a heterozygous carrier of c. þ t > g mutation during a lifetime is still to be determined, but we expect that certain individuals, particularly those middle age and older, might be affected to some degree. at least three direct family members of the affected infants have died from sudden cardiac death at middle age to our knowledge. it is disconcerting that many individuals with alarming symptoms do not receive proper medical attention in this amish community. while we are working on further understanding the pathology of both homo- zygosity and heterzygosity of this particular muta- tion, we believe that it is equally important to work with these individuals who are heterozygous carrier of c. þ t > g mutation to better define the clinical course of the disease. there is an urgent need to develop a practical strategy to deliver medical services to these individuals who often do not have health insurance. acknowledgments we thank the amish and mennonite families in this report for their support. this study would not have been possible without the invaluable assistance of family members. we are indebted to many pediatric cardiologists who provided outstanding and com- passionate care to the children affected by the disease, particularly dr. chandrakant r. patel of akron children’s hospital, dr. kenneth zahka of rainbow babies & children’s hospital, and dr. gerard j. boyle of children’s hospital of cleveland clinic among others. we are grateful for the help of dr. andrew crosby’s laboratory at st. george’s hospital medical school, london in the isolation of three dna samples. we appreciate mr. joe weaver for his genealogy consultation and dr. lawrence greksa of case western reserve university for his demographic consultation. the study was sup- ported in part by the elisabeth severance prentiss foundation. references alyonycheva tn, mikawa t, reinach fc, fischman da. . isoform-specific interaction of the myosin-binding proteins (mybps) with skeletal and cardiac myosin is a property of the c-terminal immunoglobulin domain. j biol chem : – . ashrafian h, watkins h. . reviews of translational medicine and genomics in cardiovascular disease: new disease taxonomy and therapeutic implications cardiomyopathies: therapeutics based on molecular phenotype. j am coll cardiol : – . bonne g, carrier l, bercovici j, cruaud c, richard p, hainque b, gautel m, labeit s, james m, beckmann j, weissenbach j, vosberg hp, fiszman m, komajda m, schwartz k. . cardiac myosin binding protein-c gene splice acceptor site mutation is associated with familial hypertrophic cardiomy- opathy. nat genet : – . carrier l, bonne g, bahrend e, yu b, richard p, niel f, hainque b, cruaud c, gary f, labeit s, bouhour jb, dubourg o, desnos m, hagege aa, trent rj, komajda m, fiszman m, schwartz k. . organization and sequence of human cardiac myosin binding protein c gene (mybpc ) and identification of mutations predicted to produce truncated proteins in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. circ res : – . charron p, dubourg o, desnos m, bennaceur m, carrier l, camproux ac, isnard r, hagege a, langlard jm, bonne g, richard p, hainque b, bouhour jb, schwartz k, komajda m. . clinical features and prognostic implications of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy related to the cardiac myosin- binding protein c gene. circulation : – . einheber s, fischman da. . isolation and characterization of a cdna clone encoding avian skeletal muscle c-protein: an intracellular member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. proc natl acad sci usa : – . erdmann j, raible j, maki-abadi j, hummel m, hammann j, wollnik b, frantz e, fleck e, hetzer r, regitz-zagrosek v. . spectrum of clinical phenotypes and gene variants in cardiac myosin-binding protein c mutation carriers with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. j am coll cardiol : – . erdmann j, daehmlow s, wischke s, senyuva m, werner u, raible j, tanis n, dyachenko s, hummel m, hetzer r, regitz- zagrosek v. . mutation spectrum in a large cohort of unrelated consecutive patients with hypertrophic cardiomy- opathy. clin genet : – . flashman e, redwood c, moolman-smook j, watkins h. . cardiac myosin binding protein c: its role in physiology and disease. circ res : – . xin et al. american journal of medical genetics part a: doi . /ajmg.a freiburg a, gautel m. . a molecular map of the interactions between titin and myosin-binding protein c. implications for sarcomeric assembly in familial hypertrophic cardiomyop- athy. eur j biochem : – . genomics of cardiovascular development. . adaptation, and remodeling. nhlbi program for genomic applications. harvard medical school. http://www.cardiogenomics.org. gilbert r, kelly mg, mikawa t, fischman da. . the carboxyl terminus of myosin binding protein c (mybp-c, c-protein) specifies incorporation into the a-band of striated muscle. j cell sci : – . ho cy, seidman ce. . a contemporary approach to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. circulation :e –e . konno t, shimizu m, ino h, matsuyama t, yamaguchi m, terai h, hayashi k, mabuchi t, kiyama m, sakata k, hayashi t, inoue m, kaneda t, mabuchi h. . a novel missense mutation in the myosin binding protein-c gene is responsible for hyper- trophic cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dysfunction and dilation in elderly patients. j am coll cardiol : – . lekanne deprez rh, muurling-vlietman jj, hruda j, baars mj, wijnaendts lc, stolte-dijkstra i, alders m, van hagen jm. . two cases of severe neonatal hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by compound heterozygous mutations in the mybpc gene. j med genet : – . maron bj, gardin jm, flack jm, gidding ss, kurosaki tt, bild de. . prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a general population of young adults. echocardiographic analysis of subjects in the cardia study. circulation : – . mckusick va, editor. . medical genetics studies of the amish: selected papers. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, hendrickson c, kelley ri. . pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am j med genet part c semin med genet c: – . niimura h, bachinski ll, sangwatanaroj s, watkins h, chudley ae, mckenna w, kristinsson a, roberts r, sole m, maron bj, seidman jg, seidman ce. . mutations in the gene for cardiac myosin-binding protein c and late-onset familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. n engl j med : – . niimura h, patton kk, mckenna wj, soults j, maron bj, seidman jg, seidman ce. . sarcomere protein gene mutations in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy of the elderly. circulation : – . okagaki t, weber fe, fischman da, vaughan kt, mikawa t, reinach fc. . the major myosin-binding domain of skeletal muscle mybp-c (c protein) resides in the cooh- terminal, immunoglobulin c motif. j cell biol : – . puffenberger eg. . genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet part c semin med genet c: – . puffenberger eg, hu-lince d, parod jm, craig dw, dobrin se, conway ar, donarum ea, strauss ka, dunckley t, cardenas jf, melmed kr, wright ca, liang w, stafford p, flynn cr, morton dh, stephan da. . mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function. proc natl acad sci usa : – . richard p, charron p, carrier l, ledeuil c, cheav t, pichereau c, benaiche a, isnard r, dubourg o, burban m, gueffet jp, millaire a, desnos m, schwartz k, hainque b, komajda m. . hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: distribution of disease genes, spectrum of mutations, and implications for a molecular diagnosis strategy. circulation : – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, craig dw, panganiban cb, lee am, hu-lince d, stephan da, morton dh. . genome-wide snp arrays as a diagnostic tool: clinical description, genetic mapping, and molecular characterization of salla disease in an old order mennonite population. am j med genet part a a: – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, huentelman mj, gottlieb s, dobrin se, parod jm, stephan da, morton dh. . recessive symptomatic focal epilepsy and mutant contactin-associated protein-like . n engl j med : – . van driest sl, vasile vc, ommen sr, will ml, tajik aj, gersh bj, ackerman mj. . myosin binding protein c mutations and compound heterozygosity in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. j am coll cardiol : – . watkins h, conner d, thierfelder l, jarcho ja, macrae c, mckenna wj, maron bj, seidman jg, seidman ce. . mutations in the cardiac myosin binding protein-c gene on chromosome cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. nat genet : – . zou y, song l, wang z, ma a, liu t, gu h, lu s, wu p, zhang y, shen l, cai y, zhen y, liu y, hui r. . prevalence of idiopathic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in china: a popula- tion-based echocardiographic analysis of adults. am j med : – . mybpc homozygosity causes severe cardiomyopathy american journal of medical genetics part a: doi . /ajmg.a clinical and genetic validity of quantitative bipolarity bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - -z translational psychiatry a r t i c l e op e n a c c e s s clinical and genetic validity of quantitative bipolarity heather a. bruce , peter kochunov , braxton mitchell , kevin a. strauss , seth a. ament , laura m. rowland , xiaoming du , feven fisseha , thangavelu kavita , joshua chiappelli , krista wisner , hemalatha sampath , shuo chen , mark d. kvarta , chamindi seneviratne , teodor t. postolache , alfredo bellon , francis j. mcmahon , alan shuldiner and l. elliot hong abstract research has yet to provide a comprehensive understanding of the genetic basis of bipolar disorder (bp). in genetic studies, defining the phenotype by diagnosis may miss risk-allele carriers without bp. the authors aimed to test whether quantitatively detected subclinical symptoms of bipolarity identifies a heritable trait that infers risk for bp. the quantitative bipolarity scale (qbs) was administered to old order amish or mennonite individuals from multigenerational pedigrees; individuals had psychiatric diagnoses ( bp, major depressive disorders (mdd), psychotic disorders, other psychiatric disorders). familial aggregation of qbs was calculated using the variance components method to derive heritability and shared household effects. the qbs score was significantly higher in bp subjects ( . ± . ) compared to mdd ( . ± . ), other psychiatric diagnoses ( . ± . ), and no psychiatric diagnosis ( . ± . ) (all p < . ). qbs in the whole sample was significantly heritable (h = . ± . , p < . ) while the variance attributed to the shared household effect was not significant (p = . ). when subjects with psychiatric illness were removed, the qbs heritability was similar (h = . ± . , p < . ). these findings suggest that quantitative bipolarity as measured by qbs can separate bp from other psychiatric illnesses yet is significantly heritable with and without bp included in the pedigrees suggesting that the quantitative bipolarity describes a continuous heritable trait that is not driven by a discrete psychiatric diagnosis. bipolarity trait assessment may be used to supplement the diagnosis of bp in future genetic studies and could be especially useful for capturing subclinical genetic contributions to a bp phenotype. introduction bipolar disorder (bp) affects about % of the population, causing significant disability worldwide. bp is considered a highly heritable condition with an estimated – % heritability – . case-control genome-wide association studies (gwas) are beginning to illuminate the genetic risk for this complex polygenic disorder and have iden- tified a number of loci – though findings have been difficult to replicate. most genetic studies of bp define the study group by diagnosis. while this definition is impor- tant for clinical care of bp patients, whether this is the correct phenotype to use to search for genes conferring risks for bp is not clear. genetically susceptible indivi- duals without bp expression may be missed or even erroneously grouped into the control groups. our hypothesis is that bipolarity is not only expressed in bp but may also be a heritable subclinical trait that is present even in non-bipolar individuals, yet much more severe in bp and as such separates bp from other psychiatric diagnoses. the bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale (bsds) is a self- report scale designed to screen for bipolar spectrum © the author(s) openaccessthisarticleis licensedunderacreativecommonsattribution . internationallicense,whichpermitsuse,sharing,adaptation,distributionandreproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article’s creative commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. correspondence: heather a. bruce (hbruce@mprc.umaryland.edu) maryland psychiatric research center, department of psychiatry, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa department of medicine, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa full list of author information is available at the end of the article. () :,; () :,; () :,; () :, ; http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://orcid.org/ - - - x http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / mailto:hbruce@mprc.umaryland.edu disorders . bsds was shown to have a sensitivity of . and a specificity of . for bp in an outpatient clinic population , a range that was generally supported by other studies – . these data support the clinical validity of bsds to quantify clinical and subclinical bipolarity symptoms. the original bsds does not include all dsm- bp symptoms. we adopted much of the bsds content and format but modified items to cover symptoms in the dsm- bipolar i criteria, and also implemented a new severity rating for each item, henceforth called the quantitative bipolarity scale (qbs). to our knowledge the heritability of bsds or other quantitative bipolarity tools, such as the mood disorders questionnaire (mdq) , has never been evaluated. although qbs is designed to be consistent with dsm- , it is completed by patients, allowing independent evaluations of its validity using clinician assessed dsm- diagnoses. the ideal sample to test whether a quantitative bipo- larity measurement is a heritable endophenotype would be a population with bp and with a family structure which enables estimation of genetic vs non-genetic effects. pio- neered by egeland, there has been a long history of studying the genetics of bp through large pedigrees in the amish/mennonite population , . the old order amish and old order mennonite (ooa/m) population is a founder population whose large families and genealogical record keeping make the population a powerful resource for genetic and heritability analyses even in modest sample sizes. the prevalence of bp in the ooa/m appears similar to that in the general population though some pedigrees carry a heavier burden of mood dis- orders , . in addition, they share similar rural upbringing and school education. the high environmental homo- geneity reduces between-subject variations of uncon- trolled developmental and environmental factors theoretically yielding more precise estimates of genetic contributions. the low incidence of substance use dis- orders decreases another confounding factor commonly present in bp patients in the general population. there- fore, this study aims to develop a potentially novel phenotyping alternative to supplement traditional diagnosis-based genetic research in bp by taking advan- tage of the large family structures in the ooa/m, to test the hypothesis that qbs provides a heritable quantitative trait that separates bp from other psychiatric diagnoses. methods and materials subjects the study included members of ooa/m families [ male, female, age ( . ± . , mean ± s.d.)] from nuclear families in pennsylvania and maryland. the sample included sibling (sibship size ranged from to ), spouse pair, and parent-child pair relationships. sixty nuclear families had one individual participating (although they are related to other members in the extended pedigrees at second or third degree levels), families had two participants, families had three or more participants. as this is a founder population and marriages are kept within the community, most families are connected using genealogical records maintained by the ooa and the oom communities and digitalized in the nih anabaptist genealogy database (agdb) . the genealogical data were converted to the pedigree format by the solar-eclipse software (http://www.nitrc. org/projects/se_linux). exclusion criteria included major medical and neurological conditions and substance abuse in the past year. recruitment was based on the research domain criteria (rdoc) strategy and included all axis-i psychiatric illnesses, starting with identifying families with at least two cases of any psychiatric illnesses and then followed by recruiting members from the same household regardless of diagnosis. families without psychiatric ill- nesses were also recruited. note that this traditional definition of case and control families is a relative term in a population isolate where families are interrelated. for this study individuals without psychiatric illness were labeled as controls irrespective of their family status. figure gives an example of one pedigree. only indivi- duals that were directly interviewed were included in the analysis. the data included individuals with a lifetime diag- nosis of psychiatric disorders: bipolar disorders (n = , fig. an example pedigree. individuals whose diagnoses were estimated based on informant reports did not participate in the study. some members and birth orders were removed or altered to mask the family identity. mdd major depressive disorder, bp bipolar disorder bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of http://www.nitrc.org/projects/se_linux http://www.nitrc.org/projects/se_linux including bipolar i and bipolar ii), major depressive disorder (mdd) (n = ), schizophrenia spectrum dis- orders (n = ), and other psychiatric disorders (n = , including: other specified depressive disorder , persistent depressive disorder , premenstrual dysphoric disorder , adjustment disorder , attention deficit hyperactivity dis- order , substance use disorder , social anxiety disorder , panic disorder , obsessive compulsive disorder , gen- eralized anxiety disorder , other specified anxiety dis- order ) and individuals with no lifetime psychiatric disorders. the schedule for clinical interview for dsm- (scid- ) was used to determine diagnoses by trained clinicians. each scid interview was reviewed in con- sensus meetings. for scid inter-rater reliability, a research team from another study interviewed of the current ooa/m participants . diagnoses for of subjects were in agreement while had minor dif- ferences (kappa = . ), supporting the reliability of the scid in this population. all study participants gave written informed consent as approved by the university of maryland irb. quantitative bipolarity rating scale (qbs) the original bsds contains items and a summary item in a format designed to extract the polarity of mood by self-report. we revised the bsds to reflect dsm- criteria for bipolar i disorder. for example, the dsm symptoms “inflated self-esteem or grandiosity” and “decreased need for sleep” were not represented in the original bsds. in the revision, we added items addressing those symptoms as well as items addressing racing thoughts and distractibility. the original bsds had one item “may be more talkative, outgoing, or sexual” which we separated into three items as they are represented by more than one symptom criterion in dsm- . also an item regarding increased substance use during periods of ele- vated mood was removed as this is not a specific criterion for bp in dsm- . furthermore, as we aimed to develop a quantitative phenotype, a severity scale was implemented for each item. subjects were asked to rate each item from to ( for “this description doesn’t really describe me at all”, for “this description fits me to some degree but not in most respects”, for “this description fits me fairly well”, and for “this description fits me very well or almost perfectly.”) the qbs analysis was based on the summed values from all individual items as well as a item asking how much the scale as a whole describes the individual. additional analysis was performed on predefined subscale scores. items through refer to depressive symptoms. items through refer to manic symptoms. items , , , and refer to mood fluctuation symptoms. hereafter these respective sums are referred to as depression sub- score, mania subscore, and mood fluctuation subscore. the quantitative bipolarity scale (qbs) is available online (www.mdbrain.org/qbs_instructions_and_scale.pdf). statistical analysis linear mixed-effects model fit by maximum likelihood estimation was used to compare qbs scores across diagnostic groups, where age and sex were fixed effects and familial relationships were random effects. this pro- cedure was repeated for qbs subscores. receiver oper- ating characteristic (roc) curve was performed to evaluate sensitivity and specificity of qbs. cutoff was based on the youden-index to determine the point for which sensitivity plus specificity is maximal . heritability estimates were obtained using the variance components method as implemented in the solar- eclipse software package (http://www.nitrc.org/projects/ se_linux). heritability (h ) is defined as the proportion of the total phenotypic variance that is explained by additive genetic factors in related individuals. the variance para- meters are estimated by comparing the observed pheno- typic covariance matrix with the covariance matrix predicted by kinship. inverse gaussian transformation was applied to ensure normality of the measurements. household effects were simultaneously estimated for shared environmental effects. siblings were grouped in the same household. significance of the heritability is tested by comparing the likelihood of the model in which additive genetic factors is constrained to zero with that of a model in which additive genetic factors is estimated. twice the difference between the loge likelihoods of these models yields a test statistic . age and sex were used as covariates when calculating the heritability of qbs scores. the familiality of qbs score was further evaluated by comparing family members (first or second degree rela- tives) of individuals with high qbs score (defined by qbs score cutoff > , which is the mean plus one sd of the entire group) to the remaining individuals on qbs scores. we further estimated the extent to which qbs score and bp diagnosis (coded as for bipolar diagnosis and for controls) were explained by shared genetic factors. the genetic correlation (ρg) of the two traits is modeled as a linear function of kinship coefficients that express relatedness among all pairs of individuals in the pedigree; the phenotypic variance–covariance matrix and its addi- tive genetic and random environmental components are then obtained. the significance of the components are then estimated directly by the likelihood ratio test , . if ρg is significantly different from zero then a significant proportion of the traits’ covariance is considered to be influenced by shared genetic factors . inverse gaussian transformation was applied to achieve normality of the qbs measure. to further explore whether there are latent structures of qbs not captured by the predefined depression, mania, bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of http://www.mdbrain.org/qbs_instructions_and_scale.pdf http://www.nitrc.org/projects/se_linux http://www.nitrc.org/projects/se_linux and mood fluctuation subscales, factor analysis was per- formed using the whole sample. principal axis factor analyses were performed to identify the latent constructs in the data using oblique (promax) rotations. the optimal solution was based on a combination of common factor solution eigenvalues > . , factor structure using loadings > . , and percent of variance explained. results clinical validity age and sex ratio did not differ significantly across diagnostic groups (table ). the qbs score was sig- nificantly higher in the bp group compared to all other groups [f , = . , p < . ] (table ). post-hoc tests showed that there was a significant difference between the qbs score in subjects with bp ( . ± . , mean ± s.e.) compared to mdd ( . ± . ), other psychiatric diag- nosis ( . ± . ), and no psychiatric diagnosis ( . ± . ) (all p < . ). the difference was not significant when comparing bp and psychotic disorders ( . ± . , p = . ) although this may be due to the limited number of individuals with psychotic disorder in the sample (table ). the qbs score of bipolar patients was approximately double that of mdd, and individuals with mdd showed a two to three fold higher mean qbs score compared to individuals with other psychiatric illnesses. controls showed the lowest mean qbs score (fig. ). these char- acteristics support the specificity and sensitivity of this scale. we further compared patients with currently symptomatic bp ( . ± . ; n = ) to patients who have lifetime bp but are currently in full remission ( . ± . ; n = ), and found that their qbs scores were not sig- nificantly different (t = . , p = . ). this suggests that qbs captures the longitudinal trait aspect of bipolarity symptoms. there was no correlation between age and qbs score (r = − . , p = . ). the validity of qbs in terms of specificity and sensi- tivity was formally investigated with a roc curve ana- lysis. for bp vs controls, sensitivity and specificity was . and . ; for bp vs. all other psychiatric diagnoses, sensitivity and specificity was . and . ; for bp vs mdd sensitivity and specificity was . and . (fig. and table ). in terms of the subscales, mood fluctuation, depression, and mania subscores were all significantly different across the five diagnostic groups (table ). the key post-hoc tests were comparisons between bp and mdd. this analysis revealed that the mood fluctuation and mania subscores were significantly different between the two groups (p = . and p = × − respectively), but the depression subscore was not (p = . ). this supports the validity of qbs for identifying the converging symptoms (depression) and diverging symptoms (mania and mood table sample demographics, qbs (quantitative bipolarity scale) score and qbs subscores across diagnostic groups bipolar disorder major depressive disorder psychotic disorder other psychiatric illness control test statistic (f or x ) p-value n gender (male:female) : : : : : . . age . ± . . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . . qbs score . ± . * . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . × − mood fluctuation subscore . ± . * . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . × − depression subscore . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . × − mania subscore . ± . * . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . × − data are recorded as mean ± standard error. asterisk indicates measure with significant difference (p < . ) between bipolar disorder and major depression bipolar mdd psychosis other control q b s s co re diagnosis fig. qbs (quantitative bipolarity scale) score across diagnostic groups. mean qbs score is shown for each of five diagnostic groups [bipolar disorder (n = ), major depressive disorder (mdd) (n = ), psychotic disorder (n = ), other psychiatric diagnosis (n = ), controls (n = ). error bars represent standard error bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of fluctuation) characterizing these two major mood disorders. factor analyses identified two factors that together accounted for % of the variance in the data. all depression items and mood fluctuation items loaded onto factor and all manic items loaded onto factor . genetic validity as measured by familial aggregation consistent with the literature, a diagnosis of bp was highly heritable in this sample (h = . ± . , p = . ). the qbs score also was significantly heritable (h = . ± . , p = × − ) (table ). repeating the qbs analysis with adjustment for shared environment (household effects), the heritability remained significant (h = . ± . , p = . ) and the proportion of phe- notypic variance attributable to household effects was not significant ( . ± . , p = . ) (table ). one possibi- lity is that the significant heritability of qbs was driven by the presence of bp cases. however qbs heritability remained significant even when removing all bipolar cases (h = . ± . , p = × − ). lastly, we removed all psychiatric illnesses and found that the heritability of the qbs score remained similarly significant (h = . ± . , p = × − ) while the phenotypic variance from shared environment in controls was zero (table ). it is unclear why the heritability of qbs in controls was greater than that in the subsample without bp, which was greater than that in the whole sample; however, standard methods indicate that these were not statistically significant differences. an alternative analysis of familiality showed that indi- viduals with a first or second degree relative with a high qbs score had a significantly higher qbs score ( . ± . , n = ) than individuals without such relatives ( . ± . , n = ) [t( ) = . , p = . )]. in further support of genetic validity, genetic correlation analyses demonstrated significant shared genetic variance between bp and qbs score (ρg = . , p = . ). exploring the heritability of the qbs subscores, we found that the mood fluctuation, depression, and mania . . . . . . . . . s en se tiv ity - specificity fig. receiver operating characteristic (roc) curves. lines show the roc curves for the quantitative bipolarity scale distinguishing bipolar disorder vs controls (red), non-bipolar psychiatric illness (green), and major depressive disorder (blue) table characteristics for each comparison in fig. comparison group sensitivity specificity auc se % c.i. p-value controls . . . . . – . × − other psychiatric illness . . . . . – . × − major depressive disorder . . . . . – . × − auc is area under the curve, se is standard error. all comparisons used a cutoff score of based on the youden index table heritability of qbs (quantitative bipolarity scale) score whole sample (n = ) whole sample without bipolar (n = ) non-psychiatric control subjects (n = ) unadjusted h . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) p × − × − × − age and sex effect (r ) . . . adjusted h . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) p(h ) . . × − household . ( . ) . ( . ) p(household) . . – age and sex effect (r ) . . . additive heritability estimates [h (se)] are shown with and without adjustment for shared environment. household is the proportion of the phenotypic variance attributed to shared environment (household effects). both models included age and sex as covariates. r is the phenotypic variance explained by the covariates age and sex (none was significant) bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of subscores all had significant heritability (h = . ± . , p = × − ; h = . ± . , p = . ; h = . ± . , p = × − , respectively). in addition, all qbs subscores remained significantly heritable when the analysis was performed on controls only (h = . ± . , p = . ; h = . ± . , p = . ; h = . ± . , p = . , respectively). these subscore findings suggest that the significant heritability of qbs is not driven by any one facet of the scale. discussion we investigated whether bipolarity quantification can capture the genetic risk for bp beyond that obtained by categorical diagnoses. we found that a concise bipolarity quantification tool using a self-report format that covers symptoms in the current dsm- for bp is significantly heritable in pedigree samples from the ooa/m popula- tion, interestingly even in individuals without bp or psy- chiatric diagnosis. bp is a highly heritable condition. gwas of bp con- ducted outside the amish have identified ~ significant loci though many have not been replicated , , , which indicates that the strong heritability of bp may involve polygenicity and heterogeneity. the genetic loci that may be associated with qbs are yet to be determined. bp has been associated with q . region and also a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms including those in the odz (tenm ,encoding teneurin transmembrane pro- tein ), mad l (encoding mitotic arrest deficient-like ), and trank (encoding tetratricopeptide repeat and ankyrin repeat containing ) genes . it would be inter- esting to determine whether using the qbs phenotype can replicate some of these loci associated with bp or whether qbs identifies additional candidate loci. in addition to gwas studies, more recently whole-genome or -exome sequencing has been used in the search for bp related genes. as rare alleles can be enriched in founder populations, with better characterized phenotypes, the ooa/m may provide an important cohort for discovering risk variants for bp , . use of diagnosis as the primary phenotype in the search for genes conferring risk for bp has often gone unques- tioned though some have investigated temperamental traits as endophenotypes for bipolar disorder – . it is known that bp is prone to over- or under-diagnosis , which has led to the development of tools to screen for bp such as the mdq and bsds. a quantitative trait mea- suring bipolarity may be more informative than diagnosis for genetic studies . furthermore, as the onset of bp can occur later in age, future patients can be erroneously included as controls or with diagnoses of mdd that may convert to bp later, an issue particularly problematic in pedigree-based genetic search where candidate gene identification has been largely dependent upon comparing case vs non-case status within pedigrees. a tool that can identify subclinical bipolar symptoms and their genetic influence may address this important concern. the bivariate genetic correlation analysis here showed a sig- nificantly shared genetic correlation between qbs and bp, supporting that this quantitative bipolarity is at least partially tagging the genetic risk of bp. this measure of bipolarity scored much higher in bp and clearly separated bp from other psychiatric illnesses. however, the detection of subthreshold bipolarity may also be of value. subthreshold bipolarity has been exten- sively studied , and may indicate undiagnosed bipolar features in the general population or patients with mdd and may even predict the conversion of unipolar depression to bp . this view is consistent with our findings in which patients with mdd have a three times higher total bipolarity score, as well as higher mania, mood fluctuation, and depression subscores, compared to non-psychiatric controls. one of the limitations of this study is that the qbs findings were not evaluated in the general population. however, although ooa/m are culturally and envir- onmentally separated from other caucasians of european descent in north america, there is evidence that the clinical presentation of mood disorders is similar . the original version of the bsds has been applied to several populations leading to a range of values for sensitivity ( . – . ) and specificity ( . – . ) of bipolar vs non- bipolar patients depending on the cutoff score used – . using the qbs, the sensitivity and specificity were com- parable in ooa/m, which supports the generalizability of our findings. furthermore, research indicates that genetic findings in the ooa/m may be highly applicable to the larger population. for example, the contactin-associated pro- tein- (cntnap ) gene, first associated with autism in the ooa/m , has since been replicated in multiple stu- dies in the general population , . similarly, genetic stu- dies of non-psychiatric traits have identified associations and biological mechanisms that are replicable in the general population , . one of the novel findings of this study in the ooa/m cohort is that the heritability of qbs was substantial even in subsamples without psychiatric diagnosis, suggesting that the range of subtle bipolarity symptoms assessed by qbs is not specific to mental illness but rather that qbs may be indexing a heritable trait characterized along a continuous dimension from subclinical to overtly clinical symptoms. however, controls in families of a founder population with many cases of bp, may have inflated risk as they are genetically more closely related than discreet families in cohorts from the general population. there- fore, this particular conclusion must be re-tested by applying qbs to family or twin samples from the general bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of population. however, even if this caveat of inflated risk is true, it may actually further support qbs as a marker of genetic risk for bp. in addition, a ooa/m cohort with more densely sampled nuclear families than ours may be helpful in a replication study. to the best of our knowledge, there has not been a tool designed to quantitatively assess mania vs depression vs mood fluctuation and then used to assess their relative heritability. the three quantitative subscales for mood fluctuation, depression, and mania within qbs were each found to be significantly heritable. our definitions of the subscores were based on the clinical description of each item. factor analysis confirmed the clear distinction between manic and depression items. it is unclear why the depression and the mood fluctuation items clustered together. we speculate that it may reflect fluctuations between normal and depressed moods occurring more commonly than fluctuations between normal and manic moods. factor analysis of qbs in a larger sample of bp may allow a clearer distinction. another notable limitation of this study is the lack of qbs administration over time, thus we did not address reliability. our study and other studies using the bsds address validity with measures of sensitivity and specifi- city, however, we do not know of any studies that address reliability. furthermore we did not evaluate the predictive power of qbs for risk of conversion to bp, which we plan to address in subsequent studies. some individuals in our study classified as controls were below the age of max- imum risk for bp and may go on to develop bp. however this may also be a strength of the qbs approach because a main purpose of this study is to investigate quantitative bipolarity with and without bp. another limitation of this study is the low number of individuals with a schizo- phrenia spectrum disorder ( % of the current sample, which is epidemiologically similar to the rate in the gen- eral population), given the data supporting a genetic overlap between schizophrenia and bp . an additional limitation is that only about % of the current sample have bp but their qbs scores are by definition higher and predominate in the distribution of the overall sample, which is a limitation of the current sample. future studies recruiting bp based samples are needed to further validate the questionnaire. heritability is only the first step of genetic validity; whe- ther qbs would assist in the search for genes conferring risk of developing bp remains to be seen. this study suggests that quantitative bipolarity as measured by the concise self- administered qbs task may be a useful phenotype in sup- plementing the diagnosis phenotype in bp genetic studies. acknowledgements the study was supported by national institute of health grants u mh , r eb , r da , r mh , p mh , and t mh . author details maryland psychiatric research center, department of psychiatry, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa. department of medicine, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa. clinic for special children, strasburg, pa , usa. department of psychiatry, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa. hershey medical center, department of psychiatry, penn state university school of medicine, hershey, pa , usa. human genetics branch, national institute of mental health intramural research program, bethesda, md , usa conflict of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. received: october revised: march accepted: april references . bertelsen, a., harvald, b. & hauge, m. a danish twin study of manic-depressive disorders. br. j. psychiatry.: j. ment. sci. , – ( ). . craddock, n. & sklar, p. genetics of bipolar disorder. lancet (lond., engl.). , – ( ). . georgi, b. et al. genomic view of bipolar disorder revealed by whole genome sequencing in a genetic isolate. plos genet. , e ( ). . psychiatric gwas consortium bipolar disorder working group. large-scale genome-wide association analysis of bipolar disorder iden- tifies a new susceptibility locus near odz . nat. genet. , – ( ). . baum, a. e. et al. a genome-wide association study implicates diacylglycerol kinase eta (dgkh) and several other genes in the etiology of bipolar disorder. mol. psychiatry , – ( ). . ikeda, m. et al. a genome-wide association study identifies two novel sus- ceptibility loci and trans population polygenicity associated with bipolar dis- order. mol. psychiatry , – ( ). . nassir ghaemi, s. et al. sensitivity and specificity of a new bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . aiken, c. b., weisler, r. h. & sachs, g. s. the bipolarity index: a clinician-rated measure of diagnostic confidence. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . vazquez, g. h. et al. screening for bipolar disorders in spanish-speaking populations: sensitivity and specificity of the bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale-spanish version. compr. psychiatry , – ( ). . zaratiegui, r. m. et al. sensitivity and specificity of the mood disorder ques- tionnaire and the bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale in argentinean patients with mood disorders. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . zimmerman, m., galione, j. n., chelminski, i., young, d. & ruggero, c. j. performance of the bipolar spectrum diagnostic scale in psychiatric out- patients. bipolar disord. , – ( ). . hirschfeld, r. m. et al. development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: the mood disorder questionnaire. am. j. psy- chiatry , – ( ). . egeland, j. a. et al. bipolar affective disorders linked to dna markers on chromosome . nature , – ( ). . hostetter, a. m., egeland, j. a. & endicott, j. amish study, ii: consensus diag- noses and reliability results. am. j. psychiatry , – ( ). . strauss, k. a. et al. a population-based study of kcnh p.arg his and bipolar spectrum disorder. hum. mol. genet. , – ( ). . beiler k. descendants and history of christian fisher, - . th edn. (grand rapids mi, heulegordon, ). . shirk l., shirk b. directory of the groffdale conference mennonite churches. th edn. (l.n. & b.n. shirk, kutztown pennsylvania, ). . mitchell, b. d. et al. living the good life? mortality and hospital utilization patterns in the old order amish. plos one , e ( ). bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of . insel, t. r. the nimh research domain criteria (rdoc) project: precision medicine for psychiatry. am. j. psychiatry , – ( ). . perkins, n. j. & schisterman, e. f. the inconsistency of “optimal” cutpoints obtained using two criteria based on the receiver operating characteristic curve. am. j. epidemiol. , – ( ). . kochunov, p. et al. the common genetic influence over processing speed and white matter microstructure: evidence from the old order amish and human connectome projects. neuroimage , – ( ). . almasy, l., dyer, t. d. & blangero, j. bivariate quantitative trait linkage analysis: pleiotropy versus co-incident linkages. genet. epidemiol. , – ( ). . williams-blangero, s. & blangero, j. quantitative genetic analysis of skin reflectance: a multivariate approach. hum. biol. , – ( ). . hong, l. e. et al. familial aggregation of eye-tracking endophenotypes in families of schizophrenic patients. arch. gen. psychiatry , – ( ). . green, e. k. et al. replication of bipolar disorder susceptibility alleles and identification of two novel genome-wide significant associations in a new bipolar disorder case-control sample. mol. psychiatry , – ( ). . purcell, s. m. et al. common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schi- zophrenia and bipolar disorder. nature , – ( ). . contreras, j., hare, e., chavarria, g. & raventos, h. quantitative genetic analysis of anxiety trait in bipolar disorder. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . fears, s. c. et al. multisystem component phenotypes of bipolar disorder for genetic investigations of extended pedigrees. jama psychiatry , – ( ). . greenwood, t. a. et al. heritability and linkage analysis of personality in bipolar disorder. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . zimmerman, m., ruggero, c. j., chelminski, i. & young, d. is bipolar disorder overdiagnosed? j. clin. psychiatry , – ( ). . kelsoe, j. r. arguments for the genetic basis of the bipolar spectrum. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . nusslock, r. & frank, e. subthreshold bipolarity: diagnostic issues and chal- lenges. bipolar disord. , – ( ). . zimmermann, p. et al. heterogeneity of dsm-iv major depressive disorder as a consequence of subthreshold bipolarity. arch. gen. psychiatry , – ( ). . hoertel, n., le strat, y., angst, j. & dubertret, c. subthreshold bipolar disorder in a u.s. national representative sample: prevalence, correlates and perspectives for psychiatric nosography. j. affect. disord. , – ( ). . fiedorowicz, j. g. et al. subthreshold hypomanic symptoms in progression from unipolar major depression to bipolar disorder. am. j. psychiatry , – ( ). . gill, k. e., cardenas, s. a., kassem, l., schulze, t. g. & mcmahon, f. j. symptom profiles and illness course among anabaptist and non-anabaptist adults with major mood disorders. int. j. bipolar disord. , ( ). . strauss, k. a. et al. recessive symptomatic focal epilepsy and mutant contactin- associated protein-like . n. engl. j. med. , – ( ). . arking, d. e. et al. a common genetic variant in the neurexin superfamily member cntnap increases familial risk of autism. am. j. hum. genet. , – ( ). . rossi, e. et al. a mb deletion at q -q associated with autism spectrum disorders and primary amenorrhea. eur. j. med. genet. , – ( ). . albert, j. s. et al. null mutation in hormone-sensitive lipase gene and risk of type diabetes. n. engl. j. med. , – ( ). . pollin, t. i. et al. a null mutation in human apoc confers a favorable plasma lipid profile and apparent cardioprotection. science , – ( ). . ruderfer, d. m. et al. polygenic dissection of diagnosis and clinical dimensions of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. mol. psychiatry , – ( ). bruce et al. translational psychiatry ( ) : page of 	clinical and genetic validity of quantitative bipolarity 	introduction 	methods and materials 	subjects 	quantitative bipolarity rating scale (qbs) 	statistical analysis 	results 	clinical validity 	genetic validity as measured by familial aggregation 	discussion 	acknowledgments ataxia-telangiectasia article open access ataxia-telangiectasia a new remitting form with a peculiar transcriptome signature vincenzo leuzzi, md, daniela d’agnano, md, michele menotta, phd, caterina caputi, md, luciana chessa, md, and mauro magnani, phd neurol genet ; :e . doi: . /nxg. correspondence dr. leuzzi vincenzo.leuzzi@uniroma .it abstract objective ataxia-telangiectasia (at) is a rare, severe, and ineluctably progressive multisystemic neuro- degenerative disease. variant at phenotypes have been described in patients with mild- and late-onset neurologic deterioration and atypical features (dystonia and myoclonus). we report on the clinical characteristics and transcriptome profile of patients with a typical at pre- sentation and genotype who experienced an unexpected favorable course. methods a -year-old woman developed, by the age of years, all the classic symptoms of at associated with increased alpha-fetoprotein levels, a compound at-mutated (atm) genotype with an inframe deletion c. g>a (p.glu _lys del ) and a missense mutation c. g>a (p.asp gln), and no residual atm protein expression. by the age of years, ataxia slowly disappeared, and a very mild choreic disorder was the only neurologic feature in adulthood. brain mri was normal. the blood transcriptome profile was assessed and compared with that of healthy controls and patients with the classic at phenotype. results the atypical clinical course of the patient was associated with a transitional transcriptome profile: while % of transcripts were expressed as in patients with the classic at presentation, % of transcripts were expressed as in healthy controls. conclusions the unexpected mild clinical outcome and transcriptome profile of this patient with at suggest the existence of individual resilience to the altered atm synthesis. because of their possible prognostic and therapeutic implications, the identification of modifier factors affecting the phenotype would deserve further studies. from the department of pediatrics, child neurology and psychiatry (v.l., d.d.a., c.c.), and faculty of medicine and psychology (l.c.), sapienza university of rome “la sapienza”; and department of biomolecular sciences (m. menotta, m. magnani), university of urbino “carlo bo,” italy. funding information and disclosures are provided at the end of the article. full disclosure form information provided by the authors is available with the full text of this article at neurology.org/ng. the article processing charge was funded by the authors. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives license . (cc by-nc-nd), which permits downloading and sharing the work provided it is properly cited. the work cannot be changed in any way or used commercially without permission from the journal. copyright © the author(s). published by wolters kluwer health, inc. on behalf of the american academy of neurology. http://dx.doi.org/ . /nxg. mailto:vincenzo.leuzzi@uniroma .it http://ng.neurology.org/lookup/doi/ . /nxg. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / ataxia-telangiectasia (at; omim# ) is a rare genetic disease caused by mutations in the at-mutated (atm) gene encoding pi kinase, which controls the cell cycle and dna repair. patients with classic at present with early-onset progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous telangiectasias, immunodeficiency, late-onset peripheral neuropathy, and higher incidence of infections and tumors. patients usually use a wheelchair by the age of years. exitus occurs by the second or third decade of life because of chronic lung disease or malignancies. biomarkers of the disease are increased alpha-fetoprotein (afp) ( % of patients), chromosomal radiosensivity, and undetectable atm protein ( % of patients). milder variants (late-onset, slowly progressive ataxia/dyskinesia syndrome) have been associated not only with missense atm mutations and residual atm kinase ac- tivity but also with the classic severe genotype and absent atm protein. here, we report on a new clinical variant with an early pro- gressive course, late remission, and stable neurologic status until adulthood, despite the classic atm genotype and absent atm protein. accordingly, blood transcriptome in this case showed a pattern of alteration intermediate between healthy controls and severely affected patients. case report a -year-old woman was born after a normal pregnancy and delivery from healthy unrelated parents. psychomotor de- velopment was normal until the age of months when trunk swaying was noticed by the parents. on examination, she was found to have mild trunk ataxia, external beating nystagmus, mild conjunctival angioectasias, and subcutaneous angiomas in the lumbar and calf regions. brain mri and sensory and motor nerve conduction velocities were normal. blood immunoglobulin a (iga) levels were marginally decreased ( mg/ ml; r.v. – ), whereas the afp level was increased ( . ng/ml; r.v. – ). chromosome analysis revealed a ; rearrangement, and the radiosensitivity test demonstrated increased chromo- some instability. no residual atm protein expression or activity was found. molecular analysis of the atm gene disclosed a compound heterozygous genotype with an inframe deletion c. g>a, p.(glu _lys del ) and a missense mutation c. g>a, p.(asp gln). in the following years, trunk ataxia worsened and other neu- rologic features, such as motor impersistence and chorea of the trunk and limbs, slurred speech, and hypometric saccades, emerged. nevertheless, the ability to walk autonomously was preserved, and she could attend a normal school and conduct a normal life. mental development was normal: at the age of years, the wechsler intelligence scale for children-revised iq score was . starting from the age of years, trunk ataxia progressively disappeared. on examination, at the age of years, she presented with only mild clumsiness associated with nondisabling choreic movements of the limbs (video, links. lww.com/nxg/a ). the international cooperative ataxia rating scale score was (normal ). brain mri was normal. she maintained normal mental functioning (wechsler adult intelligence scale iq score , verbal iq score , and performance iq score ) with adequate personal and social skills. she never had pulmonary infections; mri of the lung performed at the age of years was normal. her menses were irregular, and she had polycystic ovarian syndrome. she un- derwent surgical removal of ameloblastoma of the mandible. recently, ultrasonography has revealed a fatty liver disease in the absence of dyslipidemia or abnormal liver enzymes. at the age of and years, the afp level was and ng/ml, respectively; the serum iga level was normal. transcriptome analysis: the study of a whole gene expression signature (appendix e- , links.lww.com/nxg/a ) showed that , probes were differentially expressed (upregulated and downregulated, table e- , links.lww.com/nxg/a ) in patients with classic at compared with healthy controls. using these probes in hierarchical clustering computation (figure ), our case resulted as a nonclustered sample: % of probes were expressed as in patients with classic at (cutoff . fc), whereas % of them were expressed as in healthy controls. of gene symbols derived from the differently expressed probes, gene transcripts had an expression level similar to the healthy controls (table e- , links.lww.com/ nxg/a ). two of them, such as zcrb (a zinc finger rna binding protein) and thoc (a protein involved in splicing) showed a biological and molecular functional interaction when analyzed by reactome fi [ ] (plugin for cytoscape). patient consent the patient provided informed consent for participating in the research and publishing the resulting data. she also pro- vided consent to disclose of any recognizable person in the video. discussion we describe an unusual at phenotype, characterized by a clinical presentation mimicking the classic severe form with the typical biomarkers of this condition, such as absent atm protein, chromosome rearrangement, and increasing levels of afp, with an unexpected favorable course of neu- rologic disorders during teenage years. the atm protein level and residual kinase activity seem to influence the severity of the clinical phenotype in patients with at. variant at has been documented in patients glossary afp = alpha-fetoprotein; at = ataxia-telangiectasia; atm = ataxia-telangiectasia mutated; iga = immunoglobulin a. neurology: genetics | volume , number | april neurology.org/ng http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://neurology.org/ng presenting with a mild neurologic phenotype, often normal brain mri, and less frequent extraneurologic involvement. in these cases, regulatory, missense, or leaky splicing atm mutations and a residual atm activity were detected. the genotype of our patient is characterized by an inframe de- letion and a missense mutation without residual atm activity. accordingly, a classic presentation and outcome should have been expected. recent reports showed that absent atm ac- tivity and high afp may be associated with a late-onset or atypical neurologic presentation (table e- , links.lww.com/ nxg/a ). of interest, patients belonging to the canadian mennonites with late dystonia/myoclonus-dystonia syn- drome associated with c>a mutation had transient ataxia in early childhood. the same genotype has been reported in a patient with early-onset myoclonus-dystonia, high blood afp, and progressive cerebellar atrophy. in contrast to these cases, our patient experienced the classic presentation and course of the disease until the end of the first decade of life when progressively ataxia vanished, leaving a mild and stable choreic disorder. nevertheless, afp and some sys- temic manifestations of at (such as ovarian polycystic figure hierarchical clustering (hcl) outcome of all tested samples with the expression profile of the case report set as unknown only a partial gene list is reported (the whole hcl figure is available as figure e- , links.lww.com/nxg/ a ). the probes resulting statistically different between at and wt groups (permutation-based t test, p ≤ . ) allowed to cluster the atypical patient out of the dendrogram. the colors (green, down- regulated; red, upregulated) denote the expression level of each used probe. the probe names and the matching gene names are reported on the left and on the right of the y axis, respectively. neurology.org/ng neurology: genetics | volume , number | april http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://links.lww.com/nxg/a http://neurology.org/ng syndrome, liver steatosis, and neoplasm) occurred. the as- sumption that the afp level may mirror the progression of the disease remains debated. in our patient, the afp level in- creased, despite the improvement in neurologic disorder. the atypical favorable outcome reported in our patient sug- gests the possible effect of epigenetic modifying factors, which may confer resilience to the disease in some subjects. one modifying factor of the effect of atm loss has been identified in the rad s allele of the gene encoding the rad com- ponent of the mre /rad /nbs complex. in the murine model, rad s has a role in alleviating senescence, radiosen- sitivity, and tumor formation, all hallmarks of atm-deficient mice. moreover, recent data suggested a pivotal role of the rad hook domain in influencing the mre complex- dependent dna damage response. in our patient, peripheral rad expression overlaps that detected in patients with at with a typical phenotype. a further hypothesis concerns the variability in the maintaining of the cellular balance of reactive oxygen species, which cause, among the others, defects in hematopoietic stem cells and neurodegeneration. in a recent article, we identified the transcriptome profile of patients with at with respect to healthy controls. the present case exhibited transitional probe expression from that found in patients with classic at and healthy controls. however interesting, this result requires caution because only known probes were screened while we were unable to de- termine whether unknown and unpredicted contributing events, such as splicing pattern alteration, could take place. in any case, the observed gene expression variation was part of the final outcome of the patient’s biological individuality. the most important genes expressed were scrb and thoc , which are involved in wound reparation and genome stability, respectively. thoc is part of the tho complex, which plays a role in transcriptional elongations, nuclear rna export, and genome stability. the finding of a transitional transcriptome profile suggests the occurrence of modifying factors possibly influencing individual vulnerability and resilience to the altered atm synthesis resulting in an unexpected mild outcome. author contributions vincenzo leuzzi and daniela d’agnano: drafting/revising the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of clinical and biochemical data, and acquisition of data. michele menotta: drafting/revising the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of biochemical data, and acquisition of data. caterina caputi: drafting/revising the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of clinical and biochemical data, and acquisition of data. luciana chessa: drafting/revising the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of clinical and biochemical data, and molecular analysis interpretation. mauro magnani: drafting/ revising the manuscript, analysis and interpretation of clinical and biochemical data, and acquisition of data. study funding no targeted funding reported. disclosure v. leuzzi, d. d’agnano, m. menotta, c. caputi, and l. chessa report no disclosures. m. magnani has served on the scientific advisory board of, holds stock/stock options in, and/or receives board of directors’ compensation from erydel spa; holds a patent regarding a method for the en- capsulation of agents within erythrocytes; and has received research support from erydel spa and fondazione cassa di risparmio di fano. full disclosure form information provided by the authors is available with the full text of this article at neurology.org/ng. received september , . accepted in final form november , . references . lavin mf. ataxia-telangiectasia: from a rare disorder to a paradigm for cell signaling and cancer. nat rev mol cell biol ; : – . . waldmann ta, mcintire kr. serum-alpha-fetoprotein levels in patients with ataxia- telangiectasia. lancet ; : – . . verhagen mm, abdo wf, willemsen ma, et al. clinical spectrum of ataxia- telangiectasia in adulthood. neurology ; : – . . nakamura k, fike f, haghayegh s, et al. a-twinnipeg: pathogenesis of rare atm missense mutation c. c>a with decreased protein expression and downstream signaling, early-onset dystonia, cancer, and life-threatening radiotoxicity. mol genet genomic med ; : – . . menotta m, biagiotti s, orazi s, et al. in vivo effects of dexamethasone on blood gene expression in ataxia telangiectasia. mol cell biochem ; : . . shannon p, markiel a, ozier o, et al. cytoscape: a software environment for in- tegrated models of biomolecular interaction networks. genome res ; : – . . saeed ai, sharov v, white j, et al. tm : a free, open-source system for microarray data management and analysis. biotechniques ; : – . . stray-pedersen a, borresen-dale al, paus e, lindman cr, burgers t, abrahamsen tg. alpha fetoprotein is increasing with age in ataxiatelangiectasia. eur j paediatr neurol ; : – . . morales m, theunissen j-wf, kim cfb, kitagawa r, kastan mb, petrini jhj. the rad s allele promotes atm-dependent dna damage responses and suppresses atm deficiency: implications for the mre complex as a dna damage sensor. genes dev ; : – . . ito k, hirao a, arai f. regulation of oxidative stress by atm is required for self- renewal of haematopoietic stem cells. nature ; : – . neurology: genetics | volume , number | april neurology.org/ng http://ng.neurology.org/lookup/doi/ . /nxg. http://neurology.org/ng doi . /nxg. ; ; neurol genet vincenzo leuzzi, daniela d'agnano, michele menotta, et al. ataxia-telangiectasia: a new remitting form with a peculiar transcriptome signature this information is current as of march , services updated information & http://ng.neurology.org/content/ / /e .full.html including high resolution figures, can be found at: references http://ng.neurology.org/content/ / /e .full.html##ref-list- this article cites articles, of which you can access for free at: subspecialty collections http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/spinocerebellar_ataxia spinocerebellar ataxia http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/prognosis prognosis http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/chorea chorea following collection(s): this article, along with others on similar topics, appears in the permissions & licensing http://ng.neurology.org/misc/about.xhtml#permissions its entirety can be found online at: information about reproducing this article in parts (figures,tables) or in reprints http://ng.neurology.org/misc/addir.xhtml#reprintsus information about ordering reprints can be found online: reserved. online issn: - . published by wolters kluwer health, inc. on behalf of the american academy of neurology.. all rights an open-access, online-only, continuous publication journal. copyright copyright © the author(s). is an official journal of the american academy of neurology. published since april , it isneurol genet http://ng.neurology.org/content/ / /e .full.html http://ng.neurology.org/content/ / /e .full.html##ref-list- http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/chorea http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/prognosis http://ng.neurology.org//cgi/collection/spinocerebellar_ataxia http://ng.neurology.org/misc/about.xhtml#permissions http://ng.neurology.org/misc/addir.xhtml#reprintsus proc. nail. acad. sci. usa vol. , pp. - , november genetics structural alterations of dna ligase i in bloom syndrome (chromosome instability/dna-replication defect/cancer-prone inherited disease) anne e. willis*, rosanna weksbergt, sally tomlinson*, and tomas lindahl* *imperial cancer research fund, clare hall laboratories, south mimms, hertfordshire, en ld, united kingdom; and tthe hospital for sick children, toronto, canada communicated by george r. stark, july , abstract cell lines derived from seven patients with bloom syndrome all contain a dna ligase i with unusual properties. six lines were shown to have a reduced level of this enzyme activity and the residual enzyme was anomalously heat-labile. the seventh line contained a dimeric rather than monomeric form of ligase i. several cell lines representative of other inherited human syndromes have apparently normal dna ligases. the data indicate that bloom syndrome is due to a defect in the structure of dna ligase i caused by a "leaky" point mutation occurring at one of at least two alternative sites. the rare syndrome first described by bloom in as a "congenital telangiectatic erythema resembling lupus erythe- matosus in dwarfs" ( ) is associated with a greatly increased incidence of cancer. thus, in a recent survey of this reces- sively inherited disease, malignant neoplasms of several different types were detected in young patients ( ). most cases of bloom syndrome (bs) have been found among ashkenazim, and it has been estimated that about % of this population represent bs heterozygotes ( ). however, the disorder has also been reported in non-jewish individuals, including american blacks ( ) and japanese ( ). cells from bs patients exhibit frequent chromosome re- arrangements [in particular, symmetrical quadriradials indic- ative of exchanges between homologous chromatids at ho- mologous sites ( , )], and a - to -fold increased level of spontaneous sister-chromatid exchange (sce) is regarded as a hallmark of the disease ( ). in addition, bs cells show a - to -fold elevated spontaneous mutation rate ( ). ten years ago, giannelli et al. ( ) found that replicative intermediates of dna exhibit delayed maturation into a very high-molec- ular weight form in bs cells and suggested that the funda- mental defect involves a step in dna replication. a slight decrease in the rate of dna fork displacement during replication has also been observed for bs cells ( , ). moreover, such cells show slightly increased sensitivity to ultraviolet and near-ultraviolet light accompanied by altered unscheduled dna synthesis and increased chain breakage compared to control cells, indicative of an abnormality in a postincision step of dna excision-repair ( , ). we have shown previously ( ) that the level of activity of the major dna ligase in proliferating human cells, ligase i, is reduced in the bs-derived lymphoblastoid cell line gm . furthermore, the ligase i in these cells is anomalously heat- labile, indicating a mutation in the structural gene for dna ligase i in this line ( ). preliminary observations on altered aggregation properties of ligase i from other bs cell lines have also been made ( , ). in the present work, we extend our molecular analysis to six additional bs cell lines and show that two clearly distinguishable types of ligase i defects occur in patients with this clinical syndrome. materials and methods cell lines and cell culture. five bs cell lines were derived from different ashkenazi bs patients. the simian virus -transformed fibroblast line gm and the lymphoid cell line gm were obtained from the human genetic mutant cell repository (camden, nj). the lymphoid lines w - , d - - , and aa - - were established by immortalization with epstein-barr virus as described ( ). the lymphoid line aa - was from a parent of the aa - - donor. the latter four lines were made available by e. e. henderson (depart- ment of microbiology and immunology, temple university school of medicine, philadelphia). two lymphoid lines of non-ashkenazi origin were established from canadian chil- dren having both bs and wilms tumor; was from a mennonite and was from an anglo-saxon patient. more detailed information on the origin of these two lines will be presented elsewhere ( ). lines representative of other human inherited diseases were from the human genetic mutant cell repository, as follows: ag , werner syn- drome; gm , xeroderma pigmentosum variant; gm , cockayne syndrome; gm , control from a healthy indi- vidual. the lymphoid cell line ps from a friedreich ataxia patient was obtained from susan chamberlain (st. mary's hospital, london). cells were grown at °c in media supplemented with % fetal bovine serum, fibroblasts in dulbecco's modified eagle's medium and suspension cul- tures of lymphoid cells in rpmi . sce frequency was determined according to perry and wolff ( ). enzyme determinations. crude cell extracts were treated with polymin p (bdh) to remove nucleic acids and size- fractionated by fplc (pharmacia) prior to assay for dna ligase activities as described ( ). the salt concentration was maintained at . - . m nacl throughout these procedures. sucrose gradient centrifugation of cell extracts was per- formed according to martin and ames ( ). dna (guanine- o )-methyltransferase was assayed as described ( ). results sce. several control lymphoid cell lines, including line gm from a healthy individual, had basal sce frequen- cies of - per cell. as expected, the bs lines gm , gm , w - , , and exhibited high numbers of sce, - per cell. in contrast, the two bs lines d - - and aa - - showed a sce frequency of only - per cell and were therefore different from the majority of the bs lines as well as from the control cell lines (e. e. henderson, personal communication). thus, cell lines derived from bs patients fall into two distinct categories with respect to the magnitude of the increase in spontaneous sce frequency. enzyme deficiency in bs lines. dna ligases i and ii in cell extracts were separated by fplc size fractionation. in control cells, enzyme assays revealed a major peak of the abbreviations: bs, bloom syndrome; sce, sister-chromatid ex- change. the publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. this article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with u.s.c. § solely to indicate this fact. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) -kda ligase i, followed by a smaller peak of the -kda ligase ii. the latter enzyme was also identified by its unique ability to join nicks in the dna strand of a dna-rna hybrid ( ). the ratio of ligase i to ligase ii activity was . - . in extracts from the lines gm (healthy control), gm (cockayne syndrome), ag (werner syndrome), gm (xeroderma pigmentosum variant), and ps (fried- reich ataxia) (figs. and ). there was no indication of a dna ligase deficiency in any of these diseases. in contrast, the level of ligase i in the bs line w - was one-third of that found in normal cells (fig. la) and was indistinguishable from that of the bs line gm investigated previously ( ). similar results were also obtained with a simian virus -transformed fibroblast line (gm ) of bs origin (fig. lb). these three lines were derived from ashkenazi patients, but a bs line from a mennonite child (line ) also yielded very similar results (fig. c). these data show that dna ligase i levels are markedly reduced in several representative bs cell lines. enzyme levels in bs lines with low sce frequency and in a heterozygote line. six different bs lymphoid cell lines were available for study, four with the expected high level of sce and two (d - - and aa - - ) with a slightly increased level. the latter, as well as lines with high sce, showed anomalously low levels of dna ligase i activity in cell extracts (fig. ). thus, the reduction in ligase i activity was independent of the size of the increase in sce frequency. the single available parental heterozygote cell line of bs, aa - , although containing a higher level of ligase i than the bs cells (fig. b), had an activity that was apparently lower than any of the lines representative of healthy individuals or other syndromes, as anticipated. however, due to experi- mental variations this heterozygote line cannot be distin- guished with certainty from some members of the control group. that is, the apparent difference between the experi- ments with the xeroderma pigmentosum variant line (fig. c) and the friedreich ataxia line (fig. a) is as large as the difference between the latter and the aa - line. second type of ligase i alteration. the anglo-saxon bs line, , was unlike the other bs lines in that no dna ligase i monomer was detected after size fractionation. instead, a peak of dna ligase activity was eluted early on fplc fractionation, although clearly separated from the void vol- ume (fig. a). when extracts of line were made m with respect to nacl, one hour before chromatography, the ligase activity was converted to a form that was eluted at the expected position of dna ligase i. the data strongly indicate that, in line cells, ligase i is present as a dimer (or, less likely, as a monomer tightly bound to another protein of the same size) that can be dissociated by high salt treatment. a slower, partial conversion to monomer form occurred in the presence of . - . m nacl. these observations were confirmed by sucrose gradient centrifugation experiments. in comparison with reference proteins, dna ligase i from control cells had a sedimentation coefficient of - s (data not shown), and the same value was obtained for the residual ligase i activity in the ashkenazi bs line w - (fig. b); the material showed a small peak of ligase i at this position, but most of the activity appeared as a distinct peak at s. by combining the stokes radius data obtained by gel filtration and the sedimentation coefficients in the svedberg equation ( ), molecular weights of approximately , and , , respectively, were estimated for the two forms of ligase i. heat lability of ligase i in bs. peak fractions ofdna ligase i from fplc experiments were incubated at 'c, and aliquots were removed at different times for ligase assays. the enzyme activity from all the non-bs lines decreased with apparent first-order kinetics and showed o inactivation in min. in contrast, the ligase i from the bs lines w - , co x enw . - c) (d un co co co x co ce c. (u- i a) co cu cm co , x u) cz .) u) co cn j . kst co . fl . . cx i v -' - v eluent, ml fig. . size fractionation of dna ligase activities in repre- sentative bs cell lines. fplc superose- column profiles of polymin p-treated cell extracts are shown. (a) lymphoid cell lines w - (ashkenazi bs) and ag (werner syndrome). (b) simian virus -transformed fibroblast line gm (ashkenazi bs) and hela cells. (c) lymphoid cell lines (mennonite bs) and gm (xeroderma pigmentosum variant). circles show results with the standard dna ligase assay ( ), and triangles show- results with the dna-rna hybrid assay specific for dna ligase . (line was not tested with the latter assay.) open symbols depict the results with bs lines, and closed symbols, other cell lines. broken line represents a of the bs material; the a profiles of the controls were similar. gm , gm , , d - - , and aa - - was clearly more heat-labile, being % inactivated in min (fig. and data not shown). these results confirm that the increased genetics: willis et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) od x co u) cio ) - co x u/) c x en - c) a) n ) qc(c ,- eluent, ml . ° c< eluent, ml fig. . dna ligase activities in bs lymphoid cell lines with low sce and in a heterozygote line. chromatographic conditions and symbols are as in fig. . (a) lines d - - (ashkenazi bs) and ps (friedreich ataxia). (b) lines aa - - (ashkenazi bs) and aa - (heterozygote; parent of patient from which aa - - was derived). lability reported previously for the gm line ( ) is characteristic of ligase i from a number of bs lines. the dimeric form of ligase i from the bs line was not heat- sensitive, however, and was indistinguishable from the con- trol material in this regard (fig. ). moreover, the stability of the ligase i activity from the heterozygote aa - could not be distinguished from that of control cells, presumably because most of the activity in this line was due to the normal enzyme. several other properties ofthe altered forms ofdna ligase i from lines gm and were investigated. they did not differ markedly from ligase i from control gm cells with regard to ph dependence, km for the atp cofactor, ability to use mn + instead of mg ' as cofactor, or inhibition with increasing concentrations ofnacl, although the enzyme from gm cells was slightly more sensitive in the latter regard ( % inhibition by inclusion of . m nacl in the standard reaction mixture vs. o inhibition of ligase i from and gm cells). mex phenotypes. human lymphoid cell lines may be of either mex+ or mex- phenotype, the latter being anoma- lously sensitive to alkylating agents ( ). mex- cells do not contain an active dna (guanine-o )-methyltransferase ( ) and have been reported to show delayed joining of strand interruptions in dna ( ). however, from methyltransferase assays no correlation between the mex phenotype and levels of ligase activity was observed; i.e., the bs lines gm and d - - were mex+, w - , gm , and were mex-, and appeared intermediate (data not shown). discussion there appears to be a consistent correlation between bs and a structural defect of dna ligase i. cell lines derived from seven different bs patients were investigated, and all ofthem contain a dna ligase i with altered properties, whereas ligase ii is normal. these data both confirm and extend our previous observation ( ) that an anomalously heat-labile dna ligase i activity was present in the bs lymphoid cell line gm . in contrast, no unusual properties of dna ligases were detected in different human cell lines derived from normal individuals or from patients with inherited diseases other than bs. thus, no dna ligase defect was observed in ataxia-telangiectasia, fanconi anemia, werner syndrome, xeroderma pigmentosum (including the variant complemen- tation group), friedreich ataxia, and cockayne syndrome (ref. and this work). two different types of structural alteration in dna ligase i from bs cells were characterized. the five cases of bs in ashkenazim all showed the same type of molecular defect, exhibiting markedly reduced activity and decreased heat stability of the enzyme under our assay conditions. these observations are consistent with the hypothesis that most jewish individuals with bs are descendants of a single founder living in poland centuries ago ( ). a single canadian mennonite bs case with a history of parental consanguinity was also investigated and found to exhibit a ligase defect indistinguishable from that seen in the ashkenazi material. in view of the relative isolation of the mennonite community, it seems likely that this case represents an independently derived but similar mutation. in contrast, the dna ligase i alteration seen in the cell line derived from an anglo- saxon bs patient is clearly different, because at low or moderate ionic strength the enzyme was present as a -kda dimer rather than a -kda monomer, and no heat lability was observed. preliminary experiments with fibroblasts from a japanese bs patient ( ) yielded results for ligase i indistinguishable from those documented in more detail here with the line. these data suggest that a different mutation is present in the gene for ligase i in the latter two cases, again resulting in the synthesis of a defective form of the enzyme. we refer to these different molecular alterations as ligase defects i- (heat-labile enzyme) and i- (dimeric enzyme). it is not surprising that a dna ligase i of reduced activity can be due to alternative mutations; by comparison, malfunctioning hemoglobin variants are known to result from several different point mutations ( ). there does not seem to be any obvious distinction in the clinical symptoms of bs between the two types observed here. further, no genetic evidence has been obtained for heterogeneity in bs. fusion of type i- and type - cells has demonstrated noncomple- mentation of the increased sce frequency ( ), whereas fusion of bs cells with normal cells results in suppression of the elevated sce ( ). recently, chan et al. ( ) reported that - % of the dna ligase i activity (termed ligase ia) appeared close to the void volume rather than at the position of the ligase i monomer following high-salt extraction of lymphoid cells and gel filtration. the amount of this large form of the enzyme, but not the monomer, seemed reduced in extracts from bs cells and showed an apparent % reduction in molecular genetics: willis et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) co i x c >~~~~ e - ~~~~~~~~~~~ . o cu ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ . coc ~ eluent, ml b r- x cu c) volume, ml fig. . dna ligase activities in the anglo-saxon bs line , containing a dimeric form of ligase i. (a) fplc profiles as in fig. for closed symbols. the open symbols show the same experiment, but with incubation of the cell extract in m nacl prior to chromatography. (b) sucrose gradient centrifugation. cell extracts from the bs lines (o) and w - (e), . ml each, were layered on -mi sucrose gradients ( - %o) containing mm naci, mm tris hcl (ph . ), mm -mercaptoethanol, and mm edta. gradients were centrifuged at , rpm in a beckman . rotor for hr at c. fractions were collected from the bottom of the tube and assayed for ligase activity. the molecular weight standards used were catalase, which was also added to the extracts as an internal marker (indicated by arrow), apoferritin, alcohol dehydrogenase, and alkaline phoslthatase. direc- tion of sedimentation is towards the left. weight compared with ligase ia from control cells. these observations are not easy to reconcile with our findings; in high-salt buffers we do not detect any differences in aggre- gation state between ligase i from bs and control material, nor do we find a difference in molecular weight between the bs and control enzymes. several bs patients exhibit two populations of circulating lymphoid cells, a major one with high sce and a minor one with low sce ( , ); fibroblasts from such individuals all seem to show high sce. since spontaneous revertants of a specific single-site mutation would be expected to be quite rare, the low sce population is unlikely to represent back-mutations, in spite ofthe increased mutationfrequency in bs. a comparatively low sce frequency is present in two of the six bs lymphoid cell lines investigated, that is, a - to -fold, rather than the more usual - to -fold, increase in sce compared to controls. interestingly, the dna ligase i defect was retained in such cells, and they could not be distinguished from bs lines showing high sce in our biochemical experiments. it seems likely that a a . time, min fig. . heat lability of dna ligase i in bs. ligase i peak fractions from fplc were incubated at 'c, and aliquots were removed at various times and assayed as described ( ). the symbols indicate material from ashkenazi bs line w - ( ), mennonite bs line (a), anglo-saxon bs line (e), bs heterozygote aa - (a), and control line gm (e). compensatory change has occurred in the dna-replication machinery of these cells, presumably involving overproduction or alteration ofanother replication factor. a change of this type may also account for the observation ( ) that some bs cell lines exhibit high sce as well as a high level of chromosome breakage, whereas other lines retain the high sce but no longer show chromosome instability. our data support a model in which bs is due to a missense mutation in the structural gene for dna ligase i, resulting in a malfunctioning variant of this essential enzyme. the in- creased rates of mutagenesis, chromosome breakage, and somatic recombination caused by this defect could lead to a general predisposition to cancer ( ). we thank drs. e. e. henderson, a. e. greene, k. h. kraemer, and s. chamberlain for their help with providing rare human cell lines. this work was supported by the imperial cancer research fund and the medical research council of canada. . bloom, d. ( ) am. j. dis. child. , - . . german, j. ( ) clin. genet. , - . . german, j., bloom, d., passarge, e., fried, k., goodman, r. m., katzenellenbogen, i., laron, z., legum, c., levin, s. & wahrman, j. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , - . . festa, r. s., meadows, a. t. & boshes, r. a. ( ) cancer , - . . kawashima, h., sato, t., taniguchi, n., yagi, t., ishizaki, k. & takebe, h. ( ) clin. genet. , - . . german, j., archibald, r. & bloom, d. ( % ) science , - . . kuhn, e. m., therman, e. & denniston, c. ( ) hum. genet. , - . . german, j., schonberg, s., louie, e. & chaganti, r. s. k. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , - . . warren, s. t., schultz, r. a., chang, c., wade, m. h. & trosko, j. e. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . giannelli, f., benson, p. f., pawsey, s. a. & polani, p. e. ( ) nature (london) , - . . hand, r. & german, j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . kapp, l. n. ( ) biochim. biophys. acta %, - . . giannelli, f., pawsey, s. a. & botcherby, p. k. ( ) mutat. res. , - . . hirschi, m., netrawali, m. s., remsen, j. f. & cerutti, p. a. ( ) cancer res. , - . . willis, a. e. & lindahl, t. ( ) nature (london) , - . genetics: willis et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , genetics: willis et al. . chan, j. y. h., becker, f. f., german, j. & ray, j. h. ( ) nature (london) , - . . henderson, e. e. & ribecky, r. ( ) chem. biol. interact. , - . . perry, p. & wolff, s. ( ) nature (london) , - . . martin, r. g. & ames, b. n. ( ) j. biol. chem. , - . . harris, a., karran, p. & lindahl, t. ( ) cancer res. , - . . arrand, j. e., willis, a. e., goldsmith, i. & lindahl, t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , - . . siegel, l. m. & monty, k. j. ( ) biochim. biophys. acta , - . . sklar, r. & strauss, b. ( ) nature (london) , - . proc. nati. acad. sci. usa ( ) . mattern, m. r., paone, r. f. & day, r. s. ( ) carcino- genesis , - . . bunn, h. f. & forget, b. f. ( ) hemoglobin: molecular, genetic and clinical aspects (saunders, philadelphia), pp. - . . bryant, e. m., hoehn, h. & martin, g. m. ( ) nature (london) , - . . hashimoto, t., gamo, s., furuyama, j.-i. & chiyo, h.-a. ( ) hum. genet. , - . . shiraishi, y., yosida, t. h. & sandberg, a. a. ( ) proc. nati. acad. sci. usa , - . . knudson, a. g. ( ) annu. rev. genet. , - . . weksberg, r., smith, c., anson-cartwright, l. & maloney, k. ( ) am. j. hum. genet., in press. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / , p. - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. issn: - , ankara-turkey article info/makale bilgisi  received/geliş: . . accepted/kabul: . .  referees/hakemler: prof. dr. kemal polat - prof. dr. sami kiliÇ this article was checked by ithenticate. mennonİt kİlİsesİ’nİn ortaya ÇikiŞi ve tarİhÇesİ* hatice keleŞ**- davut kiliÇ*** Özet mennonit kilisesi, . yüzyılda meydana gelen reform hareketinden etkilenen menno simons’un kurduğu bir hıristiyan hareketidir. katolik bir papaz olan menno simons, reform sırasında protestan ve sakramentaryan hareketlerden etkilenmiştir. İlk olarak menno’nun katolik kilisesi uygulamalarındaki sorun, ekmek ve şarap ayinindeki ekmeğin ve şarabın İsa’nın gerçek eti ve kanına dönüşmesi meselesidir. bu konuda kitabı mukaddes’i derinlemesine araştırdığını belirten menno, ekmeğin ve şarabın İsa’nın gerçek eti ve kanına dönüşmediğini ve kitabı mukaddes’e göre bu ayinin İsa’nın son akşam yemeği anısına kutlanan bir hatıra olduğuna inanmıştır. menno bu konuda zamanın önde gelen reformcuları olan martin luther, martin bucer ve heinrich bullinger’e danışmış ancak tatmin edici bir cevap alamamıştır. İkinci sorun olarak, menno, bebek vaftizi uygulamasını reddedip, yetişkin vaftizini uygulayanları duymuş ve bu konu dikkatini çekmiştir. menno bu hakkında da kitabı mukaddes’i araştırmış ve bebek vaftizi hakkında kitabı mukaddes’te herhangi bir bilginin geçmediğini söyleyerek, bütün hıristiyanlığın kandırıldığını iddia etmiştir. bu sırada anabaptist hareketin temsilcilerinden biri olan melchior hoffmann, melchiorite anabaptist hareketini kurmuştur. bu yüzden hoffman tutuklanmıştır. hoffman’ın tutuklanmasından sonra onun yerine geçen jan van geelen, yeni kudüs krallığı kurma girişimi ile devlete isyan etmiştir. ancak bu isyan kanlı bir şekilde bastırılarak münster hezimeti adıyla tarihte yerini almıştır. bu savaşta menno simons’un kardeşi peter simons da ölmüştür. İşte bu olay, menno simons’un katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılmasının sebeplerinden biri daha olmuştur. menno simons kendi inançları uğruna canlarını feda etmekten kaçınmayan bu insanlarla kendini karşılaştırmış ve faaliyete geçme zamanının geldiğini anlamıştır. yılında katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılmıştır. böylece menno anabaptist olarak inançlarını yaymaya başlamıştır. * bu makale danışmanlığını prof. dr. davut kılıç’ın yaptığı ve hatice keleş tarafından yazılarak yılında kabul edilen “mennonit kilisesi Üzerine bir araştırma” adlı doktora tezinden hazırlanmıştır. ** dr., diyanet İşleri başkanlığı, elâzığ müftülüğü, kur’an kursu Öğreticisi, el-mek: hatice.keles_@hotmail.com *** prof. dr., nevşehir hacı bektaş veli Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, sosyal bilimler ve türkçe eğitimi bölümü, el-mek: dkilic@nevsehir.edu.tr http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / bu makale mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya çıkışını ve kuruluş tarihçesini anlatmak amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. anahtar kelimeler: reform, anabaptist, menno simons, mennonit kilisesi, katolik. history and emergence of the mennonite church abstract the mennonite church is an anabaptist movement founded by menno simons, influenced by the reform movement that happened in the th century in the netherland. menno simons, a catholic priest, was influenced by protestant and sakramentarian movements during the reform. the first, the problems with the practice of menno's catholic church are the turn of the bread into the real flesh of jesus, and the wine into the true blood of jesus, during the bread wine ceremony. in this regard, menno stated that the he explored the bible in depth, and that the bread and wine did not turn into the true flesh and bood of jesus. according to bible, he believed that this was a memorial commemorating jesus' last dinner. menno consulted this problem with martin luther, martin bucer, and heinrich bullinger, the leading reformers of the time, but he did not receive a satisfactory response. the second problem, menno heard about those who rejected the practice of infant baptism and practiced adult baptism, and so he noticed this issue. menno investigated the bible about it and claimed that all christianity was deceived, saying that no information had passed on the bible about the infant baptism. meanwhile, melchior hoffmann, one of the representatives of the anabaptist movement, melchiorite set up the melchiorite baptism movement. because of this, hoffman was arrested. after hoffman's arrest, jan van geelen, who replaced him, rebelled against the government with the attempt to establish the new jerusalem kingdom. however, this revolt was suppressed in a bloody manner and took its place in history in the name of münster defeat. in this battle, menno simons' s brother peter simons died. this incident also was one of the reasons why menno simons left the catholic church. menno simons compared himself to these people who did not refrain from sacrificing their lives for their own beliefs, and realized that it was the time to move on. in , he left the catholic church. thus, menno started to spread his beliefs as an anabaptist. the purpose of this study is to explain the emergence of the mennonite church and its history. structured abstract the mennonite church is an anabaptist movement founded by menno simons, influenced by the reform movement that happened in the th century in the netherland. menno simons, a catholic priest, was influenced by protestant and sakramentarian movements during the reform. the first, the problems with the practice of menno's catholic mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / church are the turn of the bread into the real flesh of jesus, and the wine into the true blood of jesus, during the bread wine ceremony. in this regard, menno stated that the he explored the bible in depth, and that the bread and wine did not turn into the true flesh and bood of jesus. according to bible, he believed that this was a memorial commemorating jesus' last dinner. menno consulted this problem with martin luther, martin bucer, and heinrich bullinger, the leading reformers of the time, but he did not receive a satisfactory response. the second problem, menno heard about those who rejected the practice of infant baptism and practiced adult baptism, and so he noticed this issue. menno investigated the bible about it and claimed that all christianity was deceived, saying that no information had passed on the bible about the infant baptism. meanwhile, melchior hoffmann, one of luther's followers and one of the representatives of the anabaptist movement, who later applied for baby baptism, was busy spreading ideas around and practicing adult baptism. consequently, melchiorite set up the melchiorite baptism movement. because of this, hoffman was arrested. after hoffman's arrest, jan van geelen, who replaced him, rebelled against the government with the attempt to establish the new jerusalem kingdom. however, this revolt was suppressed in a bloody manner and took its place in history in the name of münster defeat. in this battle, menno simons' s brother peter simons died. this incident also was one of the reasons why menno simons left the catholic church. menno simons compared himself to these people who did not refrain from sacrificing their lives for their own beliefs, and realized that it was the time to move on. in , he left the catholic church. first, menno began to preach about that the adult baptism should be practiced; and bread did not turn into the true flesh of jesus as wells as wine did not turn into blood of jesus, that it was a memorial service commemorating jesus' last dinner. thus, menno started to spread his beliefs as an anabaptist. the appearance of menno simons as an anabaptist had been a point of hope for other anabaptists. the followers of the melchiorite anapbaptist movement, founded by melchior hoffmann, have remained obsolete since this movement vanished and began to follow menno. after that menno simons became recognized as the leader of the anabaptist. the people following menno simons also was started to be called mennonite. menno simons traveled to many places like danzing, emden, witmarsum to spread his ideas. however, these trips were in the form of a complete fugitive life. the reason for this was that the government, the catholic church and the protestants declared the anabaptists as a heretic movement and started to chase. therefore, the mennonite church was not formally established when menno simons was alive. however, mennonites did not give up their beliefs after menno simons's death in . mennonites who wanted to live their own beliefs comfortably migrated in groups to many parts of europe and russia. prussia and russia were the places where mennonites lived comfortably among the migrated places. the reason for this was that mennonites were against violence and war. according to them, jesus christ’s never resorted to violence; and his advice of love even your enemies became an indispensable lifestyle for mennonites. mennonites who were invited to war in the regions for this reason have left those regions because they did not want to work in military affairs. hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / the mennonites were entitled to establish their own church in the netherlands officially in . mennonites formed illegal churches until this year. however, mennonites always were been called to war and migrated in groups because they were demanded heavy taxes. the mennonites in europe, who heard memnonites, that had previously migrated to america living a comfortable life there, began to migrate to america in groups. russia was one of the places where mennonites set up their own churches and lived in comfort. there mennonites easily established businesses in churches, schools, and other professions. mennonites, who had a very comfortable life in russia in the beginning, carefully protected their german races and languages. this situation did not appeal to the russian government and started the russification policy on the mennonites. n , the russian state implemented the russification program on mennonites. according to this program, the mennonites' local institutions were taken by the government. german speaking and learning were prohibited. because of this, some mennonites decided to migrate to america because they knew that other mennonite communities were living comfortably in america. thus mennonite migrations to russia had decreased. mennonites who remained in russia after that were again exempted from military affairs. in return, mennonites, served in the military transfer service in the crimean and japanese wars, in the care of the wounded, in the hospital service, and in great help to the russian government. however, mennonites were apprehensive at many young mennonites who died during the war. for this reason, the mennonites who did not receive special rights from the russian government, migrated to western canada and america in groups, in . in conclusion, the mennonite church is the origin of the th century anabaptist movement. together with the belief systems mentioned above, the mennonites differed from the catholic church with their belief that they should not work in government institutions and refusing to take oaths. furthermore, mennonites, argue that the church and the government should be seperated from each other, and authorities such as the government should not interfere with the work of the church. according to them, the church should not have any relation to worldly affairs because it represents jesus christ. with these ideas, mennonite church was tracked by the catholic church, governments and the protestants, and thousands of mennonites were persecuted and killed. for this reason mennonites, who went to many regions in europe and russia, did not have a comfortable life over there and migrated to the united states in groups as a last resort. the mennonites, who did not oppose the government authority and did not pursue a political interest, were accepted by the american authority. today, the majority of mennonites live a comfortable life in america. according to the census of , there are , , mennonites in the world, including , in the us and canada, , in latin america and the caribbean, , in asia and the pacific, , , in africa and , in europe. keywords: reform, anabaptist, menno simons, mennonite church, catolic. mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / gİrİŞ hıristiyanlık, m.s. i. yüzyılda bugünkü İsrail ve filistin bölgesinde ortaya çıkan İsa mesih merkezli bir dindir. hıristiyan kelimesinin, latincesi hıristos, İbranicesi ise maşiah’dır. arapçası mesih olan maşiah kelimesi, yağlanmış, takdis edilmiş anlamına gelmekte olup, yahudilerin, kral ve din adamlarını göreve başlamadan önce kutsal zeytinyağı ile yağlamalarını ifade eder. böylece yahudilerin geleceğini umduğu kurtarıcıyı mesih kelimesi ile adlandırmasına ve İsa’nın da kendisini mesih olarak tanıtmasına izafeten, İsa mesih merkezli olan bu dinin takipçilerine hıristos kelimesinden gelen hıristiyan denilmiştir. bu isim ilk defa m.s. yıllarında antakya’da ortaya çıkmıştır. aynı zamanda İsa, nasıra kasabasında doğup büyüdüğü için nasıralı diye de bilinmektedir (kılıç, , s. ; aydın, , s. ; tümer- küçük, , s. ; katar, , s. ; kuzgun, , s. ). yeni ahit’e göre tanrı, insanlığın kurtarıcısı olarak biricik oğlu İsa mesih’i, tanrı’nın krallığı’nı kurması için görevlendirerek dünyaya göndermiştir (erbaş, , s. ; sarıkçıoğlu, , s. ). İsa, tebliğ görevini yaparken özellikle hastaları iyileştirme konusunda şöhreti yakalamıştır. birçok yerden insanlar, şifa bulmak için İsa’nın yanına gelmiştir. bu şekilde İsa’ya inanan kimselerin sayısı artmıştır. İsa’nın asıl takipçileri ise havariler topluluğudur. ancak yahudiler ve roma, dini ve siyasi sebeplerle İsa’nın çarmıha gerilerek öldürülmesini istemiştir. İsa’nın çarmıh olayından sonra kudüs ve filistin’de yakup’un liderliğini üstlendiği ve yahudi geleneklerine sıkıcı bağlı olan bir yahudi- hristiyan topluluğu oluşmuştur. bu sıralarda hıristiyan düşmanlığı ile tanınan pavlus’un, Şam yolunda gördüğü vizyon sayesinde hıristiyan olması, hıristiyanlar arasındaki ilk ayrılığın baş göstermesine sebep olmuştur. Şöyle ki, pavlus hıristiyanlığı özellikle yahudi olmayanlar arasında yaymaya çalışmış ve yahudi olmayanların yahudi geleneklerine uyma zorunluluğu olmadığını iddia etmiştir. pavlus’un, yahudi hıristiyanların uygulamış olduğu sünnet geleneğinin yahudi kökenli olmayanların uygulamasının zorunlu olmadığını ileri sürmesiyle başlayan ayrılık sebebiyle m.s. yılında kudüs’te ilk havariler konsili (kudüs konsili) düzenlenmiştir. her ne kadar bu toplantı, bu ayrılığa bir çözüm getirmese de daha sonra petrus ve yakub’un da pavlus’un görüşlerini kabul etmesine vesile olmuştur. böylece hıristiyanlık içinde yahudi geleneği gittikçe azalmıştır (aydın, , s. - ; gündüz, , s. - ). böylece pavlus, yaydığı hıristiyanlıkta tarihsel İsa’yı değil, rab İsa mesih’i merkeze yerleştirmiştir (gündüz, , s. ). hıristiyanlığı kabul edenlerin birçoğu romalı vatandaşlardır. hıristiyanlık, anadolu’da, yunanistan’da, roma’da yayılmıştır. ancak hıristiyanlık, sır dinleri’nin etkisi altında kalmıştır (aydın, , s. ). başlarda roma tanrılarını bırakarak hıristiyan olan halkına karşı çalışmalar sürdüren roma İmparatorluğu, daha sonra İmparator konstantin, hıristiyanlığa hoşgörü ile yaklaşarak, yılında hıristiyanların inançlarını serbest bir şekilde yaşamalarına izin vererek, hıristiyanlığın hızlı bir şekilde yayılmasını sağlamıştır. ancak hıristiyanlar arasındaki ihtilaflar giderek artmış ve bu yüzden konstantin, ’de İznik konsili’ni toplamıştır. bu konsilde aryüsçüler İsa’nın insan olduğunu savunurken, pavlusçular İsa’nın tanrı olduğunu iddia etmiştir. sonuç olarak konsilde İsa’nın tanrı olduğuna karar verilmiştir (tümer, küçük, , s. - ). ’de İstanbul ve ’de efes konsillerinin toplanma sebebi de teslis inancı üzerine ortaya atılan farklı görüşler hakkında karar almaktır. yılında gerçekleşen kadıköy konsili’nde ise İsa’nın tabiatı üzerine oluşan ihtilafların giderilmesi amaçlanmıştır. bu konsil ile hıristiyanlar, diyofizit ve monofizit görüşte olanlar şeklinde tam bir bölünme yaşamıştır. gerçekleşen bütün konsiller, ilerde hıristiyanlar arasında çıkacak olan bölünmelerin habercisi olmuştur. bundan sonra hıristiyan dünyasında dini ve siyasi açıdan ilk resmi bölünme, yılında papa’nın İstanbul patriğini aforoz etmesiyle gerçekleşmiştir. böylece hıristiyanlık, katolik ve ortodoks olmak üzere ikiye ayrılmıştır (ekrem sarıkçıoğlu, , s. ; kılıç, , s. - ; tümer, küçük, , s. ). bundan sonra hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / hıristiyanlık içinde reform yapılmasını isteyenler olsa da bu kişiler bir şekilde bastırılmıştır. bununla birlikte papa’nın sahip olduğu üstün otorite, kilise ve devlet arasında da birçok çatışmalar meydana gelmesine sebep olmuştur. engizisyon mahkemelerinin getirdiği zulüm, endüljans, burjuva sınıfı, matbaanın kullanılması, hümanist akım ve papalığın lüks yaşam tarzı gibi sebepler neticesinde reform kaçınılmaz olmuştur. nihayet . yüzyılın başlarında luther ile başlayan reform hareketi ile protestanlık meydana gelmiş ve hıristiyan aleminde birçok hıristiyan topluluğun ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuştur (erbaş, , s. - ; Özkan, , s. ). . yüzyılda batı dünyasında meydana gelen en büyük dini hareket, reform hareketidir. reform hareketinin en önemli özelliği, hıristiyanlığın içinde luteranizm, kalvinizm ve zwinglian adındaki dini hareketlerin kendini göstermesidir. reform hareketinin bir parçası olmasına rağmen, bu hareketlere ek olarak dördüncü bir reform hareketi de (williams- mergal, , s. ). lutheran, kalvinizm ve zwingli reform dini hareketlerinden ayrılan radikal reform hareketidir. doktrinlerdeki farklı görüşleri sebebiyle (goertz, , s. ). radikal reform hareketi, üç ana topluluktan oluşur. bu üç ana topluluk, anabaptistler, spiritualistler ve evanjelik rasyonalistler’dir. bugünkü bazı mezhepler, kendilerinin direkt veya dolaylı yollardan bu üç ana topluluktan geldiklerini iddia eder. mennonitler, amişler ve hutterit mezhebi, ilk topluluk olan anabaptistlere bağlıdır (williams, mergal, , s. ). bu mezheplerin en belirgin özelliği bebek vaftizini reddedip, yetişkin vaftizini kabul etmeleridir. bu sebeple katolik ve protestanlar tarafından heretik ilan edilmişlerdir (Özkan, , s. ; aydın, , s. - ). . menno simons’un katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılışı menno simons, . yüzyılda the low countries olarak bilinen hollanda, belçika ve lüksemburg ülkelerinin, anabaptist liderlerinden biri olarak kabul edilmektedir. o, barışçıl anabaptist kitabı mukaddes’ini ortaya atmıştır. günümüzde ona tabi olanlara mennonites (mennisten) denilmektedir (jonas, , s. - ; kraybill, , s. - ). ’lı yıllarda menno simons’un destekçilerine ilk önce menist, sonra mennist, daha sonra mennonist ve en son günümüze kadar gelmiş olan mennonite ismi verilmiştir (fretz, , s. ). menno simons, yılında hollanda’nın friesland ilinin witmarsum adındaki küçük bir köyünde doğmuş, yılında da ölmüştür (funk, , s. ). yirmi sekiz yaşına kadarki yaşamı hakkında hiçbir bilgi bulunmayan menno simons, yirmi sekiz yaşında babasının köyü olan witmarsum yakınlarındaki friesland iline bağlı bulunan pingjum’da ilk rahiplik görevini üstlenmiştir (simon, , s. ; weaver, , s. ). menno simons, witmarsum yakınlarındaki pingjum’da görev yaparken rahiplik görevinin kutsallığına inanmamış, kendisi ile birlikte rahiplik yapan iki arkadaşıyla beraber kendisini içkiye, kumara ve eğlenceye vermiştir. fakat menno’nun bu eğlencesi sadece iki yıl sürmüştür. daha sonra menno, sakramental olan ekmek şarap ayini konusunun aklına takıldığını ve bu inanç konusunda luther’den etkilendiğini ifade etmiştir. bundan sonra menno, ekmek şarap ayini sırasında, İsa’nın etinin ve kanının gerçekten ekmek ve şaraba dönüştüğünden şüphe duymaya başlamıştır. ancak kendisi, bu düşüncelerin şeytandan kaynaklandığını varsayarak bol bol günah çıkarmış, tövbe etmiş ve düzelmek için dua etmiştir. menno simons’un ekmek şarap ayini hakkında kuşkuya düştüğü sıralarda, zwingli, switzerland’da cornelis hoen’in fikirlerini etrafa yaymakla meşguldür. etrafta yayılan bu tür fikirler, menno’nun zihnini daha çok meşgul etmeye başlamıştır. İki yıl boyunca şüphe içinde huzursuz olan menno, en sonunda aklına takılan sorular için kitabı mukaddes’i araştırmaya karar vermiştir. kitabı mukaddes’i araştırmaya başlayan menno, aldatıldığını anlaması için çok fazla araştırma yapmasına gerek kalmadığını şu sözleriyle ifade eder: “yeni antlaşma’yı enine boyuna dikkatlice inceleyerek çözdüm. kandırıldığımızı anlamam için çok fazla derine inmem gerekmemişti. kutsal ekmek bölümünden rahatsız olan mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / vicdanım, daha önce de geçtiği gibi, yakında büyük oranda hiçbir insan yardımı veya tavsiyesi olmadan rahatladı. İtikatta luther tarafından teşvik edilmeme rağmen, insanlık otoritesi sonsuz ölüme bağlanamaz. tanrı’nın lütfu ve ışığına rağmen, günlük kitabı mukaddes’i incelemeye devam ettim ve evanjelik bir vaiz olarak bazı şeyleri fark ettim.” (simon, , s. ). menno, sakramentistlerin öne sürdüğü gibi ekmek şarap ayininin gerçekte sembolik olması konusunun, kitabı mukaddes’te de geçtiğini ifade eder. Şimdiye kadar kitabı mukaddes’i kullanmaktan sakınan ve kitabı mukaddes ile kilise arasında kalan menno, katolik kilisesi’nden farklı olarak, luther ve zwingli’nin kitabı mukaddes’i yorumlama biçimini örnek almıştır. böylece menno için tek otorite ve vaazlarının tek kaynağı kitabı mukaddes olmaya başlamıştır (pettegree, , s. - ; simons, , s. ). İlk başlarda luther’in takipçilerinden olan papaz melchior hoffman, baltık bölgeleri’ne uzun süreli seyahatlere çıkmıştır. strasburg’da anabaptistlerle görüşmüş ve yılında burada vaftiz olarak anabaptist olmuştur. aynı yılda sakramentistlerin iyi çalıştığı yerler olan emden ve doğu friesland’da inananların vaftizini yani yetişkin vaftizini tanıtmıştır. hoffman’ın takipçilerini birleştiren merkez nokta, İsa’nın sofrasının sembolik anlamı olup, inananları ve yetişkin vaftizini savunanları, reformcuları ve sakramentistleri bir araya getirmesidir. takibat altındaki azınlıkların ve az gelişmiş ülkelerden olan sakramentistlerin sığındıkları doğu friesland’ın emden şehrinde, melchior hoffman’ın yetişkin vaftizini desteklediği ve birçok kişiyi vaftiz ettiği duyulmuştur (tinsley, , s. - ). hoffman’ın bir takipçisi olan ve onun tarafından vaftiz edilen jan volkerts trypmaker, emden’de sicke freeks snijder’ı vaftiz etmiştir. snijder, friesland’ın almanil merkezi olan leeuwarden’de daha sonra tekrar vaftiz olduğu için otoriteler tarafından öldürülmüştür. leeuwarden yakınlarında yaşayan menno, bu olayı duymuş ve ikinci bir vaftiz olma fikri, çok yeni olmasa da ona ilginç gelmiş, bu konu üzerinde düşünmeye ve araştırmaya başlamıştır. Özellikle bu konu hakkında kitabı mukaddes’i derinlemesine taramasına rağmen, bebek vaftizi hakkında kitabı mukaddes’te herhangi bir bilgi bulamamıştır. bu yüzden kendi çağdaşları olan kilise babaları luther, martin bucer ve bullinger’e bebek vaftizi hakkında bilgi almaya gitmiştir (greschat, , s. , , , , , ; robles, , s. - ; grayson, , s. - ; weaver, , s. ; Çatalbaş, , s. ). menno, luther, bucer ve bullinger ile konuşmalarını şöyle anlatmaktadır: “bundan sonra bebek vaftizinin temelini öğrenme isteği ile luther’e danışmaya gittim. o, bana çocukların kendi inançları üzerine vaftiz edildiğini anlattı. bunun tanrı’nın sözüne göre yapılmadığını fark ettim. daha sonra bucer’e danıştım. o bana bebekleri tanrı’nın yoluna götürmede daha dikkatli olmak ve onları alıştırmaya vesile olmak için bebeklerin vaftiz edildiğini söyledi. bu doktrinin de temelsiz olduğunu fark ettim. bundan sonra bullinger’e danıştım. o bana vaadi, antlaşmayı ve İsa’nın sünnetinin kutlanmasını anlattı. bunun kutsal kitap ile doğrulanmadığını fark ettim. böylece yazarların kendi aralarındaki görüş farklılıklarını ve hepsinin kendi görüşlerini takip ettiklerini gözlemledim. bebek vaftizi hakkında aldatıldığımıza ikna oldum.” bu kişilerin yazılarını da inceleyen menno, bebek vaftizi hakkında öne sürülen çeşitli fikirleri araştırmıştır. fakat onların da sadece kendi fikirlerini ileri sürdüğünü gördüğünü ifade etmiştir (simon, , s. ). menno, bebek vaftizi konusunda bütün hıristiyanların aldatıldığını ileri sürmektedir. bu konu hakkında kitabı mukaddes’te kesin bir delil bulamayan menno, inananların vaftizinin yani yetişkin vaftizinin gerçek hıristiyan uygulaması olduğuna inanmıştır. diğer reformculara danıştıktan sonra onların cevaplarından tatmin olmayan menno, yılında da bebek vaftizinin değil, inananların vaftizinin, gerçekten kitabı mukaddes kaynaklı olduğuna ikna olmuştur (mcgranth, , s. - ). ancak, yine de bu durum menno’nun katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılması için yeterli delil oluşturmamıştır. bu yüzden memleketi olan witmarsum’daki kiliseden rahiplik hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / teklifi almasına rağmen oraya gitmemiş, yılında anabaptistlere katılana kadar olduğu yerde kalmayı tercih etmiştir. bu sırada melchior hoffman’ın kehanet vizyonları ve İsa’nın geleceği hakkında konuşurken, yetkililer tarafından takibe alınması sebebiyle hoffman, inananlara - yılları arasında iki yıl boyunca vaftiz yapmayı bırakmayı emretmiştir. fakat bu önlem, yılının mayıs ayında strasburg’da hoffman’ın hapse atılmasına engel olamamıştır. küçük çaplı ülkelerin anabaptist hareketi, hoffman’ın vaftizi bırakma uygulamasını ise kabul etmemiştir. hoffman tarafından vaftiz edilen jan matthijsz van haarlem ve haarlem tarafından vaftiz edilen jan van leyden daha sonra önemli anabaptist liderlerden birisi olacaklardır. bu kişiler barışçı kitabı mukaddes anabaptist hareketinin farklı versiyonlarını ileri sürmelerine rağmen, her vatandaşın milenyumda İsa’ya yardım etmesini ummuştur. menno da bu kişilerin fikirlerinden ve faaliyetlerinden etkilenmiş olup kendi bağımsız düşüncelerini açıklayana kadar hoffman’ın takipçilerinden birisi olmuştur (tinsley, , s. - ). hoffman, faaliyetlerine strasburg’da başlamıştı. hoffmann ve takipçileri münster, amsterdam ve diğer yerlerde görüşlerini yaymaya çalışmışlardı. gibi erken bir tarihte, witmarsum çevresindeki bazı kişiler vaftiz edilmişti. - yıllarında da münster’de özellikle yeni bir kudüs kurma girişiminde bulunulmuştu. Çünkü bu anabaptist hareketin geleceği için önemli bir oluşum olacaktı. menno simons, katolik kilisesi’nin reforma ihtiyaç duyduğunu kabul ettiği gibi aynı zamanda melchiorite hareketinin (münsterite hareketi) de amacını, yani yeni kudüs kurma girişimini anladığını ifade etmiştir. bu yüzden kendisi de reform için hazırlıklara başlamış ve o gün hıristiyan prensipleri ve uygulamaları olarak kabul görmeyen bazı uygulamaları kabul etmiştir. Özel olarak kürsüsünden halka bütün kötülükleri kınadığını açıklamıştır. yılında melchiorite hareketinin liderleriyle tartışmıştır. bu tartıştığı liderler arasında, bolsward yakınlarındaki olde-klooster’de silahlı bir direnişi organize eden jan van geelen olduğu bilinir. devlete karşı gelen bu grup, nisan tarihinde isyan etmiş ve bolsward’da otoriteler tarafından yenilgiye uğratılmıştır. bu hareketin savunucularından bazıları kaçmış ve bazıları da öldürülmüştür. tutuklanan hareketin liderleri ise işkence ile öldürülmüştür. bu olayda hayatını kaybeden kişiler arasında, melchiorite hareketinin liderlerinden jan van geelen, menno simons’un kardeşi peter simons ve onun bazı takipçileri dikkat çekmektedir. böylece yeni kudüs kurma girişimi, temmuz tarihinde trajik bir şekilde son bulmuştur. münster hazimeti diye adlandırılan bu olay menno’nun hayatında bir dönüm noktası oluşturmuştur (tinsley, , s. - ; visser, , s. - ; klötzer, , s. ). Şimdiye kadar tam olarak bir hareket sergilemeyen menno için bu trajik olay, iç yaşamında derin izler bırakmış ve menno’nun son kararını vermesini sağlamıştır. Çünkü anabaptist hareketin barış günlerinde, önemli görüşlerin farkına daha varamamıştır. menno, bu güzel insanlar için ne yapmış olduğunu düşündüğünü ve bu insanların kanlarının daha sıcakken kendisinin rahat bir şekilde duramayacağını, her ne kadar yanılgı içinde olsalar da bu kişilerin inançları uğruna, nasıl can verdiklerini gördüğünü ifade etmiştir. bu olaydan sonra şunları yazmıştır: “maktülün kanı, hatayla dökülmesine rağmen, katlanamayacağım şekilde beni kahretti. ruhumun kalanını bulamazdım. nefsime, günah dolu yaşamıma, ikiyüzlü doktrinime ve putperestliğime geri döndüm. bunun için tanrısız olan günlük yaşamıma devam ettim. yanılgı içinde olmalarına rağmen bu istekli çocukların yaşamlarını ve mallarını, doktrinleri ve inançları için verdiklerini gördüm.” fakat menno simons, bundan sonra da yine kendi rahat hayatına devam ettiğini ve İsa’nın haçından kaçtığını yazmıştır. daha sonra her ne kadar vicdanından kaçmaya çalıştıysa da kendi vicdanının ve düşüncelerinin menno’yu rahat bırakmadığından ve buna daha fazla katlanamayacağından bahsetmiştir. tanrı’nın sözü yolunda daha fazla yaşayamayacağını ifade etmiş ve şunları yazmıştır: mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / “…ve onların bu iğrençliklerini keşfedenlerden biri de bendim. ve kendim henüz bu pislikleri bilerek yaşayan ve kalan yaşamımdan memnun olan biri değilim. sadece İsa’nın haçı olmadan rahatça yaşamayı istedim.” (simon, , s. - ). yine menno, kitabında, kalbinin titrediğini, sürekli iç geçirerek ve gözyaşı dökerek İsa’ya dua ettiğini, günahlarından af dileğini, tanrı’nın lütfuna sığındığını, İsa’nın merhametli kıpkırmızı kanı ile kalbinin temizleneceğini umduğunu söylemiştir. tanrı’nın güzel ismiyle, saf kutsal sözleriyle ve yüceliğiyle gerçeği herkesin bilmesi gerektiğine inanmıştır (simon, , s. ). nisan münster yenilgisinden sonra dokuz ay geçmiş ve menno, kendi kürsüsünden kendi deyişiyle, “gerçek tövbe kelimesini” vaaz etmiştir. buna göre, dar yolda bulunan insanları işaret ederek, tüm günahları, kötülükleri, zinayı, yanlış ibadeti kınadığını, gerçek ibadeti ve İsa’nın sofrasını, İsa mesih’in doktrinine göre, tanrı’nın lütfuyla sunduğunu açıklamıştır. evanjelik gerçek ve İsa’nın haçı için uğraş veren melchiorites hareketinin feci bir şekilde son bulduğu günler, artık menno için gerçek bir anlam ifade etmiştir. bu yüzden menno, çobansız olan sürünün liderliğini üstlenme cesaretini kendinde bulmuştur (simon, , s. - ). menno’nun kendi kürsüsünden yaptığı bu konuşma daha sonra yapacağı birçok vaazın ilkini oluşturmuştur (simon, , s. ; dipple, , s. - ). böylece menno simons, münster yenilgisinden sonra ocak tarihinde roma kilisesi’nden ayrılmıştır. menno simons’un yılında katoliklikten ayılmasına kadar geçen zamandaki bütün bu olayların menno’nun etrafında gelişmiş olması, onun katolik kilisesi’nden ayrıldıktan sonraki hareketlerinde dikkatli olmasını sağlamıştır (schroeder- helmut , s. - ). bir görüşe göre, yetişkin vaftizinin gerçek vaftiz ve kurtuluş yolu olduğunu ileri süren menno’nun nerede ve ne zaman vaftiz edildiği bilinmemektedir. witmarsum’da halka gerçek vaftizi ve İsa’nın sofrasını vaaz ederken, vaftiz olmuş olmasının mümkün olduğu, fakat witmarsum’dan ayrılana kadar onun inanç itirafı yaparken vaftiz olmadığı düşünülmektedir. Çünkü witmarsum gibi küçük ve katolik rahiplerin vaaz verdiği bir yerde, ikinci bir vaftiz olayı olmuş olsaydı, bunun yetkililerin gözünden asla kaçmayacağı belirtilmektedir. böylece, ocak tarihinde, katolik kilisesi’nden ayrıldıktan sonra onun vaftiz olmuş olmasının daha gerçekçi göründüğü ama kimin tarafından vaftiz edildiğinin bilinmediği ifade edilir. diğer bir görüşe göre de menno’nun, yılında obbe philips tarafından vaftiz edildiği belirtilmektedir (horsch, , s. ). en fazla kabul gören görüşe göre ise menno, yılında quirinus peters tarafından vaftiz edilmiştir (horsch, , s. ). menno, yılının sonlarında groningen’e gitmiş ve burada obbe philips tarafından kitabı mukaddes vekili olarak papaz ilan edilmiştir. bundan sonra menno, bir papaz olarak kendisini tanrı’nın vaadine adamış (smith, , s. ) ve birçok yere seyahat ederek kitabı mukaddes vaazı vermiştir. hollanda, amsterdam gibi birçok yerde vaaz veren menno, gittiği her yerde birçok kişiyi de vaftiz etmiştir (horsch, , s. - ). menno simons, aralıklarla witmarsum’a dönüş yapmıştır. menno, witmarsum’dan ayrıldıktan sonra doğu friesland’a doğru yönelmiştir. bu zamanda john a lasco, kontes anna oldenburg yönetimi altında bulunan doğu friesland’ın müfettişi olmasıyla (chalmers, , s. - ) birlikte anabaptistlere hoşgörü ile yaklaşılmıştır. böylece menno simons’un görüşleri, artık açık bir şekilde etrafta daha bilinir hale gelmiştir. o, bu tehlikeli hayatı boyunca, tüm dünyaya ün, bebek vaftizi, kolay yaşam, stres ve yoksulluk konularında vaaz vermiştir. o, bir gecede evini mahalli bir kiliseye dönüştürmüştür. doğu friesland sınırlarının karşısında groningen’de bir yıl kullanacağı bir sığınak bulmuştur. burada gayretli ve dindar bazı kimselerle tanışmıştır. onları İsa’ya geri kazanmak için çaba sarf etmiştir. böylece menno, yer altı evanjelist gönüllüsü gibi çalışmalarını sürdürmüştür. bu çalışmalara ek olarak insanların maneviyatlarını güçlendirmek için rehberlik etmiş hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / ve protestan inançlarını kaybetme tehlikesiyle karşı karşıya kalanlar için tanrı’nın sözünü anlatan kitapçıklar hazırlamıştır (simon, , s. , - ). mennonitlerin sayısının artışında misyonerlik çalışmaları oldukça etkili olmuştur. mennonitlik, danzing’den fransa’nın kuzeyi olan doornik’e kadar yayılmıştır. mennonitler özellikle sahil kesimlerinde, liman şehirlerinde, ticari ve endüstri şehirlerinde yoğunlaşmıştır (visser, , s. ). bütün bu çalışmaların sonucu olarak hollanda ve kuzey almanya, papazların görev yaptıkları şekilde bölgelere ayrılmıştır. dirk philips, schottland’de yaşamış, baltık’ta danzing’de ve kuzeybatı almanya’da görev yapmıştır. hollanda’nın doğusundaki iller ve şehirler de menno simons’un bölgesi olarak belirlenmiştir. Çalışmalarını sürdürdüğü bu bölgelerde, vaftiz görevini tek başına üstlenmiş, aynı zamanda farklı bölgelere de seyahatlerini sürdürmüştür. bu bölgeler modern rusya, İsveç’in kuzeyi ve gothland adası olarak bilinir (horsch, , s. - ). mennonitlerin asıl amacı, gerçek hıristiyanlığı kurma ve apostolik bir kilise oluşturmaktır. onlar çevrelerindeki dünyayı temiz ve saf tutmaya özen göstermişler, çevrelerinde günahtan en ufak bir leke dahi olmaması için çaba sarf ettiklerini belirtmişlerdir. bunun için kilisenin dışındaki dünyayı kendilerinden uzak tutmuş, kilise disiplinine göre sakınma ve yasaklar ile yaşamayı amaçlamışlardır. fakat kilise disiplinlerinin uygulanması ile ilgili sorular tartışmaya yol açmıştır. bu yüzden menno, emden, francker ve harlingen’de takipçileriyle birlikte toplantılar düzenlemiştir. dirk philips ve leenaert botswana kilise disiplininin katı bir uygulamasını uygun görmüştür. diğerleri ise bu konuda daha hoşgörülü bir tutumu tercih etmiştir. menno ise iki aşırı uç görüş arasında ara bulucuk yapmıştır. bu anlaşmazlığı düzeltmek için menno, son yolculuğunu ’de doğduğu yer olan friesland’a yapmıştır. ama bu çaba boşuna olmuştur. kilise uygulamalarının aşırı katı tutumu mu yoksa hoşgörülü bir uygulama mı olmalı, konusu en az bir yüzyıl boyunca hollandalı mennonitlerin zihinlerini ve kalplerini işgal edecektir. menno, gezisinden döndükten sonra bir arkadaşına şu yazıyı yazmıştır; “her şeye gücü yeten tanrı şimdiki gibi iyi bir son yıl bana sunmamış olsaydı, ben çoktan delirmiş olurdum. benim kalbimde kilise aşkından daha fazla hiçbir şeye yer yoktur. hala kilisenin acısını ve üzüntüsünü görmeli ve yaşamalıyım.” (menno simon, , s. ). bazı raporlar, menno’nun yaşamının sonuna doğru katı kilise disiplinleri kazandığını belirtmektedir (horsch, , s. - ). . mennonit kilisesi’nin kuruluşu anabaptist bir hareket olan mennonit kilisesi’nin kurucusu olarak menno simons gösterilmektedir. ancak menno simons, anabaptist hareketin kurucusu değildir. aslında menno simons, zaten var olan anabaptist hareketi örgütlemiş ve münster hezimetinden sonra ortada kalan anabaptistlerin liderliğini üstlenmiştir. böylece mennonit kilisesi meydan gelmiştir (hartzler- kauffman, , s. ). anabaptist hareket, kuzeybatı almanya ve hollanda’da yılının başlarında ortaya çıkmıştır. hollanda’da anabaptistliğin yayılmasında en önemli rolü oynayan girişim, melchior hoffman’ın takipçilerinden biri olan jan trypmaker’ın burada anabaptist bir topluluk oluşturmasıdır. anabaptist hareketin baş liderleri olarak gösterilen dirk philip, onun kardeşi obbe philip, leonhard bouwens ve menno simons uğradıkları zulme rağmen barışçıl bir davranış sergilemiştir. bu liderlerin davranış şekilleri sayesinde anabaptistler, hollanda’da evanjelik bir üstünlük sağlamıştır. bu sebeple, friesland ili nüfusunun dörtte biri daha o zamandan anabaptist olmuştur. hareket, özellikle kuzey illerde kabul görmüştür. bu iller başta hollanda, zealand, overyssel, friesland ve groningen olmak üzere flanders ve brabant illerindeki bazı yerleşim bölgeleridir. böylece lutheranlar yüzyılın son yarısına kadar anabaptist harekette sağlam bir yer edinememiştir (smith, , s. ). mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / anabaptistlerin otoriteler tarafından en şiddetli zulme uğradıkları yer İspanya’nın hâkimiyeti altında bulunan hollanda’dır. koyu bir katolik taraftarı olan v. charles ve onun varisi ii. philip yönetimi zamanında anabaptistler, en kötü şiddete maruz kalanlardır (visser, , s. - ). sadece tanrı’ya doğru bir şekilde ibadet etmek istediklerini belirten anabaptistler, ölümün de en kötüsü ile karşılaşmıştır. Öldürülen kişi sayısı çok fazla olmakla birlikte, tam sayı bilinmemektedir. Örneğin, yılında sadece amsterdam’da otuz kişi idam edilmiştir. duke alva’nın yönetim yıllarında da yüz on bir kişi hollanda ve zealand’da idam edilmiştir. bu örneklerin daha da çoğaltılabileceği ve yüzlerce kişinin idam edildiği kayıtlardan anlaşılmaktadır. anabaptist olarak ilk idam yılında, son idam da yılında gerçekleşmiştir. anabaptist ve mennonit taraftarlarından sadece kaydedilmiş olan idam sayısı iki bin beş yüz kişidir (smith, , s. - ). ii. philip, katolik yanlısı bir kraldır. bu yüzden katolik doktrinlerini korumak için reforma karşı brüksel’de bir bildirge hazırlamıştır (visser, , s. - ). yılında yayınlanan bu bildirgede, bütün mennonitlerin mal varlıklarının sayımı yapılarak, bu mallara el konulacağı ve her kim mennonitlere ihanet eder de onları ele verirse, bu kişilere mennonitlerin mal varlıklarının üçte birisinin verileceği ilan edilmiştir. ayrıca mennonit mültecilere barınak sağlayan herkese ağır para cezası verilmesi ve hatta ölüm cezası istenmiştir. bununla birlikte anabaptistlere verilen ceza da idamdır. kazıkta yakmak ve ağır ateşte yakmak, anabaptistlere uygulanan ölüm cezası metoduydu. İdam edilecek kişinin boğazına veya başına barut torbası yerleştirilip patlatma da diğer bir yöntemdi. kadınlar da bir torbaya koyulup göle veya denize atılarak öldürülmüştür. hem kadınlar hem de erkekler gerdirilerek, kemikleri kırılarak, kanları akıtılarak öldürülmüştür. dillerinden ve bacaklarından çivilenme yöntemi de arkadaşlarını ele vermeleri için kullanılmıştır. anabaptist hareket boyunca binlerce kişi idama mahkûm edilmiş, hapse atılmış veya bulundukları bölgelerden başka yerlere kaçmak zorunda bırakılmıştır. buna rağmen alman göçmenler almanya’da aşağı ren, doğu friesland’da ve batı prusya’da birçok kilise kurmuştur. bazı göçmenler ise İngiltere’ye kaçmıştır. bu zulüm, orangeli william’ın kuzey illerin başsavcısı olana kadar sürmüştür. daha sonra yılında, mennonitlere sınırlı bir hoşgörü sağlanacaktır (smith, , s. - ). anabaptistlere uygulanan bu işkence ve idamlar sebebiyle sivil çatışma ortaya çıkmıştır. bu sivil çatışmada, reform yanlıları kuzey bölgesindeki önemli şehirleri ele geçirmiştir. bu çatışma, mennonitler için önemli faydalar sağlamıştır (visser, , s. ). Şöyle ki, yılında kuzey illerde meydana gelen çatışmalar sırasında, reformculara yardım etmesi için mennonitlerden yardım istenmiştir. ancak mennonitler, savaş karşıtı oldukları için silahlı yardım yerine, yardım hizmeti yapmayı teklif etmiştir. mennonitler silahlanmayı desteklememişler, fakat savaşa araç ve para yardımı yapmayı kabul etmişlerdir. bu sebeple, yılında prens williams, yayınladığı kararname ile mennonitlere hoşgörü ortamı sağlamıştır. buna göre, waterlander mennonitleri, geniş bir para yardımı almış ve cemaat oluşturma fırsatı yakalamıştır. william’ın varisi olan maurice, babasının uygulamış olduğu hoşgörü politikasını devam ettirmiştir. hatta ondan sonra gelen varisler de aynı politikayı takip etmişlerdir (smith, , s. ). prens william’ın doopgezinde’de yaptığı bu hoşgörünün ardından aynı yıl onlara amsterdam’da halkın içinde rahatça dolaşma imkânı sağlamıştır. aslında bu karar, izinden ziyade onlara özgürlük hakkının tanınmasıdır. böylelikle mennonitler daha da büyüme ve organize olma fırsatı yakalayacaktır (dosker, , s. - ). yılında mennonitlere gösterilen hoşgörü, dini anlamda tamamen özgürlüğü içermemektedir. bu hoşgörü, sadece ölüm korkusu olmaksızın ibadetlerini yapabilme serbestliğidir. mennonitlerin dini özgürlükleri hala sınırlı olsa da bazı alman illerinde kilise kurabilmişlerdir (smith, , s. ). mennonitler, yılına kadar organize olamamıştır. Şehrin hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / içinde kilise kurmaları yasaklandığı için yılına kadar danzing şehrinin dışında cemaat halinde şekillenmeye başlamışlardır. her ne kadar devletin izni ile olmasa da ’den sonra danzing’de kilise kurulabilmiştir (fretz, , s. ). fakat yılında sneek ilinin hâkimi, halka açık ibadet yapılmasını yasaklamıştır. leeuwarden ilinde iş kurmaları yasaklanmış ve üç papazın şehri terk etmesi kararı çıkmıştır. mennonitlere her yerde devlet kilisesi vergisi vermeleri zorunlu kılınmış, tam vatandaşlık hakları ellerinden alınmış, evlilikleri dahi katolikler tarafından yapılmıştır. kısacası mennonitlerin dini ve vatandaşlık hakları olmamıştır (smith, , s. ). kendi dinlerini rahat bir şekilde yaşama fırsatı yakalayamayan mennonitler, küçük gruplar halinde avrupa’nın çeşitli ülkelerine göç etmiştir. . yüzyılın ortalarına kadar kuzey avrupa’da geniş bir alana yayılmışlardır (dyck, , s. ). bununla birlikte mennonitlerin yılında gruplar halinde amerika’ya göç etmeye başladıkları kaydedilmiştir (smith, , s. ). yılında mennonitler, hollanda’da dini ve sivil konumda özgürlüklerini kazanmıştır. ancak İngiltere, almanya, İsviçre’de mennonitler aynı hakları elde edememiştir. bununla birlikte sulh hâkimleri hala mennonitler hakkındaki olumsuz düşüncelerinden vazgeçmemiştir. Çünkü mennonitlerin kilise üyeliğini ve yemini reddetmeleri hala büyük bir olay şeklinde ele alınmaktadır (dosker, , s. ). napolyonik akım mennonitler için büyük fırsat olmuştur. bu akımın başarılı olmasıyla yeni bir cumhuriyet kurulmuştur. meclis üyeleri arasında mennonit mensubu kimseler de bulunmuştur. meclis üyesi olan mennonitler, kanunların değiştirilmesi hususunda oy vermiştir. bu sayede bu yeni cumhuriyette insanlara dini üyelik konusunda ayrıcalık tanınmıştır. böylelikle mennonitler de diğer confessional gruplar gibi kişisel haklara sahip olmuştur (driedger, , s. ). yılına gelindiğinde, mennonitlere tam bir dinsel eşitlik verilmiş ve mennonitler resmi olarak kilise kurma hakkı kazanmıştır. buna rağmen devlet ve rahip sınıfı, mennonitlerin işlerinde zorluk çıkarmıştır. Özellikle savaş karşıtı olan mennonitler, vilayetlerin ve milli devletin savaş içinde olduğu durumlarda, savaşa katılmama özgürlüğüne sahip olmuştur. bu yüzden mennonitler, İngiltere ile savaşta . gulden, fransa ile olan savaşta da . gulden ödemiştir. mennonitler, napolyonik çağda hollanda hükümetinin verdiği izinle askerlikten muaf tutulmuştur. fakat hollanda, yılında fransa imparatorluğu ile birleştiği zaman napolyon, onların bu askerlik muafiyetini kaldırmıştır. mennonitlerin birçoğunun askerlik fikrine olan karşıtlıkları daha da büyümüştür. ancak savaştan sonra mennonitler, hiçbir zorluk çekmeden çiftçilik hayatlarını tekrar elde etmiştir. bununla birlikte, hükümete karşı dayanıklı olmayan hollandalı mennonitler yok edilmiştir. yılında r.i. smit ve r.i. symensma adlı kişilerin liderliğinde küçük bir mennonit grubu askerliğe karşı direnmiş ve daha sonra amerika’nın indiana vilayetinin elkhart şehrine göç etmiştir (smith, , s. - ). mennonitlerin dinlerini rahat bir şekilde yaşadıkları yer rusya olmuştur. ancak mennonitlerin kendi alman ırklarını özenle muhafaza etmesi, rusyayı rahatsız etmiştir. yılında rusya, mennonitler üzerinde ruslaştırma programı uygulamıştır. bu programa göre, mennonitlerin yerel otoriteleri ellerinden alınmıştır. almanca konuşma ve öğrenme yasaklanmıştır. mennonitlere ait bazı özel okullar ve kiliseler kapatılmıştır. askeri hizmetten muaf tutulma hakları ellerinden alınmıştır. mennonitlerin özgürlüklerine karşı toplu miktar ödeme yapmaları istenmiştir. bu yüzden bazı mennonitler diğer mennonit cemaatlerin amerika’da rahat yaşadıklarını bildikleri için amerika’ya göç etmeye karar vermiştir. böylece rusya’ya olan mennonit göçleri azalmıştır (melton, , s. ; leowen- nolt, , s. , - ; smith, , s. - ; hartzler, j. s. kauffman, , s. ). bundan sonra rusya’da kalan mennonitler, askeri işlerden tekrar muaf tutulmuştur. buna karşılık mennonitler, kırım ve japon savaşlarında askeri transfer hizmetinde, yaralıların bakımında, hastane hizmetinde görev alarak mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / rusyay büyük yardımlarda bulunmuştur. ancak birçok genç mennonit’in savaş sırasında ölmesi mennonitleri huzursuz etmiştir. bu sebeple mennonitler, devletten özel haklar talep etmiştir. ancak istediklerini alamayan mennonitler, amerika’ya göç etmeye karar vermiştir. rusya, endüstriyel alanda birçok gelir elde ettiği mennonitlerin gitmesini engellemek için onlara, hastane, tren yolu, fabrika ve orman bölgelerinde imkanlar sunabileceğini teklif etmiştir. ancak bu şartlar mennonitlere çok ağır gelmiştir (smith, , s. - ; hartzler- kauffman, , s. ). mennonitler bu yerlerin de askeri sisteme bağlı olarak çalıştıklarını bildiği için ve askeri sistemle herhangi bir bağlantıda olmak istemediklerinden dolayı bu talebi kabul etmemiştir. rusya, mennonitlerin göç etmemesi için onları yıldırmaya çalışmıştır. bunun üzerinde mennonitler de göç etmek için propaganda yapmaya başlamıştır. yılında on iki kişilik bir grup, batı kanada ve amerika’ya yerleşim yerlerini araştırmaya gitmiştir. böylece mennonitler, küçük gruplar halinde göç etmeye başlamıştır. amerika’ya daha önce yerleşen mennonitler, rusya’dan gelen kardeşleri için ekonomik ve sosyal yardım yaparak, onların göçlerini kolaylaştırmıştır (smith, , s. - , ). mennonitler, yılında amerika’ya toplu bir şekilde göç etmiştir. daha sonra kuba, cherson, varşova, samara, türkistan ve sibirya’da da kilise kurmuşlardır. yılında is rusya, mennonitlerin kendi mal varlıklarıyla birlikte ve vergi ödemeden amerika’ya göç etmelerine izin vermiştir (leowen- nolt, , s. , - ; smith, , s. - ). sonuç mennonit kilisesi, . yüzyılda ortaya çıkan anabaptist hareketin kökenini oluşturmaktadır. mennonit kilisesi’nin kurucusu olan menno simons, yılında katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılarak mennonitliğin ilk adımını atmıştır. mennonitler, bebek vaftizine karşı çıkarak yetişkin vaftizine, ekmek şarap ayininin gerçekten İsa’nın eti ve kanı olmayıp sadece bir anma ayini olduğuna, askerlik gibi şiddet içeren her türlü iş ile devlet kurumlarında çalışılmaması gerektiğine inanmalarıyla ve yemin etmeyi reddetmeleriyle katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılmaktadır. bununla birlikte mennonitler, kilise ve devleti birbirinden ayrı tutarak devlet gibi otoritelerin kilisenin işlerine karışmaması gerektiğini savunurlar. onlara göre İsa mesih’i temsil eden kilisenin dünyevi işlerle herhangi bir münasebeti olmamalıdır. mennonit kilisesi, bu fikirleriyle katolik kilisesi, devlet ve protestanlar tarafından takibata alınmış, zulüm görmüş ve binlerce mennonit öldürülmüştür. bu sebeple avrupa ve rusya’da birçok bölgeye giden mennonitler, buralarda da rahat bir yaşama kavuşamamış ve son çare olarak gruplar halinde amerika’ya göç etmiştir. devlet otoritesine karşı gelmeyen ve siyasi bir çıkar gözetmeyen mennonitler, amerikan otoritesi tarafından kabul görmüştür. bugün mennonitlerin çoğunluğu, amerika’da rahat bir yaşam sürdürmektedir. sayımına göre, amerika ve kanada’da toplam . , latin amerika ve karayiplerde . , asya ve pasifik’te . , afrika’da . , avrupa’da . kişi olmak üzere tüm dünyada . . mennonit bulunmaktadır. kaynakÇa aydın, mahmut, anahatlarıyla dinler tarihi, tarih, İnanç ve İbadet, İstanbul, . aydın, mehmet, hıristiyan kaynaklarına göre hıristiyanlık, ankara, . chalmers, alexander, the general biographical dictionary: containing an historical and critical account of the lives and writings of the most eminent persons in every nation, particularly the british and irish; from the earliest accounts to the present time, c. i, londra . hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / Çatalbaş, resul, radikal reformistler, hıristiyanlıkta anabaptist hareket, ankara, . dipple, geoffrey, “the spiritualist anabaptists”, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , edit. john d. roth, james m. stayer, brill’s companions to the christian tradition, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , volume , brill academic publishing, leiden boston . dosker, henry, elias, the dutch anabaptists, the stone lectures delivered at the princeton theological seminary - , the judson press, philadelphia . driedger, michael, “anabaptists and the early modern state”, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , edit. john d. roth, james m. stayer, brill’s companions to the christian tradition, a series of handbooks and reference works on the intellectual and religious life of europe, - , volume , leiden boston . dyck, cornelius, an ıntroductiın to mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptist and the mennonites, herald press, third edition, scottdale, pennsylvania, . edit. williams, h. george; mergal, angel m., spiritual and anabaptist writers, louisville kentucky . erbaş, ali, hristiyanlık, İstanbul, . ______, hristiyanlık’ta reform ve protestanlık tarihi, . baskı, İstanbul, . euler, carrie, “huldrych zwingli and heinrich bullinger”, brill’s companions to the christian tradition, a companion to the eucharist in the reformation, volume , kean university, . fretz, joseph, winfield, the waterloo mennonites: a community in paradox, waterloo ontario, canada, . funk, john f. and brothers, “an account of the severe persecutions of menno simons, and a description of the place where he last preached the gospel, died and was buried” the complete work of menno simons, elkhart, indiana, . grayson calter, “johann heinrich bullinger ( - )”, the encyclopedia of christian literature, i. cilt, maryland america . greschat, martin, martin bucer a reformer and his times, beck münich . goertz, hans- jürgen, “radical religiosity in the german reformation”, a companion to the reformation world, edit. r. po-chia hsia, blackwell companions to european history, blackwell publishing, malden usa . gündüz, Şinasi, pavlus hıristiyanlığın mimarı, . basım, ankara, . hartzler, j. s., kauffman, daniel, mennonite church history, mennonite book and tract society published, scottdale pennsylvania . horsch, john, menno simons, his life, labors and teachings, mennonite publishing house, scottdale pennsylvania . jonas, william glenn, “the baptist river”, the baptist river: essays on many tributaries of a diverse tradition, mercer university press, macon, georgia, . katar, mehmet, “hıristiyanlık’ta kilise takviminin (kilise İçerisindeki anma ve kutlama devrelerinin) oluşması”, dini araştırmalar, eylül- aralık , c. , s. . mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / kılıç, sami, İlahi dinlerde yiyecek ve İçecekler, ankara, . klötzer, ralf, “the melchorites and münster”, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , leiden hollanda . krahn, cornelius, dutch anabaptism, origin, spread, life and thought, ( - ), the hague netherlands . kraybill, donald b., concise encyclopedia of amish, brethren, hutterites and mennonites, baltimore maryland . kuzgun, Şaban, dört kitabı mukaddes farklılıkları ve Çelişkileri, . baskı, ankara, . leowen, harry; nolt, steven, through fire and water, an overview of mennonite history, herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, . mcgranth, william r., “the anabaptists: neither catholics nor protestants”, the sword and trumpet, hartville ohio, america . melton, j. gordon, melton’s encyclopedia of american religions, gale, cengage learning, eighth edition, usa, . Özkan, ali rafet, “baptistler, anabaptistler”, yaşayan dünya dinleri, dİb, ankara, . ______, amerikan evanjelikleri baptistler, erzurum, . pettegree, andrew, the reformation: critiacal concepts in historical studies, ii. cilt, routledge . robles, yolanda j. “menno simons ( - )”, the encyclopedia of christian literature, c. i., maryland america . sarıkçıoğlu, ekrem, başlangıçtan günümüze dinler tarihi, . baskı, isparta, . simon, menno, “a foundation and plain instruction”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . ______, “an explanation of christian baptism in the water from the word of god”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . ______, “the conversion of menno simons and his renunciation of the church of roma”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . ______, “exhortation to all in authority”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . ______, “the cross of christ”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . ______, “testimony against john van leyden”, the complete works of menno simons, published by john f. funk and brother, elkhart indiana . schroeder, william; huebert, helmut t., mennonite historical atlas, winnipeg canada . smith, c. henry, the mennonites, a brief history of their origin and later development in both europe and america, berne indiana . tinsley, barbara sher, pierre bayle’s reformation: consicience and criticism on the eve of the englightenment, danvers massachusetts . hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / tümer, günay- küçük, abdurrahman, dinler tarihi, iv. baskı, ankara, . visser, piet, “mennonites and doopsgezinden in the netherlands, - ,” a companion to anabaptists and spiritualist, - , brill’s companions to christian tradition, volume , edit: john d. roth, james m. stayer, leiden boston . weaver, j. denny, becoming anabaptist: the origin and significance of sixteenth- century anabaptism, scottdale pennsylvania, waterloo ontario . citation information/kaynakça bilgisi keleş, h. & kılıç, d. ( ). “mennonit kilisesi’nin ortaya Çıkışı ve tarihçesi / history and emergence of the mennonite church”, turkish studies -international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic-, issn: - , volume / , ankara/turkey, www.turkishstudies.net, doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. , p. - . letters t o the editors: bernard choseed in his "categorizing soviet yiddish writers" (slavic review, march ) states that "sovetish heimland gave material proof diat the overwhelming majority of established soviet yiddish writers who had flourished dirough had survived the holocaust" (p. ). unfortunately it is not true. mr. choseed quotes correctly diat sovetish heimland in its very first issue published a list of writers who would regularly participate in the journal. however, there were in the soviet union in , before die outbreak of the soviet-german war, nearly yiddish writers, journalists, researchers, scholars, and translators. about fifty writers fell on the various battlefields or died from war wounds. we will assume that one hundred died a natural death during the war years, and the years following the war. still there were about yiddish writers at the end of when die liquidation of yiddish culture began. at that time most of diese writers were arrested. about thirty writers, die most creative and most prominent, were executed in august . since about writers were listed in the moscow yiddish journal, we assume diat only diese survived die holocaust, aldiough diey were in die concentration camps. subtracting from die original figure of (i have all their names) diose who died a natural deadi (maximum ), diose who were executed in august ( ), those who are listed in sovetish heimland ( ), diere are still missing more dian writers. we can dierefore assume diat diey died in various camps. as for tsodek dolgopolski—he was arrested during die purges of - , but evidently he was released. since his books appeared in russian during the holocaust, it is clear diat he was not among diose arrested during - . i n sovetish heim- land, no. , , diere is a note that he died on july , . since he could not publish anydiing in yiddish during the "dark period," he published in russian. t h e note in sovetish heimland lists his yiddish books, but does not mention any russian works. apparently the two books diat bernard choseed lists by dolgopolski diat were published in russian in and were translated from die yiddish, either from die manuscript or from a book previously published in yiddish. t h e book diat choseed mentions, na beregakh sylvy, is ap- parently a translation from his yiddish book af der linker zeit. as for emmanuil kazakevitch—it is clear diat since he knew russian very well, he drifted into russian literature because it provided greater opportunities than yiddish literature. but die fact that he himself translated his novel zvezda into yid- dish shows that he did not abandon yiddish literature. april , elias schulman editor, der wecker t o the editors: permit me to comment on diat part of william w. brickman's review of religion and the search for new ideals in the ussr that discusses the article by hans lamm on soviet jews and judaism (slavic review, march , pages - ). though at first i shared mr. brickman's feeling that it "has little to offer on religion and is but vaguely related to die dieme of die book," i have since had reason to change my mind. lamm's first paragraph begins, "it seems necessary to begin by clarifying die letters concept ' j e w s » ' " a n d ends, "while we need not enter into this discussion [of what and who jews are] we must still determine how the term 'jews' is applied in die soviet u n i o n " (p. ). if what follows seems sterile, it is because religious activities, cultural life, national life, evidence of anti-semitism, international relations, sup- pression of culture, reactions to soviet policy toward judaism and jewish life, and the attitude of soviet jewry (largely unknown) are discussed, as brickman notes, from secondary sources. but this is not hans lamm's fault. as a student both of soviet nationality policy and of religious sectarianism in russia, i have been scour- ing soviet booklists for some years for references to jews in the soviet union be- cause my two areas of interest are really rather closely connected (just how closely would make an article by itself). i have in hand diree books diat contain references to the russian jews: m. shakhnovich's zakat iudeiskoi religii (leningrad, ), which is a historical survey of judaism as a religion in world history, prefaced by a few piquant details about jews in the soviet union ("in , , jews were elected as deputies to local or- gans of power.") and followed by a short section on the extinction of belief in god. this section does at least tell us (p. ) that if we could get, for example, cherkasskaia pravda, we might read how a seventy-year-old woman broke with re- ligion, the interesting part being that she had been a member of the synagogue's ruling board (dvadtsatok). m. s. belen'kii's judaizm was written for the library of contemporary religions (moscow, ). belen'kii has been writing adieistic propaganda since die s, but none of his practical experience appears in the book, which treats judaism almost exclusively in historical terms as a religion. by comparison with odier books in die series (on baptists, mennonites, adventists, etc.), it is thin stuff indeed. finally, diere are six pages devoted to judaism in the collection stroitel'stvo kommunizma i preodolenie religioznykh perezhitkov (moscow, , p p . - ). this particular book shows very clearly the attempts of soviet scholars to make all religions part of die same phenomenon. accordingly, on page we read diat in the city of korosten, zhitomir oblast, the leaders of die jewish community violated soviet law by taking u p a collection to aid "the poor." sociologically, diis has greater significance than diat die jewish leaders were fulfilling a religious commandment. such an act is specifically forbidden in die soviet criminal code because (particularly among non-russian orthodox communities) in die early years of soviet power, the money of the faithful was successfully used to mount a campaign for culture change in die countryside on a non-soviet (and dierefore anti-soviet) basis. t h e director of the institute of ethnography, iu. v. bromlei, in an article de- voted to the achievements of soviet edinographers, took specific note of die fact diat die daily life of many peoples is often determined by die religion diey profess (voprosy istorii, no. , , pp. - ) and diat diere has been renewed interest "in such traditional edinographic diemes as popular morals, customs, and ceremo- nies," largely because of a current soviet need to find alternatives to religious ceremonies. t h e very slight extent to which ethnographic investigation has touched upon die jews has been noted by stephen p. dunn (slavic review, december , pages - ). it is noteworthy diat a recent collection testifying to increasing interest in die sociology of religion (konkretnye issledovaniia sovremennykh religioznykh verovanii, moscow, ) contains no study of jews, and thereby implies diat none are being conducted. as it happens, current soviet sociology of religion has begun to discuss religion in terms of what might be called the last gasp of nationalism, and die fardier back one slavic review goes into russian history, the better case can be made for this approach. read in mis light, hans lamm's article does not seem so unsatisfactory to me as it does to brick- man. t h e article does, after all, suggest that what is involved is "culturecide" rather than genocide, but before we condemn the former absolutely, we would d o well to remember that genocide has been practiced on die jews by nations with strong christian traditions and that certain aspects of jewish culture (from a soviet point of view specifically zionism) are quite definite reactions to that fact. t h e way in which lamm has dealt with soviet jews and judaism makes his article one of the most important in religion and the search for new ideals. from a soviet point of view all religions are parochial—they set u p artificial divisions between people. anti-semitism is inherent in die entire christian world view, insofar as christianity claims exclusive knowledge of the trudi. if, therefore, communism asserts that it is ' another, more viable alternative to die way of life presented by eidier christianity or judaism, communism can tolerate neither anti-semitism (in this context die ideology of "christian culture") nor jewish culture (a defense mechanism against anti-semitism). under soviet conditions mere has been a certain convergence among all religions, although it is a moot point whemer this convergence has helped to eradicate anti-semitism as effectively as soviet nationality policy. it seems to me mat hans lamm's article discusses the effect (or lack of effect) of the soviet nationality policy on religion, and is merefore very much to the point, though by n o means easy to read. finally, if brickman is doing more than—to paraphrase the editorial—emitting die customary angry snort of protest, i wish he would say why he minks that lamm's unfamiliarity with jewish life leads him to feel m a t "only a small remnant cares for jewish life." serious theoretical issues are at stake, issues that serious scholars should document rather than dismiss with yea or nay. zvi gitelman's summary paragraph in his review of die question ("the jewish question," survey, january , p . ) indicates how complex the problem is: " t h e decision taken in the s to eliminate religious education has probably sealed its [judaism in die ussr's] fate. many young jewish people are intensely interested in jewish culture and history, but few are religious believers. t h e thousands who dance in the street near the synagogue on the holiday of simkhat torah do so because they are jewish, not because mey are religious. they are affirming dieir national identity, not their religious faith. only in the unlikely event of the soviets permitting a general revival of jewish culture might some religious forms and practices survive—and mey would survive as national customs, not as religious ritual if such a revival does not occur, then it must be assumed m a t the eclipse of the jewish religion in the ussr will become total." lamm speaks of "jewish life" and gitelman makes a distinction between jewish religion and jewish culture. w h e m e r or not such distinctions can be made, i wonder if brickman really has enough data at his command to be able to tell when an author has or has not failed in his task. march , ethel dunn university of california, berkeley t o the editors: i n disagreeing with my appraisal of hans lamm's chapter, mrs. dunn first calls attention to his discussion of the concept "jews." however one wishes to consider it, the term "jew" has a basis in the religious tradition of millennia. some jews have become assimilated, and meir descendants have ceased to identify themselves as such. tf-lebm .. ++ http://informahealthcare.com/ebm issn: - (print), - (electronic) electromagn biol med, early online: – ! informa healthcare usa, inc. doi: . / . . o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e hypothesis: the reversal of the relation between economic growth and health progress in sweden in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries was caused by electrification samuel milham* retired washington state health department, olympia, wa, usa abstract the expected decline of health indicators with economic recessions and improvement with economic growth in the nineteenth century sweden was reversed in the twentieth century, giving the counterintuitive pattern of higher mortality and lower life expectancy in economic expansions and improvement of these indices in recessions. the change or ‘‘tipping point’’ occurred at the end of the nineteenth century or early in the twentieth century when electrification was introduced into sweden. all of the reversals of annual industrial electric energy use in the us between and were accompanied by recessions with lowered gdp, increased unemployment, decreased mortality and increased life expectancy. the health indices were not related to residential electricity use. the mortality improvement between and by state in the us strongly favored urban areas over rural areas. rural unemployment by state in was significantly positively correlated with residential electrification percentage by state in . the health effects of economic change are mediated by electrical exposure. keywords death rate, dirty electricity, economic growth, economic recession, health indicators, industrial electricity use, life expectancy history received february revised october accepted november published online june introduction the journal of health economics paper, ‘‘the reversal of the relation between economic growth and health progress: sweden in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’’ (tapia- granados and ionides, ) documented how the health indicators, mortality and life expectancy improved during economic expansions in sweden in the nineteenth century, but during the twentieth century, the pattern reversed, developing the contemporary and paradoxical pattern of improved health indicators in recessions and poorer health indictors during economic expansions. interestingly, their models indicated a ‘‘tipping point’’ late in the nineteenth century or early in the twentieth century when sweden and the rest of the world were undergoing the shift to electric power beginning with thomas edison’s electrification of new york city in . in , siemens installed electric lighting in the stockholm palace (siemens corporate history) and in the helisjohn– grangesberg km transmission line was built (the history of electrification). the swedish state power board was formed in (international small hydro atlas). i present evidence that national electricity use and individual electrical exposure is responsible for the health indices reversal seen in sweden and electrified countries. methods and results an examination of industrial electric power use and health indicators in the us during economic recessions suggests that the swedish reversal was mediated by electricity. industrial electric power use in the us rose from , millions of kilowatt hours to , in (historical statistics of the us). there were only reversals of the pattern of annual increase over those years (table ). each reversal signaled a recession or depression associated with a gdp decline, an increase in unemployment, an increase in life expectancy and a decrease in the death rate. during the great depression, industrial electric use declined by %, while residential use declined by only %. it is the industrial electricity use, not the residential use that seems to be driving the mortality and life expectancy changes. in – the mortality decrease and life expectancy increase was seen in both males and females, whites and non-whites for most age groups. most major causes of death had lowered death rates. suicides increased and motor vehicle accidents decreased during the great depression. i think that the health indices are responding to a lower individual environmental electricity exposure during recessions. table shows the change in death rate in us states in the great depression between the years and (us vital statistics). the death rate address correspondence to samuel milham md, mph, gravelly beach loop nw, olympia, wa , usa. tel: - - . e-mail: smilham@dc.rr.com. website: www.sammilham.com *contact address october to april : bergman dr., indio, ca , usa. tel: - - . e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . http://informahealthcare.com/ebm mailto:smilham@dc.rr.com. website: decrease was greater in urban areas with higher levels of electrification than in rural areas. over % of states had a mortality increase in their rural areas. rural unemployment (percent of gainfully employed workers) by state in (us census, ) was significantly positively correlated with residential electrification percentage by state in (r¼ . , r ¼ . , p¼ . ; vassar statistical com- putation website). discussion i think that the paradoxical improvement of health indices in occupied europe during world war ii was not due to caloric restriction, but to lowered industrial electrical use and individual electrical exposure. cuba has had a similar, more recent experience. when russian support of cuba ended in , and cuba lost many of its trading partners, the gdp dropped at least % and total electric use dropped % between and (cuba foundation). industrial and construction electric consumption dropped from about gwh to about gwh in (belt, ). as late as , industrial electric consumption had only recovered to about gwh. as in the great depression in the us, residential electricity use in cuba declined only slightly, and had recovered to pre- levels by . hurricanes and generator failures resulted in frequent blackouts. in , days saw some interruption of electrical service (focus on cuba). in , some blackouts lasted hours (havana journal, ). in the period – , there were declines in mortality due to diabetes, coronary heart disease and stroke which were ascribed to caloric restriction and weight loss (franco et al., ). male life expectancy at birth has risen steadily from . years in to . years in with brief leveling at . years in and . female life expectancy had a similar pattern with a slight decrease between and (trading economics, ). over the past years, i have developed information showing that electricity is responsible for most human disease beginning with the onset of electrification. in , i showed that electrical workers had increased mortality due to leukemia (milham, ). in ossiander and i demon- strated a striking correlation between the emergence of the childhood mortality age – peak of common acute lympho- blastic leukemia and the spread of residential electrification in the us in the s and s. at ages – , there was a % increase in leukemia mortality for a % increase in percent of homes served by electricity (milham and ossiander, ). this age peak is still not seen in places without electrification. in , i used historical us census residential electrification data and us mortality data to show that electrification probably caused the twentieth century epidemic of the ‘‘diseases of civilization’’ including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancer and suicide (milham, a, b). this study exploited the fact that in the first part of the twentieth century, most us urban populations were electrified and electrifica- tion of rural populations was correlated with the state level of residential electrification. both populations were covered by the same vital registration system. most us cities were electrified by the early s. by , over % of residences in california, connecticut, massachusetts, new jersey, new york and rhode island were electrified. by contrast, many southern states had less than half of their residences electrified. in , % of residences mississippi were electrified. alabama, arkansas, georgia, new mexico and south carolina had less than % of residences electrified in . in states with high electrification levels, rural and urban mortality rates were similar. in states with low electrification levels the urban mortality rates were much higher than the rural rates. rural death rates were signifi- cantly correlated with the state level of residential electrifi- cation for most causes. the authors of the us vital statistics report noted a . % cancer mortality excess in urban areas, but it raised no red flags. the census bureau residential electrification data was obviously not linked to the mortality data. epidemiologists in that era were still con- cerned with the communicable diseases. in , a cohort cancer incidence analysis of a california middle school teacher population showed a positive trend of increasing cancer risk with increasing cumulative exposure to high frequency voltage transients (dirty electricity) on the classroom’s electrical wiring measured with a graham/stetzer (g/s) microsurge meter (stetzerelectric.com) the attribut- able risk of cancer associated with this exposure was %. a single year of employment at this school increased a teacher’s cancer risk by % (milham and morgan, ). figure shows an oscilloscope tracing of dirty electricity. before the introduction of non-linear loads like personal computers and most modern electrical equipment, the major sources of dirty electricity were brushed generators and electric motors. this may account for the fact that it is table . total industrial electric energy use decline by year, united states between and ; gdp, unemployment, life expectancy and death rate. year millions of kilowatt- hours gdp decline a percent unemployment percent male life expectancy years death rate/ , , . b – . . , . . , . � . . . , . . , . � . . . , . . , . � . . . , . . , . � . . . , . . a peak to trough. b business activity. table . change in death rate, united states – by urban and rural areas for us states. death rate urban ( , þpopulation) rural no percent no percent decreased . . increased . . unchanged . . total . . p . s. milham electromagn biol med, early online: – e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . industrial, not residential electricity use that is correlated with health indices. dirty electricity is caused by arcing, sparking and anything that interrupts current flow, especially modern switching power supplies. thomas edison complained that his original ‘‘jumbo’’ generators had serious commutator brush arcing, so dirty electricity has been here since the electric grid was established. the old order amish, a mennonite sect who live without electricity, have had a life expectancy of over years for the past years (shuldiner and sorkin, ). they have very low rates of cancer (westman et al., ), diabetes (hsueh et al., ), cardiovascular disease (hamman et al., ) and suicide (kraybill et al., ). conclusion i believe that the onset of electrification in sweden can explain the reversal seen in twentieth century health indica- tors from the nineteenth century pattern of health improve- ment with economic improvement. it can also explain the disease patterns in the electrified world. i predict that the health effects of the current us recession and future figure . oscilloscope tracing of the dirty electricity in a wall outlet in the director’s office olympia, timberland library before and after installing graham/stetzer filters. (the date and time in the data blocks are incorrect. these tracings were taken on / / between and am). doi: . / . . health progress and electrification e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . recessions will be dampened and hard to discern, because the major individual exposures to electromagnetic fields and dirty electricity are now of non-industrial origin. declaration of interest i have no conflicts of interest to report. references franco, m., orduñez, p., caballero, b., et al. ( ). impact of energy intake, physical activity and population-wide weight loss on cardiovascular disease and diabetes mortality in cuba, – . am. j. epidemiol. : – . focus on cuba. available from: ctp.iccas.miami.edu/focus_web/ issue .htm (accessed may ). hamman, r. f., barancik, j. l., lillienfeld, a. m. ( ). patterns of mortality in the old order amish. background and major causes of death. am. j. epidemiol. : – . havana journal. ( ). available from: http://havanajournal.com/ politics/entry/recurring_blackouts_plague_cuba/ (accessed may ). historical statistics of the united states colonial times to . us bureau of the census. washington, dc: us commerce department. hsueh, w.-c., mitchell, b. d., aburomia, r., et al. ( ). diabetes in the old order amish: characterization and heritability analysis of the amish family diabetes study. diabetes care : – . international small hydro atlas. available from: http://www.small- hydro.com/index.cfm?fuseaction¼countries.country&country_id¼ &ok¼tokenpass (accessed may ). kraybill, d. b., hostetler, j. a., shaw, d. g. ( ). suicide patterns in a religious subculture: the old order amish. j. moral soc. stud. : – . milham, s. ( ). mortality from leukemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields. n engl. j. med. : . milham, s., ossiander, e. m. ( ). historical evidence that residential electrification caused the emergence of the childhood leukemia peak. med. hypotheses : – . milham, s., morgan l.l. ( ). a new electromagnetic field exposure metric: high-frequency voltage transients associated with increased cancer incidence in teachers in a california school. am. j. ind. med. : – . milham, s. ( a). dirty electricity. bloomington, in: iuniverse. milham, s. ( b). historical evidence that electrification caused the twentieth century epidemic of ‘‘diseases of civilization’’. med. hypotheses : – . shuldiner, a., sorkin, j.( ) available from: http://gerontology.umar- yland.edu/documents/advances_in_aging_fall .pdf (accessed may ). siemens corporate history. www.siemens.com/history/en/countries/ sweden.htm (accessed may ). tapia granados, j. a., ionides, e. l., ( ). the reversal of the relation between economic growth and health progress: sweden in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. j. health econ. : – . the history of electrification. available from: http://edisontechcenter.- org/histelectpowtrans.html (accessed may ). trading economics. ( ) available from: www.tradingeconomics.com/ cuba/life-expectancy-at-birth-female-years-wb-data.html. www.tradin- geconomics.com/cuba/life-expectancy-at-birth-male-years-wb-data.html (accessed may ). us census : census of population and housing – u.s. census bureau. available from: www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/decennial/ .html (accessed may ). vassar statistical computation web site. available from: http://www. vassarstats.net/ (accessed may ) vital statistics of the united states. annual mortality volumes , , . washington, dc: us government printing office. westman, j. a., ferketich, a. k., kauffman, r. m., et al. ( ). low cancer incidence rates in ohio – amish. cancer causes control : – . s. milham electromagn biol med, early online: – e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . << 	/preservecopypage true 	/monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic 	/monoimagedict << 		/k - 	>> 	/parseiccprofilesincomments true 	/preservehalftoneinfo false 	/transferfunctioninfo /preserve 	/grayimageminresolution 	/encodecolorimages true 	/autofiltergrayimages true 	/imagememory 	/pdfxregistryname () 	/embedjoboptions true 	/monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode 	/pdfxnotrimboxerror true 	/ascii encodepages false 	/defaultrenderingintent /default 	/grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg 	/pdfxcompliantpdfonly false 	/colorimageresolution 	/grayimagefilter /dctencode 	/downsamplemonoimages true 	/preservedicmykvalues false 	/colorimagefilter /dctencode 	/encodegrayimages true 	/grayimagemindownsampledepth 	/parsedsccomments true 	/colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg 	/embedopentype false 	/antialiasmonoimages false 	/jpeg colorimagedict << 		/quality 		/tileheight 		/tilewidth 	>> 	/colorimagedepth - 	/createjdffile false 	/preserveepsinfo false 	/pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true 	/dscreportinglevel 	/neverembed [ 	] 	/optimize true 	/description << 		/deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c d e a c e e a e f e e f b d e e a a c e e d f b d e b f e e e d f e e e f f e e e> 		/enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents suitable for reliable viewing and printing of business documents. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) 		/nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f e c c e e f b f e e f b d e e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e> 		/chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e e a e b c a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > 		/kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec be c b c c a bb c cb c c c c c cb c bcf ace c c c d b b ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> 		/esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f c a f e d f e f e e a f d e f f d c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> 		/fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f f e e c c f c c f e c d f e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> 		/suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b f b a f a e c f e e e e d e a c f d e e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> 		/jpn <feff d b cd b f e a a b f f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a f d a f c e cb fbc f c e > 		/nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken waarmee zakelijke documenten betrouwbaar kunnen worden weergegeven en afgedrukt. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) 		/ita (utilizzare queste impostazioni per creare documenti adobe pdf adatti per visualizzare e stampare documenti aziendali in modo affidabile. i documenti pdf creati possono essere aperti con acrobat e adobe reader . e versioni successive.) 		/cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc e a d ef e b c a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > 		/dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c c a b e d e e f b e e f e e f b d e e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> 		/ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f f c a e e f d e f f e e f d e f f d e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> 		/sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d f c c f c c e e f b e f b d e e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> 	>> 	/createjobticket false 	/endpage - 	/monoimagedepth - 	/grayimageresolution 	/autofiltercolorimages true 	/alwaysembed [ 	] 	/colorimageminresolution 	/parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true 	/srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) 	/autorotatepages /all 	/monoimageresolution 	/allowtransparency false 	/grayacsimagedict << 		/vsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 		/qfactor . 		/hsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 	>> 	/dothumbnails false 	/grayimagedepth - 	/compressobjects /tags 	/colorimagedownsamplethreshold . 	/antialiasgrayimages false 	/antialiascolorimages false 	/embedallfonts true 	/colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok 	/pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () 	/preserveflatness true 	/downsamplecolorimages true 	/monoimagedownsamplethreshold . 	/pdfxoutputintentprofile () 	/grayimagedict << 		/vsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 		/qfactor . 		/hsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 	>> 	/useprologue false 	/coloracsimagedict << 		/vsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 		/qfactor . 		/hsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 	>> 	/jpeg grayacsimagedict << 		/quality 		/tileheight 		/tilewidth 	>> 	/colorconversionstrategy /srgb 	/emitdscwarnings false 	/monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok 	/ucrandbginfo /remove 	/detectcurves . 	/colorsettingsfile (none) 	/calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) 	/grayimagedownsamplethreshold . 	/cropcolorimages true 	/jpeg coloracsimagedict << 		/quality 		/tileheight 		/tilewidth 	>> 	/monoimageminresolution 	/calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) 	/compresspages true 	/binding /left 	/pdfxtrapped /false 	/pdfx check false 	/detectblends true 	/jpeg grayimagedict << 		/quality 		/tileheight 		/tilewidth 	>> 	/compatibilitylevel . 	/grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic 	/pdfxoutputcondition () 	/passthroughjpegimages false 	/cannotembedfontpolicy /warning 	/allowpsxobjects true 	/lockdistillerparams true 	/convertimagestoindexed true 	/grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok 	/pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ 		 . 		 . 		 . 		 . 	] 	/autopositionepsfiles true 	/pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ 		 . 		 . 		 . 		 . 	] 	/downsamplegrayimages true 	/pdfx acheck false 	/cropgrayimages true 	/calgrayprofile (gray gamma . ) 	/cropmonoimages true 	/subsetfonts true 	/colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic 	/checkcompliance [ 		/none 	] 	/preserveopicomments false 	/preserveoverprintsettings true 	/encodemonoimages true 	/maxsubsetpct 	/colorimagemindownsampledepth 	/colorimagedict << 		/vsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 		/qfactor . 		/hsamples [ 			 . 			 . 			 . 			 . 		] 	>> 	/opm 	/startpage >> setdistillerparams << 	/pagesize [ 		 . 		 . 	] 	/hwresolution [ 		 		 	] >> setpagedevice wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ microsoft word - ijesb roessingh.doc int. j. entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. , copyright © inderscience enterprises ltd. ‘we are growing belize’: modernisation and organisational change in the mennonite settlement of spanish lookout, belize carel roessingh* and kees boersma department of culture, organization and management, faculty of social sciences, vrije universiteit amsterdam, de boelelaan , room z- , hv amsterdam, the netherlands fax: + e-mail: ch.roessingh@fsw.vu.nl e-mail: fk.boersma@fsw.vu.nl *corresponding author abstract: this article addresses the entrepreneurial and organisational activities of a specific mennonite group in belize called the kleine gemeinde community of spanish lookout. building upon christian beliefs, agricultural skills and a strong working ethos, this group was able to build up a stable, local economic network. the authors suggest that their collective resistance against other social groups and their day-to-day strictness lead to processes of ‘selective modernity’. as we make clear in this chapter, the kleine gemeinde mennonites identity contains elements of ethnicity and partial exclusion based upon religious motives. the relative successful economic progression of this group is a sign of both their working ethos inspired by their religious background, and their will to progress and expand. keywords: religious organisation; selective modernity; family networks; mennonite community. reference to this paper should be made as follows: roessingh, c. and boersma, k. ( ) ‘‘we are growing belize’: modernisation and organisational change in the mennonite settlement of spanish lookout, belize’, int. j. entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. , pp. – . biographical notes: carel roessingh studied cultural anthropology and received his phd from the university of utrecht. his phd research was on the belizean garifuna. his central research topic now is religious entrepreneurs, focusing on the organisational activities of the mennonites in belize and central america. he works as an associate professor at the vrije universiteit amsterdam, faculty of social sciences, department of culture, organisation and management. his publications appeared amongst others in journals such as journal of mennonite studies, journal of developmental entrepreneurship, international journal of entrepreneurship & small business, international journal of business and globalisation and belizean studies. kees boersma is an associate professor at the vu university amsterdam in the group of culture, organisation and management. his research interest is in ‘science and technology studies’, ‘business history’ and ‘organisational culture and power’. he has published widely on r&d history, organisational learning, enterprise-wide systems, and organisational culture and higher education. his c. roessingh and k. boersma publications appeared amongst others in journals such as enterprise and society, history and technology, human relations, business process management journal and journal of strategic information systems. he is a teacher in the courses organisational politics, organisational and management theory and technology and culture. introduction the mennonites settlements are in the middle of a process of selective modernity which is leading to a visible role on the belizean economic and entrepreneurial market. from its early beginnings, the mennonites enclosed significant differentiations concerning religious principles, ideas and opinions (urry, ). the mennonites originate from the anabaptist movement of the protestant reformation in europe during the first half of the th century (everitt, ; redekop ). the term ‘anabaptist’ stands for ‘re-baptiser’, which means that this religious group believed that adults should be baptised based on their choice to follow christ. in contrast to the then popular approach that children should be baptised soon after birth, the anabaptists thought that the basis of faith must be a conscious rational decision. the anabaptists were convinced that a clear distinction was needed between church and government. therefore, they rejected the authority of a civil/religious government, demanding to baptise children, swear oaths and join military service, because they felt that the scripture suggested a different approach to a life of faith (ryman, ). hostile reactions from the more established churches, to these practices led to persecution. in the th and th century, the mennonite migrated from western europe to areas like northern america and russia where they could live in a relatively isolated manner and where they mainly lived as farmers (dyck, ; loewen ; redekop, ; scott ). later, in the th century, the mennonites moved on to countries in latin america like paraguay and bolivia for several reasons (dana and dana, ; hedberg, ). in march , eight years before british honduras received the right to an internal self-government, a group of kleine gemeinde mennonites arrived to settle at the banks of the belize river at the present site of spanish lookout [higdon, ( ), p. ; quiring ( ); sawatzky ( )]. the first years of the mennonites in belize were difficult and full of new experiences. the description koop, a prominent mennonite member with interest in history, gives in his book the pioneer years in belize provides a dramatic picture: “after a weary and tiring journey, they arrived on the southern bank of the belize river at the present side of spanish lookout’s southern edge. neither bridge or ferry awaited them. on the northern bank of the river was a dark and forbidding jungle with its strange noises and smells. underneath the dense bush, giant snakes and jaguars made their home. the apprehensive settlers may had thoughts akin to those of the children of israel in numbers : : ‘why did the lord bring us to this land to allow us to fall by the sword (tropical diseases)? our wives and children will be taken as plunder. would it not have been better for us to return to egypt?’” [koop, ( ), p.vii] literature tells us that a mennonite is first of all to be a member of a community, a tiny part of an integrated whole. in small settlements like in belize, these christians labour ‘we are growing belize’ and worship together and have little contact with people outside their settlement. this, they believe, is according to god’s plan. one of the mennonites’ strongest basic beliefs is their separation from society. referring to the bible, they state that they are to be ‘strangers and pilgrims’ in the world. this implies that all activities should result in better service to their god. also, the aspect of gelassenheit is reflected in the selective participation in processes of modernity. the mennonite internal system is organised around congregation, which are the basic social and religious unit beyond the extended family. communities or congregations with common rules and discipline “participate in the same conference, which is an organisational unit held together by a biannual meeting of ordained leaders” [kraybill and bowman, ( ), p. ]. in an analysis of the agricultural system of the kleine gemeinde mennonites in spanish lookout in belize, hall ( , p. ) mentions some cultural factors, which explain the economic success of this community and its organisations. these factors are group cohesion, homogeneity, pervasive religion, a high degree of social organisation, a self-sufficient economy, and a low threshold for migration. ever since their arrival in , all mennonite settlements in belize locate themselves on the edge of or even outside the society. for example: inside their settlement the mennonite speak a language called ‘low german’. with outsiders they speak english or spanish. language is an instrument to exclude oneself from society. nevertheless, more than years after their arrival in belize the kleine gemeinde mennonites of spanish lookout are economically one of the most successful communities in belize. the kleine gemeinde community has evolved from an isolated group of families dependent on subsistence agriculture and logging, into a more complex economy with commercial agriculture and agribusiness as its primary engines of growth (higdon, ). peculiar in this case is that an ethnic/religious group, which, culturally, acts in a rather isolated way inside the multi-ethnic society of belize, would be capable of establishing such a strong economic position in this country. in this chapter, we want to address the relationship between the mennonite’s way of being careful with cultural and organisational changes and their perspective on modernity. in connection, viewing this religious group as an organisation, our story also deals with (collective) identity. it is the mennonite struggle to remain a socially isolated group, but at the same time to be successful entrepreneurs. literature on amish-mennonite groups in america provides us with examples of a selective adaptation and a dynamic process of isolation and strictness, which enables individual mennonites to retain their ethnic and religious identity while simultaneously adapting to economic pressure (kraybill, ). according to weber ( ), who wrote about the mennonites as a protestant ‘sect’, members of these communities practice a strict avoidance of ‘the world’. an alternative concept, proposed in this chapter, to explain the dynamics of the belizean mennonites is ‘selective modernity’ in relation to their entrepreneurship, which would possess community and settlement dynamics departing from a differential appropriation of western influence and values. in fact, the mennonites are commonly regarded as the economic motor of belize. this is especially true for the mennonites of spanish lookout and blue creek. this observation has served as the starting point for our fieldwork, data collection and analyses. throughout this chapter, we will interpret the significance of the success of the kleine gemeinde mennonites entrepreneurial organisation and organisational changes in c. roessingh and k. boersma spanish lookout and address their struggle to hold foot as a pure religious community by creating a specific position in a multi-ethnic post-colonial context. selective modernity in relation to mennonite entrepreneurship: a theoretical investigation in social-cultural debates, the process of modernisation, including capitalism, industrialism and the growth of rational organisations and institutions, appears to be inevitable. these aspects of modernity influence personal life and give rise to questions of identity. “modernity is a post-traditional order, in which the question, ‘how shall i live?’ has to be answered in day-to-day decisions about how to behave, what to wear, what to eat – and many other things - as well as interpreted within the temporal unfolding of self-identity” [giddens, ( ), p. ]. however, these individual choices can also constitute a form of collective identity. this type of identity building can make the power of entrepreneurial and organisational instruments into a form of collective resistance against other social groups [castells, ( ), pp. – ]. in the case of the mennonite settlements in belize, the collective identity is one of the basic elements of their economic existence. trust and recognition inside the mennonite settlement and more specific the church community are fundamental aspects to create a collective identity. “the cohesive mennonite community (the village) is designed to care for its members. there is mutuality of recognition; regular and mutual affirmation and certification. the old colony mennonite village becomes a hallowed place” [driedger, ( ), p. ]. driedger points out that trust and recognition inside the mennonite settlement and more specific the church community are based on fundamental elements out of the past which are continuous transplanted from one location to another. generally speaking, all mennonite communities want to be ‘pure’ congregations, in the sense of being members of a blameless conduct. to develop this line of thought, and following miller, we “…would also expect that local congregations that reassert distinctive historical features will out-perform less distinctive congregations within the same denomination, even if they do not become independent of the parent church” [miller, ( ), p. ]. this is in accordance with simmel’s investigation on social conflicts, which states that conflict is admitted to cause or modify interest groups, unifications, and organisations. however, conflict can be a way of achieving some kind of internal unity and understanding of identity (simmel, ). such conflicts may be caused by external tensions, but also by internal fragmentation or segregation. to avoid such self-defeating processes, restrictions and enforcement mechanisms on for example smoking, drinking, eating and other potentially private activities are compelled within strict religious communities to keep members in line (iannaccone, ). in fact, these processes can be seen as normative, cultural control mechanisms (kunda, ), which are based on questions about ‘purity’. in the first place, ‘purity’ is a question of pure religious identity. this religious identity is connected with the discourse about the concepts of ‘church’ and ‘sect’. the question raised here is whether a specific religious group should be seen as part of a church or be marked as a sect. “the ideal-typical ‘sect’ might be defined as a religious organization with a highly committed, voluntary, and converted membership; a separatist orientation; an exclusive social structure; a spirit of regeneration; and an attitude of ethical austerity and demanding asceticism. the ideal-typical ‘church’ would have its ‘we are growing belize’ own complex list of attributes: birth-based membership; inclusiveness and universalism; hierarchical structures; an adaptive, compromising stance vis-a-vis the larger society; and so forth” (iannaccone, ). we want to stress that these definitions fail, in a sense, to analyse communities or even settlements like the belizean mennonites, because theoretical literature and empirical studies about communities and settlements like the mennonites provides a more complex picture and offer insight into a non-ideal, mixed-type case. for the mennonite tradition-oriented communities, the primary social unit is not the individual but a redemptive church community. therefore, instead of individual rights and personal achievements, they are committed to obedience, self-denial, and the authority of the church (kraybill and bowman, ). in practice, the church leaders become some kind of ‘guardians’ of the internal religious values. the bishop, for instance, has the power to excommunicate members of the congregation (roessingh and plasil, ). in the second place, ‘purity’ is also a matter of social identity and organisational continuity. in the case of the mennonites, the organisational trust is in the hands of the church and the individual members are closely connected to each other by means of community and family ties. it is not only this social system which guarantees organisational continuity, but also the commitment of the individuals to the collective history and ethnic identity. and this commitment especially creates a basis for their organisational change and entrepreneurial power. “behind the stories of mennonite businesses and businesspeople lie tales of individual and collective struggles: the struggle to reconcile the accumulation of personal wealth with responsibilities to the collective good; the struggle to reconcile the autonomy and self-interests of the individual with a traditional submission to group authority; the struggle with individualism and commitment” [redekop et al., ( ), p. ]. generally speaking, religious organisational commitment has specific features including a minimal professional staff and mostly volunteer workers, with a low financial compensation and a community structure, which limits the need for professional workers and which constitutes a source of credibility (miller, ). one can also see that in communities where much of the church financing and administration is in the hands of laymen, these laymen constitute an instrumental elite. the lay elite exerts power over the communities instrumental activities like building infrastructures and houses [etzioni, ( ), p. ]. lower participants can be highly integrated into the organisational collectivity – potential informal leaders are recruited for formal organisational positions and can become full-time leaders (roessingh and smits, a). in other words, the participants in the community offer their time, their organisational animation and financial commitment. this is not to say that the lay elite is shaped according to arbitrary decisions. it is the church, whose leadership is organised around three roles: bishop, minister and deacon, that plays a key role in the selection and appointment of trustworthy people. these people then become representative servants of god for the community (roessingh and plasil, ). this is in line with weber’s idea of the concept of calling: “it follows that work in a calling is also affected by this aim, and hence this-worldly work stands in service to the community as a whole” [weber, ( ), p. ]. it is not only service to the local community, but also to other ‘sister’ communities which may be located at other places in the country and even abroad. these communities are highly inter-connected by means of social, religious and business networks. in other words, their social, religious and business networks reaffirm the mennonite collective identity. their social networks help the mennonites to form joint business c. roessingh and k. boersma ventures, long-time business relationships based on trustworthiness, because they provide useful information about the individual’s reliability and creditability (roessingh and smits, b). networks have been founded to make important contributions to entrepreneurial firms (shaw ; granovetter ; arnoldus ; dana and dana ). they provide entrepreneurs with accurate information and tactics. in this chapter, networks are seen as connections between mennonite agricultural related firms and business entrepreneurs. these networks are part of the social environment of the mennonite communities. it is likely that the solidarity between the firms in this network is identical to the solidarity in the social networks of the mennonites. a kleine gemeinde mennonite history the kleine gemeinde separated from the molotschna church community, which was founded in south russia in . in , a young minister by the name of klaas reimer opposed to the contributions of the mennonites in russia to the russian government in the war against napoleon (plett, ). “finding little response in the church, he began meeting separately with like-minded members in , and by they were organised as a separate group. the others mockingly called this conservative minority group the kleine gemeinde (small church), a name which the group itself soon accepted fully as indeed indicating the true nature of the faithful church in a hostile world” [dyck, ( ), ]. in , the kleine gemeinde migrated to manitoba, canada as a response to the pressure of the russian government to gain more influence on the mennonite schools and the fear that young mennonite men would have to fulfil military service. in , the kleine gemeinde left canada for chihuahua and durango in mexico to avoid the total integration of their school system with a larger canadian educational programme (reimer, ). this integration of their educational system into a ‘worldly’ one was seen as a direct threat for the mennonites social and religious identity and formed a major reason to leave this country. the disappointment of meeting yet another unwilling government confronted the mennonites in mexico with a dilemma. because the mexican government proclaimed its intention to incorporate the mennonites into a national social security system, some of the mennonites made the decision to move on. ten years after their migration to mexico the kleine gemeinde and some other mennonite groups moved away from mexico to british honduras (driedger, ; sawatzky, ). this move, however, was also caused by internal tensions between members of the community and church leaders [redekop, ( ), pp. – ]. among other things, this behaviour is the reason that the mennonites are also known as ‘the roaming people’. the kleine gemeinde mennonites migration was the result of an agreement made on the th december between the government of british honduras and a delegation of the quellen colony in chihuahua and durango in northern mexico. in this agreement, the government of british honduras granted to the mennonites among other privileges (british honduras gazette, ): “- the right to run their own churches and schools, with their own teachers, in their own german language, according to their own religion; - the privilege of affirming with the simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ instead of making oaths in or out of the courts; ‘we are growing belize’ - the right to administer and invest the estates of their own people, especially those of widows and orphans, in their own ‘trust system’, called the ‘waisenamt’, according to their own rules and regulations; - exemption from any social security or compulsory system of insurance”. in turn the kleine gemeinde mennonites agreed among other things to (british honduras gazette, ): “- bring into british honduras capital investment in cash and kind amounting to five hundred thousand dollar more or less british honduras currency; - produce food not only for themselves but also for local consumption and for export market”. both parties, the mennonites and the government of british honduras, had their reasons for this agreement. when we look at the history of this migration process it is obvious that the basic motives of the mennonites have always been ideological and religious. the colonial government of british honduras did have more practical reasons to stimulate the migration plans of the mennonites. around british honduras had a total population of . which increased to . in [bolland, ( ), p. ]. in the late s, the situation in british honduras was very complicated. local political leaders, like the former prime minister of belize george price, were overtly demanding autonomy within the british colonial empire. next to this internal claim, the ever-lasting dispute over the territorial rights between belize and guatemala was intensified. the inside situation of british honduras was very fragile and the country was depending on the outside support of great britain on all levels. “one problem facing the independence movement was a profound economic dependence on colonial authorities for capital, imported food supplies and manufactured goods. the colony had a small population, and only a few farmers engaged in subsistence agriculture” [hidgon, ( ), p. ]. the government therefore acknowledged that skilled farmers were required to make the rough tropical forest suitable for cultivation and stock-breeding and to establish a commercial agricultural sector in the country. george price, who was the member for natural resources of the government of british honduras in , stated that: “one reason for encouraging them, was that the mennonites are good farmers and since belize had a small population and an excess of land, i thought it would be a good idea to introduce modern techniques of agriculture in our traditional ways.” [shaw, ( ), p. ]. however, the choice of the government was criticised because they preferred white european mennonites over black west indians (daily clarion, ). nevertheless local newspapers and political leaders agreed that the need of agriculture products for the local market was evident. a belize billboard commentator wrote: “one community of the mennonites will, we understand, begin their settlement on land purchased by them for some half million dollar. this illustrates two important points. first that the mennonites are no paupers who are likely to become charges of the state, and secondly it is a sign of the high value placed on agricultural land by the mennonites. this is an important demonstration in a country where the people place little value on agriculture. the mennonites obviously mean to make agriculture a paying business in british honduras.” (belize billboard, ) c. roessingh and k. boersma the context of the mennonite settlements in belize: die stillen im lande? the country that they entered at the time was british honduras. on september , this former british colony has become independent. this date marked the formal end of a process of independence that took years. in , british honduras received the right to an internal self-government and in the name of the country was changed into belize. nowadays, with an area of , km and approximately , inhabitants, belize is one of the smallest and most under-populated countries in central america (belizean government, ). the country has a multi-ethnic population consisting of, among others, mestizos, creoles, garifuna, maya’s, east indian and chinese (roessingh, ). according to the census of , . % of belize’s inhabitants are mennonites – which comes down to , people on a total in of , inhabitants. however, the census indicates that there are , religious mennonites ( . %) in this multi-religious country (central statistical office, ). the difference between the percentages of ethnic and religious mennonites is at least something that requires an explanation. in practice, mennonite identity turns out to be a dual concept. the ethnic identity of the mennonites is based on a combination of shared assumptions on life values, life style and ideologies. the mennonites share their common descent from western europe, especially the netherlands, switzerland and germany. this specific background is shown in the different kinds of denomination in which the lineage of the background is reflected. the old order mennonites, whose name does not refer to a specific group, have their roots in switzerland and south germany. the old colony mennonites and the kleine gemeinde, who live in belize, have their origin in the netherlands and the northern parts of germany [dyck, ( ), pp. – ]. the mennonites share socially relevant cultural characteristics, like their anabaptist background, their cultural and social repertoires, and their ‘white’ phenotypic features. the mennonites have a common coding system of attitudes and behaviour, which can be found in concepts like the principle of ‘gelassenheit’, or the submission to the will of god (which results in values like obedience, humility and simplicity), and the system of the ‘ordnung’, that contains common rules and discipline. in an article he wrote on the interaction between the mestizo and maya population in western belize with the mennonite community of spanish lookout, jantzen ( ) notes that this interaction was not only based on work relationships and business transactions but was also rooted in faith. some mestizo and maya people turned to the anabaptist religion of the mennonites. this way their religious identity became a mennonite one but this does not mean that they have been accepted as ethnic mennonites. their roots are not in western europe, their features are not like the ethnic mennonites and they do not speak low german, the internal language. although the low german language is vanishing in the daily conversation of the people in spanish lookout and blue creek (roessingh and schoonderwoerd ; roessingh and smits a), it is still the language of their religion. the dual concept of mennonite identity is based on ethnicity and partial exclusion. even in this mosaic of cultural and ethnic diversity it is rather striking to come across mennonites. men from the old colony community wear blue denim overalls or jeans with plain coloured shirts, black shoes and caps or straw cowboy hats. the women of this community are expected to wear bonnets or a shawl on their heads and dresses, which is a sign of simplicity and modesty, possibly with an apron. clothes and artefacts, are ‘we are growing belize’ important outward signs of internal attitudes, which can be interpreted as a sign of symbolic capital (bourdieu, ). as a result of this strong symbolic capital belizeans often consider the mennonite settlements as one of a kind. but in practice there is no uniformity. inside the different settlements in belize, strong controversial opinions exist of the way one should interpret the bible. the consequence is the possibility of fragmentation between and inside the mennonite settlements. there are some mennonite settlements which are rather isolated with a strong inward focus. they are very careful in picking out people they interact with and with whom they trade. however, other mennonite settlements have more interactions with other people of the society. in practice, there is no uniformity (roessingh, ). first of all, there are mennonites settlements with different numbers of inhabitants in belize as shown in the table below. table mennonite settlements in belize inhabitants less than – – , , – , , – , settlements pine hill, pilgrimage valley, richmond hill lower barton creek, upper barton creek, springfield blue creek, indian creek spanish lookout shipyard, little belize this differentiation and lack of uniformity does not mean that there is no basic connection between the settlements. the fact that there are differences is related with the notion of (collective) identity, social conflicts, and the will to be a pure community, as we discussed before. in practice, individual families have relatives in other settlements. basically because of ideological differences, economic problems or shortage of ground, families have migrated to other places. because of this most mennonite settlements are interrelated on some level. in spite of these kinship relationships, there are three main streams to which the different church communities in belize belong, namely the conservative amish mennonite communities, the traditional old colony or altkolonier mennonites and the progressive church communities like the kleine gemeinde and the evangelical mennonite mission church (emmc). the distinction between these three main streams is based on the level of restrictions on the use of technological innovation in the agricultural machinery. “a case in point, which has become the crux of serious controversy among the altkolonier, is the use of modern rubber-tired tractor. the proscription against them has its roots back in when altkolonier leaders in manitoba and saskatchewan [both in canada] agreed to ban the automobile forever and to arrest technological innovation in agricultural machinery at the then existing level. this meant that the farm tractor, which by then was fairly common, would be tolerated, but pneumatic tires are banned because, so the argument goes, they make the tractor equivalent to an automobile” [sawatzky, ( ), p. ]. in practice, this means that the conservative mennonites, who ban any form of modernisation, work with horsepower and if necessary, hire a tractor with driver. the traditional mennonites use tractors but have a ban on pneumatic tires. when they to go to the market to sell their furniture they rent a car and driver. the progressive mennonites do not have a ban on technological innovation, they use automobiles and all kind of modern machinery in their farm and farm related businesses. c. roessingh and k. boersma . the conservative settlements richmond hill used to be a very small conservative settlement in the orange walk district in the northern part of belize. a group of old colony mennonites from alberta, canada established this settlement in . the inhabitants “soon began to break up, however, and by the early s some members of this group had bought land in shipyard, some had returned to canada and some had moved with other dissatisfied belizean mennonites to bolivia and paraguay” [everitt, ( ), p. ]. richmond hill is a good example of the way these people seek for land in countries where they are able to live according to their own rules. but when the circumstances do not live up to their religious prescriptions or farming abilities, they abandon their homestead and move on. another very small mennonite settlement is pilgrimage valley in the cayo district. the census indicates that there are now only inhabitants in this settlement (central statistical office, ). it was founded in by a mixed group of ten amish and old order families from pennsylvania, ohio, arkansas and ontario [sawatzky, ( ), p. ]. although this settlement never really got to the level of expansion, the interesting thing about these mennonites is the fact that they had a ‘different kind of background’. beside that they were old order and not old colony; there was also the influence of the amish which makes this group special. one thing is clear; this settlement never came to the point where it was possible to create a stable existence. “consequently, several families moved to the more remote settlements at barton creek or they returned to north america” [everitt, ( ), p. ]. the question arises what role was played by this conservative group in the religious notions of the other settlements in this area, especially that of the upper barton creek settlement. the mennonites of upper and lower barton creek, springfield in the cayo district and pine hill in the toledo district are also conservative in their lifestyle. “their reasons for migrating to this quite isolated area are many and varied, but they are basically conservative and dislike association with other mennonites in belize, mexico and canada who have become too worldly “ [everitt, ( ), p. ]. a deacon in springfield reconfirmed that he did not recognise the kleine gemeinde of spanish lookout as mennonites because they were too worldly in the eyes of the springfield community members. in , the settlement of upper barton creek was established. three men and their families were very important in the process of founding this settlement. two of them came from pilgrimage valley and one from spanish lookout (schneider, ). in , lower barton creek followed. mennonite families from all over belize composed both settlements. springfield and pine hill are settlements, which were founded because of the land shortage in the barton creek area. like the lower barton creek and pine hill settlements, the upper barton creek and springfield mennonites are connected by family ties. this connection is: “a result of the population growth of upper barton creek and in-migration of lower barton creek families and proof of its stability as a unique cultural entity and agricultural success. the decision to seek new land for a daughter community [namely springfield, which was established in ] came about gradually after the influx of additional families. quite simply, there is nowhere for upper barton creek to expand the occasional small parcel notwithstanding. with so many youth coming onto age and young couples in need of land, it became necessary to purchase another large tract, preferably a minimum of one thousand acres” (nippert, ). one of the striking features of these mennonites is their beard. this may be a very strange point to discuss. ‘we are growing belize’ but one of the characteristics of the mennonites is their appearance. most of the mennonites in belize do not have beards, except the barton creek and springfield mennonites. following kraybill and bowman ( ), the mennonites do not wear beards with which they distinguish themselves from anabaptist, like the amish and the brethren. a springfield bishop explained that their beard originated in russia to distinguish from the russian soldiers and did not indicate, as suggested by the researchers, any influence of the amish. . the traditional settlements little belize, which is a traditional old colony community, is located in the corozal district in the northern part of the country and originated out of the shipyard settlement in the orange walk district. in fact there is a kind of connection between shipyard, little belize and indian creek, which is also situated in the orange creek district. in , a group of old colony mennonites established shipyard. this group lived according to their traditional lifestyle. in the course of time migrants from other places, like spanish lookout and blue creek, who disagreed with what they interpreted as the increasing worldliness and modernisation, settled in shipyard (roessingh and plasil, ). because of land shortage, but also because of the fear for non-traditional incursions upon their culture, many of the more ‘conservative’ traditional mennonites from shipyard began to move to a new established settlement, called little belize, around (everitt, ). the expansion of little belize has been remarkable. together with shipyard, little belize is the largest mennonite settlement in the country. at the end of the eighties another settlement was started for the mushrooming younger generation of shipyard, called indian creek. all three settlements are the offspring from the old colony mennonites and characterised by their tradition-based lifestyle which is symbolised through their horse and buggy transportation, their ban on rubber wheels for tractors and the power of the church leader (roessingh and plasil, ). shipyard, little belize and indian creek are old colony mennonite based settlements where the influence of modernity is integrated bit by bit. nonetheless the old colony mennonites protect their religious values and try to live according to their traditional farming systems. shipyard has for some years now, in contrast to for instance springfield, been confronted with an internal religious schism. the progressive emmc, which has its headquarters in manitoba (canada) and a church in blue creek have slowly started to enter the shipyard settlement. the old colony mennonites of shipyard do not accept people who are member of this church. they avoid them because they are excommunicated from the old colony church. most old colony mennonites are embedded in transnational networks. these networks are mainly based on ideological religious exchange and family visits. for the shipyard mennonites these networks includes brother communities in canada, usa, mexico and bolivia. because of a lifestyle which is also based on interaction with people from outside the settlement and a more differentiated agricultural related entrepreneurial system, the old colony mennonites of shipyard are more visible on the belizean marked then for instance the springfield mennonites. interesting is what role the internal religious differentiation will have on the possibilities for social and economic changes inside the settlement in the future. c. roessingh and k. boersma . the progressive settlements together with spanish lookout, the blue creek settlement in the orange walk district is regarded as more progressive mennonite settlements in belize. the shipyard and blue creek mennonites are from the same background in mexico. originally, it was the intention of these old colony mennonites to establish one settlement, blue creek, in . but from the beginning there were problems between two sections in this settlement. although both sections of this old colony church community lived according to their traditional lifestyle there were disagreements about the way one should use agricultural systems and machinery in this tropic area. the more ‘conservative’ traditional mennonites decided to start a new settlement and founded shipyard. nonetheless more traditional orientated kleine gemeinde mennonites from spanish lookout migrated not only to shipyard but also to blue creek, were they founded their own kleine gemeinde church. increasingly modern technology began to play an important role in the blue creek settlement (roessingh and smits, a, b). economically this settlement prospered. in the course of time the basic structures of the old colony church vanished and were replaced by the emmc, which came over from canada (roessingh and smits, a). the spanish lookout settlement, in the cayo district, is also known as a progressive mennonite settlement. like blue creek, the emmc has also settled itself in spanish lookout. the emmc is seen as an even more progressive church than the kleine gemeinde church. in practice, this means that there is some disturbance in the settlement because the inner relations and structures are at stake (roessingh and schoonderwoerd, ). nonetheless, the kleine gemeinde church is still dominant and the most influential in this settlement (roessingh and mol, ). in the introduction, we mentioned that the kleine gemeinde mennonites of spanish lookout are regarded as one of the economically most successful church communities of belize. of course there is always the question of how to decline successful. for the conservative mennonites it will mean something different from what the kleine gemeinde mennonites will attribute to it. the best way to show the differences and the different position of a conservative and a progressive settlement might be to show the contrast of the road in-use. . the contrast between two settlements the inhabitants specific religious backgrounds have consequences for the features of the settlements. one of the most eye-catching features for an outsider for instance is the construction of the roads to the settlements. the differences in the quality of the road in-use, as part of the new infrastructure to be built and in the use of cars and farm tractors are signs of different religious identities. the way a settlement like spanish lookout, in which the progressive kleine gemeinde mennonites are living, gives a totally different picture than the settlements of the upper barton creek and the springfield settlement of the conservative amish mennonites do. visitors to spanish lookout have three roads to enter the settlement. two of them are bumpy, dusty and not paved. the third road is paved all the way, which was constructed and paid for by the spanish lookout mennonite road committee. one road, which is the short cut, passes a hand-operated ferry. after a couple of kilometres, the entrance to spanish lookout is amazing. a beautiful valley with the most well paved road of belize, connecting the southern part of the village with the northern end. the whole sight gives ‘we are growing belize’ an impression of an area, which one associates, with the midwest of northern america. the wooden houses are in a good state and nice looking. around the houses one can see short cleaned gardens, large sheds for farming machinery, big chicken-farms, fields with corn, red kidney beans and sorghum. on the paved road tractors, pickups and four-wheel driven land rovers are passing by. the road to upper barton creek and springfield is dusty, bumpy and unpaved. but once one enters the village the road has become a cart track. these conservative amish mennonites use horse drawn wagons. the small farms lie scattered between the hillsides of the maya mountains. the houses are small and modest. the fields are more like horticultural land. in contrast to spanish lookout, barton creek and springfield look tranquil. the kleine gemeinde mennonites of spanish lookout are progressive in their acceptance of technology. they own tractors, trucks, caterpillars, automobiles and they use electricity. mennonites from places like upper barton creek and springfield on the other hand are not allowed to use machinery or electricity. horsepower drives the sawmill in springfield, which is owned by the people of the settlement. a struggle to stay pure: entrepreneurial behaviour and organisational power of spanish lookout ‘we are growing belize’ is the slogan on a sign of reimers feed mill beside the main road through spanish lookout. this sign is a symbol of the entrepreneurship of the mennonites of spanish lookout. we’re growing belize. it claims an image of self-confidence and even organisational power. however, when the kleine gemeinde mennonites came to belize they were far from self-confidential. they entered a world, which was very different from canada and mexico. in the introduction, koop ( ) describes that the first settlers had a hard time. there was much uncertainty about the future and their position in this new homeland. from the moment the mennonites settled in belize, some families moved back to mexico or even canada. internal fragmentation caused removal to other settlements in the country. the kleine gemeinde mennonites had ‘some advantages’ compared to some of the other church communities who migrated to belize. most of the church communities in belize migrated around from the southern part of russia (the present day ukraine) to canada and the united states. from this group some started to move to mexico around . the kleine gemeinde settled in mexico around . the fact that the kleine gemeinde mennonites stayed in canada for a longer period reflected in some internal changes. this original conservative church community started to adopt “new farm methods and produced new products as dictated by their perspective physical environments and regional markets and required by their aim to secure a familiar standard of living and obtain the resources to pass the farm onto the next generation” [loewen, ( ), p. ]. it seems that the kleine gemeinde mennonites are farmers with the capacity to use their internal organisation to adapt and transform outside circumstances into a level that enables the church community and the household economic unit (the family) to exist (penner et al., ). of course changes do take place in spanish lookout, but intrinsic moral rules are deeply rooted in the way the mennonites accept these changes. aspects and elements out of their past are used and integrated in a conscientious way to keep c. roessingh and k. boersma structure in their system. these aspects and elements are based on the link between the family and kinship networks, the church as a moral hub, the collective way of farming and the accurate type of entrepreneurship. all these aspects are mutually connected with their religious identity in the weberian sense. an aspect, which requires some special attention because it is related to the collective way of farming and everything farming is about, is the subject of land and land resources. although belize is the most under-populated country in central america, there are rules and limitations in land resources. the government keeps this matter under its administration and jurisdiction. in practice, this means that farmers do not have free access to land. little belize, indian creek and springfield are settlements which, for one reason, are established because of the need of farming land. the mennonites in spanish lookout have also been in need for land. since , their land expansion has been progressive. the internal system of land tenure for the members of the kleine gemeinde church is based on a communal property. this means that a farmer is a kind of ‘partial’ owner. he can make his own farming plan and produce the crops or keep the animals he chooses. but nonetheless he is depending on the cooperative with whom he trades to approve of the amount of production. the farmer is entitled to bequeath or to rent his property to his children. otherwise he has to sell his property to one of the other church members. the organisational power of this system is based on the control of the community lay elite on the resources and the ability to distribute land to the church members without losing land and production. poultry has always been one of the elements of the kleine gemeinde mennonite agriculture business, next to other farming activities. “an early emphasis on poultry has led to one of the most visible and economically important aspects of spanish lookout agriculture. from modest beginnings, the complex of hatchery, feed mills, and broiler-killing plant has grown to dominate the colony and has greatly expanded these products availability in belizean markets. nearly every colonist [kleine gemeinde mennonite] is somehow involved in selling eggs, raising broilers, or preparing or marketing poultry products” [jantzen, ( ), p. ]. this is in line with our empirical findings, which show a stable growth in chicken production of the spanish lookout community. the growth of the broilers is especially important, because it indicates the entrepreneurial and organisational power of the kleine gemeinde mennonites in the belizean chicken industry. in other words, the mennonites provide belize with chicken meat, which is one of the main sources of protein in the country. “from very modest beginnings in the early s these businesses have grown to a dominant position in their respective areas in the economy of belize” [snider, ( ), p. ]. from the beginning, the chicken industry was a niche in the market the kleine gemeinde mennonites entered. as a consequence, the belizean inhabitants became independent of expensive, imported chicken meat. “this broiler business is conductive to the corn raising business on spanish lookout. the corn farmers were able to feed a portion of the crop to their broilers or sell it to farmers who had broilers operations. this double advantage was a real boost for the hard-pressed frontier farmers” [koop, ( ), p. ]. this entrepreneurial behaviour was exactly the reason why the belizean government was willing to welcome this group: to enrich the country with farming relating business activities. besides this, it is a sign of their organisational power, which is reconfirmed by the way they organise their church community and settlement internally. the organisational committee chart at the end of this chapter, which shows the intentional organisational routines, is an indication of the rationalisation of settlements organisational processes. the different committees are headed by lay-members of the ‘we are growing belize’ spanish lookout settlement – the so-called instrumental elite. in particular, it is the land chairman and, more specifically the zoning committee members who, besides building barns for hogs, cattle and other agricultural purposes, are responsible for the chicken industry infrastructure like buildings and chicken coops. this infrastructure is part of the settlement as a whole. however, it is the individual farmer and the broiler cooperative ‘quality poultry products’, which are responsible respectively for the chicken production on a local level and the distribution countrywide. the farmer trading center, also headed by a mennonite cooperative committee like the quality poultry products, plays a major role in the financial funding and guarantees continuity in process. the process runs as follows. the individual farmer grows the chickens and sells them to the quality poultry products cooperative. this cooperative has three functions. first of all it has a processing function in the sense that it prepares the chickens for the market. secondly, the cooperative has a responsibility to its shareholders. it contributes the profits and members are able to make a loan, with poultry related innovations. thirdly, it functions as an intermediary actor between the individual farmer and the farmer trading center that operates as an internal settlement bank. the only people who are allowed to participate in this internal financial system are members of the two cooperatives. this implies that those chicken farmers who are not a member of the cooperatives are excluded from internal advantages. “the community’s cooperatives are an important source of capital for member households. the farmers trading center (ftc) is the main purchasing cooperative and de facto bank within the community. the ftc takes in cash deposits, issues bank checks and administers a ‘coupon’ system for internal colony [mennonite members] use. the ftc grants loans for all types of purposes including home and barn construction, equipment purchases, and most importantly, land purchases” [higdon, ( ), ]. next to this internal organisation of capital advantages, the kleine gemeinde church also has a credit and loan system for their members called the ‘hilfsverein’ or ‘help association’. adult male members of the church make an annual contribution, the ‘auflagen’. this contribution which is a percentage of the members total financial assets is deposited in a general fund. by making this contribution adult males are able to get a loan against a profitable and low interest rate. the entrepreneurial behaviour and organisational power as sketched above are based on an internal network of members of the kleine gemeinde mennonite community. this network is based on religious, organisational and family ties. it does not only function as an enabling structure for entrepreneurial behaviour and change, but also contains elements of exclusion. this system, in short, is a cultural instrument of normative control to keep the church community pure. conclusions the case of the kleine gemeinde mennonites offers us an insight in the specific religious and ethnic background of this group and the relation to the process of organisational change in general. the story contains elements of migration history, frontier experiences, adaptation to local contexts and entrepreneurial behaviour. by showing their collectivity, networks of acquaintance, power of distinctions and mentality of preservation, our chapter comes about struggles for purity. the spanish lookout kleine gemeinde mennonites success is built upon stable self-defeating structures of internal solidarity. these structures, as we have shown, are based upon institutional aspects c. roessingh and k. boersma of the church and the intrinsic mentality of family ties connected by a strong, local household-based network-economy. we can reconfirm driedger’s observation ( ) that trust and recognition inside the mennonite settlement are fundamental aspects of the creation of a collective identity and suggest that this aspect is also connected with their ability of organisational change. trust and recognition inside spanish lookout are fundamental aspects for the creation of collective identity. the organisation of the chicken industry, which we take as a major example of their entrepreneurial expansion, helps to explain this collective identity. rooted in the settlement, this industry does not only connect agribusinesses, but at the same time different mennonite families. in other words, it is the solidarity between agribusiness firms in this network that mirrors the solidarity in the social network of the spanish lookout mennonites. the mennonites are often called ‘die stillen im lande’. this characterisation is not only used by the mennonites themselves but also by outsiders. the phrase ‘die stillen im lande is taken from the bible (ps. : : “gegen die stillen im lande”) and symbolises the ‘good’ people and their ‘gelassenheit’ in a world of wickedness and nonbelievers. these pure and humble people are quiet and are the ones who work on the land, which was created and given to them by god. however, in our case we have shown that these people can be quite successful. this contrast raises the following question: to what extent the kleine gemeinde mennonites of spanish lookout are symbols of ‘the quiet ones in the country’? when they entered british honduras in the mennonites were confronted with an environment which they had to conquer. by working hard and leaning on their organisational skills they were able to get a grip on their surroundings. the instrument to get control over the existential circumstances was and still is their strategic and accurate way of using their entrepreneurial skills (roessingh and plasil, ). it is not so much the amount of land that is owned by the kleine gemeinde mennonites of spanish lookout per se that stands for their success, but the way it is cultivated. these aspects of land and the cultivation of it, however, are only one side of the coin. it is their ability to transplant traditional cultural elements into a new context that is the basis of both their stability and flexibility. in line with this, driedger ( ) points out that trust and recognition inside the mennonite settlement are based on the continuous transplantation of fundamental elements of the past. according to us this element is a very strong reliable mechanism within spanish lookout, which is used by die ‘stillen im lande’ and forms a starting point to adapt their new frontier environment. right from the start the kleine gemeinde mennonites used the farming knowledge of the indigenous people to broaden their own perspectives on cultivating newly obtained land. however, in this phase of the process the kleine gemeinde mennonite ideology was centred around the concept of selective modernity in relation to their entrepreneurial processes. the duality between the need of purity and the need to progress was illustrated by the road in-use contrast between a conservative and a progressive settlement. inside the settlement this duality is best illustrated by the expansion of the broiler industry and the austere way in which the kleine gemeinde families maintain their household system. in belize this austere image is related to the mennonite identity, in other words, it is their symbolic capital. to conclude, the remark ‘we are growing belize’ is a sign of both their working ethos inspired by their religious background, and their will to progress and expand. ‘we are growing belize’ references arnoldus, d. ( ) family, family firm, and strategy: six dutch family firms in the food industry - , aksant, amsterdam. belize billboard ( ) view: the mennonites, january, vol. , p. . belizean government ( ) available at http://www.governmentofbelize. gov.bz/. bolland, o.n. ( ) belize: a new nation in central america, westview press, boulder. bourdieu, p. ( ) outline of a theory of praxis, cambridge university press, cambridge. british honduras gazette ( ) august, no. , pp. - . castells, m. ( ) the power of identity, blackwell publishers, oxford. central statistical office ( ) population census : major findings, c.s.o. ministry of budget management, belmopan, belize. daily clarion ( ) agreement with the mennonites, march , p. . dana, l-p. and dana, t.e. ( ) ‘collective entrepreneurship in a mennonite community in paraguay’, latin america business review, vol. , no. , pp. – . driedger, l. ( ) ‘from mexico to british honduras’, mennonite life, vol. , no. , pp. – . driedger, l. ( ) mennonites in the global village, university of toronto press, toronto. dyck, c.j. ( ) an introduction to mennonite history, rd ed., scottdale: herald press. etzioni, a. ( ) a comparative analysis of complex organizations. on power involvement, and their correlates, the free press, new york. everitt, j.c. ( ) ‘mennonites in belize’, journal of cultural geography, vol. , no. , pp. – . giddens, a. ( ) modernity and self-identity: self and society in the late modern age, polity press, cambridge. granovetter, m. ( ) ‘economic institutions as social constructions: a framework for analysis’, acta sociologica, vol. , pp. – . hall, j.a. ( ) ‘a summary of the findings gained from an analyses of the development and agricultural productivity of the kleine gemeinde agricultural system at spanish lookout, belize’, the mennonite quarterly review, vol. , no. , pp. – . hedberg, a.s. ( ) outside the world: cohesion and deviation among old colony mennonites in bolivia, uppsala university, uppsala. higdon, f.x. ( ) ‘farm diversification and specialization: the adaptation of mennonite households in spanish lookout, belize’, phd dissertation, university of pittsburgh. iannaccono, l.r. ( ) ‘why strict churches are strong’, american journal of sociology, vol. , pp. – . jantzen, c.r. ( ) ‘from the maya to the mennonites: intercommunity relationships in west-central belize’, américa indígena, vol. , no. , pp. – . jantzen, c.r. ( ) ‘the mennonites of spanish lookout’, the world & i, june, pp. – . koop, g.s. ( ) pioneer years in belize, published by g.s. koop. kraybill, d.b. ( ) the riddle of amish culture, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. kraybill, d.b. and bowman, c.f. ( ) on the backroad to heaven: old order hutterites, mennonites, amish, and brethren, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. kunda, g. ( ) engineering culture: control and commitment in a high-tech corporation, temple university press, philadelphia. loewen, r. ( ) family, church and market: a mennonite community in the old and the new worlds, - , university of illinios press, urbana. c. roessingh and k. boersma loewen, r. ( ) hidden worlds: revisiting the mennonite migrants of the s, the university of manitoba press, manitoba. miller, k.d. ( ) ‘competitive strategies of religious organizations’, strategic management journal, vol. , pp. – . nippert, d.j. ( ) ‘agricultural colonization: the mennonites of upper barton creek, belize’, ma thesis, the university of memphis. penner, h.r., reimer, j.d. and reimer, l.m. ( ) spanish lookout since : progress in action, spanish lookout, cayo, belize. plett, d.f. ( ) saints and sinners: the kleine gemeinde in imperial russia to , crossway publications, steinbach, manitoba. quiring, w. ( ) ‘mennonites in british honduras’, mennonite life, vol. , no. , pp. – . redekop, c. ( ) the old colony mennonites. dilemmas of ethnic minority life, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. redekop, c. ( ) mennonite society, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. redekop, c., ainlay, s.c. and siemens, r. ( ) mennonite entrepreneurs, the johns hopkins university press, baltimore. reimer, p.j.b. ( ) ‘from russia to mexico: the story of the kleine gemeinde’, mennonite life, vol. , no. , pp. – . roessingh, c. ( ) the belizean garifuna: organization of identity in an ethnic community in central america, amsterdam rozenberg publishers. roessingh, c. ( ) ‘mennonite communities in belize’, international journal of business and globalisation, vol. , no. , pp. – . roessingh, c. and mol, l. ( ) ‘working ladies. mennonite women in the enterprises of spanish lookout, belize’, international journal of entrepreneurship & small business, vol. , nos. / , pp. – . roessingh, c. and plasil, t. ( ) ‘from collective body to individual mind: changes in leadership and attitudes in an old colony mennonite community in northern belize’, journal of mennonite studies, vol. , pp. – . roessingh, c. and plasil, t. ( ) between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive: change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america, vu university press, amsterdam. roessingh, c. and schoonderwoerd, a. ( ) ‘traditional farmers or modern businessmen? religious differentiation and entrepreneurship in a kleine gemeinde mennonite community in belize’, journal of developmental entrepreneurship, vol. , no. , pp. – . roessingh, c. and smits, k. ( a) ‘maya papaya: the case of self-employment and entrepreneurship within a mennonite community in northern belize’, in dana, l.p. (ed.): religion and entrepreneurship, edward elgar publishing, london, pp. – . roessingh, c. and smits, k. ( b) ‘social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize’, international journal of innovation and regional development, vol. , nos. / , pp. – . ryman, j.a. ( ) ‘are you at peace with god and you neighbour? cultural resources and restraints on mennonite entrepreneurship’, in stiles, c.h. and galbraith c.s. (eds.): ethnic entrepreneurship: structure and process. international research in the business disciplines, vol. , pp. – , elsevier, amsterdam. sawatzky, h.l. ( ) they sought a country: mennonite colonization in mexico, university of california press, berkeley. schneider, h. ( ) tradition und veränderung in belize (mittelamerika): ein soziologischer vergleich der gemeinden san ignacio und upper barton creek, diploma thesis, lateinamerika-institut der freien universität berlin. scott, s. ( ) an introduction to old order and conservative mennonite groups, good books, intercourse. ‘we are growing belize’ shaw, e. ( ) ‘networks and their relevance to the entrepreneurial/marketing interface: a review of the evidence’, journal of research in marketing and entrepreneurship, vol. , no. , pp. – . shaw, m.a. ( ) mennonites in belize: a case study of the spanish lookout community, ba thesis, university of the west indies, mona. simmel, g. ( ) conflict and the web of group-affiliations, the free press, new york. snider, h. ( ) ‘agriculture in the kleine gemeinde community of spanish lookout belize’, mennonite life, vol. , no. , pp. – . urry, j. ( ) none but saints: the transformation of mennonite life in russia - , hyperion press, hyperion press limited, winnipeg. weber, m. ( ) the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, rd roxbury ed., roxbury publishing company, los angeles. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ book review book review review of loewen, royden. . horse-and-buggy genius: listening to mennonites contest the modern world. winnipeg, mb: university of manitoba press. pp. . by janelle zimmerman, millersville university royden loewen's horse and buggy genius brings a different voice to the ongoing conversation about the place of horse-and-buggy groups in contemporary western society. the subtitle—listening to mennonites contest the modern world—implies the questions loewen asked and the answers he found. as a practicing old order mennonite, i found his analysis intriguing, if not always entirely compelling. loewen does not use the term genius in the typical sense of brilliance or ability. instead, he defines genius as a way of approaching life with insistence and intention, which is the “heart and substance of the community” (p. ). genius in this sense exists in complex simplicity, a combination of tradition, innovation, and considered change. the book is based on interviews with old order mennonites and approximately old colony mennonites. with a team of graduate and postgraduate students, loewen asked these mennonites to describe responses to change that they have seen in their lifetime, thus indirectly assessing their approach to modernity. loewen attempts to permit their voices to speak for themselves and is generally successful. he resists the temptation to default into academic theory and instead gives us the hesitant, sometimes incoherent, voices of the people. while academic concerns and points of view inevitably influenced the transition from transcript and field notes into legible chapters, loewen manages the difficult balance between incoherence and forced coherence. chapters & focus on the approximately , old order mennonites living in ontario. this is a relatively tidy narrative, but it feels incomplete—perhaps inevitable with the small sample size. these first chapters are largely based on work by graduate student andrew martin, and his interest in religion and faith shine through in the text. we get a much clearer picture of what the ontario mennonites believe and how faith influences their lives than we do in the later chapters about the old colony groups. loewen devotes chapters through to the larger group (approximately , ) of old colony mennonites, based on extensive fieldwork in paraguay, mexico, bolivia, and belize, this section is lengthier and uneven but provides a more accurate picture of the untidy reality of life. we get a sense of the voices of the old colony mennonites, in their unique blend of prussian/canadian anabaptist with mexican influences. i was struck by the difference between the reasons the old order and the old colony gave for traditional practices. the old orders spoke more openly of their faith and were far more likely to give reasons for practices that were rooted in ideals connected to faith and religion. however, the old colonists were more likely to speak of maintaining tradition, more likely to journal of amish and plain anabaptist studies ( ) speak of resisting the modem world. it is unclear, however, how much of this difference is rooted in the interviewees and how much is attributable to the interviewers. while andrew martin appears to have done the majority of the fieldwork in ontario, a different team worked in the south, and the differing responses may simply reflect martin's interest and attentiveness to spirituality, as compared to the more diverse interests of other members of the research team. anecdotes about old colonists’ poor education and near-illiteracy are common among old order mennonites, so i expected loewen to address this at some point, if only to refute or confirm, but he does not. while it is obvious that canadian education laws were part of the push to move to the south, there is almost no discussion of what education looks like in mexico or paragua y. chapters within horse and buggy genius address multiple aspects of life in the old order and old colony communities, and their responses to various developments. i discuss several in more detail below. loewen addresses far more than what i discuss here, and my choices are a somewhat random sampling. the theme of agency and self-efficacy in relating to government persists throughout the book. of the old order mennonites in canada, loewen notes that their relationship to local government is a one of practical independence, “a fusion of healthy self-respect and deference” (p. ). the old colonists have a similar relationship to the various south american governments under which they reside, seeking favor with leaders while passively resisting or ignoring mandates that do not fit with their cultural and religious values (p. ). as loewen perceptively puts it, they are “loyal subjects, but not good citizens” (p. ). faith and culture are strongly linked, influencing lives from birth through death. children are welcomed as both future members of the church and as workers for the farming community. for both old order and old colony mennonites, baptism represents entry into adult membership in the community and represents both a religious and social commitment. marriage is a covenant, forming a social and spiritual union. rituals enmesh the process of death, and quiet acceptance is rooted in faith. however, death and disability are not accepted passively in all situations, and loewen provides a discussion of healthcare practices and relations to the medical profession. the section on healthcare in the old colony (pp. - ) was of particular interest because of my own knowledge and practice in nursing. while old colonists have not hesitated to use modern medicine, loewen focuses more on healers within the community, the lay healers, midwives, reflexologists, pharmacists, and chiropractors. these lay practitioners gain their authority through association, through generational and autodidactic knowledge, and through apprenticeship and personal experience. a sense of calling leads to self-confidence and authority in the practice of healing. the lay healers know that they are capable of helping their book review coreligionists, who often prefer in-group providers over outside authorities versed in modern medicine. physical and sexual abuse has been a troubling topic for horse-and-buggy mennonites, and loewen presents well the tension and anguish of those who must confront the limitations of the church’s ability to deal effectively with the abuser and provide help to the abused. loewen is frank about the failures of the horse-and-buggy mennonites but presents the essential struggle with clarity and frankness, recognizing an inherent ambivalence: “the old order church leaders rightfully advocate an alternative form of justice, but […] one with limitations” (p. ). the anabaptist convictions of forgiveness have resulted in inappropriate forgiveness and re- victimization and have sometimes forced a re-examination of old ways of dealing with compulsive and habitual sins. the boundaries that encompass the community have sometimes kept out needed help and have enabled sin. boundaries are both spiritual and pragmatic. material markers provide social distance and religious identity. horse-and-buggy mennonites are bound by vows, by which they have pledged obedience not only to the body of christ but also to the specific local church (pp. , ). they have a strongly religious identity, manifested as a commitment to ideals and practices that have coalesced over multiple generations into a dynamic set of traditions that define horse-and-buggy culture. as loewen eloquently puts it, “their very existence is the text on which religion is inscribed” (p. ). the visible is symbolic of the invisible. loewen explicates the habitus of the horse-and-buggy mennonites with their intentional every-day adaptation to life in the modern world, using common sense and a deeply rooted reliance on traditional practices and understandings of the world. loewen's writing exists in a tension, a dialectic, between his own anti-modern framing and the religious / faith orientation of the horse-and-buggy mennonites. while loewen captures both well, the missing piece is his awareness of how much his own framing has influenced his interpretation of the mennonite life-world. like many academics, loewen is fascinated with the concept of modernity as a force and of horse-and-buggy life as a deliberate, intentional response to this force. in this, he misses an essential point: the horse-and-buggy way of life isn't anti- modern, it is pro-christ. we are trying to live out the teachings of christ to the best of our ability and this has necessarily included rejecting some of the possessions and attitudes of the mainstream culture. loewen frames the old order approach with a theme of continued negotiation and contestation, an anti-modern orientation. however, the old orders are not faced outward against the world, but inward and backward, striving toward maintenance of the old ways. in the two- kingdom theology, modernity is not the enemy, though often seen as a tool of the enemy. this faith-based view is particularly evident in chapter , where the gorrie orthodox old order mennonites frame their decision to relocate and adhere to a more restrictive ordnung as a return to “true anabaptist ideals of simplicity and community” (p. ). this community mandates journal of amish and plain anabaptist studies ( ) simplicity for the sake of encouraging a surrendered spirit. in this framing, anti-modernity is not the goal, but is a means of progressing toward the goal. the teleology of anti-modernity doesn't quite resonate with the world of the horse-and- buggy mennonite. the purpose of this non-modem lifestyle is not captured by the idea of resisting modernity. instead, this intentional life is rooted in an active anabaptist faith, lived out by necessity in a modern world. thus anti-modernity is almost coincidental to the real narrative, to the lived experiential world. they are intentionally counter-cultural. the struggle to adopt or resist technologies, tools, and fashions is intentional, as is the maintenance of old dialects, horse- and-buggy transportation, and plain dress. but to frame these solely as anti-modern is to miss an important component of the horse-and-buggy worldview. loewen's expressed purpose for horse-and-buggy genius is to share the voices of the horse-and-buggy people (p. ). in this, he has succeeded remarkably well despite his anti- modern frame. genius is a welcome addition to the corpus of writings on the horse-and-buggy people. the canadian journal of neurological sciences gliomas in families y. ikizler, d.j. van meyel, d.a. ramsay, g.l. abdallah, r.m. allaster, d.r. macdonald, w.k. cavenee and j.g. cairncross abstract: this is a descriptive study of families with glial tumors. twelve were identified prospectively from consecutive, unrelated adults and children with newly diagnosed gliomas seen at a regional cancer center between jan and mar ( . %). there were affected members ( confirmed); males, females, ages months- years (median, . years; mean, . years). two families had four affected members, three families had three, and the others two. all confirmed tumors were supratentorial and all, save one, contained an astrocytic element. three additional members of two families had other brain or neuroectodermal tumors. these families were not unusu- ally cancer prone and did not appear to have neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, or colonic polyposis. there was no consistent pattern of inheritance. resume: families avec gliomes. nous decrivons families avec tumeurs gliales. douze de ces families ont ete identifiees de facon prospective a partir de cas consecutifs, chez des adultes et des enfants non-apparentes, chez qui on a diagnostique un gliome, et qui ont ete vus a un centre regional de cancerologie entre le ler janvier et mars ( . %). parmi les cas dans ces families ( diagnostics donfirmes), etaient de sexe masculin et de sexe feminin, entre mois et ans (age median . ans; age moyen . ans). deux families avaient chacune cas, families en avaient et les autres . toutes les tumeurs confirmees etaient sus-tentorielles et toutes sauf une avaient un element astrocytaire. trois membres additionnels de families avaient d'autres tumeurs cerebrales ou neuro-ecto- dermiques. ces families n'etaient pas particulierement sujettes au cancer et ne semblaient par atteintes de neurofibro- matose, de sclerose tubereuse ou de polypose colique. ii n'y avait pas de mode de transmission hereditaire particulier. can. j. neurol. sci. ; : - most gliomas occur sporadically with no known cause. there is circumstantial evidence that environmental insults, principally chemicals and radiation, predispose to glial tumors. severe head injury and longstanding seizure disorders may be additional risk factors. "rare" families with glioma " and the appearance of glial tumors in patients with neurofibromatosis, tuberous s c l e r o s i s , c o l o n i c p o l y p o s i s , ' and the l i - f r a u m e n i syndrome, - suggest that heritable genetic factors also play a role in glioma formation. perhaps environmental factors trigger glial tumors in genetically predisposed persons, a speculation consistent with the current view that most adult cancers, includ- ing glioma, are the end result of a cascade of genetic abnormali- ties. - we are studying hereditary influences and describe families with glioma. these families have been ascertained by various means at a regional cancer center over three years. not included in this report are eight additional families confirmed since preparing this manuscript and in which gliomas have occurred in association with non-glial primary brain tumors (e.g., meningioma, medulloblastoma). m e t h o d s beginning january all patients with newly diag- nosed glial tumors referred to the london regional cancer centre (lrcc) were questioned regarding a family history of brain tumor. patients were interviewed on multiple occasions and, whenever possible, we questioned spouses, parents and other close relatives. positive reports were pursued. following accepted release of information procedures, we obtained pathol- ogy and autopsy reports on relatives suspected of having had a brain tumor and recorded the neuropathologic diagnosis. after confirming a positive family history of primary intracranial neo- plasm, that is, two or more related individuals with pathologi- cally documented tumors, we directed our attention to the fami- lies with glioma. pedigrees were constructed and relationships between affected persons determined. ethnic background and age at diagnosis were recorded, the latter was compared with tumor pathology within and between affected generations. the proband was re-examined, the affected r e l a t i v e s ' records reviewed, and family members questioned for evidence of an from the departments of oncology (y.i., d.j.v.m., d.r.m., j.g.c), clinical neurological sciences (d.a.r., d.r.m., j.g.c.) and pathology (d.a.r.), university of western ontario and london regional cancer centre (g.l.a., r.m.a., d.r.m., j.g.c), london; ludwig institute for cancer research (w.k.c), san diego branch, san diego received december , . accepted in final form may , . reprint requests to: j. gregory cairncross, md, london regional cancer centre, commissioners road, east, london, ontario, canada n a l https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques hereditary neurocutaneous disorder, or colonic polyposis. lastly, a detailed cancer history was obtained from each family. other families were ascertained retrospectively by interviewing patients diagnosed and treated at this center prior to , and by reviewing our records. at least one affected member of each family, usually the proband, was a patient at the london regional cancer centre. in each instance the patient was referred to the lrcc, the regional radiation facility, for neuro- oncologic assessment and treatment. since we did not solicit familial cases, to our knowledge, referrals were not motivated by a family history of brain tumor, nor by our interest in "famil- ial" cases. results we report families with glial tumors. for brevity, the pedigrees presented in figure are restricted to patients, first degree relatives and "carriers". twelve families were identified prospectively by interviewing consecutive, unrelated adults and children with newly diagnosed gliomas seen at the lrcc between jan - mar . during this interval . % of new patients had a blood relative with a glial tumor. two families had four affected members, three families had three, and the others two. the relationship between the proband and other affected relatives was first degree in seven instances, second degree in eight, third degree in six, and distant in four. except for families , , and , the proband was a member of a recent generation, predeceased by his/her affected relative. affected persons in families , , , , , and , at one point in time, occupied the same household. the illnesses overlapped temporally in families , , , and . all families were caucasian and of european descent. perhaps of note, there were two mennonite families (families , ), two dutch families (families , ), one newfoundland family (family ), one french canadian family (family ) and one jewish family (family ). there were affected persons, males and females. by reviewing surgical pathology and autopsy records we were able to confirm the diagnosis on , all had supratentorial tumors (table ). there were glioblastomas, anaplastic astrocy- tomas, one anaplastic mixed glioma (oligoastrocytoma), six astrocytomas, one oligodendroglioma, and two mixed gliomas (oligoastrocytomas). three unconfirmed cases are included in figure . a female cousin of three affected brothers (family ) had an "astrocytoma" according to her dutch physician but we have not received a copy of the pathology report. two distant relatives in families and are unsubstantiated but are included because in each family there were two other pathologically con- firmed cases. three additional members of families and had other brain or neuroectodermal tumors. the mother of the proband in family had a meningioma. the paternal aunt of the proband in family had neuroblastoma and his mother's identi- cal twin sister had melanoma. age at diagnosis among confirmed cases ranged from four months to years (median . years; mean . years). seven patients, ages , , , , , and (four glioblastomas, two anaplastic astrocytomas, one astrocytoma), were diagnosed in the precomputed tomographic (ct) scan era. figure illus- trates the distribution of low, intermediate and high grade gliomas (e.g., astrocytoma, anaplastic astrocytoma, glioblas- toma) by age at diagnosis. fifty percent of patients were diag- nosed by age , but more patients were diagnosed in the sixth decade of life, than any other. patients with low grade and anaplastic gliomas were somewhat younger at diagnosis than those with glioblastoma. table demonstrates that patients from earlier generations were always older at diagnosis than those from recent ones (mean age . years vs . years) despite similar pathologies (i.e., malignancy stages). by way of con- trast, table demonstrates that affected persons from the same generation tended to develop tumors at the same age despite a wider range of malignancy stages. twenty-eight affected individuals were examined by physi- cians or surgeons at this center ( by drm or jgc), none had the peripheral stigmata of tuberous sclerosis or neurofibromato- sis type i. none of the patients or their relatives had acoustic neuromas or colonic polyposis and, apart from gliomas, were not unusually cancer prone. the other types of cancer that occurred in these families are listed in table . there were two breast carcinomas, one osteosarcoma and one leukemia, but no soft tissue sarcomas or adrenal carcinomas. only gastrointesti- nal malignancies occurred with any frequency. interestingly, the proband in family , a -year-old man with a glioblastoma, had a small asymptomatic colon cancer at autopsy. discussion the families described in this report do not appear to have neurofibromatosis type i, bilateral acoustic neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, or colonic polyposis, heritable disorders known to be associated with glioma. the possibility that these families have a "forme fruste" of the above, detectable at a molecular level, cannot be excluded. the frequency and distri- bution of other cancer types in these families effectively elimi- nates the li-fraumeni syndrome as an explanation for these "familial" cases but here again molecular analysis would be necessary to exclude the possibility of a variant disorder. gliomas in families have suggested to some " that heritable factors play a role in the genesis of glioma even in the absence of a predisposing hereditary syndrome. perhaps the single most compelling report of this nature is one by maroun et al. describing two interrelated newfoundland families with ten affected persons in three generations. recently, lossignol et al. have observed that . % ( / ) of patients with anaplastic astro- cytomas enrolled in a treatment protocol at the johns hopkins oncology center had at least one first degree relative with an astrocytic tumor. they speculated that gliomas might occur in families more frequently than previously recognized. in our experience, over months, . % of newly diagnosed patients gave a positive and verifiable family history of glioma. the relationship between affected relatives was first degree in / families identified prospectively ( / overall). the appearance of gliomas in families is not necessarily evi- dence of inheritance. the methods we have used to ascertain and analyze these cases do not exclude the possibility that chance and environmental factors explain gliomas in families. hochberg et al., in a case-control study of non-occupational risk factors for glioblastoma among consecutive patients and healthy controls, found that seven patients and con- trols had a parent or sibling with a "brain tumor". these "posi- tive" family histories were taken at face value and not verified pathologically, but nevertheless emphasize that gliomas are not rare illnesses and, by chance alone, could affect close relatives. volume , no. — november https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences family family • , <*> f a m i | y s e-r§ ^ r a • a ( ^i family **j-fr ) j [ @ i family lsh-s kir w^v%u f̂amily » <s> * > ^ i ^ family > s . < ^ & . tsbpis s family n • , • family i s r r ^ family v family ^rro * > r family * m s t family < > ^ family i ~ © family family family s family x" ~ family o d \ female, male, deceased c ) c unconfirmed glioma <$> no. of sibs, children # • confirmed glioma © ^ other neuroectodermal tumor = identical twins figure i —abbreviated pedigrees of families with glioma (arrow indicates proband). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core table . pathological diagnosis of confirmed cases by family family pathology glioblastoma (p) anaplastic astrocytoma anaplastic astrocytoma (p) astrocytoma anaplastic astrocytoma (p) glioblastoma glioblastoma (p) anaplastic astrocytoma astrocytoma (p) mixed glioma (second cousin) family anaplastic astrocytoma (nephew) glioblastoma (distant cousin) glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma astrocytoma (p) glioblastoma anaplastic astrocytoma anaplastic astrocytoma (p) anaplastic astrocytoma glioblastoma (p) anaplastic astrocytoma pathology mixed glioma (p) astrocytoma glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma (aunt's son) astrocytoma (uncle's son) anaplastic astrocytoma (p) glioblastoma glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma glioblastoma (p) oligodendroglioma glioblastoma (p) anaplastic mixed glioma glioblastoma (p) glioblastoma astrocytoma (p) anaplastic astrocytoma (p)= proband - - - - - - - * age (years) g h low grade gliomas f o anaplastic gliomas h glioblastomas figure — bar graph demonstrating number of cases, age at diagno- sis and pathology for confirmed cases. the probability of observing at least two affected persons in a family, given at least one affected person, can be estimated. for example, assuming an incidence for glioma of / , popu- lation/year (i.e., the published age-adjusted incidence rate), persons/family and risk years/person, the probability of observing at least two glioma cases, given at least one, is %. this generous estimate of chance occurrence in families is still smaller than the observed rate which may be as high as - %. we too think gliomas occur in families more frequently than predicted by chance, but are not certain. to clarify this issue we are now using spouses as case controls. furthermore, family members often share a common environment and as such may share exposure to potential carcinogens. no environmental risk le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques table . comparison by family of age at diagnosis and pathology among affected individuals from different generations family number average age earlier generation age (p) (p) (p) (p) . pathology gbm gbm aa a gbm gbm aa gbm gbm gbm gbm gbm gbm gbm later generation age months (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) . pathology aa aa gbm aa mg gbm aa aa gbm gbm aa gbm amg gbm (p) = proband gbm = glioblastoma aa = anaplastic astrocytoma a = astrocytoma mg = mixed glioma amg = anaplastic mixed glioma factors for glioma were identified in these families but our anal- ysis was not exhaustive in this respect. g l i o m a s , as they appeared in these families, were not remarkably different from "sporadic" cases in terms of male to female ratio, age at diagnosis, or distribution of tumor types. of note, in families where affected persons were members of differ- ent generations, those from recent generations were invariably younger at diagnosis. younger age at diagnosis in patients from volume , no. — november https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences table . comparison by family of age at diagnosis and among affected individuals from identical generations family number age (p) pathology aa (earlier generation) (p) (later genera (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) = proband a = astrocytoma a ion) aa a a mg gbm gbm aa = gbm mg = mixed glioma = ol table . cancers cancer type bladder breast* colorectal leukemia* melanoma myeloma neuroblastoma age pathology age a — gbm — mg — gbm aa — a — gbm — anaplastic astrocytoma = glioblastoma igodendroglioma in the families with glioma number of cases cancer type osteosarcoma* ovarian pancreas prostate "stomach" "cancer" pathology pathology — — — aa — — a — number of cases "cancers associated with the li-fraumeni syndrome. recent generations is commonly observed in hereditary condi- tions and, in most instances, can be ascribed to earlier diagnosis or biased ascertainment of cases. earlier diagnosis may result from anticipation by family members or their physicians, or improved diagnostic methods, or both. the cohort of family members at risk in a recent generation is younger-on-average than a similar cohort from an earlier generation; it follows that affected persons from a recent generation will also be younger- on-average. presumably these factors explain the -year age difference in this study, although it is conceivable that genetic mechanisms also contribute to younger age at diagnosis in affected persons from later generations. if gliomas in these families are evidence of a heritable genet- ic abnormality causing brain tumors, what might it be? we can only speculate. three important features of these families emerge from an analysis of figure : first, males and females are affected; second, most family members are unaffected; third, there is no predictable pattern of inheritance. a dominant sus- ceptibility gene of low penetrance might explain the patterns in families , - , , , - , and but the clustering of tumors in children of unaffected parents in families , , and suggests a recessive gene. while it is conceivable that a heri- table cancer might be transmitted between generations by a dominant mutation of variable penetrance, there is no convinc- ing experimental evidence that this occurs in humans. on the other hand, there is considerable evidence that recessive muta- tions of growth suppressing genes lead to the heritable passage of cancer predisposition, as revealed by the retinoblastoma (rb) paradigm. in this pediatric eye tumor for which both sporadic (unilateral) and familial (bilateral) cases exist, germ line het- erozygosity for the mutant rb allele is reduced to homozygosity by somatic mutation in the retina. because somatic mutation occurs frequently in heterozygotes virtually all carriers develop retinoblastoma. the same appears to be true for the p gene and the li-fraumeni syndrome. - unlike retinoblastoma and the li-fraumeni syndrome, most individuals "at risk" in families with glioma remain unaffected. any analogy between families with glioma and these inherited cancer syndromes must come to terms with this discrepancy. recently, sakai et al. have reported that naturally occurring point mutations in recognition sequences of the rb gene promo- tor cause an hereditary low-penetrance retinoblastoma syndrome characterized by frequent asymptomatic or unilaterally affected carriers. perhaps a similar mechanism involving another gene or multiple genes can be invoked to explain infrequent gliomas in families. searching for gliomas in families has taught us that a posi- tive history is not always apparent initially, that a family mem- ber other than the patient is usually the best historian, and that most families are eager to cooperate. we continue to search for families with glioma, collecting blood and tumor wherever pos- sible, believing that analysis of their dna will one day facilitate the identification of genes important for glioma induction. acknowledgements the authors thank the victoria hospital research development fund, the cancer research society inc. and dr. v. bramwell for invalu- able support, dr. g. ebers for advice and encouragement, c. wong for statistical help, j. berry and p. payson for technical assistance and p. gray for preparing the manuscript. references . bakshi r, ducatman am, hochberg fh. glioblastomas in new england opthalmologists (letter). n eng j med ; : - . . hochberg f, toniolo p, cole p. head trauma and seizures as risk factors of glioblastoma. neurology ; : - . . lossignol d, grossman sa, sheidler vr, griffin ca, piantadosi s. familial clustering of malignant astrocytomas. j neuro-oncol ; : - . . duhaime ac, bunin g, sutton l, rorke lb, packer rj. simultaneous presentation of glioblastoma multiforme in sib- lings two and five years old: case report. neurosurgery ; : - . . heuch i, blom gp. glioblastoma multiforme in three family mem- bers, including a case of true multicentricity. j neurol ; : - . . maroun fb, jacob jc, heneghan wd, managan ma, russell na, et al. familial intracranial gliomas. surg neurol ; : - . . tijssen cc, hairpin mr, endtz lj. familial brain tumors. in: martinus nijhoff, ed. developments in oncology. boston: ; - . . von motz id, bots g, endtz lj. astrocytoma in three sisters. neurology ; : - . . isamat f, miranda am, bartumeus f, prat j. genetic implications of familial brain tumors. j neurosurg ; : - . . kaufman hh, brisman r. familial gliomas: report of four cases. j neurosurg ; : - . . armstrong rm, hanson cw. familial gliomas. neurology ; : - . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques . kjellin k, muller r, astrom ke. the occurrence of brain tumors in several members of a family. j neuropathol exp neurol ; : - . . munslow ra, hill ah. multiple occurrences of gliomas in a family. j neurosurg ; : - . . parkinson d, hall cw. oligodendrogliomas. simultaneous appear- ance in frontal lobes of siblings. j neurosurg ; : - . . joughin jl. coincident tumor of the brain in twins. arch neurol psychiatr ; : - . . fairburn b, urich h. malignant gliomas occurring in identical twins. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : - . . turcot j, despres jp, st. pierre f. malignant tumors of the central nervous system associated with familial polyposis of the colon. report of two cases. dis colon rectum ; : - . . mastronardi l, ferrante l, lunardi p, et al. association between neuroepithelial tumor and multiple intestinal polyposis (turcot's syndrome): report of a case and critical analysis of the literature. neurosurgery ; : - . . li fp, fraumeni jf, mulvihill jj, blattner wa, dreyfus mg, et al. a cancer family syndrome in twenty-four kindreds. cancer res ; : - . . malkin d, li fp, strong lc, et al. germ line p mutations in a familial syndrome of breast cancer, sarcomas and other neo- plasms. science ; : - . . srivastav s, zou z, pirollo k, blattner w, chang eh. germ-line transmission of a mutated p gene in a cancer-prone family with li-fraumeni syndrome. nature ; : - . . fearon er, vogelstein b. a genetic model for colorectal tumori- genesis. cell ; : - . . mikkelson t, cairncross jg, cavenee wk. genetics of the malig- nant progression of astrocytoma. j cell biochem ; : - . . hochberg f, toniolo p, cole p. nonoccupational risk indicators of glioblastoma in adults. j neuro-oncol ; : - . . martin gm, schellenberg gd, wijsman em. bird td. dominant susceptibility genes. nature ; : . . lee w-h, bookstein r, lee ey-hp. studies on the human retinoblastoma susceptibility gene. j cell biol ; : - . . sakai t, ohtani n, mcgee tl, robbins pd, dryja tp. oncogenic germ-line mutations in spl and atf sites in the human retinoblastoma gene. nature ; : - . volume , no. — november https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core biomed centralbmc genomics ss open accemethodology article identification of disease causing loci using an array-based genotyping approach on pooled dna david w craig† , matthew j huentelman† , diane hu-lince , victoria l zismann , michael c kruer , anne m lee , erik g puffenberger , john m pearson and dietrich a stephan* address: neurogenomics division, translational genomics research institute (tgen) phoenix, arizona , usa and clinic for special children, strasburg, pa , usa email: david w craig - dcraig@tgen.org; matthew j huentelman - mhuentelman@tgen.org; diane hu-lince - dhlince@tgen.org; victoria l zismann - vzismann@tgen.org; michael c kruer - mkruer@tgen.org; anne m lee - alee@tgen.org; erik g puffenberger - epuffenberger@clinicforspecialchildren.org; john m pearson - jpearson@tgen.org; dietrich a stephan* - dstephan@tgen.org * corresponding author †equal contributors abstract background: pooling genomic dna samples within clinical classes of disease followed by genotyping on whole-genome snp microarrays, allows for rapid and inexpensive genome-wide association studies. key to the success of these studies is the accuracy of the allelic frequency calculations, the ability to identify false-positives arising from assay variability and the ability to better resolve association signals through analysis of neighbouring snps. results: we report the accuracy of allelic frequency measurements on pooled genomic dna samples by comparing these measurements to the known allelic frequencies as determined by individual genotyping. we describe modifications to the calculation of k-correction factors from relative allele signal (ras) values that remove biases and result in more accurate allelic frequency predictions. our results show that the least accurate snps, those most likely to give false-positives in an association study, are identifiable by comparing their frequencies to both those from a known database of individual genotypes and those of the pooled replicates. in a disease with a previously identified genetic mutation, we demonstrate that one can identify the disease locus through the comparison of the predicted allelic frequencies in case and control pools. furthermore, we demonstrate improved resolution of association signals using the mean of individual test-statistics for consecutive snps windowed across the genome. a database of k-correction factors for predicting allelic frequencies for each snp, derived from several thousand individually genotyped samples, is provided. lastly, a perl script for calculating ras values for the affymetrix platform is provided. conclusion: our results illustrate that pooling of dna samples is an effective initial strategy to identify a genetic locus. however, it is important to eliminate inaccurate snps prior to analysis by comparing them to a database of individually genotyped samples as well as by comparing them to replicates of the pool. lastly, detection of association signals can be improved by incorporating data from neighbouring snps. published: september bmc genomics , : doi: . / - - - received: may accepted: september this article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / © craig et al; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/about/charter/ bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / introduction the ability to genotype hundreds of thousands of single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) across the genome and to perform association analysis between cases and controls provides, for the first time, a discovery-based approach for determining the underpinnings of complex human genetic disorders. technologies from affymetrix (microarray-based genechip® mapping arrays), illumina (beadarray™), and sequenom (massarray™) are now available with sufficient density to detect linkage disequi- librium between informative snps and nearby disease- causing nucleotide variants through non-hypothesis based whole-genome association scans for certain popula- tions [ - ]. several practical issues make whole-genome association studies by utilizing individual genotyping difficult to implement [ ]. power estimates predict that somewhere on the order of a thousand cases and control subjects must be genotyped to detect allelic differences of < % between the cohorts, as well as to detect rare alleles which may be causative in only a subset of the cohort [ ]. addi- tionally, population stratification and allelic imbalance may identify snps that have statistically significant allelic frequency differences yet have no relation to the disease [ , , ]. whole-genome association studies are now tech- nologically possible, though the cost is several million dollars if samples are individually genotyped. here we describe the validation of pooling genomic dna samples as a rapid pre-screening to detect disease-causing loci for a few thousand dollars on snp genotyping microarrays. it is possible to identify snps that have significant differ- ences in allelic frequencies between two populations while saving a significant amount in resources by pooling genomic dna and then snp genotyping on a single microarray, or preferably on a series of replicated arrays. indeed, a limited number of studies have been conducted that demonstrate the possibility to predict accurately the allelic frequencies of a snp from a pooled sample on a microarray, and, in fact identify quantitative trait loci [ - ]. typically, these studies have validated the pooled allelic frequencies by later individually genotyping between ten to a few hundred snps. the most elegant val- idations of pooling have used indirect approaches, such as spiking a single individual of known genotype into a pooled group with unkown genotypes [ ]. one cannot realistically expect all probes on a microarray to function equally, especially considering that the objec- tive of these platforms is to identify allelic differences of %, %, and %. indeed, as platforms move to , + snps, the ability to select preferentially the best performing snps, such as was done in the design of the affymetrix k genechip®, will likely be compromised. as a result, our prediction is that many snps will be unre- liable for pooling, and thus may be more likely to lead to false positives. in a pooling study, limiting false positives that are a result of the assay, rather than the underlying population, will be a major factor in being able to realis- tically identify snps that can predict disease status. in this study, we investigated the reliability of snp allelic fre- quency measurements as determined from pooling genomic dna samples on snp mapping arrays. we fur- ther demonstrate our ability to identify poorly predictive snps prior to analysis. results we compared the predicted allelic frequencies from pools of genomic dna to the known allelic frequencies deter- mined by individual genotyping in order to establish the accuracy of pooling. the goal was to compare allelic fre- quencies for all the snps on a microarray, since not all snps will be equally accurate for the prediction of fre- quencies. inaccurate snps are expected to be problematic as microarrays progress to probe hundreds of thousands of snps, whereby snps are chosen primarily for their physical position in the genome and not for their repro- ducibility. indeed, in order to identify , snps for the affymetrix k genechip® mapping array nearly , snps were screened by affymetrix for reliability in the assay [ ]. individual genotyping of snps for samples allelic frequencies for , snps on samples were determined by individually genotyping on the k gene- chip®. these samples were genotyped over a one-year period; therefore, some samples were genotyped on ver- sion . of this platform and others on version . . only snps genotyped on both platforms were utilized for this study. accuracy of snp calls was approximately . %, as determined by inheritance errors in family pedigrees, in line with the accuracy reported by affymetrix ( . %) [ ]. we found no significant decrease in accuracy between the two versions of the k genechip®. the aver- age percentage of snps called across all samples was . %. only individuals with a call rate above % were included in the present study. for example, , snps were called for all individuals and , snps were called for > % of individuals. in our experience using this plat- form on over , samples we determined that the call rate is highly dependent on dna quality and that high quality genomic dna yields a call rate of – %. the samples used in this study have been collected over sev- eral years with variable dna quality. it is to be expected expect that large-scale whole-genome association studies will also be forced to utilize dna of less than optimal quality since hundreds to thousands of individuals are needed. thus the genomic dna used in this study will likely be representative of what could be expected in a page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / whole-genome association study on a disease where sev- eral-thousand individuals are needed. construction of pools pools were created in triplicate from the individually gen- otyped samples. the individuals were from the old order amish and old order mennonite populations of south- eastern pennsylvania [ ]. pool consisted of individ- uals, pool consisted of a different individuals, and pool consisted of patients who died of a form of sud- den infant death syndrome known as siddt and had a known region of identity-by-descent (shared a pre- defined allele on all six chromosomes across the case cohort) [ ]. this region was defined on the k microar- ray by consecutive autozygous snps, of which were informative. all dna was quantitated using picogreen reagent (molecular probes, eugene, oregon) to ensure equal amounts were contributed to the pool from each individual. these three pools were then genotyped in rep- licates of three on the k genechip®. in all, microar- rays were used for the pooled genotyping compared to microarrays for the individual genotyping. calculation of allelic frequencies from pooled samples the predicted allelic frequencies from pooled genotype samples were calculated for each snp using a k-correction factor based on their derivation from over , individ- uals genotyped on the k genechip®. the training set consisted of , individuals that were genotyped in our lab within the past year. all had call rates above % with an average call rate of %. none of the , individuals used for calculation of k-correction factors were included in the pooled genomic dna. the purpose of the k-correction factor is to allow for cal- culation of a predicted allelic frequency from peak heights, or in this case fluorescence signal, whereby p = a/ (a+kb) [ ]. k-correction factors have recently become well established and have been used successfully in primer extension assays whereby measurements in snp allelic frequencies on pooled genomic dna have been taken by hplc, mass spec, and by fluorescence in taq- man assays [ - ]. for the k mapping array assay, p is the predicted allelic frequency of the a allele, a is the flu- orescent signal intensity measure of the a allele, and b is the fluorescent signal intensity measure of the b allele. the k-correction factor can be calculated for a given snp using a heterozygote who is ab, effectively % a and % b. conveniently, output of the affymetrix genechip software for the affymetrix k mapping array includes relative allele signal (ras) values which have been previ- ously used to determine k-correction values (see figure ) [ ]. generally, ras = a/(a+b). here, a refers to the median match/mismatched differences of the major allele and b for the minor allele (affymetrix technical manual). example of ras statistics for three snps based on genotyp-ing of individuals with an average call rate of all snps greater than %figure example of ras statistics for three snps based on genotyp- ing of individuals with an average call rate of all snps greater than %. these example snps illustrate how snp call reliability can vary both between snps and within the same snp, as measured by ras and ras values. blue spheres are bb individuals, orange triangles are aa individu- als, and green squares are ab individuals, grey stars are "not called". page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / there are two ras values, ras (sense) and ras (anti- sense) since both sense and antisense directions are probed. whereas k-correction factors based on the affymetrix k genechip® mapping array have been previously calcu- lated directly using only heterozygous ras values [ ], we suggest that this can be improved upon since the ras val- ues are generally not or for homozygotes (see figure ). indeed, we observed significant deviation for many snps, which could potentially add significant bias (see discussion) [ ]. thus for each snp, we normalized ras values, referred to as nras, using the individuals from the training set that were aa (normalized to ) and bb (nor- malized to zero). without this normalization, predicted frequencies will be systematically biased as the pooled samples approach homozygosity. thus nrasx = (rasx- aaave)/(bbave) where aaave is the average rasx score for individuals aa in the training set, and bbave is the rasx score for individuals bb in the training set. the value of x refers to whether the calculation is for ras or ras , and nras values are calculated for both ras and ras . thus, two predictions of allelic frequency are obtained: one from ras and one from ras . each ras variable has dis- tinct variability, and as shown in figure (b), ras may be very precise with low variance, while ras may exhibit high variance, and vice versa. averaging the two ras val- ues will mask the ras value with lower variance. because of this independent variability, we do not recommend averaging ras and ras for all snps as was suggested in other pooling studies [ , , ]. rather, we recommend treating the two ras values as separate experiments, and preferably removing ras values with the greatest variance prior to analysis. values making up each of the ras and ras mean values are provided for homozygous aa, homozygous bb, and heterozygous individuals on a website based on our , person database which is being made available to the pub- lic as part of this publication. these k-correction factors derived from ras and ras values using this training dataset are available at [ ] and as supplementary material. comparison of allelic frequencies: pooling vs. individual genotyping for the , snps on the affymetrix k genechip® we found a median difference in allelic frequency between individually genotyped samples and pooled samples of . %, a mean difference of . %, and a standard devia- tion of . %. figure shows a histogram for all the snps and their difference between the predicted frequency from the pools and the individual genotypes data. other stud- ies have reported slightly lower differences between pooled and individually genotyped methods for determining allelic frequencies ( – %) [ , , ]. many reasons are likely for this difference: we used dna that was collected over ten years and was of varying quality; we also compared all the snps on the microarray rather than selecting only a few snps for comparison. realistically, the greater difference seen in this study may be more rep- resentative of large association studies, in which thou- sands of genomic samples of varying quality are pooled. (a) allele frequency differences between individual and pooled genotypesfigure (a) allele frequency differences between individual and pooled genotypes. histogram representing the total number of snps at each allele frequency difference between individ- ual and pooled samples. (b) accuracy of predicted snp fre- quencies increases for those snps that perform well on mapping k individual assays and decreases for poorly per- forming snps. the mean and median absolute difference between the predicted allelic frequency and individually gen- otyped allelic frequencies are shown vs. the binned perform- ance of snps on individual assays. performance is ranked by the frequency of calls in a set of , individually genotyped samples. page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / identification of assay false positives while the differences in frequencies between pooled and individual genotyped samples show that calculating fre- quencies from pooled samples is highly accurate, it is per- haps of greater importance that we are able to predict those snps that are unreliable and largely inaccurate. assays genotyping , snps will likely not have the ability to be as selective and thus are likely to provide a large number of snps that do not reliably quantitate allelic frequencies from pooled genomic samples. as shown in table , we found that the snps most likely to give a "nocall" in individual genotyped samples more often gave unreliable predictions of allelic frequencies in pooled samples. furthermore, as shown in figure b, those snps that are the worst % (in terms of % called for individual genotypes) also gave rise to higher allelic frequency differences. we found that rarely called snps are also likely to be called inaccurately (table and figure c). in this case, constructing k-correction factors and predicting allelic fre- quencies will be unreliable for these snps, even if pooled replicates show low variability. snps with the highest var- iance in pool replicates were also unreliable. as a practical measure, we found that applying both filters for too many "nocalls" in a training set and having a high variance in pooled replicates was more effective than either measure alone. we could identify / rd of the worst performing snps (greater than % difference), by removing the worst performing % of snps based on variance in pool replicates and removing the worst performing % of snps based on excessive "no calls" when individually geno- typed. consequentially, the removal of those snps that are either poorly called in a training set of individually genotyped samples or highly variable across pooled repli- cates significantly decreases the number of false positives. the number of snps removed should maintain a balance between retaining dense snp coverage and excluding those snps more likely to give false positives. ultimately, removing potential false positives will be a compromise between the coverage of the snp microarray and the genetic diversity of the population. it is of interest to note that allelic frequencies calculations were more accurate as snps approached homozygosity. for example, for those snps with allelic frequencies from % to % and from % to % the mean difference was . % vs. a mean difference of . % for snps with allelic frequencies between % and %. this finding may be due to inaccuracies in the assays as snps approach %, since the variance for heterozygotes is higher than the variance measured for homozygotes. identification of a disease locus from genotyping of pooled samples in order to assess whether it is feasible to use pooled gen- otyping to identify the genetic locus for a disease, we created case and control pools for the disease sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes (siddt) and a pool of amish control individuals. a test for proportions was employed to detect statistical differences between cases and controls. this test-statistic is more often used in pooled studies since frequency data are generally not whole-integers [ ]. shown in equation is the calculation for the test statistic (t) where fcase is the allele frequency for the case group and fcontrol is the allele frequency for the control group. table : inaccurate snps with the largest difference between snp allele frequencies when genotyped individually vs. calculated from pooled dna can be partially predicted. nearly % of the snps found to be the most inaccurate snps were also either (a) one the worst performing snps in individual genotyping or (b) had the largest variability between replicates in the pool. all snps (a) worst performing snps criteria: nocalls on person database (b) worst performing snps criteria: pool variability from replicates snps found in (a) or (b) inaccuracy (predicted vs. genotyped) most inaccurate snps (individual genotyped vs. pooled) . % . % . % . % most inaccurate snps (individual genotyped vs. pooled) . % . % . % . % remaining snps . % . % . % . % t f f f f f f case control case control case case = − + = var( ) var( ) , var( ) ( − ( )f n case case ) page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / the distribution follows an approximate χ distribution with one degree of freedom. the snp with the highest sig- nificance, rs , had a p-value of . and was in the siddt locus at chromosome q . however, it is expected that the snp with the lowest p-value will not always be at the correct disease locus. even strong single snp association signals will likely be obscured in the noise when , + snps are probed. thus we employed a moving window whereby the mean test-statis- tic of several consecutive snps was calculated at each snp position across the genome. the objective of the moving window was to leverage the fact that neighbouring snps will likely be in linkage disequilibrium, whereby one snp is at least partially predictive of the neighbouring snp. the number of snps contained in the moving window was varied between and . shown in table is the rank of the q region for varying window sizes. it is of inter- est to assess sensitivity of this windowing approach to snps within the region. thus, we consecutively removed the top three snps contributing to the overall association signal. removing the first two snps has little effect on detecting the association signal. the q region remains the most significant for window sizes of four and greater even when these top two snps are removed. in compari- son, all three top snps has a marginal effect, lowering the rank of the region from highest to within the top ten. to compute the statistical significance of averaged test-sta- tistics, we used a permutation test. with this approach the consecutive order of snps was randomized in four hun- dred separate bootstrapped datasets. p-value statistics were calculated from the distribution of these datasets. shown in table , the siddt locus ( q . -q . ) was generally revealed as the most significant region of associ- ation for window sizes between and snps. it will not always be the case that snps are in linkage dis- equilibrium and a windowing-based approach will be effective. the permutation statistics can be used to test this scenario in order to see if the frequency of a given mean window test-statistic is indeed significant. the old order amish and mennonite populations used in this study identification of the siddt locus from pooled genomic dna by calculating the mean test-statistic for a rolling window of con-secutive snpsfigure identification of the siddt locus from pooled genomic dna by calculating the mean test-statistic for a rolling window of con- secutive snps. the moving window was determined across the genome and the p-value was calculated from a distribution of bootstraps of the original dataset. mean window sizes of , , , , , and are shown and the siddt locus is high- lighted in yellow. the siddt disease locus is the top region for window sizes of , , , , and . page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / arise from a population founded in approximately the six- teenth century with expectedly larger regions of identity by descent. the amish and mennonites are not one large isolated population. it is more accurate to say that both these populations derive from the swiss anabaptists (circa ). these groups are socially and genetically unique even though both came from the same geographical region. thus undoubtedly some stratification exists between our two cohorts and it is encouraging that the correct region was easily identifiable despite any stratifica- tion [ ]. based on previous research in this population, the k mapping array was anticipated to be of sufficient density whereby many of the snps would be in relative linkage disequilibrium throughout this regional population. indeed, the permutation statistics of moving windows support this notion as the q region shows a p-value of < e- for window sizes of snps and greater, far lower than would be expected with ~ , snp measure- ments. other methods have been developed that reduce noise using haplotype data from snps in linkage disequi- librium [ ]. in the absence of this haplotype data, which may often be the case, it is encouraging that the very straightforward statistical approach described here is effective at identifying the correct locus. discussion our results show that ( ) pooling genomic samples is highly accurate; ( ) unreliable snps most likely to give false-positives can be largely identified and removed prior to association analysis; and ( ) a moving window of aver- aged test-statistics can be used to detect association sig- nals. additionally, we have described modifications as to how allelic frequencies are calculated from ras values of pooled samples that remove systematic biases. pioneering work on pooling studies by other research groups has shown that the average relative allele signal (rasave) can be effectively used to derive k-correction fac- tors by k = rasave/( -(rasave), and as such, can be used to accurately predict allelic frequencies [ , , ]. pooling studies are intended to be screening approaches. ras val- ues are highly convenient since they are generated by the affymetrix gdas software on the k platform and fairly intuitive to understand. we suggest significant improve- ments to this innovative approach that will remove biases; allow for continued use of ras values; and result in more accurate predictions. these improvements focus on lower- ing the number of false positives due to added variance or systematic biases, since the utility of pooling-based approaches will be based on how one can detect associa- tion signals given a high number of false positives. first, ras and ras should not be averaged since they are separate probe sets with distinct variances. one may unnecessarily propagate unwanted variance by averaging. for example in figure b, it is clearly visible that ras is highly predictable of the particular snp allele whereas ras is highly inaccurate. in this case, averaging ras and ras will produce a rasave value that is less accurate than ras alone. we suggest instead that these values be treated as separate measures, each with their distinct vari- ance. in the case of ras values with a large variance, these values should not be used due to the increased chance of a false positive. table : identification of disease locus using a moving window. snps were ranked by test statistics and sorted by physical position. the average was calculated for a moving window of consecutive snps across the genome. the region q . was already known to contain the mutation leading to the siddt. the rank of region q . for a various window sizes in shown in the second column. in the rd, th, and th columns, the top , , and snps were removed from the q . regions to probe sensitivity of window size. # snps averaged in moving window q . rank region (all snps) q . region rank (exclude top snp in region) q . region rank (exclude top snps in region) q . region rank (exclude top snps in region) page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / second, we highly recommend that ras values for each snp be normalized prior to calculation of allelic frequencies. when these values are not normalized prior to calculating a predicted allelic frequency a significant bias is introduced since the ras values, as produced by the affymetrix gdas software, generally are not . or . for homozygous bb and aa respective alleles. indeed, on a training set of individuals we found that % of snps who were called aa had a ras value less than . and % of snps called bb had a ras value greater than . . this bias can be seen in an example calculation using k-correction factors derived from a typical ras value directly obtained from the gdas software. for example, the average ras for a given snp of an aa individual may be . , the average ras for a heterozygous individual may be . , and the average ras for a bb individual may be . . when one uses the approach outlined by butcher, et al, the k-correction factor is . , whereby the ras value of the average heterozygote is divided by one minus this value [ ]. in a pooled sample, the same snp is expected to have a ras value of . if it is completely homozygous for aa. however, using the k-correction approach on non- normalized ras values, one would predict an allelic fre- quency of %, whereas the actual frequency is %, a bias of %. these biases would be most pronounced as pools approach dominance by one allele type, as would often be the case for a snp highly associated to a disease. while ras values are readily obtainable from the affyme- trix software for the k genechip® arrays, they are not provided for the k or k. this is partly due to the fact that ras values are no longer used to make a snp call. we have developed a simple perl script which generates ras values, still useful in pooling, for the k and k affymetrix genechip® platform from chp files. this tool is available on our website [ ]. while one may use these ras values to find obvious differences in cases and con- trols, for many snps allelic frequencies are not linearly dependent on the ras values; thus, one should calculate allelic frequencies when possible to reduce uneven biases between different snps. additionally, we are making public on the same site both normalized and non-normalized k-correction factors derived from over , genotyped individuals for the k version . snp genotyping platform. other research groups have created central repositories for k-corrections using non-normalized ras values and we will work with these teams to contribute these values to this valuable cen- tralized resource [ ]. conclusion prior to the investment of large resources into individual genotyping thousands of individuals, one may first con- sider pooling samples at a low cost to rapidly ascertain gross population stratification concerns and potentially identify the regions of the genome with the strongest asso- ciation to the trait. the sheer number of snps interrogated will lead to a high number of false positives, due to both actual variation in genotype frequencies of the underlying groups and to technical variance. we demonstrate that technical variance can be detected a priori for each snp using training sets from large numbers of individual microarrays or by replicates of pooled samples. we further show that despite the issues of population stratification, admixture, and subgroups that are difficult to detect when pooling, the cost savings make pooling a first step that we suggest should logically precede the investment of mil- lions of dollars. we describe here a method by which k and k affymetrix snp array data can be parsed into ras scores and pooled inbalances accurately assessed in an outbred population. methods k genechip® mapping array genotyping k snp genotyping was performed as detailed by affymetrix on the k genechip® mapping . and . arrays [ ]. in short, ng of genomic dna was digested with units of xba i (new england biolabs, beverly, ma) for hours at °c. adaptor xba (p/n , affymetrix, santa clara, ca) was then ligated onto the digested ends with t dna ligase for hours at °c. after dilution with water, samples were subjected to pcr using primers specific to the adaptor sequence (p/n , affymetrix) with the following amplification parameters: °c for minutes initial denaturation, °c seconds, °c seconds, °c seconds for a total of cycles, followed by °c for minutes final extension. pcr products were then purified and frag- mented using . units of dnase i at °c for min- utes. the fragmented dna was then end-labeled with biotin using units of terminal deoxynucleotidyl trans- ferase at °c for hours. labeled dna was then hybrid- ized onto the k mapping array at °c for – hours at rpm. the hybridized array was washed, stained, and scanned according to the manufacturer's instructions. the chp_ _ras.pl script processes one or more chp text files from affymetrix k and k snp chips, calculates ras and ras scores and outputs them in an excel spreadsheet. testing shows that for k chips, chp_ _ras.pl produces the same scores as those produced by affymetrix' gdas software. chp_ _ras.pl is distributed as part of tgen-array, a collection of perl scripts and mod- ules that provide parsing and object-oriented interfaces to common microarray files. the script can be downloaded at the tgen bioinformatics website [ ]. page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc genomics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / authors' contributions dwc and mjh performed snp genotyping, participated in the concept of the paper, and drafted the manuscript. dhl, vlz, mjh, and aml conducted pooling and snp genotyping. dwc and jmp performed statistical analysis of the snp data. das participated in study design, coordi- nation, and manuscript drafting. all of the authors have read and approved the final manuscript. additional material acknowledgements we thank the old order amish families who participated in the research and the old order amish community for their willingness to participate in research studies. references . matsuzaki h, dong s, loi h, di x, liu g, hubbell e, law j, berntsen t, chadha m, hui h, yang g, kennedy gc, webster ta, cawley s, walsh e, jones kw, fodor sp, mei r: genotyping over , snps on a pair of olignucleotide arrays. nature methods , : - . . fan jb, oliphant a, shen r, kermani bg, garcia f, gunderson kl, hansen m, steemers f, butler sl, deloukas p, galver l, hunt s, mcbride c, bibikova m, rubano t, chen j, wickham e, doucet d, chang w, campbell d, zhang b, kruglyak s, bentley d, haas j, rigault p, zhou l, stuelpnagel j, chee ms: highly parallel snp genotyping. cold spring harb symp quant biol , : - . . marnellos g: high-throughput snp analysis for genetic associ- ation studies. curr opin drug discov devel , : - . . cardon lr, bell ji: association study designs for complex diseases. nat rev genet , : - . . risch n, teng j: the relative power of family-based and case- control designs for linkage disequilibrium studies of complex human diseases i. dna pooling. genome res , : - . . hirschhorn jn, daly mj: genome-wide association studies for common diseases and complex traits. nat rev genet , : - . . carlson cs, eberle ma, kruglyak l, nickerson da: mapping com- plex disease loci in whole-genome association studies. nature , : - . . butcher lm, meaburn e, knight j, sham pc, schalkwyk lc, craig iw, plomin r: snps, microarrays and pooled dna: identification of four loci associated with mild mental impairment in a sample of children. hum mol genet , : - . . meaburn e, butcher lm, liu l, fernandes c, hansen v, al-chalabi a, plomin r, craig i, schalkwyk lc: genotyping dna pools on microarrays: tackling the qtl problem of large samples and large numbers of snps. bmc genomics , : . . butcher lm, meaburn e, liu l, fernandes c, hill l, al-chalabi a, plo- min r, schalkwyk l, craig iw: genotyping pooled dna on microarrays: a systematic genome screen of thousands of snps in large samples to detect qtls for complex traits. behav genet , : - . . simpson cl, knight j, butcher lm, hansen vk, meaburn e, schalkwyk lc, craig iw, powell jf, sham pc, al-chalabi a: a central resource for accurate allele frequency estimation from pooled dna genotyped on dna microarrays. nucleic acids res , :e . . butcher lm, meaburn e, dale ps, sham p, schalkwyk lc, craig iw, plomin r: association analysis of mild mental impairment using dna pooling to screen brain-expressed single- nucleotide polymorphisms. mol psychiatry , : - . . matsuzaki h, loi h, dong s, tsai yy, fang j, law j, di x, liu wm, yang g, liu g, huang j, kennedy gc, ryder tb, marcus ga, walsh ps, shriver md, puck jm, jones kw, mei r: parallel genotyping of over , snps using a one-primer assay on a high-density oligonucleotide array. genome res , : - . . puffenberger eg, hu-lince d, parod jm, craig dw, dobrin se, con- way ar, donarum ea, strauss ka, dunckley t, cardenas jf, melmed kr, wright ca, liang w, stafford p, flynn cr, morton dh, stephan da: mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identi- fication of tspyl loss of function. proc natl acad sci u s a , : - . . hoogendoorn b, norton n, kirov g, williams n, hamshere ml, spurlock g, austin j, stephens mk, buckland pr, owen mj, o'dono- van mc: cheap, accurate and rapid allele frequency estima- tion of single nucleotide polymorphisms by primer extension and dhplc in dna pools. hum genet , : - . . le hellard s, ballereau sj, visscher pm, torrance hs, pinson j, morris sw, thomson ml, semple ca, muir wj, blackwood dh, porteous dj, evans kl: snp genotyping on pooled dnas: comparison of genotyping technologies and a semi automated method for data storage and analysis. nucleic acids res , :e . . norton n, williams nm, williams hj, spurlock g, kirov g, morris dw, hoogendoorn b, owen mj, o'donovan mc: universal, robust, highly quantitative snp allele frequency measure- ment in dna pools. hum genet , : - . . giordano m, mellai m, hoogendoorn b, momigliano-richiardi p: determination of snp allele frequencies in pooled dnas by primer extension genotyping and denaturing high-perform- ance liquid chromatography. j biochem biophys methods , : - . . moskvina v, norton n, williams n, holmans p, owen m, o'donovan m: streamlined analysis of pooled genotype data in snp- based association studies. genet epidemiol , : - . . website: . [http://www.tgen.org/neurogenomics/data]. . puffenberger eg: genetic heritage of the old order mennon- ites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet , : - . . hinds da, seymour ab, durham lk, banerjee p, ballinger dg, milos pm, cox dr, thompson jf, frazer ka: application of pooled gen- otyping to scan candidate regions for association with hdl cholesterol levels. hum genomics , : - . . website : . [http://bioinformatics.tgen.org/software/tgen-array/]. additional file calculated k-correction factors for pooling on affymetrix k genechip mapping array based on , person database. click here for file [http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/ - - - -s .zip] additional file the chp_ _ras.pl script processes one or more chp text files from affyme- trix k, k, and k ea snp chips, calculates ras and ras scores and outputs them in an excel spreadsheet. testing shows that for k chips, chp_ _ras.pl produces the same scores as those produced by affymetrix' gdas software. gdas does not calculate ras values for k chips. it should be noted that snps on k chips do not necessarily contain even numbers of sense and antisense probes and in fact only about % have sense and antisense probes. the remaining snps have a – or – probe bias towards either sense or antisense. this is important because part of the ras calculation involves taking the median of the "successful" probes and median may not be the best approach if only probes exist in one direction and some may have failed and been dis- carded. chp_ _ras.pl is distributed as part of tgen-array, a collection of perl scripts and modules that provide parsing and object-oriented inter- faces to common microarray files. the tgen-array site contains online documentation for all modules and scripts in the distribution including pages that show the source code so the code and algorithms may be inspected. click here for file [http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/ - - - -s .xls] page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/ - - - -s .zip http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/ - - - -s .xls http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.tgen.org/neurogenomics/data http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://bioinformatics.tgen.org/software/tgen-array/ 	abstract 	background 	results 	conclusion 	introduction 	results 	individual genotyping of snps for samples 	construction of pools 	calculation of allelic frequencies from pooled samples 	comparison of allelic frequencies: pooling vs. individual genotyping 	table 	identification of assay false positives 	identification of a disease locus from genotyping of pooled samples 	table 	discussion 	conclusion 	methods 	 k genechip® mapping array genotyping 	authors' contributions 	additional material 	acknowledgements 	references challenges to effective cultural property policy on the ground in latin america copy international journal of cultural property ( ) : – . printed in the usa. copyright © international cultural property society doi: . /s reality and practicality: challenges to effective cultural property policy on the ground in latin america donna yates * abstract: although on-the-ground preservation and policing is a major component of our international efforts to prevent the looting and trafficking of antiquities, the expectation placed on source countries may be beyond their capacity. this dependence on developing world infrastructure and policing may challenge our ability to effectively regulate this illicit trade. using case studies generated from fieldwork in belize and bolivia, this paper discusses a number of these challenges to effective policy and offers some suggestions for future regulatory development. it is exceedingly difficult to develop high-level policy that reflects the diversity of situations in both antiquities source and market countries. there exits an inherent challenge between the globalized and the localized; between high-level regulatory schemes that must apply to all and the needs and capabilities of the locations in which it is applied. assumptions that must be made about developing states’ internal capabilities during the crafting of high-level policy may not produce action- able interventions on the ground. as a result, there are aspects of our international antiquities policy regime that are consistently challenged by the realities of pro- tection and law enforcement in parts of the developing world. yet, as it stands, antiquities source countries are considered to be our first line of defense against theft and trafficking. in many sensitive developing world situations, our existing qa * trafficking culture project , scottish centre for crime and justice research , university of glasgow , scotland . email: donna.yates@glasgow.ac.uk acknowledgments: this work was supported by the european research council under the european union’s seventh framework programme (fp / – )/erc grant agreement n° gtico, the leverhulme trust, and the fulbright program. the author would like to thank all of the individuals in belize and bolivia who agreed to be interviewed for this project. donna yates international system of cultural property regulation does little to protect heritage sites in situ or to break up the criminal trafficking networks. if we are to continue to consider source-end protection as a lynchpin of the global combating of the illicit antiquities trade, we need to address these issues directly. we also must consider a greater shift in focus from source-end protection to real and effective market reduction. in this article i will discuss the on-the-ground experience of cultural property protection in two developing latin american countries with rich archaeological heritage consisting in part of antiquities and other cultural objects with market appeal: bolivia and belize. although drastically different in size, both countries face similar internal pressures related to violence, insecurity, the continued effect of narcotics production and trafficking economies, and the need to improve the lives of a largely poor citizenry. both countries have a strong interest in protecting their cultural heritage from an economic standpoint in the form of cultural tourism but also as a component of the maintenance of national identity. based on information gathered from interviews conducted with heritage profes- sionals and interested stakeholders during targeted fieldwork in belize ( ) and bolivia ( ), i will provide a sketch of the various challenges to the effective protec- tion of heritage and prevention of antiquities trafficking in each context. using these examples as case studies, i will discuss three points of perceived disconnect between the realities of cultural property protection in certain developing world contexts and the aspirational international system that these practitioners are working within: . the burden placed on local law enforcement for site protection and criminal investigation vs. the realities of underfunding, institutional failure, remoteness of sites, and access to training and technology; . a regulatory system that focuses on devel- opment and maintenance of international partnerships even when such partner- ships neither reflect the geographical orientation of the illicit trade, nor the realities of geopolitical schisms; . the tendency for regulatory development at all levels to focus on cultural property trafficking in isolation rather than as part of a web of interrelated illicit economies that might be best regulated or policed together. i close with policy suggestions which may help to address the realities of antiquities trafficking and heritage protection in many parts of the developing world. the goal of this paper is not to critique the construction or the intent of specific regulatory tools, but rather to discuss how certain aspects of our existing system of international antiquities regulation play out on the ground and how they are per- ceived and experienced by those on the front line in two developing world contexts. bolivia background bolivia is a landlocked south american state that straddles the high andean plateau and the western amazon. about percent of its population of . million people xxx live in urban areas and the rest are spread out over bolivia’s vast rural and often poorly accessible tracts. bolivia has a remarkably low population density, esti- mated at about . people per square kilometer. ethnicity is a decisive political and social issue and is a major component of bolivian identity. the country has a large indigenous population, with estimates ranging from about percent to over percent of the population, depending on how the question is asked, and the majority of bolivians who do not identify as indigenous, identify as mestizo (as do many people who identify as indigenous). although white bolivians com- prise a small minority of the population, political power was historically concen- trated in this group; bolivia has been considered one of the most racially stratified countries in the americas. this began to change in the s when modifications to the law allowed for more indigenous participation in public life. in late , after a period of popular protest and the resignation of two presidents, evo morales became the country’s th presi- dent, the first to self-identify as indigenous. his leftist government, which remains in power at the time of writing, has instituted significant changes within nearly all sectors of bolivian governance, culminating in the passing, in , of an entirely new constitution which refounded the republic bolivia as the plurinational state of bolivia. long-considered to be the poorest country in south america, since morales’ election bolivia has tripled per capita income in the country and its real gdp growth has been projected at . percent, the highest it has been in years. this, coupled with aggressive wealth distribution policies from the morales government, has led to small but noticeable poverty reduction successes in the country, although morales’ regime is not without considerable external and internal criticism. the protection of the remains of bolivia’s spectacular ancient and colonial past is set against this backdrop. bolivia was the heartland of the tiwanaku culture, a major player during the andean middle horizon, and the eponymous archaeolog- ical zone is both a unesco world heritage site and a core component of national identity. the material remains of this culture, as well as those of the subsequent inka and aymara cultures, have historically been in demand on the international antiquities market (although less so than objects from neighboring peru). bolivia is also home to numerous colonial-era churches, many located in very remote or even abandoned villages. these churches often contain art objects: paintings, icons, and silver, the latter being the result of the massive silver mines at potosí. in recent decades, international demand for sacred colonial andean art has grown. since it has been illegal to excavate bolivian archaeological objects without a government license and illegal to remove them from the country. objects of colonial and republican art were subsequently added to this ban and, as it stands, it is illegal to buy, sell, and export these objects in all circumstances. all of these objects, be they undiscovered in the ground or hanging in a colonial church, are considered cultural property of the bolivian state. thus, almost every ancient or colonial bolivian cultural object on the international art market left bolivia in violation of the law. aq donna yates record keeping looking specifically at the maintenance of records concerning aspects of cultural property we can see how quickly such action as a mandate can fail in the developing world. in bolivia, all known cultural property of the nation has required govern- ment registration since . this is a two pronged process: individuals or groups who possess cultural objects that fall under the law are required to notify the ministry of cultures so that the objects may be registered and the ministry of cultures is meant to maintain an office tasked with seeking out registerable objects, for example in remote historic churches. furthermore all dealers in antiquities are meant to be formally registered with the government and their premises are meant to be regularly inspected. all of this fits well into the framework set out by the unesco convention on the means of prohibiting and preventing the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property ( unesco convention) (indeed, many of these laws are post-unesco), and were certainly an aspect of bolivia successfully obtaining a bilateral agreement concerning cultural property import restrictions with the united states. yet while this registry system exists on paper, the system is aspirational: it rep- resents a mandate that an under-funded ministerial department in a poor country is unable to meet. few people voluntarily register cultural property in their pos- session, a complete dealer list has not been compiled in years, and archaeological store rooms, even at major sites, have not been inventoried. an exception is the register of cultural property within museums and churches. the files concerning objects in these known heritage structures are extensive which has helped in the recovery of stolen objects in a number of cases. that said, as is often the case, the success of this registry appears to be associated with the devotion and the con- tinued institutional presence over several decades (remarkable in bolivia) of an individual who has dedicated himself to this particular task. as of mid- , these commendable records only existed on paper and the dedicated individual hoped that they would be digitized someday but was not expecting funding anytime soon. in other words, while these records exist, police, customs agents, and others cannot easily access them. policing and institutions in bolivia police protection and state-level justice remains unavailable to most cit- izens. in , nearly half of bolivia’s municipalities did not have a judge, percent did not have a prosecutor, and percent did not have a public defender. bolivian confidence in the police is one of the lowest in latin america: only . percent express confidence in their police force, on par with mexico ( . percent), a coun- try whose police force has one of the worst reputations in the world. furthermore, . percent of bolivians reported that they felt insecure: on par with famously- insecure haiti at . percent. xxx this feeling of general insecurity in bolivia results in conflict between commu- nities and the state-level police and justice systems. to use one extreme example, there exists in bolivia a concept called justicia comunitaria (community justice), which is informally defined as a pre-conquest indigenous system of values, judg- ment, and consequence that exists alongside the regular state-level justice system. a version of justicia comunitaria was enshrined in the constitution as the right for communities to police themselves according to their own indigenous belief system. however , justicia comunitaria in bolivia (especially when that particular term is used) is nearly always linked to fatal or near fatal lynching of accused crim- inals. these lynchings usually happen in poor communities where petty theft has a devastating effect and where the police are seen as either not present or as crim- inals themselves. incidentally, these poor communities, especially rural ones, are also the primary targets for cultural property theft. the majority of recent thefts of conquest and colonial artworks from bolivian churches, some thefts from to , have occurred in small, poor, rural, indigenous villages that are, by many accounts, outside of the reach of the state-level authorities. many recent accounts of cultural property thefts in these areas include complaints from villagers that it took multiple days for the government to send anyone to investigate the crimes, and lamentations from cultural property investigators that the villages in question are very difficult for them to access. recently a limited number of communities have been turning to justicia comu- nitaria to deal with cultural property theft, sometimes with fatal consequences. in early march , two men were lynched in the village of quila quila after they were allegedly caught robbing colonial-era paintings from the local church. they were collectively ‘tried’, beaten, strangled, and buried behind the church they were said to have robbed. what followed was a multi-day standoff between the com- munity and the police, leading to an assurance that the community would face no charges if they handed over the alleged thieves’ bodies. bolivian communities believe that their authorities are not competent and are entirely unable to protect their heritage sites. crime reporting although the looting and trafficking of antiquities is considered a distinct crime under bolivian law, and a form of aggravated theft under the penal code, bolivia has neither a cultural property/heritage police task force, nor a dedicated point person that coordinates cultural property theft and looting cases between the var- ious government and security agencies that have a stake in the matter. the recent introduction of new heritage law in the country focused more on archaeology and contained no new provisions for crime prevention and policing. as it stands in bolivia, when there is a reported case of cultural property theft (usually from a historic church), a warning is issued to interpol and to bolivian customs from the relevant body within the bolivian ministry of cultures. this notice donna yates usually contains details of the theft as well as photos and descriptions of the items that were stolen. that such photos are available is a testament to the dedication of bolivia’s cultural heritage documentation group: most countries are unable to issue such reports. that said, it is unclear to what degree customs agents are made aware of these reports. as of the time of writing there is no database of stolen cul- tural property that is available to anyone outside of the ministry of cultures. when archaeological objects are stolen from the ground, or evidence of looting at an archae- ological site is detected, no warning is issued. it is unclear if any central records of incidents of archaeological looting are kept. archaeologists are often unaware of the scale, scope, and focus of cultural property crime within the country. as is the case in many developing countries, smuggling is part of bolivian reality, a fact rarely discussed during international debate over cultural property regulation. a sizable amount of the goods available on the bolivian market have been smug- gled or are illicit to some degree. in recent years anti-corruption measures have been put in place and border agents are better monitored for corruption. however, fake electronics, copied software and dvds, photocopied books, and any number of other items for which duty has not been paid make their way to bolivian con- sumers. la paz, for example, has a massive maze-like market district referred to as el mercado negro (the black market), which is indicated on quite a few maps. every consumer good imaginable is available in the stalls of this part of the city. in the past, it has been reported that some illicit antiquities have been bought and sold there. due to financial constraints, it is unlikely that any of this will change any time soon. because the idea of a certain interpretation of ancient bolivia has become the core of a bolivian identity and is supported by the current government, completely reinventing the regulation of bolivian cultural property seems unlikely. yet it is possible that, internally, the illicit trafficking of bolivian cultural objects can be policed alongside other illicit goods. indeed, this is the situation that already exists, but formalization of the linkage may prove effective. international relations and antiquities since early when leftist evo morales became president of the country, rela- tions between bolivia and some antiquities market nations, notably the u.s., have been strained. this has had a direct effect on bolivia’s ability to recover stolen cultural objects. for example, in august of , i was informed that a number of looted bolivian church items had been found for sale on the internet via u.s.-based dealers. having checked my own records, i can document the items were available online from at least early december . the thefts of these items occurred in the late s and it is unclear when and how they were imported into the u.s. this, however, was not of specific concern: the objects had all been photographed and documented by bolivia’s ministry of cultures and bolivia could clearly prove that these objects were stolen; return should have been straightforward. xxx yet, u.s. and bolivian sources stated that extremely poor relations between the countries had caused complete stagnation. although everyone involved (except, perhaps, the antiquities dealer) knew where these stolen objects where and agreed that they should be seized and returned, the final paperwork needed to put this operation in motion was not able to go through. both the bolivians and ameri- cans working on this case had deep respect for their counterparts but felt that they were in a political bind. they were unable to advance bilateral cooperation with a country that their government does not wish to cooperate with. all involved care passionately about bolivian cultural property and are doing good work under the circumstances, but the circumstances are not good. as of june , over two years later, at least some of these stolen cultural items were still available online. theft of cultural property has a profound destabilizing effect on bolivian communities. perhaps no case demonstrates that better than that of the famous coroma textiles, the theft of which inspired the first unesco convention-based restrictions on the import of bolivian cultural objects into the u.s. this bilateral agreement, sought by the indigenous community members of coroma who per- sonally petitioned the u.s. government for intervention, has been hailed as a triumph. the textiles were returned, there were convictions in three countries, and a community’s sacred heritage was restored. yet, despite this bilateral success, the heritage of coroma is not truly protected by the u.s./bolivia agreement: the cul- tural objects mentioned in the previous paragraph, still for sale on the internet and the subject of official stagnation, were stolen from coroma’s conquest-era church in the late s. coroma’s church was also looted in and in . belize background belize is a small central american state on the eastern side of the yucatan peninsula. formerly british honduras until independence in , the country is sparsely populated: , people in about , square kilometers for a population density of about . people per square kilometer. despite its small population, belize is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world, with most belizeans considering themselves to be multiracial. about percent of the population is of mixed maya and european descent, percent are kriol, meaning mixed african and (largely) british descent, and both of those groups are racially mixed with other latin americans, west indians, afro-amerindians (garifuna), and increasingly chinese, east indians, and low german-speaking mennonites. most belizeans are multi-lingual, speaking english as well as kriol and, more often than not, spanish and one or more maya languages. belize’s archaeological past is spectacular. it houses numerous major and minor maya archaeological sites, from small sacred caves to large metropolises. belizeans encounter archaeological objects and sites in their day-to-day lives and donna yates archaeological themes appear on everything from the currency and on belize’s most popular brand of beer. the sites are spread throughout the country, but there are major concentrations of sites along belize’s borders with guatemala and mexico, making cross-border trafficking a serious concern. tourism is a large component of belize’s economy. as the country is located only a short flight from the u.s., is english-speaking, has a currency that is pegged : to the u.s. dollar, and is filled with exotic natural and archaeological sites, it has positioned itself as an easy adventure holiday for u.s. travelers. because of this, threats to nature and to archaeology are considered to be threats to the country’s economy. belize was heavily hit by the various waves of archaeological looting in central america, particularly for carved stone stela in the s, and elaborately painted polychrome pottery up into recent years. the most comprehensive study of looting in belize was conducted in the early s and the most recent study was undertaken in . record keeping looking at record keeping in belize, which too is mandated by law, we can observe the typical developing world situation where a well-trained, credentialed, and devoted but very small archaeological body is stretched too thin to do everything that they would like to. the individual in charge of their library of records plans on digitizing them with the strong hope of making them publically available for free online. however, as of they lacked the appropriate scanning equipment and, more importantly, lacked the staff needed to accomplish the task. they stated that they would have to do the work themselves, but did not have the time. interviews with other government-employed professionals indicated that in presentations and internal documents, they were still using various looting, trafficking, arrest, and seizure numbers from as far back as the early s and that the last time such numbers were rounded up was . such records have not been specifically kept for no other reason than a lack of staff and a lack of time. that said, belize has made a big push to try to get citizens to voluntarily register archaeological objects in their possession as mandated by law. policing and institutions in , aldous huxley wrote, “if the world had any ends [belize] would certainly be one of them. it is not on the way from anywhere to anywhere else. it has no strategic value. it is all but uninhabited....” although harsh, this quote sums up the logistical issues of policing in belize. its vast, jungle-covered territory contains very few people, is difficult to monitor making it a haven for illicit activities. about percent of belize’s population is considered to be below the poverty line and the country has an unemployment rate of percent. gang violence is on the rise in the country, particularly in belize city. in recent years belize has had one of xxx the highest murder rates in the world, from th to rd highest, close in ranking to neighbors such as honduras, el salvador, and guatemala. rape, violent crime, and burglary rates are also extremely high in belize. the population has historically held the police in low regard due to increasing violence and a perceived failure of the police to respond to and investigate crimes. very few crime or justice studies have focused on belize and academic evalua- tion of policing in the country is limited. an exception is a pilot study conducted by hanson et al. in . at the time they found the belize police had a staffing shortfall of . percent as well as a budgetary shortfall. the police lacked basic resources: police station parking lots resembled salvage yards, vehicles were scarce and barely operational, and the maritime unit of this long-coasted caribbean country had only one functioning boat. poor infrastructure is an issue: a critical lack of roads (as well as the poor condition of existing roads) and some of the most expensive public utilities in the region discourage various types of monitoring and policing, as well as development. belize shares long jungle borders with both mexico and guatemala. because of the density and remoteness of the jungle as well as belize’s small population and small police and defense forces, these borders are relatively open. interviews with belize police indicate that police checkpoints are easily avoided “by simply walking through trails in the jungle.” this, coupled with its position between south america and the u.s., has increasingly led belize to become a strategic point in the international trafficking of all sorts of illicit goods, including narcotics and persons. reports indicate that many of the criminals operating on belize’s borders are former central american paramilitaries, hired into the cartel support infrastruc- ture and that they are “commonly found better armed than the police.” all existing studies on the looting and trafficking of cultural property in belize and my own fieldwork, document a clear trans-border element to this type of crime, both historically and into the present day. large maya sculptural pieces such as stela from machaquilá were looted from guatemala, carried across the belize border, and exported to the u.s., in that case via a boat to florida. ethnographic work has shown that looting gangs from both guatemala and mexico, them- selves from the peripheries of the periphery in their own countries, have been able to move freely between countries. belizean looters, too, certainly have operated on whatever side of the border was most advantageous. especially when it comes to transnational crime, this criminal activity occurs in belize precisely because it is so difficult to monitor the country’s remote borders. nested illicit economies central america has changed a lot in recent decades. shifts in the regional localities of the transnational trade in narcotics have inspired a movement southward into areas along mexico’s borders with guatemala and belize and down into el salvador and honduras. the specifics of these regional shifts are outside of the scope of donna yates this paper, but in belize this has led to a situation where the idea of an antiquities- specific focus of either organized or disorganized crime is highly unlikely. cultural property trafficking is neither profitable enough, nor can it be used to effectively “clean” or launder narcotics money. the cartels have more profitable activities to engage in. at this time antiquities looting and trafficking in belize appears to rests within a regionalized collection of illicit economies. although antiquities looting special- ists may have existed in the past, looting and trafficking in the present is far more opportunistic. individuals or groups are willing to commit a number of different illicit activities (e.g. animal poaching, smuggling consumer goods across the bor- der, land encroachment, illegal logging, laundering money for narcotics cartels, etc.) because they see them as viable alternatives to other activities and their environment supports such crimes. in other words people commit certain low-cost crimes if the opportunity to do so arises, especially when the physical and moral consequences of committing such crimes are minor and the crimes, themselves, are perceived as victimless. an interesting example of this can be seen within the mennonite communities along belize’s border with mexico. ideologically opposed to outside governance, belize’s mennonites have historically been implicated, often unfairly, in the nar- cotics trade, trans-border smuggling of a number of goods, illegal demolition of archaeological sites, and the looting and trafficking of antiquities: both in the form of actual looting/transport and in receiving money from looting groups for access to sites on mennonite land. clearly only a limited number belize’s mennonites are willing to engage in these illicit economies; however, some do see it as a viable alternative to other activities, see little consequence in their behavior, and live in an environment that both encourages financial gain and discourages compliance with external government. another example are the so-called “subsistence diggers,” recorded in paredes maury’s work in guatemala and matsuda’s work in belize. while matsuda’s “subsistence diggers” do seem to be primarily focused on archaeological looting, he does connect their activity directly to illegal migration into belize (and thus a lack of legal work option) as well as illicit overland transport of other goods. pare- des maury’s ethnographic work focused on looting conducted by poor chicle gum collectors in rural guatemala who would loot archaeological sites to add to their meager income, mostly because they were moving through the deep jungle any- way. looting was the focus of her work, but she notes that people in the region also supplement their income by poaching endangered animals, participating in illegal logging, and participate in the narcotics trade. discussion of antiquities looting as one of many opportunistic illicit activities is common in central america. a group of guatemalan archaeological workers i spoke with in stated that they had looted sites in the past and that they poached a jaguar for its pelt because the opportunity to do so was there. as i spoke to a former looter in belize , we drove a woman to a certain spot near the xxx border so she could carry undeclared meat to her shop in mexico, a service for which the driver was paid. former belizean forestry workers that i interviewed did not see much difference between people they caught looting and, say, people they caught trapping macaws, indicating that these were sometimes the same people. thinking internationally in the past and present many of the problems associated with regulating the illicit trade in maya antiq- uities via international partnership agreements stem from the fact that modern borders do not follow ancient borders. although the various ancient maya polities each had their own distinctive iconographic styles, even those styles cross mod- ern borders. maya polities also participated in complex trade with each other: just because an artifact is of one style does not mean it was not traded to another region in antiquity. even when a maya objects bears the name of a known site (the maya were, of course, a literate culture), this does not conclusively indicate a modern country of origin as it is clear that such objects were traded over great distances. it is almost impossible to conclusively determine which modern country a previously- unknown looted and trafficked maya artifact came from. until the s, looting at maya sites was focused on stone stela and carved architectural elements (lintels, staircases, etc.), massive pieces that were often cut, thinned, or otherwise mutilated for transport. in , clemency coggins published a short article which shone a light on the dark trade in looted stela and inspired public discussion about the pillage of maya sites. in , as a result of the profes- sional outcry that followed and an acknowledgment that the u.s. was the primary market for looted maya objects, the u.s. passed public law no. - u.s.c. § : “regulation of importation of pre-columbian monumental or architectural sculpture or murals.” it states: no pre-columbian monumental or architectural sculpture or mural which is exported (whether or not such exportation is to the united states) from the country of origin after the effective date of the regulation [...] may be imported into the united states unless the government of the country of origin of such sculpture or mural issues a certificate [...] which certifies that such exportation was not in violation of the laws of that country’. any piece of pre-columbian monumental sculpture must have ‘satisfactory evidence that such sculpture...was exported from the country of origin on or before the effective date of the regulation. in other words, unless a valid export permit could be produced, all pre-columbian murals, sculptures, or architectural pieces were prohibited from entering the u.s. it is important to note that this law is object-focused not country-focused. a maya stela stopped at a u.s. border cannot enter the country without a valid export permit and thus “fresh,” unprovenanced stela cannot enter the country at all. it does not matter what central american country that stela came from and it does not matter if the exact country of origin is unknown at the time the stela is detected. the u.s. does not need to determine where it is stolen from to establish donna yates that a stela is contraband, if it does not have the appropriate paperwork, it cannot enter the country. this law shares some characteristics with the contemporaneous convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (cites), which, among other things, creates an outright ban on the movement of certain plant and animal species no matter where they came from or where they were seized. the result of this law was the collapse of the u.s. market for maya stela and architectural pieces. no one could argue that a “new” stela that appeared on the market without an export permit was legal and no central american country would ever issue an export permit for an artifact on anything other than a temporary basis. an unforeseen consequence of the ban on sculpture and architecture was a shift in market demand. after , the u.s. market for maya stela largely disappeared, but the market for maya pottery exploded, seemingly because it was not covered by the law. it would seem that the appropriate response to this increase in trafficking of looted maya pottery should have resulted in an object-specific u.s. restriction on the importation of maya pottery, perhaps in the form of a permit requirement, however that did not happen. in the u.s. implemented the unesco convention via the conven- tion on cultural property implementation act (ccpia). ccpia gave the president of the u.s. the ability to impose import restrictions on certain cultural objects fol- lowing a request from another state that is party to the unesco convention and to negotiate and enter into bilateral agreements to this effect. these restrictions are bilateral and country specific. instead of, say, mandating valid export permits for all maya pottery no matter the country of origin, the u.s. restricts the import of all maya pottery from a particular country with which it has an agreement. the prob- lem with this should be clear: looted maya objects that, inherently, do not have a known modern country of origin can fall through the cracks. at the time of writing, the u.s. has cultural property agreements in place with all of the maya countries, although the treaty with mexico is slightly different and was developed before the u.s. implemented the unesco convention. the u.s. and belize only entered into a cultural property bilateral agreement in , meaning that in the years since the implementation of the unesco convention there was at least one maya heartland country with no u.s. import restrictions. this allowed for exploitable ambiguity in the import and sale of maya objects in the u.s. the destruction to maya sites associated with the looting of pottery and other small items not covered by the u.s. law of has devastated the region. although the looting of stela was destructive, these sculptures are usually stand-alone pieces. pottery and other smaller items are normally found within caches and tombs located deep within maya temples and other structures. the trickle-down effect of the switch in market demand towards these smaller objects was the wholesale destruc- tion of thousands of maya buildings. almost every known maya site has been com- promised by this wave of looting. xxx discussion . burden on developing countries’ institutions as it stands, most of the financial burden of the on-the-ground policing of the illicit traffic in cultural property rests on the source country in the form of physical pro- tection of archaeological and cultural sites. the existing system places emphasis on stemming the supply of looted antiquities at the source rather than discouraging demand. to a large degree, our current regulatory regime depends on extensive, competent, and well-funded internal protection over market-end disruption. this is reflected in the wording of articles and of the unesco convention, mandating that the states party to the convention set up national services with “qualified staff sufficient in number” to carry out documentation, protection, excava- tion, education, regulation, certification, customs, and policing duties within their territories. while subsequent articles of the unesco convention call for international collaboration, the internal duty to fund protection operations within source countries is emphasized. even if this wording is merely an ideal, it evidences a clear focus on disruption at the source and not disruption of either transnational trade or the market. yet as we have seen with both bolivia and belize, such source-end disruption may lay far outside of the logistical and financial capacities of developing countries. most major antiquities source countries, such as belize and bolivia, are located in the developing world where resources are limited. although these countries often enact tough anti-trafficking laws with stiff penalties, as is the case with both bolivia and belize, when faced with the logistical and financial difficulties inherent in the developing world, such laws prove nearly impossible to enforce. internal legal mandates to train, maintain, and heavily fund numerous different policing, documentation, and heritage preservation groups in an effort to fend off the inevi- table effects of international demand for illicit antiquities are left underfunded in the face of more pressing problems. such mandates are seen as insurmountable obstacles to both engaging in international discussions concerning antiquities traf- ficking regulation and to successfully negotiating cultural property agreements. furthermore, institutional failures in security-related sectors in the developing world are an impediment to the ideal functioning of existing international traf- ficking prevention measures. high-level international policy formation tends to assume, at least on paper, that there will be a competent police force on the ground, an adequate customs service to combat smuggling, and a functioning justice system to punish wrongdoers. yet in many developing countries, such functional and funded institutions are the exception, not the rule. as can be seen in bolivia, despite steady improvement in recent years, a sizable portion of the population is unable to access state-level institutions. police are seen as corrupt and insecurity is the norm. in belize, police suffer from inadequate equip- ment, short staffing, and remote jungle covered borders. although the law is clear donna yates and antiquities theft and trafficking penalties are steep in both countries, few criminals are ever apprehended. those that are may languish in judicial limbo for years or be let go simply because these justice systems are working with numbers far above their capacity. again a key element in our international system for antiq- uities trafficking prevention, security on the ground, depends on the financial and organizational stability of countries that are rarely financially and organizationally stable. bolivia and belize, like most developing countries face major threats related to internal and international crime. their ability to deal with those issues is seriously hampered by corruption, inaccessible territory, and limited financial resources. yet there is a perceived expectation internationally that local police and related institu- tions should be a key component of our international efforts to regulate the flow of looted antiquities onto the market. this expectation may prevent the apprehension and prosecution of individuals higher up on the antiquities trafficking chain and puts an unfair burden on the victims of antiquities theft. leaving these and other policing and protection efforts up to source countries does not adequately protect heritage sites, does not adequately protect communities, does not prevent illicit antiq- uities from entering the market, and does not disrupt the illicit trafficking chain. . focus on countries, not objects the development of international agreements between states, either within the framework of the unesco convention or outside of it, is at the core of our existing international regulatory regime to combat antiquities trafficking. there are a number of issues that arise when regulation of the illicit antiquities trade is reduced to relations between only two modern states. the most obvious is that the paths that looted cultural objects pass through on their way to the market often include third (or fourth or fifth) states which may or may not have cultural prop- erty agreements or favorable relations with the initial source and ultimate market countries. they may have no vested interest in spending scarce policing funds on what they might consider to be someone else’s problem. yet there are more subtle issues on the ground with heritage site protection based on international agreements. even when agreement is in place, poor relations between the two countries will stall recovery efforts. this is put in particularly sharp focus when considering the return of cultural property from the u.s. to bolivia. although relations between these two countries are unsteady, some sort of continued relationship and ongoing negotiations are required for stolen bolivian cultural objects either to be pre- vented from entering the u.s. or to be returned. thus international relations become the focus, not the objects themselves, and preservation hinges on these relations. this country-specific approach is quite different from an object-specific approach, which would require various proofs of ownership and permits for antiquities to cross borders or enter the market. in other words an object-specific approach requires less negotia- tion and can continue to function even when international relations sour. xxx furthermore, a country-specific focus can be completely ineffective when dealing with ancient cultures that spanned across several modern states. in the case of many forms of maya pottery, it is nearly impossible to determine which central american country a looted piece came from. when such pottery is seized outside of central america, it is usually unclear which modern state can or should claim it. even when a maya pot is intercepted leaving belize, the origin of the piece is not immediately obvious as it could have passed in that country from either mexico or guatemala. this ambiguity can and has been exploited by traffickers. however an object-specific regulatory approach, per- haps modeled after cites and requiring permits and ownership documentation for all maya pottery crossing any border, might serve to better control the market for such pieces. maya pottery without a clear country of origin and a clean export history would be prevented from entering the market country and the market itself. . cultural objects in isolation we tend to think of cultural objects as unique. they are the manifestation of the intangibilities of human identity, and it is easy to see why there is an urge to produce legislation that distinguishes cultural property theft from other crimes. while it may be correct to separate the theft and trafficking of such rare goods as antiquities from the mundane “normal” stolen goods, that does not mean that antiquities trafficking is unrelated to other crimes. the trafficking and illicit sale of antiquities may be one of a series of interrelated criminal activities which include the transport and sale of other objects. likewise, the looting of archaeological sites may be a response to eco- nomic instability caused by unrelated crime, such as the encroachment of displaced persons onto protected land due to the activities of drug cartel support economies. this certainly seems to be an issue in central america, where antiquities looting appears to be one of a number of illicit border economies that individuals engage in either when opportunity presents itself or out of need. these illicit activities are often conducted by the same people in the same space. using the example of belize, desig- nated archaeological sites are often in protected forest zones. these protected zones are also the site of illegal logging and rare wood taking, illicit palm cutting for the inter- national flower market, poaching of jaguars for pelts, taking of rare parrots, protected orchid theft and smuggling, and illegal farmsteading, as well as stopover points for planes involved in narcotics trafficking. to an extent, many of these crimes are policed together on the ground by forestry workers and tourism police, but administratively they are differentiated from antiquities trafficking and exist in a separate place within national law and our international regulatory regime. a reduction in illegal farming activities might reduce archaeological site looting; a crackdown on, specifically, parrot smuggling might result in individuals turning to artifact smuggling. siloing national and international policy for what can be seen as related crimes may prevent us from gaining an accurate understanding of the results of our interventions. to use the example of the village of quila quila in bolivia, we can see a potential outcome of viewing cultural property theft as separate from internal instability donna yates and insecurity. this community, out of a profound sense of insecurity and lack of confidence in the authorities, turned to fatal vigilantly justice to punish cultural property robbers. although this is an extreme, it illustrates what might be a lack of non-heritage-related development within our cultural property protection regime. perhaps we should make heritage protection a component of more general policy towards social improvement, not a stand-alone area in which capacity is built but no foundation exists for that capacity to rest on. some policy recommendations from the ground what, then can be done to improve international policy related to antiquities trafficking? that is not an easy question to answer; however beyond what i have previously discussed, this fieldwork in bolivia and belize points to two areas of potential improvement. first, object-focused import restrictions should be promoted. banning the import of all permit-less pre-columbian sculptural pieces, no matter their country of origin, nearly eliminated the market for such items in the u.s. this can and should be done on a global scale, perhaps using cites as a model. cites has its flaws, but by banning the free movement of certain animals and plants, no matter their country of origin, many of the exploitable aspects of other types of regulation are avoided. mandatory export and import permits will go a long way to eliminating traffickers’ ability to “clean” illicit antiquities for the more “respectable” market. there will be no “respectable” illicit antiquities and the reduction in demand will naturally reduce motivation to loot for supply. second, we should emphasize policing and punishment of traffickers and buyers rather than spend time and money on the return of a limited number of cultural objects. if we accept that most people in developing countries who engage in loot- ing are doing so because of a lack of viable alternatives and as part of any number of illicit and licit short-term economic activities, it is clear that focusing policing and punishment on them is useless. the more powerful end of the market will find other desperate people to commit those crimes. instead of policy focused on asset return, we need policy focused on reducing the market. this means real punishment for collectors and museums found to be buying looted goods and this means breaking up networks. any future international regulation should still mandate international cooperation, but that cooperation should be policing- and enforcement-focused. endnotes . in july and august of , i conducted fieldwork in the la paz department of bolivia. funded by the fulbright, this work was focused on cultural property trafficking out of bolivia, specifically looking at the on-the-ground effectiveness of certain national and international regulation. i also conducted archaeological fieldwork at tiwanaku, bolivia, in and in . . estado plurinacional de bolivia . xxx . carlos valdez, “bolivia's census omits ‘mestizo’ as category,” associated press, november , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://bigstory.ap.org/article/bolivias-census-omits- mestizo-category ; estado plurinacional de bolivia . . particularly the law of popular participation, law , ( ) (bol). . bol. const. ( ). . imf . . law of oct. ( ) (bol.) . see yates and yates for complete analysis of bolivian cultural property legislation. . first via res. min. educació n ( ) (bol.), then formalized via bol. const. ( ) art. . see yates . . “no hay control en los anticuarios de la paz,” la razón, november , http://web.archive.org/ web/ /http://www.la-razon.com/index.php?_url=/suplementos/informe/control- anticuarios-paz_ _ .html . . adopted november , entered into force april . . fr – ( december ). . la razón . during interviews related to this work, i discovered that artefacts that i personally excavated in bolivia at a world heritage site in and have not been formally inventoried, although i submitted the paperwork and reports required by law. they have sat for ten years in an unsecured shed at the site. . e.g. paintings stolen from the church at san andrés de machaca, see yates b . . consejo de derechos humanos . . ciudadanía & lapop : . . see yates . . yates . . henry aria gutiérrez, “linchamientos en quila quila,” correo del sur , march , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.infodecom.net/nacionales/chuquisaca/ item/ -linchamientos-en-quila-quila ; “turba linchó a dos supestos delincuentes en quila quila,” el diario , march . . dl no códifo penal art , art , art ( ) (bol). . i have not seen clear proof of this, however i was offered illicit fossils there in . fossils are protected by the same legislation as antiquities in bolivia and their sale and transnational transport is prohibited. . the specifics of this case have been omitted as the investigation is ongoing. . fr – march ; lobo ; yates b . . according to documentation supplied by informants. . “roban tres cuadros coloniales y escultura de iglesia en bolivia,” aci prensa, july , http://web.archive.org/web/ /https://www.aciprensa.com/noticias/roban-tres- cuadros-coloniales-y-escultura-de-iglesia-en-bolivia/ ; ronald barrancos, “bolivia: robaron piezas de platería del templo san francisco de población de coroma potosí,” blog of the brazilian ministry of culture, april , http://blogs.cultura.gov.br/mercosur/ / / /boliviarobaron- -piezas-de-plateria-del-templo-san-francisco-de-la-poblacion-de-coroma-potosi/ . in july of , i conducted preliminary fieldwork in belize. funded by the leverhulme trust, this work was focused on cross-border illicit trade between belize, guatemala, and mexico with an emphasis on cultural property trafficking. i also conducted archaeological fieldwork in belize and along the guatemalan side of the border in . . statistical institute of belize . . gutchen . . gilgan . . ibid.; gutchen . . gutchen . . gilgan . . ch ancient monuments and antiquities . ( ) (belize). aq aq aq aq aq donna yates . huxley . . unodc . . hanson et al. , . . ibid, . . ibid. . e.g. gilgan ; gutchen ; matsuda a , b ; pendergast ; pendergast and graham . . u.s. v. hollinshead , f. d , th cir. . paredes maury . . confidential interviews, belize . . steven dudley, “the zetas in guatemala,” insight crime report , september, : ; mcsweeney et al. , . . see yates . . this information is compiled from confidential interviews conducted in july . . as asserted in matsuda a and b . . e.g. ricardo flores, “belize, nueva ruta de narcos operan por tierra y aire,” la prensa grafica, june , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.laprensagrafica.com/el- salvador/judicial/ -belice-nueva-ruta-de-narcosoperan-por-tierra-y-aire or http://perma.cc/ au -nfm ; i have seen alleged air strips in mennonite areas and several informants recounted such involvement. . confidential interviews, . . matsuda a , b ; paredes maury . . a spectacular example of this comes from the work of reents-budet on belize’s “buenavista vase” in schele et al. . . adopted march , entered into force july . . coggins , . . ibid. . gilgan . . treaty of cooperation providing for the recovery and return of stolen archaeological historical and cultural properties, u.s.-mex., july , ust . . gilgan . bibliography ciudadanía & lapop . . “cultura política de la democracia en bolivia, : hacia la igualdad de oportunidades,” http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/bolivia/bolivia- -report.pdf . coggins , clemency c . . “illicit traffic of pre-columbian antiquities.” art journal , no. : , , , . ——— . . “united stated cultural property legislation: observations of a combatant.” international journal of cultural property , no. : – . consejo de derechos humanos . . informe anual de la alta comisionada de las naciones unidas para los derechos humanos en bolivia . estado plurinacional de bolivia . . boletín informativo censo nacional de población y vivienda . n° . http://www.ine.gob.bo/pdf/boletin/np_ _ .pdf . ——— . . bolivia: characterísticas de población y vivienda. censo nacional de población y vivienda . instituto nacional de estadística . http://www.ine.gob.bo: /censo /pdf/ resultadoscpv .pdf or http://perma.cc/s b - gnp . aq aq aq aq aq aq xxx gilgan , elizabeth . . “archaeological heritage management in belize: a case study.” ma diss., department of archaeology, boston university . ——— . . “looting and the market for maya objects: a belizean perspective.” in trade in illicit antiquities: the destruction of the world's archaeological heritage , edited by neil brodie , jennifer doole and colin renfrew , – . cambridge : macdonald institute . gutchen , mark a . . “the destruction of archaeological resources in belize, central america.” journal of field archaeology : – . hanson , robert , greg warchol , and linda zupan . . “policing paradise: law and disorder in belize.” police practice and research , no. : – . huxley , aldous . . beyond the mexique bay . london : chatto and windus . imf . . “imf executive board concludes article iv consultation with bolivia.” website of the international monetary fund press release , http://web.archive.org/web/ /https:// www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/ /pr .htm . lobo , susan . . “the fabric of life: repatriating the sacred coroma textiles.” cultural survival quarterly , no. , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/bolivia/fabric-life-repatriating-sacred-coroma-textiles . matsuda , david j . a. “the ethics of archaeology, subsistence digging, and artifact looting in latin america: point, muted counterpoint.” international journal of cultural property , no. : – . ——— . b. “subsistence digging in and around belize.” phd diss., union institute, cincinnati, oh . mcsweeney , kendra , erik a. nielsen , matthew j. taylor , david j. wrathall , zoe pearson , ophelia wang , and spencer t. plumb . . “drug policy as conservation policy: narco-deforestation.” science , no. : – . paredes maury , sofia . . “surviving in the rainforest: the realities of looting in the rural villages of el petén, guatemala.” famsi reports , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://www. famsi.org/reports/ / paredesmaury .pdf . pendergast , david . . “and the loot goes on: winning some battles, but not the war.” journal of field archaeology , no. : – . pendergast , david , and elizabeth graham . . “fighting a looting battle: xunantunich belize.” archaeology , no. : – . reents-budet , dorie , linda schele , justin kerr , and michael mezzatesta . . painting the maya universe: royal ceramics of the classic period . durham, n.c .: duke university press . statistical institute of belize . . statistics of the nation , http://www.sib.org.bz/ . unodc . . global study on homicide . vienna: united nations publications, https://www. unodc.org/documents/gsh/pdfs/ _global_homicide_book_web.pdf . yates , donna . . “archaeology and autonomies: the legal framework of heritage management in a new bolivia.” international journal of cultural property , no. : – . ——— . a. “archaeological practice and political change: transitions and transformations in the use of the past in nationalist, neoliberal and indigenous bolivia.” phd diss., department of archaeology, university of cambridge . aq aq aq aq aq donna yates ——— . b. “coroma textiles.” trafficking culture website , http://web.archive.org/web/ /http://traffickingculture.org/encyclopedia/case-studies/coroma-textiles/ . ——— . . “church theft, insecurity, and community justice: the reality of source-end regulation of the market for illicit bolivian cultural objects.” european journal on criminal policy and research , no. : – . ——— . . “displacement, deforestation, and drugs: antiquities trafficking and the narcotics support economies of guatemala.” in cultural property crimes: an overview and analysis on contemporary perspectives and trends , edited by joris kila and marc balcells . brill : leiden . ——— . b. “san andrés de machaca church looting.” trafficking culture, http://web. archive.org/web/ /http://traffickingculture.org/encyclopedia/case-studies/ san-andres-de-machaca-church-looting/ . aq aq aq slavic review vites were in constant contact with a much wider variety of religions and denomi- nations than any other nation in europe. were reflections about the good and evil of tolerance alien to them? probably not. but they seldom were in the habit of writing down their reflections. the muscovites' world of ideas has to be distilled from the sources with much effort. nolte did not even attempt to learn about the intellectual disposition or indisposition of the muscovites toward tolerance in general; he sees tolerance as a legal and administrative problem. muscovite in- tellectual history is a rather risky affair, and it is understandable that nolte wanted to avoid the possible reproaches of overinterpreting the sources. but another omission can hardly be excused: nolte does not see that tolerance was also an eminently political problem. the treatment of catholics was determined by relations. with poland and by the treatment the orthodox were given by the poles; it was also determined by the union of . the decrees regulating the life of mohammedans in the muscovite state were deeply influenced by the restric- tions imposed on the orthodox living under ottoman rule. the muscovites were better informed about the living conditions of these orthodox than about any other group living outside their state. nolte refers frequently to ottoman-muscovite rela- tions (for example, pp. , , , , , ), but he fails to see their importance for his topic. for instance, he mentions that in muscovy muezzins were forbidden public performance (p. ) and the non-orthodox were not allowed to ring bells (p. ), overlooking that it was one of the standard complaints of the orthodox living in the ottoman empire that they were forbidden to ring church bells. the number of small mistakes and misspellings is above average. for example, the ukrainian historian golobuckij (correct russian form of his name p. ) is men- tioned on page once as golubickij and another time as gulobickij. nolte's book is a contribution to the administrative, legal, and partly to the economic aspects of the problem of religious tolerance in russia; the other aspects are still open to further research. walter leitsch university of vienna russian maps and atlases as historical sources. by leonid a. goldenberg. cariographica, monograph no. . translated by james r. gib- son. toronto: department of geography, york university, . iii, pp. subscription price, $ . for monographs. paper. this brief volume of cartographica originally appeared as "russian cartographic materials of the th and th centuries as an historical source and their classi-' fication," in problemy istochnikovedeniia, , no. , pp. - . the principal aim of the original version was to characterize the major kinds of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century cartographic documents and thereby bring to the historian's at- tention a wealth of relatively neglected materials important for research on the historical geography of russia. one must assume that this translation of golden- berg's work was designed to provide similar encouragement to historians and geographers outside the soviet union. in roughly forty pages of text, goldenberg deals with the evolution of russian cartographic materials, describes their content, and gives an indication of their usefulness as well as their present availability. at times the description seems dis- jointed and anecdotal. nonetheless, those unfamiliar with russian cartographic reviews materials will be impressed by their apparent richness and variety. the general survey, for example, with its associated "economic notes," provides coverage of thirty-four of the fifty-four provinces then in existence and contains detailed in- formation on land use, population, crafts, industries, and physical conditions in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. the central state archive of an- cient acts contains well over one million items related to the general survey, offer- ing the potential, when combined with other materials described by the author, to reconstruct much of the historical geography of russia. the translation itself is handsomely produced, but in size and concept this publication falls short of what one might expect in a separate issue of a monograph series. as an historical geographer, professor gibson could well have enhanced the volume by providing a substantial foreword and by using editorial comments to update the original version. unfortunately this was not done, and as a result the usefulness of the volume as a reference for historians and geographers is less than might have been expected. robert g. jensen syracuse university studies on the interior of russia. by august von haxthausen. translated by eleanore l. m. schmidt. introduction by *. frederick starr. chicago and london: university of chicago press, . xlv, pp. $ . . teachers and students of russian history will welcome this abbreviated one-volume english translation of august von haxthausen's celebrated three-volume german account of his travels in russia in . the only other english translation (also drastically shortened), that of , is now difficult to obtain. moreover, the present version is accompanied by an extensive scholarly apparatus, and it is attractively presented. the book opens with professor starr's lengthy and fasci- nating study of the author, which emphasizes not only the voyage itself but also haxthausen's continued active interest in russia, and even suggests that he, by means of a meeting and a memorandum, influenced alexander ii toward inau- gurating the emancipation of the serfs. (khomiakov's name, however, was alexis, not alexander, pp. xxiv, xxxi.) to squeeze three volumes into one "the frequent repetitions that encumber the german original have been deleted," always with appropriate markings. more important, numerous chapters and parts of chapters have been eliminated. to summarize what remains, in the scholars' own words: "the principle of selection applied throughout has been to translate those sections most closely connected with haxthausen's own deepest concerns and with those of contemporary social thought in western europe and russia. accordingly, the descriptions of village life in central russia and especially the extensive accounts of iaroslavl and nizhnii novgorod provinces are translated almost in full from volume . also included from volume is the excellent discussion of the sectarian communities, a theme followed up later in the chapter on the mennonites from volume . haxthausen's thoughtful analysis of colonization and national integration from volume is translated and abridged. finally the lengthy essays from volume on moscow, the nobility, the religiosity of russians, and the peasant commune are included. these passages, along with the analysis of colonization, present con- venient summary of haxthausen's investigations and form the basis for the author's concluding prognostications in 'the mission of russia'" (p. xliv). the translation reads well. the editor's notes are on the whole useful, although dnajc mutations in parkinson disease. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /hmg/ddt corpus id: dnajc mutations in parkinson disease. @article{vilariogell dnajc mi, title={dnajc mutations in parkinson disease.}, author={c. vilari{\~n}o-g{\"u}ell and a. rajput and a. milnerwood and brinda shah and chelsea szu-tu and j. trinh and irene yu and m. encarnacion and l. munsie and l. tapia and e. gustavsson and patrick chou and i. tatarnikov and d. evans and frederick t pishotta and m. volta and dayne beccano-kelly and c. thompson and m. k. lin and h. sherman and h. j. han and b. guenther and w. wasserman and virginie bernard and c. ross and silke appel-cresswell and a. stoessl and c. robinson and d. dickson and o. ross and z. wszolek and j. aasly and ruey‐meei wu and f. hentati and r. gibson and p. mcpherson and m. girard and m. rajput and m. farrer}, journal={human molecular genetics}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	c. vilariño-güell, a. rajput, + authors m. farrer 	published 	biology, medicine 	human molecular genetics a saskatchewan multi-incident family was clinically characterized with parkinson disease (pd) and lewy body pathology. pd segregates as an autosomal-dominant trait, which could not be ascribed to any known mutation. dna from three affected members was subjected to exome sequencing. genome alignment, variant annotation and comparative analyses were used to identify shared coding mutations. sanger sequencing was performed within the extended family and ethnically matched controls. subsequent… expand view on pubmed europepmc.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations methods citations results citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	 figure view all figures & tables 	parkinsonian disorders 	lewy body disease 	vps gene 	apc gene 	whole exome sequencing 	secondary parkinson disease 	inclusion bodies 	haplotypes 	dnajc gene 	annotation 	numerous 	biopolymer sequencing citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency dnajc mutation screening in patients with parkinson's disease from south italy. 	m. gagliardi, g. annesi, + authors a. quattrone 	medicine 	parkinsonism & related disorders 	 	 save alert research feed the rab b p.g r mutation causes x-linked dominant parkinson’s disease 	i. f. mata, yongwoo jang, + authors c. p. zabetian 	biology, medicine 	molecular neurodegeneration 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed evidence of mutations in ric acetylcholine receptor chaperone as a novel cause of autosomal-dominant parkinson's disease with non-motor phenotypes 	sumedha sudhaman, u. muthane, m. behari, s. t. govindappa, r. juyal, b. thelma 	biology, medicine 	journal of medical genetics 	 	 save alert research feed chchd mutations in autosomal dominant late-onset parkinson's disease: a genome-wide linkage and sequencing study 	m. funayama, k. ohe, taku amo, n. furuya, n. hattori 	medicine 	the lancet neurology 	 	 save alert research feed tmem variants in parkinson’s disease 	z. iqbal, m. toft 	biology, medicine 	nature genetics 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed vps and dnajc disease-causing variants in essential tremor 	a. rajput, j. p. ross, + authors c. vilariño-güell 	biology, medicine 	european journal of human genetics 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed title the rab b p . g r mutation causes x-linked dominant parkinson ' s disease permalink 	i. f. mata, yongwoo jang, + authors c. p. zabetian 	 	 	view excerpt save alert research feed lack of tmem mutations in patients with familial and sporadic parkinson's disease in a taiwanese population 	tian-sin fan, chin-hsien lin, hang-i lin, meng-ling chen, ruey‐meei wu 	medicine 	american journal of medical genetics. part b, neuropsychiatric genetics : the official publication of the international society of psychiatric genetics 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed a homozygous parkin p.g r mutation in a chinese family with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism 	h. chen, xiangjun huang, lamei yuan, hong xia, h. deng 	biology, medicine 	neuroscience letters 	 	 save alert research feed whole-exome sequencing in familial parkinson disease. 	janice l. farlow, laurie a robak, + authors t. foroud 	biology, medicine 	jama neurology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency vps mutations in parkinson disease. 	c. vilariño-güell, c. wider, + authors m. farrer 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpts, references methods and background save alert research feed mutations in lrrk cause autosomal-dominant parkinsonism with pleomorphic pathology 	a. zimprich, s. biskup, + authors t. gasser 	biology, medicine 	neuron 	 	 , 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed a mutation in vps , encoding a subunit of the retromer complex, causes late-onset parkinson disease. 	a. zimprich, a. benet-pagès, + authors t. strom 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed characterization of dctn genetic variability in neurodegeneration 	c. vilariño-güell, c. wider, + authors m. farrer 	biology, medicine 	neurology 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism 	t. kitada, s. asakawa, + authors n. shimizu 	biology, medicine 	nature 	 	 , save alert research feed cloning of the gene containing mutations that cause park -linked parkinson's disease 	c. paisán-ruiz, s. jain, + authors a. singleton 	biology, medicine 	neuron 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed genomewide association study for susceptibility genes contributing to familial parkinson disease 	n. pankratz, j. wilk, + authors coordinators and molecular genetic laboratories the psg—progeni and genepd investigators 	biology, medicine 	human genetics 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed translation initiator eif g mutations in familial parkinson disease. 	marie-christine chartier-harlin, j. dachsel, + authors m. farrer 	biology, medicine 	american journal of human genetics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references methods save alert research feed the curious case of phenocopies in families with genetic parkinson's disease 	c. klein, r. chuang, c. marras, a. lang 	biology, medicine 	movement disorders : official journal of the movement disorder society 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed mutation in the α-synuclein gene identified in families with parkinson's disease 	m. polymeropoulos, c. lavedan, + authors r. nussbaum 	biology 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue genes g c a t t a c g g c a t article pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ polymorphisms and association with metabolic traits in teenagers from northern mexico martín a. carrillo-venzor , nancy r. erives-anchondo , janette g. moreno-gonzález , verónica moreno-brito , angel licón-trillo , everardo gonzález-rodríguez , pilar del carmen hernández-rodríguez , sandra a. reza-lópez , verónica loera-castañeda and irene leal-berumen ,* faculty of medicine and biomedical sciences, autonomous university of chihuahua, circuito universitario, campus ii, chihuahua , mexico; a @uach.mx (m.a.c.-v.); smtp_gmail@uach.mx (n.r.e.-a.); jgmoreno@uach.mx (j.g.m.-g.); vmoreno@uach.mx (v.m.-b.); alicon@uach.mx (a.l.t.); evegonzal@uach.mx (e.g.-r.); sreza@uach.mx (s.a.r.-l.) faculty of chemical sciences, autonomous university of chihuahua, circuito universitario, campus ii, chihuahua , mexico; pilar_hernandez@inclar.com ciidir-ipn, durango , mexico; veronica.loera@gmail.com * correspondence: ileal@uach.mx received: may ; accepted: july ; published: july ���������� ������� abstract: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (ppars) play roles in glucose and lipid metabolism regulation. pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ have been associated with dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia and high body mass index (bmi). we compared metabolic traits and determined associations with pro ala ppar-γ or + t/c ppar-δ polymorphism among teenagers from different ethnicity. four hundred and twelve samples with previous biochemical and biometric measurements were used. genomic dna from peripheral blood was extracted and analyzed by end-point pcr for pro ala ppar-γ . the + t/c ppar-δ pcr product was also digested with bsl i. two genotype groups were formed: major allele homozygous and minor allele carriers. pro ala ppar-γ g minor allele frequencies were: % in mestizo- , % in mestizo- , % in tarahumara, % in mennonite, and % in the total studied population. the + t/c ppar-δ c minor allele frequencies were: % in mestizo- , % in mestizo- , % in tarahumara, % in mennonite, and % in the total studied population. teenagers with ppar-γ g allele showed a greater risk for either high waist/height ratio or low high-density lipoprotein; and, also had lower total cholesterol. whereas, ppar-γ g allele showed lower overweight/obesity phenotype (bmi z-score) frequency, ppar-δ c allele was a risk factor for it. metabolic traits were associated with both ppar polymorphisms. keywords: pro ala; + t/c; ppars polymorphisms; metabolic traits; allele frequencies; major/minor allele; genotypes . introduction the worldwide prevalence of obesity in was % in children and % in adults [ ]. according to the organization for economic co-operation and development (oecd) heavy burden of obesity , close to % of the population from the countries members of the oecd have overweight and nearly % have obesity. obesity and related diseases will reduce life expectancy . – . years in the future and million premature deaths are expected due to obesity-related diseases by [ ]. in the us, the obesity rate has increased from . to . % in – year-old teenagers between genes , , ; doi: . /genes www.mdpi.com/journal/genes http://www.mdpi.com/journal/genes http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /genes http://www.mdpi.com/journal/genes https://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= genes , , of and [ ]. obesity has also increased drastically in mexico. according to the encuesta nacional de salud y nutrición , the overweight/obesity prevalence in mexico was . % for – year-olds [ ]. ppars play roles in physiology, pathology, and whole-body energy regulation, lipid and glucose metabolism. pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ have been associated with dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, and overweight/obesity. ppars are peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily, located in a wide variety of tissues and cells. they are ligand-activated nuclear transcription factors that interact with complex metabolic networks [ , ]. the ppar-γ gene is located on chromosome p (omim number ) and it encodes three proteins isoforms [ , ]. the ppar-γ isoform is expressed in most tissues; the γ is seen in macrophages, colon epithelium, and adipose tissue [ ]. however, the γ is specific for adipose tissue and it can be activated by fatty acids including prostanoids, thiazolidinediones, and other insulin-sensitizing antidiabetic agents [ , ]. the pro ala polymorphism is a missense coding variant (cca to gca) in γ , which results in a proline (major allele) to alanine (minor allele) substitution (rs ) [ ]. the presence of this single nucleotide polymorphism (snp) has been associated with type diabetes (t d) related traits, hypertension, abnormal lipid profile, insulin resistance, and greater body mass index (bmi) [ , ]. several meta-analysis studies have reported between – % increased risk of t d in adult population from europe, north america, and east asia with a pro allele [ , ]. however, different results have been reported regarding bmi and pro ala polymorphism in other ethnic groups [ – ]. the prevalence of the modified ala allele varies from about % in asian populations to % in caucasians [ ]. the ppar-δ gene is located in chromosome p . (omim number ) with exons [ ]. it has ubiquitous expression; however, its greatest expression occurs in tissues with high lipid metabolism, including the small intestine, heart, adipose tissue, and skeletal muscle [ ]. ppar-δ can be activated by polyunsaturated fatty acids and synthetic compound gw [ ]. the + t/c polymorphism (rs ) is also called − t/c or + c/t and is a t (major allele)–c (minor allele) base exchange in the ′-utr region of the gene [ , ]. the presence of this snp has been related to several metabolic traits. it is mostly associated with alterations in the blood levels of hdl, ldl, vldl, and triglycerides [ – ]. there is also an association between the c allele and bmi, glucose levels, height, and coronary heart disease (chd) [ , , , – ]. the prevalence of the c allele varies among different populations: . % to . % in chinese people, . % in germans, . % in french canadians and % in mexicans [ , , , , ]. a few studies in mexican teenagers have shown association with pro ala ppar-γ polymorphism with obesity-related traits. stryjecki et al. reported an association between this polymorphism with insulin resistance in mexican children [ ]. no studies about + t/c ppar δ polymorphism and metabolic traits in mexican children were found. the aim of this study is to determine the association between pro ala ppar-γ or + t/c ppar-δ polymorphisms with metabolic traits in mexican teenagers from different ethnic populations in chihuahua, mexico. we focused on teenagers to investigate whether polymorphisms and clinical metabolic traits relate, since the early detection of inherited polymorphisms, which cannot be modified, will allow us to promote preventive behaviors as eating healthy food, eating schedules, and physical activity. . materials and methods . . study population the facultad de medicina y ciencias biomédicas, ethical research committee board (protocol registration numbers fm-fm-a / and ci- - ) from the universidad autónoma de chihuahua approved the study protocol; written authorization was obtained from one of the parents or tutors. there were blood samples collected from unrelated adolescents aged – years. samples were collected from a previous scholar health care study in three different populations (mestizo, tarahumara, and mennonite) from chihuahua, mexico. however, two mestizo groups were considered (mestizo- genes , , of and mestizo- ), since they were from different geographic locations. moreover, we found significant differences when clinical metabolic traits were compared between them. on the other hand, a parallel study in our lab (same mestizos) showed significant differences in mitochondrial haplotype frequencies between these two groups (results not shown). recruitment was done in collaboration with public high schools not randomly selected. the data used to support the findings of this study are restricted by the ethics board “comité de Ética en investigación de la facultad de medicina y ciencias biomédicas de la universidad autónoma de chihuahua”, in order to protect participants’ confidentiality. data are available from irene leal-berumen, ileal@uach.mx, for the researchers who meet the criteria for access to confidential data. . . phenotyping all of the participants were weighed while using a digital scale (tanita bc- , ilinois, usa), and height was measured with a portable stadiometer (hm p, taichung, taiwan). the waist circumference (wc) was measured at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest after a normal exhalation with students in the standing position, and percentile waist circumference was classified as <p normal or ≥p increased [ , ]. the waist-to-height ratio (whr) is a novel abdominal overweight indicator < . is normal, ≥ . is overweight, and ≥ . is obese [ ]. body mass index was calculated as weight (kg)/height(m ) and individual values were then compared to bmi-for age and sex-specific reference charts in order to obtain their percentile and the z-score value [ – ]. the percentile bmi (pbmi) was classified as p to <p as normal, p to <p overweight, and ≥p obese according to cdc growth reference charts, while for z-score > . [ ]. blood samples were obtained after – h fast to measure the following via an automated clinical analyzer (prestige i; tokio, boeki medical system ltd, japan): fasting glucose, total cholesterol (tc), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (hdl), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (ldl), and triglycerides (tg). the metabolic traits cut-off points included high blood pressure, defined as systolic and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥ p (sbp/dbp); waist circumference ≥ p ; tg ≥ mg/dl; hdl ≤ mg/dl; and, high blood glucose ≥ mg/dl according to cook et al. [ ]. other metabolic traits risk values were included tc ≥ mg/dl, ldl ≥ mg/dl, and the atherogenic index (ai = tc/hdl; male > . and female > . ) [ , ]. . . genotyping genomic dna was isolated from a peripheral blood buffy coat while using a master pure epicentre kit (thermo scientific, madison, wi, usa). the pro ala ppar-γ polymorphism was genotyped by mutagenically separated pcr with two different length allele-specific downstream primers (p and p ) and a common upstream primer (p ). the p ( ′-gtgtatcagtgaaggaatcgctttcttg- ′) was specific for the c allele (pro); and p ( ′-ttgtgatatgtttgcagacaaggtatcagtgaaggaatcgctttgtgc- ′) bound to the g allele (ala). the p (upstream primer) was ′-tttctgtgtttattcccatctctccc- ′. the bases underlined and in bold type indicate the location of mismatches to maintain the specificity of the two separate amplification reactions. here, dna ( ng) was added to a ml reaction mix containing mm mgcl , pmol p , pmol p , pmol p , mm dntp´s, and u taq polymerase (invitrogen, carlsbad, ca, usa). the pcr conditions used an initial denaturation of min. at ◦c followed by cycles of denaturation at ◦c for s, annealing at ◦c for s, and extension at ◦c for s. the final extension step was min. at ◦c (agilent surecycler , santa clara, ca, usa). a bp product identified the pro allele, and the ala-specific product was bp. electrophoresis used . % agarose (figure s ) [ ]. the + t/c ppar-δ polymorphism genotyping used endpoint pcr with ′-catggtatagcactgcaggaa- ′ (forward) and ′-cttcctcctgtggctgctc- ′ (reverse) primers. the -ml mix reaction contained . mm mgcl , . µm forward primer, . µm reverse primer, µm dntps, and u taq polymerase (invitrogen, carlsbad, ca, usa). the pcr conditions were the same as in the pro ala polymorphism. the bp resulting pcr product was genes , , of digested with u fast bsl i (thermo scientific, madison, wi, usa) restriction enzyme for h at ◦c. the % polyacrylamide electrophoresis was used to identify the three different genotypes: single bp fragment for tt, three fragments for tc ( , , and bp), and two fragments for cc ( and bp) (figure s ) [ ]. . . statistical analysis an exploratory analysis was performed to verify the data quality and observe variable distribution and frequencies. normality tests were conducted for variables measured in ratio scale. the mean and standard deviation or median and interquartile range were used to describe normally (sbp, glucose, total cholesterol, and ldl) or non-normally distributed variables (the other metabolic traits), respectively. metabolic traits measured in ratio scale were analyzed as continuous or categorical variables with the cutoffs defined in section . . for comparisons among ethnic groups or polymorphism groups, we used either anova or t-test for normally distributed variables, and kruskal–wallis or wilcoxon rank sum test (non-parametric tests) for non-normally distributed variables. for linear regression analyses we log-transformed non-normally distributed variables, as described in the following paragraphs. to compare metabolic traits measured in continuous scale among ethnic groups we used anova—for normally distributed—or kruskal–wallis test—for non-normally distributed—variables, followed by post hoc bonferroni´s test or dunn´s test with bonferroni adjustment, respectively, for pairwise comparisons. significant differences between ethnic groups were indicated by different superscripts (a–e). when groups were not statistically different, they share the same letter; therefore, some groups may have more than one superscript letter. the frequency and percentage were used to describe categorical variables. the chi test was used to compare groups and to verify hardy-weinberg equilibrium (hwe). we formed two groups according to ppar-γ and ppar-δ genotypes (major vs. minor allele carriers). comparison of metabolic traits between the two allelic groups was performed with t-test or wilcoxon´s rank sum test for normal or non-normally distributed variables, respectively. the α value was adjusted for multiple comparisons by the holm–bonferroni method, to correct for family-wise error rate. multiple linear regression models were used to adjust the relation between metabolic traits (as continuous variables) and genotype groups for potential confounders and effect modifiers using a forward inclusion of variables. metabolic trait variables with a non-normal distribution were log-transformed (tg, hdl, vldl, and atherogenic index) to reach normality, only in the case of the diastolic blood pressure, we left the original values, because the distribution did not reach normality with any of the tested transformations. the model residuals were analyzed and a heteroskedasticity test was performed to verify linear regression assumptions. in further analyses, we included ethnic groups as dummy variables and as fixed effects, for the analyses performed in the entire sample. because we found interaction effects between the polymorphism and ethnic groups, we conducted a stratified analysis, by ethnic group. dichotomous variables of metabolic traits were compared by pearson’s chi or fisher exact test. logistic regression models were used to calculate the odds ratio (or) of metabolic traits (dichotomous) according to the genotype groups. the reference group was homozygous for the major allele for both ppar polymorphisms. logistic regression analysis was performed on the total studied population only due to the limited sample size in some ethnic groups, which led to very low frequencies in some categories. a p-value < . was considered to be statistically significant, unless otherwise specified. all of the statistical analyses were performed with stata software (v. . , statacorp, college station, tx, usa). genes , , of . results . . population characteristics and metabolic traits among them three main ethnic populations were studied, mestizo, tarahumara, and mennonite. however, the mestizo group was separated in two: mestizo- and mestizo- , since they were from a different location and showed significant differences between them. the median age in the total studied population was years and . % were females. the mestizo- group had the highest overweight/obese phenotype proportion according to their pbmi (table ). table . general characteristics of studied populations. characteristic mestizo- n = ( %) mestizo- n = ( %) tarahumara n = ( %) mennonite n = ( %) total (n = ) md (iqr) md (iqr) md (iqr) md (iqr) md (iqr) age (years) ( – ) a ( – ) a ( – ) b ( – ) c ( – ) weight (kg) ( – ) a ( – ) b,d ( – ) a ( – ) c,d ( – ) height (cm) ( – ) a ( – ) a ( – ) b ( – ) c ( – ) bmi (kg/m ) ( – ) a ( – ) b ( – ) c,d ( – ) a,d ( – ) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) sex male ( )a ( )a ( )b ( )a ( ) female ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) pbmi ≥ th (kg/m ) ( )a ( )b ( )a ( )a ( ) ethnic group characteristics were compared by kruskal-wallis test, followed by post hoc dunn’s test with bonferroni adjustment a–d different letters indicate significant differences between ethnic groups by pairwise comparisons. abbreviations: md = median, iqr = interquartile range, bmi (body mass index, pbmi (body mass index percentile). metabolic traits were compared among the ethnic populations (table ). relevant differences were observed among them. the mestizo- group showed greater values for bmi z-score, waist circumference, and waist/height ratio, but lower glucose levels when compared to the other populations. the tarahumara and mestizo- populations had higher triglycerides values compared to mestizo- and mennonite, whereas the tarahumara group had the lowest hdl levels with greater atherogenic index as compared to the others. the prevalence of altered metabolic traits in total studied population included overweight/obesity . % (by bmi z-score), high blood pressure . %, high waist circumference . %, high waist/height ratio . %, hyperglycemia . %, hypertriglyceridemia . %, high cholesterol . %, low hdl . %, high ldl . %, high vldl . %, and high atherogenic index . %. table . metabolic traits comparison among the studied populations. characteristic mestizo- mestizo- tarahumara mennonite total mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) bmi (z-score) . (− . – . ) a . (. – . ) b . (- . – . ) a,c - . (- . – . ) a,d . (- . – . ) sbp (mmhg) ± a ± a ± a ± a ± dbp (mmhg) ( – ) a ( – ) a,c ( – ) a ( – ) b,c ( – ) wc (cm) ( – ) a ( – ) b,e ( – ) c ( – ) d,e ( – ) whr . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) b . ( . – . ) c . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) glucose (mg/dl) ± a ± b ± a ± c ± tg (mg/dl) ( – ) a ( – ) a,c ( – ) b,c ( – ) a,d ( – ) tc (mg/dl) ± a ± a ± a ± a ± hdl (mg/dl) ( – ) a ( – ) a ( – ) b ( – ) a ( – ) ldl (mg/dl) ± a ± a ± a ± a ± vldl (mg/dl) ( – ) a ( – ) a,c ( – ) b,c ( – ) a,d ( – ) ai (index) . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) b . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) ethnic group metabolic traits were compared by anova or kruskal-wallis test for normally or non-normally distributed data, followed by post hoc bonferroni or dunn’s tests, respectively. a–e different letters in the superscript indicate significant difference between ethnic groups by pairwise comparisons. abbreviations: md = median, iqr = interquartile range, sd = standard deviation, bmi (body mass index), sbp (systolic blood pressure), dbp (diastolic blood pressure), wc (waist circumference), whr (waist/height ratio), tc (total cholesterol), tg (triglycerides), vldl (very density lipoproteins cholesterol), ldl (low density lipoproteins cholesterol), hdl (high low density lipoproteins cholesterol), and ai (atherogenic index). genes , , of . . pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ the genotype and allelic frequency distribution were compared among populations. for ppar-γ , no significant difference was observed among mestizo- , mestizo- , and mennonite populations; however, the genotype distribution in tarahumara was different between mestizo- and mennonite, but not with mestizo- (table ). similar results were observed for ppar-δ genotype distribution—only the tarahumara population showed a different genotype distribution (table ). the polymorphisms pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ were in hardy–weinberg equilibrium in all of the ethnic groups and total studied population. table . pro ala ppar-γ genotype and allelic frequencies comparison among populations. ppar-γ mestizo- n (%) mestizo- n (%) tarahumara n (%) mennonite n (%) total n (%) cc ( ) a ( ) a,c ( ) b,c ( ) a ( ) cg ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) gg ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) hwe p . . . . c ( ) a ( ) a,c ( ) b,c ( ) a ( ) g ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) chi test. a–c different letters indicate significant difference in genotype and allelic frequencies among groups p < . . hwe p (hardy-weinberg equilibrium p). g = minor allele. the tarahumara (b,c) group differed from mestizo- (a) and mennonite (a), but not from mestizo- (a,c). mestizo- (a), mestizo- (a) and mennonite (a) were not different. the difference between mestizo- and mestizo- showed a p value = . . table . + t/c ppar-δ genotype and allelic frequencies comparison among populations. ppar-δ mestizo- n (%) mestizo- n (%) tarahumara n (%) mennonite n (%) total n (%) tt ( ) a ( ) a ( ) b ( ) a ( ) tc ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) cc ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) hwe p . . . . . t ( ) a ( ) a ( ) b ( ) a ( ) c ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) chi test. a,b different letters indicate significant differences in genotype and allelic frequencies among groups p < . . hwe p (hardy-weinberg equilibrium p). c = minor allele. the tarahumara group differed from the other ethnic groups. . . metabolic traits by pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ polymorphism genotype: major allele homozygous vs. minor allele carriers in the total studied population statistical analysis showed significant differences in waist/height ratio and hdl median values between ppar-γ alleles. the α value was adjusted for multiple comparisons by the holm–bonferroni method, to correct for family-wise error rate. this association remained significant after adjusting for multiple testing (cut off p value = . ), whereas the difference in waist/height ratio did not (cut off p value = . ). individuals showed significant differences in tg, hdl, and vldl median values, according with their ppar-δ genotype. however, the association between ppar-δ and hdl did not remain significant after correcting for multiple testing, while significance remained for tg and vldl (table ). genes , , of table . metabolic traits comparison between pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ genotype (major allele homozygous vs. minor allele carriers) in the total studied population. metabolic traits pro ala ppar-γ + t/c ppar-δ cc (n = ) cg/gg (n = ) tt (n = ) tc/cc (n = ) mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) p mean ± sd/md (iqr) mean ± sd/md (iqr) p bmi (z-score) . (− . – . ) . (- . – . ) . # . (- . – . ) . (− . – . ) . # sbp (mmhg) ± ± . * ± ± . * dbp (mmhg) ( – ) ( – ) . # ( – ) ( – ) . # wc (cm) ( – ) ( – ) . # ( – ) ( – ) . # whr . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . # . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . # glucose (mg/dl) ± ± . * ± ± . * tg (mg/dl) ( – ) ( – ) . # ( – ) ( – ) . # tc (mg/dl) ± ± . * ± ± . * hdl (mg/dl) ( – ) ( – ) < . # ( – ) ( – ) . # ldl (mg/dl) ± ± . * ± ± . * vldl (mg/dl) ( – ) ( – ) . # ( – ) ( – ) . # ai (index) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . # . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . # groups were compared by * t-student test or # wilcoxon’s rank sum test for normally or non-normally distributed data, respectively. the association between ppar-γ polymorphism and hdl remained significant after adjusting for multiple testing by the holm-bonferroni method (cut off p value = . ) but the one of whr did not (cut off p value = . ). the association between ppar-δ and hdl did not remain significant after correcting for multiple testing; while significance remained for tg and vldl. abbreviations: md = median, iqr = interquartile range, sd = standard deviation, bmi (body mass index), sbp (systolic blood pressure), dbp (diastolic blood pressure), wc (waist circumference), whr (waist/height ratio), tc (total cholesterol), tg (triglycerides), vldl (very density lipoproteins cholesterol), ldl (low density lipoproteins cholesterol), hdl (high low density lipoproteins cholesterol), ai (atherogenic index), pbp (blood pressure percentile), and pwc (waist circumference percentile). . . association between pro ala ppar-γ and metabolic traits among the clinical variables, sex was significantly associated (p < . ) with all metabolic traits, except for diastolic blood pressure and age was also associated with all, except for ldl and atherogenic index. therefore, we included them as covariates in multivariate models. associations between metabolic traits and the polymorphism pro ala ppar-γ were found with glucose, hdl, and atherogenic index in the total studied population, adjusting for clinical variables (age, sex, and or waist circumference). minor allele carries had lower hdl and glucose levels and higher atherogenic index, than major allele homozygous. however, analysis according to ethnic populations only showed a significant association in the mestizo- group with sbp and hdl. the minor allele carriers had ~ . mmhg lower sbp (adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age) and ~ . mg/dl lower hdl than major allele homozygotes (log(− . ), adjusted by waist circumference and sex) (table ). after also adjusting for ethnic group, only the association of atherogenic index remained significant. the interaction effect of sex and age for sbp showed that men had a slight elevation in spb as age increased. the ppar-γ and atherogenic index relation was modified by the waist circumference. atherogenic index increased as waist circumference increased, but this relation differed by the studied polymorphism (table footnote). after also adjusting for ethnic group (last column), only the association of atherogenic index remained significant. an interaction effect between the polymorphism and the ethnic group was also observed for ldl. . . association between + t/c ppar-δ and metabolic traits associations between + t/c ppar-δ and metabolic traits in the total studied population were observed with glucose, tg, tc, and vldl. c allele carries had . mg/dl less glucose (adjusted by waist circumference, sex and age), . mg/dl less tg (log(− . ), adjusted by sex and age), . mg/dl less vldl (log(− . ), adjusted by waist circumference, sex and age), and . mg/dl more tc (adjusted by sex and age) than major allele homozygotes. among ethnic groups, the only association was found in the tarahumara population with hdl where c allele carriers had . mg/dl less hdl genes , , of (log(− . ), adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age) than major allele homozygotes (table ). the relation between ppar-δ allele and hdl was modified by sex. in male teenagers, the hdl levels were higher in c allele carriers versus major allele homozygotes; no differences were noted in females (figure a). in the total studied population, ppar-δ and ldl relation was also modified by sex. males with the major allele had the lowest values of ldl versus females and males with minor allele carriers (figure b). the same interaction was found in mestizo- population (table footnote). after adjusting for ethnic group (table , last column), the association of the polymorphism and glucose levels remained significant, as well as the interaction effect between the polymorphism and sex for ldl. we also observed a significant interaction effect between ethnic group and this polymorphism in its relation to hdl and atherogenic index. table . association/interaction between pro ala ppar-γ polymorphism and metabolic traits by population groups. metabolic trait mestizo- mestizo- tarahumara mennonite total total (adjusted) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) sbp (mmhg) * − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) *, ++ ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) + dbp (mmhg) * − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) ‡( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) glucose (mg/dl) * − . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) *, – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) - tg (log mg/dl) * − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . - . ± . ( . ) §( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) tc (mg/dl) # − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) ¶( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) hdl (log mg/dl) ˆ − . ± . <− . ± . . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) ‡ ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ~ ldl (mg/dl) * . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) ˆ ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) vldl (log mg/dl) * − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . − . ± . ( . ) §( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ai (log) ˆ . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . ( . ) ˆ, //( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) / analyses on total studied population were adjusted for waist circumference and/or sex, and/or age, as indicated in variable names and ethnic groups. total studied population adjusted models included ethnic groups as fixed effects, in addition to those indicated by the superscript. variables with non-normal distribution were log transformed (hdl, tg, vldl and ai). coefficients for interaction terms are described below and indicated by symbols in the table. * adjusted for waist circumference, sex and age. # adjusted for sex and age. ˆ adjusted for waist circumference and sex. ‡ adjusted for waist circumference. § adjusted for waist circumference and age. ¶ adjusted for sex. + interaction sex x age (β = − . ± . , p = . ), ++ interaction sex x age (β = . ± . , p = . ). - interaction polymorphism x waist circumference (β = . ± . , p = . ), – interaction polymorphism x waist circumference (β = . ± . , p = . ). ~ interaction sex x waist circumference (β = . ± . , p = . ). / interaction polymorphism x waist circumference (β = − . ± . , p = . ), // interaction polymorphism x waist circumference (β = − . ± . , p = . ). abbreviations: sbp (systolic blood pressure), dbp (diastolic blood pressure), tc (total cholesterol), tg (triglycerides), hdl (high density lipoproteins cholesterol), ldl (low density lipoproteins cholesterol), vldl (very low-density lipoproteins cholesterol), and ai (atherogenic index). figure . (a) interaction between ppar-δ mutated allele and sex: effect in hdl levels. *β = - . ± . , p = . . (b) interaction between ppar-δ mutated allele and sex: effect in ldl levels. *β = . ± . , p = . . female, male. genes , , of table . association between + t/c ppar-δ polymorphism and metabolic traits in studied populations. metabolic trait mestizo- mestizo- tarahumara mennonite total total (adjusted) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) n = ( ) β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se β ± se (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) (p) sbp (mmhg) * . ± . . ± . . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) * dbp (mmhg) # − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) # glucose (mg/dl) * − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) *( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) tg (log mg/dl) * − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) #( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) tc (mg/dl) ˆ − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . ( . ) &, ++( ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) + hdl (log mg/dl) * . ± . . ± . − . ± . . ± . < . ± . . ± . ( . ) ‡( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) - ldl (mg/dl) * − . ± . . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) ‡,~~( . ) / ( . ) ( . ) ˆ ( . ) & ( . ) ‡,~ vldl (log mg/dl) * . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) #( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ai (log) * − . ± . − . ± . . ± . − . ± . − . ± . − . ± . ( . ) #( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) analyses on total studied population were adjusted for waist circumference and/or sex, and/or age, as indicated in variable names and ethnic groups. total studied population. adjusted models included ethnic groups as fixed effects, in addition to those indicated by the superscript. variables with non-normal distribution were log transformed (hdl, tg, vldl and ai). coefficients for interaction terms are described below and indicated by symbols in the table. * adjusted for waist circumference, sex, and age. # adjusted for waist circumference and age. ˆ adjusted for sex and age. & adjusted for age. ‡ adjusted for waist circumference. + interaction polymorphism x age (β = − . ± . , p = . ), ++ interaction polymorphism x age (β = − . ± . , p = . ). - interaction polymorphism x sex (β = − . ± . , p = . ). ~ interaction polymorphism x sex (β = − . ± . p = . ), ~~ interaction polymorphism x sex (β = − . ± . p = . ). / interaction polymorphism x and sex (β = − . ± . p = . ). significant differences in bold p < . . abbreviations: sbp (systolic blood pressure), dbp (diastolic blood pressure), tc (total cholesterol), tg (triglycerides), hdl (high density lipoproteins cholesterol), ldl (low density lipoproteins cholesterol), vldl (very low density lipoproteins cholesterol), and ai (atherogenic index). . . logistic regression in the total studied population, pro ala ppar-γ minor allele carriers had greater likelihood of having an elevated waist-height ratio (or = . , adjusted by sex) and . -fold greater chance of having low hdl values (adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age) than major allele homozygous. in contrast, they had a nearly two-fold lower likelihood of having a bmi z-score suggestive of overweight/obesity (or = . ) and increased tc (or = . , adjusted by sex and age) than major allele homozygous. the ppar-δ minor allele carriers had greater likelihood (or = . ) of having a bmi z-score that was suggestive of overweight/obesity (table ). no significant interactions were seen between both minor alleles. table . association between pro ala ppar-γ or + t/c ppar-δ with metabolic traits in the total studied population. metabolic traits pro ala ppar-γ + t/c ppar-δ cc cg/gg adjusted or ( %ci) p tt c/cc adjusted or ( %ci) p(n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) bmi (z-score > . ) ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . pbp ≥ th ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) ( . – . ) . pwc ≥ th ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . genes , , of table . cont. metabolic traits pro ala ppar-γ + t/c ppar-δ cc cg/gg adjusted or ( %ci) p tt c/cc adjusted or ( %ci) p(n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) whr > . * ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ¶ ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . glucose ≥ (mg/dl) ** ( ) ( ) – ( ) ( ) – tg ≥ ˆ (mg/dl) ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . tc ≥ # (mg/dl) ( ) ( ) . ( . – ) . - ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ~ hdl ≤ @ (mg/dl) ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) < . ( ) ( ) ( . – . ) . / ldl ≥ ‡ (mg/dl) ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . vldl ≥ ‡ (mg/dl) ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ai (m > f > . ) & ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . ( ) ( ) . ( . – . ) . reference: homozygous group for major allele. * adjusted by sex,# adjusted by sex and age, ˆ adjusted by waist circumference and age, @ adjusted by waist circumference, sex and age, ‡ adjusted by waist circumference, & adjusted by sex and wc. ¶ interaction polymorphism x sex (β = . ± . , p = . ), - interaction sex x age (β = . ± . , p = . ), ~ interaction sex x age (β = . ± . , p = . ), / interaction polymorphism x sex (β = . ± . , p = . ). ** odds ratio was not calculated, due to the low frequency of individuals in the high-glucose category. abbreviations: pbp (blood pressure percentile), pwc (waist circumference percentile), whr (waist-height ratio), tc (total cholesterol), tg (triglycerides), hdl (high low density lipoproteins cholesterol), ldl (low density lipoproteins cholesterol), vldl (very low density lipoproteins cholesterol), and ai (atherogenic index) m = male, f = female. . discussion in this study, we analyzed the association between the pro ala ppar-γ or + t/c ppar-δ polymorphisms and metabolic traits in teenagers from the north of mexico, including mestizo, tarahumara, and mennonite populations. hispanic populations have a higher tendency for obesity than other caucasians due to their genetic origin and cultural characteristics [ – ]. mexican-origin population have native american and spanish admixture. however, salzano et al. reported that amerindian ancestry is most prevalent in the general population of mexico followed by european ancestry [ ]. the mexican territory is extensive, it borders with countries of north and central america. in addition, mexico has a great history of spanish colonization and the arrival of a large number of immigrants of african and european origin. therefore, it is not surprising to find diversity in the population in this country. the interest of this study was to include the three most representative populations of the chihuahua state, northern of mexico. the overweight/obesity prevalence in the total studied population was . %, which is lower than the national prevalence reported among mexican teenagers in ( . %) [ ]. however, it was similar to the us national report in ( . %) [ ]. mestizo- group had the highest overweight/obesity prevalence ( %) when compared to the other ethnic populations—this might be because they are from an urbanized location. benitez et al. found that urban tarahumara children were % more overweight than rural tarahumara children in chihuahua, mexico [ ]. the high blood pressure prevalence in the total studied population was . % similar to the frequency that was reported by salcedo-rocha et al. ( . %) and higher than that found by cardoso-saldaña et al. ( . %) in mexican adolescents [ , ]. the results in mexicans are significantly higher than values reported by the nhanes in american teenagers ( . %) [ ]. in contrast, the hypertriglyceridemia and hdl prevalence in this study was lower than most reported in mexican teenagers [ , ]. the prevalence of hyperglycemia was low ( . %) similar to the reported by cardoso-saldaña et al. ( . %), but different the reported by camarillo-romero et al. ( . %) [ , ]. among the four ethnic groups analyzed in this study, the mennonites were the healthiest, whereas the mestizo- population had the greater genes , , of number of metabolic traits above normal values. the metabolic indicators we chose are considered metabolic syndrome risk factors for adults. even though the study population appeared to be in healthy individuals—no clinical setting—there was a percentage of teenagers with values outside the expected for healthy populations. this suggests that at these early ages, some metabolic risks could be detected, thus providing an opportunity window for intervention targeted to modifiable factors of obesity and chronic non-transmissible diseases. ppars play complex, overlapping, and specific roles in metabolic networks by regulating cellular energy homeostasis during lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. therefore, ppars have been considered as potential therapeutic targets [ ]. however, the allele frequencies vary among different populations. the pro ala ppar-γ g minor allele frequency in the literature ranges from % to % [ , – , , ]. in this study, the frequency in the total studied population was %, while other studies in mexican population report – % [ , ]. similarly, the + t/c ppar-δ c minor allele frequencies vary from % to % among different populations [ , , , – , , – ]. we found that the + t/c ppar-δ c allele frequency in the total studied population was %, which is lower than what was found in other mexican population ( %) by rosales-reynoso et al. [ ]. differences in both ppar-γ and ppar-δ allelic and genotype frequencies were only observed in the tarahumara group. this might be explained by differences in ethnic admixture; however, further studies are needed. the pro ala ppar-γ g minor allele has been associated with hypertension, insulin resistance, greater bmi, and lipemia profiles, mainly in adult population. with the multiple linear regression analysis, we found significant associations with several metabolic traits: systolic blood pressure, glucose, hdl, and atherogenic index. however, except for the atherogenic index, these associations were no longer significant after adjusting for ethnic group. hasan et al. in egyptian populations reported that the polymorphism was related to lower sbp and dbp values in patients with t d and chd [ ]. however, most literature reports an opposite association with higher blood pressure values (sbp and dbp) in individuals from the usa, finland, and spain [ – ]. we also found a relation between the pro ala ppar-γ g allele and lower glucose values (adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age). most studies showed no association between the polymorphism and glucose levels in other populations, such as tunisian (adjusted by age and bmi), cypriot, egyptian, and emirati populations [ , , , ]. other studies have reported an association of minor allele with increased insulin [ , ]. it would have been interesting to have insulin data in this study. in terms of lipemia, we only found an association between the pro ala ppar-γ -minor allele and lower hdl values in the total studied population and the mestizo- group (adjusted by waist circumference and sex). after the adjustment for ethnic group, this relation was no significant. in contrast, to the higher hdl levels reported in finnish population, becer et al. found no association between the snp and lipemia traits in non-obese cypriot subjects; however, obese subjects with homozygous minor genotype had increased tg values [ , ]. this suggests that obesity may interact with pro ala ppar-γ g minor allele and lipemia traits. as expected, we found an association between the pro ala ppar-γ g allele and higher atherogenic index. the + t/c ppar-δ polymorphism has been related to hdl, ldl, vldl, and tg. with a multiple linear regression analysis, we found significant associations between the ppar-δ polymorphism and glucose, tg, total cholesterol, hdl, and vldl. the presence of the minor allele was associated with lower glucose values in this study (adjusted by waist circumference, sex and age). in contrast, hu et al. found that the minor allele associated with higher glucose concentrations in shanghai, china population (adjusted by age and sex) [ ]. whereas, no association between the c allele and glucose was observed in other shanghai study (adjusted by age) and in denmark subjects (adjusted by age, sex, and bmi) [ , ]. the + t/c ppar-δ c minor allele was also associated with lower tg (adjusted by waist circumference, sex and age), higher total cholesterol (adjusted by sex and age), and lower vldl (adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age) values in the total studied population. however, an association with lower hdl values was also found in the tarahumara group (adjusted by waist genes , , of circumference, sex, and age). this polymorphism has been associated with hdl since its discovery by skogsberg et al. who observed its relation with lower hdl in scottish population [ ]. similar results were reported by aberle et al. in german woman, where + t/c ppar-δ-minor allele carriers had lower hdl and vldl values (adjusted by age, smoking, and bmi) [ ]. in contrast, association between the snp and higher hdl values has been reported in scottish and canadian studies [ , ]. no relation was found with sbp in this study, while others have related the minor allele with lower blood pressure in chinese population [ , ]. the logistic regression analysis with dichotomous metabolic traits values indicated that individuals with the pro ala ppar-γ g allele had greater risk of having an elevated waist/height ratio (adjusted by sex). similar results were reported by sözen et al. in turkish populations with obesity, where the minor allele was associated with higher values of waist/height ratio; however, the same snp was also associated with lower values in the non-obese group [ ]. whereas, meirhaeghe et al. found no association [ ]. in this study the pro ala g allele carriers had two-fold less possibilities of being overweight/obese (adjusted by sex and age). in contrast to most studies in the literature, such as different meta-analysis that have shown a bmi increment in minor allele carriers [ , ]. in this study, we also found that pro ala-minor allele carriers had . -fold more chances of having low hdl values when adjusted by waist circumference, sex, and age and two-fold more total cholesterol (adjusted by sex and age). regarding + t/c ppar-δ, we observed that c minor allele carriers had greater probability of having an overweight/obese phenotype. in contrast, this polymorphism has been related with lower bmi in scottish males, as well as german and chinese adult populations [ , , ]. nevertheless, an association was found between + t/c minor allele and bmi in greek toddlers [ ]. these analyses were not adjusted for ethnic group, due to the low frequency in several categories. taking into account the observed effects in the metabolic traits analyzed as continuous variables, these results may vary across the groups. metabolic diseases are of public health concern. for years, health programs have been focused on how to maintain normal values of clinical indicators. unfortunately, most actions are taken in adulthood when it is already difficult to change a person’s habits. however, it should be considered that metabolic diseases depend on modifiable and non-modifiable factors. the latter are those that are related to genetic load. ideally, the era of “omics” aims to create networks between the different levels of information that an individual has (genome, transcriptome, metabolome, proteome, etc.). we consider that the detection of risk components for metabolic diseases at an early age would allow us to improve preventive programs for health care. to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report differences among ethnic populations that live in chihuahua state from mexico regarding ppar-γ and ppar-δ and their association/interaction with metabolic traits. population admixtures, habits, and cultural aspects need to be considered in public health strategies. networking disciplines, including genetics, may help to identify new therapeutic answers, and ppars are potential therapeutic targets to control metabolic diseases. further studies in the same ethnic populations with larger sample size and including adults will be important to confirm our findings. . study limitations the cross-sectional nature of this study does not allow to follow up if participants would develop a metabolic disease in the future associated with the studied polymorphisms. the sample size by ethnic group was small for logistic regression analysis and the variable diastolic blood pressure did not reach normality with any transformation, then we used the original scale. on the other hand, the initial study was focused on early detection of metabolic syndrome components in teenagers, thus most of the studied population was in good health, contrary to most studies that include adults with specific inclusion criteria. moreover, metabolic diseases, such as diabetes type , hypertension, and obesity, are multifactorial, meaning that there are external factors, such as environmental conditions, diet, and exercise, which can be modified. however, we did not explore those issues. multifactorial diseases are also multigenic, whereas, in this study, we just included two ppar polymorphisms and multiple genes , , of snps analysis could still give more information. finally, the schools were not randomly selected to assure the sample representativity. . conclusions the results of this study showed that pro ala ppar-γ and + t/c ppar-δ polymorphisms are associated with metabolic indicators among ethnic populations. the total studied population showed a significant relationship between the ppar-γ and ppar-δ polymorphisms with some metabolic traits. this ppar polymorphism study seems to be the first that includes different ethnic teenagers from the north of mexico and, to our knowledge, it is the first report to estimate + t/c ppar-δ minor allele frequencies among them. an early metabolic syndrome components detection will provide the opportunity to implement prophylactic measures on modifiable factors. further research is warranted in order to confirm the role of other ppar polymorphisms on metabolic diseases. supplementary materials: the following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s , figure s : electrophoresis example for both polymorphisms. author contributions: conceptualization, v.l.-c. and i.l.-b.; data curation, j.g.m.-g.; formal analysis, s.a.r.-l., m.a.c.-v., i.l.-b.; funding acquisition, i.l.-b.; investigation, i.l.-b.; methodology, j.g.m.-g., m.a.c.-v., and n.r.e.-a.; project administration, i.l.-b.; resources, p.d.c.h.-r.; supervision, v.m.-b. and a.l.-t.; visualization, e.g.-r.; writing–original draft, m.a.c.-v.; writing–review & editing, i.l.-b., s.a.r.-l., m.a.c.-v. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. funding: this research study was supported by the universidad autónoma de chihuahua (facultad de medicina y ciencias biomédicas) with pfce- - msu h- and publication expenses will be covered by universidad autónoma de chihuahua. conflicts of interest: the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper. references . afshin, a.; forouzanfar, m.h.; reitsma, m.b.; sur, p.; estep, k.; lee, a.; marczak, l.; mokdad, a.h.; moradi-lakeh, m.; naghavi, m.; et al. health effects of overweight and obesity in countries over years. new engl. j. med. , , – . [pubmed] . oecd. the heavy burden of obesity; oecd health policy studies, ed.; oecd publishing: paris, france, . . ogden, c.l.; carroll, m.d.; lawman, h.g.; fryar, c.d.; kruszon-moran, d.; kit, b.k.; flegal, k.m. trends in obesity prevalence among children and adolescents in the united states, - through - . jama , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . instituto nacional de salud pública. encuesta nacional de salud y nutrición . méxico: instituto nacional de salud pública. . available online: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ensanut/ /doc/ensanut_ _diseno_conceptual.pdf (accessed on june ). . willson, t.m.; brown, p.j.; sternbach, d.d.; henke, b.r. the ppars: from orphan receptors to drug discovery. j. med. chem. , , – . [crossref] . hong, f.; pan, s.; guo, y.; xu, p.; zhai, y. ppars as nuclear receptors for nutrients and energy metabolism. molecules , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . chen, y.; jiménez, a.r.; medh, j.d. identification and regulation of novel ppar-γ splice variants in human thp- macrophages. biochim. biophys. acta , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . gouda, h.n.; sagoo, g.s.; harding, a.h.; yates, j.; sandhu, m.s.; higgins, j.p.t. the association between the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (pparg ) pro ala gene variant and type diabetes mellitus: a huge review and meta-analysis. am. j. epidemiol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . swarbrick, m.m.; chapman, c.m.l.; mcquillan, b.m.; hung, j.; thompson, p.l. a pro ala polymorphism in the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ is associated with combined hyperlipidaemia in obesity. eur. j. endocrinol. , , – . [crossref] . stumvoll, m.; häring, h. the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ pro ala polymorphism. perspect. diabetes , , – . http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jama. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ensanut/ /doc/ensanut_ _diseno_conceptual.pdf https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ensanut/ /doc/ensanut_ _diseno_conceptual.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /jm g http://dx.doi.org/ . /molecules http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.bbaexp. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /aje/kwp http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /eje. . genes , , of . stryjecki, c.; peralta-romero, j.; alyass, a.; karam-araujo, r.; suarez, f.; gomez-zamudio, j.; burguete-garcia, a.; cruz, m.; meyre, d. pro ala genotype and insulin resistance is modified by circulating lipids in mexican children. sci. rep. , , – . [crossref] . yen, c.; beamer, b.a.; negri, c.; silver, k.; yarnall, d.p. molecular scanning of the human peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (hpparγ) gene in diabetic caucasians: identification of a pro ala γ missense mutation. biochem. biophys. res. commun. , , – . [crossref] . galbete, c.; toledo, e.; martínez-gonzález, m.a.; martínez, j.a.; guillén-grima, f.; marti, a. pro ala variant of the pparg gene increases body mass index: an updated meta-analysis encompassing , subjects. obesity , , – . [crossref] . morris, a.; voight, b.; teslobich, t.; ferreira, t.; segre, a.; steinthorsdottir, b.; strawbridge, r.j.; khan, h.; grallert, h.; mahajan, a.; et al. large-scale association analysis provides insights into the genetic architecture and pathophysiology of type diabetes. nat. genet. , , – . [pubmed] . deeb, s.s.; fajas, l.; nemoto, m.; pihlajamäki, j.; mykkänen, l.; kuusisto, j.; laakso, m.; fujimoto, w.; auwerx, j. a pro ala substitution in pparγ associated with decreased receptor activity, lower body mass index and improved insulin sensitivity. nat. genet. , , – . [crossref] . muller, y.l.; bogardus, c.; beamer, b.a.; shuldiner, a.r.; baier, l.j. a functional variant in the peroxisome proliferator—activated receptor γ promoter is associated with predictors of obesity and type diabetes in pima indians. diabetes , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . canizales-quinteros, s.; aguilar-salinas, c.a.; ortiz-lópez, m.g.; rodríguez-cruz, m.; villarreal-molina, m.t.; coral-vázquez, r.; huertas-vázquez, a.; hernández-caballero, a.; lópez-alarcón, m.; brito-zurita, o.r.; et al. association of pparg pro ala variant with larger body mass index in mestizo and amerindian populations of mexico. hum. biol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . ben ali, s.; ben yahia, f.; sediri, y.; kallel, a.; ftouhi, b. gender-specific effect of pro ala polymorphism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ- gene on obesity risk and leptin levels in a tunisian population. clin. biochem. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . baldani, d.p.; skrgatic, l.; cerne, j.z.; ferk, p.; simunic, v.; gersak, k. association of pparg pro ala polymorphism with insulin sensitivity and body mass index in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. biomed. rep. , , – . [crossref] . tönjes, a.; stumvoll, m. the role of the pro ala polymorphism in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in diabetes risk. lippincott williams & wilkins. curr. opin. clin. nutr. metab. care , , – . . information nc for b. ppard peroxisome proliferator activated receptor delta [homo sapiens (human)]. . available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/ #gene-expression (accessed on november ). . gouni-berthold, i.; giannakidou, e.; faust, m.; berthold, h.k.; krone, w. the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta + t/c polymorphism in relation to lipoprotein metabolism in patients with diabetes mellitus type and in non-diabetic controls. atherosclerosis , , – . [crossref] . sznaidman, m.l.; haffner, c.d.; maloney, p.r.; fivush, a.; chao, e.; goreham, d.; sierra, m.l.; legrumelec, c.; xu, h.e.; montana, v.g.; et al. novel selective small molecule agonists for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (pparδ) - synthesis and biological activity. bioorg med. chem. lett. , , – . [crossref] . skogsberg, j.; mcmahon, a.d.; karpe, f.; hamsten, a.; packard, c.j.; ehrenborg, e. peroxisome proliferator activated receptor delta genotype in relation to cardiovascular risk factors and risk of coronary heart disease in hypercholesterolaemic men. j. intern. med. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . luo, c.y.; liu, c.w.; ge, l.; pang, g.f.; yang, m.; hu, c.y.; ze-ping, l.; ning-yuan, c.; hai-yan, l.; hua-yu, w.; et al. ppard + c overrepresentation in general and long-lived population in china bama longevity area and unique relationships between ppard + t/c polymorphism and serum lipid profiles. lipids health dis. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . aberle, j.; hopfer, i.; beil, f.u.; seedorf, u. association of the t+ c polymorphism in ppar δ with low hdl cholesterol and coronary heart disease risk in women. int. j. med sci. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . burch, l.r.; donnelly, l.a.; doney, a.s.f.; brady, j.; tommasi, a.m.; whitley, a.l.; goddard, c.; morris, a.d.; hansen, m.k.; palmer, c.n.a. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-δ genotype influences metabolic phenotype and may influence lipid response to statin therapy in humans: a genetics of diabetes audit and research tayside study. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /srep http://dx.doi.org/ . /bbrc. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /oby. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /diabetes. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /hub. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.clinbiochem. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /br. . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/ #gene-expression http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.atherosclerosis. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - x( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijms. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jc. - genes , , of . robitaille, j.; gaudet, d.; pérusse, l.; vohl, m.-c. features of the metabolic syndrome are modulated by an interaction between the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-delta - t>c polymorphism and dietary fat in french-canadians. int. j. obes. , , – . . aberle, j.; hopfer, i.; beil, f.u.; seedorf, u. association of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta + t/c with body mass index and interaction with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha l v. int. j. obes. , , – . [crossref] . grarup, n.; albrechtsen, a.; ek, j.; borch-johnsen, k.; jørgensen, t.; schmitz, o.; pedersen, o. variation in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ gene in relation to common metabolic traits in , middle-aged white people. diabetologia , , – . [crossref] . villegas, r.; williams, s.; gao, y.; cai, q.; li, h.; elasy, t.; cai, h.; edwards, t.; xiang, y.b.; zheng, w.; et al. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (ppar) delta genetic variation and type diabetes in middle age chinese women. ann. hum. genet. , , – . [crossref] . tang, l.; lü, q.; cao, h.; yang, q.; tong, n. ppard rs polymorphism is associated with metabolic traits in a large population of chinese adults. gene , , – . [crossref] . qian, y.; li, p.; zhang, j.; shi, y.; chen, k.; yang, j.; wu, y.; ye, x. association between peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha, delta, and gamma polymorphisms and risk of coronary heart disease: a case-control study and meta-analysis. medicine , , – . [crossref] . jguirim-souissi, i.; jelassi, a.; hrira, y.; najah, m.; slimani, a.; addad, f.; hassine, m.; hamda, k.b.; maatouk, f.; rouis, m.; et al. + t/c polymorphism in the ppar-δ gene is associated with risk of coronary artery disease in normolipidemic tunisians. genet. mol. res. , , – . [crossref] . miao, l.; yin, r.-x.; wu, d.-f.; cao, x.-l.; li, q.; hu, x.-j.; yan, t.-t.; aung, l.h.h.; yang, d.-z.; lin, w.-x.; et al. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta + > c polymorphism and serum lipid levels in the guangxi bai ku yao and han populations. lipids health dis. , , – . . rosales-reynoso, m.a.; wence-chavez, l.i.; arredondo-valdez, a.r.; dumois-petersen, s.; barros-núñez, p.; gallegos-arreola, m.p.; flores-martínez, s.e.; sánchez-corona, j. protective role of + t/c (rs ) polymorphism of ppard in mexican patients with colorectal cancer. genet. mol. res. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . cook, s.; weitzman, m.; auinger, p.; michael, n.; dietz, w.h. prevalence of a metabolic syndrome phenotype in adolescents. arch. pediatr. adolescent med. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . mederico, m.; paoli, m.; zerpa, y.; camacho, n.; cichetti, r.; molina, z.; camachob, n.; cichettib, r.; molinab, z.; mora, y.; et al. valores de referencia de la circunferencia de la cintura e índice de la cintura/cadera en escolares y adolescentes de mérida, venezuela: comparación con referencias internacionales. endocrinol. y nutr. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . mokha, j.s.; srinivasan, s.r.; dasmahapatra, p.; fernandez, c.; chen, w.; xu, j.; berenson, g.s. utility of waist-to-height ratio in assessing the status of central obesity and related cardiometabolic risk profile among normal weight and overweight/obese children: the bogalusa heart study. bmc pediatr. , , . . cdc. defining childhood obesity. . available online: https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/defining. html (accessed on june ). . must, a.; anderson, s.e. body mass index in children and adolescents: considerations for population-based applications. int. j. obes. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . world health organization. growth reference - years. . available online: https://www.who.int/ growthref/who _bmi_for_age/en/ (accessed on june ). . national heart lung and blood institute. expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents. . available online: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/ docs/guidelines/peds_guidelines_full.pdf (accessed on june ). . millán, j.; pintó, x.; muñoz, a.; zúñiga, m.; rubiés-prat, j.; pallardo, l.f.; masana, l.; mangas, a.; hernández-mijares, a.; gonzález-santos, p.; et al. cocientes lipoproteicos: significado fisiológico y utilidad clínica de los índices aterogénicos en prevención cardiovascular. clin. e investig. en arterioscler. , , – . [crossref] . cossrow, n.; falkner, b. race/ethnic issues in obesity and obesity-related comorbidities. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , , – . [crossref] . anderson, s.e.; whitaker, r.c. prevalence of obesity among us preschool children in different racial and ethnic groups. arch. pediatrics adolesc. med. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /sj.ijo. http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gene. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /md. http://dx.doi.org/ . /vol - gmr http://dx.doi.org/ . /gmr http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /archpedi. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.endonu. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/defining.html https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/defining.html http://dx.doi.org/ . /sj.ijo. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.who.int/growthref/who _bmi_for_age/en/ https://www.who.int/growthref/who _bmi_for_age/en/ http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/peds_guidelines_full.pdf http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/peds_guidelines_full.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) -x http://dx.doi.org/ . /jc. - http://dx.doi.org/ . /archpediatrics. . genes , , of . taveras, e.m.; gillman, m.w.; kleinman, k.; rich-edwards, j.w.; rifas-shiman, s.l. racial/ethnic differences in early-life risk factors for childhood obesity. pediatrics , , – . [crossref] . salzano, f.m.; sans, m. interethnic admixture and the evolution of latin american populations. genetics mol. biol. , (suppl. ), – . [crossref] . hales, c.m.; carroll, m.d.; fryar, c.d.; ogden, c.l. prevalence of obesity among adults and youth: united states, – ; nchs data brief; ; , pp. – . available online: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/ databriefs/db .htm (accessed on june ). . benítez-hernández, z.p.; hernández-torres, p.; cabañas, m.d.; de la torre-díaz, m.d.l.; lópez-ejeda, n.; marrodán, m.d.; cervantes-borunda, m. composición corporal, estado nutricional y alimentación en escolares tarahumaras urbanos y rurales de chihuahua, méxico. nutr. clínica y dietética hosp. , , – . . salcedo-rocha, a.l.; garcía de alba, j.e.; contreras-marmolejo, m. presión arterial en adolescentes mexicanos: clasificación, factores de riesgo e importancia. rev. de salud pública , , – . . cardoso-saldaña, g.c.; yamamoto-kimura, l.; medina-urrutia, a.; posadas-sánchez, r.; caracas-portilla, n.a.; posadas-romero, c. exceso de peso y síndrome metabólico en adolescentes de la ciudad de méxico. archivos de cardiología de méxico , , – . . jackson, s.l.; zhang, z.; wiltz, j.l.; loustalot, f.; ritchey, m.d.; goodman, a.b.; yang, q. hypertension among youths—united states, – . morb. mortal. wkly. rep. , , – . [crossref] . romero-velarde, e.; campollo-rivas, o.; de la rosa, a.c.; vásquez-garibay, e.m.; castro-hernández, j.f.; cruz-osorio, r.m. factores de riesgo de dislipidemia en niños y adolescentes con obesidad. salud pública de méxico , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . perea-martínez, a.; bárcena-sobrino, e.; rodríguez-herrera, r.; greenawalt-rodríguez, s.; carbajal-rodríguez, l.; zarco-román, j. obesidad y comorbilidades en niños y adolescentes asistidos en el instituto nacional de pediatría. acta pediátrica de méxico , , – . . camarillo-romero, e.; garcía, m.v.d.; amaya-chávez, a.; huitrón-bravo, g.; majluf-cruz, a. dificultades en la clasificación del síndrome metabólico. el ejemplo de los adolescentes en méxico. salud pública de méxico , , – . [pubmed] . almeida, s.m.; furtado, j.m.; mascarenhas, p.; ferraz, m.e.; ferreira, j.c.; monteiro, m.p.; vilanova, m.; ferraz, f.p. association between lepr, fto, mc r, and pparg- polymorphisms with obesity traits and metabolic phenotypes in school-aged children. endocrine , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . becer, e.; Çlrakoǧlu, a. effect of the pro ala polymorphism of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ gene on lipid profile and adipokines levels in obese subjects. balk. j. med genet. , , – . [crossref] . lagou, v.; scott, r.a.; manios, y.; chen, t.l.j.; wang, g.; grammatikaki, e.; kortsalioudaki, c.; liarigkovinos, t.; moschonis, g.; roma-giannikou, e.; et al. impact of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors γ and δ on adiposity in toddlers and preschoolers in the genesis study. obesity , , – . [crossref] . akhmetov, i.; astranenkove, i.; togozkin, v. association of ppard gene polymorphism with human physical performance. mol. biol. , , – . . shin, h.d.; park, b.l.; kim, l.h.; jung, h.s.; cho, y.m.; moon, m.k.; park, y.j.; lee, h.k.; park, k.s. genetic polymorphisms in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ associated with obesity. diabetes , , – . [crossref] . hasan, n.s.; kamel, s.a.; hamed, m.; awadallah, e.; rahman, a.h.a.; musa, n.i.; hussein, g.h.s. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ polymorphism (rs ) is associated with obesity in egyptian patients with coronary artery disease and type diabetes mellitus. j. genet. eng. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] . hasstedt, s.j.; ren, q.f.; teng, k.; elbein, s.c. effect of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ pro ala variant on obesity, glucose homeostasis, and blood pressure in members of familial type diabetic kindreds. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , , – . [crossref] . douglas, j.a.; erdos, m.r.; watanabe, r.m.; braun, a.; johnston, c.l.; oeth, p.; mohlke, k.l.; valle, t.t.; ehnholm, c.; buchanan, t.a.; et al. the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ pro ala variant association with type diabetes and trait differences. diabetes , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] http://dx.doi.org/ . /peds. - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db .htm https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db .htm http://dx.doi.org/ . /mmwr.mm a http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /bjmg- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /oby. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /diabetes. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jgeb. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jcem. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /diabetes. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ genes , , of . rodríguez-esparragón, f.j.; rodríguez-pérez, j.c.; macías-reyes, a.; alamo-santana, f. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma -pro ala and endothelial nitric oxide synthase- a/b gene polymorphisms are associated with essential hypertension. j. hypertens. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . al-safar, h.; hassoun, a.; almazrouei, s.; kamal, w.; afandi, b.; rais, n. association of the genetic polymorphisms in transcription factor -like and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-γ with type diabetes mellitus and its interaction with obesity status in emirati population. j. diabetes res. , , . [crossref] . hu, c.; jia, w.; fang, q.; zhang, r.; wang, c.; lu, j.; xiang, k. peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (ppar) delta genetic polymorphism and its association with insulin resistance index and fasting plasma glucose concentrations in chinese subjects. diabet. med. , , – . [crossref] . ye, h.; li, y.; hong, q.; zhou, a.; zhao, q.; xu, l.; xu, m.q.; xu, x.t.; tang, l.l.; dai, j.; et al. positive association between ppard rs polymorphism and coronary heart disease in a han chinese population. genet. mol. res. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . sözen, m.a.; Özcan, m.u.; Çıldır, m.; doğru, i.h.; aygök, a.g.; balkan, k. association of the human pparγ pro ala polymorphism with obesity in a population from turkey. acta endocrinol. , , – . . meirhaeghe, a.; fajas, l.; helbecque, n.; cottel, d.; auwerx, j.; deeb, s.s.; amouyel, p. impact of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ pro ala polymorphism on adiposity, lipids and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. int. j. obes. , , – . [crossref] . masud, s.; ye, s. effect of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-y gene pro ala variant on body mass index: a meta-analysis. j. med. genetics , , – . [crossref] . mansoori, a.; amini, m.; kolahdooz, f.; seyedrezazadeh, e. obesity and pro ala polymorphism of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma gene in healthy adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ann. nutr. metab. , , – . [crossref] . luo, w.; guo, z.; wu, m.; hao, c.; hu, x.; zhou, z.; zhou, z.; yao, x.; zhang, l.; liu, j. association of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α/δ/γ with obesity, and gene-gene interaction, in the chinese han population. j. epidemiol. , , – . [crossref] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / .june. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /sj.ijo. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /jea.je http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	study population 	phenotyping 	genotyping 	statistical analysis 	results 	population characteristics and metabolic traits among them 	pro ala ppar- and + t/c ppar- 	metabolic traits by pro ala ppar- and + t/c ppar- polymorphism genotype: major allele homozygous vs. minor allele carriers in the total studied population 	association between pro ala ppar- and metabolic traits 	association between + t/c ppar- and metabolic traits 	logistic regression 	discussion 	study limitations 	conclusions 	references the molecular basis of human -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency matthias r. baumgartner, … , e. regula baumgartner, david valle j clin invest. ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . /jci . isolated biotin-resistant -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase (mcc) deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder of leucine catabolism that appears to be the most frequent organic aciduria detected in tandem mass spectrometry–based neonatal screening programs. the phenotype is variable, ranging from neonatal onset with severe neurological involvement to asymptomatic adults. mcc is a heteromeric mitochondrial enzyme composed of biotin-containing α subunits and smaller β subunits. here, we report cloning of mcca and mccb cdnas and the organization of their structural genes. we show that a series of mcc-deficient probands defines two complementation groups, cg and , resulting from mutations in mccb and mcca, respectively. we identify five mcca and nine mccb mutant alleles and show that missense mutations in each result in loss of function. article find the latest version: https://jci.me/ /pdf http://www.jci.org http://www.jci.org/ / ?utm_campaign=cover-page&utm_medium=pdf&utm_source=content https://doi.org/ . /jci http://www.jci.org/tags/ ?utm_campaign=cover-page&utm_medium=pdf&utm_source=content https://jci.me/ /pdf https://jci.me/ /pdf?utm_content=qrcode introduction mcc (ec . . . ) is a biotin-dependent carboxylase that catalyzes the fourth step in the leucine catabolic path- way. isolated, biotin-resistant mcc deficiency (also known as methylcrotonylglycinuria [mim ]) is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait ( ). the clinical phenotype is highly variable: some patients present in the neonatal period with seizures and muscular hypoto- nia ( , ); others are asymptomatic women identified only by detection of abnormal metabolites in the neona- tal screening samples of their healthy babies ( ). there is a characteristic organic aciduria with massive excretion of -hydroxyisovaleric acid and -methylcrotonylglycine, usually in combination with a severe secondary carnitine deficiency. mcc activity in extracts of cultured fibrob- lasts of patients is usually less than % of control. no correlation between the level of residual enzyme activity and clinical presentation has been observed. tandem mass spectrometry (ms/ms), recently intro- duced for newborn screening, provides for the first time to our knowledge a way to detect a large variety of organ- ic acidurias including mcc deficiency ( ). surprisingly, mcc deficiency appears to be the most frequent organ- ic aciduria detected in ms/ms screening programs in north america ( , , ), europe ( ), and australia ( ), with an overall frequency of approximately in , . mcc is a member of the family of biotin-dependent carboxylases, a group of enzymes with diverse meta- bolic functions but common structural features ( , ). members of this family have three structurally con- served functional domains: the biotin carboxyl carrier domain, which carries the biotin prosthetic group; the biotin carboxylation domain, which catalyzes the car- boxylation of biotin; and the carboxyltransferase domain, which catalyzes the transfer of a carboxyl group from carboxybiotin to the organic substrate spe- cific for each carboxylase ( , ). in addition to mcc, there are three other biotin-dependent carboxylases in humans: propionyl-coa carboxylase (pcc), pyruvate carboxylase (pc), and acetyl-coa carboxylase (acc) ( , ). the genes for all human carboxylases except mcc have been cloned and characterized ( – ). mcc carboxylates -methylcrotonyl-coa at the - carbon to form -methylglutaconyl-coa (figure ) ( ). the reaction uses atp and bicarbonate and is reversible. bovine mcc has an approximate size of kda and appears to comprise six heterodimers (αβ) ( ). like pcc, mcc has a larger α subunit, which covalently binds biotin, and a smaller β subunit ( ). mcc is predominantly localized to the inner mem- brane of mitochondria and is known to be highly expressed in kidney and liver ( ). cdnas encoding both subunits of mcc recently have been cloned in ara- bidopsis thaliana and other plants ( , ). here we report cloning of human mcca and mccb cdnas, confirmation of their identity by biochemical and molecular studies, and identification of mutations in mcc-deficient patients. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number the molecular basis of human -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency matthias r. baumgartner, , shlomo almashanu, , terttu suormala, cassandra obie, , robert n. cole, seymour packman, e. regula baumgartner, and david valle , mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine, johns hopkins university, baltimore, maryland, usa metabolic unit, children’s hospital, university of basel, basel, switzerland howard hughes medical institute, and department of biological chemistry, johns hopkins university, baltimore, maryland, usa department of pediatrics, university of california, san francisco, california, usa address correspondence to: david valle, pctb, johns hopkins university, n. wolfe street, baltimore, maryland , usa. phone: ( ) - ; fax: ( ) - ; e-mail: dvalle@jhmi.edu. received for publication december , , and accepted in revised form january , . isolated biotin-resistant -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase (mcc) deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder of leucine catabolism that appears to be the most frequent organic aciduria detected in tandem mass spectrometry–based neonatal screening programs. the phenotype is variable, ranging from neonatal onset with severe neurological involvement to asymptomatic adults. mcc is a heteromeric mitochondrial enzyme composed of biotin-containing α subunits and smaller β subunits. here, we report cloning of mcca and mccb cdnas and the organiza- tion of their structural genes. we show that a series of mcc-deficient probands defines two complementation groups, cg and , resulting from mutations in mccb and mcca, respective- ly. we identify five mcca and nine mccb mutant alleles and show that missense mutations in each result in loss of function. j. clin. invest. : – ( ). the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number methods patients, complementation analysis, and mcc assay this study includes mcc-deficient probands, all of whom had the diagnostic pattern of organic acid excre- tion and less than % mcc activity in extracts of cul- tured skin fibroblasts. clinical and biochemical data of ten patients have been reported in the literature: ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ). fibroblasts or dna of the remaining patients were referred by b.t. poll-the (patient ), h.g. koch (patient ), j. smeitink (patient ), u. von döbeln (patient ), r.d. de kre- mer dodelson (patient ), and d.h. morton (patient ). skin fibroblasts were cultured in eagle’s minimal essential medium (life technologies inc., rockville, maryland, usa) supplemented with mmol/l l-gluta- mine and % fcs. complementation analysis was modified from that described by wolf et al. ( ). briefly, we produced heterokaryons by a - or -second treatment with % peg harvested the cells days later and measured mcc activity as described previously ( , ). mcc activity in cultures of mixed but unfused cells was subtracted as blank and self fusions were included as a negative control. expression of biotin-containing proteins in fibroblasts we harvested cultured fibroblasts by trypsinization, disrupted the washed cells by homogenization, har- vested the mitochondria by differential centrifugation ( ), suspended them in sds-buffer ( mm tris- acetate, % sds [wt/vol], mm dtt, . % [wt/vol] bromphenol blue), and dissolved the proteins by boil- ing for minutes. the cellular proteins were separated by sds-page, and the biotin-containing proteins were detected with an avidin alkaline phosphatase conjugate (avidin-ap, : , ; bio-rad laboratories ag, glat- tbrugg, switzerland). fibroblasts of an unaffected control, a patient with isolated pc deficiency, and a patient with isolated pccα deficiency were used to confirm the identity of the protein bands. cdna cloning, sequence analysis, and chromosome mapping we obtained two mouse (ai and ai ) and two human (aa and aa ) mcca est clones, and one human mccb (ai ) est clone from the image consortium (genome systems inc., st. louis, missouri, usa) and sequenced both strands with an abi automated sequencer. to design primers corresponding to the ′ utr of our putative mcca, we used the sequence of the mcca est clone aa (not available commercially). we used primers dv (sense, ′-gacgcagctgcctctg tac) and dv (sense, ′-tggccgggctccagggacatg), complementary to the ′ utr, and dv (antisense, ′-aactgctctttatgagacccc), complementary to the ′ utr, to amplify full-length human mcca from a human retina cdna library ( ); and primers dv (sense, ′-aggacctgagctcagcttcc) and dv (sense, ′-tcggtgcccgccgccatg), complementary to the ′ utr, and dv (antisense, ′-actg- taacagcctcatgttcg), complementary to the ′ utr, to amplify full-length human mccb from the same human retina cdna library ( ). we gel-purified the pcr products and sequenced them directly. the sequence alignments were prepared with megalign (dnastar inc., madison, wisconsin, usa). we mapped hsmcca using the genebridge radia- tion hybrid panel (research genetics inc., huntsville, alabama, usa) using primers dv (sense, ′- tttgtcgtctcagactcgatg) and dv (antisense, ′-agtcagaaaaataaggccaacc) corresponding to ′ flanking intronic sequence of exon and ′ flanking intronic sequence of exon . isolation and mass spectrometry analysis of biotin- containing proteins enrichment for biotin-containing proteins. we homogenized . g of flash frozen male mouse kidney in . ml buffer a ( mm tris-hcl [ph . ], mm dtt, mm edta, . % (vol/vol) triton x- , % (vol/vol) glycerol, µm dmsf, tablet cocktail protease inhibitor (boehringer-mannheim) and centrifuged the homogenate at , g for minutes at °c. peg was added to the supernatant to a final concentration of % (wt/vol), and the mixture was centrifuged at , g for minutes at °c. the pellet was resus- pended in ml of buffer a, approximately × pre- washed m streptavidin dynabeads (dynal inc., lake success, new york, usa) were added, and the slur- ry mixed by rotating for hour at °c. we washed the beads five times with buffer b ( . m kcl in buffer a), resuspended them in µl of xi protein loading buffer, boiled for minutes, and placed the solution on ice. we loaded µl in each lane of a % polyacry- lamide gel and stained the separated proteins with coomassie brilliant blue r . s-carboxymethylation and proteolytic digestion. we per- formed in gel digestion of the proteins using the coomassie blue–stained sds-polyacrylamide gels according to williams et al. ( ) with the following modifications. cystines were modified by car- boxymethylation as described elsewhere ( ). after rehydrating gel pieces with ng/µl tpck-treated trypsin in % acetic acid, excess trypsin solution was removed and the gel piece was covered with gel vol- umes of mm nh hco (ph ), at °c for hours. the resulting tryptic peptides were extracted from the gel piece with % acetonitrile in . % tfa and concentrated by drying. mass spectrometry analysis. tryptic peptides were resus- pended in % acetic acid and loaded into a fused silica capillary column ( µm inner diameter) packed with cm of µm c reverse-phase resin (ymc inc., atlanta, georgia, usa) as described elsewhere ( ). a -minute, . – % methanol gradient in % acetic acid was applied to the column at f low rates of – nl/min. eluting peptides were electrosprayed directly into a finnigan lcq atmospheric pressure ionization quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer (thermoquest corp., san jose, california, usa). pos- itive-ion mass spectra were obtained at using xcal- ibur software (thermoquest corp.). peptides were fragmented by a % collision energy using a two- atomic-mass-unit isolation width. fragmentation data were screened against the protein.nrdb.z data- base from the frederick biomedical supercomputing center (ftp://ftp.ncifcrf.gov/pub/nonredun/) using the sequest browser ( ) (thermoquest corp.). mutation analysis by rt-pcr and genomic pcr we extracted rna and genomic dna from cultured skin fibroblasts and/or blood using the puregene rna and dna isolation kits (gentra systems, minneapolis, minnesota, usa) and performed rt-pcr using – µg fibroblast rna and a cdna cycle kit (invitrogen corp., carlsbad, california, usa) following the manu- facturers’ recommendations. we generated first-strand cdna with primers dv (antisense, ′-gacc- caaatgcatgattctcc), complementary to sequence in the mcca ′ utr region, and dv (antisense, ′-ggtagaaaagtacaa tgcacag), complementary to sequence in the mccb ′ utr region. we then ampli- fied first-strand mcca cdna with primers dv and dv to generate a , -bp fragment (– to + , where + is the a of the initiation methionine codon); and we amplified first-strand mccb cdna with primers dv and dv to generate a , - bp fragment (– to + ). in some instances, when the amount of amplified product was inadequate, we went through a second round of pcr with nested primers dv and dv . we gel-purified the pcr products and sequenced them directly. to confirm mutations identified in rt-pcr products, we amplified a genomic fragment containing the corre- sponding exon using flanking intronic primers and sequenced the pcr product directly. in the compound heterozygous patients in whom we identified only one of two alleles in rt-pcr products, we amplified and sequenced all exons and flanking intronic sequences. all pcr reactions ( µl) contained primers ( ng each), × standard pcr buffer (life technologies inc.), dntps ( µm), and taq polymerase ( . u; life tech- nologies inc.). the sequences of all primers are available upon request. to survey a control population for the identified mis- sense mutations, we amplified the relevant exon from genomic dna and performed allele-specific oligonu- cleotide analysis as described previously ( ). construction of wild-type and mutant human mcca/b expression vectors we ta cloned the full-length human mcca (– to + ) and mccb (– to + ) cdnas into pcr blunt ii topo (invitrogen corp.). to introduce the mcca mutations r s, a v, and l p, we har- vested an -bp acci fragment from rt-pcr–ampli- fied patient cdna and subcloned this fragment into the pmcca-topo construct. we then transferred the wild-type and mutant mcca constructs into a mam- malian expression vector (ptracer-cmv ; invitrogen- corp.) at the ecor i site. this vector contains a green fluorescent protein (gfp) gene fused to the zeocin resistance gene. similarly, to introduce the mccb mis- sense mutation e q, we harvested a -bp econ i/bste ii fragment from rt-pcr amplified patient cdna, subcloned this fragment into the pmccb- topo construct and then transferred the wild-type and mutant constructs into ptracer-cmv . to intro- duce the mccb missense mutations s l, v m, r c, p r and r c, we harvested a -bp bste ii/sfi i fragment from rt-pcr–amplified patient cdna and subcloned this fragment directly into mccb-ptracer-cmv . we sequenced all constructs in both directions to validate the sequences. transfections we transformed primary fibroblasts from proband (homozygous for mcca q fs(+ ), from proband (homozygous for mccb s l), and from a con- trol as described previously ( ). for expression stud- ies, we electroporated the indicated constructs into transformed cells as described elsewhere ( ). we har- vested the cells after hours and measured mcc and pcc activity radioisotopically as described previously ( ). our standard mcc assay enables us to reliably detect activity as low as – pmol/min/mg protein. all the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number figure the mcc-catalyzed reaction and its position in the leucine catabol- ic pathway. the dashed arrow indicates the metabolites that accu- mulate due to deficiency of mcc. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number transfections were in duplicates. transformed fibrob- lasts from an unaffected individual were used as con- trol. transfection efficiency was assessed by coexpress- ing gfp in the same construct. results genetic complementation and assignment to mcca or mccb as an initial step in defining the molecular basis of mcc deficiency, we performed biochemical and somatic cell genetic studies with fibroblasts from mcc-deficient probands. using restoration of mcc activity in peg-induced heterokaryons of fibroblasts as an end point, we defined two complementation groups (cgs), one comprising eight probands (mcc- cg , - ) and the other, six probands (mcc- cg , - ) (data available upon request). given that mcc is composed of αβ heteromers, we antici- pated that the two cgs likely corresponded to muta- tions in genes encoding the α and β subunits of mcc (encoded by mcca and mccb, respectively). to investigate the complementation phenotype at the protein level, we examined the expression of the mccα subunit using the covalently bound biotin as a tag in fibroblasts of five of six cg and in all of the eight cg probands (figure ). in cg , mccα was not detected in four of five probands, whereas in the remaining cg cell line (proband ), the mccα band was at least as intense as in controls (figure ). in all the cg cell extracts, mccα was reduced but present. these results suggested that mcc-cg is caused by mutations in mcca and, by exclusion, mcc-cg , by mutations in mccb. identification of mammalian candidate mcca and mccb cdnas database search. we used the amino acid sequences of a. thaliana mcca and mccb ( , ) and the tblastn algorithm to probe the public est data- bases to identify murine and human cdnas encoding candidate mccas and mccbs. we used the murine candidates to assemble full-length mouse putative mcca cdna (genbank accession number: mmmc- ca: af ) and the human candidate ests to design primers corresponding to the predicted ′ and ′ utr of the putative human mcca and mccb cdnas. using these primer pairs, we amplified a sin- gle fragment of the predicted size for both mcca and mccb from a human retina cdna library ( ). gen- bank accession numbers: hsmcca: af . hsm- ccb: af . we used additional ests to extend the ′ and ′ utr sequences. the sequence of the human mcca candidate has bp of ′ utr, a , -bp orf, and bp of ′ utr extending to a polyadenylation signal (aauaaa). the murine can- didate mcca cdna has bp of ′ utr, a , -bp orf, and bp of ′ utr extending to a probable polyadenylation signal (auaaa). the sequence of the amplified human mccb candidate has bp of ′ utr, a , -bp orf, and bp of ′ utr. the candidate cdnas predict a human mccα of amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of kda, a mouse mccα of amino acids with a calcu- lated molecular mass of kda, and a human mccβ of amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of kda. human mccα has % and % identity to mccα of mouse and a. thaliana, respectively (figure a). human mccβ has % identity to mccβ of a. thaliana (figure b). similar to pcc, the mccα subunit contains an nh -terminal biotin carboxylation domain and a cooh-terminal biotin carrier domain ( ). the biotin carrier domain is centered on the motif amkm, which is found in most biotinylated proteins (figure a) ( ). biotin is covalently attached to the ε-amino group of lysine ; the ε-biotinyl lysine amide is termed biocytin (figure a). as with other biotin- dependent carboxylases, there is a conserved (a)pm motif residues nh -terminal and a hydrophobic residue (f ) - residues cooh-terminal of bio- cytin ( ). the biotin carboxylation domain is located in the nh -terminal two-thirds of mccα and is linked to the biotin carrier domain by a less-conserved (only % identity to a. thaliana residues - ) “hinge” region of residues - . additionally, there is per- fect conservation of residues (figure a, asterisks) that are highly conserved among all biotin-dependent figure expression of the biotin-containing mccα subunit in fibroblasts. proteins in mitochondrial enriched fractions from cultured fibrob- lasts were separated by sds-page, and the biotin-containing sub- units of mcc, pcc, and pc were detected with an avidin alkaline phosphatase conjugate. most, but not all, cg -probands lack the mccα subunit, while it is detectable in all cg probands. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number figure sequence alignment of human mccα and mccβ with orthologs from mouse and a. thaliana. amino acids identical to the human sequence are highlighted. missense mutations identified in mcc-defi- cient patients are indicated above with the substituted amino acid. potential cleavage sites for the nh -terminal mitochondrial leader sequences are indicated by vertical arrowheads. (a) sequence align- ment of human, mouse, and a. thaliana mccα. the predicted atp- binding site in the nh -terminal biotin carboxylation domain and the predicted cooh-terminal biotin carboxyl carrier domain are indicated by solid and dashed over- lines, respectively. the arrow indi- cates the lysine residue that links covalently to biotin (biocytin). the residues marked with an asterisk within the biotin carboxylation domain are thought to play an important role in catalysis ( , ). (b) sequence alignment of human and a. thaliana mccβ. the putative -methylcrotonyl-coa binding domain is indicated by a solid over-line. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number figure coomassie-stained sds-page gel of biotin-containing proteins puri- fied from a mouse kidney extract with streptavidin dynabeads. we excised the proteins from the gel, digested with trypsin, and analyzed the tryptic peptides using maldi-tof and liquid chromatography coupled to esi-ms/ms. we analyzed all the indicated bands includ- ing those that we identified as mccα and β. carboxylases and thought to play a role in catalysis ( , , ). consistent with this prediction, the putative carboxylation domain contains the conserved sequence ggggkgmriv at positions - (figure a), which is part of the atp binding pocket in the biotin carboxylation domain of escherichia coli acc ( ) and is similar to a consensus p-loop atp-binding site [g′xgk(ts)] ( ). the β subunit has a putative coa binding motif (figure b) ( , ). mccα and β have candidate nh -terminal mito- chondrial targeting sequences with multiple arginine residues and a paucity of acidic residues ( ). possible cleavage sites are indicated by vertical arrowheads in figure . because the sequence of mitochondrial lead- ers is not highly conserved, we favor the more cooh- terminal cleavage site in mccα just before a highly conserved region (figure a). isolation and mass spectrometry analysis of biotin-contain- ing proteins. we also used a biochemical strategy to identify mccα and β. we enriched biotin-containing proteins in a mouse kidney extract using streptavidin dynabeads and separated these by sds-page (figure ). using maldi-tof and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (esi-ms/ms), we analyzed tryptic fragments of these proteins to confirm the identity expected on the basis of the size of acc, pc, and pccβ. the analysis of the expected pccα identified, in addition to fragments derived from pccα, unique fragments corresponding to the conceptual transla- tion of the putative murine mcca cdna (figure ). we identified peptides with % identity to the putative murine mccα subunit covering amino acids or % of the putative full-length murine mccα. the protein comigrating with the -kda marker (fig- ure ) contained tryptic fragments with sequences cor- responding to the conceptual translation of the puta- tive human mccb cdna. we identified peptides with % identity to the putative human mccβ sub- unit covering amino acids or % of the putative full-length mccβ. these sequence results strongly supported the identity of the mammalian mcca and mccb cdnas. organization of human mcca and mccb structural genes during the course of determining the structural organization of these genes by long-range pcr and direct sequencing, we identified sequences correspon- ding to mcca and mccb in the human high through- out genome sequence database (genbank accession numbers ac and ac , respectively). these clones contain exons encoding the complete mcca and mccb cdnas and provide all exon/intron boundaries including the flanking intronic sequences with one exception ( ′ flanking intronic sequence of mcca exon ). mcca has exons and mccb exons. given that the draft sequence has gaps, our information on the size of some introns is incomplete. because the mcca gene was not mapped in the uni- gene database, we searched the flanking sequence in the bac clone containing mcca for other mapped genes. we identified the unigene cluster hs. represented by several ests present in the mcca genomic clone and localized to q -q (d s - d s ). to confirm this localization, we used the genebridge radiation hybrid panel to regionally localize mcca . cr from the wi- marker cor- responding to the same region on chromosome . similarly, we identified unigene cluster hs. representing several est clones covering the ′ end of the mccb cdna. this cluster maps to chromosome q -q . (d s -d s ). patients with isolated mcc deficiency have mutations in mcca or mccb to confirm the identity of mcca and mccb, we sur- veyed these genes for mutations in our collection of unrelated mcc-deficient probands. we grouped the probands according to their cgs and used rt-pcr to amplify the corresponding mrna from their cultured skin fibroblasts. we sequenced the entire orf in each proband and confirmed all mutations by direct sequencing of pcr-amplified genomic dna. in two additional probands ( and ) (ref. ) from the amish/mennonite population in lancaster county, pennsylvania, we searched for mutations by direct sequencing of pcr-amplified genomic dna. we iden- tified five mcca mutant alleles in cg cell lines accounting for ten of possible mutant mcca genes (table ). the mutations include three uncomplicated missense mutations (figure a), one missense mutation that alters splicing (figure a), and one -bp insertion. in cg cell lines, we identified nine mccb mutant alle- les accounting for of possible mutant genes (table ). the mutations include uncomplicated missense mutations (figure b), one missense mutation that alters splicing (figure b), one splice site mutation, and one -bp insertion. in spite of sequencing all exons and flanking intronic sequences (with the exception of the alleles has a low frequency in this population. we did not screen for alleles for which we did not have the appropriate control population (vietnamese, mccb- r q, -p r; turkish, mccb-s l, -v m). discussion using a combination of homology probing and mass spectrometry we cloned human mcca and mccb full length cdnas. the conceptual translation of mcca shows the expected nh -terminal biotin carboxylation domain and the cooh-terminal biotin carboxyl carrier domain (figure a), separated by a less conserved “hinge” region ( , ). presumably because of differ- ences in substrate specificities, carboxyltransferase domains are less conserved among biotin-dependent carboxylases. mcc catalyzes the carboxylation of methylcrotonyl-coa ( ). the acceptor binding site is thought to be on mccβ ( , ). consistent with this, human mccβ shares high identity with a. thaliana mccβ ( %) and only % identity with human pccβ ( ) that supports the role of the β subunit in determin- ing substrate specificity of these enzymes (figure b). our series of mcca- and mccb-deficient ′ flanking intronic sequence of mcca exon ), we were not able to identify a second allele in two cg and four cg probands. in five of these probands, the one allele identi- fied appeared to be homozygous in the rt-pcr product, but was clearly heterozygous in genomic dna, sug- gesting that the steady level of mrna from the second allele was not detectable as would be the case for a promoter mutation or an intra- genic deletion or insertion missed by genomic pcr. these results strong- ly support the identification of the mcca and mccb genes and their assignment to mcc deficiency in cg and cg , respectively. expression of mcca and mccb alleles as a final test of the identity of our candidate human mcca and mccb cdnas, we subcloned them into a mammalian expression vector (ptracer-cmv ), electroporated the recombinant constructs into a sv t transformed reference cg or cg cell line, and measured mcc activity hours later ( ). as a ref- erence, we also measured pcc activ- ity ( ). wild-type mcca and mccb alleles restored mcc activity to % and % of untransfected control fibroblasts, respectively (table ). transfection efficiency, assessed by scoring a subset of cells in each transfection for the presence of the coexpressed gfp, ranged from to % in these experiments. similarly, to test the functional consequences of the missense mutations, we expressed three mcca and six mccb missense alleles. mccb-r c and -v m had activity of and pmol/min/mg protein, respectively, or about % of the activity produced by the wild-type allele, whereas the remaining four mccb alleles and the three mcca alleles produced no detectable activity (table ). these results confirm the deleterious func- tional consequences of the tested missense mutations. population frequency of selected mcca and mccb alleles additionally, we used allele-specific oligonucleotide analysis ( ) to survey a north american control popu- lation of individuals for three mcca alleles (r s, a v, and l p) and two mccb alleles (e q and r c). aside from one individual heterozygous for r s, we did not identify any of these alleles in this collection of control chromosomes (data not shown). these results indicate that each of these mutant the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number figure mcca and b missense mutations that alter splicing. (a) mcca d h. the g→c trans- version of the last bp of exon results in the missense mutation d h. the ′ base of an exon also contributes to donor splice site recognition and, as shown in the lower panel, rt-pcr of mcca cdna in this patient with primers corresponding to the ′ and ′ utr resulted in a product smaller than in wild-type. sequence analysis of this product showed that exon ( bp) is skipped, which shifts the reading frame. thus, the deleterious consequences of this mis- sense mutation appear to be entirely due to the splicing defect. (b) mccb i v. as shown in the upper panel, the a→g transition in exon results in the replacement of isoleucine by valine, a conservative change. however, the mutation also activates a cryptic splice donor. use of this new donor splice site deletes the last bp of exon from the mature transcript. as shown in the lower panel, direct sequencing of the rt-pcr product shows that virtually all the transcript present uses the new, more ′ splice donor. the second allele of this compound heterozygous patient does not produce detectable rna. wt, wild-type; mut, mutant. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number probands is characterized by the fact that almost every proband had a unique genotype with no prevalent mutant allele for either gene. in agreement with this observation, using allele-specific oligonucleotide analy- sis to screen north american controls ( chro- mosomes), we found only a single heterozygote from one allele (mcca-r s) and no carriers for the others tested (mcca-a v, -l p; mccb-e q, -r c). for mcca, we assume functional significance for the frameshift mutation q fs(+ ) and the missense mutation d h, which alters splicing (figure a), because both result in truncated proteins lacking func- tionally important domains. the mcca mutations r s, a v, and l p all change conserved residues (figure a), and the corresponding alleles con- fer no detectable mcc activity when expressed in the cg reference cell line (table ). in contrast to the other four cg probands tested, who had no detectable mccα, we detected normal amounts of mccα protein in the proband homozygous for r s (figure ). this result is consistent with the pre- diction based on the structure of the biotin carboxyla- tion domain of e. coli acc that the residue correspon- ding to mccα r is part of a positively charged pocket for bicarbonate binding ( , ). for mccb, we assume functional significance for the frameshift mutation s fs(+ ), the splice site muta- tion in ac- g→a and the missense mutation i v, which alters splicing (figure b). the remaining six mccb missense mutations all change conserved residues and were the only coding alterations we found in sequencing the full-length orf (figure b). in expression studies, we showed that the mccb-r q, -p r, -s l, and -e q alleles had no detectable mcc activity, whereas mccb-v m and -r c had some residual activity, about % of the experimental control value (table ), when expressed in cg -deficient reference cell lines. we identified v m in two com- pound heterozygous turkish probands (table ), the only patients in our collection with residual mcc activity in fibroblasts. although % residual activity is at the detec- tion limit of the standard mcc assay we used for the expression studies ( ), these results are in accordance with the residual activity detect- ed in fibroblasts of these patients with a modi- fied mcc assay of increased sensitivity ( , ). mccα was reduced, but clearly present, in all cg cell lines in our biochemical detection of the biotin-containing α subunit (figure ). this suggests that the mccα subunit is less stable when the β subunit is absent or defective. interestingly, we detected the mccβ s fs(+ ), a t insertion, as one allele in a mild- ly affected swiss compound heterozygote ( ) and in an asymptomatic mennonite homozy- gote from lancaster county, pennsylvania (table ). the ancestors of the lancaster county amish/men- nonite population originated from switzerland ( ) and may have brought this allele with them. haplotype analysis will be necessary to confirm a founder muta- tion. moreover, the amish proband is homozygous for a different mccb allele, e q. thus, despite the small size and common origins of the amish/mennonite population in this region, there is allelic heterogeneity for mcc deficiency. combining our results and the published clinical reports ( – , – ), we were not able to discern a phenotype-genotype correlation. probands and , homozygous for truncating mutations in mcca or mccb (tables and ), have, in one case, no symp- toms and, in the other, a mild phenotype with late onset and no residual damage ( ). by contrast, probands , , and , homozygous for mis- sense mutations mcca-r s, mccb-s l, and - e q, have a severe phenotype with early-onset, major neurological involvement and, in one case, a fatal outcome (table ) ( , , ). proband , an adult amish patient homozygous for the same mccb-e q, has only mild symptoms ( ). further- more, the two turkish patients with mccb-v m that have some residual mcc activity both have a severe phenotype. taken together, these results sug- gest that factors other than the genotype at the table mccb mutant alleles no. allele exon nucleotide clinical ethnic proband change phenotypea origin r q g→a mild vietnamese p r c→g mild vietnamese s fs(+ ) inst mild swiss/mennoniteb c, d i v a→ge mild dutch c r c c→t mild dutch in ac- g→a in ac- g→a mild dutch s l c→t severe turkish d e q g→c severe/mild turkish/amish d, d v m g→a severe turkish c, c amild: late onset, good recovery after acute attack, no or mild developmental delay; severe: onset in infancy, severe neurological involvement with severe developmental delay. bdetect- ed by newborn screening. conly one allele identified. dhomozygous. eactivates cryptic splice donor (figure b). table mcca mutant alleles no. allele exon nucleotide clinical ethnic proband change phenotypea origin r s a→c severe german b q fs(+ ) insg mild swedish/amer. c, b a v c→t mild american c d h g→cd severe turkish b l p t→c severe argentine b amild: late onset, good recovery after acute attack, no or mild developmental delay; severe: onset in infancy, severe neurological involvement with severe developmental delay. bhomozygous. conly one allele identified. dalters splicing (figure a). the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number mcca and mccb loci (modifying genes, environ- mental variables) must have a major influence on the phenotype of mcc deficiency. since the widespread introduction of ms/ms to new- born screening, many new patients with mcc defi- ciency have been detected. surprisingly, mcc deficien- cy appears to be the most frequent organic aciduria in these screening programs ( , – ) with an overall fre- quency of approximately in , . studies of these prospectively identified individuals should provide insight into the factors that determine the phenotypic severity of mcc deficiency. note added in proof. we have recently learned that the molecular basis of mcc deficiency has also been identi- fied by gallardo et al. ( , am. j. hum. genet. : ). acknowledgments we thank a. kohlschütter, u. von döbeln, s. berry, j. smeitink, r.d. de kremer dodelson, w. lehnert, u. wiesmann, u. wendel, w.j. kleijer, b. steinmann, b.t. poll-the, d.h. morton, and h.g koch for referring fibroblasts of their patients, and j. nathans for provid- ing the human retina cdna library and s. muscelli for assistance in preparing the manuscript. m.r. baum- gartner, t. suormala, and e.r. baumgartner are sup- ported by grants from the swiss national science foun- dation ( - . for t. suormala and e.r. baumgartner). r.n. cole was supported by the ameri- can health foundation. d. valle is an investigator in the howard hughes medical institute. . sweetman, l., and williams, j.c. . branched chain organic acidurias. in the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. th edition. c.r. scriver, a.l. beaudet, w.s. sly, and d. valle, editors. mcgraw-hill. new york, new york, usa. – . . bannwart, c., wermuth, b., baumgartner, r., suormala, t., and weis- mann, u.n. . isolated biotin-resistant deficiency of -methyl- crotonyl-coa carboxylase presenting as a clinically severe form in a newborn with fatal outcome. j. inherit. metab. dis. : – . . lehnert, w., niederhoff, h., suormala, t., and baumgartner, e.r. . isolated biotin-resistant -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency: long-term outcome in a case with neonatal onset. eur. j. pediatr. : – . . gibson, k.m., bennett, m.j., naylor, e.w., and morton, d.h. . - methylcrotonyl-coenzyme a carboxylase deficiency in amish/men- nonite adults identified by detection of increased acylcarnitines in blood spots of their children. j. pediatr. : – . . levy, h.l. . newborn screening by tandem mass spectrometry: a new era. clin. chem. : – . . naylor, e.w., and chace, d.h. . automated tandem mass spec- trometry for mass newborn screening for disorders in fatty acid, organic acid and amino acid metabolism. j. child neurol. (suppl. ):s –s . . smith, w.e., et al. . evaluation of elevated hydroxyisovaleryl- carnitine in the newborn screen by tandem mass spectrometry. am. j. hum. genet. : . (abstr.) . roscher, a.a., liebl, b., fingerhut, r., and olgemöller, b. . prospective study of ms-ms newborn screening in bavaria, germany. j. inherit. metab. dis. : . (abstr.) . wilcken, b., wiley, v., and carpenter, k. . two years of routine newborn screening by tandem mass spectrometry (msms) in new south wales, australia. j. inherit. metab. dis. : . (abstr.) . samols, d., et al. . evolutionary conservation among biotin enzymes. j. biol. chem. : – . . wolf, b. . disorders of biotin metabolism. in the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. th edition. c.r. scriver, a.l. beaudet, w.s. sly, and d. valle, editors. mcgraw-hill. new york, new york, usa. – . . jitrapakdee, s., and wallace, j.c. . structure, function and regu- lation of pyruvate carboxylase. biochem. j. : – . . lamhonwah, a.-m., et al. . isolation of cdna clones coding for the a and b chains of human propionyl-coa carboxylase: chromoso- mal assignments and dna polymorphisms associated with pcca and pccb genes. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : – . . freytag, s.o., and collier, k.j. . molecular cloning of a cdna for human pyruvate carboxylase. j. biol. chem. : – . . abu-elheiga, l., jayakumar, a., baldini, a., chirala, s.s., and wakil, s.j. . human acetyl-coa carboxylase: characterization, molecular cloning and evidence for two isoforms. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : – . . lau, e.p., cochran, b.c., and fall, r.r. . isolation of -methyl- crotonyl-coenzyme a carboxylase from bovine kidney. arch. biochem. biophys. : – . . weaver, l.m., et al. . molecular cloning of the biotinylated sub- unit of -methylcrotonyl-coenzyme a carboxylase of arabidopsis thaliana. plant physiol. : – . . mckean, a.l., et al. . molecular characterization of the non- biotin-containing subunit of -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase. j. biol. chem. : – . . mourmans, j., et al. . isolated (biotin-resistant) -methyl- crotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency: four sibs devoid of pathology. j. inherit. metab. dis. : – . . gitzelmann, r., et al. . isolated (biotin-resistant) -methyl- crotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency presenting at age months with sopor, hypoglycaemia and ketoacidosis. j. inherit. metab. dis. (suppl. ): – . . beemer, f.a., et al. . isolated biotin-resistant -methylcrotonyl- coa carboxylase deficiency in two sibs. eur. j. pediatr. : – . . wiesmann, u.n., suormala, t., pfenninger, j., and baumgartner, e.r. . partial -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency in an infant with fatal outcome due to progressive respiratory failure. eur. j. pediatr. : – . . tsai, m.y., johnson, d.d., sweetman, l., and berry, s.a. . two siblings with biotin-resistant -methylcrotonyl-coenzyme a car- boxylase deficiency. j. pediatr. : – . . steen, c., et al. . metabolic stroke in isolated -methylcrotonyl- coa carboxylase deficiency. eur. j. pediatr. : – . . jurecki, e., and packman, s. . nutritional therapy for beta- methylcrotonylglycinuria. metabolic currents. : – . . wolf, b., willard, h.f., and rosenberg le. . kinetic analysis of genetic complementation in heterokaryons of propionyl coa car- boxylase-deficient human fibroblasts. am. j. hum. genet. : – . . suormala, t., wick, h., bonjour, j.-p., and baumgartner, e.r. . rapid differential diagnosis of carboxylase deficiencies and evalua- tion for biotin responsiveness in a single blood sample. clin. chim. acta. : – . . old, s.e., and devivo, d.c. . pyruvate dehydrogenase complex deficiency: biochemical and immunoblot analysis of cultured skin fibroblasts. ann. neurol. : – . . nathans, j., piantanida, t.p., eddy, r.l., shows, t.b., and hogness, d.s. . molecular genetics of inherited variation in human color vision. science. : – . table expressiona of mcca and mccb alleles allele enzyme activityb (pmol/min/mg protein) experiment experiment mcc pcc mcc pcc mcca wild type r s a v l p vector mccb wild type s l – – e q – – v m – – r q – – p r – – r c – – vector control fibroblasts atransient transfection in sv t-transformed reference cg or cg cell lines. bnumbers represent average of duplicates. the journal of clinical investigation | february | volume | number . williams, k., lopresti, m., and stone, k. . internal proteins sequencing of sds-page-separated proteins: optimization of an in gel digest protocol. in techniques in protein chemistry. d.r. marshak, editor. academic press. new york, new york, usa. – . . smith, b.j. . chemical cleavage of proteins. methods mol. biol. : – . . kennedy, r.t., and jorgenson, j.w. . preparation and evaluation of packed capillary liquid chromatography columns with inner diam- eters from to µm. anal. chem. : – . . eng, j.k., mccormak, a.l., ashley, l., and yates, j.r.i. . an approach to correlate tandem mass spectral data of peptides with amino acid sequences in a protein database. j. am. soc. mass spectrom. : – . . braverman, n., et al. . human pex encodes the peroxisomal pts receptor and is responsible for rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata. nat. genet. : – . . leon-del-rio, a., and gravel, r.a. . sequence requirements for the biotinylation of carboxyl-terminal fragments of human propi- onyl-coa carboxylase alpha subunit expression in escherichia coli. j. biol. chem. : – . . waldrop, g.l., rayment, i., and holden, h.m. . three-dimen- sional structure of the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl-coa car- boxylase. biochemistry. : – . . thoden, j.b., blanchard, c.z., holden, h.m., and waldrop, g.l. . movement of biotin carboxylase b-domain as a result of atp bind- ing. j. biol. chem. : – . . saraste, m., sibbald, p.r., and wittinghofer, a. . the p-loop: a common motif in atp- and gtp-binding proteins. trends biochem. sci. : – . . lópez-casillas, f., et al. . structure of the coding sequence and primary amino acid sequence of acetyl-coenzyme a carboxylase. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : – . . hendrick, j.p., hodges, p.e., and rosenberg, l.e. . survey of amino-terminal proteolytic cleavage sites in mitochondrial precur- sor proteins: leader peptides cleaved by two matrix proteases share a three-amino acid motif. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : – . . nolt, s.m. . a history of the amish. good books. intercourse, penn- sylvania, usa. pp. the british journal of psychiatry | cambridge core skip to main content accessibility help we use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. login alert cancel log in × × home only search content i have access to 	 	home 	log in 	register 	browse subjects 	what we publish 	services 	about cambridge core 	 cart 	 cart 	 	 	 	 access provided by 	 carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	logged in as: carnegie mellon university 	manage institution login 	 	 	 register 	 register 	 log in 	 	 cart 	 < back to search results 	home 	journals 	the british journal of psychiatry 	 english | français the british journal of psychiatry 	 	 	 	 	 search within full text search within journal search within society 	 	 	 	 	 submit your article 	 information submit your article you are leaving cambridge core and will be taken to this journal's article submission site. cancel leave now × 	 other actions 	 submit your article 	information 	 	 	 	 	 	 	visit: 	 	 	 	 journal home 	journal home 	accepted manuscripts 	firstview articles 	latest issue 	all issues 	most read 	subscribe 	open access articles there is currently a delay in the posting of accepted eletters to cambridge core. we apologise for the inconvenience. 	 access: subscribed 	 contains open access on the cover continues the asylum journal (  -  ), the asylum journal of mental science (  -  ), journal of mental science (  -  ) title history 	 issn: - (print), - (online) 	 editor: professor kamaldeep bhui cbe oxford university, uk 	editorial board the british journal of psychiatry (bjpsych) is a leading international peer-reviewed journal, covering all branches of psychiatry with a particular emphasis on the clinical aspects of each topic. published monthly on behalf of the royal college of psychiatrists, the journal is committed to improving the prevention, investigation, diagnosis, treatment, and care of mental illness, as well as the promotion of mental health globally. in addition to authoritative original research papers from around the world, the journal publishes editorials, review articles, commentaries on contentious articles, short reports, a comprehensive book review section and a lively, well-informed correspondence column. bjpsych is essential reading for psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, and all professionals with an interest in mental health. latest articles view all 	article 	 bjp volume issue cover and front matter 	 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose – psychiatry in history 	 stephen wilson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 robert hooke's bethlem hospital of : an architectural wonder – psychiatry in pictures 	 r.h.s. mindham 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘of the chaunge from one sex to another’: eye-witness accounts of pliny the elder ( – ) and ambroise paré ( – ) – psychiatry in literature 	 greg wilkinson 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 kaleidoscope 	 derek k. tracy, dan w. joyce, dawn n. albertson, sukhwinder s. shergill 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 ‘lone travelers’ – psychiatry in pictures 	 brent r. carr 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 the medical model in mental health: an explanation and evaluation by ahmed samei huda oup. . £ . (pb). pp. isbn 	 alistair stewart 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue 	article 	 highlights of this issue 	 kate adlington 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all rcpsych article of the month blog view all 	 are there ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic? 	 march , diana miconi, phd 	the rcpsych article of the month for february is ‘ethno-cultural disparities in mental health during the covid- pandemic: a cross-sectional study on the impact... view all tweets by bjpsych facebook loading https://www.facebook.com/rcpsych... . impact factor: out of psychiatry journal citation reports © clarivate analytics most read view all 	article 	 factors influencing the decision to use hanging as a method of suicide: qualitative study 	 lucy biddle, jenny donovan, amanda owen-smith, john potokar, damien longson, keith hawton, nav kapur, david gunnell 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all most cited view all 	article 	 a new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change 	 stuart a. montgomery, marie Åsberg 	 the british journal of psychiatry, volume , issue view all 	librarians 	authors 	publishing partners 	agents 	corporates 	 additional information 	accessibility 	our blog 	news 	contact and help 	cambridge core legal notices 	feedback 	sitemap join us online 	 	 	 	 	 	 legal information 	 	rights & permissions 	copyright 	privacy notice 	terms of use 	cookies policy 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top 	 © cambridge university press 	back to top cancel confirm × master layout sheet genetic and environmental factors are important determinants of disease frequency and distribution. , several inherited disorders are more commonly seen in certain ethnic groups, for example carnitine palmitoyltransferase type a in the canadian aboriginal population, , and maple syrup urine disease in the mennonite population. the high incidence of genetic diseases among specific ethnic groups is important in health care planning. - in addition, understanding ethnic differences and associated risk factors for various disorders is important in planning appropriate prevention strategies. ataxia is characterized by incoordination and inability to maintain balance. ataxia is clinically and etiologically a heterogeneous group of disorders. several disorders associated abstract: background: genetic and environmental factors are important determinants of disease distribution. several disorders associated with ataxia are known to occur more commonly in certain ethnic groups; for example, the disequilibrium syndrome in the hutterites. the aim of this study was to determine the ethnic and geographic distribution of pediatric patients with chronic ataxia in manitoba, canada. methods: we identified patients less than years-of-age with chronic ataxia during - from multiple sources. their diagnosis, ethnicity and place of residence were determined following a chart review. results: most patients resided in manitoba (n= ) and the majority in winnipeg, the provincial capital. thirty five aboriginal, mennonite and hutterite patients resided in manitoba. the latter two groups were significantly overrepresented in our cohort. ataxia telangiectasia, mitochondrial disorders, and non-progressive ataxia of unknown etiology associated with pyramidal tracts signs and developmental delay were significantly more common in mennonite patients. four of five patients with neuronal migration disorders associated with chronic ataxia were aboriginal. few isolated disorders with chronic ataxia occurred in the hutterite patients including a joubert syndrome related disorder. conclusions: three disorders associated with chronic ataxia were more prevalent than expected in mennonites in manitoba. few rare disorders were more prevalent in the hutterite and aboriginal population. further research is needed to determine the risk factors underlying these variations in prevalence within different ethnic groups. the unique risk factor profiles of each ethnic group need to be considered in health promotion endeavors. rÉsumÉ: ethnie et distribution géographique de l’ataxie chronique chez des patients d’âge pédiatrique au manitoba. contexte : les facteurs génétiques et environnementaux sont des déterminants importants de la répartition d’une maladie dans une population. il est bien connu que plusieurs maladies comportant de l’ataxie surviennent plus fréquemment dans certaines ethnies, comme par exemple le syndrome de déséquilibre chez les communautés huttériennes. le but de cette étude était de déterminer la distribution ethnique et géographique des patients pédiatriques atteints d’ataxie chronique au manitoba, canada. méthode : nous avons identifié patients de moins de ans atteints d’ataxie chronique entre et . nos sources de renseignements étaient multiples. le diagnostic, l’ethnie et le lieu de résidence étaient obtenus du dossier médical. résultats : la plupart des patients résidaient au manitoba (n = ) et la majorité habitait winnipeg, la capitale provinciale. trente-cinq patients autochtones, mennonites et huttériens résidaient au manitoba. ces deux derniers groupes étaient significativement surreprésentés dans notre cohorte de patients. l’ataxie- téléangiectasie, les maladies mitochondriales et l’ataxie non évolutive d’étiologie inconnue associée à des signes pyramidaux et à un retard du développement étaient significativement plus fréquentes chez les patients mennonites. quatre des patients atteints de troubles de la migration neuronale associé à une ataxie chronique étaient des autochtones. peu de maladies isolées avec ataxie chronique ont été observées chez les huttériens, incluant une maladie liée au syndrome de joubert. conclusions : trois maladies comportant une ataxie chronique avaient une prévalence plus élevée que prévu chez les mennonites du manitoba. la prévalence de quelques maladies rares était plus élevée dans les populations huttérienne et autochtone. on devra procéder à des recherches plus poussées pour déterminer les facteurs de risque sous-jacents à ces variations de la prévalence au sein de différents groupes ethniques. le profil de facteurs de risque unique à chaque groupe ethnique doit être pris en compte lors de campagnes de promotion de la santé. can j neurol sci. ; : - the canadian journal of neurological sciences ethnicity and geographic distribution of pediatric chronic ataxia in manitoba michael s. salman, shaheen masood, meghan azad, bernard n. chodirker from the section of pediatric neurology (mss, sm), section of genetics and metabolism (bnc), department of pediatrics and child health (mss, bnc), faculty of medicine, university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba; and department of pediatrics (ma), university of alberta, edmonton, alberta; canada. received march , . final revisions submitted july , . correspondence to: michael s. salman, section of pediatric neurology, children’s hospital, ae , sherbrook street, winnipeg, manitoba, r a r , canada. email: msalman@hsc.mb.ca. original article with ataxia are known to occur more commonly in geographic or ethnic clusters. , - the canadian population is ethnically diverse because of migration. during the last few decades a https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core number of new genetic causes of ataxia have been described in discrete ethnic groups within canada and elsewhere. , , previously, we have identified pediatric patients with chronic ataxia in manitoba, canada. patients with ataxia caused solely by brain tumors, peripheral nervous system diseases and vestibular system dysfunction were excluded. angelman syndrome, ataxia telangiectasia and mitochondrial disorders were the most common etiologies in our cohort. the aims of this study were to describe the ethnic and geographic distribution of pediatric patients presenting with chronic ataxia in manitoba and to ascertain if any clustering of diseases associated with pediatric chronic ataxia occurs in the province; specifically in the mennonite, hutterite, and aboriginal populations who are minority groups in manitoba that are known to have a higher prevalence of genetic disorders. methods we searched several databases and clinical information resources to identify pediatric patients with chronic ataxia, who received care at winnipeg children’s hospital between and . further details on the methodology, including ascertainment of the patients are described elsewhere. patients from neighboring provinces whose health needs are served by our tertiary pediatric hospital were also included in the initial search. in the analysis, only patients resident in manitoba were investigated for ethnic and geographic clustering. ethical approval for the study was granted by the research ethics board of the university of manitoba. data were collected from the patients’ hospital medical charts including age, gender, place of birth, place of residence, and etiology as described previously. as part of routine clinical practice, parents are asked about their ethnic background during the patient assessment. the information is usually documented in the neurology and genetics/metabolic charts. data pertaining to ethnic groups were extracted and defined according to the following categories: mennonite, hutterite, caucasian (excluding mennonites and hutterites), asian, indian, african/ caribbean, mixed, or aboriginal and if known: first nation, metis, or inuit. the inclusion criteria were: . the age of the patients on presentation was less than years. . the ataxia was chronic (i.e. greater than two months long or intermittent with two or more discrete episodes of ataxia) during any period between birth and years-of-age. . the patients attended winnipeg children’s hospital, the only tertiary pediatric hospital in the province of manitoba, to assess and investigate their ataxia. . the patients presented between and . the exclusion criteria were: . patients whose ataxia was not an important clinical feature (i.e. not clinically significant and not affecting day to day life). . a single episode of ataxia that fully recovered within two months of onset and never recurred. . ataxia caused only by diseases of the peripheral nerves, vestibular system, or primary brain tumors. . patients who were clumsy or had developmental coordination disorder but were not ataxic. disease etiology and ethnicity were then investigated to identify any disease clustering. this information was compared to the population at risk (children residing in manitoba) obtained from provincial census data. statistics canada conducts a population census once every five years. data on ethnicity and religion are available by various age groups including children less than years and youth aged - years. ethnicity is documented in every census, but religion (used to identify mennonites and hutterites) is documented only once every ten years. the census published by statistics canada (available on-line at http://www.statcan.gc.ca/), was used to obtain the relative frequencies of various ethnicities and religions in children less than years-of-age living in the province of manitoba. the census year was chosen because it was near the middle of our study period and also because statistics on religions were available for that census year. the age group of children less than years was considered a close match for our study cohort. for the more common diseases found in our cohort (defined arbitrarily as being present in at least four patients), exact logistic regression was conducted to determine the likelihood of disease (odds ratio and % confidence interval) according to ethnicity. patients were classified according to the following ethnic groups: aboriginal (all types or first nations only), hutterite, mennonite, caucasian, or “all others” (including africans/caribbean, indian, asian, mixed, and unknown ethnicity). the reference group comprised caucasian children (both parents are caucasian) who were not mennonite or hutterite to the best of our knowledge. in order to minimize the effect of disease clustering among first degree relatives, the analyses were repeated after excluding sibling pairs (only the first presenting sibling was retained; there were ten sibling pairs in the cohort). statistical analyses were conducted using sas . (sas institute inc., cary, nc, usa); results were considered significant when p < . . results of the patients that satisfied the inclusion criteria of this study, half were males and resided in manitoba with many (n= ) living in winnipeg, the provincial capital. mean age (sd, range) at the end of the study was ( . , . - . ) years. detailed stratification of the cohort by age and gender and other demographic information has already been published elsewhere. geographic clustering of patients was uncommon (figure). only a few patients clustered in the small towns of steinbach (n= ), which is km south east of winnipeg, and morden/ winkler (n= ), which are neighboring towns located km south west of winnipeg. these patients were mostly mennonite, which is expected since these communities have a high population of mennonites. in our cohort of patients living in manitoba, were fully or partially caucasian (both parents in patients, one parent in with the other parent’s ethnicity being unknown, and mixed, i.e. one parent is caucasian while the other parent is of another non- aboriginal race, in ). another patients were aboriginals, the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core were mennonites, and were hutterites. the proportion of mennonite and hutterite patients in our cohort ( . % and . %, respectively) was significantly higher than anticipated in comparison to the pediatric population at risk living in the province (estimated at . % and . % according to the national census) (table ). the likelihood of each disorder according to ethnicity (compared to caucasian) is shown in table for manitoba residents (n= ), while the ethnicities among the more common disorders in the whole cohort (n= ) are displayed in tables and . there were patients with angelman syndrome. most had caucasian parents and four were aboriginal; no significant differences according to ethnicity were observed. mennonites were significantly overrepresented among patients with ataxia telangiectasia and mitochondrial disorders (p< . and p< . , respectively). ten of ( . %) patients with ataxia telangiectasia were mennonite, including one pair of siblings. six patients resided in steinbach. the nine patients with mitochondrial disorders resided in several cities and towns in and around winnipeg. the furthest town was located km west of winnipeg. three of the nine patients were mennonite and had abnormalities in respiratory chain enzyme complexes i, iv, or both. there was no obvious geographic clustering. the other six non-mennonite patients with mitochondrial disorders had alpers disease, melas (mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke- like episodes), leigh syndrome, respiratory enzyme complexes i le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – january figure: map of the province of manitoba, canada showing the geographic distribution of pediatric patients (n= ) with chronic ataxia during the period - . ‘n’ denotes the number of patients represented by the colored squares (not drawn to scale) displayed on the map. map source: © department of natural resources canada. all rights reserved. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences l parents ethnicity aboriginal (all) aboriginal (first nation subgroup only) hutterite mennonite‡‡ caucasian† all others total proportion of total manitoba - years-old population§ . % . % . % . % . % . % % any etiology of pediatric chronic ataxia observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) . ( . - . )** ns . ( . - . )*** . ( . - . )*** (ref) angelman syndrome observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ne ns (ref) ataxia telangiectasia observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ne ne ne . ( . - > . )*** (ref) mitochondrial disorder observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ns . ( . - . )** (ref) ischemic stroke observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ns ne (ref) neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ne ne (ref) neuronal migration disorder observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) . ( . - !)* . ( . - !)* ne ns (ref) hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns . ( . - !)* ne (ref) epilepsy syndrome observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ne ns (ref) retts syndrome observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ne ne (ref) leukodystrophy observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ne ne ne (ref) † * non-significant associations (ns) not shown. table : likelihood of disorders associated with the more common causes of pediatric chronic ataxia‡ according to ethnicity https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core and iv deficiency, pyruvate carboxylase deficiency, and an uncharacterized mitochondrial disorder. six of seven patients with friedreich ataxia had at least one caucasian parent. there were two pairs of siblings with friedreich ataxia. in addition, two pairs of siblings had acetazolamide responsive episodic ataxia. of the nine patients with ischemic stroke associated with chronic ataxia, two resided in winnipeg and another two resided km south east of winnipeg while the others were scattered in small towns. of the six patients with neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, four were aboriginal (three first nation and one metis), but this did not represent a statistically significant association (table ). two of these four were siblings and three of the four resided about km north of winnipeg. no geographic clustering was noted among the other patients. there were five patients including one pair of siblings with neuronal migration disorder involving the cerebral hemispheres associated with chronic ataxia. four were aboriginal and thus a statistically significant association was found between the disorder and the patients’ ethnicity (p < . , see table ). three were first nations and one metis. two resided in winnipeg and two resided km north east of winnipeg. two of the four patients with leukodystrophy associated with chronic ataxia were siblings who had cree leukodystrophy (synonymous with vanishing white matter leukodystrophy) and resided in the very far north of the province while the other two were caucasians and resided in two towns west and far north of winnipeg. one had x-linked adrenoleukodystrophy and the other had the presumptive diagnosis of pelizaeus–merzbacher disease. the diagnosis was unknown in of patients with chronic ataxia, of whom had a non progressive disease course. the other patients were made up of clinically heterogeneous small groups of patients with intermittent or progressive ataxia of unknown etiology. the patients were divided into several subgroups depending on the presence or absence of associated clinical features e.g., epilepsy and pyramidal tract signs. abnormal pyramidal tract signs included hypertonia, hyper-reflexia, clonus, and babinski’s response. table shows the ethnicity among these subgroups for the whole of our cohort. the subgroups were as follows: ) twenty two of the patients had a combination of developmental delay, cerebellar and pyramidal tracts sign(s). the disorder was significantly more common in mennonite patients (p < . , table ), ) seven of the patients had developmental delay, epilepsy, cerebellar and pyramidal tracts signs, ) five of the patients in this subgroup had cerebellar signs and developmental delay only. there was one pair of siblings in this subgroup, ) le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – january ‡defined by the presence of at least four patients with the same disease group; ‡‡at least one parent is mennonite; †caucasian reference group includes children who are known to have two caucasian parents that are not hutterite or mennonite. children who have only one caucasian parent, other ethnicities, and unknown ethnicities are included in the "all others" column, §statistics canada census data. *p< . , **p< . , ***p< . (shown in bold), or, odds ratio; ci, confidence interval; ne, not estimable (due to patients); ref, reference group. non-significant associations (ns) not shown. l joubert syndrome and related disorders observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ne ne . ( . - !)*** ns (ref) disorders associated with a non progressive chronic ataxia of unknown etiology in the pediatric population ) non progressive cerebellar syndrome of unknown etiology with developmental delay and pyramidal tract signs observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ns . ( . - . )*** (ref) ) non progressive cerebellar syndrome of unknown etiology with developmental delay, epilepsy and pyramidal tract signs observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ne ns ne (ref) ) non progressive cerebellar syndrome of unknown etiology with developmental delay observed patients (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ns ne ne (ref) ) non progressive cerebellar syndrome of unknown etiology with developmental delay and epilepsy observed patients (%) ( . %) (%) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) or vs caucasian ( % ci) ns ne . ( . - !)* ne (ref) † * non-significant associations (ns) not shown. table : likelihood of disorders associated with the more common causes of pediatric chronic ataxia‡ according to ethnicity (continued) https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences ‡defined by the presence of at least four patients with the same disease group; †includes one pair of siblings; §two pairs of siblings at, ataxia telangiectasia; md, mitochondrial disorder; fa, friedreich ataxia; fn, first nation e parents ethnicity angelman syndrome at md ischemic stroke fa acetazolamide responsive episodic ataxia intermittent ataxia of unknown etiology total both caucasians † § one caucasian † both mennonites † one mennonite hutterites aboriginals fn fn, metis fn, metis metis unknown african/ caribbean asians § a table : ethnicity among the more common causes of pediatric chronic ataxia‡ for the whole cohort (n= ) ‡defined by the presence of at least four patients with the same disease group; †includes (or they are) one pair of siblings; *one patient lives outside manitoba; §one of the parent is fn and the other is metis. ncl, neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis; hie, hypoxic ischemic encephalopa- thy; ld, leukodystrophy; js, joubert syndrome related disorder; fn, first nation; ab, dad is fn and mom is aboriginal but type is unknown parents ethnicity ncl epilepsy syndrome hie neuronal migration disorder retts syndrome js ld total both caucasians one caucasian both mennonites one mennonite hutterites aboriginals fn†, metis fn* fn*, ab ( fn†, metis§) fn metis†§ unknown indians * one patient lives outside manitoba § table : ethnicity among other common causes of pediatric chronic ataxia‡ for the whole cohort (n= ) *one patient moved later on to another province within canada; †one of these two patients, who lives in manitoba has a sibling marked as §; umn, upper motor neuron; dd, developmental delay; fn, first nation disorders with cerebellar signs associated with: parents ethnicity umn sign(s) and dd epilepsy, one umn sign and dd dd only epilepsy and dd no other features total both caucasians one caucasian both mennonites one mennonite hutterites aboriginals fn*†, metis metis fn§, metis metis indian unknown table : ethnic distribution among the (of ) patients with non progressive disorders associated with pediatric chronic ataxia https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core five of the patients had developmental delay, epilepsy and cerebellar signs, and ) two of patients had cerebellar signs only. although based on very few patients, three disorders appeared to be statistically more common in the hutterite population (table ). the first was a joubert syndrome related disorder in two patients, the second was hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy in a single patient, and the third was a non- progressive cerebellar motor syndrome associated with developmental delay and epilepsy of unknown etiology in another single patient. the results of all the analyses in table were similar after excluding sibling pairs (data not shown). discussion genetic disorders within defined ethnic groups may show strong founder effects, or may have multiple origins even within small geographic areas. , , , factors influencing these patterns include the mutation rate for specific genes, the age of the examined mutations, and the degree of isolation of the investigated community from other ethnic groups. the ability to identify carriers in this population facilitates genetic counseling and biomedical research, and enables epidemiologists to correlate any carrier susceptibility risks. , adequate counseling and support should accompany such testing in the event that a correlation is found. the prevalence of pediatric chronic ataxia varied across different ethnicities in our province. angelman syndrome has been reported in both genders and in individuals of diverse ethnic backgrounds. our study revealed angelman syndrome to be most common in non-mennonite or hutterite caucasians, who represent the majority of the manitoba population, which is consistent with another study. no excess patients were found in the aboriginal population. mennonite patients were significantly over represented in our cohort of patients with chronic ataxia. mennonites are a religious and genetic isolate of th century dutch/ german ancestry. this group moved to canada over the past years. many patients in our cohort with ataxia telangiectasia were mennonites, which may be due to a common founder effect. , a significantly higher proportion of mennonite patients had mitochondrial disorders. this is consistent with other studies that reported higher prevalence of different mitochondrial disorders in the mennonite population, which have been reviewed elsewhere. among the patients with chronic ataxia whose disease etiology remains unknown, we identified several with a non-progressive cerebellar motor syndrome associated with pyramidal tract signs and developmental delay, which was more frequent in mennonite patients. this deserves further investigation. friedreich ataxia is reported in individuals of european, north american, middle eastern or indian origin. this is consistent with our study results. the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses are a group of progressive neurodegenerative disorders, which are usually recessively inherited. there is a high prevalence of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis in the canadian province of newfoundland, which may be due to social isolation and the founder effect. , four of our six patients with this diagnosis were aboriginal and three of these four (including one sibling pair) were cree from one northern region in the province. this apparent higher incidence was not statistically significant. neuronal migration disorders associated with chronic ataxia occurred mostly among aboriginal pediatric patients in our cohort. no such association has been reported previously. there were a significantly higher proportion of hutterite patients in our cohort. the association with a joubert syndrome related disorder has already been described in the hutterite population. however, the other two disease associations reported in this paper affected only single patients. therefore, the statistical significance of the two associations is of uncertain clinical significance. in addition, there were two hutterite patients in our cohort, who had autosomal recessive cerebellar hypoplasia in the hutterites population (disequilibrium syndrome), which has already been characterized in this population. findings in this study were not significantly affected by the ten sibling pairs since the results were unchanged after siblings were excluded on a subanalysis. our study limitations include incomplete ascertainment of patients with chronic ataxia, although this is unlikely since our center is the only tertiary pediatric facility in the province where such patients are assessed. we also encountered missing, incomplete and inaccurate information recorded in the hospital chart including information on ethnicity. in addition, our study is hospital rather than community based. finally, the actual prevalence of known disease etiologies may be higher since the ability to make definitive diagnoses improved significantly over the year study period with more medical advances. the effects of these limitations on our study results are likely minimal as discussed previously. in conclusion, the prevalence of pediatric chronic ataxia was variable across ethnic groups in manitoba, canada. a few disease-specific clusters were identified in the mennonite, hutterite, and aboriginal populations. further research is needed to understand the risk factors underlying these variations in prevalence within certain ethnic groups. the unique risk factor profiles of each ethnic group need to be considered during health promotion activities. acknowledgements the authors thank v. harari for her help in mapping some of the data. they also thank the manitoba medical service foundation and braden hope fund for their financial support, as well as the manitoba institute of child health and the children hospital foundation of manitoba for providing the infrastructure needed for the project and for financial support. we thank t. styba for performing part of the data collection. le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – january https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core references . sequeiros j, martins s, silveira i. epidemiology and population genetics of degenerative ataxias. handb clin neurol. ; : - . . werdelin l, keiding n. hereditary ataxias: epidemiological aspects. neuroepidemiology. ; ( ): - . . collins sa, sinclair g, mcintosh s, et al. carnitine palmitoyltransferase a (cpt a) p l prevalence in live newborns in yukon, northwest territories, and nunavut. mol genet metab. ; ( - ): - . . greenberg cr, dilling la, thompson gr, et al. the paradox of the carnitine palmitoyltransferase type ia p l variant in canadian aboriginal populations. mol genet metab. ; ( ): - . . morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, et al. pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet. ; c ( ): - . . thomson ak, glasson ej, bittles ah. a long-term population- based clinical and morbidity profile of angelman syndrome in western australia: - . disabil rehabil. ; ( ): - . . tsuji s, onodera o, goto j, nishizawa m, on behalf of the study group on ataxic diseases. sporadic ataxias in japan - a population-based epidemiological study. cerebellum. ; ( ): - . . palau f, espinós c. autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias. orphanet j rare dis. ; : . . erichsen ak, koht j, stray-pedersen a, abdelnoor m, tallaksen cme. prevalence of hereditary ataxia and spastic paraplegia in southeast norway: a population-based study. brain. ; (pt ): - . . anheim m, fleury m, monga b, et al. epidemiological, clinical, paraclinical and molecular study of a cohort of patients affected with autosomal recessive progressive cerebellar ataxia from alsace, eastern france: implications for clinical management. neurogenetics. ; ( ): - . . sridharan r, radhakrishnan k, ashok pp, mousa me. prevalence and pattern of spinocerebellar degenerations in northeastern libya. brain. ; ( pt ): - . . boycott km, flavelle s, bureau a, et al. homozygous deletion of the very low density lipoprotein receptor gene causes autosomal recessive cerebellar hypoplasia with cerebral gyral simplification. am j hum genet. ; ( ): - . . dupré n, bouchard jp, brais b, rouleau ga. hereditary ataxia, spastic paraparesis and neuropathy in the french-canadian population. can j neurol sci. ; ( ): - . . salman ms, lee ej, tjahjadi a, chodirker bn. the epidemiology of intermittent and chronic ataxia in children in manitoba, canada. dev med child neurol. ; ( ): - . . statistics canada, census of population of canada, provinces, territories (data products, topic-based tabulations) catalogues no. f xcb , f xcb , f xcb , f xcb (manitoba, code ). ottawa, ontario: statistics canada. available from: http://www . statcan.ca/english/census /products/standard/themes/index- eng.cfm (accessed december th ). . buckley rh, dinno n, weber p. angelman syndrome: are the estimates too low? am j med genet. ; ( ): - . . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet a. ; a( ): - . . telatar m, teraoka s, wang z, et al. ataxia-telangiectasia: identification and detection of founder-effect mutations in the atm gene in ethnic populations. am j hum genet. ; : - . . labuda m, labuda d, miranda c, et al. unique origin and specific ethnic distribution of the friedreich ataxia gaa expansion. neurology. ; ( ): - . . moore sj, buckley dj, macmillan a, et al. the clinical and genetic epidemiology of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis in newfoundland. clin genet. ; : – . . vamp mutation causes dominant hereditary spastic ataxia in newfoundland families. bourassa cv, meijer ia, merner nd, et al. am j hum genet. ; ( ): - . . boycott km, parboosingh js, scott jn, et al. meckel syndrome in the hutterite population is actually a joubert-related cerebello- oculo-renal syndrome. am j med genet a. ; a( ): - . the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core biomed centralbmc pediatrics ss open accecorrespondence care for amish and mennonite children with cystic fibrosis: a case series jonathan f henderson and ran d anbar* address: department of pediatrics, state university of new york upstate medical university, syracuse, ny, usa email: jonathan f henderson - hendersonj@upstate.edu; ran d anbar* - anbarr@upstate.edu * corresponding author abstract background: published articles have described a lack of willingness to allow preventative measures, as well as other types of modern therapies, as an obstacle to providing medical care for amish and mennonite populations. methods: we present data regarding the amish and mennonite patients at the suny upstate medical university pediatric cystic fibrosis center and three representative case reports. results: families of patients from these communities receiving care at our center have accepted preventive therapy, acute medical interventions including home intravenous antibiotic administration, and some immunizations for their children with cystic fibrosis, which have improved the health of our patients. some have even participated in clinical research trials. health care education for both the child and family is warranted and extensive. significant cystic fibrosis center personnel time and fundraising are needed in order to address medical bills incurred by uninsured amish and mennonite patients. conclusion: amish and mennonite families seeking care for cystic fibrosis may choose to utilize modern medical therapies for their children, with resultant significant improvement in outcome. background while the amish and mennonite communities offer the opportunity for study of closed populations with an increased incidence of certain genetic disease and defects, including cystic fibrosis (cf) [ - ], no published data have dealt with treatment and socioeconomic impact of cf on amish and mennonite families. in the united states, the population of the amish in was reported as approximately , while the men- nonite population was approximately , [ ]. the incidence of cf among these populations has been diffi- cult to estimate because of the closed nature of their com- munities. for example, in one ohio amish isolate the incidence of cf was / live births, while in another isolate there was no occurrence of cf among live births [ ]. the incidence of cf in the general united states population has been approximately / live births, however this incidence is falling, perhaps as a result of preconception and prenatal screening offered to the gen- eral population in order to identify carriers of cystic fibro- sis [ ]. as a majority of amish and mennonites may approve of cf carrier testing that can impact whether cf carriers marry each other [ ], it is possible that these pop- published: january bmc pediatrics , : doi: . / - - - received: august accepted: january this article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / © henderson and anbar; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/about/charter/ bmc pediatrics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / ulations also are experiencing a decline in the incidence of cf. however, the extent of genetic testing and counseling services available to these communities is unclear [ ]. the mennonites separated from the "old order" amish in as a result of adoption of new practices by the men- nonites, however, many of the central tenants of each group remain similar [ ]. both the amish and mennon- ites believe that good health is a gift from god, resulting from hard work and strict obedience to the teachings of the bible. the ability to work defines a "healthy" individ- ual [ - ]. conversely, illness is generally believed to be "god's will," while death is considered a natural part of life and a new beginning, rather than an end or punish- ment [ ]. the amish and mennonites believe in the strict separation of church and state, which historically has extended to refraining from use of government funds, including medicaid and social security [ , ]. further, typically they do not purchase commercial insurance [ ]. thus, barriers to provision of modern medical care include reimbursement issues, as well as the amish repu- diation of worldly conveniences such as telephones, elec- tricity, and automobiles [ ]. in most instances of illness, the amish rely on folk reme- dies and herbal medications, among other types of "alter- native" care [ ]. patients coming to modern medical facilities typically do so with chronic illness of many years, only after symptoms have become severe and herbal remedies have not proven beneficial [ ]. such will- ingness has been attributed to a lack of trained profession- als within their own communities to deal with severe illness [ , ]. contrary to the implications of the literature, we present data regarding the amish and mennonite patients at the suny upstate medical university pediatric cf center ( % of our cf patients) along with three representative case reports in order to alert physicians that families of these patients can be receptive to modern medical ther- apy, including preventive measures, which can greatly benefit the patients. table shows the proportion of our amish and mennonite patients who have accepted the recommended standard therapies for cf at our center. nine of the patients have undergone genotype testing and found to be homozygous for the Δf cf mutation. five of the patients have participated in clinical research trials through our center. due to the small nature of the amish and mennonite communities, we were concerned that members of their communities could identify the patients in the case reports. further, we were concerned by the potential impact of the current article on such communities [ ]. therefore, following consultation with the suny upstate institutional review board (irb), the families of the patients described in the case reports and their commu- nity elders reviewed and approved this manuscript prior to its submission for publication, in order to minimize risk of group harm, and harm to the families involved in each of the three presented cases. approval of the manu- script also was obtained from the suny upstate irb. case reports patient a – amish patient a was four-years-old when he began receiving care at our center. he had multiple siblings, including an older, much healthier sister who had cf. at the start of therapy, the patient's parents considered the long-term prognosis of their son when deliberating what treatments should be used. would the disease be painful? what help, if any, would medications and other medical technology provide that herbal therapies had not? is treatment futile in children with cf? following lengthy conversations involving not only the patient's parents, but also the bishop and elders in his community, it was felt to be in patient a's best interest to begin care with standard therapy for cf at our center (table ). a gas-powered generator was used to power the vest. patient a, as well as all of our amish and mennonite patients, qualified for pharmaceutical companies' patient assistance programs for many of his medications. those medications not covered under individual patient assist- ance programs were secured from pharmaceutical com- pany representatives in the form of samples. our hospital established a fee reduction program to help offset the cost of outpatient visits and inpatient hospital admissions for these families, all of whom qualified based on their income level. notably, all of the aforementioned assist- ance was secured by our cf center social worker, who was table : rate of standard cf therapy use by amish and mennonite patients at our center chest physiotherapy manual percussion % high frequency chest wall oscillator (vest) % nebulized mucolytic therapy with rhdnase % multivitamins fortified with vitamins a, d, e, and k % pancreatic enzymes % nutritional supplementation % antibiotic therapy % page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc pediatrics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / vital in communicating with the parents and helping them complete required paperwork. while standard therapies appeared to slow progression of the patient's lung disease, when his status worsened it was recommended by our center physician that intravenous antibiotic therapy be instituted. the family consulted with their elders who recommended that such therapy be with- held because of its cost, and as use of such therapy would only prolong the dying process in a patient with a termi- nal disease. during discussions with the family, our center physician stated that he believed the patient still would have a reasonable quality of life for several months or even a few years with use of intravenous antibiotics. further, withholding of antibiotic therapy at the time of the discussions would result in a much longer dying proc- ess than if the patient lived a longer life with concomitant lung disease progression prior to withholding of aggres- sive therapy. after a number of discussions at our center, the patient's parents allowed the introduction of intrave- nous therapy. they stated that if the medications did not seem to help their son's symptoms, it would be "god's will." at such a point they would not want to give him fur- ther intravenous therapy. home intravenous therapy was instituted because the family could not afford to pay in- patient hospital charges. several courses of intravenous antibiotic therapy were associated with a significant improvement of the patient's respiratory condition. however, after two years, he failed to respond to two intravenous antibiotic courses. at that time, the decision was made to withhold further intrave- nous therapy. the patient was provided supplemental oxygen at home that was generated by a concentrator, as well as on-going vest therapy. at the invitation of the patient and his family, a physician, respiratory therapist, and social worker from our center made home visits to check on the patient as he deteriorated. as he grew sicker, the patient was prescribed oral narcotics to be used as necessary for discomfort. four months after withholding intravenous therapy, following eight years of treatment at our center, patient a died. according to his family, as has become custom within this community, all of his supplies, including the vest and medicines, were given to another child in the community with cf; in this case, his sister. the strong bond between the family and providers at our center has led to amish from other com- munities in new york to seek care at our center at this family's advice. patient b – mennonite at the age of two months, patient b was seen at another center for failure to thrive, emesis, bloody stools, rash and bruising as a result of a vitamin k deficiency. follow- ing an episode of significant cough and wheezing, he was diagnosed with cf. later, it was found that patient b also had biliary cirrhosis. after receiving care elsewhere for four years, the patient came to our center because his family became discon- tented with the medical care they had been receiving. the parents stated they were unhappy because they were not provided with accurate information regarding the patient's health condition, need for testing, and treatment options. reportedly, the family was told that the patient would require hospitalization every few months for his entire life, as well as a liver transplant. the parents report- edly felt much pressure from staff members of the other institution to obtain state aid because of the high on- going and projected costs of his medical care. moreover, herbal remedies that patient b had used since he first became ill were discouraged by his physician, even though the family felt his caregivers did little to under- stand the need for these remedies. after transferring to our center, the parents of patient b were willing to try therapies they had heard worked well in others with cf in their community, including standard therapies offered at our center (table ). according to these parents, their readiness to try such therapies, includ- ing those that they may have previously rejected, was the result of the willingness of our center staff to discuss the potential benefit and harm of standard as well as alterna- tive therapies. for example, our cf center physician was open to use of herbal therapies for patient b, although he informed the family that no studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of treatment of cf. notably, the deacon and some of the bishops of patient b's mennonite com- munity actively discouraged use of the herbs because their use was thought to represent witchcraft. this created sig- nificant discomfort between the family and their bishop. the parents felt that while some of their community were supportive of herbs and would be willing to help fund this therapy, they felt uncomfortable asking for financial resources from other community members. ultimately, without pressure from our center, the family decided to obtain insurance coverage through medicaid. four months after institution of our standard cf therapies and nebulized tobramycin (tobi®) in treatment of the patient's airway colonization with pseudomonas aerugi- nosa, the patient's pulmonary crackles cleared, and his hemoglobin saturation in room air rose from % to %. his body mass index over the same time interval increased from . kg/m ( th percentile for age) to . kg/m ( th percentile for age). helping others within their community with cf was an important aspect of patient b's overall care, according to page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc pediatrics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / his parents. therefore, they consented to his inclusion in the cf foundation national patient registry, which tracks demographics of cf patients throughout the united states. moreover, because of the significant history of bil- iary disease in their child, the parents also consented to his enrollment in a gene modifier study of patients with cf liver disease, for which participation consisted of pro- vision of a single blood specimen. patient c – amish patient c was diagnosed with cf following postnatal test- ing done as a result of a sibling with the disease. she showed few symptoms of cf until she was two-years-old, at which time she was brought by her parents to a hospital in michigan because she was "pale". while she did not have any significant respiratory disease prior to this admission, her condition warranted the start of treatment for cf including rhdnase, and a bronchodilator, which largely was covered under michigan's trust fund for chil- dren with special needs (formerly the crippled chil- dren's fund). shortly thereafter, the patient and her family relocated to another state, where coverage for her expensive therapies was less available. more importantly to the family, they "didn't like the doctor" taking care of their children in the new cf center because they felt he did little to understand the beliefs of their culture, and why certain therapies are accepted while others are not. after talking to others in their community, the parents of patient c were told to come to our center because of the work we have done with the amish. a generator was installed by the family for the use of a nebulizer and vest. medications needing refrigeration have been kept on ice. three years ago, the family was contacted by an individual who sought to, "help amish children with cf." the family was presented with a plan to help cover the costs of treat- ment and were told that it "did not involve government assistance." ultimately, this plan turned out to be medic- aid through the state of new york, which caused distress for this family, when they learned about this at a subse- quent visit to our center. the social worker at our center worked to amend this problem with the state, and assured the elders and others within their community that the family in fact did not knowingly apply for state or govern- mental aid. the family of patient c was advised by the social worker to refrain from applying for any sort of "help" from others outside our facility without first con- tacting our center. the parents consented to have patient c participate in two studies, including one involving growth hormone. the latter study provided reimbursement for the family's transportation costs to our center and there were no charges associated with the center visits for the duration of the study. the family also agreed to allow immuniza- tion for influenza virus on a yearly basis. this family explained that even though amish patients often have refused immunizations of any kind, such preventative care currently is being left to the family's discretion as atti- tudes towards preventative care among the amish have shifted significantly over the past decade. discussion publications have described a lack of willingness to allow preventative measures as an obstacle to providing modern medical care for amish and mennonite populations [ - ]. based on the experiences reported by our patients, this information may have led some within the medical community to assume that amish and mennonite fami- lies are unwilling to allow preventative care, as well as other types of modern therapies, which has resulted in provision of suboptimal care for patients with cf. nonetheless, it is evident that amish and mennonite fam- ilies can be open to effective, modern therapy for this dis- ease. after extensive exploration of the beliefs and expectations of families from these communities, they have accepted preventive therapy, acute medical interven- tions including home intravenous antibiotic administra- tion, and some immunizations for their children with cf. some even have participated in clinical research trials. significant cf center personnel time and fundraising are needed in order to address medical bills incurred by unin- sured amish and mennonite patients with chronic disease such as cf. several options are available. churches within the community often have fundraisers, through selling amish and mennonite foods, quilts and furniture. "amish aid" is a type of medical insurance governed by business- men within the amish church to help pay for hospital bills [ ]. such funds are used by members of the church community, but often fall short of covering costs. with the availability of programs such as our institution's fee reduction program to offset costs, caring for amish patients becomes more manageable, and helps these fam- ilies to seek care. health care education for both the child and family is war- ranted and extensive. by openly discussing the rationale for state-of-the-art and alternative treatments, side effects and outcomes, amish and mennonite families can embrace state-of-the-art medical therapies, with signifi- cant positive results. participation of amish and mennon- ite patients in some of our clinical research trials also has been very helpful in that participating patients are reim- bursed for their transportation costs, and clinic charges are minimized for the duration of studies sponsored by pharmaceutical companies. further, participation in such page of (page number not for citation purposes) bmc pediatrics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / trials allows for more frequent visits at the cf center for the enrolled patients as well as siblings with cf, which leads to provision of more timely and thus improved health care. as presented in this report, some members of each group also are willing to allow certain preventative measures. a recent study by yoder and dworkin [ ], in which ques- tionnaires were mailed to all households in an illinois amish community, showed that the majority of the com- munity vaccinates all ( %) or some ( %) of their chil- dren, with only a small minority objecting due to concerns about vaccine safety, and an even smaller cohort objecting due to religious reasons. thus, amish families often are willing to utilize vaccination as a form of pre- ventative care. this report illustrates that health care geared to the cul- tural needs of patients and their families can lead to an improved outcome. it has been proposed that cultural sensitivity improves establishment of rapport and thus promotes cooperation and adherence to therapy [ ]. such sensitivity should include assessment of the patients' preferences and beliefs, and adjustment of health care delivery accordingly [ ]. for example, in some cultures more emphasis is placed on collective rather than individ- ual decision making, communication patterns may differ (e.g., there may be a relative emphasis on non-verbal com- munication), and views may differ regarding physicians, suffering, and the afterlife [ ]. conclusion it appears essential for the health care team to understand, consider, and incorporate current beliefs of amish and mennonite communities into the development of effec- tive programs for treatment of their members with cf. similar efforts should be undertaken whenever health care providers encounter patients from different cultures or religions. abbreviations cf: cystic fibrosis competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. authors' contributions jh wrote the manuscript, and it was edited by ra, who was the attending physician for the described patients. both of us approve the submission of this version of the manuscript, and take full responsibility for it. acknowledgements this study was not funded. written consent was obtained from the families of the described patients for publication of this report. references . miller sr, schwartz rh: attitudes toward genetic testing of amish, mennonite, and hutterite families with cf. am j public health , : - . . tsui lc, barker d, braman jc, knowlton r, schumm jw, eiberg h, mohr j, kennedy d, plavsic n, zsiga m, markiewicz d, akots g, brown v, helms c, gravius t, parker c, rediker k, donis-keller h: cf locus defined by a genetically linked polymorphic dna marker. science , : - . . morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, hendrickson c, kelly ri: pediatric medicine and the genetic dis- orders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am j med genet c sem med genet , c: - . . francomano ca, mckusick va, biesecker lg: medical genetic studies in the amish: historical perspective. am j med genet c sem med genet , c: - . . kraybill db, bowman cf: on the background of heaven: old order hutterites, mennonites, amish, and brethren. balti- more, maryland: johns hopkins university press; . . klinger kw: cystic fibrosis in the ohio amish: gene frequency and founder effect. hum genet , : - . . hale je, parad rb, comeau am: newborn screening showing decreasing incidence of cystic fibrosis. n engl j med , : - . . brensinger jd, laxova r: the amish: perceptions of genetic dis- orders and services. j genet counseling , : - . . "mennonite beliefs and practices." britannica online. britannica [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article- /mennonite]. . weyer sm, hustey vr, rathbun l, armstrong vl, anna sr, ronyak j, savrin c: a look into the amish culture: what should we learn? j transcult nurs , : - . . brewer ja, bonalumi nm: health care beliefs and practices among the pennsylvania amish. j emerg nurs , : - . . banks mj, benchot rj: unique aspects of nursing care for amish children. the american journal of maternal/child nursing , : - . . shapiro ht: national bioethics advisory commission: ethical and policy issues in research involving human participants. bethesda, maryland . . yoder js, dworkin ms: vaccination usage among an old-order amish community in illinois. pediatr infect dis j , : - . . donate-bartfield e, lausten l: why practice culturally sensitive care? integrating ethics and behavioral science. j dent educ , : - . . searight hr, gafford j: cultural diversity at the end of life: issues and guidelines for family physicians. am fam physician , : - . pre-publication history the pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / /prepub page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article- /mennonite http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / /prepub 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusion 	background 	case reports 	patient a – amish 	patient b – mennonite 	patient c – amish 	discussion 	conclusion 	abbreviations 	competing interests 	authors' contributions 	acknowledgements 	references 	pre-publication history church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols charles lyttle volume viii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles pages arbaugh, george b., gossner missionaries m america - baron, hans, calvinist republicanism and its historical roots - bella, julius l, father tyrrell's dogmas - downey, glanville, julian the apostate at antioch - gray, john r., the political theory of john knox - harkness, r. e. e., the development of democracy in the english reformation - hawley, charles arthur, gerald massey and america - hershberger, guy franklin, pacifism and the state in colonial pennsylvania ., - hudson, winthrop s., the morison myth concerning the founding of harvard college - hudson, winthrop s., the scottish effort to presbyterianize the church of england - kristeller, paul oskar, florentine platonism and its rela- tions with humanism and scholasticism - odlozilik, otakar, bohemian protestants and the calvinistic churches - outler, albert c, origen and the regulae fidei - pennington, edgar legare, john wesley's georgia ministry .... - spinka, matthew, latin church of the early crusades - sweet, william warren, church archives in the united states - minutes of the society minutes of the forty-sixth consecutive (thirty-second annual) meeting of the society and of the council, december, - minutes of the forty-seventh meeting of the society and of the council, april, - book reviews angus, s., essential christianity - attwater, donald, st. john chrysostom beardsley, frank granville, the history of christianity in america bentwich, n., solomon schechter: a biography - bernhart, joseph, the vatican as a world power berthold, s. m., thomas paine, america's first liberal - be"venot, maurice, st. cyprian's be unitate, chapter billington, e. a., the protestant crusade, - - binns, l. e., the church in the ancient world bonner, c, some baptist hymnists from the th century to modern times burton, k., paradise planters - cadbury, henry j., annual catalogue of george fox's papers - corrigan, kaymond, s. j., the church and the nineteenth century - coulton, g. g., inquisition and liberty coulton, g. g., medieval panorama: the english scene from conquest to 'reformation; coulton, g. g., social life in britain from the conquest to the reformation - davis, helen c. m., comp., some aspects of religious liberty dodd, charles harold, history and the gospels - dru, alexander, ed., the journals of soren kierkegaard > - duckett, eleanor shipley, the gateway to the middle ages - eisenach, g. j., a history of the german congregational churches in the united states - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pages fairchild, hoxie n., 'religious trends in english poetry, vol. i - finkelstein, louis, the pharisees, the sociological background of their faith - flew, r. newton, jesus and his church - foster, frank hugh, the modern movement in american theology - garraghan, gilbert j., the jesuits of the middle united states - garrett, c. h., the marian exiles, a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism _ - gingerieh, melvin, the mennonites in iowa - gipson, lawrence henry, ed., the moravian indian mission of white river: diaries and letters - gobbel, l. l., church-state relations in education in north carolina since l ye - goodenough, erwin, the politics of philo judaeus: practice and theory - goodwin, mary c, papal conflict with josephinism gordon, antoinette k., the iconography of tibetan lamaism hagen, lois d., a parish in the pines - haller, william, the rise of puritanism - halperin, s. william, italy and the vatican at war - hardy, e. n., george whitefield, the matchless soul winner horstmann, j. h. and wernecke, h. h., through four centuries - hull, william i., the rise of quakerism in amsterdam, - - jordan, w. k., the development of religious toleration in england, - - jorgensen, j., saint catherine of siena - knapton, ernest john, the lady of the holy alliance: the life of julie de krudener - knox, wilfred l., st. paul and the church of the gentiles - latourette, k. s., the thousand years of uncertainty, a.d. -a.d. - lietzmann, h., die reichskirche bis zum tode julians; and the founding of the church universal - mackinnon, james, the origins of the reformation - mareuse, ludwig, soldier of the church-. the life of ignatius loyola - mcconnell, francis j., john wesley mckinney, w. w., early pittsburgh presbyterianism - mcneill, john t. and gamer, helena m., medieval handbooks of penance - merkel, h. m., history of methodism in utah - moland, e., the conception of the gospel in the alexandrine theology .... - moore, ernest carroll, the story of instruction - muller, karl, kirchengeschichte murison, w., sir david lyndsay, poet and satirist of the old church of scotland - nelson, william, john skelton, laureate - nobbs, douglas, theocracy and toleration, a study in dutch calvinism from - - parsons, ernest william, the religion of the new testament - payton, james simpson, our fathers have told us pennington, e. l., apostle of new jersey, john talbot phelan, m., a history of the expansion of methodism in texas, - pratt, parley p., jr., ed., life and letters of parley p. pratt - riley, arthur j., catholicism in new england to - smith, h. maynard, pre-reformation england - smith, joseph fielding, ed., teachings of the prophet joseph smith - sonne, niels henry, liberal kentucky — - - sturge, c, cuthbert tunszal, churchman, scholar, statesman, administrator - torrey, norman l., the spirit of voltaire - - trobridge, george, swedenborg: life and teachings - walten, m. g., ed., thomas fuller's the holy state and the profane state - walter, johannes von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i wenger, j. c, history of the mennonites of the franconia conference - wertenbaker, thomas jefferson, the founding of american civilization: the middle colonies - white, l. t., latin monasticism in norman sicily - williamson, claude, ed., great catholics - winters, r. l., francis lambert of avignon ( - ) - zyzykin, m. v., patriarch nikon - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by phtt.ip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for charles lyttle president roland h. bainton vice-president matthew spinka secretary robert hastings nichols . treasurer robert fortenbaugh assistant secretary other members of the council william warren sweet herbert wallace schneider conrad henry moehlman reuben e. e. harkness frederick w i l l i a m loetscher f. w. buckler j o h n thomas mcneill e. r. hardy, jr. wllhelm pauck percy v. norwood editorial board of church history matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio vol. viii june, no. table of contents part l a t i n c h u r c h of the early crusades matthew spinka t h e political theory of j o h n knox john r. gray t h e morison m y t h concerning t h e founding of harvard college winthrop s. hudson m i n u t e s of the forty-seventh meeting of the american society of c h u r c h history, a p r i l - , m i n u t e s of the meeting of the council of the american society of c h u r c h history,, a p r i l , book reviews: goodenough, e r w i n : the politics of philo judaeus: practice and theory donald w. riddle f i n k e l s t e i n , l o u i s : the piwrisees, the sociological back- ground of their faith donald w. riddle core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents flew, r. newton : jesus and his church ernest w. parsons mulleir, karl: kirchengeschichte conrad henry moehlman moore, ernest carroll: the story of instruction ...-r. m. tryon mcneill, john t. and gamer, helena m.: medieval hand- books of penance s. harrison thomson smith, h. maynard: pre-reformation england, john t. mcneill coulton, g. g.: medieval panorama: the english scene from conquest to reformation; coulton, g. g.: social life in britain from the conquest to the reformation, ." john t. mcneill nobbs, douglas : theocracy and toleration, a study in dutch calvinism from - w. k. jordan walten, m. g., ed.: thomas fuller's the holy state and the profane state r. h. nichols jordan, w. k.: the development of religious toleration in england, - m. m. knappen trobridge, george : swedenborg: life and teachings marguerite b. block garraghan, gilbert j.: the jesuits of the middle united states thomas j. mcmahon pratt, parley p., jr., ed.: life and letters of parley p. pr&tt clifford m. drury merkel, h. m.: history of methodism in utah martin rist corrigan, raymond, s. j.: the church and the nineteenth century john m. lenhart, o. m. cap. gordon, antoinette k.: the iconography of tibetan lamaism matthew spinka p a r t l i s t of members of the american society of c h u r c h history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ constructing feminist histories of immigrant women / burnett, jean, ed. looking into my sister's eyes: an exploration in women's history. toronto: the multicultural history society of ontario, . pp. ix, . $ . all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine constructing feminist histories of immigrant women burnett, jean, ed. looking into my sister's eyes: an exploration in women's history. toronto: the multicultural history society of ontario, . pp. ix, . $ . daiva k. stasiulis volume , numéro , february uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu stasiulis, d. k. ( ). compte rendu de [constructing feminist histories of immigrant women / burnett, jean, ed. looking into my sister's eyes: an exploration in women's history. toronto: the multicultural history society of ontario, . pp. ix, . $ . ]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine proportion of the population living in cities increased in this era, too. the result of white's inclusiveness is a proliferation of passages in which each succeeding short paragraph, at times every sentence, deals with a different major issue. the reader's head begins to swim with facts, unrelieved by col- our. even a figure as colourful as william lyon mackenzie becomes simply a label for the radical fringe of upper cana- dian reform, a sort of left-wing robert responsible government. white at times seems to deliberately avoid a good story. we hear nothing of mackenzie's highly personal slurs on the character of the "family compact" or of the consequent relocation of his press to the bottom of lake ontario, and there is nary a mention of laura secord, per- haps the only figure in the upper canadian period some readers will remember. bothwell demythologizes mackenzie and yet presents him as a fiery, colourful personality. white's politicians remain match-stick figures in the presence of bothwell's vividly critical portraits of hepburn and drew. the pragmatic mowat, indeed, is white's representative ontario politician, with whom his successors are constantly compared. white is politically cautious, too, though he does venture to pronounce the province's liquor licensing regula- tions "draconian" (p. ). historical explanation also suffers from white's chroni- cling technique. depressions and financial crises are simply events which have political consequences; they have no causes of their own. bothwell structures his book to a far greater extent to facilitate promoting the reader's understanding of why things happened. his explanations are often briefer than white's, but they tend to hit home with greater emphasis because of his admirable economy of words, apt turns of phrase, and better sense of organization. white's is also a curious book with which to kick off a local history series, as it pays little more than lip service to regionalism. indeed, he uses the word "regional" as equiva- lent to "provincial." he recognizes the distinct political cultures of eastern ontario and the south-western peninsula, but these distinctions become, predictably, less important as one leaves upper canada in the past. bothwell, too, cites this "serviceable generalization" but he at least notes that it becomes "clearer and truer" when "reduced to a township- to-township basis" (p. ). one would expect the introduc- tory volume to a series of local histories to place greater emphasis upon regional variation, the elucidation of which is arguably one of the strongest reasons for doing local his- tory at all. if the authors of future volumes in the oh f series commit themselves to writing good local histories, we can hope that a radically different history of ontario can be written at a later date. the first book in the series attempts nothing so revisionist, but instead aims to provide the local historian with a handy reference to the provincial back- ground against which to view sub-regional variations on major themes. for this the book is scarcely adequate. any local historian exploring a theme will immediately need more information than white's book provides, and the decision to exclude endnotes suggesting further reading, while accord- ing with the customary wisdom that references toll the death- knell for general sales, leaves the reader nothing to fall back on. the bibliography is no substitute for this — consisting as it does almost entirely of books — since much of the best work on ontario's history is to be found in periodical litera- ture. it is, nonetheless, nice to see that ontario has been judged worthy of two provincial histories after so many years. some will see poetic justice in the fact that one of the commissions originated in alberta. much work remains to be done before the history of ontario can be rewritten to reflect an under- standing of the province's internal diversity, but in the meantime the uninitiated can find a pleasant introduction in bothwell's a short history of ontario. the serious local historian will still prefer to have the better volumes of the centenary series near to hand. bruce s. elliott department of history queen's university constructing feminist histories of immigrant women burnett, jean, ed. looking into my sister's eyes: an explo- ration in women's history. toronto: the multicultural history society of ontario, . pp. ix, . $ . . a large body of literature on the process of overseas migration to canada and the construction of urban ethnic enclaves in canadian cities has obscured the role and expe- riences of migrant women. one basis for the preoccupation within migrant and ethnic studies with the male experience resides in the great numerical imbalances of men over women in migration and during the lengthy periods of sojourning fostered by early canadian industrialization. the invisibility of women has additionally been abetted by the stereotypical assumptions regarding the passive and non-productive roles of female migrants underlying historical and sociological ethnic studies. looking into my sister's eyes is the first collection of articles which deals exclusively with the experiences of immigrant women in the processes of migration and settle- ment in canada. while not achieving (nor claiming to strive for) a feminist volte-face in ethnic and migration studies, this pioneering book succeeds in filling in many of the silences on the social history of immigrant and "ethnic" women in ontario. book reviews/comptes rendus comprised by thirteen articles and a brief introduction by the editor, the book explores the diverse roles and expe- riences of women in the migration process itself, the family, labour force, and ethnic institutions and organizations. the subjects of this collection are women originating from both 'preferred' sources of immigration such as britain and northern europe, and from southern and eastern european, middle eastern and asian countries regarded by immigra- tion authorities as populated by rude peasants or workers, too far removed in temperament, culture and complexion to assimilate to british norms of settler acceptability. women from these latter 'nontraditionap sources were accordingly discouraged from entering canada by a system of head taxes, quotas and other administrative restrictions, and their num- bers in ontario remained low prior to the second world war. while the experience of making one's home in a strange new country was rarely an easy one, material and social hardships could be vastly mitigated by ethnic and class advantages. hopkins provides a portrait of the lives of five british gentlewomen — including the famous sisters, susan- nah moodie and catharine parr traill, who settled in the backwoods and towns of what is now southern ontario dur- ing the first half of the nineteenth century. the rich bequest of letters, diaries, journals and manuscripts left by these educated women itself attests to their exceptional privilege and ability to carve out relatively leisured lifestyles in com- parison with less advantaged pioneer women. while their gentility could not cushion these women and their families from the severe climate, isolation and hardships common to bush life, their move to prosperous farmlands and towns generally brought increased material comforts, social con- tacts and class advantages not unlike those enjoyed in the old country. the domestic servants who came to canada between and from the british isles did not enjoy the class priv- ileges of their upper middle-class counterparts. barber attributes the decision of single british women to journey to ontario to the insatiable demand for domestic workers, stories of higher wages in the new country, family connec- tions, and recruitment literature which stressed the strength of british traditions and way of life in ontario society. while british imperial ties expedited the movement of english, scottish and irish domestics to ontario, they provided a lesser guarantee of successful accommodation to ontario's work- ing and living conditions. brought over to toil in strange households, british domestics found that differences in cli- mate, technology and diet required adaptation in their labour process. while the discovery of vacuum cleaners in toronto compelled one irish domestic (used to cleaning carpets by spreading and sweeping tea leaves) to exclaim that she thought she had "died and gone to heaven" (p. ), com- plaints about hard work and long hours rivalled more positive assessments by domestics of the working conditions. lindstrom-best's account of finnish domestic workers in canada from to illuminates the similarities of status and work conditions among dometics which transcend ethnicity and often time. physical isolation coupled with lack of privacy, autocratic control by employers and difficulties in having families of their own were the considerable social costs borne by both finnish and british domestics. both groups of women sought to mitigate and escape these hard- ships by seeking support from ethnic institutions, such as the socialist locals of the finnish organization of canada and finnish employment agencies, and for british domestics, the church of england, the presbyterian church and women's hostel. organizing efforts among finnish domestics were fuelled by the strong current of socialist activity among finns and enjoyed brief successes in montreal, toronto, sudbury, sault ste. marie and timmins. resistance to servile treat- ment also involved attempts to maximize autonomy in employment by quitting often during the first year of employment and relying on networks of information to negotiate more effectively with employers. unlike british and finnish domestics who migrated as single women, the majority of female immigrants entered canada via family migration channels as fiancées, wives, sisters and mothers of male immigrants. several articles in this volume emphasize the prime importance of the familial context and the family economy in guiding the behaviour of women in matters of sexuality, domestic labour, waged work and community activity. sturino, writing about pre-war southern italian migration to toronto, depicts the protection of women's sexual honour both in italian peasant society and in the urban ethnic enclave as a keynote to the stability of the family unit. while the pervasive demands of the hon- our complex might evoke the resentment of individual women, in sturino's view, they were the primary determi- nant in both the conduct of sexual relations and in the prevalence of paid homeworking among italian women. two of the strongest contributions to this collection, iacovetta's account of southern italian women in the post- war period and petroffs study of macedonian women to , illuminate the complex nature of gender relations in the immigrant household. while patriarchal precepts and distinct gender roles manifested themselves in all-male cof- fee houses, all-female occupational enclaves and the obsessive concern about female sexual purity, gender relations in immigrant families were far more intricate, contradictory and variable than the model of male-dominance/female submission suggests. the exercise of power by women was greatest in the private sphere where as iacovetta observes, women "made effective use of their capacity to argue, nag, manipulate, disrupt normal routine and generally make life miserable for men in order to achieve certain demands" (p. ). draper and karlinsky maintain that "within the euro- pean jewish family structure, women were the undisputed rulers of the household" (p. ). urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine in canada, the constant striving of immigrant women to gain control in the private sphere of the family household spilled over into the conduct of public matters such as the running of family businesses. the family-owned restaurants, corner stores, boardinghouses and laundries in toronto's macedonian and chinese communities frequently operated more as "joint stock companies," with women playing indis- pensable and often equal roles with men, than as ventures following the dictates of patriarchal heads. all too often migration research ignores the social rela- tions and productive roles of immigrant women in their countries of origin and thus erroneously assumes that their entry into waged labour is a step towards emancipation. iacovetta, sturino and other authors emphasize that in the context of mass migration by men, women played key roles in their home countries' subsistence and burgeoning cash economies. in the old country, the distinction between men's and women's work became blurred as women increasingly engaged in back-breaking agricultural work, supervised family property and conducted family business with strangers. although the integration of immigrant women into the canadian capitalist labour market as new wage workers entailed novel forms of exploitation and new work experi- ences, it did not require a fundamental break in norms of hard work, or compliance with ethnic community structures. the ingenuity, resilience and entrepreneurialism of immigrant women were put to a severe test with the death of a husband and the loss of the major source of family income. the survival skills of widowed women are poign- antly conveyed in nipp's exploration of women in ontario's tiny chinese communities of the interwar period. one toronto widow kept her family alive by preparing a nutri- tious, though unsavoury, steady diet of fish heads. another diminutive widowed woman, whose feet had once been bound, supported her family in the laundry she ran by labouring seventy and eighty hours per week over boiling vats of clothing. community organizations formed another public site where the contradictory themes of women's submission to traditional roles and their self-expression and resistance to male dominance were played out. a central objective of many of the articles is to document the vital contributions made by immigrant women to their respective community's wel- fare, language, ethnocultural and religious education, and maintenance of group cohesion. constraints imposed by women's domestic responsibilities and the traditional male dominance of community governance inhibited the adoption of leadership positions by women in the majority of ethnic community structures. kojda, polyzoi, kaprielian and swyripa, writing about polish, greek, armenian and ukrainian women's associations respectively, report that such organizations accommodated to the supportive and subsid- iary tasks relegated to "ladies' auxiliaries" by male policy- makers. yet many women's organizations also provided both training grounds for the development of organizational skills and an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual assistance lacking in the more hierarchical structures of male-domi- nated organizations. during crises in the armenian community such as internecine struggles, the collectivism and solidarity nurtured by women's organizations could be mobilized to hold the community together, thus contradict- ing stereotypes of "women's proverbial obedience to their husbands" (p. ). draper and karlinsky document the more direct resistance taken by working class, east euro- pean jewish women in toronto who responded to their exclusion from decision-making in the labour zionist movement by forming their own pioneer women's organi- zation. the goals of this organization were both explicity feminist and socialist, until the holocaust and creation of israel shifted the attention of the community as a whole to political, nationalist concerns. epp and epp attribute the inroads made since the s by mennonite women into both the community's church organizations and professional careers to the influences of the feminist movement, including a more egalitarian divi- sion of domestic responsibilities and increased educational opportunities for women. the call by a significant segment of the ontario mennonite community for increased conserv- tism and retrenchment of male authority in mennonite households is a stark reminder of the fragile and contested nature of women's liberation in ethnic minority communi- ties, as in the society at large. looking into my sisters eyes helps redress the invisibil- ity of women in the canadian ethnic studies and immigration literature. one of the strengths of the book lies in the images it projects of immigrant women as creative and purposeful agents who manipulate and shape their social environments to varying degrees. the articles also collectively convey the diversities, ambiguities and contradictions that characterize the female immigrant experience, mediated by class, ethnic- ity and historical period of migration. before closing, it is useful to consider what has not been accomplished in this book. the methodological reliance on oral histories and community newspapers in many of the articles provides rich insights into women's lives from the perspectives of community spokespersons and the women themselves. but in pursuing this research strategy, some authors pay insufficient attention to factors 'external' to eth- nic communities. thus, the key influence in shaping immigrant women's work and home lives of structural con- straints (e.g.: local labour markets, state welfare policies, racial discrimination) and dominant societal ideologies are often ignored. some authors document the influence of rac- ist notions of 'assimilability' in limiting non-british immigration prior to the 'liberalisation' of immigration pol- icies in the s and s. they fail, however, to consider the significance for immigrant women of the racism which book reviews/comptes rendus permeated the culture of post-war ontario cities and which become attached to differences of an "ethnic" (non-british, non-protestant) character. (an important exception is iacovetta's account of the anxiety and fear among italian women in toronto during the s evoked by their daily confrontation with prejudice). the reader is also left with the impression that the pre- and post-war preoccupation among immigrant women with domesticity and familial responsibilities was a peculiarly "ethnic" trait, when such traditional ideas about women's appropriate roles characterized the dominant gender ideol- ogy of canadian society. the descriptive nature of some of the articles also precludes a more systematic treatment of issues of concern to feminist historiography such as the spec- ificity of the social relations and patriarchal ideologies mediating the sexual division of labour and demands of pro- duction and familial life for different groups of immigrant and ethnic women. looking into my sister's eyes represents an important beginning in studies presenting and validating the experi- ences of immigrant women in canada. some of the essays in this book help assimilate the experiences of immigrant women into existing analytical categories; the best of them aid in reconstructing our understanding of migration and social history to make it richer, more inclusive and carefully nuanced. daiva k. stasiulis department of sociology and anthropology carleton university baccigalupo, alain, avec la collaboration de luc rhéaume. les administrations municipales québécoises des origines à nos jours. tome , les municipalités. montréal: agence d'arc, . pp. . $ . . combien de fois n'avons-nous pas entendu ceux et celles qui s'intéressent au domaine des affaires municipales déplorer l'absence d'un ouvrage général abordant la question sous son angle administratif? c'est ce vide que l'auteur tente de combler en nous présentant son «anthologie administrative», qui devrait offrir un accès rapide à l'information que recèlent de nombreux textes législatifs et réglementaires ainsi que certaines publications gouvernementales régissant l'organisation et le fonctionnement des collectivités locales au québec. l'examen de la table des matières nous révèle qu'aucun des aspects importants n'a été oublié. c'est donc avec un certain enthousiasme qu'on entreprend la lecture de cet ouvrage, malgré le caractère aride des textes que regroupe généralement ce genre de recueil. cet enthousiasme est toutefois de courte durée. la déception vient dès le premier chapitre, consacré à l'histoire des administrations municipales. les textes portant sur chacune des trois périodes qui ont marqué la mise en place et l'évolution de nos institutions locales (régimes français, anglais et confédéral) devraient nous aider à mieux saisir comment et pourquoi certains changements institutionnels se sont produits. or, si on nous laisse entrevoir le comment, nous trouvons peu d'indices sur le pourquoi. le régime confédéral, source d'une répartition des pouvoirs qui servira de base à l'édification des structures actuelles, revêt une importance particulière; malheureusement, la section qui s'y rapporte nous laisse face à des textes pratiquement «livrés à eux-mêmes». ni l'introduction ni la conclusion du chapitre ne viennent combler cette lacune. Étant donné la complexité des structures administratives locales, on s'étonne de ce que l'auteur n'y consacre qu'une soixantaine de pages. des trois approches choisies pour aborder ce thème (sociologique, institutionnelle et conceptuelle), une seule réussit vraiment à l'éclairer: l'approche institutionnelle. quant aux deux autres, trop courtes et incomplètes, elles donnent l'impression d'un travail bâclé et laissent sur sa faim le lecteur qui espérait une vision globale du sujet. la partie de l'ouvrage consacrée aux élus locaux intègre habilement des textes législatifs, des témoignages et des tableaux concernant tant le processus électoral que l'exercice des fonctions d'élu. c'est là un des apports les plus intéressants du livre. le chapitre qui traite des fonctions publiques comporte un exposé très complet sur les fonctions des gérants locaux, leurs relations avec les élus et l'évolution de leurs rôles. il est dommage que les autres sections du chapitre n'aient pas bénéficié du même traitement; ainsi, on ne connaîtra des autres officiers municipaux que la définition législative de leurs fonctions, et des employés salariés que le contenu des diverses conventions collectives régissant leurs conditions de travail et les étapes du processus de recrutement. puisant à des sources plus variées que dans la plupart des autres chapitres, l'auteur arrive à mettre un peu de vie dans la longue enumeration que constitue le chapitre sur les services. il ne dépasse cependant pas cette enumeration, même si la conclusion propose un début de réflexion sur l'inégalité des citoyens devant les services offerts et sur la normalisation des niveaux de services municipaux. le livre se termine par un chapitre sur les finances municipales. on nous y présente les étapes et les débats qui ont mené à l'adoption récente de la loi sur la fiscalité municipale, et l'impact de cette réforme sur l'évaluation foncière et sur le revenu des municipalités. le sujet est complexe, mais l'auteur réussit à le clarifier et à faire ressortir coupled vulnerability and resilience: the dynamics of cross-scale interactions in post-katrina new orleans copyright © by the author(s). published here under license by the resilience alliance. gotham, k. f., and r. campanella. . coupled vulnerability and resilience: the dynamics of cross-scale interactions in post-katrina new orleans. ecology and society ( ): . http://dx.doi.org/ . /es- - research coupled vulnerability and resilience: the dynamics of cross-scale interactions in post-katrina new orleans kevin f. gotham and richard campanella abstract. we investigate the impact of trauma on cross-scale interactions in order to identify the major social-ecological factors affecting the pace and trajectory of post-katrina rebuilding in new orleans, louisiana, usa. disaster and traumatic events create and activate networks and linkages at different spatial and institutional levels to provide information and resources related to post-trauma recovery and rebuilding. the extension, intensification, and acceleration of cross-scale linkages and interactions in response to trauma alter organizational couplings, which then contribute to the vulnerability and resilience of social- ecological systems. rather than viewing urban ecosystems as either resilient or vulnerable, we conceptualize them as embodying both resilient and vulnerable components. this integrated approach directs analytical attention to the impact of socio-legal regulations, government policies, and institutional actions on resilience and vulnerability, which are also systemic properties of urban ecosystems. key words: disaster; hurricane katrina; new orleans; resilience; trauma; vulnerability introduction resilience and vulnerability are concepts scholars have developed to explain the interconnections, reciprocal effects, and feedbacks among human and natural systems. resilience studies seek to explain how and under what conditions ecological and human communities adapt and adjust, or transform and innovate in response to a shock or traumatic event (berkes et al. , brand and jax , norris et al. , resilience alliance , gunderson ). the term “vulnerability” represents the geographical, economic, political, or social susceptibility, predisposition, or risk factor of a group or community to damage by a hazardous condition. vulnerability studies examine the origin of hazards within coupled systems, the different capacities of social-ecological systems to respond to hazards, and the co-existence of adaptive and maladaptive couplings in vulnerable systems (blaikie et al. , comfort , cutter , bankoff , pelling ). what unites the diverse work of both resilience and vulnerability perspectives is the “overriding concern with the response of systems to stress or perturbations” (miller et al. ). vulnerability and resilience approaches emphasize the interaction between endogenous and exogenous processes in the stabilization and transformation of social- ecological systems. trauma refers to an extraordinary and potentially dangerous and life changing event linked to reactions and coping including but not limited to human responses (figley ). it may involve social and ecological disruption and devastation caused by war, terrorist strikes, pandemics, and natural disasters (e.g., fires, drought, hurricanes, floods, heat waves, tornados). hurricane katrina and the subsequent failure of the federal levee system in new orleans on august presents a prime case study of the impact of trauma on a major urban area—and on cross-scale interactions in the subsequent recovery. resilience and vulnerability, as well as the related concepts of adaptation and transformation, reveal both opportunities and challenges facing post- katrina new orleans, a disaster impacted urban ecosystem recovering from hurricane katrina, the great recession, and the deepwater horizon oil spill in . the paradoxical pairing struck the authors of a recent brookings institution report: “[d]espite sustaining three ‘shocks’ in the last five tulane university http://dx.doi.org/ . /es- - mailto:kgotham@tulane.edu mailto:rcampane@tulane.edu ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / years, greater new orleans is rebounding and, in some ways, doing much better than before” (liu and plyer : ). “entrepreneurship has spiked[,] surpassing the rate of individuals starting businesses nationally after having lagged the nation for nearly years[;] average wages in greater new orleans grew by nearly percent in the last five years, catching up to the national average” (liu and plyer : ). in addition, the median household income grew by four percent during – , to us$ , , despite declines nationally. the report concludes that “greater new orleans has become more ‘resilient,’ with increased civic capacity and new systemic reforms, better positioning the metro area to adapt and transform its future” (liu and plyer : – ). yet others lament the region’s vulnerabilities. despite billions of dollars spent rebuilding and upgrading levees and floodwalls, researchers contend the flood protection system remains inadequate for powerful hurricanes (freudenburg et al. ). since katrina, housing costs and crime have increased dramatically, contributing to neighborhood instability and social conflict. housing has moved beyond reach of the working class, with percent of renters paying more than percent of pre-tax income on rent and utilities. in addition, economic sectors such as petro- chemical and shipping have eliminated thousands of jobs over the last three decades, while new jobs have increasingly sprawled to the suburbs and exurbs and productivity remains stagnant (gotham and greenberg , plyer and campanella ). the deepwater horizon oil disaster “may further weaken legacy industries, and exposes the vulnerability of these sectors to offshore or water- related catastrophes” (liu and plyer : ). we examine the extension, intensification, and acceleration of cross-scale interactions in the aftermath of katrina to reveal the connections between resilience and vulnerability in social- ecological systems. by “cross-scale interactions” we mean influences, connections, and networks among institutions, government agencies, and networks to facilitate the flow of recovery information and resources. cross-scale interactions imply the ( ) extension or stretching of disaster recovery activities across borders, ( ) the intensification or magnitude of recovery activities and flows of investment and resources to encourage rebuilding, and ( ) the velocity or speed of flows, activity, and interchanges to accelerate post-disaster recovery and rebuilding. charting the extension, intensity, and velocity of cross-scale interactions involves identifying how and to what extent traumatic events affect patterns and processes of both vulnerability and resilience within and across urban ecosystems. cross-scale interactions are the communicatory and fiscal infrastructure through which government agencies and organizations circulate and transmit information and resources to facilitate post-disaster recovery and rebuilding. rather than viewing urban ecosystems as either resilient or vulnerable, we conceptualize them as embodying both resilient and vulnerable components. vulnerability and resilience are an interplay that presuppose each other—a duality, not a dualism. they are products of cross-scale linkages of policies, socio-legal regulations, networks, and organizations that facilitate some forms of action and decision-making while discouraging others. cross-scale interactions can alter organizational couplings, leading to adaptive couplings that promote resilience, adjustment, and innovation, but can also reinforce maladaptive couplings, which in turn can produce vulnerabilities to future stress and trauma. vulnerability and resilience in post-trauma urban ecosystems this analysis builds on scholarly works that have used urban ecosystem analysis in examining change and stability in patterns and processes of post- trauma social and ecological recovery (see ernstson et al. a, b, gunderson ). urban ecosystems analysis emphasizes interactions between cities and their environments. unlike natural ecosystems, however, urban ones are affected additionally by culture, infrastructure, personal behavior, politics, economics, and social organization (pickett et al. , grimm and redman ). central to urban ecosystems analysis is the view that “ecological” and “social” factors are “fundamentally combined” (swyngedouw : ), and display “conjoint constitution” or “mutual contingency” (freudenburg et al. ). rather than viewing humans as outside or apart from ecosystems, humans are agents of change acting within social-ecological systems (grimm et al. , grimm and redman ). as noted by the u.s. long-term ecological research network (lter :ii- ), ecosystems “self- organize from evolved components; interactions of slow processes with fast ones, and big processes with small ones, [to] create much of the pattern and http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / dynamics that we observe.” a major assumption of social-ecological research is that urban ecosystems are “coupled human and natural systems” (e.g., liu et al. ) or “social-ecological systems” (walker and meyers , folke ) that exhibit nonlinear dynamics with thresholds, reciprocal feedback loops, time lags, vulnerabilities, resilience, and heterogeneity. this important point suggests that we can conceptualize urban ecosystems as entities with nested hierarchies in which people and nature interact reciprocally across diverse organizational, spatial, and temporal levels. vulnerability and resilience are central concepts and approaches to understanding the response of urban ecosystems to trauma (miller et al. ). kasperson et al. ( ), adger ( ), and gallopín ( ) identify the major concepts of exposure, sensitivity, coping, and adaptive capacity as dominant in many studies of disasters, risk, poverty, and climate change. rather than viewing vulnerability as a direct outcome of a perturbation or stress, the work of blaikie et al. ( ), downing et al. ( ), and eakin and luers ( ), among others, examines how policy-makers, organizations, political economic processes, and power relations influence characteristics of exposure, susceptibility, and coping capacity. although vulnerability analyses differ in their theoretical intent and scales of analysis, they tend to examine how factors such as social class, race/ethnicity, gender, and age shape conditions and perceptions of vulnerability (freudenburg , perrow , klinenberg , auyero and swinstun ). scholars recognize that political, social, and economic processes influence estimates of vulnerability and peoples' ability to understand vulnerability and assess hazards. such a perspective eschews a notion of vulnerability as an a priori social condition and examines the social and political construction of vulnerability assessments, interpretations, and perceptions. fig. shows our conceptual framework for explaining the effects of trauma on cross-scale interactions, and the particular effects of these interactions on resilience and vulnerability. the figure suggests that we can understand the concepts of resilience and vulnerability only in relation to one another since both are properties of a social- ecological system. we view vulnerability as a condition that encompasses the features of exposure, susceptibility, and coping capacity. power relations, socio-cultural processes, and political economy shape and influence the variability of these features, making some groups more susceptible to stress and trauma than others. we view resilience as incorporating three factors: the ability to absorb shocks and trauma, the ability to bounce back and recover, and the ability to learn, adapt, and innovate. paraphrasing folke ( ), resilience refers to the ability of social-ecological systems to cope with and adapt to uncertainty and surprise. we explain cross-scale interactions in terms of the extension, intensification, and acceleration of government actions, interchanges between public and private actors, socioeconomic activities, and flows and networks of investment and finance. acknowledging these dimensions suggests an interpretive schema for describing cross-scale interactions, evaluating the impact of different kinds of public and private activities, and assessing what is novel about the pace and trajectory of the post- katrina recovery and rebuilding process. “flows” refer to the movement of commodities, money, people, and information across space and time, while “networks” refer to patterned interactions among agents, organizations, and activities. in this sense, cross-scale interactions involve increased interregional interconnectedness, a widening reach of networks of social activity, and the possibility that local events and actions (by individuals, corporations, and governments) can have far- reaching and long lasting consequences. increases in the extension, intensification, and acceleration of cross-scale interactions can influence the pace and trajectory of both post- disaster ecological and community system recoveries (liu et al. ). on the one hand, cross- scale interactions can promote adaptive couplings that involve processes of coordination, inter- and intra-government collaboration, social learning, knowledge sharing and integration, trust building, and conflict resolution (folke et al. , olsson et al. ). on the other hand, cross-scale interactions can promote maladaptive couplings that slow recovery, limit capacity for social-ecological renewal, and reinforce patterns and processes of vulnerability and unsustainable development. maladaptive couplings imply different forms of cross-scale interactions that perpetuate social- ecological inequality, generate and exacerbate group struggles and antagonisms, and impede conflict resolution. few studies have focused on the coupled nature of vulnerability and resilience in http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . conceptual framework for explaining the impact of trauma on social-ecological resilience and vulnerability. post-trauma urban ecosystems. we focus on how cross-scale interactions can generate both adaptive and maladaptive couplings in post-trauma urban ecosystems. we also recognize that resilience and vulnerability are not antonyms. rather, urban ecosystems exhibit both vulnerable and resilient qualities that are oftentimes products of past and present cross-scale interactions. three past cross-scale interactions linking local actions with federal policies and socio- legal regulations were important. first, the flood control act of authorized the army corps of engineers to create a series of joint federal, state, and local partnerships in which governments designed and built levees, floodwalls, and other flood control structures to protect the region from hurricane storm surges. while there were major alterations in these arrangements and designs over the decades, the overall intent was to encourage private investment in building urban infrastructure in the wetlands. second, the establishment of the national flood insurance program (p.l. - ) in served as a major socio-legal mechanism to urbanize the wetlands by subsidizing private insurers to write policies in areas at risk for flooding and hurricane damage. third, the building of the mississippi river gulf outlet (mr-go) navigation canal in the s operated as a conduit to dramatically increase salinity in the marshes and thereby devastate the wetlands (fig. ). before closure in , mr-go had contributed to the erosion of , – , hectares ( , – , acres) of wetlands, as much as of the , http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . mississippi river-gulf outlet canal. square kilometers ( of the square miles) of wetlands that had previously stood to the southeast of new orleans, an area that was in the bull's eye of hurricane katrina's storm surge that engulfed the city and region. all of these s developments interacted with the long-term degradation of surrounding wetlands through a combination of upstream dams and river channeling, and oil and gas exploration in southern louisiana. in sum, the confluence of suburbanization, growth pressures, and ecological degradation of the surrounding wetlands in the new orleans region after the s created long-term environmental, social, and economic problems that involve complex feedback loops. past federal, state, and local government interactions encouraged suburban development in the swamps and marshes, which increased vulnerability of human settlements and infrastructure to storm surge events and flooding. thus, hurricane katrina was a trigger event and not the actual cause of the massive flooding and subsequent property damage that affected the new orleans region. new orleans' poorly designed and constructed levees and floodwalls collapsed under moderate hurricane conditions due to the feedback effects of past cross-scale interactions. the transformation of the regional landscape with levees, canals, floodwalls, and real estate development in the swamps disguised risk in the built environment and generated future vulnerabilities to hurricanes and flood hazards. these points http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . funding history of community development block grant supplemental appropriations for hurricane katrina disaster relief. public law funding intended use of funds p.l. - . department of defense, emergency supplemental appropriations to address hurricanes in the gulf of mexico, and pandemic influenza act, (december , ) us$ . billion (louisiana receives $ . billion) hurricanes katrina, rita, and wilma. community development block grant (cdbg) funding for activities and necessary expenses related to disaster relief, long-term recovery, and restoration of infrastructure in the most impacted and distressed areas related to the consequences of hurricanes in the gulf of mexico in in states for which the president declared a major disaster under title iv of the robert t. stafford disaster relief and emergency assistance act ( u.s.c. et seq.). ( stat. ) pl - . emergency supplemental appropriations act for defense, the global war on terror, and hurricane recovery act of us$ . billion (louisiana receives us$ . billion) second supplemental appropriation of cdbg funding for activities and necessary expenses related to disaster relief, long-term recovery, and restoration of infrastructure in the most impacted and distressed areas related to the consequences of hurricanes in the gulf of mexico in in states for which the president declared a major disaster under title iv of the robert t. stafford disaster relief and emergency assistance act ( u.s.c. et seq.). ( stat. ) p.l. - . department of defense appropriations act for fy (november ) us$ billion (for louisiana) cdbg funding specifically for the state of louisiana’s “road home” homeowner assistance program sources: boyd ( ), hud ( ) connect with the work of bankoff ( ), who notes that cross-scale interactions and their effects on urban vulnerability and resilience have a historical trajectory. social-ecological processes interact over temporal and spatial scales simultaneously, suggesting that we must understand cross-scale interactions in historical as well as spatial context. cross-scale processes of post- katrina renewal and recovery since katrina, the federal government has relied on pre-existing as well as newly developed funding programs to encourage cross-scale interactions among government agencies, private firms, and nonprofit organizations to facilitate recovery and rebuilding. congress has authorized almost us$ billion for the army corps of engineers to repair and design the levee system that is supposed to protect new orleans and surrounding parishes from storm surge flooding caused by hurricanes with a one percent chance of occurring in any year, often referred to as a -year storm. the largest source of grant assistance has been the community development block grant program, which provides funding for neighborhood revitalization and housing rehabilitation activities and affords states broad discretion and flexibility in deciding how to allocate federal funds and for what purposes. to date, congress has appropriated us$ . billion for gulf coast rebuilding assistance, the largest amount in the history of the program (table ). the federal government has also used long- established grant programs such as the temporary assistance for needy families and the social services block grant programs to supply financial and human recovery assistance to louisiana residents. there have also been several newly created grants with emergency supplemental funds designed to provide human recovery assistance to hurricane-affected areas. some of these grants include the department of health and human services’ primary care access and stabilization grant and the department of housing and urban development’s (hud) disaster housing assistance program. table provides an overview of selected federal funding programs that facilitate gulf coast recovery. it provides evidence of the diversity of policies and programs that the federal government has used and created to increase the extension, http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . selected federal funding programs providing support to victims of hurricane katrina. federal funding programs description temporary assistance for needy families (tanf) the department of health and human services’ (hhs) tanf program provides assistance and work opportunities to needy families by granting states, territories, and tribes federal funds to develop and implement their own welfare programs. community development block grant (cdbg) the department of housing and urban development’s (hud) cdbg program provides grants to help cities, counties, and states recover from presidentially declared disasters, especially in low-income areas, subject to availability of supplemental appropriations. social services block grant hhs distributes social services block grant funds to enable states to provide social services to residents. such services may include daycare and protective services for children or adults, special services to persons with disabilities, adoption, case management, health-related services, transportation, foster care for children or adults, substance abuse services, housing, home-delivered meals, independent/transitional living, employment services, or any other social services found necessary by the state. cdbg workforce housing grant this hud grant targets housing to those between percent and percent of the area median income. cdbg entitlement communities through this cdbg program hud allocates annual grants to large cities and urban counties to develop sustainable communities. low-income home energy assistance program the low-income home energy assistance program is a federally funded block grant program administered by hhs and implemented at the state level. the grant serves individuals and families from low-income households who seek assistance for their home energy bills. federal emergency management agency (fema) community disaster loans fema offers these loans to any eligible jurisdiction in a designated disaster area that has suffered a substantial loss of tax and other revenue. the jurisdiction must demonstrate a need for financial assistance to perform its governmental functions to maintain essential services such as public schools, and fire and police services. fema voluntary agency liaison (val) as the primary liaison to the nonprofit community, vals are responsible for initiating and maintaining a working relationship between fema; federal, state, and local agencies; and nonprofit organizations. as of , fema's val program had memorandums of understanding with nonprofit organizations charged with implementing fema programs. these nonprofits include national voluntary organizations active in disaster, american red cross, the salvation army, united methodist committee on relief, adventists community services, church world service, feeding america, mennonite disaster service, northern american mission board—-southern baptist convention, and operation hope usa. office of the federal coordinator (ofc) for gulf coast rebuilding in february , the ofc and fema formed a transparency initiative, a web- based information sharing network to track the status of selected public infrastructure building projects (such as school or hospital) by providing detailed information on the public assistance grants funds allocated for the project. in , the ofc partnered with the white house to develop intra-government (horizontal) networks that link the white house office of faith-based and neighborhood partnership centers with federal agencies including the department of homeland security, hud, and the small business administration. these agencies, in turn, helped buttress and reinforce cross-scale networks with local community and faith-based organizations through the provision of temporary staff, training, and technical assistance. gulf opportunity zone low-income housing tax credit program hud designed the gulf opportunity zone low-income housing tax credit program to provide tax incentives for developing affordable rental housing along the gulf coast. primary care access and stabilization grant hhs awarded the primary care access and stabilization grant to louisiana to help restore primary health care services to low-income populations. (con'd) http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / disaster housing assistance program this hud program provides temporary long-term housing rental assistance and case management for households affected by hurricanes katrina and rita. community mental health services block grant the substance abuse and mental health services administration’s community mental health services block grant is awarded to states to provide mental health services to people with mental disorders. continuum of care program hud’s continuum of care program is a set of three competitively awarded programs (supportive housing program, single room occupancy program, and shelter plus care program) created to address the problems of homelessness in a comprehensive manner with other federal agencies. disaster case management pilot program fema uses funds from its disaster relief fund to provide state and local governments with federal disaster recovery assistance. the state-managed disaster case management pilot program is intended to help households in louisiana and mississippi achieve permanent housing. katrina aid today (kat) fema awarded a -year case management grant that channeled us$ million of foreign donations to the united methodist committee on relief (umcor). umcor used the grant to establish kat, a national consortium of nine social service and voluntary organizations, to provide case management services to victims of hurricane katrina. at the completion of its grant funded activity in march , kat had enabled case management services for approximately , households. as the umbrella grants manager, umcor provided financial compliance monitoring, technical assistance, and training to the nine consortium members. source: gao ( ) magnitude, and speed of disaster recovery and rebuilding activities and resources across scales. three examples are relevant. first, federal resources have encouraged faith-based organizations to mobilize and assist other nonprofits' access to available federal funds in order to deliver much needed services. using us$ million in federal emergency management agency (fema) channeled foreign donations, the united methodist committee on relief established the katrina aid today (kat), a national consortium of nine sub-grantees, to distribute grants to other nonprofit organizations. at the completion of its grant-funded activity in march , kat had enabled case management services for approximately , households. second, the national response framework designates the fema voluntary agency liaisons (val) as the primary liaisons for initiating and maintaining a working relationship between fema; federal, state, and local agencies; and nonprofit organizations. vals helped expand cross-scale networks of activity by linking the federal government to the nonprofit sector through state-level intermediaries. as of , fema's val program had memorandums of understanding with nonprofit organizations charged with implementing fema programs. these nonprofits include national voluntary organizations active in disaster, american red cross, the salvation army, united methodist committee on relief, adventists community services, church world service, feeding america, mennonite disaster service, northern american mission board–southern baptist convention, and operation hope usa. third, the office of the federal coordinator (ofc) for gulf coast rebuilding in the department of homeland security has played a key role in encouraging the formation of new cross-scale interactions and networks of activity through information sharing, grant distribution, and knowledge exchange with nonprofit organizations. in february , the ofc and fema formed a transparency initiative, a web-based information- sharing network to track the status of selected public infrastructure building projects (such as school or hospital) by providing detailed information on the public assistance grants funds allocated for the project. in , the ofc partnered with the white house to develop intra-government (horizontal) networks that link the white house office of faith- based and neighborhood partnership centers with federal agencies, including the department of homeland security, hud, and the small business http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / administration. these agencies, in turn, helped buttress and reinforce cross-scale networks with local community and faith-based organizations through the provision of temporary staff, training, and technical assistance (gao ). acceleration of cross-scale interactions recent advances in computing and communications technology have been central to accelerating cross- scale interactions and flows of activity related to post-disaster recovery and rebuilding. online disaster response capacities have expanded due to the integration of the internet with key geospatial technologies such as remote sensing, geographic information systems (gis), and global positioning systems (gps). use of the internet enhances the delivery of geospatial information to a larger audience, facilitating greater exchange of information, and increasing the speed of communication. in the immediate aftermath of katrina, websites dedicated to assisting evacuees, such as katrinacentral.com, craigslist.org, and nola.com, allowed people in remote and distant places to follow the relief effort. message boards, such as nola.com, provided information about shelter locations, family tracing, and missing persons. many displaced persons used wiki software as an organizational tool to create web portals to web pages such as those identifying immediate shelter needs (shelterfinder) and family tracing (peoplefinder). in addition, electronic communication and information technologies allowed people to donate money quickly for immediate disaster relief efforts. nearly one million people visited the american red cross website on the wednesday following katrina, a figure that was times the average amount of traffic to the nonprofit organization’s website (dang and burris , noguchi ). information and communication technologies that increase the velocity of cross-scale interactions provide for the establishment and routinization of “bridging” links that connect otherwise spatially dispersed and unconnected organizations to diverse networks and flows of post-disaster resources (tompkins and adger ). the development of gis, remote sensing, and the internet accelerate information flows and rapidly diffuse ideas, information, decisions, people, and diverse forms of capital. the increased velocity of diffusion, in turn, multiplies the number of bridging connections between individuals, organizations, groups, and communities. the fast transmission rate allows for quick responses to stresses and threats. the increasing speed of response is typically seen as enhancing resilience and adaptive capacity and reducing vulnerability (e.g., through real-time monitoring, fast delivery of humanitarian aid). more important, the proliferation of bridging connections creates new opportunities for social learning because the various components of the system are able to observe activities in other components. in short, bridging links encourage communities to communicate, exchange information and knowledge, and help foster vertical and horizontal relationships for proactive resilience building (newman and dale ). by sharing information and knowledge, communities are able to learn and incorporate new behaviors and actions into their repertoires of recovery to create novel and innovative processes and patterns of post-disaster redevelopment (norris et al. ). yet there is a dark side to information and communication technologies. technologies are capable of empowering nefarious or exploitive agents in times of crisis, as revealed by various fabrications and myths that circulated online after katrina. in the weeks following the disaster, online discussions and media portrayals obsessed on images of social breakdown, lawlessness, and violence. media outlets described the descent of new orleans into anarchy with “hundreds of armed gang members killing and raping people” and storm victims shooting at rescue crews (thevenot and russell :a ). various news reporters described the new orleans convention center, which became an unofficial gathering place for storm victims, as “a nightly scene of murders, rapes and regular stampedes” (thevenot : ). such reports constructed disaster victims as “lawless, violent, exploitative, and almost less than human” (tierney et al. : ). statements made by city officials—including the mayor and police chief— helped fuel some of the more extreme myths of mayhem during the new orleans disaster, including reports of rampant murder, “babies being raped,” and armed thugs taking control (dwyer and drew , pierre and gerhart :a , dynes and rodriguez ). the unsubstantiated and later discredited atrocity tales coming out of new orleans provided political ammunition to politicians looking to discredit government actions devoted to the recovery effort. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / federal-local linkages and the role of nonprofit organizations one notable feature of the post-katrina rebuilding effort has been the reliance on nonprofit organizations to deliver services. rather than relying solely on government agencies, the federal government has increasingly partnered with nonprofit organizations because of their flexibility, diversity of functions, quick response rates, and extant and oftentimes trusting relationships with local communities (gao ). congress passed legislation to encourage nonprofit organizations to create networks of activity for the delivery of federal assistance to gulf coast residents. most notably, provisions in the post-katrina emergency management reform act of expanded eligibility requirements for nonprofit organizations to receive fema grant assistance. in order to deploy more highly trained workers to impacted communities, the federal corporation for national and community service waived state matching requirements for sponsoring americorps workers in louisiana and counted the cost of housing them as an in-kind match for sponsoring americorps workers (corporation for national and community service ). these program waivers made it easier for nonprofits with limited financial resources to sponsor americorps workers to increase capacity to serve disaster victims and communities. table provides examples of some of the nonprofit organizations that have partnered with the federal government to help build the capacity of direct service providers. these nongovernment partners provide human resources, guidance, training, funding, and technical assistance for gulf coast recovery. the cross-scale post-katrina rebuilding activities of the nonprofit organizations listed in table would be difficult to undertake were it not for federal government actions. federal grant programs have incentivized efforts to create new partnerships and collaborations among nonprofit organizations to provide financial, technical, and support services to gulf coast communities. in its – retrospective, the louisiana disaster recovery foundation reported awarding grants totaling nearly us$ million to nonprofit organizations involved in louisiana’s recovery process (gao : ). organizations such as the louisiana association of nonprofit organizations ([lano] ) had an existing communications infrastructure with more than nonprofits within the state of louisiana before the storm. lano accessed this network following the hurricane to disseminate grant and technical information, provide vital resource referrals, and communicate about available training workshops for nonprofit service providers. at the end of , fema officials in louisiana reported that more than us$ million in donated dollars, volunteer hours, and goods had been leveraged through long-term recovery groups to provide permanent housing and address other unmet needs. also, federal hazard mitigation grants have provided funds to raise homes to base flood elevation levels, and thereby have assisted community efforts to reduce vulnerability to future flooding. in addition, community organizations and networks have transmitted information and thereby increased awareness of the importance of purchasing flood insurance. overall, the organizations listed in table have played major roles in building a network of adaptive capacities by engaging local people in recovery and mitigation, creating organizational linkages, and establishing new social supports. in short, federal government policies and programs have been crucial in establishing a series of cross- scale interactions among government agencies and nonprofit organizations to promote coordination and capacity building. direct and indirect funding programs have helped create, activate, and reinforce vertical and horizontal linkages between governments and secular and faith-based nonprofit organizations to deliver and manage resources to support rebuilding efforts. in the aftermath of hurricane katrina, catholic, mennonite, salvation army, and other faith-based relief groups linked up with large secular nonprofit organizations such as the red cross to form the greater new orleans disaster recovery partnership (gnodrp), a major relief network that crossed parish lines and embraced an entire region. after most disasters, private, nonprofit relief organizations create country-based networks or roundtables to coordinate their work and share resources. for instance, a methodist relief agency assisting an earthquake-affected family can go to its country-based roundtable and make request to a partner, perhaps catholic charities, for a donation of cash or volunteers from catholic organizations to help methodist volunteers support affected families. gnodrp represents the first time in which major religious and secular nonprofit groups established a region-wide network to coordinate work and share resources, including http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . nonprofit organizations involved in post-katrina rebuilding in new orleans. nonprofit organization mission national voluntary organizations active in disaster (national voad) coalition of national nonprofit organizations that share knowledge and resources throughout the disaster cycle to help disaster survivors and their communities. members include the american red cross and the salvation army. state voads in louisiana consortium of voluntary organizations that are active in disasters within the states of louisiana and mississippi. their mission is to foster more effective service to people affected by disaster. local/community voads in louisiana consortium of voluntary organizations that are active in disasters at the local and community levels long-term recovery committees/organizations in louisiana groups of community leaders, including nonprofit, interfaith, local government, and private sector leaders, whose mission is to identify needs that have not been addressed through insurance or governmental aid and to match up voluntary agency sources and/or local sources for goods and services to meet those needs greater new orleans disaster recovery partnership coalition of + member agencies, including faith-based, nonprofit, government liaison, and long-term recovery organizations, that serve those impacted in the greater new orleans region neighborhoods partnership network nonprofit organization consisting of a citywide network of neighborhoods that was established after the hurricane katrina disaster to facilitate neighborhood collaboration, increase access to government and information, and strengthen the voices of individuals and communities across new orleans louisiana odyssey house organization that provided crisis, mental health, and substance abuse counseling through the use of federal funding catholic charities archdiocese of new orleans organization that contracted with the louisiana state office of mental health and the resulting louisiana spirit hurricane recovery project, funded by fema, to help provide intervention and mental health services to its clients mercy family center organization that provided crisis, mental health, and substance abuse counseling through the use of federal funding louisiana family recovery corps organization that facilitates human recovery in louisiana by partnering with human service and nonprofit agencies throughout the state and country to deliver assistance as effectively and efficiently as possible beacon of hope resource center nonprofit organization that serves new orleans neighborhoods and whose mission is to assist homeowners in the city of new orleans in the rebuilding process rebuilding together new orleans program of the preservation resource center of new orleans that focuses on home rehabilitation and community recovery using a combination of volunteer and professional labor funded by corporate, private, and public dollars, volunteers, and help from the americorps program louisiana association of nonprofit organizations (lano) statewide network of nonprofits, foundations, corporations, and individuals dedicated to supporting louisiana’s nonprofit sector. lano’s mission is to strengthen, promote, and build the capacity of nonprofits through education, advocacy, and member services. source: gao ( ) http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / building materials. from to , the gnodrp distributed more than us$ million in aid to more than families (nolan ). cross-scale networks as sources of resilience ecologists and social scientists have long recognized that processes that interact across spatial and temporal scales influence both post-trauma ecological and community system recoveries. holling ( ) labels a post-disturbance period of renewal and recovery as the “alpha phase,” in which the system is most vulnerable to random and chance events. this is also the phase in which many opportunities emerge for enhancing resiliency and reconfiguring the system for growth and development. gunderson ( ) describes this alpha phase as a “window of opportunity” in which novel actions and innovative changes are possible. post-trauma situations can be ripe for members to revaluate old patterns and processes of community organization, identify problems and limitations of social-ecological structure and function, and develop alternative plans for recovery and renewal that allow the system to develop in a new and different trajectory (holling , berke and campanella , masten and obradovic , gunderson ). the challenge, of course, is for communities and organizations to turn disturbances, disasters, and other forms of trauma into opportunities for reinvention and innovation. as mutter ( : ) has recently asserted, “a disaster that sweeps away shoddy infrastructure can be an impetus to improve roads, hospitals and industry.” in considering “deep solutions ... policy- makers must formulate plans to turn disasters into opportunities” (mutter : ). since katrina, neighborhood coalitions, nonprofit organizations, and cultural associations have mobilized to form novel collaborations and networks to leverage private and public resources to rebuild new orleans, increase flood awareness and protection, and maximize community participation to nurture social-ecological resilience. some of these organizations are described in table . shortly after the disaster, new orleans residents formed the neighborhoods partnership network (npn) as a nonprofit organization consisting of a citywide network of neighborhoods to facilitate neighborhood collaboration, leverage public and private investment, and engage civically. the npn helped create a “citywide framework to assist communities in accessing limited resources and information while providing connections to other communities that have similar obstacles so that communities can avoid duplicating efforts and work toward shared goals” (http://www.npnnola.com/about/ ). important, we view the npn and the organizations listed in table as vehicles of community resilience that mobilize emergency and ongoing support services for disaster survivors through both pre- existing and newly created organizational networks this observation corroborates the work of norris et al. ( : ), who note that building post-disaster community resilience is a process of “linking a network of adaptive capacities (resources with dynamic attributes) to adaptation after a disturbance.” nonprofit organizations, neighborhood coalitions, and other organizations are characterized by reciprocal links that broaden “the scope of actors, agents, and knowledge that can be marshaled” (comfort : ) not only for the purpose of community recovery but also for developing new strategies to lessen future disaster risk and vulnerability. private foundations have been important institutions in linking the top-down actions of the federal government with the bottom-up actions of grassroots community organizations. during the five years since the flood, the rockefeller foundation has awarded grants totaling us$ million to new orleans civic institutions and organizations, with a special emphasis on enhancing citizen participation. other foundations such as brad pitt's make it right (mir) foundation have formed networks of local groups and international organizations to seek donations, corporate sponsors, and seed capital to catalyze neighborhood redevelopment. while pitt is the celebrity spokesperson for the mir foundation, much of the planning takes place among the renowned designers and planners within the architecture firms that comprise the organization. pitt asks foundations, corporations, and individuals to contribute to the project by adopting one house, several houses, or a portion of a house through the project website. the mission of the mir foundation is to redevelop the lower ninth ward by building a neighborhood of high quality, affordable, and environmentally conscious homes that reflect and promote sustainable development. as of january , mir had constructed homes, gained worldwide attention for the urban sustainability movement, and —much to its chagrin—emerged as a must-see site for bus tours. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.npnnola.com/about/ ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ironically, mir’s decision to rebuild the neighborhood closest to the most severe high- velocity breach flooding, on a site that is mostly below sea level, isolated from the urban core, and adjacent to two risk-inducing humanmade navigation canals, has been criticized by some experts as increasing vulnerability—even as mir purports to do the exact opposite. indeed, some voices (both local and outside) questioned the wisdom of rebuilding heavily flooded, low-lying, far-flung subdivisions at all, in light of massive population losses since the s and particularly since katrina, while others (entirely outsiders) pondered whether the entire city would be better off abandoned or relocated. in nearly every case, the opining voices generally saw their arguments as rational, scientifically substantiated strategies that would increase future resilience and decrease vulnerability. this debate over “shrinking the urban footprint,” which played out polemically in the year following katrina, illustrates how resilience and vulnerability not only co-exist empirically in post- trauma environments, but also perceptually. cross-scale interactions not only empower new collective agents such as private foundations but also play a role in generating resilient ecosystem services such as improved mitigation of flooding, freshwater diversion projects, and re-introduced habitats (ernstson et al. b). the case of the mississippi river gulf outlet (mr-go), an environmentally deleterious navigation channel opened in , is illustrative. various parties across scales—from rural citizens to urban environmentalists, from local officials to scientists —have blamed the channel for the erosion of wetlands along lake borgne and for expediting hurricane storm surge into chalmette and new orleans. after congress ordered it closed, the army corps of engineers proposed its mr-go ecosystem restoration plan to protect or rebuild square kilometers ( square miles) of wetlands over years, beginning as early as . blocking salt water from the gulf and creating a freshwater diversion from the mississippi river into lake borgne would keep salinity levels low enough to allow vegetation to take root and thrive. the restoration plan also seeks to reduce erosion and hold soil in place to help healthy cypress forest and wetlands provide additional protection from future storms (fig. ). cross-scale pathologies and post- katrina vulnerability scholars recognize that cross-scale interactions vary in form and consequence (cash et al. ). on the one hand, they can expedite the delivery of resources to needy communities, mitigate conflict, speed recovery, and build resilience. olsson et al. ( ) and tompkins et al. ( ) have hypothesized prerequisites for sustained interaction between stakeholders in resource co-management that include ( ) the enabling of constitutional order and legislation, ( ) the ability of organizations to monitor and adapt their co-management experiments, and ( ) the presence of leaders and agents for change. on the other hand, cross-scale interactions can concentrate power and degrade resources for community resilience. berkes ( ) draws attention to “cross-scale institutional pathologies” where actions and inactions by powerful stakeholders can undermine trust, breed discontent, and disempower communities. government agencies can degrade community resilience and perpetuate vulnerabilities by using information and resources from cross-scale interactions to reinforce their political authority, promote narrow self- interests, and exploit disadvantaged groups. one way in which cross-scale linkages can reproduce human vulnerabilities to trauma is through policies that reinforce and perpetuate socio- spatial inequalities. louisiana’s road home program, which gives up to us$ , in grants to homeowners to rebuild their flooded homes, offers a case study. over the last several years, housing activists and civil rights groups have alleged that the road home program used a discriminatory formula in distributing awards. under road home rules, officials calculated rebuilding grants on the basis of the lower of two figures: the pre-storm market value of the home, or the cost of the storm damage to the house. by definition, therefore, homeowners received sufficient assistance to rebuild their homes if the cost of damage was lower than the pre-storm value, or homeowners received insufficient funds to rebuild if the pre-storm value was less than the actual cost of damage. under this formula, owners of identical homes with similar storm damage and repair estimates would receive very different grant awards based on where they lived (bates and green ). because african americans in new orleans generally live in historically segregated neighborhoods with depressed property values, they received http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / smaller road home compensation awards and therefore a fraction of the funds needed to rebuild their homes. as a result, many homeowners have not been able to complete repairs to their homes and move back into their communities. post-katrina rebuilding decisions and policies that perpetuate social inequalities are spawning not-in- my-backyard (nimby) movements dedicated to preserving pre-katrina demographic patterns. three examples are noteworthy. first, in october , the greater new orleans fair housing action center filed a federal lawsuit to overturn a suburban st. bernard parish ordinance that prohibits owners from renting to anyone who is not a blood relative. the suit contends that the ordinance, passed after the storm, will perpetuate segregation and reinforce the predominantly white character of the parish (rioux ). second, in , the suburban jefferson parish council passed a resolution objecting to any applications by developers to use federal tax credits to build government subsidized low-income housing (gordon ). third, since , homeowners and legislators have attempted to block efforts by developers and fair-housing advocates to build new multifamily housing developments in new orleans east, a heavily flooded area of the city. several attempts by the city council to pass blanket moratoria on such affordable housing led to claims of discrimination and threats of legal action, eventually forcing the city council to abandon such efforts. leaders from new orleans east, who are disproportionately middle class and upper middle class african americans with economic and political clout, have attempted to ban new multifamily developments, saying a glut of them has turned the once solidly middle class area into a dumping ground for the poor and thereby has destroyed property values and increased crime. the three cases together illustrate that class as well as race motivate the various civic attempts to perpetuate social inequities (hammer ). political mobilization against affordable housing both reflects and reinforces segregationist housing patterns, and complicates efforts to rebuild neighborhoods. scholars have long recognized that housing policies and real estate practices that preserve and enhance affordable housing are critical for the socioeconomic resilience of neighborhoods (wallace and wallace ). in new orleans, current policies and decisions are exacerbating the housing problems caused by the disaster as skyrocketing rents and housing costs are burdening not only the poor but the working and middle classes. cross-scale linkages can promote social antagonisms if communities believe that government agencies are withholding vital information, elected officials are dishonest, or government agencies distribute resources unfairly or unequally. over the last several years, coalitions of neighborhood residents in the lower ninth ward have complained about the dearth of recovery projects in the struggling community. residents have complained that city leaders have misappropriated recovery money to create new amenities in other neighborhoods, while their infrastructure remains devastated. city leaders acknowledged certain disparities but held that fema had not approved federal financing for recovery projects in the neighborhood. for some residents, incomplete information fuels perceptions that city leaders are dishonest and exploitative (krupa ). the above examples corroborate the work of adgar et al. ( ) and ernstson et al. ( a), who note that legitimacy and efficacy of governance systems depends on equitable distribution of benefits from cross-scale linkages through the mechanisms of accountability, transparency, and trust. information asymmetries that derive from knowledge concealment, restraint, and unequal control are not likely to generate sustainable development or facilitate social learning in cross-scale interactions. if government regulators, for example, mobilize information and resources from cross-level interactions to reinforce their authority, other stakeholders, such as resource users, are often disempowered. information and knowledge asymmetries within the social-ecological governance system have reinforced inequalities, intensified conflicts, and bolstered enmity and distrust. these problems have complicated recovery effort, slowed long-term rebuilding, reinforced vulnerabilities, and weakened social-ecological resilience. conclusion we have examined the extension, intensification, and acceleration of cross-scale interactions as major forces shaping patterns and processes of social- ecological vulnerability and resilience in the new orleans urban ecosystem. cross-scale interactions are the communicatory infrastructure through which information, resources, and other forms of http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / capital flow. how social-ecological processes interact over temporal and spatial scales is one of the key factors in the resilience and vulnerability of different parts of a social-ecological system, whether it is an urban community or a natural ecosystem. the usefulness of the concepts of vulnerability and resilience lie in the attempt to separate extra-local patterns and regularities from the context-laden urban environment, and reveal the reciprocal feedback effects of human action and urban ecosystem transformation. we provided a conceptual framework to assess the impact of government policies, programs, and other forms of activity on the transformation of organizational couplings in a dynamic urban ecosystem. different socio-legal regulations and government policies have helped constitute and shape various cross-scale linkages that both promote resilience and vulnerability in the new orleans urban ecosystem. traumatic events and disasters alter organizational couplings in social-ecological systems by extending, intensifying, and accelerating cross- scale interactions. by creating and extending linkages among diverse agents and institutions, cross-scale interactions have enabled the different components of the new orleans urban ecosystem to take advantage of opportunities, leverage resources, and learn from activities happening in other components. our findings buttress the work of young et al. ( : ), who assert that “the existence of many interconnections may enhance the robustness or resilience of large-scale [social- ecological systems] by diluting and distributing the impact of strong changes in individual elements upon other elements of the system.” cross-scale interactions have linked social and technical networks to activate and sustain processes of self- organization and social learning for innovation and progressive transformation. trust, cooperation, and sharing of information and resources has been necessary to implement policies and management actions to build knowledge, incentives, and learning capabilities into institutions and organizations for post-katrina recovery and rebuilding (folke et al. , gunderson and folke ). overall, our analysis supports turner et al. ( ), who argue that resilience is not the flip side or opposite of vulnerability. different socio-legal regulations and government policies have helped constitute and shape various cross-scale linkages that both promote resilience and vulnerability in the new orleans urban ecosystem. at the same time, our analysis demonstrates that cross-scale interactions can produce maladaptive couplings or negative feedbacks that perpetuate social inequalities and reinforce socio-spatial vulnerabilities to stress and trauma. this insight reinforces adger et al. ( : ), who note that cross-scale interactions “are by no means a zero- sum game.” rather, some linkages and connections “emerge that radically alter the playing field while others reinforce existing inequalities between powerful and less powerful players.” cross-scale linkages that promote and legitimize exclusionary policies, environmentally destructive growth practices, and exploitative land use decisions degrade resilience to disasters. currently, contested property rights, land claims, and land use planning processes both complicate and problematize the adaptive capacity of communities in the metropolitan region and could jeopardize long-term efforts to restore the wetlands ecosystem. furthermore, if social and political institutions do not promote more equitable and sustainable forms of development, it is less likely that communities will be able to adapt and respond effectively to future trauma. how institutions define and allocate property rights and develop water and land use planning practices is important for community adaptive capacity because they influence access to resources, wealth, well-being, and livelihood. finally, the integrated vulnerability-resilience perspective we have adopted suggests a multiscale approach to understanding the drivers of urban susceptibility and adaptive capacity in urban ecosystems. social and natural systems are deeply interwoven, and their dynamics of change are uneven and long term. patterns and processes of resilience and vulnerability involve complex relationships among political, socioeconomic, and cultural elements that vary across a range of temporal and spatial scales. cross-scale interactions shape the socioeconomic and institutional conditions that constrain and enable effective response and adaptation to stress and perturbation for social-ecological systems. yet we lack knowledge of how cross-scale interactions can stabilize some social-ecological components, degrade and/or improve other components, and affect the pace and trajectory of urban ecosystem transformation. wars, economic and financial crises, major shifts in food and fuel prices, technological changes, and land use policy are large in magnitude, spatially extensive, and transform social-ecological systems over long time periods. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / infrequent events can radically alter trends and disrupt prevailing cross-scale interactions to the detriment of some communities and benefit of other communities. individual cases may be unique, and our ability to generalize or predict may be severely limited. understanding how cross-scale interactions affect extensive, pervasive, and subtle change is therefore one of the most important challenges for urban ecosystem science. responses to this article can be read online at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / responses/ acknowledgments: support for this research came from the national science foundation (nsf). literature cited adger, n. w. . vulnerability. global environmental change : – . adger, n. w., k. brown, and e.l. tompkins. . the political economy of cross-scale networks in resource co-management. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety. org/vol /iss /art auyero, j., and d. swistun. . the social production of toxic uncertainty. american sociological review. : . http://dx.doi.org/ . / bankoff, g. . cultures of disaster: society and natural hazard in the philippines. routledge, london, uk. bankoff, g. . comparing vulnerabilities: toward charting an historical trajectory of disasters. historical social research ( ): – . bates, l. k., and r. a. green. . housing recovery in the ninth ward: disparities in policy, process, and prospects. pages – in r. d. bullard and b. wright, editors. race, place, and environmental justice after hurricane katrina: struggles to reclaim, rebuild, and revitalize new orleans and the gulf coast. westview press, boulder, colorado, usa. berke, p. r., and t. j. campanella. . planning for postdisaster resiliency. the annals of the american academy of political and social science ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . / berkes, f. . cross-scale institutional linkages: perspectives from the bottom up. in e. ostrom, t. dietz, n. dolsak, p. c. stern, s. stonich, and e. u. weber, editors. the drama of the commons. national academy press, washington, d.c., usa. berkes, f., j. colding, and c. folke, editors. . navigating social-ecological systems: management practices and social mechanisms for building resilience. cambridge university press, cambridge, uk. blaikie, p., t. cannon, i. davis, and b. wisner. . at risk: natural hazards, people’s vulnerability and disasters. routledge, new york, new york, usa. boyd, e. . community development block grant funds in disaster relief and recovery. crs report for congress. rl . april , . brand, f. s., and k. jax. . focusing the meaning(s) of resilience: resilience as a descriptive concept and a boundary object. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsoc iety.org/vol /iss /art / cash, d. w., w. adger, f. berkes, p. garden, l. lebel, p. olsson, l. pritchard, and o. young. . scale and cross-scale dynamics: governance and information in a multilevel world. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecology andsociety.org/vol /iss /art / comfort, l. k. . shared risk: complex systems in seismic response. elsevier, oxford, uk. comfort, l. k. . risk, security, and disaster management. annual review of political science : – . corporation for national and community service. . semiannual regulatory agenda. federal http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /responses/ http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / register ( ). october , . [online] url: http://www.americorps.gov/for_organizations/funding/ nofa_detail.asp?tbl_nofa_id= cutter, s. . american hazardscapes: the regionalization of hazards and disasters. joseph henry press, washington, d.c., usa. dang, t. d., and j. burris. . on the internet, offers of assistance. baltimore sun, september , . downing, t. e., j. aerts, j. soussan, o. barthelemy, s. bharwani, c. ionescu, j. hinkel, r. j. t. klein, l. j. mata, n. martin, s. moss, d. purkey, and g. ziervogel. . integrating social vulnerability into water management. sei working paper and newater working paper no. . stockholm environment institute, oxford, uk. dwyer, j., and c. drew. . fear exceeded crime’s reality in new orleans. new york times, september , . dynes, r. r., and h. rodriguez. . finding and framing katrina: the social construction of disaster. pages – in d. l. brunsma, d. overfelt, and j. s. picou, editors. the sociology of katrina: perspectives on a modern catastrophe. rowman & littlefield, new york, new york, usa. eakin, h., and a. l. luers. . assessing the vulnerability of social-environmental systems. annual review of environment and resources : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.ene rgy. . . ernstson, h., s. barthel, e. andersson, and s. t. borgström. a. scale-crossing brokers and network governance of urban ecosystem services: the case of stockholm. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety. org/vol /iss /art / ernstson, h., s. e. van der leeuw, c.l. redman, d. j. meffert, g. davis, c. alfsen, and t. elmqvist. b. urban transitions: on urban resilience and human-dominated ecosystems. ambio. doi: . /s - - - figley, c. r. . editorial. traumatology ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - folke, c. . resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. global environmental change : – . http:// dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . folke, c. . social-ecological systems and adaptive governance of the commons. ecological research. ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - folke, c., t. hahn, p. olsson, and j. norberg. . adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. annual review of environment and resources : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.ene rgy. . . freudenburg, w. r. . risk and recreancy: weber, the division of labor, and the rationality of risk perceptions. social forces : – . http:// dx.doi.org/ . / freudenburg, w. r., s. frickel, and r. grambling. . beyond the nature/society divide: learning to think about a mountain. sociological forum ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf freudenburg, w. r., r. gramling, s. laska, and k. erikson . catastrophe in the making: the engineering of katrina and the disasters of tomorrow. island press, new york, new york, usa. gallopín, g. c. . linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity. global environmental change ( ): – . htt p://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . gordon, m. . more housing for poor opposed; roberts says that those from city are unwelcome. times-picayune, october , . gotham, k., and m. greenberg. . from / to / : post-disaster recovery and rebuilding in new york and new orleans. social forces ( ): – . government accountability office (gao). . nonprofit sector: increasing numbers and key role in delivering federal services. statement of stanley j. czerwinski director, strategic issues. testimony before the subcommittee on oversight, committee http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.americorps.gov/for_organizations/funding/nofa_detail.asp?tbl_nofa_id= % http://www.americorps.gov/for_organizations/funding/nofa_detail.asp?tbl_nofa_id= % http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.energy. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.energy. . . http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.energy. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.energy. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / on ways and means, house of representatives. gao- - t. government accountability office, washington, d.c., usa. government accountability office (gao). . hurricane recovery: federal government provided a range of assistance to nonprofits following hurricanes katrina and rita. gao- - . government accountability office, washington, d.c., usa. grimm, n. b., j. m. grove, s. t. a. pickett, and c. l. redman. . integrated approaches to long- term studies of urban ecological systems. bioscience ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - _ grimm, n. b., and c. l. redman. . approaches to the study of urban ecosystems: the case of central arizona–phoenix. urban ecosystems : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /b:ueco. . . a gunderson, l. . ecological and human community resilience in response to natural disasters. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss / art / gunderson, l., and c. folke. . resilience— now more than ever. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol / iss /art / hammer, d. . homeowners, legislators battle eastern new orleans apartments. times-picayune, january , . holling, c. s. . the resilience of terrestrial ecosystems: local surprise and global change. pages – in w. c. clark and r. e. munn, editors. sustainable development of the biosphere. cambridge university press, cambridge, uk. holling, c. s. . understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. ecosystems : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - kasperson, r. e., k. dow, e. r. m. archer, d. cáceres, t. e. downing, t. elmqvist, s. eriksen, c. folke, g. han, k. iyengar, c. vogel, k. a. wilson, and g. ziervogel. . vulnerable people and places. chapter in ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends assessment. millennium ecosystem assessment. island press, washington, d.c., usa. klinenberg, e. . heat wave: a social autopsy of disaster in chicago. chicago university press, chicago, illinois, usa. krupa, m. . n.o. to analyze recovery outlay; lower got less than was promised. times- picayune, july , . http://dx.doi.org/ . / bf liu, j., t. dietz, s. r. carpenter, m. alberti, c. folke, e. moran, a. n. pell, p. deadman, t. kratz, j. lubchenco, e. ostrom, z. ouyang, w. provencher, c. l. redman, s. h. schneider, and w. w. taylor. . complexity of coupled human and natural systems. science ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /science. liu, a., and a. plyer. . an overview of greater new orleans: from recovery to transformation in the new orleans index at five. brookings institution and greater new orleans community data center, washington, d.c., usa. louisiana association of nonprofit organizations (lano). . annual report, . louisiana association of nonprofit organizations (lano), baton rouge, louisiana, usa. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlca. . . . . masten, a. s., and j. obradovic. . disaster preparation and recovery: lessons from research on resilience in human development. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecology andsociety.org/vol /iss /art / miller, f., h. osbahr, e. boyd, f. thomalla, s. bharwani, g. ziervogel, b. walker, j. birkmann, s. van der leeuw, j. rockström, j. hinkel, t. downing, c. folke, and d. nelson. . resilience and vulnerability: complementary or conflicting concepts? ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss / art / mutter, j. . disasters widen the rich–poor gap. nature : . http://dx.doi.org/ . / a newman, l. l., and a. dale. . network structure, diversity, and proactive resilience http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - _ http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - - _ http://dx.doi.org/ . /b:ueco. . .a http://dx.doi.org/ . /b:ueco. . .a http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . /science. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlca. . . . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jlca. . . . . http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . / a ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / building: a response to tompkins and adger. ecology and society ( ):r . [online] url: http:// www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /resp / noguchi, y. . good samaritans turn to web to help victims. washington post, september , . nolan, b. . katrina's devastation rewrote the playbook; local groups say relief about half finished. times picayune, july , . [online] url: http: //www.nola.com/news/index.ssf/ / / katrinas_devastation_rewrote_t.html norris, f. h., s. p. stevens, b. pfefferbaum, k. f. wyche, and r. l. pfefferbaum. . community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. american journal of community psychology : – . ht tp://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - olsson, p., c. folke, and f. berkes. . adaptive co-management for building resilience in social- ecological systems. environmental management : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - olsson, p., l. h. gunderson, s. r. carpenter, p. ryan, l. lebel, c. folke, and c. s. holling. . shooting the rapids: navigating transitions to adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http:/ /www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / pelling, m. . the vulnerability of cities: natural disasters and social resilience. earthscan publications, london, uk. perrow, c. a. . organizing for environmental destruction. organization & environment : – . pickett, s. t. a., m. l. cadenasso, j. m. grove, c. h. nilon, r. v. pouyat, w. c. zipperer, and r. costanza. . urban ecological systems: linking terrestrial, ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. annual review of ecological systems : – . http://dx.doi.or g/ . /annurev.ecolsys. . . pierre, r. e., and a. gerhart. . news of pandemonium may have slowed aid; unsubstantiated reports of violence were confirmed by some officials, spread by news media. washington post, october , . plyer, a., and r. campanella. . job sprawl in metropolitan new orleans: based on local employment dynamics data from the u.s. census bureau. greater new orleans community data center (gnocdc), new orleans, louisiana, usa. [online] url: http://www.gnocdc.org/jobsprawl/index. html resilience alliance. . assessing resilience in social-ecological systems: a workbook for practitioners. revised version . . [online] url: http://www.resalliance.org/index.php/ resilience_assessment rioux, p. . st. bernard sued over rent limit; group says new law upholds segregation. times- picayune, october , . http://dx.doi.org/ . / ardp. swyngedouw, e. . social power and the urbanization of water: flows of power. oxford university press, new york, new york, usa. thevenot, b. . myth-making in new orleans. american journalism review ( ): – . thevenot, b., and g. russell. . rape, murder, gunfights; for three anguished days the world’s headlines blared that the superdome and convention center had descended into anarchy. times- picayune, september , . tierney, k., c. bevc, and e. kuligowski. . metaphors matter: disaster myths, media frames, and their consequences in hurricane katrina. annals of the american academy of political and social science : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . / tompkins, e. l., and w. n. adger. . does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety. org/vol /iss /art tompkins, e., w. n. adger, and k. brown. . institutional networks for inclusive coastal zone management in trinidad and tobago. environment and planning a. : – . turner, b. l., ii, r. e. kasperson, p. a. matson, j. mccarthy, r. w. corell, l. christensen, n. eckley, j. x. kasperson, a. luers, m. l. martello, c. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /resp / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /resp / http://www.nola.com/news/index.ssf/ / /katrinas_devastation_rewrote_t.html http://www.nola.com/news/index.ssf/ / /katrinas_devastation_rewrote_t.html http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.ecolsys. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev.ecolsys. . . http://www.gnocdc.org/jobsprawl/index.html http://www.gnocdc.org/jobsprawl/index.html http://www.resalliance.org/index.php/resilience_assessment. http://www.resalliance.org/index.php/resilience_assessment. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ardp. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ardp. http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / polsky, a. pulsipher, and a. schiller. . a framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. u.s. department of housing and urban development (hud). . disaster recovery initiative. federal register ( ). department of defense appropriations act, . u.s. long term ecological research network (lter). . the decadal plan for lter: integrative science for society and the environment. lter network office publication series no. , albuquerque, new mexico, usa. walker, b., and j. a. meyers. . thresholds in ecological and social–ecological systems: a developing database. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol / iss /art / wallace, d., and r. wallace. . urban systems during disasters: factors for resilience. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecolog yandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / young, o. r., f. berkhout, g. c. gallopin, m. a. janssen, e. ostrom, and s. van der leeuw. . the globalization of socio-ecological systems: an agenda for scientific research. global environmental change : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gl oenvcha. . . http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /% http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /% http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /% http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /% http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.gloenvcha. . . 	title 	abstract 	introduction 	vulnerability and resilience in post-trauma urban ecosystems 	cross-scale processes of post-katrina renewal and recovery 	acceleration of cross-scale interactions 	federal-local linkages and the role of nonprofit organizations 	cross-scale networks as sources of resilience 	cross-scale pathologies and post-katrina vulnerability 	conclusion 	responses to this article 	acknowledgments 	literature cited 	figure 	figure 	table 	table 	table commentary founder populations and their uses for breast cancer genetics susan l neuhausen university of utah school of medicine, salt lake city, utah, usa abstract numerous founder mutations have been reported in brca and brca . for genetic screening of a population with a founder mutation, testing can be targeted to the mutation, allowing for a more rapid and less expensive test. in addition, more precise estimates of the prior probability of carrying a mutation and of the likelihood of a mutation carrier developing cancer should be possible. for a given founder mutation a large number of carriers are available, so that focused scientific studies of penetrance, expression, and genetic and environmental modifiers of risk can be performed. finally, founder populations may be a powerful resource to localize additional breast cancer susceptibility loci, because of the reduction in locus heterogeneity. keywords: brca , brca , breast cancer genes, founder mutations, genetic epidemiology received: december accepted: january published: february breast cancer res , : – © current science ltd http://breast-cancer-research.com/content/ / / introduction ethnic differences in the prevalences of many diseases have been observed. for example, sickle-cell anemia in individuals of african descent, tay–sachs disease in ashkenazi jews [ ], and approximately diseases in finland [ ] are more prevalent than in other populations. a likely reason for a preponderance of a disease in a specific population is a founder effect. founder effects occur when a population is established by a small number of people or when a bottleneck occurs that reduces the population to a small number. when population expansion occurs, the mutation in a founder becomes prevalent in a larger pro- portion of the population. there may also be a selective advantage to the mutation carrier. by following genetic relationships over many generations, the significance of founder effects can be studied. diamond and rotter [ ] reviewed studies of the afrikaner population of south africa. in , one founding immigrant carried a gene for huntington’s chorea and one brother–sister pair carried a gene for lipoid proteinosis. the result of founder effects is that these diseases are more common in south africa than in holland from where the carriers emigrated. founder populations can be useful in genetic studies, par- ticularly for genetic mapping of complex traits. there is little genetic heterogeneity, so that the majority of individu- als with disease will carry the same gene mutation. linkage disequilibrium between the site of the gene and close markers will exist, so that shared regions of the genome cosegregating with disease can be more readily discerned. as an example, hirschprung’s disease has been described in individuals of many different back- grounds. using a mennonite population, in which all affected individuals could be traced to a single common ancestral couple, one of the genes for the disease was localized and subsequently identified [ ]. once founder mutations are identified, researchers are able to examine prevalence of mutations in different popu- lations and mutation-specific effects on penetrance and breast cancer research vol no neuhausen disease phenotype. possibly, better estimates of risk for individuals in populations with founder mutations can be calculated. this editorial focuses on founder populations in genetic studies of breast cancer. prevalence of mutations in brca and brca brca and brca , two genes predisposing to breast and ovarian cancers, were isolated in and , respectively [ , ]. since that time, researchers have been screening for mutations in high-risk breast and/or ovarian cancer families and in population-based samples of women with these cancers to determine the prevalence and range of mutations. over distinct variants have been found across all population groups, of which approxi- mately are identified as causal [ , ]. a number of these mutations have been identified multiple times [ ]. many of these common mutations have been classified as founder mutations on the basis of a shared haplotype in the genomic region containing the gene. founder muta- tions for brca and brca have been described in numerous populations (table ), as well as across popula- tions. for example, brca insc has been reported in individuals of jewish, dutch, lithuanian, russian, hun- garian, germanic, french, italian, british, and french– canadian ancestry [ ]. this suggests that this is a rela- tively old mutation that has spread through migration. relative ages of several founder mutations have been investigated by examining the distance over which haplo- types are conserved [ , ]. based on the general age of a mutation and historic data on migration and social pat- terns, the origin and subsequent migration of specific mutations may be described. now that a large number of mutation carriers have been identified the breast cancer linkage consortium is undertaking such a study for a set of founder mutations. assessment of risk genetic screening since the isolation of brca and brca , genetic testing for mutations is becoming more common in clinical genetic practice. important considerations are who should be offered predictive testing and when it should be done. in general, mutations in brca and brca are rare, probably accounting for less than % of breast cancers and % of ovarian cancers in the population [ , ]. the frequency of brca and brca mutation carriers in women with breast and/or ovarian cancer is dependent on the study population, and is highest in young women with breast cancer who have a strong family history of breast and/or ovarian cancers. an essential issue for testing is the probability that an individual, with breast or ovarian cancer or with a family history of cancer, will carry a mutation in brca or brca . probabil- ity models have been developed to predict the likelihood of being a mutation carrier before testing [ – ]. prior proba- bilities vary depending on the model used. for genetic testing, there are several advantages to knowing the founder mutation(s) in a population. first, a more accurate estimate of the prior probability of carrying a mutation should be possible. second, for mutation detec- tion, testing can be targeted to the founder mutation, allow- ing for a more rapid and less expensive test. third, most of the mutation detection techniques are unable to detect large deletions and insertions, so that these types of muta- tions, which may account for – % of deleterious muta- tions, would be undetected. if one of these mutations is table examples of brca and brca founder mutations population mutation reference african–americans brca ins [ , ] brca m r ashkenazi jews brca delag [ , , ] brca insc brca delt belgians brca ivs + a>g [ ] dutch brca delaa [ , ] brca ivs - del brca ivs - del brca insa finns brca delt [ ] brca ivs - a>g brca del brca ivs - a>g french–canadians brca r x [ , ] brca delag germans brca insc [ ] brca c g icelanders brca del [ ] latvians brca c g [ ] brca insc brca dela norwegians brca dela [ – ] brca insa russians brca insc [ ] brca dela swedes brca q x [ ] brca ins brca del brca delc brca delg http://breast-cancer-research.com/content/ / / known in the population, however, a technique that detects it can be used for mutation screening. for instance, there are two large deletion founder mutations in the dutch that would not be detectable with standard techniques [ ]. age-specific penetrance once an unaffected mutation carrier is identified, the question becomes what is the likelihood that she will develop cancer by a given age (age-specific penetrance). it is especially difficult to answer, because not all factors that contribute to the development of cancer are known. a proportion of individuals who carry mutations will not develop breast cancer or any other cancer. on the basis of estimates from population-based studies of women aged years or younger to estimates from high-inci- dence breast cancer families of northern european descent, the cumulative risk of breast cancer by age years for brca and brca mutation carriers is between and % [ – ]. mutation-specific differ- ences may also be important. there are regions in brca and brca in which mutations confer higher risks for developing ovarian cancer: ′ of codon in exon of brca [ ] and a . kilobase region of exon in brca (denoted the ovarian cancer cluster region) [ ]. it is unclear whether the differences in risk for ovarian cancer are due to a difference in penetrance of the muta- tions for breast cancer or ovarian cancer, or both. for brca , it has been suggested that the breast cancer risk remains the same, but that the ovarian cancer risk increases [ ]. expression is also variable [ ]. in a popu- lation with a defined founder mutation(s), more accurate assessment of the likelihood of developing cancer for a mutation carrier should be possible. founder mutations brca and brca an example of a recurrent, founder mutation is the brca del mutation in the icelandic population. no other brca mutations have been reported in this population. the del is approximately times more prevalent ( . %) [ ] than the estimated allele frequency of brca in the general worldwide caucasian population [ ]. this mutation with the same haplotype was also found in finland [ , ]. in iceland, it was the cause of female breast cancer in the majority ( %) of high-risk breast cancer families studied [ ]. in nine of those families, male breast cancer was also present [ ]. in ice- landic breast cancer cases unselected for a family history, . % of female breast cancer diagnosed at any age and % of those diagnosed at age years or younger carried the brca del mutation [ ]. this mutation is also responsible for a proportion of prostate cancer, as it accounted for . % (in two out of individuals) of prostate cancer cases in a population-based series of cases [ ]. because this is the only brca mutation found in iceland, genetic testing can be targeted to this mutation. second, because there are a large number of individuals, both symptomatic and asymptomatic, who carry this mutation, it may be possible to develop more accurate risk estimates for mutation carriers. age-specific penetrance has been calculated to be % by age years and . % by age years [ ]. this is a lower fre- quency than that reported in other studies of brca and brca penetrance. three founder mutations have been observed in ashkenazi jewish breast and ovarian cancer patients. the brca delt mutation has been seen only in ashkenazi jews [ ], with a frequency of . – . % [ , ]. the founder brca delag mutation, with a frequency of . – . % in ashkenazi jews [ , ], is also observed in sephardic jews, indicating an older origin. the delag mutation has also been observed in individuals of english origin but on a different haplotype, which suggests a dif- ferent origin. the third founder mutation, brca insc, has a frequency of . – . % in ashkenazi jews. the insc mutation is observed in many popula- tions, and the vast majority of carriers share the same core haplotype (szabo c, personal communication). the popu- lation prevalences for these three mutations combined is – . % [ – ], which is approximately – times higher than the allele frequency in the general population. few other brca or brca mutations have been identi- fied in jewish breast or ovarian cancer cases. in this popu- lation, approximately % of breast cancers diagnosed at less than years of age and % of ovarian cancers diagnosed at less than years of age are caused by these mutations [ , ]. thus, ashkenazi jewish women with breast or ovarian cancers have a much higher proba- bility than non-jewish women of being brca or brca mutation carriers. because these mutations are so common in ashkenazi jewish women, they are commonly tested as a panel, regardless of whether a mutation has already been identified in a family member. a woman may carry a second mutation not present in the first family member tested and, by testing the panel, it is detected. without knowledge of the founder mutations, a false-neg- ative test result for an individual with a mutation-specific test could result. even among families with founder mutations, there appear to be differences in age of onset of cancer and in the type of cancers that develop [ , – ]. this suggests that there are both genetic and lifestyle factors that modify penetrance of brca and brca . by studying a cohort of individuals with the same mutation, one may be able to distinguish factors that affecting penetrance, because there will not be a confounding effect from genotype–phe- notype correlations from location of the brca /brca mutation in the individual. once a risk factor is identified in one subgroup of mutation carriers it would need to be tested across other mutation carriers. subsequently, it would need to be tested in a population-based case– control study, in order to determine how important the risk factor is in the general population. other genes brca and brca mutations are certainly important determinants of risk for breast and/or ovarian cancers, but they are not the only ones. many women, who have a family history of breast and/or ovarian cancer and do not have a brca or brca mutation, may have a mutation in undiscovered genes. after accounting for brca and brca , peto et al [ ] suggested that there are several other genes, possibly of lower risk, that account for a pro- portion of breast cancers. this complexity makes localizing additional genes problematic. studying families identified from populations in which there are likely to be founder mutations may be extremely useful for localizing additional genes. for example, in iceland researchers may have been able to localize brca by studying male breast cancer cases from high-risk families and looking for regions of the genome with excess sharing. researchers have sug- gested studying high-risk ashkenazi jewish breast cancer families that do not have a brca or brca mutation in order to localize brca . localization will be promoted by minimizing the effects of genetic heterogeneity. conclusion founder mutations allow for focused scientific studies of penetrance, expression, and genetic and environmental modifiers of risk. the results from these studies may be very useful for understanding the role that these genes play in the incidence of breast cancer in order to target genetic testing, to provide individual risk assessment, and to design better therapeutic strategies. localization studies to find brca , using founder populations, may be more successful than traditional linkage studies, which have not yet yielded positive localization results. these types of studies, utilizing founder populations and muta- tions, are not unique to breast cancer genetics, and are being used successfully to understand other diseases. acknowledgement work by the author and cited in this editorial was supported by grants from the national cancer institute (r ca- ), the department of defense (damd - -i- ), and the american cancer society (rpg- - - cce). references . kaback m, lim-steele j, dabholkar d, et al: tay–sachs disease: carrier screening, prenatal diagnosis, and the molecular era. an international perspective, to . the international tsd data collection network. jama , : – . . de la chapelle a: disease gene mapping in isolated human popu- lations: the example of finland. j med genet , : – . . diamond jm, rotter ji: observing the founder effect in human evo- lution [news]. nature , : – . . puffenberger eg, kauffman er, bolk s, et al: identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet , : – . . miki y, swensen j, shattuck-eidens d, et al: a strong candidate for the breast and ovarian cancer susceptibility gene brca . science , : – . . wooster r, bignell g, lancaster j, et al: identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene brca . nature , : – . (published erratum appears in nature , : .) . shen d, vadgama jv: brca and brca gene mutation analysis: visit to the breast cancer information core (bic). oncol res , : – . . breast cancer information core database: http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/ intramural_research/lab_transfer/bic/ . neuhausen sl, mazoyer s, friedman l, et al: haplotype and pheno- type analysis of six recurrent brca mutations in families: results of an international study. am j hum genet , : – . . neuhausen sl, godwin ak, gershoni-baruch r, et al: haplotype and phenotype analysis of nine recurrent brca mutations in families: results of an international study. am j hum genet , : – . . claus eb, schildkraut jm, thompson wd, risch nj: the genetic attributable risk of breast and ovarian cancer. cancer , : – . . peto j, collins n, barfoot r, et al: prevalence of brca and brca gene mutations in patients with early-onset breast cancer. j natl cancer inst , : – . . couch fj, deshano ml, blackwood ma, et al: brca mutations in women attending clinics that evaluate the risk of breast cancer. n engl j med , : – . . berry da, parmigiani g, sanchez j, schildkraut j, winer e: probability of carrying a mutation of breast-ovarian cancer gene brca based on family history. j natl cancer inst , : – . . frank ts, manley sa, olopade oi, et al: sequence analysis of brca and brca : correlation of mutations with family history and ovarian cancer risk. j clin oncol , : – . . schmidt s, becher h, chang-claude j: breast cancer risk assess- ment: use of complete pedigree information and the effect of mis- specified ages at diagnosis of affected relatives. hum genet , : – . . petrij-bosch a, peelen t, van vliet m, et al: brca genomic dele- tions are major founder mutations in dutch breast cancer patients. nature genet , : – . (published erratum appears in nature genet , : .) . struewing jp, hartge p, wacholder s, et al: the risk of cancer asso- ciated with specific mutations of brca and brca among ashkenazi jews. n engl j med , : – . . hopper jl, southey mc, dite gs, et al: population-based estimate of the average age-specific cumulative risk of breast cancer for a defined set of protein-truncating mutations in brca and brca . australian breast cancer family study. cancer epidemiol biomark- ers prev , : – . . ford d, easton df, stratton m, et al: genetic heterogeneity and penetrance analysis of the brca and brca genes in breast cancer families. the breast cancer linkage consortium. am j hum genet , : – . . gayther sa, warren w, mazoyer s, et al: germline mutations of the brca gene in breast and ovarian cancer families provide evi- dence for a genotype–phenotype correlation. nature genet , : – . . gayther sa, mangion j, russell p, et al: variation of risks of breast and ovarian cancer associated with different germline mutations of the brca gene. nature genet , : – . . anonymous: cancer risks in brca mutation carriers. the breast cancer linkage consortium. j natl cancer inst , : – . . thorlacius s, sigurdsson s, bjarnadottir h, et al: study of a single brca mutation with high carrier frequency in a small population. am j hum genet , : – . . claus eb, risch n, thompson wd: genetic analysis of breast cancer in the cancer and steroid hormone study. am j hum genet , : – . . vehmanen p, friedman ls, eerola h, et al: a low proportion of brca mutations in finnish breast cancer families. am j hum genet , : – . . huusko p, paakkonen k, launonen v, et al: evidence of founder mutations in finnish brca and brca families [letter]. am j hum genet , : – . breast cancer research vol no neuhausen . thorlacius s, olafsdottir g, tryggvadottir l, et al: a single brca mutation in male and female breast cancer families from iceland with varied cancer phenotypes. nature genet , : – . . sigurdsson s, thorlacius s, tomasson j, et al: brca mutation in icelandic prostate cancer patients. j mol med , : – . . thorlacius s, struewing jp, hartge p, et al: population-based study of risk of breast cancer in carriers of brca mutation. lancet , : – . . neuhausen s, gilewski t, norton l, et al: recurrent brca delt mutations in ashkenazi jewish women affected by breast cancer. nature genet , : – . . roa bb, boyd aa, volcik k, richards cs: ashkenazi jewish popula- tion frequencies for common mutations in brca and brca . nature genet , : – . . oddoux c, struewing jp, clayton cm, et al: the carrier frequency of the brca delt mutation among ashkenazi jewish individu- als is approximately %. nature genet , : – . . struewing jp, abeliovich d, peretz t, et al: the carrier frequency of the brca delag mutation is approximately percent in ashkenazi jewish individuals. nature genet , : – . (published erratum appears in nature genet , : .) . levy-lahad e, catane r, eisenberg s, et al: founder brca and brca mutations in ashkenazi jews in israel: frequency and dif- ferential penetrance in ovarian cancer and in breast-ovarian cancer families. am j hum genet , : – . . abeliovich d, kaduri l, lerer i, et al: the founder mutations delag and insc in brca and delt in brca appear in % of ovarian cancer and % of early-onset breast cancer patients among ashkenazi women. am j hum genet , : – . . friedman ls, szabo ci, ostermeyer ea, et al: novel inherited muta- tions and variable expressivity of brca alleles, including the founder mutation delag in ashkenazi jewish families. am j hum genet , : – . . tonin p, serova o, lenoir g, et al: brca mutations in ashkenazi jewish women [letter]. am j hum genet , : . . simard j, tonin p, durocher f, et al: common origins of brca mutations in canadian breast and ovarian cancer families. nature genet , : – . . mefford hc, baumbach l, panguluri rc, et al: evidence for a brca founder mutation in families of west african ancestry [letter]. am j hum genet , : – . . gao q, neuhausen s, cummings s, luce m, olopade oi: recurrent germ-line brca mutations in extended african american fami- lies with early-onset breast cancer [letter]. am j hum genet , : – . . claes k, machackova e, de vos m, et al: mutation analysis of the brca and brca genes in the belgian patient population and identification of a belgian founder mutation brca ivs + a > g. dis markers , : – . . peelen t, van vliet m, petrij-bosch a, et al: a high proportion of novel mutations in brca with strong founder effects among dutch and belgian hereditary breast and ovarian cancer families. am j hum genet , : – . . tonin pm, mes-masson am, narod sa, ghadirian p, provencher d: founder brca and brca mutations in french canadian ovarian cancer cases unselected for family history. clin genet , : – . . backe j, hofferbert s, skawran b, et al: frequency of brca muta- tion insc in german breast cancer patients. gynecol oncol , : – . . csokay b, tihomirova l, stengrevics a, sinicka o, olah e: strong founder effects in brca mutation carrier breast cancer patients from latvia. mutation in brief no. . online. hum mutat , : . . andersen ti, borresen al, moller p: a common brca mutation in norwegian breast and ovarian cancer families? [letter]. am j hum genet , : – . . borg a, dorum a, heimdal k, et al: brca dela and insa account for one third of norwegian familial breast-ovarian cancer and are associated with later disease onset than less frequent mutations. dis markers , : – . . dorum a, hovig e, trope c, inganas m, moller p: three per cent of norwegian ovarian cancers are caused by brca dela or insa. eur j cancer , : – . . gayther sa, harrington p, russell p, et al: frequently occurring germ-line mutations of the brca gene in ovarian cancer families from russia [letter]. am j hum genet , : – . . johannsson o, ostermeyer ea, hakansson s, et al: founding brca mutations in hereditary breast and ovarian cancer in southern sweden. am j hum genet , : – . author’s affiliation: division of genetic epidemiology, department of medical informatics, university of utah school of medicine, salt lake city, utah, usa correspondence: susan l neuhausen, genetic epidemiology, chipeta way, suite d- , salt lake city, ut , usa. tel: + , + ; fax: + ; e-mail: susan@episun .med.utah.edu http://breast-cancer-research.com/content/ / / 	abstract 	introduction 	prevalence of mutations in brca and brca 	assessment of risk 	genetic screening 	age-specific penetrance 	founder mutations 	brca and brca 	other genes 	conclusion 	acknowledgement 	references 	author’s affiliation: 	correspondence: abstract a water informatics approach to exploring the hydrological systems of basins with limited information; the case of the bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico. by hugo luis rojas villalobos, m.e.e. a dissertation submitted to the graduate school in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy major: water science and management concentration: water informatics new mexico state university las cruces, new mexico october proquest number: all rights reserved information to all users the quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted. in the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. published by proquest llc ( proquest ). copyright of the dissertation is held by the author. all rights reserved. this work is protected against unauthorized copying under title , united states code microform edition © proquest llc. proquest llc east eisenhower parkway p.o. box ann arbor, mi - ii iii acknowledgements foremost, i want to express my eternal gratitude to dr. christopher brown for his unconditional support and encouragement: "la vida es bella." i want to thank my doctoral committee for valuable support, time, and dedication. profe brown, dr. samani, dr. stringam, and dr. alatorre: you are responsible for who i am now :). dr. alfredo granados, thanks for encouraging me, you are also responsible for this. to my children luis ricardo and leonardo, if i did not have you, my life would be a disaster. every time i see you, i realize that i am facing the living portraits of your mother and me, you are my main motivation, my motor of life. olaya, thank you very much for your patience, dedication, and love for this family. to my parents and brother hugo, licha, and luis, who always believed in me, especially my mother, who already rests in eternity, i love you. i thank rojas and villalobos families as well as the aragones family for your constant support. to my friends and coworkers, you are the “neta” of the planet! finally, to all members of the academic department "geoinformática aplicada a procesos geo- ambientales" (uacj-ca- ). thanks to nmwrri and the nmsu department of geography for your support. part of this material is supported by the national institute of food and agriculture, u.s. department of agriculture, under award number - - . iv vita educational information december , born in mazatlán, sinaloa, méxico graduated from cbtis # high school mazatlán, sinaloa, méxico graduated from durango institute of technology computer systems engineer durango, durango, méxico specialization from kanazawa institute of technology systems designer. microcontrollers. kanazawa, japan graduated from autonomous university of ciudad juarez master of environmental engineer ciudad juárez, chihuahua, méxico employment information - operations manager principal financial group - geographic information center autonomous university of ciudad juarez - full time professor - geoinformatics autonomous university of ciudad juarez field of study major field: water science and management concentration: water informatics v abstract a water informatics approach to exploring the hydrological systems of basins with limited information; the case of the bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico by student name by hugo luis rojas villalobos, m.e.e. doctor of philosophy new mexico state university las cruces, new mexico october christopher brown, phd. the analysis of hydrological basins requires information that is often not available or non-existent when the study areas are far from large urban centers. in the case of bustillos lagoon in the mexican state of chihuahua, hydrological information is limited, and government agencies do not share data with interested persons and research institutions. given this barrier, this research contributes to filling information gaps concerning the geometry of the bustillos lagoon, evaporation, and morphometric parameters through the use of current technology in remote sensors, geographic information systems, and programming techniques that are used to extract, transform and process information. chapter deals with a new methodology that vi generates a d model of the bottom of the lagoon, which uses high-precision gps surveys, bathymetry, regional digital terrain models, and satellite image time series. the analysis using the kappa coefficient demonstrates that the overall performance of the d model is more significant than . , which means that the model has a very high level of agreement. the analysis also showed that at greater depth, the agreement between the coverage of the water surface of the model and the images is relatively low ( . ), and this is due to the spatial resolution of the satellite images and strip banding errors of landsat etm +. on the other hand, on the upper level, there is an agreement close to . of the kappa coefficients. chapter presents a performance comparison between the regional evapotranspiration estimate model (reem) and the earth engine evapotranspiration flux (eeflux) model, which are evapotranspiration models based on energy balances. these models can estimate the evaporation of water bodies. after applying statistical analysis, reem performed better than eeflux in quantifying the evaporation of the bustillos lagoon. chapter proposes an iterative algorithm to calculate morphometric variables (volume-area-height) using d models of water bodies. the implementation of the algorithm in the python programming language showed that it is not necessary to develop complex equations that interrelate the morphometric variables, which by their nature, lead to more considerable uncertainty from the data source for their construction. this research document highlights the importance of cumulative multi-faceted knowledge to support and respond to regional water issues. keywords: d model, topobathymetry, remote sensing, evaporation, iterative algorithm, lagoon geomorphometry table of contents table of contents list of tables ................................................................................................................................... list of figures ................................................................................................................................. chapter ........................................................................................................................................ introduction ................................................................................................................................ research location ....................................................................................................................... chapter topobathymetric d model reconstruction of shallow water bodies through remote sensing, gps, and bathymetry ....................................................................................................... abstract ...................................................................................................................................... introduction ................................................................................................................................ materials and methods ............................................................................................................... bathymetry ............................................................................................................................. contour extraction from remote sensors ................................................................................ topography ............................................................................................................................ digital elevation model .......................................................................................................... topobathymetric d model and volume estimation .............................................................. statistical evaluation ............................................................................................................. results and discussion ............................................................................................................... conclusions ................................................................................................................................ references .................................................................................................................................. chapter comparison of evaporation estimates from reem and eeflux models in a shallow water body. case: bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico. ............................................................ abstract ...................................................................................................................................... background ................................................................................................................................ reference evapotranspiration model ...................................................................................... brief description of remote sensing models ........................................................................... reem .................................................................................................................................... metric ................................................................................................................................ eeflux ................................................................................................................................... material and methods ................................................................................................................. agro-meteorological data ...................................................................................................... landsat oli selection ......................................................................................................... reem and eeflux raster ....................................................................................................... lagoon delineation ................................................................................................................. statistical evaluation .............................................................................................................. results ........................................................................................................................................ discussion .................................................................................................................................. conclusions ................................................................................................................................ references .................................................................................................................................. chapter single-input, multiple-output iterative algorithm for the calculation of volume, area, elevation, and shape using d topobathymetric models. ............................................................... abstract ...................................................................................................................................... introduction ................................................................................................................................ study area ............................................................................................................................... material and methods ................................................................................................................. results and discussion ............................................................................................................... recommendations ...................................................................................................................... conclusions .................................................................................................................................... references ...................................................................................................................................... list of tables table . collection of remote sensing data used in this article. ................................................... table . list of multispectral images used to compare d model contours. ................................ table . list of multispectral images used to compare areas between reality and d model. added images are identified with *. ............................................................................................. table . kappa coefficient values and overall accuracy between imagery (reality) and simulation ( d model). ................................................................................................................................... table . confidence interval analysis for the percentage of the matching area between the three- dimensional model and the sample images. .................................................................................. table . landsat oli imagery used to estimate eta through reem and eeflux. source: usgs ( ). ................................................................................................................................ table . comparative table of errors between the reference evaporation and the models based on remote sensors (reem and eeflux). source: rojas villalobos. ................................................. table . summary of the ranked results of the comparative statistical indicators applied to the reem and eeflux versus s-penman. source: rojas villalobos. ................................................ table . result of the calculations of the implementation of the algorithm in python language. study site: the bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico. error threshold = . %. * input data. source: rojas villalobos............................................................................................................... table . iterative model processing times with various storage volume input values using two dtms with different pixel dimensions. pixel spatial resolution: meters. source: rojas villalobos. ..................................................................................................................................... list of figures figure . location of cuauhtemoc basin and bustillos lagoon (source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from google maps and national institute of statistics and informatics – inegi, ). ............................................................................................................................................ figure . the study area of laguna de bustillos, chihuahua. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). .................................................................. figure . schematic of the workflow to generate the d model. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). .......................................................... figure . components to calculate the height of the lake bottom above sea level. source: rojas villalobos. ..................................................................................................................................... figure . demonstration of matching areas between water surface extracted from a multispectral satellite image and the d model at the same reference level. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). .................................................................. figure . map showing bathymetry, gps points, derived curves from multispectral rs, and regional contours (inegi). source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). ................................................................................................................ figure . triangulated irregular network is representing the topobathymetric d model of laguna de bustillos. source: rojas villalobos............................................................................. figure . d perspective of laguna de bustillos ( times height exaggeration for better visualization). source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). .......................................................................................................................................... figure . graph showing the behavior of the intersection percentage between the surfaces of the d model and the areas of rs images along elevation. ................................................................ figure . graphs of the surface and volume equations adjusted to the d model. .................... figure . rs time series contours. the dark contour delimits the outer areas with greater d model performance and the internal area with less accuracy. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). .................................................................. figure . schematic flow chart of the process of comparing the reem and eeflux models to obtain e estimations of water bodies by comparing the s-penman equation. source: rojas villalobos . ............................................................................................................................ figure . location of the bustillos lagoon and the agro-meteorological station. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from inegi ( )....................................................................... figure . evaporation values of s-penman, reem, and eeflux during the agricultural season for the bustillos lagoon. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from unifrut ( ), usgs landsatlook viewer ( ), and eeflux ( ). ............................................... figure . comparative graphic of residuals predicted e on rs map models versus observed e (s-penman). source: rojas villalobos. ........................................................................................ figure . seasonal evaporation comparison of rs models versus s-penman data from april , to september , . source: rojas villalobos. .............................................................. figure . et (crop fields) and evaporation (lagoon) comparison maps of reem and eeflux models in the cuauhtemoc valley for june , . source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from usgs ( ) and eeflux ( ). ........................................................................ figure . study area where the algorithm was applied. the bustillos lagoon in chihuahua. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from inegi ( ). .............................................. figure . dtm of the bustillos lagoon. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from rojas-villalobos et al. ( ). ...................................................................................................... figure . the schematic diagram shows single-inputs and multiple-output data for iterative algorithm. source: rojas villalobos. ............................................................................................ figure . equations to calculate average depth and maximum depth. .................................... figure . flowchart of the iterative algorithm to compute hydrologic characteristics using single-input data. source: rojas villalobos. ................................................................................. figure . water surface coverage map at different heights above sea level of the bustillos lagoon. sources: rojas villalobos with data from rojas-villalobos ( ). ............................. figure . comparative graph of volume, surface area, average depth, and maximum depth according to the height above sea level. source: rojas villalobos. ............................................. chapter introduction the base of the economy of the cuauhtemoc region in the mexican state of chihuahua is based on the apples, forage, and dairy products. in the early th century, one of the concerns of the mexican government was the sparse population in the northwest, which was isolated after the mexican revolution in , so the government implemented an immigration program to attract foreigners interested in agriculture. in march , the canadian mennonite exodus began to populate the cuauhtemoc region under the protection of mexican government that offered: no conscription, no oath to the country, and no restrictions to exercise their religious principles. they would be allowed to create their schools with their teachers, and they would have an independent economic regime. when this community arrived at cuauhtemoc, they had to change the agriculture techniques to be able to plant; therefore, they studied the soils to choose which kind of crop they would apply. at that time, alfalfa, apple orchards, barley, beans, corn, cotton, oats, wheat, and other fruit trees were planted on the soil with more humidity; the land with saline soils was utilized for grazing. currently, most of the land with the best soil to plant, is owned by private, and ejidos own some of the reminder. the big private owners are mennonites, and they have many financial resources to buy irrigation technology. on the other hand, many farmers are mennonites and mestizos that have not yet modernized their cultivation techniques ( % of irrigation areas). these farmers still use flood irrigation since they arrived in the region; also, this type of irrigation is used to cover areas as long as , feet, causing loss of water by the hydrologic wedge effect. these traditional irrigation methods, combined with the type of crops and intensive agricultural productivity employed in this region, have had a high impact on the static water table of the aquifer. by , the national water commission (conagua) had forecasted that the water table would decrease by - meters ( - feet) by if the current conditions of recharge and extraction remain (ibañez hernandez, ). however, another study made by conagua in indicated that the aquifer depletion was . meters per year. the first effect on the city was scheduled water shortages in the entire city, especially in lands at higher elevation. in order to cover the water demand, two public wells were extended meters depth ( feet) in . studies in recent years have demonstrated the rapid depletion of the cuauhtemoc aquifer due to various factors that come together in this water resource: the massive amount of extracted water, the low aquifer recharge rates, several droughts, and the irrigation techniques. the extractions of water in the cuauhtemoc basin are heterogeneous according to land use. excessive use of water is associated with large agricultural areas distributed throughout the basin, and in some other areas, the aquifer level is likely stable. these variations are due to the different velocities of groundwater flows and physical soil conditions (díaz caravantes, bravo peña, alatorre cejudo, & sánchez flores, ). according to the groundwater balance of cuauhtemoc basin published in the official journal of the federation (dof, ), the groundwater inflow is mm , vertical recharge precipitation is . mm , water return from irrigation is . mm , and extraction is . mm . the official document indicates a yearly deficit of mm of water across the basin. moreover, technical data of the study area is almost non-existent, the government are opaque in how they generate the water information, and the information that exists is inconsistent. for instance, ortiz and amado ( ) cite a document from the national water commission in where the bustillos lagoon has an area of km , but landsat image (nov , ) showed that the area of the waterbody is km . amado et al. ( ) cited a portal web of conagua where the basin of bustillos lagoon is , km , but actually, the area is , km . in some other official documents, government official only describe the physiography of the lagoon location (inegi, ). given this challenging panorama, the analysis of water balance in a region involves a complex interaction of natural and anthropogenic processes that affect the quality of groundwater and long-term availability. that is why in the next three chapters of this research, three factors that assist in planning and forecasting the future state of the regional aquifer are addressed: the storage capacity of the bustillos lagoon, the evaporation occurring in the bustillos lagoon, and techniques to estimate quickly and efficiently the geomorphological variables (volume, area, and depth) of this water body. research location the enclosed basin of bustillos lagoon is in the municipality of cuauhtemoc and situated in the central-west region of the state of chihuahua in the transition zone between the plateau and the mountains, with an area extent of , km , as depicted in figure . it is at º ' '' north, º ' '' west, and an altitude of , meters above sea level. cuauhtemoc municipality is bounded by the municipalities of namiquipa to the north, riva palacio to the east, cusihuiriachi and gran morelos to the south, and bachiniva and guerrero to the west (figure )(inegi ). the climate is warm semi-dry since it is in a transition zone between the semi-humid climate of the mountains and the desert of chihuahua (garcía ). the geology is composed of extrusive igneous rock: rhyolite-tuff acid ( . %), basalt ( . %), andesite ( . %), and volcanoclastic. the plains are composed of conglomerate ( . %) and sandstone-cluster ( . %). the average annual temperature is between ° c and ° c. the average annual rainfall varies between and mm per year (inegi ). figure . location of cuauhtemoc basin and bustillos lagoon (source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from google maps and national institute of statistics and informatics – inegi, ). chapter topobathymetric d model reconstruction of shallow water bodies through remote sensing, gps, and bathymetry article submitted: january , . accepted: november , . journal: tecnociencia chihuahua. http://tecnociencia.uach.mx/numeros/v n /data/topobathymetric_ d_model_reconstruction_l aguna_de_bustillos.pdf abstract since there are no mathematical models that can calculate the laguna de bustillos’ water storage levels, water balance requires this data to understand the connectivity between this water body and the cuauhtemoc aquifer. this article presents a new three-dimensional reconstruction technique based on a time series of multispectral remote sensing images, bathymetry, a topographic survey with high precision gps, and regional contours. with the images of landsat etm+/oli and sentinel a from to , , and , the contours of the water surface were extracted using the mndwi and were associated with an elevation received from gps. an autonomous surface vehicle was also used to obtain the bathymetry of the lake. a topographic survey was carried out using gps in populated areas, and the contour lines extracted from the inegi continuous elevations model . . a dem was constructed using arcgis . . , and surfaces and volumes were calculated at different elevations and compared with landsat tm/etm+/oli multispectral images from to . the results showed that the mean of the average intersection area between the test images and the area extracted from the d http://tecnociencia.uach.mx/numeros/v n /data/topobathymetric_ d_model_reconstruction_laguna_de_bustillos.pdf http://tecnociencia.uach.mx/numeros/v n /data/topobathymetric_ d_model_reconstruction_laguna_de_bustillos.pdf model is above . % according to the confidence interval, kappa overall accuracy . – . %, and a coefficient . – . %. this model proved to be very accurate on a regional scale when the water level exceeded . meters above mean sea level and useful to evaluate and administer water resources. introduction the laguna de bustillos is in a region that has a high demand for groundwater for the agricultural industry, making the cuauhtemoc aquifer the largest over-exploited aquifer in northwest mexico (comisión nacional del agua, ). it is necessary to provide updated data to the water balance of the basin to improve water management in the region. because there are no known mathematical models that calculate water storage, it is imperative to develop a new technique or method that allows us to estimate the water volume contained in water bodies. the calculation of water storage of shallow water bodies requires the construction of d models of the terrain including the surrounding areas. integrating techniques based on sound, spectral analysis of satellite imagery, and gps allow researchers to increase the accuracy of the existing d models and expand them from the reservoir representation to a topobathymetric integrated model. topobathymetry is a geospatial concept that integrates bathymetric and topographic data from different spatial scales, time, and sensors. the terrain model is applied to monitor coastal erosion, sea level rise, flood impact reduction programs, and coral barrier studies (gesch et al., ). digital terrain models, topography, bathymetry, and the use of water body contours are essential sources for integrating this model. some research tried to get d models, but only one or two data sources were used in comparison with those applied in this research. the delimitation of water bodies is an indirect way of getting contour lines through differentiating the spectral response between the green band (g) and the bands near infra-red (nir) or the infra-red short- wave band (swir). the normalized difference water index (ndwi) (mcfeeters, ) and the modification of normalized difference water index (mndwi) (xu, ) have been used to monitor (lu et al., ) changes in the extent of the lakes (ma et al., ), and the location of water bodies (rana and neeru, ). sonar is a technique that uses sound waves to calculate water depth (knott and hersey, ) and has advantages such as high accuracy (± . m), low cost, and the device can be mounted on any boat. several types of research have used sound for mapping water bodies (mcpherson et al., ; popielarczyk and templin, ; giordano et al., ). leon and cohen ( ) modeled the volume of lake eyre in australia using bathymetry and remote sensing. the authors used surveys realized in and with the precision of ± . m in the vertical component and up to ± m in the horizontal component, which proved to be a very limited and inaccurate method. water storage has two components: groundwater and surface water (lakes, ponds, or reservoirs) (brooks et al., ). some variations in water storage in the reservoirs are due to an underground hydraulic connection between aquifers and water bodies (isiorho et al., ; winter, ). these variations in the volume of water can be so drastic that large reservoirs dry up in a short time like laguna de bustillos had in years to and (nasa, ). although there is a geohydrological study that supports recharge deficit in the aquifer, there is no information about the storage capacity of laguna de bustillos. the lack of information encourages the main objective of this research to generate a new technique to generate a d topobathymetric model that contributes to the generation of updated data, which allows the deduction of variables, such as underground infiltration from the catchment area of laguna de bustillos. despite these models of volumetric estimation of water bodies, the combination of more than two different topobathymetric measurement techniques had not been explored. this document proposes a unpublish new method integrating three methodologies to generate a more robust and accurate three-dimensional model. materials and methods this study was conducted between and the first semester of in the spatial applications and research center at the new mexico state university. the study area of laguna de bustillos is in the quadrant between the coordinates ° ' ''n – ° ' ''n and ° ' ''w – ° ' ''w in the municipality of cuauhtemoc, in the state of chihuahua (figure ). figure . the study area of laguna de bustillos, chihuahua. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). this region’s climate is warm and semi-arid since it is in a transition zone between the semi-humid climate of the mountains and the chihuahua desert (kottek et al., ). the average annual temperature ranges from . to °c, with an average annual rainfall of about mm per year (servicio meteorológico nacional, ). the authors designed a new four-stage method to develop a -d topobathymetric model for the purpose of determining water storage: i) extract contour lines through a time series of remote sensing; ii) determine bathymetry; iii) perform a topographic survey (gps-rtk); and iv) extract contours from the regional terrain digital model. also, it was included a regression analysis in determining the two equations that provide the volume and surface area using water height. the flowchart below (figure ) shows the modeling process. figure . schematic of the workflow to generate the d model. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). bathymetry the new mexico water resources research institute (wrri) funded a project to build an autonomous surface vehicle (asv) to generate bathymetric data for shallow water bodies. a pvc center frame was attached to a two-hulled catamaran boat, propelled by two motors, and equipped with a gps on the top to receive signals via satellite to provide the direction and location. an ardupilot® system automated the catamaran navigation through an arduino® mega board to receive the gps signal while the sonar data bus decoded and recorded the information on an sd card. subsequently, the recorded points were downloaded to a computer for processing. the transducer was a garmin® intelliducer thru-hull nmea- , which does not require the previous calibration and can measure from cm to m with a . m accuracy (rojas-villalobos, ). to construct a d model of the region including the bottom of the lake, the bathymetry data (depth) was transformed into topographic data (height). figure shows the schematic of the surveying process to transform to the correct topographic points. figure . components to calculate the height of the lake bottom above sea level. source: rojas villalobos. the following equation ( ) was developed to calculate the altitude above sea level for each bathymetric point: ( ) here, abp is the height of the bathymetric point, asnm is the altitude above sea level of the reference level, ps is the depth of the sonar, and pr is the recorded depth. the bathymetry consisted of trajectories, and the data were adjusted through the above equation using the reference levels of the survey days. a gps-rtk was used to establish the fixed reference point corresponding to the height of the lake contour and was linked to the bathymetry obtained that day. contour extraction from remote sensors since the spatial resolution of remote sensing is the most important factor for delineating the contours of water bodies, landsat etm +, landsat oli (operational land and imager), and sentinel a (table ) were chosen to build the mndwi. table . collection of remote sensing data used in this article. sensor acquisition date bands (µm) spatial resolution (m) landsat etm+ (usgs, a) may ; june ; june ; january ; february ; february (green . - . ) (swir- . - . ) (panchromatic) landsat oli (usgs, a) august ; june , august ; september (green . - . ) (swir . - . ) (panchromatic . - . ) sentinel a (esa, ) march ; june august (green . - . ) (swir . - . ) these images are available for free on the landsatlook viewer websites of the united states geological survey (usgs, a) and the copernicus open access hub of the european space agency (esa, ). seven images were selected with the lowest possible cloudiness over the study area during the time the lake had gradually dried (march – august ). also, six recent images were downloaded to establish the maximum lagoon extent and baseline curves for the bathymetry data (june – september ). using the semiautomatic classification extension (congedo, ) in qgis®, atmospheric correction was applied to the images using the method of subtraction of dark objects (chavez, ). then, a fusion of images was performed with the panchromatic band (etm + and oli) using the brovey transformation (johnson et al., ) to increase the spatial resolution to m before the mndwi construction. the normalized difference water index (ndwi) was created to identify landsat water bodies. the high relative reflectance of green (g) in the electromagnetic spectrum contrasts with the high absorption of the nir in clear water (mcfeeters, ). excessive suspended matter in the water increases reflectance measurements in the nir band (ruddick et al., ), thus dramatically reducing the difference between the g-nir bands, which makes it difficult to distinguish between water and non-water surfaces. therefore, the ndwi method is not fit for laguna de bustillos due to the turbidity of water. the mndwi suppresses this problem by replacing the nir band with an infrared shortwave band (swir) because the water absorbs energy and the reflectance is low. the equation that determines the mndwi (xu, ) is: ( ) where g is the green band of the electromagnetic spectrum and swir is the short-wave band of the infrared spectrum. the possible mndwi values are from - to . in arcgis®, the raster calculator was used to apply the mndwi equation to landsat and sentinel images. according to the mndwi method, positive values represent water and negative values the surface without water. therefore, the resulting raster was reclassified by assigning to those values greater than and to values less than or equal to . from the reclassified images, the contours were extracted and examined through visual interpretation. this procedure ensures that the extracted contours correspond to the edge of the lake using false infrared color composite images and avoids errors due to the influence of the vegetation. a failure of the slc (scan line corrector) introduced strips with missing data in the landsat etm+ images captured on may st, (usgs, b). due to this error in the sensor, only segments were vectorized corresponding to the edge of the water surface. an orthometric height was assigned to the contours using the closest abp to the contour line (< . meters). when there were no bathymetry points near the line, points were selected in a buffer of to m on each side of each contour. the contour took the mean height following the classic central limit theorem (erdös and rényi, ; dowdy et al., ). according to this theorem, when the sample size increases, the average sample will approximate a normal distribution. this procedure reduces the uncertainty and variability of bathymetric data due to boat sway and sonar accuracy (krause and menard, ; eltert and molyneux, ; schmitt et al., ). topography the gps points were measured using two sokkia grx gnss devices with a horizontal accuracy of mm and mm on the vertical axis. a gps was established as base at the coordinate ° ' . "n and ° ' . "o at the height of . on the wgs ellipsoid of . topographic points were collected and transformed to the mexican gravimetric geoid (ggm ) to generate altitude above the mean sea level (inegi, ). digital elevation model a contour was extracted at every meter from the mexican elevation continuation . (cem . ) of the national institute of statistics and geography (inegi, ). on september th, , the water level of the lake was . m above sea level (masl). for this reason, contour lines below m were eliminated from the regional dem. topobathymetric d model and volume estimation an mde with a spatial resolution of m was created using the four sources of elevation data using the topo-to-raster tool contained in the d analysis module of arcgis. this tool allows the creation of hydrologically correct lifting meshes based on the anudem program (hutchinson et al., ). since the triangulated irregular network (tin) generates more accurate volumetric calculations (mi et al., ; hanjianga et al., ), the dem was converted into a tin. the volume and water surface were calculated from . m to . masl every mm using the arcgis polygon volume tool. statistical evaluation since there is no previous model to evaluate the lake storage, areas of water coverage of different scenes were extracted through remote sensing (rs) when the lake was drying (real area) ( table ). table . list of multispectral images used to compare d model contours. sensor acquisition date water surface (km ) landsat tm (usgs, a) june- - may- - june- - march- - april- - abril- - november- - september- - december- - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , landsat etm+ (usgs, a) january- - may- - august- - , , , , , , landsat oli (usgs, a) may- - june- - august- - october- - , , , , , , , , the area of each scene was used to extract the corresponding contour line from the d model and generate the area. using arcgis, the intersection of the two layers was the area of a coincidence that was statistically evaluated (figure ). figure . demonstration of matching areas between water surface extracted from a multispectral satellite image and the d model at the same reference level. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). some landsat etm + and oli images were replaced with recent sentinel images (early ) to distribute the extracted contours along the height through the d model ( table ). this procedure is used to evaluate the model accuracy (reality vs. model). table . list of multispectral images used to compare areas between reality and d model. added images are identified with *. sensor acquisition date water surface (km ) landsat tm (usgs, a) june- - may- - june- - march- - april- - , , , , , , , , , , landsat etm+ (usgs, a) january- - may- - august- - , , , , , , sentinel (esa, ) may- - * july- - * january- - * april- - * , , , , , , , , because of the surface area changes according to the elevation of the water surface, it is not possible to evaluate the efficiency of the model directly. for this reason, the relationship between the coincidence surface and the reference area of the satellite image were used. the maximum possible relation between both areas is % because the level curves obtained from the d model are directly related to the waterbody contours. the water/non-water coverage maps of the model and the satellite images of each year ( table ) were analyzed using the kappa statistic (k-hat) through qgis (qgis, ) and semi- automated classification plugin (congedo, ). the kappa coefficient and overall accuracy allows us to know the degree of agreement between the d model and the water body surface (card, ; jensen, ; congalton and green, ; lillesand et al., ) . also, the t- statistical distribution was applied to find the lower limit of the % confidence interval and estimated the range of acceptable match surface values (from table ) according to the sample mean (dowdy et al., ) ( ). ( ) where x is the mean of the sample, α is the level of significance, ν is the degrees of freedom (n - ), s is the standard deviation, and n is the sample size. finally, two equations were generated representing the area of the water surface and the volume contained in the lake according to the elevation of the water surface. results and discussion figure shows the sources of data used for the reconstruction of the topobathymetric model: contours from remote sensors, , bathymetry points, , gps points, and inegi contours. figure . map showing bathymetry, gps points, derived curves from multispectral rs, and regional contours (inegi). source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). as a result of the reconstruction data process, figures and show the d topobathymetric model and a d perspective of the laguna de bustillos. the results show that the deepest point of the lake is at . masl, the maximum depth is . m when the water level reaches the masl, the water storage is . mm , and the average depth is . m. figure . triangulated irregular network is representing the topobathymetric d model of laguna de bustillos. source: rojas villalobos. figure . d perspective of laguna de bustillos ( times height exaggeration for better visualization). source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). since the kappa statistic shows the difference between classified values of the satellite image (reference data) and the surface of water body generated by the d model, the coincidence is expected to be high. typically, kappa values greater than . represent a strong match between the compared data. the result of the comparison shows an overall accuracy higher than . % and the k-hat coefficients above . . table shows the increase of the values of overall accuracy and the kappa coefficient when the water level is higher. table . kappa coefficient values and overall accuracy between imagery (reality) and simulation ( d model). date sensor surface (km ) elevation (m) depth average (m) k-hat overall accuracy (%) / / landsat tm . . . . . / / landsat etm+ . . . . . / / landsat tm . . . . . / / landsat tm . . . . . / / landsat tm . . . . . / / landsat tm . . . . . / / landsat etm+ . . . . . / / landsat etm+ . . . . . / / sentinel . . . . . / / sentinel . . . . . / / sentinel . . . . . / / sentinel . . . . . it is observed that the values of elevation that are between . and . have a value of k-hat less than . and are associated with water coverage less than km . when the water level rises above . m, the kappa indicator increases its value above . , reaching levels of . . also, low k-hat values ( . – . ) are associated with low depth averages (< . m) in contrast to those k-hat values above . that are in depth averages greater than . m. conversely, with a confidence level of %, the mean of the percentage of matching areas between the satellite images and the d model is greater than . % (table ). table . confidence interval analysis for the percentage of the matching area between the three- dimensional model and the sample images. mean . degree of freedom standard error . α . median . t . , . standard deviation . t . , std. error . simple variance . ic . : δ - t . , std. error . sample size below the contour . m, four of the six comparisons are below the lower limit of the confidence interval (figure ). figure . graph showing the behavior of the intersection percentage between the surfaces of the d model and the areas of rs images along elevation. the mean area intersected below the reference level is only . %, while in the upper range, it is . %. two equations were generated that estimated the area of water coverage according to the depth of the lake. the first equation calculated the volume below the . masl and the second equation calculated the remaining volume above it. similarly, two other equations were generated estimating the amount of water in the lake. the determination coefficients (r ) for the estimated equations are greater than . ; this indicates that the equations obtained are suitable for the topobathymetric model within the extent limits of the lake (figure ). figure . graphs of the surface and volume equations adjusted to the d model. conclusions four different techniques, such as bathymetry, gps-rtk points, and contour lines extracted from the remote sensors, were decisive in creating this new three-dimensional modeling methodology for water bodies. its efficiency is demonstrated after the statistical analysis applied. according to the results obtained in the kappa analysis and the confidence interval, the d model is a robust and precise model (kappa> . ). three processes were important in the construction of the model: • the use of high precision gps helped in fixing the reference height points of the contours of the most recent satellite images ( – ) with great precision and accuracy. • the bathymetric points linked to the current height of the water level of the lake were instrumental in establishing the height above sea level at the bottom of the lagoon. • the related height between the bathymetric points and the levels closest to the bottom of the lake was extracted from the satellite images ( – ). additionally, it was observed that the segments of the contours extracted from the landsat etm+ images with an error in the slc (usgs, b) influenced the relative low efficiency ( . < kappa < . ) of the model below . masl. on the other hand, effectiveness in the top height ranges from . to masl was as a result of the spatial resolution of the satellite images of landsat oli ( m panchromatic) and sentinel ( m) (figure ). figure . rs time series contours. the dark contour delimits the outer areas with greater d model performance and the internal area with less accuracy. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from landsatlook viewer (usgs, a). although this d hydrological model is very robust to be used in the administration of water in the basin, special care must be taken in forecasting floods in rural-urban areas. the model simulates much of the flooded areas of mennonite farmers, but the d model should not be used to prevent flood risks due to the topographic complexity with dams and ditches. in future work, researchers should continue the bathymetric survey with greater data density using a sonar with increased accuracy to further the model’s efficiency. the acquisition of more bathymetric data will allow replacing contours extracted from the oldest images such as landsat et and etm +. additionally, the photogrammetric triangulation could be of great benefit in urban and agricultural zones to delineate more accurate topography. this development is the first step to estimate the volume of water in the laguna de bustillos as this work produces estimates that approximate the actual values and such research is relevant to water management in the region. references brooks, k.n., p.f. ffolliott, and j.a. magner . hydrology and the management of watersheds. john wiley & sons. iowa. p. card, d.h. . using known map category marginal frequencies to improve estimates of thematic map accuracy. photogramm. eng. remote sens : – . chavez, p.s. . image-based atmospheric corrections-revisited and improved. photogramm. eng. remote sens : – . comisión nacional del agua, . estadísticas del agua en méxico. secretaría de medio ambiente y recursos naturales, méxico. congalton, r.g., green, k., . assessing the accuracy of remotely sensed data: principles and practices. crc press. congedo, l., . semi-automatic classification plugin for qgis. sapienza univ. rome. dowdy, s., wearden, s., chilko, d., . statistics for research. john wiley & sons. eltert, j.f., molyneux, j.e., . the long-distance propagation of shallow water waves over an ocean of random depth. j. fluid mech : – . erdös, p., rényi, a., . on the central limit theorem for samples from a finite population. publ math inst hung. acad sci : – . esa, . copernicus open access hub [www document]. url https://scihub.copernicus.eu/ (accessed . . ). gesch, d.b., brock, j.c., parrish, c.e., rogers, j.n., wright, c.w., . introduction: special issue on advances in topobathymetric mapping, models, and applications. j. coast. res : – . giordano, f., mattei, g., parente, c., peluso, f., santamaria, r., . microvega (micro vessel for geodetics application): a marine drone for the acquisition of bathymetric data for gis applications. int. arch. photogramm. remote sens. spat. inf. sci : . hanjianga, x., limina, t., longa, s., . a strategy to build a seamless multi-scale tin-dem database. int. arch. photogramm. remote sens. spat. inf. sci . hutchinson, m.f., xu, t., stein, j.a., . recent progress in the anudem elevation gridding procedure. geomorphometry , – . inegi, . continuo de elevaciones mexicano . (cem . ) [www document]. datos relieve. url http://www.inegi.org.mx/geo/contenidos/datosrelieve/continental/continuoelevaciones.as px (accessed . . ). inegi, . el geoide gravimétrico mexicano . instituto nacional de estadística y geografía, méxico. isiorho, s.a., matisoff, g., wehn, k., . seepage relationships between lake chad and the chad aquifers. groundwater : – . jensen, j.r., . remote sensing of the environment: an earth resource perspective /e, nd ed, prentice hall series. pearson education. johnson, b.a., tateishi, r., hoan, n.t., . satellite image pansharpening using a hybrid approach for object-based image analysis. isprs int. j. geo-inf : – . knott, s.t., hersey, j.b., . interpretation of high-resolution echo-sounding techniques and their use in bathymetry, marine geophysics, and biology. deep sea res ( ): – . kottek, m., grieser, j., beck, c., rudolf, b., rubel, f., . world map of the köppen-geiger climate classification updated. meteorol. z. , – . krause, d., menard, h., . depth distribution and bathymetric classification of some sea- floor profiles. mar. geol. , – . leon, j.x., cohen, t., . an improved bathymetric model for the modern and palaeo lake eyre. geomorphology , – . lillesand, t., kiefer, r.w., chipman, j., . remote sensing and image interpretation. john wiley & sons. lu, s., ouyang, n., wu, b., wei, y., tesemma, z., . lake water volume calculation with time series remote-sensing images. int. j. remote sens. , – . ma, m., wang, x., veroustraete, f., dong, l., . change in area of ebinur lake during the – period. int. j. remote sens. , – . mcfeeters, s.k., . the use of the normalized difference water index (ndwi) in the delineation of open water features. int. j. remote sens. , – . mcpherson, k.r., freeman, l.a., flint, l.e., . analysis of methods to determine storage capacity of, and sedimentation in, loch lomond reservoir, santa cruz county, california, (usgs numbered series no. – ), scientific investigations report. u.s. geological survey, reston, va. mi, h., zai, j., jiang, x., . contrast and analysis of reservoir storage calculation methods [j]. surv. mapp. geol. miner. resour. , . nasa, . history landsat science [www document]. url https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/history/ (accessed . . ). popielarczyk, d., templin, t., . application of integrated gnss/hydroacoustic measurements and gis geodatabase models for bottom analysis of lake hancza: the deepest inland reservoir in poland. pure appl. geophys. , – . qgis development team ( ). qgis geographic information system. open source geospatial foundation project. http://qgis.osgeo.org rana, h., neeru, n., . water detection using satellite images obtained through remote sensing. adv. comput. sci. technol. , – . rojas-villalobos, h.l., . d bathymetric model of a shallow lagoon measured by a solar powered low-cost autonomous surface vehicle prototype in cuauhtémoc, chihuahua, mexico. (academic research), student water research awards - . new mexico water resources research institute, las cruces, nm. ruddick, k.g., de cauwer, v., park, y.-j., moore, g., . seaborne measurements of near infrared water-leaving reflectance: the similarity spectrum for turbid waters. limnol ocean. , – . schmitt, t., mitchell, n.c., ramsay, a.t.s., . characterizing uncertainties for quantifying bathymetry change between time-separated multibeam echo-sounder surveys. cont. shelf res. , – . servicio meteorológico nacional, . información climatológica ( - ) [www document]. url http://smn.cna.gob.mx/es/informacion-climatologica-ver- estado?estado=chih (accessed . . ). usgs, a. landsatlook viewer [www document]. url https://landsatlook.usgs.gov/ (accessed . . ). usgs, b. slc-off products: background | landsat missions [www document]. url https://landsat.usgs.gov/slc-products-background (accessed . . ). winter, t.c., . relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems. hydrogeol. j. , – . xu, h., . modification of normalized difference water index (ndwi) to enhance open water features in remotely sensed imagery. int. j. remote sens. , – . chapter comparison of evaporation estimates from reem and eeflux models in a shallow water body. case: bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico. article submitted: november , . status: in review. journal: tecnología y ciencias del agua (imta). abstract water body evaporation (e) within endorheic basins in semiarid areas is a critical factor for the determination of the water balance. unfortunately, the bustillos lagoon has dried up completely six times during this century, and there are no records of the evaporation rate. furthermore, accurate e measurements can provide valuable information for the sustainable management of water resources for protecting wild habitat in the face of climate change scenarios. evaporation can be estimated, however, through methods as efficient as penman using variables from agroclimatic stations, such as wind velocity, net radiation, relative humidity, and air temperature, which have a spatiotemporal variability. within the evaporation models based on remote sensors (rs) is the surface energy balance model (seb), which has been applied to different methodologies and extends the measurements of evapotranspiration (et) at a regional level. seb-based methodologies use physical principles with minimal weather data requirements to estimate et. hence, this article compares two methodologies that estimate evaporation using rs: the regional evapotranspiration estimate model (reem) and the earth engine evapotranspiration flux (eeflux). the comparison of et measurements obtained from reem and eeflux for seven landsat oli scenes in the agriculture cycle of april to september applied against to the simplified penman equation showed that the reem performed better (d= %) than the eeflux (d= %) for the indicated period. although the comparison of reem and eeflux shows accurate e measurements (reem), gridded weather data (eeflux) need to be improved by increasing the scale using local information. introduction the bustillos lagoon is the largest water body (~ km ) in the cuauhtemoc valley (in chihuahua, mexico), which is in an endorheic basin ( , km ).the climate is semiarid, and agriculture is intensive. high competition for water resources among stakeholders (díaz caravantes, bravo peña, alatorre cejudo, & sánchez flores, ) has exerted high pressure on the aquifer. according to mexican authorities, this phenomenon has caused the aquifer to be overexploited (diario oficial de la federación, ). for this reason, farmers have made dams and ditches to divert and retain a small part of the tributary flows before they reach the bustillos lagoon. these practices, however, limit the source of water that supplies it. the bustillos lagoon, like any water body, is essential for its thermoregulatory climate function in the region as it absorbs heat fluxes and releases moisture (rooney & bornemann, ; subin, murphy, li, bonfils, & riley, ). in addition, it is ecologically important as a resting place for migratory waterbirds (mireles & mellink, ). aquatic systems in semiarid areas are susceptible to drastic variations in water levels, which affects the aquatic life (amado-Álvarez, pérez cutillas, ramírez valle, & alarcón cabañero, ) that feeds waterbirds. if water resources are not correctly managed, regional sustainability will be jeopardized, causing the desiccation of water bodies such as the aral sea between kazakhstan and uzbekistan (gross, ), lake chad in the borders of niger, nigeria, cameroon and chad (okpara, stringer, dougill, & bila, ) and lake urmia in iran (aghakouchak et al., ). these water bodies are drying up because of the diversion of tributary rivers to agricultural fields, droughts, and upstream competition for water. evaporation data of the lagoon are required to establish administrative water resource policies to avoid catastrophic scenarios and to conserve the water balance in the cuauhtemoc basin evapotranspiration (et) is a process that combines the evaporation of water surfaces, the evaporation of soil moisture, and the transpiration of vegetation (erickson et al., ). evaporation is part of et, which is governed by aerodynamic and energy equations (penman, ). under this approach, it is possible to estimate the evaporation of a water body through the calculation of et using remote sensing techniques. the most effective (and costly) techniques for measuring evapotranspiration are lysimeters or eddy covariance flux stations (hirschi, michel, lehner, & seneviratne, ), which do not exist in the study area. because of this situation, it is necessary to explore emerging alternative methodologies for measuring et. rohwer ( ) developed evaporation coefficients (kpan) for the evaporation pan method (u.s. class a pan) for each month of the year. the problem with this approach is that the method used lakes in the state of colorado as research sites. these sites contained clear water, and the physical aspects of the metal pan container affected evaporation measurements (fu, charles, & yu, ; rayner, ). in addition, a pan coefficient is a function of depth and surface area of the lake that is being estimated. the bustillos lagoon has particular characteristics that make it different from other lagoons and lakes. for example, in addition to being a shallow lagoon, turbidity is high, caused by the content of suspended material (Álvarez, cutillas, valle, & cabañero, ; amado-alvarez et al., ). radiation flux from the sun penetrates deeply into the water column in clear water conditions, absorbing energy (smith & tyler, ). under conditions of turbidity and low depth (< m) (rojas-villalobos, alatorre-cejudo, stringman, samani, & brown, ), solar radiation is scattered by suspended particles on the surface layer. therefore, the water temperature is increased, resulting in more evaporation (kirk, ). under these conditions, it is not possible to apply pan evaporation coefficients, since the physical characteristics change in each lake or lagoon. the methods for calculating evaporation can be classified into those based on: daytime air temperature range such as that of papadakis (papadakis, ); air temperature and day length such as hamon (hamon, ), and blaney-criddle (blaney & criddle, ); solar radiation and air temperature such as jensen-haise (jensen & haise, ), makkink (makkink, ), and stephens-stewart (stephens & stewart, ); heat flux and water vapor flux (combination) such as priestley-taylor (priestley & taylor, ), de bruin-keijman (de bruin & keijman, ), penman (penman, ), brutsaert-stricker (brutsaert & stricker, ), and de bruin (de bruin, ). although these methods can offer good evaporation approximations, estimates are local at the point of the reference weather station. given this limitation, remote sensing (rs) techniques expand measurements to the regional scale in a cost-effective way. there are different satellite-based methods established on physical relationships and theoretical foundations. zhang, kimball, & running ( ) classified et retrieval methods in eight groups: i) penman-monteith (pm) (cleugh, leuning, mu, & running, ; li et al., ); ii) priestley-taylor (pt) (martínez pérez, garcía-galiano, martin-gorriz, & baille, ); iii) water-carbon linkage (wcl)(fisher et al., ); iv) water balance (wb) (reitz, senay, & sanford, ); v) maximum entropy production (mep)(h. wang, tetzlaff, & soulsby, ); vi) surface energy balance (seb)(senkondo, munishi, tumbo, nobert, & lyon, ); vii) ts-vi space (tvi) (zhu, jia, & lv, ); and viii) empirical and other methods (eo). each physical-theoretical basis reported by these groups has advantages and restrictions. for instance, pm models have a robust physical base, but on the other hand, the forcing of meteorological variables induces and propagates uncertainty in the evaporation estimate. the simplified pm model is the theoretical basis of pt as a primary governing equation by adding semiempirical equations. the estimations of the water-carbon linkage method use the advantages of carbon processes, which increases uncertainty in carbon fluxes caused by forcing climatological data. the theory of nonequilibrium thermodynamics is the basis of the mep model, which requires few enforced climatological variables but requires continuous surface temperature measurements. the seb models require minimum local weather data and rs, but they are susceptible to temperature deviations and need clear-sky conditions. tvi models have low-temperature sensitivity but require clear-sky conditions, and they oversimplify tvi space relationships. a weak theoretical base of empirical models does not make them a robust option for application in water management policies. within the seb classification, there are two methodologies with a strong physical- theoretical bases: the regional evapotranspiration estimate model (reem) (hewitt, fernald, & samani, ; kıvrak, bawazir, samani, steele, & sönmez, ; a. samani & bawazir, ; z. samani, bawazir, bleiweiss, et al., ; z. samani, skaggs, & bleiweiss, ) and the earth engine evapotranspiration flux (eeflux) (allen et al., ; ayyad, al zayed, ha, & ribbe, ), which is a version of mapping evapotranspiration at high resolution with internalized calibration (metric) (allen, tasumi, & trezza, ; allen, tasumi, trezza, et al., ). reem and metric use the same physical basis of surface energy balance algorithms for land (sebal) (bastiaanssen, menenti, feddes, & holtslag, ; bastiaanssen, pelgrum, et al., ) but with some differences in sensible heat flux (h) estimation and net radiation (rn). eeflux is an integration of the metric model in the google earth engine platform, which uses landsat satellite images, nldas and cfsv gridded weather data (the united states and rest of the world, respectively) for calibrating the metric model (allen, tasumi, & trezza, ; allen, tasumi, trezza, et al., ; irmak et al., ). also, remote sensors can estimate the evaporation of water bodies through the relationship with the reference evapotranspiration of agroclimatological stations and thus have the basis for establishing policies about consumptive water use. because of the particular semiarid climatic conditions of the cuauhtemoc valley, as well as the turbidity and shallowness of the bustillos lagoon, the objective of this paper is to examine the effectiveness and performance of two evapotranspiration models based on remote sensors (reem and eeflux) against the simplified penman (s-penman) equation (valiantzas, )(derived from the penman equation) to estimate the e of this water body. background reference evapotranspiration model a well-known proven method for estimating evaporation from a free water surface is the penman (penman, ) equation, which is widely used around the world (bozorgi, bozorg- haddad, sima, & loáiciga, ; cabrera, anache, youlton, & wendland, ; b. wang, ma, ma, su, & dong, ). this research used a simplified version of the penman (s-penman) equation, which uses standard climatological records, such as solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed at a -m height above the ground surface (valiantzas, ), as noted below: ( ) where e is the evaporation (mm d- ), α is albedo ( . for water), rs is the solar radiation data estimated from measured daytime hours (mj m- d- ), t is the mean air temperature (ºc), ra is the extraterrestrial solar radiation (mj m- d- ), rh is the mean relative humidity (%), au is equal to when the wind function is used from the original penman equation( ), and u is the average wind velocity (m s- ). brief description of remote sensing models the surface energy balance equation (bastiaanssen, menenti, et al., ; bastiaanssen, pelgrum, et al., ) is the foundation of et models based on remote sensors such as reem (samani et al., ; samani, bawazir, bleiweiss, skaggs, & schmugge, ) and eeflux (allen et al., ; allen, tasumi, & trezza, ), which determines the latent heat flux that represents the residual of the surface equation of energy used in the process of evapotranspiration. the equation can be expressed as ( ) where le is the latent heat flux of vaporization, rn is the net radiation at the surface, g is the soil heat flux, and h is the sensible heat flux into the air. for reem, the units of the surface energy balance equation are in mj m- day- ), while eeflux uses wm- . the different components of the equation can be solved separately through energy flux models. below are the fundamental descriptions of the reem, metric, and eeflux models and their main features. reem samani and other researchers developed a methodology to calculate rn (z. samani, bawazir, skaggs, et al., ; z. samani, bawazir, bleiweiss, et al., ): ( ) where rn is the daily net radiation (mj m- day- ), rni is the instantaneous clear sky net radiation (w m- ), rs the daily shortwave solar radiation (mj m- day- ), rsi the instantaneous shortwave solar radiation (w m- ), ta is the mean daily temperature (°k), and ti is the instantaneous air temperature (°k). the instantaneous net radiation is the difference between incoming and outgoing fluxes and is estimated (bastiaanssen, ) as ( ) where rni is the instantaneous net radiation (w m- ), α the surface albedo (nondimensional), rsi is the instantaneous incoming shortwave radiation (w m- ), rl↓ is the instantaneous incoming longwave radiation (w m- ), rl↑ is the instantaneous outgoing longwave radiation (w m- ), and ε is the surface emissivity (nondimensional). the detailed process to obtain rni is outlined by samani et al. ( b). the instantaneous soil heat flux (gi) was calculated at the time when the satellite overpassed the study site using a normalized difference vegetation index (ndvi) (z. samani, sammis, skaggs, alkhatiri, & deras, ) by the next equation: ( ) the aerodynamic equation (bastiaanssen, ) and the monin–obukhov similarity theory (monin & obukhov, ) were combined to estimate instantaneous sensible heat flux. the aerodynamic equation is expressed as ( ) where ρa is the air density (kg m- ), cp is the specific heat of air ( , j (kg - k- )), t is the aerodynamic surface temperature (°k), ta is the air temperature (°k), rah is the aerodynamic surface resistance, and dt is the air temperature gradient calculated through a bastiaanssen ( ) equation. moreover, dt needs a and b constants for a calibration, for which they were empirically computed by selecting two pixels called “hot and cold pixels” taken from the image. these pixels represent extreme conditions: one of aridity (latent heat flux close to zero for dry soil) and the other of humidity (sensible heat flux close to zero for well-irrigated crop), respectively. the hi equation was used to calculate dt. the cold pixel took the sensible heat value. because there is no et on dry bare soil, instantaneous latent heat was set to zero, and rni and gi could be calculated. the hot pixel was estimated as the hi value by calculating the residual of the energy balance: ( ) the ground surface wind speed data ( m) was extrapolated to m, and an iterative stability correction model based on the monin–obukhov similarity theory was used to estimate the aerodynamic resistance (rah) (allen, tasumi, & trezza, ; bastiaanssen, ) for each pixel. the hi and dt were calculated for each pixel after calibration constants were estimated. the gi and rni were calculated at the time of the satellite overpass for the study area. the detailed process for obtaining the et is outlined by samani et al. ( , a, b). metric the net radiation (rn) is the balance of all outgoing radiant fluxes and all incoming radiant fluxes, including solar radiation and radiation in the thermal band. metric uses the same rn equation as the reem: ( ) where the net radiation is in w m- , rs is the incoming solar radiation (w m- ), α is the albedo of surface (nondimensional), rl↓ is the incoming longwave radiation (w m- ), rl↑ is the outgoing longwave radiation (w m- ), and ε is the thermal emissivity of the surface (nondimensional). metric uses the same algorithms to compute rn as the reem. the process to determine rn is detailed by allen et al. ( a, b). in metric, g is estimated by the following equations defined by tasumi et al. ( ), which depend on the net radiation and the leaf area index (lai) vegetation: ( ) ( ) where ts is the temperature on the near surface (°k). in addition, “cold” and “hot” pixels are used in metric, which employs the same algorithm to calculate h in eq. but with differences in pixel selection. because surface wetness has higher values than other surrounding vegetation crops, the cold pixel assumes . times etref, which is calculated from the standardized asce penman-monteith equation (asce– ewri, ). as in reem, the hot pixel is anchored to a dry agricultural surface free of vegetation, which assumes that latent heat flux is equal to . a detailed process can be found in allen et al. ( a, b). eeflux the algorithms used in metric were adapted to the eeflux using javascript and python apis to compute the et automatically. while metric uses a weather station to calibrate the model at the runtime, the eeflux uses gridded weather data sets from external sources to estimate at-surface reflectance, autocalibration, and the daily soil-water evaporation process. these sources are the nldas (with a -km grid size), the gridmet, and daymet data sets for the united states. furthermore, cfsv (with a -km grid size) provides gridded weather data for the rest of the world. irmak et al. ( ) and allen et al. ( ) outlined the implementation of the metric equations in eeflux. material and methods the processes that integrate the methodology for comparing the performance of reem and eeflux with the s-penman are noted below in figure : figure . schematic flow chart of the process of comparing the reem and eeflux models to obtain e estimations of water bodies by comparing the s-penman equation. source: rojas villalobos. study area this study was conducted during the agricultural cycle from april to september in the cuauhtemoc valley. the bustillos lagoon is a shallow endorheic freshwater body in the municipality of cuauhtemoc, in the mexican state of chihuahua. the lagoon is in latitude ° ’ . ” n and longitude ° ’ . ” w. the lagoon has an approximately oval shape, of which the major axis is km, and the minor is kilometers with an average depth of . m. in addition, the area can fluctuate to around km (figure )(rojas-villalobos et al., ). currently (august ), the surface of bustillos lake is . km ; moreover, it stores . hm and has an average depth of . m. the turbidity of the lagoon water is closely related to the shallow depth and high concentrations of sediment carried by the tributaries. additionally, surface water erosion in the region is mainly due to extensive agriculture, sparse riparian vegetation, and the deforestation of the slopes of the mountain ranges that delimit the basin (Álvarez et al., ; amado-alvarez et al., ). figure . location of the bustillos lagoon and the agro-meteorological station. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from inegi ( ). agro-meteorological data an agroclimatic station, adcon™, located . kilometers west of the bustillos lagoon at ° ' . "n, ° ' . "w and m.a.s.l provided hourly meteorological data that reem required to calculate the et for each date from downloaded landsat oli satellite images. in addition, the agroclimatic station provided data for computing e by using the standardized s-penman equation (valiantzas, ) through tr combi sensors for temperature and relative humidity, as well as pyranometers (sp lite and cmp ), and wind speed. landsat oli selection seven landsat oli images (table ), from two different paths were chosen for continuity in the temporal and geographical space between the beginning (april) and the end (september) of the agricultural cycle in the cuauhtemoc basin. additionally, the images met no cloud criteria (clear-sky) in the study area. for this reason, the intersection strip between path and path was used to estimate the et. table . landsat oli imagery used to estimate eta through reem and eeflux. source: usgs ( ). date doy overpass time (local time) scene - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn - - : : lc lgn reem and eeflux raster the satellite images were radiometrically calibrated and atmospherically corrected using the envi® software through the fast line-of-sight atmospheric analysis of hypercubes (flaash™) tool. once the satellite images were processed for obtaining the eta through the reem, the eta layers of the eeflux model were downloaded from the web portal (http://eeflux- level .appspot.com/). lagoon delineation the sampling was carried out through a lagoon polygon that was created using the modified normalized difference water index (mndwi), which discretizes the water surface from the rest of the image (xu, ). the outline of the polygon of the lagoon was adjusted by meters to reduce water detection errors on the shore caused by expanding and contracting throughout the agricultural cycle. statistical evaluation statistical comparison was performed using the relationship between the observed values (oi)(s-penman) and the estimated or predicted values (pi) (reem and eeflux). a set of statistical indicators were applied to evaluate the performance of each model. a linear regression analysis (y=ax+b) was applied to obtain the (a) slopes and (b) intercept variables; moreover, a residual analysis was performed to see if there were atypical values that affect the models. according to chai and draxler ( ), it is a good practice to include mean absolute error (mae) and root mean square error (rmse), because they are indicators that integrate the main differences between observed and estimated values. the variance (sd ) was calculated to know how much difference there was between observed and predicted values. the mean bias error (mbe) was included to find if there was a systematic error. the consistent error between the distance of linear regression and the : line is known as systematic rmse (rmses). unsystematic rmse (rmseu) is when the error is randomized, caused by an unknown source. when an unsystematic rmse has low values, and the systematic rmse value is close to rmse, the model can be considered valid (willmott et al., ). the efficiency model (ef) was applied by using the predicted and observed measured variations (greenwood, neeteson, & draycott, ; nash & sutcliffe, ). finally, an agreement index (d) (willmott, , ; willmott & wicks, ) was estimated for comparing between hydrological models. lower is better lower is better closer to , better closer to , better closer to , better closer to , better where oi +is the observed value (s-penman) in the record i, pi is the predicted value from the reem and eeflux models in area i, n is the number of observations ( ), and n is the number of season days ( ). furthermore, p'i and o'i were obtained as results the plotted results of e (s-penman), mean e from the reem and the eeflux for the bustillos lagoon are shown in figure . figure . evaporation values of s-penman, reem, and eeflux during the agricultural season for the bustillos lagoon. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from unifrut ( ), usgs landsatlook viewer ( ), and eeflux ( ). according to table , the eeflux had significant variations at the beginning of the season on april and april ( . % and - . %, respectively),as well as at the end of the cycle on june and september (- . % and - . %), while the reem had sensitive variations on september ( . %). in the case of the reem, the percentage variations represented a difference of less than . mm of evaporation except for may and june , which were . and . mm, respectively. the eeflux presented variations greater than . mm of evaporation for of the seven days. for april , april , may and may , the variations for the models tested were between . and . mm of the reference model. table . comparative table of errors between the reference evaporation and the models based on remote sensors (reem and eeflux). source: rojas villalobos. date doy e reference (mm) reem eeflux mm error (%) mm error (%) apr- - . . . . . apr- - . . . . - . apr- - . . - . . - . may- - . . - . . - . may- - . . - . . - . jun- - . . - . . - . sep- - . . . . - . average - . - . although the coefficient of determination (r ) was relatively high ( . ) to indicate that the reem model produces evaporation values close to observed ones, , the slope (a = . ) of the regression line does not ensure continuous linearity of predictions with the reference line. the intercept coefficient (b= . ) indicates overestimation of modelled data over observed values. the slope of the eeflux (a= . ) regression line closely matches the : reference of the observed data (s-penman). furthermore, the interception coefficient is negative (b = - . ), and r is low ( . ), which suggests an underestimation and high variance of the values predicted by the model. both models concentrate on underestimation and overestimation values (eeflux and reem, respectively) in the range of . to . mm of daily evaporation. figure shows that the variance of the eeflux model is not constant: while predicted evaporation values were low, the residual values were atypically high. in the residual analysis, evaporation is related to time. in other words, in april and september, the net radiation and temperatures were low, and as a result, there was less evaporation than that determined between may and august. when comparing the residuals between the two et models, the reem errors concentrate on the strip of ± . mm, which is quite acceptable, while more than % of the eeflux residuals approximately exceed the range of ± . mm and ± . mm. figure . comparative graphic of residuals predicted e on rs map models versus observed e (s-penman). source: rojas villalobos. the regression and residual analysis did not provide enough information to measure and compare the performance of the models studied. a more in-depth analysis was required for determining substantial differences between the comparison of the data of the predictive models with the reference ones. table shows the ranked analytical results for comparing the performance of et models. for statistical indexes in complex evaluation systems, a weighting coefficient separately calculated is required. table . summary of the ranked results of the comparative statistical indicators applied to the reem and eeflux versus s-penman. source: rojas villalobos. index reem (rank) eeflux (rank) mae (mm d- ) . ( ) . ( ) rmse (mm d- ) - . ( ) . ( ) sd (mm d- ) . ( ) . ( ) mbe (mm d- ) - . ( ) - . ( ) rmseu (mm d - ) . ( ) . ( ) rmses (mm d - ) . ( ) . ( ) ef . ( ) - . ( ) r . ( ) . ( ) d . ( ) . ( ) a (intercept) . ( ) . ( ) b (slope) . ( ) . ( ) the rmse has been criticized for being inappropriate and misinterpreted in environmental and climate analyses (willmott & matsuura, ), but the results of the rmse and mae enrich the interpretation of the evaluated models (chai & draxler, ). in this study, the mae and rmse indicators agreed that the reem presented a lower average error (mae = . and rmse = - . both in mm d- ) among the data. sd confirms the high variability that the eeflux had ( . mm) in predicting the daily eta in comparison to the reem ( . mm). the bias indicator (mbe) agreed with the initial linear regression analysis as it showed a slight underestimation of the values calculated by reem (- . mm) in comparison with the higher underestimation of the values predicted by the eeflux (- . mm). the rmseu results suggested that noise from an unknown source promoted a poor performance of the eeflux model ( . mm). in contrast, the same index showed a lower influence of unknown variables in the reem model ( . mm). according to the ef index, values close to correspond to a model that predicts values close to the observed data. if the index is less than , the mean observed data is a better predictor than the values estimated from the et model (nash & sutcliffe, ; pushpalatha, perrin, moine, & andréassian, ). therefore, according to the above, reem (ef= . ) had a higher performance than eeflux (ef= - . ). the statistical indicator of agreement "d" indicates the tendency of the previous indexes by suggesting that the reem ( . ) is a better predictor of eta than the eeflux ( . ). the total e for the three models in the agricultural reference season was compared using daily estimations. in the case of the reem and eeflux, a linear interpolation technique was used to calculate the e between the dates of the seven available satellite images. the meteorological records of the aforementioned agroclimatic station were used for the computation of the daily e- reference through the s-penman equation (figure ). the variability (see) was . - and . - mm day- for reem and eeflux, respectively. the total e for s-penman was mm, and mm for reem, with mm for eeflux, which is equivalent to . , . , and hm of water, respectively. figure . seasonal evaporation comparison of rs models versus s-penman data from april , to september , . source: rojas villalobos. discussion statistical results suggested a better predictive performance of the evaporation of water bodies of the reem model versus the eeflux model for the agricultural cycle. the residue analysis showed more considerable variability in the low ranges of e reference. this variability may be induced by solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind because they are weather variables that have a strong influence on et (valipour, ). the metric model uses these variables to estimate h, employing the alfalfa reference et by using the asce penman-monteith equation, and the model assumes that the cold pixel has a sensible heat flux (h) equal to zero. the reem uses the same local variables by employing regression equations to calculate h and rn. figure displays an et and e comparison map of the reem and eeflux from agricultural fields and the bustillos lagoon (dated june , ). figure . et (crop fields) and evaporation (lagoon) comparison maps of reem and eeflux models in the cuauhtemoc valley for june , . source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from usgs ( ) and eeflux ( ). the first difference between the application of metric within the eeflux was that in eeflux gridded weather data sets were used instead of climate data from the field. point data such as from agroclimatic stations and interpolated data such as gridded data sets have significant spatial differences. although the interpolation models used to generate gridded weather data sets have improved, there is still a degree of uncertainty because of the distance between the meteorological reference stations. for instance, the global land data assimilation system (gldas- ), the north american land data assimilation system (nldas- ), the climate forecast system version (cfsv ), gridmet, the real-time mesoscale analysis (rtma) and the national digital forecast database (ndfd) are gridded data sets with spatial resolution ranges between to km (allen et al., ). regarding gridded data, blankenau ( ) found that there were biases and inconsistencies in the gridded climatic data potentially caused by the distances and the location of the interpolated points. the databases were built using weather stations located at airports, which do not represent the weather conditions of an agricultural area (colder and wetter). in addition, et underestimations occurred because the gridded data did not integrate the effects of humidification and cooling near the surface when agricultural fields were irrigated. since atmospheric conditions vary during the day, instantaneous weather data were obtained through linear regression from hourly values according to the time when the satellite passed over the study area. if the instantaneous data were generated from a large spatial resolution grid that integrates biases and errors, the uncertainty was propagated to the predicted data (et) (kauffeldt, halldin, rodhe, xu, & westerberg, ; lobell, ; phillips & marks, ). the daily evaporation variability of the rs models and the value measured in the season was high since the coefficient of variation was . % for reem and . % for eeflux. the daily e variability between the rs models and the value measured in the season was high since the coefficient of variation was . % for reem and . % for eeflux. similarly, the reem overestimated e by . % when compared to reference values, while eeflux underestimated e by . % for the same period. in the segment from may to september ( - doy), there were significant differences in the coefficients of variation when reem obtained % and eeflux %. the differences between the predicted values and the observed values were particularly high because of the large gaps between the dates of the acquired satellite images. conclusions in this study, seven landsat images were used during the agricultural cycle from april to september , when the reem and eeflux evapotranspiration models were compared with the reference et to estimate the daily evaporation of the bustillos lagoon. et estimation methods by remote sensors are sensitive to variations in weather conditions. in the interpolated grid of climatic parameters, there are regions where there are significant differences between observed and interpolated data. these regions are far from the interpolation source points, and the physical-environmental conditions are different. gridded data should aggregate additional data source points where there are significant variations of the climatic parameters. an anchor weather station can improve the predictions of the evaporation of a water body as observed in the reem model. the location of the weather station is a determining factor in the computation of the et. in this study, an agroclimatic station located . km from the bustillos lagoon recorded weather conditions where the prevailing winds (sw-nw) pass before reaching the lake, which establishes the physical conditions for water evaporation. the temporal resolution of the satellite scenes is a determining factor for the estimation of the total e since the gap between the dates of the images reduce data time uncertainty in order to obtain accurate values and a better performance of the rs models through interpolation methods. references aghakouchak, a., norouzi, h., madani, k., mirchi, a., azarderakhsh, m., nazemi, a., … hasanzadeh, e. ( ). aral sea syndrome desiccates lake urmia: call for action. journal of great lakes research, ( ), – . doi: . /j.jglr. . . allen, r. g., morton, c., kamble, b., kilic, a., huntington, j., thau, d., … robison, c. ( ). eeflux: a landsat-based evapotranspiration mapping tool on the google earth engine. asabe / ia irrigation symposium: emerging technologies for sustainable irrigation - a tribute to the career of terry howell, sr. conference proceedings, – . doi: . /irrig. allen, r. g., tasumi, m., & trezza, r. ( ). satellite-based energy balance for mapping evapotranspiration with internalized calibration (metric)-model. ( ), – . doi: . /(asce) - ( ) : ( ) allen, r. g., tasumi, m., trezza, r., wright, j. l., bastiaanssen, w., kramber, w. j., … robison, c. ( ). satellite-based energy balance for mapping evapotranspiration with internalized calibration (metric)—applications. journal of irrigation and drainage engineering, ( ), – . doi: . /(asce) - ( ) : ( ) Álvarez, j. p. a., cutillas, p. p., valle, o. r., & cabañero, j. j. a. ( ). water resources degradation in a semiarid environment. bustillos and los mexicanos lagoons (chihuahua, méxico). papeles de geografía, ( ), – . amado-Álvarez, j. p., pérez cutillas, p., ramírez valle, o., & alarcón cabañero, j. j. ( ). degradación de los recursos hídricos en un ambiente semiárido. las lagunas de bustillos y de los mexicanos (chihuahua, méxico). retrieved from https://digitum.um.es/digitum/handle/ / amado-alvarez, j., pérez-cutillas, p., alatorre-cejudo, l. c., ramírez-valle, o., segovia- ortega, e. f., & alarcón-cabañero, j. j. ( ). multispectral analysis to estimate the turbidity as an indicator of the quality of water in reservoirs in chihuahua state, mexico. revista geográfica de américa central, ( ), – . doi: . /rgac. - . asce–ewri. ( ). the asce standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. reston, va: asce–ewri standardization of reference evapotranspiration task committee rep. ayyad, s., al zayed, i. s., ha, v. t. t., & ribbe, l. ( ). the performance of satellite-based actual evapotranspiration products and the assessment of irrigation efficiency in egypt. water, ( ), . doi: . /w bastiaanssen, w. g. m. ( ). regionalization of surface flux densities and moisture indicators in composite terrain: a remote sensing approach under clear skies in mediterranean climates (sc-dlo). retrieved from https://library.wur.nl/webquery/wurpubs/ bastiaanssen, w. g. m., menenti, m., feddes, r. a., & holtslag, a. a. m. ( ). a remote sensing surface energy balance algorithm for land (sebal). part . formulation. journal of hydrology, – , – . doi: . /s - ( ) - bastiaanssen, w. g. m., pelgrum, h., wang, j., ma, y., moreno, j. f., roerink, g. j., & van der wal, t. ( ). a remote sensing surface energy balance algorithm for land (sebal). part : validation. journal of hydrology, – , – . doi: . /s - ( ) - blaney, h. f., & criddle, w. d. ( ). determining consumptive use and irrigation water requirements (technical bulletin no. ; p. ). retrieved from united states department of agriculture website: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/cat /pdf bozorgi, a., bozorg-haddad, o., sima, s., & loáiciga, h. a. ( ). comparison of methods to calculate evaporation from reservoirs. international journal of river basin management, ( ), – . doi: . / . . brutsaert, w., & stricker, h. ( ). an advection-aridity approach to estimate actual regional evapotranspiration. water resources research, ( ), – . doi: . /wr i p cabrera, m. c. m., anache, j. a. a., youlton, c., & wendland, e. ( ). performance of evaporation estimation methods compared with standard m tank. ( ), – . doi: doi.org/ . / - /agriambi.v n p - chai, t., & draxler, r. r. ( ). root mean square error (rmse) or mean absolute error (mae)?–arguments against avoiding rmse in the literature. geoscientific model development, ( ), – . doi: . /gmd- - - cleugh, h. a., leuning, r., mu, q., & running, s. w. ( ). regional evaporation estimates from flux tower and modis satellite data. remote sensing of environment, ( ), – . doi: . /j.rse. . . de bruin, h. a. r. ( ). a simple model for shallow lake evaporation. journal of applied meteorology, ( ), – . doi: . / - ( ) < :asmfsl> . .co; de bruin, h. a. r., & keijman, j. q. ( ). the priestley-taylor evaporation model applied to a large, shallow lake in the netherlands. journal of applied meteorology, ( ), – . doi: . / - ( ) < :tptema> . .co; diario oficial de la federación. ( , july ). acuerdo por el que se da a conocer el resultado de los estudios técnicos de aguas nacionales subterráneas del acuífero cuauhtémoc, clave , en el estado de chihuahua, región hidrológico administrativa río bravo. retrieved from http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / díaz caravantes, r. e., bravo peña, l. c., alatorre cejudo, l. c., & sánchez flores, e. ( ). análisis geoespacial de la interacción entre el uso de suelo y de agua en el área peri- urbana de cuauhtémoc, chihuahua. un estudio socioambiental en el norte de méxico. investigaciones geográficas, boletín del instituto de geografía, ( ), – . doi: . /rig. erickson, a. j., gulliver, j. s., hozalski, r. m., mohseni, o., nieber, j. l., wilson, b. n., & weiss, p. t. ( ). evaporation and evapotranspiration | stormwater treatment: assessment and maintenance. in assessment of stormwater best management practices (p. ). retrieved from https://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/handle/ / /cfans_asset_ .pdf?se quence= fisher, j. b., melton, f., middleton, e., hain, c., anderson, m., allen, r., … wood, e. f. ( ). the future of evapotranspiration: global requirements for ecosystem functioning, carbon and climate feedbacks, agricultural management, and water resources. reviews of geophysics, – . doi: . / wr @ . /(issn) - .comhes fu, g., charles, s. p., & yu, j. ( ). a critical overview of pan evaporation trends over the last years. climatic change, ( ), . doi: . /s - - - greenwood, d. j., neeteson, j. j., & draycott, a. ( ). response of potatoes to n fertilizer: dynamic model. plant and soil, ( ), – . doi: . /bf gross, m. ( ). the world’s vanishing lakes. current biology, ( ), r –r . doi: . /j.cub. . . hamon, w. r. ( ). estimating potential evapotranspiration (thesis, massachusetts institute of technology). retrieved from https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/ . / hewitt, i. c., fernald, a. g., & samani, z. a. ( ). calculating field-scale evapotranspiration with closed-chamber and remote sensing methods. jawra journal of the american water resources association, ( ), – . doi: . / - . hirschi, m., michel, d., lehner, i., & seneviratne, s. i. ( ). a site-level comparison of lysimeter and eddy covariance flux measurements of evapotranspiration. hydrology and earth system sciences, ( ), – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /hess- - - irmak, a., allen, r. g., kjaersgaard, j., huntington, j., kamble, b., trezza, r., & ratcliffe, i. ( ). operational remote sensing of et and challenges. evapotranspiration - remote sensing and modeling. doi: . / jensen, m. e., & haise, h. r. ( ). estimating evapotranspiration from solar radiation. proceedings of the american society of civil engineers, journal of the irrigation and drainage division, , – . kauffeldt, a., halldin, s., rodhe, a., xu, c.-y., & westerberg, i. k. ( ). disinformative data in large-scale hydrological modelling. hydrology and earth system sciences, , – . doi: . /hess- - - kirk, j. t. ( ). effects of suspensoids (turbidity) on penetration of solar radiation in aquatic ecosystems. hydrobiologia, ( ), – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /bf kıvrak, c., bawazir, s., samani, z., steele, c., & sönmez, b. ( ). using plant phenology and landsat- satellite data to quantify water use by onion crop in the mesilla valley, new mexico. international journal of crop science and technology, ( ), – . doi: . /ijcst. li, f., cao, r., zhao, y., mu, d., fu, c., & ping, f. ( ). remote sensing penman–monteith model to estimate catchment evapotranspiration considering the vegetation diversity. theoretical and applied climatology, ( ), – . doi: . /s - - - lobell, d. b. ( ). errors in climate datasets and their effects on statistical crop models. agricultural and forest meteorology, , – . doi: . /j.agrformet. . . makkink, g. f. ( ). testing the penman formula by means of lysimeters. journal of the institution of water engineers, ( ), – . martínez pérez, j. Á., garcía-galiano, s. g., martin-gorriz, b., & baille, a. ( ). satellite- based method for estimating the spatial distribution of crop evapotranspiration: sensitivity to the priestley-taylor coefficient. remote sensing, ( ), . doi: . /rs mireles, c., & mellink, e. ( ). use of laguna de bustillos, chihuahua, by waterbirds during the – wintering season. the american midland naturalist, ( ), – . doi: . / - - . . monin, a., & obukhov, a. ( ). basic laws of turbulent mixing in the atmosphere near the ground. tr. akad. nauk sssr geofiz. inst, ( ), – . nash, j. e., & sutcliffe, j. v. ( ). river flow forecasting through conceptual models part i — a discussion of principles. journal of hydrology, ( ), – . doi: . / - ( ) - okpara, u. t., stringer, l. c., dougill, a. j., & bila, m. d. ( ). conflicts about water in lake chad: are environmental, vulnerability and security issues linked? progress in development studies, ( ), – . doi: . / papadakis, j. ( ). potential evapotranspiration. soil science, , . doi: . / - - penman, h. l. ( ). natural evaporation from open water, bare soil and grass. proceedings of the royal society of london. series a. mathematical and physical sciences, ( ), – . doi: . /rspa. . phillips, d. l., & marks, d. g. ( ). spatial uncertainty analysis: propagation of interpolation errors in spatially distributed models. ecological modelling, ( ), – . doi: . / - ( ) - priestley, c. h. b., & taylor, r. j. ( ). on the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation using large-scale parameters. monthly weather review, ( ), – . doi: . / - ( ) < :otaosh> . .co; pushpalatha, r., perrin, c., moine, n. l., & andréassian, v. ( ). a review of efficiency criteria suitable for evaluating low-flow simulations. journal of hydrology, – , – . doi: . /j.jhydrol. . . rayner, d. p. ( ). wind run changes: the dominant factor affecting pan evaporation trends in australia. journal of climate, ( ), – . doi: . /jcli . reitz, m., senay, g., & sanford, w. e. ( ). combining remote sensing and water-balance evapotranspiration estimates for the conterminous united states. remote sensing, ( ), . doi: . /rs rohwer, c. ( ). evaporation from free water surfaces (no. ; p. ). retrieved from united states department of agriculture website: https://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/cat /pdf rojas-villalobos, h. l., alatorre-cejudo, l. c., stringman, b., samani, z., & brown, c. ( ). topobathymetric d model reconstruction of shallow water bodies through remote sensing, gps, and bathymetry. tecnociencia chihuahua, ( ), – . doi: . /zenodo. rooney, g. g., & bornemann, f. j. ( ). the performance of flake in the met office unified model. tellus a: dynamic meteorology and oceanography, ( ), . doi: . /tellusa.v i . samani, a., & bawazir, s. ( ). improving evapotranspiration estimation using remote sensing technology (technical completion report no. ; p. ). retrieved from https://nmwrri.nmsu.edu/wp- content/swwa/reports/bawazir/june final/report.pdf samani, z., bawazir, a. s., skaggs, r. k., bleiweiss, m. p., piñon, a., & tran, v. ( ). water use by agricultural crops and riparian vegetation: an application of remote sensing technology. journal of contemporary water research & education, ( ), – . doi: . /j. - x. .mp .x samani, z., bawazir, s., bleiweiss, m., skaggs, r., piñon, a., & tran, v. d. ( ). estimating daily net radiation over vegetation canopy through remote sensing and climatic data. journal of irrigation and drainage engineering, ( ), – . doi: . /(asce) - ( ) : ( ) samani, z., bawazir, s., bleiweiss, m., skaggs, r., & schmugge, t. ( ). estimating riparian et through remote sensing. presented at the agu fall meeting, san francisco. samani, z., sammis, t., skaggs, r., alkhatiri, n., & deras, j. ( ). measuring on-farm irrigation efficiency with chloride tracing under deficit irrigation. journal of irrigation and drainage engineering, ( ), – . doi: . /(asce) - ( ) : ( ) samani, z., skaggs, r., & bleiweiss, m. ( ). regional et estimation model, reem. proc. st intl. symposium on remote sensing from satellite. presented at the proc. st intl. symposium on remote sensing from satellite, tucson, ar. senkondo, w., munishi, s. e., tumbo, m., nobert, j., & lyon, s. w. ( ). comparing remotely-sensed surface energy balance evapotranspiration estimates in heterogeneous and data-limited regions: a case study of tanzania’s kilombero valley. remote sensing, ( ), . doi: . /rs smith, r. c., & tyler, j. e. ( ). optical properties of clear natural water*. josa, ( ), – . doi: . /josa. . stephens, j. c., & stewart, e. h. ( ). a comparison of procedures for computing evaporation and evapotranspiration (pp. – ). fort lauderdle, florida. subin, z. m., murphy, l. n., li, f., bonfils, c., & riley, w. j. ( ). boreal lakes moderate seasonal and diurnal temperature variation and perturb atmospheric circulation: analyses in the community earth system model (cesm ). tellus a: dynamic meteorology and oceanography, ( ), . doi: . /tellusa.v i . unifrut. ( ). resumen de las estaciones meteorológicas por municipios. retrieved february , , from http://unifrut.com.mx/rem/ valiantzas, j. d. ( ). simplified versions for the penman evaporation equation using routine weather data. journal of hydrology, ( ), – . doi: . /j.jhydrol. . . valipour, m. ( ). importance of solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed for calculation of reference evapotranspiration. archives of agronomy and soil science, ( ), – . doi: . / . . wang, b., ma, y., ma, w., su, b., & dong, x. ( ). evaluation of ten methods for estimating evaporation in a small high-elevation lake on the tibetan plateau. theoretical and applied climatology, ( ), – . doi: . /s - - - wang, h., tetzlaff, d., & soulsby, c. ( ). testing the maximum entropy production approach for estimating evapotranspiration from closed canopy shrubland in a low- energy humid environment. hydrological processes, ( ), – . doi: . /hyp. willmott, c. j. ( ). on the validation of models. physical geography, ( ), – . doi: doi.org/ . / . . willmott, c. j. ( ). some comments on the evaluation of model performance. bulletin of the american meteorological society, ( ), – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / - ( ) < :scoteo> . .co; willmott, c. j., ackleson, s. g., davis, r. e., feddema, j. j., klink, k. m., legates, d. r., … rowe, c. m. ( ). statistics for the evaluation and comparison of models. journal of geophysical research: oceans, (c ), – . doi: https://doi.org/ . /jc ic p willmott, c. j., & matsuura, k. ( ). advantages of the mean absolute error (mae) over the root mean square error (rmse) in assessing average model performance. climate research, ( ), – . retrieved from jstor. willmott, c. j., & wicks, d. e. ( ). an empirical method for the spatial interpolation of monthly precipitation within california. physical geography, ( ), – . doi: https://doi.org/ . / . . xu, h. ( ). modification of normalized difference water index (ndwi) to enhance open water features in remotely sensed imagery. international journal of remote sensing, ( ), – . doi: doi.org/ . / zhang, k., kimball, j. s., & running, s. w. ( ). a review of remote sensing based actual evapotranspiration estimation. wiley interdisciplinary reviews: water, ( ), – . doi: . /wat . zhu, w., jia, s., & lv, a. ( ). a statistical analysis of the remotely sensed land surface temperature–vegetation index method for the retrieval of evaporative fraction over grasslands in the southern great plains. ieee journal of selected topics in applied earth observations and remote sensing, – . doi: . /jstars. . chapter single-input, multiple-output iterative algorithm for the calculation of volume, area, elevation, and shape using d topobathymetric models. article submitted: november , . status: in review. journal: investigaciones geográficas (unam). abstract most methods for estimating the morphometric values of water bodies use equations derived from hypsographic curves or digital terrain models (dtms) that relate depth, volume (v), and area (a) and that model the uncertainty inherent in the complex underwater morphology. this research focuses directly on the use of topobathymetric models that include the bathymetry and topography of the surrounding area next to the water body. the projection of the water surface height (h) on each dtm pixel generates a water column with intrinsic attributes such as volume and area. the process is replicated among all cells and estimates the total area and volume of the water body. if the v or a is the input data, an algorithm that iterates height values is used to generate the new data, which is compared with the entered value that functions as a reference. if the difference between the reference value and the calculated value is less than an error threshold, the iteration stops, and the maximum and average depths are calculated. in addition, the raster and the shape that represent the body of water are created. the cross comparison of h-v-a showed that there is an error between . % and . % when any of the parameters are used as input data. performance tests determined that pixel dimensions are directly proportional to the processing time for each iteration. the results of the implementation of this algorithm were satisfactory since, for the dtm of bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico, the simulation took less than seconds in at most iterations. introduction calculating physical characteristics of water bodies such as volume, surface area, and shape is a challenging process because of the complex underwater topography. the water bodies floor is usually irregular, with elevations and depressions that do not follow a specific pattern and therefore are difficult to model with mathematical equations. the height of the water level (h), volume (v), surface area (a), and the shape of the surface area are parameters that are not linearly interrelated. determining these parameters, using a known value from the previously mentioned parameters (h, v, or a), will allow erosion modelers, hydrologists, geohydrologists, and ecologists, among others, to use morphological parameters in their simulations. currently, geographic information systems (gis) are able to deploy programming languages to develop tools that respond to complex problems. this approach generates information about the storage capacity in a dynamic way to support management policies dealing with flood risk zones and minimum water levels for maintaining ecologically healthy areas and other water resource issues. several methodologies exist to calculate morphometric parameters, such as height, volume, area, maximum depth, and the average depth of water bodies. the first studies that relate volume-area-depth used the radius between average depth and maximum depth in addition to sinusoidal parameters (such as lake bottom profile) to do so (lehman, ; neumann, ). sima and tajrishy ( ) presented a model that relates volume-area-elevation using data from remote sensors and analytical procedures such as a power model and a truncated pyramid model. this approach results in highly parameterized equations that relate morphometric values. moreno-amich and garcia-berthou ( ) used echo sounding to relate morphometric characteristics of depth-area measurements for developing hypsographic curves and generating a bathymetric map. johansson et al. ( ) proposed two new mathematical models that interrelate morphometric values: the volume development, which is an equation based on the a-v relationship curve (vd) and the hypsographic development parameter, which is the integration of a-depth and v-depth relation curves (hd). these models require three inputs: v, maximum depth, and a. recent methodologies that use autonomous aerial vehicles measure the height of the terrain through lidar (laser imaging detection and ranging) and surface water vehicles that measure the depth (bathymetry) through high-resolution echo sounding. these data sources are processed in gis and generate accurate dtms (erena, atenza, garcía-galiano, domínguez, & bernabé, ). regardless of the methodology, however, the equations that relate the morphometry variables inherit the uncertainty of the complexity and spatial variability of underwater topography (rode et al., ). chen et al. ( ) presented a method that uses d geometry of a dam with which the volume and floodplains are calculated. the algorithm uses precipitation and water stage values as input data. it then simulates the floods in two sections: the floodplain and the d model from which the morphological parameters are obtained. despite being an efficient model, it is limited as to what input data it will accept. thus, none of the methods shown above are capable of offering solutions where morphological values interact with each other to respond to the needs of hydrologists. to address these uncertainties, this study develops a technique that fully estimates the h- v-a of water bodies using computational techniques through d models that include bathymetry and the surrounding terrain topography. this technique used the water column below the level of the water surface projected onto each pixel of the dtm; this calculation was applied to the entire study area to delineate the extension of the water body. the v or a was the reference variable deployed in an iterative algorithm until the error threshold was met. study area the bustillos lagoon is in the endorheic cuauhtémoc basin, and the lagoon has an area of , . km . a mountain range, called sierra azul, surrounds it in the north-northeast; on the western flank are mennonite colonies where the terrain slope is below %. in addition, the town of anahuac is in the south. the bustillos lagoon is between the quadrant coordinates ° ' ' 'n - ° ' '' n and ° ' ' 'w - ° ' '' w in the cuauhtémoc municipality in the mexican state of chihuahua (figure ). figure . study area where the algorithm was applied. the bustillos lagoon in chihuahua. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from inegi ( ). because the cuauhtémoc basin is between the semi-humid climate of the sierra madre occidental and the chihuahuan desert, the region's weather is warm and semi-dry (kottek, grieser, beck, rudolf, rubel, ). the approximate elevation of the cuauhtémoc region is , m above sea level (m.a.s.l), and the average annual temperature ranges from . to ° c, with an average annual rainfall of about mm y- (servicio meteorológico nacional, ). material and methods this methodology employed a personal computer with an intel i - . ghz processor, gb ram, and two ssd of tb each. for this computational development in gis, it is essential to have a dtm that includes the bathymetry of the study area for generating the hydrological characteristics of the water body - the d topobathymetric model of the bustillos lagoon (spatial resolution of meters)(rojas-villalobos, alatorre-cejudo, stringman, samani, & brown, ) (figure ). figure . dtm of the bustillos lagoon. source: rojas villalobos with data retrieved from rojas-villalobos et al. ( ). the software used for gis processing was arcmap® version . of environmental systems research institute, esri (arcmap, ). the d process tool called surface volume, which requires the dtm and the height of the water level as input data, performed v and a calculations (numerical results), and python® version . . was the language to encode the algorithm (python language reference, ). the algorithm can capture one of the various input data, and as a result, it can generate the rest of the output data; for this reason, the algorithm is cataloged as a single-input, multiple- output data algorithm. the algorithm uses one of the following input values: the height of the water level, the storage v, or the a of the water body (figure ). all calculations are in the international system of units. figure . the schematic diagram shows single-inputs and multiple-output data for iterative algorithm. source: rojas villalobos. the algorithm was designed using the following criteria. the algorithm is divided into two sections and depends on the input data: i) water height in meters above sea level (m.a.s.l) and ii) v (m ) or a (m ). some of the process used in the second section refers to procedures in the first section. the surface volume tool used the height value and the dtm to calculate the v and a of the water body. these two results were used to obtain the maximum and average depth (figure ) figure . equations to calculate average depth and maximum depth. where ad is average depth (m), v is the volume (m ), a is the surface area of the water body (m ), md is maximum depth (m), h is the height of water level (m), and hmin is the height of the water body floor (m), which was extracted from the properties of the raster. the map algebra tool, included in arcmap®, was used to perform the extraction of the raster that represents the water surface filtering of all pixels that were less than or equal to h. a conversion tool then saves the raster of surface water as a polygon (vector data) in a shapefile format or geodatabase. when the second process starts, the user captures (or by default) an error threshold (et)(%) that is required to stop the iteration process and the value of v or a used to compute output information. v or a assumes the value of reference (ref) that is used to compare with the new iterated values (v or a). the threshold limit (tl) is the value that stops the iteration and is the product of v or a, multiplied by et. three initial variables were as follows: step equal to used to increase or decrease h, h equal to meter above the bottom of the lagoon, and direction (dir) equal to “upward.” the iteration starts with the h and the surface volume tool that calculates new data (nd = v or a). if the absolute value of the difference between ref and nd is less than tl, the algorithm proceeds to execute the procedures for calculating the output information such as raster image and polygon shape of the lagoon. otherwise, h continues increasing and generating nd until the absolute difference between ref and nd is less than tl (e.g., m or m ). if nd surpasses ref, h decreases at the halfway point of the previous step (e.g., . m.) until the absolute difference between nd and ref is less than tl. if the tl is not accomplished and the nd surpasses ref, h starts to increase with a new step (e.g., . m.). this iteration stops when the absolute difference is less than tl, and the algorithm calculates output data. the algorithm diagram is shown in figure . figure . flowchart of the iterative algorithm to compute hydrologic characteristics using single-input data. source: rojas villalobos. results and discussion table shows the results of three simulations with different data input. for the second and third models, the data resulting from the first simulation were used as input data (v and a) for the cross comparison since the v-a estimates are calculated directly from the height, and it is not necessary to iterate data. table . result of the calculations of the implementation of the algorithm in python language. study site: the bustillos lagoon, chihuahua, mexico. error threshold = . %. * input data. source: rojas villalobos. error threshold area km height masl volume hm area km average depth m maximum depth m iterations processing time s . . * . . . . . . . . * . . . . . . . . * . . . the results of the cross comparison of h-v-a showed that the differences are . , . , and . %, respectively. these values are below the established error threshold of . % and represent a height differential of less than one micrometer, which is negligible in the lagoon modeling scale. the dtm covers an area of . km , which contains the entire lagoon and the surrounding area in a buffer greater than meters. the lagoon has a storage capacity of . hm and a surface area of . km before extending to the floodplains at . m.a.s.l. the processing time depends directly on the number of pixels of the dtm used in the modeling and not on the lagoon area itself. two dtms were modeled with different pixel dimensions: dtma) . (width) x . (height) corresponding to . km and dtmb) . (width) x . (height) equivalent to . km . each pixel maintains a spatial resolution of meters. the number of iterations varies between and because of variations in the calculated volume, which does not exceed the reference volume in each of the iterations. these variations can decrease or increase the number of iterations and, consequently, the calculation time (table ). the dimension of the dtm is directly and linearly related to the processing time in each iteration. the dtma model is . times larger than dtmb, and this ratio is repeated in the average runtime of . seconds per iteration for the dtma and . seconds per iteration for dtmb. this advantage can be exploited by hydrological modelers that require real-time results because they do not have to consider the simulation area but rather the number of pixels contained in the dtm. table . iterative model processing times with various storage volume input values using two dtms with different pixel dimensions. pixel spatial resolution: meters. source: rojas villalobos. dtm tested area (km ) volume (m ) iterations processing time (s) seconds per iteration . (dtma) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (dtmb) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the advantage of the iterative model is that it uses three-dimensional models based on measurements such as bathymetry and topography that represent reality at a given spatial resolution. the accuracy of the algorithm results, as well as the raster and flood shape, depend on three factors: accurate data for constructing the dtm, the spatial resolution of the pixel, and the selected error threshold. the complexity of underwater morphometry is shown in figure . four layers of the water surface are superimposed at every centimeters in height in a stack to distinguish the nonlinearity of morphometric characteristics geographically. figure . water surface coverage map at different heights above sea level of the bustillos lagoon. sources: rojas villalobos with data from rojas-villalobos ( ). the value of morphometric variables as the height of the water surface rises above the dtm does not show a constant pattern that can define a precise correlation between them (figure ). figure . comparative graph of volume, surface area, average depth, and maximum depth according to the height above sea level. source: rojas villalobos. the inflection points of the area and the volume in the previous graph, however, are in . and . m.a.s.l correspondingly. in this way, it is possible to establish equations by segments for each of the parameter, but not a system of equations that integrates the five variables as determined by the algorithm. recommendations the iterative algorithm proved efficient in finding every one of the morphometric values of the bustillos lagoon within the proposed error threshold. the following recommendations, however, are listed. • the purpose of this document is not to evaluate the quality of dtm. to obtain accurate morphometric data and detailed and realistic coverage maps, however, the dtm must meet geographic accuracy (lowest error) in all three axes (x, y, and z). • use reasonable pixel dimensions of the study area. when there are more pixels, the processing time is greater. • this iterative model is not restricted to using a dtm; it is possible to replace with a triangulated irregular network (tin), which is composed of triangles where the vertices are elevation points. • the algorithm can be implemented in any programming language that handles spatial components, such as python-gdal®, r® statistics, or magik smallworld®. • despite the pc's computing capacity, the algorithm can be applied to any computer with minimum requirements: gb ram, hd with enough space to store the simulations ( - gb) and a fast processor ( . ghz +). references arcmap (version . . ) [english, windows]. ( ). retrieved from http://www.esri.com chen, w., nover, d., he, b., yuan, h., ding, k., yang, j., & chen, s. ( ). analyzing inundation extent in small reservoirs: a combined use of topography, bathymetry and a d dam model. measurement, , – . https://doi.org/ . /j.measurement. . . erena, m., atenza, j. f., garcía-galiano, s., domínguez, j. a., & bernabé, j. m. ( ). use of drones for the topo-bathymetric monitoring of the reservoirs of the segura river basin. water, ( ), . https://doi.org/ . /w ge corporation. ( , september ). mdt magik development tools. retrieved september , , from https://www.mdt.net/ inegi. ( ). mapa digital de méxico. retrieved january , , from https://www.inegi.org.mx/temas/mapadigital/ johansson, h., brolin, a. a., & håkanson, l. ( ). new approaches to the modelling of lake basin morphometry. environmental modeling & assessment, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - -z kottek, m., grieser, j., beck, c., rudolf, b., & rubel, f. ( ). world map of the köppen- geiger climate classification updated. meteorologische zeitschrift, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / - / / lehman, j. t. ( ). reconstructing the rate of accumulation of lake sediment: the effect of sediment focusing. quaternary research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / - ( ) - moreno-amich, r., & garcia-berthou, e. ( ). a new bathymetric map based on echo- sounding and morphometrical characterization of the lake of banyoles (ne-spain). hydrobiologia, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /bf neumann, j. ( ). maximum depth and average depth of lakes. journal of the fisheries research board of canada, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /f - open source geospatial foundation. ( ). gdal — gdal documentation. retrieved september , , from https://gdal.org/ python language reference (version . . ) [english, windows]. ( ). retrieved from http://www.python.org r foundation. ( ). r: the r project for statistical computing. retrieved september , , from https://www.r-project.org/ rode, m., arhonditsis, g., balin, d., kebede, t., krysanova, v., griensven, a. van, & zee, s. e. a. t. m. van der. ( ). new challenges in integrated water quality modelling. hydrological processes, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /hyp. rojas-villalobos, h. l., alatorre-cejudo, l. c., stringman, b., samani, z., & brown, c. ( ). topobathymetric d model reconstruction of shallow water bodies through remote sensing, gps, and bathymetry. tecnociencia chihuahua, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /zenodo. servicio meteorológico nacional. ( ). información climatológica por estado. retrieved january , , from https://smn.conagua.gob.mx/es/informacion-climatologica-por- estado?estado=chih sima, s., & tajrishy, m. ( ). using satellite data to extract volume–area–elevation relationships for urmia lake, iran. journal of great lakes research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j.jglr. . . conclusions this document combines three lines of research that are directly interrelated. the d model of the bustillos lagoon uses known variables such as volume, area, and depth, to estimate the volume of evaporated water according to the evaporation rates obtained by remote sensors. the iteration algorithm uses as a basis the d model to compute volume and area that, together with evaporation, indirectly estimate other water balance variables such as water infiltration into the aquifer from the lagoon. at the end, this document integrates useful tools and applicable knowledge in the real world. the databases generated for the region fill gaps of information that is necessary for the analysis of the water balance and the administration of water in the basin. the results obtained will be public for those researchers, government agencies, institutions of higher education, and people interested in these issues. when this dissertation was proposed to the doctoral committee, i was warned of how complex, demanding, and challenging it could be; they were not wrong. the developments and processes that took each of the chapters required knowledge and skills from areas as diverse as electronics, programming, hydrology, physics, mathematics, geography, autonomous aerial vehicles, geographic information systems, and remote sensing. it is crucial to establish that the skills mentioned above, and knowledge are the results of a cumulative learning process along many years of study, an intense desire to acquire knowledge, and a strong curiosity of how hydrologic process occur. references diario oficial de la federación. ( , july ). acuerdo por el que se da a conocer el resultado de los estudios técnicos de aguas nacionales subterráneas del acuífero cuauhtémoc, clave , en el estado de chihuahua, región hidrológico administrativa río bravo. retrieved from http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / díaz caravantes, r. e., bravo peña, l. c., alatorre cejudo, l. c., & sánchez flores, e. ( ). geospatial analysis of land use and water interaction in the peri-urban area of cuauhtémoc, chihuahua: a socio-environmental study in northern mexico. investigaciones geográficas, ( ), – . garcía, e. ( ). modificaciones al sistema de clasificación climática de koppen ( th ed., vol. ). mexico: unam. ibañez hernandez, o. ( ). manejo del acuífero de cuauhtémoc, chih. por el comité técnico de aguas subterráneas. brasilia, brazil: programa de las naciones unidas para el medio ambiente. retrieved from http://bva.colech.edu.mx/xmlui/bitstream/handle/ / /ag .pdf?sequence= inegi. ( ). censo de población y vivienda . retrieved november , , from inegi website: http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/ccpv/cpv /default.aspx inegi. ( ). anuario estadístico y geográfico de chihuahua . retrieved from http://www.inegi.org.mx/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/anuario_ / .pdf inegi. ( ). continuo de elevaciones mexicano . (cem . ). retrieved march , , from datos de relieve website: http://www.inegi.org.mx/geo/contenidos/datosrelieve/continental/continuoelevaciones.as px ortiz franco, p. o., & amado alvarez, j. p. ( ). uso del agua de la laguna de bustillos para la producción de maíz. terra lationamericana, ( ), – . quintana s., v. m. ( ). nuevo orden alimentario y disputa por el agua en el norte de méxico. apuntes: revista de ciencias sociales, ( ), – . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive water governance in dryland systems this is a repository copy of unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive water governance in dryland systems. white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version article: lopez porras, g orcid.org/ - - - , stringer, lc orcid.org/ - - - and quinn, ch orcid.org/ - - - ( ) unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive water governance in dryland systems. water resources management, ( ). pp. - . issn - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - © , springer science+business media b.v., part of springer nature. this is an author produced version of a paper published in water resources management. uploaded in accordance with the publisher's self-archiving policy. eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse items deposited in white rose research online are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved unless indicated otherwise. they may be downloaded and/or printed for private study, or other acts as permitted by national copyright laws. the publisher or other rights holders may allow further reproduction and re-use of the full text version. this is indicated by the licence information on the white rose research online record for the item. takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive water governance in dryland systems gabriel lopez porras  , lindsay c. stringer , claire h. quinn abstract adaptive water governance seeks to increase a social-ecological system’s adaptive capacity in the face of uncertainty and change. this is especially important in non-linear dryland systems that are already exposed to water scarcity and increasing degradation. conservation of water ecosystem services is key for increasing adaptive capacity in drylands, however, how stakeholders perceive water ecosystem services greatly affects how they are managed, as well as the potential for adaptive water governance. this paper focuses on identifying the system’s potential for enabling adaptive water governance by analysing different stakeholder perceptions on water ecosystem services. it takes the rio del carmen watershed as a case study, offering important insights for an increasing number of water-scarce regions. semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders in the watershed in order to unravel their perceptions and understand the governance context. we found disparities in how stakeholders perceive water ecosystem services have led to water overexploitation and several conflicts over water access. our results indicate that stakeholder perceptions have a major influence on the system’s adaptability, as they shape the acquisition of water ecosystem services. divergent stakeholder perceptions act as an important barrier to collaboration. generating and sharing knowledge could facilitate the development of a common vision, allowing all actors to co-   gabriel lopez porras eegilp@leeds.ac.uk sustainability research institute, school of earth and environment, university of leeds, woodhouse lane, leeds ls jt, uk. mailto:eegilp@leeds.ac.uk create information about water ecosystem services and the system state, engaging them in a participatory process, suitable for their context, and that will better support adaptive water governance. keywords social-ecological resilience · water scarcity · agricultural systems · knowledge sharing · conflicts · mexico introduction adaptive water governance (awg) integrates collaboration and learning processes to increase system adaptive capacity in the face of uncertainty and changing social-ecological conditions (decaro et al. ). awg suits contexts such as drylands, which are naturally exposed to droughts, land degradation, and desertification. implementing awg in drylands is challenging given complexities inherent to these social-ecological systems (ses), requiring deep understanding of the governance context (chaffin et al. ; gunderson et al. ). societal perceptions of what is important reflects how governance and institutions influence and shape ses (díaz et al. ). governance models must consider society’s priorities and risks in order to achieve development, human well-being, and secure the ecosystem services on which livelihoods rely (mortimore et al. ). this is vital in a dryland context, because people have different perceptions of “water scarcity”, shaped by their political, cultural and economic biases (forouzani et al. ). an important step towards awg is unpacking the formal and informal rules that underlie system interactions, establishing boundaries and identifying linkages and feedbacks between stakeholders (stringer et al. ). social constraints that underpin linkages, are called institutions (north ). institutions establish how governance systems operate, influencing the values stakeholders give to water ecosystem services (wes), and how individuals use natural resources. by understanding these institutions and governance systems they can be intentionally directed to halt wes losses (díaz et al. ). increasing conflicts over water access and overexploitation of scarce water resources are indicators of management failures and an undesirable state of water governance ( chaffin et al. ). for instance, access to water rights in the rio del carmen watershed, located in the most arid part of the chihuahuan desert in mexico, have been closed since (diario oficial de la federacion ) in an attempt to avoid overexploitation or damage to the watershed. water use rights have been issued using technical studies that guarantee water volumes for existing rights and the ecological balance of the watershed (diario oficial de la federacion ). nonetheless, overexploitation has increased since . water depletion, along with recent droughts and other environmental changes, have encouraged water conflicts, demonstrating inefficient water management (quintana ) underpinned by governance failures. to transform this into an opportunity for awg, an analysis is needed of system rules, linkages, and feedbacks shaping the ses (chaffin et al. ). this paper identifies a system’s potential for enabling awg, by analysing different stakeholder perceptions about wes, using the rio del carmen watershed as a case study. targeting this aim, we ask: ) who are the key stakeholders in the rio del carmen watershed? ) which communities and economic activities have access to water and why? and ) how do different stakeholders in rio del carmen perceive wes? unravelling how stakeholders perceive wes, how they are organized, and the institutional constraints that underlie social-ecological interactions, will help identify how awg might emerge in water-scarce contexts (young ), which are increasing globally (huang et al. ). research design and methodology governing water in dryland systems to balance multiple water demands across different stakeholder groups faces many challenges (cosens ). the rio del carmen watershed offers a useful example. this watershed is largely supported by aquifers: santa clara, flores magon villa ahumada and laguna de patos. literature suggests the first two aquifers are overexploited, while laguna de patos has a concession volume similar to the annual recharge volume (diario oficial de la federacion ). the watershed has a dam (las lajas), located on the santa clara river, with a total capacity of . million m y- (inegi ). the watershed’s main environmental problems are land use change (loss of grasslands due to conversion to agriculture), desiccation and groundwater overexploitation (conabio ). the social context is complex: different conflicts over water access have arisen, and authorities have been unsuccessful in solving the social and ecological crisis (quintana ; athie ). exploration of the social context regarding water access and the perceptions of wes that shape water governance helps to identify barriers to awg and incompatibilities in future collaboration and learning processes (gunderson et al. ; medema et al. ). we started with stakeholder analysis (reed et al. ) to understand the formal and informal interactions among stakeholders, the diverse perceptions in the watershed, and how water shapes the social context, using a qualitative approach. stakeholder analysis followed an iterative research process where semi-structured interviews were conducted during june across different stakeholder categories: government agencies, university, ngo, industry group and agricultural communities. categories were designed based on information from quintana ( ) and manzanares rivera ( ), and prior experience of the first author in the watershed. interview participants nominated others using snowball sampling, identifying more interviewees from different stakeholder categories (bhattacherjee ). interviews had multiple starting points so all stakeholder categories were properly represented, assuring all views were captured. an interview protocol was developed covering water access, governance and wes. the interviewer nevertheless followed up on other important issues raised during interviews (dicicco-bloom and crabtree ). interviews were recorded in spanish, transcribed into english and anonymised. the dataset was analysed and deductively coded (bernard ). this involved classification and coding under headings of: conflicts and trade-offs in water use, water access, water governance and perception of wes in the watershed, in line with the research questions. secondary data on the watershed’s average annual water availability, natural recharge, and social conflicts were collected using datos.gob.mx/ and www.infomex.org.mx. these data were analysed qualitatively using the same themes as for the interviews. findings were triangulated (kohlbacher ). contradictions between sources were noted and resolved according to the contingent factors or personal experiences that shaped the differences (bhattacherjee ). results . identification of key stakeholders in the rio del carmen watershed three stakeholder groups emerged as most important regarding water governance in the rio del carmen watershed: the national water commission (conagua), the mennonite community and mexican farmers. conagua is the mexican government agency in charge of national water management, through application of the national water law (athie ). when we refer to conagua we refer to its chihuahua local directorate, which is directly linked to water governance in the watershed. in mexico, water access is a human right guaranteed in its political constitution, and its conservation, as well as conservation of vital ecosystems linked to water resources, are file:///c:/users/earlst/appdata/local/microsoft/windows/temporary% internet% files/content.outlook/ co krm /datos.gob.mx/ http://www.infomex.org.mx/gobiernofederal/home.action considered public utilities . the literature identifies that conagua has several institutional deficiencies, limited economic and human resources, and an inadequate legal framework that has not allowed proper water management (athie ). officials within conagua noted this too: there is no control over the watershed, the legal framework is not respected by mennonites or by the water users from the lower part of the watershed, and the water use rights are not respected (conagua official b). conagua needs more human and economic resources, we need comprehensive water reform, with specialized courts, as they are largely unaware of the topic (conagua official d). these issues, along with water scarcity, have contributed towards conflicts over water access, where conagua needs to get involved. given its inability to monitor compliance with the law, punish those who do not comply, and to control corruption (murillo-licea and soares- moraes ; athie ), conagua sometimes participates as an arbiter and sometimes as part of the problem. according to the transparency unit of the federal judicature council of the federal judicial branch, in chihuahua state alone, lawsuits were filed against conagua in a period of months, for not solving citizens’ requests (cjf ). a conagua official said that: many times we have reached favourable agreements, but on other occasions, we have received legal demands which are out of the conciliation process. in these cases, the courts are the ones who must decide who is right, and according to the ruling, conagua must abide by what is dictated (conagua official c). the character that acquires a public good when it is fundamental for the government to satisfy collective social and economic needs. this situation has increased distrust in conagua, causing displeasure for several farmers. some of them blame conagua for the crisis that the watershed is experiencing (quintana ). both mennonite and mexican farmers stated that conagua “is closed to the complaints and needs of farmers” (mennonite a), and “[does] not have the technical or human capacity to attend to the situation in the watershed” (mexican farmer a). another important group in rio del carmen’s water governance is the mennonite community. mennonites are located principally in the upper part of the watershed, in the santa clara aquifer. around , mennonite colonies arrived in chihuahua, initially establishing in the laguna de bustillos watershed. population growth caused them to expand, including the rio del carmen watershed (personal communication, conagua official b). the mennonite community is very traditional, religious, peaceful and hardworking (quintana ). nevertheless, they have been involved in several conflicts with mexican farmers over water access. mexican farmers accuse mennonites of construction of illegal dams and wells (athie ). as a consequence, combined with conagua’s inactivity in addressing the problem, in a significant conflict arose when mexican farmers started to destroy dams supplying the mennonites. despite there being “about conflicts, more or less” (mennonite a) between mennonites and mexican farmers, the conflict in “was the only serious conflict” (mennonite b), which resonated in national and international media (quintana ; burnett ). additionally, mennonites in the watershed have been involved in several legal challenges. according to one conagua official: there are many legal complaints against the upper part of the watershed [where the mennonites are located] because of change of land use from grassland to irrigation, also semarnat has lodged several complaints against those persons because they do not have the authorizations for changing land use. unfortunately, those are processes where farmers have found weaknesses in the law and they can obtain some protection from the courts (conagua official b). as they have expanded, the mennonite community has become more heterogeneous, with both traditional and modern mennonites. traditional mennonites are said to be “more conscious about the situation and the consequences of overexploitation, however, mennonites in the rio del carmen watershed are not the most conscious, they are the most materialistic” (state government official b). a private farmer said this new generation of mennonites “over- exploits the aquifers and has monopolized most of the volume of water of chihuahua” (mexican farmer b). mennonites in the rio del carmen watershed do not consider there to be water scarcity, stating that: “underground water does not affect nature, it comes from deep” (mennonite b), “the water levels have not dropped a lot in that area, the wells have not gone down” (mennonite a). consequently, modern mennonites do not consider their agricultural activities are damaging the watershed or those who live in it; on the contrary, they see their activities having a positive effect. one mennonite said: all people have benefited from this, for example, if a neighbour needs workers, he employs to persons at the time of sowing, it benefits the population, several families, not just himself as the owner of the farm, but all the people who are searching for jobs (mennonite b). modern mennonites are recognised by the economic prosperity they have achieved as a result of their agricultural activities (manzanares rivera ), which are designed on “building a semarnat the acronym in spanish for the ministry of the environment and natural resources. family heritage” (mennonite b). some of their only complaints are that some mexican farmers do not want to let them access water: “they do not let us work, do more things, they do not let us improve” (mennonite a). nevertheless, given their peaceful culture, they believe they have not increased social tension, for instance when “once they [mexican farmers] broke a dam…, we could not do anything” (mennonite a). despite this, an interviewee stated that “now we have more communication with them [mexican farmers] because they understand that it is family heritage, we are working to live, to progress, nothing else” (mennonite b). the third stakeholder group identified are mexican farmers, made up of ejidatarios and private farmers. many of these farmers are organized into an irrigation district called el carmen , created in when closed access was established to secure water exploitation (diario oficial de la federacion ). additionally, a section of the district has exclusive water rights to , million m y- from the las lajas dam by presidential decree from (diario oficial de la federacion ). the irrigation district and most mexican farmers are located in the flores magon-villa ahumada aquifer, downstream of the santa clara aquifer and the mennonites. around , when mexican farmers began to notice reduced water availability, and detected upstream exploitation, they self-organized, giving rise to a social movement ‘defenders of the water of the chihuahuan desert’. they called upon the authorities to remove illegal exploitation, enforce the law on illegal conversion of grasslands to farmlands, eliminate economic support to those who exploit water illegally, and not to provide them with electricity (quintana ). when the authorities failed to solve the problem, they began occupying government offices and blocking roads and railroad tracks. at one point in this contestation, they were able to ejido members; ejidos are agricultural communities that manage their land collectively. coordinate actions with congagua to demolish dams and close wells. however, conflicts are not over. within this group, a grassroots (militant activist) organization called el barzon has been most concerned about and committed to the conflicts over water access. its leadership has been key in the organization of mexican farmers dissatisfied with the environmental state of the watershed and water management (quintana ). el barzon has been fighting illegal water use in the santa clara aquifer, a situation that a mexican farmer described in an interview: there are main conflicts: the use of surface water that is a tributary of the carmen river that is illegally retained by the mennonites. another problem are illegal wells, more than wells have been detected and do not have authorization from conagua. also, there is overexploitation of the aquifer that mennonites do; they use more water than they are allowed to. this aquifer [santa clara] has a concessioned volume of water of ha of irrigation, approximately, however, there are , ha irrigated (mexican farmer b). however, mennonites say that when they began to sow, before all these conflicts over water access in the watershed, conagua never asked them to obtain any authorization for water exploitation: “at that time we did not need any permits or water rights to use the water, we could extract it without anyone telling us anything” (mennonite a). this is unlikely because the state holds the original overarching property right to water resources. water cannot be used without government authorization. even in areas where water extraction is not limited, conagua must be notified of planned exploitation. in this case, formal norms and rules were not respected by the modern mennonite’s agricultural practices. this is due to: lack of awareness on the part of mennonites, and conagua’s lack of presence in water management and law enforcement. following this, mennonites in the watershed began to look for ways to acquire water rights, so they started buying the few remaining water rights in the santa clara aquifer, and divided them to legalise their water exploitation. a conagua official reported: those were water rights that allowed use of thousand m y- of water per year, each one, and they were bought and divided into several water rights for wells of , or , m y- , however, we know that they are extracting around , m y- of water in each well (conagua official c). athie ( ) says that extracting a higher volume of water than that allowed by water rights is not unique to mennonites. mexican farmers have also done this, having seen there are no consequences for breaking the law. consequently, there have been several attempts to solve the conflicts in chihuahua; from coordinated inter-institutional actions designed to identify and stop illegal water exploitation, to mediation processes. a state government official said: i was asked in to organize a mediation meeting between el barzon and the mennonite community. we had two meetings. the problem was that only the most conscious members of the mennonite community [those not engaged in agriculture] went to the meeting, not members that are using the water illegally. so, the meetings did not have effective results (state government official b). another interviewee added: we sat down twice with the mennonite central committee, which has contact with the leaders of the mennonite colonies. however, we could not advance because the traditional mennonite community is overtaken by modern mennonites (mexican farmer b). due to lack of resolution and coordination between mexican farmers and modern mennonites, along with conagua's lack of interest in and ability to solve the problem, “many farmers were discouraged and stopped participating, they are no longer trying to solve the problem in the watershed” (mexican farmer a). for this reason, el barzon raised their efforts above the chihuahua local directorate of conagua. an ejidatario said: we have received international protection: the inter-american commission on human rights issued precautionary measures to some members of el barzón, and with this, we have managed to force the authorities to sit at an inter-institutional table to design an operation for the closure of illegal wells (mexican farmer a). . water access in the rio del carmen watershed in mexico, water is divided into consumptive uses: agricultural, public supply, self-supply for industry, and thermoelectric; and non-consumptive use for hydroelectric plants (athie ). the main water use in the watershed is agricultural. in the flores magon-villa ahumada aquifer it represents . % of water use, in the santa clara aquifer it represents %, and in the laguna de patos aquifer it represents . % (conagua ). cultural diversity has created different models of agricultural production, and the interests that underlie each one are antagonistic, adding complexity to the system (manzanares rivera ). for instance, modern mennonites use an agricultural model that manzanares rivera ( ) called highly specialized emerging developments, which consists of the execution of very intensive farming practices implemented through technologies that optimize agricultural production. modern mennonites state their agriculture is sustainable and brings great benefits. when asked whether they considered their agricultural developments could continue over the next years, they replied “yes, i think there is enough water and there are not so many wells in the area” (mennonite b), “i believe it is going to get better” (mennonite a). this agricultural model has made chihuahua one of the main agricultural producers and exporters in mexico (manzanares rivera ), producing tonnes of maize ha- y- (quintana ). implementation of high-efficiency irrigation practices and technologies to access groundwater resources is expensive, as a conagua official said: a kilometre of electrical cabling costs , pesos approximately, drilling of wells costs , pesos approximately, plus water well equipment of , pesos, and the irrigation system that costs , pesos per hectare; this is a big investment (conagua official b). however, this agricultural model puts pressure on scarce water resources, (quintana ), since it underlies “a business vision with large-scale agricultural production” (mexican farmer a). given these circumstances, and experiences of this agricultural model in other aquifers where mennonites have settled, this intensive water use has several negative effects on wes, risking the continuity of agricultural activities and neglecting sustainability (manzanares rivera ). there are also the mexican farmers. according to manzanares rivera, ( ) ejidatarios do not use water resources intensively, and commonly their agricultural practices are oriented towards subsistence. however, quintana ( ) noted, from to the irrigation district el carmen increased its irrigation area by %, with the mexican farmers in the flores magon-villa ahumada increasing their agricultural area by . % per year. in principle, this should not have happened, as the irrigation district has had the same water rights since its creation. an ejidatario said: we have a water use right granted based on the land that was given to the ejido founders. those are plots of ha for each ejidatario, which is entitled to make use of , m y- of groundwater per year; according to technical data and irrigation sheets, that volume of water should be sufficient. as for the surface water that corresponds to the las lajas dam, we are at the mercy of rainfall and the rain catchment in the dam, so from the ha only to ha at most are sown, so we always have land without irrigation for lack of water at the dam (mexican farmer a). finally, there are the private farmers who have a traditional production model. they conserve their grasslands for livestock or mix rainfed agriculture with water exploitation. however, some have been encouraged to investment in irrigation systems that allow more intensive use of water resources, since they have seen the large profits made by modern mennonites (quintana ). a state government official stated that: although they [mexican farmers] have the right to use water, that does not give them the right to abuse water resources. farmers in the rio del carmen watershed are sowing a huge number of walnuts, which will cause a water collapse in the area; it is necessary to impose a plan that achieves the sustainability of the watershed, which mennonites and mexican farmers should abide (state government official b). some private farmers have modified their practices, expanding into more water-demanding crops, because of the profits they generate. the massive planting of these species is unsustainable, as a conagua official said “those crops are very likely to collapse, due the watershed typology where the average extraction per well is litres per second, which is insufficient for plots of ha” (conagua official b); yet, the private farmers planting them see these crops as “patrimonial since they can last years producing, so my children can inherit them, and so on” (mexican farmer b). six main problems regarding water access have shaped water overexploitation in the watershed (the relationship of each stakeholder group with these problems is shown in table ): . unsuitable cropping: the main crops are chilli, alfalfa, walnut, cotton, sorghum, and corn, but because of the high water quantities they require they are not suitable for the watershed (personal communication, conagua official c). . illegal removal of grasslands: illegal land use change, where grasslands have become cultivation plots, has placed significant pressure on water resources. according to the ministry of the environment and natural resources, there are no records of any authorization for land use change regarding the creation of irrigation plots in the rio del carmen watershed (semarnat ); so land conversion after was carried out illegally. . non-compliance with the law: according to a conagua official “conflicts should be attacked through legality. farmers already have an inclination to solve problems through the law” (conagua official c). however, law enforcement has been difficult due to corruption within conagua (murillo-licea and soares-moraes ; athie ), and legal procedures are “only simulation acts without any consequences for those who break the law” (mexican farmer a). . poor water management: as a conagua official stated: the problem is that we have many budget cuts, so the problem of chihuahua, being a dryland state... with several issues due to drought, we need more personnel, we have very few inspectors, and they are not enough for the number of water exploitations or the number of inspection visits they should make… we cannot properly manage water with the limited personnel we have (conagua official d). this is the year in which the general law of sustainable forest development was issued, which establishes the requirements for changing the use of land. . climate change: the watershed has suffered increased drought, “which means the watershed does not produce the minimum water amount established in law for its availability” (conagua official c). . perverse incentives for overexploitation: water for agricultural use has no taxation (athie ), the cost of electric power for water exploitation is subsidised and farmers have access to grants. water use and extraction is therefore very cheap, contributing to its overexploitation. these economic incentives mean that water cannot be adequately valued since they encourage excessive use, altering adversely the way wes are perceived (quintana ; athie ). table relationship between stakeholder groups and indentified problems in the rio del carmen watershed stakeholder group identified problem conagua mennonites mexican farmers unsuitable crop species there is no crop regulation in the watershed legal framework. “i started with alfalfa and cotton, but now i sow corn” (mennonite b). “the crops that are developed in the region are jalapeno chilli, red chilli, alfalfa and walnut” (mexican farmer a). illegal removal of grasslands semarnat is in charge of grassland management. this situation is taking place in the santa clara aquifer, as the mennonites have access to loans and machinery to convert grasslands to farmland. increase of the agricultural frontier has been carried by both mennonites and mexican farmers (athie ). poor water management “we still have not managed to measure how much water is being extracted in the watershed” (conagua official c). mennonites do not participate in any water management processes. mexican farmers have been trying to create and establish working groups for improving water management. non-compliance with the law water depletion shows conagua’s inefficiency in law enforcement. the closed access declaration has failed to guarantee water “mennonites have many legal advisers, they have filed requests for defence to stop administrative processes against some mexican farmers have begun to break the law, as they have witnessed there are no consequences for doing so. exploitation to the irrigation district, and water availability does not meet the minimum required by law. them” (conagua official b). climate change “water rights were granted in a regular or average state of the watershed, under other environmental conditions, and given the decrease in runoff, conflicts have increased” (conagua official c). “in the last few years there has been no drought problem, it has rained for the farmers” (mennonite a). “we have been having problems with the crops, this year we did not have the frosts that the walnut needs, and we had atypical hailstorms that damaged our crops” (mexican farmer a). perverse incentives for overexploitation electric subsidies and grants can be obtained only by water right holders. they benefit from these economic incentives. they benefit from these economic incentives. . stakeholders’ perceptions of wes in the rio del carmen watershed wes are the benefits that contribute to human well-being, obtained from freshwater ecosystems, like rivers, lakes, groundwater, and wetlands (martin-ortega et al. ). they are divided into: ) supporting services like soil formation and nutrient cycling, ) regulating services like water and climate regulation, ) provisioning services such as water and food supply, and ) cultural services like recreation, tourism and cultural identity (safriel et al. ). informal institutions such as stakeholders’ perceptions and formal institutions like the water legal framework (prell et al. ), shape the way these services are procured and thus the way water is accessed and managed (díaz et al. ; gunderson et al. ). conagua cannot go beyond what the legal framework establishes, so its institutional perception of wes is firmly limited to what is established in national water law. accordingly, in this law, water has no environmental value, only a fiscal value, hence it has a coercive economic procedure – an administrative process through which the government requires citizens to comply with their fiscal obligations – which separates it from environmental law (personal communication, garcia de icaza, ). indeed, the only penalties that the national water law applies are pecuniary (athie ), which do not guarantee or pursue the restoration of water or its related ecosystem services. therefore, conagua is restricted to the economic management of water resources. in addition, within conagua, perceptions of the watershed’s environmental condition differ among officials. while one interviewee said that there is no ecological deterioration in the area. we have been monitoring groundwater quality, and no variation or deterioration in water quality caused by overexploitation has been detected. the same quality of water has been maintained for many years (conagua official c); another stated that: there have been a lot of changes since , we have more drought occurrences in the watershed, which has meant that the watershed does not produce the water that the nom- establishes for the availability of water… downstream, now there is the presence of iron and fluorine, and we have evidence that arsenic is increasing. at this rate, we will have to discard these sources of water supply (conagua official b). water quality is paramount in dryland systems. disparities within conagua make it very difficult to conserve water regulating services that allow infiltration processes that both improve water quality and sustain its quantity. nevertheless, some conagua officials recognise the relationship between vegetation loss and provisioning and regulating services: · mexican official standard which states the determination method for water availability, which includes the natural discharge compromised to secure ecosystem functions. more grasslands are being removed and more shrubs, oaks, conifers are being felled, which influences the lack of water and fosters climate change. if there is no water production, then the aquifer is not recharged, nor is there any runoff for the las lajas dam (conagua official b). furthermore, the differences in how modern mennonites and mexican farmers perceive wes (figure ) are reflected in the way they use water for agriculture. modern mennonites perceive wes as an inexhaustible source of inputs for agricultural production. this relates to their religious beliefs that water is limitless because god provides it (burnett ). also, their education plays an important role. schooling is provided until secondary level in low german, after which they work on the farms, so not all of them can read and write in spanish (personal communication, mennonite b). this limits their access to updated information related to watershed state: “they are a closed group, they provide their own schooling, they do not receive education on natural sciences or issues related to water and hydrologic cycles” (mexican farmer a). these two reasons would explain why mennonites in the watershed do not account for or recognise wes. moreover, they also explain why it makes no sense to mennonites that conagua and mexican farmers want to restrict their water access; hence attempts to solve the conflicts in the watershed through the conciliation process fail. although mexican farmers’ economic activities rely on water use, most of them recognize the value of wes in supporting their livelihoods, including the relationship between grasslands and water resources. as an ejidatario said “there are fewer plants in the soil, and with the torrential rains there is no infiltration, a lot of soil loss, and less water. with good grassland management water would be allowed to permeate and recharge the aquifers, but they are running out” (mexican farmer a). even so, mennonites perceive those agricultural practices as inefficient, as an interviewee said “they [ejidatarios] don't want us to irrigate our lands, they don’t want us to use water, they want all the water for themselves but in the end, they do not even use it” (mennonite a). mexican farmers recognise the finite nature of wes, and their importance in provisioning and regulating water, as well as supporting soil formation. despite this, some private farmers are starting to prioritize economic benefits by using crops that are unsuitable for the current context of the rio del carmen watershed, which increases the pressure on water resources and generates another area of conflict (figure ). figure stakeholder perceptions, compatibilities and conflict areas for restoration of water ecosystem services. discussion this paper has identified the key stakeholders in the rio del carmen watershed; unravelled water access; highlighted the main drivers that have shaped it; and examined how wes are perceived by key stakeholders. it provides an important contribution to discussions regarding the required conditions for an adaptive model of governance to be successful, by understanding the governance context and the institutions that comprise it. the main problem is that some farmers have suffered from overexploitation of water, causing conflicts over its access. the water access crisis is a consequence of unsuitable crop species, illegal removal of grasslands, non-compliance with the law, poor water management, climate change, and perverse incentives for overexploitation (table ). this water governance failure is a clear barrier to system adaptation, since degradation of wes substantially restricts dryland systems' adaptive capacity (mortimore et al. ). stakeholder participation is critical for increasing adaptability (folke et al. ), hence, farmers have a significant role in the governance of wes, as they are selecting crops, removing grasslands and extracting water (chaffin et al. ). as resource users, farmers must be involved in water regulation, cooperate in monitoring, participate in decision-making processes, collaborate and generate knowledge for improving water governance, however, there are barriers. lack of awareness about the importance of wes for the perpetuation of freshwater ecosystems has resulted in non-compliance with formal institutions that seek to protect the rio del carmen watershed, and their relevance is ignored. informal institutions, like modern mennonites’ agricultural practices, have not changed despite the existing water legal framework because of a lack of awareness of ecological processes, and because “informal constraints that are culturally derived will not change immediately in reaction to changes in the formal rules” (north, , p. ). hence, modifying stakeholders’ perceptions by generating and sharing knowledge is an entry point for enabling awg, but also, an important principle that needs to be embedded to avoid undesired states and to better understand social processes (stringer et al. ). mennonites’ beliefs and perceptions determine their intentions, which are externalized through their behaviours in order to obtain desired outcomes (schlüter et al. ), like building family heritage through intensive farming practices. most mexican farmers like ejidatarios do not share those intentions because they have opposing perceptions about wes. this results in two incompatible behaviours creating a major obstacle for solving conflicts. co-creating knowledge between conagua, mennonites, and mexican farmers offers potential for understanding decision-making behaviours and improving social learning, as well as engaging them in processes in which their perceptions are considered. learning processes that allow a shared vision of the wes to be established, offer potential to facilitate collaboration between stakeholders (medema et al. ). collaboration is key as it can mitigate current conflicts, create networks, and enhance participation in decision-making: basic elements of adaptive governance (decaro et al. ). moreover, conagua’s lack of resources and its inability to enforce the law has led to a quasi-open access regime, where informal institutions have surpassed the formal institutions that seek to regulate water access. accordingly, governance failures have driven some stakeholders to take action (pahl-wostl et al. ). el barzon has been most active, looking to change the undesirable state by taking on a leadership role. leadership is a critical factor for social learning (garmestani and benson ), but it needs to be directed towards creating networks and building trust between stakeholders, enabling collaboration and allowing emergence of an adaptive governance model (chaffin et al. ). el barzon have already taken the initiative to reconcile conflicts and collaborate with mennonites, and currently, they have convened an inter-institutional roundtable to try to solve the problems. however, barriers in their processes have not allowed them to reach favourable results. first, this is taking place in an “unmanageability” context, with lack of participation or "action" from key stakeholders in the watershed. this means el barzon is framing and structuring the problem according to their own perceptions, without other stakeholder inputs (pahl-wostl et al. ), so their processes lack legitimacy, accountability and representativeness (chaffin et al. ). even though el barzon is trying to remedy conagua’s deficiencies in conserving wes, informal networks require legitimacy to design and implement formal measures that will address the problem (Österblom and folke ). conagua needs to start getting involved in these participatory processes and encourage the participation of mennonites, which ultimately will increase acceptance of and compliance with formal institutions (cosens ). lack of participation and collaboration by mennonites can be attributed to two issues: ) stakeholders will not participate if they feel they are considered responsible for the problem, and ) lack of awareness of water issues decreases stakeholders’ interest to participate (medema et al. ). despite the potential for creating a common vision through knowledge co-creation, it is paramount that communication during these processes is facilitated by experts in community engagement and participatory processes; preserving that shared vision in situations with opposite views and conflicts between stakeholders (medema et al. ). besides el barzon’s interest and leadership, capacities and resources from both mennonites and conagua are required for this collaborative process to succeed. another barrier is el barzon’s militant characteristics. conceptual differences hinder good relationships with the other groups. however, developing mutual goals for addressing a collective problem should help to foster greater openness. an ejidatario said that “as an organization, we always bet on dialogue, sometimes with actions of civil resistance but alwa ys willing to make proposals and resolve the conflicts” (mexican farmer a). a similar situation was experienced in the klamath river in the usa. after legal, political and physical conflicts over water access and no positive outcomes, key stakeholders took the lead to solve their problems by developing a common vision (chaffin et al. ). to legitimize this process in the watershed, conagua needs to play its role and establish a formal process that allows rapprochement between mennonites and mexican farmers. it needs to be clear for all stakeholders that water is finite and running low in the rio del carmen watershed. if economic profit is prioritised in the use of wes, it is necessary to have better control over water access, at least until a balance is achieved between recharge and extraction, and ultimately, to preserve the economic value of the watershed. unpacking the governance context is necessary to find the system’s potential to apply awg (gunderson et al. ). several structural and institutional complexities constitute obstacles (e.g. incompatible perceptions; poor management on conagua’s part). knowledge co- creation is critical for increasing adaptability, but unravelling stakeholder perceptions and how they shape water access demonstrates how this process is a real and necessary entry point for enabling awg. however, recognising the system’s potential by understanding how society accesses and perceives wes, is only the first –necessary – step for enabling awg in a water scarce context. investigating the complexities of the relationships between governance actors, along with assessing the legal system that regulates the structures, capacities and processes of the governance system, are subsequent steps (chaffin et al. ; cosens et al. ), and would apply in both the rio del carmen and beyond. conclusion conservation of wes is imperative to build adaptive capacity in dryland systems. success of awg is based on recognition of the environmental state and stakeholders’ perceptions of wes, which ultimately indicate how and why water is accessed. this paper has three major conclusions. first, informal institutions like stakeholders’ perceptions that are shaped by their cultural heritage can have a major influence, even more so than formal institutions. these perceptions of wes have led to the breach of formal institutions through illegal water exploitation and illegal conversion of grasslands, resulting in social and environmental crisis in the watershed. second, undesirable states can foster the emergence of leadership among stakeholders in order to change system conditions. for instance, the social movement “defenders of the water of the chihuahuan desert”, where the grassroots organization el barzon has participated actively in the conflicts over water access, has emerged as a consequence of this situation. third, even in ses with poor water management carried out by inefficient authorities, by unpacking societal perceptions and their underlying institutional context, entry points for enabling awg can be found. it is important to be aware of the issues that led the system to an undesirable state in order to address and avoid them via participatory processes. deeply rooted perceptions, lack of information and incompatibility among stakeholders are key barriers identified in the rio del carmen watershed. however, the ability of key stakeholders to unify and develop a common vision in the watershed is a pre-requisite to conserve wes and increase system adaptive capacity. acknowledgments the first author acknowledges financial support from conacyt-secretaria de energia-sustentabilidad energetica grant no. . references athie k ( ) el agua, ayer y hoy. camara de diputados lxiii legislatura, mexico city bernard hr ( ) research methods in anthropology鳥: qualitative and quantitative approaches, th edn. altamira, maryland bhattacherjee a ( ) social science research: principles, methods, and practices, book . textbooks collection burnett v ( ) mennonite farmers prepare to leave mexico, and competition for water. new york times a chaffin bc, garmestani as, gosnell h, craig rk ( ) institutional networks and adaptive water governance in the klamath river basin, usa. environ sci policy : – . doi: . /j.envsci. . . chaffin bc, gosnell h, cosens ba ( ) a decade of adaptive governance scholarship: synthesis and future directions. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - cjf ( ) consejo de la judicatura federal. respuesta a solicitud de informacion . http://www.plataformadetransparencia.org.mx/web/guest/inicio?p_p_id=buscadoresportl et_war_buscadoresportlet&p_p_lifecycle= &p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view &p_p_col_id=column- &p_p_col_count= &_buscadoresportlet_war_buscadoresportlet_action=buscardores po. accessed oct conabio ( ) comisión nacional para el conocimiento y uso de la biodiversidad. la biodiversidad en chihuahua: estudio de estado. mexico conagua ( ) disponibilidad por acuíferos: comision nacional del agua. https://www.gob.mx/conagua/acciones-y-programas/chihuahua- . accessed sep cosens b ( ) application of the adaptive water governance project to the management of the lake eyre basin and its connections to the great artesian basin, report to flinders university and the goyder institution. adelaide, south australia cosens ba ( ) legitimacy, adaptation, and resilience in ecosystem management. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - cosens ba, craig rk, hirsch sl, et al ( ) the role of law in adaptive governance. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - decaro da, chaffin bc, schlager e, et al ( ) legal and institutional foundations of adaptive environmental governance. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - diario oficial de la federacion ( ) acuerdo que establece el distrito de riego de el carmen, en san buenaventura y villa ahumada, chih., y declara de utilidad pública la construcción de las obras que lo formen y la adquisición de los terrenos necesarios para alojarlas y operarlas. diario oficial de la federacion, mexico diario oficial de la federacion ( ) acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de agua subterránea de los acuíferos de los estados unidos mexicanos, mismos que forman parte de las regiones hidrológico-administrativas que se indican. in: dir. gen. la com. nac. del agua, Órgano adm. desconcentrado la secr. medio ambient. y recur. nat. http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / . accessed aug diario oficial de la federacion ( ) resolucion sobre dotación de aguas, solicitada por vecinos del poblado denominado benito juarez, antes enriquez y punta de alamos, municipio de buenaventura, chih. in: el pres. const. los estados unidos mex. http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / . accessed sep díaz s, demissew s, carabias j, et al ( ) the ipbes conceptual framework — connecting nature and people. curr opin environ sustain : – . doi: . /j.cosust. . . dicicco-bloom b, crabtree bf ( ) the qualitative research interview. med educ : – . doi: . /j. - . . .x folke c, hahn t, olsson p, norberg j ( ) adaptive governance of social- ecological systems. annu rev environ resour : – . doi: . /annurev.energy. . . forouzani m, karami e, zamani gh, moghaddam kr ( ) agricultural water poverty: using q-methodology to understand stakeholders’ perceptions. j arid environ : – . doi: . /j.jaridenv. . . garmestani a, benson m ( ) a framework for resilience-based governance of social- ecological systems. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - gunderson lh, cosens b, garmestani as ( ) adaptive governance of riverine and wetland ecosystem goods and services. j environmenal manag : – . doi: . /j.jenvman. . . huang j, yu h, guan x, et al ( ) accelerated dryland expansion under climate change. nat clim chang : – . doi: . /nclimate inegi ( ) síntesis de información geográfica del estado de chihuahua. aguascalientes, mexico kohlbacher f ( ) the use of qualitative content analysis in case study research. forum qual sozialforsch / forum qual soc res : – manzanares rivera jl ( ) hacer florecer al desierto: análisis sobre la intensidad de uso de los recursos hídricos subterráneos y superficiales en chihuahua, méxico. cuad desarro rural : – . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /javeriana.cdr - .hfda martin-ortega j, ferrier r, gordon i, khan s ( ) water ecosystem services: a global perspective. cambridge university press, cambridge medema w, adamowski j, orr c, et al ( ) building a foundation for knowledge co- creation in collaborative water governance: dimensions of stakeholder networks facilitated through bridging organizations. water : . doi: . /w mortimore m, anderson s, union. i--twc, et al ( ) dryland opportunities鳥: a new paradigm for people, ecosystems and development. iucn, iucn鳥; london鳥: iied鳥; new york鳥: undp, gland, switzerland murillo-licea d, soares-moraes d ( ) el péndulo de la gobernabilidad y la gobernanza del agua en méxico. tecnol y ciencias del agua : – north dc ( ) institutions, institutional change, and economic performance. cambridge university press, cambridge Österblom h, folke c ( ) emergence of global adaptive governance for stewardship of regional marine resources. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - pahl-wostl c, holtz g, kastens b, knieper c ( ) analyzing complex water governance regimes: the management and transition framework. environ sci policy : – . doi: . /j.envsci. . . prell c, reed ms, racin l, hubacek k ( ) competing structure, competing views: the role of formal and informal social structures in sahping stakeholder perceptions. ecol soc : . doi: quintana vm ( ) nuevo orden alimentario y disputa por el agua en el norte de méxico. apunt rev ciencias soc : – . doi: . /apuntes. . reed ms, graves a, dandy n, et al ( ) who’s in and why? a typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management. j environ manage : – . doi: . /j.jenvman. . . safriel u, adeel z, niemeijer d, et al ( ) ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. island press, washington dc schlüter m, baeza a, dressler g, et al ( ) a framework for mapping and comparing behavioural theories in models of social-ecological systems. ecol econ : – . doi: . /j.ecolecon. . . semarnat ( ) secretaria de medio ambiente y recursos naturales. respuesta a solicitud de informacion stringer lc, reed ms, fleskens l, et al ( ) a new dryland development paradigm grounded in empirical analysis of dryland systems science. l degrad dev. doi: . /ldr. young or ( ) institutional dynamics: resilience, vulnerability and adaptation in environmental and resource regimes. glob environ chang : – . doi: . /j.gloenvcha. . . book reviews the most important of six factors in bringing about the decision. he asserts t h a t allied propaganda accentuated many of these factors, but t h a t i t would not have borne f r u i t without receptive soil. unfortunately, except f o r t h c defense of neutral rights, the majority of hoosiers gave little thought to the relation of belligerency and american foreign policy. “their failure was of little consequence in the prosecution of the w a r , f o r they agreed well enough on the immediate target. but what was unessential in w a r might be crucial in making peace.” the farmer’s last frontiey, agriculture, - . by fred a. shannon (volume v of t h e economic history of the united states, f a r r a r & rinehart, inc., new york, c. , pp. xii, . text edition, $ . , t r a d e edition, $ . .) with the appearance of this volume a new co-operative economic history is introduced. the series is to contain nine volumes. the period before will be described i n two general volumes, the years from to will be treated in a volume devoted to agriculture and another to industry, the period from to will also be covered i n this manner, while the present century will be described in three general volumes. if the others meet the high standards set by this one, history will be enriched by a significant and thorough treatment of the economic development of the united states. the absence of a work of this type has been a notable defect of historical literature. this volume is f i r s t of all a comprehensive account of agricultural developments from the beginning of the civil w a r to the end of the century. it also summarizes i n the excellent footnote citations and in the final bibliographical chapter the scholarly literature and much of the source ma- terial concerning the subject. occasionally one fails to find a n important work included, but t h a t is rarely true. it sets f o r t h conclusions and interpretations at variance with older works particularly in relation to the national land policy. after noting t h a t the fundamental basis of the farmers’ difficulties on the last frontier were the differences of soil, climate, and distance, the author described the rapid settle- ment which was often influenced by artificial stimulants max p. allen. indiana imagazine o f history supplied by t h e railroads, states, and land companies. the corporations, railroads, cattle and lumber barons, and land companies were the chief beneficiaries of t h e land laws ac- cording to the author’s analysis. his judgments a r e reflected in a group of quotations. “in its operations the homestead act could hardly have defeated the hopes of the enthusiasts of - more completely if the makers had actually drafted i t with t h a t purpose uppermost i n mind [p. .” “it tempted settlers out to the arid stretches where a quar- t e r section was barely enough f o r t h e grazing of two or three cattle [p. .” “the [railroad] companies were not only given their railroads-they were given a bonus [usually land] to accept them [p. .” “some $ , , were paid to indian tribes to quiet their claims, and then t h e land was turned over t o speculators a t less t h a n cost [p. .” the agricultural reorganization of the south a f t e r with its labor system of tenant f a r m e r s and s h a r e croppers and its credit system of crop mortgages is also critically examined. “the outright confiscation of large p a r t s of es- tates created by slave labor, to make f a r m s f o r freedmen, would in the long r u n have created more prosperity f o r t h e section t h a n the growth of land monopolization t h a t took place instead, and t h e simultaneous establishment of a sys- tem of quasi serfdom t h a t left the toilers without ambition and t h e landlord with ruined soils and finances [pp. - ].” the classes of the south where the crop-lien system predom- inated were “the landlord-merchant-banker-capitalist group, numbering approximately a sixth of t h e total population and having all t h e political power; [and] . . . t h e bulk of field workers, living from enfeebled hand t o empty mouth [p. .” even in the north central states “a remarkable growth in tenancy” occurred which was not checked by t h e mechan- ization of the farms. the expansion of prairie agriculture in t h e great plains led to the plowing of t h e g r a s s lands t h a t should have been reserved f o r grazing. both t h e “little fellow” and the “bonanza f a r m e r ” often failed. the live- stock frontier ,was another story of injustice a n d special privilege, and the cowboy was f a r less romantic t h a n usually pictured. problems of the west a r e discussed in the light of the agrarian revolt and t h e co-operative movement which a r e also described sympathetically. eastern adjustments, the declining position of the f a r m e r s in the nation, and his book reviews social life a r e not overlooked in completing the story. perhaps some views of t h e author have been over- emphasized, but one can scarcely avoid t h e feeling t h a t he has offered a few judgments t h a t a r e somewhat extreme in his treatment of the great plains and the south. his analysis is skillful and scholarly and the total picture may not be overdrawn. the illustrations and charts a r e excel- lent. the binding of the textbook edition is not attractive and is so light in color t h a t it will soil readily and become less attractive. although much of the volume is not con- cerned with t h e middle west, i t presents the background f o r understanding the agricultural development of this region. w a r , peace, and nonresistance. by guy franklin hersh- berger. (the herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, , pp. xv, . $ . .) the history of nonresistance and t h e scriptural and doctrinal teachings upon which it is founded f o r m the sub- ject of this volume. i t s preparation was undertaken some years ago a s a commission from t h e peace problems commit- tee of the mennonite church. its purposes were t o clarify the position of the church from its beginning to the present war and to strengthen the members in maintaining t h a t position a s individuals. the author i s professor of history and sociology a t goshen college, a mennonite college at goshen, indiana. the work is significant to the historian as a n historical account of the mennonites’ reaction against w a r from t h e sixteenth century to the present, and a s a resume of other important pacifist attitudes, but more especially as a means of understanding the mennonites and their unique position in indiana and in other states and nations. some historical material is included in the f i r s t f o u r chapters which give the doctrinal basis of nonresistance. these chapters review “war in history,” “peace a n d w a r in the old testament,” “nonresistance in the new testament,” and peace and war and the church. the mennonites trace their origin to the anabaptists in switzerland in . f r o m here they spread to holland, germany, france, and russia, often fleeing from persecution. those most interested in preserving the nonresident way of life came t o america, john d. barnhart. chh volume issue cover and front matter church history studies in christianity & culture american s o c i e t y of church history s e p t e m b e r core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president peter w. williams, miami university president-elect ronald l. numbers, university of wisconsin-madison secretar y-treasurer henry w. bowden, rutgers university assistant secretary melissa b. kirkpatrick, the american university editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater h a n s j . hillerbrand grant wacker duke university members of the council class of lewis v. baldwin mary f. bednarowski ralph keen- mark r. valeri rebecca h. weaver class of yvonne chireau philip krey amanda porterfield m \ r k g. toulouse charles i. wallace class of j o h n h. erickson alan hayes evelyn kirkley amy oden john piper the society was founded in by philip schaff, was reorganized in , and was incorporated by act of the legislature of the state of new york in . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. september no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history © , the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater hans j. hillerbrand grant wacker senior assistant to the editors jay s. f. blossom assistants to the editors caroline t. schroeder anne blue wills duke university associate editors william adler north carolina state university david aers duke university peter iver kaufman university of north carolina at chapel hill laurie f. maffly-kipp university of north carolina at chapel hill robert bruce mullin the general theological seminary russell e. richey duke university david c. steinmetz duke university thomas a. tweed university of north carolina at chapel hill advisory editors jon butler yale university caroline walker bynum columbia university averil cameron keble college, oxford university robert e. frykenberg university of wisconsin-madison nathan o. hatch university of notre dame christine leigh heyrman university of delaware e. brooks holifield emory university hartmut lehmann max planck institute, university of gottingen patricia cox miller syracuse university heiko a. oberman university of arizona robert a. orsi indiana university andrew porter king's college, university of london john h. van engen university of notre dame merry wiesner-hanks university of wisconsin-milwaukee church history (issn - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles the role of godly magistrates in the church: melanchthon as luther's interpreter and collaborator james m. estes madame guyon and experiential theology in america patricia a. ward theology as entertainment: oral debate in american religion e. brooks holifield french politics and alfred loisy's modernism harvey h i l l the shift from character to personality in mainline protestant thought, - heather a. warren books book reviews and notes kiley, mark, et al., eds., prayer from alexander to constantine: a critical anthology william r mcdonald sharer, peter, judeophobia: attitudes toward the jews in the ancient world paula fredriksen early church fathers: book collection on cd-rom james j . o'donnell hultgren, a r l a n d j . , a n d steven a . h a g g m a r k , eds., the earliest christian heretics: readings from their opponents gary r. brower salisbury, j o y c e e., perpetua's passion: the death and memory of a young roman woman a m y g. oden perkins, judith, the suffering self: pain and narrative representation in the early christian era dennis e. trout elliott, t. g., the christianity of constantine the great charles odahl b u r r u s , virginia, the making of a heretic: gender, authority, and the priscillianist controversy richard valantasis macmullen, ramsay, christianity and paganism in the fourth to eighth centuries averil c a m e r o n urbainczyk, theresa, socrates of constantinople: historian of church and state richard lim amory, patrick, people and identity in ostrogothic italy, - michael m a a s power, kim, veiled desire: augustine on women maureen a. tilley o'rourke boyle, marjorie, divine domesticity: augustine of thagaste to teresa of avila merry wiesner-hanks l e m a i t r e , j e a n - l o u p , michel dmitriev, a n d pierre g o n n e a u , eds., moines et monastères dans les sociétés de rite grec et latin: Études publiées avec le concours de la fondation singer-polignac david paul hester core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core potts, cassandra, monastic revival and regional identity in early normandy charles b. paris epstein, marc michael, dreams of subversion in medieval jewish art and literature kalman p. bland vauchez, andre, and jean birrell, trans., sainthood in the later middle ages maiju lehmijoki-gardner voolstra, sjouke, menno simons: his image and message william c. ringenberg maag, karin, ed., the reformation in eastern and central europe gregory j. miller o'reilly, terence, from ignatius loyola to john of the cross: spirituality and literature in sixteenth-century spain carlos m. n. eire chatellier, louis, and brian pearce, trans., the religion of the poor: rural missions in europe and the formation of modern catholicism, c. - kathleen m. comerford boersma, owe, and auke j. jelsma, eds., unity in multiformity: the minutes of the coetus of london, , and the consistory minutes of the italian church of london, - peter iver kaufman schutte, anne jacobson, transc, transl., ed., cecelia ferrazzi: autobiography of an aspiring saint charmarie j. blaisdell wiesner-hanks, merry, ed., joan skocir, and merry wiesner-hanks, trans., convents confront the reformation: catholic and protestant nuns in germany marygrace peters, o.p. parnham, david, sir henry vane, theologian: a study in seventeenth-century religious and political discourse jameela lares coffey, john, politics, religion and the british revolutions: the mind of samuel rutherford dewey d. wallace jr. swatland, andrew, the house of lords in the reign of charles ii gary s. de krey hinds, hilary, god's englishwomen: seventeenth-century radical sectarian writing and feminist criticism paul wesley chilcote herrick, james a., the radical rhetoric of the english deists: the discourse of skepticism, - charles wallace jr. kaufman, peter iver, prayer, despair, and drama: elizabethan introspection norman jones butler, jon, and harry s. stout, eds., religion in american history: a reader mark a. noll stout, harry s., and d. g. hart, eds., new directions in american religious history robert bruce mullin gilpin, w. clark, a preface to theology e. brooks holifield shriver, george h., ed., dictionary of heresy trials in american christianity david r. bains faull, katherine m., trans., moravian women's memoirs: their related lives, - catherine a. brekus helmstadter, richard, ed., freedom and religion in the nineteenth century charles d. cashdollar compton, todd, in sacred loneliness: the plural wives of joseph smith gerald e. jones vogel, dan, ed., early mormon documents. vol. thomas g. alexander weaver, j. denny, keeping salvation ethical: mennonite and amish atonement theology in the late nineteenth century steven m. nolt howard, victor b., the evangelical war against slavery and caste: the life and times of john g. fee marty g. bell evans, christopher hodge, social gospel liberalism and the ministry of ernest fremont tittle: a theology for the middle class merrill m. hawkins jr. fahey, david m., temperance and racism: john bull, johnny reb, and the good templars william l. fox core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core denton james a., rocky mountain radical: myron w. reed, christian socialist david b. mccarthy emmons, terrence, alleged sex and threatened violence: doctor russel, bishop vladimir, and the russians in san francisco, - marks. still klejment, anne, and nancy l. roberts, eds., american catholic pacifism: the influence of dorothy day and the catholic worker movement maryj. oates knotts, alice g., fellowship of love: methodist women changing american racial attitudes, - linda m. martin chaves, mark, ordaining women: culture and conflict in religious organizations randi jones walker miller, keith graber, wise as serpents, innocent as doves: american mennonites engage washington richard g. kyle blodgett, jan, protestant evangelical literary culture and contemporary society james g. moseley dorgan, howard, in the hands of a happy god: the "no hellers" of central appalachia samuel s. hill gilbert, james, redeeming culture: american religion in an age of science michael s. hamilton miller, donald e., reinventing american protestantism: christianity in the new millennium jackson w. carroll brown, michael r, the channeling zone: american spirituality in an anxious age kelly jarrett hanegraaff, wouter, ]., new age religion and western culture: esotericism in the mirror of secular thought evelyn a. kirkley jeffrey, david lyle, people of the book: christian identity and literary culture wesley a. kort terray, laszlo g., and erik w. gritsch, trans., he could not do otherwise: bishop laps ordass, - tandy mcconnell burgess, john, the east german church and the end of communism johns. conway xing, jun, baptized in the fire of revolution: the american social gospel and the ymca in china: - jane harris munro, doug, and andrew thornley, eds., the covenant makers: islander missionaries in the pacific robert a. schneider wiles, maurice, archetypal heresy: arianism through the centuries harry o. maier prokurat, michael, alexander golitzin, and michael d. peterson, historical dictionary of the orthodox church john l. boojamra zwi werblowsky, r. ]., and geoffrey wigoder, eds., the oxford dictionary of the jewish religion shaye j. d. cohen books received society notes core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core kear.chp:corel ventura the virtuous circle of facts and values in the new western history gerry kearns department of geography, university of cambridge, cambridge, uk the relations between facts and values in the writing of historical geography need to be mutual and reinforcing. i explore this point by examining the work of a group of historians who have foregrounded the relations between facts and values. these new western historians take up themes such as social justice, regionalism, and environmentalism that have been central to the concerns of historical geographers, but they are more explicit than many historical geographers about both the political motivations behind the questions they ask and their choice of subjects to study. i consider the work of two historians, william cronon and donald worster, who have made environmentalism the core of their historical writing, and two others, richard white and patricia limerick, for whom questions of social justice inform historical interpretation. i conclude by exploring how attention to the interplay between facts and values might rekindle the utopian dimension of explicitly political historical geographies. key words: environmentalism, new western history, social justice. the new western history is a recent devel-opment that has garnered a wide audiencefor academic history by reexamining the crucial importance of the west to the political identity of the u.s. under its inspiration, public exhibitions such as the smithsonian’s “the west as america” (washington, dc, ), have questioned the central myth of the fron- tier as the place where civilization overcame savagery. this exhibition drove one senator to bewail the smithsonian’s sponsorship of “per- verted history.” as hughes ( : ) re- marked, “[s]tarting with daniel boorstin, the former librarian of congress, a whole crowd of politicos and right-wing columnists put on their boots and started kicking.” the central myth the exhibition questioned is inherently historical and geographical. it finds, as a source of the values and energy of the u.s., the process of colonization, whereby so - called “empty” space was gradually incorporated into the new republic. the “new western history” (so termed by historian patricia limerick) accuses the mythmakers of downplaying environmental destruction, injustices to native peoples, and the race, class, and gender conflicts at the heart of the imperialist process of taking the land for the new, big country. to point toward how a new historical geography of the west might attend to a new series of political agendas arising out of the new western history, this paper examines the work of contemporary historians william cronon, don- ald worster, richard white, and limerick. the new western history takes up issues that are major concerns of human geography, such as regionalism (morris ; thrift ), environ- mentalism (williams ), and social justice (smith ; harvey ). these issues, then, are not new to human geography, or even to work on the historical geography of the u.s. carl sauer ( ) posed questions about the environmental destruction entailed by the industrial civilization that displaced native american peoples from most of the continent. richard jackson ( ) has described the politics of land-use regulation. donald meinig ( , ) has put the creation of regional diversity and its political implications at the core of his account of the shaping of north america and, furthermore, has not shrunk from describing the violent taking of the land as “im- perialism.” the new western history also coa- lesces with some of the most interesting recent historical-geographical scholarship on north america, such as nostrand ( ) on the u.s.- mexico borderlands and wishart ( ) on the fate of the native peoples of nebraska. a special issue of ecumene ( [ ], ) is devoted to the discussion of some of the relations between geog- raphy and the new western history. at least one of the historians i discuss has engaged in debate annals of the association of american geographers, ( ), , pp. – © by association of american geographers published by blackwell publishers, main street, malden, ma , and cowley road, oxford, ox jf, uk. d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t with geographers. in the pages of antipode, wil- liam cronon has been attacked for being insuf- ficiently marxist, while in the journal of historical geography, he has been taken to task as insuffi- ciently postmodernist. these two sets of criticisms focus in rather different ways on the question of the relations between facts and values that is at the heart of this paper. yet there is something distinctive about the explicitly political nature of the historical agenda in the new western history that has rarely been confronted in human geog- raphy. geographers have been more willing to note the inevitability of personal bias and interest in the selection of subjects for study (wishart ) than to subject their substantive, theoreti- cal, and methodological choices to explicitly po- litical or moral review. the new western history takes cognizance of the broadening horizons of social history as the latter engages with under-researched areas such as race and gender. these topics have, in large part, forced their way onto the academic agenda by virtue of the political visibility and self- confidence of the new social movements that campaigned on behalf of their political salience in the s and s. the supposed value neutrality of historical scholarship has been fa- tally wounded by the development of social his- tory engagé (novick ; nash et al. ), opening up the prospect of two-way traffic be- tween political and historical scholarship (scott ). geographers have much to learn from debates within history, and historical geographers have certainly kept abreast of the flourishing field of social history. race and gender, for example, are topics to which jeanne kay has previously drawn the attention of historical geographers ( , , ). yet when social historians explicitly address the study of the past to the concerns of the present, few historical geographers have fol- lowed with enthusiasm. in the new western his- tory, the values of historians past and present become an explicit part of the study. because a mythology of the west is such an important part of the self-consciousness of the people of the u.s., this questioning of values has been contentious. making the circle virtuous the frontier has been the central feature of the historiographical and mythological connection between landscape and identity in the u.s. in gunfighter nation, slotkin charts the continual reworking of the frontier myth in american poli- tics and culture during this century. according to slotkin, the prevailing version of the frontier thesis has not been that of frederick jackson tu r n e r, b u t o f u. s. p r e s i de n t t h e o d o r e roosevelt. while turner stressed the impor- tance of democratic processes in frontier farming communities, roosevelt emphasized the earlier stage of the hunter securing space against “sav- agery.” it is roosevelt’s account of the origin of truly american values that has held sway in the political culture of the u.s.: a legacy of conquest, race -war, and colonialism. slotkin writes: “[w]hile turner locates the crucial dynamism in a democratic collectivity, roosevelt locates it in a successive class of heroes emerging from the strife of races to earn a neo-aristocratic right to rule” ( : ). there are, then, different values and conceptions of the good polity, and different stories are available to support them. slotkin’s analysis highlights these tangled but important connections between description and prescrip- tion, between is and ought; his work thus raises the complex question of the place of values in scholarly inquiry. most scholars today would agree that theoreti- cal categories are imbued with normative con- cerns. my interest is in making the circle between facts and values a virtuous one. in other words, what we learn about the world should inform our choice of appropriate political and moral stances. beyond the most basic of commitments, moral and political questions frequently rest on certain claims about how the world (or society) works. similarly, we need to set up theoretical categories so that we can draw ethically relevant conclu- sions from our studies. as hirst ( ) has ar- gued, blanket charges of relativism or objectivism can help us little here, for neither position is defensible or operationalizable. where two ac- counts of the same aspect of social reality are in empirical contradiction, it will not do to defend their incompatibility on the grounds of political or theoretical pluralism, nor will it do to resolve the contradiction by appealing to one’s affinity with the theoretical or empirical position of either writer of those accounts. doing so places political and theoretical concerns beyond empirical em- barrassment. unless our politics and theory are vulnerable when they engage with the empirical world, they can have little purchase on that world. the relativist might claim that empirical work cannot decide moral issues, and thus a kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t plurality of political and theoretical positions must be allowed. yet to claim that empirical work has nothing to contribute to the evaluation of political strategy is to sever the link between utopia and reality in a way that is politically dangerous and contradicted by the evident em- beddedness of all political movements, including new social movements. that embeddedness should be a matter of reflection, not denial. on the other hand, for the objectivist to suggest that one’s moral outlook should not dictate one’s sub- stantive work is also a dogmatic evasion of the dialectical interplay with which we are concerned here. i agree that empirical work cannot be judged on the basis of the political or moral sign under which it has been written. something is not to be judged as true or false simply because we agree or disagree with the political spin the writer places upon the study or even with the spin which, in a spirit of “hermeneutical suspicion” (jones : ), we imagine the writer incites us to place upon the study. it would, however, be impossible to sustain the claim that intellectual agendas are not shaped by theoretical preconcep- tions. there is a middle ground between objectiv- ism and relativism where facts and values meet, mingle, and mutually reinforce or contradict one another. we need to negotiate the middle ground, and it is here that the new western history offers some instructive examples of a virtuous circle of facts and figures (see figure ). the vanguard in this essay, i examine the relations between normative and empirical concerns in the work of perhaps the four most prominent of the new western historians, “the vanguard” (shoemaker : ): cronon, worster, white, and limer- ick. by explicating the moral concerns of their work, i intend to further explain how their nar- ratives are structured and thus open a critique that shuttles between facts and values, examining their necessary interdependence. the vanguard new western historians, by engaging with the political purposes of environmental history, ex- emplify the interdependence between facts and values in ways that are directly relevant to geography. each of these historians is concerned with environmental history in one form or another. cronon and worster may be paired as concerned with the politics of nature, while white and lim- erick are both concerned with the nature of poli- tics itself. i begin my analysis by examining figure . the virtuous circle of facts and values. the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t cronon’s differences with marxism, showing that divergent political concerns produce narratives with contrasting emphases. marx’s labor theory of value is normative in much the same way as cronon’s natural theory of value. both embody empirical claims about the world, which in turn inform political choices. there are both empirical and political contrasts between cronon and marx. i am unwilling to dismiss cronon as “ideo- logical” and “wrong” simply because he is non- marxist and thus “unscientific.” i am also denying myself the comfort of simply celebrating the di- versity of perspectives and stories. i argue that there are real differences of substance between the explanations that cronon and marx offer of the central dynamic of the colonial american economy. there are conflicting factual claims in their work that i will highlight but not claim to resolve. i then turn to the conceptions of nature, science, and capitalism in the work of worster, who is likewise concerned to establish his dis- tance from marxism. i argue that his work is based on an unhelpful demonization of tech- nology and a poorly explored vision of an alter- n a t i v e p l a u s i b l e p r e s e n t t h a t w e m i g h t conceivably inhabit. again, i argue that there are both empirical and political claims at stake here and that we can meaningfully examine their interrelations. although, like cronon and worster, white and limerick have written what might be termed environmental histories, their political concerns are less well defined as “green.” over time, white has become more explicitly concerned with questions of justice, while limerick has increasingly focused on issues of regionalism and citizenship. white is acutely aware of the dialectic between facts and values, although in drawing attention to the provisional nature of the first and the multiplicity of the second, he is keen to avoid subordinating his empirical studies to the advocacy of any particular politi- cal position. nevertheless, there is some merit in making the interconnections between facts and values a central feature in evaluating his work. his use of the metaphor of the “middle ground” invites this sort of framing of his exem- plary narratives. where white is reticent, or at best guarded, about making specific connections between nor- mative and empirical concerns, limerick is clear and unambiguous. she wants both to sustain a distinct regional consciousness in the southwest u.s. and to claim for it a heightened awareness of the multiple claims to citizenship that the history of the region allows its diverse residents. this attention to the specificities of a particular region means that, for her, the west is most definitely a place rather than a process. in this, limerick stands apart from the way cronon treats the west. for cronon, the west is a term to describe the incorporation of new territories into the emerging federal u.s. the claims of process treat the whole of the u.s. as a relevant, if changing, spatial entity. in this way, cronon can even present the study of colonial new england as part of the same frontier story. for limerick, as we will see below, this residual frontierism in cronon bespeaks a geographical bias that treats american history as having one privileged trajectory, that from the east coast to the west. instead, she claims only to be able to understand the multiculturalism of the southwest u.s. by giving equal attention to his- panic movements from the south and native american displacements to the north, as well as to the traditional frontier movement from the east. in her attention to the southwest as a dis- tinctive place, she is particularly interested in the ways that engaged art can both express historical lessons and enliven regional consciousness. a concept of citizenship serves as a yardstick, allow- ing these lessons to be drawn in her own historical writing. norms and utopias finally, i conclude by connecting the world of facts and values around the realms of norms and utopias. the connections across this pair of po- larities inflect each other. we judge the past be- cause we think it helps us to make the case that things might be different in the present. there would be no point judging the past were the course of history inevitable, fully determined, or located only in the past. thus there is a connec- tion between a belief in plausible worlds for the future and the exploration of counterfactuals in history. this is the form that historical lessons often take. furthermore, our belief in possible alternative presents and futures informs our po- litical commitments and attendant strategies (hawthorn ). yet such strategic thinking rests upon the feasibility of the alternatives we propose. historical work is one way of exploring questions of feasibility. because we think we understand why various options were closed kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t down in the past, we achieve some sense of the difficulties that might attend their pursuit in the present. these are not the only ways that political thought can be advanced, but they remain useful ones. stories about space, environment, and regions are central to many aspects of political identity and manifest destiny—which is to say that geographical imaginations shape political ones. this is a dialectic to which the new western history directs our attention, and it is quite proper that we should attend to it. theories of value william cronon is an environmental historian with strong connections to geography. among other things, he holds a joint appointment in history, geography, and environmental studies at the university of wisconsin-madison and is on the editorial board of the journal of historical geography. his two monographs, changes in the land and nature’s metropolis, concern, respec- tively, the transformation of the environments of colonial new england and of the hinterland of nineteenth-century chicago. both books are concerned with the frontier process that has been so important to the u.s. experience. he has writ- ten extensively on environmentalism, conserva- tion, and the idea of the west as a process rather than exclusively a place. the commodification of nature in all sorts of ways, cronon’s work displays a friendly respect for marxist scholarship. indeed, many of his central categories sound very marx- ist: capital, exploitation, value, and commod- ity, to name a few. changes in the land is, among other things, an account of primitive accumu- lation in new england. nature’s metropolis is, again among many other things, an examina- tion of the cultural consequences of the com- modification of nature. i want to begin, however, by establishing as irreducible and legitimate the different strategies between cronon and marx, after which i will explore the terms on which the two frameworks may be usefully brought to en- gage one another. marx’s politics aimed at the liberation of labor, whereas cronon develops a politics based on the central importance of na- ture. marx subscribed to a labor theory of value, whereas cronon is committed to a natural theory of value. for cronon, people’s relations with nature are dramatically reorganized through com- modification: the net result [of the commodification of nature] was to redefine the resources of the alaskan land- scape, pushing them beyond the needs of local sub- sistence into the realm of the market, where any good could be transformed into any other. at the same time the act of economic consumption came to be increasingly separated from the place of eco- logical production, distancing people from the con- sequences of their own acts and desires. a kind of alienation from nature was the inevitable result ( b: ). it is this alienation from nature that allows people to consume nature without paying any heed to environmental consequences. for cronon, this is a pressing concern: “[l]ike other environmental- ists, i am troubled by the many ways in which people alienate themselves from the natural world on which their lives depend” ( a: ). such a reading of alienation is related to but not quite the same as that of marx, who described how the commodification of labor power alienated workers from the products of their labors, which now confronted them as autonomous commodi- ties owned by others: [t]he worker is related to the product of his labor as to an alien object. . . . the worker places his life in the object [the commodity]; but now it [his life] no longer belongs to him, but to the object. . . . the externalization of the worker in his product means not only that his labor becomes an object, an external existence, but that it exists outside him, inde- pendently of him and alien to him, and begins to confront him as an autonomous power; . . . the life . . . bestowed on the object confronts him as hostile and alien ( [ ]: ). for marx, capital is a social relation of produc- tion rather than a physical factor of production. given a social arrangement where the means of production are privately owned as property by capitalists, while human work to produce goods is done by the propertyless, capital is the where- withal for employing wage labor. because the commodities the laborer produces belong to the capitalist, the process of production not only re- sults in the alienation of the worker; it also repro- duces the social relations of the propertied and the propertyless: the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t since the process of production is also the process of the consumption of labor-power by the capitalist, the worker’s product is not only constantly con- verted into commodities, but also into capital, i.e., into value that sucks up the worker’s value-creating power, means of subsistence that actually purchase human beings, and means of production that em- ploy the people who are doing the producing. there- fore the worker himself constantly produces objective wealth, in the form of capital, an alien power that dominates and exploits him; and the capitalist just as constantly produces labor-power, in the form of a subjective source of wealth which is abstract, exists merely in the physical body of the worker, and is separated from its own means of objectification and realization; in short, the capital- ist prod uces the worker as a wage -laborer ( [ ]: ). furthermore, for marx, “value” is the form of worth of a commodity in relation to other com- modities, what it can be exchanged for in mone- tary terms. this is in contrast to its “natural form,” what it can be used for ( [ ]: ). the difference between what the inputs to the pro- duction process can be exchanged for and what the outputs from the production process can be exchanged for is the value-added in production. this value added by work is the value of labor. it equals the wages paid to the worker (which are used to meet the worker’s subsistence needs, to reproduce the worker’s capacity for labor, also known as variable capital or the exchange value of labor power) plus the surplus value which accrues to the capitalist (pp. – ). given a circumstance in which production rests upon capitalist relations, the source of value, then, is labor. this is what the value form, as opposed to the natural form, is measuring. the value of the material inputs to the production process, then, equals the labor embodied in their earlier produc- tion, the value of dead labor. for cronon, however, capital takes on a dis- tinctly green hue. in nature’s metropolis, he writes that chicago’s growth rested upon the exploita- tion of the natural abundance of the prairie. he concludes that: “[m]uch of the capital that made the city was nature’s own” ( : – ). this, he tells us, is where value comes from. cronon also remarks that, from an ecological point of view, marx’s relations of production might better be seen as “relations of consumption, since all human labor consumes ecosystemic energy flows in the process of performing physiological and mechanical work” ( : ; emphasis in origi- nal). production, then, rests on a set of nonhu- man energies and resources that have value. cronon concludes that we “have to assign a much larger role to nature in the creation of such use value” ( : ). this belief shares similarities with but is differ- ent from marx’s formulation. in taking issue with marx, cronon is asserting one normative concep- tion of value against another: alienation from nature, not alienation of labor; natural capital, not capital as dead labor; a natural theory of value, not a labor theory of value. furthermore, cronon is quite explicit about the need for history to articulate such normative concerns, suggesting that “[i]t is because we care about the conse- quences of action that narratives—unlike most natural processes—have beginnings, middles, and ends” and that “[t]he difference between beginning and end gives us our chance to extract a moral from the rhetorical landscape. our nar- ratives take changes in the land and situate them in stories whose endings become the lessons we wish to draw from those changes” ( c: ). it is no real answer to cronon simply to show that all the points he makes are recoverable within the orthodox marxist account, by, for example, arguing that using up the natural abundance of the prairie might be understood through the concept of differential rent and its d e t e r m i n a t i o n b y s o i l f e r t i l i t y ( m a r x a[ ]: – ). nor is it enough to show that marx drew a distinction between value and use value ( [ ]: – ) that precisely captures cronon’s distinction between labor and nature. cronon and marx provide parallel though compatible accounts based on parallel but irreducible value orientations. marx was con- cerned with a utopia in which the control of labor power would be taken from the capitalist and returned to the worker: “[l]et us . . . imagine, for a change, an association of free men, working with the means of production held in common, and expending their many different forms of labor-power in full self-awareness as one single social labor force” ( [ ]: ). it is this vision, the possibility of which marx saw as im- manent in contemporary social trends (and thus as a plausible utopia), that shaped marx’s indict- ment of the capitalist relations of production under which his laboring contemporaries were starved, broken, humiliated, and reduced. cronon is likewise focused upon a better world, one where ecological sustainability and respect for all life, human and nonhuman, is paramount. his vision rests upon a sense of place, a commit- kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t ment to the local world as our home, and a recognition that we are engaged in a continuous dialogue with the earth we live in: “[h]owever we come to our love of the land . . . the important thing is that we learn to care for it as more than an abstraction. . . . the great challenge we face is to do right by the land we have made our own” ( – : ). to draw attention to the im- perative to respect nature, cronon organizes his work around a theory that valorizes nature in the present. cronon and marx thus offer two different analyses of society’s central problems, different agendas for change, and different theories of value. the natural theory of value in cronon’s work demands an intellectual engagement with society’s central problems and not just the asser- tion of a purer marxist alternative (pace merchant ; pudup ; page and walker ; saun- ders and marston , see below). in other words, even if the labor theory of value can save the phenomena cronon highlights, it does not follow that marxist theory is thereby vindicated. given the irreducibly normative content to what we find interesting about the world, it should be clear that i cannot agree with those who bemoan the fact that nature’s metropolis does “not quite add up to a general analysis of the spatial and ecological effects of nineteenth-century capitalism in a vast, inviting tract of the new world where, through much of a century, capitalism held a particular sway” (harris : ). the dream of a politique totale is as chimerical as that of an histoire totale. i cannot agree with those who assert the theoreti- cal priority of issues of labor over those of ecology by invoking the fact that “[f]or marx, labor and nature are ‘identical expressions’ such that the exploitation of labor (human property) is insepa- rable from the exploitation of nature” (saunders and marston : ). merchant’s observa- tions are more on target: “[b]y bracketing the relations of production, cronon’s critique of the market is limited to its ecological costs. . . . [t]he ultimate outcome of the bracketing of the rela- tions of production . . . is an embracement of green capitalism. the main conclusion that we as readers are left to draw is an implied admonition that the commodification of nature must some- how be made environmentally sound” (merchant : ). on grounds of both political strategy and empirical adequacy, there may be reasons to contest the particular focus of nature’s metropolis, but it can hardly be done in the name of some other all-encompassing position. it is difficult to avoid cronon’s exasperation: all narratives are partial. all succeed by ignoring vast stretches of reality. all distort the world with their selectivity. there are no genuinely totalizing narratives, just narratives that deceive their readers an d listene rs into believ ing they are such ( a: ). nor can we avoid his claim that you might easily substitute “theory” for “narrative” in the above quotation. marx and cronon on primitive accumulation i recognize that the different normative con- cerns of marx and cronon frame different ways of looking at the world. different things are val- ued and brought into focus. here i turn briefly to the engagement with marxism in cronon’s earlier changes in the land. one thing this book offers is an account of ecological transformations of new england by european farmers. here cronon ar- gues that “economic and ecological imperialisms reinforced each other” ( : ), resulting in environmental degradation. as the new england farming economy moved from a seventeenth- century subsistence base to a market-driven nineteenth-century system in which resources were treated as commodities rather than as pro- viding subsistence (p. ), the effects on nature became more marked. these, in turn, reacted upon the economy: “[e]cological pressures brought on by overgrazing and inadequate forage reinforced economic incentives flowing more di- rectly from market demand: together, the two impelled colonial movement onto new lands” (p. ). this might appear, once again, to be little more than cronon insisting on the impor- tance of ecology to supplement alternative ac- counts that focus simply on labor. at points, cronon suggests as much: [n]ot only colonial agriculture, but lumbering and the fur trade as well, were able to ignore the problem of continuous yield because of the temporary gift of nature which fueled their continuous expansion. when that gift was finally exhausted, ecosystems and economies alike were forced into new relation- ships: expansion could not continue indefinitely (p. ). yet cronon has an economic explanation for this attitude toward nature. he argues that new en- the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t gland was an economy in which labor and capital were scarce and land was substituted for both: “[l]and in new england became for the colonists a form of capital, a thing consumed for the express purpose of creating augmented wealth” (p. ). it appears here that attitudes toward nature are being explained by way of a neoclassical account of the economy in terms of the return to immo- bile, inconvertible factors of production. yet, within such a neoclassical framework, if capital was scarce, why did not the rate of interest rise to the point at which funds would have left the european economy and been invested in new england? if labor was scarce, why did not wages at the frontier swell to the point where labor would have been lured away from european town and country? the answer is, of course, that per- fect mobility of factors of production is a highly unrealistic assumption for colonial new england. this recognition highlights the institutional and material setting of production that rarely surfaces in neoclassical accounts. even within that neo- classical framework, capital and labor scarcity might as easily be explained in terms of the low price of land that encouraged an extensive system of production. but that price, in turn, reflected a political situation in which resources could be taken from native americans at little cost to the settlers themselves, returning us once again to the material and institutional context. the costs of setting up this sort of farming economy were borne in large part by the government as a military expenditure. writing of the settling of the ohio valley, aron notes that between and , eighty percent of the federal budget of the u.s. was spent on war with the native americans of ohio ( : ). in contrast to neoclassical economics, marx was very interested in the institutional setting of what he termed capitalist relations of production. instead of factors of production, he directs atten- tion toward the political and social preconditions of the appearance of “things” as factors. it is in this sense that one may speak of cronon’s changes in the land as being about primitive accumulation—the process whereby these pre- conditions are realized. without them, inde- pendent, subsistence farming is the more likely arrangement. marx described how edward wake- field’s studies of colonization led wakefield to an appreciation of the social prerequisites for the existence of capital: wakefield discovered that, in the colonies, property in money, means of subsistence, machines and other means of production does not as yet stamp a man as a capitalist if the essential complement to these things is missing: the wage-laborer, the other man, who is compelled to sell himself of his own free will. he discovered that capital is not a thing, but a social relation between persons which is mediated through things. a mr. peel, he complains, took with him from england to the swan river district of western aus- tralia means of subsistence and of production to the amount of £ , . this mr. peel even had the foresight to bring besides, , persons of the work- ing class, men, women and children. once he ar- rived at his destination, “mr. peel was left without a servant to make his bed or fetch him water from the river.” unhappy mr. peel, who provided for every- thing except the export of english relations of pro- duction to swan river! ( [ ]: – ). marx went on to offer an explanation of these colonial conditions different from that of cronon: we have seen that the expropriation of the mass of the people from the soil forms the basis of the capitalist mode of production. the essence of a free colony, on the contrary, consists in this, that the bulk of the soil is still public property, and every settler on it can therefore turn part of it into his public property and his individual means of produc- tion, without preventing later settlers from perform- ing the same operation. this is the secret both of the prosperity of the colonies and of their cancerous affliction—their resistance to the establishment of capital ( [ ]: ). this, it seems to me, is a more adequate ac- count than one which takes the relative scarcity of the different factors of production for granted. it offers a description of how such a state of affairs arose and, moreover, highlights the institutional and geographical arrangements under which matters would soon fall out differently. if cronon wanted to offer a neoclassical explanation of at- titudes to nature, he would have done better to focus on the price of land than the scarcity of capital. but if he wanted to examine the links between ecological and economic imperialism, then marx’s emphasis on capital as a social rela- tion rather than a factor of production is more adequate than an emphasis on scarcity of land or capital. what cronon adds to marx before i leave this discussion of the relations between green and marxist critiques of capital- ism, i want to comment briefly on what cronon adds to marx’s account. first, cronon is correct kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t to note that marxists pay relatively little attention to the feedbacks from nature to society. in fact, historical materialists generally display a disturb- ing lack of interest in the organization of the material basis of society, be it in terms of ecology, demography, or communications (kearns b: ). the precise consequences of this will vary from case to case, but in the case of colonial new england, a failure to recognize the extent to which the uses made of the land by early colonists proved unsustainable would indeed compromise any account of the dynamics of the agricultural economy. second, cronon is also correct to prise apart the effects of the proletarianization of labor and of the commodification of nature in his ac- count of the expansionary dynamic of capitalism. marx conflates the two in his analyses of agricul- tural capitalism in volume of capital ( [ ]:chs. – ). cronon describes a transi- tion from a subsistence to a capitalist economy in new england between the seventeenth and nine- teenth centuries: [m]ost early farmers owned their own land, hired few wage laborers, and produced mainly for their own use. markets were hemmed in by municipal regulations, high transportation costs, and medieval notions of the just price. in none of these ways does it seem reasonable to describe colonial new england as “capitalist” ( : ). from the seventeenth century, resources began to be seen increasingly as commodities: although an earlier english meaning of the word “commodity” had referred simply to articles which were “commodious” and hence useful to people . . . that meaning was already becoming archaic by the seventeenth century. in its place was the commodity as an object of commerce, one by definition owned for the sole purpose of being traded away at a profit (p. ). items such as fish, furs, and timber were increas- ingly seen as commodities, valued not for the immediate utility they brought their possessors but for the price they would bring when exchanged at market. in trying to explain ecological changes related to these commodities, we can safely point to market demand as the key causal agent (p. ). it would appear that this market orientation is independent of the existence of generalized wage labor. in other words, capitalist forms of calcula- tion and profit, and the production of commodi- ties by commodities, can proceed on the basis of owner-occupiers and can have dramatic ecologi- cal consequences, even while the economy is not yet organized on the basis of universal wage labor. this view has implications for the account of agrarian capitalism in capital. marx’s emphasis on the subordination of labor to capital led him to theorize the emergence of english agrarian capitalism primarily in terms of the emergence of agricultural wage labor during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. yet, in terms of the production of commodities by commodities and the demonstrable effects that this had on patterns of land use, there is no need to tie the emergence of capitalist calculation in production to the availability of wage labor. this theoretical point has important implica- tions for empirical, historical accounts. there has been a tendency for marxist historians to illus- trate marx’s claims about the development of agrarian capitalism rather than to consider the central assumptions on which his argument rested. in fact, in the history of english agricul- ture, there was indeed a separation, historically, between the widespread organization of farming as the production of commodities by means of commodities, and the emergence of wage labor as the primary form of work in agriculture. empiri- cally, the former did not always imply the latter. tribe argues that: capitalism can be briefly summarized as a form of economy in which consumption is separated from production, enterprises are separated and in a state of competition, and the national economy is co- ordinated according to the profitability of the com- modities sold by enterprises. . . . in principle, then, the “capitalist farm” could be either a large farm in which a farmer supervises wage-laborers, or a family farm in which family labor is supervised by a house- hold head: the absence of wage-labor does not mean that a farm is non-capitalist ( : ). cronon’s identification of the commodification of nature as the prelude to the transformation of nature by economic and ecological imperialism is a more satisfying explanation than one which saw the process of primitive accumulation as being primarily one involving the commodification of labor power. with time, the further development of the productive forces in agriculture is incon- ceivable without the exploitation of wage labor. given private ownership of land, the pursuit of scale economies in the use of machinery and other expensive inputs requires a large agricul- tural proletariat. given the technological ar- rangements of nineteenth-century agriculture, the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t for example, a point would be reached in devel- oping the land productivity of agriculture where wage labor would be an essential prerequisite. this land-intensive option becomes unavoidable once the supply of so-called “free” land is re- stricted or when land values rise for some other reason (for example, by reason of the competition for the locations most accessible to market). in some ways, then, the labor theory of value and the natural theory of value imply not only different political projects but also different sets of empirical blindspots. when they are deployed in the explanation of essentially similar phenom- ena (in this case, the ecological consequences of land-use practices in new england), we can evaluate the effects of these empirical biases. cronon’s normative concerns look toward a bet- ter world where people forge a meaningful rela- tionship with the place in which they live, allowing them to cherish its natural setting and thus sustain its natural value. the bête noire of his story of colonial new england, then, is the attitude of colonial settlers to the land which he sees as the result of its commodification. these normative concerns bring certain issues into fo- cus and leaves others in the shadows. certain facts are prioritized, and others are relegated. the crediblity of cronon’s vision of a better world must rest to some extent on the adequacy of his diagnosis of the causes of the environmental problems he describes. if things did not turn out the way he describes for the reasons he gives, then we might wonder whether they would get better if we worked for a society organized around the values he espouses. cronon prioritizes the de- struction of natural value, species variety, and numbers. for cronon, commodification con- founds the sustainability implicit in subsistence economies. imperial ecology and capitalism over the past two decades, donald worster has been one of the most influential environ- mental historians in north america. his studies in the history of environmental ideas have gained an academic and popular audience. his two main historical monographs have concerned the eco- logical disasters of the dust bowl and the extrac- tion of the waters of the colorado for the benefit of some of the people of california. among the new western historians, none has been more explicit about the normative basis of their cate- gories than worster. in the case of worster, we can trace the full virtuous circle from facts to values and back again. worster is opposed to the human domina- tion of nature. he believes that being in harmony with nature would promote a natural egalitarian- ism and a form of social solidarity rooted in the recognition of ecological interdependence. this is the basis for his attack on the exploitation of nature that he finds in what he terms, following wittfogel ( ), the hydraulic society of the western u.s. by a hydraulic society, worster means one in which the taming of rivers provides the central resource for agriculture and energy: there is no freedom for nature itself, for natural rivers as free-flowing entities with their own integ- rity and order. . . . there is nothing harmonious, nothing picturesque about the western world that has developed beside the irrigation ditch. there is little peace or tidiness or care, little sense of a rooted community. there is no equitable sharing of pros- perity ( : , ). he distances himself quite explicitly from marxism. criticizing carey mcwilliams’s ( ) “standard leftist analysis” of the economy and society of california, in which mcwilliams highlighted the inequality and exploitation intrinsic to a capitalist order, worster writes that mcwilliams: [f]ailed to make room for nature, either as a histori- cal actor or as a moral issue. in that respect, leftists were no different from capitalists, both standing for the conquest of the natural world, and their visions of the future tended to converge toward the same technological utopianism. . . . his marxist-like logic tells mcwilliams that private property, not the domination of nature, is the source of all abusive power, and in agriculture, he assumes, private prop- erty must mean private, concentrated land- ownership . . . put the new-fangled hydraulic society under socialism, he suggests. make nature obey the dictates of collective ownership, and the west will be set right. power will then belong to all the people, which is to say it will cease to be a social problem ( : , ). for worster, such suggestions are a pipe dream, for domination over nature will always lead to the inequitable domination of some people over oth- ers, to ecological vandalism, and to a slight upon the integrity of nature. kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t the arcadian view of nature worster’s analysis is a cultural critique of sci- ence and capitalism. on one hand, worster criti- cizes what he terms an imperialist attitude to nature and, on the other, he rejects capitalism as a basis for organizing economic priorities. for worster, the societies of europe and north amer- ica are characterized by a fundamentally imperial attitude toward nature (see table ). nature is seen as a mechanism to be adjusted for the short- term productivity needs of society. the fullest development of this view of nature is about three hundred years old and provided the intellectual roots of industrialization. there is an older, more benign, view that worster terms arcadian. in contrast to judeo-christian societies that treat nature with technological arrogance, seeing the natural world as little more than a mechanical order, pagan, arcadian views cultivate an atti- tude of humble wonderment in the face of the unity in diversity of our ecological home. for arcadians, nature means beauty and life, best understood through natural history. it is not to be understood, as it is by imperialists, as little more than a set of resources to be mastered through laboratory science. arcadians take a romantic rather than a positivistic view of nature and aim at stability and conservation rather than at indus- trialization and the maximum use of energy (as is said to characterize the imperialists). cronon draws a helpful distinction between the narrative forms through which arcadians and imperialists express their visions of nature. he detects tragedy in the arcadian view, a falling from grace, and he notes the emphasis on progress in imperialist narratives. worster dislikes imperialism with a vengeance: “we have had enough of imperialism. . . . in this age of deadly mushroom clouds and other environmental poisons, i believe it is surely time to develop a gentler, more self-effacing ethic toward the earth” ( : ). alongside imperi- alism, the second criminal in the dock is capital- ism, defined as business attitudes, “a core of values and assumptions,” and “an enduring ethos” ( : ). for worster, imperial ecology and capitalism were responsible for the dust bowl (see figure ). both capitalism and imperialism promoted the idea that nature had no limits. america’s eco- nomic culture “never recognized any limits nor restrained the appetite for gain” ( : ), while americans’ “faith in the benignity of nature” (p. ), their belief that humanity “is a sovereign creature, independent of the restraints that plague other species” (p. ), and their expecta- tion that technological fixes could restore any temporary loss of land productivity (p. ), to- gether reinforced the idea of an irrepressible economy and a boundless natural bounty. but disasters such as the dust bowl should “challenge a society’s capacity to think” and “require it to analyze and explain and learn from misfortune” (p. ). yet the u.s. proved immune to ecological education. ameliorative government actions such as those begun in by the farm credit administration (p. ) and agricultural adjust- ment administration (p. ) froze landholding table . theories of naturea arcadian imperial spirituality pagan judeo-christian attitude to nature humble wonderment technological arrogance conception of natural order unity in diversity, mechanism of detachable parts, organic synthesis mechanical reductionism meaning of nature beauty, life productivity, resources route to understanding natural history laboratory science cultural forms naturalism, romanticism humanism, positivism practical implications conservation industrialization ecological yardstick “climax” stability trophic energy, efficiency narrative form for tragedy progress describing modernization (after cronon c) aafter worster ; cronon c. the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t arrangements, preventing even that rearrange- ment the market might have induced (pp. , ), while the soil conservation service sus- tained the resumption of environmental vandal- ism (p. ). at no point did the government “begin to touch the commercial mode of farming” (p. ). a capitalist ethic continued to prevail. a communitarian vision in more recent work, worster has moved beyond this attack on business values to articu- late a communitarian vision of a decentralized anarchist utopia (although, as far as i am aware he has not discussed this specific political philoso- phy in any detail). this value orientation informs a normative conception of democracy and auton- omy that presents big government and laissez faire as the twin evils sustaining the imperial view of nature. he has also subsequently introduced sharper ecological sensitivity into the picture, discussing both a pastoral mode of production, or “cowboy ecology” ( a), and a hydraulic mode of production ( b) in the western u.s. in the pastoral mode of production, only local control and entrenched traditions can solve the problem of overgrazing: the safest strategy over the long run appears to be one that opens decisions about using the range to as many people as possible. the most stable systems of grazing have been those in which the experience, knowledge and moral pressure of a whole community guided the individual grazier ( a: ). neither laissez faire nor remote central govern- ment succeeded in preventing overgrazing on the great plains in the s. worster’s case is clear and is readily subject to consideration both as a political blueprint (can we get to anarchist com- munitarianism from here?) and as a plausible counterfactual (were nucleated alpine-style vil- lages a realistic option on the sparsely populated great plains?). in his dust bowl, worster scans the southern plains for alternative ways of making a living on the land. he believes that what is required is some sort of ideological vaccination against the blan- dishments of capitalist, modern society. only when land ceases to be seen as a commodity, and only when community is identified in some strong sense with the land itself, can true ecological adaptation develop: when both the identity of self and community become indistinguishable from that of the land and its fabric of life, adaptation follows almost instinc- tively. . . . this is genuine adaptation, and it implies much more than shallow managerial skill. it comes from having a sense of place, which is at once a perception of what makes a piece of land function as it does and a feeling of belonging to and sharing in its uniqueness ( : ). this is suggestive rather than persuasive, since instinctive adaptation remains unexplained. nevertheless, the exploration of once-existing and perhaps even still-surviving alternatives is an important way of bringing empirical concerns to discussion of values. this is what yeo recognized when he wrote that: z figure . the dust bowl (after worster ). kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t from a conservative point of view, one uninterested in change or in history except as a ratification and celebration of the present, attempts are always being made to collapse “ways of life” into a single “society” or “system.” and then the way is open to say that the ways we meet, define, multiply or divide needs, constitute a single “culture”—“our” way of life, the system. . . . the function of so doing is to remove from view ownership, power, struggle, interests. it is to conceal alternative, latent potentials and achievements, in the interests of existing, manifest facts and ideologies. above all, it is to devalue memory and collectivization in history. competi- tion and struggle involve loss and defeat as well as growth: presents involve running over unrealized but partly surviving pasts and temporarily blocked futures ( : ). in this sense, the most radical pages of dust bowl may be the brief remarks upon the farming successes of the mennonites. worster contrasts the mennonites and moral puritanism, both of which he sees as forms of resistance to modern capitalism that promised to build new relations with the land in the hope of instinctive adapta- tion. he is impressed with the mennonites, who: “[i]n their communalism, their stability, their careful husbandry, and their high degree of self- sufficiency . . . presented some alternative an- swers to the challenges of the dust bowl thirties” ( : ). on the other hand: nurtured by itself, a moral rigidity toward booze and sexual freedom—and that was essentially all puri- tanism here meant—was not equivalent to a genu- ine indigenous cultural base. it contributed nothing to environmental adaptation, nothing to a sense of place. in fact, it worked to mask the extent to which those things were lacking (p. ). yet many other religious groups also failed to establish viable farming communities. worster would presumably not be comfortable with the observation that the mennonites were simply better farmers than the rest (white b: ), but these few brief pages do not really provide a causal explanation of how religious ideas, a genu- ine indigenous cultural base, and instinctive eco- logical adaptation are related. for bogue, the crucial advantage of mennonite communities was not a different attitude to the land but, in- stead, a strain of winter wheat they brought with them to the u.s. from russia (bogue : ). szasz and szasz remark on the mutability of men- nonite institutions in the u.s., noting that, rather than a response to the physical environment, it was the more tolerant political and cultural envi- ronment that encouraged many mennonites to forsake banding together in tight communities in favor of a more dispersed settlement pattern: “although some branches of mennonites re- tained the communal emphasis, the majority be- came individual farmers” ( : ). resisting the hydraulic society in his few pages on the mennonites, worster fails to deliver on his promise to draw persuasive lessons from the historical study of alternatives to modern capitalism. neither does worster begin to explain how resisting the modern age might be made attractive to americans. elsewhere he has promised that “[a] stable rural society in equilib- rium with the processes of nature cannot allow much freedom or self-assertiveness to the individ- ual” ( b: ). he does not flinch from spelling out the full implications of properly recognized ecological constraints: of course, all those restraints put a ceiling on the amount of private wealth that any one person in the community can accumulate. they limit creativity. they make rural life conservative and hidebound. but they prevent most of the failures caused by misjudgment, egotism, ignorance, ambition, experi- mentation, excitement, and fantasy (p. ). nevertheless, worster’s use of history to explore alternatives to imperial ecology is an intriguing way to connect facts and values. in a recent paper, worster called for a history of adaptation to na- ture rather than of its technological conquest: [i]f nothing else [it saves] us from gloom and exces- sive pessimism. we need new kinds of heroes, a new appreciation of nature’s powers of recovery, and a new sense of purpose in this region—all of which means we need a new past, one with the struggle for adaptation as its main narrative, one that regards successful adaptation as a kind of heroism too ( c: ). it is in his account of the hydraulic society of the great west (another conquest narrative) that worster’s political values are most prominent. here he makes an explicit case that the drive to dominate nature inevitably entails dominating people (harvey ). he employs wittfogel’s hydraulic civilization and horkheimer and adorno’s instrumental reason to define a political economy of science in which decentralized com- munitarianism has no chance to survive, but yet the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t stands out all the more starkly defined as the utopian alternative to technology gone mad and nature laid to waste. this thumbnail sketch does scant justice to the verve and panache of rivers of empire. nevertheless, i want to high- light a few of the empirical and conceptual difficulties to which this particular normative framework gives rise. first, the notion of ecological stability by which the hydraulic empire is found wanting is problem- atic. worster notes the difference between euro- american and native american attitudes to nature, suggesting that the native peoples of the plains might have delivered the following lesson to the early euro-american settlers: “[f]irst con- trol your numbers . . . then simplify your wants and see the earth as everybody’s mother rather than as a piece of property to be divided by competing individuals” ( : ). but worster sees the ecological sustainability of native ameri- can food demands as leaving so light an impress upon the land that it was almost as if they were not there at all. in a testy response to the claims of pyne, who, he said, wanted “to reduce all environmental history, preindustrial and post- industrial alike, to a common pile of ashes” ( b: ), worster is impatient with the claim that the american environment in the west had been substantially altered before the arrival of euro-americans: “without bogging down in pe- dantic wrangles over definitions, we can say that before contact the native peoples were dwelling on a largely undomesticated continent, wild or nearly wild over much of its extent” ( a: ). unless the environment was at climax stability beforehand, the destructive impact of imperial- ism would be difficult to register. as willems- braun ( ) notes, this marginalizes native peoples by placing them at a traditional pole outside the challenges and possibilities of moder- nity, while also corralling them in village spaces detached from a pristine nature too easily pre- sented as a freely available suite of resources upon which no prior claims have been made. but wal- ton is persuaded that paiute native americans, at least in owens valley, california, were practic- ing irrigated agriculture ( : – ), and even if pyne exaggerates the effects of fire, it seems easier to acknowledge the importance of fire than to dismiss it altogether. worster’s conclusion is questionable: “after several thousand years of [native american] habitation, the [great] val- ley’s ecological order was still more or less intact” ( : ). worster himself has noted the difficulty ecologists now have with concepts of climax and equilibrium ( : , b), but the impor- tance of these concepts to rivers of empire is clear. even if partly correct, worster’s suspicion that much of the attack on what he sees as ecological verities is motivated by a right-wing social dar- winist backlash against conservation offers little security against the empirical arguments ad- vanced. the second problem with the analysis con- cerns the lack of any serious attention to resis- tance. worster maintains that both localities and nature are crushed by the juggernaut of big busi- ness and big government. the only resistance he can envisage comes from arcadian ecologists (subversive scientists and a modern, ecofriendly public). yet something like his arcadianism has been an enduring tradition in the american southwest, one built on an appreciation of native american myths and practices, in the tradition of thoreau. this tradition, as rudnik describes it, has been broadly feminist. it is a tradition that saw in the region: [a] new world whose terrain, climate and indige- nous peoples offered a model of ecological, spiritual and artistic integration to an alienated and decadent western civilization. [these women’s] perceptions were rooted in their ideal of a multiethnic democ- racy that recognized the long-ignored social, eco- nomic and cultural contributions of women, hispanics and indians to the life of the region and the nation (rudnik : ). the apparent resistance of the land to imperial- ism echoed the resistance of women to patriarchy. there is a tradition of resistance that runs from mary austin to patricia limerick and that con- tinues to nourish environmentalism and conser- vation, as merchant has recently reminded worster: “[t]he efforts of thousands of women were directly responsible for many of the coun- try’s most significant conservation achievements. women writers on nature such as isabella bird, mary austin, and rachel carson have been among the most influential commentators on the american response to nature” ( : ). related to this failure to recognize feminist resistance to imperialism (leaving his romantic arcadianism alone in the lists against capitalism) is a simplistic notion of the relations between big government and localities that underwrites a de- spairing politics, one that rejects all forms of government beyond mutual aid in the village. worster thereby simplifies central government and ignores how local forces used it. these dia- kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t lectical relations are, however, central to other work on the water politics of the western u.s. for example, pisani draws attention to the diversity of water laws in the west throughout the second half of the nineteenth and well into the twentieth century. the significance of this diversity lies not in some antiquarian objection to generalization, but, rather, in the continuing extent of local autonomy in the face of widespread fears of mo- nopoly and federal interference with property rights. under these conditions, local control was preferred by many. pisani concludes that: at the state level, the diversity of western water laws was potent evidence of the power of localism. in fact, virtually all water law reforms were undertaken not in the name of rationality and bureaucratic order, but rather, because one group of water users sought dominance over another, or one community, region, or state sought to gain a competitive advan- tage over another ( : ). in trying to referee local conflicts, central govern- ment was drawn into and became a resource in those struggles. at least in the case of water policy, it did not roll over locality and variety in the name of instrumental reason or bureaucratic fiat. walton goes even further in raising problems for worster’s treatment of resistance. in a study of water use in owens valley, he notes how central government involvement in the conflict between locals and the city of los angeles legiti- mized resistance even as it asserted interference. in constructing a justice argument around re- source use, the government deployed essentially contestable terms, circulating a rhetoric of inter- vention that could be appropriated as a rhetoric of resistance. thus, theodore roosevelt pro- moted the “progressive” state by promising to use state power to drive the development of moral capitalism. as such, the water needs of the urban center of los angeles took priority in strictly utilitarian terms, but the owens valley citizens presented themselves as pioneers of moral capi- talism in exactly these terms. they presented small-town society and agricultural smallholders as the very backbone of the moral economy. in ensuring obedience and coping with opposition, the state both enlarged its competence and arro- gated to itself more responsibilities. these re- sponsibilities, however, subsequently became resources with which the locality fought both incorporation and exploitation. in the s, this expansion of state activity took the form of wel- farism, and again it could be used either to insist on the rights of the conurbation of los angeles or to assert the contrary claims of the people of owens valley, this time in the language of environmentalism and the protection of col- lective natural assets. the legitimacy of central- government intervention is thus seen to rest on justice, but then justice must in some measure be seen to be impartial. as walton notes, “the state in modern society is both a relation of domination and an invitation to protest” ( : ). that invitation will be accepted, in part, according to the strengths of local traditions of resistance, traditions that historical work might uncover and nurture. it is an invitation that worster’s pessi- mism leaves untheorized and unrecognized. finally, there is something distinctly nostalgic about worster’s evocation of an earlier, kindlier, arcadian view of nature. as cronon ( c) shows, it replaces the “progress” narratives with “tragic” ones (see table ). these tragic visions rest upon, as white ( : ) argues, the “de- monization of modern machines and the senti- mentalization of archaic forms of labor allow[ing] a bifurcation of work into the relatively benign and even instructive, and the modern and de- structive.” as white also suggests, this attitude may be an adequate basis for gardening, but it can hardly serve to address the sort of work from which people can make a living. white is surely right to argue that this leaves the world of modern work to the propagandists of large corporations, who are thus able to gather about them the shabby ecological virtue of “wise use” in a stand off where too many environmentalists argue for leisure amenities over any sort of productive work. the rigid dualism of this environmentalist perspective, as cronon ( b: ) has pointed out, ultimately leaves us with no place to think about humans as part of nature: “we thereby leave ourselves with little hope of discovering what an ethical, sustainable, honorable human place in nature might actually look like.” para- doxically, this strand of environmentalism re- mains within the tragic vision of the frontier thesis: “the frontier narrative was about settling a new land; it offered little wisdom about how best to live once the settling was done and the new land had become old” (cronon d: ). in these ways, we may see how evaluating worster’s historical writings may, in turn, inform a critique of his values; how the circle between facts and values may be made virtuous through a consideration of how values direct inquiry but the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t also of how inquiries should revise values. worster is quite clear about this aspect of the new west- ern history: “the history of this region, if it wants to be vital and listened to, cannot be kept isolated from public controversy, struggles over power, the search for moral standards, or the ongoing human debate over fundamental principles and values” ( : ). worster’s excavation and explication of those principles have been largely shaped by the arcadian view of nature that he set out in his earliest work, but it would be unfair to give the impression that he only pays attention to social justice insofar as it is implicated in imperial atti- tudes towards nature. in a recent essay, worster has contrasted native american and european settlers’ views of property rights. he argues that the american government violated the agree- ments they made with the lakotas when they took their land. there are thus legitimate grounds for the lakotas’ claim on the use of the black hills. this claim need not rely upon religious attitudes to nature or upon historical precedence in occupying land. more simply, “[a] deeply felt wound that has festered for a hundred years might be healed and we could get on with the task of living with one another in mutual respect” ( d: ). it is to such normative issues of fairness, redress, and social justice that i now turn. justice and the middle ground richard white has been concerned mainly with the history of native american peoples and with the transformation of their ecologies under the impress of the frontier process. like worster, white echoes horkheimer and adorno ( ) in noting how the control of nature by some people may be the vehicle for the social control of other people. the monopolization of environmental resources by the new european settlers prevented the reproduction of the native american way of life, leaving the aboriginal people, in economic terms, a dependent people. but white speaks from a more nuanced ecological and political position than has characterized some of the criti- cisms of industrial society that have animated worster’s work. commenting on a paper by wor- ster ( a), white ( a) drew attention to some of the problems with worster’s ecological critique of capitalism and, in particular, to the difficulty of treating ecological climax as a stable measure against which the destruction wrought by human action might be measured. white has noted that historians have shown how extensive human modifications of the natural world have been over a very long period of time and have made “questions of climax and succession seem abstractions with few equivalents in the actual landscape” ( a:xvii). he has also argued that just as environmental “causality” is complicated, so must be the “moral emphasis” of the historian ( a: ). (cronon has remarked that “white’s favorite . . . way of describing the past is to say that it is ‘complex’ ” [ a:xv]). the de- velopment of white’s work shows an increasing unease with some forms of ecological foundation- alism and a growing recognition that the “[i]ssues of language, of discourse, of texts, and of creation of the subject that so occupy postmodernist schol- arship are quite serious ones” ( a:xvii). white’s work, however, also rests on a belief that “[t]here was, and remains, a tangible physical world that sometimes affirmed but often mocked the representations designed to constrain it. for all the power of the postmodernist critique, it neglects this physical, tangible world, a world of substantial bodies, and trivializes our experience in it” ( b: ). as a result of both of these views, white urges historians to explore the “in- terplay of ideational and material elements” ( a: ) in the replication and change of regional assemblages of people, animals, and plants. this interaction between culture and en- vironment is a central theme of his work: nature is at once a physical setting where living beings exist in complex relationships with each other, and a human invention. humans create a shifting set of cultural concepts about the physical world and identify these concepts as nature. when they act, humans do so on the basis of these cultural formulations, but their actions rebound on an actual physical world. recreating these cultural formula- tions for any given period is the problem ( : ). it might seem that this leaves little room in his- torical writing for explicitly normative concerns, and in rejecting reductionist accounts of the role of culture in environmental change, white un- derlines the problems this poses for the moral stance of writers such as worster: “historians would still lack the overarching standards by which we should judge change, but it is a pipe dream that we shall find such standards in either nature or history” ( a: ). nevertheless, value judgments remain intrinsic to the histories white writes, and their negotiation is of special interest given his recognition of the force of both kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t the antifoundational critique of ecology and the postmodernist critique of meaning. white accepts the moral intentions of the en- vironmentalist critique of modern american so- ciety, although he is unwilling to cast the attack in terms of a fall from pristine, natural grace. his argument appears to be that euro-american at- titudes to nature are so reckless of the demands of variety, sustainability, and security that acting upon them surely courts danger. more important, the euro-american transformation of north american land has had tragic consequences for native americans that, alongside questions relat- ing to nature, are pressing issues of social justice. justice is the key term in understanding white’s work. operationalized in various ways, it con- nects both a moral critique of the consequences of the transformation of nature and modern political imperatives of redress owing to native americans to an empirical account of the cultural context of environmental change. justice is to be found neither in nature nor in history, rather, it is something that we bring to our evaluation of the actions of human beings both in the past and the present. much as worster has done, white understands the hubris of euro-american attitudes toward nature. these attitudes entail dividing nature into those species that are useful to euro- americans and those that are not. species, then, are of no intrinsic value. in his study of island county, washington, white notes that: “ameri- cans reduced the complex view of the indians to a few simple categories. the new farmers saw most native plants as simply ‘weeds’ or ‘brush.’ land that grew these plants was, in the words of the census, ‘unimproved’ ” ( : ). this treat- ment of nature as resources and, given the nature of the economy, as commodities, directed the american gaze over the land. it embodied clear political choices in favor of certain uses (and users) of the land over others. for example, when, in exploring the american west in the late nine- teenth century, clarence king “chose to use the united states geological survey primarily to sur- vey mineral deposits (rather than dam sites and water sources for irrigation), he chose to empha- size resources whose ultimate development would benefit mining corporations and not western farmers” ( b: ). similarly, in viewing their domesticated animals as “sentient tools” ( a: ), euro-americans defined by default those other animals not subject to their will as useless enemies, creating a “biological monarchy where humans reigned, where uselessness among lesser living things was a crime punishable by death, and where enterprise was the reigning virtue” (p. ). being ruled by enterprise entailed the production of a narrow range of species and crops, the latter of which were selected based on market prices rather than on immediate subsis- tence needs ( : – ). as cronon has argued, property relations partly connote ecological relations ( : ). the creation of euro-american titles to land largely mirrors the more general story of capital- ism’s primitive accumulation. white concurs with this assessment, noting that: “americans believed that how they distributed the public domain determined the kind of society they were creating” ( b: ). land allocation was a contested act of remaking society after an agrar- ian ideal. yet that ideal took many forms, from large ranches to small farms and from petty com- modity production to wage and slave labor. with- out regard for aridity or for the competing demands of grazing, logging, and mining, north- ern republicans tried to allocate land in the west to homesteads of the size that had proved accept- able in the humid east. the demand for these homestead plots was limited by the failure of many small farms in the west. yet loggers, ranch- ers, and miners continued to move onto public lands. the forms of access this latter set of users were eventually recognized as having still left the federal government with large property holdings in the west, in stark contrast to its much smaller holdings in the east. the survival of this public domain in the west owed much to the conflict between different varieties of the agrarian ideal, and to ecological realities such as the unsustain- ability of certain land uses given the physical conditions prevailing in parts of the west. white traces the dominant role played by the federal government in directing economic devel- opment in the west to the retention of a large public-lands domain. this, in turn, was partly sustained by what many have seen as a fundamen- tally new attitude toward nature among early twentieth-century americans: conservation. but here, white sees less discontinuity, linking con- servation to an embedded instrumentalism char- acterizing american attitudes toward nature more generally. for him, conservation is simply a newly profitable use of nature as urban leisure ground: the attempt to preserve these tokens of the natural world does not seem the outgrowth of any significant the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t new attitude toward nature. the same basic stand- ard, economic value, still governed the attempts at preservation. remnants of the older natural systems have attained greater value as they grew more scarce and as urban dwellers gained the time and the means to enjoy them ( : ). white thus appears to endorse john muir’s criti- cisms of the utilitarian notion of monumentalism that motivated the preservation of certain natural landscape features in the u.s. he remarks that muir “wanted nature protected so that humans might momentarily escape their human condition by mystical communion with forces greater than themselves” ( b: ). as part of the conser- vation ethic, women and children were encour- aged to appreciate nature as a repository in which “cute animals” were saved. yellowstone park, “[a]lthough presented as a salvaged remnant of aboriginal america, . . . by the late twentieth century came more to resemble a petting zoo with a highway running through it” ( a: ). for men, on the other hand: sportsmen, as distinct from hunters, began to argue that a particular kind of virtue—hardiness, bravery, self-reliance—impossible to cultivate in an urban, industrial environment, was the true product of the hunt . . . by the early twentieth century, they had clearly won their battle to pro- tect game populations. by dying so that american males could maintain their virility and virtue, game animals achieved a symbolic utility and protected status (p. ). the reference to muir suggests some grounds for the implicit critique, but let us consider an- other line of criticism developed in these studies. in particular, white wants to draw attention to the survival of plant and animal species attendant with the euro-american attitude to nature. some consequences are unintended, many are indirect, and all are complicated. he believes that ameri- can society has not developed or empowered institutions that could monitor and control them: “historically, the farmer, the lumberman, and the fisherman have proved more adept at refining technologies and increasing the scope and rate of environmental change than the larger society has been in gauging the consequences of the tech- nologies and in creating institutional means to control them” ( : ). in the absence of in- stitutional checks, ecological crisis has proven a stern teacher. euro-americans have had to “put their ideological formulations of nature at risk in the physical world” ( b: ). in this view, americans have paradoxically learned about nature from their failure to domi- nate it, whereas it is out of their subjugation of the native americans that their historical un- learning has sprung. at first, native americans and euro-americans “regarded each other as alien, as other, as virtually nonhuman” (white a:ix). although this view of the native peo- ples remained current back in europe, immi- grants and aboriginal peoples soon met on more equal terms in north america and forged a “com- mon, mutually comprehensible world” (white a:ix). later, after breaking the autonomy of native american peoples, euro-americans no longer feared nor felt any need to reach accom- modation with them, and could then recreate “the indians as alien, as exotic, as other” (p. x). at this stage: the fact that indians actually starved because colo- nizers had come, that they died in such prodigious numbers from disease in part because colonizers had wrecked their subsistence systems, and that these subsistence systems themselves were inextricably intertwined with the political, social, and cultural relations colonizers set out to undermine subverted the more beneficent rationale that colonialism brought a better life to all. colonialists, therefore, tended to prefer imaginary pasts and more benign presents (white : ). in this imaginary past, native americans had not substantially changed the natural world: “[s]ince humans had not shaped the west into a landscape familiar to expectations conditioned by western europe and eastern north america, they concluded that humans had not shaped the land at all” (white b: ). the view that native americans merely passed over the land without leaving any trace has a number of consequences, one of which white mentions in his conversation with cronon: actually this idea demeans indians. it makes them seem simply like an animal species, and thus de- prives them of culture. it also demeans the environ- ment by so simplifying it that all changes come to seem negative—as if somehow the ideal is never to have been here at all. it’s a crude view of the environment, and it’s a crude view of indians (cronon and white : ). faced with such unjust characterizations of indians, the first task of the historian is to restore the dignity of historicity and culture to the native americans. e. p. thompson made this point most eloquently when he spoke of “seeking to rescue” kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t the artisans whose trades had been abolished during the industrial revolution, from “the enor- mous condescension of posterity” ( : ). the hopes and aspirations of these people were mean- ingful in terms of their own experience and it is an abuse of hindsight to represent them as little more than doomed bystanders at the history of their own period. the right to a just hearing in historical writing is even more important in the case of native americans because, of course, they still live in america. their survival and even, over the last century, their renewed increase in num- bers, present a particular challenge to histories premised upon assumptions of white racial supe- riority or the inevitable disappearance of native peoples. as berkhofer has written, this recogni- tion changes the agenda of native american history from a study solely of the relations be- tween aboriginal peoples and european arrivals to one that explores cultural resilience on its own terms ( ). white’s own approach is under- pinned by just such an appreciation of native american culture: “[t]he bridges, franks, and other families of the fishing rights struggles on the nisqually and puyallup rivers of western wash- ington first allowed me to realize the quite differ- ent ways indian peoples can have of perceiving and organizing the world, and how tenacious and creative seemingly powerless people can be in fighting to maintain a way of life” ( :xii). so, beyond the condescension that posterity brings, there is also a need to consider issues of justice in the present. redress and fairness i suggest that empirical questions are involved in these questions of justice, and that empirical research provides guidance in resolving matters of justice. to begin this task, i introduce two principles from the work of john rawls: those of redress and fairness. first, redress: this is the principle that undeserved inequalities call for redress; and since inequalities of birth and natural endowment are undeserved, these inequali- ties are to be somehow compensated for. thus the principle holds that in order to treat all persons equally, to provide genuine equality of opportunity, society must give more attention to those with fewer native assets and to those born into less favorable social positions (rawls : ). second, fairness: this principle holds that a person is required to do [their] part as defined by the rules of an institution when two conditions are met: first, the institution is just (or fair), . . . and second, one has voluntarily accepted the benefits of the arrangement or taken advantage of the opportunities it offers to further one’s interests (rawls : – ). white’s work shows, first, that the unfavorable social positions occupied by native americans are undeserved, intentional consequences of euro-american aggression and, second, that in no sense can native americans be said to have voluntarily accepted the arrangements under which they find themselves placed. the history of native peoples since the arrival of europeans sustains claims on their behalf to a more generous settlement from euro-americans on the grounds both of fairness and redress. that realization, rather than being a concession to a more nuanced historical understanding, has actually come from the continued vitality and demands of the first nations themselves. just as the agenda of social history more generally has been shaped by the demands of the new social movements, so writing about native americans has been shaped by their demands. a book such as david wishart’s an unspeakable sadness is decisively framed by the cases put by native peoples to the indian claims commission after . the claims process, which invited final settlement of outstanding grievances through providing compensation for earlier forced, illegal, or unfair land sales, assisted in the reassertion of native rights and identities that has forced itself upon the attention of histo- rians and historical geographers. instead of the final settlement resulting in the complete ab- sorption of native peoples into the federal pol- ity, it has in fact produced a deeper pluralism and separatism. writing of the indians of island county, wash- ington, white notes that: “[t]hrough observation and tradition, indians altered natural communi- ties to fit their needs without, in the process, destroying the ability of those communities to sustain the cultures that had created them” ( : ). at several points, he comments on the way some groups of native peoples used different resources, often in different places and at differ- ent seasons, to secure a living from the land. in some cases, they farmed part of the year and the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t hunted the rest. in many cases, they had both a primary and a secondary food cycle so that if one set of food sources failed them, they could get by with others. seeking food security rather than maximizing production, native americans had a number of ways of ensuring sustainability. they regulated the exhaustion of the land by moving their fields after a period. they controlled fertility through hunger and, in some cases, infanticide. the game they hunted thrived in the contested borderlands between indian tribal groups or vil- lages. in killing game, they took what they needed for survival. this was all very different from the attitudes of euro-americans. for example, in contrast to the euro-americans’ instrumental view of animals: indian religions made hunting holy and gave human-animal relations a depth and complexity largely lacking among europeans. in hunting, some persons died so that others might live. ceremonies preceded the kill. animals consented to die; they, or more powerful beings—holy people, keepers of the game, or other supernaturals—pitied the hunter and instructed him in the rules and rituals necessary to kill them. indians killed game as much by prayer, pleading, and reverence as by the arrow or spear. they recognized the obvious wariness of game and the reluctance of animals to die, but they explained it in terms of previous ritual abuse by humans or even supernaturals. the difficulty of obtaining the con- sent of animals only made strict observance of hunt- i n g r i tu al s a l l t h e m o r e n e c e s s ary (white a: – ). european colonization made it impossible for native americans to continue with this way of life. euro-americans granted themselves exclu- sive title to parts of the natural world that were crucial to the spatially dispersed, complementary food cycles of the indians: “[i]n a society in which law, rather than tradition or religion, increasingly defined man’s relationship with the land and sea, the salish became a people literally without rights. they were cut off by law from centuries- old fishing grounds, and the state allocated their catch to white commercial fishermen” (white : ). settlers’ farms hemmed in native american periodic and dispersed land clearances, leaving them nowhere to move when the soil neared exhaustion. ultimately, attacks on the religions of native peoples made their regulation of population numbers impossible. a conscious policy of creating dependence among the native americans through debt and alcohol allowed euro-americans to secure ever more furs from some groups of native peoples, enhancing the importance of warriors over peacekeepers and further compromising subsistence activities. this deepening involvement with the fur trade in the great lakes region “gradually created new mean- ings and altered the meanings of old objects” so that, for example, while anyone could move into tribal territories and kill game if they were hungry, only people with local rights were permitted to take away the furs, which could then be ex- c h a n g e d f o r e u r o p e a n g o o d s ( w h i t e a: – ). the stabilizing institutions of in- dian society that ensured ecological sustainability were undermined, and “[a]lthough they had once been able to feed, clothe, and house themselves with security and comfort, indians gradually re- sorted to whites for clothing and food,” until “[i]n the end, whites specified what was to be ex- changed, how it was to be exchanged, what the indians were to receive, and how they were to use it” (white :xix). to reach this point, the settlers had waged explicit war upon native american subsistence systems. preventing na- tive americans from gathering food, for example, was often a bitterly effective tactic against such militarily powerful, recalcitrant tribes as the lak- ota (white b: ). peoples such as the sal- ish were gradually forced out of the wider american society and consigned to the refuge of small, dedicated reservations (white : ). before this point was reached, native peoples had made many creative attempts to adjust to euro-american demands for resources and to military and biological threats. their sustainable agricultural systems did not collapse from within in some malthusian fashion (white : ). rather than passive impediments to european expansion, native americans sought many and varied forms of accommodation with the imperi- alists. historians do them an injustice when they fail to recognize this, treating native americans as an ahistorical entity mired in traditional, inter- necine strife (white : ). political forms such as villages, tribes, nations, republics, and ultimately ethnicities were institutions shaped and reshaped out of this creative adaptation. to restore this complexity to the historical picture is not only to do the indians descriptive justice, it is also to document the explicit aggression by which native americans were forced off the middle ground of compromise and coexistence and mar- ginalized as part of a social contract they can hardly be said to have chosen. the story of how native american society was underdeveloped, kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t then, serves as an explicit rebuke to the supposed equality of all before the law. nevertheless, white’s studies also provide empirical grounds for maintaining that alternative arrangements are imaginable in the present. this is true both of the importance of native american theories of na- ture and of the tenuous achievements of the middle ground. i now turn to these two lessons of history. two history lessons for white, the contrast between native and euro-american ways of relating to natural re- sources is an instructive one: “[w]e can’t copy indian ways of understanding nature, we’re too different. but studying them throws our own as- sumptions into starker relief and suggests short- comings in our relationships with nature that could cost us dearly in the long run” (cronon and white : ). clearly, these lessons include the importance of sustainability, but white is also anxious to contrast the views of native peoples with those of romantic conservationists: “one thing that has impressed me about indians i’ve known is their realization that this is a harsh planet, that they survive by the deaths of other creatures. there’s no attempt to gloss over that or romanticize it” (p. ). the second historical lesson drawn by white concerns what he terms the middle ground. on this middle ground, until the autonomy of indians had been broken, whites and indians found ways to share notions of jus- tice, price and fair play despite the very different repertoire of cultural resources they brought to the exchange, a tribute to the ability of people to empathize with each other’s frames of reference sufficiently to make themselves comprehensible in terms of each other’s presuppositions. this rapprochement undermines the pessimism im- plicit in radical cultural relativism. it provides grounds for both a recognition and a suspension of difference that allows us to respect and grant rights to the “other.” culture shapes our treat- ment of other people, as well as our treatment of the environment, but this is not a view of culture as incommensurability: we can find ways to ac- cept alterity and still reach a mutually compre- hensible and acceptable accommodation with the “other.” in a recent paper, white has documented how general custer and sitting bull became central elements in the respective mythologies of euro- and native americans, while also showing how the mythologized custer and sitting bull migrated across this divide and became reworked elements in the stories of both cultures. invoking a sense of history as storytelling, white suggests that “[t]hese stories we tell about the west matter. they not only reveal how we think about our- selves, they help determine how we choose to act towards each other” ( b: ). the meander- ing of stories between cultures suggests that while myths and legends “told about the frontier and the west have certainly not always been told with democratic intent . . . they have had democratic consequences. attempts to close them off, to confine their possession to certain groups, have failed. they have become democratic stories in- habited by diverse americans and open to multi- ple retellings . . .” (p. ). this “imaginative coherence” speaks to the possibility of a tolerant pluralism. in this sense, by telling the story of native american peoples in terms of their own understanding of social and environmental change, white is providing the empirical basis for justice claims of fairness and redress. he is pro- viding a just description, restoring agency and dignity to the native peoples about whom he writes. he is providing the prescriptive basis for justice claims of redress. native americans con- tinue to be without full equality of opportunity in the u.s. due to the imposition by force of a social contract to which they did not assent. white is, finally, helping establish the bonds of common humanity (empathy) and plurality (solidarity) which enable those justice claims to be heard. this is a subtle interweaving of empirical and normative concerns, but i believe it offers more than a naive ecological foundationalism or a post- modern cultural relativism. citizenship and regionalism patricia limerick has been a staunch critic of the legacy of turner for its ethnocentrism, its narrow view of the economy, its omission of women, its cavalier disregard of environmental degradation, its severance of nineteenth-century history from twentieth-century politics, and, fi- nally, because it “blurs the fact of conquest and throws a veil over the similarities between the story of american westward expansion and the planetary story of the expansion of american empires” ( a: ). she has contended that all attempts to rescue the turnerian emphasis on the american west as a process, such as those of the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t aron ( ) and cronon et al. ( ), inevitably privilege the anglo-american movement from east to west over all other population movements and ethnic identities, including not simply native americans, but also latinos, asian-americans, and african-americans. yet, in a recent paper, she offers a definitional truce on the grounds that a survey of the uses made of the term “frontier” in some four thousand newspaper headlines has convinced her that the american public cares little for these academic squabbles and continues to use the term “frontier” in an overwhelmingly positive manner. the “frontier” has become “a kind of multicultural common property” that “works as a cultural glue—a mental and emo- tional fastener that, in some very curious and unexpected ways, works to hold us together” (limerick a: ). this is somewhat similar to white’s emphasis on the imaginative coherence offered by common stories, but limerick is more explicitly concerned than white with the links between this public consumption of history and the public role of the historian. i argue that the central normative concern of limerick’s work is with citizenship, and that she seeks to ground the claims of citizenship in an avowedly regional po- litical community. the public intellectual limerick is anxious to engage in a debate on the nature of western history beyond the acad- emy, and is delighted to find that increasingly possible: “[a]ll around the west, the public is eager to join in this discussion, giving western historians in the late twentieth century the finest opportunity imaginable to revive the role of the western public intellectual” ( a: ). this will only occur, however, if historians face some pain- ful realities and become more self-consciously engaged, and this will involve a transformation of history itself: “the transition from a historical profession intoxicated with the dream of objec- tive, neutral, value-free inquiry to a historical profession aware of, and honest about, the un- avoidable reality of subjectivity, is, under- standably, an awkward and uncomfortable one” ( a: ). indeed, limerick notes that those who have wished to restore the old western history have done so largely in the name of historical objectivity, yet: “[a]lthough they thought of themselves as rigorously neutral, with- out ideology or bias, they had in fact placed their sympathies with english-speaking male pioneers and then called that point of view objectivity” ( a: ). for example, in a paper on the work of ray allen billington, limerick documented the way his historical studies treated all ethnici- ties other than anglo-american as barriers to american progress, giving minorities little atten- tion in their own right. she recognizes billington’s personal “rejection of bigotry,” but she notes that this led him to avoid recognizing adequately the importance of racial difference in historical inter- pretation: “[e]ven if we should prove able to write of our future without reference to racial differ- ences, we will never gain that license in the writing of the actual, not the imagined, past” ( b: ). on the other hand, she has nothing but praise for wallace stegner, whose wartime propaganda book, one nation ( ), looked without blinking at the racism of contemporary society and warned americans of its insidious effects: “we are much in his debt because he said these things so clearly and so forcefully, before many others were saying them, or even thinking them” ( b: ). public intellectuals, then, must recognize and articulate their personal sub- jectivity in the context of a wider field of subjec- tivities and experiences. in limerick’s case, an individual voice is grounded in her upbringing in banning, califor- nia. at several points, she insists that the roman- tic myths of the turnerian frontier find no purchase in banning: “[t]ailored to fit portage, wisconsin, turner’s frontier theory simply won’t fit banning, regardless of how you trim and stitch, tighten and loosen” ( c: ). her childhood bore testimony to a different story: i grew up in banning, california, where one town patriarch made much of his money providing the prostitutes for the workers building the aqueduct taking colorado river water to los angeles. out- side banning was the morongo indian reservation, and kids from the reservation were with us in school until about the eighth grade, and then, when we graduated from high school, most of the indian kids had dropped out. how, in other words, could i have acquired illusions about western history? illusions? in banning? (worster et al. : – ). it is clear, however, that this is the product of retrospective reflection, for elsewhere she says of her childhood that: “i took the landscape for granted, and i had no uncertainties about water, even if i also had no idea where it came from” (limerick : ). this retrospective reflection is through the lens of her subsequent political kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t education. to a large extent, the values that inform limerick’s history come from an acceptance of the liberal agenda of the s. she refers to herself as a “palaeo-liberal” (worster et al. : ), remarking of the new western his- tory: “the influence of perspectives originating in the s is unmistakable” (limerick et al. :x). the new western history registers the effect of the new social movements on the agenda of social history: “in the broadest sense, the ‘new western history,’ is simply the aggregation of studies of race, gender, class, community, eco- nomic dependency, and the environment in the west conducted over the last twenty-five years” (white c: ). yet feminism, multiculturalism, and environ- mentalism make legitimate claims upon the his- torian’s attention, claims that go beyond both the band-aid of a parenthetical “political correctness” and the “conjunction school of historical revi- sion” (limerick a: ), which simply adds new sections to old textbooks. the exclusions and elisions in the old western history result in explanations of the past that are inadequate even on their own terms, and which fail to confront the historical construction of political identities in the present. what i have described as the virtu- ous circularity of facts and values, limerick refers to as a spiral. writing of the work of the landscape photographer, mark klett, she remarks that “[t]hrough his experience in the rephotographic survey project, klett came to know, first-hand, that we live in a relativistic universe, where an individual photographer can, by the choice of his vantage point, change what we think of as real- ity”; but by looking again, longer and harder: “[t]he path of perception of the american west thus traces a spiral, as euro-americans have, over time, gotten ‘warmer,’ closer to the center, but by no means all the way there” ( b: – ). elsewhere, and more ingeniously, limerick uses the metaphor of conversation for this relationship between perspective and scholarship. conversations on the “new” despite her despair about the influence that academic debates over the meaning of the “fron- tier” are having on the uses of the term in public discourse, limerick is anything but pessimistic about the potential importance of clear historical writing for the contemporary construction of po- litical identities. limerick coined the phrase “new western history” for a symposium held to launch a touring exhibition about the history of the west. the phrase, and the brief explanation she offered about the movement, were taken up in a variety of news media including the washing- ton post, the new york times, and national public radio (limerick a: ). even more dramatically, the revisionism of the new western history was on display at the smith- sonian institution national museum of ameri- can art in washington, in an exhibit entitled “the west as america: reinterpreting images of the frontier, – ,” where it offended the patriotism of some americans still basking in the aftermath of the gulf war. the labels in the exhibit “redefined many western artists as apolo- gists for manifest destiny who ignored or were culturally blind to the displacement of indigenous people and to the environmental degradation that accompanied the settling of the west” (gul- liford : ). the media uproar was exten- sive. more than seven hundred people entered their reactions in the comment books, the major- ity being positive (truettner and nemerov : ). yet critics were bothered by the sugges- tion that great art was anything but objective reporting and america’s frontier not the leading edge of world civilization. daniel boorstin char- acterized the exhibition as “perverse, historically inaccurate, destructive” (gulliford : ). on the five-hundredth anniversary of columbus, the american public objected so strongly to a section on “inventing the indian” that the text on the labels was toned down. this public interest suggests at least the possibility of a conversation. conversation is important to limerick. she celebrates dialogue: “each incident . . . in which westerners of these various backgrounds and convictions defy the odds and choose not to attack each other, nor to evade each other, but to converse—each of these incidents seems to me powerfully freighted with hope” (limerick d: ). the development of a responsible and democratic politics in the west depends upon such a dialogue: “the human diversity of the west remains . . . a conversation waiting to hap- pen” (holthaus et al. : ). this is where she places her hope: “although there is no reason to argue that residents of the west now live with an enlightened regional self-consciousness based on . . . elements of commonality, there is also no reason to argue that they could not or should not” (limerick a: ). a more adequate under- standing will require a true appreciation of the dis- the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t tinctiveness of the west as well as an appreciation of the experiences and expectations of the diverse human groups sharing the land. in a sense, lim- erick wants regional identity to suspend ethnic difference. the west should thereby define an imagined community to which all could belong. in this view, stegner is a sympathetic figure not only because he urged the cause of antiracism against the danger of the u.s. “balkanizing,” but also because he longed, in his own words, for “a past to which [he] could be tribally and emotion- ally committed” (quoted in limerick b: ). here, the legacy of turner seems particularly pernicious. in treating the west as a process of frontiering ending in , turner not only cut the modern west off from its past but also made it the temporary adjunct of a story of national history which returned to the east and, especially, to the midwest. limerick complains that too many modern history textbooks do much the same as turner in this regard: “[r]egardless of the politics, the methods, or the ages of the textbook’s authors, the west registers as a transitory phase of national history and not as a permanent place” ( c: ). the marginal place given to the west in national history offends her regional pride. limerick believes, further, that it is only upon a version of regional pride that an enlight- ened tribalism might be founded. she finds this resurgent self-confidence in environmental sci- ence, literature, painting, and photography; hence her enthusiasm for the work of mark klett: “[i]ntentionally or not, the rephotographic sur- vey project rejected the abstract, shifty definition of the west as a frontier, and saw the west as a set of solid and continuous places. the project by its very nature assumed a connection between the w e s t e r n p r e s e n t a n d t h e w e s t e r n p a s t ” ( b: ). for limerick, this is the cultivation of “hindsight without smugness” and is “the use of the mind that western historians, as well as westerners in general, most need to develop” (p. ). the west was and continues to be important, at least in part, because its past and present teach the fundamentally multicultural and environ- mentally grounded character of american soci- ety: “with our variety of ethnic backgrounds, occupations, lengths of residence, passions, con- victions, ambitions, expectations, and regrets, we are in this land, and in it together” ( b: ). for limerick, the task of the historian is to pro- mote that sharing of experience. referring to the west as a babel of different languages, she writes of the “spirited intellectual effort of communica- tion” ( d: ). yet dialogue has all too often been wrecked upon the shoals of western experience: “first, americans came west with high hopes for im- proved personal fortune, hopes that carried both the seeds of disappointment and frustration and, not far beyond, the need for someone to blame. second, scapegoats were everywhere at this cross- roads of the planet, the meeting ground of europe, asia and latin america” (limerick : ). the historian can at least restore to all groups an acknowledgment of their joint work in shaping the region. by emphasizing the idea of the west as a meeting ground, she suggests, “we would have an equitable and accurate way of giving all the participants their due” (worster et al. : ). turner’s story left one group in the field as conscious actors and the rest as mere friction to the progress of civilization. on the other hand, “the complete story of the invest- ment of human consciousness in the american landscape requires attention to the whole set of participants—indigenous people as well as invad- ers, eastward-moving asian-american people as well as westward-moving euro-american people. with anything less, the meaning of the landscape i s f r a g m e n t e d a n d t r u n cate d” (lim e rick e: ). using the western landscape worster raises an important question when he asks whether limerick’s legacy of conquest pre- sents the west as primarily a failure of democracy or of ecological sustainability (worster et al. : ). the environment is certainly a cen- tral concern of limerick’s work, but the tragedy of environmental destruction is not the leitmotif of her work as it is of worster’s. in desert passages ( ), limerick looks at writings about the de- serts of the southwest u.s. and documents the various ways the desert has been presented as obdurate and initially uncooperative nature. in thinking about the effect of aridity on attitudes to nature, for example, limerick offers the desert as an occasion to think about limits. it is not aridity, as such, but reflections upon natural limits to which it has given rise that interest her, and which give her hope that people in the region might learn and impart lessons about the dangers of imperial attitudes toward nature. this recogni- tion of limits is now available to the nascent kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t regional self-consciousness to which she wants to contribute. thus, while recognizing that it does not cover all of the region, she insists on aridity a s a d e f ining cha ra cteris tic of the we st ( : ). aridity has been important at vari- ous points in defining the historical trajectory of large parts of the west; it has been one of an important set of contingent differences marking the west from the rest of the country (see also white c: – ). there is something to be learned from the legacy of aridity, just as there is something to be learned from the legacy of ethnic diversity, and limerick’s western self- consciousness needs to be fueled by both. her concern to use the landscapes of the west as a corrective to smug histories of anglo-american success informs another collaboration with mark klett on the mining “ghost town” of rhyolite. noting that c. vann woodward had declared that, in its confrontation with failure, the history of the south taught distinctive and serious lessons to all americans, she offers the west as a land- scape teaching related lessons in failure: although the two kinds of regional failure are very different, ghost towns give the west its most visible credentials in failure. the impermanence of many western enterprises confronted many people with the frustration of failed expectations and ambitions. add the fact that the gain of any individual or group in the west often rested on a corresponding loss for another individual or group, and the west, as well as the south, can act as a corrective to the idea that u.s. history is a “very monotonous repetition of successes.” the west becomes, thereby, what the south has long been—a region to take seriously (limerick b: ). the town of rhyolite, then, rested upon “the narrow and precarious foundation of extractive industry and unrestrained economic ambition” and its failure stands as testimony against both in this manner: “haunted by this hard-edged, un- compromising ghost town, one is encouraged to consider other, firmer foundations for society” (limerick b: ). there is, then, in limer- ick’s work, an urgent wish to teach the lessons of the contradiction between unrestrained eco- nomic expansion and the limits set by aridity and finite resources. these aspects of environmentalism, though important, are not the dominant themes in her reflections upon the history of the landscapes of the southwest. for that, limerick turns to land- scapes as the common ground of ethnic diversity. she claims that: “[t]he strategy of keeping a focus on the place and its physical conditions allows an author to include indians and euro-americans as people of equal significance and dignity” (worster et al. : ). such common ground becomes sacred ground: “where people have labored, suf- fered, struggled, or even just survived, they have planted seeds of memory as directly as farmers sow crops, and memory has its roots in the soul” (limerick e: ). the historian needs to engage with the contestable tangle of memo- ries—the ghosts of our landscapes—and through taking up the landscape perspectives of the many different groups involved in the making of those landscapes, the historian can advance a conver- sation about democratic politics. this is a particu- lar obligation on euro-american historians, since they have benefitted from a truncated conversa- tion that legitimizes their privileges. indeed, the anglo-american obsession with constructing community out of written law may now provide resources with which indian legal activists can reanimate treaties formerly honored most fre- quently in the breach, using them to press new claims (limerick : ). landscapes provide both the common ground of a shared history and the object of much conflict, plunder, and litiga- tion. language, community, and contract; these define citizenship in the western babel. histori- ans can join activists in breathing life into scle- rotic contracts, in translating diverse experiences into claims on common decency, in lending an ear and a voice to the subaltern. in this spirit, limerick moves between modern politics and new western history, directing both to the di- lemmas of the structured inequality of western multiculturalism. in summary, limerick wants to use something akin to citizenship as a yardstick against which the multiculturalism of the modern west is meas- ured and found wanting, and she wants to use the idea of a common regional history to build bridges across the ethnic divides. given her emphasis on conversation and on landscapes in common, the major difficulties with her approach to the virtu- ous circle between facts and values lie in the extent to which a genuine regional self-consciousness can become politically effective and the extent to which landscape can do service as a metaphor for actions with commonly shared ends without be- coming too vague. the first stage in her model of paradigm change in history, which involves demonstrating that history’s claims to objectivity are spurious, has largely been achieved. the sec- ond stage involves changing the public’s view of the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t history. here she can point to the publicity around the new western history as evidence that the argument has leaked out of the ivory tower and is now being engaged with by a broader public. she might even claim that the book com- missioned by the western governors associa- tion, beyond the mythic west ( ), suggests that politics with a capital “p” has been influenced by these academic debates. the virtuous circle of facts and values i have argued that cronon’s work is informed by the priority that an ethics based on sustainable development might give to environment in the description of social and economic development. i have proposed that worster’s account of na- ture’s fall from grace under euro-american im- p e r i a l i s m r e s t s u p o n a d e m o n i z a t i o n o f technology. i have suggested that white’s con- cern with justice for native americans directs his attention towards the common ground on which such claims might be heard. i have described the way citizenship serves in limerick’s work as a yardstick, calling the sins of the past to account in the claims of the present. i have shown that these normative frameworks produce narratives that pose both empirical and ethical challenges. when cronon adopts a neoclassical account of the way nature is embedded in economy, i find the explanation less satisfying than the attention given elsewhere in his work to the social context of resource use. when worster demonizes tech- nology, he leaves little scope for recognizing the forces of resistance on which our hopes for the future might be based. white’s reticence about the moral conclusions he draws from his work can give the impression that empirical complexity is the inevitable nemesis of social justice. limerick’s focus on conversation prioritizes the develop- ment of consciousness over an account of the material changes that the consciousness is at- tempting to articulate. in conclusion, i suggest that in the scholarship of the new western historians, we can discern two moments in the virtuous move from facts to values. to do so, i draw on seyia benhabib’s terms of norm and utopia ( ; see table ). social critique based on norms holds society up to its self-professed principles and measures how far it falls short, rather like limerick’s evaluation of how ethnic diversity is treated today. beyond that, we might look to the new values that are not yet the consensus but that form the basis for new agendas that go beyond what is already implicitly conceded in principle even if not in practice. this norm-based form of critique benhabib terms im- manent, for it anticipates little more than the fulfillment of the currently declared social pro- ject. in contrast, utopian critique is anticipatory. it projects a future based on the transfiguration of the current agenda. benhabib describes the nature of immanent critique in hegel and marx where the human subject, which was to be the bearer of historical change, was an individual who either thought (hegel) or worked (marx). ben- habib argues that, in the case of marx, this work model of human action privileged humanity as individual tool user over all other conceptions of humanity. in particular, she argues that marx left undeveloped those parts of his work that dealt with language as the model of the individual- in-social relations. language presupposes a com- munity of language users. communication is inherently participatory and collective. these ar- eas based on intersubjective interaction suggest an alternative set of relations beyond the essen- tially juridical concerns of holding society to its declared principles. beyond the world of rights and entitlements, there is one based on needs and solidarities that anticipates a future world where table . critique, norm, and utopia according to benhabib basis of critique norm utopia form of critique immanent anticipatory orientation to current social project fulfillment transfiguration human activity work participation world of values rights and entitlements needs and solidarity human subject collective singularity participatory pluralism conception of the “other” generalized concrete kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t plurality is recognized and a communicative eth- ics has a fuller chance to develop. this division has obvious implications for the earlier discussion about the shortcomings of the emancipatory project implicit in the marxist labor theory of value, which, in benhabib’s terms, is a normative rather than utopian critique of capi- talist society. whereas the project of communi- cative ethics that she takes from the work of jürgen habermas promotes citizenship as partici- pation in a social conversation, marx’s labor the- ory of value treats labor as a universal class that can act in the name of society as a whole to end exploitation by recovering alienated labor or capi- tal for the proletariat. this view, according to benhabib, is fundamentally dogmatic. it denies the plurality of identities in society, many of which serve as the basis for experiences of solidar- ity and respect which equally anticipate utopian needs going beyond what the currently recog- nized principles of rights and entitlements would allow. instead of the collective singularity of the proletariat with all the authoritarianism and sub- jection of means to ends that this entails, ben- h a b i b u r g e s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r o j e ct o f participatory pluralism. this position finds echoes in the work of cronon and worster, and the emphasis on par- ticipatory pluralism and society as an ongoing moral conversation speaks to some of the central concerns of white and limerick. cronon is ex- plicit about the way environmentalist history might “teach us the stories . . . that will help us to live better, more responsible lives” ( a: ) and “keep us morally engaged with the world by showing us how to care about it and its origins in ways we had not done before” ( c: ). i did not, however, introduce this brief account of the work of benhabib simply to reinforce those nor- mative orientations nor to reinforce my claims about the limitations of the marxist normative project. rather, the nature of the moral conver- sation, according to benhabib, creates a special role for the sort of empirical contextualization that good historical and geographical explanation provides. benhabib argues that we have reached the point in the development of the moral con- versation where it is possible to recognize that it entails universal moral respect and egalitarian reciprocity ( : ). the moral conversation will produce ethically correct conclusions if all are entitled to be heard and if all can raise topics for consideration. participation in such a conversa- tion will deepen people’s sense of civic friendship and solidarity (p. ). people will come to take account of what would be the point of view of the other participants in the conversation both be- cause they feel this sense of solidarity and because they know they need to get the informed consent of the “other” to any proposals they raise. not everyone will be persuaded that a common moral conversation can indeed build consensus on substantive ethical and political issues. for example, willems-braun ( ) questions the likelihood of the suspension of political and eco- nomic inequalities or the supersession of biased “common sense” in fora such as environmental roundtables: “although these arenas do often increase possibilities for participation, they do not by themselves mitigate the relations of power that are inscribed into public debate through the cate- gories and identities by which conflicts are organ- ized and understood” ( : – ). there is clearly a dangerous essentialism were one to see the ideal speech situation as uncovering rather than merely helping constitute an ethical com- mon ground. yet, the antiessentialist position comes quite close to that sketched out by ben- habib when mouffe follows rawls in speaking of overlapping consensus, of “creating a link be- tween recognized principles and hitherto unfor- mulated demands” ( : )—and even more strongly when she describes politics as a language game that is about finding “new usages of the key terms of a given tradition, and of their use in new language games that make new forms of life pos- sible” (p. ). the major difference comes when we turn to examine the proposed content of this overlapping consensus. for mouffe, it is primarily procedural. people need to develop a commit- ment to the fact of political conversation in its democratic variant. as long as they share the conversation, they suspend the potential violence of the differences that brought them onto the conflictual terrain of politics. yet, if democratic subject positions are to be rendered attractive by showing how they address the needs of the over- lapping groups of subjugated persons, i see, with limerick, no reason why that should not translate into the perception of overlapping material inter- ests in fairness and in a more egalitarian economic order. to some extent, mouffe acknowledges this in noting that democracy exists in a field of ten- sion between equality and liberty. yet she is very suspicious of any suggestion that rational debate might converge on a common conception of what might constitute the good life. society is too pluralist for that. yet, in benhabib’s defense, it the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t might be suggested that the other-regarding di- mension of civility need not entail loyalty to a single vision of the good life but might allow overlapping gestures of egalitarianism which ac- knowledge certain common claims of the human- ity we accept as fellow citizens in our polity. some of these claims may well be material (to shelter, to food, to education, to a tolerable standard of living) but, whatever form they might take, it seems obvious that they will only develop out of the common feeling that comes from interaction and mutual knowledge of the conditions of life across different sets of identities. this is very much like white’s discussion of the middle ground. but the importance of empirical work takes us further than this. an under- standing of the “other’s” point of view entails recognizing both the specific differences that frame worldviews and the particular context in which those framings take place. beyond the broad respect and particular rights due to the generalized other, there must be, asserts ben- habib, a recognition of those entailments due to the concrete or specific “other.” that recognition, in turn, requires the skills of contextual judgment (p. ), skills that rest upon a sensitivity to the particular—a sensitivity that good historical and geographical explanation can advance. empathy can allow us to imagine when we need to extend the rights of the generalized “other” in any par- ticular context, but empathy too readily erases differences. only the voice of the other can ade- quately alert us to plurality and difference. histo- rians of subjugated ethnic groups and of women have persistently made this point and, as limerick explicitly concedes, have made possible the new syntheses through which the new western his- torians have confronted some of the central myths of anglo-american identities. if historical and geographical writings can build on this work of the new western historians and continue to attend to the sets of agenda of those groups in subjugated positions, then the circle between facts and values will indeed have turned virtuous. acknowledgments i would like to thank stuart corbridge, bill cronon, david demeritt, jim duncan, ken hillis, steve hoel- scher, phil howell, hannah moore, pete morris, yi-fu tuan, and jeff zimmerman for their help. i would also like to thank don mitchell for the invitation to present this paper to the association of american geogra- phers’ annual meeting in san francisco, in april, . notes . in this paper, i shall take up the first set of criti- cisms in some detail but shall say less about the second. the very possibility of the virtuous circle of facts and values that i describe is denied by the more radical versions of postmodernism. the po- sition implicit in my remarks here might perhaps be termed neopragmatic. in general terms, i am something of a falsificationist, although in practi- cal terms, the verifactionist calls the glass half full, whereas the falsificationist says it is half empty. i believe that value positions rely upon making claims about the consequences of certain actions based upon conclusions drawn from observations of similar actions in other contexts. these obser- vations are subject to empirical falsification, and the conclusions drawn from them are subject to objection on grounds of logic or plausibility. i develop this point a little more fully in the con- clusion. . white ( b) describes the roosevelt position as buffalo bill cody’s, and sees a complementary tension between turner and buffalo bill. between them, the arguments of cody (or roosevelt) and turner prefigure the whole discussion of the fron- tier in this century. regardless of precedence, the central point still stands that the two positions construct different stories from different points of view. . merchant ( ) is among the many historians who share this view of the development of the u.s. as essentially a frontier process. indeed her two ecological revolutions, the colonial and the capi- talist, succeed each other in each place as the frontier moves westwards. in her terms, cronon’s changes in the land is essentially about the colo- nial ecological revolution, whereas his nature’s metropolis is essentially about the capitalist eco- logical revolution. . marx would not have used the term “utopia” in the way i do here, for it was precisely the implau- sibility of the dreams of some socialists that led him to distinguish their “utopian” approach from one such as his own that was grounded in the material tendencies/possibilities of the contempo- rary age and thus perhaps deserved the term “sci- entific.” in commenting on bakunin’s attack on his work, marx noted that the phrase “scientific socialism” was “only used in opposition to utopian socialism, which wants to attach the people to new delusions, instead of limiting its science to the knowledge of the social movement made by the people itself” ( b [ – ]: ). engels, f r om socialism: utopian and scientific ( [ ]) onwards, made explicit use of this distinc- tion. i want to retain the term utopian, however, to describe the imagined future world that helps us to think critically about our own times. i also kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t use it to stress the degree of choice involved in normative issues so that we avoid the implication that a better future is somehow inevitable. . even here, i am disturbed by the dogmatism and disciplinary chauvinism of some of cronon’s crit- ics in geography. to suggest that if cronon had written about a later period, he would not have been able to avoid issues raised by chicago’s tran- sition to an industrial economy, seems to me to be beside the point (pudup ). page and walker’s attempt to correct cronon’s “unsustainable as- sumptions about the primacy of intraregional trade” by asserting that “[t]his point was made d efin itively by ge ographers decades ago” ( : ; referring, i suppose, to the work of allan pred) ignores the work in economic history that has at least kept the question open (e.g., lindstrom and sharpless ). . in recognizing the links between questions of strategy and those of truth, i do not want to allow the one to be collapsed into the other. this is what demeritt proposes in his “politics of truth,” sug- gesting that we need “to evaluate competing ac- counts, not in terms of their truth or falsehood, but in terms of their likelihood to produce the kind of world we hope to live in and leave behind us” (demeritt a: , ). drawing on wolff and resnick’s work, graham makes much the same case for marxist economic geography (wolff and resnick ; graham ). yet discourse, it seems to me, should only strive to produce a better world by persuading people of the truth claims it makes. as cronon replies to demeritt: “without some faith that our descriptions of reality bear at least tangential relationship to that reality, it makes little sense to worry about reality at all” ( b: ). i am not willing to allow that the distinctiveness of cronon’s position is purely metaphorical. i find much of value in demeritt’s account ( b) of the consequences of various metaphors of nature in the work of cronon and, particularly, of wor- ster. demeritt suggests that there are ontological and epistemological chasms between the environ- mental historians’ metaphor of nature as an active agent and the new cultural geographers’ metaphor of landscape as text. the two positions see differ- ent things and accept different procedures of ex- emplification and verification. this particular distance may well be reduced by searching for a common metaphorical ground, one that demeritt believes can be taken from the work of bruno latour and donna haraway, where he finds “a new language to describe nature as both a real actor in human history and as a socially con- structed object of these histories” ( b: ). demeritt claims to show that cronon’s treatment of ecology as not simply a metaphor but an objec- tive account of first nature, illustrates the dangers haraway finds in naïve realism. yet, as demeritt notes also ( b: ), haraway is equally harsh about naïve relativism, dismissing both realism and relativism as “god-tricks” ( : ). to abandon truth with a capital “t” still leaves one with the truth claims of “partial perspectives” to be evaluated on the basis of “shared conversa- tions in epistemology”. taking up the invitation implicit in the “cyborg vision”, we can explore further a shared conversation between marx and cronon about the nature of the colonial ameri- can economy. we might talk about the knowledge they articulate and not only about the different situations from which they speak. . there are, of course, alternatives to both cronon and marx. two recent studies of the transforma- tion of the colonial and postcolonial agrarian of new england illustrate the same issues about the interplay between norms and narratives. mer- chant ( ) emphasizes the relationship be- tween changing ideas about the place of women in nature, on one hand, and changing systems of property relations on the other. proletarianization, for merchant, is a response to the inherent con- tradictions of this new ideological and legal order. in contrast to the socialist feminism of merchant, rothenberg ( ) advocates on behalf of the productivity gains achievable under a market economy. merchant sees a better future in the supercession of “[p]atriarchy, capitalism, and the domination of nature” ( : ), whereas rothenberg holds up the success of capitalist ag- riculture in postcolonial new england as a posi- tive example of the benefits of market relations, an example, she is happy to find, many formerly socialist countries now following. . since i am critical of what i see as the central normative concerns in worster’s work, i should immediately add that i think his politics lead him more frequently to overstatement than misstate- ment, although examples of the latter can be found. furthermore, not all his work is consistent with what might be termed his central line of reasoning. he has expressed doubts himself about his ecological model ( b) and has developed a much more nuanced argument about the role of culture in some places (see, especially, d). . i owe this observation to bill cronon. . rose ( : ), in reviewing the condition of postmodernity, criticizes harvey’s “constant paren- thetic incantation of ‘and women, blacks and other oppressed groups.’ ” examples of this inade- quate parenthetical political correctness abound in philo and kearns ( ). . now, however, limerick seems less confident about the possibility of regional identities and shared regional pasts serving as a sort of social glue: “ten years ago, by sheer will, i was able to see in region a form of loyalty and identification that could cross over the barriers of race, ethnic- ity, gender, and, most astonishing, class. now i the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t strain to see even the outlines of that vision of union through region, or through anything else” ( : – ). references aron, s. . lessons in conquest: towards a greater we s t e rn h i s to r y . pacific historical review : – . benhabib, s. . critique, norm, and utopia: a study of the foundations of critical theory. new york: columbia university press. ———. . situating the self: gender, community and postmodernism in contemporary ethics. new york: routledge. berkhofer, r. . the political context of a new i n d i a n h i s t o r y . pacific historical review : – . bogue, a. g. . an agricultural empire. in the oxford history of the american west, ed. c. a. milner ii, c. a. o’connor, and m. sandweiss, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. corbridge, s. . marxisms, modernities and mo- ralities: development praxis and the claims of distant strangers. environment and planning d: society and space : – . cronon, w. . changes in the land: indians, colo- nists, and the ecology of new england. new york: hill and wang. ———. . modes of prophecy and production: placing nature in history. journal of american history : – . ———. – . landscape and home: environ- mental traditions in wisconsin. wisconsin maga- zine of history : – . ———. a. nature’s metropolis: chicago and the great west. new york: w. w. norton & co. ———. a. foreword. in land use, environment, and social change: the shaping of island county, washington, nd ed., ed. r. white, pp. xi–xvi. seattle: university of washington press. ———. b. kennecott journey: paths out of town. in under an open sky: rethinking america’s west- ern past, ed. w. cronon, g. miles, and j. gitlin, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. ———. c. a place for stories: nature, history, and narrative. journal of american history : – . ———. d. telling tales on canvas: landscapes of frontier change. in discovered lands, invented pasts: transforming visions of the american west, ed. j. d. prown, pp. – . new haven: yale univer- sity press. ———. a. on totalization and turgidity. an- tipode : – . ———. b. cutting loose or running aground? journal of historical geography : – . ———. a. introduction: in search of nature. in uncommon ground: toward reinventing nature, ed. w. cronon, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. ———. b. the trouble with wilderness; or, get- ting back to the wrong nature. in uncommon ground: toward reinventing nature, e d . w. cronon, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. cronon, w.; miles, g.; and gitlin, j. . becoming west: toward a new meaning for western his- tory. in under an open sky: rethinking america’s western past, ed. w. cronon, g. miles, and j. gitlin, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. cronon, w., and white, r. . indians in the land. american heritage / : – . cutler, a.; hindess, b.; hirst, p.; and hussain, a. . marx’s “capital” and capitalism today, vol. . lon- don: routledge & kegan paul. demeritt, d. a. ecology, objectivity and critique in writings on nature and human societies. jour- nal of historical geography : – . ———. b. the nature of metaphors in cultural geography and environmental history. progress in human geography : – . engels, f. [ ]. socialism: utopian and scientific. london: bookmarks. graham, j. . theory and essentialism in marxist geography. antipode : – . gulliford, a. . exhibition review. the west as america: reinterpreting images of the frontier, – , national museum of american art, smithsonian institution, washington. journal of american history : – . haraway, d. . simians, cyborgs, and women: the reinvention of nature. london: routledge. harris, c. . from turner and von thünen to marx and leopold. antipode : – . harvey, d. . justice, nature and the geography of difference. oxford: blackwell. hawthorn, g. . plausible worlds: possibility and understanding in history and the social sciences. cambridge: cambridge university press. hirst, p. . an answer to relativism. new forma- tions : – . holthaus, g.; limerick, p. n.; and wilkinson, c. f. . introduction. in a society to match the scenery: personal visions of the future of the ameri- can west, ed. g. holthaus, p. n. limerick, c. f. wilkinson, and e. s. munson, pp. – . boulder: university press of colorado. horkheimer, m., and adorno, t. w. [ ]. the dialectic of enlightenment. london: verso. hughes, r. . culture of complaint: the fraying of america. london: harpercollins. jackson, r. h. . land use in america. london: edward arnold. jones, e. . growth recurring: economic change in world history. oxford: clarendon press. kay, j. . western women’s history. journal of historical geography : – . kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t ———. . the future of historical geography in the united states. annals of the association of american geographers : – . ———. . landscapes of women and men: re- thinking the regional historical geography of the united states and canada. journal of historical geography : – . kearns, g. a. closed space and political practice: halford mackinder and frederick jackson turner. environment and planning d: society and space : – . ———. b. making space for marx. journal of historical geography : – . limerick, p. n. . desert passages: encounters with the american deserts. albuquerque: university of new mexico press. ———. . the legacy of conquest: the unbroken past of the american west. new york: w. w. norton & co. ———. a. the trail to santa fe: the unleashing of the western public intellectual. in trails: to- ward a new western history, ed. p. n. limerick, c. a. milner ii, and c. e. rankin, pp. – . lawrence: university of kansas press. ———. b. persistent traits and the persistent historian: the american frontier and ray allen billington. in writing western history: essays on major western historians, ed. r. w. etulain, pp. – . albuquerque: university of new mex- ico press. ———. c. what on earth is the new western history? in trails: toward a new western history, ed. p. n. limerick, c. a. milner ii, and c. e. rankin, pp. – . lawrence: university of kan- sas press. ———. d. progress or decline? judging the his- tory of western expansion. in a society to match the scenery: personal visions of the future of the american west, ed. g. holthaus, p. n. limerick, c. f. wilkinson, and e. s. munson, pp. – . boulder: university press of colorado. ———. a. the multicultural islands. american historical review : – . ———. b. second views and second thoughts: mark klett and the re-exploration of the ameri- can west. in revealing territory: photographs of the southwest by mark klett, m. klett, pp. – . albuquerque: university of new mexico press. ———. c. the case of the premature departure: the trans-mississippi west and american his- tory textbooks. journal of american history : – . ———. d. making the most of words: verbal activity and western america. in under an open sky: rethinking america’s western past, ed. w. cronon, g. miles, and j. gitlin, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. ———. e. disorientation and reorientation: the american landscape discovered from the west. journal of american history : – . ———. a. dancing with professors: the trouble with academic prose. new york times book re- view, october : – . ———. b. precedents to wisdom. montana: the magazine of western history / : – . ———. a. the adventures of the frontier in the twentieth century. in the frontier in american culture, ed. j. r. grossman, pp. – . berkeley: university of california press. ———. b. haunted by rhyolite: learning from the landscape of failure. in the big empty: essays on western landscapes as narrative, ed. l. engel, pp. – . albuquerque: university of new mex- ico press. ———. . region and reason. in all over the map: rethinking american regions, e. l. ayers, p. n. limerick, s. nissenbaum, p. s. onuf, pp. – . baltimore: johns hopkins university press. limerick, p.; milner, c. a.; and rankin, c. e. . preface. in trails: toward a new western history, ed. p. n. limerick, c. a. milner ii, and c. e. rankin, pp. ix–xv. lawrence: university of kan- sas press. lindstrom, d. and sharpless, j. . urban growth and economic structure in antebellum america. research in economic history : – . marx, k. a[ ]. capital: a critique of political economy, vol. . moscow: progress publishers. ———. b[ – ]. conspectus of bakunin’s “statism and anarchy.” in the first international and after, k. marx, pp. – . harmondsworth, u.k.: penguin books. ———. [ ]. economic and philosophical manuscripts. in early writings, k . m a r x , pp. – . harmondsworth, u.k.: penguin books. ———. [ ]. capital: a critique of political economy, vol. . harmondsworth, u.k.: penguin books. mcwilliams, c. . factories in the field: the story of migratory farm labor in california. santa barbara, ca: peregrine. meinig, d.w. . the shaping of america: a geo- graphical perspective on years of history, vol. : atlantic america, – . new haven, ct: yale university press. ———. . the shaping of america: a geographical perspective on years of history, vol. : continen- tal america – . new haven, ct: yale university press. merchant, c. . ecological revolutions: nature, gender, and science in new england. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. ———. . gender and environmental history. journal of american history : – . ———. . william cronon’s “nature’s metropo- lis.” antipode : – . morris, p. . where is the american west? creating a base map for a new regional history. paper the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t presented at the association of american geog- raphers annual meeting, san francisco. mouffe, c. . the return of the political. london: verso. nash, g. b.; crabtree, c.; and dunn, r. e. . history on trial: culture wars and the teaching of the past. new york: a. a. knopf. nostrand, r. l. . the hispano homeland. norman: university of oklahoma press. novick, p. . the noble dream: the “objectivity” question and the american historical profession. cambridge: cambridge university press. page, b., and walker, r. . “nature’s metropolis”: the ghost dance of christaller and von thünen. antipode : – . philo, c., and kearns, g. . culture, history, capi- tal: a critical introduction to the selling of places. in selling places: the city as cultural capi- tal, past and present, pp. – . london: pergamon. pisani, d. . to reclaim a divided west: water, law, and public policy, – . albuquerque: uni- versity of new mexico press. p u d u p , m. b. . tra d i n g p l ac e s . antipode : – . rawls, j. . a theory of justice. oxford: oxford university press. rose, g. . book review: d. harvey, condition of postmodernity, and e. soja, postmodern geogra- phies. journal of historical geography : – . rothenberg, w. b. . from market-places to a mar- ket economy: the transformation of rural massa- chusetts, – . chicago: university of chicago press. rudnik, l. . re-naming the land: anglo expatri- ate women in the southwest. in the desert is no lady: southwestern landscapes in women’s writing and art, ed. v. norwood and j. monk, pp. – . new haven: yale university press. sauer, c. . the agency of man on earth. in man’s role in changing the face of the earth, ed. w. i. thomas, pp. – . chicago: university of chi- cago press. saunders, r. h., and marston, s. a. . review of william cronon’s nature’s metropolis. antipode : – . scott, j. . gender and the politics of history. new york: columbia university press. shoemaker, n. . regions as categories of analysis. perspectives. american historical association news- letter / : – . slotkin, r. . gunfighter nation: the myth of the frontier in twentieth-century america. new york: harpercollins, harper perennial. smith, d. . geography and social justice. oxford: blackwell. stegner, w. . one nation. boston: houghton mifflin. szasz, f. m., and szasz, m. c. . religion and spirituality. in the oxford history of the american west, ed. c. a. milner ii, c. a. o’connor, and m. sandweiss, pp. – . oxford: oxford univer- sity press. thompson, e. p. . the making of the english working class, rev. ed. harmondsworth, u.k.: penguin. thrift, n. . taking aim at the heart of the region. in human geography: society, space and social science, ed. d. gregory, r. martin, and g. smith, pp. – . london: macmillan. tribe, k. . genealogies of capitalism. london: macmillan. truettner, w., and nemerov, a. . what you see is not necessarily what you get: new meaning in images of the old west. montana: the maga- zine of western history / : – . walton, j. . western times and water wars: state, culture, and rebellion in california. berkeley: uni- versity of california press. white, r. . the winning of the west: the expan- sion of the western sioux in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. journal of american history : – . ———. . land use, environment, and social change: the shaping of island county, washington. seattle: university of washington press. ———. . the roots of dependency: subsistence, environment, and social change among the choctaws, pawnees, and navajos. lincoln: univer- sity of nebraska press. ———. . american environmental history: the development of a new historical field. pacific historical review : – . ———. . frederick jackson turner. in historians of the american frontier, ed. j. r. wunder, pp. – . new york: greenwood press. ———. a. environmental history, ecology, and meaning. journal of american history : – . ———. a. the middle ground: indians, empires, an d re p ub l i c s i n t h e g rea t la k es reg io n, – . cambridge: cambridge university press. ———. b. “it’s your misfortune and none of my own”: a new history of the american west. nor- man: university of oklahoma press. ———. c. trashing the trails. in trails: toward a new western history, ed. p. n. limerick, c. a. milner, and c. e. rankin, pp. – . lawrence: university press of kansas. ———. a. preface to the edition. in land use, environment, and social change: the shaping of island county, washington, nd ed., r. white, pp. xvii–xix. seattle: university of washington press.. ———. b. discovering nature in north america. journal of american history : – . ———. c. “far west. see also frontier”: the “new western history,” textbooks, and the u.s. history survey course. perspectives. american his- torical association newsletter / : , – . kearns d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t ———. a. animals and enterprise. in the oxford history of the american west, ed. c. a. milner ii, c. a. o’connor, and m. sandweiss, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. ———. b. frederick jackson turner and buffalo bill. in the frontier in american culture, ed. j. r. grossman, pp. – . berkeley: university of cali- fornia press. ———. . “are you an environmentalist or do you work for a living?”: work and nature. in uncommon ground: toward reinventing nature, ed. w. cronon, pp. – . new york: w. w. norton & co. willems-braun, b. . buried epistemologies: the politics of nature in (post)colonial british co- lumbia. annals of the association of american ge- ographers : – . williams, m. . the relations of environmental history and historical geography. journal of his- torical geography : – . wishart, d. . an unspeakable sadness: the dispos- session of the nebraska indians. lincoln: university of nebraska press. ———. . the selectivity of historical presenta- tion. journal of historical geography : – . wittfogel, k. . oriental despotism: a comparative study of total power. new haven, ct: yale univer- sity press. wolff, r. d., and resnick, r. s. . economics: marxian vs. neoclassical. baltimore: johns hop- kins university press. worster, d. . nature’s economy: a history of eco- logical ideas. sierra club books, cambridge: cam- bridge university press, . ———. . dust bowl: the southern plains in the s. oxford: oxford university press. ———. . rivers of empire: water, aridity, and the growth of the american west. new york: random house, pantheon books; oxford: oxford univer- sity press, . ———. a. transformations of the earth: toward an agroecological perspective in history. journal of american history : – . ———. b. seeing beyond culture. journal of american history : – . ———. . beyond the agrarian myth. in trails: toward a new western history, ed. p. n. limerick, c. rankin, and c. a. milner ii, pp. – . lawrence: university of kansas press. ———. a. cowboy ecology. in under western skies: nature and history in the american west, d. worster, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. ———. b. new west, true west. in under west- ern skies: nature and history in the american west, d. worster, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. ———. c. a country without secrets. in under western skies: nature and history in the american west, d. worster, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. ———. d. the black hills: sacred or profane? in under western skies: nature and history in the american west, d. worster, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. ———. a. the nature we have lost. in the wealth of nature: environmental history and the ecological imagination, d. worster, pp. – . ox- ford: oxford university press. ———. b. the ecology of order and chaos. in the wealth of nature: environmental history and the ecological imagination, d. worster, pp. – . oxford: oxford university press. worster, d.; armitage, s.; malone, m. p.; weber, d. j.; and limerick, p. n. . the legacy of conquest by patricia nelson limerick: a panel of appraisal. western historical quarterly : – . yeo, s. . state and anti-state: reflections on social forms and struggles from . in capi- talism, state formation and marxist theory, ed. p. corrigan, pp. – . london: quartet books. correspondence: department of geography, university of cambridge, downing place, cambridge cb en, u.k. the virtuous circle d ow nl oa de d by [ m ay no ot h u ni ve rs it y l ib ra ry ] at : a ug us t res .. religious studies http://journals.cambridge.org/res additional services for religious studies: email alerts: click here subscriptions: click here commercial reprints: click here terms of use : click here (ad-)ventures in faith: a critique of bishop's doxastic- venture model amber l. griffioen religious studies / firstview article / november , pp - doi: . /s x, published online: november link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_s x how to cite this article: amber l. griffioen (ad-)ventures in faith: a critique of bishop's doxastic-venture model. religious studies, available on cjo doi: . /s x request permissions : click here downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/res, ip address: . . . on nov (ad-)ventures in faith: a critique of bishop’s doxastic-venture model amber l. griffioen department of philosophy, university of konstanz, po box , konstanz, germany e-mail: amber.griffioen@uni-konstanz.de abstract: while some philosophical models reduce religious faith to either mere belief or affect, more recent accounts have begun to look at the volitional component of faith. in this spirit, john bishop has defended the notion of faith as a ‘doxastic venture’. in this article, i consider bishop’s view in detail and attempt to show that his account proves on the one hand too permissive and on the other too restrictive. thus, although the doxastic-venture model offers certain advantages over other prominent views in the philosophy of religion, it still falls short of providing us with an ultimately satisfactory account of religious faith. introduction the current literature in the philosophy of religion contains no shortage of models of religious faith. while some models attempt to reduce faith to mere belief or mere affect, more recent accounts have turned their attention to the volitional component of faith, maintaining that it also appears to involve a willing risk of some kind. in this spirit, john bishop has defended the notion of theistic faith as a ‘doxastic venture’. in what follows, i will consider bishop’s view in detail and show that it falls short on its own terms. i will argue that bishop’s account proves on the one hand too permissive and on the other too restrictive. thus, although the doxastic-venture model of faith has certain advantages over other prominent views in the philosophy of religion, it still falls short of providing us with an ultimately satisfactory account of religious faith. faith as doxastic venture against accounts that reduce faith to something merely passive and receptive (e.g. faith as a matter solely of belief or of affect), john bishop religious studies, page of © cambridge university press doi: . /s x  http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s x&domain=pdf (, , ) has plausibly proposed that faith contains an essentially volitional component. for bishop, this amounts to understanding faith as involving a practical commitment to certain religious beliefs which one recognizes as going beyond the evidence, an endeavour he calls doxastic venture. ‘people make a doxastic venture’, he writes, ‘if and only if they take to be true in their practical reasoning a proposition, p, that they believe to be true, while recognizing that it is not the case that p’s truth is adequately supported by their total available evidence’. here, it is important to note the distinction bishop makes between holding and taking a proposition to be true. holding p to be true denotes a person’s being ‘in a psychological state that counts as a belief that p’. taking p to be true, on the other hand, refers to a person’s wilfully employing p ‘as a true premise in reasoning’. over the former, bishop claims, we have little to no direct control, though we may at times exercise indirect control over our belief- acquisition and maintenance. however, he argues that we do often have direct control over which propositions we choose to employ in our reasoning – especially in our practical reasoning. that is, we have direct control over those propositions we take to be true. of course, it is natural and habitual that the propositions we take to be true in our reasoning are those we actually believe, but these may come apart, as when one resists the workings of a prejudice or bias of which one is aware, or when a person with deep underlying trust issues nevertheless decides to entrust a friend with a secret, despite being unable to shake off the feeling that no one can really be trusted. in such cases, bishop maintains, the subject does not allow a particular belief she holds to do the work in her reasoning that it would normally do. the same may be said when we are required to bracket or downplay certain beliefs we may hold e.g. when serving on a jury or performing a scientific experiment or enjoying a science-fiction movie. here, allowing our beliefs about reality to play their normal role in our reasoning might mean undermining the rules, objectivity, or even the very possibility of the activities in question. thus, there appears to be something voluntary about the taking-to-be-true relation that does not obtain of the holding-to-be-true relation. as bishop puts it, ‘our wider capacity to decide what propositions to take to be true in our reasoning (and what weight to give their truth) can be deployed as a capacity for control over our beliefs – a locus of direct voluntary control over how beliefs are used in practical reasoning’. however, faith as bishop understands it differs from the examples cited above, since the latter represent cases in which the subject’s voluntarily adopted reasoning process reflects something other than what she actually believes. to count as a fully doxastic venture, he claims, the faith- proposition the subject takes to be true in her practical reasoning must match up with the belief she actually holds – and it must do so despite the subject’s awareness that this requires going beyond what is supported by the evidence. further, bishop maintains that the faith-proposition in question must be affirmed  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n ‘with full weight’ in the subject’s practical reasoning, i.e. ‘with the kind of weight that naturally’ – though, as we shall see, not necessarily – ‘goes along with straight- forwardly believing that it is true’. thus, a proposition only affirmed tentatively, hypothetically, or presumptively in one’s practical reasoning will disqualify an exercise of the above capacity from counting as a fully doxastic venture, even if the proposition does correspond to a belief one actually holds. according to bishop, then, faith is doxastic in so far as it involves ‘a specific capacity for a [doxastic] control that . . . may be used to determine whether or not beliefs qua held attitudes get given their due weight in salient practical reasoning’. and it is a venture in so far as it involves taking the epistemic risk of knowingly going beyond the evidence. likewise, faith remains receptive in so far as one does not generally have direct control over what one believes, but it is active in so far as it involves one’s wilfully allowing beliefs that go beyond the evidence to play a role in one’s practical reasoning. despite the former, more passive aspect of faith, over which we have little control, bishop maintains that faith is (or ‘should be’) ‘broadly reasonable in the sense that exercising the capacity for faith should be in harmony with the exercise of our rational capacities’. (this rules out those fideist views on which it is a mark of faith that it be either irrational or arational.) indeed, that religious faith may be both practically and epistemically rational turns out to be crucial for bishop. he argues that since religious beliefs have a morally significant impact on our actions and ways of living, ‘the question of the justifiability of taking a religious belief to be true in one’s practical reasoning is ultimately a moral question’. but bishop’s ethics of belief lead him to tie the morality of faith to its rationality via his endorsement of what he calls the moral-epistemic link principle – namely that ‘people are morally entitled to take their beliefs to be true only if they are epistemically entitled to do so’. so if the kind of venturing necessarily involved in faith turns out to be epistemically irrational, it will also thereby lack moral standing. and any theory that is forced to characterize faith as necessarily immoral (or at least as never morally justified) would appear to have a prima facie strike against it from the very beginning. in short, although the notion of faith as doxastic venture highlights the importance of the volitional element of faith, it does so at the risk of losing the rational element. but if the rational element is lost, by bishop’s standards so is the morality of faith. thus, it will be important to look more closely at the way in which bishop justifies the rationality of faith to see if the doxastic-venture model can be successful. is doxastic venture rational? as we have just seen, since the account of faith bishop proposes involves an ‘active venture in practical commitment’ to certain theistic faith-beliefs, and given that these theistic faith-beliefs ‘pervasively influence how people live’, (ad-)ventures in faith  such commitments are open to moral evaluation. yet given the moral-epistemic link principle cited above, the burden is on bishop to show that such doxastic ventures can be epistemically rational in a way that still allows them to be venturesome. to this end, bishop makes two argumentative moves aimed at denying the central thesis of epistemic evidentialism, which claims that the rationality of a practical commitment to a belief (or, what is more or less the same: a person’s entitlement in holding it and employing it in her practical reasoning) rests upon that belief’s being evidentially justified. first, he argues that classical theism is ‘evidentially ambiguous’. second, he employs a strategy borrowed from william james to argue that where the evidence is ambiguous, it is rationally permissible to believe on a ‘passional’ basis. i shall discuss each of these moves in turn. according to bishop, subjects are evidentially justified in holding that p ‘if and only if they hold p to be true on the basis of adequate evidential support for p’s truth’. further, bishop maintains, epistemic evidentialism claims that evidential justification (and only evidential justification), understood in this way, can confer epistemic entitlement. of course, what it means to ‘hold p to be true on the basis of adequate evidential support for p’s truth’ is debatable, but bishop focuses primarily on ‘rational empiricist evidential practice’, since this is the framework within which many philosophers have assumed the evidential support for the truth of faith-beliefs should be evaluated. there are many reasons to question the plausibility of the thesis regarding rational empiricist evidential justification and thus of any version of epistemic evidentialism that rests on it. however, bishop departs from typical externalist and reformed epistemological approaches to denying or modifying this kind of evidentialism, since he is largely concerned with the rationality of faithful believers, not of the per se worth of the beliefs held. here, bishop is concerned (i think, rightly) with the more ‘agency-focused’ notion of entitlement, as opposed to externalist, ‘propositional-attitude-focused’ theories about justification. moreover, even in so far as evidentialist accounts themselves attach an ‘evidentialist imperative’ to justification, he notes that most discussions understand it as ‘a principle about the proper use of our indirect control over the formation, retention, and revision of our beliefs’ – that is, about the aetiology and maintenance of our beliefs. bishop, however, claims that ‘the evidentialist imperative should be construed as applying also – and, indeed, primarily – to our direct control . . . over what we take to be true (and with what weight) in our practical reasoning’. for our concerns here, it is sufficient to note that bishop maintains that there is good reason to suppose that classical theism is evidentially ambiguous, such that ‘the question of god’s existence is left open – perhaps even necessarily – because our overall evidence is equally viably interpreted either from a theistic or an atheistic perspective’. this is clearly not an uncontroversial claim, and there are parties of both theist and atheist persuasions that would vehemently  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n reject it. however, bishop counters that ‘the fact that, after centuries of debate, equally intelligent and well-informed thinkers continue to disagree about how to assess the evidence for and against god’s existence does suggest . . . that the evidence on this question is indeed ambiguous’. if this is right (and it seems plausible to think it at least might be), then any account of faith resting on a version of ‘rational empiricist epistemic evidentialism’ as described above would represent a kind of irrationalist fideism, since no reflective faith-believer would be justified in holding a belief in the existence of the god of classical theism and thus would not be entitled to take the proposition ‘god exists’ to be true in her practical reasoning. further, given the moral-epistemic link principle, such a taking-to-be-true would also represent a moral failure (or, at the very least, would lack moral justification). thus, bishop must show that there are rationally legitimate ways of believing (or practically committing oneself to beliefs) that go beyond what the evidence supports. bishop’s suggestion for saving the rationality of this ‘venture’-component of faith is to take a page from william james’s playbook. he suggests that, in forced situations of genuine import in which the evidence is recognized to be ambiguous, one may legitimately believe in non-evidentially caused ways – what bishop, following james, calls passionally caused believing. passional causes may include such phenomena as emotions, wishes, desires, evaluative beliefs, affections, affiliations, and so on. this understanding of the doxastic venture, however, places two main constraints on the passional believer. first, the situation must present the believer with a genuine option, understood here in the jamesian sense. that is, it must represent a living, forced, and momentous option for belief. if the relevant option is of no significant personal or existential import to the agent, or if there is a way to ‘slip between the horns’ of the dilemma non-passionally, there is no legitimate opportunity for doxastic venture. second, bishop notes that ‘doxastic venture can be defended . . . only against the background of a general acceptance of evidentialism’. he maintains that ‘options that can be decided by rational assessment of one’s evidence fall under the moral evidentialist imperative’ and are thus not candidates for legitimate doxastic venture. indeed, bishop goes so far as to claim that – at least as far as faith-ventures are concerned – the jamesian doxastic-venture model of faith requires that the faith- believer must correctly recognize that the proposition in question is evidentially ambiguous. this ‘recognition-criterion’ is of no small import to bishop’s account, as it rules out certain candidates for faith on the doxastic-venture model. first, it excludes ambivalent believers. bishop maintains that he is only concerned with ‘reflective’ faith-believers, so those subjects who simply do not care about the evidential status of the propositions in question, or those who have simply never asked such questions, are not candidates for doxastic venture in the context of faith: ‘the venturing involved in doxastic venture is conscious venturing’. yet not only (ad-)ventures in faith  must such faith-believers reflectively judge the proposition in question to be evidentially ambiguous, they must do so correctly. ‘so’, bishop writes, reflective faith-believers who incorrectly judge that their beliefs lack support and then commit themselves to their truth will not in fact be making doxastic ventures. and those who incorrectly judge the truth of their beliefs to be evidentially well supported, will in fact venture beyond their evidence in taking them to be true, contrary to their conscious understanding of their situation. these caveats may appear surprising at first, and i do not think they are unproblematic, as i discuss below. but first we must understand just why bishop thinks these qualifications are important for his account. since, for bishop, the moral justifiability of a faith-belief rests on the agency-focused notion of epistemic entitlement, agents who are not epistemically reflective and just ‘happen’ to believe passionally without any views on the nature of the evidence do not ‘do’ anything for which they could be considered rational or irrational, and thus epistemic entitlement does not obviously appear to apply. in other words, the unreflective believer doesn’t venture anything, since there is no awareness on his part of the risk he might be taking. interestingly, the same will be true of the reflective faith-believer who judges incorrectly that he has adequate evidential support for his faith-beliefs. he, too, fails to venture anything, since there is no perceived risk involved in his belief. of course, his belief itself is in fact risky, since unbeknownst to him it goes beyond what the evidence actually supports, but his believing it (or practically committing himself to it) is not. what about the (potentially hyper-reflective) faith-believer who incorrectly judges that her belief lacks evidential support and yet nevertheless practically commits herself to it? she does seem to take a conscious risk, just as the faith- believer who gets it right does. my suspicion here is that bishop does not want to count such endeavours as doxastic ventures, since in reality nothing is risked. although the believer sees herself as venturing doxastically, she doesn’t actually venture anything – like a trapeze artist who doesn’t realize there is a safety net below her. such an individual might turn out to be a wishful believer or self- deceiver or other type of doxastic ‘adventurer’ (since she does, in fact believe passionally), but she does not engage in doxastic venture, in so far as there is nothing really at stake. finally, the restriction on faith-ventures that the believer correctly identify the proposition in question as evidentially ambiguous is supposed to rule out the possibility that counter-evidential ventures such as self-deception (which would certainly be doxastically venturesome!) count as instances of faith. for bishop, faith is a supra-evidential enterprise (in going beyond the evidence) but not a counter-evidential one. thus, agents who correctly identify the evidence as indicating the falsity of a certain faith-proposition yet try to believe in the face of that evidence may venture doxastically, but not in the sense required for epistemically (and thus for morally) legitimate faith.  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n as we have seen, bishop’s claim is that practically committing oneself to certain faith-propositions that go beyond the evidence can be epistemically rational, provided they represent genuine options for the agent, who correctly assesses them as being evidentially undecidable. this, of course, opens the door for the possibility that supra-evidential faith ventures may also be morally justifiable. however, bishop’s account of faith is not without its problems. first, it is not so clear that doxastic venturers will always be as epistemically ‘in the clear’ as bishop seems to think they are, for the threat of self-deception still looms large – and with it worries about the rationality (and thus, by bishop’s own account, the morality) of faith-believers. that is, bishop’s criteria for what counts as faith might allow for cases that might give us (or should at least give bishop himself) pause. second, and perhaps more importantly, bishop’s account appears to rule out certain candidates for religious faith that we might think quite naturally fall under this term. it is to these issues i now turn. the doxastic venture model is too permissive: worries about self- deception before raising a few objections to bishop’s account, i think it important to note that the doxastic-venture model of faith has a distinct advantage over accounts that reduce religious faith to mere passive, affective responses to the divine, or to rational belief on religious matters in accordance with the evidence, since it observes that faith is also something active, something risky, something for which we are potentially responsible. that is, it rightly moves faith towards the realm of the practical. nevertheless, bishop appears to want to have his cake and eat it too by entrenching that move firmly in the realm of the doxastic. indeed, he ultimately still understands faith as resting on epistemic rationality. yet it is not clear that this really reflects what we take to be special and significant about religious faith. further, it is precisely this requirement that might get the account into trouble on its own terms. the nature and scope of self-deception is itself philosophically contested, but it is generally agreed that it represents a paradigm case of epistemic irrationality, in which subjects acquire or maintain a favoured belief in the face of strong evidence to the contrary. there are a few ways in which self-deception might appear to threaten bishop’s account. first, one might worry that, in a pascalian- type manoeuvre, one could undertake a self-deceptive project for prudential (i.e. passional) reasons aimed at putting oneself in an emotional (or other passional state) that is likely to induce religious belief in oneself. however, bishop explicitly claims that the doxastic venture he has in mind does not apply to cases in which subjects undertake self-deception as a means of passionally acquiring a belief: engaging in such self-manipulation is not doxastic venturing . . . intentionally inducing passional causes for a certain belief in order to satisfy an essentially non-epistemic desire (ad-)ventures in faith  to have that belief . . . does not amount to doxastic venture on my present account. on my present account . . . there can be occasion for doxastic venture only if there is already a passionally caused tendency to hold the proposition concerned to be true. thus, bishop adds in a footnote, pascalian endeavours ‘are not themselves to be identified as doxastic ventures’, though they may ‘bring about the occasion for doxastic venture’ if pascal’s strategy works and a theistic belief has thereby been passionally induced. of course, although bishop may exclude pascalian strategies aimed at acquiring passional beliefs from themselves counting as fully doxastic ventures, it is not so clear that he can rule them out as sub-doxastic ventures (which he also considers genuine faith-ventures), where subjects meet all the conditions required for fully doxastic venture, with the exception that they do not hold the relevant faith- proposition to be true. thus if the pascalian strategist aims for the passional acquisition of a religious belief, e.g. in the existence of god, and does so while correctly judging that the evidence cannot provide an answer on this question, then she will be venturing sub-doxastically. of course, if we think (as we said above) that self-deception is a form of believing (or attempting to believe) in the face of evidence to the contrary, then this kind of pascalian case might not even count as self-deception, and may even be admitted by bishop’s account as an epistemically rational undertaking which aspires to bring about the occasion for a fully doxastic venture. but the real problem for bishop is not that some pascalians may rationally come to hold passional beliefs which then become candidates for fully doxastic venture, but rather that some may irrationally do so. indeed, given bishop’s epistemic criteria for fully doxastic faith-ventures, the aetiology of one’s passional beliefs doesn’t appear to matter at all to the determination of whether one’s faith-venture is justified or not. all that matters is that i hold a particular faith-belief passionally, judge correctly that it is in principle evidentially undecidable, and then commit myself to its truth in my practical reasoning. if this were the whole view, then, it would seem that non-evidential beliefs, however they may be arrived at – e.g. via wishful thinking, self-deception, hypnosis, electroshock therapy, a bump on the head, and so on – may all be candidates for doxastic venturing, so long as they are held ‘passionally’ and paired with a correct judgement about their evidential ambiguity. however, bishop is concerned that the epistemic conditions he places on doxastic venturing do not, by themselves, go far enough to allow for moral justifiability. he thus adds two moral conditions, in order to rule out cases in which one practically commits oneself via doxastic venture to, e.g., the existence of nazi gods. first, one’s ‘non-evidential motivation for taking p to be true [must be] of a morally acceptable type’, and second, p itself must ‘conform with correct morality’. concerning the current worry regarding the aetiology of our passional beliefs, it will be the first of these two conditions that most explicitly interests  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n us here. bishop does not give specific examples of what he takes to be ‘morally unacceptable’ motivations, claiming only that ‘we do clearly recognize that some non-evidential motivations are morally honourable, and others dishonourable’ and assuming that some general theory of virtuous non-evidential motivations is feasible. nevertheless, perhaps we can venture an answer on bishop’s behalf. it is unlikely that the general class to which a particular motivation belongs (e.g. wish, desire, evaluative belief, affection, affiliation, emotion, etc.) will determine a motivation’s virtuousness or lack thereof, rather this will more likely have to do with the content or object of the motivation. for example, religious beliefs passionally motivated by nietzschean ressentiment, a desire to dull the pain of existence, or an instinct to exclude a certain class of people might be considered vicious, whereas those motivated by the evaluative belief that ‘it would be good – supremely good, perhaps the only way the supreme good could be realized – if that faith-proposition were true’, or by a desire to open oneself up to experiences that contribute significantly to human flourishing, might be more virtuous. yet these considerations do not directly respond to the aetiology worry above. it may rule out those passional beliefs acquired via wishful thinking or self-deception that are viciously motivated, but what about those that are virtuously (or at least non-viciously) motivated? is the religious faith-believer entitled to practically committing herself to the truth of those beliefs? again, we might respond on bishop’s behalf by claiming that the agent is epistemically entitled to such faith-beliefs, so long as she correctly judges the truth of those beliefs to be evidentially ambiguous – and not before. an agent who (via a non-vicious motivation) acquired the passional belief that god exists via a self-deceptive project, which involved her coming to believe in the face of what she took to be strong counter-evidence, is not epistemically entitled to her belief or to any ventures that she should undertake with it, since this would be a counter- evidential venture, and as we have seen bishop excludes counter-evidential ventures from faith-ventures. if, on the other hand, the agent changes her mind about the force of the evidence, concluding now that it is ambiguous, it would seem that, on bishop’s view, she is now (and only now) entitled to continue to take her passional beliefs to be true, since she is no longer believing counter to the evidence. thus, what was once an irrationally (counter-evidentially) held passional belief might now be a rationally (supra-evidentially) held one. however, this leaves room for a kind of self-deceptive project that – while not itself presuming to be a faith-venture – could be employed in the service of faith. consider the case of a hyper-reflective epistemologist, call her hildy. hyper- reflective hildy was raised in a mennonite community by mennonite parents. she went to mennonite schools, attended (and still attends) mennonite churches, and so on. thus, hildy’s ‘default’ belief, so to speak, has always been a passional belief in the existence of god, one motivated by her upbringing in and her strong affiliation with the mennonite culture. however, hildy has always had an (ad-)ventures in faith  inquisitive nature, and when she goes off to university she decides to study philosophy. hildy studies the major arguments for the existence of god, and to her surprise finds them relatively unconvincing (especially once she hears the objections to them). she also studies several of the ‘great atheists’, and finds their arguments significantly more persuasive. after years of study and careful consideration, she comes to the considered conclusion that the evidence points markedly against the existence of god. yet she cannot shake the feeling that god exists – and in her private life, she still attends church and takes this belief to be true in her practical reasoning. further, she reflectively believes that certain human goods could only be attained if god were to exist (but also that this fact does not itself provide sufficient evidence for god’s existence). we can imagine hildy running across bishop’s believing by faith – or perhaps, as bright as she is, gleaning the point directly from james himself. she realizes that were she able to conclude sincerely that the evidence for god’s existence is essentially ambiguous, not only could she continue to commit herself to her passional belief with good conscience, she could even be said to exercise the virtue of faith, a trait any theist would think it good to have. here, we can imagine hyper-reflective hildy embarking on a kind of self- deceptive pascalian enterprise, aimed at getting herself to believe that the evidence is ambiguous. yet to do so requires her to commit a kind of ‘epistemic sabotage’ in order to bring about a change in her evidential standards (or at least in what she takes the evidence to show). in the service of this ‘irrational project’, then, there are several strategies she may adopt. she may selectively attend to pro- jamesian-flavoured texts and ignore those likely to raise objections. she may filter through the literature, taking extensive notes on those arguments more likely to confirm her desired belief that the evidence is ambiguous and neglecting to write down any other arguments. she may be careful to try to attend anti-evidentialist conferences and thereby avoid opponents of her favoured view. she may even take on as her thesis adviser a known non-evidentialist. now although this might require hildy to be a little less hyper-reflective than she was in her earlier academic days, she may see this sacrifice as being well worth the reward. and by habituating herself to such unreflective ‘scholarly’ techniques, she may in fact successfully undermine her earlier epistemic standards, now characterizing the former as having been part of a ‘learning process’ and thereby coming to believe that god’s existence is by its very nature evidentially undecidable. in such a case, hildy will hold a passional belief that god exists, motivated by a perfectly virtuous affiliation with the mennonite tradition (together with an evaluative belief in the value of faith), and will (assuming bishop is right) correctly judge that this belief is undecidable on the evidence. she is, then, perfectly epistemically entitled by bishop’s standards to embark upon a doxastic venture and to count as believing by faith, despite her having arrived at her (correct) judgement about the status of the evidence in an epistemically irrational and  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n irresponsible manner. yet, in this case, it would seem odd to say that hildy is entitled to her passional belief, since she arrived at this ‘entitlement’ via self-deceptive means. now, the case of hildy may (as with many philosophical examples) appear contrived, but it shows that there might be something missing in bishop’s account of faith. if the aetiology of one’s passionally held beliefs doesn’t matter, then it seems that self-deceived (or merely epistemically lucky) agents may be able to count as having faith, despite having arrived at their beliefs via epistemically suspect means. thus, bishop’s account may seem too permissive on this point. if having faith has something to do with epistemic virtue (as it appears to on bishop’s account), then we should hope that it cannot be arrived at via epistemically vicious means. the doxastic-venture model is too restrictive: unreflective and disagreeing believers whereas the above considerations point to the possibility that bishop’s doxastic-venture model of faith fails to rule out cases he himself might want to dismiss, i now want to consider the possibility that the account ends up being too restrictive. as we saw above, believers who have not reflected on the status of the evidence for their faith-beliefs appear to be excluded from the doxastic- venture model as elucidated by bishop. now bishop himself admits that he is intentionally restricting his discussion to the realm of ‘reflective faith-believers, who are interested in the question of whether they are morally justified in taking, or continuing to take, the relevant faith-beliefs to be true in their practical reasoning’. he also notes that ‘[n]ot all faith-believers are “reflective”, of course’, and he even concedes that perhaps not every faith-believer ought to be (or become) reflective: ‘a life of “simple faith” may (under some conditions, anyway) be at least blameless and even fully virtuous’. yet it is not clear here what ‘simple faith’ would look like on bishop’s view. from the outset, he has assumed that faith must essentially involve more than mere belief, since otherwise it would be merely passive and receptive. however, if faith does involve more than just believing certain propositions – if it involves a practical commitment to those propositions – then questions of moral justifiability would appear to apply to reflective and unreflective faith-believers alike, and bishop basically admits as much. but as we have seen above, given that bishop endorses the moral- epistemic link principle, it is by no means clear that unreflective faith-believers believe with epistemic entitlement, even if it turns out their faith-beliefs them- selves might be, e.g., the result of a reliable belief-forming process or otherwise have epistemic worth. so it is hard to see how such ‘simpletons’ could be said to have faith on bishop’s view, unless the kind of faith he has in mind is either (a) of a completely different kind from that of reflective faith-believers, or (b) of the same (ad-)ventures in faith  kind but somehow epistemically (and thus morally) less praiseworthy. if the former, then bishop owes us an account of how ‘simple faith’ is also venture- some (and thus counts as genuine faith). if the latter, then it is unclear how the simpleton’s faith exhibits true virtue. take an example that bishop himself discusses: the case of abraham’s willingness to sacrifice isaac. abraham was surely not an analytic philosopher, let alone an epistemologist. it is doubtful whether he had any sophisticated philosophical views on the nature of the evidence. but perhaps this is not necessary for reflective doxastic venture. perhaps all that is required is an ‘inkling’ or a ‘dim awareness’ that one is believing beyond (but, importantly, not counter to) one’s evidence when one commits oneself practically to the truth of certain faith-propositions. or perhaps it is enough that the evidence actually be essentially ambiguous, regardless of what abraham believes about it, so long as he himself refrains from making a judgement one way or another regarding the evidence. but in either case, it is difficult to see how abraham makes a willing, epistemically entitled venture on bishop’s model. if he is only ‘dimly aware’ that his com- mitment outstrips his evidence, it is not clear he is epistemically entitled to make this ‘leap’. if he makes no judgement regarding the evidence whatsoever, he is unreflective, and it is unclear how he ventures anything willingly. interestingly, it is not just unreflective believers who run into problems. reflective believers who do not arrive at the same conclusions as bishop about the essential evidential ambiguity regarding, e.g., the existence of god (or other ‘fundamental principles’ of religious doxastic frameworks) do not appear capable of faith either. of course, if bishop’s view regarding the ambiguity of the evidence for religious belief is incorrect, then it appears that no one ever justifiably makes a supra-evidential doxastic venture in the realm of religious belief, and that we must be error theorists about faith. on the other hand, if bishop’s view is correct, and such fundamental framing principles are ‘essentially evidentially undecidable’, then a theist of the reformed-epistemology persuasion who thinks (pace bishop) that these fundamental theistic beliefs are properly basic, or a struggling intellectual theist like hyper-reflective hildy who concludes that the evidence against the existence of god outweighs the evidence for it, are incapable of having faith, since they have incorrect beliefs about the nature of the evidence. the former ventures without knowing it, and the latter ventures in the face of the supposed evidence – neither of which constitutes epistemically entitled belief for bishop. indeed, it would seem that many figures in the history of philosophy are excluded from counting amongst the faithful in this respect, including all those philosophers and natural theologians who have at some point claimed that there are persuasive demonstrative arguments for the existence of god, since they would be likely to deny that god’s existence is evidentially ambiguous. the doxastic-venture model appears to rule out those figures like abelard or meister eckhart, who thought that the teachings of scripture and christian doctrine were  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n compatible with (or even, in the case of meister eckhart, equivalent to) the doctrines of the ancient philosophers, which can be arrived at through the exercise of reason and are thus rationally defensible. it would appear to exclude all those strands of islam, which claims that the signs of allah are found everywhere in creation, where failure to acknowledge these signs as evidence of god’s existence is understood as precisely what it is to reject faith. at any rate, to say that none of these individuals are persons of faith seems woefully unfair. thus we might be inclined to think that bishop’s theory of reflective faith is not inclusive enough. to be sure, no one said faith should be easy, but neither should it be so restrictive as to make it more difficult for a reflective evidentialist to pass through the eye of a needle than to be counted amongst the faithful. conclusion given what we have said above, bishop’s account of faith, while promising, ultimately appears lacking in two respects. on the one hand, it is too weak: it allows that believers who have arrived at their passional beliefs via epistemically irresponsible and even irrational means can still be said to have faith. on the other hand, it is too strong: it rules out certain individuals whom we might be inclined to include among the faithful. for these reasons, although i think bishop’s doxastic- venture model represents a superior account of faith to purely doxastic models, it cannot do everything that we require of a theory of faith. my own view is that bishop does not go far enough in distancing himself from doxastic accounts. i submit that a model which attempts more completely to dislodge the role of belief as a necessary component of religious faith may better correspond both to what we actually mean by the term ‘faith’ in many religious contexts and to something that we may strive for in our religious lives. while we might agree with bishop that faith is importantly volitional, we might do better to deny that the venturing involved in faith is purely doxastic. indeed, perhaps faith is not so much a doxastic venture, but rather a kind of imaginative adventure, one which aims at sincere, practical engagement with a religious tradition, even if that engagement lacks full- blown belief, passional or otherwise. but that is a story for another day. for now, we must perhaps agree with pop star george michael that we ought to ‘reconsider our foolish notion’ that faith has centrally to do with belief and ‘wait for something more’. references bishop, john () ‘belief as a doxastic venture’, religious studies, , –. () ‘on the possibility of doxastic venture: a reply to buckareff ’, religious studies, , –. () believing by faith: an essay in the epistemology and ethics of religious belief (oxford: clarendon press). () ‘faith’, in e. zalta (ed.) the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (fall  edition). url: http://plato. stanford.edu/archives/fall/entries/faith/. (ad-)ventures in faith  http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall /entries/faith/ http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall /entries/faith/ http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall /entries/faith/ clark, kelly james & vanarragon, raymond j. (eds) () evidence and religious belief (oxford: oxford university press). james, william () the will to believe and other essays in popular philosophy, and human immortality (new york: dover). michel, christoph & newen, albert () ‘self-deception as pseudo-rational defense of belief’, consciousness and cognition, , –. schÄlike, julius () ‘willensschwäche und selbsttäuschung’, deutsche zeitschrift für philosophie, , –. wood, william () blaise pascal on duplicity, sin, and the fall: the secret instinct (oxford: oxford university press). notes . john bishop’s article on ‘faith’ in the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy lists at least seven broad categories, each of which has its own subcategories and variations. see bishop () for his complete list. . idem (), . . ibid., . . ibid., . . bishop allows that some faith-ventures may be sub-doxastic, in the sense that he thinks it possible to give a potential belief full weight in one’s practical reasoning without actually holding the belief to be true. however, his real interest lies in demonstrating the possibility of ‘fully doxastic venture’, where ‘the venture not only takes a faith-proposition to be true beyond the evidence with full weight in practical reasoning, but also actually holds it to be true’ (ibid., ). indeed, he seems to think that fully doxastic venture has certain advantages over merely sub-doxastic venture. i return to a discussion of the relationship between sub- and fully doxastic ventures below. . ibid., . . ibid., , emphasis removed. bishop notes that the wider capacity ‘to decide what propositions to take to be true in our reasoning’ is not, properly speaking, doxastic. nevertheless, this capacity as exercised in the narrower sense cited here, he thinks, ‘is properly described as doxastic’. . idem (), . . idem (), x. . ibid., . . i am using the term ‘irrational’ here as bishop does, namely as an ‘agency-focused notion’, not a ‘propositional-attitude-focused notion’ (cf. ibid., –). charges of irrationality attach to agents for believing or acting in certain ways, not to the attitudes or actions they adopt. there are no ‘intrinsically irrational’ propositions or acts – only irrationally believed propositions and irrationally performed actions. i will return to this point later. . ibid., . . ibid., . . ibid., . . rational empiricist evidential practice is defined here as ‘the evidential practice that assumes deductive and inductive standards for inferential evidential support, and allows as basically evident only incorrigible and self-evident truths . . . and truths evident in sensory perceptual experience under “normal” conditions’ (ibid., , ). . see ibid., . . see, e.g., clark & vanarragon () for a recent collection of essays on the relationship between evidence and religious belief. . bishop (), . . ibid., . . ibid., . . ibid., . . ibid., . . see ibid., . bishop wants to keep this category reasonably broad, so as to include most if not all non-evidentially motivated beliefs, such that passional causes need not always be non-epistemic causes (at least from an externalist point of view). . see james (), .  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n . bishop (), . . ibid., . . see ibid., . . see ibid., . . ibid., . . ibid., . . one might claim here that such agents could be labelled as ‘irrational’ or at least ‘unentitled’ to their beliefs, in so far as they are perhaps epistemically negligent. that is, as potentially rational believers they ‘ought’ to be sensitive to questions regarding the evidence, and their lack of concern reflects a shortcoming or deficiency not found in rational believers. however, this would only strengthen bishop’s point that such believers should not be considered candidates for doxastic faith-ventures. . it is not clear here whether bishop intends each of the cases mentioned above to involve passional belief. if he does, then the belief of the subject who takes himself (incorrectly) to be evidentially justified might simply be overdetermined. in any case, there is still no venturesome risk involved. . see bishop (), . . for those ‘sola gratia’ fideists who worry about the potentially pelagian implications of such a view, it is important to note that to maintain that faith is something one does and is accountable for can easily be paired with an account of grace, e.g., as that which enables (or endows one with the capacity for) the exercise of that faith. . much of the debate in the self-deception literature revolves around the question whether ‘garden-variety’ self-deception may be said to be intentional or not. this is not necessarily germane to our discussion here, though if it turns out (as i maintain elsewhere) that self-deceivers may be said to deceive themselves intentionally, then the self-deceiver will end up being even more strongly responsible for her irrationality than on a non-intentionalist understanding of self-deception. for a plausible argument that self-deception requires believing in the face of the evidence, see michel & newen (). . of course, pascalian cases are not generally like this. rather, one aims at inducing a change in one’s epistemic standards, which would allow one to attain the necessary evidence for religious belief, thereby inducing a theistic belief for what the agent now takes to be good reasons. (i discuss a related pascalian move in the case of ‘hyper-reflective hildy’.) however, i do think some self-deceivers may go in for wishful thinking or passional belief, as described above, and it is only this kind of case that bishop explicitly addresses. one might further claim that pascalian cases do not represent instances of ‘garden-variety’ self-deception if they represent self-deception at all. i am inclined to think that at least some such cases fall under the concept of self-deception, but if the reader prefers to substitute another term (like ‘self-induced deception’) for ‘self-deception’, he or she may do so. for a lengthier discussion of pascal and self-deception, see wood (). . bishop (), . . ibid., n. . . see ibid., , . . this case should not strike one as all that far-fetched – especially among hyper-reflective subjects like analytic philosophers – since it may be more difficult for such subjects to continue to believe a proposition passionally once they have admitted the evidence for it to be essentially ambiguous. as bishop notes, the passional causes for faith-propositions must be able ‘to sustain belief even though the believer recognizes that the truth of the proposition believed lacks adequate evidential support’ (ibid., ). but for someone who once believed non-passionally on what she thought was good evidence, or someone who believed passionally but recently became reflective, this may simply be too psychologically taxing. thus, such an individual may have to engage in sub-doxastic venturing in order to get themselves into a position to engage in a fully doxastic venture. . ibid., . . ibid. . ibid., . bishop uses this as a possible motivation for sub-doxastic venture, but we can imagine it also motivating fully doxastic venture. . this might be what tips the subject’s scales in favour of deceiving herself along the lines of the james–bishop route, as opposed to that of evidentialism. it might also simply be less psychologically (ad-)ventures in faith  taxing to come to believe that the evidence is ambiguous, given her current belief that the evidence supports atheism, than to believe that the evidence supports theism. . actually, in some sense she must be somewhat more careful concerning what she regards as evidence and what not. but regarding her own motivations, she must obviously pay less attention if her self-deceptive enterprise is to succeed. . success in such self-deceptive projects often hinges on purely contingent psychological and environmental factors. assuming hildy is not so hyper-reflective as to be unable to habituate herself to untoward scientific practices, and assuming no catastrophically damaging counter-evidence is able to make its way in from outside, it is not unreasonable to suppose that hildy’s self-deceptive project might be successful. for a more detailed account of self-deception as a project of epistemic sabotage, see schälike (). . of course, bishop could perhaps remedy his account by adding an additional requirement regarding the aetiology of either the faith-belief in question or the belief regarding the nature of the evidence (or both), but it is easy to see that things appear to be getting very complicated for the reflective faith-believer. . bishop (), . . ibid. . ibid., . . see ibid., –. . bishop might respond here that the moral-epistemic link principle only applies to those who reflect on their beliefs and that simple faith gets its moral justification from other sources. but this double standard might make it appear that it is not better to be ‘socrates dissatisfied’ than an ignorant or otherwise unreflective believer satisfied. indeed, if unreflective faith turns out to be easier, then it might provide me with a motivation to keep myself epistemically in the dark regarding religious propositions. . if anything, sarah seems more a proponent of strict evidentialist standards than abraham, as indicated by her laughter when told she would bear a son in her advanced age. . interestingly, what bishop himself says regarding the abraham case makes no reference to what abraham himself actually judges regarding the evidence: ‘what requires venture essentially beyond his evidence’, he writes, is abraham’s taking it to be true that the living god has his will revealed in an inner voice that commands the sacrifice of isaac . . . abraham could not have had evidence that would have enabled him to make this decision purely rationally. . . . in fact, interpreting any experience as conveying divine messages requires going beyond what could non-question-beggingly be settled on the basis of evidence. (ibid., ) . ibid., . . interestingly, bishop () claims that aquinas might be best interpreted as holding a version of the doxastic-venture model because of the latter’s insistence that faith involves not mere conviction but rather ‘inner assent’, which is ‘under the control of the will’ (ibid., ). still, even if aquinas endorses a form of doxastic-venture model, it may be quite different from bishop’s own model, since although assent may be needed for faith, the volitional act of assent does not appear to be posterior to (or have as its object) a passional belief, as on bishop’s account. further, aquinas appears to think there is sufficient evidence for the truth of at least some faith-propositions, whether this takes the form of demonstrative proof or divine revelation. indeed, bishop himself admits that interpreting aquinas as a proponent of an evidential proportion model may also be ‘viable’ (ibid., ). in any case, it is not at all clear that aquinas is not excluded by bishop’s model. . even if we restrict claims about evidential decidability to abductive, a posteriori arguments (e.g. the argument from design), it is not clear how those who think it is possible to argue a priori for the existence of god would (knowingly) risk anything doxastically, at least on bishop’s understanding of what it is to venture. . see, e.g., qur’an :: indeed, in the creation of the heavens and earth, and the alternation of the night and the day, and the [great] ships which sail through the sea with that which benefits people, and what allah has sent down from the heavens of rain, giving life thereby to the earth after its lifelessness and  a m b e r l. g r i f f i o e n dispersing therein every [kind of] moving creature, and [his] directing of the winds and the clouds controlled between the heaven and the earth are signs for a people who use reason. (saheeh international translation (latest version, ) ) . however, here bishop might admit that these individuals do not have faith that god exists but maintain that they exhibit faith regarding other framing propositions (e.g. regarding specific divine attributes or commands). . i should note here, however, that for bishop faith seems much less like a general character trait or virtue than a capacity exercised in a particular circumstance or with regard to a specific proposition. thus, it seems almost inappropriate on his account to talk about a ‘person of faith’ or a ‘faithful theist’, unless this merely refers to a person whose religious commitments are undergirded or otherwise framed by cases of genuine doxastic venture. bishop himself notes in a footnote that ‘the doxastic venture model is a model of what is involved in “believing by faith” – that is, of what is involved in a certain kind of cognitive commitment essential to faith’, and that it is thus consistent with models that view faith as a virtue or disposition of character (bishop (), , n. , my emphasis). but if ‘believing by faith’ is, as bishop suggests, necessary (though perhaps not sufficient) for faith understood as a virtue, then the figures mentioned here still will not count as persons of faith, given that they do not reflectively believe by faith. still, this is not to maintain that bishop cannot respond to such worries or that i have not misunderstood the restrictions on his view. it is only to ask for more clarification on whether or not (and, if so, how) these types of believers can count amongst the faithful. . the reference is to michael’s  song, ‘faith’. michael himself appears to endorse a view of faith as something like hope, but i shall save my critique of such a view for a later date. i would further like to thank jochen briesen, dina emundts, jeanine diller, russell re manning, ursula renz, and an anonymous reviewer for their comments on earlier drafts of this article, and to express my gratitude to the ‘barmherzige schwestern vom heiligen kreuz’ at kloster hegne for providing the tranquil surroundings that offered me the requisite peace of mind to get these ideas down on paper. (ad-)ventures in faith  sharing the load: amish healthcare financing healthcare article sharing the load: amish healthcare financing kristyn rohrer and lauren dundes ,* department of sociology, kutztown university of pennsylvania, kutztown, pa , usa; krohr @live.kutztown.edu department of sociology, mcdaniel college, westminster, md , usa * correspondence: ldundes@mcdaniel.edu; tel.: + - - - academic editor: sampath parthasarathy received: september ; accepted: december ; published: december abstract: when settling healthcare bills, the old order amish of lancaster county, pennsylvania rely on an ethos of mutual aid, independent of the government. consonant with this philosophy, many amish do not participate in or receive benefits from social security or medicare. they are also exempted from the affordable care act of . this study expands the limited documentation of amish hospital aid, an amish health insurance program that covers major medical costs. interview data from amish adults in lancaster county depict how this aid program supplements traditional congregational alms coverage of medical expenses. the interview data delineate the structure of the program, its operation, and how it encourages cost containment and community interdependence. the manner in which the amish collaborate to pay for medical expenses provides a thought-provoking paradigm for managing health care costs. keywords: amish; obamacare; healthcare; insurance; exemptions; amish hospital aid; alms; community . introduction . . purpose of study this study amplifies the limited documentation of amish hospital aid (established in ) that helps amish members pay for health care. published reports of their unique system can also supplement understanding of the amish whose evolving code of rules and conduct (the ordnung), varies by subgroup and lacks systematic or explicit written rules. specific information about the structure of amish hospital aid and its role in how amish pay for healthcare can inform discussions of how to innovate mainstream us healthcare. . . background since , members of religious groups that conscientiously oppose social security benefits may apply for an exemption from the self-employment tax (according to the medicare segment of the social security act). the exemption applies to old order amish, and other religious groups that conscientiously object to insurance, if the sect has been in existence since december [ ]. amish are part of the “plain” community, a term that distinguishes amish and other anabaptists from outsiders who are called english, fancy people, or white folk. amish people, whose origins date back to the anabaptist movement that began in zurich, switzerland in , now live in the united states and ontario, canada. (the last amish church in europe closed in [ ]). since the amish first began to immigrate to north america in the s, their population grew to , by and to , in u.s. states [ , ]. members of exempted religious groups—including the amish—also must have a reasonable means of caring for their own elderly or dependent members, obviating the need for retirement communities or nursing homes, when each family takes care of its own [ , ]. healthcare , , ; doi: . /healthcare www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare http://www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare healthcare , , of amish commonly believe that commercial insurance plans undermine the religious duty of community accountability [ ]. their sense of community is strengthened by the belief that most modern technology brings a worldliness that detracts from their lifestyle. amish are increasingly likely to use telephones (even cell phones), while televisions, bicycles, gas-powered tractors, and owning vehicles are still forbidden [ ]. the exemptions allow self-employed amish to avoid paying the combined employee and employer social security tax for religious reasons (irs form : application for exemption from social security and medicare taxes and waiver of benefits is for followers of established religious groups that are “conscientiously opposed to accepting benefits of any private or public insurance that makes payments for the cost of medical care; or provides services for medical care”). amish who work for amish-owned employers were granted the same exemption in [ , ]. amish employed by businesses that are not owned and operated by amish, however, depend on a different exception—one for individuals who are part of healthcare-sharing ministries [ ]. the government describes a health care sharing ministry as “a tax-exempt organization whose members share a common set of ethical or religious beliefs and share medical expenses in accordance with those beliefs”. in addition, the ministry must reject all types of insurance, including social security and medicare, and must have been in existence and sharing medical expenses continuously since december [ ]. these exceptions do not extend to any other taxes, such as real estate taxes, state and federal income taxes, county taxes, and sales tax. the affordable care act of (obamacare) similarly allows exemptions from the requirement to obtain health care insurance for certain religious groups. to compensate for their lack of commercial insurance, the amish turn to their own community [ , ]. their way of managing medical costs includes amish hospital aid, an insurance program (that predates obamacare). this aid program—the focus of this study—is relatively unknown, but received more notice after the passage of the affordable care act in . access to those who administer and use amish hospital aid was facilitated by a mennonite member of the lancaster county community (referred to as “male relative” in this paper). . . amish vs. mennonite mennonites and amish (as well as hutterites) share the same roots as participants of the anabaptist movement, occurring shortly after the protestant reformation. the anabaptists split into different subgroups before settling in north america, though many of them settled within close proximity to one another. in lancaster county, there are few amish subgroups. it is almost exclusively old order amish who have remained together under the same doctrine of faith. this contrasts with mennonite groups and amish communities in other areas, which have experienced multiple religious splits [ ]. there are two major groups of mennonites: plain mennonites and assimilated mennonites. plain mennonites or old order mennonites are often confused with the amish, as they share many of the same religious beliefs and cultural ideologies. there are numerous different divisions of plain mennonites in lancaster county. some plain mennonites use horse and buggy for transportation (team mennonites), while others such as the black-bumper mennonites drive all-black cars (i.e., the chrome, bumpers, etc. are painted black). there are general differences in the guidelines and style of clothing, head coverings, and buggies within the plain community, distinguishing the amish from the plain mennonites. mennonites are also permitted to ride bicycles, while the amish are not. on the other hand, unlike the amish, plain mennonites believe other religious groups (including the amish and assimilated mennonites) are not “saved”. assimilated mennonites are essentially indistinguishable within mainstream society. they are allowed to wear contemporary clothing, use electricity and new technology, attain higher education, and do not live in community settings (as do the amish and plain mennonites). healthcare , , of . methods . . access to the amish the ability to interview members of the lancaster county amish community required special arrangements and stipulations given their reluctance to associate with and trust outsiders, known as “english”. this term refers to the language of outsiders that contrasts with the variant of german (called pennsylvania dutch) which amish speak among themselves (“dutch” is likely derived from the word deutsch meaning “german”, not dutch). since amish learn english in school, the interviews could be conducted in english. the first author received assistance from an assimilated mennonite male relative who has a -year career in business and is well known in the amish community for his integrity. his heritage also provided valuable insight into the amish culture (e.g., his mennonite grandfather in retirement refused to accept social security income beyond what he had paid into the system) the relative granted permission to include all of the information identifying him in this paper. the relative offered to approach and help interview contacts in the old order amish community of lancaster county, pa, usa (the largest amish community comprising about , persons) [ ]. he was able to advise the authors on factors critical to developing a rapport with amish interviewees, including norms for appropriate dress (ankle-length skirts for women), the prohibition on taking pictures of the amish (although photos of their homes are not forbidden), and scheduling norms (e.g., working around the wedding season in mid-october through mid-december, and the inability to schedule interviews more than a few days or hours ahead of time) [ ]. . . obtaining interviews after receiving irb approval from mcdaniel college on october , and in accordance with the rules of the declaration of helsinki of , the first author (accompanied by her male relative) interviewed individuals after they signed an informed consent form. the sample consisted of seven men and four women from nine separate households who had experienced major medical expenses or were heavily involved in the amish hospital aid program, including those in administrative positions. the relative specifically recruited interviewees to provide a variety of perspectives, both in administering and receiving amish hospital aid. a majority of the interviewees ( / ) had previously established a relationship with the male relative that facilitated interviewee recruitment, while the remaining respondents were referred to the male relative by initial respondents because of their knowledge of amish hospital aid (either due to having had major medical expenses or administrative involvement in the program). one respondent not previously acquainted with the male relative—an amish hospital aid administrator—sought additional clarification about the purpose of the study before he consented to the interview. the response rate among those approached was %. the individuals were told that the purpose of the study was to collect and publish data documenting how the amish manage health care needs within their own system (given their exemption to coverage mandated by obamacare). ten of the interviewees were members of the amish hospital aid plan at the time of the interviews, although one had only joined amish hospital aid subsequent to a major medical expense. as is normal among the amish, all of the respondents received a formal education only through th or th grade. the first author and her male relative conducted the interviews in the kitchen of interviewees’ homes or in their office/workspaces between – november . interview questions concerned their involvement in the program, participation in conventional medical care, and the operation of the amish hospital aid program. interviews lasted between – min and were documented by the first author with handwritten notes. healthcare , , of . results . . traditional ways of paying for health care although much of the information shared during interviews has not been previously documented, existing literature (when available) corroborated the findings. while the focus in the interviews was amish hospital aid (a type of amish insurance), respondents also discussed traditional ways their community helps with unmanageable healthcare costs that at times operate in tandem with amish hospital aid. one source of handling medical costs that exceed an individual’s ability to pay out of pocket is voluntary donations to congregations, called alms, which are in line with a tradition of sharing burdens in the amish community [ ]. alms are tithes or offerings donated to the congregation by its members. as with tithes in other christian churches, members are encouraged to give % of their annual income to the amish church district. church deacons, who are in charge of both disciplinary and financial matters in the congregation, visit members in need of medical assistance to see how they are faring and then distribute the alms as they see fit. in the case of more serious injuries, when an individual’s congregation cannot afford to pay the medical bills solely with their own alms funds, amish congregations may use community collections. community collections are a form of alms that are gathered from the alms of other amish congregations in the area. these funds can be requested at the discretion of a deacon. community collections were used when a man was paralyzed from the waist down after a diving accident. occasional auctions of donated food, furniture, quilts, and livestock can raise as much as three hundred thousand dollars in one evening to help supplement alms and/or community collection coverage of healthcare bills [ , ]. in extremely rare cases, the government has covered medical costs (e.g., when an uninsured driver hit a buggy). . . implementation of amish hospital aid amish hospital aid covers only major medical needs. in serious cases (normally when hospitalization is necessary), those who participate in the program contact the treasurer in charge of their district once they know the costs incurred or to be incurred. those requiring care typically pay the health care provider used, and amish hospital aid then reimburses them. members who are unable to pay upfront allow the board to make arrangements with the hospital or care facility, in order for the board to pay the provider directly. the first % of the bill is expected to be paid by the individual, while the other % is covered by the amish hospital aid plan. those who are unable to pay the first % often rely on alms money from their congregation. . . how amish hospital aid manages medical costs when ill, amish seek treatment at their local hospital and are billed the same as non-amish. the individual then requests help from the congregation and/or amish hospital aid for any unaffordable medical expenses (e.g., maternity complications, surgeries, head injuries, physical therapy, and geriatric care). the amish hospital aid board also works closely with bill negotiators at different hospitals and facilities, just like commercial or governmental insurance companies, to negotiate discounts for individuals with specific needs [ ]. incentives to provide discounts include the promptness with which bills are normally paid (within days), less paperwork, as well as assurance that the facility will not be sued (since doctors are seen as fallible but autonomous individuals doing their best) [ ]. typically, participants of amish hospital aid receive a discount slightly above medicare rates, although each medical provider has its own particular discount. not all care facilities offer a discount for members of the amish community, however. hospitals sometimes refuse to consider lower rates beyond existing negotiated rates with government or commercial insurance companies [ ]. on the other hand, health care facilities like the clinic for special children provide pediatric care, especially for genetic disorders and syndromes (in strasburg, pennsylvania) for amish and old order mennonites, who may travel a great distance to reach the facility in order to receive healthcare , , of state-of-the-art care and save money on treatment. the clinic offers substantial reductions in health care costs by such means as lowering the price of testing, gauging when expensive treatment is warranted, and sometimes by devising treatments that prevent costly disability [ , ]. (a short video ( : ) about the clinic is available in a link in a wall street journal article [ ].) . . restrictions in amish hospital aid plan coverage the amish hospital aid plan includes limitations in its coverage, namely because it covers only major medical costs (hence the word “hospital” in its name). this discourages routine and preventive medical services—particularly by family doctors—and is a source of discontent for some interviewees. in addition, amish hospital aid does not cover physical disability costs, such as those for cerebral palsy. another amish-run organization, disability relief aid, covers costs for necessary items such as wheelchairs, ramp installations, and special bathroom installations, in addition to supplying an annual check to help with personal care costs. as with alms, disability relief aid is funded by community donations. neither amish hospital aid nor congregational alms funding cover health care needs that result from prohibited activities within the amish community. one interviewee mentioned an incident that occurred with a teenage boy in her congregation who was injured in a snowmobiling accident. the use of motor vehicles (e.g., cars, tractors, snow mobiles) is strictly forbidden in old order amish culture. even though the boy was not yet baptized into the amish congregation (and therefore still under the aegis of his parents), the deacon would not provide alms money to help pay for his hospital care. the boy’s parents also participated in the amish hospital aid plan, which likewise did not provide financial support, even though since he was under , he was covered under his parents’ plan. . . extent of participation in amish hospital aid while members of the amish community are not required to participate in amish hospital aid and may just rely on alms, a growing number of amish want the extra security provided by amish hospital aid. interviewees cited an estimated – participants in lancaster county or a participation rate of approximately %. the amish national steering committee (the plain community’s liaison to the national government) had new work as a result of obamacare. in , the committee instructed each head of household in the amish community to sign forms from health and human services (hhs) to extend their exemption to obamacare. hhs provided each deacon with the forms to be distributed to members of their church congregations. members gathered at the usual sunday service, with men sitting in groups of ten at round tables. one man explained the meaning of the forms to the others before they all signed the forms. in response to obamacare, participation in amish hospital aid increased by % from to . . . hierarchy of amish hospital aid administration the amish hospital aid plan is run by an all-male board (consisting of a chairman, vice chairman, and four treasurers). each treasurer is in charge of the funds for approximately congregations. the leaders appoint a committee man for each congregation to act as a liaison between the members and the administration. the hospital aid committee (including an estimated committee men and the board members) meets annually to discuss the program. the entire committee participates in voting, with board members holding six-year terms with no limit on reelection. current committee men are candidates for members of the board, by recommendation. those with amish hospital aid typically contact their treasurer once they receive their medical bill. in some cases, the treasurer actually contacts whoever receives the bill. since news travels fast within the amish community, if someone has been injured or hospitalized, members of the congregation will know, including the individual’s treasurer. healthcare , , of all members of the committee are men, since there are no women in administrative positions in the amish hospital aid program, as is consistent with organizations in the amish community. however, women are allowed and often encouraged to have their own personal businesses (selling quilts, fabrics, baked goods, etc.), and are sometimes in charge of the family finances instead of their husbands. . . role of unpaid administrators the amish system of paying health care bills has existed very informally, driven partly by the notable fact that administrators are not paid for their time. “remarkably, common to all these aid programs is their ability to address major needs without bureaucratic red tape, paid employees, underwriters, offices, computers, threat of lawsuits, or profits” [ ] (p. ). this system contrasts with administrative expenses among us private insurers who spend % of their budget on costs like claims processing, marketing, and general overhead [ ]. administrative costs at us hospitals are even higher, at % of total hospital expenditures [ ]. all respondents in this study were aware of and supported a lack of paid administrators. they offered comments such as, “if it ain’t broke, don’t fix it”. . . cost of amish hospital aid members pay a flat rate per person on a monthly basis. the monthly cost of $ per individual is exactly the same as what was reported in a wall street journal article seven years prior to data collection for this study [ ]. a married couple pays $ per month; however, all of their children until the age of would also be covered by the $ payment. one interviewee who complained about the high monthly cost (mentioned above) speculated that the “english” (i.e., non-amish people) “probably don’t pay nearly that much”. this interviewee was very surprised to hear that the costs for non-amish who use conventional insurance are in fact significantly higher than what he was paying for amish hospital aid (although the type of coverage provided by conventional insurance varies). the funds are payable to the committee men on the first day of every month. members tend to be very punctual with their payments and are contacted (sometimes by phone) if their check does not arrive by the due date. the committee man then transfers the funds collected to the district’s treasurer who then transfers them to the bank for later dispersal, as needed. . . complementary care used to minimize conventional care respondents were asked about ways they stayed healthy and minimized the need for health care. they mentioned attention to good nutrition and exercise, including their vigorous farm work. in addition, unmarried amish youth often participate in sports such as softball and volleyball. they frequently take natural vitamins and probiotics in order to minimize health problems, such as vitamin c for a bad cough. home remedies are typically used for less serious ailments (such as colds, minor burns, and infections, etc.), and replace visits to a family doctor. remedies mentioned included a combination of herbs and whiskey (known as tincture) for a sore throat, burdock for burns, and charcoal for infections, many of which can be found in an often-mentioned book, be your own doctor [ ] (a local health food store miller’s natural foods located in bird-in-hand, pa supplies many amish families in the lancaster county area with natural vitamins and supplies for home remedies). it is common for individuals to follow their family’s conventions in their inclinations to go to a medical doctor. nonetheless, there is a lot of variability in opinion: one respondent stated that he would go to the doctor if he had a cold he could not shake, while his wife said that for similar problems, she prefers home remedies. the continued used of complementary medicine in the amish community, however, does not preclude mainstream medical treatment (perhaps in part an acknowledgement of the limits of complementary care which is not always beneficial). healthcare , , of . . willingness to seek conventional medical care amish should not be confused with other groups loathe to seek modern health care for themselves or their children (e.g., [ ]). chiropractic care (including for infants) and phenology are especially popular [ ]. despite stereotypes that the amish are luddites—perhaps assumed because of their use of the horse and buggy—amish are generally very willing to take advantage of the most cutting-edge technology to help remedy their children’s maladies, no matter the cost to them personally [ ]. they avoid only technology that they believe detracts from their relationship with god, or family and community life. many interviewees expressed a willingness to benefit from modern health care, without moral (if not financial) reservations. many indicated that they would seek conventional care: “if something happens” or “whenever we need it”. additional related comments included: “if it’s a doctor thing, it’s a doctor thing” and “if something looks fishy, check it out”. some amish only visit their family doctor for an annual check-up, while others wait until an injury occurs. most amish praised the health care they had received, especially doctors who were good listeners and willing to “cater to the plain community” by not necessarily thinking like a medical doctor (e.g., allowing amish families to practice home remedies). one woman whose young daughter had a genetic disorder that required her to be in and out of the hospital for the first few months of her life spoke highly of the extra care that her doctors from the above-referenced clinic for special children provided to the family, including monthly visits directly to their family farm to check on her daughter. the amish approach to seeking conventional medical care also takes religion into account: “amish people are more willing to stop interventions earlier and resist invasive therapies than the general population because, while they long for healing, they also have a profound respect for god’s will. this means taking modest steps toward healing sick bodies, giving preference to natural remedies, setting common-sense limits, and believing that in the end their bodies are in god’s hands” [ ] (p. ). . . why respondents support amish hospital aid interviewees referred to amish independence in explaining the need for having their own system for health care payments. comments included: “the amish community is not in favor of government hand-outs”, “amish prefer to take care of their own”, “obamacare requires too much government involvement”, “the less government the better”. one respondent opined that “obamacare commandeers freedom of choice” and contrasts with the ability of members of the amish hospital aid plan to choose whichever medical facility best suits their needs. respondents also mentioned the benefits of assisting others and helping others while helping themselves: “we appreciate the privilege to take care of our own people”. their belief that a communal approach to covering health costs is morally right is consistent with their strong commitment to community members looking after one another. . . divisions in the amish community the amish hospital aid program is not without challenges, however, as more conservative amish (who tend to reside in the southern areas of lancaster county) are less likely to participate in the program, reflecting a well-known north–south divide in lancaster county (roughly represented by route ). one southern respondent who objected to amish hospital aid explained that “plainer amish don’t use it” and perceived it as, “the rich helping the rich”. northern lancaster county amish (e.g., those living in and around intercourse) tend to be more affluent than their more conservative southern neighbors living in towns like quarryville. relative to much more conservative amish in other parts of pennsylvania, however, the difference between northern and southern lancaster county amish is much less prominent. healthcare , , of some of the more conservative amish see the amish hospital aid plan as inappropriately progressive and institutionalized. many believe it detracts from neighbors helping each other completely voluntarily (with its set monthly fees, etc.) and view it as taking away from donations to the alms fund, a belief that remains to be substantiated. these individuals are more apt to approve only of the traditional amish alms support (akin to church tithing) for members’ medical needs [ ]. part of the appeal of alms is the reliance on voluntary donations, which bears no resemblance to standard health insurance. nonetheless, the extent of participation in amish hospital aid is growing in southern settlements of lancaster county. some northern amish prefer the amish hospital aid plan because alms are sometimes considered “poor money”, making wealthier amish feel guilty if they receive financial support from the congregation that is traditionally meant for those who are less financially stable. the question of wealth is complicated for amish who have assets in land but few liquid assets, such as cash or things they could sell quickly to pay a medical bill. one respondent frowned on wealthier amish whom he believed would be exploiting alms if they have significant funds tied up in land. he gave a hypothetical example of someone who owned a couple of farms who had a bad accident. he claimed that the congregation would not expect an individual to sell one of their farms to make the payments, so the deacon would provide alms money. he added, “i’d be a hypocrite for having two farms and taking money from the church”. this hypothetical example has similarities with the publicized case of jesse martin, an old order mennonite farmer from denver, pennsylvania who received national news coverage in because of his struggles to pay for healthcare. because martin did not sell any part of his two valuable farms, he was unable to pay bills totaling hundreds of thousands of dollars for nine of his children who had serious genetic disorders including hirschsprung disease and maple syrup urine disease [ ]. in cases where there are many high medical bills, even a combination of personal resources, alms, and amish hospital aid can be insufficient [ ]. nevertheless, these cases are the exception. according to a health survey of lancaster county old order amish (response rate: %), their system is adequate: only % of amish surveyed had delayed care in the past months (most commonly because of the expense), and only % (vs. % of county residents) rated their health as fair or poor [ ]. . . limitations this research relies on a small but select sample of individuals in a limited geographical area who were able and willing to discuss the administration of amish hospital aid and its advantages and shortfalls. although the sample was biased based on the male relative’s business connections, individuals were selected for their knowledge and insight on the topic, as well as a commitment to providing new in-depth and candid information about the amish. it is important, however, to acknowledge that the small sample size limits the generalizability of these findings, despite the thoughtfulness of respondents’ answers. data from a random sample would likely have revealed different reactions to amish hospital aid, although a random sample would have yielded a significantly lower response rate from those outside of the social network of the community shared by amish and mennonites. in addition, given that the data provided were confidential, but not anonymous, some interviewees may have limited what information they disclosed during the interview. nevertheless, because the main goal of the study was to understand the structure of amish hospital aid, interviewees may have felt more comfortable than if the research were designed to assess the program’s popularity or effectiveness. . discussion this paper describes a unique community-based approach to healthcare financing. the amish have achieved and sustained a large measure of self-sufficiency in their own system for managing costs that reflects the spirit of mutualism. the amish approach provides a stark contrast to the healthcare , , of current mainstream healthcare environment, where there is significant federal government control over healthcare decision-making and a pressing need to curtail spending. the amish also provide a small-scale example of healthcare rationing by implementing a program that covers only major medical needs. by limiting coverage, they have devised a manageable system bolstered by a strong sense of personal and group responsibility. because members of amish hospital aid can, if necessary, seek help to pay their % share of a bill through alms, they must be cognizant of their standing in the community, since coverage of an individual’s share is subject to review. this facet of the system reinforces amish inter-connectedness, as they face healthcare challenges collectively, mindful that judicious use of health care resources—including preventative measures—benefit the community. in the amish system, individuals are more likely to understand that it is impossible to cover all medical desiderata. in contrast, in the mainstream healthcare system, there is no way for patients to see that spending money on one individual perforce reduces the amount that can be spent on others. amish insight into this equation helps to provide an incentive on an individual level to limit care or costs that are otherwise very abstract. collaborative efforts by the amish to manage healthcare costs could inspire new ways of thinking about containing costs while building community. . conclusions the amish norm of reciprocal assistance without government interference is the basis for a system of paying for healthcare that builds on existing resources while limiting coverage. this article elucidates the unique way that a sample of old order amish of lancaster county manage healthcare financing by providing never-before reported information about the organization and administration of amish hospital aid. this information was obtained through the assistance of a trusted mennonite community liaison, imperative to elicit the level of candor needed to learn the kinds of details contained in the interview data presented in this article. although the sample size is small, interviewees include persons very familiar with the inner workings of amish hospital aid. documenting the unorthodox manner in which the amish community collaborates in managing healthcare costs could inform innovative alternatives to mainstream healthcare financing. acknowledgments: the authors are grateful to the department of sociology, mcdaniel college for covering the costs to publish in open access. author contributions: kristyn rohrer and lauren dundes conceived and designed the study; kristyn rohrer collected and transcribed the data; kristyn rohrer and lauren dundes analyzed the data; lauren dundes and kristyn rohrer wrote the paper. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . social security administration. available online: https://faq.ssa.gov/link/portal/ / / article/ /are-members-of-religious-groups-exempt-from-paying-social-security-taxes (accessed on september ). . kraybill, d.b.; johnson-weiner, k.m.; nolt, s.m. the amish; johns hopkins university press: baltimore, md, usa, . . the young center. amish studies. young center for anabaptist and pietist studies at elizabethtown college. available online: http://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/ (accessed on november ). . hurst, c.e.; mcconnell, d.l. an amish paradox: diversity and change in the world’s largest amish community; johns hopkins university press: baltimore, md, usa, . . palmer, c.v. the health beliefs and practices of an old order amish family. j. am. acad. nurse pract. , , – . [pubmed] https://faq.ssa.gov/link/portal/ / /article/ /are-members-of-religious-groups-exempt-from-paying-social-security-taxes https://faq.ssa.gov/link/portal/ / /article/ /are-members-of-religious-groups-exempt-from-paying-social-security-taxes http://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ healthcare , , of . crable, a. cell phones, computers more and more part of lancaster county amish’s real world. lancaster online, may . available online: http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/cell-phones- computers-more-and-more-part-of-lancaster-county/article_ d c-def -- e -- e -- a bcf . html (accessed on september ). . social security administration. “if you are self-employed”. social security administration ssa publication no. - . icn . june . available online: https://www.ssa.gov/pubs/en- - .pdf (accessed on september ). . kraybill, d.b. the amish of lancaster county; stackpole books: mechanicsburg, pa, usa, . . some amish opt out of government-sponsored insurance. available online: http://www.npr.org/ templates/story/story.php?storyid= (accessed on september ). . how to claim an exemption for members of a health care sharing ministry. available online: https: //www.healthcare.gov/exemptions-tool/#/results/ /details/healthcare-sharing-ministry (accessed on september ). . fisher, k. lessons learned while conducting research within an amish community. j. multicult. nurs. health , , – . . weyer, s.m.; hustey, v.r.; rathbun, l.; armstrong, v.l.; anna, s.; ronyak, j.; savrin, c. a look into the amish culture: what should we learn? j. transcult. nurs. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . yost, b.; abbott, c.; harding, j.; knittle, a. among the amish: interviewing unique populations on sensitive topics. available online: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/berwood_yost/publication/ _among_the_amish_interviewing_unique_populations_on_sensitive_topics/links/ c f cf c f c .pdf (accessed on december ). . talpos, s. what the amish can teach the rest of us about modern medicine. mosaic, may . available online: https://mosaicscience.com/story/amish-healthcare-medicine (accessed on september ). . worden, a. small lancaster county clinic treating amish, breaking ground on genetics. available online: http://www.readingeagle.com/ap/article/small-lancaster-county-clinic-treating-amish- breaking-ground-on-genetics (accessed on november ). . strauss, k.a.; puffenberger, e.g.; morton, d.h. one community’s effort to control genetic disease. am. j. public health , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . anand, g. opting out; ‘old order’ mennonites and amish who shun insurance face rising bills; should hospitals cut them a break? wall street journal. june . available online: http://www.wsj.com/ articles/sb (accessed on september ). . wikler, e.; basch, p.; cutler, d. paper cuts: reducing health care administrative costs. center for american progress. . available online: https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/ / /pdf/papercuts_final.pdf (accessed on september ). . himmelstein, d.u.; jun, m.; busse, r.; chevreu, k.; geissler, a.; jeurissen, p.; thomson, s.; vinet, m.; woolhandler, s. a comparison of hospital administrative costs in eight nations: us costs exceed all others by far. health aff. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . weaver, r. be your own doctor; share-a-care publications: reinholds, pa, usa, . . johnson, d. trials for parents who chose faith over medicine. new york times. january . available online: http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /us/ faith.html?_r= (accessed on september ). . miller, k.; yost, b.; abbott, c.; thompson, s.; dlugi, e.; adams, z.; schulman, m.; strauss, n. health needs assessment of plain populations in lancaster county, pennsylvania. j. commun. health . [crossref] [pubmed] © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/cell-phones-computers-more-and-more-part-of-lancaster-county/article_ d c-def -- e -- e -- a bcf .html http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/cell-phones-computers-more-and-more-part-of-lancaster-county/article_ d c-def -- e -- e -- a bcf .html http://lancasteronline.com/news/local/cell-phones-computers-more-and-more-part-of-lancaster-county/article_ d c-def -- e -- e -- a bcf .html https://www.ssa.gov/pubs/en- - .pdf http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyid= http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyid= https://www.healthcare.gov/exemptions-tool/#/results/ /details/healthcare-sharing-ministry https://www.healthcare.gov/exemptions-tool/#/results/ /details/healthcare-sharing-ministry http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://mosaicscience.com/story/amish-healthcare-medicine http://www.readingeagle.com/ap/article/small-lancaster-county-clinic-treating-amish-breaking-ground-on-genetics http://www.readingeagle.com/ap/article/small-lancaster-county-clinic-treating-amish-breaking-ground-on-genetics http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajph. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.wsj.com/articles/sb http://www.wsj.com/articles/sb https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/ / /pdf/papercuts_final.pdf https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/ / /pdf/papercuts_final.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /hlthaff. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /us/ faith.html?_r= http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	purpose of study 	background 	amish vs. mennonite 	methods 	access to the amish 	obtaining interviews 	results 	traditional ways of paying for health care 	implementation of amish hospital aid 	how amish hospital aid manages medical costs 	restrictions in amish hospital aid plan coverage 	extent of participation in amish hospital aid 	hierarchy of amish hospital aid administration 	role of unpaid administrators 	cost of amish hospital aid 	complementary care used to minimize conventional care 	willingness to seek conventional medical care 	why respondents support amish hospital aid 	divisions in the amish community 	limitations 	discussion 	conclusions wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ short report genetic heterogeneity in rapid onset dystonia- parkinsonism: description of a new family k kabakci, k isbruch, k schilling, k hedrich, p de carvalho aguiar, l j ozelius, p l kramer, m h r m schwarz, c klein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – . doi: . /jnnp. . rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism (rdp) is a rare movement disorder with autosomal dominant inheritance, characterised by sudden onset of dystonic spasms and slowness of movement. to date, three families have been described that share linkage to the same location on chromosome q , designated dyt . very recently, mutations in the atp a gene at the dyt locus have been demonstrated in seven unrelated patients, including the three previously linked families. a large rdp family is reported here, with eight definitely and one possibly affected members, that is not linked to the dyt region and has no mutation in the atp a gene. predominant cranial-cervical involvement of dystonia occurred in this family, which has also been described in patients with idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to the dyt region on chromosome and is a rare finding in dyt dystonia. molecular genetic analysis also excluded linkage to the dyt locus and the gag deletion in dyt , suggesting at least one additional rdp gene. r apid onset dystonia-parkinsonism (rdp) is an auto- somal dominant movement disorder with reduced penetrance. rdp is characterised by sudden onset of orofacial dystonia, dysarthria, dysphagia, and involuntary dystonic spasms, predominantly of the upper limbs, along with signs of parkinsonism such as bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. symptoms usually manifest over hours to weeks and are followed by no or only moderate progression. onset of symptoms is in adolescence or young adulthood. – the rdp gene was mapped to an cm region on chromosome q (between markers d s and d s ; highest multipoint lod score of . at d s ) in two rdp families with affected members. this locus was subsequently confirmed but not further refined in a third rdp family from ireland with a detailed clinical descrip- tion. in addition, one apparently sporadic case from spain was reported. very recently, the rdp locus was refined to a . cm region and six different mutations in the na+/k+-atpase a (atp a ) gene have been demon- strated in seven unrelated families, including all previously reported cases. predominant cranial-cervical involvement of dystonia, as a characteristic feature of rdp, has also been described in patients with idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to the dyt region in two mennonite families and is a rare finding in dyt dystonia. in this report we describe the clinical and genetic evaluation of a four generational german rdp family with eight definitely affected and one possibly affected members. methods patients after obtaining informed consent, all available family members underwent a detailed neurological examination, and videotaping was carried out on the index patient (iii. ) and her mother (ii. ). information on deceased individuals was obtained by reviewing medical records or by interview of family members. the diagnosis of rdp was established according to the current clinical criteria and rated using the rdp rating scale. clinical investigations of the index patient included routine laboratory testing, copper and caeruloplas- min analysis, eeg, and brain magnetic resonance imaging (mri). dna analysis the index patient was screened for the gag deletion in dyt . linkage analysis was carried out on all available family members at the dyt and dyt loci using the following microsatellite markers: n dyt : d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm); n dyt : d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm) – d s ( . cm). primer sequences were taken from the genome database (www.gdb.org). in addition, following the identification of the rdp gene at the dyt locus, we sequenced the atp a gene in our index patient as described. statistical analysis the computer program vitesse was used for the lod score analysis. results patients this german rdp family consists of identified family members, of whom could be examined, including all four living definitely affected members (fig ). information on the remaining individuals was obtained by interview of relatives. eight family members (four male, four female; mean (sd) age at onset, . ( . ) years, range to ) were definitely affected, five in generation ii and three in generation iii. in addition, individual i. (generation i) was affected by history and rated as possibly affected. mode of inheritance appeared autosomal dominant. no affected individual has been identified in generation iv as yet (current mean (sd) age, . ( . ) years; range to ). of note, three individuals (ii. , ii. , and iii. ) were abbreviations: rdp, rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ born preterm and died of unknown cause in their first year of life. three of the eight subjects with definite rdp developed renal failure with fatal outcome at ages of , , and years, respectively (ii. , ii. , ii. ). very recently, the index patient (iii. ) was diagnosed with hypoplastic kidneys at age years. her mother (ii. ) has a history of renal cysts going back over several years. the clinical features of the eight family members definitely affected by rdp are given in table . a short case report on the index patient is given below. index case when aged six years, patient iii. had acute onset (over- night) of difficulty in speaking and moving her tongue, along with dystonic spasms of the left hand, following febrile bronchitis. symptoms rapidly progressed over the next few days. she developed severe dysphonia and dysphagia, requiring transient nasogastric feeding, orofacial dystonia, and dystonia of all four extremities. in addition, she showed an expressionless face, drooling, and generalised slowness of movement. symptoms initially remained stable for about three weeks and were followed by partial remission. a levodopa trial was of no benefit. on neurological examination years after disease onset, the patient showed severe dysarthria and generalised dystonia, most pronounced on the left hand side and in the upper body half, with predominant orofacial involvement. parkinsonian signs had resolved with the exception of mild hypomimia and bradykinesia. the remainder of the neurological examination was normal. routine laboratory tests, including copper and caeruloplas- min, were normal, as were an eeg and brain mri. a lumbar puncture was not done. molecular analysis the gag deletion in dyt was excluded in the index patient. linkage analysis was carried out in all four living affected members and in the unaffected members, and excluded the dyt and dyt loci on chromosomes q and p-q in this family. specifically, all two point lod scores for the chromo- some q and p-q markers were , . (at h = . ) and provide clear evidence against linkage in this family across both regions. in addition, mutations in the atp a gene were also excluded by direct sequencing of the coding region and exon– intron boundaries in the index patient. discussion we describe the first family with rdp that is not caused by mutations in the atp a gene although it is clinically similar to the three previously described rdp pedigrees and to the spanish sporadic case, and conforms to the rdp diagnostic criteria. in particular, our family also showed a combination of dystonic and parkinsonian signs with abrupt or subacute onset, predominant bulbar involvement, and no response to levodopa treatment. rdp onset was preceded by a febrile illness in three of the eight definitely affected individuals in our family. similarly, a trigger (stress/trauma) was reported in four of eight members of the irish rdp family. our family also confirms the intrafamilial variability of symptoms and disease course. it should be borne in mind that the current rdp diagnostic criteria are based on only two rdp families. in this context, several distinguishing features of our family are worthy of note. first, the mean age of onset of about seven years was lower than in the previously described families, in whom the disease mostly started in adolescence. surprisingly, no member of generation iv has become affected as yet. this may in part be explained by the fact that at least some individuals may not yet have reached the age of onset. second, three family members were born preterm and died in their first year of unknown cause, and three of the eight definitely affected individuals had fatal renal failure. in addition, the index patient and her mother also suffer from kidney disease (table ). the age of onset of this renal disorder was in adulthood and therefore it was not a trigger of their rdp. this suggests an as yet unidentified familial renal disorder; however, its potential relation to the rdp in this family remains elusive. third, linkage to the rdp locus (dyt on chromosome q) and mutations in the atp a gene were excluded in our family. because of the predominant orofacial involvement in dyt dystonia that is somewhat reminiscent of the ‘‘bulbar dystonia’’ in rdp, we considered involvement of the dyt gene. this, however, also turned out to be negative. owing to the early onset and broad spectrum of dyt dystonia, we tested for the gag deletion in the dyt gene, and this was excluded as well. overall, our genetic results suggest the presence of at least one additional dominantly inherited gene causing rdp or a different disease mechanism in our family. the possibility of a mitochondrial (mtdna) point mutation was investigated in a previous study but no disease causing mutation was found. as all affected individuals in our family inherited the disease from their mother, the mode of inheritance would be compatible with maternal transmission or with an autosomal dominant inheritance, possibly of a maternally expressed gene. this observation may thus warrant both analysis of the mtdna and an investigation of the known paternally imprinted genes to identify a novel rdp gene in our family. i: i: ii: ii: ii: l- ii: ii: ii: ii: ii: ii: ii: ii: ? ii: ? iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: l- l- l- l- l- l- l- l- l- l- l- iii: iii: iii: iiv: l- iv: iv: iv: l- l- l- iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: iv: l- iv: l- l- l- iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: iii: ii: iii: ? figure this four generational pedigree shows all eight definitely affected (black) and the possibly affected (grey) family members. the index patient is indicated by an arrow. the three individuals with a question mark died within their first year of life of unknown cause. the three affected members marked with a ‘‘+’’ had fatal renal failure. dna for molecular genetic analyses was available for the individuals with an ‘‘l’’ number only. genetic heterogeneity in rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ acknowledgements we would like to thank the family for participat- ing in this study and sylwia dankert for technical support. this work was supported by the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft (kl- / - ) and the deutsche dystonie gesellschaft e. v. authors’ affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k kabakci, k hedrich, c klein, departments of neurology and human genetics, university of lübeck, lübeck, germany k isbruch, m h r m schwarz, department of neurology, klinikum dortmund, dortmund, germany k schilling, p l kramer, departments of neurology, and molecular and medical genetics, oregon health sciences, university, portland, oregon, usa l j ozelius, p de c aguiar, department of molecular genetics, albert einstein college of medicine, new york, usa conflicting interests: none declared correspondence to: dr christine klein, department of neurology, university of lübeck, ratzeburger allee , lübeck, germany; klein_ch@ neuro.mu-luebeck.de received june in revised form september accepted september references dobyns wb, ozelius lj, kramer pl, et al. rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism. neurology ; : – . brashear a, farlow mr, butler ij, et al. variable phenotype of rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism. mov disord ; : – . brashear a, deleon d, bressman sb, et al. rapid- onset dystonia-parkinsonism in a second family. neurology ; : – . kramer pl, mineta m, klein c, et al. rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism: linkage to chromosome q . ann neurol ; : – . pittock sj, joyce c, o’keane v, et al. rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism: a clinical and genetic analysis of a new kindred. neurology ; : – . webb dw, broderick a, brashear a, et al. rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism in a -year-old girl. eur j paediatr neurol ; : – . linazasoro g, indakoetxea b, ruiz j, et al. possible sporadic rapid-onset dystonia-parkinsonism. mov disord ; : – . kamm c, leung j, joseph s, et al. refined linkage to the rdp/dyt locus on q . and evaluation of grik as a candidate gene. mov disord:published online, mar, . de carvalho aguiar p, sweadner kj, penniston jt, et al. mutations in the na+/k+ atpase alpha gene atp a are associated with rapid-onset dystonia parkinsonism. neuron ; : – . almasy l, bressman sb, raymond d, et al. idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome in two mennonite families. ann neurol ; : – . o’connell jr, weeks d. the vitesse algorithm for rapid exact multilocus linkage analysis via genotype set-recoding and fuzzy inheritance. nat genet ; : – . ta b le c lin ic a l ch a ra ct er is tic s o f d ef in ite ly a ff ec te d fa m ily m em b er s c h a ra ct er is ti c p ed ig re e n o ii. ii. ii. (l - ) ii. ii. iii . (l - ) iii . (l - ) iii . (l - ) d em o g ra p h ic fe a tu re s s ex f m f m f m m f li fe sp a n o r cu rr en t a g e (y ea rs ) to to to to c h a ra ct er is tic s a t d is ea se o n se t a g e (y ea rs ) tr ig g er u n kn o w n u n kn o w n u n kn o w n u n kn o w n u n kn o w n fe b ri le b ro n ch iti s fe b ri le b ro n ch iti s fe b ri le b ro n ch iti s r a te o f o n se t u n kn o w n r a p id r a p id u n kn o w n r a p id r a p id r a p id r a p id d is tr ib ut io n o f sy m p to m s d ys a rt h ri a , d ys p h a g ia , se ve re d ys to n ia o f a ll fo ur ex tr em iti es , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia d ys a rt h ri a , d ys p h a g ia , se ve re d ys to n ia o f a ll fo ur ex tr em iti es , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia d ys a rt h ri a , d ys p ha g ia , d ys to n ia o f le ft h a n d , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia (le ft . ri g h t) d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f b o th h a n d s, h yp o m im ia m ild d ys a rt h ri a a n d d ys p h a g ia , d ys to n ia o f b o th h a n d s, b ra d yk in es ia d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f a ll fo ur ex tr em iti es , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia , ri g id ity d ys a rt h ri a , d ys p h a g ia , d ys to n ia o f a ll fo ur ex tr em iti es (le ft . ri g h t) , b ra d yk in es ia , ri g id ity s ev er e d ys a rt h ri a , d ys p h a g ia , d ys to n ia o f a ll fo ur ex tr em iti es a n d fa ce , b ra d yk in es ia , ri g id ity ti m e to st a b ili sa tio n u n kn o w n fe w w ee ks fe w w ee ks , d a y , d a y fe w w ee ks fe w d a ys fe w d a ys r d p se ve ri ty sc a le c h a ra ct er is tic s a t m o st re ce n t ex a m in a tio n a g e (y ea rs ) d ec ea se d d ec ea se d d ec ea se d d ec ea se d d is ea se d ur a tio n (y ea rs ) r es id ua l sy m p to m s d ys a rt h ri a , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f b o th h a n d s, h yp o m im ia , m ild b ra d yk in es ia d ys a rt h ri a , m ild d ys to n ia o f le ft h a n d , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia u n ch a n g ed u n ch a n g ed d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f b o th h a n d s (r ig h t . le ft) , d ys to n ia o f le ft le g , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia (le ft . ri g h t) m ild d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f le ft h a n d , d ra g g in g o f le ft le g , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia s ev er e d ys a rt h ri a , d ys to n ia o f le ft h a n d a n d fa ce , h yp o m im ia , b ra d yk in es ia r d p se ve ri ty sc a le ? a d d iti o n a l fe a tu re s r en a l fa ilu re r en a l fa ilu re c ys ts in th e ki d n ey s r en a l fa ilu re n o n e n o n e n o n e h yp o p la st ic ki d n ey r d p, ra p id o n se t d ys to n ia -p a rk in so n is m . kabakci, isbruch, schilling, et al www.jnnp.com o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ untitled seroprevalence and correlates of toxoplasma gondii infection in yoremes (mayos) in mexico: a cross-sectional study cosme alvarado-esquivel, antonio rascón-careaga, jesús hernández-tinoco, maría alba guadalupe corella-madueño, luis francisco sánchez-anguiano, maría lourdes aldana-madrid, gerardo javier almada-balderrama, alan daniel nuñez-aguirre, oliver liesenfeld , to cite: alvarado-esquivel c, rascón-careaga a, hernández-tinoco j, et al. seroprevalence and correlates of toxoplasma gondii infection in yoremes (mayos) in mexico: a cross-sectional study. bmj open ; : e . doi: . / bmjopen- - ▸ prepublication history for this paper is available online. to view these files please visit the journal online (http://dx.doi.org/ . / bmjopen- - ). received october revised february accepted april for numbered affiliations see end of article. correspondence to dr cosme alvarado-esquivel; alvaradocosme@yahoo.com abstract objectives: we sought to determine the prevalence of anti-toxoplasma gondii antibodies in yoremes and to identify associations of t. gondii exposure with sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics of yoremes. design: a cross-sectional survey. setting: yoremes were enrolled in the locality of tierra blanca in the municipality of navojoa in sonora state, mexico. participants: we studied yoremes (mayos); they are an indigenous ethnic group living in a coastal region in northwestern mexico. primary and secondary outcome measures: we assessed the prevalence of anti-toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies in participants using enzyme-linked immunoassays. we used a standardised questionnaire to obtain the characteristics of yoremes. the association of t. gondii exposure and yoremes’ characteristics was assessed by bivariate and multivariate analyses. results: of the yoremes studied (mean age: . ± . years), ( . %) were positive for anti- t. gondii igg antibodies and ( . %) of them were also positive for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection did not vary with sex, educational level, occupation or socioeconomic status. in contrast, multivariate analysis of sociodemographic and behavioural characteristics showed that t. gondii exposure was associated with increasing age (or= . ; % ci . to . ; p= . ) and consumption of squirrel meat (or= . ; % ci . to . ; p= . ). furthermore, seroprevalence of t. gondii infection was significantly higher in yoremes with a history of lymphadenopathy (p= . ) and those suffering from frequent abdominal pain (p= . ). in women, t. gondii exposure was associated with a history of caesarean sections (p= . ) and miscarriages (p= . ). conclusions: we demonstrate, for the first time, serological evidence of t. gondii exposure among yoremes in mexico. results suggest that infection with t. gondii might be affecting the health of yoremes. results may be useful for an optimal design of preventive measures against t. gondii infection. introduction toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous intracellular parasite. this parasite is currently infecting about one-third of humanity. infection with t. gondii is usually asymptomatic. however, t. gondii disseminates after infection to many organs and may lead to disease in the eyes, lymph nodes and central nervous system. – furthermore, primary infection with t. gondii in pregnant women is a threat for congenital disease. infection with t. gondii may lead to a life-threatening disease in immunocom- promised patients. the main routes of t. gondii infection are ingestion of food or water contaminated with oocysts shed by cats and eating undercooked or raw meat con- taining tissue cysts. the epidemiology of t. gondii infection in ethnic groups in mexico has been poorly studied. serological evidence of t. gondii infection has been demonstrated in strengths and limitations of this study ▪ this is the first cross-sectional study of toxoplasma gondii infection in the mexican ethnic group of yoremes (mayos). ▪ the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection was determined in yoremes. ▪ prevalence association with sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics of yoremes was determined. ▪ the sample size was small and the seropositivity rate was low to perform a wider analysis of the association of t. gondii exposure and character- istics of yoremes. alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access research o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /bmjopen- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /bmjopen- - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /bmjopen- - &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://bmjopen.bmj.com http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ mennonites, tepehuanos and huicholes in the northern mexican state of durango. however, there is a lack of knowledge about the seroepidemiology of t. gondii infection in yoremes or mayos (an indigenous ethnic group living in a coastal region in the northwestern mexican states of sonora and sinaloa). yoremes live in rural communities and work mainly in agriculture and fishing. they live in a region with a climate that is differ- ent from those in other regions where other population groups in mexico were studied for the seroepidemiology of t. gondii infection. the climate in the yoremes’ region is desert-like or subtropical, and it is unclear whether this climate (or the food habits among yoremes) may influ- ence the seroprevalence of t. gondii. indigenous people in mexico, including the yoremes, usually live in rural areas with a limited coverage of health services. the aims of the present study were to determine the seropreva- lence of t. gondii in yoremes and the association of t. gondii prevalence with the sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural characteristics of yoremes. materials and methods study design and yoremes’ population studied through a cross-sectional survey, we studied yoremes in sonora, mexico, from january to june . yoremes were enrolled in the locality of tierra blanca in the municipality of navojoa in sonora state, mexico. tierra blanca ( ° ′n ° ′w) is situated at an altitude of m above sea level and has a desert-like climate and a mean annual temperature of . °c. it blanca has a mean annual rainfall of mm. inclusion criteria for the study participants were: ( ) yoremes’ ethnicity (people who speak the yoremes’ language and identify themselves as yoremes); ( ) aged years and older and ( ) that they voluntarily accepted to participate. sample size and sampling method we calculated the sample size using a two-sided confi- dence level of %, a power of %, a ratio of unex- posed: exposed= , a reference t. gondii seroprevalence of . % in unexposed participants, and an or of . . the result of the calculation was participants. we added a % for refusals and the final sample size was participants. sampling of yoremes was performed by a convenience method. first, the authors met the yoremes leaders to provide information about the study. after obtaining permission from the leaders, they invited the people they lead. yoremes who accepted to participate in the study were gathered in two public places (a health centre and a high school) to provide a blood sample and submit a questionnaire. since this strategy was not enough to reach the sample size, the authors visited houses in the community to enrol partici- pants until the sample size was reached. this new strat- egy is not likely to influence the results since a minority of cases was obtained by this type of sampling. in total, yoremes were included in the study. sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural data data from the participants were obtained with the aid of a standardised questionnaire. this questionnaire included sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural items. sociodemographic items were age, sex, birthplace, residence, education, occupation and socioeconomic status. clinical items included current health status, history of lymphadenopathy, frequent presence of head- ache and abdominal pain, dizziness, impairments of memory, reflexes, hearing and vision, and a history of blood transfusion, transplants or surgery. in women, obstetric history was also obtained. behavioural items included contact with animals, food consumed, travel- ling, frequency of eating away from home (in restaurants or fast food outlets), contact with soil (gardening or agriculture) and type of flooring at home. data about food were type of meat consumed, frequency of meat consumption, consumption of raw or undercooked meat, dried or processed meat, and consumption of unwashed raw vegetables and fruits, unpasteurised milk or untreated water. serological tests for anti-t. gondii antibodies we obtained a blood sample from each participant. blood samples were centrifuged and serum samples were obtained. sera were stored at − ° c until analysed. serum samples were tested for anti-t. gondii igg anti- bodies with the commercially available ‘toxoplasma igg’ (diagnostic automation inc, calabasas, california, usa) enzyme immunoassay (eia). anti-t. gondii igg antibody levels were expressed as iu/ml, and a value ≥ iu/ml was used as a cut-off for seropositivity. sera positive for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies were further analysed for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies by the commercially avail- able ‘toxoplasma igm’ (diagnostic automation inc) eia. the cut-off for anti-t. gondii igm seropositivity for each assay was obtained by multiplying the mean cut-off cali- brator optical density by a correction factor (f= . – . ) printed on the label of the calibrator. all assays were per- formed following the manufacturer’s instructions, and positive and negative controls were included in each run. statistical analysis data were analysed with the aid of the software epi info v. . . and spss v. . . to avoid bias in the measure of associations, care was taken in obtaining all data about the characteristics of participants, and there were no missing data. we used pearson’s χ test and fisher’s exact test (when values were small) for initial compari- son of the frequencies among groups. multivariate ana- lysis was used to assess the association between the sociodemographic and behavioural characteristics of yoremes and the seropositivity to t. gondii. only variables with a p value ≤ . obtained in the bivariate analysis were included in the multivariate analysis. this strategy allowed us to substantially reduce the number of vari- ables in the analysis. or and % ci were calculated by logistic regression using the stepwise backward method. alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ we used the hosmer-lemeshow goodness of fit test to assess the fitness of the regression model. statistical sig- nificance was set at a p value < . . results yoremes participating in the study had a mean age of . ± . years (range – years). of the yoremes studied, ( . %) were positive for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies. of these igg-seropositive patients, ( . %) were also positive for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies. of the anti-t. gondii igg-positive yoremes, ( . %) had igg levels higher than iu/ml, and ( . %) between and iu/ml. a correlation of the sociode- mographic characteristics of yoremes and t. gondii sero- prevalence is shown in table . seroprevalence of t. gondii infection did not vary with sex, birthplace, residence, edu- cational level, occupation or socioeconomic status of yoremes (table ). in contrast, seroprevalence increased significantly with age (p= . ). with respect to anti-t. gondii igm seropositivity among the igg-seropositive yoremes, seroprevalence did not vary with age (p= . ), and seropositivity was found in of males and of females (p= . ). with respect to clinical characteristics (table ), sero- prevalence of t. gondii infection was significantly higher in yoremes with a history of lymphadenopathy (p= . ) and those suffering from frequent abdominal pain (p= . ). in women, t. gondii exposure was associated with a history of caesarean sections (p= . ) and miscar- riages (p= . ). some clinical variables associated with t. gondii exposure may interact with each other, and no further regression analysis with these clinical variables was performed. the frequencies of other clinical characteristics including the presence of underlying dis- eases, suffering from frequent headaches, impairments in reflexes, hearing and vision, and a history of surgery, blood transfusion or transplant were similar among t. gondii-positive and t. gondii-negative yoremes. concerning behavioural characteristics, a number of variables showed p values ≤ . in the bivariate analysis including consumption of goat and squirrel meat, raw dried meat, beef intestines and beef brains, and alcohol- ism. other behavioural characteristics of yoremes includ- ing contact with animals, travelling, consumption of meat other than that of goat and squirrel, frequency of meat consumption, degree of meat cooking, consump- tion of untreated water, unpasteurised milk, processed meat, unwashed raw vegetables or fruits, frequency of eating out of home, contact with soil, and type of floor- ing at home showed p values higher than . in the bivariate analysis. multivariate analysis of sociodemo- graphic and behavioural variables showed that t. gondii exposure was associated only with increasing age (or= . ; % ci . to . ; p= . ) and consump- tion of squirrel meat (or= . ; % ci . to . ; p= . ). an acceptable fit (p= . ) of our regression model was obtained in the hosmer-lemeshow test. discussion the epidemiology of t. gondii infection among ethnic groups in mexico has been scantily studied. this work aimed to determine the seroprevalence and correlates of t. gondii infection in an indigenous ethnic group (yoremes) in northwestern mexico. we found a . % seroprevalence of t. gondii infection in yoremes. to the best of our knowledge, there are no previous reports of t. gondii exposure in this ethnic group. the seropreva- lence found in yoremes is lower than seroprevalences of t. gondii infection reported in other ethnic groups in the northern mexican state of durango: seroprevalences of . %, . % and . % have been reported in tepehuanos, mennonites and huicholes, respect- ively. the lower prevalence of t. gondii exposure in yoremes than in tepehuanos, mennonites and huicholes might be explained by differences in their environment or behavioural difference. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection may be influenced by environment conditions with a high seroprevalence in humid regions and a low seroprevalence in dry and hot regions. tepehuanos and huicholes live in remote communities in a mountainous region (sierra madre occidental) and mennonites in a valley region, whereas yoremes live in a desert region at low altitude. very little is known about the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection in population groups living in a desert climate. in a study in niamey, niger researchers showed that preva- lence of toxoplasmosis was higher in humid coastal regions than in dry desert areas. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection increased with age. this finding might be related to differences in sanitation and hygiene among generations. poor sanitation and hygiene have been linked to t. gondii infection in the indigenous population in brazil. improvement of these epidemio- logical factors may result in the lowering of seropreva- lence of t. gondii exposure in younger generations. we did not include minor (younger than years) partici- pants in this study because the frequency of t. gondii infection in young people is usually very low. we also analysed associations with factors other than the environ- ment. seroprevalence was found to increase with age, consistent with previous reports in rural and urban populations in northern mexico. the mean age ( . years) in yoremes was similar to that in tepehuanos ( . years). however, the mean age in yoremes was lower than the one ( . years) in huicholes and that ( . years) in mennonites. multivariate analysis also showed an association of t. gondii exposure with consumption of squirrel meat. in two previous studies in the general population in rural and urban durango, consumption of squirrel meat was also associated with t. gondii exposure. these findings show the importance of consumption of squirrel meat in the transmission of t. gondii infection in the region. although squirrel meat is usually cooked before eating, failure to obtain a thorough cooking may occur specially for thick pieces of meat. yoremes usually grill the alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ squirrel meat, and this process may result in an uneven cooking. in addition, tasting of raw or undercooked meat while grilling might occur. tasting of fresh raw meat was linked to toxoplasmosis in italy. serological evidence of t. gondii infection has been demonstrated in squirrels. in addition, t. gondii has been detected in organs of korean squirrels (tanias sibericus) and grey squirrels (sciurus carolensis) with fatal toxoplasmosis. we previously investigated the presence of t. gondii in animals in durango but were unable to detect anti-t. gondii antibodies in squirrels (spermophilus variegatus) collected. however, we cannot rule out t. gondii infec- tion in squirrels in the region because the sample size was small and infection might occur in other squirrel species than the one studied. further research about the epidemiological link of t. gondii infection and consump- tion of squirrel meat including the search for t. gondii in squirrels should therefore be conducted. intriguingly, in this study, we found an association of t. gondii exposure with abdominal pain, history of lymphadenopathy, caesarean sections and miscarriages. it is well known that t. gondii infection is a cause of lymph node enlargement and miscarriages. in con- trast, t. gondii infection is not typically associated with abdominal pain, but abdominal pain has been reported in gastric toxoplasmosis in patients with aids. we also found an association of t. gondii infection with a history of caesarean section. it is not clear why women with caesarean sections had a higher seroprevalence of t. gondii infection than those without this history. interestingly, in a study of women with stillbirths in durango, mexico, t. gondii exposure was associated with a history of surgery. it raises the question whether a specific type of surgery as caesarean section or a specific population group as women might have a higher risk of t. gondii exposure than others. we did not investigate the indications for the caesarean sections or the health status of the children born by this surgical procedure, and this was a limitation of the study. several factors could be considered to explain t. gondii infections in women with caesarean sections. congenital toxoplasmo- sis may precipitate not just early delivery or induction of delivery, but it may also prompt caesarean section. – in addition, the use of contaminated surgical instru- ments or materials during caesarean sections cannot be ruled out. blood transfusion is relatively common in sur- gical patients, and infection with t. gondii by blood trans- fusion may also occur. further research about the association of t. gondii infection and caesarean section and other surgical procedures should be conducted. in this work, anti-t. gondii igm antibodies were present in a relatively high number of anti-t. gondii igg-positive table sociodemographic characteristics of yoremes and seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection participants tested prevalence of t. gondii infection characteristic number number percentage p value age groups (years) or less . . – . > . sex male . . female . birthplace sonora state . other mexican state or abroad . residence area rural . . urban . educational level no education . . – years . – years . > years . occupation labourer* . . non-labourer† . socioeconomic level low . . medium . high . *labourer: agriculture, business, construction, livestock raising, professional, other. †non-labourer: student or housekeeping. alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ yoremes compared with previous studies. this finding should be interpreted with caution because positive results in igm tests may indicate persistent igm anti- bodies rather than acute infection. we did not test all participants for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies. only igg-positive patients were tested because a high number of false-positive results for igm have been reported when using immunoassays. therefore, a positive igm test with a negative igg test has a limited usefulness for drawing diagnostic and epidemiological conclusions. the small sample size and the low rate of seropositivity were limitations of the study. these factors did not allow us to perform a wider analysis of the association of t. gondii exposure and the characteristics of yoremes. reaching the sample size of yoremes was challenging. however, the strategy to enrol participants by visiting table bivariate analysis of clinical data and infection with toxoplasma gondii in yoremes participants tested prevalence of t. gondii infection characteristic number number percentage p value clinical status healthy . . ill . lymphadenopathy ever yes . . no . abdominal pain frequently yes . . no . headache frequently yes . . no memory impairment yes . . no . dizziness yes . no reflexes impairment yes . . no . hearing impairment yes . . no . visual impairment yes . . no . surgery ever yes . . no blood transfusion yes . . no . pregnancies yes . . no . deliveries yes . . no . caesarean sections yes . . no miscarriages yes . . no . stillbirths yes . . no . alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ them at their houses allowed us to include participants who were unable to get out of home for sampling because of illnesses or other conditions. conclusions we demonstrate, for the first time, serological evidence of t. gondii exposure among yoremes in mexico. results suggest that infection with t. gondii may be associated with specific food habits and health conditions. the optimal design of preventive measures against t. gondii infection should take our findings into consideration. author affiliations faculty of medicine and nutrition, biomedical research laboratory, juárez university of durango state, durango, mexico department of chemical and biological sciences, university of sonora, hermosillo, sonora, mexico institute for scientific research “dr. roberto rivera-damm”, juárez university of durango state, durango, mexico department of research and postgraduate in food, university of sonora, hermosillo, sonora, uk institute for microbiology and hygiene, campus benjamin franklin, charité medical school, berlin, germany roche molecular diagnostics, pleasanton, california, usa contributors ca-e, ar-c, magc-m and mla-m designed the study protocol and participated in the coordination and management of the study. ar-c, magc-m, gja-b and adn-a obtained blood samples, submitted the questionnaires and performed the data analysis. ca-e performed the laboratory tests. ca-e, jh-t, lfs-a, ar-c, magc-m, mla-m and ol performed the data analysis and wrote the manuscript. funding universidad juárez del estado de durango. competing interests none declared. patient consent obtained. ethics approval the institutional ethical committee of the university of sonora, mexico approved this study. the purpose and procedures of the survey were explained to all yoremes. participation in the study was voluntary. written informed consent was obtained from all participants and from the next of kin of minor participants. provenance and peer review not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. data sharing statement no additional data are available. open access this is an open access article distributed in accordance with the creative commons attribution non commercial (cc by-nc . ) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non- commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. see: http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / references . smith je. a ubiquitous intracellular parasite: the cellular biology of toxoplasma gondii. int j parasitol ; : – . . dubey jp. toxoplasmosis of animals and humans. nd edn. boca raton, fl: crc press, . . hill de, chirukandoth s, dubey jp. biology and epidemiology of toxoplasma gondii in man and animals. anim health res rev ; : – . . montoya jg, liesenfeld o. toxoplasmosis. lancet ; : – . . harker ks, ueno n, lodoen mb. toxoplasma gondii dissemination: a parasite’s journey through the infected host. parasite immunol ; : – . . maenz m, schlüter d, liesenfeld o, et al. ocular toxoplasmosis past, present and new aspects of an old disease. prog retin eye res ; : – . . oz hs. maternal and congenital toxoplasmosis, currently available and novel therapies in horizon. front microbiol ; : . . weiss lm, dubey jp. toxoplasmosis: a history of clinical observations. int j parasitol ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, rojas-rivera a, estrada-martínez s, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in a mennonite community in durango state, mexico. j parasitol ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, estrada-martínez s, garcía-lópez cr, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in tepehuanos in durango, mexico. vector borne zoonotic dis ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, pacheco-vega sj, hernández-tinoco j, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in huicholes in mexico. parasit vectors ; : . . julvez j, magnaval jf, meynard d, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in niamey, niger. med trop (mars) ; : – . . markovich mp, shohat t, riklis i, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in the israeli population. epidemiol infect ; : – . . . bóia mn, carvalho-costa fa, sodré fc, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection among indian people living in iauareté, são gabriel da cachoeira, amazonas, brazil. rev inst med trop sao paulo ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, cruz-magallanes hm, esquivel-cruz r, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in human adults from three rural communities in durango state, mexico. j parasitol ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, estrada-martínez s, pizarro-villalobos h, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in general population in a northern mexican city. j parasitol ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, liesenfeld o, burciaga-lópez bd, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in elderly people in a northern mexican city. vector borne zoonotic dis ; : – . . vitale m, tumino g, partanna s, et al. impact of traditional practices on food safety: a case of acute toxoplasmosis related to the consumption of contaminated raw pork sausage in italy. j food prot ; : – . . . smith dd, frenkel jk. prevalence of antibodies to toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals of missouri and east central kansas: biologic and ecologic considerations of transmission. j wildl dis ; : – . . carrasco l, raya ai, núñez a, et al. fatal toxoplasmosis and concurrent calodium hepaticum infection in korean squirrels (tanias sibericus). vet parasitol ; : – . . dubey jp, hodgin ec, hamir an. acute fatal toxoplasmosis in squirrels (sciurus carolensis) with bradyzoites in visceral tissues. j parasitol ; : – . . dubey jp, velmurugan gv, alvarado-esquivel c, et al. isolation of toxoplasma gondii from animals in durango, mexico. j parasitol ; : – . . . alpert l, miller m, alpert e, et al. gastric toxoplasmosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: antemortem diagnosis with histopathologic characterization. gastroenterology ; : – . . ganji m, tan a, maitar mi, et al. gastric toxoplasmosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. a case report and review of the literature. arch pathol lab med ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, pacheco-vega sj, salcedo-jaquez m, et al. stillbirth history and toxoplasma gondii infection in women attending public health centers in a northern mexican city. eur j microbiol immunol (bp) ; : – . . freeman k, oakley l, pollak a, et al. european multicentre study on congenital toxoplasmosis. association between congenital toxoplasmosis and preterm birth, low birthweight and small for gestational age birth. bjog ; : – . . nishikawa a, yamada h, yamamoto t, et al. a case of congenital toxoplasmosis whose mother demonstrated serum low igg avidity and positive tests for multiplex-nested pcr in the amniotic fluid. j obstet gynaecol res ; : – . . sato s, nishida m, nasu k, et al. congenital toxoplasmosis from a mother with type diabetes mellitus: a case report. j obstet gynaecol res ; : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, liesenfeld o, márquez-conde ja, et al. seroepidemiology of infection with toxoplasma gondii in workers occupationally exposed to water, sewage, and soil in durango, mexico. j parasitol ; : – . . liesenfeld o, press c, montoya jg, et al. false-positive results in immunoglobulin m (igm) toxoplasma antibody tests and importance of confirmatory testing: the platelia toxo igm test. j clin microbiol ; : – . alvarado-esquivel c, et al. bmj open ; :e . doi: . /bmjopen- - open access o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://b m jo p e n .b m j.co m / b m j o p e n : first p u b lish e d a s . /b m jo p e n - - o n m a y . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) -c http://dx.doi.org/ . /ahr http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) -x http://dx.doi.org/ . /pim. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.preteyeres. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.preteyeres. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /fmicb. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijpara. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- . http://dx.doi.org/ . /vbz. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- . http://dx.doi.org/ . /vbz. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x.jfp- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.vetpar. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- r. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- . http://dx.doi.org/ . /gast. .v .pm http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /jog. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jog. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ge- . http://bmjopen.bmj.com/ 	seroprevalence and correlates of toxoplasma gondii infection in yoremes (mayos) in mexico: a cross-sectional study 	abstract 	introduction 	materials and methods 	study design and yoremes’ population studied 	sample size and sampling method 	sociodemographic, clinical and behavioural data 	serological tests for anti-t. gondii antibodies 	statistical analysis 	results 	discussion 	conclusions 	references holmium laser-assisted endoscopic extraction of a fishhook from the male urethra at sciverse sciencedirect urological science ( ) e contents lists available urological science journal homepage: www.urol-sci.com case report holmium laser-assisted endoscopic extraction of a fishhook from the male urethra hui-ming chung a,*, sheng-hsuan chen b a department of urology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan b department of internal medicine, taipei medical university hospital, taipei, taiwan open access under cc by-nc-nd license. a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received october received in revised form december accepted april available online may keywords: endoscopy fishhook holmium laser male urethra * corresponding author. department of urology, m min-chuan road, hualien , taiwan. e-mail address: hchung@jhsph.edu (h.-m. chung) - copyright � , taiwan urological asso doi: . /j.urols. . . a b s t r a c t a man years of age presented with frequency and dysuria. rigid cystoscopy revealed the presence of a fishhook in the anterior urethra. initial attempts to remove the fishhook in one piece by forceps or a basket were unsuccessful. the fishhook was cut into two pieces using a holmium laser via a -fr ureteroscope and removed by forceps. the anterior urethra experienced a minor tear during the procedure. he voided well without significant urethral stricture months postoperatively. an open urethrotomy is usually indicated for unsuccessful endoscopic removal of foreign bodies from the male urethra, which often leads to recurrent urethral stricture. the novel use of a holmium laser to facilitate the endoscopic removal of a fishhook from the male urethra may reduce the risk of postoperative urethral stricture. copyright � , taiwan urological association. published by elsevier taiwan llc. . introduction various kinds of foreign bodies lodged in the male urethra have been reported, and the management of such cases can be chal- lenging for urologists. first-line treatment is endoscopic extraction of the foreign body. however, the restricted space of the male urethra makes it very difficult for endoscopic instruments, such as forceps or baskets, to effectively remove a foreign body. open surgery is indicated when endoscopic extraction is unsuccessful, which often leads to significant urethral stricture or a fistula postoperatively. we herein report the successful use of a holmium laser to facilitate endoscopic extraction of a fishhook lodged in a male urethra. . case report a man years of age presented to the emergency department of our institution (mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan). he had experienced dysuria and frequency for several days. on physical examination, there was a palpable mass within the ante- rior part of the urethra. initial renal ultrasonography showed hydronephrosis of the right kidney, but the plain abdominal film failed to reveal any ureteral stones. an abdominal computed tomographic (ct) scan showed calcified material in the anterior urethra (fig. ) and a radiolucent stone in the right distal ureter. the ennonite christian hospital, . ciation. published by elsevier taiw patient was not married, and his socioeconomic status was of a lower class. he had a history of mental retardation but no medical diseases. laboratory data showed that complete blood counts and blood biochemistry tests were within normal limits. urinalysis revealed hematuria and pyuria. the patient was subjected to an endoscopic procedure under general anesthesia in the operating room. with a -fr cystoscope, a fishhook was found in the urethra (fig. ). initial attempts were made to remove the fishhook in one piece by forceps or a basket; however, they were unsuccessful because the hook was snagged in the urethra. the fishhook was then cut into two pieces using a holmium laser (with a pulse energy of . j and a pulse rate of hz) via a -fr ureteroscope, and the fragments were removed with forceps using a -fr cystoscope (fig. ). the anterior urethra experienced a minor tear during the procedure. a urethral catheter was put in place to prevent post- operative urethral stricture. after the surgery, we attempted to determine how and when the fishhook became lodged in the urethra. however, neither the patient nor his caregivers could provide any meaningful information on this issue. the patient was discharged after the urethral catheter was removed on post- operative day . the patient was doing well with a normal uroflow rate at the -month postoperative follow-up. . discussion although rare, various kinds of foreign bodies in the male urethra have been described in the literature, including ballpoint pens, wires, allen keys, and pins. e the clinical presentation may vary from asymptomatic to swelling of the external genitalia, an llc. open access under cc by-nc-nd license. mailto:hchung@jhsph.edu www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.urol-sci.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.urols. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.urols. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.urols. . . http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / fig. . computed tomography scan showing calcified material in the male urethra. fig. . realigned fragments of the fishhook. h.-m. chung, s.-h. chen / urological science ( ) e dysuria, urethral discharge, and urinary tract infection. the most commonly reported reasons for self-inflicted foreign bodies in the male urethra are of an erotic or sexual nature, especially sexual gratification or masturbation, a mental illness, or drug intoxica- tion. the patient in this case had a history of mental retardation, but it was not clear whether the fishhook was inserted by himself or by someone else. the composition, size, and origin of foreign bodies in the male urethra differ greatly, but the treatment is similar with endoscopic extraction the first-line treatment. sometimes, a foreign body can be pushed back into the urinary bladder and grasped by forceps or a retrieval basket. in this patient, it was impossible because the fishhook was snagged in the urethra. an open urethrotomy is fig. . cystoscopy revealed that a fish indicated in cases where endoscopic procedures are unsuccessful, which often leads to urethral stricture or a fistula. we tried a novel approach using a holmium laser to facilitate removal of the fish- hook. because this method is less traumatic, we hoped to avoid an open urethrotomy and possible urethral stricture. although it is possible that a high-energy laser can cause thermal injury to the urethra, the risk can be minimized with meticulous manipulation of the endoscopic procedure. in this case, the patient had a smooth recovery with no urethral stricture or fistula during the -month postoperative follow-up period. holmium lasers are used primarily for lithotripsy, but they are also used to cut soft tissues or tumors; however, the mechanisms differ. the holmium laser is highly absorbed by water. because tissues are composed mainly of water, the majority of the holmium laser energy is absorbed superficially, which results in superficial cutting or ablation. by contrast, the holmium laser can cut through hook was snagged in the urethra. h.-m. chung, s.-h. chen / urological science ( ) e metal and cause stone evaporation primarily through a photo- thermal mechanism. recently, some authors demonstrated the effectiveness and safety of using a holmium laser to cut large or complex foreign bodies in vitro and within the human urinary bladder. , however, the restricted space in the urethra makes it more challenging for endoscopic extraction. it is recommended that treatment be commenced with low-pulse energy (e.g., . j) with a pulse rate of hz and that the pulse frequency be increased as needed to facilitate treatment. to the best of our knowledge, this is one of the earliest reported cases using a holmium laser to facilitate endoscopic removal of a foreign body from the male urethra. other than a holmium laser, there are currently no other endoscopic tools that can cut a fish- hook in a male urethra, as we did in this case. we recommend that holmium lasers be considered in endoscopic extraction of foreign bodies from the male urethra. conflicts of interest statement the authors declare that they have no financial or non-financial conflicts of interest related to the subject matter or materials dis- cussed in the manuscript. source of funding mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan. references . forde jc, casey rg, grainger r. an unusual penpal: case report and literature review of posterior urethral injuries secondary to foreign body insertion. can j urol ; : e . . mitterberger m, peschel r, frauscher f, pinggera gm. allen key completely in male urethra: a case report. cases j ; : . . stravodimos kg, koritsiadis g, koutalellis g. electrical wire as a foreign body in a male urethra: a case report. j med case reports ; : . . gokce g, topsakal k, ayan s, kilicarslan h, gokce sf, gultekin ey. case report: nonobstructive giant urethral stone with two safety pins. int urol nephrol ; : e . . frenkl tl, rackley rr, vasavada sp, goldman hb. management of iatrogenic foreign bodies of the bladder and urethra following pelvic floor surgery. neu- rourol urodyn ; : e . . wyatt j, hammontree ln. use of holmium:yag laser to facilitate removal of intravesical foreign bodies. j endourol ; : e . . bedke j, kruck s, schilling d, matter a, horstmann m, sievert kd, et al. laser fragmentation of foreign bodies in the urinary tract: an in vitro study and clinical application. world j urol ; : e . . spore ss, teichman jm, corbin ns, champion pc, williamson ea, glickman rd. holmium:yag lithotripsy: optimal power settings. j endourol ; : e . 	holmium laser-assisted endoscopic extraction of a fishhook from the male urethra 	 . introduction 	 . case report 	 . discussion 	conflicts of interest statement 	source of funding 	references health and environment project in benin field actions science reports the journal of field actions vol. | vol. health and environment project in benin raphaël edou electronic version url: http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/ issn: - publisher institut veolia electronic reference raphaël edou, « health and environment project in benin », field actions science reports [online], vol. | , online since february , connection on april . url : http:// journals.openedition.org/factsreports/ creative commons attribution . license http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/factsreports/ field actions science report www.factsreports.org © author(s) . this work is distributed under the creative commons attribution . license. health and environment project in benin r. edou ong bethesda web : www.bethesdabenin.org abstract. in , the republic of benin was facing great social and economic upheavals. in , the canadian and american mennonite missionaries created the bethesda health care centre. in , assessment of the hospital activities showed that many people were coming back to the centre repeatedly with the same illnesses linked to sani- tation aspects and living conditions. the community development and environmental protection department (dcam) was thus established to face this great challenge. it quickly helped the community and the local authorities to establish a waste management system. the programme for sanitation and protection of the environment (prape) was designed and funded by the french embassy and evangelische entwicklungsdienst v.e (eed), a german christian organization. households then began to subscribe for the collection of their wastes. bethesda began to assist other communities to put in place waste management systems. today, it is working throughout the country with many municipalities. while the programme was being implemented, we discovered that the community need- ed to be supported in their revenue generating activities. we set up in , a solidarity-based microinance system. the savings of some people were used to grant credit to others. this community bank has developed into a large bank today. in , a system of mutual insurance was put in place. a complete integrated system to address the basic needs of the community was thus set up. keywords. mennonites, religion, integrated vision, environment, health, microinance, economics, non-government organization. introduction in , the republic of benin was facing a great social and economical crisis. civil servants of all the sectors in public administration were on strike. people did not know where to go for their health care. salaries were not paid for more than six months and life for the general population was very dif- icult. the country was about to degenerate into civil war as a result of the civil unrest in the country. thanks to the assistance from the french, and canadian and american mennonite missionaries, the bethesda health centre was started in with us$ , granted by theses partners. today, the health centre of bethesda has expanded and has become a large hospital in cotonou. it hosts each year about , patients and has developed the depart- ment of paediatrics, ophthalmology, stomatology, cardiology, obstetrical gynaecology, x-rays, etc. the hospital has also put in place an aids service which has been promoted by the government to the status of an aids treatment centre. in an integrated vision, bethesda has established other de- partments. in , the sanitation department was estab- lished to implement sanitation and environmentally-friendly projects aimed at reducing the high incidence of some dis- eases frequently treated at the hospital. in , the decision correspondence to: raphaël edou (bethesda@bethesdabenin.org) was made to establish a micro-inance department called pebco. this initiative, which currently has , clients, uses community savings to promote income-generating ac- tivities. since many women were obliged to use the loans for family needs (health care, children schooling, etc.), they were unable to reimburse them as planned. hence the bethesda non-government organization (ngo) recently began an ini- tiative to provide a community-based health insurance option for the population in . there are now , members. this paper focuses on the presentation of benin and the pro- gram, but also describes how the project could be better im- proved and what were its beneits and impacts. the purpose of the project . presentation of benin benin is a west african country of nearly seven million in- habitants and has a high proportion of young people. about per cent of the people live in urban areas, and this is nearly ten per cent higher than the level of urbanization in sub-saha- ran africa as a whole. politically, benin has been stable for about years and is governed under a democratic system where individual freedom is respected. the government has been following a policy of decentralization for about the past years. since then, the population has been content to build r. edou: health and environment project in benin field actions science report its future, and peace has made the country a dynamic region. this has contributed to a considerable increase in the rate of urbanization in recent years. as a result, urban issues have increased in prominence in the policy and practice arenas. . presentation of the program in early s, benin was trying to overcome political, eco- nomic and social crisis. fortunately bloodshed was avoided and a democratic government was adopted for the country after the national conference in . this crisis severely limited the level of services that the city authority of cotonou could pro- vide to its citizens. the public hospital was not functioning properly and the few private health care options were very ex- pensive. the poor could not afford private care. thanks to the assistance from the french, canadian and american mennonite missionaries, the beninese evangelical churches founded the bethesda health centre in . when the bethesda health centre started operating in sainte rita in , many people, estimated as high as % of the population, were experiencing illnesses, particularly gastroenteritis, malaria, and bronchial pneumonia. during the irst few years, the number of cases treated by the centre doubled each year. many people were re- turning to the centre repeatedly with the same illnesses. the casual dumping of waste was undoubtedly a contributing factor to the high levels of illness. this was a problem that needed to be addressed urgently. in general, the living conditions of many people in the area were the cause of their bad health. at that time the city’s waste management department had only three working trucks that it could use to collect rubbish from the city with approximately , residents. the dumping of rubbish was a big problem in cotonou. rubbish was dumped in the streets, where it accumulated in large holes that had been worn away in the surface, on open ground, near to houses, in the canals and the marine lagoon surround- ing the north side of the city. the mere establishment of a clinic in the community where there were very poor sanita- tion conditions did not accurately address the health issues of vulnerable people. to raise awareness among the community about the links between poor health and lack of proper waste management and inadequate sanitation, the health centre cre- ated a unit for community development and environmental protection (dcam). this was successful at making contact with communities and in promoting the need for environmen- tal action to improve health. the community had then be- come a willing partner for seeing that action would be taken. the environmental programme started then around the clinic in the district of sainte rita, one of the local author- ity districts that make up the city of cotonou. this district has a population of approximately , and occupies three square kilometres. about half of this site is low ground that experiences yearly looding. . how the project was implemented . . planning, preparation and piloting in dcam bethesda undertook the initiative to bring together representatives of the community, government and the local authorities with a view to taking action to alleviate the chronic problem of rubbish dumping. some members of the local authority were initially skeptical and did not believe that it would be possible to convince people from the local communities to contribute towards clearing away the rubbish. dcam also met numerous times with groups and organizations, such as women’s and youth groups, old- er people, church organizations, market traders and school and parent representatives, from the community, as well as with the service providers themselves. gradually a consen- sus was established on the needs, objectives and priorities for action and what each of the stakeholders could contrib- ute or offer. it was decided that the priority would be to develop a sustainable waste management system for the neighbor- hoods of sainte rita. sustainability would be endorsed through building the management capacities of local orga- nizations and training of and support to local people to de- velop jobs in waste collection and processing. it would also be important to bring in the local authorities and relevant government departments into the partnership so that they could share the responsibilities for waste management and contribute in their areas of management capacity, support and expertise. the communities were keen to start clearing rubbish from the streets almost from the outset of the discussions about the programme and also began to ill in some of the holes in the roads where the rubbish was being dumped. however, these efforts were very limited compared with the scale of the dumping in the whole area. over a period of months, dcam entered into pains- taking discussions with affected stakeholders to formulate a plan for dealing with the waste disposal issue throughout the whole of sainte rita. the main hurdles to overcome were to obtain and equip a suitable site to act as a waste collection and recycling centre, obtaining real commitment rather than tacit support for the project from the municipal- ity in cotonou and the environmental ministry, negotiating a formalized agreement with communities specifying how contributions to the undertaking would be shared, and se- curing funding for a preparatory programme geared to- wards full long-term sustainability. dcam was able to use a site about km away for its processing centre and secured funds of us$ , from the french embassy fund for development (caisse française de développement) to initiate waste management activities in a more systematic way. additional funding was provided by evangelische entwicklungsdienst v.e (eed), a german christian organization. this project support was endorsed by the ofice of the united nations development programme (undp) in benin and the minister of finance of benin as an opportunity for more environmentally-sustainable practices in waste management in the country. by january everything was in place for the programme for sanitation and protection of the environment (prape) to be formally inaugurated. the launch was attended by com- munity representatives, staff of dcam bethesda, representa- tives of the french embassy, and the minister for the environment as well as other relevant stakeholders. r. edou: health and environment project in benin www.factsreports.org . . strengthening the capacity when prape started the project, the staff realized that it would require a great effort and commitment of all the stake- holders to succeed in disseminating community-based waste management in a systematic way to the majority of house- holds in sainte rita. in the few areas where residents had al- ready taken the lead and organized their own campaigns, the organizers were likely to have been highly motivated. it could not be assumed that all the residents throughout sainte rita would be as motivated. dcam intended to continue with the promotion of envi- ronmentally-focused waste management; but at a more in- tense level and more extensively in the settlement. this would highlight how residents would beneit and their sur- roundings would be improved. other aspects of the campaign would be important too and the whole process would be more effective if these were utilized strategically and in an inte- grated way. thus, dcam needed to ind out about what products the different types of waste generated could be re- cycled into or reused as, what existing or potential markets could be penetrated for these products, what processing tech- nologies were available and which of these would be the most suitable, what equipment and other material assets would be required and how all of these could be utilized by local people to obtain sustainable jobs and equipment. dcam then would have to take the leading role in disseminating this know-how to a large number of people in sainte rita. building local people’s conidence was a priority in the ini- tial stages of the programme. people needed to be convinced that dcam had the right ideas for dealing with the waste management issues and that the programme had a long-term and deeply-rooted commitment to seeing the process through to a conclusion. they also needed to know that all the waste would be taken away or reused at a cost that would be afford- able to the majority of them. dcam then would have to en- courage local people to realize that the future and sustainability of the programme lay in their hands and that they had the in- nate skills that merely needed to be awakened and extended so that the communities could make an effective contribution. the small-scale waste removal activities carried out dur- ing the preliminary stages of the programme had proved to be valuable learning experiences for the larger-scale effort. in practical terms, the focus of the activities had moved onto training of community groups so that they could have a key role in putting into place sustainable mechanisms for waste management; and organization of neighborhood committees to provide the local management capacity. the technical as- pects of waste recycling and reprocessing that would be suitable for community application were developed by dcam. research was undertaken to ind out how waste re- cycling was being managed in germany, the netherlands, egypt and elsewhere in west africa, amongst other coun- tries and regions. during this phase, the opportunity was also taken to raise awareness among many more people in sainte rita about the links between their illnesses and health problems and the rub- bish that was being dumped in their vicinity and the inade- quate sanitation that they had access to. many of the facilitators for these sessions were women, to encourage more women from the community to attend. the aim was that later the people taking part in these workshops would commit themselves as householders who make their waste available to the programme or as members of groups or enterprises that collect, reprocess or recycle the waste. the waste management department of the city of cotonou and the ministry of the environment in benin were key insti- tutional partners of the programme. these organizations knew about the problems caused by indiscriminate waste dumping. they had had little impact in alleviating this prob- lem themselves, especially in the lower income areas; but still needed to be convinced that an alternative, community- focused approach would be more effective. however, they were willing to support, co-operate with and learn from the programme, even to the extent that the minister for environment attended a number of seminal events organized by dcam. eventually these institutions, together with ngos, contributed to spreading the message about dcam to other municipalities in benin through organizing workshops and meetings and production and dissemination of publica- tions. working with dcam municipalities, they would learn what aspects of waste management they can focus on most effectively and which ones would best be taken care of by communities that have had their capacities raised. . . the scaling-up experience achieving scaling-up was not a high priority during the early stages of the programme. most importantly the intention was to demonstrate that a signiicant proportion of the waste gen- erated in the municipality of sainte rita could be dealt with by local people, thereby creating local jobs and incomes and contributing to environmental sustainability through recy- cling and re-use wherever possible. a number of factors contributed to successful scaling-up in sainte rita. these included: – dcam bethesda already had extensive contacts and a good knowledge about local communities through the operation of healthcare services. the team was able to organize meetings and training with community mem- bers without signiicant problems. – dcam-bethesda placed high emphasis on preventive healthcare rather than just treating patients with illness- es. they had therefore already acquired communica- tion skills and the use of appropriate media for communicating with local people. – local people and the municipality recognized that waste dumping in the area was a problem that needed urgent attention and were willing to support any initia- tive that appeared to show promising results. many community members were motivated to sort their waste at home. – dcam was successful in convincing many local peo- ple that many of their health problems were caused by inadequate sanitation and indiscriminate waste dump- ing. apart from the physical discomfort of illness that r. edou: health and environment project in benin field actions science report people wanted to avoid, illnesses also often prevented people from working, and to treat them people had to attend the health centre and pay for the services. – communities, through their neighborhood committees, had a high level of input into determining the direction of the programme. – the training that was undertaken, focusing on youths, was effective in helping them to set up business as waste collectors and recyclers. – waste was collected from households at regular inter- vals, so that the levels of waste did not build up and residents had conidence in the collection service. – the household collection service was initially subsi- dized and residents charged a low rate of about us$ . per month to encourage uptake. by house- holds were being charged a more economically realistic rate of about us$ per month; but residents were still willing to pay this as they appreciated the improve- ments in the settlements that had been achieved. – a loans programme that was set up was successful at helping entrepreneurs setting up and acquiring tools and equipment. – it is relatively low in cost to set up a business as waste collectors. for an outlay of about us$ , two people can start a business. this cost is affordable for many com- munity members and they are further assisted in meeting these costs by the loans that are made available. – dcam was successful at linking entrepreneurs to markets. – much of the day to day operation of waste collection and promotion of waste sorting by households is over- seen by neighborhood committees. dcam does not generally become involved in this and could thus de- vote much of its effort to dissemination, publicity and building the capacities of communities that were at the beginning of managing their own waste products. since the launch of prape in in sainte rita, the pro- gramme has extended to much of the rest of the city of cotonou, which now has a population of nearly one million, and several other cities and larger towns in benin. some dif- ferent factors were important for this more extensive scaling- up than in sainte rita, though other factors were the same. these different factors included the following: – the work in sainte rita had proved to be an effective demonstration model with other organizations in cotonou and benin wanting to replicate and adapt the successful outcomes of the programme in their own areas. – the department of environment in benin was a key stakeholder in the programme in sainte rita and took an even more proactive role in the wider dissemination. the ministry donated carts, containers and trucks to help activities so new areas could get started. – the development of a network of ngos and waste pro- cessors was instrumental in the dissemination process. the network irst extended throughout cotonou, incor- porating organizations, but more recently network- ing activities have been organized throughout benin. – dcam was involved in the scaling-up process by pro- viding a consultancy and advisory service to other groups and organizations wanting to set up community- based waste management. this has helped to ensure that these new operations are well run and managed. – the loans service that was initially set up to assist waste collectors in sainte rita start their businesses has be- come a fully-ledged community bank that still focuses on loans for waste collection and processing but can also offer loans for other needs. the bank now operates in the three largest cities in benin. the bank also offers training in business management skills so that their businesses are more likely to become successful. – dcam has been relatively successful at leading the ngo network and help oxfam (quebec) to implement their project of capacity building of the network of ngos and waste processors in cotonou. the world bank and the government of benin are supporting a community development and infrastructure programme, managed by dcam, operating throughout the country. – dcam has employed students and interns. some of them, as well as some former employees of dcam, have themselves helped to set up local waste manage- ment services in other areas. – dcam has had good cooperation with numerous other organizations in benin and internationally to extend the programme. these organizations have included univer- sities, research centres, municipalities, ngos and the government ministries. – waste issues were a priority that needed attention in many places in benin, so communities, municipalities and ngos were interested in adopting the processes that were demonstrated in sainte rita. they could also see that the majority of households had signed up for the waste collection service and that the service could be run as an economically viable operation. in addition to scaling-up geographically and in reaching large numbers of people, the programme has also scaled-up in terms of broadening the scope of its work. this aspect of scaling-up has been undertaken through: – recycling or land illing of suitable waste from the health centre. eventually the programme was handling waste from health centres throughout cotonou. – the community bank that was set up to promote wom- en’s savings now also support the creation of other small businesses, apart from those based on waste, many of them operated by women. most of these busi- nesses have been in food processing. r. edou: health and environment project in benin www.factsreports.org – assisting the government-coordinating agency (serhau) in promoting community participation and community-based development. this programme, set up by the government and the world bank, is being implemented in the three largest cities of benin. for three years prape has been helping to: – establish neighborhood association committees, – develop the objectives and plan for each of them, – build capacity on managerial skills of the committees, – assist in community infrastructure building (schools, health centres, youth centres, markets, and public latrines) and prepare the community to manage them effectively. – build the equipment for water supply in the community. . . participants in the process one of the successes of dcam was the level to which the programme has been able to integrate the activities of many stakeholders into a dynamic that has had signiicant impact throughout benin in environmental and health improvement, income generation, poverty reduction and community devel- opment. stakeholders involved in the programme have in- cluded ngos, community groups and organizations, municipalities, government, donors, private sector compa- nies, researchers and consultants. the driving force behind dcam was the bethesda health centre (dcam bethesda) which was set up in sainte rita in by mennonite missionaries from the united states, canada, and france, together with benin’s churches. bethesda established dcam in to initially address the problems caused by uncontrolled waste disposal throughout sainte rita. communities were the other vital partner. without coop- eration of community groups, the waste would not have been cleared away and would have continued being dumped. however many residents in the eight neighborhoods of sainte rita were responsive to the awareness raising meetings orga- nized by dcam. neighborhood associations already existed, and as the programme developed they became more involved. dcam also encouraged the formation of neighborhood com- mittees that would organize the local management of waste collection and collaborated with the neighborhood associa- tions to select participants for the committee. dcam would then enter into a dialogue and train the committee members on waste management issues. scaling-up would have been dificult without institutional support and cooperation. dcam was able to obtain support at the start of the programme from the french embassy and the ministry of the environment in benin. many discussions took place between dcam bethesda and these two institu- tions on programme formulation, and the minister of the environment and representatives from the french embassy attended the launch of dcam and other important events during the programme. dcam also had discussions with mu- nicipal representatives in cotonou, and the support to the programme of the ministry was a key factor in obtaining mu- nicipal support for the programme in cotonou and, later on, in other towns and cities. the ministry of environment also provided practical support by donating carts, trucks, waste containers and gloves for the programme. dcam was initially a health and environmental ngo that largely operated within sainte rita. however, for scaling-up of the programme in other areas of cotonou and in other cit- ies and towns, the cooperation and support of other ngos that worked closely with their respective local communities was valuable. dcam has been actively involving these ngos through a network that comprises ngos in cotonou. together these ngos employ nine hundred work- ers and have a budget of about us$ , per year. a na- tional network of ngos involved in waste management is being developed to cover the other cities and towns where community-based waste management has been set up. the other important stakeholders in the process are the cus- tomers for the reprocessed products from the waste. these include farmers and gardeners who make use of the compost made from the organic wastes, and residents who use the bri- quettes made from paper and sawdust. particularly important was a company called agriplas that takes about three tonnes per month of recovered plastic that has been granulated to make electrical cable, among other applications. altogether the recycling centre that serves cotonou produces about tonnes of recycled granulated plastic waste per year. other private companies make use of this material for a range of plastic products. the plastic waste stream is particularly valuable for the project as it is the highest value product from the waste and contributes a lot of the revenue to the operation that goes towards reduction of the amount that households are charged. . . dissemination and communications issues a strength of the programme was that the dissemination of the programme took place largely by word of mouth, and dcam encouraged neighborhood committees and ngos to keep residents informed and seek their views about the pro- gramme in this way. meetings, awareness raising workshops, and training events were used to raise community awareness about the programme and issues around health, environment and waste management; and to interest residents to take part in the programme. once a number of residents in an area had agreed to be part of the programme, either as waste collectors or as providers of waste that had been pre-sorted, prape organized speciic training and demonstrations. neighborhood committees act- ed as intermediaries between residents, collectors and prape and maintained ongoing informal contact with these stake- holders. more formal meetings were organized once a month between prape and neighborhood committees. these pro- vided community groups with an effective way of highlight- ing any problems or issues that needed to be resolved or any new developments that needed to be considered. meetings were also organized with donors, the ministries of environment and health, and representatives from the mu- nicipality of cotonou initially to obtain ideas on the scope of r. edou: health and environment project in benin field actions science report the programme and how these particular institutions would be involved. other ngos were not initially important stake- holders as the programme was focused on sainte rita, where many people knew about dcam bethesda. however, they became key stakeholders in the wider dissemination in the rest of cotonou and more widely in benin. as well as dcam, the ministry of environment had a leading role in the dissemination process for scaling up the programme beyond sainte rita. together they organized workshops and seminars and produced about different documents and broadcasts about the programme. these, to- gether with ngo networking, were the principal ways for dissemination of the programme in order to scale-up to the rest of cotonou and more widely in benin. other dissemination pathways also contributed to wider dissemination of the programme. these included the actions of former interns, students and employees who worked with dcam and then set up similar operations in their own areas; awards and competitions, for example, for young people who had made the largest contributions to environmental im- provement; and the consultancy service that dcam has pro- vided on community and infrastructure development. a particularly visible initiative of dcam was green planting along main roads and around prominent buildings in cotonou. the compost used in the planters was produced from organic waste through the programme. what were the beneits/ impacts of the project? bethesda has grown remarkably in only years of existence from quite a modest operation in based in the eight neighborhoods in the area of sainte rita in cotonou, to a pro- gramme covering environmental improvement, livelihood and income strengthening, and services and infrastructure provision in many cities and larger towns throughout cotonou. a particular strength of the programme was the way in which dcam was able to combine various sources of revenue to produce a process that now covers all of its costs, but is still affordable to many of the residents and can support waste col- lectors and the workers and operations at the recycling centre. more than per cent of the households in two neighbor- hoods in sainte rita are pre-sorting their waste and having it collected through the operation. donor and government fund- ing is now only being used to further develop and extend the programme and not to cover existing operations. through the efforts of dcam, the ministry of environment, ngos and other stakeholders, locally-organized waste management is now being carried out in parts of the cities and towns of porto- novo, parakou, kandi, come and aplahoue. in addition, prape has assisted other organizations elsewhere in benin and in togo and congo to set up similar operations. the most successful examples have been in cotonou and kandi. in cotonou, the recycling centre miles from the city has been set up and extended with donor support. it handles waste from neighborhoods in the city. the waste collection operation in cotonou receives revenues of about us$ , annually from households. to reduce costs of the operation, residents have been informed about reducing the amount of unsuitable waste they send for recycling or landill. the operation in kandi has been particularly successful, where a recy- cling centre has been set up close to the town and only per cent of the waste from participating households is sent for land illing. a loans and savings operation that was started in a modest way in to support small-scale entrepreneurs in waste activities has grown very impressively. this has become a community bank with an annual turnover of about us$ million and makes over us$ million of loans to about , recipients per year. it operates in the three big- gest cities in benin. the bank operates without subsidy. dcam has initiated a process in community-based waste management that has been scaled-up successfully throughout the city of cotonou, other towns and cities in benin and in a small number of other countries in africa: – the establishment and providing of low cost health cares (in all specialties) for poor people through the bethesda hospital in cotonou. the government has recognized bethesda as an aids treatment centre. – the development of a self-funded waste collection pro- gram in the city of cotonou and in fourteen other cities creating jobs in the country. – creation of a credit and savings organization called “programme d’epargne crédit à base communautaire (pebco)” that reaches , people with a loan port- folio valued at us$ million and a repayment rate of %. the turnover amounts of us$ million. – establishment of the cotonou-based agriplas centers and to recycle plastic and paper for buyers from nigeria. – the economic and inancial development of this social enterprise from a yearly budget of us$ , in , to a current budget of us$ , , . – assisting the government-coordinating agency (serhau) in promoting community participation and community-based development. this programme, set up by the government and the world bank, is being implemented in the three largest cities of benin. for three years prape has been helping to: – establish neighborhood association committees, – develop the objectives and plan for each of them, – build capacity on managerial skills of the committees, – assist in community infrastructure building (schools, health centres, youth centres, markets, and public latrines) and prepare the community to manage them effectively. – the community health insurance in cotonou is again an evidence of the skill of bethesda to obtain results at community level. – bethesda has a training program for community health providers in order to help people in hard areas to r. edou: health and environment project in benin www.factsreports.org administer the basic care for people with malaria and other diseases. – bethesda has implemented health care at the commu- nity level with advanced strategy which consists of vaccination door to door within the community. – bethesda has been implementing a decentralized and waste management project in eight municipalities in benin by building their capacity to develop a good pro- gram for sanitation issues in their area. the work of bethesda is beginning to be widely recog- nized. in , the programme made the shortlist for the dubai international award for best practices - best practices and local leadership programme. in the program won the dubai international award for best practice. bethesda has also won other international awards: – the japanese award for most innovative development in january by the global development network; – the best ngo in africa award in by the african social award. in addition, bethesda: – has hosted the international community with visits by the american ambassador to benin in , the german ambassador to benin in , a member of the board of directors of the world bank in september , and the vice president of the world bank for africa in october . – is directed to public beneit organization by the govern- ment of benin by presidential decree - in may . how could the project be better improved? even if the project has been very successful, it is also impor- tant to note some weaknesses that need to be addressed. the vision at the beginning was to take action in order to solve problems within the communities because people were fac- ing hard situations. the study or research that will help to follow up the impact regarding basic data on the communities was absent. the research work is less developed and the pro- gram did not have the tool that would help to make it feasible to publish results from the work. many indings were not pointed out through research actions; this explains why few publications have resulted from the work at bethesda. another challenge is communication, which is still very poor so many donors that may know bethesda’s experience are not aware about the proved capacities of bethesda to al- leviate poverty with its integrated approach. bethesda is able to help in other countries because the experience itself is very strong and can help to reduce poverty. conclusions the integrated health care program in benin progressed over the years as community needs appeared and is based on a participatory problem-solving model. therefore, the design has been a dynamic system that integrates new possibilities to empower the community to face problems and improve its welfare. the initiative, which began in with a commu- nity-based approach, led us to the conclusion that to address the health problems in developing countries such as benin, we have to look at the health care system as a whole in response to the needs of the community. the four-component program approach is the one that bethesda is now carrying out to address the needs of the community. the methods include: . work on real problems which touch many people in the community and help them to think together about them; . do the work progressively with respect to the different problems by making each step sustainable and basing everything on a participatory approach; . develop a good partnership among the stakeholders; mainly the state, the local government, the population and the civil society; . be aware that there are inancial resources in the com- munity despite its poverty. these resources, put together, could raise a mountain; . build conidence among the different stakeholders. for the future, bethesda needs to develop a good partner- ship with a research program in order to better assess the im- pacts of its integrated approach and communicate them to a wider outside community. a .. short report genomic structure of the gene for the sh and pleckstrin homology domain-containing protein grb and evaluation of its role in hirschsprung disease misha angrist , stacey bolk , kimberly bentley , sudha nallasamy , marc k halushka and aravinda chakravarti , department of genetics and center for human genetics, case western reserve university and university hospitals of cleveland, cleveland, ohio, - , usa hirschsprung disease (hscr), or congenital aganglionic megacolon, is the most frequent cause of congenital bowel obstruction. germline mutations in the ret receptor tyrosine kinase have been shown to cause hscr. mice that carry null alleles for ret or for its ligand, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (gdnf), both exhibit complete intestinal aganglionosis and renal defects. recently, the src homology (sh ) domain-containing protein grb has been shown to interact with ret in vitro and in vivo, early in development. we have con®rmed the map location of grb on human chromosome , isolated human bacs containing the gene, elucidated its genomic structure, isolated a highly polymorphic microsatellite marker adjacent to exon and scanned the gene for mutations in a large panel of hscr patients. no evidence of linkage was detected in hscr kindreds and no mutations were found in patients. these data suggest that while grb may be important for signal transduction in developing embryos, it does not play an obvious role in hscr. keywords: hirschsprung disease; grb ; grb-ir; ret receptor tyrosine kinase; mutation detection; genomic structure; mapping congenital aganglionic megacolon, commonly known as hirschsprung disease (hscr), is associated with a lack of intrinsic ganglion cells in the myenteric and submucosal plexuses along variable lengths of the gastrointestinal tract (holschneider, ). enteric ganglion cells are derived primarily from the vagal neural crest. thus, hscr, like other disorders whose a�ected tissues are of neural crest origin, is best characterized as a neurocristopathy, albeit one that frequently co-occurs with additional phenotypes a�ecting neural crest-derived tissues (bolande, ; martucciello, ). hscr is relatively common, with an incidence of approximately in live births (spouge and baird, ). evidence that hscr susceptibility has a large genetic component has come from pedigrees segregat- ing hscr as an incompletely penetrant autosomal dominant trait and formal segregation analysis supporting the hypothesis of dominant inheritance in at least % of cases, with the remainder of cases explainable by recessive or multigenic inheritance (badner et al., ; bodian and carter, ). subsequently, genetic mapping of hscr to the pericentromeric region of chromosome in a subset of families (angrist et al., ; lyonnet et al., , and to chromosome q in a large mennonite kindred (pu�enberger et al., a) was reported. in , mutations in hscr patients were described in several genes, most notably in the ret receptor tyrosine kinase (edrey et al., ; romeo et al., ) and in the g-protein coupled endothelin-b receptor (ednrb; pu�enberger et al., a). mutations have since been reported in ednrb's physiological ligand, endothelin (hofstra et al., ; kusafuka et al., , . mouse knockout phenotypes for these genes, and for ret's ligand gdnf, support roles for them in the development of the enteric nervous system (jing et al., ; moore et al., ; sanchez et al., ; schuchardt et al., ), as mice carrying null alleles in each case exhibit intestinal aganglionosis. however, given the high likelihood that mutations in ret and the endothelins account for no more than % of all cases of hscr (attie et al., ; chakravarti, ; seri et al., ), substantial additional genetic factors remain to be discovered. the importance of ret in the development of neural crest derivatives, and hscr in particular, suggested that downstream components of the ret signal transduction pathway might also predispose to hscr susceptibility. recently, the sh domain- containing protein grb (ooi et al., ) was found to be a constituent of this pathway. using mouse ret as bait in a yeast two-hybrid assay, pandey et al. ( ) isolated grb as prey from an embryonic day . expression library. in vitro binding studies and co- immunoprecipitation experiments con®rmed these results. among other prey, grb was also obtained in a ret two-hybrid screen by another group (durick et al., ). using the cytoplasmic domain of human ret as bait, we conducted another two-hybrid screen of a mouse embryonic day cdna library. among the positives selected for signal strength in the b-galactosidase assay was a mouse cdna correspond- ing to the sh and pleckstrin homology domains of grb (angrist, ). thus, in several independent two-hybrid screens of early embryonic libraries, the sh domain of grb was found to interact with the intracellular domain of ret. correspondence: a chakravarti received april ; revised june ; accepted june oncogene ( ) , ± ã stockton press all rights reserved ± / $ . http://www.stockton-press.co.uk/onc grb was also viewed by us as a candidate for hscr susceptibility for reasons other than its association with ret. its expression in the early embryo is consistent with a role in enteric nervous system development (angrist, ; okamoto and ueta, ; pandey et al., ; webster, ). in addition to an sh domain at its carboxy terminus, grb also contains a pleckstrin homology (ph) domain of * amino acids (margolis, ; ooi et al., ). ph domains have been implicated in cellular signaling and cytoskeletal organization, especially in those molecules associated with cell membranes (shaw, ). the sequence that codes for the ph domain that is present in the so-called hgrb-irb/grb and hgrb /ir-sv isoforms of grb (frantz et al., ; o'neill et al., ) is part of a larger region in the coding sequence that bears striking identity to the c. elegans cosmid f e . and the gene it contains, mig- . mig- is critical for migration of several groups of neurons. what these neurons have in common is that, like presumptive enteric neurons in the mammal, they all undergo long-range migrations along the antero-posterior axis. additionally, mutant mig- animals all have shortened posterior excretory canals. manser and wood (manser et al., ; manser and wood, ) have suggested that the pleiotropic nature of this mutation may arise as the result of a defect in a component of the basal lamina that is critical for both canal outgrowth and neuronal migration. thus, given the failure of excretory cell migration and the presence of non-cell autonomous defects, pleiotropy, incomplete penetrance as well as the potential involvement of the extracellular matrix, it is clear that mig- mutant and hscr phenotypes share several salient genetic features. in order to assess grb 's role in hscr and further characterize the gene, we have con®rmed its map location, isolated bacterial arti®cial chromosomes (bacs) containing human genomic grb sequence, determined its intron-exon boundaries, and identi®ed a highly polymorphic microsatellite in intron . we have also screened a panel of hscr patients and families for linkage to chromosome p by genotyping microsatellite polymorphisms and for mutations in grb by nucleotide sequencing. no evidence of linkage was observed and no mutations were detected in hscr patients. initially, grb was mapped to human chromo- some by somatic cell hybrid mapping. using unique primers from the grb -derived expressed sequence tag (est) c- kf (genbank accession no. z ), a bp product was pcr-ampli®ed essentially as described (angrist et al., a; annealing temperature). primers used were: c kf .f: '-gagaggtgcttggaagaccat- ' and cik- f .r: '-agaactcgtattttgcgtaat- '. chro- mosomal mapping was accomplished by pcr genotyp- ing against the national institute of general medical sciences (nigms) human rodent somatic cell hybrid mapping panel (coriell institute for medical research, camden, nj, usa. regional chromosomal localization was performed using the stanford g radiation hybrid mapping panel as dna template, as previously described (angrist et al., b). both somatic cell hybrid and radiation hybrid mapping experiments yielded a single, unambiguous band. data were submitted to the stanford rh web server (http:// www-shgc.stanford.edu/rhserver /rhserver_form.html) for map analysis. rh mapping re®ned the gene's position to within . centirays (& kb) of d s and . centirays (& kb) of d s by radiation hybrid mapping. the best location is depicted in figure . based on a recent integrated physical and genetic map of human chromosome (bou�ard et al., ), the cytogenetic location of grb can be deduced to be p . ± p . this map placement is in close agreement with other recently reported ¯uorescence in situ hybridization and radia- tion hybrid mapping data from two independent groups (dong et al., ; jerome et al., ). genomic dna containing grb was obtained by screening a bac library with a fragment derived from the cdna clone obtained in an earlier two-hybrid screen (angrist, ) and that most closely resembled the sequence of human grb-ir (liu and roth, ). a bp spei fragment (nucleotides ± ) derived from this clone was excised from a two-hybrid system prey vector (pgad , a gift from dr stanley fields, university of washington, seattle, wa), cleaned using the wizard dna clean-up system (promega, madison, wi, usa) and used to probe the research genetics (huntsville, al) bacterial arti®cial chromosome (bac) library ®lters. hybridi- zations, isolation of bac dna and manual sequen- cing were performed as described (angrist et al. ). the gene was found to contain at least exons (figure , table ). exon and approximate intron sizes are listed in table . the genomic boundaries of human grb are estimated to encompass at least kb. a potentially polymorphic dinucleotide repeat ([tg] taa[ga] g[tg] ) was detected bp up- stream of the ' end of exon . we ampli®ed this sequence using radioactively end-labeled primer in ceph control individuals and hscr patients and their families. primers used were: grbircar.f : '- gtcttggt-gcttgcctggtgtg- ' and grbir- car.r : '-ggctgtcacggaggagaaaaag- '. ampli®cation conditions were as described (puffen- berger et al., b), except the annealing temperature was c and the mg + concentration was . mm. allele sizes and frequencies of the microsatellite marker, designated grb -can, are listed in table , with a heterozygosity of . determined empirically in ceph control individuals. when this marker was tested for linkage in hscr families and sib pairs, no evidence of linkage or increased allele sharing among a�ected individuals was detected. in order to assess allele sharing among a�ecteds, we utilized the nonparametric linkage (npl) test, as implemented in the program genehunter (kruglyak et al., ). this analysis yielded npl z scores of . (p= . ) for nine large kindreds, . (p= . ) for sib pairs, and . (p= . ) for all families segregating hscr combined. additionally, we obtained maximum two-point parametric lod scores for hscr versus grb -can of . for nine large families, . for sib pairs, and . for the combined family data. parametric analyses assumed a rare autosomal dominant gene (p= . ) and sex-dependent reduced penetrance in males ( %) and females ( %), as described in angrist et al. ( ). grb structure and analysis in hirschsprung disease m angrist et al after obtaining informed consent, a panel of + biopsy-proven hscr patients was screened for mutations in grb . patients were chosen without regard to segment length or accompanying pheno- types; the panel used here closely resembled that used in our previous non-mennonite hscr studies (angrist a, ) and represented the broad spectrum of segment length and associated manifesta- tions of neural crest disorders. using the intron-exon boundary information obtained from direct bac figure (top) genetic map of human chromosome p . -p . horizontal bar indicates most likely location of grb based on radiation hybrid mapping; marker locations are from dib et al. ( ). (bottom) schematic representation of grb exons. the relative size of each exon is indicated by the size of its box; intronic sequence is not represented. below the exons, the corresponding protein domains are depicted. `exon a' is presumed to exist ' of exon based on reports of another grb /grb-ir/hgrb g isoform (frantz et al., ; o'neill et al., ). the top and bottom portions of the ®gure are not drawn to the same scale table human grb genomic structure exon size (bp) position in cdna a (nt) intron size (kb) splice acceptor splice donor a b ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± * . * . * . * . * . * . * . . * . * . * . * . * . * . * . ± ' utr ttttttttaggacaaggtg ttctgtgcagaggatgatg tgccttccaggcgccttca tgtgttgcaggatgttaaa gcccctgcagagagaggtg attttcttagaatttcttc tcttcaacagaattttctg gttgtcacaggaacccaga cctcctgtagccaaacaaa tcctctccagtatggaatg tccttttcaggccagtgtc tcttttgcagaagcgaagc ccccccacagtgattcaca ccttccccaggctttttct gtctctccagtgcgaggac tactaccaggtatgggcga atcaccagcgtaaggaatg cgctgtcaggtaggtccag gcaaagcaggtgagtgtgc taggattaggtagggaacc aatcccatggtgagtctta cttttgcaggtactgggcc acttcaaaggtgagcttta tgcataaaggtacccacga ctcctcaaggtatgtgaca acgccagtggtaagtaaag ccctggagggtaaggcccc taagtacaggtaaacaggg cgtggatgggtaaggaacc atcttacctgtaagtattg ' utr a cdna sequence from liu and roth ( ). b position based on additional grb splice variants reported by others (frantz et al., ). grb structure and analysis in hirschsprung disease m angrist et al sequencing, primers were designed to pcr amplify the exons of human grb (table ). pcr ampli®cation and sequencing were carried out as described (angrist et al., ). beyond the micro- satellite marker, several sequence variants were found in grb in patients (table ). all were silent changes, none of which are expected to disrupt splicing or otherwise interfere with proper grb function, although this cannot be demonstrated conclusively in the absence of functional studies. interestingly, two of the three intronic variants altered two closely positioned but non-consecutive nucleotides (table ), suggesting that grb might be undergoing gene conversion. we consider this to be a reasonable hypothesis, given that these sequence changes reside outside canonical motifs necessary for proper splicing (senapathy et al., ) and that there are at least three other extant genes in the genome closely related to grb (daly et al., ; margolis, ). as reported here, grb was found to span a genomic region of * kb and to include at least exons (figure ). these exons encompass all published grb splice variants and include both the unique n- terminus of hgrb-ir and the full-length ph domain of hgrb-irb (also called grb-irph and hgrb /ir- sv ; frantz et al., ; liu and roth, , ; o'neill et al., ) each intron-exon boundary listed table allele sizes and frequencies for microsatellite marker grb -can in unrelated individuals allele size (bp) frequency . . . . . . . . . . . table primers used for genomic ampli®cation of human grb exons exon exon size (bp) product size (bp) annealing temperature ( f) forward primer ( '® ') distance to ' end of exon (bp) reverse primer ( '® ') distance from ' end of exon (bp) a +dmso +dmso ggcttggcttctcacagtctg ttctgctgcggtcctgttttt cctgatcaccaagatgtaca gtgtaaggctgggtcat tttcttgaaagcccgaagtt taccatgaatttcccacctgt ctttgqagctaaccttttacg gctgataacatgtctgcttta ttgcctttgctgtgcttgag ttctgactccctgtgtgaaca tgctgtggcgtttgtcac ctgcggcctttccttttc gtctgctgtcctcggtgctaa ggccagagtgcaccacacaaag acttaaatgccaaagcactgc cgttctgttccctgaggtggc to atg atctatggctggtggcgacat caagctagaactgggagtgt gaggcctggacctacctg acttcccgcccttcttcc aggtgccaatcctgttctga tgatactatgaaaacccaagt caagaggatttctattctgaa attagggctggtggtggtagc agtctcctgtgggctgctgag ctgccagaatagacatcaagt tgaagctgaaaaggcact ggctaccaccttgagggt ggggtgctgtttgattttctt ccccagcacaataaaaccttag gaatgaaaccagaaaacaaac ctccggttcttgttcctaagc to tga table polymorphisms detected in human grb grb intron/ nucleotide amino acid enzyme site hscr patients controls exon change change domain change +/+ +/ ± ± / ± +/+ +/± ± / ± w (p) intron ata?gtc bp ' of exon unique to grb-ir taii . ( . ) exon ccg?cca p p unique to gbr-ir avai styi . ( . ) exon tac?tat y y gm ± . ( . ) exon ccc?cca p p gm styi . ( . ) intron g?a bp ' of exon gm hphi plei, hinfi . ( . ) intron gtggg? atgga bp ' of exon gm ± . ( . ) gm=grb and mig (see text). `+' refers to previously published alleles in grb cdna (frantz et al., ; liu and roth, ; o'neill et al., ), `±' refers to alleles not previously described grb structure and analysis in hirschsprung disease m angrist et al is described in table and contains the gt-ag consensus sequences for eukaryotic donor and acceptor splice sites (senapathy et al., ). several factors might explain why grb was not found to predispose to hscr in our study. first, although there is little doubt that grb and ret interact in the mouse, this may not be the case in the human. also, it is not clear that this interaction is essential in vivo; in the absence of targeted grb mutations in mice, it is di�cult to gauge whether grb is truly unique in its function, or is merely a redundant member of a large family of sh adapter proteins. closely-related family members grb and grb also contain proline-rich, gm, ph and sh domains. moreover, ret appears to be one of several signaling molecules that exhibits high a�nity for grb . both the insulin receptor (ir) and the type i insulin-like growth factor receptor (igf-ir) have been shown to interact directly with grb (reviewed in (morrione et al., ). also, recent reports have shown that human grb isoforms are di�erentially expressed in insulin target cells such as skeletal muscle, liver and adipocytes (dong et al., ). thus, grb may be more important in mediating insulin signaling than in enteric neurogenesis. lastly, although we were able to screen all of the grb /grb-ir exons in patients and controls, we did not screen the introns or the upstream and downstream untranslated sequences. in addition, given that exon a was found to reside in intron , it is not unlikely that additional exons may exist within other introns. indeed, there are now four known isoforms in the human (dong et al., ). nevertheless, linkage analysis of hscr families using a highly polymorphic microsatellite marker within the gene suggests that grb mutations cannot account for a substantial fraction of familial hscr. to date, all reported hscr susceptibility genes are members of the ret signaling pathway (ret, gdnf), the g protein-coupled receptor (gpcr) endothelin-b pathway (ednrb, edn ), or the sry-like hmg-box family of transcription factors (sox ; pingault et al., ; southard-smith et al., ). we believe that the presence of both sh and ph domains in the grb family of proteins suggest a possible model for uniting the ret and gpcr pathways. there is now evidence that human grb is a common target for kinases existing in both the map kinase and phosphatidylinositol - kinase signal transduction pathways (dong et al., ). these data, as well as the importance of sh domains in rtk signaling and ph domains' possible role in g protein-coupled receptor-mediated signaling, suggest that grb family members might serve as a conduit for transducing extracellular neuroenteric signals to the nucleus and perhaps, sox or other related transcription factors therein. acknowledgements we are extremely grateful to the families who make all of our studies possible, to dr akhilesh pandey for reagents and helpful discussion, and to nydia bringht-twumasi for expert technical assistance. this research was partially supported by a grant from the national institutes of child health and development, national institutes of health (hd- ). references angrist m. ( ). identi®cation of hirschsprung disease susceptibility genes. doctoral dissertation. case western reserve university, cleveland, ohio. angrist m, kau�man e, slaugenhaupt sa, matise tc, pu�enberger eg, bolk s, washington ss, lipson a, cass dt, rayna t, weeks de, sieber w and chakravarti a. ( ). nature genet., , ± . angrist m, bolk s, thiel b, pu�enberger eg, hofstra rm, buys chcm, cass dt and chakravarti a. ( a). hum. mol. genet., , ± . angrist m, wells de, chakravarti a and pandey a. ( b). genomics, , ± . angrist m, bolk s, halushka m, lapchak pl and chakravarti a. ( ). nature genet., , ± . angrist m, jing s, bolk s, bentley k, nallasamy s, halushka m, fox gm and chakravarti a. ( ). genomics, , ± . attie t, pelet a, edery p, eng c, mulligan lm, amiel j, boutrand l, beldjord c, nihoul fekete c, munnich a, ponder baj and lyonnet s. ( ). hum. mol. genet., , ± . badner ja, sieber wk, garver kl and chakravarti a. ( ). am. j. hum. genet., , ± . bodian m and carter co. ( ). ann. hum. genet., , ± . bolande rp. ( ). pediatr. pathol. lab. med., , ± . bou�ard gg, idol jr, braden vv, iyer lm, cunningham af, weintraub la, touchman jw, mohr-tidwell rm, peluso dc, fulton rs, ueltzen ms, weissenbach j, magness cl and green ed. ( ). genome res., , ± . chakravarti a. ( ). hum. mol. genet., , ± . daly rj, sanderson gm, james pw and sutherland rl. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . dib c, faure s, fizames c, samson d, drouot n, vignal a, millasseau p, marc s, hazan j, seboun e, lathrop m, gyapay g, morissette j and weissenbach j. ( ). nature, , ± . dong lq, du h, porter sg, kolakowski lf, lee av, mandarino j, fan j, yee d and liu f. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . durick k, wu r-y, gill gn and taylor ss. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm, pelet a, dow e, abel l, holder s, nohoul fekete c, ponder ba and munnich a. ( ). nature, , ± . frantz jd, giorgetti-peraldi s, ottinger ea and shoelson se. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . hofstra rmw, osinga j, tan-sindhunata g, wu y, kamsteeg e-j, stulp rp, van ravenswaaij-arts c, majoor-krakauer d, angrist m, chakravarti a, meijers c and buys chcm. ( ). nature genetics, , ± . holschneider am. (ed). ( ). hirschsprung's disease. thieme-stratton: new york. jerome ca, scherer sw, tsui lc, gietz rd and triggs- raine b. ( ). genomics, , ± . jing s, wen d, yu y, holst pl, luo y, fang m, tamir r, antonio l, hu z, cupples r, louis jc, hu s, altrock bw and fox gm. ( ). cell, , ± . kruglyak l, daly mj, reeve-daly mp and lander es. ( ). am. j. hum. genet., , ± . kusafuka t, wang y and puri p. ( ). hum. mol. genet., , ± . grb structure and analysis in hirschsprung disease m angrist et al kusafuka t, wang y and puri p. ( ). journal of pediatric surgery, , ± . liu f and roth ra. ( ). proc. natl. acad. sci. usa, , ± . liu f and roth ra. ( ). mol. cell. biochem., , ± . lyonnet s, bolino a, pelet a, abel l, nihoul-fekete c, briard ml, mok siu v, kaariainen h, martucciello g, lerone m, puliti a, luo y, weissenbach j, devoto m, munnich a and romeo g. ( ). nature genet., , ± . manser j, roonprapunt c and margolis b. ( ). dev. biol., , ± . manser j and wood wb. ( ). dev. genet., , ± . margolis b. ( ). prog. biophys. mol. biol., , ± . martucciello g. ( ). pediatr. surg. int., , ± . moore mw, klein rd, farias i, sauer h, armanini m, phillips h, reichardt lf, ryan am, carver-moore k and rosenthal a. ( ). nature, , ± . morrione a, valentinis b, resnico� m, xu s and baserga r. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . o'neill tj, rose dw, pillay ts, hotta k, olefsky jm and gustafson tm. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . okamoto e and ueta t. ( ). j. ped. surg., , ± . ooi j, yajnik y, immanuel d, gordon m, moskow jj, buchberg am and margolis b. ( ). oncogene, , ± . pandey a, duan h, difiore pp and dixit vm. ( ). j. biol. chem., , ± . pingault v, bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, goerich de, prehu m-o, puliti a, herbarth b, hermans-borgmeyer i, leguis e, matthijs g, amiel j, lyonnet s, ceccherini i, romeo g, clayton smith j, read ap, wegner m and goossens m. ( ). nature genet., , ± . pu�enberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewitt d, yanagisawa m and chakravarti a. ( a). cell, , ± . pu�enberger eg, kau�man er, bolk s, matise tc, washington ss, angrist m, weissenbach j, garver kl, mascari m, ladda r, slaugenhaupt sa and chakravarti a. ( b). hum. mol. genet., , ± . romeo g, ronchetto p, luo y, barone v, seri m, ceccherini i, pasini b, bocciardi r, lerone m, kaarianen h and martucciello g. ( ). nature, , ± . sanchez m, silos-santiago i, frisen j, he b, lira s and barbacid m. ( ). nature, , ± . schuchardt a, d'agati v, larsson blomberg l, costantini f and pachnis v. ( ). nature, , ± . senapathy p, shapiro mb and harris nl. ( ). methods enzymol., , ± . seri m, yin l, barone v, bolino a, celli i, bocciardi r, pasini b, ceccherini i, lerone m, kristo�ersson u, larsson lt, casasa jm, cass dt, abramowicz mj, vanderwinden jm, kravcenkiene i, baric i, silengo m, martucciello g and romeo g. ( ). hum. mutation, , ± . shaw g. ( ). bioessays, , ± . southard-smith em, kos l and pavan wj. ( ). nature genet., , ± . spouge d and baird pa. ( ). teratology, , ± . webster w. ( ). j. embyol. exp. morphol., , ± . grb structure and analysis in hirschsprung disease m angrist et al 	genomic structure of the gene for the sh and pleckstrin homology
domain-containing protein grb and evaluation of its role in
hirschsprung disease 	acknowledgements 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ american archivist / vol. , no. / summer the international scene ronald j. plavchan, editor we are indebted to the following correspondents: australia: r.g. neale; austria: josef riegler; bahamas/caribbean: d. gail saunders; brazil: maria amelia gomes leite; china: sun fangjiu; federal republic of germany: wolfram werner; finland: eljas orrman; france: michel duchein; german democratic republic: horst schetelich; england & wales: bruce jackson; india/swarbica: n.h. kulkarnee; israel: haya wolovsky; italy: donato tamble; malawi/east and central africa: steve m. mwiyeriwa; malaysia/sarbica: zakiah hanum nor; mexico: juan claudio mayer guala; netherlands: t.p. huijs; new zealand: judith s. hor- nabrook; nigeria/west africa: j.c. enwere; organization of american states: celso rodriguez; peru/ala: cesar gutierrez munoz; poland: jerzy szczepanski; scotland: andrew m. jackson; senegal/west africa: m. saliou mbaye; solomon island/oceania: r.g.a. chesterman; south africa: maryna fraser; spain: margarita vazquez de parga; vatican city: claudio de dominicis; and zimbabwe: r.g.s. douglas. argentina head of national archives becomes new ala president. cesar a. garcia belsunce, director general of the ar- chivo general de la nacion, was elected on november by the general assembly of the asociacion latino- americana de archivos (ala) to suc- ceed guillermo durand florez, director of the archivo general de la nacion (peru), who has served as president of ala since . under ala bylaws, the presidency is a three-year term with no reelection. with the ascension of an argentinean to the presidency, the ala executive secretariat has moved from lima, peru to buenos aires, argentina. miguel angel cannone of the archivo general de la nacion is the new executive secretary, succeeding cesar gutierrez munoz, who has returned to an archival position at the universidad catolica in lima. publication of nota informativa, the information newsletter started by gutierrez munoz in august and issued periodically by the executive secretariat, has been suspended and no decision has yet been made about con- tinuing the program. the new address of the ala executive secretariat is ar- chivo general de la nacion, leandro n. alem , buenos aires, argen- tina. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist / summer bolivia proceedings of the second meeting of bolivian archivists published. the cen- tro pedagogico y cultural de portales, cochabamba, has published the pro- ceedings of the second meeting on boli- vian archives that was held on - july in cochabamba. it includes the program; a list of participants; the in- augural address of gunnar mendoza, director of the archivo nacional de bolivia; the various proposals presented; and the final resolutions. canada third anniversary of the maison des archives. three years ago, on june , the maison des archives officially opened in the pavilion casault of laval university at sainte-foy, a suburb of quebec city. it not only became the new home of the archives nationales du quebec (anq) but proved the feasibility of converting older existing buildings in- to modern archival repositories. the story of the conversion process is in- teresting and filled with valuable lessons for archivists and government officials who seek additional archives space but are hampered by limited financial re- sources. from both an architectural and archival standpoint, the maison des ar- chives is a marvel. the building, constructed in and called the grand seminaire, was originally designed by ernest cormier to serve as a seminary for the catholic diocese of quebec. it served in this capacity for the next twenty years, although by the building was no longer being used for the training of young men to the priesthood, as enroll- ment had declined. in laval university acquired the property and renamed the building the pavilion casault. at about the same time the anq moved to the campus, and the decision was made to transform the ma- jor portion of the university chapel into an archives. the major challenge was how to transform the existing structure into the specialized needs of a modern archival repository without sacrificing the aesthetic and impressive architec- tural character (modern gothic) of the original structure and within reasonable cost estimates. to accomplish this, it was necessary to undertake major in- terior alterations but yet not destroy the significant interior architectural ele- ments of the former seminary chapel. within the former chapel area, an eight-story structure was built to house the various archives services. four levels serve as storage areas for documents and microfilm, two levels contain research rooms and a library, one level is a recep- tion area for researchers and exhibi- coupe longitudinale, apres intervention. la section occupee par la maison des archives est indiquee en gris. pavilion casault niveau: coupe apres les travaux maison des archives . magasins . hall . accueil . salle d'exposition unlversite laval a. salle de cours b. ecole de musique . administration . salle des chercheurs et bibliotheque . cartes et plans et audio-visuel c. £cole des arts visuets d. futur centre museographique . tri et classement . atelier de restauration et de reliure i. ascenseur public e. studio d'essais f. geodesie ii. ascenseur personnel et archives g. mecanique d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene tions, and one level houses administra- tive offices and a preservation/restora- tion laboratory. the unique construc- tion quadrupled the amount of floor space available for archival use. total cost of the conversion project was $ million, or half the estimated cost to construct a new facility of the same dimensions. for the province's tax- payers, it was a bargain. another resulting benefit has been the preserva- tion of a building with considerable ar- chitectural appeal that might otherwise have been destroyed with the demise of its original function. the maison des archives is indeed a tribute to the in- genuity and practicality of university of- ficials and members of the provincial government's ministry of public works and supplies. other portions of the former grand seminaire are used by the university to house its schools of music, visual arts, and journalism; department of geodesy; museographic center; and classrooms and special testing facilities. for further information about the con- version or anq, write to archives na- tionales du quebec, cp , sainte- foy, quebec g v n canada. mennonidsche rundschau microfilmed. the oldest mennonite periodical pub- lished continuously under one name, mennonitische rundschau ( - ), is now available on microfilm through university microfilms of ann arbor, michigan. the coordination of the proj- ect, which required almost two years, has been under ken reddig, archivist at the center for mennonite brethren studies in winnipeg, manitoba. the principal part of the project, which also proved to be the most difficult, was to locate and collate all existing copies of the rundschau. the collection is in- complete, because reddig has been unable to locate copies of twenty-seven separate issues, as well as the entire year of , even though he made every ef- fort to locate the missing copies in both north america and europe. it was decided to proceed with the microfilm- ing project with the understanding that, if additional copies eventually are located, these will be added to the microfilm collection. mhso genealogy committee formed. the genealogy committee of the men- nonite historical society of ontario (mhso) held its first meeting at conrad grebel college, waterloo, on november . the aim of the commit- tee is to record information found on tombstones, set up a filing system, pro- mote the collecting of family photo- graphs, and assist those individuals who are working on their own family histories. federal republic of germany tenth international congress on ar- chives preparations. planning for the tenth international congress on ar- chives scheduled to be held in bonn - september is well under way. the beethovenhalle has been chosen as the site of the congress, and other ica bodies will hold meetings at nearby bonn university. the theme for the international meeting of archivists is "the challenge to archives: growing r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and limited resources." a special session is also planned for the exchange of archival materials through reprography. in addi- tion to the regular schedule of meetings and sessions, there will be planned ex- cursions to aachen, cologne, and trier. on september, delegates to the con- gress will have the opportunity to tour the new construction of the bundes- archiv in koblenz. saa is planning to sponsor a study tour to western europe that will include the congress. further information about d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist / summer the study tour will appear in forthcom- ing issues of the saa newsletter. for more information about the congress or accommodations, write to klaus olden- hage, ica secretariat, postfach , d- koblenz , federal republic of germany. france new look announced for unisist newsletter. c. coudert-schklowski, editor of the unisist newsletter, has announced (vol. , no. , ) a major change in the content for subsequent issues of the newsletter. one of the stated aims for the change is to make the newsletter complementary with the unesco journal of information, science, librarianship and archives ad- ministration. consequently, articles in the newsletter will deal solely with the activities of the general information programme (pgi) division and of other unesco sectors in the information field. a c c o r d i n g to c o u d e r t - schklowski, the change will also mean that the newsletter will only be published at irregular intervals—whenever material is available. the resulting ad- vantage to its readers will be that they will receive current information. the april-june issue of the unesco journal is dedicated to ar- chives. it contains articles by frank b. evans (unesco), g.p.s.h. de silva (national archives of sri lanka), ber- nard faye (unesco), y.p. kathpalia (national archives of india), oleg a. mihailov (soviet research center for technical documentation), michael roper (british public record office), and michael cook (university of liver- pool). the journal is also available in spanish. israel major israeli institution receives ein- stein's private papers. the private papers of albert einstein ( - ) recently arrived at the jewish national and university library in jerusalem. the famous german-born physicist had bequeathed these materials to the hebrew university, j e r u s a l e m . einstein's private papers, comprising about , pages, include his writings, unpublished drafts, notes, notebooks, lecture notes, personal and scientific correspondence, touring diaries, family papers, photographs, and a variety of items suitable for exhibition. new building for central zionist ar- chives planned. in its report to the th zionist congress, , the central zionist archives revealed that the zionist executive has taken steps to im- plement its decision to construct an archives building. political events and economic problems have been responsi- ble in the past for the project's delay; but space problems have reached a critical point, affecting storage, acquisitions, and reference service. the planned new archives will be erected near binyenei ha-oomah in jerusalem. detailed archi- tectural plans have been drawn up and submitted for approval by the town planning committee. in the th zionist congress defined the status of the central zionist archives as the historical archives of the world zionist organization and the jewish agency. mexico computerized finding aids for notarial records. in august , the university computing center at the university of massachusetts, amherst, published the guide to the notarial records of the ar- chivo general de notarias of mexico city for the year . the -page finding aid was compiled by robert a. potash of the university of massachu- setts in collaboration with jan bazant and josefina z. vasquez of el colegio d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene persona nohbrada abreu abreu l u i s aba l u i s aba luis aba luis luis juan gaspa jose jose jose manue franc mar lor en: refug teres k . g . a i benit' f r . j o s jose jose juan juan katia •i a mo iako i a no iano ' i a no • i e arca rca a a b o l a f i a a a b o l a f i a abren y narin abreu eu y rodriguez eu y rodriguez burto icevedo : acevedo : y •on acosta a r i a acosta ,rdo acosta iosta clasificacion nacionrlidad protesta de libranza fiahza ehpleo fianza curador testamento testahento testahento espanol cohpravehta casa poder general subrogacion arrendam protesta oe letra cohpraventa parte hda protesta de letra protesta de letba recibo de dote arrendaniento negocio eeuu poder general declabacion testah poder especial pleitos testamento poder adhinistrar subrogacion h poteca testahento fechft hot / / / / - / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / • c i c ' sample from the guide for , general index to persons. de mexico. the significance of this volume was that it demonstrated that computers can be used to prepare com- prehensive indexes for notarial records —a first for latin america. under the pilot project, begun in , there will be three such computerized indexes for the selected years: , , and . the second guide was published in no- vember , and the third is scheduled for publication in september . prior to this project, notarial archives presented a special challenge to scholars who wished to use them in their studies on latin america. although these rec- ords contain a wealth of useful informa- tion, the nature of the records' internal arrangement and the absence of compre- hensive name and subject indexes greatly limited their use by scholars. in a group of scholars met in mexico city to discuss the problems and possible use of computers to provide a comprehensive index. from this meeting emerged the pilot project. the tinker foundation of new york provided the initial funds; and subsequent funding has been sup- plied by the organization of american states, centro de estudios historicos of el colegio de mexico, and the universi- ty of massachusetts. a team of archival assistants under the supervision of ba- zant and vasquez recorded the necessary data on specially designed forms at the archivo general de notarias and then forwarded the data to potash at amherst for processing on the universi- ty's computers. when the project is completed—upon publication of the third volume—the university will undertake to train one of the team's members at the computer center and to transfer to mexico all of the software and other documentation associated with the pilot project. it is in- tended that el colegio de mexico, ar- chivo general de notarias, or some other mexican institution will assume responsibility for continuing with the project. furthermore, it is hoped that mexico will be able thus to provide assistance to other archives in latin america in the use of computers to pre- pare finding aids of their archival hold- ings. copies of the guide may be purchased from the university computing center bookstore, a- graduate research center, university of massachusetts, amherst, ma . spain first ala general conference. at the invitation of spanish archival officials and the government, the asociacion d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist / summer latinoamericana de archivos (ala) held its first general conference in madrid on - november . this event also marked the first time ala has held such a general meeting outside of latin america. in addition to the election of a new president and govern- ing board, the general assembly ap- proved an increase in annual member- ship dues as well as a very ambitious five-year plan (plan de mediano plazo) for archival development in latin america. some of the elements of the plan for the - period envision fulfillment of the resolutions passed at the rio de janeiro meeting that related to the training of archivists, establishment of committees to prepare for the th anniversary of columbus' discovery of america, solicitation of na- tional archives to conduct nationwide celebrations of archives week begin- ning in , and the identification of nonarchival organizations in setting up archival programs. other aspects of the plan include drafting guidelines for the profession; compiling current archival legislation in latin america; establish- ing guidelines for the organization of municipal archives; expressing support for cid (centro de information docu- mental de archivos, madrid, spain), cida (centro interamericano de desar- rollo de archivos, cordoba, argentina), and centromidca (centro taller regional de restauracion y microfilm- acion de documentos para el caribe y centroamerica, santo domingo, do- minican republic); and conducting a survey of the technical facilities and budget allocations in the region. in the area of preservation, ala intends to survey the general conditions of docu- ments in latin american respositories and to ask cid to prepare preservation/ conservation standards for the region. under the five-year plan some efforts will be made to encourage the use of audiovisual materials by sponsoring a seminar on audiovisual archives and by providing adequate training for persons who work with such materials. united kingdom university establishes literary manu- scripts register. after three years of planning and fund-raising, reading uni- versity library reports that it is setting up a computerized location register to trace manuscripts and letters of british and irish writers, especially those of the th century. david sutton, formerly of warwick university library, has been appointed the senior research officer to supervise the project, which is estimated to cost over £ , . fund- ing for the project is being provided by the leverhulme trust, the british library board, the strachey trust, the arts council, the british council, the british academy, the longman group, national westminster bank, lloyds bank, barclays bank, and hewlett packard ltd. as a result of this financial backing, maintenance of the location register in the university library is assured until . in addition to the financial support, international com- puters, ltd. has promised to assist in computerizing the register. the concept of the register arose in july during a debate at a two-day sconul (standing conference of na- tional and university libraries) seminar in london on the manuscripts and let- ters of modern writers. shortly after- ward a sconul working group was formed to examine more closely the idea of a location register. between may and november a pilot project, financed by the strachey trust, was carried out by james edwards, keeper of archives and manuscripts at reading university, to determine potential problems. by march the decision was made to proceed with the establishment of a full location register at reading. for further d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene information about the register, write to h.e. bell, senior assistant registrar, university of reading, whiteknights, reading rg ah england. golden jubilee of british library's newspaper library. in the fall of the british library's newspaper library, located on colindale avenue in london, celebrated its fiftieth anniversary. over the years this library has become one of the major newspaper archives in the world increasingly committed to micro- film. the present building opened in and contained thirteen miles of shelving to accommodate , volumes. its designers boasted that there was sufficient records storage space to last fifty years before the building need- ed expansion, but this prognosis was shortsighted. since the opening the library has been expanded twice and of- ficials have introduced a microfilm pro- gram to store the current holdings of , printed volumes and , reels of microfilm. microfilming began in with the opening of a microfilm annex and has accelerated since its in- troduction. preservation and space re- quirements have not been the only reasons for pursuing a microfilm pro- gram. officials point to the benefits in the area of reference service. by microfilming the collections the library can provide microfilm duplicates or elec- trostatic copies to both local and foreign researchers. the library reports that it sends about , reels of microfilm duplicates each year to other libraries, principally those located outside of the united kingdom. draft data standard for archives list- ing. the specialist repositories group (srg) working party on methods of listing has compiled a draft data stan- dard for the manual and computerized listing of archives. participants at the cambridge in-service training course held - july practiced listing documents from their repositories ac- cording to the data standard. one major problem was the definition of prove- nance, and the working party intends to discuss this in depth at its next meeting. although srg started the working par- ty, it has hoped to attract as many members as possible from various ar- chival insititutions to ensure that the data standard is suitable for use with any type of record. the museums documen- tation association (mda) has been assisting in the preparation of the draft data standard with the aim that it would be capable of use with any computer system and compatible with interna- tional standards. copies of the draft data standard may be obtained from ruth f. vyse, assistant archivist, ox- ford university archives, bodleian library, broad street, oxford ox bg england. cambridge university conservation project. in may a conservation project was established at cambridge university library under the director- ship of f.w. ratcliff. the british library is funding the project. one of the objectives of the conservation proj- ect is to describe existing facilities for the training of people in paper conserva- tion and craft bookbinding and to assess precisely what educational or training opportunities exist at all levels in order to compile a comprehensive list of con- servation and related courses available in the united kingdom. questionnaires are being sent out to every training course known or brought to the atten- tion of the project's staff. guide to archives resources available. globe book services ltd., a member company of macmillan publishers ltd., has announced publication of british archives: a guide to archive resources in the united kingdom. this general guide to british archives has been com- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist / summer piled by janet foster, archivist with the city of london and hackney health district, and julia sheppard, archivist in the contemporary medical archives centre at the wellcome institute. it is being publicized as more comprehensive than previous guides and is fully indexed by name of institution, country and town, subject, and named collections. each of the entries provides infor- mation about major holdings, access conditions, acquisitions policy, publica- tions, historical background, finding aids, facilities, and the name, address, and telephone number of the person to contact for fuller information. for fur- ther information about this guide, write to the publisher, canada road, byfleet, surrey kt jl england. over a century of business history for your reference collection . . . annual reports major american corporations if "the business of america is business," then one way to understand the history of america is to study the history of american business. a unique and invaluable reference aid to this study is available from the micro- publishing subsidiary of pergamon press, microforms international marketing corporation (mimc). through an agreement with the baker library at harvard university, mimc has converted to microfilm more than years of american business and finan- cial history in the annual reports of major american companies. using the fortune double directory for , the baker library assembled the annual reports of the "fortune " industrials, plus those of companies from each of the "fortune " lists of top commercial banks, life insurance and diversified financial firms, and retail, transportation, and utility companies. the file has been kept up to date and is complete through . microforms are also available for the reports of individual companies or any groups of companies for complete price information and contents of the collection, write or call: p e r g a m o n p r e s s , i n c . attn: dr. edward gray fairview park, elmsford, ny / - /g/ d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .w m by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril book reeews harvey l. dyck, editor,tlze paczjist ii?zpt~lse in historical perspective (toronto: university of toronto press, ). cloth, pp. $ . harvey dyck is to be congratulated for making available of the papers presented at an international conference on "the pacifist impulse in historical perspective" convened at the university of toronto in iviay of i , a date coinciding with the release of peter brock's comprehensive three-volume history of pacifism to (university of toronto press). given the intellectual stature, reputation and longevity o f peter brock, one is hard pressed t o imagine a morc aptly dedicated festschrift on this subject; the list of contributors constitutes a veritable "who's who" in peace studies. following the editor's eloquent tribute to tlie prolonged and synergistic role played by peter brock in the scholarly discipline of peace history, tlie essays are subsumed under f o ~ ~ r broad categories: "approaches t o peace history," "christian traditions of pacifism and non-resistance,'' "gandhi and the indian tradition of non-violence," and "pacifism and peace movements in the modern world, - ." a precis provided at the beginning of each section attempts, in an unforced and generally l i e l p f ~ ~ l manner, to fit the widely 'divcrgcnt essays and approaches within each givcn subdivision into a coherent, overarcliing framework. while each of the essays was in its own way highly stimulating and often book reliens enlightening, i did have my favorites. of the three contributions subsumed under "approaches to peace history," tlie most illuminating for this reviewer was martin ceadel's "ten distinctions for peace historians." ceadel, a lecturer in politics at oxford university, demonstrates that the terms and concepts at the lieart of the peace-studies lexicon are imbued with meanings contingent upon time, place, circumstance and ideology, and are therefore understood in such varied and at times contradictory ways as to mal<e their misuse by historians an inevitability unless extreme caution is exercised. and charles chatfield, in "thinking about peace in history," wisely observes that while analytical distinctions are an important tool of academic analysis, the resulting cognitive domains can s o n i e t i n ~ e s reify to tlie point where they are incapable of either noticing o r accommodating the dynamic and coniplicated social contingencies and dilemmas underlying the theory and practice of peace peculiar to specific peoples in particular times. the eight chapters comprising the second section of the book, "clirisiian traditions of pacifism and non-resistance," focus for the most part on quaker, mennonite and brethren understanding and application of peace teaching found in the new testament. here, it was john howard yoder's study, "war as a moral problem in the early church: t h e historian's hermeneutical assumptions," that proved to be highly thought provoking and, at times, mildly disturbing, for this reader. yoder points out that since the literary base upon which the myriad conflicting views on the subject are constructed is s o slim, it follows that more attention should bc paid to thc hermeneutical assumptions undergirding thcsc vicws. hc alcrts rcadcrs to thc dangerous tendency t o draw conclusive generalizations on thc pcacc vicws of early christians, about whom we have only fragnicntary and highly sclcctivc written material. this practice, readily observable, alas! in much mcnnonitc in-house writing on the subject, including my own, illustrates thc casc with which, in yoder's words, we "hide some historians' valuc biascs under thc cover of what pretends t o be simple historical description." ( ) the four chapters comprising the book's third division, "gandhi and tlic indian peace tradition," remind tlie reader not only of gandhi's significant impact on western pacifism and indian non-violcncc, but of other powcrfi~l streams, buddhist, hindu and humanist, contributing significantly to a largcr pool of human peace thought and action. under the rubric "pacifisni and pcacc movements in the modern world, - ," the final scvcn cliaptcrs of tlic book offer vignettes into personalities and dcvclopmcnts intcrsccting with peace movements in europe, north atiicrica and russia. in addition to an index, the book also contains a clironologically arrangcd bibliography o f "boolts and articles on peace history by petcr brock." as one would expect, each o f the chapters is wcll d o c ~ ~ n i c n t c d , pointing to sources and ideas beyond the scope of the cssay itsclf. contribt~tors liavc maintained a consistently satisfactory standard o f lucidity, cogency and clarity, thus making this book a notable exception to thc i n t c l l e c t ~ ~ a l and stylistic unevenness often characterizing festscliriften. the essays are neither polemical nor controversial. but they are an intellectual feast guaranteed to deepen the reader's appreciation for the complexity of coming to grips witli that most perennially elusive of human dreams through the millennia - peace. jonathan j. bonk providence theological seminary o t t c r b ~ ~ r n e , manitoba stephen scott, introduction to old ordernr~dconsei~~ativea e r ite g r o ~ ~ p s (intercourse, pa: good boolts, ). pp. paperback. $ . u.s. for too long scholars paid little attention t o the rather uneven and confusing religious terrain of old ordcr and conservative mennonite communities in north amcrica, thc rcmaindcrs of over a cent~lry of mennonite denomination building and consolidation. recently steven nolt reminded lis that these ncglectcd mennonite groups were poised to eclipse the mennonite "mainstream" due to the non-stop old order baby boom. now stephen scott has provided us with a long overdue encyclopedic treatment of one family of old orders and conservatives: those left behind by the "old" mennonite church during two c e n t ~ ~ r i e s of conflict and transformation. these "old" mennonite splinter groups are located mainly in the eastern and midwestern united states and in ontario. scott has already written numerous books on the habits and practices o f old order groups, most of them publislied by good books, and most of them designed to interpret these conimunities for visitors, not academics. this new book, however, will be appealing to both tourists and scliolars. while it is very readable, attractively arranged, and loaded witli photographs, it is also carefi~lly written, well-docuniented and q ~ l i t e informative. moreover, tlie book includes historical and sociological data about many conservative splinter groups which are siniply not yet available anywhere else. i an especially impressed tliat scott has included information on the numerous conservative congregations tliat are ~ ~ n a f f i l i a t e d with any larger fellowsliip and whose histories and practices are normally forgotten in any systematic accounting of mennonite life. wliilc giving attention to tlie complicated dctails associated with the n i ~ ~ l t i t u d c of tlicsc distinctive mennonite groups, the author has not neglected tlie largcr picture. quite compellingly, lie tells the story of (old) mennonite tnodcrnization and a c c ~ l l t ~ l r a t i o n and of old order and conservative resistance book re~ie\vs t o these trends. while this narrative often tends to frame historical changes in (old) mennonite church polity rather simplistically as a strugglc between conservative keepers of tradition and liberal advocates of change, it docs capture quite effectively and sympathetically the old order and conservative views of changes in the mennonite church. in this sense, the book provides the beginnings of an alternative north american mennonite historical narrative, one that both supplements and demonstrates the limits of such mainstream histories as tlze mentzotzite experience in america series. following a cursory introduction t o mennonites in general, tlie book is divided into two sections; one deals with the old order groups that broke away from old mennonite conferences in the late nineteenth century and tlie other focuses on the conservative movements away from mennonite church conferenccs (including the conservative mennonite conference) in tlic mid t o late twentieth century. the book provides detailed descriptions of the conflicts that led to schisms and includes plenty of charts and tables to help the reader keep track of the churches involved and issues at stake. the most daunting task taken up by scott is categorizing and defining the post world war i conservative mennonite movements. the origins, motivations, and identities o f t h e s e groups vary a great deal and to my knowledge no one has ever sought to provide an accurate road map of these movements. scott manages to consolidate the conservatives into five different categories: the t~ltra-conservatives, tlie intermediate conservatives, thc moderate conservatives, the fundamental conservatives, and the theological conscrvativcs. while thcsc five categories provide a useful heuristic dcvicc, thcy don't adcquatcly capturc o r explain the more fundamental dividc bctwccn thc first thrcc groups who emphasize cultural uniformity on tlic onc hand and thc remaining two groups who are mainly concerned with doctrinal orthodoxy on thc othcr hand. this divide constitutes two dramatically different understandings of thc labcl "conservative." what possible definitional conncctioii thcrc rcinains (othcr than common identification with the word "conscrvativc") bctwccn contcniporary conservative mennonite conference congregations andconservative mennonite fellowship congregations remains unclear. in fact, i can imagine that somc congregations in the conservative districts o f t h e mennonite church's lancastcr conference (say juniata o r martindale) are closcr in cultural and spiritual identity t o ultra to moderate conservative groups than are many of tlic more culturally liberal congregations in tlie conservative conference. of course, almost any categorization sclicme will be unablc to account for the many exceptions and vagaries arising from " ~ ~ n c v c n dcvclopmcnt" in many of tlic cult~lral and rcligiotis trends that led congregations and fellowships to g o their own way. yet future scholarsliip will nced to give closc attcntion to tlic variety of different rhetorical functions of tlic word "conscrvativc" i n cstablisliing movements that challenged mainline mennonitism. scott has captured quite correctly the spirit and scntimcnt of tlic old order and conservative mennonite movements. in his conclusion t o the section on conservative mennonites, scott remarks: "conservative mennonites tend to be very thorough people. many of the congregations and groups meticulously and articulately address every conceivable area o f doctrine and practice in their effort t o follow the full counsel of god. their aim is complete christian consistency ( )." my own experiencc o f growing up in a conservative mennonite fellowship c l i ~ ~ r c l i confirms this statement's accuracy. there is among ~ ~ l t r a to moderate conservatives a rather profound commitment to "getting it right," a commitment tliat leads conservatives to investigate the mcaning of christian obcdience in every single aspect oflife. this commitment also leads to much disagreement and conflict, o f course, and thus t o m ~ ~ c l i schism, separation, and reorganization. ironically, conservatives' concern for being in "right fellowship" has led them toward a congregatio'nalism tliat cxcecds that of many (old) mennonite conferences. this area of church and fellowship organization among conservatives is not given much attention in scott's book, but will hopefully be taken up by other scholars more directly. in fact, onc important strength of this book lies in such previously uncharted watcrs of rcscarch to which it shows the way. finally, this book rcminds us that moves toward organizational unity are always bascd on ccrtain cxclusions and that there is always a remainder to any conscnsus. old ordcr and conscrvative mennonite groups constitute a clearly visiblc "outsidc" that haunts (and threatens to eclipse) all expressions of "niainline" mcnnonitc normativity. in studying them, mennonite scholars will not only lcarn more about the contested character ofnorth american mennonite identity, but they will also become aware of the particularity and historicity of any narrative that seeks to speak for mennonites in general. gerald j. biesecker-mast bluffton college bluffton. ohio pamela e. klassen, goirzg bj) the moor arzd tlze stars: stories of two rzlssinrz melzrzoizite wor zer (waterloo, o n : wilfrid laurier university press, ) lpp. euring the various sessions at thec'quietinthe land" conference (millersville, ), women, besides reading academic papers, told stories, nursed babies, spokc of pcrsonal pain, presented w o n ~ e n ' s lives in creative forms, read poetry. topics included history of women's dress and hcad covering, women's crcativity, women's roles in thc church, women's journals. there was plenty of intcracting, casual or intcnsc, over food, but no formal banquct was progranimed book r e i i e i v x in. the arts were generously included and s o were presentations by "outsiders," women from other ethnic groups. do women have a distinct way of doing history? the subtitle o f pamela klassen's coirlg by the blonrz ~ r l t l the stcrr.s, prolnises "stories of t w o russian mennonite w o n ~ e n . " that promise is kept, but the book does more than fill in the gaps left by the untold storics of women in the official annals of mennonite history. the author writes: "this book is not a historical assessment o f these women's lives, but rather an inquiry into memory-an intimate reflection on what agatha and katja remember about their lives, and how these memories continue to shape them." klassen's "inquiry" and "intimate reflection" are governed by the fact that for this project (a master's thesis) the process was as important as the storics obtained. discussion of process and n~ethodology is, thcrcforc, given space alongside the stories. the book is, in part, biography, in which not just the two mennonite women, but also the analystlbiographer, are subjects. in this process the (young) biographer collaborates with her (older) subjects and the spin-off i s something like friendship. as the analyst equipped with feminist and ethnographic methodologies, author pamela klassen admits to being in a position o f power in the process and she makes clear that responsibility for the final interpretations is hers. she also admits to fear of barging in and hurting her subjects, two women made vulnerable by going public with their lives. "turning the stories of a woman's life into text can be a profoundly disturbing act." agatha janzen and katja enns (not their real names) belong to that group of women who lived in the southern ulcraine during world war , saw the detainment, exile o r death of their men, fled with thc retreating german army through poland, lived as refugees in germany and crnigratcd cvcntually to canada. presently agatl-ra and katja are members of the same church i n the waterloo/kitchener area. the chapters where klasscn allows thcm to tell, i n their own voices, their stories of war and escape will no doubt be rcnlembcrcd longest by many readers. but the storytelling, the author cautions, has already been filtered through subsequent experiences, and that includes the experience of entry into canada where their stories were not always willingly heard. klassen identifies two main plots in the stories of these women: the war plot and the marriage plot. in the case of both women, these plots do not fit the conventional plot of the traditional mennonite woman and when they arrived in the mennonite c i ~ l i ~ c i i community in canada, their problematic stories prevented their easy reception into that c o n ~ m u n i t y . in the terror and danger of war, the worncn s ~ ~ r v i v c d cvcn without mcn. but such independence, endurance and courage pose a problcrn i n an "order wlicrc men reigned" and where a woman's "power for survival w o ~ t l d bc ignored or sanitized and attributed only to god." both agatha's and katja's marriage plot, as i n the case of many worncn of that migration, included irregularities that disturbed the mcnnonite community. this resulted in further pain of rejection for the women before they could finally be integrated into the church where both s u b s e q ~ ~ e n t l y became active. besides raising important questions about the treatment of immigrant women likc agatlia and katja in the canadian mennonite community, klassen also raiscs q ~ ~ c s t i o n s a b o ~ ~ t the women's ambivalence to the nazis whom they, on thc onc hand, consider s a v i o ~ ~ r s from a c r ~ ~ e l regime, but, on tlie other, abhor for tlicir gcnocidc. "asking the difficult questions in trying to ~ ~ n d e r s t a n d womcn's stories cvokes grief and pain," klassen observes, both for the subjects and thc analyst; neverthcless she insists that, "as long as mennonites do not cxplore tlieir connection with nazism, the stories of both men and women who suffered in tlie war while affiliated witli tlie wrong side will be silcnced." she admits that this dimension of her subjects' stories makes it "more difficult to vicw katja and agatlia as cither saints or victims," and that their survival, a combination o f strength, luck, and, according t o them, god's help, should be rcspcctcd, but not revered." ultimately, klasscn, a student ofreligion, is interested in how the experience of each woman has shaped her present r e l i g i o ~ ~ s life. she compares the womcn's dcscriptions of tlicir carly lives at a time when formal religious education and c h ~ ~ r c h lifc had ccascd t o exist in the mennonite colonies. while both womcn rcmcnibcr thcir mothers as faithful, godly women, agatha sees licrsclf as being likc her mother, while katja differentiates herself from hers. the author also compares their experience o f god in times o f hardship and danger, and their present religious life. both are active in the church, but where agatha has felt called to preach, katja believes the preacher's role is not for women. klassen makes this interesting observation: "the way they tell tlieir stories (and the way others listen) affects how they feel connected witli o r differentiated from themselves, god, other iviennonites, and the church." clearly, if a woman's story is the greatest gift she can offer, listening to her story must be the reciprocal gift. goir~g bj] tlze a/loon arzd tlze stars will be a valuable resource, both for tlie two personal stories it offers the reader and for its contribution t o mennonite women's scholarship. sarah klassen liberal arts christian college klaipeda, l i t l i ~ ~ a n i a book revievvs p. travis kroeker,clzristian ethics arzd political ecorzonzj~ irz north ainericn: a critical analysis (montreal and kingston: mcgilli queen's university press, ). this important book provides a critique o f the liberal political economy and christian attempts to address the problem; it also offers an alternative political economy based on augustinian realism. kroeker begins this study by identifying a spiritual crisis in north america's political economy. at its core is liberal thought and, particularly the notion of a productivist paradigm that insists on progressive expansionism. this creates an 'iron cage' in which humans are isolated from each other, f r ~ m cnmmunit;/, end fro nature. !n liberalism "our choices are ever more narrowly constricted within short-term utility calculations and collective slavery t o material processes ...." (i ) kroeker sets out to analyze the thinking of influential christian social ethicists a n d show that these ethicists do not rise above some faulty theological assumptions. both american and canadian representatives of the social gospel, walter rauschenbusch and james woodsworth respectively, are described and both are credited for attempting to "make theology relevant t o the social order by elaborating a public ethic." ( , ) while the social gospel recently h a s been seen by scholars-ramsey cook, allan mills, david marshall-as the ironic harbinger o f secularization, kroeker concentrates on the religious claims of the social gospel. in the process kroekcr offers a withering critique o f t h e social gospel. its problem is that it assumes that god is becoming present in western civilization and that dcmocratisation, technological growth, and the modern sciences, will ensurc tlic realization of human good. so, while the social gospel takes exception to parts of libcral socicty, i n thc cnd it canno!, begin t o address the spiritual crisis of tlic dcnial o f transccndcncc and the estrangement from nature. ( ) reinhold niebuhr's christian realism and the work of thc fcllowsliip for a christian social order [fcso] are also analyzed. krockcr defends niebuhr against charges of being ideologically driven, describing him instead as someone who s o ~ t g h t to work out his theology in the rapidly changing political economy o f the s and s. in essence, niebuhr called for a christian realism based on a "franl< dualism in morals" seen in the pursuit by "self- transcendent individuals and the more limited moral capacities and resources o f collective action." ( ) the fcso, on the other hand, leaned more toward marxist social analysis to develop policy proposals. the fcso saw humans as products o f the their relationships to others in socicty and i n naturc. howcvcr, when the fcso sought to provide a way out of tlic capitalist morass, it fcll into the "social gospel pitfall," a utilitarianism in which pcoplc comc to rcly on socialist planning for abundance.( ) in icroeker's estimation, both o f tlicsc visions of society fail to account for an appropriate theology of creation. instead, they fall into a trap that narrows the purpose of being human and fails t o see the divine purposes of creation. kroeker is also critical of the catholic bishops approach to the problem. his careful analysis o f several statements on the economy, including that o f the canadian bishops in , concludes that these initiatives a r e too narrowly anthropocentric. wliilc t h e catholic positions may address issues such as rights of labour, redistribution, democratisation, they fail t o get at the ~ ~ n d c r l y i n g causc of the crisis, the progressivist assumptions of the modern libcral socicty. again, in krockcr's view, an adcquate creation theology is left ~ ~ n c x p l o r c d . in the final chapter, "toward a moral theology of creation," kroeker outlines a theocentric utilitarian vision o f l i f e . he returns t o classic augustinian rcalism to chart the path that will see "public life ... oriented toward the common good of thc created order". ( ) augustinian realism "seelts the establishment of tlic truc order of love by referring all thought, action, and dcsirc to god ...." ( ) tlicre exists a divine order to things, and humans and n a t ~ l r c can only function properly when this is understood and when tliings are used, not in scrvicc o f progressive expansionism, but in a manner consistent with intcndcd purposc. this book is compelling. it critiques at lcast three major attempts to address thc north amcrican political cconomy from a christian position, and then providcs an altcrnativc bascd on augustinc. the breadth and depth of this attcnipt is part of the attraction of this book. the critiques blend sympathy with incisivc analysis. this analysis is timely and in some ways devastating, since it is difficult to know if the church can extricate itself from this deep-rooted worldvicw, or even recognize the naturc o f the problem. the emphasis on transcendence based on a creation theology is also well- placed. kroekerprovides his answer without entering (explicitly) the ubiquitous discussion of modern versus postmodern thought. instead, transcendence here is not esoteric, but a grounding from which the 'reality' of life can be addressed in a profoundly christian manner. he also avoids tlie separation o f group - . versus individual ethics, insisting that each part of the world has a purpose within the fellowsliip of tlie created order. ( ) kroeker is ultimately convincing in his postulation of a moral theology of creation. it is refreshing to rcad a treatment that goes beyond partisan debatc. and he does this without creating 'straw-mcn'. however, it strikes nic tliat kroelter's critique is more compelling tlian iiis own argument for augustinian realism. he makes only a brief foray into the problc~ii with fi~ndar~ientalism, leaning heavily on owen barfield. why not pursuc the issue of conformity and loss o f religious synibols further? if religion can be a tool of idcology tliat is destructive to human life and the common good ( ), tlicn tliis problem of perception and faith needs t o be addressed more explicitly. tlic notion of character building as a vital part of christian ethics as they rclatc to tlic political ccononiy is not p ~ ~ r s ~ ~ e d farenougli. what implications ~iiiglit tliis idea have for policy or practice witliin the larger society? further, kroeker's promotion of the concept o f purpose and place for all things witliin book r e ~ ~ i e n ~ s the creation order avoids any mention of alisdair maclntyre, including his after virtzre. this i s a n important book that will motivate the church to rethink its ethics. i noted recently that universities are beginning to use this book as a text, and it seems that its message will be disseminated widely, which is as it should be. paul doerksen mennonite brethren collegiate institute winnipeg, manitoba delbert f. plett, s a r a h ' s prairie (winnipeg: windflower communications, ). trade paperback, pp. a novel. mennonite histories often leave the impression that the real story is somewhere between the lines. delbert plett's novel, saralz 's prairie, attempts t o tell the story between the lines of the history of the mennonite east reserve in manitoba, by exploring the life of martien koep, whose old lacnder mennonite family is torn apart when most of his siblings join the morsavians, an unsavory religion imported from oaten collcgc in tcxas. there i s certainly fertile ground for a novelist's imagination hcrc, and plctt has used his extensive knowledge of east rcscrvc history to fill thc book with colorful characters such as offenbarung jauntzand rosic bolson, thc cvangclist's seductive wife. he gives the reader an elaboratc picturc of thc east rcscrvc community and its links to russia, kansas, and saskatchewan. as a youth martien has many rollicking adventures. he is sexually aroused by his sistcr, susch, seduced by rosie bolson, learns to dance with french girls and drink homebrew with the ukrainian bootlegger's daughters. hc has unlimited access t o motor cars, albeit with bumpers painted black. somehow he colnes through all this with his innocence intact and becomes an upright member of the old laender community, a community that knows how to forgive and takc care of its own. unfortunately, scrr.alzts prairie reads like a rough draft and i t is rcgrettablc that the publisher did not provide plett with an expericnccd fiction editor to guide him through a rewriting process that could have turncd this book into a powerfill, and i dare say, a popular novel. part o f the problem is that plctt packs too much information into the story and tries t o juggle too many characters. there are many interesting cvcnts, but he loses the focus on the koep family and this human drama where children join a churcli that i s o p e l ~ l y contemptuous of the parents' whole way of life. when martien's sister, susch, elopes with the morsavian minister's son, we are not shown how this affects her parents. a teardrop on a tablecloth o r a fathcr's trembling hand might have taken the reader into the experience. plctt uses very specifically dated chapter titles and tliis makes a literary discussion in a 's bush camp about ruby wiebe, who wasn't born until , a puzzling anachronism. there are many discussions in the novel which providc background information about the religious conflicts, but because plctt has choscn to use fictional designations such as "morsavian" and "old lacndcr" and "bolsonite" the reader is not enlightened very much as t o who's who, who believes what, and what is the fuss about anyway? the irony of manitoba mennonite communities being the target for missionary work i s never explored. martien and the omniscient narrator arc obviously on the side of the old laenders and the satire in the novel i s directed largely at the morsavians. plett uses many low german words and expressions in his writing and sometimes tliis works and at other times it isn't clear whether h e is in control of his language. the words "jeisus" and "erloeser" seem t o verge on unintcntional mockery when used in the same context as the satiric "formula crfoarung" o f offenbarung jauntz. i hope dclbcrt plctt finds the motivation to rewrite this novel. in fact, he c o ~ l l d lisc this book as a sourcc for three or four full-length novels; there certainly arc cnough stories in it. on the other hand, perhaps he should use his considerable skills as an historian and write a no-holds-barred history o f these religious wars. why should there be stories that historians fear t o tell? - armin wiebe winnipeg, manitoba harry loewen and steven nolt, throz~glz fi .e nizd water: an overview ofmeiznonite history (kitchener on and scottsdale, pa: herald press, ). pp. $ . . loewen and nolt have authored a "book designed as an introduction t o church history and the mennonite faith story." i t has been written for "individuals who want t o learn more about anabaptists ..., congregations looking for a way to teach ... mennonite ... beliefs, and s t ~ ~ d e n t s in mennonite high schools ....." subtle q ~ ~ e s t i o n s of historical adequacy i will leave for the experts; my review will deal particularly with the book's potential appeal to students such as those taught in high school during a year teaching career in canada and africa. book re~~ie\ts teachers, who in a semester usually have weeks or less to complete a course, will appreciate the structure of the book. it is divided into four sections, with sub-sections o f about manageable pages each. at the end of each of the four sections are essays by carol duerksen and elwood yoder which discuss key issues o f our story. included in each section is a thoughtfully phrased challenge t o the faith and reasoning power of the student. more study questions would have been very helpful. for a thorough study, students need the stimulus that interesting study questions provide. this is especially important f o r high school teachers, who may have to teach five or six courses each day. the book's balance keeps the larger mennonite constituency in mind. both the swiss and dutch origins of anabaptism are traced through to their north american incarnation. the reasons for the many migrations, including those to latin america, are sympathetically analyzed. the authors recognize that "the germanic ethnic element i s still strong," but they see the anabaptist heritage as a faith and emphasize "congregations in many parts of the world, including asia, africa and south america."( ) many illuminating personal anecdotes featuring women (such as the steadfastness of annelcen hendricks in martyrdom) balance the gender lines without the embarrassing self-consciousness that political correctness sometimes brings. one o f t h e strongest teaching features of tlzrozrgh fire & water is its use of source material. not only does it have two pages of easily accessible resources "for further reading", its text constantly quotes directly from available historical sources. the notes range from early writings such as mrrrtyrs mirror to modern works, such a s a reimer's edition of a russia dr~izce ? f ' d e ~ t h . rccognizcd mennonite authority such as bender's atzabapti.st vi.sior arc quotcd at icngth (ioi), but unexpected connections such as the story of dostoycvsky's grand inquisitor and his call t o return t o christ's tcachings arc also linkcd to our mennonite ideal ( ). a refreshing aspect is the tendency to move away from what james urry has called mennonite "triumphalist" history. the authors "want to tcll the mennonite story syn~pathetically but fairly" ( ), and their personal identification with the faith provides a steadying hand t o the account of events. but they arc not afraid to present the ugliness o f t h e miinster rising ( ), or the harshness o f t h c ban ( ). t h e book opens with one of our heroes (blaurock) interrupting a worship service, but without deinonising the "othcr side": moreover, the pcacc position is fairly presented as "treason" in the eyes of a widcr socicty under threat of turkish invasion. at other times moderation is the tonc: our forebears were "often better christians than either catholics or protcstants." ( ) will the students be a s keen about tlzt-ozrgk fire & kvrrte/. as most tcachcrs will be? unless it works well with today's students, any history book is pointless. we need a history book that will interest and inspire our tccnagcrs. thoughtful s t ~ ~ d e n t s will appreciate the sectional focus on four distinctivcs of their mennonite faith. in "how do yozr k o ~ ~ y o z . chlrt-clz is.fiitl?fill? " s t ~ ~ d e n t s will understand the cleansing power of church discipline. they will s e e how important this was to the believers' church as it sought t o avoid the impurities o f the state churches. they may then better understand the questions raised by such writings as patrick friesen's tlzeshzrtztzitzg. in i ' i s ~ i ~ z ~ r life a witness to the spirit, water, and blood?" the anabaptist story itself becomes a call to discipleship. faith's price is dramatized in the accounts of the cruel deaths of michael sattlcr and anneken hendricks and countless others. our young people will be challenged to adopt a personal peace position in "what does it nzearz foryozr to be a peacernaker. " which brings us into modern times. t h e experience of siegfried bartel, a mennonite officer in the wehrtnacht who heard h i s "enemies" on the russian front singing christmas carols, and the experience o f jennifer lindberg, whose poster " , faces" dramatized the human sacrifice of the persian gulf war will both serve to move our young people toward this classic distinctive o f the mennonite faith. in "wlzere does jiozrr citizenship lie? ", which concludes the section on the russian mennonites, the common pressure in russia and america t o move into the secular mainstream is addressed. frcd, a fourth-generation military man, decides that christ's kingdom demands a higher allegiance than his nation-state. the last section that asks " d o yozr see tnanj) metnbers fornzirzg one body in clzrist? " is the story o f the world-wide rcach of today's anabaptist churches. and it will reassure those young pcoplc who fear their church is some colony o r ghetto. for more casual students, the book provides a lively style-this is no costive narrative. almost every page is lightened by maps, illustrations, photographs, or cartoons. humor is rarely far from the surface. this humor may be laconic, as in the reference t o the -verse hymn written t o honour martyr landis, who could not be kept behind bars! the authors are not afraid of corny puns-how did luther like his diet o f worms? cartoons such as the one dramatizing the personal hygiene problems of saint simon stylites on his pillar b r i n g a smile. a colloquial vocabulary and short units with catchy titles ("luther's red hot pen" and "escaping across a frozen river") may awaken flagging student attention spans. but m y strongest praise comes f o r t h e way in which the history is presented. it is told through intensely personal anecdotes which then lead to clear and concise s ~ ~ m m a r i e s of their historical importance. students brought up on "davie crockett" myth-making history will be fascinated by the story o f the murder o f felix manz in switzerland, o f a card-playing menno simons as a "trickster" on the coach to emden, o f the gentle hans denck and courageous helen o f freyburg in southern germany, of jakob hutter who brought christian communism into our faith. then these diverse tales about a coterie of saints leads t o a clear summary o f the distinctive faith these anabaptist heroes bequeathed the world ( ). similarly, the stories of a bandit attack on jakob hoppner, o f the ~ ~ p s i d e - d o w n trees o f the enlightened dictator, johann cornies, and o f t h e bizarre bride community o f claas epp are backgro~lnd to a scholarly summary o f "mennonite firsts in russia." ( ) book reviervs this book will serve well as a text and resource for the teaching of mennonite history in north american schools. wilmer penner steinbach secondary regional school steinbach, manitoba carl f. bowman, brethren society: tlze czilttiral tr.ansfo~-nzation ofn 'pectiliar people ' (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ) this book tells the story o f apeculiar people whose peculiarity was purged, and of "plain" people who did not stay "plain." it explains how and why members of the church of the brethren exchanged bonnets and beards for earrings and neckties, unsalaried elders for professional pastors, simple meeting houses for modern church structures, and church discipline cnforccd by shunning and banning for open and tolerant church policies. the organization of the material is broadly historical, but thc intcrprctation relies on sociological methodologies and analyses. it is bascd mainly on denominational archival materials, and on a qucstionnairc circulated by thc author to members o f brethren congregations. the author first provides an overview of traditional dunker (rcnanied erethren in ) culture before . this is followed by a niorc d c t a ~ l c d examination of the paths which took the brethren away from, or bcyond, thc plainness and peculiarities o f their traditional culture. this factual information provides the raw material for a very cogently presented analysis of the radical transformation o f brethren culture. in his analysis, carl bowman argues that in the period from to two discrepant religious and cultural moral orders influenced brethren life- the memory of their traditional dunker heritage and the dynamism of north american evangelicalism. there were intense struggles bctwccn the forces of resistance and accommodation, with accomniodation gaining the asccndancy by . bowman argucs that in thcir attempts to maintain a balancc bctwccn change and continuity, brcthren found it neccssary to cnsurc that a pcrccption o f faithfulness to thc inherited culture bc prcscrvcd whcn changcs wcrc accepted. since the brethren were non-creedal, they uscd s y ~ n b o l s to reconcile past peculiarities with contemporary diversity and tolerance. spccifically, he argues, symbols were used in two ways. first, some important symbols were retained by their moral content or meaning was fundamentally altered. bowman calls this "symbolic bridging." examples cited include the symbols of footwashing and the love feasts. the traditional dunker interpretation of footwashing had emphasized the mutual responsibility of bclicvcrs to clcanse, purify and admonish one another in the christian lifc. t h c symbol was rctaincd whcn brethren became more tolerant o f rcligious divcrsity, but it becamc a synlbol o f service whcre once it had been a symbol o f purification and mutual admonition. similarly, the brethren love fcast (communion) had bcen reserved in traditional dunker practice t o those in good standing with their church. great care was taken to judge the worthiness o f participants, but by the brethren abandoned the requirement o f close communion. a symbol o f love for like-minded christians committed t o the peculiarities of a separatist tradition thus became a symbol of openness. other symbols and practices of brethren culture underwent a series of subtle changes until they came t o represent values and commitments q ~ ~ i t e different from those of traditional dunker culture. bowman refers t o such changes a s "symbolic translation," and cites as a prime example symbols of brethren non-conformity. distinctive dress codes and denunciations o f all so- callcd "worldly" social practices, symbolizing the separation of the faithful from thc unrcgcncratc outside world, had been a salient feature o f the traditional rcligious culturc of the brethren. brethren communities were, however, strongly influenccd by religious renewal movements during the second half o f the nineteenth century and this brought them into closer contact with other christians who placed less emphasis on visible symbols o f non- conformity. as a result, the brethren gradually replaced specific symbols of non-conformity with more general admonitions that christians lead simple and unostentatious lives. the old symbols of non-conformity had separated the brethren from all others, while the new emphasis on a simple virtuous lifestyle brought them closer to other evangelical christians. then, gradually, as brethren became more prosperous, even this approach was abandoned, and emphasis was placed on the spiritual dimensions of life, rather than on any outward symbols of simplicity. t h e traditional d i ~ n k e r doctrine of non-resistance underwent a similar transformation as the emphasis shifted from the simple refusal t o participate in war t o a broader form of christian pacifism and then to an increased emphasis on activist strategies of peace-making and reconciliation. another startling manifestation of synlbolic translation pertained t o brethren concepts o f christian unity. sameness, exclusivity, purity, and the preservation of their own peculiarities were the salient features of traditional dunker unity. increased contact and co-operation with other evangelicals, resulted in an entircly ncw concept of christian unity, focusing on inter-church cooperation and an emphasis on the things which united all christians. this new, more tolerant, concept o f christian unity shattered the old rules and practices. diversity, subject only to the unity inherent in an individually interpreted book reviews commitment t o a christ-centered life, became a notable featurc of brethren life. the church of the brethren had once s o ~ l g h t unity in similarity, but now seeks it in the acceptance of diversity. these examples raise some troublesome questions which the author sccks t o address in his concluding chapters. if the church of the brethren has lost its distinctive characteristics, what is the justification for maintaining a separate denominational identity? this question i s made more difficult because the brethren reject all creeds and catechisms, insisting instead that the bible is the only creed they need. theology, therefore, offers no common focus for an increasingly diverse religious society whose main symbols of identity have been radically transformed. even the name "brethren" has problematic gender- related connotations.. clearly the brethren have been swept into mainstream evangelical christianity, but many still remember a unique, family-like shared heritage ofc'otherness," and feel ~lncomfortable with "the tranquilizing whirlpool of contemporary 'hot-tub religion'," (p. ) and market-driven evangelism attuned t o the latest f a d s and fashions of american religiosity. bowman acknowledges that brethren and mennonites have a shared religious heritage, but argues that the cultural transformation of brethren society has developed further and occurred faster than it has for most mennonite groups. he notes that there was a time when brethren who sought to escape dunker plain-dress regulations could join a more liberal mennonite congregation. now, bowman writes, the liberation migration is more likely to flow the other way. it can, however, be argued that plain dress and peculiar cultural practices are not the most important featurcs of cithcr brcthrcn of mennonite societies. bowman admits that his work docs not focus on major twentieth century brethren pacifist and servicc initiatives. brcthrcn wcrc, however, active in such initiatives, and it is these initiativcs, rathcr than plain dress or cultural and ethnic peculiarities, which have strcngthcncd mcnnonitc commitments to anabaptist concepts of discipleship. bowman tclls thc story of brethren cultural assimilation into mainstream american cvangelical lifc, documenting that it was faster and earlier, and perhaps also somewhat diffcrcnt than the experience of other anabaptist groups. t.d. regehr university of calgary william schroeder and helinut t. huebert. meni zite histol-icnl atlcrs. second edition. (winnipeg: springfield publishers, ). paperback, maps, bibliography, index. many t h o ~ ~ g h t s course through a person's mind when reading and studying an atlas o f places where mennonites have lived, established homes, and died peacefully with family around them, or from which they too often have been roughly uprooted and been forced to, or felt driven to, migrate to other distant unfamiliar places. t o many mennonites this will be a highly personal atlas. for instancc, i find my grandfather's and grandmother's hospital in waldheim; i thinlc o f rudy wiebe's the blue n/foztrztairzs of chirzn where the movements from contincnt to contincnt surely boggle the minds of readers who know no mennonite history; and i see the farm villages and commercial centres o f the canadian prairies where many rcadcrs of this journal grew up. others will have thcir own associations. the p r i ~ n c objcctivc of thc two authors, ably assisted by cartographer wcldon hicbcrt, is to locatc on maps of various scales those places in selected parts o f thc world whcrc mcnnonitcs have lived, and t o depict routes they have travcllcd in thcir grcat community migrations. the central principle f o r map selcction and broad organization is that profound nexus of mennonite life, south russia; this includes the movement of people t o that area, the formation o f communities, settlement distribution in russia, and then the dispersal of mennonites t o other parts o f russia and distant parts of the world. a cogent text effectively tells the story behind tlie maps, and must be studied along with them to get the most out of the atlas. much is covered. we start in western and central europe and the places associated with menno simons and mennonite origins, and then continue eastward along the north german plain. next we turn to russia, later the soviet union. half of the approximately maps in the atlas concern mennonite settlements and events in that vast domain. much of this is a vital exercise in information retrieval as the authors turned to various people wit access t o family and community memory t o draw maps of particular villages, identify w h o lived on the many lots, and designate institutional, commercial and industrial buildings. in many parts of the world, the nineteenth century with its railway building, its steam engine, and its increasing commercial a g r i c ~ ~ l t ~ l r e was a time of expansion. no less here, as the maps trace the extension o f mennonite settlement to many parts of the russian empire. quickly there follows the heartache of out-migration in the later nineteenth century, the horrors of the twentictli century through two world wars, tlie rise and ultimate fall of conlmunism, and the resulting tragedies visited on mennonite communities. together the maps and concise text provide a sense of the ~ ~ t t c r dislocation and brutality of those tinies in russiaisoviet union. book rei~ie+c~s i t h e migrations from russia t o various countries in north and south america beginning in the s are clearly depicted and described, including the founding of new colonies in canada and the united states. within the new world, movements o f many mennonite comm~lnities, of course, continued for a variety o f reasons, and we learn o f new settlements in co~lntrics such as mexico, brazil, argentina, and bolivia. tlie atlas ends with a series of three maps locating aussiedler mennonite congregations in germany in , and six maps on hutterian migrations and colonies. the complexity of mennonite movements over the earth, and the ever recurring challenges of establishing new settlements in liarsli environments (which sometimes proved to be lands o f lasting difficulty) is driven home in this compact atlas. many years ago, when i was doing field work in mexico i was aslced by some mennonites, at a time when they were feeling the heavy cultural hand of the mexican authorities, what the settlement capabilities were o f one more possible haven-greenland. in examining this atlas, i find this is one o f the few major areas in the world that has not been tried. in the introduction, the authors make it clear that this is not an analytical atlas along thematic lines providing information on population density, fanlily size, agricultural production, mission activity, and the many other topics that could be pursued. fair enough: leave that t o others to map as rcsearch in mennonite studies continues. this compilation, a labour of love in history and geography, has accomplisl~ed much and it is appropriate that it remain focussed on location and movement. in future editions, and i hope they will come, perhaps world maps c o ~ l l d show where mennonite populations were located at sclcctcd critical timc periods in the twentieth century. this w o ~ ~ l d include the cast coast settlements in the united states and those in ontario. the world map at the beginning o f t h e atlas, and the map of mennonites in the soviet union about , hint at this, and should be carriedfurther. at the same time, at thc other cnd of the scale, the authors niigl~t consider showing a few field patterns and land allocations uscd in selected villages in russia, canada, mexico and paraguay, even if only in approximate form to indicate how the farm villages functioned. tlie occasion of p ~ ~ b l i s h i n g this much expanded second edition of the atlas in is the th anniversary of the birth o f menno simons, and it is a highly worthwhile endeavour. mennonite history is a story o f movement, and this is an affordable, essential reference source for all students of that history. john warkentin york university brian j. fraser, tlze stzidj) ofreligioiz iiz british colzii?zbin: a stnte- ofl fhe-art review vol. the stzidy ofreligion in ccrlzach (waterloo: wilfrid laurier university press, ). paperback, pp. this little volume is a wcll-written, engaging description o f t h c history and prcscnt statc of the study of religion in british c o l ~ ~ m b i a . it covers a history of just years and is limited t o institutions in vancouver and the fraser valley. the survey is offered in three chapters: i ) origins and developments; ) programs and curricula; ) faculty, research, and publications. such an arrangement runs the risk o f repetition but the author generally avoids that pitfall. each chapter deals with the department of religion at the university of british columbia (ubc), the conservative evangelical institutions, regent collegc and trinity western university, the vancouver scliool of theology (vst), and provides very cursory attention to several other institutions such as the roman catholic seminary o f christ the king and the columbia bible collcge. thc opcning story, both of post-secondary education and the study of rcligion in b.c., is sct within thc canadian context where the differences bctwccn ontario and b.c. arc clcarly identified. despite its relative institutional y o ~ ~ t h , thc formal study of religion in b.c. began, as elsewhere in canada, as a programme o f the church t o train christian ministers. these emerged in the s and ultimately became union college (united church o f canada), and anglican theological college in when both institutions located on the ubc campus. these two amalgamated in as the vancouver school of theology. the "truly critical and objective" study of religion assumed the form of a department o f religious studies at ubc in . the fact that the only department o f religion in british columbia developed in a secular ~ ~ n i v e r s i t y explains in part its relatively minor attention to christian studies. in regent college, an energetic theological graduate school for conservative evangelicals, came into being on the ubc campus. it, too, had anteccdcnt institutions. the last of the four major institutions discussed in this survey is trinity western university which began its life in langley in as a theologically conservative, church-sponsored college. in it received a charter with the right t o grant degrees. o f t h e four institutions only the department at ubc gives major attention to religions other than christianity, and requires no personal religious commitment from its faculty. the programines of all the others are designed to train lay and clerical lcaders for the churches which support them. while their aims are avowedly christian, a systematic, critical academic approach t o the study of religion is taken for granted by all. the statclnents of faith at regent and trinity wcstcrn clearly reveal thc limits within which that study moves. book r e ~ ~ i e w s the regent story is by far the most interesting as told by the author, partly due to the dynamism of tlie school. it is easily the most successful and visible of the four institutions. it is much younger than the vst and represents a modcrn version of the shift to a more questioning stancc toward christian faith which the denominations of the vst negotiated a century ago. thus while there is some convergence o f approach among the theological schools, even among them there is very little cooperation, not to speak of the department at ubc. all have faculties with graduate training at major north american and european universities. the potential for cooperation would therefore seem to be great in terms of the variety of specializations and also of approach t o questions of religious phenomena and commitments. apparently theological differences make rapprochement between the vst and regent college difficult, and methodological and philosophical considerations bctwecn the theological colleges and the department o f religion at ubc. the descriptions also suggest that regent college and trinity western university have far clearer ends and means orientation than tlie vst. there is the further implication that the theological schools, especially vst, while de jzlre graduate schools, are de fcrcto not. that is because many o f their students come with no preparation in religious, specifically christian, studies, but with a variety o f degrees including professional training. the seminaries are therefore required to do catch-up in content and method on what should have been done at the undergraduatelevel. many students therefore begin with new programmes instead of building on already established foundations. a truncated version of christian studies is the result, not to speak of anything bcyond that. thc roman catholic seminary of christ the king is, by coniparison, a truc graduate programme of tl~eological studies. there are, of course, other institutions whcrc christian studics havc bccn and are being done. fraser lists a number o f them such as columbia bible college in clearbrook and the roman catholic scminary of christ thc king ( ) now in mission. the latter school and its preparatory arts faculty arc not extensively described in terms o f their curricula and the publications o f thcir faculty. this appears to be the main gap in this survcy. okanagan baptist college, which existed in the early years of this ccntury at summcrland as a prep school for tl~eological studies, gets no mention, nor does the existing bible school at kelowna. other odds and ends of r e l i g i o ~ ~ s studies, for instance individual courses at oltanagan university college, are mostly invisible because thcy are hidden in other dcpartments such as history and english. tlic author could perhaps not be cxpccted t o iricludc thcse in this i n s t i t ~ ~ t i o n a l survey which makcs it important to mention thcm hcrc. this volume, togethcr with the four carlicr volumcs on r c l i g i o ~ ~ s s t i ~ d i c s i n alberta ( ), quebec ( ), ontario ( ), and manitobaisasltatci c~va i ( ), and, one hopes, anothcr for the maritime provinccs, givcs a n ovcrvicw o f t h e state of the study of religion in canada. it adds to thc cvidcncc that theological studies still dominate the field. it is by no mcans clcar what the significance of this is in a rapidly secularizing society. the author does not venture answers. waltcr klaassen vcrnon, british columbia anna ens, in searclz of unity: story of the conference ofmennonites in mcznitobn (winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college publications, ). pp. $ . . harvey plett, seeking to be fnithfirl: tlze story of tlze evangelical mennonite conference (steinbach, mb: evangelical mennonite conference, ). pp. $ . . from the titlcs and introductions, one expects to see methodological similarities in these two conference "stories." harvey plett's aim is to write "a popular but accurate history" for longstanding and new conference members, taking "a nontechnical storytelling approach." anna ens, presumably writing for the average member, presents her information "as much as possible in chronological order." but the two books could hardly be more different. ens demonstrates h o w organizational history can be shaped into a readable narrative. she spices up h e r research with photographs, helpful tables, profiles of congregations and comments from individual players in the story, including diverse comments from women. she carefully plots the transition from the original six gemeinden (churches made up of several congregations) t o today's conference of congregations, tracing the development of institutions slicii as camps, schools, and missions. the book's organization into "structural eras" can be frustrating, however, as the stories of particular developments keep being interrupted and picked up later in the narrative. plett's book is not the history of an organization, but a rather haphazard tale of a small "renewal g r o ~ ~ p " struggling t o hold its own against threatening forces within and without. of the chapters, deal with beginnings in poland and russia-the sordid church s q ~ ~ a b b l e s are presented in a quagmire of detail that threatens to implode for lack of context and interpretation. it is not clcar whcther plett's aim is to creatc allmyth o f e m c origins" o r t o demythologize the wholc russian mennonite story. four concluding chapters t o ~ ~ c h on the belicfs and forms o f the evangelical mennonite conference. one wishes for morc. plett alludes to conflicts over "assurance of salvation" anddispensationalism, for example, but never spells them out. the brief dcscription o f the holdcman division left this reader with many questions. stcinbach bible college, the conference's major educational institution, is relegated to onc paragraph. (oddly, more space is given to emc involvement in the public s c l ~ o o l systcnl.) the appendices provide an interesting glimpse of emc distinctives. the "resolutions o f " have surprising similarities to old order mennonite concerns: sunday schools and "singspirations" are prohibited because they "lead away from the simplicity in christ;" photographs are banned because they lead t o idolatry and " ~ ~ l t i m a t e l y t o immorality and l i ~ - c h r i s t i a n ~narriagcs." a ministerial document urges "a unified headcovering" for women, and warns against life insurance and mixed bathing. unlike most russian mennonite groups, the emc continues to include footwashing anlong its ordinances. a chart lists the conference's congregations in six provinces. ( t h e identical chart in the "emc yearbook" lists congrcgations.) conflict i s also at thc heart of ens' book, but her sights are f rmly set on those impulses leading toward unity and greater tolerance. to this end, she wends her way carefully between the aggressive russlaenderand the intractable bergthalers, trying to find a balance i n even the most "ugly episodes," such as the bitter estrangement of winnipeg's first mennonite church from until . missing is a sense ofthe ferocity andemotional ~ ~ p h e a v a l that accompanied seismic shifts in the conference, such as the dctl~roncment of the acltcstcr and the change from german t o english. given ens' drivc toward unity, i t is surprising that she does not venture farther into intcr-mcnnonitc relationships o r even the broader manitoba contcxt. the first chaptcr, "manitoba, aboriginal people and mennonites," holds out the promisc of a morc inclusive history, but the chapter is really about immigration. thc relationship, or lack thcrcof; between manitoba mennonites and their ncighbours-native, frcnch, ukrainian and icelandic-may be beyond the scope o f t h i s book but i t nccds to bc cxplorcd. the emc story would also have benclilted from more cornmcnt on how this small, insular group has related t o other mennonites ovcr the ycars. (tlic narrow scope of plett's story is illustrated by his misleading cquation of manitoba bergthalers with the chortitzer conference, a small scgment of thc total group.) plett does rnention that the evangelical mennonite mission conference sought affiliation with the emc in the early s, but the emc, "still very cautious about outsiders" after the painful holdcman split, did not invite the visitors to participate in communion. that story nccds updating in the light of current cooperation. both thcsc confcrcnce histories cnd in "confessional" pleas to today's church, reinforcing tlie sensc of commitment both wriicrs bring to ~ h c i r subjects and t o their story-telling task. margaret loewen reinier a/ltrlzrzorzite reporter. kitchener, ontario piet visser and mary s. sprunger, merzrio s ~ i ~ z o i z s : plrces, portraits arid pi-ogerzy (krommenie, netherlands: knijnenberg; altona, mb: friesens; morgantown, pa: masthof press, ). pp. ~ . cin. this is a truly outstanding volume with many virtues and only a few wcakncsscs, published scparatcly i n english, d ~ ~ t c h and german, in , , , and copics rcspcctivcly. it has a good bibliography and a lengthy donors list. although thc book acknowledges tlie wide dispersion o f the mennonites, it is intentionally limited to the netherlands, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. part i , "in the footsteps of menno," begins with an introduction and a map of thc ncthcrlands. in a brief overview the authors offer a few highlights o f the lifc of mcnno simons. realistically, they acknowledge the paucity o f the sourccs. yct thc story, as thcy tcll it, is rich with mcaning and procccds briskly. ordinarily cach pagc of tcxt is faced with a page, filled with appropriate photographs. thc total impact is powcrful and cxciting. one can read a page at a tinic, or browsc t h r o ~ ~ g h thc cntirc volume, equally appropriate for a coffee tablc or a shclf of scholarly books. thc rcadcrs' general knowledge of mcnnonitc history is assumcd. such major reformers as martin luther, zwingli, and calvin as wcll a s "thc hcretic" melchior hoffman are not further idcntificd; also not spcllcd out is the meaning of "anabaptism" and the role of "miinstcritc rcbcls" for menno's life. menno's life story is outlined in brief scctions ( - ) by way o f reference to locations and dates of significant evcnts in menno's life, such as "witmarsum, - ", "utrecht, ," and so on. this book tells much about menno's diligent outreach and the territory covered; just noting these locations and the distance between them will be not only an experience in geography, but also an eye-opener to menno's inissioi-iary diligence. most sections are introduced with a brief quotation from menno. over ii is placed a small contemporary photograph of the location under discussion. then follows a short and clear account of the most significant events and issues. although without footnotes, the data are scholarly reliable. occasionally a beautiful sense o f mystery is added by a too-literal translation from the dutch, such as "the gas is now out of the bottle" ( ), "the sudden demise of king jan has deprived tlie first fruit of his pen of any topicality," ( ) and "having to tie himself in all manner of knots" ( ). care to translate these gelns back into tlie original dutch? mei-ino's life, of c o i ~ i s e , was not lighilieai-ied story. precisely because tlie authors do not indulge in praise, allow tlie facts to speak for themselves, and on scvcral occasions arc even critical of menno, the account is somber and deeply moving. givcn tlic state of the historiography, the authors can offer only tlie broad-brushstrokc statcmcnt that nlartyred were "tliot~sands" of menno's followcrs." ( ) indccd, tlic situation was dreadful and as the authors note, there book reviews was "a fierce hunt for mennonites." under such circumstances it i s not surprising that information about menno is so limited. by disclosing information about himself menno would have facilitated his capture; he was active but remained intentionally inconspicuous. yet while menno's biography remains obscure, we d o have his numerous publications. i do wish tliat these had been not only enumerated, but discussed at greater length; this w o ~ ~ l d have yielded additional biographical information. for example, in his lengthy discussion of what it really means t o preach "at night" (cf. the cornplete works, , - ) we learn a great deal about his faith, courage, and sensitivity. likewise, it would have been in order t o note menno's profound knowledge of the bible as well as his remarkable eloquence. at tlie same time tlie authors d o need to be praised tliat their story moves rapidly. occasionally this means that some technical terms remain unidentified: schieringers a n d vetkopers ( ), sacramentarians ( ) and incarnation ( and ). o n a few occasions, as noted above, the rather literal translation from the dutch has not provided for greater clarity. less serious is the awkward phrasing o f the opening sentence, claiming that menno "was the only reformer native t o the netherlands" ( ). something must have been lost in the translation or printing. if the authors did not want to include desiderius erasmus o f rotterdam and david joris, at least dirk philips should not have been left out. i must note, however, that i felt disappointed only at three points in this section. first, the authors have not proven that initially mcnno had "to prcscnt a clean slate, bleached of all munsterite stains and dirt" ( i). i think tliat thc authors are in error when they condescend: "out of sympathy for him we grant menno the benefit of the doubt a s an informant" ( ) . abraham fricscn, whosc work is cited in this book, has carefully shown that mcnno ncvcr sharcd thc munsterite position. hence menno had nothing to "bleach out"! secondly, the authors certainly have a point tliat in thc c o ~ l r s c of timc thc issue o f discipline did become divisive. but it is inaccurate to gcncralizc that "the movement is craclting on all sides" ( ). after all, thc movcmcnt did survive. moreover, tlie authors condemn without a scliolarly reflection: " i n some letters menno endeavors t o rationalize his inability to stay within his own boundariesv( ). which letters? what boundaries? i n changing circumstances, is it necessarily wrong to adjust, even t o change, one's position'? thc authors criticise, i t seems, all-too-knowingly: "the always compromising lcader has little remaining time. with a gnawing consciencc lie will rcalizc tliat his roll [sic!] has been nearly played out" ( ). thirdly, the authors offer an evaluation which nccds to bc intcrprctcd. tlicy write, "he has given liis followers their own voicc, but thc reward of his work is that his mennonites have outgrown hini."( ) if menno is sccn as a pastor and teacher o f liis flock, then these arc words of praise. howcvcr, mcnno's ministry also had a prophetic dimension. he was a faithful and c l o q ~ ~ c n t proclaimcr of tlie word of god. can all this have now been "o~ltgrown"?! in addition to their beautiful and valuable text, the authors have also supplied an immense number of pictures. in addition t o the contemporary photographs, already noted, the authors provide a truly magnificent spread of ancicnt engravings and prints as well. these include title pages of books, maps, photos of important buildings, commemorative plaques, portraits and many othcr illustrations. while onc can thank the authors for including the only cxtant lcttcr in mcnno's handwriting ( ) it is reduced in size ( . ~ cm), and difficult to read cven with a magnifying glass. thc second section of this book is entitled "the many faces of menno" ( - ) and contains portraits o f various sizes, several in colour. the introduction by daniel horst ( - ) bravely faces the problem ofidentification. namcly, the carliest "likeness" is an engraving by christoffel van sichen, done ycars aftcr menno's death. as one loolcs over the additional menno "types" by different artists the best that can be said has been noted by horst: increasingly "menno" looks more and more distinguished. horst explains, "this promotion to church reformer keeps pace with what was then a fairly general social elevation of mennonites in the netherlands." thus the image of mcnno's hcad is engraved in our memory and we can say every time, without iicsitation, 'yes, this is menno simons"' ( ). thc third, final, and most colourful section is entitled "the changing lmagc of mcnno and the mennonites in dutch art, ca - " ( - ). initially the mcnnonitcs were cruelly persecuted and therefore also ridiculed without mercy. in this early period what predominates are engravings of torture and executions. this is followed by an age of tolerance. now art celebrates mutual tolerance and begins t o pay positive attention to the lives of ordinary mennonites. the concluding period ( - ) attests to the great social and financial success of mennonites. the faces of the portraits are invariably dignified, the clothing expensive and the colours beautiful. a brief and eminently readable summary statement of mennonite religious life ( ) is followed by attention to these men-mainly men-who could afford the commissioning of their own and group portraits. indeed, "whatever generated the market was painted-heads were money" ( ). it is from such aperspective that the authors pay virtually all o f their attention to those who were painted rather than to those who did the painting. this is even true in the case of rembrandt ( - ). his painting o f the mennonite merchant and preacher anslo ( ) is described in some detail. inexplicably, the authors do not note that in the genialdegalerie berlin the painting is entitledg'dermennonitenprediger anslo ~ i n d seine frau, ." more significant is the omission of any discussion concerning rembrandt's faith. they d o not develop the observations in the hle~zno~zite e~zcyclopedin and robert wallace's the worldof rernbr-atzdt that a very close association had developed between rembrandt and the mennonites. howevcr, minor criticisms do not detract from the truly magnificent accomplishment which is this book. in story and portrait, quickly and simply for those in a hurry, yet with many wonderful references and clues for those book re~>ie>cls who want t o read with care, this volume is a notable contribution t o thc understanding o f menno's great accomplishments. egil grislis university o f manitoba albert w. wardin, jr., evnrzgelicnl sectni-inrzisnz in tlze rrtssinrz enzpir*e nrzd tlze ussr: a bibliogi-aplzic gziide (lanham, m d : american theological library association and scarecrow press. ). pp. this bibliography is the result of many years of tedious work and i s truly a landmark in the evolution of religious scholarship on a country which has had such a fascinating, though often tragic, religious history. with the end o f the soviet union and its very repressive religious policies in , it is particularly fitting that this bibliography covers the entire period o f russian and soviet sectarian christianity until . t h e bibliography is divided into three major sections: i . pietistic influences and protestant missions ( - ); . evangclical sectarianism, ( - ); . evangelical sectarianism in thc ussr and adjoining tcrritorics ( - ). each section begins with a brief foreword and contains inany topical and chronological subdivisions. various groups (such as thc mcnnonitcs), institutions, societies and individuals are dealt with scparatcly. the bibliography lists published works (including many articles in ncwspapcrs and journals) as well as unpublished manuscripts, dissertations and othcr matcrials. scctions two and three also identify the major archives in thc formcr sovict union and the one western collection, the southern baptist historical library and archives in nashville, which is identified as "thc most cxtensivc collection of materials outside the soviet union on evangelical scctarians of thc russian empire and the ussr." the listing of russian and related language sourccs is extensive. t h e annotations are also very useful. mennonites slioi~ld, by and large, be very plcased with this additional tool for research. thc listing of mennonite related material is cxtcnsivc. this is particularly true for the mcnnonitc brctlircn, wliosc kinship with cvangclical scctarians and eaptists clearly places them within thc main scopc of this reference work. in fact, wardin indicates that tlicrc arc about spccilic works cited on thc mennonite bretlircn ( ), many of which w o ~ ~ l c l not bc found elsewhere. the placc o f mennonites in the scope o f s ~ ~ c l i a rcfcrencc work, howcvcr, also creates a dilemma for wardin. in his preface (xxiii), wardin givcs his definition of evangelicalism and then states that his "work will therefore, by and large, exclude lutheranism, the reformed church, and traditional mennonites ...." such a distinction between traditional mennonitesand evangelical mennonites is often difficult to maintain and, indeed, if wardin errs h e errs on tlic side of including more than might be expected. the difficulty, however, is that slicii definitions weave in and out o f denominational boundaries over time. wardin rightly observes that mcnnonite brethren have, until recently, made inadequate use of german baptist and russian sources ( ). with greater access to archives in the former soviet union that circumstance niay gradually be changing, but even the materials that have been available in the west have not been used extensively enough. thc work also includes other significant features, such as two extensive indices, one on individuals and the other on topics and places. these will be of trcmcndous help to scliolars. t h c individual listings also usually indicate where the items can be found, although the list is not comprehensive. eight mcnnonitc libraries/archives are listed, only one of which is in canada (mcnnonite heritage centre). abbreviations arc not always consistent (e.g., southern baptist historical library and archives appears either as tnsb [xxxv] or sbhla [ ]). also, a number of items have certainly been missed (c.g., i-lcinrich braun, bzlndes-statistic d e r vereinigten, tazfgesinnten, n/tennonitisc/ en brzreder-getneinde itz rzrssland, and ). one o f the results of the method used by wardin is that many items have multiple listings and annotations. this creates some redundancy (e.g., walter sawatskylssoviet ei~angelicals since world war / i is listed at least times in various sections, each time with complete title and publication details and often with annotations). although this makes the work more user-friendly, eliminating the need for cross-referencing, it also makes the work much more bulky. indeed, the binding already showed signs of weakness in the reviewer's copy. a i i in all, this work is without question a very valuable resource and should be in the reference section of every mennonite library. abe d ~ ~ e c k , director centre for mennonite brethren studies winnipeg, manitoba book r e i i e ~ v s ernest sirluck, first genei-atiorz: an azitobiogr-aplzy (toronto: university of toronto press, ). hardcover. pp. $ . . on the surface, a lengthy autobiography by a jewish ~lniversity professor and controversial administrator o f the university of manitoba is hardly a subject to arouse the interest o f a mennonite reading audience. however, the opening chapter entitled simply, "winkler, - ", awakens our interest. the chapter is devoted to sirluck's growing up in the southern manitoba mennonite town of winkler and sprinkled throughout the book are additional references t o the benchmarks established by this experience. sirluck grew up jewish in a prairie town where, as he says, "the doctor, the bank manager, the station-agent, a n d the druggist were of british descent; there were eight or nine german lutheran and as many russian jewish families; the rest were mennonites."( ) the extended sirluck family were jews from russia and although the numbers of jews in winkler were already declining during his adolescence, sirluck still remembers the two-room synagogue and the jewish classes after the "public-school day ended and other schoolchildren played baseball o r hockey."( ) the sirlucks owned numerous enterprises in the community including a store and, after the s, a farm bought from mennonites moving t o mexico. through the sensitive sirluck's eyes we see how mennonite culture lookcd t o an outsider. when he was five, children on the playground surroundcd him and accused him of being "a dirty jew who had killcd christ."(s) morc likcly attributable to his petulant nature than his jcwishncss wcrc thc f r c q ~ ~ c n t encounters with the physical p u n i s h ~ n c n t mctcd out by mcnnonitc tcachcrs. his image of mennonites is appropriately sum~narizcd by thc dcscription of area farm folk. shopping trips t o winklcr were, hc says, "cpitomizcd by thc characteristic family procession o f the area farmcrs comc to town-man walking in front, wife in loose floor-length skirt covering lapscd bclly ncxt, and the three or four youngest children who had helpcd to brcak hcr body trailing behind."( ) sirluck's adolescence coincides with the rise of nazi germany and although he suggests that he made hirnself "too much a part of thc c o n l n ~ u n i t y to be really lonely," clearly the s wcrc difficult for him.(i ) winkler was a "fertile ground for nazi propaganda."( ) mis scnsitivity and the lessons "about how precarious the friendship of a gcntilc for a jew can be" strained his relationships with mennonite friends. the cntrancc to university in marked thc end of a formal connection to winltlcr a n d mcnnonitcs, altlioilgli iliere were sporadic visits to his parcnis and the iiin~ily siorc ihat remained in winkler. even a cursory reading of s i r l ~ ~ c k ' s winklcr ycars rcvcals thc complexity o f inter-ethnic relations in a prcdon~inately mennonite town. clearly his childhood memot-ies reflect the necessity for both jewish and mennonite parents t o establish a basis for boundaries between 'lis' and i t h c n ~ . ' it is also apparent that the c o ~ ~ j u n c t u r e of adolescence and nazism intensified young sirluck's sensitivity. sirluck also shows how mennonitc youths exliibitcd contradictory responscs to nazism. jack funk, for instance could claim tliat his prcsidency of thc local organization of a pro-nazi party had "nothing personal in it, and i hopc we can stay f r i e ~ ~ d s . " ( ) sirluck's image of mennonites rctains a monolithic character. except for thc local mcnnonitc doctor and mcmber of thc provincial legislature, c.w. wicbc, s ~ r l ~ ~ c l < rctains an imagc o f mennonites as a narrow-minded, religious, agrarian pcoplc. the combination o f their gcrman and christian identity disposes them to tlie anti-scmitism. dcspitc his rather negative portrayal of winkler, sirluck refers to this past throughout thc biography. he reads srrrcih binks and is pleased that the author, paul hiebert, "was a mennonite,"( ) he refers to mennonites in winklcr in his coming to t c r ~ n s with the war. he was touched t o see many winkler mcnnomtes" at his father's l'unera .( ) sirluck lived most of his life far from winklcr, but he scems unable t o escape its grasp. he is forced to admit that the farm in this mcnnonitc community "has remained something of an anchor for mc and my family." ( ) hans p. wcrncr department of history univcrsity of manitoba diane zilnlner~nan umble, holding the line: tlze telephone iiz old .cz'er.menrzorzite nndanzish life (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ) hardback; pp., . u.s. the car, the internal combustion engine, the tractor, electricity, the radio and television, computers, nuclear power, birth control, pasteurization, the pneumatic tire, fluoride, and the telephone, all technologies thought by many t o increase productivity, leisure, health, and the wealth of the nation, have been the subject o f contentious debate and resistance. luddites saw in technology the very source of their oppression. marxists have celebrated the emancipatory potential o f technology. these debates, seldom conclusive, are often elevated t o tragic proportions, and find their full expression in such epochal events as the cult~lral revolution in china o r pol pot's kampuchea. utopians, left and right, struggle with technology. tlioreau wrote tliat "our inventions are wont t o be pretty toys, which distract our attention froni serious things. they are but improved mcans to an ~lnimprovcd end." and rcligious communities, like cxpcrimcntal socialist statcs, have similarly ennoblcd and chastened tlie innovators and uscrs of tcclinology. book reirieujs it can be a r g ~ ~ e d tliat the anabaptists, hutterites, mennonites, and aniish are a barometer of modernity. they are a kind of test market for both the limits and potential of technological innovation and diffusion. they stand opposed and they embrace. tliey are both inside and outside the projects of modernity. tliey define the limits of menibersliip by degrees of teclinological innovation; tliat is, the civil society starts and stops with technology itself or wliat is made possible by it. hutterites, clearly among the most technologically sophisticated in the history o f farming, marvel at the simplicity of the old orders and their "english-speaking neighbors." from automated kitchens to factory hog production, these colninunal peoples took the covenant seriously. they built a kingdom with sweat and technology, lots of it. a senior minister among the hutterites once told m e tliat "if joseph had had a lear jet, he'd never have taken a donkey." a hutterite farmer quipped, "technologically, the old orders are wliat we are not, though we do like to visit them." they become the exotic "other" in tlie anabaptist mix. for the old orders, the hutterites may b e seen as tergiversators. for the "modern" mennonites, these are communities o f dissenting distant cousins, to be occasionally visited; they are the sacred sites, where one can experience authenticity. o r perhaps they are merely a means to spice up a dull dish. one can even imagine a kind of technological teleology running from the yeoman households of tlie old order mennonite and aniish to the industrial farming of tlie hutterites. and there are certain ironies. the hesston corporation, for example, a giant farm implement manufacturer now owned by multinationals, was brought into being by technology and c o m n ~ ~ l n i c a t i o n s wary conscrvativc church of god in christ (holdeman) mennonites. onc could writc the history of anabaptism a s an armageddon for o r against tlic cvcr expanding and encroaching means of production: thc thrcc-ficld systcm, tlic tractor, thc telephone-from farm field to d o ~ n i c i l c . t h e metaphor is apt, but in tlie anabaptist cottage industry crcatcd by johns hopkins university press, holding the litle: the tele/~/ t e it ot.det. mer~tzo~zite nrld arnish l f e , by diane z i r n ~ n e r m a ~ i umblc, is a disappoirltment. she sets herself tlie task o f providing a ncw account, not just of the tclcphonc among conservative anabaptist con~niunities, but a more general attcnipt to c r i t i q ~ ~ e conventional understandings of technology diffusion, acceptance, and resistance. umble seeks to c a p t ~ ~ r e the c o m m ~ ~ n i c a t i v c process, what she calls the "web o f c o r n m ~ ~ n i c a t i o n , " in the quotidian acts of ritual. she writes that habitual comnlunication among the old order amish and mcnnonitcs was s t r ~ ~ c t u r e d by the rituals of worship, of silence, of work, and of visiting, and was anchorcd in the home. tlicsc pattcrns of communication built and maintained strong, primal-y relationships within tlic circlc of church l i k . evcn whcn old order people interacted with tlicir "english" neighbors, their drcss, dialect, and identification with the church rcniinded tlicm wlicrc they belonged. these everyday acts create, maintain, and transform tlic borders within and among communities and with the "outside" world arid, most important, instantiate cultural identity. for reasons not altogether clear, perhaps convenience o r acquaintance, she picks the old order mennonite and old order amish in lancaster county, pa. indeed, the book's strength-the use of comparative cascs-bccomcs its ccntral weakness. though a comparative method is implicit in tlic sclcction of two groups-the old order amish and mennonite-we are ncvcr trcatcd to an explication of its logic, design, o r clear application. tlie first chaptcr, an attclnpt at providing a coherent theoretical framework or argument, rcads like a literature review from a doctoral dissertation. here we arc icd through a labyrinth of anthropology, communication theory, sociology, and liistory, all in an effort to tease out a framework that will allow for tlie examination of "tlie telephone in the context of social practices and shift the thcorctical focus to questions about the meaning oftlie telephone. an emphasis on tlic meaning of thc telephone provides the theoretical space for the analysis o f adoption of thc instrulnent and resistance to i t " ( ). thereafter theory makes only camco appearances that cling on the narrative like gypsy moss. what is missing in tlic narrative are the myriad ways that the telephone is niadc meaningful in everyday lifc. there are no voices and no conversations. t h c focus of thc narrative is on church schism and internal disputes over the adoption of tclcplionc technology. and though important gaps in church history may havc bccn fillcd by this study, the everyday use of the phone, and thc construction o f mcaning and idcntity around it is a project unfulfilled. for those socialized into the canon of anabaptist ethnography and history, chapters two and three can be skipped. these are the all too familiar tropes, almost liturgical, presenting the canonical ethnos from the reformation t o the present, the struggle with modernity, potentate, nature, war, and religious orthodoxy. tlie rest of the story, embellished with anecdotes from church histories, newspapers, occasional interviews, and local publications, is a thoughtfill account of schism. and for those interested in schism, tliis book is worth a good read. for those interested in the telephone, the construction of meaning and identity around and through it, tliis will be a great disappointment. jeffrey longhofer department o f sociology/anthropology university o f missouri-kansas city book re~de>c~s david bergen, a year- of lesser (toronto: harper collins, ). paperback, pp., $ . cdn. a novel. this arresting first novel by david bergen marks a radical dcparturc from the more traditional forms of mennonite novel we have grown accustomed to. although t h e village of lesser is situated in the heart of mennonite country (steinbach/landmark/grunthal) in south-eastern manitoba, it deals with mennonite characters and lifestyles which mennonite readers over forty will have trouble accepting as "mennonite" or relating t o as a mennonite world. within an atmosphere of charisniatic christianity that seems too contrived at times t o be believable, this cast of mennonite characters, from teenagers to the middle-aged, g o their sinful ways, smoking pot, drinking heavily and fornicating with casual abandon. the central character is johnny fehr, a thirtiesh, rather hapless feed supply salesman whose compassionate nature has led him to set up and run, in his spare time, a youth centre for lesser adolescents. johnny's own life is complicated by a king-sized libido which drives him in and out of relationships with women, including charlene, his alcohol-ridden wife whom he still loves, and loraine, a widow who runs her own chicken farm and becomes his obliging mistress. johnny's other obsession i s spiritual and takes the form of a strong lust for conversion and redemption, the more dramatic the better. thc point, of course, i s that his sexual and spiritual needs are intertwined with each other and together keep him on a self-obsessed quest t o expcricncc the ultimatc high. as he says t o his wife at one point: "i've known joy. not all thc tinic and niaybc never f o r very long, but i've known joy." beneath his thougl~tlessly exploitative ways and sclf-indulgent lifcstylc, johnny fehr i s that familiar figure in litcraturc, thc beautiful loscr o r dcspiscd christ figure, the holy fool who is liatcd prcciscly bccausc hc is at hcart innocent, loving, compassionate and utterly lacking i n pridc o r worldly dignity. in the words o f t h e novel, "hc is easy, a likable and gulliblc fool." the trouble is that tlie holy fool, because o f his vcry innocence, his lack o f guardedness, his vulnerability to others, not only gcts hurt by othcrs but is himself the cause of others being hurt and defeated. the first t o g o down is charlene, the wife, who through her alcoliolic haze still loves johnny even as the bottoni drops out of her world when she discovers that johnny lias gotten loraine pregnant. unable to havc a baby hcrsclf, which she desperately wants, charlcne, in effect, is consumcd i n thc firc of hcr own unhappiness. loraine, who is tougher and a survivor, lias johnny's baby and trics to domesticate him, but ultimately shc too has troublc tbrgiving johnny for who and what he is. therc arc younger victims as wcll. lorainc's tccn-agc son chris also gets his girlfriend melody pregnant. when shc turns to johnny for help in getting a secret abortion, he responds and drivcs hcr to fargo, across the american border, on tlie very day, it turns out, that loraine gives birth to her child. in the end, melody turns into a kind of religious zombic under tlic care o f phil, the evangelist, while young chris disappears, feeling embittered and betrayed. david bergen is a fine young writer with a promising career ahead of him. like all good writers of fiction he knows how to bring his fictive world alive through vivid imagery, carefully observed details and narrative situations that point with prccision and incvitability t o meanings larger than themselves. the novel is fill of shrewd insights and wise observations on the human condition. bergen's mennonite sensibility asserts i t s e l f t h r o u g h o ~ ~ t in its ~ ~ n c o m p r o m i s i n g honesty and lack of pretentiousness, in its gritty sense of realism that never fakes glamor, and above all in its affirmation of the beautiful loser who snatclics greedily at the joy o f redemption and the gift of grace. and yet, it is as a "mennonite" novel thata year oflesser is at its weakest. the charismatic christianity, as embodied by phil barkman, is not quite believable as growing out o f mennonite religious roots and practices. i n spite o f his mennonite brcthren ministry (baptism by immersion) phil lives a little too serenely in a world of teenage pregnancies and backsliding, drinking and philandering sinncrs like johnny fehr. it is left to a non-mennonite academic, michael the physicist, to expose for johnny's benefit, the spiritual posturing and hypocrisies practised in this mennonite community. but there is never a rcal scnsc of this mennonite world having grown out of a more traditional one. instcad, it seems somehow culturally and spiritually disembodied from what most of us would recognize as a mennonite community with a mennonite set o f values and beliefs. and yet, david bergen is a writer of such searing intensity and naked honesty that one hesitates t o dismiss his fictive world as having no counterpart in the actual world. perhaps this talented young writer simply sees more deeply into our current culture than the rest of us do. a reimer phoenix, arizona gloria neufeld redeltop, tlze wor-k of tlzeii- hands: merirzonite wor ieii 's societies irz cnnnclcr (waterloo: wilfrid laurier university press, ). paperback, xvi + pp., $ . . historically, women have responded in three ways to thcir exclusion fro rolcs and institutions reserved for men. some woliien chose to acquiesce t o the barricrs placed before them. sonic actively resisted the fact that some doors were closcd to thcm by v i r t ~ ~ e of their sex. a third group of women created their own organizat~ons and structi~res in which they could carry out activities and exhibit abilities that were disallowed in the inale domain. book reijie~vs it is this third response which is explored in gloria neufeld rcdckop's historical study of mennonite women's societies i n canada. redckop's main proposition is that women's societies (ver-eir~e in g c r ~ n a n ) functioned as a "parallel church" for mennonite women who were dcnicd lcadcrship roles in the church. in this gendered context, women could "speak, pray, and creatively give expression to their own understanding of the biblical message" ( ). although the title is general, redekop limits her investigation to women's societies of the two largest denominational groups of russian mennonite background, namely, those of the conference of mennonites in canada and the canadian mennonite brethren. her findings are based in large part on a detailed survey sent t o women's groups in , with a notable return rate o f j u s t over per cent. redekop's conclusions are thus founded on s ~ ~ b s t a n t i a l quantitative analysis o f her surveys, supplemented by published histories of women's groups, c h ~ i r c h records, and periodical literature. redekop offers interesting descriptive detail on the changes over time in the naming of organizations, their stated purposes, chosen biblical mottoes, and primary activities. she follows the emergence of women's societies beginning i n the s, their "flowering" in the s and s, and decline from the s t o the present. well informed by the fields of canadian women's a n d church history, this study shows that mennonite societies experienced an evolution similar to that of other protestant wornen's societies. especially interesting is redekop's attempt to understand changc in women's societies in the context of the evolution of womcn's rolcs in mennonite society. thus, she attributcs thc flourishing of womcn's groups i n the fifties a n d sixties in part to an ideological cmphasis on "homemaking, motherhood, and subordination in church and homc" ( ) that rcstrictcd women's roles in the church. siniilarly, rcdckop rclatcs thc dcclinc of women's societies in numbers and activity in rcccnt dccadcs t o womcn's increased e ~ n p l o y m e n t o ~ ~ t s i d e the homc as well as their gradual acccptancc into traditionally male-dominated aspects of c h u r c l ~ lifc. while there is substantial evidence of both change and continuity in women's societies, i wish that redekop had pushcd at the analytical cdgcs a bit harder. o n e wonders particularly about the relationship bctwccn women's societies a n d the churches they served as auxiliaries. what are thc implications o f the fact that some church buildings were constructed in largc part using thc financial resources generated by womcn's work? tlow wcrc womcn's socictics affected by the decreasing cmphasis o f mennonite relief organizations on thc material aid produced by women? and how was mcnnonitc nonrcsistancc understood by women who scwcd and knit for soldicrs ovcrscas during both world wars'? waslis there anything s ~ ~ b v e r s i v c a b o ~ ~ t mcnnonitc womcn's societies, as some theorists o f womcn's c u l t ~ ~ r e and separatc spaccs would argue? redekop is t o bc commended for her pioneering work on this topic. a n important addition to the growing canon o f mennonite womcn's history, this book raises, if not always explicitly, a range of intriguing q ~ ~ e s t i o n s regarding women's religious experience and the place of women's work within the institutional structures of mennonite relief and fundraising. marlcnc epp university of watcrloo c. arnold synder, anabaptist h i s t o ~ y and tlzeology: an introdziction (kitchener, ontario: pandora press, ). paperback, pp, $ . us/$ . cdn. c. arnold synder, a t z ~ b ~ z p t i s t histoy) and theology: abridged stzidetz t edition (kitchener, ontario: pandora press, ). paperback, pp, $ . us/$ . cdn. s c l f - p ~ ~ b l i s h c d by thc author, this is a useful textbook on the history and thcology of anabaptism. the larger edition is intended for the academic community, while the abridged edition is suggested for college students, church study groups, and lay readersgenerally. thelargeredition is comprehensive, detailed, and well written. to this reviewer it is not clear why an abridged student edition is needed. surely, students and other educated readers can appreciate and benefit from the larger edition. this book, according t o the author, seeks t o synthesize harold s. bender's so-called "normative anabaptism" and the later revisionists, the "polygenesis" historians who argued that anabaptism originated in various european centres independent of the swiss brethren. as snyder states in the introduction: "...this text is an attempt at a new synthesis and organization of the historical and theological material, and an attempt to integrate insights from different (and sometimes antagonistic) historical methodologies"( ). quite appropriately, snyder uses the quilt analogy t o illustrate his methodology. he wishes to weave ( the appropriate threads o f anabaptist life and thought into a "word tapestry." in doing so snyder claims t o ignore the old quarrel between the so- called "secular" historians and the theologians. instead lie seeks t o emphasize the many and vario~is factors-social, political, economic and re!igio~s- which shaped the anabaptist movement. taking into account the recent work o f scholars s ~ ~ c h as joyce irwin and linda huebert hecht, snyder also i n c l ~ ~ d e s in his nan-ativc thc significant roles women played (or were not allowed to play) in the anabaptist story. this is a w c l c o ~ n c and long overdue corrective in anabaptist scholarship. regrettably, these sections are significantly shortened ~ o o k re~ie\vs in the abridged edition, to the detriment, no doubt, of the importancc of this subject of study. while snydergenerally succeedsin writinga balanccdhistory, he ncvcrthclcss tips his hat in the direction of the "secular" historians and tcnds to cxcludc, or just allude to, the work of historians who like bender stressed an "anabaptist vision" for mennonites today. for example, thomas miintzer (who w a s not an anabaptist and was criticized by the swiss brethren as early as , and whose militarism was rejected by the south german anabaptists) i s treated in great detail as one who had a great influence on the anabaptist movement; indeed, he almost appears as its veritable father. snyder appears to go out of his way to "correct" bender on this point. ironically, snyder's (and the revisionists') interpretation of miintzer and anabaptism is as old as luther's and bullinger's, historically incorrect, view of the anabaptists as thc progeny of miintzer and the zwicltau prophets. the work of scholars such as abraham friesen, who interpret miintzer less sympathetically, and in my opinion more accurately, is more o r less ignored in this text. menno simons, on the other hand, i s portrayed as a weak leader, dominated at times by fellow-elders, and vacillating in his theological views. moreover, menno is shown as one obsessed with the idea of "purity" which, according to snyder, led t o legalism among mennonites ( - ). while menno may appear legalistic, especially through late twentieth-century lenses, many of his writings, including his letters t o individuals, breathe a spirit of humility, love and concern for the survival of anabaptist-mennonites. snyder i s cspccially harsh in his discussion o f shunning (the ban) in mcnno's ministry. without a shred o f evidence, in fact contradicting menno's own words, snydcr statcs: "altho~lgh menno denied that such shunning was a 'divorce' ... thc distinction was a fine o n e indeed: marital shunning was ade.fnc/o diiloi.ce - a divorcc in all but name" ( ). we know that the practice of martial avoidance occupicd menno to the end of his life and was most painful to him. neverthelcss, he believed that h e acted scripturally and in his writings hc cmphasizcd that shunning ought to bring the sinning member back t o congregational fellowsl~ip. in menno's thinking marital shunning was certainly no divorce. there are important recent studies that portray menno's concern for a "pure church" more positively than this book does. egil grislis of the university of manitoba, f o r example, has written numerous articles on mcnno simons, including articles on menno and pauline theology, on mcnno and "good works", on menno's concern for new testament moral purity, menno and thc lord's supper: and on mcnno's rnonophysitc views concerning christ's incarnation (see jozir-nnl of mei~i~oizite stzrdies, vols. , , , and i ). thcrc is no reference t o thesc articles i n the text nor arc tlic articlcs and thc journal in which they appear included in snydcr's bibliography. morcovcr, cvcn mcnno's strict puritanism has been shown as an aspect in menno's thcology which attracted especialij~ women both to menno and to anabaptism (see, for example, adela d. torchia, "purity and perscvcrancc: mcnno simons' understanding of practical holiness and early anabaptist women," jms. vol. ). all this is not to say that menno and other anabaptist leaders were above reproach. it is t o say, however, that their "weaknesses" and "failure" need t o be dcscribcd fairly within the context o f their time and stated intentions. snyder's book includes a useful index, a fairly extensive bibliography of primary and (sclcctcd) secondary works, maps, and copies of pictures of pcrsons and places. however, both tlie type and the black and white pictures arc o f poor quality. throughout my review copy therc are lines that are smudged and hard to make out, and in chapter endnotes to (i.e. pages - ) are missing. there are also numerous typos and spelling errors. this otherwise useful text should have been published by an established press, which might have prevented many o f the above deficiencies. harry loewen tielowna, british columbia david t. priestley, ed., menzory und hope: strnizds of cnizndiniz b ~ p t i s t history (waterloo: canadian corporation for studies in religion, ). paperback, viii + pp. a baptist heritage conference at the north american baptist college in edmonton in brought together leaders and scholars from all but one o f t h e dozen or so national baptist bodies in canada. the essays that make up this volume resulted from this gathering. t h e bulk of the papers deal with the various movements and structures that have linked, and divided, canadian baptists over their plus years in what is now canada. t w o prominent "strands" that occur in numerous essays are ~ ~ n i t y and identity. that these two issues should persist is not surprising, given the dual european origins of baptists in the puritan movement of seventeenth c e n t ~ ~ r y england and the continental radical reformation of the sixteenth. this gave rise t o t w o distinct theological orientations in tlie calvinist (particular) and armenian (general) baptist groupings. in north america, including the maritime region of canada, baptist origins were closely linked to the great awakening. this provides an on-going inciination toward current american evangelicalism. caught lip in the fitndamentalist-modernist controversy of the s, canadian baptists cxpcricnccd major scliismsovergeneral theological orientation rather than over baptist distinctives, such a s regenerate c l i ~ ~ r c h membership and believers baptism. one stream thus moved in thc ecumenical, mainstream book reviews protestant direction, publishing a hymnal in that was virtually identical to that of the united church, and joining the canadian council of churches in , the very year of its formation. that connection faltered over the development of the united c i ~ l i ~ c i i ' s iicw sunday school curric~llum in the s. the baptist withdrawal from the canadian council of churches and affiliation with t h e evangelical fellowship of canada in thc s signaled the latest direction. like mennonites, some baptist groups have retained north american denominational connections which, t o a considerable degree, counteract national canadian ties. the body with most parallels t o canadian mennonite experience is t h e north american baptist conference (formerly german baptist conference), the focus of two essays in this collection. in western canada especially, the character oftliis group was shaped by german immigrants of the s and prolonged by the large new immigration of ethnic germans in the s and the years after world war . as its title indicates, the nabc remains a north american, rather than a canadian body. o f particular current interest is the recent formation of a canadian convention of southern baptists. it resulted from dissatisfaction in some canadian baptist circles "over the powerful interdenominational para-church groups which recruited baptist young people and financial resources for their projects, yet refrained from supporting denominational programs" ( ). it is, thus, seen by its current champions a s symbolizing doctrinal rather than national loyalty. mennonites will find in baptist history many themcs that parallel their own: a struggle between congregational and denominational autonomy; a balance between ecumenical opcnncss and courageous sharing of uniquc denominational distinctives; the role o f the canada-us border; and, perhaps most of all, the challenge of living in a fanlily of a dozen siblings that are not ready to unite. adolf ens canadian mennonite bible college winnipeg, manitoba .? j o i i i . i i n / oi'h et ite studies elizabeth bloomfield, wczterloo t o ~ ~ n s h i p tlzrough two ceizturies (kitchener, on: waterloo historical society, ). jacob guenter, et.al., hagzre-osler metzizoizite reserve, - (hepburn, sic: hague-osler reserve book committee, ). contrasting historical circumstances enabled mennonites to establish largc, rclativcly compact settlements in both waterloo township, ontario and the h a g ~ ~ e - o s l e r mennonite rescrve of saskatchewan. anniversaries associated with each o f these settlements have produced two historical volumes, waterloo towrzslzip tlzroziglz two cerztziries and hague-osler n/leizizoizite reserve, - . t h c mennonite settlement in block nunlber two of the six nations indian lands on the grand river, renamed waterloo township in , is sometimes referred t o as the first mennonite bloc settlement in canada. a syndicate o f mennonites from lancastcr county, pennsylvania, purchased , acres from a land speculator, richard beasley, in and resold s~lbdivided lots to settlers. dr. elizabeth bloomficld describes three eras of development and changc that followcd that purchase, culminating in the dissolution of waterloo township a s a political cntity in . most o f the founding settlers of waterloo township were mennonites, but some were river brethren (also known as tunkers o r dunlcards, and later brethrcn in christ). other families belonged to the amish, united brethren, moravian, schwenkfelder, swedenborgian, quaker, methodist and lutheran churches. t h e first roman catholic settler is believed to have arrived in . by , almost percent of the total population in waterloo township was roman catholic. another percent were lutheran and percent were ~ e n n o n i t e . t h e mennonite share remained relatively constant until the s when it gradually dropped, reaching per cent in , percent in and i percent in . waterloo towizslzip tlzrozrglz two ceiztzrries is a fascinating and attractive illustrated study of all the groups o f people who lived in waterloo township during thc period of bloomfield's s t ~ l d y . the hague-osler mennonite settlenient on the south saskatchewan river in saskatchewan was a group movement of mennonites from manitoba ~ ~ n d e r the auspices of the old colony mennonite c h ~ ~ r c h . bishop johan wiebe and superintendent franz froese met with the canadian minister o f the interior in in winnipeg, and r e q ~ ~ e s t e d the reservation of land in the west to establish daughter settlements. this led to the creation of a reserve of four townships by ordcr in council early in , to which was added a fifth township by order in council on .lunc, . another five townships adjoining this reserve to the east werc sct aside by order of the c o n ~ n ~ i s s i o n e r of dominion lands on august, , in ordcr to a c c o m ~ n o d a t c more mennonite settlers. later i n the same year an area of townships adjacent to the northern edge of the original book rel~ieb~s reserve was set aside for mennonite homesteaders for five years. the hague- osler mennonite reserve book committee provides short histories of somc villages and "agglomerated settlements" that wcrc established by . the committee provides longer histories o f the "trading ccntrcs" of warman, hague, osler and martensville. the pioneer families of the hague-osler mennonite reserve were almost exclusively mennonite and this book is written for their descendants. t h e book committee gathered "stories o f our people" ( ) and photographs that would encourage readers "to examine their past, to reflect upon their current condition and to reaffirm their faith" ( ). these stories include pressures t o assimilate, imposition of secular education, difficulties confronted by pacifists during the two world wars, tlie drought and deprcssion of the s, changes in farming technology, and "temptations of affluence" (iii). both iyater-loo to~vrzslzip and hngue-osler are products created within distinct contexts for specific rnarkei,~. the waterloo historical society, which sponsored the waterloo book, is an establislied secular organization with limitedmennonite membership. accordingly, the society hireda non-mennonite with strong academic credentials t o write a detached, analytical study in the context of ontario history. t h e resulting work appeals to a cross-section o f people interested in ontario political, religious, social and genealogical history. it received the scadding award of excellence from the ontario historical society in . the hague-osler boolc committee, on the other hand, is a grass-roots organization of mennonite local historians without outsidc institutional s ~ ~ p p o r t o r financial backing. accordingly, the comniittcc uscd tlicir own talcnts and networks t o assemble anecdotal storics and photographs from many contributors relating narrowly to russian mennonite history. i was s ~ ~ r p r i s c d to notc, for example, that there was no mention of louis ricl or almighty voicc. the resulting pictorial history has limited appcal to pcoplc without roots in thc hague-osler community. its strengths lie in uniquc dctails of oral history which are recorded here for the first time, and tlie photographs which documcnt many aspects o f russian mennonite life. i found the i n c l ~ ~ s i o n of many photographs of physically challenged persons especially interesting. one rarely sees this side of mennonite life in canada. both books have been well received in their respective communities. waterloo to~jrzship is sold out and will be reprinted. hagzre-osler has already been reprinted. reg good historical research and writing archival management waterloo, ontario the p~.eser.vings. steinbach, m b : hanover-steinbach historical society. biannual newsletter, - . t h e efforts of the mennonites in the hanover steinbach historical society of manitoba, canada, have produced some noteworthy results, including their ncwslettcr,presei~tings, now underrcview here. begun in , the organization's purpose is "to research and write the history and heritage of the r.m. [rural municipality] of hanover and the town of steinbach. the emphasis i s on the period - . through p ~ ~ b l i c meetings, writings and publications it seeks to foster an understanding and respect for the rich heritage of the community." (loose sheet, dec. ) this clearly stated focus is on the russian mennonite immigrants of the s, the so-called "kanadier" mennonites, who came t o the manitoba east reserve as two distinct groups. the bergthaler were from near the sea o f azov, a daughter colony of the chortitza o r so-called "old colony" settlement in southern russia, now ukraine. today this group is primarily represented by the sommerfelder and chortitzcr groups. the second immigrant group was the klcinc gcmcindc, a small reform movement in the molotschna colony in southcrn russia. today in canada this group i s called the evangelical mcnnonitc confcrcncc. this publication, thc rcsult of current interest in local history, is growing rapidly. from the modest first issue of january ( pp.) t o the two-part behemoths o f june ( pp) and december ( pp), the term "newsletter" appears inadequate to describe the size o f this publication. although under the impetus and sway o f editor delbert f. plett, a lawyer and historian in steinbach, manitoba, these issues contain pieces by many persons. a serendipitous conjunction of plett's interests, computerized word processing, graphics software, and the writing abilities of contributors has resulted in a commendable legacy. w e also learn (june , pt. , ) that the publication is funded in part by the "d.f. plett foundation fund." many o f the pieces are biographical-written by descendants, but other topics help broaden the appeal. examples are "researching pioneer families" (june , part , p. ), "mennonite burial customs" (june , pt. , ). a few articles are by university-based historians (eg.: royden loewen, "elisabeth rempel reimer: immigrant woman," dec. , ). apparently mr. plett has reserved the translations of primary source docunlents for his equally hefty monographs, for one finds few of these in the newsletter. one discovers the u s ~ ~ a l tidbits of information: reunion announcements, the fact that pop music star john denver has kleine gemeinde ancestors (june , pt. , ), tours to the russian homeland of the kleine gemeinde led by delbert plett (june , pt. , i ) , book reviews, and numerous illustrations. scholars, especially those in the areas of social history and follclore, will gain benefit from p ~ ~ b l i c a t i o n s such as this newsletter-empowered by the forces o f genealogy and local history. such scholars should remove any book rei~ierts blinders of disdain in order t o utilize the rich treasures which are exemplified in preseivirzgs. in turn, the editor of the newsletter could broadcn its usc by making some alterations. for example, tlie long-tcrni i ~ s c f i ~ l n c s s ofthe periodical is comproniised by tlie lack o f a thorough table of contcnts for each issue, or any stated plans for a subject andlor name index. of course, a good index could be produced at any tinie. also, the identification and description of primary sources could be published on a regular basis as an aid to scholars. higher editorial standards could widen the readability and appeal beyond the in-crowd of descendants of the "kanadiers." so, too, c o ~ l l d the translation o f numerous german words, including some words in article titles (eg. "aeltester gerliard wiebe ( - ): a father of manitoba," junc , i). some of the longer articles have an annoying habit of "meandering" throughout the issue rather than focussing a compact presentation on consecutive pages (eg.: "education in the east reserve: - ," junc , pt. , with interruptions). certain illustrations could be more fully described, such as tlie valuable niap of chortitza, russia, in (june , pt. , ) . the inclusion o f multi-generational outlines, conceivably reaching back t o seventeenth century poland-prussia, could provide the advantage of visualizing links among many generations in a compact space. the focus on the period from - -the immigration of the kanadier mennonites-is probably a useful and sensible restriction in the early years of the historical organization. one hopes for a future broadening of the scope to include the russian mennonite immigrants of thc s to the east rcscrve, tlie so-called russliinder mennonites. certainly the historical intcrdcpcndcncics, either in conflict o r cooperation, of these two s t r c a ~ n s of russian mcnnonitcs is an important enough theme t o cause an eventual widcning of tlic scopc of this local historical society. if broadened in this way, evcn more pcrsons could benefit from the inspiring nurture o f heritage themes which this periodical fosters. david rempel smucker, editor pennsylvania menrzonite heritage lancaster, pennsylvania cornelius j. dyck, ed. and trans., s'iritunl l f e iiz aiznbnptist~~ (scottdale, pa and waterloo, on: herald press, ). paperback, pp. daniel liechty, ed., trans., and intro. e u ~ . l j ~ aiznbc~ptist spir.itzlulitj~. selected writings. (new yorkimahwah: paulist press, ). paperback, pp. writers on the anabaptist tradition in the last few decades have tended to emphasize tlie movement's ethics rather than its spiritual life. in contrast t o tlie inwardness o f pietistic evangelicalism and the dogmatic sacramentalism of mainline c h ~ t r c h e s , anabaptism was seen as a social protest movement, calling for human justice in thc face of religious and political oppression. t w o rcccnt collections of anabaptist spiritual texts come a s a useful complcmcnt and corrective. lieclity's volume in the excellent clcrssics of bjt.stet-tz spit-itzicrlity series includes a preface by hans hillerbrand and then prcscnts complete texts by felix mantz, balthasar hubmaier, hans hut, leonhard schiemer, hans schlaffer, hans denck, peter walpot, dirk philips and menno simons. there are also six early songs from the ausbutzd and an appendix with illustrations from the n/lnrtjrs' mirror. the texts are accompanied by introductions and annotation. in his collection c.j. dyck puts forward atlicsis about anabaptist spirituality, distinguishing i t from tlie monastic religiousness of the middle ages. it was activc rathcr than passive, he argucs, emphasizing community, following the example of jesus in active service and becoming involved in tlie social world round about them. dyck writes: "if there is a difference between the medieval vicw and anabaptism, it i s in the latter's rejection of a long sacramental- liturgical tradition, in intense small-group bible studies, a sense o f mission, and in a ncw awarcness o f the meaning o f free will for discipleship, among other non-monastic themes" ( ). t h e b o o k ' s c h a p t e r s a r e organized by subject rather than by author: an interpretation o f t h e a p o s t l e s ' c r e e d , t h e conversion o f menno, t h e new birth, w o r d a n d s p i r i t , discipleship, p e a c e a n d justice, lifestyle, faith a n d encouragement, t h e c h u r c h , prayer and meditation f o r spiritual discernment. s e l e c t i o n s a r e t a k e n f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g writers: leonard s c h i e m e r , michael sattler, felix m a n z , hans hut, balthasar hubmaier, h a n s d e n c k , piigram m a r p e c k , tvienno simons, dirk fhilips, david joris, h a n s d e ries, peter r i e d e m a n n , lijsken dirks, anna jansz, andreas e t h r e n p r c i s , margarete endris, maeylcen o f deventer, maeyken wens, hans s c h l a f f e r and pieter pietersz. a c c o r d i n g t o dyck, "perhaps the c r o w n o f t h i s volume i s pietersz' t h e w a y t o the city of pence in chapter . it is a s e r i o u s chnlletzge a g a i n s t t h e g r o w i n g social permissiveness, w e a l t h , a n d l u x u r i o ~ ~ s l i v i n g . m o s t interesting a l s o is his strong reaction a g a i n s t s m o k i n g , which h a d recently come t o t h e netherlands" ( ). indeed, pietersz' c o n c e r n s are an example o f how anabaptist-mennonite spirituality related t o e t h i c s a n d m o r a l i t y . both v o l ~ ~ m e s are generally well transiated into clear engiish from the original languages. they make important texts available to a wide audience. scholars may wish for clearer annotation regarding tlie editions used and otiicrs that arc available, as for example tlie classic vor? der wnhr-erz lieb by hans denck, which has been translated several times, while tlie pieter pietersz wegh na ifredetz-stadt appears in english for tlie first time. book reiiews .? t h e two collections are complementary in their content and parallel in their attractive format. though relatively free of errors, there are a few wrong numbers in dyck's edition which should be noted: the decree issued by anna of oldenburg was in , not ( ); the reference to thc pipkin-yodcr edition of hubmaier should be pp. - , not - ( ): the letter is from menno to bouwens, not the other way around ( ). harry loewen and victor doerksen icelowna, bc migratioi~ _north: meniioizites fronz mexico (winnipeg: mennonite central committee, ). video, mins. a igratioii nortlz depicts the culture, values and spiritual beliefs of the old colony mennonites o f mexico. it is an orientation tool for educators, health care professionals, employment councilors and o t l ~ c r s who provide social services t o mexican mennonites migrating to canada. as such it sceks to provide a better understanding between the social serving agencies and the recipients of their services. as well, the video has attracted a wide viewing audience o f canadian mennonites who fecl a scnsc of kinship with the conservative mennonites of mexico. t e video begins with a historical overview of thc mcnnonitc move to mexico. beginning in , approximately mcnnonitcs from manitoba and saskatchewan migrated south following a loss of their right to maintain private germail language schools. the vidco thcn presents the vicws of present day mexican mennonites on such issucs as education, family planning, employment opportunities for youth, e c o n o n ~ i c conditions and the largc return migration (c. , ) to canada where employment and better living conditions beckon. the video ends by exanlining the experiences of mennonites who havc "retrace[d] the steps of their ancestors and move[d] north," with a view of how they have adapted to a new life in canada. much of the video is shot in mexico where the videographer had access to a n ~ ~ n u s u a l l y wide spectrum of mennonite lifc. rarc sccncs from thc ordinary and everyday life of old colony mennonites, which to outsiders is thc lifc o f a n extraordinarji group of mcnnonitcs, is thc great strcngth of blig:.a!io: i\!o:.!!z: woman busy with d o n ~ c s t i c taslts, farmers working irrigation cquipmcnt, stccl- wheeled tractors at work, horse-drawn vchicles kicking up dust, girls posing in wide brimmed hats trimmed with matching black bows, childrcn at school and even people attending church. a rare find, indeed, is the clip ofhym singing at church. excerpts from interviews with these "extraordinary" people are featured throughout the vidco. for a society that wishes to remain isolated, an impressive range of individuals consented to be filmed. among them are a traditional niedicallniidwifery, husbandlwife team as well as a licensed mennonite medical doctor; a minister who gives the classically evasive answers to questions about old colony faith to an outsider, as well as a minister who discloses his departure from traditional teachings; a young cheese factory labourer who plans to move to canada because lie cannot make ends meet to s ~ ~ p p o r t his family, as well as a successful apple grower and c o m ~ n ~ ~ n i t y leader. this wealth o f information is presented through the eyes o f t h e scriptwriter narrator whose grandparents chose not t o move t o mexico in . although personable, this approach makes a/figratiorz nor-tlz the narrator's story rather than tliat o f the people t o whom it belongs. the potential which is apparent in tlic footage, tliat o f the old colony mennonites presenting their o+vrz struggle as their traditional life is threatened and rapidly changing, is not fillly realized. the vidco, in the main, deals with why a people would choose to leave their homeland t o face the hardships of a transitory life in canada; the narrator's interpretive grid results in the viewers' encountering old colony mennonite life from a canadian perspective rather than from an authentically old colony one. this is unfortunate. the directedness of the interview questions, pursuing a specific purpose, also leaves tlic viewer feeling that more and other information might have been fortlicoming if tlie questions had been more open-ended. in spite of these weaknesses, migration north provides a useful and informative overview o f life among old colony mexican mennonites both for its intended audience as well as a more general one. rosabel fast university o f manitoba leo driedger, multi-ethizic cnizndn: identities aizd iizeqzinlities (toronto: oxford university press, ). pp., including references and index. when you pick up this book and get tlie feeling that you liave seen this before you probably liave. it is really a revised edition of driedger's the ethrzic factor-: iderztity in diversity p ~ ~ b i i s h e d by 'nicgraw-hill ryerson in i . the ~ ~ p g r a d e involves incorporating tlie census data, acknowledging new sources and removing older sources, using more politically-correct l a n g ~ ~ a g e (e.g. aboriginals instead of natives, french q u t b t c o i s instead of french canadian), refining tlie index, adding key events s ~ ~ c l i as the quebec referendum , and drawing in new research findings. book reviebvs the author takes the position that canadians must view their society as "unabashedly multi-ethnic and pluralist". t h e analysis is framed in chapters divided into five parts. part i identifies a theoretical focus by looking at what classical, american and canadian sociologists have written about ethnicity. weber's conception o f ethnic identity based on race, culture, tribe, nationality, and religion is selected t o guide the analysis. six theories of ethnic change and persistence are used t o develop a conformity-pluralist model intended to reflect the various experiences endured by ethnic groups in canadian society. the balance o f the book is devoted t o comparing the ethnic groups identified in the different dimensions of the model. t o support this analysis the author provides, in part , an empirical look at the diversity o f tlie canadian population using census data from to . immigration trends and origins of immigrants are traced. f o l i ~ ethnic types emerge from the immigration patterns: the aboriginals, the cliarler-europeans, tlie non-charter europeans, and the visible third world minorities. the data also show that the distribution of the ethnic groups i s very uneven across six canadian regions. part i focuses on voluntary ethnic identity and solidarity. tlie significance o f a language symbol system i s shown by examining the french qudbtcois experience. other sociocultural and symbolic dimensions s ~ ~ c h as territory, institutions, culture, history, ideology and charismatic leadership are assessed by comparing findings involving a variety o f ethnic groups. the role of the "sacred canopy" in shaping identity is illustrated by the aboriginal food- gatherers, hutterite agriculturists and jewish urbanites. the stratification of canadian society in terms of political powcr, social prestige, socio-economic status, ecological scgrcgation and racial incqualitics i s explored in part iv. the author concludes tliat ethnic stratification is essentially involuntary, and that it may be both a rcsourcc and a drawback when it comes t o social mobility. tlie segregation of minorities is shown to vary enormously by cities and by groups. studies of blaclts, chincsc and japanese in canada provide ample evidence of apartheid segregation and racial inequality. evidence in part v suggests that canadian attitudes show considerable goodwill toward a variety of ethnic expressions that support pluralism. at the same time data show that ethnic origin, race and religion lead to differential and unfair treatment. the recognition o f some aboriginal and ~ n u l t i c u l t ~ ~ r a l rights by the canadian charter of rights and freedoms ( ) is highlighted to show the need for minority rights t o limit f i ~ t u r e injustices such as tlic expulsion o f t h e acadians, undermining o f t h e mdtis nation, unsettled aboriginal land claims, and hostilities toward thc jcws. this book brings together a wide range o f empirical and analytical work pertaining to etlinicity in canada. for s o m e readers the cxtcnsive theoretical references and the liberal use of statistics will be distracting and overly academic. others hoping for more theoretical insights in a field tliat necds some consolidation may be disappointed. the conformity-pluralist model is helpful as an organizing framework for the book but adds little t o theory devclopment. a concluding chapter evaluating theory construction in a polyethnic society and suggesting further research and policy directions would have been wclcome. a careful proof-reading of thc tcxt and tables would have eliminated typographical errors and repetition o f material. my guess is that the book will bc a difficult rcad for undergraduate students but it will stand as a good refcrencc book. it makes a clear case for a multi-ethnic view of canada again. jacob peters department o f sociology the university of winnipeg miriam toews, sz~r?zr?zer ofmyanzazirzglz~clc(winnipeg: turnstone press, ). pp., $ . . get ready for some rollicking picaresque fiction in the maternal mode. this i s part don qzii.xote part lzinatic villas, and the unlikely combination is one o f the things that makes miriam toews' debut novel so delightfully humorous, subversive, and naughtily clever. "it's a nutty life when ~ o l i try t o combine romance and taking care of little kids," comments lucy, wide-eyed x-year- old narrator and single mother, bewildered to find herself suddenly plunged into the life of the poor and the outcast, in public housing and on the "dole" ( ). it's the nuttiness o f single welfare mothers' lives in a society that treats them like semi-criminals and cons, instead of honouring their -hour-a-day exhausting work, performed for the most part, despite the lousy wage and job conditions, with devotion, pleasure, and certainly love, that toews chooses as her main subject here. "paternity i s a legal fiction," wrote james joyce, and toews' parody of our society's ongoing obsession with fathers as the only proper sanction for human reproduction, despite their ephemeral role in the reproductive process, and the well-known unreliability of fathers' social s ~ ~ p p o r t for their offspring (some o f whom they may not even know about), takes the joycean play on genealogy t o a new level of revision here. the success ofthe narrative hinges on being able to convince lis simultaneo~~sly that on thc one hand, the women at have-a-life housing, or half-a-life as the residents likc to call it, arc tlicrc b e c a ~ ~ s e of unfortunate and often violent circumstances in their pasts, and on the other, that their lives are interesting, that thcy posscss desires and hopes for themselves and their loved children, that their lives have intrinsic and social worth, whether or not they're on their way t o improved circumstances. (and even, occasionally, that they are able t o enjoy life in a particularly spontaneous and joyous way hecrrrtse o f t h e i r lack o f place in the symbolic order.) the success of the text depends on toews' ability t o sustain the crazy comic pace she sets for herself, jampacked with whaclty coincidences, a dizzying array of characters, wonderful wordplay and other assorted tricks, and through all this, an interesting plot line that is neither overwhelmed by tliebr-icolage texture, nor so strong as to render this patchwork world as secondary t o the action. this i s a difficult thing to pull off: in picturing the single welfare mother as semi-outlaw, as fun-loving adventurer, as temporarily incarcerated drifter with a pack of fatherless children in tow, toews not only challenges the traditional stereotype of tlie mother as absent, or silent self- sacrificing homemalter secondary to a inore powerfill father, but also sets our whole notion o f home and road (and who belongs ro which) on edge. the novel succeeds m a r v e l l o ~ ~ s l y on both counts. the narrative energy never flags; and by t h e time lucy decides t o accompany her friend lish on her road trip in a borrowed van to find her long lost boyfriend (wlioni lucy has been impersonating in t h e form o f postcards sent from various bogus american locations t o cheer up h e r friend), accompanied by their five young children, we have been drawn s o f a r into the carnivalesque logic of half-a-life that, like lucy, we think this i s an exciting, marvellous, even important plan. one of tlie many pleasures in reading this novel is the detail with which t o e w s documents the daily heroism involved in raising young children on a low income. getting strollers and wagons through revolving doors bcconics a major carnival feat; coping with the vicissit~ldcs of croup in tlic night and mosquito bites and spilled juice becomes a g l o r i o ~ ~ s challcngc. it's alniost impossible t o write the kind of interrupted, hilarious multifacctcd d i a l o g ~ ~ c that occurs around young children. toews docs it better than anyone i've sccn. here's an excerpt: "letitia was crying a bit because she'd pced on licr dress, her f a v o ~ ~ r i t e dress. alba, in lier bossiest voice, was tclling lier, 'wcll, you should liave spread your legs farther apart and lifted your dress high, right mom? right m o m ? right mom? m o m , mom, letitia should have spread her - 'yes alba! she should liave. drop it already. she's already forgotten about it. good grief. lucy, lucy, i'm sorry this has all gotten so. ..get in the van,' she yelled, 'you'll fall in t h e ditch leavethatgarbage alone. geez hope, maya, haul alba and letitia into tlic van,' lish s a ~ d . 'ugh, she's covered i n pee, i ' m not touching licr,' said hope. 'alba help your sister right now for god's sake her dress is already dry.' ' i always liave to do everything, why can't maya..."' ( ) after you've left those sensuous, high-spirited, incredible early years of parenting, you forget how complicated and fast-paced and engaging it all was. toews' novel with its close-up lens on that very undernarrated segment of our collective and individual lives reminds us with humour and panache. an incidental pleasure for manitoba readers will be seeing our recent tribulations with flooding and bugs documented here in all their true horror. none o f lis will forget the summer of the rains, which brought to life seven years' worth of drought-delayed mosquitoes all at once. the only consolation that year brought was its storymaking potential. toews uses the legendary summer's crisis-filled trajectory to great effect, a sympathetic backdrop, as it were, t o the crisis-filled lives of the women at half-a-life. when the sun finally comes out for a few hours, the whole community celebrates. those mennonite readers looking for overt mennonite content in the novel (after all there have been s o few novels written by mennonite women and we are all hungry for fiction about ourselves), will at least initially be disappointed. this is a portrait of contemporary canadian urban life below the poverty line, and tlic c o m ~ n u n i t y it portrays is a mixed one, both racially and culturally. on the other hand, what i s mennonite under these circumstances? certainly toews' relentless interrogation of fatherhood a s the only legitimate access t o the symbolic order, when so many fathcrs are in fact absent or unreliable, and vcry fcw participate in the intense hands-on responsibilities of parenting young children to the cxtcnt that mothers do, is a timely mennonite (as well as non-mennonite) theme. i like t o think o f lucy and her mother's ability t o laugh a lot as a mennonite trait, though it i s surely true that the reason they can indulge themselves in it s o freely, given their unortliodox lives, is because they are not circumscribed by a judging mennonite community, just as toews' narrative derives most o f its permission for parody and the carnivalesque (it seems t o me) from non-mennonite sources. i don't want to discuss the outcome o f the novel here (you should all go out and buy the book and find out for yourself), except to say that there is a satisfying climax and resolution t o the dilemmas facing our undaunted heroines lucy and lish, and thc many social questions raised here; the kind of trick ending that leaves you feeling surprised into joy. there is even, forthose of you worried about the fate of fatherliood in a story like this, a kind of redemption, t h o ~ l g h not without its respective price, for a few select and willing fathers. brava, miriam toews. di brandt university of alberta book reviel.vs ar~nin wiebe, tlze second coi?ziizg of yeeat slzpaizst (winnipeg, manitoba: turnstone press, ). soft-cover, pp., $ . . this, tlie third novel from armin wiebe, combines his distinctive vision o f mennonite life in rural manitoba with an overarching apocalyptic tone. the influences of t h e outside world threaten the rural community of gutenthal with an onslaught o f television media and unfamiliar fashions. further more, m ~ ~ l t i n a t i o n a l capitalism, encroaching american culture, and irreconcilable constitutional debates threaten t o tear apart the entirety of canada in a whirlwind o f identity crises. things seem fairly bleak. the novel itself is even at risk in these last days, as koadel icehler, the teacher's son, warns, "a person going t o write a posthole modern style book should hurry it along before generation x decides to help the neo-conformatives to propel l i ~ forward into the past." yeeat shpanst, tlie vanishing politician from the final pages of tlze sah~atiorz of ynsclz sienzeizs, reprises his elusive role. his return and ensuing disappearance remain a mystery, while in his new absence, those who witnessed his curling rink address repeat and multiply his words. the tales o f t h e land o f them and the land of us, read from yeeat's notes, bring a new voice to the narrative. these nationalistic fables, together with the parodically rewritten prime minister's speech, anda stining manifesto-" see millions ofbeetweeders, witli hoes sharpened, descending on our choking fieldsv-conj~~rc the colloquial, well-intentioned voice o f grassroots politics. contributing to the complex, sometimes confi~scd structure of thc novcl, wiebe has found a surrogate author in oata siemens. writing all tliat she secs with a carpenter's pencil in a farmers' union notebook, she hclps groi~rid the novel, often sprawling under its excess. with hcr decision to "write her way out of this blac!< and white summer all by herself," oata records a pcrsonal vision, an exploration o f her own past which parallels thc larger, apocalyptic call for change in these troubled times. oata views this epic action tliro~igli her own imaginings and watches them on tlie television, but when slie hears licr own words broadcast, the source of the visions bccomc confused-the lines wliicli separate politics and the pastoral world of gutcnthal tangle inseparably. considering the recent announcement of the closing of roger's sugar in winnipeg, and witli it the apparent demise oftlie manitoba sugar beet industry, the secorzd cor zilzg of yeeat slzpnrzst arrived, in retrospect, as an appropriate harbinger. by depicting tlie concerns o f rural life and kecnly dramatizing thc low german language and culture, arniin wicbc has opcncd a spacc for writers from this tradition. with tliat, his work also brings humour to a litcrary tradition oftentimes guilty of being overly earnest. glenn bergen altona, manitoba journal o f ' m e ~ i t i o ~ i i t e stlrdies c. arnold snyder and linda a. huebert hecht, eds., profiles of alzabaptist wonzen: sixteenth centzuyrefor ~zingpioneers (waterloo: wilfrid laurier press, ). xxii + pp, maps and blw plates. paper $ . one of the most interesting results of feminist scholarship in religious history has been to demonstrate how the inclusion of women's experience by its nature leads to a revised and more nuanced understanding of the traditional narrative. by drawing on recent reformation and feminist scholarship, and by its sensitivity to the specific anabaptist context, this attractively presented collection of over seventy group and individual profiles by canadian,american, dutch and german anabaptist scholars makes an important contribution to that endeavour. assuming as their orginizational pattern the familiar polygenesis approach t o sixteenth-century anabaptism, the editors have divided their selections into three geographical areas: swiss, germanjaustrian, andgermanjdutch anabaptists, each prefaced by a map and a brief but helpfill introduction. with only a few exceptions, the focus is on the developmental stage o f t h e anabaptist movement, the late s to s, a period, it is argued, when, despite certain gender limitations on the activity of women, there existed enhanced opportunity for egalitarianism as "spirit-elected" women leaders assumed a variety of roles withn their communities. what follows is an astoundingly rich tapestry of how women o f different socio-economic backgrounds were able to integrate the experience and the propagation of the new anabaptist religion into the demands of day to day life. such a focus on women's largely private world calls for a skillful reconstruction of limited sources. john oyer, for example, draws on court records to reconstruct the activity o f nine women leaders in augsburg, who during the briefperiod - quietiy, b y offering hospitaiity to refugees o r through bible reading in spinning and sewing circles, were able to hold the movement together in the face of persecution. lois barrett is able to tease out of published pamphlets and local records the remarkable prophetic visions and leadership activity of strasbourg's ursula jost and barbara rebstock, both of whom had a deep impact on melchior hoffman. the range of topics and experiences covered is extensive, and generally eschews a hagiograpliic approach. thus linda huebert hecht offers insight into the motivation and context o f a n ~ ~ m b e r of anabaptist women in the tirol who recanted, while marlene epp and julia roberts explore sexual attitudes by examining the unusually benign reception given to victims of rape b y the early hutterite communities. though the volume contains a few minor flaws (most notably the idiosyncratic decision to relegate contributors' names alphabetically to the back of the book), it offers considerable potential for both teaching and fi~rther research. especially useful for teaching purposes is the inclusion of excerpts of printed book revie~vs texts in a number of articles, such as "anna jansz of rotterdam"' by werner packull, a n d arnold snyder's "magdalena, walpurga, and sophia marschalk von pappenheim". instructors in search of texts which do justice to both t h e larger narrative of reformation history and to women's religious experience will also welcome the editors' clear introductory exposition of anabaptist belief and practice. and, while the book's thrust is in the first place to recover women's stories rather than t o offer a gendered approach to anabaptist history, by showing t h e intersection of women's domestic and religious roles and by drawing attention to points o f contact with feminist studies of medieval spirituality, these profiles offer tantalizing glimpses into the way the inclusion of gender into religious history deepens our understanding o f continuity a s well as o f change. marguerite van die queen's universityiqueen's theological college wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ analyses natalia vlas Оригинални научни рад centre for political analysis babes-bolyai university, romania udk - : . /. ( ) is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security abstract the paper tackled the extremely hot relationship between religion and security and argued that religion is both a threat and a promise for global security. method- ologically, the paper falls within the area of conceptual analysis. by making use of both inductive and deductive reasoning, it tried to find answers to the following questions: is religion inherently violent? and what are the prospects that religion might contrib- ute rather to peace and stability than to conflict and destruction within the interna- tional system? the paper comprised four sections. the first one outlined the background of the discussion, emphasizing that the world is facing a worldwide resurgence of religion, and tried to assess the meaning of the politicization of religion for the global secu- rity. the second section comprised a few reflections on the nexus between religion and violence, attempting to prove that no religion is inherently violent or inherently peaceful, as many would assume. the third part explored the positive nexus between religion and security and the last part comprised the conclusions and some recom- mendations meant to improve the ability of international relations practitioners and policy-makers to make religion part of the solution to the global security dilemmas, instead of treating it exclusively as part of the problem. key words: global security, religion, peace, violence. setting the background despite the quasi-paradigmatic status of the secularization thesis and religion’s ‘exile’ from social sciences during the last two centuries, on the basis of the assump- tion that modernity has made religion irrelevant in the public sphere and in the po- litical life, relevant empirical research and data in the last decades reveal that instead nataliavlas@yahoo.com this paper has benefited from the financial support provided through the project : “innovative postdoctoral programs for sustainable development in a knowledge based society ” (contract code: posdru/ / . /s/ ), a project co-financed from the european social fund through the sectoral operational program for human resources development - . see josé casanova, public religions in the modern world (chicago:university of chicago, ). fabio petito & pavlos hatzopoulos, ed., religion in international relations, the return from exile (new york: palgrave macmillan, ). ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ of declining and eventually disappearing, religion persists both in the individual con- science and in the public sphere, continuing to shape the political beliefs and prac- tices of a great number of people and institutions throughout the world. given that one of the main reasons for the anterior exclusion of religion from the public sphere since the peace of westphalia were linked with the idea of religion as a source of dogmatism, fanaticism, prejudice, ignorance, repression and persecution and that, as some observers note: ‘at the turn of the new millennium, religious loyal- ties are at the root of many of the world’s ongoing civil wars and political violence’ religion ‘(re-) emerging as the single (?) most important political-ideological default mechanism in global conflict’, the analysis of the nexus between religion and secu- rity becomes an extremely necessary and timely enterprise. after all, we are now in a war (against terror) that is ‘simultaneously intranational, transnational and religious’, which was described by some as a ‘«civilization conflict» that both reflects and exacer- bates security problems between the abrahamic traditions’. although the tendency in political science literature is to approach the impact of religion upon security mainly in negative terms, i am going to approach this issue in a more nuanced manner, emphasizing both the positive and negative aspects of the nexus between religion and security. methodologically, the paper falls within the area of conceptual analysis. by making use of both inductive and deductive reasoning, i will try to find answers to the following questions: is religion inherently violent? and what are the prospects that religion might contribute rather to peace and stability than to conflict and destruction within the international system? the paper is structured in four parts. the first one outlines the background of the discussion, emphasizing the fact that we are now facing a worldwide resurgence of religion, and tries to assess the meaning of the politicization of religion for the global security. the second section of the paper comprises a few reflections on the nexus be- tween religion and violence, attempting to prove that no religion is inherently violent or inherently peaceful, as many seem to assume. the third part explores the positive nexus between religion and security and the last part comprises the conclusions and some recommendations meant to improve the ability of international relations prac- titioners and policy-makers to make religion part of the solution to the global security dilemmas, instead of treating it exclusively as part of the problem. scott thomas, the global resurgence of religion and the transformation of international relation, the struggle for the soul of the twenty-first century (new york: palgrave macmillan, ); huntington, the clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order (new york: simon & schuster, ); mark juergensmeyer, the new cold war?: religious nationalism confronts the secular state (california: university of california press, ); john l. esposito & michael watson, eds., religion and global order (cardiff: university of wales press). see martin, does christianity cause war?, p. ; hector avalos, fighting words: the origins of religious violence (new york: prometheus books, ); richard dawkins, the god delusion (houghton mifflin harcourt, ). jenkins, the next christendom, p. . pauletta otis, ‘religion and war in the twenty-first century,’ in robert a. seiple & dennis r. hoover, religion and security. the new nexus in international relations (rowman & littlefield publishers, ), p. . dennis r. hoover, ‘introduction: religion gets real,’ in robert a. seiple & dennis r. hoover, religion and security. the new nexus in international relations (rowman & littlefield publishers, ), p. . analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) the global resurgence of religion. the politicization of religion as the classic secularization thesis proved inadequate in the light of the religious developments during the last decades, other thesis trying to account for these devel- opments emerged. one of the most influential is the one emphasizing that a global religious resurgence is currently taking place. this religious resurgence could be un- derstood as ‘the growing saliency and persuasiveness of religion, i.e. the increasing importance of religious beliefs, practices, and discourses in personal and public life, and the growing role of religious or religiously-related individuals, non-state groups, political parties, and communities, and organizations in domestic politics, and this is occurring in ways that have significant implications for international politics’. among the most visible symptoms of this religious resurgence are the thriving of the funda- mentalist movements, of the increasingly numerous muslim diasporas in europe and in the us, of some jewish groups and of evangelical movements in the us and in latin america, and also the emergence of some national-communal movements in south and south-east asia, india and sri lanka, for example. other symptoms may include the rise of faith-based diplomacy, the world faiths dialogue, the increasingly signifi- cant role of the world’s religious leaders at the un and at the meetings of the world economic forum in davos, and the growing role of religion as part of peacemaking and conflict resolution efforts throughout the world etc. this ‘return of the sacred’ often involves the politicization of religion. in the case of islam, for instance, the ‘revanche de dieu’ means primarily a revival of political is- lam (islamism) which takes the form of numerous transnational islamists networks and movements that seek to establish a new neo-islamist world order, that is to remake the world order according to allah’s rule (hakimiyyat allah). as john kelsay remarks: ‘much of the contemporary return to islam is driven by the perception of muslims as a community… having a mission to fulfill [...]. in encounters between the west and islam, the struggle is over who will provide the primary definition of world order. will it be the west, with its notions of territorial boundaries, market economies, private reli- giosity, and the priority of individual rights? or will it be islam, with its emphasis on the universal mission of a trans-tribal community called to build a social order founded on the pure monotheism natural to humanity?’ the same tendencies can be seen outside the world of islam and the west too, where ‘politicized religions of all kinds present their own concepts of order unaccept- thomas, ‘outwitting the developed countries?, p. . eisenstadt, ‘the resurgence of religious movements’, p. . thomas, the global resurgence of religion. the concept of hakimiyyat allah/allah’s rule originates in the works of qutb, who called the muslims to wage the global jihad to establish a new world order based on an ‘islamic world peace’ – that is to bring the entire world in the dar al-islam (bassam tibi, political islam, world politics and europe. democratic peace and euro/islam versus global jihad (abington, new york: routledge, ). apud. tibi, political islam, pp. , . ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ able to others and thus contribute to ‘a new cold war’. actually, the contemporary revival of religion in the non-western world is considered by some authors as a ‘re- volt against the west’ and especially against the westphalian order. thus, not just the political islam’s but sikhism’s narratives, for instance, also reject the subordination of the religious to the political and accordingly challenge the westphalian international order. with the attacks of september , politicized religion has moved from the pe- riphery to the centre of the international public arena. / was the event that brought religion to the surface of the international relations discipline, by focusing attention on the conjunction of religion and violence and the political significance of this con- junction on a global level. the fact that the religious rhetoric and symbols are exten- sively employed by the warring parties throughout the world seem to give credit to the assumption that killing in the name of god has become the main driving force of many of the conflicts in the world and under these circumstances, the current resur- gence of religion would be nothing more than the ignition spark of security’s powder keg. yet, is it really so? is religion indeed the main threat for the global insecurity? the next section of the paper is therefore dedicated to the analysis of the relation- ship between religion and violence, trying, on the one hand ‘to disentangle problems instead of heaping everything at the door of religion’ and to determine if religion (or at least some religions) is indeed inherently violent, as some authors argue. reflections on the nexus between religion and violence first, if we accept the idea that some religions are inherently violent, while others are inherently peaceful, that would mean that there is something within them (i.e. sa- cred texts, rituals, dogmas or doctrines) that makes them more violent or more peace- ful than others. under these circumstances, we would expect some religions to be in a constant state of war, while others would be in a state of permanent peace. that is not the case, however. history shows that every religion was or still is involved in conflicts throughout the world - not only monotheistic religions, because of their belief in the tibi, political islam, p. . this ‘new cold war’ was also envisioned by juergensmeyer (in his the new cold war, ) in the s, when he observed that what appeared to be an anomaly when the islamic revolution in iran challenged the supremacy of western culture and its secular politics in has become a major theme in international politics in the s’ and maintained that the conflicts in the post-cold war international system would be driven by clashes between various communal identities based on race, ethnicity, nationality or religion rather than by ideologies. tibi, political islam, p. . see also giorgio shani, ‘a revolt against the vest: politicized religion and the international order – a comparison of the islamic umma and the sikh qaum’, ritsumeikan annual review of international studies, vol. , , pp. - ; shani, sikh nationalism and identity in a global age (london and new york: routledge, ). j.p. larson, understanding religious violence: thinking outside the box on terrorism (hants: ashgate publishing limited, ). motzkin & fischer, (eds.), religion and democracy in contemporary europe (london: alliance, ). jack nelson-pallmeyer, is religion killing us? violence in the bible and the quran, (harrisburg / london / new york: trinity press international, ); m. j. akbar, the shade of swords. jihad and the conflict between islam and christianity (london: routledge publishers, ); huntington, ‘the clash of civilizations?’ see akbar, the shade of swords; nelson-pallmeyer is religion killing us?; huntington, ‘the clash of civilizations?’. analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) existence of only one true god, as many people seem to believe, but polytheistic ones, too. despite their belief in a multitude of gods, polytheistic religions do not seem to be more tolerant or peaceful. for instance, in sri lanka, buddhists and hindus fought each other for decades. in india, the hindus and sikhs also confront each other in vio- lent episodes and hindus and muslims confront each other in india as well as in paki- stan. religious based violence is encountered in every religion; none of them is more or less prone to violence than the others, none of them is inherently violent or inher- ently peaceful. every religion presents some concepts, religious writings or principles that can be used in order to justify the appeal to violence. in sri lanka, for instance, although the conflict between the sinhalese and tamils is purely political, both the hindu tamil minority and the sinhalese buddhist majority use their sacred text in or- der to justify their violent acts against their opponents and to gain political advan- tages. mahavamsa, for instance, which was written by a group of buddhist monks in the fifth century, presents buddha as the initiator of the idea that sri lanka belongs to the sinhalese people, by inviting them on the island and commanding them to keep forever the purity of buddhism there. moreover, it presents buddha engaged in what we call today an ethnic cleansing, freeing the island of sri lanka by its foreign inhab- itants. thus mahavamsa along with other writings such as pali chronicles, provided legitimacy for buddhists’ fight against the ‘infidel’ tamils as far back as the antiquity. in the same manner, both israelis and palestinians draw from their sacred texts to legiti- mize their territorial claims. undoubtedly, there are verses both in the bible and the quran that can be used for radical and violent interpretations. chilton, for instance, focused on the old testa- ment story of abraham and isaac, a key episode for jews, christians and muslims alike, when god asked abraham to sacrifice his son, isaac, but at the last moment, because abraham had proved his faith, being prepared to slain his son, god stopped him and pointed out a ram caught in a thicket as a sacrifice to substitute isaac. chilton argues that, although the true and original meaning of the story is that human sacrifice is not desired by god, all the three monotheisms have altered the meaning of the story in times of persecution, glorifying martyrdom. quran also contains verses such as this: ‘and when the sacred months are passed, kill those who join other gods with god wherever ye shall find them; and seize them, besiege them, and lay wait for them with every kind of ambush’. but the surah con- tinues as this: ‘yet if they repent, and take to prayer, and render the purifying dues, let them go their way: for, behold, god is much forgiving, a dispenser of grace.’ and then continues like this: ‘if any of those who ascribe divinity to aught beside god seeks thy protection, grant him protection, so that he might [be able to] hear the word of god [from thee]; and thereupon convey him to a place where he can feel secure: this, be- cause they [may be] people who [sin only because they] do not know [the truth]’. although all the sacred books contain concepts or texts that can be used in cer- see sheril boxall, ‘sri lanka’, in international security and the united states. an encyclopedia, karl derouen jr. & paul bellamy, eds. (vol. , westport, connecticut, london: praeger security international, ). bruce chilton, abraham’s curse - the roots of violence in judaism, christianity, and islam (new york: doubleday, ). surah , stich . ibid. ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ tain circumstances, by some people, to justify violence, at the same time, it is obvious that every religion has also been interpreted in more peaceful ways. pallmeyer’s af- firmation that ‘god’s liberating, punishing, or apocalyptic violence is the named or unnamed assumption behind nearly every passage, story, and theological claim in the new testament’ is hard to apply to jesus’ healing ministry and to the example of his perfect love and forgiveness offered to the humankind. and although the most feared concept of islam is ‘jihad’, the interpretation of jihad as a war against the infidels is just one of the meanings of this term which also mean an inner struggle against evil temp- tations for wrong doing, as a way to get closer to god and to achieve the inner peace. for many centuries, muslims lived in peace with their neighbors, without waging holy war against them. moreover, there are millions of muslims that still live in peace with their neighbors and do not feel compelled by their scriptures to run jihad, in the bel- licose sense of the concept. even in the wake of the tragic events of september, muslim scholars and leaders worldwide condemned the terrorist attacks and declared that terrorists distort islam. on the other hand, there are some unconditionally peaceful christian denomina- tions (like quakers and jehovah’s witnesses, for instance, who refuse to touch any kind of arms), who guide their social life according to jesus’ words: ‘but i tell you, do not resist an evil person. if someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also’ (mat- thew : ). the anabaptist tradition is also built upon the idea that all kind of violence is prohibited by the bible and take the words of jesus: ‘blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called children of god’ (matthew : ) literally, considering that those who promote war under any circumstances are not genuine christians. however, the very same christianity has produced the just war doctrine according to which under certain circumstances, war can be pursued. we can deduce, therefore, that the interpretative apparatus of each religion is very important when we discuss religions’ involvement in violent actions. it is obvious that osama bin laden’s aggressive interpretation of islam is considerably different than the moderates’ interpretations, just as the christianity’s holy scriptures are differently interpreted by different christian denominations or persons. therefore, we cannot af- firm that islam, judaism or christianity, or any other religion is inherently violent by concentrating on isolated texts from the holy scriptures - the interpretative apparatus make the difference in each case. the interpretation of the sacred scriptures by some radical religious leaders calling for violent combat against the infidels is just one inter- pretation amongst others. the diversity that exists within each of the religious tradi- tions has to be considered in order to avoid biased conclusions. secondly, when analyzing the relationship between religion and violence it is im- perative to avoid the trap of considering our own religion in idealistic terms, by taking into account only the peaceful paragraphs and ideas of our sacred scriptures, while considering other religions through the lenses of its extremists’ acts of terror and violence. researchers’ subjectivism is often responsible for errors in analyzing the in- volvement of religion in conflict. in the next place, when analyzing the relationship between religion and violence it is imperative to consider the particular context in which certain interpretations of jack nelson-pallmeyer, is religion killing us? analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) the sacred texts emerge. the context in which a religious group finds itself determines which aspect of a religious tradition is given preeminence and is used. the excessive use of collocations such as the ‘islamic terrorism’ or the ‘war against terrorism’, which has in view only the muslim communities and not other religious terrorist networks like the tamil tigers, the ira or the eta, for instance, could foster radical interpreta- tions of islam, by discontented muslims who may very well perceive themselves as being under siege, and thus the call for a jihad against the infidels to defend allah’s community may find more supporters than under ordinary conditions. discrimination (which can be political, cultural, economic or religious ) against a religious tradition or against a religious minority determines that minority to form grievances over this discrimination. these grievances determine the minority group to mobilize and there is a great probability that mobilized groups take part in conflicts. this is certainly the case in sri lanka, for instance, where the discriminatory policies of the sinhalese majority determine violent reactions from the tamils and contribute, thus, to a circle of an endless violence. one of the most important things when analyzing the relationship between reli- gion and violence is therefore to make a distinction between religion as a metaphysi- cal and ethical system and politicized religion as an anti-system revolt, presented in a religious garb and legitimated in a religious language. taking as a case study the violent acts perpetrated by some of the muslims in europe, for instance, olivier roy argued that there is in fact nothing like an islamic element in such violent acts. when muslims go to the streets, they are actually driven by the frustration of not being in- tegrated enough and their riots are actually a call for a better integration within the western societies from which they are alienated and which do not meet their expec- tations. in the global context, the attraction of the radical islamism is not surprising, given the fact that the muslim world feel that it is denied a decent place within the global system, which is run by the non-muslims, while it lives in a constant fight with poverty, famine, illiteracy and decayed infrastructures. the analysis of the specific context of each so-called religious-based conflict would most probably prove that the causes and the stakes of those conflicts are more political, structural and geographical than religious. when analyzing the relation between religion and violence it is also important to consider that during the last decades an important religious transformation took place under the influence of the globalization forces. globalization has created a favorable context for religion to become more ‘democratic’, in the sense that the individuals and groups increasingly think for themselves and contest the role of the formal religion and of the religious authority and become directly responsible to god rather than to see fox, ‘counting the causes and dynamics’. fox, ‘the effects of religious discrimination’. tibi, political islam, p. . olivier roy, globalized islam: the search for a new ummah (new york: columbia university press, ). see also philip jenkins, god’s continent. christianity, islam and europe’s religious crisis (oxford: oxford university press, ). see peter beyer, religion and globalization (london: sage publications, ). ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ ‘man-made’ religious institutions. in other words, religion becomes increasingly dis- tanced from the religious hierarchy and thus less ‘institutionalized’, decision-making becoming the appanage of the individual or of the small groups. accordingly, as otis observes, ‘individuals and groups on all continents and in all social strata have begun constructing a new religious politics based on the relationship between a transcen- dent being and themselves – bypassing or redefining traditional forms of state/church authority. the new reality is the emergence of particularistic do-it-yourself religion(s), in which some individuals use a peculiar form of logic to perpetuate violence in order to fulfill what they believe is god’s will. thus, the structure of violence and warfare in the modern world… is violence perpetuated by individuals on the global stage in pursuit of transcendent goals – albeit by earthly means’. accordingly, the terrorist acts are individual acts, not acts endorsed by the institutionalized traditional religious communities. although individuals pertaining to all religions can be and sometimes are engaged in violent conflicts, their acts are hardly the result of those religions’ the- ologies. as mark juergensmeyer - one of the leading experts in religious violence to- day – argued, the terrorist acts in the name of religion are the acts of individuals which believe that there is a grave social injustice in the world, which is an offence against god and that any action on his behalf against those responsible for this injustice is approved by god. under these circumstances, i contend that no religious tradition as a whole can be blamed for violent acts perpetrated by groups or individuals. nor islam or christianity, nor judaism or buddhism, nor hinduism or sikhism is inherently violent, nor are they inherently peaceful. not all the muslims are violent, just as not all the christians or the jews or the hindus or the sikhs, for example, are violent; and certainly, not all of them are always peaceful. distinctions and nuances are to be made in each case when ana- lyzing the nexus between religion and security. moreover, when analyzing the nexus between religion and security, it is essential to consider also the positive contribution of religion to stability and security. religious actors themselves have a positive role to play in preventing violence and solutions to enhance global security can be found not in spite of the presence of religion within the public stage, but because of it. the positive nexus between religion and security as has been stated above, no religion is inherently violent or peaceful and in each situation the ir practitioners and policy-makers have to determine the specific role played by religion in each conflict. it is true that religion is often politicized and can serve as a tool in the hands of the warring parties, but religion is also a significant ele- ment in the conflict management. it can be noted that religious actors have been key players in many conflicts around the world, and they have made an essential contribu- tion to the conflict prevention, the peaceful resolution of the differences, the media- tion of the conflicts and the reconciliation of the conflicting parties, due to their unique otis, ‘religion and war’, pp. , . ibid., pp. , . juergensmeyer, terror in the mind of god ; juergensmeyer, ‘is religion the problem? analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) set of moral values and beliefs that can motivate changes of attitude and action. in this respect, and drawing from the field experience of some of these religious actors, some authors promote faith-based diplomacy as an essential form of diplomacy especially in those situations that involve communal (predominantly religious) identi- ties for which traditional diplomacy is not enough prepared. the concept of faith-based diplomacy was popularized by douglas johnston to designate the need to introduce the religious concerns in the practice of the international relations, and it means a way of making religion part of the solution to some of the world’s worst conflicts, as part of the track two diplomacy. this kind of diplomacy relies on virtues, discourses and practices of different religious traditions as essential components of diplomacy and although it is a rather new type of diplomacy, it is already a part of the training of diplomats in the us and will probably soon be introduced by other countries, too. the introduction of the spiritual dimension in the conflict management efforts is very important, one reason for that being the fact that a significant part of the human conflicting behavior is based on emotional feelings that cannot be changed by nego- tiations and rational bargaining; accordingly, the use of the spiritual/religious element can make actors to critically examine their actions and attitudes. according to the supporters of the faith-based diplomacy and as the experience has already proved, the religious leaders and institutions, and the religious-based ngos are best trained for this kind of diplomacy. as thomas argue, the religious actors are particularly well placed to act as mediators, to provide a ‘neutral’ space for nego- tiations, because they are respected for the set of values they represent and promote, they know very well the local problems, they enjoy credibility and trust, they have the ability to mobilize national and international support for the peace process and they have the possibility to employ such spiritual elements like the prayer or other religious rituals that can represent efficient means in the process of healing and reconciliation. also, their legitimacy allows them to reach out to the parties in conflict, especially at times when the other diplomats and track one actors fail to. moreover, having the sense of a vocation, the religious actors involved in the peace process are more perse- verant, in spite of the obstacles and they work alongside the people, long before and long after the diplomats arrived. their religious values and convictions give them the strength and the will to work until peace and justice are restored. a new form of conflict management seems to be on the rise in the conflict regions of the world – religious peacebuilding – although it is still in an incipient form and it is douglas johnston, ed., faith-based diplomacy: trumping realpolitik (oxford: oxford university press ); johnston, ‘conflict prevention and peacebuilding: the religious dimension’, in paul van tongeren, malin brenk, marte hellema, juliette verhoeven, eds., people building peace ii: successful stories of civil society (project of the european centre for conflict prevention), (l. rienner publishers, ). some scholars would include it within the track , part of those nine tracks of the multitrack diplomacy - according to diamond louise and john mcdonald, multi-track diplomacy: a systems approach to peace (west hartford, cn: kumarian press, rd edition, ). thomas, the global resurgence of religion, p. . david r. smock, ed., religious contributions to peacemaking – when religion brings peace, not war (washington: united states institute of peace, peaceworks, nr. , ). thomas, the global resurgence of religion; otis, ‘religion and war’; johnston, faith-based diplomacy. ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ still fragile and uncoordinated, as appleby notes and there are numerous examples of conflicts that were transformed through the actions of the religious actors, through- out the world. the holy see, for instance, has successfully mediated the conflicts in argentina and chile, due to some unique assets, like its moral legitimacy and neutral- ity, its ability to influence the international public opinion, its confidentiality and the extended network of contacts and information of the catholic church, information channels distinct from those of the traditional diplomatic channels being crucial in such localized disputes. st. egidio community was actively involved in the peace pro- cess in mozambique, burundi, congo and kosovo, using a catholic-inspired approach. monsignor jaime goncalves, archbishop of beira, had an important contribution in the peace agreement in mozambique, in , an agreement that put an end to a war that had cost millions of lives and determined half of the population to flee. in zaire, mon- signor laurent monsengwo has played a crucial role during the negotiations between president mobutu and his opponents. a crucial role was played by the religious ac- tors in nicaragua in the s, as well as in the end of the apartheid in south africa and also in the collapse of the communism in some eastern european countries. reli- gions for peace has successfully mediated the conflict in sierra leone and contributed to the creation of a reconciliation climate in bosnia and kosovo. the quakers (the religious society of friends) were involved in the mediation of the conflict in sri-lanka. the mennonites have created the mennonite conciliation service in the late s, the christian peacemaker teams and the international concili- ation service and through these institutions they were actively engaged in the recon- ciliation efforts between the sunnis and the shia in iraq and activated in south africa, from the s until the end of the apartheid. in south africa, a special importance had the truth and reconciliation commissions, which have proved the force of religion in overcoming hostility and antagonisms. the plowshares institute, created by the methodists, has trained religious leaders for actions of peacebuilding throughout the world, based on a spiritual and moral approach. the world conference on religion and peace is the biggest international coalition formed by the representatives of all of the major world religions, dedicated to maintaining peace in the world. it is currently present on all continents and in the worst conflict areas of the world, trying to create multi-religious partnerships to mo- bilize the moral and spiritual resources of religious people, in order to resolve their mutual problems. there are many other religious organizations besides the already mentioned ones, that incorporated the principles of the faith-based diplomacy in their practice: among them the american friends service committee, the catholic relief services, the center for the study of islam and democracy, the european platform for conflict prevention and transformation, the fellowship of reconciliation, the international center for rec- onciliation, the coventry cathedral, the international center for religion & diplomacy, the international peace research institute, the life and peace institute, the mennonite appleby, the ambivalence of the sacred. reychler ‘religion and conflict’. thomas, ‘outwitting the developed countries? david little, ‘religious dimensions of conflicts and peace’ in harvard international review, energy, , (winter ). analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) central committee, the mercy corps international, the united states institute of peace, the religion and peacemaking program, university of notre dame, the program in re- ligion, conflict and peacebuilding, the world vision, the world council of churches, the international islamic forum for dialogue etc. although faith-diplomacy cannot replace the power and authority of the govern- mental officials in the negotiations, it can achieve at least these two things: on the one hand, it can determine a transformation of the local leaders’ and civil society’s at- titudes, on which a durable peace depends and on the other hand, it can lead to the creation of a network of leaders of the civil society, devoted to a common cause – to achieve a just and durable peace. therefore, there are numerous useful actors, roles and methodologies within the religious sector that can be employed in the conflict resolution and peacebuilding ef- forts around the world. religions inspire men and women by their peaceful teachings to work in perseverance and tirelessly toward ending some of the deadliest conflicts around the world, within or outside their own religious institutions, in order to ‘create an environment of lasting peace and stability’. and these religiously motivated men and women are ‘a necessary component of track two diplomacy. they are the answer to other people who, in the name of their religion, preach race-hatred, assassination, the killing of innocent bystanders, and war’. for all these reasons, we can agree with ambassador richard c. holbrooke: ‘if you are interested in peace in the twenty-first century, you cannot ignore religion… . […] focusing on religion as an instigator of conflict is only half of the story and, quite frank- ly, dangerously inaccurate.’ conclusions it is commonplace to speak about religion as a cause of violent conflicts through- out the world. the media is filled with examples of religious-based violence almost on a daily basis and september is only one example of how religious fervor can lead to disgraceful acts of violence and of how religious texts and concepts can be used by some people, under particular circumstances, to legitimate violence and brutality against innocent people. without minimizing the gravity of such instances, it must be said that the equally important role of religion in resolving armed conflicts and in conflict prevention and its positive nexus with security tend to go unnoticed and unheralded in the media. in this paper, i tried to draw attention to this issue and to signal the need to give this positive nexus the attention it deserves. a few arguments stand out in the current analysis. the first one is that no religion is johnston, faith-based diplomacy. daniel philpott & brian cox, ‘what faith-based diplomacy can offer in kashmir’, in david r. smock, ed., religious contributions to peacemaking – when religion brings peace, not war, washington: united states institute of peace, peaceworks, nr. , ) pp. , . richard c. holbrooke, ‘foreword’, in david little (ed), peacemakers in action: profiles of religion in conflict resolution (new york: cambridge university press ). holbrooke, ‘foreword’, in little, peacemakers in action, p. xii. holbrooke, p. xi. ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ inherently violent but under specific circumstances any religion can (and did) serve as a utilitarian tool exploited by the warring parties. the interpretative apparatus and the specific social and political context in which a religious community finds itself dictate the weight given to certain concepts and images provided by religion. moreover, giv- en the „democratization” of religion (in the sense that religion is becoming less insti- tutionalized, so that the individuals increasingly think for themselves and contest the role of the formal religion and authority) under the impact of globalization’s forces, no religious tradition as a whole can be blamed for violent acts perpetrated by groups or individuals. on the other hand, every religion provides sacred stories and teachings meant to emphasize the crucial importance of forgiveness, social harmony, inclusivity, collec- tiveness and peaceful relations, that can offer a very useful tool for peace process and the religious actors – religious individuals and faith-based ngo’s - are best equipped to deal with those conflicts that involve a religious dimension. religion inspires men and women of faith to mobilize in peacemaking efforts, within the track two diplo- macy framework and it provides the ideological framework for the pursuit of peace by nonviolent means, it provides the strength and the will for forgiveness and reconcilia- tion, principles anchored in the holy scriptures. religion thereby is both a promise and a threat to global security. below there are a few ideas that could serve as starting points in the process of increasing the positive contribution of religion for the global security. first of all and before making any attempt to co-opt religion as a partner in the peace process, the national security and foreign policy practitioners have to treat re- ligion as one of the significant variables in the conduct of the international relations. it is sad that due to the deliberate disregard of religious considerations, the west is ill prepared to deal with those situations that involve religious differences or politi- cal grievances dressed in religious forms, or with demagogues who manipulate reli- gion for their own purposes. the secularization thesis’ paradigmatic status within the international relations field should therefore be revised and a concurrent and more adequate frame of reference for dealing with problems raised by communal identity, which often involves a religious dimension, should be considered. in addition, it must be considered that religious freedom is one of the defining ele- ments of the national and international security and it has to be treated accordingly, especially in the context of the multicultural societies. if the nation-states fail to grant religious liberties and full rights of religious expression, if they discriminate some reli- gious categories, they risk facing political unrest and instability. special attention should be paid to the language used in the public arena with respect to the nexus between religion and violence. words like ‘crusade’, ‘religious warfare’, ‘islamic terrorism’, ‘islamic umma vs christian brotherhood’ and other simi- lar collocations that suggest that a war between the religious traditions is going on should be avoided at any cost. otherwise, those engaged in the ‘cosmic war’ between the forces of good and those of evil, would find in this inappropriate language the confirmation of their prejudices. instead, the focus should be on how to make the vio- lent ways of acting less appealing and on promoting non-violent just alternatives for the political engagement of the discontented actors. likewise, the media should stop hyperbolizing the negative role of religion with analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) respect to the global security or at least it should offer a more balanced account by also presenting the pacifist teachings, the peacemaking efforts and the positive social roles and practices of the religious actors. religion does not account only for some of the bloodiest conflicts around the world, despite the fact that these are the events that attract the widest audiences. religion, for instance, also inspires the conviction of several millions of christians that all people have within them the goodness of the cre- ator and accordingly they should be never harmed, regardless of the circumstances. it inspired the jain ascetic leader, sri sahaj muni maharaj’s day fast on behalf of world peace and universal brotherhood, as well. it is not right that the media high- lights so strongly islam’s violent tendencies but deliberately or ignorantly obliterates, for instance, the muslim spiritual and political leader abdul ghaffar khan’s non-violent opposition to british rule in india, for which he has been nominated for the nobel prize in . given its crucial role in forming the public opinion, it is therefore imperative that the media stop applying facile stereotypes with respect to the relation between certain religions and violence and emphasize more the yearning of most religious people for a world where they and their children and grandchildren may live together in peace and harmony. equally important, as part of the solution and as an opportunity for enhancing the national and global security, the engagement of religious leaders and institutions in the peace process – both in prevention and in reconciliation of the conflicts - should be more firmly fostered and promoted. initiatives such as johnston’s , for instance, who proposed the creation of a new position (within the us foreign service, but it should be extended elsewhere): that of a religious attaché, trained to be assigned to diplomatic missions in countries where religion is salient, well prepared to help the states’ missions deal more effectively with situations where religion is deeply involved, should be taken seriously by the political decision-makers. a special role should be assigned and considerable funding should be granted to those ngo’s dedicated to interreligious and intercultural dialogue and to training leaders for interreligious peacebuilding. it is imperative therefore, that religious values and actors be involved in the peace process and scholars and diplomats do all their best to learn about the religions of those with whom they collaborate. violence is not an inevitable characteristic of the human condition. it can and must be avoided and religion has an important role to play in this respect. finally, it must be acknowledged that the problems raised by the politicization of religion cannot be answered by force alone. it is an illusion that ideas and worldviews can be extinguished by force, or by the so called ‘global war against terror’. a bet- ter solution would be to create the framework for an intercultural/intercivilizational dialogue about the values that are to govern the global society, in order to achieve global peace and security and to include the world’s religions as interlocutors. the world religions have a significant contribution to make – they all share a common set of moral and ethical values and principles that can protect against violence and have the ability to make people live according to such values. they can provide the founda- tion for values such as peace, justice, truth, responsibility, empathy, compassion and above all love. johnston, “foreword” in robert a. seiple & dennis r. hoover, religion and security, pp.ix-xi. ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ what other words would be more appropriate, at the end of our argument, than martin luther king’s: “sooner or later all the people of the world will have to discover a way to live together in peace, and thereby transform this pending cosmic elegy into a creative psalm of brotherhood. if this is to be achieved, man must evolve for all human conflict a method which rejects revenge, aggression and retaliation. the foundation of such a method is love!” ? and what other force could better inspire, teach and motivate people to love, i would add, than religion? references appleby, r. scott, the ambivalence of the sacred, new york: rowman & littlefield publishers, inc., . chilton, bruce, abraham’s curse -the roots of violence in judaism, christianity, and is- lam, new york: doubleday, . diamond louise and john mcdonald, multi-track diplomacy: a systems approach to peace, west hartford, cn: kumarian press, rd edition, . eisenstadt, s. n., ‘the resurgence of religious movements in processes of globaliza- tion – beyond end of history or clash of civilizations’. international journal on multicul- tural societies , , , pp. - . ellis, james o. iii., ‘foreword’, in robertson, ann e. terrorism and global security. new york: infobase publishing, . esposito, john l. & michael watson, ‘the significance of religion for global order’ in john l. esposito & michael watson (eds.), religion and global order, cardiff: university of wales press, . fox, jonathan & sandler, shmuel, bringing religion in international relations, new york: palgrave macmillan. . fox, jonathan & shmuel sandler, ‘the question of religion and world politics,’ in terrorism and political violence, , , pp. - . fox, jonathan, ‘the effects of religious discrimination on ethno-religious protest and rebellion’, the journal conflict studies, vol. xx, no. (fall ). fox, jonathan, ‘are some religions more conflict-prone than others?’ in jewish po- litical studies review (spring ). fox, jonathan, ‘clash of civilizations or clash of religions. which is a more important determinant of ethnic conflict?’, ethnicities , , ( ), pp. - . fox, jonathan, ‘counting the causes and dynamics of ethnoreligious violence’, in totalitarian movements and political religions, , , (december ), pp. - . fox, jonathan, ‘religion and state failure: an examination of the extent and mag- nitude of religious conflict from to ’, international political science review, , ( ). fox, jonathan, ‘the influence of religious legitimacy on grievance formation by ethno-religious minorities’, journal of peace research , , ( ), pp. - . fox, jonathan, ‘the rise of religious nationalism and conflict: ethnic conflict and revolutionary wars, - ’, journal of peace research, , , ( ), pp. - . fox, jonathan, ‘correlated conflicts: the independent nature of ethnic strife’, in harvard international review, , , (winter ). analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) fox, jonathan, ‘religion as an overlooked element of international relations,’ the international studies review, , ( ). fox, jonathan, religion, civilization and civil war: through the millennium, lan- ham, md: lexington books, . gaddy, c. welton, ‘god talk in the public sphere,’ in claire h. badaracco, quoting god. how media shape ideas about religion and culture, waco, texas: baylor university press, . gopin marc, between eden & armaghedon: the future of world religions, violence and peacemaking, rodale books, . hayanes, jeff, religion in third world politics, boulder, colo.: lynne rienner, . haynes, jeff, religion in global politics, longman, . hoover, dennis r., ‘introduction: religion gets real,’ in robert a. seiple & dennis r. hoover, religion and security. the new nexus in international relations. rowman & little- field publishers, . huntington, samuel, ‘the clash of civilizations?’ in foreign affairs , (summer ). huntington, samuel, the clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order, new york: simon & schuster, . jenkins, philip, the next christendom: the coming of global christianity, oxford: ox- ford university press, . jenkins, philip, the new faces of christianity. believing the bible in the global south, oxford university press, . jenkins, philip, god’s continent. christianity, islam and europe’s religious crisis, ox- ford: oxford university press, . johnston douglas & cynthia sampson, religion, the missing dimension of statecraft, oxford: oxford university press, . johnston, douglas (ed.), faith-based diplomacy:trumping realpolitik, oxford: oxford university press, . johnston, douglas, ‘conflict prevention and peacebuilding: the religious dimen- sion’, in paul van tongeren, malin brenk, marte hellema, juliette verhoeven (ed.), people building peace ii: successful stories of civil society (project of the european centre for con- flict prevention), l. rienner publishers, . juergensmeyer, mark, ‘is religion the problem?’, hedgehog review, : (spring ). juergensmeyer, mark, the new cold war?: religious nationalism confronts the secular state, california: university of california press, . juergensmeyer, mark, terror in the mind of god, the global rise of religious violence, california: university of california press, . kimball, charles, when religion becomes evil. san francisco: harper, . küng, hans & kuschel, karl-joseph (ed.), a global ethic: the declaration of the parlia- ment of the world’s religions, new york: continuum, . küng, hans, ‘a new paradigm in international relations? reflections on september , ’, ghi bulletin , (autumn ). küng, hans, a global ethic for global politics and economics. oxford: oxford univer- sity press, . ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ küng, hans, global responsibility. in search of a new world ethic. london: scm press, . laïdi, zaki, a world without meaning. london & new york : routledge, . lincoln, bruce, holy terrors: thinking about religion after september . chicago: the university of chicago press, . little, david, ‘religious dimensions of conflicts and peace’, in harvard international review, energy, , (winter ). martin, david, does christianity cause war? oxford: oxford university press, . martin, david, on secularization: towards a revised general theory, ashgate: alder- shot, . moghadam, assaf, ‘a global resurgence of religion?’ , in religion in global politics, weatherhead center for international affairs, harvard university, . motzkin, gabriel & yochi fischer, (eds.) religion and democracy in contemporary eu- rope, london: alliance, . nelson-pallmeyer, jack, is religion killing us? violence in the bible and the quran, har- risburg / london / new york: trinity press international, . otis, pauletta, ‘religion and war in the twenty-first century,’ in robert a. seiple & dennis r. hoover, religion and security. the new nexus in international relations. row- man & littlefield publishers, . parekh, bhikhu, ‘terrorism or intercultural dialogue’ in ken booth and tim dunne (ed.) worlds in collision: terror and the future of global order, london: palgrave mac- millan, . partner, peter, god of battles: holy wars of christianity and islam. london: harper col- lins, . petito, fabio & hatzopoulos, pavlos, (ed.), religion in international relations, the re- turn from exile, new york: palgrave macmillan, . philpott daniel şi brian cox, ‘what faith-based diplomacy can offer în kashmir’, în david r. smock, (ed.), religious contributions to peacemaking – when religion brings pea- ce, not war, washington: united states institute of peace, peaceworks nr. . ( ). pruitt, dean, rubin, jeffrey z., and sung hee kim, social conflict: escalation, stalemate and settlement, nd ed., (mcgraw-hill humanities/social sciences/languages), . reychler, luc, ‘religion and conflict’, in the international journal of peace studies, vol. , nr. . (january ). robertson, ann e., terrorism and global security, new york: infobase publishing, . roy, olivier, globalized islam: the search for a new ummah, new york: columbia uni- versity press, . sahliyeh, emile, ‘religious resurgence and political modernization,’ in emile sahli- yeh (ed.), religious resurgence and politics in the contemporary world, state university of new york press, . sampson, cynthia, ‘religion and peacebuilding’, in i. william zartman and j. lewis rasmussen (ed.), peacemaking in international conflict: methods and techniques, wash- ington dc: united states institute of peace press, . schwartz, regina m., the curse of cain: the violent legacy of monotheism, chicago: university of chicago press., . analyses natalia vlas, is religion inherently violent? religion as a threat and promise for the global security • (pp - ) scruton, roger, the west and the rest, globalization and the terrorist threat, wilmin- gton, delaware: intercollegiate studies institute, . seiple, robert a. & hoover, dennis r. (ed.), religion & security. the new nexus in inter- national relations. rowman & littlefield publishers, inc., . shani, giorgio, ‘a revolt against the vest: politicized religion and the international order – a comparison of the islamic umma and the sikh qaum’, ritsumeikan annual review of international studies, vol. , , pp. - . shani, giorgio, sikh nationalism and identity in a global age, london and new york: routledge, . smock, david r. (ed.), religious contributions to peacemaking – when religion brings peace, not war, washington: united states institute of peace, peaceworks nr. , . thomas, scott, ‘taking religious and cultural pluralism seriously: the global resur- gence of religion and the transformation of international society’, millenium: journal of international studies, vol. , no. , , pp. - . thomas, scott, ‘the global resurgence of religion and the changing character of international politics’, in christ and the dominions of civilization, vol , in god and globalization series, max l. stackhouse & diane obenchain (eds.), trinity press interna- tional, , pp. - . thomas, scott, ‘religion and international conflict,’ in k.r. dark, (ed.), religion and international relations, new york: palgrave macmillan, . thomas, scott m. ( ), the global resurgence of religion and the transformation of international relation.,the struggle for the soul of the twenty-first century, new york: palgrave macmillan. thomas, scott m., ‘outwitting the developed countries? existential insecurity and the global resurgence of religion’, journal of international affairs, fall/winter , vol. , no. , , pp. - . tibi, bassam, political islam, world politics and europe. democratic peace and euro/is- lam versus global jihad, abington, new york: routledge, . ПОЛИТИКОЛОГИЈА РЕЛИГИЈЕ бр. / год iv • politics and religion • politologie des religions • nº / vol. iv АНАЛИЗЕ Наталиа Влас ДА ЛИ ЈЕ РЕЛИГИЈА НАСИЉЕ САМО ПО СЕБИ? РЕЛИГИЈА КАО ПРЕТЊА И ОБЕЋАЊЕ ЗА ГЛОБАЛНУ БЕЗБЕДНОСТ Резиме Овај рад се бави изузетно опасним односом између религије и безбедности и тврди да је религија истовремено и претња и обећање за глобалну безбедност. Методолошки, рад спада у област концептуалне анализе. Користећи се обема ме- тодама, и индуктивног и дедуктивног закључивања, покушало се наћи одговоре на следећа питања: Да ли је религија насиље само по себи? И шта су изгледи да религија пре доприноси миру и стабилности него сукобу и уништавању у оквиру међународног система? Рад се састоји од четири дела. Први део је истакао позадину дискусије, наглашавајући да се свет суочава са глобалним оживљавањем религије, и покушао да процени смисао политизације религије за глобалну безбедност. Други део састоји се од неколико размишљања о вези између религије и насиља, покушавајући да докаже да ниједна религија није насиље само по себи, али није ни мирна сама по себи, као што многи претпостављају. Трећи део истражује позитивну везу између религије и без- бедности, а последњи део чине закључци и неке препоруке са намером да се побољша способност стручњака за међународне односе и креатора политике како би религија постала део решења за дилему глобалне безбедности, а не да се третира искључиво као део проблема. Кључне речи: глобална сигурност, религија, мир, насиље. Примљен . . Прихваћен . . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the national archives and records service, gsa in cooperation with the library of congress announces two offerings during - of the institute: introduction to modern archives administration october -november , j u n e - , for information and application forms, write modern archives institute (nnhp) national archives and records service, gsa washington, dc d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril clothe artiste vtiiul in billings, montana, it's a real pleasure for fine artists to wind tiji in jail because the town's old jail house is now the yellowstone art center. the two-story brick structure dates back to , but in the little red jail barely escaped the hands of the wrecking crew when art-loving citizens of billings persuaded the countj to remodel the old jail as an art center . . . and business and labor leaders backed the effort. today the center continues to serve the community with year-round exhibits, lectures, classes. in workshops and community programs. it's just one example "' how old buildings are getting a n e w lease on life. before all the historic and architecturally significant buildings in your community are gone, get involved in bringing them hack to life with imaginative, adaptive uses. that's what historic presen ation is all about for more information, write: national trust for historic preservation, department , jackson place, nw, washington, dc . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril for people who know all about records storage paige boxes are for professionals, experienced people who have learned all about the equipment available for handling, transporting, and storage of records, microfilm, data processing material, and computer printouts. those people know that paige files are durable equipment at lowest possible cost. available acid free. prices at wholesale level. no sales people. no distributors. no stores. write for brochure, prices, case histories. the paige company park avenue south new york, n.y. d or - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril manuscript clamshell boxes all boxes have card holders clamshell drop side drop front i x | x } stock boxes available for immediate shipment long-life protection for valuable documents, such as manuscripts, first editions, folios and flat-stored newspapers, archives and legal instruments. easy to store . . . easy to open for frequent reference. these clamshell manuscript boxes were especially designed to serve libraries, museums, law offices and government agen- cies. all clamshell boxes are cloth cov- ered, triple-strength cloth hinged and lined with permalife paper, which has a life expectancy of years. unsurpassed dur- ability for preserving valuable documents. boxes shown are our most popular mod- els. for many uses the style, with hinged lid for ready access from the top, is pre- ferred. other models have a drop front, or drop side. send for price quotation, stating size, model and quantity requirements. these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined with permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents. pohlig bros. inc, th & franklin streets richmond, virginia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril modern archives and manuscripts:, a select bibliography ° fi/f . compiled /o°^'sj'e °'v '*& k a n k b. evans , ^ ^ ^ ^ published by .j°s a , ' ^ ' o j ^ %(>, the society of american archivists /^ /'*%"</'«i,o««-%,"*•»<//, ojv \ • portions of the table of contents are reproduced above. a revision of evans' earlier guide, this comprehensive work is published in a new format with many new entries, including new chapters on machine-readable records and archives, and chapters on international aspects of archives. additional chapter subheadings, the expanded subject index, and the new and separate author index facilitate the use of this expanded guide. softbound. $ . saa members, $ others. add $ postage and handling charge on orders under $ not prepaid. society of american archivists po box , university of illinois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril we can't solve all your conservation problems. but we'll try. no problem is hopeless until you decide to put out the extra effort, no matter how it is. small the order involved. that's the most important lesson no, we don't have all the answers, we've learned in art conservation. on the other hand, you won't catch us at process materials, we stock more tip-toeing back to carlstadt when the than unique acid-free products for answer doesn't come easy, preservation, repair and conservation of for technical information, write archival materials. process materials corporation, neutral products specially created to veterans blvd, carlstadt, nj . cope with even the most frustrating forms or call ( ) - . of deterioration. yet, having the materials isn't enough. process materials corporation what really counts is the willingness a lindenmeyr company d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes film recovery of some deteriorated black and white negatives by james l. gear, robert h. macclaren, and mary mckiel samples of deteriorated black and white negatives were submitted to the preservation services laboratory for examination. a typical negative had wrinkled emulsion and backing layers, and some were riddled with tiny bubbles. two procedures were developed by which an emulsion could be recovered from the support and subbing and smoothed onto a fresh, thin mylar film base. satisfactory duplicate negatives were obtained from the recovered emulsion layer. in september , the preservation services laboratory of the national archives and records service received (for examination) samples of deteriorated x inch black and white negatives-. figure is a typical example of such a negative. all of the negatives had at least some wrinkling on the emulsion side and on the back, or antihalation, side. in the worst cases, the negatives were entirely covered with wrinkles on both sides and the emulsion layers were brittle and cracked. other evidences of deterioration were yellow stains along the edges and wrinkled areas, and in some cases a dotted-swiss pattern of bubbles on or under the emulsion. scraping bits of wrinkled emulsion and backing layers from a few negatives revealed in each case that the polymer film support, which is adhered by a subbing material on one side to the emulsion and on the other side to the backing, was itself not wrinkled. however, the support did show some random buckling or stress. a sample of the negatives was measured using a steel ruler engraved in / inch markings. assuming the original size of the negatives to have been a standard " x ", measurements indicated about percent area shrinkage, possibly due to the loss of plasticizers. the bumpy surface of the film support may be a consequence of this shrinkage. wrinkles in the emulsion and backing appeared to result from non- uniform adhesive failure of the subbing layers. a full-scale investigation into the nature and causes of this deterioration has not been undertaken at this time. however, preliminary tests indicated that, while repair of the entire original negative was not feasible, it was possible to recover the image-carrying emulsion and from it to produce a satisfactory duplicate negative. although we were satisfied that the emulsions could be separated from the base support by a single solvent such as acetone, the method was not totally satisfactory. we subsequently sent samples to eastman kodak company for evaluation and advice based on any experience they had acquired in this area. kodak did provide suggestions for removal, involving solvents and ultrasonics, and remounting on a new substrate. however, it became evident that modification of our original single solvent system and those suggested by kodak was required. two recovery procedures were developed based on the extent to which the emulsion was wrinkled and cracked. for the least severely deteriorated negatives it the authors are all members of the preservation services division of the national archives and records service, of which james l. gear is director. readers are encouraged to send contributions to this department and should address them to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo foundation, rochester, minnesota . the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july was sufficient to soak them in a solution of percent water, percent methanol, and percent acetone at room temperature for fifteen to sixty minutes.* in most cases the emulsion floated free from the base and subbing. in some instances the emulsion remained adhered to the other layers at the edges and had to be loosened mechanically. the mechanical separation was done with a thin laboratory spatula, or knife, while the negative was still in the bath. the gelatinous emulsion, swollen in solution, stretches and tears easily so that extreme care must be exercised when handling it. cutting the edges of the negative / inch before soaking eliminated the need for mechanical separation, but had the disadvantage of sacrificing a small portion of the image area. once the emulsion was freed, it was transferred wet to a sheet of . inch thick mylar film and eased into shape. curled edges were flattened somewhat and torn places meshed gently together. keeping both mylar film and emulsion wet, a sec- ond sheet of mylar film was placed on top of the emulsion. the "sandwich" was rolled with a rubber roller or hand-pressed to flatten the emulsion further and remove any bubbles. duplicate negatives were made as soon as possible. if allowed to dry beyond thirty to forty-five minutes, the emulsion tended to separate from the mylar film. badly wrinkled negatives were treated somewhat differently. each of these nega- tives first was soaked in tepid water ( °- °c) for three to five minutes. both the emulsion and support swelled in the water, but at different rates, and temperature and time had to be carefully monitored. if a negative was soaked too long or in water too warm, the emulsion became flimsy and shredded very easily. when properly swollen the negative was quickly transferred to a solution of percent acetone and percent methanol (no water), and allowed to soak for three to five minutes. in the acetone-methanol mixture, the emulsion shrank or stiffened more quickly than the subbing and support, and usually floated free or could easily be separated. the freed emulsion was then transferred to mylar sheets as previously described. sometimes a pinkish color developed in the methanol-acetone solution. it appeared that this coloration was due to something in the subbing layer between the emulsion and support. in these cases the subbing was difficult to remove from the emulsion even after the support had been freed. after transfer to a fresh acetone- methanol bath, the subbing was carefully scraped from the underside of the emulsion. if allowed to dry on the emulsion, the pink substance turned white and opaque (showing reticulation), causing clouds in the duplicate negative. pinkish solutions were discarded, whereas uncontaminated baths could be used several times. figures and are prints before treatment and after treatment. the two procedures described above for recovering emulsions from deteriorated films were generally effective in producing good quality duplicate negatives. tears or cracks in the emulsions were meshed together and wrinkled areas flattened out. stains which appeared to be concentrated in the support were sometimes still present in the emulsion after soaking and caused dark areas to show up on the duplicate negative. the bubbles disappeared after the methanol-acetone soak. once the technique for handling the wet emulsions has been acquired, a minimal amount of time is necessary to recover and duplicate a deteriorated negative. the first procedure especially requires very little work time. negatives can be left to soak overnight without damage as long as the solution does not evaporate. •acetone and methanol are highly dangerous chemicals, when improperly used. acetone is extremely flammable and methanol vapors are poisonous if inhaled. adequate provisions for ventilation and protection from open flames are necessary in the procedures described in this paper. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes equipment and chemicals, listed below, are relatively inexpensive. proper ventilation must be used when working with methanol and acetone as the fumes can be hazardous. it is desirable, also, to work with surgical or tight-fitting vinyl gloves. film products vary in composition, thus one should experiment first with an expendable negative. most negatives can be salvaged using the above procedure, but for some it may be necessary to add a gel hardener to the soaking solution. figure . typical example of a deteriorated negative. procedure outline i. for less severely deteriorated negatives: a. soak negatives in solution of percent water, percent methanol, and percent acetone at room temperature for fifteen to sixty minutes, until emulsion loosens. b. mechanically separate emulsion at edges if necessary. c. immediately transfer emulsion to a sheet of solution-wet mylar . " thick. smooth out edges and gently mesh torn areas. d. place second sheet of . " thick mylar film on top of emulsion. roll or press "sandwich" to flatten wrinkle areas further and remove bubbles. e. as soon as possible, and definitely within thirty to forty-five minutes, make contact duplicate negative from emulsion-mylar sandwich. ii. for badly wrinkled negatives: a. soak negative in bath of warm water ( °- °c) for three to five minutes. b. immediately transfer negative to bath of percent methanol and per- cent acetone. allow to soak for three to five minutes. if the emulsion has not d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july separated from base and subbing, mechanical separation is preferable to a prolonged soak. c. if a pink color develops in the methanol-acetone bath, transfer emulsion to fresh solution and gently scrape remaining subbing from under-side of emulsion. do not allow subbing to dry on emulsion. d. continue procedures described above in i,c to i.e. equipment and ma terials trays or pans for soaking—approximately " x " x "—flat, thin spatula or blade— mylar sheets - cut about / inch larger than original film; . inch thick suggested— rubber brayer— paper towels— surgical gloves— chemicals acetone, commercial or reagent grade— methanol— figure a. print of negative before treatment. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes figure b. after treatment—print from direct duplicating negative. figure a. print of negative before treatment. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july figure b. after treatment— print from direct duplicating negative. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril one is soon after information design's microfilm reader was intro- duced in , it was rated "best" in side-by-side tests with virtually every mm roll film viewer in use. it's still the easiest reader for patrons to use. and it's still the only reader that offers you all of these advantages: a big " screen that pro- jects an entire newspaper page; an automatic film gate that protects your film from being scratched; full ° image rotation. since , we've made dozens of engineering modifications to improve the i.d. 's performance and ease of operation. prove it to yourself—the big one's still the best and better than ever! for a copy of the study entitled "user evaluations of micro- film readers," or to arrange a demonstration of the model - microfilm reader, write to information design, inc., middlefield road, menlo park, ca . or telephone ( ) - . information design, inc. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes thomas e. weir, jr., editor the several sections of the news notes department include brief reports of events, new programs, publications, education and training opportunities, accessions and openings, historical editing projects, and other news of professional interest to members of the society. the reporters listed below have fur- nished much of the information for this department. in addition, news notes have been extracted from publicity releases and newsletters sent to the american archivist and to the national archives library. more current information about training op- portunities, professional meetings, and legislation can be found in the saa news- letter. the success of news notes is propor- tional to the cooperation and assistance received from members and institutions. these are therefore urged to send information for publication direct to the editor, american archivist, national archives building, washington, d.c. , or to one of the following reporters: news of state and local archives to julian l. mims, south carolina department of archives and history, box , capitol station, columbia, s.c. ; news of manuscript repositories to carolyn h. sung, manuscript division, library of congress, washington, d.c. ; news of scientific and technological archives to maynard j. brichford, university archi- vist, university of illinois at urbana- champaign, urbana, illinois ; news of religious archives to f. donald yost, general conference of seventh-day adventists, eastern avenue, wash- ington, d.c. ; and news of regional and state archival associations to alice m. vestal, special collections department, main library, room , university of cincinnati, ohio . the office for history of science and technology at the university of califor- nia, berkeley is surveying unpublished sources in the history of physics. of partic- ular interest are records and manuscripts documenting contact between physicists and intellectuals in other disciplines. as a first step in this cooperative project, the center for the history of physics is seeking information about records in physics and astronomy departments and laboratories in north america that are not part of an archival deposit. this will be followed by a survey of material already under the con- trol of archives or manuscript repositories. the case western reserve university archives sponsored its th annual college and university archives workshop june to , . the workshop, which offered both introductory and advanced sessions, was attended by thirty-five archi- vists from the united states and canada. lecturers for the introductory sessions included philip mason, wayne state uni- versity; maxine clapp, university of min- nesota; william bigglestone, oberlin col- lege; and kermit pike, western reserve historical society. the lecturers for the advanced sessions included robert warner, university of michigan; larry hackman, nhprc; eugene ostroff, smithsonian institution; and william rofes, ibm corporation. plans for the th annual college and university archives workshop to be held in june are underway. • narratives of ex-slaves and the children of slaves, compiled by the wpa federal writers project between and , and stored principally at the archive of folk song in the library of congress, are being organized and annotated by a professor of the university of the district of columbia and a professor from southern illinois university. it is hoped that the material in the library will be made more accessible to scholars and that missing material can be found in the library or other repositories. the american archivist vol. , no. july d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july saa member norman j. shaffer has been appointed national preservation pro- gram officer at the library of congress. shaffer will be responsible for the plan- ning, organization, development, and management of a broad-based, national program for the preservation of library and archival materials. the mac arthur memorial, norfolk, vir- ginia, will sponsor the third symposium of a series begun in november on the occupation of japan. the next session, to be held april - , , will explore the topic of economic policy and reform. helen w. slotkin, former head of the special collections department of the university of cincinnati libraries, has been appointed institute archivist for the massachusetts institute of technology. the montana historical society has begun preparation of a statewide guide to historical records. the william lloyd garrison papers editorial project has moved from drexel university to the historical society of pennsylvania. walter merrill will con- tinue as director. the archives of the watkins glen speed- way, watkins glen, new york, burned in an office fire on june . destroyed were the records, photographs, and memorabilia of thirty years of american grand prix rac- ing. the speedway staff is trying to recon- stitute as much of the archives as is possi- ble, p a r t i c u l a r l y the p h o t o g r a p h collection. accessions and openings antiquarian and landmarks society, inc., hartford, connecticut. accession: micro- film papers ( - ) of john james mccook, episcopal minister and investi- gator of urban problems such as pauper- ism, venal voting, and tramps. because of limited staff, the antiquarian and landmarks society does not make the original papers available to researchers. under the terms of the bequest, the society may not alienate the papers. u.s. army military history institute, carlisle barracks, pennsylvania. acces- sions: russell l. stultz collection of mate- rial related to the th division, in world war i; and the autobiography of lieuten- ant general joseph v. heiser, concentrat- ing on his career with ordnance and logis- tics, - . atlanta historical society. accessions: rec- ords ( - ) of the bureau of buildings, atlanta, including applications for build- ing permits and building committee reports; various records ( - ) of the parks department, principally relating to cemeteries; records ( - ) of the atlanta union mission; and files ( - ) from the lokey and bowden law firm. bancroft library, university of california, berkeley. accession: papers of william chapman ralston ( - ), founder of the bank of california and a founder of the university of california. oral history: interview with elizabeth huff, teacher of chinese literature and founding curator of the east asiatic library at the university of california, berkeley. dallas historical society. accession: pho- tographs ( - ) by john j. johnson of the dallas area including the texas state fair, city scenes, and world war i training camps. everett mckinley dirksen congressional leadership research center, pekin, illi- nois. opening: papers of senator dirksen ( - ). emory university, robert w. woodruff library. accession: papers ( - ) of joseph bertrand jones of burke county. georgia department of archives and his- tory. accessions: minutes ( - ) of the bartow county agricultural club no. ; farm accounts ( - ) of the beazley family of bartow county; and the papers ( - ) of joseph belknap smith, owner of the columbia and park gold mines in columbia county, georgia. university of georgia library. accessions: papers ( - ) of eugenius aristides nisbet, congressman and georgia state leg- islator; collection ( - ) of papers related to the lovick oliver family; diary ( - ) of c. c. platter, a union soldier on sherman's march to the sea; a sketch map (october ) of the savannah block- ade; and photographs and glass negatives d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes ( - ) by william e. wilson of ex- slaves in savannah and coastal georgia. houston metropolitan research center, houston, texas. accessions: records ( s- s) of christ episcopal church; records ( - ) of first city national bank of houston; minutes ( - ) of the houston independent school district board; records ( s- s) of the aviation department, city of houston; records ( s- s) of the houston law school; papers ( - ) of former texas state senator robert gammage; papers ( - ) of former texas state representative kay bailey; and papers ( - ) of lewis cutrer, former mayor of houston. kent state university archives. accessions: records ( - ) of the mahoning county treasurer; records ( - ) of the mahoning county auditor; records ( - ) of the ashtabula county soldiers relief commission; police registers ( - ) of the city of warren; records ( - ) of the youngstown league of women voters; records ( - ) of the united way of ashtabula county; records ( - ) of the warren urban league; files ( - ) of the american council on education's special committee on cam- pus tensions; papers ( - ) of giles hooper cowles; papers ( - ) of the silk family; and papers ( - ) of the spelman-hinds family. leo baeck institute, new york, new york. accessions: papers of ismar elbogen ( - ), jewish scholar in berlin and new york, including extensive correspondence with jewish intellectuals in germany and the united states; papers of rudolph seiden ( - ), agricultural chemist, promoter of zionism, journalist and pamphleteer in austria and, after , the united states; machol-stein collection ( - ) documenting the development of reform judaism in germany through the papers of leopold stein ( - ), rabbi in frankfurt-am-main, and the papers of aron wolfssohn ( - ), stein's teacher; collection of jacob jacobson ( - ), former head of the central archives of german jewry, including the records that had been accessioned by that organization and which survived the second world war; and the miscellany collection (fifteenth to twentieth centuries) of sally bodenheimer including a variety of government decrees, privilege certifi- cates for jews, tax lists, court briefs, and letters by prominent german jews of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. maryland historical society. accessions: papers of george l. radcliffe ( - ), united states senator from maryland ( - ); photographs ( s) of union mills in carroll county; and photographs ( - ) of the homeland estate in baltimore. national archives and records service. accessions: records ( - ) of the com- mission on revision of the federal court appellate system, a body created to study the geographical boundaries of the federal judicial circuits and the administration of federal courts of appeal; minutes and announcements of decisions ( - ) of the national advisory council on interna- tional monetary and financial policies; records ( - ) of schuyler foster from the office of public opinion studies, department of state; records ( - ) of the commission on postal service; records ( - ) of the central intelligence agency and its predecessors pertaining to activities of the soviet espionage network in europe ( - ) and the german security service in the soviet union ( - ); combat and mission reports ( - ) of the air force; and mission reports ( - ) of air rescue service units. also acces- sioned were various records from the office of management and budget and its prede- cessors including executive orders and proclamations ( - ); records ( - ) of the central statistical board, works progress administration coordinating committee; records ( - ) of the war records section, committee on records of war administration; records ( - ) of the office/division of statistical stan- dards; and records ( - ) of the man- agement improvement and research branch. franklin d. roosevelt library. accession: indentures ( - ) recording property transactions in hyde park. opening: pa- pers of peter odegard, a consultant during world war ii and later assistant to secre- tary of the treasury henry morganthau, jr. odegard also served as a consultant ( - ) to the atomic energy commis- sion, a member ( - ) of the committee on policy and program for the ford foun- dation, a member ( - ) of the presi- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july dent's commission on migratory labor, and a delegate ( ) to the democratic national convention. harry s. truman library. accessions: pa- pers of harry n. howard, a state department official and adviser to the u.s. delegation, u.n. commission of investiga- tion concerning greek frontier incidents ( - ); papers of charles darlington, member of the u.s. delegation, u.n. con- ference on international organization ( ); papers of fred canfil, u.s. marshal for the western district of missouri ( - ); and papers of paul g. hoffman, president of the studebaker corporation ( - ), administrator of the economic corporation administration ( - ), president of the ford foundation ( - ), member of the u.s. delegation to the u.n. general assembly ( - ), and managing director of the u.n. devel- opment program ( - ). oral histo- ries: earl warren, governor of california ( - ), republican vice-presidential candidate ( ), and chief justice of the united states ( - ); douglas ensmin- ger, ford foundation representative for india and nepal ( - ); oliver j. car- ter, vice chairman of the california demo- cratic state central committee ( - ); j. thomas schneider, assistant secretary of commerce for international affairs ( - ); and donald c. blaisdell, merwin l. bohan, charles p. kindelberger, and philip sprouse, all foreign service officers whose government careers spanned the truman administration. dwight d. eisenhower library. acces- sions: papers ( - ) of leo a. hoegh, consisting primarily of correspondence pertaining to the eisenhower nomi- nation and eisenhower's election cam- paigns in iowa; and papers ( - ) of roger w. jones, who served with the bureau of the budget, as chairman of the civil service commission, and as deputy under-secretary of state for administration. oral histories: joe ingraham, texas dis- trict judge active in the eisenhower campaign in texas; eugene j. lyons, as- sistant postmaster general for personnel ( - ); robert o. gemmill, trustee of the eisenhower foundation; louis mor- ton hacker of the columbia university faculty ( - ); and bernard m. shanley, member of the advisory committee for the eisenhower campaign, special coun- sel to the president ( - ), and secre- tary to the president ( - ). openings: index ( - ) to the army chief of staff files; and papers ( - ) of general norman c. cota, u.s. army, including material pertaining to the execution of private eddie slovik. nebraska state historical society. acces- sions: records ( - ) of the omaha ywca; the diary of lt. orville a. ralston, world war i pilot with the th aero squadron in france; and the papers ( - ) of benjamin bates of florence in the nebraska territory. the historical society of pennsylvania. accession: records ( - ) of the fair- mont park art association of philadel- phia, a quasi-public organization having control of several sites in the city's park system. opening: records ( - ) of the second baptist church of philadel- phia. southern labor archives, georgia state university. accession: papers ( - ) of l.e. marler, including the files of the steering committee of the southern states apprenticeship conference. tulane university library, special collec- tions division. accessions: papers ( - ) of sam houston jones, governor ( - ) of louisiana and candidate for governor ( ); papers of john thomas hayward ( - ), inventor of numer- ous oil-drilling devices, including the movable off-shore drilling platform; and papers ( - ) of robert ruffin barrow, one of the largest sugar planters in louisiana. university of utah, special collections. accessions: papers ( - ) of elzy j. bird, concerning the utah state art project of the writers project, works progress administration; subject files ( - ) of the league of women voters of salt lake city; records ( - ) of the utah federa- tion of women's republican clubs; and correspondence ( - ), minutes ( - ), treasurer's reports ( - ), and other records of the utah state society, daughters of the american revolution. state historical society of wisconsin. accessions: annual enumerations of farm statistics ( - ), department of agri- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes culture; records ( - ) of the interim committee on the salaries of state employees; minutes and transcripts ( ) of the joint committee to study disrup- tions at the university of wisconsin; rec- ords ( - ) of the socialist labor party in wisconsin; records ( - ) of the vietnam veterans against the war, inc.; and p a p e r s ( - ) of edward tomlinson, prominent reporter on latin american affairs. religious archives baptist. oklahoma baptist university nearly doubled its holdings with the acces- sion of the gaskin collection, received from j. m. gaskin when he became full-time historical secretary of the baptist conven- tion of oklahoma in . three signifi- cant documents are: the annualoi the triennial convention, the annual of the cherokee association (oklahoma) for , and the annual of the short moun- tain association (oklahoma) for . another accession consists of the two original deeds of and concerning the grant by the city of shawnee for the oklahoma baptist university campus and the sale of lots to raise funds for the university. the archival staff has been augmented because gaskin now serves about two days a week; eunice short serves as university historian and associate archi- vist; and a student clerk helps part-time. the archives has new quarters in the recently completed $ . million mabee learning center. a full set of oral history equipment was received with the gaskin collection. catholic. the reverend william c. burn has become archivist of the charles- ton (south carolina) diocesan archives. new microfilm equipment has been secured and archival materials have been reorganized. john prentzel is assisting in the reor- ganization of the diocesan archives of the diocese of wilmington (delaware). the new archivist in the diocese of paterson (new jersey), the reverend ray- mond j. kupke, reports that the archives is moving into new quarters in november. seton hall university, of south orange, new jersey, has formed the new jersey catholic historical records commission. the commission will accession parochial, institutional, and diocesan records, and will supplement the archives with an oral history project. the oral history collection of the sinsinawa dominican archives was begun in july and now comprises tape recorded interviews with both religious and secular persons. the primary focus is on the sinsinawa dominicans, a congrega- tion of religious women founded by samuel mazzuchelli, o.p., in in southwest wisconsin. today some , members are engaged in educational and social ministries in the united states, south america, and europe. because of the active and uncloistered nature of this religious community, the history of the congregation parallels the history of the community in which the members live and work. congregational christian. the rev- erend harold f. worthley became librarian of the congregational library on june , , replacing evelyn vradenburgh. this library, an autonomous organization in boston, deals with congregational chris- tian churches both within and outside the united church of christ. disciples of christ. the disciples of christ historical society, nashville, ten- nessee, has received the personal papers ( - ) of emory warren ross, an au- thority on africa. the new director of the library and archives, as of october , , is david i. mcwhirter. kitty huff recently joined the staff to assist with reference and volunteer services. this historical society extends its services to the christian church (disciples of christ), the christian churches, and the churches of christ. jewish. at the american jewish archives in cincinnati, ohio, abraham j. peck is the new assistant director. stanley chyet is no longer serving as associate director. latter-day saints. the historical department at church headquarters in salt lake city has published an index to mormonism covering periodical liter- ature. this microfiche edition is an index to selected journals in which articles per- taining to mormonism appeared. the new managing director of the archives is g. homer durham, former university educa- tor and administrator and most recently d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—july commissioner of higher education and chief executive officer of the ohio state board of regents. lutheran. at the lutheran archives center, philadelphia, david j. wartluft has been named librarian of krauth mem- orial library of the lutheran theological seminary. this library houses and admin- isters the lutheran archives center. wart- luft succeeds helmut t. lehmann, who has been named professor of church history at the same institution. wartluft was the former assistant librarian and served as archivist of the northeastern pennsyl- vania synod of the lutheran church in america. joann reeser has resigned as archival assistant and has been replaced by graduate student john peterson, who was previously responsible for the bicentennial center of the lutheran church in america operated at the muhlenberg building in philadelphia. the north carolina synod of the lu- theran church in america reports that its archives program has just received a $ , equipment grant, and it is apply- ing for a $ , grant for an archivist for one year to rework the archives and process new accessions. mennonite. recent accessions to the archives of the lancaster mennonite con- ference historical society include, from thirty-eight congregations, church bullet- ins, deeds, photographs, programs, clip- pings, minutes, reports, and record books. a number of institutions and committees made archival donations during , including the eastern mennonite board of missions and charities, the christian edu- cation board, and the association of men- nonite elementary schools. personal col- lections were received from a number of lancaster conference mennonite- ordained leaders and other individuals. miscellaneous accessions include clip- pings, maps, broadsides, early lancaster county deeds, minutes, reports, and sun- day school cards. growth of the archives has been enhanced by the remodeling of library facilities. new staff members are lloyd zeager, assistant librarian-archivist, and lois ann zook, librarian. methodist. last november the pitts theology library at emory university, atlanta, moved from the theology building back to its former building which has been completely renovated. the archives is now in a secured room with temperature and humidity control. significant progress has been made in the arrangement and de- scription of materials that were already part of the collection, mainly records of the methodist church in georgia. also among these materials are sermons of two bishops of the methodist episcopal church, south—linus parker and joseph staun- ton key; the papers of a retired candler school of theology faculty member, john lawson; and the papers of a candler alumnus, george oscar douglas. recent accessions include the minutes and rec- ords of the annual meetings, - , of the american academy of religion, sou- theastern region. the archives and history department of the north alabama conference continues to receive minutes, journals, histories, and documents of the conference as well as minutes of the methodist church in the united states. last september the library of archives and history was moved to the charles andrew rush learning center of birmingham-southern college where an office and two adjoining rooms provide work and storage areas. society of friends. from the private libraries of moses and obadiah brown have come two hundred books of the th century or earlier for the collection of the archives and historical records commit- tee of the new england yearly meeting of friends. another accession is the rhode island quarterly meeting reports of subor- dinate meetings. - . a new staff member, ruth c. burgess, is assistant cura- tor. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril if sir francis had written this letter on permalife, it would still be around today. if this paper does not last years under standard archival conditions, return the paper to howard paper mills and get double your money back. permalife is an archival grade line of papers, now manufactured by howard paper mills. it has a slightly alkaline ph (about . ) so it will last about years under the conditions outlined for archival grades by the national library association. permalife is available in bond, ledger, text, cover, library, catalog and card stock from any howard paper merchant. howard paper mills, inc., po. box , dayton, ohio the nations printing papers howard d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril document now with added alkaline buffers. acid free xobintssl a stronger alkaline buffer has been added to our document cases. this provides the same high ph for archival longevity, but more protection against atmospheric pol- lutants and migrating acids from stored documents. full " storage width: (above) # letter size ( / " x k m " x ") # legal size ( / " x k m " x ") # oversize legal ( / " x / " x ") / " storage width: (left) # letter size ( / " x k m " x vz") # legal size ( /i" x /i" x %") the hollinger corporation write today for prices and complete catalog for permanent durable acid free storage materials p.o. box -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! "x " v ' ' ' x " x " x " x " x " acid free xcffimsbl museum mounting board • archival board with a professional appearance • designed for absolute protection of your prints • will last to years • completely acid tree hollinger off-white mounting board is alkaline (ph . ), and is buffered to combat atmosphere pollutants and acids that may migrate from papers attached to it. available in sizes . . . order in units of or more. the hollinger corporation write today tor free information, sample and prices -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril saa application formembership or subscription individual membership insitutional membership subscription only regular • $ enclosed • $ enclosed • $ enclosed d $ enclosed • $ enclosed conlri billing • $ enclosed student • $ enclosed' regular • $ enclosed sustaining • $ enclosed • $ usa, canada, mexico d $ all others name- institution. street- . city_ . state_ zip_ signature of faculty member institution dues individual regular cross annual salary $ -$ $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , contributing regular dues, as above, plus student institutional regular sustaining dues i $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ individual and institutional members of the society receive the american archivist, the bimonthly saa news- letter, and the annual meeting program. members are eligible for special discounts on professional publications, and may utilize the society's placement service. subscriptions to the american archivist without membership in the saa are available only to institutions. applications for membership or subscrip- tion should be addressed t o : society of american archivists university of illinois, chicago circle library, room chicago, illinois sustaining membership includes two copies of all society publications during year of membership. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril information for contributors editorial policy . members of the society of american archivists, and others with professional interests in the aims of the society, are invited to submit manuscripts for consideration and to suggest areas of interest or sub- jects which they feel should be included in forthcoming issues of the american archivist. . manuscripts received from contributors are submitted to readers who the editor feels can give an objective appraisal. readers are asked to appraise manuscripts in terms of appropriateness, pertinence, innovaliveness, scholarly worth, and clarity of writing. . only manuscripts not previously published in english will be accepted, and authors must agree not to publish elsewhere, without explicit written permission, a paper submitted to and accepted by the american archivist. the editor will consider publication of articles previously published in foreign lan- guages; but usually these will be abstracted and included in a section of the american archivist intended for this purpose. . one set of galley proofs will be sent to authors for correction of any omissions or errors in the edited copy of the original manuscript. . ten reprints of each paper will be provided to the author without charge. additional reprints may be ordered from the printer, and an order form for this purpose will be sent to the author with his galley proofs. . letters-to-the-editor which include pertinent and constructive comments or criticism of articles or reviews recently published in the american archivist are welcome. ordinarily, such letters should not exceed words. . brief contributions for the three special sections of the american archivist—news notes, interna- tional scene, and technical notes—may be addressed to the several editors of those sections or sent directly to the editor of the american archivist. manuscript requirements . manuscripts should be submitted in english, in double-spaced typescript throughout—including footnotes at the end of the text—on white bond paper hx or x '/ inches in size. margins should be about ! inches all around. all pages should be numbered, including the title page. the author's name and address should appear only on the title page, which should be separate from the main text of the manuscript. . each manuscript should be submitted in two copies, the original typescript and one carbon copy or durable photocopy. . the title of the paper should be concise and distinctive rather than descriptive. . an abstract of approximately words, brief, concise, and complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper, describing purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions where applicable, should be submitted with each manuscript. . illustrations, photographic or drawn, are welcome. photographs should be x inch glossy prints; other illustrations should be professionally drawn to a scale about twice the size of the final copy to be printed. . references and footnotes should conform to accepted scholarly standards. ordinarily, the american archivist uses footnote format illustrated in the university of chicago manual of style, th edition. . the american archivist uses the university of chicago manual of style, th edition, and webster's new international dictionary of the english language, d edition (g. & c. merriam co.), as its stan- dards for style, spelling, and punctuation. variations from these standards are permitted but should be minimal and purposeful. . usage of terms which have special meanings for archivists, manuscript curators, and records manag- ers should conform to the definitions in "a basic glossary for archivists, manuscript curators, and records managers," american archivist, vol. , no. (july ). copies of this glossary are available for $ each from the executive director, saa, university of illinois at chicago circle, box , chi- cago, . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists st annual meeting, salt lake city october - , oome to a going piaoei salt lake i structure an educational experience particularly suited to your special interests. workshops, seminars, panel discussions, tours, film festivals, gala entertainments publications a basic glossary for archivists, manuscript curators, and records managers; $ . members, $ . others forms manual; $ . members, $ . others inventories and registers: a handbook of techniques and examples; $ . members, $ . others oral history program manual by william w. moss; $ . members, $ . others modern archives and manuscripts: a select bibliography by frank b. evans; $ . members, $ . others the modern manuscript library by ruth bordin and robert warner; $ . members, $ . others available from saa in spring —a basic manual series archives and manuscripts'. surveys by john a. fleckner archives and manuscripts: appraisal and accessioning by maynard j. brichford archives and manuscripts'. arrangement and description by david b. gracy ii archives and manuscripts: reference and access by sue e. holbert archival security by timothy walch set of five: $ . members, $ . others; or $ . each to members, $ . others. a postage and handling charge of $ . will be added to orders under $ . which are not prepaid. for a complete list of publications and membership information write society of american archivists library, po box university of illinois at chicago circle chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g j w w g by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ a passage to premodernity: carl sauer repositioned in the field by anna clare skeels b.a., oxford university, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in the faculty of graduate studies (department of geography) we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british colui’ bia december anna clare skeels, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives, it is understood that copying or pubtication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. (signature) __________________________ department of geography the university of british columbia vancouver, canada date / / de.. ( / ) abstract this thesis is an attempt to mediate between the different perspectives on carl sauer and his work that fix him in the “field” of geography. by repositioning sauer literally in the “field in mexico (and later, in south america) through a reading of his correspondence and fieldnotes, i hope to open up sauer and cultural geography to a new range of questions and debate. in the course of the thesis, it is maintained that you cannot consider sauer and culture in the “field” of geography without remobilising him as geographer amidst culture in the “field”; nor can you consider sauer as fieldworker in isolation from the “passage to premodernity” of his life and work. sauer is thus positioned ambivalently in various “moments” of the practices and politics of dwelling and travelling in the “field” and presented as an ant imodernist looking for a cultural and an academic “home”. ii h h h h h h d m m h h o o o d o c o j h .d d o o f m w h o g • w w w m m m m d q d o h h h h - u h h h - h - h -h - h - h h h - i i i i i cd ti h c d h - it i— ’ -j cd cd h it cd c’ ) a) i i i i i i i i i i i f l ’ r ’ j t i d q d - j d i j ( j ) j f h - ) o h - • c ) h - j h - ‘t i i t h c d c d d - b i t - h - l q c t - j d i t j h h c d l i i t c d c d h - c d l i a ) i t h a ) q c t i h - a ) ) p c ) a ) h - - - x j c d •- p j c d q c r r tq h - u i. i- :x i c) d c d ‘d c c) c d • p j u i o h - p )h - it ‘ < . cl ) l i h < h - i t t • . h - c) l i h c d c d cl ) ‘ ) a ) i t h a) ‘- a )c d i’ - cd a) cl ) ‘— h p j c d j > p ) a ) c ) h it it cd i t h • j h n • c_i l q q - h c d cd a ) s c) a) c tp i h - cd a) h -n o h - a) ‘x j h q ‘— cd h- i h i u i f - cd cd a ) h cd h -i cd ii cd pi cd q ii a) o ’ . q pi cd h - a) ‘- d i- q q p) a) h - cd c t j it h - i t o a) — : q c d ‘ - i, ’o ii h - c d l- ij c o (q i- ç i p , c d cd h -c d i- i a ) c t h it c- ) c i l- h - h - h - i i ’ ’ ’ ii ‘- cd c) h - p) _ ‘ ‘ - - f - ‘< a) b a ) c d c d it i— ’i t ‘- s p j c d > < ‘- ç t c d h l i c d o it lx i c ) h - i - ’ - x j h h -, c c ) h - h - p i ‘- i cd h -, c t ( h h c d h - ’ h - h -h z q h - c ) i t c ) ’ - ’ i lx i it cd q > ‘• • ( h - . . a ) c d o c d cd - it l ) ’ h -h h h p u -i it cd cd ‘- d p i p ‘ cd it a) p ia ) c d b a ) i t i t a) a) it it a ) p ) c d • h -’ a) h -p u it — • p j q cd iq f l iq p - h c d ’ ’ - h - c ) w it ‘— h -d it - < i t h -c ‘ i t h - h p j h -h -c ) ( ‘ - h -c )c )p j ‘ ’ h p ) p j h • • p jc d • - h h ‘ t i a )c l) q f l’ - - ’ c d pj k < p c d h ’ c ) h - cd p j h ‘ i . q a ) h - h ‘ c d h - p j ’ h c d (c l it ‘d c d a) k < u i .. h ‘ h - cd c) it it h cd a) w i:-’ li ii c) z ‘- lxi z ‘- cl) fr ij h - cd h i r: i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i h c ft j w z ‘ q o ’ lx i p c d q c d c d h - h q q q d ) q h q h - v i - h - j h r t c d h c d r t h - d c d p i- c i ii d h j q c t h - h - pi f t q c d c d q a ) h - lx i h u c d - c t q c i t j h - c d q c d c )c r c d u h o h - h h h c t h - c ) h d p j c ) .• ‘ . i c t c f — ’j ’f -- h - c d r t ‘t j z h - f - - ( d h - c ) c d f - - h p j c d j h - - ) h d lx i c d o c d o c d - .c c d p n f — i h < ‘ ‘< s h - c s p t • • • • • . c ). ) . d w ) i j lx i h - c d h - o w f l x - - o i c d c ) r t c d i- ’j c d h - j cd h c ) c d ii q i - - - ( ) q jj h - r r u ) h l- -- a ) c ) h q f l i h - - . c d cd h - i - c ) f t c) h - c r l y h u ) c ) h - c d c d h - cl ) d e c d c d p ja )c d h - lj i) ç t i- it cl ) i- q c d ij cd -j l x j c ) pj cl ) f t c d h -i j c ) l- cd h - q h - fr h h - c ) c i ) c) . i)) cd ‘ d >< c) h h cd q c ) ci i c d c d c j o - i- i - ( n o h - h - l’ j cd h - c r c t - h (i) ç t h - h (.q c) i- cd cd l- ci i h h h cd c) o c ) cd o - ci i a) ft ç t cd cd h - h - -‘ c r cd cd c) c) ci i - - cd cd -‘ m l\ ) l\ ) j j m h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h w h h h h w o ‘o o -- j .. j __ j a - o a u- i u i u i w w w l’ j h d h w h - . j u ] w g g h o d a — c i) c d p )c d h - h ç - r o q b p i : -c d n pj o pi h c r p )c d c) h o - d c i c r — h . k < ( i) pi cd h pi i - ci ) p) p) c r u) - k< h p) c d h > < p ) h - o c t h h c t h c d . cd h cd cl ) pi cd pi i-h h pi u) i - p ) h - ri -c d c d i- -c d h h d o f o h - p .) h - c r u ) cd u) p) h h - c r p) c r c r x c i) h o u ) i- ’ h - c r c j) ) cd h r t ii — — n h p ) h c) -‘ ) p) c rc !) c d c d o c d p) h u ) - i q c d c d k< >< c d h - u) c ) - — ci ) p) ld c d h h p - cd p) p - c d c d c d u ) h c d c d s < h - pi h i - u ip ) o u ) -c d h p ) c r h -‘ c- ) h - u) c i p u) p c r ‘d h -c d h h c r — cd h c d o p .) - h c rc !) - p j p ih i (. p j c - r p cd i - - h w u ) h h - n o p if - l b- c d c d b c r c d h - f t o c d ij ‘.i j xj h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h - h i h h h i i- i- i- f - i- i- i- i- h h p cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd h h - h h h .d — j u ] w h h i c i m h - -. -- -- -- - -- -. -- i q ii hi o tt ) < ij — q c t c t h - ) i p ) c v h - p )i -< h , o c d c d c t j- ’c pj h c d h ip )h , h - h c d q c d h h u )q p u) h -h i c d o r t • p j c d o h i’ -< - - ‘- < h - ç t h h -h - p u) - u ) cd -‘ c d c d c d w hi c d s h - ‘- < -- -) h q cd cd h ) u ) h - b c- ) - h , h -h - p c ) c) -‘ u )c d p ) h ) — cd h i c t hi o h — h , p .- - h - cd - h o f t cd h hi cd b -u ) ‘- < c r c d c r cl ) q h i cl ) cd - cd c r o p ) — o c r cd p h ih - u ) c d j i - u ) h - — r i- p )c d u ) j cd s h -c ) p h q c d pj cd cd h i p -. h i c r i - q - i ‘- < to u ) h - -. r i - c t ri -h - = - c i p o - p ) ci ) i- c r u ) c d o .) p z c d p cd w > < h - ci i- c d -c ci - u) c d o o < h -p . cd h h h u )p j o h - hi - h -w ‘d o - o c d p c d h ic i- - i - p u ) hi o h i u) hi h o h -p cd - u) c d o i- q h ri - cd h - k< c d -c d o pj h h - h i hi ‘o c d u) r j h cd f < h c d o - h - h p.) p i- o h - > h - u) ci - — u ) h c r — j: i h - c r i - u) - - r cd o c r p.) - ci c r — u ) o c r • t — ‘ c d h i u) cd cd h - — u )p j cd cd c r ci h - c r u) cd h cd u) cd u) h - u) h - h p.) cd h h cd u) h m h c r i- -i h h h i- !) ( o i u i l’ -) h h h - -< u i u i w o c i — . i- c i- c i- c u) w i-’ ) h -- h ‘- izj tx j h li i i: i acknowledgements i would like to acknowledge the support of people in both canada and britain. at the department of geography, ubc, thanks goes to david ley, derek gregory and alf siemens of the faculty; to kate boyer, alison blunt and matt little for moral support and to everyone in the office, especially sandy lapsky. in england, thanks goes to my family and friends for long-distance support and to geraint tarling, to whom i wish to dedicate this thesis. vi c! ) ef l i- h - cd < < < < h - h - h - p) cd h - h - h - — < h - h - i- h - h - — ‘ — h - cd rt ct h - ‘ — — q cd c! ) ‘d cd h - j pi cd i- cd u) u) ii c) h - rr q cd rr c) cd u) iq cd ij u) i- u cd cd h cd d l u) rt h , i - h - f - u ) u) cd k < u) ci ) i- h cd h - ) f - i) f - cd j q u) c r r— c r cd cd cd cd h - c) i- i- h c) i- i- cd u) rr c! ) u) u) • - ci ) ci ) i- u ) h i- cr • i- cd • • u) ç t h , j ci ) c) h - u) h - q h c) cd i h - i- i cd i- c) < u) i- u) • - cd cd • - i- ii i o u) i- cd cd cd u) i u) h , i- j h - • cd c c) cd c) u) c) cd () cd c) cr • < u) • h - ) c r h - cd ‘d h - h - c l c ) c) . ‘- cl ) cd z h , • • h - c i h , - h ci) ti • i- c ) . . u) ci ci) cr f - cd cd h - cd ci ) ii i cr h cr cd f - h h : f t c d ft o h q q ( d c d u ) h - h , hi rr c- rq cd i- h h c ) c ) h ) i- l d h ) d h - h u) f t . c m h c r h c rh i h c d u ) i- lu ) h ‘ d h h < r r h -c d c r f - r h -c d c r ç u (o h ‘ j r r c - r p j i-i o p’ - j - h i- h e < p ) c d c ) h o c d rr c d pi - h - h - u ) h - c p h c d c d h r r u ) o h io - — h i i-i h p h - u ) h h - c ) c a h ih . h - h - h c t c d c r o h hi h f t w c d u ) - h lh -c ) i t j ) h i c d lj • h , d q u ) cd p j) u ) p j f t c r h h - h - c d cd c) .. .c d p i jc d c d h u) , q i - ‘ h o c d h ic d c r h c r h u) u) c) çu cl ) cd c d ‘ o p - , j f - r c ) u) ° b h u) h hi h - u ) c d c ) c d ( o ) < c d h ft cd h - h , cd c r ft u) - h -q c )c i) rr h i c rh , ) c d c l- u ) u) c d d c d p i u )c d h ic d h h - h ic d h ,l )) u )c d cd c rc d h i’ t c r h - h - i pi pi q h o f t h i h , h i u ) u) c r h , ‘- i h cd h - cd l— h - ft h h hi h , h h cd cd h u) pi hi < cd cd p- i h u) c l pj cd p) pi h - c l- i cd cd h , c r < cd h , c d h i s p j cd h hi h cd pi i-i h - cd c r = u) pi h - h hi h - c r c r h - h - c r cd cd h - h - h - c l- ,-q c) cd cd ) pj - h - o h h cd h - h - h - cd cl - cd c) cd - pi - pj h c r h , i q ‘•g cd lq c r cd p) hi s h cd c l- cd pi ‘-i = pi p- i c r p-i p-i h - ft l cd ‘— r - u) pj hi p-i p-i ‘•‘ i cd hi h c) hi cd cd c r h - i - p-i p-i h - i-i c r cd • h h - u) ( ) c) h u) -i h - h cd h p-i - c) p-i p-i c r h l i fl ft cd cd cd h , h pi ft ç r h hi cd cd cd cd cd p-i p- i p-i u ‘-q c l- cd cd cd - hi cd i-q h i q i h - hi h h - hi h , q c) h , h - = cd p- i hi hi cd h - c) -i ft cd p-i < h , cd hi o hi h , h - c r ft ft h s k< cd cd cd ‘u i- i m i ‘- ‘ cd i- i ‘- i . c r i . i- i ‘u ii i . cd d z li c ) p-i hi h u) h - h h h p-i s u) h p-i hi p-i hi h - h — -i ‘- -i = h ,c d h i p i < cd ft h -c d ‘d h - h hi cd j k < c l - h i h - cd u ) ft ft c d ft c d p j cd • cd ft h q pi h i c c i) ‘ c d h - p p h h < h w h q c d h i ( u ) h i p f t’ < p i h - u) ‘•d c r h , h pj p - i < - i h i p h c d s p-i - p ih i h f t - ? h , ° h , u) c d cd = w — : j f t p-i hi h q cd !- p-i f tq i h p- i u) h - c u ) h , q ft cd h ft h , h p-i u) p-i cd ft cd lq h f t cd tq h p -i p-i h --‘- i c- ) h z l’i i- i z li c c) h z h h z c) li h lii c-) h z cl ) cl ) cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cl ) d cl ) cd cd h h - i - p. , < p. , cd cd cd o h ‘ d • id c) •- c) h - h ft ‘d ci - - l\_ ) - cx u ] h cx h () cd h j • c d h r r j o d — .i’ ti h’ c) d cd cd h - ( u i h • h - j f t c c d q cu cu cl ) h - cl ) p cd cd o p .’ - - o cd h i - c d cu i- c u c d h cu o c d h c d l d i- :: .’ h h - f t h - o cd cd h - . cd (j )h = o h q cl i c i p ip .’ pi i- p k pi cl i -. c ) p) n -< h - , h h c d c d h i- . c) cd l- t h h c d p i c d c d c) ft ç t cl ) h - - w cd c u c d d k < h it -i -i h ic d c t j o h - ‘ c u h - c u co o h ç t ç t c d ft p .’ -i - h i c d c d c d cc ) cd i - i - f t c d (f )c d c d : h c d ç ft c d c u cd cu h h p. ’c d cd c d p .c d p . ’ ” c d h cd ft c d i ft c l) o c d ,— , lc d ci - h o q . ’ cd cd i h ic d c d h i h cd h < i - l c d o o - h - c) c l cd f t i i - — c u r i- r i- p cu h - ft h ft c ) h - h p .’ i d o f t p i c d ft h i h - h - cl i c ) ‘d i : ‘d cu f t pi = cl ) cd h - ci - h pi h i f- ’ h i ii cl i >< < ci - ft h - cd cl i ih - . ’ f t h - c) ft h - cd cd ft ft i. < lcd pi . ‘ f t (- c) cd — ft i- h h - . ih h i— ’ cu h ii k < < h - - cd .’ f t cd d -. cd cd h p ‘ cd h - cd h - ‘- < cd •• ‘ cd h h cl ) cd h i - h h h i h h - i- cd cu pi h - ip h i f t cd cd cd h i h - f t cd f- .’ h - h - i-- i- p ft f t h - h - < iq h cd h - < cd -q cd - cd cd h • (-q h - cl i h - ft cd = ft cd cd ‘ - - pi i h c h cd ft k < q h p. ’ pi cd - h - >< cd h h ft < . ‘ h cd < h i ft h h h - h cd p. ’ cd p cd c) cd >< h i cd cd b. ’ (. )< f t •. . q = ‘ cd cd cl i cd cu h p h - h - p. ’ cd cd c) p. ’ cd c) cli ‘d h i h cc cd ‘ cd . h - h - h - d ‘ h i c d h i il pi cd cd cd cd ii ft cd ‘i cc cu — cli ft .‘ cd h - i ft h - - h - cd cd q k < c c) i cd cd cl i cd h c l • cd cl i -. f t cu h - ‘i cd cd cl ) cd cd f t cd cd f- i h i cu ft f t h i h - c ) c ) ft - -t - cd cd p ft cd o < c d c d h - >< h h h - cl ) h - cd < ( cd cd cd h - cd h cd cd cd cd p - c) p c cd - cd cd cd .‘ • cd cl ) h - cu h - cd cu cd c’ ) s cl h - cd ft ft h - cd f- ’ cu c) ft cd cd cd ft h - cd h ft ii cd h - (-p pi cd c) cd (.q pj h cd zi p cd h < pi c l cd cd cl i cl i cd h - ‘ cd c i cd h i h - cd pj h - h cd cl ) p cd cd h h - c l) p. ’ ft h - cd h - cd h i cd cd h i cd d h i ft ft cl i cd f t cu cl i cd pi h - cd ft h ,i - ci - cd cd cd h - ‘ g h - ft h - ft h i h i cd h - cd pi cd cu c l h - >< f t cl ) p. ’ ‘ ft p. ’ ft ft h - ft cd ci - cu cd ft cu cd cu h - ft cu cd s ft ft cu cd c) h .’ ft cd p. ’ ‘ k < ft cd cd h ft l ‘- < < cd cd criticism is also text, open to interpretation, to other critical trails: my end is also a beginning. i cannot, however, begin , end with the text. concentrating solely on sauer’s writing neglects the “worldly” nature of his textual “field”: his writing is placed in the world, it has a discursive context, i.e. historical, cultural and, most importantly, political moments to its production and reception: “the understanding of a text consists first of all of placing it in its proper sociopolitical configuration, in having the text confront its historical context, and in calling on a broad anthropological tradition. “° the textual “field” is situated amidst the “fields” of discursive practices that regulate knowledge and power in the “archive” of sauer’s time. however, not wanting to lose sauer completely amidst discourse, the notion of sauer as simply author-function is rejected in favour of a strategic positioning of changing sauer subjects for the purpose of critique. we move from the “work and see harari, op. cit., pp. - for the notion that critical discourse has no mastery over the text and is itself open to critique. see also bhabha in young, , p. : “the space of critical activity is also that of the (re)construction of knowledges.” ° said in harari, op. cit., p. . said stands here with foucault in the rejection of reducing everything to the level of the text and preferring instead to focus on the discursive text. via foucault, the “author” is transformed into the “author-function” - simply one mode of the functioning of discourse: “the authorial function is but an additional instrument for the exercise of a knowledge whose only politics is that of power. the author.. . is a principle of power, but one which is always presented. . . as being only an instrument of knowledge” (foucault in harari, op. cit., p. ). i, however, choose to follow spivak (in guha and spivak, op. cit., p. ) and to position sauer - in different “moments” - as subject (making no claims for a h ,d c d h - h cl ) cd p i- i — ’ o o h , h o c d j cd rt cd ) h - cd ( d b h - cd i— i j c d - f ’ h , cd u c) cd cd i— hc d pi cd > c) c d w h c d c q h - i- cd c) i c t c ) h - cd c) h h - cd t ’ - cd c u ] h - p h - h i- ’- :ç th - c t h - cd h rr h h - cd c ) h q cd ci ) h cl ) h - lq h - c ) i- ’ t d i h - cd c) b h - u cd i h cd cd cd c ) c d cd • cd jj h j c d h z - h , cd rt h w lj < f - cd h r t i- h p g c d c d h - cd h c d cl ) d c l- a cd cd ( ) q j c d ° h - h c ) o c d j cd k < c) w c ) h cl i cd c) , h - c d u ] ç i, c d -c d cd cl ) h :i h - h c d h c d c t • h ° h c) c l c t .d h - c ) ( h < q q . < c - t h - l q cd cd h - c - t l.. d ç t h -c d c d q p. h , c) < i c t c ) c d ts j • c t h , rt h cd u q c d cd s : - cd h cd c) h , cd h h c t • cd - u ) c i ) ‘ c l cd cd h , c t i cl) h - cd h r t h cd >< c l iq c d h -r t cd cd - l’ j c l cl i cd c ) h i— ’ f _ h , • - h o c d c d c) c d f _ h c d : cd c t h - - cd q c) ii h - cd h h j h - cd rt h c l c l z c t h c l cd c ) h - cl hc d h c) cd < r tc d r t r t ’ cl i h h - h c ) h - h , - h cd i h c l ) c l) r- rc ) k - c l h r t c l j - c l h , - c t - p c d c d h h - h h h c l h , cd - c t - cd c d c d . cl ) c d h , h , c li c d ) ) ) - . l i cl) ç t o c th - q c lh c d c th - h - cd cl) c l cd c d p ic d c d c d h -h -s c l c d < h - cd h - q c t ) c t cd o h -l q cd c t ii h - h - h - h - ç t o c li t- t- ‘ cd h , cd cd i.q cd cd cd h cd c d h - cd c d t cd h ,h -c l) cc i k < cl i h c d c d c l c l • c d r t cli q c t cl i c d h h - - cli c c c d u cd cd h - ‘- i- cd c) c t c th k < h i q h h - h - . cd cd s cd . cc h - h ( d h h - cd h - cl ) c cd cd cl) c t c t h i r j j c r cc h - h - c t h - c) cd cd l i c t cl i c) h d c d < cd c l cli cli cli c d h - cd h - i— ’ h d h - c )c l) i- h - f c d t cd cd h i- c d h ,c d cd i h , c l c l k < k < c tc d cl) s permeable and this was its “nature’ and its “destiny”. the “field” was beyond partition and control, greater than those who practiced it - they were merely “tillers” of the “field”. sauer said: “if we shrink the limits of geography, the greater field will still exist; it will only be our awareness that is diminished.” “. .should we disappear, the field will remain and it will not become vacant. ,, the individual geographer thus had a choice between truth and repose: true geographical enquiry was to travel; the “field” of geography was also trail. even here, maintained sauer, geography defied confinement: there must be no dominant trail, no beaten path, but the freedom of individual travel for the geographer: you could not “predetermine the quest for knowledge”: “no field of inquiry can be properly defined by any specific means or methods of gaining knowledge.” sauer claimed that he himself kept the “field” open and the trail unmarked “by any arrows of methodology”. his own work stepped aside from the “fields” of concern of other geographers of his time and contradicted accepted theories. williams portrays him as an “intellectual voortrekker” darting “about the geographical scene” and “moving on when he saw the next man’s methodological smoke”. ’ this did not, however, preclude sauer from wanting to meet others ibid., pp. and . ibid., p. . ‘ ibid., p. . ibid., p. . williams, , p. . f t q r t r t ’ d ( q q ‘ d r d o c d h i d f — h - c d o h p ic d ) w f t r r h rn h -< p j p ) h - q — c d c d < d cl ) w h -h - o c f lc d cl ) ) w c d < f t p ) b’ c d c ) cd h h - c d p j r t c d c d i- c i h c r h - h - f t h - p j c d w h - cd h - o f t w j cd f t o - t c d c d q ‘d f - cc ) ‘ h - — cd - c f lf to cd i ) h h - h lo r t c f l c ) cx h - o q ) c r c d f t q c t c r - h p j > -c d o h c ) s f t q cd c ) h < u o f t o c d f t s t c d - h - h - s h - c d w c i) . .q cl ) , , f t c) c d c t c d c - c d d h p ) c) h - ° c ) c d ° h c ) f r c d c d p ) c d c t o c d c ) h h h - c f c d g cl ) cd c t h - c i o p h c ) f t p j c d h - c d h c d h - h c f l r h q c d c d f t h - c- i- ° t h f t f t h i p ) c d j r r c ) h t c ) p j c d f t cd h cd h -c d c t h - lo q h i c d i c d cd f t t h - w cd - r t q f t t n f - h - c n q i t n q c d p h - h h i pi h - cd c t pi f t h h - f t cl ) cd cd cl ) - c) - q , h - cd d h - h - h c) f t a h - cl ) cd h i c) h i- h i- n f t h cd h p) q cd cl ) cd cd cl ) p h - pi cd cd i h i cl ) k < h pi h pi h - cd h h- ç t f t cd h - h - h - i- cl ) cd cl ) f t cd h - h h i cl ) cd pj h cd h cd ) o pi h cd (q h - cl ) ft c- i c r pi cl ) h h - cd p cl ) h cd cd c) h h < cd pi q - h - i- cd h i pi h i c! ) h - h ; s- cd cl ) cd f t cd c r q i- - pi pi ) : h i f t o h - h - p) ct h f t h h o s h h - h cl ) h - < ° h i cd h i h - ci - c r c) ii - cd ) c) h h q r i o h - h - cl ) h i >< c) ::- h - cd cd cd cl) h _ p ) p) h - cd h c) u) - q . - h - ) c i cd f t h - s h cd cd h cd -< h h h i h pi cd cq p f t h c) f t cd c i cd cd h h pi cd h - - h h f t h - cd h - h - u ) q pj c) h - pi c! ) h cl ) f t f t - cd cd ‘-q h i c i f t c i - h - — cd cd h i - ) u ic h i ) f t c d c d cd h f t y p) cd cd h (q i pj h h i c d s f t cl ) - h u ) p s p h - cd h pi i- cl ) < - cd h i q cd ) c! ) f t h h c d c d h h u i p ) h l d c d h k < i o h c o l o w o -’ u i cl ) cd cd h i cd f t pi h - f t h h i f t cd c) s h i h cd cd ii ) cl) f t pi f t h i f t cd pi s h u ) c i : c d o p ) c d f t h i-i ‘ h - k < h - h - h i h - f t r r - c d cd h h h - c n :j c) ‘ c d p) h c ) c d h h . h i t c d p j h - ‘ h rr f t cd h < c d ) ii h c d ; f tc ) h f t k < c d c d h i ri cd fl i j cd h cl ) h iq c q j h - p h - cl ) f t c ) cl) i o ) g p jl q j cl ) p ) : h - h p ) h h i h h if t h f tc d j h - f t c d t cd c) cd cd f t pi i- i- h h ç t q f t pi () i f r cd cd ) h - h - cd cd h - h - cd cd cd f t t h - j lo cd h f t q cd cd u) h - (q f t cd cd pi cd i- i f r l cd f t i- pi pi f t q h cd h - cd cd cu cd f - cd cd h h - cd h - iii cu c) f t - p - f t c) cd f t cd cu h cl ) if f t h , p ih i i f t iq h - cd f t cd - - s cd h ‘d f t cu cd cd p f t p cd h - c l cd cd ii -• f t cd iq cu cu f t cd pi f t h , f r cd f t h i- h - ii q - cd cd h - f t cd h - f- - <i ii— cd q i cd cd f t oo ç- t h , f t cd cd cd q i ii i. cd cd cd h - h - cd f r cd cd f t hj f t cd cu cd cd k < h - lo cu cd h - - f t cd cd h - cd cd h cd f t h ci) pi cd p h - h - • cd h - h h - cd cd cd h - ci ) cd , (.q f t h - lq h - f t h - cd h , h h - q h h , cd cd f t cd h , cd h h - q f t cu f t pj f t h - c) j f t h cd _ l: y .< cd n cd c) pj h , cd f t ç h h - cd f t h , h - f t h - < cu c) h cd - p f t f t h cd p cd cd f t h cd h - h , h - h , -q • f t cd h u) h cd cd cd h co ‘ o c) q ct f t - c ) h cd p cu f t - . i- ” ( f t cd h - cd h , q i cd h - s cd f’ - - h cd cd f t cd cd cd ‘ f - h cd cd cd c) f t g h cu h - cd f t h - . h - pi h - c) pi h h , s h - h - c d f r h - cd h , h , cu cd h - f t cd cu cd h - p f r h < f t h f t cd - cd cd cd -q h i- h - h , cd h , cd cd h cu cu cd h - h , cd f r h , cd cd p cd h - cd h cd f t cd f r h f t cd p cd p h - cd h - p h - q cd cu cd cd ‘< cd cd cd s h p cd cu cd < cd cd h - f t cd f t cd h - h - h f t k < cd cd cu c) h - h , <i w cd h - f r cd h , h - f t cd cd cd cl ) cd cd h , h , h - cd h l cu cu q p s i- cu •- h - cd c) h - h , cd f t k < h - f t h f t cd k < cd - h - cd cd cd f t - < cd i- ii . cd h - h h - h , h - cd cu s h cd - i- q c) h cd c) - t- h q cd cd cu cu cd cd cu f t f r cd cd < f r (q cd h cd h p u ’ f t h ‘- < cd cd cu . cd f r i- h cd cu c) i cu h . q . cu cd f t f t - ii h - h p h - h h - f t hi h hi lz cu h h h q f r cd f t h . . - < cd - < cu < . f r cd k < . k < q i phrases he had made his own over the years: “now i find myself reproducing them again and in so doing reproducing carl sauer’s thought.” this “index of the pervasive influence of this scholar” is, for stoddart, an indication of sauer’s greatness as an academic. it also, however, represents an uncritical adoption of his ideas. critical closure over the past decade, a “new cultural geography” has been constructed which focuses on a critical rejection rather than adoption of sauer’s ideas, particularly his definition of culture. equating sauer with the berkeley department and north american cultural geography as a whole, it dismisses them as outmoded, relegating them to the “old cultural geography”, the heritage of the “new”. sauer’s definition of culture, states james duncan ° in his pioneering article of cultural critique, reifies culture, missing the wider social context in which it is constituted and expressed and limiting the questions that may be asked within the discipline. sauer’s “superorganic” view of culture, says duncan, sees culture as an entity at a higher level than the individual, governed by a logic of its own, actively constraining human behaviour and leaving little room for human agency - we see reality “through the stoddart, op. cit., p. . duncan, . creature’s eyes and act accordingly”. duncan attributes this superorganic notion to sauer’s close links with alfred kroeber in the department of anthropology at berkeley, from whom these ideas were apparently uncritically adopted and filtered down to sauer’s students in the geography department. peter jackson, in a more recent critique, adds that sauer’s view of culture is too rural, materialist, historicist, concentrating on mapping the distribution of non-urban cultural traits in the landscape and deciphering the nature of their origins. as an alternative, jackson advocates a convergence of cultural and social geography and the adoption of a more political approach to culture which allows a real concern with social agency and the constructed nature of culture. price and lewis, two former berkeley students, have recently replied to this critique, rightly criticising its reductionist view of cultural geography at berkeley and its relegation of the latter to the defunct half of an old/new intellectual dualism. while accepting the critical input of the “new cultural geography”, they resent its destructive approach: “although members of the new school claim to be revitalising the sub-discipline, they are in fact reinventing it, casting aside all of the features that have long distinguished american cultural geography. “ price and lewis advocate a mutual toleration in cultural approaches freilich in duncan, op. cit., p. . jackson, . price and lewis, . ibid., p. . to geographical enquiry: they seek not to reinstate berkeley as the true exemplar of cultural geography, but to prevent its misinterpretation . in spite of this assertion, however, there is something of an “establishment” feel to their tone. the delay in the reply to the “new cultural geography” is exemplary of the long-established positions of berkeley geographers within the sub-discipline. as they themselves note, they do not have to participate in “intellectual jockeying”: their ways are “time-honored”. the conceptualisation of the representatives of the “new cultural geography” almost as the “youth of today”, elbowing their way in, has connotations of their having to earn their place within the tradition. price and lewis seem to forget that they are as much a selective self-invented tradition as the caricature forced upon them by the “new cultural geography”. neither do price and lewis, in my mind, adequately answer the challenges of the “new cultural geography”. to meet duncan’s criticism of the superorganic, with its twin allegations of tribal holism and discounting the individual, with the response that sauer was aware of the former but never did anything about it and, as for the latter, he “did accord historical efficacy to individuals but generally only to those who remained anonymous” (for example unamed ibid., p. . ibid., pp. and . women and columbus!) is inadequate, to say the least. sidestepping, price and lewis dismiss the matter, maintaining that sauer did not even pay much attention to conceptualising culture: “given the international orientation of the berkeley school, “culture” was a shorthand for those foreign peoples in whose land geographers muddied their boots. ,, this, however, just reinforces duncan’s critique that culture is “out there”, and the point that culture is something other (foreign) people are dominated by and from which the geographer is exempt. only he can swim against the cultural tide. while price and lewis thus seek to mobilise the “old” cultural geography from its ossified form imposed by the “new”, they do not unfreeze their own conception of their tradition, especially the role of carl sauer. true, the “berkeley school” is not reducible to sauer’s work and influence. however, he is a significant part of its (constructed) history and later work is defined in relation to him. the “berkeley school” may have “many voices”, but sauer was the first. we therefore need to take another look at this legend. leaving the beaten trail: geography in the field “the important thing is to leave the beaten trail and start cutting one of your own; it will lead into a land of delight. that is both the advantage and difficulty of being a geographer.” ibid., p. . ibid., p. . sauer in stoddart, op. cit., p. . çu c) ft l- cd c) h , q ct ) f t h - h - h h - f t cd ft c) c h cd q i- h h ci i ci i cd h ct p . pi ci i cd pi lq ci ) (.q ct cd cd c t c h - ci ci i cs cd q f t < f - ct ft c ) ci i h h - - ti) ‘ < : cd cd ) - cii c r c) f - c h - cd h cd c ) c d h , cd h - h - cl ) h - cd cd h - h cd ç t pi h - cd ft i- cd cd cd cl ) - i-, cl ) ft c d c h c d - -. c cd cd - h < ci i cd h - ci ) ft c) c c u ) i g c cd h - q cd ci i h b i- h - c ci i cl ) h - cd ci ) - cl ) h c ih h - i cd i-q i— o ft i- ci ) cd h - cd ci ) c ‘- d h - c) cd cii cd h - cl ) c c) h h to f t ii )i h , h - ft c) ci i ft d cl ) h - c) h - ft cl ) ‘- d cd h , h - c l) j c i- ci i ci ) c h - ci i c c q h - cd cd ft cd ci i c cd d cd h cq cd f - c) cd h f t c cd h - ii h q i c cd h ft f - i h - h h - h ft ci i f t h , c) c h - f t q i f t c) h , h h - cd c) zr h , h ft h pi h - h - ci i h - ci ) cd h c) h p j k < ft i cd h - c cd c) u ) c) ft ci i h h h ft ‘ o cd c) ft = h , ) f t c) h , ft c p cd - cd h - cd p i cd h c h , h cl ) h - h - h cd ft q i q s q ft c ft q i cd b cd f t cd cd h - h , cd cl ) cd ii f t q li ci i c — q i h - c cd ci i h , c cd h , ft h - h h f t cd h - h - h cd ft cd cd cd cd c cl ) h - h f t cd cd h - cd h - h ci h c i < - cd o h , h - h cd pi ft h - c) - f t h - cd cd h - h ci i i- h cd cd c) l h - ft h - ci i cd o pi c q ) ft h cd ci ) h - i h h h , h h - ci i h h h cl ) cl ) c ci i cd cd h , cd p i h - c d cd < s h - k < ft u) h h - cii h cd ft h - ci ) i c cl ) h - cd cd f t ft f t u ) c) h , ft -< h ci i ) c) l- s c ft ft o f t cd c) cd h h - h , k < h - cd h - j h , h h - cd h - cd cd cl ) f t h - h cd cl ) h h - cd h h c) ci cd c) cd - p ft h - cii cq ci i q f t - h - h - c d h : h ;- p cd h cd h , h , c h c ft h ft h cd - - h - cl ) u) cd ft ‘ h ft cd h p cd ci i pi ct ) h - cl ) w p i h , h h h - c i-q h cd c f t ci i q i h cq i cd pi h - cd h - h c cd c cd h cd q - h - h cd q i c h - h - h ft ci i c h , cd c) h h - k < q c) h- h - p i h - pi h - c ) p i cd cd ci i cd c) h d h cl ) c) h ft cl ) q i cd i- h cq ft h h q i ft c) c) u) ft i- cd q cd cd ci i p i ft cd cd cl ) ft cd c ft c) ‘ c pi h h ic h - q . cl ) h c cq h - cl ) h c ) f t ft ih iz cd cd cd li < l- i- c c cd q i f t c ci ) b h - h ci i ‘- q i cd ii l- ft ft h - ft ft ci i h - pi ft h - h ci i ci i cd h - f t ft cl ) h - i- ft j q i - u) h - cd cd ft cd cl) cd c cd ‘- < ‘- < c cd cl) . . ‘- d () d ii h - ci ) h , o h , j cl ) h - c d i- d cr ) c) c) h - o f t s s - h l% j - w ci ) cd cd c- ) h h - h , h , h cl) cr) cd h cd f t h c d j p j i c ) i cl ) j f t ) .q pi ) cl ) h h h , cd $)j t f t i i i - f t — h - c t cd fr h rt f ti h ih - cd q i cd f t f t h • cd cd f t f t h - c d i c t i f t f t cd cl ) j f t h f t f t h i i h - h h - q o i t i pj h , f t h - q i h - h - h q i- ’ < cd d c) h f t cd lq h h - h - h - w i h , cd h - f t i— i , cd h c h f t i c ) c d pi u ’ h , h f t h cd k < h h h i o o q i < q i h - f t f t cd - c) c d tq h i h f t cd < h i f t - h , f t f t f t h - h , i - q i ci ) cd ci ) ) cd h - c) h - ‘- h - f t cl ) i cd c d h cd cd h , ci ) c ci ) q f t c) cd h h f t h - h - ci ) f t cd f t f t ) c) f t t h - h - h - h - ‘ i- h > h h h h h , cd cd f t f t d f t f t c o f ’ h - h - .q q h , h f t ‘ cd h - cd h f t j c ) h - cd f t ci ) q i h — w cc cj ) cd h - h h - f t f t ci ) f t f t c )c n h p j p -’ c d q h - cd cc h q h c d h - ’ < i . z cd i- cd ci ) cd h cl ) -q pi q i h - f t pi h q ip j f t cd pi pj cd (- q p j cc h cl ) h - q h - c) ci ) f t q i c) o cd cd h , cl ) c) k < ci ) q i - pj h h p ) h - h , h , h , f t ci ) - cd h - h g f t q c - p f t h - cl ) cd c d ) f r c) - cd f t ci ) ci - pj i— i h ci - c) cd i d i p j < i i— ’ • f t f t cd cl) ‘- < h - (-q :- cd cd h - h f t f t h i w h f t h - cd f t h - h , f t h - h o i- s • f t h , p) h - ci c d c ) h - h h h c d i h h - p. h q i h - ci ) i ci -< cd h h - f t pi i- p j w ih -c o pi f h - cd f- ’ cd q i f t f t p. c ) f t i f t h i cl ) • • f t h , cd h a h h p c) pj h - h ci ) h cd cd f t q i u ) h c i - h - q cd c) f t h f t c) f t cd h - h , h - c - - i- h - h f t h h - c d - f t q i cd f t i f t s cl ) k < h i h - h - cd f t cf ) q i cd h - f t h - cd cd cd b h , f t f t pi h - lcd h - ci ) - p cd pi f tl -q h iq ic h i cd - q i h , c ) h - h - h - f t f t h - (q cl ) c ) q f t f t p j f cd cd h c o ic u h h - f t cd pi cd h f t f t— i q cd cd p. c) h - - i p ) q i c d f t f - c) h - pi f t h , cd cd cd h h , i cd ci ) f t f t h - cd if tc d h - < cd q- ’ i— i iq cl ) ci - cl ) q if t l - f t c) ‘- çj c l ) h - h i o ) h i h - cd h - -• pi i— i q cd h - s f t c d h i h ,- cl ) h , i-n u i f t h , cd h , q i i-n cd w cd cd cd cd ih ji p ç r cd c c d h h c d f— ’ o c r u ) cd h c d cf l h c r c r c d cd x h c) h h localisation, the drawing of a boundary. like clifford, i am interested in the spatiality of cultural authority and cultural futures. in a shift of focus from geography as “field” to geography j the “field”, i am left with a complex view of sauer amidst intellectually and spatially bounded travel: fixed in the academic “field” and fixing his authority in the “field”; mobilised in the “field” and mobilising against fixed authority in the academic “field”. retaining this tension between dwelling and travelling allows for an ambivalent and productive approach to sauer’s authority: holding onto an ethnographic crisis but an enabling crisis that searches out the limits to authority and the grounds for its transgression. homecomings there are trails that must be followed if we are to get some answers. we begin with sauer’s life and work as bounded marginal spaces in a “passage to premodernity”. sauer is always already travelling, displaced amidst a condition of “ethnographic modernity” and looking for a cultural and intellectual dwelling (“home”) . following sauer’s premodern passage into mexico, the “field”, culture and their inscription in sauer’s notes and works are treated as ambivalent attempts at homecoming amidst travel -the positing of academic and cultural truths - “the notebook of a return” • allowing the spatial tension to resonate throughout different “moments” of sauer’s life and work, sauer is thus mathewson in kenzer, , p. . clifford, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . positioned ambivalently and strategically, negotiating the identity of self and others amidst wider discourses of dwelling and travelling. finally, through a second and imposed (“home”) coming, sauer is ambivalently repositioned in the modern via the example of his south american trip of with the question that perhaps it is this that constitutes the true notebook of a return. h i pi it h - — . u) it c/ ) cd cl ) < it c i h i ic -) it h - c d pi h i pi h i h - f h i i h - c d — cd c i < h - cd cd i çu h - cd h - h - cd cd i u ) p- ’ i- h i— i cd cd c) ii - h - t-q it u) j u) h i c i c) i h c i h i cd h - - - cd - h - i > c i cd h - (q cd u) - cd pj cd cd o çu h : cd : cd - h u) : : ii - o ‘ h - cd u) q h - h - u) i u) it - h = h i - c i çt h i - u ) cd it h - : h - i.. o cd ft h c- i - - — h i h - . - - cd ci i cd cd h - it h i q i : h it cd ci i h - c t > cd h - i ci i h - h - cd f - h ci i it it it - h i h - it cl ) ci) u) u) - c cd j cd cd h cd h - cd - > h cd h cd — h m c) u) h i cd cd s it it c) cd h - c t q i o - f’ h - h - h i cd h i h i c i cd d h h - c i ‘< c i cd u) ci i u) cd f- i cd cd p i u) u) - c t cd ci) cd h cd h h - i c t h i c t cd h - u ) ç w - ç c) cd ‘ cd h - pi c) - • - c ) cd h c - ç cd - cd cd - cd h i h q i c t cd h t h$ cd cd < cd cd cd h it u) it h cd h c i q h - - ci i - . ) h - c/ ) cd cd cu c-’ - ‘< cd cd h ci) it q i cii cd c) ‘ cd cd — .] h c/ ) it - cd u) h - cu cii it u) cd it ‘- u) cx ) c) h i c) : it cd it u) it - cd it h - cd cd cd it c) cd ‘- ‘- — : u ) h cd i- : u) cd h - it cd cd cd it u) cd u) > > i ic ) p i h - h i cd cu it ‘ h - h o f- ’ h i < c) k < $ cx i cd i h - cd pi cd cd cu h i ‘- q i cd - it - it ‘ cd h - h - — cd lcd h cd cd cd cd c < cd h i ic ) h - h z j it u) it cd c-i - q i cd h cd h i p h h - u) - p i - ‘ q i h - u) cd cd pi h cii - f’ - h h c- i h cd h - h i u) k < cd u) - it ci i ci i cd cd u) cd h - pi it h i i - it - < cd i cd - h i pi i- ci i ci ) • u ) k < h it h i h cd - c) i- < cl ) cd - it h - u) cd c) cii - cd h - d u) cd p h i ci i it s u) ‘-q = ci i h - cl ) ci i ci i h - it cd ‘- ‘- cd ‘- o q i h - (q it j - b cii cd q cd h i q i it cd cd i- h u) cd cd cd it to begin with a “home”: “home” not in the sense of the “warm, redwood house” that james parsons immediately associates with sauer (see figure ), but in the sense of identity, the sense of belonging. sauer himself conceptualised his life as a kind of of f beat existence: that of the small-town “peasant”, tangential to a modernising, urbanising united states within which he emerged as dissenter, “maverick”, even “jester”. in fact, born second generation into a german immigrant community, sauer was in a way already marginal to the united states, displaced by birth. thus, rather than taking “home” as our starting point for granted, it becomes more productive to begin with a condition of displacement; the important query being not so much “where are you from?” but “where are you between?”: james clifford’s question of intercultural identity that puts the very notion of “home” to the test rather than unproblematically charting sauer’s biography, then, i choose to view “home” critically as a persistent issue in his life. beginning with the ambivalence of the german-american “home” (heimat) into which sauer was born, i go on to position him in a further “unhomely dwelling”, disorientated by a modernising united parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. here parsons is referring to sauer’s house in berkeley. sauer in williams, op. cit., p. . clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. . bhabha, op. cit., p. . i realise that there is much to bhabha’s discussion of the “unhomely dwelling” (the “paradigmatic post-colonial experience”) and that i am here quoting out of context. however, what appeals is bhabha’s sense that the border between the home and the world are confused and the private and figure : at home? carl sauer’s “warm, redwood house” in berkeley. merry christmas * happy new year states. within this context, i find sauer’s reaction to be one of retreat (in response to the united states as “lack”) : a desire for cultural and academic alternatives and a replaying of his german background as traditional “home” against american societal change. this reaction is spatialised in sauer’s life and work as a “passage to premodernity”: an association with non-modern spaces forming a trajectory that eventually situates him in the “field” in mexico. the exploration of the “field” as antimodern “home” provides us with sign posts for the remainder of the thesis. heiluat? carl sauer was born in warrenton, missouri in where, with the exception of three years in southern germany, he remained until . although moving further and further away in later life, according to kenzer, ° sauer would often look to warrenton for “that hometown feeling” that he could not find elsewhere. indeed, sauer’s boyhood years in “hometown” warrenton were certainly distinctive: his parents had migrated to the midwest amidst a wave of intellectuals escaping germany in the and were thus part of a german cultural renaissance in the united states. whole public are part of each other: a notion of “the world-in-the-home and the home-in-the-world” which i am trying to use here as an approach to sauer. see mathewson in kenzer, op. cit., p. . sauer was with his parents in calw in the schwarzwald from the age of nine to the age of twelve ( - ) kenzer, a, p. . see kenzer, l c, p. . villages had migrated intact, bringing a sense of “heimat” from germany (see figure ) : a cohesive community to be rooted firmly in the soil of missouri. as “custodians of culture” living in a new country,’ they attempted to recreate the ways of the old. sauer’s early experience was thus of a way of life in exile: he communicated with his parents in german’ and attended central wesleyan college (cwc), a bilingual methodist school which had grown out of the nineteenth-century migration. according to kenzer, cwc had perhaps the foremost collection of german literature and religious works available in the united states at that time and prided itself on being a very “german” college;’ in turn, sauer’s father was apparently “the best of the religious and “heimat”, directly translated, means “home”; however, it gains a wealth of meaning from its participation in the “volkish” movement of mid nineteenth-century germany - a spiritual reaction to the dislocation of urbanisation and industrialisation. this movement incorporated, along with the highly romantic notion of the “yolk” (the people), a focus on rootedness in the landscape (“verwurzelung”) . the “heimat” was “the specific location where the yolk was rooted and where it maintained its elemental ties with the natural world” (bassin, , p. ). the very strength of the term “heituat” thus came from its resistance to the mobility and alienation of the times. while sauer’s parents moved from their home region in germany (their true “heimat”), they can, in a sense, be seen as reforming this concept in the face of dislocation. later on (indeed, throughout the thesis), sauer seems to turn to some form of “heimat” in the face of change. carter, op. cit., p. . see carter for an interesting discussion of how meaning is constructed in a migrant situation: the clinging to cultural baggage versus the mirroring of the host culture and the third alternative of what he calls an “authentically migrant perspective”. ‘ this was up to . kenzer, l c, op. cit., p. . kenzer, a, op. cit., p. . for kenzer, cwc offered a traditional german education with its emphasis on the natural and physical sciences and its fostering of a historicist perspective. kenzer is also keen to point out the importance of such classical german writers as goethe in cwc’s intellectual landscape. c ii ç j [ l (o w ( j f t cn ( ft c t ) o w j j educational life” of the “germany of other days”.’ thus, as a result of both parental and college influence, sauer’s early environment was distinctively germanic.’ however, if warrenton’s community provided a sense of “home”, it was a precarious one. although the german emigres felt that they had established a second rhineland,’ they were not allowed to call it their own: for “true americans”, they were the “enemy forces”: “rag-tag and bob-tail cutthroats of beelzebub from the rhine, the danube, the vistula and the elbe.” this was particularly the case during the first world war when anti-german sentiment in the midwest mushroomed and the “american” sense of place challenged the germanic. °towns changed their names under pressure - berlin became lincoln! - and in , cwc was forced to remove a large percentage of its german program as a kenzer, c, op. cit., p. . sauer continued his german education while a graduate student in chicago, familiarising himself with german social science. see glick, , p. . warren county was one of the several counties that, as a function of german migration, constituted “the missouri rhineland” during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. see kenzer, a, op. cit., p. . lears, , p. . lears is quoting here from an american editorial of . copley, pers. comm. (i), / / . for copley, there are strong memories of anti-german sentiment in the midwest around the time of the first world war. sauer, he suggests, may well have been affected by such persecution and this could have fuelled his later move to the west. similarly, williams (op. cit., p. ) asserts that the “american reaction to germans during the first world war” left sauer with “indelible memories”. it ‘ c d u ) h - cd it h - h - h - h f - i t • h - h - ’ t j h - c d h - f - ’ c d h , cd h , q )) cd u ) q u ) c d u ) u ) u ) < cd cd q it s u) c ) c ) i t i t h - i t f - ( ) c d u ) cd h - h - cd h - q h cd cd ) u ) ) it h i < f - (-q h c d f l h - c d c d p j h f - h - h - h h it h u ) .q h h - h - < i t h - it < c d h -s h u ) it p cd pi i i t u ) h - n c ) c ) c d c ) h - l h c d cd cd < pi h - c) d r j : h -c c d u ) p ) q p h - cd cl ) c d h , u ) q pi it it r t cd h p j p j i— c d u )c q q ‘ it pi y h u ) h , < c d h - a c d r h n cr ) m u) ‘ h - h h - p- h h ’ < s h cd cd i t q cu < u) h i_ u ) - ) u ) - h it u) cd h h cd h h i - t c t u) - h - cu cu u ) < h - pi h -c d c u c d h h k < u ) u) h - p h c - r l j s c r h cd ( u) ° cd i c d c d ‘-. h q u) cd ) h h - c) h cd h ,: j u ’ g cd cu cd cd h cu ç t s cu b h - h cu p cu o c d i- i cd h .q h - c) cu it it h - h - c d u )u ) cd h - cd cd cd u )u ) - — cd u) h - j i- p cu i t c ) h - h - o i t ‘d it i t q cd i p o i t o h c d n . h c) h it it p u ) cu h - . q c ) d h c) it ‘- cu it cd “ h - cd c uc d c d cd h - cd h - i t cd cd h , u ) c ) c d p it cd - cd cu it c d i t c u o i t - . cd u) it h p h - p j u ) f r p h cu cu c d cd l’ . f- ’ cu cd h p p i t c u i t c ) h h c d p c d u ) cd f - cd ii it i t h -c d -. c d i t h h q c d u ) c u c ) m h u) h - u ’ u ) u ) q u ) it c d \. ) h , h c d it h , h - h - u ) cd p i t o h - h cd s c) it ‘ d cd h - it h i h cd s u ) p cu - - c h c u i t u ) d p it cd c) h - - pi h - k < it u ) h h - p j c ) c d -p cd it h - ii - u )p ) it h - cd c u u ) u ) i t h c u r- i cd q u) cu u) c d k < h - c d q p c ) h cd cd h - i- c) it cd p it pi n it u ) ‘ d o i t h h h h cd s u) cu cd h c ) c d c d < cd c d ‘d cd h - = i - p i- it h it cd h - it cd u) c) it h h , p - o u ) h - h , it cd h - i < c d q q h ,u ) it u ) cd ij — s pi - h -c d i t • k < cu h ‘ c d p cd il c u pj h - h - s cu c d c d cd < it p cd cd cd c d c ) c d c u c d h , l i. p jc d cd h ‘- ‘ cd cd h - c d ’ d h h - q it it ip f- ’- h , h- u ) cd it it i- cd it h - it h - h ‘< cd h - h - h - c) cd s u )c d c u c d - - i t i t c ) c d it cu i h - u) i cu h cu = c d u ) p - u ) c d k < i u ) p = p it u) i — q j it :j -s :: i o i) r t q f t ç ij h i c d p j l j( d p i ‘- i h l j . k ) h - r. q h c ) h h i cd o h - i- r c d i q h h ( . q f t p i h c l ) u ) cd o j h h - h e\ ) (i i f t c d w h cd h h i - h i h -. p i’ c) u ) ” f t ft c d c i) cd p j u )c d i ct -r c d - pi h - f t cl ) :f tc d pi h tt) l c t k )c d u ) - f t p ) c d h i c l ) c) cd ft c d h p i h p ) i h - i c rc ) o o cd c d c ) c d r r c d c ) cl ) pi to cd ) t- - cd u ) cl ) cd h p) i. d f t — i cd o i-i — h c- f c f j • f t • cd h i p ft c) - cd h < h i h o cd • i - u )o : : c )c d h - c d c d c - r h p - h c ) p p c d iq c d p u ) cc - h - c) c f p ° c ) p h ic d h - c t t- c d h - h o i d k < f - - (i ) p pj h i- i f t cd p ) p h - t-t - c : h t- c d h cl ) c c- c d p j c d r t c d p i cd ci ) c d h c) h - ci i o n c d f t i t p p- . cl ) h - cd h - - h ft h u) c) c d c d h f t h - h h - cd - t- c d u ) p i- c d f- i- - h i o i o c) h i c )u ) cd f t h cd h - cd cd p j c ) f t f t - i c d cd p jc d • p ) i q c— c p l x c ) c d p ic d cd f t h f t - o o cl ) c d u ) u ) f i( l) cd p - ç - c - - p cd t p i - cd c ) c d c d c d h h h - cd h - - h i • c l ) t - q h i cl ) h - . o p j o l d u ) a h -n -) c) h - c l) q - j r r p i cd h o f p i c d . i- c d h c d c -- o c l ) ’ < - f t c d h < cl ) h - i h p j l i - cd t-q c d cd h cd c) h - cd cd h - c l j p h - cd a ,h o c ) h f t • r j < u ) c d - h h - c - c) o o ) p j c ) c d o • h - f t < c tp io p c) - f t h i h h - f t h - o ft p ic d c ) c - q f t u ) p ) t - p i h o o u ) : • h i u) iq c d i ñ o i • o c -u ) h - h - h - h i ft c ) cd j k < h -u ) ft i p ) u ) . h i c) c) ft c) o u) p cd p h ft u ) q q h - cd h i = o cd h - . - h s ft h cd u) . cd - ‘ h cd cd h i . - u) - h cd ft h i c d q c d cd h h u) - h h d cd ‘ i- q h - p cd cd h u) h - - cd l i h i f t ft ft h - u) p i i- p- cd o u) q . q cd ft cd ft cd h u) p h i cd u) ft - i h i h i cd c/ ) ft p- c) h cd f- i- h cd p cd cd h - c) cd — , h i cd p cq cd q h - q f t ft c ) x o cd f t p q j - h - u ) u) ft cd h - h cd cd ft p cd h cd u) cd c) p s cd h ft cd s cd p cd l a cd u ) cl ) f to p p t -c i cd h h c - c d p f t u) cd h - u) u) cd h i cd h - p h - h i q cd ft i s cd h p h - cd c) i- p p c) h f t k < o p h c- cd ft s h cd u) u) p h cd u ) ci ) ft p u) q p f t h - h - u) p h h p c) cd cr s p cd i cd ft i-i h i p s h - h h h - c) cd p c i cd cd p h - u) cd i:- ’ h cd c u) cd p h cd c i p c i c d ci c d p that contradicted the - if threatened - community of his “hometown” warrenton. this new image of the “restless american” was, to sauer, greatly disturbing and continued as a concern into later life: “we have since become a greatly nomadic people at all levels and occupations. . .the moving van and the house trailer travel our highways coast to coast unendingly. home ownership may be more practical and convenient than rental, but in either case there is a short expectation of staying. the community ties are greatly loosened or lost, the home a temporary address, not the place where the family puts down its roots.” ’ sauer thus found himself further displaced in a society representing the antithesis of his upbringing: not only a disrespect for history and tradition but a restlessness, a nomadism and a further destabilisation of “home”. for sauer, as for lears, not only “home” but identity was seriously threatened once people “cut loose from geography”: how far backward then over the days could “the uninterrupted “i” be said to extend?” in addition to a sense of spatio-temporal dislocation - change as disorder - the modern for sauer, as for many, was constituted as loss. after the war when “the world blew up” and “american civilisation began rolling, sauer found american society wanting both culturally and academically. on the one hand, he interpreted the modern as a form of urban culture monster: inauthentic, overriding cultural particularity and destroying the diversity of par, sauer to jackson, / / . lears, op. cit., p. . williams in mathewson in kenzer, , op. cit., p. . sauer, , p. . american small-town communities. in homestead and community on the middle border, sauer lamented the loss of community, the village break-up with emigration: it would, he said, be missed. sauer enjoyed diversity: he rejected the modern path to “hear the same thing, see the same thing, think the same thing” and wanted a world that resisted uniformity. later in life, he watched the transformation of california with anxiety, viewing it as a microcosm of the modern cultural crisis spreading throughout the united states: “there is a lot of experimentation going on out here, but it is for the gaining of general acceptance. we get a fashion of housetype, supermarket, basket-ball competition, betting on races or mixing drinks, that if successful sweeps the state. . .our goal seems to be that we look alike, have the same manners and the same thoughts. . .we are the perfect example of a highly mobile mass in which change must affect all parts or die out.” on the other hand, in addition to the inadequacy of this “succesfully industrialised world” eradicating the cultural landmarks that he cherished, sauer also feared the loss of sauer’s concern for the destructive potential of the modern was not purely cultural but also environmental. in his speech to the royal geographic society in , sauer cautioned: “civilisation in our time has developed a technical dominance that has changed the world and is impoverishing it. . .biology is aware of the limited world. geography must not forget it.” (sn , misc.). this concern arose out of his early fieldwork and involvement in land surveying in michigan, witnessing at first hand the effects of environmental neglect. for sauer - since culture was expressed via the landscape - culture conservancy and nature conservancy went hand in hand. this thesis, however, concentrates predominantly on the former. sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . sauer, , op. cit., p. . lq , sauer to smith, / / . sauer in williams, op. cit., p. . academic interest in cultural particularity. the modern mood appeared to be “antihistorical and antigeographical” °and sauer - who felt he “did not know how to think except in terms of time and space” - found himself increasingly disillusioned. what, he said, was the point of: “knowing the illuminated letters of a missal, the finding of a gregorian chant, the tying of a trout fly” if history and geography were becoming irrelevant; the conservation of cultural difference alien thinking? american academic geography was becoming for sauer far too seduced by modern trends: its practitioners were “slick salesmen” turning thematically towards the economic, politic and the urban; embracing the contemporary (which for sauer was the political) and looking to apply, synthesise, plan and, worst of all, universalise. as james parsons notes, sauer’s “ecologic, historical, cultural interests. . . found little reflection in the main currents of the times”. there was a “blindness” in the “modern age”, a lack of curiosity: cultural particularity, history, and the whim of discovering difference seemed to be becoming passé. sauer thus positioned himself uncomfortably amidst a modernising lq , sauer to smith, / / . ‘ sauer in williams, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . “ parsons, pers. comm. (l), op. cit. lq , sauer to bowman, / / . american society: “off to one side” of cultural and academic trends. although this became increasingly articulated at the intellectual level for sauer - a feature in his work as well as his correspondence - it remained a highly personal issue; a question of identity and “home”. the spread of modern culture, it must be remembered, threatened his own community of warrenton; the academic neglect of the past challenged his own early historicist education. many experienced the modern as cultural disintegration; sauer integrated it into his work - it was not, however, any less personal. passage to premodernity “sauer. . lived through a period of quite unprecedented change in all the places that he knew best, in the face of which he held even more tenaciously to his more traditional values.” sauer’s response to his “unhomely dwelling” in the modern was to take refuge in retrospect. sauer himself said he was “either born or conditioned to look on the world historically” and perhaps both were true: the historicism of his early “weltanschaung” fusing with the shock of the new to make him hold on to a sense of tradition. either way, although he may have been afraid of the present and the future, he had no misgivings about the past. it ‘ hooson in blouet et. al., op. cit., p. . see clifford, op. cit., pp. - . mathewson in kenzer, op. cit., p. . sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . also, sauer’s early academic training in the natural sciences, particularly geology, endowed him with a concern for “all human time” and, later, for geography as a retrospective science. was here that sauer hoped to find some compensation for the loss of the modern; some form of cultural and academic belonging. indeed, the modern was only constituted as lack by sauer because it had departed from the past. the answer lay in a return to cultural and academic tradition. for sauer, the question of return resided not only in retrospect but also in mobility. as john leighly notes, he attempted to: .escape from the obtrusive ugliness of our culture, which does not spare the academic community, in the exploration of remote times and remote places.” ° sauer can thus be viewed as antimodern traveller, looking for alternative spaces to reinforce a sense of tradition; a sense of identity and “home”. his reorientation to the antimodern is spatialised as a “passage to premodernity” - a trajectory that takes him further back to the past and into the “field” in mexico. this can be divided into a series of dischotomies: urban/rural; east/west; north/south, each of which speaks to sauer’s antimodernism and the issue of “home”. aging in the wood ’ viewed synoptically, sauer’s life and work were pitted by bouts of anti-urban sentiment and a strong association with the rural. ° leighly, , op. cit., p. . my use of emphasis. see leighly, , p. . “aging in the wood” was, for one of sauer’s students, the process of doing a thesis in berkeley. this speaks to the section below on berkeley as a form of academic “home”: a return to a form of intellectual craft and a rural (read: authentic) alternative set apart from the more urban san francisco environment. sauer was based in urban areas for much of his life but, according to james parsons, did not “especially like cities.. .though he was himself a part of them” • he resented urban encroachment on the countryside and wrote with disappointment that “the ways of the country” were “becoming subordinated to the demands of the cities”; the farmer “becoming a town dweller”. the cities and city masses, said sauer, were “an offense to a good and sweet-smelling world”; he was against them, against all the: “masses of people rushing about, making unnecessary noises, gobbling sweets and chocolate drinks, dragging their wet and smelly infants about.” cities were part of civilisation’s “garbage, literally and figuratively”, and he dismissed them. since, as james parsons notes, sauer studied “things he liked and had sympathy f or”, it is not surprising that this rejection of the urban should filter into his academic work. it was not, says wagner, part of sauer’s “vision to take account of the apogee of urbanism”: “too complicated” sauer would say “as he looked out parsons, pers. comm. cl) , op. cit.. the cities sauer lived in, however, were not all as “urban” as each other: berkeley, for example, would have been less so than the rest of the bay area cities and than sauer’s earlier chicago environment. sauer in thomas, op. cit., p. . lq , sauer to hess, / / . mexico city and washington d.c., as we shall see in chapters five and six, were the ultimate city spaces for sauer to avoid. parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. also, according to copley (pers. comm. (i), op. cit.), sauer once said: “i’ve yet to meet an urban geographer who likes cities.” wagner, pers. comm. (i) , op. cit. over the urban sprawl of the bay area” in san francisco “and let it go at that”. urban geography for sauer was simply “fustian and feathers” - he turned away from cities and claimed incomprehension: “i do not know what urbanism means. i have kept away from cities in my thinking. the growth of cities reflects something that is happening in and to the country round about. it is a phenomenon, and as such worth studying, but i cannot get into it.” despite often living in cities, sauer was very conscious of the rural nature of his beginnings: “his roots. . .sunk deep in midwestern so±l,, in “the wooded triangle between the missouri and the mississippi rivers”. ’ in the midst of the urban, sauer continued to claim an association with the rural: “mainly we were country-bred of prairie and woodland soil, and kept this knowledge and quality when we went to the cities to live. ,, as respite from the urban, sauer’s early fieldwork returned him to the rural areas of missouri and illinois. his later work for the state geological survey in southern illinois and for the michigan land survey allowed him to escape the city for the country again. parsons, pers. comm. (l), op. cit. sauer in stanislawski, op. cit., p. . sauer, , op. cit., p. . the “country” here is the reality, the “city” merely an intruder. parsons, , op. cit., p. . leighly, , op. cit., p. . ibid. the period of fieldwork covered here is from around to the early s. q m i c t : m i d c t j c t : i— ’ cl ) m i th o p j -c d cl ) m i j j cd cd c d ic d $ c u rt c- t cd cd cd cu h - i- i- cu c r h h f- ’ c th - h - h - c t cl ) cu p h h - i o c d h h -h $ c) c) $ h - h cl ) cd l— ° c u c t n q h - c -r h h - h - cu • c t : cd j (q cd cd h h -i c u cu h - c t cu q h h - • cd c l) i c l ) ( ( h ii cd k < c r cd cd cd q -’ h h - ‘ i m i cu c d i c d : . . c ) cu i- h i cd cl) to c u rt c t to — ‘c d cd cl ) cd h - h - jc u c o cd i cd d i ti cu c u cd cd h cd m l q i p cl ) m i i o ) cl ) h - = c) h - h - h h - cd cl ) h - h cu i h c u c d h - cu c t cd cl ) h cd cq p cd h h ft to cd c d i cd f- rh - c t cd cu c d o • ç- t- c- t cd - cd cu cd h h - ct c d cu c t f - f t c t q cd $ c t c d $ m i h cl ) i) cd c ) h cd cu cd m i cd h i h • c t h l — c d . cl ) j f t ‘- c l) c r h q h h cd w cu h - c t h w cd °° c d cd i- cu h - cd cd pi cd ‘ cd h c t h i- m i - cl ) ) • ‘- < cl ) • c d . cl ) c) i c) h cu h - cu ç t h - q cu cl ) m i z c d c t ) cu cd u f t q f- r m i h - h cu ) c r - cl ) cu $ p cd c r f - t ° - cd cl ) cu h - h m i - cl ) cl ) c q h ç ç cd f- t h - - cu c d c d :m ih c) m i ) cu c) h - < c t r- t h - cd c) cd ft h - cu h • . f t cd cu cd h = cu c l) h h - f - t cu ) cd cd cl ) cd i < • c) cu cd c) c d cl ) ç- t cd cd cd < i- c- t q h - i- w m i ) . cd cu cd f - cl ) c d c d u i cu h m i m i cl ) m i h - h ‘- c) cd h - f - h - c r cd cd c) c d h - c iq c d cu h h cl ) h - w c d cd f t h cu c r m i z p j c r h - cl ) n c r cu cd cu cl ) c t cd q < c d cd cd - cu cu cu c l c) h c l h ( h cl ) ft cl ) - h cd c l h - cd h c d c u h - ç - t < h cl ) h - h h h c ) °c l) c d - q h - m i p m i cl ) m i ( cl) cu cl ) < c r cu cu cl ) — ‘ cl ) i— ’ h h h m i h cl ) d h cd cu h - h h - d d j cu c u ( c t cd cu cu c) = q c) ) - o h h - cl) cd m i cd i cl ) ( cl ) cl) c r c l cl ) : iq z c d h cu () • . ft c) cl) c t cu cu c f i cd cu c t c l ) h - cd h - h - c) cu h - -i ‘- q , m i c d -c l) m i l- m i m i cd m i cu cd h ft c) cd < c t p ) cd h - h (d u ) u) ç t h - cd cd h c d c d c d . cv r t . d h - cd h - f t u ) rj c d ft h , h - k < c ) c d h q c d ) u ) f - t h - c d h - q f t f t c d c ) u )c d c) cd h - h - cd f t f t u ) c d q h h ,q ft c d c d k < k < u) c) cd u) cv cd cv f h u) c) f t tn u) cd u) cd i o h - cv cv o u) q h , f u) r r c d f t h - ,— i i l j f • • h , ft cd i p p- ’ u) u) c) h - ft h - h - ci ) cd ft q , h cv cd - - ‘o i- i cd h ci - u) c) cd (i ) h cv h cd cd i- ‘- h j f t cv h cd h c) cd i- h - i- i u ) c i h f c i h h , h - < ) u) - h cd h h h - h - f-i - h - c i f- i- u) ‘ f cd ‘o cd cd u) cd ci - u) u) c i cv h - u) h - h - h - fcd cd f t u ) cd ft j ft cd cd h - f h h u) cd h , h , k < cl ) f - pi cv h f t c) u) h c) c d cd c i cd cd h - l f t i cd c d d u) h , q çj u) cv c d i- cd cd o h h , -r if < ‘- < f -- ft h - cd cv - cv cv cd ii h cd ft c i f t ‘ d cv h - cd h c d cd u) — cv f t cv f-i - pi f th q j h ci - h - h - ‘- < o < ci - < h - u) b u) cd cd - c d cd ft h h ft f t h c d c) h - cd cd u) cd u ) i h h pi h - c i cd - - cl ) cd h , cd h - ft pi h - f - o u) h - cd i c) f ft q c i ft ‘- < h - u) c i h - ft cv f t cd j f- f h - ci - h h - h - h cd cd ci - h h cd u) h , cd o cv cd h h - h pj u) i- h - h - i- ci - cd pi p cd u) ft j h , h - k < ‘ u) i- i cd h cd u ) i h c i cd cd < h h - h - ci - u ) - < c) p ft cd cd cd h - c i u) u) p) cd cd cd - - u) - u) h o ci h , h ft h f cd p i ii h , h h k < - ft h - h cd h i- ft h q cv ii — — o — c so c l) i:- ’ cl ) p io pl h cd ‘. cl ) ii - h - cl ) h ‘. c l) cd i-s ) ft ii c i c i p p c i ii c i - ft ii i- j - cd h u) u) — p • • c i c) h ft • u ) i ‘. z < u) cd h , cd cv u) h - u) cd o c i h cd cd u) - ft h cd u) u) sauer’s own experience of and reaction to modernity were thus displaced onto city and country space. the notion of the country allowed sauer to time and space travel: a link back to a more “homely” past and place from the unappealing context of the modern. for raymond williams, this spatial trope is age-old: “a contrast between city and country, as fundamental ways of life” reaching “back into classical times” and giving expression to the displacement of the new: “the pull of the idea of the country is towards old ways, human ways, natural ways. the pull of the idea of the city is towards progress, modernisation, development. in what is then a tension, a present experienced as tension, we use the contrast of city and country to ratify an unresolved division and conflict of impulses. as williams also notes, the relation between country and city is “not only objective problem and history” but also “a direct and intense preoccupation and experience”: “a dog is barking - that chained bark - behind the asbestos barn. it is now and then: here and many places.” sauer’s polar forms are very like those of the sociologist, t nnies, who posited an evolutionary perspective from rural to city space over time and a concomitant shift from a cultural form ruled by natural will (“gesellschaft”) to one determined by the rational (“gemeinschaft”) . however, while for tnnies the path from country to city was irreversible - the community could not be regained once it had been lost - sauer’s spatial and temporal travel seem to allow for a process of (at least imaginary) return. see saunders, , pp. - . williams, , p. . ibid., p. . ‘ ibid., p. . ibid., p . cd h i h i cd u) h ‘ w o o \d i-h cl ) h - cd • hi h cd h h h w c) h - f t u i cd ii cd j c d h cd f t h - u) o cd h f t c )n h ic d c d p jc d - i- i f t h i c d - o p j < h o h c d ‘ d q c )c d c )c o p j cd d cd f t c) ‘ - h u )n - o h i o , h h f tc ) f t f t h -c l) cd f tf tc ) u ) cd l) j cd — hi cd h is h ) h i- hi q ) u ) f tu ) h f t- h - h - c ) h if t c d c ,d h f— i h ip j h -c d i-i ’ i q f t h - cd h cd f tc d s f t h - hi h - cd u) b u) o o i h i i-i cd h < c d < c d c d hi c d h i s h - ci i f t ci h i c ) p - c d p j i h i j h c ) h iu )c d h i h io h ic d u ) cd c) h - f t q h - c) c d c i) h i f t f t :i < u ) - ci) ci) u) q -q -, = f t hi li ] u) h h i h - h - h - cd ci) h i c) d h - ci) u )x j f t f — c d h i u ) u) h i ci) ’ j f t u) h - cd cd cd h -h h i cd h - f t cd h w u) h r jh i i- i q - cd u) i-i cd cd cd h i d f t ci) hi f t - u) u) c d c d o y f t cd ci) ci i — . h i cd cd u) ci) f t cd u )h io c) c) hi cd h -c u h f t cd - cd p - h f th - - cd hi f t cd f t c d f t hi h cd h i h cu ‘-d u) h - h - c d c d h - f t u )h f t f t cd cd cd hi - h i f t . h u ‘ u) h • i-i j c d < ) f t ci) f t f t hi cd cd . h - h - h ic d cd hi f t cd ) u) h i cd ‘ h ic i) c d cd h - c i ) f t f t h hi h c d s h i f t f t h i h - f t cd f t f t ci) ci) h h - ci )u )c d < f t h h cd ci f t cd cd f t s f t h cd cd f t < cd k < ) cd hi c i) f t ci f t h h f t h i cd - cii u) < f t h cd i— ’ q r t h - h cl ) cd h - cd cd c d c d ci f t h - h cii < : c d o f t cd i hi u )c d h cd h - f t f t f t u ) ci f t o h - h - g ci cd ci) -f tc d = h i i hi u) c) h - hi h cd h - h i : :c i) s h - hi cd h - h - f t cd s h h h - cd f t cd ci) u) h i h - f t f t cd cd cd c d f t f t cd h i c d h i h i f t hi u ) h cd cd f t h c d hi cd f t i-i ‘-i cd cd f t ci) cd < - f t cd h i f t cd c) f tu ) u) - h i hi p f t c d h - h - cii cd c c d f t f tc d h i ç t h - u ) l i h c) h u) cd s cii f t f t f t i • f t f t cd cd h i i o cd h i - cd h -c l h - cd cd s i— ’h i h - cd h cd cd h - u ) cii ci. i f t h - h - f t p - f th - ci f t u) < u ) f t u ) c) cd f t cd h - ci i cd u) hi q hi ci) f t h u) h - u) c) f t h i cd ci) h - ci d ci) h i f th - • • cd f t f t ci) ci) c) h - h - h - hi f t h - f h q h f t ci i ci) f t ci i h - cd f t u ) q h o h i f t h cd h hi < c- i h h o i c d o c -t h -c -i -c d h h - c c c c i - c c c c — ci ) ( ) c - i q i) cu c d cd h , cd cl ) h , h h cd ii h - u) h - cd - n cd c) • ii : h h ‘ h c- i c- i h h j- h - - • o u i h c ) h lj j h - ’ io - c d - q p c - i h , ( j h i f cu ° c) u ) h - c- i- - c - i p j h h cd h - h - h a pi co c d c u q • q h c- i h , h - h j c i c d c d cu c t ‘ - h - h - h q c d cd p j u ) h i c- i q h , p j i- cd q - u ) h - u) c- i c - cu cu c- i h cd cu h c- i cd cd cu h , cd h p o o i- q cu h cu q cd cu cd cu h , ci i h - ‘— ) c) u) c- i ‘ c- t h cd c - c- i s - o c- t c - cd cd h ii j cd h - h - u ) u) h - u ) c- c- i (q ci) ci) c-i - c- i cd p c- cd c- i- o cd h c-i - u) ci) cd i cq cu ci i cd cd h - h s cd u ) cd o h s u) c d c c) h c-i - h i i-i ci) u) h - c) h - o c - i cd cd u) ci) c-i - ci ) h - c d h , ci ) c- i c- i ci ) cd c - cl ) q ii cd cd ci i u ) cu h ci) c) h , cd q c) o h, u) h - h , h , cd cd c) cd ci ) c) c-i - h ci) c- i h h , c- i cd ci ) h h u) ci) c) cd h , c- i cd h cd u ) c-i - h i h , cd h , cd cd k < h cd cd c- i- ci ) u) c - c ) i- ci) = h h - h - i o ci i i - ci ) cr ) h - ci) cd ci ) c) h , c) fr cd u) ci) cd u) i- c - c- i - ci) cd o c- i c- i- u) s - cd cl ) ci) cd d o i ci) cd u) cd c- i c-i - - o fr ci) - u) ci) i u) u) h - n s cd cd “ c) h h h h cd ci) ci) c-i - h - h w q h cu cu i u) c - h , i- c- i c) cu cd h u) h - c-i - h s s ci ) ci ) ci i h cd k < cd cu cu u ) u) c-i - c) c) h c-i - cd n cd s h c-i - cd cd h cd cl ) ci ) cd cd ci i c- i o h - h cq q c- i- i cd cd cd cd c-i - u) cd u) l.q i- q () h h i- ci ) c- i c-i - h ci) ci i h o o ) h - c) u) : h , c- i cd < h - i s ci. u) ci) cd h ci ) h - h - c- i cu h u) i- cd c-i - q h c - i - n j h - h , cd c- i h - cd cu ii h o cd ci ) u ) h - d cq c- i u) i- - ci) h - c- i h , ci ) fl = cd c - ci ) g u) ci ) cu o h u) h c- i cd h - c- i h h u) c - h , h - cd cd - d i ii h cc h - - u) c- i- c) c- i j c- i- cd cl ) ci i h i h - c- i ci) ci ci) a c- i c- i (.q i- c - o i’ o cu o h c - h h - h , q i- h - cd h - ‘d n - h , s cu c- i h c- i cd u) cd s h - u) cd c) h , u) c- i c- i h cu i- h - cu cii cd u) c l c- i h , i “appreciate a germanic conception of the discipline”, to construct “his version of european geography on american soil”. from the remembrances of john le±ghly and james parsons of berkeley in the l s, this certainly seems to be the case. both recall sauer’s geography as a turning away from the “favorite topics” of the time in the united states towards past work in europe, especially germany. they felt they were “a world apart from most of academic geography”, not only because of california’s isolation but also because sauer wanted them to “march to a different drummer”. ° in opposition to modern american geography, the berkeley strain sought, among other things, to reinstate the importance of intellectual freedom - originality and curiosity; to counteract the “blindness” of the age with direct observation in the “field” and, most pertinently, to reinstate the importance of the past (this, in opposition to the politics of the contemporary). thus, as with his cultural displacement in the modern, sauer sought redress in tradition. akin to the “yolk” of the rural past, sauer recreated an intellectual community of his own in berkeley: academic “peasants” that understood the importance of continuity kenzer, , p. . ibid., p. . see parsons, , op. cit. and leighly, , op. cit. leighly, ibid., p. . parsons, , op. cit., p. . ° ibid., p. . ‘ ‘ ‘d ci i co i- m u ) - (i ) u ) i - cd h h ‘ c) h c r h u i ‘ c ’ ci i i- c r h cd n cd h — : c) h c r h i - h u ) h - u ) c r cd c r h c r h cd c r cii c c cii h c cd c r ci i h h c i) d c ii o c d ci i c d c i c r h c d r- i c c d h -c i- q c — u ) c r h i h - h u ) d ic d c ) c r ci i q -c d c d c r h c )c ii h c c d c u ). c) h c t- . c d c d h c ia -’ h o u ) c d c ic ii c ) i- c cd h - c cd c) cd h - h i c r l j h .( .q h i h i h - cd h h -c d c d c ) [ - h i h -< i-q cd cd ci i h - c) u ) c t c i ) cd c r -t c )’ -< c d u ) c d ,- h - cd - u) u ) h - h - c ii h i h h - cd c c ii h - h c ) h h l- h j c -r d cd h l t h w h -h .c d i h - h i o cd u) i - l i c p ic ro u) cd h - h c d c d h h - h h ic q h i i c ) c d c r h q c h i c d c - s c i i c i h h - ci r n h c d ’ h - d u ) h - h - h c ic ) h -h c r c d h -u ) tq u ) k < c r q h ° c -t o c i i h i cd cd h ic d cd ci i i t i ; j ci i u ) u ) r r c - r c d i cd h h - w cd cd i h c d c r r p i c d ii l- u) h c d c r h c tc d h p i ci c d -- < ‘- < cd cd c i i c d c ) u ) h h c rc d c u) c ih u ) h - di c d ’< c r c i - c d h (- q o h - c t r cd h l - h - c r c c ii ‘— < ci i h i- .d l h - h h i h - c) h c i i h c u) c r r r c d c d k < u ) c r h - c) u ) cd c ii h i h c d c d ci > < h c rc ) c c h i e c cd c) u) h c r h u ) cd cd ci i c r ci cd h - cd c t - cd h - cd iq c ii h - ci i c r c r cd - o u) c r h i u) c h l l c) cd ci i ci i ci h - cd u) cd s i— h c) ci i n ci i c) cd u) c r c c h c r k < h c r cd ci i k < u) c r c cd c r c - cd h - u) rr c r cd c h h q cd c) c, ’ c r c r ci i h cd i- ] u) s ci i ci c u ) < ci ) c c di i-q cd h i cd ci i < cl ) h ci i u) c h cd cd q h - c r i u ) cd h d h - ci i c) c r h - i- qi ci u) b ci i - c c) o u) u) c r h - c) . h cd c r ci i : c) h - c h (-c - u) h - cd h i tq h ci ci c) c r h - cd cd c r q) iq h - cd cd c r cd ci i cd h i cd h - h - c r < c) i h i u) ct ) h - c r h - c) c) c) h - cc - c) h - h q cd cd , h - h = u) c ci i h cd c r c r cii h c) c) ci i cc - g c i c r ci c r cd c rr u) cd h i-i < c) h ci h - - c r s ci i cd c) cd cd c h r- c r h - u) c r cc - u ) cd cd l- q h- - c h h c r h i c r c d c r ci i ci ) - c i cd cd h - u) h cd h - ci i ç c -r r j u ) c) c r- cd ci u) cii cd cd cd di d h i c r c c t h - c) c — cd cd cd c r cc - c i h - c i . h - h - h i cd cc - c r cd h i u ) - - h - h - c r c r h - q c r i cl - f - h c r h q cd dl c) cii c o ci ‘- cd h cc h - h - u) ‘- < c) c r u) c r h i cd cd c r h - h - h - t c r c u) c u) - cd c cd •- c u) sauer saw west mexico as he had seen california before: academically “open”, a “tabula rasa” awaiting his “pioneer” effort. following his gaze, sauer took twenty “field” trips down the mexican coast between and and, in keeping with his antimodern “trademark” retained a sense of history throughout, focusing almost completely on the cultural past. as glick notes, this “austral impulse” gave body to sauer’s institutional distancing from “the background assumptions informing both midwestern geography and northeastern academia generally”. for mathewson, it was also a continuation of association with the cultural space of the “peasant”: “the northern euro-american landscape continuum mediated by post- peasant small land-holders with distant but distinguishable neolithic roots, was replaced with an hispanic-aboriginal construct. along this austral trajectory the farmers were still peasants, the neolithic much nearer, and the remains of ancient civilisations clearly evident. the space of the “field” in mexico thus slots into sauer’s antimodern trajectory: the past is not only rural community and western region but also a foreign country. still in california and yet still moving into mexico, sauer continues to be between places and - further disassociating with modern geography and looking for premodern cultures - searching for a sense of (academic, cultural) identity and “home”. the nature of this focus varied over the years: west ( , pp. - ) notes the thematic change in sauer’s fieldwork from archaeogeography to colonial settlement, agriculture and early man: all, however, shared a focus on the past. glick, op. cit., pp. - . mathewson, , p. . through the course of this chapter, i have begun to allow sauer’s “home life and fieldwork to speak to each other and am left with a more meaningful and more animated sense of the “field”. unlike mathewson,’°° for whom the spatial charting of sauer’s antimodernism is an endpoint in itself, i want to use the “field” as antimodern space as the beginning for a more critical perspective in the remaining chapters. rather than a simple matchmaking of sauer with antimodern individuals and landscapes, i prefer to unpack the implications of an antimodernist strain in sauer’s thinking - to ask how it is made manifest in his fieldwork. in addition, despite sauer’s own positioning against the modern, i want to question to what extent sauer can be seen as completely marginal to modern institutions and trends: i want to find the limits to his antimodernism. i begin in the next chapter with a consideration of the “field” as integral to sauer’s sense of an academic (and antimodern) “home”. ‘°° ibid. m q i q h s q o o cd h -c d cd :ii j cd [ c d o o c d h i— i j (. q (q q . ç t h i c d p j p j c ) cd cd pi c d c d ri -k < .< c d p j: h q c d - c d q h h -c d hj c d p c -i -h h h c d o cd j h - l) c - i - c d cd c d c d h - h - t h j cd cd h - cd cd c- i- h c d c d c -i -c d c d - ri -e n i- c- i c d ’d - l) : cd u c d . cd c- i- i - i- h - c - i - c d c d ci -o l j k < i- h fi o p j h - i- - f - h , \ ) c d l q c t : c d h h i- i, cd cd ci ) h - cl ) h - q p j h - , - c i) :j c d h d h c d c d q p h - a . ii i- c -i c d c d h o a . c d c d cd i - h c i ) p j cl ) cd c- i- f - h - ci ) (j ) p )c d c -i - cd c d h h c d c i) c ) h - c ) c - i - p ) i p ) c d - c d c -i- q -. o h -’ d f r h o l q c d f -’ c )c -i - h c d c ic d p j c d h a .c d h - c d - c -i -u ) c d c ) - c d j p j w f h c i) c ) c d h h , c i ) cu i- cd — ‘ ‘< cl i f - q c) h - c) w o c d c d c d c - i- ci) cd cd f — h i cd cd f cd h -c d ci i cd i - h - - = c ) k < f j f j cu h h h cl ) f o h ci) cd - cd cd cd - c) c) h - o c- i i l o w o c) f-’ - c- i- h , cii a . c ) - i— s c- i- cd ‘ cd > h c- i- h - h - c) c- i- h - cd cd cd ci ) - cd pj c -i l cd i- ij - - h - cd h - h - f - h , i a . z o o c i ri - cd i- cd c- i- cd ci ) cd cd p i f - h - a . cd f - cd cd — — i- cd c- i r, cd cd i - h , h - h - cd cd cd cd cd c) h - lq i- h , ‘d o h - ci ) i- ( ‘ h - c- i- - cd a . cd cd cd ci ) - q cd h , o h , c -i ci i - c- i- cd lq cd i- cd cd cd cd i- i • c- i- cd ‘< cd = h - cd a . h - h cd h - c- i c- i- i- cd c- i- cd ci ) cd h - h , i c- i- h - i- h i ci ) ci ) a . cl ) h - ci i cd ci i ci h - h l- cl) cd c- i- = h , c ) h , h - cu h - cd cd i- cd f - h cl ) cd cu ci ci) cd ci) i- cd cd ci ) ci i ci i cd c) i-’ : cd h - h - ci ) h - c- h c- i- - ci ) c -i c- i- cd h - o c) cl ) h , ci- ci ) h - cd cd i - ci ) - - f - cd f - - cd h - c) ci ) ci ) h s s c- i- cd o cd — cd cd i - iq ci ) cd - cd ci i h - c- i- cd cd u . cd ci q k < h cd cd cd ir j cd h - c- i- h l i. cd ci - cd s cd c- i- c- i c- i- c- i- ci i ci) - cd c- i- i- < :- f x j f x j h ij o - ci cd cd ii h - i- - s f -’ - c i) c d u j’ - c d s h c i) c -i -b c d a .: i ci c d ri -c d ‘ < c d i c ii h - c -i -c l) a .c d c i) ’< c- i- cd c i i ci ‘- < c ii c u ’• c j- h - f - h - s i - h -c l) ci) ci i- h -c d cd h d ’ - c d c )c d h ‘d ri -r i- c d c ic d c i i h - i c -i -c -i ri - h , j - ’ z c ic d h - c il cd — c ) ri -r i- c d c d d h - f - ’ h - - - f — c - l c d c )c d h ’ = c i) c ii s f ’ c- i- h cii cd - - cd cd h cd cd ‘- < c d o c d c d a. c ii h , c- i- cd h ri -c i cd :j -h -- tf - ’ c d c j c d a . s c) h - h - ci i o c d q i— c - i - ci) c - i- f -’ c d ci i ci) q -c d c d c d c- i- i- < c u c d c i) c i) c d a .: i c l h - -c d . cii -c d = a . h - cd cd q i (: it , i- ] lx i ‘- lx i lx i - — cl ) z w s h- cd c) ‘- l i it , i’ l i c l) x j h lx i t. i u ) r t ’ d h - q h c d h q x j o o j u ) c d o < h - o j h - d f - o c d h - c d p j h - u )c d • p j p j c to u ) u ) o c o h - ( .q j c d i— ’ h - h - f - - ’ r t c d c d h c d j c ) c d o h - h u ). . h - i j > ° ° h cd ° f - ’ h - i- ” ç t d p ) h - c d p j u ) q c p j f t h h h c i q a’ - h - c d d q c d • c d h u ) j u ) c d cd h h - ’ cd o c d h h - ,< - . s o pi f t c d ’ o h c d h c - ) c t h u ) o h - c d c jd r t c d c d c d < h i- h - cd d c d h h h - c d h - u) ‘u ) r t q h cd u ) z c d h g h h c d p - ’ c - r u ) ) o c d cd r q h - c d ‘ d h - h - ç-t - c d cd i y ’ ii rt ’- q h - c d hh c d u )u ) - c d - - f t u ) c d h c d c d o p - h - c d c d o c - t h h h - cd ft i r t h h c d q h c d cd c d i h w h i u ) o f t q q c d h - c d c d - ‘ h - ( , h -i - ,’ l cl ) cd ft c -i - h - : c d d f t h - u ) . < c d q ° c d h c d h c d c - tc j c d h h c d f tu ) .h o h - • h h -h u ) c d f t’ ’ d c d -h h h - h t h -c d c- c d j c d cd h . c d c d h h o cd h q h cd cd i - h .= p j c d c d h - c d c d c d u ) p c d c d f t m o o h - c d h i- j c d u ) o p ) u ) o h o h - a o - - h f t f t - h o h - c d o o h h - h c d - h c ’ r t ) c i - c d ( q c d c d < c d c d c t h - u ) j o • -- p -a c d ‘- q c d ft m f t m q - - cd l u ) i f t h - ‘ < ’ f t - u ) u) c d c d ic d cd c t h - c d i- h c d h - c d c d s c d i c d h j h - c d r t c d o < — c d c - tu ) c d u ) - - i - - q < q .i i - = h cd cd < d cd h h - h - h - h ’ q q ft ft u) cd u ) cd cd h - h - ft ft cd h h - cd h - h - h u) ‘ - h - h - i- q h - h cd z ft u) ci - h c- r cd ‘- < cd i h cd h ft cd h - h cd h - cd - ft h cd q k < ft - i - h c d h - h , f t cd h - cd u) ‘ cd h c d < cd h - h - ‘ iq ‘- < h c l cd f t u) u) < cd c t ft ii ci h pi cd ft cd ci cd cd h - cd cd cd c l cd ci ft h , cd cd cd o cd h fj — c l cd u) i h cl ) ‘ cd cd ft h - cd cd h - ci i- j h rr cd - ft h cd cd ‘ cd t u) ft h - - ft - cd ft h - u) q cd c l cd cd h cd ‘- i, ii cd < m u) h - cd ‘ h - cd h - h - cd ft h cd c d o c d cd c l h - < cd cd ;;‘ s. :: t.q cd h - ft cd ‘ — ci i h - cd ft cd o o h - cd ft cd cd cd cd cd h ç- r - cd cd cd cd h - cd ‘ h ci c l h cd - cd cd h - ‘ ‘ ‘ cd . h - h cd cd c t cd o h u) ‘d h l j c l cd . = cd f t h ‘< ft ‘ cd cd cd c l cd h - cd cd cd c l c l • u) - u) h , u) h - ‘ h h cd h ft cd u) h - f t cd u) cd h u) ci c l cd s cd ft cd h ft cd ci ft h - ft stoddart looks to the european heritage of the discipline for “why we call ourselves geographers” and comes up with the emphasis on “field science” that “emerged as europe encountered the rest of the world”: the point, he claims, when truth became “our central criterion”. positioning sauer in the field, it is thus important to ask, like clifford geertz, “how the thing is done”.’° rather than allowing the “field” to remain untouched as password to the legitimacy of sauer’s work, we need to unpack its construction as authority. i do this by looking at sauer’s constitution of fieldwork as spatial practice and observational strategy - sites and sights used to support sauer’s and the discipline’s claims to “truth” - and at his “rites” of education for geographers: the formation of guided and unguided fieldworker identities. throughout this chapter, i try to show that the authorities and identities constructed are gendered: that it is not only a question of reinstating the “field”, fieldwork and the fieldworker as legitimate but also of labelling them as inherently “male”. the sense of discipline and self from the “field” for sauer thus did not read simply “geography” but also (if subliminally) “patriarchy”. this critique comes from the work of gillian rose who argues that geography is masculinist, that: “to think geography - to think within the parameters of the discipline in order to create geographical knowledge acceptable to geography’s claims to truth - must also take its turn at being taken critically apart. stoddart, , pp. - . geertz, op. cit., p. .. the discipline - is to occupy a masculinist subject position”.” more specifically, rose states that fieldwork is: “a performance which enacts some of the discipline’s underlying masculinist assumptions about its knowledge of the world”:’ it prioritises a male “heroic” fieldworker over a female “other” and, remaining central to academic geography, requires a feminist critique. this leads me finally (and, most importantly for this thesis) to a third sense of “self” from the “field” which comes from contextualising sauer’s call (indeed, need?) for fieldwork as authority. following on from the last chapter, sauer may be repositioned amidst american academic geography and, at the same time, against its modernising trends - one of which was the turning away from work in the “field”. in keeping with his antimodernist stance, sauer objected to what he saw as the reluctance of other american geographers to prioritise fieldwork over desk work and positioned himself once more on the margins (the “hapless fieldman”) “for carl sauer, nothing mattered more than fieldwork; and no other single issue annoyed him more than the ever increasing tendency among american geographers to rely on field observations only as a last resort”.’ in opposition to the applied and armchair geographers who seemed rose, , p. . ibid., p. . kenzer, , op. cit., p. . i— ’o h - f— a r h ( - t - c t cd j h - - c o - c i ) h , d ç t h - cl> h - o rr p j < co c lu > h - h ( t h - c l h - co > c t h - c l c o id - c t c fl id co h c t h ‘i h id h co ii h w cd u i co h c o h - -i id o — c d tq r t - - c d c t id i l — t’ d id cd c t c l cd h - c l h r t s c r t h - c l c l cd h - cd cd co c d c d c d c oc d c l cl ) d co h - c t cd cd c o id rt h c t cd h - h - cd h i - co h c d ‘ ii id id h h - q h c- t ::y id h . j cd h - - :, c jc o h - c t u p j c d h ii k < i d . ‘i k < o cd cd co i - co c d h - s c l cd c t cd cd h - id c l h cd c t h io c d c t r to c l h c d c d cd h c lc d c l h -’ l h i r c o ‘ co q h d cd s j c ti -t q c d t c d q c d i d h c l- id cd lt j cd h ‘d cd c t i j c l i ç t h - ‘< q t h i id cd h - id ( - th h c d c r id ii cd c r co cl ) h cd > cd cd id c l < h - c l cd id c r cd ii co cd i ‘t - cd < h h id cd s c r c r f c r cd h - h - h co i cd id cd h i cd c r h - co co h id ii c l cd h - id co co ‘i co lq co id ç- t pj id ‘i co id co co h - c r cd cq h i c t j cd id c l c r h - h i h i cd h i cd c r cd c r h cd co cd cl ) (j ) id ‘i - cd co id h c- t h p j id h - c l co co co c l cd c r cd d cd cd co cl ) co - h h c r h - g h - cd ‘i - cd - z co >c co cd h - h - q id cd h pj ‘i h - h - cd c r c l ii h g h c r c t . c l cd h co — f- t co cd - h - c t c r co cd c r id ‘i id ii co ‘i h - co cd h i c r c r ii id pi co id c r id < h - cd co , c l h h - c l cd cd cd id h c t h c f l l ) < pi id c l j c r c r h c l id c r co cd h - h - c l h - cd t c r h - h i - co c r q cd ‘i cd h ‘i cd id co c l co co h - c l c l h - id cd c r ii h - cd id co cd h - h - cd h pi ‘ c r c l h i c r h - h cd co co h - h - h - j h cd co h h c l - c r id s h - cd cd co id h - h çu c l - c r s < ç t ‘i c r cd k < cd cd ‘i c r h - h cd h id h - cd h i c r cd c r < c l h cd c r ‘i - c l c r c r h c r cd cd h - h - c d h i co h - ‘i id cd f t cd h h - cd c r id - h i h c o h co c t ‘ id c r h - h - cd cd ci - h id h c r cd ‘ = id cd ‘< co cd h i h id co - h i cd c l id id h i c r cq i j c r id h c l co h i s cd c r h i h - ii cd h - cd id c t i- q k < cd ‘< h h i h id q cd h - c r cq c l t co cd id c l cd co co c l h i cd f t c r - sites “being afoot, sleeping out, sitting about camp.” in travelling cultures, james clifford reflects on the “powerfully ambiguous ways” in which the “field” experience has been portrayed and asks: “what specific kinds of travel and dwelling (where? how long?) . . .have made a certain range of experiences count as fieldwork? ,, and, more importantly, as authority. for clifford, the ethnographer’s status as fieldworker comes from being a “homebody abroad” - someone who stays and digs in for a time - gaining authority from dwelling simultaneously in village and “field” sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. . clifford is also concerned here with the forms of cultural interaction that constitute fieldwork: discursive as well as spatial practices. sauer was renowned among his students for the “interview” as field technique - a “low key” interaction with “locals” in the “field”, “pumping” them for information (see west, op. cit., pp. and ). sauer, however, had no knowledge of spanish on first crossing the border in and taught himself the language from a german dictionary (itself of interest for our later discussion of sauer’s cultural self-fashioning in the “field”), leading us to question the “accuracy” of his information from the “field”. as clifford states, no matter how fluent the fieldworker, he/she can only ever work in part of the language and thus the ability to “speak” for others, to represent them “truthfully” is never possible. i will consider sauer’s cultural interaction in more detail in chapter five with an emphasis on sauer’s representation of rather than communication with others in the “field”. in this chapter, while focusing on the spatial and observational elements to sauer’s fieldwork, i am aware that these are not independent from issues of culture in the “field” and attempt to integrate these via footnotes along the way. wary of creating a textual “homeland” (see pratt, , pp. - ) and artificially separating culture from the “field”, it does however seem necessary for a thematic biography of sauer. rather than passing through as traveller. while sauer, for james parsons, was “an ethnographer of sorts” (just as he was an economic botanist, historian.. •) ,‘ his fieldwork was a process of living not so much with the culture as with the culture area. ° for the young sauer, based in the united states and studying the familiar scene as “region” (the known), this manifested itself as a dwelling and mapping of the “field” as “home geography”. however, later moving outside the united states to the unknown, fieldwork became a trail of discovery, a process of cumulative travel that could eventually posit the mexican “field” as known. throughout, sauer’s main distinction was not between fieldwork as dwelling and travelling but between the geographer’s experience in the “field” and the “tour”. thus, both dwelling and passing through (unlike clifford’s ethnographer), sauer retained authority for himself and the discipline against the spatiality of the tourist. this anti- touristic stance also marked geographer and geography as “male” and gave expression to sauer’s cultural antimodernism. familiar scene to -iourneyman-geocrrapher sauer attributed his early interest in fieldwork to his “rural clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit. parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. while, as we have seen above, sauer did interact with “living” culture in the “field”, his focus was on material culture and the reading of cultural pasts from the landscape (culture history) : “the ability to distinguish the hand of nature from that of primitive man is not learned from classrooms, books, or museums. it was acquired by such amateur field observers who lived with their particular area” (sauer, , p. . my use of emphasis). surroundings” in missouri, ’ stimulating his curiosity in “people who went out, saw the country and wrote about it”. his years as an “apprentice geographer” were spent in mapping and survey work locally in illinois, missouri, michigan and kentucky with a focus on the region as “field”. this, for sauer, was “home geography” -the familiar scene that every geographer should begin with - and this attitude percolated into his early published work: “all about us lies a great and essentially uncultivated field of geography. the strange and distant scene has borne an unholy charm to the geographer who has thought that travel in far lands is the beginning of geographic research.” although sauer recognised the popularity of the “grand tour” for the “man of culture” - the movement away from the familiar scene - he criticised its “competence to evaluate the geography of a country” without the comparative perspective of the “home”. the geographer thus could not leave the local scene without fully immersing himself into its problems; preparation was by way of familiarity: “then only can we discover truly the significant contrasts of far countries.” in , presumably with this comparative basis, sauer left the sauer, addressing the royal geographical society in (sn , misc., op. cit.). sauer, pers. comm. (v) , op. cit. sauer in stoddart, , op. cit., p. . sauer, , p. . ibid. united states for a trail of discovery into mexico: “i went into mexico for discovery - it’s that simple”. moving away from the familiar scene, sauer felt that he was pushing back the boundaries of the (and his) unknown - “it was a kind of primitive way of going exploring” since “hardly anything was known about anything” and: “in those days, geographers didn’t take off for the ends of the earth for months and months at a time”. this change in sauer’s personal experience spoke to a wider audience in the education of a geographer. the article begins with a reconceptualisation of fieldwork as trail of discovery and the field worker as “journeyman” who “goes forth alone to far and the notion of a comparative basis resurfaces in sauer’s transition from mexico to south america which is explored in chapter six. sauer, pers. comm. (v) op. cit. it was not actually, as we saw in chapter two, quite that simple. sauer’s physical travel into mexico was as much escape as discovery - a critical distancing from other (modern) geographies. in fact, by attempting to reconnect with the european tradition of fieldwork, it was more of a rediscovery. additionally, it is ironic that sauer should use the modern rhetoric of discovery here to escape the modern and that he should write against (colonial) discovery (see chapter four) but use its (colonising) rhetoric to conceptualise his own presence in the field. see carter ( ) for a consideration of the rhetoric of discovery and its ordering forth of countries linguistically and spatially as colonial appropriation. ibid. this seems contradictory to sauer’s earlier definition of the geographer and the familiar scene against geographers that were travelling to far lands for geographic research. it is, however, useful at this stage for sauer, attempting to define himself as solitary journeyman. sauer in leighly, , op. cit., pp. - . whether homebody or journeyman, the fieldworker was written up with continuity by sauer as male. see the discussion of sauer’s “fieldman” at the end of this section. strange places”. the focus is no longer the familiar ground of the “home” territory but the exotic, the ends of the earth: “to go where none of your kind has been, to see and learn and make sense out of what has not been known to any of us.” ’ although sauer has altered the domain of the fieldworker from the familiar scene to the “foreign”, he maintains his critique of the “tour” and emphasises the distinction between traveller (geographer) and tourist: “the geographer and the geographer-to-be are travelers, vicarious when they must be, actual when they may. they are not of the class of tourists who are directed by guidebooks over the routes of the grand tours to the starred attractions, nor do they lodge at the grand hotels. . .they may pass by the places one is supposed to see and seek out byways and unnoted places where they gain the feeling of personal discovery. they enjoy striking out on foot, away from roads.” the spatial and intellectual practice of the geographer is therefore to “leave the beaten trail”, to keep away from the sites of the tour if he wants to avoid being an academic “tourist” himself. the geographer not only discovers unknown space but also sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . contrary to west, op. cit., p. , sauer did allow for some “armchair” (vicarious) travel for the geographer as a complement to actual travel (see the next section on visuality and the map) but only when necessary. sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . sauer in stoddart, , op. cit., p. . sauer was extremely critical of what he saw as the academic “tourists” in the east of the united states: the “herd”, the “tub-thumpers, spellbinders and slickers” (the tourists of the modern?) that ran with politics and the contemporary and seemed to have given up the pursuit of “the good, the beautiful and the true” (wagner, pers. comm. (i), op. cit.) goes in search of the academically authentic: conquering “a bit of truth here and a bit of truth there”, the physical discovery of lands is matched by the scientific discovery of “pebbles on the shore of a sea of truth”. sauer’s fieldworker is not, however, completely free to roam. travelling away from the tourist and striking out into the unknown, he must eventually limit his travels to a place that he can know - he must bound the unbeaten trail into a field: “the human geographer cannot be a world tourist, moving from people to people and land to land, and knowing only casually and doubtful ly related things about any of them.” prepared, the f±eldworker thus leaves the “home” scene and, keeping away from the “herd”, intimately comes to know the “field”. once again, therefore, sauer’s critique is of the incompetence and inauthenticity of the “tour”, constructing the spatiality and mentality of the geographer so as to avoid this. repositioning sauer in mexico, we achieve a more grounded sense of the importance of geographer-traveler as distinct from tourist. according to deplar, the s and s in the united states witnessed a “vogue” for things mexican and a wave of american conrad in driver, op. cit., p. . leighly, , op. cit., p. . sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . with this in mind, it is strange that west (op. cit., p. ) should call sauer’s later mexican visits “grand tours”. perhaps at this stage (the late s), mexico was considered by sauer as “known” and could therefore be toured at leisure - with “no definite purpose in mind, save to get back to mexico for a spell.” tourists - “anglo-saxons in herd formation” - were heading across the border towards the end of the period. thus while sauer may have considered himself as journeyman-explorer at the “ends of the earth” in mexico, he was certainly not alone. in fact, ironically for sauer, the mexican government was campaigning for american tourists in exactly the same year that he was crossing the border for his first mexican “discovery.” thus while sauer was travelling in mexico, textualising his trip in his fieldnotes, others were being introduced to the country through the pages of a guidebook, terry’s guide to mexico being a prime example of the period. true to the mentality of the “tour”, terry’s presented mexico as a place to travel through quickly, with limited knowledge of language and institution, in order to return with the whole: “the constant aim of the writer of this guidebook is to show the user how he can best see all there is worth seeing in mexico with the least outlay of time, energy and money. mexico, said terry’s, made “foreign recreation” easy: it was “just ° deplar, , p. . this period was apparently characterised by discovery. leftist artists and intellectuals (hardly sauer!) made a political pilgrimage to mexico encouraged by the socialist promises of the post-revolutionary period, while others saw the country as a cultural “mecca” and went in search of “art” and “civilisation”. this political cultural and academic travel laid the foundations for the tourist wave. ibid. while tourists had been reluctant to visit mexico, associating the country with violence, banditry and instability, the mexican government’s campaign to promote tourism in reconceptualised mexico as safe, unspoiled, cheap and, best of all, just across the border. terry, . ‘ ibid., p.xiia. across the line from uncle samuel’s domain” (so easy to communicate by telegraph, receive the new york times, return home) and yet “foreign in the fullest sense of the word”. a new smoother travel experience awaited the “old traveller”: “a frictionless and wholly delightful travel adventure” where the climate was “healthful”, the people helpful (“hands ready to be of service”) and the language simple. in ninety days, the tourist would be speaking like “the average man on the street” so that the lack of the language “ should never deter the traveller from visiting mexico”. it was, in essence, “one of the easiest foreign countries to travel in”, “as pleasant as a foreign journey could possibly be” moving on from this generic picture of quick and easy travel, we find that not only were tourists crossing the border into mexico with sauer but, more specifically, touring his “field” of the northwest. in , the southern pacific railroad had been ‘ ibid., p.x±. ibid., p.xxiif. ibid., p.xxiia. if in difficulty, the tourist could turn to terry’s companion, speak spanish at once, for a travelling language to ease passage through the country (ibid., p.xxiic). ibid., p.xxiif. the traveller is advised on what to wear: male tourists are allowed, among other things, “ handkerchiefs (panuelos) - cotton or silk. . street or business suits. . smoking jacket” and “must” use “ tennis racket. . pair field—glasses” and “ golf-bag”! (ibid., p.xvi) what actually constitutes sauer’s “field” spatially (and authoritatively?) varies - while sauer talks of “my mexico”, he more specifically outlines to samuel dicken that his “field” is the northwest: “my field is northwest mexico, and about northeast mexico i know very little. i hope that you are going to pre-empt extended from the united states along the west coast of mexico, giving “new commercial life” to miles of mexican territory and bringing cities such as hermosillo, mazatlán, tepic and guadalajara into “deserved touristic prominence” crossing from the united states into mexico at the “friendly fence” of nogales, the new railway was, said terry’s, of “supreme importance” for the tourist since it was: “now possible for him to travel in comfort through one of the least known, richest, most beautiful, and most picturesque regions of the real old mexico; one which offers him more of touristic value than almost any other railway on the continent.” as “the only railway traversing this fascinating section”, it was becoming “each day. .more popular with the travelling public”. ’ the “west coast region” was itself thus newly “discovered” as tourist resort, enabling the “casual globe trotter” to add one more “unbeaten track to his touristic scalps”. at the same time, it already offered clean, modern cities for the tourist’s comfort, for example the “southern pacific paradise” of mazatlán: “rapidly coming into prominence as one of the most delightful. .. vacation the latter field, and, if you do, you will have to work up the historical-geographic background as i have done for northwest mexico.” (pc, sauer to dicken, / / ). john leighly, however, marks latin america as sauer’s field (leighly, pers. comm. cv), / / ) . while, as we will see in chapter five, sauer does seem to feel he can delimit the personality of all of mexico, he does not (in chapter six) move outside mexico with as much authority. ‘ terry, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p.xxxiv. ibid., p. . resorts on the continent”. recommending the northwest as “region”, terry’s thus plotted the “route” of the tourist by rail along the coast, connecting up its “progressive” cities with their “modern, finely equipped hotels” as nodes. the same cities were also connected up by the “scenic grandeur and tropical charm” of the western main artery for those who wanted to travel by highway (nogales-sonora-sinaloa-nayarit-jalisco-guadalajara-mexicocity) through terry’s then we find exactly the “class of tourists... grand tours. . . starred attractions. .grand hotels” that the geographer-traveler, according to sauer, had to avoid. however, if the contemporary mexican scene reveals sauer in the company of tourists, his destination shared with the “herd”, the specifics of his fieldwork do not. rather than follow the mapped itineraries, for sauer it was always important to “depart from the highway” and he demonstrated this spatially in relation to tourists in the field. while the latter, as we have seen, kept to the main cities and rail and road arteries on the west coast, sauer’s ibid., p. a. ibid., p.xxxviii. sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . in a visual representation of sauer’s travel in northwest mexico, we would see sauer’s field mapped as a departure from the west coast tourist route. sauer’s / field trip, for example, involved sauer in “reconnaisance” of rural areas around nogales in northwest sonora and, further south, around mazatlán. his more touristic contemporaries would have passed direct from nogales to hermosillo; from culiacan to mazatlán and therefore missed sauer’s trails along the way. fieldwork was in rural regions and he used main routes only for initial access to his “field”. rather than the rapid passing through of the tourist, west notes that sauer “often visited the same places and traversed the same trails and roads season after season” - his was a more cumulative form of travel. while he often took the train from nogales down the mexican west coast, sauer used this as a starting point from which he travelled to more remote areas by foot, mule, horse and car. he thus literally departed from the highway on his field trips, defining his routes against the tourist, moving slowly and intensively through small sections of his “field” for weeks at a time. any dwelling in the “field” was also defined against the tourist, sauer preferring to camp in the open countryside or lodge in villages rather than stay in more comfortable hotels. according to west, sauer was “always contemptuous of modern urban amenities when travelling” and thought that “travel by any means other than the best” was the way to go on (see figure ) the geographer’s knowledge of an area, sauer emphasised, came from a much baser (and therefore more authentic) experience: his archive work was, however, in urban areas: mainly in mexico city but also in guadalajara and hermosillo (see west, op. cit., pp. and ). ibid., p. . this cumulative spatial practice of sauer’s was as much a cultural as a spatial knowledge: returning again and again to the “field”, sauer maintained the fieldworker would get “to the point where he sees the culture from the inside”. thus, persisting in the “field” and avoiding the “tour”, the authority to define mexican culture (at least materially and in the past) was his. ibid., pp. and . “an individual creation out of long application, involving physical discomforts and pleasures, muscular, cutaneous, and gastric. “° tourists “travelling” through a text to travel the country thus seemed to be caught in a different relationship to geography and writing than sauer - they were travelling the beaten track, the already known. rejecting the “guidebook” and its routes in the education of a geographer and in practice in mexico, sauer could maintain the status of discovery of his fieldwork - as stratton states “there are no guidebooks for exploration” ’ - and the authority. the opposition between traveller and tourist, claims jonathan culler, is not “real” but a common trope, a division that is integral to tourism itself. the critique of tourism, complete with herd imagery and allegations of inauthenticity, masks yet further tourists, posing as travellers. the traveller’s label posits a more active, authentic, individual experience which is used for authority but which, for culler, is never achievable - off • sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . while this appears to be the kind of fieldwork sauer’s students experienced, letters to sauer from the “field” could also portray a leisurely pace to fieldwork. homer aschmann writes a “progress report” to sauer from central america in , outlining his “side trips” in which, “like any tourist”, he “poked up to santa marta” and made the “regular pilgrimage” (pc, aschmann to sauer, / / ). similarly, parsons writes from a boat trip on the lower amazon in , documenting his views, excursions and landings as “half fieldwork and half fiesta” (pc, parsons to sauer, / / ) stratton, , p. . culler, , pp. - . x h cd :: ‘- d ( ’ h c ta ‘ ’ ( r t ) r t cd h cd cf l f - , ‘- l cd ‘t c ) cd cf l rt o ‘- i cf l h c) ‘t cd • ‘ ) (n h the beaten track is “the most beaten track of all” and the “authentic” is always already mediated by markers - the relation is never pure. echoes of sauer’s fieldworker/tour±st distinction replay in culler’s examples of the trope: “the traveler, then, was working at something; the tourist was a pleasure-seeker. the traveler was active; he went strenuously in search of people, of adventure, of experience. the tourist was passive; he expects interesting things to happen to him.m the genre, as he says, is familiar. like culler, james buzard seeks to investigate rather than repeat “travel” and “tourism” as trope and to explore its tendency to construct authenticity and to distinguish (the travelling) “self” from (the touristic) “other”. more particularly for buzard, the trope is viewed as a binary opposition fundamental to modern culture, its emergence linked to industrialisation and the destruction of traditional rural communities: it was a means of expressing and confronting modernity. “travel” came to represent a claim to find (acculturation) and to leave behind (cultural escape) . in opposition to the “tourist”, the “traveller” claimed to ibid., p. . this appears to be the case in chapter five where we see sauer in the company of other antimodernists, looking for the culturally authentic in rural mexico. ibid., p. . buzard, , p. . ibid., pp. - . buzard is here writing about nineteenth century england, but he also focuses beyond europe to america later on in his book. go “off the beaten track” and to penetrate the authentic essence of the traditional society which had been hounded there by modernity. secondly, the “traveller” claimed to escape the modern, whereas the “tourist” was its “relentless representative”: “the tourist appears unable or unwilling to cast off the traces of a modernity which at home is all too much with us. . .as such the tourist is an unwelcome reminder, to self-styled ‘travellers’, of the modern realities that dog their fleeing footsteps.” thus “tourist” and “traveller”, like city and country in the last chapter, appear as synecdoche for modern and antimodern culture. the tourist represents change, displacement and exile, the traveller tradition, belonging and a sense of “home”. ° sauer’s self-definition in opposition to the “tourist” and his charting of anti-touristic space were not, then, so much a question of geography as of modernity: a replay of sauer’s search for a the “beaten track” is, for buzard (ibid., p. ), the “master trope” in the tourist/travel opposition. it denotes the ultimate touristic space of the inauthentic and is brought into play as a foil to spaces of acculturation and cultural authenticity. this desire for access and penetration was a contradictory one. the self-proclaimed traveller was aware of the transformative potential of the tourist - the tendency to remake places in his own (modern, inauthentic) image - and therefore there was a both a denial and a fear of transformative potential (buzard, ibid., p. ) : “the traveller was to seek the double goal of attaining a distinctly meaningful and lasting contact with the visited place that would none the less make no constitutive changes, leave no imprint of force behind.” ibid., p. . ° it is interesting that buzard makes the distinction between “tourist” (exile) and “brother” (belonging) - a reminder, perhaps, of sauer’s own distinction in the last chapter between himself and his “brothers in spirit” in the “backwoods” and the urban “other”. “home”. the fieldworker had to avoid the “beaten track” - the cities, the main thoroughfares - and turn to the rural because sauer required a departure from the modern in the “field”. the spaces of the tour were the spaces of the modern; the geography of the tourist, a modern geography and sauer - not just geographer but antimodernist - defined himself against both. this unpacking of travel/tourism is extremely useful: while culler reveals the geographer-traveller’s claims to authority as constructed, buzard helps to blur the boundary between the academic figure of the fieldworker and sauer’s antimodern home-seeking persona. however, while culler and buzard keep their analysis at the individual level, an application to the construction of disciplinary authority is also revealing. while all travellers may be tourists, some have the ability and authority to define themselves and their practices against this and to use the distinction as an effective form of othering. what is most important, therefore, is that sauer maintains this division from the tourist, placing himself firmly in the boots of the fieldworker. this is not only a touristic topos working in favour of an individual, but also in support of a discipline: the fieldworker-geographer is not a tourist and, because of this, he [sic.] can speak with authority. meanwhile, ironically, the authors of terry’s guide are claiming the same thing: “nearly twelve years of residence in the country, and repeated journeys from one end of it to the other, have qualified us to “the earnest traveller”, says buzard (ibid., p. ) “could find a ‘home’ anywhere.” o u ) h c d q c d u . h - cd u )c d c ) c ) c t c tc d o r tp ) h - h < cd < cd cd cd z h - i c d o rt c )< c t cd h , c) h c d r r pj ) u ’ h c) ,— ‘ cd cd h , j _ i c r j n ’ c )— c d - cd h ) ) p ) p) h k < c ) q t c ) cd : - >< p) h -c d h - u) h ‘- < . c t c d q ( -q q q h p ) p) q ,p ) h cd u) h - u) h n c d c d h ‘ i p) r r d j i . u ) c d pi u j .q c r cd h , c d h - c) u )u )g r- r — h - h -( q c d . u ) r c d h .c r p — - i - - t c d q cd :j cd c t p j cd h - < p i h c r h ’ i cd h - p) h c t cd h - c t o h -’ o c d k < i cd q h , c) h - o h - c rc d p) ) c r cd h ii h - u) q ,p ) c- rq c r c rc d cd c d ; f h , lq ) c t cd u) c r h - h , - h - c r cd ) z c ) < _ c ) u) cd c r h h c r cd p) c rc r c r p i — h , • cd h c d u )u ) c d h - h h h - o cd c) h c d c d h cd c r ,- h - c r c d cd cd cd c- r h - i— ’ c r c d p o f -i c t c th ,c r i- h -c d c) h - cd cl ) c) u )c d h c r q - b p ) pi h h c ) q • i h .c r rr u ) p ) u )c ) at c r q h , o h c d p j • c d ç t c r cd h - p ) u ) c d - ti cd ‘d h r - r ‘ d < c d - u) h p ) pi cd c r c j h j — c d c tc d l• q c l) h , cd h s cd p c l h h h - cd h u) i- p i c) cd i- c l h u) < - - c) cd - h - i- ç r cd < c r cd c) - - cd cd u ) h - h cd — p ) ci ) c- r c r h - ii cl ) ci ) c) h h , c) i- • q q c r u) i- r cd ci ) - h , h n q c l cd h - c r u) - ci ) pi c) h - c r ‘- ‘ h - - c r q cd o ii c r p) k < h lq cd cd h , ii u) p c) h cd cd h , h c l h - h - iq cd i cd h h - c l l u) c r c r f - ) q ;‘s •’ cd u) q u) s h d c r u) c r p) h - cd cd u) i.q c r u) ii c t h h cd h , cd k < c) h , c l h h - h - c r h cd u) c r h - c r h c) c l ci cd ii cd cd < ci) - h - cd ‘-‘ i k < i- cd ci h , h i cd h i c r cd c r u) h , cd h h , p) pj c r h - cd h cd h cd h - h , c l h h - o - cd h - - h u) cd h ci cd h cd u) q o h , -- ci ) h - c r cd c r c r h h h - c r - ci ) , h cd cd h - c r cd c r cd ‘< > c r o h , c r i- cd h , h c) ci) h - h - iu h s cd cd h , c) ci ) q h h cd c l i - o k < j c t q o :: - ci) cd •d c r c ii cd ci-i c r ci) f -- s cd ci ) h h t cd i c r - h , cd i u) h , q h c d c l f h - z c i) < c d o u) cd c d u ) s c) h - c lc ) h - c r d ci) u ) h c r c i) p c d cd c )c lu ) cd c) c d c r c r e c t h c r i)) c ) u ) ° c r h - u) : o o c r h , • u ) ç t — c d c d - c r h c i) p ) u ) c r cd o c l ci ) c d p h cd h , i— h u ) < h - c r h p ) cd cd < c ) h cd i - h c ru ) z h u) ci ) iq cd c r p j h -c rc i) h - cd ci ) c d c d h cd i h Ø iq c -r u ) cd cd u) s q c d u) cd q i - i— rc )c -r cd cd ci ) h ’ d < u ) f- ’ cd c d ) c d i- ’- i- r h c d c d c) h ’c )h h - c r r l q ci) h ’ c d c l c ) p i , u) u) cd c r h - h ,c r h , h - h i- • c) u) c r h - c d h - q s h - c) c ) u ) h ci ) c d c r h , c) h - h - c rc d p ip ) c r cd h ’ ii h - u) c lc i) c r c ) j c r c rc d ci ) c d d c d c c r h , h - h -h < p ) u ) c ) c r ci) - h c t c d p i c ) c) h - cd u )- - i lu l - cd c r c r ‘ p ) h - u) cd - c r c i ) f h , c r c d u ) u ) d c d h - h .h cd s c) h - c) h ) td c d h - c d h ’ cd c r c r h - c r • c d - c d c d c lu )c d c r = h - h - c r c d c i) q f -i c r • c r h , c r c l h - cd c) h - cd cd c) ii u )c d h c r c l p i ci ) h o f -’ c )c l - h c r c r b • cd n h . ‘ i p i u )c ) c r i q h , h c d p i • l c r cd c rc d c ) o c r c d ii - c i) u )c d - cd h c r lt i k < c d • u ) h p ) ci ) cd c r a i — c lc d c rc d h , cd s h h cd ci) c l h cd ) c’ ) h cd h - c r h s ci) cr cd cr cd ii h ci) ii ci) h h cd h ’ c r (i ) ci ) cd ii u) authority of the traveller relies on the counter-figure of the tourist, so the field is formed against a feminine non-field equivalent. in both cases, the identity of the fieldworker is not essential but relational: it is constructed against and requires the subversion of the other to legitimate an authoritative stance. despite the critiques of culler, buzard and rose, geographers like david stoddart continue to build on sauer’s persona of the “journeyman and to conceptualise fieldwork as discovery. although felix driver has cited conrad “in memoriam” for a geography of discovery and claimed that geographers are “condemned to make their discoveries on beaten tracks” (we are tourists all) , stoddart states that cook’s “discovery” of australia in marked the transformation to geography as truth and that this continues to speak to a geography of the present. our central theme, continues stoddart - drawing in full on the masculinist assumptions of fieldwork - should be: “sending out versed in science and the knowledge of nature on all occasions to the remote parts of the world.” contradictory to driver, the “days of heroic travel” for geography do not seem to be over: stoddart, like sauer, freezes geography the whole the belief that the true nature of the world can be revealed via objective study - a conviction expressed through the trope of discovery. in this light, sauer’s geographer-discoverer, searching for “pebbles on the shore of a sea of truth”, is symptomatic of geography as masculinist knowledge. stoddart, , op. cit., p. . my use of emphasis. conrad in driver, op. cit., p. . u) cd h >< i— i, cd h p . h p i u ) h - h - c) u) cu h - c) rt cd h - h i c- t ) cd ( d i ci) u ) o cu ci) p . p . ci) c) rr ci) rt h - > ç t cu cd h h ci ) - cu u ) p . h w u ) - ) ‘ p j u) h u i rt c ) çu p j h - h h u) cd ct h h cu u ) u ) cd h c t ’ h cd cu c d u ) i- u) u) u) cu cu u) cu cu p . h - cd i- u) m i h - cd ci ) c) i- cd cu < h h cd sights “everything’s so goddamned pictorial it takes my breath away. , it was not only the being of fieldwork - the sheer presence of the geographer away from his [sic.] desk - that gave sauer’s geography its authority, but the seeing: the clarity and contemporaneity of vision that the direct experience of the field allowed. geography, for sauer, was primarily knowledge gained by observation: in order to know, you had to see and sauer thus further “othered” the “desk geographers” that he perceived as taking over the american academic scene. reading and archive work could complement observation but only the latter had the ultimate claim to “truth” and could truly enable the geographer to learn and “see”. in reference to his own work, sauer said: “i still think i can learn more by being in the field than by reading. when i am fresh from the field i have a new incentive to read, and after i have read for some time i have the additional reason for getting back into the field.” ° sauer thus further made the distinction between the “real” geographer out in the “field” and the less authoritative and more “bookish” counterpart that “stayed at home”. while this seemed to sort out the field observers from the deskworkers within geography, it did not, however, distinguish between geographers and other disciplines, equally keen on “being” and “seeing” in the field. dos passos in deplar, op. cit., p. . sauer in williams, , op. cit., p. . h - i - c) ç t j q i - c d (.q c) < h f — cd (d o < p j i h b h -i .q (- i- c d iq p j p f t i- . cd h (d o p - w q -’ u) cd h - o h o c d ( - - c d s u ) u )c d (d r- i- p b - f r c d h . h - (u cd i- o u )p rh t o • o r— ’ k < h - w ‘- ‘ r t q cd o cd c d c d u )c d c d u) j u ) a u ) f t ( u f ri -i u )h o c d c u )h ) u ) f r g c d (d o h - u ) c d c d i- j) u ) h (d h i h : h cd .- c d h - ç t ( u ( t h - cd h - f i - p - m i c d u ) r - (u c d f — h (u o ci cd c d (u i- q r ( u c - t p j u ) q c t q (u (u c d c d c t h h iq u) h -c d cd c d - h i - j p j • k < u ) i - u ) i t h - ( - h cd ( d h u ) r t h r i i h < p c d _ k < u ) p $ ‘t i( u cd f - ’ ( th ’ c d c d - i- ti - i cd u) cd f r f - (u cd c d u ) l i - h - cd — iu ) ‘-q (u h - h cd h - (u _ ,o h u ) h it h - _ -i cd u ) p j h h q cd o h f r c d cd f r( fl u ) - h ° u ) u -’ h - u) cd -r c d • f r h h . - c t q h iq d c d k< p • c d p j d h r t q o — ti u )- (u p i - c d — fl t- ) — p j u ) i- i i- i h -m b h - h - c d u ) • • h - ( u q cd o o • • p cd w w k < p c d h o i u i - r r o c d u , tj • • h i - i - w c d (u f r - h - f r o c t cd ‘ d q (u h - h - f r f r h - h - • f r w -q (u h a - i - •— j( u — i l d c -t • (u h c d h - o: p u ) c d -- u )i q h - (u c t c d q h f r cd c d h i i— h cd h - cd h h r t . h u) b i-q h - q b cd cd f r u) f - cd ( h - f r p i i- h < (u cd cd q it (u d f r h i h - ‘- < h - (u h - - cd u) cd — ‘ h i - cd h (u u) (u (u h h :i ii h h - f r i— h ‘ p o cd u) i cd h h - u) h - u) ‘c i it cd cd cd (u - ‘ cd cd . p - u) - cd it q f r f r h - cd ci (u h - cd lq cd it i- u) - pi - - f t h h - (u - i u ) f t p cd it u ) (u h - u) cd cd cd cd f r cd h , h i- i- h - - - h - i- ‘c i cd ‘c i iq h - cd h o < h h -, h f t h - h cd k < iq < h h ‘- < cd cd p i - u ) (u u ) (u (u i- q (u (u u) it p cd h - cd cd f- ’ ii i- h i- h - - u) - i u) it (u ‘d h - i t h - p - f r u ) iq (u h - h - h u) ip u) h ih - f r u) im i [h h lc d p i h h h , < cd h - lc d i- ’ -. h i cd h- li t cd cd h u) cd it cd cd (u m i -. u) - . h i ( u c d o o f r h h q it cd q < i- cd cd cd f r h - (u u) u) f r f r (u (u cd h - cd cd f r ‘c i - ( cd cd o cd o (u h , h - -. ‘- < p (u o cd ‘ - (q ( : (u cd u) i- i- u) cd q e i- h , d (u h - cd h - h - ‘c i cd h it h p cd j cd k < u ) (u cd u) cd (u h cd ‘c i cd h - cd cd h , h , h - cd p ii (u u) h c- i f t cd q c d h h - u) (- i c m i- i u ) (u h - cd h ‘c i w — ] cd ’ h - h f- ’ , h - f r w u i — s d s d s d — cl ) cl ) h pj pj t h - cd cd p - i- h . h - h w cd cd m h - a) h q rr - h k < - h o c) o h d d c) h c t la ) h - i p j h s d h cl ) i . b pi h - • cd cd • i- cd - h - - • a) la ) h cd - h - c r h a) lo cd o i - c) h cd ‘d c t s • ii cd pi h - a) ft - h - a) - c r cd h , h cd i h a) cd cd cl ) pi cd l- h la ) u , b h i d c i- c r cd c r h - h - cd cd a) j c r c t pi h a) a) i- pj c) h cd h - ) p) cd c) - h a) c f a) c) c r h cd h , pi c r h - c) cd h , cd cd h - i• tj c) h - a) p) h , iq h cd h h h h , h , cd c r h p) q u , cd a) — cd cd c) - pi q- ’ p) ‘d h - h - ) l- cd pj a) h , a) c r c) h - h - cd h - cd a) a) c r a) h cd h - cd h h - < cd c) h q i h - h o q cd cd h p ) ;s -• • • lq h - a) ii h - h a) h , h , h - h - c) h h - cl - o h - i- i -‘ cd o c) cd a) a) cd h t j cd p) o t - cu cd cd lq i_ i. h h cd h - h , u c r c) a) h , c t cd h - cd j i- p) cd b cd ç t s a) ) ci cl ) j i r r cu h p) c r c) a) ci h p ) cd cd cd lq cd h k < i- • cd pi d cd ‘ c) c t cd h ci i ) h - cd h’ c) c r t cd h - a) h ç t cd h , cu cd i lq p) ci p- -< c) c r c r a) ft c r a) p) cl ) cd l j a) - cd c f a) c) k < c r c f cd h - cd h h a) - k < a) a) cu h - o h , q , a) cu cl ) cd p i- i cd ci cu cd h - cu c t h - h - lq o cd h - h i a) h - cd i-- i cd pi h c l- cd s ci q a) lq cd a) c r cu c) h , h cd h - h cd cd < c) c) - cd h pi cd q h , h , c) h , cd h cd q a) h , cd a) f’ ç t cd h - c) < o c t cu cu cd lq a) c r cd h - l cu cd h - lq c) = h - h - cu • c) cd a) h c ic tc d = cu cd h -c d a ) q i iq a) l- c) cu c t h - p j cu d c t a ) c d l q a ) c ‘- < c u c u h - h , h j c d h . ç t cl ) c d l cu c ) h - ci c l- cd h p ) a) i- i p -c d ft a ) p ) p c d c )h c r c u h ci a) c t i- cu h a) c u . a) s . c d cu $ h cd p - c) c d c d ci fr h -c i h cd c t a) h w p j q i h - cu s a ) h a) h c d h h - a ) c ) h a ) f t h - c r h , h - i- p c ) h , -r c d h - c r i- cd lq a) c t p jc u ‘ cd h a) a )c )c ) c ci ci q h h ,p ) r - r cd l- q p )q p ) cd h , h , h sd cl ) c l cu h - a) h cu a) h - c) h c t u , q h c d (f l n o d j c d [f ) rt d ) d )c d i j i. cd < i- i. cd , - , . c i u i — - - • , j o < r t (d o ) x l q h cd c) — r t w i j u ) f t ) tr u) c t f t q h - h ic j cl ) ip j h - cu q c ) l h - cu c f cd ‘d cd cd fr cu c) ) cd cu id a f -’ h -c d u ) cd u) c t cd cd - c) u) m cl ) ii- ’- h - id d p cd ( cu cd c) h - ico ft cd h - ft h cd ft i h ic - c c ) ) c ) h - q ‘d cu h - u ) cd h - h - lo ip ft h d o ‘ c d if t h - cd f-i - ‘d ‘d i.q u ) cd f t h , ct ) rn a c)) u) cl ) u) cl ) cl ) h , u . - h - h - i. cu c) c)) c u c u c) cu cd cd cd cd cd u) i. u) u )c d c t ç t c i- cu c) . . i. c) cd c u u )c d cd cd u) h - f t cd cd cd lq cd h - c) - h - h - h h h - h , cd cd h o -h cu h , cd cd c ) l j f- ’ h - cd h - h h - cu b f t cd h , f t (q cd h - u) h - u) cd c l- u) h - c) ) cd ft cd d cd h - cd q < cu f t cu < cd u ) c d h h cd h cu h cd cu cd u) c) cd o c )c )) c d h - ‘ u) f t h c) h - u ) h , p ’ cu c )- cu h - cu c d c) cd cd s h f- h - h h - h - ft ft c l c) ) ft h - c )c d c u h - h h - ‘ c) h - fr h c d u ) h - h - cu h cu c) ) o ft ft h - cd • h p , ‘ h - f- ’ h - - - p , . . cd c) cd u) cu cd cd u ) c u c u c d w c d c ) q h - q - h - l j h i c l cd cu ‘ h - i h - cd h h - cd h - i- c d cd h - u ) cu ft f t c) h , h cd cu c l h - h - h - h < cd u) cd h - ft h cu cd cd i- h h - cd h - h d cd cu cd cu ‘ cu (d h o c u h h ft c) cu h - h - h ‘. o c d h . h cu cd cu cd d ft f t c ) ) ft t q u ) h z q cd cd h - cd ft cu - _ • h h c l h - h - cd c l h u) f t d cu ‘- cd c) ) h h - h cu i- cd cu c) u) h c) c) ) cd - cd h h - c l cd i cd c) ) cu cu c) h - h h cu f t ft cd c) ) - cu h ft i- cd cd h h , ft u ) h - - cu c) s h cd h h - c l h - h - u) c l f t c ) ) - h - u ) ft u) h - cd cu h cu cd s c) cd u) - h ft - cd cu c l - h - c) d c u o c l cu cd h cd h - d f- ’ cu ft h , h - q u) cu cl ) - f t c u h w h - c ) c u h , ft h - c) f t c ) h - d h - cu ft f t h - f t c) cu u) q cd h - f t ft o h c u c u cd u) f t h , cu h - c l c) ) cd ‘c d h u )k < c l c cd cd ‘< cd h cu ft ‘< h i cd cd “the sprightly sketchiness of observation of the geographer-traveler may retain its use in explorations and other forms of preliminary reconnaisances but intensive work needs to rely primarily on rigorous observation of unit areas. ,, sauer thus recommended a landscape to survey as a unified panorama rather than the less accurate passing through of the traveler-geographer. the former was a systematic, precise, quantitative, and scientific method; the latter lay in the realm of the informal and subjective. while “sketchy observation” could complement the scientific, it could not stand in its place; it had charm and appeal but no scientific currency. geography, in fact, had given “excessive freedom to temperament” and “subjective impression” and needed to ward off the dangers of being “anti scientif±c”.’°° “the purpose of these suggestions”, said sauer, was “not to make field work mechanical but to increase its precision”; the choice of which landscape to observe could “remain a matter of individual judgement”. ’after this initial choice, however, the geographer proceeded objectively. .and beyond. the scientific and subjective elements of landscape observation were more balanced in sauer’s later publication the morphology of ibid., p. . it is interesting here to note that the “traveller” denotes a less authoritative stance - a contrast to the last section in which it was the tourist that stood for a lack of authority. as buzard notes, we must be wary of simplification of the division between travel and tourism and be ready for contradiction (op. cit., p. ). ‘°° sauer, , op. cit., p. . ibid. it u) = it it it h - c c c : it u) i - lc d cd ) cd h - j j h i - h c) ip cd h ic pi h it u) ) p cd cd cd h - i: j u ) it u ) it h - l j .h c d c) cd i h - h - icc cd h it h - w it a h - < ip i h - c d = cd i t c d cd h - ip ) i c v . id it c h , cd u) it h , p iy it h h h h h h cl ) lcd it h - . pi h u )u ) h , id cd h - it cd h - cd p ‘- c l h h - < it ,< c) h - h - h - h - h - h - < cd cd h h c l c l c l cd p cd cd h , cd h < -: .: .: .: i— ’ cd h cd c) cd pi c cd cd u) h - c l h , < it u) - - cd ‘d ‘d h , h , cd it p i h - c d h h - h - = c) cd d h , q h • • w w w u i cd ‘ i.q cd h - p cd u i h u i m i h cd cd h c < cd cd p j l- q h , ) h m ) h - p p h - c) h a h cd s , h pi h h - p h - h p h - ( c) h h u) it o h ) - p h , it it h - cd cd it h () cd cd = .q cd c d < d c - - pj h , pj - - h h - c l) h cd cd cd pi u ) o u) ci i f d cd c l c l cd cl) cd h cd cd h - h - u) p h - c l a cd u) cd i it u) ’ j h , cd o c l p - u) cd ( c) c) < it h cd h - h - cd p h , h - cl) h , k < - ‘- h - o cd - it h - h - cd z h - it h h - p h - u) - o c l c ) cd cd it cd cd it p h c l o = p it cd h - cd h = . h , it c) ( it i cd cd - h it it ‘ pj cd h - cd it < c d it u i - pj pi pi c l cd it h h u , i cd it h h p cd u) h - - p ic d cd it cd p, cl ) c) d u ) cd cd cd d i t u) pi c l u i - u) p h it i cd cd cd c q c d d h cd cd o h - cd j c -i - cd c) it h u) p i t c -i . u) cd p p a a c) cd h j it - u ) c) c) i cd cd h - h - it ci h it h - it it it c h p cd cd h - o : cd < cd cd it u) p cd u) h - ) cd cd cd h - . h - cd h - cd cd h - cd - h - c l = it h - h , s ii u) it it cd p h , it i p h - ci ’ it it h - h c it h - i- p i cd c d cd u) c l c) p cd h cd cd c l cd it cd c d u ) c l it cd “beyond all that can be communicated by instruction and mastered by techniques lies a realm of individual perception and interpreta tion” sauer also performed a “volte-face” in terms of his concern for scientific technique in observing the landscape, moving away from any guidelines on mapping: “the more time is spent making maps, the less attention is likely to be left for thinking about why things are set down on the map. . .a mapping plan is likely to freeze attention when it should be most elastic. . this “elasticity” came, for sauer, from a reconceptualisation of the map from field technique to “the language of geography”, allowing for an “armchair travel”, an imaginary voyage to the “exotic”. he asked: “who has not journeyed by map to tibesti or tibet, raised the peaks of tenerife or trinidad on the western horizon or sought the northwest passage? who has not been with marco polo to cathay, with captain cook to the sandwich islands?,m journeying by map was also the subject of sauer’s later address in the quality of geography, where the map was seen as vehicle for the mental travel of the geographer: “a wandering by the mind’s eye” and a subjective experience that depended on “one’s particular ibid., p. . for williams, , op. cit., p. , this “realm of individual perception” was a product of sauer’s intellectual heritage: a “mysticism of observation and contemplation”, associated with german romanticism, which gave rise to “verstehen” (empathetic understanding and intuitive insight) in sauer’s work. sauer in kenzer, , op. cit., p. . once again the overtly masculinist trope of discovery. c) i)) h cl ) cd ‘d h pj u) p.) h - p.) p.) i- h h i f - f- f c u) f h h - f- f h i h i cd h i u) s cd o pi f h - < h i f- f ft p . o h - h - u ) < u) i- h u) cd - p.) - cl ) - cl ) (- i o h - h - = p. ) u) p.) p.’ o .‘ h - h - cd p cd p.) cd h - b p . c-f h i f t u) cd - - p.’ h - f t p . f t h - o i- h j h - h u ) u) u) h - cd c) u) p . cd cd p u) cd c) c) i- h - cd .‘ h - h - - i- i p . i- h cd c-i - cd u ) p. , ft cd p.’ p.’ cd f - cd ( p ft cd u) p . pi - , h - i- h - i. < q c- f - q c) ‘- cd p.) h - h i h i cd °) : - s p.’ h - p.’ ‘. < ‘d cd - i- u) h ii ft cd cd cd cd p.’ p.’ cd l j ft u) cd u) c) c) h - h - h - p.’ ft ft p.) p.’ p . p.’ p . p . h u) i h i cd h - p.) c) - h - c) i- h cd h - ft h - u - i- ti ft u) u) c) s).’ .‘ cd h - cd cd u) c) i- p ‘ g cd cd ft u) pi < ‘ h i h - cd h - cd c) cd p.’ p.’ cd ft c d f t h i u ) h p.) p . - u ) hj p.) u ) ft h - c) i- h cl ) p.) c l) p.’ ‘ f t c) i- t, h - h h - cd p.’ q cd p.) u ) cd h - p.) ft f- < f t i- p.’ i h - ft h - h - - h - h - h i cd c) u) p . c) u) p . k < u) cd i:- ’ h h i- p u) c- i cd h l a l a l d i.. ) c’ ) p.) cd i-. h lo c) h u i u ) q h - f t r f c t c d - - u ) f t w w i— c d p .u )c d u u ic d c ) ‘c ’l y ’ < c d o m h - f t cd c d p .— p .’ f t _ _ _ f t . h ic d u )u ) c d h - h - ‘c d u )p .’ s cd cd • u ) c ) c d c d c ) c ) - cd f t c) c ) h f c d c d u ) c d i_ p c ) c) p ic d < c d cd ft c ) p . ) f t h i h -c ) f t q p .) p .) c) h - u ) q f t q ( j ) ( c d u ) p .p .) c d q p .) . c d c ) f r c d . ‘ c d — .. p . ’ f t h - c ) c d i - u ) u) c) p . h - h - p . h - c d n h c d h o c d w i - p c ) i - - , . h h - i h - c f t w c d c d c d h u) u ) w c d h m -, f -- ’f tc d k < p . - ft h - c-i - h - p.) h -i -p c d h - p . f t c d h i s c ) c d h - c d c d o u ) h - h f t — l a c d h - - h h i c d f t c d c ) i- hc d u) h w u ) ft “ h ic d h -c ) - h - h - - - ft c d h ic ) r f h - c d p . c d s -j c d h c d c d t ’ d h h - c d — p .) p . — - - - . . - < u ) - - i c d h -h -h h c d i- q h i b h i t l d s i u) h - p . cd p . h - h - — . h cd cd cd cd cd p . p . — - - h -c d h h f - f f - - - - f t u ) p . cd u) h i- cd p.) p . cd p.’ i- h i_ p ft p.) p . cd c) o p.’ h - p.) h u) < ft u) ft p. ’ h - cd ii h - i- p cd < cd u ) u ) p.’ k < f t ft ft u) h - h - - h - c) i- h o c) cd ‘- ‘ p.) u) p.’ h i ft h i ft i.q cd - cd p.) c) cd ;;‘ ç h - - cd h i .‘ c) p.) h c — p . = h a h o cd - p.’ o u f t p.) i- h - h - cd u ) c! ) i- c) f t cd cd o p . p.’ i- h p . h - f t p.’ i- cd cd ft c- cl ) - s p.’ p.’ ft cd cd i- h - h - i- u) u) h - = p.’ p.) h - h h i cd h i h u cd cd _ s cd cd i- p i- cd p.’ u ) f t d p.’ -< cd u) i- h h h h ‘d ft f t h c cv cl ) cv cv h - cd cv cv h cv cl) h - cd b c) h - p h - cv h - cl ) (q cl ) h - p h - — i- ft h - c) i- c) h - c d h , cd ci ) cd f t cl ) cl ) q ft cd cd cv f t i- c) — — — - c) c) cl ) h - cl ) cl ) cd ‘< h - < c) ft h , f t h - i- cv h - h - h - f t h w d cv ( ft p h - cd h - p ft w h , h i- h - f t h , cv cv c) i cl ) s cv q ft ft i- cd cd h , p h c) h - h - h ft cd h - cl ) f t cd i < h - cd cd cd (-q cd p cv cv p cv cl ) cl ) -j cl) i- c cd h - pj cv h - c) k < h , - - q ‘ cl ) i)) cd < h - cl ) p’ cd h h - h cd cv c) h - < cv cv h ft cd h p ) :i cd ft h - cl ) h cl ) h , cv - cd - cv h - , h , i- h - cd ft cd cv cd cd p q cl) ft cd cd cl ) ft h , cd u i h h h - h cd cd o cc ) h - cl ) i c d c o h , h - -) cd cd h - f t cd cv cv h - h - j h , cd u i cd h - cl ) p h , h h h - h h - - - c) q cv q o h cd cl ) c) cv cd h , cd h h cv h - cv h • - h , cd cl ) cv ‘h - h - cv ‘f t s cd h - c d c d c l c l ) cv cl ) ‘ cd - c) cv cd cl) q h , cv h cd h ici ) cl ) cl ) cd c d h - ft c l cd s s cv >< h cd ft q h - c) h h - cv h - h h , cl ) h - cv c l c) i— ’ h , < cl ) cv - f t cd cv i— ’ cd i q h cv ft cd cl ) ft cd cd i- h h cv — . - i- ” cl ) h cl ) c l c) h i c l cd cd cl ) k < cd • cv h - cv cd cl ) cv < h - < cv c l lcd f t cl ) cl ) ii c) w ft cl ) h - cd ft h cl ) < cd cl ) h - h h - ft - cd c) cd c) cv < cd cv cl) ft h - cv fr h o • ft h - c d h , c l o h c) h - cd if t cv c) h - h - ) - h - ih - h - h cd c) ‘ c! ) ft h - p u i h - i c cv cd c) h - cd h ft cl ) h cv c l • ft ci ) cl ) ci ) c) h - c l h - ft w h cv cl) ‘ h cv cv cv h - cd h - cv cl ) h , h - h , cv h , ‘< cd h - h ui h cd h h h cd cv c) ft h - - c l h , ft cl ) ft cd pi cd h c ) u i cv cl ) cd h ft cv q cl ) h o h - cd h cl ) h cl) ft - i— i h , i- cv cl ) cd cd cv h - cv cd h - ft - cd h ) h - cd cl ) cl ) cd h h , cq f t cl ) cd cv c) h cv ft c) cv - h - cv < cd cd c w cl ) cv ‘d cd c l cl) h - h cv k < c l h cv cd cd ft cl ) cq cl ) h cd f t c) h h - c) h cd h , h - h - cv ‘- ‘- cv cv cv cd ft < h - i- i- c l cv ii cq - cv ‘d < cl ) j cd ft - cd c) ft cd - cl ) h c l c l h , cd cd cl ) - c l ’ cl ) j ’ ‘ i-h i-h b b h - h o a - c r cd = c i p p i p . p i ‘c i q d cd h’ c- ’ s h - p cd p t c d < h cd i- cd h , cd p cd p cd i- cd p . ci ) h - ‘ d c t h - ci ) h l j h - iq h d cd h - i- ’ cl ) cl ) h j u ) cl) cd c) p cl ) h p p . c) c ) ‘d c) it cd ci ) < h - c ) f t cl ) p < p h < ‘t it t p j p cd it h ft cd cl ) c) h , cl) h - ix cd h - ç t p cd h - c) h - h ci ) i- c) cl ) p i- cl) p h - ci ) cl ) h - p .h h -, f t h - p k < c l- h p ‘- d cd h - ci ) it cd cd p h - h - j c t cd - cd h h - ‘< h pi f tq < c t h h - ‘< c) - p ‘< cd p k < h c d s cd < h - cd ci ) p p q h - ) f t cd h q p h , b p p p = - h cd p p . - < ‘•g cd p . - c d c d p c) h f t c) h - p . b i- p c) h - p . p . c d ) cd p h - cl ) c) h - i- c) cd cl ) h cd f t h , o p cd iq p s -r cd cl ) h - c) h - p - h d ç t p < - cl ) i- p p cd - cd , . cd cd cl) c i c d h - h - h - cl ) cd p . h < cl ) p p cl) p h - ‘d h - it cd p cd f- i h p p h - c d cd g ‘ h - h • c t q c) ) h - h h - h p c nc d p p p i- - t - cd p . c t p h - cl) p ft - c d it h - q h , ci ) ci) cd cd h - cd h - h < q p . ii f t h , -q l h p h h ( h - h h - p i ft cd ci ) c) h c d h - c) h cd p h - p cl ) cd cl) t cd c d p i- i p cd ‘< ( p . h - cd ii h ‘< h , cl) h - cl ) h - h - p h , p . cd i— i h - p ‘- p p h - h - c) ) x p p h - c) c ) cd p ft ft cd h h c) c ti t c) h i< b f t c d c ) p - h - cd h - c- i- cn ‘ cd c i) p cd h - cd f t h - < h (- i h - cd p h h -h , h - p cd h c t h cl ) cd c- ’ c) p p c t ft h , c) ft p . h • h p p h - p cd p . ) < cd h - cd ‘< c) h - cd h cd h ii f t u) c) h h - ft i.q cd p . p < c) cd c) h - h , i h cd cd p p p = c) cd h - cd c-i - p cl) cd k < h - c) d c) p h , p cl) h - cd p . cl ) s cd h f-c h - (q ii c t — c d p . cd c) li i cd p p p p . f ‘d h - p h h , cd it < cd h - cl) h - p c d c) p cd c) c) h h - h - ‘< cd cd cd < h • - cd h h f t h - c d h -j ft p h - p .p . h - i- j h - i- ’ p . c t c d h - p . c) ) h - h - p cd h - h - c) cd p p w p iq p r i - h p p ft it p cd p p cl ) < cd cq h cq cl) cl) - cl ) i- j p . h , way of knowing and an assertion of power over space. from his vantage point sauer could - scientifically or artistically -“see” and “know” the mexican landscape and appropriate mexico as his field. distanced from the scene, he could present himself as transcendental being, passive interrogator and uninvolved collector of views.’ as such, sauer could be drawn upon by others taking landscape into their own disciplines.’ however, as rose notes, “more was involved in looking at landscape than property relations”:’ the “ideological baggage” or “way of seeing” incorporated into geography was distinctively “male”. the (active) gaze of the fieldworker, for rose, is a gendered vision which posits nature/the landscape as (passive) feminine and looks mary louise pratt in her history of meaning-making in european travel writing ( ) identifies contradictory strategies of observation at the imperial frontier: “science” appealing to the objective and “sentiment” to the personal. this duality is personified for clifford geertz in the field in the figure of malinowski, at once “absolute cosmopolite” appealing to the personal and “complete investigator. . dedicated to wintry truth” (op. cit., p. ). both strategies are similar, however, in that they posit the “seer” as passive interrogator of the scene rather than with any transformative potential (pratt, op. cit., , p. ) . this can be seen in relation to sauer in the last two chapters where he fails to see his own presence amidst culture in the field as any kind of (political) intervention. attempting a mexican textual landscape in his poetry, charles olson used sauer’s focus on form, direct observation and eye-witness accounts to provide him with a “methodology of knowing” for his writing: “i mean to know, to really know” (olson in ford, , p. ) . the authority of sauer’s landscape perspective allowed olson to reunite “fiction” with “science” and to “incorporate the thing itself” into his poems. he wanted “evidence” and the reality of sauer’s observations gave him “the force of the word” (ibid. p.l ) that he was looking for. displaced into poetry, sauer’s landscapes thus retained their currency as products of a legitimate “morphologic eye” (sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. ) rose, op. cit., p. . out (down?) motivated by domination (science) and desire (art/pleasure) this feminization of the landscape in geography, argues rose, is akin to the masculinity of the gaze at the nude.’ more pertinent to my argument, rose isolates in particular the work of sauer as an example of this culture/nature division, arguing that: “carl sauer, one of the founding fathers of geography in the usa, based his life’s work on the study of the relationship between human cultures and what he termed the ‘maternal natural landscape’ i the fieldworker’s gaze - whether represented as that of the “objective scientist” or the “poet of landscape” - is, for rose, a masculinist practice.’ thus, whether we take sauer’s scientific survey defined against the “charm and appeal” of the non-scientific or his “desire to wander” in the imaginary travel of the map, we find him implicated in a gendered gaze which, through its construction of authority, objectifies a feminine other. at the same time, however, according to rose, the pleasure involved in the art of seeing disrupts and contradicts the objective claim to know, ibid., p. . the opposition nature/culture, states rose, is fundamental to western thought and also to geography, with its division into the physical and the cultural. it has also been focused on by feminists because it is thought to be a heavily gendered and power-ridden dualism within geography. ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . h -c ) c d r t - c n c t p - t , o d u ) h - c d > < • c ) o h ç t tu ) u ) d - j h - c d c d u ) c d c ) j r t h - m c d c d h - h - c t h - i - rt c d t h - t c’) c t (i) t t h - u) h - h - h - • c r c t c’ ) p r t ‘i h -u ) — c u ) r to o h - c rc i — c ) o h - h - z t c u ) q h - c ’ ) d f - ] h - h - q - cd c rc d c ’) c’ ) - ( ) q < h h h - k < c r h - c )k < c ’) u )c ’) h c ’) q . h - o b - b u ) ‘ h - r c ’ ) h - h - c q h ,c ’ - c r c ) h - h - h - ( q c ’) - u ) c d p , c ’ ) - cd u ) c d n ç tc rw c r ( u ) ( d u) c) d - - cd ‘ d h h - - t t h h - h c d - c d h c d h c ’ c r cl ) c ’ ) h c ) c d p h ) c d c d cd ‘— a c r h - c d c d h c d u ) c d h - f c) - u ) > c rc d o > c ) c r d • h h u )- c ’) ’i o r r c d c d j c d f - t i - : c d c d c) c-c c’ ) h - u) ii h ,h u ) c r cd h - cd q ’ c d < h u )q b r t u ) u ) .p ) u ) p - c r u ) i c d h u ) c c ’ ) h i c d h - c - t c d c ’) - c ) c - t - h k < h h - ) c ’ ) q u ) c ) c d ’ - h c - c r c d c d h c’) h c d h p u ) c d o < c) c r - - c’ ) c rc ) ‘ c ’ c’ ) u ) h , h - ° f t c r c d c d c d cd c r c’ ) f - t u ) c d h - u ) u ) h - c t c ’) c ) c )h -u )( d (d a h ,q u ) u ) c ’ ) cd h c d c ) c r c d c r h . q h - c r h - c r ç t h - i c d u )c d c d b c d c d j u) ft c ’) c r cd c t c ) q c r u ) h - c t h -h - c d c d c ’) c d c r- c ) u ) c ’) c d h i i u ) - u) c d c ” - cd u ) u) h ‘d h = c’ ) c ) h - < c) h , c’) i c’) u) c’) h - cd cd ii j c) h - ii c r ci ) h c r c) h cd h - cd cd h ii u) h u ) h cd c’) c) c’) c) h - h cl ) t k < k < c’) h - c’) c) cd c’ ) c’ ) c - h - cd h c’) p cd cd cd c r cd c’ h - h , - cd c’ ) h - i c r q ç u ) c r h - h h , c r h . cd cd cd u) - h - c r c’) cd c r u) c r cd c r h h - - h -— u) cd cd h h h h - h , h c’ c r h - ) c’ ) c) cd $ c r h , c’) c r h , h cd h - ii cd - — h c r c r u) h - cd c r c r cd h h - < - c’) f-c < o h h , - c r f t - - c’) c r cd ii h ‘i cd c r cd h cd cd ‘i u) h h - c’ ) k < u ) cd c r b c r h c r c’) cd c r u) c’) cd cd c - p c) cd c’ ) h - h - c d c r j ii h - q u) u) h , cd < , . ii cd c” cd c r h - u) < ‘i c r h c r cd h - h - cd cd u ) h cd - c’ ) cd h h - u ) c r u) cd c) h h - c r c r cd cd c r cd k < - cd cd cd k< < cd cd h - h cd h c r ti) q u) c’ ) u) c r h h - ii h - cd q c’) cd cl ) h - c r h c’ ) cd h cd c r >< c r h u ) c) u) cd h - h < cd cd h - c’ ) p . cd c) c’) h ‘ u ) c’) b c’) c’) h , - c’) c’) cd cd p . cd u) u) i u ) h u) h , p . c - t r t tt cl ) h f t f t h c! ) cd s < cd j d pi < .) h - p j h ii h - h c d q cd cl ) h h i pi c- to cd cd cd cl ) p) cd cl) i cd - q . cd c d f t • - cd h cl ) h f t cl) - j h - cl) f t h h f - j . cl ) cd j h , f t < h c) cl ) cl ) c) p c d f cl ) cd h f t f t p cd p-i f t p q w c d h f t f t c d c d s p - ‘ t cd f tc l) o h - h , cd = h - f t cd cl) cd cd h - q cd f t h - h c d c d p cd q c d - c d q h - h p cd ) - cd h - f t h , h , h c d f t< s - h - s cd h - f t cd f t w “ u ) p ip i p f t f t p j cd h , cd i h , h t cd h o h o f t h ,q cd ii— cd k < cd cd h , h - cd cd f t cl ) f tc d c d < if t i- h , cl ) p cd f t h , cd t h ‘h cd p i h - p jh -p > c-c ‘ ip i ci - ) cl ) = h cd f th - q h - p c d h p j f t i_ cd cd j cl ) f t f t cd i h i — h - cd cd ‘- < f t f t f t p j c d h - f t c d h p h - c - r cd cd c d c d cd ) f t f th c d , iq h , f t f t p . h h - - l cl ) - f t ci ) pi h ( _ ) cd cd f t - cd h h p j f t h - cd h p cd f t cd h - h cl ) p c -t p iu ) f t p io cd cd = w cd f t h c l) c o c d i cd h - h ) - cd p jc - th h p c l ) f t f t f t cd h - c d cd c d c d h - cd f t c d p cl ) - cd p h - h f t h -c -j c d p - ‘ cd f t p h w h - f t h ) h - f t c d p jh - p h , cl ) f t f t s h f t h , f t * ‘c d h , d h - cd h - p i f t h - cl ) cd f t h - f t f t — f t h cd h f t p cd c d cd cd c l ) ‘ u ) f t - o c d h - cd cd cd h , p h , h , cd cd h -f t n cl ) p h ,q cd ii f t cl ) p cd h cd s h -p j c d p - - f t h - cd cd cd cd cd f t cl ) c h cd h h - cl ) cd cd p h - f t cd h - f t cl ) h c d f t h - h - cd f tf t cd cd cd w cl ) p h c l ) cd - cl ) cl ) f th c d cd < f t h - p p f t p) cd - f t f p - h - h - h cd c d h pi cd p p f t cd cd f t o p h f t h - cd cd f t h - cd h f t c d ° cd h , cl ) ip) cl ) — >< i < h - p h cd cd h - f t cl ) ic! ) h - cd p f t cd cd if t f t f t i - h - h - cd f tc cd ii lcd p d h - p h h - cd i— i c d o cd h cl ) cd cd cl) cd k < k < cl) ‘— i cd cl) in contrast to the passing through of the tourist.’ most importantly, sauer claimed the landscape perspective as the preserve of geography: fieldworkers on a “vantage points”, unlike tourists, had the weight of the discipline behind them. for michel de certeau, this visual authority of the “overview” -the “solar eye looking down like a god” - may be undercut by the spatial resistance of walking. ° while on the one hand the panorama has the mastery of perspective, it misunderstands and is undermined by the migrational spatiality of “wandersmânner” -the practices of everyday life that act themselves out below its threshold of vision. this contrast is interesting in reference to sauer who, for john leighly, found room for “longer and higher flights” than the pedestrian mind while never permitting his feet “to lose contact with the. .surf ace of the as i have shown, sauer’s “high flights” of vision were akin to the ‘ sauer’s authority to “see” the landscape was also one of knowing the culture. from the scientific approach - the mapping of cultural traits - and also the more subjective - the “savoring of ambiance” - he could learn “the ways and devices men have used for making a living out of their homelands” (sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. ) and come to know an area culturally. while this “ability to see the land with the eyes of its former occupants” was the “most difficult task in all human geography”, it was, however, possible with time: “it is a rewarding experience to know that one has succeeded in penetrating a culture that is removed in time and alien in content from ours”. again, i shall focus more on sauer and culture in the field in chapter five. de certeau, , pp. - . de certeau’s discussion here is based on the city but the visual mastery of the overview is related (like cosgrove) to renaissance painters and perspective. see also spurr ( ) for a discussion of the politics of vision and landscape. leighly, , op. cit., pp. - . perspectival mastery of de certeau’s “solar eye”. however, previously bringing sauer down from his vantage point and allowing him to wander presented us with a spatial practice that was also authoritative. rather than undercut the authority of vision from above, the mobility of sauer’s geography in the field quite literally placed it on a different terrain. sauer, fieldworker geographer, therefore appropriated the field both spatially and visually: from locomotion landscape.’ this issue of appropriation is extremely political. while sauer was conceptually claiming mexico and therefore the right to represent its “personality” (see chapter five) , others were involved in a more material appropriation of the “field”. according to deplar (op. cit., p. ), the early twentieth century in mexico saw a phase of “archaeological monroeism”, i.e. visiting american archaeologists taking artifacts out of the country without the permission of the mexican government. other american intellectuals were therefore acting on their claims that mexico was theirs. in fact, one of sauer’s students (donald brand) was reprimanded for taking pottery out of the country after he had been refused permission for archaeologic work in northern mexico (pc, sauer to brand, / / ). brand’s response is interesting for its reclaiming of the field in the name of science and sidestepping the ethics of the issue: “why should you wish to bar an institution that spends money in your country, digs only at sites that are in the process of being cut away by arroyos and lost forever to science, and takes out of mexico only potsherds, common stone artifacts and broken or fractured pottery ware?” (pc, brand to marquina, / / ) . see mary louise pratt’s discussion of von humboldt’s “archaeologised america” ( , op. cit., p. ) for the way that archaeology views culture as nature (dead artifact) and therefore deterritorialises culture in the present. brand can be criticised of this and also sauer, with his view of the cultural landscape, allowing interaction in the present to take backstage. rites the “business of becoming a geographer” for sauer, as we have seen above, was a “job of lifelong learning” - an evolutionary and contradictory fieldwork process that took him from “familiar scene” to the “ends of the earth” and from scientific to artistic observation. while sauer claimed authority for himself and for the discipline through these different spatial and observational strategies, he also allowed them to “speak” to other would-be geographers through his changing views on method in the “field”. while the young sauer, concerned with scientific mapping and “home geography” in the united states, advised the importance of the “field” method for the “inexperienced fieldworker”,’ the later “journeyman” sauer in mexico disclaimed any directives for the “geographer-to-be” :“i have been leaving the trail unmarked by any arrows of methodology”.’ as a forum for educating geographers, the “field” was thus conceptualised as area (“laboratory”, a testing ground for theories) and then reconceptualised as trail (“rite de passage”, a testing ground for sauer in leighly, , op. cit. p. . sauer and jones, , p. . sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . ( o c t c — i— i cl ) cd h - ‘ l u ) p . cd u ) u ) • - c d h l c d p . cd m h - o • h - cd r r p . -: f tc ) h - ) “ h - c i- c t u) c- i- il pi ft c d c )c d c d tj ) - hu ) ft h - cd ) h i p . h , cd h ) h -c d u) c r f - p . :c d pi ‘i h c d - u ) ft o c d f t cd ‘l p j - u) f t( p ( p il o c d c d h , o h - (p cd cd cd l - ’ l f - - ’ u) p i p i p . u) : l ft = - c ) o h - cd - h z il ii h u ) h , h - h , p . ’ ’ l h -c d c d ’ l - p p . ç t f - h c- i- u ) pi p . h p ic ) c d c d f l u ) - = o ) ’ u ) i- h z h u) cd cd c d h - ii l- p j -t y (p - cd c d ’l z c r - p ic d u ) f u) p . : p . q f t h - (p q ‘ — cd p j ’ l u ) c) ft f t h - h - ft - c ) b c d c u c t h , p . d c d c d < p ç t cd cd p . h - u) ft h pi c t ft u ) cu = u ) c t cu - p . u )u )c d = ft c) pi ft d cd h , (p m h - h c) f t = u ) u) cd ii cd h -c d h - c) cd cd p . d cd cd c) cd cd pi cl ) ft < h (p h h p . u) h h - pj p j ii pj h - h - p . il p . ( h - cd h h , c) ft ‘i k < p . pj cd h ft = (p h - ft pi ci - cd cd cd h • ii cd u) c t cd < p . cd ‘i - u) b h il il f- ’- l- h - p . h - (p ( cd cd c) q co u) - ft cd l- p . ‘l h , pi • p . i< h u) h - - = h , h - - (p cd h - h - cd h , h (p c cu cd u) hj h , >< lx i h < h p i h - h - cd pi p.’ pi cd p . u) c i- ‘i c- ,- p. ’ cd cd cd ft u) cd cd h , cd cd ‘ h - ‘ p. ’ i- cd ‘ (p il c- i i cd p . cd ft c) h ‘i i-’ - p . ii h - c- i- : pi - (p h , cd ft cd p.’ u) ii cd h u) h - - h p .’ h . cd cd .‘ p.’ ft p . - cd p . h p.’ h h , , , , c i- - .‘ p . p . cd h , (p l h - cd h h ’ p . il cd cd p . ‘ cd .‘ p.’ cd h , p . cd h cd h - u) p . h - p. h , h cd ft h - lx i cd cd h - cd o f t h ’ l p i f t h . p i h - h c) cd ft c- i- u) p.’ p.’ u) ‘i p.’ .‘ - cd p . p . h - h - h - p . p . p.’ cd (p - h , c i - cd $ h , ( p p.’ cd ‘< p.’ ft h , c i- .p h ‘ - d il u) h cd h - p . f - < cd < cd p.’ h p . ii h , h h - cd h , < ft h - f - h h - cd — i- (p h h cd h cd p . u) - ci. ’ c) p . p.’ cd ft h p.’ cd p . (p cd u) - i cd cd ft p . u) - h - p.’ (p p . h , h - h - h - ft q ‘i p.’ cd h - cd h - p.’ cd cd h , p.’ h , - c i- p . h , ft ii h cd ‘i h - h - h - c) (p h - cd h , ii cd c) p . cd p.’ c) h cd p.’ cd p.’ h c i- ii p . ft il cd h ii h - h - (p p . h cd cd ‘c i- ‘i il p.’ (p p.’ h , p . cd ‘h p.’ cd p.’ c) f - cd • cd cd cd ft - h - c) i ‘i - h , il h - h - u) h , - ii ‘c d cd p.’ h - ft u) i cn ii p . p.’ ft cd < h o i p.’ h - h - p.’ h cd h - ih , cd ci - f t ft h - u) i p . ‘i h ‘ cd h , - p . = cd ft cd ‘- < h , h cd cd ‘i cd cl ) cl i cd h cd n cd h c c ) h c d u )c f— ’c d c- i f cd h c c l i u )c li c i) cli c ° ct c d c) c- c d cli c cli cd t q — c d cd h cd h h - h -f -- c d c li h cd :l d u ) cli c d u) k < o — c d - h , h c c li c ,) cl i . cl ic :: c d h - c) cd i- c -i -h -b u i • c t c d . • u ) h h cl ic d c ) c l i c - i c- i < c )c d h - - c h s c - i - c c h -c d cd c d o cl ) c - i c d c li cl i c l i u )c d cli d cl ) z h - c ) u ) h c l l : c l) p - cl ) = c) c) c- i s i- cl i c cd i- c li c d c d u )h h cl i cl i cl i cu i- -j h , cl i c h - c c t c c l l - c h - (-q ‘- < cl i h - s cd c) cd — q c c) u ) q $ c) cd u) cd cd cd cd h ib h - ’ - < h - cd c-i - h h - = i- c i ii c- i- u ) cli -i- c d c- i- < u) cli - - p . cli cd c u ) cd h - d f - h -c -p h -c u) h u) cd cl i u ) cl i c- i- h - b h < c -i c- i cd h - cl i cli cd c d c d c d ° lq cli c h , j- h i j i- cd cl i h i- u) h - u) h - h - cd < q c u) h - — i c c - i c- i h > h - h - s h , i c d c d k< c d c- i- c: - cd u) c- i- u) cd ‘ u) ( u ) cli cd cd cd c) cd c j - c l l cd c- i- u) c h - c- i- c - r h c d c - i - c - i u ) cd u) i-- cd c d — c- i- cd c- i cli cd c- i cd cd cd c- i- c- i- c ) h , c d a c cd c) c cd c-i - u) cd cd cli h - c- i cli cd c d u ) h . i- c) • cd h u ) u ) g i c h , u) c - h c c d i- -h f - cd u) i c c) u) < , < , c) i- h • c l h - c l i c cu i cu i h - h , < h - c) h - cd cd c- i- cd - - h i s cd ‘ h h - c - i - h ( q h - h c h , cl i - cd cd c h c cd c c- i c h c - i p c h , h i c- i- c- i- c c u ) c d d cd i— i- cd ‘ cd c u) u) c) cd cd • cd cd ‘ c c u) ‘ c- i- - c s h - c- i cl i u) h c l i < c d h - ‘ < t .c d c h - h - c d c d c- i- c- i- h ‘ c u - c- i- ‘ - ‘ - cl ) s c cd c c-i - cd c ) c c c) c cd c- i c) ic) c- i- c d c d c -i -b i h , cd c-i - c- h - cl i cd cd c c-i - - - h - ‘-‘ h b - cd h ii- c-i - h - h - h i. q cd c-i lcd c c - < cl i cl i cd h c d cd h , h ‘ c- i h , iq i h c s c ) - i cd c-i - c h c = h - cd c i - c- i h k cl- h h , c c c q c- i- u) h cd cd h q i h c d h i h - c cl i cd c c lj c d c li cd c c i c - r h - — - c c- i c- i ‘ c u) l- b c li cd h - c d u) h - cl i cd h , ic - r u ) h , cl ) c- i- h - cd c d c- i h - cli cl i s k < cd c - c < cd g c: c cd — h c d ‘ c h cd • cd h - c- i cd i- ‘ c q i c l i u ) f r q i ‘— — cl i c- i h cd cli - c- i- u )c d c d c d = — c- i u) cd was thus as much testing ground for fieldmen as it was for theories; not a playing out of instructions but a question of “survival”.’ sauer seemed to treat the seminar the same way, expecting a curiosity and discovery from the student and offering very little guidance himself (see figure ): “of the graduate student, we ask not only proficiency but discovery, increasing independence from his teacher, growing ability to chart his own course. . .we direct him to the limits of the known, and encourage him to consider how he may proceed beyond them. ,, while fieldwork and seminar as “rite de passage” was a step away from sauer’s earlier directives in the outline, it was also a step back to sauer’s own initiatory educational experience under salisbury. in “those days of rough professors and respectful students”, sauer remembered being sent without guidance into the “field” in illinois and learning not to be a “yes-man” in seminars.’ although the early sauer seems to have reacted negatively to this experience, drawing up guidelines for fieldwork by way of compensation, the later sauer mirrored his mentor and positioned his students unguided in the “field”. as recruiting officer for potential geographers, sauer thus retained the “lessons” and contradictions of his own experiences john le±ghly’s memories of being in the field with sauer were of being completely on his own resources “seeing neither sauer nor anyone else connected with the work” (leighly, , op. cit., p. ), while leslie hewes remembers a continuous set of field tasks that he was never allowed to finish (hewes, op. cit. p.l ) sauer, , p. . sauer, pers. comm. (v), op. cit. vu jh . u) ad (n (d c’ ) ( cd c d x u repersonifying them in the form of the “fieldman”. on the one hand, the generic character of the f±eldman remained unchanged a hardy general observer, with a questioning mind, an acuteness of eye and the ability to stand the physical trials of the “field”.’ on the other hand, however, the superficial identity of the fieldman varied with sauer’s rejection of “field” technique: a call not only to go out into the “field”, but to go into the “field” alone, “to follow a trail of actual inquiry.., wherever it takes him”. it was therefore later an unmethodical, independent form of “being” that defined the fieldman for sauer and placed geographers on the inside or the outside of authority in the “field”. it is not really surprising that sauer changed from outlining field techniques for other geographers to methodological denial: we already have a contradictory image of him in the “field”, evolving over time. sauer seemed to be able to undergo significant changes in his conceptualisation of fieldwork and yet to retain his belief in the authority of each - perhaps because he turned his back on his former ideas and reconstituted the new as truth: “i have the idiosyncracy that once having written something, i do not refer to it again myself. . . thus escape from commitment to this was in keeping with sauer’s definition of his geography against the “deskmen” - “geographers who work in their offices through the years when their legs, heart, and eyes are good” (pc, sauer to kniffen, / / ) - and the demonstration of its prowess in the field: “go out and show them how a geographer works, mostly in the field. refute the belief that geographers don’t know what to see in the field and that they don’t know what to do. ..“(pc, sauer to hewes, / / ) pc, sauer to kniffen, / / . previous opinions and conclusions. . .and am therefore not obliged to defend my past self.” what is revealing, however, is that although sauer chose to move on from his outline for fieldwork in geography to a more casual, haphazard form of fieldwork, he did so only in his personal correspondence) °since the education of a geographer was only published in (forty years after the outline), sauer’s freedom of the “field” as trail where he “just went off and followed whatever interested him” took place legitimated by the outline’s emphasis on rigorous technique. while sauer may have turned his back on the outline, others were presumably still reading it, in the absence of any other programmatic statement on the “field”. perhaps the disjunction between published technique and “field” disorganisation was a useful one for authority - a leisurely “field” experience portrayed as structured and supporting the “field” as a legitimating term in other published work. finally, despite these contradictions, it should be clear from sauer’s conceptualisation of field education as the formation of the fieldman from the “boys” that there constancy in the sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . in general, sauer’s correspondence portrays the fieldwork experience as relatively undefined and unstructured: “let’s cook up a schedule together” (pc, sauer to wilder, / / ) . the process and organisation of fieldwork seem to be much more arbitrary. in january , sauer writes to stanislawski about his indecision regarding fieldwork plans: “i haven’t made my plans for the long vacation coming up from march to september. i want to get some writing done in it somewhere. i might go with haury into sonora. . . might buy a piece of property on lake chapala. i might do a lot of things.” (pc, sauer to stanislawski, / / ). parsons pers comm fieldworker identity and authority as “male”. the notion of the fieldman instructed to view objectively (a vision, remember, that was thought only possible for the male viewer, able to separate himself from his bodily self) within his field laboratory draws upon geography’s masculinist rhetoric, as does the “rite de passage” of boy to fieldman via the trope of discovery and the “heroic” concept of survival in the “field” (aiding the formation of “stronger men”) • this theoretical and epistemological erasure of women in the “field” seems also to have been matched by their exclusion from the practicalities of fieldwork: sauer himself did not have any female students in the “field”. he did, however, correspond with alfred kroeber’s student, isabel kelly, and appears to treat her (textually at least) on a par with other fieldworkers. kelly is always portrayed as extremely capable, used to the “rough, mean exploring” of the “field” and close to the image of the journey (man?) geographer: “she has followed her archaeologic trails to areas where hardly anyone else would be willing to go”.’ she remains, however, defined in male terms: according to west, she see rose, op. cit. p. for a discussion of the “heroic” ethos in geography. geographers are seen to become “stronger men” by challenging nature through fieldwork and rose likens the masculinist self-image of the f±eldworker to the mythical giant anteus who “became stronger each time he was hurled to the ground”. in this context, sauer’s statement that the “anteus quality” of fieldwork is something that is discovered by true geographers (pc, sauer to kniffen, op. cit., / / ) gains an added potency. cc, sauer to american council of learned societies, / / . was sauer’s friday”.’ for anne macpherson, one of the first female doctorate students in geography at berkeley, this under-representation of women in the “field” is not surprising: “there were practically no women geographers in those days, in phd programs at least - a total blind spot towards women by all men - continuing until maybe the s.” sauer, according to macpherson, was: “not as prejudiced against the idea of women as some. .with sauer and u.c. geographers it was more subtle and unconscious. he liked women and respected them - no obvious put down, but they all had a blind eye to their unconscious assumption that geographers were men (boys) who would be given jobs etc. there were women t.a.s from the beginning but i think i was only the third woman phd.” more specific to the “field”, she adds “some cautionary remarks about judging sauer and women through modern eyes: “seeing as his mexican trips involved camping, he’d only take men.” this statement, however, only emphasises the division between “field” practices that were classed as “male” and the female, excluded from fieldwork (and geography) and left “at home”. , op. cit, p. . my use of emphasis. macpherson, pers. comm. (l), / / . macpherson, pers. comm. (l), / / . contradictions beginning with the “hapless fieldman”, we have seen sauer “travel” critically and literally away from what he perceived as the american intellectual “landscape”: a core of desk-bound geographers lacking a fieldwork focus. positioning himself “off-centre” from modern trends in geography, sauer went on to “domesticate” his travel by reconstituting the “field” as intellectual “home” (truth) - the traditional (european) authority of the discipline. as a corollary, he constructed himself and others with legitimacy as geographers through observation and travel and, more specifically, appropriated mexico as “known”: “mr. sauer’s field”. at the same time - if only at a subtle and unconscious level - his attempts at definition, authorisation and appropriation were a reinforcement of self, others, geography, “field” and fieldwork as “male”. they were also, at times, an expression of his cultural - as well as academic - displacement in the modern. this process of overcoming the “lack” of american geography and ref inding authority in the “field” was not, as we have seen, without contradictions. traveller-f ieldworker-geographer, not tourist; with the combined perspectives of imaginative and scientific geography and a confused methodological directive between technique and discovery, carl sauer positioned himself and what is truly ironic is that sauer, the self-proclaimed antimodernist, should draw on the modernist rhetoric of discovery and vision in order to do this. others extremely ambivalently in the “field”. indeed, the “field” itself was shaped and reshaped to fit sauer’s experiences and the education of the geographer: at once a bounded space (familiar scene, laboratory), closed and defined, and a trail (voyage of discovery, rite de passage), open and fluid. however, through an efficient process of “othering” (familiar not foreign; travel not tourist...) and the “idiosyncracy” of travelling forward from his “commitments” rather than looking back, sauer presented himself as always one step ahead of the inauthentic, buttressing his version from the “field” as truth. while different strategies were used by sauer for authority, in combination they can be used to question it. only by viewing sauer’s field in all its plurality and reconnecting his fieldwork directives with his own experiences do we get a sense of authority as a shifting ground that is as arbitrary as it is complex. each facet reflects critically on the others since the claims to truth are shown as partial, their boundaries as constructs: the trail may cut across the limits of the (familiar) “field”; the aesthetic demonstrate the limits of the scientific (remember rose’s productive tension between domination and desire) . this tension proves to be productive as we move on to consider the writing up of the “field”, combining the fixity of authority with the mobility of its contradictions. chapter four: text.. .turning traveller “one says mexico: one means, after all. . .a person with a pen.. . one little individual looking at a bit of sky and trees, then looking down at the page of his exercise book.” “all you need for geography is a pencil and a piece of paper. ,, for carl sauer, the “way to go on” was not only “a spot of travel to learn” but also “a spot of quiet to study and write”. in our consideration of the journeyman-geographer in the “field”, we thus also need to make room for the textual: “the person with a pen”. while sauer’s legitimacy as a geographer, as we have seen, came from a combination of spatial and observational practices, it also came from his writing up of the “field”: authority as “author”. sauer wrote for sixty-four of his eighty-five years and produced a body of publications, many based on fieldwork, that stood as testimony to his authority in the “field”. writing up his geography of the “field”, he was thus also writing himself into the academic “field” of geography. sauer’s pronouncements and directives on the “field”, however, lawrence, , p. . stoddart, pers. comm. (i), quoting leighly on geography. sauer in parsons, , op. cit., p. . for clifford geertz (op. cit., p. ), it is not only the physical being in the “field” that connotes authority but the authorial “being there” in the text: the way that the reader is convinced and the fieldworker’s legitimacy is written in. williams, op. cit., , p. . q m i f t m i h - h cl ) c) m i h - q i)) cl) ft j c i) h ij c r cl ) m i c d c d f r d o cd cd h - cd ft cd m i ft cd ii cd ii h - h - i)) f t cd h - cl ) ii d h o f t c q h c d ft f - c) cl ) s h h h ft ) c l ) c d - < h - q . t- h - h - m i cq i - cd c) h - c r pi >< f - cd cd ft h - h h -p j c- r c d ° ° i.q h - d cd i i— i h - cd cl ) f - cl ) q f t f - cd h - i cd h < cl) h o c d m i cl) cd ft cl ) k < cd cd c r ) m i h - cd i cd p cl ) - ft cl ) cl ) m i h -c l) cl ) d c t ft f t c) h - cl ) l) - ft h -c fc i) cd c) c) i cl ) cd i-’ m i p) cd cd cd m i q o c l ) f t i c d c d cd - h - d f t m i ft i- c) cd cd cd h - c) cl ) cd . cd cd rr cd f t g d l- cl ) h c ) i m i p c d cd h - h - f- - f t m i o v c d c ) c h - h - cl ) — ft h - h - ft h q j f t c ) f - o h - h - cd q cl ) h - cd h - ) m i o f - r t ) ft cd ft cl) cj ) c d c d cd ft i)) c r m i h h h w c j) f t cl ) cl ) cd cd h - rr c d c d o m i - f t cd cd >< cd o h h c d - - - h iq ft cl) cd h - f t c) h - cd cd h o h - o c t m ft h p j w m ic d f t u ‘< m i < - cd cd ii h - cl ) cd h c) o cd c )p ) f- r c r m i c r o m i cd h - h - cl ) h - m i cl ) u i cl ) c rc d cd f t f t ft cl ) c l cd j h - cl ) ft c d (c l ( ) h - cd ft cd c r f - h o c d c l) ft — - ft cd c l c r c d c d c r -c l) m i h cl ) o cd cd ft cl) h - s - c d .f t cd lj f - ç t f cl ) ft cl ) f t cd c” ) c l) c d m i f h - m i ‘ ft - m i iq ft h - ‘- < ci ) c l o h - p q f t cl ) f - h k < c) o c c l c c ,) h - ci ) h - c) h cd cd f - h - ,< c d c )c d c d c i) cd cl) cd cd cl) cd h m i cd j cl) o - f t ft m i h - c i ) cl) c i ) c d m i ft i w h - cd h f t l h w f t f t m i m i cd m i c) c d c l s )) ft i - cd d cl) o h c d ft f t h o c l ft o h h cl ) ° h - m i m i j c ) h - ‘< ct ) cd m i cd h cd s i- cd o cd h - h c l p ft c d h > < p ) f t h - c l ft j ’ o c l cd < ft cl ) c d c d c d h f t c l cd m i p , cd cl ) cd cl ) ‘ cd h’ l iq h - ft cd f t cd cd c d i f t c d h cd l h - i h - h - f - - — cl ) h - < f tm ih c l c) h -o c d q c lj ft h o f t c l f t d h - c l ) h - c l cd m i ft h - f t c) m i ci ) m i ft ) cl ) j’ cd c) ft cd ii h -c i) c l) o c d h - j ft ft ft cd cd l- cd h - h - • f t o c i ) > < c l h - cd c l cd h ci ) cl ) f - ft ft c i c d o l f t i - - c l - - cd c l cd cd ft m i cl ) - k < iq cl ) figure : text revealed? sauer and his notebook in the field (along with daughter elizabeth, mexico, ). •.. i of the fieldnote, states james clifford, supports the notion of a clear division between “home” and “field” and thus “field” facts that are hermetically sealed and transported back as definitive data. this drawing of boundaries also silences much of the context of the production of writing: “historical realities” such as the home university, transportation to the “field” and sites of translation of fieldnotes that are all allowed to “slip out of the ethnographic frame”. on the other hand, fieldnotes have been implicated in a transitional textual critique, concerned with the filtering process inherent in the writing up of notes and the writing in of authority. for wolf, f±eldnotes are the “first sacred text in the preparation of ethnography”: the move to present the finished work as objective, scientific, truth begins with them: “the construction of a partial and incomplete version of a reality observed by the anthropologist begins with the writing of fieldnotes. ,, o according to jackson, anthropology’s “fieldnote tradition comes out of a naturalist explorer-geographer background”: “lewis and clark were not that different”.’ thus, turning to our own explorer- geographer, we also need to examine the “sacred text” of sauer’s fieldnotes. while robert west has looked at sauer’s notebooks,’ he uses them to chronologically connect up sauer’s field trips and clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. . wolf, , p. . ‘ jackson in sanjek, , p. . west, op. cit. articles without saying anything about the transition from note to published work. he takes the notes at face value and does not attempt to read anything into them: they are a resource to be used and not questioned. we, however, need to unpack their use. while showing that for many of sauer’s contemporaries a focus on the fieldnotes is deemed unwarranted, i return to the notebooks to pick up the last chapter’s tensions of the “field” (space/trail; objective/subjective) and use them to productively question sauer’s writing. while on the one hand sauer textualises his authority, he also points the way for its transgression. papers, pipes and corncobs “limited to earlier years in mexico. . . in fading pencil and perhaps of limited value. .no one has really tried to use them.” there is a consensus among sauer’s contemporaries that fieldnotes were a relatively minor part of the education of the geographer. for james parsons, sauer relied more on his memory than on fieldnotes: “i never saw sauer with notes or books around him when he was writing - he just sat down and typed from memory - it seemed like it. he wrote nearly everything at work and not at home and was frequently interrupted but could pick up where he left of f.” fieldnotes as an indication of sauer’s work were therefore of “limited use”: “fieldnotes, as i mentioned, are relatively few - all from an earlier time (ozarks etc; nw mexico), in fading pencil... parsons, pers. comm. (l), op. cit. ibid. fieldnotes from later years (post world war two) hardly exist.. .yes, i chink he kept them in his head (a phenomenal memory) . those i have seen were chiefly from archival investigations (after his early years in the middle west - and sonora-sinaloa - when he did keep copious fieldnotes (of which not large numbers remain) “s other colleagues of sauer’s reinforced this notion chat he relied more on his memory than on his fieldnotes. wagner, who went into the “field” with sauer, claimed chat he never saw him cake notes in the “field” nor did he see him write any up back at berkeley.’ david hooson, who shared an office with sauer in his later years, has memories of him sitting at his desk at a typewriter (which still sits on the top shelf of the office across from hooson’s desk) “typing in a cloud of dust”. hooson did not, however, remember sauer typing from notes; in fact he stated that sauer’s note organisation and filing system were completely haphazard: “i wanted to know what kind of filing system he had so when he was out i opened one of the drawers and found that he didn’t have one at all - just a pile of papers and pipes and corncobs.” perhaps, then, there was a tension for sauer between the “doing” and the “writing” in the “field”. we have seen that observation and “field” time were precious to him: perhaps, like jackson, sauer felt that fieldnotes got “in the way” and interfered “with what fieldwork” was “all about - the doing”.’ however, as parsons states, fieldnotes from the “earlier years” exist: those from ‘ ibid. wagner, pers. comm. (i) , op. cit. hooson, pers. comm. (i), / . jackson in sanjek, op. cit., p. . i- h m ci ) h d h i— s] f t h f t f t ‘ - < f t h c) h f t h - h - h - h - h - cd h iii ) h h cl ) p h - cd cd p cl ) cd cd cd cr p cd p j f t s cd h h f t cd h cd i h - - cd d h - cd pj h i- ci ) h h h ’ cd h i- i — — p p ii < f t c) ip i h - “< h h ’ cd cd h ’ i- h i- h - p ii it i f t c d h -c d c h cl ) f f t f t h f t cd f t f t h - cd f to cd ‘< cl ) ‘d cl ) cl ) cl ) f t h - h ’ cl ) p < cd cl ) cd h - i_ i h - i- cd ci ) cl ) q- ’ ci ) w f t ‘< < cl ) p f t p cl ) cd - p cl ) f t h - cd f t h - p h — c ) p cd cd p ‘ . ‘- < cd i- h - h - f t cd cd h - m cd - f t cd f t q p cd ci ) h - ’ < i- h h , p h - c) d cd cd h - f t cd h - cd cl ) c d f t cd ci ) h ’ h cd h ’ c- i f t cd cn g f t h i cd b p cd f t - ci ) f t - cd h h - h h ’ h - h cd h - f t h - f t h - cd h - cl ) f th h - cd c) -’ h cl ) o h s h c) cd h - f t p cd i- h ’ p cd cl ) ci ) h ’ ci ) o k < s i-c ) iq h j cd q- ’ c d - - s p cd cl ) p f t cd h i- cl ) c) h cd ) cl ) cd h p c) — — f t i- cd f t f t c) i- i çj j h ’ cd cd cd h - h jj h - h - h - o i- t’ f t h cd f t f t cd c) cd ci ) f t h -c d - , cd cd h - p h - — . - cl ) f’ - o cl ) h - cd cd p cd cd p jc d o h . cd cd i- h g f t s - lq cd - n f t p f t cd o f t h c d < . f- ’- c l h - f t cd f t - ‘ f t cd f t p p c) o cd f t cd cd ‘d cd cd cl ) p - f t cl ) cd h - cd m i ci ) h - cd f t p c) cd f t c) cl ) cd c d h cl ) cd - , cd ] h p - p p o h - f t i- h p f t h i cd h ’ f t f — h cd h ’ cd cd h f t c d s h p h ) f t p f t cd f t p p p cl ) cd f t j’ o cd p cd o f t h - h g cd cd c ) i- h ci ) h cd cl ) cd o cd -c d f t h - cl ) cl ) h , p f t f t cd p i - . - h - h iq cd cd cd f t c ) - o h ’ h - i- h cd h c d f t f t h ’ p p h - i— ’ h , c ) = cd p ib p f t h p , h - - - lcd h - f t cd h - h f t ) cd ) p f t f t cd p cd p cd h - o c d h - ic ) i- i- f t f t f t < lc d cd f t f t h - ç c < cd p i- f t i- h cd f t f t p h - h p cd i-c ) h - cd f t h - i- h ci ) cd cd t i- h cd - - ci ) c d t cd cl ) ‘h h , cj u ) cd )) h h ft u) q u ) i— i c d h - j j h , h i- cd x i- h pi d cd h - c ) c ) p j pi h , cd p h - i cl i h - c) cd cd cd o ) c) h - cl i ft h , cli cd ‘< cd c l cl i h - d h q h - ft cd c) - cl i h - h f t h f - - ft f - u) h cd cl i h - h , cd c l h - q h h - i - c )u ). c l l cd f cd h ft cd cd f t - h q c ll h c d c d h , iq h - cl i h c l cd c l q g u ) s cd f t h f t c ) h h h cd < h - i c) iq c d ft c j c d q c d cd ft h - u) c l c ‘ ‘ d c ) - h i cl i c l = f t f t c l cd cd c l cd h h c d f t cd c l w • s i - h c d h f t u) rt h - u) h , cl i c l h - ft ft cd cd h h - h - h o c d c l g c l h , - cd f t cd h f t h cd ft h cd h , u) h - h f t h - b , u ) ft ft cd h - cd h , u) - ft : q cli ft - cd b c ) cl ) cd cd çu u) o cd cl) cd cd cd cd ft f tf — s - f th cd h - h , f- cd s cd h - c l) c d h - ft cd u ) cd ‘ h , h u) h , h - c d h , - ‘d cd h , ft :i’ h , cd h - cl i ft u) h - h - cd h - c d ‘ h - cd h cd h cd c li - cd f t cd -, cd h f t f t c l l h - h h - (c u ) h c ) y < f t c l cli h i-q h cd cd cd c li ° h - c d - - f t (.q h , c l - f t cd h - u )c l c l cd c cl i ft h - h , h , >< h - c l j ft f - , q c l cd cd h h , cd c) ft h , ‘ cd cd h - cd u) cli c d < f t h , h - cd :- c) cli u ) cl i u ) c d cd cd c l cli ft i cd h - h - h h cd h cd c) cd f t c l f t cd - - i- i c l u) h - c) h - • cd cd h - h - cd cd h , ft i- cli c d c d h cd ft k < cd ft h h - — c l u ) ft cd cd cd cd h ‘- < h u ) c d ‘ ft h - cd cl) c l - c) ft - ft ‘ cd cd cd cl i cd c d h h - cl i . cd u ) cli jj h - c l cd h , q u ) h - i ii f t cd c l < h - q f t f t h , cd h cd u) cd cd c l h - cd ft u) h -f -i c d ° cli c l ft c u) h - cd f t cli c l h , c l cd = u ) u) cd cl i ft h c d c d .y g c d h , h , h h , h , u) k < iq f t i cd c ic d f t cd h - cd i- cd cd u) - ft cl i u) ft f t c d h f t cd h , c l h , cd cd cl i cd cd ft h = c) cl ) c l c) - cd h , o f t h h cl i h - h , h - — - f t f t c d cd cd h - ft = ft u ) cd cd u ) c d s h , cd c l h h h - h - h , cd g h , h cd c l cd c l f t h i- h ‘ = c l c’ ) cd i h - ft cl i ft ft h h - f t ft ft ft q f t y h - d ft c) q ft u ) h i- f t h - c l -< h - cd cd cd cd h ,q c d c ic d u ) i- q c l cd — h , u) iq — u ) cd i- ’ i u) cl ) h c) j c) u) h - r t cd c) cd h - cd f r < cd cd h i- ç t cd cd h f r f r c) h - cd cd f r h u) cl ) cd cd u ) m i f r ‘ cd ç t < j cd cd p - u) u) s pi - - u) pi u) cd h f r u) s c) f r cd f r ‘h - i - cd i < (q c d c) f r h - c l (q m i p cd c) i- f r s h cd m i i)) u ) h - h - f r - cd m i cd h f r iq ‘ f r pi h - cd — f r f r u) h - < f r f r h - cd h - f r u) h o h - - h - ii u) cu s cu c l f r u) h (q h - cd f r f r c d cd = cd m i cu m i h - h - u) cd cd cd f r i i i— i :: ) f r f - c l cd k < m i - cu c l c l cd cd h f r h f r c) h u) h h - m i f r h - u ) cd h - f r h - cu cu f r f r h h h cd cd u) cu c l h c l f r cd h cu cu i- i h - ‘- < h h - c) h f r h - cu cu f r f r f r — .f rc d c d h - t h - c d u) cd h - f r c l c u - f r c d f r c ) c l h c u z h f r c d cu ) h t f r m h - cd cd — u )c lp iu ) cd u) h - f r • h c d c d h - cd cd h f r c l o . - cd f r” < cd u) f r t_ cu u) f r ° u) cd h - h c d c d c d c l (- q :i c u f r cd h h - cd — . h m i u) c l cd k < h cd c u h f r c l u) f r k ., cu x - h c l’ ’ cd : c l h - h h q u ) f r k < - • ) cu cd f rc u f -< cu cu f rc d m i h - h cd q f r . h -c u f r c d c u ‘ c l c n u ) u )c d h - h u • . h - h - h - — cu f r- i- • cd c d f rf r cu h - cd c d c d q h c u h c d f rc u cu c u c d h h ‘ ) cu f r c d c d h m i- c d i.- m ic d f r f r u )c u c u h m i h - cd h c l cd cu h h cd c l h f r h - u) cu h - u) h - f r cu s c) s cd cd f r cu c l) f r f r cu b cu i f r cd u) cd f r cd h - cd u) cd cd cd k < c l m i f r cd h w h - h - h cd cu s f r - u) çu s cd u) c) ) h - f r m i f r f r cd h - cd h - cd m i cd f r c) c l f r c) h - cu cd i- u) f r h - h - m i h h - h - cd c l cd cd u) c) cu p i cu h h - f r - n cd h cd - . cu m i cu f r h - h cd u) f r cu h - f r f r f r cu i cu cd h - f r f r pi cu cd cd < cd h - h - c l cd cu c l c l m i h m i cu - h - h - t h - cd u) cu h f r m i < u) cd u) u) - s h - cd f r s cu f r td cd cu q h - f r cd cd h cu u) h - u ) h - h f r f r c l h - p h - f r h - cd cd < f r cd cd h - c l pi c) f r f r cu cu h - cu h - cd u) u) u) (q f r - h - f r f r h - cd f r cd i f r ‘ h - (i ) cd m i u) i- u) p f r cd cd m i cu h - f r o pj s h - h h - m i m i h s cd h - h cd c l cd cd f r cd h - - p. ’ h f r c l q c) cu f r f r cd cu f r f r cd h - s h cd t f r u) cd - - p.’ cu < m i -q < ‘j i- < cd h f r f r cd p. ’ h h - < m i (q cd s i u) - cd i-h u) cl ) p. ’ cd ii u) h - f r h h f r cd < r t cd — .. cu h - it t u ) — c t c t tt h i c) cu cu i— a h h t- c r u) cu lcd cu s f - h q h - h h h cd < h cd d h c t c r ih i cd c r cu h i cd cd c t h c t cd ic cd i- h - h i h u ) cu h , s h - cu c r tt h - u ) c) u) cd u) h ii cd h q i cd q i u ) c r lcd h i . cu i c f- ’ cd cd cu i- p cu h - cd h i u) cd h - h - cd c) h u ) cd h cd u ) c t u) cd cd cd h - c r tt c ) cu cd cd cd cu u ) ‘t i h cd c r cd h i h cd : cu h i c r h p . u) -- j i - ’ - - - - cu h - h - h cd cu h - cd p . cd p . c r tt cd h cd cd ‘ u) c) cu c) u ) p . • q ‘ h h - h - h k < ) cd c r cu p . tt u) r r h - h i ,.< ç- t h - h cd q i c r u) cd i- p cd h c r w h m h h i cd c t cd k < u ) ‘- < cd h c r cd c r u ) cu c r c r c r c r cd cd cd cd cu c r h cd h h - cu cu h c cd cd cd cd h i cd c r cd u) cd cu cd h - cd cu h - cd cd h h cu cu o cd f - u) h - h h p . u) c r cd cd q i c) s < cu h - ‘ cd c r cu - c r h h h - cd u) ‘ t c u c d c ) c t p . t i - q u ) h cd h cd k < c) lc- t p . cu h - u ) cd c t c r cu h p . ‘ u ) h ic c r cu c r h i cd ‘ c r c t - - c r cd cd tt cu cu d cd h i c) h - c r cd h c r cd cu cd cd cd h cd p . h - s t i h cd p . c r h i cd - c) ) - cu h f- ’ h g cd cu h h i c r cd h - c cd cu cd cu cd cd w c r f- ’ h cd h u) c r c r c) c r cd cd c r cd c) - . u ) p . cd - ) h tt cu cd cu h - h c r u) h - c d c r c) c r - c r h i— ’ cd cd h - cd cu c) cd p . h h - c r h cd g h cl ) c t u) cd h i ) c t c- i- h cu u) i- cd h - h h - h cu < cd i- c c) h - p . cd h cd c r cu cu h - c r h - h i • h d h - h c r < c r cu p . cd h i h - i— h cl) cu h - ‘ h - c p o cu k < h - tt c r h i u) h cd cd d q c ) c r h h q i cd c r cd tt cd c) h - j cd p . p i c r cu u ) i cd q i cd f- ’ u) cu tt cu h i cd cd u) c r c r c r h - cd h - cu h c r h p . c r tt h c t h i cd c r — p . = cu h - h - c d i— ’ h ‘d cd p . :- c r cu h i u) - cu ‘< — cd cu h i— i h - cu cd h cu h h- cd c) c r i cd c r - u ) u) ‘< p . p . c) s cu c r c r cd cd cd cu cd p . = u ) cd c r cd s cu u ) u) p . h h i i h - u ) ‘ cu h - h - i-q cd u) cd cu u) h - < c r hl h - cd h cu c r c r cd c r c r c r c r cd cd cd cu c r c) u ) cu j - cu cd u ) i— u ) p . h u) i-q - p . u) cd cu cd f - i p j w f t q c f l h - ) o c d c d h - h - - f t f t - t i < ) c d h - ft ’t ic d c d c d • h - c d h i f - j c d w f- - o - t h f t c d h - p j h - i - w ] w i - d ( .q h i - h i p j c - r j f t — o h h cd ) o h i cl ) h h - ) c d c d - - cd h - h c d w r r w c f c d h o t ci - - i - . o o f t cd cd c d ç w f th - c d • h - td cd o n q pi h w c d f - q h pj ç j ft : f t h -c t c l) i f tc d f th ,c d i c r p cd cd < c - r c d c d o c d p j q o w c d h - c f l - j - o f - j f lf t h - ) c d ) o o f t o p h w f tf th l o f t o o f t h - o c l ) h h r - h cd f th - q q u) ) h o w • k < w cd f t c d c d c d k < o h - f — h - ) f tc d j c d c d f t c d o h i -j q ,h - i)) c d h f t c d f t cd - w c t p i o cd f t h - i - jh ii - - f t i-’ f t c d q i-) ) o k < cd cd cl ) • f t - i - q cd ) pi ) ci i o c l ci ) c l ci h - cd f - i cd cd i cd c l o h - h cd pi o (q ft pi cl ) c l- p f t cd cd h - ci ) h - cd f t ) cd cd cd ft h i cd ft cd h i h - cl ) h - cd < o i— a cd h i h - cd ) f t cd f t k < cd cn cd f - h i i- rn i h cd ‘- ci i cd cd cd cd ) cl ) h - f - . . ci i o cd ii h i h ft c l ft - c l ‘- - ( i cd ‘— i c l ci i o ii ft h cd cd c r cl ) l- ci i cd i- - ) p i h - - ft f - h - o c i k < - h c l h i ci i ii f t ) ) ft ci i cd cd cd - c l cl ) p s - h - ii p h i i- s ci i cd h h - cd h - lq cd h i f - cd h - h h - ci i ii c l h cd h ci i h - i z ft - cd q c l i ft ) ft h - cd ci i f cd cd cd ft q i h h - h i— cd h i cd cd i h - cl ) ft ft ft cd .q h - s l- h i u ) h i ci i h - l- cd cd o cd h ft - h i h - o - f t cd h i cd h ci i ) ft c l ft - h cd h - cd i- h - c l- - ) cd h - o ) h i h - f - cd h - cd i- ) i- iq cd i h i h - cd h - ) ft ) cd h - c l f < cd c l p cd p i j f t ) ) c l- h - cd h - h - ii cd cl - h - o ft cd h - h i ci i - ‘-q ft i- h - s c l f t h cd h - c l cd cd cl ) o cd f t ) ci ) o h cd h i ) q i h h - cd cd : p i cd h - f - ‘- < q i ) ci i cd cd ; h p i- cd ) h i cd cd c l h - cl - o ft l- . s cd cd cd cl - i i- i h h i cd ) cd h - i- ft - cd h - cd i— ’ c l i— i h i c l h k < h - h q i cd h tq ft cd f - h - o ci i c l ft o cl ) cd h i cl - • ci ) h i cd ci i cl - h - cl ) cd c l h h i - cd c l h - cd cd ft h i i- d l q i h - cd ci - h p ci ) h - ‘ - ci i b ) iq h ) h - ci ) < h n cd ) ci i p h ( l ci ) c-i - cd c l c l cd o h ft cd ) < c l- cd cd o h cl ) h - ft c l c l) h i p) ci ) ft p i- h cd h i h - cd cd h cd ci - i- < ) ci ) ft cl ) cd ft h - = ft p i cl ) ci i h ci i cl ) cd = ) ft h • . cd h ii z o c l f ) cd p h i - h h - i h - s lq iq f t h - h - ft i- q q cd notes should not be classified at the time of being written: they are the raw material, the record unprocessed awaiting the return. finally, the long life of the notes is kept in mind in the importance of keeping a record of names and addresses of contacts to contact once home:”to whom you may wish later to write for information” although sauer does not seem to have followed these directives meticulously, his mexico fieldnotes themselves do indicate that they were a resource to be referred to in the future. many of the notebooks have periodic lists, comments and questions that seem to be reminders for sauer for later on. for example, on his trip notebook, sauer writes: “guadalajara july .. .the ceno tequila - remember - was the outpost of wild indians (why not go back to your records) who harassed the civilised indians and the early missionaries. . and also on his trip, at the mexican national herbarium: “not at all evident the basis on which distinguished - see if you can find out”. jotted lists in the fieldnotes seem to be there while sauer also (and contradictorily) states that general impressions should be written frequently before moving on and that the notes should be distinguished “carefully” between observations, inferences and information secured from others, this does not tend to happen in his notebooks. while begging the question as to how possible it would be to separate out information in this way, we find in the transition from fieldnotes to article that sauer writes out the contributions of others and the less secure inferences and writes in only observation as authority. sauer and jones, op. cit., p. . sn , p. . sn , p. . cl ) cl ) h o h • w t’ j t\ ) c ) h h - h , h , h cl ) ci i l j cd h h - a’ h f t u i l’ ) w cd ii h c d p ic ii ) c t h - cq h ) c ii c ii ‘d h - f t c d i - h h c i i f tf t h c d , cd tq c ii c i l h - ç t h ci u i- j f t ( o h , : j h , f t h - (d o h h c d q h - h h , h , f t ) h f t c) f t h - f t i q ç- t f t cd h - h - h , h - h , h , h - cl ) cd c) cd cd h ci i cd h - cd f t cd h f t h - h h f t h - cd i- f t cd i- j ( i h - f t h h cd cd c) h - cd (i) l- q p i l cd f t h q ) f t ii h - ) h - • • f t f t - cd h - h - cd ci i f t q q cl ) h cd cd h ci i < cd ii cd - h , ci i ) i h cd cl ) cd c) h - h - h h - f t f t f t h , h - ( , h - u ) ç) . cd ‘ cd < cd c) (f) h - cd cd f t i cl ) ) f t f t cd cl ) f t c) cd ci i .< h f t - j , ci i ci i i cd cd i- c) h cd c l f t h , cl ) cd cd l) - u i f t h - h - cl ) f t cl ) h , cd b h - h - cd ( ) h - ci i cd ‘ h j j p i h h f t i s h , (i) i f t h - h - h - f t . h - f t f t cl ) h h , ( ) h , h - h f t < h - f t h - f t c ci ) p f t q w cd f t ci i h h , ç) , f t f t ci i o f - f t c ) ) f t k < h , cd f t ( f t cl ) cd f t i- h cd h , - f t ci i ) h f t ) cd cl ) < : ci i - ) h - h , co h - q n cl ) h - h - h ) h l - < i- < ci i h -i , ci i jj f t ci i cl ) h - f t f t cd ( c c o f t ci i c cd ci i s f t f t h ) cd h - h , h cd b cd i d q c u f t c i i c d f t f t f t f t f t h - ci• ( ) h - cd : cl ) h - • j h ) ci ) f t cl ) ( h - q - ci i h - ( >< f t h cd h - f t ( cd cd i cd h , h cd h , ci i i- ci i h ) cd h , i- j p h - cd cl ) cd ) h - z cd i- cd h , f t cd f t i h , f t f t ø ci i f t f t h f t h cl ) h , h h - h cl ) h , cd h , f t ( s h ci i h , cl ) f t h - h , cd cl ) c) ) cl ) h , h cd h ) f t f t h , h ‘ ‘ h - - ci i cd ) ci i h h , h , - h , f t h p i f t ) h h cd h q - h , ci i cd f t ci i ci i f t h ci i ci i f t ) f t cd o f t cd - cd h - h , h h - iq ) cd cd cd i- i- i q ) f t q cd cd - - cd ‘-i i ci) cd • . i- i- cd cd cq i- c. ) c’ ) cd c l s h h c l h h w c l q u ) c l cd j cd q c - r q i- - h h -h r t u ) - h , r - r c - r ç t i- c) h i cd h -h c ) o h - c d o h p j c - t - h - . < cd cd c) - • . r t j h c l > < h h c l ‘d c d h - u (d q c d i - c ) h - c ) • c ) r r h h i c d r r - h - u ) j p j c l h - u ) c l u ) u ) h - h - c d ° j h c l u ) c d c c d ,- q -c d h c’ ) ( d u ) < h - u ) q p j u ) : c l c d b p i c d l i. c )c d c d c lc d h . cd q q h i q c l h - pi - c l c lc lh .c d - h i p j q - j c d c d k < c t h i c ) cd h - h o h i o u ) c lc d h - - h - h h - c lc d c ) c d c l h - cu q c l cd h o u ) c l h - c) c d c l • : h p j rn c u c l c) u ) c d h - h i ( h -c d p ic l • h - tf lc i) c u h i - : c l c ’ c l h h - h - • h - w c d c u s s c l ° c d h - h - < h i c d • h l (- q u ) c i ) c ) c l h h - c d j c d q u ) h (d c ) c ) < c d c fl h ic l u ) c d e c u h - h u ) > < h - j c d q c d o h . h - c d h h - c) h cd - h i h -c l h u ) c ) c d q (c h h - c l c l h h -c l c l h p j k < i cd cd cd cd q h q u) cd c l c) h - ‘x j it j c) c l i h - : (u h i i— ’ . . h cd h h u) u) (u c l q (u ‘ lcd c) (u h - c l h < c l cd cl) h c) c) h c l e i c l cd c l cd u ) cd q cc i h u ) cd cd ( u u ) (u h (u q cd j i (u h - c d < (u cd - - h h c l cd h - (u cd h h - (u h - k < cd ic r h - c) h i u) c l cd (u c l p - d c l cd c l h -h i h i (u h - c ) c d o ‘d h - cd c l k-i - h f- cd h c) i cd cd c l h i tq h - h j- u) - i h - c l c) h - u) h i : c l c) = c l h - h i h i cd cd ji q h - < h - cd cd c t c l h c l° (u h - c l h h - cd h - - c l c l h i h c l h - ( c l h cd cd h - h - h - h - cd u) h i q c l cd cd c l k < (u c l h cd s ‘ cd c l h i cd cd (u (u u) c l < cd h - cd > cd cd cd h c l cd cd cl ) u ) - - c l - cd < - cd (u c lc d cd cd c l h . c l h i h - cd cd h - u) cd cd u) cd cd c l cd h g c l i- h - cd - (u h h - c l cd u ) (u c l h i h - h - u) cd • c l h c) h i c l h - h cd h - h - = c l h - cd cd cd c) cd cd h c) - q ( ) h h - c l (u (u (u c l cd c) h h i cd c l u ) d cd h c d h i u) c l cd cd cd h - cd cd c) c l i c l = h (u ‘ q h h i (u u ) cd h - c l c) cd ii cd cd u ) ° h c d cd c l i- - ; u) h u) cd c l h i c l h - p j h \d h - cd q c ) c l cd c l cd c d c l cd h - c) q cd c l - c l c l cd (u h cd h c) c l cd h - u) u ) h h - c l cd s h - u ) ii cd h - (u h i h ih - cd h - cd c l h i c lu ) u) c l q (u (u c l h - cd cd cd .< u ) cd cd h i ‘ ‘ h - h h - u) h - i q c l cd c l (u c l cd h - c) h - cd c l h (u h - c l u )c l h i c l c l s (u (u h - c) (u c l (u c l : h - c l h - (u cd (u u ) cd (u c l u ) cd u) c l cd - u ) c l - h cd cu i - c d : c- i- h - cd c) h - h cd u ) c d c d c d c d cd s p cd h cd c d >< w c -i -< q cd c-i - cu ( ) u ) i— ’ cd ç t o h - cu h - i— a c-i - c -i -q h -c d h , cd q h o w cu cd h - j cd h - h u ) c- i- u ) c - i - i u ) cd t ’c d h u ) j - •c -i - h - - h - h - h - q c-i - z h - . c - i - cd cu pi c sd cl ) u ) c-i - cd u) cd cl ) cd c d c d q c d h — -< c d cd cu -. h - u) h , - cd c) h -c d c d cd h f - cl ) u) cd h , cd cd cu h c )< u )c u cd c- i- ii - c tc _ t_ h , ii p j i cd c - i - u) c d h n c - i - cd cd ci - c d c- i- h c d h - - h - c d c d h c- i- h - s h u) c d c -h i- -t , cu cd h h - cd y c u cd ‘ h cd c d h u ) j cd h , u) h ° d i c- i- cd cd cd u) cd p . > < c d c t cd o c-i - u) - - cd c) h - cd cu h - h - u ) u ) u ) ‘ c) - •• c- i- cu c) q c t c d o h - • - h < c u ’ h - c- i- cd c- i- h - h h cu u ) cu h - c d h - h , c - h - o < o — - - c -t -n - s h - c d - u ) h - h , o u ) . cu u ) q h h d h h - . o h - cu - h , u) ‘ - u) c- i- h - h , u i h - - cd i- jh - c) cd u ) c u )h -c u cd cu h cu o q c u h , l o - cd cd f - c d c -i - c -i - c) q - h , h - c-i - cu c d i p- , ti c l h c) d c- i- h - f — ’i lq cu c) cd c- i- cu c- i- o cd cd < c -i -c d c u u) • f -u ) h - h c) cu c - c l c-i - u) j c- i- cl ) cd i- :< c - i - u) cd c- i- h - c) h c d h c l c) c- i- c- i- h cd c-i - cd h - h , s cu k < cu h , c d c l cd u ) o c-i - c d c d h - h , h - c) c-i - c- i- h - s c ) ‘d cd ‘ c- i- c- i- c- i- c) tq cd cd h - h - h - h - cu s o h , u) cu c h - cu - cd c-i - cu h - h h ,h - c) h cd -- c- i- cd cd h g -‘ c l c-i - c- t c ) c- i u ) j w c d c l u ) h - h , cu cd h - u) u ) cd cd c d o h - ) c-i - h - c-i - f — c -i -) u) c- r c- i- < c d cu h - c- i- h - c-i - cu h - h - h - ‘ cu c d u ) h - q c- i- cd cd cd < u ) - cd c - cd h cd cd h c -i -c d - cd h , h c d c - h , cd h m c d h . ‘ o cd cd c- i- c) cd c l h h - -‘ c )o u ) u ) h - c- i- h c l ‘ cd c d h - f - lq h , cd q k < cd (p i d c l u ) -- c u c- i- ii - (p h ,c u c) cu c - i - c d c- i- i cu cd h - h - o < cu h , o c lc l i cd cd c- i- c- i- u) u ) c l -- u) c l “why can’t a geographer. . .convey to the reader the feel of horizon, sky, air and land. . . ?“ the early sauer, concerned with geography as observational science and survey, had emphasised the rigorous, systematic nature of fieldnotes, defined against such “happy illustrations” as these letters from the “field”: “notes are to be taken not simply when some happy illustration impinges upon the consciousness of the observer but notes are to be put down so systematically that they form a definite set of quantitative data. . . in keeping with his later move “beyond science”, however, sauer gave more emphasis to informal note-taking, questioning the very basis of its scientific and exclusionary counterpart. fieldnotes could thus be both objective data and subjective reflection: “i write when i want to get something off my chest”. with this sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . sauer, , op. cit., p. . the fieldnote comes in many forms: sanjek (op. cit., p.x±i) includes text accounts, reports, impressions, letters; jackson talks about diaries, transcripts, jottings, students’ notes, notes from informants (in sanjek, ibid., p. ). jackson also portrays the tension between the subjective and the objective conceptions of the fieldnote - while one anthropologist interviewee claims the ultimate subjectivity of “i am a field note”, another denies it: “if i felt that ethnography just reflected internal states, i wouldn’t be in this game” (ibid., p. ). this tension is matched by sauer’s advice to his students on writing their reports. while sauer insists on a detailed account of progress from henry bruman (pc, sauer to bruman, / / ) - he enjoyed his “notes” but expected a more organised report - he advises bowman to write by sitting down and communing with his “inmost self intensively” (pc, sauer to bowman, / / ) and tells isabel kelly he wants an unsystematic report with her personality in it, written in out of the way places without “every tourist-archaeologist coming in” on her (pc, sauer to kelly, / / ) pc, sauer to willits, / / . plural conceptualisation of the fieldnote in mind, sauer then went on to think about writing the horizon. while indicating the different guises of fieldnotes, sauer’s question thus directs us to the filtering process of writing: the loss of the ‘subjective’ . mary louise pratt, in her discussion of the relation between ethnography and travel writing, notes how the personal narrative of travel was progressively edited out -“killed by science” - in the consolidation of the authoritative ethnographic account. ° for pratt, there remains a contradiction between the subjective experience of the “field” and the objective scientific discourse to which the finished text is expected to conform. sauer, with his “poetics of science”, seems to rest hesitantly on the editing line; a hesitation which, for donald meinig, is productive. meinig applauds sauer’s call for the inclusion of the emotive in geographic writing, but is disappointed that sauer’s “own work is not strongly evocative in this sense”, its effect coming from “breadth of knowledge and mature reflection rather than from vivid descriptions”. ’ unlike meinig, however, i read sauer’s question more as a lament: an indication that his own unpublished work was evocative but that much of this had to be lost in translation: the authority of the discipline, perhaps, required it. if we look to sauer’s fieldnotes, we find that sauer does indeed ° pratt in hall and abbas, , op. cit. meinig, op. cit., p. . convey a “feel of horizon, sky, air and land”. although his landscape appreciation exists on many levels in the notes, it is often evocative, picking out a “pretty little valley” or “lush green scene” to elaborate upon (often romanticise) . on land near zapotlan, colima, sauer recounts: “the long tree-shaded avenue through alfalfa fields. . .the drowsing sun-drenched plaza of the town with its high trimmed laurels and the rose-filled patio of the hotel diaz where the birds shout haughtily all day.” he dwells on the colour and drama of the mexican scene and veers towards the ornamental and picturesque common in writings of mexico at the time: “the magnificent view of the lateral baranca drowning the bay of tequila and the mountain behind. banana and sugar cane plantation below.. . all in all a topographic picture of the most romantic school such as might have been acquired by the pre-physiographic painters. sauer finds this “gem of landscape” in the mexican summer “soul pleasing” and “eye filling” - not only an exercise in “field” description, he treats landscape also as an artistic form. later, at sea along the west coast of south america, sauer’s travel notes also take pleasure in the horizon: sn , p. . n , p. . snl b, p. . this quotation shows both sauer tying into the visual appreciation of mexico and also landscape (painting and perspective) as a way of seeing. ibid., p. . “off cuba last night only a dark looming mass behind the lighthouse on the extremity. this morning the sea much calmer with that well- greased, leaden look that makes you think it quite opaque. against the eastern horizon the haitian peninsula. moving from the sea-view of one landscape to another, sauer evocatively records the transition from the “absolute desert”, naked except for its darkly capped coastal hills to the excesses of the tropics: “under way for the lovely crossing of the canal. verdent lush green of the tropical forest. the formerly tilled slopes now completely covered by a very course, large bladed grass, except where clumps of bananas keep growing on their own, with surprising vegetative vigor” , and, fusing imagination with observation, connects landscape and the past as he looks out from the ship: “where still the ghosts of cubao?. . .strange to get one’s first view of the last island sun by white men at such a distance that we cannot see the changes wrought thus and could still look for the smoke coming up from the villages of the amah, watching the white man sail by on his great missels. fine cumulous clouds building up in a sky of light, luminous blue.” this, then, is the kind of vivid description that meinig misses out on (as do we all) by focusing solely on sauer’s published work. sn , p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . this is rather a romantic view of the “indian’s” first contact with the “white man”, in awe of his “great missels”. while sauer wrote about the destruction of the iberian conquest and the decimation of the “indian” population, this did tend to be couched in a rather romantic-tragic rhetoric. this resurfaces in sauer’s comments on the “indian” populations he interacts with in the “field” in mexico and in south america (chapter five and chapter six): the traces of a “noble savage”. o c — i- i cl ) tx ’ j cd h - cd a cd h • i ft - n h - - u i cd w h i iq c) h h - o h ft w < h d o • - h h w c) h h h cl ) ‘- ii ) a) cu c) h - a) cd h h a) cd - h - i i c) tq cd h i o h - cd h ii ft cd a) ft cd o c) h r c) cd h h ft a) cd cu - h h ft cd h i cd : cd h i >< o h - c) c) a) o h h cd h h cu cd ft cd cd cu h h h - h i h cu ft q cd o cd c ) >< f t o h cu cu ft cd rj o o i- — cl ) b f t h i s d cu cd cu s h - cd f t cd a) h ‘ cd f t s h f t a) a) i- cd cd cd cd q c) o - cd h a) b a) h a) f t cu a) cd a h ij iq h - h cd cd f t h - cd f t i- k < f t h h - ft z cu h - h h i cd a) h - h i f t cd cd cd c l cd c l cd cd cd ft h - i- ft cu h - a) cd cd cd cd h h h h i cu h i a - h h cd cd cd cu cd h c l f t h - h i h - h h - cd ct ) h h i h i f t c l h - j a) cd h i cl ) h cd h ci ) a) f t h - - c l h i ft cd f t ft h cu o h - cd cd cd a) a) cu <i - ci) cd h c) j ñ h cu h i c d h - a) j. h - ft ft -< h i g c u cd f t c) h i g - i c l h - cd f t f t ft cu ft cd cd cd cl ) h - cd ft f t c l cd t tq cd c l c l i h i cd f t cu a) i- q ft h - h - a) i cd ft h - cu lcd cu i a) i i ft h i h i cu h - a) h - i- cd cd cd cd h h c l ci) c l cd a) f t ft cd h i h h j a) k cd i_ f ft o d - c l cd - h ft = i- q a) f t ‘d cd h - h - cd cd a) i• r- i - cd h i h - ci) ii c l ft cd a) a) cd h cd h ft cd cu cd h - c l h i cd ft - cd q h - cd cd h - c) ‘ ft h cu f t cd cd ft h cd ‘- cu cd f t ft f t ft cu h - cd d a) ci) c) cd h cd cd h i h - h i h - h - a) cd h cd - a) h ° cd h - a) ft c l a) cd h cd h - h - cu a) > h i a) ft a) h - cd cd i- h ft h - c l c l cd cd cd cd c) cd h i - b h i ‘- h i cd h - cd cu ft cd >< h tq h i h h - cd j ft cd c l a) ci ft h - cd ft < a) cd • a) a) cu cd cu iq d h i cd i- ft cd h cq a) a) ii h ci) s h - h - cu ft ‘- < cd h h ft a) o t: cu cd h - c l c) ft ci ) :- c) cd h cd c l - cd c) o f t s cd cd c) h - f t a) c l o h - f t h i c l) h cu c l cd cd cd - f t ii f t cu cd h j h h - < cu ‘i cd s r h - h cd c l - cd f t f t ) c) h - h i s cd h - ci ) a) ft c) ft ft cd cd i- i cd c l h - h - f t h o cu h - o h a) a) i- h - h i h - c) cu cd - h - • h i h - h i ft c) :: - cd cd cd c l john leighly, this article represents only part of sauer’s published mexican work and he advises that “the reader who would follow sauer along other mexican trails . . .should look to sauer’s longer works on mexico.m however, since comprehensive fieldnotes and correspondence also exist for this period, we may look to sauer’s unpublished writings of the same time to find our other mexican trail: sauer’s own road to cibola. arrant swindlers and amazing dunderheads in , sauer wrote with some excitement to john leighly of his work in the archives in mexico city: “i have some very old chronicles never published which will enable me to carry out a minor project i have had in mind for some time, a reexamination of the explorations of the northwest of mexico - “roads to cibola reexamined”. that will be fun, to swat fray marcos, reroute cabeza de vaca, coronado and ybarra.” the next year he published the road to cibola which, true to his word, attempted a thorough debunking of the route of the spanish explorers, falsely represented in their accounts. however, while sauer used these chronicles for his re-reading of the conquistadors, it was from direct observation - from taking archives into a well-travelled “field” - that he drew his main line of critique. in the article, sauer claims the “advantage of ibid., p. . pc, sauer to leighly, undated (probably ). sauer attributes the article generally to “fieldwork directed to other ends”, a “by-product of five field seasons spent in arizona, sonora, sinaloa, nayarit and colima” (in leighly, , op. cit., p. ). while “fieldwork” here could refer to both field and archive, it is from the former that sauer tends to draw on for his argument. knowing the country” and this distinguishes him from other “commentators” on the explorations: “i had occasion to cover, by car, on horseback, and afoot, virtually all the country between the gila river on the north and the rio grande de santiago at the south. i have seen all but a very few miles of the route herein examined, and i have been over a good deal of it a number of times and at different seasons of the year. ,, travelling the road and familiarity with the terrain thus allows sauer to reconstruct the scene at the time of the conquest. he pieces together the routes by the distances and watering places, physical features and settlements mentioned, matching up text with relief. this first-hand knowledge is then used by sauer for a more critical re-reading - with the help of geography, he reinterprets the historical evidence, questioning the feasibility of the claimed exploration routes. in discussing why the spaniards under guzman turned away from cibola, sauer reads the accounts against the terrain and contradicts them: “the common statement in contemporary accounts, and quoted by historians, that they turned inland because they were blocked by mountains along the coast, has no foundation in fact. these are no more than isolated hills ,, measured against his own knowledge of the field, selected explorers are approved of or discredited by sauer according to their standards of observation and negotiation of the terrain. sauer approves of francisco cortes who initiated the northwestern discoveries since “at first trial” he found the best route from ibid. ibid., p. . u) (q cd cd > ft h ft p. , cd i— ’ cd h cd u) ft cd h - - . ct p. , c f t cd s cd u ) cd i- r cd ç- r cd u) c) j i- ‘ h - cd c t h - h - o h - p. , h - h cd - ft o cd j h h - h s u) ft ft ) i- cd ft q cd h , cd ft h h - h - p. , ft u) h - h ft (.q = u ) q f t j - h b p c d h - d • ft h - o f th - h ,u ) f t • p . f- ’ q f tc d w c d h - z cd ft c d q ., u ) c d p j ) s p. , h - c d j d c d u ) f t c d = ‘< cd f t f t d o j > < (q h - ,h - h - q f t c d u ) p j c ) o c d h , h - f t h - q h - i- f t . ft c ) h - h - h . ft c d h , c d c ) cd c d p . , j i f t b c d p j h - cd h i- . f - cd -n h h ,l .. ,. h ft c d o f t o h h q i - h - o p i o h ft f - h - f t cd jj cd h h - c d p ) h u ) u) b ’ f t f t j j p j h - . c ) u ) _ s h - c d (.q ft cd cd u ) p j o p j c d p j p h h c d ) c d c d (i ) c d f tp ., c ) q h , ft ft p j f t u ) p cd f t g : cu h -h -c d c d cl ) f - j s c u u ) u ) h u) cd h - f t u ) h - h c ) cu u ) p j h - q u ) u) u ) _ u ) h , c u c d ft p -’ o p i f t > < cd f t c u c d f t f t - j h - ’ d u) - h - o h cu h - ft h - c d p . , f - q u) < cd cj u h - u ) cd u ) j c d f t p j cu cd ft c) ft c u c u h h - p j h ft cu c d c d f t h u ) c u f t u) p . cd f t c d f t u ) < p h , < cl ) p. , h cu f t h - h - h - ft ii u) s u) cd h - ‘ ft cu f - o cd u) h cu cd - ‘ cd h - - i— i ft s s - f t cd i ft p. , : cu cu cu , u) cu h - cu i- c) i- c ) i cd c) ft cd h , q cu - h , ft h’ ft h cd ii cd cd - - u ) h o lq c u i- u) h - cd i- h - p cu b cd cd - i f - h - h - cu - h - cd u) f t u ) u) p ‘< p. , c) f’ - h , u ) u) f t cu h - c) ft < cu cu cu d o cd cd cd cd u ) h i- . c) u) o cd u) u) h cd cd cu ‘< cu i- p. , cu o h p cu cu h - h - h u) h , cu p. , p i .< cd p. , h - cu cd cd cd ( . q f t h , c ) q cu f - cu h - u ) u ) h - u) u) h - ft u ) h - h , h - cd h , c) h - cu h - u ) p. , cu cu ft h cd cd h h cd p. , p — c h h h h - h - h d d - .d u i c . •- .j l’ ) d w h h ft cd cu u) cu ‘ u) u) h cu c) c) cu c) h , u) cd cu ft h - c c) - , f - cu cu ft f t h - cd cu d ti cd cd ft cd cd u) >< c) h - h cu = ft cu cu h h h ’ -. , h o cu h , h - u ) u) ft ., h - cd h , c) cu h f - o cd cu ft c) cd h cd cu u) cd ft u) ft ft h - cd u) h , q h’ cu ft h - cd c) • cu h h - u) h , cu h - h i-i cd ft — — — m . ) j ) h h j cd b cd h - h - cd i- h c- i n - , h - - d ‘d d d — j cd • is ) h h q c) h - h c- i h h d c h h ‘z i c) h - c- i u- i w cd cd < o cd q cd j cd h cd ) i) h - cd h t u) fr cl ) :l i c- i - c- i- c- i cd cd ) h - h o i cd h , i - u) c t c- i h - cd ‘- h ) cd (q i cd u) cd c l s h d u) cd p i c) ) h - c-i - cd h - h , cd u) c- i i- h c t s - a c - i j_ d cd cd d l j h i c) cd p i c l h - h , u) i• q cd h - cd cd c l h - h u) h c l h , c- i- c-i - s c, cd i- c l h - cl ) c- i h - cd c - o h cd cd s < c u) cd b cd u) h - h h - - h h - cd cd (i ) c- i u) u) p) ‘< ) c) ) cd c) ) h c- i l- u ) cd c- i- ) c-i - c- i- p h - cd cd c-i - < cd c)) c)) h cd c-i - c- i cd u) h ) h , c- i h - o p. u) u) ii ci - cd h c) c-i - o c-i - h , u) c) ) cd cd h - i- c) ) p c- t i- cl ) - cd u) c-i - i- cd c- i c- h - o c) ) h c-i - i- (q h - h , h - cs h - c- i c) ) c) ) c) c) ) ‘< c t h • cd cd l- h , - c l c) ) c) ) h , c- i- h - ;‘ s- h - d cd cd cd cd h - h u) h cl ) c l c) ) c) ) h ) pi c- i u ) h - u ) cd c-i - c) h h cd d ,, h , cd cd i- i h h - h c- i- u ) o h , u h - h - c- i cd o q h , c- i i- h , cd cd c) ) ci ) c) ) c- i- c- i- c-i - cd c) ) _ i- c) ) c- i c l h - cd u) c) cd ci ) z = - c) ) c t u) cd c- i- h - c- i- cd c- i c l ) i- q c) cd i- (i) cd h - h - u ) h - cd cd c) q c l h - c) ) c- i c) h - h c l cd i c- i c) ) cl ) c) h , h - c) c l s c l ‘- tj h h ii h c) ) cd c) ) c) ) c) c l c) h h - -< ) c) c- i - c l cd c) h h h - c) ) i c l h l- c) c - c) ) h c) ) h h - c d h , - c-i - li i h c- r h - iq c-i - cl ) c-i - c- i c) ) cl ) c-i - cd o c l cd h - i s = cd c) ) c) ) c l ) s cd cd c) ) c- i c- i h - ‘ i- ii - c- i c) ) c-i - cd c l c) ) c- i- = i- b- , c) ) c) ) < h , c l cd o h h ii k < cl ) c) ) d i - c l c) h cd cd ) d ) h c) ) c) h , c - i h - cd c-i - c) ) c) . • c) h - c- i c- i u ) u ) c d c) cd h >< c- i d h - cd c) ii h - h - u) cd cd u) c) cd c- i . . cd s cd s h , c ) c)) cd n c) ) c l cd c) ) c) c) ) ) h , c ) ) = c) ) h a ) h b c - i - c- i u )c )o c -i h - h c lh -- cl ) c d • c- i- c) h o c d c- i h : -’ cd q c d c )) h , c l u) c -i -h o c d h - u ) c d ) h c ) c) c) ) c-i - h h - h cd c) h - c-i - :i o cd c) c-i - h - h u) c- i c - cd c) ) c l h - cd u) h h c- i c-i - c) ) cd ) c- i h - h - cd c- i h c l c-i - cd s u) - c l cd cd c) ) - d c d u) u) cd cd cd o cd c- i i- cd cd c) cd c- i u) c- i cd c) h - c- i h - c) c) ) h cd cd h s u) cd h h , ii c) ) h h u) c- i cd c ? i- c)) h - h c- i c)) c- i c- i cd c )) c- c d h - c) c- i- i- i) c) c ) ) h o o :: ti i-l i h - h - ,, h - c) u) c - i - - , u ) h c - i c ) ) o o )h , ii c ) s c- i- c )- cd c )c )) c d c d h - n c l h c) ) c-i - c )) cd cd cd c - i c - i c d < ci ) c j) -j c)) c- i- c )) c- i- c ) h - h - c) ) i — ’ u) u) c)) l:j -’ s h < cd o h - s d c- i- o cd c) ) : - l l - c d k< h h l cd c t cl ) c) h d o c d (d o cl ) w p j h -( d s h ( c) cd d h - ’ h ) - f t - - j f r h - o < h - h i - - cl ) cd c) cl ) pi h q h - p ) p j m - h h - h cd h ( d c ) h c d h ’ - < h c d h - . h h - c ) p j w c ld ç t ci i ‘ i:- ’ cd h - c d - h - o h - j - c d c d $ q o c ) ‘ d c d p i c r h i h — . . c ) c d o h k < h h q o c r h c f l c d w h ç j h h q h d cd c d u ) - . c r - c d c r p cd - . h h c ) c r h - h c d p ) - h - q c d c d c fl h c r u ) cd h - h -o h ç t u ) c ) q h - i • q y j - r t c d h h c d c r cd d o < c d c r i c d h . c r ° - f - ’ c ) ci i c) u ) m o h .q c) cd h - c r c d i • p ) c d cd c t h ) p i c d h - c ii c d cd c t h c )h - i— p l h - (- rc d p < f lc ) c d l i m . h - h h b b c d c d t- h (d c d c d o w u ) i— ’ h cd c r p i - - c u ) h , h - c r cd c t h u ) cd cd q o i- c r cd (q h cd cd i cl ) cl ) cd cd h h < ci) cd ç t cd cd cd i- h h - c t — ci i ci i c t c r i- cd ci i cd ‘ - h ‘ h h - c r cl ) cd h , cd c r s ci) c t h - cd c t c t c r ci i u ) o u ) c t h o c r d c d c ) cd ci ) s ci i u) c th -o c r ci i c r h - .q c t h c d h - c d h h - h c r t c t h - c r q c r q cd cd h ci i h , h - cd h - u) c r cd cd u )h h • c d u) h - h h cd = - . h - h ‘; : c j c d cd j u ) c r s cd ci - (q c rc d h , h - h - h - cd :i c n c t h - cd h - c- rc d o cii c r cd q cd c t p jc d o h cd cii c d cd c r c u ) c t h - d cd i- cd h - h - c t c t c d f — h - h - < h - h ci i ci i c r ci i ci i t u ) c d cii c t ci i j çp iq u) c cd cd cd ii c r u) c r i- h q q h , i h - b h - h - u ) u) cl ) < c/ ) s c r cd c) cd ci i ‘ c h . c h , cd c r ci i cd h i- cd cd c t h cd - , h - k < h u) h , h - h - ci i cd ‘< cd c t i- h c h c i- ci i q h - h - cd c) u ) h c r - . cd cd i- j • u ) “ c) c r -‘ . c) ci i ci ) cd cd u ) c r c t c) cd o h - cd h s i- h - ci ) cd h h - cd u ) cd h - h c r h , o .q cd ci i cd u ) p ., c r “ c) h - cd c d h o i u) ci) c i- c t c r ci i cd cd cd ç t c ) h c d h • • ci i cd - , tq u) h , c r c) h - - cd cd h p k < cd p . h c) cd ci i c r p i c i i- cd h - h - u) ç t i- q cd cd cd c r - ii ci) o cd u) h - i i- p ., - - cl ) p rd f- ’ id rr f- ’ ca h c-i - m b ii u) c) cd h cd cd h h - h - < h ci i ci - iq cd i. p c r h - tq h - cd cd ci) u) c t p ., h u) cd c t cd h - p i s c) i- pi i- p c r u) i- h - cd u) _ cd - ci) h h c r h ci i < u) < p ., c) i-q p cd cd cd s ii c r i- i c) c) ci) ci r . h c t cl ) c r h h c r h - cd i- p h h c r h , c r h - cd h i. q h - h - h’ c r c r h - c r h - c r cd q cd s ci) ci i c r h - c) h - c r k < < i u ) p i - cd h p- ’ h h • h c ) h h ’ ci i c r c r h i h h ci i p. , u ) -. ‘ cd h - cd ci i h - c r c r p. , i u) < - p. , cl ) ci i cd ii c) h - h - z it it c) cd h - cd u) h . it cd it cu ct o it h hj h - h u ) h - it cd cd ci ) - h c) h cd o u ) h - cu i cd u ) cl ) i— ’ -. cd cd cu i c) cd cd cd c) p) it h h - o it it o h - ;‘s - cd u) u) — c) o :- < . ‘ . it q h - h it h - cd o c) h u- it cd cd - u) u) cd o cd p h h it c) cu it p cd u) cd c) it cu u ) cd çu it cd ci i i h - i- u) cd p u ) ci i p p s u) ci i h - p h - cd cii h h - u) u) it cd h cd p ci i it cii cd cii ci i c) i- u) u ) h - cd it ci i u) :i ci i c) cd ci i it u) -q cd p h - h h - cd cd c) cd i u) h h c) h - - it cd it z it - cd h - cd it it < ii cd ii cd cd cd cii h it h , c l) h , h ci i ci h u ) it it h - cd h - h , cd cd h - h - cd cd h , i h , cd cd it cl ) q q u) h - cd cd cd cd cd h - h , c) cd cd it h it q ci h , h h h h - (-q h - k < $d cd ci cd h - h it cd it p - p i t c l ) h , c d it i h - cd ‘ cd : u) cd cd c) u) u) ci) = h - u) u) < h - h , cd it cd < l i . cd it ci) cd it cii h - cd h - i i it h it u) p ° cd h , it it h - h it - cd it (d cd h - cd cd u) u) it h , d cd h , ci i h cd - h - cd u) h , c) c) it it ci i cl ) h - ci i - ci) p it c l) it cd cii cd h - it i- h , h it cii — cd ci i cd u) ‘- ‘ q (i ) o ci i o cd it u) o cii u) it h - cii p cd cd it h - cd it u) n cii p q i u) i- q h , - u) i t h - h - cd l ) h - cii - cd h - it cd it cd u) h h - h h h h it ’d u ) q c l) ‘ d u) q k < h - ci i h - ‘d h -u )- it h - u ) c d c iu r - l • p u )c )c d c q it - - c i) q c d c d u ) - o \ u ) h - - < t ) ’ -- u )i t c! ) c! ) c i) p it c d ‘ d r h h - h i t ci i h h c d i z z u < c d o h q i t c i s . c d -‘ - i t u ) ° c d c ) - h ‘c i ‘c i d o cd • • m j h -c d c d . h - h h u ) m i t i t d i t h • • i i h -c d c ) ° u ) p c d i t h q q h , c d c d c d d h h q f - ( q i t c d p u ) ) c l) c d u ) h u ) h h cd h - ‘ u) cd h - p i i t c d - c i ) p i • p c d it d h , f l c d h c d p h - q c d • d i t h - - : h h - c )- h z ’ ’ c ) h . u) - ; u ) h - ‘d i t • < i cd - i h - u ) d h - h - u ) h - i t h - cd i t c i i i t h - c ) -. u )h u )c ii h ,c d p c d it h it ‘c i it h cd (.q h - it it cd u) it cd u ) h - c) it j_ h - ci s cl ) cii h - cd h , cii p ii it cd i- cd h , cd h cd u) u) c) cd i- it cii h h it cd h , h - cd h p h , it cd p cd cii h h h - cd h , h h - it — ‘-d h cl ) c ) b z - h - h c l ) • pi cd d d rt u i o - i:- cd h h h u i h h w h u ) c ) h - c d cd < c d d h u) h rr c d ci i - c r cd h u ) u ) c t h , h c r cd cd h c ii ç u ) cd c) h -c u o h h p - cd - k < c ) c o c) - - ç t h - c t s r r c d c d h u) ‘ r r c d u ) h - o u) ci i - h c t c c ii c) o u )h l j cd c) c r c r u) cd p ic h u ) c r o o i- c d l j cd h - u) u) c r q c) cd cd c • cd ci • i- cd u) q o : b ‘— s u) cd h ci i ci i s ç t h - h - u) h u) h h - h , h j c) - ci i l i h - h i cd h , h - u) cd ct iq cd (‘ cd i cd i- ) c r ci i h - k < cd h (-‘ ii cd - u) u) c r c r h - u) cd ci i c r cd u) cd cd u) cd c) h i- i cd u) ci i h - h cd h , h cd ft - h - ç t h , cd h - h cd h h - u) cd h c) cd cd cd h - ci i u ) (,q i- u) h ci i l- ‘- < h - u) h - c r h - ci i h - h cd ç t d h - ii w z cd h i-q - h - h i ci ) c r h h - ci i h cd cd h cd c i i-i h s • - h c d : i-’ h - cd c h , pi c r u) c) h cd c i h c r cd h , ci cd h h - c r cd ci i h - cd u) c r cd cd cd h h - < ci i h cd c r hj cd ci cd q lq ci i cd h ci i h , c t c d cd cl ) ‘ d c ii h h h -u ) c i c d c ) ci i c i) c r u )h cd u ) o c r h , (q c i i ( cd cd ç t t c d h . hj cd c d c) ct h c r c l c r c r -‘. p i c d c i :: •c ii cd c) c) ii ii cd c i c r cl ) cl ) z h h - ci i c i w cl ) z h ci i c i h - u) u) i- cd h , h - u) h c r cd ii l- cd c r ci) c r h - u) c) c r cd u) c r u) h - c r ‘d c) cd h - cd cd c) i- cl - cd h c r c r r- r u) h ci i h - cd u) h - - h - c r c r h , h - l cl ) cd cd c r ci i h u) c c i cd h - u) i c r cd c r cd cd h h - i c r cd h - u) cr i cd h , - < ç t cd u) c r ci i cd cd cd c r h - - - c cl ) h - c r h , i cd - u) h h ‘- < h c r ci i ci i ci - h h h çt u) u) h , ci h , cr c i h cd h h , u) h h q h cd çt cd iq u) h - cd cd l- ci < t h - ‘ cd c l- c r u) k < h - c r h h - h u) cd i ci i h h , h ci cd cd - h - c r cd h - = h - cl - c i i c r cd h - cd c) h c cd cd ci i c r h c h < h - ci i h , c c r ci i h - çt h - u) cd h , h - h - h < c r c i cd j contradictory, leaving sauer to “gather up some of the observations that remain through the confusion”. sauer notes the constraints of time on what he can see in the “field”, restricting him “within the limits of observation of the day”. similarly, the weather and his distance from his chosen scene are also acknowledged as distortions of the observational process. observation becomes even more complicated when sauer descends from his “vantage point” and travels. much of sauer’s observation is while he is in motion - “things seen along the road” - and we get a sense of mobility in the notebook entries. the documented itineraries give us the bare spatial bones to sauer’s locomotion while a more extensive travelogue mobilises us with him: “this morning out to the southwest - road deeply sunk. . .hence into the wide terrace-flanked valley. “twelve miles out. .no houses until the last three miles. broad smooth apron of volcanic stuff, involving however steady climb. ,, in fact, along with sauer we move “out. . along. . across. . over.. into.. north.. south.. miles out.. down valley., in search of.. en route to. . upstream. . down river. .“ finding we are “crossing. descending.. leading.. steaming forth.. heading.. drifting down.. walking west.. strolling by.. coming upon.. coming from.. riding down. . walking one league from. . passing over. . bearing east. driving back” while we are “on the road to.. on the street.. back sn , p. . ibid., p. . sn , p. . ibid. o so — cl ) cl ) i h h m d d m -. h l% j l.’ j cl ) t h - h - h w ) h - q f t c) pi h - q p. h i h h i o h h - i-i h i cd cl ) h i ç t q < h - cd cd h i ft p j - cd cd h i p. < h i u cl ) cd cd ft h cl ) h i < cd cd f t cd cd ) i- i- h cd h - ci ) h - cd h c) = h - cd q cl ) h i cd f t h i - t c d c) h cd ft cd - h cl) ct rr - h i p h h h i cd cd - cd cl ) () • f t h h - - cd ) h h - cd c d o c d cd pi ft ft h - h i cd cd c d k< ft h - h cd c) h - cd h ) il i cd p. ft cl ) r r ci ) cd s p lo h - cl ) c- f h - p i ft cl ) h h - cl ) c f l p . cd cd cd i c) fr-t - cd cd cd h - f t cl ) cl ) cd ft i h cd cd h h cd h - ci ) q p i . cl ) h c- s i c- r c- r rr f- c-i . c — cd c t h o c d cd cd cl ) c- r cl ) h i h i ih ’ h i f t h - . c d - t - p j> < h h - ft g h i b cl ) cq ih . cd s c l) i- rj h - f t i q < h c d h cd < f t p j h -c ) h l h - cd h - cd q h . h - cd p) c) h - h - cd cd u h - ci ) cd h i ft h - c d cd ft - - l ft p . ) ‘< f t o ci ) c l) ft cd c) cd h p. cd p ft cd h p h cl ) h - ) cd h - cd cd cd . - cd h - f t h : f t h i ) . h i cd h - h ft p p p - p h cl o o h h i cl ) h ft cd c )h i s cd :c- ft u ) cd j p j f t c d c d cq cd cl ) h - cd h p h - cd cd ft h h - cl ) h cq h - cd h - — cd < ft h - ft p p (.q cd h b ci ) cd c d c d s c d ) h cl ) - f t cl ) h - h i cd ft p — p - c ) f t o h - p cd q l- - ci ) . - c l) p j h i f t h w . - cd ft ft - cd cl ) ) f t cd h i q cl ) o d h i cd j c i ) c )c ) h i . p. h - h cd h i cd p h - h - c) p o c) n h ‘ p o h cl ) h i h ft h i p . - :h - p p cd - h cd . ft h - c) h - h - cd cd cl ) cl ) f t p ft f t h o p i . j i h cl ) . f t c ) h - h p cl) cd p p c d i- f t ft l ‘ - — cl ) . - p h cd - h - o f t ft p p h i c) o cd h i cl ) cl ) cd p f t h - h - cd i- cd h h i p p h i- q h - h - cd c) c) c) h - cd j) cd p c) w - cd cd o h cl ) cd p h i c) ft i- p cd h -p o cl ) ft cd cd p h c l) c l) i ) ft • cd . cl ) c d ft ft h i cd - h i cl ) ft . “we’re through with sinaloa. this end of the trip has been most disappointing of all and there is no fooling away more time here” and goes on to write extremely negatively about the “field”: “further north we had cold nights. here the nights are heartless and the days a furnace heat. we’ve eaten so many beans and tortillas that hewes eyeballs have turned yellow. the whole coast is full of typhoid, dysentery, and malaria. . .we’ve eaten quinine and smothered ourselves in mosquito nets until we’re sick of it. we’ve charged our water. . .with soda until we don’t like water. we’ve lived in, eaten, drunk and breathed filth until we’ve decided to shake the bacillus-laden dust of sinaloa from our feet and get some good american food at navajoa. . this country at present is just infernal and we’re quitting it, i think with no great detriment to science. in his report to the foundation on his return, sauer also outlines the difficulties of travel and the obstruction of his efforts by conditions on the west coast. the southern area, reports sauer, was “out of the question because of rain and floods”, the physical conditions the worst he had “ever encountered”. sauer was kicked by a mule and had to abandon a trip to the sierra madre and was unable to exert himself for weeks; hewes, his “field” assistant, was ill with jaundice. even sauer’s archive work was fraught with difficulty. in pc, sauer to leighly, / / . ibid. this is a less graphic account and written to a different audience - foundation rather than friend and colleague. it may perhaps stand as an edited version of sauer’s letters to leighly - a more formal report that tones down the hardship of the “field” and claims the productivity of the trip. the difficulty of the physical climate of the field is matched by the political climate in mexico city where sauer works in the archives. the politicians and the military men are rioting in “barbaric splendour” and “the upper class mexican says ‘how long, lad, how long?’”. sauer foresees the “abyss” rather than the “dawn of a new day” as a result of the political activity. the h u h ,c u i— h c ic iq m , z cd ii cd h - c d c d c d c d c d h h ) h c d h - , h - h h - h - h p ) ) ( - q c d q l j q cl ) c i ,- ‘ c d c l) c d c d p ) c d w c l ) h h r r m c d - t i ci h - h - h - ( c ih . c d c d ) p cd < f - c d c d h . c ic cl ) h h c d h c d c d h () p ) h h h - h h - h - - - ‘ h ’ - < i - q h .o h ( d c d cd - q c ) < q di c d cd c d ° c i ( - . ) - ‘ - h - c i h c d d i c d h ( c d cl ) c d ci j- c d “ < h -c i h c i z d l cl ) cd h c d c d c d - t h - h -c d cd h - d p i cl ) s w q q ) p h - c i c d i - c d q ) h h c i q h , ( l ) d j c i c d . h c i c d c i h ‘t j c d . p i ) • i— ] - c i c i h - ( cl ) c i q h - c d q q d i h - h c i ci l- q c d c l) c j) • c i — c l) d ic d : c f ) • c d h d l cd ) p z i c i c i h c d c d cl ) di )- < cd i i- cd cl ) h di cd h cd c i cd cd di di h , h i- h , h h - cd ‘- < c i ( - cd c i ci ) cd h c i b h - k < ) cl ) :- di d i cl ) c i di di cl ) cd co < in h - h - - cd h - - i cl ) d i - ) cd h - h cd ‘ c_ ) cl ) cl ) cd h d i c i h cq ;i i h , cl ) c i d i d i h !j ci ) c i h - h cd < h - h - c i c i h - cd c i d i c i h - h - c i d i d i d i < c i Ø cd u) cd cd di h - i h , h c i d i h - l c) c ) :: cd h cd c) cl ) cd di cl) _ c i • • cl ) c i h - ) cd h ‘-< c ) cl ) h s c i c) h cd r d _ di - di cu h , h h cd h h h - - c) c i c i c i di c i h , h - c) cd ) d i c! ) h d i c i d - cd cd cd cl ) - cl ) cd h ) c i cd c i d i h cd cc ) h ) di cl) h , cd h - cd d i cd h cd c i c i h - c i h - c i c i di cd d i c i c i h - c i < di h - c i cd c i h cd cd cd •< i- c) cl ) — h c i di h - d i cd j h c i c) cq cd cl ) c i cd ) d i ‘< cl ) cd cd h - c i h h h - h , h , < di cd c i h - c i d l cd c i ) cd cd cd i- ) cd h cd h - c i ( • - d i d l d i h = h p c i cd c i cl ) d i cd h - cd cd q cd cd h c l cd i- c cl ) di h cd c i d i h c l c l cd c i cd cd h , c l h - ) d i ) c i cc c i - h cd h , c i c c cd dl d i di h - ( cd < cd () cd i- h cl ) d i h - c i h , c) h - h h - ) ) h fl h cj ) c i c) c i < di d i cl ) a .q c i di cd cd h , di dl di h , -q z ‘- h - cd c) j. () d l h d c i h cd h d ’ ) ) c i h - cd h - c) cd h cd cd < ) c i h i- cd — ‘ di h - cl ) d i h , cd ‘- ) c i ( cd h - c l cl ) h - d i h - c i d i c i < h i— ’ cd cl ) di di c l cd cd c i cl ) z cd c i c) i- dl cd c i c i c l c) ) h - d l h cd d i cl ) l j c i di h , ii b di c i - c i cd cd cd c i cd c) cd cd cl ) cl ) c i cd h - c i cd cd c) c l c i di h - = c) cl ) cq (-q cl) cd i- c i c l cd di () - c i h c l h i h - ) c i cc h , cd cd cd ) h , h h c i c l di ) cd ) h , cc h j < h - h di c l cd ) ) c l c) ) di h , - j c i h c i h cd c i i- c i c i cd cd c l cd cd d (q di h - cd i- c) c i c i ( h h c) h di h cd d cd - - h c) h d i cd c l di h , h di di c) h cd c i c) h - di c i cd cd tj c i ) r tr r c n r tl r t rt q p . c) c) h c l) h— a r t pi u) h h - o p j c d o p ip j i o ‘ c d o f - i— ’ cd h - p j c d e i pi ‘d cd -i , cn f t j h - pi cd < c d lcd p . h - p . h - p .c d r tc d c d i q u) cd h - i - h - c d c d i cd p) rt cd cd h c d . c d h u) i— a u )p . iii $ cd cd i— ’ h , h :h - i d ‘ ‘ p . cd ‘ l q q h -i o ° ° h - p ic d z pi u ) h - cd o h - f t h ip . pi ‘ c d h , cd i o p ip . ip i u) d f j h . f t i p j f j b h - p ) - t ‘ ‘ d < o i c t p . - u ) k < f t o f t h - h - p. ’ - i - it t h - p . f t < c d u) c d ç -t < ic u) h (d h - p . u) p.’ p . f to c d i cd cd (i ) ‘ p ) cl ) h , p . .‘ t. j h ,c l) h - p.’ h - f t f t it cd cd h ic ) lo pi p j : u ) c d ( q o cd p . ih ’. cd . h c d j cd pj p .p .’ cd c d cd ip. ’ f t cd f t h -, -- tc d h - h if -i - - h - i h - c d cl ) h - c d c d u ) c t ic cd c t >< i f t it pi h cd it h - h - if t u ) p i cd h - f t cd f t h - < • - p. ’ ic ) f t o cd cd >< cd i h c d h - ° t i- q f j h - cd i .< c t h i- i u) i - c i c d u ) u ) h o u ) p .u ) c) u) h , cd f t p.) cd h - ib - cd u) p i h - h c d c d f t - t h h - h , ‘ (p i_ cd h ,c d c d cd cd f t u) cd h , pi h , u (p q c d p . ipi f t h , f tf j o h cd cd p . cd o cd f - p . h h q f— i o p . i cd c d - r cd p . h - u) h , h - cd u ) h , u) h h , u ) cd h - h , ii— h , (p cd c d p p .’ -< cd h - u ) i pi ç t h - i - p p i u c c t o h ’ lcd h - h - s cd p .o h , < p. f t f tf c d cd cd h -c d f t h - h ç t c d w c d c d u ) h - ç t lo o ( j ) f t f t f t cd c d iu h , i- i ‘- < h - h , cd cd d h pi p h - f t p . - cd p . - pi cd h - < p . p i f t p . p . ’ c” (p o u) f t h - q u) p cd cd pi i t h ’ q it it h - i ç t h - cd h , h - ‘ f t f t . f t c’ ) cd h , f t p.’ h - u ) p i u ) cd h - i cd c d — f t f t u ) c d h - o c u) ic) c’ , c cd u) h , p . p. c d h cd ih h h - cd u )p j i- ib cd h , it cd c d h ’ c p . p . it h f t c d u ) c d i- tp i c’) h ’ p . p.’ ih h - - - p.’ p. h -- ç t ip - _ h - p h - h s q - cd h - cd f t . p j p . d u) c t cd u ) .c d h -c d c d f t - u )f t s u) h - f t cd p.’ - h -p . h - c h ’ c l) f t f th c d h h - p . f t f t cd i t u ) p . . c’ ) cd h , p.’ f t h , h - h ‘- c h l h - r if t h - cd h ,f t - cd q c d f t f t h - p.’ cd d ii o u ) c d h < h , (p p u) it h cd c’ ) cd h , c’ ) p. cd u ) s - h - c u) pi h - cd it i p.’ h cd cd - cd h - i- f t it h - u ) c d i— ’ p.’ ( p p u ) c d p . cd h - u) . r t h cd f t f t p.’ - cd h c d h p . - f t h - it h - cd pi u) th - h h - c d i c d cd it q f t p.’ cd h - - h , (p c d f tu )i p i - - cd h -q u) f t cl ) h - it f t cd f t h - i’- h - u) h - f t pi (p u ) f t i t i .‘ o f t p . (p h , p.’ f t j p ) o c d ( p i p i h f t f t cd f t q cd h h it • c d f t c d t - f t p . - p.’ h c d c i- h c d i- p . h k < cd leighly and to the foundation, each stage editing out a little of the hardship of the “field” which is finally silenced for authority in the published article itself. compound eyes if sauer was silent about his “field” experience in his articles, the participation of others in the field was equally hidden. despite his criticism of the lack of autonomy of the conquistadors and their not relying on first-hand observation, sauer himself relied on guides for his own fieldwork (see figure ) and the “seeing eyes” of students in the field when he was in berkeley. sauer’s fieldnotes refer frequently to informants: whether an impersonal “they” or “he” or “guide”. °° information comes from a wide range of characters - groups of “old fellows”, “indians” - or a disembodied voice in the field: “it is said..”, “it is thought...”, “it is believed”, reduced finally to the “word”.’° when he is not in the “field”, sauer has a network of this depersonalising of informants is interesting for the debate on the superorganic: whether sauer takes individuals into account in the “field” or just sees them as “cultural messengers”. interacting in the “field”, sauer pictures cultures as distinctive wholes physically and rarely names those that he communicates with as individuals. some, for example in the mennonite communities in mexico (see next chapter) are given names and histories but most are reduced to just informant status. sauer’s correspondence with his students in the “field” equally emphasises the role of the informant. robert barlow (pc, barlow to sauer, / / ) writes to sauer of the importance of a joint effort in the “field” with local people with the ethnographic and linguistic background that he does not have. similarly, robert bowman (pc, bowman to sauer / / ) and homer aschmann (pc, aschmann to sauer, / / ) are both directed in the “field” by local informants. different fieldworkers do however have different types of interaction. bruman seems to mix with the local elite, socialising with the “true cosmopolites” of the “field”. he is given “the run of the place” in the archivo general and the c ii- .. cd c z c d c ii xp j cd x c x ’- i t\ ) cf l p d t p i — cd • ‘) ‘ tl ) cd ti c d - . d )l q rt cd c d c d cn cn support workers - a host of seeing eyes - on the lookout on his behalf. sauer writes to his student robert barlow in mexico city: “while you are on the yopi trail see if you can pick up anything further on pinome”? and to donald brand (another student) for his opinion on cabeza de vaca’s route and location from the “field”.’° isabel kelly appears to be sauer’s main mexican eyes (his “mental companion”) , recommending local contacts and checking his theories in the field and preparing the way for his fieldwork. sauer’s being and seeing in the “field” was therefore partly vicarious through his students and one step removed from his own presence in the “field”, although this was not acknowledged in his work. similarly, while sauer may have rejected the guidebook in mexico, he did not reject mexican guides and therefore his trail of “discovery” in the “field” and his writing up of notes was as much a joint process as a solitary one. sauer’s biblioteca nacional in mexico city and feels “at home” with his host family (pc, bruman to sauer, / / ). homer aschmann travels about with the lorry of the provision de aguas carrying potable water into the peripheral areas and comes into contact with “indians” in la guajira who refuse to speak spanish - you have to know their language to do business with them (pc, aschmann to sauer, / / ) . james parsons writes to sauer from colombia in of how he passes for a “profesor” of california which has increased his interaction, picking up stories on indian graves and their location: “they pick up the ball from there and the adjectives flow freely” (pc, parsons to sauer, / / ) . there are limitations, however, to who can class as an informant: “i didn’t know that one ever talked to mexican women” (pc, stanislawski to sauer, / / ) pc, sauer to brand, / / . pc, sauer to brand, / / . this is perhaps because mexico became her permanent address rather than a place to travel:”it is a swell country; i like the people and i like the country, and i can hardly remember having lived in berkeley.. . feel one of the local populace.” (pc, kelly to sauer, / / ) authority as independent journeyman and sole author of the fieldnote is therefore a little displaced. total recall? “we have to think of the ancient orator. . as moving in imagination through his memory building whilst he is making his speech, drawing from the memorised places the images he has placed on them. “° it is quite ironic that sauer should criticise the memory of the conquistadors since, as we saw at the beginning of this chapter, he himself was renowned for his tendency to rely on “headnotes”. while not wishing to challenge the capacity of sauer’s memory nor deify writing as the true means of recording, remembered observations must be seen to especially problematise authority from the “field”. headnotes, says ottenberg are “kinder - and more dangerous” than fieldnotes, “all too easy to revise to suit some current theory”. the mind is not a passive receptacle for headnotes, waiting to spill them out in pure form onto the written page: it is an intervening agent in the writing process, its contents continually in flux. the “field” thus cannot be perfectly maintained in the head, unaffected by travel and interaction and the context of “home”; moving through his “memorised places” sauer would also be changing his mind. the unstable and unreliable nature of the headnote must then detract from any claims to accuracy in sauer’s work. looking back on former fieldnote silences, sauer himself seemed to realise the difficulties of his own headnote method which, sometimes forgotten, provided him with hutchinson, op. cit., p. . in wolf, op. cit., p. . no basis for comparison on his return : “i didn’t record the land as i saw it. mea culpa.”° in a sense, we have come full circle, beginning and ending with sauer’s “memory building”. we have, however, achieved a certain “movement” in sauer’s textuality that has allowed us to question his authority along the way. firstly, writing has been set in motion from the “field” and from sauer as “author”. since the fieldnotes can be seen to “cross” the boundaries of the “field”, they cannot retain their authority as facts untainted by sauer’s relation to other texts or to the “home” context. secondly, sauer’s published work has turned “kinetic” - been read differently, “explosively” - through a critical comparison with his fieldnotes and the filtering movement necessary for authority has been exposed. like hutchinson, i have attempted to think about sauer’s textuality as mobility so that its “experiential dimensions” - the processes of writing and remembering rather than the traces of the written product - can be revealed. the alternative - writing as dwelling - allows writing to be “cut off from the subjectivities and circumstances involved in its making”.’° maintaining the play between sauer’s published work and fieldnotes and the connection with the circumstances of their making, we move on to sauer’s the personality of mexico and an alternative form of textual dwelling in the “field”. sn , p. . hutchinson, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . i_ ti h h cd h c_ c h - c_ c h cd l i h l i o c d h p ) c d u ) i t i h i t c d c _ c u ) u ) ç c cd cd cl ) i- i .i tp j c d c d c d c d p j c - c u ) h h h c _ h - h il i- - :j h ç t h , c _ r n c_ i h c) ( c r p ) ,- cc d u) ‘ _ c) h ih c_ i c d c d ) ‘d c d c d ’ j u ) u ) _ l (j ) ) h - cd h - c_ cc _c h c d h c) h c d o o u ) c d - u ) ti ) h - c _ c u )i t h h - h h c _ i c_ i c d c d - i - h c _ tp j w h (d c t cd i t ) c d u ) u) ) c _ c c _ c u ) j c_ c h - c_ c u) ‘j u) ) ) h - c) ih h i. q c_ i. cd lo ) h - c d h - ) cd q ) u) ) c d h i cd it h h h - u) iq h c d h -h iq c ) q u ) z cd lit p ) i lp ) u ) ) c_ c h - c d it p. , i c d h h h h - ‘ < ) p. , h c d - o c d lp j h i cd q p h c_ c h - () ic ) c d q u ) h ) h - it cd h :- h i c_ i. ih h c d - h - ) cd h - cd h h ,- z c d cl) h - c) cd ih c _ in cd p - cd it ip i h - cd cd h i c_ i h cd cl) ) h - it ) h - u ) it ) c_ • < cd h - cd cd it h - >< i.q c_ i i _ d h i c_ c i - k < p.i h cd ) it cd h :) -’ ) h cd u) c_ i ) u) ) h h cd cd c_ c p. ’ c_ i h h - u) u) ) u) ) c d u ) c_ c it cd c_ c cd cd ) h u) h i ) j p . ’ u ) u ) c_ c u) ) cd cd h - h - ) < ) c d c_ i. h ) c t u )c d h h i p. , p c_ c ‘ tj h ) cd i . < h - i t h i l p. , h - it c_ c cu h - h u ) q ) c _ c c_ c q c d u ) cd cd u) h - u) () c) h h - h e h -p ., . u ) h i cd h - h i cd h - h i y u ) h - h , h cd h - it h cl ) u) c_ c c_ i- c d p j cd ) ) ) ) h h - ) ( c_ c p g u ) it c d cd cd ) it ) h - cd u) h - h h h - cd h - h ) c_ i- it cd h ) - h - cd ) h - u) h - it ) u ) c d c d cd u ) i t h it cd - • ‘ h - ) ,< h g i t < it p j cd - . , c) it ° cd h - cd c) u ) it = cd h i h - h ) c_ i h ) - k < c_ i u ) cd cd u) c) _ - h - c_ i- u) u) ) p. , u) c) c_ i cd h - ) ) i t q it h , h - u) ii cd h - c) c h - c) it h h >< ) = h - c d f r i h h - i cd h it ) c_ i- h - cd cd ) p it c) cd u) it c d c d h cd it q u) h it h i- h - i t h ) cd it h - ) c ) ) -< u) ) cd p ) lcd u ) cd c d h iu )c d z figure : sauer, mexico and its personality: about to write up, . involved in the past” in mexico, as were “all of his students without exception” who worked in that” field”, and he therefore was not interested in the mexican present. additionally, for duncan, sauer’s “personality” is in keeping with the “drowning of living detail”, the homogeneity assumption of the superorganic (see the introduction) and even justified since it focuses on the “less complex” rural mexican past. however, while sauer may have been interested only in the past academically, the conditions of his fieldwork were contemporary: the personality of mexico as the product of fifteen years fieldwork, like the road to cibola, had a “story” to tell. similarly, while sauer may have published mexico “at a distance” as modal national type, bounded and defined, he was caught up in a web of complex cultural interaction in the “field”. thus, taking contemporary culture from sauer’s subtext and bringing it to the fore, we can rethink sauer, the border and the superorganic view of culture. a cultural reading of the border for sauer was not solely a textual, academic affair located in the past but also a personal, practical and very much contemporary dilemma. “steaming forth” across the dividing line between mexico and the united states - “the greatest cultural boundary in the world” - was integral to his self-definition against the modern and the constitution of an parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. duncan, op. cit. p. and geertz in duncan, p. . this is a strange statement given what we know of sauer’s views on american culture as homogeneous, uncomplicated and characterised by standardisation, in opposition to the rural areas in which he worked. duncan’s assumption of homogeneity for sauer’s mexican “field” area is, as we shall see, misplaced. antimodern cultural homel. like other “bewildered witnesses” of change in the united states, sauer looked across the border to peasant communities in mexico - akin to the “simple folk” of his past - as cultural and emotional compensation. as antimodernists, they went to mexico to “feel the soil” and to escape the “gray commercialism” and “nervous cities” of the united states and looked for their lost sense of authenticity and tradition in rural areas. thus sauer’s stepping away from the beaten trail in the “field” was not only legitimation for the geographer but personal aversion to the culturally modern; the trail of the journeyman not only one of discovery but discovery of the cultural past; the “field” a cultural as well as an academic home. sauer thus had a vested interest in defining mexico as continuity rather than change. this return to sauer’s antimodernism further problematises the question of authority in the “field”. while in chapter two we saw how sauer’s own fieldwork experiences were tied into his directives for the “field”; how his identity as a geographer was used to create the “rules” for the subjectification of others, here we see the “field” connected to sauer’s life experiences as a whole and to sn , p. . in practice, then, the mexico/united states border was also conceptualised as continuity/change. mexico was seen by the antimodernists as “closer to a parental europe” (robinson, op. cit., p. ) and “in the thick of history” (deplar, op. cit., p. ), its native population providing a connection with the “america” of the past (ibid., p. ). constituted as such, mexico provided a welcome escape from a modern united states that seemed to be characterised only by change: it was a “barrier against the blighting southward progress of anglo-saxondom” (ibid., p. ). see clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit. for a discussion of the interrelation of conceptualisations of fieldwork and culture. - p h f t h - q ., cl ) cd cd cd c) h h cd h p j cl) q - cl ) h - h < c) cd ) i h h , cl ) cu h , f t c) q i cd hj o ii cu >< cd f cl) h - cd ft c) ft l. q i- cu -. -- : c ) - - h - h - h - cd h - ft h ( l ) c l ) cd c) h - ft cd cu cd i- h - f t cu cd h q i cd u) c) ft h cd cd cu f - cd cd cd cu h - ft cd cl) k < h h ;s h - cd h - cu s ft h c) cu cl ) cd cd ‘ o — = c) cl ) cl ) cd cu ft cu h - ft u . i cl) cd q i h , — cd i- h - cd cd cu > ft q i h - cd c) h s cd c) i- ft cd cu h k < cu cd h f - cd h - ft - j cl ) c l ) cl ) c u q- , ‘ cd cd cu ft q i h - c) cl ) cu ft h cd f- ’ g c l) < cu cd cd = i- cl ) h - t cd cu < cl) h - cl ) i cu h - f - ft h - ft k b cd h , c) cd f t cu ‘< cd f - cl ) ft f t cd cu o h ft ‘- cd i- i cd h ;j cu cl ) cl ) f t cd = cd ft cl ) q i h - c) h - h cu cu cl ) ‘- < h ft •‘ - cd cu c) cl ) c) f - cd f t cu h - cd — ft f - h , o h - c) cl ) h , cu ‘- h cu ic - i - ft i cu cu ft cd ic ) ‘ lc d h - cu o q i cd f t cl ) i cu icu ft h - ft i’— h , c) h t ih - cd cu :;- cd ic j) i- h icu ft h - if t ft ih - cd — ic cu cd cu ii cl ) cl) (q c d h , - h , ft c) h cl ’ i- i c) cd cd < s h , cd cd f - f t h , c l) ft h h - h - cu cu cd ft c) : ft h cu cd cd cd q cd cu cu cl) < cl) h - cd cd h f t ft k < h q cd h , . - h - cl) ft ft - cu cd h h c d cu h — w ft q i cd cl) cu cl) h cd :- f- ’ h k < cl) cu o ft h - ft s c d i- ih , ih i>< - ih - cu i k h - c) h h cu h h - cl) c) cl) cd h - cl ) cd cd cd ft ft cd c) c) cd ft h , h , h h - ft h ft cd cu -i i x i- h - cd ft h cl) ft h , cu s f t h - cd cu f - o cd i- c) cd h , cu s h - cd cl) - h w cu cd f t cu - cd cd x j o h , i- f t cu cu — cl) cd (q c u h - c) cd cu h cl) cd cd ft cu cd cl) cl) ft cd icu i i>< ih lcd h , h cl ) c) h ft cu h cd cd h h - ft h ft cd cl) h , ft cu h - ft h - cu h cd cu ft cd cl ) cu cd cu ft cd c) cu ‘d i- h cu cd h q . f t h cl ) cl) cd cl) cl) ii c) h - - i h - cu h < -q ft f - ft cl ) cu h , f t cu ii h h - i cu f t i- q -. h c d f t h h , cd h - cd cd )< cd cu h h - h c) h q i c) q i ) f t c d < cu h cu cl) h h - ‘ ‘ c u : ft iq cl) cl) h - cd q -, ft cu iq b h q i i- :: cu ft cu h cu cl) cd cd cq cu ‘ cu h h - f t c u cd q i cl ) cu cu : cl) q i cd h - cu h < cd q i u) cd - h - a cu cl ) h h ft h cu cd cd q c) ft h cd q i ( cu cl ) ft cl ) cu cu h - cu ft s cd cd cd cl) i- q i h cd ft cu ft ‘- cu ft :i cl ) cd c) h h h i h i h q i-i u) u) cd ii cd h ft w u- i c) h ft h h h h - il pi c d c d u ) ft c -i -f -i o h - c d il o h - w u ) c) h - ft z ) cd q b h jh i cd o cd h i h ‘ c d il . c d w h - h - u) c )p ) ft c d cu h i l cd c d c d c) o r u ) ft c d cu j il c d u ) h - h c d c d o h - ‘i c t j i c t p j c d i lr t ii h c ) c d c ) c d h u ) h - cu - i cd cd f r f t u) - o — ‘c d h i i- o ft f t i— i c) h i cu i i- i h - f t ft t h - ii p) f t t cd h - u ) ‘i h - il h i ft f t ) h i il cd h - h h >< q c) u) ci ) u ) ii ic ) cd cd ft ft cd ci ) u) ci ) u) ft ft h - d i h - cd u) h i ft cd ii cd ‘ h c) ii u) cd h h - h - cd c) ci ) h (q ft cd f t h - cd u) h - ci ) q ic ) h - ft c) ft h i cd f t p u ) ft h - cd ft u) c) cd h cd cd h ii ft ci ) ci) d i) ft = h i ft < cd u) cd h cd cd ft ci ) cd cd il h f- i c l) ii h - cd cd k cd u) cd cd < ft ci ) h - ci ) h - u ) ‘i h - u ) cd cd cd h i cd ft h cd cd u) ci) cd ft f-u - u ) c h i ft cd q cd il k < il h - i l h h - c d ft u) ci ) cd o u ) u ) cd ci ) il cd cd cd h - u) ii ii u) cd h - ft h u ) c) < h - h - < h - c l c) u ) p cd f t h - cd ii ci ) k < cd c l) c) ft ii h cd ci ) h - h u) h - cd ci j cd cd °) h cd ‘ f-u - cd ft u) u ) cd c l cd h il ft h - h - h - u) cd ft cd cd u) ft h - il f t o ii cd h - u) cd h i - - h - h ft ft ft < cd cd ii c) ft ft cd cd h - cd ii - c) q c l c) cd h - c l cd f t ( cd cd c l h - c) cd ft cd h - ii cd u) cd ‘d ii cd f t ci ) ii cd u) cd il il c) h i cd ii u) ii f t q - ft cd ii l j h ’ ci) cd u) ii cd ii il h - h i ii ‘-i h - c) .: cd il cd f t h - c d c d c d c d cd u) il cd ci ) h - cd h - h h - b q - cd h i c d c) cd ft h - ft l j i) c) c) h - < h - - c l h cd ft cd ci j cd ii - h i h - c) - c) h - il f t ft < cd f- ’ h i- cd i- u ) ft h - cd u) c) -q ii o h il f t cd h o u) h - h c d b h i h i h h - cd h h h ft ‘i cd u) h - cd h - c) h ci ) h c) cd ft ft cd cd u) cd h h u) cd cd s h - [- h ft h - ci ) ft cd ft h i o h i d h - c ci ) cd q h - ii h - cd cd h , s c) h - cd >< h ‘< i- h h i h - ft u) cd cd h ’ cd ft h - ci j h - il - . h - s p ft c l cd cd u) - ii h il cd h cd ci ) cd - cd cd s ft ii h h - h i u ) h - c l ii u ) u ) ) c) cd f t cd cd ft h - u) h i cd f t h - ii cd cd u) cd cd h - c) f t f t h cd h h - h j c l cd cd cd cd cd ft u) ft h ’ cd ci ) f t cd u) c l h i h - h i- - u) u) c l h cd f t ft h - u ) h - t h - ft ft q h - h h - ft ft ci ) cd ft h - ft cd ‘- < ci ) u) h h - lq d ci) h ci ) ft h ’ h - ft u) c l - u ) ft cd cd cd ii = cd h i - cd — u) cd ft constitution. once these are shown as ambivalent and the stereotype as never completely fixed, agency can then come into play in terms of room to travel away from the cultural whole. at issue is sauer’s identity as much as his ability to define (with authority) that of other cultures. turning to sauer’s correspondence and fieldnotes allows for this more ambivalent view of sauer and “personality”. interacting with indian, mennonite and urban mexican communities in the “field”, sauer’s self-fashioning involves anything but the “homogeneity” that duncan attributes to his “work.. .in the rural regions of mexico”. man and nature’ this is the title of an elementary education textbook written by sauer which focused on “america before the days of the white man”: a movement region by region through north america with “indian” life as the organising concept. the book demonstrates sauer’s concern with the “indian” base to american history and with the importance of recognition of other cultures. additionally, adopted by various “indian” tribes in the united states and canada, it stands as testimony to the “germinal potential” (see conclusion) of sauer’s work. what it does not do, however, is show how much “man and nature” were part of sauer’s image of antimodern “home” as well as his respect for native culture. writing on his foray into “indian” cultures in mexico, sauer the focus on “man and nature” here is inspired by george lovell’s colloquium “carl sauer and the crisis of representation” at the university of british columbia, / / . said: “by chance and by choice i have turned away from commercialised areas and dominant civilisations to conservative and primitive areas. i have found pleasure in “backward” lands.” sauer turned to mexico’s “indian” population by both “chance and choice”. on the one hand, crossing into mexico for discovery, he found that he “couldn’t get very far on spanish towns, missions, agriculture without knowing about the indians”: “the whole structure rested on an indian base”. therefore, “without having intended to do anything of the sort”, he became an “indian geographer”.’ on the other hand, despite this “unplanned” movement “back in culture and in time”,’ sauer’s identification with the “indian” in mexico was part of the conscious turning towards the premodern of his work and life. in keeping with the indian as antimodern (and) base, sauer “roots” (and writes) the personality of mexico in the indian culture of a “deep, rich past”. while he is aware that an “invasion by the modern, western world is under way”, its impact for him is only partial, insufficient to “dominate or replace native culture”.’ sauer in jackson, op. cit., p. . sauer, pers. comm. (v) , op. cit. ‘ ibid. sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p.lo . sauer goes on to say: “the conquest will remain partial. . .the american motorcar now does duty in remotest villages; but it is loaded with the immemorial goods and persons native to the land.. . it and other machines, however, are being adapted to native ways and native needs”. this mix of the machinery of the modern and native needs resurfaces in sauer’s encounter with mexican poverty below. sauer thus passes over the modern and focuses instead on the geographies of the prehistoric and the sixteenth century, maintaining that these are still “the most important things to know about mexico”.’ sauer’s fieldnotes and correspondence, however, show a more urgent concern with the “modern invasion” of mexico. for someone who declares confidence in the resilience of native culture, sauer seems paradoxically alarmed at the threat of its disappearance. rather than dismissing modern change as inconsequential, we therefore see sauer grappling with transformations in the “field” and attempting to preserve indian culture on several levels.’ on the one hand, as james parsons states, this tendency of sauer’s to be “always for the indians” puts him “well out ahead of his time”.’ both american and “mexican” forces were in part aimed at “indian” assimilation and sauer, true to his culture history, argued in practice for “indian” distinction. however, on the ‘ ibid. this, then, is another element to the importance of time in the field for sauer and another side to the “hapless fieldman”. ‘ parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. as we saw in chapter one, sauer’s culture history involved the championing of the plurality of cultures and the bringing in of the “simple folk” of “backward lands”. while early on this involved a focus on rural communities in the united states, it was later broadened out to native peoples in mexico. sauer’s work involved both a reconstruction of demographic conditions at the time of columbus and also a critique of colonial conquest and the destruction of native populations. for sauer, the corollary of discovery was the loss of cultural diversity (this becomes interesting when we consider sauer’s own fieldwork as “discovery” and its impact on cultural representation) : “the course of colonial empire began with the disregard of native rights and persons” (sauer, , p. ) . this concern for “indian” culture filters other hand, sauer was a product of his time in viewing mexico as an escape from the modern which tended to define the terms of his “indian” preservation. his antimodernism fuelled a sense of “indian” peoples as “endangered authenticities”: ’a desire to fix culture purely in the past and a view of change as loss, which in turn was associated with mexico as a somewhat idyllic “home” more ambivalently, sauer’s fieldwork off the beaten trail that allowed him to posit an antimodern “retreat” also provided him with the experience of the anti-idyll. hiding places; blank spaces “through a moving window i see a glimpse of burros a pepsi cola stand, an old indian sitting smiling toothless by a hut. ,, sauer would have been horrified at corso’s image of cultural extinction in the pepsi cola “indian”. while sauer’s published article excused mexican “indians” politely from the modern, he and they were racing against its “materialistic monism” in his into sauer’s interaction in the field. clifford, , op. cit., p. . stanislawski (op. cit., p. ) has contradicted the view that sauer had a romantic picture of native life (“no rousseau he”) and sauer himself (in leighly, , op. cit., p. ) criticises the “romantic view of colonisation” and calls for a focus on the “dark obverse to the picture, which we have regarded scarcely at all”. while this may be true for sauer’s published writing (although sauer’s picture of colonisation is certainly more romantic than, for example, michael taussig’s ( ) who in no way takes “pleasure in backward lands”) , it is less certain once we make these stand against sauer’s antimodernism and the “story” of his fieldnotes. corso in robinson, op. cit., p. . correspondence. sauer showed dismay at the “fading primitive groups”, natives who were going “faster than ever” leaving him no time to find their “hiding places”. at the same time, it seemed to him that the modern age was intent on sweeping “the furniture of ideas” of other cultures into its “rubbish heap” and not even concerned to “save attic space” for those things that “were valid for other kinds of men”. amidst the universalism of the “folkways of social science”, the concern with the cultural record of “primitives” was “out the window”. both the “primitives” and their cultural baggage were thus casualties of the modern for sauer and in danger of extinction. the modern age was “an age of clean sweeps - in many cases sweeps clean off the map”. “indian” cultures were not finding their way through the modern, for sauer, but were being erased by it. in opposition to the threat of the modern, sauer attempts to write “indian” cultures back in. aware of the “dozens of blank spaces” that are still to be “discovered”, he exclaims to paul kirchoff in anger at his dismissal of “indian” groups from a map of meso america: “i’m pained that my indians of colima, jalisco and culiacán got pushed off as atypical. damn it, i more or less discovered these, and they were good high culture folk. . . fought and bled for these people and you drop them in with such folk as the cahita and tepehuan. . i’d like to see you walk over the ruins of some of the pc, sauer to willits, / / . ibid. p, sauer to kroeber, / / . pc, barlow to sauer, / / . ) j c d o f — c d h - h - s w j w c d ’ ii cl ) ft ) w h -j j c d cd h p i f t j < u ) l j .h cd f t h ii cd - ) ‘ • c h h - ci - o h i h - i cd • , . f t n h h i h i- . i- c l ) r r c - c ( c d q _ p i s h d o r h o h c d - h — .. u- i a j cd f t p j h ç t •c h < h i c d f- rc d .. c rc !) j p j cd cd h - c r c d c d - h - c d ) ) < - - i_ ic ) f -c d p c d q il i ‘- cd cd h - h - cl ) h :i h ic i) ) i- cd )) c) q cd h ft h - ) pi q i cd h i cl ) h i h i h i cd cd cl ) c t cd c) q i cd h f t • h - cd cd cl ) s i ft h i i- ] ft h i h - ii cd cd (q cd h h = cd q i t h t q cd h i cd cd t c r cd cl ) h - cd cl ) h çj j = cd h c r cl ) cd cd c r ç t ci cd cd ft c! ) h ) = cd ft - - cd c r cl ) cd - ft h cl ) s c l b cd ç t :j - i cdq i c d h i h - cd h - rr ° c l cd c r h f- ’ h - ) ft ) - t-q c t c t f t q ii h - cd cd h i f -’ c) q f- - c l cd h - ci ft ci c r cd cd s c) f t h - cd h - q i cd cd cd cd u) - f t cl ) ) h cd cd h i h f— a < h - h ‘d cd ) h ft cl ) cd h h - h - h cd cd h i cl ) h i iq cl ) i cd h i— a j - ’ o j cd :- c d c d c d - — ‘ cd w s c ) ) :j - s c d f t c d - p j s ) c d n cd h - q i s f t h - c d k < ft c d c d o ft cd f t cd w c d h ft c d h - cl ) h - q i ) c d c d c d h i ft c d c i •c d (q cd - c d - h - c! ) cd j f t c lc d ) cd c d h c d c d q h - f t cd cd cd p j h cd < h c d cd h c d h i cd p u ) c d h h i c fl tq h cd h q c d c l q h h cd o • f t f t p jh - q ,j — cd cd h i r f t cd h - f- ’ f t j f t c i p j h - h - ci cq ft h - cd h h - h h h c d cd c l cd f - h - - ft c d c d tq cd - f - ft cd • c d < c d c d h - k < h - = c l) c d ft h cd cd k < cd ft cd cd cd u) c d k < h q ic d cd cd h - cd p j h ) = cd ci h ) o ) < ‘-x i c d h -h c d c j ft h - h - o c d h h tq rq f t cd d o ft c d h - f- ’ ci c i f t c i i- k < h i cd p - c d o c d cd ft ‘d cd h f- ’ h - f t cl ) cd cl ) c r h - h c l h h - cd h cd = cl) c) ci s cd cd h i ft ci ) h cd c l i h - q i cd c r ci ) cd cd ci cd cd cd c l h i h c l ci h cd c r c) c r cc i h ‘-q cc i h cc i c! ) cq c r cd h - f t cl ) cd f t c h ‘ - c• ) h - - c l - cl ) cd cd ft h - h h h - ft ) h l\ ) h h u- i c) h h h i cd cd = ci •c ft cd ci cd cc) ft h i cd c l h cd c l ) f t ci cd c l h - f t cd c r ci ) cd cd cd c l c l cd ) f t ci cd c l s c l cd ft cd cc ) ci cd c i h cl ) cd cd cc i ci h cq h i cc i cl ) f t f- i ft cd cd c l ci ci h - cd ft cd cd h i c) ft cd h i h < c l b cd h - c f- ’ cd cd ft - cd z - h - ci cd >< ci h - f- - cd c) ) ft cd c l = s cd cd h - f - h h i h ‘ - i - cd : = cd h cd >< ft c i cd o c) cl ) ‘- cd h - cd i.q -i cd ‘ h i cd h ) co f t ) - cd ci j c) cl ) c l = cd cd ‘-d ) cd ci c i h i cl ) cd o i— i cd ) • c) ft ft cd c) i- i c d k < = ft cd = c r cd cd h c h h c t h h (o c t x h h cd c- ) -c d h ’ ti d h h (i -) cd h h ) h n ) zapotecan “indians”, he notes a parallel decay in “indian” language - a “tongue-tiedness, almost sulkiness” - and makes a speech on how ashamed “indians” are in mexico “to admit any knowledge of indian things, how desconfiado”. ’ sauer thus reiterates a sense of change as loss of “indian” craft, tradition and language, drawing on a kind of “noble savage” image of the dignity of the “humble indians” that should sustain them through the modern. if essent±alising and patronising at times - placing “indian” communities as the “little people” of the past - sauer’s antimodern perspective gave him a more favourable outlook on the “indians” than many. for both american tourists to mexico and, at times, the mexican government, the “indian” population (“red degenerates”) was ripe for cultural “improvement”. for the readers of terry’s guide to mexico , there was hope in the increasing number of “indians” speaking spanish each year and the merging of their identity with sn , p. . this is a very sanitised picture of “indian” existence in mexico, reducing conflict to a question of craft and sullenness. the “indian” battle for cultural survival was also a much less artifactual process - a violence of language and a “white terror. .brutal exploitation . . systematic slaughter” (freeman in deplar, op. cit., p. ) that sauer’s apolitical stance and focus on material culture allows him to preclude. alternatively, attributing a dignity to mexico’s “indian” population for sauer was also far from the “red degenerate” image and a means of positive evaluation in comparison to the modern united states. from the international congress for the “indian” in patzcuaro (mexico) in , sauer’s student stanislawski writes: “the most impressive group in the whole congreso is that of the american indians. they are full of dignity, good manners and perfect poise. they make the rest of us look like bad-mannered upstarts” (pc, stanislawski to sauer, / / ) terry, op. cit. that of their mexican neighbours: “the national life of the mexican indians has almost vanished; old tribal habits and customs are being superseded by the more civilised ways of the superior mexican, and a faint ambition is replacing the sodden lethargy which for so long characterised them. “ similarly, in president ortiz rub±o had declared the importance of developing mexico as a modern state, taking its place among the civilised nations of the world, and renounced the “indigenismo” policy of the revolution that had focused so extensively on “indian” culture. “indian” communities found themselves subject to land-hungry “whites” disatisfied with the truncation of revolutionary land redistribution - literally pushing them off the map as well as out of the conception of the modern mexican state. sauer himself reflected in the “field” on the “objectives of mexican nationalism” and posed them as threat to the “indian”: “their liking is for whiteness”. thus sauer’s preservationist views - if only a textual rather than a political reservation - were certainly more progressive for “indian” futures than their forced assimilation. ibid., p.lxi. see deplar, op. cit., p. . “indigenismo” was the policy of the mexican government towards its native peoples during the revolution in the early twentieth century. it involved a commitment to the moral and economic elevation of the “indian” and a recognition of his [sic.] centrality to the national experience. near chihuahua in , sauer was told by a missionary with the tarahumara “indians” of their powerless condition, unable to resist incursions by “whites” and forced into the worst barrancas: “only a reservation” would protect them (sn , p. ). this intercultural conflict is important for the way sauer chooses to conceptualise the mexicans as threat. ibid., p. . there were other views of “indian” mexico, however, that sauer was more in tune with. as we have seen, there was a flow of antimodernists to mexico who focused on “indian” communities as authentic and harmonious alternative to the depression-ridden united states. disillusioned with the “ills” of their own society, they looked to “indian” mexico for an antidote. this “indian”/un±ted states comparison came through in literary images of village life, for example stuart chase’s mexico: a study of two americas and carleton beals’ mexican maze (both in ) as well as in anthropological studies of indian communities, such as the well- known study by robert redfield of tepoztlán. both types of study were criticised for their romantic primitivism, singing “lyrical paeans of praise about the skies and the golden sunlight” and keeping quiet about the “brutal exploitation of the ‘noble and happy’ indians”. while much of sauer’s published work, as we saw above, could never be accused of silence about “indian” exploitation, sauer does tend in places towards a rather romantic image and, in connection with this, towards a conception of indian mexico as idyll. he refuses to believe his student isabel kelly that chametla is not the “obscure utopia” that he thought and that it has been transformed into the “lousy gringo-mexican country see deplar, op. cit. pp - and - . redf±eld’s study ( ) was of a mexican village (tepoztlan) : a picture of folk life compared to the urban united states. it was later contradicted by oscar lewis ( ) who visited the same village and returned with a more negative picture, criticising redfield for his “sheer rousseauan romanticism” (ibid., p. ). freeman in deplar, op. cit. p. . which the culiacán valley is”. for sauer, the choice once more appears as preservation or decay: “if it isn’t as i have said, it’s been ruined by progress” more specifically, like the poet witter bynner, sauer looked to “indian” mexico as a primitive location for retirement: lake chapala where “the air [was] full of sun and birds”. sauer’s push for the preservation of indian communities was therefore at least part motivated by his need for mexico as antimodern “home”, dreaming, as he said: “of my own land on the lake shore and my own vine and fig trees. . .what a spot that is and as yet an unspoiled lot of fisher folk. i think it is my chosen spot to retreat from the world - if it doesn’t get overwhelmed by c±v±lisation.” presents -becoming- futures “what’s the length and breadth, what’s the height and the depths between you and me?” d.h. lawrence, writing of his mexican experience in , located the country’s “indian” population in an “other dimension” with “no bridge, no canal of connection” to the “white man”; no reconciliation possible between the premodern and the modern, past pc, sauer to kelly, / / . ibid. deplar, op. cit. p. . “ pc, sauer to kelly, / / . clifford, , op. cit., pp. and . lawrence, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . lawrence in fussell, , p. . and future. while as we have seen sauer tended to oppose “indian” cultures against the modern, at times fixing them in the traditional, he also maintained that he was “not interested in the indians as museum pieces” and saw them also as “active cultures” with the potential to survive and develop. through his “field” experience he became keenly aware of the practicality of modern technology for “indian” communities and the importance of “indian” paths through the modern. while mentally sauer may have pictured mexico as antimodern escape and retirement idyll, in practice in the “field” such romanticism was dispelled. off the beaten trail was not only the chance to retreat from civilisation but also meant hardship and the underside of “indian” life. in , on a particularly severe “field” trip, sauer wrote to leighly ° of mexico as a “sick country” far from the “gorgeous primitivism” of his more rousseauist moments. with the “dust” and “filth” of sinaloa foremost in his mind, sauer went on to question any antimodernist escape to “indian” mexico. shocked by the conditions he observed in the “field”, sauer let loose a diatribe to leighly against stuart chase who was known to have compared the machine civilisation of the united states with “indian” mexico and found pc, sauer to willits, / / . for clifford, , op. cit. marginal cultures do not have to vanish on entering the modern world but can be allowed to invent their own futures, to make their own paths through it. while sauer tends to cling to the notion of the “indian” populations as “endangered” and the importance of preservation versus the modern, he does seem to allow for at least a technical change and indian participation in the (agricultural) development of their land. pc, sauer to leighly, / / . mexican villages to be self-sufficient and “wantless”: “if mr know-it-all stuart chase were anchored in one of these villages where the people have nothing to eat, foul water to drink, no medecine and no money with which to buy any, i think he’d be a little more inclined to hand our machine age its due. i’m for as much of it as i can get. these people crawl off and die or get well like sick animals. children going blind for lack of treatment, people with hunger because the crops die out and they haven’t simple means of irrigation, these and other blessings of the primitive life are daily sights.” disillusioned, sauer finished his letter to leighly by “swatting mosqitoes” in his hotel “listening to the welcome ching of the south-bound train” in the station reminding him that there was “a link with civilisation”. in , ten years later, sauer was given the chance to air his opinions on both the importance of cultural preservation and bringing “civilisation” to mexico’s “indian” communities. moving into sauer’s “field” of northwest mexico, the rockefeller foundation had established an agricultural research centre near mexico city and become involved in plant breeding and irrigation in sonora and sinaloa - the beginnings of the “green revolution” bringing modern agricultural technology to mexico. sauer’s advice was solicited as a “renowned scholar with extensive experience in mexico” and he replied with the championing of deplar, op. cit., p. . however, as deplar notes, stuart chase was in this respect misread: he recognise that rural mexico was not a utopia and needed electricity, scientific agriculture and other modern technology but many missed this, including, it seems, carl sauer. pc, sauer to leighly, / / , op. cit. see wright, (mimeo, unpaginated). peasant (indian) cultural practices and techniques - a “bottom up” strategy for modern intervention. sauer shifted his views on “indian” cultural preservation into agricultural preservation and defied any standardisation by the foundation: “unless the americans understand that, they’d better keep out of this country entirely.” indigenous knowledge would point the way for any “modernisation”, the peasants identifying the problems themselves. while denying that mexico’s problems were cultural, i.e. requiring the cultural conquest of the modern, sauer did see the need for economic aid and support for agricultural change. unfortunately, despite his attempts to reconcile his preference for marginal cultures with the need for modern, sauer was read by the foundation as obstructive: viewed as fixing mexico in the antimodern and preventing any opportunity for modern improvement and his opinion virtually ignored: the two, as wright points out (ibid.), are connected. cultural differences influence the way plants are selected, planted, cultivated etc as well as patterns of land distribution, labour, income and consumption. it is interesting here that sauer does not include himself as a transformative force in mexico: his presence is not included in the americans that must keep out of the country. for spurr (op. cit., p. ), this is characteristic of the colonial rhetorical mode of “aestheticisation” where access to and preservation of the authentic are seen as unconnected. in this way, sauer can also posit mexico as antimodern “home”, unaffected by his own uninvolved presence (again the distancing of the vantage point) . this theme resurfaces in sauer’s positioning in south america where he places himself apart from those carrying the “academic torch” to the continent. sauer’s relation to the rockefeller foundation will be dealt with in more detail in the next chapter. while here sauer feels that he has the authority to advise and is ignored, in south america we see how sauer’s comments are taken as authority when he himself has doubts. “to. . sauer, mexico is a kind of glorified ant hill which [he is] in the process of studying. [he resents] any effort to ‘improve’ the ants. [he much prefers] to study them as they now are.” the statement of the foundation really misses the ambivalence of sauer’s position. although he did reject the “improvement” of modernising “indian” agriculture, he also saw the need for support and change. on a personal level, he wanted “indian” mexico as retreat from civilisation but was at the same time prepared to give the machine age its due. ironically, probably considered “backward” in his reluctance to embrace modern “improvement”, sauer’s view of the “indian” as germinal base is now agriculturally the vogue. gang der kultur über die erde “wann wird die odysee wohl enden, und wann erreichen wir den port? und wann entgurten wir unsere lenden zum letzten mal, für immerfort?” ° in , blocked by a “road out of commission” in “indian country” near chihuahua, ’ sauer turned instead to a settlement of mennonites; two years later, he visited them again. the first trip jennings, , p. . see pawluk, sandor and tabor, for a discussion of the contemporary role of indigenous knowledge in agricultural development. translated: the spread of culture over the world. from sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . senn in loewen, , p. . translation: “when will the odyssey end completely, and when will we reach the port? and when will we recover our lands, for the final time, forever?” west, , op. cit., p. . was almost a chance encounter: according to robert west, it represented nothing more than “speaking german and. . . observing” the land; the second a return to see “old friends”. james parsons, one of sauer’s closest colleagues, was not even aware of his contact with the mennonites (“he never published anything”) : both visits are acknowledged and then forgotten. sauer, however, found the mennonite cause more engaging: he was inspired to write more extensively and prosaically in his notes on these two encounters than on any other cultural interaction in mexico. it is a crucial oversight by west since perhaps here more than anywhere else in sauer’s notebooks do we get a sense of the personal: cultural self-fashioning in the “field”. encountering the mennonites near chihuahua, sauer attempted to re-encounter his antimodernism and, at the same time, his sense of “home”. as with mexico’s “indian” communities, this “return” proved highly ambivalent for sauer and involved a further questioning of antimodern idyll; a tension between cultural preservation and decay (dwelling and travel) . among the mennonites, however, sauer’s primary concern was not so much with a temporal fixing of culture - they isolated themselves voluntarily from the modern - but with an essentialising as “german”. die stillen im landem ibid., p. . perhaps this is why it has been overlooked by west. although he gives a sense of sauer as individual, he keeps his focus on sauer as fieldworker and does not refer to sauer’s personal life beyond. sawatsky, , p. . translated: “the unobtrusive ones”. in a sense, like sauer, the mennonites were antimodernists, travelling in order to stay the same, defining themselves against caesar”, the state. formed as a religious sect in the low countries in the sixteenth century, theirs was a history of exile in an attempt to keep apart. they sought a “privelegium” from the governments of their host countries an exemption from military and civil service, the freedom of religion and the right to educate themselves and moved on whenever this was threatened. once settled, they isolated themselves by being “in the world but not of the world”, living off an agrarian base in rural habitats, founding spatially and culturally distinct colonies. those interacting with sauer in chihuahua were the most mobile of the sect - they had a tradition of exile from germany, through russia and canada to mexico - and were therefore also the most conservative: “wanderers” who had carried their past with them. ° under pressure from the canadian government, ’ they had see yoder in loewen (op. cit., pp. - ) for a discussion of how the mennonites related to god (the lord) and the state (caesar) . it is interesting to note that sauer conceptualises his own position in these terms in his discussion of keeping academics (things that are god’s) away from politics (things that are caesar’s) the mennonites were ideological descendants of an anabaptist wing of the protestant reformation and had their origins as a sect in the low countries under menno simon (sawatsky, op.cit., p.l). ibid., p. . in this sense the mennonites appear as the epitome of antimodernism: legally they have the right to deny the modern. yoder in loewen, op. cit., p. . at the heart of the mennonite colonies were the “gemeinde”: the church and secular communities that acted as institutions with their own elders and lay ministers. sawatsky, op. cit., p. . fiqure : seeking mennonite country: sauer and sawatsky (manitoba, canada, ). transferred their villages whole to mexico and prepared to be “die stillen im lande”. sauer’s cultural encounter was thus once more with the rural community of his antimodernist sympathies. for sawatsky (see figure ) , “life in a mennonite village” portrayed “an almost other-worldly quality of rustic unhurriedness” to the outside observer - at a distance, at least, the rural idyll. however, as with sauer’s disillusionment with “indian” poverty, his identification with the antimodern via the mennonites was only partial. although the mennonites appeared as the quintessential simple “yolk” - they were “prairie farmers”, provincial, “wholly rural” - they were also “ignorant peasants”. sauer criticised them for their extreme of antimodernism; their “mulish conservatism” which separated them from the mexican scene. in restricting their educational focus to “the life hereafter” and “farming”, they cut themselves off from knowledge of the mexican (physical and political) climate and located in an area that was ibid., p. . the pressures were various in canada: a redrawing of provincial boundaries weakening mennonnite self- government; a draft during the war going against their pacifist sympathies (and a resentment when they refused) and the introduction of “worldly” subjects, for example geography and history, into their schools, representing an intervention into their separate education system. ibid., p. . sn , p. . sauer in sawatsky, op. cit., p.vii. sn b, p. . agriculturally unproductive and politically unsettled. after a series of bad harvests and raids by the local “agraristas”, they then found themselves reconsidering exile. sauer was disappointed in their lack of awareness: they did not live up to “the wisdom of the primitive peasant rooted to his ancestral lands”, an integral part of his antimodernism and his notion of “yolk”; nor did they mirror his fieldworker’s familiarity with the mexican scene - the responsibility of taking documents into the field. their very mobility severed them from a true connection with the land - they had “the farmer’s love for working in the dirt” but not “for his particular piece of dirt” -and, “nomadic”, lacked the rootedness of the “heimat”. ° what is more, they had blundered into sauer’s field almost as “tourists”, “dumb” and unprepared. transferring from the “dark smooth soil” in canada, the mennonites assumed that the mexican equivalent “that looked somewhat like it” was as fertile and fell into an agricultural “mess by their ignorance”. sauer was struck by the irony of a separatism that rejected “book- ibid., p. . ‘‘ the agraristas were former peons under hacienda owners who had been promised land in the revolution - “the land belongs to him who tills it!” - and resented mennonite incursion on mexican land. see sawatsky, op. cit., p. . snl b, p. . sauer in thomas, op. cit., p. . snil, p. . although sawatsky’s book they sought a country has been translated as seeking a “heimat”, in the former romantic sense of the word (see chapter one) this was not the case. ileimat inherently meant a rootedness in one soil and therefore sawatsky’s mennonites “standing about as at home”, the new “heimat” exchanged for the old, were a paradox. sn b, p. . learning” and only resulted in disruption: “the pragmatic justification of education could be applied to them with a vengeance. as it is they have sunk three and a half million into a venture from which all who can will flee. on a subtextual level, perhaps more importantly, he appeared embittered at a rural idyll (and an environmental stewardship?) turned sour. homecoming? uit is in culture that we can seek out the range of meanings and ideas conveyed by the phrases belonging to or in a place, being at home in a place.” while sauer is dismayed at the impending exile of the mennonites - their spatial upheaval - his main concern is with what he sees as their cultural decay. the issue of preservation for sauer hinges not so much on the antimodernism of the mennonites but on their “german” identity. this question is quite literally “closer to home” since, travelling in the “field” in mexico, sauer seems to feel he has found something of the german community of his youth. while their status as “yolk” rooted in soil and “heimat” is lacking, the mennonites as “german” represent an alternative “dwelling” for sauer - a “return” - amidst travel. more than the generic identification with “simple cultures”, then, contact with the mennonites is a significant moment of sauer’s self-fashioning in the “field”. ibid., p. . carter, , op. cit., p. . one of sauer’s “first sights” of the mennonites “brings tears” to his eyes: “mexicans lulling in the shade, germans driving wagons loading and unloading. . .yard swarms with flaxen youngsters all sizes to full grown. youngest in cradle being rocked by barefoot mother pushing cradle with her toes. the mennonites are thus immediately defined as germans by sauer: in appearance they are a “rather large and blonde race”, larger and more plentiful than the mexicans. sauer later makes contact in german, breaking the ice by “saying n’tag to several mennonites all of whom proceeded to shake hands and talk in passably good high german”. importing poetic german names for their colonies in mexico (wilhelm, roscutal), the mennonites provide sauer with a miniature german terrain to travel through: “first stop at hamburg”. however, despite these german “markers”, sauer is contradicted by a german (not mennonite) “tienda” owner - an ex wurtenberger - who has “seen the entire local mennonite historyt and, while acknowledging their antimodernism, denies that they are “real germans”: “they drift like sheep and act together only to prevent change. they ride no wagons, wear no neckties or ornaments. they know nothing of german literature or music. . .stille nacht and goethe unknown to them. sn , p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . noticing the map of the settlement colonies in mexico on the schoolroom wall, sauer offers a supplemental map of germany. ibid., p. . after further contact with the mennonites, sauer becomes conscious of a community that is hybrid: both familiar and strange, to him what seems as a “pure product gone crazy”. ° to his “high german enquiry a young blonde footer” replies “in spanish” and sauer begins to realise that the mennonites have the “physique” of germans, occasionally the language, “but no more”. essentialising culturally on the basis of physical traits, sauer finds himself disillusioned by closer contact, the mennonites “white” but “not quite” german, reflecting back a distorted image of the known. given what we know of the mennonites, this is to be expected. their “cultural baggage” may be partly german but their very rejection of education outside the bible and farming would make see clifford in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. . clifford, , op. cit., p. . snll, p. . for mary louise pratt ( , op. cit., p. ), the reliance on one trait from a distance to speak for a cultural whole was common in travel writing articulating the imperial frontier: “one needed only to see a person at rest to bear witness, if one chose, to the trait of idleness. one needed only to see dirt to bear witness to the trait of uncleanliness. this essentialising discursive power is impervious until those who are seen are also listened to.” travellers see what they want to see. this is an allusion to bhabha’s concept of mimicry which itself ties into the earlier discussion of anxiety over the fixing of culture. for bhabha, the cultural other cannot be fixed with the gaze but returns it displaced in a form of resemblance and menace which does and does not authorise the observer - mimicry. while i am arguing here that sauer attempts to constitute the mennonites as same rather than other, bhabha’s concept remains interesting for the way sauer cannot have his german identity confirmed/ returned to him. see bhabha, , op. cit.) f t d d cd c) ) q cu f t ‘i j c u o f t : q i f— i- cu q. , cu cd h - cu cl ) cd h - cd cd cu cu h - l- q q cd cl ) ci ) t f h - h - cd f t c) t h h - c) c) f t q i ci ) cu cu f t f t cd cu c fl f t cu h - c d f- ’- f - h - f t >‘ cu q h - f t h - cl ) ‘ f t ‘d ‘< q h f r s r t h ci) cu m ic d c u cd fl h f t i cu cu u) cd c) f t cl) h - h - k < cd cd cd cd cu cd cd f - cd cd f t d f t cu cd i- i c] ) h >< f— ’ cl ) s cu h ft i- jh -i k < c d cd h - h - h h - t cd cl ) ci ) q y h i c d c d h h q i h cl ) cd ce ) h - cu h cd cd h - h - h - cl ) h - h - cu i- h - f t f t h f t q f t f t h - f t s ‘ cu t cu cd cd h - h - cd f - ci ) cd fj) q cd cd cd pi cd cd q h cd c) h - c d c d c) c) cd cd cu q h - i cl ) i- h c d f t cd ‘- < u ) < cl ) cl ) h - h - cu cu ci) h h h - f t h f t cu h c) c cu h cd f t cu ) ) cd h - cd cd h - f t h -, h - cu cd c) h f t i- c) cd h - j cd f- ’ cd f t cl ) cd - cd h - cd s h q cd cl ) f t ‘ cd h - cd h - k < cd ‘- “ cd f — f - - ’ . q- ’ f’ cu cl ) m i () cd f t cd h i f tc d c i: cu f t cd ‘- cd h cu cl ) cu cu q i cd cl ) cl) cd h c u f t cd q h - cu cd .q c u p j cl ) h cd h - cl ) h ) — < - pj ‘- h - : q h h - cd k < f t s cd f t ) f - f t f t f t c d f t f- ’ - cu cd c d h h cd cl ) q cu cd cl ) i cl ) c n p j f t cd c) h cd f cu cd h m i cu cl ) cd cl ) ‘- < u i cu cd - h q i f t cu c d f tc d cl ) h cu cd ld f t k < f t ) ‘d - h ‘< c d cd h - ci ) cd cu cu cd c ) m ic d cl ) cu cl ) h cl) cl ) cd cu h - c d h -c d h cu cl ) f t - f t q cl ) i- k < cd cd cl) cu - cl ) cu - cl ) h - h cu h - h h cd cd m i c) cu cl ) h - f t( q h p ) h - - cl ) < f t f t q h ( q h - cd cd cd c) cd u) cu f t h i q cl) h f t i cd cu o h - h - cu cd i— ’ h - h c d cd q p jh i h i cu ( ) cu q cu cu h f t c) h i f t cd cl ) h - i. cu cd ii cu h - s h h p j f t cu h f t cd cu cu f - cd cu i- h - o h c d h h - h f t cd f t q , cd q cd m i cd cl) h - cd cd h i lq c d f - f t c d cu h i h - f t cd cl ) i f t cd ‘< cd .q o cu f t j cu h s f t h i cd o ‘ cu (q h i cl ) h - cl ) i- cl ) c u c d h . ) cd h - cd cu o h cd c d f — ‘- f t q , ‘- cl ) cu - h - cd f t cu c) ( q o z p - o q i cd cd h q i f t c) f t cl ) cd cd s c u h i cd (q ft cd cu cu cd h - t- q c u h -c lj h cd cd ‘ h cd c d < c -t c ) f t ci ) cd cu cd i- ) cd cd q , - c d c d h o ) f t f t cd f t cl ) h - - ci ) h f t cd f t cd h cd cu h cl ) h i f t f — < cd cd h - h cu cu cd b f t cd cd i- h - : ’ cd cd cl ) f- ’- h - l- : cd h - h - cd c i ) h - h - h - h h - h cd cl ) cl ) - (-q f t cd ii fl h i ) f tf lc i) ‘i - cu k < ) cl ) q — ,: h - h i h - u ) i- i q - h j p j p j t : ) u) u) ç t < c i q , f j c i cl ) c d c d c jj c d f- i cd cd p h c d i- u) i c i h c d < p j c ) c d q cd c i ci c d f cd u) cd ‘< p ) ( ) p c i h f - ’ c d n c d s - c i ‘- < h - h l q h -c i iii p h h - p j h - h - ‘- < cd u) p h h o d \ - c ) ii cd q cd cd h cd p h — . o u) c d p - k < h - u ) .q ’ tq h o u ) c i u) l- h u ) ii ) u )z u ) u ) c d h u ) d h - u) cd tq u) ‘< h () cd c iu ) c) h i ci c d c i : h - h c) h - p ) q c) h - n — - t cd cd h i o h u) h i c) u ) h h i cd p c d c i c i h - p h iu ) h - h - i p h c i - p h - c iu ) p cd c i p cd u) h - c-c c i cd p i c i p c i p h - k < h i cd - cd cd p c ih ’ < -j - c i c d q c i o c d h ‘ cd h c i j j h - c i pi h i cd h - . p c i c i p d h (. q k < c i u) u )c d c d c d cd c- - c i ) h - h c i h i • h - p t j cd p jc d cd u) o c i < cd k < q c i c ) o h - u) - h c d cd h >< h - h - h i cd p j j’ — ’ c i c i c d u ) c d c d ‘ h - : — - c i h (q c d c i p h q q c d p o f c d c i cd u) ‘ d o - cd c - t - cu h h - ‘ < c ) u ) h - cd w h - - i h < c i cd c) li h • c) u) h - w cd c l c) c i - _ . q h - c i cd h - c i cu u) cd q c i h - h - • w cd cd h - u ) cd cd h c i - c d h h c) h i - h i h • • u ) • - ,.< h o h - - h - < h i - h - h - c) f - ’ f - cd cd p c i : c ) h i h - ci i - h c d h c i c d c- - h • u) h cd ( h - - cd u ) h ic d cd h cd h - c i c u p , c l h - h i w u ) h - - p c ) p c d l’ j - h - u ) h - c) f- f -’ c l s c d cd c) h h h - ° c i - c ic i cd - u ) cd h - h - h - - h i h - c i c i h u ) h c ) p c d c d c i cd u) < p c u cd i p < c i c d u) c i u) c i c i c l . h - p cd c i h - c i p c d h - c i c i c i h cd u ) c i ) u) cd cd h i u) c i h -c ) s c i h - c l h - h - h i cd h - o q cd p h cd h - h ci c d c) . ) h h - c i c i cd h c d c ) c i cd cd h i c l c d p i c i c d p i h l i c i h - h i cd cd < : h h - cl ) u) c i u) cd cd c i c i cd cd h c d - p cd c i h - h c d q u) li p c i o h p l cd c ) p c i p i h h - cd cd i— ’ c d — h c i i c d < c d c d c d c i h p s u) s - c l cd cu c d c l’ -< h li cd c i cd c i c i c i c i h h - cd cd h i p c i h i li cd d l ic i’ < p p p c i ii l- u) li h c ) < p cd c d c d u) ‘< c d h ic d c d u) u) h i what it says about german culture but also about “mexicans” - whether from the point of view of the mennonites or sauer himself. as with sauer’s notes on “indian” communities in the field, the mexican population enters in around the fringes as an external - and alien - force. in the case of the mennonites, sauer is concerned by the threat of mexican nationalism and its pressure for assimilation. while on sauer’s first visit to the mennonites in the mexican government is supportive of the colonies’ separatism, maintaining their right to self-educate (legislated in ), on his second visit two years later the situation has deteriorated. the government wants their schools to be operated by federal “maestros” and their own schoolteachers are forbidden to function. the mennonites are also given a working order that it is not healthy for them to live separately: they must disseminate, intermarry and “castellanizar” - the “fin patriotico” of the mexican government.’°° for sauer, this appears as an external corollary to the internal dissolution of mennonite “german” culture. indeed, the government is actively attacking their linguistic and physical distinction: the two traits that for sauer are the most germanic. the mennonites’ reaction is mobility: “thus the emigration commences”.’°’ sauer thus feels that he is this is difficult terrain as with the definition of “indian” above: sauer defines mexico as “mestizo” in the personality of mexico which makes the distinction of “mexican” and “indian” difficult. it is not always certain who sauer is referring to, but he does tend to distinguish between “indian” and “mexican” in his notes. sn b, p. . translated: “castellanizar” means to become spanish-speaking and “fin patriotico” means “patriotic goal”. ibid. witnessing “the beginning of the decline of the mennonite colonisation” - a spatial as well as a cultural “decay”. what is particularly interesting, however, is the way he chooses to conceptualise the exodus: “the humble mennonites have not established a sufficient gulf between them and the natives to take this with equanimity. they came to keep apart and thought it would be easier to do so in an alien than in a kindred culture, and now that they have the open threat of the design of the alien culture upon their souls and bodies, it gives them the jitters. if there is no land where they can build the reich mennos then far better back among the canadians. if they are to be subject to cultural absorption then at least let it come from worthier hands than the present.”° the mexicans are thus unworthy - they are not “kindred” to the blonde race of the mennonites (the anglo saxon of the canadians) ironically they are made “alien” in their own homeland. this is obviously the view of the mennonites, but sauer himself hints at a similar cultural comparison in his letter to moe. here he describes the mennonites as distinct from the masses: “islands of saxon peasants in a sea of brown-skinned mexicans”, german colonists “in the backwoods of the world”.’° fatherland? if the above quotation allows us to find the “mexican” on the margins of the “german”, it also takes us from an “eighteenth century” past to a “modern” germany of the s. in the company of antimodernists and displaced “germans”, we almost pass over the rhetoric of “reich” and “nordic stock” and miss the contemporary ibid. oc, sauer to moe, op. cit. significance of sauer’s cultural remarks. while it is true that the mennonite connection with germany was temporally and culturally distant and sauer himself only lived in germany for three years as a child, their rhetoric in exile was having political currency at “home” (germany). while not attempting to implicate sauer in the germany of the s, a repositioning helps to show that what may have been framed as antimodern debate in mexico was more modern in the german “fatherland”. this is a particularly important point because, although frequent reference is made to the german (philosophical) heritage of sauer’s cultural geography, none is made to the political context in which this “heritage” developed. while sauer was drawing on imagery of land, soil, folk and home to define the mennonites at the local level, the national socialists were using the same rhetoric to essentialise the german nation could only find very few hints in sauer’s notes and correspondence on contemporary germany, for example in relation to the mennonites, shut off from the world: “hitler (abwarten) we’ve been told things before but if he has been doing the things they say, it’s a shame” (sn , p. ) and sauer later writing to donald brand about a german geographer - karl josef pelzer - who had left the “distasteful political situation” in germany and was interested in working on the mennonites (pc, sauer to brand, / / ). while the letter says little in itself, it serves as a reminder that any discussion of mennonites, sauer and german identity in mexico needs to be repositioned. see kenzer, , op. cit., pp. - and speth in kenzer (ibid., pp. - ): both focus on sauer’s connection with goethe and document his connection with german romanticism but fail to provide the context for the development of these currents of german thought or the use of romantic notions in political ideology. see woodruff smith, , for an excellent and politically aware alternative: in his study of politics and the sciences of culture in germany, he puts questions of philosophical influence in the background and concentrates instead on the political ideology of “culture” in german scientific discourse. under the third reich. they found inspiration in the anti- materialist “volkish” movement of the nineteenth century, associating themselves explicitly with the german heritage that had formed at least part of sauer’s “weltanschauung” at an early age. however, rather than inform a generic identification with peasant peoples, the “yolk” under the national socialists came to take on a specifically national and racial connotation.’° humankind was seen as divided into a hierarchy of mutually exclusive and irreconcilable racial categories with the german “aryan” (nordic?) race at its apex, convinced of its own superiority. at the same time, images of land and soil were used to locate the aryans naturally in the german “i-leimat”, in harmony with the natural world: rooted in the cultural landscape, they were there to stay. these images of racial purity and permanence, according to mark bassin, “formed the essence and rationale for the national socialist movement”: legitimately “at home” in german soil, the aryan “yolk” could provide a justification for the nazis persecuting the “other” in both domestic and foreign policy - it defined their non-aryan enemy on the european stage. thus the very question of german identity was at issue - politically charged - and increasingly crucial as the nazi party as bassin (op. cit., p. ) notes, the notion of the “yolk” crossed over with the development of racism as a science at the end of the nineteenth century which stressed the primary importance of inherited genetic qualities and the immutability of races making environmental factors irrelevant. ibid., pp. - . ibid., p. . under hitler took germany into the second world war. the image of the yolk was joined by other legitimating concepts such as ratzel’s “lebensraum”, which, stating that as part of nature humankind (as yolk) must search for living space (colonisation), provided the password for nazi expansionism. as woodruff smith shows, the romantic imagery of “bauer, yolk and kultur” fed into german imperialism with “a real and terrible effect”.”° nazi germany seems far away from sauer and the mennonites in chihuahua - perhaps this is the point - but it is not so distant as it appears. the “vôlkerwanderungen” and imperialism of ratzel’s lebensraum is not so far from viewing the mennonites as “german colonists” in the mexican “backwoods of the world”. indeed, ratzel, the “grandfather of german geopolitik” and “one of the best known academic imperialists of the turn of the century”,’ was in what is almost a mirror image of sauer’s culture history, smith describes the focus on the peasant as the foundation of culture - “bauer, yolk and kultur” - in the works of the german geographer ratzel in the nineteenth century (op. cit., p. ). the peasantry were essential to the notion of the german “yolk” for ratzel, their preservation crucial. on the one hand, this connected ratzel to the literary romanticism of the time and the tendency to idyllise the rural, viewing “country life through deeply rose-tinted spectacles” (ibid.) . more importantly, however, it fed into ratzel’s later diffusionist theory and his belief in “migrationist colonialism” - the german peasant-emigrant taking the national spirit with him to “foreign lands”; a rationale of german colonialism in the s (ibid., p ). maintaining the importance of “the group, the nation, the yolk, the state”, ratzel later added the concept of “lebensraum” - intended as a purely scientific idea - to his diffusionist corpus (ibid., p. ). ibid., p. . bassin, op. cit., p. . smith, op. cit., p. . also, according to james duncan, “considered by sauer to be the father of [his?] cultural geography”.’ temporally, sauer’s visits to the mennonites were in synchrony with the rise to power of the nazis, although he and they constituted contemporary germany as a world apart. like malinowsk± in the field among the trobrianders, sauer must have been overcome at times “by a terrible melancholy” at “things. .going on back there”;” must have further questioned his german identity and ideas in the face of the rise of the aryan race; worried about the separation of academics and politics as geography turned to geopolitics. or perhaps the point is that he did not see, or chose not to:” compass set firmly “south by southwest”,” perhaps he duncan, op. cit., p. . sauer’s intellectual debt to ratzel has been frequently emphasised, in particular by sauer himself. peter jackson notes that sauer’s work was “heavily influenced by the german cultural and historical sciences (geisteswissenschaften) “ and that it was from the german classics, for example ratzel, that sauer “derived his perspective on culture and landscape”(op. cit., p. ). similarly, james duncan states that: “sauer acknowledged his intellectual debt to the german cultural geographers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, especially ratzel. .“ (op. cit. p. ) . sauer’s focus on culture area and diffusion was in part attributed to ratzel and, in interview, sauer talked of how his introduction to ratzel through lowie had given him “an opening on the geography of the life of primitive peoples” that he “might not have gotten into” without this “accidental connection” (sauer, pers. comm. (v) , op. cit.) sauer goes on to situate ratzel as journalist-turned-geographer in the united states and as a potential “father of ecology” if he had continued longer. it is interesting that this summary takes us away from ratzel in germany and from ratzel as political journalist as well as geographer (smith, op. cit., p. ). in geertz, op. cit., p. . we need to remember that sauer’s experience as a german american during world war one in the midwest was not a positive one, so that his identification with a german past might be a reaction to his implication by others in the german present. in his notes sauer talks about his “black boyhood year” which may be turned his back on modern political germany and looked to the mennonites for a. german identity from the past. perhaps that is why he was so disappointed.” the other mexico if sauer’s antimodernist perspective was responsible for a partial fixing of “indian” and mennonite communities as cultural home, it also gave him a critical outlook on the “rest” of mexico. “mexicans”, as we have seen, seemed to be constituted by sauer in opposition to both “indians” and mennonites: mexicanisation was a threat to the “true” premodern personality of the country. what we find in sauer’s notebooks and correspondence, therefore, is a division between a “historical” and a more “contemporary” mexico, the former associated (as seen above) with the cultural spaces of the rural and the latter with the more urbane. while sauer identifies with the peasant cultures of rural mexico, he rejects their modernising urban counterpart, often epitomised in the form of mexico city. in opposition to the “indian” and mennonite communities, harbingers (at least partially) of the “folk” ideal (idyll?), sauer portrayed mexico city as corrupt and unclean. it was, said sauer “a sort of punchiuck paris with much ostentation and equal poverty and dirt” a reference to the difficulties of the earlier war. mathewson in kenzer, op. cit. sauer appears here as paul carter’s ( , op. cit., p. ) “self-styled custodian of. . . culture” standing “in relation to the living (both here and there) as a ghost”: neither finding the identity he is looking for in the german home (lost and left behind) nor in the mennonite alternative. and he liked “the smaller mexican towns much better and also the country people.” mexico city was full of “politicians” and “military men” - the “slickers” of the modern -and it was here, in contact with the corrupt, said sauer, that his “suspicion of institutions became hardened into an aversion”. writing to joseph willits of the rockefeller foundation, sauer saw politics and academics too closely tied in mexico city: “of any endowment placed in the hands of any mexican organisation, i should be sceptical. mexican politicians can’t leave plum trees alone” and risked the “sweeping generalisation” that his “mexican friends” were basically dishonest.’ they had, maintained sauer, “lived so long in mexico city that frankness [had] been suppressed in them” and he went on to state: “if i want a straight from the shoulder judgement about somebody or something there, i can get it from spanish refugees, ex-germans or ex-austrians, but i can think of only one mexican in mexico city who doesn’t immediately pull the blind across his mind.” virtually all of mexico city’s population, save its (european) immigrants was thus written off (generalised/essentialised) as untrustworthy. in addition to dishonesty, mexican cities were charged by sauer as prone to a “type of lechery”. sauer located the “white meat complex that exposes any white woman to risk in mexico” in the cities. while he has seen this theme revoltingly pc, sauer to leighly, op. cit., / / . pc, sauer to willits, / / . ibid. pc, sauer to willits, / / . ibid. expressed in “contemporary mexican literature”, he maintains that it is unheard of in the “unilluminated provinces” where the main problems are bouts of banditry and agrarian unrest. in spite of this comment, rural areas are rarely seen as politically unstable by sauer in his notes, the cities tending to provide the backdrop for political unrest, for example on “a muggy sunday in ameca”: “town was full of armed agraristas, federal government having sent a thousand rifles to them in the last two weeks. undoubtedly connected with the expulsion of the callistas from power and recalls the return of the latter in ,, the mexican as dirty, dishonest, lecherous and politically unstable was a familiar refrain in american images of its southern neighbour. while some, as we have seen, conceptualised mexico romantically, focusing on its “indian” communities, others preferred the “greaser” personality for a more negative portrayal. cecil robinson notes that some american literature of the s continued to show disgust at the “stock image” of the mexican: violent, lazy, politically disruptive, unhygienic and drunk.’ sauer’s own “sweeping generalisation”, although perhaps not so extreme, certainly seems to draw in part on these negative mexican traits of the time. however, what is interesting in sauer’s case is that these traits are not so much part of a united states/mexico opposition, defining the distinction between countries, but a pc, sauer to kelly, / / . snl b, p. . see cortes in coatsworth and rico, , pp. - and robinson, op. cit., pp. - and - . robinson, op. cit., p. . rural/urban one. sauer channels negative traits into the urban - makes them territorially distinct - and thus uses them to support the alter-image of rural premodern mexico. by associating the negative rhetoric of the “greaser” with the cities, sauer is able to portray his “other” mexico as distinct. the negative mexican image thus acts as a foil for a more “folkish” rural counterpart that sauer can then identify with as “home”. mexico’s cities are not only taking on the negative characteristics of the mexican but also, and more importantly, of the modern. the crucial distinction for sauer appears to be, as always, between the “yolk” of the rural space and the slickers of the modern urban and mexico’s personality - written up as the former, written off as the latter - is moulded to fit this refrain. in mexican culture we thus see a replay of sauer’s experience of modernisation spatially displaced onto cultures of the city and the country. pushing the modern and the political into the cities allows sauer to resituate himself and his work in the antimodern and the apolitical. sauer’s ability to portray mexico as a premodern personality was not only aided by this rejection of mexican cities but also of mexicans in cities in the united states. ironically, parallel to sauer’s passage to antimodern mexico, mexicans were moving into the united states for the modern, attracted by the very urban this was obviously a very different kind of mobility to sauer’s. see clifford in grossberg, op. cit. for a discussion of the privileged connotations of the label “traveller” and the difficulties of applying it to groups such as mexican immigrants moving out of economic hardship to the united states. landscapes sauer was trying to escape.’ mexicanisation was not only a process of self-fashioning within mexico itself (that sauer avoided) but in the immigrant neighbourhoods of californian cities where other “mexicos” were being defined and delimited.’ this period, as clifford notes, was one of in which american cities developed as spaces of “cultural connections and dissolutions” with “local authenticities” meeting and merging in “transient urban and suburban settings”.’ ° thus, while attempting to keep the personality of mexico apart from the modern, it was being defined through it in the cities of sauer’s university state. sauer, with his turning away from the californian urban scene - “too complicated” - was able to silence/ignore mexico as change across the border and root it as continuity in the “field”.’ ’ diego rivera in deplar, op. cit., p. talking about california: “the splendid beauty of your factories.. .the charm of your native houses, the lustre of your metals, the clarity of your glass”. in the s, there was a large outflow of mexicans to the united states, almost doubling its mexican population and causing a “presence” in california that inspired racist ferment. see deplar, op. cit., p . clifford, , op. cit., p. . one question which arises from this separation out of mexican and american culture is what sauer would have thought of the chicano movement: the culture of the “borderlands” coming into prominence academically and politically today. for clifford (in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. ), the border is a place of “hybridity and struggle” and implies the “subversion of all binarisms”: would this have entered into sauer’s imagined geography or would he have erased it in the same way that he turned his back on cities and on the modern? in some ways, sauer could have contributed to the chicano movement. robinson notes that the united states needs a “real history” and literature that includes its hispanic southwest and does not just begin with the mayflower; it needs to balance its german and british elements with its spanish (op. cit., p. ). robinson’s citation of chapman that borderlands “how can a life on a border be other than restless?” while sauer may have published mexico as a singular personality, in the “field” this disintegrates into a set of multiple associations and disassociations, a complexity that is to be expected given sauer’s own self-fashioning: a “restless” identity drawing on (or defining against) the united states, germany and mexico. positioned ambivalently in the “field” amidst culture as antimodernist, sauer cannot be said to either fully escape the modern or fix others as its antithesis. while with the “indian” communities sauer’s focus on the antimodern takes him into the modern, with the mennonites he only obscures the modern. in both cases, he approximates but does not achieve his antimodern goal. by reconnecting with his antimodernism, sauer’s pronouncements on culture in the “field” become not only about mexico but also about sauer himself: we increasingly get the sense that we are dealing with the “country within”. for adams and morris, mexico has always been the “sounding board” for american sensibilities, becoming a different country for each visitor;’ for cortes, it is metaphor, “our weimar is ready, perhaps, but goethe is lagging” (ibid., p. ) seems almost an invitation to an alternative application of sauer’s work on the hispanic culture of the southwest. this would provide a nice counterpoint to sauer’s regimental reading of the united states/mexico border at the beginning of this chapter. greene, , p.’ . see adams, , pxi. adams’ statement that mexico has always been “invasion-prone”, passive and awaiting definition from outside is however extremely problematic, connoting a politics of subordination that allows mexico to be (justifiably) entered and boosting the image of the us as a whole.’ more specifically (and pertinently for sauer), robinson labels mexico as a critique of and “compensation” for the united states, “much resorted to by american writers” opposing their own society.’ similarly deplar points out the tendency to constitute the united states as lack and mexico as fulfilment: mexico represents “vaguely from afar” something the american traveller “lacks and craves” and “more deeply and vaguely” seems to be his.’ in a sense, then, like the mennonites, sauer appropriates mexico on his own terms as homeland, marginalising mexicans from this image by associating them with the modern. as with his appropriation of the “field” as authority, sauer thus also claims mexico culturally by conjuring up the rural landscape as “home” and the rural cultures as “folk”. as david spurr notes, the act of appropriation is often concealed by cultural memory and a notion of the past: “not acknowledged as itself, but as a spiritual return, a nostos, summoned not only by historical vision but by the nature of the land itself.” the “field” is thus imagined as familiar terrain, homeland, if only ambivalently. controlled (ibid., p.xiv). cortes in rico and coatsworth, op. cit., p. . robinson, op. cit., pp. and . deplar, op. cit., p. . spurr, op. cit., p. . chapter six: south america. . . innocent abroad?’ “soon after coming to berkeley as head of the geography department in , carl sauer chose mexico and the american southwest as his field laboratory. although he had often wanted to visit south america, his only extended trip to the southern continent was that financed by the rockefeller foundation in . ,, “he will imagine he has no politics and will consider that a virtue. in , the year after the personality of mexico was published, sauer wrote that he felt he could understand the problems of mexico and was ready to use this as a comparative base for elsewhere. his opportunity arose in the form of an offer from joseph willits of the rockefeller foundation: did sauer want to spend a year or half a year studying what he would in south america while involved in a project assessing its social sciences? sauer replied affirmatively: he would visit all the countries of the west coast, reporting to the foundation on interesting men and ideas in the social sciences and making his own observations and recommendations along the way. he was thus set to continue his trail from mexico “innocent abroad” is the label on sauer’s notebook for his trip to europe with his wife but is used more critically here. west, , op. cit., p. . pratt, , op. cit., p. . oc, sauer to moe, / / . pc, willits to sauer, / / . west, , op. cit., p. states sauer’s own objectives on the trip as carrying out observations on the relationship of climate and soils to land use and the stimulation of studies by local workers in agricultural geography and culture history. while in this chapter i am more concerned - as usual - with sauer’s to the south. leaving berkeley by train on december , , sauer (accompanied by his son and assistant, jonathan) was at sea for twenty days, calling at various ports along the way. he arrived in santiago on january and spent two months in chile, eight days in bolivia, forty-five days in peru and one month in ecuador and colombia respectively. on the first of july, he flew to mexico and returned to berkeley by train. this travel south from mexico into south america provides a vehicle for a rich consideration of sauer in relation to the preceding chapters. on the one level, we see a replaying of sauer’s cultural-academic positioning from chapter one - the geographer looking for cultural particulars and endorsing intellectual freedom and an apolitical stance. this, however, proves paradoxical within the institutional context of the rockefeller foundation which appears more as counterweight to sauer than supportive funding body: not just in the sense of an institution versus an individual, but also the modern versus the antimodern. although this paradox is in part mediated by the introduction of joseph willits, the ‘face” to the foundation - a fellow antimodernist that allows sauer to attempt a by-pass of institutional constraints - it is further complicated by the move from mexico to south america and the contemporary political climate. leaving behind the familiar territory of the mexican “field”, sauer experiences a crisis of hidden agenda, sauer’s reports to willits are extremely rich and may be read informatively in a variety of ways. authority on new ground and, caught up in the all-too-present moment of the second world war, finds it harder than ever to look to a depoliticised past. while, despite these doubts, sauer manages to reinstate (and take refuge in?) a sense of cultural diversity and apolitical “home”, i attempt a further destabilisation by repositioning him amidst the universal and the political. indeed, by blurring the boundary between sauer and the foundation, i lead into the conclusion with the question how far the view of sauer as antimodern man of the margins can be said to hold. particulars and paradox sitting on the plateau of new mexico in , “looking out at the little green valleys and the juniper-covered rock”, carl sauer had written to henry allan moe of the guggenheim foundation of his hostility for “new york, l.a.” indeed for “the common values of civilisation.” sauer’s “mood” instead, he said, was for latin america: “a big part of the world” that showed “less tendency to march under one ideology”. rejecting the universalising drive of the modern - “call it ‘personality’ of a land, genre de vie, yolk and raum, pluralism of cultures”: sauer claimed to start with the particular. at the same time, he turned his back on the political: cultural personalities were, for him, “far more important” than “all the words” about politics or international relations. it seems that sauer, almost twenty years on from his move to berkeley oc, sauer to moe, / / , op. cit. true to fieldworker form, sauer continues to reflect from a “vantage point”. ibid. and with twelve years of mexican’fieldwork behind him, was still singing the same antimodern tune. it is ironic, then, that given sauer’s championing of the particular over the universal, his further move into latin america two years later should be funded by the rockefeller foundation. in his correspondence, sauer often found himself at odds with this institution, especially over matters concerning cultural diversity. writing to stacy may of the foundation in , sauer set out what he considered to be the major dilemma of the social sciences at the time, polarising their universalising trend and his own time and place specific form of particularism. he aligned the foundation’s interests with the former and seemed to conclude that his views and theirs were diametrically opposed: “this dilemma. . .of not being able to make ourselves understood to each other. i am not sure that it doesn’t go back to two quite different cosmologies, that it may not be the conflict between the one god and the pluralist world. some such gulf does separate the people in the social sciences. on the one side are the universalising thinkers, on the other side the particularists. the one group deals with formal logic and the workings of the mind, the other is concerned with the logic of events which are forever conditioned by a framework of time and place. it is milton against goethe, perhaps st. paul against the greeks.” ° sauer rejected the programmatic strand of the social sciences and, by implication, the normative interests of the foundation; his this theme was elaborated on in sauer’s later article dominant folkways in the social sciences (in leighly, , op. cit., pp. - ) where he continued to oppose the universalists with the particularists. this opposition is destabilised when sauer’s own form of universalism is brought to light later on in this chapter. oc, sauer to may, / / . once again, we see sauer making use of religious terminology as part of his antimodern rhetoric. solution: an inevitable divorce - i suspect that we shall have to go our own way as we know it.” this, it must be said, sits uneasily with the partnership of . further irony arises from the fact that sauer should undermine international relations and politics in his letter to moe and then travel in association with the rockefeller foundation. it is true that some have underlined the purely philanthropic nature of the foundation’s work, presenting it as a disinterested body with an open attitude to knowledge. raymond fosdick, for example, summarises the foundation’s role as: “to support the institutions or groups where able men were working fruitfully and intelligently on significant issues” and insists that this was its only aim: “it was interested in no device” and “had no nostrum to sell”. others, however, are less generous in their appraisal of the foundation, tying it into american cultural hegemony. edward berman takes a critical approach to rockefeller rhetoric and actions and concludes that the foundation is highly political, a “silent partner” of united states foreign policy interests and state capitalism: “the fat boy in the philanthropic canoe” in fact, in some ways, it seems paradoxical that sauer - the ‘ ibid. fosdick, , p. . berman, , p. . intellectually free traveller’ - should want to be part of a rockefeller research project at all. in his correspondence, sauer’s notion of the trail rather than the bounded “field” of academic study contrasts with the more methodical and circumscribed expectations of the foundation. while sauer argues: “i think. . . that the foundation should support persons of high ability and originality in what they want to do, whatever that may be” , the foundation expects a “more specific definition of scope and implications of activities”.’ in this sense, the academic “field” is bounded by the limitations of the foundation: their scholars are not free to follow the trail. rereading sauer’s letter to moe against this contradictory see the introduction for the discussion of sauer as reluctant to bound the academic “field” of geography and also chapter three for sauer’s emphasis on intellectual freedom in the mexican “field”. oc, sauer to berrien, / / . william berrien was the assistant director of the humanities division of the rockefeller foundation at that time. cc, berrien to sauer, / / . while this chapter is concerned with the relationship between sauer and the rockefeller foundation and how this speaks to sauer’s antimodernism, an equally interesting line of pursuit would be sauer’s relations with henry moe and the guggenheim foundation. the latter funded some of sauer’s work in the “field” in mexico and sauer in turn was on the board of the foundation from in an advisory capacity re: its work and policies and scholar selection process. moe, like willits, stood as a “face” to his institution for sauer and corresponded with sauer on similar themes, for example the separation of academics and politics. finally, while in this chapter i concentrate on sauer’s letters to willits and how they betray his antimodern leanings, sauer’s reports to the guggenheim foundation on potential scholars are equally revealing. background thus leaves us with the rockefeller funded trip to south america as paradox: sauer the self-styled apolitical, academically free cultural particularist jarring with a political research body and champion of the universal; turning his back on new york and interacting with one of its symbols at the same time. if the foundation and the paradox appear new, the story is familiar: it is, it seems, “the old themes and causes relived” - sauer the antimodernist fighting the cultural and academic trends of the modern. how, then, was an alliance between sauer and foundation - antimodern and modern - possible? the face while sauer often clashed with the rockefeller foundation as a body, the institution had a “face” that he could relate to: that of joseph willits. willits was the director of the social sciences division at the time of the south america trip, sauer’s closest contact in the institution, one of his main correspondents, his advocate and his friend. sauer’s interaction with willits was thus much more symbiotic in nature. with willits as mediator, the stark opposition between sauer and the foundation becomes increasingly destabilised: “rockefeller” comes to denote not only institution but individual. while the foundation, as we have seen, drew boundaries and reminded sauer of his place, willits sought to decrease the dictates and set sauer along the trail. for willits, it was sauer’s ideology, rather than that of the foundation, that seemed to hold currency: sauer in west, , op. cit., p. . “if anybody is the patron, it is cos - who lets us share his ideas. sharing dollars. . . is small business. . .pray let me continue to share your ideas.” thus, perhaps from sharing sauer’s “ideas” on intellectual freedom, willits’ offer for the south america trip was (or at least appeared to be) relatively open-ended: “do you want to go? if so, when? how much will it cost?.. .the itinerary is yours to decide”. ° empowered by willits and placed in a position of authority, sauer makes his claims for the trip ’ and advises willits against any mixing of academics with politics: the latin americans, he says, “will not respect us if we dissemble political ends under academic mantles”. willits in turn allows sauer to present himself - if misguidedly - as disassociated researcher and distances him from the foundation on the trip: “your study tour comes first - and any information for us is incidental. our point of view is about this: you and the others are not travelling as representatives of the rockefeller foundation or even under its auspices, but as scholars on leave from their universities making their own scholarly studies and investigations. ,, while in his professional correspondence - as evident in the above quotations - willits spoke often for himself and the foundation (“our point of view...”; “let us share your ideas”), he identified p, willits to sauer, / / . p, willits to sauer, / / . for example, that he wants his son jonathan to accompany him; that he wants one of his students, robert barlow, to be his researcher in preparation for the trip and so on. p, sauer to willits, / / . p, willits to sauer, / / . more personally with sauer at a different level. although one of the directors of a modern institution in new york, willits shared with sauer his sense of rural beginnings and, more importantly, his antimodernist leaning: “i wish you could see this spot, beloved of the willits family. out of my office window is the barn (this spot was the hen roost when the hayes family lived here) . i can look at as fine a view as a man with the blood of farmers in his veins and some early training as a geographer and as ornithologist could wish.” there was thus an additional bond between sauer in south america and willits in the united states that allowed them - at least imaginatively - to by-pass the more urbane image of the foundation: “i too love the country as you do. you indicate yours by wandering around the old spots in latin america; i make my little daily contribution travelling an hour and a half. . . in order to sleep in the woods and hear woodcocks.” sauer’s association with willits was not, however, simply an avoidance strategy, distancing himself from rockefeller rhetoric, but a stepping stone to an engagement with foundation policy. in his personal notebook for the trip, sauer reveals that he is relying on willits to work against the “block” of the foundation and to push through the importance of cultural particularity against its universalising trend: “i wonder if i can make him see that these things - all of which are only partly social sciences - are good to do. . . the factual equipment of the s.s. appears usually quite meagre and stereotyped, though his thinking apparatus may be excellent. the organisation of the rf may be a block - but willits if anyone can get around that. wish i had comment on the dozen letters i have sent in thus pc, willits to sauer, / / . pc, willits to sauer, / / . far. . . am fighting something and i don’t know what, perhaps the concept of the s.s. as normative without being aware that your norm is what you desire. the low curiosity of the s.s. as compared to the natural scientist is certainly mixed up in my attitude. unable to be a philosopher and sceptical of persuasion by words, i’m still trying to write always an apology for culture history.” the trip, for sauer, thus aims to collect cultural facts and to persuade willits and the foundation of the casualties of a normative approach. the letters are not, then, as robert west has written, sauer’s “first impressions” or “andean reflections” but planned comments with a transformative end in mind. aiming his argument at (and through) willits, the weakest link in the foundation’s chain, sauer has an agenda of his own. putting the contradictions of sauer’s institutional context to one side temporarily allows for a further exploration of the complexity of the trip. not only did sauer have to negotiate his position vis-a-vis the rockefeller foundation, but he also had to maintain his cultural agenda and apolitical stance in a new spatial (cultural) and temporal (political) context: south america in wartime. as shown below, sauer’s positioning became even more ambivalent as a result. new space: a crisis of cultural confidence in only his second report to willits from south america - still at sea - sauer began his cultural “offensive”: airing his views on particularity and providing a framework within which his letters n , p. l. west, , op. cit., p. . should be read. sauer was, he said, concerned about the way the social sciences and the foundation regarded culture and disappointed by their lack of curiosity: “i don’t think that there has been enough concern with the attitudes or values of the numerous peoples of the world. one of the things we most need is curiosity about other people and some competence to look at the world through their eyes. . . do insist that there is too much in each of the social sciences that is egocentric, in terms of culture, and that it isn’t that kind of a world. ,, the “great mistake” for sauer was the notion that “the data of culture” could “be universalized as well as the data of the physical sciences” • however, despite such a strong textual advance on foundation cultural policy - advising a move towards the “numerous peoples of the world” - sauer found himself doubting his own ability to move outside mexico: “as a physical geographer, i might, with sufficient preparation, undertake to study land forms or climate anywhere in the world; but as a cultural geographer, i cannot easily pass from one part of the world to another as a serious scholar. in one lifetime i may bridge the gap between my native culture and another, but hardly to many others.” ° travelling to south america, it seems, presented itself to sauer as sauer in west, ibid., p. . this statement of sauer’s seems extremely progressive for his time: a push for the equality of other ways of life over the cultural imperialism of the modernising western world. despite the critique aimed at sauer in this chapter and the limitations (as we shall see later) of his attempts to reintroduce other cultures, this progressive side should not be overlooked. ibid., p. . ° ibid., p. . a crisis of cultural authority. while - as we have seen in chapter three - through spatial and observational practices and sheer endurance sauer considered himself a voice of authority in the mexican “field”, he did not feel that he could enter south american space for the first time with the same legitimacy. ironically for sauer, wanting to introduce cultural diversity against the universal, he found himself trapped by the particular time and space of his “field”. in opposition to his authority in mexico, sauer thus articulated his self-doubt in the form of a reverse persona: the tourist, this time, rather than the fieldworker and a problematic vision rather than the clarity of observation in the “field”. scribbled (perhaps aptly) on the inside of sauer’s south american notebook, we find a less authoritative sauerian stance: “you can’t answer anything but you can ask a lot of questions.” ’ not grand: tour mexico, as we saw in chapter three, was sauer’s “field”, his realm of authority within which he was always the legitimate worker and never the tourist. sauer in south america, however, presents us with an image that is much less grand. according to james parsons, sauer’s foray was a “reconnaissance” that he “obviously enjoyed” but was “in no sense fieldwork”. it seems that moving south in was for sauer a repositioning towards a less authentic, less authoritative stance. the geographer, we must remember, could not be a “world tourist” travelling through many cultures and “knowing sn , p. . parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. only casually and doubtfully related things about any of them”. while in the “field” in mexico sauer had the authority of cumulative years of dwelling and travelling in the same territory, the trail in south america was taking him into new space and a terrain of uncertainty: thus, the south american experience, wrote sauer in his reports to willits, was a only a “tour”. in a complete contrast to his positioning in mexico, sauer thus went on to claim the status of tourist for both himself and his son jonathan. the sauers, he wrote, were “rank tourists” in comparison to the more sedentary and therefore more authoritative presence of other academics in the area. the latter had the cumulative knowledge and the endurance that the sauers - who would “flit along north by the end of the month” - did not have: this was not his, but their “field”. in chile, sauer thus associated himself with the dwelling space of the tour rather than the hardship of the field: “i almost fancied myself back at the murray hill hotel”. this self-positioning as tourist was not, however, completely continuous for sauer. although he never identified himself as sauer in leighly, , op. cit., p. . sauer in west, , op. cit., p.l . ibid., p. . sauer, as we saw above, passed very quickly through certain countries, spending only a number of days in some. ibid., p. . sauer’s association with the tour is textualised differently to mexico in his south america notebook. we are shown the process of getting there rather than beginning with the entrance to the “field”. perhaps, then, the traveller geographer becomes fieldworker through the bounded fact-notes of the “field” whereas the traveller-tourist writes up his experience in the open-ended narrative of the travelogue? - c - i - c ) j c - t c cd h - j cd i- cl ) c f -’ q .i - >< cl ) h cd c d c d f — c c )c )f i- c cd ii ( cd h - cd cl ) c ) h i q i - c d n c -i -c )h -c d — ft f t q q h u ) o h c d c- i- - h - i h h c l) ft ji i cd h - cd cl ) h h - f t c d h c d f t h - l - ’ - - t h h c d ( ci d c d cd < h - t h c l) c d c ) f t d i - h p j c d j h - ’ u ) p j > ‘c fl c d ft -’ p j fr c -i . p) h g - d ) c p j l ) f tf f - c d c) c f ) h - h -c f f — ’h f -’ -p j c) c -i -s i < f t c d p u )c d i- -’ c cl ) c- i t i- ) j f’ - cd h - c ) i- h - j i b i - h - h cd ( h -c d cd h - f t - ’ z c c) c- i cd h - f t c d h i— h h -c d s c cd h - i- cd h - cl ) i— ’ h c -i -c d -h - q i c d o c )ç -i - cd c h m - h - pi - cd c d u ) • c- i- h -u ) c d u ) p j - ’ c c ) = c d - f -’ c ) h o ic - i < h - pi f— -’ cd h - c) (l )w c d c ) c c d o c - i - c d ( c- i- : h p < d ) h - c ) c d c ) ) p j cl ) cl ) ci i ci i i h - cd (i) h c ) i— i, i- -- ’l - c- i- cl ) cd c -i -c c ) cd i- -’ h - p im p ) i- h , f- ’ f t • h cd cd c d - l- h , - ’ c-i - c d c -i -h cd cd c- i- c d ( - c- i c- i pi cd c d < c- i- ft h cd cl ) f tp i h - m h - h - h p j c-i - cd c) ci ) c c f- ’ h - h - c ) ft h - h - h - c fl ft ft u) cd c ) u ) c ft c ) h , c c d h - ii cd h f- ’ q _ p i cl) ft h , h p i h - ft c) c ) o s c-i - c d h h - ft m h - < c- i cd c d h - h c- i c! ) cd >< cd h - m c) - ft c cl) - i— ’c d h - ft c) -’ . c ) h - c d - m c ) ‘c d p c-i - h - h u ) p- ft h - c) cd cd u) p c) cd f- -’ ft - ’ c m - ’ cd cj ) - ’ cd c cd h - h - h h - h c) h - ft u ) cd cd f t h c cd • c-i - p h c cd - ’ cl ) cl ) h c p cd ft ih c cl ) p) cd cd = i- l-’ h p) c p u ) cl ) f- p cd h - cd s f u ) cd o h cl ) p- i h c cl) - cd cd i— i cd h , - ’ f- ’ - - cd c f- ’ cd h - c- i cd p ft c ft - c-i - ft cl ) cd p) p h ft h - - ’ f- - ’ o p cd h - p ( cl ) f- ’ cd c- i- f- cl ) - ’ m ft i- i— cd f- c) k < p ‘- < m k < c) h - ft p ft ft c s h - - cd c .q m c cd p ft h - ) ft (q c cl ) cd f t x j f t c c c d m i i - h cd q i [h p l h c f t f t ii h - c d c c d h h h ( c r c r i- i co cd c r i- ’ c l ) f t c h - c d c d ft h c - x j f t c d m c d h c ): i p -i ’ p f t( c d ) -’ c d p i ft c ) c d c d m m h h ,c d m u ) .— ] - f t h h c l ) c d ( cd c l) p j ft m c d s ip i m c ) c ) -c d f t h p- i c l) ’- d :- h c d (d c d h h - — c- i c l ) c c) c d d c h - m s f t h cd ft c d cc ] m h - cd cd j- _ q p ft cd (f lu ) ft -’ c - c -i u ) c d h p h ft pi h c ) c) o p ) - cd m o -’ u) h -c d h - c -i -s p k < h - - ’ h - l.q cl ) c d p ft c c ) w p c , h c d c f tc cl ) ( c-i - i- s m cd c d p c d c d ft ’- < c - . cd c d u ) c c d c d cd ft c d h c cd h , c-i - h , c l) h c- i cd h ‘< c d c d c! ) p c d c d m p u ) cl ) cl) cd i- cl) c) o ic ) h ft ic d i ix i f ti u c l) f l f t - i- < c d jh h o q c l) pi h i— ’p i z h - c d çi cl) cd p i h - h d cl) i - h cd h , (d c d h p ’ c d h h -e q c r f t f t s c :: cd c d c l) c l) h i- h - cl ) h h - f t tq h - c d t c l ) h h q i l i c l) pi cl ) cd h c ) - çt pj t h ct c d cd c) ‘ - - ‘ cd w ( d c ) c) rj h p c d h c l cd q ft r t c d ç t cl ) i- h h - ft c d i- i, h - pi cl ) cl ) h h c ) c d c ) h - c d p j h - p h ç r h - h ,i c) c l) i- p j - cd h - f t ct h q i j c t • f tc d cl ) p c = cl ) cl ) h c) h - cl ) cd c r f t cd c) h - cl ) h h cl ) p ‘• d cd s h p h : p - cd h p f t c l ) - - - h - h - h - c l) h , cd p c) — h cl ) k < c r rn h - h , r- h - c) c r ‘• d ç t i- p p ‘ - cd cd h - p cd cl ) h - p p .c - cl ) h - cl ) ;s h cd h l i c i- h - c) i• tj l.q u ) h pi cd h , cl ) c-i - c) cl ) h - w — cl ) c) h ft h - o cd i- cl ) h s h - c) p l p c) cd p - - cd h cl ) cd h - p f t - h - cd h - cl ) cd cd cd cd cd cl ) - h - f t cl ) c i- cl ) cd h cl ) h - c l cd h - cd h - ft h , - c r h - ?- • h - h p h - cd h h , h - h , c l- ; cd cl ) h ft h - cd s h - l- ; h cd p cl ) h cd h p h - o - s h , h () cl ) c r ‘ - ‘ cl ) n h - cd c) t ‘ - — cd cd h - cd >< cd h h - c) -- - p — u ) cl ) p — p cd - i- cd h , ‘ : u ) h - h - cd f t ft ft cd h cl ) h cd h - ft h - cd cl ) ft h , pj p h - h cl ) f t k < h c) h - h ft ‘- cl ) c r h - c) r- t ft h - ‘< i- i cd - - h - - cd p ft p p- , h - h h cl ) cd ;;‘ s f t p cd p c r h , < c) ( j_ c) f t cl ) c) t: ij l- p p ‘ p - ft h cl ) c) k < u ) h - p h cl ) h - h p c l- cd c) cd cd l i h - cl ) cl ) r r cd p cl ) c- r h - cd cl ) f t - p- . h , p h u ) h p - c r h p l cd cl ) i- p . . i — h h u ) h - h - - , cd • - i- h - d cd - cl ) ft p h n c) h - ft — u , h - c) h cr h h - h , c d c d p u ) cl ) c ) f tc - r h - - q - l- ft d p i q r h p cd h ‘d - - c d h z cd h - cd q ft h - p - ’ c d cd h p j p i - k < < (q c c fl -, c ) f t c) p c ) c d o p - , p i h , f - f t h q - h h - h c d p h - c ) ct ) ft s p p f t h f- r = cd cd ft c d - u ) i— ’ h c d p h - - p ‘- i- - c l) c d p f t h cd c d s h , cd c l ) h - t j. c d f t ft - c d h -c d c )c d h - ’ l-q p c c r i - cl ) f t h . k < h - f t p cl ) cl ) cl ) k < cd p h - cl ) ft c ) h h - ci ) c) c r cd cl ) c d c d cd - ft h , h cd h - h , h - h c d p h f t cl) h , cd r h - c d h p ih -c d ft i- j ( q c ) h , cl ) cd h ft c r h - cd c r cl ) - s c d c d without the security of the science of observation of the field, sauer has to come down (at least partly) from his vantage point and admit (if reluctantly) that his vision is unclear. as with the rhetoric of the tour, however, sauer remains ambiguous. with some security - perhaps from mexico as basis for comparison - sauer accompanies his doubts with cultural synopses. in callao, sauer finds cultural “pallor common”: the people “soft spoken” and “much given to the use of their arms in speech”, whereas the chilotes, on hearsay, are “very moral and industrious”, owning their land and feeding themselves. sauer sets up a hierarchy of cultures, his most frequent comparison being that between mexico and chile in which the chileans are the seen as the “extreme of race” and their language “vile”: “with the wisdom of my three days’ experience in chile, i’d rather be a mexican; that is partly because i think the mexican enjoys life more.. .these chilenos are dapper and disciplined, but they are not lusty, like my mexicans. (i see i’m getting in deeper and deeper, so here goes off the deep end.) they dress carefully, they run their trains on time, they don’t bay at the moon. . . ‘ although sauer’s views lack clarity, however, this does not mean that he does not still aspire to the “vantage point view”. in opposition to the “vantage points” in sauer’s mexican notebooks, sauer’s vision is often unclear in his south american notes. sauer is more speculative and imaginative, uncertain of what he sees from the ship and also mists often obscuring his view. this notion of mexico as secure basis for authority is, of course, itself spurious: as we saw in chapters three and four, sauer’s created authority in the “field” was not without its loopholes. sauer in west, , op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . thus, despite his lack of descriptive authority on new ground, sauer attempts a cultural commentary. although sauer’s self-doubt is not absolute, its expression as tourist “scratching” at culture feeds into a wider anxiety in the letters as to the foundation’s use of his ideas. sauer reiterates to willits that he is “just the impressionist now, watching the faces, the gaits, the gestures, the remarks that are passed.. he cannot be a serious scholar in unknown space and limited time: “i’m just giving you my mixed reactions as they come along. it is impossible to come here, a complete stranger, and size up the intellectual currents properly in a few days.” when willits writes to sauer that he has shown the letters to his acquaintances, sauer fills his response with qualifiers and draws in full on the imagery of his hasty touristic passage through south america and his inadequacy as a painter of culture: “i am very pleased to get your letter, and pleased no end to hear that you have found things worthwhile in my observation. i hope that these friends of yours who have seen my letters will not get the idea that sauer makes rash and sweeping generalisations wherever he alights in his hasty passage through andean lands. there is, i think, some value to first impressions, if they are understood as being only such. the business of appraising the worth of individuals is mostly beyond the possibilities of such a reconnaissance trip. sometimes i think that even the matter of making notations on the intellectual atmosphere of a place is pretty presumptuous. in apology, i can say that i think i do have a comparative basis out of my long mexican experience, and that i should have some ability to understand not only what is being said but what is being meant. it is all pretty sketchy, however, and i do not have too much confidence in the sketches i have tried to draw. . . it all seems pretty futile at times, but i know of nothing else to do than expose these impressions, with almost constant ° ibid. ibid., p. . misgivings, as recording my reconnaissance.” sauer’s cultural impressions, as we have seen above, are indeed “sweeping generalisations” - in more ways than one, as i will show - and, as we shall see later in politicising sauer, his caution against the interpretation of his sketches as fact is extremely prophetic. here, however, we turn to a second round of self-doubt: from sauer’s spatial-cultural dilemma to his temporal-political - the separation of academics and politics contemporary with world war two. now time: a crisis of political abstinence sauer’s early reports to willits were not only a forum for his cultural agenda but also for his views on the separation of academics from politics. the realm of the scholar, wrote sauer, had to be divorced from that of the state - the worlds of caesar and god could not be allowed to meet: “my view of the scholar’s obligations is that he should ‘render unto caesar the things that be caesar’s but that his primary concern be not with them.” the primary concern of the scholar was a non-aligned search for truth, itself “neither a belligerent nor a tribal god”. there was a need for “detached observers” to take “the long view and the cool view”, scholars who could be objective and stand away from the ibid., p. . pc, sauer to willits, op. cit., / / . this is reminiscent of the mennonites and their rejection of caesar, the state. “thick of the strife”. here, sauer was not speaking generically, simply reliving his old apolitical theme, but had a specific subtext to his commentary: the political moment of the second world war. the united states had just entered the war and were battling in the pacific as sauer sailed slowly through on “the imperial” on his way to south america. therefore, for sauer, it was not only imperative that he return to his apolitical refrain but that he also insist on his own distance from the contemporary “strife”. the world of the present, wrote sauer, was not “exciting” for him; the events were not “tangible”, the “business” too unreal for him to think with awareness of the united states at war. couching the political context in euphemism, he refused to think of it head-on: “the warm pacific is swishing by my porthole and it is time to go up and see if there are any signs of lower life on the deep, or perchance, and we hope not, of that higher form that is rumoured as being about on unpacif ic business.” and, writing to willits from south america, he claims escape: “we are far out of your world.” sauer in west, , op. cit., pp. - . this ship is quite ironically named considering sauer’s denial of the political nature of his travel. sauer in west, , op. cit., pp. -la. ibid., p. . ibid., p. . sauer turns instead to his book, the golden bough: its consideration the whole world and human time perhaps allowing him to escape the here and now of the north pacific. the notion of fieldworkers taking refuge in literature is not novel - see geertz discussion of malinowski, op. cit., p. . c) c j q h , q cd ‘ cd h - cd c! ) i- q c) h cd - c i h - c i h ’ cd i— i h i c-r j c i ‘- < cd h - h - - cd h c i cu c) • cu h - h cd cd h - cd h h • w h h - h - cd cd cd h cu h cd c) cd p cd c) cl i h , < h - cd cd cd h , c) c) c) cu cd cd h - h cd c) cu c) c i cd h m h cd cl i h - h ci h - h - c) cd c) c i cu cd cd h - l h , cd h - c i cd cd q cl i h - h - c i c i cd cd c) - iq cd cd h c i i cl ) cu q ci c) h - cl ) cu cu h , < c i cd cd c) - cd h , h - cd cu h h c i h h ’ cd h c ” ci ‘d cl i c i i- i- h ’ cl ) c i cd cd cd h cd - h i- ’ cd cd h cd ‘ cd h w c) cl i q c) q = cl ) d d h h - b cd cd h , cu o cd cl i cd c ’ cd cd l- h cd cd h - cd h ’ cd i- h - cd c i h - c i h - c i cd cd cd h - cd cd cd l- cu c i cu c i i- h - c i < cd cd cu < h h - h - b h cd cd cd cd c) h - c i h - c) i- ‘- cd cl ) h cu i— ’ - q h cd - o cd h - ‘< h h - c) h - h c i - h - h cd cl i h - < cu h , cd cd cd : cu cd h q cl i ci c i c i - cu h i cd h - cu cd cl ) - cd c i h - c i h - h - q c) h h - cd c i cd c i c i cd • h , cd h cd z cd h - cd cd cd cl i h i- h - h cd cd cd c) cl i c i cl ) cd o h - cd c i cd cl i h c i cu h ô h cd c i h h - c i - h - c i cd h - h - cl i cd cd h - cd cd h cd - - h ‘ -. cd ‘ c i cd cd c i c i cd cu cu >< cd c) cd cd h - c ” h - cd cd cu h - cd c i cd < cd i- h , cl i cd h - cl i h - cl) cl i p cd h , cl ) h , p cl i h - cd cd h cd h - h - - cl i cd i cd cd h cd - cu h h - cd cd cu c) h , cu cu cd cd h cd cl i cc cd - c l c i h - cu h - iq cd cd cl i h c i cu cd cd h - s () h - cd cd cd h h - h , c i < h , cd h , cl i c) c-i - h - k < cd cd c) cd cd cd h cd h - cd cd h c i h cd h , h - cl i cd h - h - cd h - cd < c i h , cl ) i-q cd cd c i cu cd h - cd cl ) cl i - cd cd iq ii cd h - h cd c i cl i cd c l c l cu cd cu cd cd h - cd c i cu h i- h - cd h cl i cd h - cd b h z cd h cl i cl i cd cd c i h , s c i q c i - cu cd h - h - o c i c i c) c) cl i l cd cu f- ’ c l cu cd cd cd h - c i cd cd cu h ’ cd c i cd h , cu cu d c i < h , cu c) h , h , c i cl i h - c) cd cd cd h , h l- h - c i - - h c) c i h - i- h ’ h cd c i cd cu - c i ‘- < cd c i cd cd cu cd cd cd i cd s tendency towards an “egocentric” perspective. he thus positioned himself in opposition as “cultural discoverer” of south america rather than representative of american intellectual dominance carrying the “academic torch” to the south. as part of this positioning, sauer used his reports to willits as a vehicle for reinstating “indian” cultures against “white dominance” and protecting academic traditions - for sauer, very much a part of cultural particularity - against american intellectual inroads. passing through the countries along the west coast of south america, sauer frequently gave articulation in his reports to the cause of “indian” populations holding out against “white” culture. as in mexico, sauer shows himself concerned with native resistance versus the modern: aware (even ashamed) of the atrocities of the past, he places hope in preservation in the future. in cuzco in the peruvian highlands, sauer feels: .a little like the apostle paul must have felt about the macedonian christians. this is the heart of quechua country, this is the seat of incaland; the indian has taken and is taking a terrible beating from the white man and the latter’s civilisation”, but maintains that: “. . .they are badly bent but not broken.. .cuzco may yet be occidentalised, but i’m betting against it. the white man has had his will of the indian of the altiplano for years, and much of it has been and is shocking. but here... years are not enough to give assurance that the white man has the requisite staying power. ,, down on the peruvian coast, sauer later “discovers” a pocket of ibid., p. . “indians” - “scarcely cross-bred” - which he has never heard of and he feels has never been studied: here is a “going culture”, an “authentic culture” that has to be maintained. similarly, in bolivia, sauer finds four fifths of the population to be “pure indian”: vital, confident and far from being “deculturated”: • .the personality is not dragged out of these people; your eye is caught by the interesting and alert faces. there is meaning in the persistence of beautifully woven costumes; these people will not hide themselves in the white man’s shoddy or cast-off clothing.” finally, in ecuador - to his preservationist delight - sauer spots “indians. . .on every road” and writes to willits of their accessibility: “i can go round the corner from my room and bring you an indian with his hair in a braid in three minutes.m faced with such cultural persistence, sauer pushes for the academic study of “indian” populations, criticising what he sees as purist intellectuals who are not interested in such issues and impressing the value of those that are, for example don ricardo donoso, director of the national library and archives in santiago, who: “came to chile at to do engineering.. . got interested in the arancanians - lived with them. .made love to their girls. . .proud of the fact that he really lived with the indians. .his ethnologic interest was by direct and close association with the indians.” ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p.l . there are, of course, problems with sauer’s focus on the dignity, purity and authenticity of “indian” cultures. as in mexico, the questions of romanticisation - the “noble savage” - and essentialisation are crucial but, since they were explored in the last chapter, are here left relatively undeveloped. sn , p . sauer is concerned about countries like bolivia with a “largely unstudied. . . . culture” where the “indian” has not yet been “discovered” intellectually: the “literate bolivian”, he claims, has not yet learned to articulate “his homeland”. at the same time, however, given what he sees as the “unspoiled” nature of “indian” culture, sauer finds himself “not even sure that the americans or anyone else should move in on them”: “here lies appeal and risk. the appeal is that of a largely unstudied country and culture, of an economically largely undeveloped land. the risk is in such persons as the university president who is building a modern skyscraper. . . “ this notion of “americans” moving in was not only an issue for sauer in relation to “indian” populations but a threat to south american cultural variety as a whole. in his recommendations in his reports to willits, sauer continually criticises a strategy of american academic imperialism which would wipe out local ways of thinking and reduce diversity: the answer, he says, is not “by us”. sauer thus advises willits to support local intellectual development in situ rather than an overdominance by, or a transplanting to, the united states. the locals, sauer feels, have an insider perspective and a preparation for the conditions and sauer in west, , op. cit., p. . it is typical of sauer’s self-positioning that he does not include himself here as an american moving in on other cultures. sauer sees himself as passing through with no transformative potential and therefore the fact that he has “been having the time of his life. . . from grandee to pigtailed indian” does not, for him, sit uncomfortably with his critique of american intervention. ibid p ibid., p. . kind of work that is necessary: “we can’t all”, he reminds willits, “graduate from harvard or chicago and sit in the seats of the elect”. in fact, sauer is critical of american-led efforts to date in south america, in particular the andean institute which, he feels, “muffed its opportunity . . .woefully . . .because it was thinking of jobs for americans and benefits to american institutions” : “these fellows have come down supplied with money for field work, automobiles, living conditions, demonstrating that the us is the land of incredible wealth. they have done almost nothing in picking up potential native archaeologists or ethnologists and giving them a year’s experience, and they have hardly blocked out or tied into a feasible local program of investigation. it has been a great year of the american youngsters, but that is about all. . .none of these things seem to me to be a workable bridge to the future. nor does it seem to me that there is a very good answer in general in bringing the natives single or in groups to the united states.” similarly, in chilo& sauer is critical of american agricultural interests that are threatening the local: “the littler agricultural group imitates the bigger one. i fear that if you get enough cornell and california trained agriculturalists down here in south america you will wipe out the thousands of years of plant breeding.” for sauer, the united states is far better off using its plane space to send down academic aid - “editions of good american reference books and less-than-the-latest microscope” - than the ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . agricultural history went on to be sauer’s main interest in the mexican “field” in the late s. a m . h h h h h - h - h - h h w u i h o u i • w h d q ft ft p . c) ft d c) h i’ j cd i- c t j h - h ) cl ) h - c) h , iii f t h h - cd c) u) u ) h h - d h h - cd h i- i h - cd cd ) cd h - t cd < cd h h - h - . . c t- cd h - i- j ft cd cd u) cd f t ic- i- - h , h - h - u) h h - cl ) ih c) h h c- t- cl ) c) ( ) j cd ci ) f t h - c t i cd pi u) cd cd cd ii u) q f t h - cd pi c t ii- ’ ‘- < i f t h f- t h cd - f t cd c t h pi h h - c t h - h u) < cd cd h - h - cd c r - :) ‘ im pj h , pj h - h , h l i. c) h , cd c) ft u) h , p . cd h - cd ii - cd ft i ih h - h - cl) cd cd cd cd h ft - u) h p . h h - cd h i - p) u) u ) h - h pi h - h - h - u) c) ft ft cd p p j c d h - q pi h tc c t pj c) ft ft u) < cd h cd h cd ft p . cd c) u) cd - h cd cd p . p . h - cl ) u ) b h - h , h - u) cd p . h - cd cd cd ft q ft i- h - cd p . h - h cd cv p . c i h , gq u) pi i- h - ii p . cd p . h , cd cd h f t cd h h - h - h • ft cd h , h u) • u) u) cd h - ii v q - h , g u) cd • f- t c) u) cd ft h - ft - h - h - cd t c t p . u) ft u) h h cd cd h cd u) cd ft p . p . cv - h - h , h .q u) h - u) cd cd cd h ft h li i h cd cd h - h cd pi cd p . cv h - h - h - cv cd c t c t cd u) p . j u) d i h ft pi h < h , h - c t ct - - cv q cd pi ‘< cd pi u) h cd cd h c t h cv h - p . r- r pj cd cd h , < p . cl ) p . h - h - h - h - p . h u) h cd cd u) rn h - h - u) u) u) c) h - p c t c) u) h - cd s cd -q p p h , h - f t ci i h cd h ft h cd cd ci i h , c) h cd h - h - u) pi l- i- c) o p . u) cd u) cv p . cd cd cd p . u) c) h - c t ci i h ci i c t cd p . p . < cd h - h p - p . h - (j ) cd cd s pi h cd c- t cd p . p . h - h - - h p . h - cd cd ty c) ci i h - h h , cd u) c- t pi u ) h - u ) cd ‘ p . cd < f t cd cd cd u) p . h p . h - c) h - u) p h h h - c) cd h - c) u ) cd cd cd pi cd u) cd u) cd ci) c) t h , c! ) h ft cd cd ft b cd h h , ci ) f t ci i h , cd h - c d h , i ci) i- q q - h - cd p . cd h cd ci i ci i p . ci ) u) h u) h , i u) ft u) cd i- ft pi h even more to their credit in sauer’s mind, concepc±n and quito seem to hold out against american academic imperialism and retain a sense of distinction. sauer writes of concepcion that: “there is fruitful soil. . .there are biologists who work with anthropology. there is atenea, which touches intellectually on all latin america. there is an awareness of problems of culture history. there are good scientific habits and a research atmosphere” and, most pertinently, that “there is an awareness of a particular land and its people”. similarly, the “cult” of american academics is out of place in quito and this particularity, for sauer, has appeal: “two young holders of fellowships in social sciences from the us. . .practitioners of a strange cult, which the natives did not understand, and the meaning of which was in reality lost when practised in the midst of a culture completely foreign to the young disciples. ,, perhaps encouraged by his discoveries in concepcin and quito, sauer went on to reinforce the boundary between academics and politics in his final report to willits. written from berkeley (“turning over in my mind the past few days”) , sauer’s “summary statement” maintained the importance of “disinterested and free intellectual exchange”. it also, however - perhaps boosted by the new-found intellectual freedom of south america - defined the rockefeller “mission” in favour of “common intellectual interests” and positioned the foundation apolitically: ‘ ibid., p. . atenea is perhaps the title of an academic journal. ibid., p. . “the rockefeller foundation holds a position of advantage over any other organisation. it is not constrained by political ends as are government agencies. it is not restricted by charter as is, to date, the guggenheim foundation. it has, moreover, an enviable reputation throughout latin america. it is not suspect of ulterior motives. . . thus, through his journey in south america, sauer returned not only with the discovery of an apolitical academic “home” (concepci n, quito) but also having purged the foundation of any political affiliation. sauer, it seems - at least in his reports - felt satisfied with mapping south america as culturally diverse and intellectually free and positioning himself, by association, as particularist and non aligned. the boundaries, however, cannot be so clearly defined. if sauer managed to overcome his cultural and political doubts - his fear of “rash generalization” and the impossibility of the “detached observer” - they can be recaptured as prophesy and used to re-read sauer’s cultural commentary and his positioning on the trip. in this way, sauer is made to cross the divide and is brought closer to the universal, political and intellectually directed climate of the foundation than his initial self- posit ion±ng allows. mister universal? ibid., p. . in fact, however, sauer’s notion of the culturally diverse was itself highly political - the notion of the importance of the “indian” cause, of the battle of the local versus the united states - and therefore sauer was politicising himself, mixing academics and politics, at the same time that he was declaring (and finding hope in) parts of south american academia politically free. offering up his cultural-academic comments in his reports, sauer wrote to willits: “you will see that my mind works along descriptive-comparative lines, not along the lines of what is in the strict sense generalization. ,, sauer, as we have seen, considered himself simply the “impressionist”, presenting the particulars of south american space - the cultural and academic facts - as they came his way. however, bringing together sauer’s recommendations - the “indian” cause, the local intellectual, the “free” university - we begin to get a sense of an underlying generalization, one particular spatial trope recurring again and again: the capital/province division, a close relative of the by now overfamiliar city/country refrain. in his reports, sauer becomes quickly frustrated with the capital cities of south america: la paz is dismissed as “go-getter” and “professional” with “the skyscraper... a proper symbol of what is in the making” and lima, “urban and urbane” - “another capital that is growing furiously” - is similarly chastised. santiago in chile is also for sauer a “smug little metropolis” to which he will only give a limited amount of time: “i’ll give it the once over and then we’ll see the provinces”. sauer’s rhetoric even precedes his travel at times, his spaces of the imagination biasing him ibid., p. . ibid., pp. -s. ibid., p. . ibid., p. . against the cities: “i keep inagining that i am seeing the mexico of the glittering days of diaz. however, we have barely arrived, and i should have no opinions as yet.” by way of contrast, sauer claims that the provinces are more readable - “in a short time i can get more out of the provincial picture than from the capitals”. sauer advises willits to mark popayan in “with a red x” on his map “for the best of hispanic provincialism”. similarly, sucre is superior to la paz in / / bolivia, medellin to bogota in colombia and cuzco in peru to lima - the provinces continually triumph over the capitals. sauer’s reports thus begin to fit into a wider pattern. the “indian” populations are associated with the provinces, providing a cultural (and premodern) alternative to the cities. in the same way, provincial intellectual efforts are championed over the capitals: the prized university of concepcin “at the farthest end of the civilised world” and “a far cry from. . .metropolitan santiago”. concepcin is also appealing for its “indian” country to the south and “frontera” of german farmers close by: the cultural mix (remember mexico) should be familiar. it is sauer’s ibid., p. . the “days, of ]dlaz” refer to a period of mexican history under porfirio ldiaz ( - ) when the focus was very much outwards towards the united states, emphasising good economic relations, american investment and also an american presence in mexico (see deplar, op. cit., p. ). sauer in west, , op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . passage to the premodern continued. in a resurfacing of sauer’s antimodern rhetoric and spaces, then, the modern and political cities are rejected in favour of the provinces where the authentic cultures and the true craftsmen - the “academic folk” - can be found. what we find, therefore, is that sauer, although presenting his findings as particularity - in opposition to the universal orientation of the foundation -is in fact falling back on his own universal theme. as in mexico, the city and country trope (read: modern displacement) enters into sauer’s work and allows him to position himself on the antimodern edge. the boundary between mexico and south america, it seems, disappeared, all becomes a question of urbanity: where the particularist now? “the urbanity of the capital, mexico, santiago, lima, bogot, but if you do run across someone who can tell the difference between a piece of work and a flourish he’s not likely to belong to the urbanity. i may be extreme on the subject, but i do know my mexico and the rest are much like it.” ° perhaps in the face of the difficulties of moving authoritatively from mexico to south america - the problem of to speak about new cultures and new spaces - a return to the known was the only, if unconscious, alternative. on the other hand, as i have been arguing all along, sauer’s work was never separate from his own “passage to premodernity” and, in this sense, south america becomes another form of cultural and academic antimodern “home”. it is ibid., p. . ° ibid., p. . perhaps for this reason that, although isabel kelly wrote to sauer: “please come back to mexico. don’t be a dodo and bite on s. america; better return here, where you know the terrain, the people and the history: and where you can do a real job without having to start from scratch. what’s the point in building up such a background as you have if you’re not going to put it to constructive use?” , for him, south america had appeal. it was not, i think, just a question of authority. repositioning: departure, lourney, return sauer’s “provincial enthusiasm” in south america, as in mexico, not only allowed him to claim a form of cultural and academic “home” but also to push politics into the cities and declare himself as politically “free”. “i may once more tell you”, he wrote to willits, “that i don’t like the capitals”: there the “political slickers, the good time charleys, the hangers-on” - “the gravy train”, sauer felt, rolled “merrily in the political centers”. this self-positioning, combined with the earlier sense of separation from the foundation and the presentation of the foundation as working without “political ends”, allowed sauer to set himself up firmly amidst an apolitical context interested only in research. we do, however, have to return to sauer’s earlier doubts: the impossibility of an innocent positioning in such an “emotionally charged” situation. to begin with, the rockefeller foundation was pc, kelly to sauer, / / . ibid., p. . not so distanced from government work (politics, the state: caesar) as sauer supposed. during the war, american geopolitical concerns with hemispheric defense had turned foreign policy towards south america to further the allied cause, and roosevelt’s “good neighbour policy” sought to develop close economic and cultural ties with the continent. as part of the “good neighbour policy”, roosevelt had formed an office of coordination of inter-american affairs, of which nelson rockefeller was the head. thus the rockefeller foundation, moving south to assess its continental neighbour, was part of this strategic effort. in fact, while sauer describes those funded by the foundation in south america in as a “curiously assorted lot”, there was a very definite theme to selection if the contemporary political climate is taken into consideration. of the three others, one was a historian working on the background of the monroe doctrine (the united states declaration of hegemony over the western hemisphere) ; the second a geographer working on the acculturation of japanese immigrants in latin america (pearl harbour was bombed by the japanese on december , ) and the third an anthropologist working on the negro in brazil (at a time when the “negro” was being integrated into the wartime workforce of the united states) . with this context in mind, sauer’s opinion of the foundation as without “political ends” becomes tenuous at best. this political background to sauer’s south america trip is relegated by west to footnotes. however, as can be seen here, by allowing it to stand against the nature of the trip, we come to a different reading of sauer from that presented by himself and the foundation. if the above begins to connect the rockefeller foundation with united states foreign policy, it does not fully reposition sauer, i.e. associate him with the politics of both foundation and government in turn. at the outset, by way of implication, sauer’s exploration of the social sciences can be seen as integral to the united states’ cultural-political relations with latin america discussed above. however - beyond this - a second reading of the early correspondence with the foundation shows in what ways the latter provided the political framework for sauer’s trip to south america and allows us to reconceptualise sauer as privileged (directed?) traveller rather than wanderer from the wayside. while, as we have seen, correspondence with willits emphasised the apolitical, non-aligned nature of sauer’s travel, the foundation was in fact ever-present in issues of access, financial fluidity and mobility and, most importantly, in the aftermath of the trip. here - in the absence of willits and in spite of his own self- positioning - sauer is reconnected with the foundation as institution and reassociated with government, washington and the modern. thus, through departure, journey and return, sauer’s politicization is also spatialised. departure in keeping with his independent stance, sauer’s correspondence from foundation officials truncated rockefeller involvement in the south america trip. sauer was informed that his funds would begin on october , , that his conditions were accepted and that beyond that there was “nothing the rockefeller foundation” could “do in an official capacity to facilitate” his trip. on the december , however, sauer was issued a “pax romana” by the catholic university of america in washington dc: a letter which gave him introduction to key catholic academics and universities in the andean countries who would best give him information on the state of the social sciences. this, it seems, was only part of the administrative baggage that the foundation provided for sauer prior to departure on his trip. further investigation shows that visas were secured for sauer from the united states-based consul-generals for the destination countries in addition to documents for freedom of mobility from internal authorities. the minister for external relations in colombia marked sauer and his son jonathan with a “recomendar de manepa especial” (a special recommendation) and requested: “a las autoridades extranjeros de los lugares por donde tuvieron que pasar los mencionados senores sauer, les presten todos los auxilios y facilidades de los que ellos tuvieren necissidad en el transcurso de su viaje, a fin de que puedan llevar a cabo su cometido.” representatives of the foundation also supplied sauer with contacts in the countries he was to visit and compiled a list of people who knew of his impending trip. in this sense, sauer was already well oc, paine to sauer, / / . dc, catholic university of america to sauer, / / . dc, ecuador ministerio de relaciones exteriores to sauer, / / . translation: “that the foriegn authorities of the places through which the aforementioned sauers have to pass allow them all the help and facilities that they require in the process of their travel so that they can bring their task to fruition.” oc, kittridge to sauer, / / . sauer did seem to contact most of these people on the trip. under the umbrella of the foundation before he even left the united states. thus, while sauer maintains an air of mystery and uncertainty prior to his trip: “my friends the mexicans like to use the word ‘pendiente’, which is a little more earthy than ‘the lap of the gods’. i am going ahead, ‘pendiente’ , he was in fact “going ahead” in the lap of the foundation as well as that of the gods. journey in his notebook for the south american trip, sauer complains about the difficulty and hardship of travel: he finds he is always negotiating for a way around bottlenecks that obstruct his ease of movement. sauer’s itinerary appears to be affected by the road conditions and the delays in south america and he continually has to make arrangements and decisions about travel: “trying to find ways of going north. the situation reported as follows - no berth on railway train until march , no place on plane until march , no place on boat until march (+ o for de luxe suite) . .this is transportation in chile.. . sauer is not, however, alone in his attempts to overcome such difficulties - the “magical name” of the rockefeller foundation is always at hand. one of sauer’s reports to willits, which west calls “transportation problems in northern peru”, is an excellent example of this facilitated travel of the sauers.’°° trying to pc, sauer to willits, / / . n , p. . ‘°° sauer in west, , op. cit., p. . “bridge the gap” between peru and ecuador, in the shadow of the war between these two countries, sauer writes “we were the first people since the war who had even thought of getting across this border. sauer’s connections, however, “smooth the way”.’° in tumbes, sauer has a recommendation to the united states attache and is “passed along a line of officials and given every facility”.’ later, he dines with the boss of international petroleum (an old schoolmate from chicago) and then retraces his steps to talara where a known canadian official finds him emergency lodging. sauer and son then take up two places on a plane to guayaquil, ecuador, made vacant by officials flying with the president (prado) of peru. finally, in guayaquil, sauer reuses the rockefeller name to get money from the bank: “change in our pockets.. .we can begin to circulate about town”. thus, although sauer positions himself individually in south america - he is, it is true, “there” - he is accompanied from a distance institutionally by the foundation. however, in finding the whole situation “miraculous” and reconstituting his privilege as chance, sauer further silences this guiding rockefeller hand. return the sauer letters, according to west, made an immediate hit among ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . the rockefeller personnel in new york and were circulated among its key figures. walter steward, the chairman of the board of trustees, regarded them as having “spice, flavour and discrimination”, while willits himself commented on their “sagacious wisdom and scholarly awareness” and wrote to sauer of their public success: “at the long table in the rockefeller foundation restaurant today the subject of discussion was “carl sauer’s letters” from latin america. this is just one sample of the many minds you have stimulated by your penetrating comments of people and institutions along the west coast of latin america.” although the foundation as a whole provided a reception for sauer’s textual return, there was - at least initially - some mediation by willits as the “face”. picking up on the positioning prior to sauer’s departure, willits can be seen again to offer sauer a sense of independence and to prioritise his, rather than the foundation’s, ideas. rereading the letters at home, willits appears to have been persuaded by sauer’s agenda and is ready to work against the block of the foundation: “you with your seeing eye have given a perfect demonstration of the way in which foundations should work to seek out and discriminate between the truly intellectual and noble and the success boys who ride the band wagon. i don’t believe even you realise how powerful the pulls are (from without and from within) to ride with the pack” “where”, he asks sauer, “do we go from here?” this, however, as we shall see below, was a question that was out of sauer’s hands: the willits in west, , op. cit., p. . pc, willits to sauer, / / . “pulls” to “ride with the pack” were indeed strong. while sauer chose to position himself with willits against the foundation, he could not prevent an alternative positioning by others: he, of all people, should have known that you cannot bound the trail. safely home? “the greatest risk in latin america is a mule, in my past experience, and this risk we dodged. .. (we are safely home) on august , , willits’ secretary, janet paine, wrote to sauer in willits’ absence that she was glad that he and jonathan were “safely home”. perhaps the greatest risks for sauer, however, were those posed by the advent of his return. arriving home, sauer found himself visited by representatives of the united states government’s board of economic welfare (bew) and he wrote to paine in some confusion: “it was a long rambling visit and i am not certain of the sequences in it. however, anderson said that they had to get their teeth into the problems that may become critical very promptly and that he wanted my help because there was little known to them of the immediate situation in these countries.”” sauer’s obervations, he was told, were crucial, his cooperation with the bew necessary: oc, sauer to paine, / / . oc, paine to saue, / / . there is some confusion in the notes as to whether bew stands for board of economic welfare or warfare. according to the rockefeller archive center in new york, it is the former, but in some of sauer’s notes it appears as the latter. perhaps an allusion to his political context? sauer to paine, / / . “he said something to the effect that i should set down these observations. unguardedly, and without thinking two moves ahead, i said that of course i had included them in my letters to dr. willits. ‘f” anderson, maintaining that he had good relations with the foundation, said that he would like to study sauer’s letters while sauer attempted to backtrack saying they were “personal reports” and not written for “wider scrutiny”. here, however, sauer was being read as representative of the foundation and being tied into a network that operated at an institutional rather than a personal level. realising that his own authority and his link with willits were being ignored and that his letters were set to travel - as fact (not “sketches”) - into a highly politicised, governmental context (washington as symbol of the modern looms large), sauer wrote at length with concern again to janet paine: “i have not shown the copies of the letters to anyone except jonathan. they were thought of as letters to mr willits and to the foundation.. . should hate to think that this correspondence would become accessible in any file in washington. i should have misgivings if ever the whole of these letters, with their many references to named individuals were examined by any member of one of the washington bureaus. for instance, the relations between the state department, the office of the coordinator of latin american relations, and the board of economic warf are” are not in all respects mutually sustaining. i don’t mind if certain of these observations of mine, for example, are of use to henry moe in his ‘‘ ibid. here we see the “battle” of the reception of writing that was alluded to in chapter four - the notion that what is written and how it is interpreted is as much a factor of the “home” context (for sauer, the political “moment” of world war two and political space of washington) as it is of the “field”. this chapter shows the “worldly” nature of sauer’s writing - sets it in context - and returns it to its more modern “home”. it also -through the mobility of sauer’s ideas from one context to another - returns us to the notion of discursive movement. see comment above. washington relations. that would be constructive criticism, and moe knows me as well as he knows his men in washington with whom he deals. . . it’s a good deal of nuisance and i wish anderson would forget about it. i think he does have the right to ask for aid in the war effort, but in those terms there should be a heavy editing of the letters. i am willing to be cooperative but i don’t want to be indiscreet. ,,h unfortunately, further correspondence only contains willits’ secretary’s reply to sauer to wait until willits’ return and a later letter informing sauer of a meeting between himself, the foundation and anderson about the letters the next month. no further documentation exists of the meeting in either the berkeley archives or the archives of the rockefeller foundation in new york, except a one-line enigmatic note from willits to sauer:”i enclose copy of a letter from lewis hanke [not enclosed) shall i proceed on the same basis as with dewey anderson?” despite a lack of information, this whole incident shows the futility of sauer’s attempts at maintaining a boundary between academics and politics and trying to work towards intellectual freedom through a body like the rockefeller foundation. relating to faces - willits, moe - rather than to institutions, sauer was not (or chose not to be) aware of the “pulls” of the “pack”, hence the feeling of panic as supposedly non-partisan ideas are transformed into grist for the geopolitical mill. also, the cc, sauer to paine, op. cit., / / . it is interesting to see here how sauer places his faith again in an individual - henry moe - rather than in an institution. he seems not to think at the structural level and to believe in individual agency within an institutional context. this is an interesting counterpoint to the james duncan/peter jackson arguments that sauer makes no room for individuals. pc, willits to sauer, / / (pa) intersection of sauer’s own personal beliefs and “passage to the premodern” with the similar beliefs of willits working within the foundation fed sauer’s myopia of the open political context within which he was working. despite sauer’s apolitical and often doubtful positioning, his ideas were to be read authoritatively and politically by the bew. at a wider level, then, repositioned amidst government institutions in washington, sauer is not only forced to meet the political but also the modern. the rough war; the enveloping gloom’ in the aftermath of the trip, perhaps related to the bew incident, sauer remains adamant about the separation of academics from politics, but, along with willits (and the progression of world war two) , becomes increasingly disillusioned.” for sauer, sauer to kelly p in addition to the bew incident, sauer must have been increasingly affected by the impact of the war on his berkeley department and work in the field. as west notes ( , op. cit., p. ), from the autumn of to the spring of sauer was closely confined to the campus with teaching duties that were connected to the university’s military program. the geography department in berkeley felt the effects of the war on its student body and its resources and courses. sauer writes to mitchell wilder (curator of the taylor museum colorado springs fine arts centre) (pc, sauer to wilder, / / ) : “things are of course like most places. the teaching staff is shot to pieces or else is abstracted into army courses. . .our ibero-americana series is more or less sunk with the late ruling restricting publication to members of this faculty.” this must have further blurred the academic/politic boundary for sauer and increased his disillusion. at the same time, the war and the “field” were becoming increasingly intertwined in the lives of sauer’s students. homer aschmann, (pc, aschmann to sauer, / / ) one of sauer’s students in the army, wrote to sauer in of his experiences in his camp in texas. managing to get himself classified as a geographer, aschmann is disappointed at the lack of recognition this gets and pursues his own education, looking out for geographical facts and the pioneering experience of life in the (military) field. similarly, james parsons (pc, parsons to sauer, / / ) wrote to the real fear seems to be the political takeover of the academic “field”: “i suspect that the world is in the greatest catastrophe it has known and that free intellectual enterprise is in for a bad time. . . it matters less that you have a competent supervisory organisation than it does that the scattered watchers of the sacred fire know that you are of their brotherhood. . . don’t think it matters that some fail, some are weak, and some turned aside.. .darkness is spreading, and that is what matters.” sauer asks willits to support individual academics who for him have “kindled and maintained a flame that should not go out”.’ in a letter dated january , he looks in opposition to the (nostalgic) early days of geography - “ it was a promising spring in this country in the field of geography” - listing for willits sauer from intelligence school of his salvage attempts from his training - hoping that scouting might develop his faculties for field observation that sauer “so often mentioned”. although robert bowman writes to sauer (pc, bowman to sauer, / / ) that his army experience is “a far cry from geography”, he tells sauer of his travel to distant lands “where only a handful of explorers have penetrated” which ties in with the chance to see the “unknown” that we came into contact with in chapter two. bowman’s experience in new guinea presents the “distant lands” as a mixture of army and field terrain - a fusion of the fieldwork and the military experience. unlike sauer’s, this field is portrayed in all its politics of interaction and resistance. finally, other students of sauer’s, for example robert west, found themselves working in washington. west writes to sauer with information on south america since his war effort involves the mapping and access of the continent as a strategic resource and the compiling of information on road conditions: “just one of the many things military intelligence should have had on its finger tips before the war started” (pc, west to sauer, p ). others, like donald brand (p ) found themselves urged into a desk job while they yearned to go out into the “field”. pc, sauer to willits, / / . pc, sauer to willits, / / . pc, sauer to willits, / / . the “good journeymen geographers of latter days” and his fears of the contemporary state of geography drawn away from research to teaching, economics and, worst of all, to geopolitics: “i object strongly to the idea that i am a proper sort of geographer if i set myself up as a geopolitician, but am an improper one if i get interested in the way the jesuits make their mission areas work. . . there is as much significance in extinction as in survival.” ’ sauer has “a torch to carry” over the current affairs leaning of the berkeley campus - verging on “political indoctrination” -and is equally concerned with the foundation’s foreign area interest in latin america and its tendency to focus on current events. fearing change at all levels - academia as a whole, geography, berkeley, the foundation - sauer still seems to feel that he is out of step with the time but now cannot separate himself from it completely: “the wedding guest, he beat his breast yet he could not choose but hear” for willits too, the fear is real: his letters to sauer are full of the threat of the current, the state, the political: “yes, i feel we are headed for another balance of power or another holy alliance, which amounts to the same thing. i agree with what you say concerning the bitter harvest that is coming out of the sowing of our whole modern philosophy, of its materialism and its god, the all-powerful state. . .the struggle to power, the deification of the current and the exhibitionism of frustration. i wonder just what would happen to jesus of nazareth if he happened pc, sauer to willits, / / . pc, sauer to willits, / / . p, sauer to willits, op. cit., / / . on the scene today.” while willits maintains the importance of freedom of scholarship - he has no “line” to take in foundation af fairs;’ requires “leave to live by no man’s leave underneath the law” - his view of the non-aligned foundation becomes more and more pressurised as the war draws to a close. with the ultimate fusion of science and politics - the atomic bomb - entering the contemporary scene, he writes to sauer: “truly, the old order changeth”.’ it seems to dawn suddenly on willits (“i need a confessor now”) that scientific work is not value free, that the “physicists are generals”, that the state has grown “and the station and dignity of the individual human being” has shrunk. willits, looking still to sauer for his answers, asks: “where are we headed?” sauer - stoic - was already picking up his “passage”, looking to berkeley for the renewal of an academic “home”: “i think we should reassemble and see whether there isn’t still time for us to realise, at least in part, the design of scholarship we once had in common, for i have the feeling that there may be another bunch of boys coming up comparable to that extraordinary group that was gathered here in the ‘ s. i think we might have again a period like that unforgettable one.” where are we headed? in chapter one, i said that i wanted to find the limits to sauer’s pc, willits to sauer, / / . pc, willits to sauer, / / . ibid. pc, willits to sauer, / / . pc, willits to sauer, / / . pc, sauer to leighly, / / . antimodernism. although i edged towards this in the subsequent chapters, it is perhaps only through the consideration of the south america trip that the full complexity and ambiguity of sauer’s positioning come to light. in this chapter, i have tried to show that sauer’s oppositions - so frequently employed to conceptualise himself as different (authentic? authoritative? innocent?) - are artificial, constructed, ambivalent. thus throughout there has been a sense of destabilisation: sauer, associated with the particular, the apolitical, the intellectually free, the rural, the “field”, the vantage point, the marginal, the individual (in combination: the (his) antimodern) is also implicated in their universal, political, intellectually constrained, urban, tourist, sketchy, central, institutional (again: in sum, sauer’s modern) counterparts. sauer, it seems, was a modern man in spite of himself. it is this negotiation of sauer’s initially clear self positioning that i take into the conclusion: ready to tease out the implications of sauer’s ambivalent situation on the antimodern/modern line (how progressive? how deceptive?) and to look beyond that to cultural geography and the academic “field” as a whole: the question of where we are headed. conclus ion “in my end is my beginning.” sauer once commented on what he saw as the futility of “going through life afraid to be lonely” when there was the inevitability of facing the “ultimate loneliness” in going of life. for sauer, i think, disorientation amidst modernisation approached a form of “loneliness”: a self-perception as one of the last bastions of german/european academic and cultural tradition and a self- positioning on the margins of the modern. this “loneliness” appears as “real” for sauer as a “bewildered witness” during world war one (chapter two) as it does through his disillusionment during world war two (chapter six) . while this sense of dislocation amidst change was, for sauer, a source of fear (he was afraid remember, of the present and the future) , it appears also as a source of productivity: sauer the intellectual “voortrekker”, arguing for the potential of other (non-modern) ways and almost “unconcerned to discover” that there is “no-one following”. having said that, however, sauer’s lone stance was often contradicted by various forms of “company” - and here i am not only thinking of companions that would have been vaguely acceptable to sauer (for example, other american antimodernists in mexico) but also the more modern, unsolicited form of companion, such as dewey anderson from the bew. thus, as i stated at the end of the last chapter, having eliot, op. cit., p. . pc, sauer to willits, / / . robinson, op. cit., p. . asserted sauer’s antimodern life theme and pursued it through various aspects of the “field”, i am left with a tension within sauer’s antimodernism, an ambivalence that needs to be explored. i do this by focusing on the progressive, restrictive and deceptive threads to sauer as antimodern man of the margins: issues that “speak” from the repetitions and contradictions of the last six chapters. beyond that, i am concerned with how the “take” on sauer pursued in this thesis can be made to “speak” to geographies in the present. in , sauer was offered the chance to move from berkeley to a new position in the geography department at johns hopkins: he declined and gave as his motivation the proximity of the university to washington (as we saw in the last chapter, the ultimate space of the modern) . he wrote: “i happen to have a fondness for the provinces and a somewhat emotional attitude that the better world will come through a strengthening of local centers of culture, not from the great capitals. don’t write this off as a whim of mine; the whole geography of evolution shows arguments uniformly in favor of partial isolation. if i should move into the center of the mass i should still feel that the germinal potential was out on the periphery. . . we have come across examples of this “germinal potential” of the periphery in chapters five and six. in both mexico and south america, we saw sauer attempting to strengthen local (often “indian”) cultures against the destructive effects of “americanization” (monocentrism) from the north and advising the pc, sauer to bowman, / / in parsons, pers. comm. (l), op. cit. rockefeller foundation on a way forward sensitive to cultural context. these instances, i think, allow for a productive reading of sauer and culture - certainly a more generous perspective than that afforded by peter jackson in the introduction. jackson, as we saw, chose to read sauer’s focus on the rural and the provincial negatively as outmoded and conservative. however, sauer’s view of the “margins” was a more progressive one: as james parsons states, while sauer identified with “simpler cultures”, it did not “follow that these simpler cultures were necessarily irrelevant to contemporary issues”. indeed, as we saw with sauer and indigenous agriculture in chapter five, sauer, basing his advice in “indian” practices and traditions, pre-empted today’s vogue for the local as “germinal” base for development. thus jackson is perhaps overly hasty in rejecting sauer’s more provincial focus for the cultural politics of urban space. certainly contemporary cultural debates have seen a resurfacing of the rhetoric of margin and centre, critiquing the control of the (modern, urban, colonial) latter and viewing the (premodern, rural, colonised) former as a source of creative energy. ashcroft et. parsons, pers. comm. (l) , op. cit. thus, for parsons, sauer should be associated with the imagery of the “frontier” (pioneering the way forward) rather than that of the margins. however, the notion of the “frontier” is itself tied up in the rhetoric of colonialism (the “white man” bringing wild/savage nature and culture under his control at the “frontier” of discovery) geographers, said sauer in the quality of geography ( , op. cit., p. ) “do not worry enough”. sauer himself worried about change but, he felt, could not get enough people to “worry along” with him. while some have taken up sauer’s worries about the environment, his worries on cultural change seem to have been vocalised less. perhaps this is one of the other ways in which sauer’s geography may be brought forward? al., for example, have isolated the tendency of what they call “post-colonial literature” to assert difference from the centre: the empire, finally, writing back. thus, in a sense, sauer could be viewed as sympathetic to this counterdiscursive “movement”, turning the spatial rhetoric of the modern centre on its head by prioritising the rural frontier and conferring authority on the margins. although for v. . naipaul, the people of the margins are “mimic men”, condemned to repetition of the colonial authority, for sauer, as we have seen, it is the modern “tourists” (the herd) that mimic and the provinces that represent the authentic. the link between sauer and “post-colonial” movements is not, of course, a direct one: sauer’s selected (and, as i show below, misleading) self-perception as marginal is a far cry from the enforced marginality of formerly colonised peoples. however, the link does provide other ways of looking at sauer’s writing and may provide a means to recycle sauer’s ideas which, as lewis and price suggest, are not ready for “academia’s dust-bin”.’ in addition to the “germinal” aspects of sauer’s views on culture, we do, however, have to think about the casualties of a “backward”, ruralist perspective. for raymond williams, the contrast between city and country (so clearly identified with sauer throughout the ‘ ashcroft et. al., . the notion of turning colonial rhetoric on its head is not, however, without its limitations. robert young (op. cit.) writes of the difficulties of opting out of the binary oppositions that have characterised the presentation of modern western thought. in ashcroft et. al., op. cit., p. . price and lewis, op. cit., p. . thesis) represents a tendency towards the idyllic rather than the urealistidu. the true socio-cultural relations of the country are neglected and passed onto the city as centre of corruption; the rural areas remaining harmonious.’ such harmony, williams fears, is a mystification out of which the rhetoric of nationalism - the call for blood and soil - may arise.’ sauer, with his semi-idyllic view of a rural “home”, his consistent denigration of the city as corrupt and his use of the rhetoric of german nationalism to describe his mennonite “ideal” cannot be excused from williams’ critiques. true, through his experience of the hardship of rural life, sauer also voiced anti-idyllic sentiments in mexico; however, it remains that, elsewhere, sauer replaced his distaste for the “smiling aspects” of modern american society with a counter-image of a “smiling” (mexican) “countryside”.’ like williams, james clifford is also concerned with the tendency to idyllise the rural in a folkloristic appeal to the past’ but, more centrally, with the allied attempt to redeem a cultural essence: a “symmetry of redemption” that requires cultural traditions to abstain from the modern. clifford is suspicious about the positing of pure cultural forms that can be retrieved: culture for clifford is relational, changing - it cannot be fixed “ williams, , op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . lears, op. cit., p. . ‘ williams, , op. cit., p. . ‘ clifford, , op. cit., p. . except for authority as invention. here too, sauer cannot be excused from critique: we saw in chapter five how his vision of “indian” and mennonite communities were, at least partially, clouded by his need to maintain the essence of “indian” and german premodern culture for his sense of self. thus the progressive side to sauer’s antimodernism proves tainted by a restrictive, immobilising element - keeping cultures in their place.’ if sauer’s sympathy with rural space and folk was genuine, however, his complete identification with them was not.’ allowing sauer to set up “home” in the margins denies any relation with the metropolis and the spaces of the modern and this, as we saw in the last chapter, was not the case: sauer found himself closer to washington than he would have liked. for mary louise pratt, the rural discourse of the traveller (perhaps-geographer?) is a “strategy of innocence”, a deception that conceals his/her urban metropolitan identity.’ michael williams, although less stridently, seems to adopt this rural/urbane contradiction for sauer: “whether consciously or unconsciously the cult of the simple, ibid., p. . ‘ see also ashcroft et. al., op. cit., p. for a similar critique to clifford: the notion that a redemption of pure culture is not an alternative; the impossibility of a return and the need for a positive perspective on the cultural confusion (syncretism) of the present. hooson in blouet et. al., op. cit., p. . ‘ pratt, , op. cit., p. . the innocent positioning masks a male, urban, lettered rationality that is being imposed on the world in the guise of the rural. homespun, rural man (aided by the ever-present pipe) grew stronger with the years. but it masked a complex man whose early philosophy was broad ranging, learned and speculative. the paradoxical nature of this character and image is one of the reasons why it is so difficult to get a clear view of his thinking. williams is justified in questioning the image of the “simple, homespun, rural man” (see figure ) . indeed, in addition to travelling in the “margins”, sauer lived and functioned in a modern academic context. he had power as head of the department of geography at berkeley; influence on the selection committee of the guggenheim foundation and input (if unbounded) into the policies of the rockefeller foundation. at the same time, although he spent extensive periods in the field, this experience and the fruits of its publication only further contributed to his academic status “back home”. the self-presentation as intellectual craftsman thus shielded an all-too-institutionalised and authoritative academic. in this sense, as thomas glick notes, sauer “was not the loner he is too often made to appear”: “his influence was persistent and pervasive” thus, as james clifford points out: “all terms get us some distance and fall apart”. while sauer as antimodernist allows us to reinject sauer’s “provincial” focus with a more “progressive” edge, it must be approached ambivalently. certainly sauer positions himself stridently against the modern but other voices point the way to the futility of antimodern - even cultural - flight. for williams, , op. cit., p. . glick, , op. cit., p. . in grossberg et. al., op. cit., p. . figure : sauer: man of the margins or modern in spite of himself? (returned to berkeley, ). i clifford, there are no distant places left: “one no longer leaves home confident of finding something radically new: another time or space.” similarly, for claude levi-strauss, escape from the modern only results in confronting the traveller with the “unhappiest forms” of his “historical existence”: the “garbage” of the modern. finally, and perhaps most ironically, the voice of alfred kroeber, outlining the fundamentals of (what is taken to be sauer’s) “superorganic” view and, by association, condemning sauer’s attempts to escape his modern, american context: “when a tide sets one way for fifty years, men float with it, or thread their course across it; those who breast the vast stream condemn themselves to futility of accomplishment.” progressive, restrictive, deceptive: this ambivalent view of sauer, i hope, offers some form of mediation of the debate between the “new” and the “traditional” cultural geographers outlined in the introduction. while i do not claim to have retrieved the essential clifford, , op. cit., p. . in porter, , op. cit., p. . kroeber in duncan, op. cit., p.l . once sauer is placed in culture, then, the so-called “superorganic” view may be used to reflect on sauer himself. if sauer’s cultural origins are viewed as modern american, then sauer’s attempts to position himself as “off-beat american”, critical of and distanced from american culture, appears as paradox. michael williams (op. cit. , p. o) has picked up on this contradiction between sauer’s cultural pronouncements and his “living” self: “the man of sauer’s writing was a disembodied, generic man; the man of sauer’s academic and intellectual life was a real, individual, thinking man. sauer was the living example of the very thing his writing denied.” however, if sauer’s cultural beginnings are viewed as traditionally german, then perhaps his passage to the premodern represents a move towards rather than away from his cultural “home”: a slave to the “superorganic” after all? c r c) h , dl c r cd c r h - f t d i d i ft — d) c d i p . cc ) f - h - c d cd p . h , d i j f- ft hi rr < c d i cd i cd ft f - p . hi h - d i en h - en q i d i h - f - c e cd d q en c) f - h - en cd en < cl ) c e c) h - cd p . cd cd f t cd hi cd d i q i i- c l) en hi cd i-i di p . en cd < di eq en h di cd ft cd ft ft p . h - ( ) d i cd < cd cd cd h - f - ft c) ic- i- hi c e en ft h , hi h - h - h - f t t cd = cd h - en i— i ft f t en h , - i>< c) di cd en hi h - h , h - f t eq di ft c) p . h , cd cd - h - s ft en g cm p . h - d i h en ‘- f - d i di h cd — di cd h— a l i cd ft cd h di cd q i h - en cd c) ft h - hi ih - - c) = cd hi cd di h h - en cd d h - hi h - cd cd en di f - cd p . di - hi ft hi di cd ft cd h - h - d i h - cd c) en d i d i f t - di p . h di hi c -r cd q g d i cd l i- c) p . c) -i ft c) < en h - d i hi p . en h - en cd - eq d i cd di - . cd ft -i - ‘ eq ft h - h , < ft ft en c) d i f t cd h - hi cd hi en di h h - cd cd h c) cd ft i— i p . en p . i-i h d i di - eq d i cd h hi c) p . h - p . cd c) en eq cd c- i- di cd p . cd cd d i h , ft d i hi ft - c) cd h , h - ft cd c) d l d l cd h di en - d i hi h - j cd cd hi h - p . c) d i d i en h h - cd cd h , h di h - ‘< c) ft cd f’ - h - h ft hi f - ft cd h en p . h , h - ft hi en en p . cd h - cd ft cd cd h - cd f t d i eq d i i- j d i ft h t’ j h - h - h - d i cd d i cd cd h h ft c) c) ft en h , en cd en cd i en i.q di h - en cd p . cd h - c) p . en ct ) h - h cd h h cd h - eq s cd p . h - cd f t di en di d i ‘< h - en f t ft eq h - d i i < en cd s c) f - h , hi ft en en h - ih i cd h , f - >< cd p . h - di cd en - - cd cd di c) d i hi cd cd d i cd p . h - en ft ft cd cd h en cd di hi h , ft c) en cd en cd - ft p . ift ft di hi k < hi f - hi en f - ft h , h - d i cd h - d i d i di ft di f t cd en h - ‘d di h , di en h - c d h , hi c) di h en d l p . cd di , p . cd en en cd cd h h - ft p . eq en hi < en f - cd hi c) en f t ft - hi h p . q i h - di cd h - c) h - d i h , - f’ d i h , q h - ft p . — cl ) d i (c i d i h cd s d l ‘ c) h - c) cd z h - cd h hi c) p . d i ft h , cd p . h - f - hi hi h - d i hi p . en .q s !- cd en en h - ‘ d i h - eq ,< < ft ft h - f t h c) c) hi ( [f) i s h ft p . di : . di di cd c) h - i- < ft ft = cd el ) h - h - p . - h d i d i iq i h - h - c) c) f t h - f - cd d i ft en ft cd di hi ft j- h h - cd hi d i cd ft cd cd h - cd hi h , en en h , ft i— ’ hi en h f t hi — hi d i ft p . di h - h - h - h , i— ’ - cd cd f - i- ’- cd cd h cd en en ft cd di d i d i h ii ft h cd cd ft c) >< h h - - h - hi d i h , ft hi en cd h - ft h , f - ft p . p . ft p . hi f t h - eq cd d i cd hi k < h - f - cd h - ft en hi x en h - < h - - ft d i cd d l ft h - d i cd cd h - d i ft cd h - cd hi h - h - cd en - d ’ c) hi if -’ < h - ft en ft — en eq h ft en hi cd p . en cd cd p . en ih , cd cd ft of geographers (past or present), i maintain that the public sphere of (f±eld)work cannot remain exempt from “pollution” by the personal. my focus on the “field”, however, stands not only as an attempt to depart from the debate surrounding sauer, but also as a wider critique of geography, authority and culture as a whole. while in anthropology, as james clifford states, there is a growing sense that “we ground things, now, on a moving earth”, i.e. there are no longer any privileged positions (islands of distinction, vantage points of authority) from which to speak about the culturally other, geography, as alisdair rogers notes, has yet to experience such a “crisis of ethnographic authority”. this, for me, is a function of a neglect of the “field” as a focus for critical enquiry. once we move beyond the seamless authority of geographic texts, legitimated by calls to the “field”, and actually look at what work in “the field” entails, view it in its plurality and contradictions (the hardship, the silences, the emotions, the misunderstandings, the intrusions, the exclusions. .) , the geographer is forced to come down from the privileged position on clifford in clifford and marcus, op. cit., p. . in contrast to sauer’s “vantage points” of authority, then, we turn instead to his cultural doubt of the last chapter. this is more akin to clifford’s sentiments on cultural representation in the present: “there is no longer any place of overview (mountaintop) from which to map human ways of life. . .mountains are in constant motion. so are islands: for one cannot occupy, unambiguously, a bounded cultural world from which to journey out and analyze other cultures.” rogers, , p. . the hill and face up to a more critical perspective on the authority of fieldwork amidst “culture”. through sauer, we can begin to see how geography constructs itself: how it draws on varied tropes and rhetorical devices to distinguish itself, how it presents a legitimate image of itself - in essence, how it lies to itself about its own authority. at the same time, we can begin to see how geography constructs others: how its practitioners can fuse their own sentiments with science and present cultures objectively as “personality”. thus, despite a continuous focus on sauer, i am not simply advocating a rewriting of one geographer in the language of theory - merely attaching theoretical insights to a study of sauer like “flags of convenience” - but attempting a serious integration of critiques into geography as a whole. picking up my critiques from the introduction of the bounding, essentialising and fixing of sauer, i take these into a reconsideration of geography as strategic, hybrid and reflexive space within wider disciplinary travel. this is an alternative view of geography as shifting and open, not overly concerned with boundaries and fixing and attempting an awareness of its own closures. thus i end as i began: talking about travel in the academic field of geography. while sauer, in his address to californian geographers in , said that this “kind of geography” was “gone”, the need to get away from the “but-is-this-geography state” and open the discipline this coming down from the mount is, following on from the discussion of chapter three, particularly aimed at male geographers since “field”, geography and geographical knowledge seem to be authorised in masculinist terms. dhareshwar in kreiswirth and cheetham, , p. . ° sauer, , op. cit., p. . up to new trails remains. l ’ j i q q r t f l q ii— ’ i f l p) w i h tc l w ø ( w l z ih i (d f — ’f -- ’ f — ’ p ) i ih -p ) d f — ’ i c x c d i c d — c d p ) h o c d c l h , h , c l h , f t i i f tf t ) cl ) i w q i f - — c l) c lf to $ c d i— d o h - p f t • c l) p ) i h , i f -f li c l ) iz i c d h ,h , h i:i io c d c t h - c c d i ip c d p - - o h - o ( d f -< cl ) ii ’i c j ) h d h • - c d cd j h - h h -- if tc d h h - h , i- ii i o d k < q ,q , c l c l i h h f t u f t j ) i d cl ) c d w cd h h - - c h - i i - ’ - h - ( d h - p) i i i ic l) c ln p co o i l o p ) i h - ‘ ) c l) h - p p o c l h -c l) q ‘p ) p c l { [ d r t i i p h - i n c l) ‘- p h cl ) cl ) h i ‘d o i.. w p c c d p (- c l cl ) h f t f t f th - . j i j cd - cd p h c d cd c ll -’ - c l h cd cd i- ° f t o c l) c d o h - h - h z - - - , - , h h w • h - t q ft p d “ h ri- p j p ) p ) - o c d h ‘ c l p cd f t w f t . cd cd h - . p h cd c d f- ’ h .< h h - c f ll i j h ’ q c d f - f t p p , c l c d o h p c d i f t - - h -c d c d h i c d cl ) c l ) o h > < h - lh - pj q ° i i - cd ‘ f t c l. p f tw ) w p ) h h c d h - c l ) h lcd p c d b cd i < - f t h -° c d i c lo - p cd h i- ’ i- q i p )p j cd c l h c l c d f tc lf t o h w i i h h c l f t cx ft cd h - cd cl ) cd h -i o p j f r j c d “ lc l o c d q h d c l c l) f t l h ij c d p > < h , - cd c d c d h , - w - < i h h ih p ) h , i q p w ih h h h p ) cd i if t cd h - ih - cd tq c l h - h - h - ih i c p ) p ) ii c d cd c d c d w c l) u i ft ‘— i lc d o - c l o c d f t c d p j h ic d c lh . ‘ d il) ) h - d q i < h l ) ) - ft o c d cl ) cd - p ) cd h -h , < p . c d c l) h d h - cl ) f t c c d h - cd h h - . - c l) - z cl ) cd ‘ g ‘- < h o - - h i h , h c d c d - - k < .. h - c d h , h cl ) ih - c l cd - h - h h - h - ft h , c l) lp ) c l ) i- < ) c i ) ip ) cd h , h - p q h - i h cd c d = ih c l f t h -c d i h - f t c l c l h - f t i f t - ii h - i p . . ft q h q cd cl ) k < l q h h cl ) “ z c d h if -b w h cd cd p d l) ) h q h ,i i c d °’ < cd f tp ) ft : - h - cd l c l ) q io f — ’ h p d f t ° c l h f l f t f t i - < . h - c d - cd h h - ’ w i h - w - >< h c d - - ft h h i ’ i l)) cl ) — h - - h - - h h -l c d ih - c p m h - p p cd h h ,’ - w if t h ‘d f’ j cl ) c l i-s i- i z cd cd h - f- ’ — c d c d w f - h f -’ cd ih - ‘d . - cd cd d h c d p ) il q h - . c l) q h c d c l cd h -i ] cd h h - h i iq ft w c d - cd f t i c d c l c d i cd h h h cd ic d cl) h l h - cl ) h u i p i h h p i - ‘t j c d ii -’ p —. h o c l c u ic d f- f cd h h c lh ft p ft i ft c d f t i c d ip h ft h u i — p c d cd te ’ w m p i h p h - i - p i - s i - i h q iq w g c d ic d p cd h h - — o h p c d ii i cd c l)c d - - w c li -- - c l f- ’ - -- p h ,c l -l c d - i i j j h i ’ -c id i i ic )f l i i d ’ ‘— r i o f l ‘ d q i f l i x j i c c d i h - h c d c d c d c d i ) p j ic d iii i i o h - z ii i o h - ’ r t i h - h ’ pi h lcd h - < r r p h - ih -f -- ip i i i i r ti q c l) r t r t c t i q .h i < i i— c d h -o o )c d ç t ) c d c d il — u) c d c d c d ( i i ) c fl o c d & ) i o q i c d o i c d ( h w o h - n f -h -i cd h cl ) i r t h cd p o • • . q p j h h j o c d c t ci ) i h u ) p h “ o h d ) l ‘< c d • in . . d ) c t i h (d c )l - h r t’ d h p j h c d ’j f tp ) u ) “ p o h - o rt c d p j f - d i l q < j h - < i s h ic d i j i h u ) c d c d h -p j h i m c d i • cd cd h c t lc n c h j c - r r r ( ) c d d f t ) q t t j ) h h < - • . t f - c w h - c d h -p ’ c d c d c d h t u u i cd rt f t t - . . . h - o c d h ) . f tc d w h - p j o p ) h i c d l q p c d f t h c d h h - h h - c d c d h c d i jp j h h j p ) c d h r t c n h c d l d i h - h — fl i q p )c t .. c _ • tp c d c d c t f - h w h t w k < h h - - cl ) • c d o cd c o w p ) p - l o pi c d u ) c d h - h h h ir j . c d h h p ) cd h c ci ) c d p i f tc d i p h r , i c d c d h z h - i : - ) h o h - ) . h c d h f tc d r t o ° c o f t f t f - i . f r ip . c d h - j — h h c fl c d - h ) p i p j h cd ii i . ( y w - t c d ( c d o h - c d i j h p ) ip i h h o ic d c d w h o f t cd ) f t rt h c d n < o i h h m , ih -h h - h < h p )— o t i c! ) j p j . c o o h f ’ cd ip ip i h o m h p j h - h c d o h - • c r cd pi - p c !) q h - z w f r h - - c d l- c d c d cd . . ) r t( lcd c d c d c d m h w c d p h c d ) h - h c ) q u ) ) r t ’ .) p c d c d a rt c d w f -c :: u i o o r h - - i - - h i ” < -h tj h - c d s p ‘ d • cd p j o cd c d s ‘- i c d d •• h h - cd h - c d ç c d h - p j g c d p ) ) c f ) p - j - p ) - • - _ ) cl ) p o h m c d c d c d r h -h - c d > c t p s - • . h - p jh l r tf - cd c d u ) ) h - h - . h - pj cd h o c tf r c t c - t o h - f t h - h h f r c d h .p j c d d ) ,c d c d ) o q & ) c / ) cd i c fl c d l . q p c d h c l) cd rt h j f t h c i ) c d c d cl ) c d p o f t cd h f t cd • .h .c d k < c d cd f r p c d c d i > < q p p ia - p - h c d w h - i- h c cd u cd c d . p - “ h -c d p t c d f r cd f th cd h - h cd h p • l - f tc d h o h i. . h cd • d p p rt q c d o • l- iq < m p cd o c d h ) cd c i h cd h h i pi ci ) o c i h ) i - h - h - h - h h p )f - - h -o ii ce ) p c d h ip p ) h - c d h - ih i cd < f t i h - k < o c i h - cd cd - h p p i ) cd c n rt p p c i p c i ) z )p cd p h -p ci ) p h cl ) p - h fr -h • • • - h p j c d • ih -q (d q i i q l i j q i t j t j ’ i j i - < j t j i j ’ x j t j i i lx j l x jd i - ( q i t o p j if — ic d ip j h ,c d i h o h -o c d o c d h h i i h i i - d c d h i h - c d ii tc d h & ) ic d < c fl u ) u ) i t h i i r r i h - p ip ) ( q h cd i d iw d ) ‘ p ) i it n ’ o c t q p i h -o - c q o i c d io n -c d i lc d c d • - h - - h c d h - i i it i- p ) p i - - o h i to ( )- c i < ih h - h h d o - h - ] > < - h - d - - h j - h o - - ‘. o ‘- p j h - c d c d h n h c d it iz c fl h q h -c d h - o p j o p ‘- < q c l ) - h o h - d - - q c ( p ) o it p j h cl ) p i ‘ d c c - ‘— m h c l) p ) h p j p ) h c d h c d - ‘ < - - - i t - h i h p ) i — i t h - c d - ‘ ii w h j d ) jc d c d . o w • .p i h i h i p c d h ip z ih - ii o h h h w i t i t q ‘c — i li t i o h q m h c d h ‘ - h it (l )h - ic- i- ih q ,c i) p () c o h p i’ lo c d p li t cl ) — q ( w h o ç ‘ - h w m - h o lcd i h - h -p i • . - l o q h h it h i i ‘ q ip < id ) p i - p j q o o . c d h - cd c d - h f - cd i t jc fl ih - if ’ cn h - c fl. ’— h - c ii - ‘ tj o h - ‘ - h i i li t ii - h t n ° c d c d p d ) - i - o - . c d • p ii ic o o h -p .s c t cd h -p ) cd x c d ii - p j ° ih - () - q c d p ) h - h - w o i w cd h - i - r to ) o w - - c d o p < c d d ) iw f— h - h -< i- u ii - h - . d) > p i h - io c d z it ’- - o p - c d p c o w - o o c t p h it c d i o c d i- - i ii ci ) p h -- ip c d ‘ ‘ p o c d h . c d cd c o t d )g t p lo ) c l) ‘ < i t h - h - h h h c d o cd c o . w it p l h - cri i t p l p h o w - h- ‘d p ‘d o ) w i_ ii p -. i- it — i q i t i c d h c-i - h - h i cd h p cd it cd -. “ j o p i o w ° ‘ p - h c l ) cx ) c d ° cd . - p cd p l ‘•‘ j d c x ) h o . . p ) c d i- ‘•x j : o c d c d i - - -- cd cd p p ) it p d ) p i - p c d h - cd ‘< h -” i t <i p o h - h o cd , p ) — ‘- d o p cd c d rr -i ic d c d ( f ) it h i cd k g o (d cl ) h i > c d h o c d . cd ‘ h - q ‘x j p c d p ) h - c o c d cd h - p h u ] d h pl o h - it h < o j y ( h - i- p, cd p i t p j cl) z n p ” c - r d cd • l - p’ cd h - p cd h - c- c it it h c d p p cd - p h ’c d cd i- b h ( d h - - h - o — p w ° cd cd cd — j it p ‘d c d c d c d w - - . h i c o o h cl) c o > p p i t - h (d pj h -c d h i-. -) — j p cd cd ‘i j p it h i it o it h - - h - p h - i “ “ i h - c! ) m o o i h - cd h - c d p ‘d it - cd c l) > c fl p h h - ) h - it c )- cd c o p) - cd it it o l ) - i t cl ) ) cd p lcd ( . it o c d c fl c- t h - z cd ‘d cl ) ic!) p cd > cd h p ) - ) cl ) cd h - cd -. h i - i i - - i i f li q i i f l c z c c d c iu )( d c c m h i q i q h , ( j ) ‘ lc d ’ c d h s c d c d c c d c d (d o c d lf t< c )j p j p i l — i- t, s i p j c - r p j < i ) j i i p u ) i ‘ i f - n c d - i c d < h - h cd c ) u) q c d u ) r tc d c d ’ q ’ ‘ i ’ ’ h - cd ‘i c d h - ‘- < c d < ic d c )u ) c d u ) u ) m r r h - o h - c i’ iu ) u )h -c )’ i ‘i h - cu c ) ’ i p ) ’ i ’ i h - l’ ir to ‘i u ) p h - u )h - - q f t h u ) p ) h f t ’ i - p i - c ) l q w u ) l lc ip i w w w z ‘ o c ) f t u ) h -” ’ i ih - h - u) h - ‘i id ) f t h - h - - w h i u ) h - u) ‘i f tc l o f t h - f t q h i o c ) cd ° u ) u q c i) c d ti h - h - o ‘ < o i q ‘t i • - c n p i cd c ) p c h - i c ih u ) c d p u ) h , - k < lcd c) h - c ) c) ft h - q i o c d c ) h z - u) c d c d ’i c d • cd h -- f t < c d d ) q r t cd p l p • u ) ‘-d i— ’l ’j ft • • h - ) h -u )< ‘- d p ° o h - h - h - h cd h - cl ) f t f t ‘ i ’ i d c d ‘i c) ‘- a ft cd h c d u ) ( d s o < p cd < o ’ i d p cd u )— ) c u ) cx ) cd h ‘i c d h h c) u )t y f t c d h -- x ) cd u )c d h p c ) ) c ) p cd f tp ) ‘ i c d h h c ) c d h u ) - u )c d . i— h h -. o p c c l) ii ‘ i w < c d u ) l c d c ) p ) c d h h f t h - c d f t d u ) h o ‘i ‘d ‘i c ) - c ) h ‘i p ’ i u i’ i m ’ i f t u i c d h - c ) h ’ i z h -c d c d - f t c ) h — - . pj o u ) ’ i u ic d u) • f th - h c d < cd m c ) ’ i c ) h -h -c d h q - u ) f t p u ) c) u ) cd q c d h cd o u ) > ‘i s f t ft f t • . h - ‘i - c ) c d q h h ° cd i p i lo cd ‘i s - cd f t h - u ) h i i l u )c )u ) o — . cd c d f - h - d q c d ’ ‘ li- i, ii o h - p ‘i cd u) m f th c )c d u) c d h ‘c d lc d - w c d lc d i ‘ - u ) m h f t u i ft o o u ) b - h - is h - lcd u) pi p c ) cd w w ‘ cu p- ’ m p j w u ) q w q i cd h - o ’ i ‘i ‘i w ih - ‘i - ft h i ‘ - h - ° ‘i o i < ‘i ‘i c ) o ft lq h c d h i u )c d • - h - c) m u ) f t o f -’ lcd ft (d o cd . h c d o ,c d — c d h - h - f t - t w cd ft c d l j ‘ - cd u) c -’ o c ) - - cd c d (d h i h - - ‘i - u ) c d h - c d ‘ i c d c ) h - q - ft cd - w u) ‘i - - h - h - ’ p s— c d h cd cd h c d cd ft u) h u ) o ‘i ‘i c d w k < u ) ? • • w • cd c d p )c d c u - cd h ii o ‘i ‘i h i -< c ‘ - f t h - cd h - f t p c) cd h f ’- c )h - cd < ct ) cd h < ‘ i h - h - h f t h - ‘i c) h - ‘-d “ - h c d b o c d o ih - c ) u) ft c) cd c )u ) f t h h - u ) i c d q u i o o h u )c d u )c d ‘i p - i h cd ‘c d • ft - - p p o u ) h -c d u )h ‘i p ., u) f- ’ ‘i - cd ic -i cd c d ic d p lo • q - i h - h - ic h - iq c) u) f t ‘- < - h - cd i’i h -i c ) ft iu )’ i u) cd ft h c )i u )s ] q ft ic ft c) h h i ‘i c ft cd u) cd ih u ) ‘i cd h f t h i ‘i ‘i i q ‘i ‘i s ih ‘ i i f t l i— • lcd u) i u )i h -q cd lh - cd ‘i ‘i cd ft cd l l h - i i h -i c ) u) c )c d q i cd - ft f t l lcd u ) - ‘i cd u ) h l ft ft i ic ft i f t o lcd h i ih ft h i - - - h lcd h cd h i lcd k < ih i < ih q c d i z iç l) h h f — ’ i i l w ‘d i i i i - i w c i l - u i w q c , lc d -h p j lo p i (d p i i h -p j < h - kd o p h - i - i’ ’ ’ i- c d h c d c i l ) h - p i id c i lo w i c i r t c d i i p < ’ ’ c d ’ h -h - - q o p ip i q c d i l q d ih -u ) h -c ) l d c d c d i iq o h - [- , i rt tq -j cd • l- i ft c ) c d i c d ic d c d c d i h - r t c d ic d ‘ i c d ’ ’ h - i h - tf lc l) c fl cd u q h i p i j ir t’ < u ) b cd h - p l c d h - c) if — a i , • f l c d c j) < - k ic i i - q h < c d cn w h pi p ip q c) q (d • . p h i c ic d , h - p c i h -l o f t p cd ip i -h q ( d ic d p i d h - t ) p cd . (o h , s p i r th , q h ‘ d c d i < - q a -, o p i . . - c d ip -’ l ’ i ‘ < - h - cd p c d . i- h cd i cd . c d c d w p - p c ip ’ p i q i- h t- j h i p p ip -’ p jl i- p t - ’ c d c flc d c i p w p i’ < o l’ i , ( _ ) o c i c d d c d o c d f t h i_ a ’ c l ) h - l o p c i f — cd - ic d d “ — < ç ‘.. o p -c d . h - i - q c d ft c d (/ )q pj m c t c d .p h p < h - - c d f h - r r p -p ,i — c d c d . fl h - p j w j . ‘c d d h - i- z i . c d c d i l p , , - cd cd c d p ‘c d h h - u- i> < - w c d w u i• p h - c i ‘h - < n c d c d cd — jh - . . h c d h - ‘ - d c d — ? cd c d . w p ) r t . c i h c d p h ,c d c ic d c d cl ) h - h : cd ( i l g h h - cd h f l o h i f -c d ih c i cd cd c d q o c t w - c d c i c d k < c d c d c i c d c r u ] c d h - - i- q h - i , p • • i h - c d p ) ) cd - h cd lcd q c i o h pi p p ° c i h - cd p h - f t c d c d c d h - o h , h - c d - pi p cl ) — o c d < s - . , h -- • h - h - c d h - cl) - - h -- - c d p j< c d c i jp h - p p p o h - i ‘< - j h - c d p p p - o s . c i p ic d c i pa ø c d c i h - p i- h o ) c d cd - cd cd cl) cd c i p i p h -° c d pa h c i s cd cd h - c i h cd ) h - c d h c i - h - f t cl ) ‘ < p pa c i ft h - ) h ,h - p q ° h h - cd ‘ d a cd . w p c i c i s o c ) cd > ‘d ic )p i c d - o h - “ ‘v - p c d p c i i - i p h - p p ) cd ii - p •• ft p h - h - h , i- cd va ci) - (f li p h - p p o p ‘d cd p p i h - h - - c i ( c) ( ) ci o h - i -i c l) p p < h - i f - c i cd ft c d hi ip p . h , h - ls i cd p cd c i p i c i o c d i ic d p a p ii— i-i ii— (o ft cd c d c i p u c i p > < ii p i h - p i ) c d u h - p c i -- p - - ) -- p a cd -. lc d h , -c d - c d • - - i p d l j d ‘d ‘d c id h -d d c j q i iq i i q c h i j z o h - i o p i c o p i i l p i l lcd ic d j p c d c - ’ - ‘ c d h - i’ -j ct , ‘ d o h “ p j p j h - i li l • c t i h - - i c d i ’ iq il h - f - - c t - i l ih -h - c t h c d ’d i h c t i rt rt o r t w c d c t h h - h m — ( q c - ti i q c d h - p j c d -- ]i l h c d c d ic -t i c d f - .d h - i h c t cd cd - q c d o h - i l i l l li lo c d c t h - ‘ d c d ih -h - c th - o h il c d il h - p j c d — j - ipj ic ij il h - b cd c d c d i w i c d i ( q h d i l c j d i i h - h i d h td w c d c d o c d i q h iy - o c t .. c d h m - d i . x h - i c o ( j c t i ) i ) i j d i h - h c t h i m h ci ft o d . o c d c d f t • o d ic d ] ih - f t c d q h - - lo d h o f t ) .- j ii ll d in cd l d cd i l h k < cd ii c d c d h p i (d x i o c d c d f t . cd i c , - q h - tq i o i i l c d j x c ) c d c d l d n o ic d cd id l d h - c d f t h l Ø c d c t c d ic d w f t f t • h - ip jh h ld ic d w c i d • o .c h h - h - c d h h c d l q h i z c d c d c o c d ‘d cd . cd h c d ) . lq il c d h , c_ i x c i l h h c d — c d o • - w - l h - i l h h - . il h c d o c d i m c d j h - h -z cd c d c n q h i cd ,- t- w l q in c d u f tp ) h p j p j c i ) h ° c t il h -c ) _ . o h - c t l q j cd ‘ h - h - f t ie ’- h - c d ‘ i l p cd • . o ’ - cd • . p ) < n < - z c ) f t cd ‘ h c d c d c d h - c d •c d t j f t h - i l h i l - ‘•d h - . h - h j o c d ) i lo c ‘d il i cl ) ) h < i i - w c d ti i i f - j p j p j cl ) cd w q • f t k < t h - c d p i > < f tc d f t - ci i c d _ _ • .c i — ( q < ‘d c t w h - f r h < h l , . d , h i c d il ci c d c d h cd q o h - - h - c d il c d cd h , < c d p c d l i o cd h ° c d . il fl c d o w q c t h q il c d il - cd c d h i ( p f t h i i- c d c d h c d p i o c d cd h - i- w i. d w i l • h - < < cd c t go ) c d ” il . i l c d h h i c d c -r h ft cd f-i - i- ° il c i. l i c d - h q f- i- il - p i ,, c () i l o h -c d w c d cd il c t h -c d f t i l i l cd c d c d h p i c d c d ) g : o c d c ii f t i- ti z h - m cd h - k < il i lo c d il h j l d q o c d r r - • • c d f t c d p j cd . . ‘ d f t c d i l i l h - cd i l w c d h i! o h ) ci i - o c d c d cd o h h cd ft f t h - cd cd - i- ti h - m o l d c d i ft c d ft - ‘d l d ( d ‘ d h - il p - i c d c l) h f t h , - cd • i l ( i h x j o c d cd h ) i l h , cd h i l w f t cd o ’ h - f t i i l f t h f t c d ‘d i l c i ft c d il i cd ic d c d ic ,) -- - cd c d f tf t c d f t c d i i ” i ft cd lh - cd cd - hi h - h l d i h li- i- cd h i -. :d - ic i il h i iq cd ih -’- q w il h , h i ic h , ‘d il ih ‘d cd • il cd lo is - ld ih - ft ‘d cd i ft il w o i l ic u ft cd i f to lcd ft h - ft - ic if -l il h - il h o q h u i q ic d cd il f t l d i h ci ) l q ” h c d c d < il i l i ” m f t ) o i l ii k < h - o h - i h c d c d il c d cd • oi c d ci i h - cd o ’d ii c d o h cd (q h - i - cd ft h f t h - il il h - - h - h i i h i cd il h o h i c d if th - h ft cd h i l ih -o ft - o [< - i - h i fr -i -h ’ - - - ( h ic d iq -- - ‘- i, - h q ( d ’ c d u ) q (r if tc f) q c ( ) ( ( ) d c l ) i- ic () c i p i r j u j if — c i i q i h i d p -. ’t l ic d s b ( d q ) j q ) f t j c d o i h o h o ih -o c d f ’ q i c d i cd i • cd cd h h - lc d h h - h ft • ci ) h -i h - cl ) h jq b’ h - i i- q i iq c d ’ m - f t is ft i o < q p j i . cd < h ft pi i cd ic d h - ( o i c d h i q i o h c d c d f t o ’j c d o c d c d ih -f tf - l \j l x jf h c d ’ i— q ’ h i f < i m h -c l) h -c d h - p j ij a u ip iw c d c d h i c d n • - c d - c i c d if tq h o l ’j c d h p ik < c d c l) h q h -i - c’ ) h c d t! j c d h - o o o o h - cd f t f t - o o q h -h - f t i h - i - k < p j o ‘ - j w c d f t c d c d h h - o i f t c fl h cd c d z c d x . - > < ‘d o ( q i- q p jf — lh c d h i- i, p c d c d q h c’ ) h i jh - p j p j’ .d ‘ - i cd i i c d h c fl - i l c d f t h -’ d j h - q o i j c l ) ft h - o i— ’” h q q ic d h -o h h u c d h o h p i c ’) h o c d p il . ft - h c d p c d c d ft cd q j d h -’ p , h h l . o h h cd • . - h - l h - • - • h d h - . [ c j l i d h • .c d l o - j, c d - c d o h ,. .. • f t• h - h c d - c d h < o h q ., w c d . p j c d cd c d - h - i - h -’ h d cd c d cd h c ’ ) - h x j h -c d h - q c d h h ft n > < o c d c d < - f t c d ’ s h - h - ft c d h o c d c d f t o s c d h pi h p i c d h c d f t h - o ‘< p i ‘ h - s h - f ’ p ) ft c d c d -- c d cd h -o c d h - - c d j h c d b c d f t h - p .. h - i c’ ) o h - q - - ft h c d c d ) cd c d c d h ft h h - cl) cd ft q f - h c d - cd c’ ) h -p .. h -c d cd p jc d c d cd c d p ) f t c d h - cd c d i < p .. s h - - - o p i c d c d c d - c d j< c d o ( h h - o h < cd °c d f t cd c d h - h , cd c d c d h , c d c d -- c ’) h , ° - d h c d ‘.. d h h , o h -c l) h , ° h c d w i c d d - f t- - ‘d p .. c d q c d p i h c d h h c d ii h - h p o h , ft h cd q h , h -c l) h - h - h -i . - - c d - h i. < c d h - - [- h i. cd c ’) p f t h - ) cd k < q o p i p h - o c d cd c d ft c d c’ ) o h -f t [ - c d ’.< h - i >< c d f tq c d cd p , c d f t w h , < - c d c ’) ‘ d ‘ - f t - • _ w q c d c d - ‘ - o c d ft h - cd c d p ) h cd c d c d c d c nc d c d h c’ ) cd cd h - o ‘ d j f t p . c d c d o - cl) - - - f t h -o ° c d c d p i h o c d h - c d c d - • c d ft c d c d ft h - - c d ’ c d c d cd h l i f t cd - -c d f t h ii c d o c d c d p . . c d h , cd r n cd ft h c’ ) cd cd pj h - - f t cd cd c d c l ) h , . - ft c ’p )h , c d h , h ft c ) p. . i- ic d h h h - cd c d h c d k < ft • f t h - o c d ci ) • w ft c d h , h - h cd c d c d ‘ d f t o h - h “ c ) i— ’ c h - c d p . p io ii cd h h f t o q c ’) ft o cd h -h c’ ) - c d < c d h cd i c d c d ii f t ft - c d c d . q .. i q .. u . q p .c d h - h - h h w c’) cd o h - p ic d o p . h p ) — ii - i: -’ p i ‘. d o h - h - f t c d c d pi - p i - - - -‘ c d -- p ..- - h , - - - h • - h - - c d p . i c i j i < i i j q h ‘ - t j - p i u )h j ] q c j ) i c j ) iz i cl ) iq c l) -c l) d c i ) h -( d c d lo p -i (d c d h - h - i ih -p j i - f h h o c d c ? p j h < ic c- i- ( c-i - ic on - o o p h - ” d o h u ) if — i i p j i c d o q o h - u ) n - h - i - • h i h h i i c) iq p j u ) u ) - h — j c t iu )f — p jo ‘ ic ) h h c - i- o q - c lu ) c t p ) ih p j iu )i c t - ic d p i z cd (d i h p o r i - c d o s c d k < u ) i - j i c t ih i p - m h - o i - i- h h h o c d c -t z (i i ih -c d h - p j u )c d i q h - [ - u ) • c l ( pi ip iu ) p j - c n h s h -p j ‘t ic -t • - c d u )h b o h q — .] p j c ic -i -h i- id f - - - h c d h - h h - ip -) - q h ih - h c-i - h - h pi h - - i h h - lcd ° c-i - i j h - ij h ic- i- h - h d i o . q u )- - f - ’ i- ’ - ) - - i i i - k o p w b ‘h - ( d h - lu ) p - ,( ç t h u ) < f l h p ) l ‘< c u ) cd c - i - c d h - h - q h h h h q h h - cd - h - cd b c -i -n - cd o p ) p j c d h -q - — - c-i - n -h - c-i - q - - h - q p c - i - h j ‘ ( d p j p j h . h m c ) o u ) ( d w . h h -. h - < u )o l >< p-i . i- p j cd u ] ( o h . h & ) .i - h c t pi :: rc d i co - < c d w b h i- i -i -h - - z - cd h h o o h q ( d h ° u ) i h - - . o f -’ . i- ‘- i’ q - h - - h o h f l iq u ]u ] “ u ) u ) i - ) h h - i u ] f r ’ h h h -n - - - h o c d n h . cd l - c ) d h jc d cl ] q h -c d o h p ) - cd cd pi h h u) h n -c n o u ) n - - p i i u ) h -q c o h c d p i - h h w x j c) m u c d f l cd c d c o h ’ - i— i p i h -c d h - h - u ) h - h - i h h - h - h h - cd i— h -c ) • w n - u w n h - o u )h ] s - u ) h -, ‘- < -- ‘ i- c d w h o ( d pi h - - ( h u m c) h - c d i- -h c d ’ u ) u) -. - w h - u )’ u )c -i -n - ‘ cd p’ ( d c - i- r r u w u ) ° u )c l) c c- i- h c- i- -- h - ( d o - u) u ) c d h c- r u p w k < p j c d h h -s ( ) ( d c - i - o h - u ) c d -- - ii h o d c- i- p s .. c-i - - c-i - .. o o (o h p j o c) u ) h ]( o u )h h h - h -c -i u ‘i - c d c -i -q h h cd h - c d i- c d c - i- c-i - > < c d .. cd p cd h f l - u ) ( d pi u -j o h - ii p i c-i - h -a -u ) u )c -i - h -h ] co u ) ‘ < c d c q h - i i - p c d u ) f - l u— c-i - h p i u ) c - i- h - u- h h - u- h cd ‘- o n -h - b_ i_ _i t n - c d c- i- o h h - o h u ) c- i- (i i x c-i - h p ) . - < c d u )c -i - - d c d p j i- h u ) h - h - cd h - . c ‘ u) d p ) u )c d o q h (o h - i -p pi p ih - h - u ) h - u )p i c d o m u ) p i u ) . u) h - n c- i- - cd q h - ( q h q u) < u ) - - -> < cd h h - cq h - c - i- u s c- i- _ ( n i l c d c d u ) - u ) — j . ii u )h p ) ‘ d s i cl ) u ) ‘c d p) c d p i u )h - pi cd h - m u ) ‘t i n - p i p ( d h - q , h u ) h -c ) cd c - i h -f l p) u) m c- i- pi u )- - (d o cd i pi c- i- p i c -i - c-i - ‘- < u )u )i l u ) il p i h p . - - - h ] - -- q_ - p i u ) (i ) i- i, h o i i d i < i i c fl i ‘d c i) iq c i) h i f .< h o < z x - ( ‘ ’ p j h - i h - i i io i q ) (d p i h ( o f r q o c d ( d c r h - h -h - o p ic d o p l i f— jr -r i f - i — i i if -- i f — i o • iu ) - ci . ii c d u )h - h f — u ) h u ) m u ) i h - j i i— ’c -i w i ph ( h -c d iq c d i c r ( r tc tc d lq : -- i, f— c tf — c d r - r c r h , i h - i h i i r - - i - h • q f h - h h - o h - c d h c u ) w u ) c r h -- p h - - h - - f c r h -p h i - h h , p jc d p ) — h h h h c) ‘d w c r ‘d c )- i h - c d w p h o h c p h . u ) u ) h h h h - p h h - h p h p h h h - p io h c r p h - h - c - - u ) i ° h - u ) h c d h c d h ( c d h - c -r c d : : cd cd w c) tj ‘- q o c d ( p h h .< c d ‘•: tj - h r- p h f r - - p h f - ( h : h ph q o cd - o c d h p hc d ( ( l h ph h p h c d w h - c d . cd p h r - - h - ° : - c i) < o q o h -q o ph p h p i : p u) : : h h f t h - i q r j h - ( : . u) h o h , p i c r r w o - cd u ] c o o q -- .p h c e ) r - r h c r h h - c - cd l-’ h o cd p i : u ) < h h - j u • • o p ,- p h h - k < < h o < ph p h - -h c d •- h q c d o h — • o f — u )c d q h k < cd h -h i ° h m ° h - p h h - . q w ( h - < - q u ) h o h ,c d h - h f t h f -- ‘ z i h - h , h c d u c ) >< “ c d c d k< h , : _ j h h - c r f t f t o h p h ph c r u ] o c d p h c d • p h u) q h — . - h - h -f l- ( d o - o p h d ( cd p h q w c r : q c d ph f -’ o f - c r m h - h h h c l - $ h u ) u ) h h h j w p h q ( m h - < h - h ph h h -p h d h h h c- r u ) ) - cd u c d h ( h - h ( ( u ) c d p p h h - (j) ph o ‘ c t f - h h - o _ c d c d ç - r w p g p h h u i g f- ’ p h d h , c d ci ) l h - - p h h - r- l h -p j h - f tc ) ] ci ) ç t c r p h - . h h , ) h - : -h -i - i h - - o c d pj c r .i c d o c i p i d ‘ - p h j : u ) u )p h p h h i- i : u) h - f- f cd < h - > < k < h h - o - — : cd -- i- a o c r (d p i c r q c d ph c d i_ _ ic - h : h - ih -o p h p h c d c d < cd n ph c r i c r j - t - i- i h q c d ( c t h f h - c r -- h -c d lcd u) h q j c r - c r h - p h c d lc d ° h - - .. f t - ph h , - h -i l i . ) h h - h - h - i < u) rt i c c r h i g — h h u) ip hp h c i ) w ph o - c rp h cd u ) i - h , ic d - : q p h c d ( h il c r ih h- < h h - - - iy u i h - i- lu) u) cq il cd ( d h - f t il (i) h u ) h i p h p h fl h - ph c d h , ph ph ph o h . -- h -h - ( ph u ) - - i l h o o h ,c r cl ) f t cd - jo ph h ‘t js cd i l p h . . h r m c d i- ix jh -- i h - h - o il il h - • p h u )c d cd ph i u) h o c d - - t o ‘ t jh h - f t i- i h c d z i il ph cd il— a c r - ( ( h u )p h c r m p h u )c r -- -- h - lo p h h - cd u) ph h - -- jo u )p h u) c r q - - ih , p h ( lcd : ii cd i x • - - f - - - - ( c d - h i i i i q i i f l i h i i c l) ’ c i i i i i i j ” i h i i i i h i h - i h - h i • i h i i h - i i i ) h - i i c d i j i w i i i h - i i q c d i i h i c t l m ] i - i ic ti < i i f - c ti i h i i h i ( d i i i (d i i c d i (d i i (d i i h - j i hhi l i pu i q i w i i ’ i ’ ’ c d i ih -i i i s o ’ cd cd t h (-i - ii ii i ii i o • c t i - h h h ) h o h h h - h cl ) c d h h ih -h cl ) ip u c d h h - t p) u ] u ] c d t) ] c td h -w ip jw r t p u c tw h -w h h h -h i x j i id h - p i c l ) o o ° o d i h h o c d td i p ) w - ‘ h -p u - - c l) . i pu w q • . i i “ cl ) c d i z h - h l cd w c d cd ) q h - c d cd f l l c d q i c d c d lc d pu i - pu c d i z cl ) p ) h o p )o cl ) h h p p h - h • w p u p p u h i j pu q (- t- h -h ( t cd h ]p j “ c tc d y - - h -p u h ,s z c d h - p i - h cd s c d h - o p u o p u c t h cd -c d h ‘ - c d o p h -p u z ° f t h - i < n i k < c t c c )k < ç - - q p . h - ( l) f t p u i h - cd h cd h h i f tq q p u p ) h - s ih - pu () fr ( h -, b iw cl ) pu p pu h i c) h i h , h cd c d i r t ‘ - d i cd c d i k < c d h p u .. l ’ j i- s o q h -i d ) ç t cd i . c d < p. ) h - q h h tj l j , h i y i - cl ) tq fj )h - c d p u l o h c t o c d )c ) h i ç t i ft h - -j h o h • h j j c t w c ) h s •c d z h ] cd h pu c d w f - i ci ) pu p u p ) cl ) c d c ) h -c t h ib k < c i ) t ’ r t ’ - h h p) cd o - cd h h . o h o f -i c-i - - cd cd g p u o h - cd o p h ‘- < u i h ]l ’j ft c t h - ci ) pu “ h - p u rj o c d h - h iq h - u i i p u q ii i h i h - h c t s h s o h h ,t i o p u h k . < cd h - h cd f-i - u i c d ‘-i s cd - h i i i h c d ç- t- cd pu h - h cd - h - f t h - k < - < h o c d c) - p) h - pu cd i i o h - pu h - h - cl ) cd - p u p h - h c d - cl ) i ‘ - d j- h - cl ) f t q - o it -’ cl ) c d h - - h - c d c d u i cd pu c d ’ - - ipu h < c t c d c f l . i o - - cl ) ° cd h h -c t cd h - iq -. - - o c d “ ( d h c d h -p u c) i i- ic !) -- p u )t l) cd p pu ic ) - - h c r cd pu r i p u - - h p u h -h h p j h i o p u cd lcd i )j i-’ j i i h c l ) u ] h ft i!)) • • w cd h cd cd ‘- z: q j i q •. c ) u ] i - - • • i-’ ) •c d h - h i h c d h tq pu cd d ix i lcd i > < b c d pu ic t u ] h i ip ) h - h i’< w h - cd cl ) ft ih - i cd o ni c) i- i h - ih - w i- h ‘. ) ) ‘o h pu k < ft ic ) • o o h - cd n i - h i - - - ic) ) i • h i - - pu cd • i ‘j fr j h - c ) h o ) h )j u i h - c d h m ii -c d cd h h cd (q i c d h c d cd cd ci ) cd h cl ) cd h -h - cd h cd cd - - r r c r cl) o h - f lc t( cl) h - cd h - i- q cl ) b — h - (q i- p i h - d m i q j d q ( h h c ) cd h c r pi - c r h - h f — c ) h i- f’ (d o c d j i- pj h - cl ) t h - < d h - k < h c) ci ) ‘d l)j c t w m i ci ) c) pi i cd pi - h w - h — p cd ( c t c t cd — c t h cl • - cd i- o h - m i h h - pi q p l)) m i h - c i o c) cd p h iq h - ) ( c) h h - f l cd m i iq o h - k < cl ) c r ) c t h - m i s lx i o c) cl ) h h ‘- < b iq c) p m i h - c r cd i i- q h cd i- p i c m i c t ( h h h p cd h c d c d c r h i— ’ ii c) ‘- < m i p d ci ) l ) h - z h - h i l c r cl ) c j )- t- c ) iq cl ) c) p cd c) p m i i. < j cd h - h cd h - c) h - cd lx i o h - h m i h - h h >< p i ç- t cl ) h ( cd ) c r .o h - < h c) cd i- p w o u- i h - cd c n p p c) cd p p h o ii - w q m i h - p i- cd h - i c t cd iq i cd h h - cd ( cd h h - cd d cd c t h h t m i cd - i- k < c) p r- r h - d w - h - - - cd w c r - p cl ) h cd i i m i w k < . . h cl ) w cd w c - i ( c r h - h i- h - — h h - cd h - i w cd q - • w i u i i- h ” -) ii i .g w d i h - h — h h ii ( • w x c) c) — ) - cd cd h - cd i co w u i h - m i l’ j iq - - u i cd - h - h - - i— cl ) h i- i m i o h i h - d cd h - ( - h p c d ( w h c) c) c t q h h u i -] ‘ p - cd h h - cd h - h j ( h — cd f ( — - . u i — . p • cl ) u i - ç t h - c r h - i h - h - cl ) cd c i ) ( - h c) q cl) c d • i h ( ( o h h - w • w p cd cd h - l’ j h m i h c ) - i cl ) m i h c d c r m h c r m i i cd c l) h ( u i h -< q u i u i i -. h c r h h - m i ( - o • p h - — h - cd w m h c r cl ) • — h h - h - ci ) • - h -c t u i c’ -) i - . -< c d * h u ) cl ) cd cr m h h h h ‘d u i h h h h w m h f - l ’ j u )c d p j ç u u ) h cd h l — c d : ) cd cd h h h c d ç t k < u ) o f l j . s h - p j c d c d p j u o o h h ) pi h -c d l- f - ’ b j b ’ h ic d h - h u ) h - c d c d h h c d h q h ) h - c d h - u ) u ) o o c d u ) f - o i h -h - h < c d d h o c d c u p ) ti p i ) ) h - i j h - i u ) ‘- ‘- i- h o u) s i - q u )c d r r o o h i c d o h h - u ) h h - c d c d h - c d i < c d o o n u )u ) cd cd m i n h m i m m h i- ] x li pi h - cd s o pj p j h p j c d c d c d c d ‘ < h h h h q q r r c - r o o li s w u ) h - li p) i- p i () o o u ) p ) h ; , c p ) h c d o p j o p j u ) o q p) j i — s h - j u) u) c r b o o c d c d c d r r r r h m h h - c d p j h u) h a h h - cl - c l h - h cd a i r t p u ) cd ii h h h m w i d m m h h — j h h w w m h h h m g i m o i h m w m h h m u ] w w u i —j -d — .] — ) w m h - ( - l - cd h h h h h ] w h m — j m h h u i h d u i u i m w o i h h p g i u )— j w -- j -- j h m m it h w - — ] h h -’ h h h -’ h h h h h h -’ h h h h h h h h h -’ h -’ h -, c d c d c d c d cd c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d r t r t r t r r c r r r r r i- ti -i -f -i - r t r r r r r r c - r i - r i - t i - t i - i c t r t r t c t i- ti -i - r r r t r t ti -t i- i- c rc -t i- ti -i p )c d c d c d c d cd c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d c d h h h i- i - h h h h c d u )u )u )u ) u ) u )u ) u )u )u ) u )u )u )u )u )u )u ) u )u )u )u ) u ) h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h ‘d id ld d - - l i) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - p )w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w h - . - j m i m u ih m m w h u im w m w m i) im w h w u ) i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i o — ) - - j w u ] u i o i— u i u i u i - ] w w u i u i h h h u i m m - u m f m - j - - j w u i - -j ] - u ) u i u i • - i- h l- s ct ) pi cd cli cli lq c d cli h cli cd ci - h cli h h l l l— p i w c n o — - io cd ii i. o c d p ) o i - w l> < c r ii .i. c r c d - q c d c d •• i- i- i- cd u ) q f tp if - cd i r t i- i o f o o h c d u) lc d c d o c d f l h u ) h . ii i c r h r i c r w u ) i - ’ o c d j u ) h - - - - i c r j < h - p u ) ø c d c - r p p i h - s i- j b o i - h c d h u ) o o o t s cd ‘ — ] ‘ cd cli ra c d u )o c d c d h o c d p i o u ) u ) — j ’ o o . c - r c d d o c d c r k < h - o o c - r p o h - p ) cd c d b t i - q - ’ cd h o c l l - c d c d ( cd cd . o u ) c d f o o t m i cd cd c d c rc d d u ) h i - c r c r h c d u ) c d c d o c rc [i c d p )c r c rc l o i — cd cd o i - c d c d k < m i c c d c rc d u )u )p ) c r u ) i c d cd - c r c d m i c c r ° - q i - i m , h - ! c d h c d u ) c d o cd h - > < i cli h -h c l) c l) c r c r o b s p ic d c d ‘ l j i < c r p i p i p i cd cd q c r i i- i- m i - cd ’ - < h h h c d c d c d c rc rc r c rc rc r c d c d c d u )u )u ) l i l i c d c d cd c rc rc r c r c r r t c d c d c d u )u )u ) h h h h c d c d c d c d ri -c rc rc r c r r r c r c r c d c d c d c d u )u )u )u ) h h h h - - - - m h h i- h h - h cd u) * c ) li i w q o f i. ‘ h c t u) q w p o c ) c l) _ i ij ‘x j ‘x j ‘x j ‘r j ‘r j h - h - h - h - h - h - h -c d cd p h - h - h f - h f— h ’ h (f i f - h ’ h ’ cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd cd - - c r • - • • o cd h - c) f - q q c q c fl q d q d d j i h ‘ i j l o t - i c f l o o c l) o l ]i f l h h i ( d t- c d p j p j c d p j p j f — ’ o h - r t < i o t - h h h - h h h - o f t p j < i h - - o c q f — ’c ) o p r t r t o c) cd u ) h - c) r t c d c t f t h - c d i - q h h -c d f - ‘- < c d h f -- ‘ < o h - c d ) f — h - i - c d c t’ < (q c d h c d rt i- ’ r t c d ’< q r t h - c l ) q h - c d o q q c d c d c d h - i • i - h - j h - r t cd u )- p j c r p j p j [- h f - h - o f - - j h r tp j o ty o c d f -’ c d r t o h - - d j ’ j s c d rt c d w ’ j p o h h - c d rt c d h - h p j f— ’h ’ cd u ) p j i c d t- p j l i lf r o k < . u ) h -h ‘- < - c d h - o u ) h -h ’ h -c d u ) c ) u ) r r i d r t o o c d h -h h - - ’ < ’ < h ’ ti j o h h h t c d o h ’ u )c d < o c d c d h -h - c d c d j t h ’ c d ) t l ) i c d w c d o c d c d p c d u ) h - c d q ic ) p j h - u )o u ) u ) p ) h - > < r t c d < f q h -o rt c d h -h - r t c d q o r r h -c d ‘j cd o • )j j i c t h - h - h h - c lj u ) p ) h h i h - p j ) o t- h o < u) ‘< h - r t u ) < o u ) h ’ f -’ - h ii • tj s r t i o c d o cd h ’ u )c d c d cd rt c d c d w cd h - h ’ c d l c d h - u ) i— i d c d h u ) h - u) w i — h h i h ’ u) ‘ < h ’ h - f- ’ ( c d cd j h ’ h -h -o h ’ c d u ) l rt cd o r t h ’ f r t h - cd cd ‘< p -’ - - c o h ’ h h ’ c d h -c d h - cd h q i cd f)j c d h - c - t . cx ) h c d o h - h h ’ u) h ’ h c t c d cd h - h cd cd h ’ zj cd u )c d rt r t c r - cd c r c ) h p jc d cd c d r r c r cd rt ç t c ) c r i u )c d cd s c r cd r t h - c r f) ) cd h - h -- h u) cd i- i h - c l) c r cd q f c - t u) u ) < r r i- h - h - j c r - u) c d h - -. u) - - u ) c d q i f ) ) - cd i- c d u ) q u) h h h h ’ h h ’ h ’ h h ’ cd cd cd cd cd cd cd w u ) u ) u i h — j u ) ) h i i i i • l s j — j (iii) sauer quotations (lq): john leighly collected together a selection of sauer quotations from the sauer papers. i have used these and referenced them in the thesis text as the other correspondence - with the names of the correspondents and the date - and with the prefix ‘lq” for leighly quotation collection (lqs for its supplement) followed by the page number. (iv) notebooks (sn): i had some difficulties with the notebooks in terms of identification, i.e. the date of the excursion to which each corresponded. some were placed in files and dated at a different time to the date marked on the front of the notebooks; others had no date attached. the absence of anyone with specific knowledge of the notebooks in the bancroft library further complicated the situation. the time span of the notebooks marked below is taken from the first and last entries of each book. the year date is either that marked on the notebook (m) or my guess (checking against west, , op. cit.) from the content and time span of the notes. pagination for quotations in the thesis text is either that of the notebooks themselves or my own numbering of the pages for identification. __________ notebook re trip to mexico - / / (m) / - / / (?) : notebook re trip to baja / (?) : notebook re / - / / (m) trip to mexico / - / / (m) / - / / (?) - / / (m) / - / / (?) / (m unclear) (? unclear) / - / / (?) : unidentified notebook (possibly of cuba trip) / - / / (m) ________ : notebook of rockefeller foundation sponsored trip to south america carton file : miscellany. file : miscellany. carton file : : : : : : : : carton file / - / / (m) i j j h c d d h h h c ) — t h i h f — ip j cd i- ’• h - f - ’ i- ’- pi q i-’ • c d h pi o h ç t i. • q h h h - d rt i-’ • ii — > < h h rd c d c d c d c d rt h < f - c d c d h - h - rr w c d h c t • ir r cd h u ) cd cl ) p u ) p - j h iq c tz q h - c l ) d cd h - i- ’- q p j r r f- i ii q c ) p d u) o c d p j c) d c l ) h - cd cd p u ) h - z p ) lx i cd ‘ d q p j c ) c d p r r q cd ii h - s c d cd o ‘- io h h ’ - u jh c t ii h c d h i p - cd cl ) c u d f - i lx i u )h u ) u ) c d c u < i - u )q u ) u) p h u ) c d u ) ‘i j p )c d < u ) f cd u )c d q o p h h - i-s - r- rc d h - p ) h < cd c )h h c t h , h h lx i u )u )u ) cd ) u) u ) c t h i p ) (• t c d h lx i cd w c u d h h - o cd ‘ e • - - lx i h cd i- ’- i h - f j - ci c d c- - q d h c t rr cd rt c u c t -• - h r - t - ‘- ii -i- cd cd cd ‘— ‘ ci ) < cd h ci ) c d h ‘ - m h h c) cd l i i i h h - < tu ) h _ lx i — .z u ) lx i u o m o ‘ ‘ ‘ i cd h - p ) d - - x i -h c d h d f .x i l i i i ‘ h cd cd d > < d m m o c t i w ø l i i i d cd cd < fl h -c d •• — . — — . p i — . — i i i i i d p cd .d c d d c) p to ( cd • . -q ,c d p - ’ cd ( c d c d w w m c t cd i— b r t < ‘ u) cd h ‘ < y lx i o h c d cd c d h l o c d h - cd cd s o r t h - q q i q i h ‘d cd cd u )c ) to h m h p h - cd cd ‘ pj h lx i — c ) i to to m cd r t u) p p ) u ) z ‘d c t u i . — - - . . . h .. i- () h i- q . lx i u ) cd cd cd cd u) h w w w cd d - to r t cd p h - z -c d — cd (d p i - . cd cd h u) d w h - - cd h - h s cl ) o to p cd p c d c t — cd h h - h to cd h - u) c d c t c t h - c d ft cd cd cd p lu ) cd h i u ) mr mr. chancellor, madam president, members of the board of governors, members of senate, elders, honoured guests, graduates, ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls tansi – good morning we give thanks to the great spirit for bringing us together to celebrate the achievements of those who are graduating today in education, human ecology and human and nutritional sciences. graduates, today is your day, the day you receive your reward for your hard work, commitment and the many sacrifices you have made along the way to prepare yourselves for your chosen vocation. as a teacher, i can relate to those who are entering the teaching profession. as i thought of your extensive preparation of five years or more, i remembered my own experience over years ago. fresh out of grade twelve, my preparation was a -week summer school at the manitoba normal school. it was a crash course in teaching after which we received a permit to teach. all i can recall about that summer school is learning how to balance an attendance register, playing softball and going for walks in assiniboine park. the normal school that became the teachers’ college is now the mennonite university. there was a serious shortage of teachers at that time and grade eleven and twelve students were encouraged to obtain permits to teach. i started out in a one-room school with children in grades one to eight at a salary of $ a year or $ a month after deductions. now you will likely make more than that in a day (and i can make it in an hour). how does a person teach children in eight different grades? what a challenge! i’ll tell you how i survived. i survived by the example of my favourite teachers. --i liked the teachers who were kind to me …who showed me respect and who trusted me. --i liked the teachers who believed in me, challenged me and gave me responsibilities. --i like the teachers who took the time to visit my family, who joined us in the playground, who tramped through the snow with us to get a christmas tree. --i liked the teachers who laughed. i was fortunate to have such teachers. i thank the great spirit for those teachers because they taught me by example, which is the traditional method practiced by our people. it isn’t enough to have knowledge, to be smart, to be outstanding in science, math or english. i believe that, more importantly, it is the human qualities that determine your effectiveness and success as at teacher. we are not always conscious of how we gain those human qualities. what i do know is that to possess those qualities of respect, understanding, trust and kindness, one must believe in the potential of all people. one must respect the cultural and linguistic differences of all races of people. today, as teachers, you will have a very different classroom from those of years ago. today, you will in all very likely have students from virtually anywhere in the world. can you be an expert in all cultures? not likely ---but if you practice the old adage of our people that “everyone is a teacher and everyone is a learner”, you can validate the unique experiences of each child in your class. what we must acknowledge is the fact that, we, in canada, do not have one common culture with a homogeneous set of values. to assume we do, is to perpetuate the practice of assimilation that defeats the purpose of education. students deserve an education that “will enhance their sense of identity and confidence in their personal worth and ability”. the challenge lies with you, the graduates of today, to make a difference in our classrooms… to create a truly canadian mosaic with all its richness. graduates, may you be remembered as a favourite teacher. congratulations human ecology, human nutritional sciences graduates, and fellow teachers. i am honoured to share this day with you and to receive an honorary degree from the university of manitoba kesa manito, meaninan muskowiseewin great spirit, give us strength kwask kita isi pimatisiyak to live a good life, kuniwaniminan, kiskinootahinan keep us, guide us oma ka kisikak, mena kakikay this day and forevermore ekosi all my relations. verna j. kirkness may , moyamoya disease in a member of the roma gypsy community | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / corpus id: moyamoya disease in a member of the roma gypsy community @article{bertora moyamoyadi, title={moyamoya disease in a member of the roma gypsy community}, author={p. bertora and c. lovati and p. gambaro and a. vicenzi and s. rosa and m. osio and f. resta and c. mariani}, journal={european neurology}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	p. bertora, c. lovati, + authors c. mariani 	published 	medicine 	european neurology the age of of cerebral haemorrhage (not further investigated), and a patient’s son – a heterozygote twin – had died soon after birth for unknown causes. a brain ct scan performed at admission showed several hypodense areas within the cerebral parenchyma in both hemispheres. brain mri confirmed the presence of multiple t -hypointense and t -hyperintense lesions lodear sir, moyamoya disease is a clinical entity in which occlusion of intracranial large vessels, in particular carotid… expand view on pubmed karger.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures and topics from this paper 	 figure 	moyamoya disease 	seizures 	intracranial hemorrhages 	hemorrhage 	representational oligonucleotide microarray analysis 	basal ganglia 	blood vessel 	hemiplegia 	autosomal dominant inheritance 	parenchyma 	community 	penetrance 	statistical cluster 	cessation of life 	partial 	carotid arteries citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency moyamoya disease: case report and literature review 	p. janda, jonathan g bellew, v. veerappan 	medicine 	the journal of the american osteopathic association 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed a case report of moyamoya disease from nonendemic region of upper part of brahmaputra valley of north eastern india 	d. das 	medicine 	 save alert research feed moyamoya disease presenting with ischemic stroke in association with diabetic ketoacidosis 	h. habib 	medicine 	 	 	view excerpt save alert research feed etiology and pathogenesis of moyamoya disease: an update on disease prevalence 	s. huang, zhen-ni guo, ming-chao shi, y. yang, m. rao 	medicine 	international journal of stroke : official journal of the international stroke society 	 	 save alert research feed review of the scientific literature on the health of the roma and sinti in italy. 	l. monasta, a. erenbourg, s. restaino, v. lutje, l. ronfani 	medicine 	ethnicity & disease 	 	 save alert research feed moyamoya disease-two case reports 	g. kundu, benzamin, + authors s. akter 	medicine 	 	 	 save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency familial occurrence of moyamoya disease: a clinical study 	h. seol, k. wang, seungki kim, yong-seung hwang, k. kim, byung-kyu cho 	medicine 	child's nervous system 	 	 save alert research feed clinical features of probable moyamoya disease in japan 	k. ikezaki, t. inamura, t. kawano, m. fukui 	medicine 	clinical neurology and neurosurgery 	 	 save alert research feed primary and acquired forms of moyamoya syndrome. a review and three case reports. 	n. gadoth, m. hirsch 	medicine 	israel journal of medical sciences 	 	 save alert research feed neuromuscular disorders in the gypsy ethnic group. a short review. 	c. navarro, s. teijeira 	medicine, psychology 	acta myologica : myopathies and cardiomyopathies : official journal of the mediterranean society of myology 	 	 save alert research feed inheritance pattern of familial moyamoya disease: autosomal dominant mode and genomic imprinting 	y. mineharu, k. takenaka, + authors a. koizumi 	medicine 	journal of neurology, neurosurgery & psychiatry 	 	 	 save alert research feed human leukocyte antigen in patients with moyamoya disease. 	m. aoyagi, k. ogami, y. matsushima, m. shikata, m. yamamoto, k. yamamoto 	medicine 	stroke 	 	 save alert research feed high-resolution turbo magnetic resonance angiography for diagnosis of moyamoya disease 	i. yamada, t. nakagawa, y. matsushima, h. shibuya 	medicine 	stroke 	 	 	 save alert research feed high-resolution turbo magnetic resonance angiography for diagnosis of moyamoya disease 	ichiroyamada, tsuneakinakagawa, yoshiharumatsushima, hitoshishibuya 	medicine 	 	 save alert research feed hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy – lom (hmsnl): refined genetic mapping in romani (gypsy) families from several european countries 	d. chandler, d. angelicheva, l. heather, r. gooding, l. kalaydjieva 	biology, medicine 	neuromuscular disorders 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed a newly discovered founder population: the roma/gypsies. 	l. kalaydjieva, b. morar, raphaelle chaix, h. tang 	biology, medicine 	bioessays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation in mennonites from kansas and nebraska genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation in mennonites from kansas and nebraska l.j. martin and m.h. crawford* abstract thyroxine is an endocrine hormone that regulates cellular and organismic metabolism. current research on thyroxine has primarily examined its adaptive potential and genetic inheritance patterns. to date, no studies have attempted to investigate the interaction between the ge- netic and environmental components of thyroxine variation. this ap- proach is useful because hormones are on feedback regulation; thus in- teraction occurs between the environment and gene expression. the purposes of this research are to characterize the genetic and environmen- tal components of thyroxine variation using univariate statistics and to estimate the genetic and cultural heritabilities through path analysis. for univariate analyses, analyses of variance are used to determine whether or not age, sex, or community affiliation are covariates of thyroxine level. significant differences existed in thyroxine level based on sex and com- munity affiliation ( p < . ). the genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation were partitioned through path analysis. heritability was estimated at . ± . for the genetic component and at . ± . for the environmental component. the environmental variables that contributed to the variation in thyroxine level were caffeine con- sumption, blood calcium level, and biceps skinfold thickness. thyroxine is a hormone in the endocrine system that regulates cellular and organismic metabolism and governs calorigenesis, lipid, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism, respiratory and cardiovascular function, and growth and development (butt ; hardy ). there are two forms of this hormone: thyroxine (t ) and triiodothyronine (t ). t is recognized as the metabolically active form of thyroxine (butt ; hardy ). compared to t , t is secreted at a ratio of to and is less responsive to environmental influences (harland and orr ; hardy ; danforth ). current research on thyroxine focuses primarily on its metabolic functions, although a few studies have examined its adaptive potential (schwartz ; riis and madsen ; department of anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, ks . human biology, august , v. , no. , pp. - . copyright © wayne state university press, detroit, michigan - key words: hormones, thyroxine, endocrine system, physiology, mennonites http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford ballard ; legrand ; pimentel ; cabello and wrutniak ; maruo et al. a,b; sower et al. ; facchini et al. ). for example, thyroid hormone fluctuations have been reported in cold adaptation studies and a relationship between thyroxine and physique has been suggested (reed et al. , , ; silverin et al. ; gaikwad et al. ; kwiecinski et al. ; rone et al. ; kirchengast ). to date, no studies have attempted to explain thyroxine variation by focusing on the interaction between genetic, environmental, and endocrino- logical factors. however, integrating information from several disciplines is particularly informative when studying hormones such as thyroxine because of their complex interrelationships. it is important to identify both the genetic and the environmental components of normal thyroxine variation because thyroxine variation is due to both genetic and environmental factors. the goals of this research are to examine the genetic and environmental compo- nents involved in thyroxine variation using univariate statistics and to estimate the genetic and cultural heritabilities using path analysis. materials and methods population. the data for this study were collected from three mennonite communities, two in kansas (goessel and meridian) and one in nebraska (henderson) (figure ), as part of a multidisciplinary study of biological aging. the collected data included demographics, reproductive histories, blood specimens, nutritional data, anthropometrics, genealogies, psycholog- ical questionnaires, and neuromuscular tests (crawford and rogers ). crawford and rogers ( ) demonstrated that goessel and henderson are most similar genetically because they both originated from a single commu- nity, alexanderwohl, during the s. in contrast, meridian is genetically heterogeneous because it was recently founded by a charismatic leader and consisted of several familial groupings of various origins. data collection and analysis. from november to january data were collected from mennonites, ranging in age from to years, from the communities (goessel, henderson, and meridian). individ- uals who had a history of thyroid disease were excluded from the analysis, thus reducing the sample used in this study to individuals (goessel, individuals; meridian, individuals; henderson, individuals). the total sample of individuals was included in the computation of univariate statistics. however, only family data were used for the path analysis, thus reducing the sample to individuals representing families ( fathers, mothers, and children). to assess thyroxine levels, we drew blood specimens from nonfasting volunteers. the serum t levels were assayed using the standard radioim- http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / /nebraska v lincoln * j henderson * kansas topeka inman, #goessel •meridian vvichita figure . locations of the mennonite communities of goessel, meridian, and henderson in kansas and nebraska. munoassay technique of consolidated biomedical laboratories (roche labs, wichita, kansas) immediately after the blood was drawn. univariate methods. univariate methods were used to examine popula- tion and individual differences. for population level analyses means, standard deviations, and standard errors of thyroxine levels for the three mennonite communities were compared to each other and to the normal physiological variation. for individual level analyses age effects were examined by regress- ing thyroxine variation on age and on age-squared. sex differences in thy- roxine level were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance (anova). furthermore, thyroxine levels for females were partitioned into pre- and post- menopausal groups and were compared using anova. last, the postmeno- pausal women were separated into those who had complete hysterectomies (surgical menopause) versus those who had experienced menopause without hysterectomies (natural menopause), and the thyroxine levels were compared using anova. analytical methods. path analysis was used to estimate the genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation by partitioning the two http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford figure . path diagram of pathmix hi demonstrating the relationship between parents and off- spring with respect to genotype and environment. the subscripts, f, m, ci, and c , represent father, mother, and two children. p is phenotype, g is genotype, c is trans- missible environment with index /, and b is nontransmitted common sibship environ- ment (rao, williams et al. ). components on the basis of nuclear family data by using a predetermined causal scheme, the path diagram (see figure ) (wright ; rao et al. ). this analysis uses pathmix hi, a computer program designed by d.c. rao and colleagues to directly use nuclear family data (rao et al. ; rice et al. ). a cultural or environmental index was created using a phenotype de- fined by thyroxine level to characterize the familial environment (morton ; rao, williams et al. ). to construct this index, we first used linear regression to correct the thyroxine level for age and sex effects. the age- and sex-corrected data were then normalized by the inverse normal transformation and were used as the phenotype values. once the phenotype was character- ized, an environmental index was constructed by multiple regression analysis of the phenotype (forward and backward and best subsets). the following variables were used to determine the significant contributors tó t variation: blood glucose, low-density lipoprotein, blood calcium, smoking, alcohol con- sumption, caffeine consumption, church affiliation, weight, height, and sub- scapular, triceps, biceps, and suprailiospinal skinfold, thicknesses. the re- gression equation (y = ax + b) produces a line that defines the relationship between the independent variables (possible contributors) and the dependent variable (thyroxine level). the ts from the regression equation are called the predicted ts. the normalized predicted ts constitute the cultural index. http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / table . definition of the ten parameters in the path model (rao, williams et al. ) parameter definition h effect of genotype on child's phenotype (square root of genetic heritability) hz effect of genotype on adult's phenotype c effect of environment on child's phenotype (square root of cultural heritability) cy effect of environment on adult's phenotype u correlation between parental environments b effect of sib-transmitted common sibship environment on child's environment /f effect of father's environment on that of a child he rears /m effect of mother's environment on that of a child she rears i effect of environment on child's index iv effect of environment on adult's index pathmix m uses the following linear equation to estimate the various parameters: p = g + c + r, ( ) where p is the phenotype, g is the genetic contribution, c is the cultural and familial environmental contribution, and r is the residual resulting from ran- dom environmental factors (rao, williams et al. ; friedlander et al. ). it is assumed that g, c, and r are uncorrected (rao, williams et al. ). the "structural equation" is produced when the variables in eq. ( ) are standardized and are all divided by the variance of the phenotype (rao, morton et al. ; rao, williams et al. ): p = hg* + cc* + rr*, ( ) where g*, c*, and r * are the standardized variables, h = (vg/vp), c = (yc/vp), and r = (vr/vp), and v is the variance. these are also known as the standardized partial regression coefficients or path coefficients. dividing both sides of the structural equation by the phenotypic variance yields (rao, mor- ton et al. ; rao, williams et al. ) = h + c + r , ( ) where h is the genetic heritability, c is the cultural heritability, and r is the residual variation. this mathematical expression is known as the equation for complete determination (rao, morton et al. ; rao, williams et al. ). the pathmix m method contains known variables (pf, phenotype of father; pm, phenotype of mother; pc, phenotype of child; /f, index of father; /m, index of mother; /c, index of child) and unknown parameters, which are displayed in the path diagram (figure ). table defines each of the unknown parameters that were estimated by maximum likelihood. the known variables yielded correlations, several of which are repetitive (pf, /f and pm, /m and pf, /m and /f, pm), thus reducing the number of correlations http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford table . definitions of the null hypotheses tested null hypothesis mathematical expression no intergenerational differences with respect to heritabilities y - z = no marital resemblance (assortative mating) u = no common sibship effect b - equal parental transmission of familial environment /f = /m no genetic heritability h = z = no cultural heritability c = y = , i = v= to . moreover, the sib-sib correlations raise the total number of correla- tions to , which serve as a basis for the interpretation of the data and a test of the fit of the general and most parsimonious models (rao et al. ). pathmix m estimates the model directly from the family data instead of by computing the model from the correlations. however, the correla- tions, means, and variances of the variables are used to test the overall log-likelihood function (rao et al. ; duggirala and crawford ). to test the functions, we calculated the log-likelihood for single nuclear families using the deviation of the phenotype from the mean; then the overall log- likelihood was calculated using the log-likelihood from all nuclear families. the overall likelihood ratios were used to test the goodness of fit of given models and to test specific hypotheses. twice the difference in likeli- hood ratios follows a chi-square distribution. to test the fit of the model using all the path coefficients and their variances, we tested the log-likelihood of the correlation model against the log-likelihood of the unconstrained path model. to test the null hypotheses listed in table , we tested the log- likelihood for each constrained model against the log-likelihood for the un- constrained path model. the degrees of freedom for all tests was the differ- ence in the number of estimated parameters. results univariate analysis. means and standard deviations of thyroxine levels in the three mennonite communities are presented in table . the mean values of thyroxine level in these populations fall within normal physiological variation (hardy ). the distribution of thyroxine level appears to be relatively normal but with a slight skew to the left (figure ). no statistically significant age effects were observed in the distribution of the t levels. how- ever, one-way anova revealed significant differences between the commu- nities and the sexes ( p < . ) (figure ). moreover, thyroxine levels of pre- and postmenopausal women were significantly different ( p < . ) with a mean thyroxine level for the postmenopausal group of . versus . for http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / table . means and standard deviations of thyroxine levels in the three mennonite communities community n mean sd goessel males . . females . . meridian males . . females . . henderson males . . females . . figure . frequency distributions for thyroxine levels in the three mennonite communities. http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford t level . -r t t t □ . - . -| j meridian goessel henderson figure . mean thyroxine (t ) levels and standard error bars in men (diamonds) and women (squares) for the three mennonite communities. the premenopausal group. yet no statistical difference was detected between the women who had hysterectomies and those who had experienced natural menopause. path analysis. using the criteria of the f ratios, adjusted r , mean square error, tolerance, and mallow's cp , we constructed the environmental index from the best subsets of the regression of all possible variables. this model contained three variables: caffeine intake, blood calcium level, and biceps skinfold thickness. the familial correlations estimated by maximum likeli- hood are found in table . only the father-child phenotype correlation was significant, suggesting a paternal effect. for the environmental index corre- lations the mother-father and child-child correlations were highly significant, whereas the other index correlations were low, suggesting intergenerational differences. parameter estimates for the general model, a summary of the null hy- potheses tested, and parameter estimates for the most parsimonious model are found in tables through . the general ( -parameter) model fits the data (xl = . , p = . ) (table ). the most parsimonious model was generated from the accepted null hypotheses, which include the following hypotheses: equal parental trans- http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / table . familial correlations estimated by maximum likelihood variable correlation n p phenotype pf, pm - . ns pf,pc . pco.ol pm, pc - . ns peu pe . ns index /f, /m . p < . /f,/c . p = . /m,/c . pco.ol icijci . pco.ol cross traits pf, /f = pm , /m . pf, /m = /f, . pf, ic . /p, pc . pm, ic . im,pc . pcijci - . pc jc i . mission of environment, no generational differences, and no common sibship. this model was compared for goodness of fit to the observed (table ) and the expected (general -parameter; table ) models using a chi-square sta- tistic. the most parsimonious model estimated the genetic heritability as . ( . ) and the cultural heritability as . ( . ). table . parameter estimates and their standard errors for the general model parameter estimate standard error h . . c . . y . . z . . u . . /f . . fm . . b . . i . . v . . x . d.f. p . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford table . chi-square values and probabilities associated with the tested null hypotheses null hypothesis d.f y probability y = z = . . u = . < . ¿ = . . ff=fm . . h = z = . . c = y = , i = v = . . parsimony /m = /f. y = z = , b = . . discussion univariate analysis. the significant differences in thyroxine level that exist between the three communities may be attributed to either environment or genetics. considering that the three mennonite communities share similar diets and lifestyles, it is unlikely that these differences are due to environment. furthermore, henderson and goessel are more similar to each other with respect to mean thyroxine level than to meridian (figures and ). indeed, goessel and henderson were once a single community that later divided. because these communities are historically related, they should be more simi- lar genetically. even though biological differences exist between the corn- table . parameter estimates for the most parsimonious model parameter tf standard error h . . c . . y ( . ) ( ) z ( . ) ( ) « . . b ( . ) ( ) /f ( . ) ( ) /m ( . ) ( ) i . . v . . x . d.f. p . a. values in parentheses represent variables that were fixed. http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / munities, these differences do not affect the results of path analysis because these methods are concerned with the segregation of traits within families, not within populations. path analysis. path analysis was used to partition the genetic and envi- ronmental contributions to variation in thyroxine level. because the environ- ment cannot be directly measured (rao, williams et al. ), an index was developed using the significant contributors to thyroxine variation. this index identifies which environmental factors were significant. in this analysis blood calcium level, caffeine consumption, and biceps skinfold thickness contrib- uted significantly to the expression of thyroxine level. the genetic component of path analysis yielded heritability estimates and information on intergen- erational differences, homogamy, and other factors. correlation analysis revealed that a significant positive relationship ex- ists between caffeine intake and thyroxine level. to date, there has been no specific study of the relationship between thyroxine and caffeine; however, there is evidence for a possible interaction between these variables. previous studies have demonstrated that thyroid hormones increase the level of aden- ylate cyclase activity and the cellular cyclic amp (camp) level (segal et al. , ). camp is a secondary messenger for the action of many hor- mones. when hormones attach to their receptors on the plasma membrane, camp provides the necessary energy for the hormonal action (stryer ). evidence for camp as a secondary messenger includes stimulation of aden- ylate cyclase and positive correlations between cellular camp concentrations and hormonal concentrations (stryer ). segal et al. ( , ) dem- onstrated that increases in thyroxine cause concomitant increases in the aden- ylate cyclase activity and camp levels, suggesting that thyroxine uses camp as a secondary messenger. caffeine acts synergistically with hormones that use camp as a secondary messenger (stryer ). because of this nonad- ditive effect, positive correlations between thyroxine and caffeine level would be expected. thus our data support a synergistic action of caffeine and thy- roxine through camp. previous studies identified a relationship between thyroxine and calcium level (davis et al. ; segal et al. , ). segal et al. ( ) suggested that this relationship is due to calcium's regulation of thyroxine activity. this hypothesis is based on two previous findings: ( ) t and t stimulation of ca + atpase activity depends on baseline levels of cytoplasmic calcium because the calcium is pumped out of the cell by ca + atpase (davis et al. ; segal et al. , ); and ( ) calcium is required for the stimulation of camp and adenylate cyclase by thyroxine (segal et al. ). thus calcium regulates thyroxine's activity because intracellular calcium is necessary for thyroxine's effects on camp and ca + atpase. when thyroxine levels are elevated, ca + atpase is stimulated and calcium moves into the bloodstream, which in turn lowers the intracellular calcium levels. when the intracellular http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford levels of calcium become too low, thyroxine fails to stimulate camp and adenylate cyclase, thereby diminishing thyroxine's hormonal effects. there- fore calcium concentration is a regulator of thyroxine activity through ca + atpase. however, thyroxine can also regulate blood calcium levels by re- leasing calcium from the cells. calcium cannot exit the cell without the pump- ing action of ca + atpase. the relationship between calcium and thyroxine may explain why post- menopausal women are particularly prone to osteoporosis. there is a signifi- cant difference in pre- and postmenopausal women's thyroxine levels, with postmenopausal women having lower levels. after menopause there is less thyroxine in the bloodstream; thus less thyroxine enters the cells and less calcium is released by means of the ca + atpase pump. the body continues to require the same level of calcium, and therefore calcium is removed from bone. indeed, the relationship between calcium and thyroxine can be seen as one maintaining an equilibrium. at menopause the equilibrium is disrupted by a drop in thyroxine level. gradually, the body adjusts to a lower thyroxine level and the rate of bone loss is reduced. this apparent relationship is sup- ported by previous research that demonstrated that the rate of bone loss is greatest during the first five to ten years after menopause, after which the rate declines (krolner and nielsen ; geusens et al. ). biceps skinfold thickness is positively correlated with thyroxine level and may be explained through energy balance. during periods of positive energy balance and surplus energy, fat is deposited. indeed, kirchengast ( ) found positive correlations between the thyroid hormones and various measures of body fatness. individuals with prolonged positive energy balance have higher thyroxine levels because additional thyroid hormone is required to metabolize the surplus food intake. extremely low thyroxine levels also promote fat storage but only in regions of primary fat storage such as the abdomen, hips, and buttocks (van hardeveld ; després et al. ). biceps skinfold thickness is the best predictor of thyroxine level because the biceps maintain a significant portion of muscle in most individuals and thus are less likely to be a storage area for fat (després et al. ; lohman ). therefore the relationship between thyroxine level and biceps skinfold thick- ness may be due to energy balance. heritability estimates. unlike the univariate methods, path analysis es- timates the genetic and cultural heritabilities (which were . and . , respectively) for mennonite thyroxine levels. these estimates explain only % of the observed variation, and it is unclear what causes the other % of the thyroxine variation. the genetic heritability measured by path analysis is slightly higher than the univariate estimate of heritability for the menno- nites (walawender and crawford ), slightly lower than the estimate for salt lake city male twins (meikle et al. ), and similar to heritabilities measured by variance decomposition for mexican americans (comuzzie et http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / al. ). the variation in genetic heritability estimates is due to several factors. first, the data types are different; the salt lake city probands are twins, which can inflate estimates. second, the methods of analysis can alter the heritability estimates. path analysis splits variation into genetic and en- vironmental components, variance decomposition separates the genetic vari- ation into the additive and dominance components, and univariate methods examine only additive genetic variation. therefore slight differences in esti- mates are to be expected. third, the heritability estimates are population spe- cific; thus intrapopulation variation is normal. although the genetic heritability estimates are well within the range of previous studies, a large residual remained. one possible reason for this re- sidual is the confounding effect of menopause. although no significant age effects were observed, there was a significant menopausal effect. postmeno- pausal women had significantly lower thyroxine levels than did premenopau- sal women. this is problematic when estimating heritabilities because there are two distinct categories of women. a simple correction for sex may over- simplify the physiological situation by forcing females into a single category so that neither pre- nor postmenopausal females will be comparable to males or to each other. attempts to correct for the menopausal effect were made within females; however, these corrections resulted in insignificant general models of path analysis. this could be due to the dramatic changes that occur during perimenopause and immediately after menopause. conclusions in this study we estimated the genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation. there are significant sex effects on thyroxine levels that must be corrected in any studies that include both sexes. although no age effect was observed, a menopausal effect was detected. future studies must address the question of how to statistically correct for menopausal status. dividing the female sample into pre- and postmenopausal groups is insuffi- cient because physiological changes commence several years before meno- pause during the period of perimenopause. thus corrections must account for perimenopausal changes in addition to menopause. thyroxine level was influenced by caffeine intake, blood calcium level, and biceps skinfold thickness. through an examination of the relationship of each of these variables to thyroxine, a better understanding of the variation in thyroxine levels is gained. caffeine appears to act synergistically with thyroxine by means of cellular camp. calcium regulates thyroxine activity by controlling thyroxine's entrance into the cell. furthermore, the thyroxine- calcium relationship may explain why osteoporosis occurs after menopause. last, biceps skinfold thickness may demonstrate how thyroxine is influenced by the long-term energy balance. thus, by examining the variables that affect http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford thyroxine variation, we can gain a better understanding of the inheritance of thyroxine. to date, no previous research has estimated the cultural component of thyroxine variation. however, by examining the residual value for this model, we can assume that other factors (not taken into consideration) affect thyrox- ine level variation. for example, estrogen levels have been demonstrated in- directly to play a significant role in thyroxine variation (chopra ; sower et al. ). unfortunately, estrogen levels were not available for this data set; thus the relationship between estrogen and thyroxine could not be ex- amined directly. future research could address how permanent changes in estrogen levels, such as at menopause, affect thyroxine variation and other biochemical levels. indeed, the key to understanding thyroxine variation may be through an examination of the complex interactions of the endocrine system. received march ; revision received september . literature cited ballard, p.l. . hormones and lung maturation. berlin, germany: springer-verlag. butt, w.r. . hormone chemistry, v. . new york: wiley. cabello, g., and c. wrutniak. . thyroid function in the newborn lamb: physiological approach of the mechanisms inducing changes in plasma thyroxine, free thyroxine, and triiodothyronine concentration. j. dev. physiol. : - . chopra, i. j. . triiodothyronines in health and disease. new york: springer- verlag. comuzzie, a.g., j. blangero, m.c. mahaney et al. . genetic and environmental correlations among hormone levels and measures of body fat accumulation and topography. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. : - . crawford, m.h., and l. rogers. . population genetic models in the study of aging and longevity in a mennonite community. soc. sei. med. : - . danforth, e., jr. . effects of fasting and altered nutrition on thyroid hormone metabolism in man. in thyroid hormone metabolism , g. hennemann, ed. new york: marcel decker, - . davis, f.b., v. cody, p.j. davis et al. . stimulation by thyroid hormone analogues of red blood cell ca + atpase activity in vitro. j. biol. chem. : , - , . després, j.p., a. tremblay, and c. bouchard. . regionally adipose tissue distribution and plasma lipoproteins. in fat distribution during growth and later health outcomes , c. bouchard and f.e. jonhston, eds. new york: liss, - . duggirala, r., and m.h. crawford. . biological and environmental determinants of lipids and lipoproteins in the mennonites: a path analytical approach. unpublished. facchini, f., d. pettener, a. rimoondi et al. . taste sensitivity to ptc and thyroid function (ft and tsh) in high- and low-altitude kirghiz populations in the pamir. hum. biol. : - . friedlander, y., j.d. kark, and y. stein. . biological and environmental sources of vari- ation in plasma lipids and lipoproteins: the jerusalem lipid research clinic. hum. hered. : - . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp thyroxine variation in mennonites / gaikwad, a.s., t. ramassarma, and c.k.r. kurup. . changes in thryoid hormone and insulin status of the brown adipose tissue of cold acclimated rats on short-term exposure to heat. ind. j. biochem. : - . geusens, p., j. dequeker, a. verstraeten et al. . age-, sex-, and menopause-related changes of vertebral and peripheral bone: population study using dual and single photon absorp- timetry and radiogrammetry. j. nuclear med. : - . hardy, r.n. . endocrine physiology. baltimore, md: university park press. harland, w.a., and j.s. orr. . thyroid hormone metabolism. new york: academic press. kirchengast, s. . body dimensions and thyroid hormone levels in premenopausal and postmenopausal women from austria. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . krolner, b., and s.p. nielsen. . bone mineral content of the lumbar spine in normal and osteoporotic women: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. clin. sei. : - . kwiecinski, g.g., d.a. damassa, and a.w. gustafson. . patterns of plasma sex hormone- binding globulin, thyroxine, and thyroxine binding globulin in relation to reproductive state and hibernation in female little brown bats. j. endocrinol. : - . legrand, j. . thyroid hormone effects on growth and development. in thyroid hormone metabolism, g. hennemann, ed. new york: marcel decker, - . lohman, t.g. . advances in body composition assessment. champaign, il: human ki- netics publications. maruo, t., k. katayama, e.r. barnea et al. a. a role for thyroid hormone in the induction of ovulation and corpus luteum function. horm. res. : - . maruo, t., k. katayama, h. matsuo et al. b. the role of maternal thyroid hormones in maintaining early pregnancy in threatened abortion. acta endocrinol. : - . meikle, a.w., j.d. stringham, m.g. woodward et al. . hereditary and environmental influences on the variation of thyroid hormones in normal male twins. j. clin. endocri- nol. metab. : - . morton, n.e. . analysis of family resemblance. i. introduction. am. j. hum. genet. : - . pimentel, e. . hormones , growth factors, and oncogenes. boca raton, fl: crc press. rao, d.c., p.m. laskarzewski, j. a. morrison et al. . the cincinnati lipid research clinic family study: cultural and biological determinants of lipids and lipoprotein concentra- tions. am. j. hum. genet. : - . rao, d.c., m. mcgue, r. wette et al. . path analysis in genetic epidemiology. in human population genetics: the pittsburgh symposium, a. chakravarti, ed. new york: van nostrand reinhold, - . rao, d.c., n.e. morton, c.j. glueck et al. . heterogeneity between populations for mul- tifactorial inheritance on plasma lipids. am. j. hum. genet. : - . rao, d.c., w.r. williams, m. mcgue et al. . cultural and biological inheritance of plasma lipids. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . reed, h.l., d. brice, k.m.m. shakir et al. . decreased free fraction of thyroid hormones after prolonged antarctic residence. j. appl. physiol. : - . reed, h.l., k.d. burman, k.m.m. shakir et al. . alterations in the hypothalmic-pituitary- thyroid axis after prolonged residence in antarctica. clin. endocrinol. : - . reed, h.l., m.m. d'alesandro, k. kowalski et al. . multiple cold air exposures change oral triiodothyronine kinetics in normal men. am. j. physiol. :e -e . rice, t., g.p. vogler, t.s. perry et al. . familial aggregation of lipids and lipoproteins in families ascertained through random and nonrandom probands in the iowa lipid re- search clinics family study. hum. hered. : - . riis, p.m., and a. madsen. . thyroxine concentrations and secretion rates in relation to pregnancy, lactation, and energy balance in goats. j. endocrinol : - . rone, j.k., r.f. dins, and h.l. reed. . the effect of endurance training on serum triio- dothyronine kinetics in man: physical conditioning marked by enhanced thyroid hor- mone metabolism. clin. endocrinol. : - . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp / martin and crawford schwartz, h.l. . effect of thyroid hormones on growth and development. in molecular basis of thyroid hormone action , j.h. oppenheimer and h.h. samuels, eds. new york: academic press, - . segal, j., c. buckley, and s.h. ingbar. . stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity in rat thymocytes in vitro by , , '-triiodothyronine. endocrinology : - . segal, j., j. hardiman, and s.h. ingbar. . stimulation of calcium-atpase activity by , , '- triiodothyronine in rat thymocyte plasma membranes. j. biochem. : - . silverin, b., p.a. viebke, j. westin et al. . seasonal changes in body weight, fat deposits, and plasma levels of thyroxine and growth hormone in free-living great tits and willow tits. gen. comp. endocrinol. : - . sower, s.a., k.h. karlson, and r.s. fawcett. . changes in plasma thyroxine, estradiol- b and / dihydroxy -preghen- one during smoltification of coho salmon. gen. comp. endocrinol. : - . stryer, l. . biochemistry. new york: w.h. freeman. van hardeveld, c. . effects of thyroid hormone on oxygen consumption, heat production, and energy economy. in thyroid hormone metabolism , g. hennemann, ed. new york: marcel decker, - . walawender, l.j., and m.h. crawford. . a quantitative analysis of plasma thyroxine levels from three mennonite populations. am. j. phys. anthropol. : . wright, s. . on the nature of size factors. genetics : - . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp 	article contents 	p. [ ] 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	issue table of contents 	human biology, vol. , no. (august ), pp. i-ii, - 	front matter 	clinal variation in the nuclear dna of europeans [pp. - ] 	two ethnic-specific polymorphisms in the human beta pseudogene of hemoglobin [pp. - ] 	immunoglobulin allotypes (gm and km) in basques from spain: approach to the origin of the basque population [pp. - ] 	genetic history of the population of sicily [pp. - ] 	study of protein polymorphisms in a sample of the turkish population [pp. - ] 	genetic variability of transferrin subtypes in the populations of india [pp. - ] 	genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation in mennonites from kansas and nebraska [pp. - ] 	impact of maternal body build characteristics on newborn size in two different european populations [pp. - ] 	birth order and male homosexuality: extension of slater's index [pp. - ] 	brief communications 	hla-dqa and hla-dqb alleles and haplotypes in two brazilian indian tribes: evidence of conservative evolution of hla-dq [pp. - ] 	evolution, mutations, and human longevity: european royal and noble families [pp. - ] 	book review 	review: untitled [pp. - ] 	instructions for contributors [pp. - ] 	back matter editorial the molecular genetics of the dystonias since the introduction of the term dystonia by oppenheim in to describe altering muscle tone and postural deformities seen in patients, there has been considerable controversy surrounding its aetiology, classification, and genetics.dystonia can describe a symptom,a syndrome,or a clinical sign that is part of a more severe neurological dis- order. dystonia is now defined as a syndrome of sustained involuntary muscle contractions, often causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal posture. the dystonias are a relatively common group of neurological disorders with conservative estimates of avected people in the united kingdom. dystonia has been divided into primary, in which there is no identifiable underlying cause, or secondary to other neurological con- ditions, which include structural lesions of the basal ganglia,exposure to drugs and toxins,and cerebral palsy. it was from the study of secondary dystonia that it became clear that disruption of basal ganglia motor circuits produces dystonia. primary dystonia is distinguished by the lack of other neurological involvement and absence of distinct neuropathology. central dopaminergic pathways have been implicated in the production of dystonic move- ments from the study of tardive dystonia (secondary to d receptor blockade) and dopa responsive dystonia (see later). in recent years, advances in molecular genetic tech- niques have led to exciting discoveries which have expanded our knowledge of the pathogenesis of dystonia and led to a revision of its classification (table). this classification incorporates the advances in our understand- ing of the genetics and aetiology of dystonia, and also the increasing number of distinguishable clinical phenotypes. to date, eight genes causing dystonia have been mapped and three of these have been cloned.the following sections review these recent discoveries. primary torsion dystonia primary torsion dystonia (also known as idiopathic torsion dystonia) is the commonest form of dystonia with an esti- mated prevalence of per million of which focal dysto- nia accounted for per million. it consists of dystonic movements and postures (with or without tremor) with no other neurological features or identifiable cause. the range of severity is wide, including severe generalised dys- tonia (formerly known as dystonia musculorum deform- ans),segmental and multifocal dystonia,and focal dystonia (including torticollis, blepharospasm, and writer’s cramp). dystonia can develop at almost any age and this often determines its severity. onset in childhood, particularly in a limb, is strongly predictive of subsequent generalisation, and this form of dystonia is reported to be more prevalent in the ashkenazi jewish population. by contrast, dystonia arising in cranial or axial muscles tends to develop in adult life and remain focal or segmental in distribution. genetic studies in both jewish and non-jewish popula- tions have shown that early onset severe primary dystonia is caused by an autosomal dominant gene(s) with reduced penetrance ( %- %) and variable expression. – in , ozelius et al reported linkage between a dystonia locus (dyt ) and a polymorphism on chromosome q in a large non-jewish french canadian family with gener- alised dystonia. linkage to this region was also found in ashkenazi jewish and other european non-jewish kindreds. in non-jewish kindreds,genetic heterogeneity was detected, indicating that defects in more than one gene can cause familial generalised dystonia. – an interesting feature was that dystonia in chromosome q linked families invariably began in a limb before subsequent gen- eralisation, whereas, in most non-linked kindreds, the dys- tonia often had onset in the craniocervical region. the finding of strong allelic association in ashkenazi jewish patients suggested a founder mutation causing the dystonia in this particular population and localised dyt to a cm region. the haplotype identified was specifically associated with limb onset generalised dystonia. it was estimated that this founder mutation arose about years ago in the historic jewish pale of settlement in lithuania and byelorussia. recently the dyt gene has been cloned and analysed for mutations. the fascinating finding was of a bp dele- tion in the coding sequence found in all avected and obli- gate carriers with chromosome linked primary dystonia, regardless of ethnic background and surrounding haplo- type. the mutation specifically causes early limb onset generalised dystonia. assuming this mutation arose independently in diverent ethnic groups, the finding suggests that only one variation in the encoded protein can give rise to early onset dystonia. the deletion results in the loss of one of a pair of glutamic acid residues near the car- boxy terminus of a novel protein named torsina. torsina contains an atp binding domain and a putative n-terminal leader sequence. it has homology to three mammalian genes and a nematode gene on database searches, and distant similarity to the family of heat shock proteins and clp proteases. however, its function and putative role in the nervous system remains uncertain. the genetic studies of primary dystonia have enabled more accurate genetic counselling for families. for a famil- ial case of generalised, segmental, or multifocal primary dystonia in the united kingdom, the risk to first degree relatives is estimated at %. if the index case is isolated, the risks are % to children and % to siblings. the identification of a single mutation will facilitate both predictive and prenatal genetic testing with appropriate counselling. however, the low penetrance and variable expression of the dyt gene means that such tests should be performed with caution, as the phenotype cannot be accurately predicted. for focal and segmental primary dystonia, the role of dyt and other genes is less clear. focal primary is the most common form of dystonia,has onset in adult life,and often appears to be sporadic. there is, however, evidence that genetic components play a part in focal dystonia with families showing autosomal dominant inheritance. – in addition, a genetic study of index cases with focal dystonia found avected relatives in % of patients. linkage stud- ies have excluded the dyt gene as a cause for focal dys- tonia in two families with cervical dystonia and, in another study, no persons with craniocervical dystonia or writer’s cramp were found to have the dyt gag deletion. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ linkage to chromosome p has been found in a large german kindred with adult onset cervical dystonia and spasmodic dysphonia. a follow up study of apparently sporadic cases of focal dystonia in northern germany showed linkage disequilibrium for a common haplotype of markers over a cm region around this locus, suggesting that a dominant founder mutation of low penetrance may be an important cause of focal dystonia in this population. whether this finding is applicable to other european populations is uncertain,but, if replicated, it would suggest that genetic factors play a larger part in the causation of primary focal dystonia than previously thought. a further dystonia locus has been identified on chromo- some in two german american mennonite families. avected people had a mixed phenotype with craniocervical and limb dystonia and a varied age of onset. it is possible that this locus may be unique to this genetically distinct population. dystonia plus syndromes dopa responsive dystonia dopa responsive dystonia (drd) accounts for around % of all childhood onset dystonia. it typically presents with dystonia of the lower limbs avecting gait,or occasionally as a focal dystonia. patients may also develop concurrent parkinsonism. symptoms and signs may worsen later in the day or after exertion. the clinical importance of recog- nising this condition lies in the fact that there is a dramatic and sustained response to low doses of levodopa, indicating a deficit in the dopamine pathway. drd shows autosomal dominant inheritance with reduced penetrance and sex related expression with female predominance. the gene was mapped to chromosome , and more recently, ichinose et al identified point mutations in the gene for gtp cyclohydrolase . this is the rate limiting enzyme involved in the formation of tetrahydrobiopterin, a cofactor of dopamine biosynthesis. subsequently, mutations have been found in the gene in european patients with drd and molecular diagnosis is possible by sequence analysis. however, as each family seems to have distinct mutation, this is not routinely avail- able. the importance of the dopamine pathway in drd was confirmed by knappskog et al who identified a reces- sively inherited mutation in the gene for tyrosine hydrolase in two brothers. rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism two unrelated families have been described with this unu- sual condition, both of which show autosomal domi- nant inheritance. the clinical picture is of sudden onset dysarthria, dysphagia, severe dystonic spasms, bradyki- nesia, and postural instability developing over hours, with little response to levodopa. some patients had stable limb dystonia for several years preceding the onset of dystonia- parkinsonism. cranial imaging is normal. involvement of the dopaminergic system has been implicated by low csf homovanillic acid concentrations. to date, no linkage for the gene(s) involved has been found. myoclonic dystonia myoclonic dystonia is a rare variant characterised by dys- tonia and myoclonus with onset in adolescence or early adult life, avecting predominantly the arms and axial mus- cles. it is extremely sensitive to alcohol. the families described exhibit autosomal dominant inheritance with reduced penetrance and variable expression. linkage analysis with chromosome q markers has excluded the dyt region in a swedish family. secondary dystonia the term secondary dystonia implies an identifiable cause such as neuroleptic exposure, physical insult to the brain (stroke, tumour), and cerebral palsy. bressman et al exam- ined the possible role of genetic susceptibility in the devel- opment of secondary dystonia. they analysed chromo- some q haplotypes in ashkenazi jewish patients with secondary dystonia; the majority due to neuroleptic expo- sure or perinatal asphyxia. nine patients were considered phenocopies of dystonia caused by dyt . no evidence that the dyt founder mutation contributed to secondary dystonia was found. it was emphasised that accurate diag- nostic criteria which included questioning about dopamine antagonists and perinatal asphyxia should discriminate primary dystonia due to the dyt founder mutation.this is an important factor when considering genetic counsel- ling. heredodegenerative diseases these represent a group of neurodegenerative diseases that can present as a dystonias plus syndrome. by definition, there is an underlying genetic defect, many of which have been identified. the group includes x linked dystonia- parkinsonism (or “lubag”) described in natives of the island of panay in the philippines. onset is in early adult life with focal dystonia, followed by development of parkinsonism unresponsive to levodopa. the gene, which has high penetrance, has been mapped to xq – . and the presence of a common haplotype in over % of avected people indicates the presence of a founder mutation. dystonia can also develop in other hereditary neurode- generative conditions, including wilson’s, huntington’s, and hallevorden-spatz diseases with mutations in a copper transporting atpase, huntington’s and proteolipoprotein genes respectively. in addition, dystonia can occur in mito- chondrial diseases, as part of leigh’s syndrome or in association with leber’s hereditary optic atrophy. the progressive nature of the condition and presence of additional neurological features help to distinguish these disorders from primary dystonia. paroxysmal dystonias the paroxysmal dystonias are an unusual group of hyper- kinetic movement disorders in which dystonia can occur with chorea and ballism in episodic attacks. between attacks, the person is normal. paroxysmal kinisigenic choreathetosis is characterised by frequent brief attacks, precipitated by movement or startle, and responds to anti- convulsants. it is often sporadic, but families with autosomal dominant inheritance have been described.par- oxysmal dystonic choreathetosis (pdc) is distinguished by longer (minutes to hours), less frequent attacks which may be precipitated by caveine or alcohol. both these conditions may be caused by mutations in channel genes, as some other paroxysmal neurological dis- orders have such defects.mutations in sodium and calcium classification of dystonia primary dystonia phenotype of dystonia alone (+/− tremor) dystonia-plus syndromes phenotype of dystonia plus additional neurological features (for example, plus parkinsonism (dopa responsive dystonia and rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism)) plus myoclonus (myoclonic dystonia) secondary dystonias result from environmental factors (for example, stroke, drugs, toxins, and perinatal asphyxia) heredodegenerative diseases present as dystonia-plus syndromes with underlying neurodegeneration paroxysmal dystonia paroxysmal kinisigenic dystonia paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis warner,jarman o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ channel genes have been identified in these “channelopa- thies”, including the periodic paralyses (hypokalaemic and hyperkalaemic), episodic ataxia, and familial hemiplegic migraine. – families with pdc show autosomal dominant inherit- ance, and in three large kindred, linkage to chromosome q – has been shown. – a possible candidate gene in this region is a chloride bicarbonate anion exchanger. a second locus for a more complicated form of pdc, in which there is associated spastic paraplegia, has been mapped to chromosome p in a single kindred. some potassium channel genes also map to this region and may represent candidates for this unusual episodic movement disorder. conclusions the recent improvement in positional cloning techniques has led to the identification of loci for various forms of dys- tonia and the cloning of three.these advances have helped to clarify the nosology of the dystonias and also to improve genetic counselling and testing. more importantly, the study of these genes and their products will help to unravel the pathogenesis of these complex movement disorders. in particular, understanding the function of the novel class of atp binding protein encoded by dyt will provide a fas- cinating insight into the role of neuronal mechanisms involving basal ganglia cortical circuits which produce nor- mal and dystonic movements. t t warner royal free hospital school of medicine and institute of neurology, london p jarman institute of neurology,london correspondence to: dr t t warner,royal free hospital, rowland hill street, london nw pf. oppenheim h. uber eine eigenartige krampfkrankheit des kindlichen und jugendlichen alters (dysbasia lordotica progressiva, dystonia musculorum deformans). neurologie centralblatt ; : – . fahn s, marsden cd, calne db. classification and investigation of dysto- nia. in: fahn s, marsden cd, eds. neurology : movement disorders . london: butterworths, : – . quinn np, marsden cd. the dystonias. bmj ; : – . calne db, lang ae. secondary dystonia. in: fahn s, marsden cd, eds. advances in neurology:dystonia . th ed. new york: raven press, : – . bhatia kp, marsden cd. the behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. brain ; : – . burke re, fahn s, jankovic j, et al. tardive dystonia: late-onset and persist- ent dystonia caused by antipsychotic drugs. neurology ; : – fahn s, bressman s, marsden cd. classification and pathophysiology of dystonia. mov disord ; :a . nutt jg, muenter md, aronson a, et al. epidemiology of focal and gener- alised dystonia in rochester, minnesota. mov disord ; : – . marsden cd, harrison mjg. idiopathic torsion dystonia (dystonia muscu- lorum deformans): a review of forty two patients. brain ; : – . zilber n, korczyn ad, kahana e, et al. inheritance of idiopathic torsion dystonia among jews. j med genet ; : – . marsden cd. the problem of adult-onset idiopathic torsion dystonia and other isolated dyskinesias in adult life (including blepharospasm, oroman- dibular dystonia, dystonic writer’s cramp, and torticollis, or axial dystonia). adv neurol ; : – . bressman sb, de leon d, brin mf, et al. idiopathic dystonia among ashkenazi jews: evidence for autosomal dominant inheritance. ann neurol ; : – . fletcher na, harding ae, marsden cd. a genetic study of idiopathic tor- sion dystonia in the united kingdom. brain ; : – . risch nj, bressman sb, de leon d, et al. segregation analysis of idiopathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews suggests autosomal dominant inheritance. am j hum genet ; : – . ozelius l,kramer pl,moskowitz c, et al.human gene for torsion dystonia located on chromosome q – . neuron ; : – . kramer pl, de leon d, ozelius l, et al. dystonia gene in ashkenazi jewish population is located on chromosome q – . ann neurol ; : – . warner tt, fletcher na, davis mb, et al. linkage analysis in british and french families with idiopathic torsion dystonia. brain ; : – . ahmad f, davis mb, waddy hm, et al. evidence for locus heterogeneity in autosomal dominant torsion dystonia. genomics ; : – . bressman sb, heiman ga, nygaard tg,et al. a study of idiopathic torsion dystonia in a non-jewish family: evidence for genetic heterogeneity. neurol- ogy ; : – . holmgren g, ozelius l, forsgren l, et al. adult onset idiopathic torsion dystonia is excluded from the dyt region ( q ) in a swedish family. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – . bentivoglio ar, del grosso, n, albanese a, et al. non-dyt dystonia in a large italian family. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – . ozelius lj, kramer pl, de leon d, et al. strong allelic association between the torsion dystonia gene (dyt ) and loci on chromosome q in ashkenazi jews. am j hum genet a; : – . bressman sb, deleon d, kramer pl. dystonia in ashkenazi jews—clinical characterisation of a founder mutation. ann neurol ; : . risch n, de leon d, ozelius l, et al. genetic analysis of idiopathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews and their recent descent from a small founder population. nat genet ; : – . ozelius l, hewett jw, page ce, et al. the early onset torsion dystonia gene (dyt ) encodes an atp-binding protein. nat genet ; : – . gilbert gj. familial spasmodic torticollis. neurology ; : – . uitti rj, maraganore dm. adult onset familial cervical dystonia: report of a family including monozygotic twins. mov disord ; : – . micheli s, fernandez-pardal m, quesada p, et al. variable onset of adult inherited focal dystonia: a problem for genetic studies. mov disord ; : – . waddy hm, fletcher na, harding ae, et al. a genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias. ann neurol ; : – . bressman sb, warner tt, almasy l, et al. exclusion of the dyt locus in familial torticollis. ann neurol ; : – . leube b, rudnicki d, ratzlall t, et al. idiopathic torsion dystonia - assign- ment of a gene to chromosome p in a german family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. hum mol genet ; : – . leube b,hendgen t,kessler kr,et al.sporadic focal dystonia in northwest germany: molecular basis on chromosome p. ann neurol ; : – . almasy l, bressman sb, raymond d, et al. idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome in two mennonite families. ann neurol ; : – . nygaard tg, snow bj, fahn s, et al. dopa-responsive dystonia: clinical characteristics and definition. in: segawa m, ed. hereditary progressive dys- tonia with marked diurnal fluctuation. carnforth, uk: parthenon, : – . nygaard tg, takahashi h, heiman ga, et al. long term treatment response and fluorodopa positron emission tomographic scanning of parkinsonism in a family with dopa-responsive dystonia. ann neurol ; : – . harwood g, hierons r, fletcher na,et al. lessons from a remarkable fam- ily with dopa-responsive dystonia. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : – . nygaard tg, wilhelmsen kc, risch nj, et al. linkage mapping of dopa-responsive dystonia (drd) to chromosome q. nat genet ; : – . ichinose h, ohye t, takahashi e, et al. hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the gtp cyclohydrolase gene. nat genet ; : – . bondmann o, nygaard tg, surtees r, et al. dopa-responsive dystonia in british patients: new mutations of the gtp-cyclohydrolase i gene and evi- dence for genetic heterogeneity. hum mol genet ; : – . knappskog pm, flatmark t, mallet j, et al. recessively inherited l-dopa responsive dystonia caused by a point mutation (q k) in the tyrosine hydroxylase gene. hum mol genet ; : – . dobyns wb, ozelius jl, kramer pl, et al. rapid onset dystonia- parkinsonism. neurology ; : – . brashear a, deleon d, bressman sb, et al. rapid onset dystonia- parkinsonism in a second family. neurology ; : – . kyllerman m, forsgren l, sanner g, et al. alcohol responsive myoclonic dystonia in a large family: dominant inheritance and phenotypic variation. mov disord ; : – . quinn np, rothwell jc, thompson pd, et al. hereditary mycolonic dysto- nia,hereditary torsion dystonia and hereditary essential myoclonus:an area of confusion. adv neurol ; : – . wahlstrom j, ozelius l, kramer p, et al. the gene for familial dystonia with myoclonic jerks responsive to alcohol is not located on the distal end of q. clin genet ; : – . bressman sb, de leon d, raymond d, et al. secondary dystonia and the dyt gene. neurology ; : – . muller u, haberhausen g, wagner t, et al. dxs and dxs flank the x-linked dystonia-parkinsonism locus (dyt ). genomics ; : – . devries dd, went ln, bruyn gw, et al. genetic and biochemical impair- ment of mitochondrial complex-i activity in a family with leber hereditary optic neuropathy and hereditary spastic dystonia. am j hum genet ; : – . fahn s. the paroxysmal dyskinesias. in: marsden cd, fahn s, eds. move- ment disorders . oxford: butterworth-heinemann, : – . lance jw. familial paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis and its diverentia- tion from related syndromes. ann neurol ; : – . ptacek lj. channelopathies: ion channel disorders of muscle as a paradigm for paroxysmal disorders of the nervous system. neuromusc disord ; : – . hudson aj, ebers gc, bulman de. the skeletal muscle sodium and chlo- ride channel diseases. brain ; : – . greenberg da. calcium channels in neurological disease. ann neurol ; : – . fouad gt, servidei s, durcan s, et al. a gene for familial paroxysmal dys- kinesia (fpdi) maps to chromosome q. am j hum genet ; : – . fink jk, rainier s, wilkowski j, et al. paroxysmal dystonic choreathetosis: tight linkage to chromosome q. am j hum genet ; : – . jarman pr, davis mb, hodgson sv, et al. paroxysmal dystonic choreathetosis:genetic linkage in a british family.brain ; : – . auburger g, ratzlav t, lunkes a, et al. a gene for autosomal dominant paroxysmal choreathetosis/spasticity (cse) maps to the vicinty of a potas- sium channel gene cluster on chromosome p, probably with cm between d s and d s . genomics ; : – . molecular genetics of the dystonias o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jn n p .b m j.co m / j n e u ro l n e u ro su rg p sych ia try: first p u b lish e d a s . /jn n p . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jnnp.bmj.com/ two rare forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, β hydroxylase deficiency and -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency, presenting with novel mutations case report two rare forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, β hydroxylase deficiency and -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency, presenting with novel mutations krupali bulsari , & louise maple-brown , & henrik falhammar , , , received: june /accepted: november /published online: april # hellenic endocrine society abstract background congenital adrenal hyperplasia (cah) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by deficiency of various enzymes responsible for adrenal steroidogenesis. -beta-hydroxylase deficiency ( βohd) and -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency ( ohd) are rare causes of cah. methods/results we hereby present a -year-old man with βohd and a -year-old woman with ohd. the man with βohd presented with peripheral precocious puberty and hypertension at age years, fathered two children but developed complications of chronic glucocorticoid therapy on long-term follow-up. interestingly, his younger sister had been diagnosed with the same condition at age and had later given birth to four children while on glucocorticoids. exome sequencing of the cyp b gene detected the previously reported pathogenic mutation t t (c. g > a [p.thr thr]) on one of the alleles and a novel mutation, r g (c. c > g [p.arg gly]), on the other in a highly conserved region of the cyp b gene. the woman with ohd presented with severe hypokalemia at age years against a background of primary amenorrhea and lack of development of secondary sexual characteristics. she was heterozygous for a previously recognized mutation, r q (c. g > a [p.arg gln]), and a novel single base-pair deletion, g fs (c. delg [p.gly valfs* ]), which creates a frameshift with a new stop codon in the last exon of the gene, making it a likely pathogenic variant. conclusion recognition of novel mutations is clinically significant and will contribute to the understanding of the phenotype- genotype relationship of these rare disorders in the future. it also highlights successful fertility outcomes in βohd which have not been well documented in the literature so far. keywords beta-hydroxylase deficiency . -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency . congenital adrenal hyperplasia . fertility . long-term outcome introduction congenital adrenal hyperplasia is a rare autosomal recessive disorder. the genetic mutations lead to enzymatic defects and, hence, abnormal adrenal steroid biosynthesis [ , ]. - hydroxylase deficiency ( ohd) is the most common form of cah, accounting for – % of all cases, followed by β-hydroxylase deficiency ( βohd), which is found in . – % of cases, while rare variants include ɑ-hydroxy- lase/ , -lyase deficiency ( ohd) and β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency [ – ]. βohd is caused by mutations in the cyp b gene located on chromosome q . encoding for the β- * krupali bulsari krupalibulsari@gmail.com department of endocrinology, royal darwin hospital, darwin, nt, australia present address: department of endocrinology, princess alexandra hospital, brisbane, qld, australia menzies school of health research, darwin, nt, australia department of endocrinology, metabolism and diabetes, karolinska university hospital, stockholm, sweden department of molecular medicine and surgery, karolinska institutet, stockholm, sweden hormones ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:krupalibulsari@gmail.com hydroxylase enzyme. the cyp b gene has nine exons which encode for amino acids (omim# ). certain ethnic groups (such as moroccan jews) and geograph- ical locations (saudi arabia and turkey) have been found to have a higher incidence of βohd [ ]. mutations in the cyp a gene affect the activity of ɑ- hydroxylase and , -lyase in the adrenal cortex. the cyp a gene is located on chromosome q . and is responsible for -hydroxylase and , -lyase activities (omim# ). the gene consists of eight exons encoding for amino acid protein [ ]. similar to βohd, there appears to be a founder effect with ohd and hence a higher frequency of mutations has been reported in specific ethnic groups [ ]. unlike ohd, there is limited evidence to document any correlation between the disruptive impacts of genetic muta- tions on the level of activity of β-hydroxylase and ɑ- hydroxylase/ , -lyase enzymes. moreover, data on fertility and long-term outcomes are very scarce. hence, ongoing clin- ical studies are required to assess the genotype-phenotype correlation for βohd and ohd and their long-term outcomes. here we describe the clinical phenotype, fertility, and long- term outcomes of a male (xy) with βohd (and briefly his sister) and a female (xx) with ohd, both of whom were found to have a novel mutation each, with the aim of adding further knowledge to the currently existing literature on these rare disorders. case presentation β hydroxylase deficiency a -year-old caucasian male was referred to the endocrine outpatient department. he was born of a non-consanguineous marriage and had frequent infections in early childhood. he went on to have early adrenarche and a pubertal growth spurt at the age of years and reached his adult height ( cm) by the age of years. he was observed to have hypertension at age years. he was diagnosed with classic βohd in chile at the age of years, but the investigation results were not available. his younger sister had precocious pubarche, clitoromegaly, and hirsutism and was diagnosed at age in chile with βohd. later, after being on glucocorticoids, she had four daughters. since diagnosis, the male had been on dexamethasone . mg once daily. the benefits of gluco- corticoid replacement therapy included reasonable control of hypertension, no development of testicular adrenal rest tumor (tart) (testicular ultrasound at age was normal), intact fertility (fathered children), and no episodes of acute adrenal crises. on the other hand, he has developed complications of chronic steroid therapy including type diabetes mellitus, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. his most recent investigations while on glucocorticoid re- placement therapy are shown in table . genotype testing was requested to confirm the diagnosis and provide counseling to family members. cyp b genotyping demonstrated a het- erozygous state for the previously recognized mutation, t t (c. g > a [p.thr thr]), on exon of the cyp b gene and a novel missense mutation, r g (c. c > g [p.arg gly]), in a highly conserved region of the cyp b gene. he was advised to change the gluco- corticoid regimen. it was suggested that the glucocorticoid regime be changed to manage his metabolic complications but declined. -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency a -year-old female presented to the emergency department with acute febrile illness and severe hypokale- mia ( . mmol/l). this was against the background of primary amenorrhea with lack of development of second- ary sexual characteristics. she was born of a non- consanguineous marriage with both parents being of caucasian origin. she had frequent fainting episodes as a child between and years of age but presented no major developmental or health concerns. there is no family his- tory of delayed puberty or endocrine conditions. at age years, she was referred for assessment of primary gonadal failure with delayed bone age, elevated gonadotro- pins (fsh u/l and lh u/l) and low estradiol (< pmol/l). karyotype testing confirmed xx karyotype table biochemical parameters in a patient with β-hydroxylase deficiency while on long-term glucocorticoid supplementation given in an unphysiological manner (dexamethasone . mg once daily) plasma parameters result reference range sodium mmol/l - mmol/l potassium . mmol/l . – . mmol/l aldosterone/renin ratio . . – . renin mu/l – mu/l ohp < . nmol/l . – . nmol/l androstenedione . nmol/l . – . nmol/l dheas < . umol/l < . umol/l testosterone . nmol/l – nmol/l fsh . iu/l – iu/l lh . iu/l – iu/l acth < ng/l – ng/l hba c mmol/mol – mmol/mol fsh, follicle stimulating hormone; lh, luteinizing hormone; ohp, - hydroxyprogesterone; dheas, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; hba c glycosylated hemoglobin hormones ( ) : – with no chromosomal abnormality. pelvic ultrasound con- firmed a small infantile uterus with visible ovaries. she was started on a low-dose estrogen preparation with resultant ir- regular bleeding and minimal breast tissue development. due to her clinical presentation at age years, the possi- bility of ohd was considered and was confirmed on blood (table ) and -h urine steroid profile. the -h urinary steroid profile showed significantly elevated tetrahydrocorticosterone and pregnanediol concentration with a low concentration of cortisol metabolites suggestive of ohd (table ). she was started on cortisone acetate . mg twice daily in addition to her low-dose estrogen. her blood pressure was normal ( / mmhg). at age years, she presented to our clinic for ongoing management. she was observed to be hypertensive with resting blood pressure of / mmhg. she had previously trialed oral hormone replacement therapy and the oral contraceptive pill with resultant irregular periods which she subsequently self ceased. she had not been in any active relationship and has not conceived till now. cyp a gene testing was performed and demonstrated that she was heterozygous for a previously recognized mutation, r q [(c. g > a [p.arg gln)], and a novel single base-pair deletion, g fs [c. delg (p.gly valfs* )], creating a frameshift with a new stop codon in the last exon of the gene. this was hypothesized as having resulted in a truncated protein with altered func- tion and was classified as likely pathogenic. genetic test- ing of her mother revealed that she was a carrier of the previously recognized variant, r q. due to ongoing symptoms of lethargy and low androgens, oral dhea was scheduled to be commenced. table baseline biochemical parameters in a patient with ɑ- hydroxylase deficiency plasma parameters result reference range sodium* mmol/l – mmol/l potassium* . mmol/l . – . mmol/l fsh* u/l > u/l (perimenopausal) lh* u/l > u/l (perimenopausal) estradiol* < pmol/l < pmol/l (perimenopausal) dheas* < . umol/l . – . umol/l androstenedione* . nmol/l . – . nmol/l testosterone* . nmol/l . – . nmol/l acth** . pmol/l . – . pmol/l aldosterone** pmol/l – pmol/l plasma renin concentration** mu/l . – nmol/l ohp (baseline)* . nmol/l . – . nmol/l ohp ( min post acth stimulation) . nmol/l cortisol (baseline)* nmol/l – nmol/l cortisol ( min post acth stimulation)* nmol/l doc (baseline)* . nmol/l . – . nmol/l doc ( min post acth stimulation)* . nmol/l -deoxycortisol (baseline)* . nmol/l . – . nmol/l -deoxycortisol ( min post acth stimulation)* . nmol/l h urine androsterone** < . umol/ h . – . h urine pregnanediol** . umol/ h . – . (postmenstrual) . – . (preovulatory) . – . (luteal phase max) h th-cortisone** < . umol/ h . – . h th-cortisol** < . umol/ h . – . the urine steroid profile also showed a significantly elevated concentration of tetrahydrocorticosterone and detectable concentration of -hydroxy-tetrahydrocorticosterone but the exact values and reference ranges were not given fsh, follicle stimulating hormone; lh, luteinizing hormone; ohp, -hydroxyprogesterone; dheas, dehy- droepiandrosterone sulfate; doc, deoxycorticosterone; th-cortisone, tetrahydrocortisone; th-cortisol, tetrahydrocortisol *not on cortisone acetate therapy **on cortisone acetate therapy hormones ( ) : – discussion in this study, we report on novel mutations in a patient with βohd and in a patient with ohd. moreover, we also report on normal fertility outcomes in the patient and his sister with βohd which has rarely been described previously. in addition, the long-term outcomes generally seemed reason- able in all cases. βohd results in elevated levels of steroid precursors, -deoxycortisol, and deoxycorticosterone (doc), which are then shunted to synthesis of adrenal androgens (androstenedi- one and dehydroepiandrosterone) and resultant low plasma cortisol levels. patients with βohd present as classic or non-classic cah. clinical clues to raise suspicion for βohd include hypokalemic hyporeninemic hypertension and hyperandrogenism [ ]. there has been limited evidence until recently regarding genotype-phenotype relationships in patients with βohd owing to the rarity of the disease and the wide variability in the clinical presentation [ ]. a large international cohort study of patients from countries examined the clinical, genetic, and structural effects of cyp b mutations. they reported that patients presented with moderate to severe βohd if found to be compound heterozygote or homozygote for one of the following missense or nonsense mutations: p l, r q, w x, g s, l p, t m, t r, a v, q x, a d, r q, v g, g d, g v, and r h. for example, r w and r h/c mutations which caused al- tered heme binding site were associated with high prader scores ( / ), severe hypertension, and early skeletal matura- tion. also, similar clinical features were noted in patients car- rying l p and g s mutations which affect enzyme sta- bility. on the other hand, the severity of clinical manifesta- tions did not always correlate with the degree of structural disruption. for example, mutations such as t m and g s were associated with high prader score and advanced bone age, respectively, but only mild hypertension [ ]. the previously reported mutation, t t, detected in our patient was the commonest mutation in both the heterozygous and homozygous state in a turkish cohort study. the male pa- tients presented with rapid growth, enlargement of penis, and hypertension which was well controlled with steroid treatment, while female patients presented with extreme virilization and hypertension [ ]. preliminary in vitro ex- pression studies of the t t mutation resulted in unde- tectable mrna, supporting the classification as a likely pathogenic variant [ ]. our case had a history of early adrenarche, onset of hyper- tension at age years, and short adult stature. all these clin- ical findings have been widely reported with classical βohd. patients with the non-classical form are mostly normotensive or have high normal blood pressure at the time of diagnosis [ – ]. moreover, the mutation analysis showed the known pathogenic mutation t t on one allele and a novel missense mutation r g in a highly conserved region of the cyp b gene. taken together, this suggests a classical phenotype of βohd. our case also demonstrates intact fertility in the patient and his sister with βohd. there are only two reports of suc- cessful pregnancy in females with βohd [ , ], while there is very limited information regarding male fertility out- comes in the current literature. two small case series, includ- ing xx males, document moderate to severe azoospermia which points to reduced fertility in this group of patients. issues concerning fertility in cah have usually been attribut- ed to tarts [ , , ]. tarts are considered to be very common in cah and the incidence appears to increase with age [ , ]. most males with βohd who have had a tes- ticular ultrasound performed seem to be affected by tarts [ ]. interestingly, our male with βohd did not show any signs of tarts, in spite of his age, which may explain his good fertility outcome. there are no reports of successful pregnancy outcomes with a father with βohd. however, the lack of fertility success in the literature could be due to under-reporting of cases. treatment consists of adequate glucocorticoid replacement to normalize blood pressure and features of hyperandrogenism. ongoing management of βohd re- quires close monitoring for development of complications of cah as well as treatment related complications [ ]. in our case the low androgens, acth, and gonadotrophin levels together with elevated hba c indicated over-replacement with glucocorticoids. the aldosterone to renin ratio was nor- mal, while renin was elevated, which is not a typical finding of βohd. however, over-replacement with glucocorticoids may result in elevated renin levels. the aldosterone synthesis is suppressed in untreated βohd due to down- regulation of the cyp b enzyme in zona glomerulosa but treatment with glucocorticoids will result in normaliza- tion of doc levels and hence normalization of the renin- angiotensin-aldosterone axis [ ]. the human α hydroxylase enzyme catalyzes two enzy- matic reactions, namely α hydroxylation and , -lyase reaction. it is responsible for α-hydroxylation of pregnen- olone and progesterone as well as conversion of - hydroxypregnenolone to dhea and to a lesser extent - hydroxyprogesterone to androstenedione [ ]. this results in elevated corticosterone, doc, and progesterone with concom- itant low levels of cortisol, -deoxycortisol, dhea, and - hydroxyprogesterone. the , -lyase activity of cyp a and presence of – hydroxysteroid substrates are essential for adrenal and gonadal synthesis of androgens and estrogen. the patients frequently present at later age with hypertension, hypokalemia, and sexual infantilism (male pseudo hermaph- roditism in xy or primary amenorrhea in xx). amenorrhea results from estradiol deficiency [ ]. hormones ( ) : – lack of virilization is a salient feature differentiating ohd from other forms of cah. another interesting feature of ohd is lack of clinical features of cortisol deficiency despite low serum cortisol levels. this is explained by the accumulation of corticosterone which substitutes cortisol and hence these patients rarely present with adrenal crises [ ]. the incidence of ohd is unknown but has been estimat- ed to be around : , . [ ] however, this is probably an over-estimation, since two large national cohorts with and cah patients, respectively, did not find any cases of ohd [ , ]. the cyp a gene is located on chromosome q . and is responsible for α-hydroxylase and , - lyase activities. the gene consists of exons encoding for amino acid protein [ ]. a kda polypeptide is translated from the . kb coding region of the cyp a gene. the protein resides in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and along with p -oxidoreductase co-factor catalyzes α- hydroxylase and , -lyase reactions. over mutations in cyp a have been reported to date for combined α- hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency [ ]. mutational “hot spots” have been identified in certain ethnic groups suggesting a founder effect [ ]. these groups include the japanese (phe- nylalanine deletion) [ ], the chinese (y frameshift and d -f deletions) [ ], the spanish-portuguese in brazil (r c and w r) [ ], the canadian mennonites, and dutch frieslanders (duplication of four nucleotides at amino acid ) [ ]. the mutation r q found in our pa- tient has been demonstrated to completely disrupt α hy- droxylase and , -lyase activity in an in vitro expression study. the patient was a compound heterozygote for r q and r h and was diagnosed at age years with hyperten- sion, hypokalemia, and delayed puberty [ ]. treatment consists of glucocorticoid replacement at the lowest possible dose with the aim of reducing doc produc- tion and consequently resulting in better blood pressure and potassium control. mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists such as spironolactone and eplerenone are ideal agents to con- trol hypertension. appropriate sex steroid replacement re- gimes, i.e., estrogen with progestin in xx/ xyphenotyp- ic females and testosterone replacement in xy phenotypic males, are required during adolescence for pubertal induction and during adult life to avoid metabolic complications of hypogonadism [ , ]. bianchi et al. recently reported the first case of successful singleton live birth with ivf in a woman with ohd, using her own oocytes, but there is no report of successful live birth without ivf [ ]. thus, the fertility po- tential is very low and our case did not have any children. in conclusion, we report two novel mutations causing βohd and ohd along with the clinical, biochemical, and genetic findings in each of these cases. we also report successful fertility outcomes in both a male and female patient from the same family with βohd. our clinical reports may help to identify genotype-phenotype correlations in the future. compliance with ethical standards conflicts of interest the authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. references . speiser pw, azziz r, baskin ls et al ( ) congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to steroid -hydroxylase deficiency: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. j clin endocrinol metab : – . falhammar h, thoren m ( ) clinical outcomes in the manage- ment of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. endocrine : – . zachmann m, tassinari d, prader a ( ) clinical and biochem- ical variability of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to beta- hydroxylase deficiency. a study of patients. j clin endocrinol metab : – . nimkarn s, new mi ( ) steroid beta-hydroxylase deficiency congenital adrenal hyperplasia. trends endocrinol metab : – . arlt w, willis ds, wild sh et al ( ) health status of adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: a cohort study of patients. j clin endocrinol metab : – . gidlof s, falhammar h, thilen a et al ( ) one hundred years of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in sweden: a retro- spective, population-based cohort study. lancet diabetes endocrinol : – . bulsari k, falhammar h ( ) clinical perspectives in congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to beta-hydroxylase deficiency. endocrine : – . krone n, arlt w ( ) genetics of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. best pract res clin endocrinol metab : – . britten fl, ulett kb, duncan el, perry-keene da ( ) primary amenorrhoea with hypertension: undiagnosed -alpha- hydroxylase deficiency. med j aust : – . kandemir n, yilmaz dy, gonc en et al ( ) novel and preva- lent cyp b gene mutations in turkish patients with -beta hydroxylase deficiency. j steroid biochem mol biol : – . khattab a, haider s, kumar a et al ( ) clinical, genetic, and structural basis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to beta-hydroxylase deficiency. proc natl acad sci u s a :e –e . chabre o, portrat-doyen s, chaffanjon p et al ( ) bilateral laparoscopic adrenalectomy for congenital adrenal hyperplasia with severe hypertension, resulting from two novel mutations in splice donor sites of cyp b . j clin endocrinol metab : – . white pc ( ) steroid beta-hydroxylase deficiency and relat- ed disorders. endocrinol metab clin n am : – . parajes s, loidi l, reisch n et al ( ) functional consequences of seven novel mutations in the cyp b gene: four mutations associated with nonclassic and three mutations causing classic β-hydroxylase deficiency. j clin endocrinol metab : – . reisch n, hogler w, parajes s et al ( ) a diagnosis not to be missed: nonclassic steroid β-hydroxylase deficiency presenting with premature adrenarche and hirsutism. j clin endocrinol metab :e –e . toaff me, toaff r, chayen r ( ) congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by β-hydroxylase deficiency with on- set of symptoms after one spontaneous pregnancy. am j obstet gynecol : – . simm pj, zacharin mr ( ) successful pregnancy in a patient with severe -beta-hydroxylase deficiency and novel mutations in cyp b gene. horm res : – hormones ( ) : – . falhammar h, nystrom hf, ekstrom u, granberg s, wedell a, thoren m ( ) fertility, sexuality and testicular adrenal rest tu- mors in adult males with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. eur j endocrinol : – . falhammar h, frisen l, norrby c et al ( ) reduced frequency of biological and increased frequency of adopted children in males with -hydroxylase deficiency: a swedish population-based national cohort study. j clin endocrinol metab : – . auchus rj ( ) steroid -hydroxylase and , -lyase defi- ciencies, genetic and pharmacologic. j steroid biochem mol biol : – . costa-santos m, kater ce, auchus rj, brazilian congenital adrenal hyperplasia multicenter study g ( ) two prevalent cyp mutations and genotype-phenotype correlations in brazilian patients with -hydroxylase deficiency. j clin endocrinol metab : – . miura k, yasuda k, yanase t et al ( ) mutation of cytochrome p- alpha gene (cyp ) in a japanese patient previously re- ported as having glucocorticoid-responsive hyperaldosteronism: with a review of japanese patients with mutations of cyp . j clin endocrinol metab : – . zhang m, sun s, liu y et al ( ) new, recurrent, and prevalent mutations: clinical and molecular characterization of chinese patients with alpha-hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency. j steroid biochem mol biol : – . imai t, yanase t, waterman mr, simpson er, pratt jj ( ) canadian mennonites and individuals residing in the friesland re- gion of the netherlands share the same molecular basis of alpha-hydroxylase deficiency. hum genet : – . ergun-longmire b, auchus r, papari-zareei m, tansil s, wilson rc, new mi ( ) two novel mutations found in a patient with alpha-hydroxylase enzyme deficiency. j clin endocrinol metab : – . bianchi ph, gouveia gr, costa em et al ( ) successful live birth in a woman with α-hydroxylase deficiency through ivf frozen-thawed embryo transfer. j clin endocrinol metab : – hormones ( ) : – 	two... 	abstract 	abstract 	abstract 	abstract 	introduction 	case presentation 	 β hydroxylase deficiency 	 -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency 	discussion 	references -n &n .indd cousin marriage and the evolution of the breeding system in man c. d. darlington botany school, oxford received r .viii. . analytical and integral genetics the success of the mendelian method in experimental breeding made it, sixty years ago, the natural model for understanding human heredity. the success of the model in interpreting the clinical entities which dominate medical training and in classifying them as mendelian characters in due course reinforced this initial advantage. lately, however, certain limitations of the method and the model have become evident. man exists in natural outbreeding populations. his varia- tion in these populations can only partly be reduced to terms of single gene differences. faced with this discovery some students have inferred that such human variation cannot be genetically analysed oi indeed analysed at all. since, however, the strict mendelian situation can hardly be expected to exist in outbreeding populations, this con- clusion is unjustified. to put the matter in another way: the genotype is, we may still agree, the sum of the genes. but a difference between genotypes is not just the sum of the differences between their genes. indeed no one imagines that the genotype can be taken apart into polygenes, major genes, super-genes, with position effects, structural arrangements and so on. there is, therefore, one sense in which analysis in terms of genes or ultimately nucleotides is a suitable goal. but there is another sense in which it fails to tell us what we want to know, a sense in which an integral treatment is suitable and necessary. this contrast was forced on me by the study of whole segments, whole chromosomes and whole nuclei in cells, in natural populations, and in hybrids, as i have described elsewhere ( , , ). mather ( ) has seen the same problem in terms of quantitative variation and the breeding system, and especially by the exposure of the correlated response to selection. dobzhansky and his colleagues have discovered it from the experimental treatment and chromosome study of natural populations, where they have recognised both the co-adaptation of segments and the integration of the genotype (dobzhansky, o; vetukhiv, ; wallace, a, b). these different kinds of approach lead to different statements of contrast and conflict. each no doubt has its own physiological scope and validity. the difference between these analytical and integral extremes, the difference between the single gene of mendelian analysis and the whole genotype considered by galton and johannsen is almost of the order of t c. d. darlington the difference between chemistry and biology. both, like chemistry and biology, have their validity. but we cannot use one where the other is needed. yet where man is concerned this is just what we see con- tinually attempted. analytical principles involving frequencies of analytical units, whether " genes " or " mutations ", are directly applied to the non-analysable situation, for example the situation of radiation damage. now, in human heredity and variation certain properties most need integral treatment and suffer most from analytical treatment. these happen to be the properties of greatest importance for our survival and our evolution. they are the properties of temperament, of intelligence, of instinct, of their combination in behaviour, of viability and fertility, of resistance or susceptibility to infectious disease. these are integral properties. they depend on interactions of a great assembly of independently varying units. these interactions are on a scale which is not beyond conception, but it is beyond formal description or practical analysis. table i relation between fertility of mother and daughter in the british peerage (afier fisher, , data of pearson and lee, ) no. of children born to mother ii > i i average to daughter . . . ' this genetical principle is an expression of physiological and developmental situations. take the basic evolutionary property of leaving descendants, a property which i am going to call fertility. this property depends on a sequence of elements: a desire for sexual intercourse, an ability to beget and bear offspring, a viability of embryos and offspring.* to these elements the development of birth control requires us to add one more, the desire to have offspring. these several elements overlap. the distinction between survival to birth and survival after birth is partly arbitrary. so is the distinction between not marrying and marrying but not having children after marriage. thus we are bound to profit from considering the total reproductive result. though the parts are arbitrary the whole is a reality: it is the great reality in life. in this we have the example of galton before us. we also have galton's and pearson's methods of correlation in numbers of progeny between parents and offspring (table i). the observations of galton and pearson could be repeated with profit under the changed reproductive conditions of the present day. it would also be of great value to confirm the remarkable change in sex ratio shown by galton's data ( ). meanwhile we may note that these correlations must depend on two components whose relative value we can only surmise, namely heritability which has to be a * this is the element which has been separately examined by most investigators who have found a depressing effect of inbreeding, e.g. bemiss, ; darwin, ; stevenson, ; morton et at., ; schull, ; slatis, . cousin marriage in man primary agent, and assortative mating which will be a secondary agent. we know, following pearson and lee ( ), that assortative mating occurs in respect of every character in which the mates can be separately classified. fertility is the one character in which they cannot be separated but it is one in which we have as much reason as in any other to expect assortative mating. the method of attacking this problem of fertility that i wish to use, while omitting one of the two elements of the mendelian experiment, the differential unit character, exploits the other, the change in the breeding system. the theory of this method has been discussed by mather (i) and the practice by myself ( ). its technique in the human situation has a special character. mendel's sequence: inbreeding, outbreeding, inbreeding, occurs in human populations only in special circumstances such as we find in pitcairn island and tristan da cunha. but we find the alternative, outbreeding, inbreeding, outbreeding in our own society if we follow the results of cousin marriage. for this we need to know two or three generations before the marriage and two or three generations after. we need to know something about the breeding system in the whole group. is this possible? . european breeding systems the integral study of viability, fertility or intelligence by change of the breeding system requires that we shall know what the system is that is being changed. the human breeding system in class-differ- entiated human societies may be roughly defined in terms of two limits: (i) the limits to outbreeding and (ii) the limits to inbreeding. (i) the limits to outbreeding are set by space, work, language or dialect, religion and economic or social status. all these are the environmental components in a reaction favouring kinship, or relation- ship of descent, among mates. the genetic component of this reaction may be described as the tendency to assortative mating. the two components reinforce the tendency to inbreed. for the phenotypic likeness of mates as expressed in assortative mating, and their relation- ship of descent, are two means of measuring inbreeding. to be sure they are both uncertain and for quite different reasons. similar appearance may be due to similar genetic structure or not. relation- ship of descent also may imply similarity of genetic structure or not. nevertheless assortative mating and kinship will reinforce rather than counteract one another. the environmental components themselves interact in complex ways. thus social status divides the whole population into social classes. space is a stronger barrier at the lower social levels. so also is religion. the earlier christian community of northern europe was split by the reformation into numerous non-interbreeding sects but at the royal level these divisions are only partly effective: pro- testant females may marry catholic males. only one of the protestant c. d. darlington sects exist as a small minority at higher social and intellectual levels, that is the quakers. the jewish community at its western edge is a larger breeding group but it exists at all social levels which divides it further. other very small breeding groups have arisen from economic and political grounds, the merchant princes of chios, venice and amsterdam, and elsewhere. by contrast with these the prosperous middle class in britain following the industrial revolution must have been extremely outbred. even here foci of inbreeding have quickly arisen, for example in connection with universities. (ii) with regard to the limits to inbreeding all human societies make rules.* in europe these limits are easily defined. the catholic church early set its face against inbreeding as permitted by roman custom or jewish law. this policy arose we may say from a habit of making rules for conduct. the reasons given by gregory the great in his letter to augustine (cit. bede) that cousin marriages give no offspring are scarcely to be taken seriously. some of the rules have always been flagrantly and repeatedly broken by dispensation. thus first-cousin marriages have been widespread in catholic communities up to the present day. they are most frequent in the narrowing royal caste where also uncle-niece marriages continued up to . the reformation affected the inbreeding as well as the outbreeding limits. the protestant churches, except the swedish (alström, ), gave up the nominal ban on cousin marriages but began to enforce a ban on uncle-niece marriages. amongst jewish minorities the pressure in favour of close inbreeding led to the highest frequency of uncle-niece marriage. on account of these variations different communities in europe provide us with all the contrasts we need: i per cent, of first-cousin and per cent, of second-cousin marriages among jews in hohen- zollern villages, the reverse among catholics in a swiss village (neel et al., ; kilpatrick et al., ). even so, as we shall see, such statistics of cousin marriage give us very little idea of the real contrast. this arises from the consideration of still more specialised groups, very small sects such as the mennonites and very small castes such as the royal families. with these we can discover the selective and evolu- tionary principles at work. . methods of enquiry my object was to find out the genetic component in differences in the total reproductive potential or "fertility" in human marriages. i enquired first in the oxford magazine (december, ) for grandchildren of cousin marriages who would give me the total numbers of descendants of such marriages up to the great- grandchildren. from this beginning i was able to elaborate the question in the * following darwin's lead in the descent of man, the documentary evidence of the restrictions on inbreeding in civilised man was compiled by huth ( ). here are to be found pedigrees of the ptolemies, herods, antonines, and european royal families, as well as an account of the vagaries of roman and christian doctrine on the matter. many of the properties of the royal caste have recently been summarised by moncrieffe and pottinger ( ). compare also life and letters of charles darwin, , . cousin marriage in man london observer (january ) and in messrs sandoz's house journal triangle (november ) which is addressed to the medical profession generally in the british commonwealth and western europe. the results of these enquiries were replies giving data of five kinds in increasing order of complexity (i) for single cousin marriages ancestral to the correspondent, (ii) for others which were collateral or even unrelated to the correspondent, (iii) for successive or grouped cousin marriages (including royal marriages) often from experienced genealogists, (iv) for "parallel sib marriages" with cousins and non-cousins, (v) for "double test marriages" of one spouse with a cousin (or uncle) and a non-cousin. the first class was the most important. since it excluded marriages without grandchildren, it biased the sample in favour of fertility. but as h. g. darwin pointed out, the numbers of marriageable cousins increase with the size of the family and exponentially with the generations. cousin marriages are therefore inherently biased at their origin, or self-biased, in favour of high fertility. the third, fourth and fifth classes can be used in different ways to correct this situation. the method i have developed was indicated in an earlier note (r ). it is to find out the following particulars (abbreviations in appendix): (i) dates of birth, marriage and death of the original cousins. (ii) total children, grandchildren or great-grandchildren born alive (c, gc, ggc in tables). stillbirths were omitted since early data would be un- reliable in this respect. (iii) total c and gc surviving to maturity (s) or between and years of age. (iv) total c and gc marrying (m). (v) total c and gc marrying and with issue (wi). these last three i speak of as the successive " tests" in the reproductive cycle. later and especially in the double test marriages i enquired into the occurrence of previous cousin marriages and the type of breeding group of the original cousins. thus at least seven generations had to be considered, and along some lines in some families as many as fourteen generations have been followed. as i had expected, but with greater detail than i had expected, a wide range of breeding systems was revealed by my correspondents. they fell into three general groups (i) an extreme group which were known on social, political or religious grounds, or from their own pedigrees, to have been inbred for many generations. (ii) an intermediate group in which cousin marriage (whether in a first or more remote degree) was known among the parents or grandparents of the critical marriage spouses. (iii) those with no evidence of inbreeding of either of these kinds. clearly this division is an arbitrary and provisional one. it conceals a continuous range of variation : it emphasises, however, a genuine bimodality in the breeding system. the large outbred group must include some slightly inbred stocks. but this will merely blunt the contrast i am trying to make. this method turns out to be even more closely than might have been expected a mirror image of the mendelian experiment. the following table shows their relations generations mendel's experiment cousin marriage method is inbreed outbreed one outbreed (p) inbreed (cm) n inbreed (f , f , etc.) outbreed (c, gc, ggc) in addition, however, we can check the cousin marriage method by controls varying the degree and frequency of inbreeding in the prior generations. c. d. darlington it will be observed that no account is taken of the possibility of unknown illegitimacy of the parents or false paternity of the offspring who are wrongly included or wrongly excluded. but it will be seen that illegitimacy, or rather mistaken assignments of paternity, can only equalise the differences between classes of matings ; it cannot enhance them. within classes it should of course enhance variances. it will also be observed that certain events concerned in the lives of individuals can have no genetic component capable of selection in common with genuine genetic properties. death in war and murder are two such types of event and i have therefore noted instances of these. all other relevant events i regard as apt to be genetically significant. such are suicide, susceptibility to infectious disease, age of marriage, divorce, and others i shall refer to which are even more obviously genetic and selectable. . the general population the general results shown in table give us a picture of the con- sequences of cousin marriage with progeny in the educated class in britain where family records have been maintained during the last two centuries. they cover the range from one to fifteen children of the first marriage. they attempt the division into inbred and outbred stocks. they exclude only marriages without offspring and certain complex families which i shall consider later in detail (tables , , ). the summaries of the two groups of data provide us with a number of controlled comparisons from which we may draw tentative con- clusions as follows: (i) from the same average numbers of about six children per original marriage the inbred groups produce more than twice as many ggc as the outbred groups ( against ). (ii) this difference is not due to a difference in the numbers of children per fertile marriage which show a similar decline in all groups from generation to generation following the national trend. (iii) it is not due to any difference between the properties of the grandchildren of the two groups. both of these have about ggc p. m (wi) and about per cent, of m (wi) p. gc. they thus act together as a control generation. (iv) it is due to the survival, marriage and reproductive rates of the children being depressed to per cent, in the outbred groups and raised to over o per cent, in the inbred groups, in comparison with the following control generation. (v) the outbred group is large enough to divide into more and less fertile sections in respect of parents ( 'i/ .o). we find that their fertility difference is maintained in the following c and gc generations. (vi) such a continuance over two generations results in the extreme disparity of / ' in ggc per original marriage. it implies an effect of assortative mating. at this stage we are in a position to say something further about bias. it seems that the bias towards excessive fertility in the products of cousin marriages does not affect these inferences since the inbred and outbred groups which diverge in the first generation are equalised cousin marriage in man table descendants of marriages between first cousins data obtained from correspondents and historical records omitted are certain families in tables , , and i arranged in chronological order within the family number classes table a families without previous evidence of inbreeding name date c gc —--—— ggc t s — m — wi t s m wi t ruskin hamilton colbourne ardenne sartoris (i) sartoris ( ) davidson dennis brown sutton simon ware hart candy bradish. wade braun cooper king freestone sillar hick gwynn berry boswell thornton- duesbury foiwell macleod ii whone watson m'conaghy abraham scott kindersley' callender' reid" pittmann trench walker ' i i c. c. i io c. c. s o c. c. c. c. c. c. c. i i i' i i i i i i i ... ... i i i i +' i ii ii ii ii i io ii i i i ' ' ' z i ' i ' i i ii + ii + ii + + ' ' + + ' + + ii + i + ' ' x + marriage not consummated rev. herbert candy possible infant deaths not recorded another cm james boswell ( - ) died at two unmd. born blind three killed, others died see table i one emigrated, no record ; one suicide see table rev. charles candy one married three times without issue three sibs married unrelated sibs one killed in war not all traceable one killed jewish m. in jamaica see table two killed see table c. d. darlington in the second. nor are the families concerned or the propositi aware of the genetic theory which distinguishes the two groups. the bias which i am inclined to suspect, not a severe one, favours bimodality or bi- polarity. people are naturally interested in demonstrating the extremes which are most effectively demonstrable, whether these prove or disprove the hypothesis proposed to them. table a (continued) name no. c— gc ggc t s m wi t s m wi t totals . cpm (wi) . . cp original m . am xz (x ) o + (x p ) percentage passing successive tests ... o '——--——--—- per cent. ... i per cent. ... - . . . cpm (wi) . . cporiginalm . i ' ' zi ( s xi' ) + ' . (x ) percentage passing successive tests ... '...._- per cent. ... per cent. grand totals . cpm (wi) . . cporiginalm . z o o (xi) + i . (x . ) percentage passing successive tests ... * —----- per cent. ... ,*--- per cent. ... * the i british census records as having had live-born children per cent, of all marriages that have lasted over years (campbell, ), i.e. per cent, of sterility. this interest in simple demonstration is responsible perhaps for the clear statement of causes of the depression in survival, marriage and fertility in the first generation in table a. the causes of the depression effect that are given by correspondents for each of the three stages of the life-cycle that i have distinguished include the following: i. survival: pyloric stenosis, epilepsy, diabetes, cancer. . marriage: blindness, intersexuality, insanity, lack of interest in the opposite sex, or in either sex. cousin marriage in man . reproduction: (in women) acute dysmenorrhcra, toxemia of pregnancy, miscarriage and difficult parturition (leading in one family to caesarean section in mother and daughter). defects such as blindness (e.g. in table ) are no doubt often due to the segregation of major-gene recessives so well known in cousin marriages. the majority of defects, however, escape classification. one of these classes, which is increased in the progeny of table a, table b families from small-groups or with successive cm (omitting d till) spouses gc of the rd d. of marlborough scm: two common gps were first cousins see table to white bermudian family is that of those who reach mature years but do not marry: they prefer celibacy.* they are due to the production of new and untested combinations. when such combinations are unfavourable we are accustomed to refer to them as examples of unbalance. but here precisely the same process gives rise to a small proportion of individuals— to io per cent. —scattered through the children of cousin marriage progenies in outbred stocks whose fertility is not depressed but enhanced. * galton (i ) considered, not unreasonably, that the celibacy of the medinval clergy, so far as it was respected, prevented the proportionate breeding of a useful fraction of society to the disadvantage of succeeding generations. but between i o and uo per cent, of most populations never breed in any case although no vows of celibacy are imposed upon them. in so far as they fail to breed for genetic reasons it follows that the vow is secondary, the genotype is primary. they make a virtue of necessity, and only our instinctive belief in the power of free will has prevented our recognising the sequence of events. name date c t gc m wi ggc s grubb spencer gilpin ( a) davies ft. f. buxton e. n. buxton" white " butland shewell m wi c. t ii ii i i i total cpm (wi) cp original m ? ' ' ii ' m ' ' i x ' (x ' ) ' + + i ' ' z + + + . ' (x ) percentage passing succesive tests i per cent. irish quaker family see table see table io ' see table quaker family + per cent. c. d. darlington the consequence of this recombination is that while the children. in the inbred stocks are fairly uniform in behaviour, those in the out- bred stocks show an extravagant range of variation. it is seen within large families and between small ones. on the one hand, in table b, there are the grubb, buxton, shewell and butland families, homo- geneous and steadily expanding, some slowly, some rapidly. on the other hand, in table a there are the brown, candy and king families where most sibs do not marry or have no offspring while others have table descendants of thomas nock, b. , m. , sophia johnson, half cousin c gc ggc t s m wj born m t s m wi t i - i x o total i i * i includes six born blind, unmarried; also one pair two-egg twins (bracketed, b. i ). excludes two pairs twins born dead. includes two pairs of twins. includes one pair of twins: one married a twin and had twins in . includes one born blind. .?'iotes: (i) high fertility and twinning combined with reproduction impaired by a visible defect arising from cm. (ii) drop in birth rate after coincides with drop in infant mortality. * source : mr walter wilson of ulverston. up to nineteen children. similarly in the henderson pedigree (table b, a). our division, of course, is arbitrary. as we saw, there must be a continuous gradation between the extremes. we find the intermediate situation in the trench family belonging to the anglo-irish landowning class which has no doubt been moderately inbred for years (tables a and ). we also find it in the davies family which does not come from an inbred group but merely has one earlier cousin marriage (table b). and finally in the walker family (tables a and ) with no particular evidence of prior inbreeding we have a pedigree of the uniform type. these difficulties of classification, however, do not prevent me thinking that the modes are near the extremes and the intermediates are less abundant. cousin marriage in man now, in the inbred stocks which fail to show an inbreeding depres- sion, it would seem that there is not enough heterogeneity present to table descendants of richa u chenevix tsncso ( - ), archbishop of dublin, m. , first cousin, hon. frances mary trench ( - ) c gc ggc name date trench t s m wi x ' io t s m wi i i t +i + + sons, daughters. source: mr c. e. f. trench, drogheda, eire. table descendants of dr tssomas james walker of peterborough ( - ), m. c. , his first cousin, mary elizabeth walker ( - ) daughter of the vicar of jvewmarket c gc ggc t m ii wi t i i m l i i i i wi i i i i i t x one injured in spine in war, unmarried. source : mrs freda gill, chesterwood grange, hexham. cause a high proportion of unfavourable combinations to appear on inbreeding. or to put the matter in another way, the unfavourable combinations so far as they concern fertility have already been cleaned out of these stocks. c. d. darlington to test this view i have examined the different kinds of conditions under which inbreeding develops and its effects on fertility. we may roughly but conveniently distinguish three kinds of situation: (i) social or economic origin. (ii) religious origin. (iii) royal families where assortative mating and even natural selection to some extent lapse. there is of course no limit to the number of such stable systems that could be studied in different parts of the world. it is, however, the systems that exist in europe that are of the most interest, on account of their instability and also their documentation. . inbred groups (i) social or economic inbreeding the development of cousin marriages may be readily followed from the prolific gilpin and wedgwood pedigrees. in the gilpin family the first cousin marriage extracted, following heavy elimina- tion, fertile strains, i.e. favourable recombinations. in these, after an interval of one generation, further cousin marriages occurred, one being between double first cousins. the wedgwood family began, in this respect, with a third-cousin marriage which was followed, after an interval of two generations, by four cousin marriages, one again being between double first cousins. here the third-cousin marriage does not seem to have mitigated the effects of the subsequent inbreeding, for the survival and fertility of the children was low. only in one family, the descendants of charles darwin, has a highly fertile strain emerged from the recombination (tables and ). the descendants of the rev. charles candy ( - ) (table a) show similarly the pattern by which successive cousin marriages originate. he married his first cousin and the result was typical of cousin marriage in an outbred stock. they had four sons; three survived, two married, but only one had issue. this was herbert candy ( - ) who married twice, once a near relative, margaret spence (five children), and once an unrelated daughter of a cousin marriage, mary davies (fourteen children). hence from this one surviving child were descended twenty-eight great-grandchildren. thus we have the emergence of highly fertile stocks capable of further inbreeding from only single individuals among the offspring of cousin marriage in outbred stocks. these we may call founder- marriages. they have their origins in special social, economic, and intellectual situations. such marriages are seen establishing new lines in the gilpin, wedgwood and candy, and also in the white and the brown families. the proportions of these successes seem to be small. but they show us how the persistent inbred groups in quakers, jews and royal families probably began. cousin marriage in man table successive cousin marriages the gxlpinfamily of scaleby castle, cumberland, by generations s. william gilpin ( - ) m. mary fletcher (b. ) . rev. wm. gilpin ( - ) so. margaret gilpin ( - ) . rev. wm. gilpin ( - ) m. elizabeth farish ( - ) a. richard brownlow benson (b. ) m. eliz. barbara gilpin (b. ) b. charles benson ( - ) m. henrietta emily gilpin ( - ) genera- tion date c - gc ggc t s m .wi t m .ws t i i xx c. z ° c. j a b c. i ' + -l- i + including both parents in . including both parents in . double first cousins. one of the two families is untraced after birth. including both parents in both a and b, which were parallel : two brothers to two sisters. source: mr george benson, of highgate west hill. table successive cousin marriages of the weogw family, descended from josiah wedgwood i ( - ) of etruria, who married in , sarah wedgwood ( - ) his third cousin gener-. atlon husband c date — — t s m wi ge t s m wi ggc t i josiahw. i . . - ii' a b c d charles darwin . hensleigh w. . . henry allen w. . josiah w. iii . . i o - - - - s -s o i i i ... i z z godfreyw.° . . josiah c. w. . . - + ... x + a-d total . . ... i two ge married unrelated wives and had no issue. doubling the i ggc who were descended in two lines owing to cm. one killed at . a double st cm : it produces fewer ggc than other cm except . two of these were killed (one at unmd., one at with ch. i.e. fertility curtailed). married a daughter of b, i.e. of a cm. this was a second marriage (see double test marriages). st baron wedgwood. , descended from no previous ems since josiah w. i. source : hon. mrs helen pease of cambridge. u c. d. darlington (u) re/igious minorities jewish communities in europe seem until recently to have been closely inbred. this was partly due to their position as a strict religious minority of great antiquity and partly to their discriminating social stratification. the distribution of cousin marriages in a particular group long residing in the region of birmingham is shown in table . table distribution of cou z marriages in the joseph connection by degrees st nd rd th i i i i it indicates a preference for close over less close inbreeding. the results (in table ) are regular. they are so regular that we can see the fall in numbers of progeny from generation to generation strictly table ten marriages of first cousins in the joseph connection no. date c gc t (cpm) m wi t (cpm) i. . . . . c.i oo c. i io c.i c.i o to ... i ... i ... i total z ( ) ii ( ) . . . . . c.i c.i o c.i c. c. x i i ... ... ... ... total ( ) x ( . ) source: mr anthony joseph, trinity college, cambridge. in keeping with the national trend. and there is no depression pro- duced by the cousin marriage. the same result is shown by the buxton family records (table io). this family is derived from two closely inbred communities, the quakers and the independents. the two marriages shown are between cousin marriage in man two pairs of siblings. again they show high regularity, with a fall in numbers of gc in keeping with the national trend, and no fall in fertility between the parents and the children. table parallel first cousin marriages of sibs in an inbred community (incomplete data) a. edward north buxton, nd bart. ( - ) m. catherine gurney c gc ggc t s m wi t s m wi t i i + + + + total . . • + + + + b. thomas fowell buxton ( - ) m. rachel jane gurney c gc ggc t s m wi t s m wi t ii ii + + + i + + + + + +total . . . . (iii) mennonites or hutterites this sect arose in central europe in , and on account of its strict anabaptist principles it has been inbred for over years: the products of outbreeding are excluded. the group early multiplied to about , but were nearly exterminated by later persecutions. sixty fled to russia in , and of their descendants some returned to central europe in while—to avoid military service—about migrated to south dakota, whence their descendants have spread c. d. darlington table ii mennonite pedigree. shows all male descendants of moses goring in male line and all their female children. probably includes none who died before maturity sex c gc (from c) ggc (from , gc) gggc (from ggc) + + + ( m, wi) + + + + + + ( m, wi) , , , , , , : , , , , , : , , , i , , : , i, i, , i , i, (not all m yet) total [ + + + ] [ + + + + + + ] , , , , , , : , , , , , , i : i, , , , , : , , , , : , , + + + + + + + + + , , , , , , : , i, , , , : : , , , : , , : , , , , : , , gggc estimated period of birth surviving c pm - i io i o - —= - i o-i = oo — — note. moses goring of mompelsgard (montbéliard, france) (married c. ). moved to einsiedel (austria), i o, michelsdorf (poland), i , edwardsdorf (russia), , waldheim, . descendants to kotusowka, , kansas and dakota, . all ancestors had had regular st, nd, or rd cousin marriages (single or double) for several genera- tions. this continued in the pedigree. thus some would be descended in more than one line from moses goring. only one of these was double in the male line however (i.e. marriages between two gorings). hence there is little repetition. source : petronella goring of vienna iv, , mostgasse a. table ha progeny in third and fourth generations from moses goring showing positive correlation in fertility of successive generations (data in table ii) nos. of ggc in families nos. of gggc from d' d + total mean i . . o xx cousin marriage in man widely and multiplied to about dispersed in about ioo village colonies. they have ceased to be a minority; they have become a self-sufficient society. these are now further divided into three separate inbred groups and bear only fourteen family names. evidence of their reproductive capacity and its evolution comes from two sources. my first source is the pedigree of the descendants in the male line of moses goring (table ii). it will be seen that their net fertility is high and slightly increasing: from per marriage to about 'oo over three generations. not only this, but hardly any who survive fail to get married and hardly any, indeed latterly none, who marry fail to have issue, the number of issue varying from one to twelve. in this variation the gcs are correlated with their parents (table i ia). my second source is the admirable account by eaton and mayer of the american community, many of whom are descended from moses goring. this shows again that the fertility, as recorded by the full birth rate in the census, is still increasing: from to io•g per marriage over a period of thirty years. hence the multiplication of the population nineteen-fold in the last eighty years. a situation of this kind, high and increasing fertility, should arise if very high fertility (being genetically determined) is selectively advantageous. this is probably not the case in most human societies. the conditions of the mennonite community in the united states do, however, explain such a selective advantage. these conditions are three-fold: (i) a community adapted by industry and intelligence to the agricultural work which uniformly maintains its progeny and for which opportunities are unlimited. (ii) regular inbreeding ensuring genetic homogeneity within small groups; since "swarming" takes place when they reach a certain size, these groups maintain a member- ship of ten to twenty families. (iii) a communistic rule that in the last resort the group is responsible for the aged and the infants in each family. so long as the community prospers therefore and land is unrestricted, children cannot suffer from being too numerous. we can now examine how these rules apply in other groups. (iv) royal families the royal families of europe resemble the mennonites in many respects. like the mennonites they have inbred and kept the breeding groups small by splitting into inbred sub-groups, the protestant, the catholic and the orthodox. like the mennonites, they have outbred occasionally (by morganatic marriages). but they have excluded the products of outbreeding from the group, at least during the golden age with which we are dealing. like the mennonites they have not needed to trouble about providing for the offspring. the community will look after that. but, unlike the mennonites, they are supported by a community which is not their own mating group. it is a whole nation. selection in royal families has therefore been much relaxed and the u c. d. darlington table progeny derived from first cousin marriages between and i among european royal families c gc ggc date - george iv, gt. britain . p , o o pedro, spain . . c s io i i i i ernst-august, hanover p i , i i gunther, schwarzburg-r p , i , o o o o georg, anhalt . . . p i , , i o o o gustav wasa, sweden p , o friedrich-w, meek. str. p i , , , friedrich, württ.. p i x i i i z , i , z karl theodor, bavaria c ' ' i wilhelm meck.-sehw. p , , i umberto i, italy . c i r i i i louis, parma . . c i i henri d'aumerle . c i z friedrich, nds. . p antoine, orleans . c s i i totals (i families) . r ii wilhelm i (b') hesse-c. . p i ferdinand iii (b'), tuscany c 'o + willem i, nds. . p ' ' x wilhelm i, wurtt.. p gunther, sehwarzburg-s. p i , willem iii, nds. . . p karl alex., saxe-w. p eugen, württ. . . . p paul-friedrich, meck.-schw. p i i s o o ludwig ferd., bavaria c totals (so families) . + karl (b') hesse-c. p is ,, si wilhelm, prussia . p i o franz-josef i, austria c ludwig ii, hesse-d. . p , v.-emmanuel ii, italy c so so isabella ii, spain c * karl, baden . p ' i ludwig, hesse-d. . p , franz i (b'),austria c + x,+ ,, philippe, orleans . c totals (o families) . '+ ' victoria, gt. britain . p alfonso, b.-sicilies . c s xx ,i q z i * numbers of ggc of isabella and victoria each include doubled owing to cm among gcs of the original cm. cousin marriage in man results as shown by our fertility records have been much less uniform than with the mennonites. selection is not directed; it is erratic. fertility is very variable. on the average it is not high. and it does not increase from generation to generation (table ). comparisonof the royal families with the general british population, inbred and outbred, shows the striking constancy of results of the royal cousin marriages. there is no depression or elevation of the numbers of cpm (wi), which remain or . or of the proportion of successes summary of table (royal cm) nos. nos. of c of m c gc ggc totals i- . + ' + cpm(wi) , . i i z o cpm(wi) grand total . x - + o cpm(wi) . cpm (original) percentage passing g successive tests i per cent. per cent. j'fotes on table (i) classified into two main groups, catholic (s) and protestant ( ). (ii) arranged by numbers of children of original marriage. (iii) some of the parents are themselves offspring of cousin or uncle-niece marriages. (iv) two pairs of brothers show close similarity in numbers of descendants. b' married non-sisters ; b' married sisters. source: mr r. s. lucas of the university of nottingham. in survival, marriage or reproduction between the first and second generation, which remains i per cent, or per cent. there is no reason why there should be any change, because all marriages are between cousins of some degree within a homogeneous group, and the distinction between first and second generations therefore lapses. royal marriages in the period we are considering were usually political marriages. they should not, therefore, show much biologically valid assortative mating, for example, in fertility. the inheritance of fertility is for this reason perhaps less marked than in the outbred population or the mennonites. very fertile lines have appeared, however, in a few of the families. among these it is worth noting (mr lucas tells me) that don alfonso of the bourbon-sicilies, who had forty-nine ggc, sprang from the same number of twelve ancestors c. d. darlington table ' parallel marriage test in a homogeneous and fertile outbred family c rev. richard cockburn kindersley ( - ) m. georgina anne kindersley ( - ) his first cousin. u his only brother married unrelated wivesu _ his five male cousins j c gc ggc date fraction traced* - fraction traced* t ii i m c ui u _ . c cpm (wi) u cpm u,_ cpm s to ii m wi t ' s m ' wi ' t i ' p per cent. per cent. per cent. passing tests . . per cent. per cent. per cent. passing tests .votes : * from male children. (i) this is the only cm recorded in the family since . (ii) higher fertility is recovered in selected gc recombinants of cm. source: mr richard kindersley, eccieston square, london, s.w. r table i sib marriage test in the progeny of a cousin marriage in a presumed inbred family white" : m. his first cousin c gc ggc tt s m wi t s m wi — i i i i i + • + ' + one daughter died : six sons survived. parents again married first cousins. source: anonymous. cousin marriage in man equally in the th, th and th generations (i.e. / , / , / , / ). and he married the daughter of an uncle-niece marriage of . similarly the present comte de paris, who is descended formally, although not genically, from charlemagne in perhaps five million ways, has eleven children. it seems likely that successful inbred groups (of which the royal caste is merely a convenient and accessible example) have usually arisen not by a sudden adoption of inbreeding—such as we have seen with cousin marriage in our outbred families—but by a gradual contraction of their breeding group, as would happen at the beginning of all religious sects. where the inbreeding has occurred suddenly there has been a great wastage of resources. thus in the ptolemies, the first full brother-sister marriage gave no surviving offspring. their first successful inbreeding was a half-brother-sister marriage, which was followed by successful full brother-sister marriage.* . parallel sib-marriage tests the parallel in- and out-breeding of sibs offers us the opportunity, as the kindersley family shows, of making a more significant comparison than that between cousin marriages in different populations (table ). although some of the progenies are untraced, the remainder reveal the characteristic contrast in the results of the two types of marriage in an outbred stock. a second parallel sib-test appeared in an inbred stock. the "white" family have been yeoman farmers in the exeter district since i oo. they have been nonconformist, some having been ply- mouth brethren. they should therefore have been subject to inbreed- ing. their first known cousin marriage yielded as might be expected a uniform progeny both in viability and fertility (table i). of the six who survived all married and all had offspring. but two again married first cousins while four did not. the two inbreeders had twenty grandchildren; the four outbreeders had fifteen grandchildren with the possibility of a few more. here we have another indication (agreeing with table b) that inbreeding is more fertile in an inbred stock than outbreeding. . double test marriages we are now prepared to consider the most rigorous method that i have been able to use in studying the relation of fertility to the breeding system. where a man or a woman has married in succession two spouses, one closely related and the other remotely related, or what is called "unrelated ", we can often compare the numbers of descendants and their behaviour in each succeeding generation (table i a-e). * in this family, however, as in other ancient dynasties, too many princes were begotten and too many died in uncertain circumstances. even the mother of the last cleopatra is unrecorded. c. d. darlington table s double test marriages a. outbred stocks s. ralph sadleir, canon of st patrick's, dublin (i - ) m. (i) , letitia sadleir, first cousin (i i ?- ) ; (ii) , letitia sewell, unrelated. m date c gc ggc t — s m wi t m wi t c u i i i i i i i i ... ... ... ... burnt to death c. . source: colonel b. f. trench of halberton, devon. . john murgatroyd ( - ) of howarth, yorks m. (i) elizabeth, unrelated i - s ; (ii) mary ann, first cousin, - . u c. so c c. ... ... ... ... ... all " eccentric but very alert ". xote.—robert murgatroyd, father of john, was churchwarden to patrick brontë ( - ). the family was thus church of england, a majority group. there were no previous known cousin marriages. it was also a prolific family, robert having had grandchildren including the ten in this table. source: mrs s. e. ryan, now in dublin, a daughter of one of these grandchildren. . anthony, rd baron henley ( - ) m. (i) julia augusta peel ( - ), st cousin;' (ii) clarajekyll ( : ), unrelated. ci us o i i i z the common grandfather of the cousin marriage was sir robert peel, st bt., father of the prime minister. source: the hon. michael eden of scaleby castle, cumberland; mr eden has kindly determined the certain absence of cousin marriage for three generations prior to the cousin marriage in the henley family and its probable absence in the peel family. . hugh ( - ) m. (i) unrelated wife ( - ) ; (ii) first cousin ( - ). u i i z s s i c ... ... .. . ... ... married three times. source: lady constance malleson. cousin marriage in man . constance m&iey saltan ( - ) m. (i) unrelated husband ( - ) ; (ii) first cous fl ( - ). m date c ——— gc ggc u t s m wi t s m wi t g c i ... ... ... ... ... ... source: miss ann wadham of cambridge. b. intermediate (with previous cousin marriages) i. godfrey wedgwood ( -s o ) (cf. table ) m. (i) c. i o mary hawkshaw, d. unrelated ; (ii) , hope elizabeth w., first cousin (daughter of cm). uc.s o i i i z i , c i i i ... ... ... ... ... source: the hon. mrs helen pease of cambridge. . the campbell-callender sequence (a) john henderson, m. mary, first cousin, c. . i c i i some went to u.s.a. after rebellion ; all but one untraced. william campbell of derry, only child ( - ) od account of his father's emigration. includes thomas and margaret callender campbell (cf. b) but not their cousin- spouses thomas and agnes callender who were not descended from cm (see table a), m. s . (b) thomas callender, b. , m. (i) margaret c. campbell, first cousin c. ; (ii) mary mcnab, unrelated, c. . c u + including twins. source: dr sheila callender of the radcliffe infirmary, oxford. . mcleod of tain ( - ), in. (i) , first cousin, daughter of presumed first cousins ; (ii) , unrelated wife. c h ! i i i i i . . ... source : mrs m. p. close of lone cove, sydney, australia. c. d. darlington c. inbred (i) non-jewish i. count watthier hamilton ( - ), m. (i) marie helena v. strokirch ( - ) unrelated ; (ii) hedvig hamilton ( - ), first cousin. m date c gc ggc t s m wi tt s m wi u i is j c '- i i i m. his first cousin, outside this pedigree. m. (being half cousins) and had gc, which are counted in each group. ]tote. the repeated ems make comparison difficult in the third generation. the pattern of cm, however, continues the earlier habit of cm in this family as in swedish nobility generally (cf. alstrdm, ; fraccaro, ). source: dr per selander of malmö, sweden. . double test marriage with a successive cm : (i) h. a. v.d. wall bake of amsterdam (i - ) ; (ii) a. m. a. v.d. wall bake ( - ). i c (c tu i one of these is the husband in ( ). one of these killed in war, unmarried. note. the twice-married spouse is himself of the first generation of a cm. his cm is thus a successive cm. moreover, the families concerned belong to a closely inbred com- munity with many previous cm. source: f. g. l. . van kretschmar of westcott house, cambridge. (ii) jewish (uncle-niece) i. dvm—( - ) hanover, m. (i) johanne—( - ) unrelated; (ii) rachel— ( - ) half-niece. u i i i two died of tuberculosis. one stillborn. one died by suicide. one died at auschwitz. propositus. source: anonymous, montreal, canada. cousin marriage in man . hermann wittner ( - ), mischalenny, roumania. m. (i) unrelated wife (ii) niece ( - ). m date c gc ggc t s ni wi t s m wi t u i ... ... n i o source: mr frank selby, of hatch end, middlesex. d. double test marriages non-first cousins . johann sebastian bach ( - ), in. (i) maria barbara bach ( -i ), second cousin; (ii) anna magdalena wicken ( - ) unrelated. c u z io g c, g°c. source : c. s. terry ; k. geiringer, . . james william ardenne ( - ), m. (i) i , emily lane harding ( - ), first cousin ; (ii) , his cousin. c s i i i i i c x i ... ... ... source: dr r. j. hetherington, birmingham. e. incomplete i. jens paulson, of fana, bergen, norway ( - ), m. (i) c. , anna elizabeth, first cousin ; (ii) c. , martha, anna's niece, i.e. i c. c c. ... i c c. l one drowned. source: dr john harper, university of oxford. . engel , b. in hungary; m. (i) siegmund engel, , first cousin and also uncle (mother's brother); (ii) julius ehrnfeld, unrelated. :::: : . .. .. :. defective, mother aged c. at his birth. source: dr eva bene, london, w. i. c. d. darlington a. oijtbred s. sadleir . murgatroyd . henley . hugh — . wadham total b. intermediate s.wedgwood . callender . mcleod total c. inbred (i) j'ton-jewish ,. hamilton . v.d. w. bake (ii) jewish (uncle-niece) i. david — . wittner total grand total: a, b, c d. n n-ist cousins i. bach ( c : u) . ardenne (c: p c) e. incomplete ,. paulson (c: p c) . engel table (concluded) summary of double test marriages ratio of increase c gc ggc c:u st m unrelatedcousin c gc ggc coru date c i u c u u + ' u c c c. i o ' + z u i ii c u u ... o' : ' : ' : i' x 'o : ' c c i i so c c ?+ i ? cousin marriage in man there are four special points that need to be considered in attempt- ing to apply this test. first, the capacity to produce first generation children is not at issue. we must therefore compare the descendants of similar numbers of children, or per child. secondly, the number of children are likely to be small and unequal in the two families. in one case of the erigel family (table i, e ) i had to exclude the family since the sole child of the second marriage was possibly a mongolian type in which the mother's age was the significant factor. i have accordingly also stated in the summary which of the two marriages was the first. thirdly, we must divide our families into classes: those that have had no previous inbreeding or likelihood of it, and those that are derived from small social or religious groups that are known to have inbred. in practice, as we have seen, intermediate conditions where inbreeding is beginning give highly diverse results and must therefore be put in an intermediate class. if we do not make this distinction the grand total of the progenies shows no significant difference between the effects of in- and out- breeding. when we make the distinction according to the antece- dents of the families, however, we find that outbreeding favours the outbreeders and inbreeding favours the inbreeders. further, these differential effects which are apparent in the numbers of grandchildren are exaggerated in the numbers of the great-grandchildren. they are proportionately exaggerated in the extreme example of outbred class a. this effect again suggests, as in table a, assortative mating in respect of fertility. apart from the engel family, the non-first cousin and incomplete progenies in table d and e, all seem to be from outbred stocks. but since, as tests, they are less significant, detailed enquiries on ante- cedents have not been made. the bach family, however, is known to have had no previous cousin marriage. the extinction of the second cousin marriage line and the continuance of the outbred line is historically the most notable case of its kind. . inertia and innovation on my interpretation it now seems that human stocks can main- tain not only their greatest uniformity but also their highest fertility with regular cousin marriage. indeed, the change to inbreeding provides the best means of selecting for high fertility. but the intro- duction of inbreeding in an outbred stock leads to loss of uniformity, viability, fertility, and total reproductive potential. this last effect often extinguishes a line in the second generation, or, owing to assor- tative mating, in the third or fourth generation, after a cousin marriage. the method of dividing the population into inbred and outbred stocks and the further method of using parallel and double test c. d. darlington marriages has indicated a converse principle. this is the principle that outbreeding in an inbred stock, as compared with continued inbreeding, may likewise have a depressing effect on fertility. this inference should be tested with selected results recorded like mine over several generations. the most obvious fields are race crosses (such as jewish-christian crosses) and class crosses (such as the morganatic marriages of royal families. following both types of change in the breeding system we may expect what we find in the first, namely that recombination gives lack of uniformity so that, following depression, a few recombinants will establish lines with increased reproductive potential. these conclusions conform with certain observations reached on very different grounds. for example, considering heterosis in droso- phila, dobzhansky ( ) concludes that inversion heterozygotes derived from crosses between races may fail to show the advantage that appears in such heterozygotes within a race. vetukhiv ( ) has inferred an "integration" of the genotype from similar observa- tions. on the other hand, in plants, a change in the breeding system, a shift to inbreeding, has been shown to lead to specific responses. in campanula and enothera, following heavy selective elimination, it can change the direction of evolution so as to favour the establishment of altogether new genetic systems such as permanent hybridity (darling- ton, a, table ). these different kinds of reaction have been taken to imply an "inertia" in all genetic systems (darlington and mather, ig; mather, ). the present observations seem to bear out such an assumption, and it deserves to be fully explored in man as elsewhere. at the same time, however, other principles seem to be disclosed by the present treatment. the cost of overcoming inertia, the loss of reproductive potential in the generations following a change of breeding system, usually extinguish all but the more fertile lines. but experience shows that it is by just this kind of change that the great innovations in evolution come about. the most successful breeders of cultivated plants have obtained their success, as i have shown in some detail (i b) by chang- ing the breeding system. the same is true of animal breeding, although here the inbreeding side is better known than the hybridisation, being more recent. so also it must be with man.* out of the homogeneous, conventional, mediocre, well-adapted mass, recombination will bring new unbalanced types, usually defective, and eccentric, but also some- times original, usually infertile but sometimes fertile and occasionally creative in both mind and body. the loss of reproductive potential means the production of very large numbers of unsuccessful types accompanied by very small * the effects of irradiation may be used as a less satisfactory substitute for a change of the breeding system. the analogy with loss of reproductive potential, rare advantageous effects and dependence on reeombination is obvious (cf. bruce wallace, ). cousin marriage in man numbers of successful types. these types are distinguished mostly not by specific genes but by specific combinations or systems of genes, chiefly of the order of polygenes but no doubt at all levels of gene evolution; usually fragile but sometimes persisting. the process which differentiates between the successful and the unsuccessful types is one of natural selection. the selective advantages concerned are pre- posterously high, if indeed one can speak of such relations where simple alternatives no longer exist. in this selection the observable character-differentials of classical genetics (or eugenics) are swept along by the overpowering force of the unobservable viability and fertility differentials. the analytical materials and their selective values are trivial in comparison with the rapidly evolving integral effects. one limitation of these integral or combination effects needs to be noted at this point. they are of value, sometimes only in indi- viduals, sometimes only in small breeding groups; very rarely perhaps are they of value when indefinitely extended. the reason for this is plain. it is that their selection is not bound to concern the individual's relation with his environment. it is bound to concern an integration of the genotype, which is an internal matter: it is, like what we call "personality ", an internal integration. the oppor- tunity for external re-adaptation is, however, likely to be taken at the time when the internal re-integration is taking place, since changes in the breeding system in plants and animals and also in man usually arise together with—or even as a result of—changes in the external situation. in this work of re-integration following a change of the breeding system, assortative mating is shown to be important by our enormous divergences in fertility in the second and third generations. it is therefore worth while recalling the origins of this idea. pearson and lee ( ) having found a possible correlation between husband and wife in height of o , pearson (anonymously) makes certain novel remarks about sexual selection and about preferential and assortative mating. he points out that assortative mating with positive correlation between mates (which he calls homogamy) as opposed to random mating should have a contrast of effect almost as important as that arising from self- as opposed to cross-fertilisation in plants. he adds that assortative mating, however: (i) may have any degree of intensity; (ii) may be confined to special characteristics; (iii) need have none of the "harmful effects" of inbreeding. even today, however, we still do not know how far assortative mating in man may not imply inbreeding in respect of particular genes or gene combinations or segments of chromosome. this question is already raised in my attempt to relate cousin marriage to group inbreeding. it will, i believe, become important at a later stage in the study of breeding systems in man. x c. d. darlington . the origin of regulated outbreeding in sexually differentiated organisms, both sessile and mobile, both plants and animals, self-fertilisation is excluded, and this is the whole means by which inbreeding is directly limited. to this rule man is the sole exception. the rule and its breaking are therefore of vital importance for his evolution. he has adopted conventions which discourage or prevent sib-mating and even all mating within a wide range of kindred. all races of men that have survived today share these conventions. their results are closely parallel to the similar systems arising in hermaphrodite plants (darlington, i b). both have to depend on the recognition of kinship. but whereas the recog- nition of kinship in a plant depends on its genetics, physiology and biochemistry, in man it depends on the special intellectual and cultural apparatus which he has recently evolved. how does it work? this question has been asked more and more often since mac- lennan first used the term exogamy in . many answers have been given. a few of these answers have rested on biological grounds. during his life, darwin's explanation ( ) that outbreeding, as opposed to inbreeding, enhanced vigour or avoided debility in the offspring, or even the posterity, generally carried weight. but this belief, even at the time, could be seen to be mistaken and my evidence helps to show what the mistake was and how it arose. fertility over several generations is a stricter test than viability in one generation. and fertility is as compatible with close inbreeding in man as it is in other animals or plants. most answers, however, have rested on no biological grounds at all. they have rested on arguments from purely human properties of custom, religion or fancy. the arguments attempted to explain what their authors did not understand, the biological property of out- breeding, in terms of what nobody understands, the local origins of human superstition. explanations by herbert spencer, frazer, freud and others, therefore, run in smaller and smaller circles. these have been well described by lord raglan but even he has added his own magical formula to the series. the most recent is of larger scope and deserves special mention. it is that of levi-strauss (i g). this distinguished anthropologist states his conclusion at the beginning in the following words: "la prohibition de l'inceste . . . constitue la démarche fondamentale grace a laquelle, par laquelle, mais surtout en laquelle, s'accomplit le passage de la nature a la culture." (p. ). thus levi-strauss by stating the fact three times (a fact which no one disputes) seems to persuade himself that he has explained the fact. this is just what he avoids doing. he has to avoid explaining it because he is unwilling to make any genetic assumption. cousin marriage in man now we know, however, that the long-term properties of genetic systems are themselves genetically controlled. we know that in all organisms they are subject to selection and evolution. and we know— this arises from the last thirty years' work—that wherever the long- term selective advantage can be traced it is the same: it is the securing of recombination and hence of adaptability in the population, and the securing of this sequence of advantages by outbreeding (darlington, a). outbreeding in all sexual organisms is only secondarily important for its immediate individual effect of avoiding homozygosity. primarily it is important for its enduring population effect of exploiting hetero- zygosity. that is for combining lack of variation in a breeding group with the capacity to release variation when the breeding group either contracts or expands: which it does whenever conditions change; whenever, that is, they become unfavourable. enforced outbreeding therefore at once gives any population which knows how to adopt it an advantage over those which do not, the advantage of rapid adaptability. a change to inbreeding in such a population at once splits it into dissimilar groups, each homogeneous but with a homogeneity from which there is no return. in these terms we can now see what happened at a certain stage in the evolution of man. as families stayed together longer, and as an intelligent recognition of kindred developed with discrimination, there would also develop that assortative mating which in man is peculiarly an intellectual gift. groups would become more and more inbred, unadaptable and fissiparous. large, homogeneous, co-opera- tive groups could come into existence only when the gift of recognition of kindred was exploited to enforce the avoidance of mating with kindred. the recognition of kindred would therefore lead to a breeding crisis. the groups that survived would be those which had used their new gift to develop a system of outbreeding. the behaviour of primi- tive peoples throughout the world shows that they are all descended from such groups. regulated outbreeding not only limits inbreeding; it also limits or even abolishes assortative mating. for the regulation is often elaborate enough to leave no choice of mates. in both of these ways it tends to maintain a phenotypic homogeneity in the group. this homo- geneity makes possible the cohesion without specialisation, the con- formity with tradition and continuity, characteristic of tribal life. when the breeding system changes, this character breaks down and we have " detribalisation ". the breeding system is thus necessary in maintaining the adaptation of the primitive community not only externally to its environment, but also internally to its own parts as reflected in reproductive and cultural stability. in selecting a genetic propensity for outbreeding in man nature therefore showed, not only a long-term preference for recombination, which we know to be universal, but also, as tylor implied already in c. d. darlington , a short-term preference for social co-operation and initiative, which is peculiar to man himself. if we imagine the contrary state, and indeed the pre-existing state of a society of baboons with no conventional restriction to mating at all, we can see what would have happened to it with man's developing intelligence. the tribe would be continually subject to splitting up by brother-sister mating into groups of irregular size and differing character just as happens in our own society to a less degree with inbreeding. such irregularity would disintegrate tribal communities at the moment when intellectual processes began to affect mating habits. the clumsiness, over-elaboration and occasional inefficiency or irrelevance of the rules which are connected with man's avoidance of inbreeding are of minor interest to the geneticist. he can see where they lose their aim. the complex of rationalisations and myths by which man has explained, justified and reinforced these rules, on the other hand, are characteristic of all his behaviour. they are of major interest to the anthropologist. he regards them as the genuine founda- tion of man's behaviour. but i am arguing that these ideas are secondary and derived. derived from what? derived always from instincts, from genetically determined systems of behaviour, selected for their long-term adaptive advantage and leading to an aversion for breeding between close kindred, an aversion for what at this stage we may call incest. the instincts of a majority would establish social codes and mating taboos much on the lines proposed by darwin in the descent of man. it would then be difficult and dangerous for diverging individuals to break the rules. royal families could most easily do so, as they have done in varying degrees. the loss of the instinctive aversion to in- breeding also, we may note, runs in families. does it do so for genetic as well as for merely imitative reasons? consider the incest of byron the poet, and of his father, each with a sister. the grandparents of all four were first cousins, and all members of the family who could marry first cousins did so. is there a genetic component in this sequence? i believe so. the third stage in the development of breeding rules is that where instincts pass into conventions, conventions pass into law, and it is worth noting that incest has been decreed a crime at many times in history. it was not, however, until that this stage in the organisa- tion of the breeding system was reached in england, and it is a stage which may never be reached in other european countries. the position of homosexuality is analogous. similar selective advantages must obviously operate against homosexuality and similarly give rise to moral precepts and legal sanctions. in both cases the precepts and sanctions have an instinctive basis; they are irrational and may be misguided. the study of breeding behaviour and its effects in man on these lines helps us to disembarrass ourselves of a number of prejudices in cousin marriage in man deciding on our future behaviour. it may help us to interpret the relations of instinct, reason and superstition where they are most entangled. the tribal breeding units, between whose instincts and hence customs selective processes originally distinguished, are now largely disintegrating. and in civilised societies the instincts are reduced to conventions supported by fallacious rationalisations. the long-term selective forces favouring adaptability in tribal societies are now super- seded. all that is left is the evidence of what we may call instinctive residues, religious beliefs, and the secondary selective forces affecting individual survival. this evolutionary flotsam still gives stability to breeding systems. it also confuses the observer who confines his attention to man. the parallel gifts for regulated outbreeding and for assortative mating, or outbreeding with discrimination, are, as i have sug- gested (x b), the two inventions on which the evolution of human societies is based. they have been in a sense twin foundations; but rather more they have been connected and balanced foundations of his breeding system. they have made possible, first, the tribal society and, secondly, in the last ten thousand years, the class-differentiated society, the unprecedentedly rapid evolution of which we call civilisa- tion. it is on their study that the future will also depend. . summary i. in advanced societies taken as a whole a specific class of breeding (such as cousin marriage) shows no very pronounced departure from the average result in regard to any particular attribute of the progeny. . but when families are classified by their breeding system over several previous generations, and when all attributes are taken together as measured by the reproductive potential over several subsequent generations, decisive differences are found. . inbreeders suffer by outbreeding and outbreeders by inbreeding. this is true on the average of each of the successive reproductive tests in the progeny: viability after birth, marriage frequency and numbers of the second generation. . these average effects are compatible with greater heterogeneity and the production of new strains, new recombinations, enhanced in fertility and no doubt often in other respects. . assortative mating in respect of fertility, otherwise difficult to show, is to be inferred from the maintenance or exaggeration of these differences in successive generations. . the value of regulated outbreeding for primitive man was not in its avoiding homozygosity but in its providing homogeneity in an enlarged breeding group together with an immediate capacity for variation when the group changed either by contraction or expansion. . the origin of the regulation of outbreeding, it is suggested, was in the development of appropriate instincts on the lines proposed by x c. d. darlington darwin. this development would be favoured by their enormous long-range selective advantage on the principles of evolution in genetic systems as established in animals and plants generally. acknowledgments.—i am indebted to the named families and the named individuals from all parts of the world who have kindly and often with enormous labour provided me with the information which i have here collected. prof. f. a. pottle of yale university and mrs enid grant of edinburgh kindly helped me with the boswell family and mr k. b. mcfarlane of magdalen college with the byron family. i am particularly indebted to mr michael eden, mr richard kindersley and mr raymond lucas for pointing out to me, on their own initiative, new ways of handling the data. i also want to thank the observer newspaper of london and messrs sandoz of basel for making known my enquiry to a larger public. references al trom, c. h. . first-cousin marriages in sweden, - . acta gen. stat. med., , bemi , . m. i . report on influence of marriages of consanguinity upon off- spring. trans. am. med. assn., ii, - . bloompield, r. . uncommon people: a study of england's elite. london. campbell, it. . infertility : its incidence and hope of cure. brit. med. journ., - . darlington, c. n. s a. race, class and mating in the evolution of man. nature, , - . darlington, c. d. i b. the place of the australian aboriginal in the evolution of society (introduction). ann. eugen., , - . darlington, c. d. . heterosis from the point of view of the chromosomes. proc. roy. soc. b, , - . darlington, c. d. . natural populations and the breakdown of classical genetics. proc. roy. soc. b, , - . darlington, c. n. i b. chromosome botany. allen and unwin, london. darlington, c. n. . messages and movements in the cell. conf. on chromo- somes, wageningen. willink, zwolle. darlington, c. n. a. evolution of genetic systems. nd ed. oliver and boyd, edinburgh. darlington, c. d. i b. control of evolution in man. nature, , - . darlington, c. d. c. cousin marriages. triangle, , - . darlington, c. d., and mather, k. . the elements of genetics. allen and unwin, london. darlinoton, c. d., and mather, k. . genes, plants and people: essays in genetics. allen and unwin, london. darwin, c. . the descent of man. london. darwin, c. . the effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. london. darwin, h. c. (sir cleorne). . marriages between first cousins in england and their effect. fortnightly rev., , - . dobzhansky, tm. . genetics of natural populations. xix. origin of heterosis through natural selection in populations of drosophila pseudoobscura. genetics, , - . dobzhan ky, th., and pavlov ky, . . interracial hybridization and break- down of coadapted gene complexes in drosophila paulistorum and drosophila willistoni. p.n.a.s., , no. , - . eaton, j. w., and mayer, a. j. . man's capacity to reproduce. hum. biol. (baltimore), (s). cousin marriage in man ' fisher, r. a. . the genetical theory of j'/otural selection. oxford. fisher, r. a. the theory of inbreeding. oliver and boyd, edinburgh. fraccaro, h. . incidence of consanguineous marriages in sweden. hereditas, , galton, f. . hereditory genius. london. geiringer, k. . the boch fomily. allen and unwin, london. goldschmidt, k., and ronen, a. . the rate of consanguinity in the com- munities of israel. bull. res. council, israel, b. i - . huth, a. h. . the morrioges of j[eor kin considered in respect to the laws of j'/ations, the results of experience and the teachings of biology. london. huth, a. h. . index to books and papers on marriage between near kin. rep. st ann. meeting index soc., - . rilfatrick, s. j., mathers, j. d., and stevenson, a. c. . the importance of population fertility and consanguinity data being available in medico- social studies. ulster med. jour., , i - . levi-strauss, c. . les structures elementaires de ia parenté. p. univ. france, paris. mather, k. . the genetic basis of heterosis. proc. roy. soc. b, , - . moncrieffe, i., and pottinger, d. . blood royal. london. morton, n. e., crow, j. f., and muller, h. j. . an estimate of the mutational damage in man from data on consanguineous marriages. p.x.a.s., o, no. ,', . neel, j. v., rodani, m., brewer, r., and anderson, r. c. . the incidence of consanguineous matings in japan. am. . hum. genet., i, - . pearson, k. . assortative mating in man. biometrika, , - . pearson, k., and lee, a. . on the inheritance of fertility in mankind. phil. trans. r.s. (a), , - . pearson, k., and lee, a. . on the laws of inheritance in man. i. biometrika, , - . raglan, lord. . jocasta's crime: an anthropological study. methuen, london. schull, w. j. . empirical risks in consanguineous marriages : sex ratio, malformation and viability. am. . hum. genet., jo, - . latis, h. m. et al. . consanguineous marriages in the chicago region. am. . hum. gen., , - . stevenson, a. c. ig . applications of epidemiological methods to the study of congenital malformations in man. ulster med. jour., , -i . terry, c. s. . the origin of the family of bach musicians. oxford. vetukhw, h. . integration of the genotype in local populations of three species of drosophila. evolution, , - . wallace, bruce. ig a. the effect of heterozygosity for new mutations on viability in drosophila: a preliminary report. p..j' .a.s., , no. , - . wallace, bruce. j b. some of the problems accompanying an increase of mutation rates in mendelian populations. effect of radiation on human heredity. w.h.o., geneva. appendix: abbreviations cm first cousin marriage (three pairs of grandparents, one in common) cm(d) double cm (two pairs of grandparents, both in common) cm(r) reciprocal cm, of pairs with same three pairs of grandparents cm(par) parallel cm between pairs of sibs cm( i first cm once removed cm( ) second cm scm successive cm, i.e. involving descendants of a cm after one or two generations dtm double test marriage c. d. darlington c children gc grandchildren ggc great-grandchildren t total s survived to maturity ( - years) m married or marriage wi with issue + plus sign indicates that the possibility that more children will be born or discovered is not excluded c & u cousins/unrelated (of double marriages of one spouse) cpm children per marriage 	cousin marriage and the evolution of the breeding system in man 	references .indd grotiana ( ) – © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, doi . / x brill.nl/grot g r o t i a n a see b.p. vermeulen and g.a. van der wal, ‘grotius, aquinas and hobbes. grotian natural law between lex aeterna and natural rights’, grotiana, / ( / ), - . blessed [are] the peacemakers… grotius on the just war and christian pacifi sm matthijs de blois senior lecturer, law department, institute of legal th eory utrecht university m.deblois @uu.nl abstract in th e law of war and peace grotius needs many more pages for the theological arguments in the debate on war and peace than for the arguments derived from natural law and international law. apparently the controversy within christendom on the justifi ability of warfare was one of the most important issues to be addressed in his magnum opus . th e general discussion in his days was about the proper interpretation of the holy scriptures, the authority of which was accepted by all participants. th is contribution focuses on the position of hugo grotius in this debate, confronting his ideas with the biblical arguments of those who (almost) completely rejected warfare, more in particular erasmus and the anabaptist branch of the reformation. grotius rejected the arguments in favour of christian pacifi sm, which was to a considerable degree defended by erasmus and which formed a central tenet of the anabaptists. th e latter’s apolitical stand was not shared by grotius or by erasmus who were both albeit to diff erent degrees involved in the political debate and practice in the fi eld of war and peace. keywords grotius ; just war ; christian pacifi sm ; erasmus ; anabaptists introduction th e interest in the work of the pre-modern hugo grotius remains undimin- ished also among the adherents to modernity. from many readings it seems to follow that he to a great extent fi ts the modern secular liberalism predominat- ing legal philosophy. recently grotius was presented as the herald of modern .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – rawlsian liberalism. more established is the long tradition that qualifi es grotius as the seculariser of natural law, mostly based on the shaky ground of the well-known impious hypothesis, the most prominent quotation from grotius in many introductory works on jurisprudence. th e statement in the next paragraph of the prolegomena, where he derives natural law from human nature as created by god, receives in many cases not the attention it deserves. th e same is true of the reference to divine voluntary law referred to in that same paragraph. in many approaches the strong religious connotations of his work tend to be played down, in favour of a more fashionable secular read- ing of grotius. as a result the explicit reliance in his work on the bible as a source of not only moral but also legal principles is to a great extend ignored or at least seen as much less relevant than his purely philosophical natural law theory. it has also been interpreted as an ingenious device to secularise the law. th e question is whether we do take the work of grotius seriously, if we overlook the importance he himself attached to the proper use of the bible in answering the important questions of law and morality. th e fact is that in th e law of war and peace grotius needs many more pages to discuss the argu- ments derived from the bible and from church history than those from natu- ral law and international law. apparently the controversy within christendom on the justifi ability of warfare was one of the most important issues to be addressed in his magnum opus . th e general discussion in his days was about the proper interpretation of scripture, the authority of which was accepted by all participants. in this contribution i will focus on the position of hugo grotius in this debate, confronting his ideas with those of other writers who on biblical arguments completely or almost completely reject warfare. more in particular the positions of erasmus and the anabaptist branch of the reformation will be discussed. to conclude i will compare the opinions of the biblically inspired peacemakers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. we conclude with some fi nal remarks. timothy samuel shah, ‘making the christian world safe for liberalism’, th e political quarterly , ( ), - . see inter alia knud haakonssen, ‘grotius and the history of political thought’ political th eory , ( ), - , jan & annie romein, erfl aters van onze beschaving (amsterdam: querido, ), p. mark somos, ‘secularization in de iure praedae : from bible criticism to international law’, grotiana - ( - ), - . .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – hugo grotius hugo grotius is known as a man of peace. th e impressive biography by henk nellen characterizes his life as a life in the service of peace. th e motive to write th e law of war and peace was to do something about the arbitrariness of war in the christian world. grotius observes that war is waged for trivial reasons or without any reason at all. at the closure of his treatise he appeals to his readers to pursue peace as the highest priority. even if there is an example in his work of a bellicose attitude towards spain, the general impression remains of the pursuit of peace as a predominant motive. th e purpose of war is peace through law. th is was already the theme of his th e law of prize and booty (de iure praedae) and was with even more strength stressed in his th e law of war and peace. grotius has been characterized as an irenicist, whose legal and theological publications are pervaded by a christian humanism. hugo grotius was, however, not a pacifi st. he is in th e law of war and peace , but also in other writings the man of the via media between the raison d’état , which leaves no room for moral and legal limits of warfare, and christian pacifi sm which referring to the commandment of charity rejects all warfare. grotius has no affi nity with the champions of the raison d’état. he is however sympathetic of the pacifi sts, qualifi ed by him as ‘men, who are the furthest from being bad men’. may be that is the reason that he uses a pleth- ora of arguments to refute their position. th e question whether it would ever be justifi ed to wage war is answered by grotius in th e law of war and peace by using a threefold standard: natural law, human voluntary law and divine voluntary law. grotius does not need many words to prove that natural law is not opposed to waging wars for self- preservation. also human voluntary law, more specifi c international law, does not prohibit warfare. th e main focus in his argumentation is divine w.j.m. van eysinga, gids voor de groot's de iure belli ac pacis [guide for grotius’s de iure belli ac pacis] leiden: brill, , p. . henk nellen, hugo de groot. een leven in strijd om de vrede - [hugo grotius, a life in contest for peace] (amsterdam: balans, ). hugo grotius, de jure belli ac pacis libri tres , vol . translation. th e classics of international law (new york: oceana, ), iii. . hereafter lwp = th e law of war and peace. c.g. roelofsen, ‘grotius and the development of international relations th eory’, grotiana , ( ), - at p. . g.h.m. posthumus meyjes, hugo grotius as an irenicist , in: th e world of hugo grotius ( - ) (amsterdam & maarssen: apa, ), pp. - . lwp , prolegomena par. . .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – lwp , i. . and . lwp , i. . . . lwp , i. . . th e bible quotes here and below follow the king james version. lwp , i. . . voluntary law. grotius the christian, who abhors the abominations of war, feels the responsibility to justify himself to his coreligionists who with argu- ments derived from the holy writ reject all warfare. he takes a stand in a dispute on the moral acceptability of the use of violence which was going from the early days of christianity. already in commentary on the law of prize and booty he had discussed some biblical texts in this connection. th e law of war and peace provides us with a more extensive, principled exposition. divine voluntary law does not contain anything that is contrary to natural law. it may, however, prohibit what is permitted by natural law. th erefore divine voluntary law as revealed in the bible, should be examined. according to grotius not all biblical commandments are binding for the whole of humanity. he distinguishes divine voluntary law binding for all peoples from the part that is written for one specifi c people, the people of israel. th is people received its law at mount sinai, which by moses was passed on to them. th e whole of humanity (in so far as they could have known these command- ments) is, to begin with, bound by the law that was revealed immediately after creation, secondly by the law that was given to noah after the flood and fi nally by the law of christ in the new testament. th is subdivision provides us with the framework of grotius’s discussion of an impressive num- ber of biblical texts, often applied to both the death penalty and warfare. in both cases the use of violence by the government is at stake. who is in favour of the death penalty, justifi es also warfare and the other way round. th at follows from his discussion of the noahide commandment in genesis : and : and surely your blood of your lives will i require; at the hand of every beast will i require it, and at the hand of man; at the hand of every man’s brother will i require the life of man. whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed: for in the image of god made he man. according to grotius this text does not prohibit the shedding of blood as retribution, but only unlawful killing. th e laws of christ in the new testament may according to our author impose obligations that go beyond what is required by natural law and the commandments in the old testament. th ey did not, however, abolish the power of government to apply violence. th at is in the fi rst place the .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – lwp , i. . . ( timothy : - ). lwp , i. . . and (romans : - ) lwp , i. . . (st. luke : ) lwp , i. . . (acts ) lwp , i. . . (acts : - ) lwp , i. . . (romans : and ) lwp , i. . . and (st. matthew : ) consequence of the appeal to the christian church to pray for those in gov- ernment, who if necessary have to ensure with the sword the peace of their subjects. a second proof is derived from the well known thirteenth chapter of st. paul’s epistle to the romans, where the government, who ‘ beareth not the sword in vain ’, is seen as ordained by god. grotius attaches furthermore normative signifi cance to what the bible tells about the lives of a number of persons who participated in the army or the government. he shows that after their conversion to christianity they were not forced to resign from their offi ce or profession. he mentions in that con- nection the soldiers, baptized by john the baptist, who were only instructed to refrain from extortion and false accusation and to be content with their wages. it is furthermore not told that the roman centurion cornelius left the army or was encouraged to do so after he became a christian. th ere are no indications that the proconsul of cyprus, sergius paulus, after his conver- sion resigned from offi ce, nor that he was admonished to do so. th at pious people sometimes do wage war can furthermore be derived from the book of revelation (apocalypse). in later editions this argument, however, is omitted. a number of arguments is also based on the biographical information on the apostle paul in the book of acts, who did not refuse protection by an armed escort of soldiers, when he was threatened by an attack against his life. he furthermore said to the roman procurator porcius festus that he would not resist the imposition of the death penalty if he deserved it. th e admonition of paul to pay taxes is also an argument for grotius that war can be justifi ed; the proceeds will be used by the government to protect the good and punish the evil. grotius argues not only from what has been written in the scriptures, but also what has not been written. if christ wanted to abolish the existing right to impose the death penalty, as well as armed protection against robbers and plunderers, he would have done so explicitly. according to grotius, that can- not be inferred from the general or vague texts suggested in that connection. he refers also to the fact that christ did not abolish the mosaic criminal law, which prescribes the death penalty for murderers. .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – lwp , i. . . (philippians : ; corinthians : - ). lwp , i. . . (isaiah : ) lwp , i. . . . lwp , i. . . (st. matthew : ); i. . . (st. matthew : ) and i. . . (st. matthew : ). lwp , i. . . and . grotius relates fi nally the right to punish and the use of arms against injus- tice to the general commandment in the new testament to do what is honest and virtuous, which in his view refers to what according to the consensus among civilized peoples is considered to be in accordance with morality. th e discussion of the biblical arguments in favour of the recognition of the right to wage war, is followed in grotius’s book by the rejection of the argu- ments derived from the bible against this right. th at brings him in a head-on confrontation with the theories of the christian-pacifi sts. first, isaiah’s prophecy on the peaceful kingdom where ‘they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks’. in grotius’s view this can be understood as a conditional prophecy, which will become reality when all men convert to christianity and behave accordingly. it may also be interpreted as an unconditional prophecy, to be fulfi lled in the future. in both interpretations it cannot serve as an argument against the justifi ability of war. th e core of the argumentation of the christian pacifi sts is based on jesus’ sermon on the mount in the new testament. grotius’s main eff ort is the refu- tation of these arguments. he uses his skills as a lawyer to interpret the texts referred to by his opponents in a restrictive way. an example is his interpreta- tion of st. matthew : and : you have heard that it was said, an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. but i say unto you, that ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. according to grotius the addressees of this text are not public offi cials, but people under attack. in addition it is clear that it concerns not all forms of injustice but only striking one’s cheek. in the same way the texts that admon- ish the readers not to resist claims from their opponents are interpreted. on the texts of the sermon on the mount grotius remarks in general that christ demands more patience than the old testament law and that the answer to injustice should not always be retribution. however, this is not applicable to serious types of injustice. grotius pays special attention to the commandment to love your enemy in the sermon on the mount. th is does not exclude death penalty or war in his .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – lwp , i. . . - (st. matthew : , ). lwp , i. . . - (romans : - ). lwp , i. . . ( corinthians : ). lwp , i. . . (ephesians : ). lwp , i. . . (james : ). lwp , i. . . (st. matthew : ). lwp , i. . . . lwp , i. . . . view, having regard to the commandment of neighbourly love in the old testament (understood by him as love for the members of your own people), which did not exclude the punishment of criminals. as a consequence the extension of the concept of neighbour and by that the commandment of char- ity to all men does not exclude the punishment of evildoers. also god’s love does not exclude his wrath. next to the sermon on the mount grotius discusses the apostolic epistles. th e admonishment in paul’s epistle to the romans not to return evil for evil and to give place to god’s wrath should not be understood as a prohibition to impose the death penalty or to wage a just war. it only excludes private revenge. nor is the text in his second epistle to the corinthians, that the weapons of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty through god, according to grotius of any avail, since these words refer to a specifi c apostolic power over the church. th e admonishment in the letter to the church of ephesus that they have not to wrestle against fl esh and blood, refers to the spiritual warfare against devilish powers, and not to the struggle of people among each other. furthermore, the passage in the epistle of james where it is said that wars and fi ghtings result from lust provides an explanation of war, but does not prohibit it in general terms. finally grotius refl ects on the words spoken by jesus to peter, that those who take the sword shall perish by the sword. in his view this does not refer to war in general, but to a war between private persons. grotius fi nds support for his view in the tradition of the early church. th e arguments against all use of force also derived from the earliest tradi- tion of the church are not convincing in his opinion, because they originate from some authors, like tertullian, but do not represent the offi cial position of the church. furthermore, he submits that the opposition to military ser- vice in the early days of christianity was not so much rooted in a rejection of warfare as such, but related to special circumstances, such as the obligation to take an oath referring to roman idols. finally, he held that the pacifi sm of the early christians was the expression of a life in accordance with the divine .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – admonishments for a life of a superior quality, without being a binding prescript. th is approach is according to our author confi rmed by church practice, which never refused baptism to soldiers, nor ever excommunicated them, and by church fathers and councils. only under special circumstances and in respect of church offi cials did the early church reject the military service. summarizing we conclude that grotius’s views confi rms the justifi cations of warfare that were developed within christendom, certainly after constantine, next to and in opposition of pacifi stic views. his opinions are similar to those of john calvin, who was to say the least, not grotius’s favourite. grotius was nevertheless familiar with his commentaries on the bible and used them for his studies. nellen tells us that during his imprisonment pending trial in calvin’s commentary on a harmony of the evangelists matthew, mark and luke was one of the books he consulted. in that commentary calvin observed in connection with the verses quoted above from matthew that judges and magistrates are entrusted with the defence of the community, and may therefore restrain the wicked, but that it is the duty of every [ordinary] man to bear patiently the injuries which he receives. as we have seen grotius followed the same interpretation. his views on the just war are similar to those prevailing in the republic the leading circles of which were strongly infl u- enced by calvinism. it is not surprising that a staunch calvinistic, even puri- tan, theologian like godfried udemans, a contemporary of grotius, quotes him with approval in a book published in , which discusses the ethics of warfare from a theological perspective. erasmus in the prolegomena of th e law of war and peace grotius clarifi es his position towards those who with a reference to christian charity reject all warfare. lwp , i. . . . lwp , i. . . - . see j. bouterse, de boom en zijn vruchten. bergrede en bergrede-christendom bij reformatoren, anabaptisten en spiritualisten in de zestiende eeuw [th e tree and its fruits, sermon on the mount and sermon-on-the-mount christianity of reformers, anabaptists and spiritualists in the six- teenth century], diss. leiden (kampen: kok, ), pp. - . nellen, hugo de groot. een leven, p. . john calvin, commentary on a harmony of the evangelists matthew, mark and luke , (trans- lation william pringle), volume first ( ), reprint (grand rapids, mi: baker book house, ), p. . joris van eijnatten, ‘war, piracy and religion: godfried udemans’s spiritual helm ( )’, grotiana - ( - ), - . .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – he holds these pacifi sts in high regard, but thinks they have gone too far in their criticism of unjustifi ed violence. for sure this high esteem concerns one of the writers mentioned explicitly in this connection, grotius’s compatriot desiderius erasmus (± - ). th is outstanding representative of humanism was an exemplary ideal of scholarship for the intellectual elite of the dutch republic to which grotius belonged. when the latter enters leyden university at the age of eleven, he is welcomed with a poem by dousa who compares the coming student to erasmus. grotius has some congeniality with this irenicist, to whom he in one of his early works refers as an ornament of his country, and someone who after the dark middle ages lit the light. he refers to him as the man who purifi ed theology and praises him for his vir- tues. th is appreciation remains. when grotius in secretly returns to rotterdam for a brief period, his fi rst visit is to the then recently erected statue of erasmus, who was said to be born there. notwithstanding the fact that between the year of erasmus’s death ( ) and grotius’s birth ( ) there is a period of years, it can safely be assumed that the ideas of erasmus were still very much alive in grotius’s days, although many things had changed. during erasmus’s lifetime the professed unity of christendom came under pressure by the emerging reformation. in the days of grotius the division between several christian churches has become a fact of life. sovereign catholic and protestant states coexist, albeit far from peaceful. both erasmus and grotius were confronted with the cruel realities of war and both oppose its machiavellian justifi cation. although erasmus is more critical of warfare than grotius, he is no more than his admirer a pacifi st pure sang. th at appears from the advice erasmus gave at the request of the pope on the latter’s plan to commence a war against venice. th ere are in fact two advices. in the fi rst he advises against waging such a war. in the second he indicates the circum- stances under which such a war could be justifi ed. th is last advice was heeded by the pope. th is second advice proves that under the circumstances erasmus accepted warfare, notwithstanding the fact that it was it was clear that he preferred the fi rst one. lwp , prol. . nellen, hugo de groot. een leven, p. . in his parallelon republicarum, see johannes trapman, ‘grotius and erasmus’, in hugo grotius th eologian. essays in honour of g.h.m. posthumus meyjes , ed. by henk j. nellen and edwin rabbie (leiden: brill, ), pp. - , at pp. - and also j. trapman, het land van erasmus (amsterdam: balans, ), pp. - , at p. . nellen, hugo de groot. een leven, pp. - . see g.j. de voogd, erasmus en grotius (leiden: nederlandsche uitgeversmaatschappij, ), p. and trapman, het land van erasmus, pp. - . .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – see for an english translation the online library of liberty: http://oll.libertyfund.org/ index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfi le=show.php% ftitle… . it is also included in john p. dolan, th e essential erasmus (new york: new american library, ), pp. - (more a paraphrase). dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. . quotation from the english translation in the online library of liberty: http://oll.liberty- fund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfi le=show.php% ftitle… p. . see also dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. th at follows also from his most important writing on the legitimacy of warfare, ‘ complaint of peace ’, published in . in this pamphlet against war peace is introduced as a personifi ed character, who complains that she is nowhere welcome in the world of human beings. it is completely diff erent in the world of animals, plants and even not-living nature. storks are examples of love in the family, the vine embraces the elm and a loadstone attracts iron and holds it fast in its embrace. but not only nature teaches us peace. much more important for christians is the teaching of christ, which should lead to peace. peace has to observe that that is an illusion: (…) when i also hear the title of christian added to the name of man, i fl y with additional speed, hoping that with christians i may build an adamantine throne, and establish an everlasting empire. but here also, with shame and sorrow, i am compelled to declare the result. among christians, the courts of justice, the pal- aces of princes, the senate-houses and the churches, resound with the voice of strife, more loudly than was ever heard among nations who knew not christ. th e situation among christians is therefore a sad one. erasmus confronts them with the mirror of the holy writ and points at the announcement of christ by the prophet isaiah as the prince of peace and the prophecy of the kingdom of peace by the same. he furthermore mentions the apostle paul, who preferred charity to all the other gifts of the spirit of god and who referred to christ as the god of peace and peace of god. th e reference to god in the bible as the god of hosts and the god of vengeance is not an argument for warfare. th ese expressions should be interpreted allegorically according to erasmus. he also remarks that there is a big diff erence between the god of the jews and the god of the christians, although god in his essence is one and the same. th is rather obscure passage does not prevent erasmus to derive arguments from the old testament in order to defend his message of peace. isaiah has been mentioned already. he further refers to the fact that not the warrior david, but his son solomon, the prince of peace, was permitted to build the temple. .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – see for the references to the bible dolan, th e essential erasmus, pp. - . j. huizinga, erasmus, (rotterdam: donker, ), p. . see also dolan, th e essential erasmus, pp. - . dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. . th e quotation is from st. matthew : . dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. . dolan, th e essential erasmus, pp. - . dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. . th is solomon was in erasmus’s eyes the type of christ, the son of god, who came to reconcile the world with his father. when christ was born angels sang of peace. he addressed his followers with words of peace and instructed them to love one another and to live in peace even with enemies and strangers. erasmus concludes that in all of scripture, in both the old and the new testament, peace and concord are dominant themes. he is appalled by the fact that christians were waging war against each other, strongly sup- ported by the clergy. erasmus abhorred of the performance of pope julius ii ( - ), whose entry as military commander in bologna on november th , he witnessed. peace wonders how it is possible to preach christ and at the same time praise war. how is it possible to pray the lord’s prayer while slaughtering your fellow christians? praying: ‘ forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ’, while murdering your brother makes no sense. th e unity in christ should be much more important than the diff erences in nationality, which too often lead to enmity. notwithstanding what has been said so far erasmus is aware that sometimes war (between christians) cannot be avoided. it is then important to conduct the war in such a way that the calamities fall upon those who gave the occasion and not on the farmers and the ordinary people. he also provides for recom- mendations how to prevent war as much as possible. kings should betroth their children to somebody within their own realms or otherwise exclude them from succession, in order to prevent dynastic confl icts. borders have to be determined by lasting covenants. th e only interest of kings should be the well-being of the public. th ey should not make long trips nor transgress the borders of their kingdom. when it comes to the question of waging war they better consult old men of integrity and war should only be entered into with the consent of the people. sometimes war can be avoided by ‘buying’ peace. erasmus urges the clergy not to countenance war and to refuse to bury those slain in the battle in consecrated ground. erasmus’s judgment on wars in protecting christians against invading bar- barians is diff erent. he admits that it is to be preferred to persuade turks to adopt the christian religion by friendly treatment, teaching and the example .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – see erasmus, on the war against the turks ( de bello turcico), in: erika rummel (ed.) th e erasmus reader (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - and dolan, th e essential erasmus, p. . huizinga, erasmus, p. . r. fruin, een onuitgegeven werk van hugo de groot [an unpublished work of hugo grotius], in robert fruin’s verspreide geschriften, vol. , ed. by p.j. blok, p.l. muller en s. muller (th e hague: nijhoff , ), pp. - , at p. . of an innocent life. if that is however not successful, then the objections against an inevitable warfare are not as strong as in the case of war within christendom. to conclude, peace urges the reader to examine his own intentions. he points at the corruption of our earthly existence. princes, priests, theolo- gians, magistrates and all christians are admonished to listen to the voice of christ the king. huizinga observed that ideas of erasmus infl uenced william of orange and especially the leading urban magistrates in the dutch republic. according to this historian this appears from the fact that the history of the netherlands is less sanguinary and cruel as compared to neighbouring countries. th e ques- tion is whether this should be seen as exclusively the fruit of the moderate pacifi sm of erasmus. in what follows it is suggested that we can point at another source. th e anabaptists according to the historian fruin, the ‘rediscoverer’of grotius’s commentary on the law of prize and booty , the latter was also confronted with a christian pacifi sm of a more radical nature when he as a young lawyer in was asked by the voc (th e united east india company) to justify afterwards the sei- zure of the portuguese carrack, the santa catarina , by an amsterdam fl eet under the command of jacob van heemskerck. th e occasion was supposed to be the conscientious objections of inter alia anabaptist stockholders against warfare and robbery. we are told by fruin that some of them gave their share in the spoils to the poor and that others sold their shares and by that left the voc. he wonders why in the literature of those days there are no traces of these objections. in my view this is not that strange, having regard to the fact that for the anabaptists of the seventeenth century separation from this world in general and from political life in particular was an important tenet of faith. a public discussion on the legitimacy of warfare or the right to capture does .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – quoted by fruin in footnote in fruin, een onuitgegeven werk , p. . martine julia van ittersum, profi t and principle. hugo grotius, natural riights th eories and the rise of dutch power in the east indies ( - ) (leiden: brill, ), pp. - . van ittersum, profi t and principle , p. . manicheism mixes elements of the old dualistic persian religion with christianity. hugo grotius, commentary on t he law of prize and booty, commentary on the law of prize and booty, edited and with an introduction by martine julia van ittersum, (indianapolis: liberty fund, ), p. . psalm : . not fi t such an approach; withdrawal from the voc in case of conscientious objections does. a number of anabaptists established under the protection of king henry iv, a peaceful counterpart of the voc in france, eventually with- out success. in a briefi ng from the french ambassador at th e hague the initia- tor pieter lijntgens is described as a fort anabaptiste’ [who] ‘improuve toute sorte de port d’armes, soit off ensives soit défensives, et principalement les combats et prises qui se sont faites par les fl ottes de ce pays sur les portuguais. it should be added that van ittersum recently raised strong objections to fruin’s thesis. she refers to the fact that pieter lijntgens or the mennonites or anabaptists as such were never mentioned by grotius. moreover, she is convinced that lijntgens ‘was a rather unscrupulous character, whose alleged mennonite sympathies did not preclude a serious involvement in arms trade.’ all this does not exclude, however, that the reasoning in grotius’s commentary on the law of prize and booty should be understood against the background of the pacifi st ideas of the mennonites, whatever the other interests at stake in the santa catarina case. it may on the other hand of course, lead us to doubts as to the moral integrity of lijntgens. history, unfortunately, gives us many examples of people who do not always practice what they preach. in his commentary on the law of prize and booty grotius opposes pacifi st views vehemently and with certain indignation. he does indeed not mention the mennonites or anabaptists explicitely but it is in my view rather obvious, having regard to the religious climate in the dutch republic in the early sev- enteenth century that he has these pacifi st protestants in mind. he compares them – not very friendly – with the heretic manicheans , opposed by augustine, and he uses terms like ‘superstition’ and ‘fanatics’. grotius’s pur- pose is not so much to disprove their opinions as well as to strengthen their opponents with a number of arguments mainly derived from the bible. th e anabaptists had not many adherents in the leading circles in which grotius participated. th ey were in general the ‘ quiet in the land ’ , who purposively .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – briefwisseling van hugo grotius , vol. , [correspondence of hugo grotius], ed. by paula witkam (th e hague: martinus nijhoff , ), pp. - . hereafter: bw . bw , pp. - . th e editor of this volume of his correspondence did not fi nd indica- tions for this. s. groenveld, j.p. jacobszoon en s.l. verheus, wederdopers, menisten en doopsgezinden in nederland - (zutphen: walburg pers, ) , p. . o.h. de vries, leer en praxis van de vroege dopers uitgelegd als een theologie van de geschie- denis [doctrine and praxis of the early anabaptists interpreted as a theology of history] diss. utrecht, (leeuwarden: dykstra, ), passim, and roland h. bainton , christian attitudes toward war and peace , (nashville: abingdon, ), pp. - . refrained from politics and primarily devoted themselves to trade, industry and farming. later on in his life grotius comes again across anabaptist ideas on the legitimacy of warfare. in he receives a letter of an acquaintance, nicolaas de bye, who addresses grotius as ‘waerde neeff ’ (dear cousin). th is nicolaas de bye tries to refute grotius’s thesis in th e law of war and peace , that under conditions christians are allowed to wage war, with numerous biblical arguments. in a letter to his brother willem, grotius presumes that de bye is a mennonite (by which name anabaptists were known in the netherlands). th e arguments used by him in any case fi t the anabaptist theology. from his letter to willem it can be derived that grotius has become gentler towards the adherents of anabaptist pacifi sm as compared to his indig- nation in his commentary on the law of prize and booty. time has come to explore more in depth the backgrounds of this pacifi sm. th e anabaptist movement can be seen as the most radical branch of the reformation, which developed next to and gradually also in opposition to lutheranism and calvinism. its cradle can be found in switzerland at the beginning of the sixteenth century. it spread over europe and via emden it also reached the low countries, where it found many followers. around they amounted to % of the population of the dutch republic. th e anabaptist movement refers to a great variety of theological opinions. some common tenets make it possible to characterise this movement, however, as opposed to both catholicism and other protestant denominations. th e fi rst point is that anabaptists stress that the coming of christ meant a new phase in god’s history with mankind. as a consequence not every- thing that was permitted or commanded under the old testament dispensa- tion was applicable to a member of the christian church. th e majority of the anabaptists thought that as a consequence participation in the govern- ment or the use of the sword could not be defended with arguments derived from the old testament. for followers of christ the use of the worldly sword .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – hans j. hillerbrand, ‘an early anabaptist treatise on the christian and the state’, mennonite quarterly review , ( ), pp. - in h.w. meihuizen, menno simons,, haarlem , p. . st. john : - . st matthew : . is excluded. in an early anabaptist pamphlet we read that they acted like the early christians from the time of the apostles till constantine, who did not participate in government nor used the sword. it is furthermore important to stress the anabaptist view of the church. th is is seen as a visible community of true believers, who entered therein voluntarily and were baptised after a personal confession of faith. th is is diffi cult to reconcile with the idea of an established church or a people’s church. th e government should not interfere in the aff airs of the church, while the latter should not avail itself of political power for its purposes. th e frisian anabaptist reformer menno simons held already in , referring to the bible, that political power should not be used to protect the true faith: ‘… christ jesus with his strong word and holy ghost is the saviour and protector of his church or realm, and not the emperor, king or whatever worldly power in eternity.’ th e stress is on the separation between church and state, and also between the church of the elect and society as such. being in the world but not ‘ of the world ’ is taken very seriously. anabaptists also understand the commandment in the sermon on the mount, not to swear at all, in a literal sense and refuse to take an oath. with a direct reference to texts in the new testament they further reject par- ticipation in the use of violence by the government, both in the fi eld of justice and in the military. in one of the oldest documents of anabaptist doctrine, drafted by swiss anabaptists in , the brüderliche vereinigung or the schleitheim confession of faith, we fi nd these tenets exemplifi ed. from article on the separation of the church from this world we quote the following: th ereby shall also fall away from us the diabolical weapons of violence – such as sword, armor, and the like, and all of their use to protect friends or against ene- mies – by virtue of the word of christ: ‘you shall not resist evil.’ and in article , on the use of the sword, we read: we have been united as follows concerning the sword. th e sword is an ordering of god outside the perfection of christ. it punishes and kills the wicked and guards and protects the good. in the law the sword is established over the wicked for punishment and for death and the secular rulers are established to wield the same. but within the perfection of christ only the ban is used for the admonition .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – translation by john howard yoder in: th e legacy of michael sattler, herald press, . see also members.iquest.net/~jswartz/schleitheim/- j. bouterse, de boom en zijn vruchten, p. . meihuizen, menno simons , pp. - and - ; m.c. postema, het spoor van menno simonsz’ gedachten, [th e track of menno simonsz’ thoughts] (kampen: kok, ), pp. - . th e mennonite encyclopedia , vol. , scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, ), pp. - . j.h. huizinga, nederlands beschaving in de e eeuw [dutch civilization in the seventeenth century] (groningen: noordhoff , ), pp. - . and exclusion of the one who has sinned, without the death of the fl esh, simply the warning and the command to sin no more. th e separation between the church and the world entails diff erent roles. for a christian living in the perfection of christ the use of the sword is excluded in all circumstances. inside the church only the ban may be used. in society as such the position is diff erent. th e legitimacy of the use of violence by the worldly government as an order outside the perfection of christ is recognized. it is a ‘two kingdoms’ doctrine in its most radical form. a few decades later we fi nd in anabaptist circles in the low countries ideas similar to those of the swiss brethren. th eir leader was the already mentioned menno simons ( - ), the former priest of the village of witmarsum in frisia. anabaptists are therefore both in and outside the netherlands also known as mennonites. menno simons taught his followers obedience to the government as a divine institution. for a christian the use of the sword is however excluded. menno’s followers are allowed to battle only with the ‘spiritual sword’, that is the bible. th ey have to submit to oppression and persecution and endure this in patience. menno simons strongly condemned the anabaptists who with violence tried to establish the kingdom of god on earth in münster, an experiment which was brought to an end by force in . th e anabaptist defenselessness is an article of faith in the so called dordrecht confession of faith which was adopted on april st , by frisian and flemish preachers. after recognition of the government as ordained by god to punish the evil and protect the good, follows the rule for christians: not to oppose an enemy with the sword and not render evil for evil, but rather turn the other cheek. following jesus’ example they should suff er without resistance and rather fl ee. th eir duty is to pray for their enemies, and seek their well-being, everything in obedience to christ. th at non-resistance and enemy-love was not only preached but also practised is illustrated by a story told by huizinga on a certain dirk willemsz. van asperen, an anabaptist believer, who rescued his persecutor from being drowned under the ice. he was nevertheless arrested and burned at the stake. .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – bw , p. . bw , p. . bw , p. . bw , pp. and . lwp , ii. . . and . lwp , ii. . . th e reference is to st. matthew : and . lwp , ii. . . ; bw , p. . th e anabaptist vision on warfare is elaborated in the letter referred to above, which grotius received from de bye. he submits that the right to wage war has expired after the coming of christ. in an extensive reasoning he refutes grotius’s twelve arguments in th e law of war and peace which purport to show that the right to wage war has not been abolished completely at the coming of christ. it is relevant to mention a few examples from de bye’s let- ter. he refers for example to the argument used by grotius derived from the admonishment of the apostle paul to pray for those in power. de bye com- ments that this does not imply that these rulers were christians or that kings converted to christianity remained kings. moreover, the commandment to pray for the government does not mean that it acts in accordance with god’s will. de bye strongly underlines that behaviour in the community of christians should diff er radically from that in the world. he is not impressed by examples in the bible of government offi cials who converted to christianity. it is indeed not stated that they quitted their position in the army or as a proconsul, but at the same time it is not indicated that they did not quit. th erefore these instances cannot be used. it is remarkable that de bye sometimes fi ghts grotius with his own arms, if this metaphor is appropriate in this connection. de bye refers to some passages in th e law of war and peace and other writings that show a certain affi nity of grotius with anabaptist ideas. an example is a place in chapter of book ii, where grotius discusses the right of the apostles to judge members of the church. according to grotius that judgment should not be applied by means of sword or rod, but with the word of god. grotius adds in this connection the word of christ that his kingdom is not of this world. de bye further refers to the fact that grotius discourages a true christian to accept a public offi ce which obliges him to judge on life or death, as if he were god. has not christ warned us not to judge others, for with the measure we mete we shall be measured. grotius has also referred himself to matthew : and to underline that we are obliged to forgive those who have trespassed against us. de bye addresses also elaborately the arguments brought forward by his ‘cousin’ not to enter into war too rapidly, even if the war as such is legitimate. th e exhortations .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – lwp , ii. . . ; bw , p. ; grotius refers to ephesians : . j.th . de visser, kerk en staat [church and state] vol (leiden: sijthoff , ), pp. - ; s.l. verheus, ‘beleden vrede – omstreden vrede. het dopers vredesgetuigenis’, in: wederdopers, menisten, doopsgezinden , ed. by groenveld, pp. - . made in that connection to forgive because we have been forgiven by god in christ , are in agreement with the thinking of grotius’s opponent. finally, de bye comments on grotius’s observation that the use of violence is compat- ible with the biblical commandment to live an honest and virtuous life. in de bye’s view this cannot be reconciled with his ‘cousin's’ statement that to refrain from war refl ects more holiness than waging a just war. in conformity with their theological tenets, the anabaptists did not try to infl uence the politics of the dutch republic with their pacifi sm. th ey only requested to be exempted from bearing arms. th is, together with their refusal to take oaths or to participate in public offi ces, caused problems of diff erent degrees in the several provinces. gradually the anabaptists obtained, also thanks to the interference of the stadholders william of orange and maurits, exemption of these duties, which were incompatible with their consciences. th e anabaptist had in general no objections to paying additional taxes instead. in the same line they sometimes had no problems to participate in the build- ing of infrastructure for the defense. some of them interpreted their pacifi stic principle in a very narrow sense. an example is the mennonite jan adriaensz. leeghwater, who as an expert on drainage was prepared to inundate the land surrounding s’hertogenbosch during the siege of this city by stadholder frederik hendrik in . comparison we now come to a comparison between the diff erent christian thinkers on war and peace: grotius, erasmus and the anabaptists. to begin with it is clear that all share an important common frame of refer- ence: the bible. its authority as divine revelation is accepted by all. th ey also have in common that they like to refer to the ‘golden age’ of early christianity. grotius and erasmus build on the tradition of the church as it appears in the writings of the church fathers and the councils, in other words the ‘offi cial’ church history. th e anabaptists keep the offi cial tradition more at a distance. th eir ideal is the new testament model, while an important part of the post- biblical tradition, especially the unhappy intertwinement between church, power and violence after constantine is rejected. th eir history fi ts in the line .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – e.h. broadbent, th e pilgrim church (southampton: pickering and inglis, ; st ed. ). of the christian currents that developed outside the institutional framework of the church. th ey can be characterized as a kind of (forced) ‘underground’ movements, which came to the surface in the days of the reformation. th is is the background of a crucial diff erence as the theological frame- work of interpretation of biblical and church historical sources between, on the one hand grotius and erasmus, and on the other the anabaptists. grotius and erasmus share the ideal of a whole europe encompassing christen- dom. erasmus aims at the prevention of a realization of the schism within christendom, while grotius, who lived a generation later and faced the fac- tual disruption of unity, tries to unite the christian church again. th is becomes even his major objective in the last part of his life. both erasmus and grotius assume the great majority of the peoples of europe to be christians and more specifi cally that those who are part of the government could be addressed as such. solemn titles as the ‘most christian king of france and navarre’ are taken seriously by them. th ose in government and their subjects are by means of their infant baptism part of the corpus christianum . church membership and citizenship almost coincide. th at explains the indignation of both authors when confronted with the fact that christian governments and subjects are estranged from the christian message of peace. all this, notwithstanding the fact that both erasmus and grotius where in theological terms in a sense more or less outsiders, having regard to their supra-confessional points of view of the christian doctrine. th e mindset of the anabaptists is completely diff erent. th ey look upon the christian community as an island in a non-christian society. only those who have professed their personal faith belong to that community, which is visualized in the believer’s baptism. instead of the coales- cence of church and society there is the chosen isolation from society and its institutions, in the fi rst place the government. th e quest for ruling the world has been replaced by the urge to separate from the world. th is brings us to the attitude vis-à-vis politics. grotius is a full fl edged par- ticipant, not only in political debate, but also in political practice. he is a man of the public offi ce, as is exemplifi ed by the various positions he fulfi lled fi rst in the service of the dutch republic and later on behalf of the swedish kingdom in paris. th e infl uence of his experiences in practice explains the sensitivity to the restrictions reality imposes on the idealism which is displayed in his writings. erasmus is more in the margin of political life. his function as counsellor to the (future) emperor charles v did not give him a lot of political .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am m. de blois / grotiana ( ) – l. de blois and g.h. kramer, kerk en vrede in de oudheid [church and peace in antiquity] (kampen: kok agora, ), pp. - . a.h. haentjes, hugo de groot als godsdienstig denker [hugo grotius as a religious thinker] (amsterdam: ploegsma, ), p. . compare for example: h. mccoubrey, ‘a christian approach to international laws of armed confl ict’, in: paul r. beaumont (ed.), christian perspectives on human rights and legal philosophy (carlisle: paternoster, ), pp. - ; william d. barrick, ‘th e christian and war’, th e master's seminary journal ( ), p. - .; th eo boer, ‘de rechtvaardige oor- log. zoeken naar de zin van een eeuwenoud concept.’ nederlands th eologisch tijdschrift , ( ), pp. - . power. he nevertheless is interested in politics and tries to infl uence both worldly and ecclesiastical authorities. th e anabaptists on the other hand are apolitical. participation in government is excluded for a christian. th eir ideal in this world is to be realized within the christian community. th eir concern is to be exempted from public duties that interfere with their beliefs. apart from that they consider themselves obliged to submit to the powers that are ordained by god. final remarks finally a word on the position of grotius, erasmus and the anabaptists against the background of the ideas within christianity on war and peace in general. it is submitted that erasmus and the anabaptists with their virtual or com- plete rejection of participation in warfare are congenial with many in the early church. de blois and kramer write that until the third century most christians were pacifi sts. th e separation from the world and the literal inter- pretation of the sermon on the mount were crucial for their position. church fathers like origen, tertullian and lactantius seemed to share the same views. th e pacifi st ideas however disappear gradually from the offi cial stands of the institutions of the church, without however vanishing com- pletely. since the reformation they are heard again more frequently. grotius – notwithstanding his preference for the early church – is following newer developments in church history as from constantine. church fathers like ambrose and augustine fi nd theological justifi cations for warfare. popes, councils and the reformers luther and calvin express similar views. both approaches remain visible in the history of christianity until the present day. .indd .indd / / : : am / / : : am << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket true /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends false /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts false /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /pdfx a: ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror false /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox false /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (gwg_genericcmyk) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu <feff c c a f e c f f d > >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice a .. introduction on june the london day of action took place in the `square mile' financial district in london. the day was organized to illustrate how a few financial cen- ters, principally london, new york, chicago, tokyo, hong kong, singapore, and frankfurt, c̀ontrol the planet'. one of the organizing nongovernmental organizations (ngos), corporate watch uk, argued that ` .̀.. capital (and the profit it demands), lies at the root of the world's social and ecological crises. whether it's casualisation in the merseyside docks or rising sea levels in bangladesh, a path can be traced back to the city'' (corporate watch uk, a). the day of action represents the way in which ngo campaigners are increasingly targeting financiers, broadly defined, as a way to change corporate practices and share in the control of development. in their view, ` .̀.. the $millions of capital that can be shifted around at the nod of an analyst provide quite a hefty level for hitting a company where it hurts: on the bottom line'' (corporate watch uk, b). ngos employ these strategies to deal directly with corporations, effectively bypass- ing the state. manheim, a prominent writer on corporate campaigns, claims that these strategies emerged because activists lacked resources to force governments to change public policies ( ). such strategies also fit the emergent form of governance or `regulation' heralded by many `ecological modernization' theorists.( ) for these theo- rists, market dynamics and economic agents are central to ecological restructuring and reform, as are more `̀decentralized, flexible and consensual styles of governance'' an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital jody emel graduate school of geography and george perkins marsh institute, clark university, main street, worcester, ma , usa; e-mail: jemel@clarku.edu received february ; in revised form december environment and planning a , volume , pages ^ abstract. `following the money' has become a popular strategy for many ngos trying to change corporate and institutional practice. individual shareholders, pension funds, banks, and other invest- ors capitalize projects that cause ecological degradation or social injustice. pressuring shareholders to divest, invest responsibly, or encourage executives to alter undesirable practices has become de rigueur for civil-society groups working for social change. such strategies produce value or norm change, greater accountability, activist networks across national boundaries, and improvements in environmental management. disinvestment helped bring down apartheid in south africa. but how far can these `disciplining' strategies go in terms of significantly ameliorating ecological destruction and violations of human rights? i explore this question using the case study of the campaign by friends of the earth against the operations of freeport ^ mcmoran copper and gold inc. in irian jaya (west papua). doi: . /a ( ) mol and sonnenfeld ( , page ) ascribe to ecological modernization theory the following broad perspectives: ``(i) moving beyond apocalyptic orientations to see environmental problems as challenges for social, technical and economic reform, rather than as immutable consequences of industrialization; (ii) emphasizing transformation of core social institutions of modernityöbe it not beyond recognitionöincluding science and technology, production and consumption, politics and governance, and the `market', on multiple scales (local, national, and global); and (iii) position- ing in the academic field distinct from counter-productivity/deindustrialisation, postmodernist/ strong social constructionist, and many neo-marxist analyses''. mailto:jemel@clarku.edu with less top-down, command-and-control regulation. these theorists claim that social movements increasingly are involved in public and private decisionmaking, in contrast to having been limited to the periphery or even outside of such processes and institutions in the s and s (mol and sonnenfeld, , pages ^ ). but how much change can we expect from a reformist process targeting invest- ment? in his analysis of the efforts of friends of the earth (foe) to change the way multilateral banks do business, wapner concludes that, although the world bank has `̀ budged a bit in its commitment to environmental issues'', these measures ``have not made the world bank a model environmental institution'' ( , page ). we know from studies by institutionalists like north ( ) or, perhaps more specifically, by american business and legal historians (bernstein, ; mccraw, ), that public policy and government regulation have improved corporate practices. individuals and corporations learn, cultures change, and exploitative practices are stopped or damp- ened (see, for example, alston et al, ; kuttner, ; roe, ). many companies have become more responsive to shareholder activism. the world's biggest lumber retailer, home depot, for example, decided under pressure from shareholders to stop selling wood products from endangered forests. the disney corporation has com- mitted, under shareholder pressure, to audit its subcontractors around the world for labor issues. nevertheless, the most important objective of a corporation is to maximize profits, usually over the short term. what happens when this raison d'eª tre conflicts with other, socially desirable, objectives? will shareholders be willing to forego dividends to achieve such objectives? will corporate leadership even consider such possibilities? my objective in this paper is to examine, with the aid of a case study, the implica- tions of the strategies environmental ngos are employing to `discipline' corporations financially. foe has been organizing ngo lobbying of multilateral banks and transna- tional corporations (tncs) since at least the early s. their shareholder campaign against freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., a large north american mining company operating primarily in irian jaya, offers a typical natural-resource-based case study of ngos attempting to alter the `bad practices' of a tnc operating `off- shore'. my intent is to illustrate some of the possibilities and limitations of these types of strategies and to provoke questions about the assumption in ecological moderniza- tion theory that existing institutions need only be reformed to reconcile economy, environment, and social justice. the paper is organized as follows. in section , i review some of the reasons why ngos are concerned about corporate power and practice. in section , i look con- cretely at what i am calling financial disciplining strategies and review some on-going examples of these strategies. in section , i turn to a specific case study from the gold- mining industry which involves campaigns by foe and other ngos against freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. and the company's mining operations in papua, or irian jaya, indonesia. in the conclusion, i try to draw out the implications of the particular campaign against freeport and of financial strategies in general, keeping in mind my questions regarding the potential of ecological modernization. why corporate campaigns? concerns about the economic, political, environmental, and social consequences of large corporations have existed for more than a century in the united states. envi- ronmental activists in the s and s focused campaigns upon corporations and industry sectors, both domestic and transnational. consumer-based ngos conducted boycotts against infant-formula companies that targeted third world mothers in their advertising. there were campaigns against dole, united fruit, `ma bell', and many j emel others perceived to have violated desirable principles of justice and morality. similarly, in the late th and early th centuries, considerable political debate occurred regard- ing corporate practices, often resulting in government regulation. antitrust, securities, banking, labor, consumer protection, the environment, and health and safety all were areas of regulation that focused on the responsibilities and obligations of corporations. currently, corporations are the targets of campaigns because of corruption, power concentration, and lack of transparency or accountability in decisionmaking. columnists mokhiber and weissman ( ), noting that fifty one of the biggest one- hundred economies in the world are corporations, argue that the multinational corporation is the `̀ most powerful institution of our time'' and that it dominates not only global economics, but politics and culture as well.( ) the world trade organiza- tion, the north american free trade agreement, and the proposed multilateral agree- ment on investment enhance the rights of investors, increase the flows of foreign direct investment (fdi), and increase the power of tncs without addressing many of the controversial and harmful implications. in the view of foe, a major corporate watch- dog, global trade and investment agreements put significant constraints on the ability of governments to regulate fdi operations, and introduce and implement minimum environmental and social standards. franco, a writer for foe, observes, `̀... opposition to these global trends creating an `all rights and no responsibilities' economy has reinvigorated the debate about corporate accountability and has made clear the urgent need for alternative models'' (franco, , page ). the statistics on tncs are noteworthy. us-based tncs account for more than a quarter of us gross domestic product (gdp)ö$ trillion of $ . trillion; top corpo- rations had sales totaling more than the gdp of many countries in (undp, ). general motors was ahead of thailand, norway, saudi arabia, poland, south africa, greece, malaysia, israel, colombia,venezuela, and the philippines. the combined sales of japan's top six sogo shosha, or trading companies, were nearly equivalent to the combined gdp of all of south america (karliner, , page ). eight companies earned more than did half the people in the world combined and nearly % of us-controlled corporations and % of foreign firms doing business in the us paid no federal taxes in , the last year that figures were available (us office of management and budget, courtesy of public education network). the growth of ngos and of people's movements has developed in parallel with the expansion of the business sector. over ngos are now working, in some capacity, for environmental protection (wapner, ). although it is arguable that relations between business and ngos should be ` c̀ast in a permanent confrontation or antagonism'' (ramphal, , page ii), a key message of a survey of world- wide ngos found that tncs `̀ urgently need to reassess their global responsibilities if they are to overcome the prevailing skepticism among ngos'' (enderle and peters, , page iii).( ) although many ngos such as the coalition for environmentally responsible economies of boston and the nautilus institute of san francisco take a less confrontational approach to corporations, others are quite confrontational. corp watch us, an online magazine and resource center designed to provide activists, ( ) these authors have chronicled the crimes of corporations from the price-fixing of archer daniels midland, to blue cross/blue shield of illinois, which pleaded guilty to eight felony counts and will pay $ million after admitting it concealed evidence of poor performance in processing medicare claims for the federal government, to decoster egg farms in maine, iowa, ohio, and minnesota which was slapped with $ million in penalties for violations of numerous health and safety and wage and hour laws (mokhiber and weissman, , page ). ( ) survey results show that despite the rather negative view many ngos have of corporations, ngos do expect to see improvement and more cooperative relations emerge in the future (ramphal, , page ii). an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital journalists, students, teachers, and policymakers with an array of tools to investigate and analyze corporate activity, claims that it is committed to `̀... exposing corporate greed by documenting the social, political, economic and environmental impacts of these transnational giants'' (corp watch us, ). foe acknowledges that it, along with others in what it calls the ``international public interest community'', has ques- tioned the economic and political power of tncs, their influence in public policy, their role in facilitating capital flight, and their respect for environmental protection and basic human and labor rights (franco, , page ). foe is disturbed that as much as one third of the world's fdi is owned by only corporations representing . % of all tncs, and that a total of tncs control % of trade and % of patents worldwide. one third to one half of all fdi flows are directed towards mergers and acquisitions, further concentrating power. they cite the influence that shell has in nigeria and that united fruit had in guatemala in as examples of corporate practice they find objectionable. foe is also concerned that tncs fail to use abroad the same environmental and labor standards they have to use at home and cite a un study of environmental management of tncs that found that only % of the respondents had arrangements between headquarters and subsidiaries to coordinate environmental policies, and concluded that little con- sideration is given by tncs to the international application of their environmental guidelines. clearly, the power of corporations, especially tncs that have the wealth of nations, without the accountability of governments, is reason for concern. as described by the united nations, tncs are the ``productive core of the globalizing world econ- omy'' (karliner, , page ). they mine, refine, and distribute most of the world's oil and gasoline; they extract most of the world's minerals; they grow and distribute much of the world's food; and they hold % of all technology and product patents world- wide. someone is providing funds to these environmentally destructive projects. who are they and what environmental guidelines, if any, are being applied? financial disciplining strategies because of the tremendous surge in capital flows throughout the global financial system and the enormous increase in private fdi over and above public investment within the past few years, a number of environmental ngos have turned to investors or financiers to change corporate behavior and practice. efforts to affect financing include: ( ) leveraging international financial institutions, that is, putting pressure on or negotiating with the us overseas private investment corporation (opic) and other lending agencies such as the world bank, etc; ( ) shareholder activism; ( ) foster- ing socially responsible investment (including approaching fund managers); and ( ) efforts to increase environmental and social disclosure as part of the reporting requirements to regulatory agencies like the us securities and exchange commission (sec). i provide a brief overview of each prior to discussing the case. . setting performance requirements and leveraging international financial institutions holding accountable public institutions like the world bank, the international monetary fund, other multilateral development banks, and opic and its counter- parts around the world, despite their new secondary role (compared with private direct investment), continues to be an important ngo strategy because these public institutions remain important players in international finance. ngos can push for full monitoring and enforcement of existing standards. direct efforts to get the world bank to stop financing mining, logging, or other extractive development, and to get opic to withdraw or refuse to give companies risk insurance, are examples of this j emel strategy, and have been on-going since the s (the case study of freeport ^mcmoran in section provides an illustration). because overall levels of development aid declined one quarter between and alone, while at the same time private investments have increased from $ billion in to $ billion in , ngos and other institutions have begun trying to establish new international codes for private finance (ganzi and tanner, , page ). one example is the `̀ financial institutions initiative on the environment'' from the united nations environment programme (unep). the idea is to foster endorsement of the unep ``statement by financial institutions on the environment and sustain- able development'', which commits signatories to incorporating environmentally sound practices into their operations. a secondary objective of the initiative is to foster private-sector investment in environmentally sound technologies and services. ngo proposals for the global regulation of fdi are another example. the fight against the proposed multilateral agreement on investments (mai) led ngos from a number of countries to develop proposals for a `progressive' global investment regime. ngo groups stalled the mai negotiations and this opened up opportunities for civil-society groups to put forth proposal alternatives. at least five proposals for a global investment regime have been circulated and all proposals develop a framework convention on investment for sustainable development that would guarantee environ- mental protection, adequate social and labor standards, and corporate accountability (franco, , page ).( ) `̀ screening foreign investment'', greenpeace international's list of principles that should be required of foreign investors, states that tncs should adhere to the highest standards and practices of any country in which they operate. foe has issued a list of similar directives and also cosponsors, with the national wildlife federation, the quantum leap project which in began hosting training seminars on international finance. . shareholder activism shareholder activism to achieve `moral' accountability is not newöthe interfaith center on corporate responsibility has been involved in this arena for nearly twenty-five years.within the past ten years, however, this form of activism has increased both in terms of ngo actions and in terms of pension funds and other large investors trying to make corporations more accountable and profitable (charkham and simpson, ; clark, ; roe, ). though shareholder resolutions rarely pass, they can provide leverage at the corporate bargaining table to achieve changes in corporate practice, to get corporations to adopt voluntary codes, to enforce voluntary codes, to pressure companies to adopt independent social and environmental monitoring, and so forth. they are also good advocacy and public-education tools. shareholder resolutions of groups like the interfaith center on corporate responsibility contributed, together with international sanctions and national laws, to forcing many companies to halt their operations in south africa during the apartheid regime (see manheim, ). shareholder activism involves not only ngo investors but also increased activism by large institutional shareholders such as calpers (california public employees retirement system), the florida state board of administration, tiaa ^ cref (teach- ers' insurance and annuity association öcollege retirement equities fund), and the state of wisconsin investment board (opler and sokobin, ). institutional investors have been successful in forcing divestitures, ceo turnover, and change in governance structure in a number of prominent corporations including eastman kodak, general ( ) the un ``code of conduct on transnational corporations'' represented the most advanced step in the direction of a global agreement on corporate behavior. it was rejected because of us opposition. however, see the oecd guidelines for multinational enterprises adopted june and found at http://www.oecd.org/daf/investment/guidelines/mnetext.htm. an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital http://www.oecd.org/daf/investment/guidelines/mnetext.htm motors, ibm, and sears (pound, ). efforts to influence shareholders to vote on particular proxies or to change corporate practices are less about c̀apital' or finance at times than they are about corporate behavior or management practices. however, the assumption is that some of these campaigns and inducements to `greener' or more socially just behavior will affect stock prices in the long run and thereby the economic value of the company.( ) there is evidence that raters of corporate stock do pay attention to some of the proxy fights and we will see that in the case study in the following section. although most proxies request rather small corporate changes (for example, report writing on sensitive subjects), more radical proxies are proposed as well. as you sow is a california-based foundation that works with religious shareholders and others to increase corporate accountability in several areas. the foundation teamed up with the interfaith center on corporate responsibilityö religious institutions and social investors who bring their $ billion in stock to bear on corporate responsibilityö to introduce proxies directed at seventeen companies urging them to stop producing genetically engineered food until more data is available on the potential health and ecological risks (see http://www.asyousow.org/genetic .htm; visited on may ). a similar bold move was made by greenpeace recently when it introduced a resolution at bp amoco's annual shareholder meeting calling for the company to cancel its arctic expansion plans. over . billion shares were voted against the resolution and . billion shares were voted in favor. this . % in favor vote was one of the highest votes for an environmental shareholder ever recorded (see http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/ arctic/media/apr text.htm; visited on june ). . socially responsible investing on april, , six days before the imf and world bank protest in washington, dc, corporate watch us and other ngos in eleven countries, including south africa, ecuador, and pakistan, launched a boycott against world bank bonds. as the world bank raises % of its funds through bonds that are sold to investors on private capital markets, the fact that labor unions, churches, universities, and municipalities own these bonds gives people the power to discipline these institutions (at least in the eyes of corp watch us). several socially responsible investment firms including trillium assets management of boston and progressive assets management of new york have pledged not to buy world bank bonds. in addition, the city of berkeley, california and local of the communications workers of america in san jose, california have passed resolutions to boycott the future purchase of world bank bonds. socially responsible investing is a growing movement in the united states. divest- iture of investments in corporations doing business in south africa was an early and powerful example of the potential of shareholder responsibility. in fact, one of the first social-investment screens to be developed was the sullivan principle screen for com- panies doing business in south africa. the principles served as the index for `good actors' and `bad actors' until institutions and individuals began divesting entirely. now there are many sets of principles, codes of conduct, and social or environmental screens. the number of mutual funds using social or environmental screens increased from in to in and the amount of money invested through social screens is estimated to have increased from $ billion to $ . trillion over the ( ) studies by the investor responsibility research centre (irrc) and vanderbilt university, and by the environment protection agency (epa), show that there is a positive relationship between environmental and financial performance. icf kaiser international, using elements of the irrc's environmental-management data, found that firms making environmental investments that go beyond regulatory compliance will increase shareholder value. j emel http://www.asyousow.org/genetic .htm http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/arctic/media/apr text.htm http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/arctic/media/apr text.htm same period (williams, ). depending upon the source, these funds constitute from % to % of all monies invested in the stock market in the united states. a primary ngo strategy is to approach fund managers directly. a london-based ngo, forest monitor, wrote to individual fund managers to apprise them, from the perspective of financial prudence, of a logging company's egregious and unsustainable practices. a few years ago, the group successfully convinced many money managers to divest from the logging company. according to forests monitor, fund managers appreciated the information and found it easy to drop the company's stock, which typically comprised only a small percentage of their portfolios, and invest elsewhere. this initiative attracted media coverage from the financial times and other interna- tional papers. in the united states, the same effort has been pursued by foe regarding freeport ^ mcmoran's operations in indonesia and the three gorges project in china (franco, ). in canada, british columbia mining watch stopped a mine through this approach (young, , personal interview). by the end of , fifteen mutual funds had pledged to environmental ngos not to invest in mitsubishi unless the firm abandoned its plans for a salt works in mexico near the whale birthing grounds in the gulf of california. efforts to educate, develop, and augment codes of financial conduct have also become more common, directed toward organizations like the world bank, opic, and other multilateral and bilateral funding institutions, as well as private funders. these are nonbinding voluntary rules that define how businesses can become better corporate citizens. the adoption of corporate codes of conduct is no guarantee that businesses will become better citizens, but it does give ngos a platform for monitoring and advocacy. increasing disclosure and augmenting transparency are an important part of socially responsible investing. since the us securities and exchange commission (sec) requires all public securities to be rated by an independent agency, the ratings process is a critical step in project finance. environmentalists and some business people argue that sustainable projects make good financial sense. however, most ratings companies do not take sustainability into account. in , the national resources defense council (nrdc) sued the sec regarding the scope of environmental disclosure that could be required of publicly held companies. as early as , the nrdc petitioned the sec to amend its rules to require additional filings designed to disclose the effect of corporate activities on the environment and upon civil rights. the sec considered the nrdc proposals, along with alternatives, in a rulemaking action and ultimately adopted environmental-disclosure rules which were much more modest than those proposed by the nrdc (see, for example, caron, , and williams, ). . summary this section of the paper was intended to be a brief overview of some of the ways that ngos are attempting to improve corporate social and environmental accountability. there are thousands of ongoing projects that reflect the groundswell of civil society movements to use the market and other related venues to create what ngo represen- tatives consider a more desirable state of affairs. socially responsible investment and corporate accountability are both large growing movements and have received consid- erable attention in the business, political-science, economics, and law literatures. the question of to whom giant corporations are accountable and how much their investors should be involved in their decisionmaking is an old one that has risen again with a vengeance. now we turn to the specific case study to illustrate further the machinations of environmental and other ngos to `discipline' a mining corporation operating an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital in indonesia. the case study shows in more detail shareholder activism and other strategies relative to finance work, and it illuminates the antagonism and truth conflicts between ngos and the corporation. friends of the earth and freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. the case of foe and other ngos campaigning to improve the practices of freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. is one of the earlier and more long-lived examples of the attempts at financial disciplining of a corporation. in the first portion of this section, i provide a short description of the corporation and its history. this is followed by a description of the ngo actions against freeport and the corporation's responses. . background on the corporation freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. is a natural-resource corporation with headquarters in new orleans, louisiana. it has several operations in the united states and a smelter in spain, but its principal operating unit is pt freeport indonesia (pt-fi), the subsidiary of the company that manages the huge grasberg mine in irian jaya. the mine is purportedly the largest gold and third largest copper mine in the world, and freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. is the world's lowest-cost copper producer (freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., ). in , pt-fi reported sales of over . billion pounds of copper and more than . million ounces of gold, placing it among the world's leading producers of both metals (freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., , page ). freeport went to irian jaya in the late s during the early days of the suharto dictatorship (the first contract of work was awarded by the indonesian government in ). irian jaya, the western half of new guinea (an independent nation), had been invaded by suharto's troops and nearly half a million people were killed. the corpo- ration began building the ertsberg mine in and production began in . in , the corporation signed a concession agreement with suharto allowing the company to operate in the ancestral lands of the amungme and komaro people.( ) the current mining contract for grasberg was signed in . it provided a thirty-year mining concession plus two ten-year extensions. by , pt-fi's contracts of work with the government of indonesia covered approximately three million acres. the problems that ngos have with the corporation relate to its treatment of local indigenous people and its environmental effects. the amungme people have consistently resisted the alienation of their communal tribal lands. in a revolt of local indigenous people was put down by a purportedly ruthless military operation called `operasi tumpas' to which freeport allegedly contributed $ million. some claim that thousands of indigenous people were killed (http://www.foe.org/international/ anatomy/multinats.html; visited on june ). the corporation ran into trouble again in when it was accused of participating in human-rights violations com- mitted by the military which is, at least in part, assigned to the territory to protect the mine operations. the australian council for overseas aid (acfoa), a non- governmental consortium concerned with development and human-rights issues, released a report in april that suggested the company turned a blind eye while the indonesian military killed and tortured dozens of native people in and around freeport's . -million-acre concession between june and february (bryce, ). ( ) the ertsberg mine was ready to wind down operations in the mid- s when the company found the grasberg deposit, some . km away. freeport took billion tonnes of ore out of ertsberg, or billion pounds of copper, during its twenty-year life. the company did not have the money for exploration during low copper prices in the s but when metal prices began to rise in ^ , new freeport chief jim-bob moffett revitalized the search. the corporation secured a . million ha expansion in . j emel http://www.foe.org/international/anatomy/multinats.html http://www.foe.org/international/anatomy/multinats.html the roman catholic church of jayapura, in august , published a report supporting many of the contentions of the acfoa report. in , the company made the news again when it was forced to close down as thousands of indigenous people attacked shops, buildings, and vehicles around the freeport concession. various efforts have been made in the us congress to force divestment from indonesia on the basis of their track record of human rights and labor abusesöfreeport has been one of the main lobbyists against these initiatives. environmentalists, both in indonesia and in the united states and elsewhere, have been concerned for years with the amount of sediment discharged to the local river systemörecently approximating tonnes per day.( ) because of the surrounding terrain and the elevation of the mine, the tailings from mining are dis- posed of directly into the ajkwa river. the accelerated sedimentation of the river system has exaggerated braiding of the river, which in turn has led to sheeting over into the neighboring minajerwi river. in , freeport admitted that the flood plain that was created extended over at least a km area of forestland, the traditional habitat of mimika tribal hunter-gatherers who rely on it for wild-growing sago and other food. by , the deposition area (as reported by freeport in its rebuttal to the seattle mennonite church) had grown to nearly km , bounded by two levees. the company claimed that, despite the murkiness of the water (because of the sediment), there was no threat to marine life and the water quality met the standards of the world health organisation (mcbeth, , page ). . ngo action: leveraging public institutions over $ million in world bank guarantees and $ million from opic supported freeport's indonesian operations by . several ngos including the international rivers network, the wahana lingkungan hidup indonesia (walhi), and friends of the earth us, saw these monies as public and not to be used for private gain at the expense of the environment and local peoples. lori udall of international rivers network, in june of , brought indonesian activists to washington, dc where they met harvey himberg, opic director of investment policy and environmental affairs. the subjects of the meeting were freeport's environmental practices and the charges that freeport was responsible for the military attacks on civilians. in october of , four months after meeting udall and the walhi representa- tives, opic terminated the company's political risk insurance, citing concern about the expansion of pt-fi's mining operation and related environmental issues.( ) in a letter dated october, opic told freeport that the mine `̀ had created and continues to pose unreasonable or major environmental, health, or safety hazards with respect to the rivers that are being impacted by the tailings, the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem and the local inhabitants'' (http://www.igc.org/trac/feature/humanrts/cases/in-ziman.html; visited on june ). the company argued that those concerns were unfounded and that opic had no right to terminate the insurance and commenced an arbitration proceeding to require continuation of the insurance. days before the decision was announced, former secretary of state, henry kissinger, a member of the freeport ^ mcmoran board, called the state department to stop the cancellation, according to the los angeles times. the newspaper reported that kissinger and his consulting firm ( ) because the gold and copper constitute so little of the actual mined material, the tailings comprise about % of the mined material. production was at tonnes per day in , tonnes per day in , and it averaged metric tonnes of ore per day in . during the early months of it averaged tonnes per day until the new government stepped in and insisted on a reduction following a tailings dam disaster that killed four people. ( ) when opic made the original agreement with freeport, their production was at tonnes per day. by they were at tonnes per day (and are now at ). an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital http://www.igc.org/trac/feature/humanrts/cases/in-ziman.html received $ from freeport in (chatterjee, , page ). president suharto of indonesia, also made a personal appeal to president clinton when they met at the white house, to no avail. the company also apparently threatened to file a protracted lawsuit against the federal agency if the insurance policy was not reinstated. james woolsey, a former central intelligence agency chief, represented freeport in arbitration proceedings regarding the cancellation. a settlement was reached following the release of an environmental audit of pt-fi's operations. opic agreed to reinstate the insurance coverage through , and pt-fi agreed to create a trust fund that would accumulate $ million over the life of the mine to finance `̀ environmental remediation initiatives'' (freeport-mcmoran `̀ request for no action'', page , letter to the securities exchange commission, december ).( ) the fund was created and the first contribution was made in . later in , however, freeport canceled its insurance policies both with opic and with the world bank's multilateral investment guarantee agency (miga). freeport claimed the monies from the world bank and opic were unnecessary given the magnitude of its operations (it reportedly had over $ . billion invested); however, environmentalists and human- rights activists saw the cancellation as a way to avoid an imminent investigation by the world bank. prior to freeport's cancellation of the public funding, the company offered the world bank officials a free trip to the mine site in the personal jet of ceo jim-bob moffett. the world bank officials declined but twenty-one representatives of major investment companiesöfifteen from the united states, three from england, two from canada, and one from franceöwere taken to the mine site in indonesia and the smelter in spain (chatterjee, , page ). this move on freeport's part was under- taken because the company recognized how damaging the opic cancellation could have been to its public image and its financial ratings. opic had never done such a thing before and its action had a far-reaching impact on private companies. one lawyer claimed that the opic case brought in at least $ million in business for his law firm from companies that wanted to make sure that the environmental aspects of their overseas operations truly met opic standards (chan-fishel, personal interview). foe, walhi, and international rivers network had pressured the public institu- tions to live up to their mandates; freeport evidently decided the accountability and transparency that go along with public funds were not worth the extra trouble. freeport's willingness to shrug off partnership with opic suggests that disciplinary strategies targeted at multilateral lenders will be successful only if corporations have no recourse to other funding. if firms can `opt out', ngos may have to engage in institutional searching to uncover other ways of running around these blockages. in fact, none of the financial disciplining strategies will have much clout where firms raise capital internally. . shareholder activism foe, realizing that freeport could no longer be reached via leveraging public institu- tions, decided to continue its campaign through shareholder action. orchestrated by michelle chan-fishel from foe, now the coordinator of the green investments program, the first action was undertaken by the sisters of charity of the incarnate word and the maryknoll fathers and brothers who filed shareholder proposals ``paint- ing freeport as a menace in indonesia'' (mcmenamin, , page ). this proxy, ( ) in late , freeport voluntarily agreed to have an independent consultant conduct a compre- hensive environmental audit of its irian jaya operations under the supervision of the indonesian environmental protection agency, known as bapedal. with bapedal's approval, the company employed dames and moore. j emel submitted for hearing at the shareholders' meeting, was withdrawn after the company offered to open a dialogue with the religious groups who made the proposals. the dialogue took place and the proposals were withdrawn. but foe was unsatisfied and elected to continue to pressure the company. it was foe's position that freeport and the suhartan government worked in `̀ tandem to displace irianese people, exploit their lands, and forcibly suppress opposi- tion'' (http://www.foe.org/international/anatomy/multinats.html; visited on june ). the ngo was joined in its campaign by project underground, an activist group based in san francisco which aids communities fighting the environmental degradation and human-rights issues associated with natural-resource developmentöprimarily mining and energy. project underground began a media campaign against the corporation in . this involved web-site information, press releases and involvement with some of the people who were engaged in fighting the mine and the corporation's practices locally. reputedly, by , the grasberg mine was producing % of the world's copper. these organizations were not only concerned about the alleged environmental and human-rights violations, they were also appalled at the salary of freeport's ceo, jim-bob moffett. moffett was the tenth most highly paid ceo in the united states in . `̀ looking at it another way'', reported bryce of the austin chronicle, `̀ moffett's pay was nearly three times the total amount that freeport has agreed to pay several thousand amungme tribal members who have been displaced by the company's mining project in indonesia'' (bryce, ). the seattle mennonite church and the sisters of the humility of mary filed a second shareholder resolution on november, . the seattle mennonite church owned shares of freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold class a stock (fcxa) at the time of the filing. the shares were part of a portfolio that were bequeathed to the church. foe identified the church as a shareholder through the vast network of the interfaith center for corporate responsibility. the original two-page resolution made five assumptions about the operating conditions of pt-fi and then proposed four resolutions. the original filing is outlined below: original freeport ^ mcmoran resolution filed november, whereas: since , pt freeport indonesia company (pt-fi), an operating unit of free- port ^ mcmoran copper & gold, inc. (fcx) has been operating on lands traditionally inhabited by indigenous people, especially the amungme and komoro; whereas: pt-fi currently dumps over , tons of mining waste per day into local irian jaya rivers and is considering the expansion of milling operations to exceed , cubic tons per day. according to the overseas private investment corporation ( ), a us govern- ment agency which provided political risk insurance to this operation, the mine ` c̀reated and continues to pose unreasonable or major environmental, health, or safety hazards with respect to the rivers that are being impacted by the tailings, the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem and the local inhabitants''; whereas: pt-fi has attempted to ameliorate the social and environmental damages by proposing the `̀ one percent trust fund offer'' and the establishment of an amungme foundation. but the amungme tribal council (lemasa), representing the indigenous people most affected by pt-fi operations in irian jaya, has issued a resolution ``uncondi- tionally and absolutely'' rejecting these two proposals; whereas: the $ billion class action law suit brought against fcx and freeport-mcmoran inc. by indigenous peoples affected by pt-fi's operations is likewise indicative of local animosity against pt-fi and presents a potential for considerable financial liability; whereas: it is unclear how much environmental liability, cleanup responsibility, and reme- diation cost may exist because pt-fi's environmental audits have not been made public or have been only partially released; an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital http://www.foe./org/international/anatomy/multinats.html resolved: that shareholders request the board of directors of pt-fi to institute a comprehensive review of its indonesian operations and prepare a report to be made available to shareholders by september , and to take steps to: . postpone the expansion of milling operations until a just, accepted, peaceful and permanent resolution of local indigenous concerns can be reached in concensus-based process with all stakeholders. . end company cooperation with the indonesian military as soon as legally possible so that pt-fi does not provide food, transportation or shelter to indonesian military personnel; and urge indonesian military to drastically reduce military presence in and around pt-fi's contract of work area. . publicly release in their full entirety the labat anderson social audit, the march dames and moore environmental audit, and all other environmental audits on the indonesian operations from the last five years. . allow independent environmental monitoring of pt-fi operations and local river and ecosystems by non-governmental organizations. submitted by seattle mennonite church, n.e. th street, seattle, wa november following the filing of the proxy with the firm and the securities and exchange commission (sec), freeport had to decide whether to include the document with its proxies to be mailed at least thirty days before the annual meeting. a company can exclude a resolution for a number of reasons as specified by the sec (see http:// www.sec.gov for particulars). freeport did request `̀ no-action'' claiming that the men- nonite church was misinformed and `̀... appears to have accepted at face value the propaganda of certain activist groups''. freeport argued that the resolution was `̀... in many respects false and misleading, ... in certain respects beyond the power of the company to effectuate, ... in certain respects moot and ... deals in certain respects with matters relating to the ordinary business operations of the company'' (mcmillan, , page ). in particular, the company objected to the church's use of the term ``dumping''as it `̀ creates the false impression that the method used by pt-fi to dispose of tailings is improper, illegal, irresponsible or immoral and that it is hazardous to the indigenous population''. the company claimed that it was subject to extensive regulation by the indonesian environmental authorities and that ``pt-fi's tailings management program is the most appropriate method of tailings disposal available under the circumstances'' (page ). freeport also objected to the statement about the opic finding:`̀ the statement presumes without any factual basis that positions taken by opic prior to a recently settled dispute with the company are still held by opic'' (pages ^ ). another objection was lodged against the statement that lemasa represents the indigenous people most affected by pt-fi's operations in irian jaya. the company letter stipulated that the kamoro people, who are affected downstream by the company's actions, are not represented by lemasa but by another group with whom they shared good relations. the company also denied that the class action suit was a serious consideration as the class had not been certified and both cases were likely to be dismissed (which they later were). the final statement that the company considered misleading was the statement that pt-fi's liability for environmental cleanup and remediation was `̀ unclear'' because pt-fi's environmental audits `̀ have not been made public or have been only partially released''. the company argued that it accounts for mine closure and remediation expenses in accordance with generally accepted account- ing principles (page ). these principles require that a loss contingency be recognized only when it is probable that it will be incurred and the amount can be estimated with reasonable accuracy. prior to , the company `̀... did not establish a reserve for mine closure or reclamation expenses because the foregoing tests were not met. mine closure was too far in the future... for the cost to be estimated with reasonable accuracy'' j emel http://www.sec.gov http://www.sec.gov (approximately thirty to forty years). this was also because there were no reclamation laws in indonesia that the company needed to take into consideration. freeport considered that postponement of expansion until an accepted peaceful, permanent resolution of local indigenous concerns could be reached was beyond its power to effectuate. also beyond its power was a shift in the company's cooperation with the indonesian military. because of the remote location it had to provide food and shelter to the security forces. furthermore, the presence of the military in irian jaya was determined by the indonesian government and beyond freeport's control. finally, freeport claimed that the timing of milling expansion was ordinary busi- ness of the company and that stockholders should not dictate to the board of directors how the business and affairs of the company should be managed, `̀... including how the company should apply its resources, and whether it should continue, discontinue or modify a planned and partially implemented expansion of its current business operations'' (page ). the sec, after considering the statements both of freeport and of the church, decided that the resolution was not beyond the power of the company to effectuate, not moot, and not ordinary business; the sec did decide that some of the language should be revised to avoid what could be construed as false and misleading in the original proposal. the church changed ``dumps'' to `̀ discharges'' and `̀ mining waste'' to `̀ tailings''. further- more, the statement about the $ billion lawsuit was dropped because the statement that this might represent considerable liability was thought by the sec to be misleading. along with the final proposal by the church, freeport submitted a statement of opposition itemizing its objections to the proxy (as specified above). the statement of opposition was submitted by the board of directors and encouraged shareholders to vote against the church's proxy. freeport argued that the proxy proposal would be a `̀disservice to the company, its stockholders and the people of irian jaya, as compliance with the proposal would substantially damage the company's future operating results and stockholder values, would harm its relations with indonesian authorities, and would reduce employment opportunities in irian jaya'' (statement by the board of directors in opposition to the stockholm proposal, , page ). the board argued that it could not reduce military authority in the region because that was the province of the indonesian government and would jeopardize the safety of company employees and local citizens. the seattle mennonite church further rebutted the board's statement. the rebuttal included several appendices including reports of human-rights violations, written by the head of the catholic diocese office in jayapura. the church stipulated that independent environmental audits had been conducted other than those that the company made public, and defended their efforts to speak with the company before- hand (which the company had asserted the church had avoided). the company was then required by the sec to say that its dialogue with the shareholders was not fruitful, rather than saying that the shareholders refused to meet with the company (http:// www.foe.org/international/shareholder/fights.html; visited on june ). the proxy did not pass; it received only . % of the vote. freeport itself owned a number of shares, as did board members, and those were used to vote against the proposal.( ) because the favorable vote did not reach %, the proxy cannot be refiled. ( ) other us institutional investors included j p morgan and co., new york state common retirement system, ibm retirement funds (equity), mass mutual life insurance, harvard uni- versity, oppenheimer and co., first interstate bank corporation, and scudder, stevens and clark but the voting orientation of these investors is unknown. generally, the big institutional investors do not attend the annual shareholder meetings. they vote by mail and usually in favor of the management, although the latter is changingöespecially in the case of organized public pension funds and universities (chan-fishel, personal interview). an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital http://www.foe.org/international/shareholder/fights.html http://www.foe.org/international/shareholder/fights.html despite the low vote, foe considers the freeport campaign to have yielded some positive results (chan-fishel, personal interview). freeport is taking stakeholder involvement much more seriously, a leader of lemasa was appointed to the board of commissioners of pt-fi, freeport has met foe and other ngos outside of share- holder meetings, and ngo input was sought during the process of undertaking another environmental audit. freeport also developed a reinvigorated human-rights policy. financially, the effects of the `negative' public relations campaign are difficult to estimate. from through to , foe sent quarterly reports on the company's political risk to all buy-and-sell side gold-mining analysts. standard & poor analysts telephoned foe before they did freeport's report during that period. businessweek placed freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. lowest in the standard & poor's index for with a . % decline in share price. usa today ranked freeport ^ mcmoran's stock the fifth worst for because the stock was worth . % less than a year before. by comparison the standard & poor's index as a whole rose by . %. the company lost something in the region of $ billion in market capital- ization in the midst of the bull market. but some of this was because gold prices plunged from close to $ per troy ounce in to below $ per troy ounce in november of , a . -year low, and copper prices hit a three-year low from us $ . a pound in to cents in late . foe recently reported standard & poor's downgrade of the company's credit rating and preferred stock. the downgrade reflected political instability in indonesia, espe- cially in irian jaya, and the $ billion lawsuit against freeport filed by yosepha alomang, a papuan civilian who was ostensibly tortured by the indonesia military and kept in a freeport container for over a month (http://www.foe.org/pressreleases/ freeport/index.html; visited on june ). according to the news release on the downgrade, freeport had promised the shareholders a year ago to allow independent human-rights and environmental investigations of the grasberg mineöneither of which had happened. in general, however, freeport's indonesian profits are up. in the company announced total revenues that rose by % over to $ . billion `̀ buoyed by record sales volumes from pt freeport indonesia and slightly higher average market prices for copper, offset partially by lower average market prices for gold'' (freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., , page ). net income was approximately % below ; however, cash flow was almost $ million higher than in . the higher cash flow was used to pay down $ million of outstanding debt and redeemable preferred stock and to reinvest $ million in capital assets. this high cash flow allowed for considerable flexibility to invest in exploration opportunities and operating assets, and to reinvest in the company. they bought fcx common stock in the open marketö . million shares of class a and class b common stock for $ . million (an average of $ . per share) and during through the date of the annual report, they purchased . million shares for $ . million (an average of $ . per share). since the repurchase programs began in , the company has purchased a total of . million common shares, a % reduction in the . million common shares available for purchase during the period, for a total of $ . billion (an average of $ . per share). the company now has million common shares outstanding with approxi- mately . million shares remaining available under the share purchase programs (freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., , page ). in the end, then, freeport has made some marginal adjustments to its ecological and social practices. the corporation has also made efforts to relieve itself of share- holder and other public pressure. these actions suggest that even failed shareholder j emel http://www.foe.org/pressreleases/freeport/index.html http://www.foe.org/pressreleases/freeport/index.html resolutions may have some effect in constraining or shaping future actions by the company. the publicity that the shareholder resolution garnered in the freeport situation undoubtedly increased public scrutiny and demanded increased accountability. the question is whether these marginal improvements are enough: enough to achieve ethical economic practices, enough to achieve any form of truly sustainable develop- ment, and enough to compensate for the damages done to lives and livelihoods? conclusions it is clear from all of the work that ngos, pension funds, mutual funds, and others are doing that the stakeholder or engaged shareholder concept has taken hold in corporate united states. in essence, the concept is that corporate directors owe a duty to a host of constituencies beyond management and unengaged shareholders: local communities, employees, suppliers, creditors, and socially interested shareholders. the merits of these `financial' strategies are several: ( ) private corporate decisions become some- what more transparent and publicly accountable, ( ) norms or values are established that presumably reduce environmental degradation and human-rights violations, and ( ) ngos can influence tncs and states well beyond their locales. the theory is that companies will be disciplined by the marketplace when they need to raise new capital; but whether this is the case or not is questionable. when the heat is on, corporations can simply repurchase shares; with fewer outstanding shares, less shareholder pressure can be applied. furthermore, raising finance capital is not neces- sarily related to shareholder action. most companies raise investment capital internally and thus, as several writers have pointed out, the stock market is not the primary source of finance (henwood, ). that means stockholder pressure is important enough for companies to pay it some attention, but it is not of tremendous signifi- cance, especially in the absence of a large press campaign or given current public standards for corporations. freeport ^ mcmoran was not the subject of a significant press campaign, a fact that the village voice remarked upon disparagingly in . so what can be expected of these campaigns that are conducted at great expense to ngos, given their scarce resources? the case of freeport ^ mcmoran and foe demon- strates that financial disciplining does elicit some measure of corporate policy change, albeit incremental. disciplining strategies are demonstrably plausible methods to reform the worst corporate social and environmental behavior. methods of stakeholder involvement used to push corporate responsibility have been effective strategies in many cases. and with the increasing number of socially responsible investors and investment opportunities, and increasing pressure on the sec to expand transparency and accountability concepts at the very heart of neoliberal orthodoxyöthe culture of corporate responsibility may be gradually turning toward a greater emphasis on environmental and social justice. this strategy, however, puts an enormous strain on the scant resources of ngos and cannot be expanded without a considerable increase in the capacity of the ngo community. essentially one person, michelle chan-fishel, ran the campaign for friends of the earth. her assessment of financial disciplining strategies as exempli- fied by the freeport case emphasizes their limitations. she argues ``peripherals, like clinics and social services, are okay, but the center, the cake [meaning power sharing], is out of bounds'' (personal interview). the freeport case demonstrates that funda- mental practices like control over decisions about technology choice and the location and timing of investment are unlikely to change. and, basically, good corporate citizenship only takes us so far; it cannot cut too much into profits and it does not significantly reduce the flow of material and energy in the global economy öa flow that is roughly related to resource use and degradation. so while freeport ^ mcmoran an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital may be running an ecologically modernized operation in west papua, the mountain is still coming down. references alston l j, eggertsson t, north d c (eds), empirical studies in institutional change (cambridge university press, cambridge) bernstein m, regulating business by independent commission (princeton university press, princeton, nj) bryce r, , `̀another fine pay day for jim bob: moneybags moffett'' the austin chronicle april caron g a, , `̀ comment, sec disclosure requirements for contingent environmental liability '' boston college environmental affairs law review number charkham j, simpson a, fair shares: the future of shareholder power and responsibility (oxford university press, new york) chatterjee p, , ``the mining menace of freeport ^ mcmoran'' multinational monitor ( ) ^ , http://www.essential.org/monitor/hyper/mm . .html visited on june clark g l, pension fund capitalism (oxford university press, new york) corporate watch uk, a squaring up to the square mile corporate watch uk, cherwell street, oxford ox bg; see also www.corporatewatch.org.uk/publications/squaringup/ intro.html corporate watch uk, b, `̀a day of protest, action and carnival, in financial centres across the globe, on th june '', corporate watch uk, cherwell street, oxford ox bg; see also www.corporatewatch.org.uk/magazine/issue /cw glob .html corp watch us, , po box , san francisco, ca ; see also http://www.corpwatch.org enderle g, peters g, a strange affair? the emerging relationships between ngos and transnational companies pricewaterhouse coopers and the university of notre dame, notre dame, in franco v, , `̀ fdi regulation and corporate accountability: a discussion of policy options'', discussion paper for working group ii. toward a progressive international economy, ^ december, international forum on globalization,washington, dc, http://www.foe.org/ progressive-economy/tncs.html freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., annual report poydras street, new orleans, la freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., annual report poydras street, new orleans, la ganzi j, tanner j, , `̀ global survey on environmental politics and practices of the financial services industry: the private sector'', sponsored by the national wildlife federation, international office, suite , th street,washington, dc , www.nwf.org/finance/ survey.html visited on june henwood d, wall street: how it works (verso, new york) karliner j, the corporate planet: ecology and politics in the age of globalization (sierra club books, san francisco, ca) kuttner r, everything for sale: the virtues and limits of markets (university of chicago press, chicago) mcbeth j, , `̀ treasure island'' far eastern economic review march, ^ mccraw t k, prophets of regulation (harvard university press, cambridge, ma) mcmenamin b, , `̀ environmental imperialism: antibusiness activists follow us firms abroad and harass them on foreign turf. and you, the taxpayer, are paying for the harassment'' forbes may, ^ mcmillan l r ii, , `̀ freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc. request to omit stockholder proposal pursuant to rule a- '', letter to the securities and exchange commission december, freeport ^ mcmoran copper & gold inc., poydras street, new orleans, la manheim j, corporate conduct unbecoming: codes of conduct and anti-corporate strategy (tred avon institute press, st michaels, md) mokhiber r,weissman r, corporate predators: the hunt for mega-profits and the attack on democracy (common courage press, monroe, me) mol a p j, sonnenfeld d (eds), , `̀ ecological modernisation around the world: an introduction'', in ecological modernisation around the world: perspectives and critical debates (frank cass, london) pp ^ j emel http://www.essential.org/monitor/hyper/mm . .html http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/publications/squaringup/intro.html http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/publications/squaringup/intro.html http://www.corporatewatch.org.uk/magazine/issue /cw glob .html http://www.corpwatch.org http://www.foe.org/progressive-economy/tncs.html http://www.foe.org/progressive-economy/tncs.html http://www.nwf.org/finance/survey.html http://www.nwf.org/finance/survey.html north d c, institutions, institutional change, and economic performance (cambridge university press, cambridge) oplert c, sokobin j, ,`̀ does coordinated institutional shareholder activism work? an analysis of the council of institutional investors'', ohio state university, columbus, oh, and southern methodist university, dallas, tx, http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/�fin/faculty/opler/ciiweb/ pound j, , `̀ beyond takeovers: politics comes to corporate control'' harvard business review march, ^ ramphal s, ,`̀ forward to the survey of ngos on business'', in a strange affair:the emerging relationship between ngos and transnational companies eds s peters, g enderle, price waterhouse coopers, london roe m j, strong managers,weak owners: the political roots of american corporate finance (princeton university press, princeton, nj) undp, human development report united nations development programme (oxford university press, new york) us office of management and business, accounting for revenue and other financing sources and concepts for reconciling budgetary and financial accounting us office of management and business,washington, dc wapner p, environmental activism and world civic politics (state university of new york press, albany, ny) williams c a, ,`̀ the securities and exchange commission and corporate social transparency'' harvard law review ^ an inquiry into the green disciplining of capital http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/~fin/faculty/opler/ciiweb/ http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/~fin/faculty/opler/ciiweb/ ß a pion publication printed in great britain 	abstract 	 introduction 	 why corporate campaigns? 	 financial disciplining strategies 	 . setting performance requirements and leveraging international financial institutions 	 . shareholder activism 	 . socially responsible investing 	 . summary 	 friends of the earth and 	 . background on the corporation 	 . ngo action: leveraging public institutions 	 . shareholder activism 	original freeport ^mcmoran resolution filed november, 	 conclusions 	references virtual mentor virtual mentor american medical association journal of ethics november , volume , number : - . clinical case political discussions in the exam room jack p. freer, md dr. buccarelli is already behind schedule when he encounters his next patient, mr. van ware. mr. van ware is coming in for a follow-up appointment after a lingering, viral uri that finally resolved. he is politically engaged and has been following the affordable care act legislation closely. his own insurance premiums have risen, and he asks what dr. buccarelli thinks of the individual mandate for health insurance. “you think it’s fair that a young, healthy guy like me should be shouldering the bill for chronic care for the elderly?” mr. van ware asks. dr. buccarelli replies in a general way that the current health system has its flaws and he is just happy that legislators are attempting to address the problems. unsatisfied, mr. van ware repeats his question about young people subsidizing older people’s expensive end- of-life care. after a couple back-and-forths, in which dr. buccarelli politely explains that the aca is , pages long and very complicated and that it will be years before the regulations are ironed out, mr. van ware says, “seriously, doctor. you must know more about this new act than i do. do you think the mandate that all of us, healthy or not, have to buy insurance is constitutional? isn’t it socialism?” dr. buccarelli considers all the answers he can offer mr. van ware (who seems to have forgotten that, young healthy man that he is, he has had a serious uri for several weeks). dr. buccarelli feels his clinician’s role conflicting with his educator’s role and, meantime, his waiting room continues to fill. commentary dr. buccarelli’s predicament is familiar to physicians who have spent any time in ambulatory clinical care. falling behind schedule is annoying to patients and aggravating to doctors. mr. van ware, with his resolving uri, ought to be an easy opportunity to catch up a little. instead, patients often surprise us with unexpected symptoms or (as in this case) an urgent need to talk about current events. educating patients is an important part of practicing medicine. aside from clinically relevant teaching that concerns the patient’s own condition, physicians have a broader role to share their unique perspective and knowledge with the public. certainly, physicians have an inside track about health policy and health care reform. and yet, mr. van ware may not be asking for dr. buccarelli’s opinion as much as he is grandstanding and debating an issue dear to his heart. he may be simply www.virtualmentor.org virtual mentor, november —vol broadcasting his opinion to a captive audience (an opinion that is unlikely to change, no matter what dr. buccarelli says). having attempted a polite diversion, dr. buccarelli can either address the issue or unequivocally notify the patient that the discussion is over. giving mr. van ware the benefit of the doubt, it may be that he is truly interested in his physician’s views. in that case, dr. buccarelli should have a few tight, informed comments to make about this important public policy issue directly related to medical practice. health insurance is a gamble, a bet. in a sense, you are betting that you will get sick or injured. if you “lose” the bet, you lose your wager (the insurance premium). if you “win” the bet, your payoff is that the cost of your medical care (or a very large part of it) is covered. even young, healthy mr. van ware can get hit by a dump truck running a stop sign later today and wind up being the recipient of several thousand dollars’ worth of medical care before the month is out. groups like the amish recognize health insurance as gambling and reject it. interestingly, the aca contains a religious exemption [ ]. although not specified in the law, many feel that anabaptists (amish, mennonites, hutterites) and muslims might qualify under this provision [ ]. emergency medical care is already provided to the uninsured, and the costs are shared by others in society. when mr. van ware gets hit by that dump truck, he will be taken to a hospital and treated, regardless of whether he has insurance. the emergency medical treatment and active labor act, emtala, passed in as part of the consolidated omnibus budget reconciliation act (cobra), requires hospitals to provide emergency care regardless of insurance coverage or ability to pay [ ]. if mr. van ware were given the choice to opt out of insurance coverage altogether, society would still share the cost of his care. fortunately, we do not live in a society that allows uninsured people to die for lack of treatment. so, whether mr. van ware realizes it or not, young, healthy, intact people already pay for the care of the old, sick, and injured. costs are shifted to the government through taxes as well as higher insurance premiums across the board. universal coverage is more efficient and economical. in , more than $ billion in medical care to the uninsured was uncompensated [ ]. the majority of this care was provided by hospitals. these losses are offset by government in the form of disproportionate share hospital (dsh) payments. hospital care to the uninsured is fundamentally inefficient; it is emergency care, late in the course of an illness rather than preventive care earlier, when it is more effective. however one calculates the economic costs of caring for the uninsured (due to uncompensated, late, or forgone care), it is more than the cost of insuring them. the current health care system is financially unsustainable. the american health care system has grown in unbridled fashion for years. gaining control over this sprawling system is the first step in slowing and reversing cost escalation. analysts may disagree about the best way to gain control. while not perfect, the aca is expected to make a significant difference [ ]. virtual mentor, november —vol www.virtualmentor.org while physicians may want to have some prepared sound bites in response to common questions, they ought to have a deeper knowledge of some of the underlying issues. clearly this issue is extraordinarily complex and the details can be mind-numbing. still, there are some valuable resources that can be accessed easily through the internet. the henry j. kaiser family foundation has prepared a number of excellent analyses of health care reform and financing issues [ , ], the federal government has a useful website on the subject [ ], and healthcareandyou.org is an authoritative site sponsored by several organizations, including ama, aarp, aafp, and acp [ ]. finally, there is another issue that could arise in this situation. when people display strong opinions about social and political issues, there is often the potential for the discussion to become heated and personal. the doctor’s office is no exception. in this setting, however, there is a real concern about professionalism and the patient- doctor relationship. physicians must continually be aware of their place in relation to the patient. ordinarily, the patient is not the doctor’s buddy. in fact, preexisting friendships put considerable strain on a clinical relationship. when professional relationships get blurred with personal ties, both can suffer. the friendship can be strained when the patient is unhappy with the doctor’s decision. equally problematic is the way in which professional decision making can be compromised with a patient-friend. while not as striking as when caring for family members, the medical decisions made for friends can be similarly distorted. when political discussions take a bad turn in a friendship, people can just drift away, but what about a patient-doctor relationship? suppose you hear what sounds like racial bias (or even a blatant racial slur) in a political diatribe [ ]. does it affect your attitude toward that patient and can you objectively provide care for that person any longer? what does it say about how someone views you when he or she feels comfortable saying hateful things to you? of course, a patient who resists more subtle suggestions that political debates or speeches are off limits, may need to be told directly that the professional relationship cannot continue without a limit on that behavior. when both parties understand their roles, many aspects of the relationship can be presumed and go unsaid. in some situations, however, the terms must be explicitly restated. when that happens, honesty, transparency, and clarity are required to keep things on track. references . exemptions from individual responsibility requirements. patient protection and affordable care act, sec (b)( )(a). http://docs.house.gov/ energycommerce/ppacacon.pdf. accessed october , . . national committee for amish religious freedom. amish faq general information. http://www.holycrosslivonia.org/amish/amishfaq.htm. accessed october , . www.virtualmentor.org virtual mentor, november —vol . centers for medicare and medicaid services. emtala. https://www.cms.gov/emtala/. accessed october , . . hadley j, holahan j. the cost of care for the uninsured: what do we spend, who pays, and what would full coverage add to medical spending? the kaiser commission on medicaid and the uninsured. http://www.kff.org/uninsured/upload/the-cost-of-care-for-the-uninsured- what-do-we-spend-who-pays-and-what-would-full-coverage-add-to- medical-spending.pdf. accessed october , . . orszag pr, emanuel ej. health care reform and cost control. n engl j med. ; : - . . henry j. kaiser family foundation web site. http://www.kff.org. accessed october , . . henry j. kaiser family foundation. health reform source. http://healthreform.kff.org. accessed october , . . us department of health and human services. healthcare.gov website. http://www.healthcare.gov. accessed october , . . health care and you. what the affordable care act means for you. http://www.healthcareandyou.org. accessed october , . . capozzi jd. rhodes r. coping with racism in a patient. j bone joint surg. ( ); ( ): - . http://www.jbjs.org/article.aspx?volume= &page= . accessed october , . jack p. freer, md, is a professor of medicine, clinical professor of social and preventive medicine, and chief of the division of palliative medicine at the university at buffalo (suny) in new york. dr. freer is certified in hospice and palliative medicine, and his primary area of academic interest is communication skills. related in vm physician involvement with politics—obligation or avocation? november campaign posters in the clinic, january physicians and political advocacy, october health reform and the future of medical practice, november the people and events in this case are fictional. resemblance to real events or to names of people, living or dead, is entirely coincidental. the viewpoints expressed on this site are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the ama. copyright american medical association. all rights reserved. virtual mentor, november —vol www.virtualmentor.org http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/ / /ccas - .html http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/ / /ccas - .html http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/ / /ccas - .html http://virtualmentor.ama-assn.org/ / /msoc - .html cia_ _roger.indd © roger, publisher and licensee dove medical press ltd. this is an open access article which permits unrestricted noncommercial use, provided the original work is properly cited. clinical interventions in aging : ( ) – o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h priorities for people living with dementia: education, counseling, research kerstin stieber roger department of family social sciences, faculty of human ecology, university of manitoba, winnipeg, canada correspondence: kerstin stieber roger department of family social sciences, faculty of human ecology, university of manitoba, winnipeg, canada tel + email rogerk@cc.umanitoba.ca abstract: hearing the voices of people living with dementia assists in a better understanding of their experiences. this understanding can pave the way for improved community-based service delivery such as education and counseling, as well as including them more frequently as research participants. the voices of people living with dementia have not been well represented in research, resulting in very few data describing their experiences. this paper describes empirical qualitative data from a study that asked people with alzheimer’s and huntington’s disease about their experiences. recommendations are provided on education, counseling, and research. keywords: counseling, dementia, education, family, personhood, research background many new (or newly recognized) terminal medical conditions are presenting a more complex end-of-life picture for service providers. this reality challenges the -month prognosis commonly associated with cancer. diabetes, asthma, and multiple sclerosis as well as a wide range of dementias lead to unique end-of-life experiences and can last up to fi fteen years after diagnosis. increasingly, people also want to die at home, changing the focus of their care away from formal care centers to families and the community (cpca ). these factors make evident the increasing need to develop specifi c care interventions and community-based services for individuals living in community with a wide range of terminal medical conditions, their families, and formal care providers. dementia is a brain disorder characterized by progressive memory loss and cognitive dysfunction, which occurs in mid to late life (mckhann et al ). over other types of dementia exist including alzheimer’s and huntington’s disease, vascular dementia, and korsakoff’s. related diagnoses include cognitive impairment no dementia (cind), mild cognitive impairment (mci), a diagnostic statistical manual (dsm-iv-tr) diagnosis of delirium, and other medical conditions (eg, aids) that include cognitive decline but that may or may not be dementia related. according to a study published by the canadian study of health and aging working group ( ), an estimated , canadians will develop alzheimer’s or a related disease and an estimated , canadians over have alzheimer’s or a related disease. according to an earlier study that number could more than double by and could triple by (csha ). this study also found that % of canadians knew someone with alzheimer’s disease, while % of canadians had someone in their family with alzheimer’s disease. huntington’s disease is an inherited brain disorder which causes cells in specifi c parts of the brain to die (hsc ). about in very , canadians has huntington’s disease, but in every , canadians is touched by the disease through family and community experiences. symptoms can include emotional changes, memory loss, and mobility changes similar to those of alzheimer’s disease, and similarly, there is no clinical interventions in aging : ( ) roger treatment for this condition at this time. further, the associa- tion between mortality and poor cognitive function is well documented (langley ) suggesting the importance of understanding and recommending appropriate end-of-life care for people living with alzheimer’s and huntington’s disease. theoretical framework the framework of ‘personhood’ was developed most defi ni- tively by kitwood ( ) in dementia reconsidered: the person comes first, and he stands out as a ground-breaking researcher investigating the experience of people with dementia as persons. sabat ( ) has been well known for declaring that researchers and others must listen to the voices of those with dementia. he states that the effect of being diagnosed with dementia may result in the person ‘being positioned in advance as being incapacitated’, reducing their status of personhood unnecessarily. keady et al ( ) similarly suggest that the real task of establishing personhood is one of developing the capacity for people with dementia to be seen as contributors to those relationships. clearly, a growing body of evidence (clare ; roger ) is sug- gesting that one can listen to people with dementia in a way that can impact the development of clinical interventions, service delivery, and policy development. berger ( ) presents a model of lifespan develop- ment which implies a ‘personhood’ approach, although this model is intended for a general population. according to berger, emotional, physical, and/or cognitive domains are seen as critical for human lifespan development. berger demonstrates that from conception to death, we each inte- grate emotions, physical needs, and behaviors into various stages of development. these domains are not diminished as we approach death, according to berger, but they might change in quality. for example, emotional aspects of lifespan development include the expression of, or the description of, our emotional responses to events such as happiness, sadness, and anger. cognitive aspects of lifespan development are those which focus on thought patterns, an analysis of a situation, or a belief – how one thinks about, or values one holds about memory loss may be an example of cognitive activity. behav- ioral aspects of lifespan development are observable actions and behaviors. berger’s model will help to frame how people living with dementia continue to experience all three domains associated with lifespan development. understanding that individuals do experience all three domains even with a terminal medical condition assists in a better understanding of their personhood across the lifespan. while the ‘cause of death’ is generally not considered a priority for the work of related service providers, ‘cause of death’ continues to be socially laden with moral values (eg, aids) and can determine the quality of support that some groups might receive. as wilkinson ( ) states, people with dementia have not felt that they have valuable experiences worth sharing and they have not wanted to come forward and disclose their experiences of this condition. cotrell ( ) states that in the majority of the research on dementia, people are treated as ‘disease entities’ rather than people with valuable experiences. one purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that, given a better understanding of the daily lived experience of people living with dementia, we can make suitable changes related to care and service provision. this may in turn also assist in reducing widespread misun- derstandings about people living with dementia. methodology grounded theory is designed to explore social processes inherent to human interactions, and to uncover beliefs, attitudes, and practices of individuals or groups, as they function in their daily life. this pilot study employed a cross-sectional descriptive-exploratory design based on the tenets of grounded theory in order to explore how people with alzheimer’s and huntington’s disease refl ected on their experiences of memory loss. the focus was not to explore how the experience of medical aspects of the diagnosis, but to focus on their subjective experiences of a medical terminal condition that included memory loss as one daily interactive experience. contributions towards the theory of person- hood in tandem with a revised defi nition of end-of-life are anticipated through the presentation of these data, as well as developing further studies built on the data found here. the study was conducted in central canada and partici- pants were selected from three organizations that provide services and programs for people who are living with alzheimer’s or huntington’s disease. staff selected specifi c people already well known to them with a diagnosis of either probable alzheimer’s disease or confi rmed huntington’s disease, and invited them to attend an initial talk about the study so that they could ask questions about their pos- sible participation. if they were willing to participate in the research, they proceeded to the next step. according to the ethics protocol, submitted to and approved by the medical ethics review board at the university of manitoba, an eligibility screen and a consent form signed by the participant and one care provider were required for par- ticipation. therefore, potential participants who fi t the criteria, clinical interventions in aging : ( ) priorties for people living with dementia and, expressed interest in participating in the study after the initial talk was heard, were asked to undergo a -point brief test in order to assess their ability to be interviewed (katzman et al ). the blessed orientation memory concentration test (blomc) asked potential participants to demonstrate their interviewability by, for example, remembering specifi c dates, months of the year, or repeating certain phrases. their participation was then based on acceptable ratings according to the blomc. consent forms were signed both by partici- pants and one selected care provider. people were excluded from this talk if they did not have a diagnosis of probable alzheimer’s or confi rmed huntington’s disease, were not selected by staff (no one who expressed interest was turned away), were unable to converse verbally, hear or speak english, were experiencing signifi cant per- sonal crisis, were younger than , or refused to participate in the study. this selection process resulted in a purposive sample. interviews data were gathered through semi-structured, face-to-face interviews by the fi rst author at a location and time selected by the participant lasting between thirty minutes and two hours. prior to each interview, demographic questions on a participant’s age, previous profession, ethnicity, and date of diagnosis were asked. interview questions were prepared on the basis of identifi ed gaps in the literature review keeping in mind that the goal of the study was to focus on participants’ experience of memory loss, their sense of independence and self in relation to signifi cant relationships, and to questions on their thoughts about the future. for example, questions included the following: ‘what has changed since your diagnosis?’, or, ‘have your social interactions with people felt different since your diagnosis, and if so, how?’ the interview schedule was reviewed in advance by a team of professionals knowledgeable in counseling, memory loss, or end-of-life, further refi ning the number and type of question. the same interview questions were asked in each interview, although fl exibility occurred in the order of the questions, the pace, and when additional probes were seen to be useful. two focus groups were scheduled once all individual interviews were completed: one for people with alzheimer’s disease and one for people with huntington’s disease. the two focus groups conducted were used to present initial themes that emerged in the interviews after a preliminary analysis of the data had been done. the focus was to establish whether the themes accurately documented the voices of the participants. no new questions were added to the focus groups, although probes occurred. data analysis all interview data were transcribed and reviewed using the qualitative analysis software nvivo. an inductive analytic approach led to a sequential analysis of each passage of text that was coded and recoded in the context of the broader goal of the study. a comparative analysis between themes occurred throughout the coding process. two second readers well versed in end-of-life research were selected both to con- fi rm the emergence of themes and to ensure the rigor of the analysis. during this analytic process, it became apparent that the participants experienced their daily lives in a way that refl ected berger’s model. validity and reliability of the results are understood in the context of qualitative research. participants were selected in sites they knew well and by staff they trusted, eliciting a more trusting relationship to the interviewer. they were given the opportunity to hear about the study, ask questions, and ensure their own interest in the subject matter over time, and, there were no consequences if they chose not to participate. validity and reliability was further established by the second readers’ reviews, and the recognition that the emerging data in this study directly mirrored both the content and the gaps identifi ed in the literature review. participant profi les in total, individuals participated in the study ( men and women) (see table ). nine of the participants were selected from the local day hospital affi liated with a long- term care home (age – ); people were selected through the local alzheimer’s society (age – ); people had huntington’s chorea and were associated with a local com- munity based organization (age – ). participants tended to be younger in the huntington’s sample and older in the day-hospital sample. the range of previous work/career experiences of the participants was diverse. the type of work participants had engaged in over their lifespan likely infl uenced both their understanding and perception of memory loss, and, how they engaged with the researcher in the interview. a question about ethnicity was asked. some participants stated that they were of european descent representing scottish, french, german, and polish communities. two people said they were jewish, and said they were mennonite. four said they were canadian and did not state an ethnic background. reports on the dates of diagnosis varied to such an extent clinical interventions in aging : ( ) roger table participant profi les alzheimer’s pseudonym gender ethnic age work experience suggested date of diagnosis evan m canadian forester nora f n/a professional work ivanna f n/a raised family erika f english bert m jewish business/salesman luc m franco-manitoban crane operator ‘a few years’ chris m poland business owner years ago emma f scottish sales at eaton’s ‘long ago’ huntington’s pseudonym nigella f ukranian teacher trish f canadian used to work yvonne f mennonite teacher adrienne f eng./french professional rayna f scottish health centre day hospital pseudonym beth f mennonite n/a long ago alicia f jewish legal/receptionist don’t know brian m irish farmer, technician n/a ellie f canadian sales clerk ‘a while ago’ maria f ukranian raised kids n/a katrin f franco-canadian n/a ‘my own evaluation’ that more data would be required to better understand any analytic value. recognizing the broad range and socio-demographic vari- ation in participant’s backgrounds contributes to the richness of the empirical data. at the same time, the study was designed to understand better subjective experiences of memory loss, and not to identify correlations between diagnoses, articulated experiences of memory loss, and socio-demographic descrip- tors. another study is recommended for that purpose. findings berger’s three primary domains across the lifespan include emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. this discussion will make reference to how the participant’s narratives repre- sented each of these three domains. emotional berger ( ) stated that the emotional domain is a signifi - cant aspect of lifespan development. participants in this study were able to both discuss feelings about their situation and express those feelings in the course of the interviews. for example, the loss of one-to-one friendships had occurred for most participants, resulting not only in a loss of interpersonal contact and emotional fulfi llment, but also in a loss of a public and social identity. this recognition led to sadness for many participants. for example, nigella expressed signifi cant sadness through her tears about the possible pain she was infl icting on her family due to her frequent mood swings. she was aware of these emotions in retrospect, aware of their impact on her family, and this impact now brought her sadness. another participant, ivanna, noted that since her diagnosis, her friends visited less often, and she similarly expressed regret about these losses in her social life and to her personal well-being. alternatively, erika was not emo- tional about the same type of changes and she suggested that memory losses were more an issue for others than for herself. other participants spoke with joy about a new and positive aspect to this diagnosis – support groups for people clinical interventions in aging : ( ) priorties for people living with dementia with similar experiences. for example, getting together with people living with dementia was a positive addition to many participant lives both in regards to their social life and their personal well-being. ivanna states: they are a good group and we have a lot of laughs too over certain things that ... because some, as i say, one of the ladies is a little further on, you know, we can laugh about it. ivanna demonstrates an ability to refl ect on losses and gains: new bonds with people with similar conditions can be forged and bring her joy. these participant examples provide the reader with an alternative view to traditional inter- pretations of the experience of terminal medical conditions: in this case, they suggest that participants can refl ect on their emotional experiences of memory loss after the fact, they do have feelings about the impact of these experiences on oth- ers, and they were insightful about the changes to their social well-being. these observations refl ect berger’s emotional domain essential as part of all life span development. cognitive according to berger ( ), lifespan development includes a person’s ability to analyze their situation in a way that reveals particular thought patterns, personalities, and an evaluation of their own personal and social histories. this is the cognitive domain. this was evident in the participants in these interviews as follows. analyzing one’s family history in light of his new terminal diagnosis was a common practice for participants as they thought about their own situations. dorothy recalls: like my dad [had it]. they didn’t call it alzheimer’s in those days. i forget what they called it. see i can’t remember that. like, he got quite forgetful. he didn’t always know what was going on, so i fi gured it’s just maybe hereditary. i took after my dad instead of my mother. dorothy is refl ecting on her father’s condition demonstrat- ing a comparative analysis with herself and her father ‘back then’. thinking through previous values held about memory loss contributed towards how dorothy defi ned her own current situation. participants also demonstrated how they thought about decisions they needed to make. for example, evan needed to cut back on singing in the choir, and here he analyzes how this decision occurred: and everybody talked at once…i got lost. i zero in on the food. well that’s the only way i can do it, because i can’t talk and ... i mean, not only that sort of thing. in any group you have diffi culty following along because your brain isn’t working as well. thinking about the future occurred as well to vary- ing degrees. while some participants refl ected only on a short-term future, for example by referring to the decision that they would not be able to use their credit card in the near future due to an inability to manage their current pur- chases; others refl ected on longer term future moments such as an actual death, or, being at ‘that’ point (not speaking or recognizing others). despite increasing memory loss, erika imagines the following scenario about her own possible future, ‘well, i wish to stay healthy. at least my mind is healthy, so that i can be productive’. this was an interesting statement as she refl ected on her current reality of memory loss. some participants spoke about religion or faith as contributors towards their thoughts about a possible future self. faith refl ects a belief about the self in the world in such cases. beth states: god alone knows about my future. this is the day the lord has made. let us rejoice and be glad. i say that verse many times. then you have to go back to what you pray, what you said, what god said. and so, i keep on doing that. i trust the lord. in some cases, a possible future self was also associ- ated with a world diminished by other aspects associated with aging, and not specifi cally with memory loss. here, not being able to see friends because the winter roads were icy, and public transportation was not effective, was a kind of future not associated specifi cally with memory loss but with aging in general. these participants demonstrated an ability to think both into their families’ past and their own future, comparing and contrasting these situations with their own. behavioral berger ( ) refers to behaviors as observable activities, and suggests that this is the third and fi nal domain required for development across the lifespan. participant insights into their own disabling declines and losses included accounts of specifi c proactive strategies. rayna expresses an alternative here to a previous activity: well, my husband does the cooking and i don’t like that part. interviewer: you miss doing cooking? yeah, i do. and i think, well sure i could do the cooking. and i think, well maybe i’ll do the vegetables. yeah. rayna is able to refl ect on a familiar activity she has often enjoyed doing in the past, she refl ects that she is no longer able to engage in this activity, and she demonstrates that she has considered and selected an alternative, ‘doing the clinical interventions in aging : ( ) roger vegetables’. other strategies were developed and discussed by participants. nigella spoke of having lists for her tasks around the house, and that she had to develop lists of lists as time went by. she laughed how these were posted on each door, in the back and the front, and how she had to sometimes remember where she had now placed a particular list. yet her development of these lists fundamentally contributed towards her sense of independence and well-being. some participants refl ected on living with other physical disabili- ties along with dementia. for example, beth was also blind and hard of hearing. she found it particularly ‘funny’ that her brother, who is neither living with dementia nor blind, provided her with a long lecture about how to resolve her diffi culties in her home due to her disabilities. he provided her with strategies to alphabetize the spices, and, how to get the garbage out. she suggested that his ideas for a condition he knew nothing about may be useless. beth’s story highlights that people with dementia are able to refl ect not only on their memory losses, they can also refl ect on their own strategies used to retain an aspect of function, and, in beth’s case, she was able to compare these strategies to the suggestions of others. these examples show that participants were able to refl ect on their own actions and behaviors – what they liked and did not like – and their attempts to make changes to those behaviors as memory losses increased. discussion the three domains of emotion, cognition, and behavior are suggested as key to lifespan development by berger ( ) and are seen in this discussion in the example of participant’s experiences living with these two examples of a terminal medical diagnosis. hearing the voices of people living with alzheimer’s and huntington’s disease helps us to understand that emotions, cognition, and behavioral aspects of their personhood exist alongside the medical aspects of dementia. these data begin to demonstrate that the lives of these participants do not become less meaningful by their own declaration as their efforts to deal with dementia, to engage with others, and to develop new strategies continue. their declines do not put an end to laughter, making meaning, and cherishing important relationships; and just as importantly, the declines do not always lead participants to cope as well as they may have wanted. it is also evident from these data that participants responded to the interview with personal awareness and sensitivity not only about their own memory loss, but also about strategies to accommodate those changes, and their experiences with changing relationships. they were suitable and eager research participants. by documenting the participant’s stories, they offer their individual personalities, rich histories, and unique ways of handling challenging situa- tions. in this sense, berger’s model applied to their narratives frame how they continue to experience the three domains associated with lifespan development despite a terminal medical diagnosis. recommendations with the predicted growth in the population of aging people, and the increased diagnosis of new terminal medical condi- tions, the demands on these individuals and intergenerational care providers will change signifi cantly. this new demo- graphic will impact the career paths of younger generations as we provide services using new technologies and new medical advances. it is imperative that researchers seek to better understand the social aspects of this condition, as these demographic and social changes occur. education in an ongoing manner, new counseling programs, and research that investigates the gaps will continue to be essential. education it is evident that understanding the experiences of these par- ticipants can benefi t social service program development for people living with dementia in the community. while dementia has been viewed primarily with a biomedical lens in the past, well planned social services are increas- ingly being seen to be able to maintain or even improve upon an individual’s independence in the community. for example, educating individuals with a new diagnosis about the strategies employed by others already living with dementia can prove helpful and possibly preventative (eg, accidents). understanding that individual family histories and differences may contribute towards the development of their coping skills may reduce the conclusion that emotions are primarily now due to the illness itself. with evidence as to individual’s abilities (rather than a focus on their disabilities), specifi c educational programs for care providers can be developed. as individuals and their care providers learn to promote independence given newly learned strategies, an added benefi t may be reducing the stigma that people living with dementia are only vulnerable and needy individuals. counseling participants spoke about the inevitable (and undesirable) social changes they experienced. asking about these expe- riences in the context of this study evoked their need to continue to talk about and process these changes. sadness clinical interventions in aging : ( ) priorties for people living with dementia and joy was communicated related not only to the disease but also related to the social aspects of their experience. it was apparent that these participants were keen to have their voices heard and their feelings understood, and they stated that this had not happened often in offi cial or formal settings. further, it was previously thought that counsel- ing could not help individuals with a diagnosis associated with dementia. counseling programs are required not only for this population, who can benefi t from exploring their experiences, but also for their families and for paid care professionals. research understanding personhood is still a new focus for research- ers (cotrell and schulz ; roger ; wilkinson ). traditionally, people with dementia have not been interviewed for the purpose of research, although this is changing. certainly, applying new approaches to data collection may result in more useful data. the researcher may be required to speak slowly in some cases, to repeat a question, to probe more deeply into a particular topic. however, a respectful researcher would keep these skills in mind for any population of interest. new data on this group of people can likely support more appropriate pain manage- ment, improved strategies for end-of-life decision-making for families, and a wide range of clinical interventions used in long term care homes. new data can benefi t formal and informal care professionals as they are required to increas- ingly support people with dementia, and make decisions on their behalf. this is most relevant as the question of a person’s competence increases with time. in this regard, increasing the visibility of people living with dementia in the context of research will offer improved insights and further research questions. based on the empirical data that this study has elicited, the following recommendations can be made: disclosures the author has no confl icts of interest to disclose. references berger k. . the developing person through the life span ( th ed). new york: worth publishers. [cpca] canadian palliative care association. . public communication [online]. http://www.chpca.net/home.htm. canadian study of health and aging working group. .the incidence of dementia in canada. neurology, : – . [csha] canadian study of health and aging group. . canadian study of health and aging, ottawa: canada. clare l. . managing threats to self. soc sci med, : – . cotrell v, schulz r. . the perspective of the patient with alzheimer’s disease: a neglected dimension of dementia research. gerontologist, : – . doka k. . disenfranchised grief. in doka kj (ed.). living with grief: loss in later life. washington: hospice foundation of america. foti me. . do it your way: a demonstration project on end of life care for persons with serious mental illness. j palliat med, : – . [hsc] huntington’s society of canada. . public communication [online]. http://www.huntingtonsociety.ca/english/content/?page= . katzman r, brown t, fuld p, et al. . validation of a short orientation memory concentration test of cognitive impairment. am j psychiatry, : – . keady j, gilliard j, evers c, et al. . the dial-log study: support in the early stages of dementia. br j nurs, : – . keady j. . the wrong shoes: living with memory loss. nurs older people, : – . kitwood t. . dementia reconsidered: the person comes first. buckingham: open university press. langley am. . the mortality of mental illness in older age. rev clin gerontol, : – . lindgren cl, connelly ct, gaspar hl. . grief in spouse and children caregivers of dementia patients. west j nurs res, : – . loos c, bowd a. . caregivers of persons with alzheimer’s disease: some neglected implications of the experience of personal loss and grief. death stud, : – . mckhann g, drachman d, folstein m. . clinical diagnosis of alzheim- er’s disease: report of the ninchds-adrda work group under the auspices of department of health and human services task force on alzheimer’s disease. neurology, : – . meuser tm, marwit sj. . a comprehensive, stage-sensitive model of grief in dementia caregiving. gerontologist, : – . roger k. . it’s a problem for other people, because i am seen as a nuisance’. alzheimer’s care quarterly, : – . sabat s. . capacity for decision making in alzheimer’s disease: selfhood, positioning, and semiotic people. aust n z j psychiatry, : – . wilkinson h. . the perspectives of people with dementia. london: jessica kingsley publishers. theory/research education counseling • investigating the experience of those living with dementia, to better understand their insights • education for formal and informal care providers regarding the abilities and opportunities for independence of people with dementia. • counseling programs designed for those living with dementia to reduce grief, sadness, and experiences of stigma • investigating emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses of people living with dementia • translating new research fi ndings for all care providers • counseling programs designed for family members involved in daily care to alleviate stress • investigating personhood in tandem with decision-making processes that lead to ethical concerns • a better understanding of people’s daily lived experience can assist in reducing stigma • counseling for paid care professionals (nurses, social workers, psychologists) experiencing stress and burn out • models of end-of-life decision-making can be assisted by these data << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments true /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile () /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice p.solomon raj: <i>biblia pauperum. the poor man's bible</i>. a book review © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, doi: . / x exchange ( ) - brill.nl/exch p. solomon raj: biblia pauperum. th e poor man’s bible. a book review alle g. hoekema vrije universiteit, amsterdam, th e netherlands email: hoekema@dds.nl it is rare for an author in his late s to still publish books. dr. p. solomon raj, a lutheran theologian and creative artist from india, is an exception to this rule. born in , he became a school teacher, then studied theology at gurukul, madras, served as a minister and as a student chaplain and after that fulfi lled a wide range of positions in india, at selly oak, birmingham uk and other countries before settling down again in his own country. in the mean- time he published his phd dissertation in birmingham and was active in the asian christian arts association. since a number of years he is the spiritual father of the st. luke’s lalitkala ashram in vijayawada, andra pradesh. in the s he discovered his gift as an artist, fi rst specializing in linocuts and wood block printing (black and white, later coloured ones as well) and then also in designing batiks, and — though to a lesser extent — acryl paint- ings. serving in the fi eld of modern mass communication as a means of prop- agating the gospel, he discovered the possibilities of using visual art in explaining the biblical narratives. most of the art works which he published in separate booklets and books are accompanied by brief, often surprising, poetical meditations which remind one of the work of rabindranath tagore and others. in an unpublished paper solomon raj himself speaks about the prophetic role of the christian artist. like prophets, the artist is an instrument of inspi- ration, a visionary and fore-teller who uses symbolic language. and, ‘he is aware of the problems in the society in which he lives, he speaks the vocabu- lary and the idiom of his time and he wakes up people of his day to some of p. solomon raj, biblia pauperum. th e poor man’s bible, bangalore: atcbooks , isbn - - - , us$ , . a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - the things that agitate his mind.’ raj himself clearly interprets his art work and theology in this way. in an article, written on the occasion of raj’s th birthday, volker kuester rightly connected solomon raj’s art work with the immense problems of the dalit in india, and of the poor in general. th e prophetic dimension of his work is immediately discernible in many of the themes which recur several times and in many forms: the fl ight into egypt; aspects of liberation, jesus’ encounter with the samaritan woman at the well (in john ), jesus as teacher, the transfi guration of christ, golgotha and the cross. now, after having published several works of art and meditation already as well as scholarly publications solomon raj returns to a subject which had drawn his attention long ago while studying at indiana university in - , the biblia pauperum. at that time he did not pursue the idea. however, in during a communications seminar in finland which raj attended, hans-ruedi weber ‘commented on my work with woodcuts and said that they reminded one of the biblia pauperum of the middle ages’. th is started a new fi re in his heart and eventually led to the publication of his latest book, biblia pauperum. th e poor man’s bible ( ). several versions and editions exist of the original biblia pauperum, espe- cially in germany and the netherlands. th e oldest versions in the late middle ages have the form of coloured, hand-painted illuminated manuscripts. in the th century printed examples with woodcuts appeared. however, probably these printed block books, too, were too expensive to be bought by the poor and it is assumed that they were used by parish priests as a teaching aid, espe- cially for the illiterate part of the population. th e fact that at least some ver- sions use latin texts, makes it improbable that others than the clergy had a direct access to these ‘cartoon’ type bible stories. th e brief texts only served to identify the illustrations which formed the heart of these picture bibles. p. solomon raj, th e prophetic role of a christian artist, unpublished paper, place and date unknown. volker kuester, ‘renunciation of inculturation as aesthetic resistance: th e indian artist solomon raj seen in a new light’, exchange / ( ), - , also published in: p. solo- mon raj, fiery wheels. art works and meditations, vijayawada, india , - . see the twelve wood block prints in p. solomon raj, liberation in luke’s gospel, vijayawada, india [ ]. such as th e new wine-skins. th e story of the indigenous missions in coastal andhra pradesh, india, delhi: ispck . in p. solomon raj, ‘biblia pauperum — a hand-printed bible teaching aid from the middle ages’, in: p. solomon raj, biblia pauperum. th e poor man’s bible, - . citation on p. . a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - figure : p. solomon raj, biblia pauperum p. joseph thrown into the well (genesis : - ) a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - in his book, solomon raj especially refers to a popular edition, printed in the netherlands between - which had pages in two sections. some other editions have pages. labriola and smeltz provide extensive informa- tion about the systematic order of each leaf of the biblia pauperum which always has seven [ + + ] pictures. on top and below four old testament fi gures (prophets or patriarchs) are visible; typologically they are connected with the subject of the main, horizontal triptych in the middle part of each page. th e central pictures of these triptychs show subsequent episodes from christ’s ministry of redemption and salvation. with a few exceptions, the scenes to the left and right of this central panel, have been taken from the old testament as well. th e personages, who become virtual witnesses of the fulfi lment of their prophecies or of the episodes in which they participated, thus escape the temporal limitations of their own lives, develop a christ-centered view of history, and acquire insight in the enigmas of the old testament. th e episodes of the new testament are related to the annunciation, and the birth, youth and early adult life of christ; twelve deal with his suff ering, death and resurrection, and fi nally doomsday and the crowning of the sanctifi ed soul in heaven are depicted. solomon raj has limited the number of pictures on each page and the total number of pages. instead of seven pictures, he only has the main three of the classic triptychs (omitting the old testament portraits of the top and the bottom of the original biblia pauperum), and instead of pages his book only has ten. also, he omits the words on scrolls which often come out of the mouths of the depicted fi gures. th us, he reduces the idea of the poor man’s bible to its essence: ‘the new testament images in the centre and the two old testament types on either side of the central picture.’ more interesting yet are the following three adaptations. first of all, solo- mon raj gives his own interpretation of what is most important in christ’s ministry. no attention is paid to eschatology. only one leafl et has been dedi- cated to the empty tomb and the resurrection (lk : - ), accompanied by the type of joseph sold and thrown into the well (gen : - ) and the anti- type of jonah swallowed by a whale and delivered again to live (jon : - ). albert c. labriola and john w. smeltz, th e bible of the poor, pittsburg pa: duquesne uni- versity press . labriola and smeltz, . p. solomon raj, ‘th e sequence’, in: biblia pauperum, . a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - figure : p. solomon raj, biblia pauperum p. resurrection (st. luke : - ) a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - th e other themes are the annunciation, fl ight into egypt, baptism of jesus, the calling of the disciples, jesus’ entry in jerusalem, the lord’s supper, his prayer at gethsemane, and the crucifi xion. however, these events are not depicted in a classic order, and signifi cantly raj starts his poor man’s bible with the well- known scene of jesus and the samaritan woman in john , which has been portrayed numerous times by him in wood blocks, batik paintings and lino cuts. th is scene is also the only one taken from the gospel of john; we see jesus sitting at the well and the samaritan woman standing, whereas a vivid little bird is sitting on the edge of the well, as a symbol of new life and hope. all other woodcuts have been taken from the synoptic gospels, with a slight preference for the gospel of luke. looking back to his earlier books such as liberation in luke’s gospel and fiery wheels, there too we fi nd a rather loose, thematic order and not a sequence based upon the classic heilsgeschichte. actu- ally, in his art books and separately produced series of art works raj always pays much attention to the liberating and communicating aspects of the man jesus in comparison to what is found in the classic biblia pauperum (and, for that matter, in the apostolic confession of faith). apparently in raj’s contex- tual perception of the gospel, christ’s concerns for the poor, the destitute, the women and the strangers, have priority. by this caring attitude, in his loving acts, in the holy communion and in his willingness to die for others, christ becomes the saviour. th e austere way raj depicts the human fi gures on the wood cuts, with their often weary and worried faces accentuated by the thick black lines of the drawings, emphasizes this struggle for humanity on earth. again, here his work seems to diff er from the mediaeval example which through its elegant lines and ornamental frames tends towards a heavenly salvation. a second adaptation is the fact, that solomon raj uses typological examples which diff er from the original biblia pauperum. only incidentally the same old testament images accompanying the central new testament picture are used in the original biblia pauperum and in solomon raj’s book. not always does he use an ‘antitype’ in the stereotype sense; rather we see aspects from two old testament stories which both, each in its own way, have a typological relation with the new testament scene. th e main story of the annunciation (lk : - ) for instance, is seconded by gen : - on the left hand and by ruth : - on the other side. however, both here and in other places, eve does not stand for sinfulness, but for a loving wife whose only shortcoming is, p. solomon raj, fiery wheels: art works and meditations, vijayawada . a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - that she ignorantly looks for knowledge in stead of obedience. raj admits that, ‘sometimes, the rationale behind the pairing is not easy to follow.’ finally, solomon raj replaces the written tituli and lectiones of the original example by brief and often moving meditations. again, this is something he has done in his earlier books as well and both form and content of these meditations are a proof of a contextual reading of scriptures. well chosen brief meditations as examples of wisdom and poetry rather than analytically formu- lated theological statements may be a means which people in india easily rec- ognize with their hearts and minds. partly the title of these meditations focus at one of the (anti-)type pictures. as an example we take the text belonging to the triptych where the stories of jacob’s ladder (gen : - ) and gideon (judg : - ) surround mt : - , the calling of the disciples: th ere was a promise — a promise like it came to the runaway jacob. he saw the rungs of a ladder reaching high into the skies on which the holy ones went up and came down — not like jacob asked for nor like he ever dreamed. so also gideon the mighty man of valor. when he was busy with his mundane chores, he was given a sign. and the fi shermen of galilee — did they know what a great mission they were being beckoned for? god calls and man responds. th ough in most triptychs and meditations christ is found in the centre (in one case even as the cosmic christ), true humanity as something we receive by grace seems to be the main message which solomon raj wants to transmit through his art and his theology. th erefore not surprisingly the fi nal central picture shows mary, joseph and the child jesus going to or coming from egypt. here solomon raj’s concern with refugees once again is apparent. god ‘called his son from egypt to bear the cross and save humanity’, according to the text raj, biblia pauperum, . a. g. hoekema / exchange ( ) - of the meditation on this wood cut. and he ends with the existential question, ‘how can we humans foresee what god has planned?’ solomon raj is well aware of the fact, that his biblia pauperum, in a similar way as its famous predecessor, will most likely be a teacher’s aid and not a book which directly comes into the hands of the really poor. his aim has been to add a modern christian example to the age-old indian iconography which is so beautifully present in temple carvings telling stories from the hindu puranas. also, he wants to make clear the signifi cant interplay between word and image in our own age. th is book may not be his fi nal statement; despite his age, solomon raj continues to work. th erefore we eagerly look forward to forthcoming artistic and theological works by this gifted author-artist. alle g. hoekema (b. ) was a mennonite missionary in indonesia and pastor in the netherlands. he received a phd at leiden university in , taught missiology and prac- tical theology at the mennonite seminary in amsterdam and is presently associate professor of missiology at the vrije universiteit in amsterdam, the netherlands. raj, biblia pauperum, . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ hindawi publishing corporation evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine volume , article id , pages http://dx.doi.org/ . / / review article religiosity and spirituality and the intake of fruit, vegetable, and fat: a systematic review min-min tan, carina k. y. chan, and daniel d. reidpath jeffrey cheah school of medicine and health sciences, monash university, sunway campus, jalan lagoon selatan, bandar sunway selangor darul ehsan, malaysia correspondence should be addressed to min-min tan; minmin.tan@gmail.com received may ; accepted september academic editor: arndt büssing copyright © min-min tan et al. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. objectives. to systematically review articles investigating the relationship between religion and spirituality (r/s) and fruit, vegetable, and fat intake. methods. pubmed, cinahl, and psycinfo were searched for studies published in english prior to march . the studies were divided into two categories: denominational studies and degree of r/s studies. the degree of r/s studies was further analyzed to ( ) determine the categories of r/s measures and their relationship with fruit, vegetable, and fat intake, ( ) evaluate the quality of the r/s measures and the research design, and ( ) determine the categories of reported relationship. results. thirty-nine studies were identified. there were denominational studies and degree of r/s studies, and studies were a combination of both. only % of the studies reported validity and % reported reliability of the r/s measures used. all studies were cross-sectional, and only one attempted mediation analysis. most studies showed a positive association with fruit and vegetable intake and a mixed association with fat intake. conclusion. the positive association between r/s and fruit and vegetable intake may be one possible link between r/s and positive health outcome. however, the association with fat intake was mixed, and recommendations for future research are made. . introduction unhealthy diet is a major risk factor in the development of noncommunicable diseases (ncd), which are responsible for about % of deaths globally [ ]. one of the main characteristics of a healthy diet is the regular consumption of a variety of fruit and vegetable, which is associated with a lower risk of some cancers, coronary heart disease, hypertension, and stroke [ , ]. about . million deaths worldwide are attributed to a low fruit and vegetable intake [ ]. in addition, about % of gastrointestinal cancers, % of ischemic heart disease, and % of stroke worldwide are also attributable to low fruit and vegetable intake [ ]. another important dietary factor related to health is fat intake. a high fat intake is associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, and cancers, the common ncds [ – ]. the world health organization recommends a daily in- take of at least g ( servings) of fruit and nonstarchy vegetable, and fat that is less than % of total dietary en- ergy, of which less than % is from saturated fat and less than % from transfat [ ]. however, due to urbanization and westernization, many countries that traditionally enjoyed high fruit and vegetable and low dietary fat consumption are moving towards a higher fat, lower fiber diet [ ]. the global burden of ncd is predicted to increase further because of this global transition in lifestyles [ ]. research has shown that religion and spirituality (r/s) has a positive association with health [ ]. about % of the studies looking at the relationship between r/s and health examined mental health [ ], showing a positive association with wellbeing, self-esteem, and optimism [ – ]; lower scores of depressive and suicidal symptoms [ , ]; and lower stress level [ – ]. numerous studies have also reported a positive association between r/s and physical health, including an association with lower all-cause mortality and lower rates of diet-related diseases such as hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer [ – ]. the study of the relationship between r/s and health remains relatively novel. initially it was not well accepted because it was thought that it is impossible (within a positivist http://dx.doi.org/ . / / evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine framework) to study r/s scientifically. however, starting in the early s, with the improvement of methodology, the study of religion and health has been increasingly recognized as a legitimate domain of scientific inquiry and is becoming more established [ ]. between and , at least , quantitative studies examining the relationship between r/s and health have been published [ ], covering a wide range of health outcomes and behaviors. in the research of r/s and health, one of the major issues is defining religion and spirituality in a way that supports their measurement. historically the notions of religion and spirituality have often been used interchangeably; however, recently there has been a trend towards distinguishing the two concepts [ ]. broadly, religion includes “beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the transcendent or the divine” [ ], while spirituality is concerned with the “connection to that which is sacred, the transcendent” and also “a search for the transcendent and the discovery of the transcendent” [ ]. religion tends to convey a negative impression that it is related to organized religion and theological rigidness, while spirituality is viewed more positively and is associated with personal experience of the transcendent. however, koenig recommends the use of spirituality in the context of religion, that is, those who are spiritual are “deeply religious” [ ]. the most commonly used r/s measure has been the single-item measuring religious attendance because of its “ease of use” [ ]. in most of the studies that have used a religious attendance measure, most have also found that it is positively associated with better health outcomes [ ]; for example, it has been associated with lower mortality rates [ , ], better adoption of health behaviors [ , ], more life’s satisfaction [ ], and a lower prevalence of hypertension [ ]. however, in many studies, r/s data were collected as part of a larger study, and this can be a drawback [ , ]. it is generally accepted that r/s is a multidimensional construct [ ], which means that a single-item measure such as religious attendance will be insufficient to capture all dimensions except possibly in the most general sense. this also limits insights that can be gained about the relationship between r/s and health. recently, more specific scales have been developed to measure different dimensions of r/s [ ]. religion is considered important to many people around the world. one recent survey estimated that % of the population in the world believe in god(s) [ ]. another survey conducted in countries found that the majority of people, especially those from developing countries, reported that religion was an important part of their lives [ ]. one of the proposed mechanisms by which r/s benefits health is through the adoption of religious practices that are also health-promoting [ ]. many religions view the human body as sacred and include specific prohibitions against unhealthy behaviors, which are considered irreverent and not only harmful physically but also spiritually. this view, however, needs to be tempered by the fact that some religious adherence may also result in poorer health outcomes, such as extreme asceticism. notwithstanding that, numerous studies have shown that r/s is negatively associated with many harmful behaviors such as smoking [ , ], alcohol drinking [ , ], substance abuse [ , ], and risky sexual activities [ , ] and positively associated with good health behaviors such as the use of preventive health care services [ , ], physical activity [ ], and seat belt use [ ]. certain health practices are endorsed and encouraged by most religions, such as healthy eating. in fact, most religions have specific dietary guidelines regarding what food to eat or avoid. these guidelines fall into two categories. the first cate- gory involves “a temporal abstinence from all or certain foods (fasting)”—the majority of religions have fasting guidelines, for example, muslims fasting during ramadan and oriental orthodox christians fasting before holy communion. the second category relates to “stable and distinctive dietary habits that differ from the general population”; for example, muslims consume halal meat and jews consume kosher meat [ ]. the main purposes of these dietary guidelines are for spiritual advancement. r/s might encourage the consumption of fruit and vegetable and discourage fat intake (especially animal fat) because of specific doctrines of a particular religion. for example, the teaching of ahimsa (do no harm) in mahayana buddhism and hinduism encourages their adherents to be vegetarians in order to cultivate compassion, since eating ani- mals requires slaughtering. nonvegetarian food is considered impure and could hinder one’s spiritual development [ ]. the seventh-day adventists are encouraged to be vegetarians, as part of a religious duty to maintain a healthy body [ ]. even in religions that do not have specific dietary guidelines or restrictions, the teaching that the body is sacred might encourage the adoption of healthier behaviors, including a healthier diet. the long term dietary practices required by certain religions could be a protective factor in preventing diet- related diseases. for example, the seventh-day adventist church and the church of jesus christ of the latter-day saints both encourage their believers to consume more fruit and vegetable and less fat. there is evidence from observa- tional studies that adventists, mormons, and adherents of religions with strict dietary guidelines have healthier diets, better physical health, and longer lifespans than the general population [ , ]. notwithstanding the importance of food in many reli- gions, there is a surprising scarcity of research on the relationship between r/s and diet. according to the first edition of the handbook of religion and health [ ], the most comprehensive review about r/s and health to date, there were only seven studies on r/s and diet before . the second edition of this handbook ( ) reviewed studies about r/s and diet between and . sixty-two percent showed a positive association; that is, a higher measured r/s is associated with a healthier diet. a few other reviews also identified generally positive associations between r/s and a healthier diet. groen and van der heide [ ], for instance, reviewed the role of dietary cholesterol in the development of atherosclerosis and coro- nary thrombosis among adherents of different religions. they found that jews and vegetarian trappist monks have a lower cholesterol level than the comparable groups. shatenstein and ghadirian [ ] reviewed the differences in health behaviors, including dietary practices, among different religious groups. evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine in another review, sarri et al. [ ] examined religious dietary practices and physical health among muslims, seventh- day adventists, orthodox christians, jews, buddhists, and a few other religions. there was an inconsistent finding about the influence of ramadan fasting on physical health among muslims and an overall positive relationship between religious dietary practices and health in other religions. however, to date, there has been no review that examined the relationship between r/s and specific dietary intake. the past reviews have only examined r/s and diet in general. thus, the purpose our review was to address this gap and systematically review the relationship between r/s and fruit, vegetable and fat intake. we hypothesized that r/s was positively associated with fruit and vegetable intake, and negatively associated with fat intake. . methods . . search strategy. pubmed, cinahl, and psycinfo were searched by using two categories of key terms: religious key terms (religion, religiosity, religiousness, and spirituality) and dietary key terms (diet, food, food habits, health behavior, food preferences, eating, nutritional status, fruit, vegetable, fibers, and fats). the boolean operator “or” was used to com- bine key terms within each category, and “and” to combine both categories. in pubmed database, the “not” operator was also used to eliminate studies related to clinical trials, fasting, reviews, systematic reviews, case reports, editorial, and comment. the full search strategy can be obtained from the authors. . . inclusion criteria. to be eligible for inclusion, a paper had to fulfill the following criteria. ( ) the research analyzed the direct association between at least one quantified r/s measure and at least one quantified measure of fruit and vegetable or fat intake. thus, qualitative studies and case studies were excluded. ( ) the paper was published in english and in a peer- reviewed journal before march . . . exclusion criteria. a paper was excluded if ( ) r/s and fruit, vegetable, and/or fat intake were included but their relationship was not examined directly (e.g., parents’ r/s and children’s intake) ( ) only overall health/dietary behavior was assessed but not fruit, vegetable, and/or fat intake specifically ( ) r/s was included as part of the measure of another variable (e.g., social support) but the direct relation- ship between r/s and fruit, vegetable, and/or fat intake was not assessed; ( ) the focus of the paper was fasting and/or eating disorders; ( ) the paper examined only serum levels of nutrients and not direct intake. serum level or biomarkers of nutrients might not be an accurate indicator of fruit, vegetable, and fat intake since the nutrients could be obtained from supplements; ( ) the paper examined fiber intake but did not specify its dietary source as fruit and vegetable. fiber could be obtained from supplements and nonfruit or vegetable food source such as grains. the references and bibliographies of the papers were also examined to identify other relevant articles. previous reviews of the relationship between diet (generally) and r/s were also examined [ , , , ], and in one case the review author was contacted for his list of papers, which were not detailed in the review itself. . analysis the frequency and types of fruit, vegetable, and fat intake measures used were first examined. the measures were categorized into dietary records, -hour dietary recall, food frequency, brief dietary assessment methods, and dietary history. a dietary record is a detailed record of all food and drinks consumed over a period of time by a respondent; in -hour dietary recall, a respondent is asked about the food and drinks he/she consumed during the past hours; a food frequency questionnaire is a list of commonly consumed food that could be selected by respondents; brief dietary assessments are used to estimate the intake of a nutrient or a type of food but do not assess overall diet; dietary history assesses dietary patterns over time [ ]. the studies were divided into two categories: ( )denom- inational studies that compared fruit, vegetable, and/or fat intake between members of different religions, or denomi- nations within the same religion, or between a religion with the general population and ( ) degree of r/s studies that examined the degree of r/s and its association with fruit and vegetable and/or fat intake. the two categories were analyzed separately. the analyses of degree of r/s studies were guided by rew and wong [ ] and wong et al. [ ]. first the categories of r/s measures were analyzed. the classification scheme was based on wong et al. [ ], which is a modification of hackney and sanders [ ]. there are six categories: institutional (social and behavior aspects of r/s e.g., attendance and social support), ideological (r/s beliefs e.g., importance of religion), personal devotion (personal and internalized devotion, e.g., private prayer), existential (measures that are spiritual but not reli- gious, e.g., spiritual wellbeing), multidimensional (examined more than one category of r/s), and generic (e.g., one-item measure that asks about how religious are the respondents) [ ]. the relationships (positive (+), negative (−), mixed, or none) between r/s measures and fruit, vegetable, and fat intake were identified. the quality of r/s measures was assessed by examining whether their validity and reliability were reported. the number of studies that used single-item measure was also examined. many r/s and health studies relied solely on the use of single-item measure of religious attendance, which has its limitations in health research [ ]. the quality of research evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine in cl ud ed el ig ib ili ty sc re en in g id en tifi ca tio n qualitative studies did not assess direct relationship between r/s and intake of fruit/vegetable or fat no specific dietary measures of fruit/vegetable or fat intakes no r/s measures or r/s measures part of another variable records identified through database searching additional records identified through other sources records after duplicates removed records screened articles included in qualitative synthesis (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) (n = ) records excluded eligibility full-text articles assessed for excluded based on titles excluded based on abstracts unreachable authors unavailable full-text articles excluded with reasons (n = ) ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ figure : articles selection process. design (control for covariates, utilization of longitudinal data, and investigation of mediators) was assessed [ ]. the studies were also categorized based on their reported relationship between r/s and fruit, vegetable, and fat intake. . results out of the potentially relevant papers identified by the database search strategy, papers fulfilled the inclusion cri- teria. an additional seven papers were obtained through cross reference of included papers and previous reviews. figure shows the flowchart of article selection process. all of the studies were cross-sectional. there are denominational studies that do not contain other r/s measures, studies that examined only degree of r/s, and four that included both denominational differences and degree of r/s. see table for the table of characteristics of the studies. the majority ( %) of the studies were conducted in the united states. five were conducted in other western countries (two in australia ( . %), and one each ( . %) in scotland, slovakia, and canada), two in israel ( . %) one in japan ( . %), and one in south korea ( . %). four studies included only female samples. eleven studies were race- specific; seven examined african americans, two examined non-hispanic whites, one examined koreans, and one exam- ined japanese. thirty-two of the studies ( . %) included samples that were predominantly christians. four studies examined jews and three examined buddhists. . . assessment of dietary intake. out of the studies, examined fruit, vegetable, and fat intake, examined only fruit and vegetable intake, and the other only examined fat intake. table shows the categories of dietary assessments of fruit, vegetable, and fat intake. among the five categories of dietary assessment methods, brief dietary assessments were the most used, followed by food frequency. the most used brief dietary assessment was the fat- and fiber-related behavior questionnaire [ ], which was included in four studies, followed by the national institute’s -a-day survey [ ], which was included in three studies. three studies used more than one dietary assessment method, and two used more than one brief dietary assessment. . . denominational studies. a total of studies were ana- lyzed. eight ( %) of them compared seventh-day adven- tists with the other denominations (catholics, methodists, and mormons) or non-adventists, three compared fruit, vegetable, and fat intake, three compared only fruit and vegetable intake, and two compared only fat intake. among the six studies that compared fruit and vegetable intake, three ( %) showed that adventists consumed significantly more fruit and vegetable than members of other denominations and non-adventists, one ( . %) had positive but nonsignifi- cant association, one was nonsignificant in vegetable intake but significant in higher fruit intake, and one showed that adventists consumed less deep fried vegetable. five studies compared total fat intake between adventists and non-adventists. two ( %) showed that adventists consumed less fat. one showed that adventists consumed less fat when comparing total fat in grams, but similar amount of fat as non-adventists when comparing the percentage of energy from fat. another study showed that adventist evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine ta bl e : c ha ra ct er is tic so fs tu di es in cl ud ed in th e sy st em at ic re vi ew of th e as so ci at io ns be tw ee n r /s an d fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e or fa ti nt ak e. o nl y va ri ab le sr el at ed to th is sy st em at ic re vi ew ar e re po rt ed in th is ta bl e. (a ) d en om in at io na ls tu di es (a dv en tis ts ve rs us ot he rs ) n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d d en om in at io ns d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t a le xa nd er ( ) [ ] d en ve r, u sa a du lts c on ve ni en ce a dv en tis ts c at ho lic s √ √ ff q a dv en tis ts (i )m or e fr ui t/ ve ge ta bl e (i i) le ss fa t (i ii) le ss sa tu ra te d fa t (i v) le ss % en er gy fr om sa tu ra te d fa t n on si gn ifi ca nt : (i )p ol yu ns at ur at ed fa t (i i) % en er gy fr om po ly un sa tu ra te d fa t (i ii) % en er gy fr om fa t g en de r h un t( )[ ] la ,c al ifo rn ia , u sa po st m en op au sa l w om en c on ve ni en ce a dv en tis ts m et ho di st s √ hr di et ar y re ca ll a dv en tis ts no ns ig ni fic an tly m or e fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e (𝑃 = . ) n on e k en t( )[ ] m el bo ur ne , a us tr al ia a du lts r an do m a dv en tis ts n on -a dv en tis ts √ ff q a dv en tis ts m or e fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e a ge k uc zm ar sk i ( ) [ ] n or th c ar ol in a, u sa a do le sc en ts c on ve ni en ce a dv en tis ts n on -a dv en tis ts √ √ ff q a dv en tis ts (i )m al es & fe m al es :m or e fr ui t (i i) fe m al es :m or e fa ts n on e r ou se ( ) [ ] pe rt h, a us tr al ia a du lts , – yr s c on ve ni en ce a dv en tis t (v eg et ar ia ns & om ni vo re s) m or m on s (o m ni vo re s) √ hr di et ar y re ca ll m or m on m al es m or e to ta lf at & sa tu ra te d fa ti nt ak e th an m al e a dv en tis tv eg et ar ia ns po ly un sa tu ra te d fa t— a dv en tis t ve ge ta ri an s> m or m on s> a dv en tis t om ni vo re s p :s ra tio — lo w in sd a om ni vo re sa nd m or m on s n on e sa ba té ( ) [ ] u sa sc ho ol ch ild re n, s t– th gr ad es r an do m d en om in at io na l sc ho ol — sd a or pu bl ic √ ff q a dv en tis ts ch oo lc hi ld re n m or e fr ui t/ ve ge ta bl e n o sh ul tz ( ) [ ] o re go n, u sa a du lts r an do m a dv en tis ts (v eg et ar ia ns ) n on -a dv en tis ts (n on ve ge ta ri an s) √ - da y di et ar y re co rd ff q - da y di et ar y re co rd :n on si gn ifi ca nt , th ou gh no n- a dv en tis ts % m or e to ta lf at ff q (i )n on -a dv en tis ts m or e de ep fr ie d ve ge ta bl e (i i) n on -a dv en tis ts m or e an im al fa ta nd m or e sa tu ra te d fa t n on e evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (a ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d d en om in at io ns d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t fr as er ( ) [ ] la & o ra ng e c ou nt ie s, u sa n on -h is pa ni c w hi te s, – yr s r an do m (a dv en tis ts )& co nv en ie nc e (n on -a dv en tis t ne ig hb or s) a dv en tis ts n on -a dv en tis ts √ ff q a dv en tis ts — le ss fa t, le ss sa tu ra te d fa t, hi gh er p :s ra tio ;l in ol ei c ac id no ne n on e (b ) d en om in at io na ls tu di es (o th er re lig io ns /d en om in at io ns ) n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d d en om in at io ns d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t ep st ei n ( ) [ ] n ew yo rk , u sa g ar m en tw or ke rs , > yr s r an do m it al ia n je w is h o th er s √ -h rd ie ta ry re ca ll it al ia ns an d je w s— no di ffe re nc e in fa ti nt ak e je w sm or e an im al fa ts n on e g lic k ( ) [ ] ya te s c ou nt ry ,n y, u sa o ld or de r m en no ni te s u nc le ar m en no ni te u sa po pu la tio n √ ff q m en no ni te sm al es & fe m al es m or e fa t& ol ei c ac id th an u sa sa m pl e m en no ni te m al es — si m ila r% ca lo ri es fr om fa tw ith u sa sa m pl e n on e k ita ( ) [ ] ky ot o, ja pa n a du lts , – yr s c on ve ni en ce z en m on ks u ni ve rs ity st ud en ts √ -h rd ie ta ry re ca ll z en m on ks le ss fa ti nt ak e & hi gh er p/ s ra tio n on e le e ( ) [ ] g ye on gb uk , r ep ub lic of k or ea fe m al es — bu dd hi st nu ns & c at ho lic nu ns c on ve ni en ce bu dd hi st s c at ho lic s √ fa ti n % kc al to ta lf at pl an tf at a ni m al fa t n o di ffe re nc es in fa ti n % kc al ,t ot al fa t, pl an tf at c at ho lic sm or e an im al fa t n on e m ul le n ( ) [ ] w es to f sc ot la nd ,u k a du lts ,> yr s st ra tifi ed ra nd om c at ho lic s n on -c at ho lic s √ ff q c at ho lic s— pu re fr ui tj ui ce c at ho lic m al es — le ss fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e se x, oc cu pa tio na l cl as s sh at en st ei n ( ) [ ] g re at er m on tr ea l, c an ad a h as si di c fa m ili es r an do m h as si di c se ct s— o ut re m on t h as si di m & lu ba vi tc he rh as si di m √ fo od fr eq ue nc y & fo od ha bi ts lis t - da y fo od re co rd lu ba vi tc he rh as si di m m or e co ok ed fr ui t n on e (c ) d en om in at io na l+ de gr ee of r /s st ud ie s n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t k im ( ) [ ] u sa a du lts r an do m r el ig io us de no m in at io n r el ig io us at te nd an ce r el ig io us ap pl ic at io n r el ig io us co m m itm en t r el ig io us id en tit y r el ig io us co pi ng r el ig io us so ci al su pp or t √ n at io na lc an ce r in st itu te ’s q ui ck fo od sc an c on se rv at iv e pr ot es ta nt /o th er s/ no re lig io n w om en m or e fa tt ha n c at ho lic w om en m al es — no ne a ge ,r ac e, ed uc at io n, m ar ita ls ta tu s, em pl oy m en t evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (c ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t k im ( ) [ ] te xa s, u sa n on -h is pa ni c w hi te s, – yr s r an do m d en om in at io n a tte nd an ce r el ig io us so ci al su pp or t (% ne tw or k in ch ur ch & % ne tw or k in re lig io n) √ in te rv ie w ab ou tf at re du ct io n be ha vi or a ll r /s m ea su re s no ns ig ni fic an tf or m en w om en — d en om in at io n no ns ig ni fic an t; m or e % ne tw or k in ch ur ch ,l es sf at re du ct io n be ha vi or ;m or e % ne tw or k in re lig io n, m or e fa t re du ct io n be ha vi or a ge ,s es , ur ba n- ru ra l re si de nc e, liv in g w ith so m eo ne , ch ro ni c ill ne ss , ph ys ic al ly di sa bl ed , he al th & di sa bi lit y, ge ne ra ls oc ia l su pp or t m ci nt os h ( ) [ ] v ir gi ni a, u sa el de rl y r an do m r el ig io us pa rt ic ip at io n r el ig io us sa lie nc e r el ig io us di sa gr ee m en t r el ig io us pr ef er en ce √ hr di et ar y re ca ll +v e fo rs al ie nc e an d fa ti nt ak e +v e fo rd is ag re em en ta nd fa t in ta ke m or e lo ca lis tic ,m et ho di st s m or e fa t, br et hr en le ss fa t se x, in co m e sc hl un dt ( ) [ ] n as hv ill e, te nn es se e, u sa w hi te & a fr ic an a m er ic an s, > yr s st ra tifi ed ra nd om r el ig io us de no m in at io n/ affi lia tio n r el ig io us in vo lv em en t in de x (r el ig io us at te nd an ce ,r el ig io si ty , pe rc ep tio n of re lig io n as a so ur ce of st re ng th an d co m fo rt ) √ √ ea tin g b eh av io rp at te rn s q ue st io nn ai re ea tin g st yl es q ue st io nn ai re (b ot h a da pt ed fr om b eh av io ra lr is k fa ct or su rv ei lla nc e sy st em ) d en om in at io n— no ns ig ni fic an t r el ig io us in vo lv em en ti nd ex po si tiv el y as so ci at ed w ith he al th y ea tin g be ha vi or sa nd hi gh -f at be ha vi or s a ge ,s ex ,r ac e, ed uc at io n, in co m e & em pl oy m en t (d ) d eg re e of r /s st ud ie s n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t a rr ed on do ( ) [ ] u sa w om en , – yr s r an do m c hu rc h at te nd an ce √ √ bl oc k fa t& fib er sc re en er fr eq ue nt ch ur ch go er sm or e fib er th an no nc hu rc hg oe rs c hu rc hg oe rs (f re qu en t& in fr eq ue nt )m or e fib er th an no nc hu rc hg oe rs ed uc at io n, m ar ita ls ta tu s, em pl oy m en t, ag e evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (d ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t ba ru th ( ) [ ] so ut h c ar ol in a, u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an s, > yr s r an do m pe rc ei ve d en vi ro nm en ta lc hu rc h su pp or t( pe rc ei ve d w ri tte n in fo rm at io na l, pe rc ei ve d sp ok en in fo rm at io na l, pe rc ei ve d in st ru m en ta l, to ta lp er ce iv ed ch ur ch su pp or t) √ √ n at io na lc an ce r in st itu te fr ui t an d ve ge ta bl e sc re en er se rv in gs of fr ui t an d ve ge ta bl e fa t- an d fi be r- r el at ed b eh av io r q ue st io nn ai re m or e fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e (i )m or e to ta lp er ce iv ed ch ur ch su pp or t, pe rc ei ve d w ri tte n in fo rm at io na ls up po rt & pe rc ei ve d sp ok en in fo rm at io na l su pp or t m or e lo w -f at be ha vi or (i )m or e to ta lp er ce iv ed ch ur ch su pp or ta nd pe rc ei ve d w ri tte n in fo rm at io na ls up po rt se x, ye ar so f ed uc at io n, he al th ra tin g, ag e, bm i, in flu en ce of ch ur ch b en ja m in s( ) [ ] u sa je w is h st ud en ts , t h– t h gr ad es c on ve ni en ce r el ig io us be lie fs & he al th √ yo ut h r is k b eh av io rs ur ve y ( fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e da ily ) n on si gn ifi ca nt g en de r, w ei gh t st at us ,d ie tin g, pa re nt al in vo lv em en t, co nfi de nc e d eb na m ( a ) [ ] u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an s, > yr s pr ob ab ili ty - ba se d bu t no tr ep re - se nt at iv e r el ig io n so ci al su pp or t (e m ot io na ls up po rt re ce iv ed ,e m ot io na l su pp or tp ro vi de d, an tic ip at ed su pp or t, ne ga tiv e in te ra ct io n) √ n at io na lc an ce r in st itu te ’s fi ve -a -d ay su rv ey m or e so ci al su pp or t, m or e fr ui t an d ve ge ta bl e (i )a dd iti ve eff ec t: em ot io na l re lig io us su pp or t a ge , ed uc at io n, se x, se lf- ra te d he al th st at us d eb na m ( b ) [ ] u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an s, > yr s r an do m sp ir itu al h ea lth lo cu s of c on tr ol sc al e (a ct iv e sp ir itu al ,p as si ve sp ir itu al ) √ n at io na lc an ce r in st itu te ’s - a -d ay su rv ey o ve ra ll: +v e fo ra ct iv e sp ir itu al an d da ily fr ui ts er vi ng s − ve fo rp as si ve sp ir itu al an d da ily ve ge ta bl e se rv in gs m al es :− ve fo rp as si ve sp ir itu al an d da ily ve ge ta bl e se rv in gs ; no ns ig ni fic an tf or fr ui t fe m al es :− ve fo rp as si ve sp ir itu al an d da ily ve ge ta bl e se rv in gs ; no ne fo rf ru it a ge , ed uc at io n, he al th st at us evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (d ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t fi fe ( ) [ ] n or th ea st , u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an un iv er si ty st ud en ts c on ve ni en ce d uk e u ni ve rs ity r el ig io n in de x √ yo ut h r is k b eh av io rs ur ve y (i )a te no fr ui t du ri ng th e pa st da ys (i i) a te no sa la d du ri ng th e pa st da ys (i ii) d ra nk no % fr ui tj ui ce du ri ng th e pa st da ys c hi -s qu ar e te st : (i )n on si gn ifi ca nt — at e no fr ui t du ri ng th e pa st da ys ;a te no sa la d du ri ng th e pa st da ys (i i) si gn ifi ca nt — dr an k no % fr ui tj ui ce du ri ng th e pa st da ys lo gi st ic re gr es si on : (i )u ni va ri at e & m ul tiv ar ia te — “i nt ri ns ic on ly ” gr ou p m or e lik el y to dr in k no % fr ui tj ui ce du ri ng th e pa st da ys ye ar in sc ho ol , ge nd er fr an kl in ( ) [ ] u sa a du lts , – yr s st ra tifi ed ra nd om r el ig io us he al th fa ta lis m qu es tio nn ai re √ fa t- in cr ea si ng be ha vi or fa t- de cr ea si ng be ha vi or h ig h fa ta lis m +v e as so ci at ed w ith bo th hi gh fa t- in cr ea si ng be ha vi or & hi gh fa t- de cr ea si ng be ha vi or a ge ,r ac e, ge nd er , in co m e, ed uc at io n fr ie dl an de r ( ) [ ] je ru sa le m , is ra el je w is h ad ul ts m ul tis ta ge ra nd om d eg re e of re lig io si ty (o rt ho do x, tr ad iti on al , se cu la r) √ √ -h rd ie ta ry re ca ll +v e fo rt ot al fa t, sa tu ra te d fa t, an d p :s ra tio in m al es n on si gn ifi ca nt fo rf ru it an d ve ge ta bl e in ta ke a ge ,r eg io n of or ig in ,b m i, so ci al cl as s, se as on al ity h ar t( )[ ] u sa a du lts ,> yr s r an do m r el ig io us or ie nt at io n (i nt ri ns ic ve rs us ex tr in si c) √ √ fa t- an d fi be r- r el at ed b eh av io r q ue st io nn ai re n on si gn ifi ca nt fo rf ru it an d ve ge ta bl e m or e ex tr in si c, le ss fa t a ge ,s ex ,r ac e, ed uc at io n, m ar ita ls ta tu s, ch ur ch si ze h ar t( )[ ] se at tle ,u sa a du lts ,> yr s r an do m c oh es iv en es so f re lig io us or ga ni za tio n m em be rs √ fa t- an d fi be r- r el at ed b eh av io r q ue st io nn ai re m or e co he si ve ne ss ,l es sf at ,b ut no ns ig ni fic an ta fte rc on tr ol lin g fo ra ge an d ra ce a ge ,r ac e h ar t( )[ ] w as hi ng to n, u sa a du lts ,> yr s r an do m so ci al en vi ro nm en ta l (c oh es io n, le ad er su pp or t, or de r/ or ga ni za tio n, le ad er co nt ro l) √ √ fa t- an d fi be r- r el at ed b eh av io r q ue st io nn ai re m or e co he si on ,m or e or de r/ or ga ni za tio n, m or e fr ui t an d ve ge ta bl e m or e co he si on , or de r/ or ga ni za tio n, lo w er fa t a ge ,r ac e, ge nd er , ed uc at io n m ar ita ls ta tu s, si ze of re lig io us or ga ni za tio n evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (d ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t h ol t( )[ ] m is so ur i, u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an w om en , – yr s c on ve ni en ce r el ig io si ty (b el ie fs & be ha vi or ) (i ) ca te go ri es :l ow re lig io us be ha vi or on ly , be lie fo nl y, hi gh re lig io us √ n at io na lc an ce r in st itu te ’s - a- da y su rv ey fr ui t/ ve ge ta bl e in ta ke in de sc en di ng or de r: h ig he rr el ig io us ,b eh av io ro nl y, be lie fo nl y, lo w re lig io us ed uc at io n, in co m e ex am in ed as po te nt ia l co va ri at es bu t no ti nc lu de d be ca us e th ey ar e no t as so ci at ed w ith re lig io us or ie nt at io n ly tle ( ) [ ] m in ne so ta , u sa a do le sc en ts r an do m sp ir itu al be lie fs in he al th be ha vi or s √ fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e fo od fr eq ue nc y sc al e (f ro m b eh av io ra l r is k fa ct or su rv ei lla nc e sy st em ) h ig he rs pi ri tu al be lie f, m or e fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e d em og ra ph ic & ps yc ho so ci al va ri ab le s o bi se sa n ( ) [ ] u sa , n on pr eg na nt ad ul ts ,> yr s m ul tis ta ge ra nd om c hu rc h at te nd an ce √ ff q -h rd ie ta ry re ca ll n on si gn ifi ca nt a ge , so ci od em og ra - ph ic va ri ab le s, he al th st at us pa rk ( ) [ ] h ar tfo rd h os pi ta l, u sa c an ce r su rv iv or s, – yr s c on ve ni en ce r el ig io us se rv ic e at te nd an ce d ai ly sp ir itu al ex pe ri en ce s r el ig io us st ru gg le sp ir itu al st ra in sc al e m ed ia to r: se lf- as su ra nc e √ se rv in gs of fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e a da y d ai ly sp ir itu al ex pe ri en ce s po si tiv el y re la te d to da ily se rv in gs of fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e se lf- as su ra nc e no tr el at ed to se rv in gs of fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e, so no m ed ia tio n te st co nd uc te d n o pi te l( )[ ] sl ov ak ia a do le sc en ts st ra tifi ed ra nd om r el ig io si ty (r el ig io us at te nd an ce & se lf- ra te d im po rt an ce of re lig io us fa ith ) √ n o re gu la rf ru it an d ve ge ta bl e co ns um pt io n n on si gn ifi ca nt a ge ,p ar en ta l di vo rc e, pa re nt al ed uc at io n, fa m ily affl ue nc e, de gr ee of ur ba ni za tio n, et hn ic ity evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine (d ) c on tin ue d. n o. fi rs ta ut ho r (p ub lic at io n ye ar ) lo ca tio n 𝑁 po pu la tio n sa m pl in g m et ho d r /s m ea su re s d ie ta ry m ea su re s d ie ta ry as se ss m en t m et ho ds fi nd in g c on tr ol va ri ab le s f/ v fa t r ee ve s( ) [ ] ja ck so n, u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an s r an do m o rg an iz ed re lig io us ac tiv ity pr iv at e pr ay er d ai ly sp ir itu al ex pe ri en ce s √ ff q — % ca lo ri es fr om fa t n on si gn ifi ca nt n on e sa lm oi ra go - bl ot ch er ( ) [ ] u sa , po st m en op au sa l w om en , – yr s r an do m se rv ic e at te nd an ce √ ff q — sa tu ra te d fa ti nt ak e n on si gn ifi ca nt a ge ,r ac e, m ar ita ls ta tu s, ed uc at io n, he al th in su ra nc e, en ro llm en t st at us ,p hy si ca l fu nc tio ni ng , se lf- ra te d he al th sh m ue li ( ) [ ] is ra el je w s, > yr s r an do m r el ig io si ty — se cu la r, ob se rv an t, re lig io us √ ff q n on si gn ifi ca nt a ge ,g en de r, ed uc at io n, m ar ita ls ta tu s, et hn ic or ig in , so ci oe co no m ic st at us u nd er w oo d ( ) [ ] m id w es t, u sa a fr ic an a m er ic an s, > yr s c on ve ni en ce r el ig io us in te ns ity /r el ig io us ne ss sp ir itu al in te ns ity /s pi ri tu al ity r el ig io us pr ac tic es √ √ pu bl ic he al th se rv ic e he al th st yl e se lf- te st ve ry /m od er at el y sp ir itu al , ve ry /m od er at el y re lig io us ,m or e co lla bo ra tio n— le ss fr ui ta nd ve ge ta bl e, m or e fa t n on e w iis t( )[ ] w eb -b as ed bu dd hi st s, > yr s c on ve ni en ce bu dd hi st d ev ou tn es s in de x (b ud dh is t pr ac tic es & be lie fs ) √ √ ff q n on si gn ifi ca nt a ge ,g en de r, in co m e, di sa bi lit y, so ci al su pp or t a bb re vi at io ns : f/ v :f ru it/ ve ge ta bl e. ff q :f oo d fr eq ue nc y qu es tio nn ai re . p :s :p ol yu ns at ur at ed fa t: sa tu ra te d fa t. evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine females consumed more fat. one showed no significant relationship. these five studies also examined the intake of saturated fat, and all found that adventists consumed less saturated fat, even though their total fat intake was similar to those of non-adventists. three of the studies also compared the intake of unsaturated fat. two found no significant relationship, and one found that among adventists, the vegetarians consumed more unsaturated fat than mormons, but adventist omnivores consumed less saturated fat than the mormons. among the studies that compared unsaturated fat intake, two also looked at the polyunsaturated fat and saturated fat (p : s) ratio and found that adventists had a higher p : s ratio. two of the denominational studies examined jews. one compared the jews with the general population in italy and found that there was no difference in fat intake between the two groups. however, jews consumed more animal fat than the general population. another study compared two jewish hassidic sects and found that lubavitcher hassidim consumed more cooked fruit. there are two denominational studies that examined fat intake in buddhists. the study that compared japanese zen buddhist monks with the general population in japan found that zen monks consumed less total fat and saturated fat, more unsaturated fat, and had a higher p : s ratio. however, another study that compared buddhist nuns with catholic nuns found no significant difference in total fat and unsaturated fat intake, but catholic nuns consumed more animal fat. one study compared mennonites with the general us population and found that the mennonites have higher total fat, saturated fat, and unsaturated fat intake. another one study compared catholics with non-catholics in scotland and found that catholics consumed less pure fruit juice and catholic males consumed less fruit and vegetable. four studies were multidenominational. one examined fruit, vegetable, and fat intake and found no significant relationship. three studies examined fat intake only. one found no significant association. one study found that religious denomination mediates fat intake. one showed that among females, conservative protestant and those who have no religious preferences consumed more fat than catholics. . . degree of religiosity studies. a total of studies were analyzed. the r/s measures were categorized into the six categories described in the previous section. table shows the categories of r/s measures and their association with fruit and vegetable intake. the most com- monly used r/s measures are multidimensional ( . %). among the r/s measures, eight ( . %) showed a positive association with fruit and vegetable intake and another seven ( . %) showed no significant relationship. among the seven measures that showed no significant relationship, four of them showed evidence of a positive trend in the relationship between fruit and/or vegetable intake. table shows the categories of r/s measures and their association with total fat intake. the most commonly used r/s measures are institutional ( . %). among the r/s measures, ( . %) showed no significant relationship between r/s and total fat intake, while seven ( . %) showed a negative relationship. among studies that show no signif- icant relationship, five showed evidence of a positive trend, and seven showed evidence of a negative trend. in addition to total fat intake, three studies also examined saturated fat intake. two studies showed no significant association. one examined the degree of orthodoxy among jews and found that more orthodox jews consumed less total fat and saturated fat, more unsaturated fat, and have a higher p : s ratio. only % ( out of ) of the papers reported the validity of r/s measures, and % ( out of ) reported reliability of at least one of the r/s measures. of the studies that do not report reliability, three of them utilized a single- item measure of attendance. the majority of the studies ( %) controlled for covariates such as age, gender and years of education. all the studies were cross-sectional. only one study investigated the mediator between r/s measures and healthy behaviors. however, since the mediator (self- assurance) was not associated with the intake of fruit and vegetable in the study, no further mediation test was carried out. table shows the number of studies categorized based on their reported relationship. of the studies that examined the degree of r/s and fruit and vegetable intake, r/s reported positive association with fruit and vegetable intake in about half ( . %) of the studies and no association in . % of the studies. as for fat intake, almost half ( . %) of the studies reported no association, and an equal number ( %) reported positive and negative findings. . discussion about half of the denominational studies compared adven- tists and non-adventists. healthy eating is one of the major teachings in the adventist church; other christian denom- inations (except the church of jesus christ of the latter- day saints) do not emphasize healthy eating as much as the adventist church. thus, it is not surprising to find that adventists generally consumed more fruit and vegetable and less total fat and saturated fat than non-adventists. similarly in studies that compared buddhist monks and nuns with non-buddhists, because of the teaching of ahimsa (do no harm), buddhists monks and nuns are vegans, and again it is not surprising to find that they consumed less saturated fat or animal fat. a weakness of denominational studies is the assumption of homogeneity of dietary practices among the members within a denomination. denominational studies only compared denominational differences as a whole and omitted the individual variation of r/s of members within a denomination. it is unknown whether this variation is associ- ated with dietary intake. in addition, denominational studies are “likely to be confounded with region and the effects of socioeconomic status” [ ], and almost all of the denomi- national studies in this review did not control for covariates. four of the denominational studies included samples from various christian denominations. three of the studies found no significant relationship between religious denomi- nation and dietary intake. the nonsignificant findings were evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table categories of r/s measures paper no. in table institutional attendance , , , , , organized religious activity perceived environmental church support religious social support , , cohesiveness of religious organization members social environment religious identity ideological religious beliefs and health religious application religious coping spiritual belief in health behaviors religious salience religious disagreement religious problem-solving religious struggle spiritual health locus of control religious health fatalism private devotion private prayer religious orientation (intrinsic versus extrinsic) spiritual daily spiritual experience , multidimensional durel religiosity (beliefs and practices) religious participation religiosity (attendance and self-rated importance) religious involvement index jewish religiosity , religious commitment buddhist devoutness index generic religious intensity spiritual intensity probably due to the fact that respondents from various denominations interpreted questionnaire items related to r/s differently. although a meta-analysis was not conducted due to heterogeneity of r/s measures and dietary measures, the present review on the relationship between degree of r/s and fruit and vegetable intake points towards a positive association; that is, a higher score of r/s is associated with higher fruit and vegetable intake. about half of the christian studies showed a significant positive relationship with fruit and vegetable. this is consistent with the previous review that r/s is associated with a better diet [ ]. the results of the present review also suggest that the regular consumption of fruit and vegetable may be one of the possible links between r/s and positive health outcomes. other possible links include adoption of other health behaviors such as the no smoking and drinking; better social integration and social support from religious communities; higher self-esteem and personal efficacy among the more religious; better coping resources and behaviors; positive emotions from religious practice; and healthy beliefs [ ]. six of the studies reported no association between degree of r/s and fruit and vegetable intake. all three studies that included only jewish samples showed no association. this may arise because the dietary restrictions of judaism only revolve around meat and animal products and not on fruit and vegetable. the consumption of fruit and vegetable is neither restricted nor encouraged. the findings for fat intake contradicted the previous review. almost half of the studies reported no association, and an equal number reported positive and negative findings. the contradiction might be due to the fact that the previous review examined diet as a whole and not particularly fat intake. there are other studies which showed that r/s was positively associated with greater body weight [ ] and obesity [ ], both of which might be related to high fat intake. the proposed explanation of higher prevalence of obesity among religious people could be that religious community is more accepting towards obese people, rather than r/s itself being the cause of obesity [ ]. kim et al. [ ] found that the positive relationship between r/s and greater body weight disappeared after controlling for health behaviors, particularly smoking. none of the degree of r/s studies in this review controlled for health behaviors and it is unknown whether similar attenuation effect was also found between r/s and fat intake. most of the studies in this systematic review included samples that were from the usa and western countries where christianity is the predominant religion; only two studies were conducted in asia and one in africa, even though religion is considered important by most people on these two continents [ ]. none of the studies examined hinduism and islam, the two major religions in the world besides christianity. only three studies examined buddhists; however, they were buddhists in the usa rather than in asia, even though there is a higher percentage of buddhists in asia. the most frequently used dietary assessment methods were brief dietary assessments. however, they are crude estimates of dietary intake. for example, the fat- and fiber- related behavior questionnaire does not report dietary intake per se but only an overall score of fruit and vegetable and fat intake. dietary records are considered the “gold standard” of dietary assessment methods [ ]. however, only two studies in this review utilized dietary records. no studies used dietary history, probably because they are cross- sectional and assessing dietary history is time-consuming. the present review also showed a diversity of r/s mea- sures used. even within a category (see table ), there was variation. for example, the r/s measures coded as “insti- tutional,” defined as “measures that focused on the social and behavioral aspects of r/s” [ ], included attendance and evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine table : dietary assessments of fruit and vegetable and fat intake. dietary assessment methods fruit and vegetable fat total % total % dietary records . -hour dietary recall . . food frequency . . brief dietary assessments . . dietary history total . . table : categories of r/s measures and fruit and vegetable intake. categories relationships total % + − mixed none institutional . ideological . personal devotion . existential . multidimensional . generic . total mixed: when an r/s measure is positively associated with fruit intake and negatively associated with vegetable intake or vice versa, or when a r/s measure is positively/negatively associated with fruit intake and not associated with vegetable intake or vice versa. table : categories of r/s measures and total fat intake. categories relationships total % + − mixed none institutional . ideological . personal devotion . existential . multidimensional . generic . total positive (+) relationship: a higher score of r/s measure is associated with lower fat intake; negative relationship (−): a higher score of r/s measure is associated with higher fat intake. mixed: when an r/s measure is both positively and negatively associated to fat intake. table : categories of studies. dietary intake relationships total + − mixed fruit and vegetable fat ∗ ∗ notes:∗positive (+): a higher score of r/s measure is associated with lower fat intake; negative (−): a higher score of r/s measure is associated with higher fat intake. religious social support, which are two different concepts that warrant further categorization. because of the diversity of r/s measures and that different r/s measures show different effects in different populations, it was proposed that r/s should be treated as a multidimensional construct [ ]. however, less than a third of the r/s measures included in the present review are multidimensional. very little information was provided with regard to the psychometric properties of the r/s measures. in this review, only % of the papers reported validity and % reported reliability of at least one r/s measure. however, only three studies (out of ) used single-item measures of religious attendance. the overall quality of the degree of r/s studies was mixed, most of the studies control for covariates, but none of them used longitudinal data and only one attempted mediation analysis. all the studies were cross-sectional; thus the inference of causal relationship between r/s and fruit, vegetable, and fat intake could not be established. in r/s and health research, there are very few experimental studies, and the wide use of cross-sectional data is another major drawback, in addition to lack of clear definition of r/s [ ]. there are several limitations in this review. only peer- reviewed studies that are published in english were included. this could be the reason why most studies in this review were from western countries and included mostly christian samples. second, unpublished studies were excluded and this might lead to publication bias, since studies with significant results are more likely to be published. nonetheless, the present review was the first that examined the relationship of r/s with specific dietary intake. the contradictory findings among the studies of degree of r/s point to the need for more studies that control for health behaviors, for example, smoking, and use more rigorous dietary assessment method. in addition, more studies are needed that include participants of other religions, especially those of eastern traditions and from non-western countries. there is also a need to use more rigorous r/s measures that are validated, reliable, and multidimensional. . conclusion overall, the denominational studies showed that religious denomination is significantly related to fruit, vegetable, and fat intake. specifically, the adventists consumed more fruit and vegetable and less fat than non-adventists. however, the relationship between the degree of r/s and dietary intake is mixed. the results of this review suggest that future research on r/s and diet may help explain the possible mechanism between religion and health. methodology more sophisti- cated than observational studies is required. longitudinal study methodologies (while still often observational) may enhance our understanding of underlying mechanisms. as religion is important for many people and affects their diet, improved methodological quality of r/s and diet research will surely shed more light on this area. references [ ] world health organization, global status report on noncom- municable diseases , world health organization, . evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine [ ] the american institute for cancer research, food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective, the american institute for cancer research, . [ ] m. a. s. van duyn and e. pivonka, “overview of the health benefits of fruit and vegetable consumption for the dietetics pro- fessional: selected literature,” journal of the american dietetic association, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] world health organization, world health report : world health report: reducing risks to health noncommunicable diseases, world health organization, . [ ] world health organization, global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks, world health organization, . [ ] e. cho, d. spiegelman, d. j. hunter et al., “premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer,” journal of the national cancer institute, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. oh, f. b. hu, j. e. manson, m. j. stampfer, and w. c. willett, “dietary fat intake and risk of coronary heart disease in women: years of follow-up of the nurses’ health study,” the american journal of epidemiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. a. marshall, r. f. hamman, and j. baxter, “high-fat, low- carbohydrate diet and the etiology of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: the san luis valley diabetes study,” the american journal of epidemiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] world health organization, “diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases: report of a joint who/fao expert consul- tation,” in who technical report series, . [ ] b. m. popkin, “the nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world,” journal of nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. s– s, . [ ] l. m. chatters, “religion and health: public health research and practice,” annual review of public health, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, “religion, spirituality, and health: the research and clinical implications,” isrn psychiatry, vol. , article id , pages, . [ ] l. b. koenig and g. e. vaillant, “a prospective study of church attendance and health over the lifespan,” health psychology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. crabtree and b. pelham, religion provides emotional boost to world’s poor, . [ ] n. krause, “religious meaning and subjective well-being in late life,” journals of gerontology a, vol. , no. , pp. s –s , . [ ] n. krause, “religious doubt and psychological well-being: a longitudinal investigation,” review of religious research, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] b. w. van voorhees, d. paunesku, s. a. kuwabara et al., “protec- tive and vulnerability factors predicting new-onset depressive episode in a representative of u.s. adolescents,” journal of adolescent health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] p. a. nisbet, p. r. duberstein, y. conwell, and l. seidlitz, “the effect of participation in religious activities on suicide versus natural death in adults and older,” journal of nervous and mental disease, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. w. larson, d. m. hansen, and g. moneta, “differing profiles of developmental experiences across types of organized youth activities,” developmental psychology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] d. oman, j. hedberg, and c. e. thoresen, “passage meditation reduces perceived stress in health professionals: a randomized, controlled trial,” journal of consulting and clinical psychology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] b.-h. chang, k. m. skinner, and u. boehmer, “religion and mental health among women veterans with sexual assault experience,” international journal of psychiatry in medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] g. burazeri, a. goda, and j. d. kark, “religious observance and acute coronary syndrome in predominantly muslim albania: a population-based case-control study in tirana,” annals of epidemiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. gillum and c. williams, “associations between breast cancer risk factors and religiousness in american women in a national health survey,” journal of religion and health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. f. gillum and d. d. ingram, “frequency of attendance at religious services, hypertension, and blood pressure: the third national health and nutrition examination survey,” psychoso- matic medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] d. h. jaffe, z. eisenbach, y. d. neumark, and o. manor, “does living in a religiously affiliated neighborhood lower mortality?” annals of epidemiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. obisesan, i. livingston, h. d. trulear, and f. gillum, “frequency of attendance at religious services, cardiovascular disease, metabolic risk factors and dietary intake in americans: an age-stratified exploratory analysis,” international journal of psychiatry in medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] w. r. miller and c. e. thoresen, “spirituality, religion, and health: an emerging research field,” the american psychologist, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, d. e. king, and v. b. carson, handbook of religion and health, oxford university press, new york, ny, usa, nd edition, . [ ] p. c. hill, k. i. pargament, r. w. hood jr. et al., “conceptualizing religion and spirituality: points of commonality, points of departure,” journal for the theory of social behaviour, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, spirituality and health research: methods, measurement, statistics and resources, templeton press, west conshohocken, pa, usa, . [ ] d. e. hall, k. g. meador, and h. g. koenig, “measuring religiousness in health research: review and critique,” journal of religion and health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. s. levin and h. y. vanderpool, “is frequent religious atten- dance really conducive to better health?: toward an epidemiol- ogy of religion,” social science and medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, j. c. hays, d. b. larson et al., “does religious attendance prolong survival? a six-year follow-up study of , older adults,” journals of gerontology b, vol. , no. , pp. m – m , . [ ] w. j. strawbridge, r. d. cohen, s. j. shema, and g. a. kaplan, “frequent attendance at religious services and mortality over years,” the american journal of public health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. d. hill, a. m. burdette, c. g. ellison, and m. a. musick, “religious attendance and the health behaviors of texas adults,” preventive medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] w. j. strawbridge, s. j. shema, r. d. cohen, and g. a. kaplan, “religious attendance increases survival by improving and evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine maintaining good health behaviors, mental health, and social relationships,” annals of behavioral medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. s. levin, k. s. markides, and l. a. ray, “religious attendance and psychological well-being in mexican americans: a panel analysis of three-generations data,” gerontologist, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] p. c. hill and k. i. pargament, “advances in the conceptualiza- tion and measurement of religion and spirituality: implications for physical and mental health research,” the american psychol- ogist, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. s. levin, “religion and health: is there an association, is it valid, and is it causal?” social science and medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] fetzer institute, multidimensional measurement of religious- ness/spirituality for use in health research, fetzer institute, kalamazoo, mich, usa, . [ ] b. duffy, “ipsos global @dvisory: supreme being(s),” the after- life and evolution, . [ ] c. g. ellison and j. s. levin, “the religion-health connection: evidence, theory, and future directions,” health education and behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. l. blay, a. d. batista, s. b. andreoli, and f. l. gastal, “the relationship between religiosity and tobacco, alcohol use, and depression in an elderly community population,” the american journal of geriatric psychiatry, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, l. k. george, h. j. cohen, j. c. hays, d. b. larson, and d. g. blazer, “the relationship between religious activities and cigarette smoking in older adults,” journals of gerontology a, vol. , no. , pp. m –m , . [ ] j. a. patock-peckham, g. t. hutchinson, j. cheong, and c. t. nagoshi, “effect of religion and religiosity on alcohol use in a college student sample,” drug and alcohol dependence, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. michalak, k. trocki, and j. bond, “religion and alcohol in the u.s. national alcohol survey: how important is religion for abstention and drinking?” drug and alcohol dependence, vol. , no. - , pp. – , . [ ] k. j. steinman, a. k. ferketich, and t. sahr, “the dose-response relationship of adolescent religious activity and substance use: variation across demographic groups,” health education and behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. miller, m. davies, and s. greenwald, “religiosity and substance use and abuse among adolescents in the national comorbidity survey,” journal of the american academy of child and adolescent psychiatry, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. a. whisman, k. c. gordon, and y. chatav, “predicting sexual infidelity in a population-based sample of married individuals,” journal of family psychology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. s. rostosky, m. d. regnerus, and m. l. c. wright, “coital debut: the role of religiosity and sex attitudes in the add health survey,” journal of sex research, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. reindl benjamins and c. brown, “religion and preventative health care utilization among the elderly,” social science and medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. r. benjamins, “religious influences on preventive health care use in a nationally representative sample of middle-age women,” journal of behavioral medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j.-c. suris, m. nebot, and n. parera, “behaviour evaluation for risk-taking adolescents (berta): an easy to use and assess instrument to detect adolescent risky behaviours in a clinical setting,” european journal of pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. sabaté, “religion, diet and research,” british journal of nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. j. rosen, food for the soul vegetarianism and yoga traditions, praeger, santa barbara, calif, usa, . [ ] j. white and e. white, christian temperance and bible hygiene, teach services, ringgold, ga, usa, . [ ] p. k. mills, w. l. beeson, r. l. phillips, and g. e. fraser, “cancer incidence among california seventh-day adventists, – ,” the american journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. s– s, . [ ] j. e. enstrom, “cancer and total mortality among active mor- mons,” cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. g. koenig, m. e. mccullough, and d. b. larson, handbook of religion and health, oxford university press, usa, ny, usa, . [ ] j. groen and r. m. van der heide, “atheerosclerosis and coronary thrombosis,” medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] b. shatenstein and p. ghadirian, “influence on diet, health behaviors and their outcome in select ethnocultural and reli- gious groups,” nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. o. sarri, s. higgins, and a. kafatos, “are religions “healthy”? a review on religious recommendations on diet and lifestyle,” human ecology special issue, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] a. m. coulston and c. j. boushey, nutrition in the prevention and treatment of disease, academic press, . [ ] l. rew and y. j. wong, “a systematic review of associations among religiosity/spirituality and adolescent health attitudes and behaviors,” journal of adolescent health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] y. j. wong, l. rew, and k. d. slaikeu, “a systematic review of recent research on adolescent religiosity/spirituality and mental health,” issues in mental health nursing, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. h. hackney and g. s. sanders, “religiosity and mental health: a meta-analysis of recent studies,” journal for the scientific study of religion, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] j. shannon, a. r. kristal, s. j. curry, and s. a. a. beresford, “application of a behavioral approach to measuring dietary change: the fat- and fiber-related diet behavior questionnaire,” cancer epidemiology biomarkers and prevention, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. e. thompson and t. byers, “dietary assessment resource manual,” journal of nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. s– s, . [ ] e. l. idler, m. a. musick, c. g. ellison et al., “measuring multiple dimensions of religion and spirituality for health research: conceptual background and findings from the general social survey,” research on aging, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. h. kim, j. sobal, and e. wethington, “religion and body weight,” international journal of obesity, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. f. ferraro, “firm believers? religion, body weight, and well- being,” review of religious research, vol. , no. , pp. – , . evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine [ ] h. alexander, l. p. lockwood, m. a. harris, and c. l. melby, “risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes in two groups of hispanic americans with differing dietary habits,” journal of the american college of nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] i. f. hunt, n. j. murphy, and c. henderson, “food and nutrient intake of seventh-day adventist women,” the american journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. m. kent and a. worsley, “does the prescriptive lifestyle of seventh-day adventists provide “immunity” from the secular effects of changes in bmi?” public health nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. j. kuczmarski, j. j. b. anderson, and g. g. koch, “correlates of blood pressure in seventh-day adventist (sda) and non- sda adolescents,” journal of the american college of nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] i. l. rouse, b. k. armstrong, and l. j. beilin, “the relationship of blood pressure to diet and lifestyle in two religious popula- tions,” journal of hypertension, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. sabate, k. d. lindsted, r. d. harris, and p. k. johnston, “anthropometric parameters of schoolchildren with different life-styles,” the american journal of diseases of children, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. d. shultz and j. e. leklem, “nutrient intake and hormonal status of premenopausal vegetarian seventh-day adventists and premenopausal nonvegetarians,” nutrition and cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] g. e. fraser, w. dysinger, c. best, and r. chan, “ischemic heart disease risk factors in middle-aged seventh-day adventist men and their neighbors,” the american journal of epidemiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. h. epstein, r. simpson, and e. p. boas, “relations between diet and atherosclerosis among a working population of differ- ent ethnic origins,” the american journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. glick, a. c. michel, j. dorn, m. horwitz, t. rosenthal, and m. trevisan, “dietary cardiovascular risk factors and serum cholesterol in an old order mennonite community,” the american journal of public health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. kita, m. yokode, n. kume et al., “the concentration of serum lipids in zen monks and control males in japan,” japanese circulation journal, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] y. lee and m. krawinkel, “body composition and nutrient intake of buddhist vegetarians,” asia pacific journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. mullen, r. williams, and k. hunt, “irish descent, religion and food consuption in the west of scotland,” appetite, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] b. shatenstein, p. ghadirian, and j. lambert, “influence of the jewish religion and jewish dietary laws (kashruth) on family food habits in an ultra-orthodox population in montreal,” ecology of food and nutrition, vol. , no. - , pp. – , . [ ] k. h.-c. kim and j. sobal, “religion, social support, fat intake and physical activity,” public health nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. h.-c. kim, w. m. a. mcintosh, k. s. kubena, and j. sobal, “religion,social support, food-related social support, diet, nutrition, and anthropometrics in older adults,” ecology of food and nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] w. a. mcintosh and p. a. shifflett, “dietary behavior, dietary adequacy, and religious social support: an exploratory study,” review of religious research, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] d. g. schlundt, m. d. franklin, k. patel et al., “religious affiliation, health behaviors and outcomes: nashville reach ,” the american journal of health behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] e. m. arredondo, j. p. elder, g. x. ayala, n. r. campbell, and b. baquero, “is church attendance associated with latinas’ health practices and self-reported health?” the american journal of health behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. baruth, s. wilcox, and m. d. condrasky, “perceived envi- ronmental church support is associated with dietary practices among african-american adults,” journal of the american dietetic association, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. r. benjamins, “religious beliefs, diet, and physical activity among jewish adolescents,” journal for the scientific study of religion, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. debnam, c. l. holt, e. m. clark, d. l. roth, and p. southward, “relationship between religious social support and general social support with health behaviors in a national sample of african americans,” journal of behavioral medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. j. debnam, c. l. holt, e. m. clark et al., “spiritual health locus of control and health behaviors in african americans,” the american journal of health behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. e. fife, h. r. sayles, a. a. adegoke, j. mccoy, m. stovall, and c. verdant, “religious typologies and health risk behaviors of african american college students,” north american journal of psychology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. d. franklin, d. g. schlundt, l. h. mcclellan et al., “reli- gious fatalism and its association with health behaviors and outcomes,” the american journal of health behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] y. friedlander, j. d. kark, n. a. kaufmann, and y. stein, “coronary heart disease risk factors among religious groupings in a jewish population sample in jerusalem,” the american journal of clinical nutrition, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. hart jr., l. f. tinker, d. j. bowen, j. satia-abouta, and d. mclerran, “is religious orientation associated with fat and fruit/vegetable intake?” journal of the american dietetic association, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. hart jr., l. tinker, d. j. bowen, g. longton, and s. a. a. beresford, “correlates of fat intake behaviors in participants in the eating for a healthy life study,” journal of the american dietetic association, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. hart jr., d. j. bowen, a. kuniyuki, p. hannon, and m. k. campbell, “the relationship between the social environment within religious organizations and intake of fat versus fruits and vegetables,” health education and behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. l. holt, d. l. haire-joshu, s. n. lukwago, l. a. lewellyn, and m. w. kreuter, “the role of religiosity in dietary beliefs and behaviors among urban african american women,” cancer control, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] l. a. lytle, s. varnell, d. m. murray et al., “predicting ado- lescents’ intake of fruits and vegetables,” journal of nutrition education and behavior, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. obisesan, i. livingston, h. d. trulear, and f. gillum, “frequency of attendance at religious services, cardiovascular evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine disease, metabolic risk factors and dietary intake in americans: an age-stratified exploratory analysis,” international journal of psychiatry in medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. l. park, d. edmondson, a. hale-smith, and t. o. blank, “religiousness/spirituality and health behaviors in younger adult cancer survivors: does faith promote a healthier lifestyle?” journal of behavioral medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. pitel, a. m. geckova, p. kolarcik, p. halama, s. a. reijneveld, and j. p. van dijk, “gender differences in the relationship between religiosity and health-related behaviour among adoles- cents,” journal of epidemiology and community health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. r. reeves, c. e. adams, p. m. dubbert, d. a. hickson, and s. b. wyatt, “are religiosity and spirituality associated with obesity among african americans in the southeastern united states (the jackson heart study)?” journal of religion and health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] e. salmoirago-blotcher, g. fitchett, j. k. ockene et al., “religion and healthy lifestyle behaviors among postmenopausal women: the women’s health initiative,” journal of behavioral medicine, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. shmueli and d. tamir, “health behavior and religiosity among israeli jews,” israel medical association journal, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. m. underwood and r. l. powell, “religion and spirituality: influence on health/risk behavior and cancer screening behav- ior of african americans,” the abnf journal, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] w. h. wiist, b. m. sullivan, d. m. st. george, and h. a. wayment, “buddhists’ religious and health practices,” journal of religion and health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . lankina, tomila religious influences on human capital variations in imperial russia article (accepted version) (refereed) original citation: lankina, tomila v. ( ) religious influences on human capital variations in imperial russia. journal of eurasian studies, ( ). pp. - . issn - . /j.euras. . . © http://www.elsevier.com/ this version available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/ / available in lse research online: august lse has developed lse research online so that users may access research output of the school. copyright © and moral rights for the papers on this site are retained by the individual authors and/or other copyright owners. users may download and/or print one copy of any article(s) in lse research online to facilitate their private study or for non-commercial research. you may not engage in further distribution of the material or use it for any profit-making activities or any commercial gain. you may freely distribute the url (http://eprints.lse.ac.uk) of the lse research online website. http://www .lse.ac.uk/researchandexpertise/experts/profile.aspx?keyvalue=t.lankina@lse.ac.uk http://www .lse.ac.uk/researchandexpertise/experts/profile.aspx?keyvalue=t.lankina@lse.ac.uk http://dx.doi.org/ http://www.elsevier.com/ http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/ / tomila lankina paper title: religious influences on human capital variations in imperial russia abstract: historical legacies, particularly imperial tutelage and religion, have featured prominently in recent scholarship on political regime variations in post-communist settings, challenging earlier temporally proximate explanations. the overlap between tutelage, geography, and religion has complicated the uncovering of the spatially uneven effects of the various legacies. the author addresses this challenge by conducting sub-national analysis of religious influences within one imperial domain, russia. in particular, the paper traces how european settlement in imperial russia has had a bearing on human development in the imperial periphery. the causal mechanism that the paper proposes to account for this influence is the western communities’ impact on literacy, which is in turn linked in my analysis to the western christian, particularly protestant, roots, of settler populations. the author makes this case by constructing an original dataset based on sub-national data from the hitherto underutilised first imperial census of . key words: russia, human capital, historical legacies, religion . introduction does religion matter in accounting for spatially uneven patterns of human capital development in russia? religion has featured prominently in the debates on the legacy underpinnings of democratic variations in various settings (bollen and jackman, , landes, , huntington, , welzel et al., ). however, the substantial overlap between religion and imperial or, in the case of former colonies, colonial, tutelage has complicated the making of sound inferences about the weight of the specifically religious imprint on human capital variations, as opposed to that of the institutional legacies of imperial or colonial tutelage (fish, ). for instance, christian nations that formed part of the austro-hungarian empire are also largely protestant or catholic while those formerly part of the russian or ottoman empires have large eastern orthodox and muslim populations. one possibility of addressing this dilemma is by conducting sub-national analysis employing the territorial domains of one imperial power as observations. not only does such an analysis allow to hold imperial tutelage constant, but to also explore the effects of other potentially significant domestic variables in a more systematic way. as a successor to the russian empire covering most of its territorial landmass, russia presents a good laboratory for refining our knowledge of how these respective variables might matter for human capital. however, these a dearth of scholarship on this topic. one apparent reason for this omission is that the predominant “centre- centred” (snyder, ) national-level analyses have forced a huntingtonian master narrative upon the discipline conceptualising russia’s christian religious tradition largely in terms of its belongingness to eastern orthodoxy (huntington, , welzel et al., , fish, , pop-eleches, ). as a result, potentially important factors in long-term human capital development have remained understudied. i address this omission by tracing how european settlement in imperial russia has had a bearing on human development in the imperial periphery. the key causal mechanism that i propose to account for this long-term influence of western populations is the settlers’ impact on literacy, which is in turn linked in my analysis to the western christian, particularly protestant, roots, of settler populations. the paper is part of a wider project to study the impact of historical legacies on present-day human capital in territorially large states like india and russia. assessing the impact of imperial legacies on post-communist spatial developmental variations is beyond the scope of this paper however uncovering factors influencing human capital variations in the imperial periphery will hopefully constitute building blocks for a more systematic exploration of how these factors may shape present-day spatial developmental variations. for this study, i constructed an original dataset based on data from the hitherto underutilised first imperial census of . the paper is structured as follows. first, i discuss the literature on historical legacies in formerly communist states and russian regions. this is followed by an excurse into the history of european settlement and its impacts on human capital development through literacy in russian provinces. i then present results of statistical analysis. concluding observations follow. . theorising legacies historical legacies have featured prominently in recent analyses of post-communist developmental variations (hanson, , kopstein, , pop-eleches, ). legacy approaches have been advocated over those prioritising more temporally proximate causal pathways to markets, development, and democracy because the latter have arguably failed to account for substantial variations in developmental trajectories of central and east european states. scholars have critiqued modernization theories for their failure to explore how industrial growth itself may be linked to historical-cultural contexts (kitschelt et al., ). at the same time, they argued that twentieth century regime legacies of communism, fascism, or authoritarianism could be linked to historically-conditioned forms of institutions and state-society relations that are likely to endure (hanson : ; bunce : ; kopstein ). recent legacy scholarship has overwhelmingly focused on central european states however. thomas remington is one of the few scholars of russian regions who have sought to systematically incorporate pre-communist developmental effects into his analysis of russian regional developmental variations (remington, ). he has employed literacy figures as a proxy for pre-communist development in his statistical analysis of political and economic regime variations in russia’s regions and found that it positively correlates with both urbanisation and democracy in the s (remington, ). he suggests that the census figure is in turn reflective of pre-revolutionary social development legacies before industrialisation, collectivisation, and urbanisation drives of the stalin and post-stalin periods. the study therefore hints at the potentially important mechanism of past legacies of human capital and literacy in particular however, it stops short of extending the causality further to explore factors which account for variations in pre-communist human capital development. two other recent studies, albeit not specifically concerned with russia, have more closely examined the educational component of pre-communist historical legacies. schooling features as a key explanatory variable in peisakhin’s study of sub-national democratic orientations in formerly russian and hapsburg territories of present-day ukraine however rather than focusing on the human capital component of the quality of schooling a more complex argument is proposed which privileges the substance of the curriculum. in a fascinating survey-based attempt to study history’s natural experiment peisakhin shows how the contrasting contemporary “behavioural scripts” in post-communist ukrainian provinces which share a common legacy of communism, are rooted in the curriculum content that the various communities had been exposed to. these variations could be in turn traced to the institutional legacies of modes of the incorporation of minority ethnic groups going back centuries. thus, residents of the formerly russian imperial territories, subjected to a policy of the suppression of their little russian identity, only a few miles apart from their formerly habsburg ukrainian neighbours where ruthenian identity was actively encouraged, are far less likely to espouse critical attitudes towards the government and vote. peisakhin suggests that the imperial-era church and schooling systems were the key institutional determinants of local identities, nurturing or suppressing ethnic distinctiveness (peisakhin, ). likewise, in their cross-national study of post-communist regime trajectories darden and grzymala-busse suggest that pre-communist nationalist curriculum content in the more literate imperial peripheries accounts for variations in the willingness of east european nations to dislodge communist parties (darden and grzymala-busse, ). an intriguing question however is what accounts for such stark variations in levels of schooling and specifically literacy before communism. neither study systematically addresses this question, though darden and grzymala-busse note the importance of variations in levels of socio-economic development among the least literate nomadic societies in central asia and their more literate slavic counterparts and those in more developed central european provinces. they therefore fall back on the modernisation argument in locating the roots of literacy in the variable levels of modernisation of imperial peripheries. given the well-known cultural differences between central asian muslim or animist, slavic-orthodox, and western christian societies, this reference to the stark literacy variations among the above societies begs the question of the extent to which modernisation may be itself a product of cultural factors that may need to be disentangled from other variables. modernisation may shape political value orientations however culture, largely conditioned by the variable religious traditions, may be also endogenous to modernization. indeed, in the darden and grzymala- busse study, among the top pre-communist literacy achievers with the highest share of non-communist party vote—slovenia, slovakia, czech republic, hungary, poland, western ukraine, latvia, lithuania, estonia, georgia, and armenia—all but the latter two have been historically exposed to the latin church or the protestant tradition. scholars from montesquieu, to weber, to putnam, and huntington have highlighted the importance for democratic development of the denominational nuances governing the relationships among church and state and affecting citizen value and political authority orientations (weber et al., , montesquieu, , putnam, , huntington, ). likewise, religion has been one of the major paradigms employed in post-communist democratisation studies. according to one school of thought, having a pre-communist tradition of a mediated, ritual-based religion rather than that based on minimal ritual and direct relation to god has arguably put a stamp on political cultural pre-dispositions in various parts of communist and post-communist europe (jowitt, ). the second key strand of theorizing on religion regards the church as a transmitter of a legal tradition. thus, states like poland, czechoslovakia, and hungary with a history of association with roman law through the latin church have been juxtaposed to bulgaria and romania, with their ties to byzantium and the greek church and comparatively late development of codification of law (elster et al., ). these distinct patterns of deference to political authority and rule of law, as elster et al. argue, may simply have “hibernated” during the communist episode, only to resurface again to “determine the future of post-communist societies” (elster, offe, and preuss : ). these two strands of theorising therefore privilege the attitudinal and the institutional dimensions of a religious tradition. i here propose a complimentary causal mechanism, which focuses on the religious dimension of literacy, specifically on the role of western christian tradition in the spread of literacy in russia’s imperial periphery. it is well known that the development of literacy has been central to the protestant tradition due to the importance of bible reading in the vernaculars for all believers. scholars have also demonstrated how protestant christianity in turn spurred intense inter-denominational competition and gradual inter-church convergence in the provision of mass education, as opposed to that available solely to the higher elite or clergy (berger, , bayly, , frykenberg, , zhuk, ). thus, in contexts where the protestant church had become an important provider of schooling for disadvantaged groups, the catholic church has also shown a greater willingness to sponsor education as a means to attract or retain adherents (trejo, , woodberry, ). by contrast, eastern christian traditions, not exposed to conversionary protestant christianity, as well as such other religions as islam, discouraged the development of mass literacy. many eastern christian churches to the present day continue to rely on such archaic languages as church slavonic or aramaic in liturgy. the islamic tradition encouraged the development of reading skills for rote memorisation of the koran, but not writing. thus, in colonial india, census takers reported problems in distinguishing among literate and illiterate populations because many indian muslims could read, but not write (hutton, ). religious traditions also affected literacy levels by gender: while in the protestant tradition, both boys and girls were expected to be literate to go through confirmation, in islam, women were discouraged from learning, hence the continuing wide gaps in literacy and access to higher education among men and women in traditionally islamic societies (fish, ). assessing the effects of pre-communist literacy on long-term human capital and democratic effects in russian regions is beyond the scope of this study. however, mapping and explaining spatial variations in pre-communist human capital development will hopefully be a first step in linking imperial-era variations to present- day disparities in russia’s regional development. yet, how do we begin to uncover the literacy effects of the various religious traditions given the noted overlap among the religious, institutional, social, and economic legacies in post-communist settings (pop-eleches, , elster et al., , welzel et al., , fish, )? over a decade ago fish thus formulated the methodological challenge of disentangling these various effects: “cultural traditions and imperial tutelage legacies may hold some promise as explanations,” however “given the overlap between religious tradition, geographical location, and the history of imperial tutelage, it is impossible (emphasis added) to separate out the possible weight of these factors” (fish : ). “were societies with various major religious compositions scattered more randomly across geographical space, generalising about the significance of religious tradition per se might be possible,” he wrote (fish a: ). russia could help us more conclusively assess the relative weight of the legacies of religion in human capital development because of the more “random” distribution of an important source of the diffusion of western christian influence on the imperial periphery, namely th-early th century european colonies stretching as far east as siberia. a large share of the populations, roughly two thirds, in these colonies were protestants, but there were also sizeable communities, close to a quarter of all settlers, belonging to the catholic faith (stricker, ). the key driving force behind migration were the consequences of religious wars plaguing europe in the th- th centuries. these largely rural populations in some parts of the russian periphery formed sizeable populations or enjoyed numerical predominance. the mark that they have left on the socio-economic landscape of hitherto sparsely populated imperial peripheries has been only recently systematically documented in imperial historiography (cherkazyanova, , german, , zhuk, , wiebe, , pleve, , kabuzan, , vesnina, , dahlmann, , schippan and striegnitz, , keim, , neutatz, , eisfeld, , fleischhauer, , shramkova, , popkova, , stricker, , long, ); political science scholarship of post-communist national and sub-national political and developmental variations has neglected this topic. while the settlement of these communities was “random” in the sense of a disassociation between empire, geography, and dominant religion, the intentionality of the choice of specific location of settlement within the russian empire ought to be also considered. in a recent volume on “natural experiments” in history, diamond and robinson flagged the methodological challenge of establishing cause and effect in “perturbed” societies experiencing externally-driven or exogenous change (diamond and robinson, ). “a question invariably arising in any comparative study that compares perturbed societies or sites with nonperturbed ones concerns the perturbers’ ‘selection’ of which particular sites to perturb,” they write (diamond and robinson : ). thus, european settlers in neo-europes may have been more driven to “patch selection” in areas already hospitable from climatic or resource point of view; and napoleonic armies may have well chosen to invade areas in europe already more developed, which could plausibly account for the better institutional legacies in the invaded areas (diamond and robinson, ). in the russian case, we know from historical scholarship on the newly acquired frontier territories that the settlers did not choose where to settle: they were allocated land by imperial fiat in climatically harsh, undeveloped, and otherwise inhospitable areas. in such areas previous attempts at development by encouraging russian or indigenous animistic or muslim inhabitants to cultivate land there had not been very successful (koch, ). what makes this analysis interesting is that settler colonies were often adjacent to, or interspersed with, russian or non-russian asian minorities. statistics on literacy and other development indicators for the various communities allow us to take stock of the effects of these pre-existing conditions. in the next section, i provide an historical overview of the origin and human capital effects of these communities in russia’s imperial peripheries. i then back this discussion with statistical analysis. . european settlement in russia and its impact on literacy european mini-colonies had long been a feature of urban life in russia however until the mid- th century they had been largely limited to the north-west and west reaches of the empire. on the imperial frontier mass european settlement, particularly from germanic lands, occurred by imperial fiat in the mid- th century at the invitation of catherine the great, a german princess. it continued in subsequent waves of colonization until the early th century. by the time of the russian revolution in , there were some , settlements in fifty-three regions, and their population exceeded . million (zhuk, ). on russia’s present-day territory, the first settlements appeared in the s on the middle volga; by the time of the first imperial census the settlers constituted . percent of the region’s population ( , ). while lutherans formed a sizeable proportion of the german protestant communities —two thirds—there were also adherents of other protestant denominations (kappeler, ). in , some miles away from tsaritsyn, at one time stalingrad, and currently volgograd, the village of sarepta was founded by the moravian brethren from saxony. the brethren, critical of the doctrinal and ritualistic tendencies of other churches were credited with spreading an individualistic religion and the practice of prayer meetings in the area. in the middle of the th century the mennonites, another radical protestant group claiming dutch descent, also settled on the volga (epp, ). the mennonites became the key founders of daughter colonies in omsk in the s (cherkazyanova, ). at that time, the government encouraged new settlements in siberia due to the construction of the trans-siberian railway in . following land reform, there was another wave of siberian migration in - ; many volga settlers sold their land and purchased larger plots around omsk and altay (koch, , shaydurov, ). these colonies contributed to the proliferation of what bunce conceptualises as “multiple peripheries” characteristic of empires that often suffer from weak institutional penetration and internal uniformity (bunce, ). such peripheries vary not just by predominant ethnicity, religion, and levels of economic development, but also “rights, responsibilities, identities, and institutions” (bunce : ). the settlers’ “pragmatic protection” (zhuk : ) was at the outset a matter of policy—there was a substantial degree of imperial toleration of settler self- government, freedom of religion, and education. the colonists had the status of germans constituted percent of all protestants in russia, while the remaining percent were largely composed of latvians and estonians (kappeler ). the deep roots of this movement were evident well into the soviet period when clandestine brotherhood prayer meetings persisted as an expression of spiritual independence and strength. peasants, which differed from that of both serfs and state peasants. the colonists had the right to choose their own self-governing authorities on an annual basis, and this right was stipulated in a special charter (pleve, , kabuzan, , neutatz, ). the colonies became known in particular for their institutions of mass schooling, which were highly advanced in the context of the largely illiterate russian provincial rural settings. on the southern and eastern frontier, as early as the third quarter of the th century, it was the european settler who set up the first public schools. religion was the driving force for the literacy project. the settlers were keen to set up a a school with each congregation which was funded publicly by the settlers themselves (keim, , kahle, , koch, ). the settlers’ average literacy rates were substantially higher than those of other rural residents. in the early saratov german colonies, the average male and female literacy rates were and percent, respectively. the russians’ overall average in saratov was percent (shaydurov, ). table presents literacy and religion statistics for the gubernii. both the catholic and protestant communities maintained similar institutions of mass schooling linked to the church and providing literacy and numeracy skills to boys and girls of pre-confirmation ages. some german scholars have documented the poorer quality of catholic schools as compared to those of protestants in neighbouring protestant villages. they attributed these variations however to the catholics’ reliance on priests from poland and the baltic lands, often dispatched to the “wilderness” because of misdemeanours or incompetence. the latter, who usually did not speak fluent german, were less partial to quality instruction in the german villages as compared to german lutheran or mennonite priests. a contributing factor to this variation was that generally, the quality of the lutheran or reformed clergy tended to be higher than that of catholics because of the expectation of their deeper involvement in parish affairs (stricker, ). still, both the catholic and protestant schools stood out in the sea of orthodox illiteracy (kahle, ). the role of the settlers’ clergy in the maintenance of the school systems found no parallels in russian villages. the orthodox church was not institutionally associated with primary education provision in the same way that it had been in post- reformation europe (kahle, ). unlike in europe, the baltic lands, poland and parts of ukraine, where the school systems had come to be linked to the church, the concept of public schooling was unknown in russia until the th century when the government finally decided to set up basic public education (luchterhandt, ). in europe, the reformation accorded a special role to the church in promoting literacy in the vernaculars. by contrast, the orthodox church tradition was that of “restricted literacy” whose practical utility was confined to reading the scriptures and religious texts or performing service in church slavonic. it is not by chance that the historian brook’s fascinating book when russia learned to read is almost exclusively focused on the th century. when the revolution broke out, plans for universal rural schooling had been only partially implemented (brooks, ). the colonists influenced the spread of literacy among russians both directly through introducing their russian labourers to the rudiments of reading and numeracy, and indirectly, through encouraging conversion to protestant christianity. russian labourers preferred the better paying german to russian employers (brandes, , neutatz, , zhuk, , shaydurov, , brandenburg, ). mennonite employers were also known to provide labourers with housing, schools, and places of worship (brandes, ). after the serfs were emancipated, there was greater contact with russian peasants. many russian peasants worked as labourers on german and dutch farms, and their numbers increased when they migrated to the south and siberia in search of employment. there are records of conversion to protestant christianity as a result of such contact with european households (nesdoly, , zhuk, ). during the first decades of european settlement, active proselytising among russian peasants was uncommon. this changed during the mid- century protestant revival, when such conversionary movements as stundism, millenarianism, and separatism germinated in the periphery, often in clandestine settings (zhuk ). the settlers, more exposed to european religious and intellectual currents, became transmitters of the new teachings to the local populations despite surveillance and obstruction by the authorities (tuchtenhagen, , zhuk, ). the mennonites in particular, on grounds of religious conscience flouted the imperial ban on proselytising among russian orthodox populations. the historian zhuk documents how exposure to protestant congregational activity among russian peasants led to important lifestyle changes, such as sobriety, and, most notably, the acquisition of reading, writing, and numeracy skills (zhuk ). literacy in turn had profound implications for social uplift. even basic literacy was often sufficient for a peasant to acquire employment as shop assistant, coachman, or clerk in the zemstvo bodies. after peasant emancipation, literate peasants were in the best position to profit from the availability of rural commune investment capital funds (brooks, ). this explains the staggering growth of mennonite communities in russia – by , a fifth, or nearly , , of all mennonites in the world resided in russia (brandenburg ). brandenburg, h. ( ). the meek and the mighty: the emergence of the evangelical movement in russia. london: mowbrays. the settlers are also associated with the development of more advanced forms of learning. as in the american mid-west, which became host to similar waves of german migration from europe in the - centuries (turner, ), german settlers are associated with the establishment and development of superb higher educational institutions (smirnova, ). saratov, the centre of volga german colonies, acquired nation-wide reputation as a centre of progressive education on a par with moscow and st. petersburg (popkova, ). settler schooling during the earlier phase of settlement was largely at the primary level, was focused on preparing the children for confirmation, and was limited to settler pupils. in , the colonists-controlled kamyshin district zemstvo petitioned the ministry of public education to introduce compulsory primary education in the entire district, covering both the colonists and non-colonist russian peasants, but did not receive state authorisation to do so. the desire for more sophisticated secular education and social advancement in the wider russian society eventually led the colonists to found institutions of higher learning for germans, but with russian language instruction (long, ). this in turn led to an influx of russian pupils into these public and private institutions (shramkova, ). thus, in the d. f. hesse private college for boys in , thirty-four students were protestants, eighteen were orthodox, and three were catholics. in another private school founded by the theologian gustave schoemburg, in , out of the eighty- eight pupils, sixty were protestants, twenty-six were orthodox, and two were catholics. the colonists’ models of elementary and advanced public schooling and teacher training colleges, pioneering for the frontier “barren of public enlightenment,” were replicated outside of the colonies (cherkazyanova, , koch, ). the settlers had been also leaders in girls’ schooling, thereby contributing to the social uplift of women. as late as in , when progressive zemstvo schooling reforms had been long under way, only out of a total of the russian pupils in saratov, or . percent, were girls. by contrast, among settler pupils, there were girls out of the total number of , or . percent (popkova, ). it became increasingly common for russian girls to attend german private schools where both russian and german were taught. thus, one of the most prestigious gymnasia for girls, founded in by the german teacher pauline zemmering as saratov’s first private school for girls, in had female pupils, of which were russian orthodox, thirty were protestants, and four were catholic (shramkova, ). the mid- century protestant revival gave further impetus to the social elevation of women (zhuk, ). contemporary observers commented on the prominent role of travelling female “agents” representing baptist and other protestant sects, who were literate and well-read and worked to satisfy the craving among female peasants for basic literacy (brooks, ). finally, european populations also contributed to the development of schooling through their involvement on the zemstva local government bodies. the zemstva local government bodies were set up in the context of russia’s political liberalisation in the s. despite arbitrary and often massive state interference in their affairs, the zemstva had the most freedom of manoeuvre in two areas in which their reliance on police and peasant officials was the weakest, namely public health and education. in , the government promulgated a new zemstvo statute. contrary to the original intention of the minister of internal affairs d. a. tolstoi, the key official in charge of the reform, the zemstva retained their overall relative autonomy from both regional governors and state officials, germinating into islands of political opposition to the autocratic tsarist regime. at the same time, the new mechanisms that were introduced to improve coordination in public services among the zemstva and other bodies, as well as to encourage participation for the educated middle classes in the hitherto gentry-dominated bodies, resulted in spectacular improvements in public healthcare and education in the provinces. in the three year period between and , the zemstva built over , schools, which surpassed the total number constructed in the six year period between and . between and , the zemstva spent on average , roubles annually on education, a figure that by far exceeded that of , roubles in the - period. for the first time since the inception of these bodies in the s, they also started collecting data on peasant illiteracy (pearson, ). there remained however substantial regional variations in zemstva institutional performance, their ability to enforce local taxation, and their choice of expenditure priorities (pearson, ). from the outset of zemstvo reform in the colonists were given the right to participate in zemstvo self-government (brandes, ). the settlers had come to form majorities in two of the forty of the county zemstva with majority rural representation, kamyshin in the volga area, and akkerman in bessarabia. in kamyshin, the head of the zemstvo from to was the settler peter louck, “effusively lauded for his excellent management of the zemstvo budget, vigorous promotion of public education, successful organization of village granaries stocked with grain in case of crop failures, initiation of the zemstvo insurance program, and maintaining harmonious relations within the zemstvo by reconciling and mediating the interests and concerns of the russian peasantry and volga germans” (long : - ). after , the number of zemstva board and committees increased and the so-called “third element” of doctors, teachers, agronomists and representatives of other middle class professions were invited to sit on these bodies without necessarily being elected zemstvo members. the colonists became famously active on the zemstva committees. these boards were also significant in that for the first time the non-settler peasants and colonists were to jointly administer local affairs. the zemstva in which the colonists had a strong influence either because they formed elected majorities or because they had been active on the various unelected committees, became among the most progressive in russia. until , the colonists- dominated novouzensk district zemstvo led all of the samara province districts in the share of expenditure on education, while other zemstva with a large share of colonists sitting on the various bodies became known for assigning education reform their highest priority (long, ). . statistical analysis the imperial period part of the analysis is based on an author-constructed dataset with data from the first imperial census of (troynitskiy, ). after excluding imperial administrative territories that do not form part of the current territory of the russian federation, the dataset for russia has forty-six observations corresponding to the forty-six gubernii. the independent variables employed in the first part of the analysis are as follows. the main independent variables are protestants and catholics as measured by the percentage share of these groups in the population. additional religion and ethnicity control variables of russian orthodox, ethnic russian, and old believer populations are also employed in the analysis. even a brief glance at imperial statistics reveals that russians, themselves far behind in literacy as compared to western settler populations, had far better human capital indicators than those of some of the conquered nomadic steppe muslim and animist populations. some peripheral areas also had particularly high concentrations of old believer populations, dissident communities who had been likened to protestants in their denial of predominant religious doctrine and distinct lifestyle. including the above variables enables us to control for the effects of these religious and cultural factors on human capital outcomes in the gubernii. the control variables for modernisation are the percentage share of populations belonging to the category of “peasants of all titles”; and the percentage share of the population belonging to the census category of meshchane, which could be roughly translated as the bourgeoisie. the variable of population share of those residing outside of the region in which they were born (“outsiders”) is also included. this variable enables us to control for the legacies of serfdom in the gubernii. scholars have hypothesised that these legacies may have an impact on human capital and democratic orientations in post-communist settings. by the mid- century, substantial regional variations in the practice of the institution of serfdom had developed. in some regions in siberia, the middle volga, and southern russia with a history of european settlement a high proportion of the population was composed of escaped or freed serfs who, even before serfdom was abolished, moved from the black earth areas of central russia that historically had a high association with serfdom. it is also well known that, decades after the abolition of serfdom, many peasants remained financially bonded to their landlords, thereby limiting their mobility. so, including this variable also provides confidence that our europeans variable does not proxy for that of the contrasting legacies of serfdom in the various gubernii. the dependent variables are population percentage share of literates, female literates, and literates among russians. all variables in the analysis have been logged. for the first part of the analysis, i hypothesise that having a larger share of western settler, particularly protestant, populations positively affects literacy and female literacy in particular and that in regions with a higher share of settlers the russian populations are also more likely to be literate. ordinary least square (ols) regression analysis was conducted testing several models. in model , overall population literacy is postulated to be a function of the agrarian-urban structure, as well as of specifically cultural variables of protestant and ethnically russian populations. the variable of population share of those residing outside of the region in which they were born (“outsiders”) is also included. there is a positive and high statistical correlation between share of protestants and catholics due to the territorial overlap in the settlement of these mostly european communities. these two variables therefore could not be included at the same time. the results are presented in table . model shows that, as expected, protestants have a positive and statistically significant effect on literacy, as do “outsiders” and meshchane. the share of russian populations does not appear to have a statistically significant effect on literacy. the coefficient for the key independent variable suggests that for every one percent increase in the share of protestant populations, there is a . percent increase in the share of literacy. the r square for this model indicates that percent of the variation is explained. in model when i substitute protestantism for catholicism, we see that the effects for western christianity still hold and the coefficient for catholicism is almost identical to the one for protestants in model , while the r square, at , is slightly higher than that in model . next, in models and , i ascertain the effects of western christianity on female literacy and find that the results for the effects of catholics and protestants are not substantially different with the coefficients identical, but the r square at is slightly higher in the model for protestants as compared to catholics ( ). next, in models and , i explore the effects of diffusion of literacy from amongst settler populations to ethnic russians. in this model i also include the variable of old believers to ascertain the extent to which literacy was more prevalent among dissident, non-orthodox russian communities. because of the high correlation between meshchane and protestant share, this measure of urbanisation is sensitive to model specification and wipes off the effect of protestantism and catholicism in the russian literacy models (regressions not included in the tables). i therefore substitute it with the alternative measure of peasant share in the population. the models show that western christianity has a positive and statistically significant effect on literacy among russians. in particular, in the protestant model , for every one percent increase in the share of protestants, there is a . percent increase in literacy among russians; and for every one percent increase in the share of catholics, there is a slightly lower, . percent, increase in literacy among russians. as expected, peasant share has a negative and statistically significant effect on literacy among russians; there are also more literates in areas with a weaker historical legacy of serfdom. at the same time, russian orthodoxy has a negative and statistically significant effect on literacy among russians. belonging to the dissident community of old believers does not have a statistically significant effect on literacy. the r square, at , is slightly lower in model that includes catholics as compared to model with the protestants variable, where the r square figure is . table . literacy and religion in pre-communist regions (gubernii) top gubernii, literacy – gubernii also in the top protestants and catholics table highlighted literacy female literacy st. peter. cit . st. peter. cit . moscow city . st. petersburg . st. petersburg . moscow city . moskovskaya . moskovskaya . yaroslavskaya . yaroslavskaya vladimirskaya samarskaya . sahalin isl . saratovskaya . olonetskaya . vladimirskaya . amurskaya . sahalin isl . primorskaya . kostromskaya . tverskaya . amurskaya . kostromskaya tverskaya . saratovskaya . arkhangelskaya . arkhangelskaya . ufimskaya . novgorodskaya orenburgskaya . donskogo voysk . nizhegorodskaya . samarskaya . kazanskaya . nizhegorodskaya permskaya . tulskaya . novgorodskaya . orenburgskaya . olonetskaya top gubernii, share of protestants and catholics* protestants catholics st. petersburg . sahalin isl . st. peter. cit . st. peter. cit . samarskaya . st. petersburg . saratovskaya . samarskaya . pskovskaya . primorskaya . moscow city . moscow city . sahalin isl . saratovskaya . simbirskaya . eniseyskaya . donskogo voysk . irkutskaya . stavropolskaya . moskovskaya . terskaya . terskaya . novgorodskaya astrahanskaya . kubanskaya . smolenskaya . moskovskaya . tobolskaya . eniseyskaya . pskovskaya . olonetskaya . tomskaya . arkhangelskaya . kubanskaya . amurskaya . donskogo voysk . primorskaya . dagestanskaya . astrahanskaya . novgorodskaya . note: census figures likely to be substantially lower than actual share of adherents because of reluctance of slavic converts to identify with non- orthodox faith (zhuk ). table . settler effects on literacy literacy model model variables coeff. (stand. b) t sig. coeff. t sig. protestant . . . russian . . . . . . meshchane . . . . . . outsiders . . . . . . catholics . . . r sq. . . constant . . . . female literacy model model variables coeff. (stand. b) t sig. coeff. t sig. russian . . . . . . meshchane . . . . . . outsiders . . . . . . protestant . . . catholic . . . r sq. . . constant -. . -. . russian literacy model model variables coeff. t sig. coeff. t sig. (stand. b) protestant . . . orthodox -. - . . -. - . . outsiders . . . . . . old believers -. -. . -. -. . peasants -. - . . -. - . . catholics . . . r sq. . . constant . . . . . discussion the statistical analysis shows how european settlers in the imperial periphery, while politically marginal, were instrumental in building human capital through mass literacy. furthermore, rather than being limited to settlers themselves, there was also diffusion of grammar and numeracy as well as more formal schooling to non- european orthodox russian and other populations. the settlers were also instrumental in establishing the institutional foundations for the inter-temporal transmission and development of education through their gubernii-wide involvement in the setting up of schools. brooks’ work demonstrates how literacy in turn spurred the processes of social class mobility from peasant to the petty bourgeois, adding dynamism to the rural economy, while also facilitating movement away from villages to towns (brooks, ). contrary to the initial hypothesis about the significance of the protestant literacy tradition, only slight variations are observed between the protestant and catholic imprints on literacy. these results correspond to classic theorizing in the sociology of religion and recent empirical findings on the homogenizing education effects of inter- denominational competition in post-reformation western and non-western settings experiencing conversionary protestant christianity (berger, , trejo, , woodberry, ). protestants are however associated with somewhat higher levels of female literacy and literacy among russians in this study. the paucity of religion data complicates the making of assessments about the legacy of european settlement in present-day russian regions. because of massive stalin-era population resettlement, ideally we would want to employ data on religious composition in the regions during the late communist and post-communist periods. these data could be useful for exploring the inter-generational transmission of the values and practice of educational attainment characteristic of settler populations despite the overall sovietised context; our evidence however is limited to anecdotal or case study accounts of communities in specific regions. the last communist census of did not have a question on religion due to official communist policy. plans to incorporate a question on religious affiliation into the census had been abandoned ostensibly because of the separation of church and state in russia, but by some accounts due to sustained lobbying by the russian orthodox church (heleniak, ). the church is concerned about the growing number of russians converting to western christian denominations or more openly associating themselves with the church of their ancestors, as is apparently the case with those russian germans who remain in the country. a study by the keston institute has sought to catalogue the history and current practice of the various christian churches in russian regions. one interesting finding of the study is that the evangelical and catholic churches originally established by the german settlers in the middle volga and siberian regions are increasingly attracting ethnic russian believers from amongst the regional intelligentsias; in fact, the majority of parishes of these churches are often comprised of ethnic russians (burdo and filatov, b, burdo and filatov, a). unfortunately, in what is likely a reflection of the methodological and political challenges of this undertaking in the present day russian political context, no systematic data on the numerical strength of the various religious communities had been gathered. surveys on religious adherence have been conducted by other scholars in isolated regions like tula, voronezh, krasnodar, nizhny novgorod, which revealed that up to . percent of regional populations belong to non-orthodox christian churches (lunkin, ). according to another survey commissioned by the presidential plenipotentiary in the volga district, sergey kirienko, in some regions of the district - percent of the population identified themselves as adherents of western christian churches. these data are only available for the volga district however and therefore could not be employed in this study. moreover, it is unclear what methodology was used to ascertain the number of adherents. the russian scholar of religion roman lunkin has sought to more systematically ascertain the christian composition of regional populations by estimating the number of russian ortohodox and non-russian orthodox christian parishes and active parishioners in the regions (lunkin, ). however, this is a highly imperfect measure as the numbers of parishioners are only rough estimates. in addition, lunkin notes that the official figures for parishes registered with the federal registration service are nearly http://ekg.metod.ru/indent/vved.html# half the number of the actual existing parishes. unlike the russian orthodox church, the catholic and protestant churches tend to register the headquarters of the main parish, but not the other branch offices affiliated with it (lunkin, ). the hitherto underutilised census therefore remains the most systematic source of religion data for anyone undertaking analysis of russia’s sub-national human capital variations in the imperial period. some scholars have also sought to estimate the regional share of muslim populations by employing data on ethnicity (heleniak ). references bayly, s. ( ). muslims and christians in south indian society, - . new york: cambridge university press. berger, p. l. ( ). the social reality of religion. london: faber and faber. bollen, k. a. and jackman, r. w. ( ). 'economic and noneconomic determinants of political democracy in the s', research in political sociology, , - . brandenburg, h. ( ). the meek and the mighty: the emergence of the evangelical movement in russia. london: mowbrays. brandes, d. ( ). 'wolga und schwarzmeerdeutsche im vergleich'. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., wolga und schwarzmeerdeutsche im vergleich (pp. - ). essen: klartext. brooks, j. ( ). when russia learned to read. princeton: princeton university press. bunce, v. ( ). 'the national idea: imperial legacies and post-communist pathways in eastern europe', east european politics and societies, , - . bunce, v. ( ). 'lessons of the first postsocialist decade', east european politics and societies, , - . burdo, m. and filatov, s. (eds.) ( a). atlas sovremennoy religioznoy zhizni rossii. moscow: letniy sad. burdo, m. and filatov, s. (eds.) ( b). atlas sovremennoy religioznoy zhizni rossii. moscow: letniy sad. cherkazyanova, i. v. ( ). 'dorevolyutsionnaya mennonitskaya shkola sibiri', filologicheskiy ezhegodnik omskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, dahlmann, d. ( ). 'die deutschen an der wolga von der ansiedlung bis zum ausbruch des ersten weltkrieges'. in rothe, h., die deutschen an der wolga von der ansiedlung bis zum ausbruch des ersten weltkrieges (pp. koeln. darden, k. and grzymala-busse, a. ( ). 'the great divide: literacy, nationalism, and the communist collapse', world politics, , - . diamond, j. and robinson, j. ( ). 'afterword: using comparative methods in studies of human history'. in diamond, j. and robinson, j., afterword: using comparative methods in studies of human history (pp. cambridge: harvard university press. eisfeld, a. ( ). die russlanddeutschen. munich. elster, j., offe, c. and preuss, u. k. ( ). institutional design in post-communist societies: rebuilding the ship at sea. cambridge: cambridge university press. epp, g. k. ( ). 'die deutschen mennonitenkolonien an der wolga'. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., die deutschen mennonitenkolonien an der wolga (pp. - ). essen: klartext. fish, m. s. ( ). 'democratization's requisites: the postcommunist experience', post-soviet affairs, , - . fish, m. s. ( ). 'post-communist subversion: social science and democratization in east europe and eurasia', slavic review, , - . fish, m. s. ( ). 'islam and authoritarianism', world politics, , - . fleischhauer, i. ( ). die deutschen im zarenreich. stuttgart. frykenberg, r. e. ( ). 'christians in india: an historical overview of their complex origins'. in frykenberg, r. e., christians in india: an historical overview of their complex origins (pp. - ). london: routledge curzon. german, a. a. ( ). nemetskaya avtonomiya na volge. saratov: saratov university press. hanson, s. e. ( ). 'the leninist legacy and institutional change', comparative political studies, , - . heleniak, t. ( ). 'regional distribution of the muslim population of russia', eurasian geography and economics, , - . huntington, s. p. ( ). the clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. new york: simon & schuster. hutton, j. h. ( ). census of india, . delhi: manager of publications. jowitt, k. ( ). new world disorder: the leninist extinction. berkeley: university of california press. kabuzan, v. m. ( ). nemetskoyazychnoe naselenie v rossiyskoy imperii i sssr v xvii-xx vekakh ( - ). moscow: ran: institut rossiyskoy istorii. kahle, w. ( ). 'zum verhaeltnis von kirche und schule in den deutschen siedlungen an der wolga bis zum ausbruch des ersten weltkrieges'. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., zum verhaeltnis von kirche und schule in den deutschen siedlungen an der wolga bis zum ausbruch des ersten weltkrieges (pp. - ). essen: klartext. kappeler, a. ( ). 'die deutsche minderheit im rahmen des russischen vielvoelkerreiches'. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., die deutsche minderheit im rahmen des russischen vielvoelkerreiches (pp. - ). essen: klartext. keim, p. ( ). 'die wolgadeutschen von der einwanderung bis zur aufhebung des kolonistenkontors', grin norderstedt. kitschelt, h., mansfedova, z., markowski, r. and toka, g. ( ). post-communist party systems: competition, representation, and inter-party cooperation. cambridge: cambridge university press. koch, f. c. ( ). the volga germans in russia and the americas, from to the present. london: the pennsylvania state university press. kopstein, j. ( ). 'review article: postcommunist democracy: legacies and outcomes', comparative politics, , - . landes, d. s. ( ). the wealth and poverty of nations: why some are so rich and some so poor. little, brown, and company. long, j. w. ( ). from privileged to dispossessed: the volga germans, - . lincoln: university of nebraska press. luchterhandt, o. ( ). 'die darstellung der deutschen vor und nach der aufhebung der privilegien'. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., die darstellung der deutschen vor und nach der aufhebung der privilegien (pp. - ). essen: klartext. lunkin, r. n. ( ). ''russkie' regiony rossii: stepen' pravoslavnosti i politicheskie orientatsii', montesquieu, b. d. ( ). the spirit of the laws. new york: hafner press. nesdoly, s. j. ( ). among the soviet evangelicals. edinburgh: the banner of truth trust. neutatz, d. ( ). 'deutsche bauern in den steppen russlands: die wolga- und schwarzmeerdeutschen von der ansiedlung bis zur deportation. mit einem vergleichenden blick auf die donauschwaben'. in schulz, w., deutsche bauern in den steppen russlands: die wolga- und schwarzmeerdeutschen von der ansiedlung bis zur deportation. mit einem vergleichenden blick auf die donauschwaben (pp. - ). munich: koehler & amelang. pearson, t. s. ( ). russian officialdom in crisis: autocracy and local self- government, - . cambridge: cambridge university press. peisakhin, l. ( ). 'living historical legacies: the 'why' and 'how' of institutional persistence, the case of ukraine', midwestern political science association annual conference chicago. pleve, i. r. ( ). nemetskie kolonii na volge vo vtoroy polovine xviii veka. moscow: gotika. pop-eleches, g. ( ). 'historical legacies and post-communist regime change', the journal of politics, , - . popkova, n. v. ( ). 'nachal'noe obrazovanie v saratovskoy gubernii pri aleksandre iii'. in pleve, i. r., kochukov, s. a., popkova, n. v. and udalov, s. v., nachal'noe obrazovanie v saratovskoy gubernii pri aleksandre iii (pp. - ). saratov: nauchnaya kniga. putnam, r. ( ). making democracy work: civic traditions in modern italy. princeton: princeton university press. remington, t. f. ( ). 'democracy and inequality in the postcommunist transition', midwestern political science association conference chicago, illinois. remington, t. f. ( ). 'accounting for regime differences in the russian regions: historical and structural influences', annual meeting of the midwestern political science association chicago, illinois. schippan, m. and striegnitz, s. ( ). wolgadeutsche: gischichte und gegenwart. berlin. shaydurov, v. n. ( ). 'rossiyskie nemtsy na altae (po materialam vserossiyskoy sel'skokhozyaystvennoy i pozemel'noy perepisi g.)'. in razgon, v. n., silina, i. g. and khramkov, a. a., rossiyskie nemtsy na altae (po materialam vserossiyskoy sel'skokhozyaystvennoy i pozemel'noy perepisi g.) (pp. barnaul: rgnf. shaydurov, v. n. ( ). 'evropeyskie diaspory v zapadnoy sibiri: chislennost', razmeshenie i khozyaystvennye zanyatiya (po materialam pervoy vseobshey perepisi naseleniya g.)'. in goncharov, y. m., evropeyskie diaspory v zapadnoy sibiri: chislennost', razmeshenie i khozyaystvennye zanyatiya (po materialam pervoy vseobshey perepisi naseleniya g.) (pp. barnaul: az buka. shramkova, o. v. ( ). 'nemetskie uchebnye zavedeniya v saratove'. in pleve, i. r., kochukov, s. a., popkova, n. v. and udalov, s. v., nemetskie uchebnye zavedeniya v saratove (pp. - ). saratov: nauchnaya kniga. smirnova, o. ( ). 'ne tol'ko nablyudali, no i pomogali', official website of tomsk municipality tomsk. snyder, r. ( ). 'scaling down: the subnational comparative method', studies in comparative international development, , - . stricker, g. ( ). 'die schulen der wolgadeutschen in der zweiten haelfte des . jahrhunderts '. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., die schulen der wolgadeutschen in der zweiten haelfte des . jahrhunderts (pp. - ). essen: klartext. trejo, g. ( ). 'religious competition and ethnic mobilization in latin america: why the catholic church promotes indigenous movements in mexico', american political science review, , - . troynitskiy, n. a. (ed.) ( ). obschii svod po imperii rezul'tatov razrabotki dannykh pervoy vseobschey perepisi naseleniya, proizvedyonnoy yanvarya goda. st. petersburg: tipografiya n. l. nyrkina. tuchtenhagen, r. ( ). ' die protestantische erneuerungsbewegungen unter den deutschen an der wolga - '. in dahlmann, d. and tuchtenhagen, r., die protestantische erneuerungsbewegungen unter den deutschen an der wolga - (pp. - ). essen: klartext. turner, f. j. ( ). the frontier in american history. new york: holt, rinehart and winston. vesnina, s. g. ( ). 'chastnye tovarishcheskie russko-nemetskie uchilishcha v nemetskikh koloniyakh povolzh'ya'. chastnye tovarishcheskie russko- nemetskie uchilishcha v nemetskikh koloniyakh povolzh'ya (pp. moscow. weber, m., baehr, p. and wells, g. c. ( ). the protestant ethic and the "spirit" of capitalism and other writings. new york: penguin books. welzel, c., inglehart, r. and klingemann, h.-d. ( ). 'the theory of human development: a cross-cultural analysis', european journal of political research, , - . wiebe, p. p. ( ). nemetskie kolonii v sibiri. omsk: nauka. woodberry, r. d. ( ). 'the shadow of empire: christian missions, colonial policy, and democracy in postcolonial societies', department of sociology chapel hill: university of north carolina. zhuk, s. i. ( ). russia's lost reformation: peasants, millennialism, and radical sects in southern russia and ukraine, - . washington, dc: woodrow wilson center press. 	religious influences on human capital variations in imperial russia (cover) 	religious influences (author) [pdf] comparison of coliform contamination in non-municipal waters consumed by the mennonite versus the non-mennonite rural populations | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /s - - - corpus id: comparison of coliform contamination in non-municipal waters consumed by the mennonite versus the non-mennonite rural populations @article{amraotkar comparisonoc, title={comparison of coliform contamination in non-municipal waters consumed by the mennonite versus the non-mennonite rural populations}, author={alok r amraotkar and charles w. hargis and a. cambon and s. rai and m. keith and s. ghafghazi and r. bolli and a. defilippis}, journal={environmental health and preventive medicine}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	alok r amraotkar, charles w. hargis, + authors a. defilippis 	published 	geography, medicine 	environmental health and preventive medicine abstractobjectivesmennonites reside in clusters, do not use modern sewage systems and consume water from non-municipal sources. the purpose of this study is to assess risk of escherichia coli exposure via consumption of non-municipal waters in mennonite versus non-mennonite rural households.methodsresults were reviewed for non-municipal water samples collected by the local health department from mennonite and non-mennonite lifestyle households from through . water contamination was… expand view on springer link.springer.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 table 	 figure 	 table 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	 table view all figures & tables 	coliform 	state or local health department 	specimen collection 	contain (action) one citation citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency change in matrix metalloproteinase , , and levels at the time of and after acute atherothrombotic myocardial infarction 	u. s. owolabi, alok r amraotkar, + authors a. defilippis 	medicine 	journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis 	 	 save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency environmental factors influencing the distribution of total and fecal coliform bacteria in six water storage reservoirs in the pearl river delta region, china. 	h. hong, jianwen qiu, yan liang 	environmental science, medicine 	journal of environmental sciences 	 	 save alert research feed risk-based evaluation of escherichia coli monitoring data from undisinfected drinking water. 	j. soller, m. embrey, laura tuhela, a. ichida, j. rosen 	biology, medicine 	journal of environmental management 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed escherichia coli: the best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection 	s. edberg, e. rice, r. karlin, m. allen 	biology, medicine 	symposium series 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed [a hepatitis a outbreak caused by contaminated well water in a primary school of jiangxi province, china, ]. 	j. chen, hui-jian cheng, l. zhang, j. zong, h. ma, b. zhu 	medicine 	zhonghua liu xing bing xue za zhi = zhonghua liuxingbingxue zazhi 	 	 save alert research feed investigation of a hepatitis a outbreak in children in an urban slum in vellore, tamil nadu, using geographic information systems. 	t. v. sowmyanarayanan, a. mukhopadhya, b. gladstone, r. sarkar, g. kang 	medicine 	the indian journal of medical research 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed preharvest evaluation of coliforms, escherichia coli, salmonella, and escherichia coli o :h in organic and conventional produce grown by minnesota farmers. 	a. mukherjee, dorinda speh, e. dyck, f. diez-gonzalez 	biology, medicine 	journal of food protection 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed global burden of shigella infections: implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. 	k. kotloff, j. winickoff, + authors m. levine 	medicine 	bulletin of the world health organization 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed assessing the incidence of gastroenteritis among elderly people living in long term care facilities. 	m. kirk, g. hall, m. veitch, n. becker 	medicine 	the journal of hospital infection 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed shiga-toxin-producing escherichia coli and haemolytic uraemic syndrome 	p. tarr, c. a. gordon, w. chandler 	biology, medicine 	the lancet 	 	 , 	pdf save alert research feed epidemic profile of shiga-toxin-producing escherichia coli o :h outbreak in germany. 	c. frank, d. werber, + authors g. krause 	medicine 	the new england journal of medicine 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue pii: - ( ) - volume , number , - j?ebs march molecular cloning of the mature elba/i subunit of human branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex jacinta l. chuang, rody p. cox and david t. chuang ~e~ar~~ts of bio~~~istry and intern~i me~~&~e, u~~~e~s~ty of texas southwestern med~ol center, basil, tx , usa received january we have isolated a cdna encoding the el b-b subunit of the human branchedchain cl-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. the human el b-p cdna is base pairs in length. it encodes the entire mature elb-b subunit consisting of amino acid residues, and a mitochondrial targeting prese- quence of residues. the calculated molecular mass of the mature &man elb-/i subunit is da, and the calculated isoelectric point is ph . . a hydro~thy plot shows that the human etb-b subunit is highly hydrophobic. northern blot analysis shows that the human elb-/i mrna is approximately . kb in size. it is present at the normal level in fibroblasts from two unrelated maple syrup urine disease patients. cdna; branched-chain elb- ; nucleotide sequence; amino acid sequence; (human liver) . introduction [ ]. the isolation and expression of the bovine elb-fl cdna will be described elsewhere’. the mammalian branched-chain cu-keto acid dehydrogenase complex (the branched-chain complex) catalyzes the oxidative dec~boxylation of the a-keto acids derived from the transamination of the branched- chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine. the multienzyme complex is associated with the inner- membrane of the mitochondrial matrix, and is both structurally and mech~istic~ly analogous to pyruvate and cy-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes [ , ]. the mammalian branched-chain complex has catalytic components: a branched-chain cu-keto acid decarboxylase (elb), a dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e b) and a dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (e ). the enzyme complex also contains two regulatory enzymes, a specific kinase and a specific phosphat~e that regulate the activity of the complex via a phosphorylation- dephosphorylation cycle [ ]. our laboratory has recent- ly isolated cdnas encoding the entire elb-fl subunits of both bovine and human branched-chain complexes. in this paper, we report for the first time the isolation and sequencing of the human elb-fl cdna. the availability of this cdna will facilitate investigations into the molecular basis of inborn errors involving the branched-chain complex, i.e. maple syrup urine disease . materials and methods . . screening of a agt-fl library a bovine elba cdna isolated with the anti-elb-fl antibody’ was radiolabeled by the random-priming method [ ]. it was utilized as a probe to screen a agt- library of human fetal liver cdna (clontech). positive clones were plaque-purified and subcloned into the bluescript sk- vector as described previously [a]. . . nucleotide sequencing the nucleotide sequencing of cdna inserts was carried out by the dideoxynucleotide chain termination method using t dna polymerase. the templates used were double-stranded bluescripts (pbssk_) containing the cdna inserts. these double-stranded templates were sequenced in both directions. the primers used for se- quencing included sk, ks, t , t , m - , the mlf-reverse primer, and four -bp synthetic oligonucleotides specific for internal se- quences of the cdna insert. . . peptide sequencing and cnbr digestion the sequences of the amino-terminal region and cnbr fragments of the bovine elb-fl subunit were determined by gas-phase microse- quencing as described previously f ]. for cnbr digestion, the bovine elb-fl subunit ( pg) isolated by electroelution from sds- polyacryiamide gel was mixed with pi of cnbr solution ( mg in ml of % formic acid). the mixture was incubated at °c in the dark for h. the digest was electrophoresed in % sds- polyacrylamide gel and transblotted onto a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane for peptide sequencing [s]. correspondence address: d.t. chuang, apartment of bio- chemistry, university of texas southwestern medical center, harry hines boulevard, dallas, tx , usa . . cell culture and nortber~ blot ~natys~ abbreviations: elb, branched-chain cr-keto acid decarboxylase; elp, pyruvate dehydrogenase; e b, dihydrolipoyl transacylase; e , dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase; sds, sodium dodecyl sulfate; msud, maple syrup urine disease; bp, base pairs; kb, kilobase pairs fibroblasts derived from msud patients (pk and lo) [ ] were cuhured as described previously [ ]. total or poly(a)+ rna was prepared from normal fibroblasts, and northern blot analysis was carried out using random-primed cdna probes . ’ j.l. chuang, c.w. fisher, m.a. hale, r.p. cox and d.t. chuang, submitted for publication. published by elsevier science publishers b. k (biomedical division) / /$ . federation of european biochemical societies volume , number febs letters march - - -lo arplruproproar~argleuproclyalaclyleualaac~clypheleull~sproalaalatt,rvnlcl,raspala cggctccctccacctccgctcct~cgcgcgcctgccccccaccatgcg i alaglnar argclnvalalahisphethl-pheclnproasppraglup~oarqglut~d:lyclnthrglnlyshet gcccagaggccgcaggn;gctca~acccac asnleupheclnservalthrseralalauaepasnserlsp mtctttcccagtctgtaacaag'ilxcttggatmctcattggccaaagatcctactgcagtaata~tgaagat valalapheglyclyvalpheargcysthrvolgly~~~~splyst~lylysaspar valph~sn~rp~o gttgcc gcgagacaaatatgcamagatagagtltlt.utacccca asncysglysarleuthrileargse~protrpclycysvalgly~~ly~~eutyrhisse~~e~pr~lu aactgtggaagcctcactalxcggtccc-?xtg ttggtca-atcattctcagagtcciwa cysilegluasplysarnprocysile~ephegl~olysileleutyrargalaalalrlaglugluvalproile tgcatagaggataaaaucc ~cc~~g~~cctata glupr~tyrasnileprole~~~gluvalil~~gl~l~e~~pval~rleuva~~t~~l~~ gaaccatacmcatcccactgtcccaggccgmgtcatacaggaagggagtgatgttactctag-ct glnval~isvalilea~ gluvalalaserheul~vsglulysleuglvvalse~cysgluvalil~p~~rg caggltcatgtgatccgagaggtagcttccalwxamagaau gcttggag~cttgtgactgagg tl~rileileprotrpaspvalaspthrilecyslysservalilelysserglya~ leuleuileserhisgluala actataatacc~~a~t~acac~~mgtctgtgatc~tca~cga~ct~tcagtcacga~ct proleuthrglyclyph~lasercluilese~se~thrvalglngl~gl~cyspheleuasnleucle ccctiy;acacgccgcmcc~~tcacctctacag~ca~aggm~~c~mcctaga~ctc~ata serargvalcysglytyrasp~~propheprobi.ilepheglup~ophe~~ileproasplyst~plyscysty~ tcaligagtatgtggtpatgacca~c~~~mc~~~acatcc~gac~~~gt~at aspalaleuarglysmetil&~ty~*** gatgcccttcgacaactatcgaccatatagaaaagcggaagattatgactagatatggaaatat=i=l=c wccc fig. . nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of the human elb-fl cdna (hel,&l). the numbers on the far right correspond to ordinates of the last nucleotide in each row. the numbers above the sequence refer to the positions of amino acids relative to the amino-terminal val residue (position ) of the mature human elb-/ polypeptide. amino acid sequences corresponding to the amino-terminal regions of the bovine elb-fl subunit (residues to ) and a cnbr fragment (residues to ) determined by peptide sequencing are underlined. the putative polyadenyla- tion signal aataaa (ordinates to ) is also underlined. volume , number febsletters march . results and discussion hybridized with the bp bovine elb-fl cdna’. nucleotide sequencing disclosed that the human the screening of the xgt- library ( qoooo pfu) pro- cdna clones were identicaf. as shown in fig. , the duced human cdna clones (hel& , - and - ) that d b - - - i h i. i’ i’ h h i, p g a g i. a h c p . ii i’ a a ’ ” e a a q r h v a ii f ‘r f e ________---__-----__------_--__-----~~~~,, - - - -l haavsglvaetpsevsgl,lkrrfllutapaa------ a b a b a b a b p b a b c . _ - - ?-s *orl a b c human e b-, cdna (he l/ - ) is bp in length. it rg. . comparison of the amino acid sequences of three elfi polypeptides. the deduced primary structures of human el b-p (sequence a) (the pre- sent study), ps~do~o~~ etb- (sequence b) l] and the related elp subunit (sequence c) of the human pyruvate dehy~ogenase complex [ ] are aligned for maximal identity. the boxed residues are those which are identical between any two of the protein subunits. volume , number febs letters march encodes a mature peptide of amino acids and a mitochondrial presequence of residues. the insert contains a bp ‘-untranslated region with no po- ly(a)+ tail, although a potential polyadenylation signal aataaa is present (underlined bases to ). the fidelity of the human elb-fl cdna is established by the matching of the deduced human amino acid se- quence with the determined bovine el\>-p sequence in the amino-te~inal region (underlined residues to ) and in a cnbr fragment (underlined residues to ) (fig. ). the only substitutions are in positions , and which are val, ala and gln respectively in the bovine elb-fl subunit. the calculated molecular mass is da and the isoelectric point is . for the human elba subunit. a hydropathy plot according to kyte and doolittle shows that the entire human elb-,& chain is highly hydrophobic. hydrophobicity (> . ) is invariably associated with predicted a-helices or p-pleated sheets based on chou and fasman [lo] (data not shown). it is tempting to suggest that the elb-fi subunit is buried in- side the hydrophilic elb-a subunit to form an q&z structure. the relatively inaccessible topography may explain the poor antigenicity of elb-,@ when the purified bovine elb component is used as an antigen . to assess possible sequence conservation, the deduc- ed primary structures of human eib- , pseudomonas elb-b ill] and the human elp-fl of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex [ ] are aligned for maximal identity as shown in fig. . there is significant sequence conservation throughout the entire stretches of the pol~eptides. the identity over a span of amino acid residues is % between human elb-,& and pseudomonas e b-b, and % between human e b-p and human elp-, subunits. the lengths of the eli subunits are also similar with , and residues for human elb-,&, pseudomonas elb-,i? and human elp-,&, respectively. the significant sequence conserva- tion suggests that these functionally related el@ subunits will have similar secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. the results also support the view that the genes for the elfl subunits were evolved from a common ancestor. msud is genetically heterogeneous [ as the branched-chain complex is encoded by at least struc- tural genes. a mutation in any of these genes could result in the dysfunction of the branched-chain complex and consequently the msud phenotype. we have shown previously [ ] that the elb-cu mrna is present at the normal level in fibroblasts derived from a men- nonite msud patient (p.k.); however, both elb-a and elb-fl subunits are markedly reduced as observed by western blotting. in fibroblasts from a second unrelated msud patient lo, the elb-lr mrna was signific~tly reduced, and both the elb-cu and elb-p subunits were nearly absent. fig. shows that the elb-p - ibs- elb, - - actin -elbp actin - fig. . northern blot analysis of the elb-/ mrna in normal and msud fibroblasts. total (indicated) or poly(a)+ rna prepared from normal or msud ~brobl~ts was subjected to northern blotting with the heby- cdna as a probe. p.k. is a mennonite classical patient. lo is a varient msud patient. the actin mrna served as internal standards was probed either separately (panel a) or along with the elb-fl mrna using a “‘p-labeled cdna mixture (panel b). the lower level of normal elb-b mrna in panel b resulted from the lower amount of poly(a)+ rna applied. the size of human elb-fi mrna ( . kb) was estimated using s and s rrnas as standards. mrna ( . kb) is present at normal levels in fibroblasts from p.k. (panel a) and lo (panel b). with respect to pk., the msud mutation might involve either the elb-cr or elb-fl gene. however, in lo the mutation af- fects the elb-cu gene as demonstrated by a marked reduction in its level of mrna. the presence of a nor- mal level of elb-, mrna in lo thus strengthens the previous suggestion that the failure to assemble into a stable a& structure results in degradation of the un- paired elb-fi subunits in the cell [ , ]. acknowledgements: this work was supported by grants dk and dk from the national institutes of health and basic research grant l- from the march of dimes birth defects foun- dation. references [ii pi pi reed, l.j., pettit, f.m., yeaman, s.j., teague, w.m. and bleile, d.m. ( ) proc. febs meet. , - . yeaman, s.j. ( ) biochem. j. , - . randle, p. j., fatania, h.r. and lau, ks. ( ) in: enzyme regulation by reversible phosphoryiation-advances (cohen, p. ed.) pp. l- , elsevier, amsterdam. dancis, j., jansen, v., hutzler, j. and levitz, m. ( ) biochim. biophys. acta. , - . reinberg, a.p. and volgelstein. b. ( ) anal. biochem. , - . fisher, c.w., chuang, j.l., griffin, t.a., lau, ks., cox, r.p. and chuang, d.t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , - . volume , number febs letters march [ ] sanger, f., nicklen, s. and coulson, a.r. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . hu, c.-w.c., lau, k.s., griffin, t.a., chuang, j.l., fisher, c.w., cox, r.p. and chuang, d.t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , . [ ] kyte, j. and doolittle, r.f. ( ) j. mol. biol. , - . [lo] chou, p.y. and fasman, g.d. ( ) adv. enzymol. , - . [ill burns, g., brown, t., hatter, k., idriss, j. and sokatch, j.r. ( ) eur. j. b&hem. , - . koike, k., ohta, s., urata, y., kagawa, y. and koike, m. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . [ ] lyons, l.b., cox, r.p. and dancis, j. ( ) nature , - . [ ] ho, l., hu, c.-w.c., packman, s. and patel, ms. ( ) j. clin. invest. , - . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ latin american community-based mental health initiative: stakeholder matrix tool latin american community-based mental health initiative: stakeholder matrix tool javier mignone university of manitoba � this article presents a matrix tool that facilitates a systemic view, both for planning and evaluation purposes, of the roles and interactions between key stakeholders in community-based mental health programs. the tool emerged from a community mental health initiative centered on natural caregivers, that commenced in in edmonton, alberta, canada, and involved the latin american community, social agencies, and health institutions. the article describes the latin american community-based mental health initiative and exemplifies the use of the stakeholder matrix tool. the purpose of the tool is to assist community-based initiatives to explicitly examine, on an ongoing basis, roles, interactions, and areas of tension between its stakeholders. the lack of this examination undermines the possibility for community-based initiatives to overcome the many challenges they face. the stakeholder matrix tool offers a relatively straightforward structure from where to initiate this process, be it from a planning and or evaluation perspective. © wiley periodicals, inc. community mental health programs involve, by their very nature, a series of distinct players, both individual and institutional. often a key component, the interaction and areas of tension between stakeholders, are overlooked when planning and evaluating these programs. this article presents a matrix tool that facilitates a systemic view, both the author wishes to recognize the participation in discussions of the matrix tool the following individuals involved in the project: laurel borisenko ~the mennonite centre for newcomers!, michael cairns ~the boyle street coop!, yvonne chiu, luis d’elia, denise spitzer, adrienne wiebe ~royal alexandra hospital!, and joan wright ~the support network!. the contents, however, are the responsibility of the author. partial funding for this study was provided by the muttart foundation. the author is currently a research associate with the centre for aboriginal health research, community health sciences, university of manitoba. correspondence to: javier mignone, suite , th floor, buhler research centre, the university of manitoba, mcdermot avenue, winnipeg, mb, r e p , canada. b r i e f r e p o r t journal of community psychology, vol. , no. , – ( ) © wiley periodicals, inc. published online in wiley interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). doi: . /jcop. for planning and evaluation purposes, of the roles and interactions between key stakeholders. this tool emerged from a community mental health initiative centered on natural caregivers, that commenced in in edmonton, alberta, canada, and involved the latin american community, social agencies, and health institutions. the article describes the latin american community-based mental health initiative, and exemplifies the use of the stakeholder matrix tool. description of the latin american community-based mental health initiative a series of suicides and suicide attempts by members of the salvadoran community in edmonton during prompted the start of a latin american community-based mental health initiative ~lacmhi!. these incidents had the effect of mobilizing interest in suicide prevention and on ways of dealing with the issue in this immigrant community. two edmonton agencies, the mennonite centre for newcomers and the support network, became involved and worked with members of the entire latin american community to strategize options for effectively responding to these con- cerns. together with a series of immediate interventions, these agencies ~with funding from health canada and the muttart foundation, and staff support from the royal alexandra hospital! facilitated a process “for building more in-depth community participation and dialogue.” ~mennonite centre for newcomers, ! a first step culminated in the organization of a -hour suicide prevention workshop for individuals of the latin american community in edmonton. a series of recommen- dations came out of this workshop, which outlined future steps. a second workshop of similar characteristics was held months later. before this second workshop a broader consultation and information gathering process in the form of a survey was carried ahead. eighty-one salvadorans living in edmonton were sampled with the purpose of identifying community and agency “recommendations regarding a multi-cultural model that would enable an immigrant community to adequately access formalized mental health crisis services . . . ~and to! identify ways of strengthening natural supports including natural caregivers, existing within the com- munity so that the community is better able to self-support around mental health issues” ~mennonite centre for newcomers & support network, !. a latin amer- ican community-based consulting committee was formed as a way for the latin american community to take ownership of the survey process and to establish a body that would continue educating and serving the community in issues related to mental health in the future. from this phase of the project the following basic recommendations originated: take steps to increase community awareness of existing services; natural caregivers should be encouraged, supported and trained; efforts should be made to recruit bilingual ~spanish-english! volunteers for the distress line; additional suicide preven- tion workshops for community members. these recommendations led to the obtain- ment of partial funding from health canada for a -month follow-up project to recruit and train individuals from the latin american community. the training, of hours, was on suicide prevention, crisis intervention, bereavement loss support skills, posttraumatic debriefing, and listening skills. the intention was that this group of continue in a role of natural caregivers. as well, of this group of , five individuals were selected to receive further training to form a spanish speaking “liaison • journal of community psychology, may team” to enable the mobile mental health crisis team to provide on-call para- professional support in spanish. this model was later replicated with other immigrant communities in edmonton. in the years that followed, further funding from health canada was secured for what became known as the “community-based immigrant mental health project,” involv- ing five immigrant refugee communities. the goal was to address the lack of readily accessible and culturally relevant services in mental health, with the rationale that immigrants and refugees experience difficulties in accessing and using the formal mental health system because of linguistic and cultural barriers. the intent was to provide accessible and appropriate mental health services through a network of sup- port and services available to immigrant and refugee families. a further goal was to strengthen community capacities to undertake mental health promotion in the five immigrant refugee communities involved, through the training of natural caregivers and supporting collective initiatives to respond to specific mental health issues. as stated by health canada ~ joubert, !, “ultimately, the project will demonstrate an authentic process of community–institution partnership, which will have long-term implications in the development of inter and multi-sectoral collaboration in health.” the stakeholder matrix tool introduced in this article is a product of the initial stages of this process of the community–institution partnership, and is thus exemplified here through the lacmhi, and not through its more recent and broader development. the purpose, to enable this type of partnership to assess the initiative from a systemic viewpoint, is nonetheless applicable, with adjustments, to the broader project. rationale for the latin american community-based mental health initiative an initiative of the type described above assumes that social support and community participation are determinants of health ~patrick & wickizer, ; wallston, alagna, devellis, & devellis, ; wilkinson, !. this appears to be particularly pertinent to mental health ~corin, !. isolation is a key determinant in mental illness and a particular risk that immigrants face. although the initiative under study appeared to have been mostly triggered by suicides of community members ~acute episodes!, it opened the door to explore broader mental health concerns. consequently, the role of natural caregivers within the community did not relate only to suicide. the expec- tation was that these caregivers were a “natural” source of contact for latin americans in edmonton at whatever level of emotional or mental health distress. these caregiv- ers would, if possible, help community members at a primary prevention level. if other interventions were required, they would facilitate the accessibility to secondary and tertiary mental health care of community members. their role was conceived along the lines of what some authors have called “natural helpers . . . lay people to whom others naturally turn for advice, support, and tangible aid” ~eng, ; israel, , !, with elements of what jane jacobs ~ ! has called “brokers in public community life.” the creation of the spanish-speaking liaison team to provide on-call para- professional support to the mobile mental health crisis team, addressed the “crisis phase” of mental health. it integrated latin american mental health workers with a mainstream canadian crisis intervention agency. this was an important and concrete initiative that had been recommended by the community. therapeutically speaking, these mental health workers had the cultural and linguistic capability of observing community mental health: stakeholder matrix tool • what is “unobservable” to mainstream mental health workers. several studies have stated similar notions ~budman, lipson, & meleis, ; minas, stuart, & klimidis, ; musser-granski & carrillo, !. they, however, became one of the first visible sources of tension. in health in general, and in mental health in particular, crisis interventions, because of their urgency and tangible nature, have a tendency to “steal the show” in health initiatives. institutionalized care and emergency interventions are the “f lashy” sides of mental health ~and health care in general!. despite their appro- priateness, there seems to be a natural tendency both from the community members’ and institution’s perspectives, to perceive them as meeting broader mental health needs. this became an initial risk and source of tension for the project. if institution- alized care took over, the mental health initiative could have become alienated from broader community participation, defeating in the end the overall goal of the project. the stakeholder matrix tool was created, in part, as way of preventing this type of situation. from a therapeutic perspective, the basic component of the lacmhi was the natural caregiver. the natural caregiver was defined as an active member of the community who had also received training to enhance their normal capabilities, and who had access to resource information. natural caregivers would play different roles according to their particular circumstances. some would remain latent within the community, able to involve themselves at the level they considered appropriate when there was a mental health need within their immediate community. others would have a more active role because of their jobs or their other volunteer activities. as well, a small group, as already mentioned, took on the task of on-call workers with the mobile crisis team, in addition to their general role as natural caregivers. finally, some natural caregivers would have at times active participation in the community consultation committee and or other groups that would occasionally be formed to work on particular issues. the common element, at whatever level of participation was that their role would be mostly of primary prevention, both in its health promotion and illness prevention aspects and as a source of appropriate referral and follow-up ~primary prevention also includes follow-up after secondary or tertiary prevention interventions!. the expectation of this model of intervention was to enable emotional mental health to be addressed jointly at societal, familial, and individual levels. an added benefit ~which can be of particular relevance for some immigrant groups! was its potential to minimize the taboo around emotional mental health. development of the stakeholder matrix tool the need to develop a tool to assist in the planning and evaluation of the initiative became apparent early on. many issues and questions related to the feasibility of the project were raised, which required discussions among the various stakeholders. the following were some of the main questions that arose. how representative was the latin american consulting committee of the latin american community? how par- ticipatory was it? was the commitment of the consulting committee members waver- ing, becoming more passive vis-à-vis institutional players? what was the source of conf lict “. . . with bilingual clients in a therapeutic session, interpreters are called upon to do much more than translate words. they must communicate subtle meanings, idiomatic expressions, sayings, implied mean- ings, affect, tone of voice, facial expressions, and other non-verbals” ~egli, !. • journal of community psychology, may between the spanish-speaking liaison team and mobile mental health crisis team? was the agenda progressively being taken over by the social agencies or by some of the institutional players? why was there some resistance from professional mental health staff ? three premises were considered essential for dealing with these types of questions: that the answers be sought in a collective manner; that they be framed in a nonaccu- satory way; that a relatively simple tool be used to facilitate the analyses. the matrix presented in this article fits the above criteria. although at first glance it may appear complicated, it does not involve a complex process. it requires the input of key stakeholders, and it enables the exploration of the questions from a systemic view, consequently minimizing the possibility of “scapegoating” any of the players. the sources of information used to develop the matrix were the following: inter- views and group discussions with project stakeholders, and project background doc- umentation ~bigras, chagnon, & eastace, ; healthy community development network, ; mennonite centre for newcomers, ; mennonite centre for new- comers & the support network, ; the support network & mennonite centre for newcomers, ; walter, !. five interviews were held with family members of suicide attempters of the latin american community; one focus group with five natural caregivers, two interviews with the main facilitator of the project, one inter- view with the coordinator of the mobile crisis team, and one interview with director of the mennonite centre for newcomers. five discussion meetings were held with project stakeholders during the elaboration of the matrix. the first meeting essentially worked on clarifying the purposes of the tool. following a naturalist inquiry approach ~lin- coln & guba, !, the subsequent meetings entailed group discussions that helped to verify information, generate ideas, analyze data, receive feedback and negotiate outcomes with stakeholders at different stages of its development. implementation of the stakeholder matrix tool the use of the matrix tool involves several steps. first, stakeholders need to be identified and grouped in meaningful categories. second, the roles of each category of players should be specified. third, the interactions determined, and, finally, ten- sion areas examined. table identifies components of the matrix as a general case. stakeholders are headers of rows and columns. roles are located at the intersection of the same stakeholders. interactions are specified as column for a stakeholder in interaction with row of a different stakeholder. tension areas are identified within the same cell, but in italics. table illustrates the first step where the lacmhi identified five categories of stakeholders, specifying who the players were in each category. first, the immigrant community itself; second, the community consultation group formed by community members; third the natural caregivers, who given the nature of the initiative had a central role; fourth, social agencies collaborating with the project; and last, institu- tional players, for the most part members of the formal health care system. this categorization came about by understanding the distinct nature of each group. most of the stakeholder categories are self-explanatory. however, the institutional player in a process similar to that proposed by patton ~ ! for utilization-focused evaluations. community mental health: stakeholder matrix tool • merits some clarification. under this term the matrix table includes health care institutions and health professionals that deliver direct service ~hospitals, health cen- ters, general practitioners, psychiatrists, psychologists, etc.! as well as governmental or para-governmental entities like health canada, alberta health, alberta mental health, and regional health authorities. under institutional players the matrix also includes governmental and nongovernmental agencies that are not exclusively involved in health issues, but that may provide funding or have other inf luences on health initiatives. table spells out specific information of what took place in interactions between stakeholders. linked to this categorization was the clarification of distinct roles played by each stakeholder. the use of the matrix imposed the need to make explicit these roles from the very beginning ~with the understanding that roles may evolve and change over time!. in some cases the role may not be initially clear, as is evident with the category community. the analysis of the interactions imposed a dynamic understanding of these roles, by focusing specific observations of how one stakeholder interacts with another. the in- teractions can have both an ideal component, i.e., how the stakeholders as a whole con- ceive the interactions should be, and an empirical component , where evidence is interpreted about how these interactions actually occurred. table illustrates this pro- cess of interpreting evidence, which lead to the final step, i.e., the identification of ten- sion areas. tension areas are essentially indicants of role conf licts between players, of deviance from original roles, or of overly passivity or aggressiveness by some stakeholders. discussion the lacmhi can be identified with ideas put forward by researchers studying social networks and social support in community mental health. gottlieb ~ a, p. ! states, among several themes foreshadowing the role of informal helping networks in health maintenance, the “importance of a diversity of informal helping resources that are ubiquitous in the community and that ought to be drawn into any comprehensive plan to meet the mental health needs of citizens.” he proposes the mobilization of informal resources focusing “on improving the supportive quality of network con- table . stakeholder matrix: general case stakeholder stakeholder stakeholder stakeholder stakeholder s role interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas s interactions tension areas role interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas s interactions tension areas interactions tension areas role interactions tension areas interactions tension areas s interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas role interactions tension areas s interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas interactions tension areas role matrix should be read as follows: columns in interaction with rows ~for example, stakeholder in interaction with stakeholder !. • journal of community psychology, may t a bl e . l a c m h i st a ke h ol d er m a tr ix : st a ke h ol d er id en ti fi ca ti on a nd a ct io ns p la ye rs c om m u n it y c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s so ci al a ge n ci es in st it u ti on al p la ye rs c l at in a m er ic an co m m u n it y in e d m o n to n r ep re se n te d c o m m u n it y co n ce rn s o n m en ta l h ea lt h is su es . a ct iv e m em b er s o f l at in a m er ic an c o m m u n it y; h av e d o n e p ri m ar y p re ve n ti o n w o rk w it h in co m m u n it y; h av e w o rk ed as li ai so n w o rk er s at m o b il e c ri si s t ea m . m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk st ra te gi ze d w it h l at in a m er ic an co m m u n it y o n h o w to d ea l w it h su ic id e is su e. h ea lt h c an ad a an d m u tt ar t f o u n d at io n p ro vi d ed fu n d in g; r o ya l a le xa n d ra h o sp it al p ro vi d ed st af f su p p o rt ; m o b il e c ri si s t ea m — su p p o rt n et w o rk in cl u d ed l ia is o n w o rk er s in th ei r te am . c c g w as re p re se n te d to so m e d eg re e th ro u gh th e l at in a m er ic an c o n su lt in g c o m m it te e. l at in a m er ic an co m m u n it y- b as ed co n su lt in g co m m it te e so m e n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s p ar ti ci p at ed in th e l at in a m er ic an c o n su lt in g c o m - m it te e; n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s w as in fo rm ed o f l at in a m er ic an c o n su lt in g c o m - m it te e’ s re co m m en d at io n s. h el p ed o rg an iz e sa lv ad o ra n c o n su lt in g c o m m it te e an d l at in a m er ic an c o n su lt in g c o m m it te e. n o d ir ec t in te ra ct io n . n c g u se d n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s w it h in c o m m u n it y. p ro vi d ed in fo rm at io n to n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s o n c o m m u n it y n ee d s an d p er ce p ti o n s. w o rk sh o p p ar ti ci p an ts ; gr o u p o f ; li ai so n w o rk er s p ro vi d ed o rg an iz at io n al su p p o rt fo r w o rk sh o p s; re so u rc e su p p o rt fo r g ro u p o f ; tr ai n in g fo r l ia is o n w o rk er s. p ro vi d ed su p p o rt to w o rk sh o p s; t ra in ed l ia is o n w o rk er s; in co rp o ra te d l ia is o n w o rk er s in m o b il e c ri si s t ea m . sa c o m m u n it y st ra te gi ze d w it h m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk o n h o w to d ea l w it h su ic id e an d b ro ad er m en ta l h ea lt h is su es . w o rk ed w it h m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk p ro vi d in g in fo rm at io n o n c o m m u n it y n ee d s an d re co m m en d at io n s. r ec ei ve d tr ai n in g fr o m m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk ~t h ro u gh w o rk sh o p s! ; re ce iv ed su p p o rt fr o m m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk . m en n o n it e c en tr e fo r n ew co m er s; s u p p o rt n et w o rk w o rk ed w it h so ci al ag en ci es fo r w o rk sh o p s. p ro vi d ed fu n d in g fo r p ro je ct . ip u se d m o b il e c ri si s t ea m ~ ca ll s si n ce h av in g l ia is o n w o rk er s! ; so u gh t co u n se li n g. p ro vi d ed re co m m en d at io n s th at le d to in cl u si o n o f l ia is o n w o rk er s in m o b il e c ri si s t ea m . r ec ei ve d tr ai n in g fr o m m o b il e c ri si s t ea m ~s u p p o rt n et w o rk !; re ce iv e tr ai n in g su p p o rt fr o m r o ya l a le xa n d ra h o sp it al ; so m e n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s w o rk w it h m o b il e c ri si s t ea m as l ia is o n w o rk er s. m en n o n it e c en tr e an d su p p o rt n et w o rk w o rk ed w it h m o b il e c ri si s t ea m an d r o ya l a le xa n d ra h o sp it al to o rg an iz e w o rk sh o p s an d tr ai n in g o f l ia is o n w o rk er s. m o b il e c ri si s t ea m ; m u tt ar t f o u n d at io n ; h ea lt h c an ad a; r o ya l a le x an d ra h o sp it al m at ri x sh o u ld b e re ad as fo ll o w s: co lu m n s in in te ra ct io n w it h ro w s ~f o r ex am p le , co m m u n it y in in te ra ct io n w it h co m m u n it y co n su lt at io n gr o u p o r so ci al ag en ci es in in te ra ct io n w it h n at u ra l ca re gi ve rs !. c o d es : c � c o m m u n it y; c c g � c o m m u n it y co n su lt at io n gr o u p ; n c g � n at u ra l ca re gi ve rs ; sa � so ci al ag en ci es ; ip � in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs . it al ic s � t en si o n ar ea s. community mental health: stakeholder matrix tool • t a bl e . l a c m h i st a ke h ol d er m a tr ix : r ol es , in te ra ct io ns , t en si on a re a s p la ye rs c om m u n it y c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s so ci al a ge n ci es in st it u ti on al p la ye rs c im m ig ra n t c o m m u n it y r ep re se n ts c o m m u n it y m em b er s; w o rk s w it h c o m m u n it y is su es an d co n ce rn s; ad vo ca te s fo r c o m m u n it y. is ol at es it se lf fr om c om m u n it y, be - co m es a sm al l al ie n at ed bo dy . d ie s du e to la ck of co m m u n it y pa rt ic ip an ts . w o rk w it h in c o m m u n it y; li st en s to c o m m u n it y co n ce rn s. r es p o n d s to c o m m u n it y n ee d s. l in k c o m m u n it y m em b er s w it h o th er re so u rc es . n c g ’s pr of es si on al iz e th em se lv es ; co m - m u n it y ha s di ff ic u lt y ac ce ss in g n c g . st ra te gi ze w it h c o m m u n it y o n h o w to d ea l w it h m en ta l h ea lt h is su es . so ci al a ge n ci es im po se th e ag en da ; n ot hi n g is do n e w it ho u t so ci al a ge n ci es in vo lv em en t. p ro vi d e fu n d in g fo r c o m m u n it y in it ia ti ve s; li st en to co m m u n it y co n ce rn s an d su gg es ti o n s an d ch an ge s ac co rd in gl y. d is re ga rd c om m u n it y is su es an d re co m m en da ti on s: im po se ow n m od el as ex cl u si ve m en ta l he al th m od el . c c g r ai se s is su es to c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p ; p ro - m o te s p ar ti ci p at io n in c o m - m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p . ig n or es th e ex is te n ce of c om - m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p; do es n ’t ra is e is su es to c om - m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p. r ep re se n ts an d a d vo ca te s im m ig ra n t c o m m u n it y a re in vo lv ed in th e c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p ; li st en to c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p re co m m en d at io n s an d ta ke id ea s to c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p . d o n ot ac kn ow le dg e ro le of c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p; is ol at e fr om c om m u n it y g ro u p is su es . p ro vi d e in it ia l o rg an iz at io n al su p p o rt to c o m m u n it y c o n - su lt at io n g ro u p an d so m e m in im al o n go in g re so u rc e su p p o rt . d ri ve c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p; c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p be co m es de pe n de n t on so ci al a ge n ci es . a w ar e o f th e ex is te n ce o f c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p ; li st en to c o m m u n it y c o n su lt at io n g ro u p re co m m en d at io n s. d is re ga rd le gi ti m ac y of c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p; im po se ow n he ge m on ic m od el ov er c om m u n it y c on su lt at io n g ro u p’ s in it ia ti ve s. n c g m ak es go o d u se o f n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s; fo st er s th e d ev el o p - m en t o f m o re n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s. d oe sn ’t u se n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s; do es n ’t co n si de r n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s as a c om m u n it y re so u rc e; is ol at es n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s fr om c om m u n it y. p ro m o te s n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s an d p ro vi d es th em w it h su p p o rt , id ea s. se ek s fu n d in g fo r tr ai n in g. l ea ve s m aj or de ci si on s in ha n ds of n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s; do es n ot in vo lv e n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s or is ol at es th em . t h er ap eu ti c ro le w it h in c o m m u n it y. b ro ke r ro le . p ro vi d e tr ai n in g su p p o rt ; re - so u rc e su p p o rt ; co n ta ct s an d in fo rm at io n . t ak e ov er n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s’ in i- ti at iv es ; pr of es si on al iz e n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s; de n ie s th em n ec es sa ry su pp or t. p ro vi d e te ch n ic al tr ai n in g an d su p p o rt ; p ro vi d e re so u rc e in fo r- m at io n . d o n ot re co gn iz e u n iq u e kn ow le dg e of n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s; pr of es si on al iz e n at u ra l c ar eg iv er s. sa c o m m u n it y ap p ro ac h es so ci al a ge n ci es to w o rk to ge th er o n m en ta l h ea lt h is su es . c om m u n it y le av es is su es in ha n ds of so ci al a ge n ci es an d re m ai n s pa ss iv e. w o rk s in p ar tn er sh ip w it h so ci al a ge n ci es to fo st er co m m u n it y- b as ed m en ta l h ea lt h ap p ro ac h . l ea ve s le ad er sh ip ex cl u si ve ly to so ci al a ge n ci es ; do es n ot in fl u en ce so ci al a ge n ci es . w o rk w it h so ci al a ge n ci es fo r o n go - in g tr ai n in g, co n ta ct s, in fo rm at io n . d ep en d ex cl u si ve ly on so ci al a ge n ci es ; do n ot in fl u en ce so ci al a ge n ci es . in it ia l o rg an iz at io n al fa ci li ta to r ro le . p ro vi d e so m e re so u rc e su p p o rt . h el p w it h in st it u ti o n al li n ka ge s. w o rk as p ar tn er s w it h so ci al a ge n ci es to su p p o rt co m m u n it y m en ta l h ea lt h in it ia ti ve s. o ve rr id e so ci al a ge n ci es ; m ak e so ci al a ge n ci es fi n an ci al ly de pe n de n t on in st it u ti on al p la ye rs . ip c o m m u n it y m em b er s ac ce ss ap p ro p ri at e ca re w it h in st it u - ti o n al p la ye rs ; co m m u n it y in fl u - en ce s in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs . c om m u n it y re m ai n s pa ss iv e in re la - ti on to in st it u ti on al p la ye rs ’ po li ci es ; ty pe of ca re an d ac ce ss ib il it y. l o b b ie s in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs fo r cu lt u ra ll y ap p ro p ri at e ca re , fo r ac ce ss ib il it y, et c. a cc ep ts st at u s qu o of in st it u ti on al p la ye rs ; in it ia ti ve s ar e ab so rb ed by in st it u ti on al p la ye rs ’ he ge m on ic ca re m od el . k n o w le d ge o f in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs ’ ty p es o f ca re an d re fe r co m m u n it y m em b er s to ap p ro p ri at e ca re ; so m e al so w o rk w it h in h ea lt h ca re in st it u ti o n s. r el y on in st it u ti on al p la ye rs ca re m od el n ot va lu in g ow n po te n ti al ; ar e ab so rb ed by in st it u ti on al p la ye rs . w o rk w it h in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs to o rg an iz e tr ai n in g: in fl u en ce in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs p o li ci es ; lo b b ie s th em fo r fu n d in g. r em ai n s pa ss iv e to in st it u ti on al p la ye rs he ge m on ic ca re m od el ; to ta l de pe n de n cy on in st it u ti on al p la ye rs fu n di n g. p ro vi d es cr is is in te rv en ti o n . p ro vi d es se co n d ar y an d te rt ia ry p re ve n ti o n in te rv en ti o n s. m at ri x sh o u ld b e re ad as fo ll o w s: co lu m n s in in te ra ct io n w it h ro w s ~f o r ex am p le , co m m u n it y in in te ra ct io n w it h co m m u n it y co n su lt at io n gr o u p o r so ci al ag en ci es in in te ra ct io n w it h n at u ra l ca re gi ve rs !. c o d es : c � c o m m u n it y; c c g � c o m m u n it y co n su lt at io n gr o u p ; n c g � n at u ra l ca re gi ve rs ; sa � so ci al ag en ci es ; ip � in st it u ti o n al p la ye rs . it al ic s � t en si o n ar ea s. • journal of community psychology, may tacts.” the lacmhi parallels his suggestion of “focused strategies of teaching helping skills . . . to categories of people who are known to be approached frequently as informal helping agents . . .” ~gottlieb, b, p. ! it also goes further, along the lines of what other authors ~froland, pancoast, chapman, & kimboko, ! identify as fostering a linkage between formal and informal support systems. ultimately, the lacmhi links social support and social networks, consistent with what israel ~ ! categorizes as “programs enhancing entire networks through natu- ral helpers.” this social network model is favorably argued by d’augelli ~ ! as having the potential to provide “a framework to help the isolated and to enrich the development of those embedded in social networks.” for this to be so, the monitoring of a program of these characteristics requires that it be assessed from a systemic point of view. questions about the impact of the project on natural helpers in terms of both their skills and the way they relate to their networks, or about changes in the profes- sional service system ~mitchell & hurley, , p. !, for example, can only be answered from that vantage point. further, monitoring of these programs need to be consistent with the main phi- losophy, that is of the involvement of stakeholders. for this to be feasible, a relatively simple process of planning and evaluation should be established to realistically foster this involvement. the stakeholder matrix tool presented here has the potential to help in this endeavour because of its relative simplicity and several of its characteris- tics: it is a relatively clear-cut tool, involving straight steps and a plain structure for analysis. it overtly addresses tensions and potential sources of conf lict in community programs that by their very nature involve various stakeholders of very different char- acteristics. it can help to normalize the existence or potential for existence, of con- f lict. it enables a simplified systemic view. it provides a systemic structure for stakeholder discussion, consequently minimizing the possibility for scapegoating of any particular group. it enables a dynamic examination of the process. table illustrates the use of the matrix for the lacmhi. it shows five stakeholder categories: latin american community in edmonton, community consultation group, natural caregivers liaison workers, social agencies, institutional players, that resulted from the following process. a specific community ~salvadoran! that was part of a larger related cultural community ~latin american! suffered acute mental illness incidents. community members together with some social agencies agreed on the need to act. through workshops and a broader consultation process, needs and recommendations were identified. the recommendation that took the most concrete form was the one related to crisis response and to accessibility to formal care ~health care institutions, institutional players!. there was a group ~in a sense intermediating between community and agencies institutions! put in place for natural caregivers to interact, and a broader community group ~latin american community-based consulting committee! to advice “its community and the relevant agencies on mental health issues concerning the latinos” ~support network & mennonite centre for newcomers, !. because there is a tendency to avoid the explicit examination of conf lict or of potential conf lict in planning and evaluating community programs, a tool of this type enabled its observation within a framework where it was normalized. the notion is that interactions between players will eventually create areas of tension, which consti- tute ongoing challenges to the initiative. tension areas simultaneously provide infor- hoping that tensions will not occur and or trying to ignore them, ultimately makes things worse. community mental health: stakeholder matrix tool • mation about the vitality of the process, and about possible breakdown points. to exemplify, the following were a series of possible tension areas faced by the lacmhi: tension between formal care and informal care; tension between acute care and prevention promotion; tension between institutionalization and community participa- tion; tension between agency leadership and community leadership ~or “lack of ” from either player!; tension between “specialized” professionals and “natural” caregivers; tension between natural caregivers with institutional roles and those without institu- tional roles. although tension areas may seem to be the negative side of the interactions, they are actually a key source of information of the initiative’s dynamics because they signal areas of conf lict, of lack of vitality, etc. they provide light on possible necessary adjustments to the program. ultimately, the examination and discussion of these tension areas by representatives of the different stakeholders holds the most promise for ensuring the initiative’s ongoing renewal and success. an interesting use of this matrix tool is the possibility of anticipation. if this type of analysis is done during the planning stages, there can be stakeholder speculation concerning future potential areas of tension, enabling useful foresight. using this matrix tool, the examination of the lacmhi brought to the forefront several challenges that the initiative of this type faced. one has been mentioned previously: the “narrowing” of mental health issues to the crisis phase ~and, therefore, mostly dealing with acute mental health problems!. this also relates to the tendency for institutionalized care to take over as the central player. added to a tendency of some community-based activities to lose participants and the dynamism of the earlier mobilized period, there was a risk of losing the essential nature of this type of initia- tive ~i.e., that it be community driven!. the versatility of stakeholder matrix derives from the fact that it can be imple- mented at any stage of an initiative or program. as well, it can be used both for planning purposes and evaluation purposes ~mainly, although not exclusively, forma- tive evaluation!. community-based programs need to explicitly examine, on an ongo- ing basis, the roles and interactions of its different players and identify tension areas. the lack of this examination undermines the possibility for community-based initia- tives to overcome the many challenges they face. central to this examination is that it be done with the involvement of the different stakeholders as part of a common exercise. the stakeholder matrix tool offers a relatively straightforward structure from where to initiate this process, be it from a planning and or evaluation perspective. references bigras, r., chagnon, f., & eustace, j. ~ !. a comparative needs analysis of mental health crisis response services in edmonton: an integrative approach. edmonton, alberta: the support network. budman, c.l., lipson, j.g. & meleis, a.l. ~ !. the cultural consultant in mental health care: the case of an arab adolescent. american journal of orthopsychiatry, ~ !, – . corin, e. ~ !. the cultural frame: context and meaning in the construction of health. in b.c. amick, s. levine, a.r. tarlov, & d. chapman walsh ~eds.!, society and health ~pp. – !. new york: oxford university press. d’augelli, a. ~ !. social support networks in mental health. in j.k. whittaker & j. garbarino ~eds.!, social support networks ~pp. – !. hawthorne, n y: aldine. • journal of community psychology, may egli, e.a. ~ !. bilingual workers. in j. westermeyer, c.l. williams, & a.n. nguyen ~eds.!, mental health services for refugees ~dhhs publication no. adm – ! ~pp. – !. washington, dc: u.s. government printing office. eng, e. ~ !. the save our sisters project: a social network strategy for reaching rural black women. cancer, , – . froland, c., pancoast, d.l., chapman, n.j., & kimboko, p.j. ~ !. linking formal and infor- mal support systems. in b.h. gottlieb ~ed.!, social networks and social support ~pp. – !. beverly hills, ca: sage. gottlieb, b.h. ~ a!. social networks and social support in community mental health. in b.h. gottlieb ~ed.!, social networks and social support ~pp. – !. beverly hills, ca: sage. gottlieb, b.h. ~ b!. preventive interventions involving social support networks and social support. in b.h.gottlieb ~ed.!, social networks and social support ~pp. – !. beverly hills, ca: sage. healthy community development network. ~ !. report on the vietnamese mental health needs assessment survey. edmonton, alberta: mcn. israel, b.a. ~ !. social networks and health status: linking theory, research and practice. patient counselling and health education, , – . israel, b.a. ~ !. social networks and social support: implications for natural helper and community level interventions. health education quarterly, , – . jacobs, j. ~ !. the death and life of great american cities. new york: modern library. joubert, n. ~ !. promoting the best ourselves: mental health promotion in canada. keynote paper. national conference on mental health promotion: perspectives and practices. gal- way: national university of ireland. lincoln, y.s., & guba, e.g. ~ !. naturalistic inquiry. newbury park, ca: sage publications. mennonite centre for newcomers, & the support network. ~ !. healing ourselves—healing each other. relevance and accessibility of mental health crisis services: a consultation with the salvadorian community in edmonton. edmonton, alberta: mcn & the support network. mennonite centre for newcomers. ~ !. suicide prevention initiative with latin american community members: final report. edmonton, alberta: mcn. mitchell, r.e., & hurley, d.j. ~ !. collaboration with natural helping networks: lessons from studying paraprofessionals. in b.h. gottlieb ~ed.!, social networks and social support ~pp. – !. beverly hills, ca: sage. minas, i.h., stuart, g.w., & klimidis, s. ~ !. language, culture and psychiatric services: a survey of victorian clinical staff. australian and new zealand journal of psychiatry, ~ !, – . musser-granski, j., & carrillo, d.f. ~ !. the use of bilingual, bicultural paraprofessionals in mental health services: issues for hiring, training, and supervision. community mental health journal, ~ !, – . patrick, d.l., & wickizer, t.m. ~ !. community and health. in b.c. amick, s. levine, a.r. tarlov, & d. chapman walsh ~eds.!, society and health. new york: oxford university press. patton, m.p. ~ !. utilization focused evaluation: the new century text. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. support network, the & mennonite centre for newcomers. ~ !. report on the latin amer- ican community crisis support project. edmonton, alberta: the support network & mcn. wallston, b.s., alagna, s.w., de vellis, b.m., & de vellis, r.f. ~ !. social support and physical health. health psychology, ~ !, – . walter, l. ~ !. newcomer suicide prevention project: immigration, culture and suicide. edmonton, alberta: mcn. wilkinson, r.g. ~ !. unhealthy societies: the aff lictions of inequality. new york: routledge. community mental health: stakeholder matrix tool • 	introduction 	description of the latin american community-based mental health initiative 	rationale for the latin american community-based mental health initiative 	development of the stakeholder matrix tool 	implementation of the stakeholder matrix tool 	table . stakeholder matrix: general case 	discussion 	table . lacmhi stakeholder matrix: stakeholder identification and actions 	table . lacmhi stakeholder matrix: roles, interactions, tension areas 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ overcoming barriers to scaling up sustainable alternative food systems: a comparative case study of two ontario-based wholesale produce auctions sustainability article overcoming barriers to scaling up sustainable alternative food systems: a comparative case study of two ontario-based wholesale produce auctions rylea johnson, evan d. g. fraser * and roberta hawkins department of geography, university of guelph, stone road east, guelph, on n g w , canada; ryleajhnsn@gmail.com (r.j.); rhawkins@uoguelph.ca (r.h.) * correspondence: frasere@uoguelph.ca; tel.: + - - - (ext. ) academic editor: marc a. rosen received: january ; accepted: march ; published: april abstract: conventional food systems are viewed by the literature as unsustainable in that they provide consumers with convenience while disconnecting them from producers thus leading to environmental and social problems. by contrast, sustainable or “alternative” food systems are viewed as correcting such problems. wholesale produce auctions, which are well established in the old order mennonite community, are physical sites where large quantities of produce are sold through a competitive bidding process to local buyers. these are seen as a way of better connecting producers and consumers and thus realizing a more sustainable food system. however, this potential has not been tested. therefore, this paper explores two produce auctions in southwestern ontario, canada, using an interview based methodology (n = ) and demonstrates that despite wholesale produce auctions offering many opportunities to promote the benefits of alternative food systems, produce auctions are limited in that they fail to provide a practical and functional way of distributing food to individual consumers. overall, this research highlights what appears to be a tension in the alternative food systems literature: producers and consumers may be simultaneously looking for the sustainability benefits associated with “alternative food systems” without wanting to sacrifice any of the convenience found in conventional food systems. keywords: sustainable and alternative food systems; produce auctions; sustainable agriculture; local food; convenience; conventional farming . introduction the environmental and social problems caused by conventional food production systems have led many to conclude that mainstream food production today is unsustainable and this has given rise to a range of new institutional models such as farmers markets and community supported agriculture [ – ]. these “alternative” institutions are supposed to be more sustainable in that they should offer environmental and social benefits [ ] by better connecting producers with consumers (i.e., “re-socializing”) and by bringing production and consumption into the same geographic region (i.e., “re-spatialization”). ideally, re-socializing and re-spatializing the food system will bring benefits such as improved food quality, the use of more sustainable farming practices, greater resilience and more equitable rural development [ – ]. however, problems persist; while some “alternative” institutional models, such as farmers markets and community supported agriculture schemes, have been studied and evaluated in terms of their potential to create a more sustainable food system, many proposed institutional arrangements have not. there is a need to determine the ability of different alternative models to truly deliver the benefits associated with this movement [ – ]. the purpose of this paper is to explore the extent to which “wholesale produce auctions,” which are a well-established way for old order mennonites and amish farmers to sell their produce, has sustainability , , ; doi: . /su www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability http://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability sustainability , , of the potential to act as an institutional model that can support the values and promote the benefits of alternative food systems (afss). we do this by exploring the perceptions of the participants of two specific produce auctions currently operating in southern ontario, canada. in this way, this paper tries to contribute to a growing body of work that explores the way that things like cooperative alternative food networks may become powerful “tools for community development and important vehicles for cultivating democratically controlled food systems” [ ] (p. ). . background . . literature on alternative food systems there is an extensive literature on afss that critiques “mainstream” food production systems as creating serious social and environmental problems and explores the ways in which institutions such as community supported agricultural programs, farmers markets, and farm tours promote sustainability by better linking producers and consumers. the core logic here is that if consumers and producers are better connected then there will be stronger incentives to produce and distribute food in a way that better protects both workers and environment [ , , , , , , ]. sometimes the literature describes these producer–consumer links as the “re-socialization” and “re-spatialization” of the food system, and these elements have been analyzed in terms of the extent to which they provide both environmental and socio-economic benefits [ ]. however, tensions remain, and one area that is unresolved is the extent to which alternative food institutions can provide both the benefits of re-socialization and re-spatialization while also meeting consumer expectation in terms of cost and convenience [ – ]. for instance, a study conducted by carrigan and attalla [ ] demonstrated that for many consumers hectic lifestyles played a strong part in the decision to purchase produce from mainstream supermarkets. furthermore, extensive research demonstrates that when alternative food institutions “scale up” as a way of trying to offer consumers greater convenience and affordability, they may lose those characteristics that define them as “alternative” in the first place [ , ]. this represents a major tension in the literature with bellows and hamm [ ] arguing if afss fail to grow larger, they will only have niche impacts within small regions while work done on organic farming suggests that large-scale alternative food institutions are indistinguishable from mainstream food operations [ ]. such arguments lead mount [ ] to posit that if an alternative food enterprise scales-up, it may risk losing qualities associated with re-socializing and re-spatializing food systems. this highlights a conflict in the literature in that “sustainable” and “alternative” food systems are predicated on there being a strong relationship between producers and consumers, whereas scaling up an alternative food enterprise often requires wholesaling food that creates a “middleman” and that removes the direct relationship between farmer and consumer. one way that is proposed to address this conundrum is to develop alternative food institutions that focus on wholesaling food to institutional buyers rather than retailing food to individual consumers. the literature on this topic is most advanced when it comes to “food hubs” [ – ]. food hubs are centers where small and midsized farmers can drop off their produce to be lightly processed, stored, marketed and distributed. in this way, food hubs allow individual farmers the opportunity to sell to larger volume consumers, such as schools, universities or hospitals that require consistent and high-volume product. typically organized by community members, food hubs are often based at centrally located warehouses and staffed by a small number of paid employees who are funded by membership fees. increasingly, food hubs have well-developed online marketplaces where consumers can place orders. one of the best canadian examples of a food hub is the ottawa valley food co-op [ ]. the ottawa valley food co-op is based on the oklahoma food cooperative, which is where many of the ideas about cooperative food hubs were pioneered. another model that would allow the afs to grow in scale is the “produce auction mart” that brings together farmers with institutional buyers who bid at weekly auctions. however, outside of sustainability , , of the studies already referred to on food hubs, much remains unknown about how such organizations actually work and the extent to which ideas and practices from one organization may be transferred to the sector more generally. for instance, can such an organization overcome the conflict mentioned above: namely that once an afs grows to a sufficient scale that wholesaling becomes necessary can it even be considered alternative or sustainable? consequently, the purpose of this paper is to explore the perceptions of both the vendors and the customers at two well-established wholesale produce auctions. . . produce auctions as just noted, wholesale produce auctions are physical sites where large quantities of produce are sold to local buyers [ ]. at such an auction, produce grown within a given region is brought to a centralized location where consumers are able to evaluate the quality of produce and determine a price through a process of competitive bidding [ ]. theoretically, this should allow farmers the opportunity to obtain the highest possible price and to sell a much larger volume than they would at a traditional farmers market. the minimum amount of produce sold at the auction depends on the availability of products—if there are large quantities of produce available, minimum purchases are enforced (e.g., a lower limit of flats of strawberries during strawberry season). however, when less produce is available, smaller minimums are applied. originally this model was intended to spur economic activity in rural communities [ ] and became popular with amish and mennonite communities as it allowed them to reinforce their beliefs and bonds while gaining access to a larger market [ ]. it is possible, however, that this model could extend beyond this one cultural group and apply more generally as a way of promoting more sustainable afss. presently, this literature is limited to a few empirical studies that focus on auctions and their ability to promote community involvement within the local economy while creating a new market [ , , – ]. therefore, the potential of produce auctions to re-socialize has not yet been the subject of rigorous evaluation. as a consequence, the focus of this paper is to determine whether the wholesale produce auction model that would allow larger quantities of locally grown produce to move within regions. we are looking to determine whether it may represent a means of scaling-up afss without losing the characteristics associated that mark alterative food systems as distinct from conventional ones. a wholesale produce auction may also present a way of maintaining the environmental and social values that are strived for within afss [ ]. however, since these claims are presently untested, this paper will take a preliminary qualitative and inductive approach to explore both the barriers and opportunities faced by participants of two ontario produce auctions. it is hoped that by presenting these two case studies, this paper may advance the literature that seeks to understand how the wholesale produce auction may, or may not, promote the creation of more sustainable food systems. . methods . . study locations a case study based approach [ ] was used to develop a more complete understanding of the functioning of two auctions: the elmira produce auction cooperative (epac) and the bruce-huron produce auction (bhpa) (see figure ). epac is located within waterloo region, near elmira, ontario, which has a population of [ ]. the auction itself is located half an hour from both the city of waterloo and the city of guelph. both these cities have large populations of , and , , respectively [ ]. the epac auction was established in with the intention of supporting local farmers through the creation of a new localized market [ ]. this auction represents the first wholesale produce auction to operate in ontario, canada. participants at epac represent a large range of buyers, such as university representatives, farm stand owners, independent grocers and individuals looking to source locally grown produce. figure below demonstrates the location of epac and bhpa as well as the radius’ from which they source produce. sustainability , , of sustainability  ,  ,     of      figure  . map of auction locations and produce sourcing areas.  the second case study, the bhpa, is located in holyrood, ontario, which is a small rural hamlet  (exact population was not accessible). the auction  is  located approximately   min from denser  populations, such as goderich and kincardine with populations of   and  , , respectively [ ].  this auction was developed in   and modeled on the same structure as epac. the auction was  created with the intention of providing a localized market for buyers who normally purchase their  produce  from  the  toronto  food  terminal.  (the  toronto  food  terminal  is  a  wholesale  food  distribution outlet in the city of toronto. produce comes from a wide range of locations and price is  determined by supply and demand, changing daily [ ].)  both auctions are organized and run by  the old order mennonite community within  their  respective  regions.  this  is  relevant  as  their  ideals  and  values  play  an  essential  role  in  auction  development. old order mennonites immigrated to this region between   and  , stemming  from the swiss mennonites and the amish communities from pennsylvania. they can be identified  through their simple dress, agrarian lifestyles, limited (if any) use of technology, and the forbidding  of motorized vehicles. however, it is important to acknowledge that a spectrum of these beliefs and  values exist between locations. thus, despite similar organizational structure, there are some distinct  differences between  the auctions. for example, epac  is  located closer  to dense populations, as  guelph and waterloo are only   km away, and opts to use some forms of technology, e.g. it allows  telephones to be used (at the auction and within family homes). bhpa is much more rural and does  not use electricity or telephones. figures   and   help to illustrate some of more visual differences.    figure  . elmira produce auction cooperative.  figure . map of auction locations and produce sourcing areas. the second case study, the bhpa, is located in holyrood, ontario, which is a small rural hamlet (exact population was not accessible). the auction is located approximately min from denser populations, such as goderich and kincardine with populations of and , , respectively [ ]. this auction was developed in and modeled on the same structure as epac. the auction was created with the intention of providing a localized market for buyers who normally purchase their produce from the toronto food terminal. (the toronto food terminal is a wholesale food distribution outlet in the city of toronto. produce comes from a wide range of locations and price is determined by supply and demand, changing daily [ ].) both auctions are organized and run by the old order mennonite community within their respective regions. this is relevant as their ideals and values play an essential role in auction development. old order mennonites immigrated to this region between and , stemming from the swiss mennonites and the amish communities from pennsylvania. they can be identified through their simple dress, agrarian lifestyles, limited (if any) use of technology, and the forbidding of motorized vehicles. however, it is important to acknowledge that a spectrum of these beliefs and values exist between locations. thus, despite similar organizational structure, there are some distinct differences between the auctions. for example, epac is located closer to dense populations, as guelph and waterloo are only km away, and opts to use some forms of technology, e.g. it allows telephones to be used (at the auction and within family homes). bhpa is much more rural and does not use electricity or telephones. figures and help to illustrate some of more visual differences. sustainability  ,  ,     of      figure  . map of auction locations and produce sourcing areas.  the second case study, the bhpa, is located in holyrood, ontario, which is a small rural hamlet  (exact population was not accessible). the auction  is  located approximately   min from denser  populations, such as goderich and kincardine with populations of   and  , , respectively [ ].  this auction was developed in   and modeled on the same structure as epac. the auction was  created with the intention of providing a localized market for buyers who normally purchase their  produce  from  the  toronto  food  terminal.  (the  toronto  food  terminal  is  a  wholesale  food  distribution outlet in the city of toronto. produce comes from a wide range of locations and price is  determined by supply and demand, changing daily [ ].)  both auctions are organized and run by  the old order mennonite community within  their  respective  regions.  this  is  relevant  as  their  ideals  and  values  play  an  essential  role  in  auction  development. old order mennonites immigrated to this region between   and  , stemming  from the swiss mennonites and the amish communities from pennsylvania. they can be identified  through their simple dress, agrarian lifestyles, limited (if any) use of technology, and the forbidding  of motorized vehicles. however, it is important to acknowledge that a spectrum of these beliefs and  values exist between locations. thus, despite similar organizational structure, there are some distinct  differences between  the auctions. for example, epac  is  located closer  to dense populations, as  guelph and waterloo are only   km away, and opts to use some forms of technology, e.g. it allows  telephones to be used (at the auction and within family homes). bhpa is much more rural and does  not use electricity or telephones. figures   and   help to illustrate some of more visual differences.    figure  . elmira produce auction cooperative.  figure . elmira produce auction cooperative. sustainability , , of sustainability  ,  ,     of      figure  . bruce‐huron produce auction.  . . data collection  this project focused solely on strawberry growers and buyers as participants (although they  frequently were purchasing or growing other types of produce). strawberries are commonly grown  and one of the highest value berry crops grown in ontario (where the total value of all berry crops is  estimated at $  million annually [ ]. furthermore, it is only produced during only one season even  though consumers have come to expect a year‐round supply via imports from elsewhere in north  america. hence, strawberries share many characteristics with other horticultural crops and provided  our research an obvious focus that grounded our interviews.  once an  initial group of strawberry growers were  identified at each auction, a snowballing  technique was implemented in order to locate other interviewees. identifying initial participants was  achieved by attending each auction and keeping track of who was selling and who was purchasing  the produce. in the end, there were   interviews conducted. participants were both buyers and  growers: participants who utilized the auction as both a buyer and a grower were categorized as the  position in which they were interviewed. for example, if initial contact was made with the participant  because they purchased strawberries, they were slotted as a buyer even if they also use the auction  as a grower for their own produce. furthermore, participants fell into two other categories as well— male or female and old order mennonite or non‐old order mennonite. the breakdown of these  interviews can be seen in table  . close‐ended interview questions were used, such as “what outlets  a grower uses to sell their produce?” and “what is the percentage of the strawberries you sell through  the auction?” open‐ended questions, such as “why do respondents sell through the auctions?’’ were  also used. with the open‐ended questions, once the interviewee was finished responding, they were  prompted for themes that frequently arise in afs literature. these prompts included questions such  as; “did selling through the auctions allow you to feel more connected to your community?” once  interviews were completed, a thematic content analysis was used to analyze participant responses  and determine what common themes existed and with what frequency they were discussed.  table  . participant breakdown.    buyer  grower  old order  mennonite  non‐old order  mennonite  male  female  epac              bhpa              total                figure . bruce-huron produce auction. . . data collection this project focused solely on strawberry growers and buyers as participants (although they frequently were purchasing or growing other types of produce). strawberries are commonly grown and one of the highest value berry crops grown in ontario (where the total value of all berry crops is estimated at $ million annually [ ]. furthermore, it is only produced during only one season even though consumers have come to expect a year-round supply via imports from elsewhere in north america. hence, strawberries share many characteristics with other horticultural crops and provided our research an obvious focus that grounded our interviews. once an initial group of strawberry growers were identified at each auction, a snowballing technique was implemented in order to locate other interviewees. identifying initial participants was achieved by attending each auction and keeping track of who was selling and who was purchasing the produce. in the end, there were interviews conducted. participants were both buyers and growers: participants who utilized the auction as both a buyer and a grower were categorized as the position in which they were interviewed. for example, if initial contact was made with the participant because they purchased strawberries, they were slotted as a buyer even if they also use the auction as a grower for their own produce. furthermore, participants fell into two other categories as well—male or female and old order mennonite or non-old order mennonite. the breakdown of these interviews can be seen in table . close-ended interview questions were used, such as “what outlets a grower uses to sell their produce?” and “what is the percentage of the strawberries you sell through the auction?” open-ended questions, such as “why do respondents sell through the auctions?” were also used. with the open-ended questions, once the interviewee was finished responding, they were prompted for themes that frequently arise in afs literature. these prompts included questions such as; “did selling through the auctions allow you to feel more connected to your community?” once interviews were completed, a thematic content analysis was used to analyze participant responses and determine what common themes existed and with what frequency they were discussed. table . participant breakdown. buyer grower old order mennonite non-old order mennonite male female epac bhpa total sustainability , , of . results . . perceived benefits of wholesale produce auctions overall, when both buyer and grower interviews were included from both case studies, the interviews revealed four broad themes representing key ways that respondents perceive that produce auctions may help promote more sustainable food systems. these are: ‚ increased food quality; ‚ the development of a buyer-grower relationship; ‚ supports for rural communities; and ‚ economic opportunities. these themes are summarized in table , with a breakdown of the percentage of total respondents at each auction studied. table . number and percent of respondents who mentioned different benefits of the produce auctions. ways the auction supports more sustainable food systems: food quality development of relationships support the community economic opportunities epac (n = ) buyers (#) growers (#) total (%) % % % % bhpa (n = ) buyers (#) growers (#) total (%) % % % % . . . increased food quality as can be seen in table , of the % epac participants mentioned better food quality as one way that the auction promotes more sustainable food systems. comparatively, at bhpa, % of participants also discussed this benefit. however, in both locations this benefit was only discussed by buyers and not mentioned by the vendors. responses generally mirrored the following quote: sometimes we pay more than we would normally have to, but we’re willing to do that because we want to support the producer and we want high quality produce (buyer, epac). despite saying that they are obtaining better quality produce, the majority of participants did not expand on why they felt this produce from the auction was better. there was only one individual that expanded on why they felt these strawberries were of higher quality than others. this interviewee stated that: we only buy at the auction because we wanted to support the auction, and because the berries are of higher quality. they’re not small and seedy like at a lot of other places (buyer, bhpa). the lack of further explanation pertaining to food quality could potentially indicate an assumption about locally grown food and higher quality produce. much like the academic literature suggests, there is an association between local and perceived freshness/higher quality. according to many academics, the presence of higher quality produce represents one of the distinct characteristics correlated with the presence of afss [ , ]. this could explain why many participants mentioned food quality as a benefit, but did not expand on the point, as they perhaps assumed higher quality was self-apparent. as such, this may reflect the notion that produce auction buyers inherently believe that by shifting away from conventional food systems, they are shifting away from produce grown with an array sustainability , , of of pesticides or herbicides, which have unknown health effects [ , ]. nevertheless, buyers at the auction feel they are receiving higher quality food, demonstrating that these produce auctions offer this associated afss benefit. . . . development of a buyer-grower relationship the development of relationships between buyers and growers was identified by both vendors and buyers at both locations as a second way that produce auctions can support more sustainable food systems. at epac, for instance, % of participants discussed this with comments such as: you get a closer connection between buyers and growers than you would if you were buying from a wholesaler. i think that the growers and the buyers can talk to each other more so than they could at any other place where people bring their produce (grower, epac). similarly, % of participants at bhpa mentioned this benefit. the divide between buyers and growers at both locations for this particular benefit was relatively even, as can be seen in table . both parties appear to feel as though the use of these auctions enabled them to foster relationships between these two groups. through this relationship, a certain level of friendship and loyalty develops. the system allows buyers to perceive a feeling of accountability towards the growers. this was articulated well when one interviewee stated that: they [the produce auction] have their own regulatory system and it just happens to be the buyers. you take your cues from them, they have been stung before, they know who to buy from (buyer, bhpa). on the other hand, the growers expressed the belief that if they have a strong relationship with the buyer, they believe they will be able to achieve consistently good prices for their produce. this was expressed on several occasions in a similar fashion to this quote: if i went to the auction every week, they [the buyers] would get to know me, and i would get more money for my produce. the more consistent sellers get higher prices for their produce (grower, epac). as the afss literature explores, the development of this relationship allows the food system to become “grounded” once again, resulting in a price premium offered for produce [ ]. we believe that the structure of produce auctions allows for this type of relationship to develop. the growers (or a close family member) bring the produce to the auction and remains until the auction closes, thus providing customers the chance to approach growers and ask questions. such a re-socialization of the food system allows other factors to impact the price of food and allows the system to shift away from the “race to the bottom” (having the lowest priced produce, with little regard for production impacts) that is a hallmark of the conventional food system. . . . supporting the community participants also discussed that produce auctions offer a means of supporting the local community, which is a third important way that participants believe that produce auctions may promote more sustainable food systems. the idea of supporting the community was well represented by both buyers and growers, as table indicates. however, at epac % of participants mentioned this theme, which is slightly less than the % of the bhpa. when supporting the community was mentioned in interviews it was referenced with similar statements as made by this small restaurant owner: the main reason i go to the auction is to support the community (buyer, epac). when participants explained further, they generally stated that the auction provided a means for the old order mennonite community to generate income to maintain their lifestyle, as expressed in the following sentiments: sustainability , , of the auction helps us [the old order mennonites] to preserve our lifestyle a bit better. we don’t like to use the phone more than we have to, and we don’t have to use it at all with the auction, but we do have to use it if we want to sell directly to the consumer (grower, bhpa). similar to higher food quality, the idea of supporting the community rarely came with any further explanation by participants. therefore, it is our belief that “supporting the community” may represent another theme that is inherently (and perhaps uncritically) associated with afss. when participants were prompted specifically about whether the auctions support the community, participants responded positively, indicating that they felt it was of importance. this likely reveals that the auctions’ ability to support the community is not forefront in their minds, though participants still see the value auctions have in terms of community support. nevertheless, our data suggest that interview participants believe that produce auctions help support the community, demonstrating that this institutional model may offer some benefits as compared with mainstream food systems. . . . economic benefits and opportunities the ability of auctions to offer economic benefits was, unsurprisingly, mentioned more by growers at both auctions. this theme was mentioned by % of participants at the epac and % at bhpa (see table ). this demonstrates that participants perceive that produce auctions have increased the availability of rural markets for the old order mennonite community and other farmers. prior to the development of produce auctions, many of these farmers were forced to sell produce directly off their land, either through a farm stand or hosting pick-your-own farms. as a result, many struggled to find potential buyers who would need produce on a reliable basis. therefore, auctions create the opportunity for the community to generate income without having the public on their land. this can be seen as a benefit for two reasons: first, it allows them to regain some privacy in their own lives, and second, farmer, or hired persons, no longer must constantly be present on the farm. this form of benefit was best articulated when one participant stated: some of these growers couldn’t move the volume direct to the consumer even if they wanted to and they are not necessarily interested in having the public in their yard every day, all day. so this [the auction] gives them the option of getting some of that extra revenue without the headache of opening a farm market or going direct to the consumer (buyer, epac). in addition, the auction also allows farmers to sell their excess produce before it goes bad, and provides farmers who only produce a few products the opportunity to buy from other farmers as a way of maintaining diversity at their own farm stand. this brings to light the fact that auctions provide a dual opportunity for farmers who also run farm stands of their own. for one strawberry grower this duality represents a key benefit, the auction is a good place to go with your farm surplus, and it’s a good place to go if you need a bit more produce when you don’t have enough for your farm stand. the auction is really good because it means that you don’t have to let your produce go to waste, rather, you can sell it (grower, epac). lastly, it would appear that selling products to local distributors, such as farm markets that sell all types of produce but do not necessarily grow it all, provides a two-fold benefit. they are able to support the local farmers by purchasing their products while simultaneously achieving higher prices for their products when they re-sell them because buyers are looking for locally grown products. for example, a farm stand owner explained: i always advertise where i get my produce from—customers like to know that it’s local food (buyer, epac). people ask me (the vendor) questions, so i like to be able to tell them the truth that the food is either local, or very freshly picked. this is such a different system from the one in california where food has to travel for many days (buyer, epac). sustainability , , of for these farmers, the auction is supplying their customers with the answers they want when it comes to the food they consume. for wholesale buyers, having the ability to boast locally grown produce is increasingly important in north america where afss have gained such momentum and value-added characteristics, such as how produce is grown, has become increasingly important to consumers [ ]. . . results: perceived barriers limitations of wholesale produce auctions further analysis of results revealed buyers and growers from both locations described four broad themes that represent key limitations of the produce auctions. these themes are: ‚ consistency and availability of produce; ‚ accessibility of the auction to customers; ‚ costliness of the produce; and ‚ minimal returns to the participants. . . . consistency one of the key concerns identified by respondents was that a lack of consistent produce and a lack of consistent prices made the auctions less appealing than mainstream options such as the food that comes from the toronto food terminal. as table indicates, buyers seemed to discuss this issue more often than vendors. this is a somewhat expected result as the buyers rely on the produce auction to supply their own operations (e.g., farm stands). additionally, it may be important that respondents at epac identified consistency as important more often than at bhpa. this difference could be the result of higher expectations for consistent food supply resulting from the proximity of epac to large cities, compared to the rural location of the bhpa. this idea will be explored further later in the discussion section. for these participants’ inconsistency referred to two areas: product availability, and price volatility. a small grocery store owner best articulated the issue of product availability and price volatility: . . . you could never run your business only on . . . [the auction] because of the volume. you need something and there is only two boxes of it here, that is what kills the thing. if you go to the food terminal there are all kinds of ontario guys there too. you need something, the price is set, forget about the volume, it is always there (buyer, epac). table . perceived limitations of produce auctions. barriers and limitations consistency accessibility costliness minimal returns epac (#/ ) buyers growers total (%) % % % % bhpa (#/ ) buyers growers total % % % % for buyers at the auction, there are alternative options that offer regional produce, and the quantities they need and at a set price. it is important to note that in the summer of , which is when this research was conducted, it was wetter and warmer than normal during strawberry season, resulting in early ripening strawberries that flooded the market at auction. growers who face this challenge with their produce frequently discuss this dilemma: sustainability , , of . . . we sold flats there, quarts, because the heat on the sunday just flipped them all to red. the market was flooded that week, and the price for the berries was very low because everyone had that problem (grower, epac). this problem is magnified since auctions operate as an overflow mechanism for some farmers. therefore, when the weather turned and strawberry farmers were faced with high volumes of strawberries, they were unable to sell through their regular outlets and this led them to sell the excess through auction. price volatility represented an inconvenience for both buyers and growers at the auction. in order for the auction to be successful, prices must be fair for both parties. however, auction prices do not provide a consistently good range for either group, leading both groups to look for alternative arrangements. this trend undermines the stability of the auction—pulling the participants who are necessary for the existence of auctions away to other more conventional venue. often, participants spoke of auction prices in similar ways to the following: the market [farmers market] price is fairly steady, whereas the auction is very volatile (grower, epac). overall, the auction was believed to have: . . . the most inconsistent prices that you’ll find anywhere (buyer, epac). . . . accessibility the issue of accessibility was another barrier discussed by both types of participants at more or less equal levels (see table ). concerns about accessibility relate to two key factors: time and location. in particular, if the auctions themselves take too long they become less accessible for certain types of participants. similarly, some participants felt that the auction was too far from their farms and having more auctions spread throughout southern ontario would be useful. the issue of distance was particularly problematic for the oom community who often rely on horses and buggies. these issues are summarized in the following quotations: the auction is a little bit further away than i would like it to be. it takes a good chunk out of the day to get there and drop off the produce (grower, epac). in terms of time, it can already take too long to get through the auction. not everyone can wait around all day for it to finish. the big buyers tend to get impatient, but it’s fine for me (grower, epac). . . . no restaurant guy is going to spend three hours here hoping to get what he needs (buyer, epac). . . . costliness the idea of costliness was a theme primarily discussed by buyers at both auctions (as table indicates). however, the frequency with which it was mentioned was higher at bhpa ( %) compared to epac ( %). many respondents blamed the retail buyers (e.g., individuals buying for their own family rather than buying for a business) as they are purchasing for themselves and have no concern with resale value or whether they are able to make a profit. for these individuals, the auction attempts to tailor to two types of buyers (wholesale and retail), despite its reputation for being a wholesale outlet, which created a problem for some buyers: the auction attracts both wholesalers and retailers, and it’s very hard to compete with retailers because they’ll pay anything to get the produce (buyer, bhpa). the individuals who were perceived as retail buyers were frequently looking for small lots sizes (e.g., usually three flats or less for strawberries). wholesale buyers, on the other hand, are looking for larger quantities (e.g., as much as ten flats). it is the belief of wholesale buyers that retail buyers drive up overall produce price, as they are not concerned with profit generation: sustainability , , of city people [e.g., people willing to pay retail prices] will pay more for produce, so i have to compete with them when i’m buying at the auction, but my customers will get upset if i charge too much. this means i can’t pay too much at the auction (buyer, bhpa). since participants feel auctions are expensive, this limits the auctions’ role as afss since community members are not able to benefit through this rural market. in this sense, the produce auctions are not successfully acting as afss. the high prices deter buyers from returning to the auctions regularly. high prices (as well as the inconsistent prices mentioned earlier) make it difficult for buyers to prepare their budgets beforehand. this is difficult for buyers who rely on this produce for their own businesses. however, high prices are most likely more concerning for wholesale buyers since higher prices directly translate to their potential customers. customers could be dissuaded from purchasing produce from them in the future if their prices are too high. retail buyers are already paying out of pocket, with no concern for prices afterwards, allowing more room in terms of how much they are willing to pay. . . . minimal returns lastly, growers at the auctions were the primary respondents who discussed the idea of minimal returns (see table ). this is unsurprising since they are on the received end of the auction, whereas the buyers may not consider this. interestingly, participants from epac articulated this theme more frequently. perhaps this is due to epac’s proximity to various produce outlets, which may result in increased expectations for goods. this idea will be discussed further in the discussion section. participants who mentioned this theme spoke similarly to the following quote: if farmers were to rely on only the auction, it would not support them or the community (buyer, epac). for many of the growers who mentioned this theme, it was openly acknowledged that selling produce off their land was more profitable through “pick your own” venues or farm stands: i tend to get lower prices for my strawberries at the auction than i would get at home (grower, epac). as was mentioned before, this is compounded by the fact that growers pay a portion of their profit to the auction: i think it is a good tool [the auction], but it takes % commission off everything that is sold, so that takes away a fair profit from the growers (grower, epac). the reduction of profit through commission at the auction is compounded by the fact that the auction is a wholesale model. this means that the buyers who attend the auction are looking for cheaper produce in larger quantities—much like when people buy items in bulk in order to gain a discount. the target audience of wholesale buyers indicates prices will be lower, and this is what buyers are seeking. . discussion: how to overcome the barriers to this model? overall, we draw from our results four key barriers perceived by research participants as preventing the produce auction model from reaching its full potential. each of these barriers is explained in table . sustainability , , of table . barriers that limit the wholesale produce auction model. barrier summary illustrative quote consistency the auctions provide inconsistent supplies and varieties of produce. consistency is key to the auction. the buyers won’t come to the auction if they don’t know what will be there (grower, epac). communication since produce availability is inconsistent, there needs to be more clear communication between the auction and buyers (e.g., through generating a website to post seasonality, or a flyer, etc.) . . . the website think i think would be a great change. it would really help, like i said for me, i pretty much have to count on them. if i want to continue buying my stuff there i pretty much have to know that it is going to be there because of the volume that we are selling (buyer, epac). participants with an increase in buyers and grower, the auction would create a positive feedback relationship. if the first three barriers were overcome, the auction would be able to entice more participants. if the auction were bigger you would have more variety of produce. this would create all kinds of potential for suppliers and for buyers. the auction could become unlimited, both in terms of production and supply (buyer, epac). organization of auctions there is a great deal of displeasure in how the auctions operate on a day-to-day basis, with a particular need for more appropriate lot sizes and general organization of the auctions, specifically with regards to separating wholesale buyers from retail buyers. a barrier is the simple fact that we [the auction] are almost too big for small buyers, and too small for big buyers. we are not attractive to the real big players. some days i wish there were more buyers on the floor but other days growers get what they want, as do the buyers — it all depends on the demand (grower, epac). firstly, despite buyers feeling they receive higher quality produce (a theme that was only mentioned by buyers) it is believed that the lack of consistent volumes and types of produce deters buyers from the auctions. it was frequently mentioned by participants that potentially larger and more regular buyers, such as chefs supplying their restaurants, are deterred from the auctions as more accessible outlets offer more consistent supplies. this barrier is also a theme discussed in other literature; for instance guptill and wilkins [ ] show that consistency, in terms of quality and supply, was a barrier to grocery stores working with local producers. however, many growers noted that it would be helpful if buyers remember that farmers are dependent on a range of factors (e.g., the weather) and one limit of the local seasonal food system is that availability will be dependent on sun, wind and rain. again, this highlights a key tension between consumer expectations and the degree to which it is even theoretically possible for so-called alternative food institutions, such as the produce auctions studies here, to ever meet the expectations of a buying public that has come to rely on year-round consistent products and a high degree of convenience. second, the data presented here demonstrate a lack of communication between buyers and growers, resulting in an inherent problem with the model. past research has shown that solid communication process is essential to a strong afs [ ]. without any obvious way for growers to communicate with buyers, consumers have no idea of what will be available on any given week. without knowing what is available, many buyers run a risk by waiting to find out what is available and they may end up without the products they require. on one hand, this problem may be addressed with improvements in communications and information technologies and there are numerous start-up companies across north america that are currently developing platforms to link local buyers and growers [ ]. however, given that auctions are so closely linked with the old order mennonite community, it is likely that the auction organizers studied in this project will resist such innovations. thirdly, despite growers frequently mentioning that the auctions should be an engine of economic opportunity (which could be explained as a result of the auctions being designed to generate access to sustainability , , of a market for old order mennonite producers), the contribution produce auctions studied here made to economic development seems limited, in part due to the way they are organized. in particular, the auctions studied for this paper tried to serve both retail and wholesale buyers, resulting in a sub-optimal experience for both groups of buyers and growers. fourth, each of the previous barriers contributes to a lack of both growers and buyers, which was perceived as a key problem faced by the auction in interviews. through addressing each of these previous barriers, it was perceived that auctions would be able to expand and accumulate more buyers. however, currently this relationship is not flourishing, and economic limitations exist that contribute to a lack of participants. critically, this discussion returns us to the tension mentioned at the beginning of this paper: namely, there seems to be an intrinsic trade-off between creating a large enough volume of sale for so-called “alternative” food enterprises to make a meaningful contribution to regional economies and the importance of maintaining a relationship between buyers and growers. the evidence presented in this paper suggests that the auction marts studied here may fail at both tasks and, as the fourth quotation in table suggests, the auctions are both too big for small buyers yet too small for big buyers. these results are similar to that found by karg [ ] in her study on a produce auction in wisconsin and overall we conclude that such barriers have caused the auctions to become inconvenient, ultimately limiting the future of this model, as other afss exist that are more convenient for buyers and growers. overall, our data show that despite the promise of the auction mark as a vehicle for advancing the values of the afs, scale remains the proverbial “elephant in the room” [ ]. in the end, wholesale produce auctions are designed for wholesale growers and buyers. small growers will be disappointed in the price, and commercial buyers will be frustrated by the price if the volumes and quality are not present. one way to address this is for auction policies to limit access to these two key parties, to registered growers and buyers who have demonstrated volume and shared interests. however, this would require a much greater—and more explicit—focus on behalf of the auction organizers who could make the decision to exclude small producers and commercial buyers but in many ways this would undermine the efficacy of the produce auctions as a vehicle to promote the values of afss. of course, the results and conclusions presented here are difficult to generalize because the produce auctions studied are so embedded in the old order mennonite tradition that these trends may not be observed in other cultural contexts. nevertheless, none of the data collected for this study suggest that the results would be different if these auction marts belonged to other traditions and we have no evidence that this model provides significant strategies to address the challenge of allowing an afs to scale up while remaining true to its “alternativeness.” . conclusions and recommendations acknowledging the conundrum between the desire to make our food systems more sustainable and the need to offer buyers a more convenient experience is essential to moving forward with the development of strong afss that become widely used by consumers. but the tension between maintaining the relationship between producers and consumers and the need for growers to be able to attract institutional buyers remains and nothing in our results suggest that as currently organized auction marts offer a solution to the problems associated with increasing the scale of the operation identified at the beginning of this paper. in order to begin addressing these tough and perhaps intractable issues, changes must be made to allow afs of all sorts including the produce auctions studied in this paper to increase offered conveniences. in order to achieve this, we offer some potential modifications for the wholesale produce auction model that represent the start of a potential strategy. firstly, better partnering between produce auctions and large institutions (such as hospitals or universities) may help address some issues. in this case, positioning auctions adjacent to, or on the property of, these institutions may address convenience and re-socialization simultaneously and help auction marts attract a wider and more robust consumer base. diminishing distance that buyers have to travel may increase participant utilization of this model of afs and allow a greater volume of sale sustainability , , of without reducing the social connection between buyers and sellers. it may be also expected, though this would be difficult to substantiate in the absence of data, that a more convenient location that attracted a larger number of purchasers would create a virtuous feedback cycle that would then attract more sellers and with more sellers, the convenience and the reliability of the products for sale would increase as well. a second opportunity involves integrating technology in order to increase the ease of communication between auctions and its participants. as mentioned previously, technological integration is not a viable option where the old order mennonite community is concerned. however, should an auction develop outside of these communities, using technology could play an integral part. this could be in the form of an online auction allowing buyers to access information necessary to attain the produce they desire while still sourcing their products from a local grower. lastly, a solution could stem from working with supermarkets produce procurement departments to purchase food from auction marts. this could open up the number of large-institution buyers that are seeking wholesale volumes of produce. encouraging supermarkets to obtain produce from auction marts may help to create more consistent participants at the auctions, ultimately strengthening this model from the perspective of the growers. however, this approach is unlikely to provide any benefits in terms of creating a connection between the final consumer and the producer. through implementing one, or a combination of these modifications, the wholesale produce auction model could increase its participants, and by extension, increase the amount of local food consumed, ultimately allowing afss to have a larger impact of food systems. through addressing issues of convenience, produce auctions may be able to develop as an afs, allowing the dispersal of locally grown food through a more conventional model [ ]. in the end, it is apparent that wholesale produce auctions offer many values that afss are intended to deliver to buyers and growers. the two case studies used in this project demonstrate that buyers believe they are receiving a higher quality product than food purchased through more conventional routes. secondly, produce auctions provide a means of reconnecting growers and buyers by creating the opportunity for a relationship to flourish. additionally, auctions provide an economic opportunity for both parties, through the creation of a localized market for buying and selling produce. lastly, they help to support the community where auctions are drawing produce from, allow for this model to function as a rural development component. however, despite all of these benefits, there are significant limitations that participants regularly discussed. for both buyers and growers, the auctions often lacked convenience, which was a prominent limitation as the auctions were initially intended for wholesale businesses looking for a ready supply of produce. this limitation was augmented by the fact that the auctions were often found to be inaccessible. lastly, despite participants mentioning that the auctions provide an economic opportunity for both buyers and growers, they also mentioned, contradictorily, that produce was too expensive and did not provide enough return to be a reliable business avenue for growers. acknowledgments: the authors would like to express their thanks to the anonymous reviewers who provided excellent feedback on earlier drafts of this manuscript, marie puddister in the department of geography, university of guelph who helped with the map, and the members of the communities who generously provided their insights and time for the interviews. our thanks also goes to marion davies who helped as a field assistant. this project was funded by the social sciences and humanities research council of canada through the canada research chair program and the insights grant program. author contributions: this paper is based on rylea johnson’s ma thesis in geography. rylea johnson conducted the interviews and led in drafting the paper. evan d. g. fraser was her supervisor and roberta hawkins her committee member. evan d. g. fraser and roberta hawkins provided advice on the research design, data analysis and helped proof the manuscript. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. sustainability , , of references . harris, e.m. eat local? constructions of place in alternative food politics. geogr. compass , , – . [crossref] . kirwan, j. alternative strategies in the uk agro-food system: interrogating the alterity of farmers’ markets. sociol. rural. , , – . [crossref] . lang, t.; barling, d.; caraher, m. food, social policy and the environment: towards a new model. soc. policy admin. , , – . [crossref] . renting, h.; marsden, t.k.; banks, j. understanding alternative food networks: exploring the role of short food supply chains in rural development. environ. plan. a , , – . [crossref] . chiffoleau, y. from politics to co-operation: the dynamics of embeddedness in alternative food supply chains. sociol. rural. , , – . [crossref] . dupuis, e.m.; goodman, d. should we go “home” to eat: toward a reflexive politics of localism. j. rural stud. , , – . [crossref] . fraser, e.d.; mabee, w.; figge, f. a framework for assessing the vulnerability of food systems to future shocks. futures , , – . [crossref] . higgins, v.; dibden, j.; cocklin, c. building alternative agri-food networks: certification, embeddedness and agri-environmental governance. j. rural stud. , , – . [crossref] . lapping, m.b. toward the recovery of the local in the globalizing food system: the role of alternative agricultural and food models in the us. eth. place environ. j. philos. geogr. , , – . [crossref] . milestad, r.; bartel-kratochvil, r.; leitner, h.; axmann, p. being close: the quality of social relationships in a local organic cereal and bread network in lower austria. j. rural stud. , , – . [crossref] . morin, s. selling “local” together: exploring farm-household responses to the elmira produce auction cooperative. master’s thesis, university of guelph, guelph, on, canada, . . newman, l.; ostry, a. from seed to table: the challenge of creating sustainable food systems. environ. j. , , – . . ostrom, m. everyday meanings of “local food”: views from home and field. community dev. , , – . [crossref] . rotz, s.; fraser, e.d. resilience and the industrial food system: analyzing the impacts of agricultural industrialization on food system vulnerability. j. environ. stud. sci. , , – . [crossref] . blay-palmer, a.; donald, b. a tale of three tomatoes: the new food economy in toronto, canada. econ. geogr. , , – . [crossref] . jarosz, l. the city in the country: growing alternative food networks in metropolitan areas. j. rural stud. , , – . [crossref] . maxey, l. can we sustain sustainable agriculture? learning from small-scale producer suppliers in canada and the uk. geogr. j. , , – . [crossref] . anderson, c.r.; brushett, l.; gray, t.w.; renting, h. working together to build cooperative food systems. j. agric. food syst. community dev. , , – . [crossref] . guthman, j.; morris, a.w.; allen, p. squaring farm security and food security in two types of alternative food institutions. rural sociol. , , – . [crossref] . mount, p.; hazen, s.; holmes, s.; fraser, e.; winson, a.; knezevic, i.; landman, k. barriers to the local food movement: ontario’s community food projects and the capacity for convergence. local environ. , , – . [crossref] . buckley, m.; cowan, c.; mccarthy, m.; o’sullivan, c. the convenience consumer and food-related lifestyles in great britain. j. food prod. mark. , , – . [crossref] . codyre, m.; fraser, e.d.g.; landman, k. how does your garden grow? an empirical evaluation of the costs and potential of urban gardening. urban for. urban green. , , – . [crossref] . olsen, n.v. the convenience consumer’s dilemma. br. food j. , , – . [crossref] . scholderer, j.; grunert, k.g. consumers, food and convenience: the long way from resource constraints to actual consumption patterns. j. econ. psychol. , , – . [crossref] . carrigan, m.; attalla, a. the myth of the ethical consumer—do ethics matter in purchase behaviour? j. consum. mark. , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / - .t - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /a http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jrurstud. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.futures. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jrurstud. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jrurstud. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jrurstud. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /jafscd. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j v n _ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ufug. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.joep. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / sustainability , , of . mount, p. growing local food: scale and local food systems governance. j. agric. food hum. values soc. , , – . [crossref] . beckie, m.a.; kennedy, e.h.; wittman, h. scaling up alternative food networks: farmers’ markets and the role of clustering in western canada. agric. hum. values , , – . [crossref] . bellows, a.c.; hamm, m.w. local autonomy and sustainable development: testing import substitution in more localized food systems. agric. hum. values , , – . [crossref] . jaffee, d.; howard, p.h. corporate cooptation of organic and fair trade standards. agric. hum. values , , – . [crossref] . blay-palmer, a.; landman, k.; knezevic, i.; hayhurst, r. constructing resilient, transformative communities through sustainable “food hubs”. local environ. , , – . [crossref] . horst, m.; ringstrom, e.; tyman, s.k.; ward, m.k.; werner, v.; born, b. toward a more expansive understanding of food hubs. j. agric. food syst. community dev. , , – . [crossref] . morley, a.s.; morgan, s.l.; morgan, k.j. food hubs: the “missing middle” of the local food infrastructure? available online: http://community-wealth.org/content/food-hubs-missing-middle-local-food-infrastructure (accessed on march ). . stroink, m.l.; nelson, c.h. complexity and food hubs: five case studies from northern ontario. local environ. , , – . [crossref] . ottawa valley food co-operative. available online: http://ottawavalleyfood.org/ (accessed on may ). . gray, t.w. local-based, alternative-marketing strategy could help save more small farms. rural co-op. , , – . . tourte, l.; gaskell, m. horticultural auction markets: linking small farms with consumer demand. renew. agric. food syst. , , – . [crossref] . desjardins, e.; lubczynski, j.; xuereb, m. incorporating policies for a healthy food system into land use planning: the case of waterloo region, canada. j. agric. food syst. community dev. , , – . [crossref] . blaine, t.w.; james, r.e.; james, b.h. the effects of a wholesale fruit and vegetable auction on produce marketing and distribution. j. food distrib. res. , , – . . bloom, j.d.; hinrichs, c. moving local food through conventional food system infrastructure: value chain framework comparisons and insights. renew. agric. food syst. , , – . [crossref] . tubene, s.; hanson, j. the wholesale produce auction: an alternative marketing strategy for small farms. am. j. altern. agric. , , – . . berg, b.l.; lune, h. qualitative research methods for the social sciences, th ed.; pearson: hoboken, nj, usa, . . statistics canada. geosearch. in census; statistics canada catalogue no. - -xwe: ottawa, on, canada; ; october; ; available online: http://geodepot.statcan.gc.ca/geosearch -georecherche /geosearch -georecherche .jsp?lang=e&otherlang=f (accessed on march ). . foodlink. elmira produce auction cooperative. . available online: http://www.foodlink.ca/index. php?p=food_maps/outlets.viewoutlet&outlet= (accessed on june ). . radojkovic, j. new vegetable & fruit produce auction. the post. . available online: http://www. thepost.on.ca/ / / /new-vegetable-fruit-produce-auction (accessed on march ). . ontario berry growers association. available online: http://ontarioberries.com/site/about-obga.html (accessed on march ). . goodman, d. the quality “turn” and alternative food practices: reflections and agenda. j. rural stud. , , – . [crossref] . guptill, a.; wilkins, j.l. buying into the food system: trends in food retailing in the us and implications for local foods. agric. hum. values , , – . [crossref] . brunori, g. local food and alternative food networks: a communication perspective. anthropology of food, (s ). available online: http://aof.revues.org/ (accessed on march ). . provender: farm to fork. available online: https://www.provender.com (accessed on march ). . karg, p.l. wisconsin co-op offers fresh approach to produce auctions. rural co-op. , , – . © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons by attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /a: http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jafscd. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /rafs http://dx.doi.org/ . /jafscd. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /a: http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	introduction 	background 	literature on alternative food systems 	produce auctions 	methods 	study locations 	data collection 	results 	perceived benefits of wholesale produce auctions 	increased food quality 	development of a buyer-grower relationship 	supporting the community 	economic benefits and opportunities 	results: perceived barriers limitations of wholesale produce auctions 	consistency 	accessibility 	costliness 	minimal returns 	discussion: how to overcome the barriers to this model? 	conclusions and recommendations s o u r c e : h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / . / b o r i s . | d o w n l o a d e d : . . modem europe i (albeit not the text) have been updated through , and all german book titles appear in both german and english. with such pains taken to oblige english-speaking readers, which parts of the book, it may be asked, are most likely to im- press us? americans will surely prize the chapter on post- ° psychiatry, in which freud surfaces amid a welter of forgotten predecessors and col- leagues. the section on billroth (pp. - ° ) breathes a compassion which reminds us what humanism in medicine can mean, and the section on rokitansky (pp. - ) evokes the heroic age of medical science in a way that dwarfs many later achievements. indeed, lesky shows a special affin- ity for rokitansky. while it would be presump- tuous to call her or anyone else the rokitansky of medical history, she comes close to rivaling him in zeal, indefatigability, and vision. of few scholars in any field can as much be said. william m. johnston university of massachusetts, amherst g. r. potter. ;:'wingli. new york: cambridge uni- versity press. . pp. xvii, . $ . . those mindful of zwingli's influence on english theology and churchmanship, especially during the reign of edward vi, will experience a sense of satisfaction that an english historian has in part repaid the debt with a biography that will stand for many years as the best portrayal and analysis of the "third man" of the reformation. the domi- nant picture of zwingli is that of the zurich church historian walther koehler, who saw him as a hu- manist (he seemed to wish to find a liberal among the magisterial reformers) and a reformer much in debt to luther, the two elements in interior con- flict. oskar farner, for decades pastor in zwingli's minster, on the other hand, depicted him too much in local terms and missed his broad influence and general significance. george r. potter, who invested many years in the study of zwingli's works, the vast literature, and the local archives, enjoyed the advantage of distance and has put it all together in a truly masterful biography. he sees zwingli essentially as the swiss prophet, a systematic and tough- minded man who moved to put his reformed ideals into effect in an astonishingly brief time-at age thirty-two he was still a common priest and at age forty-six he lay dead on the battlefield of kappel. the author properly assesses the importance for zwingli of erasmian humanism, of the city-state and swiss confederacy setting, of the lutheran reformation, and above all, of his intense pre- occupation with the scriptures. there emerges from this volume a zwingli who was not the pow- erful figure luther was, nor the brilliant theolo- gian calvin was, but a determined, steady, city- state reformer, who was shocked to encounter the anabaptist radicals spawned within his move- ment. on the much controverted question of zwingli's views of church and state, the author proves his mastery, for he depicts the theocracy which zwingli advocated, not as one of church over state or zwingli over zurich, but rather the rule of god over both church and state. this is not hagiography, for the author tells us that zwingli lacked the courage to face eck and a hostile catholic audience in , and that he drifted into political machinations and notions of preventive war, which led to the catastrophe of kappel. nor is the book flawless, any more than zwingli himself. carlstadt, for example, did not reach zurich on his first exile from wittenberg, but only later, a point not made clear and one which distorts his possible influence on sacra- mentarianism. nor does the word "con- substantiation" adequately describe luther's sac- ramental doctrine. he did not believe that baptism removed sin, but only guilt, and he had quite as high regard for reason as did zwingli. but zwingli himself, a very high predestinarian, was more con- cerned with his entry in the book of life than with what even a very great english historian might say of him. lewis w. spitz stanford university leo schelbert. einfuhrung in die schweiz:;erische aus- wanderungsgeschichte der neuz:;eit. (schweizerische zeitschrift fur geschichte, number .) zurich: verlag staubli. . pp. . emigration has played an important role in swiss history, particularly in preindustrial times, when population pressure on scanty resources led to a persistent and sizeable outflow from the small country. between and more than a mil- lion persons-just about one half the entire natu- ral increase (excess of births over deaths)-was drained out of the country. by far the bulk of this early outward movement took the form of mer- cenary service; the swiss emigrated not as civilian settlers or colonists but as mercenary soldiers sell- ing their professional services impartially to all european powers who could use them. although the origins of civilian emigration can also be traced as far back as the middle ages, it remained entirely secondary until the nineteenth century when mass movements of civilians finally replaced the mercenary system. prior to the nine- teenth century many of the civilian migrants were reviews of books religious refugees-members of various sects, ana- baptists, mennonites, pietists, and others escaping cruel persecution by the conservative state churches of certain protestant cantons, such as zurich and berne. later on the predominant causes were economic, agricultural, and industrial depressions that led nearly half a million swiss to leave their native land during the last century and a half. this colorful history has given rise to a volumi- nous literature, but most of the historical accounts are specialized monographs dealing with limited aspects of the phenomenon. condensed overviews of emigration also exist in general swiss histories and in the demographic literature, but there has been no comprehensive treatment of swiss emigra- tion per se. leo schelbert, a swiss scholar teaching history at the university of illinois in chicago, has made an attempt to fill this gap. calling his book an introduction to swiss emigration history in modern times, the author has drawn extensively upon ar- chival sources and other documentary materials in addition to surveying a wide range of secondary literature. the book consists of four parts. in part one schelbert discusses migration theories drawn from the demographic literature and also considers the problems of causation and motivation from the point of view of the individual migrant. he next portrays migration as a process, i.e., the various steps a migrant had to take in leaving home, the means of transportation available in different peri- ods, the role of emigration agencies, the hardships of the journeys, and the conditions facing the mi- grant in various countries of destination. through- out, the perspective is that of the individual mi- grant, illustrated by documentary evidence. part two presents a historical and statistical overview of both military and civilian emigration, separated by areas of destination. part three offers a selection of official and personal documents de- signed to afford the reader a vivid sense of the experiences of swiss emigrants in a variety of cir- cumstances. these documents consist of letters and reports from swiss soldiers and settlers in different parts of the world and at different times during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. also reprinted are some official documents illus- trating the attitudes and actions of government authorities in switzerland and in several receiving countries. the last part of the book contains a discussion of the type and quality of source materi- als to be found in various archives and an extensive annotated bibliography of the secondary litera- ture. one may quibble with some of schelbert's inter- pretations. focusing on the individual migrant, he tends to understate the role played by economic and demographic background factors. but these are matters of emphasis which do not seriously detract from the merits of the book. the skillful use of documentary sources contributes to a better understanding of the migration experience, not only in the national context of switzerland but in europe as a whole. kurt b. mayer university of berne gene brucker. the civic world of early renaissance florence. princeton: princeton university press. . pp. xii, . $ . . this book makes two major contributions to ren- aissance studies. first, it provides a detailed de- scription and interpretation of the development of the florentine political system from to , based on the author's unrivalled mastery of the sources. second, it sets forth in its central chap- ter-"the florentine reggimento in i "-an ex- planatory model of the social and economic rela- tionships upon which, in the author's judgment, the political system rested. conceptually, the volume is a continuation of brucker's florentine politics and society, - ( ). here again, the records of the pratiche, polit- ical deliberations of leading florentine citizens, are systematically mined for evidence of changing attitudes toward internal political and fiscal prob- lems, foreign affairs, and the nature of governance itself, as well as fairly detailed prosopographical material on the distribution of power and influence in the republic. but brucker's task is far more complex here than it was in his earlier work. the period from the revolt of the ciompi to the advent of cosimo de' medici, apart from being one of the principal battlefields of florentine historiography, involves far subtler relationships between political, fiscal, administrative, diplomatic, and intellectual developments. no one is more aware of this than the author. his claims are modestly formulated and generally supported by impressive amounts of evidence. his differences with other historians are noted, but not stressed; not the least of the book's virtues is that it is entirely free of the jejune polem- ics with which the nest of florentine history has been fouled in recent years. the process brucker traces is the transformation of the florentine regime from a polity dominated by corporate institutions (guilds, confraternities, papal and antipapal factions) to one in which a "leadership elite," functioning primarily as indi- viduals, helped to steer the city through the recur- rent crises which "each year brought" (p. ). this elite is identified, and its evolving new style of political behavior followed, through the pratiche. in these debates, of which we know the content from 	 wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ doi: . / letters to the editor am. j. hum. genet. : , elevated frequency and allelic heterogeneity of congenital nephrotic syndrome, finnish type, in the old order mennonites to the editor: congenital nephrotic syndrome is a clinically and ge- netically heterogeneous disorder of the glomerular fil- tration barrier, characterized by massive proteinuria at or shortly after birth. although nephrotic syndromes encompass a heterogeneous group of disorders, congen- ital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type (nphs [mim ]) is a distinct clinical entity. nphs has an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance and is gen- erally rare—except in finland, where the incidence is ∼ / , live births (norio ). nephrin, a putative transmembrane protein belonging to the immunoglob- ulin family of cell-adhesion molecules, has been identi- fied as the gene mutated in nphs , with loss-of-function deletion and missense mutations identified in finnish and other white patients with nphs (kestilä et al. ; lenkkeri et al. ). several cases of nphs have also been observed in other populations, with or without direct evidence of finnish ancestry (fuchshuber et al. ). on the basis of limited haplotype analysis, it has been argued that some cases of non-finnish nphs may have a common origin in finland (män- nikkö et al. ). we observed a high incidence of nphs among the old order mennonites in lancaster county, pennsyl- vania. in particular, we identified cases of nphs , dating from the s, in a very large inbred mennonite kindred (population). interestingly, all but one of the cases of nphs in mennonites occurred in a subgroup known as the “groffdale conference” mennonites. the groffdale conference mennonites formed as a result of a schism in the weaverland conference mennonites of lancaster county in . the separation between the two groups was based on differing views regarding ac- culturation to american thought and society. the more conservative group formed the groffdale conference, whereas the more progressive members continued in the weaverland conference. at present, the populations and birth rates of the two conferences are approximately equal. we estimated the incidence of nphs among the groffdale conference to be . or / live births, on the basis of the complete ascertainment of eight cases among , births during the period – . this incidence is times greater than that observed in fin- land and predicts that ∼ % of groffdale mennonites are carriers of the nphs -causing allele. the ancestors of this old order group immigrated from switzerland to lancaster county during the early th century, and no explicit finnish ancestry is known. in this study, we ( ) confirm the role of nephrin in nphs , ( ) show that a major mutation is shared by families with nphs that are in the groffdale conference, and ( ) show that this mutation is most likely of recent origin—uncovered by inbreeding and amplified by genetic drift. our data also suggest that the major mennonite mutation most like- ly predated the weaverland-groffdale split, since one weaverland nphs proband is a double heterozygote with one copy of the major nephrin mutation as well as a second novel mutation, possibly contributed through a non-mennonite lineage. we initially ascertained four families, in each case through a proband with nphs . the four families had obligate carrier parents and unaffected offspring. only one of the probands from these four families was alive during the study. subsequent to our analysis of these four families, one additional family—which in- cluded a second surviving proband, parents, and pa- ternal grandparents—was ascertained. after our muta- tion-detection studies were completed, three additional families with nphs agreed to participate. one of the two living mennonite probands with nphs ( ) was less-severely affected than the other patients. this patient underwent nephrectomy at age mo, followed by nightly peritoneal dialysis and a renal transplant at age . years. prior to nephrectomy, this child had an array of life-threatening problems, includ- ing recurrent renal-vein thrombosis, severe hypertension, encephalitis, hypothyroidism, refractory anemia, hyper- cholesterolemia, edema, ascites, and malnutrition. the second surviving mennonite child was mo of age at the time of our study. she had minimal medical inter- ventions until age years, at which time she was started on the finnish protocol of enalapril, thyroid replace- letters to the editor table oligonucleotide primers for amplification of nphs exons exon(s) primer sequences annealing temperature (oc) product size (bp) , forward: agacgcaaggtggctggcagcg reverse: ttccgctggtggctgagggtc , forward: agcggagctgcggccctgact reverse: ccttcccactccagaggcttca forward: tcgcacccaccctgaggacttc reverse: atgcttgcatccctggggtctg forward: ccccacctcttctccctgact reverse: atccccccacaccccccagtg , forward: ggaaagagtggatgggctact reverse: ctctgaggcacagaccgacag forward: tctgggctggtctgtgagaaa reverse: tcagccccctccatgctcaga , forward: gtgctgcagtccccacgtctg reverse: cattcctggccacccccatag forward: tgctgatgagagtgcttctcc reverse: caccccaggctccgcccagtc forward: ctgggcggagcctggggtgca reverse: cagaggctggagaggcactag forward: atccctcccctctctggtctg reverse: aaggtaagacccaaggagtag , forward: aaccttaaaccccgtcgtgac reverse: caatgaggagactccacaatg forward: aaccttcctggaacccctaag reverse: cactcccaaggaactcacagt , forward: gtgatggatctggggctagac reverse: agggactcagggaggggaagt forward: gatagataggcagacggttac reverse: aactccatcctcacacataca , forward: tcttctggaattcttttgtat a reverse: tacacatcctctgaggaatac forward: accagttcccatgaatctaata reverse: gtcgttaagcagctgtgactac – forward: cagcctgttgtctgggattc reverse: gcttcagtcgccgtcggtgc , forward: tccgggcacagtggggtcagag reverse: gcagctagctggccctaactaa forward: tccatggttctaactcactt reverse: gcacttagggaccctcagaatag a requires % dmso. ment, vitamin d, and erythropoetin (guez et al. ). within wk of the start of enalapril therapy, her serum albumin increased from . to . g/dl and her gener- alized edema resolved. if she survives until she obtains a weight of – kg, renal transplantation will be reconsidered. for genetic analysis, we obtained, with informed con- sent, either peripheral blood samples or buccal swabs from members of the eight families. genomic dna was extracted according to standard procedures. no pa- thology samples were available from the deceased af- fected individuals, to perform additional analyses. mi- crosatellite-marker alleles were amplified and genotyped via standard pcr methods (puffenberger et al. ). allele sizes for all markers (except d s , d s , and d s ) were determined in comparison with ceph individual - ; allele numbers for d s , d s , and d s were assigned arbitrarily. to determine the genomic structure of nephrin, we used the “blast -sequences” option of the program blast (tatusova et al. ), to align nephrin cdna sequence and overlapping genomic sequence from cosmid r (genbank afo and ac ). the gene con- sists of exons and spans ∼ kb; primer sequences, from the program oligo, version . , were designed for pcr amplification of all exons in reactions (table ). for mutation analysis, nephrin exons were pcr am- plified from one patient ( ), the patient’s father ( ), and a ceph control dna. after pcr amplifi- cation, products were sequenced on an abi se- letters to the editor figure haplotype analysis of four mennonite nuclear families with nphs . chromosome q haplotypes, of the markers shown in table , of nphs -transmitting parents and homozygosity for a haplotype in proband are shown. none of the unaffected siblings from the four families were homozygous for the identified haplotype (data not shown). the common mutation, delc, segregates with the haplotype designated in boldface. quencer (pe biosystems), with the use of standard dye- terminator chemistry. we expected that any nphs candidate locus will have a unique haplotype in mennonites, which is ho- mozygous in affected individuals, heterozygous in the obligate heterozygote parents, and not homozygous in the unaffected siblings (fig. shows all individuals but the unaffected siblings). using microsatellite markers, männikkö et al. ( ) mapped nphs to chromosome q . by linkage and linkage-disequi- librium analysis in finnish patients. we genotyped these same markers in the available individuals and iden- tified a common haplotype (table ) for five markers in the . -cm interval d s –d s , satisfying the above criteria and implicating nephrin in mennonite nphs . it is unclear whether any of the finnish nphs haplotypes are in common with mennonite nphs hap- lotypes, since kestilä et al. ( ) have not published actual allele sizes at the marker loci studied. nucleotide sequencing of all nephrin exons (table ) from one proband revealed the deletion of one nucleo- tide within exon ( delc), which segregated with the nphs haplotypes identified. in addition to the fam- ilies shown in figure , six parents from three additional mennonite sibships with nphs were genotyped for the delc mutation; all were heterozygous. this deletion mutation is novel (kestilä et al. ) and leads to a frameshift and premature truncation of the protein, to residues. nephrin is a , -residue protein pre- dicted to be a cell-adhesion receptor and/or a signaling protein. its predicted structure includes eight ig-like do- mains and one fibronectin-like domain, adjacent to a transmembrane region. the truncation caused by the mennonite mutation occurs well before the putative transmembrane domain (residues – ); there- fore, it follows that delc is very likely a null allele and that homozygotes have no functional protein. subsequent to the identification of delc, we as- certained the only other living mennonite proband ( [fig. ]) and his immediate family. interestingly, this patient was found to be heterozygous for delc and inherited the allele maternally. after nephrin se- quence analysis of this patient and his father, we detected a second frameshift mutation, delg, for which both were heterozygous. genealogical analysis revealed that proband has a partially non-mennonite lineage; his maternal great-grandmother married into the men- nonite kindred (fig. ). we were able to trace the second mutation, delg, to the patient’s paternal grandfa- ther by dna analysis. since the proband’s non-men- letters to the editor table mennonite nphs mutant-allele–carrying haplotypes markera intermarker distance (cm)b haplotypec d s . d s . d s . d s d s . d s d s . d s . d s . d s a markers in the segment common to all haplotypes and that implicate nephrin in nphs span a genetic distance of � . cm and are underlined. b between the marker shown and that immediately below (except for “ . ,” which denotes the distance spanned by the four markers underlined). c the boxed portion indicates a common haplotype segment shared by all parents of the affected individuals whom we studied. the number of copies is four, two, one, and one, respectively. figure genealogy of two nephrin-deletion mutations. the sin- gle mennonite proband who is doubly heterozygous and who inherited the common mennonite mutation and a second mutation from a non- mennonite ancestor is shown. the kinship coefficient of the ancestors shown clarifies that this proband is closely related to other mennonites with nphs . nonite great-grandmother is deceased, we could not establish whether she contributed this mutation or whether the occurrence of delg is a new mutation in the proband’s grandfather. nonetheless, we identified a second unique mutation, which also results in pre- mature truncation of nephrin protein, resulting in a , -residue protein. according to the predicted struc- ture of the protein, it is likely that the , -residue protein inserts into the membrane but lacks the complete cytosolic domain. thus, some residual nephrin function may exist and may explain the less-severe phenotype of this patient. our results confirm the role of nephrin in nphs and allelic heterogeneity within the mennonites. nphs is very rare throughout the world, and its low incidence is likely under mutation-selection balance; for a recessive lethal mutation, the incidence would equal its de novo mutation rate per generation, which has a mean value of ∼ � (cavalli-sforza and bodmer ). the ∼ / , incidence in finland is two orders of magnitude larger and is likely to have increased by genetic drift and founder effects during the past generations ( , years) of finnish history. moreover, the occurrence of at least three distinct mutations, each on a specific marker haplotype with estimated frequencies of . %, . %, and . % (kestilä et al. ), suggests that the age of the more frequent mutation is not recent. this is cor- roborated by the observation of linkage disequilibrium, over a small distance (∼ kb), for the major finnish nphs mutation (kestilä et al. ). as we have shown here, these effects are further amplified in the old order mennonites, which have a much more recent his- tory and a much smaller effective population size. in this study, we have estimated the mennonite nphs incidence at ∼ / live births, or an overall - fold increase compared with the finnish incidence. this large increase is undoubtedly from genetic drift and founder effects (chakravarti and chakraborty ), consistent with the finding of a major common mutation ( delc) in a population with an estimated effective number of ∼ (a. chakravarti and e. g. puffenberger, unpublished data). we argue that the delc muta- tion is likely of very recent origin. table shows that the core nphs haplotype, on which the delc mu- tation is found, is shared by all eight mutant chromo- somes and is � . cm; however, haplotypes and (five copies total) and haplotypes and (three copies total) each share the longer d s –d s hap- lotype, of cm. therefore, the average time to origin of the common mutation in the mennonites is ∼ / . morgans, or ∼ generations. it is possible either that this was a rare mutation in the european mennonite groups and that it expanded in the united states or that the mutation is of recent u.s. origin. as mentioned above, the distribution of nphs is not random within the old order mennonite community and is largely restricted to the groffdale conference. the groffdale and weaverland conferences share very recent ancestry, yet the distribution and allelic spectrum of nphs mutations are not equal within these two groups. at present, only case of nphs has been ob- letters to the editor served in the weaverland mennonites, whereas cases have been identified in the groffdale mennonites since the s. we have found that the single weaver- land conference patient with nphs ( ) is a com- pound heterozygote for the major mennonite mutation, delc (same core haplotype as in table ), and a second mutation, delg. our analysis shows that delc is the only mutation segregating in seven nu- clear families from the groffdale conference (fig. ). it is interesting that the origin of delg is non-men- nonite, since it is inherited through the non-mennonite ancestors of proband . these data emphasize the rarity of nphs mutations in most populations, iden- tified here among non-mennonites only when combined with a common mennonite mutation. moreover, the concentration of delc in the groffdale mennonites suggests that nphs occurs at an incidence much higher than / . the incidence within each conference cannot as yet be determined with any greater precision. the accumulation of nphs in the groffdale con- ference and the rarity of delc in the weaverland conference can be explained in multiple ways. first, a subfounder effect might explain the high incidence within the groffdale group. however, genealogical and mutational analyses do not support this hypothesis, since there is no common ancestor for all carriers of nphs who were born after the schism and delc is present in the weaverland mennonite population. sec- ond, delc may have arisen in the groffdale men- nonites and may have been reintroduced into the weav- erland conference. since marriage between the groups is extremely rare, it is unlikely, although not impossible, that the mutation was contributed to the weaverland conference after the split. an alternative and sim- pler explanation is that delc arose prior to the split and that it has increased in frequency through genetic drift. the formation of the groffdale conference by fam- ily groups wishing to preserve a simpler lifestyle may have led, by chance, to a relative increase in the mutant- allele frequency in one conference compared with the other. it is surprising that a recent mutation has achieved such a high frequency in a short time. this is likely a result of the intense inbreeding that occurs within the old order mennonites in each generation—not from high rates of social consanguinity but from the limited ancestral pool and the sharing of multiple common an- cestors between any two individuals. we have estab- lished a genealogical database of , individuals from the old order mennonites that allows direct cal- culation of kinship coefficients between any two indi- viduals, equivalently the inbreeding coefficient for their offspring. we studied pairs of parents with com- plete genealogies and with an offspring affected with nphs ; the average kinship coefficient was . (range . –. ), corresponding to a relationship between first cousins once removed and second cousins. for the four pairs of parents that we report here, the average kinship coefficient was . (range . –. ). these rates are relevant for most individuals in the last several generations. consequently, any de novo mutation oc- curring in the recent past has a high chance of becoming homozygous, through inbreeding, in the mennonites. this is in contrast to outbred populations, in which, with random mating, rare mutants become homozygous only rarely. acknowledgments we are very indebted to the members of the numerous fam- ilies with nephrotic syndrome, for sharing information and donating tissue samples; without these families this work would have been impossible. we gratefully acknowledge the superb assistance of jennifer scott, for family studies; kimberly bentley, andrew wong, and gilbert wong, for dna sequenc- ing and technical assistance; and carl kashuk, for informatics. this work was supported by national institutes of health grant hd to a.c. stacey bolk, erik g. puffenberger, jim hudson, d. holmes morton, and aravinda chakravarti department of genetics and center for human genetics, case western reserve university school of medicine and university hospitals of cleveland, cleveland; clinic for special children, strasburg, pa; and research genetics, huntsville electronic-database information accession numbers and urls for data in this article are as follows: blast, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast (for alignment of sequences) genbank, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/web/search (for ne- phrin cdna [accession number af ] and for cosmid r [accession number ac ]) online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim (for nphs [mim ]) references cavalli-sforza ll, bodmer wf ( ) the genetics of human populations. wh freeman, san francisco chakravarti a, chakraborty r ( ) elevated frequency of tay-sachs disease among ashkenazic jews unlikely by ge- netic drift alone. am j hum genet : – fuchshuber a, niaudet p, gribouval o, jean g, gubler m, broyer m, antignac c ( ) congenital nephrotic syn- drome of the finnish type: linkage to the locus in a non- finnish population. pediatr nephrol : – guez s, giani m, melzi ml, antignac c, assael bm ( ) letters to the editor adequate clinical control of congenital nephrotic syndrome by enalapril. pediatr nephrol : – kestilä m, lenkkeri u, männikkö m, lamerdin j, mccready p, putaala h, ruotsalainen v, et al ( ) positionally cloned gene for a novel glomerular protein—nephrin—is mutated in congenital nephrotic syndrome. mol cell : – lenkkeri u, männikkö m, mccready p, lamerdin j, gribou- val o, niaudet pm, antignac c, et al ( ) structure of the gene for congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type (nphs ) and characterization of mutations. am j hum genet : – männikkö m, kestilä m, holmberg c, norio r, ryynänen m, olsen a, peltonen l, et al ( ) fine mapping and haplotype analysis of the locus for congenital nephrotic syn- drome on chromosome q . . am j hum genet : – männikkö m, lenkkeri u, kashtan ce, kestilä m, holmberg c, tryggvason k ( ) haplotype analysis of congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type in non-finnish fam- ilies. j am soc nephrol : – norio r ( ) heredity of the congenital nephrotic syn- drome. ann paediatr fenn suppl : – puffenberger eg, kauffman er, bolk s, matise tc, wash- ington ss, angrist m, weissenbach j, et al ( ) identity- by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet : – tatusova ta, madden tl ( ) blast sequences: a new tool for comparing protein and nucleotide sequences. fems microbiol lett : – address for correspondence and reprints: dr. aravinda chakravarti, depart- ment of genetics, brb , case western reserve university, euclid avenue (for courier service: adelbert road), cleveland, oh . e- mail: axc @po.cwru.edu � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . infant mortality in mid- th century amsterdam: religion, social class, and space university of groningen infant mortality in mid- th century amsterdam ekamper, peter; van poppel, frans published in: population space and place doi: . /psp. important note: you are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's pdf) if you wish to cite from it. please check the document version below. document version publisher's pdf, also known as version of record publication date: link to publication in university of groningen/umcg research database citation for published version (apa): ekamper, p., & van poppel, f. ( ). infant mortality in mid- th century amsterdam: religion, social class, and space. population space and place, ( ), [ ]. https://doi.org/ . /psp. copyright other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like creative commons). take-down policy if you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. downloaded from the university of groningen/umcg research database (pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. for technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to maximum. download date: - - https://doi.org/ . /psp. https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/infant-mortality-in-mid th-century-amsterdam( ab e-bddb- cd -a f-d d f cb).html https://doi.org/ . /psp. accepted: december doi: . /psp. r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e infant mortality in mid‐ th century amsterdam: religion, social class, and space peter ekamper | frans van poppel netherlands interdisciplinary demographic institute (nidi‐knaw)/university of groningen, the hague, the netherlands correspondence peter ekamper, netherlands interdisciplinary demographic institute (nidi‐knaw), p.o. box , nl‐ ar, the hague, the netherlands. email: ekamper@nidi.nl - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - this is an open access article under the terms of medium, provided the original work is properly cit © the authors population, space and place popul space place. ; :e . https://doi.org/ . /psp. abstract this study uses a unique historical gis dataset compiled from birth, death, and popu- lation register records for infants born in the city of amsterdam in linked to micro‐level spatial data on housing, infrastructure, and health care. cox's proportional hazards models and the concept of egocentric neighbourhoods were used to analyse the effects of various sociodemographic characteristics, residential environment, water supply, and health‐care variables on infant mortality and stillbirth. the analyses confirm the favourable position of the jewish population with respect to infant mortality as found in other studies and show the unfavourable position of orthodox protestant minorities. infant mortality rate differences are much smaller between social classes than between religions. the exact role of housing and neighbourhood conditions vis‐a‐vis infant mortality is still unclear; however, we ascertained that effects of environmental conditions are more pronounced in later stages of infancy and less important in the early stages of infancy. keywords amsterdam, egocentric neighbourhood, historical gis, infant mortality, netherlands, nineteenth century, religion, social class | introduction as in many other mid‐ th century cities and towns in the nether- lands, amsterdam's local government showed indifference for a long time regarding its high levels of infant mortality. although around % of children born in the mid‐ s did not survive past their first birthday, the annual report to the municipal council of stated that “the health situation of young children was in general rather suf- ficient, with the exception of the normal indispositions and the contin- uous or intermittent suffering of some children from certain diseases” (gemeente amsterdam, , p. ). however, a number of medical doctors gradually became more concerned than the local government about the high levels of infant and child mortality. they particularly referred to the very high mortality among the poorest and the - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - the creative commons attribution ed, the use is non‐commercial and published by john wiley & sons l enormous difference between the higher and lower classes of the urban population in terms of their health conditions and mortality risks. they proposed a health policy that could ensure the health of the whole population and not only of a small portion of its inhabitants (houwaart, ). they argued that this necessitated a systematic analysis of the shortcomings in public health, an analysis that had to be based on topographical methods and on statistical analysis. this would bring to light the relationship between social and sanitary atroc- ities and high mortality. once this analysis had been completed, health theory would be able to provide the necessary technical solutions to the hygiene problems of society. with that goal in mind, medical doctors started to collect statistical data on mortality and to analyse differences in mortality rates. in amsterdam, these studies focused on the differences in mortality between the neighbourhoods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ‐noncommercial‐noderivs license, which permits use and distribution in any no modifications or adaptations are made. td wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/psp of https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:ekamper@nidi.nl http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / https://doi.org/ . /psp. https://doi.org/ . /psp. http://wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/psp of ekamper and van poppel constructed for official statistical purposes. the main question here was whether these differences had their origin in differences in pros- perity (bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam, , ; centrale commissie voor de statistiek, ; israëls, , ). medical doctors were above all interested in the inequality in death risks among infants. for a “better and more confident future for humanity,” a “healthy and powerful youth was a conditio sine qua non” and that made it necessary to be “aware of the vast dangers that threatened the infant in its earliest youth” (israëls, , ). large differences in infant mortality could indeed be observed between the neighbourhoods of amsterdam. in some poor quarters, % of the live‐born children in the mid‐ s died before their first birthday, whereas in a few well‐to‐do quarters infant mortality was less than %. a number of neighbourhoods, however, fell short of the expectation that the lower the prosperity of the neighbourhood, the higher the infant mortality rate (imr): in the poor neighbourhoods directly southeast of the city centre, mainly inhabited by jews, the mortality rate was clearly lower than could be expected on the basis of the income level of that neighbourhood (van poppel, ). such a finding is a recurrent result in studies in the netherlands (van poppel, schellekens, & liefbroer, ) and abroad (connor, ; derosas, ; sawchuk, tripp, & melnychenko, ). studies on amsterdam explained this phenomenon by a variety of sometimes contradicting factors. israëls ( ) referred to the fact that more jewish mothers breastfed their children and also mentioned the spe- cific location of the neighbourhood, as the jewish quarters ostensibly suffered less from the effect of stagnant water and had no shortage of fresh air. a comparable argument was put forward by egeling ( ) who suggested that although the jewish population was “for the most part housed in a very miserable and cramped way,” the neighbourhood nonetheless profited from being in a “rather favourable location, so that fresh air could freely run through.” coronel ( ) also mentioned the favourable effect of breastfeeding but stressed that this effect was restricted to the lower social classes. for stephan ( ), the explana- tion lay in the better care that mothers provided and in the low prev- alence of syphilis and alcoholism. pinkhof ( , ) argued that the main influence comprised not so much the physical characteristics of the neighbourhood but the lifestyle of the jews. some authors have argued that at least part of the religious differ- ences might be considered the result of a statistical artefact. snel and van straten ( ) and derosas ( b) suggested that many analy- ses of the jewish advantage in infant mortality are biased by a severe underestimation of neonatal mortality among jews, as a large share of stillbirths were in fact neonatal deaths but were not included in the calculation of imrs. there may have been a similar practice among roman catholics of registering stillbirths as live births that then were immediately recorded as having died ex utero. if these were true, the imrs of catholics would be too high and their stillbirth rates too low to reflect reality (van poppel, ). in this study, we aim to unravel the complex relationship between infant mortality, socio‐economic status, and religion in mid‐ th these kinds of ecological studies remained in fashion until far into the th century (van de mheen, reijneveld, & mackenbach, ; van der maas, habbema, & van den bos, ). century amsterdam by analysing a unique historical cadastral map‐ based gis dataset. the dataset is compiled from individual birth, death, and population register records related to infants born in the city of amsterdam in , which were then linked to micro‐level spa- tial data on housing, infrastructure, and health care from the historical cadastral maps and other sources. we not only consider an ecological perspective by looking at geographically aggregated neighbourhood‐ level differences like the th century medical doctors already did but also take individual and household characteristics into account. ecological studies of the effect of socio‐economic status on mortality on the basis of spatial aggregated data have their advantages but do not directly answer the question whether differences in the socio‐ economic position of children lead to higher mortality. there is rarely a one‐to‐one relationship between prosperity or poverty of inhabi- tants of a neighbourhood and the prosperity or poverty level of that neighbourhood. neighbourhoods are often rather heterogeneous, and ecological studies therefore underestimate the socio‐economic variation in mortality because individuals with diverse characteristics are grouped together in one neighbourhood category (sloggett & joshi, ). thus, the association between neighbourhood character- istics and mortality levels often disappears when the analysis takes into account the characteristics of the individuals living there. this is not to say that individual‐level data on socio‐economic position and mortality are sufficient to answer the question of whether poverty is related to mortality risks. after all, it is possible that an association between neighbourhood characteristics and pros- perity level of the inhabitants is in fact responsible for any observed relationship between mortality and prosperity. for example, in a mor- tality regime dominated by variation in the incidence of infectious dis- eases, it is the location of a socio‐economic group in a spatially structured disease environment (presence of effective sewer system, or treated water) that mattered for mortality variation, not the advan- tages that go directly with the prosperity of individuals (smith, ). it is by combining information about the situation of the neighbourhood with information on characteristics of the individuals living there that allows one to unravel the effects of socio‐economic position and neighbourhood (williams, ). the same applies to the role that religion plays in the religion‐ neighbourhood‐mortality equation. to find out whether religion played a greater role than that of the neighbourhood where the reli- gious groups lived, it is necessary to obtain individual‐level informa- tion about the religion of the population at risk and of the deceased. this study not only focuses on the mortality of infants but also has implications for mortality in general. infant mortality in the th century accounted for a very high proportion of the total number of deaths and determined to a large degree the level of the expectation of life at birth and the changes therein. | amsterdam mid‐ th century around , amsterdam had approximately , inhabitants— slightly more than at the beginning of the th century. the city was one of the top largest cities in europe and among the top in the world at the time (chandler & fox, , p. ). only in the last figure population density and main religious denomination by premises, amsterdam, . source: own calculations based on amsterdam population register – and hisgis amsterdam figure infant mortality and stillbirth rates, amsterdam, – ekamper and van poppel of quarter of the th century did the population of amsterdam start to increase rapidly, so that by the end of the th century, the population had more than doubled to , inhabitants. in the middle of the th century, the more recently developed areas at the border of the city were very densely populated, and that applied also to the harbour area and the area southeast of the city centre known as the jewish neighbourhood (see figure ). about % of the population of amsterdam belonged to one of the many protestant denominations; % was roman catholic, and % was jewish. as far as the social class composition was concerned, the city was predominantly working class. only % of the population was clas- sified as elite, % middle class, % skilled labourers, % semi‐ skilled labourers, and % unskilled labourers. the jewish population, from all social classes, lived in very concentrated clusters near their synagogues in the eastern part of the city. the lower class population was concentrated in the most densely populated areas on the out- skirts of the city, whereas the elites mainly lived in the relatively sparsely populated area in the canal district just outside the old city to the south and east. although the wealthiest and poorest people (except for the jewish population) did not share the same living space, location and related rental prices resulted in differentiation at street level and even at the level of houses and floors within the same street (lesger & leeuwen, ). imrs in amsterdam were high during most of the th century: around per , live births for girls and around per , for boys. from , imrs started to decline (see figure ); the still- birth rate was again higher for boys than for girls: around per , births for boys and per , for girls, but started decreasing own calculations using application of the social power scheme (van de putte & miles, ) to the amsterdam population register data . halfway through the th century (figure ). imrs were particularly high in the densely populated poorer areas in the west, east, and south of the city. imrs, however, were relatively low in the thinly populated richer parts of the city and in the densely populated (poor) jewish neighbourhood (figure ). several studies stressed the importance of the impact of water and sanitation on (infant) mortality rates in the th century, such as van poppel and van der heijden ( ) on clean water supply, jaadla and puur ( ) on water supply and sanitation, and kesztenbaum and rosenthal ( ) on sanitation and sewage. the high imrs in amster- dam are thought to be related to the fact that much of the surface and ground water in the western provinces of the netherlands was heavily contaminated. canals were often used for the disposal of waste, and the water from the canals was also used for household purposes by the poor (van poppel et al., ). although several—not always very realistic and often far too expensive—plans had been proposed to figure infant mortality rates by neighbourhood, amsterdam, – . source: bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam – amsterdam city archive, archive of the population registers (collection ), population registers – (inventory nos. – ; part ). of ekamper and van poppel improve the water quality, only by the end of the th century did the city government finally approve a plan to build cisterns for the storage of fresh water (groen, ). the cisterns were not only primarily meant for the brewers but also served the general population who could afford the water. until the s, however, water was also sup- plied from neighbouring regions, transported to amsterdam and dis- tributed and sold in barrels from small vessels within the city. but the poor remained dependent on the bad quality water from the canals and rain barrels. only in did the city finally implement a water supply system, and it was not until that a city‐wide sewer system was built. medical doctors in the th century (such as israëls, , ; nieuwenhuys, ) already pointed to the unhealthy circumstances due to bad quality water and sanitation, particularly in the poor neighbourhoods of the city, and the need for public health policy. but to what extent was the health situation affected by the availability and quality of medical care itself? woods, løkke, and van poppel ( ) point to the effect of either the absence of trained midwives and medical doctors or the introduction of and improvements in the quality of obstetric care on levels of perinatal and infant mortality in th century denmark, england and wales, the netherlands, norway, and sweden. differences in obstetric care might also have existed at the local level. israëls ( ), for instance, noted a very high infant mortality in several amsterdam neighbourhoods during the s due to convulsions, which made him conclude either that medical practitioners did not take their work seriously enough or that they were not consulted often enough in the case of children and that therefore children died without any proper treatment due to lack of medical knowledge. use of medical care could also have varied between religious groups. jewish communities in particular developed a variety of welfare institutions and services, providing assistance and help with, among other things, medical care (derosas, ), and jews were thought to have made better use of medical care when available (van poppel et al., ). in the th century in amsterdam (as in the rest of the netherlands), especially, midwives played an important role in health care with respect to delivery and birth. in the th century, medical practitioners were organised into various groups (van lieburg & marland, ) that included the nonacademically trained midwives (“vroedvrouwen”) and man‐midwives (“vroedmeesters”), as well as the academically trained doctors of obstetrics (who were also qualified as medical doctors). midwives had to be educated for at least year and then to be trained through an apprenticeship to a licensed mid- wife. midwives supervised most normal deliveries and were instructed to call in obstetric doctors or man‐midwives in difficult or dangerous cases. although obstetric doctors and man‐midwives were trained dif- ferently, the obstetric doctors had to follow the instructions laid down for the man‐midwives (van lieburg & marland, ). a few “city” midwives (“stadsvroedvrouwen”) were specially appointed and paid by the city to help the poor. according to the population register of , there were about midwives (of which two “city” midwives) and man‐midwives in amsterdam; that is on average . (man) mid- wives per , inhabitants and births per (man) midwife per year. the total number of medical doctors was around , but the number of obstetric doctors among them remains unknown. | individual‐level sociodemographic and micro‐level spatial data individual‐level data about the relation between the socio‐economic position and mortality have become available for amsterdam only since the end of the s (bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam, ). for some other dutch cities, individual‐level data for the last quarter of the th century were published at the time, but these data are not very detailed and do not lend themselves to more refined analysis (for an overview, see van poppel, ). more recently, rather detailed individual‐level data have become available from the random historical sample of the netherlands, but these data are not very well suited for detailed analyses of the effect of place of residence on mortality (van poppel, jonker, & mandemakers, ). digitalized data from the amsterdam population register – , however, offer a unique possibility to study the relation- ship between mortality and the socio‐economic position of the child, the religion of the parents, and other familial characteristics, some highly relevant characteristics of the houses and the neighbourhood in which these families lived. findings of hedefalk, pantazatou, quaranta, and harrie ( ), hedefalk, quaranta, and bengtsson ( ), and olson ( ), for instance, show that the choice of geographical level is important for demographic analyses using historical individual‐level data. hedefalk, pantazatou, et al. ( ) and hedefalk, quaranta, et al. ( ) com- bine micro‐level geographical factors, such as soil conditions, with individual‐level historical demographic data in a case study of rural parishes in sweden. studies analysing micro‐level geographic factors for urban environments have also become more common; see, for ekamper and van poppel of example, olson ( ) and thornton and olson ( ) for montreal, and ekamper ( ) for the dutch town of leeuwarden. some recent studies explicitly focusing on th and early th century infant and child mortality at the geographical micro‐level have been done for dublin (connor, ), gibraltar – (sawchuk et al., ), newark (xu, logan, & short, ), and tartu – (jaadla & puur, ). this study relates to mortality in the first year of life among children born during the year in amsterdam. we are able to determine the child's socio‐economic position (on the basis of the occupation of the father), the religion, the age of the mother at the time of birth of the child, and the number of other persons present at the same address. by adding information on stillbirths from the vital registration system, we also can shed light on the question whether religious differences in mortality were in fact caused by different reg- istration practices that had their basis in religious customs and beliefs. this study will also use spatial information from the dutch cadastral maps and corresponding cadastral registers, the most detailed geo- graphical source available for the mid‐ th century. the large‐scale cadastral maps and cadastral registers provide information at the spa- tial micro‐level of parcels and buildings, such as location, size, and value of the property. although individual‐level information on sanita- tion and health‐care use is not available, combining the cadastral map and population register data allows the creation of rough indicators. the cadastral maps can be used to derive information at the spatial micro‐level on the surrounding environment, for example, proximity to (fresh) water and width of streets. linking population register data on health‐care professionals to the cadastral map data allows us to determine the geographical proximity of persons to for instance medical practitioners. by combining the precise address location of the residence of each individual in from the population register with the digitised version of the cadastral map of amsterdam from the hisgis amsterdam project, we are therefore able to study • whether there were socio‐economic mortality differences in infant mortality; • whether housing/neighbourhood conditions reinforced or weak- ened these mortality differences; • whether or not some specific religious groups were able to escape from this situation via specific health practices and lifestyles; and • whether the proximity of health‐care weakened mortality differences. we had to leave out children not born at a permanent address in amster- | data sources population registers, enforced in the netherlands by the royal decree of december , , combine census listings with vital registration in an already linked format for the entire population of a municipality with the household as the registration unit (alter, , pp. – ; meijer, ). for each household member name, date and place of historical geographical information system (hisgis) amsterdam (feikens, ). birth, marital status, occupation, religion, and if applicable, date of death, date of moving in and date of moving out were recorded. new household members, including newborns, were added to the list of individuals already recorded, and those moving out due to death or migration were cancelled with reference to place and date of migration or date of death. the first amsterdam population register covers all neighbourhood section population registers over the years – , with the exception of one small register, neighbourhood f section , which was lost. the population register is ordered by address instead of by person, which means that persons can appear more than once in the register. the names of persons who were reg- istered at a certain address and moved were crossed out and entered again at the new address. dates of departure and arrival were added at the respective addresses in the register. although family relation- ships between household members were not registered, birth dates, marital states, and family names can be helpful in deriving these relationships. the information in the registers was given orally. some- times, exact birth dates are missing or not consistent with other dates. first and last names sometimes differ between multiple entrances of the same person or compared with the civil registration. we selected from the register the cohort of all children born in the year and tracked their survival up to their first birthday. we compared these birth data with the birth register of the civil registration to correct for missing or unidentified births and duplicate registries in the population register. we also added stillbirths from the death register of the civil registration including information on the parents from the death certificates. the birth and death certificates provide less information on the parents than the population register, most importantly, the age of the mother and the religion are not stated. but by using the available data on parents' family names, age of the father, and residential address, missing data could be traced in the population register or marriage certificates. our total initial dataset includes , births, of which , births were listed in the population register, additional births were listed in the civil registration, and were stillbirths. we left out all births of children not born at a permanent address (mainly a few foundlings and children born on board of ships temporarily docked in amsterdam) and all births in the more rural area outside the ramparts (“stadswal”). most of the latter addresses could not be linked to the cadastral maps because some of the maps of this area have been lost from the archives. our remaining total dataset includes , births, of which were stillbirths ( . %) and , were infants ( . %) that died within the first year of life. from the population register, we can determine for all newborns the date of birth, date of death (if they died in the period – ), sex of the child, the age of the father and the mother at the time of birth of the child, religion, occupation of the father, home address of the parents, and the number of persons living at the same address. for the additional births from the civil register, we checked in the death certificates of and whether the infants died within their first year of life. we added sex of the child, age and dam and which were also not listed in the population register ( born on ships temporarily docked in amsterdam, five foundlings, and one child born in a waffle stall), and children born outside the ramparts. figure live births, stillbirths, and infant deaths by premises, amsterdam, children born in . source: amsterdam population register – , amsterdam civil registration – , and hisgis amsterdam of ekamper and van poppel occupation of the father, and home address of the parents from the birth certificates and used this information to trace the parents in the population register to add data on the religion and the age of the mother. if not found in the population register, we used data from the marriage certificates. figure presents the spatial distribution of the live births, stillbirths, and infant deaths. from the cadastral maps and corresponding cadastral registers, we can add the tax value, the exact geographical location (longitude and latitude coordinates), and the area of the building. from this source, we can also compute the widths of the streets, proximity to surface water (canals), and determine whether the house is located directly in front of a canal or in a backstreet alley (“slop”). we collected additional data from historical maps of amsterdam on the location of public cisterns for availability of fresh water and on the watercourses through the city to get at least a rough indication of the water quality of the canals. we were not able to track historical data on (potentially unhealthy) wet soil conditions due to differences in micro‐level alti- tudes (height above sea level) and therefore used contemporary data. because many of the historical buildings in the study area still exist, locations of public cisterns taken from the second edition of the map of amsterdam scale : , by c. van baarsel & son ( ) with watercourses annotated in red (amsterdam city archives, collection , atlas kok, nr. ). water quality derived from the first edition of a map of amsterdam scale : , by a.j. van der stok ( ) marking a new plan for waterworks solving drainage problems (amsterdam city archives, collection ). although the map dates much later than , its ground layer shows the drainage situation that already existed well before . we are therefore confident that it reflects the water quality around that time. altitude data from actueel hoogtebestand nederland (ahn). we assume that the current situation still reflects the historical situa- tion with lowest areas in the west and higher areas in the east and north. the lack of institutional public health facilities in the nether- lands meant that most women, rich or poor, had their babies at home, resulting in a very low incidence of hospital births (van lieburg & marland, ). dutch women regarded the hospital as the last resort, not least because of the poor conditions prevailing in these institu- tions (van lieburg & marland, ). if anyone assisted with the deliv- eries at all, it was usually the midwives; the man‐midwives or doctors intervened in complicated situations. linking the population register data on midwives, man‐midwives, and medical doctors to the cadastral map data allows us to determine the geographical proximity to these medical practitioners. figure maps a selection of the additional cadastral, environmental, and health‐care data. | methods to analyse the effect of various sociodemographic characteristics, res- idential environment, water supply, and health care on infant mortal- ity, we applied cox's proportional hazards models (cox, ) to our study population of live births. the dependent variable is the hazard of infant death. we calculated exposures measured in days from the date of birth up to the date of death or, for those surviving their first year of life, up to their first birthday. research into infant mortality has shown that environmental and water supply factors gain importance after the first months of life (jaadla & puur, ; van poppel & running gompertz hazards models did not produce different results from the reported cox models (not shown). figure tax values per dwelling, canal water quality, locations of cisterns, and residential locations of midwives in amsterdam around . source: amsterdam population register – , amsterdam maps by van baarsel and son ( ) and van der stok ( ) , hisgis amsterdam in line with the recordings in the population register, we will use the terms dutch jewish and portuguese jewish instead of ashkenazic jewish and sephar- dic jewish. ekamper and van poppel of van der heijden, ), particularly from the time that weaning starts (knodel & kintner, ; reid, , ). in line with jaadla and puur ( ), we therefore also used a multiepisode model for two stages of infancy: “early” infancy (months – ) and “later” infancy (months – ). although stillbirths might be less associated with social class and more an indication of a woman's physical health, it is generally influ- enced by poverty (edvinsson, brändström, rogers, & broström, ). however, religious differences with respect to stillbirths might in fact reflect different registration practices rather than religious cus- toms and beliefs. jewish stillbirth rates, for instance, might be biased by overestimation because jews were much more likely to register spontaneously aborted foetuses as stillbirths as soon as they could be recognised as a human being (snel & van straten, ). we there- fore used logistic regression models to compare the binary outcomes of the risk of stillbirths and infant mortality using the same set of inde- pendent variables. the following variables were included in our cox's and logistic regression models: age of the child (in days), sex of the child, age of the mother at birth, age difference with the father, single motherhood, single or multiple birth(s), religion, social class, number of people living at the same address, population density at the housing level, season of birth, tax value of the property, living in a backstreet alley, street width, altitude, living directly in front of a canal, distance to the nearest surface water, water quality, distance to the nearest public cistern, distance to the nearest midwife, distance to the nearest man‐midwife, and distance to the nearest medical doctor. see table for descriptive statistics of the study population with respect to all variables. age of the mother is classified in five age groups from age under to age + in order to account for higher risks of young and old mothers (knodel & hermalin, ; tymicki, ). because the ages of mother and father are highly correlated, we have included the dif- ference between the age of the father and the age of the mother to account for possible effects of younger or older fathers (barclay & myrskylä, ). religion, originally classified in categories, has been aggregated into categories: dutch reformed, evangelical lutheran, restored evangelical lutheran, mennonites, walloon reformed, other protestants (including christian dissenters, english reformed, episcopalians, presbyterians, and scottish protestants), roman catholics (including roman catholics and old catholics), dutch (ashkenazic) jewish, portuguese (sephardic) jewish, and unknown. social class is classified in five categories using the application of the social power scheme to the occupation of the father (or mother if father is unknown): elite, middle class, skilled workers, semi‐skilled workers, and unskilled workers (van de putte & miles, ). because the population register does not clearly differentiate separate house- holds within the same address, the number of persons living at the same address is used. population density is calculated as the number of persons living at the same address per m of the area of the residential building according to the cadastral register. season of birth is classified as spring (march to may), summer (june to august), autumn (september to november), and winter (january, february, and december). using our historical gis, we are able to derive the geographical coordinates and attributes of the spatial variables. this includes the annual tax value and area of the residential building taken from the cadastral register as well as the physical immediate neighbourhood table infant mortality rates (imr), stillbirth rates, and percentage distributions of infants alive at age , infant deaths, and still births by explanatory and control variables, amsterdam, children born in variables imr stillbirth rate infants alive infant deaths stillbirths all‰ live births ‰ births % socio demographics sex male . . . . female . . . . age of mother at birth (in years) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . unknown . . . . age difference with father or more years younger . . . . around same age . . . . to years older . . . . or more years older . . . . single mother no . . . . yes . . . . multiple birth no . . . . yes . . . . religion dutch reformed . . . . evangelical lutheran . . . . restored evangelical lutheran . . . . mennonites . . . . walloon reformed . . . . remonstrants . . . . other protestants . . . . roman catholics . . . . dutch‐jewish . . . . portuguese‐jewish . . . . social class unskilled workers . . . . semi‐skilled workers . . . . skilled workers . . . . middle class . . . . elite . . . . no occupation/unknown . . . . number of persons at same address < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . (continues) of ekamper and van poppel table (continued) variables imr stillbirth rate infants alive infant deaths stillbirths all‰ live births ‰ births % population density (persons per m ) < . . . . . . – . . . . . . – . . . . . . + . . . . season of birth winter . . . . spring . . . . summer . . . . autumn . . . . residential environment tax value < . . . . – . . . . + . . . . backstreet alley no . . . . yes . . . . street width (m) < . . . . – . . . . + . . . . altitude (m) < . . . . . . – . . . . . . – . . . . . . + . . . . water supply house in front of canal/water no . . . . yes . . . . distance to nearest surface water (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . water quality canals sea side ij (north) . . . . “best” nieuwevaart . . . . amstel . . . . : centre . . . . east . . . . “worst” west . . . . distance to nearest public cistern (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . (continues) ekamper and van poppel of table (continued) variables imr stillbirth rate infants alive infant deaths stillbirths all‰ live births ‰ births % health care distance to nearest midwife (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . distance to nearest man‐midwife (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . distance to nearest medical doctor (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . all . . . . number of observations , , , ( . %) , ( . %) ( . %) , ( %) source: amsterdam population register – ; amsterdam civil registration – . of ekamper and van poppel characteristics such as street width in front of the house, whether the house is located at a backstreet alley, whether it is in front of a canal, and water quality of the canal. we calculated straight line distances from all the residential locations where children were born to the nearest surface water and to the nearest of the public cisterns throughout the city. because by far most women had their babies not in hospitals, but at home (van lieburg & marland, ), we sim- ilarly calculated distances to the residential location of the nearest medical practitioners involved in health care with respect to delivery and birth: the midwives, the man‐midwives, and the doctors. to address effects of neighbourhood‐level differences on mortal- ity, an important methodological issue is the classification of neighbourhoods. studies of neighbourhood effects on health have often relied heavily on administratively defined units (such as census districts) to measure neighbourhood characteristics (xu et al., ). however, administratively defined areal boundaries do not necessarily coincide with those of everyday life experience and may cause statis- tical bias by the modifiable areal unit problem, which may in turn hin- der us from detecting underlying neighbourhood effects (xu et al., ). to address these issues, Östh, clark, and malmberg ( ) and clark, anderson, Östh, and malmberg ( ) propose the use of the concept of egocentric neighbourhoods based on population size, enabling the construction of neighbourhood measures that are computed in exactly the same way across different urban areas. neighbourhood measures can then be calculated for each individual separately based on aggregation of a predefined number (k) of that individual's nearest neighbours. we will use egocentric neighbourhood measures for the spatial isolation index as used in Östh et al. ( ) and the diversity index (theil, ) used in xu, logan, and short ( ) and connor ( ). the isolation index reflects the probability (ranging from to ) of a person of a specific population subgroup (such as a religious minority) to meet a member of that same subgroup within the person's neighbourhood. the diversity index is an entropy‐ based measure that reflects the residential (un)evenness of population subgroups in a neighbourhood, ranging from (indicating the least diversity with a single group dominating the neighbourhood) to (indi- cating the greatest diversity). | results for the cohort of children born in amsterdam in , the overall imr was per , live births. this is about % higher than the national average for the years – . the stillbirth rate was per , , about % higher than the national average. these above‐average mortality rates in amsterdam fit with the widespread mortality disadvantage to living in urban places (“urban penalty”) in the th century (haines, ; kearns, ; reher, ; schofield, reher, & bideau, ; van de walle, ). to analyse the risk of infant mortality with all explanatory and control variables from table simultaneously, we used cox propor- tional hazards regression models. the results are presented in table . the second data column shows the infant mortality risk of all live birth outcomes of the full multiple regression model including all explanatory and control variables simultaneously. as a reference, the first data column shows the outcomes of cox proportional hazards regression models that we ran for infant mortality risk, combined with table cox proportional hazards model hazard ratios (hr) for infant mortality by explanatory and control variables, amsterdam, children born in variables nonadjusted adjusted periods of infancy – months – months hr hr hr hr socio demographics sex male . *** . *** . ** . *** female . . . . age of mother at birth (in years) < . *** . . * . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . *** . *** . ** . ** unknown . ** . . . age difference with father or more years younger . . . . around same age . . . . to years older . . . . or more years older . . . . single mother no . . . . yes . *** . *** . *** . * multiple birth no . . . . yes . *** . *** . *** . ** religion dutch reformed . . . . evangelical lutheran . . . ** . restored evangelical lutheran . ** . ** . . ** mennonites . . . . walloon reformed . . . . remonstrants . . . . other protestants . . . . * roman catholics . . . . dutch‐jewish . *** . *** . ** . ** portuguese‐jewish . *** . ** . ** . social class unskilled workers . . . . semi‐skilled workers . ** . . . skilled workers . . . . middle class . . . . * elite . . . . no occupation/unknown . *** . . . number of persons at same address < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . ** – . . . . ** + . . . . * (continues) ekamper and van poppel of table (continued) variables nonadjusted adjusted periods of infancy – months – months hr hr hr hr population density (persons per m ) < . . ** . ** . . ** . – . . . . . . – . . . . . . + . * . . . season of birth winter . . . . spring . . . . ** summer . . . . autumn . . . . residential environment tax value < . . . . ** – . . . . + . * . . . backstreet alley no . . . . yes . ** . ** . * . street width (m) < . . ** . . ** – . . . . + . . . . altitude (m) < . . . . . . – . . . . . . – . . . . . . + . . . . water supply house in front of canal/water no . . . . yes . * . . . distance to nearest surface water (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . water quality canals sea side ij (north) . . . . “best” nieuwevaart . . . . amstel . . . . : centre . . . . east . ** . * . . ** “worst” west . ** . . . (continues) of ekamper and van poppel the occupation of “koopman” accounts for % of all occupations in the group of working proprietors in the wholesale and retail trade and % of all middle class occupations. table (continued) variables nonadjusted adjusted periods of infancy – months – months hr hr hr hr distance to nearest public cistern (m) < . . . . – . . . . *** – . . . . – . . . . + . . . . health care distance to nearest midwife (m) < . . . . – . . . . – . . . . + . *** . * . . model number of observations , , , , number of infant deaths , , , log‐likelihood − , . − . . − . likelihood ratio χ . . . degrees of freedom p value . . . note. nonadjusted models were run for each variable separately. *p < . significance. **p < . significance. ***p < . significance. source: amsterdam population register – ; amsterdam civil registration – . ekamper and van poppel of each individual explanatory or control variable separately without all other explanatory or control variables. . | religion the amsterdam population register provides quite detailed informa- tion on religious denominations in amsterdam; denominations in total, most of them dissented protestant denominations (see table a ), condensed into categories in the cox models (see table ). the jewish denominations stand out in a positive way, with hazard ratios % lower for dutch jewish and % lower for portu- guese jewish compared with the reference group of the dutch reformed. the lower risks of the jewish infants is in line with differ- ences between jewish and non‐jewish reported in previous studies on infant mortality in the th century both in the netherlands (van poppel et al., ) and elsewhere (connor, ; derosas, ; sawchuk et al., ). within the protestant population, the more orthodox denomination of the restored evangelical lutherans stand out in a negative way (hazard ratio % higher). the roman catholics appear not to be worse off than the dutch reformed majority, con- trary to results from other studies (van poppel et al., ; van poppel, ). due to presumably different registration practices of stillbirths between jews and catholics, imrs and stillbirth rates might be either too high or too low for these denominations (derosas, b; snel & van straten, ). the stillbirth rate for catholics ( per , births), however, is only slightly higher than that of the dutch reformed ( ) and even slightly lower than that of the other protestants. the stillbirth rate is the highest for the dutch jew- ish ( ), but lowest for the portuguese jewish ( ). although the rela- tively high stillbirth rates of the dutch jewish do indicate stillbirth registration practice differences in comparison with other religious denominations, these stillbirth rate differences do not change the gen- eral pattern of infant mortality differences between the religious denominations (figure ). . | social class infant mortality risk differences appear to be much smaller between social classes than between religious denominations. however, social class and religious denomination are related. the elite and middle class are overrepresented particularly among the walloon reformed and the remonstrants, the more liberal protestants. the dutch jews and portuguese jews show a mixed pattern: among them, both the unskilled labourers and middle class are overrepresented. however, this should be interpreted with care because the rather common occu- pation of merchant (“koopman”) in this group is classified according to the social power scheme as a middle class occupation, whereas in practice a lot of poor street‐traders called themselves merchants as figure infant mortality and stillbirth rates by religious denomination, amsterdam, children born in of ekamper and van poppel well. compared with dutch jews, among portuguese jews, the elite is also overrepresented. controlling for religion (and all other variables) in the full model, the gradient of social class tends to decrease. the hazard ratios for social classes are roughly in line with the univariate analysis and many other studies including socio‐economic status (such as derosas, ; jaadla & puur, ; van poppel et al., ). how- ever, none of the effects remain significant and the relatively high effect of those with no (or unknown occupation) disappears. . | other characteristics gradients of other sociodemographic characteristics in infant mortality are in line with results found by many other studies (derosas, , a; jaadla & puur, ; tymicki, ; van poppel et al., ). boys face a higher infant mortality risk than girls (hazard ratio . ). children born to older (hazard ratio . ) and younger ( . ) aged mothers are more vulnerable. infant mortality risks are as expected particularly high among births to single mothers (hazard ratio . ), often with no occupation ( %), and among multiple births (hazard ratio . ). both births to single mothers and multiple births, however, account for a rather small proportion of all births: respectively . % to single mothers and . % multiple births ( twins and seven triplets). infant mortality is higher for those born in winter. however, the effect is not significant in the full model. although the summer is con- sidered the most risky time of the year to be born for infants accord- ing to a study by van poppel et al. ( ), other studies found high summer risks at the age of around months for those born in the win- ter (breschi & livi‐bacci, ; lee & marschalck, ; van poppel, ekamper, & mandemakers, ). the association with the number of persons at the same address, population density, and tax value of the property is less clear, although, in line with other studies (jaadla & puur, ; thornton & olson, ; xu et al., ), living in less densely populated housing decreases the hazard ratio by %. living including religion–social class interaction effects (not shown) did not change main effect estimations. in a backstreet alley meanwhile increases the hazard ratio by %. on the other hand, contrary to the belief at that time that locations where “fresh air could freely run through,” like broader streets, were more healthy, it is the narrower streets that show a significant % lower hazard ratio. although jaadla and puur ( ) found water sup- ply to be the single most influential risk factor in tartu, the patterns of water supply characteristics in our model are less clear. living directly in front of a canal or the distance to the nearest surface water is not significant. infant mortality is % higher where the fresh canal water quality is worst (especially in the east of the city) unlike in the lower lying areas (mainly in the west) with the worst quality groundwater. with regard to health care, particularly the role of midwives is found to be important (edvinsson, garðarsdóttir, & thorvaldsen, ; lazuka, quaranta, & bengtsson, ; reid, , ). in our anal- ysis, indeed the distance to the nearest midwife matters, however, only living the furthest away from the nearest midwife increases infant mortality risk significantly, at %. . | multi episodes and stillbirths because other studies (jaadla & puur, ; van poppel & van der heijden, ) have shown that environmental and water supply fac- tors gain importance after the first months of life, we also used a sim- ilar multiepisode cox proportional hazards model for “early” infancy (months – ) and “later” infancy (months – ). the results of these two models are shown in data columns and of table . compared with the outcomes in the overall model in data column of table , we see that the higher infant mortality risk of boys is higher for later infancy. for later infancy, the effect of older mothers even increases, whereas the effect of younger mothers declines and becomes nonsig- nificant. the infant mortality risk of multiple birth infants remains high but declines for infants that survived the first months. with respect to religious denominations, risks decline in later infancy for the dutch distances to other medical practitioners (man‐midwifes and medical doctors) appeared to be nonsignificant and were left out of the final model. table logistic regression model odds ratios (or) for infant mor- tality and stillbirths by sociodemographic explanatory and control variables, amsterdam, children born variables infant mortality stillbirths(age – months) or or socio demographics sex male . *** . *** female . . age of mother at birth (in years) < . *** . – . . ** – . . – . . + . *** . unknown . . single mother no . . yes . *** . ** multiple birth no . . yes . *** . *** religion dutch reformed . . evangelical lutheran . . restored evangelical lutheran . ** . mennonites . . walloon reformed . . remonstrants . . other protestants . . ekamper and van poppel of jewish and increase in later infancy for the more orthodox protestants (restored evangelical lutherans, mennonites, and the residual group of other protestants). this might be related to different patterns for breastfed and artificially fed infants (knodel & kintner, )—not only for the jewish infants who were more likely breastfed much lon- ger but also for the orthodox protestants who might have been artifi- cially fed at much earlier age. a rather remarkable outcome is the significantly lower risks for people living in more populated housing. some of the environmental and water supply factors, in line with van poppel and van der heijden ( ) and jaadla and puur ( ), seem indeed to be slightly more important for later infancy than early infancy: infant mortality risks for older infants are lower for the least populated housing, higher for backstreet alleys (though not significant), and higher for housing near the bad water quality areas in the east. however, tax value and street width show effects opposite to expectations. health‐care effects of proximity to midwives show an expected but nonsignificant pattern. additionally, we compare stillbirth and infant mortality risks using logistic regression models including the same set of variables used in the previous cox regression models. the outcomes (odds ratios) of the logistic regression model for the risk of infant mortality are as expected in line with the full cox regression model. the odds ratios for the various religious denominations are all nonsignificant except for the dutch jewish (see table ). contrary to the lower infant mortality risk, their stillbirth risk is substantially higher. this, however, seems to support the idea that jewish stillbirth rates might be biased by overestimation because jews were much more likely to register spontaneously aborted foetuses as stillbirths as soon as they could be recognised as a human being (derosas, b; snel & van straten, ). roman catholics . . dutch‐jewish . *** . *** portuguese‐jewish . *** . model number of observations , , number of deaths . log‐likelihood − . − . likelihood ratio χ . . degrees of freedom p value . . note. full models include all other controls as presented in table . *p < . significance. **p < . significance. ***p < . significance. source: amsterdam population register – ; amsterdam civil regis- tration – . . | neighbourhood diversity the map presented earlier in figure displays the spatial pattern of the population by religion and population density, showing the densely populated areas at the border of the city, the spatially concen- trated jewish population east of the city centre, and the less densely populated canal district east and southeast of the city centre. the concentration of the jewish population is confirmed by exploring the isolation index. we calculated isolation indexes for all egocentric neighbourhoods of individuals belonging to minority religious denom- inations and aggregated them into aggregated religious denomination group averages. with a predefined neighbourhood size of the nearest neighbours, the isolation index (at a scale from to ) for the dutch jewish is . , followed by roman catholics ( . ), portuguese jewish ( . ), and all other denominations below . (see table a ). similarly, we calculated the isolation indexes for all egocentric neighbourhoods of individuals belonging to the same social isolation indexes were calculated for different numbers of nearest neighbours starting from , , , , , and so on. we only present results for an egocentric neighbourhood size of the nearest neighbours (see also appen- dix a), providing a representative indication of the degree of isolation. the isolation index for the dutch and portuguese jewish combined is . . class. the aggregated isolation index is . for the highest class sub- group (elite) and . for the lowest social class (unskilled labourers). consistently, the aggregated diversity index (at a scale from to ) for the whole city is lower for religious denominations ( . ) than for social classes ( . ). the isolation indexes clearly confirm the strong spatial concentration of the jewish population. spatial concen- tration of social classes appears to be much less clear. social class isolation indexes calculated for smaller neighbourhood sizes increase slightly but remain low. of ekamper and van poppel figure presents the spatial distribution of the live births, stillbirths, and infant deaths. the map shows a similar pattern to the population density in the map in figure : high numbers of births in the poor outskirts of the city and the jewish neighbourhood, and low numbers in the canal district. the map does not show conspicuous concentrations of high numbers of infant deaths or stillbirths. moran's i, a measure of spatial autocorrelation, was found to be close to zero for both infant mortality and stillbirths ( . for imrs and . for stillbirth rates), indicating no spatial autocorrelation. table cox proportional hazards model hazard ratios (hr) for infant m diversity or dominance in the neighbourhood, amsterdam, children born in variables model i religious denomination of infant dutch reformed . other protestant . roman catholic . jewish . neighbourhood diversity/dominance diverse neighbourhood jewish dominance catholic dominance protestant dominance religion of infant x neighbourhood diversity/dominance dutch reformed x diverse neighbourhood other protestant x diverse neighbourhood roman catholic x diverse neighbourhood jewish x diverse neighbourhood dutch reformed x jewish dominance other protestant x jewish dominance roman catholic x jewish dominance jewish x jewish dominance dutch reformed x catholic dominance other protestant x catholic dominance roman catholic x catholic dominance jewish x catholic dominance dutch reformed x protestant dominance other protestant x protestant dominance roman catholic x protestant dominance jewish x protestant dominance model number of observations , number of deaths , log‐likelihood − , . likelihood ratio χ . degrees of freedom p value . note. full models include all other controls (except religious denomination) as p neighbours. neighbourhood diversity: diverse: diversity index < . ; jewish d isolation index for catholic population > . ; protestant dominance: all others. *p < . significance. **p < . significance. ***p < . significance. source: amsterdam population register – ; amsterdam civil registratio the results of the models estimated in the previous sections show that religion seems to have a much stronger relation with infant mor- tality than social class. we saw from the isolation indexes that spatial differences between the population compositions of amsterdam neighbourhoods are also much more determined by religion than by social class. but to what extent are these religious differences between neighbourhoods associated with differences in infant mortality levels at the individual level? did living in a neighbourhood dominated by the jewish population, with relatively low imrs, had beneficial effects on imrs of non‐jewish living there? in line with ortality by different model specifications of religion and religious ii iii iv v . . * . * . . . *** . ** . * . . . . *** . . . . . . . . . . . . ** . * . . . . . . . . . *** . . ** . * . . ‐ ‐ . . . . * − , . − , . − , . − , . . . . . . . . . resented in table ; neighbourhood: egocentric neighbourhoods of nearest ominance: isolation index for jewish population > . ; catholic dominance: n – . ekamper and van poppel of the study of sawchuk et al. ( ), who found catholics living in jewish neighbourhoods experiencing lower mortality, our hypothesis is that infant mortality is lower for non‐jewish living in jewish neighbourhoods. table presents the results of adapted versions of the previously used cox regression models including not only the religious denomina- tion of the infant but also the religious diversity or dominance in the neighbourhood. neighbourhoods are characterised as being either rel- atively diverse or strongly dominated by one of the major denomina- tions. for each individual birth, the neighbourhood characteristics are measured based on the concept of egocentric neighbourhoods. here, we use the nearest neighbours. for easier comparison, we use a condensed classification of religious denomination in four major groups. including neighbourhood diversity (model ii) instead of religious denomination (model i) into the model shows that infant mortality is, as expected, lower in neighbourhoods with jewish domi- nance. however, including both religion of the infant and religious neighbourhood diversity/dominance (model iii) makes the jewish neighbourhood dominance effect disappear. to test whether specific religious groups might have been favoured or disadvantaged by being born in neighbourhoods with similar or different religious dominance, we included the interactions between the infant's religion and reli- gious dominance in the infant's neighbourhood (model iv including main effects and model v interaction effects only). the model estima- tions confirm the favourable position of the jewish infants, not only within but also outside jewish neighbourhoods (although none of them were born in catholic dominant neighbourhoods). catholic infants seem to be better off in neighbourhoods dominated by other religions. remarkably, the non‐dutch reformed protestants seem to be even worse off when they are born in catholic or jewish neighbourhoods. our results confirm the results of sawchuk et al. ( ) with respect to the catholics experiencing lower imrs when living in jewish neighbourhoods. however, this does not apply to other non‐jewish denominations. | conclusions and discussion linking amsterdam mid‐ th century population register data and geographical cadastral data offers a unique dataset to study the relationship between infant mortality and socio‐economic, residential, environmental, and health‐care characteristics at the micro level of the households and dwellings. using modern gis, we were able to add a unique combination of several characteristics of the residential environment and health‐care access to the commonly used demographic and socio‐economic characteristics, such as the residential location relative to water supply and distance to the nearest midwife. the results of the analyses confirm the favourable position of the jewish population with respect to infant mortality—as shown in other studies as well. however, the population register data uniquely allow us to distinguish more precise religious denominations beyond the usual main protestant, catholic, and jewish classification. our results show large differences between denominations within the main groups. the portuguese jewish imr is even more favourable than the dutch jewish. although jewish stillbirth rates are relatively high probably due to different religious practices in stillbirth reporting, as found in other studies as well (derosas, b; snel & van straten, ), this does not affect the overall picture. even if a portion of the jewish stillbirths were classified as neonatal deaths, jewish infant mortality maintains lower rates than other religious denominations. on the other hand, imrs are less favourable for the more orthodox protestant denominations like the restored evangelical lutherans and more favourable for the more liberal protestant denominations. this suggests, in line with knodel and kintner ( ), bottle feeding as opposed to breastfeeding at earlier ages among the more orthodox protestant groups. contrary to findings in other research, catholics were not worse off than the major protestant denominations in amsterdam. however, most dutch municipalities with a predomi- nantly catholic population and higher infant mortality risks were situated in the economically disadvantaged southern part of the netherlands, and the spatial heterogeneity in the infant mortality patterns suggests that risk factors were not the same for every municipality: differences in cultural, social, economic, and ecological circumstances may have shaped infant mortality risks in each munic- ipality differently (van den boomen & ekamper, ). janssens and pelzer ( ) studied four different dutch towns throughout the country and indeed found important religious cultural differences between catholics from different towns. they concluded that it was regions that were determining infant survival, not religion. as stated by rogier ( ) in his extensive study on the history of catholic netherlands, mid‐ th century catholics in amsterdam (and other cities in the west) were different—namely, less conserva- tive and more developed—than catholics from the more rural southern provinces. moreover, the socio‐economic composition of the catholic population in amsterdam in was more or less identical to the protestant population. imrs for the higher social classes are more favourable, particularly for the elite and to a lesser extent the middle class. however, imr dif- ferences are much smaller between social classes than between reli- gions. imrs are very high for (mostly unemployed) single mothers; however, except for this case, these socio‐economic effects are not significant and, when accounting for religious denomination (and other characteristics), tend to diminish. this might be partly due to the small proportion of the elite ( . % of all births) and the mixed interpretation of the occupation of merchant, which is classified as a middle class occupation but was often used by poor street‐traders as well. although many studies have found a beneficial effect of higher socio‐economic class (such as connor, ; derosas, a; xu et al., ), others found insignificant effects (jaadla & puur, ; thornton & olson, ) or, and particularly for the pre‐industrial mid‐ th century period, a lack of socio‐economic gradient (edvinsson, ; van poppel et al., ). effects of other sociodemographic characteristics are in line with other research (such as derosas, ; jaadla & puur, ; tymicki, ; thornton & olson, ): boys were much more vulnerable than girls; multiple birth children were particularly worse off; both the oldest and youngest mothers faced higher risks of infant mortality; and children born outside marriage had high risks of infancy death and stillbirth. of ekamper and van poppel whether housing and neighbourhood conditions reinforced or weakened infant mortality is not entirely clear, a picture also emerging from other studies (connor, ; jaadla & puur, ; thornton & olson, ; xu et al., ). as one would expect, living in less densely populated housing weakened infant mortality risks, whereas living in the poorer backstreet alleys reinforced them. on the other hand, living in more expensive—presumably better quality—housing or in less populated buildings ultimately did not weaken mortality risks. this could be due to missing measurements of household size. because household size could not be measured, only the number of persons living at the same address could be used. particularly in the poorer areas, often several households lived at the same address simultaneously. in housing directly along the canals, imrs were more favourable but not significantly so. this might be due to opposite effects: living along the canals meant living near to polluted and contaminated water on one hand and, on the other hand, meant better access to fresh water supplied from elsewhere and sold from boats via the canals. although infant mortality might have been sensitive to the disease environment, our results do not show clear spatial patterns. bad qual- ity canal water particularly weakened imrs in the east of the city, but not in the densely populated west, where both the canal water quality and groundwater quality was worse, due to it being at or below sea level. because the city was lacking a proper sewer system until the beginning of the th century, the typical dutch dense urban canal infrastructure probably easily and strongly contributed to an unfavourable disease environment throughout the city. although water quality was only measured in a very rough way, differences in canal water quality should probably be seen as ranking from very bad to less bad rather than from bad to good. living near the public cisterns did not seem to affect infant mor- tality. however, the public cisterns were primarily meant for the brewers and not the main fresh water source for the population. unfortunately, the amsterdam data lack information on household access to water supply and sanitation, as used in for instance the study from jaadla and puur ( ) on the estonian city of tartu. in line with van poppel and van der heijden ( ) and jaadla and puur ( ), we do find that the effects of environmental conditions are more pro- nounced in later stages of infancy and less important in the early stages of infancy and for stillbirths. in the mid‐ th century, health care around childbirth was limited; childbirth was still mainly a matter for midwives. the role of obstetri- cians increased in importance as education around childbirth improved through the second half of the th century; they began being more involved on a regular basis—not just for complicated births (van lieburg & marland, ). although information on individual use of health care is unavailable, the data suggest that living further away from the most obvious health care, the nearest midwife, increased infant mortality risks, which supports findings from studies on aggregate‐level data (edvinsson et al., ; lazuka et al., ) and micro‐level data (reid, , ). all in all, residential and neighbourhood conditions do seem to be associated with infant mortality risks. but contrary to the worries of medical doctors at the time over the enormous mortality risk differ- ences between the higher and the lower classes, infant mortality differences between social classes seem to be less prominent. like smith ( ) argued that it was location that mattered most for mor- tality variation, not the social class of individuals, and garrett, reid, and szreter ( ) showed for the united kingdom that social class differentials in infant mortality are largely due to the local micro‐ environment. at the urban level, it was assumed that it was the sepa- ration of different social classes in distinct residential areas that mattered (de swaan, ). where people lived seemed to be more important than to what social class people belonged. particularly, the jewish population, however, even living as densely as they did in the city, was apparently able to avoid the neg- ative effects of that density. their relatively low infant mortality might very well be explained by the isolation of the jewish community and their infants from other religious groups (van poppel et al., ), their group solidarity, religious precepts, and secular knowledge of health (sawchuk et al., ). thornton and olson ( ) found similar bene- ficial infant and childhood mortality effects for strongly segregated protestant and catholic communities in montreal. connor ( ), how- ever, concluded that child mortality differences in dublin had their roots in poverty and residential inequality rather than in irish or catho- lic behaviours. taking neighbourhood religious diversity and domi- nance in amsterdam into account shows that it was not necessarily primarily the isolation of the jewish community that mattered, because the jewish advantage was not restricted to the jewish‐dominant areas. because not all other religious denominations living in jewish‐ dominant areas had favourable infant mortality risks, neither does it seem likely that it was the residential area that primarily mattered here. because especially the more orthodox protestants faced high infant mortality risks in the jewish neighbourhoods, it was most likely the jewish lifestyle, the breastfeeding and religious practices that made the difference. in general, religion seemed to be more important than social class, a notion that has already been emphasised in dutch studies from the beginning of the th century. using alternative social class classifications might produce different results. however, parts of the jewish population (especially merchants) were probably assigned a too high social class status in our study, implying that the jewish infant mortality risks were in fact even more favourable compared with other religious denominations. of course this study is lacking a longitudinal perspective by only presenting a mid‐ th century snapshot. during the course of the th and th century, the role of socio‐economic status may have become more important. although residential and neighbourhood conditions in mid‐ th century amsterdam do seem to be associated with infant mortality risks, their effects seem to be less important than individual socio‐ economic characteristics (especially religion) unlike findings from some other studies. jaadla and puur ( ), for instance, found the source of water supply the single most important factor in tartu, and connor ( ) found residential inequality more important than irish or catholic behaviours in dublin. thornton and olson ( ) found neighbourhood effects as large as household effects for three strongly segregated religious communities in montreal. in amsterdam, it was only the jewish community that lived strongly segregated from the rest. however, taking both jewish neighbourhood domination and individual religious denomination into account made the neighbourhood domination effect disappear. ekamper and van poppel of the amsterdam mid‐ th century population register data— combining census listings with vital registration—are an important source for the study of infant mortality. however, population regis- ter data have problems as well (see, for instance, alter, ). partic- ularly for studying infant mortality, the population register data had to be supplemented and corrected for missing or unidentified births and duplicate registries from the civil registration. compared with the birth register of the civil registration, . % of all registered live births were missing from the population register. stillbirths, . % of all births, were not registered at all in the population register and had to be added from the death register of the civil registration. as in many other studies on th century infant mortality, the availability of additional data is limited, which forces scholars to use rough indicators. as mentioned, data on individual household access to water supply and sanitation are unfortunately lacking, as well as data on, for instance, individual (breast) feeding practices and actual health‐care use. our population register dataset also lacks reliable data on the actual family size, birth rank, and whether for instance the mother died within the first year of the infant's life. another drawback of the current dataset is a missing longitudinal component. one new research direction using the data would be to extend the dataset by following‐up the same birth cohort over their lifetime; another would be to expand the dataset with additional birth cohorts. extending the dataset by following up on the cohort would also allow scholars to study long‐term health and mortality effects of early life circum- stances. however, this not only requires the addition of demographic life course events but also, if one wants to take the spatiotemporal context into account as well, implies dealing with the complex matter of geocoding the longitudinal demographic data (hedefalk, pantazatou, et al., ). adding new birth cohorts would allow the study of urban infant mortality changes over time, requiring digitising population register data for later years from for instance amsterdam population register scans, available for the periods – and – . additionally, linking the population register data to cause of death data, such as the amsterdam, – (currently in devel- opment ), might provide better insight into morbidity. conflict of interest we have no conflict of interest to declare orcid peter ekamper https://orcid.org/ - - - frans van poppel https://orcid.org/ - - - references alter, g. ( ). family and the female life course: the women of verviers, belgium, – . madison, wi: the university of wisconsin press. barclay, k. j., & myrskylä, m. ( ). parental age and offspring mortality: negative effects of reproductive ageing may be counterbalanced by secular increases in longevity. population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://www.ru.nl/historicaldemography/research‐projects/current‐research‐ projects/virtual‐folder/amsterdamse‐doodsoorzaken‐ ‐ /amsterdam/ breschi, m., & livi‐bacci, m. ( ). saison et climat comme contraintes de la survie des enfants. l'expérience italienne au xixe siècle. population, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam ( ). de bevolking van amsterdam. deel iv: statistische studie over huwelijk, echtscheiding, geboorte, sterfte, vestiging en vertrek (naar aanleiding van de cijfers voorkomende in deel i dezer serie, statistische mededeeling no. ). amsterdam: bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam. bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam ( ). differentiële sterfte te amsterdam naar stadsgedeelten. kwartaalbericht van het bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam, ( ), – . bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam ( ). zuigelingensterfte naar sociale groepen te amsterdam. kwartaalbericht van het bureau van statistiek der gemeente amsterdam, ( ), – . centrale commissie voor de statistiek ( ). verband tusschen welstand, nataliteit en kindersterften (gemeente amsterdam). aanhangsel. maandcijfers en andere periodieke opgaven betreffende nederland en nederlandsch oost‐indië, , – . chandler, t., & fox, g. ( ). years of urban growth. new york: aca- demic press. clark, w. a. v., anderson, e., Östh, j., & malmberg, b. ( ). a multiscalar analysis of neighborhood composition in los angeles, – : a location‐based approach to segregation and diversity. annals of the association of american geographers, ( ), – . https://doi. org/ . / . . connor, d. s. ( ). poverty, religious differences, and child mortality in the early twentieth century: the case of dublin. annals of the american association of geographers, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / . . coronel, s. s. ( ). iets over het verschil in levensverhoudingen tussen joden en christenen. schat der gezondheid, , – . cox, d. ( ). regression models and life tables (with discussion). journal of the royal statistical society, series b, ( ), – . de swaan, a. ( ). in care of the state. in health care, education and wel- fare in europe and the usa in the modern era. cambridge: cambridge polity press. derosas, r. ( ). watch out for the children!’ differential infant mortality of jews and catholics in nineteenth‐century venice. histori- cal methods, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / derosas, r. ( a). socio‐economic factors in infant and child mortality: venice in mid‐nineteenth century. in m. breschi, & l. pozzi (eds.), the determinants of infant and child mortality in past european populations (pp. – ). udine: forum. derosas, r. ( b). zoller vindicated. historical methods, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . ‐ edvinsson, s. ( ). social differences in infant and child mortality in th century sweden. in m. breschi, & l. pozzi (eds.), the determinants of infant and child mortality in past european populations (pp. – ). udine: forum. edvinsson, s., brändström, a., rogers, j., & broström, g. ( ). high‐risk families: the unequal distribution of infant mortality in nineteenth‐ century sweden. population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / edvinsson, s., garðarsdóttir, Ó., & thorvaldsen, g. ( ). infant mortality in the nordic countries, ‐ . continuity and change, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /s egeling, l. j. ( ). bijdrage tot de kennis van de gezondheidstoestand der stad amsterdam, in de jaren ‐ . nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, , – . ekamper, p. ( ). using cadastral maps in historical demographic research: some examples from the netherlands. the history of the fam- ily, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j.hisfam. . . https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . - https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /s https://doi.org/ . /j.hisfam. . . https://www.ru.nl/historicaldemography/research-projects/current-research-projects/virtual-folder/amsterdamse-doodsoorzaken- - /amsterdam https://www.ru.nl/historicaldemography/research-projects/current-research-projects/virtual-folder/amsterdamse-doodsoorzaken- - /amsterdam of ekamper and van poppel feikens, j. j. ( ). fryske akademy, hisgis amsterdam ( ), kadaster , bebouwing , bevolkingsregister , kiesregister en adresboek . dans. https://doi.org/ . /dans‐ t‐ng z garrett, e., reid, a., & szreter, s. ( ). fertility and child mortality in their household setting: a variety of perspectives from uk censuses, ‐ . popolazione e storia, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /ps ‐ . gemeente amsterdam ( ). gemeentelijk jaarverslag over het jaar . amsterdam. groen, j. a. ( ). het amsterdamse drinkwater door de eeuwen heen. amsterdam: gemeente waterleidingen. haines, m. r. ( ). the urban mortality transition in the united states, ‐ . annales de démographie historique, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /adh. . hedefalk, f., pantazatou, k., quaranta, l., & harrie, l. ( ). importance of the geocoding level for historical demographic analyses: a case study of rural parishes in sweden, – . spatial demography, ( ), . https://doi.org/ . /s ‐ ‐ ‐ – hedefalk, f., quaranta, l., & bengtsson, t. ( ). unequal lands: soil type, nutrition, and child mortality in southern sweden, – . demographic research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / demres. . . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . houwaart, e. s. ( ). de hygiënisten. in artsen, staat en volksgezondheid in nederland – . groningen: historische uitgeverij groningen. israëls, a. h. ( ). over de sterfte der kinderen in de drie eerste levensjaren, gedurende de laatste dertig jaren te amsterdam. tijdschrift der nederlandsche maatschappij ter bevordering der geneeskunst, , – . israëls, a. h. ( ). de sterfte der kinderen in de drie eerste jaren des levens te amsterdam, in de jaren ‐ . nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, , – . jaadla, h., & puur, a. ( ). the impact of water supply and sanitation on infant mortality: individual‐level evidence from tartu, estonia, – . population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / . . janssens, a., & pelzer, b. ( ). lovely little angels in heaven? the influ- ence of religiously determined cultural life scripts on infant survival in the netherlands, ‐ . historical social research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . ‐ kearns, g. ( ). the urban penalty and the population history of england. in a. brändström, & l.‐g. tedebrand (eds.), society, health and population during the demographic transition (pp. – ). stock- holm: almqvist and wiksell international. kesztenbaum, l., & rosenthal, j.‐l. ( ). sewers' diffusion and the decline of mortality: the case of paris, – . journal of urban economics, , – . https://doi.org/ . /j.jue. . . knodel, j., & hermalin, a. i. ( ). effects of birth rank, maternal age, birth interval, and sibship size on infant and child mortality: evidence from th and nineteenth century reproductive histories. american journal of public health, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ajph. . . knodel, j., & kintner, h. ( ). the impact of breast feeding patterns on the biometric analysis of infant mortality. demography, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / lazuka, v., quaranta, l., & bengtsson, t. ( ). fighting infectious disease: evidence from sweden – . population and develop- ment review, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j. ‐ . . .x lee, w. r., & marschalck, p. ( ). infant mortality in bremen in the th century. the history of the family, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /s ‐ x( ) ‐ lesger, c., & van leeuwen, m. d. ( ). residential segregation in the six- teenth to nineteenth centuries: overview, examples, theory and conjectures. journal of interdisciplinary history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /jinh_a_ meijer, a. c. ( ). de negentiende‐eeuwse “papieren mensch”, een onderzoek naar het amsterdams bevolkingsregister als bron voor historici. nederlands archievenblad, ( ), – . nieuwenhuys, c. j. ( ‐ ). proeve eener geneeskundige plaats‐beschrijving (topographie) der stad amsterdam (vol. – ). amsterdam: van der heij. olson, s. ( ). setting the census household into its urban context: visu- alizations from nineteenth‐century montreal. demographic research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . Östh, j., clark, w. a. v., & malmberg, b. ( ). measuring the scale of segregation using k‐nearest neighbour aggregates. geographical analy- sis, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /gean. pinkhof, h. ( ). onderzoek naar de kindersterfte onder de geneeskundig‐bedeelden te amsterdam. nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, , – . pinkhof, h. ( ). de eubiotiek van het joodsche volk. nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, , – . reher, d. ( ). in search of the ‘urban penalty’: exploring urban and rural mortality patterns in spain during the demographic transition. interna- tional journal of population geography, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /ijpg. reid, a. ( ). infant feeding and post‐neonatal mortality in derbyshire, england, in the early twentieth century. population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / reid, a. ( ). infant feeding and child health and survival in derbyshire in the early twentieth century. women's studies international forum, , – . https://doi.org/ . /j.wsif. . . rogier, l. j. ( ). katholieke herleving: geschiedenis van katholiek nederland sinds . 'sgravenhage: pax. sawchuk, l. a., tripp, l., & melnychenko, u. ( ). the jewish advantage and household security: life expectancy among th century sephardim of gibraltar. economics and human biology, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j.ehb. . . schofield, r., reher, d., & bideau, a. (eds.) ( ). the decline of mortality in europe. international studies in demography. oxford: clarendon press. sloggett, a., & joshi, h. ( ). higher mortality in deprived areas: com- munity or personal disadvantage. british medical journal, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /bmj. . . smith, d. s. ( ). mortality differentials before the health transition. forum: fatal years. health transition review, ( ), – . snel, h., & van straten, j. ( ). infant mortality and nefalim in amsterdam. historical methods, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . ‐ stephan, b. h. ( ). sterfte en ziekten bij joden en niet‐joden. nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde, , – . theil, h. ( ). statistical decomposition analysis; with applications in the social and administrative sciences. amsterdam: north‐holland publish- ing company. thornton, p., & olson, s. ( ). mortality in late nineteenth‐century montreal: geographic pathways of contagion. population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / . . tymicki, k. ( ). correlates of infant and childhood mortality: a theoret- ical overview and new evidence from the analysis of longitudinal data of the bejsce (poland) parish register reconstitution study of the th‐twentieth centuries. demographic research, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . van de mheen, h., reijneveld, s. a., & mackenbach, j. p. ( ). socioeco- nomic inequalities in perinatal and infant mortality from to in amsterdam, the netherlands. european journal of public health, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /eurpub/ . . van de putte, b., & miles, a. ( ). a social classification scheme for his- torical occupational data. historical methods, ( ), – . https://doi. org/ . /hmts. . . ‐ https://doi.org/ . /dans- t-ng z https://doi.org/ . /ps - https://doi.org/ . /ps - https://doi.org/ . /adh. . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /hsr. . . . - https://doi.org/ . /j.jue. . . https://doi.org/ . /ajph. . . https://doi.org/ . /ajph. . . https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . /s - x( ) - https://doi.org/ . /s - x( ) - https://doi.org/ . /jinh_a_ https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . https://doi.org/ . /gean. https://doi.org/ . /ijpg. https://doi.org/ . /ijpg. https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /j.wsif. . . https://doi.org/ . /j.ehb. . . https://doi.org/ . /bmj. . . https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . - https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . - https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /demres. . . https://doi.org/ . /eurpub/ . . https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . - https://doi.org/ . /hmts. . . - ekamper and van poppel of van de walle, f. ( ). infant mortality and the european demographic transition. in a. j. coale, & s. c. watkins (eds.), the decline of fertility in europe (pp. – ). princeton: princeton university press. van den boomen, n., & ekamper, p. ( ). denied their ‘natural nourish- ment’: religion, causes of death and infant mortality in the netherlands, ‐ . the history of the family, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / x. . van der maas, p. j., habbema, j. d. f., & van den bos, g. a. m. ( ). vergelijkend buurtonderzoek amsterdam. ii. sterfte en ziekenhuisopnamen, ‐ . rotterdam/amsterdam: instituut maatschappelijke gezondheidszorg, erasmus universiteit rotterdam/instituut voor sociale geneeskunde, universiteit van amsterdam. van lieburg, m. j., & marland, h. ( ). midwife regulation, education, and practice in the netherlands during the nineteenth century. medical history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /s van poppel, f. ( ). the relationship between socio‐economic position and infant and childhood mortality in the netherlands in the period – . in iussp (ed.), international population conference manila , proceedings and selected papers (vol. ) (pp. – ). liége: iussp. van poppel, f. ( ). religion and health: catholicism and regional mor- tality differences in nineteenth‐century netherlands. social history of medicine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /shm/ . . van poppel, f. ( ). legal rules and practices of registration and burial of stillbirths in th and th century netherlands. in g. charrier, v. clavandier, c. gourdon, n. rollet, & sage‐pranchère (eds.), morts avant de naître (pp. – ). tours: presses universitaires françois‐rabelais (pufr). van poppel, f., ekamper, p., & mandemakers, k. ( ). season of birth and early childhood mortality: a review of the debate and a case study table a spatial isolation indexes and aggregate diversity index for minority religious denominations, amsterdam, the netherlands, religious denomination isolation index dutch‐jewish . roman catholics . portuguese‐jewish . evangelical lutheran . restored evangelical lutheran . walloon reformed . mennonites . remonstrants . other protestants . aggregate diversity index . note. for spatial isolation index calculation method, see Östh et al. ( ). source: own calculations based on amsterdam population register – , amsterdam civil registration – , and hisgis amsterdam. for the netherlands, ‐ . in p. puschmann, & t. riswick (eds.), building bridges. scholars, history and historical demography (pp. – ). valkhof pers: nijmegen. van poppel, f., jonker, m., & mandemakers, k. ( ). differential infant and child mortality in three dutch regions, ‐ . the economic history review, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /j. ‐ . . .x van poppel, f., schellekens, j., & liefbroer, a. c. ( ). religious differen- tials in infant and child mortality in holland, ‐ . population studies, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / van poppel, f., & van der heijden, c. ( ). the effects of water supply on infant and childhood mortality: a review of historical evidence. health transition review, ( ), – . williams, n. ( ). death in its season: class, environment and the mor- tality of infants in nineteenth‐century sheffield. social history of medicine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /shm/ . . woods, r. i., løkke, a., & van poppel, f. ( ). two hundred years of evidence‐based perinatal care: late‐fetal mortality in the past. archives of disease in childhood—fetal and neonatal edition, ( ), f –f . https://doi.org/ . /adc. . xu, h., logan, j. r., & short, s. e. ( ). integrating space with place in health research: a multilevel spatial investigation using child mortality in newark, new jersey. demography, ( ), – . https:// doi.org/ . /s ‐ ‐ ‐y how to cite this article: ekamper p, van poppel f. infant mor- tality in mid‐ th century amsterdam: religion, social class, and space. popul space place. ; :e . https://doi. org/ . /psp. appendix a https://doi.org/ . / x. . https://doi.org/ . /s https://doi.org/ . /s https://doi.org/ . /shm/ . . https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /shm/ . . https://doi.org/ . /adc. . https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /psp. https://doi.org/ . /psp. national identity and migration in an emerging gateway community $ € £ ¥ social sciences article national identity and migration in an emerging gateway community jennifer byrne department of political science, james madison university, harrisonburg, va , usa; byrneje@jmu.edu; tel.: + - - received: march ; accepted: april ; published: april ���������� ������� abstract: this paper examines how conceptions of national and local identity influence reactions to migration in the shenandoah valley, a rural location in southwest virginia with unique demographic characteristics. while shenandoah valley residents have been predominantly non-hispanic whites of european descent, a recent visible influx of hispanic laborers, a higher than national average muslim population, a history of refugee resettlement and the migration of urbanites from northern virginia have made the valley one of the most diverse locations in the state of virginia today. using a qualitative methods approach with both apriori and emergent coding, i offer some insights as to how a traditional ethnic and civic framework of national identity and emergent themes of local identity, including family values and traditionalism, influence reactions to the changing demographics in this rural community. keywords: national identity; immigration; gateway communities; shenandoah valley . introduction virginia currently has the th largest immigrant population in the country, and as the state with the fourth largest share of the foreign-born latino population, it can be considered part of a trend of latino immigrant settlement in the south (krogstad and keegan ; stepler and hugo-lopez ). although hispanics are the fastest growing population of immigrants, the largest percentage of immigrants living in virginia are from asian countries. demographics in the state have transformed at a remarkable pace; in in residents in the state were foreign born while today that figure is one in nine (bearinger ). while most of this change has affected the bustling metropolitan regions of northern virginia, where / of all foreign-born virginians live, the shenandoah valley, a geographic and cultural region in western virginia, has undergone quite a demographic transformation. while southwest virginia is home to less than % of the foreign-born population in virginia, the shenandoah valley, has a visible influx of migration from refugee resettlement (including a higher than national average muslim population), labor-driven immigration from central america, and domestic transplants from surrounding states and urban areas. the school system is one of the most diverse in the state with more than languages spoken and countries represented among its enrolled students. in the face of unprecedented growth in a region that is quickly becoming a new gateway city for many immigrants in america, how will these newcomers be received? in this project, focus group meetings with local civic organizations in harrisonburg city/rockingham county and individual interviews with residents across the shenandoah valley are conducted to determine how conceptions of national and local identity influence attitudes toward migration in the shenandoah valley. of particular interest, is whether common conceptions of national identity in the civic versus ethnic framework apply to this area and what other conceptions of identity may exist that shape attitudes towards migration. soc. sci. , , ; doi: . /socsci www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /socsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci soc. sci. , , of . american national identity and migration throughout much of the literature on this topic, conceptions of national identity are seemingly characterized by a schizophrenic dichotomy. a common theme is the recognition that while identification with the nation unites one to fellow nationals and serves as a source of integration, it is also a mechanism that separates these group members from others. this division is often accompanied by negative feelings toward non-group members, as social identity theory predicts, and recent empirical work on the link between ethnocentrism and a host of restrictive policy attitudes suggests (kinder and kam ). de figueiredo and elkins ( ) distinguish between nationalism and patriotism as concepts in their work, and this distinction leads them to the conclusion that highly patriotic individuals show no more prejudice towards immigrants than an average citizen. in contrast, high levels of nationalism are associated with feelings of national superiority, which is associated with prejudicial attitudes towards immigrants. citrin et al. ( ) examine this dichotomy in the context of a more restrictive nativist, or ethnic, conception of national identity and less restrictive assimilationist, civic conception of national identity. while both conceptions are associated with the positive aspects of national identity (a mechanism to unite all nationals), ethnic conceptions are thought to stress higher levels of antagonism towards outgroups. an ethnic conception of national identity emphasizes bloodlines, ancestry and cultural traits acquired during early socialization. this element of national identity “links country of birth, extended residence and dominant religious faith with being a member of the in-group (a right usually conferred by birth or extended residence)” (jones and smith a, b). ingroup members who subscribe to a strong ethnic national identity will value cultural conformity and national unity. thus, national identity is associated with what roshwald ( ) labels “ostensibly fixed cultural markers” (i.e., hard to change attributes acquired in infancy such as one’s mother tongue and native accent), and wilcox ( ) characterizes as a national culture as consisting of language, religious beliefs, customs, and moral values. smith ( ) labels ethnocultural americanism, at its extreme, nativism, and ethnoculturalism is most closely linked to the notion that an american is a white, anglo-saxon, english-speaking protestant with northern european ancestry (see also higham ; schildkraut , , ). thus, individuals with strong ethnocultural identities are less likely to embrace immigrants, particularly the immigrants of today, who arrive predominantly from latin america and asia. ethnoculturalism as a tradition of american identity is not only linked to more negative attitudes towards immigrants but is expected to be associated with the most extremist and nativist of the negative attitudes. since / , higher identification with the ethnocultural dimension of identity has been linked to support for the restriction of rights to peoples of particular religions and ethnicities, including documented evidence of the role that ethnoculturalism plays in fostering support for the internment of arab-americans, racial profiling, and heightened levels of immigrant resentment (davis and silver ; lichtblau ; malkin ; schildkraut , , ). while the ethnocultural dimension of identity may be the least embraced publicly, it remains a part of the framework of american identity and its staying power has been well documented (byrne ; byrne and dixon ; citrin and duff ; gerstle ; schildkraut , , , , ; smith ). civic conceptions of national identity, in contrast, are based “in a common loyalty to a territorially defined state and rooted in a set of political rights, duties, and values shared by citizens of that state, regardless of their ancestry and of the non-political aspects of their cultural heritage” (roshwald , p. ). proponents of the civic dimension place more importance on respect for political institutions and the political values on which they are based, acquiring citizenship, and a feeling of attachment to the nation (jones and smith a, b). these characteristics are more open for immigrants to acquire (though not necessarily easily acquired) when they migrate to a country than the rigid, often fixed, cultural markers associated with ethnoculturalism (hjerm ; heath and tilley ; lewin-epstein and levanon ; citrin et al. ; schildkraut ). in america, these institutions are inherently connected to liberal ideals, including notions of individual liberty, democratic principles, equality, and freedom (salins ). according to scholars such as banning ( ); smith ( ); soc. sci. , , of schildkraut ( , , , ), the civic notions of identity also embody the idea of being a responsible, active citizen where members of a community act on its behalf. while both conceptions of identity set boundaries between ingroup and outgroup members, the ethnic/cultural dimension is viewed as a less consensual set of criteria for national membership in comparison to dimensions based on civic identity. throughout the literature, civic identity is cast in a favorable light—it provides the “glue” that holds the mosaic of a culturally plural nation together in the absence of ethnic ties (citrin et al. ; hjerm ; jones and smith a, b; pickus ). moreover, rather than simply allowing for or being flexible enough to accommodate cultural pluralism, civic ideals are necessary if people are to move beyond their narrow ethnic loyalty and facilitate an environment where native citizens respect of the cultural differences of immigrants (pickus ). a civic identity is deemed necessary to ensure social justice, realize liberal ideals, and sustain cultural pluralism. even those that do not fully embrace the virtues of civic notions of identity acknowledge that civic national identity is in principle, more ethnically inclusive (wilcox ). this sense of shared national identity among citizens is derived from “the realization of important liberal ideals and practices” and a commitment to the “political ideals and principles upon which the polity is founded” (wilcox , p. ). these notions of kinship are formed by what roshwald ( labels “ideological ancestors” such as the founding fathers of the us, providing a link through metaphorical blood or “figurative kinship” rather than by lineage. to this end, liberal conceptions of american national identity are distinctly civic rather than ethnic (citrin et al. ; huntington ). the civic-political notion of identity is characterized as both “ideological and affective” (pickus ). while it embodies a commitment to liberal ideals, it also “requires some felt sense of communal obligation, some feeling of responsibility derived from a perception of shared history and fate. national identity includes a reverential element, an emotional attachment to the polity” (pickus , p. ). thus, the idea of feeling american of thinking of oneself as an american, (one of “us” versus one of “them”), a marker of identity noted by thinking of oneself as an american, is also characteristic of the civic/political dimension of american national identity (schildkraut ). salins ( ) likens the process of adopting a civic national identity to a religious conversion, as both require the acceptance of basic foundational principles that is accompanied by an emotional attachment. the culmination of the citizenship process with the swearing in and oath of affirmation, is symbolic of this transformation of identity (pickus ). thus, a civic national identity links foundational political principles, such as liberalism and current political practices, with an emotional attachment to the polity and the people that share it. while civic/political nationalism seems robust, civic notions of identity also embody a commitment to the polity itself that is greater than the sum of individual rights and liberties or an individual emotional affirmation. in the literature, civic republicanism is a separate dimension of national identity that emphasizes the responsibilities and duties of citizenship. this dimension of american national identity is theoretically distinct from the aforementioned civic/political (or liberal) dimension of national identity because while this dimension emphasizes a commitment to liberal principles and institutions, the civic/republican dimension of national identity emphasizes a commitment to the public good. in the literature, the public good as the motivation of individuals to “labor for the good of the state” while schildkraut ( , ) characterizes civic republicanism as an involvement in political and social life. this means that members of the nation see the community as an integral part of their identity, and “pursue ends that will serve the public good” (p. ). recent empirical work by schildkraut ( ) has supported the bi-dimensionality of civic conceptions of american identity, and finds that higher support the civic republican dimension is negatively associated with support for a number of ethnic and racially based policies, including racial profiling, official english policies, and the extension of benefits to legal immigrants, even when other civic based notions of identity, namely civic/republicanism, are positively related to such policies. soc. sci. , , of higher levels of both social tolerance and political tolerance, however, are expected to be associated with the civic/republican dimension of national identity. high levels of this dimension should have the highest integrative capacity, as it preserves respect for diverse cultures and preserves immigrants’ access to public life. a civic/republican identity is more focused on political involvement and civic engagement; involvement in the community provides a bond that links members together. thus, civic/republican notions of identity are surely civic in nature rather than ethnic but are distinct enough from civic-political or liberal notions of identity to characterize a separate dimension in a multi-dimensional framework of american national identity. in summation, an ethnic/cultural dimension of national identity is expected to foster the most negative attitudes towards immigrants and is expected to have the starkest effects on extremely negative attitudes. civic notions of identity are less likely to be associated with clear-cut negative attitudes, but, of all three dimensions of identity, the civic/republican dimension of national identity is expected to be associated with the most positive attitudes towards immigrants. civic notions of identity, particularly civic/republicanism, are expected to counter balance the propensity towards negative attitudes fostered by ethnocultural identity. previous research has shown that national identity matters and that it is multidimensional. this project can fill in current gaps in several meaningful ways. current survey data can shed some light on general trends in attitudes. however, if americans embrace multiple conceptions of identity, some of these dimensions might be more salient than others at the local level. residents in local areas may define these dimensions quite differently or use different criteria altogether to define their identity. while this tri-chotomous framework for studying and conceptualizing american national identity is associated with clear expectations about how national identity is linked to attitudes towards immigrants, the empirical findings have been mixed at best. though ethnoculturalism is consistently linked to more negative attitudes, the effects of the civic dimension are not clear in the literature. contrary to theoretical expectations, at times the civic dimension has been associated with negative attitudes towards immigrants (byrne ; byrne and dixon ; citrin et al. ; schildkraut , ; smith ). this multidimensional framework has also been controversial in the literature as there is no consensus on the degree to which these categories are mutually exclusive. miller ( ) views these concepts as entirely exclusive and argues that they cannot be combined; consequently, if an individual emphasizes ethnic notions of national identity, civic conceptions of identity are automatically rendered less important. conversely, brubaker ( ) contends that there are several, interrelated ways to conceptualize national identity based on ethnic and civic considerations, and that these elements are used simultaneously to attribute or deny group membership in the nation. using in-depth interviews and focus groups can give researchers a sense of whether the debate over the degree of exclusivity of the dimensions and the potential for interaction between them is one that can generate useful hypotheses that can be empirically tested. in this study, respondents are given a chance to clarify and discuss the concept of americanism and how this informs their expectations of new residents (both immigrants and domestic migrants) in their own words when participating in a focus group or interview. local governments are the primary vehicles to open new pathways to integration for immigrants through programs involving english language education, service provision, and programs targeted at civic participation and orientation towards naturalization (singer ). as there is no “one size fits all” approach to integration, attention at the local level is merited (morse and ray ). these conceptions have been tested at the national level and we know that they have some explanatory power, but how do they operate at the micro-level? are attitudes in small towns in the rural south largely shaped by macro-level frameworks of ethnic and civic based national identity? current research has shown us that explaining the behavior of people in regions such as the midwest or deep south based on values or economics is incomplete and that group identity may play a more dominant role in explaining political attitudes (cramer-walsh ; hochschild ). thus, i would argue that it is essential to examine conceptions of national and local soc. sci. , , of among residents in the shenandoah valley, and draw some initial conclusions about how identity affect support for migration. . the shenandoah valley as a new gateway this research project focuses on the reception of immigrants in non-traditional gateway areas. established patterns of immigrant settlement have given way to new trends in settlement, replacing traditional bulwarks of immigrant-receiving gateways with newer destinations. while many of these new st century gateways are metropolitan areas, previously homogenous suburban and rural areas are beginning to receive their share of new arrivals. noted anthropologist zarrugh ( , , p. ) contends that, “the small city of harrisonburg, located in the central shenandoah valley of virginia, is perhaps the premier example of this new pattern of change.” perrine ( ) notes that amid nationalist claims that mixing ethnicities and religions will inevitably result in conflict, harrisonburg stands as a model of “international coexistence”. the state of virginia, along with other southern states including north carolina, arkansas, and georgia, is experiencing rapid growth of its immigrant population. the small town of harrisonburg, in particular, has undergone quite a transformation. according to the census, the non-hispanic white population was roughly % of the total population, but in this declined to %. concurrently, the hispanic population has grown from . % in to % in . though harrisonburg has had a hispanic presence since the ’s, much of the growth of the hispanic population has occurred in the last ten years; therefore, it can be classified as a pre-emerging gateway location (singer et al. ) . local advertising once promoted the homogenous demographics of the city, highlighting its . % american-born and . % white population, yet today, the area represents one of the largest, and diverse (with spanish speakers represented from different countries) proportion of hispanic residents in the state. the changing nature of the population is reflected in the community by an increasing number of latino-owned and immigrant-oriented businesses (zarrugh ). it is expected that the hispanic presence will continue to grow because of the availability of jobs in the local agricultural industry. in addition, zarrugh’s research demonstrates that the social networks established by previous immigrants continue to draw new friends and relatives to the area (zarrugh ). moreover, harrisonburg is home to the refugee resettlement center, which introduces new residents to this community from all over the world. harrisonburg is one of resettlement locations, designated by the us department of state, largely due to the strong economic growth of the south, availability of low-skilled employment, relatively low cost of living, and the large network of churches, which serve as sponsors to new arrivals (zarrugh ). relatively few latin-american refugees have been relocated to harrisonburg, though many nationalities are represented, including congolese, eritreans, russians, bosnians, turks, cubans, iraqi kurds, and afghans. refugee resettlement has also been a catalyst for a sizeable and growing muslim population in the shenandoah valley; harrisonburg alone is home to residents of residents who identify as muslim, making muslims nearly % of the overall population in this small city (comparatively, muslims make up about % of the population nationwide). given the high volumes of refugees that are resettled in the valley, it is not surprising that a recent study by the brookings institution highlighted harrisonburg and the surrounding rockingham county as among the top ten areas impacted nationwide with the highest share of refugees by president trumps’ executive order limiting refugee migration to the united states (berube ). as a further testament to the rapidly growing diversity in a relatively short time span, consider the fact that harrisonburg is home to the state of virginia’s largest esl program and one of its most diverse public-school districts, serving over % of the student population, who speak (singer et al. ) define a pre-emerging gateway as a place where immigrant populations have grown very rapidly over the last ten years and are likely to continue to grow as immigrant destinations. soc. sci. , , of different languages, and represent countries. this fact becomes even more remarkable when you consider that during the – school year, just under % of students used this program. due to the combination of social networks established by immigrant “pioneers”, a network of churches, the refugee resettlement program, and agricultural industry, roughly % of the population of this small town is now foreign-born, higher than the state of virginia’s overall foreign-born population. in addition, harrisonburg has immigrants that come from all regions of the world, and its immigrant population is not predominantly represented by one country of origin (price and benton-short ). thus, it can be considered a “hyperdiverse” emerging gateway city, making it an ideal location to conduct a research project on how national identity is conceptualized at the local level in this context. while harrisonburg has some unique features and demographics, a recent report from the carsey institute notes that as evidence of the decentralization of immigrant settlement occurs, more rural counties with large recent influxes of immigrants have emerged throughout the country (jensen ). this report suggests that the “the context of reception-receptivity of rural and small towns to new immigrants—can vary greatly from place to place and can have significant impacts on the ability of communities to cope and immigrants to assimilate and prosper,” (jensen , p. ). this underscores the importance of research in these local communities, particularly an in-depth qualitative, case study approach. . data and methods . . data collection and analytical tool this project relies on data collected from three focus groups within the harrisonburg/rockingham community, semi-structured interviews with individuals living in various communities within the shenandoah valley, and meet-ups with local groups at events over a period of three years. the focus groups and interviews were conducted and facilitated by myself with the assistance of undergraduate research assistants from late through early . as the purpose of this study was not to generalize in a statistical sense but to understand a specific local community with a unique population, i did not use a random sampling technique. local community civic organizations were identified using purposive sampling and snowball techniques. civic organizations, defined by skocpol and fiorina ( ) are networks of ties and groups through which people connect to one another and get drawn into community and political affairs. the first step was to identify and contact community organizations in the harrisonburg area. identification and contact with civic organizations was facilitated by the fairfield mediation center and assisted by student researchers who were compensated with one-hour of course credit. the research team then called the contact person for each group (in the case of the organizations) to solicit participation, following up this request with a letter. participation was explained to the participants as representing an opportunity to have a dialog about identity and attitudes related to migration and changing demographics in the shenandoah valley, and it was explained that an academic team would moderate each of these thematic conversations, taking place either in the form of a focus group or interview. the entirety of the dialog was recorded, transcribed into text, and then coded using nvivo software for qualitative data analysis. the tool of analysis is a directed content approach, which imposes more structure than a traditional content analysis (hsieh and shannon ). in a directed content analysis, existing theory is used to develop coding categories from concepts or theories. in this case, i started out with three categories derived from the literature: ( ) ethnoculaturalism ( ) civic republicanism; and ( ) civic political identity. the theory is also important in determining “operational definitions” for these categories that will guide the coding process (hsieh and shannon ). the theory guides the initial analysis, but other categories may emerge; in this study, family values and traditionalism are concepts of identity that emerged from the data analysis and will be discussed in the results section. soc. sci. , , of . . group selection to identify focus groups and individuals for the study, organizations that are noted in the literature as central to building a complete community, which may include churches, social service groups, and political advocacy groups. we have two goals for creating these groups: ( ) to represent diverse interests or identity points in the community and ( ) to create homogeneity within the groups to allow for those with similar characteristics to participate in a single session. our concern is that comprising a group with highly diverse individuals may affect the quality of the data, as people may censor their ideas around those that differ greatly from them. the key to obtaining a cross section of views is to have multiple formats of inquiry on a related topic, and to have a diversity of groups that will participate. groups were drawn from the fairfield center’s key partnerships with diverse groups across civic, social, economic, and cultural sectors. this helped to ensure that the groups are representative of the population. it also allowed some pre-formed groups to participate, which will have the advantage of groups of people in each focus group that know each other and have a good history or working together. this may also help in the discussion of a sensitive topics such as identity and migration. in the case of organizations that were small or that could only send one or two representatives to participate, they were grouped with other participants from groups with similar mission statements to form a focus group or given the opportunity to participate in the project through an individual interview. for example, participants from new bridges, refugee resettlement and skyline literacy all participated in a focus group together as did members of the shenandoah valley american-filipino group. the mission statement and predominant activities of each group was evaluated to determine its primary purpose. based upon this information, the groups were labeled as one of the following: ( ) social service ( ) economic ( ) social-civic ( ) economic ( ) education ( ) political/advocacy ( ) government and justice or ( ) church and temple. members of each group are represented in each of these categories in this project. these types of groups have been identified as important for coalition building at the local level and play a unique and important role in immigrant integration in other emerging and pre-emerging gateway cities (singer ). thus, determining the national and local identity of the members of these groups and how this shapes their attitudes towards immigration and related policies is an important step in determining how immigrants will be received in a pre-emerging gateway such as the shenandoah valley. the sample ended up being very diverse both demographically and geographically. in terms of geographical representation, participants came from as far north as the winchester area, and from as far south as the roanoke area. the highest areas of representation in the sample are the strasburg (northern valley) and harrisonburg (city/central valley) area, with other areas including winchester, woodstock, strasburg, elkton, bridgewater, mt. jackson, staunton and roanoke. demographically, most of the sample was employed, though there were two retirees and two full-time students included, and roughly an even number of men and women participated between the focus groups and individual interviews. a final note on the sample is that it is built from voluntary groups that are already active in the community and were self-selected to participate; the focus groups and interview questions did also contain primes and questions about identity and migration; thus, the salience of these issues may have been heightened among these groups, as well as the salience of political issues in general, as they knew that they were speaking to a political scientist. . empirical analysis . . emergent themes family values and traditionalism the idea of having of family values was a prominent theme in the interviews, but not necessarily in the political, moral, or even religious sense. family values means making family the number one soc. sci. , , of priority in life, spending quality time with family, and providing an atmosphere where one’s family is safe and can flourish. as one participant put it, after growing up in the valley and leaving to go to college in new york city, she was certain she wanted to return to the valley to have her children. she remarked that while everything is there in nyc, getting to it is very difficult, and while the valley is very boring, the quality of life is very attractive. family values to her is a culture, she says. “but, i think there is a general culture, of you know, it is family values—whatever that means. i’m afraid when i say that now that it means ultra-conservative and that’s something i don’t like. i mean something distinct from that, you know, there are parks, and activities, and good publics schools, and things that make it easier to raise families here. you know, sports programs and all of that. . . . i mean our proximity to washington dc is very exciting to me. we can go in and see shows and concerts easily but here are people here who have never even been to washington dc.” one woman described being from the valley as “country” and “family-oriented.” when i asked her to describe what she meant she said that people in the valley are away from the hustle and bustle and they spend time together. she said family values means to her hardworking. and, then she followed up with putting families first, prioritizing family over money and power. she explains, “i think that’s probably one of the bigger things that i see (focus on the family). i was grown up country. you know they might not have the fanciest, biggest houses, but they have the most love in the house you would ever want to find.” she went on to talk about cookouts and activities like hunting being key to keeping the family together and about how she felt less safe as the city and surrounding areas continued to grow. she talked about how her grown son had gotten jumped coming home from visiting friends one night, something that she could not have imagined happening to her when she was his age (we had cousins to fear, not gangs, she joked). this concern about the changes that accompany growth is connected to family values. in the view of many valley residents, change is already affecting the family because people no longer know who their neighbors are, hear stories about a rise in crime rates, and see families affected by parents having to commute to west virginia and the northern virginia/dc area for jobs. valley residents were used to knowing all of their neighbors and never having to worry about where their kids were, who they were with, and told stories of never having locked their doors. several participants told me that they did not even know where the keys to their house or car were or what they even looked like. one participant recounted a story of having an alarm system that came with her house that she had never used (“i don’t even know the code!”) and another mentioned that a maintenance person locked the door behind him when finished with a job, and she could not get into the house for hours because she had no idea where her key was as she did not use it regularly. as one participant put it, “the valley has to be brought forward because unfortunately dc is coming here and so are the gangs.” growth always brings change, and with the noticeable growth many residents were certain that the crime rates had increased. however, according to the harrisonburg police department’s crime statistics, crime rates across all areas have remained relatively stable since , showing no marked increase or decrease over the years. thus, the growing concerns about safety in the community appear to be driven by residents feeling that they no longer know their neighbors and anecdotal incidents that are shared widely within the community when the occur. in addition to safety concerns, the loss of manufacturing jobs has meant many parents now commute to west virginia and northern virginia for work and some participants noted that this leaves less time for family gatherings and quality family time (although they do not directly blame immigration for the loss of jobs). but, they have resisted the expansion of the valley on numerous occasions from infrastructure (the building of interstates and now the expanding of interstates), commerce (the building of shopping centers and businesses), schools, and even calling anything other than harrisonburg an official city (all of the other areas are only townships). geographically isolated by the mountains for much of the past, valley residents learned to do things a certain way and when soc. sci. , , of asked to explain why, they respond, “that is the way we have always done it.” in every conversation and event, the role of tradition, and the idea of being resistant to change came up in some form. in one conversation participants discussed how change can be “scary” even though it is “normal” and talked about how because residents were used to being isolated in the past, they still live like they are today, even though that is no longer the case. many have never been to washington dc or the beach, even though both are only a few hours’ drive away, for example. although some may be hesitant about change, harrisonburg is known as the “friendly city” and the valley overall is very welcoming to newcomers. one participant who moved from missouri noted that while people there were friendly, that people in the valley “have a heart of gold” and have a quality beyond friendly that she could not describe. she said that she was drawn to the strong family orientation and even though she did not have any family in the valley, her friendships were as strong as her familial bonds. however, a tension exists between wanting to keep things the way there have always been and the changing demographics that are now reshaping the face and character of the valley. . . apriori themes . . . ethnocultural identity one of the most recurrent themes throughout the interviews was that being part of the “valley” meant that there was an emphasis on generations and ancestry. most people who considered themselves or others as being “from” the shenandoah valley could trace several generations of their families back to living in the same town, perhaps even being part of the founding or settling of an area. as one participant noted, one characteristic that distinguishes the shenandoah valley from other rural southern communities (with which it shares many characteristics) is that: “the local history here is pretty well known. typically, it’s part of the family history. six, seven, eight, nine, ten generations of the same family living, so they know great grandfather fought in the civil war, and great-great-great-great grandfather came here in and he was from germany. and they know all that stuff. and you don’t find that in other places nearly as much and so local history is often treasured.” another participant noted that, “you know entire families just by their last names.” there is a pride on having lived all or most of one’s life in the valley, and as one person put it to me, “it’s an informal rule that you’ve got be here for years before we accept you can tell us you are a valley resident.” what is interesting is that many were quick to embrace america as a country of immigrants and rejected ethnocultural identity at the national level but embraced it locally by defining it in terms of birth, ancestry, and extended residency in the valley. one of the interviewees noted that families staying in the valley for multiple generations makes it “a bit different’ from other places in america. another participant moved to the valley because he wanted to be rooted after “running from new york to miami to dc” and “wanted to slow it down.” but he remarked: “and, it’s hard. it was very hard for my daughter because she came here as a junior—to get in. it was extremely difficult for her to incorporate herself into the community because she was seen as an outsider. it very difficult for her. it was times like, “dad, i hate it here.” i mean now she’s fine and she’s better after a year and half, doing athletics and sports and kind of forcing her way in. but for a long time, she was miserable, absolutely miserable.” these facets of ethnocultural identity are very prominent and heavily embraced, but the context is important. ideas of ethnoculturalism, as expressed in the interviews, focus groups and informal conversations, are not explicitly rooted in racism or exclusion. they are the result of pride in the family and an emphasis on the ability to trace your ancestry many generations back, some even to the founding of the united states. for example, one participant’s family could trace their origins back to pocahontas and had artifacts and documentation that was on display in their home. however, even though not explicitly based on race, it appears that a higher ethnocultural identity can still lead to more exclusionary attitudes to migrants, both domestic and international. soc. sci. , , of . . . civic political identity references to civic political identity often came up in the form of citizenship, philosophical principles, and patriotism. for example, one participant noted that the common element amid so much diversity among races of different people who live in america and among the diversity of micro-cultures found in the individual states is citizenship. he also said that citizenship implies principles such as equal treatment for all and rule of law. another participant also noted that the cultures of the states are so different that it may be difficult to define what assimilation actually means; he described growing up in an environment where bilingualism was so engrained in the culture that it was frequent and second-nature; yet in other parts of the country it is seems to be controversial to speak in multiple languages. he describes in virginia shopping with his wife, who although hispanic, has light hair and light eyes, who would speak to him in spanish in the store, and he would respond in english just so that people around him would not question whether he could speak english, something he would not have done in his home state. he explains, “but, sincerely wanting to know and i think it’s hard for people to delineate whether it’s a philosophical coming overtime or whether it is these ideas we have been taught about differences in races, ethnicities, and languages. but for me i had the luxury of growing up where those things weren’t as stark in instances- my family contacts only grew up speaking english but had enough spanish around me that it was normalized to be bilingual in a sense where i grew up, as opposed to here for a lot of our kids and a lot of our families, it is not normalized to be bilingual, it’s either in some way feeling they have to choose in some way very often or in some ways where there is such a stark contrast between the two cultures; whereas where i grew up in was one in the same. my grandfather could go off in spanish and then he could go off in english, i mean it was kind of just the same back and forth. the things that we celebrated and the things my neighbors celebrated together became a part of our understood culture because this idea that we have one american culture and american identity, for me, seems like nothing further than the truth. when people say that well you know “they” need to assimilate, meaning people from other countries need to assimilate, well you know what do you mean? the american culture of the state of oklahoma is very different from the american culture in rhode island or maine or chicago or california or oregon or montana, you know and each of those places have their own interpretation of what being american and what american culture is. one of the things they have in common is the philosophical american values and that’s always been an area of focus on how we view american culture, because i see myself as american, i do not see myself as mexican, i do not see myself as latin american at all, not even a little bit. i use the word mexican american a lot, i use the word chicano a lot, i use the word latino, but those are all very american ideas. they are not mexican ideas, they know about chicanos in mexico but they are not mexican ideas.” patriotism at the local level was expressed as pride in the beauty of shenandoah valley, particularly regarding its natural beauty. most people mentioned the shenandoah national park, the beauty of their surroundings, and the rural landscape. for many people what the valley lacked in excitement or culture, the natural beauty and clean environment made up for. but, interestingly all demographic groups seemed to indicate difficult expressing being “proud” of their own group, whether they identified with their ethnic group, as a valley resident, or as an american. for example, two white male participants described the change in american culture this way as part of a discussion that started on the topic of the decline of hunters: “well it’s almost made comedic now. something as patriotic as a gun, or somebody feels (in southern accent) “merica.” you know, “it’s almost like putting it down. like, oh you’re proud to be an american. (southern accent) merica. it’s weird dynamic that as well, nobody wants to embrace, it’s almost as if they’ve tied the term american to redneck . . . to the old redneck. to the old kkk. or somebody waving a rebel flag. larry the cable guy. that’s it. yeah. get er done. it’s unfortunate. i strongly identify myself as an american and i’m proud of it. i always have been. it’s kind of disappointing to soc. sci. , , of see the direction that this nation is going in just about everything. i don’t know how we let ourselves get to this point.” another participant noted that there used to be some shame in talking about being from different parts of the valley because some areas were “poor” but now it seems like “it’s all of us against the city slickers and they think we are stupid. well, why do they want to move down here then?” and, then there were the participants from immigrant families or those who knew of individuals from immigrant families that felt conflicted about their identities and whether they truly wanted american citizenship. the conversation is from one of the focus groups below: participant : “just some reflections real quick, i apologize if they seem scattered but one is that when i talk to members who are a part of the core dominant culture, for definition you could say white, but often when their attempting to frame things positive for immigrants—like when someone says oh they are just so happy to be here, they’re so grateful for all the opportunities we give them, and oh they just can’t wait to become americans. there is an assumption that everyone who comes here wants to be an american and become a citizen and gain the american identity, especially right now with the immigration reform, but actually there are a lot of people who are saying “i don’t want to be an american citizen . . . ” participant : because of the pressure and the expectation . . . participant : yes. a good friend of mine, his parents are here, and they have their legal residence but they are not ready to go ahead and change citizenship. and in my own grandfathers history, the family story is that when grandpa [[says name]] would cross the border, he would take his hat off and weep when he went back to mexico because he missed it so much and i think that a lot of people don’t understand, especially for mexican immigrants and descendants of mexican immigrants, our home territory and family land is right around the corner and so it’s not like if you are coming from sri lanka or somewhere else where you hold that a little closer to your heart than you would physically, but when you can drive or fly back to some place you realize that tension that pushes you to the united states but the tension that also pulls you back to your own country. so, i think for a lot of latin americans, there are deeply conflicting identities and draws so as [[rick]] was saying, and i can certainly attest to as a child who is hispanic and i’m years old now and i still feel like i have to qualify calling myself a hispanic, even though i know that i am, but in the eyes of others, there are things you get from both sides of the fence/culture saying “oh well you’re not a real mexican” and “i’m like i never claimed to be a mexican” or you know people doubt your credentials in terms of your family and who your family background are but then there is this other side there’s this idea of “to turn white” and so among people from your core cultural background, they can levee a very brutal criticism that you’ve become “white.” so, a lot of times mastering english or you know my father were so extremely proud of being able to speak spanish without any noticeable accents, and while he was very proud of his spanish speaking, he didn’t pass it on to his kids. so, the united states, i don’t know that we’re are the only place where these ethnic identities are so jumbled but in terms of immigrants, its assumption that everyone wants to fit in and take on the shirt of the united states.” . . . civic republican identity in the very beginning, residents noted some frustration with how the city of harrisonburg handled the influx of immigrants, particularly in the school system. one father noted that it was not fair that english speaking students had to pass tests in spanish while native spanish speakers were exempt from tests. although the school system today uses a rotation-based immersion schedule for all students, some parents said there were some growing pains in getting to this point. today, soc. sci. , , of anecdotal stories note the awareness in the surrounding small towns during apple harvesting season that locals generally do not run errands on fridays because they find long lines of hispanic men at the banks and the grocery stores. the civic-republican dimension expresses identity through engagement, participation, and listening. in harrisonburg, through the university and through the city, listening cafes, both formal and informal are often organized and the willingness of residents regardless of political affiliation, was a common theme in the fieldwork. the idea is that there was clearly a segment of the community actively worked to promote an inclusive dialog, and to engage newcomers in the community despite the emphasis on nativism and traditionalism. as one participant explains, “growing up here in the valley, i’ve had two kinds of disparate experiences, i grew up in bridgewater just min south of here, born and raised and live there now. i was born into an ultra-conservative family and through listening to the media and travelling within the states, i began to understand the shenandoah valley was very conservative and as i sent my son away to college, away to columbia, again hearing about how different we were from everyone else he met at va tech or everyone else he is experiencing abroad, and yet at the same time there seems to be in the valley also another side of greater sophistication where there is a tendency to make sense building and have more open eyes. i can see in myself, through education, through travel, that there has been a movement away from identifying with conservative, whatever that meant for us when i was young to something a little bit different, and somehow the shenandoah valley is identified as ultra conservative to other parts of the country, and yet somehow something has evolved here of significant support and openness, which is something i’m very proud of. now i get to talk to people about how receptive and responsive parts of the community are.” another theme that surfaced in several conversations is the mennonite influence in the community and their role in promoting peace and justice in the community: “i think in a sense that’s why we can be a little bit of a poster child of a community because maybe it’s the influence from the universities or the mennonite and peace background, but we do have a number of people with a leadership or voice and that although as you said may not belong to one group or the other, but are able to make these connections and express them and just create that little bit of a balance. it makes us have those moments of brightness that we all love and make us want to stay here.” although nationally partisanship has become hyper-polarized, and this is also reflected in voting trends in the shenandoah valley, there is a healthy amount of dialog between different ideological groups regarding political issues; the community is very engaged with all types of events taking place regularly such as listening cafes that brings together inter-faith communities, cultural festivals such as the international festivals, events sponsored through the local universities including james madison and eastern mennonite and a number of organized political protests. as with any community, conflict does arise, but groups often do talk to those with opposing views. they often try to understand opposing viewpoints as well. for example, one hispanic participant noted that he sought advice from a local resident about the symbolism of the confederate flag after hearing that a student got suspended from school for bringing it on the campus. he wanted to understand why it was an important symbol to some local residents and also to understand why it was so threatening that the school would react in such a way to punish the student. another participant also said that she wanted to learn more about local history when she learned that many residents has been forcibly removed to create the shenandoah national park. she said she understood how that could make residents skeptical of the federal government. below is an example from a participant who was invited to speak to the tea party, a group that he did not share views with politically: “we had a group called the minute men who had this va chapter of the minute men and the present-day formation of the minute men is those who started in arizona with protecting the borders and keeping those from crossing the border. so, there is a va chapter in herndon and some one out of waynesboro invited them to come speak in harrisonburg and had a rally. basically, the goal was a soc. sci. , , of rally and sort of anti-immigrant rhetoric, and / ths of the audience there were pro-immigrant. and, i was actually invited to speak at the event (to their credit the minute men invited me to speak). but to me it emphasized that the anti-immigrant rhetoric is not consistent with the values of the shenandoah valley. it’s not consistent with who the valley is and when the valley has come, and who they express themselves to be. the least common denominator sometimes becomes the spokesperson for groups, but you know they happen to be loud. the loudest is the least common denominator, so because their voice is louder, they adopt themselves as the spokespeople. for example, the same could be said with the tea party, you know when i look at some of their core beliefs, i don’t agree but i can understand them but then the rhetoric that comes out because of the vocal least common denominator really changes the nature of our conversation. the simple fact that we don’t have an immigration debate in this country anywhere, we have one side doing their press rallies and conferences and then the other side has their press rallies and conferences and then they speak to each other through the media. they don’t actually ever sit down and have a real conversation with each other. so, that has always been a real strong underlying point when we talk about the macro level of immigration in the us and then use the shenandoah valley as a micro causal. all the things that talk about, the fears of what immigration is bringing, in their minds to our country, is not true in the shenandoah valley. when i give presentations about immigration, what i first do is i suspend political correctness (give them permission to not be politically correct), most of you would probably cringe at my presentations, but these are poised for conservatives who have not been exposed to these issues, to talk with their jargon. i have them list all perceived stereotypical problems of immigration and illegal immigration, so we write them all down on the board. then one by one we can go through those and say well actually this isn’t relevant or true in the shenandoah valley. this isn’t what is happening here, actually the real percentages are this and that and this. so just by doing this i think it has been a great way to use as a poster child for talking about immigration in this country.” joe, a transplant from northern virginia, agrees that is difficult to come in as an outsider, but agrees that engagement and mindset are the keys to acceptance. he says that you must learn to accept that the valley is a very traditional, conservative place, and that “if you are on a different page personally, you can’t let that rule your life or you won’t be happy here.” his advice to someone who moves to the valley from another place is to “be part of the culture” and “make a connection.” he says that you might join a church or an organization, something that will give you a social network that connects you with the natives, and then they are very willing to embrace newcomers. for him personally, he has joined historical societies and museums. another example if the shenandoah valley filipino group, initially formed by a retired school teacher who had lived in the valley for almost years and a recent arrival from missouri who wanted to find connections with other residents. the group now has over members and hosts several events each year that are open to the public, in addition to performing at the local schools and at the international festival. to be clear, there is not perfect harmony at all times in the shenandoah valley. harrisonburg has made the national news at least twice recently with two stories, one which went viral on facebook. when the mosque in harrisonburg was vandalized with graffiti, the community came together with an inter-faith event called “we are harrisonburg” at the mosque. at jess’ quick lunch downtown, a server was not given a tip because the couple she serviced thought that she was an illegal immigrant and left a handwritten note on the check saying, “we only tip citizens,” even though the server was a native-born hispanic woman who had lived in harrisonburg her entire life. the resistance to change, strong generational identity, and the concern over how the growing population will impact family values are present but are balanced by a strong civic republican identity that encourages an active community that listens and engages it members. the community gives different members opportunities to express their cultural heritage whether it be through the international festival, civil war reenactments, listening cafes and various natural and historical societies. while the civic-republican conception of identity can be found throughout the valley, it seems to be most actively cultivated and the most prevalent in the city of harrisonburg itself, and does seem to facilitate more soc. sci. , , of positive views towards immigrants. there is also a visible political divide in the voting patterns of the past few presidential elections, including the election of , where the city of harrisonburg voted in the majority for the democratic candidate, while the surrounding counties voted in the majority for the republican candidate. although the driving factors for this recent change in harrisonburg city are beyond the scope of this paper, potential explanations include the changing demographics and the fact that james madison university is in harrisonburg has contributed to the shift in voting behavior. as harrisonburg expands and continues to grow, the fact that the more “urban” area in the valley voted for hillary clinton, and the surrounding rural areas voted for president donald trump, follows the larger patterns of the differences in rural vs. urban voting across the country as well. then candidate trump’s message regarding immigration tapped into a number of concerns articulated in the data, such as anxiety that accompanies rapid population growth, and identity concerns that have not been traditionally captured by mainstream identity politics (for example, the pride that white residents feel in their history and their generational ties to this place and wanting to take pride in an “american” identity without feeling any sense of shame of being mocked by others). however, his message regarding refugees did not resonate very widely in the shenandoah valley, as there is a long history of refugee resettlement that is quite visible and viewed positively within the community. while there may be a tendency to characterize “trump” voters as anti-immigrant, i would argue that this dichotomy is too simplified to capture the complexities of the various attitudes expressed at the local level. this research represents an exploration of local responses to significant population changes within a community, and a nuanced qualitative approach is necessary to tease out the relationship between identity and attitudes towards immigrants, particularly in these newer gateway regions. the dichotomy of civic versus ethnic identity that has been the cornerstone of much of the work on immigration utilizing survey data and large n studies holds valuable explanatory power when it comes to the local level, but also problematizes how we as social scientists approach the concept of “american” identity. a culture of traditionalism and a distinct conception of family values are important conceptions of identity among valley residents, and these dimensions are not picked up as easily by the survey questions that are generally associated with the ethnic and civic framework. yet, they are important factors of local and national identity in the shenandoah valley, and concerns about how the most fundamental aspects of life, including the quality of parks, schools, and neighborhoods have an influence on attitudes towards newcomers. the friendliness and openness of the local culture is at odds with the desire to have a “small town” atmosphere where everyone knows everyone. the traditionalism embedded in the local culture is sometimes in conflict with the nature of migration as it brings new people, idea, and inevitably, ways of doing things, to places over time. at the local level, individual ethnocultural identity places more emphasis on ancestry and place of birth than an identity that is explicitly tied to race or religion. heritage and generational identity are key components of individual and local identity in the shenandoah valley. in traditional large n studies that create scales from surveys, this nuance may be lost. individuals may receive a high score on this dimension of identity, but it may be because the sense of place and ancestry are ranked so highly. the ethnocultural dimension is quite prominent in the shenandoah valley, but it is also balanced by the two civic dimensions, which also have a place in defining identity. an in-depth study at the local level also sheds some light on why the civic political dimension might sometimes have positive and negative empirical effects on attitudes towards immigrants. there were different views of the value of citizenship and patriotism, and not all views were positive or supportive of these as defining elements of identity. many individuals expressed fear or insecurity about their identity and how they would be perceived by others, and did not feel confident expressing pride in their group, whether it be an ethnic group or a broader american identity. there were also mixed feelings about american citizenship as a positive marker of american identity. using a more granular qualitative approach, it becomes clear why the civic political dimension has had mixed empirical results in previous studies. however, soc. sci. , , of the civic republican dimension performed largely as expected, and serves as an important temper to the more cautious, even at times exclusionary, views that can be fostered by the ethnocultural and civic political dimensions of identity. . conclusions this study qualitatively explores the content of identity in the shenandoah valley, and examines whether this identity is compatible with a traditional ethnic versus civic framework of national identity. the findings show that these frameworks of identity do have explanatory power at the local level but provide an incomplete picture. thus, i conclude that a qualitative case study on rural areas with rapidly changing demographics can add some value to our current understanding of the relationship between identity and attitudes. some limitations of this study are that it relies only on interviews, focus groups, and group events, but does not include a comprehensive content analysis of local media and social networks, which may give a more complete picture of local identity and attitudes. the inclusion of more community-focused statistics and current public opinion polls can also provide useful context and serve as a starting point for future research design. focus groups and interviews provide very rich data that can be analyzed in-depth, but they only represent a few voices in a very large community that stretches across the entire western part of virginia. finally, future research should incorporate a more nuanced analysis that looks at attitudes towards different groups of migrants (are attitudes more favorable towards domestic migrants than immigrants, for example) and across different groups of immigrants, including by region (latin america vs. asia), and across countries (are attitudes more favorable towards congolese refugees than iraqi refugees). acknowledgments: the author would like to thank the james madison university college of arts and letters for funding the research. the author would also like to thank the students who contributed to the project including sarah burke, erica chavez, kelly dayritt, brandon ford, kaitlyn myers and peyton kesee. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references banning, lance. . jeffersonian ideology revisited: liberal and classical ideas in the new american republic. william and mary quarterly : – . [crossref] bearinger, david. . the changing face of virginia: immigration and the humanities. report prepared for virginia humanities. available online: https://www.virginiahumanities.org/ / /the-changing-face- of-virginia-immigration-and-the-humanities/ (accessed on april ). berube, alan d. . these communities have a lot at stake in trumps’ executive order on immigration. washington: the brookings institution, january . brubaker, rogers. . ethnicities without groups. cambridge: cambridge university press. byrne, jennifer, and gregory c. dixon. . just not like us: the interactive impact of dimensions of identity and race in attitudes towards immigration. social sciences : . [crossref] byrne, jennifer. . national identity and attitudes towards immigrants in a “multicreedal” america. politics and policy : – . [crossref] citrin, jack, cara wong, and brian duff. . the meaning of american national identity: pattenrs of ethnic conflict and consensus. in social identity, group conflict and conflict resolution. edited by jussim ashmore and wilder. new york: oxford university press. citrin, jack, and brian duff. . the meaning of american national identity: patterns of ethic conflict and consensus. in social identity, inter-group conflict, and conflict resolution. edited by richard d. ashmore, lee jussim and david wilder. new york: oxford university press. cramer-walsh. . putting inequality in its place: rural consciousness and the power of perspective. american political science review : – . davis, darren w., and brian d. silver. . civil liberties versus security: public opinion in the context of the terrorist attacks on america. american journal of political science : – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . / https://www.virginiahumanities.org/ / /the-changing-face-of-virginia-immigration-and-the-humanities/ https://www.virginiahumanities.org/ / /the-changing-face-of-virginia-immigration-and-the-humanities/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /socsci http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x soc. sci. , , of de figueiredo, rui j. p., jr., and zachary elkins. . are patriots bigots? an inquiry into the vices of in-group pride. american journal of political : – . [crossref] gerstle, g. . american crucible: race and nation in the twentieth century. princeton, nj: princeton university press. heath, anthony f., and james r. tilley. . british national identity and attitudes towards immigration. international journal on multicultural societies : – . hjerm, mikael. . national identities, national pride and xenophobia: a comparison of four western countries. acta sociologica : – . [crossref] hjerm, mikael. . defending liberal nationalism—at what cost? journal of ethnic and migration studies : – . [crossref] higham, john. . strangers in the land: patterns of american nativism: – . new brunswick: rutgers university press. hochschild, arlie. . strangers in their own land: the making and mourning of the american right. new york: the new press. hsieh, hsiu-fang, and sarah e. shannon. . three approaches to qualitative analysis. qualitative health research : – . [crossref] [pubmed] huntington, samuel p. . american politics: the promise of disharmony. cambridge: belknap press. jensen, lief. . new immigrant settlements in rural america: problems, prospects and policies. durham: university of new hampshire. jones, frank l., and philip smith. a. diversity and community in national identities: an explanatory analysis of a cross-national patterns. journal of sociology : – . [crossref] jones, frank l., and philip smith. b. individual and societal bases of national identity: a comparative multi-level analysis. european sociological review : – . [crossref] kinder, donald r., and cindy d. kam. . us against them: ethnocentric foundations of american public opinion. chicago: university of chicago press. krogstad, jens manual, and michael keegan. . states with the highest share of immigrants in their population. washington: pew hispanic center, may , available online: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ / / / -states-with-the-highest-share-of-immigrants-in-their-population/ (accessed on april ). lewin-epstein, noah, and asaf levanon. . national identity and xenophobia in an ethnically divided society. international journal on multicultural societies : – . lichtblau, eric. . bush issues racial profiling ban but exempts security iniquiries. new york times, june , a . malkin, michelle. . racial profiling: a matter of survival. usa today, august , a. miller, david. . citizenship and national identity. cambridge: polity press. morse, ann, and brian k. ray. . building the new american community: newcomer integration and inclusion experiences in non-traditional gateway cities. washington: migration policy institute. perrine, andrew d. . how one small town in virginia embraces immigration—and is the better off for it. the washington post, february . pickus, noah m. jeddiah, ed. . to make natural: creating citizens for the st century. in immigration and citizenship in the st century. lanham: rowman and littlefield. price, marie, and lisa benton-short. . counting immigrants in cities across the globe. migration information source, january . roshwald, aviel. . the endurance of nationalism: ancient roots and modern dilemmas. cambridge: cambridge university press. salins, peter d. . assimilation: american style. new york: basic books. schildkraut, deborah j. . the more things change: the more they stay the same: american identity and mass and elite responses to / . political psychology : – . [crossref] schildkraut, deborah j. . american identity and attitudes toward official-english policies. political psychology : – . [crossref] schildkraut, deborah jill. . press one for english: language policy, public opinion and american identity. princeton: princeton university press. schildkraut, deborah j. . defining american identity in the st century: how much there is there? journal of politics : – . [crossref] schildkraut, deborah j. . the dynamics of public opinion on ethnic profiling after / : results from a survey experiment. american behavioral scientist : – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /esr/ . . http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ / / / -states-with-the-highest-share-of-immigrants-in-their-population/ http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/ / / / -states-with-the-highest-share-of-immigrants-in-their-population/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x. http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . / soc. sci. , , of schildkraut, deborah j. . americanism in the st century: public opinion in the age of immigration. cambridge: cambridge university press. skocpol, theda, and morris p. fiorina. . making sense of the civic engagement debate. in civic engagement in american democracy. edited by theda skocpol and morris p. fiorina. washington: the brookings institution press and the russell sage foundation, pp. – . singer, audrey, susan w. hardwick, and caroline b. brettell. . twenty-first century gateways: immigrants in suburban america. migration information source, april . singer, audrey. . reforming u.s immigration policy: open new pathways for integration. opportunity : a brookings institution project; washington: brookings institution. smith, rogers m. . the limits of liberal citizenship. the western political quarterly : – . [crossref] smith, rogers m. . civic ideals: conflicting versions of citizenship in u.s. history. new haven: yale university press. stepler, renee, and mark hugo-lopez. . ranking the latino population in the states. washington: pew hispanic center, september , available online: http://www.pewhispanic.org/ / / / -ranking-the-latino- population-in-the-states/ (accessed on april ). wilcox, shelley. . culture, national identity, and admission to citizenship. social theory and practice : – . [crossref] zarrugh, laura. . from workers to owners: latino entrepreneuership in harrisonburg, va. human organization : – . [crossref] zarrugh, laura. . the latinization of the central shenandoah valley. international migration : – . [crossref] © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.pewhispanic.org/ / / / -ranking-the-latino-population-in-the-states/ http://www.pewhispanic.org/ / / / -ranking-the-latino-population-in-the-states/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /soctheorpract http://dx.doi.org/ . /humo. . . r v http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	american national identity and migration 	the shenandoah valley as a new gateway 	data and methods 	data collection and analytical tool 	group selection 	empirical analysis 	emergent themes 	apriori themes 	ethnocultural identity 	civic political identity 	civic republican identity 	conclusions 	references symptom profiles and illness course among anabaptist and non-anabaptist adults with major mood disorders gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : doi . /s - - - r e s e a r c h symptom profiles and illness course among anabaptist and non-anabaptist adults with major mood disorders kelly e. gill , *, stephanie a. cardenas , layla kassem , thomas g. schulze , and francis j. mcmahon abstract background: anabaptists comprise large and growing amish and mennonite populations with a unique genetic heritage and cultural background. little is known about the symptoms and course of major mood disorders in ana- baptists. even less is known about the impact of potential moderators on symptom severity and course. methods: a sample of amish and mennonite participants with bipolar, recurrent unipolar, or schizoaffective bipo- lar disorder (n = ) were systematically evaluated with a well-validated instrument. cases were compared with non-anabaptist participants (n = ) matched for age, sex, and psychiatric diagnosis and evaluated by the same methods. results: despite substantial cultural differences, the profile of manic and depressive symptoms during illness epi- sodes did not significantly differ between the two groups. alcohol use disorder (aud) was significantly less frequent among anabaptists, and was associated with more major depressive episodes and more hospitalizations for major depression in anabaptist, but not non-anabaptist participants. lifetime history of head injury showed a trend toward association with more episodes of major depression in both anabaptist and non-anabaptist groups that did not withstand multiple test correction. conclusions: the presentation of a highly heritable psychiatric illness such as bipolar disorder does not differ in cases drawn from genetically unique anabaptist populations. however, alcohol comorbidity, head injury, and their effects on illness course suggest some differences that deserve further investigation. keywords: depression, mania, bipolar disorder, amish, mennonite, alcohol, head injury, concussion © the author(s). this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. background as psychiatry enters the age of genomic medicine, inter- est in genetically isolated populations is growing once again. each genetically isolated population represents an unique “experiment of nature,” characterized by unusual gene frequencies, increased rates of homozygosity, and a greater prevalence of some otherwise rare inherited dis- eases (mckusick et  al. ). a recent simulation study of genetic isolates (zuk et al. ) illustrated how other- wise rare alleles that influence disease risk may rise to fre- quencies large enough to be detectable by genome-wide association studies. here we present the first clinical results from an ongoing study of bipolar disorder among genetically isolated anabaptist populations, known as the amish mennonite bipolar genetics study, or ambigen (hou et  al. ). the ultimate aim of ambigen is to identify alleles conferring substantial risk for bipolar dis- order and related conditions. anabaptists include such well-known groups as the amish and mennonites, who originated in western europe, as well as several less well-known groups of var- ied ancestries (e.g. hutterites, schwarzenau brethren). some anabaptists who migrated to north america in the early s have opted to remain separate from the gen- eral population, marrying within their traditional com- munities and raising large families. they suffer from high open access *correspondence: kegill @gmail.com department of psychology, the catholic university of america, michigan ave ne, washington, d.c. , usa full list of author information is available at the end of the article http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : rates of some otherwise rare diseases (mckusick ) and may also have an increased risk of mood disorders (egeland and hostetter ). tightly knit communities, a traditional agrarian life- style, and distinct religious beliefs distinguish many ana- baptists from the surrounding population (brewer and bonalumi ). among the amish and other traditional (“plain”) anabaptists, for example, men commonly work as farmers, carpenters, or other craftsmen, while women take care of the household and the children (kreps et al. ). children typically begin working for the family business at age , and their formal education ends after the eighth grade (kreps et al. ). most do not use elec- tricity, communicate by telephone, or drive motor vehi- cles at home (weyer et al. ). they follow plain dress codes and grooming habits, which they believe reflect a rejection of vanity and materialism (brewer and bona- lumi ). daily life is centered on the home. low rates of divorce and contraceptive use leads to large families ( – offspring), and multiple generations may share the same household or live as neighbors. some of the distinctive aspects of anabaptist lifestyles may decrease vulnerability to develop certain mental ill- nesses. potential protective factors include increased religiosity (smith et  al. ), increased social support from family, friends, and community members (john- son et al. ), and lower rates of alcohol and substance use than in surrounding communities (trimble ). however, it remains unclear to what extent lifestyle dif- ferences characteristic of anabaptists affect the risk of mood disorders, illness course, or symptom severity. a series of studies have already provided a detailed description of bipolar disorder and related conditions in the old order amish of eastern pennsylvania (ege- land and hostetter ; egeland et  al. ; hostetter et  al. ). the amish study of major affective dis- order began in and examined amish individuals with mood disorders, along with family members (ege- land et al. ). overall,  % of the individuals studied had a major mood disorder:   % were diagnosed with bipolar i or bipolar ii disorder, and  % were diagnosed with unipolar depression (egeland et  al. ). diagno- ses in these individuals were found to be valid and reli- able, although there were expected cultural factors that influenced assessment of some symptoms (egeland et al. ; hostetter et  al. ). further research on this group included the search for genetic markers (egeland et  al. ; ginns et  al. ; kelsoe et  al. ), and studies of prodromal symptoms of mood disorders (shaw et  al. ). while the amish study of major affective disorders provided the first and most detailed account of mood disorders in this population, the absence of a non-amish comparison group precluded any direct com- parisons of symptoms or course of illness. the present study examined the symptoms and course of major mood disorders in anabaptists ascertained from several communities in the united states. comparisons were performed with a set of age and sex-matched cases assessed with the same instrument, but ascertained from the general (non-anabaptist) population (potash et  al. ). we also examined potential moderating vari- ables affecting the course and severity of mood disorders in both the anabaptist and non-anabaptist groups we studied. methods sample and procedures data pertaining to the anabaptist group (n =  ) were collected over the course of   years ( – ). par- ticipants were mainly recruited through clinical settings in pennsylvania, indiana, and ohio. some participants responded to advertisements placed in publications tar- geting anabaptist households or were referred from oth- ers in the community who had knowledge of the study. the comparison group (here called “non-anabaptists”) was drawn from individuals with a major mood dis- order previously ascertained from to by the national institute of mental health (nimh) genetics initiative and collated in the bipolar disorder phenome database (potash et al. ). clinical symptoms in both groups were assessed by direct interview with the diagnostic interview for genetic studies (digs), a widely used instrument with established reliability (nurnberger et  al. ). the digs is a semi-structured assessment of major depres- sion, mania, psychosis, alcohol/drug abuse and depend- ence, suicidal behaviors, and anxiety disorders. the digs assesses symptoms over the lifetime, as well as for the most severe episodes of major depression and mania. final diagnoses were assigned in a best estimate proce- dure by at least two clinicians who reviewed the digs along with information from family informants and avail- able medical records. each case in the anabaptist sample was matched on age (±   years), gender, and dsm-iv diagnosis with a case drawn randomly from the phenome database using spss (v. ). in both the anabaptist and non-anabaptist groups,   % (n  =  ) were diagnosed with bipolar i,   % (n  =  ) with bipolar ii,   % (n  =  ) with major depression (recurrent),  % (n =  ) with schizoaffective bipolar, and  % (n =  ) with single episode major depres- sion. this matching procedure was designed to minimize differences in clinical course and symptoms that could be attributable to the matched variables. page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : statistical analyses all statistical analyses were performed using spss (v. ). selected demographic and lifetime psychiatric his- tory variables were assessed using χ or t tests, as appro- priate, with bonferroni correction for tests (α =  . was declared significant). individual symptoms reported during the most severe episodes of mania and major depression were compared using χ tests, with bonfer- roni correction for the variables tested (α =  . was declared significant). dependent variables chosen to give a picture of the lifetime severity and course of the mood disorder included: age at first major depression, number of symptoms during the most severe episode of major depression, number of hospitalizations for major depres- sion, number of major depressive episodes, and frequency of major mood episodes (calculated as the total number of manic or major depressive episodes per year of illness) (fisfalen et  al. ). the dependent variables were con- verted into standardized z-scores for all analyses. predictor (independent) variables included: group (anabaptist vs. non-anabaptist), reported head injury, and presence of an alcohol use disorder (dsm-iv alco- hol abuse or dependence). there were too few anabaptist cases with other comorbidities to support any powerful comparisons. a history of admission to a psychiatric hos- pital was included as a covariate, since the majority of the anabaptist sample was recruited from hospital settings, but many of the non-anabaptists were not. categorical predictor variables were analyzed using two-way analysis of covariance (ancova) with bonferroni correction for  ×   =  tests (α =  . ). results demographics and comorbidity as expected, there were demographic differences between the anabaptist and non-anabaptist cases (table  ). anabaptists had more children and fewer years of education. anabaptists reported a significantly higher rate of major role impairment due to their illness and had higher rates of psychiatric hospitalization and psycho- tropic medication use. some differences in comorbidity were also observed (table  ). anabaptists reported fewer occurrences of medical illness, less alcohol and drug use, and were less likely to experience delusions outside of a mood episode. interestingly, anabaptists reported a higher lifetime inci- dence of head injury. the symptom profiles for the most severe episodes of major depression (fig.  ) and mania (fig.  ) were very similar between the anabaptists and non-anabaptists. however, anabaptist participants did report higher rates of psychomotor retardation during major depressive epi- sodes (χ  =  . , bonferroni p <  . ). factors influencing mood disorder severity alcohol use disorder (aud) was associated with greater severity of major depression within anabaptists, but not non-anabaptists, in this study. aud within the anabap- tists was associated with more hospitalizations for depres- sion, f( , )  =  . , p  =  . , corrected p  =  . (fig.  ). there was also a significant interaction between group and number of “clean” depressive episodes (not directly associated with alcohol use): aud was associated with more episodes among anabaptists but fewer episodes among non-anabaptists, f( , ) =  . , p =  . , cor- rected p =  . (fig.  ). there were no significant effects of aud on age at first major depression, number of symp- toms during the most severe episode of major depression, or frequency of major mood episodes in either group. lifetime history of head injury showed a trend toward association with more episodes of major depression in both anabaptist and non-anabaptist cases, f( , )  =  . , p  =  . , but this main effect was not significant after bonferroni correction. out of ana- baptists with a head injury, reported their first head injury before onset of major mood disorder, with a mean interval between injury and onset of  years. most of the reported head injuries were reported to be without loss of consciousness or need for medical attention. there were no significant effects of head injury on age at first major depression, number of symptoms during the most severe episode of major depression, number of hospi- talizations for major depression, or frequency of major mood episodes in either group. discussion we sought to fill several important gaps in the literature by comparing the course and symptom profiles of major mood disorders between anabaptists, a unique popula- tion characterized by varying degrees of cultural and genetic isolation, and cases drawn from the general pop- ulation who were matched on age, gender, and diagno- sis. two main findings emerged: ( ) despite substantial cultural and genetic differences, manic and depressive symptom profiles were very similar among anabaptist and non-anabaptist participants. ( ) alcohol use dis- orders were associated with greater severity of major depression in the anabaptist, but not the non-anabap- tist, participants we studied. the results demonstrate that the symptomatology of bipolar disorder and major depression shines through cultural and genetic differ- ences, while alcohol comorbidity may differentially influ- ence the course and severity of major mood disorders in important ways. the findings of this study should be interpreted in the context of several limitations. anabaptist participants were mostly recruited from psychiatric hospitals, which page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : may oversample cases with more severe mood disorders within this population. individuals who are ill enough to require hospitalization may not be representative of mood disorders in the community, especially where awareness of mental illness and access to mental health services are limited. non-anabaptist cases were pre- viously enrolled on the basis of a diagnosis of bipolar i table demographic and clinical characteristics of anabaptists and non-anabaptists * bonferroni p <  . anabaptist non-anabaptist analysis n (%) n (%) χ married ( . ) ( . ) . medical illness* ( . ) ( . ) . ever treated ( . ) ( . ) . unable to function* ( . ) ( . ) . ever hospitalized* ( . ) ( . ) . medication ( . ) ( . ) . polarity* . st mania before st depression ( . ) ( . ) – st depression before st mania ( . ) ( . ) – visual hallucinations ever ( . ) ( . ) . auditory hallucinations ever ( . ) ( . ) . delusions ever* ( . ) ( . ) . alcohol use disorder* ( . ) ( . ) . suicide attempt ( . ) ( . ) . head injury ( . ) ( . ) . mean (sd) mean (sd) t value # children* . ( . ) . ( . ) − . # school years* . ( . ) . ( . ) . age illness onset . ( . ) . ( . ) . age st depressive episode . ( . ) . ( . ) . age st manic episode . ( . ) . ( . ) . # psych hospitalizations . ( . ) . ( . ) − . # illicit drugs used* . ( . ) . ( . ) . # suicide attempts . ( . ) . ( . ) . fig. symptoms reported during the most severe episode of major depression in anabaptist and non-anabaptist participants. dfa diffi- culty falling asleep, ema early morning awakening, pma psychomotor agitation, pmr psychomotor retardation, pdw passive death wishes; *bonferroni p < . fig. symptoms reported during the most severe episode of mania in anabaptist and non-anabaptist participants page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : or schizoaffective bipolar disorder, and many were not ascertained in hospital settings (potash et  al. ). this ascertainment difference probably explains the higher overall rates of major role impairment, greater number of psychiatric hospitalizations, and increased use of psycho- tropic medications in the anabaptist cases we studied. ascertainment differences are unlikely to account for the observed effects of alcohol use or head injury, how- ever, since those analyses were controlled for group dif- ferences in psychiatric hospitalization rates. assessment procedures relied on the digs, which is a well-validated instrument (nurnberger et  al. ), but does not pro- vide good quantitative measures of psychiatric symptom- atology outside major dsm-based diagnostic categories. our ongoing work in the anabaptist communities incor- porates additional measures of neurocognition (card- enas et al. ) and subsyndromal symptoms, but these measures are not available for the non-anabaptists in the phenome database (potash et al. ). despite these limitations, several conclusions can be drawn. we found that the symptom profiles of severe major depressive and manic episodes were remark- ably similar in the anabaptists and non-anabaptists we studied. these findings are in broad agreement with the previous studies of egeland and colleagues performed in the pennsylvania amish (egeland and hostetter ; egeland et  al. ; hostetter et  al. ). differences in rates of marriage, number of children, and education level were all expected based on the previous literature (brewer and bonalumi ; kreps et al. ) and ana- baptist lifestyles and beliefs. the higher rate of psycho- motor retardation reported by anabaptist participants may reflect a greater awareness of this symptom owing to active lifestyles and widespread reliance on physical labor. we found that alcohol use disorder (aud) worsened the course of mood disorder, but only in the anabaptist participants we studied. prior work has shown that alco- hol use increases incidence of major depression (gilman and abraham ). we ran an analysis of the entire non-anabaptist database (phenome database n =  ), and found that the presence of an aud was related to increased depressive episodes, similar to previous find- ings. therefore, our findings are likely the result of a gen- der distribution that differs from the overall phenome sample. gender distributions were significantly differ- ent in our matched sample compared to those in the full phenome database (matched sample =   % male, overall phenome database =   % male, p <  . ). therefore, the results should be interpreted with the greater proportion of females in mind. since there are more practical and cultural barriers to alcohol use among anabaptists, aud in this group may reflect poorer social adjustment and other psychosocial vulnerabilities that contribute to increased depressive episodes. aud may also lower the threshold for psychiat- ric hospitalization among anabaptists. we also observed that aud was associated with increased number of clean depressive episodes among the anabaptists we studied. fig. main effects of group and alcohol use disorder on number of hospitalizations for major depression in anabaptist (n = ) and non- anabaptist (n = ) participants fig. interactive effects of group and alcohol use disorder on num- ber of “clean” major depressive episodes in anabaptist (n = ) and non-anabaptist (n = ) participants page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : this suggests that those anabaptists who do develop aud are vulnerable to increased depressive episodes, that depressive episodes predispose to aud, or that some third factor—such as social isolation or deviance— is involved. further studies that use a longitudinal design would be needed to clarify this association. we found that the course and severity of mood dis- order was associated with head injury at a trend level in both anabaptist and non-anabaptist participants, although head injuries were more common among ana- baptists. previous studies have also found a higher rate of head injuries in anabaptists. one study found that   % of injuries in amish children aged   months to   years involved the head and central nervous system (vitale et al. ). previous work has also shown that head inju- ries are an important contributor to mood disorder mor- bidity (mrazek and haggerty ). between and  % of individuals who experience a traumatic brain injury develop a mood disorder within a year of the injury (deb et  al. ; jorge and robinson ). our results are consistent with these findings, and highlight the poten- tial importance of head injuries that might be considered “minor” since they do not lead to loss of consciousness or medical attention. if confirmed in larger samples, the results might suggest that public health measures aimed at reducing head injuries could have a beneficial impact on mood disorder morbidity. conclusion this is the first study to directly compare major mood disorders in anabaptist and non-anabaptist individuals. despite cultural differences, there was a remarkable simi- larity in symptom profiles for severe episodes of mania or major depression. however, alcohol comorbidity, head injury, and their effects on illness course suggest some differences that deserve further investigation. these results also show that the presentation of a highly herit- able psychiatric illness such as bipolar disorder does not differ much in the genetically isolated anabaptist popu- lation, implying that genetic insights enabled by isolated populations might also inform our understanding of psy- chiatric disorders in the general population. abbreviations aud: alcohol use disorder; ambigen: amish mennonite bipolar genetics study; ancova: analysis of covariance; digs: diagnostic interview for genetic studies; dsm-iv: diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, th edition; nimh: national institute of mental health; spss: statistical package for the social sciences. authors’ contributions all authors contributed to the design of the study. kg wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. all authors reviewed and approved the final text of the manuscript. all authors read and approved the final manucsript. author details human genetics branch, section on genetic basis of mood and anxiety disorders, national institute of mental health intramural research program, national institutes of health, new york city, usa. department of psychol- ogy, the catholic university of america, michigan ave ne, washington, d.c. , usa. institute of psychiatric phenomics and genomics (ippg), medical center of the university of munich, munich, germany. acknowledgements this work was supported by the national institute of mental health (nimh) intramural research program (zia-mh ; nct ). we thank the study participants who gave generously of their time to make this study pos- sible. some data and biomaterials were collected as part of ten projects that participated in the national institute of mental health (nimh) bipolar disorder genetics initiative. from – , the principal investigators and co-investiga- tors were: indiana university, indianapolis, in, r mh , john nurnberger, m.d., ph.d., marvin j. miller, m.d., elizabeth s. bowman, m.d., n. leela rau, m.d., p. ryan moe, m.d., nalini samavedy, m.d., rif el-mallakh, m.d. (at university of louisville), husseini manji, m.d. (at wayne state university), debra a. glitz, m.d. (at wayne state university), eric t. meyer, m.s., carrie smiley, r.n., tatiana foroud, ph.d., leah flury, m.s., danielle m. dick, ph.d., howard edenberg, ph.d.; washington university, st. louis, mo, r mh , john rice, ph.d, theodore reich, m.d., allison goate, ph.d., laura bierut, m.d.; johns hopkins university, baltimore, md, r mh , melvin mcinnis, m.d., j. raymond depaulo, jr., m.d., dean f. mackinnon, m.d., francis m. mondimore, m.d., james b. potash, m.d., peter p. zandi, ph.d, dimitrios avramopoulos, and jennifer payne; university of pennsylvania, pa, r mh , wade berrettini, m.d., ph.d.; university of california at irvine, ca, r mh , william byerley, m.d., and mark vawter, m.d.; university of iowa, ia, r mh , william coryell, m.d., and raymond crowe, m.d.; university of chicago, il, r mh , elliot gershon, m.d., judith badner, ph.d., francis mcmahon, m.d., chunyu liu, ph.d., alan sanders, m.d., maria caserta, steven dinwiddie, m.d., tu nguyen, donna harakal; university of california at san diego, ca, r mh , john kelsoe, m.d., rebecca mckinney, b.a.; rush university, il, r mh , william scheftner, m.d., howard m. kravitz, d.o., m.p.h., diana marta, b.s., annette vaughn-brown, m.s.n., r.n., and laurie bederow, m.a.; nimh intramural research program, bethesda, md, z mh - , francis j. mcmahon, m.d., layla kassem, psyd, sevilla detera-wadleigh, ph.d, lisa austin, ph.d, den- nis l. murphy, m.d. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. ethical standards the authors assert that all procedures contributing to this work comply with the ethical standards of the relevant national and institutional committees on human experimentation and with the helsinki declaration of , as revised in . all participants signed informed consent before participating in this study, which was approved by the national institute of mental health. received: july accepted: september references brewer ja, bonalumi nm. cultural diversity in the emergency department: health care beliefs and practices among the pennsylvania amish. j emerg nur. ; ( ): – . cardenas sa, brotman ma, kassem l, leibenluft e, mcmahon fj. neurocogni- tive functioning in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder and unaf- fected relatives: a review of the literature. neurosci biobehav rev. . doi: . /j.neubiorev. . . . deb s, lyons i, koutzoukis c, ali i, mccarthy g. rate of psychiatric illness year after traumatic brain injury. am j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . egeland ja, gerhard ds, pauls dl, sussex jn, kidd kk, alien cr, housman de. bipolar affective disorders linked to dna markers on chromosome . nature. ; ( ): – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.neubiorev. . . page of gill et al. int j bipolar disord ( ) : egeland ja, hostetter am. amish study, i: affective disorders among the amish, – . am j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . egeland ja, hostetter am, eshleman sk. amish study iii. the impact of cultural factors on diagnosis of bipolar illness. am j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . fisfalen me, schulze tg, depaulo jr jr, degroot lj, badner ja, mcmahon fj. familial variation in episode frequency in bipolar affective disorder. am j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . gilman se, abraham hd. a longitudinal study of the order of onset of alcohol dependence and major depression. drug alcohol depend. ; ( ): – . ginns ei, jean ps, philibert ra, galdzicka m, damschroder-williams p, thiel b, murray ma. a genome-wide search for chromosomal loci linked to mental health wellness in relatives at high risk for bipolar affec- tive disorder among the old order amish. proc natl acad sci usa. ; ( ): – . hostetter am, egeland ja, endicott j. amish study, ii: consensus diagnoses and reliability results. am j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . hou l, faraci g, chen dt, kassem l, schulze tg, shugart yy, mcmahon fj. amish revisited: next-generation sequencing studies of psychiatric disor- ders among the plain people. trends genet. ; ( ): – . johnson sl, winett ca, meyer b, greenhouse wj, miller i. social support and the course of bipolar disorder. j abnorm psychol. ; ( ): . jorge r, robinson rg. mood disorders following traumatic brain injury. int rev psychiatry. ; ( ): – . kelsoe jr, ginns ei, egeland ja, gerhard ds, goldstein am, bale sj, conte g. re-evaluation of the linkage relationship between chromosome p loci and the gene for bipolar affective disorder in the old order amish. nature. ; ( ): – . kreps gm, donnermeyer jf, kreps mw. a quiet moment in time a contempo- rary view of amish society. sugarcreek: carlisle printing; . mckusick va. the amish. endeavour. ; ( ): – . mckusick va, hostetler ja, egeland ja. genetic studies of the amish. bull johns hopkins hosp. ; : – . mrazek pj, haggerty rj. reducing risks for mental disorders frontiers for preventive intervention research. washington, d.c.: national academies press; . nurnberger ji, blehar mc, kaufmann ca, york-cooler c, simpson sg, harkavy- friedman j, reich t. diagnostic interview for genetic studies: rationale, unique features, and training. arch gen psychiatry. ; ( ): – . potash jb, toolan j, steele j, eng b, miller eb, pearl j, simpson sg. the bipolar disorder phenome database: a resource for genetic studies. am j psychi- ary. ; ( ): – . shaw ja, egeland ja, endicott j, allen cr, hostetter am. a -year prospective study of prodromal patterns for bipolar disorder among amish youth. j am acad child psychiary. ; ( ): – . smith tb, mccullough me, poll j. religiousness and depression: evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events. psychol bull. ; ( ): . trimble j. cultural variations in the use of alcohol and drugs psychology and culture. boston: allyn & bacon; . p. – . vitale ma, rzucidlo s, shaffer ml, ceneviva gd, thomas nj. the impact of pedi- atric trauma in the amish community. j pediatr. ; ( ): – . weyer sm, hustey vr, rathbun l, armstrong vl, anna sr, ronyak j, savrin c. a look into the amish culture: what should we learn? j transcult nurs. ; ( ): – . zuk o, schaffner sf, samocha k, do r, hechter e, kathiresan s, lander es. searching for missing heritability: designing rare variant association stud- ies. proc natl acad sci. ; ( ):e – . 	symptom profiles and illness course among anabaptist and non-anabaptist adults with major mood disorders 	abstract 	background: 	methods: 	results: 	conclusions: 	background 	methods 	sample and procedures 	statistical analyses 	results 	demographics and comorbidity 	factors influencing mood disorder severity 	discussion 	conclusion 	authors’ contributions 	references _ _ _article .. managing expectations: articulating expertise in climate services for agriculture in belize sophie haines received: january /accepted: december # the author(s) abstract a range of institutions and individuals are engaging in the provision, translation, and applica- tion of scientific climate information, with the aim of supporting agricultural decision-making in the context of climate variability and change. this article contributes to understanding political and ethical dimensions of climate services by focusing on how expertise is articulated by those who deliver anticipatory information to potential users. the article draws on interviews and observations with forecasters, advisors, and decision-makers in belize—a low-lying, coastal country recognised to be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. i show how emerging debates over who and what is left out of climate services are not only about the use and usability of climate knowledge, but about how individuals and institutions are positioned in relation to each other and to uncertain futures in belize and elsewhere. introduction the domain of climate services, conceived as providing decision-makers with timely and targeted climate information derived from scientific research, has been developed to enable more effective adaptation by bridging a gap between science and policy. in the usa, explicit efforts in this direction included the promotion of public-private co-operation under the national climate program act (hecht ), the resulting regional climate centres (changnon et al. ), and debates about the establishment of a national climate service (miles et al. ). long-standing concerns with societal impacts of climate have gained international climatic change ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - associated efforts included the international research institute for climate and society (iri) at columbia university, and regional integrated sciences and assessments (risa) program. this article is part of a special issue on “putting climate services in contexts: advancing multi-disciplinary understandings” edited by sophie webber electronic supplementary material the online version of this article (https://doi.org/ . /s - - - ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * sophie haines sophie.haines@insis.ox.ac.uk institute for science, innovation & society, university of oxford, oxford ox pn, uk /published online: january http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - x https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - mailto:sophie.haines@insis.ox.ac.uk policy momentum through ipcc assessments and the global framework for climate services, implemented in (hewitt et al. ; vaughan and dessai ). the identification of a need for user input to help balance credibility, salience, and legitimacy (cash et al. ), and facilitate social accountability (meehan et al. ) has motivated the “coproduction of climate science knowledge” (meadow et al. ), sometimes within “boundary organisations” that mediate science and policy (agrawala et al. ; guido et al. ). tools, portals, maps, and workshops have proliferated under this rubric. a growing body of work has examined farmers’ responses to climate forecasts (broad and agrawala ; crane et al. ; hansen ; letson et al. ; patt and gwata ; roncoli ) and the role of public and private sector intermediaries (haigh et al. ; lemos et al. ). less well understood are the associated epistemological, political, and ethical implications (carr and owusu-daaku ; goldman et al. ), and the perceptions, needs, and choices of those acting as intermediaries/advisors (mase and prokopy ). this article contributes to understanding these dimensions of climate services by examining what they mean and entail for those working “on the ground” to deliver them in the belizean agriculture sector. as a low-lying, coastal country, dependent on climate-sensitive industries including agri- culture, fisheries, and tourism, belize has been recognised in international and regional risk assessments as vulnerable to weather and climatic variability: from day-to-day weather events to seasonal/interannual variability in precipitation and temperature, and longer-term changes in temperature, precipitation, and storm intensity (caribsave ). precipitation is an important limiting factor for belizean agriculture (rain-fed cultivation is common). excessive rainfall can cause waterlogging and disease; drought conditions limit water availability for crops. much of the caribbean, including belize, has an annual dry season (nov/dec–may/jun), and a wet/ hurricane season (may/jun–nov/dec). the el niño southern oscillation (enso) is an important driver of interannual rainfall variability (wmo ). increasing understanding of enso and other drivers has contributed to production of seasonal consensus predictions of rainfall including by the caribbean climate outlook forum (caricof) and central american climate outlook forum (cacof)—two of regional forums supported by the world meteorological organisation (wmo ). belize attends both. the regional forums constitute deliberate attempts to engage “users” of climate informa- tion, though they go about this in different ways, from linear information transfer to more collaborative efforts (daly and dessai ). daly and dessai ( ) found that the caricof and cacof are among the forums that have developed collaborative strategies to co-produce sector-specific products. in belize, efforts to deliver climate services for agriculture at the national level have primarily involved monthly to seasonal rainfall outlooks, published by the belize national meteorological service (nms). belize is thus a productive site to study if/how purposeful efforts at user engagement play out, in a context where climate variability and change are recognised as potential threats to livelihoods, businesses, and food security. this article examines how people working between climate research and forecast application engage with agricultural decision-makers, in a context where climate services are promoted by global, regional, and national organisations as ways to mitigate weather- and climate-based risks. it is informed by anthropological and science studies approaches that foreground how expertise is enacted in practice, and recognise the mutual implication of knowledge production for a recent study addressing this issue in the usa, see haigh et al. ( ). these timescales are the focus of this article, although my interlocutors’ perceptions and experiences of weather and climate variability did not always fit these frames. climatic change ( ) : – and world-making. many accounts of climate services focus on technical and institutional barriers to uptake and co-production of knowledge (dilling and lemos ; guido et al. ; vogel et al. ). in line with this special issue, i focus rather on contextualising how knowledge is articulated and contended in everyday interactions, to help understand how climate hazards and services relate to wider practical, political, and ethical challenges. this is a way to critically analyse established utilitarian modes of accountability, which cater to those in a position to represent “society” and make claims on the scientific community, for example, funders and governments (van der hel ; meehan et al. ). as strathern argues: “only certain social practices take a form which will convince, one which will persuade those to whom accountability is to be rendered – whether it is ‘the government’ or the taxpayer/public – that accountability has indeed been rendered” ( : – ). how might environmental knowledge be more answerable to perceptions and realities of broader constituencies? vaughn has described interdisciplinary climate adaptation collaborations as responses to an “unruly world” that “forces one expert group to seek help from others, building a new ecology of expertise to adapt to a changing climate” ( : ). the uncertain world is one of environmental, political, and social dynamics that often overspill established categories of technical resolution and practical governance. the article proceeds by explaining the research methodology and outlining concepts of expertise and co-production in relation to climate services. i then describe the institutional landscape of climate services provision in belize, setting out the key organisations, products, and perceived challenges. the main empirical section focuses on accounts of how advisors work to “manage expectations”—that is, how they tackle the interconnected challenges of anticipating uncertain environmental futures, negotiating their own roles as “experts”, and engaging potential “users”. i close with a discussion of how attention to ground-level articulations of expertise and participation sheds light on understandings of responsibility that come into view as climate services are situated in broader political and ethical contexts. methods this article is based on months of qualitative anthropological fieldwork in in belize—a small country of fewer than , people yet much diversity in ethnicity, ecology, class, and education—where i have conducted anthropological research since . the study was part of a wider research programme investigating social and technical dimensions of forecasting for resource stewardship across international cases, reflecting a range of governance styles, environmental contexts, technical capacities, and cultural settings. the belizean case was an opportunity to study the role of forecasting in a country where weather and climate sensitivities are recognised, national capacity for forecast modelling is limited, and international institutions play key roles relating to the production and circulation of weather/climate information. research in belize included interviews with participants with professional interest in weather/climate forecasts for resource and hazard management. i identified potential inter- viewees in an institutional mapping process that started with core relevant organisations (e.g. caribbean community climate change centre (ccccc), nms, ministry for natural re- sources and agriculture) and proceeded via key informant networking, attendance at relevant events, and documentary research. participants ultimately represented a wide range of sectors detailed examination of demography/ethnicity is beyond the scope of this article; for more, see bolland ( ); medina ( ). climatic change ( ) : – (agriculture, development, education, emergency, environment, forecasting, municipal, water) and public, private, and non-governmental organisations. in line with the study’s aims to better understand the perceptions, needs and choices of forecasters, advisors, and other decision- makers, the interview method enabled participants to articulate priorities and experiences in their own words. to accommodate their interests while ensuring consistency (bernard : ), i used a semi-structured protocol covering: organisational priorities; decision- making processes; weather/climate sensitivities; availability of forecasts; and future planning. where possible, interviews were ethnographic (heyl ): informed by ongoing interactions which aided mutual understanding and encouraged participants to develop narratives beyond organisational mission statements. to trace how knowledge is developed, communicated and debated among actors and organisations, and to understand practice and narrative in relation to one another, i supplemented interviews with participant observations (bernard : ). these included three operational shifts at the nms, a hydrological modelling workshop, a coastal planning seminar, and a university climate change conference. i categorised the cohort of interviewees according to primary and, where relevant, secondary sector. of the total, were involved in agriculture, development and/or forecast- ing (primary or secondary sector). these interviews form the main empirical basis for this article. they include weather forecasters, meteorologists, and climate scientists; agriculture ministry liaison staff and extension officers; sugar industry researchers and buyers; other agricultural researchers; representatives of cacao, citrus, and grain growers’ associations; environmental ngo staff; and adaptation practitioners. the majority of interviews were recorded and transcribed. i undertook a qualitative thematic analysis, using iterative reading and memos to identify and cross-check material that related to respondents’ perceptions and experiences of delivering and accessing climate services. expertise and co-production in climate services core rationales underpinning climate services identify information supply and demand as key problems, and user-orientation as an important potential remedy (harjanne ). climate services involve transnational frameworks, resource-intensive technologies, expert networks, and user engagement. as such, they are a productive domain for studying how information and ideas travel (or do not) across global and local contexts (weisser et al. ). climate services are promoted on the grounds of their societal benefit; however, social science studies of climate knowledge provision have shown there can be ethical and social justice implications of imposing particular visions of the future or models of decision-making under uncertainty (broad et al. ; lemos and dilling ; furman et al. ; webber and donner ). taddei’s ethnographic work in brazil highlights the “performativity” of climate forecasts; he argues that their technocratic use entails “flattening the imagination of future realities” ( : ), as they necessarily simplify the world, incorporating often implicit decisions about what “counts” and can be acted upon. these studies call attention to what is and is not recognised as legitimate expertise in climate services, and to the practical and political implications of who participates (or does not) in the co-production of knowledge (and society). see supplementary material. see supplementary material. climatic change ( ) : – the notion of “expertise” is well-embedded in climate services discourse: “scientifically credible information and expertise” is fundamental (hewitt et al. ); institutional providers are centres of climatological expertise (changnon et al. ). in apparent tension with the user-orientation of climate services discourses that typically argue for highly collaborative activities (harjanne ), this emphasis on scientific expertise as the defining feature of centres of production arguably shores up a linear model of science. in this model, expert knowledge is delivered to relatively passive users (mcnie ); the scientific category of climate becomes the determinant of regional futures (hulme ; krauss and von storch ). turning to the agricultural context, this recalls scott’s ( ) account of scientific agriculture as an authoritarian intervention that renders nature and production “legible” and therefore manageable. scott argues that such attempts usually fail, precisely because they neglect situated knowledges that do not fit their paradigm. an alternative approach emphasises expertise as enacted and contended by a range of actors (carr ), and experts as “desiring, relating, doubting, anxious, contentious, affective… human-subjects” (boyer : ). paying attention to the experiences of advisors who deliver climate services is a way to explore multiple and embodied tensions of expertise and collaboration. the term “co-production” has gained traction in debates about climate knowledge in general and climate services in particular (jasanoff and wynne ; dilling and lemos ; meadow et al. ; bremer and meisch ). however, its interpretation has been ambiguous. normative uses of the term, which foreground the instrumental goal of co- producing knowledge by bringing together a range of different stakeholders, arguably risk overshadowing fundamental questions of politics and ethics (goldman et al. ). descrip- tive formulations (jasanoff ) interpret co-production not as an instrumental practice or normative ideal, but as an analytical idiom that describes the inevitable mutual constitution of science and society. lövbrand’s study of a european climate research programme investigated tensions between interpretations: “there may be a trade-off between research co-produced to be accountable to the knowledge needs of societal decision-makers, and co-produced research that seeks to challenge and transform existing ways of thinking” ( : ). if we take seriously both the proposition of involving different actors in knowledge production, and the inseparability of knowledge-making and world-making (goldman et al. ), choices about how knowledge is produced and whose knowledge counts are also questions of who gets to shape the future. the crux shifts beyond delivering robust and/or fair outcomes for specific problems, to broader questions: who decides what constitute legitimate concerns, appropriate evidence, acceptable solutions, and possible futures? this calls for reflexivity about often well-intentioned efforts to include diverse voices. as critical scholars of development have shown—including for projects involving weather/climate information— utilitarian and normative ideals of participation do not always lead to effective or equitable outcomes (cooke and kothari ; peterson et al. ; taddei ). failure to address power dynamics of participation in practice can introduce or reinforce inequalities that resonate beyond specific projects. the challenge is arguably magnified in contexts involving long timescales and uncertain outcomes—such as climate adaptation (few et al. ). institutional landscapes of belize climate services prior to my visit, consultations under the global framework for climate services had been initiated in belize by a group of national, regional, and global organisations including the climatic change ( ) : – nms, the ccccc, the caribbean institute for meteorology and hydrology (cimh), and the wmo. their activities included a stakeholder meeting on agriculture and food produc- tion (wmo ) and the first national climate outlook forum in . perhaps unsurpris- ingly, given belize’s low population count, the cohort of people involved in climate services at national level constitutes quite a small world. the national work was led by the nms: an organisation with fewer than meteorologists, forecasters, and climatologists, and a focus on operational weather forecasting. at the time of research, there was no national capacity to run sophisticated computer simulations of future weather and climate. as such, international networks were influential in supporting climate services and related efforts. with its distinc- tive history as a former british colony on the caribbean coast of central america, belize straddles geopolitical regions and attends both the caribbean and central american climate outlook forums, in which countries prepare national seasonal forecasts using a standardised methodology and discuss results face-to-face or by teleconference to agree a probabilistic regional outlook. following regional forums, the nms publishes the consensus seasonal forecasts on its website, alongside monthly forecasts of expected rainfall ranges tuned to each of its weather stations. senior nms staff reported feeling isolated from feedback about the forecasts from potential users (exceptions included the national emergency management organisation and an agri- culture department contact). with other meteorologists and climate scientists, they often framed the problem of uptake as one of public education (callon ), highlighting bound- aries between research and application, scientists and (non-scientist) stakeholders (gieryn ). ccccc staff described tensions between dual organisational goals of effective adap- tation and innovative science, for example attributing the difficulty of explaining a new weather scenario product to potential users to the fact that it was “the front line of research”. one staff member distinguished different stakeholder mindsets, and distanced them from meteorologists and climate scientists: “the water people think differently than the agriculture people, and they all think differently than the weather people and the scientists.” a former government meteorologist called for a “socialisation of the forecast”. for him, this meant facilitating a linear chain of information from forecasters to extension officers to “progressive” farmers who could educate others. he and others identified resource issues (a small, weather- focused nms team) and public perceptions (that the nms was only relevant during emer- gencies ) as key obstacles. research participants discussed different solutions to these challenges. mobile telephone messaging was much-discussed; however, obstacles included expense and poor rural coverage. while radio could help overcome these issues, some agricultural researchers felt that personal interactions were needed, albeit these were often described as one-directional: technical advisors would “tell [growers] what they need to do” (as recommended by a sugar researcher). following a more participatory, “co-production”-oriented model of user engagement, the nms as well as monthly/seasonal forecasts from nms and regional forums, the government sources climate expertise from ccccc projects and from consultants hired to draft policies/environmental impact assessments using long-term projections. the iri climate predictability tool. cacof was convened in following the / el niño; it issues three outlooks per year. caricof was relaunched in (following a attempt); it issues monthly -month outlooks (wmo ; guido et al. ). one forecaster attributed this to the service being moved under the national emergency management organisation. climatic change ( ) : – (supported by regional bodies such as cimh) had promoted “farmer forums” to bring agricultural stakeholders face-to-face with scientists who could communicate forecast content and uncertainties, while eliciting user needs. however, a government scientist noted that because the nms usually just puts its agro-meteorological forecasts online and many farmers do not have internet access, more quotidian forecast communication often falls to the agricul- tural extension service. in the rest of this article, i examine how extension agents and others in similar roles articulate expertise in relation with other agents of climate knowledge and agricultural decision-making. articulating climate services for agriculture agriculture is a mainstay of commercial and subsistence economies in belize, with sugar, bananas, and citrus juices leading crop exports. sugar dominates in the north ; citrus and banana are focused in southern districts. sugar and citrus juice production involves small- to large-scale growers, represented by associations, who sell to processing plants in belize. the banana industry consists of mainly large-scale growers (also with an association) who sell to an international brand. other common crops include grains (maize/rice), beans, cacao, and other fruits and vegetables. outside major export industries, much large-scale production is undertaken by mennonite communities that have adopted mechanised cultivation. weather sensitivities vary with crop and scale. in export industries, concerns about precip- itation were closely tied to their impact on crop-specific pests and diseases (sugarcane froghopper aeneolamia postica jugata; citrus disease huanglongbing, spread by the psyllid diaphorina citri; sigatoka, a disease of bananas caused by mycosphaerella fijiensis). interview participants expressed different orientations to risk and success: buyers and researchers prioritised productivity and scientific management; small-scale farmers were anxious to avoid serious losses; mechanised farmers considered how they could combine weather knowledge with machinery and pest control. a grain growers’ representative described risk management as dependent on an art of “leaning” rather than calculating; a metaphor that conjures a situational attentiveness in navigating uncertainties and information sources: “the most successful person is … not the person who hits it exactly right all the time; it’s the one who manages the risk.” he was discussing mechanised farming, which can include irrigation: this can delink growing cycles from weather patterns, but requires large investments, inaccessible to many growers. reliable seasonal forecasts could be useful for those able to obtain irrigation equipment in advance of a dry spell, a citrus researcher noted, but not all farmers had the capacity to respond: “if you don’t have the means you have to suffer the losses.” a range of actors commented that increasingly unstable climatic conditions had reduced their confidence in seasonal expectations based on historical patterns, prompting a search for more reliable and relevant information, in line with the stated aims of climate services: it becomes very difficult to look at your past data and have some reliability… that used to be a way of forecasting, but it’s difficult now (farmer liaison, sugar factory) since , planting and processing has started in western belize. mennonites have arrived in belize from the usa and canada since the s, many via mexico and el salvador. some eschew mechanised farming; others have embraced it. climatic change ( ) : – we don’t believe any more in [historical data] because of climate change. in the past it was a good thing to use historical data to predict, but now it’s very complicated (ngo agriculture officer) you can't rely anymore on saying we have rainy season, hot months… i think it's becoming worse every year… [the farmers] come to you now for information (govern- ment extension co-ordinator) the met office … need to better understand what kind of decisions farmers are making, and therefore would be better able to answer questions that the farmers have. (farmers’ association leader) the first two quotations identify problems with established sources of information (i.e. expectations based on historical trends); the third is an observation about farmers’ demand for information from extension officers; the fourth argues for user engagement to help forecasters give more salient advice, suggesting an instrumental role for “co-production”. the following sub-sections focus on key predicaments that meteorologists, researchers, and farmers’ advisors raised during interviews: the risks of providing as well as following expert advice under uncertainty; and the power dynamics of legitimate knowledge and legible practice. . advice under uncertainty situated between research and operational science, meteorologists occupy a liminal position, enacting expertise in relation to atmospheric uncertainty and the vagaries of public commu- nication (daipha ; fine ). some nms forecasters expressed resignation about failures of linear communication (“if they don’t heed [the forecast], we cannot do anything”). agricultural extension services also act as mediators, arguably representing archetypal “bound- ary organisations” (cash ), bound into debates about participatory agricultural research and development (scoones and thompson ) and tasked with translating science and technology into usable advice that—unlike most meteorologists—they deliver directly to farmers (hansen ). government-supported extension in belize operates mainly through the ministry responsible for agriculture (the statutory sugar research institute also has an extension department); services are also provided by ngos (notably in the south where government provision is less developed) and growers’ associations. faced with farmers’ demand for weather/climate information (as per the third quotation above), government agriculture officers reported feeling ill-prepared. they noted that salient information is often unavailable or inconsistent; its flow impeded by limited data and staff time. within the ministry responsible for agriculture, an officer had been appointed as a climate change “focal point” specialist to sit on the national climate change committee endorsed by cabinet in . the person holding this role in had taken it on in in addition to existing duties. at the time, he was the only officer specialising in climate change and agriculture. resource pressures made it hard to process information from the wide range of sources and communicate with policymakers, farmers, and scientists. upstream delays were another challenge: having developed confidence in seasonal outlooks through interactions with senior nms staff, he had taken it upon himself to convert nms monthly agro-meteorological forecasts into maps for distribution to extension officers, ngos, and others. however, he had climatic change ( ) : – recently stopped because of delays in obtaining the forecasts. i was told that some of the government extension officers delivered printed nms agro-meteorological forecasts to farmers, but were not monitoring their use or tracking a dialogue. an extension co-ordinator described the work that would be needed to properly equip the advisors, noting that they were starting from a point where “the farmers look at us and we look at them, and we are not too sure what to say.” other ministry representatives compared seasonal forecast content and farmers’ expectations: the forecasts predict averages over time and do not account well for timing of precipitation—this is problematic because much rain comes in tropical waves. a grain farmers’ representative explained that rainfall onset and duration was more critical than average amount, owing to the threat of waterlogging. a senior agricultural researcher in a regional institute noted a mismatch between forecasters’ and users’ perspectives on success. he observed that a probabilistic forecast showing % likelihood for each tercile (above-normal/normal/below-normal rainfall) may satisfy its pro- ducers, who assess the reliability of the forecasting system over time. however, information in this form “is not anything to us [farmers]”. a statistical measure of forecast system performance may not seem helpful if a decision-maker’s livelihood depends on a one-off binary choice. to illustrate, the researcher explained how his confidence had been dented after a recent seasonal forecast (of elevated chance of above-normal rainfall) had informed his own decision to plant soybeans rather than cowpeas—a decision that resulted in a perceived loss when retrospectively compared with the decision he stated he would have made without the forecast. while these problems of resource constraints and forecast format/performance provide insights into possible barriers to information uptake, of particular relevance to this article are the personal narratives through which advisors reflected on the challenges of climate service provision. extension service staff expressed apprehension about giving advice in the context of incomplete knowledge and high decision stakes: [extension officers] might not feel confident enough to be able to tell someone to plant or not to plant. because we know the cost of that investment, so you might have to find a way to let them decide somehow… some officers might not want to take that chance … we're not really trained, we're not too sure how to make these decisions and how to advise properly. because just as they don't understand, we're trying to keep up – even the definition of what climate change is and what it means for us. (government extension co-ordinator) the co-ordinator’s resolution that farmers “make that decision … take that risk on their own” acknowledges the probabilistic character of the forecasts and the economic and reputational stakes of climate services provision. it moves to position the farmer as the responsible subject (phillips and ilcan ). although the co-ordinator explained that their worst-case scenario would be to fail to pass on advice and thus be deemed useless, this danger exists in tension with a reluctance to offer firm guidance, given possible unfavourable outcomes. another agriculture officer noted the problem of being perceived (or perceiving oneself) to have “cried wolf”: “if we prepare for something and it doesn’t happen, then we’ll get discouraged the next year when maybe it will hit for real”. even when adverse weather did eventuate, some extension officers were uneasy about potential dependency entailed by associated government decisions, such as providing seed and fertiliser following excessive rains. in this case, the extension service invited the department’s climate change specialist to give a scientific presentation (including graphs and historical data) as a strategy to enact expertise beyond the “casual, general conversation” that characterised extension officers’ usual interactions. the climatic change ( ) : – objective was to explain uncertainties and—they hoped—encourage farmers to take the issues seriously and be proactive. yet, as the senior researcher’s comments showed, communicating uncertainty may not guarantee “success”. as well as acknowledging resource-related factors (time, funding, data, training), these narratives highlight different understandings of success given uncertainty, and raise questions about the roles and responsibilities of experts and the meaning of climate change. the confidence and capacity of extension workers to support decisions—and their perceptions of what is at stake and who takes the blame for adverse outcomes—affect their delivery of climate services. as desai ( ) has described for rajasthan, extension agents negotiate shifting and conflicting identities and modes of authority in their work at the interface of science, government, and rural life. their articulations of apprehension, and the tensions in the narratives of those who are both researchers and farmers, resonate with boyer’s ( ) description of experts’ human-subjectivity. they reflect situated understanding of the diverse goals and priorities of different actors, and anxiety about how they might be called to account for the outcomes of decisions that do not sit comfortably in a narrow domain linking knowledge and action. as such, they recognise that as well as the challenge of co- producing knowledge in an instrumental sense (e.g. aligning the timescales of forecasts with farmers’ decision processes), there is a deeper sense in which these services can performatively “co-produce” forms of accountability and behaviour change. interactions between advisors and advisees involve delicate negotiations of responsibility—for example through disclaimers about accuracy, reliability, and dependency—that shape relationships among farmers (citizens), the state, and other collectivities. . negotiating legitimate knowledge and legible practice faced with variable climatic conditions, imperfect forecasts, and lack of confidence in official sources, farmers continued to make decisions based on a range of indicators, experience, and advice. many listened to nms weather bulletins on the radio (focusing on the next h, with an outlook to days), supplementing with other available resources: online sources or their own instruments (larger-scale farmers) and/or tried-and-tested local knowledge, risk-spreading strategies like multi-cropping, and moral economies (smaller-scale and subsistence farmers ). extension workers acknowledged these other sources of information: the farmers consider [the nms forecast] to be more general. so, they don't count on it. they go by experience, or they have their own way of going on a hill top and looking at such an angle. they have their own cultural - their own little ideas of how they determine. they work a lot with the moon and that kind of thing. so, they make their decisions on their own (government extension worker) the planning of agricultural activities according to lunar phases is widespread among many mestizo, creole, and maya farmers. a mennonite farmer and growers’ representative also reported use of environmental indicators (fog and dew characteristics), noting that “some people make fun of it”—an observation suggestive of many scientists’ and technicians’ views of “planting by the moon”. one government forecaster who had facilitated a “farmer forum” discussion session described how participating farmers had persistently asked for information about moon phases, demanding recognition of their practices. the forecaster recalled that on reporting this in plenary, the convenors preferred not to discuss it: they were there to discuss “farming scientifically”. it struck me wilk ( ) and zarger ( ) present examples from maya communities. climatic change ( ) : – that the forecaster’s summary of the impasse—“so that is what we are faced with: people who have a mindset about certain practices that work”—could arguably refer to both parties: the farmers interested in lunar phases to the exclusion of curiosity about scientific forecasts, and the convenors reluctant to discuss practices that were illegible in the framework of the scientific workshop. the accounts of scientists and extension workers perform “boundary work” (gieryn ) when they seek to distinguish certain situated practices (especially those of smaller-scale farmers) from scientific knowledge. the discursive separation and hierarchization of “scientific” and “cultural” knowledge would appear to limit the scope of user engagement in these interactions to a linear model of knowledge transfer and public education (callon ). the extension worker’s comment bolsters the assertion of farmers’ responsibility by noting that farmers are drawing on knowledge outside legitimised technical frameworks of extension and climate services. technical staff at the research arm of the citrus growers’ association reflected on the reluctance of their members to heed their technical advice. they framed this as a problem of their legitimacy as “local experts”, embedded in the farming communities that constitute the users of their technical advice. they described in biblical terms their perception of a culture among farmers that undermined their organisation’s credibility: “you cannot be a prophet in your own land” (luke : ). for advice to be heeded, they felt it would have to be enforced by a more distant authority—probably government. this perspective presents a challenge to prevailing social science ideas about the effectiveness of interpersonal communication at community level (e.g. kunreuther et al. ), and suggests a need to think carefully about the contexts of participatory expertise and authority, noting how trust relations and hierarchies operate within “community” settings as well as between “communities” and other entities such as governments. meanwhile, in the banana industry—dominated by a few large growers—the latest project to involve weather/climate information was led by an ngo which was purposefully not working through government, on the grounds of inertia and bureaucracy. the ngo’s interest in using precipitation modelling to reduce unnecessary fungicide application had an environ- mental basis; however, they argued their case to growers using an economic rationale. the ongoing conversation relied on the ngo as an intermediary identifying the growers’ economic priority and framing the information in terms that the growers perceived as legitimate. climate services advisors (whether government extension agents, growers’ association researchers, or ngo staff) were pushed to consider and perform alternative cultural, political, and economic framings. these debates about legitimacy highlight diverse priorities and relations of trust that depend on the needs and capacities of potential “users” and also their social relations with those who provide and communicate forecast information. a brief consideration of proposed scientific management for the sugar sector further illustrates how questions of environmental knowledge are embedded in relations among citizens, the state, and other entities. the language of yield maximisation is prevalent across commercial agriculture; however, sugar productivity was framed as particularly urgent as the industry braced for a price drop in . sugar is sensitive to rain at harvest (waterlogged fields are hard to reap; excess water dilutes cane) and the froghopper pest’s lifecycle and control are rain-dependent. although not explicitly framed as a “climate services” project, the management system’s developers at the industry’s statutory research institute (sirdi) for a contrasting example from kenya, where traditional and scientific forecasts were purposefully brought into conversation (though not without political/epistemic challenges), see haines et al. ( ). the eu was lifting quotas that had protected african, caribbean and pacific cane sugar industries. climatic change ( ) : – explained the aim to incorporate weather and climate data and forecasts (e.g. from their own weather stations, nms, and noaa, and via models developed by international institutes/ ngos) alongside other variables. the objective was for the system to help the buyer (privately owned processing factory) and other industry actors set harvest dates, schedule factory stops, adjust quotas (used to manage the factory’s purchase of farmers’ cane), mobilise pest treat- ments, and predict crop quality. these motivations underpinned the development of a gis database: a bird’s-eye view that aimed to make production legible to those with access to the maps. a sirdi technician stressed the anticipatory promise of a management system that would be “one step ahead”, enabling sirdi to advise farmers when to harvest. factory and institute representatives hoped for insight into farmer behaviour, aiming to encourage farmers to work harder during good weather, mitigate perverse incentives (whereby a farmer may hold onto degrading cane to meet quotas), reward “progressive” farmers (those increasing yields/quality), and change behaviour of growers characterised as planning-averse. they saw potential for anticipatory quality control: the model would “know” when cane from each field should be ready and could reject deliveries outside the expected window. for the researchers, it seemed, the system promised more legitimate decision-making than that of the farmers. while much data could be obtained from satellites, it also had to be “ground-truthed”. this required the participation of individual farmers; at the time of research, this was proving difficult. factory and sirdi staff noted that the farmers’ association had provided some soil data, but personal details and field access were less forthcoming. trust between farmers and factory—long subject to antagonism—was foundering amid a dispute about by-product pricing and tensions about precarious markets. in this situation, some farmers were appar- ently resisting attempts to make their practices digitally legible. while researchers within the industry asserted that weather was the greatest threat to the sector, factory representatives indicated that key decisions were more sensitive to investments, markets and industrial disputes. considering how climate forecasts might fit into such a management system thus demands reflection: on accountability for decisions influenced by probabilistic predictions; on flexibility to include or exclude alternative grounds for decision-making; and on how existing power dynamics work implicitly through new technologies. the system’s anticipatory ambition brings to mind scott’s ( ) characterisation of scientific agriculture as a process of taming nature and disciplining growers from a position of remote oversight. however, it does not neatly fit scott’s characterisation of such schemes as the domain of an authoritarian state. while sympathetic to scott’s argument, li ( ) raises critiques that are pertinent here: questioning the possibility of an all-seeing state; noting the roles of non-state actors and welfare approaches; and challenging the separation of situated knowledge from power structures. indeed, this example involves multiple non-state authorities (private companies, development partners), and the system’s proponents did not aim to fully eliminate local knowledge, instead seeking insights into farmers’ knowledge, behaviour, and decision-making, and promising transparency and fairness as well as productivity. thus, the system could be seen to represent a utilitarian effort to co-produce knowledge, combining different data sources to create information with proposed benefits to a range of stakeholders. this instrumental ideal was nonetheless disrupted by tensions that suggested what was really at stake were industrial relations and farmer autonomy. i was unable to meet with the association (which has since split into three), ostensibly owing to these circumstances. climatic change ( ) : – discussion in this article, i have examined how people positioned as mediators of climate services articulate expertise in their work. i have argued that attention to their perceptions and choices can help identify the inclusions, exclusions, and contentions that lie behind utilitarian goals of climate services and normative discourses of participation. different advisory relationships (e.g. in- volving government extension workers, growers’ associations, or ngos) present a range of challenges for negotiating what is (or is not) legitimate knowledge, and thus for shaping as well as being shaped by the political and ethical landscape of agriculture and society. meteorologists noted that evaluation of climate services would be meaningless without understanding their use: “we might be in here congratulating each other on an excellent product that is useless out there”. this illustrates the concern of forecast producers to engage with users in the design and delivery of climate services. however, a focus on the utilitarian accountability of climate services as scientific products that reflect “knowledge needs of societal decision-makers” (lövbrand : ) cements a boundary between science and society that is likely to reinforce established policy agendas and modes of decision-making. scientists’ and advisers’ narratives of interactions with certain groups (particularly small-scale farmers) often side-lined non-scientific practices, and framed projects as ways to maximise productivity. this arguably favours prevailing approaches of larger-scale farmers and buyers, many of whom who have better access to additional information sources (weather stations, websites), and risk-mitigating technologies. as such, ostensibly participatory processes risk re- inscribing inequities. recognising this calls attention to differential abilities to act on infor- mation, to the modes and constituents of engagement, and to the values embedded in forecasts that have a particular orientation to the future—that see climate impacts as amenable to foresight and management (broad et al. ; peterson et al. ; taddei ). debates about climate services thus provoke consideration of what transnational expert frameworks mean for the resilience of situated expertise and practices through which communities address political-economic and environmental changes (vaughn ). the extension workers, ministry liaisons, and industry researchers tasked with delivering information are pushed by eclectic predicaments of climate and agriculture to be “jacks-of-all- trades”, convening and navigating diverse bodies of knowledge, and negotiating blame/credit in relationships shaped by contested power dynamics and multi-dimensional uncertainties. it is perhaps unsurprising that these experts appear as complex human-subjects (boyer ), rather than abstracted agents of a separated realm of modernity or the state. extension workers’ frequent emphasis on farmer responsibility exists in tension with normative ideals of co- production that would arguably implicate shared responsibility, and with the proposed sugar system that would overrule certain farmer decisions. the examples reveal factors other than climate variability that may be decisive for agricultural decisions and relationships, but are not explicitly accounted for in available climate forecast products: the politics of agricultural production (historically configured relationships between sugar producers and buyers; gov- ernment support for small-scale farmers); institutional versus individual responsibility for decisions (anxious expertise of extension workers; contested legitimacy of non-scientific knowledge); and different (moral) economies (small-scale farmers’ wishes to avoid serious losses in tension with commercial pressures to increase production). the case of the sugar management system highlights how contexts such as industrial relations are not “external” barriers that limit the uptake of information: the rationales underpinning the proposed system were not only the challenges of environmental conditions, but the perceived behaviours of climatic change ( ) : – farmers with respect to their relations with the factory owners. these historical and political relations are thus at the core of the production and promotion of scientific management of agricultural decisions, not only a limiting factor to be confronted with reference to knowledge uptake. such recognition is aligned with the descriptive idiom of co-production as the mutual constitution of knowledge practices and social order (e.g. jasanoff ). new ecologies of knowledge are being assembled in contestations of farmer autonomy, the (de)valuation of different types of expertise, and the vagaries of global economies (vaughn ; taylor ). these points of contention—often considered as background contexts or external barriers for climate services—are central to how knowledge and action are (dis)connected through social and political processes. they call for approaches to climate services that do not focus merely on the use and usability of a product, but on the performance of agricultural livelihoods (roncoli ) and on relations among citizens, the state, ngos, and the private sector. this demands that we question the discursive boundaries between producers and users, and calls attention to how responsibility might be shared in contexts where participatory approaches are promoted. the belize case highlights specific issues relating to historic colonial and postcolonial agricultural-industrial relations, land tenure, and the reliance on international networks and donors in the development, promotion, and delivery of user-oriented climate services. many of these are also relevant in other geographical locations. the diversity of approaches and challenges within the sector considered here indicates a need to attend to the singularity of relationships as well as their broader dimensions. by paying attention to the different ways that advisors work to manage expectations—both of uncertain environmental futures and of their own expertise and responsibility—we can better understand emerging models of environmental governance that influence how individuals and institutions are positioned in relation to each other and to uncertain futures. acknowledgements sincere thanks to all research participants. i am grateful to sophie webber and others involved in the american association of geographers session from which this special issue emerged; and to steve rayner, sara de wit, colleagues at the university of campinas, and three anonymous reviewers for valuable feedback on earlier versions. because of the confidential nature of some research materials, not all data can be made accessible. please contact the author for more information. funding this work was supported by the oxford martin school [programme on resource stewardship]; and the economic and social research council [grant es/n / ]. compliance with ethical standards research involving human participants followed principles of informed consent, approved by the university of oxford central university research ethics committee and the belize institute for social and cultural research. conflict of interest the author declares that they have no conflicts of interest. climatic change ( ) : – open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and repro- duction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. references agrawala s, broad k, guston d ( ) integrating climate forecasts and societal decision-making: challenges to an emergent boundary organization. sci technol hum values ( ): – bernard hr ( ) research methods in anthropology. altamira, oxford bolland on ( ) colonialism and resistance in belize. cubola, belize boyer d ( ) thinking through the anthropology of experts. anthropol action : – bremer s, meisch s ( ) co-production in climate change research: reviewing different perspectives. wiley interdiscip rev clim chang :e broad k, agrawala s ( ) the ethiopia food crisis: uses and limits of climate forecasts. science ( ): – broad k, pfaff asp, glantz mh ( ) effective and equitable dissemination of seasonal-to-interannual climate forecasts: policy implications from the peruvian fishery during el niño - . clim chang : – callon m ( ) the role of lay people in the production and dissemination of scientific knowledge. sci technol soc : – caribsave ( ) climate change risk profile for belize. caribsave, christ church. http://intasave.pecreative.co. uk/our-projects_cccra.html (accessed . . ) carr es ( ) enactments of expertise. annu rev anthropol : – carr e, owusu-daaku k ( ) the shifting epistemologies of vulnerability in climate services for development: the case of mali’s agrometeorological advisory programme. area ( ): – cash dw ( ) “in order to aid in diffusing useful and practical information”: agricultural extension and boundary organizations. sci technol hum values ( ): – cash dw, borck jc, patt ag ( ) countering the loading-dock approach to linking science and decision making: comparative analysis of el niño/southern oscillation (enso) forecasting systems. sci technol hum values ( ): – changnon sa, lamb pj, hubbard kg ( ) regional climate centers: new institutions for climate services and climate-impact research. bull am meteorol soc : – cooke b, kothari u ( ) participation: the new tyranny? zed, london crane t, roncoli c, paz j et al ( ) forecast skill and farmers’ skills: seasonal climate forecasts and agricultural risk management in the southeastern united states. weather clim soc : – daipha p ( ) masters of uncertainty: weather forecasters and the quest for ground truth. university of chicago, chicago daly m, dessai s ( ) examining the goals of the regional climate outlook forums: what role for user engagement? weather clim soc ( ): – desai, b ( ) inside out: rationalizing practices and representations in agricultural development projects. in: lewis d, mosse d (eds) development brokers and translators: the ethnography of aid and agencies. kumarian, bloomfield, pp – dilling l, lemos mc ( ) creating usable science: opportunities and constraints for climate knowledge use and their implications for science policy. glob environ chang : – few r, brown k, tompkins el ( ) public participation and climate change adaptation: avoiding the illusion of inclusion. clim policy : – fine ga ( ) authors of the storm: meteorologists and the culture of prediction. university of chicago, chicago furman c, roncoli c, bartels w et al ( ) social justice in climate services: engaging african american farmers in the american south. clim risk manag : – gieryn tf ( ) boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists. am sociol rev : – goldman m, nadasdy p, turner md (eds) ( ) knowing nature: conversations at the intersection of political ecology and science studies. university of chicago, chicago goldman m, turner m, daly m ( ) a critical political ecology of human dimensions of climate change: epistemology, ontology and ethics. wiley interdiscip rev clim chang ( ):e guido z, rountree v, greene c et al ( ) connecting climate information producers and users: boundary organization, knowledge networks, and information brokers at caribbean climate outlook forums. weather clim soc : – haigh t, morton w, lemos mc et al ( ) agricultural advisors as climate information intermediaries: exploring differences in capacities to communicate climate. weather clim soc : – haigh t, koundinya v, hart c et al ( ) provision of climate services for agriculture: public and private pathways to farm decision-making. bull am meteorol soc ( ): – haines s, imana ca, opondo m, et al ( ) weather and climate knowledge for water security: institutional roles and relationships in turkana. reach working paper , university of oxford climatic change ( ) : – http://intasave.pecreative.co.uk/our-projects_cccra.html http://intasave.pecreative.co.uk/our-projects_cccra.html hansen j ( ) realizing the potential benefits of climate prediction to agriculture: issues, approaches, challenges. agric syst : – harjanne a ( ) servitizing climate science – institutional analysis of climate services discourse and its implications. glob environ chang : – hecht ad ( ) meeting the challenge of climate service in the s. bull am meteorol soc : – hewitt c, mason s, walland d ( ) the global framework for climate services. nat clim chang : – heyl bs ( ) ethnographic interview. in: atkinson p et al (eds) handbook of ethnography. sage, london, pp – hulme m ( ) reducing the future to climate: a story of climate determinism and reductionism. osiris : – jasanoff s (ed) ( ) states of knowledge: the coproduction of science and the social order. routledge, london jasanoff s, wynne b ( ) science and decisionmaking. in: rayner s, malone el (eds) human choice and climate change : the societal framework. battelle, columbus, pp – krauss w, von storch h ( ) post-normal practices between regional climate services and local knowledge. nat cult : – kunreuther h, sanderson w, vetschera r ( ) a behavioural model of the adoption of protective activities. j econ behav org ( ): – lemos mc, dilling l ( ) equity in forecasting climate: can science save the world’s poor? sci public policy : – lemos mc, lo j, kirchhoff j, haigh t ( ) crop advisors as climate information brokers: building the capacity of us farmers to adapt to climate change. clim risk manag - : – letson d, llovet i, podestá g et al ( ) user perspectives of climate forecasts: crop producers in pergamino, argentina. clim res : – li tm ( ) beyond “the state” and failed schemes. am anthropol : – lövbrand e ( ) co-producing european climate science and policy: a cautionary note on the making of useful knowledge. sci public policy : – mase as, prokopy ls ( ) unrealized potential: a review of perceptions and use of weather and climate information in agricultural decision making. weather clim soc : – mcnie ec ( ) delivering climate services: organizational strategies and approaches for producing useful climate-science information. weather clim soc : – meadow am, ferguson db, guido z et al ( ) moving toward the deliberate coproduction of climate science knowledge. weather clim soc : – medina lk ( ) defining difference, forging unity: the co-construction of race, ethnicity and nation in belize. ethn racial stud ( ): – meehan k, klenk nl, mendez f ( ) the geopolitics of climate knowledge mobilization: transdisciplinary research at science–policy interface(s) in the americas. sci technol hum values ( ): – miles el, snover ak, whitely binder lc et al ( ) an approach to designing a national climate service. pnas ( ): – patt a, gwata c ( ) effective seasonal climate forecast application: examining constraints for subsistence farmers in zimbabwe. glob environ chang : – peterson nd, broad k, orlove b et al ( ) participatory processes and climate forecast use: socio-cultural context, discussion, and consensus. clim dev : – phillips l, ilcan s ( ) responsible expertise: governing the uncertain subjects of biotechnology. crit anthropol ( ): – roncoli c ( ) ethnographic and participatory approaches to research on farmers’ responses to climate predictions. clim res : – scoones i, thompson j (eds) ( ) farmer first revisited. practical action, rugby scott jc ( ) seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. yale university press, new haven strathern m (ed) ( ) audit cultures: anthropological studies in accountability, ethics and the academy. routledge, london taddei r ( ) watered-down democratization: modernization versus social participation in water management in northeast brazil. agric hum values : – taddei r ( ) anthropologies of the future: on the social performativity of (climate) forecasts. in: kopnina h, shoreman-ouimet e (eds) environmental anthropology: future directions. routledge, london, pp – taylor m ( ) climate-smart agriculture: what is it good for? j peasant stud ( ): – van der hel s ( ) new science for global sustainability? the institutionalisation of knowledge co-production in future earth. environ sci pol : – vaughan c, dessai s ( ) climate services for society: origins, institutional arrangements, and design elements for an evaluation framework. wiley interdiscip rev clim chang : – climatic change ( ) : – vaughn se ( ) disappearing mangroves: the epistemic politics of climate adaptation in guyana. cult anthropol : – vogel j, letson d, herrick c ( ) a framework for climate services evaluation and its application to the caribbean agrometeorological initiative. clim serv : – webber s, donner sd ( ) climate service warnings: cautions about commercializing climate science for adaptation in the developing world. wiley interdiscip rev clim chang ( ):e weisser f, bollig m, doevenspeck m, muller-mahn d ( ) translating the “adaptation to climate change” paradigm: the politics of a travelling idea in africa. geogr j ( ): – wilk rr ( ) household ecology: economic change and domestic life among the kekchi maya in belize. northern illinois university press, dekalb wmo ( ) stakeholder consultation on climate services in belize: agriculture and food production (final report) wmo, geneva wmo ( ) regional climate outlook forums https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/library/regional-climate- outlook-forums wmo ( ) global rcof review meeting report. http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/wcasp/ meetings/workshop_rcofs.php zarger rk ( ) mosaics of maya livelihoods: readjusting to global and local food crises. napa bull : – climatic change ( ) : – https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/library/regional-climate-outlook-forums https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/library/regional-climate-outlook-forums http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/wcasp/meetings/workshop_rcofs.php http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/wcasp/meetings/workshop_rcofs.php 	managing expectations: articulating expertise in climate services for agriculture in belize 	abstract 	introduction 	methods 	expertise and co-production in climate services 	institutional landscapes of belize climate services 	articulating climate services for agriculture 	advice under uncertainty 	negotiating legitimate knowledge and legible practice 	discussion 	references genetics, medicine, and the plain people anrv -gg - ari july : genetics, medicine, and the plain people kevin a. strauss , , ,∗ and erik g. puffenberger , ,∗ clinic for special children, strasburg, pennsylvania ; email: kstrauss@clinicforspecialchildren.org, epuffenberger@clinicforspecialchildren.org department of biology, franklin and marshall college, lancaster, pennsylvania lancaster general hospital, lancaster, pennsylvania annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. . : – first published online as a review in advance on july , the annual review of genomics and human genetics is online at genom.annualreviews.org this article’s doi: . /annurev-genom- - copyright c© by annual reviews. all rights reserved - / / - $ . ∗equal contributors. key words anabaptist, deme, haplotype, identity-by-descent, mendelian, single-nucleotide polymorphism abstract the old order amish and old order mennonite populations of pennsylvania are descended from swiss anabaptist immigrants who came to the new world in the early eighteenth century. today they live in many small endogamous demes across north america. geneti- cally, these demes have dissimilar allele frequencies and disease spectra owing to unique founders. biological and social aspects of old order communities make them ideal for studies in population genetics and genomic medicine, and over the last years, advances in genomic sci- ence coincided with investigational studies in plain populations. newer molecular genetic technologies are sufficiently informative, rapid, and flexible to use in a clinical setting, and we have successfully integrated these tools into a rural pediatric practice. our studies with the pennsyl- vania plain communities show that population-specific genetic knowl- edge provides a powerful framework in which to prevent disease, reduce medical costs, and create new insights into human biology. a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : knowledge of genetic anatomy is having a com- parably strong and pervasive influence on all of medicine. . . . genomic anatomy permits medicine to become more predictive and preventive. at the same time, diagnosis and treatment are rendered more sensitive, specific, effective, and safe. –victor a. mckusick, ( ) be not conformed to this world, but be ye trans- formed by the renewing of your mind. romans : introduction the old order amish and old order mennonite (plain) people of north america have contributed much to our understanding of human genetics. although wary of technol- ogy, they have cooperated with clinical inves- tigators for more than years, believing the knowledge gained could help alleviate suffer- ing in their own communities and elsewhere. the history of genetic discovery among plain sects has broad relevance: it charts the trans- formation of human genetics from an esoteric discipline into a foundation of clinical medicine ( ). beginning in , inherited disorders among old order communities were the sub- ject of exceptional observational studies, col- lected in the landmark medical genetic studies in the amish ( ). between and , the advent of southern blotting ( ), genetic markers ( ), linkage analysis, dna sequenc- ing ( , ), and the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) ( ) enabled investigators to describe these disorders in more precise molecular terms ( , , , , , , ). recently, single- nucleotide polymorphism (snp) microarray technology has accelerated this process ( , , , ) and provided fascinating details about the genetic structure of inbred populations. over the past two decades, the focus has shifted to treatment. genetic studies within old order populations have revealed how per- sonal genetic information can be integrated into everyday clinical practice ( , , ). here, we present original as well as previously published data that inform the larger field of genomics and fulfill a central promise of the human genome project—to harness genetic knowledge to heal the sick ( ), prevent disability ( ), and reduce medical costs ( , – ). the plain populations contemporary old order groups fall under the collective term plain people, which refers to christian groups that live simply, dress plainly, and live in the modern world but remain sep- arate from it. they include the amish, old order and conservative mennonites, old order brethren, and hutterites (d. kraybill, personal communication). our clinical practice serves old order amish and mennonite peo- ple of pennsylvania and maryland, who are the focus of this review. the anabaptist movement began in amid the protestant reformation. it was based on the idea that baptism should be an inten- tional act of adults who wanted to join an austere christian community ( , , ). for this and other beliefs, early anabaptists were tortured and killed as heretics for more than years as they moved throughout europe in exile. by the s, most had settled in switzerland ( ). jakob amman ( – ), a mennonite bishop living in the canton of berne, believed that many anabaptists had compro- mised their religious discipline to avoid per- secution ( ). he insisted upon the practice of shunning (meidung), the social exclusion of noncompliant church members, and in forced a division among mennonite preachers that marked the formation of the amish church ( ). william penn offered anabaptists asylum in the new world, and several thousand ar- rived in the port of philadelphia between and . the mennonites generally appeared earlier in the records, whereas the amish ar- rived in the latter half of this migration ( – ). several hundred amish and mennonites strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : eventually settled in lancaster county ( , , ). the present-day lancaster county amish population of approximately , individu- als is derived from perhaps to of these original founders ( ). most early anabaptist settlements in pennsylvania failed, and resid- ual members joined later anabaptist immi- grants who moved west to ohio, indiana, and illinois ( ), where they remain concentrated. about % of contemporary amish occupy just four counties: lancaster county, pennylvania; holmes and geauga counties, ohio; and lagrange county, indiana ( ). the old order amish in america have doubled in the last years to approximately , individ- uals (d. kraybill, personal communication). following the migration to north america, amish culture became extinct in europe ( ), while forces of assimilation and change reached anabaptist immigrants. some regional amish and mennonite churches were further divided by ideological conflicts ( ), and by the s groups that held fast to tradition were des- ignated the old order by their more pro- gressive counterparts ( , ). philosophical differences, reinforced by geographical separa- tion resulted in many endogamous subdivisions called demes. medical genetic studies in , dr. victor a. mckusick reviewed john hostetler’s amish society for johns hopkins university press and recognized the potential for using the amish to study medical genetics (table ) ( ). that same year, he read about david krusen, a lancaster county doctor who reported a high prevalence of achondroplasia among the amish. these events sparked a productive collaboration between mckusick and hostetler ( ), and mckusick made his first field trips to lancaster county with dr. krusen ( ). he soon recognized that dwarfism among the amish was not achondroplasia, but rather two distinct recessive conditions: ellis-van creveld syndrome and cartilage-hair hypoplasia (figure ) ( , ). figure this amish boy with cartilage-hair hypoplasia has the characteristic physical features of short-limbed dwarfism, sparse hair, and small nails. he suffered from neuronal intestinal dysplasia and combined immune deficiency, rare complications of the disorder, and had a bone marrow transplant at months of age. he died of intractable autoimmune hemolytic anemia one year later (photo used with parent permission). over the next years, the amish were subjects of diverse genetic studies. many of these were detailed clinical descriptions of re- cessive disorders, but there were also studies about blood groups ( ), hla antigens ( ), immunoglobulin levels ( ), chromosomal vari- ation ( ), and the heritability of complex traits (e.g., blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and cancer risk) ( , , ). seminal works from this era are collected in the publication medical genetic studies in the amish ( ), edited by mckusick, which describes previously rec- ognized and newly diagnosed mendelian dis- orders among the amish of pennsylvania, ohio, and midwestern states. medical genetic studies in the amish established many known principles of population genetics that remain pertinent today (table ). www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table characteristics of plain populations conducive to genetic studies mckusick et al. ( ) • a self-defined, closed population (little gene inflow) • western european origin • small number of founding members • concentrated population settlements (relative immobility) • extensive geneological records • high standards of living (i.e., nutrition, hygiene) and physical health • strong interest in inherited illness and the healing arts • relatively uniform social, economic, and occupational circumstances • large sibships (e.g., average – per family) • low illegitimacy rate • children with birth defects or genetic disorders cared for at home • multiple discrete subpopulations (demes) allow comparative analysis molecular update, • large haplotype blocks (small population of recent origin) from identity-by-descent around disease loci • mutation homogeneity (founder effect) • population-specific allele frequencies before the advent of molecular genetic tech- nology, mckusick used genealogical records to infer identity-by-descent for pathogenic alleles. he traced the mutation for pyruvate kinase deficiency to “strong jacob” yoder and his wife, who immigrated in , and traced the ellis-van creveld allele through sibships, affected individuals, and parents to samuel king and his wife, who also immigrated in the s ( ). although complex pedigree analysis is seldom necessary today, these studies highlighted the advantages of genetic linkage analysis and disease gene mapping in plain populations. molecular genetic studies population genetics early investigators recognized the distinct na- ture of amish demes based on their immi- gration history and surname distribution ( ). surnames are inherited through the pater- nal line, largely independent of selection or inbreeding. deviations in their frequency within a population over time simulate ran- dom genetic drift. presently, the name stoltzfus accounts for % of amish households in lancaster county. three other surnames (king, fisher, and beiler) each account for %– % of the total. similarly, among weaverland and groffdale mennonites, the surname martin accounts for % of house- holds. mitochondrial dna haplotypes, inher- ited through the maternal line, demonstrate similar drift over the last – generations (table ). within each anabaptist subpopula- tion, pathogenic alleles may also increase (or de- crease) in frequency by random chance. when the founding population is small, random allele frequency shifts from one generation to the next can be profound; some rare mutations become quite common, while others become extinct. this underlying genetic structure made plain populations ideal for early genetic map- ping studies, which relied on large collections of patients and traditional linkage analysis. formal linkage analysis was necessary because dna markers were sparse and genotyping was time- consuming and expensive. typically, – microsatellite markers were genotyped in af- fected individuals, their parents, and siblings in an attempt to link a phenotype to a genomic region. many mapping studies in plain popula- tions have identified disease genes in this way ( , , , , , , , , , , , , ). it has long been known that isolated pop- ulations have a high incidence of rare genetic strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table a frequency distribution of surnames and mitochondrial hypervariable region (hvr ) haplotypes among four pennsylvania amish and mennonite demes groffdale weaverland lancaster juniata and mifflin mennonites mennonites amish amish surname martin % % % % zimmerman % % % % hoover % % % % nolt % % % % weaver % % % % stoltzfus/stoltzfoos % % % % king % % % % fisher % % % % beiler/byler % % % % peachey % % % % swarey % % % % kanagy % % % % yoder % % % % mtdna haplotype c c % % % % t c t % % % % cambridge reference % % % % c % % % % c c % % % % t c % % % % c t t % % % % a c g % % % % c c % % % % t c % % % % g c c c c c % % % % a t c % % % % c c a % % % % c % % % % these data demonstrate significant genetic drift and distinct paternal and maternal lineages within plain demes. in our local amish population, the t c haplotype accounts for % of hvr haplotypes. by genealogical analysis, it can be shown that all copies of this haplotype were derived from a single ancestral female who migrated to pennsylvania in the eighteenth century. in the groffdale mennonites, hvr c c predominates ( %), whereas t c t is the most common haplotype among the weaverland mennonites ( %). thirty-eight percent of the juniata and mifflin county amish harbor the hvr cambridge reference sequence. disorders. this, along with inbreeding and a restricted founder pool, has been taken as evidence of low genetic diversity. however, microsatellite marker ( ) and snp data challenge this view. using affymetrix k genechip arrays, we found that calculated heterozygosity across autosomal snps was . % and . % for amish (n = ) and mennonite (n = ) individuals, respectively. these values are similar to the . % measured in an european control population (these data refer to the affymetrix european control set for the k arrays; from affymetrix, santa clara, ca). the comparisons may be affected by drift, www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : which can lead to allele fixation. among men- nonites, snps are monoallelic; of these are also monoallelic in the european control population. thus, (i.e., – ) snp al- leles have become fixed in the mennonite pop- ulation, whereas different snp alleles have reached fixation in the amish. further inspection of snp allele frequen- cies shows that amish and mennonite popu- lations are genetically dissimilar. we compared snps for significant allele frequency dif- a b c mennonite vs. european amish vs. european amish vs. mennonite percentagenumber of snps . . . chromosome number sn p x va lu e sn p x va lu e sn p x va lu e ferences (chi-square > . , alpha = . ) among lancaster county amish, lancaster county mennonites, and the affymetrix eu- ropean control set. amish and mennonite sam- ples were more similar to european controls than to each other (figure ). this signif- icant finding underscores the importance of choosing proper control groups for association and linkage mapping studies (figure ) ( ). it is also relevant to clinical work; we have long appreciated that genetic diseases of amish and mennonite populations are quite distinct (table ) ( , ). of the disorders we de- lineated among the pennsylvania amish and menonnite people, only five are found in both populations and only two share the same molec- ular defect. thus, for any particular child who presents with a medical problem, the genetic differential diagnosis depends critically on pop- ulation of origin ( ). random genetic drift is a compelling and parsimonious explanation for allele frequency ←−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− figure single-nucleotide polymorphism (snp) allele frequencies are highly dissimilar between old order amish and mennonites. we performed a χ analysis of allele frequencies for snps from the affymetrix genechip human mapping k arrays. we used amish and mennonite females and performed the analysis with high cut-off values (χ > . , alpha = . ). we also compared the two plain populations with affymetrix european controls. genome-wide snp χ values are plotted in panels (a), (b), and (c) to highlight overall differences. (a) the mennonite population was moderately dissimilar to the european controls. one hundred ninety snps ( . %) demonstrated statistically significant differences between these two groups. (b) the amish demonstrated greater allele frequency differences; roughly . % of snps exhibited significant differences with european controls. (c) the amish and mennonite comparison was most striking as nearly in snps showed significant allele frequency differences. we surmise that these large differences are due to genetic drift within each population. since the amish founding population was smaller, we expect larger shifts due to drift over time. this is evident by the comparison with european controls, where the amish show a nearly fourfold increase in allele frequency differences as compared to the mennonites. strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : shifts within a small, isolated population. how- ever, allele frequencies might have been shaped by selection as well. for example, anabaptist settlers were exposed to new pathogens that likely exerted significant selective pressures. although difficult to measure, allele frequency shifts point to interesting gene candidates. from our genechip k genotype data, the snp rs demonstrates the largest allele frequency differences between plain popula- tions and the affymetrix european controls and hapmap data sets. the a allele frequency is % in amish and % in mennonites, compared to % in affymetrix european controls. this snp resides within an intron of lpar , a gene associated with immunity and inflammation. when compared to control data (americans of european descent), amish and mennonite samples are skewed toward larger blocks of homozygous snps (figure ). within any isolated population, homozygous markers that occur in “runs” or blocks are likely autozygous (identical-by-descent); i.e., both the maternal and paternal alleles derive from a common ancestor. now, we can use microarray data to quantify this—the genome-wide estimate of au- tozygosity is . % and . % in amish and mennonite individuals, respectively. similar es- timates based on homozygous megabases of ge- nomic dna yield comparable results ( . % and . %). this implies that the average amish individual harbors ∼ mb of autozygous dna. the probability that any two random amish individuals would be autozygous for the same genomic region and the same haplotype is very remote. relatively high genetic diversity and low allele sharing help facilitate successful autozygosity mapping studies, even with very small sample sizes. modern disease gene mapping large-scale snp genotyping methodologies are a major technological breakthrough because they allow simultaneous and rapid genotyping of many markers randomly distributed across the entire genome. this reduces analytical time chromosome number x sn p x va lu e sn p x va lu e gcdh a b figure population-specific snp allele frequencies are critical for association mapping within plain populations. as a test case, we analyzed snp profiles of amish children with glutaric aciduria type (ga ), who were all homozygous for gcdh c. c>t. the gcdh gene maps to a region of chromosome that has poor snp coverage on genechip k arrays, making homozygosity mapping impossible. as an alternative, we attempted to map the disease using x analysis of snp allele frequency differences between affected children and controls. this analysis depends on accurate control allele frequencies as well as extended linkage disequilibrium surrounding the disease gene. when we compared affected ga children to old order amish controls, we easily identified the location of gcdh. however, when we used old order mennonite allele frequency data, background noise increased and the mapping signal on chromosome was obscured. and cost, and allows autozygosity analysis to be done with fewer affected patients. with suf- ficiently dense snp coverage, it is no longer necessary to infer genotype and haplotype shar- ing between distant markers; increased marker density provides enough information to reveal sharing directly. higher marker density also simplifies analysis. large shared blocks of ho- mozygous snps can be detected with simple counting and graphing algorithms using stan- dard spreadsheet software ( , ). we have www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table thirty-seven amish and mennonite disorders understood at the molecular level among demes of pennsylvania, ohio, and maryland disorder gene dna variant protein variant population deme∗ -methylcrotonylglycinuria mccc g>c glu gln amish a -ß-oh-steroid dehydrogenase deficiency hsd b g>a gly glu amish a aldosterone deficiency cyp b bp deletion amish a amish microcephaly slc a g>c gly ala amish a bardet-biedl syndrome bbs t>g met arg amish a bartter syndrome clcnkb gene deletion amish a, b cardiomyopathy, dilated, with av block lmna c>t arg trp amish a cartilage-hair hypoplasia rmrp a>g amish a, o cortical dysplasia and focal epilepsy cntnap delg amish a, b, o crigler-najjar syndrome ugt a c>a tyr ter amish a ellis-van creveld syndrome evc ivs + g>t amish a familial hypercholanemia baat a>g met val amish a familial hypercholanemia tjp t>c val ala amish a galactosemia galt a>g gln arg amish a, e gittelman syndrome slc a c>a arg gly amish a, b gittelman syndrome slc a bp deletion amish a, b gutaric aciduria, type gcdh c>t ala val amish a gutaric aciduria, type c orf c>t arg trp amish a, b mckusick-kaufman syndrome mkks [ c>t + g>t] his tyr/ala ser amish a nemaline rod myopathy tnnt g>t glu ter amish a nephrotic syndrome nphs g>a arg gln amish a osteogenesis imperfecta col a g>t gly cys amish a pelizaeus-merzbacher-like syndrome gja a>g tyr cys amish a phenylketonuria pah - delatc amish a phenylketonuria pah g>a arg gln amish a propionic acidemia pccb a>g asn asp amish a, b severe combined immune deficiency rag a>g lys glu amish a sitosterolemia abcg g>a gly arg amish a weil-marchesani syndrome adamts exon del amish a chronic granulomatous disease cybb c>a cys ter amish e troyer syndrome spg dela amish o -hydroxylase deficiency cyp b g>a arg his amish b adenosine deaminase deficiency ada g>a gly arg amish b byler disease atp b g>t gly val amish b cockayne syndrome ercc ivs + g>t amish b gm synthase deficiency st gal c>t arg ter amish b, o primary ciliary dyskinesia dnah c>t gln ter amish b pyruvate kinase deficiency pklr g>a arg his amish b sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes tspyl insg amish b homocystinuria mthfr c>t arg cys amish j (continued ) strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table (continued ) disorder gene dna variant protein variant population deme∗ -methylcrotonylglycinuria mccc inst mennonite m, x alpha- antitrypsin deficiency serpina g>a glu lys mennonite m biotinidase deficiency btd t>c trp arg mennonite m congenital nephrotic syndrome nphs delc mennonite m congenital nephrotic syndrome nphs delg mennonite m crigler-najjar syndrome ugt a c>a tyr ter mennonite m cystinuria slc a ivs + t>c mennonite m cystinuria slc a c>t arg trp mennonite m cystinuria slc a c>t ile ile mennonite m cystinuria slc a c>t thr met mennonite m deafness, nonsyndromic gjb delg mennonite m factor deficiency f c>t arg cys mennonite m fragile x syndrome fmr (cgg)n expansion mennonite m glycogen storage disease, type pygl ivs + g>a mennonite m hirschsprung disease ednrb g>t trp cys mennonite m, s lyk deficiency lyk bp deletion mennonite m maple syrup urine disease bckdha t>a tyr asn mennonite m, s medium-chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency acadm a>g lys glu mennonite m medium-chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency acadm ivs - a>g mennonite m mevalonate kinase deficiency mvk t>c ile thr mennonite m mevalonate kinase deficiency mvk g>a ala thr mennonite m phenylketonuria pah ivs + ga mennonite m phenylketonuria pah g>a arg gln mennonite m propionic acidemia pccb a>g asn asp mennonite m, s restrictive dermopathy zmpste inst mennonite m severe combined immune deficiency il r t>g mennonite m spinal muscular atrophy smn exon deletion mennonite m tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency th g>a arg his mennonite m tyrosinemia, type hpd g>a ala thr mennonite m vitamin b deficiency amn bp deletion mennonite m properdin deficiency pfc t>g cys gly mennonite x osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome lrp a>g thr ala mennonite s osteoporosis-pseudoglioma syndrome lrp g>a trp ter mennonite s phenylketonuria pah ivs - g>a mennonite s cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic slc a delc mennonite w periodic fever (traps) tnfrsf a g>a arg gln mennonite w salla disease slc a c>t arg cys mennonite w tyrosinemia, type hpd a>g tyr cys mennonite w tyrosinemia, type hpd c>g ile met mennonite w ∗a, lancaster county (pa) amish; b, juniata and mifflin county (pa) amish; o, holmes and geauga county (oh) amish; j, somerset county (pa) amish; m, weaverland and groffdale conference mennonites (pa and elsewhere); s, stauffer mennonites (pa/md); w, western md; x, other unspecified mennonites; e, eastern shore of maryland amish. www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : a b a ve ra g e n u m b er o f b lo ck s d ev ia ti o n fr o m c o n tr o l – – – – – – – – amish mennonite control block size - - - - - - - - > amish mennonite block size figure plain populations demonstrate increases in homozygous block size and number compared to americans of european descent. blocks of homozygosity were quantified by their snp content and physical size. (a) the average number of homozygous snp blocks per person is shown. amish and mennonite individuals have more (and larger) runs of homozygosity than do controls. (b) the figure plots deviations from the average control block data by size (i.e., number of snps contained in each homozygous block). the plain populations are relatively deficient in small homozygous runs, which are replaced by larger blocks. the excess runs of homozygosity range in size from about to over adjacent snps (highlighted area). for each plain population, excess homozygosity relative to european controls is found in a relatively small number of large blocks, comprising roughly . and . mb of homozygous dna in amish and mennonite genomes, respectively. used these techniques to map disorders with as few as two affected children ( ). we have applied various methods to iden- tify different mutations segregating in the plain populations of southeastern pennsylva- nia and elsewhere. the most straightforward method is candidate gene analysis—sequencing a candidate gene known to cause a pheno- type. phenylketonuria mutations in several unrelated old order amish patients from lan- caster county were identified in this way, and the same strategy was applied to disorders such as , -methylenetetrahydrofolate reduc- tase (mthfr) deficiency, factor xi deficiency, and crigler-najjar syndrome. a related approach, candidate gene local- ization, uses snp data to narrow a list of candidate genes that are associated with a particular phenotype and scattered across the genome, provided the child is autozygous sur- rounding the disease gene locus. by correlating homozygous blocks to the location of can- didate genes, we can often identify a single gene for targeted sequencing. this method has been used successfully to map autosomal reces- sive deafness, cockayne syndrome, megaloblas- tic anemia, and hereditary spastic paraplegia (figure ). finally, disease gene mapping uses genetic marker data to map unknown recessive pheno- types by comparing homozygous blocks among multiple affected individuals ( , , , ). this strategy exploits genetic properties com- mon to young populations with a small number of founders, and also assumes mutation homo- geneity. we often delineate locus boundaries rapidly and efficiently, but the shared homozy- gous blocks tend to be quite large. the average shared block is . mb (mean . patients per study) and contains dozens and sometimes hun- dreds of genes. thus, although finding the rele- vant block can be simple, identifying the disease gene within it can be daunting. we have initiated over separate ge- netic mapping studies in plain populations of pennsylvania, maryland, indiana, and ohio. for of these, we unequivocally mapped the disease gene and identified the pathogenic se- quence variant. for others, we delineated a chromosomal region but have yet to identify the causative gene (table ). for the remainder, mapping results are inconclusive due to insuf- ficient sample size or the presence of multiple shared homozygous blocks. strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : locus location number of homozygous snps location score spg q q q q p q q q q q q q q q spg spg spg spg spg a spg spg spg spg spg spg spg spg spg spg b spg chromosome number h o m o zy g o u s b lo ck s iz e figure two brothers from a midwestern amish deme presented to our clinic with developmental delay, short stature, and symmetric spastic diplegia. recessive hereditary spastic paraplegia (spg) was considered in the genetic diagnosis, but a review of online mendelian inheritance in man revealed multiple spg loci scattered throughout the genome. this daunting gene list would likely preclude further genetic testing. however, assuming identity-by-descent for the disease gene, we used k snp data to exclude the large majority of spg loci and show that both boys were homozygous for a large block of dna surrounding the locus for troyer syndrome (spg ); sequencing confirmed homozygosity for the known single-base-pair deletion ( dela) in spg . mendelian disorders in plain populations the evolution of clinical methods amish genetic studies between and predated the era of molecular mapping and did not deal explicitly with the problem of providing care. many research subjects died or were crippled because they lacked appro- priate medical services ( ). in , holmes and caroline morton established the small nonprofit clinic for special children to serve amish and mennonite children who suffered from genetic disorders ( , ). the clinic was sited in rural lancaster county (figure ), which gave families nearby access to affordable care ( ) and provided a framework for study- ing genetic disorders in a natural setting ( , ). it is a paradigm of community genetics ( ), designed to serve particular people living in a specific place and time ( , , , ). the old order communities support the work as a way to care for their own ( , ). today, clinic staff manage active patients representing over different mendelian disorders. from the clinic’s inception, on-site labo- ratory studies were continually shaped by the needs of patients; research and clinical care were inseparable. between and , a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer donated by hewlett-packard was used to screen amish children for glutaric aciduria type (ga ) ( ). in , two mennonite churches donated a high-performance liquid chromato- graph that has run more than , amino acid samples for the diagnosis and management of maple syrup urine disease (msud) ( ). in the early years of the clinic, operating these in- struments on the front line of clinical practice meant that ga could be diagnosed within a few hours of life (i.e., from amniotic fluid ob- tained at delivery) ( ), and msud could be detected in asymptomatic newborns less than day old ( ). these methods were a crucial www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table twenty-three genetic disorders mapped using snp microarrays at the clinic for special children since . the causative gene was identified for conditions, whereas other disorders are mapped to a region but the gene remains unknown disease chromosome gene nephrotic syndrome, amish nphs pelizaeus-merzbacher-like syndrome gja bartter syndrome clcnkb hypertrophic cardiomyopathy slc a primary ciliary dyskinesia dnah sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes tspyl salla disease slc a cortical dysplasia and focal epilepsy cntnap glutaric aciduria, type c orf severe combined immune deficiency rag deafness, mennonite gjb gitelman syndrome slc a polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and symptomatic epilepsy strada weil-marchesani syndrome adamts posterior column ataxia with retinitis pigmentosa congenital nystagmus usher-like syndrome hydrocephalus lethal seizure syndrome mental retardation, nonsyndromic junctional ectopic tachycardia spastic paraplegia “yoder” dystonia “schwartz” syndrome microcephaly first step toward disease prevention, allowing affected newborns to start therapy days before state screening results were complete. in we began direct dna sequencing, which led quickly to mutation identification for numerous disorders and carrier testing for ga , msud, and several other conditions ( , , , ). affymetrix donated a genechip scanner in . it proved a powerful tool for mapping ( , , ) and also revealed important details about allele dynamics within plain populations. in , we acquired a roche real-time pcr system (lightcycler) through charitable contributions from the a.j. stamps foundation and csl behring. this instrument uses melting curve analysis to detect mutations in about an hour ( ). it is ideal for community-based genetic testing [see sidebar , , -methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (mthfr) deficiency] and can be adapted to practical clinical problems such as low-resolution hla matching ( ). spectrum of mendelian disease table lists mennonite and amish disorders understood at the molecular level, restricted for the purpose of this review to populations of pennsylvania and maryland. al- though there is some crossover, demes of ohio, strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : indiana, and elsewhere suffer from different genetic disorders. even within pennsylvania, there are several genetically distinct groups, and these distinctions are clinically important (see sidebar , genetic epidemiology). ninety percent of the conditions listed in table are recessive, and % of these result from a single allele restricted to a particular deme ( , ). however, there are several exceptions. among old order mennonites, who stem from a larger founding popula- tion, we have identified multiple mutations for phenylketonuria, cystinuria, medium- chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency, mevalonate kinase deficiency, osteoporosis- pseudoglioma syndrome, and tyrosinemia type . among the amish, biotinidase de- ficiency, galactosemia, gitelman syndrome, and phenylketonuria demonstrate mutation heterogeneity, and familial hypercholanemia exhibits locus heterogeneity. although most of the disorders we manage are recessive, we have also identified several x- linked (e.g., fragile x syndrome, chronic granu- lomatous disease, and properdin deficiency) and dominant conditions (e.g., lmna cardiomy- opathy and polycystic kidney disease), and recognize others yet to be mapped (sympha- langism, multiple exostoses, arteriovenous mal- formation). although fewer in number, these disorders nevertheless exact a heavy toll when they occur in large extended families. we have also found de novo mutations in a child with lissencephaly (pafah b deletion), a child with apert syndrome (fgfr ), an adult with idiopathic torsion dystonia (dyt ), and sev- eral children with prader-willi or angelman syndrome (chromosome deletions). finally, using k snp arrays we have identified chro- mosomal abnormalities at the resolution of a standard karyotype in numerous children with syndromic developmental delay (figure ). although certain mutations are concen- trated in amish and mennonite demes, they are seldom unique to these groups. about % of individuals leave the old order each generation, allowing mutations to flow into figure the clinic for special children is sited on an untillable corner of farmland in rural lancaster county, pennsylvania. the land was the gift of an amishman who has two granddaughters with glutaric aciduria type . it was built with the donated labor of amish and mennonite workers. the clinic is readily accessible to most of its patients and has on-site biochemical and molecular testing. sidebar . , -methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (mthfr) deficiency an amish boy, born in somerset county in , had psychomo- tor delay and slow head growth by months of age, and an mri showed global cerebral atrophy and hypomyelination. he was seen by numerous pediatric subspecialists but remained without a diagnosis after more than $ , of diagnostic testing. we saw him in october , and based on a biochemical workup identified a pathogenic c>t change in mthfr ( ). de- spite treatment with high-dose betaine, he remained severely re- tarded, autistic, and mute. we made several field trips to somer- set county where we identified mthfr c. c>t carriers among healthy members of the deme (estimated population carrier frequency %). in collaboration with dr. naylor and his colleagues, we developed a lightcycler method for detecting mthfr c. c>t in dried filter paper blood spots ( ). mid- wives offered amish parents the option of getting a “fifth blood spot” to test for the mthfr mutation. the first newborn diag- nosed by lightcycler screening in was sister to the proband ( ). she started therapy during her second week of life and has no signs of brain damage after four years of follow-up. www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : sidebar . genetic epidemiology most amish babies are delivered at home, breastfeed, and do not receive parenteral vitamin k. in lancaster county, two recessive alleles in the amish (tjp c. t>c and baat c. a>g) dis- rupt bile salt metabolism and result in vitamin k malabsorption ( ). thus genetic factors interact with cultural practice to deter- mine actual risk: over the past years, three amish infants with bile salt disorders presented with massive intracerebral and retinal hemorrhages from vitamin k deficiency. one child survived with dense spastic hemiparesis and unilateral blindness. the other two died of acute brain injuries. in one case, the parents were wrong- fully accused of child abuse and temporarily lost custody of their other children. screening for bile salt disorders and neonatal vita- min k administration are pressing public health concerns against this genetic background. in juniata and mifflin counties, a mu- tation in tspyl ( insg) among amish children causes brain disease and a dysautonomia syndrome (siddt) that ac- counts for % of overall infant mortality and perhaps half of all sudden infant deaths in the region ( ). to prevent sudden infant death in mifflin county, efforts to understand and treat siddt syndrome are at least as important as the “back to sleep” campaign (http://nichd.nih.gov/sids/). the outbred population ( ). moreover, most pathogenic alleles probably existed in europe before the anabaptist migration. for example, all four plain mutations of the pah gene were first identified in europeans with phenylke- tonuria (table ), and the only gcdh variant known to cause glutaric aciduria type in the amish (c. c>t) is among the more com- mon mutations found throughout europe and the united states. curiously, several founder mutations from finland are also distributed in north american plain sects (i.e., rmrp c. a>g and slc a c. c>t). there are no known genealogical ties between swiss an- abaptists and finns, suggesting that these mu- tations are either ancient or recurrent ( ). for ( %) conditions listed in table , an experienced clinician can make a correct diagnosis based on the clinical presentation and a single confirmatory test. a few oth- ers are distinctive and easily recognized (e.g., amish lethal microcephaly, ellis-van creveld syndrome, weil-marchesani syndrome, etc.). only ( %) are reliably detected by state newborn screening. importantly, about % of the disorders cannot be diagnosed by rou- tine clinical methods; they present to physi- cians as nonspecific problems such as failure to thrive, jaundice, bruising, itching, develop- mental delay, cerebral palsy, mental retardation, autism, seizures, short stature, or weakness. an understanding of genetic risks within a popu- lation makes it clear that these general terms apply to many discrete causes (table ) (see sidebar , glutaryl-coa dehydrogenase defi- ciency). the same is likely true in outbred pop- ulations, but it is much harder to investigate. when we encounter a novel phenotype, in- vestigational studies are needed to determine the molecular cause and then translate this in- formation into useful clinical testing ( , , ). many core genetic laboratories offer dna isolation and storage as well as biochemical ge- netics testing. however, few offer the flexible genotyping and sequencing services needed to map a new disease. fewer still achieve these aims within a clinically relevant time frame or at an acceptable cost to self-pay families. our laboratory functions as a specialized core fa- cility with the sole purpose of solving patient- and community-centered problems quickly and economically ( ). we have moved the tools of genetic research to the clinical laboratory and invested heavily in their continued use and ef- ficacy. consequently, when evaluating a new patient we are as likely to sequence a gene or generate snp genotypes as we are to order an electrolyte profile. translational medicine and the treatment of genetic disease treatment of genetic disease just over years ago, half of known genetic disorders were considered untreatable and only about % could be treated in a highly effective strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : manner ( ). we have seen extraordinary progress in plain populations over the past two decades. for about % of the disorders we manage, simple dietary intervention has a deci- sive effect. these include conditions such as bi- otinidase deficiency, galactosemia, and vitamin b malabsorption. protocols for the treatment of maple syrup urine disease (msud), crigler- najjar syndrome, and severe combined immune deficiency (scid) are more complex but still quite effective ( , , , ). these latter con- ditions can now be cured by tissue transplant, currently the only reliable form of gene therapy ( , ). problems such as pyruvate kinase de- ficiency, cystinuria, and deafness are treatable, but not perfectly so. nevertheless, like diabetes, depression, and cancer, skillful medical care al- lows people to live longer, suffer less, and enjoy more independence. for ( %) genetic conditions listed in table , eventual outcome is not affected by treatment; five of these disorders are lethal dur- ing infancy. they are among the most common genetic disorders we encounter; among the −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ figure affymetrix genechip human mapping k arrays are useful for copy-number assessment. although the k arrays lack fine resolution for this application, our data show that they perform at least as well as a standard karyotype. we readily identify copy-number abnormalities in the – mb range, validated by standard metaphase karyotype (http://www.mayomedicallaboratories.com/). our analyses use the copy-number data generated by the affymetrix genotype software. we calculate mean and standard deviations for the fluorescence at each snp marker and then generate z scores for the patient at each snp marker. this partially corrects for polymorphic copy-number variation within the genome. panels (a) and (b) show two small deletions of ∼ . and ∼ . mb, respectively. the first patient had multiple congenital anomalies, and the second patient was diagnosed with angelman syndrome after snp analysis detected monosomy on chromosome . panels (c) and (d ) depict trisomy of chromosome q markers and a complex rearrangement involving partial deletion and duplication of chromosome . data in panels (b) and (d ) are from males, and hemizygosity for x chromosome markers is apparent. amish, for example, we have a record of chil- dren with lethal microcephaly born between and and children born with ne- maline rod myopathy (tnnt ) since – – – – – – – – c a d b chromosome number x sn p c o p y n u m b er z s co re sn p c o p y n u m b er z s co re sn p c o p y n u m b er z s co re sn p c o p y n u m b er z s co re www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : sidebar . glutaryl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency before , amish children with ga were commonly misdi- agnosed with cerebral palsy or acute viral encephalitis. the first genetic study at the clinic for special children identified ga as the cause of “amish cerebral palsy” in disabled children who traced to a single founding couple ( ). beginning in , the clinic offered amniotic fluid and urine organic acid screening for newborns, comprehensive pediatric follow-up care, and inpa- tient management for illnesses. dr. naylor introduced statewide supplemental screening for ga in . between and the present, the rate of brain injury in ga decreased from % to % ( ). thus the efficacy of treatment in ga , as with many genetic conditions, is relative. although ga is the most com- mon mimic of cerebral palsy in lancaster county, other hered- itary conditions can produce a similar phenotype and, equally importantly, not every child with dystonia has a mendelian dis- order. acquired causes of brain injury are intermingled with, and difficult to distinguish from, genetic disease. ( , ). even for such “untreatable” prob- lems, medical care is important ( , ). before the clinic was established, amish children with nemaline rod myopathy were repeatedly sub- jected to invasive and costly interventions (e.g., muscle biopsies, nerve conduction testing, elec- tromyography, magnetic resonance imaging, echocardiograms, etc.) that collectively cost the community millions of dollars. a thoughtful physician informed with the right genetic di- agnosis can help a family determine appropri- ate limits of medical care while also protecting the child from futile interventions and the com- mon miseries of hunger, thirst, dyspnea, and pain. presymptomatic diagnosis and disease prevention children born today with conditions such as ga , mthfr deficiency, or msud— once thought untreatable ( )—now grow up healthy if diagnosed early in life (see sidebars , , and ) ( , , ). presymptomatic diagnosis creates a window of opportunity ( , , , ). this was the idea behind guthrie & susi’s test for phenylketonuria in newborns, published in ( ). thirty years later, shortly after dr. morton began his work in lancaster county, edwin naylor and colleagues were using tan- dem mass spectrometry to screen newborns for a much broader spectrum of genetic conditions ( ). screening does not, however, assure good outcome. early diagnosis is of no value with- out a pragmatic follow-up plan designed to deal with the dynamic interplay among genes, envi- ronment, and disease as it unfolds over time. genes encode proteins embedded in complex biological networks. these networks are con- tained within cells, grouped into tissues, and able to interact within physiological systems. understanding disturbances at all of these lev- els, as experienced by intact humans in their natural setting, is the basis for designing effec- tive therapies ( , ). this is vividly illustrated by the history of msud in lancaster county ( ). before , one-third of mennonite chil- dren with msud died during childhood. most who survived were severely disabled [see side- bar , changing the natural history of maple syrup urine disease (msud)] ( , , ). since the clinic started offering local services, outcomes for msud have improved ( ). no child died while under our care for metabolic crisis, and all mennonite children with msud born after attained normal developmen- tal milestones. knowledge of pathophysiology, not genetics, fueled this progress. through careful study of many individuals in diverse clinical circumstances, we learned how defi- ciency of branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogen- ase disrupts critical biological processes such as metabolic adaptation to fasting and illness ( ), cerebral amino acid transport ( , ), and cell volume control ( ). these processes change with age and are influenced by many nutri- tional and environmental variables. our treat- ment protocol evolved in lockstep with our un- derstanding of this complex physiology ( ) and allowed us to prevent many serious neurologi- cal consequences of msud. strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : table gene mutations result in specific medical conditions that are often described with nonspecific terms: mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism, sudden infant death, sepsis, and epilepsy clinical diagnosis disorder gene cerebral palsy glutaric aciduria type gcdh propionic acidemia pccb gap junction deficiency gja crigler-najjar syndrome ugt a hereditary spastic paraplegia spg dopamine-responsive dystonia th idiopathic torsion dystonia dyt mental retardation phenylketonuria pah mthfr deficiency mthfr maple syrup urine disease bckdha salla disease slc a bardet-biedl syndrome bbs fragile x syndrome fmr epilepsy biotinidase deficiency btd cdfe syndrome (caspr ) cntnap gm synthase deficiency st gal pmse syndrome strada stroke/hemorrhage hypercholanemia,tjp type tjp hypercholanemia, baat type baat factor v leiden f sitosterolemia abcg alpha- -antitrypsin deficiency serpina sudden death siddt syndrome tspyl -beta-hsd deficiency hsd b hypertrophic cardiomyopathy slc a lethal infection galactosemia galt properdin deficiency pfc scid, il receptor type il r adenosine deaminase deficiency ada rag deficiency, omenn rag this table lists a selection of genetic syndromes that cause developmental disorders in amish and mennonite children. recognizing genetic predispositions that underlie such disorders is a key step toward planning effective prevention strategies. disease prevention has substantial eco- nomic repercussions ( ). based on our expe- rience with msud and several other treatable genetic conditions that affect the nervous system (table ), we have prevented severe mo- tor disability or mental retardation in an es- timated children over a -year period. this saved the plain communities about $ million in direct and indirect costs ( ). thus annually, our operating budget of $ . million reduces the community economic burden by over $ million. to help uninsured patients, preventative therapies must be affordable. for example, early www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : sidebar . changing the natural history of maple syrup urine disease (msud) between and , mennonite children were born with msud in lancaster county. they all became encephalopathic within the first week of life and required weeks or months of intensive hospital treatment that cost tens of thousands of dollars. follow-up care was expensive, far away, and disorganized ( , ). msud patients were often sick at home for days before arriving comatose in philadelphia with critical cerebral edema. no aspect of therapy dealt specifically with this complication, and ( %) of these children died of brain herniation within h of hospitalization ( , ). since , we have managed mennonite infants with msud. thirty-two ( %) were diagnosed between and h of life by on-site amino acid analysis or, more recently, di- rect mutation detection from umbilical cord blood using real- time pcr. among infants diagnosed before days of age, % were treated safely at home. to manage crises locally, we made msud hyperalimentation solution available h a day at lancaster general hospital and had on-site amino acid analysis with a -min turnaround time. we have successfully managed over metabolic crises at lancaster general with an average hospital stay of just days. by combining general pediatric care and specialized services, a much larger number of metabolic crises were averted out of hospital; the overall hospitalization rate for our msud cohort is currently only . hospital days per patient per year. studies of vitamin b deficiency led to reli- able and inexpensive forms of replacement ther- apy ( ). now, for mennonite children with hereditary b malabsorption (amn deletion), once daily sublingual methyl-b prevents life- threatening anemia and spinal cord injury for about $ per year. however, if sublingual methyl-b were to be developed as a new thera- peutic today, it would cost between $ million and $ billion to bring to the u.s. market, and its cost would be prohibitive for many self-pay families ( ). although we can expect exciting new advances in the treatment of genetic dis- ease, attendant costs will put effective therapies beyond the reach of some families. plain people at the frontier of genomic medicine when mckusick and colleagues began their studies of the amish in ( ), medical ge- netics was just a fledging discipline and molec- ular studies were limited to descriptions of ab- normal chromosome number and structure ( ). polymerase chain reaction was not introduced until ( ), and polymorphic microsatel- lite markers were not widely used until the early s ( ). the human genome project started in october , and the complete draft of the human genome was published in febru- ary ( , ). thus, genetic discovery in the plain communities developed in parallel with larger events taking place in the field of ge- nomics. genetic science has become a cornerstone of medicine, but the practice of medicine has been equally vital to progress in genetic science. bench scientists and clinicians have different interests and responsibilities. basic scientists investigate physiologic systems, tis- sues, membranes, pathways, and molecules. they are primarily concerned with patterns and mechanisms. physicians, in contrast, are prin- cipally concerned with the welfare of individ- uals, “for the patient is no mere collection of symptoms, signs, disordered functions, dam- aged organs, and disturbed emotions. [the pa- tient] is human, fearful, and hopeful, seeking relief, help, and reassurance” ( ). these differing perspectives influence how one views progress in genomic science ( ). consider three decades of progress in cellu- lar immunology. over the past years, im- munogenetics research has expanded at an ex- plosive pace; we now understand many cellular immune responses in exquisite molecular de- tail ( ). yet among amish and mennonite children born with scid during the same time period, only half received a bone marrow trans- plant and % died by years of age ( ). there was little funding for patient-centered research ( ), and hospitals with expertise in scid were far away and cost too much ( ). strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : we came face to face with this problem in january , when an amish newborn pre- sented to our clinic with omenn syndrome, a variant of scid (figure ) ( ). she was sick and uninsured, and needed timely, affordable care. we were able to use k snp genotypes from the child and her siblings to delineate the rag /rag locus, and used these same data to quickly and inexpensively find an hla- matched stem cell donor among her siblings. this entire process—from clinical presentation to genetic diagnosis to donor identification— took less than two weeks and saved the fam- ily between $ , and $ , . applied ge- nomics enabled access to life-saving therapy. in a medical-industrial research environ- ment that views case reports and small cohorts as poor evidence ( ), this one amish child gave us a glimpse of mckusick’s vision for ge- nomic medicine (figure ) when he wrote: “[g]enomics is likely to render medicine more predictive and, therefore, more preventive. . . on the traditional turf of clinical medicine, di- agnosis will become more specific and pre- cise, and treatment also more specific and safer. genomics-based individualization of medical care aims to achieve the right treatment for the right patient” ( ) (italics added). thus, the fu- ture of translational genomics is about patient discovery, not gene discovery ( , , ). the idea has a modern emphasis but is not new; hippocrates believed that diseases as such did not exist in nature. to him, what existed natu- rally were sick people, and no two people were sick in exactly the same way ( ). the ethical imperative to care for individ- uals with genetic disease is apparent, but the scientific value of such work should not be over- looked. the connection of a gene to a human phenotype is the only way to fully appreciate a gene’s function in vivo ( , , , , ). in this respect, mice, fish, and flies will always fall short of modeling human disease (see sidebar , new disease pathways in human brain development). the astute physician, working daily to care for one or a few patients with a rare and complex disorder, can develop key insights that deepen our understanding ( , ), rag /rag c h ro m o so m e hla gene cluster c h ro m o so m e a b c chromosome number figure an amish girl was born in with erythroderma, hepatosplenomegaly, hypereosinophilia, hypogammaglobulinemia, and b cell deficiency. she grew poorly and had recurrent infections. she was provisionally diagnosed with omenn syndrome, a variant of severe combined immune deficiency (scid), but died at months of age before the diagnosis could be confirmed or a transplant attempted. in january , her sister presented as a newborn with alopecia and erythroderma, developed a systemic staphylococcus aureus infection at three weeks of age, and had immunologic studies consistent with scid. (a) a homozygosity plot was generated for the proband ( gray peaks); identity- by-state (ibs) plots for each pairwise comparison between the proband and her unaffected siblings were superimposed on this plot. genotype-identical regions (colored lines) between the proband and her siblings (i.e., ibs = ) denote regions where the disease gene cannot reside. the red line at the top is a summary of the exclusion mapping. this analysis demonstrated that only a single, homozygous genomic region on chromosome was consistent with linkage within the pedigree. (b) the rag and rag loci mapped to the homozygous interval on chromosome . rag sequencing revealed homozygosity for a pathogenic c. a>g variant in the patient. (c) the homozygosity plot of chromosome in the proband and her seven unaffected siblings. compared to the proband, only one sibling is haplo-identical for the major hla loci on chromosome . subsequently, hla typing of the patient and her potential sibling donor was performed using standard serotyping and molecular probes; these data corroborated the snp matching. the patient had a successful unmodified bone marrow transplant at days of age. she is now years old, fully engrafted, and healthy. dna extracted from paraffinized bone marrow showed that her sister, who died years earlier, was also homozygous for rag c. a>g. www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : sidebar . new disease pathways in human brain development in , we discovered a homozygous frameshift mutation of the cntnap gene in a group of amish children with cortical dys- plasia, focal epilepsy, and developmental regression ( ). remark- ably, mice with homozygous cntnap mutations have no central nervous system disease. nevertheless, the findings prompted new studies about the role of cntnap in human brain development. within two years this gene was linked to idiopathic autism ( , , ), schizophrenia ( ), and mutism ( ) in outbred populations across the country and throughout the world. thus, the study of rare mendelian disorders links specific gene families or protein networks—i.e., “interactomes”—to relevant processes in human biology. in the words of william harvey (ca. ): “nature is nowhere accustomed more openly to display her secret mysteries than in cases where she shows traces of her workings apart from the beaten path; nor is there any better way to advance the proper practice of medicine than to give our minds to the discovery of the usual law of nature by careful investigation of cases of rarer forms of disease.” expand our diagnostic capabilities ( , ), and create new opportunities for prevention ( , , , ). in the era of genomic medicine, physicians and molecular biologists who work closely together can translate these insights into real clinical benefits. such collaborations will help us tackle big problems at the frontier of genomic medicine, including multigenic dis- ease (e.g., atherosclerosis, hypertension, men- tal illness, etc.), modifier genes, and epigenetics ( , , , , ). disclosure statement the authors are not aware of any biases that might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review. acknowledgments we thank donna robinson and christine hendrickson for assistance in data collection and for their exceptional contributions to patient care. drs. nicholas rider and terry sharrer provided important insights and helpful suggestions. don kraybill and his colleagues at the young center for anabaptist studies, elizabethtown college, provided demographic data. holmes and caroline morton envisioned the clinic for special children and had the tenacity to make it real; we are figure victor a. mckusick (left), d. holmes morton (right), and bowie sitting on the front porch at the clinic for special children, spring . finally, it is important to remember that ad- vances in molecular science only reveal what can be done with genetic information. perhaps the plain people can teach us something impor- tant about what should be done with it ( , ). the old order communities measure the value of medical research not in grant awards, publi- cations, or academic promotions, but in human terms: alleviation of pain, prevention of disabil- ity, equitable delivery, and fair cost. they un- derstand that to translate genetic information into better public health, one must first com- mit to caring for individuals. strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : deeply indebted to them for their extraordinary example and ongoing contributions to people of the plain communities. finally, we thank the children and families whom we serve; they continue to teach us much about science, medicine, and meaningful work ( ). literature cited . mckusick va, ed. . medical genetic studies of the amish. baltimore: johns hopkins univ. press . martin j, martin vm, eds. . what is wrong with our baby? ephrata, pa: grace press. pp. . honeycutt a, dunlap l, chen h, al homsi g, grosse s, schendel d. . economic costs associated with mental retardation, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, and vision impairment—united states, . morb. mortal. wkly. rep. (mmwr) : – . adams cp, brantner vv. . estimating the cost of new drug development: is it really million dollars? health aff. : – . alarcon m, abrahams bs, stone jl, duvall ja, perederiy jv, et al. . linkage, association, and gene- expression analyses identify cntnap as an autism-susceptibility gene. am. j. hum. genet. : – . allamand v, broux o, bourg n, richard i, tischfield ja, et al. . genetic heterogeneity of autoso- mal recessive limb-girdle muscular dystrophy in a genetic isolate (amish) and evidence for a new locus. hum. mol. genet. : – . allen f. . country doctor: how a physician solved riddle of rare disease in children of amish. in wall street j. sept. , . allen f. . amish and mennonite families spend a saturday raising a clinic. in wall street j. nov. , . allen g, benda ce, book ja, carter co, ford ce, et al. . mongolism. am. j. hum. genet. : . arking de, cutler dj, brune cw, teslovich tm, west k, et al. . a common genetic variant in the neurexin superfamily member cntnap increases familial risk of autism. am. j. hum. genet. : – . bakkaloglu b, o’roak bj, louvi a, gupta ar, abelson jf, et al. . molecular cytogenetic analysis and resequencing of contactin associated protein-like in autism spectrum disorders. am. j. hum. genet. : – . bartlett jm, stirling d. . a short history of the polymerase chain reaction. methods mol. biol. : – . baumgartner d, scholl-burgi s, sass jo, sperl w, schweigmann u, et al. . prolonged qtc intervals and decreased left ventricular contractility in patients with propionic acidemia. j. pediatr. : – , e . belkin l. . the dawn of genomic medicine. in ny times magazine. nov. , . berry w. . local knowledge in the age of information. in the way of ignorance, ed. w berry, pp. – . berkeley, ca: counterpoint . bias wb, light-orr jk, krevans jr, humphrey rl, hamill pv, et al. . the stoltzfus blood group, a new polymorphism in man. am. j. hum. genet. : – . botstein d, white rl, skolnick m, davis rw. . construction of a genetic linkage map in man using restriction fragment length polymorphisms. am. j. hum. genet. : – . buckley rh. . advances in the understanding and treatment of human severe combined immuno- deficiency. immunol. res. : – . bull ln, carlton ve, stricker nl, baharloo s, deyoung ja, et al. . genetic and morphological findings in progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis (byler disease [pfic- ] and byler syndrome): evidence for heterogeneity. hepatology : – . carlton ve, harris bz, puffenberger eg, batta ak, knisely as, et al. . complex inheritance of familial hypercholanemia with associated mutations in tjp and baat. nat. genet. : – . chace dh, kalas ta, naylor ew. . the application of tandem mass spectrometry to neonatal screening for inherited disorders of intermediary metabolism. annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. : – . chugani ht, phelps me, mazziotta jc. . positron emission tomography study of human brain functional development. ann. neurol. : – . collins fs, green ed, guttmacher ae, guyer ms. . a vision for the future of genomics research. nature : – www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : . collins fs, mckusick va. . implications of the human genome project for medical science. jama : – . consortium ihgs. . initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. nature : – . cross he, kennel ee, lilienfeld am. . cancer of the cervix in an amish population. cancer : – . davis rw. . emigrants, refugees, and prisoners: i. an aid to mennonite family research. provo, ut: richard warren davis. pp. . dobrowolski sf, angeletti j, banas ra, naylor ew. . real time pcr assays to detect common mu- tations in the biotinidase gene and application of mutational analysis to newborn screening for biotinidase deficiency. mol. genet. metab. : – . editors t. . the practice of medicine. in harrison’s principles of internal medicine, ed. dl kasper, as fauci, dl longo, e braunwald, sl hauser, jl jameson, pp. – . new york: mcgraw-hill . egeland ja. . a genetic study of manic-depressive disorder among the old order amish of pennsylvania. pharmacopsychiatry : – . francomano ca, mckusick va, biesecker lg. . medical genetic studies in the amish: historical perspective. am. j. med. genet. c semin. med. genet. c: – . friedman ji, vrijenhoek t, markx s, janssen im, van der vliet wa, et al. . cntnap gene dosage variation is associated with schizophrenia and epilepsy. mol. psychiatry : – . georgieff mk. . nutrition and the developing brain: nutrient priorities and measurement. am. j. clin. nutr. : s– s . goldstein jl, brown ms. . the clinical investigator: bewitched, bothered, and bewildered—but still beloved. j. clin. investig. : – . golomb hm, bahr gf, borgaonkar ds. . analysis of human chromosomal variants by quantitative electron microscopy. ii. ring chromosome . chromosoma : – . guthrie r, susi a. . a simple phenylalanine method for detecting phenylketonuria in large populations of newborn infants. pediatrics : – . guttmacher ae, jenkins j, uhlmann wr. . genomic medicine: who will practice it? a call to open arms. am. j. med. genet. : – . hall je. . the promise of translational physiology. am. j. physiol. cell physiol. :c – . hayes a, costa t, scriver cr, childs b. . the effect of mendelian disease on human health. ii: response to treatment. am. j. med. genet. : – . holliday ma. . metabolic rate and organ size during growth from infancy to maturity and during late gastation and early infancy. pediatrics (suppl. ): . hostetler ja. . amish society. baltmore: johns hopkins univ. press. pp. . hsu sh, pollard mk, chan mm, bias wb. . genetic heterogeneity of dr in the old order amish and two new hla-d specificities. hum. immunol. : – . johnston jj, kelley ri, crawford to, morton dh, agarwala r, et al. . a novel nemaline myopathy in the amish caused by a mutation in troponin t . am. j. hum. genet. : – . jorgenson rj, bolling dr, yoder oc, murphy ea. . blood pressure studies in the amish. johns hopkins med. j. : – . khoury mj, gwinn m. . what role for public health in genetics and vice versa? community genet. : ; author reply . knottnerus ja. . community genetics and community medicine. fam. pract. : – . lim le, duclos f, broux o, bourg n, sunada y, et al. . beta-sarcoglycan: characterization and role in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy linked to q . nat. genet. : – . maxam am, gilbert w. . a new method for sequencing dna. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . mckusick va. . genetic studies in american inbred populations with particular reference to the old order amish. isr. j. med. sci. : – . mckusick va. . the anatomy of the human genome: a neo-vesalian basis for medicine in the st century. jama : – . mckusick va. . a -year tale of spots, maps, and genes. annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. : – . mckusick va, egeland ja, eldridge r, krusen de. . dwarfism in the amish. i. the ellis-van creveld syndrome. bull. johns hopkins hosp. : – strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : . mckusick va, eldridge r, hostetler ja, ruangwit u, egeland ja. . dwarfism in the amish. ii. cartilage-hair hypoplasia. bull. johns hopkins hosp. : – . mckusick va, hostetler ja, egeland ja. . genetic studies of the amish, background and potential- ities. bull. johns hopkins hosp. : – . mckusick va, hostetler ja, egeland ja, eldridge r. . the distribution of certain genes in the old order amish. cold spring harb. symp. quant. biol. : – . meyers da, bias wb, marsh dg. . a genetic study of total ige levels in the amish. hum. hered. : – . morton dh. . through my window—remarks at the th year celebration of children’s hospital of boston. pediatrics : – . morton dh, bennett mj, seargeant le, nichter ca, kelley ri. . glutaric aciduria type i: a common cause of episodic encephalopathy and spastic paralysis in the amish of lancaster county, pennsylvania. am. j. med. genet. : – . morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, et al. . pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am. j. med. genet. c semin. med. genet. : – . morton dh, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, kelley ri. . diagnosis and treatment of maple syrup disease: a study of patients. pediatrics : – . okuda k. . discovery of vitamin b in the liver and its absorption factor in the stomach: a historical review. j. gastroenterol. hepatol. : – . pannain s, weiss re, jackson ce, dian d, beck jc, et al. . two different mutations in the thyroid peroxidase gene of a large inbred amish kindred: power and limits of homozygosity mapping. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. : – . patel h, cross h, proukakis c, hershberger r, bork p, et al. . spg is mutated in troyer syndrome, an hereditary spastic paraplegia. nat. genet. : – . pollin ti, hsueh wc, steinle ni, snitker s, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd. . a genome-wide scan of serum lipid levels in the old order amish. atherosclerosis : – . puffenberger eg. . genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am. j. med. genet. part c c: – . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewit d, et al. . a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell : – . puffenberger eg, hu-lince d, parod jm, craig dw, dobrin se, et al. . mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – . puffenberger eg, strauss ka, ramsey ke, craig dw, stephan da, et al. . polyhydramnios, megalencephaly and symptomatic epilepsy caused by a homozygous -kilobase deletion in lyk . brain : – . redekop c. . mennonite society. baltimore: johns hopkins univ. press. pp. . rees j. . complex disease and the new clinical sciences. science : – . ridanpaa m, jain p, mckusick va, francomano ca, kaitila i. . the major mutation in the rmrp gene causing chh among the amish is the same as that found in most finnish cases. am. j. med. genet. c semin. med. genet. c: – . rimoin dl. . ethnic variability in glucose tolerance and insulin secretion. arch. intern. med. : – . romero fj, ibarra b, rovira m, natal a, herrera m, segarra a. . cerebral computed tomography in maple syrup urine disease. j. comput. assist. tomogr. : – . rosenberg mj, agarwala r, bouffard g, davis j, fiermonte g, et al. . mutant deoxynucleotide carrier is associated with congenital microcephaly. nat. genet. : – . ruiz-perez vl, ide se, strom tm, lorenz b, wilson d, et al. . mutations in a new gene in ellis-van creveld syndrome and weyers acrodental dysostosis. nat. genet. : – . sanger f, nicklen s, coulson ar. . dna sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa : – www.annualreviews.org • genetics, medicine, and the plain people a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . anrv -gg - ari july : . sharrer t. . personalized medicine: ethics, ed. ka strauss. strasburg . shaw ja, egeland ja, endicott j, allen cr, hostetter am. . a -year prospective study of prodromal patterns for bipolar disorder among amish youth. j. am. acad. child adolesc. psychiatry : – . snitker s, shuldiner ar. . bmi in the old order amish. med. sci. sports exerc. : ; author reply . southern em. . detection of specific sequences among dna fragments separated by gel elec- trophoresis. j. mol. biol. : – . stone dl, slavotinek a, bouffard gg, banerjee-basu s, baxevanis ad, et al. . mutation of a gene encoding a putative chaperonin causes mckusick-kaufman syndrome. nat. genet. : – . strauss ka. . glutaric aciduria type : a clinician’s view of progress. brain : – . strauss ka, lazovic j, wintermark m, morton dh. . multimodal imaging of striatal degeneration in amish patients with glutaryl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency. brain : – . deleted in proof . strauss ka, mazariegos gv, sindhi r, squires r, finegold dn, et al. . elective liver transplantation for the treatment of classical maple syrup urine disease. am. j. transplant : – . strauss ka, morton dh. . branched-chain ketoacyl dehydrogenase deficiency: maple syrup disease. curr. treat. options neurol. : – . strauss ka, morton dh, puffenberger eg, hendrickson c, robinson dl, et al. . prevention of brain disease from severe , -methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency. mol. genet. metab. : – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, bunin n, rider nl, morton mc, et al. . clinical application of dna microarrays: molecular diagnosis and hla matching of an amish child with severe combined immune deficiency. clin. immunol. : – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, craig dw, panganiban cb, lee am, et al. . genome-wide snp arrays as a diagnostic tool: clinical description, genetic mapping, and molecular characterization of salla disease in an old order mennonite population. am. j. med. genet. a : – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, huentelman mj, gottlieb s, dobrin se, et al. . recessive symptomatic focal epilepsy and mutant contactin-associated protein-like . n. engl. j. med. : – . strauss ka, robinson dl, vreman hj, puffenberger eg, hart g, morton dh. . management of hyperbilirubinemia and prevention of kernicterus in patients with crigler-najjar disease. eur. j. pediatr. : – . sulisalo t, francomano ca, sistonen p, maher jf, mckusick va, et al. . high-resolution genetic mapping of the cartilage-hair hypoplasia (chh) gene in amish and finnish families. genomics : – . treacy e, childs b, scriver cr. . response to treatment in hereditary metabolic disease: survey and -year comparison. am. j. hum. genet. : – . valasek ma, repa jj. . the power of real-time pcr. adv. physiol. educ. : – . velinov m, sarfarazi m, young k, hodes me, conneally pm, et al. . limb-girdle muscular dystrophy is closely linked to the fibrillin locus on chromosome . connect. tissue res. : – . venter jc, adams md, myers ew, li pw, mural rj, et al. . the sequence of the human genome. science : – . vernes sc, newbury df, abrahams bs, winchester l, nicod j, et al. . a functional genetic link between distinct developmental language disorders. n. engl. j. med. : – . ziliak st, mccloskey dn. . the cult of statistical significance. ann arbor: univ. mich. press strauss · puffenberger a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . ar -gg -fm ari august : annual review of genomics and human genetics volume , contents chromosomes in leukemia and beyond: from irrelevant to central players janet d. rowley � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � unraveling a multifactorial late-onset disease: from genetic susceptibility to disease mechanisms for age-related macular degeneration anand swaroop, emily y. chew, catherine bowes rickman, and gonçalo r. abecasis � � � syndromes of telomere shortening mary armanios � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � chronic pancreatitis: genetics and pathogenesis jian-min chen and claude férec � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � the genetics of crohn’s disease johan van limbergen, david c. wilson, and jack satsangi � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genotyping technologies for genetic research jiannis ragoussis � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � applications of new sequencing technologies for transcriptome analysis olena morozova, martin hirst, and marco a. marra � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � the posttranslational processing of prelamin a and disease brandon s.j. davies, loren g. fong, shao h. yang, catherine coffinier, and stephen g. young � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genetic testing in israel: an overview guy rosner, serena rosner, and avi orr-urtreger � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � stewardship of human biospecimens, dna, genotype, and clinical data in the gwas era stephen j. o’brien � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � schistosoma genetics: new perspectives on schistosome biology and host-parasite interaction ze-guang han, paul j. brindley, sheng-yue wang, and zhu chen � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � evolution of genomic imprinting: insights from marsupials and monotremes marilyn b. renfree, timothy a. hore, geoffrey shaw, jennifer a. marshall graves, and andrew j. pask � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � v a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . ar -gg -fm ari august : methods for genomic partitioning emily h. turner, sarah b. ng, deborah a. nickerson, and jay shendure � � � � � � � � � � � � � biased gene conversion and the evolution of mammalian genomic landscapes laurent duret and nicolas galtier � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � inherited variation in gene expression daniel a. skelly, james ronald, and joshua m. akey � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution melissa a. wilson and kateryna d. makova � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � sequencing primate genomes: what have we learned? tomas marques-bonet, oliver a. ryder, and evan e. eichler � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genotype imputation yun li, cristen willer, serena sanna, and gonçalo abecasis � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genetics of athletic performance elaine a. ostrander, heather j. huson, and gary k. ostrander � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genetic screening for low-penetrance variants in protein-coding diseases jill waalen and ernest beutler � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � copy number variation in human health, disease, and evolution feng zhang, wenli gu, matthew e. hurles, and james r. lupski � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � the toxicogenomic multiverse: convergent recruitment of proteins into animal venoms bryan g. fry, kim roelants, donald e. champagne, holger scheib, joel d.a. tyndall, glenn f. king, timo j. nevalainen, janette a. norman, richard j. lewis, raymond s. norton, camila renjifo, and ricardo c. rodríguez de la vega � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � genetics, medicine, and the plain people kevin a. strauss and erik g. puffenberger � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � indexes cumulative index of contributing authors, volumes – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � cumulative index of chapter titles, volumes – � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � errata an online log of corrections to annual review of genomics and human genetics articles may be found at http://genom.annualreviews.org/ vi contents a nn u. r ev . g en om . h um an g en et . . : - . d ow nl oa de d fr om a rj ou rn al s. an nu al re vi ew s. or g by d r. k ev in s tr au ss o n / / . f or p er so na l us e on ly . 	search annual reviews 	annual reviews online 	annual review of genomics and human genetics online 	most downloaded genomics and human genetics
reviews 	most cited genomics and human genetics
reviews 	annual review of genomics and human genetics
errata 	view current editorial committee 	all articles in the annual review of genomics and human genetics, vol. 	chromosomes in leukemia and beyond: from irrelevantto central players 	unraveling a multifactorial late-onset disease: from genetic susceptibility to disease mechanisms for age-related maculardegeneration 	syndromes of telomere shortening 	chronic pancreatitis: genetics and pathogenesis 	the genetics of crohn’s disease 	genotyping technologies for genetic research 	applications of new sequencing technologies for transcriptome analysis 	the posttranslational processing of prelamin a and disease 	genetic testing in israel: an overview 	stewardship of human biospecimens, dna, genotype, and clinical data in the gwas era 	schistosoma genetics: new perspectives on schistosome biology and host-parasite interaction 	evolution of genomic imprinting: insights from marsupials and monotremes 	methods for genomic partitioning 	biased gene conversion and the evolution of mammalian genomic landscapes 	inherited variation in gene expression 	genomic analyses of sex chromosome evolution 	sequencing primate genomes: what have we learned? 	genotype imputation 	genetics of athletic performance 	genetic screening for low-penetrance variants in protein-coding diseases 	copy number variation in human health, disease, and evolution 	the toxicogenomic multiverse: convergent recruitment of proteinsi nto animal venoms 	genetics, medicine, and the plain people pii: s - ( ) - crystal structure of human branched-chain αα-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the molecular basis of multienzyme complex deficiency in maple syrup urine disease arnthor Ævarsson †, jacinta l chuang , r max wynn , stewart turley , david t chuang and wim gj hol , * background: mutations in components of the extraordinarily large α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes can lead to serious and often fatal disorders in humans, including maple syrup urine disease (msud). in order to obtain insight into the effect of mutations observed in msud patients, we determined the crystal structure of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (e ), the kda α β heterotetrameric e b component of the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. results: the . Å resolution crystal structure of human e b revealed essentially the full α and β polypeptide chains of the tightly packed heterotetramer. the position of two important potassium (k+) ions was determined. one of these ions assists a loop that is close to the cofactor to adopt the proper conformation. the second is located in the β subunit near the interface with the small c-terminal domain of the α subunit. the known msud mutations affect the functioning of e b by interfering with the cofactor and k+ sites, the packing of hydrophobic cores, and the precise arrangement of residues at or near several subunit interfaces. the tyr→asn mutation at position -α occurs very frequently in the us population of mennonites and is located in a unique extension of the human e b α subunit, contacting the β′ subunit. conclusions: essentially all msud mutations in human e b can be explained on the basis of the structure, with the severity of the mutations for the stability and function of the protein correlating well with the severity of the disease for the patients. the suggestion is made that small molecules with high affinity for human e b might alleviate effects of some of the milder forms of msud. introduction the human branched-chain α-ketoacid ( -oxo acid) dehydrogenase (bckd) complex is a member of the mitochondrial α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex family comprising pyruvate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and bckd complexes [ ]. the multien- zyme complexes in the family range in molecular mass from million to million daltons and share the same basic architecture, using numerous copies of three enzymes as major building blocks, referred to as e , e and e . a dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e ) forms the core of the complex with either copies in octahedral sym- metry or copies in icosahedral symmetry depending on the type and source of the complex [ – ]. multiple copies of an α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (e ), a dihy- drolipoamide dehydrogenase (e ), and in some systems of additional proteins, including a protein kinase and a protein phosphatase [ ], are attached to the e core through non-covalent bonds. e is a dynamic multi- domain protein with a large catalytic domain which forms the core of the complex, plus a smaller binding domain and one or more lipoyl domains linked to the core through flexible linkers. the e binding domain is in many cases responsible for binding e and/or e to the core whereas the highly mobile lipoyl domain contains a covalently bound lipoamide cofactor that is central to substrate channeling within the multienzyme complex. the α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes catalyze analogous reactions in central metabolism. an α-ketoacid (pyruvate, branched-chain α-ketoacids or α-ketoglutarate) is decarboxylated by the e component followed by transfer of the remaining acyl group to the lipoamide cofactor bound to e . next, the active site of the e catalytic domain (in the core of the complex) cat- alyzes the transfer of the acyl group from lipoamide to coenzyme a (coa) forming acyl–coa and leaving the lipoamide in a reduced state. eventually, the e compo- nent reactivates the lipoamide by oxidation using a bound fad cofactor and nad+ as external electron acceptor, addresses: department of biological structure, university of washington school of medicine, seattle, washington , usa, department of biochemistry, university of texas, southwestern medical center, dallas, texas , usa and howard hughes medical institute, university of washington, seattle, wa , usa. †present address: prokaria discovery, keldnaholt, is- reykjavik, iceland. *corresponding author. e-mail: hol@gouda.bmsc.washington.edu key words: α-ketoacid dehydrogenase, α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex, maple syrup urine disease, mennonite, thiamin diphosphate received: august revisions requested: november revisions received: december accepted: december published: february structure , : – - / /$ – see front matter © elsevier science ltd. all rights reserved. research article st .qxd / / : page thereby completing the functional cycle of the multi- enzyme complex [ , ]. the bckd complex [ ] is organized around a -meric cubic core of the . kda dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e b) with multiple (~ – ) copies of the kda branched- chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (e b), ~ copies of the kda dimeric e , and a small number of copies of the e b-specific kinase [ , ] and the e b phosphatase [ ]. the e component is a thiamine diphosphate (thdp)- dependent enzyme consisting of two . kda α subunits and two . kda β subunits. hence, the bckd complex consists of multiple copies of six different polypeptide chains. after import into the mitochondrion and processing of precursor polypeptides, these six proteins fold and assemble, presumably with the assistance of chaperonins in the mitochondrial matrix, into a multienzyme complex of – million daltons [ , ]. the particular importance of the structure determina- tion of human e b arises from the fact that the bckd complex catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of branched-chain α-ketoacids (bcka) derived from the branched-chain amino acids (bcaa) leucine, isoleucine and valine. in patients with autosomally inherited maple syrup urine disease (msud), also called branched-chain ketoaciduria, the activity of the bckd complex is defi- cient [ ]. this results in the accumulation of bcka and bcaa in plasma, which has severe clinical consequences including often fatal acidosis, neurological derangement and mental retardation [ ]. variations in clinical presen- tations have led to the classification of msud into five distinct phenotypes, classic, intermediate, intermittent, thiamin-responsive and dihydrolipoamide dehydroge- nase-deficient [ ]. the classic form, which comprises % of msud patients, is manifested within the first two weeks of life and if untreated, lethargy, seizures, coma and death ensue. intermediate msud is associ- ated with elevated levels of bcaas and bckas, with progressive mental retardation and developmental delay without a history of catastrophic illness. an intermittent form of msud might have normal levels of bcaas, normal intelligence and development until a stress, for example an infection, precipitates decompensation with acidosis and neurologic symptoms, which are usually reversable with dietary treatment. thiamine-responsive msud is similar to the intermediate phenotype but responds to pharmacological doses of thiamine with nor- malization of bcaas. the dihydrolipoamide dehydroge- nase-deficient msud is caused by defects in the e component of the bckd complex, which is shared with the pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase com- plexes. patients with dihydrolipoamide–dehydrogenase deficiency have, therefore, a combined deficiency of all three enzyme complexes, and usually die in infancy with severe lactic acidosis [ ]. to understand the molecular and biochemical basis of msud, we have undertaken the determination of the crystal structure of human e b. in this report, we describe the three-dimensional structure of this thdp- dependent enzyme at . Å resolution, which reveals several unique structural features that are absent in the homologous enzyme from pseudomonas putida [ ]. most significantly, the structure of human e b provides remarkable insights into the mechanisms by which msud mutations affect the catalysis, folding and assem- bly of this clinically important protein. results and discussion description of the structure the overall heterotetrameric structure of human e b is shown in figure . to a first approximation, the tetrameric structure is a four-lobed entity with each lobe in the tetra- hedral arrangement roughly corresponding to one of the four subunits. each subunit is in extensive contact with all the other three subunits. striking features of the subunit interactions are the crossover of the n-terminal tails of the α subunits, and the extended c-terminal domains of the α subunits ‘holding onto’ the β subunits. the designation of the subunits as α, α′, β and β′ has been chosen such that the α subunit and the β subunit together correspond to one polypeptide of the structurally similar but dimeric yeast transketolase [ ] and, by analogy, to one subunit of the dimeric e s of the α type [ ]. each -residue α subunit of human e b is composed of a large α/β domain (residues – ) with an extended n-ter- minal tail (residues – ) and a small helical c-terminal domain (residues – ). the central -stranded β sheet in the major domain is buried by helices in vari- able orientations. the secondary structure elements in the α subunit comprise a total of strands and helices (figures , ). each β subunit of residues is divided into two similar sized domains corresponding to the n-and c-terminal halves of the polypeptide, comprising residues – and – , respectively. both domains have an α–β architecture comprising a central β sheet with several helices packed against the sheet on both sides (figures , ). structural comparison with homologous enzymes the structure of human e b provides an opportunity to compare this eukaryotic enzyme with its bacterial homolog in p. putida [ ]. superposition of the two structures gives a root mean square (rms) deviation of . Å and a sequence identity of % for the structurally equivalent residues. the most notable differences between the structures are found at the n and c termini of the α subunits. the n-ter- minal tail in each case crosses over and embraces the other α subunit but does so in entirely different ways in the two proteins. the -residue n-terminal tails of the α subunits in the human e b are intertwined in a ‘firm handshake’ whereas the corresponding tails in the p. putida structure structure , vol no st .qxd / / : page extend to opposite sides on the tetramer far from crossing each others’ path. the small c-terminal domain of the human α subunit is residues longer than its counterpart in p. putida (figure ), resulting in a longer last helix and an irregular tail. this extension in the human structure is the site of an important mutation causing msud (y n-α; mutations given using single-letter amino acid code) [ ] and is criti- cal for the structural integrity of the human e b tetramer, as will be discussed later. human e b and p. putida e b share features with other proteins in the superfamily of thdp-utilizing enzymes [ , , – ]. the common homologous region of these proteins includes the cores of the α subunit and the n-ter- minal domain of the β subunit. comparison of the struc- tures reveals how these common domains can have a different order within the same polypeptide [ ] or be dis- tributed over different polypeptide chains as is the case in the present structure. binding of the thdp cofactor the thdp cofactors are bound in the two active sites of the tetramer at the α–β′ and α′–β interfaces. the sidechains of gln -α, tyr -α, arg -α, arg -α, and his -α and the mainchain atoms of gly -α and ala -α in the α subunit are in direct contact with the oxygen atoms of the phosphate groups of the cofactor (figure a). the associated magnesium ion is octahedrally coordinated between the cofactor phosphates, the car- bonyl of tyr -α, and the sidechains of asn -α and glu -α. the sidechain of tyr -β′ is packed against one side of the aminopyrimidine ring of the cofactor with the sidechain of leu α approaching the other side of the ring, wedged in between the two ring systems of the cofactor. the sidechains of ile -α and leu -β′ also contribute to cofactor binding through hydrophobic inter- actions. glu -β′ is directly bound to the n ′ atom and the carbonyl group of ser -α is bound to the n ′ group on the opposite side of the aminopyrimidine ring. these two interactions, as well as the coordination of the magne- sium ion and the conformation of the cofactor (having torsion angles Φt = °, Φp = – ° in our structure), are conserved features among proteins of known structure in the thdp superfamily and probably represent features of functional significance [ – ]. the two serine residues that are phosphorylated in human e b are ser -α and ser -α. inactivation of the enzyme, and consequently of the whole complex, occurs upon phosphorylation of ser -α at the primary site [ , ], which is located close to the active site. the primary site ser -α is next to the conserved his -α, which is directly involved in binding the cofactor phos- phates and this histidine residue might also play a more direct role in the catalytic mechanism [ , ]. phosphory- lation at ser -α most probably prevents substrate and/or cofactor binding through steric hindrance or electrostatic repulsion between the cofactor phosphates and the phos- phate group introduced by phosphorylation. the function of his -α in cofactor binding or catalysis could also be eliminated by the presence of an adjacent phosphate group or by induced conformational changes involving the loop comprising ser -α and his -α. given that this loop is also found at the opening of the active-site research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. figure overall structure of the heterotetramer in two orthogonal orientations rotated about the vertical axis. the secondary structure elements are depicted as cylinders for helices and arrows for strands. the chain termini in the different subunits are labeled n and c, and the four subunits (α, purple; β, red; α′, blue; β′, yellow) are in ‘canonical’ colors used throughout the paper. this figure was made with the help of molscript [ ] and the raster d suite [ ]. st .qxd / / : page channel, it is not unlikely that the binding sites for the kinase and phosphatase and that of the e lipoyl domain overlap to a certain degree. structural potassium ions initial examination of difference electron-density maps showed the presence of two spherical peaks with high pos- itive density at the – σ level. these peaks were inter- preted as monovalent metal ions for four reasons: firstly, the peak heights were considerably above that of all other water molecules, which rarely exceeded σ; secondly, the number of surrounding atoms was to , considerably more than typically seen for water peaks; thirdly, the groups in contact with the bound entity all contained an oxygen atom; fourthly, when refined as a potassium ion the b factors obtained reasonable values. crystallization conditions of human e b included both mm mg + and mm k+. the latter ions are of special interest because shimomura et al. [ ] have shown previously that stability and activity of the branched-chain dehydrogenase multi- enzyme complex from rat liver is to a large extent depen- dent on the presence of k+ with the e component being the most probable site of metal binding. it was further shown that stabilization of e by thdp is dependent on the presence of k+ and that stabilization by k+ ions is likely to be physiologically relevant in vivo because the mitochondrial matrix maintains a k+ concentration of mm [ ]. a similar dependence on k+ for stability is also observed in human e b [ ]. the two positive differ- ence map peaks in the human e b structure were there- fore interpreted as k+, which agrees with these biochemical observations because they are bound in loca- tions that are likely to be critical for the stability and func- tion of the protein. the k+ bound at site (figure b) stabilizes a loop con- taining residues – of the α subunit. the residues in the loop are well conserved among e b proteins including ser -α, thr -α and gln -α, which are directly involved in ligating the metal ion through their sidechains. other atoms involved in coordination of the metal are mainchain carbonyl oxygens of ser -α and pro -α. the previously determined structure of p. putida e b [ ] probably also contains a k+ at the corresponding position. interestingly, the structural integrity of the k+-binding loop – is probably very critical for the activity of the enzyme because the residues of this loop contribute directly to cofactor binding by hydrophobic interactions, through leu -α wedged between the two rings of the thdp, and by hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl of ser -α and the ′ amino group of the cofactor (figure b). both these interactions are a conserved structure , vol no figure annotated sequence alignment of p. putida and human e b α and β subunits. the sequences are shown with amino acid residues in red for identical residues and black for non-identical residues. residues shown in italics have a very different conformation in the two structures and are not structurally equivalent. secondary structure elements in the human e b structure are shown with cylinders and arrows above the sequences (purple in the α subunit and yellow in the β subunit). the numbering of secondary structure elements is consistent with that used for p. putida e b [ ]. residues involved in binding the cofactor thdp and the associated magnesium ion are indicated by shaded boxes. the sequence motif in the superfamily of thdp-utilizing enzymes is shown using black open boxes. regions involved in k+ binding are shown with red open boxes and the two phosphorylation sites are indicated by red arrows. mutations identified as causing msud are shown below the sequences in blue boxes. st .qxd / / : page feature among thdp-utilizing proteins with known struc- ture [ , , – ]. the binding of the k+ ion at this posi- tion to the α chain of e b explains why enzyme activity as well as stabilization of the protein by thdp binding is dependent on the presence of k+. the second k+-binding site is found in the β subunit at the interface with the small c-terminal domain of the α subunit (figure c). the metal ion connects two regions in the β subunit with residues gly -β, leu -β, cys -β, asp -β and asn -β being directly involved in binding the metal. the coordination of the second k+ is octahedral and is almost exclusively maintained by carbonyl oxygens of the protein main- chain, with only one sidechain (thr -β) indirectly involved in metal binding through a water molecule. an interesting feature of the metal ligation at this site is the use of carbonyl atoms from the c terminus of an α helix, utilizing the negative end of a helix dipole to interact favorably with the positively charged metal ion (figure c). one of the regions stabilized by this second k+ is directly involved in contacts with the α subunit through the sidechain of asn -β, which makes a hydro- gen bond with the mainchain imino group of gln -α. the binding of k+ at this site is likely to be important for the stability of the tetrameric e b structure and agrees research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. figure cofactor and k+-binding sites in human e b. (a) schematic representation of the cofactor- binding site. gln -α and protein ligands of the magnesium ion have been omitted for clarity. (b) potassium site (α subunit). the metal stabilizes a loop involved in cofactor binding. the metal ion is bound by two mainchain carbonyl groups and by the sidechains of ser -α, thr -α and gln -α. the sidechain of leu -α and the mainchain carbonyl group of ser -α make direct contact with the thdp cofactor. (c) potassium site (β subunit). the metal binding at this site stabilizes regions in the β subunit at the interface with the small c-terminal domain in the α subunit. the metal is octahedrally coordinated mainly by mainchain carbonyl groups and interacts favorably with the c-terminal end of a helix dipole as indicated. several sidechains indicated by an asterisk have been omitted for clarity. this figure was made with ligplot [ ], molscript [ ] and the raster d suite [ ]. st .qxd / / : page well with the observed dependence of the enzyme activ- ity on the concentration of potassium salts [ , ]. subunit interactions the interactions between the four subunits in the tetramer are extensive and consist of four different inter- faces: first between the two α subunits (i.e. interface α–α′) burying Å solvent-accessible surface area; second, the α–β interface burying an area of Å ; third, the α–β′ interface burying Å ; and fourth the β–β′ inter- face shielding Å from the solvent. the α–α′ inter- action is to a large extent formed by the intertwining n-terminal tails making the buried accessible surface area substantially more extensive than in the p. putida e b structure ( Å against Å ). overall, not less than % of the accessible surface of the α subunits and % of the β subunits is devoted to subunit interactions. this includes large hydrophobic patches that would be exposed prior to tetramer assembly within the mitochondrion. this is consistent with the requirement of chaperonins groel/groes for the assembly of the human e b het- erotetramer in escherichia coli [ ] and in vitro [ ]. analysis of e b mutations causing msud there are currently known msud-causing mutations that result in amino acid substitutions in the α and β sub- units of human e b (table ). with a few exceptions, mutations in the α subunit of e b are often associated with the manifestation of the severe classic msud pheno- type. the structure of human e b can now be used to divide the group of mutations into three subgroups on the basis of the likely effect of each mutation on the structure and function of e b. the first group includes mutations affecting cofactor binding, the second affects mainly hydrophobic cores and the third occurs at subunit inter- faces (table ). table provides information regarding the residual bckd complex activity, ethnic origin and the clinical phenotype of homozygous or compound heterozy- gous msud patients carrying the corresponding muta- tions. with some exceptions, cells from classic msud patients usually exhibit – % of normal bckd complex activity, whereas cells from intermediate patients show – % of normal bckd complex activity. the location of the corresponding mutations in the present structure can now be used to explain these observations. mutations affecting cofactor binding the msud-causing mutations that can be most easily explained are substitutions of residues that are directly involved in binding the cofactor in the active site. asn -α is one of the residues in the consensus sequence motif for this family of enzymes [ ] and contributes to cofactor binding by ligating the associated magnesium ion (figure a). judged by the strict conservation of asn -α within the family, this residue has a critical function, one that can apparently not be performed by a serine residue because the n s-α mutation causes msud. the expla- nation is probably that in wild-type human e b, the sidechain carbonyl oxygen of asn -α is used for binding metal ions, whereas the hydroxyl group of the serine sidechain would be a poorer ligand to the magnesium ion. moreover, the oγ of a serine residue would not be able to extend as far towards the magnesium ion as the oδ of the aspargine, which is another factor likely to decrease the affinity for magnesium at this site. this is reflected by a -fold increase in km for thdp of asn s-α e b com- pared with the wild-type enzyme (data not shown). the asparagine to serine mutation at position -α causes a severe, ‘classic’, case of msud. the severe r w-α and r w-α msud mutations probably have quite similar effects on the cofactor-binding site. both substitutions introduce a tryptophan residue in the place of an arginine residue directly involved in binding the cofactor through ionic interactions with its phosphate groups (figure a). besides loosing that capability, the bulky tryptophan residue probably prevents the protein from adopting a proper active-site conformation and could even prevent cofactor binding by steric hindrance. given the major effects expected on thdp binding, and possibly substrate binding due to these mutations, it is not surpris- ing that this causes the classic severe type of msud. one of the more intriguing mutations is t m-α because it replaces a residue involved in ligation of k+ at site . the probable abolishment of k+ binding at this site by the t m-α mutation is most probably caused by destabilization of the loop forming the k+-binding site and preventing this loop from adopting the precise conforma- tion required for cofactor binding that involves ser -α and leu -α at the tip of the loop (figure b). the result is a classic severe type of msud. mutations affecting hydrophobic cores a part of the hydrophobic core in the main domain of the α subunit is formed by the sidechains from helices and and strands a, d, e, h and i. two mutations in the α subunit seem to disrupt this hydrophobic core (figure b). clearly, the large and charged sidechain of arginine introduced by the t r-α mutation in helix cannot be accommodated within this core in the current conformation. the site of the much less dramatic i t-α mutation in strand i is very close to thr -α. the i t-α substitution might seem subtle but a polar sidechain might not be easily tolerated in this exclusively hydropho- bic environment. in the family of heterotetrameric e pro- teins (about known sequences so far), only leucine, methionine, isoleucine and valine are found at this posi- tion. patients heterozygous for i t-α/q k-α show an intermediate clinical phenotype and the corresponding cells show low residual enzyme activity (table ). the structure , vol no st .qxd / / : page relatively mild form of the disease in this case corresponds well with the relatively small predicted effect of the muta- tions on protein structure and stability. two mutations that also seem to prevent the formation of an optimal hydrophobic core are g s-α and a t-α (not shown). in both cases, the mutation introduces a larger polar sidechain in an environment in which a smaller and non-polar residue is required. the m t-α mutation in helix appears to reveal a remarkably critical spot in a hydrophobic core in the α subunit at a location where four helices come together through hydrophobic interactions (not shown). the con- servation of this methionine residue within the family of heterotetrameric e b proteins suggests that it cannot be easily replaced by the polar and smaller sidechain of a threonine residue. residual multienzyme complex activity in cells from patients carrying this mutation is significant and gives rise to an intermediate clinical phenotype (table ), in agreement with the expected limited effect of the methionine to threonine substitution at position - α on e b stability. mutations affecting subunit interactions the extensive subunit interactions in the heterote- trameric structure are undoubtedly crucial for maintaining the catalytically active structure of the enzyme, because the cofactor is bound at an α–β′ interface where residues from both subunits form the active site. there are a number of msud mutations that originate from their detrimental effect on subunit–subunit interaction surfaces (table ). interestingly, all four different interfaces, α–α′, α–β, α–β′ and β–β′, located at entirely different positions throughout the heterotetramer, are effected by this class of mutations, as will be discussed later. a d-α, a p-α, g r-α and r h-α all cluster at or close to the interface between the α subunits. this α–α′ interface in the interior of the tetramer is to a large extent formed by helix in the two α subunits, which associate around the twofold axis of the tetramer. the small glycine residue at position -α is critical in order to allow the close interaction of these helices (figure a). a substitution of glycine for arginine at this position by the g r-α mutation would clearly prevent a tight asso- ciation of the two α subunits in the manner observed in research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. table missense mutations in e b subunits and clinical phenotypes of msud patients. amino acid substitution enzyme activity* clinical phenotype ethnic origin reference (% normal) group — mutations affecting cofactor binding r w-α unknown classic japanese [ ] t m-α classic thai (jlc and dtc, unpublished observations) r w-α classic caucasian [ ] n s-α . † classic caucasian [ ] group — mutations affecting hydrophobic cores m t-α § intermediate caucasian (jlc and dtc, unpublished observations) g s-α classic caucasian [ ] a t-α classic japanese [ ] t r-α classic canadian [ ] i t-α . ‡ intermediate japanese [ ] group — mutations affecting subunit association n y-β < § classic unknown [ ] q k-α . ‡ intermediate japanese [ ] h r-β classic japanese [ ] a d-α ‡ intermediate caucasian (jlc and dtc, unpublished observations) a p-α classic caucasian [ ] g r-α † intermediate hispanic-mexican [ ] r h-α ‡ intermediate caucasian (jlc and dtc, unpublished observations) f c-α classic hispanic-mexican [ ] y c-α intermediate caucasian [ ] y n-α classic mennonite [ ] [ ] *unless otherwise indicated, bckd activity was measured using fibroblasts or lymphoblasts derived from msud patients and normal subjects. intact-cell assays were carried out by incubating harvested cells with α-keto [ – c] isovalerate under isotonic conditions, and co released was measured [ ]. the residual bckd activity is expressed as a percentage of wild type. †e b activity in the recombinant protein carrying the g r-α or n s-α mutation was measured by radiochemical e b assays using α-keto [ – c] isovalerate as a substrate and , -dichlorophenol indophenol as the electron acceptor [ ]. the results were compared to that obtained with the wild-type e b protein. ‡the residual bckd activity was measured with intact msud cells that are compound-heterozygous for i t-α/q k-α or a d-α/r h-α. thus, the residual activity is expressed by one or both alleles in each patient. the other allele in the patient carrying the m t-α mutation has not been identified. §the other allele in the patient carrying this mutation is a null-allele. st .qxd / / : page the crystal structure. it is rather surprising therefore that observations indicate that the mutant protein may never- theless assemble in an imperfect way to produce a par- tially active enzyme [ ]. e b activity of a recombinant protein with the glycine to arginine mutation at position -α was measured to be approximately % compared with wild-type, and patients carrying this mutation show an intermediate clinical phenotype (table ). on the basis of our structure, the two msud mutations a p-α and r h-α would both be predicted to disrupt a network of interactions formed between charged groups at the n-terminal end of helix (figure a). in the wild- type enzyme arg -α makes a salt bridge with the nega- tively charged sidechain of asp -α as well as with the sidechain of glu -α, which in turn interacts with the positive end of the dipole of helix through a direct hydrogen bond with the amino group of ala -α. this extensive network of salt bridges and hydrogen bonds is probably critical for the precise positioning of helix and consequently for the formation of the α–α′ interface. the r h-α msud mutation introduces a shorter histidine sidechain that might not be able to maintain optimal bonds with both sidechains of asp -α and glu -α at the same time (figure a). the a p-α mutation, on the other hand, eliminates the free amino group at the begin- ning of helix and interrupts the hydrogen bond between glu -α and the imino group of ala -α occurring in the wild-type enzyme. this mutation might also prevent for- mation of the bond between glu -α and the mainchain amino group at position ile -α by steric hindrance. the a p-α mutation gives rise to a classic clinical phenotype with no residual multienzyme complex activity. in con- trast, r h-α together with a d-α (also found at the α–α′ interface, not shown) are the least severe mutations known to cause msud. these two mutations occur in compound-heterozygous patients that display almost % residual multienzyme complex activity (table ). his -β is probably critical for the close interaction between the two β subunits. like a ‘knob in a hole’, the sidechain of his -β in one β subunit is tucked into an interface pocket formed by the other β subunit, packing against the sidechains of phe -β′ and pro -β′ (figure b). in addition, his -β makes a hydrogen bond with the mainchain carbonyl of thr -β′. although the arginine sidechain, introduced by the h r-β mutation at this position, could potentially have favorable interac- tions with glu -β′ at the bottom of the pocket this might lead to loss of a favorable interaction between glu -β′ and the sidechain of trp -β′ (figure b). in addition, a specific hydrogen bond between the sidechain of his -β and the mainchain carbonyl group of thr -β would be lost by the substitution. the interface pocket accommodating the his -β sidechain might therefore not be able to accommodate the larger sidechain of an arginine residue in a satisfactory way and the histi- dine to arginine mutation at this position thereby prevents association of the β subunits and assembly of an active tetramer, causing a classic form of msud. another interface residue altered in some msud patients is asn -β, which appears to be involved in forming a network of hydrogen bonds that stabilizes the conforma- tion of the polypeptide in two regions in the β subunit, around positions asn -β and lys -β (figure c). these regions are critical for k+ binding at site (see above) and might also be important for subunit associa- tion. the sidechain of asn -β forms hydrogen bonds with the imino group of gly -β and with the sidechain of arg -β. the msud substitution n y-β would dramatically affect this region because of the larger size of the newly introduced sidechain. the favorable interaction between arg -β and the mainchain carbonyl of lys -β is likely to be disrupted with further serious consequences because the mainchain carbonyl groups of residues -β, -β as well as -β ligate the k+ at site structure , vol no figure msud mutations affecting cofactor binding and the hydrophobic core in human e b. (a) the r w-α, r w-α and n s-α mutations each affect residues that are directly involved in binding the cofactor phosphates and the associated magnesium ion. asn -α is a conserved residue in the superfamily of thdp-utilizing enzymes and is a part of its sequence fingerprint motif (gdg(x) – nn). also shown is the primary phosphorylation site at ser -α [ ]. (b) the sites of the t r- α and i t-α mutations appear to occur in the same hydrophobic cluster of the α subunit. these mutations are likely to prevent optimal packing in the hydrophobic core. this figure was made using molscript [ ] and the raster d suite [ ]. st .qxd / / : page . interfering with this k+ site has yet further implications because the sidechain of asn -β is in contact with the mainchain of the α subunit at position adjacent to tyr -α (which is the site of another msud mutation; see below) at the α–β interface. the structural effects of the asparagine to tyrosine substitution at position -β correlate well with the observation that this mutation causes severe msud. the ‘mennonite region’ there are three msud missense mutations that map onto the extended small c-terminal domain protruding from the bulk of the α subunit (figure a). this domain has a differ- ent size in different e heterotetramers (figure ) but seems to function as support for the two β subunits extend- ing the interaction between the α and β subunits. this small domain of each α subunit is in contact with both β subunits (figure ). the interface contacts are to a large extent hydrophobic in nature with a notable feature being an array of aromatic sidechains from the α subunit side packed against an array of aromatics from the β′ subunit (figure ). all three msud mutations in this part of the α subunit occur in the ‘aromatic α array’ and substitute an aromatic residue for a smaller and non-aromatic residue. this includes the frequent tyrosine to asparagine mutation at position -α found in the us mennonite population [ , ], in which the prevalence of this mutation is in live births as a result of consanguinity [ , ]. tyr -α is packed in between two aromatic residues, trp -β′ and phe -β′, of the β′ subunit and forms two hydrogen bonds via its hydroxyl group with asp -β′ as well as his -α (figure b). the tyrosine to asparagine mutation at position -α introduces a much smaller and polar asparagine sidechain that would be unable to com- pensate for the extensive contact made by the native tyrosine sidechain. the sidechain of tyr -α, another member of the aro- matic α array affected by msud mutations, fits into a surface pocket on the β subunit (figure a) formed by the sidechains of residues asn -β, lys -β and pro -β and the mainchain atoms of gly -β and ile -β. the hydroxyl group is then able to act as both hydrogen-bond acceptor and donor making hydrogen bonds to a main- chain carbonyl group ( -β) and a mainchain imino group (gly -β). these specific interactions would not be formed by the smaller cysteine sidechain resulting from the tyrosine to cysteine mutation at position -α. phe -α, the third member of the aromatic array changed into a non-aromatic in certain msud patients, makes extensive hydrophobic interactions with the sidechains of leu -α, leu -α, gln -α and leu -α, which contribute to the compact hydrophobic core within the small c-terminal domain of the α subunit. in addition, these residues are also part of the interface to the β subunit where the sidechains of leu -α, leu -α and phe -α are tightly packed against the sidechain of tyr -β′ (figure a). the phenylalanine to cysteine msud mutation at position -α is likely to affect α–β′ subunit interactions by causing defects in the subunit interface but might have more profound consequences for the folding of the small c-terminal domain itself. research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. figure msud mutations affecting subunit interactions. for clarity, chains are shown as polyglycine plus selected sidechains only. (a) mutations close to the interface between the α subunits of the e b tetramer. mutations a p-α and r h-α are likely to prevent formation of the network of bonds between charged groups at the n-terminal end of helix . these interactions might be important for the precise positioning of the helix and hence for formation of the interface between the α subunits. the g r-α mutation would introduce a large sidechain at a position where a small sidechain is required in order to allow the close approach of the interface helices α and α ′. (b) stereoview of the site of the h r-β mutation at the interface between the β subunits. the precise fit of the histidine sidechain in the interface pocket formed by the opposite β subunit cannot be obtained with the larger sidechain of an arginine residue introduced by the msud mutation. this figure was made using molscript [ ] and the raster d suite [ ]. st .qxd / / : page the aromatic to non-aromatic mutations in the small c-terminal domain of the α subunit are of particular inter- est because they have a dramatic effect on the structural integrity of the protein as a whole by impairing the process of tetramer assembly. we have shown previously that the folding and assembly of mammalian e b het- erotetramers is entirely dependent upon chaperonins groel/groes either in e. coli [ ] or in vitro [ ]. more- over, the chaperonin-mediated α β assembly proceeds through an αβ heterodimeric intermediate [ ], which can be isolated as a relatively stable species from e. coli under certain growth conditions [ ]. our recent pulse-chase data shows that y n-α, f c-α and y c-α muta- tions markedly reduce the assembly rate of the normal β subunit with the mutant α [ ]. on the other hand, expression studies in e. coli indicate that in the presence of over-producing chaperonins groel/groes, y n-α and f c-α subunits are capable of assembly with the normal β subunit into stable heterodimers, but the latter are unable to convert to active heterotetramers [ ]. under similar conditions, the wild-type α subunit assem- bles with β subunits into active heterotetramers. as for the y c-α mutation, the mutant α subunit and the normal β appear to be capable of forming both heterote- tramers and heterodimers [ ]. from the structural analysis combined with the biochemi- cal studies emerges a picture of a probable assembly pathway of the human e b tetramer in vivo. the pro- posed assembly proceeds from single subunits, see figure , via heterodimers αβ and α′β′ to the final het- erotetramer. the y n-α mutation apparently blocks this assembly midway because it leads exclusively to for- mation of heterodimers. a single heterodimer of this type would correspond to association of the α subunit with the β subunit and not the β′ subunit because the α–β′ inter- action is impaired by the y n-α mutation. in effect, the y n-α mutation blocks the final step of the assembly by preventing the interaction between the two het- erodimers (figure ). the resulting heterodimers would be inactive because the active sites in which the cofactors are bound are formed in the last step of the pathway through assembly of the αβ and α′β′ dimers. the f c-α mutation can be predicted to have similar effects as the y n-α mutation has on tetramer assembly because it affects the same α–β′ and α′–β interfaces. this is also supported by the results of the chaperonin-assisted assembly studies [ ]. the y c-α mutation is distinctly different from the f c-α and y n-α mutations because it affects differ- ent interfaces (α–β and α′–β′) and would seem to impair the first step in the assembly pathway in figure . it also appears to be less severe, however, because it does not completely prevent assembly of the tetramer. structure , vol no figure mutations affecting subunit interactions between α and β subunits. (a) mutations in the small c-terminal domain of the α subunit at the interface with the two β subunits. the c-terminal domain is shown with a coil representation of the backbone with selected sidechains. the β subunits are shown as semi-transparent surfaces, in yellow for the β′ subunit and in red for the β subunit. some sidechains in the β subunits that are forming the interface to the α subunit are shown beneath the surface. note that the α subunit makes contacts with both β subunits and also note the prevalence of aromatic residues at the subunit interface. the sites of the three msud mutations in this region of the α subunit, f c-α, y c-α and y n-α, are highlighted. all three mutations are substitutions of aromatic residues involved in the interface to a β subunit, tyr -α is in contact with the β subunit (α–β interface) whereas phe -α and tyr -α contact the β′ subunit (α–β′ interface). (b) close up stereoview of tyr -α (the site of the ‘mennonite’ mutation) and its vicinity at the interface between the small c-terminal domain of the α subunits and the β′ subunit. tyr -α is packed in between the sidechains of phe -β′ and trp -β′ with its hydroxyl group making hydrogen bonds with the sidechains of his -α and asp -β′. the y n-α mutation is the most frequently observed mutation that causes msud [ , ]. this figure was created using grasp [ ], molscript [ ] and the raster d suite [ ]. st .qxd / / : page interaction with other components in the multienzyme complex the human e b component interacts with a number of other components within the multienzyme complex: the binding domain and lipoyl domain of e b as well as the specific protein kinase and phosphatase that control the activity of e through (de)phosphorylation. it has been shown previously that an e tetramer binds only one copy of the e binding domain with the binding site located on the β subunits [ , ]. this suggests that the binding site is located at or close to the twofold axis on the β subunits. our reconstitution experiments employing different con- structs of human e b now provide more direct evidence supporting binding at this location of the tetramer. the results indicate that, under the same conditions, an e b tetramer with an n-terminal his -tag on the α subunit readily forms a complex with the e b -mer, whereas an e b heterotetramer that carries a c-terminal his -tag on research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. figure the proposed assembly pathway of the human e b tetramer and the possible effects of mutations f c-α, y c-α and y n-α on the assembly. the tetramer probably assembles through the formation of intermediate heterodimers (see text). assembly of mutant proteins carrying the y n-α mutation results exclusively in the formation of heterodimers that can be predicted to correspond to αβ and α′β′ dimers because the α–β′ and α′–β interaction is impaired by the y n-α mutation. the same is probably the case for the f c-α mutation. the y c-α mutation would have distinctly different effects on tetramer assembly because it occurs at different interfaces (α–β and α′–β′) compared with the other two mutations. the figure was created using molscript [ ]. st .qxd / / : page the β subunit cannot bind to e b (data not shown). the latter construct was used to express protein for the struc- ture determination and although the his tags are invisible in our electron-density maps there is visible density up to the last residue preceding the his tag at the c termini of the β subunits. it is interesting that the proposed binding of the e binding domain to e (figure a) is analogous to the binding of a single copy of this domain to the e dimer as seen previously in the structure of bacillus stearothermophilus e in complex with the e binding domain (figure b) [ ]. given our ability to model approximate interactions of dif- ferent multienzyme components, we can now assemble the building blocks together in an overall picture of the human e b multienzyme complex analogs because examples of all components have been structurally characterized [ , , , ]. combining this with a simple model of the mutual arrangement of components in multienzyme com- plexes that emerged from early electron microscopy work [ ], we can arrive at the hypothetical model of a bckd complex shown in figure c. the model includes an e core with subunits arranged as a cube with (octahe- dral) symmetry as seen for the first time for the core of azo- tobacter vinelandii pyruvate dehydrogenase [ ]. an e tetramer is placed above each of the edges of the cubic core with the twofold axis of the e molecule coinciding with the twofold axes of the core and the β subunits with the associated e binding domains oriented towards the core. in an analogous way an e dimer in complex with an e binding domain is placed at the fourfold axis above each of the six faces of the cubic core. the lipoyl domains are placed in the space between the e and e molecules allowing free access to the respective active sites. the resulting complex has a molecular mass close to four million da and an overall diameter of approximately Å. as intact α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme com- plexes resist crystallization, our attempts to obtain a high resolution overall picture of these macromolecular assem- blies focused on structural studies of the individual com- ponents providing pieces to a composite picture as the one outlined above. further advances using electron microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr), crystal- lography and biochemical techniques will continue to provide more refined models. these complexes are an elegant combination of a highly symmetric core sur- rounded by flexible ‘arms’ to which dozens of large addi- tional enzymes are attached with variations in stoichiometry. one might particularly appreciate the sub- strate coas, which have to navigate around the swirling peripheral proteins to enter the hollow core of the complex [ ] in order to retrieve a precious acyl group, and then to make the journey out of the complex to assure the proper delivery of this group to other critical, yet simpler, components in the mitochondrial matrix. structure , vol no figure assembly of the bckd complex. (a) interaction between e and the binding domain of e . human e b is shown on the left with the proposed binding site of the e binding domain at the top of the tetramer close to the c termini of the β subunits. recombinant protein carrying a his-tag at the c termini of the β subunits is unable to bind the e binding domain. (b) the proposed position of the binding domain at the twofold axis of the e tetramer is analogous to the binding of the e binding domain at the twofold axis of the e dimer, as seen in the structure of bacillus stearothermophilus e in complex with the e binding domain [ ]. (c) hypothetical composite model of a branched-chain dehydrogenase multienzyme complex (described in the text). st .qxd / / : page biological implications mutations in components of the α-ketoacid dehydroge- nase multienzyme complex can lead to potentially severe disorders in humans, including maple syrup urine disease (msud). we determined the crystal structure of a component (the e b component) of the branched- chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex from humans. the structure of human -oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase has enabled us to provide a detailed explanation for all the point mutations of α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (e b) that are known to be responsible for msud in human patients. in essentially all instances the severity of the disease corresponds well with the predicted effect of the mutation on the structure, stability, and cofactor or k+ binding by the enzyme. in the severe cases cofactor binding is essentially prohibited, or proper assembly made impossible. in these cases our structural studies provide profound insight, but the structure does not easily lend itself as a platform for the development of small therapeutic agents that assist in treatment for the disease. for some of the milder mutations, however, the human e b structure presented here might lend itself perhaps to the discovery of compounds that could be therapeuti- cally useful for several of these less severe forms of msud, even if these are caused by entirely different mutations. the principle of the proposed approach is that mutations such as m t-α, i t-α and r h-α probably lead to a significant but not dramatic decrease in the stability of e b. e b heterotetramers with these mild msud mutations might be recovered by interac- tions with small molecules. because tightly binding small molecules are able to increase the stability of pro- teins significantly during or after folding, the discovery of low molecular weight compounds with high affinity for human e b that do not adversely affect the catalytic machinery of the enzyme, could be a starting point for the development of useful therapeutic agents. in partic- ular, patients with the intermittent forms of the disease, who, therefore, would not require a life long use of ther- apeutic compounds, might benefit from such an approach. this approach might be generally applicable to other genetic diseases in which loss of protein stability causes milder forms of the disease (for instance, several forms of β-galactosialidosis are caused by relatively mild mutations in the human protective protein [ ]). materials and methods construction of a vector for the expression of human e with a his tag at the c terminus of the β subunit to facilitate vector construction, an ncoi site was engineered into the n terminus of the mature human α sequence using polymerase chain reaction (pcr) amplification. this resulted in the incorporation of an extra glycine immediately upstream of the n-terminal serine residue. an ncoi/ecori fragment encoding the n-terminal sequence of the α subunit was restricted from the pcr product. an ecori/bamhi frag- ment containing the downstream sequence of the subunit was excised from the previously described ebo-bhe a vector [ ]. to generate the insert for the mature β subunit, a sequence coding for the his tag was incorporated immediately ′ to the c-terminal tyrosine codon. the β-his sequence was inserted into the ncoi/ecori-digested pkk - vector from amersham pharmacia (piscataway, nj). the ncoi/ecori and the ecori/bamhi fragments from the a subunit along with the bamhi/scai gene cartridge containing the ptac promoter and the β-his sequence were ligated into a ncoi/scai-digested ptrchisb vector from invitrogen (carlsbad, ca). the resultant vector p-he -his encodes an untagged α sequence and the c-terminal his -tagged β sequence of human e b. expression and purification of recombinant human e b protein the p-he -his plasmid and pgroesl plasmid overproducing chaper- onins groel/es were cotransformed into groests cg- e. coli, and cells were induced with iptg for he b expression as described previously [ , ]. the overexpression of chaperonins groel/es in the host cells was essential for efficient expression of he b. the recombinant human e b-his protein was extracted from cell lysates with ni-nta resin (qiagen, valencia, ca), and eluted with a – mm imidazole gradient in a buffer containing mm kpi, ph . , mm nacl, mm β-mercaptoethanol, mm benzamidine, mm pmsf and % glycerol. the ni-nta extracted protein was applied to a resource q fplc column and eluted with a – mm kcl gradient in the above-mentioned buffer minus nacl, and with mm dtt replacing β-mercaptoethanol. the eluted protein was further purified on a superdex fplc gel-filtration column equili- brated with mm hepes, ph . , mm kcl, mm dtt and % glycerol. the purified human e b-his protein was concentrated on ultra free- concentrator (millipore, bedford, ma) to a concentration of mg/ml. the protein was homogenous as judged using sds- page and coomassie blue staining. the final specific activity of the purified e b-his protein was mu/mg as assayed radiochemically with , -dichlorophenol indophenol as an electron acceptor [ ]. crystallization after purification, the protein was kept in . m mes ph . , . m kcl, % glycerol, mm thdp, mm mgcl and stored at – °. the protein was crystallized using sitting drops with – % ethanol, – % peg , . m mes ph . as a reservoir solution. upon setting up crystallization drops, the protein solution, containing about mg/ml protein, . m mes ph . , . m kcl, % glyc- erol, mm thdp, mm mgcl and mm inhibitor (either -chloroisocaproate or clofibrate), was usually mixed with the reser- voir solution in a ratio between : . and : protein solution:reser- voir solution. in some cases the protein solution was not mixed with reservoir solution and crystallization proceeded through free diffusion of ethanol from the reservoir to the sitting drop. in either case, crystal- lization was rapid and the crystals reached their final size in one day. the crystals grew as long thin rods up to mm in thickness. attempts to cryoprotect crystals using artificial cryo solutions were often not very successful and severely reduced quality of diffraction. eventually, the crystals could be frozen satisfactorily using cryo solu- tion made by mixing reservoir solution and % glycerol in a ratio of to . because of continuous evaporation of ethanol, care was taken to rapidly remove crystals from the crystallization drop to the cryo solution and then freeze them either in liquid nitrogen for storage or directly in a nitrogen stream during crystal mounting on a detector. crystals left in crystallization drops beyond a few weeks would deteri- orate (‘rubberize’) and show no longer a diffraction pattern when exposed to the x-ray beam. data collection and structure determination data used for structure solution were collected using synchrotron sources at esrf beamline id (data set , co-crystallization with α-chloroisocaproate) and aps beamline -id (data , co-crystallization research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. st .qxd / / : page with clofibrate). data collected from selenomethionine crystals suffered from crystal decay, despite cryo cooling, and did not allow successful phasing using mad methods (unpublished observations). the structure could eventually be determined using molecular replacement methods (mr) using the previously determined structure of p. putida e b [ ] as a search model. an initial mr [ ] solution was found using data set but improved maps were obtained using data set at . Å resolution. iterative model building using the program o [ ] and refinement, using x-plor [ ] and at later stages using cns with simulated annealing torsion angle refinement using maximum-likelihood target function [ ], resulted in a model of residues – and – (out of ) in the α subunit and residues – (out of + his-tag) in the β subunit (table ). residues missing in the current model were disordered and poorly or not visible in density maps. the asymmetric unit of the final model contains one α subunit, one β subunit, water molecules, one thdp cofactor molecule, one mg+ and two k+. accession numbers the coordinates have been deposited in the protein data bank with accession code dtw. acknowledgements we are thankful to other members of the biomolecular structure center, university of washington, for their support. we thank francis athappilly for preparing figure a. a postdoctoral grant to aÆ from the swedish founda- tion for international cooperation in research and higher education (stint) is gratefully acknowledged. wgjh acknowledges a major equip- ment grant form the murdock charitable trust to the biomolecular structure center. this study was also supported by grant dk- from the nih, grant i- from the welch foundation, and grant g- r from the american heart association, texas affiliate. use of the advanced photon source was supported by the u.s. department of energy, basic energy sciences, office of energy research, under contract no. w- - -eng- . use of the argonne national laboratory structural biology center beamlines at the advanced photon source, was supported by the u. s. w- - -eng- . we are grateful for the assistance of stephan l ginell, randy alkire and frank rotella in collecting the data at the sbc beamline. we also would like to thank julien lescar and bjarne rasmussen for their help at beamline id b at the european synchrotron radiation facility. references . reed, l.j., damuni, z. & merryfield, m.l. ( ). regulation of mammalian pyruvate and branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes by phosphorylation–dephosphorylation. curr. topics cell regul. , - . . reed, l.j. ( ). multienzyme complexes. acc. chem. res. , - . . perham, r.n. ( ). domains, motifs, and linkers in -oxo acid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes: a paradigm in the design of a multifunctional protein. biochemistry , - . . mattevi, a., et al., & hol, w.g.j. ( ). atomic structure of the cubic core of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complex. science , - . . izard, t., et al., & hol, w.g.j. ( ). principles of quasi-equivalence and euclidean geometry govern the assembly of cubic and dodecahedral cores of pyruvate dehydrogenase complexes. proc. natl acad. sci. usa , - . . chuang, d.t. & shih, v.e. ( ). disorders of branched-chain amino and α-ketoacid metabolism. in the metabolic and molecular basis of inherited disease th edition. (scriver, c.r., beaudet, a.l., sly, w.s. & valle, d., eds), pp. - , mcgraw-hill, new york. . wynn, r.m., davie, j.r., meng, m. & chuang, d.t. ( ). structure, function and assembly of mammalian branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. in alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes .(patel, m.s., roche, t.e. & harris, r.a. eds), pp. - , birkhäuser verlag, basel. . shimomura, y., nanaumi, n., suzuki, m., popov, k.m. & harris, r.a. ( ). purification and partial characterization of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase kinase from rat liver and rat heart. arch. biochem. biophys. , - . . lee, h.y., hall, t.b., kee, s.m., tung, h.y.l. & reed, l.j. ( ). purification and properties of branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase kinase from bovine kidney. biofactors , - . . damuni, z., merryfield, m.l., humphreys, j.s. & reed, l.j. ( ). purification and properties of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase phosphatase from bovine kidney. proc. natl acad. sci. usa , - . . wynn, r.m., davie, j.r., cox, r.p. & chuang, d.t. ( ). chaperonins groel and groes promote assembly of heterotetramers (α β ) of mammalian mitochondrial branched-chain α-keto acid decarboxylase in e. coli. j. biol. chem. , - . . chuang, j.l., wynn, r.m., song, j.l. & chuang, d.t. ( ). groel/groes-dependent reconsititution of α β , tetramers of human mitochondrial branched chain α-ketoacid decarboxylase — obligatory interaction of the chaperonins with an alpha beta dimeric intermediate. j. biol. chem. , - . . dancis, j., hutzler, j. & levits, m. ( ). metabolism of the white blood cells in maple-syrup-urine disease. biochim. biophys. acta , - . . menkes, j.h., hurst, p.l. & craig, j.m. ( ). a new syndrome: progressive familial infantile cerebral dysfunction associated with an unusual urinary substance. pediatrics , - . . taylor, j., robinson, b.h. & serwood, w.g. ( ). a defect in branched-chain amino acid metabolism in a patient with congenital lactic acidosis due to dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase deficiency. pediatr. res. , - . . Ævarsson, a., seger, r., turley, s., sokatch, j.r. & hol, w.g.j. ( ). crystal structure of -oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase and the architecture of -oxo acid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes. nat. struct. biol. , - . . nikkola, m., lindqvist, y. & schneider, g. ( ). refined structure of transketolase from saccharomyces cerevisiae at . Å resolution. j. mol. biol. , - . . sundstrom, m., lindqvist, y., schneider, g., hellman, u. & ronne, h. ( ). yeast tkl gene encodes a transketolase that is required for efficient glycolysis and biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids. j. biol. chem. , - . . marshall, l. & digeorge, a. ( ). maple syrup urine disease in the old order mennonites. am. j. hum. genet. , a. . hasson, m.s., et al., & ringe, d. ( ). the crystal structure of benzoylformate decarboxylase at . Å resolution: diversity of catalytic residues in thiamin diphosphate-dependent enzymes. biochemistry , - . . muller, y.a., lindqvist, y., furey, w., schulz, g.e., jordan, f. & structure , vol no table data collection and refinement statistics. data statistics space group p cell dimensions (Å) a = b = . , c = . resolution range (Å) . – . number of observations , unique reflections , completeness (%) . rsum (%) refinement statistics resolution (Å) . – . number of atoms number of reflections , r/rfree (%) . / . rmsd bond length (Å) . bond angles (°) . dihedrals (°) . improper (°) . b average (Å ) . ramachandran plot favored (%) . allowed (%) . generously allowed (%) . disallowed (%) . st .qxd / / : page schneider, g. ( ). a thiamin diphosphate binding fold revealed by comparison of the crystal structures of transketolase, pyruvate oxidase and pyruvate decarboxylase. structure , - . . chabrière, e., charon, m.-h., volbeda, a., pieulle, l., hatchikian, e.c. & fontecilla-camps, j.-c. ( ). crystal structures of the key anaerobic enzyme pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, free and in complex with pyruvate. nat. struct. biol. , - . . kern, d., et al., & hübner, g. ( ). how thiamine diphosphate is activated in enzymes. science , - . . schellenberger, a. ( ). sixty years of thiamin diphosphate biochemistry. biochim. biophys. acta , - . . schneider, g. & lindqvist, y. ( ). crystallography and mutagenesis of transketolase: mechanistic implications for enzymatic thiamin catalysis. biochim. biophys. acta , - . . zhao, y., et al., & harris, r.a. ( ). site-directed mutagenesis of phosphorylation sites of the branched chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. j. biol. chem. , - . . hawes, j.w., schnepf, r.j., jenkins, a.e., shimomura, y., popov, k.m. & harris, r.a. ( ). roles of amino acid residues surrounding phosphorylation site of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckdh) in catalysis and phosphorylation site recognition by bckdh kinase. j. biol. chem. , - . . shimomura, y., kuntz, m.j., suzuki, m., ozawa, t. & harris, r.a. ( ). monovalent cations and inorganic phosphate alter branched- chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase-kinase activity and inhibitor sensitivity. arch. biochem. biophys. , - . . hawkins, c.f., borges, a. & perham, r.n. ( ). a common structural motif in thiamine pyrophosphate-binding enzymes. febs lett. , - . . wynn, r.m., daive, j.r., chuang, j.l., cote, c.d. & chuang, d.t. ( ). impaired assembly of e decarboxylase of the branched chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in type ia maple syrup urine diesase. j. biol. chem. , - . . matsuda, i., et al., & harada, h. ( ). a t-to-a substitution in the e α subunit gene of the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in two cell lines derived from mennonite maple syrup urine disease patients. biochem. biophys. res. commun. , - . . fisher, c.r., chuang, j.l., cox, r.p., fisher, c.w., star, r.a. & chuang, d.t. ( ). maple syrup urine disease in mennonites. evidence that the y n mutations in e α impedes assembly of the e components of branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogrenase complex. j. clin. invest. , - . . chuang, d.t. ( ). maple syrup urine disease: it has come a long way. j. pediatr. , s -s . . wynn, r.m., et al., & chuang, d.t. ( ). cloning and expression in escherichia coli of mature e β subunit of bovine mitochondrial branced-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. mapping of the e β-binding region on e . j. biol. chem. , - . . lessard, i.a.d., fuller, c. & perham, r.n. ( ). competitive interaction of component enzymes with the peripheral subunit-binding domain of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex of bacillus stearothermophilus: kinetic analysis using surface plasmon resonance detection. biochemistry , - . . mande, s.s., sarfaty, s., allen, m.d., perham, r.n. & hol, w.g.j. ( ). protein–protein interactions in the pyruvate dehydrogenase multi-enzyme complex: dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase complexed with the binding domain of the dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase. structure , - . . mattevi, a., schierbeek, a.j., oblomova-teplyakova, g. & hol, w.g.j. ( ). the three-dimensional crystal structure of lipoamide dehydrogenase from azotobacter vinelandii at . Å resolution. in flavoenzymes and flavoproteins (curti, a., romchi, b. & zanetti, c., eds), pp. - . w. de gryter & co., berlin. . perham, r.n. ( ). interaction of protein domains in the assembly and mechanism of -oxo acid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes. in alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes. (patel, m.s., roche, t.e. & harris, r.a. eds), pp. - . birkhäuser verlag, basel. . oliver, r.m. & reed, l.j. ( ). multienzyme complexes. in electron microscopy of proteins. (harris, j.r., ed.), vol. , pp. - . academic press, london, uk. . mattevi, a., obmolova, g., kalk, k.h., teplyakov, a. & hol, w.g.j. ( ). crystallographic analysis of substrate binding and catalysis in dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (e p). biochemistry , - . . rudenko, g., bonten, e., hol, w.g.j. & d'azzo, a. ( ). the atomic model of the human protective protein/cathepsin a suggests a structural basis for galactosialidosis. proc. natl acad. sci. , - . . fisher, c.r., fisher, c.w., chuang, d.t. & cox, r.p. ( ). occurrence of a tyr asn (y n) mutation in the e a gene of the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in maple syrup urine disease patients from a mennonite population. am. j. hum. genet. , - . . chuang, d.t. & cox, r.p. ( ). enzyme assays with mutant cell lines of maple syrup urine disease. methods enzymol. , - . . navaza, j. ( ). amore: an automated package for molecular replacement. acta crystallogr. a , - . . jones, t.a., zou, j.y., cowan, s.w. & kjeldgaard, m. ( ). improved methods for binding protein models in electron density maps and the location of errors in these models. acta crystallogr. a , - . . brünger, a.t., krukowski, a. & erickson, j.w. ( ). slow-cooling protocols for crystallographic refinement by simulated annealing. acta crystallogr. a , - . . brünger, a.t., et al., & warren, g.l. ( ). crystallography and nmr system: a new software suite for macromolecular structure determination. acta crystallogr. d , - . . kraulis, p.j. ( ). molscript: a program to produce both detailed and schematic plots of protein structures. j. appl. crystallogr. , - . . merritt, e.a. & murphy, m.e.p. ( ). raster d version . . a program for photorealistic molecular graphics. acta crystallogr. d , - . . wallace, a.c., laskowski, r.a. & thornton, j.m. ( ). ligplot: a program to generate schematic diagrams of protein–ligand interactions. protein eng. , - . . nicholls, a., shar, k.a. & honig, b. ( ). protein folding and association: insights from the interfacial and thermodynamic properties of hydrocarbons. proteins struct. funct. gen. , - . . nobukuni, y., et al., & matsuda, i. ( ). heterogeneity of mutations in maple syrup urine disease (msud): screening and identification of affected e α and e β subunits of the branched-chain α-keto-acid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. biochim. biophys. acta. , - . . chuang, j.l., davie, j.r., chinsky, j.m., wynn, r.m., cox, r.p. & chuang, d.t. ( ). molecular and biochemical basis of intermediate maple syrup urine disease: occurrence of homozygous g r and f c mutations at the e α locus of hispanic-mexican patients. j. clin. invest. , - . . mcconnell, b.b., burkholder, b. & danner, d.j. ( ). two new mutations in the human e b subunit of branched chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase associated with maple syrup urine disease. biochim. biophys. acta. , - . . chuang, j.l., fisher, c.r., cox, r.p. & chuang, d.t. ( ). molecular basis of maple syrup urine disease: novel mutations at the e α locus that impairs e (α β ) assembly or decrease steady-state e α mrna levels of branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. am. j. hum. genet. , - . research article multienzyme complex deficiency Ævarsson et al. because structure with folding & design operates a ‘continuous publication system’ for research papers, this paper has been published on the internet before being printed (accessed from http://biomednet.com/cbiology/str). for further information, see the explanation on the contents page. st .qxd / / : page _ - _ _ - american society of church history volume , number june ch u r c h h i s to rys t u d i e s i n c h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c u l t u r ech u r c h h i s to rys t u d i e s i n c h r i s t i a n i t y a n d c u l t u r e contents articles carolingian religion thomas f. x. noble historicizing allegory: the jew as hagar in medieval christian text and image deeana klepper ecclesiology, piety, and presbyterian and independent polemics during the early years of the english revolution youngkwon chung slavery, mission, and the perils of providence in eighteenth-century christianity: the writings of whitefield and the halle pietists philippa koch modern marital practices and the growth of world christianity during the mid-twentieth century anneke stasson book reviews and notes books received cambridge journals online for further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: journals.cambridge.org/chh c h u r c h h is t o r y : ju n e epistle to the galatians. göttweig stiftsbibliothek cod. , fol. r, th c. _ - _ _ - / / : pm page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president margaret bendroth, congregational library, boston president-elect ronald rittgers, valparaiso university executive secretary keith a. francis, university of maryland university college/oxford brookes university editors amanda porterfield john corrigan florida state university members of the council class of marianne delaporte linford fisher scott kenworthy willemien otten tisa wenger class of valerie cooper spencer fluhmann david holland paul lim heather vacek peter choi class of elesha coffman timothy larsen xi lian andrea sterk william yoo council student representative – peter choi the society was founded in by philip schaff, was reorganized in , and was incorporated by act of the legislature of the state of new york in . office of the executive secretary: american society of church history, p.o. box , santa rosa, ca - . membership dues for individuals in the u.s. are $ . per year for regular members, $ . per year for retired persons, and free for two years for graduate students or $ . for student who have already had two years of free membership. dues for individuals in other countries are $ . per year for regular members, $ . per year for retired persons, and $ . for students (with the same two-year gratis stipulation). online rates apply to all countries: regular members, $ per year; retired persons, $ per year; and graduate students, $ per year. single issues are available for $ . each. individuals should contact cambridge university press at one of the addresses listed under subscription information. subscription information: church history: studies in christianity and culture (issn: - ) is published four times per year in march, june, september, and december by cambridge university press for the american society of church history. annual subscription rates for volume ( ): institutional subscription rates, print and online: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, online only: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, print only: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription correspondence should be sent to: cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny , u.s.a., for customers in the u.s.a., canada, or mexico. customers elsewhere should contact: cambridge university press, the edinburgh building, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb ru, u.k. church history is indexed in the expanded academic index (infotrac), american history and life, arts and humanities search, web of science, historical abstracts, religious periodicals, and academic search elite. this periodical is also indexed in the atla religion database, published by the american theological library association, s. wacker dr., th flr., chicago, il ; la@atla.com, http://www.atla.com/. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series i and ii, and of church history, volumes – ( – ), are available from the atla preservation board. orders for these reproductions as well as inquiries about microfilm portions and photocopies should be sent to east th place, chicago, il . microfilm reproductions of church history starting with volume ( ) are available to subscribers and members of the society from university microfilms, north zeeb road, ann arbor, mi . all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, or otherwise, without permission in writing from cambridge university press. general enquiries from the u.s.a., mexico, and canada should be addressed to the new york office of cambridge university press http://www.cambridge.org/us/information/rights/contacts/newyork.htm; general enquiries from elsewhere should be addressed to the cambridge office http://www.cambridge.org/ uk/information/rights/contacts/cambridge.htm; permission enquiries from australia and new zealand should be addressed to the melbourne office http://www.cambridge.org/aus/information/contactsmelbourne. htm; enquiries regarding spanish-language translation rights (only) should be addressed to the madrid office http://www.cambridge.org/uk/information/rights/contacts/madrid.htm. photocopying information (for users in the u.s.a.): notwithstanding the above, the item-fee code for this publication ( - / ) indicates that copying for internal or personal use beyond that permit- ted by sec. or of the u.s. copyright law is authorized for users duly registered with the copyright clearance center (ccc), provided that the appropriate remittance is paid directly to: ccc, rosewood drive, danvers, ma u.s.a. specific written permission must be obtained for all other copying; contact the nearest cambridge university press office. periodicals postage paid at new york and additional mailing offices. postmaster: send addresses to church history: studies in christianity and culture, cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny - . the opinions expressed in this journal represent the views only of the individual contributors; they do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, florida state university, the american society of church history, or cambridge university press. advertising in church history does not necessarily imply endorsement. _ - _ _ - / / : pm page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. june no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history © , the american society of church history terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors john corrigan amanda porterfield senior assistant to the editors adam s. brasich assistants to the editors lauren gray adam sweatman dan wells florida state university associate editors elizabeth a. clark duke university thomas noble university of notre dame carlos eire yale university hugh mcleod university of birmingham dana robert boston university enrique dussel universidad nacional autonoma de mexico church history (issn - ) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles carolingian religion thomas f. x. noble historicizing allegory: the jew as hagar in medieval christian text and image deeana klepper ecclesiology, piety, and presbyterian and independent polemics during the early years of the english revolution youngkwon chung slavery, mission, and the perils of providence in eighteenth-century christianity: the writings of whitefield and the halle pietists philippa koch modern marital practices and the growth of world christianity during the mid-twentieth century anneke stasson book reviews and notes harrison, carol, the art of listening in the early church .... jonathan zecher leyerle, blake and robin darling young, eds., ascetic culture: essays in honor of philip rousseau................................ christine luckritz marquis demacopoulos, george e., the invention of peter: apostolic discourse and papal authority in late antiquity......................... diane shane fruchtman schaefer, mary m., women in pastoral office: the story of santa prassede, rome ..................................................................................... amy g. oden mcginn, bernard, thomas aquinas’s summa theologiae: a biography ..........................................................................g. scott davis page, sophie, magic in the cloister: pious motives, illicit interests, and occult approaches to the medieval universe..................................... mary hayes deutscher, thomas b., punishment and penance: two phases in the history of the bishop’s tribunal of novara.............................. christopher carlsmith scott, tom, the early reformation in germany: between secular impact and radical vision ............................................................. robert j. christman kolb, robert, irene dingel and l’ubomír batka, eds., the oxford handbook of martin luther’s theology ............................................. donald k. mckim anidjar, gil, blood: a critique of christianity........................... martin kavka terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core mayer, thomas f., the roman inquisition on the stage of italy, c. – ....................................................................... thomas renna nava, alex, wonder and exile in the new world................. david r. castillo snoddy, richard, the soteriology of james ussher: the act and object of saving faith.................................................................. christopher fauske mcnutt, jennifer powell, calvin meets voltaire: the clergy of geneva in the age of enlightenment, – ................................ donald k. mckim anderson, emma, the death and afterlife of the north american martyrs.......................................................................... richard w. pointer bezzant, rhys s., jonathan edwards and the church ............................................................................ gerald r. mcdermott webb, todd, transatlantic methodists: british wesleyanism and the formation of an evangelical culture in nineteenth-century ontario and quebec ......................................................................... marguerite van die landry, stan m., ecumenism, memory, and german nationalism, – ................................................................... david j. diephouse correll, mark r., shepherds of the empire: germany’s conservative protestant leadership, – ..................................................... stan m. landry bratt, james d., abraham kuyper: modern calvinist, christian democrat............................................................................. kathryn lofton dorn, t. felder, challenges on the emmaus road: episcopal bishops confront slavery, civil war, and emancipation ........................... peter w. williams prentiss, craig r., staging faith: african american theater from the harlem renaissance to world war ii .............................................. adam l. bond coffman, elisha j., the christian century and the rise of the protestant mainline ............................................................... christopher d. cantwell weiner, isaac, religion out loud: religious sound, public space and american pluralism....................................................................... virginia c. raguin bakker, janel kragt, sister churches: american congregations and their partners abroad....................................................................... jay r. case seales, chad e., the secular spectacle: performing religion in a southern town.................................................................................. darren e. grem cox, stephen, american christianity: the continuing revolution .............................................................................barry hankins hinojosa, felipe, latino mennonites: civil rights, faith, and evangelical culture ........................................................................... brett hendrickson promey, sally, ed., sensational religion: sensory cultures in material practice .................................................................................. hillary kaell vgenopoulos, maximos, primacy in the church from vatican i to vatican ii: an orthodox perspective............................................................... paul misner reese, abbie, dedicated to god: an oral history of cloistered nuns ......................................................................................... marian ronan airhart, phyllis d., a church with the soul of a nation: making and remaking the united church of canada ............................................ john h. young books received terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	ofc 	ifc 	chh_ _ _fm 	chh_ _ _fm 	chh_ _ _contents elizabeth bloomfield, waterloo township through two centuries. kitchener: waterloo historical society, . pp. xiv & . maps, illustrations. $ . hard, $ . with handling all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine elizabeth bloomfield, waterloo township through two centuries. kitchener: waterloo historical society, . pp. xiv & . maps, illustrations. $ . hard, $ . with handling glenn j. lockwood volume , numéro , october uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu lockwood, g. j. ( ). compte rendu de [elizabeth bloomfield, waterloo township through two centuries. kitchener: waterloo historical society, . pp. xiv & . maps, illustrations. $ . hard, $ . with handling]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews / comptes rendus violich, francis. the bridge to dalmatia: a search for the mean- ing of place. baltimore, md: the johns hopkins university press, . pp. xvii. . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliography and index. us$ . (cloth). the title of this book, the bridge to dalmatia, refers to the con- nection between dalmatia on the adriatic sea and northern cali- fornia on the pacific, two regions which have much in common in terms of their relationships between land and sea and between environment and people. this connection or bridge is particularly significant for the immigrants who left dalmatia three or four generations ago and settled in california. these immigrants maintained this bridge between their old and new homes over the years; so too did their descendants in california, one of whom is francis violich. for violich, professor emeritus at the university of california at berkeley, the bridge represents both personal and professional connections. his personal connections come from family and friends who left dalmatia to settle in california and who came to love their places in california but never lost their love for the places they left in dalmatia. his professional connections come from his years as an academic involved in urban planning and environmental relationships and inclined towards a comparative approach to urban problems and solutions. in this book violich weds his personal and professional interests to create a work that is sound in framework and attractive in presentation. fundamental to his framework is the concept of place and iden- tity. throughout the book the words place and identity come up over and over again as violich guides us on a journey in a search for the meaning of place, the subtitle of the book. while place is the key in a broad sense, the framework is actually based on a triad comprised of place, buildings, and people. place in this latter and narrower sense is the natural environ- ment of a particular area, the given characteristics of that area. buildings include the structures, streets, and fabric of the city or town and the relationship of this built environment to the natural environment. and people is used to identify the "web of environ- mental decision making" that occurs in urban centers, a deci- sion making that should be inclusive in terms of inhabitants that participate in the process and sensitive in terms of maintaining harmony between the built and natural environments. after breaking down his tripartite framework into subunits, violich uses it to assess two towns in italy and two cities in cali- fornia, and then several places in dalmatia. actually his assessments of the hill towns of giove and lugnano in italy and the cities of berkeley and san francisco in california are used to familiarize the reader with his framework and to demonstrate his technique of "urban reading," a technique which includes walking a city or town in order to get a feel for its natural and built environments. following this demonstration, violich turns to his main task, an analysis and reading of urban areas in dalma- tia. these readings cover three mainland cities (zadar, split, and dubrovnik), five island villages on the seaside, and four vil- lages on the peninsula of peljesac; included in this selection are pucisca and kuna, the village homes of violich's grandparents. in conducting these readings and analyses of dalmatian places, violich compliments the inhabitants of those urban cen- ters where modernization is sensitively integrated with the given natural environment and the traditional built environment, that is, where a feeling of harmony between nature and people has been maintained; and, of course, he criticizes those who have harmed these environments by erecting inelegant and mon- strous structures, often hotels for tourists, that jar the harmoni- ous character of a village or a town. in addition to praise and criticism, violich also offers a prescriptive plan consisting of ten characteristics that are basic to an urban area's identity and place. this plan may be used by urban populations to effect sensitive changes in their own cities and towns no matter where they are located. in this respect the book becomes a bridge that connects urban areas throughout the world. thus, not only in dalmatia and california, areas that mean so much to violich personally, should people constantly heed their natural and built environments in preserving the past and building the future but inhabitants of urban places should do this universally. violich presents his case for rational and sensitive development of urban areas attractively, in a book that is well written and amply illustrated with photographs and sketches, many of them his own. his suggestions for urban development are reason able and achievable, and therefore easy for most of us to accept. though some readers may initially question his analy- ses or perhaps be uncomfortable with them because of his per- sonal involvement with several of the places covered in the book, most readers will subsequently find, as did this reviewer, that violich turns his integration of the personal and profes sional into a plus. if anything, the personal element makes his arguments even more convincing. in the end, then, he is very convincing in his argument that sensitive urbanization requires the consideration of the emotions of urban dwellers as much as it does the views of professional planners. he is convincing too in his metaphoric suggestion of urban connections or bridges throughout the world, bridges such as the one connecting the places of dalmatia and california, bridges that simultaneously span geography and generations, bridges we should cross with violich as concerned urban residents. stephen c. markovich department of political science and public administration the university of north dakota elizabeth bloomfield, waterloo township through two centuries. kitchener: waterloo historical society, . pp. xiv & . maps, illustrations. $ . hard, $ . with handling. this large book is about a rural municipality dismantled twenty- six years ago. waterloo township was the rural "doughnut or onion ring" surrounding kitchener/waterloo in the centre, increasingly eaten away by annexations. elizabeth bloomfield here has attempted "a computer-assisted historical/bibliographi- cal approach" to its development to capture "the persisting and valuable essence of the township." urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine vol xxvii, no. (october, ) book reviews / comptes rendus instead of the topical arrangement of chapters that one too often finds in local histories, this book is thoughtfully organized into three broad periods. first we follow waterloo's growth from to the s when its rural population reached a peak. the second period, from to world war one, was marked by the emergence of towns and cities and rural population decline. the third period, world war one to , was marked by intense urban pressures that led to the dissolution of this township. bloomfield walks the fine line between writing for a scholarly and a popular audience. this is a useful reference book, not only explaining developments in waterloo, but also referring to provincial legislation affecting many ontario townships. it should be mandatory reading for ontario township clerks to enable them to understand the development of municipal legis- lation over the years. the digitized colour maps at the front are stunning, but the fifty black and white maps are no less superb and are easier to follow. there is much insight in this volume, as shown by a text that ranges from discussing the key role of shopkeepers in finan- cing the early economy to the challenge of teaching a one-room school. bloomfield provides exhaustive, often plodding detail, whether it be about the waves of settlement from on, or about suburbanization, or yet again about the ethnic and reli- gious profile of the township. she analyzes select aspects of waterloo township society to show the ethnic mix of tradesmen in villages and the dominance of a small number of early fami- lies in the township council, among others. numerous tables are presented throughout the text, and there are a number of appendices including one on sources for the history of waterloo township. the detailed endnotes are impressive, even if they are printed in microscopic small print that will make them inac- cessible for many readers. although there is much to commend this study, as shown by the first printing selling out, it does not add up to the sum of its parts. bloomfield herself alludes to "the agonies of historical composition — organizing material by both theme and chronol- ogy, balancing generalizations and particular examples from all localities and communities, and relating waterloo township to larger processes of change." it is obvious to this reader that the author was swamped by available material, particularly the annual reports and volumes published by the waterloo histori- cal society since , helping to yield a secondary resource base that alone amounted to items. despite imaginative use of the computer to provide some interesting maps and tables as well as insights into who comprised the economic and administrative elites, it is too bad the computer was not used to evaluate the entire social structure of the township. and this is precisely the central shortcoming of this volume's historical/bib liographical approach. the maps aside, there is nothing ground- breaking about this volume, although it can be commended for being a good summary of what previously has been published. this is too bad, for bloomfield has gone out of her way to make her book conversant with recent themes in canadian urban his- tory. she has had two additional hurdles in preparing this book. first, records of waterloo township proved difficult to trace; hardly any township accounts, by-laws, committee records, maps and plans could be found, and the deliberations and poli- cies of the township council were located for fewer than half the years. second, bloomfield had only two years to fill these gaps, pull some kind of synthesis out of the mass of waterloo histori- cal society publications, and produce her manuscript. it is a remarkable feat. hence the associated smaller problems of this volume: a lack of overall coherence and synthesis, occasional contradictions, plodding text, a surfeit of detail, a tendency to describe process rather than explain significance, among others. in a township where so much of the nineteenth-century land- scape has been obliterated by recent urban sprawl, reproduc- ing paintings of local settings by homer watson — "the constable of canada" — especially on the cover, would seem mandatory. and to what purpose were the large size pages selected, leaving large areas of empty space in gutters and requiring period documents reproduced in the gutter, to be printed in microscopic text that few will have the patience to read? at the same time, there are too few quotes from docu- ments and people to give a sense of the local voice of waterloo township. instead, much of the text is taken up with lists. some generalizations are questionable. the book says water- loo township supported and underwrote the local telephone system to "provide a service not considered profitable by a commercial utility," and yet many rural localities with even fewer potential subscribers were served by private companies that operated in the black for over half a century. and there are con- tradictions to be noted. plate (p. ) shows an idealized - acre farm captured in stages, only for this to be contradicted by the statement on page that plate is a representative farm- stead layout of . women didn't work in the fields on page , but on page daughters drove yokes of oxen, on page "girls were also involved in farmwork — hoeing and cultivating the fields and helping at harvest by sharing with the labourers the tasks of binding and stooking (or tying and stacking the sheaves to dry in the sun)," and on page "on smaller and poorer farms women and girls worked in the fields." on page the impression is given that windmills were new at the turn of the century, yet page tells of windmills being sold at new germany in , photographs on pages and show wooden windmills on township farms before the turn of the cen- tury, and page lists a local windmill maker at berlin in . it is perhaps sufficient commentary on the index that it contains no entry for windmills. we are told on page that school fairs were not continued beyond , yet on page there is a photograph of what is purported to be the school fair. there is a fine selection of illustrations in this book, but one showing a camp meeting of mennonite brethren in christ in a wooded grove is rare in making use of the wide pages. alto- gether there are illustrations and maps in this book, and there was a fine opportunity for evidential use of the visual infor- mation presented. there are no dates or estimates of dates on urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxvii, no. (october, ) book reviews / comptes rendus the illustrations, and while captions are used to identify people, they do not point out what is significant in the visual image, or how it relates to the text of the chapter. apart from brief refer- ences to bank barns and mennonite georgian-style houses, there is no architectural assessment of buildings and no floor plans of buildings are presented. the fifty beautifully prepared black-and-white maps in the book are an antidote for the few surviving township maps. it seems a pity that none of the clearer maps from the past such as the tremain map of were reproduced in their original form. the digitized translation of the map inside the front cover lacks the names of land- owners. on it modern symbols for churches, schools, post offices, hotels and mills are so large as to obscure their exact location, in contrast with the precision of the original map. how well does bloomfield succeed in capturing the persisting and valuable essence of waterloo township? in many ways she does establish the particularity of this township, citing the ger- man language spoken, its unique land survey, the complexity of its cadastre, its large size, its irregular roads, the lack of road allowances, the lack of crown and clergy reserves, its group settlement by pennsylvania mennonites, and so on to its demise in which she describes as "one of the most com- plex in ontario." bloomfield says "waterloo township is unique." she also claims that this "history illustrates also larger processes of change in southern ontario during the last two centuries — from the acquisition of land from aboriginal peo- ples in the late eighteenth century, through the creation of a rural economy and society, to the transforming effects of indus- trialization and urbanization." readers may be forgiven if they are confused as to whether waterloo was a typical or unique township. in a sense it almost doesn't matter. in the midst of the present urban sprawl, hampered by the destruction of so many original township records, bloomfield was obliged in part to re- create the reality of rural waterloo township from provincial leg- islation and regulations. what partly emerges as her subject is not waterloo township specifically, but rather a more generalized biography of the township in ontario, that is, any ontario town- ship. there is surprisingly little drama for a book that opens with "set- ting the stage" and closes with "last act." almost no coverage is given to the generic german identity of much of the popula- tion, other than listing family names, dates and paths of arrival. bloomfield would have us believe that little evidence has been found of the effect of two world wars on the local german- speaking population, but a dozen or so references sprinkled through the text and notes effectively suggest otherwise. had the "german" character of local society been more fully deline- ated, bloomfield might better have succeeded in capturing the persisting and valuable essence of waterloo township. glenn j lockwood ottawa groth, paul, and todd w. bressi, eds. understanding ordinary landscapes. new haven and london: yale university press, . pp. ix, . maps, black and white illustrations, bibliogra- phy and index. this volume is the product of a symposium held to com- memorate the th anniversary of the founding of the berkeley department of landscape architecture. it was intended to be an interdisciplinary forum on subjects, methods, and philoso- phies of that ever-expanding term, landscape studies. in an attempt at focussing the predictable eclecticism that threatens such an approach, contributors were urged to focus on two princi- pal issues: the reliability of visual and spatial information in under- standing past and present cultures; and the ways in which the social and cultural pluralism of landscapes are best understood. the volume is organized in three parts. first, the editors present an efficient "capsule history" of the traditions and practice of landscape study. secondly, ten practitioners demonstrate their specific approaches to interpreting landscapes. finally, six chapters are devoted to scholarly critiques of the earlier contri- butions and reflect on the future of landscape studies. the essays range from comprehensive surveys and critiques, through empirical case-studies, to detailed expositions of pre- ferred methodology. several of the contributors set up the straw-men of the limita- tions of superficial analysis of a culture's external features, or else tilt at the windmill of a sauerian fetish concerned solely with material "stuff." and all too often, the mantra is the same: certainly, visual analysis does yield important insights; however, reliance on visual analysis alone is dangerous; therefore, visual evidence must be accompanied by the scrutiny of other histori- cal documentation; finally, it is only through these that social processes underlying material things may be exposed. thus, deryck holdsworth's thorough investigation of landscape and archives as texts pays obeisance to all the stations of the theo- retical-cross along his via delarosa that laments the shortfalls of naive vision and the neglect of "broader issues of social, cul- tural, and economic change" (p. ). but there are others. rina swentzell's essay on conflicting land- scape values in the santa clara pueblo breathes life into the power of the visual engagement with place. she demonstrates how the materiality of this particular setting is imbued with the people's relationship with the land, their community, and the cosmos. it was/is/will be a world where everything is "touch able, knowable, and accessible" (p. ). in this way, swentzell applies the power of the visual to contrast the holistic, natural world of the pueblo with the alien imposition of the bureau of indian affairs school. dolores hayden also addresses "sense of place," but from a more explicitly theoretical perspective in which urban landscape history is informed by the "politics of space." for her, a sensitive history of urban landscapes must combine an appreciation of the aesthetics and politics of dis- tinctive spaces and the part they play in economic and social reproduction. hayden's visuals accompany a lucid argument urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxvii, no. (october, ) book reviews horst penner, weltweite bruderschaft. ein mennonitisches geschichtsbuch. ueberarbeitet von horst gerlach u n d horst quir- ing ( weierhof, verlag mennonitischer geschichtsverein, ); hardcover, pp. horst penner's weltweite bruderschaft, written to provide a survey of mennonite history for german readers, is an update of the book which was first published in , and subsequently reprinted in and . although the scope of the book is world-wide mennonitism, the amount of space allocated to the various areas is quite uneven. the sixteenth century anabaptist-mennonite movements are covered in considerable detail, as are also the danzig-west prussian and russian mennonite experiences. the usa and canadian mennonite surveys are quite brief, the latin american mennonite history is very sketchy, and only a few pages are devoted to the one-third of the world's mennonites who do not originate in europe. a third of the book consists of general regional surveys of mennonite history since . this section is written by horst gerlach, and includes only those mennonites who originated in europe. the strength of the book lies in the ability of the writers to place the european anabaptist-mennonite history into its historical and geo- graphical context. the writers' detailed knowledge of the history of the various german states, their familiarity with the terrain, trade routes and boundary changes allow them to portray the mennonite story within its context in a way that many other writers are unable to do. the authors have also included numerous maps which aid the reader to follow the discussion. the liberal use of pictures is also helpful for the reader, although the selection of the pictures is uneven and does not illustrate the various sections equally. woven into the copy are numerous and frequently quite long quota- tions from letters and other source materials. some of them duminate the topics well, others, however, illustrate only one side of an issue and may help to confuse the reader. a further difficulty with the quotations is that no footnotes are attached, and it is thus not possible to go to the entire documents from which the selections are made. the fact that there are no journal of mennonite studies vol. , journal of mennonite studies footnotes in the book is generally a weakness. the authors have included a brief bibliography of articles and books for each section in the book, but this does not substitute for documentation. the selection of articles and books is also quite dated. for the west prussian and russian sections no studies after are listed, and for north america no work after the edition of c. henry smith's die geschichte der mennoniten europas is included. it is hard to understand why recent anabaptist mennonite scholarship has not been included in the content or in the bibliographies in this book. the factual content of the non-european sections also leaves some- thing to be desired. in discussing the immigration of mennonites from russia into manitoba, the book indicates that the immigrants primarily came from the old colony in russia. this ignores the fact that they came from four settlements in russia: bergthal, fuerstenland, borosenko and the old colony. this error creates problems in dealing with the emigra- tion from canada to latin america in the s. the authors say that all the people emigrating were old colonists, some of whom moved to mexico and some to paraguay. in the s three groups actually em- igrated from manitoba to latin america, old colonists to mexico, sorn- merfelder to mexico and paraguay, and chortitza to paraguay. in the emigration to mexico, only the settlements near cuauhtemoc are men- tioned. the settlement in the mexican state of durango is omitted. in manitoba the conflict over control of the schools is identified as a conflict between mennonites and the canadian government. in actual fact educa- tion is the responsibility of the provinces, and the conflict was between mennonites and the provincial government. coming back to the emigration of mennonites from russia to man- itoba in , the authors say mennonites landed in the usa, whereas they actually landed in quebec. they also state that the russian men- nonites stayed over winter among fellow mennonites in pennsylvania and settled in manitoba in the spring in , whereas in fact they proceeded directly from quebec to manitoba in , arriving in august. this is a sample of factual inaccuracies from only one small section and suggests that closer attention should have been given to detail especially in those sections outside the expertise of the authors. the authors overplay' the degree of identification between men- nonites throughout the world and the german culture and german nationalism. at numerous points, e.g. in the manitoba section, the conflict between mennonites and their host society is portrayed as a conflict to maintain the german language and german culture. although it is true that statements to this effect can be found, a closer analysis will reveal that especially for the more conservative branches of the men- nonite community in russia and in the americas, the stronger motivation was separation from nationalism and from what they called the "world." ~ o o k reviews retention of german language was more frequently due to unwillingness or even inability to translate their religious concepts into another lan- guage, rather that the desire to maintain a german national and cultural identity. the area in which the adoption of german culture and german nationalism becomes an important issue is in the history of the danzig- west prussian mennonite churches. here too, questions need to be raised about the emphasis. the identification of the danzig-west prus- sian mennonites with german culture and national ideals are presented as having always been the case. in actual fact the earliest mennonites living in that area were mainly from the netherlands and lived under polish rule. the temptation to become part of the german ethos was resisted for centuries. the point of resistance was the insistence of ex- emption from military service. it was not until the order in council of and the franco prussian war when prussian mennonites accepted military service that mennonite identification with the german cultural and national destiny became pronounced. this process of identification found its high point in the era of national socialism. this long process of ever greater identification is not clearly enough presented as a process in which the original attitudes were transformed. some of the interpretations in the book are difficult to square with the facts. for example, the authors seem to want to distance the sixteenth century anabaptist movement from the chiliasm of hans hut and the chiliasm which resulted in muenster. in the section of south and central german anabaptist leaders hut does not appear, despite the fact that he was one of the most active and successful anabaptist missionaries in the south-central german states. regarding muenster, the argument is made that the teachings of hofmann could not have been responsible for muenster. maybe in detail muenster differed from hofmann, but the chiliastic approach was certainly similar. another interpretation which raises questions is the attempt to show a positive relationship between anabaptists and jews. the exam- ples which are cited of anabaptists relating positively to jews in the sixteenth century, must certainly be balanced by the opposite, namely the anti-jewish sentiment among at least some early anabaptists in strassburg and balthasar hubmaier's participation in anti-jewish cam- paigns. the sections which deal with the era of national socialism in ger- many include numerous references to a history which is clearly painful for german mennonites. the war against the netherlands and the treat- ment of the dutch, as well as the conquest of poland and the fact that mennonites in poland fought against mennonites in germany are diffi- cult aspects of german history. in the sections about danzig-west prussia most of the attention is, however, focussed on the human pain and journal o f mennonite studies suffering that resulted at the end of the war. it is true that the suffering and eventual loss of the homeland is a story of almost unbearable anguish. yet, one would also have hoped for more critical analyses of the relation- ship of mennonites to nationalism, to national socialism, and to its anti- jewish policies and programmes. on the basis of the discussions of the historical mennonite emphasis on peace and non-resistance in the earlier sections of the book, some critical analyses of mennonite life under national socialism could have been made. such analyses would have been helpful for german mennonites in their attempt to understand and come to terms with their painful past. neither stout defense of men- nonite actions under national socialism, nor harsh condemnation are likely to bring about this understanding and eventual healing. while there are aspects of the book which are helpful, it is question- able whether the book will adequately enable german mennonites and returnees from russia, as the writers claim, to discover the roots of their past. john friesen canadian mennonite bible college c. arnold snyder, the life and thought o f michael sattler. studies i n anabaptist a n d mennonite history, n o . (scottdalel kitchener: herald press, ). hardcover, pp. arnold snyder's book on michael sattler is most important in that it either revises many hitherto held views concerning anabaptist begin- nings or confirms the work of such historians as walter klaassen, hans- jiirgen goertz, james stayer and werner packull. snyder's revision pro- ceeds from a careful rereading of the available sources surrounding sattler's life and thought and particularly from his incisive analysis of the social-religious milieu of south-western germany and switzerland. as prior of st. peter's, a benedictine monastery in the black forest, sattler came in touch with the peasants who favoured the reformation, but who interpreted the gospel in terms of "economic justice and christian equal- ity" (p. ). opposing the entrenched catholicism of nearby freiburg and the "sola fide" of martin luther, the peasants confronted st. peter's with their demands for economic and social reforms. snyder shows that anabaptists from the waldshut region were among the rebelling peas- ants who occupied the monastery in the spring of . snyder argues convincingly that when sattler decided to leave the monastery and join the waldshut anabaptists he was in agreement with ~ o o k reviews the anticlericalism of the peasants and sympathized wit them and the anabaptists in their reform drives. in fact, according to snyder, both sattler and the early swiss brethren at first hoped to extend their reforma- tion to society at large, similar to the intentions of the mainline reformers. the idea of a separate community of believers, as expressed in the schleitheim articles of , came to sattler and the swiss brethren after the defeat of the peasants and their failure to convince the magisterial reformers and the civil authorities of their brand of christianity. the important schleitheim articles reflect the new sectarian view of the church and sattler's monastic background. such points and empha- ses as withdrawal from a sinful world, rejection of the sword and the oath, and imitating christ in daily living, derived from the monastic tradition. according to snyder, sattler's other writings emphasize man's cooperation with god's grace in salvation and the centrality of christ, which is also more catholic than protestant. the influence of the peasants on sattler is seen in his application of the gospel to all areas of life. sattler rejected, however, the peasants' violence in their attempts to right their situation, accepting instead the nonresistance of the swiss anabaptists. while the monastic tradition and the demands of the common man had a profound influence on the life and thought of sattler, the genius of the young reformer was to put his stamp on a movement which was "neither protestant, nor catholic, nor monastic: [but] anabaptist" (p. ). snyder is one of the first scholars to show clearly that it was not grebel, mantz and blaurock who in the end determined the direction of early anabaptism, but michael sattler. in modifying the biblicism of the grebel group by emphasizing the role of the holy spirit and by clearly separating the church from the world - as reflected in the schleitheim union - sattler gave direction to south-european and dutch anabaptism for centuries to come. historically sattler thus emerges as a more important early anabaptist leader than any of the swiss brethren, including conrad grebel. there are at least two questions with regard to snyder's interpreta- tion of anabaptist origins that need to be raised. first, if sattler stood somewhere in between the biblicism of the swiss anabaptists and the spiritualism of hans denck, as snyder claims, why is this not more clearly reflected in sattler's writings, particularly in the schleitheim arti- cles? snyder obviously favours deppermann's view that at schleitheim the anabaptists tried to distance themselves from those of their brethren who followed denck and questions yoder's view that the "false brothers," mentioned in the articles, refer to the strasbourg reformers bucer and capito. it seems that snyder has not quite resolved the question of sattler's emphasis on the work of the holy spirit and his harsh language against the spiritualistic "false brothers." secondly, if sattler favoured the demands of the peasants with lournal o f mennonite studies regard to social and economic reform, should this not have been more fully reflected in his writings, especially in the programmatic schleitheim articles? it seems that there is little, if any, of thomas muntzer's spirit in the articles. on the other hand, the articles do express a repudiation of all violent force, advocate a total withdrawal from worldly society, and to a large extent internalize the faith and life of believers. sattler's with- drawal theology thus not only renounces all carnal force but also seems to dispair of affecting much needed change in society. the book includes a foreword by cornelius j. dyck, a map of the lands in which sattler lived and ministered, copious end notes, an up-to- date bibliography of sources and secondary works, and a useful index of names and places. the book is handsomely bound and relatively free of misprints. harry loewen university of winnipeg anne chislett, quiet in the land (toronto: coach h o u s e press, ); pages, paperback. $ . . quiet in the land is a well-constructed and beautifully written play by the canadian writer anne chislett. this drama was initially written for the blyth summer festival (ontario). its first production was so successful that it was revived the following year for a longer run and has since then been performed in many important centres. in it won the coveted chalmers award for the best play presented in toronto. chislett's drama about an amish community addresses a number of important issues. on the one hand it explores the age-old predicaments associated with the generation conflict. at the same time the problems experienced in following the ideals of non-resistance, of aloofness from worldly things and the perennial attempts of religious groups to keep out corrupting influences by the erection of moral and social "fences", figure prominently. while an investigation of these problems is hardly in itself a novel undertaking, chislett does manage to use the vehicle of her play to force us to take a hard new look at them and to become personally involved. the play explores the predicament of a small amish community in southwestern ontario during the final war years - . the author shows us how the conscription issue stirs u p the latent hostilities of the outside world and, at the same time, brings to a head the problems already smoldering within the amish group itself. the older members of the community cling obstinately to the established customs and beliefs, whereas the younger generation wishes to bring about enlightened ~ o o k reviews change, see genuine attempts made to answer their many troubling questions and honest, open discussion of common problems. as the play opens eighteen-year-old menno and katie are being admitted to full membership in the church. yock (jacob) bauman, who is the same age or even a little older, on the other hand, has been steadily refusing to seek baptism despite intense pressure from his orthodox father christy (christian) because of deeply-felt doubts. while his friend menno becomes a member of the church and, with visiting bishop ely's permission, starts a sunday school for the young people where they can openly discuss their problems, yock remains an outsider, torn within himself and in daily conflict with his father. this conflict is hightened when christy is elected bishop and puts further pressure on yock to conform without asking questions. the alienation finally leads to a public confrontation when yock defiantly tells his father in the presence of fellow church members that he for one never asked christ to die for him in the first place and is physically chastized by his outraged father. although yock has come to love katie, who returns his love, and has previously made plans to marry her and settle down in the community, he now despairs and runs away to join the army as a soldier. not having heard from yock for a long time, katie submits to community pressure and marries the upright and progressive menno. yock's father christy has become an alcoholic and submits his flock to a tyrannical fanaticism which alienates even his best friends. when yock returns from the war he has become a "hun-killing" hero to the outside world but to his own people he is nothing but a common murderer. however, yock has learned his lesson over the dead body of a german soldier he killed and is now a pacifist by conviction. when he remorsefully seeks his father's forgive- ness he is rejected selfrighteously and not permitted to return to the fold. as the play ends yock has to leave once more and we see a lonely, worn- out christy who has turned away his only son and his community. his only triumph now can be the fact that his son has finally admitted that his father has been right all along. chislett's staging is very straightforward and proves most effective. the homes of the brubachers and the baumans and their yards are visible side by side. actions often take place simultaneously in both places and throw an interesting light on one another. this technique also serves to underline the community aspect of the plot. the language of the charac- ters is simple and borrows heavily from scripture. yet, this same simple language can turn quite poetic as well, particularly in such emotionally charged scenes as the love encounter between yock and katie and the final confrontation between yock and christy. the characters come across as very real people and keep us intimately involved with their problems. the audience is permitted to become part of the small community por- trayed. journal o f memonite studies while the play ably creates the atmosphere of a small community, its most impressive aspect is that the author manages to go beyond the immediate problems of a particular amish group whose spiritual fences threaten to collapse. the disturbing questions raised by the soul-search- ing of the characters are of great concern to us today as well. the interper- sonal conflicts shown are those of any tightly knit group with a common goal. we too are made to see, along with the characters, that material and technological progress, so often sought with a plea for personal freedom, can indeed become pandora's box. the book is a well-made paperback. it sports a most attractive cover and is printed on high quality paper. excellent black and white photo- graphs showing us the characters as they were portrayed in the original production stimulate the reader's imagination. an introduction and pro- duction notes by the author give the reader and potential director the necessary tools to a full understanding of the play. quietin the land does not provide any new answers but it is sure to generate a lot of discussion. this excellent play is not only to be recom- mended to those who are deeply concerned with the issues raised but also to all who enjoy good theatre. andre oberle university of winnipeg patrick friesen, unearthly horses (winnipeg: t u r n s t o n e press, ); paperback, pp. unearthly horses is the fourth volume of patrick friesen's poems to be published by turnstone press. the previous collections, the lands i am ( ), bluebottle ( ) and the shunning ( ), all include poems in which friesen deals with his mennonite past. in this volume friesen takes a more personal approach to this ethnic theme than he did in the shunningand develops it in a more mature, more thoughtful way than he did in the first two books. in unearthly horses friesen charts his own highly individualistic spiritual pilgrimage. it is also the archetypal jour- ney from eden, or the garden-like world of childhood, to the fallen adult world and, finally, to a state that both combines and transcends the previous two. this final state is achieved by coming to terms with his own human limitations, his mortality. ~ o o k reviews the first state is preserved in a series of word photographs, often focusing on his mother: in the garden leaning on.her hoe pushing back strands of hair her eyes lock on mine where i lie on my stomach between rows of raspberry bushes this is how i was chosen this innocent world occasionally includes his father: in the garden pa making straight lines with string scooping a shallow trench and dropping seeds he waters it from a can stands u p satisfied turning when the back door opens he smiles watching ma walk toward him their arms lock around each other's waists he swings her off her feet she gasps and he sets her down turning to where i stand in twilight she sings 'the sandman look the sandman's here' it is a world of trees and grass and summer foliage: ma's voice floating in july air across lawns past ' s bungalows along a dirt road through knee-deep grass spreading among poplar leaves where i sit at the top above homes seeing beyond the outskirts of town to grandfather's farm the second world, a fallen state of consciousness, is most vividly portrayed in the "pa poems." the stern yet loving father is reminiscent of old testament justice and new testament grace. in "pa poem " the poet recalls an encounter with his father that has profound religious con- notations: and there we were in front of the furnace me pleading across your knee both of us wishing we were someplace else but you not spoiling the child and you swung that leather high journal o f mennonite studies me twisting to look u p your arm flung out seeing you naked and nailed like a child to a tree how could there be so much love? the second state is one of suffering and death. in the suffering and death of his father the poet perceives his own mortality but, at the same time, he also finds his place in the eternal scheme of things. "pa poem " describes the night following his father's death: after i stood the night through in pa's basement writing his obituary as if it was mine handed it to the minister watched him stroke out 'died' and scribble in 'passed away' as if there was no end to it even for me the third state, though hinted at in some of the "pa poems," is anticipated more strongly in the three easter poems. it is a state in which the poet finds himself out of tune with the "solemn surrender" of his ancestors, "that certainty of theirs" ("easter morning "), their pious attitude which excludes and denies all those who do not adhere to a particular creed. the poet celebrates instead the broader, mythical im- plications of the event. "easter morning " concludes as follows: the sky is faultlessly blue on easter morning the dove has flown and father calls me for church i jump the shattered ice and water each death gives life ,to me i want to commemorate this morning this nostalgia for the momentary man in his pain in the name of the father for his bereavement in the name of the son and the ghost this broader, mythical interpretation of the resurrection can also be seen in the poem "easter": i can saj that my birthday each summer is here in this field ~ o o k reviervs that i see how the world turns here dawn to dusk and this is it how the world happens for me this is the place i am here wherever i am i am here for the poet, easter symbolizes the constant cycle of death and renewal within the life-span of the individual, a miracle in the here and now. its celebration leads to a celebration of life in general and ushers in a redeemed state of forgiveness and love. however, this state is not as idyllic as the garden of childhood. it is one in which the fallen and the unfallen, good and evil, must coexist, illustrated by conflicting images such as lions and lambs, shadows and sunlight, winter and summer, grey hydro lines and lilacs. the poem "celebration," addressed to his father, is the poet's acceptance of this truth: carol's reading a book on bulbs pa this spring she planted offshoots of your old glads i'm reading a book of saints last night on television i saw marshal zhukov sending infantry into minefields to save his armour to authenticate his resolve an image of seven peasants dangling from a gallows almost off-camera a german officer with frost on his breath stamps his rag-wound feet at this level of consciousness the poet celebrates the here and now in spite of its uncertainties and ambiguities. it is a disordered garden but not totally without hope. the poet's as yet innocent children in many ways compensate for the fallen world all around him: we're planning marijke's birthday possibly an afternoon on the beach she'll be nine if you could see her pa you'd be so proud just at that age of long legs and grace you should see her dance and learning about the rest of the world too arab bazaars sombreros and the violin and first inklings that the world's coming down around us is the war coming here she asks marijke's "first inklings" suggest that her innocent world is about to be destroyed too. and so the cyclical process continues. journal o f mennonite studies patrick friesen is always striving to reach an audience beyond the narrowly ethnic. he knows he must root his poetry in his own particular ethnic experience. at the same time, he knows he must also transcend the restrictions of a specific faith or creed. in unearthly horses friesen describes his own personal spiritual journey but it is one that is also universal. peter pauls university of winnipeg photofile the ultimate in archival record preservation acid-free envelopes rare manuscripts and documents can be stored and preserved indefinitely in these high qualify acid-free envelopes. stock is completely free of any contaminating or deteriorating chemical agents. available in ivory only, with or without flap. acid-free adhesive secures binding seams. manuscript sizes. photographic negative sizes. manuscript and photograph protectors clear see-thru polyester binders. inside binding edge grips manuscript firmly in place. completely protects contents from fingerprints and out- side contamination while document is being read or copied for referral purposes. available in sizes. transparent mylar sleeves. negative protection with ample space for indexing. negatives can be easily viewed without removal from envelope. send for free brochure. p h o t o f i l e lewis avenue • zion, illinois • ( ) - division of oata systems supply co. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril history is nearby . . . both inside and outside the archive walls nearby history is the first comprehensive guide to methods of historical inquiry in community, family, local and cultural history, linking all fields of study in important and innovative ways. the authors define in a single volume the broad range of research possibilities which exist "nearby" in every community — showing where to find and how to use published, unpublished, visual and artifactual records; how to collect information through interviews and leave a record of the research; and how to connect the individual investigation to more universal historical issues. essential reading for historians, archivists, historical agency administrators, nearby history was written by david e. kyvig, associate professor of history and consulting archivist at the university of akron, and myron a. marty, deputy director of the division of education programs, national endowment for the humanities. clothbound / illustrated / pages to order, send $ . plus $ . postage and handling to nearby history american association for state and local history berry road, room -a nashville, tennessee ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/vol. , no. /fall technical notes ben dewhitt, editor acid-free glassine. andrews/nelson/ whitehead has a one-mil thick, acid- free glassine that can be used either for interleaving or for making envelopes or sleeves for documents and art works. it is available in x -inch sheets. con- tact andrews/nelson/whitehead, - th avenue, long island city, ny . telephone: ( ) - . what paper conservators are expected to know. the american institute for conservation has started certifying paper conservators by examination through its board of examiners. the following list gives an idea of what suc- cessful candidates are expected to know. the certification procedure includes, in addition to written and oral exams, an examination of the facilities, equipment, and work done at the applicant's place of work. the applicant is tested on knowledge of: . conservators' methods and tech- niques, including drycleaning; mending; making inserts; flattening; washing; bleaching; deacidification; tape removal; removing backings and adhesives; adhering backing; matting and framing; and use of adhesives, papers, solvents, and reagents . routine problems in paper conser- vation. the candidate will write up pro- posed treatments including the tech- niques and materials to be used. these problems may include: oil paint on paper or board, synthetic media, mixed media, collage, extra-large objects, three dimensional objects, decoupage, or schaerenschnitte (paper cut-outs), em- bossed prints, or wallpaper. . causes and results of damage and deterioration, including use of improper materials and treatments, improper en- vironmental conditions, inherent vice, and accidental damage . acquaintance with related areas of paper conservation such as parchment, papyrus, tapa, palm leaf manuscripts, pith "tsuro rice" paper, and synthetic paper . proper procedures, including light and climate control, storage, exhibition, handling, packing and shipping, records and reports, insurance, and administra- tion . personnel safety procedures . professional ethics readers are encouraged to send contributions to "technical notes." address them to ben dewhitt, nars (nnsc), washington, dc . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall . research questions covering materials and techniques of art and historic artifacts on paper, including history; composition and manufacturing methods; deterioration; testing; uses; and visual recognition of papers, media, and drawing, graphic, and painting tech- niques. elementary principles of chemistry and physics applied to conser- vation will also be tested. [from the abbey newsletter, april, .] more on mass deacidification at lc. the library of congress will conduct the first large-scale test of its mass paper deacidification process in july . using a large vacuum chamber, original- ly designed to test satellites destined for outer space, the library will attempt to neutralize the acid found in most modern paper. it is a process aimed at extending the life of books and valuable papers for at least four times their an- ticipated current life span of to years. the chamber, located at the national aeronautics and space administration's goddard space flight center in greenbelt, md., will be loaded with , books to be subjected to a week- long treatment with a special chemical vapor according to a patented process. the treatment is expected not only to neutralize completely the harmful acids, which otherwise would eventually destroy the paper in books, but also to leave an alkaline reserve to combat the return to an acid condition in the future. the life expectancy of the treated volumes will thus be significantly in- creased. intensive research, aimed at preserva- tion of its collections of some , , books and millions of pieces of archival and other special collections, resulted in the development at the library of con- gress of a process known as vapor- phased deacidification. invented by the library's chemists, the process was patented in . from the first tests conducted in-house using an ordinary pressure cooker and involving only a few books, to a series of tests of some volumes at a time using the facilities of the general electric company in valley forge, pa., the process proved to be so successful that it may revolutionize the treatment of massive numbers of library materials. the problem, though more acute and on a larger scale at the library of con- gress, affects all research libraries and documentation centers. six institutions will cooperate with the library by pro- viding a small number of representative materials for treatment in the july tests. they are the national archives, the new york public library, the new england document conservation center, and the libraries of columbia, stanford, and yale universities. vapor-phased deacidification makes possible the treatment of the entire volume at once and at an estimated cost of about $ per book. the gas used is diethyl zinc (dez) which, upon reaction with the cellulose, water, and carbon dioxide, leaves a non-toxic substance, zinc carbonate, in the treated paper. the pyrophoric properties of dez, however, require rigid controls during the applica- tion. nasa's experience with vacuum tech- nology and the availability of its facilities provided the library with an ideal test site to demonstrate the feasibility of large-scale applications. after the , volumes are placed in the chamber, the air is removed and the books are dried for two days at low pressure. dez gas is then introduced and allowed to permeate the volumes for four days. after purging with nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water are introduced for one day. backfilling with air com- pletes the process and the books are re- moved. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes following this process, the library's preservation research and testing of- fice will conduct exhaustive tests to ascertain that each of the , volumes has been completely deacidified. results of this testing are expected before the end of and will be announced by the library of congress through its na- tional preservation program office. network advisory committee takes a look at document delivery—u.s.a. in a two-day session, march - , , representatives from major national library organizations (ala, asis, arl, cosla, mla, sla), govern- ment agencies (lc, nal, nlm, nclis), networks (amigos, class, oclc, rlg, wln) and the informa- tion industry (aap, iia, nfais), ham- mered out those issues which involve document delivery as a major compo- nent of the national scene called "access to information." interlibrary loan represents a small percentage of total library lending activi- ty in the u.s., perhaps million or so items annually. if this figure were to rise in the next few years to the - million now forecast, it is of the utmost impor- tance to strengthen interlibrary loan before increased demand cripples the system. in the past four years, a major shift has occurred from depending on na- tional published location finding tools to reliance on bibliographic utilities such as oclc and local automated systems. thus, whether development of yet another nationwide location database and monitoring service such as docline is necessary, remains unclear. several options already exist for locating and requesting materials. building a system exclusively for in- terlibrary loan when it can be a byproduct of online technical services procedures not only will require money, but yet another commitment from par- ticipating libraries. more importantly, the source of greatest frustra- tion—physical movement of materials— would be virtually unaffected because, again, such a system fails to resolve the problem of assuring reliable and prompt delivery of requested materials and other physical transport systems. it is time, therefore, to search and examine alter- natives. for this reason, the network ad- visory committee heard a presentation of adonis, a project intended to pro- vide full text copies of individual journal articles on demand. adonis is being planned by a group of publishers, chief- ly six companies which publish about , scientific, technical, and medical journals. this venture is based on elec- tronic storage and retrieval technology to produce articles, including illustra- tions, at better than office copier quality and mail them within hours after the order is received—perhaps even faster. adonis plans to become operational early in , and may offer an alter- native to journal subscriptions and photocopy services. three papers prepared for the net- work advisory committee formed the basis for its deliberations. "document delivery: the current status and near term future," by james l. wood, director, bibliographic operations divi- sion, chemical abstract service, provid- ed the committee with background in- formation on the current state of affairs. "document delivery technology: a brief state of the art review," by mary ellen jacob, director for library plan- ning, oclc, discussed technologies af- fecting document delivery in libraries. a third paper, entitled "librarians in the year ," prepared by susan h. crooks of arthur d. little, inc., pro- vided the basis for a scenario of what the future holds. the magic turn of the cen- tury is only years away, and technology will bring a number of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall potential substitutions for library func- tions as a result of developments in home computers, video tex, integrated office information systems, and others. a major change inherent in videodiscs, and videotapes will permit low cost storage of large amounts of information on site. computers will enable home and small business users to create and manage personal files. users will control their own storage and, within the limits of mass-oriented applications software, will be able to tailor their access tools. the library's role must be examined in view of these future developments. [erika love in ml a news, no. , may, ] library of congress licensed to make deacidification solutions. the library of congress has taken a nonexclusive, royalty-bearing license (effective oc- tober ) to make and use nonaqueous deacidification solutions for materials in the library's custody and in facilities under its control and direction. the solutions being used were invented by richard d. smith, wei t'o associates, inc., matteson, il. the relationship betweeen u.s. pa- tent , , granted to smith and u.s. patent , , granted to george kelly, preservation research and testing office, and assigned to the library of congress has not been clearly understood until recently. as a result of discussions between the library and smith, the library has been licensed to use patent , , . smith pioneered the development of nonaqueous deacidification solutions during the s at the graduate library school, the university of chicago. his preferred deacidification agent, magnesium methoxide, was utilized by kelly through addition of carbon diox- ide to form methoxy magnesium methyl carbonate (mmmc), a chemical by definition, made up of more than per- cent magnesium methoxide. the lc information bulletin, march , when announcing kelly's patent, described the use of mmmc, then called methylmagnesium car- bonate, as follows: many earlier deacidification tech- niques were based on aqueous deacidification solutions. such solutions, although effective in some instances, have drawbacks related principally to the fact that water can be very damaging to some types of paper and to certain inks used for color work or for writing. although several non-aqueous or solvent-based methods have also been developed in recent years, each has been subject to some problems, ranging from the toxic nature of the materials in- volved to the tendency of some solutions to precipitate in the presence of moisture and leave a deposit on the paper. methylmagnesium carbonate eliminates nearly all of the objec- tions encountered with other solvent-based systems. it effective- ly deacidifies papers too delicate to be treated by aqueous solution. the solution imparts a level of alkaline reserve high enough to protect the paper against future acid attack, whether these acids are internally generated by decompos- ing lignins or other compounds or externally deposited from at- mospheric pollution. solutions of methylmagnesium carbonate are much more stable than previously available solu- tions, most of which tend quickly to become inactive. the effec- tiveness, the longer storage life, the greater convenience, and the significantly lower cost of the new product provide a superior deacidification agent for the use of conservators. the preservation office of the library of congress has been using the new process to treat certain books and documents for the past months. the results have been excellent and no adverse effects or d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes difficulties of any kind have been encountered. with the exception of the library of congress, wei t'o associates, inc., p.o. drawer , matteson, il , is the exclusive licensee under smith's pa- tent. the objective of wei t'o is to en- courage persons and institutions who have been manufacturing their own solutions to become customers. it is the library's understanding that wei t'o has no desire to penalize any person or institution who has acted in good faith thinking that they were licensed under kelly's patent. on the other hand, wei t'o has informed the library that it believes development costs should be evenly spread amongst all who benefit. for these reasons, wei t'o will merely seek reasonable compen- sation from those persons and institu- tions who promptly undertake negotia- tions. the quality, variety, and scope of wei t'o products and to support research in preservation for the benefit of collectors and institutions such as archives, li- braries, and museums. smith, who is president of wei t'o, has indicated that this plan follows his conviction that in- ventions should produce income and this income should be used to produce fur- ther benefits for society. improved nonaqueous deacidification technology. richard d. smith, presi- dent of wei t'o associates, was award- ed u.s. patent no. , , , entitled "an improved treatment of cellulosic materials," on march . this in- vention makes possible the preparation of many different kinds of nonaqueous d e a c i d i f i c a t i o n s o l u t i o n s using magnesium alkoxides which scientists have heretofore considered insoluble. these new solutions can be used to pro- tect books, documents, and works of art on paper against aging, i.e., to prevent the embrittlement and yellowing caused by acid attack. for archives, libraries, and museums, smith's new patent improves the technology of preservation in four im- portant ways. ( ) it makes available more safe nonaqueous deacidification solutions because less hazardous solvents, e.g., ethyl alcohol, can now be substituted for methyl alcohol. ( ) it makes possible special formulations which rarely affect highly soluble inks including ball point inks. ( ) it allows the formulation of solutions with greater penetrating power to use for protecting thicker papers and stabilizing paper boards on which prints or works of art on paper are already mounted. ( ) it makes possible more economical mass deacidification systems in which only the solvents and chemicals carried away in the books and records must be replaced. in other words, patent no. , , discloses a breakthrough which increases the choice, efficiency, and effectiveness of the nonaqueous deacidification tech- niques available to archivists, conser- vators, collectors, and librarians. this technology for preserving books, records, and works of art on paper was pioneered and developed by smith dur- ing the s at the university of chicago. throughout the s, wei t'o associates continued development of the solutions and technology which now are widely used and form the basis for the successful wei t'o nonaqueous book deacidification system at the public archives of canada. in this same decade, george b. kelly, jr., of the preservation research and testing of- fice of the library of congress, further stabilized the original solution. smith's new process has been used successfully for several years and has made it possible for wei t'o associates to introduce and improve three different pairs of deacidification solutions and aerosol sprays. wei t'o solution no. and spray no. are intended for use by d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall professionals, dry rapidly, and seldom affect even fugitive inks. nos. and offer improved safety characteristics, have intermediate working properties, and are intended for use by collectors and in less well ventilated work areas. nos. and have the greatest pene- trating and sterilizing power, dry more slowly, and can be used to treat larger objects. custom formulated solutions are also available to satisfy special needs, e.g, for wei t'o deacidification systems and for deacidifying documents with unusually sensitive inks. additional information is available from wei t'o associates, inc., p.o. drawer , matteson, il , ( ) - . proceedings of the national conference on regional archival networks order from: mac rm library university of illinois w. gregory urbana, il this issue — $ . plus * for postage and handling yearly subscriptions- individuals, $ .: institutions, $ . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/vol. , no. /fall the international scene ronald j. plavchan, editor we are indebted to the following correspondents: australia: r.g. neale; austria: josef riegler; bahamas/caribbean: d. gail saunders; brazil: maria amelia gomes leite; china: sun fangjiu; federal republic of germany: wolfram werner; finland: eljas orrman; france: michel duchein; german democratic republic: horst schetelich; england & wales: bruce jackson; india/swarbica: n.h. kulkarnee; israel: haya wolovsky; italy: donato tamble; malawi/east and central africa: steve m. mwiyeriwa; malaysia/sarbica: zakiah hanum nor; mexico: juan claudio mayer guala; netherlands: t.p. huijs; new zealand: judith s. hor- nabrook; nigeria/west africa: j.c. enwere; organization of american states: celso rodriguez; peru/ala: cesar gutierrez munoz; poland: jerzy szczepanski; scotland: andrew m. jackson; senegal/west africa: m. saliou mbaye; solomon island/oceania: r.g.a. chesterman; south africa: maryna fraser; spain: margarita vazquez de parga; vatican city: claudio de dominicis; and zimbabwe: r.g.s. douglas. argentina national government grants subsidy to ala. cesar a. garcia belsunce, director-general of the archivo general de la naci n and vice president of the asociaci n latinoamericana de ar- chivos (ala), announced in early that the ministry of interior has in- formed him that the national govern- ment has approved a $ , grant to ala. the funds were authorized in resolution no. , which was ap- proved on november . as an unrestricted grant, the money will be used by ala toward further archival development in latin america. first regional census of archives. susana cristina gordo, chief of the history section of the archivo hist rico y administrativo in the western province of san juan, conducted the first regional census of archives in . she was assisted in the census by nelly gahona de falter. their census indicates that institutions have archival or records management functions; of these, are operated by the provincial government and are run by municipal depart- ments. a brief summary of the results of this census has been printed in the recent issue of the oas newsletter noticiero archivistico (may ). it reveals the presence of serious deficiencies in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall province with regard to archives and records management practices and in- adequately trained personnel. according to gordo, the census was the first step in a general plan to coordinate the work of archives and to organize the archivo general de la administration. the next step in the process will be to inventory the types of documents in the various provincial and municipal institutions contacted in the first phase in order to compile the necessary information to prepare retention and disposal schedules. canada additional anniversary activities at pac. as part of the division's year-long celebration commemorating its th an- niversary, the national map collection of the public archives of canada (pac) has selected a graphic symbol. the an- niversary logo features the number and seven points of a compass rose (the collective term for the various points on a compass), with one of the points representing the northern pointer. - national map collection collection nationale de cartes et plans in addition to the special publication of a facsimile map, pac held a number of events to celebrate this special year in the division's history. an exhibition, entitled "treasures of the national map collection," was on display in the main exhibition hall from august to october. it featured about of the most significant and rarest items from the division's holdings. prior to this exhibition, pac had bor- rowed a small exhibition prepared by the archives de la ville de quebec. it featured the works of quebec-born ar- chitect charles baillairge ( - ), who was one of the architects of the parliament buildings in ottawa. this exhibition, which ran from may to june, coincided with the annual meeting, held in ottawa, of the society for the study of architecture in canada. the national map collection also hosted the annual conference of the association of canadian map libraries, - august . the theme of the conference was "map producers and map collections: perspectives on cooperation." mennonites start planning for bicentennial celebration. the men- nonite historical society of ontario has established a bicentennial commission under the chairmanship of frank h. epp of conrad grebel college, waterloo, ontario. the commission will prepare plans for suitable memorial observances during marking the th anniversary of the first arrival of mennonites in canada. those in- dividuals who participated in the first migration ( - ) were of swiss- german descent and left pennsylvania after the american revolutionary war to form three settlements in southern ontario: niagara peninsula, waterloo county, and york county. the commis- sion will eventually be composed of representatives of various mennonite conferences and inter-mennonite organizations, such as the mennonite central committee (canada). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene chile pan american institute publishes ar- chival guide. the archival committee of the pan american institute of geography and history, chilean history section, has published a -page guide to the historical archives of santiago. the gui'a de los archivos historicos de santiago was prepared by juan eyzaguirre, javier gonzalez echenique, jose joaquin matte varas, and ramon ramirez ramirez, o.p. it is divided into two parts: civil archives and ecclesiastical archives. ecuador archivists association celebrates an- niversary. on april , the asociacion ecuatoriana de administra- dores de documentos y archivos (aeada) celebrated its nd anniver- sary. aeada was founded in quito on april . federal republic of ger- many archivum volume on updated archival legislation published. in the ica editorial committee decided to compile as a valuable reference source all of the texts relating to archival legislation then in effect in the different countries of the world. the resulting information re- quired four volumes of archivum (numbers , , , and ), published in - . since , however, there has been an effort on the part of several countries either to modernize their ar- chival legislation or to adopt such legislation where there had been none. publication of the recent edition of archivum (volume xxviii, ) by k.g. saur verlag kg, munich, updates the information in the previously pub- lished volumes. this current volume in- cludes the selected texts of archival laws and regulations from countries, rang- ing from algeria to zimbabwe, which indicate significant changes in their legislation as it relates to archives. twenty of the countries listed adopted new basic archival legislation. a review of the selected legislation in the volume reveals the presence of several trends on the international level: a movement toward a centralized organization of ar- chives services, a tendency to include ar- chives in legislation that covers the entire cultural and documentary heritage of a country, and an emphasis on the protec- tion of a country's national archival heritage including even private archives. france revision planned for guide to archives of international organizations. unesco has reported that it will revise and enlarge its guide on the archives of international organizations, which was first published in a preliminary version in as a general information pro- gramme (pgi) document pgi/ /ws/ . the guide (part i: the un system) represented the first extensive summary of the archival sources of those interna- tional organizations that are part of the un system. in addition to this revision and expansion of the first part of the guide, unesco concluded a contract in for the preparation of the second part of the guide. the proposed supple- ment will include information on the records or archives of international organizations located in national ar- chives or other repositories, as well as any papers of former international of- ficers that are located in such repositories. no date has been set for release of the preliminary version for comments. institutions or individuals having custody of such archives are asked to contact the division of the general information programme, unesco, place de fontenoy, paris, france. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall other recent unesco publications that were prepared for the general in- formation programme and unisist in- clude: the use of sampling techniques in the retention of records: a ramp study with guidelines, prepared by felix hull (pgi- /ws/ ); application of minicomputers and microcomputers to information handling, prepared by jose-marie griffiths (pgi- /ws/ ); and the applicability of unisist guidelines and iso international stan- dards to archives administration and records management: a ramp study, prepared by james b. rhoads (pgi- / ws/ ). italy international congress held at bari state archives. the archivo di stato di bari was the site of the international congress "italia judaica," held - may . the congress, which took place under the patronage of the ministry of culture, was devoted to the history of the jews of italy and included three lectures on archival sources for the study of italian jewry. to mark this oc- casion, the archivio di stato di bari mounted a large exhibition of documents drawn from various archives throughout the country. this exhibition was subsequently displayed at rome and milan. the state archives also pub- lished a richly illustrated source book on the history of the jews of apulia up to the th century, entitled la presenza ebraica in puglia, fonti documentarie e bibliografiche. mexico fire at film archives. a fire broke out on march at the cineteca na- tional de mexico, which housed , motion picture films dating from the s. the loss in lives and in valuable archival film was high. prior to the fire, cineteca nacional de mexico represented the most complete film ar- chives in latin america, primarily because mexico was a pioneer in cinematographic film among latin american countries. people's republic of china new publication service established. the chinese government has established the china national publishing industry trading corporation to assist its publishing industry by expanding the ex- port of chinese publications, developing international joint publishing ventures, and promoting international cultural ex- changes. the main office of the new cor- poration is located at bei zong bu hutong in beijing (peking), with branch offices in shanghai, tianjin, and guangdong. it is ready to provide a wide range of services to foreign publishers, libraries and archives, sinology research institutes, business firms, and in- dividuals. for further information, write to china national publishing in- dustry trading corporation, p.o. box , beijing, china. peru peruvian archivists association pro- claims national day. at its regular general meeting on december , the asociaci n peruana de archiveros (apa) unanimously passed a resolution declaring may as apa day through- out the country. this declaration was in- tended to honor all members of the association, living and deceased, for their contribution to the profession and work in the archives of peru. apa, founded in lima on may , has been waging a campaign since to have a special day designated as "ar- chivists' day." (see american archivist, volume , p. .) d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene the philippines report on the pilot archives and records center project available. in late , artel ricks, former nars regional commissioner, visited the philippines as a unesco consultant to assist in the establishment of a ramp (records and archives management programme) pilot regional archives and records center. he assisted officials in the conversion of one floor of a nearly- completed commercial building in the cebu city suburb of mandue into a combined archival repository and records center. it was the decision of the philippine government, however, to locate the site of the pilot regional center in the country's second largest city. although the aim of the project was primarily to serve as a model for similar branches to be set up throughout the philippines, it was felt that the methodology and techniques developed from the project might also be adopted by other developing countries in the establishment of a regional, provincial, municipal, or local archival network in their respective countries. the bureau of records management, which has been overseeing the project, anticipates that the resulting network of such centers will ultimately become part of a national in- formation system in the islands. as in- itially intended, the center has been serv- ing all government agencies at the na- tional, provincial, and local levels within the region. the -year project was started on october . a report prepared for the philippine government by ricks has been published by unesco as technical report rp/ - / / / / ; fmr/pgi/ / . a similar project, also with pgi assistance, has been set up in indonesia. the indonesian model archival repository and records center is located in a converted former colonial mansion in semarang, the capital of central java. republic of cyprus development of an archival and records management program pro- posed. at the request of the government of cyprus, unesco agreed to send a staff member to advise the ministry of justice on the development of its public record office (pro) and archival pro- gram under the public record law. frank b. evans of unesco con- ducted a fact-finding tour, - january , and his report has been published by unesco as technical report rp/ - / / . / ; fmr/ pgi/ / . the report is intended to serve as a planning document for the cypriot government in developing an ar- chival and records management pro- gram. it presents a series of short- and long-term recommendations with regard to legislation, organization, staffing, and physical facilities for the pro; ap- pointment of an advisory committee on public records; establishment of a records center operation; and construc- tion of an archives building. vatican city completion of project on papal history during world war ii. libreria editrice vaticana has announced the completion and publication of the th and final volume of acts and documents of the holy see relative to the second world war. this project was started in when pope paul vi commissioned a task force of jesuit historians (pierre blet, robert a. graham, angelo martini, and burkhart schneider) to undertake the immense job. the purpose of the multivolume work is to make available to scholars unpublished documents relating to the war as well as to describe the policy and activity of pope pius xii and the holy see between march and august . the selected documents, printed in their original language, are drawn from the archives of the office of secretary of state, of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall the congregation for extraordinary ec- clesiastical affairs, of other offices of the roman curia, and of the pontifical missions abroad. this final volume per- tains to the period from january to august . reproductions of selected gold seals in the vatican archives. in honor of the centenary year commemorating the opening of the archivio segreto vaticano to scholars by pope leo xiii in - , the secretariat of the vatican archives has decided to issue a series of reproductions of original gold seals from its holdings. forty-three seals will be faithfully reproduced and made available for sale at annual intervals dur- ing the next five years. the archives will publish a special catalogue with a de- tailed description of each gold seal reproduced, including a photograph of the obverse and reverse sides. nine seals have been reproduced in limited quanti- ty for . these are the seals of emperor otto iv, bela iv of hungary, charles i of anjou, emperor charles iv, byzantine emperor john viii (palaeologus), alfonso i of aragon, ferdinand i of sicily, philip ii of spain, and ferdinand iv of sicily. for further information about these reproductions or the catalogue, write to: segretaria dell'archivio segreto vaticano, citta del vaticano. closing of historic centennial exhibi- tion. on january , vatican and italian officials attended special ceremonies in the old hall to mark the official closing of the celebration com- memorating the opening of the archivio segreto vaticano by pope leo xiii. to commemorate the historic exhibition, the vatican book publishing house, libreria editrice vaticana, has pub- lished a special book on the centennial. although no precise figures have been released on the number of people who visited the exhibition during its seven- month run, vatican officials have termed the historic exhibition, which opened in april , a great success. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/vol. , no. /fall news notes f.l. eaton and thomas e. weir, jr., editors send notes for publication to the news notes editor, the american archivist, na- tional archives building, washington, dc , or to one of the following reporters: state and local archives to richard j. cox, records management divi- sion, department of legislative reference, city of baltimore, md ; religious archives to john r. woodard, p.o. box , reynolda station, winston-salem, nc ; scientific and technical archives to arthur r. abel, national park ser- vice, edison national historic site, main street and lakeside avenue, west orange, nj ; business archives to linda edgerly, w. th street, new york, ny ; state and regional archival associations to alice vestal, special collections department, main library, room , university of cincinnati, cincinnati, oh ; and manuscript repositories to peter j. parker, historical society of penn- sylvania, manuscripts department, locust street, philadelphia, pa . the american council on education has opened its archives for the period - for research and has prepared a descriptive guide. the archives detail the history of the council and its involve- ment in national and regional issues con- cerning higher education. for further in- formation contact judith a. pfeiffer, higher education policy and ad- ministration library and information service, american council on educa- tion, one dupont circle, washington, dc . as part of the celebration of its th anniversary, the american institute of architects mounted a major exhibition of archival material. "for the record" features artworks, memorabilia, manu- scripts and letters, publications, awards, and medals. the exhibition results in part from a two-year project to arrange and describe the previously unavailable materials in the aia archives. among items uncovered during the archival work were the original constitution and bylaws, adopted by the aia in and long believed lost. the centennial history of the aia had reported that the "possession of such a treasure is denied us." the american irish historical society, fifth ave., new york, new york , is embarking on a program to preserve and make available the archives and manuscript collections of the socie- ty. organized in in boston, the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall society was established "to make better known the irish chapter in american history." the society of california archivists has established a special committee on con- servation to study archival and manuscript conservation in california. it is seeking information on current work and anticipated needs in the state. the committee began by asking ar- chivists to report on conservation workshops that have been held in their areas, conservation practices at in- dividual institutions, and practicing con- servators in their areas, and to suggest ideas for sca-sponsored conservation programs. for further information con- tact gloria scott, west rancho rd., corona, ca. the california state archives assess- ment project, funded through a grant from nhprc, will assess archival needs throughout the state. the grant is fund- ed for the calendar year but pro- ducts will be released as they are com- pleted. an information center has been established at the california state ar- chives to provide the public with infor- mation about archival programs, pro- cedures, records management principles, conservation, and access- to materials and equipment. a county historic records manual has been developed and published. the manual identifies records in counties most useful to historians. the project is also preparing a compila- tion of statutes relating to the retention of records of state and local govern- ments. in january the university of penn- sylvania and the american chemical society agreed to create in philadelphia a center for history of chemistry. after setting up an advisory board and a policy panel the center will hire a staff including a part-time director, a full- time assistant director, a secretary, and one or two archival assistants. the staff, with the assistance of the board and panel, will begin to identify historical resources in need of preservation and to develop programs to encourage an ap- preciation of the historical achievements of chemistry, chemical engineering, and the chemical industry. a new organization, chicago area ar- chivists, was formed in january . the group intends to hold meetings to discuss archival issues of particular con- cern in the chicago area. to be put on the mailing list or for further informa- tion contact robert marshall, special collections, chicago public library cultural center, east washington st., chicago, il . the worth county courthouse in sylvester, georgia, burned down on january ; it was the third county courthouse fire in two years in that state. fortunately, one of the mobile micro- filming units of the georgia department of archives and history had just com- pleted three months of filming at the courthouse, so many of the valuable records are preserved on film. an undetermined amount of older records nonetheless was destroyed. the state ar- chives staff assisted in the clean-up operation. reproductions of documents and an instructor's manual constitute "win- dows on the past" educational packets being compiled by the illinois state ar- chives for use in illinois schools. the in- structor's manual includes study ques- tions and suggestions for incorporating historical documents into lessons. the packets are intended to introduce students to the study of local history through the use of county records. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the international project in the history of solid state physics is issuing a news- letter, produced jointly by three national groups. the solid state newsletter covers project activities and describes the contents of archives and collections relating to solid state physics. the news- letter is available free of charge from the american institute of physics, east th st., new york, ny . new and improved climate-control equipment will replace the older, less ef- ficient units in the cases exhibiting on permanent display two of the greatest treasures of the library of congress.— the great bible of mainz and the gutenberg bible. because the library wanted to continue to use the current display cases modeled after one designed by michelangelo for the laurentian library in florence, a self-contained climate-control unit that could be placed inside the cases had to be designed. the unit maintains a constant temperature of degrees fahrenheit and a relative humidity of percent with a tolerance of one percent, while the ambient temperature and humidity may fluctuate widely between and degrees and and percent. the massachusetts state ethics com- mission fined herbert e. risser, jr., registrar of the registry of vital records, for violation of the conflict of interest law for receiving private fees for processing backlogged requests for copies of birth, marriage, and death records. risser, registrar since , stated that backlogs had developed in processing large orders from researchers since priority had always been given to requests from the general public. be- tween and risser worked overtime and received a total of $ in private fees for processing requests from monsanto company and the johns hopkins university. risser paid $ to the commission, $ as recoupment of monies received and $ as civil penalty for violating the law. the mid-atlantic regional archives conference has begun publishing, on an experimental basis, a series of technical leaflets prepared by its new york caucus. the leaflets, titled "dear ar- chivist: practical solutions to archival dilemmas," will be distributed with the conference's newsletter and are intended especially for beginners in the profes- sion. the first article, by thomas mills of the new york state archives, is "ap- praisal of social welfare case files." the national archives and records ser- vice discontinued the interlibrary loan of microfilm in december because of budget reductions. attempts are being made to find a commercial firm to han- dle the loan on a for-a-fee basis. institu- tions that have borrowed film in the past will be notified if the service is resumed. the national archives and the department of state have signed an agreement under which the department of state will partially fund the national archives declassification review of state department records for the years - . although the current agree- ment covers only one year, the agencies expect to renew it annually and to com- plete the project in four years. the office of records and informa- tion management of nars has been transferred to the automated data and telecommunications service of the general service administration. the of- fice is responsible for overseeing stan- dards, inspections, and training related to correspondence, mail, forms and reports, management of nonpermanent files, and office automation. in addition the office of federal records centers' files maintenance function, dealing with federal agency technical assistance and training related to the management of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall nonpermanent records, will become part of adts. the newberry library has completed a -story, , -square-foot bookstack building addition. the bookstack is waterproof, fireproof, secure, and climate-controlled. the structure has a unique plenum construction: outer walls, including the roof and basement, have a double shell structure. there is no vertical penetration between the floors; all services, stairways, and elevators are contained in two turrets or in a link building, which joins the new bookstack to the original library. a filtration system removes damaging air pollutants and a computer monitors security, fire detection, temperature, and humidity for each floor. the move required the transfer of . million volumes, million manuscripts, and , maps at the rate of , shelves or , books per day. the texas state archives has prepared a slide/tape show on managing texas county records. this -minute produc- tion covers the implementation of the texas county records manual adopted by the texas legislature in . the manual suggests retention schedules for most texas county records and outlines techniques of starting a county records management program. the program also explains ways in which the local records department of the texas state library can assist county officials in im- proving their record keeping to insure that historically significant materials are preserved with maximum savings of tax dollars. the local records division will distribute the slide/tape show to local officials and interested groups and in- dividuals. the united negro college fund, inc., held its first archival training institute in april in atlanta, ga. a total of people representing colleges and universities attended the institute. the instructors for the institute were nicholas c. burkel of the university of wisconsin-parkside and harold t. pinkett of the national archives and records service (retired). presentations and discussions covered surveys, ap- praisal and accessioning, arrangement and description, management of an ar- chives, conservation and preservation, reference and access, and selling an ar- chives to management. the institute was cosponsored by the georgia department of archives and history and the atlanta university center and was funded by the national historical publications and records commission. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/vol. , no. /fall the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor minutes: council meeting - may the spring meeting of the council of the society of the american archivists was called to order by president edward weldon on saturday, may , at airlie house, airlie, virginia, at : p.m. present were president weldon, vice president j. frank cook, treasurer paul h. mccarthy, jr., and council members lynn a. bonfield, shonnie finnegan, meyer h. fishbein, robert s. gordon, sue e. holbert, and william l. joyce. executive director ann morgan campbell and saa staff members joyce e. gianatasio and antonia pedroza at- tended without vote. council members richard h. lytle and virginia c. purdy did not attend. a motion was made by finnegan and seconded by gordon that council approve the agenda. the mo- tion was passed unanimously. the minutes of the - january council meeting were approved by a mail ballot. publications campbell outlined preliminary con- cepts for a potential saa program de- signed to broaden public recognition of the importance of manuscripts and ar- chives. the executive director was asked to prepare a plan of action for con- sideration at council's next meeting. publications program council reviewed a status report from projects editor terry abraham in which the evolution of the society's program for publications other than periodicals was traced and current and potential publication projects were listed. council asked campbell to work with abraham to develop a needs assessment instru- ment to define the profession's percep- tions of future publications require- ments. council received a report from ed- mund berkeley, jr., chair of the editorial board, which recommended procedures for the administration of all of the society's publications. a unanimous resolution was passed by council thanking berkeley for his report. a motion was made by holbert and seconded by bonfield that council adopt the following new bylaw (bylaw xi), a revised text of bylaw iii, and several resolutions that together com- prise the recommendations contained in the report. (material added to the text of bylaw hi is italicized except for the words "ex officio," which are italicized in the present text.) bylaws iii. editors and editorial d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall board: council shall appoint the editor of the society's quarterly journal, and such other editors of society publications as it deems necessary. the editor shall have the advice and cooperation of an editorial board con- sisting of eight ( ) members. the council annually shall appoint two ( ) members, each for a term of four ( ) years. the president annually shall select the chair of the editorial board from among its members. the editor, the executive director, and the treasurer shall be ex of- ficio members of the board. xi. publications manage- ment board: this body shall consist of the following members: the chair of the editorial board who will also act as chair of this board; the treasurer; the ex- ecutive director; and a member elected annually by the members of the editorial board from among its members. the duties of this body shall be to supervise, on behalf of council, the publications program and the editors of the society. resolutions . resolved, that the editorial board shall have the following respon- sibilities: a. to provide planning for and to establish policy for all society publications, basing its decisions both on the broad policies of the society as established by council and on the financial situation of the society. the editorial board especially should con- cern itself with possible issues of the american archivist that might be devoted to single subjects, and with serial publications of all sorts needed by society members and by the pro- fession. b. to provide oversight and annual review of all society publications and the work of their editors, and to pro- vide to the publications management board its opinions concerning these publications and the work of their editors, to be used by the latter board in its personnel review function; c. to meet with each newly-appointed editor of the american archivist to review and approve that person's pro- posed editorial policy and plans for the journal. the editorial policy should be published in the journal at least once yearly; d. to provide a body of reviewers for all manuscripts considered for publication by the society either in the american archivist (when the editor has time for and considers reviewing necessary) or as non-serial publica- tions. one member of the editorial board, in addition to any other reviewers used by the society's editors, must read each manuscript; e. to act as an appeal board for any dispute that might arise—between an author and a society editor; between an author and the publications management board over the accep- tance, rejection, or editing of a manuscript; or over any dispute con- cerning the intellectual content of a manuscript or its handling by an editor. decisions by the board on such appeals shall be final. rejection of a manuscript by the publications management board because it deter- mines that the society cannot afford to publish the manuscript shall not be grounds for an appeal to the editorial board. f. to present to council recommenda- tions for the improvement of the society's publications programs that it believes necessary, and which require council action for their implementa- tion. . resolved, that it shall be the policy of the society of american ar- chivists that only a complete manuscript of a potential society publication shall d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists be approved for publication. persons, professional affinity groups, commit- tees, task forces, and grant advisory committees submitting ideas, outlines and sample chapters, or other types of incomplete manuscripts to the society's editors may be encouraged to proceed to produce a complete manuscript, but no promise of publication by the society is to be made until the finished manuscript has been received, reviewed, and ap- proved by the publications management board or by the editor of the american archivist. . resolved, that the editor of the american archivist may choose such persons to assist in the preparation of the journal as he/she deems necessary; these persons shall serve at the pleasure of the editor. any disputes arising be- tween them that cannot be resolved otherwise may be referred to the editorial board whose decision in each instance shall be final. . resolved, that all authors, in- cluding those of book reviews, shall be given the opportunity by the society's editors of reviewing their manuscripts after editing has been performed. coun- cil recognizes that deadlines for publica- tion of the american archivist may pre- vent such review and suggests that in such an instance the article should be printed with no substantive changes, or that the author be consulted by telephone. . resolved, that the publications management board shall have the following responsibilities: a. to approve and authorize on behalf of council the publication of each non-serial publication of the society, assuring before ordering its publication that: . each fits the publications plan established by the editorial board; . the society either has good prospects of at least recover- ing its expenses from the sale of the proposed publication, or that the society should underwrite the expense of the publication as a service to its members and/or the profession, and that it can afford to do so; and, . each manuscript has undergone a proper review by at least two persons, one of whom was a member of the editorial board, and that the special projects editor has read and ap- proved the manuscript. the board may negotiate royalty-sharing agreements with authors, but such agreements shall always include the provision that all expenses of publica- tions must be recovered before any royalties are paid. the special pro- jects editor shall sit with and vote as a member of the publications manage- ment board in its considerations of non-serial publications. b. to act as a personnel committee for the society's editors, meeting with each following the annual meeting of the editorial board, to review the editor's performance during the year immediately past, and to establish performance goals for the year to come, by which the editor will be assessed in part at the end of that year. the publications management board will report annually to council its opinions of the performance of each of the society's editors, recom- mending contract renewals or ter- minations when necessary, and recommending salary increases for satisfactory or better performance by each editor. c. to serve as the search committee for new society editors, establishing or revising the criteria for the position and the position description, calling for and receiving applications, measuring the applications against the criteria to determine the best-qualified applicants, interviewing the top can- didates, and recommending several d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall candidates to council, ranked in order of preference, and, when authorized by council to do so, negotiating a contract with the can- didate selected by council. d. to assist the special projects editor in determining the value to the society's publications program of un- solicited manuscripts received, and of proposals for non-serial publications including those originating in profes- sional affinity groups, determining: . whether the manuscript or proposal concerns a subject of interest to the society; . whether it fits the current publications plans of the society as determined by the editorial board, and, if the manuscript does not, whether the editorial board should be requested to revise its plans; and, . whether the society could afford to publish the manuscript if readers' reports prove favorable. if its deci- sions are favorable, the publications management board will notify the author that the manuscript will be sent to reviewers for consideration, or will notify the person or pag chair presenting the publication proposal that the society would be interested in considering the manuscript when it has been completed; the special pro- jects editor will act as member and secretary pro tern of the publications board in such instances. e. to appoint issue editors for the american archivist should the post of editor fall vacant for any reason, call- ing for volunteers from among the society's members when time will per- mit; f. to meet annually with each society editor to prepare a budget for the publications under the charge of that editor, transmitting the budget re- quest in time to be incorporated in the executive director's annual budget presentation to council. the motion was passed unanimously. a motion was made by joyce and seconded by cook that council adopt the following clarification: be it re- solved, that in adopting "a report to the council of the saa concerning the publications program of the society," the council understands that the editorial board will concern itself primarily with matters of editorial policy and editorial development, while the publications management board will concern itself primarily with the finan- cial arrangements and operations of the publications program, the supervision of the performance of the society's editors, and, as necessary, will serve as a search committee for recommending to council appointments of editors. the motion was passed by a vote of seven to one, with holbert opposing. american archivist editor council received a report from the society's committee on the american archivist. at its meeting on may, the committee reviewed the files of ap- plicants for editor of the journal and recommended a nominee to council. a motion was made by fishbein and seconded by gordon that council adopt the report and recommendation of the committee on the american archivist and authorize negotiations with the nominee. the motion was passed unanimously. american archivist readers' survey campbell reported on the results of a recent survey conducted regarding the american archivist. the results showed no significant change in readership preferences from a similar survey con- ducted in . the results showed, however, that the membership depends heavily on the journal for information. newsletter for archival managers campbell reported on the positive d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists results of a sample newsletter "briefs for archival managers." council encour- aged campbell to develop a comprehen- sive program for archival management training. a motion was made by finnegan and seconded by cook that the executive director be authorized to publish a management newsletter as the centerfold in an saa newsletter and to solicit subscriptions, and that the newsletter's purpose and content be reviewed by the editorial board as it develops. the mo- tion was passed by a vote of six to two with bonfield and fishbein opposing. governmental relations as part of the council's consideration of saa's posture vis-a-vis various coali- tions, committees, and alliances estab- lished to communicate with officials of the executive branch and with legislators, page putnam miller, project director of the national coordinating committee for the promotion of history (ncc), presented a briefing on the changing nature of the activities of ncc. allocations of saa funds for govern- mental relations in fiscal year will be addressed in future council meetings, drawing from a fund that will be set aside in the society's fiscal year budget. however, the following action was taken in response to a recent request from the coalition to save our documentary heritage: a motion was made by cook and seconded by holbert that the executive director be authorized to send $ from fiscal year to the coalition. the motion was passed unanimously. annual meetings council selected austin, texas, as the site for the annual meeting, and chicago, illinois, as the site for the meeting, pending the negotiation of satisfactory hotel arrangements. national informations systems task force david bearman, director of the na- tional information systems task force (nistf) project, joined council briefly to discuss the project and the task force's budget request. a motion made by joyce and second- ed by fishbein read as follows: funds are allocated for the nistf, with expen- ditures authorized under the following conditions: ( ) that council, at its october meeting, receives and approves a final report from nistf on the review of the data elements dictionary by the profes- sion. this report is to be submitted well in advance of the october meeting. ( ) that council appoints to staggered three-year terms six members of an saa committee on standards for informa- tion interchange no later than january . ( ) that the committee's initial term be three years, with any further exten- sion of its activities to be justified by a full council review before approval of the saa budget for the fiscal year. the motion was passed unanimously. governance of the society joyce reviewed his proposal that council establish three subcommittees of officers and council members, one each to work with pags, task forces, and standing committees in order to im- prove communications between these groups and council. a motion was made by finnegan and seconded by fishbein that council adopt the structure as proposed by joyce. the motion was passed unanimously. a sub- committee composed of cook, mccar- thy, and holbert, chaired by joyce, was formed to further develop the system and create reporting forms. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall native american archives project campbell reported on saa's par- ticipation in the consortium on native american archives. it is anticipated that a non-profit corporation will be established to seek funding for a second phase of the project. resolutions committee weldon announced that he will ap- point a resolutions committee for the annual meeting. the committee, which will consist of four members, in- cluding one member of council, will solicit and distribute resolutions to be presented at the annual business meeting. a notice regarding the commit- tee will be placed in the saa newsletter. national archives vice president cook assumed chair- manship of the meeting. cook reviewed the situation at the national archives and reported that the executive director received a perfunctory letter from general services administrator gerald carmen in response to the resolution passed by council at its january meeting. weldon resumed chairmanship of the meeting. task forces institutional evaluation: joyce pre- sented council with documentation pre- pared by the institutional evaluation task force and with a plan of work for the next three years. a motion made by finnegan and seconded by cook read as follows: council thanks the institutional evaluation task force for its exemplary work, approves its work plan for the next three years, and refers its documen- tation to the publications management board. the motion was passed unani- mously. joyce resigned as chair of the task force. he will be replaced by mary jo pugh of the michigan historical collec- tions. standard reporting practices: weldon received a report from katherine emerson, chair of the task force on standard reporting practices. the task force requested that council approve the publication of the task force's draft recommendations in the july saa newsletter and that the life of the task force be extended for another year. a motion was made by finnegan and seconded by joyce that council ap- prove the task force's requests. the motion was passed unanimously. long-range planning: weldon an- nounced that c. herbert finch, chair of the planning task force, resigned recently. council expressed its thanks to finch for his work with the task force. vice president cook will appoint a new chair in the fall. proposed task force on finances: council received a request to form a task force on finances. it is the sense of council that this activity is part of the mandate of the planning task force and should not be undertaken by another group. constitutional revisions: cook presented a report of the task force on constitutional revision to council. council extended its thanks to the task force for its diligence and hard work. a revision in the constitution had the inadvertent result that council itself cannot directly propose constitu- tional amendments to the business meeting without circulation of a peti- tion. a petition will be circulated to rec- tify this situation and to accommodate the constitutional changes recommended by the task force. council will consider all of the proposed constitutional changes at its next meeting and will make recommendations regarding the changes for consideration at the annual business meeting. in addition, council considered the following bylaw, presented as a motion by mccarthy and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists seconded by bonfield: executive com- mittee meetings are open to members of council. the executive committee shall promptly report its actions and discus- sions to council. the motion was passed unanimously and was added to the bylaws. subcommittee on consultants: joyce provided council with a status report on the work of his subcommittee on con- sultants. after considerable discussion, the council decided to continue the study of the issue. school of library and informational sciences a resolution regarding the proposed closing of the school of library and in- formational sciences at the university of missouri-columbia was received by vice president cook. after discussion, it was the sense of council that though they share the concern regarding the closing of the school, it would not be ap- propriate for them to act on the matter. th anniversary of the united states constitution council discussed the society's role in the forthcoming th anniversary of the u.s. constitution. a motion was made by cook and seconded by fin- negan that executive director campbell be directed to prepare a planning grant outlining the society's proposal for the commemoration of the th anniver- sary of the u.s. constitution. the mo- tion was passed unanimously. budget council reviewed the general fund budget for fiscal year proposed by the executive committee. after coun- cil's revisions the budget reflected an- ticipated revenues of $ , and an- ticipated expenditures of $ , . a motion was made by cook and seconded by holbert that council adopt the budget for fiscal year . the motion was passed unanimously. the spring meeting of the council of the society of american archivists was adjourned at : noon, monday, may . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril are the archival materials you use still being manufactured to meet out- dated specifications from the % the 's and before? our acid free file folders last a minimum of double folds during the mit folding endurance test, not folds like others on the market. the standard grey acid free docu- ment case we offer is the best available on the market. it is . thick, has a highly calendered smooth long lasting sur- face and most importantly, there is three-percent calcium carbonate buffer throughout the entire box board, not just in the grey and white papers lining the surface. if you would like something even better, we can provide document cases made from our superb lig-free™ board. we carry negative enclosures made from a very special neutral unbuffered paper, designed and manufactured exclusively for this purpose. we can provide you with details of a simple test devised in england which will allow you to test the negative envelopes you currently use to see if they are "archivally" safe. buffered negative enclosures are still available for your nitrate or other acidic negatives. we make the only box board available meeting the newest government specification for silver image film storage. we call it lig-free™ and it is so good people are now specifying it for document cases, "phase" book boxes and pamphlet binders, as well as photographic negative, print, and microfilm boxes. conservation is not just a sideline with us. we take it very seriously. please request free literature today to help preserve your collection. conservation resources international, inc. n. royal street alexandria, virginia / - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril come join us! the society of american archivists wants you as a member. we rely on the input of new members to keep saa vital, dynamic, and in tune with the needs of the archival community. what are the benefits? saa has two types of members—individual and institutional. both receive the quarterly journal, the american archivist, the bimonthly saa newsletter, an annual meeting program, and discounts on all society publications and annual meeting registration. individual members are also eligible to vote in society elections, participate in the placement service, and join two professional affinity groups (pags). what does it cost? individual membership dues are graduated based on salary (see below);institutional member- ships are available for $ per year. we hope you'll decide that saa is the professional association for you. if you do, fill out the form below and return it with your check to saa headquarters. information on pags and the placement service will be sent on request to those applying for individual membership. non-archivists interested in an associate membership should contact saa headquarters for information. come join us, and find out what you've been missing! individual membership name . . address. city, state, z i p . is this your business address? yes no employing institution business phone dues scale • $ • $ • $ • $ salary -$ , $ , -$ , $ , and up full-time student institutional membership name of institution • $ regular address • $ sustaining (receives copies of journal and newsletter and one copy of every saa publication city, state, zip released in the year of membership.) subscription (subscribers receive the american archivist only; only institutions may subscribe to the journal.) name of institution . a d d r e s s d $ domestic (u.s., canada, mexico) i—i $ foreign (all other countries) city state zip send appropriate form with check attached tosaa, s. wells,suite ,chicago,il .( ) - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the fuji no-paper copier the micle records management system paper. you've got an office full of it— in files, in boxes, even piled in the back room — not to mention that stack waiting in your " i n " basket. all that paper takes up space — and that costs money. it means hours lost trying to find the documents you need— and that costs more money. fortunately, there's an alternative to paper, thanks to the fuji no-paper copier. the ul approved micle records management system from fuji is about the size of an office copier, comparable in price, and just as easy to operate. the big difference is the output: archival quality microfilm in a handy jacket format. discover what microfilm can do for your records management: • reduce storage space by % • reduce storage costs (by a similar percentage) • reduce production costs (a sixty frame jacket costs about * to produce, compared with $ to $ for the same number of paper copies) • reduce distribution costs (and time, since you can afford to mail first class) coated paper copiers, plain paper copiers and now, the no-paper copier. maybe the micle records management system can't replace every piece of paper in your office, but it can replace enough of them to pay for itself in a remarkably short time. to find out just how short a time, and how much money you can expect to save annually after that, write: the fuji no-paper copier fuji photo film u.s.a. inc. fifth avenue new york, ny © fuji photo film u.s.a., inc. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril paper and preservation: no. in a series of discussions on paper products for conservation. are alkaline-buffered papers safe for photographic conservation? the jury is still out. the art and science of preserving photographic prints may be said to be in its early infancy by one esti- mate, there are only to active specialists working in this area in the united states today, and struc- tured research is, in reality, only just beginning. nevertheless, there is intensive discussion now in progress over the question of whether conserva- tion materials traditionally favored for other works of art on paper are appropriate—indeed, whether they are safe—for mounting photographs. these materials, papers and boards made of acid-free % cotton fibers, buffered with alkaline carbonates to enhance perma- nence, have been conservators' standards for many years. we have been supplying them, in a range of weights, textures, colors and sizes, to leading institutions around the world—again, for many years. the requirements for the preserva- tion of photographs are in many ways quite similar to those established for general paper con- servation, and in fact the same % cotton, ph neutral, buffered papers and boards have been used quite extensively for photo- graph mounting. recently however, it has been suggested that for some photographic processes— albumen prints, for example—the alkaline environment of a buffered board may not be desirable. the same, it might be noted, is true in other areas of conservation, par- ticularly when protein-based materials are being dealt with. a number of conservators have come to the conclusion that % cotton fiber boards made in a neutral system without alkaline buffering offer the best protection for certain types of photographs. acting on these suggestions, we have developed archivart* pho- tographic board, which is made from selected % cotton fibers to a ph specification of . to . , without buffering or alkaline re- serve. it is a a solid-color off-white board, of sturdy -ply ( pt.) con- struction, available in a range of sizes appropriate for photographic mounting, from "x "to "x " the debate continues. some spe- cialists prefer these unbuffered papers for the mounting of color and dye-transfer prints as well as the albumen variety; others point out, with accuracy, that regardless of the precision of the ph specifica- tion at manufacture, a drop in ph value may be expected when un- buffered papers are exposed to atmospheric pollution. it is certain that, buffered or otherwise, archi- val-standard conservation papers and boards, of % cotton fiber and acid-free manufacture, offer a far safer environment than those produced with the alum-rosin siz- ing system commonly used until quite recently, which have resulted in the frightful deterioration of pre- cious, irreplaceable photographs. responsive to the preferences of conservators of various persua- sions, we offer both buffered and unbuffered boards, all manufac- tured to precise ph standards, of selected % cotton fibers, as well as our ph neutral, buffered archivart* conservation board, made of highly refined wood pulp. all are solid in color, without dis- tracting white centers. we invite you to write us for sam- ples of these boards, and for our extensive catalogue of archival- standard conservation products, and we welcome your comments on these discussions. archmrt acid-free conservation products from process materials corporation a lindenmeyr company veterans boulevard. rutherford nj ( ) - 'archivart is a trademark of lindenmeyr paper corporation d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril "rhospacemaster movable shelving doubles your archival storage space with no increase in floor space!" expert advice from the people who just completed the world's largest movable shelving installa- tion. "we've just finished the installation in washington, d.c. of almost miles of rhc-spacemaster movable com- pact shelving, covering approximately two acres of floor space. "we're proud of the fact that this state- of-the-art job will save taxpayers well over a million dollars as well as provide more efficient access to a vast range of books and manuscripts. "but this mammoth project only underscores an important point. no andrew w. fenton, manager rhc-spacemaster matter what the size of your records storage area, rhc-spacemaster mov- able shelving can produce equally cost-effective results. we double your ability to store records in the same floor space or we can store the same amount of records in half the current floor space— whether your needs involve a few square feet or two full acres!" the secret is utilizing records storage space effectively! "in the face of rising costs for building, energy and maintenance of facilities, it's absolutely imperative to achieve maximum utilization of floor space in your records storage area. "rhc-spacemaster is unquestionably the cost-effective answer to storing the most records, boxes, legal and medical files in the least amount of floor space. by eliminating fixed aisles and substi- tuting a 'floating' aisle which opens only when and where needed, we cre- ate a 'high-density' storage area which makes amazingly cost-effective use of available space." exclusive "low-profile" track assures flush-floor installation. "only rhc-spacemaster offers this /i " low-profile track which is virtually flush with tile or carpet for u n h i n d e r e d access by personnel or records transport carts. it creates an attractive gap-free, flush-floor look." industry's largest facility. single source reliability. "in addition to operating the industry's largest manufacturing facility, rhc- spacemaster is the producer of both the movable carriages and the shelving, assuring single-source availability, total system integrity and years of trouble- free performance. "if you're running out of storage space, or planning a new installation, consid- er r h c - s p a c e m a s t e r . . . manual, mechanically assisted or electrical movable shelving for more productive storage of records, books, files and heavy x-ray films. please call or write today for d e t a i l s . . . and ask for me, andrew fenton. we'd like to help." rhc-spacemaster ( ) - i north th avenue, melrose park, il • send information on movable shelving applications. • have representative call for appointment. name institution address city state zip code phone d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index annual index volume ( ) the following are not indexed: "professional reading" and other lists of publica- tions; authors and titles of articles in foreign journals abstracted in the "international scene;" names of editors and reporters of the various departments; reference foot- notes (explanatory footnotes are indexed); addresses or institutional affiliations of contributors, writers, and persons mentioned in the text; the annual list of historical documentary editing projects; specific items in accessions and openings; references in obituaries; annual list of fellows of the society of american archivists. an offprint of the index may be purchased for $ . from saa, s. wells, suite , chicago, il . aacr. see anglo-american cataloging rules aar (anglo-american cataloging rules ), aam. see american association of museums aaslh. see american association for state and local history abbey newsletter, academia national de la historia, peru, "academic archives: uberlieferungsbildung," by maynard j. brichford, access, ; u.s. senate records, "access to government information in canada: some recent developments," by richard j. bazillion, - accessioning policies review board, nars, , acetate, yellow, in photocopying, - acls. see american council of learned societies acquisition pag, , ada borussica, , adger, robert, adger library, aec. see atomic energy commission aepinus, franz, aerial photography, exhibit, italy, aeschylus, afro-american history: sources for research, robert l. clarke, ed., revd., "after five years: an assessment of the amend- ed u.s. freedom of information act," by trudy huskamp peterson, "agenda for the eighties," saa annual meeting, th, cincinnati, , agnew, spiro t., agricultural history scoiety, agriculture department archives, division of, national archives, aha. see american historical association aha-oah joint committee on the historian and federal government relations, aiken, george, papers, airlie house, warrenton, va., ala. see american library association ala filing rules ( ), ; noted, alabama state archives, alan gordon enterprises inc., adv., alaska, university of, alaska historical commission, alberta, university of, alberta societies act, alberta society of archivists, alberta-british columbia district of the lutheran church — missouri synod, albright, patricia, aldini-valerani technical institute, italy, alkaline board and paper, sources of, alldredge, everett o., , allegany county, maryland, allen, barbara, and w. lynwood montell, from memory to histroy: using oral sources in local historical research, noted, allen, garland, thomas hunt morgan, allerton institute, alonso, vicenta cortes, aloyse, sister john, the ambrotype — old and new, by thomas feldvebel, "america's library," film presentation, "american archival theory: the state of the art," by harold t. pinkett, - the amercian archivist, , , , , , , , , , , , ; editorial policy, ; "international scene," ; national archives support of, ; page limitation, ; "professional reading," ; relationship with nars, in- vestigation of by gsa, american association for state and local history (aaslh), , , , , , , , american association of museums (aam), , , american council of learned societies (acls), d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall , , , , american federation of labor, american historical association (aha), , , , , , , the american historical review, american history illustrated, american institute of physics, ; center for the history of physics, american jewish historical society, american library association (ala), , , , , , ; adv., american literary manuscripts, second edition, american national standards institute (ansi), american negro historical scoiety, american public power association, american university, , , , , , , , , , americans, native, tribal archives, amlib/ambib newsletter, south africa, amoskeag: life and work in an american factory-city, by tamara harevan and rudolph langenbach, anderson, clinton p., papers, anderson, eugene, , anderson, r. joseph, andrew w. mellon foundation, andrews, matthew page, history of maryland: province and state, angel, herbert e., , , anglo-american cataloging rules (aacr), anglo-american cataloging rules, anglo-american cataloging rules, ii, , , annales d'histoire economiques et sociale, anna/es school, of historians, annapolis, md., annapolis evening capital, anne arundel county, md., ansi. see american national standards institute anti-nuclear movement, national archives and oral history project for the, , apollo memorial library, applebaum/herbert cultural policy review com- mittee, canada, appraisal, , - , , - , - , , , , ; for evidential value, ; of col- lege and university faculty papers, ; saa manual on, the appraisal of modern public records, na- tional archives bulletin no. , , the appraisal of modern records, by theodore r. schellenberg, 'arche(ark), archifacts, new zealand, archiva ecclesiae, italy, archival aids, ademco ltd., england, "the archival contributions of ernst posner," archival education, - , , ; accreditation of, archival history, archival institutions, accreditation. see also in- stitutional evaluation "archival outreach: saa's survey," by ann e. pederson, archival planning, archival priorities conference, , archival profession, surveys of, archival repositories in germany, by ernst posner, archival service centers, archival storage cupboard, "archival strategies for the post-custodial era," by f.gerald ham, - archival theory, - archival training, - , , "archival training in europe," by william j. orr, - archivaria, association of canadian archivists (aca), b babcock and wilcox company, , baer, norbert, bahmer, robert h., , , , , , baker, richard a., senate committee records: a guide to disposition and public access, noted, bakken, douglas a., balch institute for ethnic studies, ball, wendy, and tony martin, rare afro- americana: a reconstruction of the adger library, revd., bally case & cooler, inc., bally, pa., baltimore city courthouse, baltimore city records, baltimore county, md., baltimore regional institutional studies center (brisc), baltimore sun, banco continental, peru, bangladesh, national archives, baranov, aleksandr, barnes, thomas c , thomas h. naylor, and charles w. polzer, northern new spain: a research guide, revd., barr, phyllis, rev., barrese, edward f., rev., barrow, william j., bartkowski, patricia, basbakanlik arsiv, turkey, bashkina, nina n., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., basic archival conservation program, saa, , basic workshops, bassett, john spencer, bauer, g. philip, , , , baumann, roland m., ed., a manual of archival techniques, baumgarten's, atlanta, ga., adv., bavarian television network (west germany), bazillion, richard j., "access to government in- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index formation in canada: some recent developments," - beard, charles austin, bearman, david, , ; ltr., bechtel, inc., beechnut co., beiov, g.a., bemis, samuel flagg, bentley historical library, berkeley, edmund, jr., , , , , , , , , , berlin, university of, , berliner morgenpost, berner, richard c , , , , ; ltr., betz, elizabeth w., , bhatt, purnima merita, scholars' guide to washington, d.c.: african studies, bialostocki, jan, a bibliography of historical organization prac- tices, frederick l. rath, jr. and merrilyn rogers o'connell, eds., noted, bicentennial, u.s., bigglestone, william e., ltr, binkley, robert c , the biographical directory of american colonial and revolutionary governors, - , noted, the biographical directory of governors of the united states, - , noted, black bostonians, by james oliver horton and lois e. horton, revd., black history, - , - black writers, south africa, blanchard, felix a., blesse, robert, bloch, marc, blouin, franci x., jr., , ; rev., ; with carolyn geda and eric austin, eds., archivists and machine readable records, boccaccio, mary, steven lambird, and carolyn salus, greenbelt, maryland: a guide to further sources, noted, boles, frank, "sampling in archives," - bolkhovitnov, nikolai n., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., bologna, italy, commune of, macchine, scuole, industria, noted, bonfield, lynn a., , , , , , boolean logic, borsa, ivan, boss, richard w., grant money and how to get it: a handbook for librarians, noted, ; and lorig maranjian, fee-based information ser- vices: a study of a growing industry, noted, bostonian society, bowling, mary b., boyd, julian p., brackmann, albert, bragg, terry a., brauer, carl m., braznick, barbara, brichford, maynard j., , , , , , , , , ; "academic archives: uberlieferungsbildung," ; archives and manuscripts: appraisal and accessioning, bridgeport (conn.) public library, briggs, asa, brisc. see baltimore regional institutional studies center british columbia, university of, british council, italy, british film institute, national film archive catalogue, volume : non-fiction films, revd., british library, british museum, brockman, rev. norbert, ltr., brooklyn rediscovery, brooks, philip c , , , , , , , , brown, john h., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., brown, rowland c. w., brown, thomas elton, brown, william e., jr., brozek, josef, and ludwig j. pongratz, eds., historiography of modern psychology, revd., bruntjen, scott, buchanan, sally, , buck, solon j., , , , , , , , budget cuts, england, buildings, new, ; repair of, "bulls & bears: years of progress at the new york stock exchange." exhibit, bureau of standards, u.s., burke, frank g., , , , , ; ltr., ; "the future course of archival theory in the united states," - business archives, , , , , - business archives association, finland, business archives bibliography, karen benedict, comp., business archives committee, ica, , business archives in the united states and canada, business archives pag, , , , business archives workshop, saa, business history, business history conference, , butler, tyrone g., rev., cactus (anti-nuclear group), calendar # , the black books (md.), calendar of the bank stock papers (md.) calendaring, california archivists, society of, california historical records educational and consultant service, california historical society library, california state archives, california state university and college archivists d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall group (csuc), california, university of, at berkeley, california, university of, at san diego, ; special collections department, calvert cliffs court case, camberwell school of art and crafts, london, england, campbell, ann morgan, , , , , , , , , , , , , camrex ltd., england, canadian archives, consultative group on, canadian archives, report to the social sciences and humanities research council of canada, , ; revd., canadian historical association, cape town, university of, caplan, daniel, card catalog, , , caribbean archives conference, first, carnegie corporation, caroline foster fund, carr, peter, carroll county (md.) historical society, cartographic archives, cartographica, noted, case western reserve university, casterline, gail farr, archives and manuscripts: exhibits, ; revd., a catalogue of archival material (md.), catalogue of manuscripts in the lane county museum library, by edward w. nolan, noted, catfish (anti-nuclear group), catherine , czarina, russia, catherine of aragon, england, catholic archives, england, catholic library association, "census, - ," exhibit, canada, central archives of mechanical documentation, poland, central business archives, finland, , centro de informacion documental, spain, centro salvadoreno de ensenanza archivistica (csea), el salvador, "the challenge of nuclear power development records," by george t. mazuzan, - chancery lane pro, england, ; public search room, chandler, raymond, chapin, richard, charles babbage institute for the histroy of in- formation processing, , , chase manhattan bank, chatfield, helen l., cheit, e a r l f . , cheney, frances neel, and wiley j. williams, fundamental reference sources, noted, chesapeake bay, chicago public library cultural center, chief officers of state library agencies (cosla), china, people's republic of, , china study tour, saa, , church archives, - church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, ; history department, cincinnati art academy of, cincinnati art museum, cincinnati gas and electric company, cincinnati historical society, cis. see congressional information service, inc. cis/index data base, "citation patterns and documentation for the history of science: some methodological con- siderations," by clark a. elliott, - city of portland records manual, civil service, u.s., civil service department, england, clark, doris hargrett, ed., the making of a code: the issues underlying aacr , revd., clamshell alliance. ciaremont college, clark university, clarke, robert l., afro-american history: sources for research, revd., clary, david a., "trouble is my business: a private view of 'public' history," - class and community: the industrial revolution in lynn, by alan dawley, clr. see council on library resources cole, w:sterling, papers, classified records, claus, robert, clermont county (ohio) library, the cleveland clinic foundation archives, clinchfield railroad, , cliometricians, coakley, robert w., rev., coca-cola co., code of practice, england, codrington family papers, england, coker, c. f. w., collecting personal papers and manuscripts, saa committee on, , collecting policies, "collection processing as a team effort," by richard m. kesner, susan tannewitz karnes, anne sims, and michael shandor, - college and university archives, , - ; ap- praisal, ; manual, proposed, college and university archives pag, collier's encyclopedia, colonial dames of america scholarship, colored patriots of the american revolution, by william cooper nell, columbia university, , , , columbia university press, commager, henry steele, committee for archival development, ica, , committee for the s, saa, - , committee on production guidelines for book longevity (clr), commonwealth archives office, australia, comprehensive guide to the manuscript collec- tion and to the personal papers in the university archives, marilyn priestley, comp., revd., compuserve information service, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index computer output microfilm (com), computers, archival use of, , - "concepts in the history of cartography: a review and perspective," by m. j. blackmore and j. b. harley, edward dahl, ed., concordia college, canada, concordia lutheran archives of western canada, conde, jose luis coto, conference of intermountain archivists (cia), conference on maryland history, conference on priorities for historical records, , congress for appalachian development, , congressional information service, inc. (cis), conn, stetson, historical work in the united states army, - , noted, conrad, agnes c , conservation administration news, conservation, , , , , , ; workshops, . see also preservation conservation pag, , , conservation resources international, inc., adv., , consolidated protective coatings corporation, constitutional revision, saa task force on, consultant service, consultative group report ( ), canada, consultive group on canadian archives, - contemporary scientific archives centre, england, contemporary theme pag, cook, j. frank, , , cook, michael, , coolidge, calvin, cooperation, archival, finland and canada, ; inter-institutional, , copyright, ; saa task force on, corning glass works, cornwallis, maj. gen., lord charles, corrigan, john t., cfx, ed., archives: the light of faith, revd., cosla. see chief officers of state library agencies cosmos club, washington, d.c., coulter systems, bedford, mass., council of archives and research libraries in jewish studies (carljs), council of national library and information associations, council of state governments, , council on library resources (clr), , , , , , county courthouses and records of maryland, by morris leon radoff, court of appeals, md., court records, - covington, w. t., craig, adam weir, crawford, miriam i., crayfourd, g., and sons, england, crepe-lining, critical mass (environmental group), croixde guerre, crownhart-vaughan, e. a. p., rev., cumulative name index, cumulative subject index, cunha, geoege m., , , , curti, merle, curtiss-wrightco., custodial era, d daib, rev. walter c , daly, john, ltr., daniels, thomas e., ltr., darling, pamela w., dashkov, andrei, davidson, harry e., davis, glenn w., dawley, alan, class and community: the in- dustrial revolution in lynn, declaration of armed neutrality, , russia, declaration of independence, deering lumber, inc., dellacava, olha, demayo, father john, der archivar, description, - , - description pag, , descriptive elements for archives and manuscript collections, deutrich, mabel e., dewhitt, ben, , ; ltr., dialog information retrieval service, dickinson, emily, dillon, kenneth j., scholars' guide to washington, d.c.: central and east european studies, revd., dillon, laurie t., dinsmore committee, diplomatics, directory of archives and manuscript repositories in the united states, nhprc, , , directory of business archives in the united states, business archives pag, comp., directory of college and university archives in the united states and canada, college and university archives pag, comp., directory of illinois oral history resources, kathryn wrigley, comp. and ed., noted, directory of state archives in the united states, by frank levstik, disaster planning, , , disposal, disposition of federal records: how to develop a program for the preservation and disposal of federal records, by t. r. schellenberg, distinguished service award, saa, documentary relations of the southwest, dolgikh, filipp i., dollar, charles m., , , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall dolnick, sandy, ed., friends of libraries sourcebook, noted, donor's guide to the preservation of personal and family papers, , donovan, leisure, newton & irvine, dorn, walter, dougherty, sister dolorita m., csj, rev., douglas, enid, douglass, frederick, dowd, mary jane, dowling, james s., ltr., drake university, drucker, peter, , duckett, kenneth w., , , duke university, east, dennis, east, sherrod, , , east carolina manuscript collection, east germany, archival education in, east tennessee state university (etsu), , ecclesiastical archives association, italy, ecole des chartes, france, economic history association, edgerly, linda, , edison electric institute, editorial board, saa, education and professional development, saa committee on, , , - , , , education and training committee, international federation for documentation (fid/et), "education for american archivists: a view from the trenches," by ruth w. helmuth, - education for rare book librarianship: a reex- amination of trends and problems, by lawrence j. mccrank, revd., education, archival, - , , - , , - , , , accreditation of, - , facilities, - , internships, , practicum, education, of genealogists, education, public, use of documents in, educational testing service (ets), "efficient finding aids: developing a system for control of archives and manuscripts," by lydia lucas, - ehrlich, paul, eisenhower, dwight d., el mundo de los archivos, elbert, ella, elbert, samuel, electrophotography (tep), eleutherian mills-hagley foundation, eleutherian mills historical library, elliott, clark a., "citation patterns and documentation for the history of science: some methodological considerations," - elzy, martin i., rev., emergence of agricultural science, by margaret rossiter, emerson, katherine, , , , ; ltr., encapsulation, slide-tape presentation, encyclopedia americana, energy, u.s. department of, , , energy research and development administra- tion, engerman, stanley, and robert fogel, time on the cross: the economics of american negro slavery, england, archival education in, english social history, by g. m. trevelyan, envelopes of sound, environmental protection agency (epa), equal rights amendment (era), era. see equal rights amendment "ernst posner: the bridge between the old world and the new," by rodney a. ross, - essex county, england, ethics, archival, , ; england, ethics, saa code of, , euripides, european archival practices in arranging records (national archives staff information circular , july ), by theodore r. schellenberg, evaluating forms management, nars, noted, evans, frank b., , , , , exhibits, , , , , , , , " f a c u l t y p a p e r s and special-subject repositories," by jane wolff, - falco, nicholas j., ; ltr., fang, josephine riss, and alice h. songe, comps., international guide to library, ar- chival, and information science associations, noted, farmers, bureaucrats, and middlemen: historical perspectives on american agriculture, trudy huskamp peterson, ed., noted, faulkner, william, favier, jean, febvre, lucien, federal archives and records center, kansas ci- ty, federal emergency relief act of , federal hall memorial associates, federal ministry of social development, youth, sports and culture, nigeria, federal records, definition of, federal records act, , , federal records centres, canada, federal records of world war ii, national ar- chives, federal regulations, code of, index, federated department stores, fee-based information services: a study of a growing industry, by lorig maranjian and richard boss, noted, feldvebel, thomas, the ambrotype-old and new, filby, p. william, the files of the massachusetts superior court, - : an analysis and a plan for action, michael stephen hindus, et al., revd., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index film, documentary (west germany), film archives, , - ; preservation of, finch, c. herbert, "finding aids: a multi-media systems perspec- tive," by nancy a. sahli, - finding-aids, - , - , ; national bibliography of, ; saa committee on, the fine old house, by john francis marion, revd., finnegan, richard p., certified public accoun- tant, finnegan, shonie, , , , , , , , , , first inter-american archival seminar, , fischer, erwin, fishbein, meyer h., , , , , , , , fishbein, toby, fleckner, john a., , ; ltr., florez, guillermo durand, fogel, robert, and stanley engerman, time on the cross: the economics of american negro slavery, fogerty, james e., ; "the minnesota basic workshops project," - foia. see freedom of information act "folklore and paper restoration," by l. d. geller, - fonda, douglass, jr., force, peter, collection, , ford, henry, ford library, ford motor company, forms analysis and design, national archives and records service, revd., fox, michael j., and kathleen a. mcdonough, wisconsin municipal records manual, revd., foxfire , eliot wigginton, ed., revd., france, frances, david, franklin, benjamin, franklin d. roosevelt presidential library. see roosevelt library frederick (md.) daily news, frederick county, md., freedom hall, king library and archives, freedom of information, ; canada, - freedom of information act (foia), , , freedom of information and individual privacy, ontario commission on, freedom of information bill, england, , , freeman, rowland g., ill, gsa administrator, , freudenberger, herman, friedland, m. l., friends of libraries sourcebook, sandy dolnick, ed., noted, frisch, michael, , from memory to history: using oral sources in local historical research, by w. lynwood montell and barbara allen, noted, fuji photo film u.s.a., fulbright, j. william, grant, , fundamental reference sources, by frances neel cheney and wiley j. williams, noted, furman university archives, "the future course of archival theory in the united states," by frank g. burke, - gard, r.m., garrett county, md., garrison, william lloyd, geda, carolyn, eric austin, and francis x. blouin, eds., archivists and machine readable records, geertz, clifford, geller, l. d., "folklore and paper restoration," - genealogical society of utah, genealogists, archival accommodation for, - genealogy, - genealogy and local history collections in northern illinois, noted, general accounting office, general archives division, suitland, md., general atomic co., general electic co., general services administration (gsa), , , , , , , , , , ; investiga- tion of american archivist, genghis khan, george brown college, george iii, king, england, george meany center for labor studies, inc., george washington university, georgia department of archives and history, georgia general assembly, gerald r. ford presidential library. see ford library german democratic republic (east germany, d.d.r.), - germany, federal republic of (west germany), - , germany, nazi, gianatasio, joyce, , giereck, edward, gloucestershire ro, england, goddard, robert h., goebbels, joseph, diaries, gordon, robert s., , , , , , gorman, michael, government in the sunshine act., , government records pag, , , government records retention, nonfederal, gracy, david b., ii, , , , , , , graduate school of library science, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, graf, thomas h., ltr., grant money ahd how to get it: a handbook for librarians, by richard w. boss, noted, grants, greenbelt, maryland: a guide to further sources, by mary boccaccio, steven lambird, and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall carolyn salus, noted, greenfield, jane, yale university library preser- vation pamphlets, revd., greenville, s.c., public library, grele, ron, grenoble, university of, grigg report, , england, grove farm homestead, hawaii, grover, wayne c , , , , , , grussau, poland, gsa. see general services administration a guide to brooklyn manuscripts in the long island historical society, robert sink, comp., noted, a guide to military history resources in the east carolina manuscript collection, guide to oklahoma state archives, thomas w . kremm, ed., noted, "a guide to practical calendaring," by morris l. radoff, « guide to special collections of the oklahoma state archives, thomas w. kremm, ed., noted, guide to the catalogued collections in the manuscript department of the william f. perkins library, duke university, richard g. david and linda angle miller, eds., revd., guide to the hoover institution archives, by charles g. palm and dale reed, revd., guide to the record groups in the pennsylvania state archives, frank m. suran, comp. and ed., noted, "guidelines for library functions at the state level (draft # )," (cosla), guite, paul v., comp., "professional reading," - , - gunner, jean, gutman, herbert, , h haas, warren, hackman, larry j., , , , haley, alex, haller, stephen e., ham, f. gerald, , , , ; "archival strategies for the post-custodial era," - ; rev., hamer, philip m., , ; guide to archvies and manuscripts in the united states, hamer, philip m., award, hammett, theodore m., et al., the files of the massachusetts superior court, - : an analysis and a plan for action, revd., hampson, jill, handbook for aacr : explaining and il- lustrating anglo-american cataloging rules, second edition, by margaret f. maxwell, harevan, tamara, and rudolph langenbach, amoskeag: life and work in an american factory-city, haring, jacqueline, , harmonization of archival training programmes, meeting of experts on the, unesco, , harms, richard, harriford, willie, harstad, peter, hartgrove, j. dane, et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., harvard university, , harvard university press, , , harvey county, kans., hawley, margaret grant, haworth, kent m., health and human resources, u.s. department of(hhr), hearn, barbara, rev., hedlin, edie, hefner, loretta l., comp., the wpa historical records survey: a guide to the unpublished in- ventories, indexes and transcripts, revd., helmuth, ruth w., , , , , , , , , ; "education for american archivists: a view from the trenches," - ; illus., ; "the president's page," - , - ; "three pious hopes," - hemphill, john, , henretta, james, , henrich, dieter, henry, linda j., , , , rev., henry viii, king, england, hensen, steven, heraldry, herbert hoover presidential library. see hoover library hertz, deborah, "the varnhagen collection is in krakow," - hiegel, nancy, hildenbrand, william f., hill, elizabeth, hillsboro, kansas, , himmelfarb, gertrude, hinding, andrea, , , , ; ed., women's history sources: a guide to archives' and manuscript collections in the united states, revd., - , hindus, michael stephen, et al., the files of the massachusetts superior court, - : an analysis and a plan for action, revd., hintze, otto, historians, employment of, - historians, use of archival facilities, historical editing, projects, - historical records survey (hrs), , historical society of pennsylvania, , historical work in the united states army, - , by stetson conn, noted, historiography, historiography of modern psychology, josef brozek and ludwig j. pongratz, eds. revd., history day, hitler, adolph, hobson, barbara m., et al., the files of the massachusetts superior court, - : an analysis and a plan for action, revd., holbert, suee., , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index the hollinger corporation, ; adv., holmes, oliver w., , , , , holt, w. stull, homer, honecker, erich, hoover institution on war, revolution and peace, stanford university, hoover library, hope diamond, horn, david e., horton, james oliver, and lois e. horton, black bostonians, revd., horton, lois e., and james oliver horton, black bostonians, revd., howard paper mills, inc., ; adv., , , , , howard university, hss. see history of science society hubbard, william j., stack management: a prac- tical guide to shelving and maintaining collec- tions, noted, the humanities in american life: report of the commission on the humanities, noted, hunter, gregory s., i ica. see international council on archives idaho state library, idaho's documentary heritage, steering commit- tee to preserve, illinois, university of, at chicago circle, , illinois, university of, at urbana-champaign, illinois libraries, illinois regional archives depository system, , illinois state archives, imperial chemical industries (ici), england, index, repository, index and abstracts of colonial documents in the eugene p. watson memorial library, carolyn m. well, comp., noted, indexing, india office, england, indian archives, indian historical records commission, indiana state library, information handling services, inc., information retrieval, information technology, - ink, inmac (intermational minicomputer accessories corporation), institute for archival science and advanced historical studies, germany, institute of certified records managers (icrm), institutional evaluation, ; saa task force on, insulating materials, inter-american technical council on archives, , international herald tribune, international archival affairs, saa committee on, international committees for social science in- formation and documentation, international congress on archives, ; first, paris, , ; ninth, london, , , , , international council on archives (ica), , , , ; extraordinary congress, washington, , international federation for documentation (fid), , international federation of library associations (ifla), , international guide to library, archival, and in- formation science associations, josephine riss fang and alice h. songe, comps., noted, international harvester corporation, international institute of municipal clerks, international journal of oral history, noted, international marine archives, inventory, archival, , , - iowa historical materials preservation society, , iowa local historical and museum association, iron cross, german, iron gall inks, isis, israeli archives, italian ministry for cultural property, italy, archival education in, j.c. penney co, jackson, andrew, see the papers of andrew jackson. jacob, mary ellen, jacobsen, phebc r., ; "the world turned up- side down: reference priorities and the state archives," - jagiellonian library (poland), - james, janet wilson, ltr., jastrzebowski, wojciech, the leisure moments of the polish soldier: thoughts of alliance among civilized nations, jcast. see joint committee on archives of science and technology jefferson, thomas, jenkinson, sir hilary, , , , jewish archives, johns hopkins library, johns hopkins university, , , , johnson library, joint aam/aaslh/saa committee on minorities, joint aha/oah/saa committee on historians and archivists, joint committee of saa and the american association of library schools, joint committee on archives of science and technology (jcast), joint committee on atomic energy, u.s., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall jones, clifton, jones, h . g . , , , , jones, howard mumford, jones, norvell, journal of american history, journal of negro history, journal of the early republic, joyce, william l., , juliani, richard, justice, department of, u.s., , kabakoff, marvin h., rev., kahn, herman, , , , , , , , kaiser aluminum co., kane, lucile m., kansas, university of, karim, k. m., karnes, susan tannewitz, et al., "collection pro- cessing as a team effort," - keats-shelley memorial association, kegan, elizabeth hamer, , kelleher, carol m., kemeny commission, kennedy, john f., kenney, anne r., rev., kent, george o., ltr., kentucky, university of, the kentucky review, noted, kesner, richard m., automation, machine- readable records, and administration: a select bibliography, ; et al., "collection pro- cessing as a team effort," - kessler-harris, alice, kevles, daniel, the physicists, king library and archives, freedom hall, kissinger, henry, telephone conservation transcripts, klassen, isaac p., koivukangas, olavi, kovacs, katherine maras, rev., kremm, thomas w., comp. and ed., guide to oklahoma state archives, noted, . krummel, d. w., ed., organizing the library's support: donors, volunteers, friends, noted, kudriavtsev, ivan i., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., kunznetsova, natalia b., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., la crosse public library, wis., labor grievance records, lacing, ladies hermitage association, ladurie, le roy, montaillou: the promised land of error, lambird, steven, mary boccaccio, and carolyn salus, greenbelt, maryland: a guide to further sources, noted, lancaster, f.wilfrid, land, aubrey c , , landa, ronald d., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., lane, sister m. claude, award, lane, william preston, jr., langenbach, rudolph, and tamara harevan, amoskeag: life and work in an american factory-city, larson, david, larson, harold, laser recording, canada, latham, sir john, see sir john latham: guide... latin-american archives, latin-american archivists, directory of, latin-american history, conference on, law and order in essex, in document, maps, pic- tures and photographs, n. rowley, comp., rev., league of nations, leahy, emmett j., leary, helen f. m., and maurice r. stirewalt, eds., north carolina research: genealogy and local history, revd., leather conservation centre, england, ledyard, john, lee, charles e., , lefurgy, william g., "the practicum: a repository view," - legislation, archival, , , ; finland, leisinger, albert h., jr., the leisure moments of the polish soldier: thoughts of alliance among civilized nations, by wojciech jastrzebowski, leite, maria amelia gomes, ltr., leland, waldo gifford, prize, , , , , , leland certificate of commendation, leo baeck institute, leopold, richard w., lerner, max, leverhulme trust fund, england, levstik, frank, directory of state archives in the united states, lewinson, paul, lewis, george, lewis, nigel, , lewis, peter a., liber a of the records of prince georges county court (md.), liberal party, canada, library & archives news, library and archival security, periodical revd., library lit: the best of , library of congress, , , , , , , , , , , , , ; hispanic divi- sion, library of congress network advisory commit- tee (nac), d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index library schools, archival training in, , library technology reports, light impressions corporation, adv., , , , lincoln, abraham, link, arthurs., lisianskii, iurii, littlefield, texas, local government archives, local government records management manual, by tom lovett, noted, local history, , local history records, local history societies, local public records programs, loewenheim, francis, , loewenheim case, , lomonosov, mikhail, london, university of, school of librarianship and archives, los angeles, archdiocese of, los angeles times, louisiana, northwestern state university of, louisiana state archives and records service, , lovett, tom, local government records management manual, noted, lowell, howard p., , , lubetzky, seymour, lucas, lydia, ; "efficient finding aids: developing a system for control of archives and manuscripts, - lundy, kathryn renfro, women view librarian- ship: nine perspectives, noted, lycurgus, lyndon baines johnson presidential library. see johnson library. lynn, massachusetts, lytle, richard h., , , , , , , , , , , ; subject retrieval in ar- chives: a comparison of the provenance and content indexing methods, ; ed., management of archives and manuscript col- lections for librarians, drexel library quarter- ly, ; ltr., m macchine, scuole, industria, bologna, italy, com- mune of, noted, macclaren, robert h., , machine-readable archives division, national ar- chives computer data bulletin, maclean, ian, retirement of, mactac industrial products division, magale foundation, "the magic word," exhibit, canada, magnet hosiery mills, , magnetic tape storage, pac, magruder, louise, magyar orszagos leveltar (national archives of hungary), , maine, university of, major ediciones, argentina, the making of a code: the issues underlying aacr , doris hargrett clack, ed., revd., making of the english working class, by e. p. thompson, malaysia, national archives of, malinconico, s. michael, the management of archives, by theodore r. schellenberg, , management of archives and manuscript collec- tions for librarians, drexel library quarterly, richard h. lytle, ed., a manual of archival techniques, roland m. baumann, ed., manual of archive administration, by sir hilary jenkinson, manuscript repositories pag, , manuscripts, and taxation, england, manuscripts, withdrawn for sale, england, maps. see cartographic archives maranjian, lorig, and richard boss, fee-based information services: a study of a growing in- dustry, noted, marcus, richard w., marcus, stanley, cover (summer ) marion, john francis, the fine old house, revd., martin, michael g., jr., rev., martin, tony, ; and wendy ball, rare afro- americana: a reconstruction of the adger library, revd., martin luther king, jr., center for social change, marxist tradition, - maryland, university of, maryland department of general services, , maryland hall of records, , , - , , , , , , ; cover (fall ) maryland hall of records commission, , , , , maryland hall of records reading room, illus., maryland historical society, , , , , , maryland land office, , , , , , maryland manual, maryland public archives commission, maryland: a guide to the old line state, writers program, works projects administration, , mason, philip p., , ; "archives in the seventies: promises and fulfillment," - massachusetts historical society, massachusetts judicial records committee, masurian lakes, battle of, matthews, linda m., , maxwell, margaret f., handbook for aacr : explaining and illustrating anglo-american cataloging rules, second edition, mazuzan, george t., "the challenge of nuclear power development records," - mcanally, arthur, mccarthy, paul h., jr., , , , , , , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall mccolgin, michael, mccoy, donald r., mccrank, lawrence j., education for rare book librarianship: a reexamination of trends and problems, revd., mccree, mary lynn, , , , , , , , , , , , , , mcdonough, john j., comp., members of con- gress: a checklist of their papers in the manuscript division, library of congress, noted, mcdonough, kathleen a., and michael j. fox, wisconsin municipal records manual, revd., mcginnis, patrick j., ltr., mcgraw-hill book company, mckay, eleanor, , mckeldin, theodore r., , mckellar, kenneth, - mcreynolds, r. michael, mearns, david c , , ; obit., - medaille de la resistance, melville, annette, comp., special collections in the library of congress, noted, members of congress: a checklist of their papers in the manuscript division, library of congress, john j. mcdonough, comp., noted, mennonite archives committee, canada, mennonite brethren church, , mennonite brethren publishing house, mennonite genealogy, inc., canada, mennonite heritage centre, mennonite library and archives, metro history fairs, metroon, mevers, frank c , michener, james, michigan, university of, michigan archival association, , ; a pro- gram for disaster response in michigan, michigan historical collections, , michigan state library, microfilm, , , , ; nars review of, - microfilming corporation of america, midwest archives conference, midwest state archives guide project, , , military archives, ussr, miller, fredric m., "social history and archival practice," - miller, james edward, milwaukee area archivists, mims, julian l., rev., ministry of culture and art, poland, minnesota association of collecting agencies, "the minnesota basic workshops project," by james e. fogerty, - minnesota historical society, , , , , , , , minnesota regional research centers, , minnesota state archives, minnesota, university of, , , mississippi, department of archives and history, mississippi state legislature, mitchell, thornton w., ed., norton on archives: the writings of margaret cross norton on ar- chival and records management, modern archives institute, modern archives: principles and techniques, by theodore r. schellenberg, , , , , montaillou: the promised land of error, by le roy ladurie, montell, w. lynwood, and barbara allen, from memory to history: using oral sources in local historical research, noted, mooney, philip f., morris, robert, "morris leon radoff: the man and the monu- ment," by marcia d. talley, - moseley, eva, moss, william w., mrrc. see minnesota regional research centers mrrcnews, mumford, quincy, munich institute for contemporary history (west germany), municipal archives, , munoz, cesar gutierrz, murphy, murray g., murphy, william t., rev., murray, daniel, museum archives, saa task force on, myers, william, myres, sandra l., rev., n nader, ralph, najar, pamela m., nars. see national archives and records ser- vice. nasara. see national association of state ar- chivists and records administrators national academy of sciences, national aeronautics and space administration (nasa), national and local government officers associa- tion, england, national archival advisory committee, canada, national archival records comission, canada, national archives, brazil, national archives, new zealand, national archives, nigeria, national archives of the turkish republic, national archives oral history project, national archives, u.s., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; division of photographic reproduction and research, ; joint committee on the status of, the national archives: america's ministry of documents, - , by donald r. mccoy, national archvies advisory council, national archives and records service (nars), , , , , , , , , , , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; finding mediums committee, ; independence of , , , , ; national archives division, , ; office of civil archives, ; office of military archives, ; office of records appraisal, ; office of records management, ; records management division, national archives conference on federal archives as sources for research on afro-americans, , the national archives handbook of procedures, by theodore r. schellenberg, national arts foundation, england, national association of counties, national association of state archivists and records administrators (nasara), , national center for state courts, national conservation advisory council (ncac), national council on libraries, archives, and documentation centers, barbados, national council on public history, national data base, nhprc proposal, national endowment for the humanities (neh), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; research resources program, national environmental policy act, national film archive (nfa), london, national film archive catalogue, volume : non- fiction films, british film institute, revd., national film archives, australia, national fire protection association, national guide project, nhprc, national hstorical publications and records commission (nhprc), , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; appropriation for, , ; data base, , , ; records program, ; directory of archives and manuscripts repositories, national information system, barbados, national information systems for archives and manuscripts, saa task force on, , , , , , national library, new zealand, national library of australia, national park service, u.s., , , national photography collection, canada, national study commission on the records and documents of federal officials, , national union catalog of manuscript collections (nucmc), , , , , , national youth administration (nya), natural resources defense council, naylor, thomas h., thomas c. barnes, and charles w. polzer, northern new spain: a research guide, revd., nazi party, germany, ncac. see national conservation advisory council nebraska state historical society, nedcc. see northeast document conservation center neelameghan, a., guidelines for formulating policy on education, training and develop- ment of library and information personnel, neh. see national endowment for the humanities nieman-marcus archives, neiman-marcus retail firm, cover (summer) nell, william cooper, colored patriots of the american revolution, nelson, clark w., netherland hilton hotel, cincinnati, ohio, netherlands, archival education in, networks, archival, nevada historical society, new england archivists, , new england document conservation center, , , new england library board, new hampshire historical society, new harmony conference, new jersey county and municipal government study commission, new jersey department of education, new jersey state library, bureau of archives, new south wales university archives, new york institute of fine arts, new york state library, new york stock exchange archives, new york times, , new york university, new zeland historical association, newman, john, , newsome, albert r., newspapers, disposition of after microfilming, new zealand, nhprc. see national historical publications and records commission "no grandfather clause: reappraising acces- sioned records," by leonard rapport, - nolan, edward w., catalogue of manuscripts in the land county museum library, noted, nolan, patrick b., , north american forest history: a guide to ar- chives and manuscripts in the united states and canada, by richard c. davis, north carolina genealogical society, inc., north carolina research: genealogy and local history, helen f. m. leary and maurice r. stirewalt, eds., revd., north carolina, university of, northeast archives of folklore and oral history, northeast document conservation center (nedcc), , northern illinois univesity, northern new spain: a research guide, by thomas c. barnes, thomas h. naylor, and charles w. polzer, revd., norton, margaret cross, , , note d'information, france, nova scotia, public archives of, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall nrc. see nuclear regulatory commission nuclear power, records of, - nuclear regulatory commission (nrc), , , nucmc. see national union catalog of manuscript collections numismatics, o oah. see organization of american historians o'connell, merrilyn rogers, and frederick l. rath, jr., eds., bibliography of historical organization practices, noted, o'conor, herbert r., o'neill, james e., , o'toole, james, oberg, lawrence, oberlander trust, oblinger, carl, rev., oclc, , oclc users council, - oder-neisse line, office of management and busget (omb), u.s., , office of management and organization, bureau of the budget, u.s., office of price administration (opa), office of the national archives, official secrets act, canada, , oklahoma librarian, oklahoma state archives, old dartmouth historical society, onassis, jacqueline kennedy, oral history, , , , , , , ; col- orado center for, ; sources, illinois, ; workshop, oral history associates, san francisco, oral history association, , oral history collection, united negro college fund, oral history evaluation guidelines, noted, "oral history in american business archives," by gary d. saretzky, - oral history research office, columbia universi- ty, order of merit, federal republic of germany, organization of american historians (oah), , , , , organization of american states, , organizing the library's support: donors, volunteers, friends, d. w. krummel, ed., noted, original order, ; and data bases, orr, william j., "archival training in europe," - orthodox church in america, alaska diocese, ostroff, harriett, outreach, , , ownership marking, archival, owsley, harriet chappell, and sam b. smith, eds., the papers of andrew jackson, volume], - , revd., pac. see public archives of canada paddlewheel (anti-nuclear group), pag. see professional affinity group pag meetings, saa, pahlen, count fedor, the paige company, adv., , , , painter, patricia scollard, ; rev., pak. see problems in archives kit paleography, palm, charles g., rev., ; and dale reed, guide to the hoover institution archives, palmersheim, theresa mchugh, palmquist, david w., papenfuse, edward j., , , , paper, book, - paper permanence, research, paper restoration, the papers of andrew jackson, volume i, - , sam b. smith and harriet chappell owsley, eds., revd., pardo, thomas c , parker, nancy boothe, rev., parker, theodore, parochial registers and records measure of , england, parr, stanley, ltr., the past before us: contemporary historical writing in the united states, patricia m. vanorny, rev., pederson, ann e., "archival outreach: saa's survey," pennsylvania state archives, the people of three mile island, by robert del tredici, revd., perotin, yves, obit., perry, alan f., personel management, office of, u.s., , peterson, trudy huskamp, , ; "after five years: an assessment of the amended u.s. freedom of information act." ; ed., farmers, bureaucrats, and middlemen: historical perspectives on american agriculture, noted, petitions to the legislature, exhibit, philadelphia social history project, "phizz," deacidification agent, photo identifcation policy, canada, photocopying technique, - photofile, inc., adv., , , , photographic collections, , , the physicists, by daniel kevles, pike, linda j., pike, martha v., and janice gray armstrong, comps., a time to mourn: expressions of grief in nineteenth-century america, exhibit, noted, pinkett, harold t., "american archival theory: the state of the art," - plato, pleck, elizabeth, plunkett, michael f., pohlig bros., inc., ; adv., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index poland, ; state archives of, polish revolution, , polzer, charles w., thomas h. naylor, and thomas c. barnes, northern new spain: a research guide, revd., pongratz, ludwig j., and josef brozek, historiography of modern psychology, revd., ponomarev, valerii n., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., pope, nolan f., pope clement vii, pope innocent iv, pope john paul ii, pope leo xiii, popplestone, john a., rev., porter, barry, posner, carl, posner, ernst, , , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , ; american state archives, , ; archives in the ancient world, posner, kathe, posner, max, post-custodial era, potomac alliance (anti-nuclear group), powers, sister m. felicitas, , "the practicum: a repository view," by william g. lefurgy, - prentiss, timothy, the preparation of records for publication on microfilm, by theodore r. schellenberg, preservation of library materials: proceedings of a seminar, joyce r. russell, ed., noted, preservation, , , ; of photographs, ; standards, ; techniques, crepe-lining, , ; see also conservation preserving your historical records: proceedings of a symposium held at drake university, oc- tober - , , toby fishbein and alan f. perry, eds., revd., "the president's page," by ruth w. helmuth, - , - presidential materials review board, preussische staatsbibliothek, priam (prearchivage informatique des archives des ministeres), france, price, marcus, prince edward island, public archives of, principles of arrangement, by theodore r. schellenberg, prison records, privacy, ; laws, pro. see public record office problems in archives kit (pak), proceedings: conference on the cold storage of motion picture film, american film institute, noted, process materials corporation, ; adv., , , , professional affinity groups (pags), - . see also specific pags by name professional affinity groups, society of ar- chivists, england, professional archival associations, ica, "professional reading," paul v. guite, comp., - , - professionalism, archival, in latin america, prologue: the journal of the national archives, protestant episcopal church, provenance, - , ; and data bases, ; principle of, , prussian academy of sciences, prussian privy state archives, , public archives of canada (pac), , , , , , , , , public document room, nrc, public documents commission. see national study commission on the records and documents of federal officials public health service, u.s., public history, - , public record office, england, , , public records act, , england, public records board, wis. purdy, virginia c , , , , , , , , , ; ltr., , putnam, herbert, o quinn, patrick, r r. r. bowker company, radical women and women labor leaders oral history project, radio corporaion of america (rca), radiological health, division of, department of health and human services, radoff, goldie rabinovich, radoff, harry, radoff, may conkling, radoff, morris leon, - "rainbow series" (md.), , rapport, leonard, , ; "no grandfather clause; reappraising accessioned records," - , rare afro-americana: a reconstruction of the adger library, by wendy ball and tony mar- tin, revd., rath, frederick l., jr., and merrilyn rogers o'connell, eds., bibliography of historical organization practices, noted, rayburn, sam, reagan, ronald, papers, reappraisal, - , record group concept, , records, world conference on, d, , , records management, , , , , , ; municipal, - records management, institute of, american university, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall records management division, nars, records management group, england, records program, nhprc, - "redox," blemishes, reed, dale, and charles g. palm, guide to the hoover institution archives, revd., reed, daniel j., reed, james r., itr., reeves, john, reference, , ; evaluation of, reference, access, and outreach pag, regional archival networks, national conference of, regional archival organizations, , , , regional history center, northern illinois univer- sity, reingold, nathan, science in america since , religious archives, , , , , , ; in latin america, religious archives: an introduction, by august r. suelflow, ; revd., religious archives pag, renze, dolores, replevin, , research and development, archival, , researchers, scholarly, retention and disposition schedules, , , reynolds, jon, rhoads, james b., , , rieger, morris, ring, carol, risteen, deborah, ritzenthaler, mary lynn, , , rlin. robbins, j. albert, itr., roberts commission, robertson, james, , robinson, hilda m., robinson, james harvey, robinson, lawrence s., rockdale: the growth of an american village in the early industrial revolution, by anthony wallace, , rockefeller foundation, , rodman, william blount, papers, rogovin, mitchell, the role of records in german administration, by ernst posner, rome, municipality of, roosevelt, franklin d., roosevelt library, ross, rodney a., "ernst posner: the bridge bet- ween the old world and the new," - rossiter, margaret, emergence of agricultural science, round table of the international council on ar- chives, rowan, bonnie, scholars' guide to washington, d.c.: film and video collections, revd., rowley, n., comp., law and order in essex, in documents, maps, pictures and photographs, revd., royal canadian mounted police, royal historical manuscripts commission (hmc), england, , rubin, mark, russell, ann, russell, joyce r., ed., preservation of library materials: proceedings of a seminar, noted, russell, mattie u., ; rev., russian mennonite studies, russian orthodoxy in alaska: a history inven- tory and analysis of the church archives in alaska, with an annotated bibliography, by barbara s. smith, noted, rutgers university, saa. see society of american archivists saa newsletter, , , , , sachsenhausen, germany, sahli, nancy a., , ; "finding aids: a multi- media systems perspective," - ; itr., salus, carolyn, mary boccaccio, and steven lam- bird, greenbelt, maryland: a guide to further sources, noted, sampling, archival, "sampling in archives," by frank boles, -u sampling theory, sampson, charles s., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., san diego, cal., , san francisco examiner & chronicle, sands, viki, rev., santiago library system southern california consortium heritage project, sappho, sarbica. see southeast asia regional branch of ica saretzky, gary d., "oral history in american business archives," - scharf j.thomas, , scharf collection, schellenberg, abraham, schellenberg, abraham lincoln, , schellenberg, henry george, schellenberg, sarah schroeder, schellenberg, theodore r., , , , , , , , , , , , - , ; modern archives: principles and techniques, schiller, irving, schlesinger, arthur m., jr., schlesinger, arthur m., sr., schmidt, werner, scholars' guide to washington, d.c.: african studies, by purnima mehta bhatt, revd., scholars' guide to washington, d.c.: central and east european studies, by kenneth j. dillon, revd., scholar's guide to washington, d.c.: film and video collections, by bonnie rowan, revd., schultz, charles r., , science, history of, - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index science in america since , by nathan reingold, scientific america, scott-cora, ivadniae., sears, roebuck and company archives, security, archival, , , security pacific national bank, los angeles, seidel, diana, senate committee records: a guide to disposi- tion and public access, by richard a. baker, noted, senatorial papers project advisory committee, senators, u.s., records of, seniavin, ivan, " a sesquicentennial exhibition: new york university - ," exhibit, settani, joseph andrew, sewanee economics symposium, shandor, michael, et al., "collection processing as a team effort," - shear. see society of historians of the early american republic shelving, movable, shipman, fred, shomburg, arthur, shpotov, boris m., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., sht. see society for the history of technology shubert, joseph, sierra club, sigillography, sillito, john, simonetti, martha l., simpson, mildred, sims, anne, et al., "collection processing as a team effort," - sink, robert, comp., a guide to brooklyn manuscripts in the long island historical socie- ty, noted, sir john latham: a guide to his papers in the national library of australia, national library of australia, noted, sisters of mercy of australia, sisters of mercy of the union, sitterson, j. carlyle, sizer,samuel, skordas, gust, , , , , slotkin, helen w., slovenska archivistika, , smith, carleton, , smith, dick, smith, jane f., "theodore r. schellenberg: americanizer and popularizer," - smith, kline & french foundation, smith, sam b., and harriet chappell owsley, eds., the papers of andrew jackson, volume i, - , revd., smith, william e., jr., smith report, canada-new zealand, smith kline corporation, , smithsonian institution, "smithsonian institution archives self-study," "social history and archival practice," by fredricm. miller, - social science information & documentation committee, social science research council, u.s., , social sciences and humanities research council, canada, , social welfare history archives center, universi- ty of minnesota, , society for history in the federal government, society for the history of technology (sht), society of american archivists (saa), , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; adv., , , , , , , , , , , , , cover (winter and spring issues, ); and social issues, - , - ; committee system, - ; dues, , ; election procedures, ; finances, , ; grant funds, , membership, - , ; membership directory, ; placement service, ; staff, , ; study tours, , —annual meetings, d, , ; nd, salt lake city, , , ; th, atlanta, , ; th, toronto, , , th, cincinnati, , ; th, berkeley, ca., , , , , ; th, washington, , —basic conservation program, —business meeting, annual , - —committee for the s, , , , , , , —committee on committees, —constitutional revision task force, , —council, , , , ; minutes, - , - , —council policy committee, —council program committee, , —council publications committee, , , , —executive committee, , , , —executive director, ; annual report, , - ; reports to council, , —forms manual task force, —local arrangements committee, , —nominating committee, , —president's report, , —professional affinity groups (pags), - , - , , . see also specific pags by name —program committee, , ; , —publications, , , ; basic manuals published and proposed, , —replevin task force, —treasurer's annual report, , - ; to council, , society of archivists, england, , , , society of historians of the early american republic (shear), socrates, solomon islands, archives, songe, alice h., and josephine riss fang, comps., international guide to library, ar- chival, and information science associations, noted, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall sophocles, sorbonne, south, aloha, rev., south, university of the, south african conference of bibliophiles, south carolina, university of, library school, south carolina department of archives and history, south caroliniana library, southeast asian regional branch of ica (sar- b ca), southern historical collection, university of north carolina at chapel hill, , southwest archivists, society of, southwest collection, texas tech university, soviet union, see ussr spain, archival education in, spawn, willman, special collections in the library of congress, annette melville, comp., noted, special libraries association (sla), ; picture division, special-subject archives, - specialist repositories group, england, sphragistics, spindex, , , , , , , spirit of st. louis, ssrc. see social science research council st. john's college, annapolis, md., , stack management: a practical guide to shelving and maintaining collections, by william j. hubbard, noted, standard reporting practices, saa task force on, , , stanford university, stasko, joseph, state archives, , ; directory, the state house at annapolis, by morris leon radoff, state office building, md., state, u.s. department of, ; international educational exchange program, statistical package for the social sciences, stearns salt and lumber company, ludington, michigan, - stickley, douglas penn, jr., stickley, julia ward, stiles, ezra, stillito, john, stillwater (minn.) state prison, stirewalt, maurice r., and helen f. m. leary, eds., north carolina research: genealogy and local history, revd., stone and webster, inc., storm, robert w., , strassberg, richard, strauss, lewis, papers, structuralism, , stuewer, roger h., subject access, subject retrieval in archives: a comparison of the provenance and content indexing methods, by richard h.lytle, suelflow, august r., religious archives: an in- troduction, ; revd., summer institute in the administration and preservation of archives, sunday times (london), supreme court, u.s., suran, frank m., comp. and ed., guide to the record groups in the pennsylvania state ar- chives, noted, surface cleaning, slide-tape presentation, surtolaisuusinstituutti (institute for migration), finland, survey of federal archives, "survey of the archival profession," by mabel e. deutrich and ben dewhitt, swanson, herbert r., ltr., swarthmore college peace collection, swedish pioneer historical society, swedish royal archives, symons report ( ), canada, syrett, harold c , talbot, george, talley, marcia d., "morris leon radoff: the man and the monument," - tannenberg, battle of, task force on delegate algorithm (oclc), task force on system priorities and needs (oclc), tate, vernond., , , tawes, millard j., , taylor, hugh a., , taylor, saundra, team processing, - tennessee archivists, tennessee historical commission, terminology, archival, - texas, university of, ; archives, texas county records inventory project, texas state library, theme collections pag, "theodore r. schellenberg: americanizer and popularizer," by jane f. smith, - theory, archival, - , - thomas, sherry, we didn't have much, but we sure had plenty: stories of rural women, noted, thomas, sister evangeline, thomas hunt morgan, by garland allen, thomas wilds associates, inc., adv., , thompson, e. p., making of the english working class, three mile island, , , "three pious hopes," by ruth w. helmuth, - time on the cross: the economics of american negro slavery, by robert fogel and stanley engerman, a time to mourn: expressions of grief in nineteenth-centruy america, exhibit, martha v. pike and janice gray armstrong, comps., noted, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index times literary supplement (london), tinker foundation, , toronto area archivists group (taag), tredici, robert del, the people of three mile island, revd., trescott, martha m., trevelyan, g. m., english social history, trever, karl, , trinkaus-randall, gregor, rev., "trouble is my business: a private view of 'public history," by david a. clary, - truman, harry s., tselos, george, turner, frederick jackson, u u.a.w., u.s., house government operations committee, u.s., senate governmental affairs subcommittee on civil service and general services, u.s. army center of military history, u.s. military government in germany (omgus), u.s. railroad administration, , , , , u.s. senate, u.s. shipping board, , , unesco, , , , , , ; general in- formation programme, ; ramp (records and archives management program) pilot pro- ject, union of concerned scientists, union of international associations (u a), united nations, united nations development p r o g r a m m e (undp), united nations institute for training and research (unitar), untied negro college fund, the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , nina n. bashkina, et al., eds, revd., united states government manual, university of chicago press, university products, inc., adv., covers (winter, spring, summer, fall) use-studies and statistics, , - users council task force of effectiveness (oclc), ushakova, natalia v., et al., eds., the united states and russia: the beginning of relations, - , revd., ussr, , , , , ussr council of ministers, main archival ad- ministration of the, utah, gen ealogical society of, utah, state archivist of, valtionarkisto (national archives), finland, van camp, anne, , vanier, jean, vanorny, particia m., rev., varnhagen, rahel levin, , , " t h e varnhagen collection is in krakow", by deborah hertz, - vatican secret archives, vestal, alice, victoria, queen, england, videodisc project, canada, viola, herman, vogt-o'connor, diane, von ense, karl varnhagen, vorwaerts, newspaper, w wage adjustment board, , walch, timothy, ; rev., walch, victoria irons, , walichnowski, tadeusz, walker, j. samuel, rev., wallace, anthony, rockdale: the growth of an american village in the early industrial revolu- tion, wallace, carolyn, walt disney productions, walter p. reuther library, wayne state universi- ty, , warbica. see west african regional branch, ica warner, robert m., , , , , , warnow, joan, washington, university of, washington county, maryland, washington post, wayne state university, , , we did't have much, but we sure had plenty: stories of rural women, by sherry thomas, noted weaver, barbara, weldon, edward, , , , , , , , wellesley college, wells, carolyn m., comp., index and abstracts of colonial documents in the eugene p. watson memorial library, noted, west african regional branch of ica (war- bica), west germany, archival education in, western conservation congress, , western interstate commission on higher educa- tion, western reserve university, western states materials conservation project, , westinghouse co., weyerhauser timber co., - white house conference on library and informa- tion services, whitehead, peter, , wilhelm, henry, williams, g. mennen, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall williams, james w.,ltr., williams, wiley j., and frances neel cheney, fundamental reference sources, noted, wilson, sir duncan, wilson, woodrow, wilsted, thomas, winn, karyl, winthrop college archives and special collec- tions, wisconsin, state historical society of, , , , wisconsin, university of, system archives coun- cil, , , wisconsin department of development, wisconsin municipal records manual, michael j. fox and kathleen a. mcdonough, revd., wolff, jane, "faculty papers and special-subject repositories," - women in business and economic history, women in the archival profession, saa commit- tee on the status of, , , - , , , women view librarianship: nine perspectives, by kathryn renfro lundy, noted, women's history research center collection, un- viersity of wyoming, women's history sources: a guide to archives and manuscript collections in the united states, andrea hinding, ed., ; revd., - women's history sources survey, woodrow wilson international center for scholars, woodward, c. vann, work projects administration (wpa), , workshops, archival, . see also education, ar- chival world health organization, * world symposium on documentation, d, brussels, "the world turned upside down: reference priorities and the state archives," by phebe r. jacobsen, - woroby, maria, the wpa historical records survey: a guide to the unpublished inventories, indexes, and transcripts, loretta l. hefner, comp., revd., wrigley, kathryn, comp. and ed., directory of il- linois oral history resources, noted wurl, joel f., ltr., xyz xerox canada, inc., archives, yale university, yal e university library preservation pamphlets, by jane greenfield, revd., yankelovich, daniel, yorktown, battle of, z. smith reynolds foundation, zarras, george, ziemer, linda, zimmer nuclear power station, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index annual index volume ( ) the following are not indexed: "professional reading" and other lists of publica- tions; authors and titles of articles in foreign journals abstracted in the "international scene;" names of editors and reporters of the various departments; reference foot- notes (explanatory footnotes are indexed); addresses or institutional affiliations of contributors, writers, and persons mentioned in the text; the annual list of historical documentary editing projects; specific items in accessions and openings; references in obituaries; annual list of fellows of the society of american archivists. aacr. see anglo-american cataloging rules. aaslh. see american association for state and local history. aaslh/aam/saa joint committee on oppor- tunities for minorities, , , , abbey newsletter, , abolitionism, abraham, terry, , , , , , academic american video encyclopedia, academy of sciences (ussr), , access, automated, - , - , - ; in great britain, ; in new zealand, - ; related to arrangement, , - ; related to description, - , ; saa policy on, - , ; to business archives, - , , , ; to chinese archives, , - ; to state department records, , - ; to university records, - , accessioning, "access policies for corporate archives," by anne van camp, - acid-free paper, - , ; ads, , , acquisition, acquisitions, - (pac), by mark hop- kins, noted, act caucus, adams, john, adams, virginia, "adaptive reuse of old buildings for archives," by jay haymond, - admissions to college, discrimination in, - advertising age, advisory committee on the management, preser- vation, and use of local government records, , afl-cio, , aic newsletter, ainsworth, fred c , ala. see american library association ala filing rules, alabama, n alaska, albert, peter j., and harold l. miller, eds., the american federation of labor records: the samuel gompers era, revd., alberta, lutheran records of, alcoa, aldrich, virginia, alexander turnbull library, alkaline paper products, - ; ad, allen, gracie, ambacher, bruce, american antiquarian society, , american archivist, , , , , ; and saa editorial board, , , - ; back issues, ; editorial policy, , , , ; relationship to nars, , , , ; staff, - , , , ; subscribers and revenues, , , , american association for state and local history (aaslh), ; ad, , ; committee on minorities, , , , american baptist historical society, "the american brass company: a case study of the disposition of business records," by lynn a. bonfield and karen r. lewis, - american chemical society, american commission for the protection and salvage of artistic and historic monuments in war areas, american council on education, , the american daguerreotype, by floyd rinhart and marion rinhart, revd., - the american federation of labor records: the samuel gompers era, peter j. albert and harold l. miller, eds., revd., american historical association, - , , , , american institute for conservation, - american institute of architects, american institute of physics, american irish historical society, - the american jewish woman, by jacob rader marcus, noted, american legion, american library association (ala), , , , - , ; ad, american philosophical society, american physical society, american revolution, , american society of information science, american telephone and telegraph, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall amlib/ambib newsletter, amministrazione centrale archivistica, anaconda copper mining co., "an analysis of processing procedures: the adaptable approach," by helen w. slotkin and karen t. lynch, - anderson, harold p., ; "business archives: a corporate asset," - anderson, paul g., andreoli, anthony, and d. robert shuman, the guide to unclaimed property and escheat laws, noted, andrews/ nelson/ whitehead, - , angell, james r., , , anglo-american cataloging rules, , anheuser-busch, , , , an qingzhu, ansonia brass and copper co., antinuclear groups, - appalachian regional commission, apple computers, , , , appraisal, aided by sociology, - ; british guidelines, ; collecting policies, - ; in ar- chival theory, ; in college archives, ; in religious archives, ; in ussr, ; of fbi records, - ; of machine-readable records, ; of printed material in archival collections, - ; publications on, , ; related to in- tellectual control, - appraisal of the records of the federal bureau of investigation, revd., - apulia, archeographic commission (ussr), architectural records, , , - , , architectural records in chicago: a guide to architectural resources in cook county and vicinity, by kathleen roy cummings, noted, archival buildings, - archival education, - , , , , , , - , , , , - , , , - , - , , archival legislation, , archival preservation of machine-readable records: the final report of the wisconsin survey of machine-readable public records, by martin david et al., revd., - archival principles, . see also original order, provenance, etc. archival profession, - , , , - ; in china, archival records of american music history, archival theory, , - , - , - , - , , ; in ussr, - archives, workshop on starting, , , , archives and history, archives and manuscript repositories in the ussr: estonia, latvia, lithuania, and belorussia, by patricia kennedy grimsted, revd., - archives and manuscript repositories in the ussr: moscow and leningrad (grimsted), , archives & manuscripts: arrangement & descrip- tion (gracy), - , archives & manuscripts: exhibits (casterline), archives & manuscripts: an introduction to automated access, by h. thomas hickerson, revd., - archives and records association of new zea- land, , , , - archives associations, regional, archives de l'armee de terre, archives de la ville de quebec, "archives in the people's republic of china," by william w. moss, - archives nationales du quebec, les archives nationales: etat general des fonds, jean favier, dir., revd., - archives of appalachia, archives of the billy graham center, , archives of folklore and oral history, archives work, archivio centrale dello stato, archivio di stato di arezzo, archivio di stato di bari, archivio di stato di campobasso, archivio di stato di imperia, archivio di stato di pesaro, archivio di stato di roma, archivio di stato di venezia, , archivio segreto vaticano, arkhivnoe delo, archivo general de centro america (guatemala) archivo general de la nacion (argentina), archivo general de la nacion (dominican re- public), archivo general de la nacion (mexico), archivo general de la nacion (peru), - archivo nacional (costa rica), archivo nacional de colombia, archivos hoy, archivum, arezzo, argentina, arizona territory, arkib negara malaysia, arma quarterly , , armstrong, robert d., "the beast in the bath- tub," - armstrong cork co., , army service schools, army war college, arrangement, and access, , , , ; and archival principles, - , , , - ; in chinese archives, , , , , ; in col- lege archives, ; in th century, ; in pro- cessing, , , - ; of arco photographs, ash, lee, asia foundation, asociacion ecuatoriana de administradores de documentos y archivos, asociacion latino-americano de archivos, , , , asociacion peruana de archiveros, , asociacion venezolana de archiveros, association for archivists and manuscript li- brarians, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index association management, association of canadian archivists, association of canadian map libraries, association of county archivists (great britain), association of records managers and admini- strators (arma), , , atanasoff, john vincent, atari computers, - atlanta university center, atlantic richfield co., , , , - , - audio engineering society, audiovisual archives, ; in china, aurora steel products, australia, victoria records published, australian joint copying project, australian society of archivists, - authority lists, , automated access, , - , , ; con- trolling vocabulary for, , , , , , - , , , , , - , , , , ; in chinese archives, , ; microcomputer applications, - ; publica- tions on, - , , - automated data and telecommunications ser- vice (gsa), - automating the archives: issues and problems in computer applications, lawrence j. mc- crank, ed., revd., - axelrod, nathan, b backlogs, , , , bahmer, robert, bailey, mildred, bailey/howe library, baillairge, charles, bain, alan, baker, ray stannard, baker library (harvard), , bakken, douglas a., , , , , ; "corporate archives today," - bakunin, mikhail, balkan history, baltic states, , baltimore, md., guides to records of, reviewed, - , - , bambam, , bank of america, , baptist church records, barrese, edward f., barrow, clyde, barry, leonora, bartlett, beatrice, battle, thomas, baumann, roland m., bearman, david, , , , , , - , ; "toward national information systems for archives and manuscript repositories," - "the beast in the bathtub," by robert d. arm- strong, - bechtel power corp., beginnings of permanent government, noted, belknap, george w., - , bellamy, v. nelle, ; rev., - bell laboratories, belmont abbey college, belorussia, - belov, gennadi arkadevich, belser verlag, bemis, samuel f., benedict, aaron, benedict, karen m., "business archives litera- ture," - ; ed., a select bibliography on business archives and records management, , , , ; noted, ; revd., - benedictine archives, berkeley, edmund, jr., , , , , , , , , , berkhofer, robert, berkshire museum, berlin, ira, berlin, isaiah, berner, richard c , - , , , ; "toward national archival priorities: a suggested basis for discussion," - berthier, marshal, bibles, at lc, bibliographers, and archives, - bibliographies and lists of new york state news- papers: an annotated guide, by paul mercer, noted, bigglestone, william e., bill of rights, biochemistry, bishop, beverly d., rev., - black, persis sibley andrews, blackford, bland, black hawk war, , bland, larry i., and sharon r. ritenour, eds., the papers of george catlett marshall, vol. , revd., - blet, pierre, blouin, francis x., bloxom, margaret d., comp., pickaxe and pencil: references for the study of the wpa, noted, - boeing co., - , boles, frank, ltr., - , - ; "disrespecting original order," - , - bolsheviks, , , , , bombard, owen, bonch-bruevich, v.d., bonfield, lynn a., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; and karen r. lewis, "the american brass com- pany: a case study of the disposition of business records," - book and paper specialty group, bookbinding, - bookbinding and conservation by hand: a working guide, by laura s. young, noted, - bookline alert: missing books and manuscripts, , books, deacidification of, , ; development of, ; in archival collections, , boolean logic, , bordin, ruth b., , , , borsa, ivan, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall boruch, robert f., et al., eds., reanalyzing pro- gram evaluations, noted, - boston, mass., religious archives guides, - botticelli, boyd, julian, brady, mathew, bragg, braxton, brahm, walter, brandhorst, f. theodore, brass industry, - brattleboro, ver., breton, arthur j., rev., - brewer's digest, brichford, maynard, , n, , , , ; rev., - bridgeport, conn., - brisc project, , british columbia, lutheran records of, british film institute, - british records association, n brooks, philip, brown, margaret r., browne, valerie g., - buck, solon j., buckendorf, madeline, buckley/pell amendment, - bulgaria, bundesarchiv (koblenz), burckel, nicholas c , ; and j. frank cook, "a profile of college and university archives in the united states," - bureaucracy, - bureau of indian affairs, inventory of records, bureau of reclamation, bureau of records management (philippines), burke, frank g., , , - , - , , - , , , ; ltr., - burns, george, burton, noah, - business archives, ; access in, - ; bibli- ography, , , , - , - ; corporate value of, - , , - ; guidelines for, - , ; history of in american corpora- tions, - , - , ; in china, ; in ussr, ; photos in, - ; workshops, , . see also saa business archives pag. "business archives: a corporate asset," by harold p. anderson, - "business archives guidelines," by linda edgerly, - business archives: an introduction (hedlin), , , "business archives literature," by karen bene- dict, - business horizons, business in the new south, business week, butler, tyrone g., ; rev., california historical quarterly, california historical records educational and consultant service, california historical society, california librarian, california state archives, , , , california state historical records advisory board, california state university and college system archives, campbell, ann morgan, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , campbell, helen stuart, campbell, william b., canada, archival repositories in, ; city maps, canadian archives: report to the social sciences and humanities research council of canada, canadian department of supply and services, canadian labour congress, canadian mennonite bible college, capek, karel, capital planning information, cappon, lester j., obit., - ; "what, then, is there to theorize about?" - , - card catalog, in archives , , card system of records, - , carmen, gerald, carnegie institution of washington, , carnegie-mellon university, carothers, diane foxhill, the self-instruction manual for filing catalog cards, noted, carr, peter, carrillo castro, alejandro, - carson city, nev., carter, jimmy, n; administration budget for archives, ; presidential materials project, case files, castellan, g., casterline, gail farr, archives & manuscripts: exhibits, cataloging, , - , , , - , , , , - catch- , caterpillar tractor co., n catherine ii, catherine beecher (sklar) catholic archives, catholic archives society, catholic historical society of st. paul, cattell, james mckean, cbs, n center for history of chemistry, center for research on vermont, central archives of the people's republic of china, - central intelligence agency, , centro de estudios bibliotecarios y documen- tarios de madrid, centro interamericano de desarrollo de archivos, , centro taller regional de restauracion y micro- filmacion de documentos para el caribe y cen- troamerica, chaffee, mary abigail, chambersburg, pa., chandler, andrew, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index chapdelaine, susan, charbonneau, hubert, and andre larose, eds., du manuscrit a i'ordinateur, noted, - charles ii, charles river dam, charles thompson prize, chase manhattan bank, , , chemicals, in edison's lab, - chemistry, history of, chestnut, paul i., , chiang kai-shek, chicago, ., architectural records in, ; max weber on, ; prohibition in, - chicago area archivists, chicago board of trade, child, margaret, ; "federal funds for archives: a view from neh," - child development group of mississippi, childress, marilyn, rev., chile, china, ; archives in, - china inland mission, china national publishing industry trading corp., chinese archives association, , , , , chinese communist party, , , , , , , , - christchurch star, chrysler corp., n cibbarelli and associates, cineteca nacional de mexico, ciolli, antoinette, ltr., - citicorp, city of toronto archives, city university of new york, civilian conservation corps, civil war, ; diaries, ; photographs, - clark, burton, - clark, jewell t., and elizabeth terry long, comps., church records in the archives branch of the virginia state library, noted, clary, david, classification, in libraries, - , , , clemens, orion, clemens, sam, n client files, coalition for open government, - coalition to preserve our documentary heritage, , , , coca-cola co., , , , , , , , cockhill, brian, cockrell commission, - codex benedictus, codicology, cohasco, inc., coker, c.f.w., cole, arthur h., colgate-palmolive, collecting, , - , collections (wisconsin historical society), - , college and research libraries, college and university archives, - . see also saa college and university archives pag. college and university archives: selected read- ings, college of william and mary, collins, henry bascom, colombres, luz maria, colonial dames, , , , , colonial oral history project, colonial williamsburg, inc., columbia university, ; admissions policy, ; library, columbus and franklin county (ohio) public library, commission on federal paperwork, , commission on higher education, committee for the preservation of sound re- cordings, committee on fair employment practice, committee prints, - comptroller general, on records management, - "a computer database system to store and dis- play archival data on correspondence of historical significance," by bruce r. wheaton, - computer output microfilm (com), , , , , computers, and archives, - , - , - , - , - , , , - , - , , , . see also automated access. computers, development of, conant, james bryant, the concise aacr , by michael gordon, noted, concordia historical institute, confederate photographs, conflict model of bureaucracy, - confucian archives, , - congressional information service, - congress of racial equality, connecticut state inter-racial commission, conner, fox, contemporary scientific archives centre, content indexing, - , - , conscientious objectors, conservation, - , - , , , - , , , , , , , , , ; in china, ; workshops, , , , , . see also preservation. conservation resources, ad, conservators, , , - consortium of native american archives, , , , u.s.s. constitution, consultative group on canadian archives, cook, d. louise, cook, j. frank, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; and nicholas c. burckel, "a profile of college and university archives in the united states," - cook, nancy, copying machines, - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall copyright, and off-air recording, - cordray, david s., cornell university, corning glass co., , "corporate archives today," by douglas a. bakken, - cosmography (ptolemy), cotton states international exposition, council of churches, - council of people's commissars, council on library resources, , , , "counting and accounting: a speculation on change in recordkeeping practices," by trudy huskamp peterson, - county court houses of the united states, county records, , cox, richard j., , ; tracing the history of the baltimore structure, revd., - ; and larry e. sullivan, eds., a guide to the research collections of the maryland historical society, noted, ; william lefurgy, and susan david, governing baltimore, revd., - craig, malin, crawford, miriam i., creative computing, , crisalli, karen l., crooks, susan h., crosby, bing, crown, alan, cultural revolution (china), , , , cumming, kathleen roy, architectural records in chicago, noted, cunha, george, , cunliffe, william h., rev., cushman, helen m. baker, , czechoslovakia, d daguerre, louis, daguerreotypes, - dakota territory, "the dallas mayors oral history and records project: a program of institutional coopera- tion," by alan s. mason and gerald d. saxon, - dallas public library, - daly, john, , danks committee, dante, dartmouth college, admissions policy, database systems, - data general corp., datapro reports, daughters of the american revolution, david, martin, et al., archival preservation of machine-readable records, revd., - david, susan, william lefurgy, and richard cox, governing baltimore, revd., - davidson, helen l., davis, william c , ed., the image of war, - , vol. , shadows of the storm, revd., - day, edmund e., deacidification, , , , , - , - declassification, of state department records, - deere & co., , , , delaware, - del carmen crespo, ma., delia cava, olha, delta ministry, del valle perez, hernan, denver public library, department of health, education, and welfare, desandrouins, jean nicholas, description, for subject access, - , - , , , , , , - , , , , , , - ; in china, , , deseret news, deuter, paul, dez (diethyl zinc), , dickens, charles, dickerson, marion, dickinson, emily, diethyl zinc, in deacidification, , digital research, , ding ling, directory of business archives in the united states and canada, , , , , - , , , directory of college and university archives in the united states and canada, disasters, archival, , , , - , , , disciples of christ (christian church), "disrespecting original order," by frank boles, - divine comedy (dante), "documenting the spirit," by robert shuster, - document restoration, in china, , , dodds, harold willis, dojka, john, dolgikh, filip ivanovich, dollar, charles m., , , domesday book, dorsey, tommy, dowler, lawrence, draper, lyman c , - dr. pepper—king of beverages, noted, duchien, michel, duckett, kenneth, , , duffy, joseph, duffy, mark j., guide to the parochial archives of the episcopal church in boston, revd., - du manuscrit a i'ordinateur, hubert charbon- neau and andre larose, eds., noted, - dunlap society, dunn, mary maples, and richard s. dunn, the papers of william penn, vol. , - , revd., - dun's review, , , , dupont co., n durand florez, guillermo, durrie, daniel, , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index "dusting off the cobwebs: turning the business archives into a managerial tool," by george david smith, - dutch royal library, e eakin, j.r., early american newspapers, - , noted, earthquake, and archival buildings, , east, sherrod, eastern europe and russia/soviet union: a handbook of west european archival and library resources, richard c. lewanski, ed., revd., - eastern ontario archivists association, - east germany, eastman kodak, , , east texas state university, - eckert, timothy e., et al., eds., historical rec- ords of washington state, revd., - eddy, nelson, edgerly, linda, , , , ; rev., - ; "business archives guidelines," - edison, thomas, - edison institute, edmunds, henry e., educational testing service, edwards, j . d . , einstein, albert, electric wastebasket corp., eleutherian mills historical library, , eli lilly co., , - , eliot, charles william, , ellington, duke, ellis, richard n . , rev., - elmore, nigel, elsen, marie k., "spindex in a university ar- chives," - emerson, katherine, , , emiliani, jorge r., empress of china, encyclopedia of religious knowledge, engels, friedrich, environmental controls, in archival buildings, - , , , , , , , , , , , episcopal church, - , episcopal society for cultural and racial equali- ty, epp, frank h., espinosa, robert, estonia, - etat sommaire par series . . ., evangelism, , - evans, ann y., evans, frank, , evans, luther harris, ; obit., - evans, max j., , , everybody's business: an almanac (moskowitz, katz, and levering), - "the evidential value of nontextual records," by meyer h. fishbein, - executive order , exhibits, , , , - , - , , , , , , , , , , , , eyzaguirre, juan, faber, doris, falca, joseph, family education and privacy act, - fat file theory, favier, jean, dir., les archives nationales: etat general des fonds, revd., - fawcett, millicent garrett, faxon co., federal bureau of investigation, ; report on records appraisal revd., - "federal funds for archives: a view from n e h , " by margaret s. child, - federal records act of , federal records centers, - federal records management: a history of ne- glect, by elmer staats, revd., - federal records of world war ii, fees, felt-tip pens, feng baiju, - fernandez bonilla, leon, filby, p. william, passenger and immigration lists bibliography, noted, ; ed., philadelphia naturalization records, - , noted, filing systems, - , , , film archives, - , , , , , , finch, c. herbert, - , , , finding aids, , , ; access, - , , - , - , - , - , ; computerized, , - , - , - ; for business archives, ; for college archives, - ; for italian state archives, ; for quebec archives, - ; for religious archives, - ; for saa archives, ; in china, , , , ; in draper era, - ; on microfiche, - ; preparation of, , , - ; types, finnegan, richard p . , , finnegan, shonnie, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , fire insurance maps in the library of congress: plans of north american cities and towns pro- duced by the sanborn map company, revd., - fire protection, - , , - , , , - , , firestone, harvey s., , , firestone, harvey s., jr., firestone library (princeton), firestone tire and rubber co., , , , , first auditor, , first comptroller, - first continental congress, first historical archives, beijing, , , - , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall fishbein, meyer h., , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; "the eviden- tial value of nontextual records," - fisher, william ellsworth, fleckner, john a., , fletcher, marjorie, flexner, abraham, fogerty, james e., a folklore and oral history catalogue, noted, folsom, robert s., foote, mary hallock, ford, henry, , ford foundation, ford motor co., , , , , , , foreign affairs information system, - foreign relations of the united states, n, fortson-jones, judith, france, archives nationales, - frankfurter, felix, fraser, joanne e., rev., - freedman, estelle, freedom of information act, freeman, john ripley, - freeman, rowland, french revolution, and archives administration, - freudenberger, herman, friends of the archives of louisiana, frontier, draper on, fry-jefferson map, fudan university, fur trade, gahond de falter, nelly, galbraith, v.h., gale research co., , , gallagher, connell b., gamel, faye, gang of four, garcia belsunce, cesar a., garcia cantu, gaston, gardner, deborah, ; commentary, - ; rev., - gelpi, barbara charlesworth, genealogical research, genealogical society of utah, general accounting office, n; report on fed- eral records management, - general electric co., - , n, general mills, n general services administration, and american archivist, , , , ; and nars, , - , , , - ; and records manage- ment, , , - ; report on st. louis fire, george iii, georgia archive, georgia department of archives and history, n, , , georgia pacific co., georgia records act of , gerber products, , geriatrics, german reformed church, gianatasio, joyce e., , , , gibbon, edward, gibbs, sharon, - gilbert, william s., glaser, mary todd, glassine, goddard space flight center, golden book of the maggior consiglio, gompers, samuel, gondos, victor, jr., j. franklin jameson and the birth of the national archives, - , revd., - gonzalez echenique, javier, goodman, benny, good show! a practical guide for temporary exhibitions, by lothar p. witteborg, revd., goodyear tire and rubber co., , gordo, susana cristina, - gordon, michael, the concise aacr , noted, gordon, robert s., , , , , , gouever family papers, governing baltimore: a guide to the records of the mayor and city council at the baltimore city archives, by william lefurgy, susan david, and richard cox, revd., - governmental archives, , graham, billy, , graham, robert a., gracy, david b., ii, , , , ; archives & manuscripts: arrangement & description, - , n; an introduction to manuscripts and archives, revd., - graffagnino, j. kevin, grand rapids, mich., great awakening, great britain, wilson committee report, - green, lord, greenaway, kate, greene, harold h., greenfield village, griffiths, jose-marie, grigg committee, grignon, augustin, grimsted, patricia kennedy, rev., ; archives and manuscript repositories in the ussr: estonia, latvia, lithuania, and belorussia, revd., ; "lenin's archival decree: the bolshevik legacy for soviet archival theory and practice," - gross, lori, rev., grover, raymond f., guangdong provincial archives, , - guertler, john, and adele newburger, eds., the records of baltimore's private organizations, revd., - guia de los archivos historicos de santiago, guidelines for administering machine-readable archives, guides, as descriptive medium, , guide to the archives of the archdiocese of bos- ton, by james m. otoole, revd., - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index guide to the botanical records and papers in the archives of the hunt institute, michael t. stieber and anita l. karg, comps., noted, guide to the care and administration of manu- scripts (kane), a guide to church records in the archives branch of the virginia state library, jewell t. clark and elizabeth terry long, comps., noted, guide to early documents (c. -c. ) (new hampshire state archives), noted, a guide to historical and genealogical records in latah county, idaho, noted, - guide to jewish archives, aryeh segall, ed., noted, guide to materials on latin america in the na- tional archives, guide to manuscript collections in the national museum of history and technology, guide to the parochial archives of the episcopal church in boston, by mark j. duffy, revd., - guide to primary sources in ohio labor history, roger a. meade and marjorie j. myers, comps., noted, - guide to records in the national archives of the united states relating to american indians, edward e. hill, comp., revd., - a guide to the research collections of the mary- land historical society: historical and genealogical records and oral history inter- views, richard j. cox and larry e. sullivan, eds., noted, the guide to unclaimed property and escheat laws, by anthony andreoli and d. robert shuman, noted, gulf oil co., gutenberg bible, h haas, pamela, rev., hackman, larry j., hadley, arthur twining, - , hale, george ellery, halevy, elie, "the half-opened door: researching admissions discrimination at harvard, yale, and prince- ton," by marcia g. synnott, - ham, f. gerald, - , , , ; rev., - hammett, dashiell, hampshire county record office, handbook for record managers, harcourt brace jovanovich, hardwick, bonnie, harrington, samuel m., hart, johnny, hartford, conn., hartgrove, j. dane, rev., harvard business review, , harvard university, admissions policy, - ; archives, - ; graduate school of business administration, ; libraries, , harwood, james, hashomer hatzair, archives, hastings, david, and timothy eckert, eds., his- torical records of washington state, revd., - hauser, robert, hawaii, haworth press, hawthorne, james, hawthorne effect, - haymond, jay m., ; "adaptive reuse of old buildings for archives," - , - hedlin, edie, , n, , ; rev., - hedstrom, margaret l., heller, joseph, hellerstein, erna olafson, et al., eds., victorian women, revd., - helmuth, ruth w., , , , , , , , , , , , helsley, alexia j., henry, linda, henry ford museum, , hensen, steven l., hereford and worcester county record office, herschler, david h., ; and william z. slany, "the 'paperless office': a case study of the state department's foreign affairs information system," - hershberg, theodore, , hess, robert l., hesseltine, william, heyman, ira michael, hibben, john grier, hickerson, h. thomas, ; archives & manu- scripts: an introduction to automated access, revd., - hickok, lorena, , hidy, ralph, - , , hill, edward e., the preparation of inventories, rev., - ; comp., guide to records in the national archives of the united states relating to american indians, revd., - hinding, andrea, , hindus, michael s., - , historians, and archivists, - , , , , ; and business archives, , , , - , - ; in ussr, historical editing, - ; projects list, - historical journals: a handbook for writers and reviewers, by dale r. steiner, noted, "an historical look at business archives," by david r. smith, - historical news- views, - historical records of victoria (australia), historical records of washington state, david hastings, timothy e. eckert, and lawrence r. stark, eds., revd., - historical records survey, - historical society of pennsylvania, historic archives, historic archives of contemporary art, historic new orleans collection, hohnsbein, reinhold, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall hoja archivera, holbert, sue e., , , , , , , , , , , , , , holland, samuel, hollerith, herman, hollinger corp., holmes, oliver wendell, , , ; obit., - homer, winslow, hommel, claudia, rev., - honhart, frederick l., ; ltr., - hooper, frances, hoos, mary, hoover commission, hope, bob, hopkins, mark, acquisitions, - , noted, house of lords record office, huang xiaoceng, hull, byrne, hull, felix, hummel, arthur w., hungary, hunter, george, huntia, hunt institute for botanical documentation, , hurst, don, hu yepin, hydraulics, ibm, , , , ica. see international council on archives. idaho, records survey, idaho oral history center, - idaho territory, ideas of the woman suffrage movement (kradi- tor), illinois cooperative conservation program, illinois library and information network, illinois national guard, illinois state archives, , "the illusion of omniscience: subject access and the reference archivist," by mary jo pugh, - the image of war, - : a photographic history of the american civil war, vol. , shadows of the storm, william c. davis, ed., revd., - immigration lists, imperial palace (beijing), - , imperial records repository, , , - imperial war museum, london, imprints, in archival collections, - in a, , indexing, - , , - , , , , ; by draper, ; in ancient archives, ; of state department records, - , indian archives, indian claims commission, indian historical records commission, indians, ; nars guide to records of, - . see also native americans. indonesia, industry week, , , infomanagement, information policy forum, information retrieval, - , , , , , , information technology year, infos, - , - institute for advanced study (princeton), institute for research in history, institute of certified records managers, institute of contemporary history, institutional school (sociology), - interdocumentation company, interlibrary loan, intermuseum conservation association, internal revenue service, , international center of information on the sources of balkan and mediterranean history, international council on archives (ica), , , , , , , ; east and central african regional branch, ; pacific area branch, international federation of documentation, international federation of library associations, international harvester, , , , international institute for conservation—canada group, international journal of archives, international project in the history of solid state physics, international records management federation, an introduction to archival automation, an introduction to manuscripts and archives, by david b. gracy ii, rev., - inventories, - inventory of sources for history of twentieth- century physics, - iowa, n, iowa historical society, ireland, john, irish-americans, - , , iskra, israel documents, may-september , israeli state archives, istoricheskii arkhiv, iwanami shoten, j jacob, kathryn allamong, rev., - jacob, mary ellen, james i, james g. lee library (east texas state universi- ty), james madison and the search for nationhood, by robert a. rutland, noted, jameson, j. franklin, - japanese-american relocation, - jefferson-fry map, jenkinson, sir hilary, , , jensen, leslie d., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index jews, archives, , ; in italy, ; students, - ; women, j. franklin jameson and the birth of the na- tional archives, - , by victor gondos, jr., revd., - jiajing, jiaqing, johns hopkins university, ; press, johnson, g. wesley, johnson, mina marie, and norman f. kallaus, records management, revd., - jones, clifton h., jones, frederick s.( , jones, h.g., , jones, leonie twentyman, jordan, anne e., - joseph e. seagram and sons, journal of economic history, journal of forest history, joyce, william l., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , judd, clark s., jumonville, florence m., the vieux carre sur- vey, noted j. walter thompson, kallaus, norman f., and mina marie johnson, records management, revd., - kamba, angeline, - kane, lucile m., kantor, j.r.k., ; editor's letter, - karg, anita l., and michael t. stiber, comps., guide to the botanical records and papers in the archives of the hunt institute, noted, kastenmeier, robert, kate greenaway: catalogue of an exhibition, robert kiger, ed., noted, katz, michael, katz, w.a., kearns, thomas, , , , kecskemeti, charles, kelley, robert, ltr., - kelly, george b., , , kennedy, john f., kenney, anne r., ltr., - kentucky historical society, kesner, richard m., ; "microcomputer ar- chives and records management systems: guidelines for future development," - kiger, robert, ed., kate greenaway: catalogue of an exhibition, noted, killen, jim, king, coretta scott, king, martin luther, jr., knights of labor, kong family archives, , - kong fanyin, - kochen, manfred, kodak equipment, in china, kohl, michael, ltr., kraditor, aileen s., ideas of the woman suffrage movement, krummel, d.w., et al., resources of american music history, revd., - krutz, wilbur g., kuhlman, august f., kuomintang, , , , , kuzela, lad, labor education and research service, labor history, , - ; records in china, ; records in ussr, labour party (new zealand), lachatanere, diana, lafogg, mary, lafontaine, raymond h., la malfa, ugo, lamb, w. kaye, langmuir, irving, lapham, increase, lappa-starzhenetskaia, ek., lappo-danilevskii, a.s., larabee, charles, larose, andre, les registres paroissiaux au quebec avant , noted, - ; and hubert charbonneau, eds., du manuscrit a l'or- dinateur, noted, - lash, joseph p., love, eleanor: eleanor roose- velt and her friends, rev., - lassahn funeral home, latah county (idaho) historical society, - latvia, - laval university, lawe, john, league of nations, ledgers, in recordkeeping, lee, charles e., lefurgy, william, susan david, and richard cox, governing baltimore, revd., - legacy, legitimacy, need to record, in leland, waldo g., - , , , lenin, v.i., "lenin's archival decree: the bolshevik legacy for soviet archival theory and practice," by patricia kennedy grimsted, - leo xiii, pope, leo baeck institute, lerner, gerda, lesser, charles h., lever brothers, levering, robert, - levy, robert, , lewanski, richard c , ed., eastern europe and russia/soviet union: a handbook of west european archival and library resources, revd., - lewis, c.s., lewis, karen r., ; and lynn a. bonfield, "the american brass company: a case study of the disposition of business records," - libraries, information retrieval in, - , , - ; and college archives, , - , - library company of philadelphia, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall library of congress (lc), , , , , ; conservation research, ; deacidification trials, , - , - ; exhibits, , ; fire insurance maps, - ; information systems, , lc copyright office, lc geography and map division, - lc manuscripts division, lc order division, lc preservation research and testing office, , , , , , lc restoration office, library of congress acquisitions, noted, library of congress selected publications , noted, libreria editrice vaticana, , li fenglou, , lin biao, lincoln, abraham, lineback, richard, lippmann, walter, lishi dangan, lithuania, - lithuanian hall association, liu qi, madame, - local records, , , , ; in china, lockheed corp., n lodge, henry cabot, loeb, jacques, loewenheim case, n long, elizabeth terry, and jewell t. clark, comps., a guide to church records in the ar- chives branch of the virginia state library, noted, longfellow, henry wadsworth, lord, clifford l., , los angeles times co., , lossing, benjamin, louisiana committee for the humanities, louisiana historical records survey, - louisiana state archives and records service, , louisiana state university, department of ar- chives, love, eleanor: eleanor roosevelt and her friends, by joseph p. lash, revd., - love, erika, lowell, a. lawrence, - , - , , lowell, harold p., lo wen, - luden's inc., - luther, martin, lutheran church, , lutzker, michael a., ; "max weber and the analysis of modern bureaucratic organiza- tions: notes toward a theory of appraisal," - lu xun, "lyman copeland draper: an archivist's re- appraisal," by carolyn j. mattern, - lynch, karen t., , ; and helen w. slot- kin, "an analysis of processing procedures: the adaptable approach," - ; processing manual, revd., - lytle, richard h., , , , , , , , , , , , n, , , , , , , , , , , , m mabbs, alfred w., mccarthy, joseph, mccarthy, paul h., jr., , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , mccoy, frank r., mccrank, lawrence j., ed., automating the ar- chives, revd., - mccree, mary lynn, , , , , - , , , , mcdonald, william f., machine-readable records, , , ; as evi- dence, - ; at nars, ; in china, , ; wisconsin survey of, - ; state depart- ment system, - mackaman, frank h., - mckay, eleanor, , mclellan, peter m., macpherson, sharon, madison, james, main archival administration (ussr), , , , major ediciones, makarov, a.n., maksakov, v.v., the management and preservation of records in california, manual for the arrangement and description of archives (muller, feith, and fruin), n, a manual of archive administration (jenkin- son), manuscript collections of the maryland histori- cal society (pedley), manuscript society, maotai, n maps, at lc, - , ; conservation of, , , ; in canada, maps and charts of north america and the west indies, - : a guide to the collections in the library of congress, noted, marc format, marcus, jacob rader, the american jewish woman, noted, marcus, richard, marine corps museum, marine corps personal papers collection cata- log, charles anthony wood, comp., noted, marriage, mars project, - marshall, george c , - marshall, robert, marshall library, martin, charles h., martin, congressman, martin, geoffrey, martini, angelo, martin luther king, jr., library and archives, marx, karl, , marx-engels institute, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index marxism-leninism, , , maryland historical society, , , mason, alan s., and gerald d. saxon, "the dallas mayors oral history and records proj- ect: a program of institutional cooperation," - mason, philip p., , , , massachusetts, archival legislation, massachusetts institute of technology, , , , , - massachusetts state ethics commission, massachusetts superior court, , massachusetts volunteer militia, masterson, james, mattern, carolyn j., "lyman copeland draper: an archivist's reappraisal," - matte varas, jose joaquin, matthews, linda, , matting and hinging of works of art on paper, merrily a. smith, comp., noted, maulana mohammad ali, "max weber and the analysis of modern bureau- cratic organization: notes toward a theory of appraisal," by michael a. lutzker, - maxwell, william, mazuzan, george, meade, roger a., and marjorie j. myers, comps., guide to primary sources in ohio labor history, noted, - mearns, david, medgar evers college, medvedev, roy, mellon foundation, mennonite heritage center, mennonite historical society of ontario, mercer, paul, bibliographies and lists of new york state newspapers, noted, merton, thomas, methodist church, methoxy magnesium methyl carbonate, - metropolitan baltimore historical records coun- cil, - , mexico, city maps, ; intervention museum, michaelangelo, , michigan, n michigan archival association, michigan historical collections, , mickey mouse, "microcomputer archives and records manage- ment systems: guidelines for future develop- ment," by richard m. kesner, - microfilm, deterioration of, ; in china, , , , ; projects, - , , , mid-atlantic regional archives conference, , midwest archives conference, midwestern archivist, ; ad, midwest state archives project, migrated archives, military records center (st. louis), miller, earl, miller, francis t., miller, harold l., and peter j. albert, eds., the american federation of labor records: the samuel gompers era, revd., miller, page putnam, millikan, robert, mills, david, mills, harriet, mills, john stuart, mills, thomas e., ; rev., - milwaukee, wis., sound records of, minerva directory, ming dynasty, , , - , , , mink, james v., in minnesota, privacy bill, - minnesota historical society, , minorities, and college admissions, - ; in ar- chival profession, , , , , minter, bill, miranda, francisco de, mississippi, n mississippi freedom democratic party, missouri historical society, modern archives institute, modern records centre, university of warwick library, - modern manuscripts (duckett), modern manuscripts library (bordin and war- ner), , , modern public records: selection and access, wilson committee, revd., - monroe, henry, monsanto co., montana territory, montresor, john, mooney, philip f., , ; commentary, - moreira franco, celina do amaral peixoto, moreno de angel, pilar, moreno de los arcos, roberto, moreno toscano, alejandro, morgenthau, elinor, morris library (southern illinois university at carbondale), morrissey, charles, morrow, carolyn clark, morse, sameul f.b., moscow archive of the ministry of justice, , mosek, m., moseley, eva s., , ; editorial, - moskowitz, milton, moss, william w., , ; "archives in the people's republic of china," - motion pictures, see film archives muller, s., , , , , , munden, ken, el mundo de los archivos, munoff, gerald a., munro, susan nash, murphey, murray g., muscovy, , - music, archival records of, - music library association, musick, michael p., myers, marjorie j., and roger a. meade, comps., guide to primary sources in ohio labor history, noted, - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall n naacp, nabisco, , n, nanjing archives, , , , , - napoleon, nash, michael, rev., nathan marsh pusey library (harvard), national academy of sciences, national aeronautics and space administration, , national anthropological archives, national archives act, national archives advisory council, national archives and records service (nars), and records management, , n, , , - ; and saa, , , , , , - , ; and teachers, ; budget, ; deacidifica- tion, ; declassification, ; discontinues in- terlibrary loan, ; fbi records, - ; find- ing aids, , , , , , - , - ; history of, , , - ; indian records, - ; machine-readable records, ; nevada imprints at, , , ; oversight committee hearings, ; reference service at, ; sponsors workshops, ; sources for women's history, - ; state department records, , , , ; tests microfilm, ; world war ii records, national archives building, , national archives library, national archives of fiji, national archives of india, , national archives of new zealand, , national archives of quebec, national archives of zimbabwe, - national association of state archivists and records administrators, national bureau of standards, national conference on regional archival net- works, national coordinating committee for the pro- motion of history, national conservation advisory council, , national endowment for the humanities (neh), and indians, ; and saa, , , , , , , , , , , , , ; budget, , - ; division of research tools, ; grants, , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , n, , , , national film archives (australia), national fire protection association, national historical publications and records commission (nhprc), and saa, , , , , ; budget, ; data base project, - , - , , ; directory, , , ; grants, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , national historical society, national history day, national lawyers guild, national library of australia, - national library of medicine, national library of new zealand, , , national map collection (canada), national museums of interventions (mexico), national park service, , , national party (new zealand), , national preservation program office (lc), national register of archives and manuscripts (new zealand), national register of lost or stolen archival materials, , national science foundation, national students' association, southern project, national trust for historic preservation, national union catalog of manuscript collec- tions (nucmc), , , , , , nationwide insurance co., , , , native americans, ; archives consortium, , , , ; guidelines for study of, ; records at nars, - navarre-bethlehem historical society, nebraska, nebraska state historical society, nedcc. see northeast document conservation center neh. see national endowment for the humani- ties nehru, jawaharlal, network advisory committee, - neubeck, deborah k., nevada imprints, , - nevada historical society, , nevada state archives, , - nevada state conservation action team, - new bedford whaling museum, newberry library, newburger, adele, and john guertler, eds., the records of baltimore's private organizations, revd., - newcastle family archives, new england document conservation center, , new england library board, , , new guide to diplomatic archives of western europe (thomas and case), newhall, beaumont, new hampshire, new hampshire division of records manage- ment and archives, guide to early documents, noted, new jersey department of environmental pro- tection, new mexico territory, new orleans, la., architectural records, new photography, - newspapers, ; in new zealand, - , - newspapers of new york state: a statewide plan for bibliographic control and preservation, noted, new york, local history, , new-york historical society, new york life insurance co., , new york public library, , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index new york state commission on the need for a state university, new york state archives, , new york state historical records advisory board, new york state library, new york stock exchange, , new york tribune, new york university, admissions policy, new zealand film archives, new zealand libraries, nhprc. see national historical publications and records commission nichols, mel, nieman-marcus, n nikolaev, a.s., nistf. see saa national information systems task force. nixon, ricahrd m., , , noggle, burl, working with history: the his- torical records survey in louisiana and the na- tion, - , revd., - north borneo, north carolina, n "northeast document conservation center: a case study in cooperative conservation," by ann russell, - northeastern university, ad, northwest archivists, inc., northwest area foundation, northwest regional archival needs study, norton, margaret c , n noticiero archivistico, , nottingham university library, nuclear power, nucmc, , , , , , oclc, , , , oetting, edward, rev., - offen, karen m., et al., eds., victorian women, revd., - office of alien property custodian, office of indian trade, office of management and budget, , , , official history of australia in the war of - , ohio afl-cio, ohio college library center, see oclc ohio historical society, , , , , ohio labor history project, - ohio municipal records manual, noted, ohio network of american history research centers, ohio state archaeological and historical society, ohio state university, o.k. corral, oliver wendell holmes award, , , , , o'neill, james e., , on-line computer library center (oclc), , , , ontario association of archivists, ontario historical society, ontario library association, oral history, , , , , , - oral history association, oral history review, oregon, - oregon state archives, orgain, marian m., organization of american historians, , , organization of american states, , organizations, analyses of, - original order, principle of, - , , , , , - otoole, james m., guide to the archives of the archdiocese of boston, revd., - ottawa, ont., archives day, - ou mengjue, overman, william d., , , owen, thomas m., sr., - pacific garden mission, pacific museum of flight, - paige co., ads, , , , painter, patricia scollard, palace museum archives (china), , - palace of westminster, - palacios preciado, jorge, , palm, charles c , palmer, john mcauley, pan am clipper, pan-american institute of geography and his- tory, , paoletta, leonard s., papenfuse, edward, paper, acid-free, , - , ; ads, , ; conservation of, - , - ; for xerox copiers, "the 'paperless office': a case study of the state department's foreign affairs information system", by david w. herschler and william z. slany, - papers of andrew jackson, papers of george cat let t marshall, vol. , the soldier spirit, december -june , larry bland and sharon r. ritenour, eds., revd., - papers of james madison, the papers of william penn: volume one, - , mary maples dunn and richard s. dunn, eds., revd., - paperwork reduction act, pardo, thomas, park, margaret, parker, brant, park-hume, leslie, et al., eds., victorian wo- men, revd., - parkman, francis, - parsons, richard, , passenger and immigration lists bibliography, - : being a guide to published lists of arrivals in the united states and canada, p. william filby, ed., noted, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall patent records, paul vi, pope, peckham, howard, pederson, ann, pedley, avril j.m., pedroza, antonia, , peking-mukden railroad, pelham, henry, penn, ira, penn, william, papers, revd., - pennsylvania, n pension claims, pentecostal movement, people's liberation army (china), people's republic of china, archives in, - , - , perrow, charles, , pershing, john j., , personal information disposal schedule, peru, , peter i, , peterson, gary, peterson, thomas, peterson, trudy huskamp, , ; "counting and accounting: a speculation on change in recordkeeping practices," - petrograd police dept., pfeiffer, judith a., philadelphia center for early american studies, philadelphia naturalization records, - , p. william filby, ed., noted, philadelphia social history project, philip m. hamer award, , photofile, ads, , , photographic history of the civil war (miller), - photographic management information system, , , photographs, conservation of, , , , ; copied on xerox , - ; in china, ; in ussr, ; of civil war, - "photographs in the business archives: a sam- pler," - "photographs in a business setting: atlantic richfield company," by mildred simpson, - physics, sources for history of, - , pickaxe and pencil: references for the study of the wpa, margaret d. bloxom, comp., noted, - h.m.s. pinafore, pinkett, harold t., , ; rev., - pioneers, and draper, - , , piux xii, pope, platonov, s.f., plowman, robert j., rev., - poindexter, miles, pokrovskii, m.n., poland, polievktov, m.a., polymer-based film, pope, russell h., porlier, jacques, posner, ernst, , , , potter, rockwell, powell, thomas, powers, sr. m. felicitas, postles, david, , pratt, trude, the preparation of inventories, by edward e. hill, rev., - presbyterian church, preservation, during processing, , - ; in china, , - , , ; in college ar- chives, ; of buildings, - ; of machine- readable records, ; of sound recordings, ; publications on, , , . see also conser- vation, deacidification. presidential libraries, presniakov, a.e., , presthus, robert, , price, william s., jr., , the primary source, princeton university, admissions policy, - ; archives, - ; press, ad, printed material, in archival collections, - processing, , , , , , , - , , , , processing manual for the institute archives and special collections, m.i. t. libraries, by karen t. lynch and helen w. slotkin, revd., - process materials corporation, ; ads, , , proctor and gamble, , , "a profile of college and university archives in the united states," by j. frank cook and nicholas c. burckel, - a program for disaster response in michigan, programme de recherche demographie historique, provenance, principle of, , , , , , , , - , , , , , , - , , , , provincial archives of alberta, prussia, diplomatic records, prussian state archives, ptolemy, public archives commission, - , public archives of canada (pac), , ; acquisitions, - , noted, ; exhibit, ; manuscript division, - ; national map collection, ; records management ser- vices division, ; tape library, public health service, public historian, , public historians, - public record office (cyprus), public record office (great britain), - , , , , ; appraisal policies, public record office (victoria, australia), pugh, mary jo, , ; "the illusion of omni- science: subject access and the reference ar- chivist," - purafil corp., purdy, virginia c , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index q qianlong, , qing dynasty, , , , - , , , qing history institute, , quakers, , quantum theory, quanzong, quebec, - , - quotas, in college admissions, - r rachow, louis a., race relations, ; discrimination, - , radio shack computers, - , , ramirez ramirez, ramon, ramp. see unesco records and archives management program. ray, frederic e., rca, readex microprint corporation, reagan administration, , , - reanalyzing program evaluations, robert f. boruch et al., eds., noted, - record controls, inc., - recordkeeping, , - records management, at nars, n, , - ; comptroller general on, - ; in archival theory, , , , - , , , ; in business archives, ; in college archives, - , ; in great britain, - ; in ussr, ; publications, - , ; standard terms for, records management, by mina marie johnson and norman f. kallaus, revd., - records management quarterly, records management standards, records of baltimore's private organizations: a guide to archival resources, john guertler and adele newburger, eds., revd., - records retention timetable, reference service, - , - , ; for ma- chine-readable archives, - ; in china, - , - , , - , - ; in college ar- chives, , registaturprinzip, register to the papers of henry bascom collins, noted, les registres paroissiaux au quebec avant , by andre larose, noted, - rehabilitation act of , reingold, nathan, and ida h. reingold, eds., science in america, noted, - religious archives, , , , - , , - religious discrimination, in college admissions, - religious experience, records of, - remsen, lydia, , remsen, peter, , renmin university, , , renze, dolores c , republican party (italy), republic of china, research libraries group, - , , research libraries information network (rlin), , , , respect des fonds, resources of american music history: a direc- tory of source materials from colonial times to world war ii, by d.w. krummel et al., revd., - the retention book: retention and preservation of records with destruction schedules, noted, - revue his,torique, rhc-spacemaster, ads, , , rhoads, james b., , , rhode island, ricks, artel, rideau centre (ottawa), - rinhart, floyd, and marion rinhart, the ameri- can daguerreotype, revd., - rio grande depot, , , risser, herbert e., jr., risteen, deborah, , , , , , ristow, walter w., , ritenour, sharon r., and larry i. bland, the papers of george catlett marshall, vol. , revd., - ritzenthaler, mary lynn, , riverina archive news, - riverina college archives and records service, - rlin. see research libraries information net- work. robbin, alice, roberge, michel, rochambeau, rockefeller family archives, rockwell international, roe, kathleen, teaching with historical records, revd., roho movement, , , roman catholic church, , - , , - romania, roosevelt, eleanor, - roosevelt, franklin d., roosevelt, franklin d., jr., rowland, james, - rowland v. burton, royal canadian mounted police, rozenkampf, baron gustav, rundell, walter, jr., , ; on holmes. - russell, ann, "northeast document conservation center: a case study in cooperative conserva- tion," - russian historical society, russo-japanese war, rutland, robert a., james madison and the search for nationhood, noted, ruwell, mary elizabeth, ryan, mary, womanhood in america, saa acquisition pag, saa administration of photographic collections program, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall saa archival security program, , , saa auditing committee, , - saa aural and graphic records pag, saa automated records task force, saa awards committee, saa basic archival conservation program, , , saa basic archival workshop program, , saa basic manual series, , , . see also specific titles. saa business archives committee/pag, , , , , , , , , , , saa college and university archives pag, , , - saa committee for the s, , saa conservation pag, saa conservation project advisory committee, saa constitutional revision task force, , , , , - saa council, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; minutes, - , - , - , - saa description pag, saa distinguished service award, saa editorial board, , , , , , - saa education and professional development committee, , , , saa executive committee, , , , , , , , , , , saa finding aids committee, - , , n saa fund raising committee, saa government records pag, saa institutional evaluation task force, , , , , , saa international archival affairs committee, , saa local arrangements committee, , , , - saa manuscript repositories pag, saa minorities committees, , , , , saa museum archives task force, , saa national information systems task force, - , , , , , , , , n, , n, , , , , , saa newsletter, , , , , , , , saa nominating committee, saa oral history pag, , , saa planning task force, , , , saa professional standards committee, saa program committee, , , , , saa reference, access, and outreach pag, , saa regional archival activity committee, saa resolutions committee, saa standard reporting practices, , , saa status of women committee, saa theme collections pag, , sabah, sahli, nancy a., st. bernard parish inventory, st. cloud state university archives, , st. louis exposition, st. petersburg archaeological institute, salvation army archives and research center, - samokvasov, d. la., sampling, , , sanborn map co., - sand, george, san francisco, calif., printers for nevada, in san juan, argentina, archives survey, - san remo, italy, santiago, chile, sarawak, saretzky, gary, sarser, david, saur verlag, sauthier, claude joseph, saxon, gerald d., and alan s. mason, "the dallas mayors oral history and records pro- ject: a program of institutional cooperation," - schaadt, robert l., rev., - schauble, jeanne, rev., - schellenberg, t.r., , , , , , , , - , , schewe, donald, schewe, mrs. donald, schlawe, fritz, schlesinger library, schneider, burkhart, schoerner, otto frederick, , , , school of library and informational sciences, university of missouri —columbia, schumpeter, joseph, schwartz, carole, science, sources for history of physics, - . see also specific fields. science fiction, science in america, nathan reingold and ida h. reingold, eds. noted, - scofield, stewart, scott, gloria, scott, p.j., seagram county court house archives, sears roebuck, , , second historical archives, nanjing, , , - second world records conference, security, , - seeley g. mudd manuscript library (princeton), segall, aryeh, ed., guide to jewish archives, seismic areas, archives in, , a select bibliography on business archives and records management, karen m. benedict, ed., , , , ; noted, ; revd., - the self-instruction manual for filing catalog cards, by diane foxhill carothers, noted, sellers, john r., seneca falls declaration, settanni, joseph andrew, ltr., seymour, charles, seymour, william j., shandong provincial archives, , shang dynasty records, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index shanghai communist party, shanghai municipal archives, , , , - shapiro, stanley, shelving, sheppard, morris, shi lin, , shi xuancen, - shmidt, sigurd ottovich, shuman, d. robert, and anthony andreoli, the guide to unclaimed property and escheat laws, noted, shuster, robert, ; "documenting the spirit," - sidwell friends school, silas, silver age, simpson, mildred, ; "photographs in a busi- ness setting: atlantic richfield company," - sistema nacional de archivos informacion in- terna, sites, skelton, red, sklar, kathryn kish, catherine beecher, slany, william z., ; and david h. herschler, "the 'paperless office': a case study of the state department's foreign affairs information system," - slavery, , slaves without masters (berlin), slavic studies, slotkin, helen w., , , , ; and karen t. lynch, "an analysis of processing procedures: the adaptable approach," - ; processing manual, revd., - smith, colin, ltr., - smith, christina rudy, rev., smith, david r., , , ; "an historical look at business archives," - smith, george david, , , , ; "dust- ing off the cobwebs: turning the business ar- chives into a managerial tool," - smith, h. alexander, smith, james morton, on cappon, - smith, merrily a., ; comp., matting and hing- ing works of art on paper, noted, smith, richard d., - smith, timothy, smith college, smithsonian institution, , , , , , smith report (new zealand), , sobel, robert, social credit political league, socialist academy, society for the study of architecture in canada, society of american archivists (saa), access standards, , ; ads, , , , , , , , , ; and archival education, - ; and nars, , - ; annual meetings, ( , berkeley) - , , - , ( , boston) , (future) ; archives, , ; awards, - ; ; budget, , , ; business archives workshops, , ; business meeting, - ; ; constitution and bylaws, , , - , - ; editorial policies, - ; executive director's report, - , - , , , , , , - ; fellows, ; guidelines for business archives, - , ; history, n, - , , , , - ; of- ficers, , ; professional affinity groups, , , , , (see also specific pags, below); publications, , , , , , , , , , , - ; standing committees, (see also specific committees below); study tour to china, , , - ; task forces, , (see also specific task forces, below); treasurer's report, , - , , ; workshops, , , , , , , society of archivists, - , , society of california archivists, , society of chinese archivists, society of friends, sociology, as aid to appraisal, - soergel, dagobert, soil conservation service, solid state newsletter, song jingling, sotheby parke bernet, sound recordings, , , - , ; preserva- tion of, southern christian leadership conference, southern illinois university, south carolina, n soviet union, archival theory and practices, - ; records in western europe, - ; repositories, - space exploration, spain, spanish civil war, special collections (washington university school of medicine), noted, - special libraries association, , , spellman, john, spindex, , - "spindex in a university archives," by marie k. elsen, - staats, elmer, federal records management: a history of neglect, revd., - stairs, - standard oil co., standards of archival practice, stanford university library, stanton, edwin m., stark, lawrence r., and timothy e. eckert, eds., historical records of washington state, revd., - starting an archives workshop, , , , state archival fond, , state archives bureau (china), , - , - , , , , , , - , , , state historical society of wisconsin, , , ; machine-readable records project, - steadman, lawrence e., stearns salt and lumber co., steiner, dale r., historical journals: a hand- book for writers and reviewers, noted, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall sterling memorial library (yale), n, stevens, michael, stiber, michael t., and anita l. karg, comps., guide to the botanical records and papers in the archives of the hunt institute, noted, stickler, rt. rev. alfonso, stielow, frederick j., stout, george, student nonviolent coordinating committee, subject access, - , - , , suelflow, august r., sullivan, sir arthur, sullivan, larry e., and richard j. cox, eds., a guide to the research collections of the maryland historical society, noted, sunday, billy, - , , , sun oil co., sun yat-sen, sun yat-sen, madame, , sweden, archival practices, sweig, donald m., sylvester, ga., courthouse fire, synnott, marcia g., - ; "the half-opened door: researching admissions discrimination at harvard, yale, and princeton," - taiwan, , tang dynasty, tannodi, aurelio, tao zhu, tape recordings. see sound recordings. task force on newspaper bibliography and pres- ervation, taxes, and historic buildings, taylor, hugh, n teaching with historical records, by kathleen roe, revd., tel aviv university, tennessee historical society, territories, u.s., printing history in, - texaco, , texas state archives, texas state library, theatre and performing arts collection, noted, - theatre library association, thesaurus, in automated systems, , , , , - the third wave (toffler), thomas, john charles, thomas and case, eds., new guide to diplo- matic archives of western europe, thompson, brent g., rev., - thwaites, reuben gold, , , , , time, inc., , tingley, elizabeth, and donald t. tingley, eds., women and feminism in america, noted, tinker foundation, toffler, alvin, toronto, ont., toronto area archivists group, "toward national archival priorities: a suggest- ed basis for discussion," by richard c. berner, - "toward national information systems for ar- chives and manuscript repositories," by david bearman, - toynbee, arnold, tracing the history of the baltimore structure, by richard cox, revd., - treaty of aix-la-chapelle, treaty of versailles ( ), tremblay, raymond, trends in history, tribal archives. see consortium on native ameri- can archives. trotter, mel, , , truman, harry s, tuinaceva, setareki, turner, robert w.s., - tuskeegee institute, twain, mark, n u ultraviolet light filter, - underwood, joseph rogers, union list of sanborn fire insurance maps held by institutions in the united states and canada, union of archival specialists, , unitarian-universalist church, united artists, unesco, , , ; publications, n, ; records and archives management program, , , united negro college fund, u.s. armed forces radio service, - u.s. army, , - , u.s. census bureau, u.s. congress, - , , - u.s. circuit court for the district of nevada, u.s. constitution, u.s. court of claims, u.s. customs service, u.s. district court for the district of columbia, - u.s. environmental protection agency, , u.s. forest service, u.s. general accounting office, u.s. interior department, , , u.s. marine corps, u.s. naval establishment, u.s. postal service, u.s. state department, foreign affairs informa- tion system, - ; historical office, ; and u.s. territories, - ; declassification, u.s. surgeon general's office, pension claims, u.s. treasury department, and u.s. territories, - u.s. war department, , , united technologies, universal film manufacturing co., d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril index universidad de santo tomas, universidad nacional autonoma de mexico, university archives, , - , - , - university of california, university of california, berkeley, office for history of science and technology, university of california, los angeles, university of chicago, , university of liverpool, - university of maryland, university of montreal, university of nevada library, university of new south wales, university of north carolina, university of pennsylvania, ; philadelphia center for early american studies, university of the south, university of southhampton, university of sydney, university of vermont, university of wisconsin, data and program li- brary service, - university of wisconsin system archives council, university of zimbabwe, urban history, - usability, principle of, , - , , , - , - use statistics, , , utah, , , utah foundation, utah state building board, , utah state historical society, - , , valdes oliva, arturo, van camp, anne, ; "access policies for cor- porate archives," - van ee, patricia molen, van laar, evert, van tyne, claude h., vatican book publishing house, , vatican library, vazquez, manuel, , veblen, oswald, venezia, ventimiglia, vexillologists, victoria and albert museum, victorian women: a documentary account of women's lives in nineteenth century england, france, and the united states, erna olafson hellerstein, leslie park-hume, and karen m. offen, eds., revd., - vieux carre survey, by florence m. jumonville, noted, virginia, maps of, virginia historical society, virginia military institute, virginia state library, vital statistics, , von neumann, john, w walch, victoria irons, ; rev., - waldo gifford leland prize, , wallace, carolyn a., walt disney productions, , , - , , , walther, c.f.w., wang jingwei, wang minicomputers, warner, robert m., , , , , , washington, booker t., washington, ; guide to records, - washington state historical records advisory board, , washington university (st. louis) school of medicine, special collections, noted, - waters, peter, weber, max, - , , , n, weibull, gustaf, weiher, claudine j., , wei qing-yuan, wei t'o associates, - weldon, edward, , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , ; biography, wellington, duke of, wells fargo bank, , , , welter, barbara, west, benjamin, western electric co., hawthorne studies, - western conservation congress, western history, and draper, - westfall, gloria, rev., - west virginia, n weyerhaeuser, , , , "what, then, is there to theorize about?" by lester j. cappon, - wheaton, bruce r., "a computer database sys- tem to store and display archival data on cor- respondence of historical significance," - white, hugh l., whitman, walt, whitson, helene, , , whittlesey, elisha, widener library (harvard), wiener, norbert, wiener library, wiley, bell i., , williams, john, williams, paula, williams, richmond, ltr., williams, t. harry, wilson, sir duncan, - wilson, dwight, wilson, ian, wilson, woodrow, , wilson report, wilsted, thomas, winn, j. karyl, winter, georg, , winthrop college archives and special collec- tions, - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american archivist/fall wisconsin, machine-readable public records, - wisconsin historical records survey, wisconsin historical society, , , , , - wisconsin pioneers association, witteborg, lothar p., good show!, revd., "wizard of id," woadden, robert, womanhood in america (ryan), women and feminism in american history: a guide to information sources, elizabeth tingley and donald t. tingley, eds., noted, women's history, - , , , women's history sources (hinding), , , wood, charles anthony, comp., marine corps personal papers collection catalog, noted, wood, conrad, wood, cyrus, wood, james l., working with history: the historical records survey in louisiana and the nation, - , by burl noggle, revd., - work projects administration, , , , , world war i, , world war ii, , - worth county, ga., courthouse fire, wortman, paul m., wyffels, carlos, wyoming, n, xerox corp., , - , xia dynasty, yale university, ; admissions policy, - ; library, n, , - , yalom, marilyn, ye jianying, yin guomei, , n young, laura s., bookbinding and conservation by hand, noted, - youth and nation magazine, yuan, t.l., yugoslavia, zentrales staatsarchiv (g.d.r.), zhang chaoxian, zhang tailei, zhang tianming, , , - , , , zheng shizong, zhong chao, zhou enlai, ziemer, linda, zimbabwe epic, zimmerman, charley, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril two new reference works from hoover institution press herbert hoover: a register of his papers in the hoover institution archives elena s. danielson and charles g. palm, compilers materials which document mr. hoover's relief activities during and after world wars i and ii, his political and personal philosophy, and his post-presidential career are among the over , items which are indexed in this unique new reference work. $ . cloth isbn: - - - guide to the hanna collection and related archival materials at the hoover institu- tion on war, revolution and peace on the role of education in twentieth century society fakhreddin moussavi, compiler arranged in alphabetical order by donor's name, over archival and manuscript collections relating wholly or in part to education are described and indexed in this new reference work. $ . cloth isbn: - - - available from your library wholesaler or order directly from: hoover institution press • dept. stanford university • stanford ca - - - inside ca: ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the white house fellowships a unique opportunity for outstanding americans early in their careers to work for a year at the highest levels of the federal government for more information: the president's commission on white house fellowships jackson place, n.w. washington, d.c. ( ) - < the american a • • •• • • • • rchivist on microfilm all back issues from - on • • •• • • • • • • $ per roll, $ set of $ set of rolls, others. roll :vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. roll : vol. rolls, rolls of mm microfilm. saa members. $ per roll, - v o l . - v o l . -vol. -vol. - vol. -vol. -vol. - vol. -vol. -vol. -vol. - vol. ) ) ) order from the society of american archivists, s. wells, suite , chicago, il . v • •• • • •• • • • • • s d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril -the. american archivist the american archivist frank h. mackaman, editor, winter issue eva s. moseley, editor, spring issue harold p. anderson, editor, summer issue j.r.k. kantor, editor, fall issue deborah risteen, managing editor volume department editors christopher beam, shorter features ben dewhitt, technical notes f.l. eaton, news notes brenda beasley kepley, reviews editorial board edmund berkeley, jr., chair francis x. blouin, jr. c.f.w. coker j. frank cook society of american archivists ronald j. plavchan, international scene mary elizabeth ruwell, reviews thomas e. weir, jr., news notes mabel e. deutrich j.r.k. kantor james b. rhoads hugh a. taylor president edward weldon vice president j. frank cook treasurer paul h. mccarthy executive director ann morgan campbell council members lynn a. bonfield shonnie finnegan meyer h. fishbein robert s. gordon sue e. holbert william l. joyce richard h. lytle virginia c. purdy published quarterly by the society of american archivists d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril contents of volume articles adaptive reuse of old buildings jay haymond what, then, is there to theorize about? lester j. cappon disrespecting original order frank boles the illusion of omniscience: subject access and the reference archivist mary jo pugh northeast document conservation center: a case study in cooperative conservation ann russell toward national information systems for archives and manuscript repositories david bearman max weber and the analysis of modern bureaucratic organization: notes toward a theory of appraisal michael a. lutzker counting and accounting: a speculation on change in recordkeeping practices trudy huskamp peterson documenting the spirit robert shuster the "paperless office": a case study of the state department's foreign affairs information system david h. hershcler and william z. slany an analysis of processing procedures: the adaptable approach helen w. slotkin and karen t. lynch toward national archival priorities: a suggested basis for discussion richard c. berner the half-opened door: researching admissions discrimination at harvard, yale, and princeton marcia g. synnott the evidential value of nontextual records: an early precedent meyer h. fishbein spindex in a university archives marie k. elsen business archives: a corporate asset harold p. anderson business archives guidelines linda edgerly d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril an historical look at business archives david r. smith corporate archives today douglas a. bakken dusting off the cobwebs: turning the business archives into a managerial tool george david smith commentary i philip f. mooney commentary ii deborah s. gardner access policies for corporate archives anne van camp microcomputer archives and records management systems: guidelines for future development richard m. kesner business archives literature karen benedict photographs in a business setting: atlantic richfield company mildred simpson the american brass company: a case study of the disposition of business records lynn a. bonfield and karen r. lewis the beast in the bathtub, and other archival laments robert d. armstrong archives in the people's republic of china william w. moss a profile of college and university archives in the united states nicholas c. burckel and j. frank cook lenin's archival decree: the bolshevik legacy for soviet archival theory and practice patricia kennedy grimsted lyman copeland draper: an archivist's reappraisal carolyn j. mattern a computer database system to store and display archival data on correspondence of historical significance bruce r. wheaton federal funds for archives: a view from neh margaret s. child the dallas mayors oral history and records project: a program of institutional cooperation alan s. mason and gerald d. saxon d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril departments the forum , , , shorter features , , , reviews , , , technical notes , , , the international scene , , , news notes , , , society of american archivists , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist: editorial policy the american archivist is the quarterly journal of the society of american archivists. in its articles it seeks to reflect the thinking of archivists about trends and major issues in archival philosophy and theory and about the evolution of the archival profession in north america. its departments are intended to document developments and events relating to archival practice here and abroad. society members and those who share the professional interests of the society are invited to submit manuscripts for consideration. for publication as full length articles, analytical and critical expositions based on original research about subjects of broad interest are preferred. accounts of innovative methods or techniques are appropriate for the shorter features depart- ment. suggestions for submissions to news notes appear under the department heading. il- lustrations are welcome and encouraged in all parts of the journal. letters to the editor are welcome when they include pertinent and constructive comments or criticisms of materials recently published in the american archivist or observations on other topics of interest to the profession. they should not exceed words. they will be printed in the forum with minimal editing. book reviews will also be printed as received, with minimal editing primarily to conform to our style manual. procedures manuscripts received by the editor are submitted (without the author's name) to qualified readers for objective appraisal. upon receiving the readers' reports, the editor informs the author whether the article is accepted, rejected, or returned with suggestions for revision. an edited copy of an accepted manuscript will be sent to the author. authors who object to any of the editing should notify the editor promptly. one set of galley proofs will be sent to the author for correction of printer's errors only. no changes in the text will be made on galleys, except those changes already in the edited manuscript. ten tear-sheets of each paper published will be provided to the author without charge. addi- tional reprints may be ordered with a form sent to the author with his galley proofs. manuscript requirements manuscripts should be submitted in english, typed double-spaced throughout (including footnotes at the end of the text) on white bond paper !/ x inches in size. if possible, three copies of the manuscript should be submitted. all pages should be numbered. the author's name and address should appear only on the title page, which should be separate from the main text of the manuscript. full-length articles should not exceed , words; those submitted to shorter features should not exceed , words. photographs should be by inch glossy prints. other illustrations should be professionally drawn to a scale about twice the size of the final copy to be printed. illustrations furnished by authors will be returned to them on request. editors of the american archivist use the university of chicago manual of style, th edi- tion, as the standard for style, including footnote format, and webster's new international dic- tionary of the english language, d edition (g. & c. merriam co.) for spelling and punctua- tion. authors' variations from these standards should be minimal and purposeful. terms having special meanings for members of the profession should conform to the defini- tions in "a basic glossary for archivists, manuscript curators, and records managers," american archivist (july ): - . copies of this glossary are available for $ each from the executive director, saa, suite , s. wells st., chicago, il . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril publications from the society of american archivists the publications program of the society of american archivists has grown continually since the society's founding in . saa's publications cover a wide range of topics in archives, from basic archival functions to advanced archival theory. the society also dis- tributes many archives-related publications of other publishers. discount prices on all publications from the society are available to saa members. a complete publications list may be requested from saa headquarters, s. wells st., suite , chicago, il . basic manual series i archives & manuscripts: appraisal & accessioning, maynard j. brichford archives & manuscripts: arrangement & description, david b. gracy ii archives & manuscripts: reference & access, sue e. holbert archives & manuscripts: security, timothy walch archives & manuscripts: surveys, john a. fleckner basic manual series ii archives & manuscripts: exhibits, gail farr casterline archives & manuscripts: an introduction to automated access. h. thomas hickerson archives & manuscripts: maps and architectural records, ralph e. ehrenberg archives & manuscripts: public programs, ann pederson and gail fan casterline archives & manuscripts: reprography, carolyn hoover sung archival forms manual archivists and machine-readable records, ed. carolyn geda, francis blouin, jr., and eric austin automation, machine-readable records, and administration: a select bibliography, ed. richard m. kesner basic archival workshops: a handbook for the workshop organizer, thomas c. pardo basic archival workshops exercises, trudy huskamp peterson basic glossary for archivists, manuscripts curators, and records managers business archives: an introduction, edie hedlin college and university archives: selected readings evaluation of archival institutions: services, principles, and guide to self-study management of archives and manuscript collections for librarians, ed. richard h. lytle modern archives and manuscripts: a select bibliography, frank b. evans problems in archives kits (paks) are a new publications service in a flexible format which may include reports, manuals, forms, sound tapes,and other material chosen for its usefulness. developing a brochure disaster prevention and preparedness finding an archival position local government records records management for religious archivists starting an archives religious archives: an introduction, august suelflow select bibliography on business archives and records management, ed. karen m. benedict selective bibliography on the conservation of research library materials, paul n. banks the wpa historical records survey: a guide to the unpublished inventories, indexes, and transcripts, comp. loretta hefner d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril [pdf] an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /sus. . .aml corpus id: an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints @article{leach anit, title={an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints}, author={allison m. leach and j. galloway and elizabeth a. castner and j. andrews and n. leary and j. aber}, journal={sustainability (new rochelle, n.y.)}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	allison m. leach, j. galloway, + authors j. aber 	published 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability (new rochelle, n.y.) abstract the development of nitrogen footprint tools has allowed a range of entities to calculate and reduce their contribution to nitrogen pollution, but these tools represent just one aspect of environmental pollution. for example, institutions have been calculating their carbon footprints to track and manage their greenhouse gas emissions for over a decade. this article introduces an integrated tool that institutions can use to calculate, track, and manage their nitrogen and carbon… expand view pdf save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all figures, tables, and topics from this paper 	 table 	 figure 	 figure 	 table 	 figure 	 figure view all figures & tables 	nitrogen 	carbon footprint 	emission - male genitalia finding paper mentions news article sustainability leadership efforts at unh contribute to groundbreaking initiative to reduce nitrogen footprint azocleantech.com april news article campuses leading the way to measure their nitrogen footprints newswise april news article unh helps lead the way for campuses to measure their nitrogen footprints eurekalert! april citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency comparing institution nitrogen footprints: metrics for assessing and tracking environmental impact 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, j. compton, j. galloway, j. andrews 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, + authors r. ryals 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed defining system boundaries of an institution nitrogen footprint 	elizabeth de la reguera, elizabeth a. castner, j. galloway, allison m. leach, n. leary, j. tang 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	pdf save alert research feed assessing the social and environmental costs of institution nitrogen footprints 	j. compton, allison m. leach, elizabeth a. castner, j. galloway 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed virtual water as a metric for institutional sustainability 	l. natyzakjennifer, a. castnerelizabeth, d'odoricopaolo, n. gallowayjames 	economics 	 	 	 save alert research feed reducing the nitrogen footprint of a small residential college 	n. leary, elizabeth de la reguera, s. fitzpatrick, olivia boggiano-peterson 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the nitrogen footprint for an australian university: institutional change for corporate sustainability 	xia liang, e. ng, + authors deli chen 	environmental science 	 	 save alert research feed impact of transportation on carbon dioxide emissions from locally vs. non-locally sourced food 	b. striebig, eric smitts, samuel morton 	environmental science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed prediction of future situation of land use/cover change and modeling sensitivity to pollution in edku lake, egypt based on geospatial analyses 	hazem t. abd el-hamid, m. a. el-alfy, a. elnaggar 	environmental science 	 	 save alert research feed monitoring and predicting land use and land cover changes using remote sensing and gis techniques—a case study of a hilly area, jiangle, china 	chen li-ping, sun yujun, s. saeed 	environmental science, medicine 	plos one 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency comparing institution nitrogen footprints: metrics for assessing and tracking environmental impact 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, j. compton, j. galloway, j. andrews 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the nitrogen footprint tool network: a multi-institution program to reduce nitrogen pollution 	elizabeth a. castner, allison m. leach, + authors r. ryals 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed carbon footprint: current methods of estimation 	d. pandey, m. agrawal, j. s. pandey 	environmental science, medicine 	environmental monitoring and assessment 	 	 save alert research feed integrating ecological, carbon and water footprint into a "footprint family" of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet 	a. galli, t. wiedmann, ertug ercin, doris knoblauch, brad r. ewing, s. giljum 	business 	 	 save alert research feed assessing the social and environmental costs of institution nitrogen footprints 	j. compton, allison m. leach, elizabeth a. castner, j. galloway 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed virtual water as a metric for institutional sustainability 	l. natyzakjennifer, a. castnerelizabeth, d'odoricopaolo, n. gallowayjames 	economics 	 	 	 save alert research feed reducing the nitrogen footprint of a small residential college 	n. leary, elizabeth de la reguera, s. fitzpatrick, olivia boggiano-peterson 	environmental science, medicine 	sustainability 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed a nitrogen footprint model to help consumers understand their role in nitrogen losses to the environment 	allison m. leach, j. galloway, a. bleeker, j. w. erisman, r. kohn, j. kitzes 	business 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed nitrogen footprints: past, present and future 	j. galloway, w. winiwarter, a. leip, allison m. leach, a. bleeker, j. w. erisman 	business 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed environmental impact food labels combining carbon, nitrogen, and water footprints 	allison m. leach, kyle a. emery, + authors j. galloway 	computer science 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	figures, tables, and topics 	paper mentions 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ health needs assessment of five pennsylvania plain populations international journal of environmental research and public health article health needs assessment of five pennsylvania plain populations kirk miller ,* , berwood yost , christina abbott , scottie thompson buckland , emily dlugi , zachary adams , varun rajagopalan , meryl schulman , kimberly hilfrank and mara a. cohen department of biology, franklin & marshall college, harrisburg ave., lancaster, pa , usa floyd institute center for opinion research, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pa , usa department of psychology, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pa , usa johns hopkins hospital, baltimore, md , usa u.s. news & world report, washington, dc , usa ernst and young advisory services, new york, ny , usa center for health care strategies, trenton, nj , usa school of public health, the university of michigan, ann arbor, mi , usa * correspondence: kirk.miller@fandm.edu; tel.: + - - - received: june ; accepted: july ; published: july ���������� ������� abstract: we performed a health needs assessment for five plain communities in pennsylvania from a random sample of households, comparing them to the general population of pennsylvania adults. plain respondents were more likely to drink well water, as likely to eat fruit and vegetables and much more likely to drink raw milk and be exposed to agricultural chemicals. plain respondents were less likely to receive screening exams compared to the general population and there was variation from settlement to settlement in whether respondents had a regular doctor, whether they received preventive screenings or had their children vaccinated, with mifflin county amish generally lowest in these and plain mennonites highest. plain respondents reported good physical and mental health compared to the general population but groffdale mennonite respondents had a high proportion of diagnoses of depression and were more likely to be receiving treatment for a mental health condition. most plain respondents would want a spouse tested for genetic disease with mifflin county amish least in favor of these tests. despite their geographic and genetic isolation, the health of plain communities in pennsylvania is similar to that of other adults in the state. keywords: amish; old order mennonite; health needs; household survey . introduction pennsylvania is home to a number of communities that isolate themselves from the larger society and that are descended from anabaptist sects that migrated to america between about and to avoid religious persecution in europe [ ]. lancaster county, in the southeastern part of the state, is the center of distribution of these amish and mennonite groups that, partly due to shortages of farmland and partly from a desire to isolate themselves, have spread throughout pennsylvania, much of the rest of the united states and canada, mexico, the caribbean and central america [ ]. these groups do not have health care providers of their own because of restrictions on education but they do make use of modern medicine and health care providers from outside their communities. because of their isolation, the health needs of these communities are often overlooked in assessments of large geographic areas in the service region of hospitals. because they do not assimilate, have rigid rules about the use of technology and often do not receive formal education beyond the int. j. environ. res. public health , , ; doi: . /ijerph www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijerph http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph int. j. environ. res. public health , , of eighth grade, the demographic characteristics of these communities are often very different from those of the larger society. the old order amish and old order mennonite groups that eschew many of the trappings of modern life call themselves “plain.” because these plain groups were all founded by small numbers of families, they carry high numbers of certain disease-causing genes (and small numbers of others). researchers have identified over disease-causing mutations in the plain communities [ ] but life expectancy and infant mortality in these communities are unknown. we have previously reported on a health needs assessment of the amish and plain mennonites of lancaster county [ ]. here we report a health needs assessment of two isolated and relatively conservative pennsylvania amish communities and compare them directly to the amish and mennonites of lancaster county and, when possible, to the general population of pennsylvania. amish families founded a settlement in somerset county, pa, in the western part of the state, perhaps as early as [ ]. while this is the second oldest extant amish community, it is small and, uniquely, sunday services are held in meeting houses rather than homes. members migrated west to found the now very large amish settlements in holmes county, ohio and elkhart and lagrange counties, indiana [ ]. the somerset county settlement has an unusually high carrier frequency of a mutation in mthfr that can lead to severe cerebral atrophy [ ]. amish families settled in mifflin county, pa starting in [ ]. this region, called the big valley, includes at least groups that are amish or descendants of amish groups [ , ]. this settlement has a high prevalence of propionic acidemia, which can lead to seizures and severe heart problems and of a mutation in tspyl that can lead to sudden infant death [ , ]. there is little evidence-based research on plain people’s health, health care and preventive care and behaviors and exposures that affect health. this research provides data on some of these important health indicators. . materials and methods the center for opinion research at franklin & marshall college conducted a random sample household survey by mail between august and may that assessed the health needs of adult old order amish and old order mennonite individuals ( years of age and older) living in five settlements in pennsylvania. the purpose of the survey was to gain an understanding of the current health and health needs of these plain communities, to assess differences between settlements and to measure how their perceptions of modern medicine and technology may be altering the plain way of life. the study was approved by the institutional review board of franklin & marshall college (# approved / / ). . . populations and sample the address book of the lancaster county amish [ ], directory of the groffdale conference mennonite churches [ ], directory of the weaverland conference mennonite churches [ ], old order amish directory of somerset county, pa letard, west virginia [ ], old order amish directory of mifflin and juniata counties [ ] and nebraska amish directory [ ] were used as the sampling frames. these contained the most complete available listing of households in their respective groups. estimated population sizes, sample sizes and response rates are given in table . for the purposes of this analysis the groups of mifflin county amish were combined. . . survey methods and measures survey methods and measures have been described elsewhere [ ] (a copy of the survey is available from the corresponding author). the response rate averaged % and varied from settlement to settlement (table ). we report here the proportion of respondents for each survey question for the five surveyed settlements. where possible, we also report the proportion answering similarly from surveys of int. j. environ. res. public health , , of pennsylvania residents. we compare responses from plain settlements using pearson chi-square or analysis of variance. table . population estimates, sample sizes and response rates for five surveyed plain communities. settlement population sample response lancaster county amish , a % groffdale mennonite b % weaverland mennonite c % mifflin county amish d % somerset county amish e % a young center for anabaptist and pietist studies. available online: http://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/ (accessed june ). b lancaster county total population kraybill and hurd horse-and-buggy mennonites p. . c adult members landis, ira d. and richard d. thiessen. “weaverland mennonite conference.” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. october . available online: http://gameo.org/index.php?title=weaverland_ mennonite_conference&oldid= (accessed june ). d kraybill, johnson-weaver and nolt, the amish p. . e yoder, samuel l. “meyersdale-springs old order amish settlement (somerset county, pennsylvania, usa).” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. . available online: http://gameo.org/index.php?title= meyersdale-springs_old_order_amish_settlement(somerset_county,_pennsylvania,_usa)&oldid= (accessed june ). . results the plain respondents ranged in age from to , mean . years. plain respondents were more likely to be married and to have large families than the general population of adults living in pennsylvania (table ). plain respondents were more likely to live on a farm and to drink water from a private well. table . demographic characteristics of pennsylvania plain communities and the general pennsylvania population. settlement general populationlancaster county amish groffdale mennonite weaverland mennonite mifflin country amish somerset country amish average age of respondent . . . a married % % % % % % b average number of children of respondent . . . . . . c live on a farm % % % % % . % d home built before % % % % % % e drinking water from a private well % % % % % % f a median age of pa residents and older us census . b married pa residents and older pa state data center. c average number of children per pa family with children us census . d pa housing units on farms us census . e pa houses built before american community survey . f private water wells in pa penn state extension private water systems faqs. plain respondents were as likely to eat fruit and vegetables as the general population of adults in pennsylvania (table ) and probably much more likely to drink raw milk. there was variation among settlements in these measures with mifflin county amish less likely to eat fruit and vegetables and weaverland mennonites less likely to drink raw milk. plain respondents were also highly likely to report being exposed to agricultural chemicals. there was considerable variation from settlement to settlement in whether respondents had a regular doctor, whether they availed themselves of preventive screening and whether they had their children vaccinated, with the mifflin county amish generally the lowest in these measures and the plain mennonite groups the highest. plain respondents were generally http://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/ http://gameo.org/index.php?title=weaverland_mennonite_conference&oldid= http://gameo.org/index.php?title=weaverland_mennonite_conference&oldid= http://gameo.org/index.php?title=meyersdale-springs_old_order_amish_settlement(somerset_county,_pennsylvania,_usa)&oldid= http://gameo.org/index.php?title=meyersdale-springs_old_order_amish_settlement(somerset_county,_pennsylvania,_usa)&oldid= int. j. environ. res. public health , , of less likely to receive screening exams compared to the general population of pennsylvania. plain respondents had a body–mass index (bmi: weight kg/height m ) comparable to the adult population of pennsylvania although there was variation among settlements, somerset county amish having higher and lancaster county amish and groffdale mennonites having lower proportions of overweight and obese bmi. plain respondents almost universally received prenatal care. table . behaviors and exposures of pennsylvania plain communities and the general pennsylvania population. settlement general population pa lancaster county amish groffdale mennonite weaverland mennonite mifflin country amish somerset country amish in a typical week how often do you eat (% responding once a day or more) fruit * % % % % % % a vegetables * % % % % % % a salad * % % % % % raw milk * % % % % % exposed to agricultural chemicals % % % % % has a regular doctor or health professional * % % % % % % b received the following health services in the past months blood cholesterol check * % % % % % % c physical checkup * % % % % % % d blood pressure test * % % % % % test for diabetes * % % % % % % e flu shot * % % % % % % b test for bacterial vaginosis % % % % % dental exam * % % % % % % f pelvic exam * % % % % % pap smear % % % % % % e physical breast exam * % % % % % % g mammogram * % % % % % g prostate exam % % % % % % h if you have children, have they been vaccinated? (% responding yes) % % % % % % i during your or your wife’s last pregnancy, did she visit a midwife or other health professional? (% yes) % % % % % % j bmi (% overweight or obese) * % % % % % % g * significant differences between settlements. a cdc state indicator report on fruits and vegetables . b pa dept. health behavioral health risks of pennsylvania adults. c past years, pa dept. health behavioral health risks of pennsylvania adults. d past years pa dept. health brfss/eddie. e past years pa dept. health brfss/eddie. f pa dept. health healthy people . g pa dept. health brfss/eddie. h psa test pa dept. health brfss/eddie. i fully immunized children - months pa dept. health healthy people . j prenatal care in first trimester pa dept. health healthy people . plain respondents report good physical health and generally fewer diagnosed health conditions compared to the general population of pennsylvania adults (table ). notably, plain groups report fewer diagnoses of asthma and hypertension compared to adults in pennsylvania and many diagnoses of urinary tract infections, vaginal yeast infections and thyroid problems. plain respondents also report fewer diagnoses of obesity and arthritis and fewer pregnancy complications. plain mennonite int. j. environ. res. public health , , of groups generally report more diagnosed conditions compared with amish groups and strikingly higher diagnoses of cancer. about % of plain respondents needed medical care in the past months. of these, the most common answers to questions about why care might be delayed were because of expense ( % of respondents) and because of uncertainty about where to go for care ( % of respondents). table . health and health conditions of pennsylvania plain communities and the general. pennsylvania population. settlement general population pa lancaster county amish groffdale mennonite weaverland mennonite mifflin county amish somerset county amish in general, would you say your health is . . . self-reported health fair or poor % % % % % % a has a doctor ever told you that you have . . . asthma % % % % % % a hypertension * % % % % % % a high cholesterol * % % % % % % a coronary disease % % % % % % a stroke % % % % % % a blood clot % % % % % epilepsy % % % % % copd % % % % % % a obesity % % % % % % a anemia % % % % % anxiety or depression * % % % % % % a arthritis % % % % % % a thyroid problems % % % % % chlamydia % % % % % . % a herpes % % % % % gonorrhea % % % % % . % a syphilis % % % % % . % a diabetes * % % % % % % a cervical cancer % % % % % . % a urinary tract infection * % % % % % endometriosis % % % % % bacterial vaginosis % % % % % vaginal yeast infection % % % % % pelvic inflammatory disease % % % % % pregnancy complications % % % % % . % b cancer * % % % % % . % a * significant differences between settlements. a pa dept. health brfss/eddie. b pa dept. health healthy people . plain respondents generally report better mental health compared with the general population of adults living in pennsylvania. very few scored high on measures of depression and bipolar disorder and many scored very high on measures of life satisfaction and social support (table ). of plain respondents, ( . %) had one or more poor mental health days, compared with % of adults in pennsylvania. groffdale mennonite respondents have a high proportion of diagnoses of depression, have a high number of poor mental health days and are more likely to be receiving treatment for a mental health condition but are also likely to go to a doctor if they felt they had a mental health problem. despite having a high number of poor mental health days, they receive the social support they need and are very satisfied with their life. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of table . mental health and social support in pennsylvania plain communities and the general pennsylvania population. settlement general population pa lancaster county amish groffdale mennonite weaverland mennonite mifflin county amish somerset county amish has a doctor ever told you that you have anxiety, depression or bipolar disorder * % % % % % % a in past weeks have you accomplished less than you wanted because of emotional problems, % often or all the time % % % % one or more poor mental health days % % % % % % a taking medication or receiving treatment for a mental health condition * % % % % % cesd depression score, % scoring – on a scale of – b % % % mood disorder score, % scoring on a scale of – c % % % % % would go to a doctor if felt had a mental problem, % very likely or likely * % % % % % phq- depression scale, % moderate or severe symptoms d % % % % social support how often do you get the social and emotional support you need? % usually or always % % % % % % e how satisfied are you with your life? % satisfied or very satisfied * % % % % % % e % responding often or all the time on measures of social support f % % % % % * significant differences between settlements. a pa dept. health brfss/eddie . b questions from the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale. c. questions from the mood disorder questionnaire screening for bipolar disorder. d personal health questionnaire depression scale. e pa dept. health brfss/eddie . f medical outcomes study social support survey. respondents’ attitudes towards genetic testing and fatalism are summarized in table . although there was variation among settlements, with mifflin county amish least in favor, most respondents would want a spouse tested for genetic disease. fewer respondents would want an unborn child tested for genetic disease and, again, mifflin county amish were least in favor. mifflin county amish babies were also least likely to have received newborn genetic screening. there was broad agreement among respondents on questions about fatalism with only very small proportions agreeing that their health was determined by fate (table ) and only about one-fourth agreeing that following medical advice would not affect the likelihood of a serious disease. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of table . attitudes towards genetic testing and fatalism in pennsylvania plain communities. settlement lancaster county amish groffdale mennonite weaverland mennonite mifflin county amish somerset county amish if you found out you were a carrier for a genetic disease, would you want your spouse tested for it? (% yes) * % % % % % would you want to know if your child was going to be affected by a particular genetic disease before he or she was born if a test could tell you this? (% yes) * % % % % % after your baby was born, did he or she receive a newborn screening test? (% yes) * % % % % % fatalism if someone is meant to have a serious disease, it doesn’t matter what doctors and nurses tell them to do, they will get the disease anyway. (% strongly agree or agree) a % % % % % my health is determined by fate. (% strongly agree or agree) * % % % % % * significant differences between settlements. a questions from a question fatalism scale. the relationships between respondents’ views on fatalism and genetic testing are in table . there does not appear to be a relationship between views on fatalism and the desire to test a spouse or unborn child for genetic disease. table . the relationship between attitudes on genetic testing and fatalism in pennsylvania plain communities. if someone is meant to have a serious disease, it doesn’t matter what doctors and nurses tell them to do, they will get the disease strongly agree or agree disagree or neutral if you found out you were a carrier for a genetic disease, would you want your spouse tested for it? yes ( %) ( %) p = . no ( %) ( %) would you want to know if your child was going to be affected by a particular genetic disease before he or she was born if a test could tell you this? yes ( %) ( %) p = . no ( %) ( %) my health is determined by fate strongly agree or agree disagree or neutral if you found out that you were a carrier for a genetic disease, would you want your spouse to be tested for it? yes ( %) ( %) p = no ( %) ( %) would you want to know if your child was going to be affected with a particular genetic disease before he or she was born if a test could tell you this? yes ( %) ( %) p = . no ( %) ( %) fifty-one respondents had someone in their family who is a patient at the clinic for special children. there were no differences between those who had or did not have a family member a patient at the clinic on answers to questions about fatalism (p = . and p = . ), nor in their desire to test an unborn child for genetic disease (p = . ). those with a family member a patient at the clinic were slightly less likely to want a spouse tested for genetic disease ( % vs. %, p = . ). int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . discussion there was considerable variation from settlement to settlement in health and health behaviors. in general, mennonite groups were most likely to receive preventive screening and most likely to have received diagnoses of disease, and mifflin county amish were least likely to receive screenings and least likely to have received diagnoses of disease. among plain respondents, groffdale mennonite respondents have a high proportion of diagnoses of depression and are more likely to be receiving treatment for a mental health condition. groffdale and weaverland mennonites report higher diagnoses of cancer. differences between groups may reflect differences in diagnosis rather than different underlying disease prevalence. few plain respondents seem to have attitudes that suggest fatalism, and most are in favor of genetic testing. with little variation between settlements, only about one-fourth of respondents agree that “if someone is meant to have a serious disease, it doesn’t matter what doctors and nurses tell them to do, they will get the disease anyway.” and only one-tenth agree that “my health is determined by fate.” even among those who agree with the statements, at least four-fifths would want a spouse tested for genetic disease and about half would want an unborn child tested. mifflin county amish, the most geographically isolated settlement, scored highest on measures of fatalism and lowest on the desire for genetic testing. despite some variation between plain groups, the health of members of old order groups appears remarkably similar to members of the general population of pennsylvania, despite living a very different lifestyle and being genetically isolated from them. there are some notable differences, though, between plain respondents and pennsylvania adults. plain respondents are more likely to live on a farm, drink water from a private well and be exposed to agricultural chemicals than other pennsylvania adults; they have a high prevalence of certain conditions (notably, anemia, thyroid problems and urinary tract and vaginal yeast infections) and lower prevalence of others (notably, depression and asthma). plain respondents were less likely than members of the general population to receive preventive screening, which may reflect attitudes towards healthcare or its difficulty and expense. asthma prevalence may be lower in plain communities [ , ]. the lancaster county amish community also has lower rates of low birth weight compared with women in central pennsylvania generally [ ]. plain communities may also have different numbers of diagnoses of various mental illnesses compared with the general population. fuchs et al. [ ] report higher prevalence of depression among the amish while miller et al. [ ] reports lower. bipolar disorders may be more prevalent among the amish and some plausibly causative pathogenic alleles have been identified [ , ]. differences in the prevalence of mental health conditions between plain people and the general population have been of interest to investigators both because of social influences on mental health and to isolate genetic influences on mental health. this work shows, we think, that surveying plain communities by mail is feasible. thus, knowledge of other, more isolated and poorer, plain communities might be easily and relatively cheaply obtained. furthermore, this work shows that, despite their relative geographic and genetic isolation and with a few notable exceptions, the health of adult members of the plain communities in pennsylvania is similar to that of other adults in the state. the desire of plain people to farm, combined with the expense of farm land, will continue to cause migration to less populated areas as plain populations continue to grow. thus, contact between plain communities and other parts of the general population and particularly with local medical care providers will continue to increase. providers will be particularly interested in those areas where plain people’s health differs from their neighbors. why do plain families apparently have fewer low birth weight babies and less asthma and depression, for example? what are the public health and medical care implications of the high prevalence of maple syrup urine disease, glutaric aciduria type i and other genetic disease in these communities? what are the implications for urgent care and chronic disease management? future work should explore these questions and survey other, smaller, int. j. environ. res. public health , , of poorer, more isolated plain groups to better understand the variation that exists within and between plain populations. . conclusions a health needs assessment of five pennsylvania plain communities was performed on a random sample of households. there was variation from settlement to settlement in whether respondents had a regular doctor, whether they received preventive screenings or had their children vaccinated, with more conservative groups generally lowest in these and least conservative groups highest. plain respondents reported good physical and mental health compared to the general population. despite their geographic and genetic isolation, the health of plain communities in pennsylvania is similar to that of other adults in the state. author contributions: conceptualization, k.m., b.y. and c.a.; methodology, k.m., b.y., c.a., s.t.b., e.d., z.a. and v.r.; validation, s.t.b., e.d., m.s., k.h. and m.a.c.; formal analysis, k.m., b.y., e.d., m.s. and k.h.; investigation, e.d., z.a. and v.r.; resources, s.t.b., m.s. and m.a.c.; data curation, b.y. and s.t.b.; writing—original draft preparation, k.m.; writing—review and editing, b.y., c.a., s.t.b., e.d., z.a., v.r., m.s., k.h. and m.a.c.; visualization, k.m. and s.t.b.; supervision, b.y.; project administration, b.y., c.a. and s.t.b.; funding acquisition, k.m. funding: this research was made possible by the generous support of the howard hughes medical institute (no. ). acknowledgments: donald kraybill and edsel burdge, jr. of the elizabethtown college young center for anabaptist and pietist studies generously helped us to understand the plain way of life and modern pressures on it and plain settlement populations. holmes morton, kevin strauss, erik puffenberger and karlla brigatti of the clinic for special children in strasburg, pa generously supported our work. rebecca bascom and her group at the penn state hershey medical center, anne dimmock, judie howrylak and kristen walters, engaged us in important discussions about asthma in the plain community. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. the funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript or in the decision to publish the results. references . smith, c.h. the mennonites of america; wipf and stock publishers: goshen, in, usa, . . kraybill, d.b. concise encyclopedia of amish, brethren, hutterites, and mennonites; johns hopkins university press: baltimore, md, usa, . . strauss, k.a.; puffenberger, e.g. genetics, medicine, and the plain people. annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . miller, k.; yost, b.; abbott, c.; thompson, s.; dlugi, e.; adams, z.; schulman, m.; strauss, n. health needs assessment of plain populations in lancaster county, pennsylvania. j. community health , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . beachy, a.j. the amish settlement in somerset county, pennsylvania. mennon. q. rev. , , – . . hostetler, j.a. amish society, th ed.; johns hopkins university press: baltimore, md, usa, . . kauffman, s.d. mifflin county amish and mennonite story – ; mifflin county mennonite historical society: belleville, pa, usa, . . hoping to catch missed disorders at new clinic for plain people in central pa. available online: https://www.inquirer.com/philly/health/ _hoping_to_catch_missed_disorders_at_new_ clinic_for_plain_people_in_central_pa_.html (accessed on july ). . beiler, k.k. address book of lancaster county amish; pequea bruderschaft library: gordonville, pa, usa, . . shirk, l.n.; shirk, b.n. directory of the groffdale conference mennonite churches; published by the authors: kutztown, pa, usa, . . wise, r.a.; martin, l.h. directory of the weaverland conference mennonite churches; published by the authors: womelsdorf, pa, usa, . . peachey, s.s. old order amish directory of somerset county, pa letard, west virginia; s.k. typing: gordonville, pa, usa, . . petersheim, s.h. old order amish directory of mifflin and juniata counties; pa print shop: mifflintown, pa, usa, . http://dx.doi.org/ . /annurev-genom- - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.inquirer.com/philly/health/ _hoping_to_catch_missed_disorders_at_new_clinic_for_plain_people_in_central_pa_.html https://www.inquirer.com/philly/health/ _hoping_to_catch_missed_disorders_at_new_clinic_for_plain_people_in_central_pa_.html int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . bourg, m.m. nebraska amish directory; published by the authors: reedville, pa, usa, . . holbreich, m.; genuneit, j.; weber, j.; braun-fahrländer, c.; waser, m.; von mutius, e. amish children living in northern indiana have a very low prevalence of allergic sensitization. j. allergy clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] . biobehavioral risk factors for asthma in the amish and general populations of central pennsylvania. american thoracic society international conference . available online: http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/ abs/ . /ajrccm-conference. . . _meetingabstracts.a (accessed on december ). . miller, k.; yost, b.; flaherty, s.; hillemeier, m.m.; chase, g.a.; weisman, c.s.; dyer, a.-m. health status, health conditions, and heath behaviors among amish women: results from the central pennsylvania women’s health study (cepawhs). womens health issues , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . fuchs, j.a.; levinson, r.m.; stoddard, r.r.; mullet, m.e.; jones, d.h. health risk factors among the amish: results of a survey. health educ. q. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . georgi, b.; craig, d.; kember, r.l.; liu, w.; lindquist, i.; nasser, s.; brown, c.; egeland, j.a.; paul, s.m.; bućan, m. genomic view of bipolar disorder revealed by whole genome sequencing in a genetic isolate. plos genet. , , e . [crossref] [pubmed] . strauss, k.a.; markx, s.; georgi, b.; paul, s.m.; jinks, r.n.; hoshi, t.; mcdonald, a.; first, m.b.; liu, w.; benkert, a.r.; et al. a population-based study of kcnh p.arg his and bipolar spectrum disorder. hum. mol. genet. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jaci. . . http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/abs/ . /ajrccm-conference. . . _meetingabstracts.a http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/abs/ . /ajrccm-conference. . . _meetingabstracts.a http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.whi. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pgen. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /hmg/ddu http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	populations and sample 	survey methods and measures 	results 	discussion 	conclusions 	references lepr rev ( ) , supplement , - report of the joint leprosy - tuberculosis proj ect in paraguay a e a l v a r e n g a departmen to de lepra, min isterio de salud publica y bienestar social, a suncion , paraguay following a rewarding initial experience in the treatment of leprosy and tuberculosis with the combination of rifampicin and i s oprodian and taking into account the excellent results o f the m alta-proj ect, the paraguayan government, through its ministry of health, resolved to initiate an eradication programme of both these diseases which constitute important public health problems in the country . the realization of the programme was made possible by means of an agreement of cooperation existing between the government of paraguay and the german leprosy relief association (dahw) of wiirzburg, and in addition counting on the consultantship-on the technical level-of professor e freerk­ sen of the medical and biological research i nstitute, b o rstel . for the execution of the mixed programme, use was made of the existing infrastructures for leprosy and tuberculosis contro l . concerning t h e organization of t h e programme , a central directory, encom­ passing leprosy and tuberculosis control was created . the director of the department for leprosy control, m inistry of health, i s i n charge of the programme coordinati o n . it should also be mentioned that the leprosy pro­ gramme i s a vertical programme and this proved to be the most efficient way of dealing with the maj o rity of problems at all levels . meanwhile the tuberculosis programme i s of a horizontal nature, being integrated into the general health services . in the public health approach to both of these diseases there are common characteristics: treatment i s predominantly ambulatory, leaving a small number of patients in need o f ho spitalizati o n . . for leprosy patients, under t h e m i ni stry of health, there are many health centres all over the country, the institute of tropical m edicine in asuncion, and for cases with advanced incapacities , the leprosarium santa isabel of sapucai . - / / s + $ . © british leprosy r e l i e f association a e a lvarenga . under the faculty of m edicine; the relevant wards of the university hospital in the capital . . under private insti tutions; the m ennonite hospital km. and the ward of the patronate for leprosy patients, also in asuncion. for tuberculosis patients: . under the mini stry of health; the sanatorium juan max boettner. . under the faculty of m edicine, asuncio n ; the tuberculosis service of the university hospital . in these and other centres patients are not subj ected to any kind of segregation and, if necessary, will be attended by other specialists like any other patient. this acceptance by official centres of leprosy patients inspires confidence, thus strengthening the voluntary examination of household contacts and most important, the regularity of treatment. therapy, including laboratory examinations, is free of charge . the same combined drug therapy is used for both diseases, therefore the leprosy service is in charge of drug storage and distribution, safeguarding a close supervision on the utilization of medicaments . for the purpose of the day-to-day management of the j oint programme, this has been divided into two secti ons. first, a leprologist i s in charge of the leprosy section, and secondly, a tuberculosis specialist takes care of the tb sectio n . both these specialists have their offices at the ministry of health . the leprosy section of the joint programme the following steps were taken during the preparatory phase: the provision o f intensive info rmation o n the efficiency of the combined therapy with i soprodian-rifampicin, mainly to the decision-taking levels of the ministry of health . thus we try to assure the programme support by the highest national authority. intensive theoretical and practical training of medical officers, laboratory and nursing staff collaborating with the programme . organizing a central dermatological (including leprosy) clinic and a labora­ tory for clinical and bacteriological tests . these serve as a centre for treatment, training and reference for doctors, nurses , biochemi sts and laboratory tech­ nicians. coordinating the programme with government health centres in order to establish skin and leprosy clinics, and, if needed , to provide hospitalization for leprosy patients . safeguarding the provision of drugs . report of jo in t l- tb project, paraguay i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e p r o g r a m m e officially, the programme was initiated i n september when the first clinic was opened in asuncion for the treatment of leprosy patients with the combinati on i soprodian-rifampicin . this clinic, which happens to be the best developed one of the entire programme, functions full-time and i s situated in the same building as the central health centre of the government. here, highly qualified dermatologists are taking care o f leprosy and other dermatological patients. a well-equipped laboratory i s functioning, also full-time, in an annex to this clinic and carries out the relevant tests for leprosy patient s . p r o g r a m m e d e v e l o p m e n t there was a gradual extension of the programme, linked t o the existing public health infrastructure . at this time we have three treatment centres in asunci o n and centres in t h e interior of t h e country . during t h e present year, the programme is further expanded to additional towns and village s . to this end, medical officers of government health centres are undergoing a specific training which will enable them to diagnose and treat leprosy patients living inside their area o f responsibility. the c h e m o t h e r a p e u t i c c o m b i n a t i o n u s e d during the period - , the combination i soprodian-rifampicin w a s used in the presentation o f two separate dragee s . i n october , a four-drug combination, namely i soprodian-r m p was introduced , i n one single tablet with the following compositi o n : rifampicin, · mg; isoniazid , · mg; prothiona­ mide, · mg; and dapsone (dds) · mg. this new form of presentation offers the following practical advantage s : the combinati on of substances i n adequate proportions inside a single tablet facilitates optimum dosage . the regular ingestion of the medication by the patient is greatly eased by the fact that he only has to take one tablet at a time . . the dosage this scheme , which depends on the body-weight, is shown below: patients up to patients up to patients up to patients up to patients up to kg kg kg kg kg and above take take take take take tablet daily tablets daily tablets daily tablets daily tablets daily. drug ingestion i s daily, from m o nday to saturday, with a break on sunday . a e a lvarenga duration of therapy is variable, depending upon the clinical and bacteriologi­ cal progress of each patient. disregarding in this context the clinical forms ( -b-t­ l) o f leprosy, the minimum period of treatment i s months with an average of about month s . . the supply of isoprodian-rmp the department of leprosy provides i soprodian-rmp directly to each health centre in accordance with the number of patients on treatment. the drug is deposited under the care o f the nursing services and is i ssued on medical order to the patient at the time of his check-up. each supply covers a period of days when the patient returns for his clinical and bacteri ological controls. the daily drug intake i s not supervised since the patient takes medication at home . the good results we are having with this method of administration are demonstrated by the following facts : the high regularity o f patients attending at the clinic or health centre; the favourable clinical and bacteriological evolution of the disease; and the low rate of absconding case s . n u m b e r , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d f o l l o w - u p o f l e p r o s y p a t i e n t s t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e p r o g r a m m e a total of c<:j.ses are estimated to exist in the country. f o r the development o f the programme it w a s taken into account that the country h a s million inhabitants and that leprosy patients are in the active register; of these, some % of the population and % of registered cases are concentrated inside an area of sq km comprising the city of asuncion and the central department . in the first instance, in september , the work started in these two areas from where it was gradually extended to those parts of the country having the highest demographical concentratio n and a well-developed public health infra­ structure . in time the programme was expanded to other departments . since the beginning of the programme, the results obtained with the combination i soprodian-rmp have been most rewarding, particularly regarding the fast cure of patients followed by the reduction of endemic foci . the specific programme output has been highly satisfactory . this is best evidenced by the following data: total of estimated cases, ; total o f registered cases, ; under treatment with isoprodian-rmp, ( % ) . o f these cases, admitted t o the programme, the situation i s summed u p in table . of the cases on o bservation, were released and taken off the register having completed - years of post-therapy observatio n . it should be mentioned t h a t there a r e several cases t h a t have been under observation for more than years since ceasing treatment without having report of join t l- tb project, paraguay table case situation under post- treatment observation receiving treatment absconders deaths interruptions of therapy tota l : number ( % ) ( ' ) ( - ) ( · ) ( , ) ( ' ) ( ' ) relapsed . the excepti on i s one patient for whom therapy had to be re-started. of the deaths, not one can be attributed to the specific antileprosy treatment. the cases which interrupted chemotherapy with i s oprodian-rm p , are accounted for either because of a premature change o f medication in a few, mo stly private clinics, or of other intercurrent diseases requiring an interruption of specific antileprosy therapy . the tuberculosis section of the programme o b j e c t i v e s the high aims of this programme required the creation of a national tuberculosis register . at present, this covers % o f the country population incorporating the most populous sanitary regi o n s . new areas are being added in acco rdance with the planned extension of the programme . the immediate programme o bj ective is a speedy reducti on of the morbidity and mortality rates, aiming at the cure o f all case s . doubtless, this a i m , whose realization i s subj ect to availability o f funds, implies a relatively fast programme extension in order to achieve a total population coverage . t h e p r o g r a m m e d e v e l o p m e n t the above-mentioned programme aims imply a step-by-step extension, starting in in the area of the capital and its surrounding populations as well as in several indigenous settlements in the vast paraguayan area of the chaco (western region) . in the programme incorporated the departments of paraguari , cordillera and the alto paran a . these areas correspond to the i and ix sanitary regi o n s . other departments will be added in due course . a e a lvarenga in the tb programme reached a population of about · million, some % of the country ' s inhabitant s . o r g a n i z a t i o n the fight against tuberculosis is integrated into the general health services of the country, implying medical attention for the tb patient by the government health centres which provide the necessary human and material resources . regarding the indigenous population, the anti -tuberculosis service can count on the collaboration of the national association for the help for the i ndigenous population and, in some instances, i s also assisted by paramedical field workers (promotores de salud) . concerning the anti- tb service provided by health centres, a medical practitioner attends tb patients once weekly or more often if needed . in the smaller health units the anti-tuberculosis service naturally i s of a more limited nature; however it still includes investigations regarding respiratory symptoms, sputum collection and examination by the nearest reference laboratory. the central government laboratory and the institute of tropical diseases, both in asuncion, serve as tb reference centres and provide the relevant training. in the interior of the country this function i s taken over by the regional health centre s . t h e anti-tuberculosis programme n o w incorporates localities, including centres providing medical assistance, of which a r e inside indigenous settle­ ments . p e r i o d o f t r e a t m e n t the short-term therapy with isoprodian-rmp s o far h a s shown good results . for the maj o rity of patients , treatment is ambulatory, controlled but self­ administered . the minimum period of treatment is five months but this can be prolonged if required by the clinical-bacteriological evoluti o n . this drug-combination is indicated for all forms of the disease, regardless of the extension or severity of the lesion, age, sex or pretreatment . the do sage i s the same as that for leprosy patients given and discussed in section . . c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s the following associations and institutions collaborate together with the ministry o f health in the national tuberculosis programme : the paraguayan institute for the indigenous population (ind i ) ; the paraguayan association for the indigenous population (api); the mennonite association or cooperative service to the i ndigenous populations (asci m ) ; the anglican church; the report of jo in t l- tb project, paraguay german association for technical c ooperati on (gtz); t h e oblatos de maria; and the chair for respiratory diseases o f the faculty of m edicine, university of asuncio n . r e s u l t s during the period - , tuberculosis cases were detected, or in other words, % o f the total estimated number of patients ( , ) existing in the country . this situation is summed up in table . the number o f patients that abandoned treatment and those who left the area ( - and · % respectively) , could be explained by the fact that there i s a high percentage of migrant people . also it could be explained because the information system and the system of registration were not s o efficient at the beginning of the programme . the maj o ri ty of deaths are reported from specialized institutions and refer to advanced case s . the introduction of the combination isoprodian-rmp constitutes a most important advance in the fight against leprosy and tuberculosis. principally this i s because of its rapid action a n d outstanding efficiency , coupled w i t h relatively short periods of treatment. table case situation number ( % ) cured ( · ) abandoned treatment ( - ) left the area ( · ) died ( · ) actually on treatment ( · ) total ( · ) in the light of these promising results, the ambitious goal o f planned disease eradicati on which has no parallels in other programmes, imposes the need for continuing the ongoing programme until its final realizatio n . to fulfil this goal it is imperative that the j oint tb-leprosy programme can count on the continua­ tion of the invaluable support of the german leprosy relief association (dahw) . this great challenge has found the backing of the paraguayan government and its people almost from the onset of the programme . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ . futures heeren.indd mh.indd making the sale give ’em the easy choice. fredric heeren it was that presbyterian biologist who almost blew the sale. and not only a sale to the presbyterians, but to the seventh-day adventists, too. those two denominations alone could deliver million customers, guaranteed. it was a good thing i came along with the sales staff for this one. half- way through my product-design talk, the biologist interrupted, as though suddenly possessed, and began telling the others they were making a big mistake. i brought the denominational leaders back to the purpose of the meeting when i showed them what our personal advice device could do. of course james had done his usual great job of setting the hook. nobody could argue with his facts. people have come to trust their pads implicitly. more than their spouses. more than their pastors. what human being can compete with this advice from a mind programmed to think according to our individual tastes, but immeasurably smarter, continuously updated from a world of information according to our present needs? so here’s how i explained why our product is the solution to their evolution issue — and if you pay close attention, you’ll know how to handle the mennonites next week. “if you want to look at the future of your denomination,” i said, “you only have to look at how the south- ern baptists were transformed from criticizing evolution in the schools to promoting it. this was bound to happen, with all the preachers telling their people there’s no evidence that primitive homin- ids ever existed. “that might have been fine in the day when, to check out that claim, a person would have had to sit down at a pc and hunt around for hours — who has time for that? but now for those who have pads, questions like that get answered with just a few thoughts and a quick menu selection on their retinas. presto — they’re looking at a sequence of hominid photos with increasing cranial capacities over time. and seeing is believing, even if you’ve been home-schooled and never heard of evolu- tion except as a naughty word. the result: anti-evolution leaders were voted out by an informed electorate. “if our projections hold, % of ameri- can teens and adults are going to own a pad within three years. there’s no choice about that, but what you can still choose, courtesy of our latest design and your specs, is whether your pad will be your enemy or your friend. “we’ve designed a friendly pad. it’s not just a matter of helping people make good decisions by showing them their best options — it actually does the rationalizing for them, too. this is as close to real human thinking as any pad has ever come.” now at this point, i thought we were still going according to plan. the presbyteri- ans had brought their biologist to give me the chance to demonstrate how our pad works. i let him fire away with his toughest questions. “how do you explain the stark differ- ences between animals across impassible barriers, as between australia and other lands? why do islands always have organ- isms most like the nearest mainland? why do we find clear evidence of common ancestry when we compare the dna of an evolutionary sequence of animals, so that we can trace how genetic insertions, including retroviruses, appear and then accumulate in later forms of life?” the adventists were set up for pads and got answers in their heads. i showed the others on the large virtweb display what our pad does compared with the others. as soon as any question was seen to contradict a specified tenet, our pad logically dismissed it — and everyone knows a pad’s logic is flawless. it also showed an alternative, god-honouring explanation for the putative evidence. it suggested that several of the questions were based on false preconceptions. and always, it directed people to look at their denomi- national virtwebs, where they would get the true picture. of course, we restricted access to the problem virtwebs. “so,” i concluded, “it really operates exactly as the human mind does. it chooses what it wants to believe.” that’s when the biologist piped up and said something about our spoiling the whole point of genuine choice: young people shouldn’t be made to choose between faith and science. “of course not,” his leaders said. “not as long as you’re talking about christian science.” “we’re seeing the christian sci- ence people next week,” said james. and from there things got very confusing. the presbyterian biologist got into an in-house discussion with his leaders about whether the particular means god used to create our bodies should be the issue. “it certainly is the issue,” the presbyt- erian president said. “it shouldn’t be,” said the biologist, “because the more genetics or history our bodies share with other animals, the greater the wonder at what we humans uniquely experience: morality, humour, literature, science, faith.” “dr adams,” said the president, “you were invited here to ask your questions and you’ve done that.” “but i have more,” said adams. “do we really want to credit all these attributes merely to something special about our bodies, as if the material world is all there is? isn’t that what we’re doing when we emphasize the special way our bodies were made? isn’t that what we’re doing when we pit god against evolution?” some of the denominational leaders began to show a hint of worry. fortunately, his remarks had triggered their pads, which were already fast at work drowning him out with a flood of dazzling answers, backed up by well-documented evidence and memorable sound bites. ■ fredric heeren is a researcher and science writer in kansas. by the time he finishes his book on human evolution, he fears we may have evolved into something else. j a c e y nature|vol | november futures f u t u r e s nature publishinggroup © 	making the sale administrative sciences article how organizational culture shapes women’s leadership experiences karen longman ,*, jessica daniels id , debbie lamm bray and wendy liddell department of higher education, azusa pacific university, azusa, ca , usa higher education leadership graduate school, bethel university, st. paul, mn , usa; j-daniels@bethel.edu salem campus, northwest university, kirkland, wa , usa; debbie.lammbray@northwestu.edu department of leadership studies, great northern university, spokane, wa , usa; wliddell@greatnorthernu.org * correspondence: klongman@apu.edu received: december ; accepted: march ; published: march ���������� ������� abstract: this article presents the findings of a grounded theory study that examined the role of organizational culture and organizational fit in the leadership aspirations and experiences of women working in faith-based colleges and universities in the u.s. specifically, the researchers sought to understand what aspects of organizational culture at the home institutions of these participants influenced their employment experiences, including their considerations and decisions related to aspiring to and/or advancing into leadership. analysis of the interview data indicated that the participants clustered into four subgroups: ( ) participants who did not perceive that gender issues in the culture influenced their work or roles within the institution; ( ) participants who reported that they did not perceive gender issues to be an institutional problem; however, they cited examples of problematic systems and cultures; ( ) participants who identified gender inequalities at their institution, but indicated that such problems impacted them only minimally, if at all; and ( ) participants who offered explicit criticism regarding the gendered dynamics evident in the culture in their institutions and in christian higher education more broadly. influences on leadership aspirations or experiences were identified as either being “push” (i.e., propelling the participant away from the organization and thus diminishing aspirations or willingness to move into or remain in leadership) or “pull” (i.e., drawing the participant into further engagement with the organization, thus increasing the desire to become or remain a leader in that context), with particular attention to the context of faith-based higher education. the article concludes with a brief discussion of implications for practice for individuals and postsecondary institutions. keywords: organizational culture; institutional leadership; women and leadership; leadership aspirations . introduction a harvard business review article by watkins ( ) carries the provocative headline: “what is organizational culture? and why should we care?” watkins opened the article by noting “universal agreement” (par. ) that organizational culture exists and that “it plays a crucial role in shaping behavior in organizations” (par. ); however, the author also noted that there has been limited consensus on exactly what organizational culture is. hofstede et al. ( ) offered a practical description of culture as “[consisting of] the unwritten rules of the social game. it is the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others” (p. ). although a degree of ambiguity exists regarding the nature and definition of organizational culture, researchers have identified helpful characteristics of the nature of culture within a defined adm. sci. , , ; doi: . /admsci www.mdpi.com/journal/admsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/admsci http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://www.mdpi.com/journal/admsci http://dx.doi.org/ . /admsci adm. sci. , , of context. for example, schein ( ) offered a clear description of an organization’s culture based on his research in the field of business: . . . [a] pattern of shared basic assumptions learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, which has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (p. ). the present study is informed by schein’s definition of culture as assumptions, behaviors, and perceptions that guide decisions and behavior within an organization. additionally, previous researchers (e.g., ayman and korabik ; o’neil et al. ) have observed that organizational cultures (and even formal staffing structures) tend to be gendered, meaning that assumptions about leaders and the contributors to effective leadership are typically male-normed. helgesen ( ), for example, has described the “inhibitory environment [in which] women often struggle, particularly in the formative years of their careers, to find and use their voices” (p. ). earlier research by helgesen and johnson ( ) within the corporate sector had focused on reasons that highly talented women were choosing to leave well-paying jobs; these scholars observed that over the previous two decades, there had been “increasing recognition that the structure of work was designed to reflect the realities of an all-male workforce whose constituents had few, if any, domestic responsibilities beyond supporting their families” (p. ), contributing to a “mental mismatch between what the marketplace assumes people will value in their work and what women . . . most deeply value” (p. ). the perception of a mismatch is enhanced, according to helgesen and johnson ( ), “because organizations still offer reward, recognize achievement, build incentive, and decide promotion using definitions of worth that reflect an all-male industrial leadership culture” (p. ). such cultural expectations and structures influence the beliefs, behaviors, and experiences of people within an organization in regard to expectations and evaluation of leadership. as hofstede et al. ( ) research on cultures around the world documented, patriarchal systems have influenced (and continue to influence) issues of access and equity in all spheres of life, including the workplace culture and its influence on climate (i.e., the environment as experienced by employees). with particular attention on the influence of organizational culture reflected within participants’ institutions, this article presents the findings of a qualitative study that examined the leadership experiences and aspirations of women who had been identified as “emerging leaders” at faith-based colleges and universities in the united states. colleges and universities often operate on the assumptions of a male-normed workplace culture, requiring women to “navigate their own leadership preferences (e.g., being collaborative) within a world of hierarchical and top-down organizations and structures” (kezar , p. ). specifically related to the workplace environment of postsecondary institutions that are aligned with evangelical christian faith , the complexities may be informed and amplified by a theological understanding that has been characterized by gallagher ( ) as reflective of a “hierarchically ordered universe” (p. ). these male-normed leadership structures and theological commitments that influence dominant views of gender roles in faith-based institutions combine with the multiple cultures that function within a college or university (bergquist and pawlak ). the result is deep, even if unseen, currents of cultural forces that need to be recognized and named if they are to be addressed or even considered for possible change. thus, faith-based higher education provided a complex cultural context for this study. influences on leadership aspirations or experiences were identified as either being “push” (i.e., propelling the participant away from the organization and thus diminishing aspirations or willingness to move into or remain in leadership) or “pull” (i.e., drawing the participant into further engagement with the organization, thus increasing the desire to become or remain a leader in that context), with particular attention to the context of faith-based higher education. collectively, the findings of this study are illustrated in a model (see figure below) that visualizes the variety of relationships that were identified between the institutions where these women were employed and the participants themselves. this research contributes to the development of theory on women in leadership, particularly adm. sci. , , of regarding women’s motivation to accept or vacate positional leadership. the findings, which have implications for leadership development programming and institutional leaders who contribute to shaping organizational culture, centered on the themes of organizational fit, the power of choice, and personal confidence. adm. sci. , , x for peer review of leadership, particularly regarding women’s motivation to accept or vacate positional leadership. the findings, which have implications for leadership development programming and institutional leaders who contribute to shaping organizational culture, centered on the themes of organizational fit, the power of choice, and personal confidence. figure . “push” and “pull” influences related to organizational culture and women’s leadership aspirations and experiences in christian higher education. . literature review as a leading scholar of organizational culture, schein’s ( ) contributions to the literature have noted the interdisciplinary nature and use of the term, spanning business, sociology, leadership, and other fields. according to schein, an organization’s culture is influenced by historic events, religion, and group decisions, contributing to a type of organizational identity. further, schein offered a helpful distinction between: ( ) the visible organizational structures and processes; ( ) the strategies, goals, and philosophies or espoused justifications of the organization; and ( ) the unconscious or taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings that ultimately shape the values and actions of an organization. for the purpose of this study, we also noted the distinction made by schein ( ) between the concepts of organizational culture and climate. the latter term was described by schein as “an artifact of the deeper cultural levels, as is the visible behavior of its members” (p. ). schein also observed that culture implies organizational structure and operates as a stabilizing and defining force. this integrated definition of culture, which “somehow implies that rituals, climate, values, and behaviors tie together into a coherent whole” (schein , p. ), is used expansively in reference to the institutional culture and climate encountered by participants in this study. a variety of external, interpersonal, and internal factors that can hinder women’s advancement into leadership have been identified by researchers, with many of those factors related to organizational culture. as summarized by ely and rhode ( ) in a chapter titled “defining the challenges” in the handbook of leadership theory and practice, women aspiring to leadership face a litany of behavioral and attitudinal barriers in many organizational settings. these scholars summarized: “women leaders clearly navigate a different societal and organizational terrain from their male counterparts, a terrain deeply rooted in cultural ambivalence” (p. ). the variety of figure . “push” and “pull” influences related to organizational culture and women’s leadership aspirations and experiences in christian higher education. . literature review as a leading scholar of organizational culture, schein ( ) contributions to the literature have noted the interdisciplinary nature and use of the term, spanning business, sociology, leadership, and other fields. according to schein, an organization’s culture is influenced by historic events, religion, and group decisions, contributing to a type of organizational identity. further, schein offered a helpful distinction between: ( ) the visible organizational structures and processes; ( ) the strategies, goals, and philosophies or espoused justifications of the organization; and ( ) the unconscious or taken-for-granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts, and feelings that ultimately shape the values and actions of an organization. for the purpose of this study, we also noted the distinction made by schein ( ) between the concepts of organizational culture and climate. the latter term was described by schein as “an artifact of the deeper cultural levels, as is the visible behavior of its members” (p. ). schein also observed that culture implies organizational structure and operates as a stabilizing and defining force. this integrated definition of culture, which “somehow implies that rituals, climate, values, and behaviors tie together into a coherent whole” (schein , p. ), is used expansively in reference to the institutional culture and climate encountered by participants in this study. a variety of external, interpersonal, and internal factors that can hinder women’s advancement into leadership have been identified by researchers, with many of those factors related to organizational culture. as summarized by ely and rhode ( ) in a chapter titled “defining the challenges” in the handbook of leadership theory and practice, women aspiring to leadership face a litany of behavioral and attitudinal barriers in many organizational settings. these scholars summarized: “women leaders adm. sci. , , of clearly navigate a different societal and organizational terrain from their male counterparts, a terrain deeply rooted in cultural ambivalence” (p. ). the variety of subtle organizational influences that shape women’s experience actually “disrupt the learning cycle at the heart of becoming a leader” (ibarra et al. , p. ), negatively influencing the experiences of women considering or moving into leadership roles. in part, the cognitive association of leadership and maleness challenges women’s advancement, whether that association is held subconsciously or overtly (eagly and karau ; koenig et al. ). to offset the powerful influence of individual and organizational biases, egan, shollen, campbell, longman, fisher, fox-kirk, and neilson (egan et al. ) have advocated for the adoption of a more capacious model to explain women’s leadership experiences and development. building upon the “mature” model of bronfenbrenner ( ) ecological theory of child development, the theory offered by egan and colleagues explores the interplay of influences at five levels: chrono, macro, exo, meso, and micro. using a somewhat similar framework to examine influences that hinder women’s leadership advancement, diehl and dzubinski ( ) offered descriptions of types of gender-based leadership barriers, organizing them according to “the level of society in which they generally operate: macro (societal), meso (group or organizational), and micro (individual)” (p. ). notably, diehl and dzubinski observed that the challenges facing women in leadership cannot be targeted in isolation; rather, “the first step is to recognize that women encounter barriers at all three levels, and that macro and micro barriers impact women’s ability to see themselves as leaders, as well as others’ ability to consider them for leadership roles” (p. ). . . organizational culture and higher education although the institutional culture of colleges and universities tends to reflect “an amalgam of institutional subcultures” (lindholm , p. ) with both vertical and horizontal cross-cutting dynamics (padilla ), the senior-level leadership of most institutions is predominantly male. this fact was documented by gangone and lennon ( ), who conducted an analysis of demographic trends of ten sectors of u.s. society, one of which was higher education; findings were reported in the “benchmarking women’s leadership in the united states ” report (colorado women’s college ). trends across the ten sectors in terms of the under-representation of women in leadership were fairly consistent; in higher education as of , only % of chief executive officers were women, % of chief academic officers, and % of the academic deans. the american council on education (ace) found the pattern of under-representation of women in postsecondary leadership to be sufficiently troubling that an initiative titled “moving the needle: developing a st century agenda for women’s leadership” was launched in , calling together presidents and organizational leaders to strategize how to address this concern (teague and bobby ). a ace report noted slight improvement over time, as reflected in the fact . % of u.s. university presidents at that time were women (gagliardi et al. ). further explaining the complexities of higher education institutions, bergquist and pawlak ( ) describe six cultures that are present in most academic settings: ( ) collegial, ( ) managerial, ( ) developmental, ( ) advocacy, ( ) virtual, and ( ) tangible. although women who are considering leadership must navigate these various cultures effectively, it is notable that bergquist and pawlak ( ) described the collegial culture as being aligned with the “values and perspectives that are decidedly male-oriented” (p. ). these scholars further added: “quite clearly, the traditional collegial culture is a world of the blade, with a strong emphasis on often subtle but nevertheless quite powerful competition and striving for prestige and dominance” (p. ). these cultural dynamics can create challenges for women who aspire or advance into leadership, including the problem of wage inequities and lack of supportive workplace priorities, policies, and reward structures (kellerman and rhode ), second generation bias embedded in stereotypes or organizational practices (ibarra et al. ), the need for more targeted mentoring (keohane ) and leadership development programs oriented toward women (ely et al. ). adm. sci. , , of . . institutional fit related to the dynamics that flow from organizational culture, the concept of organizational fit also must be taken into account when considering the workplace environment for women. in institutions where the structures, systems, environment, traditions and interactions are created and sustained primarily by men, the culture that develops tends to be defined and understood in terms that reflect male norms (ayman and korabik ; helgesen and johnson ; o’neil et al. ). lindholm ( ) identified two ways in which “fit” can either work comfortably for the individual involved or contribute to misalignment or dysfunction. first, the person-organization fit theory relates the interests, values and abilities of an individual to associated features of an organization (lindholm ). thus, in the person-organization model, fit reflects a high degree of similarity or compatibility between an organization and an individual. in contrast, the person-environment models of organizational fit refer to dimensions of the relationship between individuals and vocations, specific jobs or work teams (lindholm ). both models can be helpful when considering whether an individual is compatible with the culture of a higher education institution. given the variety of cultural influences (macro, micro, etc.) that shape the day-to-day environment of a college or university, individuals may find themselves experiencing numerous complexities in the workplace. strengthening an alignment with an institution for which there is apparent affinity and learning to navigate an institution’s cultural complexities can be challenging for individuals considering whether to remain and invest fully. as described in the section that follows, this challenge may be compounded for women considering leadership in faith-based higher education, particularly in cases where the theological commitments of the institution and its senior-leadership may be somewhat out of sync with that of women who aspire to leadership, particularly in relation to, the role of women in the church and broader society. . . theological commitments and women’s leadership the faith-based institutions that were represented by the participants in this study were employed at institutions that are members of a washington dc-based organization, the council for christian colleges & universities (cccu), which serves more than postsecondary institutions around the world. within the u.s., the cccu institutions, represent one subset of just over religiously-affiliated institutions; they are affiliated with more than christian denominations (ranging from mennonite and evangelical friends to presbyterian and southern baptist). binding the cccu membership together is a commitment by institutional leadership to a shared purpose of “advancing faith and intellect for the common good” (cccu ). the cccu institutions, education a total enrollment of , annually and collectively have served over . million alumni; additionally, , + faculty and staff are employed by the cccu membership (cccu ). although cccu institutions share many commonalities, they differ in the nature of each institution’s relationship with a sponsoring group of churches or denomination (glanzer et al. ). regardless of whether or not a cccu member institution retains a formal denominational relationship, its theology typically is at least somewhat consistent with that of the founders or its sponsoring denomination. although these colleges and universities are not churches, this partnership relationship may include the expectation that the institution operates according to the denomination’s commitments and structures (glanzer et al. ; joeckel and chesnes ). thus, the theology of a founding or sponsoring denomination is often important in understanding the culture of many cccu institutions. many, if not most, of the cccu member institutions self-identify with evangelical protestantism. an analysis of this subset of private colleges and universities by dahlvig and longman ( ) in relation to women’s leadership development identified that “individuals adhering to an evangelical worldview may view leadership—either consciously or subconsciously—through a set of presuppositions that is detrimental to women’s advancement into leadership roles” (p. ). although it is clear that evangelicalism in the u.s. (let alone worldwide) is not monolithic, some streams of thought within evangelicalism understand there to be god-ordained gender roles in marriage, the church, and (in adm. sci. , , of fewer cases) society in general. in a major study funded by the pew charitable trusts, gallagher ( ) concluded that “gender persists as a central, salient and effective element of the boundary work that maintains evangelical subculture and identity” (p. ). specifically related to the appropriate roles for men and women in the church and in society, gallagher described the dominant view of evangelicals as being “organized by the principles of hierarchy and subordination” (p. ). such conditions have implications for women’s leadership aspirations and experiences within the context of denominationally-owned or -sponsored colleges and universities. . research methodology our study used a constructivist grounded theory approach to explore how women leaders at cccu institutions perceive and experience the gender climate at their institutions; relatedly, the research examined the relationship of the perceived gender climate to the participants’ considerations about advancing in leadership. creswell ( ) described grounded theory as one of five qualitative research methodologies; within each, a variety of research approaches has emerged. early work by glaser and strauss ( ) popularized grounded theory as a qualitative methodologyin which data are gathered through open-ended, emergent, and probing questions to explore the experiences of participants. charmaz ( ) subsequently advocated a constructivist grounded theory approach, which acknowledges the role of the researchers’ and participants’ context in the way knowledge is understood and constructed. given that the cultural context of the participants was a key dimension of this research focus, constructivist grounded theory was used to obtain an understanding of the participants’ individual and collective perceptions of leadership vis-à-vis institutional culture. data collection involved an initial face-to-face interview of approximately an hour in length with each of the participants; the protocol questions focused on participants’ understanding of leadership, various aspects of participants’ leadership journey, future aspirations, and sources of encouragement and discouragement on the leadership journey. follow-up interviews, conducted in person or by telephone a year later, further explored the denominational/theological orientation of each participant and her institution, as well as perceptions of the influence of organizational culture on the participant’s leadership experiences. the second set of interviews served as the primary data source for the analysis that follows; the researchers coded each transcript individually, then confirmed the themes that seemed to be emerging through group dialogue and analysis, using constant comparative methods to establish “analytic distinctions” (charmaz , p. ). comparisons were subsequently made across the entire dataset to identify similarities and differences. contextual information was drawn from a review of participants’ application materials to participate in a four-day women’s leadership development program, transcriptions from the first set of interviews, and comparison of these themes with the transcriptions of four related focus groups that were arranged at approximately the same the time as the second interviews. the co-authors of this article, who conducted the research, all work at cccu institutions; from that framework of shared experiences, we sought to enter into the lived experiences of the participants in order to accurately represent their voices in the findings presented below. . . participants the participants were women who had been identified by their home institutions as emerging leaders and nominated to participate in a four-day women’s leadership development institute (wldi) offered through the cccu. each of the participants met several criteria for inclusion, as components of the application process for the wldi: ( ) held a doctorate or was nearing completion of a doctorate; ( ) was recognized institutionally as an emerging leader with demonstrated leadership skills and the potential for future cabinet-level service; and ( ) provided evidence of increasing levels of leadership responsibility within and/or beyond higher education. at the time of the initial set of interviews, the participants ranged in age from – ; of the were married; of the were mothers; and were caucasian (one self-identified as hispanic). eleven of the participants held roles as academic administrators or faculty chairs; two served within adm. sci. , , of student development; and three held other administrative roles (alumni, business/finance); all but one worked at a cccu institution at the time of the interviews. denominational membership of the participants represented a spectrum of christian denominations including southern baptist, roman catholic, nazarene, assemblies of god, missionary church, presbyterian church usa, wesleyan, united methodist, and mennonite. seven of the participants were employed by the institution they had attended as an undergraduate student; four had attended another cccu institution for their undergraduate education. . . findings and discussion many of the themes common in the literature related to women and leadership were corroborated by findings in the present study. however, the participants frequently referenced that their work within an evangelical christian culture, in particular, influenced certain inequities they had experienced. one participant made the point that such experiences were not atypical elsewhere (institutionally and/or in other professional environments); however, she went on to explain, “i think specifically in cccu schools, that’s why we can’t seem to make progress. it is the religious, the biblical issues.” common themes that emerged in our findings, consistent with earlier research findings, included expressed concerns regarding inequality in compensation, tenure, and workload. other common gender discrepancies present in our findings were more difficult to measure, such as the micro-inequities that seemed to be related to prejudices and precedent, especially when justified by an institution’s theological orientation. the patriarchal history of the church, gender-related denominational doctrines, and scriptural interpretations all impact gender-role understanding (joeckel and chesnes ; reynolds ). one participant explained, “i think the biggest barrier is the ‘good old boys’ club, it’s the informal networking to which women have no access.” another participant explained that some male christian leaders, in an attempt to avoid the appearance of impropriety, adopt a policy of not socializing or meeting alone with the opposite sex. such a policy actually restricted women’s access to mentoring and informal networking, thus disadvantaging women by limiting professional development opportunities. the participants frequently emphasized sensing a struggle related to work and family balance, in part due to perceived assumptions that women would (or should) hold the majority share of parenting duties. one participant described her perception of a key reason for women’s underrepresentation in leadership at cccu institutions: “i really think it’s the child-rearing question. i think if you are in a christian institution, it’s much more acceptable, encouraged, and maybe even expected that you’ll be a little bit more domestic.” a few participants reported that they had experienced discrimination as a working mother. one participant stated, “i simply was viewed as an oddity. i should be home taking care of my children. i mean i got openly very, very rude comments and i know it hindered my time at [institution] . . .” an early study by moreton and newsom ( ) had reported that cultural expectations related to children and marriage were exacerbated for women working within the context of cccu institutions. one participant in the present study concluded, “so, i think . . . we’re back to evangelical rhetoric . . . evangelicalism is the barrier. it’s the problem . . . the stuff that is happening is so not jesus. it’s pathetic.” during the process of data analysis, a pattern gradually emerged that related to a variety of “push” and “pull” factors; awareness of this pattern was helpful in understanding the participants’ leadership aspirations and experiences in relation to their organizational culture. as described below and visualized in figure , the participants’ interview responses and subsequent leadership paths could be clustered in four distinct groups. in the first group (group ), participants did not perceive that gender issues influenced their work or roles within the institution. in addition to reporting their perceptions that gender equity was the campus norm, these participants provided examples to support the accuracy of their perception. notably, the participants in this group remain employed within the cccu, with half having progressed further into broader leadership roles. adm. sci. , , of participants in the second group (group ) also reported that they did not perceive gender issues to be an institutional problem. however, the participants’ responses included examples of seemingly problematic systems and cultures related to balance and family, policies practices, and evangelical culture and patriarchal systems. all of the participants in this category remain at their cccu institutions, with some choosing to limit their involvement due to family responsibilities and others advancing in various leadership positions. participants in the third group identified gender inequalities at their institution, but indicated that such problems impacted them only minimally, if at all. although these participants articulated that gender issues had not influenced their own careers, the pattern of their career progression following the interviews seemed to contradict these statements. all but one of the participants in group have moved to positions outside the cccu; the participant who remains was serving in a non-cabinet level position at the time of the interviews. finally, the women in the fourth group had the most explicit criticism for their institutions and of christian higher education more broadly. the participants in group reported having had the most painful or challenging experiences, which they attributed to cultural and individual gender bias and gender role expectations that were inconsistent with their own. of the four participants in this group, two subsequently had been terminated from their positions, one had been demoted, and one sought employment at a university outside of the cccu. characteristics of the participants in each of these four subgroups are described in the sections that follow. group : “i think it’s a very fair playing field.” the four women in group reported that they did not perceive gender issues to be problematic at their institutions; accordingly, they expressed that they had not felt any gender-related negative impact on their employment experience or perceived opportunity to progress in leadership. the participants in this category were employed at institutions that were either non-denominational or aligned with anabaptist theological traditions that tend to be supportive of women in all levels of leadership (e.g., mennonite, brethren in christ). two participants, one a faculty member and one an administrator, expressed enthusiasm regarding the many opportunities afforded them at the nondenominational university at which both worked. the administrator spoke of programs and structures she had created and cited no negative experiences regarding gender and leadership. the faculty member corroborated this perception, stating: “i felt like i was offered a lot of opportunities. i never felt that gender either gave me a disadvantage or an advantage.” she expressed having appreciation for the “fair playing field” of her workplace, in which she felt encouraged and supported. a participant from an institution aligned with a charismatic theological tradition perceived her university to be “proactive” in advancing women to positions of leadership. specifically, she reported: “i don’t think that there has been a limitation or a roof or a barrier at the upper levels.” this participant noted that women held administrative and board positions in the institution and that a woman held the role of associate dean in the university’s theology department. another participant, speaking from her experience at a cccu institution, stated, “i really have had very little experience that i would say has been discrimination based on my gender, even within mathematics . . . it seems to me a pretty positive environment for women and leadership.” a list of previous and current female leaders on that campus was offered as evidence of her institution’s openness to promoting women into leadership roles: interim president, provost, deans, and department chairs. these four women indicated high levels of institutional satisfaction and remain employed and/or have advanced in leadership positions at cccu institutions. notably, all four participants in this group reported an interest in leadership progression, with most of them explicitly expressing confidence (and having received encouragement from institutional leaders) regarding their ability to successfully manage increased responsibilities. adm. sci. , , of the three cccu institutions represented by the four participants in group appeared to cultivate a female-friendly environment. the lack of a denominational affiliation in two of the institutions and the anabaptist tradition of the third seemed to fuel a campus climate that was supportive of women’s leadership aspirations. group : “it’s just sort of life in early st century united states culture.” most of the five participants in group did not perceive gender issues to be an institutional problem; however, examples they provided seemed to indicate that gender was, in fact, an issue to at least some degree. the participants in this category were employed at institutions with varying theological orientations, including wesleyan holiness, non-denominational, and two from baptistic traditions. these five women expressed generally positive experiences at their institutions of employment. one participant noted, “i really don’t see a big . . . difference with how women and men are treated here on campus. you’ll get all of the support you need as a woman here to grow, and expand, and . . . just really excel professionally.” most of the participants self-reported having high job satisfaction and a commitment to their field and/or to christian higher education more broadly. additionally, the significance of these participants’ contributions on their home campuses was documented by the supportive reference letters submitted by their supervisors that were influential in the women’s selection to participate in the four-day women’s leadership development institute. many of the participants in group did, however, express concerns about the patriarchal tone of evangelicalism more broadly. a faculty participant spoke of the impact of evangelical systems and culture on women and leadership: “i don’t know that we nurture women professionally in the same way. i look at the majors that women on our campus go into and how big our education and nursing [programs] are . . . we tend to socialize women into those fields in theologically conservative christianity.” according to this participant, the socialization can be attributed to “a broader cultural set of understandings . . . that derive from the theological pool that we happen to be swimming in.” she clarified, “maybe . . . the ecclesiastical pool . . . [is] church culture. it might be just more generalized church culture stuff.” another participant stated, “it’s subtle and i don’t know that i can attribute it to organizational culture as much as . . . it’s just sort of life in early st century united states culture.” although the participants in group characterized their employment experiences as positive, they did reference problematic systems related to gender, although typically not personalizing the issues. still, the responses regarding a lack of family-friendly workplace policies, hiring and promotion practices, cultural expectations, and evangelical/patriarchal systems suggested that gender issues did, in fact, exist on their campuses, although not emphasized as being problematic to the participants. although the reasons for the contradiction between the explicit description of their campuses as being supportive of women and their contrasting stories of experience were not clear in the data, two possibilities seem viable. first, the women may have not labeled their experiences as gender inequity given that they had become accustomed to the environment and did not expect anything more from it. alternatively, the women’s comfort with the gender climate may be congruent with their own views of gender roles. if so, these four women may not have chosen to identify current beliefs and practices as being problematic because doing so might identify them with ideologies outside the accepted norm on campus (e.g., as “radical” feminists). regardless of the reason, the outcome is interesting: the five participants in this category continue to be employed at their cccu institutions, with some limiting their involvement due to family responsibilities and others advancing in various leadership positions. group : “there’s been a real awakening of the awareness of lack of women in leadership, and a lot of angst about it. probably more angst than actual solutions, unfortunately.” the three participants in this group identified gender issues as being problematic at their institution; however, they perceived the impact to be minimal or nonexistent for them personally. women in group were employed at institutions from three different theological orientations: adm. sci. , , of nazarene, church of god, and non-denominational. the experiences of the participants were similar: all reported having had opportunities to advance in leadership despite what the participants perceived as obvious gender inequities. one participant was able to create a culture in her area of responsibility that she believed encouraged equality and developed women’s leadership potential. yet this participant indicated that the organizational culture, as a whole, was not as supportive of women as some of the subcultures within the institution. ultimately, the participant left the institution to accept a senior-level position outside of the cccu membership. after another administrator had commented on the absence of women in cabinet level-positions in her institution, she expressed concern about the status quo: “i’d put it [my university] pretty much in the mainstream of the christian institutions, but there’s been a real awakening of the awareness of lack of women in leadership and a lot of angst about it. probably more angst than actual solutions, unfortunately.” the employment outcomes for participants in group suggest that the participants may have been more influenced by campus gender issues than they perceived to be the case. one participant indicated satisfaction with the support she experienced at her institution. after her contract had not been renewed, the institution’s senior leadership had affirmed her talents and created a director-level position for her. however, she was then terminated a year later due to institutional downsizing. in fact, only one participant from group remains employed at a cccu institution; she serves in a non-cabinet level position. group : “the real danger for christian higher education is that they’re using scripture to back their prejudices.” the four participants in group identified gender issues as being a significant problem at their institutions and provided clear personal and institutional examples. the women were employed at institutions that embrace a variety of theological perspectives, including differences in how gender roles are understood. these participants, who perceived that the gender climate negatively impacted their employment experience, described the culture at their institutions as “inhospitable” and “hypocritical.” the participants in this fourth group attributed their negative experience to cultural and personalized gender bias and gender role expectations inconsistent with their own convictions. cultural and individual gender bias within institutions was identified by some participants as the reason for the lack of support for women in leadership. an administrator at a nondenominational college referenced the report of a consultant who had been hired to conduct a gender audit; the report concluded that the institution “definitely” perpetuated gender inequities. describing gender bias within the leadership of the institution, this participant noted, “there are some people on campus who are definitely not big fans of women in leadership, and there are other people who are very supportive.” this participant also perceived that the theologically-conservative views held personally by the president, vice president, and board were potential barriers to the leadership advancement of women. another administrator critiqued what she perceived a hypocrisy between the rhetoric and actions of leaders at her institution. although senior leadership spoke about “diversity and progress” regarding women, their actions conveyed a different message: “i don’t think that they want women and i don’t think that they are willing to actually say that.” this participant concluded, “it’s worse than it was for women when the spoken policy was one of oppression, because now it’s transitioned into an unspoken policy of oppression.” the word “hostility” was offered as a descriptor of the way participants experienced the environment created, at least in part, by the organization’s cultural expectations of women. these participants perceived that there was a commonly-held ideal regarding female employees on campus; women who did not fulfill the ideal face challenges regarding institutional fit. within the context of her theologically conservative institution, one participant who held an administrative role commented that women who garner respect at her university needed to be quiet, competent, smart, likable, and not prone to “rocking the boat.” another participant noted that even the idea of a working adm. sci. , , of woman could be questioned within her institution. “women are supposed to manage the home,” the participant said. “women are supposed to support the husband. and women are supposed to raise the kids.” deviating from this ideal caused the participants to sense they did not fit with the culture of the institution. confusion regarding the appropriate roles for women in leadership also arose in relation to the purpose of a christian college and how that purpose intersects with the theological position of the sponsoring denomination in terms of gender roles. one participant framed this question as it had arisen at her institution: “is this a church? or, is this a business, or a school?” such lack of clarity about the relationship of church and college is consistent with other research that has identified a lack of clarity on the part of many christian higher education institutions regarding whether the institution is an extension of, or separate from, the church (joeckel and chesnes ; reynolds ). perceptions of the relationship between the institution and the church seemed to be further complicated by deeply-embedded cultural influences. at one non-denominational institution that had been strongly influenced by a theologically-conservative founder, disparaging comments about women leaders reportedly had been made by male colleagues. the participant from this institution commented: “i’ve had someone say to me, ‘i’ve never had to report to a woman before. i just don’t think i could do that.’” at the same institution, a female colleague was told that she had “no business being in charge of men at all.” the justification for such comments was summarized by one participant: “the real danger for christian higher education is that they’re using scripture to back their prejudices . . . ” of the four groups, those in group had experienced the most difficult experiences, conveyed the most explicit criticism for their institutions, and expressed the greatest level of concern about christian higher education in general. only one of the four participants remained at the same institution at the time of the writing of this article, yet she had experienced a demotion due to a campus closure. of the other participants in group , two had been terminated from their positions; one of those two now works outside of higher education, and the other has moved to a senior-level leadership position at a large public institution. perhaps more than the denomination affiliation, the participants in group indicated that the conservative theological orientation of these institutions was the source of the cultural resistance to women in leadership. however, it is also important to consider the idea of institutional fit. although the women in group may have experienced gender prejudice, participants’ negative experiences may have been exacerbated by a poor fit between the participant and the culture of the institution. for instance, the idea that an “ideal woman” will have specific characteristics would be a difficult expectation for some women who think otherwise. it is impossible to fully identify all the factors impacting these situations, but the outcome is clear: these women perceived that they were not valued at their institutions. the findings of the present study, in which the responses of participants were divided into four subgroups, corroborate the findings of previous research by billing ( ). billing interviewed women managers in male-normed organizations in denmark and sweden, seeking to understand the management experiences of the participants. the participants’ stories were found to be represented by four categories of relationship between the participant and organization, or the employee’s sense of whether she “fit” within her organization: “(a) congruency, (b) congruency and ambivalence, (c) adjustments and resistance, and (d) conditional assimilation” (p. ). in the present study, participants’ relationships with their campus environment also could be divided into four categories, representing increasing levels of dissatisfaction. the similarity between the two studies indicates that personal congruity with the organization or institution is an important consideration for women employees who are serving in or aspire to leadership roles. adm. sci. , , of . . grounded theory model to illustrate findings from this study in a visual representation, the researchers developed a model (see figure ) regarding the relationships between the culture of higher education institutions and the experiences of aspiring or experienced women leaders. in the model, the college or university is represented as a solid, cylindrical core with a porous exterior shell. this solid core represents the dominant institutional culture, or the core culture. although the cultures of higher education institutions are complex, the core culture in the model includes the distinctive and influential components of christian higher education: the macroculture of christian theology, denominational subcultures, historic theological underpinnings, and male-normed structures reflective of church governance. to visually represent the possibility of cultural changes within organizations, the porous exterior represents the possible influence of individuals, circumstances, or other change agents. helgesen and johnson ( ) noted that women’s career paths tend to take the form of a spiral rather than a straight line of progression. similarly, in the model, the lives and career paths of women are represented as an upward spiral. the length of the line represents the personal and professional journey of the women leaders, including their experiences related to leadership. finally, to reflect the variety of responses about future leadership aspirations, the blue spiral reflects individuals who remain aligned with the institution and experience institutional fit; in contrast, the black spiral widens and gradually becomes more distant and removed from the institutional core. to illustrate the theoretical relationship between a higher education institution and women leaders, the model identifies various factors that influence women’s decisions to continue at an institution and, in some cases, to pursue additional leadership opportunities. in such cases, we suggest that women leaders were pulled toward greater engagement with their institutions by a variety of influences. for example, some women were alumnae of the institution and exhibited a deep sense of loyalty even in the face of occasional discouragements; others were very committed to the mission or were bound geographically to that area. in contrast to the pull factors, some of the women were pushed out of the institution by a range of influences (e.g., personal theological incongruence with their college and university). in some cases, participants struggled to reconcile the institutional view of an “ideal” woman with their own identities. the push and pull factors represent aspects of the literature of gendered leadership (diehl and dzubinski ; egan et al. ; ibarra et al. ; kellerman and rhode ), as well as circumstances unique to christian higher education (dahlvig and longman ; joeckel and chesnes ; reynolds ). . . limitations our findings provide helpful insight into the role of “fit” with organizational culture, particularly as related to women’s leadership experiences in male-normed organizational cultures. these experiences clearly influenced the participants’ leadership aspirations and opportunities for professional mobility. however, as with the findings of all qualitative studies, the findings may not be generalizable to other contexts. additionally, although the research involved two rounds of interviews with each of participants, additional data sources such as visits to the home campuses of these participants would undoubtedly have yielded more nuanced understanding of their workplace contexts. one specific limitation of this study is the racial and ethnic homogeneity of the participants. of the participants, self-identified as caucasian. although not entirely disproportionate to the overall cccu employment demographics (the underrepresentation of ethnic diversity among cccu employees has been a longstanding problem; see mcmurtrie ( ), a more diverse participant group would likely have affected the findings due to the intersectionality of race, gender, and culture. this limitation relates to a recommended area for further related research. additionally, the participants represented colleges or universities that varied theologically, geographically, and structurally. although the broader literature indicates that women in higher education leadership face challenges that are similar to those in other work contexts, the specific results adm. sci. , , of of this study are not necessarily representative of the affiliated institutions of the council for christian colleges & universities, let alone the + religiously-affiliated institutions in the united states. targeted research into specific theological traditions might reveal considerable variation even within theological subsets of the cccu. however, the roles of organizational culture and “institutional fit” as related to attracting and retaining high-potential women, particularly in relation to leadership roles, merit continued research attention. . . theoretical contributions and implications for practice the literature that develops the theoretical foundation to explain the leadership journeys of women has been expanding in recent years, yet additional research is merited. the present study builds on a theory and model developed by dahlvig and longman ( ), titled “contributors to women’s leadership development in christian higher education”; this model identified cultural context as an influence in women’s leadership development. examining the ways in which aspects of culture influenced participants’ leadership aspirations and development can contribute to understanding the relationship between institutional culture and the opportunities afforded to women for advancement to and successful longevity in leadership. further, the findings here offer insight into possible reasons that faith-based higher education continues to operate with so few women in senior leadership. in spite of this study’s narrow scope, the findings offer implications for individuals and postsecondary institutions, centering on the themes of organizational fit, the power of choice, and personal confidence. specifically, the concept of organizational fit seemed to be a key factor in job satisfaction for the participants in the present study. those who were closely aligned with the organization’s mission and culture self-reported greater satisfaction with the gender climate and opportunities for advancement. conversely, increasing the points of disconnect with the institution often signaled greater potential for an upcoming departure, either voluntarily or forced. understanding whether an individual’s sense of purpose and mission is congruent with that of the organization (ibarra et al. ) can help job seekers to identify a workplace where they are most likely to find fulfillment in their work and opportunities for advancement. similarly, theological alignment to at least some degree obviously needs to be a matter of conversation in job searches and the hiring process. women who sense a duty or calling to remain in the institution as a change agent may want to brainstorm ways to be a “tempered radical” (meyerson ) to influence change. women who assume positions of broader responsibility and influence within an institution can help to increase campus-wide awareness of the value of diverse viewpoints, which is well-documented in the literature (eagly and chin ; williams ; woolley et al. ). finally, the contributions of female leaders have been affirmed by the findings of numerous studies (e.g., catalyst ; gerzema and d’antonio ; helgesen and johnson ; kezar ; turner ) and argue for organizations to proactively pursue the participation of women in organizational leadership. similarly, women who persist as change agents may be re-energized and reassured of their professional value by reviewing the research literature regarding the value that women bring to organizations. beyond the noted implications for individual consideration, the findings of this study offer implications for those who hold organizational leadership responsibilities. first, the clarity of organizational leaders regarding identity, mission, values, and culture, particularly regarding women in leadership, is essential in order for job candidates to assess their congruence with the organization; it is also important for search committees to be transparent and consistent in conveying institutional realities. in addition, leaders responsible for developing internal talent may influence the institution’s respect for women’s ways of leading by shaping gender-specific programming (ely et al. ; kassotakis ) and executive coaching that includes discussions of the value of diverse perspectives. finally, when gender issues are discussed, encouraging open dialogue regarding aspects of the institutional culture would represent a step toward honoring the choices of women to invest their lives in venues that align with their personal convictions and passions. although mission-related adm. sci. , , of issues may increase tension in the short term, the findings of the present study suggest that an institution’s practices and views related to priorities and convictions should be clearly communicated from the outset. author contributions: the authors contributed equally to this work. conflicts of interest: the founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; nor in the decision to publish the results. references ayman, roya, and karen korabik. . leadership: why gender and culture matter. american psychologist : . [crossref] [pubmed] bergquist, william h., and kenneth pawlak. . engaging the six cultures of the academy: revised and expanded edition of the four cultures of the academy, nd ed. san francisco: jossey-bass. billing, yvonne due. . are women in management victims of the phantom of the male norm? gender, work and organization : – . [crossref] bronfenbrenner, urie. . the ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. cambridge: harvard university press. catalyst. . why diversity matters. available online: http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/why-diversity- matters (accessed on march ). cccu (council for christian colleges & universities). . about our work and mission. available online: http://www.cccu.org/about (accessed on march ). charmaz, kathy. . constructing grounded theory. thousand oaks: sage publications. colorado women’s college. . benchmarking women’s leadership in the united states. denver: university of denver. creswell, john w. . qualitative inquiry and research design: choosing among the five traditions. thousand oaks: sage publications. dahlvig, jolyn, and karen a. longman. . contributions to women’s leadership development in christian higher education: a model and emerging theory. journal of research on christian education : – . [crossref] dahlvig, jolyn, and karen a. longman. . influences of an evangelical christian worldview on women’s leadership development. advances in developing human resources : – . [crossref] diehl, amy b., and leanne m. dzubinski. . making the invisible visible: a cross-sector analysis of gender-based leadership barriers. human resource development quarterly : – . [crossref] eagly, alice h., and jean lau chin. . diversity and leadership in a changing world. american psychologist : – . [crossref] [pubmed] eagly, alice h., and steven j. karau. . role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. psychological bulletin : – . [crossref] egan, chrys, s. lynn shollen, constance campbell, karen a. longman, kelly fisher, wendy fox-kirk, and brionne g. neilson. . capacious model of leadership identities construction. in theorizing women and leadership: new insights and contributions from multiple perspectives. edited by j. storberg-walker and p. haber-curran. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . ely, robin j., and deborah l. rhode. . women and leadership: defining the challenges. in handbook of leadership theory and practice. edited by nitin nohria and rakesh khurana. boston: harvard business publishing, pp. – . ely, robin j., herminia ibarra, and deborah m. kolb. . taking gender into account: theory and design for women’s leadership development programs. academy of management learning & education : – . [crossref] gagliardi, jonathan s., lorelle l. espinosa, jonathan m. turk, and morgan taylor. . american college president study . american council on education. available online: http://therivardreport.com/wp- content/uploads/ / /acps-report-final-web.pdf (accessed on march ). gallagher, sally k. . the marginalization of evangelical feminism. sociology of religion : – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /a http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/why-diversity-matters http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/why-diversity-matters http://www.cccu.org/about http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /hrdq. http://dx.doi.org/ . /a http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / - x. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /amle. . http://therivardreport.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /acps-report-final-web.pdf http://therivardreport.com/wp-content/uploads/ / /acps-report-final-web.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . / adm. sci. , , of gangone, lynn m., and tiffani lennon. . benchmarking women’s leadership in academia and beyond. in women and leadership in higher education. edited by karen a. longman and susan r. madsen. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . gerzema, john, and michael d’antonio. . the athena doctrine: how women (and the men who think like them) will rule the future. san francisco: jossey-bass. glanzer, perry l., p. jesse rine, and phil davignon. . assessing the denominational identity of american evangelical colleges and universities: part i. denominational patronage and institutional policy. christian higher education : – . [crossref] glaser, barney g., and anselm l. strauss. . the discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. chicago: aldine. helgesen, sally. . gender, communication, and the leadership gap. in gender, communication, and the leadership gap. edited by carolyn m. cunningham, heather m. crandall and alexa m. dare. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . helgesen, sally, and julie johnson. . the female vision: women’s real power at work. san francisco: berrett-koehler publishers, inc. hofstede, geert, gert jan hofstede, and michael minkov. . cultures and organizations—software of the mind: intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival. new york: mcgraw-hill. ibarra, herminia, robin ely, and deborah kolb. . women rising: the unseen barriers. harvard business review : – . available online: http://bit.ly/ bjtveo (accessed on march ). joeckel, samuel, and thomas chesnes. . the challenge of gender equity within the council for christian colleges & universities. christian higher education : – . kassotakis, mary e. . women-only leadership programs: a deeper look. in handbook of research on gender and leadership. edited by susan r. madsen. northampton: edward elgar publishing, pp. – . kellerman, barbara, and deborah rhode. . women at the top: the pipeline reconsidered. in women and leadership in higher education. edited by karen a. longman and susan r. madsen. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . keohane, nannerl o. . leadership out front and behind the scenes: young women’s ambitions for leadership today. in women and leadership in higher education. edited by karen a. longman and susan r. madsen. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . kezar, adrianna. . women’s contributions to higher education leadership and the road ahead. in women and leadership in higher education. edited by karen a. longman and susan r. madsen. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . koenig, anne m., alice h. eagly, abigail a. mitchell, and tiina ristikari. . are leader stereotypes masculine? a meta-analysis of three research paradigms. psychological bulletin : – . [crossref] [pubmed] lindholm, jennifer a. . perceived organizational fit: nurturing the minds, hearts, and personal ambitions of university faculty. the review of higher education : – . mcmurtrie, beth. . evangelical colleges’ diversity problem. the chronicle of higher education, january . available online: https://www.chronicle.com/article/evangelical-colleges-/ (accessed on march ). meyerson, debra. . tempered radicals. boston: harvard business review. moreton, april l., and ron w. newsom. . personal and academic backgrounds of female chief academic officers in evangelical christian colleges and universities: part i. christian higher education : – . o’neil, deborah a., margaret m. hopkins, and diana bilimoria. . women’s careers at the start of the st century: patterns and paradoxes. journal of business ethics : – . [crossref] padilla, arthur. . portraits in leadership: six extraordinary university presidents. westport: praeger. reynolds, a. . gender dynamics in evangelical institutions: women and men leading in higher education and the nonprofit sector. in report for the women in leadership national study. wenham: gordon college. schein, edgar h. . organizational culture and leadership, th ed. san francisco: jossey-bass. teague, leah j., and kim bobby. . american council on education’s ideals for women leaders. in women and leadership in higher education. edited by karen a. longman and susan r. madsen. charlotte: information age publishing, pp. – . turner, caroline. . difference works: improving retention, productivity, and profitability through inclusion. austin: live oak book company. http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://bit.ly/ bjtveo http://dx.doi.org/ . /a http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ https://www.chronicle.com/article/evangelical-colleges-/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - adm. sci. , , of watkins, michael d. . what is organizational culture? and why should we care? harvard business review, may . available online: https://hbr.org/ / /what-is-organizational-culture (accessed on march ). williams, damon a. . strategic diversity leadership: activating change and transformation in higher education. sterling: stylus publishing. woolley, anita williams, christopher f. chabris, alex pentland, nada hashmi, and thomas w. malone. . evidence for a collective intelligence factor in the performance of human groups. science : – . [crossref] [pubmed] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). https://hbr.org/ / /what-is-organizational-culture http://dx.doi.org/ . /science. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	literature review 	organizational culture and higher education 	institutional fit 	theological commitments and women’s leadership 	research methodology 	participants 	findings and discussion 	grounded theory model 	limitations 	theoretical contributions and implications for practice 	references church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. note to the repmnt edition: full page advertisements which do not add to the scholarly value of this volume have been omitted. this accounts for the irregular pagination found in this reprint edition. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman vol. ii published by the american society of church history ams reprint company new york , n.y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for conrad henry moehlman president frederick william loetscher vice president frederick william loetscher secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer matthew spinka assistant secretary other members of the council shirley jackson case william david schermerhorn w i l l i a m walker rockwell abdel ross w e n t z george warren richards william warren sweet w i n f r e d ernest garrison j o h n t h o m a s m c n e i l l edward strong worcester james moffatt wllhelm pauck e d i t o r i a l b o a r d of church h i s t o r y matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman, ex officio publication office, scottdale, pennsylvania executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois reprinted w i t h the permission op the original publisher ams reprint company new york . n. y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles breen, q., domine everhardus bogardus - gaddis, merrill e., religious ideas and attitudes in the early frontier - hardy, edward rochie, jr., national elements in the career of st. athanasius - harkness, r. e. e., early relations of baptists and quakers.. - higgins, john s., ultramontanism of st. boniface - knappen, m. m., the early puritanism of lancelot andrewes - lyttle, charles h., deistic piety in the cults of the french revolution - mccutchan, robert g., american church music composers of the early nineteenth century - oborn, george t., why did decius and valerian proscribe christianity? - richards, george w., was troeltsch right? - riddle, donald w., factors in the development of modern biblical study - schaff, david s., cardinal bellarmine—now saint and doctor of the church - scott, e. f., the opposition to caesar worship - sweet, william w., the churches as moral courts of the frontier - in memoriam: arthur cushman mcgiffert - franklin p. manhart albert henry newman - , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core books reviewed baynes, norman h., constantine the great and the christian church - booth, h. k., the world of jesus buckley, george t., atheism in the english renaissance - butler, pierce, comp., fifteenth century books case, s. x, the social triumph of the ancient church case, s. j., and schermerhorn, w. d., church history deputation report - the catholic church in contemporary europe -. clayton, joseph, saint anselm cory, david m., faustus socinus - dearmer, p., songs of praise discussed dobree, b., william penn, quaker and pioneer - edwards, m., john wesley and the eighteenth century - friess, h. l., and schneider, h. w., religion in various cultures « - garrison, w. e., the march of faith - griffin, joseph a., the contribution of belgium to the catholic church in america - horsch, john, the hutterian brethren kaufman, e. g., the development of missionary and philanthropic interest among the mennonites - kidd, b. j., the counter reformation - knappen, m. m., two elizabethan puritan diaries - koch, g. adolph, republican religion - leslie, shane, the oxford movement - levison, n., the jewish background of christianity , - lietzmann, hans von, geschichte der alter kirche, b. - macfarland, c , christian unity in practice and prophecy - mcgiffert, a. c., a history of christian thought, vol. i i - mackay, john a., the other spanish christ - maiden, r. h., the roman catholic church and the church of england mathews, s., new testament times in palestine - maxwell, william, john knox's genevan service book, nebelthau, j. h., ed., the diary of a circuit rider palm, f . c , calvinism and the religious wars - plooij, d., the pilgrim fathers from a dutch point of view - posey, w. b., the development of methodism in the old southwest, - ross, j. e., john henry newman - spinka, matthew, a history of christianity in the balkans - stackhouse, p. j., chicago and the baptists - sweet, w. w., methodism in american history - tillich, paul, the religious situation - vander velde, lewis g., the presbyterian churches and the federal union, - - walter, joh. von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i - wentz, a. r., the lutheran church in american history - westin, g., protestantismens historie i amerikas forenta stater westin, g., negotiations about church unity, - white, hugh g. e., the history of the monasteries of nitria and scetis - wilbur, e. m., tr., servetus on the trinity «. - worcester, e., studies in the birth of the lord - wright, luella m., the literary life of the early friends , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h a n d b e y o n d : t h e u n e a s y s y n t h e s i s o f n a t i o n a l a n d r e l i g i o u s m y t h s b y s t e v e n m a r k s c h r o e d e r b . a . , t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f w i n n i p e g , m . c . s . , r e g e n t c o l l e g e , a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f m a s t e r o f a r t s i n t h e f a c u l t y o f g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s ( d e p a r t m e n t o f h i s t o r y ) w e a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a a p r i l , © s t e v e n m a r k s c h r o e d e r , i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l fulfilment o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e at t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , i a g r e e t h a t t h e l i b r a r y s h a l l m a k e it f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . i f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s m a y b e g r a n t e d b y t h e h e a d o f m y d e p a r t m e n t o r b y h i s o r h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . it i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d w i t h o u t m y w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . d e p a r t m e n t o f h i s t o r y t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a v a n c o u v e r , c a n a d a d a t e a p r i l . a b s t r a c t t h e m e n n o n i t e p e o p l e find t h e i r r o o t s i n t h e s w i s s a n a b a p t i s t m o v e m e n t o f the e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . b o t h c a t h o l i c a n d p r o t e s t a n t p e r s e c u t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p e r s e d t h e n o n c o n f o r m i s t , n o n r e s i s t a n t a n a b a p t i s t s t h r o u g h o u t e u r o p e i n the f i r s t d e c a d e s o f the r e f o r m a t i o n . a l a r g e g r o u p settled i n t h e n e t h e r l a n d s , a n d c a m e to b e k n o w n as " m e n n o n i t e s " a f t e r t h e i r l e a d e r , m e n n o s i m o n s . b y the m i d - s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m a n y m e n n o n i t e s h a d e m i g r a t e d t o p r u s s i a , w h e r e t h e y w e r e p r o m i s e d m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n a n d r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . t h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e s h o w the l o n g s t a n d i n g m e n n o n i t e tenets o f f a i t h , b u t t r e s s e d b y s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s , w e r e s l o w l y e r o d e d i n p r u s s i a t h r o u g h the i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s t i d e a l s . t h e s h i f t s w e r e f u e l l e d b y the m e n n o n i t e s ' d e s i r e to s e c u r e t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e g e r m a n n a t i o n - s t a t e a n d t o p a r t a k e i n the a d v a n t a g e s o f c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s a n d n a t i o n a l a s s i m i l a t i o n . o v e r t i m e , the p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e i r t i m e - h o n o r e d b e l i e f s i n b e i n g " i n b u t n o t o f the w o r l d , " i n n o n r e s i s t a n c e , a n d i n n o t s w e a r i n g a n o a t h to " a n y t h i n g u n d e r h e a v e n o r o n e a r t h . " t h e s e c h a n g e s b e c a m e a b s o l u t e l y c r u c i a l t o the m a i n t e n a n c e o f the m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y i n p r u s s i a u n d e r n a z i s m , w h e n a l l a b l e - b o d i e d m e n n o n i t e m e n w i l l i n g l y s e r v e d i n the g e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s . t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s s u c c e e d e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r c o m m u n i t y u n d e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m u n t i l t h e a d v a n c i n g r u s s i a n a r m y d e s t r o y e d it i n . t h e c o s t , h o w e v e r , w a s e n o r m o u s . j u s t as a l l g e r m a n s f a c e t h e c o n t i n u a l s t r u g g l e o f r e b u i l d i n g t h e i r n a t i o n a n d r e - f o r m i n g t h e i r n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y , s o t o o a r e the m e n n o n i t e s f a c e d w i t h t h e o n g o i n g c h a l l e n g e s o f r e b u i l d i n g t h e i r c o m m u n i t y - p h y s i c a l l y , e m o t i o n a l l y a n d s p i r i t u a l l y . t h o s e p o s i t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n this p r o c e s s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n e x t r i c a b l y a f f e c t e d a n d c o n s t a n t l y b u r d e n e d b y p e r s o n a l a n d p o p u l a r m e m o r y , g r a p p l i n g , o f t e n u n a w a r e s , w i t h the p o l i t i c s o f t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o t h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e s t h e s e r e s p o n s e s o f d i s s o n a n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e l i n g e r i n g q u e s t i o n s that f a c e the g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s as t h e y c o n t i n u e t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r o w n u n i q u e f o r m o f vergangenheitsbewgltigung ( c o m i n g t o t e r m s w i t h the p a s t ) w i t h i n t h e b r o a d e r g e r m a n c o n t e x t . t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s a b s t r a c t t a b l e o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s i n t r o d u c t i o n c o m p e t i n g m y t h s : t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e g e r m a n n a t i o n - s t a t e a n d a n a b a p t i s t m a r t y r o l o g y a h i s t o r y o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , - p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h a f t e r m a t h vergangenheitsbewaltigung i l l u s t r a t i o n s b i b l i o g r a p h y iv t a b l e o f i l l u s t r a t i o n s f i g u r e t h e k y f f h a u s e r m o n u m e n t i n t h u r i n g i a f i g u r e a t h e f o r m u s e d b y m e n n o n i t e s i n l i e u o f s w e a r i n g a n o a t h t o t h e g e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t u p o n c o n s c r i p t i o n a f t e r , p a g e s a n d f i g u r e b t h e f o r m u s e d b y m e n n o n i t e s i n l i e u o f s w e a r i n g a n o a t h t o t h e g e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t u p o n c o n s c r i p t i o n a f t e r , p a g e s a n d f i g u r e w o r l d w a r t w o m e m o r i a l at b o c k e n h e i m f i g u r e t h e m e m o r i a l e r e c t e d at w e i e r h o f i n m e m o r y o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s w h o p e r i s h e d d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r v a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s i w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n t o d r . c h r i s t o p h e r f r i e d r i c h s f o r h i s o u t s t a n d i n g g u i d a n c e i n t h i s p r o j e c t a n d t h r o u g h o u t m y t i m e i n t h e m a p r o g r a m . i w o u l d a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k d r . s t e v e n t a u b e n e c k f o r h i s u n w a v e r i n g s u p p o r t a n d i n v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t s , a n d d r . j o h n c o n w a y f o r h i s g e n e r o s i t y o v e r t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f t h e w i s d o m i m p a r t e d , t h e g u i d a n c e g i v e n , a n d m a k i n g p o s s i b l e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m e t o c o n d u c t r e s e a r c h i n g e r m a n y t h r o u g h t h e c o n w a y t r a v e l s c h o l a r s h i p i n g e r m a n h i s t o r y . t h e findings f r o m t h a t e x c u r s i o n a r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h i s t h e s i s . f i n a l l y , i w o u l d l i k e t o e x p r e s s m y l o v i n g g r a t i t u d e t o m y b e s t f r i e n d a n d w i f e r e b e c c a , f o r h e r s t e a d f a s t l o v e , h e r s u p p o r t a n d h e r c h e e r . t h i s p r o j e c t i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e l i v i n g m e m o r y o f s i e g f r i e d , w h o i m p a r t e d l i f e a n d l o v e t o m e i n m a n y w a y s a n d , t o g e t h e r w i t h e r n a , e q u i p p e d m e w i t h t h o s e t h i n g s m o s t v a l u a b l e . how woeful it will be for all those who have so easily allowed themselves to be misled into participation in these heroic deeds praised by the world, if they shall hear in eternity how hell echoes with the howling of those who -possibly through their own bullets, swords, or spears - were torn away from the time of grace during which they could have repented and been saved. - wilhelm ewert, elder at obernessau, introduction a t t e m p t s t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h g e r m a n y ' s n a z i p a s t h a v e b e e n , a n d c o n t i n u e t o b e , v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c . i n t e n s e e m o t i o n , g r i e f , a n d c o n f u s i o n c o n t i n u a l l y a f f e c t t h e g e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t , c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d i n d i v i d u a l s a s t h e y e n d e a v o r t o r e f l e c t a d e q u a t e l y a n d a p p r o p r i a t e l y o n t h e n a z i e r a - i n m o n u m e n t s , m u s e u m s , m e m o r i a l s - a n d t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h w h a t c h a r l e s m a i e r h a s c a l l e d t h e " u n m a s t e r a b l e p a s t . " s o m e h a v e t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d t h e c h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s i n g e r m a n y d u r i n g t h e a n d s , w o n d e r i n g h o w t h o s e w h o c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e g u a r d i a n s o f m o r a l i t y i n s o c i e t y c o u l d h a v e f a i l e d t o r e s i s t t h e n a z i machtergreifung a n d i n e f f e c t i v e l y r e s i s t i n g n a z i p o l i c i e s t h e r e a f t e r . i n t h e s e i n q u i r i e s , t h e f r e e c h u r c h e s i n g e r m a n y h a v e n o t r e c e i v e d a s m u c h a t t e n t i o n a s t h e m a i n l i n e c h r i s t i a n d e n o m i n a t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e r e l a t i v e o b s c u r i t y o f t h e i r h i s t o r y d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y d u r i n g t h e t h i r d r e i c h f a l l s i n t o t h i s l a t t e r c a t e g o r y . d e s c e n d e n t s o f t h e f r i s i a n a n d f l e m i s h m e n n o n i t e s , t h e the response of wilhelm ewert, elder in the mennonite church at obernessau, to the declaration by jakob mannhardt, elder in the danzig church, that mennonites should give up wehrlosigkeit and join in the obligations of all citizens after : john thiessen, "the first duty of the citizen: mennonite identity and military exemption in prussia, - ," vamennonite quarterly review, ( ), pp. - . charles maier, the unmasterable past: history, holocaust, and german national identity, nded.. (cambridge, ). christian neff points out that 'flemish' and 'frisian' were 'party names' and were not to be strictly associated with mennonites in the respective regions. the origin of the differentiation, however, came —when flemish mennonites arrived in friesland after fleeing persecution. the more modest frisian mennonites saw them as 'worldly'. christian neff, "flemish mennonites" in bender, h . and smith, c . henry (eds.), mennonite encyclopedia (newton, ), volume ii, p. . m e n n o n i t e s i n p r u s s i a i n i t i a l l y s e t t l e d i n d u c a l , o r e a s t , p r u s s i a a n d i n p o l i s h , o r w e s t , p r u s s i a b e t w e e n d a n z i g a n d t h o r n a f t e r fleeing p e r s e c u t i o n i n t h e n e t h e r l a n d s . t h i s s t u d y w i l l b e c h i e f l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s e g r o u p s , a n d w i t h t h e n o r t h g e r m a n a n d r h e n i s h m e n n o n i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t h a t j o i n e d t h e p r u s s i a n - b a s e d vereinigung der mennonitengemeinden f o u n d e d i n . b u i l t o n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n a b a p t i s t t r a d i t i o n , t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e m e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n l i e s i n a s t r i c t ' t w o - k i n g d o m t h e o l o g y , ' n o n c o n f o r m i t y , f r e e d o m o f c o n s c i e n c e , r e f u s a l t o s w e a r a n o a t h t o a n y e a r t h l y r u l e r , o r b e a r a r m s , a n d sola scriptura ( t h e a x i o m t h a t s c r i p t u r e s a l o n e w e r e s u f f i c i e n t i n g u i d i n g o n e t h r o u g h l i f e ) . t h e m e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n g r e w i n a c o n t e x t o f g r e a t i n s e c u r i t y , u n d e r g o i n g p e r s e c u t i o n a n d e x p u l s i o n i n m a n y a r e a s o f t h e h o l y r o m a n e m p i r e d u r i n g t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , a s t h e i r m e n n o n i t e b e l i e f s w e r e i n h e r e n t l y i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d g o v e r n i n g p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s . o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , t h i s i n s e c u r i t y d e v e l o p e d i n t o a n e n d e m i c f e a t u r e o f p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t i s m , a s i t s m e m b e r s c o n t i n u e d i n t h e i r s t r u g g l e f o r a c c e p t a n c e i n t h e p r u s s i a n k i n g d o m . d u r i n g t h e n a z i e r a , duke albrecht von hohenzollern created the secular duchy of east prussian in , after a long dispute with his uncle, polish king zygmunt i. the duchy became a haven for heretics in the sixteenth century. the persecuted anabaptists took advantage of this, especially after , the year of: the minister uprising; an anabaptist attack on the amsterdam city hall; and a similar attack on the oldeklooster in friesland. after the mennonites settled mostly along the memel river in east prussia, bishop speratus expelled them from the region for not adhering to prussian church doctrine concerning baptism and communion. this prompted many to move to the vistula delta and danzig during - , where k i n g zygmunt granted them the swampy land. peter j. klassen, "faith and culture in conflict: mennonites in the vistula delta," in mennonite quarterly review, : ( ), p. . the region west of the nogat river was ceded to the polish king, kazimierz iv, in . the king refused to accept immigrating heretics, particularly as there was a hanseatic ban on doing so (the consequence of not adhering to the ban was banishment from the hanseatic league, which would have had dire affect on the economy of tire city of danzig). klassen, "faith and culture" p. . the vereinigung der mennoniten-gemeinden im deutschen reich included congregations in east and west prussia, the palatinate and hesse. the vereinigung, founded in berlin in , was constituted thus: north german congregations, in the palatinate; since , it included all german mennonite congregations except for those in the verband. the vereinigung secured its status as public corporation in the early twentieth century. (emil haendiges served as president during - ). ernst crous - "vereinigung der mennoniten-gemeinden im deutschland" in bender and smith, volume v , p. . the badisch-wurttembergisch-bayerischer gemeindeverband (five, verband) was a union of congregations in t h e m e n n o n i t e s c o m p r o m i s e d t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n a l b e l i e f s a n d s y n t h e s i z e d t h e i r n o n c o n f o r m i s t , ' n o t o f t h e w o r l d ' m e n n o n i t i s m w i t h g e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m . m o s t m e n n o n i t e s i n p r u s s i a s u p p o r t e d t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t s a n d s e n t a l l o f t h e i r a b l e - b o d i e d d r a f t - a g e m e n t o e n l i s t i n t h e g e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r . w h i l e t h e m e n n o n i t e s t o d a y s h a r e i n t h e s t r u g g l e s o f t h e b r o a d e r g e r m a n n a t i o n w h e n c o m i n g t o t e r m s w i t h t h i s p a r t o f t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e y m u s t a l s o d e a l w i t h t h e a d d e d c o n u n d r u m o f h a v i n g c o m p r o m i s e d f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s o f t h e i r o w n m e n n o n i t e f a i t h . l i k e s o m e o f t h e i r g e r m a n n e i g h b o r s , m a n y m e n n o n i t e s f e e l t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d r i d i c u l e d f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n a n d a n d h a v e b e e n m i s r e p r e s e n t e d a n d c o n d e m n e d i n b o t h p o p u l a r a n d s c h o l a r l y h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s . t h e p o p u l a r r e n d i t i o n o f t h e g e r m a n s o f t h e t h i r d r e i c h b e i n g a n a t i o n o f h o m o g e n o u s d e p r a v i t y , a c c o r d i n g t o o n e m e n n o n i t e v e t e r a n o f t h e luftwaffe, i s t h e r e s u l t o f " h o c u s p o c u s . " t o a n o t h e r v e t e r a n it i s s i m p l y " a h i s t o r i c a l j o k e . " t h i s s t u d y s e e k s t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d i t s a c t i o n s i n t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t e r a . i n t h i s q u e s t , t h e d e e p - s e a t e d n a t i o n a l a n d r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s t h a t s e r v e d i n s h a p i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' l i v e s w i l l b e e x a m i n e d - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n o r d e r t o c o m e t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w g e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m a n d n o n c o n f o r m i s t a n a b a p t i s m m e r g e d i n a c o l l a b o r a t i v e s y n t h e s i s d u r i n g t h e t h i r d r e i c h . competing myths: formation of the german nation-state and anabaptist martyrology t h e k y f t h a u s e r m o n u m e n t i n t h u r i n g i a i s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l n a t i o n a l m o n u m e n t t h a t h a s s e r v e d i n s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e n o t i o n t h a t h i s t o r y h a d p r e d e s t i n e d t h e baden, in wurttemberg, in the palatinate, in bavaria (totaling in ). harold bender, "badisch-wiirttembergisch-bayerischer gemeindeverband" in bender and smith, volume i, p. . interview of walter regehr by author, july, (winnipeg, m b ) . u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e u n d e r t h e m i g h t y e m p e r o r w i l h e l m i. a p l a c e o f p i l g r i m a g e i n t h e m i d d l e a g e s , t h e l e g e n d a r y m o u n t a i n o n w h i c h t h e m o n u m e n t r e s t s w a s b e l i e v e d t o b e t h e h o m e o f e m p e r o r f r i e d r i c h i b a r b a r o s s a . f r i e d r i c h , o r ' r e d b e a r d ' , w a s b e l i e v e d t o b e s l u m b e r i n g w i t h i n t h e m o u n t a i n , w a i t i n g f o r t h e o p p o r t u n e e p o c h t o a w a k e a n d e m e r g e - w h i c h w o u l d b e s i g n a l e d b y t h e s u d d e n d e p a r t i n g o f t h e n u m e r o u s r a v e n s t h a t c o n t i n u a l l y c i r c l e d t h e m o u n t a i n - i n o r d e r t o r e - u n i t e t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e a s h e h a d d o n e d u r i n g h i s g l o r i o u s r e i g n a s h o l y r o m a n e m p e r o r i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y . a f t e r t h e g e r m a n v i c t o r y i n t h e f r a n c o - p r u s s i a n w a r , t h e m y t h w a s r e s u r r e c t e d a n d u s e d b y t h e g e r m a n m i l i t a r y a n d g o v e r n m e n t i n s e c u r i n g w i l h e l m ' s p r o p e r p l a c e i n h i s t o r y . i n d e e d , t h e r e a s o n d r . w e s t p h a l , c a p t a i n i n t h e a r m y a n d s e c r e t a r y o f t h e g e r m a n s o l d i e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n , p r o p o s e d t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e m o n u m e n t i n w a s " b e c a u s e e m p e r o r w h i t e b e a r d h a s f u l f i l l e d t h e s a g a a n d r e d e e m e d e m p e r o r r e d b e a r d . " u t h e r a v e n s f o u n d a n e w h o m e , t h e m o n u m e n t w a s e r e c t e d , a n d t h e s o l d i e r s ' a s s o c i a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d t h e "kyffhauserbund der deutschen landeskriegerverbdnde" i n i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e m o n u m e n t , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e l e g e n d o f r e d b e a r d a n d t h e m e m o r y o f t h e s o l d i e r s w h o f u l f i l l e d t h e l e g e n d . interview of siegfried bartel by author, april, (agassiz, b c ) . from the political essays and poetry created throughout the nineteenth century, it is evident that not everyone in germany agreed that die legend of barbarossa and the kyffhauser mountain should be interpreted in such a way as to promote german imperialism. the burschenschaften, for example, opposed imperialist nationalists, and expressed their sentiments in a poem that addressed the legend of redbeard: "das beste ware, du bliebst zu haus, hier in dem alten kyffhauser - bedenk ich die sache ganz genau, so brauchen wir gar keinen kaiser." (it would be best, i f you stayed at home, here in the old kyffhauser - if i think this over carefully, we do not need a kaiser). albrecht timm, der kyffhauser im deutschen geschichtsbild (gottingen, ), p. . —.' literature obtained at the kyffhauser monument in , a new committee was established to manage the monument, the "deutschen reichskriegerbund kyffhauser" which became the "ns-reichskriegerbund kyffhauser" after . t i m m , p. . t h i s o f f i c i a l , n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c c e s s f u l l y b o l s t e r e d a s t r o n g i m a g e o f t h e n e w n a t i o n - s t a t e . e r i c h o b s b a w m , h o w e v e r , l i n k s t h e n o t i o n o f i n v e n t i o n t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n e w t r a d i t i o n s i n g e r m a n y , c l a i m i n g t h a t " t h e r e a l n a t i o n c a n o n l y b e r e c o g n i z e d aposteriorf,i a n d t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d t r a p p i n g s h e i d e n t i f i e d a n d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o d e r n n a t i o n h o o d s e r v e d i n t h a t p r o c e s s . t h e n e w g e r m a n n a t i o n s o u g h t t o c r e a t e a s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e p a s t . n a t i o n a l s y m b o l s , m o n u m e n t s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s o f c i t i z e n s h i p w e r e e i t h e r c r e a t e d o r r e - c o n s t r u e d t o s e r v e i n d e f i n i n g t h e n a t i o n , w i t h t h e m o s t u n a m b i g u o u s e m b o d i m e n t o f m a s c u l i n i t y , m i l i t a r i s m , a n d n a t i o n a l i s m b e i n g f o u n d i n t h e k y f f h a u s e r m o n u m e n t ( s e e f i g u r e ). t h e m a i n c o m p o n e n t o f t h e m o n u m e n t i s a n e q u e s t r i a n s t a t u e o f w i l h e l m i, m o u n t e d h i g h a b o v e t h e s c u l p t e d i m a g e o f t h e a w a k e n i n g b a r b a r o s s a . t h e k a i s e r i s f l a n k e d b y t h e a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s o f h i s t o r y a n d w a r a s h e g a z e s v i c t o r i o u s l y o v e r t h e t h u r i n g i a n p l a i n s b e l o w . h i g h a t o p t h e m o n u m e n t , a c r o w n r e s t s o n a v a c a n t t h r o n e . h e r e , t h e r e i s a c l e a r i n t e n t t o p e r p e t u a t e n o t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y , d e s t i n y , a n d u n i t y - a l l o f w h i c h w e r e r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h blut und eisen f o r t h e s e c u r i n g o f blut und boden a n d t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e volksgemeinschaft ( p e o p l e ' s c o m m u n i t y ) . see chapter six of benedict anderson, imagined communities (new york, ). here, anderson discusses the elitist control of national identity formation, resulting in 'official nationalism.' eric hobsbawm, nations and nationalism. (cambridge, ), p. . also, see john breuilly, the formation of the first german nation-state, - . (newsyork: st. martins, ), p. . such as national flags, monuments, national anthems, etc. see eric hobsbawm, "mass-producing traditions: europe - " in the invention of tradition, (cambridge, ), p. . hobsbawm, "mass-producing", p. - . examples include: the memorial to arminius the cheruscan being nationalized in ; the erection of the niederwald monument on the rhine to commemorate german unification; the memorial cemetery commemorating the battle of leipzig (in ). hobsbawm, "mass-producing", p. . after unification, the german government entrenched further the prussian citizenship laws introduced in , which _ differentiated between staatsangehdrigkeit (formal state membership), staatsburgerschaft (participatory citizenship) and volkszugehdrigkeit (ethnocultural, national membership). rogers brubaker citizenship and nationhood in france and germany. (cambridge, ), p. . n a t u r a l l y , n o t a l l g e r m a n s s h a r e d i n t h e e n t h u s i a s m o f t h e n e w n a t i o n a l m y t h i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , o r i n i t s a c c o m p a n y i n g " p r u s s i a n i z a t i o n " - m o s t l y i n v o l v i n g i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o l a n g u a g e a n d a d h e r e n c e t o p r o t e s t a n t i s m , a s w i t n e s s e d i n t h e kulturkampf a n d r e i c h p o l i c y v i s - a - v i s g e r m a n k i n g d o m s o u t s i d e o f p r u s s i a . i n t h e c a s e o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , g e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m e v o k e d a n a m b i v a l e n t r e s p o n s e . o n t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e , t h e h a r d w o r k i n g n o t i o n s e n d o r s e d b y t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e , e c h o i n g t h e i d e a o f a n a t i o n b u i l t o n blut undboden, r e s o n a t e d w i t h t h e m . t h e y w e r e e t h n i c a l l y g e r m a n , s p o k e t h e g e r m a n l a n g u a g e a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e p a r t o f a f r e e c h u r c h t r a d i t i o n , m o s t o f t h e i r m i n i s t e r s w e r e t r a i n e d i n s t a t e - r u n l u t h e r a n u n i v e r s i t i e s . i n s h o r t , t h e y w e r e m o s t l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n p r u s s i a b y t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , d e s i r e d t o p a r t a k e o f a l l t h e p o s i t i v e e l e m e n t s o f b e i n g g e r m a n a n d w a n t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e f u l l y i n g e r m a n y s o c i e t y . o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a s o u t l i n e d a b o v e , t h e m e n n o n i t e s w a n t e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e c u l t u r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s t h a t g a v e t h e m a s t r o n g s e n s e o f g r o u p i d e n t i t y a n d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r c h e r i s h e d h i s t o r y . t h e s e t r a d i t i o n s e s s e n t i a l l y r a n c o u n t e r t o s o m e o f t h e m a i n e l e m e n t s i n m o d e r n g e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m a n d , n a t u r a l l y , w e r e d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d t o t h e m i l i t a r y e t h o s t h a t w a s i m m o r t a l i z e d a t t h e k y f f h a u s e r m o n u m e n t . in "german mennonites, economics and the state", james lichti links what he calls 'bread and sweat' with 'blut und boden', asserting that "mennonite stewardship norms did overlap at points with those of national socialism." in calvin redekop, victor krahn and samuel steiner (eds.), anabaptist/mennonite faith and economics (new york, ), pp. - . the mennonites maintained their frisian and flemish divisions and the dutch language until . thereafter, they conducted religious services in high german. edmund kizik, "religious freedom and the limits of social assimilation: the history of the mennonites in danzig and the vistula delta until their tragic end after world war ii" in alastair hamilton, sjouke voolstra and piet visser (eds.), from martyr to muppy: mennonite urban professionals (amsterdam, ), p. . diether goetz lichdi explains how mennonite ministers traveled throughout germany i n order to receive theological training in state universities after the mennonites began to focus on having 'professional,' or — seminary-trained pastors in the nineteenth century. leading pastors were: e m i l haendiges, elbing- ellerwald, editor of themennonitische blatter and chair of vereinigung; erich gottner, danzig; christian t h e c o u n t e r - m y t h t o t h e k y f f h a u s e r l e g e n d , w h i c h s e r v e s a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f m e n n o n i t e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g , o r i g i n a t e s i n t h e e u r o p e - w i d e a n a b a p t i s t m o v e m e n t , o r s e c o n d f r o n t o f t h e r e f o r m a t i o n . t h e c o l l e c t i v e i d e n t i t y o f t h i s g r o u p c a n b e t r a c e d t o t h e l i n e a g e o f n o n r e s i s t a n t m a r t y r s w h o w e r e p e r s e c u t e d a n d k i l l e d a f t e r t h e d i e t o f s p e y e r i n , w h i c h o f f i c i a l l y o u t l a w e d t h e s e c t . t h e r e a f t e r , t h e a n a b a p t i s t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c o n v e r t e d d u t c h p r i e s t m e n n o s i m o n s , w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y o n t h e r u n t h r o u g h o u t t h e h o l y r o m a n e m p i r e . t h e y w e r e e x p e l l e d from a a c h e n , c o l o g n e , b u r t s c h e i d a n d o d e n k i r c h e n i n t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s e s t a b l i s h e d a p e r s e c u t i o n c o m p l e x a m o n g t h e a n a b a p t i s t s , a d d i n g a n i n h e r e n t i n s e c u r i t y t o t h e g r o u p ' s s e l f - i d e n t i t y . i n h i s t e a c h i n g s , m e n n o c o n s i d e r e d t h e u s e o f f o r c e t o b e a n a c h r o n i s t i c , s u i t a b l e o n l y f o r t h e p r e - c h r i s t i a n e r a , c l a i m i n g : moses and his successors have served their day with their sword of iron, and... christ has now given us a new commandment and has girded us with another sword. d r i v i n g t h i s s t r o n g n o n r e s i s t a n t s t a n c e w a s t h e d e s i r e a m o n g m a i n s t r e a m a n a b a p t i s t s t o d i s t a n c e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e a n a b a p t i s t s w h o w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e p e a s a n t s w a r a n d t h e neff, weierhof; benjamin unruh, the 'vertreter der russland mennoniten'. diether goetz lichdi, mermoniten im dritten reich: dokumentation und deutung (weierhof, ), p. - . leonard verduin, the reformers and their stepchildren (grand rapids, ) p . l . adherents of the movement established themselves in thuringia, switzerland, tyrol, holland and northern germany. in , the imperial diet of speyer, by edict of oudawry effective throughout the empire, practically eliminated hopes of milder treatment of the persecuted anabaptists. executions of anabaptists were common and numerous. the great leaders of the anabaptism - conrad grebel, felix manz, george blaurock, william reublin, john brotli, michael sattler and balthasar hubmaier were all dead by . the original settlers in prussia had migrated directly from the dutch mennonite community, fleeing the duke of alva's blood council in the mid-sixteenth century. c. henry smith, the story of the mennonites (newton, ), p. . _ ernst crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . menno simons, "the cross of the saints, c. ," in john c. wenger (ed.), the complete writings of menno simons c. - (scottsdale, ), p. . attempted theocracy at miinster in , w h i c h earned them the stigma o f being schwdrmer, or fanatics. in " t h e cross o f the saints," m e n n o claimed: "the miinsterites were seditious and acted contrary to the w o r d o f g o d . . . we deny that w e are a piece o f t h e m . " the anabaptists who adopted his name in , forming the mennonites, o f f i c i a l l y accepted the main tenets o f the swiss anabaptist schleitheim confession o f . they embraced nonresistance, not swearing an oath to any temporal power, belief in the separation o f church and state, and they adopted s i m o n ' s insistence on staving o f f secular influences on the conscience, w h i c h was to be chiefly guided by the scriptures alone (sola scriptura). first published in , thieleman van braght's famous m a r k e r spiegel der wehrlosen christen (martyr's mirror of the defenseless christians) consolidated an anabaptist/mennonite martyrology that bolstered the movement's self-defined collective the episode at miinster witnessed jan matty's and his successor jan van leiden attempt to forcibly transform the city into the new jerusalem prophesied in the book of reveladon. the local catholic bishop, with support of the german princes, laid siege to miinster, and made short order of the 'theocracy.' in the end, van leiden and his cohorts, including menno simons' brother, were killed and his remains, along with those of two other leaders of the movement, were displayed in the wiedertquferktifige that were mounted on the lamberti kirche in minister and are currently extant smith, pp. - . the mainstream anabaptists managed to stave off this association with fanaticism. they were, however, still seen as very radical and very dangerous, both by the roman catholic church and protestant reformers alike, particularly as they refused the entrenched coercionism of the establishment which, in their view, was "foreign to the true faith." the anabaptists and their radical voluntarism, rejection of the establishment and nonresistance were dubbed stabler or cane-carriers, much like the donatists and waldenses of past epochs. not merely rebels, these people believed that they were set apart from other denominations that claimed to be christian. they belonged to the one, true christian church, and individual conscience, rather than conformity to the ways of the world, served as their guide. verduin, p. - . menno simons, "the cross," p. . also see harold bender, the anabaptists and religious liberty in the sixteenth century fj'hiladelphia, ) p. . written by michael sattler in , the seven points of the schleitheim confession addressed proper behavior concerning the following: baptism; excommunication; breaking of bread; separation from the abomination (evildoers); pastors; nonresistance; and refusal to swear oaths. lowell zuck (ed.) christianity and revolution: radical christian testimonies - (temple university, ), p. . bender, "the anabaptists," p. . menno simons, "the new birth," in john c . wenger (ed.), the complete writings of menno simons c. - (scottsdale, ), p. . i d e n t i t y a s t h e " t r u e b e l i e v e r s " - c o m p l e t e w i t h m o r a l r o l e - m o d e l s a n d h e r o e s . i n t h e mirror, v a n b r a g h t p o i n t e d t o t h e f a l l a c i o u s b e l i e f s o f a p o s t o l i c s u c c e s s i o n h e l d b y b o t h p r o t e s t a n t s a n d r o m a n c a t h o l i c s , c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e s u c c e s s i o n o f t h e t r u e c h u r c h i s f o u n d i n " t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e a p o s t l e s , [ w h i c h ] w e b e l i e v e i n o u r h e a r t , a n d c o n f e s s w i t h o u r m o u t h s . " t h e t r u e b e l i e v e r s , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o t h e t r u e c h u r c h , a r e d e p i c t e d a s t h o s e w h o w e r e b a p t i z e d u p o n c o n f e s s i o n o f f a i t h - s t a r t i n g w i t h j e s u s c h r i s t , a n d c o n t i n u i n g o n t o t h e a n a b a p t i s t r e f o r m e r s . t h r o u g h t h e mirror a n d o t h e r w o r k s , m e n n o n i t e s c a m e t o a c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s t h e t r u e s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e o n e t r u e c h u r c h , w h o s e d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w a s t h a t o f b e i n g wehrlose christen. a history of the prussian mennonites, - if the lord values a soul more than the whole world, what a pitiable price to pay for decorations, incorporation laws, legal equalization with other denominations, security of property, and the honor of fatherland and nation — in return to become companions in a work by which hundreds of thousands of souls, in a moment when they are fired by hate and bitterness, are thrown into eternity. and in this we should help and not rather take up our pilgrim's staff and go to where we are free from such awful doings and where we will gladly be received. - w i l h e l m ewert, elder at obernessau, . one classic story that appears in the mirror is that of dirk willems. while being pursued by his enemies, the 'heretic' dirk ran over an ice-coated river. a man pursuing him crashed through the ice and cried for help. dirk, out of love for his enemy, decided to turn back and save the man's life. he succeeded, but, as a result of his actions, was caught by the other men pursuing him. they, in turn, arrested and executed dirk as a heretic, despite his good deed. thieleman j. van braght, martyr's mirror of the defenseless christians (kitchener, ), p. . historian c. henry smith adds that menno simons also had numerous legends surrounding his life, many of which include 'miraculous' elements that account for menno's ability to elude his assailants. smith, p. . van braght steers the reader away from competing notions of personal apostolic succession, and focuses on doctrine. van braght, p. . some did not hold this view in the same manner, and continued to focus on apostolic succession. this is evident in ignaz franz's anabaptist hymn, written in : " l o the apostolic train; join thy sacred name to hallow prophets swell and glad refrain; and the white-robed martyrs follow; and from mom til set of sun; through the church the song goes on." grosser gott wir loben dich, ignaz franz , from te deum laudamus, late fourth century. other related martyrological accounts include: hutterite chronicles by kaspar braitmichel ( ) and a history of the martyrs or true witnesses to jesus christ ( ). cornelius dyck, " t h e suffering church in anabaptism" in mennonite quarterly review ( ), p. . the response of wilhelm ewert, elder in the mennonites church at obernessau, to the declaration by ~ jakob mannhardt, elder in the danzig church, that mennonites should give up wehrlosigkeit and join in the obligations of all citizens after . here he is also addressing those mennonites who wish to emigrate in order to escape the distressing situatiou john thiessen, "the first duty," pp. - . i n t h e r e m a r k s q u o t e d a b o v e , w i l h e l m e w e r t w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h m e n n o n i t e a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o p r u s s i a n s o c i e t y a t a t i m e w h e n t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y - w h i c h c o n s i s t e n t l y m a i n t a i n e d a p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y - w a s f a c e d w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t i m p o s i t i o n o f l a w s t h a t t h r e a t e n e d s o m e o f t h e i r c h e r i s h e d b e l i e f s a n d t r a d i t i o n s . t h e c o n c e r n w a s w e l l - w a r r a n t e d , a s t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , b y e w e r t ' s t i m e , h a d d r i f t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m t h e b e l i e f s o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e n n o n i t e s e t t l e r s i n t h e a r e a , w h o h a d b e e n i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h m e n n o s i m o n s a n d h i s t e a c h i n g s . t o b e s u r e , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s h a d a c c e p t e d t h e d u t c h m e n n o n i t e d o r d r e c h t c o n f e s s i o n i n - w h i c h w a s b a s e d o n t h e e a r l i e r a n a b a p t i s t c o n f e s s i o n a t s c h l e i t h e i m - a n d h a d f o r m e d t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e t h e o l o g i c a l u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . t h e o r i g i n a l t h e o l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t a b a t e t h e t e n d e n c y t o w a r d a d e s i r e t o a s s i m i l a t e i n t o p r u s s i a n c u l t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d e n d u r e d g r e a t h a r d s h i p s d u r i n g t h e r e f o r m a t i o n . a f t e r t h e g r e a t e l e c t o r e m b r a c e d p i e t i s m , p r u s s i a b e c a m e a s t r i c t " m a r r i a g e o f p i e t i s m a n d t h e d r i l l s q u a r e . " b y t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b o t h p i e t i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m h a d m a d e s i g n i f i c a n t i n r o a d s i n t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y t h r o u g h t h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f p a l a t i n a t e a n d the mennonite population in prussia from the early nineteenth century to remained between ( ) and ( ), or approximately . % of the german population. in the census, there was a total of mennonites in all of germany, the majority residing in east and polish prussia and danzig. most migration, except for the russian exodus in the s, was internal urbanization to danzig, berlin, hamburg/altona, crefeld, neuwied, cologne, dusseldorf, etc. horst penner, die ost- und westpreufiischen mennoniten. teil ii, (weierhof, ), pp. , . also, see ernst helmreich, the german churches under hitler fxjetroit, ), p. . simons visited the mennonites of the vistula delta in and in a letter exhorted them to a life of peace amongst themselves, and with those outside the community. "exhortation to a church in prussia, c. ," in wenger, - . the connection between simons the prussian church is also seen in the _fact that dirk philips, a close cohort of simons, served as the first elder of the danzig mennonite church. e . j. feuchtwanger, prussia: myth and reality: the role of prussia in german history (london, ), p. . w e s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r s , a n d l e d t o f u n d a m e n t a l s h i f t s i n m e n n o n i t e t h e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n . t h e m e n n o n i t e s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t find a c c o r d w i t h t h e k i n g ' s " m a r r i a g e " o f t h e i r b e l i e f s w i t h t h e " d r i l l s q u a r e " - a t l e a s t f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g . w h i l e s o m e o f t h e h o h e n z o l l e r n k i n g s i n p r u s s i a p r o p e r a n d s o m e o f t h e p o l i s h k i n g s i n p o l i s h p r u s s i a o f t e n r e s t r i c t e d , p e r s e c u t e d o r d e p o r t e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s b e t w e e n t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e r e w e r e a l s o m a n y e x a m p l e s o f p r i v i l e g i a b e i n g e x t e n d e d t o t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n t h i s p e r i o d , m o s t l y b e c a u s e b o t h k i n g d o m s v a l u e d m e n n o n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e c o n o m i e s a n d h o p e d t o c u r b m e n n o n i t e e m i g r a t i o n . a f t e r t h e first p a r t i t i o n o f p o l a n d i n , t h e m e n n o n i t e s o f e a s t a n d w e s t p r u s s i a w e r e u n i t e d u n d e r k i n g f r i e d r i c h ii. i m m e d i a t e l y t h e r e a f t e r ( ) , t h e ernst crous, "anabaptism, pietism, rationalism and german mennonites" in guy hershberger (ed.) the recovery of the anabaptist vision: a sixtieth anniversary tribute to harold h. bender (scottsdale, ), p. . the dissemination began in the mennonite seminary at amsterdam est. . jan deknatel a key figure there, and pastor in amsterdam since , enjoyed a close connection with the moravians and methodists. gerhard tersteegen (lower rhine) influenced prussians at neuwied and crefeld. similarly, pietism spread amongst notable mennonite preachers such as hans van steen, preacher in danzig from and martin mollinger, preacher at mannheim from , and danzig's isaak van duehren (converted in ) and heubuden's cornelius regier (converted ). thus, through embracing pietism - which stressed personal repentance of sin while not sharing the focus on holy living and discipleship found in traditional mennonite theology - mennonites gradually emerged from their seclusion, and essentially lost touch with sixteenth century anabaptism. crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . crous in hershberger, p. - . the lutheranism, liberalism and modernism taught in universities found their way into mennonite congregations. gustav kraemer in crefeld ( ff), and j . g . appeldoom in emden ( - ) were prominent representatives of these tendencies. a milder liberalism had appeared earlier in prussia proper with carl herder, pastor at neuwied - and at elbing in the progressive town congregation in - and with hermann gottlieb mannhardt pastor at danzig from . in general confessional boundaries had become lax in certain areas. in many cases, such as in crefeld and monsheim, lutheran and baptist pastors headed mennonite congregations. crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . see footnotes and . the city of danzig barred mennonites from trading in the city in the early sixteenth century. klassen, "faith and culture" p. . concessions were offered to the mennonites in terms of military service and guilds (a charter of liberties was issued in danzig praising the economic productivity of the mennonites and granting certain liberties and rights after the diet of thorn in ). h . g . mannhardt, "danzig mennonite church" in bender and smith, volume iii, p. . as mennonite nonconformity with the world was precisely what allowed them to become the best farmers, artisans, manufacturers, etc., rulers during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, such as polish k i n g wladislaus iv, held them in high regard. horst penner, "west prussia" in bender and smith, volume iv, p. . — friedrich wilhelm i, however, expelled the mennonites from the newly-established prussian kingdom in . most established a new life across the nogat river in polish prussia. klassen, "faith and culture," p. . m e n n o n i t e s s e n t a d e l e g a t i o n t o k o n i g s b e r g , w h e r e t h e y s u c c e s s f u l l y p e t i t i o n e d f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n . k i n g f r i e d r i c h i f s t o l e r a t i o n e d i c t o f o b l i g e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s , w h o w e r e g r a n t e d c i t i z e n s h i p a n d t h e p r i v i l e g e o f n o t s e r v i n g i n t h e a r m y " f o r a l l t i m e , " w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y p a y a m i l i t a r y t a x o f t a l e r s p e r y e a r t o t h e a c a d e m y a t k u l m f o r t h i s c o n c e s s i o n . t h o s e u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h p a y i n g t h e t a x a n d w i t h k i n g f r i e d r i c h ' s r e s t r i c t i o n s o n l a n d o w n i n g r i g h t s f o r m e n n o n i t e s w e r e f i n a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l m o t i v a t i o n t o e m i g r a t e . f i r s t , f r i e d r i c h w i l l i a m i p s e d i c t c o n c e r n i n g t h e f u t u r e o f m e n n o n i t i s m ( ) r e s t r i c t e d s h a r p l y t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o p u r c h a s e l a n d a n d o b l i g e d m e n n o n i t e l a n d o w n e r s t o p a y t h e r e g u l a r c h u r c h t a x r e q u i r e d o f m e m b e r s o f t h e l u t h e r a n c h u r c h e s w h i l e a t t h e s a m e t i m e it r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r e m i g r a t i o n f r o m p r u s s i a . t h e s e c o n d m o t i v a t i o n t o e m i g r a t e w a s f o u n d i n c a t h e r i n e t h e g r e a t ' s i n v i t a t i o n t o t h e m e n n o n i t e s a n d o t h e r s t o s e t t l e a n d f a r m i n t h e u k r a i n e i n . m a n y c h o s e t o f o l l o w t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e a n d o v e r c o m e t h e i r c i r c u m s t a n c e s b y e m i g r a t i n g t o r u s s i a , a n d t h o s e t h a t c h o s e t o r e m a i n i n p r u s s i a w e r e , n a t u r a l l y , o b l i g e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e i r b e l i e f s t o t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e s t a t e . e r n s t c r o u s c l a i m s t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n w o u l d h a v e c e a s e d t o e x i s t i n p r u s s i a i n t h i s p e r i o d h a d it n o t b e e n f o r t h e c o n t i n u a l l y - e x p a n d i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f p i e t i s m a n d emit haendiges, "the catastrophe of the west prussian mennonites," in the mennonite quarterly review : ( ), p. . while frederick n granted the mennonites military exemption, they were still subject to prussian law. consequentially, if a mennonite bought land in the vistula delta, he would be reducing the potential number of prussian recruits in the local regiments. therefore, military exemption was limited to those who owned less than hufen of land. kizik, p. . klassen, "faith and culture," p. . in attempts to prevent farmers, artisans, business persons and laborers from leaving the prussian government denied permission to emigrate, impeded the sale or purchase of land or other possessions and refused to process documents. mennonite efforts in berlin in to expand land-holding rights were overruled, which resulted in many choosing to emigrate. peter j. klassen, "barriers to emigration from - p r u s s i a " in mennonite quarterly review ( ), p. . r a t i o n a l i s m w h i c h , h e a s s e r t s , a f f o r d e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s a p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l v i t a l i t y t h a t t h e y w e r e l a c k i n g at t h e t i m e . w i t h t h a t v i t a l i t y , h o w e v e r , c a m e d r a s t i c a l t e r a t i o n s t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e n n o n i t e s t a n c e o f n o n r e s i s t a n c e , p e r h a p s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a d g a i n e d f u l l c i t i z e n s h i p u n d e r f r i e d r i c h w i l h e l m iii i n . w i t h t h e f r e n c h g a i n i n g g r e a t i n f l u e n c e i n p r u s s i a a f t e r t h e p e a c e o f l u n e v i l l e i n a n d t h e p e a c e o f a m i e n s i n , t h e m e n n o n i t e s b e g a n t o s h o w a c t i v e , v o l u n t a r y s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r u s s i a n m i l i t a r y . t h i s t e n d e n c y t o s u p p o r t t h e m i l i t a r y d e v e l o p e d p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s o f w e s t e r n g e r m a n y i n t h e first h a l f o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . c r e f e l d ' s m e n n o n i t e b a n k e r a n d m e m b e r o f t h e p r u s s i a n a n d f r a n k f u r t p a r l i a m e n t s h e r m a n n v o n b e c k e r a t h b o l d l y s t a t e d i n : i think myself fortunate in belonging to one of the freest denominations. the time of privileges is gone. the modern state requires equal rights for all citizens, so the rhenish mennonites, with only few exceptions, are rendering their military service. nonresistance with them is no longer an integral part of their creed. t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n p r u s s i a , h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t e a g e r t o a l i g n t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e i r r h e n i s h b r e t h r e n , a n d o p p o s e d t h e p r u s s i a n c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h a t p r o c l a i m e d e q u a l d u t i e s f o r a l l c i t i z e n s . w e s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s p l e a d e d f o r t o l e r a t i o n o f t h e m e n n o n i t e p r i v i l e g e o f n o n r e s i s t a n c e i n a n d a g a i n a f t e r k i n g w i l h e l m i r e v o k e d t h e m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n f o r m e n n o n i t e s o n o c t o b e r , . a f t e r t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s a p p e a l e d t o w a r m i n i s t e r w a l d e m a r v o n r o o n a n d c r o w n p r i n c e f r i e d r i c h , w i l h e l m a g r e e d t o a g a i n g r a n t t h e catherine's manifesto invited foreigners to settle in the ukraine. through a special emissary, georg trappe, the mennonites in prussia were specifically invited with the promise of land, military exemption and a list of privileges. klassen, "barriers" p. . crous, "anabaptism," in hershberger, p. . see feuchtwanger, pp. - for a description of the increase in french presence and control in prussia. horst penner explains how the mennonites donated talers to k i n g friedrich iii upon his visit to konigsberg in , and in added talers to the compulsory war tax, and supported the war effort with horses, food, supplies, etc., while excommunicating those that enlisted in the army (revealing the fine line of 'proper' service). horst penner, "west prussia," in bender and smith, volume iv, p. . crous.. "germany," in bender and smith, volume u , p. . m e n n o n i t e s a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e r i g h t s i n a n o r d e r o f c a b i n e t o n m a r c h , , a n d t h e r i g h t f o r m e n n o n i t e s t o g u a r a n t e e t h e i r l o y a l t y t o t h e c r o w n w i t h a h a n d s h a k e i n s t e a d o f s w e a r i n g a n o a t h i n . a n d l o y a l t h e y w e r e . u p o n t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e f r a n c o - p r u s s i a n w a r , d a n z i g m i n i s t e r j a c o b m a n n h a r d t u r g e d h i s c o n g r e g a t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e w a r e f f o r t s h o r t o f b e a r i n g a r m s : e i n furchtbarer krieg ist zwischen frankreich und deutschland entstanden...also, dab aus alien stadten alt und jung, manner und frauen...durch personlichen dienst als krankenpfleger oder durch geld und darreichung anderer gaben, durch anfertigung von bekleidungs- und verbandsgegenstanden fur die ausriistung und versorgung der ins feld ausgeriickten scharen und die pflege und erquickung von verwundeten und erkrankten sorge zu tragen. w h i l e m o s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s d i d n o t c h o o s e t o b e a r a r m s i n t h i s p e r i o d , t h e i r o t h e r - w o r l d l y f o c u s a n d t w o - k i n g d o m t h e o l o g y h a d c e r t a i n l y u n d e r g o n e g r e a t c h a n g e , a s t h e y w e r e n o w p a r t i c i p a t i n g f u l l y i n t h e l i f e o f t h e n e w g e r m a n n a t i o n - s t a t e , e v e n w h i l e " a l e g a c y w a s b e i n g l o s t . " a r t i c l e o f t h e d a n z i g m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h c o n s t i t u t i o n o f n o v e m b e r p r o v i d e s a n e x c e l l e n t e x a m p l e o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e t r a d i t i o n s . it s t a t e s : " w h e n e v e r t h e f a t h e r l a n d r e q u i r e s m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e w e a l l o w t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e o f e a c h m e m b e r t o s e r v e i n t h a t f o r m w h i c h s a t i s f i e s h i m m o s t . " a c c o r d i n g t o m e n n o s i m o n s ' t e a c h i n g s , t h e i d e a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t a l l o w e d f o r t h e l i b e r t y o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e r e q u i r e d thiessen, "the first duty," p. . emil haendiges, historisches memorandum zur wehrlosigkeit der mennoniten (weierhof, ), pp. - . see jakos mannhardt, "konnen und durfen wir mennoniten der von dem staate geforderten wehrpflicht genugen?" inmennonitische blatter august ( ), pp. - for a more comprehensive account of mannhardt's views on mennonite involvement in war. (a terrible war has developed between france and germany. therefore, men and women, young and old, from all cities.. .are needed to serve as nurses, or through money or offering other gifts by which we can make up for the slander and prejudice and offer equipment to care for those in the field, and supply and care and concern for those who are injured). lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . klassen, "faith and culture" p. . haendiges, "catastrophe," p. t h a t t h e s t a t e r e f r a i n f r o m i n t e r f e r i n g i n c h u r c h a f f a i r s a n d t h a t , a f t e r a c c e p t a n c e o f f a i t h , o b e d i e n c e - t o a m o n o l i t h i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f " t h e f r u i t s o f t h e f a i t h " - w a s t o s u p e r s e d e t h e f r e e d o m o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e . h e r e , e n j o y i n g t o l e r a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d r e i c h , t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n p r u s s i a voluntarily a b a n d o n e d t h e c o l l e c t i v e " r i g h t p a t h " o f t h e c h r i s t i a n a s d e f i n e d b y s i m o n s . w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e , t h e y r e d e f i n e d s i m o n s ' t e a c h i n g s a n d a b a n d o n e d t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s a m e , a s p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y c a m e t o s u p e r s e d e t h e b i b l i c a l m a n d a t e t o " l o v e t h y n e i g h b o r " i n a u n i v e r s a l s e n s e . i n d e e d , b y w o r l d w a r i t h e n o t i o n o f n o n - r e s i s t a n c e w a s v i r t u a l l y n o n - e x i s t e n t a m o n g t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s . i n h . g . m a n n h a r d t ( d a n z i g e l d e r - ) w r o t e "taten undhelden", i n w h i c h h e c l a i m e d : doch was reden wir von der zukunft, wahrend doch die gegenwart alle unsere gedanken fur sich fordert? wir konnen jetzt nicht zusammenkornmen ohne unserer kampfenden und blutenden und besonders unserer gefallenen briider zu gedenken. taten und helden hat die not uns geboren... als schiller einst von vaterland und freiheit singen wollte, mufite er seine helden jenseits der deutschen grenzen suchen oder im fernen altertum..heute wiirde er das nicht tun...gott gebe uns jetzt und lninftig, im kriege wie im frieden, was wir dazu bediirfen: taten und helden! ron fraser asserts: "for menno, the state, in refraining from interference within the church, [provides] the circumstances for a faith based on liberty of conscience." ron fraser, christian freedom in the theology of menno simons. (vancouver, ), p. . see menno simons, "the new birth," pp. , . also, see fraser, p. . interview of diether goetz lichdi by author, june, (heilbronn, germany). also, see crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . while making the transition into military service, the south german mennonite conference published a leaflet warnungen und winke fur die milit&rzeit (kaiserlautern, ), encouraging mennonites to partake of all of the good things that the service had to offer, and warned against the tendency to lose faith while in the army, and adopting the military's mandate to hate the enemy. (why do we talk about the future, when the present requires all of our attention? we cannot meet now without thanking our fighting and injured and particularly our fallen brothers. the distress has given birth to actions and heroes... when schiller once wanted to sing about the fatherland and freedom, he had to look for heroes beyond the german border or in distant history. today that will not be the case... god, gives us now and in the future, in war as in peacetime, that which we require: actions and heroes!), h . g. mannhardt, taten und helden, (danzig, ), p. , . examples of a major shift in thought abound in this period. paul schowalter reveals how the kaiser influenced the mennonites in a reichstag speech, in which he called on germans to "kniet nieder vor gott und bittet ihn um hilfe fur unser braves heer" (kneel low before god and ask him to help our brave army). schowalter also describes the reflections of a mennonite woman who lost her son in battle: "gott gab ihn uns, wir gaben ihn dem vaterland." (god gave him to us, we gave him to the fatherland). paul schowalter, nationalismus undkrieg in denaugen der deutschen mennoniten im und jahrhundert (weierhof, ), unpublished paper, pp. , . diether o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s w h o w e r e d r a f t e d i n t o t h e g e r m a n a r m y i n f i r s t w o r l d w a r , s e v e n t y - f o u r b o r e a r m s , w h i l e t w e n t y - t w o w e r e i n v o l v e d i n m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g a n d e i g h t e e n w o r k e d i n m e n t a l h o s p i t a l s a s sanitater * t h e v e r s a i l l e s s e t t l e m e n t d i v i d e d t h e p r o v i n c e s o f e a s t a n d w e s t p r u s s i a i n t o t h e f r e e c i t y o f d a n z i g , p a r t o f p o l a n d , a n d e a s t p r u s s i a . a s a r e s u l t , t h e m e n n o n i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n s i n t h e v i s t u l a d e l t a w e r e r e l e g a t e d t o t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . m e n n o n i t e s u n d e r g e r m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a p p e a l e d t o t h e w e i m a r c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y g a i n e d t h e s t a t u s o f a p u b l i c c o r p o r a t i o n , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r d e n o m i n a t i o n a s a n e q u a l a m o n g o t h e r s i n g e r m a n y . w h i l e r e m a i n i n g r e l i g i o u s o u t s i d e r s i n g e r m a n y , t h e m e n n o n i t e s w e r e n o l o n g e r r e q u i r e d t o p a y t h e s t a t e c h u r c h t a x f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e s i n c e . goetz lichdi explains how one mennonite preacher claimed: "gott, der herr, fuhrt unser ganzes volk jetzt besondere wege nach seinem heilsamen plan.. .er hat unsere kriegslage so geschaffen, dab wir nur danken konnen." (god, the lord, leads our whole people in special ways according to his heavenly plan...he developed our involvement in the war, and for that we can only thank him). lichdi, "dritten reich," p. diether goetz lichdi asserts that "es schient als ob die pietistisch gepragten gemeinden im elsab und in westpreussen die relative meistens mitglieder hatten, die von der vergunstigung der kabinettsordre gebrauch machten." (it appears as though the more pietist-minded congregations in alsace and west prussia, compared to the other members of the mennonite churches, were the ones that made use of the privilege afforded by the order of cabinet). lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . siegfried bartel, once a captain in the wehrmacht, attests to personal experiences that illustrate these shifts in thinking among mennonites in prussia. his mother's diary, written throughout the first world war, is full of references to god's hand being on the german nation in war. siegfried reflects: "the mennonites were becoming very nationalistic in their thinking. this was a result of them having embraced the pietist movement, which was lutheran based. [my mother] gave me the name siegfried wilhelm. y o u couldn't be more patriotic than that...the kaiser's name on top of the siegfried." interview of siegfried bartel. most congregations were assigned to the free state of danzig, including: danzig, neunhuben, fiirstenwerder, heubuden, ladekopp, orlofferfelde, rosenort, and tiegenhagen. those assigned to east prussia: elbing- ellerwald, thiensdorf-markushof and tragheimerweide. those in poland: thorn, k u l m , graudenz, obernessau, schonsee, montau-gruppe. penner, "ost-west," p. - . in , % of the german population belonged to either the roman catholic or protestant land churches. ernst helmreich explains how those from the "more esoteric sects" were restricted in teaching religion in schools, from speaking at public gatherings, and in gaining access to cemeteries. helmreich, p. . in a prussian law allowed mennonite congregations to incorporate. after gustav reimer, in a series of lawsuits, liberated the mennonites of prussia proper from the obligation of paying taxes to the _ protestant established church." crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . diether goetz lichdi explains: "they didn't have to pay any fees to the protestant church...actually since ...there was a trial in leipzig due to the constitution, it was challenged... the court ruled in favor of the west t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e p r u s s i a n c o m m u n i t y a f t e r t h e w a r , h o w e v e r , d e v a s t a t e d t h e h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d a g r i c u l t u r e a n d c a t t l e i n d u s t r y , i n w h i c h t h e m e n n o n i t e s l o s t t h e i r p r i n c i p a l m a r k e t s f o r t h e i r p r o d u c t s , a n d w e r e f o r c e d t o p a y t h e h i g h t a r i f f s i m p o s e d b y t h e p o l e s w h i c h b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t d u e t o t h e d e f l a t e d p o s t w a r e c o n o m y . a d d i t i o n a l l y , g e r m a n s a n d p o l e s c o m p e t e d f o r p r i v i l e g e s i n t h e f r e e s t a t e o f d a n z i g , a n d t h e b o l s h e v i k r e v o l u t i o n i n a n d s t a l i n ' s c o l l e c t i v i z a t i o n o f f a r m l a n d i n t h e e a r l y s l e f t t h o u s a n d s o f m e n n o n i t e s h o m e l e s s , s t r i p p e d o f a l l t h e y o w n e d o r d e a d i n u k r a i n e . t h e a g g r e g a t e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e r e i c h g o v e r n m e n t s e n d i n g s i x m i l l i o n m a r k s o f a i d t o r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s i n , l e d m o s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s t o a d o p t a s t r o n g a n t i - b o l s h e v i s t a n d a n t i - p o l i s h s t a n c e , a n d b o l s t e r e d t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e r i g h t . a c c o r d i n g t o e m i l h a e n d i g e s : " t h i s d i f f i c u l t e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d i f w e w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y m e n n o n i t e f a r m e r s j o i n e d t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t s i n t h e f r e e s t a t e o f d a n z i g . " o n e m e n n o n i t e m a n w h o l i v e d i n n e u t e i c h e r h i n t e r f e l d r e c a l l e d : we would try anything to get back into the fatherland. therefore, we were all in favor of organizations that went into that direction. we were politically involved as mennonites, very much s o . d a n z i g p a s t o r e r i c h g d t t n e r e x p r e s s e d s o m e o f h i s s e n t i m e n t s a t t h e e n d o f , w h i l e l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o m o r e p o s i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e d e c a d e a h e a d : prussian mennonites due to the constitution...so actually, the weimar constitution was the final point in the equalizing of mennonites as citizens." interview of diether goetz lichdi. haendiges, "catastrophe," p. . when russian (ukrainian) mennonite peasants demonstrated against government policies concerning them in , the german government sent six million marks in their aid. this solidified the german nation's loyalty to the mennonite people in the minds of that community. a t the second mennonite world conference in danzig in , the prevalent fear of stalin's activity among mennonites in russia, coupled with this benevolent aid from the german government, led to increased national loyalties among mennonites and sympathy for the national socialists, and their "anti-bolshevist" campaign. james lichti, "the german mennonite response to the dissolution of the rhoen-bruderhof' in ^mennonite life june ( ) p. . haendiges, "catastrophe," p. . interview of walter regehr. mitten in all der unklarheit und ungewissheit, die iiber dem heutigen wirtschaftlichen politischen, gesellschaftlichen leben liegt...ein[er] weg aus der not zu verheifien scheint, sei es ein neues wirtschafts- oder erziehungsprogramm, sei es eine neu auftauchende weltanschauungsbewegung. t h e r e f o r e , w h e n m e n n o n i t e s w e n t t o t h e p o l l s i n t h e e a r l y s , t h e y " v o t e d e i t h e r m i d d l e o f t h e r o a d , g e r m a n n a t i o n a l o r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t . " t h e c o n d i t i o n s w e r e i n p l a c e f o r t h e e v e n t u a l c o - o p t i n g o f m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h . prussian mennonites in the third reich we resist neither the emperor, the king, nor any authority in that to which they are called of god; but we are ready to obey to the death in all things that are not contrary to god and his word. -addressing the 'lords and princes' in "the foundation of christian doctrine" —menno simons, christ says, let your light shine before men. paul says, be blameless and harmless, the sons of god, without rebuke, in the midst of a crooked and pen>erse nation, among whom you shine as lights in the world (phil. : ). - 'the signs by which both churches may be known' in "reply to gellius faber"— menno simons, w h e n a d o l f h i t l e r c a m e t o p o w e r i n , h e p r o p h e s i e d , i n a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h b i s h o p b e r n i n g o f o s n a b r i i c k , t h a t " t h e p r o t e s t a n t s w i l l . . . r e j e c t m e . " t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n c a m e f r o m h i t l e r ' s c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h i c h h e s h a r e d w i t h m a r t i n b o r m a n n , " t h a t n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m a n d c h r i s t i a n i t y a r e i r r e c o n c i l a b l e . " i n c o m m e n t i n g o n r e l i g i o n i n g e r m a n y i n d u r i n g a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h d a n z i g n a z i l e a d e r h e r m a n n r a u s c h i n g , h i t l e r r e f e r r e d t o c h r i s t i a n i t y a s a " j e w i s h c h r i s t - c r e e d w i t h . . . e f f e m i n a t e p i t y - e t h i c s . . . [ a ] j e w i s h s w i n d l e . it w i l l n o t m a k e u s free. a g e r m a n c h u r c h , o r g e r m a n c h r i s t i a n i t y , i s d i s t o r t i o n . o n e i s e i t h e r a g e r m a n o r a c h r i s t i a n . . . y o u c a n ' t b e b o t h . " i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h n a z i s u p p o r t e r d i e t r i c h e c k a r t i n (in the midst of all the confusion and uncertainty which dominates the current economic, political and social situation....a way out of the misery does seem to be promised, either through a new social and educational program or through a newly emerging ideological movement.) goertz, p. . see lichdi, "dritten reich," pp. - for similar anti-weimar sentiments, as well as anti-bolshevik comments made by mennonite pastors and laity alike. interview of horst gerlach by author, june, (weierhof, germany). john conway, the nazi persecution of the churches (vancouver, ), p. . "bormann's circular on the relationship of national socialism and christianity," in conway, p. . john thiesen, mennonite and nazi? (kitchener, ). p. - . , h i t l e r w r o t e , " b y t h e i r f r u i t s y e s h a l l k n o w t h e m , p u r i t a n s , a n a b a p t i s t s , j e h o v a h ' s w i t n e s s e s , t h o s e a r e t h e j u i c i e s t o n e s . i n e a c h o f t h e m s i t s t h e j e w i s h m a g g o t . " w h a t s e e m e d o b v i o u s t o t h e n a z i l e a d e r e l u d e d m o s t c h r i s t i a n s i n g e r m a n y , i n c l u d i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s . h i t l e r ' s p r o p h e t i c c o u n t e r p a r t c a n b e f o u n d i n p a l a t i n a t e m e n n o n i t e e t h e l b e r t s t a u f f e r . i n h i s p u b l i c a t i o n , tdufertum und martyrertheologie, s t a u f f e r e n t r e n c h e d f u r t h e r t h e t h e o l o g y o f m a r t y r d o m c h r o n i c l e d b y v a n b r a g h t . i n i t , s t a u f f e r a r g u e s t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h n o n r e s i s t a n c e w a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n a n a p o c a l y p t i c s e n s e , c l a i m i n g t h a t " s a t a n w i l l b e o v e r c o m e o n l y b y . . . n o n r e s i s t a n t s u f f e r i n g . . . w h i c h w o u l d s e r v e a v e r y g r e a t p u r p o s e . . . i n u s h e r i n g i n a n e w a e o n . " a p p e a l i n g t o e x a m p l e s o f t h e e a r l y a n a b a p t i s t s , s t a u f f e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e a n a b a p t i s t t h e o l o g y o f m a r t y r d o m w o u l d n o t a l l o w f o r a r e t r e a t i n t o i n w a r d r e l i g i o n a n d p u r e s p i r i t u a l i s m , b u t w o u l d r e q u i r e " t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e o l o g i c a l r e a l i s m t o w h i c h g o d is m o r e r e a l t h a n a n y t h i n g c a l l e d w o r l d . . . a s m a r t y r d o m i s a c t u a l l y v i c t o r y o v e r t h e v i c t o r . " i n s h o r t , t h i s t h e o l o g y o f m a r t y r d o m s e r v e d a s a t h e o l o g y o f h i s t o r y , w i t h a " f i n a l d i r e c t i v e t o w a r d t h e n a r r o w p a t h o f r e n o u n c i n g t h e w o r l d a n d a c c e p t i n g c o n f l i c t s a n d d e a t h , i f n e e d b e . " s t a u f f e r ' s t h e o l o g i c a l r e f l e c t i o n d i d n o t f i n d f e r t i l e s p i r i t u a l g r o u n d a m o n g t h e l e a d i n g f i g u r e s i n t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e vereinigung, w h o w e r e e a g e r t o s t r e s s t h e a n t i t h e s i s t o h i s w o r k . t h e c o n f e r e n c e ' s o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n v i s - a - v i s t h e n e w r e g i m e w a s d r a f t e d i n a t e l e g r a m t h a t w a s s e n t t o h i t l e r i n s e p t e m b e r . it r e a d : ernst nolte, three faces of fascism (new york, ), p. , quoted in thiesen, p. . thiesen asserts that hitler condemned pacifists, as he connected them with international socialism, p. . this article appeared in zeitschrift fur kirchengeschichte ( ), pp. - , and was translated into english: ethelbert stauffer, "the anabaptist theology of martyrdom," in mennonite quarterly review ( ), pp. - . _ stauffer, p. . stauffer, p. . robert friedmann, "theology of martyrdom" in bender and smith, volume iii, p. . die heute zu tiegenhagen im freistaate danzig tagende konferenz der ost und westpreussischen mennoniten empfindet mit dieser dankbarkeit die gewaltige erhebung, die gott durch ihre tatkraft unserem volk geschenkt hat und geiobt auch ihrerseits freudige mitarbeit am aufbau unseres vaterlandes aus den kraften des evangeliums heraus, getreu dem wahlspruch unserer vater: einen andera grund kann niemand legen ausser dem, der gelegt ist, welcher ist jesus christus. h i t l e r r e p l i e d : fur die mir in direr zuschrift zum ausdruck gebrachte treue gesinnung und dire bereitwilligkeit, am aufbau des deutschen reiches mitzuarbeiten spreche ich flinen meinen aufrichtigen dank aus. ' e v i d e n t l y , b y b o t h t h e g e r m a n n a t i o n a l m y t h a n d t h e m e n n o n i t e m a r t y r o l o g i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s l e g e n d a r y p a s t w e r e r e - m o l d e d a n d a d a p t e d t o l i f e i n c o n t e m p o r a r y g e r m a n y , a s b o t h m a d e u s e o f " o l d m o d e l s f o r n e w p u r p o s e s . " o n a p r i l , , t h e n a z i s l a i d c l a i m t o t h e k y f f h a u s e r m o n u m e n t , t h e l e g a c y , a n d t h e r e i c h s k r i e g e r b u n d . m o s t m e n n o n i t e s , b y t h i s d a t e , h a d a l i g n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e n a z i m o v e m e n t l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r p e r c e i v e d v i c t i m i z a t i o n u n d e r t h e v e r s a i l l e s s e t t l e m e n t , a n d d u e t o t h e a n t i - b o l s h e v i s t s e n t i m e n t e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e m a r t y r d o m o f t h e i r b r o t h e r s i n r u s s i a . w i t h t h e l o s s o f g e r m a n t e r r i t o r y a f t e r w o r l d w a r o n e , c i r c u m s t a n c e o n c e a g a i n w a r r a n t e d t h e r e - e m e r g e n c e o f r e d b e a r d i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e t a s k o f u n i t i n g a l l volksdeutsche i n t h e g e r m a n r e i c h - i n c l u d i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n h a b i t i n g p r u s s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s o n t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e " p o l i s h (the conference of the east and west prussian mennonites meeting today in tiegenhagen in the free state of danzig is grateful for the great uplift which god has given our people through your strength of will and also pledges its enthusiastic willingness to cooperate with the building of our fatherland with the strength of the gospel, true to the motto of our fathers: on other ground can no man lay a foundation than jesus christ). e m i l haendiges, "bericht uber die . allgemeine westpreussen konferenz in tiegenhagen am . september " in mennonitische blatter october ( ), p. . (the content of your letter reveals true loyalty to me and your readiness for the cooperation with the construction of the german reich, and i extend my sincere thanks). ibid. hobsbawm "inventions of traditions" p. . the free state of danzig, while administered by the league of nations, held free elections. the nazis gained a great following in the city and its environs in the s, as well as in west prussia. see john brown mason, the danzig dilemma: a study in peacemaking by compromise (oxford, ), pp. - the reichskriegerbund was the successor of the landeskriegerverbqnde. see karl fuhrer's "der deutsche reichskriegerbund kyffhauser - : politik, ideologic und funktion eines 'unpolitischen' verbandes" in milit&rgeschichtliche mitteilungen, : ( ), pp. - for an excellent account of how - the non-partisan reichskriegerbund came to fall under the control of the national socialists. t o the c o r r i d o r , " w h o s e y e a r n i n g f o r l a n d h o l d i n g r e f o r m s a n d n e w m a r k e t s f o r t h e i r c r o p s h a d b e e n r e a l i z e d u n d e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m . m e n n o n i t e f a r m e r s o f d a n z i g w e r e a b l e t o s e l l t h e i r c r o p s i n g e r m a n m a r k e t s a n d g a i n h i g h e r p r i c e s f o r t h e i r f a r m i n g p r o d u c t s . m a n y e x p e r i e n c e d f a r m e r s w e r e a l s o s p a r e d b o t h t h e l o s s o f t h e i r f a r m a n d t h e b u r d e n o f p a y i n g h i g h r a t e s o n f a r m m o r t g a g e s . s i e g f r i e d b a r t e l e x p l a i n s : this is the main question that i am getting: 'how could it happen, that mennonites accepted hitler's regime?' and i think there you have to realize that in west prussia, at least % were farmers. and in tire dirty s, they were losing their farms left and right. and then came hitler, and on the very first day, not one farmer had to leave their farm anymore. a commission was set up, and said, "show me your debts." the commission would analyze each farmer's situation and then say, 'you can only pay so much' and the rest of the debt was wiped out by law. t h e s y n t h e s i s o f t h e t w o l e g e n d s c a n b e s t b e s e e n i n t h e n u m e r o u s n a t i o n a l i s t l e t t e r s a n d a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n b y p r o f e s s i o n a l p a s t o r s o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n s , w h i c h w e r e p r i n t e d i n t h e vereinigung's n e w s p a p e r , t h e mennonitische blatter. the blatter, e d i t e d b y e m i l h a e n d i g e s , p r i n t e d a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d mennonit und wehrwille i n m a y , , t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o w h i c h r e a d s : der christ wird dieser pflicht gem geniigen. denn sie ist eine christliche pflicht... wir miissen als christen und mennoniten die waffe tragen, nicht, weil uns eine bose obrigkeit dazu zwingt...sondern weil wir als diesseitsbejahende christen unser volk lieben. t h e a r t i c l e c o n t i n u e s , q u o t i n g h i t l e r : chagrin of many in the association, new 'black ravens' (ss) were circling about the monument after april, , and installed a memorial to those who had died in the hitler movement. haendiges, "catastrophe," p. . interview of siegfried bartel. diether goetz lichdi explains that, after the nazi seizure of power, "die rasche unszenierte 'brechung der zinknechtschaft und das erbhofgesetz - hdhepunkte der 'blut und boden' politik - kamen auch den mennonitischen bauern zugute." (the immediate breaking of the tenancy landholding system, and the laws of land inheritance - high points of the' bloods and soil politics - also benefited mennonite fanners), diether goetz lichdi, uber zurich und witmarsum nach addis ababa. die mennoniten in geschichte und gegenwart (maxdorf, ), p. as mentioned above, lay-pastoring had been superceded by university-trained pastors in the nineteenth century. most were between - years of age, and exuded the tendency among the youth to get caught up in nationalist interpretations of god and nation. many, naturally, adapted the lutheran interpretation of romans , and submitted the church to the state. diether goetz lichdi,. "romer und das staatsverstadnis der mennoniten um " in mennonitische geschichtsblatter ( ), pp. - . h e l d i s c h e t u g e n d e n s i n d die erhaltungskraft unseres v d l k e s . t h e j u n e , e d i t i o n e x p o u n d e d o n t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h : in der neuen v e r f a s s u n g , d i e s i c h die v e r e i n i g u n g der d e u t s c h e n m e n n o n i t e n g e m e i n d e n a m . juni gegeben hat, ist das p r i n z i p der wehrlosigkeit aufgegeben t h e s e u n s o l i c i t e d a t t e m p t s t o a l i g n t h e m e n n o n i t e s p o s i t i v e l y w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t r e g i m e , i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e , w e r e p r i n t e d before t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f g e r m a n p l a n s f o r r e a r m a m e n t a n d u n i v e r s a l c o n s c r i p t i o n i n . p e r h a p s t h e e p i s o d e t h a t m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y r e v e a l e d t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y t o w a r d t h e i r h i s t o r y a n d t h e n e w r e g i m e w a s f o u n d i n t h e vereinigung's r e s p o n s e t o t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f a h u t t e r i t e c o l o n y , a n d d e p o r t a t i o n o f i t s m e m b e r s f r o m g e r m a n y i n . a f t e r a s w i s s n e w s p a p e r , t h e basler nachrichten, p r i n t e d a n a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "deutsche mennoniten ausgewiesenf t h e h e a d p a s t o r s o f t h e vereinigung a n d t h e s o u t h g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e verbandjoined i n p u b l i s h i n g "eine notwendige berichtigung." t h e a r t i c l e r e v e a l e d t h e i n s e c u r i t y t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h c e n t u r i e s o f m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n a n d d e p o r t a t i o n i n e u r o p e , a n d t h e i r d e s i r e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e a n d d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e h u t t e r i t e s , w h o h a d f a l l e n i n t o d i s r e p u t e w i t h t h e n a z i s f o r t h e i r " b o l s h e v i k - l i k e " c o m m u n a l l i v i n g a n d t h e i r n o n r e s i s t a n t s t a n c e . t h e a r t i c l e b o l d l y s t a t e d : d i e b r u d e r h o f e r gehorten weder der v e r e i n i g u n g der d e u t s c h e n m e n n o n i t e n g e m e i n d e n n o c h e i n e m anderen v e r b a n d unserer deutschen mennonitischen f r e i k i r c h e a n . (the christian would agree to tins duty, for it is a christian duty... we must as christians and mennonites take arms, not because a wicked authority forces us to... but as christians living in the world we love the german people [and quotes hitler]: heroic virtue is the strong preservation of our people). dirk cattepoel, "mennonit und wehrwille" mmennonitische blatter, may ( ), p. . (under the new conditions, as of june, , the german mennonite conferences have given up the principle of nonresistance). neff, c , haendiges, e . , braun, a , "vereinigung der deutschen mennonitengemeinden: eine notwendige berichtigung" mmennonitische blatter, june ( ), p. . (the bruderhofer belonged neither to the union of german mennonites, nor to any other organization of our german mennonite free church). neff, haendiges and braun, p. . also, see lichti, "the mennonite response," pp. - . w h i l e c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e n e w r e g i m e , t h e m e n n o n i t e s d i d d i s p l a y g r e a t c o n c e r n o v e r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r . i n s t i t u t i o n s . g e n e r a l l y , t h e vereinigung w a s p l e a s e d w i t h t h e o f f i c i a l g o v e r n m e n t e n d o r s e m e n t o f " p o s i t i v e c h r i s t i a n i t y , " o n l y o p p o s i n g t h e o f f i c i a l a t t e m p t s t o i m p o s e t h e gleichschaltung p r i n c i p l e o n a l l g e r m a n c h u r c h e s u n d e r reichsbischofludw'ig m u l l e r , w h o m h i t l e r a p p o i n t e d i n . i n a u g u s t , , d a n z i g p a s t o r e r i c h g d t t n e r e x p r e s s e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s t a n c e v i s - a - v i s t h e deutsche christen - a s e c t o f n a t i o n a l i s t , r a c i a l i s t p r o t e s t a n t s t h a t o r i g i n a l l y e m e r g e d i n t h u r i n g i a a n d b e r l i n i n t h e l a t e s . w h i l e n o t w a n t i n g t o a g i t a t e t h e g r o u p , w h i c h o r i g i n a l l y f o u n d f a v o r w i t h t h e n a z i s , t h e m e n n o n i t e s w e r e n o t , at t h e s a m e t i m e , w i l l i n g t o t h r o w t h e i r l o t i n w i t h t h e m . m e n n o n i t e r e s p o n s e t o a l e c t u r e g i v e n b y deutsche christen p a s t o r k u p t s c h ( o f r i e s e n b u r g , p r u s s i a ) e n t i t l e d "vom dritten reich zur dritten kirche," w a s p r i n t e d i n t h e blatter i n s e p t e m b e r , . a b o l d s e c t i o n h i g h l i g h t e d i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e a r t i c l e r e a d : "hande weg vom deutschen freikirchentum! hande weg vom deutschen mennonitentum." s i m i l a r l y , e m i l h a e n d i g e s r e i n f o r c e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s t a n c e a g a i n s t t h e m o v e m e n t a f t e r deutsche christen m e m b e r r e i n h o l d k r a u s e ' s s c a n d a l o u s s e r m o n a t t h e b e r l i n s p o r t s p a l a c e i n , i n w h i c h k r a u s e a t t a c k e d t h e o l d t e s t a m e n t a n d t h e j e w i s h r o o t s o f c h r i s t i a n i t y . w h i l e w a n t i n g t o a d a p t t o p r e s e n t t r e n d s i n c o o r d i n a t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n s - m i n u s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a reichskirche - t h e (hands off our german free-church tradition; hands off our german mennonite tradition). e m i l haendiges, "zur kirchenfrage der mennoniten" in mennonitische blatter, september ( ), p. . this was in response to kuptsch's statement that, " d i e verschiedenen sekten und kirchengemeinschaften muben beseitigt werden, um platz fur die glaubensgemeinschaft zu erhalten!" (different sects and church communities must be eliminated in order to make room for the for the development of the belief community) printed in the elbinger zeitung, august, . doris bergen, twisted cross: the german christian movement in the third ?e/'c//. (chapel h i l l , ), p. . emil haendiges wrote: "wie berechtigt unsere zuruckhaltung gegeniiber den deutsche christen gewesen ist, haben die traurigen vorgange in der von den deutsche christen abgehaltenen versammlung im sportpalast zu berlin am / / in erschreckender weise offenbart. es bleibt betrublich, wie es zu solchen kundgebungen uberhaupt hat kommen konnen." (we restrained ourselves in our relations with the _ german christians, up to their sad and frightening meeting in the sport palace in berlin on / / . it vereinigung p r o p o s e d t h e n o t i o n o f u n i t i n g a l l g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e "deutsche mennonitische gemeindekirche.,,u a f t e r p a s t o r s d r a f t e d a "grofie bekenntnis," p u b l i s h e d i n t h e verband's gemeindeblatt der mennoniten i n , t h e e n t e r p r i s e u l t i m a t e l y f a i l e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e verband f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n t i n c o n g r u i t y w i t h t h e t h e o l o g i c a l v i e w s o f t h e vereinigung. t h e s e t h e o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s , h o w e v e r , d i d n o t h i n d e r t h e vereinigung's m a n d a t e t o p r o t e c t t h e i r c h e r i s h e d f r e e c h u r c h t r a d i t i o n s . l i k e t h e i r g e r m a n p r o t e s t a n t b r e t h r e n i n t h e c o n f e s s i n g c h u r c h - w h o h a d e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s s o l e l y i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e t h e o l o g i c a l d i s t o r t i o n s o f t h e deutsche christen a n d n a z i i n t e n t i o n s o f a gleichschaltung o f c h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s - t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s h a v e b e e n w r o n g l y c r e d i t e d w i t h r e s i s t i n g t h e n a z i s . h a n s - j i i r g e n g o e r t z e x p l a i n s . der widerstand gegen die deutschen christen nahrte in den westpreussischen mennoniten offensichtlich die illusion, dem erbe der vater, der trennung von kirche und staate, auch unter den bedingungen des nationalsozialistischen regimes treu bleiben zu konnen, ohne mit diesem zu kollidieren. h o r s t g e r l a c h a d d s t h a t , w h i l e t h e m e n n o n i t e s s h a r e d s i m i l a r d o c t r i n a l c o n c e r n s w i t h t h e c o n f e s s i n g c h u r c h , t h e y a c t u a l l y e n d e d u p " f i g h t i n g t h e p r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h , [ r a t h e r t h a n ] t h e remains troublesome that they are able to hold these demonstrations.) emil haendiges, " z u r kirchenfrage der mennoniten" in mennonitische blatter, december ( ), p . l . hans-jiirgen goertz, "nationale erhebung und religioser niedergang" in mennonitische geschichtsblatter ( ), p, . the union did not take place, according to ernst crous, due to theological disagreements between the vereinigung and the verband. some congregations were rationalist, others pietist. crous "vereinigung" in bender and smith, volume iv, p. . crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume ii, p. . see "die bevorstehende vereinigung aller mennonitengemeinden im deutschen reich" in gemeindeblatt der mennoniten, february ( ), pp. - . the bekennende kirche, led by karl barth and martin niemoller, drafted the six-point barmen declaration in . the confessing church and the declaration were created in order to counter the new theological distortions of the deutsche christen through upholding traditional protestant interpretations of the bible. see hubert locke (ed.) the church confronts the nazi: barmen then and now (new york, ), pp. - . mennonite ministers crous, haendiges, hege, fellmann and quiring all made contact with the confessing church. lichdi, "dritten reich," pp. - . (the resistance against the german christians fed the illusion, that the west prussian mennonite legacy of separation of church and state was faithfully maintained under the national socialist regime).goertz, p. . n a z i s , " a s t h e i r p o l i t i c a l v i e w s w e r e m u c h m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e " t h a n t h o s e o f b a r t h a n d t h e o t h e r s . " e s s e n t i a l l y , b o t h g o e r t z a n d g e r l a c h a s s e r t t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s f a i l e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l t w o - k i n g d o m t h e o l o g y , a n d f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s i n a c o m p r o m i s i n g s i t u a t i o n a s a l e g i t i m a t e f r e e c h u r c h , p o s i t i o n i n g t h e m s e l v e s p o l i t i c a l l y a n d t h e o l o g i c a l l y s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d landeskirchen a n d t h e deutsche christen - w h i c h , i r o n i c a l l y , s e r v e d t o w o r s e n t h e v e r y p r o b l e m o f i s o l a t i o n t h e y d e s i r e d t o l e s s e n . i n t h e a t t e m p t s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y , m e n n o n i t e s e s t a b l i s h e d a deutscher mennonitentag, a d a y o n w h i c h m e n n o n i t e s n a t i o n - w i d e w o u l d g a t h e r a n n u a l l y , a n d d i d s o d u r i n g - . l i k e t h e i r g e r m a n n e i g h b o r s , m e n n o n i t e s c o n s i d e r e d y o u t h a s a c e n t r a l c o m p o n e n t o f b o t h c o m m u n i t y a n d n a t i o n . g r o w i n g o u t o f y o u t h g r o u p s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e s , m e n n o n i t e y o u t h g r o u p s , c a l l e d t h e jugendwart, w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f e r n s t f e l l m a n n i n i n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e h i t l e r y o u t h o n y o u n g p e o p l e - a n d f o r g o o d r e a s o n , a s h i t l e r h e l d v i e w s s u c h a s t h o s e h e e x p r e s s e d i n : " i c a n ' t b r e a k t h e c h u r c h o v e r [ m y ] k n e e . it h a s t o b e l e f t t o r o t l i k e a g a n g r e n o u s l i m b . . . b u t t h e h e a l t h y y o u t h b e l o n g t o u s . " t h e jugendwart p u b l i s h e d a n e w s p a p e r , die mennonitische jugendwarte, i n w h i c h t h e m e n n o n i t e y o u t h c o m m o n l y p r i n t e d r e s e r v e d c r i t i c i s m s o f p o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l l i f e i n g e r m a n y . l i k e t h e vereinigung's r e a c t i o n t o t h e t h e o l o g y o f t h e deutsche christen, f e l l m a n n w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e interview of horst gerlach. diether goetz lichdi, "national socialism," in cornelius dyck and dennis martin {eds.) mennonite encyclopedia (scottsdale, ), volume v , p. . lichdi, "dritten reich," p- . adolf hitler, table talk a. bullock (ed.) (london, ), entry for december , in conway, p. . diether goetz lichdi explains: "die m j w (mennonitische jugendwart) beschaftigt sich bis intensiv mitden zetifragen. die sprache ist ruhig und massvoll, (during - , die m j w was intensively occupied with the questions of the day. the language was calm and moderate), "dritten reich," p. . also, a group of young adults formed a rundbrief-gemeinschaft which was used to question and discuss issues of faith, nonresistance and national socialist ideology (which was discontinued by the gestapo in ). m e n n o n i t e y o u t h w o u l d n o t b e l e d a s t r a y b y t h e "irrungen und wirrungen der zeif a n d e n c o u r a g e d t h e m t o r e m a i n s t r o n g i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r " r i g h t b e l i e f . " t h e r e f o r e , w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a v i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y s t a v e d o f f a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e h u t t e r i t e s , t h e gleichschaltung o f t h e g e r m a n c h u r c h e s a n d t h e f a i l e d a t t e m p t t o c o o r d i n a t e a l l m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h e s i n o n e d e n o m i n a t i o n , t h e y a c c o m p l i s h e d w h a t j a m e s l i c h t i h a s r i g h t l y e m p h a s i z e d a s t h e p r i m a r y g o a l o f t h e m a j o r i t y : " [ t o r e s i s t ] g o v e r n m e n t c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d [ t o m a i n t a i n ] i n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t o n o m y . " d u r i n g - , m e n n o n i t e c o n g r e g a t i o n a l l i f e c o n t i n u e d i n i t s a c c u s t o m e d m a n n e r a n d e n j o y e d t h e t o l e r a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t g o v e r n m e n t . a r e a s o n f o r t h i s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a v i n g f o u n d f a v o r i n t h e e y e s o f a d o l f h i t l e r a n d reichsfuhrer o f t h e s s h e i n r i c h h i m m l e r . h o r s t g e r l a c h e x p l a i n s t h a t , a f t e r m e e t i n g w i t h landrat w a l t e r n e u f e l d t , h i t l e r e x c l a i m e d : " f u t u r e f o u n d e r s o f r e l i g i o n s s h o u l d t a k e m e n n o n i t e t r a i t s a s e x a m p l e s ! " h i m m l e r w a s s i m i l a r l y i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e s , a n d a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t g r e e t i n g s t o b e n j a m i n u n r u h i n p r u s s i a f r o m t h e m e n n o n i t e s h e h a d v i s i t e d w h i l e i n f o r m e r r u s s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s . h o r s t g e r l a c h c o n c l u d e s : " b a s i c a l l y i f m o s t o f t h o s e lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . lichti, "mennonite response," p. . "worship services were held with nearly full attendance, communion was celebrated; younger sisters and brothers were taken in to the congregation through baptism and deacons, preachers and elders were elected and consecrated for their respective tasks." lichdi, "dritten reich," pp. - . horst gerlach, "the final years of mennonites in east and west prussia - " in mennonite quarterly review april ( ), p. . after his visit to ukraine in , himmler told unruh:'ich bin in der ukraine gewesen und habe mir die leute dort angesehen. ihre mennoniten jedoch sind die besten." (i was in the ukraine and visited the people there. their mennonites, however, were the best ones). lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . lichdi asserts: "es wird deutlich daft benjamin unruh als vertreter der russlandischen gemeinden auftrat, aber zugleich damit auch die anliegen der gemeinden im reich vertreten hat" (it becomes clear that benjamin unrau served as deputy of the russian community, but at the same time thereby also served as their representative to the german reich), lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . unruh saw hitler as having had a —positive relationship with germany. in , he stated that hitler was "als ein deutscher wilhelm von oranien, wilhelm tell und als ein washington erscheinen." (hitler appeared as a german william of orange, william tell and as a washington), lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . himmler had a part in w h o w e r e i n h i g h e r p o s i t i o n s w e r e o n t h e i r s i d e , it i s l o g i c a l t h a t t h e y d i d n o t s u f f e r p e r s e c u t i o n . " r o f f i c i a l l y , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s e n c o u r a g e d p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e r e i c h g o v e r n m e n t , a n d o f f i c i a l l y e x p r e s s e d t h e i r s u p p o r t f o r t h e r e g i m e . i n , t h e w e s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o n f e r e n c e d e c l a r e d t h a t "die konferenz wird nichts tun, was den anschein eines hauches gegen die politik unseres fiihrers enthdlt." s o m e , h o w e v e r , w e r e u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h n a z i r a c i a l p o l i t i c s . l a d e k o p p ' s m e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r , g e r h a r d t h i e s s e n , p r e a c h e d a s e r m o n t h a t w a s v e r y c r i t i c a l o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t i n . s i m i l a r l y , c h r i s t i a n n e f f , l e a d e r o f t h e s o u t h g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e verband, h a d b e c a m e w a r y o f t h e n a z i r e g i m e b y , d e c l a r i n g i n a l e t t e r t o e m i l h a e n d i g e s : "ich sehe sehr skeptisch in die zukunft"i d a n z i g ' s m i n i s t e r , e r i c h g o t t n e r , c o n s i d e r e d n a z i r a c i s m a s "ddmonisch"i a n d w a r n e d a g a i n s t t h e a n t i s e m i t i c t e a c h i n g o f t h e n a z i s . m o s t m e n n o n i t e s d i d n o t s h a r e t h e n a z i s ' a n t i s e m i t i c i d e o l o g y a n d e n j o y e d p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e j e w s o f w e s t p r u s s i a , w h o w e r e p r i m a r i l y d o c t o r s , l a w y e r s , a n d m e r c h a n t s . m a n y m e n n o n i t e s w e r e d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e p l i g h t o f t h e j e w s i n g e r m a n y , w e r e a l a r m e d w h e n n a z i r a c i s m t u r n e d v i o l e n t , a n d m a d e c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t j e w i s h p e o p l e w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e . d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i a s s e r t s t h a t "die reichskristallnacht hat vielen mennoniten die augen geqffhet" i n d e e d , t h e r e a r e m a n y e x a m p l e s o f t h e o u t r a g e supplying the ukrainian mennonites with the means to flee their homes as the russian army encroached on their homeland in - . see frank epp, mennonite exodus (altona, ). gerlach, "final years," p. (the conference will not do anything that gives even the faintest appearance of opposition to the policy of our leader), goertz, p. . lichdi, "addis ababa," p. . (i am very skeptical about the future), lichdi, "dritten reich," p- . lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . gottner was already concerned about the political changes in germany in — . see gottner, " d i e volkische religiositat in der gegenwart" mennonitische blatter, m a y ( ), p. . (kristallnacht opened die eyes of mennonites), lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . t h a t m e n n o n i t e s f e l t c o n c e r n i n g t h e e v e n t s o f n o v e m b e r , . m a n y h a d e s t a b l i s h e d g o o d w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e j e w s , a n d w e r e a n g e r e d b y t h e i r m i s t r e a t m e n t . l i c h d i a s s e r t s t h a t m e n n o n i t e s h e l p e d t h e j e w s , a l b e i t s o m e m o r e t h a n o t h e r s . a d o l f h a h n , f o r e x a m p l e , h a d j u s t b e c o m e b i i r g e r m e i s t e r o f a l b i s h e i m i n . w h e n h e a t t e m p t e d t o s t o p t h e l o o t i n g a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f j e w i s h b u s i n e s s e s t h a t n i g h t , t h e r a c i s t t h u g s t u r n e d t o h i m a n d b e l l o w e d : "much, dafi du heimkommst, sonst kommen wir noch zu dir." h a h n r e t u r n e d h o m e , a n d r i f o u n d t w o j e w i s h w o m e n w h o h a d c o m e t o h i m f o r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e a n g r y m o b . h e f o u n d a h o m e f o r t h e m , a n d s t a t i o n e d a n a r m e d g u a r d o u t s i d e o f t h e i r h o m e f o r p r o t e c t i o n . a m o n g m a n y o t h e r s i m i l a r a c c o u n t s is t h a t o f landrat w a l t e r n e u f e l d t w h o , l i k e m a n y p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , a c q u i r e d j e w i s h i n m a t e s f r o m s t u t t h o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p t o w o r k o n h i s f a r m . a c c o r d i n g t o h o r s t g e r l a c h , t h e s e p r i s o n e r s w e r e a b l e t o w o r k w i t h o u t g u a r d s , a n d w e r e a l l o w e d t o e a t d i n n e r s p r o v i d e d b y t h e i r m e n n o n i t e h o s t s . w h i l e n o t d e v i a t i n g from t r a d i t i o n a l p r o t e s t a n t t h e o l o g y p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e j e w s , o r p r o v i d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t p r o t e s t o r r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e n a z i s ' a n t i s e m i t i c m e a s u r e s , t h e m e n n o n i t e s d i d o f f e r a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e (you had better return home, or we will come to your house!), lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . see diether goetz lichdi "dritten reich" pp. - for numerous examples of mennonite people that abhorred the ill-treatment of jews during the nazi era. see diether goetz lichdi "dritten reich" pp. - for numerous examples of mennonites who hosted jewish workers that were imprisoned in stutthof. the gemeindeblatt der mennoniten printed theological reflections on the jews during - . in march, , the article "das auserwahlte v o l k " appeared in which the author claimed: " d i e juden sind jetzt in keiner weise mehr das 'auserwahlte v o l k . ' gott hat sie einst fur einen ganz bestimmten geschichtlichen beruf auserwahlt. aber dieser beruf ist langst erfullt." (the jews are no longer the chosen race of god. a t one time, god had chosen them for a specific historical purpose. but that purpose has long since been fulfilled), gemeindeblatt der mennoniten, march ( ), p. . hans-jurgen goertz explains how the mennonites shared very similar concerns with the confessing church which did effectively address nazi terrorization: "wie schwierig es war, gegen die verfolgungen im eigenen lande zu protestieren, zeigt die zaghafte zuriickhaltung der bekennenden kirche, die es offiziel kaum zu einem protest gegen die verfolgung von juden, soczialdemokraten und kommunisten durch das nazi-regime brachte — (how difficult it was to protest against persecution in one's own country, the timid restraint of the confessing church offered no protest against the persecution of jews, the social democrats and the communists), goertz, p. . j e w s . f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , h o w e v e r , t h e y m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r f o c u s o n s u r v i v i n g - b o t h i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y - i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h . a f t e r g e r m a n r e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n a n d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f u n i v e r s a l c o n s c r i p t i o n i n , t h e m e n n o n i t e s o f p r u s s i a o n c e a g a i n f a c e d t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f s e r v i n g i n t h e m i l i t a r y . n a z i a d m i n i s t r a t o r r e i n h a r d h e y d r i c h r e c o g n i z e d a n i n h e r e n t i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t w e e n m e n n o n i t i s m a n d n a z i i d e o l o g y , a n d q u e s t i o n e d t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s t o s e r v e a s g o o d weltanschauungskriegern. a w a k e n i n g o l d w o u n d s o f i n s e c u r i t y a m o n g t h e m e n n o n i t e p e o p l e , h e y d r i c h s t a t e d t h a t , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r f o c u s o n t h e "gemeinschaft des evangeliums" w i t h t h e i r "pazifistische und eidesgegenerische einstellung" - r a t h e r t h a n f o c u s i n g o n t h e g e r m a n "volksgemeinschaff - m e n n o n i t e s c o u l d n o t b e "gleichzeitig angehdrige der ss-sippengemeinschaft." c o n t r a r y t o h e y d r i c h ' s a c c u r a t e , y e t o u t d a t e d i n s i g h t s , s o m e m e n n o n i t e s d i d j o i n t h e s s a n d n o t o n e a b l e - b o d i e d m e n n o n i t e m a n o f d r a f t a g e i n a l l o f g e r m a n y r e f u s e d c o n s c r i p t i o n . a s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h i s w a s m a d e p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h t h e g r a d u a l p r o c e s s e s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o p r u s s i a n l i f e . p a s t o r k r a e m e r o f d a n z i g p u b l i s h e d a t i m e l y a n d t e l l i n g b o o k l e t i n , t i t l e d "wir und unsere volksgemeinschaft." i n i t , k r a e m e r e m p h a s i z e d : der bergpredigt... [ist fur die] familie und gegenuber christlich gesinnten geboten sein; eine regel fur die reiche dieser welt, ihre politik, ihre selbstbehauptung ist es nicht. a n d s t r e s s e d : das alte volkslied behalt sein recht, dac der frommste nicht im frieden bleiben kann, wenn es dem bosen nachbarn nicht gefalll ("community of the gospel" with their "pacifist and oath-opposing position" - rather than focusing on the german "people's community" - mennonites were "not at the same able to be members of the ss family). friedrich zipfel, kirchenkampfin deutschland - (berlin, ) p. . , goertz, p. . (the sermon on the mount [is for] the family and christian-minded people and not for kingdoms and — their politics and self-assertion in this world [and stressed that] the old song is still true that the pious cannot remain in peace i f a hostile neighbor is not willing). kraemer, wir und unsere volksgemeinschaft (crefeld, ) p. . f u e l l i n g t h e s e s h i f t s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o n r e s i s t a n t s t a n c e a m o n g m e n n o n i t e s w a s t h e i r d e s i r e , l i k e t h a t o f m e n n o s i m o n s , t o s e v e r t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e l e g a c y o f t h e m u n s t e r u p r i s i n g . a c c o r d i n g t o h o r s t g e r l a c h , t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o a p p e a r i n e n c y c l o p e d i a s a n d i n g e r m a n u n i v e r s i t y c u r r i c u l a . " m y u n c l e w a s t o l d t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s w e r e v e r y p e c u l i a r , " g e r l a c h r e c a l l s . " [ l a n d ] c h u r c h p a p e r s p u b l i s h e d d e r o g a t o r y a r t i c l e s a b o u t t h e m e n n o n i t e s , a s s o c i a t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e m u n s t e r i t e s , " w h i c h f r u s t r a t e d h i s u n c l e a n d e m i l h a e n d i g e s . t h e r e f o r e , m e n n o n i t e s s h a r e d a d e s i r e t o r e h a b i l i t a t e t h e schwdrmer l e g a c y , a n d t o f e n d o f f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e s w i t h "die feigen" w h o w e r e , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , "vaterlandlos" w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a v i n g f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o g e r m a n s o c i e t y a n d c u l t u r e , a n d w i t h t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f n o n r e s i s t a n c e , t h e l a s t v e s t i g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l m e n n o n i t e f a i t h - t h e i s s u e o f t h e o a t h - r e m a i n e d t o b e l e g a l l y r e s o l v e d . t h i s d i d i n d e e d t a k e p l a c e , a s t h e w a r m i n i s t r y , i n l i n e w i t h t r a d i t i o n a l h o h e n z o l l e r n a g r e e m e n t s , g r a n t e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s t h e p r i v i l e g e o f s a y i n g "ich gelobe" i n s t e a d o f "ich schwdre" a f t e r s i g n i n g a d e s i g n a t e d f o r m t o t h e e f f e c t , a n d a c c e p t e d a h a n d s h a k e i n l i e u o f s w e a r i n g t h e o a t h ( s e e f i g u r e s a a n d b ) . w i t h t h e i r m a i n c o n c e r n s a l l e v i a t e d , t h e m e n n o n i t e s j o i n e d t h e wehrmacht a n d luftwaffe i n g r e a t n u m b e r s . t h e blatter c o n t i n u e d t o p r i n t a r t i c l e s e x t o l l i n g t h e r e g i m e a n d p r a i s i n g g o d f o r g e r m a n p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y v i c t o r i e s . a s s e e n a b o v e , t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d g i v e n u p t h e i r p o s i t i o n o f n o n r e s i s t a n c e i n . t h e blatter c e l e b r a t e d t h e anschlufi o f interview of horst gerlach. , lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . ("i pledge/vow" instead of "i swear"). goertz, p. . see figures a and b for copies of the original form used by the east and west prussian mennonite communities. this form made it possible for mennonite men of draft age to sign up for this privilege prior to their arrival at the recruitment office. - a l s o , see haendiges, "catastrophe," p. . ernst helmreich explains how martin bormann was more concerned about the issue of the oath, and did not resolve his disapproval of the exemption until . helmreich, p. . austria in its a p r i l edition and, in m a r c h , ran an article encouraging mennonites to " l a y their life down for their friends." the newspaper also dutifully commemorated hitler's fiftieth birthday with an article in m a y , . horst penner explains the development o f a historical sentiment in prussia, connecting the heroes o f the teutonic knights in the jungdeutschen orden. h e explains: diese spaten nachfahren des ordens hatten nur ein ziel: die rtickkehr ins deutsche vaterland. in aufinarschen in iliren graugriinen windjacken warben sie fur ihr ziel.. .da sah man audi manches mennonitische gesicht unter den marschierern. marianne regehr, who lived in ladekopp as a girl in , recalls how the mennonites longed to be re-united with germany, and spoke o f heim ins reich. " y o u are willing to take the good with the bad," she reflects, "especially when you want something bad enough." after war broke out, and danzig was reunited with germany in september, , the blatter, accompanied with a suitable theological lesson on romans , printed a prayer o f thanks for " g o d ' s victory" in having eliminated the "unnatural border" separating the volksdeutsche: unsagbar schweres haben unsere deutschen volksgruppen unter dem polnischen joch wahrend zwanzigjahriger fremdherrschaft erduldet das schwerste zuletzt. da half ihnen gott, der herr, durch die hand unseres fuhrers und machte sie frei. wir danken unserm fuhrer fur seine befreiungstat! g o d was also credited for the german victory over france and, prophetically, amazement was expressed at how the next generation o f germans would wonder at the (these late descendants of the teutonic order had only one target: returning to the german fatherland. they marched around in their grey-green coats and recruited for their movement one could also find some mennonite faces amongst those that marched). penner, "ost-west" p. . marianne regehr, a young girl at the time, mentioned that the common sentiment among prussians, including the mennonites, was to be reunited with the fatherland, as they considered their home to be in germany, and their goal as heim ins reich. interview of marianne regehr by author, july, (winnipeg, mb). (our german ethnic communities suffered unspeakable difficulties under the polish yoke during twenty years of foreign dominatioa the worst at the very end. then god, our lord, helped them through the — hand of our fuhrer and set them free. we thank our fuhrer for his feat of liberation!) emil haendiges, "zur heimkehr der bestreiten volksgenossen ins reich" in mennonitische blatter october/november ( ), p. . v i c t o r i e s o f t h e g e r m a n a r m y . b y , m e n n o n i t e n e w s p a p e r s w e r e r e g u l a r l y p r i n t i n g g o v e r n m e n t a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a i m e d a t r e c r u i t i n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e w a r e f f o r t , a n d t h e blatter c o n t i n u e d t o c r e d i t g o d f o r g e r m a n v i c t o r i e s i n t h e field. w h i l e t h e vereinigung o f f i c i a l l y e x t o l l e d t h e r e g i m e a n d t h e w a r , n o t a l l m e n n o n i t e s i n p r u s s i a s h a r e d i n t h e e x c i t e m e n t . e x a m p l e s o f r e s i s t a n c e o r o p e n c r i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e r e g i m e a m o n g t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s a r e h a r d t o find, b u t s o m e e x a m p l e s o f n o n c o m p l i a n c e d o e x i s t . c h r i s t i a n n e f f , f o r e x a m p l e , r e - k i n d l e d h i s s k e p t i c a l o u t l o o k first e x p r e s s e d i n , a n d e a r n e d t h e gemeindeblatt der mennoniten a f o r c e d d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f p u b l i c a t i o n a f t e r it p r i n t e d h i s w e l l - k n o w n a n t i - w a r c h r i s t m a s s e r m o n i n j a n u a r y , . it s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t n e f f s s o n w a s d r a f t e d i n , w h i c h m a y h a v e i n f l u e n c e d t h e p a s t o r ' s v i e w s o n t h e w a r t h a t w a s r a g i n g a t t h e t i m e . i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s f i n d i n g l i t t l e s u c c e s s a f t e r e n c o u r a g i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o w i t h d r a w t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p from t h e c h u r c h e s i n g e r m a n y , h e r m a n n e p p , a p a s t o r i n w e s t p r u s s i a , w a s s e n t t o a c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p f o r h i s n o n c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t . d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i e x p l a i n s t h a t m a n y m e n n o n i t e s f o l l o w e d i n t h e w a y s o f t h e i r f o r e f a t h e r s w h o c h o s e a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e a f t e r b e i n g d r a f t e d i n t o t h e g e r m a n a r m e d f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t w o r l d w a r : es sind zahlreiche einzelfalle bekannt, die die meinung unterstreichen, dab vielen mennoniten im feld die alte wehrlosigkeit bewubt war und dab sie versuchten, ihr gewissen rein zu erhalten. diether goetz lichdi questioned neff s apparent leaning toward nonresistance, asserting that he was more concerned over the german loss of young men in the french campaign, and in the polish campaign. neff realized that his own son, who was drafted in , could be among the next to die in battle. this indeed came to pass, as his son was killed in action in . interview of diether goetz lichdi. from on, "those who were party members were urged to withdraw from the church, although on the whole and particularly in comparison with conditions in the catholic and protestant church, this attempt was without any success. despite the most severe pressure, only ten out of members withdrew from our [mennonite] church in crefeld." interview of diether goetz lichdi. horst penner explains how —cornelius janssen, a government official in the grofses werder ( - ) did not leave his church after being pressured to do so. penner, "ost-west" p. . interview with siegfried bartel. sie wollten nicht auf menschen schieben. deshalb meldeten sich viele zu den sanitatsabteilungen oder den technischen diensten...[oder] kraftfahrer, feldkiichenfahrer, usw. it i s c l e a r t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d s u c c e e d e d i n a c h i e v i n g g o o d s t a n d i n g i n t h e g e r m a n r e i c h . m o r e t h a n t o l e r a t e d , t h e y w e r e a l l o w e d t o m a i n t a i n a p e r s o n a l m e n n o n i t i s m , a n d w e r e a c c o m m o d a t e d i n a r e a s o f m i l d c o n t e n t i o n . b o t h t h e n a z i g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e m e n n o n i t e s e y e d e a c h o t h e r c a u t i o u s l y y e t r e s p e c t f u l l y , a n d c h o s e t o d i s a g r e e s i l e n t l y o n p o i n t s t h a t m a t t e r e d l i t t l e t o t h e o v e r a l l g o a l s o f e a c h r e s p e c t i v e g r o u p . t h e g e r m a n a n d m e n n o n i t e m y t h s , s y n t h e s i z e d a m o n g t h e m e n n o n i t e m e n i n t h e r e a l i t y o f w a r , s e r v e d i n b o l s t e r i n g e n t h u s i a s m f o r o n e f i n a l o f f e n s i v e m i l i t a r y c a m p a i g n i n - , t h e s u i t a b l y n a m e d o p e r a t i o n b a r b a r o s s a . h o r s t g e r l a c h r e c a l l e d h o w , at t h e o u t s e t o f t h e b a t t l e , h i s s c h o o l t e a c h e r h a d a p p l i e d t h e a p o c a l y p t i c a c c o u n t i n t h e b i b l i c a l b o o k o f r e v e l a t i o n t o t h e i m p e n d i n g f i n a l v i c t o r y o f t h e g e r m a n s i n t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r . s i m i l a r l y , t h e gemeindeblatt der mennoniten b e g a n i n t h e e a r l y s t o p r i n t a r t i c l e s w i t h e s c h a t o l o g i c a l a n d a p o c a l y p t i c o v e r t o n e s p o i n t i n g t o a g e r m a n t r i u m p h . a s i s w e l l k n o w n , r e a l i t y p r o v e d q u i t e t h e o p p o s i t e . o n o c t o b e r , , t h e r e d a r m y t o o k n e m m e r s d o r f i n e a s t p r u s s i a , a n d c o m m i t t e d h e i n o u s c r i m e s a g a i n s t t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n t h e r e . t h e s t o r i e s a n d f e a r o f s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t r e a c h e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n w e s t p r u s s i a a n d d a n z i g , a s d i d t h e r e d a r m y i n j a n u a r y . w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f m e n n o n i t e s m a n a g e d t o e s c a p e w i t h t h e i r l i v e s , t h o s e u n a b l e t o e s c a p e v i a s h i p s i n t h e d a n z i g h a r b o r w e r e s u b j e c t t o g r e a t m i s t r e a t m e n t f r o m p i l l a g i n g , r a p e a n d m u r d e r t o b e i n g t a k e n a w a y o n t r a i n s (many mennonite men at the front desired to maintain the old defenseless position, and to keep their conscience pure in this regard. they did not want to shoot people. they would choose positions as medics, technical personnel, chauffeurs, army kitchen drivers, etc.). lichdi asserts that most who chose these positions were of the more pietistic, or flemish men that originally emigrated to west prussia, lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . interview of horst gerlach. lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . see e.g. lass, die flucht: ostpreussen - (bad neuheim, ). d e s t i n e d f o r w o r k c a m p s i n t h e g u l a g . i n t h e w a k e o f d e f e a t , "taten und helden" w a s r e a p p r o p r i a t e d t o t h o s e w h o s u f f e r e d f o r t h e i r f a i t h , w h i l e t h e s o l d i e r s t o w h o m t h e e s s a y w a s a d d r e s s e d i n - a f t e r a l l o f t h e v i o l e n c e t h e y m e t e d o u t a n d s a c r i f i c e s t h e y e n c o u n t e r e d w e r e m a r g i n a l i z e d a s g r e a t e r c o n c e r n s c a m e t o b e a r o n t h e m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y . aftermath t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s h a s r e v e a l e d t h e p r o c l i v i t y o f t h a t c o m m u n i t y t o w o r k t o w a r d a s y n t h e s i s o f t h e i r t i m e - h o n o r e d r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g n a t i o n a l e t h o s . t h i s is s e e n m o s t c l e a r l y i n t h e m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m , w h e n t h e s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l ( g e r m a n ) a n d r e l i g i o u s ( m e n n o n i t e ) m y t h o l o g i e s c o l l u d e d w i t h o n e a n o t h e r o f t e n i n i n c o n s p i c u o u s t a n d e m , g r a d u a l l y a m a l g a m a t i n g f r o m t h e e a r l y s u n t i l r e a c h i n g c o m p l e t e h a r m o n y w h e n t h e m o s t d u r a b l e m e n n o n i t e t r a d i t i o n w a s f u l l y c o m p r o m i s e d a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f e l i g i b l e m e n n o n i t e s b o r e a r m s at t h e front i n . b y t h i s t i m e , e a c h r e s p e c t i v e m y t h ' s o v e r a r c h i n g e t h o s - f o r o n e : t o r e m a i n s e p a r a t e from t h e w o r l d ; t o c o n f o r m o n l y t o t h e w i l l o f g o d ; n o t t o s w e a r a n o a t h t o a n y t e m p o r a l r u l e r ; a n d t o m a i n t a i n n o n r e s i s t a n c e ; a n d t h e o t h e r : t o d e m a n d c o n f o r m i t y ; t o d e m a n d l o y a l t y t h r o u g h a d m i n i s t e r i n g a n o a t h ; t o c o n q u e r a n d s u b d u e t h e w o r l d f o r c i b l y i n i t s l e a d e r s ' n a m e - f o u n d c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h t h e o t h e r , a n d w o r k e d t o g e t h e r t o w a r d r e a l i z i n g w h a t w e r e p e r c e i v e d t o b e t h e s y n o n y m o u s g o a l s o f g o d a n d n a t i o n . t h e d e s i r e t o b e l o n g i n p r u s s i a l e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n t o a p a t t e r n o f c o m p r o m i s e . c o m m u n a l i n s e c u r i t y - b o r n o u t o f p e r s e c u t i o n , d e p o r t a t i o n a n d l e g a l r e s t r i c t i o n s o n see horst gerlach's personal account of his experience in a siberian work camp in nightmare in red p r o p e r t y , c h u r c h e s , a n d t h e l i k e o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s - r e s u l t e d i n n u m e r o u s e m i g r a t i o n s . t h o s e w h o c h o s e t o r e m a i n i n p r u s s i a c o n t i n u e d t o a p p e a l f o r g r e a t e r r i g h t s a n d , w h i l e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a c c e p t i n g t h e s t a t e i m p o s i t i o n s o u t r i g h t - a s s e e n i n c o n t i n u a l d e l e g a t i o n s p l e a d i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e c a s e b e f o r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t - f o u n d t h a t t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l m e n n o n i t e t e n e t s o f f a i t h w e r e n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p r o m i s e d o v e r t i m e . l i k e m e n n o s i m o n s a n d t h e e a r l y m a i n s t r e a m a n a b a p t i s t s , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s l a b o r e d i n t h e i r d e s i r e t o a m e l i o r a t e t h e i r i m a g e t h r o u g h o v e r c o m i n g t h e o n e r o u s m i i n s t e r l e g a c y . t h e d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n t h a t , w h i l e s i m o n s c h o s e t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e p e a c e p o s i t i o n , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s f o l l o w e d t h e l e a d o f t h e i r s o u t h g e r m a n b r e t h r e n , a n d c h o s e t o r e t u r n t o m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . h a n s - j i i r g e n g o e r t z a s s e r t s t h a t : die mennoniten nut dem nationalsozialistischen staat bereits so stark identifizierten, dall sie in den leidenden martyrern nicht mehr die spaten brtider ihrer tauferischen vater erkannten a c c o r d i n g t o h o r s t g e r l a c h , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e martyr's mirror b u t c h o s e t h e i n v e r s e o f s i m o n s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , a n d b e l i e v e d t h e l e g e n d s h a d t h e i r p l a c e i n p a s t e p o c h s . g o e r t z e x p l a i n s t h e s h i f t a s f o l l o w s : die 'nationale erhebung' kam den bedurfnissen und anstrengungen der mennoniten, nach langer fremdexistenz endlich auch gesellschaftlich voll integreiert zu werden, ohne die konfessionelle sonderexistenz aufgeben zu miissen, stark entgegen. so kann man ohne weiteres sagen, dass die politisierung des konfessionellen ruckbezugs einem gesellschaftlichen und wirtschaftlichen impuls gefolgt ist, der die farbung der faschistischen ideologic angenommen hatte. p e t e r k l a s s e n a s s e r t s t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s w e r e " u n w i l l i n g t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n [ t h e i r ] o w n i n t e r e s t s a n d t h o s e p e r c e i v e d d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e s t a t e . n a t i o n a l g o a l s a n d p r i o r i t i e s (freeman, ). (the mennonites had identified so strongly with the national socialist state at this time that they were no longer associated with their suffering martyred anabaptist forefathers). goertz, p. . interview of horst gerlach. (the' rise of the nation' validated the efforts of the mennonites, after a history of being foreigners in — germany, to finally integrate fully without relinquishing their unique confessional beliefs. thus one can say that their political and confessional reflex followed a social and economic impulse, which adopted the fascist ideology of the day), goertz, p. . w e r e d e f i n e d b y t h e s t a t e a n d a c c e p t e d b y t h e c h u r c h . " k l a s s e n r i g h t l y p o i n t s t o t h e i s s u e o f t h e o a t h i n c o n c l u d i n g : " p e r h a p s t h i s w a s f i t t i n g l y s y m b o l i c o f a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e a f o r m w a s a c c e p t e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r a n e s s e n c e t h a t h a d b e e n l o s t . " t h e p r o c e s s e s o f m e n n o n i t e a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e p r u s s i a n s t a t e i n v o l v e d m u l t i f a r i o u s e l e m e n t s . it i s c l e a r f r o m t h e a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e a n d f r o m o r a l h i s t o r i e s , t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n i t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d t h e n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t s b e c a u s e t h e i r p o l i c i e s f a v o r e d f a r m e r s . t h e s e f a r m e r s l i v e d o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e " p o l i s h c o r r i d o r " a n d h e l d t h e s e n t i m e n t of"heim ins reich" a d d i t i o n a l l y , p i e t i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m s e r v e d i n t h e g r a d u a l w e a k e n i n g o f f u n d a m e n t a l m e n n o n i t e p r i n c i p l e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . w i t h l e a d e r s h i p f r o m l u t h e r a n a n d b a p t i s t - t r a i n e d p a s t o r s w h o e n c o u r a g e d c h u r c h - s t a t e c o o p e r a t i o n , t h e m e n n o n i t e s , o n e o f t h e f e w c h r i s t i a n d e n o m i n a t i o n s f o u n d e d o n a t h e o l o g y o f r a d i c a l n o n c o n f o r m i t y a n d n o n r e s i s t a n c e , w e r e l e f t w i t h o u t a s u b s t a n t i a l t h e o l o g i c a l v e h i c l e f o r r e s i s t i n g t h e r e g i m e . t h e l i b e r a l i s m f o u n d i n t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e d a n z i g m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h c o n s t i t u t i o n o f g a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f m a i n t a i n i n g m e n n o n i t e t h e o l o g y . i n f a c t , t h e c o n s c i e n c e , w h i c h s i m o n s i n s i s t e d b e k e p t u n a d u l t e r a t e d a m i d s t s e c u l a r i n f l u e n c e s , w a s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d i n o r d e r f o r t h e m e n n o n i t e s t o m a i n t a i n t h e p r i n c i p l e i n a p p e a r a n c e . t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l t e n e t o f c o n s c i e n c e , o r i g i n a l l y b a s e d o n c o m m u n a l a d h e r e n c e , w a s r e d u c e d t o p e r s o n a l c h o i c e a n d i m m e d i a t e p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y , t h u s d i l u t i n g t h e v e r y raison a" etre o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n . d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i s u m m a r i z e s a n o t h e r w a y m e n n o n i t e s m a i n t a i n e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e s o f p a s t b e l i e f : klassen, "faith and culture," p. . sie wollen den alten individualistischen nonkonformisumus auch dem dritten reich nicht opfern. die gemeinden werden nicht gleichgeschaltet, das fiihrerprinzip nicht eingefur/. l i c h d i c o n t i n u e s : sie beginnen die spannung des lebens 'in der welt' aber nicht 'von der welt' unter endzeitlichen gesichtspunkten zu sehen. sie nehmen mehr und mehr auf jesus als den wahren fuhrer bezug... so sehr sie sich der staatsbiirgerlichen verpflichtung bewubt waren, so wenig sie sich sozial diskrinunitieren wollten, so sehr achteten sie auch die gewissensnot einzelner und waren sich des tauferischen erbes bewubt. i n s h o r t , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s s t r u g g l e d t o m a i n t a i n b o t h p a r t i c i p a t o r y c i t i z e n s h i p (staatsburgerschaft) a n d t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s . l e o n a r d v e r d u i n h a s a s s o c i a t e d c o e r c i o n w i t h c o r r u p t i o n i n r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r y . i n t h i s c a s e , h o w e v e r , t h e m e n n o n i t e s v o l u n t a r i l y a c c e p t e d a c o e r c i v e r e g i m e a n d l o s t t h e i r e s s e n t i a l c o n s c i e n c e a n d v o l u n t a r i s t f o c u s . t h e r e f o r e , t h e c l a i m t h a t a n a b a p t i s t s u s h e r e d i n " t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m o d e r n i n d i v i d u a l , n o n - e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c u l t u r e " finds a m p l e s u p p o r t i n l a t e - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r u s s i a . e v e n t u a l l y , t h e l i b e r a l , i n d i v i d u a l i z e d t h e o l o g y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s w a s c o m b i n e d w i t h c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l v i e w s , a l l o w i n g f o r t h e s y n t h e s i s o f m e n n o n i t e f a i t h a n d g e r m a n n a t i o n a l i s m - a p r o c e s s t h a t c o r n e l i u s d y c k h a s c r e d i t e d w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e l o s s o f " c o s m i c d u a l i s m , " l e a v i n g t h e m i m p o t e n t " a g a i n s t t h e s a t a n i c s p i r i t u a l r e a l m . " t h i s i m p o t e n c e , w r o u g h t b y t h e i r c h o i c e s a n d r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e r e i c h , w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e n a z i bender, "the anabaptists," p. . (they did not want to sacrifice the old notion of individual nonconformity in the third reich. also, the church community did not wish to 'coordinate' according to the fiihrerprinzip), lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . (they began to see the tension of living 'in the world' but not 'of the world' in an apocalyptic sense. they increasingly regarded jesus as the one true leader and protector in trouble [though] they very much desired to participate in german social and political life, and desired to avoid social discrimination they still wanted to identify themselves as followers of conscience, in the way of their anabaptist forefathers). lichdi, "dritten reich," pp. - . verduin p. . ernst troeltsch asserts that modem individualism eventually "replacefd] the old state-church —compulsory culture. it [was] at first a purely religious idea, which then became secularized and overlaid with rationalistic, skeptical and utilitarian idea of toleration" ernst troeltsch "die bedeutung des protestantismus fur die entstehung der modernen welt" (munich, ) in bender, "anabaptists," p. . g o v e r n m e n t t h a t f o u n d f a v o r w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e w a y o f l i f e , a n d d i d n o t p e r c e i v e t h e g r o u p a s p o s i n g a t h r e a t t o t h e n a t i o n a l e t h o s . i n t e r e s t e d i n g u a r d i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s from f a l s i t y - m u c h l i k e e m i l h a e n d i g e s i n - h a n s - j i i r g e n g o e r t z r e s p o n d e d t o a m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e s i n p r i n t . a f t e r h a n s r o t h f e l s p l a c e d t h e m e n n o n i t e s a l o n g s i d e t h e q u a k e r s a n d j e h o v a h ' s w i t n e s s e s a s r e s i s t e r s o f t h e n a z i r e g i m e , g o e r t z s t a t e d : "dieser ehrenvollen einordnung der mennoniten in den widerstand gegen das nationalsozialistische regime nicht zustimmen" it w o u l d a p p e a r , i n b o t h o f t h e s e c a s e s t h a t o u t s i d e r s h a d a s s u m e d , b o t h at t h e t i m e a n d a f t e r w a r d , t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s w o u l d h a v e a c t e d v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y u n d e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m - t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a v e r e s i s t e d . t h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , g r a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r t h e m e n n o n i t e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m . i n t h e w a k e o f r e d b e a r d ' s f a i l e d m i s s i o n c a m e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l t h a t b o r e h i s n a m e . r a t h e r t h a n h a v i n g t h e i r i n s e c u r e f e a r s o f b e i n g e x p e l l e d f r o m g e r m a n y b y t h e n a z i s r e a l i z e d , p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s f o u n d a m u c h w o r s e f a t e a t t h e h a n d s o f t h e a d v a n c i n g s o v i e t a r m y . b y s u m m e r , , t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s l o s t t h e i r - y e a r d o m i c i l e i n t h e r e g i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e i r a n c e s t r a l h o m e s , a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n p e r c e n t o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t y , w i t h t h e s u r v i v o r s f o r c e d t o f l e e t o w e s t e r n g e r m a n y . a f t e r a r r i v i n g t h e r e , t h o u s a n d s c h o s e t o e m i g r a t e t o c a n a d a , t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s , u r u g u a y o r p a r a g u a y t h r o u g h a s s i s t a n c e from t h e m e n n o n i t e c e n t r a l c o m m i t t e e ( m c c , a r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d i n w h o s e m a i n f u n c t i o n w a s t o c a r e f o r t h e w o r l d w i d e m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y ) , w h i l e m a n y o t h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d n e w h o m e s i n g e r m a n y . i n t h e e n d , t h e l e g e n d a r y m y t h o f b a r b a r o s s a w a s s h a t t e r e d i n t h e d y c k , p. . - (it is not correct to have the mennonites honored as resisters of the national socialists), goertz, p. . it remains unknown how many mennonites were drafted, killed in action, killed in the flight from prussia, and how many deaths were civilian or military, etc. lichdi, "dritten reich," p. . resultant massive loss of life, mass displacement and political division of the german people after the war. the symbolism of the defeat of the german army in this final eastern offensive has far-reaching implications for both the mennonite community and the german nation, as both were afforded great cause for personal and communal reflection. vergangenheitsbewaltigung while there have always been divergent views on nonresistance in the community, mennonite historian c. henry smith rightly points out that mennonite principles have always "forbade any fellowship with a movement that might require the use of force in gaining its objective, laudable though the goal might b e . " indeed, the peace that came after the war did not effectively free the prussian mennonites from the spiritual mire in which they were steeped. after the nazi atrocities became fully known to the public in , international condemnation left those on the losing side with little hope for understanding or rehabilitation in the eyes of the victors. the mennonites found themselves battling the demon of their own creation in the stark realization of having compromised their fundamental tenets of faith and, through personal, communal and national reflection, came to a fuller realization of their alliance with one of the most evil regimes in human history. a partial result of this alliance, and of having been a part of a group of armed men who "lived by the sword and died by the sword," included the death of their -year old ancestral homeland in east and west prussia. t. d . regehr has boldly asserted that "there has always been some suggestion that, at least in part, [the mennonites] smith, p. . c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h a t d i s a s t e r . " t o s e v e r a l m c c a n d u n i t e d n a t i o n s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w h o a r r i v e d i n g e r m a n y t o a s s i s t t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y t h e w a r i n , m a n y m e n n o n i t e s s e e m e d " t o l a c k a n a p p r o p r i a t e s e n s e o f c o n t r i t i o n . . . t h e y s e e m e d m o r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t w h a t t h e y h a d l o s t t h a n w h a t t h e y h a d d o n e d u r i n g t h e w a r . " p e t e r k l a s s e n h a s o f f e r e d a m o r e n u a n c e d a p p r o a c h , a n d a s k s : " d i d t h e m e n n o n i t e s f a s h i o n t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e i r o w n d e s t r u c t i o n ? " u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , r e p e n t a n c e h a s n o t b e e n w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s . t w o e x c e p t i o n s i n c l u d e e m i l h a e n d i g e s a n d s i e g f r i e d b a r t e l . h a e n d i g e s p u b l i c l y r e p e n t e d a f t e r t h e w a r at t h e f o u r t h m e n n o n i t e w o r l d c o n f e r e n c e i n , a n d c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g e d h i s v i e w s o n n o n r e s i s t a n c e . h e c a l l e d f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e , n o t j u s t f o r m e n n o n i t e s , "sondern fur alle in unserem deutschen vaterldnde" t o r e f u s e m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e o n t h e b a s i s o f c o n s c i e n c e . i n h i s v i e w : "niemand darf gegen sein gewissen zum kriegsdienst mit der waffe gezwungen werdenf a p o s i t i o n t h a t w a s a d o p t e d i n t o t h e b a s i c l a w o f t h e f e d e r a l r e p u b l i c o f g e r m a n y i n . s i e g f r i e d b a r t e l c o n v e r t e d t o p a c i f i s m f o l l o w i n g t h e w a r a f t e r " r e - t h i n k i n g j e s u s t e a c h i n g . " b a r t e l h a s s a i d t h a t h i s g u i l t c o m e s from b e i n g i n t h e w a r , n o t f o r b e i n g a g e r m a n c a p t a i n i n t h e wehrmacht, w h i c h i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t m a n y , i n h i s e x p e r i e n c e , s e e m t o w a n t h i m t o r e p e n t f o r . f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , b a r t e l ' s a u t o b i o g r a p h y - i n w h i c h h e c o n d e m n s a l l f o r m s o f v i o l e n c e - h a s n o t e v o k e d m u c h p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , s i n c e , h e regehr, t.d., "polish and prussian mennonite displaced persons, - " vamennonite quarterly review, april ( ), p. . regehr, p. . klassen, "faith and culture," p. . (for all people in germany... no one should be forced to go into military service and bear arms against —his conscience), haendiges, "historisches," p. . this was published after the promulgation of the basic law in . however, mennonite historians horst gerlach and diether goetz lichdi insist that haendiges' views on these matters had direct influence on the related clause that appears in the basic law. s a y s " m o s t o f t h e m a r e n o t q u i t e w i l l i n g t o t h i n k it t h r o u g h i n r e g a r d s o f t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e w a r . . . t h e y t a k e t h e v i e w . . . [ t h a t t h e y ] c o u l d n ' t h e l p i t . " c a n a d i a n m e n n o n i t e w a l t e r q u i r i n g , w h o a u t h o r e d n u m e r o u s p r o - n a z i a r t i c l e s i n der bote d u r i n g - , w r o t e a l e t t e r t o a f e l l o w m e n n o n i t e i n . i n it, q u i r i n g c o n f e s s e d : " t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e l e t t h e m s e l v e s b e d e c e i v e d b y h i t l e r . i a l s o . t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e t o d a y r e a l i z e t h e i r e r r o r . i a l s o , " a n d c o n c l u d e s , a l t e r i n g t h e f o r m e r n a z i s l o g a n c o n c e r n i n g t h e j e w s , " h i t l e r w a s t h e m i s f o r t u n e o f t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e . " s o m e m e n n o n i t e s r e m a i n s k e p t i c a l o f s u c h c h a n g e s o f h e a r t . m e n n o n i t e m i n i s t e r d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i c o m m e n t s : [some mennonites] repent because the other mennonites in the allied countries have heard their governments say that the germans are war criminals; they really lack proper theological reflection. my view is that the mennonites were guilty because they couldn't overcome the temptation of nazism. i n d e e d , t h e m a j o r i t y h a v e n o t r e c o g n i z e d t h e n e e d f o r r e p e n t a n c e o f a n y k i n d . t h i s i s m o s t l y b e c a u s e t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a b a n d o n e d t h e n o n r e s i s t a n t s t a n c e , a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t m i s f o r t u n e t h a t w a s m e t e d o u t o n t h e i r c o m m u n i t y i n t h e l a s t m o n t h s o f t h e w a r . o n e m e n n o n i t e v e t e r a n o f t h e luftwaffe i n s i s t s t h a t h e r e m a i n e d "wehrlos i n h i s h e a r t " w h i l e s e r v i n g h i s c o u n t r y . d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i c o n f i r m e d t h i s s e n t i m e n t a m o n g g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s t o d a y . r e f e r r i n g t o n o n r e s i s t a n c e a n d m e n n o n i t e f a i t h , h e c o m m e n t e d : " t h e y o u n g e r o n e s w o u l d a g r e e w i t h i t a n d t h e o l d e r o n e s w o u l d s a y - w e a l w a y s p r a c t i c e d i t ! t h e y a l w a y s p r a c t i c e d 'wehrlosigkeit i n t h e i r h e a r t s . ' " t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e i n g e r m a n y e n d u r e d g r e a t h a r d s h i p a n d d e a t h f o r c h o o s i n g t o r e m a i n t r u e t o t h e i r r e l i g i o u s a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n v i c t i o n s - s u c h a s t h e h u t t e r i t e s a n d interview of siegfried bartel. — letter from w. quiring to b.b. janz, b.b. janz papers, cmbsf, winnipeg, quoted in thiesen, p. . interview of diether goetz lichdi. interview of diether goetz lichdi. j e h o v a h ' s w i t n e s s e s , f o r e x a m p l e - s t a n d s i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r n a z i s m , a n d t h e i r m a i n t e n a n c e o f wehrlosigkeit, b u t o n l y t o a n e x t e n t . i n a w a y , t h e m e n n o n i t e s did s t a y t r u e t o t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s a s t h e y w e r e a t t h e t i m e . a f t e r a d a p t i n g a n d a s s i m i l a t i n g i n t o p r u s s i a n s o c i e t y o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d a l t e r e d s o m e o f t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n a l t e n e t s o f f a i t h . w h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a n i d e o l o g y t h a t w a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h c h r i s t i a n i t y u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e s o f d i c t a t o r s h i p , t h e i r a d a p t e d v e r s i o n o f m e n n o n i t e f a i t h h a d b e e n p u r g e d o f a n y c o n t e n t t h a t c o u l d h a v e b e e n u t i l i z e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d p r o v e d t o b e r a t h e r i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l i n i m p e d i n g t h e r i s e o f n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m i n g e r m a n y . n a t u r a l l y , t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e c o n t i n u e t o d e a l w i t h t h e i r v e r y p r o b l e m a t i c n a z i p a s t . i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f vergangenheitsbewduigung ( c o m i n g t o t e r m s w i t h t h e p a s t ) , m o n u m e n t s , m u s e u m s a n d m e m o r i a l s h a v e b e e n e r e c t e d t o e n c o u r a g e a p p r o p r i a t e r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e u n p a r a l l e l e d a g g r e s s i o n m e t e d o u t , i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s , o n t h e m a j o r i t y o f e u r o p e a n s d u r i n g t h e n a z i e r a . w h i l e t h e e f f o r t s h a v e t a k e n p r a i s e w o r t h y f o r m s , m a n y e n d e a v o r s l a c k m e a n i n g f u l s u b s t a n c e a s t h e c r e a t o r s o f m e m o r i a l s t o n a z i a t r o c i t i e s a r e b u r d e n e d w i t h t h e o b s c u r i t y o f i n t e n t . p e r h a p s t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e o f t h e p h e n o m e n a t h a t a r e r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e d e s i r e f o r t h e g e r m a n p e o p l e - m o s t o f w h o m a r e r e l a t i v e s o f p e o p l e w h o l i v e d i n n a z i g e r m a n y , m a n y o f w h o m w e r e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c r i m e s o f t h e r e g i m e - t o f o c u s o n t h e p o s i t i v e r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l a n d s p i r i t u a l n a t i o n . i n d e e d , t h e a m b i v a l e n c e a n d c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e n a z i p a s t a r e e v i d e n t i n a w i d e r a n g e o f m e m o r i a l s , from t h e h i g h - p r o f i l e n e u e w a c h e i n d o w n t o w n b e r l i n , t o t h o s e e r e c t e d i n v i l l a g e s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t g e r m a n y ( s e e f i g u r e ) . s i m i l a r l y , t h e m e n n o n i t e p e o p l e h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e i r p a s t a s w e l l . i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o n c e r n s a n d c o n f u s i o n t h e y s h a r e w i t h t h e i r g e r m a n n e i g h b o r s , t h e m e n n o n i t e s f a c e t h e a d d e d c o n u n d r u m o f h a v i n g c o m p r o m i s e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s o f t h e i r f a i t h . t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t n a t i o n a l i s m , c o m m u n a l a n d p e r s o n a l e x p e d i e n c y s e e m e d t o b l i n d t h e m e n n o n i t e s t o t h e d a n g e r o u s a n d a n t i - c h r i s t i a n i d e o l o g y o f t h e n a z i s . m o s t d i d n o t r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e r e g i m e w a s i n h e r e n t l y a n t i - c h r i s t i a n a n d , i f t h e y d i d , t h e y n o l o n g e r p o s s e s s e d a t h e o l o g y t h a t c o u l d c o u n t e r it. t h e r e f l e c t i o n , o r l a c k o f it, s e e m s t o l e a v e t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s w i t h s i m i l a r a m b i v a l e n t f e e l i n g s a n d a c o n f u s i n g l e g a c y , m u c h l i k e t h o s e f o u n d i n m e m o r i a l s t h r o u g h o u t g e r m a n y . t h e m e n n o n i t e s , t o o , l o v e t h e i r c o u n t r y , a r e d e f e n s i v e o f t h e i r i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e w a r , a n d c o n t i n u e t o l i v e w i t h t h e g r i e f o f t h e i r l o s s e s w h i l e q u i e t l y e x t o l l i n g t h o s e w h o s u f f e r e d f o r t a k i n g a r a d i c a l s t a n c e a g a i n s t n a z i s m . t h e y h a v e a l s o e r e c t e d a m e m o r i a l o f t h e i r o w n i n w e i e r h o f i n m e m o r y o f t h o s e w h o d i e d i n t h e f l i g h t from t h e i r h o m e s i n p r u s s i a d u r i n g - . t h e m o n u m e n t i s i n s c r i b e d t o "den toten derfernenheimat" i r o n i c a l l y , a v e r s e from t h e b o o k o f r e v e l a t i o n i s p r i n t e d d o w n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e c r o s s , w h i c h s e r v e s a s t h e m e m o r i a l i t s e l f ( s e e f i g u r e ) . i n s t e a d o f t h e a p o c a l y p t i c m y t h s h a v i n g b e e n r e a l i z e d i n t h e wehrmacht 's v i c t o r y i n t h e e a s t - a s p r o p h e s i e d b y h o r s t g e r l a c h ' s s c h o o l t e a c h e r - t h e the neue wache is a memorial to those who suffered unjustly and died in europe while under the control of totalitarianism. this confusion over who is represented in the memorial finds its counterpart in bockenheim, where "der ehre" of the soldier is juxtaposed with lists of fallen soldiers from both world wars, and those who had resisted the tyranny of the national socialists to the point of death. across the horizontal beam of the cross-shaped memorial: "den toten der femen heimat" (the dead from the far-off homeland) and down the vertical beam: "gott wird abwischen alle tranen von ihren —augen und der tod wird nicht mehr sein noch leid noch geschrei noch schmerzen wird mehr sein denn das erste ist vergangen." (god will wipe away every tear from their eyes and the dead will experience no more mourning, or crying or pain; the first things have passed away). revelation : b i b l i c a l v e r s e s s e r v e d t o c o m f o r t t h o s e w h o h a d l o s t f a m i l y a n d l o v e d o n e s i n t h e w a k e o f i t s c a t a s t r o p h i c d e f e a t . p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s h a v e a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e c o g n i t i v e a n d t h e o l o g i c a l d i s s o n a n c e i n h e r e n t i n t h e i r h i s t o r y . a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o l l e c t e d a c c o u n t s o f d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i , m a n y m e n n o n i t e w o m e n w o r k i n g i n h o s p i t a l s i n p r u s s i a d e c i d e d , o n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r c h r i s t i a n f a i t h , t o l a y d o w n t h e i r l i v e s f o r t h o s e i n t h e i r c a r e . n u r s e h e l e n e h a m m o f m a r i e n b u r g , f o r e x a m p l e , w a s r a p e d a n d k i l l e d b y r u s s i a n s o l d i e r s a f t e r c h o o s i n g n o t t o j o i n t h e f l e e i n g g e r m a n e x p e d i t i o n i n i n o r d e r t o t e n d t o t h e s i c k a n d w a r - w o u n d e d i n t h e h o s p i t a l . h e r e a g a i n , e v e n a m i d s t t h e v i o l e n c e o f w a r - i n w h i c h p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e m e n f u l l y p a r t i c i p a t e d - t h e r e w e r e a n u m b e r o f m e n n o n i t e s w h o c o n s i d e r e d t h e b r a v e r y a n d s a c r i f i c e o f t h e l i k e s o f h e l e n e t o b e a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e wehrlosen christen l e g a c y o f m a r t y r d o m , a n d r i g h t l y s o . h o w e v e r , t o f o c u s o n t h e s u f f e r i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y f e m a l e s u f f e r i n g , t e n d s t o d i m i n i s h c o m m u n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e g e r m a n a g g r e s s i o n , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y b r o u g h t a b o u t h e l e n e ' s t r a g i c e n d , a n d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o m o t e s v i n d i c a t i o n t h r o u g h v i c t i m i z a t i o n . t h e m a i n l i n e p r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s , d e s p i t e t h e r e p e a t e d c r i t i c i s m t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n m o t i v a t e d b y o u t s i d e p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s , h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h t h e i r a c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e n a z i e r a a s w e l l . t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e land c h u r c h e s , m o s t l y t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n f e s s i n g c h u r c h , b a n d e d t o g e t h e r a f t e r t h e w a r t o " e s t a b l i s h g r e a t e r penner, "ost- west," p. . doris bergen asserts that the "appropriation of women's experiences for political ends, to legitimate claims of male loss and innocence" prevails in postwar ethnic german historiography. "mourning, mass death, and the gray zone: the ethnic germans of eastern europe and the second world war," in symbolic loss: the ambiguity of mourning and memory at century's end. (charlottesville, ), p. . john conway asserts that the stuttgart declaration of guilt was made voluntarily after the war, although - an expedient element did exist. those repenting were interested in ecumenical and international dialogue and ," •: . . many, including martin niemotler, were prominent figures in the establishment of the u n i t y a m o n g t h e p r o t e s t a n t s w i t h i n g e r m a n y a n d i n t h e w o r l d a t l a r g e , " b y f o r m i n g t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o u n c i l f o r t h e e v a n g e l i c a l c h u r c h i n g e r m a n y i n . w h e n t h e p r o v i s i o n a l c o u n c i l c o n v e n e d i n s t u t t g a r t i n o c t o b e r , , a d e l e g a t i o n from t h e w o r l d c o u n c i l o f c h u r c h e s j o i n e d t h e g a t h e r i n g . a t t h e m e e t i n g , p a s t o r m a r t i n n i e m o l l e r d e l i v e r e d a p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t o f r e p e n t a n c e o n b e h a l f o f t h e g e r m a n p r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s f o r t h e i r a c t i o n s i n t h e w a r . t h e s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h c a m e t o b e k n o w n a s t h e s t u t t g a r t d e c l a r a t i o n o f g u i l t , d e c l a r e d : with great anguish we state: through us inestimable suffering was inflicted on many peoples and lands.. .we have fought for long years in the name of jesus christ against the spirit that found horrible expression in the national socialist regime of force, but we accuse ourselves for not witnessing more courageously, for not praying more faitiifully, for not believing more joyously and for not loving more ardently. t h o s e d o i n g t h e r e p e n t i n g w e r e p a r t o f a s m a l l , r a d i c a l m i n o r i t y , a n d t h e i r a c t i o n s c a u s e d g r e a t a l a r m a n d c o n d e m n a t o r y r e a c t i o n f r o m m a n y c h r i s t i a n s i n g e r m a n y . o n t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e , h o w e v e r , t h e s e m e n a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s t u t t g a r t d e c l a r a t i o n s p e a r h e a d e d t h e g e r m a n schuldfrage, b o t h w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e c h u r c h . world council of churches in geneva in . see john conway, "how shall the nations repent? the stuttgart declaration of guilt," in journal of ecclesiastical history : (october) . helmreich, p. . text of the stuttgart declaration of guilt, in helmreich, p. . john conway asserts: "there can be no doubt...that, when the declaration was first issued, such attitudes [of exaggerated nationalism] were both widespread and strongly held by the majority of protestants, both clergy and laity. but to the more radical minority, who supported it, the statement was a belated attempt to come to terms with their own mistakes, an act of conscious self-criticism for attitudes and actions which had involved their church and their nation in unprecedented ethical disasters." conway, "nations repent," p. . helmreich notes that karl jaspers gave a series of lectures in the winter semester of - on the question of german guilt in relation to the war at the university of heidelberg. helmreich, p. . john conway points out that the declaration was significant in four distinct ways: lit marked the first public acknowledgement by a major social organization of the complicity of germans in the misdeeds of the nazi regime, and the need for a public acceptance of guilt; .it hindered the growth or recurrence of any exculpatory mythology, such as the notorious 'stab-in-the-back' legend of ; .it opened the way for a wholly new and much more creative relationship between the german protestant churches and their — counterparts abroad; . it saw the beginning of a long and often painful assessment of the church's responsibility towards political events in their society, and an abandonment of old ideas about the subordination of lutherans to the powers of the state. "the stuttgart declaration of guilt and its t h e m e n n o n i t e s , t o o , s h a r e i n t h i s d e s i r e f o r r e h a b i l i t a t i o n . a s s e e n a b o v e , t h e m e n n o n i t e s , m u c h l i k e t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t h e m a i n l i n e p r o t e s t a n t s e c t s i n g e r m a n y , w e r e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o t e c t i n g t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s t h a n p r o p a g a t i n g a p o t e n t c h r i s t i a n t e s t i m o n y i n t h e t h i r d r e i c h . p e r h a p s t h e t w o w e r e s e e n a s o n e a n d t h e s a m e . w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g i n t h e t e n d e n c y t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e i r o w n , r e f u g e e c o n g r e g a t i o n s o f t h e f o r m e r d a n z i g - w e s t p r u s s i a a r e a a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e b r o a d e r g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y b y a m i n i s t e r i a l c o m m i t t e e c a l l e d t h e altestenausschuss der konferenz der west- und ostpreussischen mennonitengemeinden. a f t e r t h e w a r , n o r t h a m e r i c a n v o l u n t e e r s i n t h e m c c s e n t m o n e y a n d s u p p l i e s t o a i d t h e i r m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n i n g e r m a n y . t h o s e w h o w e r e a b l e t o v a l i d a t e t h e i r m e n n o n i t e i d e n t i t y a d e q u a t e l y w o u l d r e c e i v e t h e a i d . i n t e r m s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , m o s t m e n n o n i t e v e t e r a n s d e s i r e t h a t t h e p a s t b e r e - w r i t t e n i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e g e r m a n s , a n d t h e m e n n o n i t e s , a r e t r e a t e d m o r e f a i r l y . a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s o . i n d e e d , m a n y m e n n o n i t e s , a n d o t h e r s , f e e l t h a t h i s t o r i c a l o b j e c t i v i t y h a s b e e n s i d e l i n e d i n m u c h o f t h e h i s t o r i o g r a p h y p r o d u c e d o n t h e p e o p l e a n d p e r i o d i n q u e s t i o n . u n l i k e e t h e l b e r t s t a u f f e r ' s d e c l a r a t i o n - t h a t m a r t y r s a c h i e v e " v i c t o r y o v e r t h e v i c t o r s " - t h e m e n n o n i t e s , m a r t y r s a n d o t h e r w i s e i n t h i s c a s e , h a v e b e e n f o r c e d i n t o q u i e t , p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n a s t h e l o s e r s o f a n u n j u s t l y m o t i v a t e d a n d e x e c u t e d w a r . t h e r e s u l t i n g t r a g i c e m p l o t m e n t o f t h e i r h i s t o r y h a s s e r v e d t o o b j e c t i f y " t h e g e r m a n " i n p o p u l a r a n d s c h o l a r l y a c c o u n t s o f t h e - e r a , i n j u s t i f y i n g t h e a c t i o n s —ecumenical impact," unpublished paper in john s. conway research collection, d . c , file , rrar , (vancouver, ). crous, "germany," in bender and smith, volume n, p. . o f t h e a l l i e s b e t w e e n - , a n d i n f o s t e r i n g a n a c h r o n i s t i c a d a p t a t i o n s o f n a z i s m i n c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y . o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s i g n i f i c a n t r e f l e c t i o n a n d c r i t i c i s m a r e c e r t a i n l y a p p r o p r i a t e a n d a r e t h e d u t y o f t h e o l o g i a n s , s c h o l a r s a n d t h o s e o t h e r w i s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e e v e n t s o f t h i s p e r i o d . i n d e e d , d e n o m i n a t i o n a l a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d c r e d i b i l i t y m u s t b e r e s t o r e d i f t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n t e n d t o s u s t a i n r e s p e c t i n t h e g e r m a n n a t i o n a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . s o m e e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . i n s t r i v i n g t o w a r d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h t h e p o l i s h p e o p l e , f o r m e r m e m b e r s o f t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t y w h o h a d m o v e d t o h a m b u r g a f t e r t h e w a r i n i t i a t e d a j o i n t m e n n o n i t e - p o l i s h c a m p o f a t o n e m e n t , w h i c h w a s e r e c t e d at s t u t t h o f i n . t h e e f f o r t s at s t u t t h o f a r e n o t e n t i r e l y u n i q u e . t h e n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s m a n y m e n n o n i t e s e n d u r e d d u r i n g w a r t i m e s e r v e d a s t h e c a t a l y s t f o r a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i r t i m e - h o n o r e d t r a d i t i o n s o f n o n r e s i s t a n c e a n d n o n c o n f o r m i t y . m a n y c a m e t o r e a l i z e t h a t n o n r e s i s t a n c e , i n i t s t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m , w a s m o r e i r r e s p o n s i b l e t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e , l e a d i n g m a n y m e n n o n i t e s t o c o n v e r t from t h e i r p a s s i v e , s e c l u d e d p e a c e s t a n c e t o n o n v i o l e n t s o c i a l a c t i o n a n d r a d i c a l p e a c e m a k i n g . n o w w i l l i n g t o p a y t h e " u l t i m a t e s a c r i f i c e " a f t e r j o i n i n g t h e " c o r p s " i n w o r k i n g t o w a r d b r i n g i n g p e a c e t o t r o u b l e d a r e a s , m e n n o n i t e s w e r e a b l e t o p o u r t h e i r e n e r g i e s i n t o p o s i t i v e s o c i a l a n d s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e . f o r e x a m p l e , k l a u s f r o e s e , s o n o f a wehrmacht s o l d i e r from w e s t p r u s s i a , m o v e d t o c r e t e i n i n o r d e r t o h e l p r e b u i l d w h a t see james bacque, crimes and mercies: the fate of german civilians under allied occupation - . (toronto, ). kazimierz mezynski, "the german mennonites on their way to reconciliation with poland' in mennonite quarterly review, , ( ), pp. - . g e r m a n s o l d i e r s h a d d e s t r o y e d i n t h e w a r a n d l e g a l l y c l a i m e d c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s t a t u s u n d e r t h e b a s i c l a w o f t h e f e d e r a l r e p u b l i c o f g e r m a n y i n . m e n n o n i t e s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d a l s o l e a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l from t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r . h a v i n g e l i m i n a t e d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e n n o n i t e t w o - k i n g d o m t h e o l o g y , n e w g r o u p s , m o s t l y e m a n a t i n g f r o m m c c , b e g a n t o o r g a n i z e a n d m o v e i n t o s e r v i c e a l l a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . c h r i s t i a n p e a c e m a k i n g t e a m s , t h e m e n n o n i t e c o n c i l i a t i o n s e r v i c e a n d t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n c i l i a t i o n s e r v i c e , f o r e x a m p l e , b e g a n t o f o c u s o n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f v i o l e n c e a n d o n e m p o w e r i n g p e o p l e t o r e g a i n o w n e r s h i p o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n s i n t r o u b l e d a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d . t h e n e w f o r m o f p e a c e b u i l d i n g , w h i c h h a s r e p l a c e d t h e p a s s i v e n o n r e s i s t a n c e o f o l d , h a s f u r n i s h e d c o n t e m p o r a r y m e n n o n i t e s w i t h a n " e n o r m o u s t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e f u t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s o f t h e g l o b a l c o m m u n i t y . " p e r h a p s t h e r e s u r g e n c e o f wehrlosigkeit c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a r e t u r n t o t h e f a m i l i a r f o r t h e m e n n o n i t e s - a f o r m vergangenheitsbewdltigung t h a t f o c u s e s o n r e a l a n d l a s t i n g p o s i t i v e c h a n g e a f t e r t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a d w i t n e s s e d , a n d i n d e e d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e o p p o s i t e d u r i n g t h e w a r . t h e m a r t y r o l o g y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a s n o t d i s a p p e a r e d e i t h e r . a . a . t o e w s a n d j o h n h o r s c h - b o t h w r i t i n g a f t e r t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r - i n c l u d e t h e a n a b a p t i s t l e g e n d s i n t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e m e n n o n i t e p e o p l e i n e u r o p e , r e v e a l i n g t h e p r o c l i v i t y f o r m e n n o n i t e s , l i k e t h e i r g e r m a n b r e t h r e n , t o f o c u s o n t h e v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e w a r . interview of klaus froese by author, june, (hannover, germany). cynthia sampson and john paul lederach (eds.). from the ground up: mennonite contributions to international peacemaking, (oxford, ), p. . - a.a. toews' mennonite martyrs: - , and john horsch's the mennonites of europe primarily expound upon mennonite suffering in ukraine. doris bergen also addresses the martyrological focus in the extant historiography on the volksdeutschen, bergen, "mourning," p. , w e have seen the re-appropriation o f both national and religious myths - both used for new purposes - after . t o be sure, the militarism and nationalism that constitutes the k y f f h a u s e r legacy and monument were made palatable to the mennonites through the gradual, centuries-long processes o f assimilation into prussian society. after the war, both the german nation and the mennonites have reflected on their disturbing past. the german nation and government have conducted an about-face since , and have focused on l i m i t i n g ultra-conservative or neo-fascist movements and, i n recent years, have very actively promoted liberal social democracy i n germany as part o f its leitkultur. german mennonites, too, have promoted the opposite o f what they practiced in the second w o r l d w a r , and have once again embraced the national political ethos and accompanying leitkultur. w i t h a new, more agreeable tandem established for both sides, the mennonites have once again found a vital raison a" etre for peacebuilding that resembles the o l d , having again re-modeled their o l d legends for new purposes. s t i l l , the n a z i era continues to l o o m over the german nation, and the mennonites w i t h i n it, as they continue to struggle - both separately and i n conjunction - i n the hope o f someday c o m i n g to terms w i t h their very problematic history. today, whitebeard continues to gaze silently over the thuringian plains from his monument - maintained as a relic o f germania's colored past - w h i l e the german m e n n o n i t e community continues to thrive in an uneasy peace w i t h itself and the larger community. t h e k y f f h a u s e r m o n u m e n t i n t h u r i n g i a ( s o u r c e : p h o t o by a u t h o r ) figure a srttteuungsblatt ber j?on[erenj bet oft* urtb qjieftpreufetfcrjert ulennortitenciemeinben betreffenb bie q erpfltcrjtung ber ffiiennomten art (sibesftatt bet (sintritt in ben ^eeresbtertft. §etausgegeben oom ^itluilfn - susfdjub. iuj ©runb ber setjre e[u gt)ri|ti in quallr). , — uer> bieter bas mennonitifci)e siekenntnis [djledjtrjin unb otjne slusnatjme bie bieijrung eines jbtmlidjen (jibes unb gt|tqtlet [eiuen e!iennern n u i eine jeierlidje ajerjidjerung bejro. tin (eierlidjrs er|prrd)rn mit . "" "ib jjqnbjdjlag. sieje religibjen ©runblaje ber otenitonilen fjat bie rrui)i[rf)e ikegierung feiitjer in ber ®e[et)gebung berudifidjligt. siejiiglidj ber i n bas §err eintreienben "fflennonilen tjeiijt es in bem ©ejejj oom . sejember in § : „ jei ber (£injiet)ung jum j?rirgsbien|l (uii ber ftanlonpiiirijlige ohennonii, in sriidt|ici)t [einer ©laubensbegrifjr, mil ber lib- leidung eines gibes oer|cf)ont unb bie erforberlirfje u ! " g e oon itjm mitlrljt sanbfdjiages angenommen loerben." )ie slntuenbbarbeil biefes ©efeljes and) fiir bie ^ttluiuft tuirb oom rriegsminiiierium in einem (jrlag oom . anuar ( . a i a) an ben or|tanb ber toennonitengemeinbe in b a n j i g beftatigi, roenn es t)ier fjeijjl: ,-ibas jri)lieblid) bie orm ber ditnliuripjlidjlung angelji, [o be[ief)t § ber s e p a r a t i o n oom . srjrmber nod) in s t a j i unb jinb bemnad) bicjenigen tornnonilen, loelrije in ben otiliiarbienft eintreien, oon ber (£ibcsleijlung enlbunben unb milielit §anb|d)iages jur gal)ne j u oerpflicljlen." uj ©runb einer singabe ber „ rrrinigung ber ulennonileii' gemeinben im seutfdjen ieicf)" oom . toarj an b a s s w d j s - kriegsminiiterium, in ber bie w i l e ausge[prod)en war, bie sonber- t'lellung ber ohennoniten in ber sibesfroge aud) bei ber sieuregelung ber er)rpilid)t ju beriidifidjiigen, i l l folgenbe (ent|ri)eibung ergangen: the form used by mennonites in lieu of swearing an oath to the german government upon conscription after , pages and ( s o u r c e : m e n n o n i t i s c h e f o r s c h u n g s t e i i e , w e i e r h o f , g e r m a n y ) figure b )tr sr«id)skriegsmini|ttr •ii. ob«rfj«(tl)l ^ob(t btr dff)rmad)t sir. / j b. trlin w , btn . . . • tlr.: (elbtsformtl jilt solbaten mtnnoniti[d)tn ©laubtns. sin bic eretnigung btr ©eulfdjen olttiinonilfngtmtinbtn, s. £). bts $smn s r . (sruus trlin • s i t g l i l i £autnburgt[|lr. . u[ )" slnjragt oom . . miib l)"'n mit> fltlfill, ba[) otfiiiidiiilcii au[ bc[onbcrtn ^intraa bnrdj jolgtnbts © t l b b n i s in bit § a n b b i s sorgtjtbttn on stellt bts eibcs gtbunbtn rotrbtn: <u i t e ft. (es roitb t)ietmit be[d)tinigt, baft •• cihiiglieb btr unttrjtidjntttn zlrnnonil(ngemeinbe i(l. ir bean- iragen. gcmajj (srlajj bts .t)trtn* lfid)shritgsniini|tfrs unb obtr* btltljlstiabtrs btr ffltljtmadjt oom . stpltinbtr ( !t. / j b), i!)n an sttut bts kibes burd) bns |iir ottn. noniten udrgt[d)ritbtnt ©elbbnis jn dtrpilirfjlfn. , ben © c i ii b n i s ! . ri) gtlobf, baij id) btm giiljrtr bts stulfdjtu sltidjts unb olhts slbolf © i l l t r , btm ober|ten sfftbjsfiabtt btr tfjrmarf)t. unbtbingltn ©ttjorjam [tifltn unb als top[trtr s o l b o l bereit (tin mill, jtbtrjtit fiit bitjto © t l b b n i s mtin stbtn tinjultjjtu." . . (gtj) sotti|d). t r o i (t a ii b btt ottnnonittngemtinbe the form used by mennonites in iieu of swearing an oath to the german government upon conscription after , pages and ( s o u r c e : m e n n o n i t i s c h e f o r s c h u n g s t e l l e , w e i e r h o f , g e r m a n y ) w o r l d w a r t w o m e m o r i a l a t b o c k e n h e i m ( s o u r c e : p h o t o by a u t h o r ) f i g u r e t h e m e m o r i a l e r e c t e d a t w e i e r h o f t o t h e p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s w h o p e r i s h e d d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r (source: photo by author) b i b l i o g r a p h y a n d e r s o n , b e n e d i c t . imagined communities ( n e w y o r k : v e r s o , ) . b a c q u e , j a m e s . crimes and mercies: the fate of german civilians under allied occupation - ( t o r o n t o : l i t t l e , b r o w n a n d c o . , ) . b e n d e r , h a r o l d . the anabaptists and religious liberty in the sixteenth century ( p h i l a d e l p h i a : ) . " b a d i s c h - w i i r t t e m b e r g i s c h - b a y e r i s c h e r g e m e i n d e v e r b a n d " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s . ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e i, p p . - . b e r g e n , d o r i s . twisted cross: the german christian movement in the third reich. ( c h a p e l h i l l : u n i v e r s i t y o f n o r t h c a r o l i n a p r e s s , ) . " m o u r n i n g , m a s s d e a t h , a n d t h e g r a y z o n e : t h e e t h n i c g e r m a n s o f e a s t e r n e u r o p e a n d t h e s e c o n d w o r l d w a r , " i n symbolic loss: the ambiguity of mourning and memory at century's end. ( c h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s o f v i r g i n i a , ) , p p . - . b r a g h t , t h i e l m a n j . v a n . martyr's mirror of the defenseless christians ( k i t c h e n e r : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) . b r e u i l l y , j o h n . the formation of the first german nation-state, - . ( n e w y o r k : s t . m a r t i n s , ) . b r u b a k e r , r o g e r s . citizenship and nationhood in france and germany. ( c a m b r i d g e : h a r v a r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . c a t t e p o e l , d i r k . " m e n n o n i t u n d w e h r w i l l e " i n mennonitische blatter, m a y ( ) , p . . c o n w a y , j o h n . " h o w s h a l l t h e n a t i o n s r e p e n t ? t h e s t u t t g a r t d e c l a r a t i o n o f g u i l t , " i n journal of ecclesiastical history : , o c t o b e r ( ) , p p . - . " t h e s t u t t g a r t d e c l a r a t i o n o f g u i l t a n d i t s e c u m e n i c a l i m p a c t , " u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r i n j o h n s . c o n w a y r e s e a r c h c o l l e c t i o n , d . c , f i l e , r r a r , ( v a n c o u v e r : r e g e n t c o l l e g e , ) . yhe nazi persecution of the churches ( v a n c o u v e r : r e g e n t c o l l e g e p u b l i s h i n g , ) . c r o u s , e r n s t . " a n a b a p t i s m , p i e t i s m , r a t i o n a l i s m a n d g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s " i n g u y h e r s h b e r g e r ( e d . ) the recovery of the anabaptist vision: a sixtieth anniversary tribute to haroldh. bender ( s c o t t s d a l e : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) . " g e r m a n y , " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s . ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e ii, p p . - . " v e r e i n i g u n g d e r m e n n o n i t e n g e m e i n d e n " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e i i , p . . d r i e d g e r , j o h a n n . " f a r m i n g a m o n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s " i n mennonite quarterly review, ( ) , p p . - . d y c k , c o r n e l i u s . " t h e s u f f e r i n g c h u r c h i n a n a b a p t i s m " i n mennonite quarterly review, ( ) , p p . - . e p p , f r a n k . mennonite exodus a l t o n a . ( d . w . f r i e s e n a n d s o n s , l t d . , ) . f e u c h t w a n g e r , e . j . prussia: myth and reality: the role of prussia in german history ( l o n d o n : o s w a l d w o l f f , ) . f r a n z , i g n a z . grofier gott wir loben dich, ( m e n n o n i t e h y m n , ) . f r a s e r , r o n . christian freedom in the theology of menno simons ( m c s t h e s i s , r e g e n t c o l l e g e , ) . f r i e d m a n , r o b e r t . " t h e o l o g y o f m a r t y r d o m " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s . ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e i i , p p . - . f u h r e r , k a r l . " d e r d e u t s c h e r e i c h s k r i e g e r b u n d k y f f h a u s e r - : p o l i t i k , i d e o l o g i c u n d f u n k t i o n e i n e s ' u n p o l i t i s c h e n ' v e r b a n d e s " i n militdrgeschichtliche mitteilungen ( ) , p p . - g o e r t z , h a n s - j u r g e n . " n a t i o n a l e e r h e b u n g u n d r e l i g i o s e r n i e d e r g a n g " i n mennonitische geschichtsbldtter ( ) , p p . - . g o t t n e r , e . " d i e v o l k i s c h e r e l i g i o s i t a t i n d e r g e g e n w a r t " i n mennonitische blatter, m a y ( ) , p . . g e r l a c h , h o r s t . " t h e f i n a l y e a r s o f m e n n o n i t e s i n e a s t a n d w e s t p r u s s i a - ( p a r t o n e ) " i n mennonite quarterly review, a p r i l ( ) , p p . - . nightmare in red ( f r e e m a n , s o u t h d a k o t a , p i n e h i l l p r e s s , i n c . , ) . h a e n d i g e s , e m i l . " z u r h e i m k e h r d e r b e s t r e i t e n v o l k s g e n o s s e n i n s r e i c h " i n mennonitische blatter, o c t o b e r / n o v e m b e r ( ) , p . . historisches memorandum zur wehrlosigkeit der mennoniten ( w e i e r h o f : m e n n o n i t i s c h e r g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . " b e r i c h t u b e r d i e . a l l g e m e i n e w e s t p r e u b e n k o n f e r e n z i n t i e g e n h a g e n a m . s e p t e m b e r " i n mennonitische blatter o c t o b e r ( ) , p p . - . " t h e c a t a s t r o p h e o f t h e w e s t p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e s , " i n the mennonite quarterly review ( ) , p p . - . " z u r k i r c h e n f r a g e d e r m e n n o n i t e n " i n mennonitische blatter, s e p t e m b e r ( ) , p p . - . h e l m r e i c h , e r n s t . the german churches under hitler. ( d e t r o i t : w a y n e s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . h o b s b a w m , e r i c . " m a s s - p r o d u c i n g t r a d i t i o n s : e u r o p e - " i n the invention of tradition, i n h o b s b a w m , e . a n d r a n g e r , t . ( e d s . ) , ( c a m b r i d g e : c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) , p p . - . nations and nationalism. ( n e w y o r k : c a m b r i d g e , ) . h o r s c h , j o h n . the mennonites of europe ( k i t c h e n e r : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) . k i z i k , e d m u n d . " r e l i g i o u s f r e e d o m a n d t h e l i m i t s o f s o c i a l a s s i m i l a t i o n : t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n d a n z i g a n d t h e v i s t u l a d e l t a u n t i l t h e i r t r a g i c e n d a f t e r w o r l d w a r i i " i n a l a s t a i r h a m i l t o n , s j o u k e v o o l s t r a a n d p i e t v i s s e r ( e d s . ) , from martyr to muppy: mennonite urban professionals ( a m s t e r d a m u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . k l a s s e n , p e t e r j . " f a i t h a n d c u l t u r e i n c o n f l i c t : m e n n o n i t e s i n t h e v i s t u l a d e l t a , " i n mennonite quarterly review ( ) , p p . - . " b a r r i e r s t o e m i g r a t i o n from p r u s s i a " i n mennonite quarterly review ( ) , p p . - . k o n f e r e n z s u d d e u t s c h e r m e n n o n i t e n . " w a r n u n g e n u n d w i n k e f u r d i e m i l i t a r z e i t " ( w e i e r h o f : m e n n o n i t i s c h e r g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . k r a e m e r , p . wir und unsere volksgemeinschaft ( w e i e r h o f , m e n n o n i t i s c h e g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . » l a s s , e . g . die fluent: ostpreufien - . ( b a d n e u h e i m : p o d z u n , ) . l i c h d i , d i e t h e r g o e t z . mennoniten im dritten reich: dokumentation unddeutung ( w e i e r h o f : m e n n o n i t i s c h e r g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . " n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m , " i n c o r n e l i u s d y c k a n d d e n n i s m a r t i n ( e d s . ) mennonite encyclopedia ( s c o t t s d a l e : h a r o l d p r e s s , ) , v o l u m e v , p p . - . " r o m e r u n d d a s s t a a t s v e r s t a n d i s d e r m e n n o n i t e n u m " i n mennonitische geschichtsbldtter ( ) , p p . - . jjher zurich und witmarsum nach addis abbaba. die mennoniten in geschichte und gegenwart. ( m a x d o r f : a g a p e , ) . l i c h t i , j a m e s . " g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s , e c o n o m i c s a n d t h e s t a t e " , i n c a l v i n r e d e k o p , v i c t o r k r a h n a n d s a m u e l s t e i n e r ( e d s . ) , anabaptist/mennonite faith and economics ( n e w y o r k , ) . " t h e m e n n o n i t e r e s p o n s e t o t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e r h o e n - b r u d e r h o f ' i n mennonite life, j u n e ( ) , p p . - . l o c k e , h u b e r t , ( e d . ) the church confronts the nazis: barmen then and now ( n e w y o r k , ) . m a i e r , c h a r l e s . the unmasterable past: history, holocaust, and german national identity. ( c a m b r i d g e , m a s s . : h a r v a r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . m a n n h a r d t , j a k o s . " k b n n e n u n d d u r f e n w i r m e n n o n i t e n d e r v o n d e m s t a a t e g e f o r d e r t e n w e h r p f l i c h t g e n u g e n ? " i n mennonitische blatter, a u g u s t ( ) , p p . - . m a n n h a r d t , g . " d a n z i g m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s . ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e i i , p p . - . m a s o n , j o h n b r o w n . the danzig dilemma: a study in peacemaking by compromise ( o x f o r d p r e s s , ) . m e z y n s k i , k a z i m i e r z " t h e g e r m a n m e n n o n i t e s o n t h e i r w a y t o r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h p o l a n d ' mmennonite quarterly review, ( ) , p p . - . n e f f , c , h a e n d i g e s , e . , b r a u n , a . , " v e r e i n i g u n g d e r d e u t s c h e n m e n n o n i t e n g e m e i n d e n : e i n e n o t w e n d i g e b e r i c h t i g u n g " in mennonitische blatter, j u n e ( ) , p . . n e f f , c h r i s t i a n . " f l e m i s h m e n n o n i t e s " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s .), mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e h , p . . n e f f , c h r i s t i a n . . " w e i h n a c h t s n a c h k l a n g " i n gemeindeblatt der mennoniten, j a n u a r y ( ) , p . l . n o l t e , e r n s t . three faces of fascism ( n e w y o r k : h o l t , r i n e h a r t a n d w i n s t o n , ) . p e n n e r , h o r s t . die ost- und westpreufiischen mennoniten. t e i l i i ( w e i e r h o f : m e n n o n i t i s c h e g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . " w e s t p r u s s i a , " i n b e n d e r , h . a n d s m i t h , c . h e n r y ( e d s . ) , mennonite encyclopedia ( n e w t o n , k a n s a s : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , ) , v o l u m e i v , p p . - . r e g e h r , t . d . , " p o l i s h a n d p r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e d i s p l a c e d p e r s o n s , - " i n mennonite quarterly review, a p r i l ( ) , p p . - . s a m p s o n , c y n t h i a a n d l e d e r a c h , j o h n p a u l ( e d s . ) . from the ground up: mennonite contributions to international peacemaking ( o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . s c h n e b e l e , c . ( e d . ) . " d a s a u s e r w a h l t e v o l k " i n gemeindeblatt der mennoniten, m a r c h ( ) , p p . - . " d a s g r o b e b e k e n n t n i s " i n die gemeindeblatt der mennoniten m a y ( ) , p . . " d i e b e v o r s t e h e n d e v e r e i n i g u n g a l l e r m e n n o n i t e n g e m e i n d e n d e n i m d e u t s c h e n r e i c h " i n gemeindeblatt der mennoniten, f e b r u a r y ( ) , p p . - . s c h o w a l t e r , p a u l . " n a t i o n a l i s m u s u n d k r i e g i n d e n a u g e n d e r d e u t s c h e n m e n n o n i t e n i m u n d j a h r h u n d e r t " ( w e i e r h o f : m e n n o n i t i s c h e r g e s c h i c h t s v e r e i n , ) . s i m o n s , m e n n o . " t h e c r o s s o f t h e s a i n t s , c. , " i n j o h n c . w e n g e r ( e d . ) , the complete writings of menno simons c. - ( s c o t t s d a l e : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) , p p . - . " e x h o r t a t i o n t o a c h u r c h i n p r u s s i a , c. , " i n j o h n c . w e n g e r ( e d . ) , the complete writings of menno simons c. - ( s c o t t s d a l e : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) , p p . - . " n e w b i r t h , c. , " i n j o h n c . w e n g e r ( e d . ) , the complete writings of menno simons c. - ( s c o t t s d a l e : h e r a l d p r e s s , ) , p p . - . s m i t h , c . h e n r y . the story of the mennonites ( n e w t o n : m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n h o u s e , ) . s t a u f f e r , e t h e l b e r t , " t h e a n a b a p t i s t t h e o l o g y o f m a r t y r d o m , " i n mennonite quarterly review ( ) , p p . - . t h i e s e n , j o h n . mennonite and nazi? ( k i t c h e n e r : p a n d o r a p r e s s , ) . t h i e s s e n , j o h n . " t h e f i r s t d u t y o f t h e c i t i z e n : m e n n o n i t e i d e n t i t y a n d m i l i t a r y e x e m p t i o n i n p r u s s i a - " i n mennonite quarterly review ( ) , p p . - . t i m m , a l b r e c h t . der kyffhauser im deutschen geschichtsbild ( g o t t i n g e n , ) . t o e w s , a . a . mennonite martyrs ( w i n n i p e g : k i n d r e d p r e s s , ) . v e r d u i n , l e o n a r d . the reformers and (heir stepchildren ( g r a n d r a p i d s . ) . z i p f e l , f r i e d r i c h . kirchenkampf in deutschland - ( b e r l i n : w a l t e r d e g r u y t e r a n d c o . , ) . z u c k , l o w e l l , ( e d . ) . christianity and revolution: radical christian testimonies - ( t e m p l e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ) . i n t e r v i e w s i n t e r v i e w o f s i e g f r i e d b a r t e l b y a u t h o r , a p r i l , ( a g a s s i z , b c ) . i n t e r v i e w o f k l a u s f r o e s e b y a u t h o r , j u n e , ( h a n n o v e r , g e r m a n y ) . i n t e r v i e w o f h o r s t g e r l a c h b y a u t h o r , j u n e , ( w e i e r h o f , g e r m a n y ) . i n t e r v i e w o f d i e t h e r g o e t z l i c h d i b y a u t h o r , j u n e , ( h e i l b r o n n , g e r m a n y ) . i n t e r v i e w o f w a l t e r r e g e h r b y a u t h o r , j u l y , ( w i n n i p e g , m b ) . i n t e r v i e w o f m a r i a n n e r e g e h r b y a u t h o r , j u l y , ( w i n n i p e g , m b ) . microsoft word - hhe ibf.rtf special section hum. hered. ; :i-vi contents, vol. , founded as ‘acta genetica et statistica medica’ by gunnar dahlberg editors: m. hauge, odense l. beckman, umeå editorial board: l. gedda, rome r. grubb, lund k. henningsen, københavn d. klein, geneve t. larsson, stockholm h. lehmann, cambridge margareta mikkelsen, københavn j. mohr, københavn a. e. mourant, london h. nachtsheim, berlin j. v. neel, ann arbor, mich. p. o. pedersen, københavn marianne rasmuson, umeå s. refsum, oslo l. d. sanghvi, bombay m. siniscalco, napoli t. sjörgen, göteborg e. t. o. slater, london a. c. stevenson, oxford e. strömgren, risskov r. turpin, paris f. vogel, heidelberg m.whittacker, exeter a. c. allison, harrow a. g. beam, new york, n.y k. berg, oslo j. a. book, uppsala l. l. cavalli-sforza, stanford, calif. t. j. david, manchester e. essen-möller, lysekil f. c. fraser, montreal j. a. fraser roberts, london n. freire-maia, curitiba j. frézal, paris s·karger ·basel ·münchen •paris •london · new york· sydney drug dosage. the author and publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. however, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any change in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. this is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. s.kargerag, p.o.box, basel (switzerland) printed in switzerland by buchdruckerei national-zeitung + basler nachrichten ag, basel contents vol. , no. original paper alpha- -antitrypsin phenotypes in french canadian newborns joly, j.; richer, g.; boisvert, f., and laverdière, m survey on haemoglobin variants, ß-thalassaemia, glucose- -phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and haptoglobin types in turkish people living in manavgat, serik and boztepe (antalya) aksoy, m.; dinçol, g., and erdem, s interaction of sickle cell trait and glucose- -phosphate dehydrogenase deviciency in cameroon bernstein, s.c.; bowman, j.e., and kaptue noche, l transferrin, haptoglobin and group-specific component types in tribal populations of andhra pradesh goud, j. d. and rao, p.r the’ ’ variant of human placental alkaline phosphatase is identical to the ‘d-variant’ doellgast, g.j.; kennedy, m., and donald, l.j sjögren-larsson syndrome in dizygous twin sisters david, tj human red cell galactose- -phosphate uridylyltransferase (ec . . . ). electrophoretically determined polymorphism in denmark and its use in paternity cases eriksen, b. and dissing, j genetic studies of red cell glutamic-pyruvic transaminase in some japanese populations nishigaki, i.; itoh, t.; suzuki, h., and fujiki, n properdin factor b polymorphism in afghanistan benkmann, h.g.;goedde, h.w.;agarwal, d.p.;flatz, g.;rahimi, a.;kaifie, s., anddelbrück, h.... haptoglobin types in breast carcinoma tsamantanis, c; delinassions, j.g.; kottaridis, s., and christodoulou, c c polymorphism in patients with chronic uremia stoffersen, e. and jørgensen, k.a hemoglobin new york associated with alpha-thalassemia kendalí, a. and pang, w gpt polymorphism in the population of bologna and linkage analysis with beta-thalassaemia facchini, f.; gruppioni, g.; veronesi-martuzzi, f., and zannotti, m a further report on a kindred with cases of p trisomy and monosomy mortimer, j.g.; chewings, w.e., and gardner, rj.m association of glyoxalase i allotypes with graves’ disease and diabetes mellitus moens, h.; payne, r.; carter, n.d., and farid, n.r no. original paper twin studies and substrate differences in platelet monoamine oxidase activity hussein, l.; sindarto, e., and goedde, h.w use of multiple logistic analysis in twin zygosity diagnosis sarna, s. and kaprio, j serum levels of alpha- -antitrypsin in individuals with different pi m subtypes beckman, g. and beckman, l iv contents duplication of region q → qter in a family with / translocation howard-peebles, p.n. and goldsmith, j.p determination of parental heterozygosity in dermatoglyphic characters bener, a a population genetic study on the ag polymorphism in south african indians and negroids hitzeroth, h. w.; butler, r., and bütler-brunner, e a note on gene frequency estimation with misclassification present selvin, s ‘. pi phenotypes in north american workers: racial differences and comparisons with reported frequencies ashley, m.j.; chan-yeung, m, and corey, p.n heritability estimates of somatotype components based upon familial data bouchard, c; demirjian, a., and malina, r.m frequency of gc alleles and a variant gc allele in iceland karlsson, s.; arnason, a.; thordarson, g., and olaisen, b different expressions of one gene for congenital achromatopsia with amblyopia in northern sweden nordstrom, s. and polland, w no. original paper alphapantitrypsin phenotypes in northern sweden beckman, g.; beckman, l., and nordenson, red cell glutathione peroxidase in various jewish ethnic groups in israel golan, r.; ben ezzer, j., and szeinberg, a comparative study of red cell enzymes in mirpur (a portuguese-descendant community) and a neighbouring hindu population of gopalchak bharati, p.; ghosh, a.k.; dey, b.; das, s.k.; roy, m.; banerjee, s., and gupta, r maternal age and dermatoglyphic asymmetry in man: another look young, r.s. and reed, t partial lipodystrophy and familial c deficiency mclean, r.h. and hoefnagel, d serum ige levels in twins sistonen, p.; johnsson, v.; koskenvuo, m., and aho, k mitochondrial malic enzyme polymorphism in an indian population ghosh, u.; banerjee, p.k., and saha, n genetic characteristics of hemophilia a in chile cruz-cokem, r. and rivera, l study of red blood cell and serum enzymes in five pyrenean communities and in a basque population sample vergnes, h.¦constans, j.iquilici, j.c.; levèvre-witier, p.; sevin, j., and stevens, m protein and enzyme polymorphisms in affective disorders in northern greece parisi, h.a.; lanara, e.c.; triantaphyllidis, cd effects of parental consanguinity on mortality and reproductive function lindelius, r. comparing the ‘family set’ approach to estimate heritability with other conventional estimators: a monte carlo simulation rodriguez, a.; chakraborty, r., and schull, w.j contents v no. original paper is the hpo phenomenon in tropical populations really genetic? rougemont, a.; quilici, m; delmont, j., and ardissone, j.p some biochemical polymorphisms in members of the gaddi tribe of himachal pradesh kaur, h.; sehajpal, p.k.; khanna, a.k., and shrivastava, p.k isoenzymes of red cell glyoxalase i (ec . . . ) in a finnish population uotila, l. and koivusalo, m polymorphism of the sixth component of complement (c ) in norwegian lapps olving, j.h.; teisberg, p., and olaisen, b search for linkage between dermatoglyphic sole characters and blood groups bener, a plasma protein and enzyme polymorphisms in belgium brocteur, j.; hoste, b., and andre, a mohr-wriedt (a ) brachydactyly. analysis of a large brazilian kindred freire-maia, n.; maia, n.a., and pacheco, c.n.a erythrocyte glyoxalase i and esterase d polymorphisms in four french populations vergnes, h.; meyer, s.; weil, d.; goudemand, j.; brevière, d.; sevin, j., and constans, j frequencies of gm and km allotypes in the population of singapore, sri lanka and punjabis in north india daveau, m.; rivat, l.; lalouel, j.m.; langaney, a.; roberts, d.f., and simons, m.j polymorphism of the second component of complement (c ) in graves’ disease noel, e.p.; sampson, l.; pepper, b.m., and farid, n.r electrophoretic investigation of γ-glutamyl-cyclotransferase from human erythrocytes board, p.g population studies in cameroon. hemoglobin s, glucose- -phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and falciparum malaria bernstein, s.c.; bowman, j.e., and kaptue noche, l short communications glyoxalase i (glo; ec . . . .). gene frequency variation in iraq al-agidi, s.k.; papiha, s.s., and shukri, s.m high frequency of ina antigen among iranians and arabs badakere, s.s.; vasantha, k.; bhatia, h.m.; ala, f.; clarke, v.a.; moesri, r.; sommai, s., and amin, a.b book review no. original paper dermatoglyphic traits in an amish-mennonite population in ontario tutton, d.a. and zachariah, k glucose- -phosphate dehydrogenase in an afro-american population calvert, a.f. and trimble, g.e a note on the frequency of consanguineous marriages in reading, england in / coleman, d.a properdin factor b (bf) as an exclusion determinate in parentage testing dykes, d. and polesky, h vi contents genetic studies on the chenchu tribe of andhra pradesh, india ramesh, a.; blake, n.m.; vijayakumar, m., and murty, j.s alpha- -antitrypsin types and chronic obstructive lung disease in an industrial community in northern sweden beckman, g.; beckman, l.; mikaelsson, b.; rudolphi, o.; stjernberg, n., and wiman, l.-g variations on dermal ridges in nine population groups of maharashtra, india. i. intra- and interpopulation diversity malhotra, k.c.; chakraborty, r.; bhanu, b.v., and fulmali, p.m transferrin c subtypes and spontaneous abortion beckman, g.; beckman, l., and sikström, c probability calculations in pedigrees under complex modes of inheritance lalouel, j.m ß + -thalassemia intermedia. genetic and biochemical study of a family including cases philip, t.; souillet, g.; philippe, n.; freycon, f.; bektas, s.; morlé, l.; trabuchet, g., and godet, j. short communication distribution of abo and rh (d) blood groups among four endogamous groups of andhra pradesh reddi, a.p.; mukherjee, b.n., and ramachandraiah, t no. original paper a new unstable pi m variant of dp antitrypsin in a finnish isolate frants, r.r. and eriksson, a.w studies on the immunoglobulin allotypes of asiatic populations. viii. immunoglobulin allotypes among the tuvinians of the ussr schanfield, m.s.; alexeyeva, t.e., and crawford, m.h segregation analysis of schizophrenia under a mixed genetic model carter, c.l. and chung, c.s slow-moving serum albumin variant in a south indian tribal population walter, h.; veerraju, p., and hilling, m glucose- -phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in south vietnamese panich, v.; bumrungtrakul, p.; jitjai, c; kamolmatayakul, s.; khoprasert, b.; klaisuvan, c; kongmuang, u.; maneechai, p.; pornpatkul, m.; ruengrairatanaroje, p.; surapruk, p.; and viriyayudhakorn, s dermatoglyphic peculiarities in hypospadias micle, s. and fried, k absent dtriradius and dotting of the ridges in siblings wertelecki, w.; plato, c, and plato, c.c heritable salivary proteins and dental disease friedman, r.d.; azen, e.a.; yu, p.l.; green, p.a.; karn, r.c., and merritt, a.d transferrin c subtypes in us blacks and whites kueppers, f. and harpel, b.m short communication glo polymorphism in iceland karlsson, s.; arnason, a., and jensson, Ó announcements author index subject index article a simulation-based analysis of chromosome segment sharing among a group of arbitrarily related individuals ondrej libiger , , and nicholas j schork*, , , scripps genomic medicine, scripps health, la jolla, ca, usa; department of molecular and experimental medicine, the scripps research institute, la jolla, ca, usa; center for human genetics and genomics, university of california at san diego, la jolla, ca, usa a fundamental set of issues in human genetics research concerns the statistical properties of the dna sequence or chromosomal segments that are shared between related individuals. although well- established mathematical formulations exist that consider such sharing via measures such as the kinship coefficient, many of these formulations are derived for entire genomes, individual sequence variations, or small stretches of dna, and hence, do not consider either the actual size or the number of the genome- wide chromosomal segments that are shared between two or more arbitrarily related individuals. in this paper, we employ a flexible gene-dropping simulation-based approach for estimating the distribution of the size and the number of chromosomal segments shared by any number of arbitrarily related individuals. the approach takes advantage of chromosome- and sex-specific recombination rates adopted from integrated genetic and physical maps, and considers the genome as a whole, rather than specific genomic regions or loci. in addition, our analysis considers the effects of linkage disequilibrium and crossover interference on segment sharing. our proposed analysis and computational strategy can be used to provide compelling answers to questions concerning variation in the kinship coefficient as well as the distribution of chromosomal sharing over individual chromosomes. we present results that showcase possible application of assessing genomic sharing in gene mapping and apply our analysis to data available from published gene mapping studies. european journal of human genetics ( ) , – ; doi: . /sj.ejhg. ; published online august keywords: chromosome segment sharing; identity-by-descent; kinship; linkage disequilibrium; crossover interference introduction probabilistic analysis of the fraction of genome shared by individuals known to have genealogical links has a central place in genetic research. for example, gene mapping strategies such as pedigree-based linkage analysis and haplotype-based linkage disequilibrium (ld) analysis often require and/or exploit knowledge of the probability that a pair of individuals share chromosomal segments of a certain size. one fundamental concept in genetic research of relevance to genome sharing is the ‘kinship coefficient’, or the probability that a gene taken at random from individual i at a given locus is identical-by-descent (ibd) to a gene taken at random from individual j at the same locus. the kinship coefficient (or rather twice the kinship coefficient given that humans are diploid) at a single locus can be extrapolated to the genome as a whole, which received february ; revised july ; accepted july ; published online august *correspondence: dr nj schork, molecular and experimental medicine, scripps research institute, mem , torrey pines road, la jolla, ca , usa. tel: þ ; fax: þ ; e-mail: nschork@scripps.edu european journal of human genetics ( ) , – & nature publishing group all rights reserved - / $ . www.nature.com/ejhg http://dx.doi.org/ . /sj.ejhg. mailto:nschork@scripps.edu http://www.nature.com/ejhg results in the expected fraction of the genome that is shared ibd between two individuals of known ancestry (eg, twice the kinship coefficient for siblings is . and thus siblings share, in expectation, one-half of their diploid genomes). although theoretical formulae exist for calculat- ing the kinship coefficient for pairs of relatives, assessing the variance of the kinship coefficient has not received much attention. in addition, the kinship coefficient considers only individual loci or expectation over the entire genome and therefore provides no information about the distribution of shared chromosomal segments in terms of both their size and number. the need for statistical constructs that go beyond the single locus-oriented kinship coefficient for genetic analy- sis is most clearly apparent in gene mapping studies based on haplotype sharing. haplotype-sharing analysis is often based on a probabilistic comparison of chromosome segment sharing among a group of related individuals possessing a certain trait or disease relative to the expected sharing among individuals without the trait or disease (for a detailed, albeit somewhat dated, description of haplo- type-sharing analysis, see schork et al, and, for an updated list of references describing probabilistic studies of segment sharing, see table ). a number of researchers have developed statistical analysis methods for haplotype-based gene mapping studies. table and the discussion provided in schork et al summarize the literature investigating chromosomal segment sharing and/or the short-term ‘evolution’ of chromosomal segments in genealogically- defined populations (ie, a group of individuals whose genealogical links are known). the cited studies approach relevant issues from a wide variety of angles: some are based on theoretical calculations, while others use a ‘gene- dropping’ simulation approach. more recently, chapman and thompson employed monte carlo markov chain models to investigate the number of ibd-shared segments between related individuals as well as their size in isolated populations that originated from a recent yet small number of founders. they also considered the effect that population growth and subdivision have on this chromosomal segment sharing. similar phenomena have been studied by stefanov, who investigated the cumula- tive probabilities of the proportion of shared genomic segments that are ibd, and, in follow-up work, considered the proportion of the genome, as well as the number of genomic segments containing ibd-shared haplotypes, via monte carlo markov chain models. however, stefanov’s numerical evaluations are applicable only to full- and half- sibling pairs, grandparent–grandchild pairs, and great- grandparent/great-grandchild pairs. there are additional issues that are important to consider in the evaluation of chromosomal segment sharing. for example, there is a need to recognize and evaluate the distinction between sharing of alleles at adjacent loci ibd against the sharing of alleles merely identical-by-state (ibs). to make compelling claims about the probability that individuals actually share a segment of chromosome ibd based on observed genotype data, one must compute the probability that the observed sharing of homozygous alleles or a single chromosomal segment actually reflects sharing of a common ancestral segment, and not merely the probability that the observed allele sharing associated with a string of adjacent multilocus genotypes occurs purely by chance. in computing the conditional prob- ability that a set of individuals share a chromosomal segment ibd given that they share a string of adjacent genotypes or alleles ibs, a number of factors must be accommodated, such as, for example, the pedigree struc- ture linking the individuals in question, the density of genetic markers providing genotype or allele data, the informativity (ie, allele frequencies) of the markers used, and recombination rates in the genomic region(s) harbor- ing the marker loci. nolte and te meerman have recently described a simulation method for determining the probability that a segment shared by individuals within a population is ibd table selected theoretical and empirical studies published after investigating the short-term evolution of chromosomes (or chromosomal segments) authors year pop st comments genin et al p a expected size of an autozygous segment around a disease locus schaffer p a algorithm for computing interval probability of autozygosity broman and weber o h empirical size of homozygous segments clark o h model for homozygous segment size distribution wiuf and hein o ibd ancestry of sequences sampled from the coalescent with recombination mcpeek and strahs o ibd assessment of linkage disequilibrium by the decay of haplotype sharing stefanov sp ibd cumulative probabilities of the proportion of shared genomic segments stefanov sp ibd proportion of shared genome and number of shared genomic segments nolte and te meerman o, i ibd, ibs probability that a shared segment is identical by descent chapman and thompson o ibd number of shared segments chapman and thompson i ibd size of shared segments leal et al p ibs software computing probabilities of sharing identical by state abbreviations: pop, population type (i, isolated population; o, outbred population; p, pedigrees; sp, simple pedigrees); st, segment type (a, diploid ibd homozygous segments; h, diploid ibs homozygous segments; ibd, identical by descent; ibs, identical by state). chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics given the population history. the genetic analysis software package morgan – can be used to assess the prob- ability that a single locus or a fixed number of consecutive loci are ibd in the absence of marker data, as well as conditionally on observed marker data. however, usage of morgan to assess the number and size distribution of shared chromosomal segments in the entire genome would be very difficult and impractical since it was not necessarily designed for this purpose. morgan is also limited in the number of individuals whose genomes can be analyzed for sharing. a second set of issues in the analysis of chromosomal segment sharing concerns consideration of the effects of ld and crossover interference. – accommodating the influence of crossover interference is particularly difficult since practical mathematical models for crossover inter- ference that can be incorporated into relevant segment- sharing calculations and/or simulation studies do not exist. to date, no study has been published that considered genomic sharing within a group of arbitrarily related individuals within the genome as a whole, and therefore could provide a comprehensive view of chromosomal segment sharing in pedigrees. furthermore, no tools are available that can easily perform such analyses. our study is aimed at filling this gap. we have employed a flexible genome-wide gene-dropping simulation-based approach to assess chromosomal segment sharing throughout the genome for an arbitrary number of arbitrarily related individuals. this procedure provides reliable estimates of expected ibd and ibs chromosome segment and genome- wide allele-sharing probabilities. our approach enables us to determine whether a segment shared ibs is also shared ibd, since it maintains marker genotype data together with information about the parental origin of relevant alleles. a novel characteristic of our simulation method is that it takes advantage of integrated genetic and physical maps that contain chromosome-specific, empirically determined male and female recombination rates. this feature allowed us to produce not only genome-wide results, but also results tailored to a specific position in the genome. for example, two different chromosomal segments of equal physical size (ie, number of bases) may exhibit different sharing probabilities due to variable recombination rates throughout the genome. such variability has been reported by several studies. – while many previous studies circumvent this issue by reporting the size of chromosomal segments in units of genetic distance, we feel that as sequence data become more readily available and the main focus shifts from markers to sequence, it is more advanta- geous to present results that concern chromosomal segments in units of physical distance, that is, in the number of bases. this approach also allowed us to drop objectionable assumptions concerning the use of mapping functions. – in addition, we have devised a scheme for use with our simulation approach that allows considera- tion of the effects of ld and crossover interference. we present applications of our methodology in a wide variety of settings. methods the simulation procedure our approach to computing probabilities associated with chromosomal segment sharing is based on simulating recombination events and the transmission of gametes to offspring. basically, we simulate the inheritance of a genome (ie, pairs of chromosomes in a diploid species) within a given genealogy. in this respect, our methodology is rooted in classical gene-dropping approaches to genetic simulation, and is, in essence, similar to the approach that nolte and te meerman employed for population analyses, and to the approaches that are implemented in the ‘ibddrop’ and ‘autozyg’ programs of the morgan package. – however, there are several unique character- istics of our strategy. first, it can be used to analyze sharing in entire genomes easily. also, it can be used to assess the size distribution and number of all shared chromosomal segments in a given genomic region. finally, our strategy can be used to assess sharing in a number of related individuals effectively. the time requirements of the algorithm grow linearly with the pedigree size and the number of markers. a sharing analysis in a nuclear family involving biallelic markers and simulation runs required approximately min to complete on a power- book g laptop computer. our simulation methodology begins by assigning an array representing the genome to each founding member of the genealogy (ie, those individuals without parental information). this array contains two pieces of informa- tion: ( ) a unique genome identifier at each genomic position for each of an individual’s two chromosomes; and ( ) the variants or alleles an individual possesses at each relevant location. at each of these locations, an allele is assigned to each individual that is consistent with either the actual marker allele that the individual possesses (eg, as taken from an observation made on that individual) or based on the allele frequencies associated with the population that the individual is assumed to have come from. the chromosome assignment process is different for founders (individuals without parents specified in the genealogy) and non-founders (those with specified par- ents); that is, founder chromosomes are assigned a unique number and marker alleles based on what is known about the alleles that individual possesses or is assigned via a random number generator, based on allele frequency information in the population. for non-founders, the simulation proceeds by first identifying all the genealogical links from parents to their offspring, beginning with the founders and continuing to the youngest generation. for each parental pair, the program simulates meiosis and chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics recombination by assigning alleles to their offspring (ie, ‘non-founders’) arrays based on what was transmitted to them after simulating meiotic events in their parents. this is accomplished by traversing the parents’ arrays and calculating the probability of recombination occurring between adjacent loci. as described previously, we used recombination probabilities based on observed, empirically established, recombination fraction information associated with a specified genetic map. once allele codes have been assigned to every member of the pedigree, the assigned chromosomes can be analyzed for sharing of alleles across individuals within the genealogy. the observed genotype or haplotype information of these individuals can be used to determine the extent and type of sharing to which sharing probabilities can then be assigned through the simulation. our program was not designed to compute specifically the probability that arbitrary individuals in a pedigree share chromosomal segments conditional on particular non-founders having very specific multilocus genotypes, although the program could be used with rejection sampling to compute such probabilities. our simulation procedure can be used to differentiate genetic variants that are shared among individuals’ chromosomes either ibs or ibd. sharing of a marker allele at a polymorphic site (ie, specified marker locus) on the chromosomes of several individuals reflects (initial) ibs sharing. by determining whether the underlying chromo- some identifier number associated with the polymorphic sites assessed for allele sharing is the same or not, one can examine if a chromosomal segment or a haplotype was actually inherited from a common ancestor (ie, whether or not the segment is shared ibd). using this information, the method can be used to provide the conditional probability that a given segment is shared ibd when it is observed as ibs. for situations involving homozygosity mapping analyses, the computed probabilities relate to an observed homozygous segment and depend on whether that shared homozygous segment is autozygous or not. required for the method is the genealogical information, information about relevant polymorphic loci and a marker map (ie, interlocus distances in base pairs and recombination rates), and marker allele frequencies. the genetic and physical map empirical recombination rates were obtained from ldb , , an integrated genetic and physical map. this high-resolution map provides locations for genes, polymorphisms, and sequence-tagged sites through- out the genome. the loci in the map were ordered by their approximate midpoint location in the consensus dna sequence relative to an origin at the p-telomere. linkage maps were based on pairwise logarithm of odds (lod) score criteria computed with genotype data from the ceph panel, version , as well as lod scores associated with genatlas. interference model we designed a model of crossover interference in which an occurrence of a recombination event between two genetic loci prohibits the occurrence of another recombination event between the locus that directly antecedes the original recombination event and a locus located less than r bases away, where r is the specified ‘range of interference’. thus, under this model, all recombination events occur at least r–d bases apart, where d is the distance separating the two loci that flank the first recombination event. since we used a very dense map (the mean interlocus distance on chromosome is kb), and set r to be relatively large ( – mb), the interlocus distances were negligibly small compared to the parameter specifying the range of interference. because our method simulates recombination events in one direction from the beginning of the chromosome toward its end, and recombination events occurring near the previous recombination event are prohibited, some chromosomal regions exhibit less recom- bination than the input recombination rates specify. we, therefore, generated a new set of recombination rates by increasing the original recombination rates extracted from the integrated map, and utilized these corrected recombi- nation rates in the simulations whenever we employed our crossover interference model. using the new inter- ference-corrected recombination rates in our simulation program with the crossover interference model produced recombination counts between every pair of loci along the genome that corresponded to the original recombina- tion rates. results we showcase the utility of assessing relevant probabilities in a number of settings. first, we describe the assessment of variation in human kinship (ie, we explored the standard error of the kinship coefficient and its generalization to the entire genome), and the distribution of the size and number of shared chromosome segments. we present results using two example pedigrees consisting of a sibling and a cousin pair. we also describe applications of our method to analyses that involve a large number of arbitrarily related individuals in extended pedigrees, and we compute relevant probabilities associated with example gene mapping studies based on haplotype sharing. in these analyses, we also explore the effect of ld on these probabilities. we also present an application of chromoso- mal segment-sharing analysis to gene mapping studies that assess chromosomal segment-sharing information to assist in the design of such a study with respect to marker density. finally, we explore the effects of our crossover interference model on shared chromosomal segment size and number as well as the overall fraction of genome that is shared between related individuals. chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics variation in the kinship coefficient we calculated the average fraction of shared genome that is ibd for different pairs of relatives (ie, a generalization of the kinship coefficient for pairs of individuals) as well as the sd of shared genome using our strategy. some results of these simulations are provided in table and figure , which describe the distribution of the fraction of genome shared by sibling pairs over the genome as a whole, and for chromosome only, based on simulation runs. note that the center of the distribution for chromo- some and genome sharing is . – twice the kinship coefficient of sibling pairs – as expected, but there is considerable variation in the fraction of shared genome. thus, on average, sibling pairs will share % of their genomes; however, only b % of these pairs will actually share between and % of their genomes ibd. in the context of single chromosomes, this variation is much larger, as can be seen in figure . this reflects the fact that high-sharing fractions associated with some chromosomes in the genome will tend to negate the effect of low-sharing fractions associated with other chromo- somes due to variable recombination rates and the different lengths of individual chromosomes and chromo- somal regions. distribution of shared chromosomal segment sizes and numbers we evaluated the distribution of chromosome segment sharing, both in terms of the average or expected number of shared segments and the average size of these shared segments, for different relative pairs. table provides the results of simulation runs used to evaluate the average number and size of the chromosomal segments shared ibd by sibling pairs. our results for overall sharing (ie, sharing between two paternal chromosomes, two maternal chromosomes and sharing between paternal and maternal chromosomes) between a pair of siblings show that the expected proportion of chromosomes, as well as whole autosomal genome, that is shared is % as expected from theoretical calculations (eg, using twice the kinship coefficient). we also considered the length of genomic regions harboring alleles shared ibs by these pairs. we did this by making some restrictive assumptions to showcase the method; we first assigned alleles at loci based on the locations described in the ldb map, , and also assumed that each locus in this map had five equally frequent alleles. further, we assumed that the marker loci were in linkage equilibrium. the results (table ) suggest that sharing of alleles ibs at a number of adjacent loci with these assumed allele frequencies has a high probability except when the number of adjacent loci is large. table estimated example of chromosome and whole autosomal genome sharing parameters for sibling pairs chromosome sharing ibd (%) ibs (%) no. of ibd segs no. of ibs segs ave ibd ave ibs maternal . . . . . . . . . . . . paternal . . . . . . . . . . . overall . . . . . . . . . . maternal . . . . . . . . . . paternal . . . . . . . . . . . overall . . . . . . . . . . . maternal . . . . . . . . . . . paternal . . . . . . . . . . . overall . . . . . . . genome maternal . . . . . . . . . . . paternal . . . . . . . . . . . . overall . . . . . . . . . . . . abbreviations: ave ibd, average size (in millions of bases) of shared chromosomal segments identical by descent (sd); ave ibs, average size (in millions of bases) of shared chromosomal segments identical by state (sd); ibd, estimated percentage of chromosome or genome shared identical by descent (sd) : the variability of the means is caused by sampling variability; ibs, estimated percentage of chromosome or genome shared identical by state given allele frequency assumptions (sd); segs, segments. figure the distribution of ibd sharing between siblings. the distribution (ie, frequency histogram) of the amount of genome that is ibd in a pair of siblings based on simulations. the solid line corresponds to the proportion of the whole autosomal genome, whereas the dotted line depicts the proportion of chromosome . chromosome was chosen arbitrarily to show increased variance in sharing in single chromosomes compared to the entire genome. chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics haplotype-sharing probabilities for gene mapping studies to showcase the utility of assessing the probabilities associated with chromosomal segment sharing in gene mapping studies, we used our program to assess the probabilistic significance of a reported finding of excess chromosome segment sharing among affected pedigree members in a study of hirschsprung disease. puffenberger et al ascertained a large, inbred, mennonite pedigree (depicted in figure in puffenberger et al ), exhibiting high incidence of hirschsprung disease. genealogical analysis of all members of the mennonite pedigree identified a single common ancestral couple for all parents of the affected offspring. after searching for locations of the gene(s) responsible for hirschsprung disease in this pedigree by genotyping three small multicase families and pursuing ibd allele-sharing analysis, the authors identified a cm segment on chromosome (corresponding to b mb in this region) shared by all affected individuals. follow-up ld analysis of additional nuclear families confirmed the locus’ association with disease. we obtained information about interlocus distance for the marker loci used by puffenberger et al through the mapviewer web interface of national center for biotechnology information data- base. we estimated the probability that the pedigree members share the observed segment purely ibs. to do this, we had to make assumptions about allele frequencies and ld patterns among the loci. we also estimated the probability that this group of related pedigree members share such a segment ibd purely by chance, either anywhere on the chromosome or at the position in question. the results of the simulations suggest that the sharing observed among the pedigree members studied in the initial analysis has a probability of b . in the region of interest. we, then, considered the probability that the observed ibs allele sharing reflected ibd sharing. figure presents the conditional probability that the observed ibs sharing reflects ibd sharing based on simulations assuming, first, that the marker alleles are in linkage equilibrium and have different allele frequencies, and, second, that non-overlapping sets of markers are in complete ld. to investigate how easily allele frequency information can influence the calculation of ibs sharing, and hence the conditional probability that ibs sharing reflects ibd sharing, we performed additional simulations with differ- ent assumptions about allele frequencies. the solid lines in figure depict the results of these studies, which involved evenly spaced markers with different allele frequencies. the markers were placed throughout the genome at mb intervals, and were assumed to harbor either five equally frequent alleles (black full line), or one frequent allele (f ¼ . ) and four rare alleles with an equal frequency of . (gray full line). in both studies, we assumed that the markers were in linkage equilibrium. the results suggest that marker informativity has large effect on ibs segment- sharing probabilities, as expected, since common alleles have high probability of being shared ibs. figure the probability that ibs sharing reflects sharing ibd for various marker spacing and informativity. the conditional probability that observed ibs sharing among third cousins reflects ibd sharing, given various marker spacing and marker-allele informativity based on simulations over the human genome. the first two columns in each spacing category model microsatellite markers and the last two model single nucleotide polymorphisms. the microsatellite markers were assumed to harbor either five equally frequent alleles (full shading), or one frequent allele (f ¼ . ) and four rare alleles with equal frequency . (diagonal hatching). the single nucleotide polymorph- isms were assumed to harbor either two equally frequent alleles (horizontal hatching), or one frequent allele (f ¼ . ) and the other allele with frequency . (dotted shading). figure the probability of sharing a mb ibd segment when ibs sharing is observed with markers mb apart (chromosome ). the conditional probability that affected members of the mennonite pedigree (depicted in figure in puffenberger et al ) share a mb ibd segment on chromosome (ie, five markers), given the observed ibs sharing. the solid lines correspond to ibs sharing using five markers in linkage equilibrium with five equifrequent alleles (full black line), vs one common allele with frequency equal to . and four rare alleles with frequency equal to . (full gray line). the dashed lines correspond to ibs sharing using non-overlapping sets of three adjacent marker loci in complete linkage disequilibrium with four different haplotypes (black dashed line) vs non-overlapping sets of five adjacent marker loci with four haplotypes (gray dashed line); simulations were used. the physical distance between adjacent markers was mb. chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics we also performed simulations that investigated the effect of ld on the conditional probability that ibs sharing reflects ibd sharing. figure (dashed lines) presents the conditional probability that ibs sharing reflects ibd sharing using non-overlapping sets of three adjacent markers (spaced at mb intervals) in complete ld with four unique haplotypes (black dashed line), and non- overlapping sets of five adjacent markers with four unique haplotypes (gray dashed line). the dashed lines clearly show recurring ‘drops’ in conditional probability asso- ciated with chromosomal segments that extend over ld block boundaries. the conditional probability was assessed in overlapping chromosomal segments (ie, segments containing markers – , – , etc.). the design of haplotype sharing-based mapping studies information on chromosomal segment sharing is also useful in the design stage of a haplotype-sharing study. to showcase this, we conducted simulations assuming a haplotype-sharing study that involved a pedigree with three affected third cousins. we estimated the distribution of the size of ibd segments shared by these third cousins in a specific region of chromosome . our simulations suggest that % of ibd segments shared by three third cousins, purely by chance in the region of relevance, were longer than mb. using further simulations, we addressed the question of how many markers would be necessary to detect these segments as ibd with a % false-positive rate given observed ibs sharing. figure displays the prob- ability of sharing segments within marker sets spanning mb that reflect ibd sharing (and not purely ibs sharing) based on simulation runs. it is evident that to obtain a false-positive rate o % for the identification of ibd-shared segments (ie, the conditional probability of ibd given ibs must be higher than . ), one needs either highly informative microsatellite markers spaced every kb or highly informative single nucleotide polymorphisms with interlocus distances at most kb throughout the region. the effect of crossover interference on chromosomal segment sharing finally, we explored the effect of crossover interference on the number and size of shared chromosomal segments. we devised a model of crossover interference that prevents the occurrence of nearby recombination events. we, then, computed the distribution of the size of chromosomal segments shared by two cousins on chromosome using the crossover interference model as a function of the ‘range of interference,’ that is, the minimal distance separating the locations of two recombination events (for details see the methods section). our results suggest that modest range of interference does not seem to affect the average size or number of shared chromosomal segments signifi- cantly. however, when the range of interference is larger than approximately mb, fewer segments are shared, and the large shared segments tend to increase in size, resulting in increased variance in overall shared segment size. however, the proportion of the genome that is shared remains unchanged. simulations that involved a more complex pedigree structure yielded similar results (data not shown). the results generated under our interference model suggest that the previous results reported in this study, which were obtained under the assumption of no inter- ference, would not change dramatically under an inter- ference model (of at least the type we have devised). the distributions of the fraction of the genome that is shared would likely exhibit a slightly greater variance, but their means would remain the same. in analyses that assess sharing probabilities associated with chromosomal seg- ments of a given size, the larger size of some shared segments would likely compensate for the smaller number of shared segments generated under the interference model. discussion many genetic research initiatives, especially genetic map- ping initiatives, consider or require information about the sharing of genomic segments among individuals with a particular phenotype and known genealogical relation- ships. this information can involve the frequency of shared segments, the probability that segments of a certain size are shared, and the probability that individuals sharing alleles at a number of adjacent loci actually share those alleles because they are part of the chromosomal segment that the individuals in question have inherited from a common ancestor (ie, the segment is shared ibd and not just ibs). we have employed an extended, genome-wide gene-dropping simulation-based method to assess chromo- somal segment sharing among individuals with arbitrary genealogical links. the method is intuitive and very flexible and can be used to quantify chromosome seg- ment-sharing probabilities in a wide variety of contexts. in this study, we used information about actual or known population-derived recombination rates and, thus, were not constrained by assumptions inherent in theoretical recombination models (or mapping functions). since empirical recombination maps correspond to the observed recombination counts obtained from meiotic events observed in a sample of individuals, they automatically incorporate information about genomic recombination hotspots and coldspots. in addition, the maps can easily be updated or replaced with new and more refined maps specifically tailored to particular organisms or populations. in developing our simulation method, we wanted to exploit empirically derived information about phenomena chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics that impact the transmission of chromosomal segments from parents to offspring, thus making as few arbitrary assumptions as possible. ideally, our method should employ not only empirical, region and sex-specific data about recombination rates, but also mutation and gene conversion information. unfortunately, detailed mutation and gene conversion rates are not yet available on a genome-wide basis. in addition, it is quite likely that no more than a few mutation events can be expected to occur even in a large pedigree with many loci being studied. since a single mutation affects very few genomic segments, its impact on the number or size distribution of shared segments throughout a chromosome or the entire genome would not be great. therefore, we decided not to incorporate mutation information in the present study. our method, however, can be expanded to incorporate such data once it becomes available. similarly, one could expand our method to incorporate information about genotyping error associated with a particular genotyping technology. accurate estimates of allele frequencies may not always be available. our results indicate (not shown) that slight misspecifications of allele frequencies do not affect the results substantially. however, when actual allele frequen- cies are not known, users should make assumptions concerning the range of likely allele frequencies based on available data, and compare sharing probabilities from several analyses that involve frequencies from that range. there are many extensions and additional areas of application for the proposed procedure. for example, one could use the method to determine just how inbred a pair or group of individuals are in the absence of detailed genealogical information by comparing genome and segment-sharing probabilities calculated with and without assumptions about the degree of relatedness of the founders of the pedigree containing the individuals in question. this area of application is also important for putting any chromosomal segment sharing analysis into context, since initial analyses of available genealogical information may assume that all founders are unrelated. it may be important, therefore, to re-run the analysis with assumptions about the relationships between the founders (ie, hypothetical genealogical links between them). ignor- ing the impact of undocumented inbreeding or false parenthood will negatively impact the results of any analysis of genome and segment sharing. in cases when founders’ relations are uncertain, the inbreeding pattern could be extracted from marker data by estimating individuals’ inbreeding coefficients with a method like the one proposed by leutenegger et al. although this information cannot be used to reconstruct the true genealogical history of the founders due to hidden consanguinity, the original pedigree combined with a genealogy reflecting the estimated inbreeding coefficient of the founders can then be used with the proposed simulation studies to obtain more accurate results that concern for example, determining the optimal marker density for haplotype-sharing studies. our method can also be extended to incorporate region- specific ld information in the calculation of ibs allele- sharing probabilities. this can be achieved by assigning entire haplotypes (instead of individual marker alleles) to founders according to the frequencies of these haplotypes. alternatively, one can use ld data collected in more general populations from available public resources, for example, the international hapmap project database. , this extension is especially useful in applications that involve pedigrees ascertained from a small, isolated, inbred population where one would expect the presence of strong ld. although strong evidence exists for positive crossover interference in the human genome, there has been some discussion on appropriate mathematical models for it. several studies – have explored gamma distribution- based models, in which distances between crossovers follow a gamma distribution, and concluded that these models fit samples of empirical data quite well. such models are essentially a generalization of the model that we employed in the present study; instead of prohibiting all recombination events that would occur near the previous recombination event given the observed recom- bination rates, in the gamma models, such recombination events are prohibited with a given probability. our simulation program can be adapted to model interference in this fashion. if we assume that the actual range of crossover interference that exists in the human genome does not extend far beyond mb, then, because our model rejects a greater number of recombination events than gamma models, our interference model can quantify the upper bound of the effect that interference has on genome sharing. the source code and executables of the c þ þ program for conducting analysis and computing relevant probabil- ities along with the user manual are available for download at http://polymorphism.scripps.edu/people-files/genshare. tar.gz. acknowledgements njs is supported in part by the nhlbi family blood pressure program (fbpp; u hl - ); the nia longevity consortium (u ag - ); the nimh consortium on the genetics of schizo- phrenia (cogs; r hlmh - ); nih r s: hl - and hl - ; and scripps genomic medicine. references cavalli-sforza ll, bodner wf: the genetics of human population. san francisco: wh freeman and co, . jacquard a: the genetic structure of populations. new york: springer-verlag, . chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics http://polymorphism.scripps.edu/people-files/genshare.tar.gz. http://polymorphism.scripps.edu/people-files/genshare.tar.gz. risch n, lange k: application of a recombination model in calculating the variance of sib pair genetic identity. ann hum genet ; : – . schork nj, thiel b, st jean p: linkage analysis, kinship, and the short-term evolution of chromosomes. j exp zool ; : – . genin e, todorov aa, clerget-darpoux f: optimization of genome search strategies for homozygosity mapping: influence of marker spacing on power and threshold criteria for identifica- tion of candidate regions. ann hum genet ; : – . schaffer aa: computing probabilities of homozygosity by descent. genet epidemiol ; : – . broman kl, weber jl: long homozygous chromosomal segments in reference families from the centre d’etude du polymorphisme humain. am j hum genet ; : – . clark ag: the size distribution of homozygous segments in the human genome. am j hum genet ; : – . wiuf c, hein j: the ancestry of a sample of sequences subject to recombination. genetics ; : – . mcpeek ms, strahs al: assessment of linkage disequilibrium by the decay of haplotype sharing, with application to fine-scale genetic mapping. am j hum genet ; : – . stefanov vt: distribution of genome shared identical by descent by two individuals in grandparent-type relationship. genetics ; : – . stefanov vt: statistics on continuous ibd data: exact distribution evaluation for a pair of full (half)-sibs and a pair of a (great-) grandchild with a (great-) grandparent. bmc genet ; : . nolte im, te meerman gj: the probability that similar haplo- types are identical by descent. ann hum genet ; : – . chapman nh, thompson ea: the effect of population history on the lengths of ancestral chromosome segments. genetics ; : – . chapman nh, thompson ea: a model for the length of tracts of identity by descent in finite random mating populations. theor popul biol ; : – . leal sm, yan k, muller-myhsok b: simped: a simulation program to generate haplotype and genotype data for pedigree structures. hum hered ; : . thompson ea: monte carlo in genetic analysis. technical report no. , department of statistics, university of washington . thompson ea: statistical inferences from genetic data on pedigrees. nsf-cbms regional conference series in probability and statistics , volume . oh: ims, beachwood. george aw, thompson ea: multipoint linkage analyses for disease mapping in extended pedigrees: a markov chain monte carlo approach. stat sci ; : – . zhao h, speed tp, mcpeek ms: statistical analysis of crossover interference using the chi-square model. genetics ; : – . broman kw, weber jl: characterization of human crossover interference. am j hum genet ; : – . lin s, cheng r, wright fa: genetic crossover interference in the human genome. ann hum genet ; : – . yu a, zhao c, fan y et al: comparison of human genetic and sequence-based physical maps. nature ; : – . sun f, oliver-bonet m, liehr t et al: human male recombination maps for individual chromosomes. am j hum genet ; : – . mcvean ga, myers sr, hunt s, deloukas p, bentley dr, donnelly p: the fine-scale structure of recombination rate variation in the human genome. science ; : – . goldgar de, fain pr: models of multilocus recombination: nonrandomness in chiasma number and crossover positions. am j hum genet ; : – . goldgar de, fain pr, kimberling wj: chiasma-based models of multilocus recombination: increased power for exclusion map- ping and gene ordering. genomics ; : – . karlin s, liberman u: theoretical recombination processes incorporating interference effects. theor popul biol ; : – . windemuth c, simianer h, lien s: fitting genetic mapping functions based on sperm typing: results for three chromosomal segments in cattle. anim genet ; : – . maccluer jw, vandeberg jl, read b, ryder o: pedigree analysis by computer simulation. zoo biol ; : – . ke x, tapper w, collins a: ldb : sequence-based integrated maps of the human genome. bioinformatics ; : – . ldb sequence-based integrated maps of the human genome [http://cedar.genetics.soton.ac.uk/pub]. centre d’etude du polymorphisme humain panel, version [http://www.cephb.fr/cephdb/]. genatlas [http://bisance.citi .fr/genatlas/]. puffenberger eg: identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet ; : – . ncbi database [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview]. libiger o, schork nj: simulation-based homozygosity mapping with gaw coga dataset on alcoholism. bmc genet ; suppl : s . leutenegger al, prum b, genin e et al: estimation of the inbreeding coefficient through use of genomic data. am j hum genet ; : – . altshuler d, chakravarti a, collins fs et al: a haplotype map of the human genome. nature ; : – . the international hapmap project database [http://www. hapmap.org]. chromosome segment sharing o libiger and nj schork european journal of human genetics http://cedar.genetics.soton.ac.uk/pub http://www.cephb.fr/cephdb/ http://bisance.citi .fr/genatlas/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview http://www.hapmap.org http://www.hapmap.org 	a simulation-based analysis of chromosome segment sharing among a group of arbitrarily related individuals 	introduction 	methods 	the simulation procedure 	the genetic and physical map 	interference model 	results 	variation in the kinship coefficient 	distribution of shared chromosomal segment sizes and numbers 	haplotype-sharing probabilities for gene mapping studies 	the design of haplotype sharing-based mapping studies 	the effect of crossover interference on chromosomal segment sharing 	discussion 	acknowledgements 	references mutations in cradd result in reduced caspase- -mediated neuronal apoptosis and cause megalencephaly with a rare lissencephaly variant article mutations in cradd result in reduced caspase- -mediated neuronal apoptosis and cause megalencephaly with a rare lissencephaly variant nataliya di donato, , , ,* ying y. jean, a. murat maga, , briana d. krewson, alison b. shupp, maria i. avrutsky, achira roy, sarah collins, carissa olds, rebecca a. willert, agnieszka m. czaja, rachel johnson, jessi a. stover, steven gottlieb, deborah bartholdi, anita rauch, amy goldstein, victoria boyd-kyle, kimberly a. aldinger, ghayda m. mirzaa, , anke nissen, karlla w. brigatti, , erik g. puffenberger, , kathleen j. millen, kevin a. strauss, , , william b. dobyns, , , , carol m. troy, , , and robert n. jinks , ,* lissencephaly is a malformation of cortical development typically caused by deficient neuronal migration resulting in cortical thick- ening and reduced gyration. here we describe a ‘‘thin’’ lissencephaly (tlis) variant characterized by megalencephaly, frontal predomi- nant pachygyria, intellectual disability, and seizures. trio-based whole-exome sequencing and targeted re-sequencing identified recessive mutations of cradd in six individuals with tlis from four unrelated families of diverse ethnic backgrounds. cradd (also known as raidd) is a death-domain-containing adaptor protein that oligomerizes with pidd and caspase- to initiate apoptosis. tlis variants cluster in the cradd death domain, a platform for interaction with other death-domain-containing proteins including pidd. although caspase- is expressed in the developing mammalian brain, little is known about its role in cortical development. cradd/caspase- signaling is implicated in neurotrophic factor withdrawal- and amyloid-b-induced dendritic spine collapse and neuronal apoptosis, sug- gesting a role in cortical sculpting and plasticity. tlis-associated cradd variants do not disrupt interactions with caspase- or pidd in co-immunoprecipitation assays, but still abolish cradd’s ability to activate caspase- , resulting in reduced neuronal apoptosis in vitro. homozygous cradd knockout mice display megalencephaly and seizures without obvious defects in cortical lamination, supporting a role for cradd/caspase- signaling in mammalian brain development. megalencephaly and lissencephaly associated with defective programmed cell death from loss of cradd function in humans implicate reduced apoptosis as an important pathophysiological mech- anism of cortical malformation. our data suggest that cradd/caspase- signaling is critical for normal gyration of the developing human neocortex and for normal cognitive ability. introduction folding of the human cerebral cortex into its complex pattern of gyri and sulci and the precise layering of neu- rons within the cortex (cortical lamination) depend upon a finely tuned program of neuronal proliferation, migration, connectivity, and pruning. – lissencephaly is a cortical malformation characterized by abnormally broad or absent gyri with unusually thick cortex ( – mm, normal range – . mm ) that is classically caused by deficient neuronal migration. – from review of phenotypes in more than , subjects with lissence- phaly, we identified a relatively mild variant characterized by anterior-predominant pachygyria with shallow and unusually wide sulci, mildly thick cortex ( – mm) in at least the frontal regions, and no non-cortical malforma- institute for clinical genetics, faculty of medicine carl gustav carus, tu dre attle children’s research institute, seattle, wa , usa; department of pa ny , usa; center for developmental biology and regenerative medicin craniofacial medicine, department of pediatrics, university of washington, s behavior program, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pa , usa; d dren, wilmington, de , usa; department of human genetics, inselspit ich, schlieren, switzerland; department of pediatrics, school of medicin burgh, pa , usa; department of pediatrics, university of washingt germany; clinic for special children, strasburg, pa , usa; lancaste university of washington, seattle, wa , usa; the taub institute for res ical center; department of neurology, columbia university medical center, n these authors contributed equally to this work *correspondence: nataliya.didonato@uniklinikum-dresden.de (n.d.d.), rjinks http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . . the american jou � the author(s). this is an open access article under the cc by-nc-nd tions in families, a pattern we refer to as ‘‘thin’’ lissen- cephaly (tlis). several families had multiple affected siblings, indicative of autosomal-recessive inheritance. similar phenotypes have been reported a few times, but with no underlying cause identified (mim: ). – we performed trio-based whole-exome sequencing in two families with tlis and detected a homozygous muta- tion of cradd (genbank: nm_ . ; c. g>c [p.gly arg] [mim: ]) in two siblings from a mennonite family. targeted re-sequencing of an addi- tional unrelated individuals with tlis identified two other homozygous missense mutations in cradd (c. c>t [p.arg cys] and c. g>a [p.arg his]) in families of turkish and finnish ancestry, respectively, and a fourth missense change (c. t>g [p.phe cys]) in trans with a . mb deletion of chromosome q sden, dresden, germany; center for integrative brain research, se- thology and cell biology, columbia university medical center, new york, e, seattle children’s research institute, seattle, wa , usa; division of eattle, wa , usa; department of biology, biological foundations of ivision of pediatric neurology, nemours alfred i. dupont hospital for chil- al, bern, switzerland; institute of medical genetics, university of zur- e, university of pittsburgh, children’s hospital of pittsburgh of upmc, pitts- on, seattle, wa , usa; medical genetics center, munich, r general hospital, lancaster, pa , usa; department of neurology, earch on alzheimer disease and the aging brain, columbia university med- ew york, ny , usa @fandm.edu (r.n.j.) rnal of human genetics , – , november , license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). mailto:nataliya.didonato@uniklinikum-dresden.de mailto:rjinks@fandm.edu http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.ajhg. . . &domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / that includes cradd in an affected child of a fourth family. cradd encodes caspase-recruitment-domain and death domain (dd)-containing protein (also known as raidd, receptor-interacting protein-associated ich- /ced- ho- mologous protein with a death domain), which is required for activation of caspase- -mediated apoptosis. , in general, cradd serves as an adaptor between pidd (p -induced death domain-containing protein , pidd [mim: ]) and caspase- (casp [mim: ]) during formation of the apoptosis-promoting piddosome. – phosphorylation of pidd by signaling associated with cellular or genotoxic stress stimulates bind- ing of the pidd-dd to the cradd-dd, which in turn al- lows the caspase recruitment domain (card) of cradd to bind and activate caspase- . – dendritic spine collapse and neuronal apoptosis induced by neurotrophic factor withdrawal or amyloid-b aggregation can be initiated by cradd/caspase- signaling in the absence of pidd, suggesting that formation of the piddosome may not be required for caspase- -driven synaptic remodeling and neuronal apoptosis. , the caspases are intracellular proteases that maintain homeostasis through regulation of inflammation (cas- pase- , - , - , - ) and apoptosis (caspase- , - , - , - , - , - ). during mammalian brain development, caspase- (casp [mim: ]) is the primary executioner of syn- aptic and neuronal pruning and is activated by the mito- chondrial (intrinsic) apoptotic cascade through apaf (apoptotic protease-activating factor [mim: ])/ caspase- (casp [mim: ]) activation. , , , although caspase- is expressed in neurons in the embry- onic and adult mammalian brain, – its role in brain development has been elusive. here we show that the human cradd variants associ- ated with tlis abrogate cradd’s ability to activate cas- pase- and drive neuronal apoptosis. the megalencephaly, lissencephaly variant, and intellectual disability associated with loss of cradd/caspase- -mediated apoptosis imply a role for cradd/caspase- signaling in development of the human cerebral cortex. subjects and methods research subjects w.b.d. has ascertained ~ , children with lissencephaly or subcortical band heterotopia over the last years. clinical infor- mation and results of genetic testing were obtained from medical records submitted together with mri scans by referring physicians or parents of the subjects. genetic testing included results of chro- mosome analysis, fluorescence in situ hybridization for deletion p . (mim: ), chromosome microarrays, mlpa for lis (pafah b [mim: ]) and dcx (mim: ), sanger sequencing of single genes (lis , dcx, arx [mim: ], tuba a [mim: ], tubb b [mim: ], reln [mim: ], vldlr [mim: ], actb [mim: ], and actg [mim: ]), targeted gene panels, and whole-exome the american journal of human genetics , – , nove sequencing. we re-reviewed scans of subjects ascertained be- tween and , when high-resolution scans were available for most individuals. all were reviewed with particular attention to the severity and gradient of the gyral malformation, cortical thickness, and presence of associated brain malformations. thin undulating lis with normal cerebellum (tlis) was seen in of subjects ( %). we also searched w.b.d.’s large research database for subjects with frontal pachygyria and normal cere- bellum and corpus callosum and identified additional individ- uals with the specific tlis pattern. several had large or relatively large occipitofrontal circumference (ofc), which we subdivide into true (ofc > sd above the mean), mild (ofc – sd above the mean), and relative (ofc more than sd greater than height) megalencephaly. institutional review boards at the university of chicago and seattle children’s hospital approved this study. seven members of an additional mennonite family carrying cradd c. g>c and receiving medical care at the clinic for special children (stras- burg, pa) were added to the study (see results). their participation was approved by the institutional review board at lancaster gen- eral hospital. informed consent signed by the parents or legal guardians was obtained for all participating individuals. whole-exome sequencing exome capture and sequencing were done using agilent sureselect human all exon v enrichment and illumina hiseq sequencing (paired-end nt). the sequencing data were processed using clc biomedical genomics workbench (qiagen) including read alignment to ucsc genome browser hg , variant calling (snps and indels), annotation, and filtering against three public databases (exac, dbsnp, and genomes project). for each sample, the average coverage through the exome was - fold and more than % of the exome was covered at least - fold. we focused on protein-altering and splice-site variants absent in databases or present with allele frequencies below . . we filtered variants to systematically identify homozygous variants that were heterozygous in both parents, compound-heterozygous variants inherited from one parent, as well as de novo variants. targeted panel sequencing with single-molecule molecular inversion probe using an established mipgen pipeline, we designed a pool of single-molecule molecular inversion probes (smmip) targeting the coding regions of known lis-associated genes—actb, actg , arx, dcx, dync h (mim: ), kif a (mim: ), kif c (mim: ), lis , reln, tuba a, tuba (mim: ), tubb (mim: ), tubb b (mim: ), tubb (mim: ), tubg (mim: ), and vldlr— and our candidate gene, cradd. in total, smmips were tiled across , bp of coding sequence. capture reactions ( ng) were performed in parallel using previously published protocols. , massively parallel sequencing was done on the illumina hiseq and miseq platforms. the average collapsed coverage (number of single-molecule consensus sequences or ‘‘smc-reads’’) across all samples was . cradd knockout mice cradd�/� mice on a c bl/ background were obtained from the jackson laboratories with permission from prof. tak mak (university of toronto). wild-type (wt) c bl/ mice were also obtained from the jackson laboratories and all mice were mber , maintained under pathogen-free conditions. all animal experi- ments were approved by the institutional animal care and use committees (iacuc) of franklin & marshall college and columbia university medical center. whole-animal perfusion fixation transcardial perfusion fixation was used to prepare mouse heads/ brains (as described elsewhere ) for micro-ct and histological analyses. in brief, mice were anesthetized by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of ketamine/xylazine mixture (up to mg/kg body weight ketamine and mg/kg body weight xylazine). when a surgical plane of anesthesia was achieved, the heart was exposed, a g cannula inserted into the ascending aorta via the left ventricle, and a perfusate exit hole placed in the right atrium. the circulation was slowly flushed with – ml of phosphate buffered saline (pbs; ph . ) followed by perfusion of – ml of . mm sterile-filtered, freshly prepared % paraformaldehyde in pbs. upon complete blanching of the liver and mesentery, mice were decapitated and intact skulls and brains were postfixed over- night in % paraformaldehyde in pbs at �c. cortical/brain histology dissected brains were infiltrated with % sucrose in pbs, embedded in optimum cutting temperature (oct) compound, and sectioned at mm on a cryostat. every th section was placed on a slide and stained in . % cresyl violet solution for min, rinsed quickly in pbs, dehydrated in % ethanol, and left in xylene before being coverslipped with permount (fisher scientific). brightfield images were taken using a leica mzfliii microscope with a leica dfc camera and las v . software. volumetric mouse skull ct a total of skulls were imaged at the small animal tomographic analysis lab at seattle children’s research institute using a skyscan c microtomograph (bruker) with settings optimized for mouse skulls (voltage, kv; current, ma; . mm al filter; ms exposure; . � rotation steps; three frames averaged per rotation; � degree full rotation). scan duration was approxi- mately min per sample. shadow images were acquired per specimen, which were reconstructed as image stacks at . -micron resolution using the manufacturer’s proprietary software. all reconstructed image stacks were brought into stan- dardized anatomical orientation using dataviewer (bruker) and converted to nifti volumetric format to be loaded into d slicer to visualize the skull morphology. skull measurements were also taken using d slicer. soft tissue, such as brain, cannot be effec- tively imaged via micro-ct. instead, we chose to look at the en- docranial volume, which is tightly correlated with brain size. although segmenting the endocranial space using automated watershed algorithms from the skull is straightforward, it requires all cranial openings to be sealed digitally, so that segmentation does not leak into other regions. to reduce the amount of manual segmentation and avoid rater bias on measurements, we chose to construct an unbiased atlas of our study population, segment the endocranial space, and warp it back to the constituent samples us- ing deformable registration. we used the open-source dramms deformable registration software and atlas-building pipeline in this study. , the dramms registration software consists of two major components: attribute matching and mutual-saliency weighting. attribute matching characterizes each voxel by a high dimensional vector of multi-scale and multi-orientation ga- the american jou bor attributes. this method provides more information than the intensity information traditionally used (see developmental brain adc atlas in web resources). – because the reliability and accessibly of correspondence varies across anatomical structures, mutual-saliency upweights regions of the volume where corre- spondence can be reliably established between the source and target images. the preferred use of reliable correspondence reduces the negative impact of outlier regions on the registration quality (see developmental brain adc atlas in web resources). – atlas construction was performed using the dramms deformable regis- tration in a classic unbiased population registration framework. the atlas construction framework iteratively finds a virtual space that resides in the centroid of the study population (centroid meaning that the deformations needed to transform all subjects into this virtual space sum up to zero everywhere in this virtual space). therefore, the constructed atlas is unbiased to any subject in the population and is hence representative of the mean anat- omy/geometry of the population (see developmental brain adc atlas in web resources). the constructed atlas was segmented using the editor module of d slicer. this reference segmentation was then mapped onto the individual samples by inversing their transformation into the atlas (figure s ). individual volumes of endocranial space were calculated after this transformation and are reported in table s . cdna cloning and mutagenesis full-length human cradd coding cdna (genbank: nm_ . ) and the coding sequence for the pidd death domain (pidd- dd) (pidd [genbank: nm_ . ]) were amplified by pcr from cdna reverse transcribed from human arpe- cell mrna using moloney murine leukemia virus (m-mulv) reverse tran- scriptase (neb). pcr products were ligated into pentr/d- topo (thermofisher), and cradd tlis mutations (c. g>c, c. t>g, c. c>t, c. g>a) were introduced with site- directed mutagenesis (quikchange ii, agilent technologies). lr recombination (lr clonase ii, thermofisher) was used to generate flag (pcagig/rfc-a/n-flag) or v (pcdna . /n- v ) mammalian expression plasmids from pentr clones. all clones were verified with sanger sequencing. transduction of pen -cradd cradd cdnas—wt and cradd tlis variants described above— were subcloned into the novagen pet b expression system in- frame with an n/c-terminal polyhistidine sequence downstream of the t promoter and expressed in bl cells that express the t rna polymerase under an iptg-inducible promoter. the expressed proteins were purified on a ni þ resin as previously described. penetratin (pen ) was mixed at a : molar ratio with purified cradd and incubated hr at �c to generate disul- fide-linked pen -cradd. linkage was assessed by % sds-page and by western blotting with anti-his antibody and anti-cradd antibody as previously described. to ensure uniform protein transduction across cultures, pen -cradd was used at the same concentration ( nm). pc cells and mouse sympathetic neurons take up pen proteins with near % efficiency. this approach is more efficient, less cytotoxic, and easier to titrate than transient transfection of cdna constructs. , cell lines and transfection arpe- , hek t, and neuro a cells used in this study were purchased from the american type culture collection (atcc). rnal of human genetics , – , november , arpe- cells were cultured in dmem:f with % fetal bovine serum (fbs), and hek t and neuro a were cultured in dmem with % fbs. cells were transfected with fugene (roche) at a : fugene :dna ratio according to the manufacturer’s instruc- tions. primary cultures of dermal fibroblasts from skin biopsies from cradd tlis-affected individuals (homozygous c. g>c [p.gly arg]) and their heterozygous parents were established by the coriell institute, and normal human dermal fibroblasts were acquired from coriell. fibroblasts were cultured at low pas- sage (% ) in dmem with % fbs. unless otherwise noted, all cells were maintained at �c and % co . to assess cradd abundance in subject fibroblasts, cells were lysed in ripa buffer ( mm nacl, . % igepal ca- , . % sodium deoxycholate, . % sds, mm tris [ph . ] [sigma]) containing protease inhib- itor cocktail (roche), phosphatase inhibitor (phosstop, roche), and mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (pmsf) for min at �c. total protein concentration was normalized across affected subject, heterozygous parents, and normal fibroblast samples using the bradford assay (bio-rad), and equal protein loading for immunoblotting was confirmed with mouse monoclonal anti-b-actin labeling (sigma, : , , ). cradd abundance was assessed with rabbit monoclonal anti-human raidd anti- bodies (abcam cat# ab and ab , rrid: ab_ and ab_ ; : , ). goat anti-mouse igg-hrp (cell signaling, : , ) and goat anti-rabbit igg-hrp (cell signaling, : , ) were used as secondary antibodies. blots were imaged with enhanced chemiluminescence using signalfire plus (cell signaling). pc cell culture and viability pc cells obtained from the atcc were grown as described pre- viously at . % co on rat-tail collagen-coated dishes in rpmi medium (life sciences) containing % penicillin/strepto- mycin (p/s), % fetal calf serum (fcs), and % heat-inactivated horse serum (hs, complete medium). pc cell survival was scored as reported previously. culture medium was removed by aspira- tion and ml of detergent-containing lysis solution was added to the well. this solution dissolves cell membranes, providing a suspension of intact nuclei that were quantified using a hemocy- tometer. triplicate wells were scored and values reported as mean sem. significance was calculated by student’s t test. primary sympathetic neuron culture and viability neurons were cultured as described previously. , in brief, sympathetic neurons were dissected from -day-old wt and cradd-null (cradd�/�) mouse pups. cultures were maintained in rpmi medium supplemented with % horse serum and mouse nerve growth factor (ngf; ng/ml) on collagen- coated -well dishes. at day after plating, uridine ( mm) and -fluorodeoxyuridine ( mm) were added for days to elimi- nate non-neuronal cells. experiments were conducted after days of culture. viability was determined as previously reported. each culture was scored as numbers of living phase-bright neurons counted in the same field at various times. three replicate cultures were assessed for each condition; data were normalized to the number of neurons present in each culture at the time of pen - cradd treatment and are reported as means sem. immunofluorescence microscopy cells cultured on uncoated german glass coverslips transfected with pcag/flag-cradd wt or cradd-tlis variant cdnas the american journal of human genetics , – , nove were rinsed with pbs at �c and fixed with % paraformaldehyde at �c for min. cells were then prepared for immunofluores- cence microscopy and documented as described previously. the primary and secondary antibodies used were anti-flag m (sigma, : , ) and alexa fluor -goat anti-mouse igg (thermofisher, : ), respectively. nuclei were stained with mg/ml dapi (santa cruz biotechnology), and coverslips were mounted with fluoromount-g (electron microscopy sciences). cradd and pidd co-immunoprecipitation co-immunoprecipitation was performed as described previ- ously. , in brief, pcag/flag-cradd wt and cradd- tlis variant cdnas or empty vector were co-transfected with pcdna . /v -pidd -dd cdna in neuro a and hek t cells for – hr, after which whole-cell lysates were clarified by centri- fugation at , rpm for min and incubated with anti-flag m affinity resin (sigma) for hr with end-over-end mixing at �c. resin beads were pelleted and washed in tris-buffered saline (ph . ) with protease inhibitor cocktail (roche), phospha- tase inhibitor (phosstop, roche), mm pmsf, and . %– % tween- , before elution with ng/ml x-flag peptide (sigma). input lysates and eluates were denatured in sample buffer at �c for min and then immunoblotted with anti-flag (sigma, : , ) and anti-v (thermofisher, : , ) antibodies. caspase- and cradd co-immunoprecipitation mouse igg or rabbit igg magnetic beads (invitrogen) were pre- coated with affinity-purified anti-caspase- antibody for hr at �c on a rotator. in total, ml of anti-caspase- antibody was used per ml of beads. pc cells were transduced with pen - cradd for hr. cell lysates were prepared using chaps lysis buffer ( mm kcl, mm hepes, . % chaps, and protease in- hibitor cocktail [ph . ]). lysates ( – mg) were loaded onto anti-caspase- antibody pre-coated beads and incubated overnight at �c on a rotator. after overnight incubation, the captured pro- teins were boiled off the beads at �c for min. the immuno- precipitated samples, along with inputs, were then subjected to western blot analysis using an anti-cradd antibody (abnova), an anti-caspase- antibody (alexis), or an anti-erk antibody (santa cruz biotechnology). proteins were detected using the odyssey infrared imaging system (li-cor biosciences). caspase- activity assay we adapted an unbiased caspase- activity measurement from jean et al. bvad-fmk (biotin-val-ala-dl-asp-fluoromethylke- tone; mm, mp biomedicals), a biotinylated pan-caspase inhibi- tor that traps active caspases, was added to pc cultures hr prior to treatment with pen -cradd. cells were lysed in chaps buffer. active caspase-bvad-fmk complexes were pulled out with strepta- vidin-coated beads (invitrogen). active caspase- was detected by western blotting using affinity-purified polyclonal anti-caspase- antibody. results clinical presentation and molecular genetic analysis of cradd-associated lissencephaly review of brain neuroimaging from more than , subjects with lissencephaly revealed a relatively mild lissencephaly variant characterized by megalencephaly, mber , figure . brain imaging of tlis-affected individuals with cradd mutations (a–d) mri in subject lr - a at years shows normal brainstem and cerebellum (a, b), frontal predominant symmetric pa- chygyria with reduced number of gyri, shallow sulci, and mildly thickened cortex (double arrowheads in b, c, and d with ar- rowheads located only in the left hemi- sphere). (e–h) mri in subject lr - a at years demonstrates the same pattern as in the top row (double arrowheads in f, g, and h). the enlargement in the inferior cere- bellum is a mild chiari malformation type i (asterisk in e). (i–l) age-matched normal control images. the cortex in tlis-affected individuals is mildly thick, measuring – mm in the frontal lobes (see c and g) compared to normal cortex, measuring – mm (inset in k). mri image section planes: a, b, e, f, i, j, sagittal t -weighted images; c, g, k, axial t -weighted images; d, h, l, coronal t - weighted images. anterior-predominant pachygyria with shallow and un- usually wide sulci, mildly thick cortex ( – mm) especially in the frontal regions (tlis), and no non-cortical malfor- mations in families (figures , s , and s ). pedigree analysis suggested autosomal-recessive inheritance. trio- based whole-exome sequencing (wes) in two families with tlis detected a homozygous mutation of cradd (genbank: nm_ . ; c. g>c [p.gly arg]) in two siblings from a mennonite family that segregated in the parents. to identify additional mutations, we performed sanger sequencing of the two coding exons of cradd in another subjects with tlis and detected homozygous missense mutations in two affected siblings born to consanguineous turkish parents (c. c>t [p.arg cys]) and a pro- band with finnish ancestry (c. g>a [p.arg his]), as well as a single variant (c. t>g [p.phe cys]) in an american boy of western european background (table ). notably, we previously detected a . mb deletion of chromosome q (chr : , , – , , ; hg ) in this boy that includes the remaining cradd allele. targeted panel sequencing in another lis-affected subjects for whom molecular genetic testing did not detect mutations in any of the known lis-associ- ated genes did not reveal additional cradd mutations. the four cradd mutations identified in six individ- uals from four unrelated families with different ethnic backgrounds are all rare variants (exac allele frequency < . ) with high pathogenicity scores (table ) that alter highly conserved residues within the cradd death domain (figure a). the first cradd mutation (c. g>c [p.gly arg]) that we identified was previ- the american jou ously reported in another large family with multiple members presenting with mild to moderate id; both families belong to the mennonite (plain) population of pennsylvania. the prior family was added to the study, and brain mri performed in three of seven affected indi- viduals revealed tlis with normal cerebellum, in line with the mri features in all other cradd-tlis-affected subjects. brain imaging and additional clinical data for all affected individuals are shown in figures and s and summarized in table s and figure s . case reports are provided in the supplemental data. of cradd-tlis- affected subjects, ( %) had mild intellectual disability (id), while three had mild to moderate id and one had borderline id (iq ¼ – ). seizures ( of ) and addi- tional abnormalities such as hydrocephalus due to chiari malformation (mim: ) were associated with lower cognitive function. none of the cradd-tlis-affected subjects had congenital anomalies other than tlis, and all were in good general health. clinical course of the tlis-affected subjects without cradd mutations was similar to the cradd-associated group. however, all tlis-affected individuals without cradd mutations had either normal or small head size. in summary, indi- viduals with recessive cradd mutations (n ¼ ) pre- sented with tlis, mild to moderate id, epilepsy ( of ), and either enlarged head size with occipitofrontal circumference (ofc) – sd (mild megalencephaly in of ) or true megalencephaly with ofc > sd ( of ). one individual had relative megalencephaly, and of the tlis-affected individuals studied did not have megalencephaly (table s ). rnal of human genetics , – , november , t a b le . g e n o ty p e s o f in d iv id u a ls w it h c r a d d -a ss o c ia te d l is se n c e p h a ly t l is id s e x e th n ic o ri g in g e n o m ic p o si ti o n (h g ) a ff e c te d t ra n sc ri p t h g v s f o rm a t (n m _ . ) a ff e c te d p ro te in h g v s f o rm a t e x a c f re q u e n c y a f re q u e n c y in th e p o p u la ti o n o f o ri g in a p o ly p h e n - s c o re s if t m u ta ti o n t a st e r c a d d p h y lo p d b s n p l r - x f m e n n o n it e c h r : g .[ g > c ] c .[ g > c ]; [ g > c ] p .[ g ly a rg ]; [g ly a rg ] . . . to le ra te d d is e a se c a u si n g . , rs l r - f, m t u rk is h c h r : g .[ c > t ] c .[ c > t ]; [ c > t ] p .[ a rg c y s] ;[ a rg c y s] . n .e . . d a m a g in g d is e a se c a u si n g . , n a l r - f f in n is h c h r : g .[ g > a ] c .[ g > a ]; [ g > a ] p .[ a rg h is ]; [a rg h is ] . . . d a m a g in g d is e a se c a u si n g . , rs l r - m w e st e rn e u ro p e a n c h r : g .[ t > g ] c .[ t > g ] p .p h e c y s . n .e . . d a m a g in g d is e a se c a u si n g . , rs a rr [h g ] q ( , , – , , x ) n a n a n a n a n a n a n a n a n a n a a b b re v ia ti o n s a re a s fo ll o w s: t l is , ‘‘ th in ’’ li ss e n c e p h a ly ; h g , g e n o m e r e fe re n c e c o n so rt iu m h u m a n b u il d (g r c h ); h g v s , h u m a n g e n o m e v a ri a ti o n s o c ie ty ; e x a c , e x o m e a g g re g a ti o n c o n so rt iu m ; c a d d , c o m b in e d a n n o ta ti o n d e p e n d e n t d e p le ti o n ; f , fe m a le ; m , m a le ; n a , n o t a p p li c a b le ; n .e ., n o t e st im a te d . a n o n e o f th e v a ri a n ts w e re o b se rv e d h o m o zy g o u sl y . the american journal of human genetics , – , nove tlis variants cluster in the cradd death domain in response to intrinsic death signals (e.g., genotoxic stress or neurotrophic factor withdrawal), the c-terminal cradd-dd interacts with the pidd-dd to form the piddosome enabling the n-terminal cradd card domain to interact with and activate caspase- . , tlis-associated cradd variants (p.gly arg, p.phe cys, p.arg cys, and p.arg his) cluster in the dd (figure a), suggesting that they may disrupt interaction with the pidd-dd. tlis cradd variants do not disrupt binding with pidd or caspase- to determine the functional impact of the tlis-cradd death domain mutations, we first investigated binding of the cradd variants to pidd and caspase- and then assessed their ability to induce apoptosis by activating caspase- . ultimately, these experiments showed that tlis-cradd variants fail to drive caspase- -initiated apoptosis without significant loss of binding to either pidd or caspase- . in human cells, exogenously expressed p.gly arg cradd is present at very low abundance, indicating decreased protein stability relative to wild-type (wt) cradd (figure b). additionally, it forms abnormal cytosolic clusters (figure s ) and fails to interact with pidd in vitro , (figure d). dermal fibroblasts from p.gly arg cradd tlis-affected subjects are essentially null for cradd abundance (figure c) relative to hetero- zygous parent and normal human dermal fibroblasts. fibroblasts were not available from other cradd tlis- affected individuals. however, recombinant p.phe cys, p.arg cys, and p.arg his cradd overexpressed in human cells (arpe- , hek t) and mouse neuroblasts (neuro a) displayed protein abundance and cellular localization comparable to that observed for wt cradd (figures b and s ), suggesting that the reduced protein abundance observed for p.gly arg cradd is not a primary pathogenic mechanism in tlis. because the tlis-cradd mutations cluster in the dd (figure a) where cradd and pidd interact, we investi- gated whether the cradd variants disrupted interaction with pidd (pidd-dd) as we observed for p.gly arg cradd. immunoprecipitation of recombinant flag- cradd overexpressed in neuro a (data not shown) and hek t cells co-precipitated v -pidd-dd for each of the cradd-tlis variants except p.gly arg (figure d). these data suggest a pathophysiological mech- anism other than disrupted pidd interaction, consistent with our protein structural modeling (see figure s and discussion) and with the earlier finding that neuronal caspase- activation requires cradd expression but can occur independent of pidd expression. upon activation, the n-terminal caspase-recruitment domain (card) of cradd (figure a) binds with cas- pase- to induce caspase- activity. , to determine whether cradd-tlis variants can activate caspase- , we first determined whether they could bind to caspase- . to mber , a b c d f e figure . tlis cradd variants do not disrupt binding with pidd or caspase- (a) functional domain structure of cradd showing tlis substitutions clustered in the c-terminal death domain (dd, amino acids – ). card, n-terminal cas- pase-recruitment domain (amino acids – ). cradd substitutions p.gly arg, p.arg cys, and p.arg his are ho- mozygous in individuals with tlis. the p.phe cys encoding cradd allele (c. t>g) is in trans with a . mb dele- tion of chromosome q (denoted by the two red xs) in one tlis-affected subject (see table ). (b) immunoblot (ib) of recombinant flag-cradd tlis variants overexpressed in hek t cells (n ¼ ). ntc, non-trans- fected control. receptor-interacting serine/ threonine-protein kinase (ripk [mim: ]; kda) immunoblotting was used as a loading control. (c) top: western blot of cradd ( kda) from dermal fibroblasts of a tlis-affected subject homozygous for p.gly arg cradd (p.gly arg/p.gly arg) versus heterozygous parent (wt/p.gly arg) and normal human dermal fibroblasts (wt/wt) (n ¼ ). anti-b-actin ( kda) immunoblotting was used as a loading control. bottom: reverse transcriptase- pcr of the full-length human cradd cod- ing sequence (genbank: nm_ . ; bp) from cradd p.gly arg (c. g>c) tlis-affected subject dermal fibroblasts (p.gly arg/p.gly arg) versus heterozygous parent (wt/ p.gly arg) and normal fibroblasts (wt/ wt) demonstrating stability of the mutant transcript. note: the wt/wt lane of the rt-pcr gel was cropped from the same gel usedforthesubjectandheterozygousparent samples. cropping is denoted by the white bar separating lanes and . (d) flag-cradd wt and tlis variants were co-overexpressed with v -pidd-dd in hek t cells (as indicated) for hr after which flag-cradd was immunopre- cipitated (ip) from whole cell lysates (input) with anti-flag m affinity resin. co-precip- itated complexes were first immunoblotted (ib) with anti-v antibody (pidd-dd). blots were then stripped and reprobed with anti-flag antibody (cradd). cradd wt and each of the tlis cradd variants except for p.gly arg cradd co-precipitated pidd-dd (n ¼ ). (e and f) immunoprecipitation (ip) of caspase- from pc cells hr after the cells were transduced with nm pen -cradd proteins as indicated (n ¼ – ). caspase- co-precipitated pen -cradd wt and tlis variants in similar abundances when corrected for pen - cradd abundance in whole cell lysates (input) as shown in (f). blots were stripped and reprobed with anti-caspase- . error bars repre- sent sem. ns, no significant difference; control, non-transduced cells. erk immunoblotting was used as an input lysate loading control. cradd p.gly arg abundance is always lower in transduced pc cells, in agreement with our previous findings. efficiently deliver cradd-tlis variant proteins into cells without the cytotoxic side effects of transient transfection, cradd-tlis protein variants were directly linked to pene- tratin- (pen ) by a disulfide bond. pen facilitates high- efficiency cellular uptake of linked proteins, and the reducing environment of the cytosol then cleaves the disulfide linkage releasing the transported protein. , pc cells were transduced with pen -linked constructs of each of the cradd-tlis variants and caspase- was immunoprecipitated from whole-cell lysates hr the american jou after transduction. immunoprecipitated caspase- pulled down each of the cradd-tlis variants, suggesting that all of the cradd-tlis variants can interact with caspase- when the blots are normalized for cradd abundance (figures e and f). tlis variants disrupt cradd’s ability to drive neuronal apoptosis one parsimonious explanation for tlis could be that loss of cradd function results in reduction of rnal of human genetics , – , november , figure . tlis-cradd variants fail to activate caspase- -initiated apoptosis (a and b) pen -cradd wt ( nm) drives apoptosis day after transduction in pc cells (a) and in primary sympathetic neurons from cradd�/� mice (b) whereas pen -tlis-cradd variants ( nm) do not (n ¼ for each cell type). control indicates non-transduced cells. (c) tlis-cradd variants fail to activate caspase- . pc cells were treated with mm bvad-fmk for hr followed by transduction with nm pen -cradd as indicated for hr. caspase-bvad-fmk complexes in whole-cell lysates were precipitated with streptavidin and immu- noblotted for caspase- . precipitated cas- pase- band optical density was used as a measure of relative caspase- activity , (n ¼ ). error bars represent sem. control indicates non-transduced cells. caspase- -mediated apoptosis, resulting in megalence- phaly and tlis from failure to prune inappropriate neu- rons and/or neuropil. overexpression of wt cradd in pc and other mammalian cells (e.g., hek ) is suffi- cient to activate caspase- and promote apoptosis. , to examine whether cradd-tlis variants fail to induce apoptosis, pc cells were transduced with pen -linked human wt and cradd-tlis variants and cell survival was measured day after treatment. only wt cradd import induced apoptosis in pc cells. transduc- tion of pc cells with pen -linked cradd-tlis vari- ants (p.gly arg, p.phe cys, p.arg cys, and p.arg his) failed to induce cell death (figure a). to confirm this finding in neurons lacking endogenous cradd, primary sympathetic neurons from cradd knockout (cradd�/�) mice were transduced with pen - linked human wt and p.gly arg cradd. cradd wt resulted in significant cell death of primary sympathetic neurons from cradd�/� mice day after transduction, whereas cell survival after transduction of p.gly arg cradd was indistinguishable from that of non-trans- duced cells (figure b). cradd tlis variants do not activate caspase- all cradd-tlis variants bind to caspase- but only wt cradd induces cell death, so we next determined whether cradd-tlis variants can induce caspase- activation. to measure caspase- activity, we used the caspase-affinity the american journal of human genetics , – , november , ligand biotin-val-ala-dl-asp-fluoro- methylketone (bvad-fmk), a pan-cas- pase substrate/inhibitor that binds to the first active caspase, and which we previously showed is effective in measuring caspase- activity in pc cells. , pc cells were treated with bvad-fmk for hr prior to trans- duction with pen -cradd wt and tlis variants. two hours after transduction, cells were har- vested for streptavidin pulldown of bvad-fmk:caspase complexes followed by western blotting for caspase- (figure c). we found that only wt cradd induces cas- pase- activity; the cradd-tlis variants do not. this sug- gests that although the cradd-tlis variants can bind caspase- , they are unable to activate caspase- and induce apoptosis. in sum, in vitro experiments demonstrated functional defects in caspase- activation despite no consistent defects in protein interactions with pidd or caspase- . cradd knockout mice display megalencephaly and seizures consistent with tlis to determine whether loss of cradd function results in a tlis-like phenotype in mice, we analyzed cortical morphology and head size in cradd�/� mice. the cradd�/� mice used were previously reported to have normal develop- ment, although brain morphology and head size were not studied. volumetric micro-ct skull analysis of cradd�/� mice relative to heterozygous (craddþ/�) and wt controls demonstrated that all mutant mice had a statistically signif- icant increase in endocast volume that corresponds to increased brain volume (figure ). morphological analysis of cradd�/� cortex revealed normal layering indistinguish- able from wt mice (figure s ). notably, of ( %) cradd�/� mice displayed handling-induced seizures; no wt or craddþ/� littermates ( of ) had seizures. figure . megalencephaly in cradd�/� knockout mice (a) boxplot showing the ratio of endocranial volume to body weight in cradd control (heterozygous and wild-type, het-wt) (n ¼ ) and cradd�/� knockout (hom) (n ¼ ) mice. (b) boxplot demonstrating the ratio of endocranial volume to hu- merus surface area in cradd control (het-wt) (n ¼ ) and cradd�/� (hom) (n ¼ ) mice. wild-type and heterozygous mice are shown with closed and open circles, respectively. megalencephaly with normal cortical morphology in cradd�/� mice coupled with loss of function in driving apoptosis through caspase- activation in the cradd- tlis variants in vitro suggest that the cortical malforma- tion in cradd-tlis more likely results from reduced caspase- -mediated apoptosis during cortical development than a neuronal migration disorder. discussion cradd/caspase- -driven apoptosis is required for normal development of neocortex here, we describe a mild ‘‘thin’’ lissencephaly (tlis) result- ing from loss of cradd function and reduced caspase- - initiated neuronal apoptosis. recent reviews have postu- lated that decreased apoptosis could underlie some human brain overgrowth disorders (e.g., megalencephaly). how- ever, to date no human cortical malformations associated with decreased apoptosis have been reported. the poten- tial impact of reduced apoptosis during mammalian brain development was previously demonstrated by brain mal- formations in caspase- -, caspase- -, , and apaf - deficient mouse embryos and by increased forebrain size in epha �/� mice resulting from decreased apoptosis of cortical progenitor cells. in contrast to the pachygyria and mildly thick cortex associated with tlis in humans, caspase- (casp ), caspase- (casp ), and apaf (apaf ) knockout mice displayed neural tube closure defects, fore- brain protrusions of ectopic masses of cortical tissue that deformed the anterior skull, and widespread increased cell density from decreased apoptosis of progenitor cells throughout the brain including the cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem. overgrowth of progenitors in these mice is thought to result largely from loss of apoptosis of morphogen-producing cells early in development (e.g., fgf ), altering the spatiotemporal morphogen gradients that regulate progenitor expansion and ensure proper the american jou forebrain development. during zebrafish development, excessive activation of cradd/caspase- signaling through persistent phosphomimetic activation of pidd (pidd ) resulted in a severe microcephaly phenotype. tlis cradd variants fail to activate caspase- - initiated apoptosis without disrupting interaction between cradd and pidd the recent published structure of the piddosome in solution suggests that the piddosome core is composed of a cradd-dd:pidd-dd stoichiometry of : with – additional loosely associated cradd-dds. the solu- tion structure suggests that the amino acids altered by tlis cradd mutations do not participate in intra- or inter-molecular interactions that are critical to the core structure of the piddosome, and as such should not alter caspase- activation through disrupted cradd- dd:pidd-dd interaction. to explore this further, we generated three protein models including the cradd- tlis substitutions using swiss-model, irecs, and pymol (figure s ). based on our models and the published data, cradd arg forms a hydrogen bond with glu on another cradd-dd, while the adjacent amino acid ala interacts either with val on another cradd- dd or arg and arg on a pidd-dd (figure s ). the substitution of cradd arg to cys or his should inhibit hydrogen bond formation with glu . how- ever, others recently determined that the : cradd- dd:pidd-dd piddosome core is not disrupted by substi- tution of cradd glu with lys and that glu is solvent accessible in the core piddosome molecule in solution. this suggests that arg interaction with glu is not fundamentally important to formation of the piddosome. our models also predicted that gly and phe do not participate in an interaction interface and should therefore have no direct contact with any residues of the pidd-dd (figure s ). our co-immunoprecipitation data showing that all flag-cradd tlis variants except for p.gly arg cradd co-precipitate v -pidd-dd at abundances similar to flag-cradd wt support the modeling data which suggest that tlis-associated pathophysiology does not result from impaired cradd-dd:pidd-dd interac- tions. previous in vitro mutational analysis suggested that p.arg ala-substituted cradd exhibited a domi- nant-negative effect interfering with formation of the piddosome core by disrupting the interaction be- tween cradd and pidd death domains. however, p.arg his and p.arg cys cradd co-precipitated pidd-dd at abundances comparable to those co-precipi- tated by wild-type cradd in our experiments (figure d). further, adult cradd p.arg his and p.arg cys het- erozygotes had no symptoms suggestive of impaired cradd function, including no unusual sensitivity to gen- otoxic stress. this suggests that the recent resolution of the structure of the piddosome in solution provides a more physiologically relevant model consistent with our data. rnal of human genetics , – , november , the lack of significant phenotypic differences between tlis-affected individuals homozygous for p.gly arg cradd that disrupts interaction with the pidd-dd versus tlis-affected individuals with cradd variants that do not disrupt pidd-dd binding suggests that activation of caspase- may be the only function of the piddosome dur- ing brain development. alternatively, formation of the piddosome may not be required for neuronal apoptosis during brain development. amyloid-b-induced, cradd/ caspase- -initiated neuronal apoptosis persists in rat hip- pocampal neurons depleted of pidd and ngf withdrawal induces cradd/caspase- driven death of pidd-null (pidd �/�) mouse sympathetic neurons. the tlis phenotype is present but less pronounced in cradd knockout mice complete loss of cradd expression during brain devel- opment in cradd�/� mice resulted in megalencephaly (figure ) and seizures without obvious changes in cortical thickness or lamination (figure s ). this is in distinct contrast to the severe malformations of brain development described above for caspase- -, caspase- -, and apaf -null mice. previous work demonstrated that casp �/� mice have significantly reduced body weight and bone volume. we also observed reduced body weight in cradd�/� mice. further study showed significantly decreased limb size, indicating that the low weight correlated with small body size (table s , figure s ). the decreased body weight and bone volume in casp �/� and cradd�/� mice corre- lates with our functional results, which demonstrate loss of caspase- activation in the absence of active cradd. the head size of casp �/� mice has not yet been assessed. cradd activation of caspase- in neurons is required for neurotrophic factor withdrawal-induced apoptosis and for dendritic spine collapse and neuronal apoptosis in response to amyloid-b aggregation, , suggesting a role for cradd/caspase- signaling in synaptic plasticity and cortical architecture during mammalian brain develop- ment. the relative lack of a significant cns phenotype in early studies of casp �/� mice and the mild megalence- phaly described in this study for cradd�/� mice, in contrast to the lissencephaly variant and id observed in cradd- tlis-affected subjects, suggests that caspase- activity may be less important in development of the mouse brain than it is in the human brain. other disorders caused by decreased caspase- mediated apoptosis caspase-dependent apoptosis is characterized by ordered disruption of the cell without induction of inflamma- tion. caspase activation can be triggered by extracellular signals (extrinsic pathway regulated by multiple death re- ceptors) or intrinsic stress signals such as dna damage (intrinsic or mitochondrial pathway). caspase-depen- dent apoptosis is involved in several different human dis- the american journal of human genetics , – , nove eases including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular, and autoimmune disorders and cancer (reviewed by favaloro et al. ). autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome is a mendelian disorder caused by impaired caspase-medi- ated apoptosis (mim: , , and ) associated with mutations in fas, faslg, casp , and casp (mim: , , , and , respectively). individuals with this syndrome develop chronic lymphoproliferation with lymphadenop- athy, hepatosplenomegaly, autoimmunity, and increased rates of malignancy but have normal development and intellectual function. conclusions our data suggest that cradd/caspase- signaling is required for normal development of the human neocortex and normal cognitive function and that decreased caspase- -mediated apoptosis during human development can result in cortical malformation. further investigation is required to delineate the role of cradd/caspase- signaling in homeostatic regulation of cortical devel- opment. it is not clear whether the megalencephaly, un- dulating pachygyria, increased cortical thickness, and intellectual disability characteristic of cradd-tlis result from reduced pruning of synaptic connections, decreased programmed cell death of inappropriate neurons, or a combination of the two. supplemental data supplemental data include seven figures and two tables and can be found with this article online at http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. ajhg. . . . acknowledgments the authors are grateful to the tlis-affected individuals and their families for their contributions to this study. we thank prof. tak mak (university of toronto) for the cradd�/� mice; the coriell institute nigms cell repository for generation of cell lines; r. wagner, l. basom, and k. beutel for animal care; and k. bakalov, q. nguyen, and k. jacob for technical assistance. research reported in this publication was supported by the deut- sche forschungsgemeinschaft (di / - and di / - to n.d.d.), hhmi undergraduate science education awards ( and to franklin & marshall college, r.n.j., principal investigator), the center for research on women and newborn health and connectcare (to r.n.j.), the national eye institute (nei) of the nih (vision training grant t ey to m.i.a.), and the national institute of neurological disorders and stroke (ninds) of the nih (k ns to g.m.m., r ns to c.m.t., r ns to k.j.m., and r ns to w.b.d.). the clinic for special children is funded by charitable contributions from private donors and the communities it serves. the content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the nih or other organizations listed above. the funding sour- ces had no role in the design and conduct of the study, collec- tion, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data, mber , http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript, or decision to submit the manuscript for publication. all authors discussed and commented on the manuscript. received: august , accepted: september , published: october , web resources d slicer, https://www.slicer.org/ genomes, http://www.internationalgenome.org/ cadd, http://cadd.gs.washington.edu/ dbsnp, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/snp/ developmental brain adc atlas creation from clinical images, http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/~you /publications/ babyatlasing_ohbm .pdf dramms image registration software, https://www.cbica.upenn. edu/sbia/software/dramms/ exac browser, http://exac.broadinstitute.org/ genbank, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ irecs, http://irecs.bioinf.mpi-inf.mpg.de/ mutationtaster, http://www.mutationtaster.org/ nhlbi exome sequencing project (esp) exome variant server, http://evs.gs.washington.edu/evs/ omim, http://www.omim.org/ polyphen- , http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph / pymol, http://www.pymol.org rcsb protein data bank, http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/ home.do refseq, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/refseq sift, http://sift.bii.a-star.edu.sg/ swiss-model, http://swissmodel.expasy.org/ ucsc genome browser, http://genome.ucsc.edu ucsc genome browser: downloads, http://hgdownload.cse.ucsc. edu/downloads.html references . bystron, i., blakemore, c., and rakic, p. ( ). development of the human cerebral cortex: boulder committee revisited. nat. rev. neurosci. , – . . dekkers, m.p., nikoletopoulou, v., and barde, y.a. ( ). cell biology in neuroscience: death of developing neurons: new insights and implications for connectivity. j. cell biol. , – . . hu, w.f., chahrour, m.h., and walsh, c.a. ( ). the diverse genetic landscape of neurodevelopmental disorders. annu. rev. genomics hum. genet. , – . . mcilwain, d.r., berger, t., and mak, t.w. ( ). caspase functions in cell death and disease. cold spring harb. per- spect. biol. , a . . rakic, p. ( ). evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology. nat. rev. neurosci. , – . . fischl, b., and dale, a.m. ( ). measuring the thickness of the human cerebral cortex from magnetic resonance images. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . dobyns, w.b., reiner, o., carrozzo, r., and ledbetter, d.h. ( ). lissencephaly. a human brain malformation associ- ated with deletion of the lis gene located at chromosome p . jama , – . the american jou . kato, m., and dobyns, w.b. ( ). lissencephaly and the molecular basis of neuronal migration. hum. mol. genet. , r –r . . moon, h.m., and wynshaw-boris, a. ( ). cytoskeleton in action: lissencephaly, a neuronal migration disorder. wiley interdiscip. rev. dev. biol. , – . . jamuar, s.s., and walsh, c.a. ( ). genomic variants and variations in malformations of cortical development. pediatr. clin. north am. , – . . avela, k., toiviainen-salo, s., karttunen-lewandowski, p., kauria, l., valanne, l., and salonen-kajander, r. ( ). fron- totemporal pachygyria-two new patients. eur. j. med. genet. , – . . guzel, a.,tatli,m., bilguvar, k., diluna,m.l., bakkaloglu,b., oz- turk, a.k., bayrakli, f., and gunel, m. ( ). apparently novel genetic syndrome of pachygyria, mental retardation, seizure, and arachnoid cysts. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . phadke, s.r., girisha, k.m., and phadke, r.v. ( ). a new autosomal recessive disorder of bilateral frontotemporal pa- chygyria without microcephaly: report of a case and review of literature. neurol. india , – . . ramirez, d., lammer, e.j., johnson, c.b., and peterson, c.d. ( ). autosomal recessive frontotemporal pachygyria. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . ahmad, m., srinivasula, s.m., wang, l., talanian, r.v., lit- wack, g., fernandes-alnemri, t., and alnemri, e.s. ( ). cradd, a novel human apoptotic adaptor molecule for cas- pase- , and fasl/tumor necrosis factor receptor-interacting protein rip. cancer res. , – . . duan, h., and dixit, v.m. ( ). raidd is a new ‘death’ adaptor molecule. nature , – . . berube, c., boucher, l.m., ma, w., wakeham, a., salmena, l., hakem, r., yeh, w.c., mak, t.w., and benchimol, s. ( ). apoptosis caused by p -induced protein with death domain (pidd) depends on the death adapter protein raidd. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . tinel, a., and tschopp, j. ( ). the piddosome, a protein complex implicated in activation of caspase- in response to genotoxic stress. science , – . . ando, k., kernan, j.l., liu, p.h., sanda, t., logette, e., tschopp, j., look, a.t., wang, j., bouchier-hayes, l., and sidi, s. ( ). pidd death-domain phosphorylation by atm controls pro- death versus prosurvival piddosome signaling. mol. cell , – . . shearwin-whyatt, l.m., harvey, n.l., and kumar, s. ( ). subcellular localization and card-dependent oligomerization of the death adaptor raidd. cell death differ. , – . . jabado, o., wang, q., rideout, h.j., yeasmin, m., guo, k.x., vekrellis, k., papantonis, s., angelastro, j.m., troy, c.m., and stefanis, l. ( ). raidd aggregation facilitates apoptotic death of pc cells and sympathetic neurons. cell death differ. , – . . ribe, e.m., jean, y.y., goldstein, r.l., manzl, c., stefanis, l., villunger, a., and troy, c.m. ( ). neuronal caspase activ- ity and function requires raidd, but not pidd. biochem. j. , – . . d’amelio, m., cavallucci, v., and cecconi, f. ( ). neuronal caspase- signaling: not only cell death. cell death differ. , – . . d’amelio, m., sheng, m., and cecconi, f. ( ). caspase- in the central nervous system: beyond apoptosis. trends neurosci. , – . rnal of human genetics , – , november , https://www.slicer.org/ http://www.internationalgenome.org/ http://cadd.gs.washington.edu/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/snp/ http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/% eyou /publications/babyatlasing_ohbm .pdf http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/% eyou /publications/babyatlasing_ohbm .pdf https://www.cbica.upenn.edu/sbia/software/dramms/ https://www.cbica.upenn.edu/sbia/software/dramms/ http://exac.broadinstitute.org/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ http://irecs.bioinf.mpi-inf.mpg.de/ http://www.mutationtaster.org/ http://evs.gs.washington.edu/evs/ http://www.omim.org/ http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph / http://www.pymol.org http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/home.do http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/home.do http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/refseq http://sift.bii.a-star.edu.sg/ http://swissmodel.expasy.org/ http://genome.ucsc.edu http://hgdownload.cse.ucsc.edu/downloads.html http://hgdownload.cse.ucsc.edu/downloads.html http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref . bergeron, l., perez, g.i., macdonald, g., shi, l., sun, y., juris- icova, a., varmuza, s., latham, k.e., flaws, j.a., salter, j.c., et al. ( ). defects in regulation of apoptosis in caspase- - deficient mice. genes dev. , – . . kumar, s., kinoshita, m., noda, m., copeland, n.g., and jen- kins, n.a. ( ). induction of apoptosis by the mouse nedd gene, which encodes a protein similar to the product of the caenorhabditis elegans cell death gene ced- and the mamma- lian il- beta-converting enzyme. genes dev. , – . . wang, l., miura, m., bergeron, l., zhu, h., and yuan, j. ( ). ich- , an ice/ced- -related gene, encodes both positive and negative regulators of programmed cell death. cell , – . . carlsson, y., schwendimann, l., vontell, r., rousset, c.i., wang, x., lebon, s., charriaut-marlangue, c., supramaniam, v., hagberg, h., gressens, p., and jacotot, e. ( ). genetic in- hibition of caspase- reduces hypoxic-ischemic and excito- toxic neonatal brain injury. ann. neurol. , – . . gripp, k.w., hopkins, e., doyle, d., and dobyns, w.b. ( ). high incidence of progressive postnatal cerebellar enlarge- ment in costello syndrome: brain overgrowth associated with hras mutations as the likely cause of structural brain and spinal cord abnormalities. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . boyle, e.a., o’roak, b.j., martin, b.k., kumar, a., and shen- dure, j. ( ). mipgen: optimized modeling and design of molecular inversion probes for targeted resequencing. bioin- formatics , – . . hiatt, j.b., pritchard, c.c., salipante, s.j., o’roak, b.j., and shendure, j. ( ). single molecule molecular inversion probes for targeted, high-accuracy detection of low-frequency variation. genome res. , – . . gage, g.j., kipke, d.r., and shain, w. ( ). whole animal perfusion fixation for rodents. j. vis. exp. , . . fedorov, a., beichel, r., kalpathy-cramer, j., finet, j., fillion- robin, j.c., pujol, s., bauer, c., jennings, d., fennessy, f., sonka, m., et al. ( ). d slicer as an image computing plat- form for the quantitative imaging network. magn. reson. imaging , – . . dawant, b.m., christensen, g.e., fitzpatrick, j.m., and rueck- ert, d., eds. ( ). biomedical image registration, th inter- national workshop, wbir , nashville, tennessee, usa, july – , , proceedings. in lecture notes in computer science (new york: springer). . ou, y., sotiras, a., paragios, n., and davatzikos, c. ( ). dramms: deformable registration via attribute matching and mutual-saliency weighting. med. image anal. , – . . doshi, j.j., erus, g., ou, y., and davatzikos, c. ( ). ensemble-based medical image labeling via sampling morpho- logical appearance manifolds. proceedings of miccai chal- lenge workshop on segmentation: algorithms, theory and applications, – . . guimond, a., meunier, j., and thirion, j.-p. ( ). average brain models: a convergence study. comput. vis. image underst. , – . . denault, j.b., and salvesen, g.s. ( ). apoptotic caspase activation and activity. methods mol. biol. , – . . akpan, n., serrano-saiz, e., zacharia, b.e., otten, m.l., du- cruet, a.f., snipas, s.j., liu, w., velloza, j., cohen, g., sosunov, s.a., et al. ( ). intranasal delivery of caspase- inhibitor re- duces caspase- -dependent axon/neuron loss and improves neurological function after stroke. j. neurosci. , – . the american journal of human genetics , – , nove . davidson, t.j., harel, s., arboleda, v.a., prunell, g.f., shelan- ski, m.l., greene, l.a., and troy, c.m. ( ). highly efficient small interfering rna delivery to primary mammalian neu- rons induces microrna-like effects before mrna degradation. j. neurosci. , – . . troy, c.m., stefanis, l., prochiantz, a., greene, l.a., and she- lanski, m.l. ( ). the contrasting roles of ice family prote- ases and interleukin- beta in apoptosis induced by trophic factor withdrawal and by copper/zinc superoxide dismutase down-regulation. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . troy, c.m., stefanis, l., greene, l.a., and shelanski, m.l. ( ). nedd is required for apoptosis after trophic factor withdrawal, but not superoxide dismutase (sod ) downregu- lation, in sympathetic neurons and pc cells. j. neurosci. , – . . jean, y.y., ribe, e.m., pero, m.e., moskalenko, m., iqbal, z., marks, l.j., greene, l.a., and troy, c.m. ( ). caspase- is essential for c-jun transcriptional activation and bim induc- tion in neuron death. biochem. j. , – . . puffenberger, e.g., jinks, r.n., sougnez, c., cibulskis, k., wil- lert, r.a., achilly, n.p., cassidy, r.p., fiorentini, c.j., heiken, k.f., lawrence, j.j., et al. ( ). genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel dis- eases. plos one , e . . jinks, r.n., puffenberger, e.g., baple, e., harding, b., crino, p., fogo, a.b., wenger, o., xin, b., koehler, a.e., mcglincy, m.h., et al. ( ). recessive nephrocerebellar syndrome on the galloway-mowat syndrome spectrum is caused by homozy- gous protein-truncating mutations of wdr . brain , – . . sajan,s.a.,fernandez,l., nieh, s.e.,rider, e., bukshpun, p.,wa- kahiro, m., christian, s.l., rivière, j.b., sullivan, c.t., sudi, j., et al. ( ). both rare and de novo copy number variants are prevalent in agenesis of the corpus callosum but not in cere- bellar hypoplasia or polymicrogyria. plos genet. , e . . wang, q., maniati, m., jabado, o., pavlaki, m., troy, c.m., greene, l.a., and stefanis, l. ( ). raidd is required for apoptosis of pc cells and sympathetic neurons induced by trophic factor withdrawal. cell death differ. , – . . mirzaa, g.m., and poduri, a. ( ). megalencephaly and hemimegalencephaly: breakthroughs in molecular etiology. am. j. med. genet. c. semin. med. genet. c, – . . kuida, k., zheng, t.s., na, s., kuan, c., yang, d., karasuyama, h., rakic, p., and flavell, r.a. ( ). decreased apoptosis in the brain and premature lethality in cpp -deficient mice. nature , – . . hakem, r., hakem, a., duncan, g.s., henderson, j.t., woo, m., soengas, m.s., elia, a., de la pompa, j.l., kagi, d., khoo, w., et al. ( ). differential requirement for caspase in apoptotic pathways in vivo. cell , – . . kuida, k., haydar, t.f., kuan, c.y., gu, y., taya, c., kara- suyama, h., su, m.s., rakic, p., and flavell, r.a. ( ). reduced apoptosis and cytochrome c-mediated caspase acti- vation in mice lacking caspase . cell , – . . yoshida, h., kong, y.y., yoshida, r., elia, a.j., hakem, a., hakem, r., penninger, j.m., and mak, t.w. ( ). apaf is required for mitochondrial pathways of apoptosis and brain development. cell , – . . depaepe, v., suarez-gonzalez, n., dufour, a., passante, l., gorski, j.a., jones, k.r., ledent, c., and vanderhaeghen, p. ( ). ephrin signalling controls brain size by regulating apoptosis of neural progenitors. nature , – . mber , http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref . nonomura, k., yamaguchi, y., hamachi, m., koike, m., uchiyama, y., nakazato, k., mochizuki, a., sakaue-sawano, a., miyawaki, a., yoshida, h., et al. ( ). local apoptosis modulates early mammalian brain development through the elimination of morphogen-producing cells. dev. cell , – . . nematollahi, l.a., garza-garcia, a., bechara, c., esposito, d., morgner, n., robinson, c.v., and driscoll, p.c. ( ). flexible stoichiometry and asymmetry of the piddosome core com- plex by heteronuclear nmr spectroscopy and mass spectrom- etry. j. mol. biol. , – . . jang, t.h., seo, e.k., and park, h.h. ( ). analysis of muta- tion effects on piddosome core complex. appl. biochem. bio- technol. , – . . shalini, s., dorstyn, l., wilson, c., puccini, j., ho, l., and ku- mar, s. ( ). impaired antioxidant defence and accumula- tion of oxidative stress in caspase- -deficient mice. cell death differ. , – . . pozueta, j., lefort, r., ribe, e.m., troy, c.m., arancio, o., and shelanski, m. ( ). caspase- is required for dendritic spine and behavioural alterations in j app transgenic mice. nat. commun. , . . favaloro, b., allocati, n., graziano, v., di ilio, c., and de lau- renzi, v. ( ). role of apoptosis in disease. aging (albany, n.y.) , – . the american jou . troy, c.m., and jean, y.y. ( ). caspases: therapeutic targets in neurologic disease. neurotherapeutics , – . . teachey, d.t., seif, a.e., and grupp, s.a. ( ). advances in the management and understanding of autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (alps). br. j. haematol. , – . . fisher, g.h., rosenberg, f.j., straus, s.e., dale, j.k., middleton, l.a., lin, a.y., strober, w., lenardo, m.j., and puck, j.m. ( ). dominant interfering fas gene mutations impair apoptosis in a human autoimmune lymphoproliferative syn- drome. cell , – . . wu, j., wilson, j., he, j., xiang, l., schur, p.h., and mountz, j.d. ( ). fas ligand mutation in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus and lymphoproliferative disease. j. clin. invest. , – . . wang, j., zheng, l., lobito, a., chan, f.k., dale, j., sneller, m., yao, x., puck, j.m., straus, s.e., and lenardo, m.j. ( ). in- herited human caspase mutations underlie defective lymphocyte and dendritic cell apoptosis in autoimmune lym- phoproliferative syndrome type ii. cell , – . . chun, h.j., zheng, l., ahmad, m., wang, j., speirs, c.k., sie- gel, r.m., dale, j.k., puck, j., davis, j., hall, c.g., et al. ( ). pleiotropic defects in lymphocyte activation caused by caspase- mutations lead to human immunodeficiency. nature , – . rnal of human genetics , – , november , http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	mutations in cradd result in reduced caspase- -mediated neuronal apoptosis and cause megalencephaly with a rare lissencepha ... 	introduction 	subjects and methods 	research subjects 	whole-exome sequencing 	targeted panel sequencing with single-molecule molecular inversion probe 	cradd knockout mice 	whole-animal perfusion fixation 	cortical/brain histology 	volumetric mouse skull ct 	cdna cloning and mutagenesis 	transduction of pen -cradd 	cell lines and transfection 	pc cell culture and viability 	primary sympathetic neuron culture and viability 	immunofluorescence microscopy 	cradd and pidd co-immunoprecipitation 	caspase- and cradd co-immunoprecipitation 	caspase- activity assay 	results 	clinical presentation and molecular genetic analysis of cradd-associated lissencephaly 	tlis variants cluster in the cradd death domain 	tlis cradd variants do not disrupt binding with pidd or caspase- 	tlis variants disrupt cradd’s ability to drive neuronal apoptosis 	cradd tlis variants do not activate caspase- 	cradd knockout mice display megalencephaly and seizures consistent with tlis 	discussion 	cradd/caspase- -driven apoptosis is required for normal development of neocortex 	tlis cradd variants fail to activate caspase- -initiated apoptosis without disrupting interaction between cradd and pidd 	the tlis phenotype is present but less pronounced in cradd knockout mice 	other disorders caused by decreased caspase-mediated apoptosis 	conclusions 	supplemental data 	acknowledgments 	web resources 	references reviews mid- , during which the countryside seethed with unrest and numerous partisan groups emerged and fought against the regime. the author focuses on one particularly tenacious and well-organized uprising against the soviets which took place mainly in in a few uezdy of the tambov region and lasted for about nine months. material about this "antonovshchina," so baptized by the authorities after antonov who was its leader, is not easily available. professor radkey's qualities as patient and competent researcher allowed him to gather every possible scrap of evidence, but the results of his work are nevertheless disappointing. the author believes ardently that the different bands and groups of those "greens" were actually "a movement"—a term which connotes some degree of unity and com- munity of goals; moreover, he even believes that this "movement" and leaders like antonov presented a genuine democratic and revolutionary alternative for russia against which both the "reds" and the "whites" conspired, and which finally the bolsheviks put down. this opinion led the author to try to write an epic, when the material a t hand would sustain no more than a modest monograph. even after having read this over- sized volume, we still are not clear about the character of the partisans and their leader and we certainly are at a loss as to why radkey endowed antonov's and similar uprisings with the quality of a serious "third force" and a potentially viable political alternative. if anything, his own material serves to disprove such a contention. the uprisings were strictly local in scope; antonov and other leaders were unable to cooperate with each other and had no positive unifying program. once the regime introduced the n e p , the peasants' discontent subsided and their support for the uprisings dried up. deprived of such support, the partisans who persisted inevitably degenerated into banditry. m o s h e l e w i n university of birmingham f o r m i r o v a n i e s o v e t s k o i u n i v e r s i t e t s k o i s i s t e m y ( - gg.). by sh. kh. chanbarisov. ufa: bashkirskoe knizhnoe izdatel'stvo, . pp. "is it true that after the revolution you preserved your universities?" a french in- tellectual somewhat incredulously asked a visiting soviet scientist during the s. unlike the jacobins, the bolsheviks did indeed retain the concept of the university, though not without considerable internal dissension and a brief period ( - ) when most universities were subdivided into autonomous institutes. the present work is an exhaustive study of the fluctuating development of soviet university policy during its most formative stages. the author, a historian who is currently the rector of bashkir state university, stresses lenin's belief that universities, with their emphasis on broad, general, and theoretical studies, should have pride of place over technical institutes and other more narrowly vocational educational institutions. this idea came under increasing attack during the twenties by "ultra-leftists," who regarded universities as the strongholds of bourgeois culture and impractical knowledge, but was reaffirmed and decisively im- plemented by the educational reforms of the thirties. following the footsteps of histo- rians such as s. a. fediukin, chanbarisov argues that lenin assiduously wooed the "old" intelligentsia (in this case the professoriate), the vast majority of which are portrayed, as eventually overcoming their initial hostility and wholeheartedly casting their lot with the soviet government. overlooked are instances of terror such as the execution of the pro-rector of petrograd university in and the fact that it was slavic review lenin's decree on open admissions that effectively torpedoed promising cooperation on university reform in . the author has made extensive and fruitful use of central state and party archives. relatively little attention, however, is devoted to the ways in which central directives were implemented in the localities or to the development of higher education among the national minorities. the work is characteristic of brezhnev-era historiography. the name stalin does .; not appear once, nor is there even the slightest reference to the purges of the thirties, despite their great impact on higher education. on the other hand, the author confronts - with refreshing candor, thoroughness, and documentation less sensitive examples of "mistaken" policies, such as efforts to replace the lecture system with group-learning methods or to vocationalize the higher educational system. chanbarisov's book can be read on several different levels: as an implicit defense of cultural policies advocated by officially denounced "rightists" such as rykov and bukharin; as a plea for the continued influence of specialists in contemporary policy making; and as yet another attack on maoist concepts of cultural revolution. but it is primarily a work of scholarship, and despite some shortcomings in this respect, it should be welcomed as the most comprehensive account of the history of soviet higher education yet to appear. j a m e s c. mcclelland university of california, santa barbara g e s c h i c h t e d e r e v a n g e l i s c h - l u t h e r i s c h e n g e m e i n d e n in d e r s o v e t u n i o n , - . by wilhelm kahle. studien zur geschichte osteuropas, . leiden: e. j. brill, . xii, pp. dglds. this history of the evangelical-lutheran parishes in the soviet union from to is the sixteenth volume of the highly useful series "studies in east european history," edited by a group of prominent german, american, french, and italian scholars. the author of this volume, wilhelm kahle, has already published a number of books and articles on the development and fate of protestant parishes in russia and on relations between baltic protestantism and the russian orthodox church. kahle is very well acquainted with the subject matter and has used all available sources in order to present as complete a picture as possible on the fate of the evangelical- lutheran church in russia under the communist regime. he covers the organization, struggle,, and sufferings of german, finnish, swedish, estonian, latvian, and armenian parishes, which comprised some one million faithful. kahle has brought his story all the way from the beginning of the communist revolution in russia in to , when the last evangelical-lutheran parish was closed, thus ending organized lutheran church life in the soviet union. one can admire kahle's scholarship and diligence throughout the entire fact- filled volume. the subject matter has been handled with great honesty and objectivity, considering the various elements which had affected the life of protestant parishes in russia. the work is based mainly on studies of original documents which have found their way to the western world. kahle's footnoting is extensive and his bibliography is excellent. his volume has been supplemented by a great number of documents which have been reproduced fully and cover pages. despite the fact that the book deals only with the fate of lutherans and excludes baptists, mennonites, evangelists, and various small sects, it can be highly recom- mended for both scholars and general readers interested in the history of organized religious life in the soviet union. edgar anderson san joss state university devoted to nature: the religious roots of american environmentalism by evan berry (review) devoted to nature: the religious roots of american environmentalism by evan berry (review) j.w. pritchett spiritus: a journal of christian spirituality, volume , number , spring , pp. - (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /scs. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /scs. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ spiritus | . devoted to nature: the religious roots of american environmentalism. by evan berry. oakland: university of california press, . pp. $ . . environmentalism and christianity have a complicated relationship. on the one hand, conventional environmental history accepts the assertions of lynn white’s seminal essay “the historical roots of our ecologic crisis,” characterizing envi- ronmentalism as a radical departure from prior christian anthropocentrism. al- ternatively, christian environmental writers, such as loren wilkinson, often argue that environmentalism is the fulfillment of a proper christian theology and ethic of creation care. evan berry steps into the fray of this debate with his devoted to nature: the religious roots of american environmentalism. his central assertion is that american environmentalism is the product of a “historically demonstrable genealogical affinity with christian theological tradition” ( ). yet, while berry maps environmentalism’s development onto a christian spiritual and soteriologi- cal landscape, the theological content of progressive era spirituality is presented as a significant diversion from traditional currents of orthodoxy even as it maintains certain christian commitments and language. in order to demonstrate the theologi- cal underpinnings of early twentieth century environmental groups, berry focuses his analysis and documentation on the confluence of spiritual practices and recre- ational practices in environmental groups of the s and s. berry’s first chapter maps the theological development of recreation as a sote- riological practice via the development of romanticism, nominalism, and muscular christianity. in his narration, romanticism names sin as the alienation of civiliza- tion from nature, nominalism created a world in which nature could be as theolog- ically instructive as scripture, and muscular christianity cultivated an understand- ing of christian spiritual practice devoted to masculine vitality, sport, and embod- ied virtue. berry uses the practice of walking to illustrate how these intellectual and cultural forces combined to promote recreation in nature as a method of receiving grace whereby “the salvific possibilities opened by the idea that god’s grace was to be actively pursued in the natural world ushered in a new era of outdoor enthusi- asm” ( ). berry’s second chapter looks at specific motivations for the emergence of progressive era organizations, which would come to spearhead political environ- mentalism. these organizations, such as the sierra club, the wilderness society, and the mountaineers were not simply secular political organizations but rather “emerged from a synthesis of religious ideas and scientific knowledge” ( ). real- izing that industrialism was destroying spiritually significant natural spaces, these groups organized to protect aesthetic natural amenities as resources for the spiri- tual well-being of future generations. at the heart of this political motivation is the conviction that natural spaces have spiritual, moral, and soteriological value. in his third chapter, berry, details the dependence of outdoor recreation’s pop- ularity on religious nature writing, arguing that rather than being a radical depar- ture from a medieval view of forests and mountains as terrifying, the progressive era environmentalists tapped into longstanding hebrew and christian “emphasis on mountains as key sites of spiritual transformation” ( ). berry finds dante as more characteristic of christian spiritual emphasis: the divine comedy’s “moun- tains may be fearsome, signifying the impossibility of unaided ascent, yet they are the primary metaphor for a topography of redemption” ( – ). berry outlines book reviews the emergence of mountain-climbing literature through the nineteenth century as “the primary carriers of what might be called romantic soteriology, the widespread view that direct experiences of the natural world are of moral and spiritual benefit to individuals” ( ). this nineteenth-century insight was adopted by twentieth- century conservation organizations as the religious justification for the protec- tion of wild landscapes. along with mountaineering, backpacking, walking, and birding, romantic soteriology was attached to that particularly american tradi- tion—the road trip—which also drew from the resources of pilgrimage spirituality to establish a practice of travel to sites of natural spiritual significance and personal moral restoration. in his final chapter, berry argues that the whole discourse assumed a nominally christian ethic. with this assertion, he differs with interpreters who find the spiri- tual content of early environmental writing to be either empty rhetorical flourish or, alternatively, animistic and neo-pagan. using the evidence of personal narrative essays common to club journals such as the mountaineer and the sierra club bulletin berry maps the contours of christian thinking that made the narratives of spiritual experience intelligible in the progressive era, even as it incorporated more pantheist and animist leanings. he finds that the progressive era writings maintained a communal focus and a forward-looking optimism absent from the romantic writings of the nineteenth century that were more characteristically indi- vidualistic and nostalgic. perhaps most importantly, berry finds the preservationists grounding their ethics on a “primordial simplicity of human nature” as the “source of ethical purpose” rather than referencing “historical revelation.” thus, he con- cludes that “recreationists lived according to rousseau’s view that human nature is fundamentally good and that the fall from grace is tied not to individual souls but to the hubris of civilization ( – ). berry offers much to ponder. he documents a moment in christian spirituality where the “intrinsic value of wilderness” was found in the “moral salubriousness of time in the outdoors,” and where the outdoors offered an “appropriate cure for modern alienation” ( and ). these spiritual findings would be at home in any number of contemporary treatments of eco-theology or spiritual ecology. however, berry also documents a spiritual practice that cuts against the grain of christian tradition. he finds the recreationist willing to jettison a personal and active god, abandon original sin, and embrace an eschaton achievable by human effort. all of these are the practical outcomes of an ontology that flirts with—and may even fully embrace—pantheism. theologians may find berry’s narration of the realist/nominalist turn ripe for critique. for instance, many contemporary christian thinkers would maintain that nominalism is not the theological foundation of an environmental concern, but rather it is precisely a re-appropriation of medieval realism that is required to over- come our modern anthropocentrism. historians, likewise, may wish to contend that the prevalence of christian imagery and language is evidence of a latent cul- tural christendom rather than a personal christian commitment. finally, christian thinkers of all disciplines may wish to debate the extent to which the pantheism, pelagianism, or deism evident in berry’s sources constitute an orthodox christian position. but, for those of us working at the intersections of christian spirituality, theology, and environmental concern berry’s book is an essential read. not only spiritus | . does it have impressive documentation and historical analysis of a critical moment in our recent spiritual history, but it should also inspire in us a critical questioning of our own work. to what extent does our commitment to spiritual practice out in creation depend upon transcendentalist, romantic, or some other heterodox com- mitment? and if so, what is at stake in that commitment? have we forgotten the scriptural witness of wilderness as struggle, temptation, and death in the wake of john muir’s eloquence? do we read the transfiguration as complete with the confi- dence of an anthropocentric salvation from our ecological self-destruction? these sorts of reflective questions should not be received as threatening but rather should help us to separate the wheat from the chaff in the search for the truth to which we witness. this book, while not without its flaws, can help us ask good questions of our own work as we continue to articulate a concern for creation that remains robustly orthodox in its christian spirituality and theology. devoted to nature is an accessible read appropriate to undergraduate, gradu- ate, and professional researchers. it would be at home in any historical, sociologi- cal, or theological inquiry into american environmentalism. j.w. pritchett university of aberdeen spiritual companioning: a guide to protestant theology and practice. by angela h. reed, richard r. osmer, and marcus g. smucker. grand rapids: baker academic, . pp. $ . . a joint effort by three praxis scholars representing the baptist, presbyterian, and mennonite traditions has occasioned a valuable new resource focused on protes- tant spirituality. this work should find its way to the syllabi in practical theology classes in protestant seminaries as well as to the libraries of pastors and protestant churches where a deep commitment to spiritually enriched leadership exists. it embraces the concerns of spirituality scholars who, in the words of anton boisen, study “living human documents.” by shifting the focus from spiritual direction to spiritual companioning, while continuing to draw upon the insights of classics in the field, the authors have provided an approach to spiritual life, which is focused not simply on individuals but also on small groups and congregations. this shift, though not dramatic, addresses a number of issues. over the past three decades significant numbers of protestant clergy and laity have been trained as spiritual directors through highly respected programs at roman catholic retreat houses or in other ecumenical training centers. anecdotal evidence suggests that many who train as spiritual directors never go on to provide direction to others. hence, one can hypothesize that they have sought this training to increase their understanding of spirituality and to deepen their personal prayer life. spiritual companioning offers an alternative way to provide practitioners with background and training in spirituality, is less formal than traditional one-on-one spiritual direction, and has as its focus the wider life of the congregation. this book offers clergy and laity with the gifts for spiritual companioning a number of avenues for this ministry. chh volume issue cover and front matter cbirocb ^istori] a m e r i c a n society o f church history, december, use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president martin e. marty, divinity school, university of chicago vice-president carl bangs, saint paul school of theology, kansas city secretary james h. smylte, union theological seminary, richmond, va. assistant secretary stuart c. henry, divinity school, duke university treasurer guy s. klett, oreland, pa. editors robert m . grant t martin e. marty i divinity school university of chicago jerald c. brauer j members of the council editor representative for : jerald c. brauer class of —transitional history richard c. cameron elwyn a . smith john tracy ellis heiko oberman robert m . grant class of deno geanakoplos william a . clebsch lawrence n. jones jane dempsey douglass james hennesey class of george mosse edwin s. gaustad marianka fousek john f . wilson w . s. reto the society was founded in by philip schaff, reorganized in , and incorporated by act of the legislature of new york in . use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core cburcb foisrocy edited by robert m. grant, martin e. marty, and jerald c. brauer with the cooperation of r. pierce beaver jaroslav pelikan robert t. handy ray c. petry david larrimore holland leonard j. trinterud winthrop s. hudson george h. williams joseph moody james h . nichols assist<tnts to the editors kent druyvesteyn and charles lafontaine volume published by the american society of church history use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles page brynn, edward, some repercussions of the act of union on the church of ireland burr, david, the apocalyptic element in olivi's critique of aristotle danner, d a n g., anthony gilby: puritan in exile—a biographical approach dejong, gerald f., the dutch reformed church and negro slavery in colonial america ellens, g. f. s., the ranters ranting: reflections on a ranting counter culture flanders, robert, to transform history: early mormon culture and the concepts of time and space gliozzo, charles a., the philosophes and religion: intellectual origins of the dechristianisation movement in the french revolution grant, robert m., early alexandrian christianity gribbin, w i l l i a m , the covenant transformed: the jeremiad tradition and the war of groh, d e n n i s e., tertullian's polemic against social co-optation harvey, richard, the problem of social-political obligation for the church of england in the seventeenth century hood, fred } . , revolution and religious liberty: the conservation of the theocratic concept in virginia kitzan, laurence, the london missionary society and the problem of authority in india, - lernee, robert e., the image of mixed liquids in late medieval mystical thought m c g i n n , bernard, the abbot and the doctors: scholastic reactions to the radical eschatology of joachim of fiore moore, leroy, jr., the spiritual: soul of black religion norwood, frederick a., wesleyan and methodist historical studies, - : a bibliographical article nugent, donald, the renaissance and/of witcjtcraft peachy, paul, today's counter culture: the radical reformation as analogue? (preliminary abstract) redekop, calvin, church history and the contrasystem: a case study sandeen, ernest r., john humphrey noyes as the new adam shriver, george h., a summary of "images of catharism and the historian's task" s m i t h , warren t., an appraisal of thomas coke's africa mission, - storch, rudolph h., the "eusebian constantine" w a l l , donald d., the reports of the sicherheitsdienst on the church and religious affairs in germany, - winslow, donald f., christology and exegesis in the cappadocians z i n n , grover, hugh of st. victor and the ark of noah: a new look dissertation abstracts jordan, philip d., the evangelical alliance for the united states of america: an evangelical search for identity in ecumenicity during the nineteenth century ~ west, delno c , jr., joachimism and fra. salimbene use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews aarflot, andreas, tro og lydighet: hans nielsen hauges icristendomsforst&else trygve skarsten ackroyd, p . e., ed., the cambridge history of the bible. vol. i : from, the beginnings to jerome norman perrin adam, alfred, sprache und dogma: xjntersuchungen zu grundproblemen der kirchengesdhiehte john e. groh akenson, donald h., the irish education experiment: the national system of education in the nineteenth century edward brynn allegro, john m., the sacred mushroom and the cross lindaey p. pherigo altholz, josef l., victorian england, - martin e. marty anderson, gerald h., ed., studies in philippine church history .... nicholas p. cushner anderson, hugh g., lutheranism in the southeastern states, - : a social history e. theodore baehmann andrewes, patience, frederick ii of hohenstaufen carl volz armstrong, brian g., calvinism and the amyraut heresy: protestant scholasticism and humanism in seventeenth-century france john r. meyer asheim, ivar, and victor e. gold., eds., episcopacy in the lutheran church?: studies in the development and definition of the office of church leadership e. clifford nelson aubert, hippolyte, eomp., correspondence de theodore de beze. tome v i : jill eaitt baldwin, marshall w., ed., christianity through the thirteenth century .... patrick henry barry, colman, j., american nuncio: cardinal aloisius muench david j. o'brien benton, john p., self and society in medieval france: the memoirs of abbot guibert of nogent ( ?-c.lls ) eiehard kay berry, lloyd e., intro., the geneva bible: a facsimile of the edition allen wikgren best, geoffrey, ed., the oxford movement: twelve years, - .... lewis a. dralle beyerhaus, peter, and carl f . hallencreutz, eds., the church crossing frontiers: essays on the nature of mission eobert g. torbet black a. j., monarchy and community: political ideas in the later conciliar controversy morimichi watanabe blair, peter h., the world of bede eiehard w. pfaff blum, shirley n., early netherlandish triptychs: a study in patronage donald j. bniggink bolle, kees w., the freedom of man in myth larry j. alderink boren, carter e., 'religion on the texas frontier eonald e. osborn bornkamm, giinther, early christian experience william e. schoedel borth, wilhelm, die luthersache (causa lutheri) - : die anfiinge der reformation als frage von politik und recht gottfried g. krodel brauer, jerald c , ed., my travel diary, —paul tillich franklin h. littell breslow, marvin a., a mirror of england: english puritan views of foreign nations, - george a. drake breward, ian, ed., the work of william perkins leslie p. fairfield bruins, elton j., the americanization of a congregation: a history of the third reformed church of holland, michigan john b. frantz bumsted, j. m., ed., the great awakening: the beginnings of evangelical pietism in america keith hardman burke, j. bruce, and james b. wiggins, foundations of christianity: from the beginnings to patrick henry bush, eiehard c., jr., religion in communist china william j. schmidt caccamo, domenico, eretici italiani in moravia, polonia, transilvania ( - ) eoland h. bainton carroll, peter n., ed., religion and the coming of the american revolution john lankford chadwick, owen, the victorian church. part i i winthrop s. hudson chaney, william a., the cult of kingship in anglo-saxon england: the transition from paganism to christianity milton mcc. gatch christensen, torben, and sven goransson, kyrkohistoria. johannes knudsen clarke, william h., the church in china: its vitality; its future? william j. schmidt coolidge, john s., the pauline renaissance in england paul s. seaver coulson, john, newman and the common tradition: a study in the language of church and society john t. ford cowdrey, h. e. j., the cluniacs and the gregorian reform e. randolph daniel crowther, m. a., church embattled: religious controversy in mid-victorian england martin e. marty crummey, eobert o., the old believers and the world o* antichrist: the use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vyg, community and the russian state, - nickolas lupinin coming, g. j., ed., the mission of the church and the propagation of the faith gerald h. anderson cunningham, raymond j., ed., magnolia christi americana: cotton mather henry w. bowden dahmus, joseph h., the prosecution of john wyclyf edith c. tatnau dannenfeldt, earl h., the church of the renaissance and reformation donald d. sullivan davies, horton, worship and theology in england: from cranmer to hooker, - david r. ehalt dawley, powel mills, the story of general theological seminary .... william p. haugaard demm, eberhard, reformmonchtum und slawenmission im is. jahrhundert louis j . lekai demonkos, l. s., and r. j . schneider, eds., studium generate: studies offered to astrih l. gabriel gerald christianson da vries, simon j., bible and theology in the netherlands henry zwaanstra drummond, richard h., a history of christianity in japan wi jo kang eames, wilberforce, early new england catechisms babette m. levy eisenberg, azriel, jewish historical treasures richard a. henshaw eisenstadt, s. n., ed., the protestant bible and modernization: a comparative view james m. gustafson evans, david b., leontine of byzantium: an origenist christology .... francis m. donahue evans, joan, monastic iconography in france: from the renaissance to the revolution brian g. armstrong fatio, olivier, and olivier lebarthe, eds., registres de la compagne des pasterus de gentve. vol. : - robert g. clouse fleischer, manfred p., katholische und lutherische irenitcer unter besonderes berucksichtigung des . jahrhunderts trygve r. skarsten floyd, w. e. g., clement of alexandria's treatment of the problem of evil robert m. grant folz, robert, the concept of empire in western europe from the fifth to the fourteenth century john e. lynch foss, michael, the founding of the jesuits, william j. bouwsma friedenthal, richard, luther: his life and times harold j . grimm granoczy, alexandra, la bibliotheque de i'academie de calvin: le catalogue de et ses enseignments john t. mcneill gingerich, melvin, mennonite attire through four centuries martin h. sehrag ginzburg, carlo, ii nicodemismo: simulazione e dissimulazione religiosa nell'europa del' anne j. schutte gonzalez, justo l., a history of christian thought. vol. i : from the beginnings to the council of chalcedon j . a. ross mackenzie grant, robert m., augustus to constantine: the thrust of the christian movement into the roman world e. r. hardy green, michael, evangelism in the early church bruce m. metzger greenbaum, louis s., talleyrand: statesman-priest norman ravitch grimsley, ronald, ed., rousseau: religious writings david jordan gwynn, a., and r. n. hadcock, medieval religious houses: ireland .... bernard mcginn hall, charles a. m., with the spirit's sword: the drama of spiritual warfare in the theology of john calvin fred graham hallier, amedee, the monastic theology of aelred of rievaulx bernard mcginn hart, mother columba, trans., the works of william of st. thierry. vol. i i : exposition on the song of songs bernard mcginn hertzberg, arthur, the french enlightenment and the jews: the origins of modern anti-semitism robert m. healy hixon, donald l., music in early america: a bibliography of music in evans george weckman huggins, nathan i., protestants against poverty: boston's charities, - william e. tucker hurlbut, stephan a., ed., the liturgy of the church of england roland foster hurten, heinz, ed., deutsche briefe, - : ein blatt der katholischen emigration john s. wozniak l'impero e i'imperatore cristiano in eusebio di cesarea robert m. grant johnson, james t., a society ordained by god: english puritan marriage doctrine in the first half of the seventeenth century robert c. monk jones, thomas, ed., the becket controversy richard pfaff kingdon, robert m., ed., du droit des magistrats: theodore beza jill raitt klein, richard, tertullian und das roemische reich robert l. wilken kuiper, roelof, a voice from america about america john b. frantz lagergren, david, mission and state in the congo virgil a. olson lamont, william m., godly rule: politics and religion, - .... john s. macauley lehmberg, stanford e., the reformation parliament, - paul s. seaver little, david, religion, law and order: a study in pre-revolutionary england leo f . solt maefarlane, alan, the family life of ralph josselin, a seventeenth-century clergyman: an essay in historical anthropology o. fitz simons allison use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core malzer, gottfried, johann albrecht bengel: leben und werk james d. nelson marchant, bonald a., the church under the law: justice, administration and discipline in the diocese of york, - samuel m. garrett marcus, jacob r., the colonial american jew, - bertram w. korn markus, b. s., saeculum: history and society in the theology of st. augustine gerard a. eeed marsden, george m., the evangelical mind and the new school presbyterian experience: a case study of thought and theology in nineteenth-century america william e. hoyt, i i i may, lynn e., jr., the first baptist church of nashville, tennessee, - w. harrison daniel mayer, eainer, christuswirklichlceit: grundlagen, entwicmung und konsequenzen der theologie dietrich bonhoeffers franklin sherman mazmanian, arthur b., the structure of praise: a design study—architecture for religion in new england from the seventeenth century to the present eonald b. flowers mazzolani, lidia s., the idea of the city in soman thought stephen beuko meavoy, thomas t., a history of the catholic church in the united states jay p . dolan mcelrath, damian, lord acton: the decisive decade, - josef l. altholz mcnamara, eobert f., the diocese of rochester, - david j . o'brien meaeham, standish, lord bishop: the life of samuel wilberforce, - olive j . brose meyer, carl s., trans., letters of c. f. w. wdither: a selection leigh d. jordahl milner, benjamin c, jr., calvin's doctrine of the church john h. leith mobley, harris w., the ghanaian's image of the missionary jane sales monaghan, hanna d., "dear george": george fox, man and prophet j. william frost moody, joseph n., the church as enemy: anticlericalism in nineteenth-century french literature eobert m. healey motschmann, claus, evangelische kirehe und preussischer stoat in den anfdngen der weimarer republik donald d. wall mueller, david l., an introduction to the theology of albrecht ritschl paul jersild miiller, gerhard, die romische kurie und die reformation, - : kirehe und politik wahrend des pontificates clemens' vii eobert trisco miiller-kriiger, theodore, der protestantismus in indonesian: geschichte und gestalt j. e. fleming neill, stephen, the story of the christian, church in india and pakistan .... wi jo kang neill, stephen, et al., eds., concise dictionary of the christian world mission david l. lindberg o'brien, charles h., ideas of religious toleration at the time of joseph ii: a study of the enlightenment among catholics in austria edward t. gargan o'brien, george, an essay on the economic effects of the reformation ^ philip a. nordquist o'dea, thomas f., sociology and the study of religion andrew m. greeley pacaut, marcel, frederick barbarossa carl volz parry, e. h., ed., the english civil war and after, - frederick v. mills patton, lewis, and peter mann, eds., the collected works of samuel taylor coleridge: lectures ( ) on politics and religion desmond bowen pendersen paul b., batak blood and protestant soul: the development of national batak churches in north sumatra valentin h. eabe pennington, m. basil, ed., the cistercian spirit: a symposium in memory of thomas merton bernard mcginn picasso, giorgiro, collezioni canoniche milanesi del secolo xii e. eandolph daniel pollard, t. e., johannine christology and the early church donald f . winslow pollet, j. v., ed., julius pflug, correspondance. vol. i : - .... eonald h. bainton powicke, frederick j., the cambridge platonists: a study john; c. english problemi di storia delta chiesa: la chiesa antica—secoli ii-iv .. massey h. shepherd, j r . prosperi, adriano, tra evangelismo e controriforma: g. m. giberti ( - ) william gilbert quecke, hans, untersuchungen zum koptischen studengebet ephrem carr eainbow, bernarr, the choral revival in the anglican church, - .... carl schalk eamsey, paul, and john f . wilson, eds., the study of religion in colleges and universities eobert michaelsen eeardon, bernard o., roman catholic modernism jean-jacques d'aoust seed, wilhelmus, comenius and the low countries: some aspects of life and work of a czech exile in the seventeenth century lee d. snyder reid, j. k. ., christian apologetics donald m. lake eenouard, yves, the avignon papacy, - eaymond h. sehmandt rentinck, pietro, la cura pastorale in antiochia nel iv secolo eobert l. wilken rogness, michael, philip melancthon reformer without honor .... clyde l. manschreck roscher, helmut, papst innocenz iii. und die kreuzzilge alfred j . andrea rosenthal, joel t., the training of an elite group: english bishops in the fifteenth century rosemary masek use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core rowe, violet a., sir henry vane the younger: a study in political and administrative history frederick v. mills rudolph, b. g., from a minyan to a community: a history of the jews of syracuse s. joshua kohn. russell, jeffrey b., ed., beligiaus dissent in the middle ages david burr eutman, darrett b., american puritanism, faith and practice laraer ziff byan, sister frances kita, trans., fulcher of chartres: a history of the expedition to jerusalem, - james a. brundage sales, janes m., the planting of the churches in south africa .... henry m. goodpasture sandeem, ernest b., the boots of fundamentalism: british and american miuenarianism, - klau» j. hansen sandmel, samuel, the genius of paul: a study in history henry m. shires schδfer, gerhard, comp., landesbishof d. wurm und der nationalsozialistische staat, - franklin h. littell schleiner, winfried, the imagery of john donne's sermons anthony c. yu schmithals, walter, the office of apostle in the early church massey h. shepherd, j r . scholz, bernhard w., trans., carolingian chronicles: boyal frankish annals and nithard's histories william d. carpe schwabe, klaus, wissenschaft und kriegsmoral: die deutschen hochschuuehre und die politischen grundfragen des ersten weltkrieges john s. wozniak schwarzbaeh, bertram e., voltaire's old testament criticism david jordan scott, william a., historical protestantism: an introduction to protestant theology terrence n. tice seaver, paul s., the puritan lectureships: the politics of beligious dissent, - n. keith clifford segal, j. b., edessa: 'the blessed city' george t. dennis siggins, jan d. k., martin luther's doctrine of christ maria grossmanm simon, edith, the saints george l. smith smith, john h., the great schism, raymond h. schmandt sommerfeldt, john b., ed., studies in medieval culture, iii bay o. petry southern, b. w., medieval humanism and other studies william j . oourtenay stauffer, biehard, the humanness of john calvin robert m. kingdon stephens, w. p., the holy spirit in the theology of martin bucer .... robert l. watson stoltzfus, grant m., mennonites of the ohio and eastern conference .. martin h. schrδg suelflow, aug. r., a preliminary guide to church records eepositories _ robert t. handy symondson, anthony, the victorian crisis of faith martin e. marty thompson, kenneth a., bureaucracy and church beform martin e. marty tillich, paul, my travel diary, . jerald c. brauer, ed franklin h. idttell toon, peter, ed., puritans, the millenium and the future of israel john. s. macauley toon, peter, ed., the correspondence of john owen { - ), with an account of his life and work t. l. underwood trinkhaus, charles, "in our image and likeness": humanity and divinity in italian humanist thought william j . bouwsma tsanoff, badoslav a., autobiographies of ten beligious leaders: alternatives in christian experience george l. smith vickers, john, thomas coke: apostle of methodism warren t. smith vidier, alee r., a variety of catholic modernists jean-jacques d'aoust voss, carl h., babbi and minister: the friendship of stephen s. wise and john haynes holmes edgar e. siskem walker, eric, william dell: master puritan richard l. greaves weinstein, donald, savonarola and florence: prophecy and patriotism in the benaissance elisabeth g. gleason wenger, j. c, trans., conrad grebel's programmatic letters of .... frank j . wray werner, eric, the sacred bridge: liturgival parallels in synagogue and early church william g. rusoh westfall, richard s., science and beligion in seventeenth-century england john s. macauley wilken, robert l., the myth of christian beginnings lindsey p . pherigo williams, a. m., conversations at little gidding james b. wiggins winckler, lutz, martin luther als burger, und patriot george w. forell winks, robin w., the blacks in canada: a history andrew e. murray wolf son, harry a., the philosophy of the church fathers. vol. i : faith, trinity, incarnation b. darrell jackson wright, conrad, the liberal christians: essays on american unitarian history robert b. tapp toder, john h., karl barth and the problem of war g. wayne glick zagorin, perez, the court and the country: the beginning of the english revolution richard e. boyer miscellaneous affairs of the american society of church history , membership list of the american society of church history— use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. december, no. churcb disrory published quarterly by the american society of church history , the american society of church history use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editors robert m. grant! martin e. marty i divinity school, university of chicago jerald c. brauer j with the cooperation of r. pierce beaver, divinity school, university of chicago robert t. handy, union theological seminary david larrimore holland, mccormick theological seminary winthrop s. hudson, colgate-rochester divinity school joseph moody, catholic university of america james hastings nichols, princeton theological seminary jaroslav peltkan, divinity school, yale university ray c. petry, divinity school, duke university leonard j. trinterud, san francisco theological seminary george h. williams, divinity school, harvard university assistant to the editors charles lafontatne church history is published quarterly in march, june, september, and december by the american society of church history. subscription prices are $ . a year (students with recommendation of professor and persons having been society members for five years and now retired from professional life—$ . ); $ . for single issues; $ . extra should be added for for- eign countries. please make all remittances payable to the american society of church history. subscription applications, renewals, changes of address, claims for missing numbers, and orders for single copies of current or back issues should be sent to guy s. klett, mill road, oreland, pennsylvania . claims for missing numbers will be honored without charge if made within two months following the regular month of publication. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series i and ii, and of church history, vols. i-xvii ( - ), are available from the atla board of microtext. orders for these reproductions as well as inquiries about microfilm portions and xerox copies should be sent to raymond p. morris, library, yale divinity school, prospect street, new haven, connecticut . microfilm reproductions of church history starting with vol. xviii ( ) are available to subscribers and members of the society from university micro- films, n. zeeb road, ann arbor, michigan a cumulative index of both series of papers and church history through vol. xxx ( ) is available for $ . a copy from guy s. klett. manuscripts and books for review should be sent to church history, swift hall, university of chicago, chicago, illinois . all manuscripts submitted for consideration must be typed double-spaced on sturdy paper. do not send carbon or xerox copies. the footnotes should be typed double-spaced on a separate page(s) following the text. advertising orders and requests for permission to quote should be addressed to the editorial office at the university of chicago. church history is printed by publishers printing house, berne, indiana. second-class postage is paid at berne, indiana. use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles christology and exegesis in the cappadocians donald f. winslow the image of mixed liquids in late medieval mystical thought robert e. lerner anthony gilby: puritan in exile—a biographical approach dan g. danner the dutch reformed church and negro slavery in colonial america gerald f. dejong the reports of the sicherheitsdienst on the church and religious affairs in germany, - donald d. wall the london missionary society and the problem of authority in india, - laurence kitzan book reviews grant, eobert m., augustus to constantine: the thrust of the christian movement into the boman world b. b. hardy klein, bichard, tertuuian und das boemische eeich eobert l. wilken eentinck, pietro, la cura pastorale in antiochia nel iv secolo .... eobert l. wilken wilken, eobert l., the myth of christian beginnings lindsey p. pherigo wolf son, harry a., the philosophy of the church fathers, i : faith, trinity, incarnation b. darrell jackson blair, peter h., the world of bede bichard w. pfaff demm, eberhard, beformmonchtum und slawewmission im . jahrhundert louis j . lekai hallier, ame'dee, the monastic theology of aelred of bievaulx; m. basil pennington, ed., the cistercian spirit: a symposium in memory of thomas merton; and mother columba hart, trans., the works of william of st. thierry. volume two: exposition on the song of songs bernard mcginn smith, john h., the great schism, eaymond h. schmandt sommerfeldt, john e., ed., studies in medieval culture, iii bay c. petry scholz, bernhard w., trans., carolingian chronicles: 'royal frankish annals and nithard's histories william d. carpe southern, e. w., medieval humanism and other studies william j. courtenay bussell, jeffery b., ed., beligious dissent in the middle ages david burr benouard, yves, the avignon papacy, - baymond h. schmandt black, a. j., monarchy and community: political ideas in the use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core later conoiliar controversy morimichi watana.be weingtein, donald, savonarola and florence: prophecy and patriotism in the renaissance elisabeth g. qleason aubert, hippolyte, comp., and henri meylan et. al., eds., correspondence de theodore de beze. tome v i : ; and robert m. kingdon, ed., du droit des magistrate: theodore beea jill raitt friedenthal, richard, luther: his life and times harold j. grimm caccamo, domenico, eretici itamani in moravia, polonia, transilvania ( - ) roland h. bainton davies, horton, worship and theology in england: from cranmer to hootcer, s - s david r. ehalt stauffer, richard, the humanness of john calvin robert m. kingdon coolidge, john s., the pauline renaissance in england paul s. beaver johnson, james t., a society ordained by ood: english puritan marriage doctrine in the first half of the seventeenth century robert c. monk toon, peter, ed., the correspondence of john owen ( - ), with an account of his life and work t. l. underwood walker, eric c, william dell: master puritan richard l. greaves zagorin, perez, the court and the country: the beginning of the english sevolution riehard e. boyer powieke, frederick j., the cambridge platonists: a study john c. english rowe, violet a., sir henry vane the younger: a study in political and administrative history; and r. h. parry, ed., the english civil war and after, - frederick v. mills monaghan, hanna d., "dear george": george fox, man and prophet j. william frost mcelrath, damian, lord acton: the decisive decade, - josef l. altholz grimsley, ronald, ed., rousseau: religious writings; and bertram e. schwarzbaeh, voltaire's old testament criticism david jordan crummey, robert o., the old believers and the world of antichrist: the vyg community and the russian state, - nickolas lupinin patton, lewis, and peter mann., eds., the collected works of samuel taylor coleridge: lectures ( ) on politics and religion, i .... desmond bowen cunningham, raymond j., ed., magnolia christi americana: cotton mather henry w. bowden marcus, jacob r., the colonial american jew, - bertram w. korn gingerich, melvin, mennonite attire through four centuries martin h. schrag huggins, nathan i., protestants against poverty: boston's charities, - william e. tucker winks, robin w., the blades in canada: a history andrew e. murray reardon, bernard m. c, roman catholic modernism jean-jacques d'aoust quecke, hans, untersuchungen eum koptischen stundengebet ephrem carr rainbow, bernarr, the choral revival in the anglican church, - carl schalk drummond, richard h., a history of christianity in japan wi jo kang mobley, harris w., the ghanaian's image of the missionary: an analysis of the published critiques of christian missionaries by ghanaians, - '.. jane sales neill, stephen, the story of the christian church in india and pakistan wi jo kang neill, shephen, et al., eds., concise dictionary of the christian world mission david l. lindberg sales, jane m., the planting of the churches in outh africa henry m. goodpasture seott, william a., historical protestantism: an introduction to protestant theology terrence n. tice use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core chh_ _ _volumeindex .. index to church history , volume articles albanese, catherine l., horace bushnell among the metaphysicians . . . . . . . . . . alvis, robert e., holy homeland: the discourse of place and displacement among silesian catholics in postwar west germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bangs, jeremy dupertuis, dutch contributions to religious toleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brown, candy gunther, chiropractic and christianity: the power of pain to adjust cultural alignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brown, gavin, the two bodies of christ: communion frequency and ecclesiastical discourse in pre-vatican ii australian catholicism . . . . . . . catron, john w., evangelical networks in the greater caribbean and the origins of the black church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . chin, catherine m., the bishop’s two bodies: ambrose and the basilicas of milan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . close, christopher w., “one does not live by bread alone”: rural reform and village political strategies after the peasants’ war. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . darlage, adam, double honor: elite hutterite women in the sixteenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gureghian, aida, eternalizing a nation: armenian hishatakarans in the seventeenth century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hollinger, david a., the realist-pacifist summit meeting of march and the political reorientation of ecumenical protestantism in the united states. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lippy, charles h., chastized by scorpions: christianity and culture in colonial south carolina, – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mathieu, edward c., public protestantism and mission in germany’s thuringian states, – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oshatz, molly, no ordinary sin: antislavery protestants and the discovery of the social nature of morality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pearson, timothy g., “i willingly speak to you about her virtues”: catherine de saint-augustin and the public role of female holiness in early new france . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . roeber, a. g., the waters of rebirth: the eighteenth century and transoceanic protestant christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shalev, eran, “written in the style of antiquity”: pseudo-biblicism and the early american republic, – . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sterk, andrea, mission from below: captive women and conversion on the east roman frontiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sterk, andrea, “representing” mission from below: historians as interpreters and agents of christianization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core forum law and history: the garden and the wilderness as constitutional history .................................................... dale, elizabeth protecting the wilderness: comments on howe’s the garden in the wilderness ............................................................... flake, kathleen building the “wall of separation”: construction zone for historians .................................................................... gilpin, w. clark forum: mark dewolfe howe, the garden and the wilderness introduction ................................................. sullivan, winnifred fallers book review essays braun, harald e., juan de mariana and early modern spanish political thought, and maryks, robert aleksander, saint cicero and the jesuits: the influence of the liberal arts on the adoption of moral probabilism .................................................................... francis oakley wuthnow, robert, boundless faith: the global outreach of american churches, robert, dana l., christian mission: how christianity became a world religion, and noll, mark a., the new shape of world christianity: how american experience reflects global faith .............................. todd m. johnson book reviews and notes abraham, william j., and james e. kirby, eds., the oxford handbook of methodist studies .................................................... briane k. turley aritonang, jan sihar, and karel steenbrink, eds., a history of christianity in indonesia ............................................. rita smith kipp arthur, rosemary a., pseudo-dionysius as polemicist: the development and purpose of the angelic hierarchy in sixth century syria ......................................................... sarah klitenic wear arweck, elisabeth, and william keenan, materializing religion: expression, performance and ritual ......................... barry stephenson ashley, kathleen, and marilyn deegan, being a pilgrim: art and ritual on the medieval routes to santiago ................ lee m. jefferson austin, kenneth, from judaism to calvinism: the life and writings of immanuel tremillius (c. – ) ............. john kelsay barnes, andrew e., making headway: the introduction of western civilization in colonial northern nigeria ............... emma wild-wood bays, daniel h., and ellen widmer, eds., china’s christian colleges: cross-cultural connections, – ............... murray rubenstein index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core beasley, nicholas m., christian ritual and the creation of british slave societies, – .......................................... charles f. irons bennett, james b., religion and the rise of jim crow in new orleans ...................................................... sandy dwayne martin biale, david, blood and belief: the circulation of a symbol between jews and christians ....................................... martin s. jaffee bitel, lisa m., landscape with two saints: how genofeva of paris and brigit of kildare built christianity in barbarian europe ...... joseph f. kelly blackwell, richard j., behind the scenes of galileo’s trial: including the first english translation of melchior inchofer’s tractatus syllepticus ................................................................... annibale fantoli botham, fay, almighty god created the races: christianity, interracial marriage, and american law ....................................... curtis j. evans boyarin, jonathan, the unconverted self: jews, indians, and the identity of christian europe ......................................... rebecca moore brodman, james william, charity and religion in medieval europe ....................................................... kriston r. rennie brown, stewart j., providence and empire: religion, politics and society in the united kingdom: – ............. robert s. wilson cahill, barry, laurence dewolf, murray alary, elizabeth a. chard, and lois yorke, the blue banner: the presbyterian church of saint david and presbyterian witness in halifax ............ david b. marshall cain, andrew, the letters of jerome: asceticism, biblical exegesis, and the construction of christian authority in late antiquity .............................................................. hilmar m. pabel calvert, jane e., quaker constitutionalism and the political thought of john dickinson ......................................................... stuart b. jennings camden, vera j., trauma and transformation: the political progress of john bunyan ................................................................. david parnham carragáin, éamonn ó., and carol neumann de vegvar, roma felix – formation and reflections of medieval rome ........... richard w. pfaff cassity, michael, and danney goble, divided hearts: the presbyterian journal through oklahoma history ...................... michael c. coleman christensen, michael j., and jeffrey a. wittung, eds., partakers of the divine nature: the history and development of deification in the christian traditions ..................................................... robert kolb coakley, sarah, and charles m. stang, eds., re-thinking dionysius the areopagite ....................................... sarah klitenic wear coffey, john, and paul c. h. lim, eds., the cambridge companion to puritanism ............................................ w. clark gilpin collins, christopher, homeland mythology: biblical narratives in american culture ....................................................... patrick q. mason collins, david j., reforming saints: saints’ lives and their authors in germany, – ............................ bridget heal index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core conley, john j., s.j., adoration and annihilation: the convent philosophy of port-royal ................................. thomas worcester, s.j. cooper, kate, and jeremy gregory, eds., revival and resurgence in christian history ......................................................... martin e. marty coppa, frank j., politics and the papacy in the modern world .......................................................... james p. mccartin cunningham, mary b., and elizabeth theokritoff, the cambridge companion to orthodox christian theology ............... averil cameron davidson, audrey ekdahl, aspects of early music and performance .................................................................. charles brewer debby, nirit ben-aryeh, the renaissance pulpit: art and preaching in tuscany, – ................................. darleen pryds devun, leah, prophecy, alchemy, and the end of time: john of rupescissa in the late middle ages .......................... david e. timmer duffy, eamon, fires of faith: catholic england under mary tudor ................................................................. michael questier engel, katherine carté, religion and profit: moravians in early america .................................................................. jon sensbach ferguson, randolph, religion and the making of nat turner’s virginia: baptist community and conflict, – ................................................................ jewel l. spangler ferngren, gary b., medicine and health care in early christianity ...................................................................... hector avalos finch, martha l., dissenting bodies: corporealities in early new england ................................................................ robert c. fuller finstuen, andrew s., original sin and everyday protestants: the theology of reinhold niebuhr, billy graham, and paul tillich in an age of anxiety ........................................ anne blue wills fredriksen, paula, augustine and the jews: a christian defense of jews and judaism ............................................................. mark vessey gaposchkin, m. cecilia, the making of saint louis: kingship, sanctity, and crusade in the later middle ages ........... constance b. bouchard garver, valerie l., women and aristocratic culture in the carolingian world ........................................................... bonnie effros gertsman, elina, ed., visualizing medieval performance: perspectives, histories, contexts ........................... gerald christianson goodich, michael e., miracles and wonders: the development of the concept of miracle, – .................................... robert bartlett gordon, bruce, calvin ........................................................ thomas j. davis grafton, david d., piety, politics, and power: lutherans encountering islam in the middle east ................................................ paul w. harris gribben, crawford, writing the rapture: prophecy fiction in evangelical america ......................................................... lynn s. neal grieve, patricia e., the eve of spain: myths of origin in the history of christian, muslim, and jewish conflict ...... rebecca moore index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core grigg, john a., the lives of david brainerd: the making of an american evangelical icon .......................................... thomas s. kidd grow, matthew j., “liberty to the downtrodden”: thomas l. kane, romantic reformer ......................................... tandy mcconnell guadeloupe, francio, chanting down the new jerusalem: calypso, christianity, and capitalism in the caribbean ...... stephen d. glazier hall, david d., ways of writing: the practice and politics of text-making in seventeenth-century new england ............. jordan alexander stein hammerling, roy, ed., a history of prayer: the first to fifteenth century ..................................................................... gary neal hansen hankins, barry, francis schaeffer and the shaping of evangelical america ......................................................................... kathryn lofton hanson, michele zelinsky, religious identity in an early reformation community: augsburg, to ................................ nathan rein hastings, derek, catholicism and the roots of nazism: religious identity and national socialism ................................. heath a. spencer head, randolph c., jenatsch’s axe: social boundaries, identity, and myth in the era of the thirty years’ war ............................ keith luria heal, bridget, and ole peter grell, the impact of the european reformation: princes, clergy, and people ....................... karen bruhn heath, gordon l., a war with a silver lining: canadian protestant churches and the south african war, – .................... robert s. wilson hempton, david, evangelical disenchantment: nine portraits of faith and doubt ..................................................... andrew r. murphy hendrix, scott h., and susan c. karant-nunn, masculinity in the reformation era ................................................... dale a. johnson heschel, susannah, the aryan jesus: christian theologians and the bible in nazi germany .................................... kyle t. jantzen hingst, amanda jane, the written world: past and place in the work of orderic vitalis ............................................. hugh m. thomas howard, deborah, and laura moretti, sound and space in renaissance venice: architecture, music, acoustics ........................................ david morgan ingram, robert g., religion, reform and modernity in the eighteenth century: thomas secker and the church of england .... colin haydon jackson, gregory s., the word and its witness: the spiritualization of american realism ..................................................... kathryn lofton jenkins, allan k., and patrick preston, biblical scholarship and the church ........................................................ esther chung-kim jones, pamela m., altarpieces and their viewers in the churches of rome from caravaggio to guido reni ........... helen deborah walberg jordan, william chester, a tale of two monasteries: westminster and saint-denis in the thirteenth century .............................. leonie hicks kaldellis, anthony, the christian parthenon: classicism and pilgrimage in byzantine athens ....................................... robin jenson index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core kearney, james, the text incarnate: imagining the book in reformation england .................... françois dupuigrenet desroussilles keough, daire, and albert mcdonnell, eds., the irish college, rome, and its world ....................................... richard f. costigan, s.j. kilde, jeanne halgren, sacred power, sacred space: an introduction to christian architecture and worship ....................... richard w. pfaff klassen, peter j., mennonites in early modern poland and prussia ........................................................................ james m. stayer kupfer, marcia, the passion story: from visual representation to social drama ........................................................... daniel f. callahan lantzer, jason s., “prohibition is here to stay”: the reverend edward s. shumaker and the dry crusade in america ...... thomas r. pegram lee, timothy s., born again: evangelicalism in korea ... ryu, dae young lindgren, erika lauren, sensual encounters: monastic women and spirituality in medieval germany ............................ denis d. kettering lindman, janet moore, bodies of belief: baptist community in early america .............................................................. martha l. finch littlejohn, w. bradford, the mercersburg theology and the west for reformed catholicity ....................................... stephen r. graham louthan, howard, converting bohemia: force and persuasion in the catholic reformation ........................................... graeme murdock luijendijk, annemarie, greetings in the lord: early christians and the oxyrhynchus papyri ..................................................... paul b. duff maclehose, william f., “a tender age”: cultural anxieties over the child in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries .......... cornelia b. horn maffly-kipp, laurie f., setting down the sacred past: african-american race histories ................................................................ curtis j. evans marchand, suzanne l., german orientalism in the age of empire ............................................................................. erik sidenvall miller, kiri, traveling home: sacred harp singing and american pluralism ..................................................... david w. music miller, stephen, the peculiar life of sundays .................... martin e. marty miskolcze, robin, women and children first: nineteenth-century sea narratives and american identity .................... richard j. callahan, jr. mobley, kendal p., helen barrett montgomery: the global mission of domestic feminism ................................................ howell williams mochizuki, mia m., the netherlandish image after iconoclasm, – : material religion in the dutch golden age ................................................................ jeremy d. bangs molineaux, natalie brigit, medici et medicamenta: the medicine of penance in late antiquity ................................................. abigail firey morgan, david, the lure of images: a history of religion and media in america ............................................................ rubina ramji index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core murray, james, enforcing the english reformation in ireland: clerical resistance and political conflict in the diocese of dublin, – ..................................................................... r. barry levis myers-shirk, susan e., helping the good shepherd: pastoral counselors in a psychotherapeutic culture, – .......................................................... matthew s. hedstrom noble, thomas f. x., and julia m. h. smith, eds., the cambridge history of christianity: early medieval christianities, c. – c. ....................................................... mark gregory pegg noble, thomas f. x., images, iconoclasm, and the carolingians ............................................................... aden kumler noll, mark a., god and race in american politics: a short history ............................................................ andrew rojecki o’connell, marvin r., pilgrims to the northland: the archdiocese of st. paul, – ............................................ peter w. williams oleszkiewica-peralba, malgorzata, the black madonna in latin america and europe: tradition and transformation ..................... luis d. leon pabel, hilmar m., herculean labours: erasmus and the editing of st. jerome’s letters in the renaissance .............................. jason sager pak, g. sujin, the judaizing calvin: sixteenth-century debates over the messianic psalms .................................... randall c. zachman pease, neal, rome’s most faithful daughter: the catholic church and independent poland, – ............................ paul w. knoll pestana, carla gardina, protestant empire: religion and the making of the british atlantic world .................................. l. h. roper pfaff, richard w., the liturgy in medieval england: a history ................................................................ milton mcc. gatch pincus, steven, : the first modern revolution ................ paul monod poloma, margaret m., and ralph w. hood, jr., blood and fire: godly love in a pentecostal emerging church ............. gerardo marti prudlo, donald, the martyred inquisitor: the life and cult of peter of verona († ) ................................................ wietse de boer quisland, beth, the reformation in rhyme: sternhold, hopkins and the english metrical psalter, – ....... frederica harris thompsett richardson, joe m., and maxine d. jones, education for liberation: the american missionary association and african americans, to the civil rights movement ............................ joseph o. jewell ristaino, marcia r., the jacquinot safe zone: wartime refugees in shanghai ...................................................................... ernest p. young rivers, isabel, and david l. wykes (eds.), joseph priestly: scientist, philosopher, and theologian ............................................ j. d. bowers robbins, keith, england, ireland, scotland, wales: the christian church – ................................................ william h. petersen robisheaux, thomas, the last witch of langenburg: murder in a german village ........................................................... robin b. barnes index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core rose, anne c., psychology and selfhood in the segregated south .................................................................................. paul harvey rowe, david l., god’s strange work: william miller and the end of the world .......................................................................... sean a. scott ryan, james emmett, imaginary friends: representing quakers in american culture, – ....................................... david morgan schultenover, david g., s.j., ed., the reception of pragmatism in france and the rise of roman catholic modernism, – ................................................................. michael pasquier seay, scott d., hanging between heaven and earth: capital crime, execution preaching, and theology in early new england .............................................................. ava chamberlain senter, mark h. iii, when god shows up: a history of protestant youth ministry in america, ................................... todd m. brenneman shepardson, christine, anti-judaism and christian orthodoxy: ephrem’s hymns in fourth-century syria ............. alison g. salvesen sizgorich, thomas, violence and belief in late antiquity: militant devotion in christianity and islam ........ joel thomas walker spierling, karen e., infant baptism in reformation geneva: the shaping of a community, – .................................... joel f. harrington steltenkamp, michael f., nicholas black elk: medicine man, missionary, mystic ............................................................. tisa wenger stephan, scott, redeeming the southern family: evangelical women and domestic devotion in the antebellum south ................ jane harris strayer, brian e., suffering saints: jansenists and convulsionnaires in france, – .................................. richard f. costigan, s. j. sunquist, scott w., and caroline n. becker, a history of presbyterian missions, – ................................................. darrell l. guder svelmoe, william lawrence, a new vision for missions: william cameron townsend, the wycliffe bible translators, and the culture of early evangelical faith missions, – ......... heather d. curtis swanson, r. n., indulgences in late medieval england: passports to paradise? ................................................................. elizabeth evenden sweeney, douglas a., and charles hambrick-stowe, eds., holding on to the faith: confessional traditions and american christianity .......................................................................... harvey hill tavuzzi, michael, renaissance inquisitors: dominican inquisitors and inquisitorial districts in northern italy, – .............................................................. richard kieckhefer thompson, mary v., “in the hands of a good providence”: religion in the life of george washington ................... thomas taylor tolan, john, saint francis and the sultan: the curious history of a christian-muslim encounter .................................... david blanks index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core van der meer, jitse, and scott mandelbrote, eds., nature and scripture in the abrahamic religions, vol. , up to , vol. , – present ...................................................... christopher b. kaiser van engen, john, sisters and brothers of the common life: the devotio moderna and the world of the later middle ages .............................................................. carlos m. n. eire walton, jonathan l., watch this! the ethics and aesthetics of black televangelism ................................................................ kathryn lofton ward, haruko nawata, women religious leaders in japan’s christian century, – ................................ robert entenmann ward, patricia a., experimental theology in america: madame guyon, fénelon, and their readers ........................................... anne c. rose ward, w. r., early evangelicalism: a global intellectual history, – ........................................................ marilyn j. westerkamp watt, jeffrey r., the scourge of demons: possession, lust and witchcraft in a seventeenth-century italian convent ......... charmarie j. blaisdell wessel, susan, leo the great and the spiritual rebuilding of a universal rome ........................................................... jacob a. latham whalen, brett edward, dominion of god: christendom and apocalypse in the middle ages ............................................ paul boyer wheeler, rachel m., to live upon hope: mohicans and missionaries in the eighteenth-century northeast ......................... lisa j. m. poirier white, paul whitfield, drama and religion in provincial society, – ................................................ genevieve juliette guenther wigger, john, american saint: francis asbury and the methodists .................................................................... dee e. andrews wild-wood, emma, migration and christian identity in congo (drc) ............................................................................ andrew barnes wilkinson, michael, canadian pentecostalism: transition and transformation ..................................................................... james opp williams, michael stuart, authorised lives in early christian biography: between eusebius and augustine .......................... megan h. williams zachman, randall c., image and word in the theology of john calvin ....................................................................... g. sujin pak zachman, randall c., ed., john calvin and roman catholicism: critique and engagement, then and now ........ susan c. karant-nunn brief response to reviews and essays brief response to reviews and essays .................... robert erik frykenberg index terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture instructions for contributors send manuscripts and books for review to the editorial office. manuscripts should run , – , words (or approximately – pages), not including endnotes, and should be printed double-spaced in - or -point font; endnotes must be printed double-spaced on separate pages following the text. the editors request an electronic submission (either by email attachment or by ” disk or cd-rom sent to the address below) of the following items: ( ) the manuscript (in order to protect the author’s anonymity during the review process, the author’s name should appear only on the title page of the essay); ( ) a -word abstract (this is used during the review process and if church history publishes the essay, the abstract may be included on the church history web page at www.churchhistory.org). please see www.churchhistory.org/churchhistoryguidelines.html for further manuscript submission guidelines. the editors will consider submissions of – pages for publication as “extended articles.” persons wishing to submit such manuscripts should query before sending them. please address any questions to: tammy heise, senior assistant to the editors church history: studies in christianity and culture department of religion florida state university university way p.o. box tallahassee, fl - fax: . . , church-history@admin.fsu.edu terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core call for papers spring meeting , grand rapids, michigan the program committee invites asch members and others to submit paper and session proposals on any aspect of the history of christianity and its interaction with culture. the accepted papers and sessions will be part of the program at the spring meeting of the american society of church history which will take place in grand rapids, michigan, – april . we particularly encourage proposals exploring the connection of christianity and migrations, reflecting both grand rapids’ history as a city built upon successive waves of immigration, and the magnetic draw of other west michigan places (e.g., battle creek) upon spiritual seekers and innovators. we anticipate sessions treating group movements and resettlement, interregional or intercontinental missions and evangelizing projects, interior journeys by which persons come to new grounds of conviction, the redefinition of doctrine or ethics across different locales, and the virtual migration of religious ideas and practices across time in projects of restoration or anticipation. we welcome individual and group proposals of formal papers, panel and round table discussions, consideration of a major recent book, and other relevant themes and issues. panels should exhibit diversity of gender, rank, and scholarly location in their composition. proposals for single papers and complete sessions should be submitted by e-mail to james bratt (jbratt@calvin.edu), chair of the program committee. the deadline for proposals is january , . what to include in submissions . individual papers i. cv ii. contact details, including e-mail address iii. paper title iv. abstract of paper – one paragraph . whole sessions i. name and contact details, including e-mail address, of the organizer of the session ii. contact details, including e-mail addresses, of all participants in the session iii. cv for all participants in the session iv. each session should have a chair and a commentator. the chair and commentator may be the same person. the commentator may be the audience. v. in a session with formal papers, titles for each paper which will be read vi. summary of the session – in one or two paragraphs – including its main themes and the contribution to knowledge of the topic being discussed vii. in a session with formal papers, a one-paragraph abstract of each paper for further information, contact james bratt (jbratt@calvin.edu), the chair of the program committee. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core office of the executive secretary: american society of church history, department of history, baylor university, one bear place # , waco, tx . membership dues for individuals in the u.s. and canada are $ . per year for regular members, $ . per year for retired persons, and free for two years for students with the approval of a professor who is a member of the society (after two years, students pay $ . annually until graduation). dues for individuals in other countries are $ . per year for regular members, $ . per year for retired persons and students (with the same two-year gratis stipulations). single issues are available for $ . each. individuals should contact cambridge university press at one of the addresses listed under subscription information. subscription information: church history: studies in christianity and culture (issn: - ) is published four times per year in march, june, september, and december by cambridge university press for the american society of church history. annual subscription rates for volume ( ): institutional subscription rates, print and online: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, online only: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, print only: u.s. $ . in the u.s.a., canada, and mexico; u.k. £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription correspondence should be sent to: cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny , u.s.a., for customers in the u.s.a., canada, or mexico. customers elsewhere should contact: cambridge university press, the edinburgh building, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb ru, u.k. church history is indexed in the expanded academic index (infotrac), american history and life, arts and humanities search, web of science, historical abstracts, religious periodicals, and academic search elite. this periodical is also indexed in the atla religion database, published by the american theological library association, s. wacker dr., th flr., chicago, il ; la@atla.com, http://www.atla.com/. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series i and ii, and of church history, volumes – ( – ), are available from the atla preservation board. orders for these reproductions as well as inquiries about microfilm portions and photocopies should be sent to east th place, chicago, il . microfilm reproductions of church history starting with volume ( ) are available to subscribers and members of the society from university microfilms, north zeeb road, ann arbor, mi . all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, or otherwise, without permission in writing from cambridge university press. general enquiries from the u.s.a., mexico, and canada should be addressed to the new york office of cambridge university press http://www.cambridge.org/us/information/rights/contacts/newyork.htm; general enquiries from elsewhere should be addressed to the cambridge office http://www.cambridge.org/ uk/information/rights/contacts/cambridge.htm; permission enquiries from australia and new zealand should be addressed to the melbourne office http://www.cambridge.org/aus/information/contactsmelbourne. htm; enquiries regarding spanish-language translation rights (only) should be addressed to the madrid office http://www.cambridge.org/uk/information/rights/contacts/madrid.htm. photocopying information (for users in the u.s.a.): notwithstanding the above, the item-fee code for this publication ( - / ) indicates that copying for internal or personal use beyond that permit- ted by sec. or of the u.s. copyright law is authorized for users duly registered with the copyright clearance center (ccc), provided that the appropriate remittance is paid directly to: ccc, rosewood drive, danvers, ma u.s.a. specific written permission must be obtained for all other copying; contact the nearest cambridge university press office. periodicals postage paid at waco, texas, and additional mailing offices. postmaster: send addresses to church history: studies in christianity and culture, cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny - . the opinions expressed in this journal represent the views only of the individual contributors; they do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors, florida state university, the american society of church history, or cambridge university press. advertising in church history does not necessarily imply endorsement. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents articles double honor: elite hutterite women in the sixteenth century adam darlage eternalizing a nation: armenian hishatakarans in the seventeenth century aida gureghian “written in the style of antiquity”: pseudo-biblicism and the early american republic, – eran shalev holy homeland: the discourse of place and displacement among silesian catholics in postwar west germany robert e. alvis forum book reviews and notes books received index ccaammbbrriiddggee jjoouurrnnaallss oonnlliinnee for further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: jjoouurrnnaallss..ccaammbbrriiddggee..oorrgg//cchhhh sixteenth-century woodcut depicting an elite hutterite family, by polemiscist christoph erhard, courtesy of the mennonite historical library, goshen college, goshen, ind. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ b o o k r e v i e w anne-meike fechter and heather hindman (eds): inside the everyday lives of development workers. the challenges and futures of aidland kumarian press, sterling, va, , pp., index, $ . (paperback) sylvia i. bergh published online: october � the author(s) . this article is published with open access at springerlink.com this edited volume is a very valuable contribution to the emerging field of ‘aidland’, a term coined by raymond apthorpe, whose epilogue here usefully explores the criticisms and lacuna in his own concept. the need for this book is evident: so far, most research on development has focused on the institutions and organizations delivering aid and on the ‘‘beneficiaries’’ receiving aid, while neglecting ‘‘the human actors who transform policy into projects’’ (p. ). the editors locate the main reason for this scholarly invisibility of aid workers in the fact that their labor has so far been (wrongly) understood as intermediary rather than mediating (citing latour, p. ), denying the transformative work of the development worker. the book thus seeks to uncover ‘‘the space in which transformation happens and the motivations of a group of often-invisible professionals’’ (p. ), thus reintegrating the private and public lives of aid workers, as one inevitably affects the other as well as the development outcomes themselves. one of the most interesting findings is that the stereotypical aid professional is actually hard to find on the ground—most of the persons interviewed by the authors of this book identify as engineers, educators or missionaries rather than as aid workers. this is partly due to the fact that much of development work ‘‘has been reduced to a set of technical problems to be solved by experts’’ (p. ) who move in and out of the public and private sectors in both developed and developing countries, and who are seen to be easily replaceable. the various chapters reflect the vast diversity of ‘‘aid workers’’ and their motivations, and are rich with ethnographic detail and interview excerpts. sara de jong’s chapter on altruism and selfishness in ngo work argues convincingly that ‘‘rather than attempting to label practices as altruistic or selfish, we need to liberate ourselves of the shackles of this binary and instead critically investigate under book review editor: silvia ferreira. s. i. bergh (&) international institute of social studies, erasmus university rotterdam, the hague, the netherlands e-mail: bergh@iss.nl voluntas ( ) : – doi . /s - - - which conditions altruism takes place’’ (p. ). thomas yarrow shows in his case study of ghanaian ngo workers how personal relations, although frowned upon by proponents of ‘‘good governance’’ as potentially nepotistic and unaccountable, actually were key in upholding the ngos’ ideological and institutional autonomy in the face of threats from government and donors. similarly, keith brown’s chapter on usaid’s democracy promotion work in macedonia demonstrates how the personality and commitment of aid workers are shaped by changing national politics as well as organizational structures and procedures. the editors are uniquely positioned to have taken on the task of editing this book. anne-meike fechter is senior lecturer in anthropology at the university of sussex, brighton, uk, and has previously published on corporate expatriates in indonesia, while heather hindman is assistant professor at the university of texas at austin and has focused on expatriate employment structures in nepal. in fact, their joint introduction and their respective chapters are among the strongest in the volume. fechter’s chapter seeks to provide a typology of aid workers and explores their commonalities and differences in terms of motivations (linking nicely with de jong’s chapter), mobility and the life course, relations to place and local knowledge, and outlines an agenda for future research on these issues. as such, it should have been framed as the conclusion to the volume, rather than a chapter on equal footing with the other case studies. hindman’s excellent chapter on subcontracting in nepal is the only one that speaks directly to another one of the key themes of the book, namely how ‘‘development work is being transformed by processes such as deskilling, outsourcing, and neoliberal approaches to staffing’’ that emphasize efficiency (p. ), even though the links between such potentially bad employment policies and concrete development outcomes could have been made more explicit by citing examples. indeed, a major shortcoming of the book is that while the introduction mentions that ‘‘this book calls for an examination of the labor of aid […] to suggest that the structure of work itself influences the outcomes of development’’ (p. ), this is not the main focus of the book, or at least the chapters for the most part fail to make these influences explicit. for example, while ritu verma, in her case study on a french development practitioner in madagascar, does describe the latter’s lived world in much detail, she does not provide the evidence that the women’s projects really failed, nor that, if they did, it was mainly due to a disconnect in the life worlds between the french aid worker and the local beneficiaries, rather than simply due to a flawed project design led by an ill-qualified aid worker. similarly, while both interesting, it is hard to see the direct relevance of philip fountain’s chapter on guesthood in the mennonite central committee’s work in indonesia, as well as that by silke roth on risk and security issues, for the central questions this book poses. it is also surprising to note the curious quasi-absence of norman long’s work on interface analysis which would have seemed an obvious starting point to study ‘‘spaces of transformation’’ and could have served as a unifying lens for the various contributions (it is only mentioned once in the chapter by ritu verma). while not entirely fulfilling its (perhaps too ambitious) missions, this book provides rich and detailed illustrations of apthorpe’s observation that ‘‘different aiders […] live with different aidlands […]’’ (p. ) and is suitable for a wide voluntas ( ) : – audience, including students, scholars and practitioners. it also serves as a useful complement for another recently published book, i.e., adventures in aidland: the anthropology of professionals in international development (edited by david mosse, oxford: berghahn, ). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution noncommercial license which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. voluntas ( ) : – 	anne-meike fechter and heather hindman (eds): inside the everyday lives of development workers. the challenges and futures of aidland 	open access [pdf] thiamine deficiency in ill children. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /ajcn. . corpus id: thiamine deficiency in ill children. @article{kauffman thiaminedi, title={thiamine deficiency in ill children.}, author={greta kauffman and debra coats and somonn seab and m. topazian and p. fischer}, journal={the american journal of clinical nutrition}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - ; author reply } } 	greta kauffman, debra coats, + authors p. fischer 	published 	medicine 	the american journal of clinical nutrition thiamine deficiency is increasingly recognized in varied parts of the world. in many areas of rural southeast asia, thiamine deficiency (seemingly related to rice preparation practices) is the accepted cause of wet beriberi, which presents with respiratory distress and heart failure and rapidly improves after thiamine administration ( ). lima et al ( ) have provided important data showing that low thiamine concentrations were common in critically ill children at their center in brazil. these… expand view on pubmed academic.oup.com save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations view all topics from this paper 	dysphonia 	cessation of life 	thiamine deficiency 	mental disorders 	heart failure 	pneumonia 	dyspnea 	hoarseness 	respiratory sounds 	respiratory insufficiency 	illness (finding) 	vomiting 	diagnosis, clinical 	birth 	pulmonary edema 	critical illness 	acute illness 	forty nine 	infant citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency infantile thiamine deficiency in south and southeast asia: an age‐old problem needing new solutions 	t j smith, s. hess 	medicine 	nutrition bulletin 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed béribéri du nourrisson : à propos d’un cas 	p. moulin, c. cinq-frais, + authors p. acar 	medicine 	 	 save alert research feed thiamin deficiency in low- and middle-income countries: disorders, prevalences, previous interventions and current recommendations 	casey r johnson, p. fischer, t. d. thacher, m. topazian, m. bourassa, g. combs 	medicine 	nutrition and health 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed thiamine deficiency disorders: diagnosis, prevalence, and a roadmap for global control programs 	kyly c. whitfield, m. bourassa, + authors g. combs 	medicine 	annals of the new york academy of sciences 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed thiamine deficiency disorders: a clinical perspective. 	t. smith, casey r johnson, + authors p. fischer 	medicine 	annals of the new york academy of sciences 	 	 	 save alert research feed high prevalence of thiamine (vitamin b ) deficiency in early childhood among a nationally representative sample of cambodian women of childbearing age and their children 	k. c. whitfield, g. smith, + authors f. wieringa 	medicine 	plos neglected tropical diseases 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed thiamine deficiency in cambodian infants with and without beriberi. 	debra coats, kelsey shelton-dodge, + authors m. topazian 	medicine 	the journal of pediatrics 	 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed thiamine deficiency in tachypnoeic cambodian infants 	e. m. keating, p. nget, + authors varun kumar 	medicine 	paediatrics and international child health 	 	 save alert research feed thiamine deficiency in tachypnoeic cambodian infants. 	e. m. keating, p. nget, + authors varun kumar 	medicine 	paediatrics and international child health 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed thiamine deficiency and cardiac dysfunction in cambodian infants. 	samuel g. porter, debra coats, + authors a. cabalka 	medicine 	the journal of pediatrics 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references clinically unapparent infantile thiamin deficiency in vientiane, laos 	sengmanivong khounnorath, k. chamberlain, + authors p. newton 	medicine 	plos neglected tropical diseases 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed low blood thiamine concentrations in children upon admission to the intensive care unit: risk factors and prognostic significance. 	l. f. p. lima, h. p. leite, j. a. d. a. taddei 	medicine 	the american journal of clinical nutrition 	 	 	highly influential 	pdf 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed dietary and socio-economic factors associated with beriberi in breastfed lao infants 	douangdao soukaloun, s. kounnavong, + authors n. white 	medicine 	annals of tropical paediatrics 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed neonatal, postneonatal, childhood, and under- mortality for countries, – : a systematic analysis of progress towards millennium development goal 	j. rajaratnam, jake r marcus, a. flaxman, h. wang, c. murray 	medicine, geography 	the lancet 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue chh volume issue cover and front matter church history published by the american society of church history cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature op new york, officers for percy v. norwood president kenneth s. latourette vice president raymond w. albright secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer winthrop s. hudson assistant secretary matthew spinka chairman of the editorial board other members of the council reuben e. e. harkness harold s. bender charles h. lyttle cyril c. richardson roland h. bainton ernest g. schwtebert f. w. buckler marshall m. knappen e. r. hardy, jr. editorial board of church history matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols percy v. norwood, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, sherman street, hartford , conn. church history is a quarterly journal published in march, june, septem- ber, december by the american society of church history. the subscrip- tion price is three dollars per year. the price of single copies is seventy-five cents. to foreign countries, the postage of twenty-five cents a year should be added. subscriptions should be sent to professor matthew spinka, sherman street, hartford , conn., or to professor robert hastings nichols, claremont ave., new york , n. y. remittances should be made to the order of american society of church history. all communications regarding contributions, book reviews, and all other matters of editorial nature should be sent to professor matthew spinka, sherman street, hartford , conn. claims for missing numbers and changes of address should be addressed to prof. r. h. nichols, claremont ave., new york , n. y. entered as second class matter march , , at the post office at berne, ind., under the acts of march , . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols percy v. norwood, ex officio vol. xiii september, no. contents of previous issues of church history may be found by con- sulting the international index to periodicals in your library. table of contents friedrich nietzsche ( - ) karl lowith t h e historiography of the mennonites in the netherlands ; a guide to sources cornelius krahn church and state in protestant germany before : with special reference to prussia andrew landale drummond book reviews questen johannes and kuttner, stephan, eds.: tradi- tio, vol. j. m. lenhart, o. m. cap. boyd, catherine e.: a cistercian nunnery in mediaeval italy j. m. lenhart, o. m. cap. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents adams, henry h i t c h , english domestic or homuetic tragedy, - roy w. battenhouse batten, j. minton : john bury: advocate of christian re- union winthrop s. hudson hutcheson, harold r., ed. and tr.: lord herbert of cherbury's de religione laid roy w. battenhouse sencourt, robert : carmelite and poet, a framed por- trait of st. john of the cross e. r. hardy, jr. blied, benjamin j.: austrian aid to american catholics, - conrad henry moehlman lowrie, walter : a short life of kierkegaard wilhelm pauck muller, james arthur : the episcopal theological school, - william w. manross henney, bertal: i^eaders of the canadian church, rd series norah l. hughes cadden, john paul : the historiography of the american catholic church, - william warren sweet bratton, fred g.: the legacy of the liberal spirit robert hastings nichols cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core home skip to main content 	 loading 	 	 	cart wismed community give join 	 toggle search toggle navigation 							 keyword search sign in 			membershiptoggle 					 						 								join/renew 								 	member benefits 										you're a member! now what? 								 	member testimonials 								 	county medical societies 								 	membership faq 								 						 					 			 	advocacytoggle 					 						 								get involved 										doctor day 	wismed voice 	political contributions 								 	policy compendium 								 						 					 			 	education & eventstoggle 					 						 								physician education 										on-demand webinars 	journal cme 	in-person cme 	education center 								 	accredited provider education 										accreditation 	accredited provider resources 								 	events 										annual meeting 	town hall meetings 	wismed meet up 								 	covid- resources 								 						 					 			 	news & publicationstoggle 					 						 								medigram 										 	 								 	wismed oncall 										financial literacy series 								 	press releases 								 	wisconsin medical journal 								 	covid- resources 										group a vaccinations 								 	ppe procurement for wisconsin 								 						 					 			 	foundation 	financial services 	about ustoggle 					 						 								governance 										board of directors 	constitution and bylaws 	governance modernization 								 	honoring choices wisconsin 								 	sponsorship 								 	contact us 										staff directory 								 	privacy statement 								 						 					 			 	give 	 		 		 	 skip breadcrumb navigation 		 			 		 	 		 	 			 				 			 				 	 	 		 			 	 	 				 			 				 			 				 previous next 			 		 	 			 				 					 	 	 		 			 	 	 				 			 				 			 				 previous next 			 		 	 				 					 						 	 beheard advocate for your profession and your patients. society membership is the most effective way to engage in politics, from our texting platform wismed voice to in-person meetings with legislators and participating in doctor day. bestrong accelerate your personal and professional growth by joining your peers at our education and leadership development events or on wismed community—a members only website built to match you to peer groups with similar interests. besecure experience the benefits of having personal insurance policies that cater to the needs of physicians. utilize products and services that will help you make secure financial decisions. 					 						 							 	 						 							 								 	 coronavirus (covid- ) order ppegroup a vaccinationsresources 							 							 						 			 			 				 		 	 			 			 				 		 	 			 			 				 		 	 			 			 				 			 				 	 covid- notice wisconsin medical society, foundation and wismed assure staff are working remotely. while the offices are closed, we are here to assist - just call or email us. not sure who to contact? dial the society's main number . . or email membership@wismed.org and you will be directed to the appropriate staff/department. we appreciate your understanding and thank you for your dedication to the health of your patients and community. are you a physician looking to get yourself or your staff vaccinated? while the covid- vaccination process continues to develop, the society has created a webpage for county-specific information. we have been advocating for physicians with state and local public health entities to ensure independent group a physicians and staff can access covid- vaccinations where and when available. the society will update the page as information becomes available.  			 			 		 			 			 				 			 				 	 upcoming events 			 				 					 	 	 		 			 				 					 						 							 								 									previous daynext daytoday select date 										 											 												 														calendar 														 																	title and navigation 																	title and navigation 	<<	<	april 	>	<< 	 		april 		s	m	t	w	t	f	s 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	  	 	 	 	 	 	 	  											 										 									 	day 	week 	month 	timeline 										apr, 									 								 										 												 														 																sun 															 	 																mon 															 	 																tue 															 	 																wed 															 	 																thu 															 	 																fri 															 	 																sat 															 												 											 	 													 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 apr 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				wisam buprenorphine x-waiver training series 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				cms blue button: physician scoring-kickstart your awareness 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				wacep spring symposium 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				ashland-bayfield-iron county medical society meeting 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				covid- : what physicians need to know 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				wao after hours series 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				you're a member...now what? 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				early career financial classes: prioritizing what to do 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				 wisconsin medical society annual meeting 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				wisconsin medical society board of directors 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				climate-smart healthcare 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				wisam buprenorphine x-waiver training series 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 														 														 														 	 															 														 															 																 																	 																		 																			 																				early career financial classes: student loan repayment 																			 																		 																	 																 															 														 														 														 	 															 may 														 														 														 														 											 								 							 						 					 				 			 				 			 		 	 				 				 			 			 			 				 			 				 	 latest news 			 				 					 	 state opening covid- vaccine eligibility on april ; physicians can lead the way april , your ideas needed at virtual annual meeting april , wismed condemns surge in anti-asian hate crimes; offers resources march , 				 					 						 	 					 						 							 	 						 						 					 			 			 				 			 				 	 facebook 			 			 		 			 			 				 			 				 	 			 				 					 	 				 					 						 	 					 					 				 			 	 	 		 			 		 	 	 		 			 		 our mission: to improve the health of the people of wisconsin by supporting and strengthening physicians’ ability to practice high-quality patient care in a changing environment. membership join/renew member benefits member testimonials county medical societies membership faq advocacy get involved policy compendium education & events physician education accredited provider education events education center news & publications medigram wismed oncall press releases wisconsin medical journal covid- resources ppe procurement for wisconsin about us governance honoring choices wisconsin sponsorship contact us privacy statement rimrock rd, ste madison, wi main office: - - © wisconsin medical society.  all rights reserved. 	 		 	 	 	 	 		 		 	 		 		 	 		 		 	 					 			 			{ }				 			 			 			 				 					 						##loc[ok]## 					 								 			 		 		 		 			 			 			 { }				 			 		 			 				 				 			 			 				 ##loc[ok]## 				 ##loc[cancel]## 			 		 				 		 					 			 			{ }				 			 						 			 				##loc[ok]## 				##loc[cancel]## 			 		 		 		 	 research article sensory profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured from raw milk sarai villalobos-chaparro, erika salas-muñóz, néstor gutiérrez-méndez, and guadalupe virginia nevárez-moorillón facultad de ciencias quı́micas, universidad autónoma de chihuahua, chihuahua, , mexico correspondence should be addressed to guadalupe virginia nevárez-moorillón; vnevare@uach.mx received august ; revised october ; accepted december ; published december academic editor: thierry thomas-danguin copyright © sarai villalobos-chaparro et al. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. chihuahua cheese is a local artisanal cheese traditionally produced from raw milk. when this cheese is produced with pasteurized milk, cheesemakers complain that there are differences in taste and aroma as compared with traditional manufacturing. this work aimed to obtain a descriptive sensory analysis of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk under traditional conditions. samples were collected in five cheese dairies at two different seasons (summer and autumn), and a quantitative descriptive sensorial analysis was done by a panel of trained judges. for aroma descriptors, cooked descriptor showed differences between dairies, and whey was different among dairies and sampling seasons (p< . ); diacetyl, fruity (p< . ), as well as free fatty acids, nutty and sulphur (p< . ) descriptors varied between seasons. for flavour descriptors, bitter perception was different between dairies and seasons (p< . ). salty and creamy cheese was also different among dairies (p< . ). a principal component analysis for differences among dairies and sampling season demonstrated that the first three components accounted for % of the variance; variables were more affected by the sampling seasons than by the geographical location or if the dairy was operated by mennonites. chihuahua cheese sensorial profile can be described as a semi-matured cheese with a bitter flavour, slightly salted, and with a cream flavour, with aroma notes associated with whey and sour milk. principal component analysis demonstrated season influence on flavour and aroma characteristics. . introduction cheese has been produced for centuries, using the milk of many domestic animals, including cow, sheep, and buffalo. there are many types of cheese, all of them have been initially manufactured within a particular human community where a specific cheesemaking process was developed. traditional cheese products are characterized by diversity in their man- ufacturing processes, and when raw milk is used, a rich and diverse microbiota is associated with its production. tradi- tional cheeses need to be studied considering the geographic location, history, and other social variables of the human communities where they are produced. also, climate, milk characteristics, microbiota associated with cheese factories, and other environmental conditions contribute to specific and particular flavour and aroma of each product [ , ]. in order to protect and preserve the production of traditional food products, certifications such as protected designation of origin (pdo) and protected geographical indication (pgi) have been awarded to food products that demonstrate their differences and particular social and cultural conditions of production. in mexico, many traditional types of cheese have been elaborated for centuries with raw milk, but foodborne outbreaks associated with dairy products have led to manda- tory use of pasteurized milk in the production of most cheese types, except some pdo aged cheeses (minimum six months of ripening period) [ ]. chihuahua cheese manufactured with unpasteurized milk has been produced for almost a century in the northern state of chihuahua, mexico, and is the result of the interaction between the mennonite community and local farmers [ ]. chihuahua cheese manufacturing is similar to cheddar cheese, but it is usually consumed without maturation; it is then considered as a young semi-hard cheese elaborated hindawi international journal of food science volume , article id , pages https://doi.org/ . / / http://orcid.org/ - - - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://doi.org/ . / / international journal of food science table : sensory evaluation terms used for evaluation of chihuahua cheese [ , ]. term definition reference cooked aromatics associated with cooked milk skim milk heated to ∘c for min whey aromatics associated with fresh whey fresh whey diacetyl (butyric fat) aromatics associated with diacetyl diacetyl, ppm fruity aromatics associated with different fruits fresh pineapple, ethyl hexanoate, ppm sulphur aromatics associated with sulphurous compounds boiled mashed egg free fatty acid aromatics associated with short-chain fatty acids butyric acid ppm nutty the nut-like aromatic associated with different nuts lightly toasted unsalted nuts, wheat germ,unsalted wheat thins, roasted peanut oil extract bitter fundamental taste sensation elicited by caffeine, quinine caffeine . % in water salty fundamental taste sensation elicited by salts sodium chloride . % in water sweet fundamental taste sensation elicited by sugars sucrose % in water sour fundamental taste sensation elicited by acids citric acid . % in water umami chemical feeling factor elicited by certain peptides and nucleotides monosodium glutamate % in water creamy characteristic flavour of cream milk cream milk concentrated chemical references were prepared in % ethanol. with cow milk [ ]. it is usually consumed within weeks of manufacturing and is usually not accepted by local con- sumers after a few months of maturation. nowadays, different products are identified as chihuahua cheese, including tra- ditional cheese manufactured by the mennonite community using either pasteurized or unpasteurized milk; traditional cheese manufactured by non-mennonite farmers, as well as industrialized cheese, was elaborated outside chihuahua state or even outside mexico [ ]. chihuahua cheese man- ufacturing process has been reported previously, including time and temperature conditions throughout processing. a considerable variation in manufacturing conditions has been observed, due to nonstandardization of the process [ ]. there have been few efforts to characterize and define the particular flavour and aroma characteristics of chihuahua cheese, including cheese produced in chihuahua state [ , , ] as well as chihuahua-type cheese [ ]. almanza-rubio et al. [ ] demonstrated in a study with consumers from the state of chihuahua that there is a preference to consume cheese elaborated in chihuahua state as compared with chihuahua- type cheese elaborated elsewhere. the traditional manufacturing process used raw milk as starting material, but because of government regulations [ ], pasteurization has been included in the process, although cheesemakers claim that there are differences on flavour and aroma after milk pasteurization. in order to propose the use of pasteurised milk for the artisanal manufacturing of chihuahua cheese, state government has an intensive training program in good manufacturing practices, as well as support to improve infrastructure in small and medium-size cheesemaking facilities. therefore, it is essential to describe the sensorial profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk, to serve as a reference for cheese produced with pasteurised milk and with the addition of starter cultures. therefore, this work aimed at providing information for the development of a sensorial profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk, as well as to describe the effect of season and area of food production. . materials and methods . . chihuahuacheese samples. in order to obtain a complete description of the sensorial characteristics of chihuahua cheese elaborated by mennonites and non-mennonites farm- ers, five dairies located in the state of chihuahua, mexico, were selected for this study. two locations were owned and operated by mennonites (cheese dairies b and c) and three by non-mennonites (a, d, and e). dairies elaborated artisanal chihuahua cheese using raw milk and without the addition of a starter culture; samples were taken during summer and autumn , according to the procedure described in sánchez-gamboa et al. [ ]. for each season, one block of cheese ( - kg) was obtained from the dairies and trans- ported to the laboratory within h of manufacture. in order to complete the initial maturation process used by cheesemakers, cheese blocks were stored at ∘c for three days. cheese portions ( g) were vacuum-packed using a commercial system, including their trademarked vacuum bags (food saver v , sunbeam products, oklahoma city, usa) and stored at . ∘c in a container under dark controlled conditions for three months before sensory analysis. . . panel selection and quantitative descriptive analysis of chihuahua cheese. after an initial selection from university members [ ], eight were included in the panel. panel members ( male, female, ages - ) were further trained (minimum h) using the spectrumtm -point intensity scale [ ] for cheese flavour and aroma, based on descriptors suggested by drake et al. [ , ] for cheddar cheese. during training, panelists have presented references, as indicated in table as well as chihuahua cheese samples for the identification of descriptive flavour and aroma terms. international journal of food science table : effect of dairy and sampling season on the sensory scores of chihuahua cheese flavour. terms cooked whey diacetyl fruity free fatty acid sulphur nutty bitter salty sweet sour umami creamy dairy summer a . b . a . a . ab . a . a . a . a . a . a . a . a . abc b . a . ab . a . ab . b . a . a . abc . bc . a . a . a . bcde c . ab . ab . a . b . ab . a . a . ab . bc . a . a . a . ab d . ab . b . a . b . ab . a . a . bc . abc . a . a . a . bcde e . ab . b . a . b . ab . a . a . c . abc . a . a . a . e autumn a . ab . b . a . ab . ab . a . a . bc . abc . a . a . a . de b . ab . b . a . ab . ab . a . a . bc . c . a . a . a . bcde c . ab . b . a . ab . b . a . a . bc . abc . a . a . a . a d . ab . b . a . a . ab . a . a . bc . ab . a . a . a . bcd e . b . b . a . ab . ab . a . a . bc . abc . a . a . a . cde f ratio from anova dairy . ∗∗ . ∗∗ . . . . . ∗∗ . ∗∗ . . . . ∗∗ season . . ∗∗ . ∗ . ∗∗ . ∗ . ∗ . ∗ . ∗∗ . . . ∗∗ . . dairy∗season . . ∗ . . ∗ . ∗ . . . ∗∗ . . ∗ . . . ∗∗ values with the same letters in a column indicate that samples do not differ significantly at a significance level of %. f values identified with an asterisk show statistical differences at p< . , while those identified with two asterisks show differences at p< . . descriptors related to aroma terms were evaluated by nasal perception. cheese samples were cut into cm by side, tempered for minutes to (± ) ∘c before evaluation, and presented in plastic cups with a randomly assigned code. for train- ing purposes, panelists received information on chihuahua cheese manufacturing, and the team evaluated and discussed their evaluation of cheese samples used for training, in order to minimize variability. sensory evaluations were done in a sensory lab, with environmentally controlled booths and white lights. sensory evaluations were carried out when cheese samples were stored for three months; therefore, evaluations of summer and autumn samples were done at different times. in each session, panel members evaluated three cheese samples; salt crackers and coffee beans were provided for the panelists to eliminate residual flavour and odour between each sample analysed. data were collected on a paper ballot, with a nine-point scale. . . statistical analysis. data collected were subjected to analysis of variance (block full factorial anova design) for each sensorial parameter, using production area and sampling season as independent variables, and panelists were considered as blocks for a complete block design. tukey means analysis was used to differentiate groups, using a % significance level. mean values obtained for each sensorial parameter were used for quantitative descriptive analysis to generate radar charts for each dairy. a principal component analysis (pca) and a k-means clustering were also carried out to evaluate if there was a relationship between individual cheese samples and dairy or sampling season. in the graphic presented, samples are observed as dots [ ]. statistical analysis was done using the statistical software minitab [ ]. . results the descriptive analysis of chihuahua cheese was based on descriptors used by drake et al. [ ] (table ) that were used to train a sensorial panel composed of eight members. mean score values for each descriptor are summarized in table ; statistical analysis was done to determine differences between dairies, sampling period, and the interaction of those two variables; the table also includes a summary of the results of analysis of variance for each descriptor. based on the statistical analysis (table ), the aroma descriptor “cooked” showed difference between dairies (p< . ) being dairy b the one with the highest mean score ( . ). the aroma descriptor “whey” showed a highly significant difference for both, the dairy where the cheese was produced and the sampling season (p< . ). cheese sampled during summer had the highest value for this parameter ( . versus . for autumn), and dairy a obtained the highest value ( . ). the diacetyl aroma perceived by the sensory panel was different between seasons (p< . ), but not among dairies; the same pattern was observed in the fruity (p< . ), free fatty acids (p< . ), nutty (p< . ), and sulphur (p< . ) descriptors of aroma. for the flavour descriptors, bitter perception was statisti- cally different between dairies ((p< . ) (a, b>c>d, e) as well as between seasons (p< . ) (summer . , autumn . ). regarding the perception of salty in cheese, differences were observed between dairies ((p< . ). the creamy descriptor, which can be related to the highest concentration of milk international journal of food science c re am m ilk u m am i so ur sw ee t sa lty bi tte r n ut ty su lp hu r fr ee fa tty a ci d fr ui ty d ia ce ty l w he y c oo ke d summer c re am m ilk u m am i so ur sw ee t sa lty bi tte r n ut ty su lp hu r fr ee fa tty a ci d fr ui ty d ia ce ty l w he y c oo ke d autumn sc or e sc or e figure : boxplot of quantitative descriptive analysis of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk and sampled during summer and autumn. median, st and rd quartile, minimum, and maximum scores are presented for each descriptor. fat in this dairy product, was perceived different among the dairies analysed (p< . ) (c>b, d>a>e) but not among sampling seasons. no differences were presented for the sweet and umami descriptors among dairies or sampling season. the descriptors that presented a significant interaction between dairy and sampling season are indicated with asterisks in table . cheese from dairy a sampled during summer had the highest scores for whey, diacetyl, free fatty acids, bitter, and salty terms. in general, the highest scores were presented for chihuahua cheese manufactured during summer. the terms with the highest scores were bitter, creamy, and whey. the effect of season on the flavour and aroma of chi- huahua cheese can be better observed in figure , where the median, quartiles, and minimum and maximum score values for each descriptor are incorporated in a boxplot graphic, separated by season. although in both seasons the descriptors with the highest scores are the same, score values for the cheese manufactured during autumn have lower values than those manufactured in summer, except for the fruity descriptor. in order to relate all descriptors used in the sensorial anal- ysis of chihuahua cheese with seasonality and dairy analysed, a pca was done using dairies and seasons as independent variables. the first three components explained . % of data variation; pc accounted for . % of the variation, while pc explained . % and pc . % of variance. figure shows the position of each of the dairies in each season related to the three first components of the analysis. pc has an almost homogeneous positive load in all cheese dairies and sampling seasons (coefficient values . - . ), while pc has a positive correlation with cheese manufactured in dairy c (non-mennonite owner) during autumn ( . ), and a negative correlation with cheese from dairy e, also from non-mennonite owner produced in summer (- . ). pc coefficients were positive for mennonite owned dairies and were negative correlated to cheese produced in autumn from dairies c and d (- . and - . , respectively). k-means analysis identified three groups that are more related to the season of sampling than to dairy or even . − . . − . . . − . . . . pc ( . %) pc ( . %) pc ( . %) autumn summer season a a b b c c d d e e figure : principal component analysis for dairies and sampling period of chihuahua cheese for sensory analysis. scores of each sample for the three first principal component analyses (pca) are shown. geographical location of each farm. one of the groups included dairies a and e sampled during autumn, as well as summer dairies d and e. another group included cheese samples from dairy b autumn, and dairies a, b, and c summer. the third group identified included autumn samples from dairies c and d. . discussion . . aroma and flavour descriptors for chihuahua cheese. in order to generate a sensorial profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk, the aroma and flavour descrip- tors proposed by drake et al. [ ] for cheddar cheese were used in this study. the term creamy was also added, based on previous analysis (data not published). aroma descriptors included the terms cooked, whey, diacetyl, fruity, free fatty acid, sulphur, and nutty. the last two terms obtained low scores by the sensory panel; therefore, they are not related to specific aroma notes in chihuahua international journal of food science cheese. “sulphur” aroma has been associated with cheddar cheese [ ], related to the release of sulphur compounds from amino acid breakdown, and is commonly found in riped cheeses [ ]. the term “nutty” is given by volatile compounds also derived from amino acid metabolism that have been reported in emmental or gruyere cheese [ ]. such cheese types are also consumed after long ripening. the aroma terms of “diacetyl”, “free fatty acids”, and “fruity” are related to the metabolism of fatty acids, either by auto-oxidation to give the aroma related to butter, the release by lipolysis of volatile fatty acids such as butanoic, hexanoic, or octanoic acid, or fruity notes derived from esterification reactions of alcohol and fatty acids [ ]. the notes related to fruits have been associated to italian cheese, where they balance the presence of free fatty acids [ ] and have also been associated with cheddar, as well as with the italian cheeses, grana padano, and ragusano [ , ]. these three terms were identified as different between sampling seasons, but not between dairies, which can be related to the difference in milk composition due to variation in the composition of the cow’s milk through the year. the term “cooked” is related to the presence of com- pounds derived from the maillard reaction and is expected to be higher in cheese manufactured with pasteurized milk; although all cheese samples studied in this work were elaborated with raw milk, differences among dairies can be related to physicochemical characteristics of the milk used or to differences in processing conditions [ ]. the term “whey” relates to the smell of fresh whey developed during cheese production that contains sugar, proteins, and fatty acids not retained in the curd [ ]. mean scores for this descriptor had a high mean score in the samples analysed; therefore, this descriptor can be associated with chihuahua cheese. the term was also different among dairies and seasons, so is one of the most important aroma descriptors related to the differences in chihuahua cheese production. the differences can be related to the milk composition and the manufacturing processes. flavour descriptors evaluated included the five basic tastes and creamy. the term “bitter” can have different sources related to their perception including ripening time, microor- ganisms present and their metabolism, or milk composition. this term had a high mean score in chihuahua cheese, as well as differences among dairies and seasons. chihuahua cheese was also identified as “salty” by the sensory panel; differences among dairies can be related to differences in traditional manufacturing of chihuahua cheese [ ]. “cream- like” flavour is related to fresh cheese types rather than to ripped ones. chihuahua cheese has a high score for creamy that is influenced by the dairy and by the season of manufacturing. “sweet” and “umami” descriptors did not show statistical differences among dairies or between sampling seasons; “sour” descriptor was different among seasons (table ), and chihuahua cheese had relatively high mean scores for sour and umami terms. the umami descriptor is related to glutamate presence, and the concentration of this aminoacid increases during ripening. aged cheddar cheese has been reported to increase tenfold the concentration of glutamate after eight months of ripening [ ]. . . quantitative descriptive analysis (qda). differences for the descriptors between seasons can be observed in figure , which summarizes the qda analysis of chihuahua cheese included in this study. chihuahua cheese can be identified with a whey aroma, and flavour associated with bitter, sour, and creamy descriptors. it is important to consider the ripen- ing time of three months applied to samples analysed taking into account that chihuahua cheese is usually consumed within four months of production. as opposed to cheddar cheese that is consumed after - months of maturation, chihuahua cheese is preferred as a semi-matured cheese. the main characteristics appreciated by consumers are its stretchability and melting properties [ ]. the rheological profile of chihuahua cheese has been more related to fresh colby than to cheddar or chester [ ]. previous reports have described chihuahua cheese with salty, sour, and bitter flavour and diacetyl, cooked, whey as main descriptors for aroma in cheese manufactured with pasteurized milk and with intense notes of sour and bitter in cheese manufactured with raw milk; the authors reported dif- ferences among manufacturers [ , ]. in another report, chi- huahua cheese manufactured with raw milk was described as having characteristics of young, basic cheese with slight bitter notes [ ]. on the other hand, hernández-morales et al. [ ] included the descriptors bitter and sour (mean scores of . and . , respectively) for añejo (aged) mexican cheese; these values are similar to the scores presented in samples of chihuahua cheese manufactured during summer. in a recent report by lopez-dı́az and martinez-ruiz [ ], the authors describe a sensorial profile from commercial samples of chihuahua cheese by trained judges and consumer preference tests. they used cheese manufactured in the state of chihuahua that was obtained from retail supermarkets, but there was no information on their manufacture conditions. based on the results from consumer preferences, cheese was described by their trained panelists as intense aroma, cooked, butter, and fresh milk aroma descriptors. on the other hand, consumers did not appreciate high acidity, salty taste, weak odour, high-fat content, or bitter taste in chihuahua cheese. in contrast to the report by lopez-dı́az and mart́ınez-ruiz [ ], we tested chihuahua cheese produced with raw milk, and we have previously reported their microbiological and physicochemical profile [ , ]. principal component analysis can help on the identifi- cation of association not distinguished at first sight of the analysed variables. we used pca to determine if sampling season or if the fact that mennonite or non-mennonite owners operated the dairies can affect the sensorial profile of chihuahua cheese. the result of plotting the response for the first three components (figure ) demonstrated that pc , pc , and pc explained . % of variance, and three groups were identified (k-means analysis) with higher influence of sampling season on the group formation, rather than if the cheesemaker was either mennonite or non-mennonite, or the dairy geographical location. contrary to what we report here, olson et al. [ ] described that season was not important international journal of food science in the functional properties of chihuahua cheese; instead, aging or the use of pasteurized or raw milk had an effect on cheese functional properties, although the effect of season- ality was previously reported for rheological characteristics [ ]. mexican sanitary authorities are requesting cheese pro- ducers to use pasteurized milk as starter material; therefore, it was important to describe the sensory profile of the few farmers that still manufactured chihuahua cheese using raw milk and with traditional techniques [ ]. the composition of the microbiota responsible for cheese production and ripening has an essential role in the development of a cheese’s sensory profile cheese. although commercial starter cultures are mixed to provide similar cheese characteristics than those presented in traditional manufacturing, cheese manufactured with indigenous bacteria presented stronger flavour descriptors in buffalo and cow milk as compared to commercial cultures [ ]. the complex mixture of geographical, seasonal, and envi- ronmental characteristics associated with cheese production can influence the particular sensory profile of cheese. in a report on semi-matured and matured cheddar cheese, consumers were able to differentiate cheeses elaborated in different farms, even when they were only km apart, regardless of the use of pasteurized or raw milk for cheddar cheese manufacturing [ ]. almanza et al. [ ] carried out a consumer preference analysis and demonstrated that the average consumer from chihuahua city preferred the cheese manufactured in the state of chihuahua as opposed to cheese elaborated in other mexican states or even in other countries. all the information related to chihuahua cheese characteris- tics, rheological, microbiological, and sensory properties can help on the search for a certificate of origin of denomination, which will help on the preservation of the traditional manu- facturing process [ ]. . conclusions the sensorial analysis of chihuahua cheese produced in tra- ditional cheese factories, using raw milk as starting material, can be used to create a sensorial profile of the product, which can be used to describe the distinctive characteristics of chihuahua cheese better. based on the quantitative descrip- tive analysis, the sensorial profile of chihuahua cheese can be described as a semi-matured cheese with a bitter flavor, slightly salted and with a cream flavor, with aroma notes associated with whey and sour; all this related to its short ripening time. the season of production of chihuahua cheese had a considerable influence on flavour and aroma characteristics, more than dairies’ geographical location. data availability the data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. conflicts of interest the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. acknowledgments the authors want to thank comisión estatal para la pro- tección contra riesgos sanitarios (coespris) of chihuahua state, mexico, for the facilities provided for the visit and sampling in the dairies studied in this work. this work had financial support provided by conacyt [grant cb- - ]. svc also had a conacyt scholarship for her graduate studies [fellowship no. ]. references [ ] g. licitra, “world wide traditional cheeses: banned for busi- ness?” dairy science & technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. hernández-morales, a. hernández-montes, e. aguirre- mandujano, and a. v. de gante, “physicochemical, microbio- logical, textural and sensory characterisation of mexican añejo cheese,”international journal of dairy technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] k. koppel and d. h. chambers, “flavor comparison of natural cheeses manufactured in different countries,” journal of food science, vol. , no. , pp. s –s , . [ ] n. gutiérrez-méndez and gv. nevárez-moorillón,“chihuahua cheese: the history of a mexican cheese,” carnilac industrial, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] m. paul, a. nuñez, d. l. van hekken, and j. a. renye, “sensory and protein profiles of mexican chihuahua cheese,” journal of food science and technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. l. almanza-rubio, r. e. orozco-mena, and n. gutiérrez- méndez, “assessing consumer preference toward chihuahua cheese and chihuahua-type cheese,” tecnociencia chihuahua, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] c. sánchez-gamboa, l. hicks-pérez, n. gutiérrez-méndez, n. heredia, s. garcı́a, and g. v. nevárez-moorillón, “sea- sonal influence on the microbial profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured from raw milk,” international journal of dairy technology, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] d. van hekken, m. drake, f. m. corral, v. g. prieto, and a. gardea, “mexican chihuahua cheese: sensory profiles of youngcheese,”journal ofdairyscience,vol. ,no. ,pp. – , . [ ] d. l. van hekken, m. a. drake, m. h. tunick, v. m. guerrero, f. j. molina-corral, and a. a. gardea, “effect of pasteurization and season on the sensorial and rheological traits of mexican chihuahua cheese,” dairy science & technology, vol. , no. - , pp. – , . [ ] j. alvaradobr, d. almarazbr, and l. rivera, “determination of the quality of cheese ‘chihuahua’ type: sensory and physico- chemical approaches,” emirates journal of food and agriculture, vol. , no. , p. , . [ ] diario oficial de la federación ( ). nom- -ssa - , productos y servicios. leche, fórmula láctea, producto lácteo combinado y derivados lácteos. disposiciones y especifica- ciones sanitarias. métodos de prueba. international journal of food science [ ] m. c. meilgaard,b. t. carr, and g. v. civille, sensory evaluation techniques, crc press, boca raton, fl, usa, . [ ] m. drake, s. mcingvale, p. gerard, k. cadwallader, and g. civille, “development of a descriptive language for cheddar cheese,” journal of food science, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. a. drake, p. d. gerard, j. p. kleinhenz, and w. j. harper, “application of an electronic nose to correlate with descriptive sensory analysis of aged cheddar cheese,” lwt- food science and technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] d. s. kemp, d. t. hollowood, and d. j. hort, sensory evaluation, wiley-blackwell, oxford, uk, . [ ] minitab statistical software. . [computer software]. state college, pa: minitab, inc. (www.minitab.com). [ ] w. bockelmann, “secondary cheese starter cultures,”in in law ba and tamime ay technology of cheesemaking, b. a. law and a. y. tamime, eds., pp. – , wiley-blackwell, oxford, uk, nd edition, . [ ] j. b. lawlor, c. m. delahunty, m. wilkinson, and g. sheehan, “relationships between the odor and flavor attributes and the volatile composition and gross composition of cheese,” in food flavors and chemistry, special publications, pp. – , royal society of chemistry, cambridge, . [ ] m. kim, s. drake, and m. drake, “evaluation of key flavor compounds in reduced- and full-fat cheddar cheeses using sensory studies on model systems,” journal of sensory studies, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. vialloninsta, b. martin, i. verdier-metz et al., “transfer of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes from forages into milk fat,” le lait, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. bellesia, a. pinetti, u. m. pagnoni et al., “volatile components of grana parmigiano-reggiano type hard cheese,” food chem- istry, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. moio and f. addeo, “grana padano cheese aroma,” journal of dairy research, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] t. janhøj and k. b. qvist, “the formation of cheese curd,” in technology of cheesemaking, b. a. law and a. y. tamime, eds., pp. – , wiley-blackwell, oxford, uk, nd edition, . [ ] o. g. mouritsen and k. styrb, “aged, dried and hard cheeses,” in umami: unlocking secrets of the fifth taste, columbia university press, new york, ny, usa, . [ ] d. l. van hekken, m. h. tunick, p. m. tomasula, f. j. corral, and a. a. gardea, “mexican queso chihuahua: rheology of fresh cheese,” international journal of dairy technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. a. lopez-diaz and n. d. r. martinez-ruiz, “sensorial and physicochemical profile of chihuahua cheese considering consumer preferences,” agrociencia, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. sánchez-gamboa, l. hicks-pérez, n. gutiérrez-méndez, n. heredia,s.garcı́a,andg.nevárez-moorillón,“microbiological changes during ripening of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk and its seasonal variations,” foods, vol. , no. , p. , . [ ] d. olson, d. van hekken, m. tunick, p. tomasula, f. molina- corral, and a. gardea, “mexican queso chihuahua: functional properties of aging cheese ,” journal of dairy science, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. h. tunick, d. l. van hekken, j. call, f. j. molina-corral, and a. a. gardea, “queso chihuahua: effects of seasonality of cheesemilk on rheology,” international journal of dairy technology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. murtaza, s. rehman, f. anjum, and n. huma, “descriptive sensory profile of cow and buffalo milk cheddar cheese pre- pared using indigenous cultures,” journal of dairy science, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] g. turbes, t. d. linscott, e. tomasino, j. waite-cusic, j. lim, and l. meunier-goddik, “evidence of terroir in milk sourcing and its influence on cheddar cheese,” journal of dairy science, vol. , no. , pp. – , . hindawi www.hindawi.com international journal of volume zoology hindawi www.hindawi.com volume anatomy research international peptides international journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume journal of parasitology research genomics international journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi publishing corporation http://www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com the scientific world journal volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume bioinformatics advances in marine biology journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume neuroscience journal hindawi www.hindawi.com volume biomed research international cell biology international journal of hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume biochemistry research international archaea hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume genetics research international hindawi www.hindawi.com volume advances in virolog y stem cells international hindawi www.hindawi.com volume hindawi www.hindawi.com volume enzyme research hindawi www.hindawi.com volume international journal of microbiology hindawi www.hindawi.com nucleic acids journal of volume submit your manuscripts at www.hindawi.com https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijz/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ari/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijpep/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jpr/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijg/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/abi/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jmb/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/neuroscience/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijcb/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bri/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/archaea/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/gri/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/av/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/sci/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/er/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijmicro/ https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jna/ https://www.hindawi.com/ https://www.hindawi.com/ chh volume issue front matter church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols charles lyttle volume viii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles pages arbaugh, george b., gossner missionaries m america - baron, hans, calvinist republicanism and its historical roots - bella, julius l, father tyrrell's dogmas - downey, glanville, julian the apostate at antioch - gray, john r., the political theory of john knox - harkness, r. e. e., the development of democracy in the english reformation - hawley, charles arthur, gerald massey and america - hershberger, guy franklin, pacifism and the state in colonial pennsylvania ., - hudson, winthrop s., the morison myth concerning the founding of harvard college - hudson, winthrop s., the scottish effort to presbyterianize the church of england - kristeller, paul oskar, florentine platonism and its rela- tions with humanism and scholasticism - odlozilik, otakar, bohemian protestants and the calvinistic churches - outler, albert c, origen and the regulae fidei - pennington, edgar legare, john wesley's georgia ministry .... - spinka, matthew, latin church of the early crusades - sweet, william warren, church archives in the united states - minutes of the society minutes of the forty-sixth consecutive (thirty-second annual) meeting of the society and of the council, december, - minutes of the forty-seventh meeting of the society and of the council, april, - book reviews angus, s., essential christianity - attwater, donald, st. john chrysostom beardsley, frank granville, the history of christianity in america bentwich, n., solomon schechter: a biography - bernhart, joseph, the vatican as a world power berthold, s. m., thomas paine, america's first liberal - be"venot, maurice, st. cyprian's be unitate, chapter billington, e. a., the protestant crusade, - - binns, l. e., the church in the ancient world bonner, c, some baptist hymnists from the th century to modern times burton, k., paradise planters - cadbury, henry j., annual catalogue of george fox's papers - corrigan, kaymond, s. j., the church and the nineteenth century - coulton, g. g., inquisition and liberty coulton, g. g., medieval panorama: the english scene from conquest to 'reformation; coulton, g. g., social life in britain from the conquest to the reformation - davis, helen c. m., comp., some aspects of religious liberty dodd, charles harold, history and the gospels - dru, alexander, ed., the journals of soren kierkegaard > - duckett, eleanor shipley, the gateway to the middle ages - eisenach, g. j., a history of the german congregational churches in the united states - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pages fairchild, hoxie n., 'religious trends in english poetry, vol. i - finkelstein, louis, the pharisees, the sociological background of their faith - flew, r. newton, jesus and his church - foster, frank hugh, the modern movement in american theology - garraghan, gilbert j., the jesuits of the middle united states - garrett, c. h., the marian exiles, a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism _ - gingerieh, melvin, the mennonites in iowa - gipson, lawrence henry, ed., the moravian indian mission of white river: diaries and letters - gobbel, l. l., church-state relations in education in north carolina since l ye - goodenough, erwin, the politics of philo judaeus: practice and theory - goodwin, mary c, papal conflict with josephinism gordon, antoinette k., the iconography of tibetan lamaism hagen, lois d., a parish in the pines - haller, william, the rise of puritanism - halperin, s. william, italy and the vatican at war - hardy, e. n., george whitefield, the matchless soul winner horstmann, j. h. and wernecke, h. h., through four centuries - hull, william i., the rise of quakerism in amsterdam, - - jordan, w. k., the development of religious toleration in england, - - jorgensen, j., saint catherine of siena - knapton, ernest john, the lady of the holy alliance: the life of julie de krudener - knox, wilfred l., st. paul and the church of the gentiles - latourette, k. s., the thousand years of uncertainty, a.d. -a.d. - lietzmann, h., die reichskirche bis zum tode julians; and the founding of the church universal - mackinnon, james, the origins of the reformation - mareuse, ludwig, soldier of the church-. the life of ignatius loyola - mcconnell, francis j., john wesley mckinney, w. w., early pittsburgh presbyterianism - mcneill, john t. and gamer, helena m., medieval handbooks of penance - merkel, h. m., history of methodism in utah - moland, e., the conception of the gospel in the alexandrine theology .... - moore, ernest carroll, the story of instruction - muller, karl, kirchengeschichte murison, w., sir david lyndsay, poet and satirist of the old church of scotland - nelson, william, john skelton, laureate - nobbs, douglas, theocracy and toleration, a study in dutch calvinism from - - parsons, ernest william, the religion of the new testament - payton, james simpson, our fathers have told us pennington, e. l., apostle of new jersey, john talbot phelan, m., a history of the expansion of methodism in texas, - pratt, parley p., jr., ed., life and letters of parley p. pratt - riley, arthur j., catholicism in new england to - smith, h. maynard, pre-reformation england - smith, joseph fielding, ed., teachings of the prophet joseph smith - sonne, niels henry, liberal kentucky — - - sturge, c, cuthbert tunszal, churchman, scholar, statesman, administrator - torrey, norman l., the spirit of voltaire - - trobridge, george, swedenborg: life and teachings - walten, m. g., ed., thomas fuller's the holy state and the profane state - walter, johannes von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i wenger, j. c, history of the mennonites of the franconia conference - wertenbaker, thomas jefferson, the founding of american civilization: the middle colonies - white, l. t., latin monasticism in norman sicily - williamson, claude, ed., great catholics - winters, r. l., francis lambert of avignon ( - ) - zyzykin, m. v., patriarch nikon - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by phtt.ip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for charles lyttle president roland h. bainton vice-president matthew spinka secretary robert hastings nichols . treasurer robert fortenbaugh assistant secretary other members of the council william warren sweet herbert wallace schneider conrad henry moehlman reuben e. e. harkness frederick w i l l i a m loetscher f. w. buckler j o h n thomas mcneill e. r. hardy, jr. wllhelm pauck percy v. norwood editorial board of church history matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio vol. viii december, no. table of contents julian the apostate at antioch glanville downey 'father tyrrell's dogmas julius i. bella bohemian protestants and the calvinistic churches otakar odlozilik gerald massey and america charles arthur hawley book reviews : parsons, ernest william : the religion of the new testament frederick c. grant knox, wilfred l.: st. paul and the church of the gentiles henry j. cadbury core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents attwater, donald : st. john chrysostom matthew spinka bevenot, maurice: st. cyprian's de unitate. chap. iv in the light of the manuscripts massey h. shepherd, jr. mackinnon, james : the origins of the reformation s. harrison thomson walter, johannes von : die geschichte des christentums, vol. ii w. pauck nelson, william : john skelton, laureate leslie c. warren zyzykin, m. v.: patriarch nikon matthew spinka hull, william i.: the rise of quakerism in amsterdam - guy franklin hershberger torrey, norman l.: the spirit of voltaire charles lyttle fairchild, hoxie n.: religious trends in english poetry, vol. i william haller payton, james simpson : our fathers have told us a. w. nagler gipson, lawrence henry, ed. : the moravian indian mission on white river: diaries and letters j. orin oliphant sonne, niels henry : liberal kentucky— - walter c. gibbs knapton, ernest john : the lady of the holy alliance: the life of julie de krudener george vernadsky burton, k.: paradise planters richard d. leonard dru, alexander, ed. : the journals of soren kierkegaard w. pauck hagen, lois d.: a parish in the pines clifford n. drury gingerich, melvin : the mennonites in iowa charles arthur hawley core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core agronomiya stepi : razvitie �sukhogo zemledeliya� v rossiiskoi imperii this is a repository copy of agronomiya stepi : razvitie “sukhogo zemledeliya” v rossiiskoi imperii. white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: published version article: moon, david gerard orcid.org/ - - - x ( ) agronomiya stepi : razvitie “sukhogo zemledeliya” v rossiiskoi imperii. vestnik sankt-peterburgskogo universiteta, seriya , istoriya. pp. - . issn - . / /spbu . . eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse ["licenses_typename_other" not defined] takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. https://doi.org/ . / /spbu . . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. aгрономия степи: развитие сухого земледелия в Российской империи Д. Мун Для цитирования: Мун Д. aгрономия степи: развитие сухого земледелия в Российской импе- рии // Вестник Санкт-Петербургского университета. История. . Т.  . Вып.  . С.  – . https://doi.org/ . / /spbu . . Цель этой статьи — проанализировать на основе архивных и опубликованных источни- ков из России и США развитие методов «сухого земледелия» для выращивания зерновых культур в регионах, таких как степи России и американские Великие равнины, в засушли- вом климате, где среднегодовое количество осадков составляет около  мм, что ниже, чем в других сельскохозяйственных регионах в обеих странах, и, кроме того, в климате не- надежном, резко меняющемся из года в год. В обоих регионах наблюдались периодические засухи. Преимущественное внимание в статье уделяется степной области в южной части Российской империи (сегодняшняя южная Украина и юг Российской Федерации) к запа- ду от Урала и уральских гор в период с начала xix и до начала xx в. Основные методы ведения сельского хозяйства, рассмотренные в статье, были направлены на культивиро- вание почвы и удержание ее под паром без растительности (вспашка под черным паром), чтобы сохранить скудную влагу. В статье сравниваются методы, разработанные в России в начале и середине xix в., с теми, которые использовались позже на Великих равнинах в Соединенных Штатах, где их пропагандировали как «сухое земледелие». В статье при- знается, что фермеры как в Российской империи, так и в Соединенных Штатах Америки, возможно, разработали аналогичные методы самостоятельно, поскольку сталкивались с похожими проблемами, в частности с ограниченными запасами влаги, но предполагает- ся, что американские методы, возможно, исходили из опыта земледельцев степи. В связи с этим важно, что среди пионеров таких методов в степи были фермеры-меннониты, ко- торые мигрировали в Соединенные Штаты в  -х годах и перенесли сюда свои методы. Ключевые слова: сельское хозяйство, «сухое земледелие», Российская империя, степь, агрономия, юг, чернозем, зерно. agronomy for the steppe: the development of dry farming in the russian empire d. moon for citation: moon d. agronomy for the steppe: the development of dry farming in the russian empire. vestnik of saint petersburg university. history, , vol.  , issue  , pp.  – . https://doi. org/ . / /spbu . . the aim of this article is to analyze on the basis of archival and printed sources from both russia and the united states the development of dry farming’ techniques for cultivating grain Дэвид Мун  — phd, проф., Йоркский университет, Великобритания, yo   dd, Хеслингтон; david.moon@york.ac.uk david moon  — phd, anniversary professor in history, university of york, heslington, yo   dd, united kingdom; david.moon@york.ac.uk © Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет, Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. crops in regions, such as the steppes and the american great plains with semi-arid climates, where the average, annual precipitation was around or under  mm, which was lower than in other agricultural regions in both countries, and also unreliable, varying sharply from year to year. both regions also experienced periodic droughts. the article focuses on the steppe region in the southern part of the russian empire (today’s southern ukraine and the south of the russian federation) to the west of the ural river and ural mountains, covering the period from the early nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries. cultivating the soil and keeping fallow fields clear of vegetation (chernyi par) in order to conserve scarce moisture are the main farming techniques examined in the article. it also compares the techniques devised in the steppe regions in the early and mid-nineteenth century with those used later on the great plains of the united states, where they were promoted as ‘dry farming’. the article recogniz- es that farmers in both the russian empire and the united states may have devised similar techniques independently as they faced similar challenges, in particular, scarce supplies of moisture, but suggests that the american methods may have had their origins in the experi- ence of farmers on the steppe. in this regard, it is important to note that among the pioneers of such techniques on the steppe were mennonite farmers who emigrated from the steppes to the united states in the s bringing along their methods. keywords: agriculture, dry farming, russian empire, steppe, agronomy, south, chernozem, grain. В  г. инспектор сельского хозяйства Южной России отметил, что помещи- ки степной зоны не уделяют должного внимания необходимости сохранять и  без того скудную влажность почвы. Данный факт он объяснял тем, что русские, на- селявшие этот регион, пришли в основном из Центральной России, где воды было в избытке, поэтому их традиционные методы земледелия не были нацелены на со- хранение влаги . Сохранение скудной влаги в  почве было существенным фактором успешно- го хлебопашества, в особенности в степи, где было меньше осадков, чем в центре России, и где территории страдали от периодических засух. В данной статье про- слеживается развитие «сухого земледелия», т. е. агротехники, не требующей искус- ственного орошения и свойственной полузасушливому климату — степным зонам Российской империи в xix — начале xx в. В статье утверждается, что развитие по- добной техники в степи предвосхищает появление и распространение сухого зем- леделия на Великих равнинах в США в конце xix и начале xx в. Также автор статьи показывает, что, возможно, американские методы имеют в  своей основе именно опыт российских земледельцев степи. Степная зона юга современной Российской Федерации и  Украины вошла в Российское государство между xvi и концом xviii столетия. Местное население в основном составляли кочевые скотоводы. Значительное число славянских посе- ленцев подходило к степной зоне начиная с xviii в. Они сосуществовали с коло- нистами из Центральной и Юго-Восточной Европы, откликнувшимися на призыв Екатерины Великой . На протяжении конца xviii и xix столетий славяне и евро- Державный архив Одесской области (далее  — ДАОО). Ф. . Оп. , , справа . Л.   об., .  — Регион, обозначаемый как Южная Россия, в  то время был известен как Ново- россия, она включала в себя территории Херсонской, Таврической и Екатеринославской губерний. khodarkovsky m. russia’s steppe frontier: the making of a colonial empire, – . blooming- ton, ; Брук С. И., Кабузан В. М. Миграция населения в России в xviii — начале xx века (числен- ность, структура, география // История СССР. . № . c. – ; Кабузан В. М. Население Северно- го Кавказа в xix–xx веках: Этностатистическое исследование. СПб., . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. пейские переселенцы перешли от экономики, основанной на увеличении поголовья скота, к  выращиванию зерновых культур . Выращивание зерновых обеспечивало гораздо больший процент населения, однако требовало и больше воды, чем коче- вое скотоводство. Расселение, а затем и попытка развития хлебопашества постави- ли переселенцев перед тем фактом, что климатические условия в степи отличаются от условий на их родине: естественную флору образовывали в  большей степени злаковые, нежели деревья, осадков было меньше, но они были менее безопасными, зато почва — знаменитый чернозем — была куда более плодородной . Таким образом, постепенно пришло осознание того факта, что землевла- дельцам степной зоны будет необходимо изобрести методы возделывания почвы с  учетом климатических условий, что технические средства, использовавшиеся на родине и  на остальных европейских территориях, более не удовлетворяют по- требностям землепашцев. Подобные взгляды высказывали Иван Палимпсестов, православный священник, ставший специалистом в области сельского хозяйства, агроном и  почвовед Павел Костычев, а  также ряд других ученых . Методы возде- лывания степной почвы, созданные исходя из климатических условий местности, появились в течение xix — начала xx в. Фактически данные методы действитель- но имели в  своей основе некоторые общеевропейские технические приемы и  ис- следования, однако все они адаптировались к  специфическим условиям степной зоны. Данный процесс был частью более широкого развития теории и  практики технических методов земледелия в России. Важнейшую роль в развитии степного землепашества играли местные землевладельцы, министр государственных иму- ществ (позднее  — министр земледелия), Департамент уделов, сельскохозяйствен- ные объединения, в первую очередь Императорское общество сельского хозяйства Южной России, Крестьянский поземельный банк, а  также земства . Важная роль принадлежала и земледельцам-меннонитам, с xviii в. селившимся в степи к северу от Черного моря . Дружинина Е. И.: )  Северное Причерноморье в  –   гг. М., ; )  Южная Украина в  –   гг. М., ; )  Южная Украина в  период кризиса феодализма –   гг. М., ; friesen l. rural revolutions in southern ukraine: peasants, nobles, and colonists, – . cambridge, ; Пронштейн А. П. Земля Донская в  xviii веке. Ростов н/  Д., ; Некоторые вопросы соци- ально-экономического развития юго-восточной России /  ред. С. А. Чекменев. Ставрополь, . С. – ; Дон и  степное Предкавказье. xviii  — первая половина xix века /  ред. А. П. Пронштейн. Ростов н/Д., ; Савельев П. И. Пути аграрного капитализма в  России: xix век (по материалам Поволжья). Самара, . См., напр.: Энгельман Г. И. О заведении в степи сельского хозяйства // Труды Вольного эко- номического общества (ТВЭО). . № . С. – ; Черняев Л. Очерки о степной растительности // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. ; Гольдефлейс. О южнорусской степи // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . № – . С. , – . , – . О степном климате см.: Чибилев А. А. Степи Северной Евразии: эколого-географический очерк и би- блиография. Екатеринбург, . Палимпсестов И. Вступительная беседа о сельском хозяйстве Новороссийского края // Жур- нал Министерства государственных имуществ. . № . С. ; Бычихин А. Краткий обзор научной и педагогической деятельности Павла Андреевича Костычева // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . № – . См. также: Скальковский А. Опыт статистиче- ского описания Новороссийского края. В   т. Т. . Одесса, . С. – , – . Елина О. От царских садов до советских полей: история сельскохозяйственных опытных уч- реждении xviii — -е годы xx в. В   т. Т. . М., . urry j. none but saints: the transformation of mennonite life in russia, – . winnipeg, . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. Главным принципом поддержки развития сельского хозяйства в регионе к кон- цу xix в. стала разработка методов земледелия для эффективного использования ограниченных запасов воды ради обеспечения возделывания плодородного черно- зема степной зоны. До этого времени большее внимание уделяли выращиванию деревьев, полагая, что они, возможно, смягчат климат, сделают его более подхо- дящим для пахотного земледелия, а  наряду с  этим  — искусственному орошению для лучшего снабжения почвы водой. К концу xix столетия специалисты в обла- сти сельского хозяйства, официальные власти и  местные землевладельцы начали осознавать, что выращивание деревьев и орошение практически нецелесообразны и слишком дороги . Появилась убедительная научная аргументация в пользу раз- вития сельскохозяйственной техники степной зоны с учетом климата, против лесо- насаждения и орошения. В конце -х годов первый российский почвовед Васи- лий Докучаев создал теорию почвообразования, согласно которой почва представ- ляла собой продукт климата, в котором сформировалась. Таким образом, чернозем степной зоны сформировался на плоском пастбище со слабым и нерегулярным ув- лажнением. Потому, изменяя подобные условия, например, насаждением деревьев или более интенсивным орошением, можно было изменить почву, снизив ее пло- дородность. Сам Докучаев желал определить те методы земледелия, которые наи- более подходили бы местной почве, климатическим и гидрологическим условиям . Великие равнины США обладают схожим со степной зоной климатом и очень близкими экологическими изменениями окружающей среды с  течением времени: на обеих территориях присутствуют полузасушливые пастбища, заселенные земле- дельцами, пришедшими из более влажной лесистой области. В своем классическом исследовании, посвященном Великим равнинам, Уолтер Прескотт Уэбб проследил, как американские поселенцы «победили» климат, к  его условиям им пришлось приспособиться без доступных запасов воды и  леса, на которые они полагались у себя на родине. Одним из путей достижения «победы» являлось изобретение тех- ник «сухого земледелия», позволяющего эффективно использовать ограниченные запасы воды . На Великих равнинах приемы «сухого земледелия» пропагандиро- вались и  распространялись в  конце xix  в. Американские богарные земледельцы уделяли особое внимание возделыванию почв тем способом, который позволял удерживать скудную влагу. Осенью они проводили глубокую вспашку (до –  дюй- мов  — –   см), чтобы убедиться, что осенние дожди и  весенний мокрый снег могут поглощаться почвой и  использоваться прорастающими зерновыми культу- рами. Богарные земледельцы боронили почву между рядами посеянных зерновых уже после осадков, чтобы создать слой грунта на поверхности земли и предотвра- тить ее обезвоживание. Кроме того, они обрабатывали и  землю под паром, что- бы очистить ее от растительности, которая могла поглотить ценную влагу. Один из  самых известных сторонников «сухого земледелия» Харди Уэбстер Кэмпбелл изобрел и продал новшество — «подпочвенный уплотнитель», чтобы утрамбовать moon d. the plough that broke the steppes: agriculture and environment on russia’s grasslands, – . oxford, . С. – . Докучаев В. В.: )  Русский чернозем: Отчет Императорскому Вольному экономическому обществу // Докучаев В. В. Соч. В   т. Т. . М.; Л., ; ) Наши степи: прежде и теперь // Там же. Т. . М.; Л., . С. – . webb w. p. the great plains. lincoln, . С. – , – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. грунт для удержания влаги там, где она может быть использована под посевы. Он пытался создать условия, при которых влага подпочвенного слоя достигала бы уровня, достаточного для взращивания семян, но при этом не поднималась на по- верхность и не испарялась. Однако Кэмпбелл был противоречивой фигурой, и да- леко не все земледельцы восприняли его изобретение . Заселение Великих равнин земледельцами стало менее активным после окон- чания в    г. Гражданской войны в  США, поэтому данная территория на не- сколько десятилетий отстала по аналогичным достижениям в сходном климате от степной зоны . Тем не менее американские методы «сухого земледелия» вызвали значительный интерес в России. Об американском «сухом земледелии» печатались книги, а также множество статей в специализированной периодике; американские публикации переводились на русский язык . Впрочем, интерес в  России к  аме- риканскому типу земледелия не ограничивался публикациями. В    г. Екатери- нославское губернское земство основало в  США агентство по управлению сель- ским хозяйством. Оно располагалось в Миннеаполисе, главном центре обработки и  транспортировки зерна, выращенного в  степях и  на Великих равнинах. Екате- ринославское агентство заявило о  возвращении к  достижениям американского сельского хозяйства. В   г. Иосиф Розен, представитель агентства в США, издал памфлет, посвященный «сухому земледелию». Особое внимание он уделил идеям и работе Кэмпбелла. Розен не был впечатлен Кэмпбеллом, будучи скептически на- строен по отношению к некоторым из его методов и его устремлениям, однако опи- сал те методы, которые использовались американскими почвоведами для поддер- жания уровня влажности почвы. Розен предположил, что методы американского «сухого земледелия» могли иметь отношение к степным . Другие отечественные специалисты также проводили параллели между мето- дами сельского хозяйства Великих равнин и их степных собратьев, возделывавших почву, чтобы сохранить влагу. Так, российские агрономы Василий Бензин и Нико- лай Тулайков, оба обладавшие опытом работы в США, отмечали схожие аспекты. Они выделяли такие особенности американского «сухого земледелия», как план- тажная вспашка, регулярное возделывание почвы и избегание посевов на земле под паром . А. Н. Челинцев предположил, что американские и  российские земледель- hargreaves w. m.: )  the dry-farming movement in retrospect //  agricultural history. . vol. . p. – ; ) hardy webster campbell ( – ) // agricultural history. . vol. . p. – . moon d. the grasslands of north america and russia / eds j. r. mcneill, e. s. maudlin. a compan- ion to global environmental history. oxford, . p. – . Брунст В. Э.: ) Система обработки Кумбеля для засушливых мест // Вестник сельского хо- зяйства. . № – . c. – ; ) Система обработки Кумбеля для засушливых мест // Там же. . № . c. – ; Метнерс Ф. Ф. Обработка почвы по способу Кумбеля как основа всякого плодородия. Рига, ; Воротников Вл. К  вопросу о  сухом земледелии в  Туркестане //  Вопросы колонизации. . Т. . С. – ; Толстов Н. В. Сухое земледелие. Очерк хозяйства полузасушливого района Се- веро-Американских Соединенных Штатов в связи с вопросом организации хозяйства на юго-вос- токе России. Пг., . Розен И. Б. Вопросы засушливого хозяйства в  Соединенных Штатах Сев. Америки, прин- ципы и способы обработки земли в засушливой полосе Соединенных Штатов // Известия земской сельскохозяйственной агентуры в Соединенных Штатах (Екатеринослав). . № . Бензин В.: ) Сухое земледелие // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. СПб., . Т. . С. – , – ; ) Сухое земледелие // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. СПб., . Т. . С. – , – ; Тулайков Н. Сухое земледелие (система Кембеллиа) // Полная энциклопедия русского сельского хозяйства и соприкасающихся с ними наук. Т. xii. СПб., . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. цы изобрели новые методы независимо друг от друга . Однако начиная с первой половины xix  в. земледельцы степи в  Российской империи применяли похожие технические приемы, исходя из  точно таких же соображений, что и  американцы Великих равнин: из  необходимости сохранять и  наиболее эффективно использо- вать влагу, необходимую для сельскохозяйственных культур, но  недостающую на степных пастбищах. Основным стимулом для разработки способов земледелия, подходящих для степной зоны, были периодические засухи и неурожаи, поразившие регион. Серь- езная засуха и неурожай  г. спровоцировали действия российского правитель- ства. Так, им был создан Комитет усовершенствования земледелия, чтобы иссле- довать, что можно предпринять. Комитет рассмотрел варианты совершенствова- ния сельскохозяйственных методов и содействия улучшению сельского хозяйства путем организации образования и издания «Земледельческой газеты» . В течение xix в. отечественные агрономы старались осознать те процессы, которые происхо- дили в степной почве при ее вспахивании. Агрономы и фермеры были убеждены, что урожайность культур, засеянных на целинных землях степи при переложной, старозалежной системе земледелия, преобладавшей в  xix  в., снизилась через не- сколько лет ввиду истощения почвы. Это была одна из  причин, по которой зем- ледельцы покинули землю, заброшенную на – и  более лет . К  концу xix  в. такая практика, оставление на долгое время земли под паром, становилась все бо- лее нетипичной для большинства регионов степной зоны ввиду роста плотности населения, а  также развития зернового рынка. Земледельцы использовали свою почву все более интенсивно, уменьшая период нахождения земли под паром, или же применяли совершенно иные системы севооборота. В связи с этим, например, Павел Андреевич Костычев поощрял такое возделывание почв, при котором влага накапливалась и удерживалась в земле . Важным центром исследования сельско- го хозяйства в полусухом климате степи являлась Безенчукская опытная станция в Самарской губернии. Она была основана Департаментом уделов в   г. для раз- работки и  тестирования новых методов земледелия, а  также для их применения арендаторами земли. Одним из  самых значительных ученых-агрономов, позже ставшим главой Безенчукской станции, был Николай Тулайков . Некоторые земледельцы степи уже с  начала xix  в. проводили эксперименты по обработке земли и пытались адаптировать методы, используемые в других ча- стях Европы, к  степному климату. Самым ярким примером является группа наи- более успешных, по всеобщему признанию, земледельцев региона — меннонитов. В    г. барон Ф. Ф.  фон Розен, глава Попечительного комитета об иностранных Челинцев А. Н. Обзор русской литературы по сельскому хозяйству //  Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. . Вешняков В. И. Комитет  г. об усовершенствовании земледелия в России // Русский вест- ник. . Т. , № . С. – ; Об усилении способов Вольного экономического общества (№ , от  ноября ) // Полное собрание законов Российской империи. Т. . СПб., . С. – . Ермолов А. С. Организация полевого хозяйства: системы земледелия и севообороты. СПб., . С. . Костычев П. О борьбе с засухой в черноземной области посредством обработки полей и на- копления на них снега. СПб., . С. – . Государственный архив Свердловской области (далее — ГАСО). Ф. . Оп. . Д. . Л. –  об.; Клинген И., Жуков Я. Удельная областная сельскохозяйственная опытная станция // Сельское хозяй- ство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. поселениях южного края России, писал, что поскольку меннониты лучше, чем другие поселенцы, обрабатывают землю, он хочет обратить на них внимание по- следних . Меннониты Молочанского округа в  восточной Таврической губернии находились под энергичным руководством Иоганна Корниса, председателя Сель- скохозяйственного общества меннонитов. В округе имелась библиотека с книгами, выписывавшая также немецкие и российские агрономические журналы . Корнис высмеивал прежнюю систему подсечно-переложного земледелия, которую он ассо- циировал с кочевыми народами, считая ее «лотерейной». Он часто утверждал, что настало время отказаться от данной системы и убедить свой округ принять новые методы севооборота . В течение xix и  начала xx  в. земледельцы степи во главе с  меннонитами, а  также агрономы разрабатывали и  тестировали различные способы обработки плодородной почвы с  целью более интенсивного ее использования и  повышения урожайности, а  также для сокращения рисков неурожая в  засушливые годы. По- следняя цель предполагала максимально эффективное использование ограничен- ных запасов влаги. Ниже основное внимание будет уделено методам культивации почвы (в  частности, плантажной вспашке), а  также избеганию растительности и появлению «черного пара» на земле под паром. Многочисленные дискуссии касались лучших способов подготовки почвы для посева и облегчения вспашки. В Центральной России земледельцы на протяжении веков использовали легкую, конную соху, которая вспахивала землю на –  верш- ка ( –  см). Поселенцы из центра страны столкнулись с незначительным исполь- зованием сохи и методов вспахивания. Чернозем был здесь глубже (верхний слой почвы имел глубину –  см), а также был более плодороден, чем лесные почвы в  центральной зоне. Соха не могла прорезать корни степного дерна на целинной земле или на земле под паром. Вспашка земель сохой на максимально возможную, но  незначительную глубину оставляла почву подверженной высыханию в  более жарком, засушливом и  ветреном степном климате. Вместо этого поселенцы за- имствовали у  украинцев и  татар (т. е. у  народов с  большим опытом культивации чернозема) более тяжелые, колесные плуги, а  также сабаны, толкаемые несколь- кими парами быков. Украинские (в  то время малороссийские) и  татарские плуги могли справиться со степным дерном и пахать на глубине около  вершков (  см). В  -х годах Императорское Общество сельского хозяйства Южной России объ- явило два конкурса для выявления наиболее подходящего для региона типа плуга. Орудия, вспахивавшие землю на глубину менее ,  вершков (  см), были признаны неприемлемыми. Поскольку Общество было заинтересовано в  орудиях, которые могли использовать крестьяне с  ограниченной тягловой силой, условия конкурса предусматривали, что плуги для возделывания целины должны быть оснащены не более чем четырьмя парами быков, а  на уже возделанной земле  — не более чем Вибе Ф. Хлебопашество Менонитов южной России //  Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . Т. . С. . Корнис И. О состоянии хозяйства в Молочанских Менонитских колониях в   г. // Журнал Министерства государственных имуществ. . № . С. . Гавель Г. Л. Сравнительные очерки сельского хозяйства и  аграрного положения поселян в некоторых местах России // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. двумя парами. Победу над импортными орудиями одержали модифицированные «малороссийские» и немецкие плуги переселенцев . Тем не менее во второй половине xix в. многие степные земледельцы покупа- ли более тяжелые, стальные плуги, способные прорезать борозды глубиной более  вершков (  см). В действительности же многие земледельцы пахали на глубину от ½ до  вершков ( и   см). Отход от подсечно-переложного, парового земле- делия и  от расширения возделываемой площади имели важные последствия для системы вспахивания земли. Возделанная земля или земля под паром нуждалась в  мощных плугах, поэтому земледельцы для культивации больших пространств старались сократить время, расходование рабочей и тягловой силы. Некоторые земледельцы еще осенью вспахивали поле для яровых культур. Од- нако в следующем году, после того как весенний посев был собран, сеяли озимые культуры в том же поле и без последующей вспашки. Они использовали более лег- кие орудия, в  том числе буккеры (изобретение меннонитов), чтобы подготовить большую площадь для посева и засеять семена с меньшими усилиями . У степных фермеров сформировалось стойкое убеждение относительно ма- лой значимости вспашки земли. В   г. Н. Нальцов выступил в поддержку метода плантажной вспашки, объяснив, однако, что из-за ненадежности осадков многие землевладельцы легкомысленно и фаталистично относились к культивации почвы: если бы начались дожди, тогда они получили бы обильный урожай и разбогатели; если бы сезон дождей не наступил, то и урожай погиб, и все усилия пошли бы пра- хом. Землевладельцы не видели причин вкладывать больше времени и энергии во вспашку . Более того, в середине -х годов земское исследование Бузулукского уезда Самарской губернии сообщало, что методы возделывания почвы были край- не примитивными и не имели большого значения для обеспечения хороших уро- жаев, поскольку зависели от погодных условий . Другие фермеры были менее спо- койны или, возможно, располагали ресурсами для совершенствования способов обработки земли. Как выяснили агрономы и некоторые земледельцы, важнейшими проблемами вспашки чернозема являлись удаление сорняков и  облегчение (пре- жде всего) накопления и  удержания в  почве влаги. Дискуссии обогащались и  по- следними идеями западноевропейских агрономов, и накопленным опытом степных земледельцев, и (со временем) экспериментами, проводимыми в регионе. Среди защитников и  приверженцев плантажной вспашки были меннониты Молочанского округа. В   г. под руководством Иоганна Корниса они ввели си- стему четырехпольного севооборота, используя или англосаксонские плуги с  че- тырьмя лошадьми, или тяжелые плуги, запряженные тремя парами волов,  — для ДАОО. Ф. . Оп. , , справа ; Скальковский А. Опыт статистического описания Но- вороссийского края. В   т. Т. . С. – . Лаврентьев С. Полеводство в  окрестностях Елизаветграда //  Труды Вольного экономиче- ского общества. . Т. . c. – ; Шишкин К. Сельскохозяйственный очерк Новороссии // Сель- ское хозяйство и  лесоводство. . Т. . С. ; friesen l. rural revolutions in southern ukraine: peasants, nobles, and colonists, – . cambridge, . p. – . Нальцов Н. Глубокая вспашка и  ее значение для черноземной полосы //  Труды Вольного экономического общества. . № . С. . См. также: Леопольдов А. Статистическое описание Са- ратовской губернии. В   т. Т. . СПб., . С. . Сборник статистических сведений по Самарской губернии. Т. . Бузулукский уезд. Самара, . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. более глубокой и аккуратной вспашки, а также накопления влаги. В конце лета они глубоко вспахивали поля для озимых культур, а затем боронили их, чтобы помочь почве впитать влагу и засеять семена, защитив их от мороза. Специалисты и сами меннониты считали, что именно плантажная вспашка способствовала их успеху . История засух в степной области, по-видимому, подтвердила важность план- тажной вспашки. Вслед за засухой летом и осенью  г. были проведены экспе- рименты на Луганской ферме в восточной Екатеринославской губернии. Вопреки местной практике управляющий хозяйством дважды глубоко пахал и боронил поле для озимой ржи — как до, так и после посева, с целью защиты семян путем их более глубокого высеивания в  почву. Соседи были настроены скептически. Зима была очень суровой, с большим количеством снега, а весна  г. — холодной, с после- дующим снегом. В результате в уезде рожь находилась в плохом состоянии или во- обще не росла. Многие землевладельцы снова вспахали поля и сеяли яровые, чтобы заменить погибший озимый посев. Напротив, на Луганской ферме рожь росла и да- вала удовлетворительный урожай . В  период засухи   г. инспектор сельского хозяйства в Южной России отметил, что результаты плантажной обработки земли под зерновые и другие культуры «особенно поразительны». Земледельцы под Одес- сой, вспахивавшие землю на глубину  вершков (  см), получали размер урожая : , тогда как мелкопахотные поля едва-едва давали урожай. По его словам, зер- новые культуры могли бы глубже погрузиться корнями в рыхлую и плодородную почву и таким образом использовать воду, накопившуюся в ней на глубине осенью, зимой и ранней весной. Он перешел к демонстрации того, что плантажная вспашка экономична. Дополнительные затраты на использование рабочего скота  — пяти, а не трех пар быков — нивелировались за счет дохода, полученного от более высо- ких урожаев . В последующие десятилетия в  журналах по агрономии велись споры о  план- тажной вспашке. Агроном Райдемайстер чаще всего выступал за вспашку на глуби- ну менее  вершков (  см) — для накопления и удержания влаги, а более глубокую вспашку допускал лишь для обновления верхнего слоя почвы и предотвращения ее истощения. Однако, как писал в   г. А. Жеребко, вспашка более чем на обычные –  вершка ( –  см) позволяла влаге проникать глубже и дольше оставаться в са- мой почве, а  значит, поскольку влага испарялась незначительно, использоваться для посадок. Вместе с тем он отмечал, что плантажная вспашка не подходила тем участкам земли, где верхний слой почвы составлял лишь –  вершков ( –  см), так как на поверхности оказывался менее плодородный слой подпочвы. Оба агронома периодически выступали против плантажной вспашки поздней весной и  летом, когда засуха, жара и  ветры способствовали испарению влаги . Сторонниками плантажной вспашки были И. Палимпсестов, в подтверждение сво- Добровольский С. Обзор хозяйства Менонитов Таврической губернии //  Записки Импера- торского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . Т. . С. – ; Вибе Ф. Хлебопаше- ство Менонитов южной России. С. – . Отчет о  разных хозяйственных опытах и  наблюдениях на Луганской ферме за   год // Журнал Министерства государственных имуществ. . Т. . С. – . ДАОО. Ф. . Оп. . . Д. . Л. –  об. Буницкий К. З. Основные правила степного хозяйства // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . С. – ; Жеребко А. Кое-что о глубокой обработке зем- ли // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. их взглядов ссылавшийся на труд немецкого агронома Тэера и опыт степных земле- дельцев . Н. Нальцов, также знакомый с немецкими исследованиями о сохранении влаги в почве, приводил доводы в пользу плантажа на юге России, но указывал на необходимость следить за тем, чтобы взращивать культуры на неплодородной под- почве . В  -х годах А. Шишкин пришел к выводу, что плантажная вспашка спо- собствует большему проникновению влаги в  почву и  уменьшению ее испарения. В доказательство он приводил исследования немецкого ученого И. Ф. Пфаффа . А. И. Умисса, землевладелец Херсонской губернии, описал свои агрономиче- ские опыты с начала -х годов. Он вспахивал поля не глубже, чем на  вершков (  см), безуспешно засеивая их каждый год. Неудивительно, что урожайность нача- ла снижаться. В   г. он купил большие плуги Сакка и вспахал почву на  вершков (  см). Его урожай улучшился, он связал это с тем фактом, что плантажная вспашка заменила истощенный верхний слой почвы новым и свежим. Признавая, что ника- кая вспашка не может вернуть поля в состояние целинных или залежных земель, он все же пришел к выводу, что плантаж оказал огромное влияние на урожайность, по- скольку был связан с  накоплением запасов влаги . Значение плантажной вспашки признали также и  земства. В    г. в  исследовании Самарского уезда отмечалось, что глубокая и  своевременная культивация необходима для хорошего урожая, по- скольку она позволяет посевам глубоко пускать корни, а почве — удерживать влагу . Засуха и  неурожай   г. привели к  дальнейшей поддержке метода план- тажной вспашки. Член Министерства государственных имуществ из  Самарской губернии отмечал, что опыт плантажа, уже приведший к  хорошим урожаям, был более осуществим на земле, уже вспаханной тщательно и глубоко — на  вершков (   см)  — с  прошлой осени . В  Херсонской губернии Умисса вновь пропаганди- ровал метод плантажной вспашки, добавляя, что она уничтожает сорняки, погло- щающие необходимую для посевов воду. Далее он отмечал, что укатывание полей формировало на поверхности защитный слой, препятствовавший испарению . Во время дискуссий о причинах неурожая, организованных Вольным экономическим обществом в конце  г., несколько участников обсуждений ссылались на план- тажный метод. Специалист по сельскому хозяйству Ф. Н. Королев отмечал, что зем- левладельцы, глубже вспахивавшие свои поля, достигали более высоких показате- лей урожая, нежели крестьяне, не использовавшие плантаж . Соответствующий Палимпсестов И. Глубокая пашня-плуг соха // Записки Императорского Общества сельско- го хозяйства Южной России. . С. – . Нальцов Н. Глубокая вспашка и ее значение для черноземной полосы. С. – . Шишкин А.: ) Несколько слов об устранении степных засух // Сельское хозяйство и лесо- водство. . Т. . С. – ; ) К вопросу об уменьшении вредного действия засух на раститель- ность. СПб., . С. – . Умисса А. И. Истощена ли почва нашей степи? //  Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . С. – , – . Сборник статистических сведений по Самарской губернии. Т. . Самарский уезд. Самара, . С. . Российский государственный исторический архив (далее  — РГИА). Ф. . Оп. . Д. . Л. – . Сборник херсонского земства  г. // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . Беседы в  i Отделении Императорского Вольного экономического общества по вопросу о причинах неурожая  года и мерах против повторения подобных урожаев в будущем // Труды Вольного экономического общества. . № . С. , , – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. опыт других частей Европы подтверждал аргументы в защиту плантажной вспаш- ки. В    г. Министерство государственных имуществ издало отчет венгерского Министерства сельского хозяйства об эффективности плантажа (на глубину – или даже   см). Венгерские фермеры считали, что плантажная вспашка особен- но эффективна в засушливые годы . Венгерский опыт был существенно важным, так как ряд фермеров обрабатывал земли Великой Венгерской равнины (Алфёльд), имевшей схожие со степными экологические условия . Споры относительно методов культивации почвы обогащались все новыми нюансами. В конце  г. в Вольном экономическом обществе П. А. Костычев ут- верждал, что вспахивать поля лучше осенью, а затем культивировать их, чтобы ле- том сохранить почву рыхлой, а не пахать поля в летние месяцы, что было обычным явлением на севере России. Он заявлял, что летом земля должна быть вспахана незначительно, лишь для борьбы с сорняками, а во второй раз вспахана только по- сле сильного ливня. Наиболее важным моментом в  его аргументах был, конечно же, вопрос удержания влаги. Плантажная вспашка в неподходящее время года мог- ла увеличить ее испарение . Опыты, осуществленные в  степной зоне, например на опытном поле в  Харьковской губернии в  –   гг., подтвердили важность плантажа именно осенью, чтобы помочь земле накопить влагу зимой. Исследова- ния также показали, что боронование почвы начиная с  весны, для образования рыхлого верхнего слоя почвы, способствовало уменьшению испарения . Аналогичные выводы были сделаны Александром Измаильским на основе его исследований в Полтавском уезде в  –  гг. Он нашел лучший способ в пол- ной мере использовать все атмосферные осадки, чтобы рано осенью глубоко вспа- хать поля. Это привело к  максимально увлажненной почве по весне. Некоторые способы, например укатывание, предотвращали высыхание более глубоких слоев почвы. В таких случаях Измаильский рекомендовал не плантажную, а поверхност- ную вспашку и немедленное боронование, чтобы минимальный слой поверхности почвы был подвержен воздействию солнца и ветра . Более того, эксперименты на Одесском опытном поле в  –  гг. вызывали сомнения в том, имеет ли план- тажная вспашка какие-либо преимущества, поскольку различий в  длине корней растений, посаженных в полях, вспаханных на  вершка (  см) или на , не было. Измаильский отметил далее, что, поскольку вспашка, как правило, проводилась в  засушливое время года  — в  апреле, июле и  сентябре, поверхностная вспашка была лучше, так как она предотвращала испарение влаги . К вопросу о глубокой пахоте // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . racz l. the steppe to europe: an environmental history of hungary in the traditional age. cam- bridge, . Беседы в i Отделении Императорского Вольного экономического общества по вопросу о при- чинах неурожая  года и мерах против повторения подобных урожаев в будущем. С. – . Известия Петровской сельскохозяйственной академии. . Т. , № – . С. // Сельское хозяйство и  лесоводство. . Т. . Обзор см.: Сельское хозяйство и  лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . Измайловский А. А. Влажность почвы и  грунтовая вода в  связи с  рельефом местности и культурным состоянием поверхности почвы. Полтава, ; Обзор см.: Сельское хозяйство и ле- соводство. . Т. . С. – . Кизинков С. Сельскохозяйственные вопросы за  г. // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – ; Маньковский К. Г. Паровая обработка по данным Полтавского опытного поля // Там же. . Т. . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. Таким образом, с течением времени и накоплением опыта основное внимание сосредоточилось на сезоне и глубине вспашки, а также на важности обработки по- верхности почвы весной и летом для сохранения скудных и ценных запасов влаги путем уменьшения ее испарения. Более того, в какой-то степени результаты экспе- риментов с различной глубиной вспашки и методами культивации почвы в разное время года подтверждают взгляды некоторых землевладельцев и крестьян, с подо- зрением относившихся к плантажной вспашке. В   г. в Вольном экономическом обществе А. Е. Филипенко утверждал, что было бы лучше следовать «азиатской» модели частых и неглубоких летних вспашек . Многие из этих методов, касающихся способов обработки земли для накопле- ния и  удержания влаги в  условиях степного климата, также обсуждались и  апро- бировались и в  отношении полей под паром, в  частности, рассматривался метод черного пара с избавлением земель от всякой растительности. Черный пар (schwarze brache) в   г. ввели в практику меннониты Молочан- ского округа вследствие засухи  г. в рамках своей новой системы четырехполь- ного севооборота. До   г. меннониты выращивали на полях под паром траву, используя сами земли под пастбища. Иоганн Корнис приказал домовладельцам не допускать выпаса скота на землях под паром, а также регулярно вспахивать их в течение лета, чтобы предотвратить рост травы или сорняков. Корнису было из- вестно, что последние лишают почву питательных веществ и  влаги. Черный пар требовал большего использования рабочей силы, но Корнис оправдал это в свой- ственной ему манере, ссылаясь на наставление в Книге Бытия: «В поте лица твоего будешь есть хлеб свой» . Однако со временем земли меннонитов истощились под бременем нововведе- ний . Кроме того, меннониты располагали свои поля как можно ближе к  домам, чтобы не тратить лишнее время на передвижение. Филипп Вибе (зять Корниса и  его преемник в  качестве председателя Сельскохозяйственного общества) пояс- нял, что борозды, оставшиеся зимой на земле под паром, должны были пролегать с севера на юг для сохранения снега, принесенного преобладающими восточными ветрами, — снега, который мог впитаться, когда растает. Весной борозды уничто- жались, а земли под паром боронились, чтобы сделать их ровными и плотными и, таким образом, предотвратить испарение . Результатом введения нового, четырехпольного севооборота и  черного пара стали более высокие и  стабильные урожаи. В    г. Ф. Вибе предоставил данные об урожаях, полученных земледельцами-меннонитами в Молочанском округе и со- седней Хортице (см. табл.). Беседы в  i Отделении Императорского Вольного экономического общества по вопросу о причинах неурожая  года и мерах против повторения подобных урожаев в будущем. С. – . staples john r. cross-cultural encounters on the ukrainian steppe: settling the molochna basin, – . toronto, . p. – ; urry j. none but saints: the transformation of mennonite life in russia, – . p. . Гавель Г. Л. Сравнительные очерки сельского хозяйства и  аграрного положения поселян в некоторых местах России. c. . Вибе Ф. Хлебопашество Менонитов южной России. С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. Средняя урожайность менонитских владений (отношение количества высеянных семян к урожаю) Десятилетие Молочанский округ Хортица – – – :  ⁷∕₁₀ :  ⅔ :  ³∕₇ :  ¹∕₁₀ :  ¼ :  ¾ – :  ⅔ :  ½ И с т о ч н и к: Вибе Ф. Хлебопашество Менонитов южной Рос- сии // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Юж- ной России. . Т. . С. . Таким образом, урожайность в Молочанском округе повысилась после введе- ния новой системы севооборота и черного пара, превысив показатели в Хортице, где черный пар был внедрен позже. Появление черного пара также уменьшало ко- лебания урожайности от года к  году. До указанных изменений урожайность Мо- лочанского округа в  отдельные годы колебалась между :   / и  :   / . После  г. она варьировалась от :  до :   / . Далее Ф. Вибе отметил, что в   г., когда произошла серьезная засуха, они получили урожай : , что было намного выше, чем было бы достигнуто без применения черного пара . Он пришел к выво- ду, что черный пар дарит особое преимущество Молочанскому региону, поскольку позволяет влаге проникать настолько глубоко, что посевы могут выдержать засуху и дать хороший урожай в те годы, когда на других полях они едва всходят . Происхождение черного пара неизвестно. Возможно, меннониты узнали о ме- тоде из  литературы по агрономии в  своей библиотеке. Согласно более позднему российскому источнику, метод черного пара был разработан в начале xix в. на ан- глийских фермах, откуда был заимствован фермерами континентальной Европы. Первоначальной целью применения черного пара был контроль за ростом сорня- ков на земле под паром . Любопытно, что в    г. российский агроном дал чер- ному пару турецкое название —‘kara-saban’, намекнув, что черный пар, возможно, был изобретен бывшими жителями региона . В начале -х годов И. Корнис продемонстрировал успех меннонитов в каче- стве примера того, чего можно достичь «тяжелой работой и расчетом» . Он также обратил внимание на то, что их методы ведения сельского хозяйства основывались на опыте и знаниях, а не на «удаче», как в прошлом . Позднее Ф. Вибе пришел к вы- воду, что метод черного пара являлся ключевым фактором степного земледелия, без которого оно давно рухнуло бы, а зерновое хозяйство в колониях меннонитов никогда не достигло бы такого расцвета. Меннониты-молочане были убеждены, Там же. С. – . Там же. С. . Шулов И. Пар //  Полная энциклопедия русского сельского хозяйства и  соприкасающихся с ними наук. Т. vi. СПб., . С. – . Неручев Я. Бывшие «степи», что от них остается // Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. . Корнис И. О состоянии хозяйства в Молочанских Менонитских колониях в   г. С. . Там же. С. . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. что если бы черный пар был введен повсеместно, то не было бы необходимости бояться полного неурожая даже в самые засушливые годы . Однако Вибе сомне- вался, что в «южной России» землевладельцы будут вводить черный пар, поскольку они владели землей в  столь больших количествах, что не обращали внимания на методы ее культивации, и в  любом случае очищение почвы под паром от сорня- ков требовало в  два раза больше работы . На самом деле здесь землевладельцы действительно возражали против дополнительной работы, несмотря на попытки уговорить их иным способом . А. Скальковский утверждал, что, несмотря на то что для меннонитов, владевших относительно небольшими участками земли, ме- тод черного пара был возможен, едва ли так было для владельцев крупных вотчин, где засеивалось  или  десятин земли . Существовали и  другие причины, по которым крестьянам степного региона было трудно выполнять обычную работу, необходимую для применения черного пара. Большинство крестьян жило в более крупных поселениях, достигавших не- скольких сотен домохозяйств, и  добиралось до своих полей преодолевая порядка  км. Таким образом, регулярно обрабатывать поля было неудобно. В  -х годах в Таврической губернии средняя численность поселений иностранных колонистов была значительно ниже  — , поэтому они могли жить ближе к  своим полям . Еще одной причиной, по которой крестьянам было бы трудно держать свои поля под черным паром, стало то, что многие домохозяйства имели недостаточно рабо- чего скота, чтобы запрячь его в  плуги. Домашние хозяйства делили между собой волов и использовали их по очереди, а не в то время, когда земля нуждалась в па- хоте . Более того, крестьяне располагали меньшими землями, нежели меннониты, и поэтому не могли не использовать поля под паром для выпаса скота. Повышение урожайности зерна, которое возникло бы в  результате введения черного пара, не компенсировало стоимости содержания скота на пастбище . В  г. И. Палимпсестов посвятил статью дискуссии о черном паре. Он сум- мировал аргументы Ф. Вибе в  защиту метода, основываясь на опыте меннонитов начиная с   г. Палимпсестов признал, что черный пар способствует увеличению количества влаги в  почве. Вместе с  тем он заявил, что черный пар оказал столь сильное влияние на плодородность почвы, что ускорил ее истощение. Также Па- лимпсестов высказал сомнение в  том, что меннониты смогут надолго закрепить свой успех. Он отметил, что некоторые из них используют на полях навоз, и дан- ный фактор рассматривал в  качестве доказательства общего истощения почвы. В  заключение он сослался на опыт одного из  землевладельцев в  Белоруссии (т. е. в регионе с большим количеством осадков, где удержание влаги не являлось столь решающим фактором), который обнаружил, что ему требуется в   раза больше ра- Вибе Ф. Хлебопашество Менонитов южной России. С. – . Вибе Ф. О черном паре в степных хозяйствах // Труды Вольного экономического общества. . Т. . С. – . Остен-Сакен Д. О летном паре // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . Т. . С. . Скальковский А. Опыт статистического описания Новороссийского края. В   т. Т. . С. . friesen l. rural revolutions in southern ukraine: peasants, nobles, and colonists, – . p. , – , . РГИА. Ф. . Оп. , – . Д. . Л.  об. — . Челинцев А. Н. Обзор русской литературы по сельскому хозяйству. С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. бочей силы для содержания десятины «черной земли», нежели для земли под па- ром . Патриот и православный русский, Палимпсестов, возможно, был предвзято настроен против черного пара (schwarze brache), введенного иностранцами, коло- нистами-протестантами. Тем не менее аналогичные сомнения были позднее выска- заны и другими специалистами. Так, в конце -х годов агроном А. Филипченко проанализировал опыт успешного помещика И. И. Шатилова в  его усадьбе Мохо- вое в  Тульской губернии в  лесостепной зоне . Шатилов выступал за применение черного пара в центральной черноземной области. Филипченко категорически не соглашался с Шатиловым, утверждая, что система черного пара неуместна в север- ной части черноземной зоны, так как, если оставить почву незащищенной расти- тельностью, из ее элементов в течение длительного времени формируются условия, в которых минеральный состав почвы, столь важный для ее плодородия, вымыва- ется атмосферными осадками, что, в свою очередь, приводит к истощению почвы . Кроме того, в степной зоне и других частях России некоторые земледельцы полага- ли, что земля с растительным покровом лучше, чем земля, оставленная черной, со- храняет влагу, так как растительность защищает почву от солнечных лучей и ветра, провоцирующих ее испарение . Черный пар главным образом использовался меннонитами и немецкими посе- ленцами в степи , хотя и другие земледельцы также применяли подобные методы. Так, в    г. агроном Екатеринославского губернского земства В. М. Борковский обнаружил, что несколько «практичных земледельцев» увеличивают продуктив- ность и получают высокие урожаи. Он объяснил это правильным выбором семян, тщательной и  своевременной подготовкой полей для сохранения влаги, а  также энергичной борьбой с  сорняками. Более того, на основании опыта, эксперимента и наблюдений некоторые земледельцы начали вспахивать поля для озимых культур не в конце июля или начале августа, как это было принято, а в июне и даже в конце мая. Также они начинали пахать поля под весенний посев еще с мая предшествую- щего года, а  не в  августе или сентябре, тем самым фактически превращая поля в землю под черным паром для посева яровой пшеницы. Однако на других фермах губернии Борковский находил сельское хозяйство в плохом состоянии . Несмотря на протесты и  чисто практические причины, по которым крестья- нам было сложно вводить системы черного пара, всё  — специальная литература, дальнейшие исследования и  опыт  — доказывали огромное значение новшества меннонитов. В  середине -х годов К. Шишкин заметил, что растения одновре- менно и  впитывают влагу из  почвы, и  испаряют ее в  атмосферу. К  тому времени эксперименты уже показали, что больший объем влаги испаряется с  земли, по- крытой растительностью, чем с  пустынного почвенного покрова. Таким образом, Палимпсестов И. О черном паре // Записки Императорского Общества сельского хозяйства Южной России. . Т. . С. – . Елина О. От царских садов до советских полей: история сельскохозяйственных опытных учреждении xviii — -е годы xx в. В   т. Т. . С. . Филипченко А. Пользование черным паром //  Сельское хозяйство и  лесоводство. . Т. . С. – , . Шишкин К. К вопросу об уменьшении вредного действия засух на растительность. С. . Неручев Я. Бывшие «степи», что от них остается. С. . Отчет и доклад по агрономическому бюро Екатеринославскому губернскому земскому со- бранию. Екатеринослав, . Обзор см.: Сельское хозяйство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. метод черного пара обеспечивал лучшее сохранение влаги, чем земля под паром с  растительным покровом. Чем засушливее был климат, тем больше была раз- ница между объемом влаги, удерживаемым черным паром и  землей с  раститель- ностью. Шишкин рекомендовал применение черного пара среди мер по «борьбе с засухой» . Он активно обращался к работам агрономов Западной Европы, но он также изучал и сельское хозяйство степи . Опыты, поставленные в   г. в других климатических условиях — экспериментальной станцией rothamsted в Хартфорд- шире в Англии, подтвердили эффективность черного пара в обогащении растений питательными веществами и влагой, особенно в засушливые годы. О результатах стало известно в России в   г. благодаря Министерству государственных иму- ществ . Кроме того, засуха и неурожай  г., как отметил П. А. Костычев, показа- ли эффективность черного пара в сохранении влаги . Земства также начали проводить испытания тех способов культивации земли, которые могли оказаться наиболее подходящими для степной зоны. Так, в    г. в Херсонском земледельческом училище были проведены испытания эффективно- сти различных типов пара. Они выявили нетипичное для степи явление: избыток воды, накопленный под черным паром. Почва была влажной до глубины  вершка (  см) в сравнении с  и   вершками ( –  см) земли под паром с растительно- стью. Поля под черным паром давали самые высокие урожаи . В  -х годах во время экспериментов на Херсонском опытном поле земли, очищенные от расти- тельности, или же черные земли, последовательно демонстрировали более высокие показатели урожайности . Аналогичные эксперименты проводились на Безенчук- ской опытной станции в Самарской губернии. Поле под паром рано вспахивалось и сохранялось «черным» путем постоянной культивации, во время которой унич- тожались сорняки и предотвращалось испарение влаги. В   г. — это был год за- сухи и низких урожаев — после черного пара урожайность оказалась в   раз выше, чем на крестьянских землях, где поля под паром использовались в качестве паст- бищ. Эксперименты подтвердили роль черного пара в  сохранении влаги и  борь- бе с  сорняками. Станция приняла множество посетителей, в  том числе крестьян, пришедших познакомиться с результатами экспериментов . Аналогичные резуль- таты были получены на опытных станциях по всему степному региону . В   г. Крестьянский поземельный банк в  Самаре принял решение в  пользу сохранения земель под черным паром, поскольку этот метод обеспечивал лучшую урожай- Шишкин К. К  вопросу об уменьшении вредного действия засух на растительность. С. , – , . Шишкин К. Сельскохозяйственный очерк Новороссии. С. – . Влияние черного пара на плодородие почвы //  Сельское хозяйство и  лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . Беседы в  i Отделении Императорского Вольного экономического общества по вопросу о причинах неурожая  года и мерах против повторения подобных урожаев в будущем. С. – . Сазонов Г. П. Обзор деятельности земств по сельскому хозяйству ( –  гг.). В   т. Т. . СПб., . С. – . Кизенков С. Сельскохозяйственные вопросы в русской печати за  г. // Сельское хозяй- ство и лесоводство. . Т. . С. – . ГАСО. Ф. . Оп. . Д. . Л. ; Клинген И., Жуков Я. Удельная областная сельскохозяйствен- ная опытная станция. С. – , . Челинцев А. Н. Обзор русской литературы по сельскому хозяйству. С. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. ность . К   г. руководства, рассчтанные на широкую аудиторию, рекомендова- ли применять черный пар . Таким образом, эффективность черного пара если еще и не внедрялась повсеместно в практику, уже была осознана теоретически. Черный пар был частью новой, четырехпольной системы севооборота, введен- ной меннонитами Молочанского округа в   г. В –  гг. Комитет усовер- шенствования земледелия рекомендовал использование нового типа земледелия взамен переложного, старозалежного . В  последующие десятилетия агрономы и  прогрессивные землевладельцы экспериментировали с  различными система- ми многопольного севооборота, чтобы найти те, которые помогли бы опираться на более надежные способы обработки земли в  условиях степного климата. В  на- чале xx  в. в  авангарде таких экспериментов стояла Безенчукская опытная стан- ция. В  руководстве для российских земледельцев   г. С. С. Бажанов дал ряд рекомендаций, как сделать фермерство менее зависимым от количества осадков на юго-востоке России. Он рекомендовал «правильные» севообороты, которые гарантировали посадку каждой культуры в  неистощенную, лишенную сорняков поч ву и соответствовали местному климату и условиям почвы. Бажанов выступал за многопольную систему севооборота, включающую посевные травы, зерновые, паровые и пропашные культуры. Лучшие системы севооборота были разработаны для того, чтобы убедиться: «вся дождевая вода была сохранена в почве, и, следова- тельно, даже в засушливые годы можно было бы рассчитывать на урожай». Данные системы были и  более прибыльными . Несмотря на значимость разновидностей сельскохозяйственных культур и трав, а также севооборотов, частью которых они являлись, большинство специалистов все же придавало значение культивирова- нию самой почвы. Агоротехника, разработанная и испытанная в степи, — от плантажной вспаш- ки до черного пара — включала в себя целую систему земледелия, направленную на накопление, сохранение и наиболее эффективное использование воды в плодород- ных, но полузасушливых и засушливых регионах. К концу периода ученые испыты- вали данную систему на экспериментальных станциях, например, на Безенчукской. Н. М. Тулайков, возглавлявший станцию между и   гг., стал ведущим спе- циалистом по так называемому «сухому земледелию» . В   г. Иосиф Розен, представитель Екатеринославского земства в  США, присутствовал на конгрессе «сухого земледелия» в  Шайенне, штат Вайоминг, на севере Великих равнин. Он сообщал: «Американцы с  изумлением слушают, когда им говорят, что в  России, например, некоторые опытные поля уже в  течение –   лет работают над вопросами засушливого хозяйства (так в  тексте.  — Д. Мун), ГАСО. Ф. . Оп. . Д. . Л. . Бажанов С. С. Новые способы ведения полевого хозяйства в юго-восточных степных губер- ниях // Настольная книга русского земледельца. СПб., . С. . staples john r. cross-cultural encounters on the ukrainian steppe: settling the molochna basin, – . toronto, . p. . РГИА. Ф. . Оп. , – . Д. . Л. – . Бажанов С. С. Новые способы ведения полевого хозяйства в юго-восточных степных губер- ниях. С. – . ГАСО. Ф. . Оп. . Д. ; ГАСО. Ф. . Оп. . Д. ; Подворное и хуторское хозяйство в Са- марской губернии. Опыт агрономического исследования. Самара, . С. – ; tulaikov  n. m. agriculture in the dry regions of the u. s. s. r. // economic geography. . vol. . p. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. и опубликовано много интересных данных». Это говорит о том, что значительная часть американских специалистов в области «сухого земледелия» не была знакома с работами своих российских коллег. Действительно, вполне возможно, что амери- канские фермеры и  агрономы разработали на Великих равнинах методы «сухого земледелия» независимо от аналогичных методов, появившихся в  степи. В  конце концов в  обеих странах фермеры столкнулись с  одной и  той же проблемой: вы- ращиванием сельскохозяйственных культур в условиях скудных и ненадежных за- пасов влаги. Существует много примеров того, как люди в разных частях мира раз- рабатывают схожие методы и техники независимо друг от друга. Само земледелие, по-видимому, было изобретено таким же образом в разных точках по всему миру. Джаред Даймонд определил пять областей, где производство продуктов питания, основанное на окультуривании сельскохозяйственных посевов, очевидно, возник- ло самостоятельно  — «с небольшой или вовсе отсутствовавшей возможностью взаимодействия или обмена идеями: плодородный полумесяц Ближнего Востока; Китай; Мезоамерика; Анды; восточная часть Северной Америки» . Однако существуют свидетельства того, что американские методы «сухого земледелия», возможно, основывались на более раннем опыте степных земледель- цев. С  -х годов многие фермеры-меннониты мигрировали из степи на Великие равнины . Там их сельскохозяйственные методы вызвали интерес американских фермеров и агрономов. Большое внимание было уделено внедрению меннонитами разнообразной твердой (дурума) пшеницы, красной озимой («крымки», известной в  США как красная турецкая), процветавшей на Великих равнинах . Возможно, меннониты также сыграли определенную роль во внедрении методов «сухого зем- леделия», разработанных в степи. Американский ученый Марк Альфред Карлтон, служивший в Министерстве сельского хозяйства США, познакомился с меннони- тами в Канзасе. В  и   гг. он посетил степь для поиска подходящих сортов сельскохозяйственных культур. Канзасские меннониты снабдили его рекоменда- тельными письмами, и он встретил своих родственников в степи, в меннонитских колониях южной Таврической губернии. Во время своего пребывания там он отме- тил сходство между степями и Великими равнинами: «Путешественник по канзас- ским равнинам, если его внезапно, во сне перевезли в Южную Россию и оставили в Крыму, обнаружил бы крайне мало различий в своем окружении, за исключением людей и типа сельскохозяйственных орудий и скота» . Карлтон также отметил, что те методы культивации, которые меннониты привезли с собой из степи в  -х го- дах, включали плантажную вспашку, черный пар и системы севооборотов, а также (что для Карлтона представляло особый интерес) разные виды пшеницы . Суще- ствуют и  другие свидетельства того, что мигранты из  степи на Великие равнины diamond j. guns, germs and steel. new york, . p. . saul norman e. the migration of the russian-germans to kansas // kansas historical quartely. . vol. . p. – . Мун Д. Интродукция русской пшеницы на Великих равнинах Соединенных Штатов Амери- ки // Американский ежегодник. . С. – . carleton m. a. russian cereals adapted for cultivation in the united states. washington, . Р. . carleton m. a. successful wheat growing in semiarid districts //  yearbook of the united states department of agriculture. . p. – .  — В -х годах некоторые американские специали- сты признавали, что методы «сухого земледелия» к  тому времени уже существовали: hargreaves mary w. m. dry farming in the northern great plains, – . cambridge, . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. конца xix  в., в  основном меннониты или этнические немцы, привозили с  собой свои методы ведения сельского хозяйства . Нет никаких сомнений в том, что американские фермеры и агрономы разраба- тывали некоторые методы «сухого земледелия» самостоятельно, пытаясь, несмотря на полузасушливый климат, развить частное земледелие на плодородных почвах Великих равнин, и все же некоторые из данных методов, возможно, родились в сте- пях Российской империи. references bruk s. i., kabuzan v. m. migratsiia naseleniia v rossii v xviii — nachale xx veka (chislennost’, struktura, geografiia). istoriia sssr, , no. , pp. – . (in russian) dokuchaev v. v. nashi stepi: prezhde i teper’. v. v. dokuchaev. sochineniia. in   vols, vol. . moscow; leningrad, akademiia nauk ussr publ., ,  p. (in russian) druzhinina e. i. severnoe prichernomor’e v –   gg. moscow, akademiia nauk ussr publ., ,  p. (in russian) druzhinina e. i. iuzhnaia ukraina v –  gg. moscow, nauka publ., ,  p. (in russian) druzhinina e. i. iuzhnaia ukraina v period krizisa feodalizma –  gg. moscow, nauka publ., ,  p. (in russian) elina o. ot tsarskikh sadov do sovetskikh polei: istoriia sel’skokhoziaistvennykh opytnykh uchrezhdenii xviii — -e gody xx v. in  vols. moscow, egmont-rossiia publ., vol. . ,  p. (in russian) friesen l. rural revolutions in southern ukraine: peasants, nobles, and colonists, – . cambridge, harvard university press, ,  p. hargreaves w. m. the dry-farming movement in retrospect. agricultural history, , vol. , pp. – . hargreaves w. m. dry farming in the northern great plains, – . cambridge, harvard university press, ,  p. hargreaves w. m. hardy webster campbell ( – ). agricultural history, , vol. , pp. – . kabuzan v. m. zaselenie novorossii v xviii — pervoi polovine xix veka ( –  gg.). moscow, nauka publ., ,  p. (in russian) kabuzan v. m. naselenie severnogo kavkaza v xix–xx vekakh: etnostatisticheskoe issledovanie. st. peters- burg, russko-baltiiskii informatsionnyi tsentr “blits” publ., ,  p. (in russian) khodarkovsky m. russia’s steppe frontier: the making of a colonial empire, – . bloomington, indiana university press, ,  p. moon d. introduktsiia russkoi pshenitsy na velikikh ravninakh soedinennykh shtatov ameriki. amerikanskii ezhegodnik, , pp. – . (in russian) moon d. the plough that broke the steppes: agriculture and environment on russia’s grasslands, – . oxford, oxford university press, ,  p. moon d. the grasslands of north america and russia. a companion to global environmental history. eds j. r. mcneill, e. s. maudlin. oxford, wiley blackwell publ., , pp. – . otto j. s. from the russian steppes to the north dakota prairies: the agricultural practices of a russian- german family. journal of the american historical society of germans from russia. , vol. / , pp. – . pronshtein a. p. zemlia donskaia v xviii veke. rostov na donu, rostov university press, ,  p. (in russian) racz l. the steppe to europe: an environmental history of hungary in the traditional age. cambridge, white horse publ., ,  p. savel’ev p. i. puti agrarnogo kapitalizma v rossii: xix vek (po materialam povolzh’ia). samara, samarskii universitet press, ,  p. (in russian) saul norman e. the migration of the russian-germans to kansas. kansas historical quartely. , vol.  , pp. – . otto j. s. from the russian steppes to the north dakota prairies: the agricultural practices of a russian-german family //  journal of the american historical society of germans from russia. . vol. / . p. – . Вестник СПбГУ. История. . Т. . Вып. staples john r. cross-cultural encounters on the ukrainian steppe: settling the molochna basin, – . toronto, university of toronto press, ,  p. tulaikov n. m. agriculture in the dry regions of the u. s. s. r. economic geography, , vol. , pp. – . urry j. none but saints: the transformation of mennonite life in russia, – . winnipeg, hyperion, ,  p. webb w. p. the great plains. lincoln, nebraska, university of nebraska press, ,  p. Статья поступила в редакцию  апреля  г. Рекомендована в печать  марта  г. biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variability: interpopulational versus intrapopulational analyses anthony g. c o m u z z i e a n d michael h. crawford abstract the literature is replete with articles suggesting the exis- tence o f a relationship between variability at biochemical loci and morphological variation in various animal populations, including humans. with few exceptions these previous studies have utilized an interpopulational approach by examining levels o f heterozygosity between modal and extreme phenotypes, typically by use of analy- sis of variance. here we consider these purported relationships in a midwestern mennonite population (n = ) by correlating indi- vidual biochemical heterozygosity and deviation from the mean for anthropometric traits. the results o f this intrapopulational correla- tion indicate that ( ) with protection for multiple tests, there are few significant correlations and these have low r values, and ( ) males and females show different patterns o f correlation (males negative, females positive). based on these findings, the results of earlier stud- ies are in question because nonprotected alpha values are used for multiple tests and heterozygosity is calculated on the basis o f a few highly heterozygous b l o o d group systems and is assumed to be rep- resentative o f the heterozygosity for the entire genome. in general, no evidence is found to support the concept of a direct relationship between biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variability. for a trait controlled by polygenes individuals most proximal to the pop- ulation mean are the most heterozygous for that trait (falconer ). such a relationship between heterozygosity and phenotypic distribution is a reflection of the additive nature of loci in a polygenic system (el- ston ). this distribution may be enforced further by stabilizing se- lection that acts against the more homozygous individuals (beardmore and shami ; falconer ; soule ). the concept of stabiliz- ing selection was originally utilized by lerner ( ) and waddington ( ) to support developmental canalization in heterozygotes. accord- ing to this theory, given environmental fluctuations, the more canalized department of anthropology and laboratory of biological anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas . human biology, february , vol. , no. , pp. - © wayne state university press, / comuzzie and crawford heterozygotes should exhibit a higher degree of developmental homeosta- sis, that is, less variability (lerner ; vrijenhoek and lerman ; waddington ). irrespective of its actual cause, the normal distribu- tion typically associated with morphological variation has increasingly been assumed by many researchers to reflect underlying levels of het- erozygosity. it has been suggested that the heterozygosity expressed by an in- dividual for simple mendelian traits, such as protein polymorphisms in the blood, should reflect an equivalent level of heterozygosity in quan- titative traits (eanes ; handford ; kat ; kobyliansky and livshits ; livshits and kobyliansky a,b; mitton ). specifi- cally, attempts have been made to correlate heterozygosity in biochemical systems to the variance observed in quantitative morphological charac- ters (kobyliansky and livshits ; livshits and kobyliansky a, b; schmitt et al. ). although most of these studies have utilized a variety of organisms (eanes ; handford ; mitton ), there has been only minimal research on this relationship in human popula- tions (chakraborty et al. ; kobyliansky and livshits ; livshits and kobyliansky a,b; schmitt et al. ). most of these previous studies share a common methodological approach to the relationship between heterozygosity and morphological vaiability, namely, an inter- populational perspective. the present study differs because it not only focuses on humans but also examines the relationship from an intrapopu- lational level. schmitt et al. ( ) used a similar approach. our purpose here is to test the validity of the previously reported negative association between biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variability. materials and methods the sample for this study consists of adult mennonites ( males, females) ranging in age from to years and residing in three midwestern mennonite communities (seven congregations). of the total sample males and females are years of age or younger. the three communities are a geographically isolated and genetically well- defined population as a result of their religious and social structure. we utilized both genotypic data for biochemical traits and a n t h r o p o m e t r i c data for the quantitative traits for all individuals in the study sample. we determined the phenotypes for different erythrocytic antigens and serum proteins for all individuals who participated in this study. the blood group markers were rhesus, mn, ss, kell, kp, kidd, lewis, p, duffy, and lutheran, and the red cell and serum proteins were hap- heterozygosity and variation / toglobin (hp), ceruloplasmin (cp), group-specific component (gc), prop- erdin factor (bf), adenylate kinase (ak), adenosine deaminase (ada), -phosphogluconate dehydrogenase ( -pgd), acid phosphatase (ap), es- terase d (esd), phosphoglucomutase (pgm ), phosphoglucomutase (pgm ), glycoxalase (glo), and isocitrate dehydrogenase (icd). the methods used to identify the blood group and protein phenotypes are described by crawford et al. ( ). the means and standard deviations for anthropometric traits and the transmissibilities (using the tau path analytical model) for this population have been described by devor et al. ( a,b), who demonstrated that in mennonites the linear traits tend to exhibit a higher genetic component than the circumferential measurements. of the anthropometric traits reported, we selected measurements for use in this study. the traits selected reflect the basic dimensions of body height and width and have on average a relatively large genetic component (devor et al. b). the use of these traits maximizes comparisons on a genetic level while reducing environmental influences on the correlations. the traits are stature, weight, sitting height, iliospinal height, trochanteric height, biacromial width, chest breadth, chest width, bicristal width, bitrochanteric width, upper limb length, upper arm length, suprasternal height, leg length, head length, head width, minimum frontal width, bizygomatic breadth, and bigonial width. we estimated individual heterozygosity by enumerating all het- erozygous loci per individual and dividing this sum by the total num- ber of available blood loci ( h = nhcx/n). we computed heterozygosity for three combinations of the blood genetic data: ( ) all loci; ( ) serum and red cell proteins; and ( ) the mn, ss, rhesus (c and e loci), and duffy blood groups. to compare the mennonite data set with other studies of human populations (kobyliansky and livshits ; livshits and kobyliansky a,b), we measured heterozygosity on the bases of only the mn, ss, rhesus (c and e loci), and duffy antigens. we subdivided the anthropometric data by sex and then calculated descriptive statistics for both the male and female samples for the traits. we computed individual morphological variation (standard devi- ation) by subtracting each anthropometric measurement from the mean value for the appropriate sex (d = \x - x\). this absolute value of the standard deviation provides a measure of the dispersal of each individ- ual value around the mean. following the calculation of the individual estimated heterozygosity (h) and the deviation from the mean (d) for met- rical traits, we examined the normality of distribution of these traits by graphical means. we calculated multiple correlations (pearson's product moment r score) between individual mean heterozygosity and the abso- / comuzzie and crawford lute value of the individual deviation from the mean for anthropometric traits (sokal and rolf ). we computed these correlations for the het- erozygosities estimated on all combinations of blood genetic data and for all anthropometric traits for total samples and for samples of in- dividuals -years-old or younger for both sexes. we examined possible age-related changes in the variability of morphological traits by compar- ing genetic and morphological variation in individuals -years-old or younger. the reason for this subdivision by age was to avoid increases in individual variation from the population mean resulting from such age-related factors as decrease in stature. to maintain an alpha value of . across all correlations, we used bonferroni's experiment-wise protected alpha (wallenstein et al. ). this statistical procedure was necessary because the probability of committing a type i error increases with the number of tests con- ducted. although bonferroni's protection is a conservative approach, it is recommended that some type of experiment-wise protection be used when making multiple statistical tests of this nature (wallenstein et al. ). with multiple tests at least significant correlation out of can be expected to be due to chance alone at the . level without the use of a protected alpha value. to ensure a . alpha across our entire ex- periment, we obtained the protected alpha value needed for significance of each individual test by dividing . by the number of tests being conducted. for our data an individual alpha of . is necessary to maintain an experiment-wise alpha of . for the correlations. results in all cases the average heterozygosity estimates, based on the three groupings of the genotypic data, provided similar results for both sexes (table ). we observed no major differences when the sample was restricted to those individuals less than or equal to years of age. average heterozygosity, calculated by means of all available biochemical loci versus serum and red cell proteins, shows little difference, with an average heterozygosity of - %. however, the mean heterozygosity estimates calculated on the bases of the mn, ss, rhesus (c and e loci), and duffy antigens gave higher estimates of - %. as shown in table , no significant correlations exist in males when bonferroni's experiment-wise protection is applied to all three estimates of heterozygosity. also, with the application of bonferroni's protection, for males years of age or younger there are no significant correlations heterozygosity and variation / table . population estimates of m e a n percent heterozygosity based on three combinations of biochemical loci red cell and rhesus, mn, group loci serum proteins s, and duffy all males . . . males < years of age . . . all females . . . females < years of age . . . between individual heterozygosity and morphological variability for all three estimates of heterozygosity. without bonferroni's protection we observed several significant negative correlations between individual heterozygosity and morphological variability for some of the width measurements. despite bonferroni's experiment-wise protection, we found several significant correlations for females of all ages between individual het- erozygosity estimated on all loci and on the mn, ss, rhesus, and duffy loci and morphological variability. for heterozygosity estimated on the bases of all biochemical loci, there were significant positive correlations between heterozygosity and morphological variability for il- iospinal height and upper arm length. heterozygosity based entirely on the mn, ss, rhesus, and duffy loci was significantly correlated with up- per arm length. for females less than or equal to years of age there were no signif- icant correlations between heterozygosity and morphological variability for all three estimates when bonferroni's protection was employed (table ). both female samples exhibited several significant correlations for all three estimates of heterozygosity without the bonferroni's experiment- wise protection (see tables and ). however, in all cases the coefficient of determination was too low to offer any significant explanation. we tested the interrelationship of anthropometric traits through a series of multiple correlations and observed significant correlations be- tween all height measurements and most of the width measurements. these findings concur with the results of devor et al. ( a), who per- formed principal component analyses of this same data set. for signifi- cant correlations between heterozygosity and morphological variability in the male sample, we noted a negative relationship associated with mea- surements of width when bonferroni's protection was applied. for both female samples, when bonferroni's protection was employed, all signif- icant correlations between heterozygosity and morphological variability were positive and associated with measurements of height. / comuzzie and crawford table . correlations between individual m e a n heterozygosity and morphological variation for all adults* males females trait r r r r heterozygosity estimated on loci stature . . iliospinal height . b . trochanteric height . . upper limb length . . upper arm length . b . suprasternal height . . leg length . . chest width - . . bitrochanteric width - . . bizygomatic breadth - . . heterozygosity estimated on serum proteins stature . . iliospinal height . . trochanteric height . . upper limb length . . upper arm length . . suprasternal height . . leg length . . head length . . head width . . bicristal width - . . bitrochanteric width - . . heterozygosity estimated on the mn, s, rhesus, and duffy loci iliospinal height . . trochanteric height . . chest width - . . upper arm length . b . suprasternal height . . a. significant values at the . level without bonferroni's protection. b. significant with bonferroni's corrected alpha for an experiment-wise error rate of . (individual test significant at the . level). heterozygosity and variation / table . individual m e a n heterozygosity and morphological variation for adults less than or equal to years of age males females trait r r r r heterozygosity estimated on loci suprasternal height bicristal width - . . . . heterozygosity estimated on serum proteins stature chest breadth bicristal width bitrochanteric width - . - . . . . - . - . . . . heterozygosity estimated on the mn, s, rhesus, and duffy loci iliospinal height chest width upper limb length suprasternal height biacromial width - . . . - . . . . . . . a. significant values at the . level without bonferroni's protection. b. no significant correlations with the use of bonferroni's protected alpha values. discussion the validity of an estimate of genomic heterozygosity based on a limited number of loci must be questioned. mitton and pierce ( ) have suggested that estimations of heterozygosity from as few as a dozen randomly chosen loci correlate significantly with heterozygos- ity estimated from upward of a hundred biochemical loci. however, chakraborty ( , ) argues that estimates of heterozygosity based on a limited number of loci do not adequately reflect the heterozygosity of the system. this should be of no surprise, given that in humans the num- ber of structural loci in the genome is estimated to be between , and , (harris and hopkinson ; mckusick ). therefore esti- mates of heterozygosity based on loci (a larger sample than has thus far been employed in humans) are sampling only one-one-thousandth of the total genome. / comuzzie and crawford although the estimations of individual heterozygosity in this study based on the loci and the red cell and serum proteins must be interpreted cautiously, they should provide a better estimate of genomic variability than the heterozygosities based on the mn, ss, rhesus, and duffy loci alone. kobyliansky and livshits ( ) and livshits and kobyliansky ( a,b) based their findings on estimates of heterozygosity using only these four blood group loci. furthermore, they chose these four loci because of the high levels of variation exhibited by these blood markers. in this study we observed that higher heterozygosity values are obtained when these highly polymorphic loci are utilized. as a result, the correlations found by kobyliansky and livshits ( ) and livshits and kobyliansky ( a,b) between heterozygosity and morphological variability must be considered biased as a result of inflated estimates of heterozygosity calculated from a small and nonrandomly selected sample of biochemical loci. an accurate interpretation of their findings is further confounded by the use of few data points in the calculation of correlations between population heterozygosity and coefficients of variation and other measures of populational morphological variability. in these earlier studies kobyliansky and livshits ( ) and livshits and kobyliansky ( a,b) made no attempts to control for experiment- wise error rates with protected alpha values, which leads to an increased chance of committing a type i statistical error across all tests conducted. therefore the validity of their reported significance at the . level must be reevaluated. although several researchers (eanes ; handford ; kobyli- ansky and livshits ) have suggested a relationship between het- erozygosity and morphological variability at the populational level, there appears to be little or no evidence for such a relationship when the analysis is intrapopulational. our findings support the previous work of chakraborty ( ), chakraborty and ryman ( ), chakraborty et al. ( ), and schmitt et al. ( ). we observed several significant cor- relations even with bonferroni's protection, even though the coefficients of determination (r ) were too low to adequately explain the relation- ships between heterozygosity for the biochemical loci and morphological variability. if, however, our results are interpreted as evidence for the ex- istence of a relationship between heterozygosity and morphological vari- ability, the apparent difference in this relationship between the sexes must be explained. why should males exhibit a negative correlation between genetic and morphological variation and females a positive association previous studies of a variety of organisms (eanes ; hand- ford ; kat ; kobyliansky and livshits ) have demon- strated the existence of a negative correlation between heterozygosity and heterozygosity and variation / morphological variability, with higher heterozygosity correlated with de- creased morphological variability. this relationship has been interpreted (livshits and kobyliansky a) as reflecting an increased level of de- velopmental homeostasis conferred on the heterozygote. if bonferroni's protection and the low coefficients of determination are ignored, then this same pattern is seen in the results for the male mennonites. at the same time, however, a pattern of positive correlations emerges for the females. in kobyliansky and livshit's research males comprise the entire sample. as a result, the researchers' finding of a negative correlation be- tween heterozygosity and morphological variation reflects a sex bias. in this study we did not observe significant differences in the individual estimates of heterozygosity between the sexes. however, we did note a difference between the type of anthropometric trait and the direction for which heterozygosity and morphological variability are correlated between the sexes. the males exhibit negative correlations with mea- surements of width, and the females exhibit positive correlations with measurements of length. if such a pattern is considered significant, then it is not possible to fit these results into the earlier explanations of the relationship of biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variation. according to soule ( ) much of the apparent disagreement be- tween the findings in this and other studies (kobyliansky and livshits ; livshits and kobyliansky a,b) may be due to differences in approach between interpopulational and intrapopulational analyses. the earlier studies primarily examined the variation between classes of het- erozygotes. as a result, relationships between heterozygosity and mor- phological variability were analyzed at a broad interpopulational level. however, examination of this relationship at the intrapopulational level may provide too fine a resolution for any pattern to be readily appar- ent. because quantitative traits are used in these analyses, environmen- tal variation may be sufficiently large to obscure any genetic correlation for heterozygosity between biochemical and polygenic loci. additional research is needed to examine the interaction of developmental home- ostasis, heterozygosity, and morphological variability. by utilizing an interpopulational approach, livshits and kobylian- sky ( a,b) and kobyliansky and livshits ( ) observed a negative correlation between heterozygosity and the coefficient of variation for a male sample. an examination of this purported association on an in- trapopulational level in mennonites revealed some negative correlations for males but positive correlations for females. three out of anthropo- metric traits for males and out of traits for females were significantly correlated with genetic heterozygosity. all the significant correlations in / comuzzie and crawford the male sample were for width measurements, whereas the female signif- icant correlations were limited to the highly heritable linear traits. with the application of a highly conservative bonferroni's correction, all the significant correlations for the males became nonsignificant, whereas for the females only two significant correlations were observed. there are three major reasons for these conflicting results: ( ) the small number of blood loci used to estimate heterozygosity in previous studies; ( ) the use of multiple statistical tests without employing a protected alpha value in significance testing; ( ) small sample sizes. livshits and kobyliansky used only four highly polymorphic blood group loci to characterize organismic variation, which has been estimated to consist of at least , loci. as stated earlier, given possible associations, chance will dictate that on average at least significant association will be observed at the . level of significance. as few as five to seven male subdivisions (populations) were utilized by livshits and kobyliansky in their interpopulational correlation analysis. thus it is not surprising that with so few data points any trend can result in a highly significant correlation. in this mennonite intrapopulational study the observation of pos- itive significant correlations between heterozygosity and several linear (high heritability) traits is worthy of further investigation. these findings contradict the negative associations between heterozygosity and morpho- logical variables observed by kobyliansky and livshits in a number of different populations. the results of this study raise some questions as to whether stabilizing selection operates on contemporary human popu- lations with regard to all body dimensions. the exact relationship of heterozygosity at biochemical loci and morphological variability has been questioned (mcandrew et al. ). the adequacy of estimating heterozygosity based on small samples of biochemical loci has been challenged as well (mitton and pierce ; nei and roychoudhury ) . it can be seen f r o m the results of this study t h a t t h e number and type of loci used to estimate heterozygosity can have a pronounced effect on the outcome. the difference in the struc- ture of variation at both the population and the individual level (soule ) and perhaps even differences between the sexes must be consid- ered. at present, the relationship between biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variability in h u m a n populations remains somewhat am- biguous and in need of further study. received may ; revision received july . heterozygosity and variation / literature cited beardmore, j., and s. shami heterozygosity and the optimum phenotype under stabilising selection. aquilo ser. zool. : - . c h a k r a b o r t y , r. the distribution of the number of heterozygous loci in an individual in natural populations. genetics : - . c h a k r a b o r t y , r. biochemical heterozygosity and phenotypic variability of poly- genic traits. heredity : - . c h a k r a b o r t y , r., a n d n . r y m a n relationship of mean and variance of geno- typic values with heterozygosity per individual in a natural population. genetics : - . c h a k r a b o r t y , r . , r . e . f e r r e l l , s.a. b a r t o n , a n d w.j. s c h u l l genetic polymorphism and fertility parameters in the aymara of chile and bolivia. ann. hum. genet. : - . c r a w f o r d , m . h . , d . d . d y k e s , a n d h . f . p o l e s k y genetic structure of men- nonite populations of kansas and nebraska. h u m . biol. : - . devor, e., m. mcgue, m. crawford, and p. lin a transmissible and nontrans- missible components of anthropometric variation in the alexanderwohl mennonites. i. description and familial correlations. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . devor, e., m. mcgue, m. crawford, and p. lin b transmissible and nontrans- missible components of anthropometric variation in the alexanderwohl mennonites. ii. resolution by path analysis. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . eanes, w. morphological variance and enzyme heterozygosity in the monarch butterfly. nature : - . e l s t o n , r.c. segregation analysis. in current developments in anthropological genetics, j.h. mielke and m.h. crawford, eds. new york: plenum press. falconer, d. introduction to quantitative genetics, d ed. essex: longman sci- entific and technical publishers. handford, p. heterozygosity at enzyme loci and morphological variation. nature : - . h a r r i s , h., a n d d . l . h o p k i n s o n handbook of enzyme electrophoresis in human genetics. amsterdam: north-holland. kat, p. the relationship between heterozygosity for enzyme loci and developmental homeostasis in peripheral populations of aquatic bivalves (unionidae). am. natur. : - . kobyliansky, e., and g. livshits relationship between levels of biochemical heterozygosity and morphological variability in human populations. ann. hum. genet. : - . lerner, i. genetic homeostasis. edinburgh: oliver and boyd. livshits, g., and e. kobyliansky a biochemical heterozygosity as a predictor of developmental homeostasis in man. ann. h u m . genet. : - . l i v s h i t s , g., a n d e. k o b y l i a n s k y b comparative analysis of morphological traits in biochemically homozygous and heterozygous individuals from a single population. j. h u m . evol. : - . m c a n d r e w , b . , r . w a r d , a n d j. b e a r d m o r e lack of relationship between mor- phological variance and enzyme heterozygosity in the plaice, pleuronectes platessa. heredity : - . mckusick, v.a. mendelian inheritance in man, th ed. baltimore, md.: johns hopkins university press. / comuzzie and crawford mitton, j. relationship between heterozygosity for enzyme loci and morphological characters in natural populations. nature : - . mitton, j., and b. pierce the distribution of individual heterozygosity in natural populations. genetics : - . nei, m., and a. roychoudhury sampling variances of heterozygosity and genetic distance. genetics : - . schmitt, l.h., g.a. harrison, and r.w. hiorns genetic and morphometric variances in three human populations. ann. hum. genet. : - . sokal, r.r., and f.j. rolf biometry, d ed. new york: w.h. freeman. soule, m. heterozygosity and developmental stability: another look. evolution : - . vrijenhoek, r., and s. lerman heterozygosity and developmental stability under sexual and asexual breeding systems. evolution : - . w a d d i n g t o n , c.h. the strategy of the gene. london: allen and unwin. wallenstein, s., c. zucker, and j. fleiss some statistical methods useful in circulation research. circ. res. : - . _ - _ _ - v o l u m e n u m b e r j u n e published for the central european history society of the american historical association c e n t r a l e u r o p e a n h i s t o r y v o l . , n o . , c e n t r a l e u r o p e a n h i s t o r y c a m b r i d g e cambridge journals online for further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: journals.cambridge.org/ccc _ - _ _ - / / : pm page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core subscription information: central european history (issn - ) is published quarterly in march, june, september, and december by cambridge university press, avenue of the americas, new york, ny - usa/the edinburgh building, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb ru, uk for the central european history society of the american historical association. annual subscription rates for volume ( ): institutional subscription rates, print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription rates, online only: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. individual subscription rates include membership in the central european history society of the american historical association and are as follows: print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. graduate students enrolled at accredited universities may subscribe and become members at rates that are as follows: print and online: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. single part prices: us $ . in the usa, canada, and mexico; uk £ . + vat elsewhere. institutional subscription correspondence should be sent to cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny , usa, for customers in the usa, canada, or mexico. customers elsewhere should contact cambridge university press, the edinburgh building, shaftesbury road, cambridge cb ru, uk. editorial office: all correspondence concerning submissions and manuscripts under review should be sent to central european history, case western reserve university, department of history, mather house room , euclid avenue, cleveland, oh - . email: centraleuropeanhistory@case.edu abstracting and indexing information: articles in central european history are indexed or abstracted in historical abstracts, america: history and life, humanities index, book review index, internationale bibliographie der zeitschriftenliteratur (ibz), current contents/social and behavioral science, social science citation index, universal index system, combined retrospective index sets in history (cris), international bibliography of book reviews of scholarly literature on the humanities and social sciences (ibr), rambi. © central european history society of the american historical association, . all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, elec- tronic, photocopy, or otherwise, without permission in writing from cambridge university press, rights and permissions manager, avenue of the americas, new york, ny - usa. for further information see http://us.cambridge.org/information/rights/. postmaster: send address changes to central european history, cambridge university press, brook hill drive, west nyack, ny - , usa. photocopying information for users in the usa: the item-fee code for the publication ( - / $ . ) indicates that copying for internal or personal use beyond that per- mitted by sec. or of the u.s. copyright law is authorized for users duly registered with the copyright clearance center (ccc), provided that the appropriate remittance of $ . per article is paid directly to ccc, rosewood drive, danvers, ma . specific written permission must be obtained for all other copying. internet access: this journal is included in the cambridge journals online service which can be found at http://journals.cambridge.org. for further information on other press titles, access http://www.cambridge.org advertising: in the usa: usadsales@cambridge.org. in the uk: ad_sales@cambridge.org editorial policy central european history publishes articles, review articles, book reviews, and conference reports dealing with the history of german-speaking central europe. the journal solicits manuscripts using all approaches to history and dealing with all historical periods. because space is limited, articles that have been or soon will be published else- where are not accepted. manuscripts submitted to ceh should not be under consideration by another journal pending decision of the editor on publication. if it is learned that an article is under submission to another journal while being considered at ceh, consideration will cease immediately. unsolicited book reviews are not accepted. manuscripts and correspondence should be directed to: the editor central european history case western reserve university department of history mather house room euclid avenue cleveland, oh - email: centraleuropeanhistory@case.edu the editors prefer that manuscripts be submitted in electronic form as email attachments sent to the journal’s address, preferably in microsoft word or later or wordperfect . or later; adobe acrobat pdf files will also be reviewed. manuscripts submitted in printed form must be accompanied by a compact disk or diskette with the article in word, wordperfect, or pdf. the entire text of all manuscripts, including footnotes and headings, must be prepared in double-spaced typescript with generous margins to allow for copyediting. footnotes must be numbered consecutively and should be placed in a separate section at the end of the text. correspondence concerning book reviews should be sent to: the associate editor central european history department of history amherst college amherst, ma email: ceh@amherst.edu further guidelines for the preparation of manuscripts for publication in central european history will be sent upon acceptance of materials by the editor. all materials will be edited to conform with the chicago manual of style in matters regarding punctuation, capitalization, and format. the final decision on style remains with the editor. _ - _ _ - / / : pm page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core central european history volume number articles from the grÜnen wiesen to urban space: berlin, expansion, and the longue durÉe introduction eli rubin shantytowns and pioneers beyond the city wall: berlin’s urban frontier in the nineteenth century kristin poling urban sewage and green meadows: berlin’s expansion to the south – marion w. gray the nature of berlin: green space and visions of a new german capital, – barry a. jackisch amnesiopolis: from mietskaserne to wohnungsbauserie in east berlin’s northeast eli rubin other articles “censorship is official critique”: contesting the limits of scholarship in the censorship of the hallische jahrbücher matthew bunn the search for the “other germany”: refugee historians from nazi germany and the contested historical legacy of the resistance to hitler marjorie lamberti i terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews avi lifschitz, language and enlightenment: the berlin debates of the eighteenth century yair mintzker mark jantzen, mennonite german soldiers: nation, religion, and family in the prussian east, – michael b. gross steven e. aschheim, at the edges of liberalism: junctions of european, german, and jewish history alan t. levenson rolf hosfeld, karl marx: an intellectual biography tuska benes joshua derman, max weber in politics and social thought: from charisma to canonization matthew specter donald bloxham and robert gerwarth, eds., political violence in twentieth-century europe valdis o. lumans moritz föllmer, individuality and modernity in berlin: self and society from weimar to the wall thomas kühne brigid cohen, stefan wolpe and the avant-garde diaspora pamela m. potter susanne heim, carola sachse, and mark walker, eds., the kaiser wilhelm society under national socialism michael r. dietrich christian hartmann, operation barbarossa: nazi germany’s war in the east, – alex j. kay frank ellis, the stalingrad cauldron: inside the encirclement and destruction of the th army david k. yelton richard breitman and allan j. lichtman, fdr and the jews francis r. nicosia ulrike weckel, beschämende bilder. deutsche reaktionen auf allierte dokumentarfilme über befreite konzentrationslager lawrence douglas contentsii terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core otto dov kulka, landscapes of the metropolis of death: reflections on memory and imagination omer bartov luuk van middelaar, the passage to europe: how a continent became a union allan janik gerard daniel cohen, in war’s wake: europe’s displaced persons in the postwar order heide fehrenbach sean brennan, the politics of religion in soviet-occupied germany: the case of berlin-brandenburg, – russel lemmons sabine hake, screen nazis: cinema, history, and democracy joe perry thomas w. maulucci, jr., adenauer’s foreign office: west german diplomacy in the shadow of the third reich günter bischof wolfgang kraushaar, “wann endlich beginnt bei euch der kampf gegen die heilige kuh israel?” münchen : über die antisemitischen wurzeln des deutschen terrorismus jeffrey herf contributors to this issue forthcoming contents iii terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core editor kenneth f. ledford case western reserve university associate editor catherine a. epstein amherst college assistant editor gayle l. godek board of editors central european history is published, four issues per year, by cambridge university press. it is indexed or abstracted in historical abstracts, america: history and life, humanities index, book review index, internationale bibliographie der zeitschriftenliteratur (ibz), current contents/ social and behavioral science, social science citation index, universal index system, and combined retrospective index sets in history (cris). © copyright by the central european history society of the american historical association all rights reserved. no part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. printed in the united states of america issn - shelley baranowski university of akron omer bartov brown university james m. brophy university of delaware kathleen canning university of michigan roger chickering georgetown university alon confino university of virginia david f. crew university of texas, austin kees gispen university of mississippi jeffrey herf university of maryland isabel hull cornell university pieter judson swarthmore college mary lindemann university of miami david m. luebke university of oregon robert g. moeller university of california, irvine ronnie po-chia hsia penn state university helmut walser smith vanderbilt university terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	ofc.pdf 	ifc.pdf 	s a.pdf 	ccc_ _ _editorpage.pdf << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice dyt dystonia: review of the literature and creation of the umd locusspecific database (lsdb) for mutations in the thap gene hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on dec hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. dyt dystonia: review of the literature and creation of the umd locus-specific database (lsdb) for mutations in the thap gene arnaud blanchard, vuthy ea, agathe roubertie, mélanie martin, coline coquart, mireille claustres, christophe béroud, gwenaelle collod-beroud to cite this version: arnaud blanchard, vuthy ea, agathe roubertie, mélanie martin, coline coquart, et al.. dyt dystonia: review of the literature and creation of the umd locus-specific database (lsdb) for mutations in the thap gene: review. human mutation, wiley, , ( ), pp. - . � . /humu. �. �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr databases www.hgvs.org dyt dystonia: review of the literature and creation of the umd locus-specific database (lsdb) for mutations in the thap gene arnaud blanchard, , vuthy ea, , agathe roubertie, , , mélanie martin, , coline coquart, mireille claustres, , , christophe béroud, , , and gwenaëlle collod-béroud , ∗ inserm u , montpellier, f- , france; université montpellier , ufr de médecine, montpellier, f- , france; chu montpellier, hôpital gui de chauliac, service de neuropédiatrie, montpellier, f- , france; chu montpellier, hôpital arnaud de villeneuve, laboratoire de génétique moléculaire, montpellier, f- , france communicated by alastair f. broun received january ; accepted revised manuscript june . published online july in wiley online library (www.wiley.com/humanmutation).doi: . /humu. abstract: by family-based screening, first fuchs and then many other authors showed that mutations in thap (thap [thanatos-associated protein] domain- containing, apoptosis-associated protein ) account for a substantial proportion of familial, early-onset, nonfo- cal, primary dystonia cases (dyt dystonia). thap is the first transcriptional factor involved in primary dysto- nia and the hypothesis of a transcriptional deregulation, which was primarily proposed for the x-linked dystonia- parkinsonism (dyt dystonia), provided thus a new way to investigate the possible mechanism underlying the de- velopment of dystonic movements. currently, fami- lies present with a thap mutation; however, no geno- type/phenotype relationship has been found. therefore, we carried out a systematic review of the literature on the thap gene to colligate all reported patients with a spe- cific thap mutation and the associated clinical signs in order to describe the broad phenotypic continuum of this disorder. to facilitate the comparison of the identified mutations, we created a locus-specific database (umd- thap lsdb) available at http://www.umd.be/thap /. currently, the database lists probands and rela- tives with the associated clinical phenotype when avail- able. the identification of a larger number of thap mutations and collection of high-quality clinical informa- tion for each described mutation through international collaborative effort will help investigating the structure– function and genotype–phenotype correlations in dyt dystonia. hum mutat : – , . c© wiley-liss, inc. ∗correspondence to: gwenaëlle collod-béroud, inserm u , institut universitaire de recherche clinique, av du doyen gaston giraud, montpellier cedex , france. e-mail: gwenaelle.collod-beroud@inserm.fr contract grant sponsors: université montpellier ; inserm; french ministry of health (national phrc -a - ); amadys-lfcd, alliance france dystonie; lions club la grande motte; the french dystonia network; the european community’s sev- enth framework programme (fp / – under grant agreement no. —the gen phen project). key words: dystonia; dyt ; thap , database; umd introduction dystonia defines a heterogeneous group of movement disorders due to central nervous system (cns) dysfunction leading to sus- tained involuntary muscle contractions that cause abnormal pos- tures and twisting movements. since secondary dystonia is often linked to striatal injuries, it has been hypothesized that hereditary dystonia also could be due to a dysfunction of these structures and more broadly of the basal ganglia. accordingly, many stud- ies have reported electrophysiological, metabolic, and structural abnormalities in these brain areas [vidailhet et al., ]. how- ever, basal ganglia are not the only brain region that has been found to be altered in hereditary dystonia. indeed, dysfunction of cerebral cortex, cerebellum, spinal cord, and other structures that are mainly involved in motor function has also been reported [breakefield et al., ; defazio et al., ]. therefore, the con- cept that dystonia is a disorder linked to a specific cns struc- ture appears to be too restrictive and it should rather be consid- ered as the result of a general disturbance of the motor circuit functions. hereditary dystonias are clinically and genetically heterogeneous. to date, different genetically forms are known (dyt to dyt ; with dyt = dyt ) and mutations in nine genes have been in- volved [breakefield et al., ; norgren et al., ]. all the inheri- tance modes are found (autosomic recessive, autosomic dominant, and x-linked) but no epistatic relation between these genes was discovered except for dyt and dyt forms [gavarini et al., ; kaiser et al., ]. since their products have different cell functions, it is very difficult up to now to propose a scheme of cell dysfunction common to all the dystonia forms and particularly to propose a unitary pathophysiological mechanism even if links with dopamine deregulation are often found [blanchard et al., ; park et al., ]. the last identified gene, thap for thap [thanatos-associated protein] domain-containing, apoptosis-associated protein , was first found to be mutated in amish–mennonite families with pri- mary dystonia and its implication was then extended to other c© wiley-liss, inc. populations [almasy et al., ; fuchs et al., ]. thap muta- tions cause dyt dystonia, an autosomal dominant primary form with about % penetrance. the main clinical characteristics of this form are early onset (mean = . years of age [calculated from patients with available data]) and symptoms often localized to one upper limb at the beginning with tendency to extend to other body regions. fifty-three different mutations in the thap gene have been re- ported so far in families (table ). these mutations are mainly private, essentially missense or out-of-frame deletions, usually non- recurrent, and widely distributed throughout the gene. to date, no genotype/phenotype relationship has been observed. from this per- spective, we have compiled a database that gather all the available information on this gene and on the patients with thap mutations and created a software package to facilitate the mutational analysis of thap . this database is available at http://www.umd.be/thap /. thap expression two spliced mrna variants that produce functional proteins have been reported (thap a: ccds and thap b: ccds ) [girard et al., ]. the first . -kb isoform contains three exons (fig. ), whereas the second corresponds to an alternatively spliced isoform that lacks exon ( -kb mrna). this second isoform en- codes a truncated thap protein without the c-terminus of the thap domain. the two isoforms are expressed in many tissues, suggesting that thap has a widespread (although not ubiquitous) distribution in humans. in mouse brain tissue, immunoblot analysis revealed a highest concentration in embryonic whole brain tissue (at e ), which declines after birth in the different tested brain regions (at p ) [gavarini et al., ]. thap a, which contains the thap domain with dna-binding properties, is the most studied. thap is a transcription factor thap was first identified by two-hybrid screen of a high en- dothelial venule cell cdna library using a cytokine bait [roussigne et al., ]. thap is a amino-acid-long protein characterized by an n-terminal thap domain (amino acids to ) [bessiere et al., ] with dna-binding properties, followed by a proline- rich region (amino acids to ), and a nuclear localization signal (amino acids to ) (fig. a). the protein is only found in the nucleus where it can display both a diffuse distribution and a discrete localization in nuclear dots. thap colocalization with daxx, a well-characterized pro- tein that is expressed in promyelocytic leukemia (pml) nuclear bodies (nbs), indicates that these subnuclear regions are pml nbs. pml nbs are spheres of . – . μm, heterogeneous in composition, mobility, and function, that are present in most mammalian cell nu- clei [lallemand-breitenbach and de the, ]. the pml protein is the key organizer that recruits an ever-growing number of proteins, residing constitutively or more often transiently. pml nbs facil- itate partner protein posttranslational modification (acetylation, sumoylation, or phosphorylation) resulting in partner sequestra- tion, activation, or degradation. they are proposed to fine-tune a wide variety of processes: induction of apoptosis and cellular senes- cence, inhibition of proliferation, maintenance of genomic stability, and antiviral responses [bernardi and pandolfi, ]. thap interacts with the prostate apoptosis response- (par- , hgnc-approved gene symbols pawr), a pro-apoptotic protein that acts as a transcriptional regulator [roussigne et al., ]. pawr is present in low amounts in dendrites and synapses throughout the brain under normal conditions and its amount in- creases rapidly in neurons subjected to several triggers of apop- tosis including trophic factor deprivation, oxidative stress, and excitotoxins [duan et al., a; guo et al., ]. pawr induc- tion has been linked to neuronal death in various neurodegenera- tive diseases as parkinson’s [duan et al., b], alzheimer [guo et al., ], or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [pedersen et al., ]. more interestingly, pawr has been shown to serve other important function in nervous system. it interacts with d dopamine recep- tor (d dr) suggesting its potential role in modulating calcium- mediated dopaminergic signaling [park et al., ]. thap and pawr exhibit pro-apoptotic activities (they increase the apoptosis sensitivity of mouse t fibroblasts to tnf-α and serum withdrawal when overexpressed) and they are both indirectly recruited to pml nbs by pml [roussigne et al., ]. roussigne and coworkers proposed that pml nbs regulate the functions of thap and pawr. they may be the site of assembly and/or post- translational modifications of the thap /pawr complex or they may serve as a site of storage or degradation, thus regulating the free nucleoplasmic pool of pawr and thap . extensive database search using the thap domain identified about thap proteins among seven model animal organisms [clouaire et al., ]. interestingly, some of these proteins are tightly linked to the prb (retinoblastoma protein)/e f pathway, which regulates commitment of mammalian cells to dna replica- tion. the thap domain is present in the zebrafish ortholog of e f and in five caenorhabditis elegans proteins (lin- , lin- b, lin- a, him- , and gon- ), which are known to be genetically linked to lin- , the only rb ortholog found in c. elegans. based on these data, cayrol et al. [ ] investigated whether thap could be linked to the prb/e f pathway. they found that silenc- ing as well as overexpression of thap led to cell cycle arrest at the g /s transition. the similar effects following thap silenc- ing/overexpression suggest that, like many other proteins, thap needs an optimal range of concentration to fulfill its physiologi- cal roles. dna microarray analysis showed in both cases (upreg- ulation or downregulation of thap ) a reduction of the mrna levels of cell cycle regulators and about prb/e f-target genes [cayrol et al., ], including rrm (ribonucleotide reductase m ), birc (survivin), cdc (cell division cycle ), ccnb (cy- clin b ) [lacroix, ]. rrm is activated at the g /s transition and contains two predicted thap -binding sites (thabs) in its promoter. dnase i footprinting, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (emsa) protein/dna binding, and chromatin immunoprecipita- tion (chip) in proliferating endothelial cells demonstrated that en- dogenous thap directly binds to the promoter of rrm [cayrol et al., ]. moreover, mazars et al. [ ] showed that thap recruits hcf- (host cell factor ) to the rrm promoter to allow its expression, thus adding further evidence for a role of thap in cell cycle regulation. although the list of cofactors that participate in thap regulation of target genes is certainly not exhaustive, the available data clearly link thap to apoptosis (through its interac- tion with pawr) and to cell cycle (through hcf- ). thap structure the most extensive structural studies have focused on the thap domain of thap and implicitly serve as a model for the other hundred thap proteins discovered in the animal kingdom. in many aspects, the thap domain, which is about -amino-acid long, human mutation, vol. , no. , – , ta bl e . m ut at io ns r ep or te d in th e th a p g en e in ea ch fa m il y/ p ro ba nd m u ta ti o n n am e n o m en cl at u re (p ro te in ) w il d t yp e co d o n m u ta n t co d o n m u ta ti o n al ev en t a m in o ac id p o si ti o n e xo n n o . st ru ct u re h c d r el at iv es in th e d at ab as e r ef er en ce n o . in sd el m u ta ti o n c. _ d el in sg g g t t t a ,a p .p h e l eu fs x c c c in d el s in d el s st o p at l -t h a p d o m . [f u ch s et al ., ;b re ss m an et al ., ] m is se n se m u ta ti o n s c. a > g p .m et ? a t g g t g a -> g t h a p d o m . [d e c ar va lh o a gu ia r et al ., ] c. t > c p .s er p ro t c c c c c t -> c l -t h a p d o m . [c lo t et al ., ] c. c > t p .s er p h e t c c t t c c -> t l -t h a p d o m . [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. a > g p .t yr c ys a t g t g c a -> g l -t h a p d o m . [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. g > t p .g ly c ys g g c t g c g -> t l -t h a p d o m . [x ia o et al ., ] c. c > a p .a sn l ys a a c a a a c -> a l -t h a p d o m . [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. g > a p .a rg h is c g c c a c g -> a l -t h a p d o m . [z it te l et al ., ] c. a > g p .a sp g ly g a c g g c a -> g l -t h a p d o m . [x ia o et al ., ] c. t > a p .s er t h r t c t a c t t -> a l -t h a p d o m . [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. a > c p .h is p ro c a c c c c a -> c b s -t h a p d o m . [k ai se r et al ., ] c. c > g p .p ro a rg c c t c g t c -> g l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. g > a p .a rg g ln c g a c a a g -> a l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [p ai sa n -r u iz et al ., ] c. g > a p .a rg g ln c g a c a a g -> a l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [p ai sa n -r u iz et al ., ] c. g > c p .a rg p ro c g a c c a g -> c l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. c > g p .p ro a rg c c c c g c c -> g l -t h a p d o m . [j ec h et al ., ] c. t > a p .l eu h is c t t c a t t -> a l -t h a p d o m . a a in te ra ct io n s [s ch n ei d er et al ., ] c. g > a p .a la t h r g c t a c t g -> a a h -t h a p d o m . a a in te ra ct io n s [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. g > a p .c ys t yr t g t t a t g -> a b s -t h a p d o m . c c h m o ti f [g av ar in i et al ., ] c. c > a p .h is a sn c a c a a c c -> a a h -t h a p d o m . c c h m o ti f [s ö h n et al ., ] c. c > t p .t h r il e a c t a t t c -> t t h a p d o m . [g ro en et al ., ] c. t > g p .l eu a rg c t g c g g t -> g l -t h a p d o m . [c lo t et al ., ] c. a > t p .a sn il e a a t a t t a -> t l -t h a p d o m . [c h en g et al ., ] c. t > c p .p h e l eu t t t c t t t -> c a h -t h a p d o m . a a in te ra ct io n s [f u ch s et al ., ] c. t > c p .c ys a rg t g t c g t t -> c [s ö h n et al ., ] c. a > g p .l ys a rg a a g a g g a -> g [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. t > c p .p h e se r t t c t c c t -> c [x ia o et al ., ] c. a > g p .a sn se r a a c a g c a -> g h c f - b in d in g [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. c > g p .a sn l ys a a c a a g c -> g h c f - b in d in g [g ro en et al ., ] c. a > g p .t yr c ys t a t t g t a -> g h c f - b in d in g [s ö h n et al ., ] c. a > g p .m et v al a t g g t g a -> g c o il ed -c o il d o m . [s ö h n et al ., ] c. t > c b p .i le t h r a t t a c t t -> c n l s [x ia o et al ., ] c. a > c p .h is p ro c a t c c t a -> c n l s [c h en g et al ., ] c. g > a p .a la t h r g c a a c a g -> a c o il ed -c o il d o m . [x ia o et al ., ] c. g > a p .a rg g ln c g a c a a g -> a c o il ed -c o il d o m . [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. t > c p .c ys a rg a t g c g c t -> c c o il ed -c o il d o m . [b o n et ti et al ., ] c. c > a p .g ln l ys c a g a a g c -> a c o il ed -c o il d o m . [x ia o et al ., ] c. g > a p .a sp a sn g a c a a c g -> a [s ö h n et al ., ] (c on ti n u ed ) human mutation, vol. , no. , – , ta bl e . c on ti nu ed m u ta ti o n n am e n o m en cl at u re (p ro te in ) w il d t yp e co d o n m u ta n t co d o n m u ta ti o n al ev en t a m in o ac id p o si ti o n e xo n n o . st ru ct u re h c d r el at iv es in th e d at ab as e r ef er en ce n o . n o n se n se m u ta ti o n s c. c > t p .g ln x c a g t a g c -> t l -t h a p d o m . [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. c > t p .a rg x c g a t g a c -> t l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. t > g p .t yr x t a t t a g t -> g l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. c > t p .g ln x c a g t a g c -> t [s ö h n et al ., ] s m al lo u t- o f- fr am e d el et io n s c. d el t p .m et ? a t g d el b st o p at t h a p d o m . [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. _ d el p .a la g lu fs x g c c d el b st o p at l -t h a p d o m . [c lo t et al ., ] c. d el t p .p h e l eu fs x t t t d el c st o p at t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. _ d el a g p .g lu v al fs x g a g d el b st o p at l -t h a p d o m . [s ö h n et al ., ] c. d el c p .t h r l ys fs x a c a d el b st o p at a h -t h a p d o m . a v p t if m o ti f [h o u ld en et al ., ] c. _ d el c t p .p ro a rg fs x c c t d el b st o p at [b la n ch ar d et al ., ] c. _ d el t c p .v al p h ef sx t c a d el a st o p at [s ö h n et al ., ] c. _ d el t c b p .v al p h ef sx t c a d el a st o p at [d ja rm at i et al ., ] c. _ d el p .a rg a sp fs x c g g d el a st o p at n l s [c lo t et al ., ] c. d el c p .g ln se rf sx c a g d el a st o p at n l s [b re ss m an et al ., ] c. d el a b p .l ys a sn fs x a a a d el c st o p at n l s [d ja rm at i et al ., ] s m al li n -f ra m e d el et io n c. _ d el c a a p .a sn _ a sn d el a a c d el c in -f ra m e d el l -t h a p d o m . [g ro en et al ., ] c. _ d el c a a p .a sn _ a sn d el a a c d el c in -f ra m e d el l -t h a p d o m . [c lo t et al ., ] s m al lo u t- o f- fr am e in se rt io n c. d u p p .a rg l ys fs x a g g in s b st o p at c o il ed -c o il d o m . [b la n ch ar d et al ., ] f o r ea ch m u ta ti o n ,t h e n u cl eo ti d e an d p ro te in n am es ar e gi ve n ac co rd in g to th e n o m en cl at u re gu id el in es (h tt p :/ /w w w .h gv s. o rg /) . a n o te th at th e c. _ in sg g g t t ; _ d el a a c a m is h m u ta ti o n h as b ee n re n am ed in c. _ d el in sg g g t t t a to fo ll o w th e gu id el in e fo r “i n sd el ” m u ta ti o n (h tt p :/ /w w w .h gv s. o rg /) . b sa m e p at ie n t d es cr ib ed in th e tw o gi ve n re fe re n ce s; “t h a p d o m .” :t h a p d o m ai n ; “l -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n lo o p ; “l -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n lo o p ; “l -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n lo o p ; “l -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n lo o p ; “a h -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n α -h el ix ; “h -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n h el ix ; “h -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n h el ix ; “h -t h a p d o m .” :t h a p -d o m ai n h el ix ; “c o il ed -c o il d o m .” :c o il ed -c o il d o m ai n ; “n l s” :n u cl ea r lo ca li za ti o n se q u en ce ; “d n a b in d in g -” :a m in o ac id s p ro ve n to b e in vo lv ed in d n a -b in d in g ac ti vi ty ; “c c h m o ti f” :a m in o ac id s in vo lv ed in th e zi n c- d ep en d en t d n a -b in d in g ac ti vi ty o f t h a p th ro u gh th e c c h m o ti f; “h c f - b in d in g” :a m in o ac id s in vo lv ed in th e in te ra ct io n w it h h c f - ; “a a in te ra ct io n s” :i n te ra ct io n s b et w ee n t h a p am in o ac id s as d es cr ib ed in f ig u re b .e xa m p le :t h a p am in o ac id is in vo lv ed in in te ra ct io n s w it h t h a p am in o ac id s , ,a n d . f o r ea ch p ro b an d ,t h e n u m b er o f re la ti ve s in cl u d ed in th e d at ab as e is gi ve n . human mutation, vol. , no. , – , amino acid: exon nucleotide: exon exon thap domain proline-rich region nuclear localization sequence coiled-coil domain l l l l b b h h h h b : mvqscsaygcknrydkdkpvsfhkfpl rpslckeweaavrrknfkptkyssicsehftpdcfkrecnnkllkenavptift c c k p r w r f t c hf p k l e v y no binding activity: binding activity diminished: known amino acid interactions: a: thap domain amino acid: thap b thap a amino acid: s s y k pslcke r kn kp k ss st no change in activity when mutated to ala: loop beta strand alpha helice thap b : figure . thap and its thap domain. a: schematic representation of the thap gene and its two isoforms. isoform (thap a) and isoform (thap b) result from alternative splicing of exon ; b : schematic representation of the thap domain with amino acid positions for each structure. the upper figure represents the α-helix h , the three helices (h , h , and h ) (all in orange), the two β-sheets (b and b ) (in red), and the four loops (l to l , in gray). “no binding activity”: when these amino acids of the thap domain are mutated to alanine, thap shows loss of zinc-dependent dna-binding activity; amino acids that are part of the c ch motif are in red; “binding activity diminished”: when these amino acids are mutated to alanine, there is partial loss of dna-binding activity; “no binding activity modification when mutated to ala”: mutation of these amino acids to alanine does not change the dna-binding activity of thap [bessiere et al., ; clouaire et al., ]; “known amino acid interactions”: structural representation of the known amino acid interactions [bessiere et al., ]; b : topology diagram of the thap domain of human thap showing the secondary structure elements: the α-helix h , the three helices (h , h , and h ) (all in orange), the two β-sheets (b and b ) (in red), and the location of the four loops (l to l ). the zinc finger and the four ligands are shown in gray. modified from bessiere et al. [ ]. exhibits some specific features (fig. b ). it is characterized by a c ch signature (cys-x – -cys-x – -cys-x -his) associated with four invariant residues (pro , trp , phe , pro ) in the thap sequence. direct mutagenesis of each of these eight amino acids showed their critical identity for the zinc-dependent specific binding of the thap domain to a precise dna sequence (txxxggca: thabs consensus sequence) [clouaire et al., ] (fig. b ). an avptif box (ala -phe , in the thap sequence), also essential for dna binding, is located at the c-terminus of the thap domain. the nmr solution structure of the thap zinc finger of thap [bessiere et al., ] indicates that this domain consists of a first loop (l : gln -ser ), followed by two short antiparallel β-sheets (b : phe -lys and b : ser -cys ) separated by a loop (l : phe -lys )-helix (h : cys -val )-loop (l : arg -ser ) struc- ture (fig. b ). the four residues of the c ch motif (cys -cys - cys -h ) are three-dimensionally brought together to form the zinc-dependent dna-binding site. after the second β-strand, there are three helices: h (ser -his ), h (arg -phe ), and h (thr -phe ). h contains part of the avptif motif and is pre- ceded by a last mobile loop (l : lys -pro ). the alpha-helix h can be considered as an important inter- action hub and it is essential for the maintenance of the three- dimensional ( -d) shape of the thap domain (fig. b ). indeed, it makes contacts with many residues distributed throughout the do- main allowing a spatial connection between h (trp , ala , val ), l (phe , pro , arg ), l (phe ), ∼h (phe ), h (phe ), l (pro ), and h (phe ). residue trp , which is located in the core of h , seems to be a key amino acid for this function. it makes hydrophobic contacts with four amino acids (phe , arg , phe , and phe ), and nmr data strongly suggest the presence of interac- tion also with the two highly conserved prolines (pro and pro ). four of these residues have been functionally tested (pro , arg , phe , pro ) and their replacement by alanine strongly decreases the thap domain ability to bind to dna, suggesting that they have a critical role in the maintenance of thap -d shape [clouaire et al., ]. the -d structure of the dna–thap domain complex has re- cently been solved [campagne et al., ], showing that the thap domain contacts dna by insertion of its two antiparallel β-sheets into the major dna groove. this ensures the connection of the second half of loop l (residues lys to ser ) with the core of the thabs sequence. upon binding to dna, the folding of thap is changed, enabling loop l to contact the dna minor groove. based on their nonconservation in the thap family, specific base-contact with the core of the thabs motif and chemical behavior with non- specific dna, some thap domain residues have been proposed to play a crucial role in the specificity of dna recognition: tyr and ser of loop l , ser of b , gln and ser of the n-terminal tail and, finally arg of l . other residues are involved in the nonspecific interaction with dna, but their role remains absolutely necessary for the targeting of thap to the thabs sequence. for example, thr , which is located in the middle of the dna-interaction area of loop l , shows a chemical shift perturbation when the thap domain is incubated with an unrelated dna sequence, suggesting that thr is involved in nonspecific interactions. however, muta- tion of this residue led to total loss of the dna-binding activity of the thap domain and it has been proposed that, with lys , it may be important for positioning the protein onto dna. human mutation, vol. , no. , – , table . clinical characteristics of carriers of thap mutations amish patients a n = non-amish patients n = all patients b n = sex: f ( %) f c ( %) f c ( %) age at onset (y): median . ( – ) median ( – ) median ( – ) age at last examination (y): median ( – ) median ( – ) median ( – ) family history: % . % . % site at onset: patients patientsd patientsd upper limb ( %)e ( %)e ( %) lower limb ( %)e ( %)e ( %) cervical ( %)e ( %)e ( %) cranial ( %) ( %) ( %) site at examination: patients patients patients upper limb ( %) ( %) ( %) lower limb ( %) ( %) ( %) cervical ( %) ( %) ( %) cranial ( %)e ( %)e ( %) speech ( %)e ( %)e,f ( %)e,f distribution: patients patients patients fd: ( %) fd: ( %) fd: ( %) sd: ( %) sd: ( %) sd: ( %) md: ( %) md: ( %) md: ( %) gd: ( %) gd: ( %) gd: ( %) gender: f, female; m, male. dystonia distribution: “gd”: generalized dystonia; “fd”: focal dystonia; “md”: multifocal dystonia; “sd”: segmental dystonia. a four families with common ancestry, patients. data from fuchs et al. [söhn et al., ]. b thirty-five families, sporadic, total patients. c sex is unknown for one patient from söhn et al. [söhn et al., ]. d for some patients, data were unavailable [bressman et al., ; gavarini et al., ; kaiser et al., ]. e data were estimated from bressman et al. [ ] and fuchs et al. [ ] when possible. f of note, two patients from groen et al. [ ] have oromandibular dystonia without knowing if there was speech disturbance or not. thap is involved in dyt dystonia dyt dystonia has been first described in the genetically iso- lated amish–mennonite population [almasy et al., ] as an autosomal dominant trait with incomplete penetrance. in two amish–mennonite families, the site of onset of the disease was lo- calized with similar frequency to upper limb, cervical, or cranial muscles and symptoms began between and years of age (aver- age . ) with a tendency to progressive involvement of other body regions. hence, dyt dystonia was named “idiopathic torsion dys- tonia of ‘mixed’ type.” these families were large enough to identify by linkage analysis the morbid locus, which maps in both families to chromosome p - . the locus was further narrowed by the discovery of other affected amish–mennonite families [saunders-pullman et al., ] and, in , fuchs et al. [ ] demonstrated the involvement of a thap mutation in dyt dystonia: an insertion/deletion founder muta- tion found in four related amish–mennonite families. a point mu- tation was then identified in an unrelated non-amish–mennonite german family (family s, c. t>c), indicating that dyt dysto- nia was present also in populations of different ancestry. indeed, the complex insertion/deletion mutation was later identified also in a german family with no known amish–mennonites origin but sharing the same haplotype [bressman et al., ]. several teams have reported to date different mutations in the coding sequence of thap in families ( probands and rela- tives) of american [bressman et al., ; xiao et al., ], chinese [cheng et al., ; xiao et al., ], czech [jech et al., ], dutch [groen et al., ], english [houlden et al., ], french [blanchard et al., ; clot et al., ; houlden et al., ], german [bressman et al., ; djarmati et al., ; fuchs et al., ; houlden et al., ; söhn et al., ; zittel et al., ], greek [bonetti et al., ; houlden et al., ], iranian [schneider et al., ], jewish [houlden et al., ], mauritian/indian [houlden et al., ], spanish [paisan-ruiz et al., ], and brazilian [de carvalho aguiar et al., ] ancestry. unfortunately, clinical data are not available for probands implemented in the database [bressman et al., ; gavarini et al., ; kaiser et al., ] and insufficient clinical and molecular data for relatives do not allow to implement them in the database [bressman et al., ]. one of the mutation has been described in an asymptomatic individual control (c. _ delag) [söhn et al., ]. the enlargement of the group of patients with thap muta- tions ( up to now without the asymptomatic carrier) has pro- vided new data for delineating the phenotype of dyt dystonia, which nevertheless has hardly changed since the original description (table ). dyt dystonia has been reported slightly more in females than males. the age distribution at onset is broad, ranging from to years (mean . years [calculated from patients with available data]). onset before years of age occurs in . % of the patients, and onset after years of age in one-sixth ( %) of the patients. in almost half ( %) of the patients, the first symptoms of dystonia concern an upper limb, while cranial or cervical onset is almost equally observed in the other half of the patients. onset in a lower limb is less common ( / patients reported in the litera- ture). dyt dystonia tends to spread slowly to other body regions. although the symptom distribution varies widely, the involvement of the cranial region is frequent, and disability mainly results from cranial dystonia with speech difficulties. at last follow-up, almost half of the reported patients with dyt dystonia suffered from gen- eralized dystonia, but most of them remained ambulatory. to date, patients underwent deep brain stimulation; one good response is reported in one patient [jech et al., ], although deep brain stimulation (dbs) resulted in only mild or moderate improvement human mutation, vol. , no. , – , in the other patients, with poor effect on speech or dysarthria [clot et al., ; djarmati et al., ; groen et al., ; jech et al., ; zittel et al., ]. early onset in a limb and progressive generalization in few years are shared features between dyt and dyt dystonias [valente and albanese, ]. nevertheless, several differences emerge. in dyt dystonia, cervical or cranial muscles are involved most of the time, whereas lower limbs are frequently spared. the dyt clinical spectrum is more variable, and some adult-onset cases with stable focal dystonia are reported as well. onset (mean age) is somewhat later and with a wider age range in dyt than in dyt patients. the penetrance in dyt is difficult to evaluate; it was performed only in the amish–mennonite population (around % [saunders- pullman et al., ]). recently, tor a has been demonstrated as a direct target of thap by emsa, chip, and luciferase reporter gene assays [gavarini et al., ; kaiser et al., ]. specific modulation of torsina expression was not reported in nonneuronal cells after thap knockdown or overexpression, nor in fibroblasts or lym- phoblast cells from dyt patients [gavarini et al., ; kaiser et al., ]. the lack of effect could be explained by tissue and/or developmental stage specificity. however, thap is predicted to po- tentially regulate numerous gene targets [data not published] and tor a deregulation in dyt patients should then be responsible of only one part of the phenotype. nevertheless, human wild-type torsina can lead to a cellular dysfunction of mice neurons when overexpressed at high levels (abundant inclusion-like structures, ab- normalities of the ne ultrastructure, behavioral abnormalities, sig- nificant reduction of dopamine levels, serotonin, and homoranillic acid) as shown in transgenic mice line hwt [grundmann et al., ]. the umd-thap database we have used the universal mutation database (umd) software [beroud et al., , ] to create a computerized locus-specific database that contains information about the published mutations of the thap gene. codons were numbered (e.g., + = a of atg) based on the cdna sequence of the thap variant (isoform with three exons) (accession number nm_ . , “homo sapiens thap domain containing, apoptosis associated protein (thap ), transcript variant , mrna”) obtained from the genbank database. intron–exon boundaries as well as intronic sequences were defined by matching the cdna sequence to the corresponding genome sequence (nt_ . ) and to the module organization from swissprot (accession number q nvv ). the database follows the guidelines on mutation databases of the hugo mutation database initiative including the latest nomenclature (http://www.hgvs.org/). the thap mutation database can list point mutations, large and small deletions, insertions, indels, and mutations affecting splicing (intronic mutations) in the thap gene. it cannot accommodate mutations from the utr and promotor regions. in addition, two mutations that affect the same allele are entered as two different records linked by the same sample id. it allows to link specific poly- morphisms identified in the course of sequencing to one mutation for a specific patient. separate entries are made for each probands and for each relative (with different sample id) in order to de- scribe specific phenotypes. if the same mutation in a single patient has been reported in different papers (example: the same patients , l- , l- , and l- were first reported in [djarmati et al., ] and subsequently in [zittel et al., ]), only one entry was made. if the same mutation has been reported in apparently unrelated patients (example c. _ delcaa identified in french and dutch patients [clot et al., ; groen et al., ]), separate entries were made for each patient as recurrent mutations, in the absence of haplotypes demonstrating common ancestor. for each mutation, different types of information are provided: genetic (exon and codon number, wild type and mutant codon, mutational event, mutation name), protein (wild type and mutant amino acids, af- fected domain, mutation name), clinical data (age of onset, site of onset, dystonia distribution, sites involved, genealogic tree when available), and experimental data. we have annotated the thap sequence with indirect arguments in order to determine whether potential missense mutations are really causative using the umd-predictor r© tool [frederic et al., ]. the umd-predictor r© tool is dedicated to the analysis of nucleotide substitutions in cdna sequences. it provides a com- binatorial approach that includes localization of the mutation in the protein, conservation, biochemical properties of the mutant and wild type residue, and potential impact of the variation on mrna (http://www.umd.be). the indirect arguments, listed in the “highly conserved domain” (hcd) of umd-predictor r© are: ( ) amino acids involved in the zinc-dependent dna-binding activ- ity of thap through the c ch motif [clouaire et al., ]; ( ) amino acids involved in dna binding of the thap domain of hu- man thap [bessiere et al., ; clouaire et al., ]; ( ) amino acids involved in the interaction with hcf- (hbm consensus se- quence) [mazars et al., ]; and ( ) thap amino acids involved in interactions with other thap amino acids [bessiere et al., ] (fig. b ). mutations that potentially affect splicing can be highlighted with dedicated algorithms that have been recently implemented in the human splicing finder (hsf) tool [desmet et al., ]. hsf is also available for any gene as a web resource (http://www.umd.be/hsf/) and is dedicated to the prediction of the impact of a mutation on splicing signals and/or to the identification of these motifs in any human sequence. it contains all available matrices for auxiliary sequences prediction, as well as new position weight matrices to evaluate the strength of ′ and ′ splice sites and of branch point sequences. the umd-thap database can be used with different routines described at http://www.umd.be/thap /. it is possible to analyze the mutation distribution by exon or by mutation type and the mechanism for deletion/insertion. with the “hcd” annotation, it is possible to know whether an amino acid has a known reported function in the protein. the umd software has already been used successfully since for the analysis of multiple genes implicated in genetic diseases, such as ldlr [villeger et al., ], tgfbr [frederic et al., ], dys [krahn et al., ], and in cancer, such as tp [cariello et al., a, b; hamroun et al., ] or men [wautot et al., ]. twenty-nine umds are available through the web. more information concerning the umd software is available at http://www.umd.be. the current database and the ensuing updated versions are avail- able online at http://www.umd.be. notifications of omissions and errors in the current version as well as specific phenotypic data will be gratefully received by the corresponding author. the software will be expanded as the database grows and according to the users’ requirements, and new functions may be implemented. mutation analysis to date, a total of different thap mutations are known (table ) since two of the three patients and their specific mutation reported by zittel et al. [ ] were already described by djarmati human mutation, vol. , no. , – , et al. [ ], and the patient reported by van gerpen et al. [ ] is part of the cohort described by xiao et al. [ ]. these mutations are mainly private, missense, and widely distributed throughout the gene. only three apparently recurrent mutations have been de- scribed. for the c. g>a, described in two patients by paisan-ruiz et al. [ ], no other polymorphism has been described ruling out common ancestor [coro paisan-ruiz, personal communication]. the c. _ deltc mutation [djarmati et al., ; söhn et al., ] and the c. _ delcaa mutation [clot et al., ; groen et al., ] have been characterized by different teams, but until haplotype analyses become available, it is unclear whether these are truly recurrent mutations or whether they result from a founder effect. these mutations have then been considered as recurrent. it is noteworthy that two mutations, c. a>g [houlden et al., ] and c. t>a [schneider et al., ] have been found to be ho- mozygous. insdel mutations the heterozygous amish mutation, described as a -base (gggtt) insertion followed by a -base deletion (aac) (c. _ insgggtt; _ delaac) [fuchs et al., ], has been detected in four related amish–mennonite families (fami- lies m, c, r, and w). this mutation was later identified also in a german family without known amish–mennonite ancestry (fam- ily ) but sharing the amish haplotype [bressman et al., ]. this patient has then been implemented as a relative. to follow the international guideline for “insdel” mutation nomenclature (http://www.hgvs.org/), the name of the mutation has been cor- rected to c. _ delinsgggttta, that is deletion of five bases (taaac) and insertion of seven bases (gggttta), which results in the same predicted mutant protein. nonsense and missense mutation four reported mutations are nonsense mutation: c. c>t [houlden et al., ], c. c>t [bressman et al., ], c. t>g [houlden et al., ], and c. c>t [söhn et al., ]. thirty- seven are missense mutations. five mutations are predicted to im- pair thap dna-binding activity: c. c>g [houlden et al., ]; the two recurrent mutations c. g>a [paisan-ruiz et al., ]; c. g>c [bressman et al., ]; and c. c>a in the c ch motif [söhn et al., ]. three mutations are located in the sequence involved in thap binding to hcf- : c. a>g [houlden et al., ], c. c>g [groen et al., ], and c. a>g [söhn et al., ]. one mutation (c. t>c) is located in the avptif motif [fuchs et al., ]. the homozygous mutation c. a>g [houlden et al., ] creates a potential acceptor splice site in exon , but its strength and the presence of many upstream good candidate accep- tor splice sites make it unlikely that it will be used. the c. a>g mutation [bressman et al., ] is located in the penultimate nucleotide of exon . this mutation does not impair the donor acceptor splice site, neither auxiliary splicing sequences (exonic sequence enhancer [ese] or silencer [ess]). for the remaining mutations, the mutated codon does not seem to be clearly involved in a particular function. among all the missense mutations, only nine were not predicted by the umd- predictor r© tool to be pathogenic based on a combinatorial ap- proach [frederic et al., ] (table ): c. g>a [zittel et al., ], c. t>a [bressman et al., ], c. c>a [söhn et al., ], c. t>c [fuchs et al., ], c. a>g [bressman et al., ], c. a>g [söhn et al., ], c. g>a [houlden et al., ], c. c>a [xiao et al., ], and c. g>a [söhn et al., ]. nevertheless, mutation c. t>c, reported in dbsnp without frequency data, shows a decreased dna-binding activity in vitro [fuchs et al., ]. emsa experiments for c. t>a show that the mutation abolishes binding of thap to tor a [bressman et al., ; gavarini et al., ], while mutation c. g>a is shown to significantly reduce thap -mediated repression of tor a ( % of residual activity)[kaiser et al., ; zittel et al., ]. umd-predictor r© tool has a very high positive predictive value and a high negative predictive value. mutations experimentally demonstrated by gel-shift assays (table ) [bessiere et al., ; clouaire et al., ] to have ( ) no binding activity (p.cys ala, p.cys ala, p.lys ala, p.pro ala, p.arg ala, p.trp ala, p.arg ala, p.phe ala, p.thr ala, p.cys ala, p.his ala, p.phe ala, and p.pro ala) are all predicted as pathogenic; ( ) a diminished binding activity were also all predicted as pathogenic (p.glu ala, p.lys ala, p.leu ala, and p.tyr ala) or proba- bly pathogenic (p.val ala); ( ) no change in activity were ei- ther predicted: as pathogenic (p.ser ala, p.tyr ala, p.lys ala, p.leu ala, p.arg ala, p.asn ala, p.lys ala, p.lys ala); as probably pathogenic (p.thr ala, p.pro ala, p.glu ala, p.lys ala, p.lys ala); as polymorphism (p.ser ala); or as prob- able polymorphism (p.ser ala, p.pro ala, p.ser ala, p.cys ala, p.ser ala, p.ser ala). nevertheless, these gel-shift assays demon- strate no modification of the dna-binding activity “within the lim- its of detection of the present assay” and do not exclude “a role in the binding affinity and selectivity” [bessiere et al., ]. amino acids ser , ser , and ser are described to be involved in the specificity of dna recognition and lys proposed, with trp , to be impor- tant for positioning the protein onto dna [campagne et al., ]. therefore, the predictions are in full agreement with in vitro stud- ies for pathogenic mutations ( / ). for the alanine substitutions classified as “non modifying binding activities,” some discrepancies are observed but their interpretation is difficult as they could result from wrong predictions by umd-predictor or wrong interpretation of experimental data. these experimental results show that in spite of the high efficiency of the umd-predictor tool [frederic et al., ] and other predic- tion tools [sift, polyphen, data not shown] for several genes (fbn , fbn , tgfbr , tgfbr [frederic et al., ], dys [krahn et al., ], cdkn a [kannengiesser et al. ], and alas [ducamp et al. ]), more functional data will have to be collected to im- prove the prediction of missense variations in thap gene. insertion/duplication only one reported mutation is an insertion that corresponds to the duplication of a single base (a ). this insertion is predicted to create a premature termination codon (ptc), codon seven amino acids downstream of the mutation (position ) [blanchard et al., ]. deletions among the small deletions, create a ptc and two are in-frame deletions resulting in loss of the asn residues (c. _ delcaa). two single-base deletions, c. delt [houlden et al., ] and c. dela [djarmati et al., ], might be the result of slipped mispairing. five mutations are deletions of a re- peated sequence: c. _ delag [söhn et al., ], the recurrent mutations c. _ deltc [djarmati et al., ; söhn et al., ] and c. _ delcaa [clot et al., ; groen et al., ]. one mutation, c. _ del, is flanked by direct repeats [clot et al., ]. for the five other mutations, the mechanisms are unknown human mutation, vol. , no. , – , ta bl e . a na ly si s of m is se ns e m ut at io ns w it h th e u m d -p re di ct or r© to ol n o m en cl at u re c. n o m en cl at u re p . st ru ct u re h c d c o n se rv at io n si f t p ro b ab il it y b l o su m b io ch em ic al va lu es e se m o d ifi ca ti o n sp li ce si te p at h o ge n ic it y c o n cl u si o n c. c > t p .s er p h e l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > g p .t yr c ys l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . pa ss c [ . ] p at h o ge n ic c. g > t p .g ly c ys l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > g p .a sp g ly l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > c p .h is p ro b s -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. c > g p .p ro a rg l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g - . . - . . -s c [ . ] n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. g > c p .a rg p ro l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g - . . - . . pa ss c [ . ] p at h o ge n ic c. c > g p .p ro a rg l -t h a p d o m . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > a p .l eu h is l -t h a p d o m l -t h a p d o m . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. g > a p .a la t h r a h -t h a p d o m . l -t h a p d o m . . . . -s f /a sf [ . ] n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. g > a a p .c ys t yr b s -t h a p d o m c c h m o ti f. . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > g p .l eu a rg l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > t p .a sn il e l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > c p .c ys a rg . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > c p .p h e se r . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. c > g p .a sn l ys h c f - b in d in g . . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > g p .t yr c ys h c f - b in d in g . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > c p .i le t h r n l s . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > c p .h is p ro n l s . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. t > c p .c ys a rg c o il ed -c o il d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p at h o ge n ic c. a > g p .m et ? t h a p d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. t > c p .s er p ro l -t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. c > a p .a sn l ys l -t h a p d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. g > a p .a rg g ln l -t h a p d o m . d n a b in d in g - . . . . pa ss c [ . ] p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. c > t p .t h r il e t h a p d o m . . . - . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. a > g p .a sn se r h c f - b in d in g . . . p a s s c [ . ] p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. g > a p .a la t h r c o il ed -c o il d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic c. g > a a p .a rg h is l -t h a p d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab le p o ly m o rp h is m c. c > a p .h is a sn a h -t h a p d o m . c c h m o ti f . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab le p o ly m o rp h is m c. t > c a p .p h e l eu a h -t h a p d o m . a a in te ra ct io n s . . . . n o im p ac t p ro b ab le p o ly m o rp h is m c. t > a a p .s er t h r l -t h a p d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p o ly m o rp h is m c. a > g p .l ys a rg . . . . p a s s c [ . ] p o ly m o rp h is m c. a > g p .m et v al c o il ed -c o il d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p o ly m o rp h is m c. g > a p .a rg g ln c o il ed -c o il d o m . . . . . n o im p ac t p o ly m o rp h is m c. c > a p .g ln l ys c o il ed -c o il d o m . . . . . pa ss c [ . ] p o ly m o rp h is m c. g > a p .a sp a sn . . . . n o im p ac t p o ly m o rp h is m t h e u m d -p re d ic to r r© to o l co m p u te s al l el em en ts (s tr u ct u re ,b io ch em is tr y, sp li ci n g, an d co n se rv at io n ) an d p ro vi d es fo r ea ch o f th em a sp ec ifi c st re n gt h b as ed o n it s re la ti ve im p ac t. “c o n se rv at io n ”: t h e sc o re ra n ge s fr o m fo r n o n co n se rv ed to fo r fu ll y co n se rv ed . “s if t ”: (s o rt in g in to le ra n t fr o m to le ra n t) :u se s se q u en ce h o m o lo gy to p re d ic t w h et h er an am in o ac id su b st it u ti o n w il la ff ec t p ro te in fu n ct io n an d ,h en ce ,p o te n ti al ly co n fe r a p h en o ty p e [n g an d h en ik o ff , ]. sc o re s th at ar e ≤ . ar e co n si d er ed to b e d el et er io u s (i n b o ld ). “b l o su m ” is an am in o ac id su b st it u ti o n m at ri x b as ed o n lo ca l m u lt ip le al ig n m en ts o f an u n se le ct ed p ro te in se t o f re la te d se q u en ce s [h en ik o ff an d h en ik o ff , ]. p o si ti ve sc o re s ar e as so ci at ed w it h co n se rv at iv e ch an ge s an d n eg at iv e sc o re s (i n b o ld ) w it h le ss co n se rv at iv e ch an ge s. “b io ch em ic al va lu e” is an am in o ac id su b st it u ti o n m at ri x d ep en d in g o n q u al it at iv e p h ys ic o ch em ic al p ro p er ti es d es cr ib in g si d e ch ai n st ru ct u re an d fu n ct io n al gr o u p s, o p ti ca l p ro p er ti es ,h yd ro p h o b ic it y/ ch ar ge /a ci d – b as e p ro p er ti es ,a n d si ze (v o lu m e an d si d e ch ai n le n gt h ) [y u , ]. a va lu e b el o w . d efi n es an in va li d su b st it u ti o n co n ce rn in g th e p h ys ic o -c h em ic al p ro p er ti es (i n b o ld ). “e se ” (e xo n ic sp li ci n g en h an ce r) an d “s p li ce si te ” m o d ifi ca ti o n s ar e ev al u at ed b y th e u m d to o l. “p a ss c ”: p o te n ti al ac ce p to r sp li ce si te cr ea te d ;p o te n ti al d el et er io u s m o d ifi ca ti o n s ar e sh o w n in b o ld . “p at h o ge n ic it y” :t h e u m d -p re d ic to r r© to o l co m p u te s al l th e el em en ts (s tr u ct u re ,b io ch em is tr y, sp li ci n g, an d co n se rv at io n ) p ro vi d in g fo r ea ch a sp ec ifi c st re n gt h b as ed o n th ei r re la ti ve im p ac t. p re d ic ti o n s ar e n o rm al iz ed o n a sc al e fr o m to . in “c o n cl u si o n ”: a va lu e o f le ss th an is as so ci at ed w it h th e p re d ic ti o n o f a n o n p at h o ge n ic m u ta ti o n an n o ta te d as “p o ly m o rp h is m ”; a va lu e o f – is as so ci at ed w it h th e p re d ic ti o n o f a “p ro b ab le p o ly m o rp h is m ”; a va lu e o f – is as so ci at ed w it h th e p re d ic ti o n o f a “p ro b ab ly p at h o ge n ic ” m u ta ti o n ;w h il e a va lu e ab o ve is as so ci at ed w it h th e p re d ic ti o n o f a “p at h o ge n ic ” m u ta ti o n .f o r “s tr u ct u re ” an d “h c d ” d es cr ip ti o n s se e th e le ge n d s to t ab le .f o r m o re d et ai ls se e f re d er ic et al .[ ]. a t h es e m u ta ti o n s h av e b ee n st u d ie d in vi tr o [f u ch s et al ., ;g av ar in i et al ., ;k ai se r et al ., ]. human mutation, vol. , no. , – , and have to be determined by searching, among others, for the presence of quasi-palindromic sequences, inverted repeats, or sym- metric elements that facilitate the formation of secondary-structure intermediates [krawczak and cooper, ]. splice-site mutations only one splice site variation is described in the literature: c. - t>c (or c.ivs - t>c) in association with the missense mu- tation c. c>g [houlden et al., ]. the splice site variation has been analyzed with the umd algorithm implemented in hsf tool [desmet et al., ]. the software computed the variation of the consensus value (cv) of the mutant “splice site” (cv = . ) rel- ative to the wild-type site (cv = . ). as the variation between these values was not higher than %, it is highly probable that such cv variation does not disrupt the wild-type splice site and thus this variation corresponds to a polymorphism as suggested also by the authors [houlden et al., ]. the pathogenic mutation is thus likely to be c. c>g and consequently the c. - t>c (or c.ivs - t>c) polymorphism was associated to the c. c>g mutation in the database. conclusion the umd-thap database contains different mutations (ta- ble ) in probands and relatives. these mutations are mainly private, essentially missense, usually nonrecurrent, and widely dis- tributed in the thap domain and the rest of the thap gene. the currently reported thap mutations are mainly missense mu- tations ( . %, / ) and small out-of-frame deletions ( . %, / ), with a minority of other mutation types ( % of nonsense [ / ], . % of small in-frame deletions [ / ], . % of small out- of-frame insertions [ / ], and . % of complex mutations). to date, no clear genotype/phenotype relationship has been identified. this is not surprising when considering past experience with other disease genes, such as the fibrillin- gene (fbn ), for which many mutations were accumulated before the genotype/phenotype rela- tionships emerged. indeed, the umd-fbn database was created in [collod et al., ], and the first report about the correlations between genotype and phenotype was published in [faivre et al., ] and more followed [detaint et al., ; faivre et al., , , a, b, c; stheneur et al., ]. from this perspective, the umd-thap locus-specific database will facilitate the muta- tional analysis of thap gene as previously demonstrated for other genes. acknowledgments a.b. and v.e. are supported by phd studentships from mesr (ministère de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche). the research leading to these results has also received funding from the université montpellier , inserm, the french ministry of health (national phrc -a - ), amadys-lfcd, alliance france dystonie, lions club la grande motte, the french dystonia network, and from the european community’s sev- enth framework programme (fp / - ) under grant agreement no. —the gen phen project. references almasy l, bressman s, raymond d, kramer p, greene p, heiman g, ford b, yount j, de leon d, chouinard s, saunders-pullman r, brin m, kapoor r, jones a, shen h, fahn s, risch n, nygaard t. . idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome in two mennonite families. ann neurol : – . bernardi r, pandolfi pp. . structure, dynamics and functions of promyelocytic leukaemia nuclear bodies. nat rev mol cell biol : – . beroud c, collod-beroud g, boileau c, soussi t, junien c. . umd (universal mu- tation database): a generic software to build and analyze locus-specific databases. hum mutat : – . beroud c, hamroun d, collod-beroud g, boileau c, soussi t, claustres m. . umd (universal mutation database): update. hum mutat : – . bessiere d, lacroix c, campagne s, ecochard v, guillet v, mourey l, lopez f, czaplicki j, demange p, milon a, girard jp, gervais v. . structure-function analysis of the thap zinc finger of thap , a large c ch dna-binding module linked to rb/e f pathways. j biol chem : – . blanchard a, roubertie a, frederic my, claustres m, collod-beroud g. . mono- genetic dystonia: revisiting the dopaminergic hypothesis. rev neurol (paris) : – . blanchard a, roubertie a, simonetta-moreau m, ea v, coquart c, frederic m, gallouedec g, adenis j, benatru i, borg m, burbaud p, calvas p, cif l, damier p, destee a, faivre l, guyant-marechal l, janik p, janoura s, kreisler a, lusakowska a, odent s, potulska-chromik a, rudzińska m, thobois s, vuillaume i, tran- chant c, tuffery-giraud s, coubes p, sablonnière b, claustres m, collod-béroud g. . singular dyt phenotypes in association with new thap frameshift mutations. mov disord, doi: . /mds. in press. bonetti m, barzaghi c, brancati f, ferraris a, bellacchio e, giovanetti a, ialongo t, zorzi g, piano c, petracca m, albanese a, nardocci n, dallapiccola b, bentivoglio ar, garavaglia b, valente em. . mutation screening of the dyt /thap gene in italy. mov disord : – . breakefield xo, blood aj, li y, hallett m, hanson pi, standaert dg. . the patho- physiological basis of dystonias. nat rev neurosci : – . bressman sb, raymond d, fuchs t, heiman ga, ozelius lj, saunders-pullman r. . mutations in thap (dyt ) in early-onset dystonia: a genetic screening study. lancet neurol : – . campagne s, saurel o, gervais v, milon a. . structural determinants of specific dna-recognition by the thap zinc finger. nucleic acids res : – . cariello n, cui l, béroud c, soussi t. a. database and software for the analysis of mutations in the human p gene. cancer res : – . cariello nf, beroud c, soussi t. b. database and software for the analysis of mutations at the human p gene. nucleic acids res : – . cayrol c, lacroix c, mathe c, ecochard v, ceribelli m, loreau e, lazar v, dessen p, mantovani r, aguilar l, girard jp. . the thap-zinc finger protein thap regulates endothelial cell proliferation through modulation of prb/e f cell-cycle target genes. blood : – . cheng fb, wan xh, feng jc, wang l, yang ym, cui ly. . clinical and genetic evaluation of dyt and dyt primary dystonia in china. eur j neurol : – . clot f, grabli d, burbaud p, aya m, derkinderen p, defebvre l, damier p, krys- tkowiak p, pollak p, leguern e, san c, camuzat a, roze e, vidailhet m, durr a, brice a. . screening of the thap gene in patients with early-onset dys- tonia: myoclonic jerks are part of the dystonia phenotype. neurogenetics : – . clouaire t, roussigne m, ecochard v, mathe c, amalric f, girard jp. . the thap domain of thap is a large c ch module with zinc-dependent sequence-specific dna-binding activity. proc natl acad sci u s a : – . collod g, beroud c, soussi t, junien c, boileau c. . software and database for the analysis of mutations in the human fbn gene. nucleic acids res : – . de carvalho aguiar p, fuchs t, borges v, lamar km, silva sm, ferraz hb, ozelius l. . screening of brazilian families with primary dystonia reveals a novel thap mutation and a de novo tor a gag deletion. mov disord : – . defazio g, berardelli a, hallett m. . do primary adult-onset focal dystonias share aetiological factors? brain : – . desmet fo, hamroun d, lalande m, collod-beroud g, claustres m, beroud c. . human splicing finder: an online bioinformatics tool to predict splicing signals. nucleic acids res :e . detaint d, faivre l, collod-beroud g, child ah, loeys bl, binquet c, gautier e, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, stheneur c, halliday d, beroud c, bonithon-kopp c, claustres m, plauchu h, robinson pn, kiotsekoglou a, de backer j, ades l, francke u, de paepe a, boileau c, jondeau g. . cardiovas- cular manifestations in men and women carrying a fbn mutation. eur heart j : – . djarmati a, schneider sa, lohmann k, winkler s, pawlack h, hagenah j, bruggemann n, zittel s, fuchs t, rakovic a, schmidt a, jabusch hc, wilcox r, kostic vs, siebner h, altenmuller e, munchau a, ozelius lj, klein c. . mutations in thap (dyt ) and generalised dystonia with prominent spasmodic dysphonia: a genetic screening study. lancet neurol : – . duan w, rangnekar vm, mattson mp. a. prostate apoptosis response- produc- tion in synaptic compartments following apoptotic and excitotoxic insults: evi- dence for a pivotal role in mitochondrial dysfunction and neuronal degeneration. j neurochem : – . human mutation, vol. , no. , – , duan w, zhang z, gash dm, mattson mp. b. participation of prostate apoptosis response- in degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in models of parkinson’s disease. ann neurol : – . ducamp s, kannengiesser c, touati m, garcon l, guerci-bresler a, guichard jf, vermylen c, dochir j, poirel ha, fouyssac f, mansuy l, leroux g, tertian g, girot r, heimpel h, matthes t, talbi n, deybach jc, beaumont c, puy h, grandchamp b. . sideroblastic anemia: molecular analysis of the alas gene in a series of probands and functional studies of missense mutations. hum mutat : – . faivre l, collod-beroud g, callewaert b, child a, binquet c, gautier e, loeys bl, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, stheneur c, kiotsekoglou a, comeglio p, marziliano n, wolf je, bouchot o, khau-van-kien p, beroud c, claustres m, bonithon-kopp c, robinson pn, ades l, de backer j, coucke p, francke u, de paepe a, jondeau g, boileau c. a. clinical and mutation-type analysis from an international series of probands with a pathogenic fbn exons - mutation. eur j hum genet : – . faivre l, collod-beroud g, callewaert b, child a, loeys bl, binquet c, gautier e, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, kiotsekoglou a, comeglio p, grasso m, beroud c, bonithon-kopp c, claustres m, stheneur c, bouchot o, wolf je, robinson pn, ades l, de backer j, coucke p, francke u, de paepe a, boileau c, jondeau g. b. pathogenic fbn mutations in adults not meeting clinical diagnostic criteria for marfan syndrome: further delineation of type fibrillinopathies and focus on patients with an isolated major criterion. am j med genet a a: – . faivre l, collod-beroud g, child a, callewaert b, loeys bl, binquet c, gautier e, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, stheneur c, kiotsekoglou a, comeglio p, marziliano n, halliday d, beroud c, bonithon-kopp c, claustres m, plauchu h, robinson pn, ades l, de backer j, coucke p, francke u, de paepe a, boileau c, jondeau g. . contribution of molecular analyses in diagnosing marfan syndrome and type i fibrillinopathies: an international study of probands. j med genet : – . faivre l, collod-beroud g, loeys bl, child a, binquet c, gautier e, callewaert b, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, kiotsekoglou a, comeglio p, marziliano n, dietz hc, halliday d, beroud c, bonithon-kopp c, claustres m, muti c, plauchu h, robinson pn, ades lc, biggin a, benetts b, brett m, holman kj, de backer j, coucke p, francke u, de paepe a, jondeau g, boileau c. . effect of mutation type and location on clinical outcome in , probands with marfan syndrome or related phenotypes and fbn mutations: an international study. am j hum genet : – . faivre l, masurel-paulet a, collod-beroud g, callewaert bl, child ah, stheneur c, binquet c, gautier e, chevallier b, huet f, loeys bl, arbustini e, mayer k, arslan-kirchner m, kiotsekoglou a, comeglio p, grasso m, halliday dj, beroud c, bonithon-kopp c, claustres m, robinson pn, ades l, de backer j, coucke p, francke u, de paepe a, boileau c, jondeau g. c. clinical and molecular study of children with marfan syndrome and related type i fibrillinopathies in a series of probands with pathogenic fbn mutations. pediatrics : – . frederic my, hamroun d, faivre l, boileau c, jondeau g, claustres m, beroud c, collod-beroud g. . a new locus-specific database (lsdb) for mutations in the tgfbr gene: umd-tgfbr . hum mutat : – . frederic my, lalande m, boileau c, hamroun d, claustres m, beroud c, collod- beroud g. . umd-predictor, a new prediction tool for nucleotide substitution pathogenicity—application to four genes: fbn , fbn , tgfbr , and tgfbr . hum mutat : – . fuchs t, gavarini s, saunders-pullman r, raymond d, ehrlich me, bressman sb, ozelius lj. . mutations in the thap gene are responsible for dyt primary torsion dystonia. nat genet : – . gavarini s, cayrol c, fuchs t, lyons n, ehrlich me, girard jp, ozelius lj. . direct interaction between causative genes of dyt and dyt primary dystonia. ann neurol : – . girard jp, amalric f, roussigne m, clouaire t. . novel death associated proteins, and thap and par pathway in apoptosis control. united states, patent version number . groen jl, ritz k, contarino mf, van de warrenburg bp, aramideh m, foncke em, van hilten jj, schuurman pr, speelman jd, koelman jh, de bie rm, baas f, tijssen ma. . dyt dystonia: mutation screening, phenotype, and response to deep brain stimulation. mov disord : – . grundmann k, reischmann b, vanhoutte g, hubener j, teismann p, hauser tk, bonin m, wilbertz j, horn s, nguyen hp, kuhn m, chanarat s, wolburg h, van der linden a, riess o. . overexpression of human wildtype torsina and human deltagag torsina in a transgenic mouse model causes phenotypic abnormalities. neurobiol dis : – . guo q, fu w, xie j, luo h, sells sf, geddes jw, bondada v, rangnekar vm, mattson mp. . par- is a mediator of neuronal degeneration associated with the pathogenesis of alzheimer disease. nat med : – . hamroun d, kato s, ishioka c, claustres m, beroud c, soussi t. . the umd tp database and website: update and revisions. hum mutat : – . henikoff s, henikoff jg. . amino acid substitution matrices from protein blocks. proc natl acad sci usa : – . houlden h, schneider sa, paudel r, melchers a, schwingenschuh p, edwards m, hardy j, bhatia kp. . thap mutations (dyt ) are an additional cause of early-onset dystonia. neurology : – . jech r, bares m, krepelova a, urgosik d, havrankova p, ruzicka e. . dyt —a novel thap mutation with excellent effect on pallidal dbs. mov disord : – . kaiser fj, osmanoric a, rakovic a, erogullari a, uflacker n, braunholz d, lohnau t, orolicki s, albrecht m, gillessen-kaesbach g, klein c, lohmann k. . the dystonia gene dyt is repressed by the transcription factor thap (dyt ). ann neurol : – . kannengiesser c, brookes s, del arroyo ag, pham d, bombled j, barrois m, mauffret o, avril mf, chompret a, lenoir gm, sarasin a, peters g, bressac-de paillerets b. . functional, structural, and genetic evaluation of cdkn a germ line mutations identified in melanoma-prone families or patients. hum mutat : – . krahn m, beroud c, labelle v, nguyen k, bernard r, bassez g, figarella-branger d, fernandez c, bouvenot j, richard i, ollagnon-roman e, bevilacqua ja, salvo e, attarian s, chapon f, pellissier jf, pouget j, hammouda el h, laforet p, urtizberea ja, eymard b, leturcq f, levy n. . analysis of the dysf mutational spectrum in a large cohort of patients. hum mutat :e –e . krawczak m, cooper d. . gene deletions causing human genetic disease: mecha- nisms of mutagenesis and the role of the local dna sequence environment. hum genet : – . lacroix c. . thap , un régulateur clé de la prolifération des cellules endothéliales: relations structure/fonction et gènes cibles. toulouse: université toulouse iii-paul sabatier . p. lallemand-breitenbach v, de the h. . pml nuclear bodies. cold spring harb perspect biol :a . mazars r, gonzalez-de-peredo a, cayrol c, lavigne ac, vogel jl, ortega n, lacroix c, gautier v, huet g, ray a, monsarrat b, kristie tm, girard jp. . the thap- zinc finger protein thap associates with coactivator hcf- and o-glcnac transferase: a link between dyt and dyt dystonias. j biol chem : – . ng pc, henikoff s. . sift: predicting amino acid changes that affect protein function. nucleic acids res : – . norgren n, mattson e, forsgren l, holmberg m. . a high-penetrance form of late- onset torsion dystonia maps to a novel locus (dyt ) on chromosome q . - q . . neurogenetics : – . paisan-ruiz c, ruiz-martinez j, ruibal m, mok ky, indakoetxea b, gorostidi a, masso jf. . identification of a novel thap mutation at r amino-acid residue in sporadic patients with early-onset dystonia. mov disord : – . park sk, nguyen md, fischer a, luke mp, affar el b, dieffenbach pb, tseng hc, shi y, tsai lh. . par- links dopamine signaling and depression. cell : – . pedersen wa, luo h, kruman i, kasarskis e, mattson mp. . the prostate apoptosis response- protein participates in motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. faseb j : – . roussigne m, cayrol c, clouaire t, amalric f, girard jp. . thap is a nuclear proapoptotic factor that links prostate-apoptosis-response- (par- ) to pml nu- clear bodies. oncogene : – . saunders-pullman r, raymond d, senthil g, kramer p, ohmann e, deligtisch a, shanker v, greene p, tabamo r, huang n, tagliati m, kavanagh p, soto-valencia j, aguiar pde c, risch n, ozelius l, bressman s. . narrowing the dyt dystonia region and evidence for locus heterogeneity in the amish-mennonites. am j med genet a a: – . schneider sa, ramirez a, shafiee k, kaiser fj, erogullari a, bruggemann n, winkler s, bahman i, osmanovic a, shafa ma, bhatia kp, najmabadi h, klein c, lohmann k. . homozygous thap mutations as cause of early-onset generalized dystonia. mov disord : – . söhn as, glockle n, doetzer ad, deuschl g, felbor u, topka hr, schols l, riess o, bauer p, muller u, grundmann k. . prevalence of thap sequence variants in german patients with primary dystonia. mov disord : – . stheneur c, collod-beroud g, faivre l, buyck jf, gouya l, le parc jm, moura b, muti c, grandchamp b, sultan g, claustres m, aegerter p, chevallier b, jondeau g, boileau c. . identification of the minimal combination of clinical features in probands for efficient mutation detection in the fbn gene. eur j hum genet : – . valente em, albanese a. . advances in the genetics of primary torsion dystonia. f biol rep : . van gerpen ja, ledoux ms, wszolek zk. . adult-onset leg dystonia due to a missense mutation in thap . mov disord : – . vidailhet m, grabli d, roze e. . pathophysiology of dystonia. curr opin neurol : – . human mutation, vol. , no. , – , villeger l, abifadel m, allard d, rabes jp, thiart r, kotze mj, beroud c, junien c, boileau c, varret m. . the umd-ldlr database: additions to the software and new entries to the database. hum mutat : – . wautot v, vercherat c, lespinasse j, chambe b, lenoir gm, zhang cx, porchet n, cordier m, beroud c, calender a. . germline mutation profile of men in multiple endocrine neoplasia type : search for correlation between phenotype and the functional domains of the men protein. hum mutat : – . xiao j, zhao y, bastian rw, perlmutter js, racette ba, tabbal sd, karimi m, paniello rc, wszolek zk, uitti rj, van gerpen ja, simon dk, tarsy d, hedera p, truong dd, frei kp, dev batish s, blitzer a, pfeiffer rf, gong s, ledoux ms. . novel thap sequence variants in primary dystonia. neurology : – . yu k. . theoretical determination of amino acid substitution groups based on qualitative physicochemical properties. http://cmgm.stanford.edu/biochem / projects% /yu.pdf. zittel s, moll ck, bruggemann n, tadic v, hamel w, kasten m, lohmann k, lohnau t, winkler s, gerloff c, schonweiler r, hagenah j, klein c, munchau a, schneider sa. . clinical neuroimaging and electrophysiological assessment of three dyt dystonia families. mov disord : – . human mutation, vol. , no. , – , biochemical basis of type ib (e β) mutations in maple syrup urine disease biochemical basis of type ib (e �) mutations in maple syrup urine disease a prevalent allele in patients from the druze kindred in israel* received for publication, june , , and in revised form, july , published, jbc papers in press, july , , doi . /jbc.m r. max wynn‡§, jacinta l. chuang§¶, claude sansaricq�, hanna mandel**, and david t. chuang¶‡‡ from the departments of ¶biochemistry and ‡internal medicine, university of texas southwestern medical center, dallas, texas , the �department of pediatrics, mount sinai school of medicine, new york, new york , and the **department of pediatrics, rambam medical center, haifa , israel maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a metabolic dis- order associated with often-fatal ketoacidosis, neurolog- ical derangement, and mental retardation. in this study, we identify and characterize two novel type ib msud mutations in israeli patients, which affect the e � sub- unit in the decarboxylase (e ) component of the branched-chain �-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. the recombinant mutant e carrying the prevalent s l-� (tcg ttg) mutation in the druze kindred exists as a stable inactive �� heterodimer. based on the human e structure, the s l-� mutation disrupts the interactions between ser- -� and glu- -��, and be- tween arg- -� and glu- -��, which are essential for native � � heterotetrameric assembly. the r p-� (cgg ccg) mutation, on the other hand, is ineffi- ciently expressed in escherichia coli as heterotetramers in a temperature-dependent manner. the r p-� mu- tant e exhibits significant residual activity but is markedly less stable than the wild-type, as measured by thermal inactivation and free energy change of denatur- ation. the r p-� substitution abrogates the coordina- tion of arg- -� to ala- -�, glu- -�, and ile- -�, which is important for strand-strand interactions and k� ion binding in the � subunit. these findings provide new insights into folding and assembly of human e and will facilitate dna-based diagnosis for msud in the israeli population. maple syrup urine disease (msud) or branched-chain ke- toaciduria is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder in the catabolism of branched-chain �-ketoacids (bckas) derived from branched-chain amino acids (bcaas) leucine, isoleucine, and valine ( ). the accumulated bckas and bcaas are se- creted in the urine, giving rise to a distinct maple syrup odor and hence the name of the disease ( ). based on variations of clinical presentation, there are currently five different forms of msud ( ). the classic form, which accounts for % of msud patients, is manifested within the first weeks of life by poor feeding, lethargy, seizures, coma, and death if left untreated. intermediate msud is associated with elevated levels of bcaas and bckas, with progressive mental retardation and developmental delay without a history of catastrophic illness. an intermittent form of msud has normal levels of bcaas, normal intelligence, and development until a stress (e.g. infec- tion) precipitates in decompensation with ketoacidosis without seriously affecting intelligence and development. thiamine- responsive msud is similar to the intermediate or intermit- tent phenotype but responds to pharmacologic doses of thia- mine with returns to the normal levels of bcaas ( ). the e -deficient msud is caused by defects in the dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (e ) (see below). patients with e deficiency have combined enzyme impairments in �-ketoacid dehydrogen- ase complexes and usually die in infancy with severe lactic acidosis ( ). the enzyme affected in msud, the mitochondrial branched- chain �-ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckd) complex, is a multien- zyme complex of – million daltons. it is organized about a -meric cubic core of dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e ). at- tached to the e core are multiple copies of branched-chain �-ketoacid decarboxylase (e ), e , bckd kinase, and bckd phosphatase ( , ). the kinase and the phosphatase tightly regulate activity of the bckd complex by reversible phospho- rylation (inactivation)/dephosphorylation (activation) ( ). the e component is a tdp-dependent enzyme consisting of two � and two � subunits. the e component is a homodimeric fla- voprotein and is common among �-ketoacid dehydrogenase complexes comprising pyruvate dehydrogenase, �-ketoglutar- ate dehydrogenase, and bckd complexes. therefore, there are six genetic loci that contribute to the bckd complex, and mutations in the four catalytic subunits (e �, e �, e , and e ) have been reported in msud patients ( ). on the basis of the affected subunit in the bckd complex, msud is classified into six genetic subtypes ( ). among them, type ia msud affects the e � subunit; type ib affects the e � subunit; type ii affects the e subunit; and type iii affects the e subunit. type iv and type v msud involve the kinase and the phosphatase, respectively, in which the disease-causing mutations have not been detected. the crystal structure of the human e � � heterotetramer was recently determined to . -Å resolution ( ). each of the two * this work was supported by national institutes of health grant dk and robert a. welch foundation grant i- . the costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” in accordance with u.s.c. section solely to indicate this fact. § these authors contributed equally to this work. ‡‡ to whom correspondence should be addressed: dept. of biochem- istry, university of texas southwestern medical center, harry hines blvd., dallas, tx - . tel.: - - ; fax: - - ; e-mail: david.chuang@utsouthwestern.edu. the abbreviations used are: msud, maple syrup urine disease; bcka, branched-chain �-ketoacid; bcaa, branched-chain amino acid; bckd, branched-chain �-ketoacid dehydrogenase; e , branched-chain �-ketoacid decarboxylase; e , dihydrolipoyl transacylase; e , dihydro- lipoamide dehydrogenase; fplc, fast protein liquid chromatography; gdnhcl, guanidine hydrochloride; kiv, �-ketoisovalerate; nta, ni- trilotriacetic acid; page, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; tdp, thi- amine diphosphate. the journal of biological chemistry vol. , no. , issue of september , pp. – , © by the american society for biochemistry and molecular biology, inc. printed in u.s.a. this paper is available on line at http://www.jbc.org this is an open access article under the cc by license. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / binding sites for cofactor tdp is located in the interface be- tween � and � subunits. the e structure also discloses that the extended small c-terminal region protruding from the bulk of the e � subunit is essential for the interaction between heterologous � and � subunits. this segment is referred to as the “mennonite region” because it contains the type ia y n-� mutation, which is prevalent in the mennonite pop- ulation ( , ). the tyrosine to asparagine conversion at posi- tion of the � subunits abrogates the interaction between � and �� as well as �� and � subunits, thereby preventing het- erotetramer assembly, with the mutant e locked in an inac- tive heterodimeric conformation ( ). the other two type ia mutations in the mennonite region, y c-� and f c-�, also disrupt the heterologous � and � subunit interactions, resulting in the inability to assemble into the native heterotet- rameric conformation of e . we have recently studied msud mutations in israeli pa- tients, in particular those from the non-jewish druze kindred. the incidence of msud in the kindred is relatively frequent due to consanguinity. we report a homozygous mutation in the druze msud patients, which affects the e � subunit. this novel type ib mutation apparently disrupts �/�� subunit inter- actions, resulting in the formation of inactive e heterodimers, similar to the mennonite y n-� type ia substitution ( ). the second type ib mutation, which occurs in jewish patients in israel and the u.s., affects the folding and stability of the mutant e in a temperature-sensitive manner. the genetic and biochemical information presented here provides structural in- sights into folding and assembly of the e heterotetramer and will facilitate dna-based detection of these type ib msud alleles in the israeli population. experimental procedures cell lines and cell cultures—blood samples ( ml) were withdrawn from classic msud patients a. s., m. n., and f. n. and an intermittent msud patient c. g. from the non-jewish druze kindred in israel as well as from a classic ashkenazi-jewish israeli patient (n. p.) in israel (provided by dr. o. n. elpeleg, shaare zedek medical center, jerusa- lem, israel) and a classic jewish patient (h. d.) in the united states. lymphoblasts were prepared from blood samples by infection with epstein-barr virus ( ). lymphoblast cell cultures were grown as de- scribed previously ( ). western blotting—homogenates from cultured lymphoblasts were subjected to sds-page separation and then transferred to immo- bilon-p membranes. the membranes were probed with either anti-e or anti-e (with titers against both e � and e � subunits) antibodies, followed by detection with i-labeled protein a as described previously ( ). dna sequencing for type ib msud mutations—the first strand cdna was synthesized from the total rna prepared from patients’ cells using the omniscripttm reverse transcriptase from qiagen (chats- worth, ca). the reverse primer b , �-gtagaacttttcagccaatat- catgatgg- �, was designed from the �-noncoding region of the hu- man e � cdna ( ). the first round polymerase chain reaction was carried out using the forward primer b ( �-gtgcggctgcatagc- ctgag- �) and the reverse primer b ( �-aaaagaggtaagtcg- gagga- �). to amplify the � segment of the e � cdna, a second round polymerase chain reaction was performed using the forward primer b ( �-atggcggttgtagcggc- �) and the reverse primer b ( �-ccaggcaactagagtaacatc- �). to amplify the � region of the e � cdna, the forward primer b ( �-ataccccattgtgtgaa- caaggaattgttg- �) and the reverse primer b (see above) were employed. the polymerase chain reaction products were sequenced using an abi prism™ model automated dna sequencer from applied biosystems (foster city, ca). construction of expression plasmids for mutant his -tagged e — the altered sitetm in vitro mutagenesis system (promega, madison, wi) was used to introduce desired mutations into the cdna of the human e � subunit. detailed protocols for the mutant vector construc- tion and subsequent mutagenesis were described previously ( ). briefly, oligonucleotides for the desired mutations and the �-lactamase repair primer were annealed to the single-stranded form of palter-e � vector. after the second strand synthesis and two rounds of ampicillin selection, clones harboring the correct mutations were isolated. dna segments containing the mutations were used for cassette replacements of the expression vector phis-tev-e for wild-type e , which contained a his affinity tag linked to the n terminus of the e � subunit ( � to �) ( ). expression and purification of his -tagged wild-type and msud mutant e s—the recombinant his -tagged e heterotetramer was ex- pressed in escherichia coli strain cg- (ests) by co-transformation of the pgroesl plasmid overproducing chaperonins groel and groes as described previously ( , ). wild-type and mutant his -tagged e s were isolated from cell lysates using a ni �-nta-derivatized sepharose cl- b column (qiagen) as described previously ( ). e proteins were further purified on a superdex- gel filtration column ( � cm) in an fplc system from amersham pharmacia biotech. the column buffer consisted of mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, % (v/v) glycerol, mm dithioerythritol, mm benzamidine, and mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. e activity during purification was as- sayed radiochemically by reconstitution with e and e (see below). protein concentrations were determined using the coomassie plus pro- tein reagent from pierce with absorbance read at nm. alternatively, during enzyme purification, protein concentrations were determined by the direct measurement of absorbance at nm using a molar extinc- tion coefficient of . cm� mg� ml� for the � � heterotetramer. temperature-dependent folding and assembly of mutant e —cul- tures ( liter in size) for the expression of his -tagged wild-type and mutant e were grown at °c until a � . was reached. aliquots of ml were placed in -ml flasks and induced with mm isopropyl- -thio-�-d-galactopyranoside. cultures were subsequently grown over- night at , , , or °c. cells were harvested and lysed by sonica- tion in a lysis buffer comprising mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm nacl, mm mgcl , . mm tdp, . % (v/v) triton x- , . % (w/v) nan , . mm edta, mm �-mercaptoethanol, lysozyme ( mg/ml), and protease inhibitors ( mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and mm benzamidine). lysates were clarified by ultracentrifugation at , � g for min to sediment unbroken cells and debris. the supernatants ( ml) were extracted with �l of ni �-nta, which was washed three times ( . ml each time) with the above fplc column buffer containing mm imidazole. the washed ni �-nta resin con- taining the bound e was eluted with the fplc buffer containing m imidazole, and the eluted proteins were separated on % sds-page gels ( ). the radiochemical assay based on activity of the reconstituted bckd complex ( ) was used to determine wild-type and mutant e activities following elution of e proteins from ni �-nta with mm imidazole. measurements of kinetic constants—km and kcat for tdp and sub- strate �-keto[ - c]isovalerate (kiv) were determined using the spec- trophotometric assay (see below) as reported previously ( ). the com- puter program curve fit version . e was used to fit the kinetic data and obtain the slopes and intercepts. thermal inactivation of wild-type and msud mutant e proteins— the purified wild-type and mutant e proteins ( �g/ml) were incu- bated for various times in an mjr ptc- thermal cycler equilibrated at °c. at different time points, aliquots were removed and added to a spectrophotometric assay mixture ( ). the reduction of nad� ab- sorbance at nm at °c was used to determine residual e activity by reconstitution with e and e . rate constants (min� ) were derived from the slopes of the pseudo-first order activity decay, as determined by curve fitting using the program cricket graph iii for the macintosh computer. unfolding of wild-type and mutant e proteins with gdnhcl—an m stock of gdnhcl was prepared in mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, . mm edta, and mm dithiothreitol. wild-type and mutant e proteins ( �g/ml) were incubated at °c for h in the same buffer containing increasing concentrations of gdnhcl. emis- sion spectra of tryptophan fluorescence over a range of – -nm wavelengths were obtained with a perkinelmer luminescence spec- trometer at an excitation wavelength of nm as described previously ( ). decreases in intensity of the tryptophan fluorescence were used to calculate the ratio of unfolded to folded protein as a function of increas- ing gdnhcl concentrations, based on the equation fu � (x � x )/(xu � x ), where fu represents the fraction of unfolded protein; x is the relative fluorescence emission; x is the relative fluorescence emission in the absence of gdnhcl, and xu is the relative fluorescence emission of the completely unfolded e protein at m gdnhcl. the free energy of denaturation (�ggdnhcl) was calculated from the fraction of folded e protein over the denaturation transition region ( ). the value �ggdnhcl, was obtained by extrapolating to the zero concentration of the denaturant. type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease results identification of mutations in different subunits of the bckd complex—we studied four unrelated msud patients (a. s., c. g., m. n., and f. n.) from the non-jewish druze kindred in israel, an ashkenazi-jewish patient (n. p.) also from israel, and a jewish patient (h. d.) in the united states. lymphoblasts from these patients were cultured and assayed for the rate of decarboxylation using kiv as substrate. the four cell lines from the druze kindred and the israeli jewish patient (n. p.) exhibit absent or nearly absent decarboxylation activity compared with normal cells (table i). the results correlate with a classic msud phenotype except c. g., who has an intermittent msud phenotype. the united states jewish pa- tient (h. d.) shows significant residual activity ( % of normal) that does not correlate with the classic msud phenotype in this patient. to locate the subunit of the bckd complex affected in these patients, cell lysates were subjected to sds-page, followed by western blotting using polyclonal antibodies to e (specific for both � and � subunits) or e as a probe ( , ). the level of e � subunit ranges from nearly absent to absent in the above six msud cell lines, whereas the e � subunit is present at reduced amounts compared with normal (data not shown). by contrast, the amount of the e subunit was normal in these mutant cell lines. the results indicate that the e � subunit may be affected in these msud patients. to identify putative mutations in this subunit, two rounds of polymerase chain reaction were performed to amplify �- and �-terminal regions of the e � cdna synthesized from patients’ total rnas. nu- cleotide sequencing of patients’ e � cdnas disclosed a type ib s l-� substitution (tcg ttg) in three homozygous pa- tients (a. s., m. n., and f. n.) and a compound-heterozygous patient (c. g.), all from the druze kindred (table i). a second type ib mutation that results in an r p-� (cgg ccg) substitution is present in one allele of the non-druze israeli patient (n. p.) and both alleles of the united states jewish patient (h. d.). expression of mutant e carrying the s l-� or r p-� msud mutation—the his -tagged s l-� mutant e ex- pressed at °c was extracted from the e. coli lysate with ni �- nta, followed by fplc gel filtration on a superdex- column. fig. a shows that the wild-type human e heterotetramer mi- grates as a single species and peaks at fraction . in contrast, the mutant e carrying the s l-� mutation eluted at fraction as a heterodimer. the same mutant e also migrated as a heterodimeric species, when separated on a – % sucrose den- sity gradient by ultracentrifugation (data not shown). the mu- tant e that contains the r p-� substitution was also ex- pressed at °c using the same expression system. the fplc gel filtration profile shows that this mutant e peaks at fraction as a heterotetramer, similar to wild-type e . temperature-dependent folding defects in the r p-� sub- unit—the potential effect of the kink introduced by a proline in the r p-� mutation on the folding and assembly of e was investigated. cells co-transformed with phis-tev-e and pgroesl plasmids were induced with isopropyl- -thio-�-d-ga- lactopyranoside overnight at different temperatures for the expression of wild-type and mutant e . fig. a shows that the expression of wild-type e activity in the ni �-nta extract remains relatively constant in the temperature range of – °c. however, the expression of residual r p-� mutant e activity is temperature-dependent, with equally high activity obtained at and °c and very low activity at °c. sds- fig. . elution profiles of wild-type and msud mutant e from an fplc gel filtration column. his -tagged wild-type or msud mutant e proteins were expressed in e. coli cg- (ests) co-trans- formed with pgroesl plasmid overexpressing chaperonins groel and groes. cell lysates were treated with ni �-nta resin, and the bound e proteins were eluted with a – mm imidazole gradient. the extracted e proteins were further separated on a superdex column in an fplc system. gel filtration profiles show that the wild-type e migrates as an � � heterotetramer and peaks at fraction (a). the mutant e containing the s l-� mutation is eluted as a �� het- erodimeric species and peaks at fraction (b). the mutant e carrying the r p-� substitution behaves as a heterotetramer, similar to the wild-type e (c). the molecular mass markers used were as follows: ovalbumin, kda; y n-� e , . kda; his -tagged wild-type e , kda; mbp-e , kda; and groel, kda. table i clinical phenotypes and type ib mutations in msud patients patient age sex clinicalphenotype percentage of normal activitya ethnic origin mutation genotype years a. s. male classic . non-jewish druze (israel) s l-� (tcg ttg) homozygote c. g. male intermittent same as above s l-� compound-heterozygote m. n. female classic same as above s l-� homozygote f. n. female classic same as above s l-� homozygote n. p. female classic ashkenazi-jewish (israel) r p-� (cgg ccg) compound-heterozygote h. d. female classic jewish (u.s.) r p-� homozygote a the decarboxylation rate of �-keto[ - c]isovalerate with lymphoblasts from normal subjects is in the range of . – . nmol co /min/mg of protein. type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease page analysis of the extracts shows that the levels of the wild-type e � and e � subunits at � : stoichiometry are similar at different temperatures (fig. b). the slightly lower levels of e � and e � subunits at °c than at higher tem- peratures are due to a slower growth of e. coli at °c. since only the e � subunit contains the his tag at the n terminus, the untagged e � subunit isolated in the ni �-nta extract is assembled with the e � subunit. in contrast, the level of the assembled mutant e � subunit in r p-� e is sharply re- duced, compared with the normal e � subunit in the mutant. levels of both the wild-type e � and the mutant e � subunits are decreased as the expression temperature is elevated. in particular, the assembled mutant e � is present at significant levels at and °c but is virtually absent at °c. tryptophan fluorescence measurements of wild-type and mutant e —the e � and e � subunits each contains four tryptophan residues, which provide a useful fluorophor for structural studies. fig. shows that wild-type e (curve ) when excited at nm emits a relatively broad fluorescence spectrum, with two discernible peaks at the nm and nm. the s l-� mutant e (curve ) shows about one-half of the intensity for tryptophan fluorescence, relative to the same concentration of wild-type e , with a single peak at nm. the results suggest that about one-half of the tryptophan res- fig. . expression at different temperatures of wild-type e and mutant e carrying the r p-� mutation. e. coli cg- cells co-transformed with pgroesl (overexpressing groel and groes) and the phist-e plasmids expressing wild-type or the r p-� mu- tant e were grown at °c until a � . was reached. cells were treated with mm isopropyl- -thio-�-d-galactopyranoside to induce the expression of wild-type and mutant e , followed by an overnight incu- bation at indicated temperatures. cell lysates prepared in the presence of protease inhibitors ( mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and mm benzamidine) were treated with ni �-nta. the extracted wild-type and mutant e proteins were assayed for bckd activity by reconstitution with e and e (a; wild type (solid bar) and r p-� mutant (open bar)) or subjected to sds-page and coomassie blue staining (b; wild type (wt) and r p-� mutant (rp)). fig. . emission spectra of tryptophan fluorescence for wild- type and mutant e proteins. wild-type and mutant e proteins carrying msud mutations were dissolved in mm potassium phos- phate, ph . , mm kcl, . mm edta, and mm dithiothreitol to identical protein concentrations ( �g/ml). the protein solutions were excited at nm in a perkinelmer life sciences luminescence spec- trometer. the tryptophan emission spectra were scanned over the range of – nm. curve , wild-type e ; curve , s l-� mutant e ; curve , y n-� mutant e . wild-type and y n-� mutant e s are known � � heterotetrameric and �� heterodimeric species, respectively. fig. . thermal inactivation of wild-type and msud mutant e proteins at °c. wild-type and msud mutant e proteins at �g/ml in mm potassium phosphate, ph . , mm kcl, . mm edta, and mm dithiothreitol were incubated at °c for up to min. remaining bckd activity was assayed spectrophotometrically by reconstitution with e and e . the reduction of nad� was monitored by the increase in absorbance at nm. pseudo-first order decay constants (kobs) represent the slopes after curve fitting using the pro- gram cricket graph iii for the macintosh. the kobs values are as follows: wild type (�), . min� ; n s-� (f), . min� ; r p-� (�), . min� ; a d-� (‚), . min� ; and r h-� (f), . min� . table ii kinetic constants (kcat and km) for wild-type and msud mutant e kinetic constants for substrate � kiv were determined by measuring reconstituted bckd activity spectrophotometrically in the presence of excess e and e . kinetic constants for cofactor tdp were determined using radiochemical assays for reconstituted bckd activity. the ki- netic constants are averages of three separate determinations. enzyme kiv tdp km kcat kcat/km (� ) km kcat kcat/km (� ) �m s� s� �m� �m s� s� �m� wild type . . . , r p-� . . . . , s l-� type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease idues in the wild-type e become exposed and are quenched by the solvent in the s l-� heterodimer. similar reduced tryp- tophan fluorescence was observed with the established het- erodimeric y n-� e (curve ). the data confirm that the s l-� mutant e exists as a heterodimer in solution. kinetic studies of type ib msud mutants—the e active site that contains the cofactor tdp-binding pocket is at the interface between two heterodimers that are assembled through �/�� and ��/� subunit interactions in native e ( ). as expected, heterodimers of the s l-� mutant e are enzy- matically inactive. the heterotetrameric r p-� mutant ex- hibits significant residual bckd activity when reconstituted with e and e components. the kcat values for substrate kiv and tdp for r p-� e are and % of the wild-type e , respectively (table ii). the km for kiv and tdp are compara- ble between r p-� and wild-type e . therefore, the catalytic efficiency (kcat/km) of r p-� e is significantly reduced at % for kiv and % for tdp of the wild-type. the data indicate that the r p-� alteration also affects catalytic func- tion in the assembled mutant heterotetramer. stability measurements of wild-type and mutant e —ther- mal stability was studied by incubating wild-type and msud mutant e at °c for different lengths of time. the remaining bckd enzyme activity was measured by reconstitution with e and e . inactivation curves of both wild-type and mutant e follow pseudo-first-order kinetics as a function of time (fig. ). the wild-type e and the type ia msud mutant n s-�, which affects the e active site ( ), are similarly stable with inactivation rate constants, kobs, of . and . min � , respectively. the a d-� type ia mutation, which impedes the �/�� subunit interaction in e , produces a mutant e that is less stable than the wild-type with a kobs of . min � . the r p-� type ib mutation renders the mutant e markedly unstable, with a kobs value of . min � . for comparison, the r h-� type ia msud mutation, which also disrupts the �/�� subunit interaction ( ), results in a mutant e that is as un- stable as the r p-� e with a kobs value of . min � . the gibbs’ free energy of denaturation for wild-type e and type ib msud mutants was determined by chemical denatur- ation of the proteins in the chaotropic reagent gdnhcl. the ratio of unfolded to folded proteins in increasing concentrations of the denaturant was determined by decreases in tryptophan fluorescence (fig. , inset). the ratio was used to calculate the free energy change of denaturation (�ggdnhcl) at a given gdnhcl concentration (fig. ). the free energy change of de- naturation in the absence of the denaturant (�ggdnhcl, ) for the wild-type heterotetrameric e , when extrapolated to zero gdnhcl concentration, is . kcal/mol (table iii). the het- erodimeric s l-� mutant e is slightly less stable, with a �ggdnhcl, of . kcal/mol. the heterotetrameric r p-� is the least stable, with a �ggdnhcl, of . kcal/mol and ��ggdnhcl of � . kcal/mol, relative to the wild-type e (table iii). the results support the conclusion from the thermal inac- tivation studies that the r p-� mutation adversely affects stability of the mutant e . discussion the aim of the present study was to determine the molecular and biochemical basis of msud in the israeli population. the occurrence of the homozygous type ib s l-� mutations in three of the four unrelated druze patients studied strongly suggests that this allele is prevalent in the non-jewish kin- dred, presumably through the practice of consanguinity. the second type ib mutation r p-� is present in the compound- heterozygous israeli jewish patient and in the homozygous united states patient of european-jewish descent. the data suggest that the r p-� allele segregates in the israeli jew- ish population outside the druze kindred. the identification of these two type ib msud alleles will facilitate dna-based diagnosis for this metabolic disorder in the israeli population in general and the druze kindred in particular. the recent determination of the three-dimensional structure of human e has provided a structural basis for the two type ib msud mutations reported here. as shown in fig. a, the ser- residue is located in the beginning of helix . the two helices , each from � and �� subunits, are contacting one another along a pseudo- -fold axis of symmetry. ser- in the � subunit is hydrogen-bonded the side chain of glu- in the homologous �� subunit (fig. b). in addition, arg- in the �-sub- unit forms a salt bridge with glu- in the �� subunit. the same type of interaction occurs involving ser- in the �� subunit. the substitution of ser- with a larger hydrophobic leu residue is likely to disrupt the above polar and ionic interactions at the �/�� subunit interface, thereby preventing the assembly of �� and ���� heterodimers into a native � � heterotetramer. the fig. . denaturation of wild-type and mutant e proteins in different concentrations of gdnhcl. wild-type and mutant e proteins carrying type ib msud mutations at �g/ml were incubated at °c for h in increasing concentrations of gdnhcl. tryptophan emission fluorescence (excitation and emission at and nm, respectively) of denatured proteins at a given gdnhcl concentration was used to calculate the percentage of folded protein (inset) as de- scribed under “experimental procedures.” the gibbs’ free energy change of denaturation (�ggdnhcl) was calculated from the fraction of the folded e protein at each gdnhcl concentration. �, wild-type; e, s l-�; ‚, r p-�. table iii free energy changes for wild-type and msud mutant e in gdnhcl the free energy change of denaturation in gdnhcl (�ggdnhcl) is calculated according to the equation �g � �rt ln ( /fn � ), where /fn represents the fraction of folded protein. the �ggdnhcl, values are obtained by extrapolating the slopes in fig. to zero concentration of the denaturant. the difference in free energy changes (��ggdnhcl) between the mutant and the wild type is calculated as �ggdnhcl, (mutant) � �ggdnhcl, (wild type). the cm values are the half-maximal denaturant concentration for unfolding. the m values are the slope of ln ( /fn � ) plotted against the denaturant concentration. the free energy changes are averages of two separate determinations. �ggdnhcl, ��ggdnhcl, cm m kcal/mol kcal/mol m kcal/mol/m wild type . . . s l-� . � . . . r p-� . � . . . type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease trapped heterodimers are presumably in a low energy minimum, and are reasonably stable as indicated by the gibbs’ free energy change of denaturation (�ggdnhcl, ) of . kcal/mol, compared with . kcal/mol for the wild-type e heterotetramer. previ- ously, we reported that the hydrogen bonding of tyr- -� to asp- -�� is essential for �/�� subunit interaction, which is disrupted by the y n-� type ia msud mutation in the united states mennonite population ( ). as a result, the mutant e is also locked in the inactive heterodimeric conformation. the ex- clusive presence of inactive e heterodimers is consistent with the severe classic phenotype in the druze and mennonite msud patients, homozygous-affected by the type ib s l-� and type ia y n-� mutations, respectively. thus, studies of the natu- rally occurring msud mutations have established that both ser- -� and tyr- -� residues are critical for �/�� and �/�� sub- unit interactions, respectively, and these interactions are essential for the heterotetrameric assembly of native e . the results illustrate the power of molecular genetics in identifying amino acid residues that are critical for subunit interactions and protein oligomerization. residue arg- -�, on the other hand, is located in the mid- dle of strand e in the � subunit (fig. a). this residue is in close proximity ( Å in distance) to the novel k� ion present in the � subunit (fig. c). the side chain of arg- -� is ion- paired to the side chain of glu- -� in strand d of the same � subunit. intrasubunit hydrogen bonds occur between the main- chain imino group of arg- -� and the main-chain carbonyl group of ala- -� as well as between the main-chain carbonyl group of arg- -� and the imino group of ile- -�. the intro- duction of a pro residue at position of the � subunit in the type ib r p-� mutation produces a kink in the main chain of the � subunit. the altered conformation potentially abolishes the cross talks of arg- -� with ala- -�, glu- -�, and ile- -�, which are critical for strand-strand interactions within each individual � subunit. moreover, thr- -� coordinates through a water molecule to the k� ion in the � subunit. the displacement of strand e carrying the thr- -� residue, as a result of the impaired strand-strand interactions may also pre- vent efficient binding of the k� ion essential for e activity. the structural defects caused by the r p-� msud mutation explain the thermal instability and the significant ��ggdnhcl value of � . kcal/mol, relative to the wild-type e . this mu- tation does not appear to hinder the heterotetrameric assem- bly, since residue arg- -� is internal and distant from the subunit interfaces. however, the altered structure caused by the r p-� substitution also has an adverse effect on catalysis as indicated by the markedly reduced kcat of the mutant en- zyme. at present, we cannot delineate the inconsistency be- tween significant residual activity in cultured lymphoblasts and the severe classic phenotype of the homozygous patient fig. . the three-dimensional structure of the e heterotet- ramer and the structural basis of type ib msud mutations. a, the three-dimensional organization of � (magenta), �� (red), � (blue), and �� (yellow) subunits in the � � heterotetramer. the s l-� mutation is located in helix at the interface between � and �� subunits. the r p-� mutation is situated in strand e in the � or �� subunit. b, the putative effect of s l-� mutation on the �/�� subunit interactions. the ser- residue in the � subunit (blue) is hydrogen- bonded (red dots) to glu- in the in the �� subunit (yellow). moreover, arg- in the � subunit forms ionic interactions (red dots) with glu- in the �� subunit. parallel polar and ionic interactions involving the ser- residue also occur in the �� subunit. the s l substitution (with the leu residue in white) in either � or �� subunit abrogates the above �/�� subunit interactions, preventing the assembly of �� and ���� heterodimers into a native heterotetramer. c, the proposed effect of r p-� mutation on e structure and function. the main chain of arg- in strand e of the � subunit is Å away from the novel k� ion (green sphere) bound by this subunit. the side chain of arg- is ion-paired (red dots) to the side chain of glu- in strand d of the same � subunit. an intrasubunit hydrogen bond (red dots) also occurs be- tween the main-chain imino group of arg- and the main-chain carbonyl of ala- as well as between the main-chain carbonyl group of arg- and the imino group of ile- . the kink introduced by a pro residue (in white) at position in the r p-� mutation apparently abolishes the interactions of arg- with ala- , glu- , and ile- that are necessary for stand-to-strand cross-talks within the same � subunit. thr- coordinates to the k� ion through a water molecule (red sphere). the displacement of strand e is likely to also affect k� ion binding, which is essential for e activity. type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease carrying the r p-� mutation (table i). one can speculate that instability associated with the mutant e may result in a rapid turnover in tissues, which accounts for the inability to degrade bckas in the patient. we have shown previously that folding and assembly of wild-type e heterotetramers is dependent on the presence of chaperonins groel and groes either in e. coli ( ) or in vitro ( ). the bacterial chaperonins promote dissociation/reassocia- tion cycles of the heterodimeric intermediate to facilitate its assembly into the native heterotetramer ( , ). despite the presence of overexpressed chaperonins, the recombinant mu- tant e containing the s l-� mutation is trapped in perma- nent heterodimeric intermediate conformation. the results support the concept that molecular chaperones do not contain steric information capable of correcting the aberrant conforma- tion dictated by the mutation. on the other hand, the expres- sion of the mutant e containing the r p-� substitution in e. coli is facilitated by lowering the expression temperature. at a higher expression temperature (e.g. °c), the overexpressed mutant e � subunit is misfolded and degraded or targeted to the inclusion bodies. the unassembled wild-type e � subunit is unstable at °c and is therefore present in a markedly reduced amount in the supernatant compared with the wild- type heterotetramer (fig. b). at low expression temperature (e.g. or °c), a fraction of folded r p-� mutant e � subunit is able to assemble with the wild-type e � subunit to produce the partially active heterotetramer (fig. a). a large excess of unassembled e � subunit is stable at and °c and remains in the supernatant, although at lower than wild- type levels. the expression data, taken together, strongly sug- gest that the r p-� mutation results in a folding defect, which is partially ameliorated by the slow folding kinetics, when overexpressed at ambient temperatures and assisted by chaperonins groel and groes. acknowledgments—we are indebted to dr. o. n. elpeleg for kindly supplying the sample of an msud patient for this study and to mischa machius for generous help in producing molecular graphics of the e structure. references . chuang, d. t., and shih, v. e. ( ) in the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease (scriver, c. r., beaudet, a. l., sly, w. s., and valle, d. eds) th ed., pp. – , mcgraw-hill inc., new york . menkes, j. h., hurst, p. l., and craig, j. m. ( ) pediatrics , – . scriver, c. r., mackenzie, s., clow, c. l., and deluin, e. ( ) lancet , – . taylor, j., robinson, b. h., and serwood, w. g. ( ) pediatr. res. , – . pettit, f. h., yeaman, s. j., and reed, l j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. , – . reed, l. j., damuni, z., and merryfield, m. l. ( ) curr. top. cell regul. , – . harris, r. a., paxton, r., powell. s. m., goodwin, g. w., kuntz, m. j., and han, a. c. ( ) adv. enzyme regul. , – . Ævarsson, a., chuang, j. l., wynn, r. m., turley, s., chuang, d. t., and hol, w. g. j. ( ) structure , – . fisher, c. r., chuang, j. l., cox, r. p., fisher, c. w., star, r. a., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . matsuda, i., nobukuni, y., mitsubuchi, h., indo, y., endo, f., asaka, j., and harada, a. ( ) biochem. biophys. res. commun. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., chuang, j. l., cote, c. d., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . miller, f., and lipman, m. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. u. s. a. , – . chuang, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) methods enzymol. , – . fisher, c. w., chuang, j. l., griffin, t. a., lau, k. s., cox, r. p., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . chuang, j. l., cox, r. p., chuang, d. t. ( ) febs lett. , – . chuang, j. l., davie, j. r., chinsky, j. m., wynn, r. m., cox, r. p., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., cox, r. p., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., davie, j. r., song, j. l., chuang, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) methods enzymol. , – . laemmli, u. k. ( ) nature , – . chuang, j. l., davie, j. r., wynn, r. m., and chuang, d. t. ( ) methods enzymol. , – . wynn, r. m., ho, r., chuang, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . hennig, j., kern, g., neef, h., bisswanger, h., and hubner, g. ( ) in biochemistry and physiology of thiamin diphosphate enzyme (bisswanger, h., and schellenberger, a., eds) pp. – , a. u. c. intemann, prien, germany . qu, b.-h., strickland, e. h., and thomas, p. j. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . chuang, j. l., fisher, c. r., cox, r. p., and chuang, d. t. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . chuang, j. l., wynn, r. m., song, j. l., chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . wynn, r. m., song, j. l., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . song, j. l., wynn, r. m., and chuang, d. t. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – type ib mutations in maple syrup urine disease 	biochemical basis of type ib (e β) mutations in maple syrup urine disease 	experimental procedures 	results 	discussion 	acknowledgements 	references discrepancy of cytogenetic analysis in western and eastern taiwan pediatrics and neonatology ( ) , e available online at www.sciencedirect.com journal homepage: http://www.pediatr-neonatol.com original article discrepancy of cytogenetic analysis in western and eastern taiwan yu-hsun chang a,b, pui-yi chen c, tzu-ying li c, chung-nan yeh c, yi-shian li c, shao-yin chu a,d,e,*, ming-liang lee e a department of pediatrics, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, hualien, taiwan b institute of medical science, tzu chi university, hualien, taiwan c laboratory of cytogenetics, genetic counseling center, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, hualien, taiwan d department of medical education, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, hualien, taiwan e school of medicine, tzu chi university, hualien, taiwan received nov , ; received in revised form mar , ; accepted mar , key words amniocentesis; amniocyte karyotyping; cytogenetic analysis * corresponding author. , sec. , e-mail address: chu_chu@tzuchi.c - /$ copyright ª , taiw http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. objective: this study aimed at investigating the results of second-trimester amniocyte karyo- typing in western and eastern taiwan, and identifying any regional differences in the preva- lence of fetal chromosomal anomalies. methods: from to , pregnant women who underwent amniocentesis in their second trimester at three hospitals in western taiwan and at four hospitals in eastern taiwan were included. all the cytogenetic analyses of cultured amniocytes were performed in the cytoge- netics laboratory of the genetic counseling center of hualien buddhist tzu chi general hospital. we used the chi-square test, student t test, and mannewhitney u test to evaluate the variants of clinical indications, amniocyte karyotyping results, and prevalence and types of chromosomal anomalies in western and eastern taiwan. results: during the study period, samples, ( . %) from western taiwan and ( . %) from eastern taiwan, were collected and analyzed. the main indication for amniocyte karyotyping was advanced maternal age ( . % in western taiwan, . % in eastern taiwan). the detection rates of chromosomal anomalies by amniocyte karyotyping in eastern taiwan ( / , . %) did not differ significantly from that in western taiwan ( / , . %) (p z . ). mothers who had abnormal ultrasound findings and histories of familial hereditary diseases or chromosomal anomalies had higher detection rates of chromosomal anomalies ( . % and . %, respectively). the detection rate of autosomal anomalies was higher in eastern taiwan ( . % vs. . %, p z . ), but the detection rate of sex-linked chromosomal anom- alies was higher in western taiwan ( . % vs. . %, p z . ). chung-yang rd., hualien, taiwan , roc. om.tw (s.-y. chu). an pediatric association. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. . . mailto:chu_chu@tzuchi.com.tw http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.pediatr-neonatol.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pedneo. . . y.-h. chang et al conclusion: we demonstrated regional differences in second-trimester amniocyte karyotyping results and established a database of common chromosomal anomalies that could be useful for genetic counseling, especially in eastern taiwan. copyright ª , taiwan pediatric association. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. . introduction second-trimester amniocentesis for amniocyte karyotyping is a common procedure for prenatal diagnosis of chromo- somal anomalies. indications for amniocyte karyotyping are advanced maternal age, abnormal maternal serum screening results, abnormal prenatal ultrasound findings, and known family history of chromosomal anomalies or hereditary diseases. , in recent years, taiwanese women have married later and become pregnant at older ages. after the implementation of national health insurance, antenatal care usage also increased. therefore, second- trimester amniocentesis for advanced maternal age and abnormal maternal serum screening test are routinely diagnostic recommendations at taiwan. karyotyping and risk calculation results not only offer the opportunity for pregnant women to have comprehensive genetic coun- seling, but also significantly decrease the prevalence of newborn babies affected by chromosomal anomalies. we report the analysis of amniocyte karyotyping results of fetal amniocyte specimens from a cytogenetic laboratory in taiwan. we investigated the indications for amniocyte karyotyping, prevalence of fetal chromosomal anomalies, and regional differences between western and eastern taiwan. . materials and methods . . sample collection from to , pregnant women who underwent amniocentesis in their second trimester at three hospitals (taipei branch, taichung branch, and dalin branch of buddhist tzu chi general hospital) in western taiwan and at four hospitals (hualien, yuli branch, and kuanshan branch of buddhist tzu chi general hospital, and menno- nite christian hospital) in eastern taiwan were included. the ethics review board of the hospital reviewed and approved the study protocol. all cytogenetic analyses of cultured amniocytes were performed in the cytogenetics laboratory of the genetic counseling center of hualien buddhist tzu chi general hospital. we retrospectively reviewed and analyzed these results. the indications for amniocentesis included advanced maternal age, suspected down syndrome, suspected trisomy , suspected neural tube defect, familial heredi- tary disease or chromosomal anomaly, abnormal ultrasound findings, elective choice, and others. mothers aged years or more at the time of delivery were defined as having advanced maternal age. suspected down syndrome, sus- pected trisomy , and suspected neural tube defect were classified according to maternal serum screening results. e amniocentesis performed due to maternal anxiety or for personal purposes was defined as elective. . . cytogenetic analysis the high-resolution banding technique for r-bands by brdu using giemsa staining was performed using a standard in situ protocol. , fifteen colonies were analyzed routinely for each karyotype report. . . statistical analysis for evaluating the demographic data, we obtained the sample size (n), mean, standard deviation (sd), median, and range. we used the chi-square test to evaluate the independence of variances and student t test to evaluate the mean differences of the variances such as maternal age. we also used the nonparametric mannewhitney u test to evaluate the differences of the variances without normal distributions in gravidity, spontaneous abortion, and artifi- cial abortion. we used spss . to perform these analyses. . results from to , we analyzed amniocyte cultures, ( . %) from western taiwan and ( . %) from eastern taiwan. two samples failed karyotyping ( . %) and were excluded from the analysis. maternal nationality was not significantly different in western and eastern taiwan (p z . ). pregnant women who underwent amniocentesis in eastern taiwan were younger and had greater gravidity, spontaneous abortions, and artificial abortions (table ). the main indication for amniocyte karyotyping was advanced maternal age ( . % in western taiwan, . % in eastern taiwan). suspected down syndrome was the second indication and was almost equal in both western and eastern taiwan ( . % vs. . %). the indications of amniocyte karyotyping, owing to suspected trisomy , suspected neural tube defect, familial hereditary disease, or chromosomal anomaly, and abnormal ultrasound findings were more frequent in eastern taiwan, but advanced maternal age and elective karyotyping were more frequent in western taiwan (table ). foreign-born mothers had a greater abnormal karyotype rate ( / , . %) than taiwan-born mothers ( / , . %) (p z . ). mothers who had elective amniocyte karyotyping had significantly lower abnormal karyotype rates ( / , . %) than others ( / , . %) (p z . ). mothers younger than years did not have table demographic data of pregnant women who received amniocyte karyotyping in western and eastern taiwan. western taiwan eastern taiwan maternal nationality n % n % p taiwanese . . . foreigner . . maternal age mean sd mean sd . . . . < . pregnancy history median range mean rank median range mean rank gravidity e . e . < . spontaneous abortion e . e . < . artificial abortion e . e . < . n z sample size; sd z standard deviation. amniocyte karyotyping in eastern taiwan a significantly lower abnormal karyotype rate ( / , . %) than those aged years or older ( / , . %) (p z . ). the detection rate of chromosomal anomalies by amniocyte karyotyping in eastern taiwan ( / , . %) did not differ significantly from that of western taiwan ( / , . %) (p z . ) (table ). mothers who had abnormal ultrasound findings and histories of familial hereditary disease or chromosomal anomaly had higher detection rates of chromosomal anomalies ( . % and . %, respectively) (table ). the types of chromosomal anoma- lies are listed in table . the detection rate of autosomal anomalies was higher in eastern taiwan ( / . . %) than in western taiwan ( / , . %) (p z . ). detection rates of sex-linked chromosomal anomalies were higher in western taiwan ( / , . %) than in eastern taiwan ( / , . %) (p z . ). de novo abnormal chromosomal detec- tion rate was % ( / ). . discussion this study showed differences in amniocyte karyotyping results between western and eastern taiwan. the table indications and detection rate of chromosomal anoma indications western taiwan eastern taiwan n % n % advanced age pregnancy . . suspected down syndrome . . suspected trisomy . . suspected neural tube defect . . familial hereditary disease or chromosomal anomaly . . abnormal antepartum sonography . . elective . . others . . total chi-square test: * p < . , yp z . . n z sample size; n/a z n detection rate of chromosomal anomalies in our center was similar to those of previous studies undertaken in taiwan. , according to previous studies, newborns of foreign-born mothers had better neonatal outcomes in taiwan. , surprisingly, these mothers had higher rates of chromosomal anomalies in our study. however, it is well known that advanced maternal age is a risk factor for chromosomal anomalies. however, we found that it was not associated with higher risk of chromosomal anomalies in our study. besides the socioeconomic and biological aspects of sample collection, selection bias could also explain the paradox. the first three most common reasons for amniocyte karyotyping were advanced maternal age ( . e . %), abnormal maternal serum screening results ( . e . %), and abnormal ultrasound findings ( . e . %) in previous studies. in our study, more mothers with advanced age underwent amniocyte kar- yotyping both in western ( . %) and in eastern taiwan ( . %), but fewer mothers had abnormal maternal serum screening results and abnormal ultrasound findings in both western ( . %, . %, respectively) and eastern ( . %, lies by amniocyte karyotyping for various indications. * detection rate of chromosomal anomaliesy total western taiwan eastern taiwan total n % n % n % n % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n/a . . . . . ot available. table results of amniocyte karyotyping in western and eastern taiwan. western taiwan eastern taiwan total n % n % n % normal female . . . normal female variant . . . normal male . . . normal male variant . . . autosomal anomalies . . . sex chromosomal anomalies . . . total chi-square test: p z . . n z sample size. y.-h. chang et al . %, respectively) taiwan than those reported in the previous studies. among women with abnormal serum screening results, abnormal karyotypes were found in . % ( / ) in western and . % ( / ) in eastern taiwan. the detection rate of chromosomal anomalies by amniocyte karyotyping for women with abnormal ultrasound findings was significantly higher in eastern taiwan ( . %) than in table types of chromosomal anomalies in western and easte western taiwa n % autosomal anomalies numerical anomalies trisomy trisomy numerical and structural anomalies structural anomalies translocationdreciprocal translocationdrobertsonian inversion addition derivative duplication insertion marker mosaicism numerical structural subtotal* sex chromosomal anomalies numerical anomalies x x mosaicism xxy xyy mosaicism subtotal* total chi-square test: *p z . . n z sample size. western taiwan ( . %) and in previously reported data ( e . %). , therefore, detailed antepartum sonography and family history review are important to identify the mothers at risk for chromosomal anomalies. we found that the detection rate for autosomal anom- alies was higher in eastern taiwan and that of sex chro- mosomal anomalies was higher in western taiwan, according to second-trimester amniocyte karyotyping. this finding was comparable to the data in the population-based birth registry of taiwanese newborns in . advanced maternal age was the most important risk factor of chro- mosomal anomalies. since there was a discrepancy between different areas, other than socioeconomic status, personal habits, environmental factors, and occupational factors, a possible explanation was that there were still pregnant women, especially aboriginal women, at risk of chromosomal anomalies who did not receive antepartum genetic screening examinations in eastern taiwan. , there were some limitations to this study. we did not have information about some important risk factors such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, smoking, alcohol consumption, and occupation. although we included seven hospitals around taiwan, selection bias could not be avoi- ded completely. rn taiwan. n eastern taiwan total n % n % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . amniocyte karyotyping in eastern taiwan . conclusion in this -year retrospective analysis, we demonstrated regional differences in second-trimester amniocyte kar- yotyping results and established a database of common chromosomal anomalies that could be useful for genetic counseling, especially for women in eastern taiwan. acknowledgments the authors thank professor jye-siung fang, dr jiang-chang yun and syue-jhih li, and institutes include; mennonite christian hospital, yuli veterans hospital, hualien armed forces general hospital, department of obs/gyn, taipei branch, taichung branch, and yuli branch, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, for sending amniocyte samples and for their supervision. references . schonberg sa. cytogenetic analysis in prenatal diagnosis. west j med ; : e . . wieacker p, steinhard j. the prenatal diagnosis of genetic diseases. dtsch arztebl int ; : e . . kazerouni nn, currier b, malm l, riggle s, hodgkinson c, smith s, et al. triple-marker prenatal screening program for chromosomal defects. obstet gynecol ; : e . . chen cs, liu tc, chen lm. national health insurance and the antenatal care use: a case in taiwan. health policy ; : e . . haddow je, palomaki ge, knight gj, williams j, pulkkinen a, canick ja, et al. prenatal screening for down’s syndrome with use of maternal serum markers. n engl j med ; : e . . cheng ey, luthy da, zebelman am, williams ma, lieppman re, hickok de. a prospective evaluation of a second-trimester screening test for fetal down syndrome using maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, hcg, and unconjugated estriol. obstet gynecol ; : e . . rose nc, mennuti mt. maternal serum screening for neural tube defects and fetal chromosome abnormalities. west j med ; : e . . hoehn h, bryant em, karp le, martin gm. cultivated cells from diagnostic amniocentesis in second trimester pregnancies. i. clonal morphology and growth potential. pediatr res ; : e . . hoehn h, bryant em, karp le, martin gm. cultivated cells from diagnostic amniocentesis in second trimester pregnancies. ii. cytogenetic parameters as functions of clonal type and preparative technique. clin genet ; : e . . chen cp, lin cj, wang wthe taiwan amniocentesis collabo- rative study group. impact of second-trimester maternal serum screening on prenatal diagnosis of down syndrome and the use of amniocentesis in the taiwanese population. taiwan j obstet gynecol ; : e . . tseng jj, chou mm, lo fc, lai hy, chen mh, ho es. detection of chromosome aberrations in the second trimester using genetic amniocentesis: experience during - . taiwan j obstet gynecol ; : e . . see lc, shen ym, lo yj. the differential effect of foreign-born status on preterm birth: a taiwan population-based birth registry study. bjog ; : e . . see lc, shen ym, lin sr. lower early neonatal mortality among singletons in transnational marriage families: taiwan birth registry. eur j epidemiol ; : e . . chen by, hwang bf, guo yl. epidemiology of congenital anomalies in a population-based birth registry in taiwan, . j formos med assoc ; : e . . chang yh, chen pc, hsieh cj, jeng sf, liao hf, su yn, et al. perinatal and infant health outcomes among neonates born to aboriginal parents in taiwan. acta paediatr taiwan ; : e . 	discrepancy of cytogenetic analysis in western and eastern taiwan 	 . introduction 	 . materials and methods 	 . . sample collection 	 . . cytogenetic analysis 	 . . statistical analysis 	 . results 	 . discussion 	 . conclusion 	acknowledgments 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ a shared founder mutation underlies lethal restrictive dermopathy in the austronesian aboriginal atayal tribe of taiwan journal of the formosan medical association ( ) , e available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect journal homepage: www.jfma-online.com correspondence a shared founder mutation underlies lethal restrictive dermopathy in the austronesian aboriginal atayal tribe of taiwan jia-woei hou a,b,* a department of pediatrics, cathay general hospital, taipei, taiwan b college of medicine, fu-jen catholic university, new taipei city, taiwan received february ; received in revised form july ; accepted august lethal restrictive dermopathy (rd, omim# ) belongs to the laminopathies. it is characterized by abnormal skin growth and differentiation and is a very rare, lethal gen- odermatosis. since the cases of two newborn girls with rd in taiwan were published in , a total of nine taiwanese patients with rd have been described, including six previously-reported cases e and three novel patients. the diagnosis of rd made was based on the facial features including hypertelorism, short, down- slanting palpebral fissures, small, pinched nose, posteri- orly rotated and low-set ears, micrognathia, and mouth fixed in the “o” position, as well as thin, rigid and tense skin with erosions and scaling, prominent skin vessels, multiple joint contractures, absent or small nails, rocker- bottom feet, and a narrow chest (fig. a). other perinatal signs can include intrauterine growth retardation, poly- hydramnios, premature rupture of the membranes with subsequent delivery at about e weeks of gestation, large placentas, neonatal teeth, and pulmonary hypopla- sia leading to respiratory insufficiency. e rd should be conflicts of interest: the author has no conflicts of interest relevant to this article. * corresponding author. department of pediatrics, cathay gen- eral hospital, sec jen-ai road, taipei , taiwan. e-mail address: hou @cgh.org.tw. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jfma. . . - /copyright ª , elsevier taiwan llc & formosan medical differentiated from other diseases and syndromes, including hutchinson-gilford progeria, generalized scleroderma, collodion or harlequin baby, pena-shokeir, and neu-laxova syndromes. the characteristic facies (after extreme tautness of the skin in utero), absence of neurological abnormalities, differences in clinical course (lethal outcome), and unique histopathological findings (near-absence of the dermal elastic fibers) could distin- guish rd from the other diseases mentioned. these rd patients are all from seven different atayal families, with a male-to-female ratio of : , and the babies died between birth and days post-partum. recurrent abortions were found in five pairs of parents. clinical in- formation was collected from their medical records (pa- tients e ) and the reported papers (patients e , ). e decreased levels of serum albumin ( e g/dl, . e . g/ dl; reference range of . e . g/dl), and cholestasis (pa- tient and patient , peak total/direct bilirubin at month: . / . mg/dl and . / . mg/dl, respectively) were noted. urine gas chromatography/mass spectrometry studies showed n-acetyl tyrosinuria and generalized organic aciduria with lactic ketoaciduria (patient ); and generalized organic aciduria (patient ). tandem mass spectrometry showed diffusely low levels of amino acids, free carnitine and fatty acids in patients e (except for high isovaleryl (c ) carnitine in patient ). these metabolic findings might be secondary either to systemic disease or liver function impairment, and moreover originate primar- ily from rd itself. association. all rights reserved. mailto:hou @cgh.org.tw http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.jfma. . . &domain=pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jfma. . . www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.jfma-online.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jfma. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jfma. . . j.-w. hou chromosome studies from amniocytes or peripheral blood showed normal findings in patients e . breakage tests with mitomycin c ( ng/ml) showed increased breakage rates in patients e (control . e . %): pa- tient ( %), patient ( %), patient , patient , patient , and patient ( e %), and patient and patient ( e %). markedly increased breakage rates were noted in all patients undergoing examination. the features of premature aging in rd or other laminopathies are linked to the accumulation of dna double-strand breaks, which may result in genome and chromosomal instability. molecular studies were performed on the genes encoding for lamins a and c (lmna, exons), and all exons and splice sites of the zmpste gene (encoding a zinc metalloproteinase). no disease-causing mutations were observed in lmna, while a disease- causing homozygous stop codon taa on exon (c. g> t, p.e x, fig. b) was noted in all patients. all the parents were found to be heterozygous carriers from the atayal tribe. rd can be caused by dominant mutations of the lmna (primary laminopathy) or, more frequently, recessive mu- tations of the zmpste (secondary laminopathy) genes. defects in the zmpste gene may impair the processing of prelamin a into mature lamin a, leading to the develop- ment of rd. these patients presented different intra- and interfamilial expressivity or severity, but no good genoty- peephenotype correlation exists. some patients (patients e ) lived up to e . months, suggesting some residual function of the mutant protein. recent studies have shown that the frequency of misshapen nuclei can be reduced by treating cells with a farnesyltransferase inhibitor. removal of unprocessed prelamin a (progerin) or rescue of defective dna repair could be potential therapeutic strategies for the treatment of hutchinsonegilford progeria syndrome or rd in the future. the shared, common mutation c. g> t in zmpste may reveal a founder mutation in the austronesian aboriginal atayal population residing in the northern part of taiwan’s central mountain areas. as an autosomal recessive disorder, rd with zmpste mutation may be more preva- lent in selected inbred populations with a high frequency of consanguinity. certain ethnicities have demonstrated a higher incidence with common mutations (c. dupt) due to endogamous practices, such as ashkenazi jews and mennonites, possibly attributable to a founder effect. although the taiwanese aboriginal tribes are considered to share a common origin, the founder mutation noted in this study suggests that diversities among the different tribes in taiwan may be due to geographic isolation over a long period of time. figure (a) patient shows very tight and rigid skin with erosions, prominent superficial vasculature, joint contrac- tures, and facial features including fixed facial expression, absent eyelashes and eyebrows, small mouth in o position, and micrognathia. (b) direct sequencing over the zpmste gene in patient showing a homozygous stop codon taa over the exon [c. g> t leading to gaa (glutamic acid)/ taa(stop), p.e x]. both parents are heterozygous carriers. lethal restrictive dermopathy in taiwan references . hou jw, mai cf. restrictive dermopathy in two sisters. chang gung med j ; : e . . chiang mc, huang sf, hsueh c, lai mw, hou jw. restrictive dermopathy: report of one case and the metabolic and post- mortem findings. turk j pediatr ; : e . . chen m, kuo hh, huang yc, ke yy, chang sp, chen cp, et al. a case of restrictive dermopathy with complete chorioamniotic membrane separation caused by a novel homozygous nonsense mutation in the zmpste gene. am j med genet ; a: e . . lu cs, wu sc, hou jw, chu cp, tseng ll, lue hc. restrictive dermopathy: report of two siblings. pediatr neonatol ; : e . . loucks c, parboosingh js, chong jx, ober c, siu vm, hegele ra, et al. a shared founder mutation underlies restrictive dermopathy in old colony (dutch-german) menno- nite and hutterite patients in north america. am j med genet ; a: e . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	a shared founder mutation underlies lethal restrictive dermopathy in the austronesian aboriginal atayal tribe of taiwan 	references journal of refute* studies voi no i community organization and social change non-governmental organizations and palestine: the politics of money khalil nakhleh dr nakhleh has been director of programmes for the palestinian welfare association, geneva since . an anthropologist by training, dr nakhleh taught for six years at american universities. introduction against the background of the current palestinian popular uprising, one is compelled to raise some basic and pertinent questions about the nature of financial aid being offered to the palestinian people under occupation. this will constitute the central preoccupation of this paper. the question which will be assessed deals with three components: the stated goals and objectives of the organizations extending the aid, the in-field mode of implementation, and the degree of indigenous palestinian involvement in the definition of need, strategy, and objectives. furthermore, the scope of this paper will be limited to selected non- governmental organizations (ngos) or private voluntary organizations (pvos). excluded from this discussion will be the aid coming from un agen- cies (unrwa, undp, who); arab/palestinian official/governmental agen- cies (jordanian government, the jordanian-palestinian joint committee); and european governments through the commisssion of the european commu- nity. thus, in terms of sheer volume, the sources that offer the bulk of finan- cial aid will fall outside the scrutiny presented here, but, on the other hand, the three components that constitute the parameters of the present discussion are, by and large, predetermined by the political mandates of the respective member states. to facilitate the discussion, and out of respect for certain inherent dif- ferences among them, the ngos were grouped into three categories: ( ) secular/church-related organizations, ( ) usaid-funded organizations, and ( ) islamic/arab/palestinian organizations. since this is a 'spot-check' discus- sion of main trends, many ngos which extend assistance to the palestinian c oxford univercity press khalilnakhleh population under occupation will not be covered here, and this should not be viewed as a judgement of their role. secular/church-related organizations there are many secular and church-related organizations, some large and some small, involved in offering financial aid to the palestinians under oc- cupation. many channel their aid through the world council of churches; others work directly in palestine; and still others follow a dual channel. i shall concentrate here on four organizations, namely, oxfam, mennonite central committee, american friends service committee, and near east council of churches. oxfam' goals and objectives. oxfam views itself as a 'partnership of people who . . . work together for the basic human rights of food, shelter and reasonable con- ditions of life'. it works for the development of 'poor communities' and those suffering from oppression, since it 'believes in the essential dignity of people'. oxfam anchors its support to the palestinian community under occupation on the grounds that such a community is locked into a 'cycle of deprivation' caused by political circumstances. thus, in an attempt to reduce this suffering, oxfam defines the objectives of its programme in palestine as: a) 'partnering true development projects . . .'; b) 'funding . . . institutions and organizations of various kinds . . .'; and c) 'offering moral support for people suffering under oppression'. translating these objectives into programmes, oxfam supports projects in agriculture, health, law, education, general economic development, and the handicapped. mode of implementation. oxfam implements its projects through 'a wide netwdfk of connections with people and organizations who are struggling in the same direction: to create awareness, mobilise, motivate and encourage'. it maiotaiasaiaa visibility in the fie}d; it has no permanent office in palestine. in some cases it relies on paid advisers and consultants, but the crystallization of the projects it funds, the funding levels, and field follow-up are done by its middle east area co-ordinatork who visits the field about three times annu- ally. oxfam does not co-ordinate with israeli authorities regarding its pro- gramme of assistance to palestinian communities under occupation. palestinian involvement. there is a varying degree of indigenous palestinian involvement in the definition of need and dojkfivel, uuttibtthc "gvteeah strategy. the level and scope of involvement depend to a large extent on the dis- cretion of the middle east coordinator, and on his understanding and inter- pretation of the organization's overall goals and strategy. in the present context of oxfam's work, and due to the limitation of its budgets, the range of in- digenous palestinian involvement seems to be limited to certain popular ngos and palestine: the politics of money organizations whose work and approach fit better within the views of the middle east area co-ordinator and according to his own analysis of the struc- ture of palestinian society and the desired transformations in it. it is conceivable that a different middle east area co-ordinator at oxfam may find a different organizational channel to implement the organization's broad goals and objectives, without a noticeable degree of contradiction. such a situation allows for the potential of outside meddling into the type of transformations palestinians themselves ought to seek. mennonite central committee (mcc) goals and objectives. like oxfam, mcc defines its target populations in terms of suffering, need, and oppression. but, unlike oxfam, whose overall orientation is secular, it anchors itself in a specific religious movement and ar- ticulates this in the priorities of its programmes. within a framework represent- ing the mennonite brethren in christ churches of north america, mcc's overall goal is to 'relieve suffering, to identify with and be signs of hope and reconciliation through the development of communities, the cultivation of peace and friendship, and support for the work of the world wide church'. committed to 'social justice through non-violence' and 'developmental' work in the sense that it is 'participatory' and concerned with 'self reliance', mcc declares that it rises above 'easy national, racial, cultural or ideological affilia- tion'. it defines its priorities as: a) 'responding to the concerns of partners, especially churches . . . strengthen relationships, empower local structures and leadership'; b) 'continued and new involvements in areas suffering from conflict, poverty, injustice and ideological enmity'; c) food for hungry people; and d) 'highlighting the peacemaking element of programs'. mcc translates these priorities and objectives in palestine into projects in agricultural development, health education, and certain areas of pressing need. mode of implementation. mcc has a permanent office in jerusalem run by a director, always american or canadian, and by largely local palestinian staff. the organization is registered with the israeli social welfare department within the civil administration structure that is responsible to the defense ministry. thus, by registration, mcc is required to clear all projects nominated for funding with military government officials. palestinian involvement. structurally, indigenous palestinian involvement in the definition of need, strategy, and objectives is very limited (if non- existent). indigenous palestinian^ here are viewed as mere recipients of mcc funds. interpreting their 'empowerment' in the context of israeli occupation depends on the initiative, prerogative, and level of political analysis of whoever happens to be the director of the office and who, in turn, has to match it with the way 'social justice' is perceived by the home office. khalil nakhleh consequently, on the mere level of interpretation of the general goals, there is a long road between aiming to 'empower local structures and leadership' and the type of project that gets implemented locally, and the benchmarks along this road are determined largely by the director. on the other hand, another layer of isolation between potential indigenous palestinian involvement and the projects that actually get implemented stems from the clearance process of projects proposed for funding. it has been shown repeatedly that the major criterion used in the clearance process is political, i.e. the type of local organization benefiting from the project, whether or not the project will generate communal solidarity and develop- ment, hence, empowerment. therefore, by submitting projects for clearance, mcc has already participated in removing indigenous palestinians from being involved in determining the methods of their empowerment, at least by a few notches. to be fair, mcc may not and, as far as i know, does not submit every pro- posed project for israeli clearance, especially if it expects that a certain project will, most likely, be rejected. in such a case, it tends to interpret certain specific approvals as blanket approvals. however, the interpretation process remains at the discretion of the office director and his assessment of the kinds of pressures his operation is under. american friends service committee (afsc) goals and objectives. unlike oxfam and mcc, afsc seems to take a more active role in the politics of the israeli-palestinian context in which it offers financial aid. afsc is guided by values that 'are based on convictions and testimonies of the religious society of friends'. similar to the two previous organizations, its aim is to help free persons from 'unnecessary suffering', and to help each person realize 'a life of dignity'. 'through our work,' afsc's in- ternational division priorities and guidelines state, 'we seek to express our deepest belief in the power of love and non-violence to bring positive change in conditions of life and te raodily institutions se that they aet with genuine con- cern for individual worth.' again, it reaffirms that afsc staff work 'to sup- port non-violent alternatives to militarism and war', and through their social and technical assistance programmes they seek rto enable people to discover and utilize their own power and resources'. mode of implementation. afsc was founded in , and since has had programmes in the middle east, with both jews and arabs, searching for a 'genuinely just and lasting peace'. although afsc has no permanent office in palestine, it has placed, since , a middle east representative 'to keep in touch with leaders, especially those with moderate views. . . .' afsc implements its own projects directk, and, officially, it does not co-ordinate with israeli military authorities. follow-up for their projects is effected through periodic field visits by their middle east representative. non- co-ordination with military authorities does not preclude, however, co- ordination with acceptable israeli political authorities. ngos and palestine: the politics of money palestinian involvement. the general guidelines which inform afsc's work in support of the palestinians under occupation carry within them dangerous underpinnings in so far as genuine indigenous palestinian development and transformation are concerned. afsc allows for the involvement of palesti- nians only in so far as these palestinians fit within the politico-religious mould of the friends. needless to say, goals and objectives are determined largely in philadelphia; however, afsc allows some palestinians to be involved in the definition of needs, subject often to the predetermined political stance of this organization which, if one dare say it, is characterized by righteous overtones. near east council of churches (necc) goals and objectives. the department on service to palestine refugees (dspr) has been, since , the administrative body of the necc. the pro- gramme was organized in for the explicit service of palestinian refu- gees, 'as a regional ecumenical ministry' supported by the world council of churches and local churches through the necc. although dspr services 'are provided to all people regardless of religious, ethnic or political affilia- tion', they are offered with an accompanying 'sense of responsibility to main- tain continuing christian presence in palestine. . . . " again, their objectives emphasize the need to enable and empower grass-roots groups. mode of implementation. since , necc's programme in palestine has been administered by the dspr regional central office in cyprus. the local programme, however, is largely designed and wholly implemented by local committees, one for each region (israel, west bank, gaza), composed totally of local palestinians. the committees are registered with the authorities and have to clear their projects with the social welfare department, especially in gaza. the range of projects necc is involved in varies from one region to the next. in gaza, by and large, necc projects are the largest and most permeat- ing. they involve vocational training, health clinics, youth programmes, sup- port for needy families, support for local institutions, and other activities in the camps in co-ordination with unrwa. palestinian involvement. as stated earlier, local committees define the needs and the best way of responding to them. on this level, indigenous palestinians are fully involved. the crux comes, however, with the review and determination of budgets for the various regions by the 'international executive secretaries'. these are composed of representatives of different churches that fund the programmes who use externally defined strategies to override indige- nous definition of need. usaid-funded organizations at present, there are five american private voluntary organizations (pvos) operating in the west bank and gaza who, until , served as the main channels for funnelling usaid money into palestine. these five are: khalil nakhleh anera (american near east refugee aid) amideast (america-mideast educational and training services) cdf (community development foundation, or save the children) crs (catholic relief service) hcm (holyland christian mission) from until the end of , the us government disbursed through the pvo channel nearly $ million. but with the announcement of the jordanian development plan in , a shift in the disbursement pattern in favour of the jordanian plan took place. in , for example, about $ million were disbursed through the pvos compared with $ . million via jordan, whereas the ratio increased markedly in favour of jordan in , and continues through . thus, the total disbursed through jordan for the years and was $ . million. (specific figures for not available yet.) in so far as aid constitutes the primary source of funding for these pvos, they are governed by the same overall strategy and objectives, determined in washington and informed by us interests in the area. consequently, we shall examine first the broad strategic objectives for this type of assistance and then the particular modes of implementation and indigenous palestinian involve- ment in the determination of this assistance. goals and objectives. the objectives of us-funded projects in the west bank and gaza reiterate the same objectives of us government policy in the area, couched, however, in terms of concern for the 'quality of life'. in the words of former undersecretary of state lawrence eagleburger, the objectives are defined as such: i cannot speak to you today about the palestinian problem without mention- ing the palestinians of the west bank and gaza. their well-being and desire for a greater voice in determining their own destiny must be another issue of moral concern for us, even as we continue to seek a negotiated solution to the status of the occupied territories. if the acceptance by the palestinians of the west bank and gaza of a peaceful future is to be nurtured, they must be given a stake in that future by greater opportunities for economic development, fairer administrative practices and greater concern for the quality of their life. on the other hand, the formal definition of the programme, termed 'aid voluntary agency grants', is as follows: '(it. is) the desire of congress to sup- port projects and expand institutions in the occupied territories of the west bank and gaza to help build the socio-economic underpinnings necessary to preserve peace.' thus, it is amply clear that us assistance is tied to nurturing palestinian ac- ceptance of a us 'negotiated solutfoir\ and that the improvement of-the palestinian quality of life under occupation is nothing more than an acceptable camouflage for the imposition of us-initiated solutions. in a draft 'strategy statement' circulated by the us department of state and dated, interestingly, at the beginning of the palestinian uprising, the strategic objectives of us assistance to the palestinians under occupation are ngos and palestine: the politics of money spelled out much more clearly. the strategy 'is the product of considerable col- laboration' among tel aviv, jerusalem, amman, aid, and the department of state, and the 'programme goals . . . represent a happy congruence of ob- jectives that have as their outcome greater economic and social latitude for the palestinian people and a higher standard of living. ' a four-pronged strategy was developed, and it is summarized as follows: ) 'promote west bank/gaza strip economic growth'; ) 'creation of a more favorable policy environment for west bank/gaza strip individuals and enterprises, in particular in the agriculture and manufac- turing sectors . . .'; ) 'increased capacity of public and non-public institutions to support economic activity . . .'; ) 'improved social services . . . ' . ' mode of implementation. correctly so, the 'statement' declares 'how this strategy is implemented is as important as the objectives themselves.' on the one hand, the us government wants to 'visibly demonstrate' its concern for the 'palestinian population in the occupied territories', yet, on the other, the individual pvos, in implementing this programme, find it imperative to distance themselves from the us government in order to gain local palestinian credibility. furthermore, and particularly under the impact of the uprising, the individual american pvos are taking steps to reassert their independent per- sonality and to back such a reassertion by actively seeking non-official and 'cleaner' sources of funding. in addition to the local credibility factor, the in- dividual american pvos are pursuing diverse funding avenues because they are worried about their survival in the light of the shift in the disbursement channels in .favour of the jordanian development plan. since the start of their work, aid-funded organizations have operated on the basis of a certain division of labour among themselves. amideast focuses on human resource development 'through programmes in education, training, research, and information services' in order 'to promote mutual respect and understanding between peoples of the arab world and the us'. in , the aid-funded west bank/gaza human resource development project had in it seven participating educational institutions. about faculty members have so far obtained advanced degrees in the us and returned. the economic development sphere is covered by anera, cdf, and crs, with some areas of overlap. anera, for example, 'executes projects that assist palestinians in the creation of jobs, enhancement of incomes, improve- ment of the environment, and betterment in their educational and health services'. the projects also seek to strengthen palestinian institutions such as co-operatives and municipalities (most of whom are appointed by the israeli military government). on the other hand, cdf claims that its major goals are 'to promote economic growth and palestinian self-reliance . . . stimulate and promote a process of community development and local empowerment which consists of broad-based decision-making, inter-institutional cooperation, long-range khalil nakhleh planning, and other elements of locally sustained community improvement'." these goals get translated into infrastructural projects, agricultural loans, educational projects, and institutional support. various claims notwithstanding, the implementation of the aid-funded programmes is determined largely by the approval process of the israeli military authorities. in a detailed analysis of aid-funded projects between and , it was shown that 'israeli intervention caused a major shift in the allocation of projects and budgets. . . . the share of economic development-related budgets actually implemented is reduced from almost half of the original programme to less than one-third.' furthermore, as it is actually implemented, the programme shows that israeli intervention leads to the implementation of 'israel's own economic policies of allowing only in- dividual prosperity, and curbing communal economic development', annul- ling, thus, the empowerment and self-reliant growth. palestinian involvement. this is the clearest case of the exclusion of in- digenous palestinian involvement in the determination of the overall objec- tives of the programme. to be more specific, the aid-funded programme is merely a vehicle for rendering us government policies in the area more palatable; it not only excludes palestinian involvement but also is premised on undermining legitimate palestinian national aspirations. all aid-funded american pvos have american nationals as directors of their offices in the west bank and gaza. to be sure, they rely on local palesti- nian nationals for the implementation of their local projects. furthermore, some of the american directors have shown a genuine sensitivity towards palestinian needs and demands. however, the two layers of us government policy determination and israeli military authorities' required approval of all projects render palestinian involvement non-existent, or, if present, totally neutralized. islamic/arab/palestinian organizations if one excludes the official assistance channelled to palestine via the jordanian goygebbifini and the jordanian-palestinian joint committee from arab sources, one is left with a number of non-governmental organizations whose mandate is to assist in the development of palestinian society under occupa- tion. these organizations are: idb (islamic development bank) afesd (arab fund for economic and social development) wa (welfare association) upa (united palestinian appeal) jf (jerusalem fund) sai (student aid international) of the above organizations only three, namely wa, upa, and jf, limit their mandate exclusively to palestine; the rest work primarily in the arab world, ngos and palestine: the politics of money with extensions into the muslim world. furthermore, only idb, afesd, and wa have specific objectives of social and economic development, while the others concentrate primarily on scholarships for post-secondary education (jf and sai), and on humanitarian and other support (upa). goals and objectives. unlike the previous two sets of organizations, this group is characterized by similar concerns relating directly to the sustenance of palestinian society, and emanating from the notion of strengthening palesti- nian steadfastness under occupation. the interpretation of this notion, how- ever, varies markedly from one organization to the next. upa, for example, whose incorporation was in new york and office is in washington, and which in was accepted by and registered with the us agency for international development, defines its mission as 'purely humanitarian and its aim is to help alleviate the suffering of all palestinians, especially those living in the west bank, the gaza strip and in refugee camps.' thus, if upa is to receive funds from aid, it has then to submit to the broad strategic goals discussed earlier, and thereby negate, by definition, the palestinian definition of steadfastness under occupation. the afesd and idb allocate a minuscule portion of their annual pro- gramme budgets to the assistance of the palestinian population under occupa- tion. such assistance falls in the margin of the main current of their activities which, for afesd for example, is the participation 'in the financing of economic and social development projects in the arab states and countries . . . ' " thus, other than the general notion of assisting the palestinians under occupation as an expression of arab and islamic solidarity, such assistance does not appear to be anchored in well-defined objectives and strategies. of the group of organizations discussed here, the welfare association is the only organization which was established solely in order to assist in the develop- ment of palestinian society under occupation, on the basis of a clear strategy of development. in its constitution it is stated that the association was established to 'preserve and promote the aspirations of the palestinian people'. in a draft five year report - , to be published soon, the association delineated its development strategy with much more clarity than befbre. the association's development policy is reflected in its commitment to the empowerment of the palestinian community, so that the community can define its own development agenda and control its implementation. this ap- proach is anchored in the popular will of the community, and activates the potential of the largest number of participants in the process of social change. • mode of implementation. to give a clear picture of the mode of implemen- tation, the discussion will focus here primarily on two organizations: the afesd and the wa. afesd has its offices and personnel in kuwait rather than in palestine. consequently, the fund monitors and follows-up the projects it funds in palestine largely by remote control. its director of operations makes occa- sional visits to the west bank and gaza, its area of operations in palestine, and discusses potential projects for support with local contacts. alternatively, khalil nakhleh palestinian consultants to the fund from the west bank and the gaza travel to amman or kuwait in order to assess projects for funding. the fund has no visibility in palestine except in selected areas, and with selected institutions. having its offices in geneva, the welfare association, in a sense, runs its programme long distance. it has no permanent office in palestine, nor a per- manent representative in the area. yet, its operational staff provides almost continuous presence in the area. furthermore, and in congruence with its operational strategy, the association works through a variety of local institu- tional partners who serve in the end as multiple anchors for follow-up and monitoring of relevant developments. thus, the association only co-ordinates with indigenous palestinian individuals and groups who work for the fulfil- ment of palestinian national aspirations, as defined by palestinians them- selves. although the primary activity of afesd is to extend loans to arab countries in all spheres related to broad economic development, its assistance to palestine has been primarily in the form of grants (and one loan) in the areas of technical assistance and upgrading of the health sector. as for the wa, its primary activity occurs in major, well-defined programme areas of development: education, manpower, health, economy, institutions, and culture and the arts. it extends this assistance largely through grants and some loans, especially in the economic development sphere. palestinian involvement. just as the specific definition and local translation of goals and objectives among these organizations vary, so too, the extent of indigenous palestinian involvement varies, both in the determination of the overall strategic goals and in the local implementation of these goals. the quasi-official organizations, e.g. idb and afesd, tend to work through quasi-official channels, and tend to get influenced in the definition and im- plementation of their strategic goals by official and quasi-official considera- tions. thus, in general, the primary palestinian input they get from the field comes from well-established individuals and groups who have potential mobility (to travel to amman or kuwait), and who represent the establish- ment in palestinian society under occupation. moreover, since the internal policies of these quasi-official organizations preclude certain types of support (e.g. operating budgets), and insist on the pr.oxision~o£ certain xequkements_oe.g. formal xegisttajdon of the potential beneficiary, the land for the proposed project to be islamic waqf, etc.), the in- digenous palestinian input, however constructive and relevant, is truncated by definition. on the other hand, the jerusalem fund and the welfare association struc- turally allow for a broad-based indigenous palestinian involvement in the determination of their overall goals and objectives, and in the local implemen- tation of those goals. the jerusalem fund, whose office is in washington, specializes in providing scholarships for post-secondary education for palestinian students from israel. as a matter of course it involves organized student bodies in implement- ing its goals. potential beneficiaries are also involved, from time to time, in the redefinition of the fund's goals. ngos and palestine: the politics of money with its much wider developmental scope, the welfare association involves indigenous palestinian input at the early level of formulating its operational strategy, prior to any implementation in the field. it relies on local partners, individuals, and groups in order to reach the widest possible base. conclusions my discussion in this paper on the money relationship between non- governmental organizations and palestine revolved around one main question: what is the extent of palestinians' input in the definition of their needs under occupation and the degree of their involvement in implementing that defini- tion? in an attempt to answer this question the paper focused not on the volume of support but on the stated objectives of selected organizations, and the impact these objectives may have on the development of palestinian society under occupation. based on this discussion, the following conclusions can be reached: ) the ngo money relationship with palestine is characterized by a multiplicity of objectives — often disharmonious — almost always defined from outside, within the sole context of the overall objectives of the organiza- tion itself. ) money (or support in kind) is the primary means of implementing those objectives. ) assessment of the congruence between stated objectives and implementa- tion, with very few exceptions, is done externally. ) the extent of indigenous palestinian involvement in the definition of the objectives of assistance ranges from nil in the majority of cases, to active in two specific cases only. as for involvement in the local implementation of those objectives, the range is certainly broader. however, in most cases, this involvement is determined by a number of external factors, such as the political and personal orientation of the foreign director, the need to acquire local credibility and legitimacy, etc., but always within a decision-making structure under the control of foreign personnel. based on the present picture, and under the impact of the palestinian popular uprising, it seems to me that the strategy of ngo assistance to palestine must be transformed in favour of the centrality of indigenous palestinian involvement in the determination and implementation of the ob- jectives and goals of assistance. "it was pointed out at the symposium that oxfam is not a church-related organization thus the original heading for this section has been amended to include the word 'secular'. all quotations in this section are taken from a confidential report by peter coleridge entitled annual report for the west bank, gaza, brad and jordan, . . all quotations in this section are taken from mcc, program foundations, approaches, priorities, draft report, . . all quotations in this section are taken from afsc international division, international divi- sion priorities and guidelines, september . khalil nakhleh . all quotations in this section are taken from the middle east council of churches depart- ment on service to palestine refugees, annual report . . quoted in meron benvenisti, us government funded projects in the west bank and gaza, working paper no. , the west bank data base project, jerusalem, , p. . . ibid , p . the agency for international development, strategy statement: the direct west bank/ gaza program and the jordan west bank/gaza development program, us department of state, washington dc, december , pp. - . . ibid . america-mideast educational and training services, inc., amweastannual report , washington dc, , p. . . american near east refugee aid, annual report , washington dc, . . community development foundation, unpublished documents and field trip report, . meron benvenisti, us government funded projects in the west bank and gaza, working paper no. , the west bank data base project, jerusalem, , p. . . ibid. . united palestinian appeal, inc., annual report, washington dc, , p. . . arab fund for economic and social development, annual report , kuwait, , p. . evidence for measurement bias of the short form health survey based on sex and metropolitan influence zone in a secondary care population research open access evidence for measurement bias of the short form health survey based on sex and metropolitan influence zone in a secondary care population jake ursenbach , megan e. o’connell *, andrew kirk and debra morgan abstract background and objectives: the -item short form health survey (sf- ) is a widely used measure of health related quality of life, but has been criticized for lacking an empirically supported model and producing biased estimates of mental and physical health status for some groups. we explored a model of measurement with the sf- and explored evidence for measurement invariance of the sf- . research design and methods: the sf- was completed by caregivers who accompanied patients with cognitive concerns to a memory clinic designed to service rural/remote-dwelling individuals. a multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was used to compare the theoretical measurement model to two empirically identified factor models reported previously in general population studies. results: a model that allowed mental and physical health to correlate, and some items to cross-load provided the best fit to the data. using that model, measurement invariance was then assessed across sex and metropolitan influence zone (miz; a standardized measure of degree of rurality). discussion: partial scalar invariance was demonstrated in both analyses. differences by sex in latent item intercepts were found for items assessing feelings of energy and depression. differences by miz in latent item intercepts were found for an item concerning how current health limits activities. implications: the fitting model was one where the mental and physical health subscales were correlated, which is not provided in the scoring program offered by the publishers. participants’ sex and miz should be accounted for when comparing their factor scores on the sf- . additionally, consideration of geographic residence and associated cultural influences is recommended in future development and use of psychological measures with such populations. keywords: equivalency, test bias, psychometric theory, quality of life © the author(s). open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's creative commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article's creative commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. * correspondence: megan.oconnell@usask.ca department of psychology, university of saskatchewan, campus drive, saskatoon s n a , saskatchewan, canada full list of author information is available at the end of the article ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -y&domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / mailto:megan.oconnell@usask.ca background and objectives as the proportion of older adults in canada grows, it is crucial that that healthcare services in canada adapt to meet their needs [ ]. one important way healthcare and other policy decisions are made involves assessing indi- viduals’ health-related quality of life, which is a construct that summarizes their physical, social, and emotional status as it relates to their prior and current health state [ ]. one commonly used measure of health related qual- ity of life is the medical outcomes study -item short form health survey (sf- ) [ ]. the items of the sf- were derived from the -item short form health survey (sf- ), a longer health survey which has been used in more than studies inter- nationally [ ] that has consistently demonstrated utility in distinguishing between known groups based on physical or mental health status [ ]. the sf- has eight subscales cov- ering a range of physical and mental health concerns, such as ‘role limitations due to physical health’ and ‘emotional well-being.’ the subscale scores are combined to produce a physical health summary component (pcs) and a mental health summary component (mcs), which are based on a principal component analysis of the eight subscale scores using an orthogonal rotation, based on an assumption that physical and mental health are not correlated [ ]. the stated goal of the sf- was to reproduce the pcs and mcs scores in a survey that could be completed in under two minutes. to this end, the sf- items were selected using stepwise regressions of the mcs and pcs on the sf- items in a large population study conducted in the united states, which produced regression weights for of the sf- items that best approximated the subscale scores of the test. this model approximation approach to test length reduction is effective in some situations, but may not generalize well to different populations [ ]. despite its widespread use, two prominent concerns about the validity of the sf- have been raised. first, some researchers argue that the measurement model of the scale, although theoretically described by ware et al. [ ], was not actually tested in the creation of the scale and is not empir- ically supported [ ]. this criticism relates to the way that the summary scores for the mental and physical health sub- scales were derived, specifically, to the extent that the meas- urement model was derived from the sf- , and the assumption that the latent constructs of physical and men- tal health are uncorrelated [ , ]. instruments such as the sf- and the sf- consist of a series of likert-scale ques- tions which act as indicators, or manifest variables, influ- enced by unobserved, or latent variables, which for the sf- are the mental and physical health related quality of life. several studies have employed an exploratory factor ana- lysis approach using a principal component analysis with orthogonal rotation, consistent with the development of the sf- and the assumption of uncorrelated mental and physical health. while some of these studies supported the hypothesized component structure [ – ], others pro- duced a three-component solution, with a general health component in addition to the mental and physical health components [ , ]. while the evidence of a two-factor solution is supportive of the theoretical model, significant methodological issues limit the strength of this evidence, specifically, the estimated correlations between the individ- ual items and the latent physical and mental health vari- ables are likely inaccurate due to the use of principal component analysis, which assumes an initial communality of one, and the specified orthogonal relationship between the mental and physical health components, which is not supported empirically. the assumption of an orthogonal relationship has resulted in biased scoring coefficients where poorer physical health results in an overestimate of mental health and vice versa [ , – ]. other studies have used alternative approaches to de- termine the appropriate measurement model of the sf- . the models identified by two such studies are sum- marized in table . in the first study, fleishman and lawrence [ ] used a confirmatory factor analysis (cfa) to explore the factor structure by beginning with the simple structure outlined by ware et al. [ ], and then in- crementally improving it by allowing the factors to cor- relate and using the modification indices. they achieved an adequate fit by allowing the residuals on several simi- larly worded items to correlate, as well as allowing cer- tain items to cross-load on both factors. in the second study, tucker et al. [ ] followed a similar approach but did not permit items to cross load. in summary, al- though the sf- generally appears to have a two-factor solution, the measurement model specified by ware and colleagues does not seem well supported empirically. various alternative models have been identified in gen- eral population studies, and it is not clear which is ap- propriate for the subpopulation of the present study. the second concern is that the physical and mental health related quality of life estimates of the scale are not invariant, or in other words, are biased against some populations, and therefore group comparisons are not ap- propriate unless measurement invariance is established table sample characteristics characteristic sample size (n) age, m (sd) . ( . ) sex, female (%) ( . %) miz, no miz to weak miz vs moderate to urban (%) ( . %) sf- , m (sd) . ( . ) pcs, m (sd) . ( . ) mcs, m (sd) . ( . ) ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of first. that is, does the sf- measures these latent vari- ables in the same manner for all persons who complete the scale, or does it measure these latent variables differ- ently for subpopulations [ ]. when an instrument demonstrates measurement invariance, knowledge of population membership will provide no new information about an individual’s scores on the observed variables given knowledge of their level of the latent variable [ ]. measurement invariance is difficult to assess because it is impossible to directly know an individual’s level of the la- tent variable. for example, men and women could demon- strate different mean scores on the mcs scale, which could represent true differences in mental health status, differences in measurement model but equality in mental health status, or a combination of the two. one approach to assessing measurement invariance in- volves assessing items individually for differential item func- tioning. some studies have found evidence of significant differential item functioning across groups on the sf- . for example, in a nationally representative sample study conducted in the united states, flieshman and lawrence [ ] found evidence that men were less likely to endorse items suggesting they had trouble climbing stairs, they felt downhearted, or they lacked energy when compared to women of a similar mental and physical health status. simi- lar problems with differential item functioning have been reported when comparing white to black and hispanic american respondents, and comparing younger to older re- spondents [ , ]. in contrast, some studies have investi- gated differential item functioning across age and sex and have not found evidence of it [ ], while others have found evidence of it when comparing patients with stroke to nor- mal controls, but argued that the evidence present failed to reach the level of practical significance [ ]. a second approach to assessing measurement invari- ance involves using multigroup confirmatory factor ana- lysis (mg-cfa) to compare the change in model fit indices across a series of models which progressively constrain the structural model to be equal across groups [ ]. as the models become incrementally more restrict- ive, a hierarchy of invariance has been established [ ]. the most commonly assessed forms of invariance are: configural, where groups have the same number of la- tent variables, and items load on latent variables in a similar pattern; metric (weak factorial), where item load- ings do not significantly differ across groups; scalar (strong factorial), where item intercepts do not signifi- cantly differ across groups; and strict factorial, where item residual variances do not differ across groups [ ]. in order to meaningfully compare group means on the latent variable, scalar invariance is recommended [ ]. a few studies of the sf- have been conducted using this methodology, though predominantly in clinical or marginalized groups. for example, okonkwo et al. [ ] found evidence of metric invariance between patients who experienced stroke and healthy controls. similarly, another study found evidence of strict invariance be- tween four groups of canadians with different levels of vulnerable housing status [ ]. however, the measure- ment invariance of the sf- has never been investigated in rural- versus urban-dwelling populations. many rural populations have higher rates of mortality, disability, and chronic disease than urban-dwelling pop- ulations [ ]. some factors contributing to this disparity are structural, such as a low population density leading to transportation issues and a lack of access to specialists [ , ]. others have suggested that cultural differences, such as an increased emphasis on self-reliance, may con- tribute to health disparities as well, with the caveat that rural populations are a heterogenous group that varies along a continuum of acculturation [ , ]. indeed, the idea that rural populations may be culturally distinct from urban populations has a long history and empirical support [ – ]. it is possible that cultural differences in some rural populations may result in biased estimates of health status when using the sf- , for example, some rural-dwelling individuals may place an emphasis on self-reliance, which could contribute to systematic underreporting of symptoms. establishing measurement invariance is a prerequisite for test interpretation and group comparison [ ]. as the sf- is used not only for research, but to inform public policy [ ], failure to attend to these measurement issues has potentially costly or harmful consequences. we will investigate the measurement invariance of the sf- ’s mcs and pcs subscales across sex and geographical prox- imity to metropolitan areas. as evidence of differential item functioning by sex has been demonstrated in previ- ous studies [ ], we hypothesize that the sf- will not demonstrate metric invariance. however, in the previous study, although the magnitude of loadings differed, the number of factors and pattern of loadings was consistent between men and women. as such we hypothesize that the sf- will demonstrate configural invariance. finally, although there is evidence calling into question the validity of the sf- with minority populations, its psycho- metric properties in a rural-dwelling general population have not been previously investigated, so there is no direct evidence to support a directional hypothesis. for that rea- son, a directional hypothesis is not made regarding the measurement invariance for a rural versus urban-dwelling dementia/cognitive concern caregiver population. research design and methods participants the analyses in this study were conducted using archival data collected at the rural and remote memory clinic (rrmc) in saskatoon, saskatchewan. the clinic services a ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of predominantly rural patient population (with rurality de- fined as living at least km outside of the two major urban centers in saskatchewan). patients are referred for further investigation of memory or other cognitive or be- havioral concerns. participants in this study were a cohort of individuals who accompanied patients to the clinic, typ- ically family members, hereafter referred to as caregivers. exclusion criteria included inability to read and write in english and mental or physical disability that precluded completion of the questionnaires. they completed a ques- tionnaire packet which included the sf- while the pa- tient they accompanied was assessed. further information about data collection and other rrmc operations are de- tailed elsewhere [ ]. research ethics approval was pro- vided by the university of saskatchewan research ethics board (reb beh – ). measures the sf- has demonstrated evidence for reliability and validity in numerous populations and settings [ , – , , ], however, some concerns have been raised about the nature of the scoring algorithm and its validity with minority groups [ , , , ]. as part of the initial valid- ation of the instrument, ware et al. [ ] re-analyzed many cross sectional and longitudinal studies including the sf- using only the sf- items, and successfully reproduced the same pattern of results using the shorter survey. some studies which included only the sf- items have been conducted in clinical and general popu- lations and have demonstrated various forms of validity evidence such as known group [ , ], convergent [ , , ] and discriminant validity [ ]. test-retest reliability estimates have been reported at one week (pcs = . , mcs = . ) [ ] and two weeks (pcs = . –. , mcs = . –. ) [ ]. point estimates for internal consistency have been reported that range from . to . for the pcs and . to . for the mcs [ , , ]. validity evi- dence has been presented for the sf- with a variety of populations, including a general population in the us [ , ], australia [ ], canada, bermuda, new zealand, and various european nations [ ], among individuals with se- vere mental illness [ ], patients in primary care [ ], with stroke [ ], parkinson’s disease [ ], with post- partum women [ ], among older canadian mennonites [ ], and homeless/vulnerably housed canadians [ ]. participants’ degree of rurality was quantified by using the metropolitan influence zone (miz) that corresponded to their area of residence as reported by statistics canada. geographical areas in canada outside metropolitan areas are divided into different levels of miz according to the proportion of the employed workforce that commute into metropolitan areas as opposed to working locally [ ]. for the present analyses, participants were divided into two groups: low- to weak-miz (less than % of employed workforce commute) compared with moderate-miz to urban (greater than or equal to % commute or live in urban centers). the cut point was chosen to facilitate comparison with other studies using this population [ ]. statistical procedure the analyses were conducted using r version . . [ ]. missing data were assessed using little’s mcar test to determine whether the missing data were missing com- pletely at random (i.e., missing independently of other variables, both observed and unobserved) [ ]. in the event that little’s mcar test was significant, dummy variables were created coding missingness for each ob- served variable to determine if data were missing at ran- dom (mar) or missing not at random (mnar). these dummy variables were then tested for independence from the remaining observed variables (sex and miz) using separate chi square tests and evaluated for signifi- cance at a bonferroni-adjusted p-critical value of . , where a significant result indicates that data for that item are conditional on other observed variables (mar), whereas the absence of significant results for that item suggest that the missing data are conditional on an un- observed variable (mnar). although no attempt to im- pute missing values was planned, the nature of the missing data has important implications for the results that are taken up in the discussion. data were visually inspected for univariate normality using quantile-quantile plots. then skewness and kur- tosis statistics were calculated, divided by the standard error of the estimate, and evaluated against a critical z value of . . multivariate normality was assessed using mardia’s test of multivariate skewness and kurtosis. in the event of nonnormally distributed data, mean- and variance-corrected weighted least squares (wlsmv) es- timation was planned to account for the violated as- sumption where appropriate in the remaining analyses. descriptive statistics were reported using independent samples t-tests, pearson’s correlations, and fisher’s z- tests where appropriate for between-group compari- sons. the measurement model of the sf- was then de- termined in this population by using cfa to compare the fit of the hypothesized model to empirically sup- ported sf- models in other populations. specifically, the model described by ware et al. [ ] was compared to others [ , ]. model fit was assessed based on the model fit criteria recommended by hu and bentler [ ], with a comparative fit index (cfi) > . , and a root mean squared error of approximation (rmsea) < . . the au- thors note that multiple fit indices should be considered when determining if fit is adequate and note that the rmsea tends to be overly conservative in smaller sam- ple sizes. the robust fit indices described above have demonstrated adequate capacity to detect model ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of misspecifications in simulation studies of nonnormally distributed data when evaluated using hu and bentler’s criteria [ ]. if none of the pre-specified models fit well, the modification indices were consulted and the param- eter most contributing to poor fit was iteratively freed and model fit re-assessed until adequate. based on the measurement model, cronbach’s alpha coefficients and confidence intervals were estimated for the pcs and mcs within groups by sex and miz. once the measurement model was established, two analyses of measurement invariance were conducted based on sex and miz. in both cases, a grouping variable was coded with the demographic difference. first, con- figural invariance was assessed by fitting a multigroup cfa based on the measurement model previously deter- mined in which item means, loadings, intercepts, and re- siduals were estimated freely. adequate model fit according to the hu and bentler [ ] guidelines provides evidence that the scale supports configural invariance. subsequent forms of invariance were evaluated by com- paring the change in cfi from the less constrained to more constrained model, where a significant deterior- ation in model fit is indicated by change in rmsea > . and/or change in cfi < −. [ , ]. metric invari- ance was first assessed by constraining item slopes to be equal between groups and comparing the change in cfi from the configural to metric model. if metric invariance was supported, scalar invariance was then assessed by also constraining item intercepts to be equal and com- paring the change in cfi from the metric to scalar model. similarly, if scalar invariance was supported, strict invariance was also assessed by constraining item residual variances to be equal and comparing change in cfi from scalar to strict model. if invariance was not supported at any level, constraints were iteratively re- leased based on the modification indices to determine partial invariance [ ]. results of the participants in the initial sample, . % were missing data regarding either their miz or one or more items on the sf- , resulting in a final sample size of . the most common pattern of missingness was par- ticipants who omitted all items on the sf- , accounting for . % of the missing data. little’s mcar test was significant, χ ( ) = . , p < . , indicating data were not mcar, suggesting that missing data were con- ditional on another variable. none of the follow-up chi square tests were significant at the bonferroni adjusted p-critical value when testing the independence of each item’s missingness from sex and miz, suggesting that the missing data were conditional on an unobserved variable, or mnar. univariate normality was assessed visually and statisti- cally. all sf- items showed significant univariate skew (p < . ), and all but items , , , , were significantly kurtotic (p < . ). mardia’s test of multivariate skewness and kurtosis was significant for both skewness (b = . , z = . , p < . ) and kurtosis (b = . , z = . , p < . ). as the data were not normally distributed wlsmv estimation was used. descriptive statistics of the sample are reported in table . the average age of participants was . years (sd = . ). most participants were female, and about half of the sample resided in a low to weak miz area. across the full sample, participants’ mean raw score on the sf- was . (sd = . ). women (m = . , sd = . ) scored signifi- cantly higher than men (m = . , sd = . ), t ( . ) = − . , p = . . participants scores from a no- to low-miz area (m = . , sd = . ) did not significantly differ from those from a moderate-miz to metropolitan area (m = . , sd = . ), t ( . ) = . , p = . . within groups esti- mates of internal consistency were calculated with % confidence intervals for the sf- overall, and then for mcs and pcs separately. in both between group compari- sons, the cronbach’s alpha confidence intervals overlapped, suggesting that internal consistency did not significantly differ by sex or miz. in addition, all estimates exceeded . , providing evidence of adequate internal consistency. the estimates were all significant moderate negative corre- lations, which ranged from −. for women to −. for men, and from −. for no- to low-miz to −. for moder- ate miz to urban-dwellers. fisher’s z test was not signifi- cant for sex, z = . , p > . , or miz, z = . , p > . , indicating that the correlations did not significantly differ in either comparison. to establish a baseline measurement model, several in- creasingly complex models were compared, as shown in table . model , described by ware et al. [ ] but with correlated factors, did not provide an adequate fit to the data. similarly, model , reported by flieshman and col- leagues [ ] also did not fit the data well. model , de- scribed by tucker and colleagues [ ] also failed to produce an adequate fit. a model specification search re- quired two iterative consultations of the modification indi- ces and freeing of parameters to produce an adequately fitting model. the final model used for the measurement invariance analysis consisted of correlated physical and mental health factors, and items , , , , , , , on the physical health subscale and items , , , , , , , , on the mental health subscale, with residual covariances for item pairs – , – , – , – , – . the sf- demonstrated partial scalar invariance with regard to sex as indicated in table . all relevant model parameters were invariant to sex with two exceptions. the latent intercepts for items and varied by sex, shown in table . the sample means for item (feeling ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of depressed) were . for females and . for males, for an observed mean difference of . , with higher num- bers suggestive of greater depressive symptomatology. the latent intercept estimates for that item were . for males and . for females, a difference of . . these results indicate that of the . observed mean difference, . is due to the difference in intercept, suggesting that the minor difference in male and female responses on the item is partly due to influences other than the mental and physical health factors modelled here. in contrast, while observed group means for item (feeling energetic) were similar, with . for males and . for females, the estimated latent intercepts dif- fered, with . for males and . for females, a dif- ference of . , suggesting that despite similar observed means, female scores were associated with slightly lower factor scores relative to male scores due to influences outside the factors modeled here. the sf- demonstrated partial scalar invariance with respect to miz in this sample. factor loadings and latent intercepts were equal between groups ex- cept for the intercept for item (current health limits moderate activities), as indicated in table . on that item, participants from the moderate-miz/ urban group had an observed mean of . , while those from the no−/weak-miz group had a mean of . , for an observed mean difference of . . separ- ate latent intercepts were estimated for that item for each group, with the moderate-miz/urban group es- timated at . and the no−/weak-miz group at . , for a difference of . , suggesting that while the observed mean item scores for the two groups are very similar, no−/weak-miz group scores were associated with slightly higher physical health scores for reasons not captured by the factor model. discussion our first hypothesis, that the sf- would demonstrate only configural invariance, was not supported. rather, our results indicate that the sf- demonstrates partial scalar invariance across sex, suggesting that it may not be appropriate to compare the mcs and pcs scores of males and females in a rural, secondary care dementia/ cognitive concern caregiver population. there is a differ- ence in latent intercept estimates by sex of . on item (feeling depressed, -point likert) favoring females, and a difference of . on item (feeling energetic, - point likert) favoring males. these differences are of similar magnitude but in opposite directions, and there- fore may balance out. although previous studies have not examined the measurement invariance of the sf- across sex using this methodology, most studies of dif- ferential item functioning have found no evidence of practically significant differences in the way scale items function for men compared with women. for example, one study conducted with a parkinson’s disease patient table comparison of model fit for baseline model χ (df) p value rmsea [ % ci] cfi tli model : ware et al. with correlated factors . ( ) <. . [. –. ]a . a . model : model + cross-loading items , , . ( ) <. . [. –. ]a . a . model : model + residual covariances for items from same sf- scale . ( ) <. . [. –. ]a . a . model : model + cross-loading items , and residual covariance for items , . ( ) <. . [. –. ] . . model : items , , , , , on physical health factor and items , , , , , on mental health factor all models estimated using wlsmv apoor model fit indicated by rmsea > . and cfi < . table measurement invariance tests regarding sex and metropolitan influence zone model χ df rmsea [ % ci] cfi sex . configural . . [. –. ] . . metric . . [. –. ] . . scalar . . [. –. ] . * a. partial scalar (intercepts for items , free) . . [. –. ] . . partial strict (intercepts for items , free) . . [. –. ] . miz . configural . . [. –. ] . . metric . . [. –. ] . . scalar . . [. –. ] . * a. partial scalar (intercepts for item free) . . [. –. ] . . partial strict (intercepts for item free) . . [. –. ]* . * *significant deterioration in model fit indicated by change in rmsea > . and/or change in cfi < −. [ ] ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of population used an item response theory analysis and re- ported that items appeared to function similarly for men and women and concluded that comparisons across sex were appropriate [ ]. another study found evidence that some items functioned differently for men and women in a stroke population, but concluded that the significant results were attributable to the large sample size and did not reach the level of practical significance [ ]. as previously discussed, one study did find evi- dence of significant, meaningful differential item func- tioning by sex in a nationally representative sample. the authors attributed this to a male tendency to avoid responding in a way that indicates weakness or depend- ence. they noted that this interpretation was supported in their sample by men’s statistical reticence to endorse items suggesting difficulty climbing stairs, lacking energy, or feeling downhearted [ ]. regarding our second hypothesis, we did not specify a priori whether we anticipated measurement invariance on the sf- across miz. the sf- demonstrated par- tial scalar invariance with respect to miz in this sample. the intercept for item (current health limits moderate activities) differed across groups by . favoring the no −/weak-miz group, suggesting their responses were table factor model parameter estimates from partial strict model across sexa factor loadings item physical mental unique variances latent intercepts . general health . b . . . . current health limits moderate activities . . . . climbing stairs . . . . accomplishing less . . . . . health limits kinds of activities . . . . . emotional problems accomplishing less . b . . . emotional problems being less careful . . . . pain interferes with work . . . . feeling calm . . . . feeling energetic . . . male: . female: . . feeling depressed . . male = . female = . . social activities . . . . aall parameters reported in unstandardized form bparameter fixed to for identification table factor model parameter estimates from partial strict model across miza factor loadings item physical mental latent intercepts . general health . b . . . current health limits moderate activities . no/weak miz: . moderate miz/urban: . . climbing stairs . . . accomplishing less . . . . health limits kinds of activities . . . . emotional problems accomplishing less . b . . emotional problems being less careful . . . pain interferes with work . . . feeling calm . . . feeling energetic . . . . feeling depressed . . . social activities . . . aall parameters reported in unstandardized form bparameter fixed to for identification ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of associated with slightly higher physical health factor scores for reasons not captured by the factor model. one other study has investigated the psychometric prop- erties of the sf- in a rural setting, specifically among older adult rural-dwelling mennonites in canada [ ]. although they did not examine invariance directly, they found evidence of validity in that population. specific- ally, using an exploratory factor analysis, they found the expected two-factor solution, and they found evidence of known group validity on a range of groups such as age, income, marital status, self-reported health, social inter- action, and spirituality. these results are generally con- sistent with the present study as they suggest that the sf- may be validly used in some rural-dwelling popu- lations. consistent with our findings of limited invari- ance across miz, a previous study using a subpopulation of the same dementia/cognitive concern caregiver popu- lation found evidence of only configural and weak in- variance across miz on the zarit burden inventory [ ], a measure of dementia caregiver burden. taken to- gether, these results suggest that factors related to miz influence the measurement properties of psychometric instruments. consideration of participants’ geographic residence and associated cultural influences is recom- mended in future development and use of psychological measures with such populations. there are some limitations to this study beyond the issue of estimation and the violation of the assumption of multivariate normality previously discussed. specific- ally, approximately one in five participants were missing data and could not be included. subsequent analysis sug- gested that the data were mnar, or in other words, conditional on an unobserved variable. although it is not clear from the data extracted from the archival data- set why these data were missing, it is possible that those participants who did not provide data did so because the sf- was not a valid instrument for them, which would limit the generalizability of these results. for example, it is possible that a culturally distinct subpopulation of de- mentia/cognitive concern caregivers felt disenfranchised due to a history of negative experiences in canadian so- cial programs and therefore chose not to participate in data collection. while multiple imputation is typically recommended when data are mar and even mnar [ ], in this case there is a risk that doing so will obscure systematic differences in the missing subpopulation yet provide the illusion of methodological rigour. caution is urged in the generalization of these findings because in addition to the high proportion of missing data, the tar- get population is quite unique, specifically, it is com- prised of largely rural-dwelling caregivers of people with cognitive concerns referred to secondary care. in future research it is important to replicate these findings in other urban and rural populations, ideally using nationally representative samples to minimize sampling bias. other studies of the sf- have provided evidence of differential item functioning in various pop- ulations. future research should examine the functioning of individual items in this dementia/cognitive concern caregiver population across different demographic vari- ables to ensure that group comparisons are not biased. finally, this study provided further evidence that the physical and mental health subscales of the sf- are correlated, suggesting that use of scoring coefficients that assume an orthogonal relationship produces in- accurate estimates of mental and physical health related quality of life [ , – ]. in conclusion, the current study adds to existing litera- ture about the sf- by demonstrating the inadequacy of the measurement model proposed by ware et al. [ ] in a rural-dwelling dementia/cognitive concern caregiver population. it also providing evidence for partial scalar measurement invariance of the sf- across sex and miz, indicating that within this population, some cau- tion should be used when comparing the physical and mental health related quality of life between those groups using the sf- . implications foremost, these data suggest the commercially available scoring program that models the mental health and physical health quality of life as orthogonal is not the best fit to the data. although these results should be replicated, our findings have implications for use of the commercially available scoring program for the sf- . participants’ sex and miz should be accounted for when comparing their factor scores on the sf- . additionally, consideration of geographic residence and associated cultural influences is recommended in future develop- ment and use of psychological measures with such populations. abbreviations sf- : short form health survey; miz: metropolitan influence zone; sf- : - item short form health survey; pcs: physical health summary component; mcs: mental health summary component; cfa: confirmatory factor analysis; mg-cfa: multigroup confirmatory factor analysis; rrmc: rural and remote memory clinic; reb beh: research ethics board; mar: missing at random; mnar: missing not at random; wlsmv: variance-corrected weighted least squares; cfi: comparative fit index; rmsea: root mean squared error of approximation acknowledgements we acknowledge the families and patients of the rrmc. authors’ information (optional): none. authors’ contributions meo, ak, and dm collected the data. ju and meo conceived the project, ju did the analyses wrote the manuscript under meo’s supervision. ju, meo, ak, and dm edited the manuscript. the author(s) read and approved the final manuscript. ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of funding ju received a master’s award from the canadian institutes for health research. further trainee funding was provided by the canadian consortium on neurodegeneration in aging (ccna). ccna is supported by a grant from the canadian institutes of health research with funding from several partners including the saskatchewan health research foundation. the rrmc is funded by a cihr foundation grant to dm, by sk health, and by in-kind support from the university of saskatchewan department of psychology. availability of data and materials upon request. ethics approval and consent to participate obtained at data collection. consent for publication obtained in consent. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. author details department of psychology, university of saskatchewan, campus drive, saskatoon s n a , saskatchewan, canada. college of medicine, university of saskatchewan, campus drive, saskatoon s n a , saskatchewan, canada. canadian centre for health and safety in agriculture, university of saskatchewan, campus drive, saskatoon s n a , saskatchewan, canada. received: may accepted: march references . alzheimer's society of canada. prevalence and monetary costs of dementia in canada. . retrieved from http://alzheimer.ca/sites/default/files/files/ national/statistics/prevalenceandcostsofdementia_en.pdf. . borgaonkar mr. quality of life measurement in gastrointestinal and liver disorders. gut. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /gut. . . . . ware j, kosinski m, keller s. a -item short-form health survey: construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. med care. ; ( ): – . . hawthorne g, osborne rh, taylor a, et al. the sf- version : critical analyses of weights, scoring algorithms and population norms. qual life res. ; ( ): . . harrell fe. regression modeling strategies: with applications to linear models, logistic regression, and survival analysis (second edition). new york: springer; . . hagell p, westergren a, Årestedt k. beware of the origin of numbers: standard scoring of the sf- and sf- summary measures distorts measurement and score interpretations. res nurs health. ; ( ): – . . tucker g, adams r, wilson d. observed agreement problems between sub- scales and summary components of the sf- version : an alternative scoring method can correct the problem. plos one. ; ( ):e . https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. . . tucker g, adams r, wilson d. the case for using country-specific scoring coefficients for scoring the sf- , with scoring implications for the sf- . qual life res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - . . amir m, lewin-epstein n, becker g, buskila d. psychometric properties of the sf- (hebrew version) in a primary care population in israel. med care. ; ( ): – . . fisher k, newbold kb. validity of the sf- in a canadian old order mennonite community. appl res qual life. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y. . salyers mp, bosworth hb, swanson jw, lamb-pagone j, osher fc. reliability and validity of the sf- health survey among people with severe mental illness. med care. ; ( ): – . . bentur n, king y. the challenge of validating sf- for its use with community-dwelling elderly in israel. qual life res. ; ( ): – . https:// doi.org/ . /s - - - . . jakobsson u, westergren a, lindskov s, hagell p. construct validity of the sf- in three different samples. j eval clin pract. ; ( ): – . https:// doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x. . johnson ja, maddigan sl. performance of the rand- and sf- summary scores in type diabetes. qual life res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /b:qure. . .cf. . niles an, sherbourne cd, roy-byrne pp, stein mb, sullivan g, bystritsky a, craske mg. anxiety treatment improves physical functioning with oblique scoring of the sf- short form health survey. gen hosp psychiatry. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /j.genhosppsych. . . . . windsor td, rodgers b, butterworth p, anstey kj, jorm af. measuring physical and mental health using the sf- : implications for community surveys of mental health. aust n z j psychiatry. ; ( ): – . . fleishman j, lawrence w. demographic variation in sf- scores: true differences or differential item functioning? medical care. ; ( ). retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . . millsap r. statistical approaches to measurement invariance. new york: routledge; . . desouky tf, mora pa, howell ea. measurement invariance of the sf- across european-american, latina, and african-american postpartum women. qual life res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - . . hagell p, westergren a. measurement properties of the sf- health survey in parkinson’s disease. j park dis. ; ( ): – . . okonkwo oc, roth dl, pulley l, howard g. confirmatory factor analysis of the validity of the sf- for persons with and without a history of stroke. qual life res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - . . vandenberg rj, lance ce. a review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. organ res methods. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . gadermann am, sawatzky r, palepu a, hubley am, zumbo bd, aubry t, et al. minimal impact of response shift for sf- mental and physical health status in homeless and vulnerably housed individuals: an item-level multi- group analysis. qual life res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / s - - - . . jones ca, parker ts, ahearn m, mishra ak, variyam jn. health status and health care access of farm and rural populations. u.s. department of agriculture, economics research services. . retrieved from https:// www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/ / _eib _ reportsummary_ _.pdf. . arcury ta, preisser js, gesler wm, powers jm. access to transportation and health care utilization in a rural region. j rural health. ; ( ): – . . hartley d. rural health disparities, population health, and rural culture. am j public health. ; ( ): – . . wagonfeld mo. a snapshot of rural and frontier america. in: stamm bh, editor. rural behavioral health care: an interdisciplinary guide. washington, dc: american psychological association; . . fischer c. toward a subcultural theory of urbanism. am j sociol. ; ( ): – . . tittle cr, grasmick hg. urbanity: influences of urbanness, structure, and culture. soc sci res. ; ( ): – . . wirth l. urbanism as a way of life. in r. sennett (ed.), classic essays on the culture of cities ( ; pp. – ). new york: appleton–century–crofts; . . morgan dg, crossley m, kirk a, d’arcy c, stewart n, biem j, et al. improving access to dementia care: development and evaluation of a rural and remote memory clinic. aging ment health. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . larson co, schlundt d, patel k, beard k, hargreaves m. validity of the sf- for use in a low-income african american community-based research initiative (reach ). ; ( ): . . statistics canada. census metropolitan influenced zone (miz). . retrieved from http://www .statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/ /ref/ dict/geo -eng.cfm. . branger c, o’connell me, morgan dg. factor analysis of the -item zarit burden interview in caregivers of persons diagnosed with dementia. j appl gerontol. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . r core team. r: a language and environment for statistical computing. r foundation for statistical computing, vienna, austria. . url https:// www.r-project.org/. . little rja. a test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. j am stat assoc. ; ( ): . ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of http://alzheimer.ca/sites/default/files/files/national/statistics/prevalenceandcostsofdementia_en.pdf http://alzheimer.ca/sites/default/files/files/national/statistics/prevalenceandcostsofdementia_en.pdf https://doi.org/ . /gut. . . https://doi.org/ . /journal.pone. https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /s - - -y https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x https://doi.org/ . /b:qure. . .cf https://doi.org/ . /b:qure. . .cf https://doi.org/ . /j.genhosppsych. . . http://www.jstor.org/stable/ https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/ / _eib _reportsummary_ _.pdf https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/ / _eib _reportsummary_ _.pdf https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/ / _eib _reportsummary_ _.pdf https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / http://www .statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/ /ref/dict/geo -eng.cfm http://www .statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/ /ref/dict/geo -eng.cfm https://doi.org/ . / https://www.r-project.org/ https://www.r-project.org/ . hu lt, bentler pm. cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. struct equ model multidiscip j. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . brosseau-liard pe, savalei v. adjusting incremental fit indices for nonnormality. multivar behav res. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . / . . . . cheung gw, rensvold rb. evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. struct equ model multidiscip j. ; ( ): – . https://doi.org/ . /s sem _ . . rutkowski l, svetina d. measurement invariance in international surveys categorical indicators and fit measure performance. appl meas educ. ; ( ): – . . baguley t, andrews m. handling missing data. in: robertson j, kaptein m, editors. modern statistical methods for hci. cham: springer international publishing; . p. – . https://doi.org/ . / - - - - _ . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. ursenbach et al. health and quality of life outcomes ( ) : page of https://doi.org/ . / https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . / . . https://doi.org/ . /s sem _ https://doi.org/ . / - - - - _ 	abstract 	background and objectives 	research design and methods 	results 	discussion 	implications 	background and objectives 	research design and methods 	participants 	measures 	statistical procedure 	results 	discussion 	implications 	abbreviations 	acknowledgements 	authors’ contributions 	funding 	availability of data and materials 	ethics approval and consent to participate 	consent for publication 	competing interests 	author details 	references 	publisher’s note sjif impact factor: . | isi i.f.value: . | journal doi: . /epra issn: - (online) epra international journal of research and development (ijrd) volume: | issue: | february - peer reviewed journal epra ijrd | journal doi: https://doi.org/ . /epra | www.eprajournals.com | | research of national, religious and social structure of the population moved from russian empire to turkistan country in “turkistan collection” jurayev husniddin pazliddinovich teacher, fergana state university,uzbekistan article doi: https://doi.org/ . /epra abstract this article explores the significance of the national, religious and social composition of the population of the turkistan turks migrated from the russian empire to turkestan. cultural, socio-economic relations and religious changes in the country are explained through the study of the social status, national composition and religious beliefs of those who were deported to turkistan. turkistan russian empire was given political motives and purposes of relocation. key words: turkistan collection, source, agricultural issue, province, governorate, russian villages, settlement, migrational poles, colonization. introduction today, our country is one of the most important tasks in the study of the history of the country. uzbekistan's history has been underlined by one of the most vibrant trends in the history of uzbekistan, and the development of the state policy. “in history, nothing is left without a trace. he is the stronghold of the people, the historical memory, and the practical manifestation. supporting the historical legacy, learning and ancestry from generation to generation is one of the most important aspects of our state's policy”[ ]. thus, the search for truth from history, and the research on historical sources, is the most important of all. literature review the so-called “turkistan collection” is an important part of our national history, as well as the research on how to relocate the russian empire from the turkistan. this study has also highlighted the need for clearance in our history. bilingual materials were prepared by the bibliographer v.m. mejov for - years. in fact, the “turkistan collection” is a central asian literature specialist n.v.dmitrovskiy, ethnograf a.a.divayev, head of the turkistan library. osikovsky was attracted by p.zikov, orientalist j.f.bonch. together, they have been founded for years. bibliographer and librarian a.a.semenov created years of the “turkistan collection” in - . this bungalow structure is far from being among the most advanced. bibliographer e.k.butger edited the “bust of turkiston” was built for years. this year, m.terentyev has created a work “map of central asia”, “uniting the medieval history of the middle east”, uniting maps and planners. the authors of the “turkiston collection” have created an alphabetical cursor for the authors of all ages. the “turkiston collection” has been an important source for many studies in central asia. all years of seedling are kept in the national library of uzbekistan. research methodology the research used such scientific principles and methods as systematic, theoretical-deductive conclusions, analysis and synthesis, historicity and logic, hermeneutic analysis, heterogeneity, the unity of humanity and nationality, and comparative analysis. analysis and results the top political and military circles of the russian empire knew that they could not rely solely on armed forces, military-administrative systems, to pursue colonial politics in central asia, to become a source of agricultural raw materials and natural resources, https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://doi.org/ . /epra https://doi.org/ . /epra sjif impact factor: . | isi i.f.value: . | journal doi: . /epra issn: - (online) epra international journal of research and development (ijrd) volume: | issue: | february - peer reviewed journal epra ijrd | journal doi: https://doi.org/ . /epra | www.eprajournals.com | | because it was also known that they were spiritually ready to protect their the historically established nationalities and values of the region from other states. therefore, the development of plans to conquer central asia also envisages the deployment of preferential cossacks on the occupied lands, first of the cossacks, and then the resettled (russian, ukrainian) population. in case of riots in the colony or in some areas, the resettled population along with the cossacks with weapons (swords and rifles) should always be armed and strong. the rich source of evidence and information on the relocation of turkestan to the country is indisputable in the multi-volume volume of articles and information included in the turkestan collection [ ]. most of the authors of the russian empire's policy on resettlement to turkestan described the need for resettlement with the emergence of an excessively agrarian population in the inner provinces as a result of the cancellation of the rights of the serpent in and the need to relocate them to new territories. but this is hardly true even in part because, firstly, the russian empire relocated the cossacks and minority urban christians to the caucasus, which had been invaded from central asia before; secondly, long before the abolition of the rights of the fort, many russians were relocated in the s, after the russian occupation of the kokand and khiva khanate territories, and relocated to the countryside in unprecedented conditions in the metropolis; third, if the russian population was overcrowded as a result of the cremation in russia, and the russian empire had no aspirations towards central asia, then the problem of overpopulation could be solved by relocating it to the less populated provinces, the far east, and siberia. the turkestan collection states that the national composition of the population deported to turkestan is russian, ukrainian, byelorussian, mordivine, polish, jews, armenians who were persecuted in turkey and iran, muslims and uighurs in east turkestan. it is emphasized that christianity is predominantly of the orthodox movement, with the government paying close attention to it. in , more than , uighurs, dungans, and other muslims emigrated from east turkestan, and armenians, who immigrated from turkey to the caspian region in , moved to ashgabat, samarkand, kokand, andijan and other cities for - years. in - , ; in - , in - , in - , , in - - uighur, dungan, kazakh, kirghiz and other muslims. by , almost , polish, german, and turks of the first world war would join the turkestan region. prior to , turkiston had no control over the population, social or national composition of the growing number of russians. however, much attention was paid to the migration of the population and the establishment of cossacks and other christian settlements in military areas. originally, the policy of russian’s immigration to the country was enforced. however, the number of voluntary settlers continued to increase. there were many urban and rural poor among the russians who moved in the hope of becoming rich in the new country. district leaders of ferghana region also note that the slavic population, many of the poor and the poor, is hard to settle. the head of the andijan district wrote to the military governor of the fergana region in september : "... most of the settlers who have been wandering in various russian provinces and who have turned to lumpen have no horses or land, but most importantly want to settle down. the attitude of russian crestians to the local population is not good. in most cases, indigenous people are treated with disrespect and often insulted without justification [ ]. and in , two regiments of the siberian cossack army arrived in yettisuv with a semi-military cossack resettlement to a future turkestan country. during this period, the influx of christian populations in response to the government's call and, most often, on their own initiative was tightly controlled and to some extent controlled. the migrant christian population is exempted from all taxes, provided with housing, employment, and irrigated land and pastures in the rural areas. the governor-general of turkestan kaufman in an official document issued to the government in suggested that the russian population should be located in areas ranging from orenburg to tashkent and from tashkent to verny (now almaty) to semipalatinsk. [ ] in russia at the end of the xvii century under pressure and repression by the official orthodox church, religious heretics (russians, starters) had previously traveled to the west. now they are trying to find refuge in central asia by slavs from different sects, as well as germans who are members of the baptist and mennonite sects. it is known that in the s of the th century, families of russian mennonite settled near the river amudarya with the permission of khiva. but those who were not christian or orthodox, doubts that the russian empire would support the colonial system and practices of turkestan, and in adopted new rules for resettlement. russians of the orthodox faith (ukrainians, belarusians) could now be granted permission to move to the country. at the same time, the area of land provided to russian immigrants in villages, especially in the ferghana and samarkand regions, has been reduced. the russian empire adopted special laws and regulations in , , , and on the resettlement of christian (orthodox) residents to turkestan, and strove to bring more russians and orthodox christians and urban workers from the economic and social backward regions of russia. however, the difficult economic situation in the provinces and the growing popularity of the russian https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://doi.org/ . /epra sjif impact factor: . | isi i.f.value: . | journal doi: . /epra issn: - (online) epra international journal of research and development (ijrd) volume: | issue: | february - peer reviewed journal epra ijrd | journal doi: https://doi.org/ . /epra | www.eprajournals.com | | population and the growing popularity of the great russian population have led many to move to central asia without permission. for example, the ferghana region has been ahead of cotton, oilseeds, silk, textile, oil, and mining, and the russian peasants living in the villages have been much better than those in other places. by the number of landless and low- income farmers and entrepreneurs was so great that the russian government issued a law on july , , which regulated the settlement of rural populations on public lands. after that the resettlement policy was revived after the tashkent and andijan uprising of . as a result, the number of russians who migrated to turkestan due to financial support from the resettlement authorities was just - times higher than the number of self-employed, less than some land. , deserts have been allocated from the local population for settlers from the syrdarya, samarkand, caspian, ferghana and turkestan provinces. not only did the russian empire relocate to turkestan for its own benefit, but after the destruction of the kokand khanate it entered into an agreement with the chinese government in eastern turkestan (now xinjiang - the uyghur autonomous region) in , to the ethiopian region and the andijan region of ferghana. uighur residents in osh county agree to relocate their dungan community. in , more than , uighurs, dungans, and other muslims emigrated from east turkestan, but the colonial authorities only allowed them to cross the border, and their settlement and financial support was entirely undertaken by the local population. armenians, who immigrated to turkey from the caspian region in , for - years moved to ashgabat, samarkand, kokand, andijan and other cities. thousands of foreign prisoners of war (hungarians, slavs, romanians, poles, germans, turks, etc.) have been brought to turkestan since and have been mainly deployed in rural areas, as well as refugees from areas near the western front. mandatory military tax was imposed on indigenous people. this was a huge burden on the local population. many articles mention the fact that the german existed in the zone in - . there were neighbourhoods of the german people in avliyoota , syrdarya. furthermore, german neighbourhoods in tashkent, syrdarya and in khiva and many more in zirabuloq and kattaqurgan, the emirate of bukhara existed. there were germans in the region of syrdarya, in tashkent and overall in the country. the german population weren’t involved in military and political issues. they talked with the inhabitants only in terms of work. they were serious, diligent, and organized. both the old and the young first went to church to pray every morning. they were craftsmen and accepted the orders of muhammad rakhim khan ii feruz ( - ), who became a citizen of the khiva khanate [ ]. germans also took a new approach to fruit orchards (apples, pears, grapes. they were particularly good at making flax. the policy of resettlement was to create strong russian villages in the country, to create a culture of agriculture and a modern industry on its basis. in addition, the goal was to increase agricultural incomes, develop new lands by strengthening the irrigation system, and transfer state land to the state treasury. and the multifaceted objectives, such as the creation of new land funds through the kyrgyz settlement, the increase of the raw materials exported from the country, were planned in parallel with the interests of the metropolitan area. however, the collection notes that the resettled people rented their land to local farmers, went to work in the city and railways, and moved to industrial areas where possible. according to the collection, the displaced can be divided into three groups. the first group consists of military men and kazakhs who rented their land and worked as hired laborers, salesmen and shopkeepers. the old men were engaged in cattle breeding and poultry farming and produced meat and milk for market needs. the second group includes dehkans from southern russia. they have mastered a culture of artificial irrigation and dry farming. each farm has - cattle, - sheep and goats. they lived in the basement and later built houses for themselves. the third group includes well-off households. they plowed the grounds with a plug on horses. they used economical techniques such as weeding and collecting machines, and they became economically stronger in - years. in particular, each of the farms located in the territory of st. father, tashkent, shymkent had an average of cattle, - goats and sheep. some soon became owners of wineries, weaving and oil mills. some even established vineyards, gardening, cotton and grain farms. conclusion the turkestan collection is an important source in studying the history of the russian empire's policy of resettlement to turkestan. many volumes of the collection deal with this issue. due to the policy of resettlement of the russian empire aimed at strengthening the foundations of colonialism, controlling the material and spiritual life of the country, achieving the goals of great statehood and chauvinism, changes in the national-ethnic composition of the population in the turkestan region. in turn, the specific spirit of the local population has contributed to the unity. for centuries, nations and ethnic groups have lived in unity, brotherhood, interethnic harmony and religious tolerance. references https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://doi.org/ . /epra sjif impact factor: . | isi i.f.value: . | journal doi: . /epra issn: - (online) epra international journal of research and development (ijrd) volume: | issue: | february - peer reviewed journal epra ijrd | journal doi: https://doi.org/ . /epra | www.eprajournals.com | | . Мирзиѐев Ш. Миллий тараққиѐт йўлимизни қатъият билан давом эттириб, янги босқичга кўтарамиз.— Тошкент: «Ўзбекистон», , -том, -бет . «Туркестанский сборник сочинений и статей, относящихся до Средней Азии вообще и Туркестанскому краю в особенности, составляемый по поручению г. Туркестанского военного генерал – губернатора ... В. И. Межовым», - СПб.: Т ; ; , , и др. . Исаков Ф. Национальная политика царизма в Туркистане ( - гг.). – Тошкент: art flex, .- С. . Қурбонова Н Россия империясининг аҳолини кўчириш сиѐсати: Тарих ва таҳлил (Фарғона водийси мисолида). //Фарғона водийси тарихи янги тадқиқотларда. Икинчи Республика илмий - анжуман материаллари. Фарғона, .- Б. . К вопросу образовании в Семиречинской области переселенческих участков. // Туркестанский сборник. - Том. .- С. - . . Крестьянская колонизация в Сырьдаринской области. // Туркестанский сборник. - Том. .-С. - . https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://www.omicsonline.org/peer-reviewed-journals.php https://doi.org/ . /epra eur volume issue cover and back matter table du t o m e xx x a s s a y a g, jackie. bouddha en exit, p. $. a u b n, franchise. la version chinoise de l'islam, p. . b e e t h a m, david. max weber and the liberal political tradition, p. pi. b e r g e r, peter a. ungleichheitssemantiken : graduelle unter- schiede und kategoriale exklusivitaten, p. $. b o w m a n , john r. transaction costs and politics, p. ijo. c r e p p e l l , ingrid. democracy and literacy : the role of culture in political life, p. . d o r s c h e l , andreas. st strategisches handeln erganzungsbediirf- tig? karl-otto apels these und ihre begriind- ung, p. ). f r i e d m a n n, daniel & ulysses santama— ria. identite et changement : les falachas entre l'assimilation en ethiopie et l'integration en israel, p. . h a b b s, daphne. millenarianism and mahdism in lebanon, p. . p a t z e l t, werner j. autagssoziologische antworten auf offene fra- gen der erforschung politischer kultur, p. . r a n d e r i a , shalini. carrion and corpses : conflict in categorizing untouchability in gujarat, p. . r a y , laurence j. aids as a moral metaphor. an analysis of the politics of the 'third epidemic', p. }. s a n t a m a r i a , ulysses & daniel f r i e d - mann. identite et changement : les falachas entre l'assimilation en ethiopie et l'integration en israel, p. fo. s h a r m a, prayag raj. values in the doldrums. does the west meet the east in nepal ? p. j . s i l v e r , allan. friendship and trust as moral ideals : an historical approach, p. / . s t a a l, frits. the independence of rationality from literacy, p. . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core european journal of sociology* i ii iii iv v vi vii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i , i j , i i , i j i i i i i i i industrial society and rep- presentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. le sabre et la loi. - universitat im umbau : anspassung oder wider- stand ? in quest of political par- ticipation. trois etudes sur la science. organisation der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'ecole. zur problematik des mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass media. la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bitan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. permanent non-revolution /continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... faith and power. citoyens armes, pretoriens desarmes. observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. might and rite. whither the unwithered state. xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi xxvii xxviii xxix xxx i i i i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de l'egalite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rite of religion. racines aristocratiques de la democratic michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik ? tending the roots : nation- alism and populism. n'ecessite de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles ou- tres. cber politisches handeln. liberalism: a communitar- ian critique. (a) le pouvoir et l'entre- prise. (b) an enquiry into pa- tronage. "homes fit for heroes". allegeances en exil. sentiments moraux, effets sociaux. volumes - are available from swets and zeitlinger, heereweg } j, po box , lisse, holland. volumes -)o are available from cambridge university press, £, . each. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core imprimerie f. paillart a b b e v i l l e issn - le gerant : jacques lautman printed in france cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core du cnrs / , rue st. am an . p a r i s . f r a n c e t e l : ( t ) i e t e l e x f h.c. p a r i s b o n s a c a p i t a l . be f du groupe au reseau reseaux religieux, politiques, professionnels textes reunis par philippe dujardin l'etude de groupements proselytiques, quelle qu'en soit ieur vocation, appelle quasi necessairement la notion de reseau. preciser les conditions d'empioi des termes reseau et mise en reseau ; apprecier la diversite des formules usitees, aux epoques, tant moderne que contemporaine, dans des groupements religieux, professionnels ou politiques ; degager de la comparaison de ces formules les procedures et proprietes qui ieur sont communes : tels sont les objectifs de cette recherche conduite par des politologues, des sociologues et des historiens. x - pages prix : f isbn - - -x les presses du cnrs diffusent en exclusmte les editions du cnrs bondecommande a computer et a retoumer accompagne de votre reglement aux presses ou cnrs, - me saint-amand, paris nom adresse ouvragecommande quantite prix unitaire participation aux irais d'envois: f total reglement par: cheque bancaire a i'ordre des presses du cnrs mandat-lettre cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies socuta civilisations fondataun t lucun febvre at marc bloch. dir.ct.ur : farnand braudel revue bimestrielle publiee depuis avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientifique et de l'£cole des hautes eludes en sciences sociales ' annies - n° septembre-octobre l'homme et son environnement pierre bonnassie, consommation d'aliments immondes et cannibalisme de survie dans i'occident du haut moyen age benjamin arbel, sauterelles et mentalites : le cas de la chypre vgnitienne jean-pierre goubert, l'eau, la crise et le remede dans i'ancien et le nouveau monde ( - ) environnements (comptes rendus) economie et societt alain beltran, du luxe au coeur du systeme. electricity et society dans la region parisienne ( - ) questions d'histoire iconomique (comptes rendus) histoire religieuse marc gaborieau, les oulgmas-soufis dans i'lnde moghole : anthropo- logie historique de religieux musulmans houari touati, approche s miologique et historique d'un document hagiographique alg£rien dominique boutet, lancelot: prehistoire d'un h^ros arthurien mythes et religions (comptes rendus) redaction : , boulevard raspail, paris abonnements a france a stranger le numero f • £tudlants france : f f les abonnements doivent etre souscrits aupres d'armand colin editeur, b. p. - vineuil cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core studi di sociologia anno xxvii pubblicazione trimestrale gennaio-mazo sommario saggi e ricerche d. s. landes tempo sociale e modernizzazione e. roggero l'emergere del la tendenza critica nel positivismo sociologico italiano g. rovati disuguaglianze, classi, cittadinanza: ascesa o declino? note e comment! c. baraldi ii concetto di classe e la teoria dei sistemi sociali a. magatti l'utopia della societa di mercato: la sfida di karl polanyi c. mongardini la tradizione paretiana e. mora ii contributo di a. ardig al dibattito sul postmoderno r. strassoldo i vent'anni dell'lstituto di sociologia internazionale di gorizia. una rassegna bibliografica summaries analisi d'opere segnalazionl prezzo del presente fascicolo: per i'ltalia l. . -per i'estero l. . abbonamento annuo: per i'ltalia l. . - per i'estero l. . c.c.p. redazlone e amminlstrazione: largo a. gemelli, - milano responsabile: dott. d. lofrese - proprietario: universita cattolica cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue francaise de sociologie publiee avec le concours de l'institut de recherche sur les societes contemporaines centre national de la recherche scientifique - , rue pouchet, paris cedex — tel. : . . . ou janvier-mars , xxxi- isbn - - - l'approche biographique biographies, flux, itineraires, trajectoires les formes temporelles de la causalite l'approche biographique en demographic jean-claude passeron frederic de coninck, francis godard daniel courgeau, eva lelievre les choix educatifs dans les zones prioritaires les petits profits du travail salarie viviane isambert-jamati michel bozon, yannick lemel morris janowitz ( - ) raymond williams ( - ) les livres abonnements : l'ordre et le paiemenl soni a adresser directement a : centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex — tel. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numero de i'annee en cours. tarif : l'abonnemen! ( numeros) france f etranger f vente au numero : par correspondance : presses du cnrs, - , rue saint-armand; paris. tel. : ( i ) . . . - telex : f. a la librairie du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris. tel. ( ) . . . . le numero.. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv - a r c h e r , margaret s. process without system, xxiv . a r j o m a n d , said amir. the shi'ite hierocracy and the state in pre- modem i n n : - , xxii . a u g u s t i n s , georges. esquisse d'une comparaison des systemes dc perpetuation des groupes domestiques dans les societes paysannes europeennes, xxiii . b a b a d z a m , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquer des rites? xxv . b a e c h l e r , jean. les origines de la democratic grecque, xxi . la nourriture des hommes. essai sur le neolithique, xxiii . b e e t h a m , david. michels and his critics, xxii . b b n e t o n , philippe. la dynamique revolutionnaire ou la logique du totalitarisme. a propos de interpretation de la revolution francaise par augustin co- chin, xxii . b e n - r a f a e l , eliezer m/sasha w e i t m a n . the reconstitution of the family in the kib- butz, x x v . c a h n u a n , werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h e r k a o u i , mohamed. changement social et anomie : essai de forma- lisation de la theorie durkheimienne, xxii . c o s e r , lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . d r i e s s e n , henk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth-century andalusia, xxiv . e i s e n s t a d t , shmuel n . the axial age : the emergence of trancendental visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . e l s t e r , jon. negation active et negation passive. essai dc sociologie ivanienne, xxi . f a r m e r , mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , renee c. is religion important in belgium? xxiii . g o o d e l l , grace. from status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . g r a y , john n. lamb auctions on the borders, x x v . g r e e n f e l d , liah. the role of the public in the success of asiatic styles, x x v . g u r e v i c h , aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv . h a l l i d a y , terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv . h a l s e y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british postwar sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h e l l i n g , ingeborg. das erklarungsmodell der situationslogik bei popper : eine logische rekonstruktion und kritik, xxiii . j a n i k , allan. schorske's vienna, xxii . k a h a n e , reuven. religious diffusion and modernisation : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indo- nesia and its impact on social change, xxi . k a n t o w s k y , detlef. die rezeption der hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max weber in sudasien : ein misvcr- standnis? xxiii . k e d o u r i e , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, x x v . k e m e n y , jim. professional ideologies and organisational structure : tanks and the military, xxiv . k e n n a , margaret e. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek inter- nal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatolii m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r n e , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'societe des observa- teurs de 'homme', xxiii . k u m a r , krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-centu- ry england : theoretical and comparative perspectives, xxiv . k u p e r , adam. the man in the study and the man in the field. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi . l i e b e r s o h n , harry. leopold von wiese and the ambivalence of functionalist sociology, xxiii . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i n d h o l h , charles. images of the pathan : the usefulness of colonial ethnography, xxi . m a c k e r e l , claude. don et reciprocity en europe, xxiv . m a l a u o u d , charles. scmantique et rhetorique dans la hierarchic hindoue des « buts de 'hommc », xxiii . m a n n , michael. the autonomous power of the state, x x v . m e r q u i o r , jose guilherrne. mort a phomo ccconomicus ? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'laws of nature', xxii . m o s e n , wolfgang j. max weber and roberto michcls. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii . m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o s i e l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t , sandra. blessed bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmet- ric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o g c i , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in the early social sciences, xxi . r a y , laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum prac- tice, xxii . r h o d e s , aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives io politi- cal machines, x x v . r o n i g e r , luis. modern patron-client relations and historical clientelism. some clues m ancient republic- an rome, xxiv . r o s e l , jakob. the economy of an indian temple : landed endowment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociological explanation, xxv . runciman, w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of france, xxiv . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s u i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e r m a n , e. m. zu problemcn der sodalokonomischen ge- schichte roms, xxi . s w a r t z , david. classes, educational systems and labor markets, xxii . t a p p e r , nancy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv z. t r a u g o t t , mark. durkheim and social movements, xxv a. u r r y , james. who are the mennonites? xxiv . v a n p a r i j s , philippe. sociology as general economics, xxii a. w e e d e , erich. ordnungspolitik und skherbeltspolitik als elemente dcr sicherungspolirik, xxv . w e i n g r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, xxii . w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w e t u a n, sasha and eliezer ben-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kib- butz, xxv . w i n d o l p , paul. l'expansion de renscignement et la surqualiii- cation sur le marchc du travail, xxv . w o o d , geoffrey. frazer's magic wand of anthropology : inter- preting tit gcuen bo«j*, xxiii . z a r e t , david. ideology and organization in purinnism, xxi . issn - november c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cbz irp west th street, new york ny , usa stamford road, oaklcigh, melbourne j , australia cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core doi: . / letters to the editor ping of achromatopsia to chromosome using dna pool- ing. hum mol genet : – baraitser m ( ) microcephaly. in: motulsky ag, bobrow m, harper ps, scriver c (eds) the genetics of neurological disorders. oxford university press, oxford, pp – budowle b, chakraborty r, giusti aw, eisenberg aj, allen rc ( ) analysis of the vntr locus d s by pcr followed by high-resolution page. am j hum genet : – cowie v ( ) the genetics and sub-classification of micro- cephaly. j ment defic res : – dacou-voutetakis c, carpathios t, logothetis n, constantin- idis m, matsaniotis n ( ) defective growth hormone secretion in primary microcephaly. j pediatr : – jackson ap, mchale dp, campbell da, jafri h, rashid y, mannan j, karbani g, et al ( ) primary autosomal re- cessive microcephaly (mcph ) maps to chromosome p - pter. am j hum genet : – kruglyak l, daly mj, lander es ( ) rapid multipoint linkage analysis of recessive traits in nuclear families, in- cluding homozygosity mapping. am j hum genet : – lander es, botstein d ( ) homozygosity mapping: a way to map human recessive traits with the dna of inbred chil- dren. science : – ross jj, frias jl ( ) microcephaly. in: vinken pj, bruyn gw (eds) congenital malformations of the brain and skull. vol. : handbook of clinical neurology. elsevier holland biomedical, amsterdam, pp – terwilliger jd, shannon wd, lathrop gm, nolan jp, goldin lr, chase ga, weeks de ( ) true and false positive peaks in genomewide scans: applications of length-biased sampling to linkage mapping. am j hum genet : – tolmie jl, mcnay m, stephenson jb, doyle d, connor jm ( ) microcephaly: genetic counselling and antenatal di- agnosis after the birth of an affected child. am j med genet : – van den bosche j ( ) microcephaly in the netherlands: a clinical and genetical study. ann hum genet : – walsh ca ( ) genetic malformations of the human cere- bral cortex. neuron : – address for correspondence and reprints: dr. c. ruth jamieson, laboratory for medical genetics, campus erasme–ulb, building c, , lennik, b- brussels, belgium. e-mail: rjamieso@ulb.ac.be � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . am. j. hum. genet. : – , association of ret protooncogene codon polymorphism with hirschsprung disease to the editor: the ret protooncogene (mim ) is expressed in human tissues of neural crest origin and has been rec- ognized as a susceptibility gene for several autosomal inherited diseases, such as hirschsprung disease (hscr [mim ]) and multiple endocrine neoplasia type syndromes (men [mim ]) comprising med- ullary thyroid carcinoma (mtc [mim ]) as an obligatory feature (eng et al. ). of the patients with hscr, %– % have been reported to harbor germ- line mutations of the ret protooncogene, which are primarily point mutations scattered throughout the ex- tracellular domain and within the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain of ret (edery et al. b; romeo et al. ; angrist et al. ; seri et al. ). men syndrome germline mutations of the ret protoonco- gene have been found to affect exons , , and – (donis-keller et al. ; mulligan et al. ; carlson et al. ; eng et al. ; hofstra et al. ; bolino et al. ). functional studies have demonstrated that ret mutations that characterize the autosomal domi- nant–inherited men cause activation of the ret-sig- naling pathway, often in a constitutive manner or by altering the substrate specificity (borrello et al. ; santoro et al. ; ceccherini et al. ; pasini et al. ; chappuis-flament et al. ). in contrast, ret mutations found in hscr presumably result in either ret-protein truncation or functional inactivation of the molecule. although loss of one allele in some patients with hscr suggests haploinsufficiency (martucciello et al. ), the retention of one wild-type allele in patients with hscr who have an inactivating ret mutation seems to explain the presumed autosomal dominant in- heritance and implicates a dominant-negative action of the mutated ret allele (badner et al. ; cosma et al. ). furthermore, several polymorphisms in the coding re- gion of the ret protooncogene have been described. a panel of the most frequent polymorphisms has been re- ported by mulligan et al. ( ), ceccherini et al. ( ), and sáez et al. ( ), comprising those in co- dons , , , , , , and . in the study by ceccherini et al., the allele frequencies of these poly- morphisms were evaluated in a normal control group. these data were confirmed by a study by gimm et al. ( ), and similar allele frequencies of the codon polymorphism have been described by edery et al. ( a), who focused on a control population only. all of the investigated polymorphisms are silent mutations, except for the codon polymorphism, which results in a change in the amino acid residue, from glycine to serine. bugalho et al. ( ) investigated the frequency of the codon polymorphism in a small population of clinically defined sporadic medullary thyroid carci- nomas (mtc) and found no significant differences from a normal control population. elsewhere, gimm et al. ( ) have investigated all seven ret polymorphisms in a population with sporadic mtc and have found an letters to the editor table allele frequencies of polymorphic variants of ret in patients with sporadic hscr and in control individuals exon nucleotide change (codon)a restriction site changed allele frequency inb (%) statistic controls patients with hscr x p gcgrgca (a a) eagi . . . !. gtcrgta (v v) mboii . . . . gcgrgca (a a) bsmi . . . . ggtragt (g s) bani . . . . cttrctg (l l) taqi . . . !. agcragt (s s) alui . c . . tccrtcg (s s) rsai . . . . a the wild-type allele is underlined. b of the wild-type allele. c only control individuals were tested. overrepresentation of the rare codon polymorphism, compared with the frequency in normal controls. inter- estingly, in this study the rare germline codon –se- quence variant seems to be associated with the presence of a common somatic m t mutation in the corre- sponding tumor dna of patients with sporadic mtc. to reveal the potential impact that ret polymor- phisms for etiology have for hscr in particular, we investigated the genotype distribution of polymorphisms of codons , , , , , , and of the coding region of the ret protooncogene in patients with hscr but without a family history of the disease. the population that we studied comprised individ- uals with sporadic hscr who were from two different areas of germany, around the cities of dresden (n = ) and erlangen ( ). the male:female ratio of n = these individuals was . : . for inclusion in the study, histopathological criteria of hscr were (a) increased acetylcholinesterase histochemical staining in nerve fi- bers, in suction biopsies of the rectal submucosa, and (b) absence of neuronal ganglia, in operative histochem- ical and histological evaluation of the aganglionic tract. patients with additional features or associated diseases were excluded from the study. anonymous healthy blood donors from each region served as controls (n = for dresden; for erlangen). controls were n = not matched for age or race, although all individuals were white. there was, therefore, a slight potential for population stratification in the patients with hscr, rel- ative to that in the controls. genomic dna was obtained from leukocytes from peripheral venous blood samples isolated by standard protocols. the seven investigated exons were amplified from genomic dna by use of primers and reaction conditions described by ceccherini et al. ( ), for exons (codon ), (codon ), (codon ), and (codon ), and by mulligan et al. ( ), for exons (codon ) and (codon ). to amplify exon (codon ), we generated a new primer pair (sense, ′cccccggcccaggtctcac- ′; antisense, ′gctccactaatcttcggtatcttt- ′). all analyzed polymorphisms generate or destroy a re- striction site of an endonuclease—namely, eagi, mboii, bsmi, bani, taqi, alui, or rsai (ceccherini et al. ). genotypes were determined by digestion of the pcr product and electrophoresis on a polyacrylamide gel. in addition, these results from the patient population were confirmed by dna-sequencing analysis by use of the thermo sequenase� fluorescent cycle sequencing kit (amersham pharmacia biotech), according to the man- ufacturer’s protocol. the sequencing primers were the same as the pcr primers, with an additional cy tm labeling, allowing sequence analysis on a.l.f. express devices (amersham pharmacia biotech). statistical anal- ysis was performed with the pearson x test. written informed consent was obtained from all patients. our data revealed that allele frequencies of all poly- morphisms in the control population were similar to those reported by ceccherini et al. ( ), gimm et al. ( ), and edery et al. ( a), suggesting that the allele frequency is similar in the german, european, and american populations tested, but the study does not in- clude data of an ethnically diverse, nonwhite population. the genotype distribution for each of the seven poly- morphic loci did not deviate significantly from hardy- weinberg equilibrium. although the wild-type allele of the codon polymorphism was detected in . % of control chromosomes, the same allele was found in . % of hscr chromosomes, an almost inverted relationship (table ) (for allele frequencies in patients with hscr vs. those in controls, , ). x = . p ! . this highly significant difference between these allele fre- quencies resulted from a strong overrepresentation of the homozygous codon –polymorphism variant in the population with hscr ( of patients with hscr, letters to the editor vs. of controls). ceccherini et al. ( ) found the wild-type allele of the codon polymorphism in % of chromosomes, the same frequency as later was reported, by gimm et al. ( ), in an analysis of chromosomes. furthermore, we found this highly sig- nificant association of the codon polymorphism also in the two independent populations with hscr and in controls from the regions around erlangen and dresden (for the allele frequency in dresden patients with hscr vs. that in dresden controls, , ; for x = . p ! . the allele frequency in erlangen patients with hscr vs. that in erlangen controls, , ). x = . p ! . within the population with hscr, a tendency toward overrepresentation of the codon polymorphism, similar to that of the codon polymorphism, was found, compared with the frequency in the controls (ta- ble ). in addition, we found the codon polymor- phism to be associated with hscr in both populations, compared with what was found in the controls (for the allele frequency of dresden patients with hscr vs. that in dresden controls, , ; for the fre- x = . p = . quency in erlangen patients with hscr vs. that in er- langen controls, , ). x = . p ! . although in codons and the polymorphic allele was overrepresented in the population with hscr, in codons , , and we found the wild-type allele to be more frequent in the population with hscr pop- ulation than in the control group, although the difference was not statistically significant (table ). in this study we have demonstrated that the codon –polymorphism allele frequency is overrepresented in patients with sporadic hscr compared with the normal population, a finding that is highly significant statisti- cally. in agreement with our findings, puffenberger et al. ( ) described a significant excess of this polymor- phism (for allele frequencies, , ) on x = . p ! . the hscr haplotype that is transmitted to affected mem- bers of mennonite families with hscr. however, the predominant mutation identified in this kindred is a founder homozygous w c ednrb (mim ) gene mutation, which is an interesting association in itself and supports the polygenic, complex inheritance of hscr. in addition, one patient has been described with both an ednrb mutation and a ret mutation that apparently result in aberrant ret rna splicing (auricchio et al. ). the mechanism by which the silent codon poly- morphism may act in hscr genesis is unknown, but speculations have been made regarding the possible mechanisms. it has, for instance, been proposed that the silent sequence variant could lead to aberrantly spliced products, resulting in a protein with a -amino-acid deletion in the extracellular domain, altering a part of the extracellular signal-peptide sequence (borrego et al. ). in addition, it has been suggested that a seemingly nonfunctional polymorphism may create an unstable downstream sequence, which results in a functional so- matic mutation (gimm et al. ). such a mechanism has been observed in the apc (mim ) gene in ashkenazim with familial colorectal cancer, in which ad- ditional somatic mutations were more often found on the allele carrying a conservative amino acid change (i k) (laken et al. ). if no pathogenic effect can be associated with the co- don ret polymorphism, then the possibility has to be considered that the base substitution is in linkage disequilibrium with an unknown functional variant up- stream or downstream. for example, an mspi rflp of the ′ end of the human cyp a (mim ) gene has been shown to be in linkage disequilibrium with an adenine-to-guanine mutation at residue in exon . the latter mutation causes an amino acid substitution, which results in increased enzymatic activity of cyp a (hayashi et al. ). similarly, the silent codon poly- morphism may be either closely linked with a functional genetic variant or be functional itself. nevertheless, the observed difference in the homo- zygous genotype of the silent polymorphism— . % in the normal population of individuals versus . % in analyzed patients with hscr—suggests a strong association with the hscr phenotype. guido fitze, matthias schreiber, eberhard kuhlisch, hans k. schackert, and dietmar roesner departments of pediatric surgery and surgical research and institute of medical informatics and biometry, university of technology dresden, dresden; and department of pediatric surgery, university of erlangen, erlangen, germany electronic-database information accession numbers and url for data in this article are as follows: online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim (for apc [mim ], cyp a [mim ], ednrb [mim ], hscr [mim ], men [mim ], and mtc [mim ], and ret [mim ]) references angrist m, bolk s, thiel b, puffenberger eg, hofstra rm, buys chc, cass dt, et al ( ) mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – auricchio a, griseri p, carpentieri ml, betsos n, staiano a, tozzi a, priolo m, et al ( ) double heterozygosity for a ret substitution interfering with splicing and an ednrb letters to the editor missense mutation in hirschsprung disease. am j hum ge- net : – badner ja, sieber wk, garver kl, chakravarti a ( ) a genetic study of hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet : – bolino a, schuffenecker i, luo y, seri m, silengo m, tocco t, chabrier g, et al ( ) ret mutations in exons and of fmtc patients. oncogene : – borrego s, eng c, sánchez b, sáez me, navarro e, antinolo g ( ) molecular analysis of the ret and gdnf genes in a family with multiple endocrine neoplasia type a and hirschsprung disease. j clin endocrinol metab : – borrello mg, smith dp, pasini b, bongarzone i, greco a, lorenzo mj, arighi e, et al ( ) ret activation by germline men a and men b mutations. oncogene : – bugalho mjm, cote gj, khorana s, schultz pn, gagel rf ( ) identification of polymorphism in exon of the ret proto-oncogene. hum mol genet : carlson km, bracamontes j, jackson ce, clark r, lacroix a, wells sa, goodfellow pj ( ) parent-of-origin effects in multiple endocrine neoplasia type b. am j hum genet : – ceccherini i, hofstra rmw, luo y, stulp rp, barone v, stel- wagen t, bocciardi r, et al ( ) dna polymorphisms and conditions for sscp analysis of the exons of the ret proto-oncogene. oncogene : – ceccherini i, pasini b, pacini f, gullo m, bongarzone i, romei c, santamaria g, et al ( ) somatic in frame deletions not involving juxtamembranous cysteine residues strongly activate the ret proto-oncogene. oncogene : – chappuis-flament s, pasini a, devita g, segouffin-cariou c, fusco a, attie t, lenoir gm, et al ( ) dual effect on the ret receptor of men mutations affecting specific extracytoplasmic cysteins. oncogene : – cosma mp, cardone m, carlomagno f, colantuori v ( ) mutations in the extracellular domain cause ret loss of function by a dominant negative mechanism. mol cell biol : – donis-keller h, dou s, chi d, carlson km, toshima k, lair- more tc, howe jr, et al ( ) mutations in the ret proto-oncogene are associated with men a and fmtc. hum mol genet : – edery p, attie t, mulligan lm, pelet a, eng c, ponder baj, munnich a, et al ( a) a novel polymorphism in the coding sequence of the human ret proto-oncogene. hum genet : – edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm, pelet a, dow e, abel l, holder s, et al ( b) mutations of the ret proto-on- cogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature : – eng c, mulligan lm ( ) mutation of the ret proto- oncogene in the multiple endocrine neoplasia type syn- dromes, related sporadic tumours, and hirschsprung dis- ease. hum mutat : – eng c, smith dp, mulligan lm, nagai ma, healey cs, ponder ma, gardner e, et al ( ) point mutations within the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in mul- tiple endocine neoplasia type b and related sporadic tu- mours. hum mol genet : – gimm o, neuberg ds, marsh dj, dahia plm, hoang-vu c, raue f, hinze r, et al ( ) over-representation of a germ- line ret sequence variant in patients with sporadic med- ullary thyroid carcinoma and somatic ret codon mu- tation. oncogene : – hayashi s, watanabe j, nakachi k, kawajiri k ( ) genetic linkage of lung cancer-associated mspi polymorphisms with amino acid replacement in the heme binding region of the human cytochrome p a gene. j biochem : – hofstra rm, landsvater rm, ceccherini i, stulp rp, stel- wagen t, luo y, pasini b, et al ( ) a mutation in the ret proto-oncogene associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type b and sporadic medullary thyroid carci- noma. nature : – laken sj, petersen gm, gruber sb, oddoux c, ostrer h, giardiello fm, hamilton sr, et al ( ) familial colorectal cancer in ashkenazim due to a hypermutable tract in apc. nat genet : – martucciello g, bicocchi mp, dodero p, lerone m, silengo cirillo m, puliti a, gimelli g, et al ( ) total colonic aganglionosis associated with interstitial deletion of the long arm of chromosome . pediatr surg int : – mulligan lm, eng c, attie t, lyonnet s, marsh dj, hyland vj, robinson bg, et al ( ) diverse phenotype associated with exon mutations of the ret proto-oncogene. hum mol genet : – mulligan lm, kwok jbj, healey cs, elsdon mj, eng c, gard- ner e, love dr, et al ( ) germ-line mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type a. nature : – pasini a, geneste o, legrand p, schlumberger m, rossel m, fournier l, rudkin bb, et al ( ) oncogenetic activation of ret by two distinct fmtc mutations affecting the ty- rosine kinase domain. oncogene : – puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewit d, yanagisawa m, chakravarti a ( ) a missense mu- tation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell : – romeo g, ronchetto p, yin l, barone v, seri m, ceccherini i, pasini b, et al ( ) point mutations affecting the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature : – sáez me, sánchez b, antinolo g, borrego s ( ) identifi- cation of a rare polymorphism, s s, in the tyrosine kinase domain of ret proto-oncogene. hum mutat : santoro m, carlomagno f, romano a, bottaro dp, dathan na, grieco m, fusco a, et al ( ) activation of ret as a dominant transforming gene by germline mutations of men a and men b. science : – seri m, yin l, barone v, bolino a, celli i, bocciardi r, pasini b, et al ( ) frequency of ret mutations in long- and short-segment hirschsprung disease. hum mu- tat : – letters to the editor table numbers of males and females in populations of unrelated persistent stutterers, and x analysis of the differences in gender ratios between groups sex no. of patients in population hcri alumni nsp members sfa records ais alumni total males females note.—overall, familial cases versus general stuttering pop- ulation ; df ; . familial cases versus cases as- x = p ! . certained via therapy programs . . familial x = p ! . cases versus cases ascertained without respect to treatment x = . . p ! . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. guido fitze, department of pediatric surgery, university of technology dresden, fetscherstrasse , d- dresden, germany. e-mail: guido.fitze@mailbox.tu-dresden.de � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . am. j. hum. genet. : – , the sex ratio in familial persistent stuttering to the editor: stuttering is a speech disorder characterized by invol- untary syllable repetitions, syllable prolongations, or in- terruptions, known as blocks, in the smooth flow of speech (world health organization ; bloodstein ). stuttering typically arises in young children, where it affects � % of children in the age range of – years (bloodstein ). stuttering often resolves spontaneously before adolescence, leading to a popu- lation prevalence of %– % among adults. stuttering beyond childhood is characterized by a significant bias toward males, with males outnumbering females by a ratio of : – : (yairi et al. ). many studies support the view that inherited factors contribute to stuttering (howie ; yairi et al. ; felsenfeld and plomin ). as part of a linkage study to identify predisposing loci for this disorder, we assem- bled small-to-medium–sized unrelated families with multiple cases of persistent stuttering, chosen to represent the typical presentation of familial stuttering in the adult population. in these families, we have ob- served a male-to-female ratio among the affected indi- viduals that is strikingly different from the generally ac- cepted ratio in the overall adult stuttering population. family ascertainment was designed to obtain the most diverse sample possible from the north american pop- ulation. the nih families were ascertained under nih irb-approved protocol -dc- , through a broad variety of appeals directed at stuttering interest groups, stuttering support groups, professional speech and lan- guage organizations, alumni of stuttering therapy pro- grams—including intensive residential programs and part-time, outpatient programs—and the general public. the enrolled families included whites, african ameri- cans, hispanics, and asians, with no evidence for over- or under-representation of any group compared to the general population. among the identifiable probands in these families, % were male and % were female. we exhaustively ascertained and evaluated family mem- bers aged years according to well-established diag- nostic criteria for stuttering (webster ; world health organization ), using videotaped speech samples and counting the number of stuttering-like dys- fluencies, in both conversation and reading. in some cases, audio tape recordings were substituted. the stan- dardized reading passage was words in length and contained balanced numbers of each of the different clas- ses of speech sounds. this tool has been used for years and has well-established performance norms (r. webster, personal communication; copy available, on request, from corresponding author). for individuals to be classified as affected, a score of � % dysfluent words (representing the th percentile among individuals who present themselves for stuttering therapy) was required in the individual’s speech in both conversation and read- ing. in some cases, videotaped speech samples were not obtainable, and audio recordings of speech were sub- stituted. by these criteria, individuals were classified as affected in our families. affection status, as deter- mined by professional speech evaluation, was generally in agreement with self-reported affection status. the few discrepancies showed no evidence of bias between males and females. the affected individuals had an age range of – years, with a mean age of . years. among these affected individuals, are male and are fe- male, yielding a male-to-female ratio of . . to compare this ratio to the male-to-female ratio in the general stuttering population, we examined four dif- ferent populations of unrelated, persistent stutterers. we chose four different groups of persistent stutterers, be- cause each group was subject to individual ascertain- ment biases. for example, therapy programs are gen- erally believed to ascertain males preferentially, while support groups are believed to attract more females, fre- quently affected mothers of affected children. we sought the largest available sources of such populations of stut- terers and derived data from the clinical records of two large therapy programs, the hollins communications research institute (hcri) and the american institute for stuttering (ais), plus data on two groups, ascertained 	association of ret protooncogene codon polymorphism with hirschsprung disease 	references differential diagnosis of perinatal hypophosphatasia: radiologic perspectives review differential diagnosis of perinatal hypophosphatasia: radiologic perspectives amaka c. offiah & jerry vockley & craig f. munns , & jun murotsuki received: february /revised: june /accepted: august /published online: october # the author(s) abstract perinatal hypophosphatasia (hpp) is a rare, potentially life-threatening, inherited, systemic metabolic bone disease that can be difficult to recognize in utero and postnatally. diagnosis is challenging because of the large number of skeletal dysplasias with overlapping clinical features. this review focuses on the role of fetal and neonatal imaging modalities in the differential diagnosis of perinatal hpp from other skeletal dysplasias (e.g., osteogenesis imperfecta, campomelic dysplasia, achondrogenesis subtypes, hypochondrogenesis, cleidocranial dysplasia). perinatal hpp is associated with a broad spectrum of imaging findings that are characteristic of but do not occur in all cases of hpp and are not unique to hpp, such as shortening, bowing and angulation of the long bones, and slender, poorly ossified ribs and metaphyseal lucencies. conversely, absent ossification of whole bones is characteristic of severe lethal hpp and is associated with very few other conditions. certain features may help distinguish hpp from other skeletal dysplasias, such as sites of angulation of long bones, patterns of hypomineralization, and metaphyseal characteristics. in utero recognition of hpp allows for the assembly and preparation of a multidisciplinary care team before delivery and provides additional time to devise treatment strategies. keywords computed tomography . hypophosphatasia . metabolic bone disease . perinatal . radiography . skeletal dysplasia . ultrasound introduction hypophosphatasia (hpp) is a rare, inherited, systemic, metabol- ic bone disease caused by low tissue-nonspecific alkaline phos- phatase activity [ – ]. in patients with hpp, low alkaline phosphatase activity results in the accumulation of phosphory- lated substrates, specifically inorganic pyrophosphate, pyridoxal ′-phosphate and phosphoethanolamine [ , – ]. elevated inor- ganic pyrophosphate levels inhibit mineralization of the bone matrix, leading to hypomineralization of the skeleton [ , – ]. the inability of pyridoxal ′-phosphate, the circulating form of vitamin b , to cross the blood-brain barrier likely contributes to the seizures observed in some infants with hpp [ , ]. hpp is a clinically heterogeneous disease traditionally cate- gorized by the age of onset of the first signs and symptoms as perinatal onset (in utero and at birth), infantile onset (age < months), childhood onset (age ≥ months to < years), and adult onset (age ≥ years) or, in patients with only dental manifestations, as odonto-hpp [ , , ]. characteristic signs, symptoms and complications of perinatal hpp include skeletal manifestations (e.g., hypomineralization, chest deformity, bowing, craniosynostosis) [ , ], vitamin b– responsive seizures [ , – ] and respiratory failure [ , ]. before the availability of enzyme replacement therapy, mortal- ity among patients with perinatal/infantile hpp was high, rang- ing from % to % within the first year of life [ – ]. the incidence of hpp has been estimated to be : , in * amaka c. offiah a.offiah@sheffield.ac.uk academic unit of child health, sheffield children’s nhs foundation trust, university of sheffield, western bank, sheffield s th, uk school of medicine and children’s hospital of pittsburgh university of pittsburgh, pittsburgh, pa, usa the children’s hospital at westmead, westmead, nsw, australia sydney medical school, the university of sydney, university of sydney nsw, sydney, australia aoba ward, miyagi children’s hospital, sendai, miyagi prefecture, japan pediatric radiology ( ) : – https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:a.offiah@sheffield.ac.uk ontario, canada, based on the local birth rate in [ ]. the prevalence of perinatal and infantile hpp in europe has been estimated to be : , , based on molecular diagnoses made from to [ ]. local populations with a higher inci- dence of hpp include the mennonite communities in canada [ ] and an endogamous village in hungary [ , ]. because of the rarity of hpp, its true incidence and prevalence remain unknown [ ]. hpp is confirmed with consistently low age- and gender- adjusted alkaline phosphatase activity in conjunction with medical history and physical findings, radiologic findings, elevated levels of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase sub- strates or sequencing of the alpl gene [ , , ]. in utero and postnatal recognition and diagnosis of perinatal hpp based on radiologic findings can be challenging because of features that overlap with many of the more than other skeletal dysplasias, the phenotypic variability and a lack of information about the in utero natural history of hpp [ – ]. the skeletal abnormalities and the gestational and postnatal ages at which they manifest vary across skeletal dysplasias, including hpp. many sonographic and radio- graphic findings are not pathognomonic for a specific disor- der, as obtaining reliable information regarding skeletal min- eralization is difficult with prenatal sonography and computed tomography (ct). these difficulties are confounded by a gen- eral lack of familiarity with hpp among the health care pro- viders who perform prenatal ultrasound (us) and neonatal imaging. in addition, abnormalities can be detected at earlier gestational ages than they have in the past [ ], underscoring the need for obstetricians, ultrasonographers and radiologists to possess in-depth knowledge of the appearance of the fetal skeleton at all gestational ages [ ]. this review focuses on the role of fetal and neonatal imaging modalities in the differ- ential diagnosis of perinatal hpp. prenatal imaging prenatal diagnosis of skeletal dysplasia relies on cross-sectional imaging modalities (us, ct and magnetic resonance imaging [mri]), whereas postnatal diagnosis relies more heavily on ra- diography [ ]. the international society of ultrasound in obstetrics and gynecology [ ] and the united kingdom’s national institute for health and care excellence [ ] recom- mend that all pregnant women undergo us scanning at to weeks to establish gestational age and at to weeks to screen for structural anomalies. thereafter, the frequency of fetal monitoring depends on the severity of findings, the mother’s health and the family’s wishes. high-resolution us is required to clearly identify the skeletal abnormalities of hpp. two- or three-dimensional ( -d or -d) us may be used to visualize the skeleton by gestational week [ ]. although radiologists are usually trained with -d images and generally prefer -d to -d us when reviewing image slices, -d us may allow the radi- ologist to more clearly visualize characteristic dysmorphic find- ings of the face, hands, feet, vertebrae, ribs and skull sutures in skeletal dysplasias [ ]. prenatal ct is a useful modality when skeletal dysplasia is suspected after sonographic examination [ , ] and is best performed from weeks’ gestation; image quality is poor at earlier gestational ages because of relatively poor skeletal min- eralization and artefacts caused by fetal movement [ , ]. although the added diagnostic value of ct over us has not been formally assessed in a large study, ct allows detailed visualization of the fetal skeleton and is less dependent on am- niotic fluid volume and fetal position than us [ – ]. the risk associated with fetal radiation is a common concern with prena- tal ct; however, the risk to benefit ratio can be relatively low if the radiation dose is kept to a minimum by selecting appropriate technical parameters [ , – ]. a recommended threshold of radiation that would have negligible risk to the fetus is milligray [ ]. advances in model-based iterative reconstruc- tion methods for ultra-low-dose fetal ct yield fetal radiation exposures as low as . milligray while maintaining excellent image quality for the diagnosis of skeletal dysplasias [ ]. mri has shown only limited utility in prenatal diagnosis of skeletal dysplasias and is not routinely used in hpp diagnosis [ , ]; however, fetal mri can provide valuable details when targeted us is unable to clarify the diagnosis [ , ]. fetal “black bone” mri, compared with standard mri sequences, may improve visualization of the mineralized skeleton [ ]. postnatal imaging a whole-body radiograph of an infant (i.e. babygram) is required for any live-born infant, preterm fetus or stillborn with a suspected constitutional disorder of bone [ , ]. the babygram includes anteroposterior (ap) and lateral radiographs of the full body length. figures , and show postmortem whole-body radiographs of fetuses with normal skeletons at , and weeks’ gestation. in cases of stillbirths, babygrams may be performed using cabinet x-ray machines that visualize all bones of the skeleton on a single projection [ , ]. for live-born, larger infants, a standard skeletal survey may be required to enhance diagnostic accuracy [ , ]. the series of radiographs obtained for a standard skeletal survey may vary among institutions but should include the following views: ap and lateral skull, ap chest (including ap tho- racic spine), lateral thoracolumbar spine, ap pelvis (in- cluding ap lumbar spine), ap one upper limb, ap one lower limb and dorsipalmar left hand [ , ]. a review of family members’ previous radiographs, if available, pediatr radiol ( ) : – may help if any first-degree relatives are suspected of being affected [ ]. cross-sectional imaging modalities (e.g., us, ct, mri) are generally reserved for specific skeletal and systemic abnor- malities. whole-body mri findings associated with hpp have been described in children [ ] but may be less useful/ practical in a perinatal setting. perinatal hypophosphatasia a broad spectrum of skeletal characteristics is consistent with perinatal hpp in fetuses and neonates but is not exclusive to this disease (table ) (figs. , , , and ) [ – ]. early scans may appear unremarkable simply because of the normal absence of bony ossification at earlier gestational ages (< weeks) [ ], while later scans may show characteristic features of hpp (figs. , , , and ). to our knowledge, absent ossification of whole bones at or after weeks’ gesta- tion is characteristic of severe lethal hpp and is associated with very few other conditions. shortening, bowing and angulation of the long bones are common characteristics but do not occur in all cases of hpp and are not unique to hpp. slender, poorly ossified ribs are consistent with but not exclusive to hpp and could be related to gestational age or other conditions, in par- ticular osteogenesis imperfecta [ , ]. metaphyseal lucencies or “tongues” are also strongly characteristic of but not exclusive fig. normal ossification of the fetal skeleton of a male fetus at weeks’ gestation. a,b radiographs in lateral (a) and anteroposterior (b) projections show absent ossification of skull vault, cervical, thoracic and sacral vertebral bodies, and ischia and pubic bones. this is normal for the gestational age (the pelvic calcification [arrows] is probably within the bowel) pediatr radiol ( ) : – to hpp. in hpp, the skull vault has deficient ossification with wide sutures and fontanelles; deficient ossification of the skull allows visualization of intracranial structures that are not nor- mally visible on prenatal us [ ]. mid-diaphyseal spurs (bowdler spurs) are rare but almost always diagnostic for hpp [ , , , , ]. these spurs may protrude through or cause dimpling or indentation of the overlying skin [ , , ]. although once considered specific to hpp [ ], diaphyseal spurs have also been reported in campomelic and cleidocranial dysplasia [ , ]. spurs can be difficult to detect on us be- cause they are usually unossified [ ], but they have been vi- sualized as early as weeks’ gestation on -d us when not visible on -d us [ , ]. the gestational age at which skeletal abnormalities are appar- ent in perinatal hpp varies widely, with some cases detected on prenatal us as early as weeks’ gestation [ ]. however, hpp diagnosis based on us findings cannot be definitive until half- way through the second trimester, when characteristics of in utero hpp become more evident. in the second trimester, all bony features become more apparent as the fetus grows and increase in visibility as ossification progresses. if the diaphysis of a tubular bone is not ossified in the second trimester, it is likely abnormal rather than physiologically related to gestational age. prenatal us findings may help predict lethality of a skeletal dysplasia [ ]. the three most accurate predictors of fatality when evaluated in conjunction with fetal amniotic fluid fig. normal ossification of the fetal skeleton of a male fetus at weeks’ gestation. a,b radiographs in lateral (a) and anteroposterior (b) projections show ossification of all vertebral bodies, which is in contrast with characteristics shown in the - week fetus in fig. ; however, there remains absent ossification of the skull vault, much of the skull base, and the ischia and pubic bones pediatr radiol ( ) : – volume are -d fetal lung volume [ , ], the ratio of femur length to abdominal circumference and the ratio of chest cir- cumference to abdominal circumference [ ]. in general, the risk of fatality is greater if chest size is small and/or multiple rib fractures are present because this will lead to breathing difficulties ex utero [ , , ]. lethal perinatal hpp is char- acterized by diffuse hypomineralization of the fetal skeleton with the absence of many bones and a lack of posterior acous- tic shadowing from bones that are sonographically visible [ , ]. in particular, the neural arches and the thoracic spine may be poorly ossified or absent [ , ]. in general, lethal perina- tal hpp is clearly more severe than other forms of hpp at first detection, with a lack of improvement in skeletal signs with increasing gestational age. the severity of hypomineralization may also predict fatality. a diagnosis of lethal hpp can usu- ally be made by the late second or early third trimester. lack of mineralization of bones in the hands is considered an impor- tant feature. however, no correlation is apparent between the gestational age when skeletal disease is first observed and the severity of hpp after birth [ ]. a slowly progressing type of perinatal hpp, with only some or none of the skeletal abnormalities considered characteristic of hpp, may also present prenatally [ – , , ]. this phe- notype of hpp is relatively mild at birth, with some patients presenting with long bone bowing, femoral or humeral angula- tion, and presumed in utero fractures but no other radiologic fig. normal ossification of the fetal skeleton of a male fetus at weeks’ gestation. a,b radiographs in lateral (a) and anteroposterior (b) projections show early ossification of the ischia at weeks (arrows) table key radiographic and sonographic features of perinatal hypophosphatasia [ – ] long bones: shortening, bowing, angulation small/narrow thorax (chest size smaller than abdominal circumference) osteochondral spurs (bowdler spur) fractures metaphyseal irregularities lucencies (“cupping” or “tongues”) ribs short and beadeda thinb deficient/absent ossification of bones tubular bones, skull vault, ribs, vertebrae abnormal sonolucency of bony structures hypoechogenic skull increased nuchal translucency wide sutures and fontanellesb polyhydramnios a second trimester ( – weeks’ gestation) b full-term neonate pediatr radiol ( ) : – features of hpp (figs. , and ) [ , , ]. bone ossifi- cation is usually normal or only slightly reduced on us exam- inations, and chest size is usually normal. in such cases, the diagnosis of hpp may be suspected based on family history (e.g., dental abnormalities) or diagnosed after confirmation of low alkaline phosphatase activity. these patients have a better prognosis in the perinatal period than patients with perinatal or infantile hpp, which may be fatal [ , , ]. pregnancy in cases of perinatal hpp may be complicated by polyhydramnios [ ]. whether perinatal hpp is associated with other maternal complications, small size for gestational age or premature birth has not been systematically studied. a retro- spective review of manitoban mennonite patients with fig. imaging features of hypophosphatasia of a fetus of unknown gender at weeks’ gestation. a-d prenatal us scan in a longitudinal view of the femur (a) shows a short and angulated femur and a coronal view of the thorax (b) shows short irregular ribs. the vertical line highlights the original software calipers used by the sonographer to document thoracic height. axial (c) and sagittal (d) views of the skull show a severely underossified cranium. calipers on the axial view are measuring the biparietal diameter. [images reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case , images a, c, f, and g] fig. imaging features of hypophosphatasia in a fetus at , , and weeks’ gestation. the fetus died. a,b three-dimensional reconstructed fetal ct images show deficient ossification of ribs, which is progressive between weeks’ (a) and weeks’ (b) gestation, and wide cranial sutures and anterior fontanelle. metaphyseal “tongues” of radiolucency are best appreciated on the ct scan at weeks (dashed arrow). c postmortem anteroposterior radiograph of the same fetus at weeks’ gestation shows bowed femora (arrows) and absent ossification of pedicles pediatr radiol ( ) : – perinatal hpp reported during an -year period ( – ) found that most of the infants ( . % [ / ]) were born at full term, . % ( / ) were born early at weeks’ gestation, and . % ( / ) were born prematurely at and weeks’ ges- tation [ ]. birth weights (n= ) ranged from below the th percentile ( . kg) to within the th– th percentile ( . kg). as technology advances, we may learn more about maternal complications. differential diagnosis metaphyseal abnormalities similar to those observed in hpp are also observed in rickets and osteopathy of prematurity [ ]. active rickets may present with widened zones of pro- visional calcification and wide costochondral junctions, in- cluding widening along the anterior ends of the ribs (i.e. ra- chitic rosary). osteopathy of prematurity is associated with radiologic changes characteristic of rickets, and fractures may be seen in infants with very low birth weights [ , ]. osteogenesis imperfecta osteogenesis imperfecta and perinatal and infantile hpp share features of reduced bone density, deficient ossification of the skull vault, bowed long bones, fractures, gracile ribs and nar- row thorax (table ) [ , , , – , , , – ]. although it may be difficult to distinguish osteogenesis imperfecta from hpp on us [ ], certain patterns of demin- eralization may help [ ]. osteogenesis imperfecta types ii, iii and iv are characterized by overall diffuse osteopenia (figs. , , and ), whereas hpp is characterized by a near complete lack of mineralization in individual bones with more densely or normally mineralized adjacent bones [ , , , ]. wormian bones of the skull and compression fractures in the spine are common findings in the majority of cases of severe osteogenesis imperfecta [ , ] but not in hpp. demineralization of the skull is usually severe and diffuse in hpp. this is in contrast to the “island-like” centers of ossifi- cation (i.e. wormian bones) in the frontal, parietal and occip- ital bones often observed in osteogenesis imperfecta. the hand bones are echogenic in osteogenesis imperfecta but are usually sonolucent in hpp [ , ]. similar to hpp, in the neonatal period, osteogenesis imperfecta type v may present with reduced bone density, metaphyseal widening/flaring and widening of the growth plates [ ]. however, unlike active rickets, the metaphyses are sclerotic and irregular and there may be centrally located wedge-shaped sclerosis of the ante- rior vertebral bodies and unusual lucency of the metadiaphyseal regions [ ]. campomelic dysplasia campomelic dysplasia shares some characteristics with hpp, including shortening, bowing and angulation of the long bones, diaphyseal spurs, tibial dimple, absent ossification of the pedicles and hypoplastic fibulae (table ) (figs. and ) [ , , ]. unlike hpp, the absence of ossification of the pedicles is limited to the thoracic spine in campomelic dyspla- sia. campomelic dysplasia is also distinguished from hpp by characteristic sites of long bone angulation, specifically in the femur at the junction of the proximal third and distal two- thirds and in the tibia at the junction of proximal two-thirds and distal third. other distinguishing characteristics of campomelic dysplasia include the absence of ossification of the wings of the scapulae, dislocated elbows, pairs of ribs, narrow iliac wings and normal bone density [ ]. achondrogenesis/hypochondrogenesis achondrogenesis is characterized by early hydrops and a short trunk (crown–rump length), narrow barrel-shaped thorax and prominent abdomen (figs. , and ) [ ]. achondrogenesis types ia/b are inherited by autosomal- recessive transmission and are associated with extreme micromelia, short hands and feet, poor mineralization, a large head, a flat face and a short neck. achondrogenesis type ii (au- tosomal dominant) is less severe and presents later in gestation fig. imaging features of hypophosphatasia of an infant of unknown gender at birth. anteroposterior radiograph of the left upper limb shows metaphyseal “tongues” of radiolucency of the left proximal humerus (circled), with bowing and spurring (arrow) of the radius and ulna. [image reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case , image c] pediatr radiol ( ) : – than type i, often with polyhydramnios. hypochondrogenesis is characterized by a small thorax, short limbs, a flat face with micrognathia, a short trunk and macrocephaly, a flat nose and depressed nasal bridge [ ]. in achondrogenesis and hypochondrogenesis, deficient ossification of the vertebral bodies is usually most severe in the lumbosacral and cervical spine [ ]. in achondrogenesis, the whole spine may be unossified, with fig. imaging features of hypophosphatasia in a -week- old girl who died with hpp who died within the first months of life. a-c anteroposterior radiographs show metaphyseal “tongues” of radiolucency (arrow) in the left upper limb (a), wide irregular metaphyses (arrows) and absent ossification of epiphyses of the knee in the right lower limb (b), and slender ribs and metaphyseal “tongues” of radiolucency (arrows) in the upper chest (c) pediatr radiol ( ) : – complete absence of vertebral bodies. in contrast, hpp typically presents as deficient spine ossification in the tho- racic region, with a sharp demarcation between almost nor- mal ossification in the lumbar spine and complete absence of ossification in the thoracic spine. cleidocranial dysplasia cleidocranial dysplasia is an autosomal-dominant skeletal dysplasia characterized by clavicular hypoplasia or aplasia, delayed closure of fontanelles and sutures, and hypoplasia of the pubic bones (table ) (fig. ) [ ]. prenatal us may reveal absent or hypoplastic clavicles, missing nasal bones, and hypomineralization of the crani- um and vertebral spine early in the second trimester [ – ]. later in life, patients with cleidocranial dysplasia may have dental anomalies (e.g., delayed eruption of pri- mary and secondary dentition, supernumerary teeth) and short stature. one case of cleidocranial dysplasia misdiagnosed as hpp during infancy has been reported [ ]. some patients with severe cleidocranial dysplasia may have low serum alkaline phosphatase activity [ , ]. however, these patients may also have normal serum pyridoxal ′-phosphate and urine phosphoethanolamine [ , ]. thanatophoric dysplasia thanatophoric dysplasia is one of the most commonly encountered lethal prenatal skeletal dysplasias [ ]. fig. imaging features of hypophosphatasia in a -month- old girl. a-c anteroposterior radiographs show short bowed femora (arrows) (a), short bowed radius and ulna with spurred radius (arrow) of the right forearm (b), and slender, poorly ossified ribs in the chest (c). d three-dimensional ct reconstruction in the same child shows wide sutures and fontanelles (double-headed arrows). [images reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], pages – , case , images n, p, q, and s] pediatr radiol ( ) : – fig. images of a -day-old boy with a slowly progressing phenotype of perinatal hypophosphatasia. a anteroposterior radiograph shows mild femoral bowing (arrows) of both lower limbs. b,c by comparison, the lateral spine (b) and anteroposterior skull (c) are relatively normal. the patient had low alkaline phosphatase activity and an elevated vitamin b concentration. mutation of the alpl gene was identified in the infant and mother. the child later had premature loss of primary dentition and femoral remodeling with growth fig. images of a girl with a regressing phenotype of perinatal hypophosphatasia at weeks’ gestation. a,b three-dimensional fetal ct scans in the coronal view (a) and sagittal view (b) show metaphyseal “tongues” of radiolucency (dashed arrows) and bowing of the long bones. c an anteroposterior radiograph obtained at birth shows regression of the metaphyseal change, although bowing persists (arrows) pediatr radiol ( ) : – characteristic in utero sonographic features of thanatophoric dysplasia include severe micromelia and brachydactyly, bowed (type i) or straight (type ii) long bones, severe platyspondyly with normal trunk length, narrow thorax, short ribs and prominent abdomen appar- ent by the -week morphology us (table ) (fig. ) [ ]. in one report, suspicious findings on us per- formed at weeks’ gestation prompted a repeat scan at weeks to confirm the diagnosis of thanatophoric dysplasia [ ]. suspicion of hypophosphatasia: next steps if perinatal hpp is suspected, alkaline phosphatase ac- tivity may be assessed in umbilical cord blood or cho- rionic villus samples [ – ]. chorionic villus sampling fig. images of a male of unknown age with benign perinatal hypophosphatasia show a less aggressive phenotype. a,b anteroposterior radiograph (a) and three-dimensional reconstructed ct of the lower limbs (b) show bowing of the long bones but normal metaphyses; note the bowdler spurs of the fibulae (arrows). c,d three-dimensional whole- body ct images show skull vault ossification that is within normal limits pediatr radiol ( ) : – ta b le d if fe re n ti al d ia g n o se s fo r p er in at al h y p o ph o sp h at as ia (h p p ) p er in at al h y p o hp o sp h at as ia [ , , ] o st eo g en es is im p er fe ct a ty p e ii [ , , , ] c am p o m el ic dy sp la si a [ , , , ] a ch on d ro g en es is / h y p o ch o n d ro g en es is [ , , ] c le id oc ra n ia l d y sp la si a [ , , ] t h an at o p h o ri c d y sp la si a [ , , ] l o n g b o n es m ic ro m el ia b o w ed a n g u la ti on (t ib ia e) a b se n t o ss if ic at io n o f w h o le b o n es d ia p h y se al sp u rs (t ib ia l d im p le ) m et ap h y se al lu ce nc ie s (“ to n g u es ”) h y p o p la st ic fi b u la e m ic ro m el ia t hi ck c ru m p le d sh af ts m u lt ip le fr ac tu re s c al lu s fo rm at io n w ri n k le d ap p ea ra n ce o n so n o g ra m s s h o rt en in g o f th e lo n g bo n es a n g u la ti o n (t ib ia e an d sh o rt fi b u la ) m il d to m od er at e bo w in g d ia p h y se al sp u rs (t ib ia l di m p le ) h y p o p la st ic fi bu la e m ic ro m el ia m et ap h y se al sp ik es d y sp la st ic li m b s b ow ed li m b s d ia p h ys ea l sp u rs m ic ro m el ia f em o ra l bo w in g (t y p e i) t h o ra x s h o rt en ed ri b s t h in ri b s s m al l th o ra ci c ci rc u m fe re n ce s h o rt en ed ri b s t h ic k /b ro ad ir re gu la r ri b s c o n ti n u o us b ea d in g o f ri b s f la ri n g at an te ri o r ri b en d s s m al l ch es t ci rc u m fe re n ce p ai rs o f ri b s a b se n t o r h y p o p la st ic sc ap ul a s m al l, be ll -s h ap ed th o ra x s h o rt ri b s n ar ro w b ar re l- sh ap ed th o ra x p ro m in en t ab d o m en h y p o p la st ic o r ab se n t cl av ic le s s h o rt en ed ri b s n ar ro w th o ra x p ro m in en t ab d o m en s k u ll a b se n t o ss if ic at io n o f sk u ll b as e w id e su tu re s an d fo n ta n el le s p ro m in en t fa lx ce re br i in so n o g ra m s c ap u t m em b ra n ac eu m w o rm ia n b o n es h y p o m in er al iz at io n o f sk ul l a b n o rm al sk u ll sh ap e c ap u t m em b ra n ac eu m f la tt en ed fa ci al p ro fi le s ev er e h y po m in er al iz at io n o f sk u ll m ic ro g n at h ia f la tt en ed fa ci al p ro fi le h y p o m in er al iz at io n o f th e sk u ll w id e su tu re s an d fo n ta n el le s p ar ie ta l b o n es ab se n t in ex tr em e ca se s m ac ro ce p h al y c ra n io sy n o st o si s (t y p e ii ) n ar ro w ed o r cl o se d cr an ia l su tu re s m et op ic b o ss in g s p in e u n d er o ss if ic at io n o f v er te b ra e an d n eu ra l ar ch es a b se n t p ed ic le s an d b o d ie s o f th e ve rt eb ra e in cr ea se d n u ch al tr an sl u ce n cy a b se n t p ed ic le s o f th e t sp in e s co li o si s s ev er e h y po m in er al iz at io n o f v er te b ra l b o d ie s p la ty sp o n d y ly l ar g e n u ch al lu ce n ci es p la ty sp o n d y ly p el v is a b se n t o ss if ic at io n d is lo ca te d h ip s c re sc en t il ia a b se n t is ch ia d ef ic ie n t o ss if ic at io n o f th e p u b ic ra m i w id e sy m p h y si s p u bi s t ri d en t ac et ab u lu m h an d s an d fe et u n d er o ss if ic at io n an d so n o lu ce n cy o f h an d s h an d s ap p ea r g ro ss ly n o rm al an d ar e ec h o g en ic s h o rt fi n g er s an d to es c lu b b ed fe et v er y sm al l h an d s an d fe et t ri d en t h an d s b ra ch y d ac ty ly o th er g en er al iz ed h y p o m in er al iz at io n d ec re as ed ec h o g en ic it y o f b o n es s m al l fo r g es ta ti o na l ag e p o ly h y dr am n io s g en er al iz ed h y p o m in er al iz at io n n o rm al bo n e d en si ty m ic ro g n at h ia f la t na sa l br id g e l o w -s et ea rs n u ch al ed em a e ar ly h y d ro p s c y st ic h y g ro m a s h o rt cr o w n – ru m p le n g th p o ly h y d ra m n io s (t y p e ii ) o m p h al o ce le n o rm al tr u n k le n g th d ep re ss ed n as al br id g e h y d ro ce p h al y p o ly h y d ra m n io s pediatr radiol ( ) : – for assay of alkaline phosphatase activity has been used to diagnose hpp as early as – weeks’ gestation [ , ]. in some cases, however, alkaline phosphatase activity may fail to identify affected fetuses, as alkaline phosphatase activity varies with gestational age [ , ]. after weeks’ gestation, the placenta may produce alkaline phosphatase, affecting the interpretation of the analysis. measurement of parental serum alkaline phosphatase activity can be useful for prenatal diagnosis of hpp [ ]. a retrospective analysis of cases of fetal skel- etal dysplasia (including of hpp) in japan from to showed that the presence of at least one abnormally low maternal (< iu/l) or paternal alka- line phosphatase value (< iu/l) any time during pregnancy had high sensitivity ( %) specificity ( %), and positive predictive value ( %) for hpp [ ]. for newborns, alkaline phosphatase activity must be compared with age- and gender-adjusted reference fig. radiographic features of a girl with osteogenesis imperfecta type v. a,b anteroposterior radiographs show slender, deformed ribs of the chest and abdomen on day (a) and spurred, sclerotic and flared metaphyses (arrow) of the left femur at weeks of age (b). [images reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case , images c and e] fig. radiographic features in a weeks’ gestation male fetus with lethal osteogenesis imperfecta type ii. anteroposterior babygram shows generalized osteopenia, deformities of the ribs, and absent ossification of the skull vault pediatr radiol ( ) : – ranges for the testing laboratory; alkaline phosphatase reference ranges vary widely depending on patient age and gender and the laboratory and methods used [ ]. if alkaline phosphatase activity is low or suspicion for hpp is high based on images, additional testing may be necessary. in newborns, these tests should include urine concentrations of phosphoethanolamine, and serum concentrations of pyridoxal ′-phosphate (i.e. vitamin b ), calcium, vitamin d and parathyroid hormone [ ]. genetic testing for alpl mutations can be confirma- tory in cases of diagnostic uncertainty [ , ]. however, clinicians should be aware of the depth of coverage with whole-exome sequencing and next- generation sequencing technology, as some pathogenic variants may not be detected [ , ]. medical genetic evaluation and genetic counseling a medical genetic evaluation should be obtained when a diagnosis of hpp is being considered. in many centers, this will be through a prenatal genetics clinic. a medical genet- ics physician or genetics counselor can help obtain gene testing and interpret results, especially if variants of un- known significance are found. if gene testing results are normal, alternative genetic causes for the apparent bony abnormalities can be pursued in consultation with the ra- fig. radiographic features of an infant of unknown gender at birth (delivered at term) with severe osteogenesis imperfecta type iii. a-c anteroposterior radiographs show broad ribs with multiple fractures in the chest (a), broad tubular bones with multiple fractures of the right lower limb (b) and absent ossification of the skull vault (c) fig. radiographic features of a -week-old infant of unknown gender with severe osteogenesis imperfecta type iii. anteroposterior radiographs show broad ribs with multiple fractures (‘‘beading”) in the chest (a), broad tubular bones with multiple fractures and bowing of the tibia and fibula of the right lower limb (b), and deficient ossification of the skull vault (c; less severe than in the infant shown in fig. ) pediatr radiol ( ) : – diologist and obstetrician. family genetic counseling should also begin when hpp is suspected, and a detailed pedigree should be obtained. genetic counseling in cases of suspected hpp may be particularly difficult due to the autosomal-dominant and autosomal-recessive patterns of inheritance and the phenotypic heterogeneity of the disease [ ]. the family should receive counseling by a clinician familiar with the treatment of children with hpp so that they are informed on available treatment options before making decisions about terminating the pregnancy. prompt diagnosis of hpp is important, as the health care provider must evaluate treatment strategies for newborns with hpp as early as possible. if the decision is made to treat, treatment should begin as early as possible postnatally. all decisions must be made in con- sultation with the parents. it is important to assemble a multidisciplinary team for care in the perinatal period. the team should include the following specialists: neo- natologist, pediatrician, geneticist, endocrinologist, radi- ologist, nephrologist, specialist nurses, genetic fig. clinical and radiographic features of lethal campomelic dysplasia in a male neonate. a,b photograph (a) and radiograph (b) show angulation at the junction of the proximal third and distal two-thirds of the femur (arrow) and the junction of the proximal two-thirds and the distal third of the tibia (dashed arrow). note the clinical spur (yellow arrow), which may also be seen in hypophosphatasia. [images reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing ( ), page , case , image c] pediatr radiol ( ) : – fig. radiographic features of lethal campomelic dysplasia in female and male fetuses. a,b anteroposterior radiographs in female (a) and male (b) fetuses show pairs of ribs, hypoplastic scapulae (arrows), absent ossification of thoracic pedicles, characteristic bowing/angulation of tibiae and fibulae, and narrow iliac wings. [image (a) reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case , image c] fig. radiographic features in a female fetus with achondrogenesis type ib. anteroposterior radiograph shows short ribs, short limbs, deficient ossification of the ischia and widening of the lumbar interpedicular distances (brackets), which has been likened to the shape of a cobra’s head. [image reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case ] fig. radiographic features in a female fetus with achondrogenesis type ia. anteroposterior radiograph in the most severe form of the disease shows short limbs, short ribs, deficient ossification of the pelvis and skull, and “beaded” ribs due to healing fractures (arrow). [image reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case , image b] pediatr radiol ( ) : – counselor, social worker, physical therapist, occupational therapist, respiratory physician (especially if long-term ventilation is needed), and an ears, nose, and throat special- ist, neurologist and craniofacial surgeon (if craniosynosto- sis is present). neonatologists should be prepared to pro- vide invasive respiratory support, as many babies born with skeletal dysplasias are likely to require ventilation. conclusion perinatal hpp is associated with a broad spectrum of im- aging findings that overlap with other perinatal skeletal dysplasias. certain features (e.g., sites of angulation and hypomineralization, spurs, metaphyseal characteristics) may help distinguish hpp from other skeletal dysplasias. alpl gene mutation testing during pregnancy can con- firm the diagnosis before delivery. alkaline phosphatase results are essential for confirming a suspected diagnosis of perinatal hpp. early recognition of the disease provides more opportunity for education and counseling to prepare the parents, allows for the assembly and preparedness of a fig. radiographic features of a male fetus with achondrogenesis type ii. anteroposterior radiograph of the least severe form of the disease shows less marked shortening of ribs and long bones, and improved length of long bones and pelvic ossification; however, there is absent ossification of all vertebral bodies and of the lower thoracic, lumbar and sacral pedicles (brackets). [image reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing [ ], page , case ] fig. radiographic features of cleidocranial dysplasia. a,b radiographs of the skull in the anteroposterior view (a) and lateral view (b) show wide sutures and fontanelles (arrow) and multiple wormian bones (arrows). c anteroposterior chest radiograph shows hypoplastic clavicles (arrows). d anteroposterior pelvic radiograph shows deficient ossification of the pubic bones (arrows). [images reproduced with permission from radcliffe publishing ( ), page , case , images a-b, and case , images b-c] pediatr radiol ( ) : – multidisciplinary care team upon delivery, and provides additional time to consider and discuss treatment options, with the goal of improving duration and quality of life or minimizing unnecessary suffering for the affected child and the family. acknowledgments dr. gen nishimura of tokyo metropolitan children’s medical center, japan, contributed images that appear in this article. compliance with ethical standards conflicts of interest this review was sponsored by alexion pharmaceuticals inc. writing and editorial support was provided by lela creutz, phd, and bina j. patel, pharmd, cmpp, of peloton advantage, llc, and funded by alexion pharmaceuticals inc. amaka c. offiah has received consulting fees, travel support and research grant support from alexion pharmaceuticals inc. for participating on advisory boards and to support her research. jerry vockley has received consulting fees, travel support and research grant support from alexion pharmaceuticals inc. for consulting and participating on advisory boards. craig f. munns has received consulting fees from alexion pharmaceuticals, inc. jun murotsuki has received honoraria, travel sup- port and consulting fees from alexion pharmaceuticals, inc. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references . weiss mj, cole de, ray k et al ( ) a missense mutation in the human liver/bone/kidney alkaline phosphatase gene causing a le- thal form of hypophosphatasia. proc natl acad sci u s a : – . whyte mp ( ) hypophosphatasia and how alkaline phosphatase promotes mineralization. in: thakker rv, whyte mp, eisman j, igarashi t (eds) genetics of bone biology and skeletal disease, nd edn. elsevier (academic press, london), san diego, ca, pp – . rockman-greenberg c ( ) hypophosphatasia. pediatr endocrinol rev (suppl ): – . whyte mp, mahuren jd, vrabel la, coburn sp ( ) markedly increased circulating pyridoxal- ′-phosphate levels in hypophosphatasia. alkaline phosphatase acts in vitamin b metab- olism. j clin invest : – . russell rg ( ) excretion of inorganic pyrophosphate in hypophosphatasia. lancet : – . fleisch h, russell rg, straumann f ( ) effect of pyrophos- phate on hydroxyapatite and its implications in calcium homeosta- sis. nature : – . millan jl ( ) the role of phosphatases in the initiation of skel- etal mineralization. calcif tissue int : – . linglart a, biosse-duplan m ( ) hypophosphatasia. curr osteoporos rep : – fig. radiographic features of a weeks’ gestation male fetus with thanatophoric dysplasia type . a lateral radiograph shows significant platyspondyly (arrows), with bowing of the humeri, femora and short ribs and a small thorax. b an anteroposterior radiograph shows horizontal acetabula (dashed arrow) pediatr radiol ( ) : – . fraser d ( ) hypophosphatasia. am j med : – . kozlowski k, sutcliffe j, barylak a et al ( ) hypophosphatasia. review of cases. pediatr radiol : – . baumgartner-sigl s, haberlandt e, mumm s et al ( ) pyridoxine-responsive seizures as the first symptom of infantile hypophosphatasia caused by two novel missense mutations (c. t>c, p.m t; c. c>t, p.t i) of the tissue- nonspecific alkaline phosphatase gene. bone : – . collmann h, mornet e, gattenlohner s et al ( ) neurosurgical aspects of childhood hypophosphatasia. childs nerv syst : – . balasubramaniam s, bowling f, carpenter k et al ( ) perinatal hypophosphatasia presenting as neonatal epileptic encephalopathy with abnormal neurotransmitter metabolism secondary to reduced co-factor pyridoxal- ′-phosphate availability. j inherit metab dis (suppl ):s –s . silver mm, vilos ga, milne kj ( ) pulmonary hypoplasia in neonatal hypophosphatasia. pediatr pathol : – . leung ec, mhanni aa, reed m et al ( ) outcome of perinatal hypophosphatasia in manitoba mennonites: a retrospective cohort analysis. jimd rep : – . nakamura-utsunomiya a, okada s, hara k et al ( ) clinical characteristics of perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia: a report of cases. clin pediatr endocrinol : – . whyte mp, rockman-greenberg c, ozono k et al ( ) asfotase alfa treatment improves survival for perinatal and infantile hypophosphatasia. j clin endocrinol metab : – . mornet e, yvard a, taillandier a et al ( ) a molecular-based estimation of the prevalence of hypophosphatasia in the european population. ann hum genet : – . greenberg cr, evans ja, mckendry-smith s et al ( ) infantile hypophosphatasia: localization within chromosome region p . - and prenatal diagnosis using linked dna markers. am j hum genet : – . mehes k, klujber l, lassu g, kajtar p ( ) hypophosphatasia: screening and family investigations in an endogamous hungarian village. clin genet : – . rubecz i, mehes k, klujber l et al ( ) hypophosphatasia: screening and family investigation. clin genet : – . hofmann c, girschick hj, mentrup b et al ( ) clinical aspects of hypophosphatasia: an update. clin rev bone miner metab : – . bishop n, munns cf, ozono k ( ) transformative therapy in hypophosphatasia. arch dis child : – . krakow d, lachman rs, rimoin dl ( ) guidelines for the pre- natal diagnosis of fetal skeletal dysplasias. genet med : – . dighe m, fligner c, cheng e et al ( ) fetal skeletal dysplasia: an approach to diagnosis with illustrative cases. radiographics : – . bonafe l, cormier-daire v, hall c et al ( ) nosology and classification of genetic skeletal disorders: revision. am j med genet a a: – . schramm t, gloning kp, minderer s et al ( ) prenatal sono- graphic diagnosis of skeletal dysplasias. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – . calder ad, offiah ac ( ) foetal radiography for suspected skeletal dysplasia: technique, normal appearances, diagnostic ap- proach. pediatr radiol : – . offiah ac ( ) skeletal dysplasias: an overview. in: allgrove j, shaw nj (eds) calcium and bone disorders in children and adoles- cents, vol. , nd edn, revised. karger, basel, switzerland, pp – . salomon lj, alfirevic z, bilardo cm et al ( ) isuog practice guidelines: performance of first-trimester fetal ultrasound scan. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – . antenatal care for uncomplicated pregnancies [clinical guideline cg ] ( , updated ) national institute for health and care excellence, london. available via https://www.nice.org.uk/ guidance/cg (accessed august , ) . krakow d, williams j rd, poehl m et al ( ) use of three- dimensional ultrasound imaging in the diagnosis of prenatal-onset skeletal dysplasias. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – . victoria t, epelman m, bebbington m et al ( ) low-dose fetal ct for evaluation of severe congenital skeletal anomalies: prelim- inary experience. pediatr radiol (suppl ):s –s . cassart m ( ) suspected fetal skeletal malformations or bone diseases: how to explore. pediatr radiol : – . guillerman rp ( ) newer ctapplications and their alternatives: what is appropriate in children? pediatr radiol (suppl ): – . miyazaki o, sawai h, murotsuki j et al ( ) nationwide radia- tion dose survey of computed tomography for fetal skeletal dyspla- sias. pediatr radiol : – . victoria t, epelman m, coleman bg et al ( ) low-dose fetal ct in the prenatal evaluation of skeletal dysplasias and other severe skeletal abnormalities. ajr am j roentgenol : – . hall cm, offiah a, forzano f et al ( ) diagnosis of fetal skel- etal dysplasias. in: fetal and perinatal skeletal dysplasias: an atlas of multimodality imaging. radcliffe publishing, london . sadro ct, dubinsky tj ( ) ct in pregnancy: risks and benefits. appl radiol : – . imai r, miyazaki o, horiuchi t et al ( ) ultra-low-dose fetal ct with model-based iterative reconstruction: a prospective pilot study. ajr am j roentgenol : – . noel ae, brown rn ( ) advances in evaluating the fetal skel- eton. intl j womens health : – . berceanu c, gheonea ia, vladareanu s et al ( ) ultrasound and mri comprehensive approach in prenatal diagnosis of fetal osteochondrodysplasias. cases series. med ultrason : – . nemec u, nemec sf, krakow d et al ( ) the skeleton and musculature on foetal mri. insights imaging : – . robinson aj, blaser s, vladimirov a et al ( ) foetal "black bone" mri: utility in assessment of the foetal spine. br j radiol : . offiah ac, hall cm ( ) radiological diagnosis of the consti- tutional disorders of bone. as easy as a, b, c? pediatr radiol : – . beck c, morbach h, wirth c et al ( ) whole-body mri in the childhood form of hypophosphatasia. rheumatol int : – . kritsaneepaiboon s, jaruratanasirikul s, dissaneevate s ( ) clinics in diagnostic imaging ( ). perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia (plh). singap med j : – . matsushita m, kitoh h, michigami t et al ( ) benign prenatal hypophosphatasia: a treatable disease not to be missed. pediatr radiol : – . comstock c, bronsteen r, lee w, vettraino i ( ) mild hypophosphatasia in utero: bent bones in a family with dental dis- ease. j ultrasound med : – . pauli rm, modaff p, sipes sl, whyte mp ( ) mild hypophosphatasia mimicking severe osteogenesis imperfecta in utero: bent but not broken. am j med genet : – . gortzak-uzan l, sheiner e, gohar j ( ) prenatal diagnosis of congenital hypophosphatasia in a consanguineous bedouin couple. a case report. j reprod med : – . moore ca, curry cj, henthorn ps et al ( ) mild autosomal dominant hypophosphatasia: in utero presentation in two families. am j med genet : – . souka ap, raymond fl, mornet e et al ( ) hypophosphatasia associated with increased nuchal translucency: a report of two af- fected pregnancies. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – pediatr radiol ( ) : – https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg . tongsong t, pongsatha s ( ) early prenatal sonographic diag- nosis of congenital hypophosphatasia. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – . sergi c, mornet e, troeger j, voigtlaender t ( ) perinatal hypophosphatasia: radiology, pathology and molecular biology studies in a family harboring a splicing mutation ( + a) and a novel missense mutation (n s) in the tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (tnsalp) gene. am j med genet : – . zankl a, mornet e, wong s ( ) specific ultrasonographic fea- tures of perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia. am j med genet a a: – . guguloth a, aswani y, anandpara km ( ) prenatal diagnosis of hypophosphatasia congenita using ultrasonography. ultrasonography : – . shohat m, rimoin dl, gruber he, lachman rs ( ) perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia; clinical, radiologic and morphologic find- ings. pediatr radiol : – . arundel p, offiah a, bishop nj ( ) evolution of the radiograph- ic appearance of the metaphyses over the first year of life in type v osteogenesis imperfecta: clues to pathogenesis. j bone miner res : – . calder ad ( ) radiology of osteogenesis imperfecta, rickets and other bony fragility states. endocr dev : – . wiebe s, suchet i, lemire eg ( ) radiographic and prenatal ultrasound features of perinatal lethal hypophosphatasia - differen- tiation from osteogenesis imperfecta type ii. s afr j radiol : – . oestreich ae, bofinger mk ( ) prominent transverse (bowdler) bone spurs as a diagnostic clue in a case of neonatal hypophosphatasia without metaphyseal irregularity. pediatr radiol : – . sinico m, levaillant jm, vergnaud a et al ( ) specific osseous spurs in a lethal form of hypophosphatasia correlated with d pre- natal ultrasonographic images. prenat diagn : – . unger s, mornet e, mundlos s et al ( ) severe cleidocranial dysplasia can mimic hypophosphatasia. eur j pediatr : – . oestreich ae ( ) bowdler spur also found in camptomelic dys- plasia. pediatr radiol : . wenkert d, mcalister wh, coburn sp et al ( ) hypophosphatasia: nonlethal disease despite skeletal presentation in utero ( new cases and literature review). j bone miner res : – . milks ks, hill lm, hosseinzadeh k ( ) evaluating skeletal dysplasias on prenatal ultrasound: an emphasis on predicting lethal- ity. pediatr radiol : – . barros ca, rezende gde c, araujo junior e et al ( ) prediction of lethal pulmonary hypoplasia by means fetal lung vol- ume in skeletal dysplasias: a three-dimensional ultrasound assess- ment. j matern fetal neonatal med : – . backstrom mc, kuusela al, maki r ( ) metabolic bone dis- ease of prematurity. ann med : – . samson gr ( ) skeletal dysplasias with osteopenia in the new- born: the value of alkaline phosphatase. j matern fetal neonatal med : – . krakow d, alanay y, rimoin lp et al ( ) evaluation of prenatal-onset osteochondrodysplasias by ultrasonography: a retro- spective and prospective analysis. am j med genet a a: – . bulas di, stern hj, rosenbaum kn et al ( ) variable prenatal appearance of osteogenesis imperfecta. j ultrasound med : – . wu q, wang w, cao l et al ( ) diagnosis of fetal osteogenesis imperfecta by multidisciplinary assessment: a retrospective study of cases. fetal pediatr pathol : – . sillence do, senn a, danks dm ( ) genetic heterogeneity in osteogenesis imperfecta. j med genet : – . mornet e, nunes me ( ) hypophosphatasia. in: pagon ra, adam mp, ardinger hh et al (eds) genereviews. university of washington, seattle . cordone m, lituania m, zampatti c et al ( ) in utero ultraso- nographic features of campomelic dysplasia. prenat diagn : – . mundlos s ( ) cleidocranial dysplasia: clinical and molecular genetics. j med genet : – . renaud a, aucourt j, weill j et al ( ) radiographic features of osteogenesis imperfecta. insights imaging : – . kim oh, jin dk, kosaki k et al ( ) osteogenesis imperfecta type v: clinical and radiographic manifestations in mutation con- firmed patients. am j med genet a a: – . stewart pa, wallerstein r, moran e, lee mj ( ) early prenatal ultrasound diagnosis of cleidocranial dysplasia. ultrasound obstet gynecol : – . hove hd, hermann nv, jorgensen c et al ( ) an echo-poor spine at weeks: an early sign of cleidocranial dysplasia. fetal diagn ther : – . hermann nv, hove hd, jorgensen c et al ( ) prenatal d ultrasound diagnostics in cleidocranial dysplasia. fetal diagn ther : – . morava e, karteszi j, weisenbach j et al ( ) cleidocranial dys- plasia with decreased bone density and biochemical findings of hypophosphatasia. eur j pediatr : – . el-gharbawy ah, peeden jn jr, lachman rs et al ( ) severe cleidocranial dysplasia and hypophosphatasia in a child with microdeletion of the c-terminal region of runx . am j med genet a a: – . benacerraf br, lister je, duponte bl ( ) first-trimester diag- nosis of fetal abnormalities. a report of three cases. j reprod med : – . suzumori n, mornet e, mizutani e et al ( ) prenatal diagnosis of familial lethal hypophosphatasia using imaging, blood enzyme levels, chorionic villus sampling and archived fetal tissue. j obstet gynaecol res : – . takahashi y, sawai h, murotsuki j et al ( ) parental serum alkaline phosphatase activity as an auxiliary tool for prenatal diag- nosis of hypophosphatasia. prenat diagn : – . brock dj, barron l ( ) first-trimester prenatal diagnosis of hypophosphatasia: experience with cases. prenat diagn : – . mornet e, muller f, ngo s et al ( ) correlation of alkaline phosphatase (alp) determination and analysis of the tissue non- specific alp gene in prenatal diagnosis of severe hypophosphatasia. prenat diagn : – . muller f, oury jf, bussiere p et al ( ) first-trimester diagnosis of hypophosphatasia. importance of gestational age and purity of cv samples. prenat diagn : – . taillandier a, domingues c, de cazanove c et al ( ) molecular diagnosis of hypophosphatasia and differential diagnosis by targeted next generation sequencing. mol genet metab : – . kishnani ps, rush et, arundel p et al ( ) monitoring guidance for patients with hypophosphatasia treated with asfotase alfa. mol genet metab : – . forlenza gp, calhoun a, beckman kb et al ( ) next generation sequencing in endocrine practice. mol genet metab : – . simon-bouy b, taillandier a, fauvert d et al ( ) hypophosphatasia: molecular testing of prenatal cases and dis- cussion about genetic counseling. prenat diagn : – pediatr radiol ( ) : – 	differential diagnosis of perinatal hypophosphatasia: �radiologic perspectives 	abstract 	introduction 	prenatal imaging 	postnatal imaging 	perinatal hypophosphatasia 	differential diagnosis 	osteogenesis imperfecta 	campomelic dysplasia 	achondrogenesis/hypochondrogenesis 	cleidocranial dysplasia 	thanatophoric dysplasia 	suspicion of hypophosphatasia: next steps 	medical genetic evaluation and genetic counseling 	conclusion 	references microsoft word - hiemstra and brink march , .doc canadian journal of education  ,   ( ):  ‐   the advent of a public pluriformity  model: faith‐based school choice in  alberta    john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink      four typical arrangements for relating faith to schooling were developed in canada  during  the  nineteenth  century.    all  resulted  from  compromises  between  the  assimilating traditions of christian constantinianism and enlightenment liberalism.  these  arrangements  only  reluctantly  accommodate  the  religious  diversity  within  society. although scholars classify alberta’s system as non‐sectarian public schooling  with  minority  denominational  districts,  evidence  suggests  the  advent  of  a  new  pragmatic pluriform public school system.  this new system contains many types of  school  authorities  and  structures;  all  but  one  permit  some  form  of  faith‐based  schooling. a broad spectrum of faiths is expressed within these school authorities.     key words: school choice, religion, pluralism, public policy, social cohesion    la relation entre la confession religieuse et l’éducation a donné lieu à quatre types  d’aménagements au canada au cours du xixe  siècle.   ils étaient tous  le résultat de  compromis entre les traditions assimilatrices du constantinisme et du libéralisme du  siècle  des  lumières.    ces  aménagements  répugnaient  à  accorder  une  place  à  la  diversité religieuse au sein de la société.  bien que les chercheurs qualifient le système  d’éducation  publique  de  l’alberta  comme  non  sectaire  avec  des  districts  pour  certaines minorités confessionnelles, les faits observés semblent indiquer l’émergence  d’un nouveau système d’école publique pragmatique et pluriel.  ce dernier regroupe  de  nombreux  types  d’administrations  et  de  structures  scolaires  ;  tous  sauf  un  permettent une forme ou l’autre d’éducation confessionnelle.   un vaste éventail de  confessions religieuses sont exprimées au sein de ces administrations scolaires.     mots clés : choix d’école, religion, pluralisme, politiques publiques, cohésion sociale.       _________________                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  canadian arrangements for resolving the role of faith in schooling have  shifted  significantly  and  decisively  in  recent  years.  quebec  and  newfoundland,  for  example,  have  dramatically  reduced  the  role  of  religion  in  their  overall  school  systems.  at  the  same  time,  ontario  broadened  funding  for  its  catholic  separate  schools,  while  essentially  prohibiting  the  teaching  of  religion  in  public  schools  and  refusing  to  publicly  fund  faith‐based  and  other  independent  schools.  in  contrast,  alberta  has  opened  so  many  new  opportunities  for  faiths  and  other  philosophies to play various roles in its school systems that the overall  system no  longer fits any existing classification of faith and schooling.  this article demonstrates that alberta’s school system now constitutes a  distinctive new model: a pragmatic pluriform public school system.  using  ‐   data  from  alberta  learning,   we  have  examined  two dimensions of the alberta system. first, alberta’s school system has  evolved into a system of systems. eight distinct types of school authority  are  legally  permitted  to  run  schools.     by  examining  faith‐based  schooling within the public sector systems, we have considered the types  and  extent  of  faith‐based  plurality  allowed  within  these  school  authorities,  that  is,  public,  separate,  charter,  francophone,  and  co‐ operatively federated school authorities. we have analyzed the types of  structural arrangements used within  these authorities  that allow  faith‐ based schooling, such as religion courses, alternative programs, ‘de facto  reserved’ schools, ‘de  jure reserved’ schools, and hutterite schools. we  then examined faith‐based schooling in independent school authorities,  home  education,  and  first  nations  on‐reserve  schools.  we  briefly  describe the kinds of faiths that parents have chosen to express  in the  schooling of their children in all eight types of school authority.  in this study, we have used concepts such as religion, spirituality,  and  faith  interchangeably.  by  faith‐based,  we  mean  more  than  the  traditional  sense  of  a  connection  between  a  school,  program,  or  authority, and a particular church, denomination, or sect. a faith‐based  school or school program is operationalized as schools or authorities that  publicly  self‐identify  themselves  as  religious,  openly  affiliate  with  a  religious group, or are run by, or exclusively serve, a religious group or  society.   the  evidence  of  schooling  being  faith‐based  varies  from  mandating religious observances, displaying symbols, offering religious  the advent of a public pluriformity model          courses, to allowing faith to be integrated or permeated throughout the  curriculum and practices of the school. although religious diversity in  alberta’s school system has become significant, alberta is not canada’s  bible  belt.  albertans  are  the  second  most  likely  to say  they  have  “no  religion” on surveys and albertans attend religious services at among  the  lowest  rates  in  canada  (see  bibby,  ;  clark,  ;  statistics  canada,  ).  the development of a new faith‐and‐schooling regime   historically, the british north american colonies, and later the canadian  provinces and territories, experienced intense struggles over the place of  faith, church, and state in schooling. the constitution act   gave the  provinces  jurisdiction  over  education,  enabling  them  to  develop  their  school systems  in response  to  local conditions and  in accordance with  their  own  public  philosophies.  the  struggles  over  schooling  between  proponents of liberal enlightenment thought and supporters of various  strands  of  christianity  during  the  course  of  the  nineteenth  century  produced  four  distinct  models  of  relating  state,  church,  and  faith  to  schooling  (manzer  ,  p.  ).   the  current  state  of  alberta’s  school  systems suggests the advent of a fifth model. this model is new not only  because  it  respects  a  broad  range  of  faiths  within  schooling  but  also  because it does this through a wide variety of systems and mechanisms.  the significance of alberta’s new model is best portrayed against the  backdrop of the four historic school regimes developed in canada. each  of  these models was  forged during  the nineteenth century conflicts of  two historical traditions that sought hegemony in schooling—the historic  christian  constantinian  tradition  and  the  competing  enlightenment  rationality tradition (see hiemstra,  ). both traditions presumed that  the state could  legitimately establish and advance a preferred religion  and/or  philosophy  to  unify  the  state.  the  christian  constantinian  tradition wanted an established church to play the role of producing and  propagating  basic  beliefs  for  unifying  the  state.  in  contrast,  the  enlightenment  rationality  tradition  sought  to  replace  the  established  church  by  establishing  a  democratic  common  school  to  propagate  rational, scientific values and so ensure social and political uniformity.  this clash over the means for producing social uniformity and political                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  unity—an established church or established public school—masked the  two  traditions’  deeper  agreement  over  the  legitimacy  of  a  state  establishing a single hegemonic and assimilating institution to propagate  national values for unifying the state.   using  manzer’s  ( )  typology,  we  present  the  four  canadian  regimes  that  resulted  from  the  clash  of  these  two  traditions.  before  proceeding  we  added  two  additional  observations  to  manzer’s  description of these models. first, manzer notes that the enlightenment  rationality  tradition  helped  shape  each  model,  but  we  add  that  this  worldview  was  also  propagated  within  and  through  the  resulting  schools. second, manzer’s models fail to adequately include independent  or  private  schools.  independent  schools,  and  especially  faith‐based  independent schools, are important to include in these models precisely  because many were formed to challenge the belief, among other things,  that states may establish a single common school system to impose one  worldview on all citizens.   manzer’s first model, the non‐sectarian public school regime, reflects  a strict liberal understanding of the separation of church and state. this  regime gives a government department rather than an ecclesiastical body  authority  over  local,  often  board‐run schools.  clergy  are  forbidden  to  play any authoritative role within  the school systems, e.g. as  teachers,  trustees,  or  inspectors.  churches  are  prohibited  from  sectarian  engagement with schools, e.g. instruction in religious dogma or creeds.   beyond  prescribing  a  strict  separation  of  church  and  state,  manzer’s  account of this model should be supplemented with the observation that  its proponents clearly sought to impose liberalism through the common  schools as a neutral basis for public life. when blended with christianity,  liberalism was styled as a superior type of  “non‐sectarian christianity”  that ought to be taught in the non‐sectarian public schools (manzer, p.  ).  british  columbia  adopted  this  regime  in    while  manitoba  replaced its earlier dual confessional school system with this regime in  .   the second typical arrangement, non‐sectarian public schools with  minority  denominational  districts,  was  developed  in  upper  canada,  later  to  become  ontario,  the  product,  manzer argues,  of   “substantial  compromises” (p.  ) between liberals and religious conservatives. like  the first regime, this model features public schools that are funded and  the advent of a public pluriformity model          indirectly  controlled  by  government.  these  schools  taught  the  individualist and rationalist values of liberalism and, at least originally,  incorporated  non‐sectarian  protestant  practices.  this  model  differed  from  the  first, however,  in  that separate denominational schools were  also  permitted  for  catholics  and  given  public  funding.  these  schools  operated under strict supervision of the majority‐controlled government  education  department,  however,  which  ensured  that  curriculum  and  texts,  testing and  inspections, and  teacher  training and certification  in  catholic schools were checked by majority protestant and liberal values.  the north‐west territories switched to this regime in the late nineteenth  century  and  it  was  formally  passed  on  to  alberta  and  saskatchewan  when they became provinces in   (pp.  ‐ ).  the  third  type of regime, de  jure non‐sectarian, de  facto reserved  public schools, was produced as a compromise between liberalism and  religious communities in the three maritime provinces. they prohibited  sectarian practices in public schools, such as “teaching denominational  doctrine  and  using  denominational  prayers  and  books”  (p.  ).  alongside the expression of mainstream liberal values, the non‐sectarian  protestant morals of the majority were also permitted in these schools. in  practice, however, compromises were worked out with roman catholic  minorities so  that schools were de  facto reserved  for  them when  they  were concentrated in isolated geographical regions. these schools were  permitted  to engage  in sectarian practices, e.g. employing members of  religious orders, wearing religious garb, and holding catholic religious  exercises before or after regular school hours (pp.  ‐ ).  manzer’s fourth model is the concurrent endowment of confessional  systems.  this  regime  rejects  the  central  liberal  premise  that  the  state  should  control  schooling  and  instead  gives  ecclesiastical  authorities  primary control over school administration and curriculum (p.  ). it still  bears  the  imprint  of  the  competing  christian  constantinian  and  enlightenment  rationality  traditions,  however,  in  that  it  gave  schools  only  to  the  dominant  christian  communities.  two  versions  of  this  regime  emerged  in  canada.  after  ,  quebec  developed  the  dual  confessional school system in montreal and quebec city where the non‐ governmental  council  of  public  instruction  was  divided  between  catholic and protestant committees, each operating on an equal footing.                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  the  council  was  given  power  to  make  all  important  educational  decisions. manitoba and the north‐west territories also initially adopted  this regime. the second version of this regime, the multi‐denominational  school system, was developed by newfoundland and entrenched in the  canadian constitution when  it became a province  in   (p.  ). this  regime was more generous, at least to christian groups, because it gave  significant jurisdiction over education to a variety of churches, including  roman catholics, anglicans, methodists, salvation army, seventh day  adventists, and pentecostal assemblies.  each of these four regimes, to a greater or lesser extent, embodies the  hegemonic  claims  shared  by  the  two  contending  traditions:  the  state  should  either  establish  churches  to  run  schools  or  directly  establish  common schools. in either case, schools are given the role of producing  and  propagating  the  beliefs  required  to  achieve  national  unity.  the  thrust towards an assimilating role for schools in each regime negates or  minimises  school  choice  for  minority  groups.  in  contrast,  alberta  has  significantly  altered  its  former  non‐sectarian  public  schools  with  a  minority denominational districts model and developed a new pluriform  public  model  that  no  longer  seems  to  assume  that  a  common  school  system  and  single  ideology  must  be  imposed  to  unify  the  political  community. although alberta practices this in an ad hoc and pragmatic  manner,  its  pluriform  public  system  allows  the  expression  of  a  wide  variety  of  faith‐based,  philosophical,  and  cultural  approaches  within  schooling.  although  elements  of  alberta’s  system  occur  in  other  provinces,  none has created both the breadth of systems and diverse types of faith‐ based schooling  that distinguish alberta’s system  from  the hegemonic  and assimilating character of canada’s historic school regimes. this  is  evident  on  a  number  of  fronts.  first,  in  the  former  north‐west  territories,  roman  catholic  separate  and  public  schools  received  full  legal and funding status. this system was continued when alberta and  saskatchewan  became  provinces  in  .  although  alberta  and  saskatchewan  currently  share  this  model  with  ontario,  manitoba  dropped  support  for  catholic  schools  in    and  quebec  and  newfoundland  and  labrador  removed  constitutional  protection  for  denominational  schools  in  .  quebec  turned  its  catholic  public  the advent of a public pluriformity model          schools  into  predominantly  linguistic  schools  and  newfoundland  adopted  a  primarily  non‐sectarian  provincial  school  system.  both  provinces  still  allow  religious  courses  and  practices  to  be  offered  in  public schools on parental request. the remaining provinces offer only  partial public funding to catholic schools, and then only as independent  schools. although in recent decades, ontario extended public funding to  catholic high schools,  it also made  teaching religion  in public schools  illegal. over half of alberta’s public school boards operate faith‐based  hutterite  schools,  a  practice  begun  in    and  also  adopted  by  manitoba  and  saskatchewan.  third,  although  most  provinces  have  legally recognised independent schools, alberta was first to offer partial  public  funding  to  them  in  .  today,  five  provinces  partially  fund  independent  schools,  including  manitoba,  saskatchewan,  quebec,  and  british  columbia.  fourth,  many  provinces  have  operated  alternative  programs  in  their  public  systems  since  the  s,  but  only  alberta  permits  faith‐based  alternative  programs.  saskatchewan  allows  a  partially  analogous  associate  school  arrangement,  that  enables  faith‐ based independent schools to operate in contractual partnership with a  public school system. fifth, francophone schooling is offered and fully  funded  in  most  provinces  today  and  some  operate  as  francophone  catholic schools in alberta and other provinces. sixth, alberta is the only  province  to  allow  charter  schools  to  operate  alongside  other  types  of  school systems.   in  this  article,  we  document  the  structure  and  nature  of  diversity  within  alberta’s  pluriform  public  model.  this  system  of  systems  approach offers opportunities for diverse faith communities to express  their  beliefs  within  their  children’s  schooling  (for  an  overview  of  the  results, see table  ). we argue that these developments amount to a type  of  public  pluriformity  in  schooling  that  no  longer,  at  least  officially,  requires the provincial school systems to assimilate children into a single  official religion or public ideology.                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  table    alberta students receiving faith‐based schooling by type of school authority,  ‐     type of school authority:  students  enrolled in type  of faith‐based  schooling  total students in  type of school  authority  % of the  authority’s  students in   faith‐based  schooling          • de facto reserved public  schools       %  • de facto reserved  hutterite public schools   ,   ,   %  • de jure reserved public  schools     ,   . %  • alternative faith‐based  programs in public  systems  ,   unknown  n/a  • religion courses in all  types of public schools  unknowna  n/a  n/a  all non‐catholic public  boards  ,   ,   . %  • roman catholic public  schools  ,   ,   %  all public school boards  ,   ,   . %    • roman catholic  separate districts     ,     ,     %  • roman catholic  alternative schools  allb  unknown  %  • protestant separate  districts    ,   . %  all separate  denominational boards  ,   ,   . %    charter school authorities     c    ,     %  francophone school  authorities   , d  ,   . %  co‐operatively federated  school authorities  ,   ,   . %  independent (private)  school authorities   ,   ,   . %  the advent of a public pluriformity model          home education and  distance learning  unknowne  ,   n/a  aboriginal on‐reserve  schools  unknownf  ,   n/a   total students in all types of  rc schooling    , g    n/a    n/a   total students in non‐rc faith‐ based schooling  ,   n/a  n/a  total students enrolled in  this type of school authority   ,   ,   . %    a no data exists on the number of ‘regular’ public schools using faith-based courses or practices. b all alternative schools in the roman catholic systems are faith-based, including the jewish school(s) adopted by calgary catholic after being released by the calgary board of education. c charter schools are the only type of school authority legally prohibited from expressing religion, although some argue that religion-like characteristics are present in some charter schools. d this number includes only students attending francophone schools specifically identified as faith-based and excludes schools operating under catholic francophone districts when the individual school does not itself claim a faith identity. e home schooled students are counted by the alberta government with the authority under which they have registered and will only have been counted, therefore, as receiving faith-based schooling if this authority or program is officially identified as faith-based. f no data is available for faith-based practices in the category of aboriginal on- reserve schools. g the catholic student total includes: separate catholic districts ( , ), greater st. albert catholic [public] schools ( , ), catholic students in st. paul’s co-operatively federated system ( elementary and about secondary), catholic francophone authorities ( , ), and catholic independent schools ( ).   public school boards  public  school  boards  are  only  one  of  four  types  of  school  authority  recognised  by  alberta.  historically  under  the  north  west  territories   ordinances,  the  first  school  established  in  a  local  district—whether  protestant or catholic—was designated the public school. if members of                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  the minority  faith,  limited  to either catholics or protestants, met  legal  criteria, they were entitled to establish a denominational separate school  in the district. the vast majority of public schools became non‐sectarian  protestant schools. after the  s, the majority of albertans tended to  view  these  schools  as  secular.  in  ‐ ,  however,  faith‐based  practices,  observances,  and/or  courses  were  offered  in  public  boards  under six different structural arrangements.  religion courses in regular public schools  any public school  in alberta  is  legally entitled  to offer courses about  and/or  in religion. alberta learning has approved three courses about  religion for teaching  in any high school: religious ethics  , religious  meaning  ,  and  world  religions  .  designated  as  optional  courses,  local boards can prescribe these religion courses in their schools. alberta  learning’s  policy  . .   ( )  also  allows  local  school  authorities  to  develop  religious  studies  courses  which  reflect  “particular  views  and  belief systems” (alberta learning  a, january) for  junior and senior  high schools. these courses may teach a particular religion but at least    per cent of their content must address the comparative study of world  religions. although this option has primarily been utilised by catholic  and  independent  schools,  public  school  authorities  may  also  use,  or  approve the development of, these courses.  a local public school board can also “prescribe religious exercises for  its students,”  if students are permitted  to opt out  (school act s.  ( )).  divergent practices have developed across the province. calgary board  of education,  for example, adopted a policy officially banning prayer,  while edmonton public schools’ board leaves this choice to individual  schools.  catholic public schools  the second structural arrangement allowing faith within a public school  is  the catholic public school district where catholics were  the  first  to  establish a school  in a district. this option  is  impossible  to use  today  because all districts now have public schools. only one public district is  catholic  today. the greater st. albert catholic regional division was  formed  in    with  the  amalgamation  of  existing  catholic  public  the advent of a public pluriformity model          districts  in  st.  albert,  morinville,  and  legal,  all  founded  as  catholic  public districts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. it has  with  ,  students in   elementary schools and one high school.  de facto reserved public schools for geographically concentrated faith groups  faith‐based schooling also occurs in public school systems when a board  establishes  informal,  ad  hoc  arrangements  with  a  geographically  concentrated religious minority group to provide faith‐based schooling  tailored to that group. the neerlandia public christian school, founded  by a calvinist dutch  farming community, has operated as a christian  public  school  since    (navis  &  siebring‐wierenga,  ,  p.  ).  although it has operated as an alternative school since  , it maintains  the character of a de facto reserved public school. public school districts  with high geographic concentrations of mennonites have created three  other faith‐based de facto reserved public schools.  in total,   students  receive faith‐based schooling in de facto reserved public schools.   de facto reserved hutterite public schools   a very unique form of de facto reserved schools is the hutterite colony  schools, currently run by   of alberta’s   public districts. hutterites are  followers  of  the  european  anabaptist  reformer,  jakob  hutter,  who  started  a  separationist  form  of  christian  living  in  .  they  are  christian pacifists who reject most contemporary fashions, reject private  property  by  living  on  communal  farms  where  they  hold  all  things  in  common, and believe in the full separation of church and state (janzen,  ; see hostetler,  ).  after facing difficulties  in  their  latest  location of  the united states  during  wwi  for  speaking  german  and  refusing  military  service,  the  hutterites began moving to canada in   (janzen,  , p.  ). the first  hutterite colony school  in alberta opened  the same year. historically,  the  government  resisted  direct  legislative  involvement  with  hutterite  schools,  leaving  each  school  district  to  accommodate  the  hutterites  through local agreements (janzen,  , p.  ). a remarkably consistent  pattern  emerged.  public  boards  generally  operate  one  school  on  each  colony  which  they  reserve  exclusively  for  hutterite  students.  these  schools  are  small,  ranging  from    to    students  and  averaging  .                                                                                john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  students per school. hutterite colony schools are taught in english by  certified public school teachers who are most often not hutterite. these  schools are faith‐based in the sense that they exclusively serve a single  faith community, do so in accord with that group’s views of separation  from  secular  society,  and  allow  before‐  and  after‐  school  classes  in  religion  and  german  (janzen,  ).  male  colony  leaders  teach  these  extra classes, and  the materials used  for german  language  instruction  include  “stories  with  strong  moral  messages,  biblical  scriptures,  and  hutterite martyr ballads and other hymns dating back to the  th and  th  centuries”  (hofer,  ,  p.  ).    hutterite  children  generally  receive  schooling up to the eighth or ninth grade because hutterite convictions  lead parents to withdraw them at a young age. a total of   hutterite  colony public schools educate   students.  de jure reserved public schools   another structural arrangement allowing forms of faith‐based schooling  to  occur  in  public  schools  is  unique  to  alberta’s  northland  school  division. this division with only   schools, which covers over half of  the geographical area of alberta, primarily serves aboriginal students. a  board of trustees runs  the district while each school also has a local  school board committee. the local board committee retains the power to  “request the board to institute religious instruction” (northlands school  division act,  ) and to nominate the teacher. this de jure protection  for faith  in particular schools  is backed up by  the right of  local board  committees  to  withdraw  their  school  from  the  division  if  they  feel  inadequate provision for religious education has been made (chalmers,  , p.  ).  in  ‐ ,  two  of  northland’s    schools  opted  to  open  with  prayer  and  two  offered  roman  catholic  religious  instruction.  three  additional schools offered religious instructional programs in  ‐   (annette  ramrattan,  superintendent  of  schools,  northland  school  division no.  , personal communication, june  ,  ). an estimated   students received  faith‐based schooling  in de  jure reserved public  schools.     the advent of a public pluriformity model          alternative faith‐based programs within public systems  a  new  type  of  arrangement  allowing  faith‐based  schooling  in  public  systems  is  the  alternative  program.  this  arrangement  constitutes  a  distinctive form of de jure reservation of schools for faith‐based groups,  in this case for minorities generally dispersed over a vast city or region.  the  first  wave  of  faith‐based  alternative  schools  was  started  by  the  calgary board of education (cbe) in  , with, eventually, two jewish,  two logos christian, and the plains indian cultural survival school. by  , however, a newly elected majority on cbe’s board opposed faith‐ based alternatives and terminated the board’s contracts with two jewish  and two logos schools.   initially,  edmonton  public  schools  (eps)  was  not  particularly  hospitable  to  faith‐based  alternative  programs.  in  october  ,  eps  adopted  the talmud torah school, a jewish day school  that had been  operating as a private/independent school since  . this school had  been started by russian jews who had fled persecution and were deeply  committed  to  transmitting  “the  values,  traditions  and  beliefs  of  their  religion” to their children (sweet,  , pp.  ). although eps officially  considered  it  a  “language  school,”  talmud  torah  is  described  as  “a  hebrew language school with a religious component” (sweet p.  ). in  the  middle  of  calgary’s  widely  publicized  conflict  over  religious  alternatives,  eps  adopted  a  policy  excluding  faith  as  a  basis  for  alternative schools (hop,  , p.  ).  the  edmonton  model:  the  blossoming  of  alternative  schools   ironically, edmonton public schools has now gone the furthest of any  provincial public system  in using alternative faith‐based programs. by  ‐ , its policy had been reversed, allowing alternative programs in  the areas of language and culture, subject matter, teaching philosophy,  and  religion  (edmonton  public  schools,  b).  edmonton  public  ran  alternative  linguistic, academic, sports, girls‐only, arts, and faith‐based  programs (martin & hiemstra,  ). faith‐based alternative programs  included  eight  logos  christian  programs  ( ,   students),  edmonton  christian  school  ( ,   students),  millwoods  christian  school  (   students), and christian‐based programming for home education. other                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  cultural  and  language  alternative  programs  also  include  religious  or  spiritual  dimensions,  e.g.,  talmud  torah  school  and  aboriginal  programs running in a variety of schools for different age groups. the  aboriginal programs often ensure “spirituality  is a vital part of every  day” (amiskwaciy academy, n.d.). some bilingual language programs—   french,    arabic,    chinese  (mandarin),    german,    hebrew,    spanish,   ukrainian programs—teach their second language in a “way  that children can be introduced to another countryʹs culture” (edmonton  public schools,  a). the arabic language program in killarney junior  high,  for  example,  offers  an  islamic  studies  course  (see  holubitsky,  )  and  students  have  opportunities  to  participate  in  “killarneyʹs  muslim club activities” (“arabic program” n.d.).  edmonton public’s alternative school practice has been dubbed the  “edmonton  model.”  time  magazine  called  it  “the  most  imitated  and  admired  public  system  in  north  america”  (catto,  ,  p.  ).  this  model grew out of key internal policy changes, including the elimination  of school boundaries allowing student movement between schools, the  introduction of site‐based management, and opening up parental choice  of programming (dosdall,  ). external historical factors encouraging  the creation of this model were the   amendment to the school act  s.  ( a) overtly allowing religious alternative programs, unique district  leadership, and competitive pressures brought on by the introduction of  charter school legislation in  .   faith‐based alternatives in public schools across the  province  today,  most  alberta  public  boards  offer  some  type  of  alternative  programs  and    of  the    offer  one  or  more  faith‐based  alternative  program.  elk  island  public  schools  regional  division,  for  example,  offers  numerous  faith‐based  options  utilised  by  ,   of  its  ,   students. in march  , the calgary board of education (cbe) loosened  its  prohibition  against  faith‐based  schooling  when  it  adopted  recommendations  to  introduce  “curriculum  related  to  world  religion”  (calgary  board  of  education,  n.d)  in  high  schools  and  to  study  the  introduction of world religions  in early grades. even  though cbe still  refuses to “offer religious based alternative programs” (calgary board of  the advent of a public pluriformity model          education,  n.d.),  it  officially  funds  the  salvation  army  children’s  village, a school “motivated by christian values and beliefs” and run for  children with “emotional and behavioural difficulties” (salvation army,  alberta and northern territories division, n.d.).  in  ‐ ,  ,   students  attended  faith‐based  alternative  programs  in  public  schools.  when  students  in  other  faith‐based  arrangements within the otherwise secular public districts are added, the  total  in faith‐based public schooling  increases  to  , . another  ,   students  attended  faith‐based  schools  in  st.  albert’s  overtly  catholic  public division (greater st. albert catholic schools,  ).  separate denominational boards  separate denominational boards constitute a second type of public sector  school authority that is constitutionally protected under the alberta act,  . roman catholic minorities opened  the vast majority of separate  denominational  schools  in  the  north  west  territories,  and  later  in  alberta.  when  protestants  were  minorities  in  a  district,  they  were  entitled  to open protestant separate schools. today,   of alberta’s    separate  denominational  systems  are  catholic  and  one  is  nominally  protestant (st. albert protestant schools,  ).  roman catholic separate districts   alberta  law  requires  separate  schools  to  have  a  denominational  character, including offering formal religious education (feehan,  ).  although  practices  vary  from  district  to  district and  school  to  school,  common themes and emphases appear in catholic schools. the alberta  catholic  school  trustee  association  (acsta)  says  that  in  catholic  schools teachers work at “integrating faith into every instruction plan in  every program” (acsta  a).  acsta refers to the vatican ii [ ]  document  gravissimum  educationis:  “what  makes  the  catholic  school  distinctive is its attempt to generate a community climate in the school  that  is  permeated  by  the  gospel  spirit  of  freedom  and  love”(acsta,  a). furthermore, catholic schools offer religious education (acsta,  a).  acsta argues that schools and boards are meant to be catholic,  even  on  the  administrative  level  (see  acsta  a,  pp.  ‐ ;  acsta,  b; ksiazek  ). for the above reasons, many catholics argue that                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  even  school  buildings  ought  to  be  separate  (howell  &  olsen,  ).  catholic boards  legally may choose  to hire only catholic  teachers and  demand  they  conduct  themselves  in  ways  consistent  with  catholic  doctrine and moral teachings.  how catholic schooling actually works in  practice varies, depending on trustees, principals, teachers, and parents  (see clement, doyle, & mackie,  ; heustis,  ; unland,  ).  catholic alternative schools  a number of catholic separate districts run alternative programs. these  schools offer programs based on forms of plurality that crosscut but do  not compete with the catholic faith. calgary catholic, for example, runs  alternative fine arts, language, and aboriginal programs. an exception  to the crosscutting plurality, however, occurred when calgary catholic  partnered  with  two  jewish  alternative  schools  after  calgary  board  of  education (public) cancelled their contracts in  .  protestant separate boards  the st. albert protestant school district is the sole surviving protestant  separate board. although  it now offers secular education,  it runs  two  logos christian education programs that school   students (st. albert  protestant schools,  ).  in  ‐ ,  alberta’s  catholic  separate  denominational  schools  enrolled  ,   students.    when    students  receiving  faith‐based  schooling  in logos christian programs  in st. albert protestant district  are added, a total of  ,  students received faith‐based schooling in  separate denominational districts.  charter school authorities and spirituality  charter schools constitute a third type of public sector school authority.  in  ,  the  school  act  was  amended  to  define  charter  schools  as  “a  public school that provides a basic education in a different or enhanced  way to  improve student  learning” (alberta learning,  a, p.  ). the  government wanted only a small group of charter schools stressing a  unique aspect  of  pedagogy,  curriculum,  or  another  focus  to  stimulate  improvements in mainstream public and separate schools. critics argued  that charter schools were a strategy to marketise and privatise education  the advent of a public pluriformity model          (kachur,  ; robertson, soucek, pannu, & schugurensky,  ; taylor  &  benton‐evans,  ). structurally,  however,  charter  boards  must  be  non‐profit  and  independently  audited  (alberta  learning,  a,  p.  ).  they are eligible for the same per pupil funding from the province as  other public schools but may not charge tuition fees (alberta learning,  a, pp.  ‐ ). charter schools cannot deny access to any student. they  must be operated by boards that ensure they comply with “charter board  policies and  the  terms of  the charter, as well as provincial  legislation,  regulation and policies” (alberta learning,  a, p.  ).  charter schools are the only category of school explicitly prohibited  by  the school act  from being “religious  in nature”  (alberta learning,  a,  p.  ).  they  are  included  in  this  study  because  several  existing  charter  schools  clearly  demonstrate  the  difficulty  of  fully  excluding  religion from schools that celebrate distinct cultures.   the  mother  earth’s  children’s  charter  school  in  stoney  plain  alberta, for example, opened in september of   to provide traditional  aboriginal  education.  the  school’s  website  denies  it  is  religious,  although its mission includes having students “discover the gifts given  to  them  by  the  creator  and  to  foster  a  balance  of  their  spiritual,  intellectual, physical, and emotional selves” (mother earth’s children’s  charter school, n.d.b). the website further states, “smudge and prayer  will take place  in each classroom each morning to begin the day with  positive  energy”  (mother  earth’s  children’s  charter  school,  n.d.  p.  a;  also  see  holubitsky,  ).  this  case  illustrates  how  the  wholism  of  aboriginal worldviews can conflict with the western bias that assumes  certain areas of life can be free from religion (vandevelde,  ). in the  same vein, the almadina charter school, established in calgary in    as  an  ‘english  as  a  second  language’  (esl)  charter  school  serving  a  predominately arab and muslim new‐immigrant community, has raised  public questions about its religious character. in his study of the school,  r. j. angus ( ) found many parents do see the school as muslim, but  he concludes that this is a mistaken belief and that esl is the real basis of  the school (p.  ).  ten charter schools educated  ,  students in  ‐ , but none  officially offer faith‐based schooling.                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  francophone school authorities and faith  the  regional  francophone  school  authority  is  a  fourth  type  of  public  sector school authority overtly recognised by  the alberta government.  notably,  francophone  school  authorities  are  fundamentally  different  from the french immersion programs offered in   public, separate, and  independent  schools  in  ‐   (alberta  learning,  d)  because  french  immersion  is  designed  for  non‐french  students.  in  mahe  v.  alberta ( ), the supreme court of canada ordered alberta to provide  first‐language  francophone communities with parent‐controlled french  schooling  where  numbers  warranted.  the  intent  of  the  regional  francophone school authority structure created in   is to “provide a  schooling  experience  built  around  francophone  language,  culture  and  community” in order “to help correct the linguistic and cultural erosion  suffered by students and the community” (alberta learning  , p.  ).  although  the  province  funds  them,  additional  federal  funding  is  also  available.  significantly,  francophone  authorities  are  legally  entitled  to  determine the denomination of their schools, and they may govern both  denominational  and  non‐denominational  schools  (alberta  learning,  ,  p.  ;  also  see  alberta,  ,  s. ).  of  the  five  francophone  authorities, three overtly refer to the catholic character of their system.   however,  not  all  schools  within  a  catholic  francophone  authority  explicitly  state  their  commitment  to  catholicism  in  their  published  mission and vision. furthermore, because other options do not exist for  non‐catholic  francophone  students,  the  catholic  francophone  schools  welcome students of other faiths. the schools typically allow students to  be  exempted  from  their    to    minute‐per‐week  catholic  religion  courses (École des beaux‐lacs, n.d.).  in  ‐ , seven of the sixteen schools representing  ,  of  ,   students  in  alberta’s  five  francophone  divisions  overtly  mention  catholicism in their mission or vision. six additional schools that do not  claim a catholic identity operate within a division that does.   cooperatively federated school authorities  although  not  mentioned  in  the  school  act,  a  fifth  type  of  school  authority  that  has  evolved  in  alberta  essentially  constitutes  a  co‐ the advent of a public pluriformity model          operative  federation of public and separate school authorities. the st.  paul  education  regional  division  is  the  only  case.  instead  of  amalgamating  with  equivalent  boards  in  geographically  distant  communities, the st. paul [catholic] public district, glen avon protestant  separate, and the county of st. paul federated as a joint board composed  of these three parties.  in  ,  st.  paul  education  regional  division  ran  dual  track  french/english  catholic  schools,  a  single  track  protestant  elementary  school,  a  four‐track  protestant/french,  protestant/english,  catholic/french, catholic/english high school, eight county schools, two  hutterite  and  one  mennonite  school  (see  feehan,  ).    since  ,  however, some of the co‐operating boards have questioned whether their  separate protestant and public catholic constitutional rights are properly  protected  in  the  existing  co‐operative  federation.  a  solution  is  being  designed that would reconstitutionalize this arrangement by protecting  the right to preferential hiring, designate schools as catholic, protestant,  or  other,  and  set  out  guidelines  for  supervising  each  type  of  school  (feehan,  ).  in  ‐ ,   students attended st. paul’s three catholic schools,    attended  the  protestant  separate  school,    attended  the  two  hutterite  schools,    a  mennonite  school,  and  another  ,   students  were schooled in secular public schools. catholic students make up  ‐   per cent of the shared high school’s   students and can access specially  tailored  catholic  programs  (j.  champagne,  personal  communication,  july  ).  thus, a total of  ,  students received faith‐based schooling  in this co‐operative federation of public and separate school authorities.  independent or private schools and faith  although  not  considered  a  public  sector  school  authority,  the  government has officially recognised and partially funded independent  or private school authorities. over   private school authorities exist,  although  the  vast  majority  operate  only a single  school.  in  ‐ ,  they educated about   per cent of alberta students. only   of alberta’s   independent schools were faith‐based.  the others were either early  childhood  services  or  kindergartens,  special  needs,  philosophical,  or  academic schools (private schools belie stereotypes,  ). various other                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  independent  schools  are  aimed  at  aboriginal  students,  particularly  young  adults  wanting  to  complete  high  school.   on  average,  the  association  of  independent  schools  and  colleges  in  alberta  (aisca)  reports that most independent schools receive approximately   per cent  of  the overall per‐pupil  funding given  to  the public sector authorities  (aisca,  ).  faith‐based  independent  schools  understand  the  role  of  faith  in  schooling  in  a  variety  of  different  ways,  ranging  from  religious  observances,  morality,  religion  courses,  to  permutation  and  the  integration of faith and schooling. in  ‐ , fourteen of the   faith‐ based  independent  schools  belonged  to  the  calvinist‐oriented  prairie  association  of  christian  schools,  also  known  as  christian  schools  international (pacs,  ) and served  ,  students. the association of  christian schools international, an evangelical grouping, lists   schools  with a total of  ,  students (acsi n.d.). three schools enrolling  ,   students  were  members  of  both  associations.  the  alberta  provincial  accelerated  christian  education  association,  using  a  conservative  christian program of studies designed  in  the united states, has seven  member schools with  ,  students (see ace, nd.). there are   seventh  day adventist schools with   students, five lutheran schools with    students,  six  non‐pacs  calvinist  schools  with  ,   students,  two  mennonite schools with   students, and nine other protestant schools  with  ,   students.  there  are  three  independent  jewish  schools  (   students), two islamic schools ( ,  students), and a punjabi cultural  school  (sikh)  (   students).  interestingly,  there  are  also  seven  independent  catholic  schools  (e.g.  bosco  homes  society  for  children  and adolescents) with   students (see catholic canada, n.d.; gonzalez,  ).  in additional to the above schools, which are accredited and receive  partial public funding, a number of independent schools are classified by  government as registered and are neither funded nor accredited. they  still must allow monitoring by the minister (see alberta learning,  b,  pp.  ‐ ). the ten registered schools that are faith‐based are mennonite  and educate   students.   finally, early childhood services (ecs, or kindergarten) may be run  separately  from  existing  schools.  ten  of  these  free‐standing  ecs  the advent of a public pluriformity model          programs  are  faith‐based,  independent  schools.  they  educate  another   students in mennonite, salvation army, and khalsa (sikh) schools.   in  ‐ ,  ,   of  the  ,   independent  school  students  received  a  faith‐based  schooling.  thus,  .   per  cent  of  alberta’s  independent schools deliver some form of faith‐based schooling to   per  cent of the independent school students.   home education, distance learning, and faith  the  government  recognises  home  education,  an  education  program  offered to a student by a parent, as an official part of the alberta school  system. in  , the school act was amended to clarify the legal status of  home schooling and to enable parents to affiliate with the local school  board  or  an  authority  outside  their  home  district.  since  ,  the  government has offered per‐pupil grants for home education, which are  generally  split  between  the  family  and  the  affiliated  board  (wagner,  , p.  ). to complicate matters, however, home education may also  be delivered as blended home education. for example, home education  can  be  combined  with  a  school‐provided  program  delivered  and  evaluated by a teacher employed by a school board or accredited private  school or with an “on‐line program,” that  is, “a program offered by a  school delivered electronically at a school site or off‐campus, under the  instruction and complete supervision of a certified teacher of a board or  accredited private school”(alberta learning,  c).   the majority of parents choosing home education do so, at least in  part,  for  religious  reasons.  gerald  hiebert,  president  of  the  alberta  home  education  association,  noted  in    that  “parents  practising  fundamental and evangelical religions are by far the largest group to opt  for home schooling” (“number of alberta’s,”  ). a recent study of  home education  in canada  (van pelt,  ) confirms  this observation,  showing  that  just  over    per  cent  of  home  schooling  parents  chose  “protestant christian” as their religious preference. an additional  .  per  cent  were  roman  catholic  while  a  smaller  percentage  preferred  buddhist, jew, latter‐day saint, muslim, and new age (p.  ).  remarkably,  several  public  school  boards  register  and  offer  resources for faith‐based home education. the edmonton public schools’  argyll centre, for example, offers faith‐based home education programs                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  on  the  internet  (edmonton  public  schools,  ‐ ),  as  does  the  pembina  school  district’s  alberta  distance  learning  centre  (alberta  distance  learning  centre,  n.d.).  catholic  home  schoolers  can  turn  for  services  to  agencies,  such  as,  the  st.  gabriel  cyber  school,  a  joint  initiative of st. albert, red deer, and medicine hat catholic boards with   students (st. gabriel cyber school, n.d.), or the school of hope, a  catholic distance learning program serving  ,  students.  in  ‐ ,  ,   students  received  home  education  either  exclusively  or  as  blended  home  education  (alberta  learning  c).  these  students  are  counted  as  receiving  faith‐based  schooling  only  if  they registered with a faith‐based school in this study because provincial  statistics place these students under the school authority with which they  registered.  aboriginal on‐reserve schools and faith  schooling of aboriginal students in canada has a complex and often sad  history. in particular, the damage done by residential schools, often run  by  churches  and  religious  orders,  is  well  documented  (miller,  ).  there are   first nations, in three treaty areas, within alberta.  they are  divided among   reserves across the province (“first nations,”  ).   in  ‐ ,    federally  funded  schools  for  aboriginal  students  on  reserves in alberta educated over  ,  students. the local first nation  band council operates these schools on reserves under the legal auspices  of the department of indian and northern affairs canada (krasaukas,  ).  the federal government has exclusive right to legislate for indians  under  the  constitution  act,  ,  s   (p.  ).  the  provisions  for  the  schooling  of  aboriginal  peoples,  set  out  in  the  subsequent  indian act  , allowed for protestant and roman catholic schools on reserves (s.  ,  ,  ) and offered parents limited religious choice. the majority  of a band could “determine the religious denomination of teachers in the  reserve school, but the religious minority may establish a separate school  if  the  minister  approves”  (bezeau,  ,  chap. ,  n.p.).  today,  most  reserve schools are non‐denominational (chalmers  ).  the  first  nations  students  attending  off  reserve  schools  under  provincial jurisdiction in  ‐  are included in the numbers for the  the advent of a public pluriformity model          above  seven  authorities.  the  edmonton  public  school  board,  for  example,  estimated  in    that  between  eight  and  ten  thousand  aboriginal students attend its schools (simons,  ). some attend faith‐ based alternative programs. edmonton catholic also runs a number of  programs aimed at aboriginal students, such as ben calf robe school  (see hryciuk,  ).  the remaining  ,  aboriginal students attended  on‐reserve  first  nations  schools  in  ‐ .  although  most  are  nondenominational  schools,  several  offer  elements  of  faith‐based  schooling  according  to  traditional  aboriginal  spirituality  as  well  as  various christian views.  conclusion  the alberta school system has become structurally pluriform, a system  of systems that includes eight categories of school authority. out of three  million citizens,  ,  alberta students attended schools run by school  authorities fully recognised and fully funded by the province, including  ,  students in public schools,  ,  with separate denominational  school boards,  ,  in francophone schools,  ,  students enrolled in  charter  schools,  and  ,   students  studying  under  the  co‐operative  federation  of  public  and  separate  school  authorities.  another  ,   students  attended  independent  schools  qualifying  for  partial  funding,  while  ,  students received partially funded home education. finally,  another  ,  aboriginal students attended federally funded, first nations  schools  on  reserves  across  alberta.  this  pluriformity  of  structures  is  deepened  further  by  several  mechanisms  that  some  systems  use  to  enable  further  faith‐based  school  choice.  although  this  choice  often  occurs  in  an  ad  hoc  manner,  forms  of  faith‐based  schooling  may  be  practised legally in all types of authorities except charter schools.  in addition  to  this structural pluriformity, alberta’s school system  also  features  a  plurality  of  faiths  expressed  alongside  other  types  of  diversity.  currently,  alberta  schools  allow  aboriginal,  protestant,  catholic,  jewish,  muslim,  hindu,  sikh,  as  well  as  other  faiths  and  philosophies  to  offer  forms  of  faith‐based  schooling.  in  ‐ ,  ,  alberta students received some form of faith‐based education in  alberta. of these,  ,  participated in catholic programs.  a further  ,  students attended non‐catholic faith‐based schools and programs.                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  overall,  .  per cent of alberta’s students received some form of faith‐ based schooling.  alberta’s    model  of  non‐sectarian  public  schooling  with  minority  denominational  districts  has  been  transformed  gradually  to  better accommodate the diversity living within the province. as a result,  the  system  can  no  longer  be  characterised  by  its  former  thrust  to  assimilate  citizens  into  one  or  two  approved  faiths  or  philosophies.  indeed,  alberta’s  system  uses  elements  of,  and  mechanisms  from,  all  four of canada’s historic models of organising faith, church, state, and  schooling.  the  result  constitutes  a  new  pragmatic  pluriform  public  model.   reasons for the development of this model are neither immediately  transparent nor simple. future studies should examine the influence of  alberta’s  early  multicultural  diversity  on  the  ability  of  its  dominant  anglo‐protestant  community  to  fully  shape  the  school  system  in  the  assimilating directions it sought during the late nineteenth and early to  mid  twentieth  century.  changes  within  the  dominant  liberal  public  philosophy within canada, such as “ethical liberalism” (manzer.  , p.  ) and  the “choice enhancement state”  (koyzis.  , p.  ), seem  to  have  led  some  to  increasingly  question  the  use  of  state  power  for  imposing a single worldview on all citizens  through common schools.  furthermore,  the  alberta  government’s  commitment  to  a  competitive  market  model  for  schooling  may,  in  our  view,  have  unintentionally  opened up windows for increased faith‐based school choice. finally, the  peculiar  characteristics  of  alberta’s  original  denominational  school  settlement,  whereby  some  public  schools  became  catholic  and  some  separate  schools  became  protestant,  made  it  functionally  difficult  to  impose a secular public system on all when this became an increasingly  popular option in the  s. the legal reality of catholic public schools  and  protestant  separate  schools  may  have  served  to  retain  the  legal  degrees  of  freedom  in  alberta  needed  to  introduced  mechanisms  for  faith‐based  school  choice  in  public  schools,  when  the  drive  to  fully  secularise diminished during the  s.   the meaning of  the advent of a pragmatic pluriform public model  in  alberta  is also complex and raises difficult questions. should religious  plurality  and  organisational  pluriformity  be  properly  considered  the advent of a public pluriformity model          political  or  social  benefits,  or  are  they  problems  that  threaten  social  cohesion and therefore need to be overcome? may a state use coercive  and  assimilatory  mechanisms  in  school  systems  to  generate  social  cohesion  within  a  religiously,  philosophically,  and  culturally  plural  society?  because  increasing  numbers  and  types  of  religions  and  philosophies are found within canada, is a pluriform public model for  schooling  the  most  tolerant  and  just  means  of  accommodating  this  plurality? what are the educational conditions required for the peaceful  coexistence  of  citizens  in  a  diverse  state?  what  is  the  significance  of  educational plurality for traditional canadian conceptions and practices  of multiculturalism, minority rights, religious freedom, and so on? how  will  a  pluriform  public  model  impact  on  educational  administration,  pedagogical and curricular development, school law, and charter rights?  is the pragmatic character of alberta’s public pluriformity an advantage  or disadvantage? do issues of financial fairness, administrative plurality,  and  parental  control  over  the  fundamental  direction  of  their  schools  require further principled elaboration and development of this model?  the advent of increased faith‐based school choice within alberta’s new  pluriform public system should push these and other questions onto the  priority list for future research and study.   acknowledgements  special  thanks  to gerda kits  for research assistance and critical comments on  early drafts of  this paper and  to lisa demoor  for assisting with research and  editing.  this  research  was  funded  in  part  by  the  aid  to  small  universities  program of the social sciences and humanities research council of canada.  notes      unless  otherwise  noted,  we  have  drawn  data  for  this  study  from  “student population by grade, school and authority, alberta:  ‐  school  year,”  information  services  branch,  alberta  learning,  .  faith‐based  components  of  schools  were  analysed  using  published,  internet,  and  limited  personal‐interview data.      the  alberta  school  act  defines  school  as  “a  structured  learning  environment through which an education program is offered to a student by: a  board,  an  operator  of  a  private  school,  an  early  childhood  services  program  private operator, a parent giving a home education program, or the minister.”                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  alberta. (  s. ( y)).      although  we  argue  that  religious  or  equivalent  philosophic  worldviews shape the practices of all schools, faith‐based schools are identified  in this study as schools that specifically profess a religious faith.     see bezeau’s ( ) similar typology, chapter  , p.  .     on employment practices of denominational schools see casagrande  v. hinton ( ); caldwell v. stuart ( ); daly v. ontario ( ); and glenn and  de groof (  p.  )  .   see conseil scolaire catholique et francophone du sud du l’alberta  (n.d.); conseil scolaire centre‐est (n.d.); and conseil scolaire centre‐nord (n.d.).     for details and statistics on alberta’s independent schools see aisca,  ,  aisca,  n.d,  and  alberta  learning  professional  development  and  certification branch, cited in aisca,  .  daune plantinga, executive director  of  aisca,  provided  helpful  information,  statistics,  and  perspectives  on  independent schools in alberta.     the catholic student total includes: greater st. albert catholic [public]  schools  ( , ),  separate  catholic  districts  ( , ),  catholic  students  in  st.  paul’s cooperatively federated system (  elementary and about   secondary),  catholic  francophone  authorities  ( , ),  and  catholic  independent  schools  ( ).  references  accelerated christian education. (n.d.) about us. retrieved november  ,  ,  from http://www.aceministries.com/aboutus/  alberta.  ( ).  school  act:  revised  statutes  of  alberta,  chapter  s‐ .  retrieved  december  ,  ,  from    http://www.qp.gov.ab.ca/documents/acts/  s .cfm  alberta  catholic  school  trustees’  association.  ( a)  “catholic  schools:  permeated by faith.” in the catholic school trustee: keeping the faith in  education: a guide for those considering trusteeship. retrieved december  ,  , from http://www.acsta.ab.ca/publications/faith_in_education.htm#  permeated  alberta  catholic  school  trustees’  association.  ( b).  “so  you  want  to  be  a  catholic school trustee: suggestions to guide the selection and practice  of trustees.” in the catholic school trustee: keeping the faith in education:  the advent of a public pluriformity model          a guide for those considering trusteeship. retrieved december  ,  , from  http://www.acsta.ab.ca/publications/faith_in_education.htm#permeated   alberta  distance  learning  centre.  (n.d.).  christian  alternative.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  www.adlc.ca/home/programs/cap/  overview.htm   alberta  learning.  ( ).  affirming  francophone  education:  foundations  and  directions:  a  framework  for  french  first  language  education  in  alberta.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from    http://www.learning.gov.ab.ca/  french/m_ /franco/affirmer/cadreeng.pdf  alberta learning. ( a, december). charter school handbook. retrieved january  ,  ,  from  http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/educationsystem/  charter_hndbk.pdf  alberta learning. ( b, july  ). private school reference manual. retrieved july  ,  ,  from  http://www.learning.gov.ab.ca/k_ /privateschools/  refmanual/psr manual_ .pdf   alberta  learning  ( a,  january).  policy  . . .:  locally  developed  religious  studies  courses.  retrieved  january  ,  ,  from  http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/educationguide/pol‐plan/polregs/  .asp   alberta  learning.  ( c,  september).  home  education  package  –  september  .  retrieved  december  ,  ,  http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/  educationsystem/homeedinfo.pdf   alberta  learning  ( d).  list  of  alberta  school  boards  and  schools  offering  alternative  french  language  programs  (french  immersion)  under  section    of  the  school  act.    retrieved  june  ,    from  http://www.edc.gov.ab.ca/french/m_ /immersion/systeme/immersion. pdf  alberta learning, information services branch ( ) student population by grade,  school and authority, alberta:  ‐  school year.  retrieved december  ,  ,  from  http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/ei/reports/  pdf_files/eis _ /eis .pdf  amiskwacy  academy.  (n.d.).  creating  a  learning  community.  establishing  a  spiritual  foundation.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  http://amiskwaciy.epsb.net/non‐flash/staff.html                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  angus, r. j. ( ). almadina charter school: an assessment. unpublished m.ed.  thesis, university of alberta, edmonton.  arabic program [brochure]. (n.d.). edmonton: edmonton public schools.  association of christian school international. (n.d.) welcome to acsi. retrieved  november  ,  , from http://www.acsi.org  association of independent schools and colleges in alberta. ( , december). a  blueprint  for  choice,  sustainability,  and  excellence: enhancing  education  in  alberta schools  [brief presented  to alberta’s commission on learning:  preparing for the future]. edmonton: author.  association of independent schools and colleges in alberta. (n.d.). what parents  pay. retrieved july  ,  , from http://www.aisca.ab.ca/parentspay.htm  association of independent and schools and colleges of alberta. ( ). funding  misconceptions: provincial funding for independent schools. retrieved  november  ,  , from http://www.aisca.ab.ca/not_ _percent.htm.  bezeau,  l.  m.  ( ). educational administration  for canadian  teachers  ( nd  ed.).  toronto: copp clark.   bezeau,  l.  m.  ( )  educational  administration  for  canadian  teachers  ( th  ed.).  retrieved  december  ,  ,  from  http://www.unb.ca/education/  bezeau/eact/eactcvp.html  bibby, r. w. ( ). restless gods: the renaissance of religion  in canada. toronto:  stoddart.  caldwell v. stuart, [ ]   s.c.r.  ,   d.l.r. ( th)  .  calgary board of education. (n.d.). the role of religion in the calgary board of  education.  policy  adopted  sept.  .  retrieved  december  ,  ,  http://www.cbe.ab.ca/policies/policies/ar .pdf  carlstad, r. ( ). menno simons community school. retrieved december  ,  , from http://www.prsd.ab.ca/schools/ms/  casagrande v. hinton roman catholic separate school district no.  ,    d.l.r.  ( th)  , [ ]   w.w.r.   (alta. q.b.)  catholic  canada.  (n.d.).  catholic  canada  directory:  organizations:  family.  retrieved  december  ,  ,  from  http://catholicanada.com/  web/index.php  catto, s. ( , october  ). edmonton’s legend: emery dosdall. time canada,  .  the advent of a public pluriformity model          chalmers, j. w. ( ).   education behind the buckskin curtain: a history of native  education in canada. edmonton: university of alberta bookstore.  chalmers, j. w. ( ). northland: the founding of a wilderness school system.  canadian journal of native education,  ( ),  ‐ .  clark,  w.  ( ,  spring).  pockets  of  belief:  religious  attendance  patterns  in  canada. canadian social trends,  ,  ‐ .   clement,  d.,  doyle,  k.,  &  mackie,  d.  ( )  catholic  schools:  an  edmonton  perspective.  unpublished,  master  of  religious  education  thesis,  edmonton: newman theological college, ab.  conseil scolaire catholique et francophone du sud du l’alberta. (n.d.). vision.  retrieved  july  ,  ,  from  http://www.cscfsa.ab.ca/vision_  mission_principes.htm  conseil  scolaire  centre‐est.  (n.d.).  historique.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from http://www.cen .ab.ca/pdf/historique.pdf  conseil  scolaire  centre‐nord.  (n.d.).  mission.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from http://csrcn.ab.ca/accueil/mission.htm  daly v. ontario, ( ),   d.l.r. ( th)  ,   o.r. ( d)   (ont, c.a.)  dosdall, e. ( , may). edmontonʹs enterprise. the school administrator,  ( ),  ‐ .  École  des  beaux‐lacs.  (n.d.).  ses  cours  offerts.  retrieved  july  ,  ,  from  http://www.cen .ab.ca/beauxlacs/coursoffert.html  edmonton  public  schools.  ( a).  educational  options:  alternative  programs  at  edmonton public schools. edmonton, ab: author.  edmonton public schools. ( b, february  ). student programs. in edmonton  public  schools  board  policies  and  regulations.  retrieved  november  ,  , from http://www.epsb.ca/policy/ha.bp.shtml  edmonton  public  schools.  ( ‐ ).  argyll  centre:  junior  high  programming  guide for  ‐ . edmonton, ab: author.  feehan, k. p. ( , spring). reconstitutionalizing the st. paul mosaic. catholic  dimension.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  http://www.acsta.ab.ca/publications/dimension/spring /legally_ .ht m                                                                                john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  feehan, k. p. ( , spring). public meetings, public questions, public answers.  catholic  dimension.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  http://www.acsta.ab.ca/publications/dimension/spring /legally_ .h tm  first nations  in alberta.  ( ).  alberta:  indian  and  northern  affairs  canada,  alberta  region.  retrieved  december  ,  ,  from  http://www.ainc‐ inac.gc.ca/ab/fna/fna _e.html  glenn, c., & de groof, j. ( ). finding the right balance: freedom, autonomy and  accountability in education (vol.  ). utrecht: lemma.  gonzalez, r. ( , july  ). bosco homes realize a dream: school to serve needs  of emotionally disturbed youth. western catholic reporter. retrieved july  ,  ,  from  http://www.wcr.ab.ca/news/ / /boscohomes  .shtml  greater  st.  albert  catholic  schools.  ( ).  “a  welcoming  christ‐centred  learning  environment.”  retrieved  january  ,    from  http://www.gsacrd.ab.ca  heustis, m. e.  ( ). the  role of parents  in  enhancing catholic  schools: fostering  gospel  values  and  christ‐centred  community,  unpublished  master  of  religious  education  thesis,  newman  theological  college  edmonton,  ab.  hiemstra, j. l. ( , fall).  calvinist pluriformity challenges liberal assimilation:  a novel case for publicly funding alberta’s private schools,  ‐ .  journal of canadian studies,  ( ),  ‐ .  hofer, s. ( ). hutterites: lives and images of a communal people. saskatoon, sk:  hofer publications.  holubitsky,  j.  ( ,  may  ).  islamic  studies  course  for  grade    to  promote  deeper understanding. edmonton journal, p. b .  holubitsky, j. ( , february  ). aboriginal charter school opens doors to all in  september  edmonton journal, p. b .   hop, d. j. ( ). the development of private schools in alberta. unpublished ma  thesis, university of calgary.   hostetler, j. a. ( ). hutterite society. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university  press.  the advent of a public pluriformity model          howell, d., & olsen, t. ( , december  ). board rejects catholic‐public school:  mixing  catholic  and  non‐catholic  students  called  detrimental  to  religious education. edmonton journal, p. b , b .  hryciuk, d. ( , november  ). native school program a hit: but it’s facing the  axe as province trims budget. edmonton journal, p. b , b .  janzen, w. a. ( ). limits on liberty: the experience of mennonite, hutterite, and  doukhobor communities in canada. toronto: university of toronto press.  kachur,  j. l.  ( ). privatizing public choice: the rise of charter schooling  in  alberta.  in t. w. harrison &  j. l kachur  (eds.), contested classrooms:  education, globalization and democracy in alberta (pp. ‐ ). edmonton,  ab: university of alberta press.  koyzis, d. t. ( ).   political visions & illusions: a survey & christian critique of  contemporary ideologies.  dowers grove, il: intervarsity.  ksiazek, k. ( ). catholic education in alberta: theological foundations for a catholic  organizational  culture.  unpublished  master  of  religious  education  thesis, newman theological college, edmonton, alberta.  krasaukas, a. ( ). a preliminary view of governance in the field of aboriginal  education in ontario.  in r. c. flynn (ed.), law in education: help or  hinderance?  proceedings  of  the  th  annual  conference  of  the  canadian  association  for  the  practical  study  of  law  in  education  (capsle), jasper, alberta, april  ‐ ,  , toronto: capsle.  mahe v. alberta [ ]   s.c.r.  .  manzer, r. ( ). public schools and political  ideas: canadian educational policy  in  historical perspective. toronto: university of toronto.  martin,  l.,  &  hiemstra,  j.  ( ).  who  gets  a  voice  in  a  ʹdistrict  of  choice?ʹ:  albertaʹs  ʹalternativeʹ schools challenge independent christian schools.  christian educator’s journal  ( ),  ‐ .  miller, j. r. ( ). the state, the church and indian residential schools”. in m.  van die (ed.), religion and public life in canada: historical and comparative  perspectives, pp.  ‐ .  mother  earth’s  children’s  charter  school.  (n.d.a).  cultural  context.  retrieved  november  ,  , from http://www.meccs.ca/whce.htm  mother earth’s children’s charter school. (n.d.b). mission. retrieved november  ,  , from http://www.meccs.ca/abmv.htm                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink  navis,  e.,  &  siebring‐wierenga,  j.  (eds.).  ( ) a  furrow  laid bare: neerlandia  district history. neerlandia: neerlandia historical society, ab.   northlands school division act, r.s.a.  , c. n‐ , s ( )(a).  “number of alberta’s home school students grows.” ( , april  ). canadian  press newswire, p. n/a.  parkland  school  division.  ( ).  maranatha  alternative  program  (map).  retrieved december  ,  , from http://www.psd .ab.ca/psd/content/  edservices/programsofchoice/map.shtml  prairie association of christian schools. ( ). home. retrieved november  ,  , from http://www.paocs.ca/  private schools belie stereotype. ( , july  ). the globe and mail, p. a .  robertson,  s.,  soucek,  v.,  pannu,  r.,  &  schugurensky,  d.  ( ,  march).  ‘chartering’ new waters: the klein revolution and the privatization of  education in alberta. our schools/our selves,  ( ),  ‐ .  salvation  army,  alberta  and  northern  territories  division.  (n.d.).  children’s  village.  retrieved  december  ,  ,  from  http://ab.salvationarmy.ca/calgary/youth.html  simons, p. ( , march  ). rising native student numbers strain city schools.  edmonton journal, p. b , b .   st.  albert  protestant  schools.  ( ).  district  programs.  retrieved  january  ,  , from  http://www.spschools.org/programs/main.htm   st.  albert  protestant  schools.  ( ).  logos  christian  education.  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  http://www.spschools.org/programs/  logos/main.htm   st.  gabriel  cyber  school.  (n.d.).  why  st.  gabriel  cyber  school.  retrieved  november  ,  , from www.stgabe.com/why  statistics  canada,  census  operations  division.  ( ).    census:  analysis  series:  religions  in  canada.  (catalogue  no.  f xie ).  retrieved  november  ,  ,  from  http://www .statcan.ca/english/census /products/analytic/companion /rel/pdf/ f xie .pdf   sweet, l. ( ). god in the classroom: the controversial issue of religion in canada’s  schools. toronto: mcclelland and stewart.  the advent of a public pluriformity model          taylor, g., & benton‐evans, r. ( , may  ). accommodating market pressures  through alternative programming: prospects and potential problems for  edmonton  public  schools.  paper  presented  at  school  choice:  public  education at a crossroads conference, university of calgary.   unland, k. ( , oct  ). the cross  in  the classroom: separate schools attract  non‐catholics  in  search  of  a  warm,  caring,  christian  environment.  calgary herald, p. o .  van pelt, d. ( ). home education in canada: a report on the pan‐canadian study  on home education  . medicine hat, ab: canadian centre for home  education and home school legal defence association of canada.  vandevelde, g. ( ). native self‐government: between the spiritual fire and the  political  fire.  in  j.  h.  olthuis  (ed.),  towards  an  ethics  of  community:  negotiations of difference in a pluralist society (pp.  ‐ ). waterloo, on:  wilfred laurier press.  wagner, m. g. ( ). the progressive conservative government and education policy  in alberta: leadership and continuity. unpublished doctoral dissertation,  university of alberta, edmonton.                                                                               john l. hiemstra & robert a. brink                                        this page intentionally left blank.        ( . % and . %, p-value . and . , respectively). there was a trend towards a higher rate of favorable clinical outcomes (mrs – ) at days in the adapt only group ( %) compared to the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( %, p-value . ). conclusion among patients treated with mechanical thrombec- tomy using an adapt-first approach, those requiring solum- bra salvage had significantly-higher rates of unfavorable clinical outcome and death at days. abstract e- table clinical outcomes all patients (n = ) adapt only (n = ) adapt with solumbra salvage (n = ) p- value symptomatic intraparenchymal hemorrhage . % . % symptomatic subarachnoid h . % . % . neuro-icu length of stay, days . . . . hospital length of stay, days . . . discharge to home: % % % . in-hospital mortality / discharge to hospice % % % . day mortality % % % . day mrs – % % % . day mrs – % % % . disclosures j. delgado almandoz: ; c; medtronic neurovas- cular, penumbra, inc. y. kayan: ; c; medtronic neurovascu- lar, penumbra, inc. m. young: none. j. fease: none. j. scholz: none. a. milner: none. p. roohani: none. t. hehr: none. m. mulder: none. r. tarrel: none. e- prolongation of polymethylmethacrylate cement working time during percutaneous kyphoplasty with ice bath cooling b kim. texas stroke institute, plano, tx . /neurintsurg- - . aim to study the effect of cooling of polymethylmethacrylate dough in an ice bath to prolong working time of cement dur- ing percutaneous kyphoplasty. materials and methods polymethylmethacrylate dough filled cement cartridges were placed in a saline ice bath for varying lengths of time to study the effect of cooling cartridges on working time of cement during percutaneous kyphoplasty using the kyphon® (medtronic spine, sunnyvale, ca, usa) balloon kyphoplasty system. results cement dough was easily injectable through the bone filler with the injection gun immediately after removal from an ice bath at , , and minutes of storage. consistency of the mixture was ideally doughy at all time points. after minutes at room temperature, the mixture continued to be injectable with slightly more resistance at these time points. the mixture was more firm yet maintained a doughy consis- tency. cement dough could not be injected after minutes of storage, either immediately after removal or after minutes at room temperature. conclusion we demonstrate the prolongation of working time of polymethylmethacrylate cement in percutaneous kyphoplasty using ice bath cooling of dough filled cement cartridges. cement dough was injectable after storage in an ice bath for up to minutes. in the clinical setting, intraprocedual cool- ing using this simple, low cost technique may extend the working time of polymethylmethacrylate for the operator and may improve the utility of a single balloon kyphoplasty kit when treating multiple vertebral compression fractures. disclosures b. kim: none. e- evaluation of strategies to reduce time to revascularization in acute ischemic stroke a doerr, s jenkins, j davis. northwestern medicine, chicago, il; mennonite college of nursing, illinois state university, normal, il; central dupage hospital, winfield, il . /neurintsurg- - . background stroke is significant cause of morbidity, disability and mortality in the united states today. there is growing support for the need for process improvement, specifically, reducing time to reperfusion in endovascular stroke therapy (evt) to improve functional outcomes. it is suggested that every minutes delay in revascularization of acute ischemic stroke leads to a . % decrease in the potential for a good functional outcome (khatri et al., ). purpose to identify the impact on specific hospital based proc- ess improvement strategies in the acute ischemic stroke patient population undergoing endovascular therapy with specific intent to decrease median arrival to revascularization time, thus increasing the potential for good functional outcome. we abstract e- figure electronic poster abstracts jnis ; ( ):a –a a seek to evaluate the efficacy of three hospital-based methods to improve time to revascularization in evt for stroke: early notification, streamlined transport process and utilization of feedback tool. methods the project includes a pre and post intervention ret- rospective review of patient years or older, admitted through the emergency department, with hospital admission between january , and december , , who undergo evt for treatment acute ischemic stroke. primary outcome variable: time from arrival to revascularization (first pass) and secondary outcome variables: functional outcome analysis utilizing pre procedure, post procedure and discharge modified rankin score (mrs) and day mrs. the data points will be collected using the stroke time pi project tool based on the america heart association’s get with the guide- lines-stroke (gwtg). results a total of consecutive ed arrival endovascular ischemic stroke patients were reviewed, pre pi (group , n = ) and post pi (group , n = ). the timeline break- down from patient arrival to revascularization is shown in table . preliminary analysis of the primary outcome demon- strates significant improvement in door to revascularization between the pre and post pi groups, : and : (p < . ) respectively, a statistically significant minute decrease in time to treatment. conclusions despite the relatively small sample size for the study, this evaluation provides evidence based practice strat- egies which could be implemented at stroke centers to reduce door to revascularization time in evt. these strategies are also theorized to positively impact stroke outcomes due to the improvement in treatment times and will be reported with the final study analysis. abstract e- table stroke workflow timeline pre pi n = mean sd post pi n = mean sd sig arrival to angio suite (hh:mm) : : : : p = . angio suite to groin puncture (hh:mm) . : : : p = . groin puncture to first pass (hh:mm) : : : : p = . time total: arrival to first pass (hh:mm) : : : : p < . disclosures a. doerr: none. s. jenkins: none. j. davis: none. e- factors associated with successful revascularization using the aspiration component of adapt in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke j mascitelli, c kellner, c oravec, r deleacy, e oermann, s paramasivam, j fifi, j mocco. mount sinai hospital, new york, ny . /neurintsurg- - . introduction the direct aspiration first pass (adapt) techni- que has been shown to be fast, cost-effective, and associated with excellent angiographic and clinical outcomes in the treat- ment of acute ischemic stroke (ais). – it would be useful to know which pre-procedural factors are associated with success- ful revascularization using aspiration alone to help choose a method of thrombectomy for patients with ais. methods this is a retrospective review of patients with ais treated with thrombectomy. cohort (n = ) included adapt cases in which aspiration alone was successful (tici b or ). cohort (n = ) included adapt cases in which aspiration was unsuccessful (n = ) as well as non-adapt cases in which there was a clear intent to use adapt but the aspiration catheter could not be navigated to the thrombus (n = ). the majority of patients in cohort were ultimately treated with a stent retriever (sr). cases in which srs were used primarily with distal aspiration (a.k.a. solumbra) were excluded. cth/cta/dsas were graded for dense vessel sign, aortic arch type, number of reverse curves and severe stenosis on the path to the target vessel by an interventional radiolog- ist who was blinded to study design. results there was no difference between cohorts with regards to gender, race, medications, nihss score, use of iv tpa, site or sidedness of thrombus, process times, presence of a dense vessel sign, aortic arch type, presence of severe stenosis, and guide/aspiration catheters used. patients in cohort were on average younger ( . vs. . years, p = . ). there was a trend for more patients in cohort to have atrial fibrillation (afib)/arrhythmias ( . % vs. . %, p = . ) and there was a trend for more patients in cohort with a cardiogenic stroke etiology ( . % vs. . %, p = . ). there was a trend for fewer reverse curves on average in cohort ( . vs. . , p = . ). conclusions aspiration success was associated with younger age. there was a trend for aspiration failure to be associated with cardiogenic etiology and more difficult vascular anatomy. our findings suggest that the adapt technique can be used for the vast majority of patients but it may be beneficial to use a sr primarily when performing thrombectomy in the eld- erly. further research analyzing thrombus characteristics is needed. references turk as, frei d, fiorella d, et al. adapt fast study: a direct aspiration first pass technique for acute stroke thrombectomy. j neurointerv surg ; ( ): – . turk as, turner r, spiotta a, et al. comparison of endovascular treatment approaches for acute ischemic stroke: cost effectiveness, technical success, and clinical outcomes. j neurointerv surg ; ( ): – . delgado almandoz je, kayan y, young ml, et al. comparison of clinical out- comes in patients with acute ischemic strokes treated with mechanical thrombec- tomy using either solumbra or adapt techniques. j neurointerv surg . kowoll a, weber a, mpotsaris a, et al. direct aspiration first pass technique for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke: initial experience at a european stroke centercenter. j neurointerv surg ; ( ): – . disclosures j. mascitelli: none. c. kellner: none. c. oravec: none. r. deleacy: none. e. oermann: none. s. paramasi- vam: ; c; microvention. j. fifi: ; c; microvention. ; c; lazarus effect. j. mocco: ; c; national/international pi/co- pi for: therapy (pi), feat (pi), invest (co-pi), com- pass (co-pi), large (co-pi), coast (co-pi), positive (co-pi). steering committee for maps trial. ; c; rebound therapeutics, tsp inc, cerebrotech, lazarus effect, pulsar, medina. ; c; blockade medical, tsp inc., lazarus effect, medina. electronic poster abstracts a jnis ; ( ):a –a old enough to fight: canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boileau copyright © the ontario historical society, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : ontario history old enough to fight: canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boileau david ratz volume , numéro , spring uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the ontario historical society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu ratz, d. ( ). compte rendu de [old enough to fight: canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boileau]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ ontario history armchair historian and academic alike. his writing is accessible and his history sharp. his briskly-paced book would be of par- ticular use to students of ontario, religion, and the church. for teachers, in search of promised lands is an excellent example of archival history done well. it would help to augment discussions on the place of conflict in society, immigration in ontario, and how modernizing or changing society profound- ly impacted religious and cultural groups. most importantly, steiner’s concluding dis- cussion about the broad spectrum of men- nonite practices raises important questions about how secularization affected specific religious groups—an area of inquiry not yet fully enough explored in the historical record. for the mennonites, it has meant a history of debating the preservation of shared values, faith, and rituals and the mer- its of assimilation into broader society. julia rady-shaw university of toronto with the centennial of the first world war upon us, a large number of books have been published recently about canadian participation in that conflict. some cover old ground with fresh insight, while others venture into areas not previ- ously looked at in any detail. old enough to fight: canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boile- au attempts the latter. of the roughly , men and women canada put into uniform, an estimated - , soldiers (or just over %) were boys younger than military regulations allowed. the authors note there is a literature on the history of boy soldiers in the commonwealth, but no detailed examination of the phenomena in canada. historians like desmond morton in when your number’s up: the canadian soldier in the first world war ( ) and old enough to fight canada’s boy soldiers in the first world war by dan black and john boileau toronto: james lorimer, . pages. $ . softcover. isbn - - - - . $ . hardback . $ . ebook . (www.lorimer.ca) tim cook in at the sharp end: canadians fighting the great war, - ( ) have noted the existence of recruits young- er than years of age, but this new book is the first detailed treatment of the topic. the question of how the canadian ex- peditionary force came to have underage soldiers is answered in the introduction and first chapter. the british and canadi- an military tradition included boy soldiers as drummers, buglers and occasionally as ordinary soldiers in the ranks. many no- table figures in canadian military history started their careers in this way, including james wolfe, isaac brock and sam steele. the militia act allowed for the enlistment of soldiers as young as years old and sponsored paramilitary training for high school students through cadet corps. when the time came to mobilize a force for service overseas, the recruits had to be be- tween and . if he had parental consent, a soldier younger than could be recruited. the authors note that many boys were turned away, but the laxness of the recruiting system allowed many others to circumvent the regu- lations. the volunteer only had to declare their age and the medical officer had only to note his “apparent age,” which allowed anyone who looked mature for their age to enlist. at other times recruiters were complicit in the ruse when recruits lied about their age. we only know that thousands evaded the regu- lations because later some parents petitioned for the return of their children or because the issue had been raised in parliament. howev- er, there was no general outcry over the issue and canadians seemed more concerned to prevent soldiers obtaining beer in canteens than underage soldiers enlisting. nonethe- less, senior military officials did make some effort to prevent underage boys serving at the front, but given the need for trained soldiers, lower level officers often willfully ignored these efforts. the first chapter examines why these boy soldiers chose to enlist and suggests their reasons were not that much different than other recruits. there were the typical motives such as patriotism, the thirst for ad- venture and unemployment. there was also the desire to escape the awful conditions of an orphanage or foster home and also to leave menial and mind-numbing jobs. what follows in the next eighteen chapters is a series of poignant, moving and detailed accounts of the experiences of these boy soldiers during the war, includ- ing a separate chapter on the air and naval components. the book concludes with a chapter on the memorial cross, popular- ly known as the silver cross, awarded to mothers who lost sons or daughters during the war. the authors blend these accounts into a wider more traditional narrative of canada’s part in the war. drawn from secondary sources, memoirs and archival material, it contains a number of mini- biographies. adding to this is a number of photographs of the boy soldiers them- selves, war art and other photographs of canadian soldiers and battlefields. one area where the book falls short is placing the issue of boy soldiers into the so- cial context of childhood in early twentieth century canada. clearly childhood meant something different in that era or was at least more mutable than twenty-first-cen- tury concepts of it suggest. it was not un- common for people in their mid-teens to be earning a living and fulfilling adult roles on the farm or as wage earners. we are also left with little in the way of comparative data on the rest of the canadian military at the time. while the number of under- age soldiers was certainly large, as morton notes ( ) the average canadian soldier was just over years. without this sort of contextual information we are left wonder what the significance of this phenomena is, because other than their youth, the experi- ence of these soldiers was not remarkably different than their older comrades. not- withstanding this concern, old enough to fight is a well-researched and well-written addition to our knowledge of the canadi- an experience of the first world war. david ratz, lakehead university book reviews doi: . /mdh. . carol helmstadter and judith godden, nursing before nightingale, – , the history of medicine in context (surrey, england: ashgate press, ), pp. , $ . , hardback, isbn: . florence nightingale died one hundred years ago in . hailed as one of the most important victorians by lytton strachey in (eminent victorians (new york: g.p. putnam’s sons)), nightingale remains a potent icon for the nursing profession. until recently, her status as the inventor of modern nursing has rarely been challenged, and one would be hard-pressed to find a nurse or nursing student who does not know of nightingale nor, in contrast, who understands the complex influence of nightingale. while nightingale definitely shaped modern nursing, hospitals, the field of statistics, military nursing and victorian roles for women, her ideas on nursing, as carol helmstadter and judith godden point out in their book, nursing before nightingale, were not always implemented as rapidly or as completely as the mythology suggests, nor were they the earliest foundation for reforming nursing care in hospitals. helmstadter and godden examine pre nightingale nurses from their perspective as internationally renowned nightingale scholars and nurse historians who are familiar with and critical of the traditional and revisionist interpretations which they concisely examine, particularly in the preface. they use rich archival repositories of the twelve london teaching hospitals (rather than just the records of st thomas’ hospital, where the first nightingale school was situated, or only of nightingale herself) from – , employing a broader reading of the historical data than previous scholars. the authors set pre-nightingale nursing (meaning before the nightingale model became the dominant paradigm in nursing in the twentieth century) in the context of pre-industrial nineteenth- century england, its living conditions, hospitals and religious conflicts, and raise important questions about the nightingale model: was it inevitable, was it really implemented as formulated, why did it become the dominant model of nursing care reform and why was nursing reform such a formidable engine that culminated rather than began with nightingale? to their credit, the authors answer these questions and more, and in the process give us a more fully nuanced version of the development of modern nursing than most other scholars. as the authors argue, modern nursing did not begin with nightingale, although nightingale is one reason modern nursing exists as it does. through the ten chapters of the book, helmstadter and godden provide exceptional evidence for pre-nightingale origins of nursing reform, including the development of systems to teach nurses the clinical skills needed to operationalise new treatments physicians were using in the teaching hospitals, recruitment of a better class of women with higher moral standards, gaining public authority and responsibility for women, and better working conditions for nurses in the hospitals. london’s large teaching hospitals, although the place of much discovery and innovation, were warehouses of sick, poor and dying patients attended to by lower class women who had neither the skills nor the moral character to consistently tend to increasingly complex medical treatments, or the stamina to withstand the conditions of hard labor and miserable quarters found therein. physicians began to demand attending nurses who could be relied upon to perform new techniques of wound care or monitoring of patients after surgery, as well as establishing order amidst the chaos of traditional hospital environments. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews helmstatder and godden point to the religious sisterhoods instead of nightingale as the earliest reformers. after catholic emancipation in , the sisters of mercy imposed order and strict expectations of behaviour on novice nurses while also providing instruction in nursing care. their impact on nursing and hospital reform was not great, as anti-catholic sentiment still ran high and the sisters could not nurse nor take their training system into the teaching hospitals. the anglican sisters were not so limited and it is to them that helmstadter and godden assign primary responsibility for nursing reform. the anglican sisters of st johns house, primarily under superintendent mary jones (who later became a close friend of nightingale), instituted a system of moral and clinical training interposed with systematic teaching, as well as close personal supervision, and saw nursing as a ‘specific body of knowledge’ (p. ). the sisters themselves worked on the wards, teaching students and serving as role models. these important components not only supported physicians’ introductions of new types of medical treatment into nineteenth century hospitals, but also went far to improve the reputation of nurses in hospitals and improve patient care on the wards. the sisterhoods themselves fared less well as widespread public suspicions of them as fronts for papist tendencies made their existence difficult. their insistence on women’s ability to hold authority and responsibility in the public sphere set up confrontations they did not win with male governing boards and finally forced them to withdraw from the hospitals by the end of the century. nightingale’s ideas for hospital nursing reform – the need for continuity of clinical instruction with school-based teaching, the secularisation of nursing vocation as embodied by the religious sisterhoods, the need to control school finances and school governance – forged by her experiences during the crimean war, were important in concept but not applied in their entirety in the school established in at st thomas’ hospital, london. because of entrenched hospital hierarchies and traditional governance structures that controlled nurses in the hospitals, nightingale had little power to marry clinical experience with instruction and, in contrast to the anglican sisters, could not gain permission for her school nurses to teach and practice on the wards. despite these obstacles and evidence that nightingale’s ideals were rarely implemented, the nightingale school was successful. it, rather than the nursing sisterhoods, became the public face of nursing reform for several reasons. the public’s admiration for nightingale after her work in the crimean war transferred to her nursing school and she carried none of the religious overtones that made the public suspicious of the sisters. because of public generosity, the school maintained sound financial status and thus some independence. nursing, indeed, became a vocation for many women who found personal (rather than religious) fulfillment in their work. patient care improved, although the authors present little direct evidence of this, and physicians seemed more satisfied with the work of trained nurses, especially those who followed their orders without question. helmstadter and godden’s book is a clear and concise analysis of nursing reform before nightingale became the iconic figure of the nursing profession. the book contains enormous detail that may sometimes detract readers with little familiarity of london hospitals or the structure of hospital governance during the time period (although the authors include a very helpful glossary). in general, the authors successfully make their argument and introduce us to the reformers who came before or influenced nightingale. the dust jacket shows a slightly grainy photograph of a group of guy’s hospital nurses from , before any reform initiatives were introduced at the hospital. the nurses are https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews not in uniform but dressed in their black bonnets and street clothes, ready, as the authors suggest, to go out to the pub. these are lower class women, some who are slouching or sitting informally, legs on the sides of the chairs. they are clearly not ‘ladies’, and are staring directly into the camera. this photograph is a potent piece of the author’s argument for the urgency of reform. a contrasting photo located in the conclusion chapter, shows ‘the new trained nurse’ (p. ), at st bartholomew’s hospital, c. s. the nurses are wearing starched, clean uniforms and are straight of posture, glancing self-consciously away from the camera. these are the nurses after nurse training reform and, by choosing a photo that did not portray st. thomas’ nurses, the authors bring their argument full circle – nightingale was critical to reform but there were others who made her reforms possible. julie fairman university of pennsylvania doi: . /mdh. . myra rutherdale (ed.), caregiving on the periphery: historical perspectives on nursing and midwifery in canada, mcgill-queen’s associated medical services studies in the history of medicine, health, and society (montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), pp. + x, isbn: - - - - . although not quite as unique as the editor claims (p. ), caregiving on the periphery illustrates the ethnic diversity of canada and the value of using this particular, vast country as a microcosm in order to study the history of health care in a variety of sometimes clashing cultures. the history of nursing in canada is a burgeoning field, and a previous edited volume has also examined the role of place: jayne elliott, meryn stuart and cynthia toman, place and practice in canadian nursing history (vancouver: university of british columbia press, ). furthering existing literature on the country, the book seeks to bring the diversity of race and ethnicity into prominence in the history of nursing within canada. for example, in her chapter on russian mennonite communities, marlene epp explores the ethnic tensions between white immigrant groups. in her analysis of margaret butcher’s life writing, mary ellen kelm examines the difference between ‘englishness’ and ‘whiteness’ in canada, in addition to wider complexities of race and gender. opening with a gripping story of a nurse’s isolation and autonomy, a major theme of the book is isolation. in her chapter on red cross nursing, jayne elliott highlights how nurses’ autonomous roles in small communities meant that young nurses were under surveillance and judged regarding their social lives and sexuality. similarly, as lesley mcbain demonstrates in her chapter, nurses in northern saskatchewan were concerned for their reputations and professional identity, and therefore suffered social isolation. judith young shows that in early-nineteenth-century urban toronto, this small town in the empire provided nurses from england, ireland or scotland with a sense of being on the british periphery. however, isolation is not highly evident within every chapter; for example, midwives formed part of close-knit mennonite communities, which placed importance on midwifery practice exclusively performed by their own ethno-religious group, as examined by marlene epp, although skis were required in order for one mennonite nurse https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /mdh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german: on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german: kÖlsch (colognese) and pennsylvania dutch robert cirillo * abstract: progressive constructions involving the progressive marker am are considered to be highly colloquial in standard german but are standard in regional varieties of german such as kölsch (colognese) and pennsylvania dutch. it was argued in bhatt and schmidt ( ) that in kölsch the progressive particle am is the head of a head-final aspect phrase. the progressive particle in pennsylvania dutch has not been discussed in generative literature. based on bhatt and schmidt’s arguments, it will be argued here that in pennsylvania dutch the progressive marker am is the head of a head-initial aspect phrase, despite a possible conflict with the final-over-final constraint (fofc) proposed in biberauer et al. ( , ). keywords: progressive, german, pennsylvania dutch, kölsch . introduction languages like english, italian and spanish have a progressive construction that involves an auxiliary that is a form of the verb be. in english the auxiliary is combined with a present participle while in italian and spanish it appears with a gerundive: ( ) a. the girl is working. b. la ragazza sta lavorando. (italian) the girl is working c. la muchacha está trabajando. (spanish) the girl is working standard german does not possess a comparable construction. however, in certain regional varieties of standard german there is a progressive construction, considered to be highly colloquial, that consists of the progressive marker am followed by an infinitive: ( ) das mädchen ist das auto in der garage am reparieren. the girl is the car in the garage prog repair-inf ‘the girl is repairing the car in the garage.’ notice that the progressive marker immediately precedes the infinitive and follows all other elements in vp, including objects and prepositional phrases. if the construction contains a particle verb, the progressive marker immediately precedes the particle. this is seen in the following example, in which the progressive marker am appears before the verbal particle auf ‘up’: * university of amsterdam, robert.john.cirillo@planet.nl. https://mail.google.com/mail/u/ /h/gcme dhr ueu/?&cs=wh&v=b&to=robert.john.cirillo@planet.nl r o b e r t c i r i l l o ( ) peter ist die wäsche im garten am aufhängen. peter is the laundry in the garden prog up hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ because the am-progressive is mainly associated with the rhineland, especially the city of cologne, it is often called the rheinische verlaufsform ‘progressive of the rhineland’. i should point out, however, that the rhineland does not have a monopoly on the am-progressive. it can be heard as far south as swabia and bavaria and as far east as saxony. in kölsch or colognese, the language spoken in and around the city of cologne, the am-progressive can be considered standard (non-colloquial). one of the ways in which it differs from the am-progressive in colloquial standard german is that it allows am to come between a verb and a particle. compare the following sentences from kölsch to the example in ( ) above : ( ) a. d’r pitter es de wäsch em jade am ophange the pitter is the laundry in the garden prog up hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ b. d’r pitter es de wäsch em jade op am hange the pitter is the laundry in the garden up prog hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ the word order in ( b), in which the progressive marker am comes between the verb and the verbal particle, is not possible in colloquial standard german. historically, the particle am is a contraction of the preposition an ‘on’ and dem, which is the dative singular neuter form of the definite article. however, in the examples in ( ), ( ) and ( ) it would not be possible to replace am with the non-contracted form an dem. this indicates that am has been reanalyzed or grammaticalized as a progressive marker. interestingly, in dutch there is an almost identical construction, which is considered to be standard (non-colloquial), involving the preposition aan ‘on’ and the singular neuter form of the definite article het. furthermore, like kölsch and unlike colloquial standard german, dutch allows the progressive marker to come between a verb and a verbal particle in some circumstances. the following dutch sentences are the equivalent of the examples in ( ): ( ) a. piet is de was in de tuin aan het ophangen. piet is the laundry in the garden prog up hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ b. piet is de was in de tuin op aan het hangen. piet is the laundry in the garden up prog hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ unless otherwise indicated, all example sentences from kölsch are the author’s own. all examples have been cleared with at least one native speaker. on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german the question that immediately comes to mind is what syntactic category am belongs to. it is argued in bhatt and schmidt ( ) that in kölsch am is the head of a head-final aspect phrase. the main purpose of this article is to consider whether bhatt and schmidt’s analysis is also applicable to the am-progressive found in pennsylvania dutch, in which am occurs in a different position. this article is organized as follows: section presents a summary of the analysis of am-progressives in bhatt and schmidt ( ). in section , the am-progressive in pennsylvania dutch is introduced and an analysis is presented. section contains the main findings. . the am-progressive in kölsch as analyzed in bhatt and schmidt ( ) bhatt and schmidt ( ) liken the am-progressive in kölsch to the english progressive with the participial suffix –ing. the trees in ( ) correspond to the way in which the kölsch sentences in ( ) and the english example in ( a) would be represented under bhatt and schmidt’s analysis. note that the verbal domain is head-final in kölsch (or german) and head-initial in english. in both languages there is an auxiliary phrase dominating aspp. the auxp is headed by be in english and its equivalent sein ‘be’ in german. in kölsch the progressive marker am is the head of aspp, as in ( a), while in english aspp contains a null-head and the suffix -ing is simply inflection triggered by an agreement operation within aspp , as in ( b). ( ) a. auxp b. auxp aux ́ aux´ aspp aux aux aspp ist is asp ́ (is) asp´ vp asp asp vp am  v ́ v´ v v ophange work-ing (up hang) in english one could of course dispense with the aspp with a null head and treat the auxiliary be as the head of aspp or progp. bhatt and schmidt ( ) presumably posit the extra layer in english for the sake of symmetry between english and german. since this topic is only indirectly related to this article, which is about german, it will not be pursued any further here. r o b e r t c i r i l l o in ( a), the entire verb ophange can move head-to-head and right adjoin to the progressive marker am, producing ( a). however, the verb hange can also move by itself, stranding the verbal particle op, thereby generating ( b). i will now briefly discuss how bhatt and schmidt arrived at the conclusion that am is the head of aspp. given that am is a contraction of the preposition an and the dative neuter singular definite article dem, the analysis that immediately suggests itself is that am-progressive constructions are actually preposition phrases in which the object of the preposition is the infinitive, which has been nominalized. however, even though this may be the most obvious possible analysis of am-progressives, there is very convincing evidence that no pp is involved. as shown in bhatt and schmidt ( ), am-phrases do not behave at all like pps with nominalized infinitives. there is in fact a kind of progressive construction in german that really does involve a pp with a nominalized infinitive, and the am-phrase behaves quite differently from it. i am referring to constructions with the preposition bei ‘by’ or ‘at’. these constructions are similar to am-constructions because they involve beim, a contraction of the preposition bei and the dative singular neuter form of the definite article dem: ( ) sie sind beim essen. they are by the eat-inf ‘they are eating.’ progressives with am behave differently from bei-phrases in important ways. bhatt and schmidt reason as follows. if am-phrases were pps with a nominalized infinitive, the nominalized infinitive should be modifiable. this is however not the case : ( ) a. er ist am vorlesen. he is prog lecture-inf ‘he is lecturing.’ b. *er ist am lauten vorlesen. he is prog loud lecture-inf ‘he is lecturing loud.’ the word lauten in ( b) is not an adverb but an inflected adjective in the dative case. since the infinitive cannot be modified by an adjective, it has clearly not been nominalized and is not the object of a preposition. if one uses a beim-construction instead of an am-construction, the results are quite different, because the infinitive can be modified by an inflected adjective, indicating that it is the nominalized object of a preposition: ( ) a. er ist beim vorlesen. he is by the lecture-inf ‘he is lecturing.’ examples ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ) are from bhatt and schmidt ( ), - . on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german b. er ist beim lauten vorlesen. he is by the loud lecture-inf ‘he is lecturing loud.’ what these data clearly show is that in bei-phrases the infinitive has truly been nominalized while in am-phrases the infinitive is still a verb. bhatt and schmidt show further evidence of this. in german, the complements of nouns, including nouns derived from verbs, are in the genitive case: ( ) a. die entdeckung amerikas the discovery america-gen ‘the discovery of america’ b. die krönung des prinzen the crowning def.gen prince-gen ‘the coronation of the prince’ in the case of bei-phrases the infinitive always takes a genitive complement, like a noun, never an accusative one. this clearly indicates that the infinitive has been nominalized and is the object of a preposition: ( ) a. er ist beim vorlesen der bibel he is by the read (aloud)-inf def.gen bible.gen ‘he is reading (aloud) the bible.’ b. *er ist beim vorlesen die bibel. he is by the read-inf def.acc bible.acc ‘he is reading (aloud) the bible.’ in the case of am-phrases, however, the infinitive takes an accusative object like a verb: ( ) a. er ist die bibel am vorlesen. he is def.acc bible.acc prog read-inf ‘he is reading (aloud) the bible.’ b. *er ist der bibel am vorlesen. he is def.gen bible.gen prog read (aloud)-inf ‘he is reading (aloud) the bible.’ the use of the genitive in bei-phrases and the accusative in am-phrases strongly suggests that bei-phrases are pps while am-phrases are vps. further evidence of this is that in bei-constructions the complement or object of the infinitive follows that infinitive, just as the complement of a deverbal noun follows that deverbal noun, as exemplified in ( ), while in the case of am-constructions the complement or object of the infinitive precedes it, just like the object in any normal vp. the only possible conclusion is that am-phrases are vps, not pps with a nominalized infinitive. the word am in these constructions is a progressive marker that most probably has resulted from the reanalysis r o b e r t c i r i l l o or grammaticalization of the contraction am from an dem, and the infinitive is just that – a non-nominalized infinitive. continuing with bhatt and schmidt’s analysis, if am-phrases are vps, what is am exactly? it can only be one of two things. it can be inflection, that is, a progressive prefix comparable to the progressive suffix -ing found on present participles in english, or it can be the head of an aspect phrase. bhatt and schmidt convincingly rule out the possibility that it is inflection. if it were preverbal inflection, one would expect it to always be affixed to v like other forms of preverbal inflection such as ge- (the perfect aspect marker) and zu-(the infinitival marker related to the english to). this is however not the case. compare the following examples from standard german, in which the prefixes ge- and zu- follow the verbal particle auf ‘up’ while am precedes it . (the examples with am are highly colloquial or regional.) ( ) a. der mond ist im begriff, auf zu gehen . the moon is in the concept up to go-inf ‘the moon is about to rise.’ b. der mond ist auf-ge- gangen. the moon is up perf gone-past participle ‘the moon has risen. c. *der mond ist auf am gehen. (colloquial standard german) the moon is up prog go-inf ‘the moon is rising.’ d. der mond ist am auf-gehen. (colloquial standard german) the moon is prog up go-inf ‘the moon is rising.’ the same holds true for items other than verbal particles. for example, if a word such as rad ‘bicycle’ is incorporated into a verb, the same pattern can be observed. this is shown in the following examples. (again, the examples with am are highly colloquial or regional.) ( ) a. ursula versucht, rad- zu- fahren. ursula tries bicycle to ride-inf ‘ursula tries to ride a bicycle.’ b. ursula ist rad- ge- fahren. ursula is bicycle perf ridden-past participle ‘ursula has ridden a bicycle.’ c. *ursula ist rad am fahren. ursula is bicycle prog ride-inf ‘ursula is riding a bicycle.’ examples ( )-( ) are the author’s, since bhatt and schmidt ( ) do not provide complete sentences to illustrate this point. on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german d. ursula ist am radfahren. ursula is prog bicycle ride-inf ‘ursula is riding a bicycle.’ the reader will recall that, as shown in example ( ), kölsch differs from standard german when am co-occurs with a particle or an item that has been incorporated into the verb in that am can immediately precede the verb like the prefixes ge- and zu-. the following examples from kölsch illustrate this again: ( ) a. d’r mond es op am jonn. the moon is up prog go-inf ‘the moon is rising.’ b. et ulla es rädche am fahre. the ulla is bicycle prog ride-inf ‘ulla is riding a bicycle.’ however, as also pointed out in example ( ), kölsch also allows the word order found in colloquial standard german: ( ) a. d’r mond es am opjonn. the moon is prog up go-inf ‘the moon is rising.’ b. et ulla es am rädchefahre. the ulla is prog bicycle ride-inf ‘ursula is riding a bicycle.’ this alternative word order is unthinkable for the prefixes ge-and zu-, in kölsch as well as in standard german. the logical conclusion is that am is not a verbal prefix and that the word order in ( ) is derived by stranding the verbal particle or complement when the verb moves from v to asp as discussed at the very beginning of this section. the fact that this kind of stranding is available in kölsch (and, by the way, in dutch), but not in standard german, can be attributed to micro-parametric variation. bhatt and schmidt justifiably conclude that am is not inflection and is therefore a head. based on their very convincing arguments, i will assume that am is the head of a head-final aspp, that verbs undergo head-to-head movement and right adjoin to asp, and that depending on the setting of micro-parameters a verbal particle or incorporatum may be stranded. in the next section we will examine a challenge to bhatt and schmidt posed by another west germanic language that employs the am-progressive. . the am-progressive in pennsylvania dutch pennsylvania dutch is a variety of german, not dutch . it is the language of the amish and mennonites in the united states and is spoken by over , people, the words deutsch and deitsch sounded like dutch to the english-speaking pennsylvanians, so the term pennsylvania dutch became standard, even for many pennsylvania dutch speakers. r o b e r t c i r i l l o mainly in the states of pennsylvania, ohio and indiana. its origins are in a language that was spoken in the southern part of the west middle german linguistic region and the northern part of the upper german linguistic region in the th and th centuries, when the emigration of the amish from germany to america began. like kölsch, pennsylvania dutch also makes use of the am-progressive, but the position of am in vp is very different in the two languages. as we have seen, in kölsch am immediately precedes the verb. if the verb is a particle verb or has incorporated a complement, am may precede the particle or incorporatum, but it will always follow objects and adverbial phrases. this is clearly illustrated in ( a), repeated here: ( ) a. d’r pitter es de wäsch em jade am ophange the pitter is the laundry in the garden prog up hang-inf ‘peter is hanging up the laundry in the garden.’ in pennsylvania dutch, however, am precedes the entire vp, including direct objects, indirect objects, pps and adverbial phrases. because the amish and mennonites are very religious, the bible is a convenient source of data. the following sentences, taken from hans-bianchi ( ), are from the new testament: ( ) a. da judas voah am eena da vayk veisa. the judas was prog them the way show-inf ‘judas was showing them the way.’ (gospel of luke : ) b. dei yingah sinn am ebbes du your disciples are prog something do-inf ‘your disciples are doing something.’ (gospel of matthew : ) c. avvah di anra yingah sinn nei kumma mitt em boat am but the other disciples are in come with a boat prog ’s nett foll fish hinnich eena nohch zeeya the net full fish behind them still pull-inf ‘but the other disciples have come in in a boat still dragging the net full of fish behind them.’ (gospel of john : ) examples from actual conversations are also available : ( ) a. ich heb g’herd, es diah am en haas ufdu sinn. i have heard that they prog a house up-do-inf are ‘i have heard that they are building a house.’ b. diah sinn am in nappanee en haas ufdu. they are prog in nappanee a house up-do-inf ‘they are building a house in nappanee.’ from conversations between the author and residents of the towns of shipshewana and bremen in indiana. on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german c. diah sinn am drous de schire austreicha. they are prog outside the barn paint-inf ‘they are outside painting the barn.’ d. samuel iss am in der wuhnschtubb seim geschwischderkind samuel is prog in the living room his cousin en brief schreiba. a letter write-inf ‘samuel is in the living room writing his cousin a letter.’ in these examples we see am appearing before an indirect object, a direct object, a pp and an adverb. one can hardly propose that it is a verbal prefix. it can also not be a preposition, for the same reasons that it could not be a preposition in kölsch. (if it were a preposition, for example, its complement infinitives would have to be nominalizations, but it if the infinitive complements were nominalizations their dp direct object complements would be in the genitive case. all of the direct objects in ( ) are in the accusative.) the only possibility is that am is the head of an aspect phrase or progressive phrase. this raises the question of how the correct word order, with am preceding an entire vp, can be generated within a head-final verbal domain. there are two possibilities. the first possibility is that the entire vp, including objects and adjuncts, moves to the right (which is possible in a head-final environment) and right attaches to the progressive head am. a glance at ( a) will help the reader visualize how this would work. i view this as an impossible solution, for at least two reasons. first of all, there is the question of what would motivate the movement of an entire vp, including adjuncts. one can of course always postulate some kind of linearization feature on am that triggers movement, a sort of epp feature, but i would view this as an ad hoc solution – a solution with no independent motivation. a more serious problem with a movement solution is the question of a landing site for vp. vp-movement and remnant vp-movement are of course nothing new in the germanic languages, but they invariably involve movement to a specifier position and they are not obligatory. in the case of pennsylvania dutch, the positioning of am before the entire vp is obligatory. furthermore, assuming, following kayne ( ) and haider ( , ), that specifier positions, particularly in the germanic languages, are always to the left of the branching node, the kind of movement that we are observing in pennsylvania dutch could not possibly be to a specifier position. rather, it would have to be some kind of adjunct position. an obligatory movement to an adjunct position that is not at all clearly defined would be a very undesirable innovation. this leaves one solution: in pennsylvania dutch, just as in kölsch, am is the head of an aspp or progp, except that in pennsylvania dutch progp is head-initial. this solution is not at all unattractive, since it allows us to explain an instance of variation in terms of a parameter in standard german the word geschwister means ‘sibling’. the equivalent in pennsylvania dutch can mean ‘cousin’. r o b e r t c i r i l l o – head directionality. there is, however, one potential obstacle to this approach, namely, the final-over-final constraint. the final-over-final constraint, or fofc, was first formulated by holmberg ( ) and further developed by biberauer et al. ( , ). it is worded as follows: “a head-initial category cannot be the immediate structural complement of a head-final category within the same extended projection”. this constraint contains the following three statements: (i) if all phrases in an extended projection are either head-initial, as in english, or head-final, as in japanese, there are no grammaticality issues. (ii) if the head of a head-initial phrase selects a head-final phrase as its complement, there are likewise no syntactic problems. (iii) the problem arises if the head of a head-final phrase selects as its complement a head-initial phrase. as is well-illustrated in ( a), pennsylvania dutch would be in flagrant violation of the fofc because the phrase headed by the progressive auxiliary sinn ‘are’ is a head- final phrase that dominates a head-initial phrase headed by am. this is demonstrated in the tree diagram in ( ). biberauer et al. ( ) argue that the fofc can be derived from the linear correspondence axiom (lca) presented in kayne ( ) and relativized minimality, first presented by rizzi ( ), and they do offer a lot of evidence that the fofc exists. i have argued, however, that the only plausible explanation for the positioning of am in progressive constructions in pennsylvania dutch is that am is the head of a head-initial phrase that can, in violation of the fofc, be selected by the head of a head-final auxiliary phrase. the question is whether my approach should be discarded just because it is in apparent conflict with the fofc. i think not, for four reasons. first of all, regardless of the fofc, analyzing am as the head of a head-initial progressive phrase (even if it can be dominated by a head-final auxp) is the only plausible explanation for the positioning of the progressive marker in pennsylvania dutch. all other alternatives – treating am-phrases as pps, or treating am as a verbal prefix, or treating am-phrases as head-final – are too problematic, as we have just seen. secondly, the fofc is based on the assumption in kayne ( ) that all phrases in all languages are underlyingly head- initial and that head-final word order is derived by movement. this is by no means universally accepted. bhatt and schmidt ( ) are not the only ones who believe that phrases can be head-final. they are joined by many others, such as den besten ( ), roberts ( ), baker ( ), grewendorf ( ), miyagawa and arikawa ( ), haider ( ), and salzmann ( ), to name but a few. on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german ( ) auxp aux´ aspp aux sinn asp ́ (are) asp vp am (prog) v´ dp v en haas ufdu (a house) (build) thirdly, whereas the fofc certainly seems to represent a trend in language, it is difficult to argue that it is an inviolable principle, for the simple reason that there are exceptions to it. biberauer et al. ( ) offer some examples, a few of which we will now look at. the first one is from west flemish: ( ) ... da valère willen dienen boek lezen eet that valère want-inf that book read-inf has ‘... that valère has wanted to read that book’ in this example, willen dienen boek lezen represents a head-initial modal phrase headed by willen ‘want’ that is immediately dominated by the perfect auxiliary eet, which heads a head-final phase. biberauer et al. ( ) suggest that this apparent violation of the fofc is due to the special status of eet, which is perhaps something other than a perfect auxiliary. this is highly unlikely, however. a sentence needs a finite verb, and the only finite verb in this example is the perfect auxiliary eet. biberauer et al. ( ) present other exceptions to the fofc which they attempt to explain away in a similar way. the following is from afrikaans: ( ) ... dat hy die boek loop koop het that he the book walk buy has ‘...that he went to buy the book’ here we see a head-final perfect phrase headed by het dominating a head-initial phrase headed by loop. biberauer et al. ( ) derive this sentence from a base-structure this example contains an infinitivus pro participio or ipp construction, in which the infinitive of willen is used as the complement of the perfect auxiliary instead of a past participle. the ipp is very common in the continental west germanic languages. r o b e r t c i r i l l o in which all phrases are head-initial, as illustrated in ( ). in this model, the direct object die boek has to be scrambled to a higher position. next, the two infinitives loop and koop have to be raised above the perfect auxiliary het. normally, under a “roll-up” operation, koop would raise to loop and left-adjoin to it, and the two would then raise and left-adjoin to het. however, this would produce the undesired word order *koop loop het. in order to get around this, biberauer et al. ( ) must generate loop koop as a unit meaning ‘go buy’, which is not implausible. be that as it may, there is a lot of work involved in this derivation, and, ultimately, in the surface word order, the sentence in ( ) contains a head-initial phrase that is dominated by a head-final phrase, and this is potentially a violation of the fofc. ( ) perfp perf´ perf vp het v´ v vp loop v ́ v dp koop die boek another example from afrikaans of an apparent exception to the fofc presented by biberauer et al. ( ) is the following, which they do not explain away but leave for future research: ( ) ... dat hy haar hoor kom het that he her hear-inf come-inf has ‘... that he has heard her come’ in this sentence, the head-initial phrase headed by hoor is dominated by a head- final perfect phrase headed by het. to clearly illustrate this, i offer the equivalent sentence in dutch, in which there is no violation of the fofc because the perfect phrase is head-initial: biberauer et al. ( ) point out that this example contains an ipp structure and they suggest that the apparent violation of the fofc may be able to be explained if more is learned about ipp. on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german ( ) … dat hij haar heeft horen komen. that he her has hear-inf come-inf ‘... that he has heard her come’ this dutch example also contains an ipp (see footnote ), since the complement of the perfect auxiliary heeft, which is horen, is an infinitive instead of a past participle. incidentally, the most elegant way to derive this dutch sentence is to posit underlying head-final verbal phrases. this would involve a simple roll-up and would avoid both object raising and the base-generation of horen komen as a unit. the reader is referred to the tree diagram in ( ). the verb komen raises to horen and right-adjoins to it, and the combination horen komen is raised and right-adjoined to heeft. ( ) perfp perf´ vp perf heeft v´ vp v horen haar v ́ v komen the fourth and most important reason that i want to discuss for not abandoning my approach just because of an apparent violation of the fofc is that a head-initial am-phrase dominated by a head-final auxp may not be a violation of the fofc after all. i will elaborate. biberauer et al. ( ) base their arguments regarding the verbal domain mainly on constructions involving aux, v and o. they offer cross-linguistic evidence of the following gap in the paradigm of word order: ( ) a. aux v o (purely head-initial) b. o v aux (purely head final) c. aux o v (head-initial aux phase dominating head-final vp) d. *v o aux (head-final aux phrase dominating head-initial vp) they do not include particles in their discussion of the germanic languages. they do say, however, that the fofc applies within an extended projection, and one would assume that an am-phrase would be the extension of a verbal projection. on the other hand, they also point out that outside the indo-european family there are some exceptional examples involving aspect particles. these are instances in which a head-final aspect phrase r o b e r t c i r i l l o headed by an uninflected aspect marker/particle can felicitously dominate a head-initial vp. they present the following example from bwe-karen, a sino-tibetan language spoken in burma: ( ) yә - ca dɛyo lɔ sg-see picture asp ‘i am looking at a picture.’ the german am could also be considered an uninflected aspectual particle. it is also important to point out that biberauer et al. ( ) argue that a categorial difference between two projections may exempt a clause from compliance with the fofc. an example is the following one from german, in which a head-final vp dominates a head- initial pp: ( ) johann ist nach berlin gefahren. johann is to berlin driven ‘john has driven to berlin.’ thus, it may be that pennsylvania dutch does not pose an exception to the fofc at all because the progressive marker/particle am is not of the same category as a verb. this idea becomes especially interesting if one considers that historically am was derived from a preposition and might have retained a certain residual status as such. bhatt and schmidt ( ) in fact offer evidence for the residual prepositional status of am. they point out the following discrepancy in colloquial standard german: ( ) a. der pilot ist den airbus am fliegen. the pilot is the airbus prog fly-inf ‘the pilot is flying the airbus.’ b. *der pilot ist den airbus nach wahn am fliegen. the pilot is the airbus to wahn prog fly-inf ‘the pilot is flying the airbus to wahn.’ the explanation that they propose, very briefly, is as follows: a verb like fliegen ‘fly’ has a locative feature in its -grid and therefore assigns a locative -role. the canonical means for assigning a locative -role in the germanic languages is of course the selection of a pp. the locative feature in the -grid of fliegen is oversaturated in ( b) because the locative pp nach wahn ‘to wahn’ co-occurs with the progressive marker am, which, due to its homophonous relationship with the prepositional contraction am, has a kind of residual status of preposition and can therefore trigger a second locative -role assignment by the main verb, in violation of the -criterion. note that this restriction applies to standard german but not to kölsch, indicating micro-parametric variation. also, in my opinion, a lot of speakers find ( b) just as acceptable as ( a). nonetheless, i do agree with bhatt and schmidt that the discrepancy between ( a) and on variation in the positioning of the progressive marker am in non-standard german ( b) for some speakers of colloquial standard german could be an indication that am has a residual prepositional status. based on all the above discussion, my conclusion is that in pennsylvania dutch am-phrases are head-initial even though they can be dominated by a head-final auxp. . conclusions in section the phenomenon of the am-progressive in colloquial standard german and kölsch was introduced. in section the analysis of the am-progressive in bhatt and schmidt ( ) was presented. these authors argue convincingly that am is neither a preposition nor a verbal prefix and must therefore be the head of a head-final aspect phrase. in section the am-progressive in pennsylvania dutch was introduced, and i argued that am in pennsylvania dutch, like its equivalent in kölsch, cannot be a preposition or a verbal prefix and must therefore be the head of an aspect phrase. unlike am-phrases in kölsch, however, am-phrases in pennsylvania dutch seem to be head- initial rather than head-final. if they were head-final their complement vp would not only have to move rightward but it would have no landing site. (a vp would be expected to move to a specifier position, but specifiers are to the left of the branching node, not to the right). the only obstacle to this approach is that it is in potential conflict with the fofc because it allows a head-initial am-phrase to be dominated by a head-final auxp. i gave four reasons why i was not concerned with this potential conflict: (i) regardless of any conflict with the fofc, there is no other analysis of the am-progressive in pennsylvania dutch that makes any sense. (ii) the fofc is based on the assumption in kayne ( ) that all phrases in all languages are underlyingly head-initial. this is anything but universally accepted. (iii) there are exceptions to the fofc, which implies that whereas it indicates a clear trend in language it is not an inviolable principle. (iv) it is possible that the present analysis of am-progressives in pennsylvania dutch is not incompatible with the fofc. the initiators of the fofc recognize that uninflected particles (of which am could be considered to be one) are sometimes involved in situations in which a head-final phrase dominates a head-initial one. furthermore, one might be able to argue that am is categorially distinct enough from verbs that projections involving the am-progressive could be exempted from the fofc. this idea is particularly interesting given the fact that am originated as a preposition and may well have a certain residual status as such. references baker, m. . the atoms of language. new york: basicbooks. den besten, h. . studies in west germanic syntax. amsterdam, atlanta: rodopi. bhatt, c., schmidt, c.m. . die am + infinitiv-konstruktion im kölnischen und im umgangssprachlichen standarddeutschen als aspektphrasen. in w. abraham and j. bayer (eds), dialektsyntax (linguistische berichte, sonderheft ), - . opladen: westdeutscher verlag. r o b e r t c i r i l l o biberauer, t., holmberg, a., and roberts, i. . a syntactic universal and its consequences. ms., university of cambridge/stellenbosch university, newcastle university and university of cambridge. biberauer, t., holmberg, a., and roberts, i. . disharmonic word-order systems and the final-over-final- constraint (fofc). in a. bisetto and f. barbieri (eds.), proceedings of xxxiii incontro di grammatica generativa, - . università di bologna. http://amsacta.cib.unibo.it/archive/ / /proceedings_igg .pdf. grewendorf, g. . minimalistische syntax. tübingen and basel: a. franke verlag. haider, h. . v-clustering and clause union-causes and effects. in p. seuren and g. kempen (eds), verb constructions in german and dutch, - . amsterdam/philadelphia: john benjamins. haider, h. . german syntax. cambridge, new york: cambridge university press. hans-bianchi, b. . die geborgte grammatik: zum phänomen kontaktinduzierter grammatikalisierung am beispiel des pennsylvania deutsh. in b. hans-bianchi, l. zenobi, c. miglio, d. pirazzini, i. vogt (eds.), fremdes wahrnehmen, aufnehmen, annehmen – studien zur deutschen sprache und kultur in kontaktsituationen, - . frankfurt am main: peter lang. holmberg, a. . deriving ov order in finnish. in peter svenonius (ed.), the derivation of vo and ov, - .amsterdam/philadelphia: john benjamins, kayne, r. s. . the antisymmetry of syntax. cambridge, ma: the mit press. miyagawa, s., arikawa, k. . locality in syntax and floating numeral quantifiers. linguistic inquiry : - . rizzi, l. . relativized minimality. cambridge, ma: the mit press. roberts, i. . comparative syntax. london: arnold. salzmann, m. . rule ordering in verb cluster formation: on the extraposition paradox and the placement of the infinitival particle te/zu. in f. heck and a. assmann (eds.), rule interaction in grammar, - . leipzig: universität leipzig. cnn .. funding and founding private charities: leiden almshouses and their founders, – henk looijesteijn* abstract. this article presents a case study of the founders of almshouses for the elderly in the dutch city of leiden during the late middle ages and the early modern age. first, an overview of leiden’s almshouses is given and an assessment made of their importance for the elderly. next, a prosopography of leiden’s alms- house founders is presented, and reasons for founding almshouses discussed, focusing on religion, status, and the support of one’s nearest and dearest. this is followed by an analysis of the social class of almshouse inhabitants. this article contends that via almshouse foundations the wealthy and privileged upper classes of dutch society looked after (distant) family members, employees and other dependants in their patronage orbit, and that almshouses thus in practice served mostly as a respectable way out of open and disgraceful poverty for members of the lower middle class and the class of wage-dependants. . i n t r o d u c t i o n dutch charity has been literally monumentalised in a great number of buildings with a charitable purpose, such as hospitals, orphanages and old people’s homes as well as almshouses. frequently, these ‘many and various hospitals’ were the wonder of foreign visitors such as sir william temple, who wrote that these buildings ‘are in every man’s curiosity and talk that travels their countrey’. many of these institutions were founded and funded with private money. from the late middle ages onwards, wealthy private persons founded hospitals, orphanages, a few madhouses and even an occasional reformatory. mostly, however, they established almshouses to allow elderly, honest people of modest means to live out * international institute of social history, amsterdam. continuity and change ( ), , – . f cambridge university press doi: . /s x their lives with dignity, preventing their descent into disgraceful poverty through failing strength and diminishing resources. almshouses were founded in great numbers throughout the early modern age from the late fourteenth century onwards. they could be found in most dutch cities and even in some villages. almshouses for the elderly poor were not confined to the dutch republic. they could also be found in, for example, ireland, england, belgium, germany, denmark, norway and italy. though almshouses were a recurring feature of charitable endeavour throughout europe, they have long been neglected as an object of academic historical study. nevertheless, enough is known to be able to say that in the dutch republic as well as in other european countries, founding an almshouse was an established form of charity amongst wealthy benefactors. these wealthy almshouse founders have, within the context of the giving in the golden age (giga) project, been selected to systematically study what could have motivated the private funding and founding of large-scale philanthropic institutions in the seventeenth century; the dutch golden age. central questions are: who could afford to spend so much money on a charitable endeavour? why, and for whom, would one do so? in order to answer these questions, the dutch almshouse database (dad) has been created. its purpose is to chart the almshouses established on the territory of the present-day kingdom of the netherlands, from the earliest on record until today. currently, the database contains entries of different dutch almshouses, giving in- formation such as locality, province, year of foundation and/or termin- ation of the almshouse, number of residents, requirements for residency and on the founders of the almshouses. it is quite certain that more almshouses existed, since many that were short lived tend to be over- looked due to the lack of physical remains or archives. however, sufficient information has been gathered to furnish an overview of when and where almshouse foundations took place in the netherlands. figure presents, first, an overview of the dutch almshouses founded before , be- fore zooming in on the province of holland, for which most foundations have been recorded, and then concentrating on leiden, the city that is the focus of this article. the secondary literature on which the database is based does not al- ways provide all the answers to the research questions. in order to remedy this, the database is supplemented with in-depth case studies based on archival sources. this article presents a case study of the almshouse founders of leiden and aims to answer the questions: who were these founders, what might have motivated them, and who benefited from their charitable largesse? h e nk l o o i je st ei j n . l e i d e n a s a c a s e s t u d y leiden was chosen as a case study for various reasons. first of all, holland was the wealthiest, most highly urbanised and densely populated dutch province and leiden, a great industrial city dominating holland’s important textile trade, was the second-largest and the third-richest city of the republic during most of the early modern age. thus, a considerable number of almshouses were founded there. figure shows how nearly half of the dutch almshouse foundations took place in holland, where, as one might expect, the number of foundations peaked in the seventeenth century. leiden contained a sizeable per cent of all almshouse foun- dations in holland before , and foundations there also peaked in the seventeenth century. second, since , the almshouses remaining in leiden have been extensively restored, which has inspired a prolific – if fragmentary and mostly non-academic – secondary literature based around them. in fact, this literature begins with the substantial almshouse descriptions by the leiden topographers jan jansz orlers ( – ) and frans van mieris ( – ). in addition, the archives of most leiden almshouses have survived sufficiently to allow research to be conducted from several angles. in the twentieth century, the upsurge of interest in almshouses and their well-preserved archives has led to considerable attention from both local historians and historians abroad. third, leiden is one of the most profoundly studied urban societies of the early modern netherlands, which allows us to place the leiden almshouses and their founders in a context of some depth. % % % % % % northern netherlands (n= ) holland (n= ) leiden (n= ) unknown th century th century th century before f ig u re . almshouse foundations in the northern netherlands, holland and leiden in the centuries before . (source: dutch almshouse database.) f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es . a l m s h o u s e s i n l e i d e n: n u m b e r, o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d c a p a c i t y though the above-mentioned number of has become a canonical figure in leiden almshouse historiography, it is certain that more existed: the database currently has entries for leiden. nine early founda- tions – mostly medieval – seem to have been in existence for only a short time and little is known about their founders and history. they are not considered here. the oldest of the almshouses still in existence is the jeruzalemshofje, founded in ; the most recent, the justus carelhuis, was founded in . most leiden almshouses date from the four cen- turies before : almshouse founding was thus mostly a late medieval and early modern phenomenon. three were founded after , and fall outside the time limits of our study. here only the foundations before about whose founders something conclusive can be said will be discussed. appendix table a shows how these almshouses were essentially founded in two waves; a first wave in the second half of the fifteenth and early sixteenth century, and a second, much longer, wave between and , coinciding with leiden’s golden age. after this peak, alms- house foundations quickly declined in number, especially after the s. the slumps in founding in the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries are probably related to the severe economic declines that leiden suffered in these centuries when its predominant industry, textile manufacture, went into recession. conversely, when leiden’s weaving industry was booming, as in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, new almshouses were the fruits of the concomitant prosperity. this concurs with the findings of elise van nederveen meerkerk that charity markedly diminished when a city went through pronounced economic decline. most of the early modern leiden almshouses were organised along similar lines. usually founded by a private benefactor, they were destined to house poor, usually elderly, people. initially, they were mainly founded for and inhabited by couples, later mostly for and by women. residents enjoyed free housing, along with other benefits, such as regular doles of food, fuel, clothing or money. sometimes, the almshouse also provided the considerable cost of medicine, health care or a decent funeral. in return, the almspeople were often obligated to sign over their belongings to the almshouse, although this requirement was usually relaxed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. the definition of ‘poor’ was relative: residents had to conform to certain requirements in order to be eligible for an almshouse, such as having a favourable reputation or being of an ap- propriate religion. sometimes residents had to pay a certain amount upon h e nk l o o i je st ei j n entry. almshouses were, therefore, not open to all poor people. contrary to popular perception, they may have functioned as safety valves for the lower middle class by allowing elderly people of modest means to enjoy their remaining years with a decent quality of life, a point to which we will return later. the doles varied in number and in quantity. the contents depended on how much capital the almshouse had at its disposal. until the twentieth century, this allowance remained part of dutch almshouse life. the almshouses were run by boards of regents – either as an independent institution or as part of a greater whole, such as the city’s almoners’ office – who looked after the buildings, the capital and the inhabitants. the regents decided who was to receive a place, and ensured that the inhabitants behaved as honourable, grateful recipients of charity. they also invested the institution’s capital and applied for the freedom of taxes that charitable institutions enjoyed. before the religious reformation of the s, most founders in leiden entrusted their foundation to the colleges of the city’s almoners or poor wardens (huiszittenmeesters), who either exercised some manner of supervision or governed the almshouses directly. after the reformation, by contrast, most founders preferred to create boards of regents either as an independent board unaffiliated with the almoners, or in close co- operation with the particular religious congregation to which they be- longed – a consequence of the multiform religious landscape that emerged in holland after the reformation. when, in , the almoners merged with the dutch reformed deacons, they were no longer attractive care- takers for other denominations. in either case, the urban government ensured, by periodical checks and occasional intervention, that the almshouse regents administered the almshouses well and that the latter continued to function as the charitable institutions imagined by their founders. although most almshouses were founded by private initiative, in an era in which magistrates lacked the means to implement a social housing policy, the leiden burgomasters kept close watch over what ‘social housing’ there was. frequently they were, in a private capacity, on the regent boards themselves. despite this close magisterial interest, as a form of ‘social housing’ almshouses were never more than marginal: by the end of the eighteenth century, leiden’s functioning almshouses offered a total of places. what proportion of leiden’s elderly population could be accommodated in them will be the subject of the following paragraphs. in the early modern age, old age was thought to begin between and years. certain dutch scholars have estimated that to per cent of the population in the republic were over years and others that f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es to per cent were over years. the first percentage is certainly too low. calculations, based on the reconstruction of the demographic regime of amsterdam between and by marco van leeuwen and james oeppen, show that the percentage of the population over years in amsterdam was higher: . per cent in , . per cent in and . per cent in . they estimate that the percentage of the population over years in amsterdam was . in , . in and . in . in another dutch locality, for which data are available, the village of maasland, the percentage of people over years shows a different pattern, growing from . per cent in to . per cent by . in england the percentage of the population over years grew from per cent in to between and per cent in the first half and per cent in the second half of the seventeenth century, declining to per cent in the eighteenth century. if almshouses set an age minimum, they usually set it at years (rather than or years), which would have led to a much larger percentage of the population which could have had access to an almshouse. assuming that leiden’s demographic regime was similar to that of amsterdam, this would imply percentages of . in , . in and . in . for leiden, we have no data concerning the percentage of elderly of the total population, so we will work with estimates based on the total number of inhabitants, using the amsterdam percentages to calculate the number of elderly. table shows the numbers and percentages of the total population and the estimated population over years in leiden in the years , and , and the number and capacity of the func- tioning almshouses in those years. the percentage of leiden elderly accommodated in almshouses rose considerably, from . in to a maximum of . per cent in . the latter number seems to imply that a significant number of leiden’s elderly population resided in almshouses in the late eighteenth century, but a caveat is in order: almshouses in leiden served more than just the elderly. it has been estimated that in leiden’s almshouses housed per- sons. many of them were single men and women, widows or couples without children, but there were also couples with children living there. unfortunately, there are no data that provide the ages of these almshouse inhabitants, but one may assume that at least almshouse inhabitants in were children. there were also five co-residents of almshouse in- habitants who are likely to have been younger than years – sometimes truly old almspeople had younger relatives caring for them. both cat- egories amount to . per cent of the total: the rest – even the parents with children – may well have been over years: . per cent of the total: persons. judging from that number, the number of elderly h e nk l o o i je st ei j n almshouse inhabitants in was not . but more like . per cent of the total number of leiden inhabitants over years. extrapolating to , when there may have been as many as almshouse inhabitants, of which – if the structure was the same as in – may have been over years, instead of . the proportion might have been about . per cent of the leiden elderly. these figures must, however, be regarded as tenta- tive. nevertheless, even with these lower estimates, almshouses were significant as a particular poor relief institution for the elderly. their im- portance continued to grow throughout the early modern age, mainly due to the decrease in the population of leiden, assisted by a slight increase in almshouse places. eventually, almshouses catered for up to a third of the total number of elderly in need of care; other types of care for the leiden elderly each seem to have supported smaller numbers of people. . l e i d e n a l m s h o u s e f o u n d e r s: a t e n t a t i v e p r o s o p o g r a p h y it is time to return to the first research question: who were the founders of the leiden almshouses? to help understand what might have motivated t ab l e number of elderly leiden inhabitants accommodated in almshouses year total population , , , percentage of elderly in total population (estimate) . . . number of elderly over years (estimate) , , , number of functioning almshouses number of places percentage of population accommodated . . . percentage of elderly accommodated . . . sources: population and : piet lourens and jan lucassen, inwoneraantallen van nederlandse steden ca. – (amsterdam, ), – . population : d. j. noordam, ‘gezins- en huishoudens-structuren in het achttiende-eeuwse leiden’, in h. a. diederiks, d. j. noordam and h. d. tjalsma, armoede en sociale spanning. sociaal-histor- ische studies over leiden in de achttiende eeuw (hilversum, ), – , especially . percentage of elderly in total population based upon amsterdam figures. almshouses: dutch almshouse database (dad). places: dad. for the number is deduced from the number of inhabitants or apartments specified in the founding acts. in some cases, the number of inhabitants would have been higher than the number of apartments, but that is not always clear from the sources. moreover, under-registration was common because almshouses sometimes allowed more inhabitants than originally specified. this number must, therefore, be regarded as an approximate minimum. : tjalsma, ‘een karakter- isering van leiden’, in diederiks, noordam and tjalsma, armoede en sociale spanning, . f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es almshouse founders over such a long stretch of time, data have been gathered which form building blocks of a prosopography of almshouse founders: their names, dates, social status, occupations, wealth, gender, family relations (i.e. whether they were married, single and had children or not) and religion. the method of prosopography is, in itself, insufficient to isolate motives for founding almshouses, but allows the shared characteristics of almshouse founders to be established. in some cases – such as with the absence of children – such information may lead to the identification of a particular motive amongst founders. the leiden case study is based on almshouse foundations, enumerated in table a in the appendix, which lists the foundations, their founders ( in all), the dates of original statement of intention to make a foundation and the dates that the foundations were actually effected. the founders and their characteristics are listed in table b in the appendix, which includes such items as each founder’s gender, marital status, occupation, religion, presence or absence of offspring, the highest public office – if any – held in leiden, and whether they were of immigrant descent. all of these will be discussed in the following paragraphs. of the founders, acted alone. of these individuals, were men and six were women. this did not mean that they were all unmarried: sometimes their partner did not take part in the foundation. there were also nine married couples acting as joint founders, while the hofje van brouckhoven and the tevelingshofje were founded by siblings. the largest group of founders, thus, consisted of male founders acting alone, the se- cond largest comprised couples and the smallest female founders. nevertheless there was a significant percentage of single women founders: six women out of ( per cent) may exemplify the great liberty which dutch women enjoyed when it came to dispensing with their property. for example, the klein sionshofje was founded in by emerentia benningh (founder number in appendix table b) while her husband jacob van brouckhoven ( a) was still alive. since he had founded his own almshouse, following the last will of his sister, he may have supported his wife’s endeavour without feeling the need to act as a co-founder. at the time of foundation, founders were married, a further had been widowed and five had never been married. the exact marital status of four other founders at the time of foundation is unknown. in three of these cases, it is known that françois houttijn ( ), samuel de zee ( ) and barend van namen ( ) were married at some point, but it is unclear whether they were still married at the time of foundation. even if the last unknown case, joost fransz van der linden ( ), remained unmarried all his life, the vast majority of founders, out of , were married at some stage. h e nk l o o i je st ei j n the majority – out of – of founders did not have any surviving children at the moment of foundation. at least founders are known to have been completely childless. in a further six cases, the records do not mention childlessness, but no children are known. in another five cases, their children had predeceased the founders. nothing is known about the children of the final founder, joost fransz van der linde, but it is likely that he did not leave behind any as living heirs. the nine remaining founders had children living at the time of foundation. the absence of children seems to have been a crucial factor in the de- cision to contribute to charity on a grand scale. the prime consideration and obligation of an ageing, early modern dutchman was to transfer his property to his partner, children or other descendants. if these were ab- sent, he had a certain moral liberty to dispense with part of his capital for the benefit of people to whom he was not related. this ‘unwritten rule’ also applied to bequests, which in leiden were given predominantly by people without children. nevertheless, in nine of the cases under consideration, the founders had children who were alive when the almshouse was founded. in the case of jacob tevel and elisabeth van den vinct ( b) their only son was severely handicapped and clearly expected to die young, which he duly did. two other foundations were to be realised only if a child died. the foundation by bartolomeus willemsz van assendelft ( ) was only to take effect if his daughter or her descendants were to die without heirs of the body, an eventuality which occurred in , nearly years later. françois houttijn stipulated in his will that after the death of his daughter and brother, an almshouse should be founded. both died, without descen- dants, within three years of houttijn, after which the foundation took effect. only six founders apparently had healthy children who lived long be- yond their parents and had descendants. of these founders, four lived before leiden’s reformation in . they were all wealthy and, perhaps, considered their children well taken care of already. the same applies to two of the later founders, gerrit franckensz van hoogmade ( ) and diderick van leyden ( ). van leyden, an exceptionally proud patrician, even in the eyes of his peers, not only founded the mierennesthofje in leiden, but also, in , the van leydenshofje in his lordship, vlaardingen. van leyden was exceedingly wealthy and had bequeathed a string of local lordships to his surviving sons, so that none of them needed to worry about being disadvantaged on account of their father’s philan- thropic largesse. indeed, they faithfully administered his foundations. as for religion, all eight pre-reformation founders must be considered catholics as, until , the catholic church was the only recognised f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es church. after , religious diversity emerged in leiden, and most of the post-reformation founders were protestants of some description, while only four were catholic, two were remonstrant and one was mennonite. the remaining protestant founders belonged to the reformed church, either the public, dutch reformed church or the french-speaking walloon reformed church. theologically, these chur- ches were in communion with each other, and the walloons belonged to the officially accepted calvinist reformed church. these data on leiden founders can be compared with all the founders in the database. the results are presented in table . at face value, the leiden data differ considerably from the whole. however, research in leiden’s archives has supplied data lacking for other localities, so there is a contrast with the larger database where there is a considerable percentage of cases where data are unknown. for example: in per cent of cases marital status is unknown, in per cent it is not known if the founder had long-lived progeny, and in per cent of cases no indication of religion was available. nevertheless, there are also similarities between the data for the northern netherlands and those for leiden. as in leiden, nearly half of the founders in the northern netherlands were men acting alone, most of those about whom something is known were married at some point and most were childless or their children had predeceased them. it is probable therefore that the leiden data are representative of the larger database, but this can remain no more than a tentative conclusion. table suggests that outside leiden a greater proportion of founders were single females, whereas the proportion of founders who were couples was much lower. this difference may again be a result from the additional archival research undertaken in leiden, which supplied the names and identified the existence of partners of the leiden almshouse founders. there were clear differences where religion was concerned, which is probably due to the uneven distribution of the religious groups. catholicism, for example, was much stronger in cities such as amsterdam and haarlem, and the database shows more catholic foundations in these cities after the reformation. there are fewer data on the wealth of founders – even in the case of leiden despite the extra archival research there. often there is insufficient source material to assess either the wealth held by the founders or what proportion of it they spent on their foundation. older foundations in particular were often not funded in terms of money, but were endowed with lands and houses, from which the foundation was to receive rents necessary for its upkeep. sometimes, as founders already owned the h e nk l o o i je st ei j n buildings that were to form their almshouse, they granted a sum of money only for upkeep. cathrijn maertensdr ( ) left guilders for the upkeep of her almshouse while pieter gerritsz van der speck ( ) bequeathed , guilders to his. sometimes, we are informed about how much money the founders intended to set aside, but not how much the total capital was, such as in the case of eva van hoogeveen ( ), who left obligations (bonds) worth , guilders for her almshouse, a sum which was indeed spent, but which was considerably lower than the amount inherited by her family. sometimes we know how much was spent but not the total wealth of the founder. diderick van leyden spent , guilders buying the houses that would become the mierennesthofje. t ab l e leiden founders compared with founders in the northern netherlands as a whole leiden northern netherlands n % n % type of founder male single female single couple other total a known marital status married at one point never married total known offspring no surviving offspring surviving offspring in the long term total known religion catholic dutch reformed walloon reformed . remonstrant . mennonite other total a number of almshouse founders before in dutch almshouse database about whom at least some data are known. source: dutch almshouse database. f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es in he bequeathed , guilders in obligations to this almshouse. cecilia coninck ( ) reserved , guilders for her almshouse, of which , was spent on the actual building. in a few cases, we can assess how much of their capital founders spent on their foundations. jacob van brouckhoven ( a), who built and founded his almshouse during his lifetime, possessed , guilders in . he spent approximately , guilders on his founda- tion – less than a tenth of his total capital, but nevertheless a consider- able amount. cornelis sprongh ( ) spent even more in terms of percentage of his total wealth. he left half of his estate – worth , guilders – to the almshouse to be situated in his house. joint founders jean pesijn and marie de lannoy ( ) spent their entire capital on their almshouse. in , as a widow, de lannoy was estimated to possess a capital of to , guilders. after her death and the sale of all her possessions, the total capital came to , guilders. this entire amount was spent on building the almshouse and acquiring the obligations whose rents were to provide for the upkeep of the jean pesijnshofje. to put all these sums into perspective, in the years – , the average capital of a leiden town regent was , guilders; of a regent’s relative , ; the average capital of a merchant/entrepreneur was , guilders; a rich catholic, , guilders; and a protestant rentier, , guilders. thus, the amount available to spend on founding an almshouse varied considerably. evidently, not all founders spent the same amount, or even the same proportion of their total capital on their almshouse. certainly, in the case of the larger almshouses, a large amount of capital was required and founding an almshouse could con- siderably drain one’s resources. because the data concerning wealth are often insufficient, the occupa- tions of the founders, as possible indicator of wealth, and social class, as captured via membership of the patrician elite, have been singled out in two columns in appendix table b. some occupations are likely to func- tion as good indicators of wealth: brewer, merchant, landed proprietor, administrator, director of the dutch east india company and lawyer. however, occupations as such are not necessarily a reliable indicator of wealth. thus, the husbands of both cathrijn jacobsdr ( ) and cathrijn maertensdr ( ) were tailors, a relatively modest occupation in itself. secondary sources, however, describe the husband of cathrijn maertensdr as a ‘rich’ tailor. the same applies to ‘carpenter’ pieter gerritsz van der speck ( ), whose relatively modest occupational title hides the fact that he was active as a successful contractor and speculator who earned his fortune in leiden’s building boom of the early s. h e nk l o o i je st ei j n the same applies to anthonis jacobsz van der schacht ( ), listed as shopkeeper, but whose probate inventory shows that he actually owned houses in leiden. we may, therefore, assume that even when an occupational title is fairly modest, the founder in question nevertheless enjoyed considerable success and wealth. this does not mean, however, that they necessarily enjoyed high social status in leiden – they may have been homines novi or ‘new men’ – a term which may also have applied to many of the merchants. the apex of leiden society, as in all dutch cities, was occupied by the town regents, who were co-opted into the urban government. participation of the almshouse founders in the city’s government provides another indicator of status. only a minority of the founders were town regents, mostly in the years around and before , when two founders reached the rank of alderman, and three that of burgomaster. although the other two pre-reformation founders were not members of the city government, agatha van alckemade ( ) and geraert van der laen ( ), enjoyed high social status. van alckemade was a noblewoman of high rank and van der laen was a major landed proprietor, so equal to a lesser nobleman. after the reformation, however, the number of patricians and noble- men among the founders in leiden declined considerably. of such founders, only three were members of the city council. two of these, jacob van brouckhoven ( a) and diderick van leyden ( ), were quite exceptional among their peers on account of their great wealth, status and considerable power. there were, however, six other founders affiliated with the city’s patrician elite and therefore of high social status: the sister and wife of jacob van brouckhoven; the catholic priest pouwels claesz de goede ( ), member of a former magistrate’s family; eva van hoogeveen ( ), daughter and sister to magistrates; maarten ruychaver meerman ( ), brother of a magistrate; and cornelis sprongh ( ), a catholic descended from a distinguished magistrate’s family whose great wealth meant that he was regarded as socially near-equal to his protestant relations. even when counting these six individuals in, only nine out of post- reformation almshouse founders can be regarded as part of leiden’s highest social stratum, which contrasts strongly with the fact that all eight pre-reformation founders were of such status. the contrast be- tween the status of almshouse founders before and after the reformation begs explanation. it would appear that after the reformation most town regents of leiden preferred not to display charity through the foundation of almshouses. as the number of elderly far exceeded the available almshouse places, the city was always in need of an extra almshouse. f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es nevertheless, though there were significant accumulations of capital in eighteenth-century leiden and, at the same time, an ever-growing part of the population was mired in poverty, only one regent founded an almshouse; charity does not seem to have ranked high on the list of leiden town regents’ concerns. van nederveen meerkerk, inciden- tally, notes that in leiden, most testamentary bequests were not made by the elite but by the ‘middling’ groups. there are a few exceptions, however, which show that patricians occasionally acted charitably on a grand scale and were wealthy enough to found an almshouse should they choose to do so. the alderman pieter verhooft and his wife, elisabeth van der hiel, bequeathed , guilders to the city orphanage in . they could have afforded to found an almshouse, but the charitable couple had no desire to have their charity publicly remembered, desiring an ‘eternal silence’ on the subject of their largesse. before lambasting leiden’s regents as scrooges however, one should take into account that many town regents, in addition to their public magistrate functions, also often acted as lifelong regents of the various almshouses in leiden. for example, all eighteenth-century regents of the hofje van brouckhoven were until also members of the city council. they often took on several almshouse regent positions. to give just one example, burgomaster nicolaas van de velde ( – ) was regent of three almshouses. those of high social status thus held a considerable number of almshouse regencies. qualitative evidence suggests that the regents of almshouses often contributed their own funds to the upkeep and continuation of the almshouses they administered. they left bequests to them, compensated for deficits in the accounts and spent money on their beautification. evidence from amsterdam suggests that having given great sums to charity during their lifetime, they might then have been less able to be charitable after death. regents were also often related to people who founded almshouses, and were expected to look after these foundations out of familial respect and piety. thus those resources for charity which they had, they were likely to channel into already existing almshouses. diderick van leyden (number in appendix table b) not only founded two almshouses, but also acted as regent of the hofje van brouckhoven as well as passing on to his sons no less than two regent posts in the arend maertenshofje in dordrecht – founded by a great-grand- father of his – suggesting that he was an extraordinary exception that confirms the rule. this all suggests that founding an almshouse, at least after the reformation, was more the work of a social sub-elite, a layer lower than the city’s patrician families. we will return to this analysis in the following section. h e nk l o o i je st ei j n . r e a s o n s f o r f o u n d i n g a l m s h o u s e s like most people, almshouse founders seldom acted out of one overriding motive, but rather from a mixture of motives. limitations of space pro- hibit a discussion of the whole range of possible motives. instead, we will focus on three important motives: religion, status and the motive of sup- porting one’s nearest and dearest. . religion the earliest almshouse foundations were presumably the result of pri- marily religious motives; the wish to attain salvation through charitable work. in the late middle ages, many gifts to the church and institutions of poor relief were given under the condition that they should be acknowl- edged by the recipients in the form of prayers for the benefactors. at the time, people commonly adhered to the church’s doctrine that, after death, the soul entered purgatory to be cleansed of its sins until it was fit to enter heaven. intercession in the form of prayers quickened the puri- fication process, especially when the prayers came from devout and poor people. the acquisition and possession of wealth implied a greater burden of sin, but the rich sinner could lighten his burden by charitable acts, which had the added benefit of instilling gratitude in the recipients, who responded by praying for the benefactor. one of the forms in which this pursuit of salvation could be given shape was the bedehouse. a benefactor would found an almshouse, preferably for , or inhabitants – holy numbers referring to mary, christ and the twelve apostles – where poor people, usually elderly, were given free housing and often additional benefits. in return, these almspeople were to pray for the founders in perpetuity, either in the almshouse chapel or in a church. in leiden, both the jeruzalemshofje and the sint anna aalmoeshuis had their own chapels, the latter surviving to the present day, and the residents were expected to pray for the founders. the other early almshouses also acted as bedehouses. the founders of the sionshofje, sint stevenshofje, sint annahofje and the sint janshofje all stipulated that prayers should be said for them. thus, personal salvation was clearly a motive for the earliest six foundations, but seems to have lost its attraction by the s, even for devout catholics such as agatha van alckemade (number in appendix table b), who founded the bethaniënhofje for the benefit of her soul and that of her parents, but did not require prayers. vestiges of this memorial cult seem, nevertheless, to have persisted in some way among catholics. pouwels de goede ( ) stipulated, in , that his portrait should be displayed in his eternal memory in the alms- house that he had founded. cornelis sprongh ( ) stipulated, in , f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es that the almswomen in his heilige geesthofje were to be given a treat on the anniversaries of his birthday and that of his wife. with the advent of the reformation, religious motivation becomes harder to identify. protestant theologians often rejected the belief that good works could lead to salvation. thus, almshouse foundation could no longer be regarded as particularly beneficial for the soul. undoubtedly, not all formally protestant founders were fully immersed in the finer points of their church’s theology and may yet have hoped for some hea- venly reward. however, it is known that some founders, such as jacob van brouckhoven ( a), were well versed in orthodox theology. it has been suggested that for orthodox calvinists, founding an almshouse was a public assertion of confidence in their salvation and of thankfulness for god’s merciful – and undeserved – bestowal of so much material wealth. this was, presumably, the case with the founders van brouckhoven, who was a thrifty and militant calvinist, catharina geschier ( ), who, in her will, wrote that ‘the blessing of the lord makes rich without labour’, and samuel de zee ( ), whose will shows great zeal for the calvinist faith, founding two scholarships for theology students and arranging for the inhabitants of his almshouse to receive catechism lessons every week. . memorial cult and social status whereas prayers for the dead lost their urgency in protestant theology, the cult of commemorating the charitable dead did not disappear after the reformation. if anything, it became stronger, for though religious piety might have found new channels to express itself, familial piety lost nothing of its attraction. in fact, the charitable foundations of their ancestors seem to have become more important for the founders’ families, with the em- phasis shifting to the memory of the family as such. almshouses that were run by generations of the same family could develop into monuments to familial charity, veritable family shrines. this concern seems also to have become more important for the founders themselves, who sometimes specified that their portraits – and sometimes those of their predeceased offspring – be placed in the regent chambers. this new form of memorial cult was translated into the rise of elaborate gatehouses, fitted out with coats of arms and commemorative inscrip- tions. jan willemsz van woudendorp ( ), for example, described in de- tail his coat of arms in his will, which was to be displayed over the gate. anthonis jacobsz van der schacht ( ) had the gate of his almshouse decorated with depictions of the tools of his trade. incidentally, the pla- cing of coats of arms was not the exclusive domain of almshouse founders. leiden town regents, from the seventeenth century onwards, also placed h e nk l o o i je st ei j n their coats of arms on many public and semi-public buildings. for them, founding an almshouse was not the only road to an increase in status and honour of their family. in the second half of the seventeenth century a subsequent phase in the history of dutch almshouses began, the building of so-called ‘monu- mental’ almshouses. founders were no longer content with reasonably modest buildings but, as well as impressive gatehouses, built lavish regents’ chambers and courtyards with monumental wells. these pro- vided the inhabitants with more living space than the older almshouses. prominent monumental almshouses in leiden are the hofje van brouckhoven and the hofje meermansburg. the latter was described as more pleasant than an imperial palace and functioned as a monument to the charity of the meerman family as much as an almshouse, with coats of arms on the outside and a well topped by their eponymous mer- man. similarly, the hofje van eva van hoogeveen was adorned with a coat of arms on the outside wall and the well was topped by a statue of a lamb, referring to the lamb in the family coat of arms. obviously, charitable purposes could be combined with the exaltation of one’s family. it is difficult to see how this rise of monumental almshouses could be compatible with the calvinist theology dominating the dutch reformed church, which warned against excessive external display. jacob van brouckhoven, whose orthodox calvinism is beyond doubt, also had his coat of arms displayed on the impressive gatehouse to his almshouse, though he did not go so far as to have his full name recorded. instead, the only inscriptions are his and his co-founders’ initials. even to committed calvinists, it would seem, the honour and status of the family were important concerns. the fact that many almshouse founders were childless and their almshouses were often completed only after their death does not contra- dict the importance of this concern. the reputation and status of one’s family was not only determined by the present, but also, greatly, by the past. even if one was the last of the line, one still had obligations to the familial memory by making sure that a family name would not be forgotten even after its extinction. there are more reasons to assume that status acquisition played a role. this may be deduced from the fact that so many post-reformation founders in leiden were immigrants, a trait possibly peculiar to alms- house founders in this city given the enormous influx of french-speaking immigrants from the southern netherlands. at least seven foundations were the work of eight founders who were immigrants – or children of immigrants – from the south. though often very successful in their new home city, none of them ever achieved the highest social status in the form f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es of a position on the city council. this reflects the notorious tendency of leiden’s elite to close its ranks against the southerners and politically exclude the migrant minority. most of these southerners, though not all, were members of the walloon reformed congregation and, thus, attended a church in a different linguistic environment from that of their indigen- ous co-religionists. for this sub-elite group in leiden, status acquisition, coupled with a desire to strengthen their own (ethnic) community, may well have been a strong motive for founding an almshouse. . care for one’s dearest many founders felt concerned for the generations who would come after them and part of maintaining the honour of the lineage was the duty to care for family members. it has been said that the almshouse founders and regents probably intended to safeguard from social decline less successful members of the same social group that they themselves belonged to, es- pecially their family members. thus, not only was the memory of the family safeguarded, but the almshouse also protected the family’s status even if one of the members had hit hard times. this not only applied to those who shared the family name of the founder, but to a much wider circle of kin. it is difficult to trace such relations, since almshouse ad- ministration was often rather haphazard. if a distant family relationship was a reason for giving a particular person a place, it was not always recorded, and even if it was, the precise kinship relation to the founder was rarely specified. given the fact that founders frequently made this explicit proviso in their will, however, it is likely that this was a motive of some importance. once again this was a motive dating from the late middle ages: explicit provisions that almshouse administrators should give preference to family members date from long before the reformation, as in the case of the founders of the sint anna aalmoeshuis and the sint stevenshofje. moreover, it was no empty stipulation. the sint anna aalmoeshuis, for example, housed two women from amongst the founder’s kin between and . jan willemsz van woudendorp ( in appendix table b) also stipulated that precedence should be given to his kin. though most of his near family were wealthy enough not to need a place in his almshouse, one line was impoverished, and throughout the seventeenth and eight- eenth centuries could dependably acquire a place in his almshouse. similarly, the almshouse of samuel de zee ( ) was explicitly set up and referred to as a ‘family almshouse’. at least until the mid-nineteenth century, the regents kept detailed records of who was entitled to a place in the almshouse. overall, regents scrupulously adhered to such rules, even h e nk l o o i je st ei j n centuries later: for example, the regents of the sint stevenshofje, founded in , on two occasions, in and , specifically stated that they had admitted a person because he was of the founder’s kin. the founders of meermansburg specified not only that their family enjoyed precedence, but even assigned a specific apartment in their almshouse to be kept available for family members at all times, and which was indeed used for that purpose, although on occasion it was uninhabited. sometimes the almshouse regents themselves fell into poverty and had to make use of these stipulations privileging family. this happened to the van der laens, regents of the sint janshofje, by the end of the seventeenth century. one of the van der laen regents, an impoverished widow, took a place in the family almshouse. the last van der laen took advantage of her kinship with the meermans and died as an inhabitant of the family apartment in the hofje meermansburg. . care for one’s nearest even if a founder often favoured his (or her) own kin over others, he ordinarily assumed in his will that kin would not be the sole beneficiaries of his charity. usually founders described the prospective inhabitants in rather vague terms as poor but respectable people, but sometimes they were more explicit. some promised a place to their domestic personnel, who customarily were regarded as more or less part of the family for whom provision had to be made, and with whom ties could be intimate. in leiden, throughout the early modern age, wealthy households had at least one or two domestics. the upper bourgeoisie and the town regents often had more – founder diderick van leyden ( in appendix table b), for example, employed seven domestics in . often the founder’s personnel were assigned specific tasks in the alms- house. cornelis sprongh ( ), for example, stipulated that his servant and her husband should continue to live in his house, which was to be con- verted into an almshouse, and act as caretakers of the poor, old women housed there. almshouse foundations could, thus, act as a form of pro- vision for elderly personnel and the regents who administered their foundations used them as such. stipulations favouring those who shared a founder’s religion were more common. in a sense, they too were regarded as a form of family, as in the common phrase ‘household members of the faith’ (huisgenoten des ge- loofs). at least one founder, jan de latere ( ), used this exact phrase in his will. in his case, he meant members of the dutch reformed church. other founders were more explicit about the expected religious affiliation. gerrit franckensz van hoogmade ( ), for example, wrote in his will that f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es he founded his almshouse out of his special affection for the mennonite community to which he belonged. it is possible that the non-reformed founders specifically meant to strengthen their communities by providing the elderly members with the means to stay out of the civic, magistrate- controlled institutions, and thus preventing them from lapsing from their faith in favour of the dutch reformed regime of these institutions. some dissenter founders kept conspicuously silent about the desired religious affiliation of almspeople in their wills. post-reformation catholic foun- ders, by appointing trusted catholics as executor-regents, ensured that their almshouse would, in fact, be open only to catholics. the stipulations of the walloon founders that their almshouses were open to walloons in particular seem more inspired by another form of bond between founder and inhabitants. religiously, there was no reason why walloons should dread being taken into a dutch reformed almshouse. leiden’s almshouses and hospitals do not seem to have discriminated against walloon burghers. however, the fact that the walloons had the french language in common and shared a background of migration, especially when that migration had not been entirely vol- untary, may have played an important role. jean pesijn and marie de lannoy (both ), for example, both came from the area around lille and, in the s, had migrated to leiden, where they married. that it was not just church membership that was important to them may be inferred from the precise wording of their statement that their foundation was meant for ‘des vieilles gens mariés de la nation wallonne’, that is, for ‘old married people of the walloon nation’. the memorial tablet that was installed over the entrance gate specified, moreover, that the pesijns wished to give comfort to walloons driven from their homeland. thus, the walloon almshouses served not just a religious, but also an ethnic community. a similar sense of solidarity was displayed by anthonis jacobsz van der schacht ( ). orphaned as a boy, he stipulated that, after his family, precedence should be given to former orphans who, like him, had been taken in by the city orphanage. his concern for orphaned children is also apparent from the fact that as a successful ‘needle maker’ he apprenticed several orphans and bequeathed , guilders to the orphanage. finally, gender solidarity may also have played a role in founding almshouses. some founders, at least, seem specifically motivated by con- cern for the vulnerability of single women in society, such as the wealthy eva van hoogeveen ( ), who remained unmarried throughout her life though she must have been a desirable match. she was explicitly described in the epithet over the almshouse gate as a ‘most chaste and laudable virgin’, and specified that her almshouse was meant for women ‘who had h e nk l o o i je st ei j n no husband’. this wording was rather unusual and suggests that she wanted to provide a home explicitly for confirmed spinsters from less privileged backgrounds than her own. another example is emerentia benningh ( ), who founded the klein sionshofje, a small almshouse specifically for four widows of the inhabitants of the adjoining sionshofje, who suffered a ‘double stroke’ when their husband died as they not only lost their husbands but also their home and the support provided by the sionshofje. benningh hired the same architect who had built her hus- band’s almshouse, but her own almshouse remained much more modest in scale – even though she could easily have outdone her husband, as she left an estate worth , guilders. clearly, her intentions were lim- ited to specifically assisting the widows of the sionshofje, in which case four chambers may well have been enough to provide for these bereaved women. . t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e i n g a p a t r o n regardless of which category of people an almshouse founder had in mind as deserving of alms, every founder seems to have stood in the centre of a circle of dependants for whom he or she was responsible. kooijmans has recognised this mechanism of patronage in his study of dutch early modern family and friendship relations. as depicted in figure , the first responsibility that the head of a family had was to his immediate family – including children, sometimes parents, siblings and siblings’ children. beyond that, there was a wider circle of kin, varying from descendants of maternal ancestors to far-removed patri- lineal relatives. the head also had responsibility for his domestic person- nel, non-domestic personnel and any neighbours with whom he had a long-standing patronage relationship. looking after these relations reflected positively on the reputation of the head, and on that of his family; failure to look after them would be viewed negatively, as the reputation of the family depended on the proper behaviour of all its members, no matter how far removed. poverty of one reflected badly on the rest. this patronage mechanism explains part of the choice of recipients of almshouse charity. for founders, as figure shows, looking after co-religionists and fellow members of a particular ethnic group was not as obligatory as looking after family members and dependants. however, a founder was expected to assist fellow co-religionists and fellow-countrymen, with whom there were often kinship relations any- way, so that the different circles overlapped in such cases. similarly, looking after single or widowed women in general, or former orphans in f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es general, was not ordinarily a task for a family head, but looking after widows, single women and orphans within the family circle certainly was. not all founders worked within the same set of circles. almshouse founders who were extremely wealthy often gave other categories of re- cipients precedence over their relatives. thus, eva van hoogeveen ( , appendix table b) emphasised that her almshouse was meant pri- marily for single women, and did not specify in her will that her relatives family head close relations distant relations wider kin groups domestic personnel f i g ur e . obligations of a dutch family head. founder close family distant family/kin group domestic personnel co-religionists f i g ur e . obligations of an almshouse founder. h e nk l o o i je st ei j n had a greater claim over others. neither did diderick van leyden ( ). it was possibly inconceivable to this wealthy burgomaster that his direct family would ever suffer want. in his case, at least one of his almshouses may have catered to another specific group: the inhabitants of his lord- ships. this too would have been understood as part of the circle of responsibilities within which a well-to-do dutch burgher stood. . a l m s h o u s e s a s s a f e t y v a l v e s founders’ responsibilities defined, to a large extent, the social compo- sition of almshouse populations. data available on almshouse inhabitants strongly suggest that, apart from the impoverished members of founders’ families, most were members of the dutch republic’s largest social classes. dutch historians distinguish five or six layers in early modern dutch society. beneath the patricians and nobility was the layer of the ‘great burghers’, which consisted of merchants, ministers and academics, followed by the layers of ‘broad burghers’, ‘small burghers’, the wage- dependants, and, in the lowest position, the ‘rabble’. the broad and small burghers together formed the ‘decent middle class, the cork on which society floated’ – the upper and lower middle classes. the ‘broad bur- ghers’ or upper middle class consisted of successful artisans, small en- trepreneurs, well-off shopkeepers, lower military officers, urban officials, village ministers and well-off farmers. they formed about per cent of the population and enjoyed an annual income of to , guilders. often they could afford to save money for their old age. the ‘small burghers’, or lower middle class, formed a heterogeneous group of small farmers, lower officials, schoolmasters, small skippers, small shopkeepers and artisans, many of them dependent on wage labour: this layer was ‘above all, the world of small guild masters’, who, incidentally, had their own system of welfare. they formed about a third of the dutch popu- lation, subsisting on an annual income of to guilders. though regarded as ‘respectable’, the small burghers did not have many certain- ties: the early death of the breadwinner, a protracted illness or an accident could easily lead to social degradation in their case. the same applied to the lower layer of wage-dependants, domestic servants, soldiers and sailors, relatively low-skilled artisans such as textile labourers, ship’s carpenters, usually in the service of others, and unskilled labourers organised in guilds, such as the important group of carriers in amsterdam who loaded and unloaded ships. like the ‘small burghers’, their future prospects were uncertain; personal mishap or economic fluc- tuations could easily tip them into poverty. they subsisted on an annual f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es income of to guilders and comprised another third of the popu- lation. these two groups – the lower middle class and the wage-dependants, comprising some per cent of the population – were forever balanced precariously on the threshold between respectability and the rabble. for them, it was much more difficult to save money for their old age. a place in an almshouse allowed them to age with grace and without losing face, that is, without descending into the lowest class of dutch society, the per cent of the population who could hardly subsist even at the best of times. dutch society did not abandon this lowest rung of society, but almshouses often – though not always – excluded the really poor through more or less strict requirements regarding church membership and less easily traceable notions of respectability and decency. in leiden, at least almshouses in one way or another adhered to such requirements. the ‘rabble’ simply could not live up to these rules – even if they had been able to save enough money to pay an entrance fee. unfortunately, the dearth of sources does not allow a detailed account of who actually lived in leiden’s almshouses. registers of alms- house inhabitants are rare and, when they do exist, not very informative. almshouse regents seem to have been more concerned with administrat- ing the almshouse’s funds properly. an exception, in this sense, was pauwels pauwelsz van thorenvliet, regent of the sint anna aalmoeshuis between and , who kept a register of the inhabitants, their ages, names, origins and, sometimes, information on the occupations of their deceased husbands. these latter had mostly had jobs placing them in the lower middle class and the group of wage-dependants. three had been active as weavers and two as cloth-millers. the other occupations listed included kettle-smith, knife-smith, corn-measurer, shoemaker, ball-maker, butcher, soldier, tailor, farmer and peat-digger. however there was also a lakenreder or textile-manufacturer/merchant, an occupation with great potential for acquiring wealth. there are other indications that entering an almshouse was not for the truly poor. in some cases, inventories of the goods that the inhabitants brought with them have been preserved. from these lists, it is clear that almshouse inhabitants were not the poorest since they possessed con- siderable amounts of furniture, utensils, clothing, some jewellery, money and sometimes a book. the inventories, which were deposited with the regents upon entering, suggest also a moderate amount of literacy, as they were written by the new arrivals themselves. almshouses in leiden, thus, seem to have catered for those for whom old age might mean a loss of goods and status, and, therefore, were predominantly of interest to those who feared their lives would outlast h e nk l o o i je st ei j n their means. this category extended to those from a higher social back- ground. the textile manufacturer’s widow is a case in point, as is van thorenvliet’s cousin, who was admitted to the almshouse in and was obviously more well-to-do than her new neighbours. on the whole, however, almshouses primarily catered to the lower middle class and the wage-dependants, from whose ranks most dependants of almshouse founders and regents originated. when no relatives needed a place do- mestics and outdoor personnel, such as gardeners and washerwomen, came first in line. similarly, those ‘fellows in the faith’ who desired a place were also more likely to have come from amongst the ranks of the ‘small burghers’. it is probable that most inhabitants originated from these large groups in society. more research is needed before this can be confirmed with greater conviction, but it is perhaps not going too far here to pos- tulate that in almshouses, the top per cent of early modern society provided an escape from the poverty trap for the per cent of the population defined as ‘small burghers’ and wage-dependants. . c o n c l u s i o n the introduction asked who the almshouse founders of leiden were, and why, and for whom, they founded their almshouses. the prosopography of leiden’s almshouse founders suggests that they were likely to be male and usually married, in which case their wives often acted as co-founders. a minority of the founders consisted of women, most of whom were spinsters or widows. the vast majority of founders in leiden had been married at some point in their lives, but a considerable majority did not leave children behind at the time of foundation. religiously, they were mostly conformist. although before the reformation, in , they were all catholic, after that date out of adhered to the reformed church while non-reformed foundations were fewer, but ran most of the religious gamut of the republic, such as catholic, mennonite and remonstrant. though theologically in communion with the dutch reformed, the walloon reformed founders actually formed the largest subdivision, eight founders being from this ethnically defined group. the seven dis- senter founders and the eight walloon founders may, however, have had in common the desire to contribute to the cohesion of their respective religious and ethnic communities. the wealth of the founders varied, as did the extent to which they used their capital for their foundations but, in all cases, their wealth must have been considerable. the most remarkable change over time was the decrease in founders who were part of the patrician elite. before , almost all founders occupied positions in the urban government. after f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es , only three founders did so, though another six founders were part of the urban super-elite. in contrast, post-reformation founders formed part of the city’s rich sub-elite. a possible explanation for this sharp contrast may be that town regents in later eras were responsible for many of the older foundations, which stopped them from founding their own almshouses. as for why almshouses were founded, leiden founders could have been motivated by religious concerns. this was clearly attested by the pre- reformation founders, who expected the inhabitants of their foundations to pray for their souls. after the reformation, they showed concern for the spiritual welfare of the beneficiaries of their foundation, but, increas- ingly, they also showed obvious concern for the memory and status of themselves and their families, past and present. founding an almshouse was a way to acquire or solidify the status of a particular family. the motive of status acquisition may have been highly important to the many founders from the sub-elite. closely related to this motive was the strong concern for all those for whom they felt, or were obligated to feel, re- sponsible as patrons. almshouses were founded to accommodate less well-off relatives, personnel, fellow religionists, countrymen, women and former orphans, and in one case, the subjects of their lordships. most of these recipients could be found in the lower, but not the lowest, regions of dutch society. the composite image of the leiden almshouse founders provided in this article suggests that, though the dutch charitable institutions seemed ‘many and various’ to sir william temple, in fact, they showed a con- siderable degree of similarity to one another; as a group, they displayed considerable homogeneity, even across the centuries. although change certainly occurred, the continuity may, in fact, have been greater. h e nk l o o i je st ei j n a p p e n d i x t a bl e a leiden almshouse foundations ca. –ca. no. name of foundation aa bb name(s) of founder(s)c jeruzalemshofje wouter ijsbrantsz (died ) (groot) sionshofje jhr hugo van zwieten (died ) and jvr lutgart clarisdr van boschhuizen st. stevenshofje willem aerntsz van tetrode (died ) and christina aartsdr (aerntsdr) bruinen (died / ) st. anna hofje (aalmoeshuis) willem claesz (died ) and hillegont willemsdr (died ) st. annahofje of joostenpoort mr joest heynricxz (van der strijpen van duivelandt) (died ) and geertruyt jansdr (died / ) st. janshofje jan stoop kerstantsz and claertgen pieter jan claerensznsdr bethanienhofje (emmaushofje) agatha van alckemade (died ) st. janshofje (van der laenshofje) mr geraert van der laan ( / – ) cathrijn jacobsdochterhofje cathrijn jacobsdr (died ) cathrijn maertensdochterhofje cathrijn maertensdr (died ) jan de laterehofje jan de latere (du later) (died ) st. barbarahofje jacob aertsz (arentsz) spruyt (died ) and beatrix huysmansdr van assendelftshofje bartholomeus willemsz van assendelft (died ) st. salvatorhofje (salvator mundihofje) pouwels claesz de goede ( / – ) hofje bethlehem gerrit franckensz van hoogmade (died / ) van brouchoven hofje jacob van brouckhoven ( – ) and anna van brouchoven (died ) klein sionshofje (hofje van emerantia banningh) emerantia benningh ( – ) st. pietershof (van der speckhofje) pieter gerritsz (van der) speck (died ) van woudendorpshofje (woudendorpspoort) jan willemsz van woudendorp (died ) and catherina jansdr van der rijp f u n d i n g a n d f o u n d i n g p r i v a t e c h a r i t i e s t a bl e a (cont.) no. name of foundation aa bb name(s) of founder(s)c hofje van eva van hoogeveen eva aelbrechtsdr van hoogeveen ( – ) hofje van (pieter) loridan pieter loridan (died ) tevelingshofje (karel tevelshofje) charles tevel (died ), jacob tevel (ca. – ) and elisabeth van den vinct (died ) jan (jean) pesijns hofje jan pesijn (died ) and marie de lannoy (died ) schachtenhofje anthonis jacobsz (van der) schacht (schaft) (ca. – ) joost frans van der lindenhofje (remonstrantenpoort) joost fransz van der linden (died ) st. jacobshofje (crayenboschhofje) gommarus jacobsz van crayenbosch (died ) hofje meermansburg maarten ruychaver meerman ( – ) and helena verburch (ca. / – ) francois houttijnshofje francois houttijn (died ) jean michielshofje jean michel and catharina geschier (died ) heilige geesthofje (hof van cornelis sprongh van hoogmade) cornelis sprongh ( – ), heer van hoogmade hofje van samuel de zee samuel de zee (samuel le maire) ( – ) barend van namenshofje barend van namen (died ) mierennesthofje mr diderick rijksgraaf van leyden ( – ) coninckshofje cecilia coninck (died ) a column a gives the date of the original intention to found an almshouse. b column b gives the date of the actual effectuation of the foundation. c it is a dutch convention to abbreviate surnames so, for example, jacobsz (no. ) is a shortened version of jacobszoon and jacobsdr (no. ) is a shortened version of jacobsdochter. source: dutch almshouse database. h e n k l o o i j e s t e i j n t a bl e b characteristics of the founders no. names of foundersa gender marital statusb offspring occupation patrician rankc walloon/southern netherlands background religiond wouter ijsbrantsz (died ) male m childless grocer and cloth merchant alderman c jhr hugo van zwieten (died ) and jvr lutgart clarisdr van boschhuizen male/female m childless nobleman and landed proprietor burgomaster c willem aerntsz van tetrode (died ) and christina aartsdr (aerntsdr) bruinen (died / ) male/female m childlesse brewer and cloth merchant c willem claesz (died ) and hillegont willemsdr (died ) male/female m children brewer and barber alderman c mr joest heynricxz (van der strijpen van duivelandt) (died ) and geertruyt jansdr (died / ) male/female m children apothecary burgomaster c jan stoop kerstantsz and claertgen pieter jan claerensznsdr male/female m childless brewer and dyer burgomaster c agatha van alckemade (died ) female w children noblewoman and landed proprietor c f u n d i n g a n d f o u n d i n g p r i v a t e c h a r i t i e s t a bl e b (cont.) no. names of foundersa gender marital statusb offspring occupation patrician rankc walloon/southern netherlands background religiond mr geraert van der laan ( / – ) male w children administrator and landed proprietor c cathrijn jacobsdr (died ) female w no known children tailor’s widow nhf cathrijn maertensdr (died ) female w no known children tailor’s widow nhg jan de latere (du later) (died ) male m no known children merchant yes wh jacob aertsz (arentsz) spruyt (died ) and beatrix huysmansdr male/female m childlessh c bartholomeus willemsz van assendelft (died ) male w childreni wood merchant veertigraadj nh pouwels claesz de goede ( / – ) male u childless priest c gerrit franckensz van hoogmade (died / ) male m children merchant m a jacob van brouckhoven ( – ) male m childless administrator and landed proprietor burgomaster nh b anna van brouckhoven (died ) female w childless widow of councillor court of holland nh emerentia benningh ( – ) female m childless wife burgomaster nh pieter gerritsz (van der) speck (died ) male w no known children carpenter–architect nh h e n k l o o i j e s t e i j n jan willemsz van woudendorp (died ) male m no known children grain merchant nh eva aelbrechtsdr van hoogeveen ( – ) female u childless regent’s daughter nh pieter loridan (died ) male u childless cloth dyer yes wh a charles tevel (died ) male u childless merchant yes wh b jacob tevel (ca. – ) and elisabeth van den vinct (died ) male/female m childrenk merchant yes wh jan pesijn (died ) and marie de lannoy (died ) male/female m children predeceased merchant yes wh anthonis jacobsz (van der) schacht (schaft) (ca. – ) male w childless shopkeeper yes nh joost fransz van der linden (died ) male rem gommarus jacobsz van crayenbosch (died ) male w children predeceased merchant c maarten ruychaver meerman ( – ) and helena verburch (ca. / – ) male/female m children predeceased director of dutch east india company nh françois houttijn (died ) male childrenl lawyer rem jean michel and catharina geschier (died ) male/female m no known children cloth merchant yes wh cornelis sprongh ( – ), heer van hoogmade male w childless landed proprietor c f u n d i n g a n d f o u n d i n g p r i v a t e c h a r i t i e s t ab le b (cont.) no. names of foundersa gender marital statusb offspring occupation patrician rankc walloon/southern netherlands background religiond samuel de zee (samuel le maire) ( – ) male children predeceased yes wh barend van namen (died ) male children predeceased merchant nh mr diderick rijksgraaf van leyden ( – ) male m children administrator and landed proprietor burgomaster nh cecilia coninck (died ) female u childless nh a it is a dutch convention to abbreviate surnames so, for example, aerntsz (no. ) is a shortened version of aerntszoon and aerntsdr (no. ) is a shortened version of aerntsdochter. b m, married; w, widowed; u, unmarried. c only the highest rank attained is mentioned; all men with offices were leiden patricians. d c, catholic; nh, dutch reformed; wh, walloon reformed; m, mennonite; rem, remonstrant. e the marriage was childless, but the husband had an illegitimate daughter. f from the fact that she entrusted the huiszittenmeesters with her foundation, it is clear that this founder was not a dissenter, even if not an avid calvinist. g as previous footnote. h jacob aertsz spruyt had a child from a previous marriage, who predeceased him. i bartholomeus willemsz van assendelft stipulated in his will that if his daughter were to die without descendants, an almshouse should be built; regionaal archief leiden (ral), arch. , no. . this eventuality took place and resulted in the foundation of the hofje van assendelft in . j a ‘veertigraad’ was a member of the ‘forty’, the municipal council, which consisted of members. k their only surviving son was mentally handicapped and died in . l houttijn had a daughter and stipulated that after her death, an almshouse should be founded. sources: dutch almshouse database; ral, hofjes, passim; ral, old notary archives. h e n k l o o i j e s t e i j n a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s i am much indebted to my colleagues lex heerma van voss, marco h. d. van leeuwen, elise van nederveen meerkerk, ariadne schmidt and daniëlle teeuwen, the anonymous peer reviewers and the participants of the giga sessions at the th european social science history conference (ghent, – april ) for their useful suggestions. the research for this article was made possible by the financial support of the netherlands organisation for scientific research (nwo). endnotes sir william temple, observations upon the united provinces of the netherlands, second edition (london, ), – ; consulted on early english books online (subscription website http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home). for an overview of hospitals, see ton kappelhof, ‘hospitäler in den niederlanden in den frühen neuzeit ( – )’, mitteilungen des instituts für österreichische geschichtsbeforderung ( ), – . orphanages: s. groenveld, j. j. h. dekker, th. r. m. willemse and j. dane eds., wezen and boefjes. zes eeuwen zorg in wees- en kinderhuizen (hilversum, ). madhouses: the zinnelooshuis reinier van arkel in den bosch, founded in by reinier van arkel and the willem arntzstichting in utrecht, founded in by willem arntz. both institutions still exist; h. van rooy, het gesticht ‘reinier van arkel’ te ‘s-hertogenbosch (den bosch, ); l. hut, j. de lange, h. loois, a. poslavski and b. van der woord, de willem arntsz stichting – (utrecht, ); a. kappelhof, reinier van arkel – . de geschiede- nis van het oudste psychiatrisch ziekenhuis van nederland (den bosch, ). reformatory: a. hallema, ‘de stichting en inrichting van het utrechtse tuchthuis’, jaarboekje van oud-utrecht ( ), – . for england, see brian howson, houses of noble poverty (ashford, ); and brian howson, almshouses. a social and architectural history (stroud, ). there are no general histories available for other countries, though for some cities overviews exist, such as bruges in belgium and lübeck in germany; hilde de bruyne, de godshuizen in brugge (bruges, ); and rainer andresen, lübeck. wohngänge und stiftshöfe (lübeck, ). for dublin, see robert gahan, ‘old alms-houses of dublin’, dublin historical record , ( ), – ; and for denmark, see h. r. hiort-lorenzen and e. rosendahl, repertorium over legater og milde stiftelser i danmark (copenhagen, ). the notion that almshouses are a european phenomenon was confirmed and developed in a conference co-organised by the author, almshouses in europe from the late middle ages to the present – comparisons and peculiarities, held in haarlem, the netherlands, – september . some of the papers will be published in a special issue of the scandinavian economic history review , ( ). the study of the history of almshouses, though everywhere still marginal, is perhaps strongest in england and the netherlands, where awareness of their existence is greater than in other european countries. for england, see a forthcoming book, to be pub- lished by the family and community history research society: nigel goose, anne langley and helen caffrey eds., the english almshouse c. – (forthcoming). the great interest in almshouses in the netherlands is attested by colourful illustrated popular overviews such as d. p. m. graswinckel, nederlandsche hofjes (amsterdam, ); r. lopes cardozo, hofjes in nederland (hilversum, ); and i. dorren, langs hofjes: routes in nederland en belgië (utrecht, ). for recent scholarly work, f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es willemijn wilms floet of delft university is working on a dissertation on the architecture of almshouses. for the nineteenth century, almshouses are discussed in m. h. d. van leeuwen, logic of charity. a simple model applied to amsterdam – (aldershot and new york, ). although far behind amsterdam and the hague, the first- and second-richest cities; kees zandvliet, de rijksten van de gouden eeuw. kapitaal, macht, familie en le- vensstijl (amsterdam, ), xxiv. jan jansz orlers, beschrijvinge der stadt leyden (leiden, ), – ; and frans van mieris, beschryving der stad leyden (leiden, ), – . van mieris included lengthy extracts from founders’ wills. for the importance of wills in charitable giving, see elise van nederveen meerkerk’s contribution to this issue of continuity and change, ‘the will to give: charitable bequests and community building in the dutch republic, c. – ’. to give a few examples: h. m. turck, die leidener wohnstiftungen vom . bis . jahrhundert (aix-la-chapelle, ); ine leermakers and wietske donkersloot, wonen om gods wille in leidse hofjes (leiden, ); josé niekus and cor smit, van bouwvallig nest tot bijzondere huisvesting. jaar jean pesijnhof (leiden, ); and frits boersma and greet dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden. jaar eva van hoogeveenshofje (leiden, ). of great importance are also the many articles and special issues published by, among others, archivist p. j. m. de baar in the journal de leidse hofjes ( – ). they will therefore here be left out of the corpus of almshouse founders. they include the heyn reynszn. huys (ca. ), willem danelszs cloester (before and after ), cameren van katherijn van der hoeven (ca. ) and the camertgen van lijsbeth van overwael (ca. ). the house of meyne uyt den waerd ( ) and the chambers of jan arentsz van beringen ( ) may never have come into existence. the pieter simonsz zusterhuis, founded in , may never have been an almshouse and developed quickly into a beguinage, a congregation of devout laywomen. another short-lived foundation was the warnaer van der does hof, founded in but already closed down by ; information from the dutch almshouse database (hereafter dad). see j. k. s. moes, ‘stof uit het leidse verleden. sociale en economische facetten uit de geschiedenis van de leidse textielnijverheid ca. –ca. ’, in j. k. s. moes and b. m. a. de vries, stof uit het leidse verleden. zeven eeuwen textielnijverheid (utrecht and leiden, ), – , for an overview of the textile trade in leiden and its periods of growth and decline. as was the case with zwolle: elise van nederveen meerkerk, ‘geven na de dood. liefdadige giften en stedelijke geefcultuur in utrecht en zwolle, – ’, stadsgeschiedenis ( ), – , here . see also turck, die leidener wohnstiftungen, . on the growing poverty in leiden, see h. a. diederiks, d. j. noordam and h. d. tjalsma eds., armoede en sociale spanning. sociaal-historische stu- dies over leiden in de achttiende eeuw (hilversum, ), passim; g. p. m. pot, arm leiden. levensstandaard, bedeling en bedeelden, – (hilversum, ), passim. on migration to amsterdam and overseas as a safety valve for the charitable system of the dutch republic, see m. h. d. van leeuwen, ‘overrun by hungry hordes? migrants’ entitlements to poor relief in the netherlands, th– th centuries’, in s. hindle and a. winter, migration, settlement and belonging in europe, – : a comparative perspective. berghahn publishers, in press. the preceding paragraphs are based on dad; the articles concerning leiden alms- houses in de leidse hofjes; turck, die leidener wohnstiftungen; leermakers and h e nk l o o i je st ei j n donkersloot, wonen om gods wille; boersma and dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden; niekus and smit, van bouwvallig nest. anouk janssen, grijsaards in zwart-wit. de verbeelding van de ouderdom in de nederlandse prentkunst ( – ) (zutphen, ), – , – . harry f. m. peeters, ‘de levensloop in het begin van de moderne tijd ( – )’, in h. f. m. peeters and f. j. mönks eds., de menselijke levensloop in historisch perspectief (assen and maastricht, ), – , especially – . it is not clear on which he bases his estimate, though he refers to ‘demographical computations’. arie van deursen, ‘de oude dag in een hollands dorp’, in harald hendrix and riet schenkeveld-van der dussen eds., oud en lelijk. ouderdom in de cultuur van de renaissance (amsterdam, ), – , here . marco h. d. van leeuwen and james e. oeppen, ‘reconstructing the demographic regime of amsterdam – ’, in economic and social history in the netherlands ( ), – , here – . d. j. noordam, leven in maasland. een hoogontwikkelde plattelandssamenleving in de achttiende en het begin van de negentiende eeuw (hilversum, ), – . janssen, grijsaards in zwart-wit, ; ronald sluijter, ‘oud, afgesloofd, behoeftig en arm. bejaardenzorg in leiden in de achttiende eeuw’ (unpublished m.a. thesis, university of leiden, ). i am indebted to dr ariadne schmidt for this reference. the percentages mentioned here are calculated on the basis of table in van leeuwen and oeppen, ‘reconstructing the demographic regime’, – . only for emigrants from leiden in the years – , but one may doubt if the number of elderly emigrants is representative, assuming that most elderly people would not be very mobile anymore; on the age division of emigrants from leiden, see c. a. davids, ‘de migratiebeweging in leiden in de achttiende eeuw’, in diederiks, noordam and tjalsma, armoede en sociale spanning, – , here . the term ‘functioning’ is defined as foundations that had actually been put into effect. some leiden foundations did not take effect until long after the actual foundation, as table b in the appendix shows. h. d. tjalsma, ‘een karakterisering van leiden in ’, in diederiks, noordam and tjalsma, armoede en sociale spanning, – , here ; personal communication heiko tjalsma m.a., november . sluijter arrives at a similar number of elderly almshouse inhabitants – – on the basis of the same data, although he believes that this value is probably too high; sluijter, ‘oud, afgeleefd, behoeftig en arm’, – . sluijter gives the following figures for elderly leiden inhabitants enjoying social care in : elderly individuals with a separate household receiving poor relief: ; alms- house inhabitants: ; elderly people living with family: ; elderly people lodged with private carers: ; hospital inhabitants: ; a total of about , ; sluijter, ‘oud, afgeleefd, behoeftig en arm’, – . for a discussion on the possibilities and pitfalls of prosopography as a method, see lawrence stone, ‘prosopography’, daedalus. historical studies today ( ), – . prosopography as a method has flourished in the netherlands since its intro- duction in the late s. two studies of the early modern leiden patrician elite, fre- quently cited in this article, are products of this dutch interest in prosopography; d. j. noordam, geringde buffels en heren van stand. het patriciaat van leiden, – (hilversum, ); maarten prak, gezeten burgers. de elite in een hollandse stad – (amsterdam, ). for an overview of dutch and belgian work using prosopography as a method, see koen goudriaan, kees mandemakers, jogchum reitsma and peter stabel eds., prosopography and computer. contributions of f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es mediaevalists and modernists on the use of the computer in historical research (leuven and apeldoorn, ). this is because two less obvious combinations of founders have been listed separately. in one case, a brother and sister – jacob and anna van brouckhoven – were involved and in the other, two siblings and one in-law: the tevelingshofje was founded by a pair of brothers and the wife of one of them, and thus had three founders. whenever an almshouse, however, was founded by husband and wife jointly, they have been counted as one founder. marriage law valid in leiden stipulated that a husband had control of his wife’s capital and acted on her behalf throughout their married life: ariadne schmidt, overleven na de dood. weduwen in leiden in de gouden eeuw (amsterdam, ), ch. and . not all leiden almshouses could be taken into account. the houcksteen almshouse, founded in , was not founded by a private benefactor but by the deaconry of the flemish mennonite congregation. also excluded is the elisabethgasthuishof which did not originate as an almshouse but as a hospital, developed into an institution housing corrodians and only much later, in the eighteenth century, developed into an alms- house. originally founded by private benefactors in , its different aims and ad- ministrative history make this almshouse a borderline case. see manon van der heijden, elise van nederveen meerkerk and ariadne schmidt, ‘terugkeer van het patriarchaat? vrije vrouwen in de republiek’, tijdschrift voor sociale en economische geschiedenis , ( ), – . again, founding couples constitute one founder. when the founder was a couple, absence or presence of children is related to them as a unit. however, in two cases the husbands had had children by a woman other than his current wife: jacob spruyt had a predeceased child from a previous marriage, whereas willem aerntsz van tetrode had an illegitimate child; dad. noordam, geringde buffels, – ; van nederveen meerkerk comes to a similar con- clusion: in utrecht and zwolle a significant proportion of donors did not have children, at least when compared with testators as a whole and with general demographic pat- terns; van nederveen meerkerk, ‘geven na de dood’, – . see also her contribution to this issue: ‘the will to give’. regional archive leiden (hereafter ral), arch. (hofjes), no. , will of bartholomeus willemsz van assendelft, september . to name two examples: diderick van leyden was survived by five adult sons and geraert van der laen’s lineal descendants were still involved in his almshouse in the nineteenth century; prak, gezeten burgers, – ; leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, – . see prak, gezeten burgers, , – , , – . p. j. m. de baar, ‘het mierennesthofje’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – ; l. j. m. bovée, ‘het van leydenshofje te vlaardingen’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – . for this problem, see marco h. d. van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history: philanthropy in amsterdam in the golden age’, in this issue of continuity and change. this was the case with the sionshofje, the st. stevenshofje, the st. annahofje (joostenpoort), st. janshofje, cathrijn jacobsdochterhofje, the st. barbarahofje, the cathrijn maertensdochterhofje, the van assendelfthofje and the van woudendorphofje; dad. ral, stadsarchief van leiden ii, – (hereafter sa ii) , will cathrijn maertensdr, february ; arch. (hofjes), no. , will pieter gerritsz van der speck, august . boersma and dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden, , . h e nk l o o i je st ei j n de baar, ‘het mierennesthofje’, , . r. e. o. ekkart, ‘het coninckshofje – ’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – , here . noordam, geringde buffels, , . r. e. o. ekkart, ‘cornelis sprongh en zijn hofje aan de breestraat’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – , ; prak, gezeten burgers, . niekus and smit, van bouwvallig nest, , . prak, gezeten burgers, . these figures obscure a difference: of the rich burghers, prak took only the richest leiden inhabitants into account, whereas the town regents as a group included a number of not so wealthy members, lowering the average income; the median incomes of the merchants/entrepreneurs, protestant rentiers and catholics were , , , and , guilders. he compared them with the town regents whose capital was over , guilders, and then arrived at figures of an average income of , guilders, and a median of , guilders, which shows a smaller difference between the city’s regent- and non-regent elite; prak, gezeten burgers, – . not an occupation as such, but an assumption, based on secondary literature, of the founder’s particular main economic activity and mainstay. this term is used here to classify men whose primary occupation was a position in administration. ral, arch. , no. , probate inventory anthonis jacobsz van der schacht, march . see also th. j. lunsingh scheurleer, c. willemijn fock and a. j. van dissel, het rapenburg. geschiedenis van een leidse gracht, volume i (leiden, ), , . the phrase ‘regent’ was used for everyone who held an urban office of some sort: i distinguish here between the town regents, the patrician men who had a seat on the town council and stood at the apex of urban society, and almshouse regents, the men – and sometimes women – who sat on the almshouse boards. incidentally, this concurs with some of the conclusions that van nederveen meerkerk draws; ‘the will to give’. noordam, geringde buffels, ; prak, gezeten burgers, , – , . willem aerntsz van tetrode did not fill any offices either, but he also belonged to the patrician elite of leiden; leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, – . see also noordam, geringde buffels, , where it is stressed that in general the founding of an almshouse was exceptional. for the accumulation of capital; prak, gezeten burgers, ch. ; noordam, geringde buffels, . van nederveen meerkerk, ‘the will to give’. their bequest encompassed about a sixth of their total estate of , guilders; prak, gezeten burgers, , . ral, arch. (hofjes), , list of regents hofje van brouckhoven – ; prak, gezeten burgers, – , , , , – , – , – , , – , . namely the st. stevenshofje, the bethaniënhofje and the van brouckhovenhofje; for van de velde, see prak, gezeten burgers, . see, for example, boersma and dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden, , , ; a. j. sormani, ‘het salvatorhofje – ’, leidsch jaarboekje ( ), – , ; p. j. m. de baar, ‘de strijd tussen het st.annahofje en de gemeente leiden over de ‘‘onlosbare’’ renten’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – ; ekkart, ‘het coninckshofje’, . for the important role donations to poor relief institutions by its regents played in amsterdam, see van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history’. f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es ral, arch. (hofjes), provisional inventory mierennesthofje, no. , will of diderick van leyden, june . obviously, he held two positions at the same time. see also ral arch. (hofjes), hofje van brouckhoven, no. . see l. heerma van voss and m. h. d. van leeuwen, ‘charity in the dutch republic: an introduction’, in this issue of continuity and change, and also van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history’, for these motives as evidenced by inscriptions on amsterdam almshouses; for the religious and social reasons in appeals to give to collections, see d. teeuwen, ‘collections for the poor: monetary charitable donations in dutch towns, c. – ’, in this issue of continuity and change. leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, . d. e. h. de boer, ‘het sint stevenshof tot het eind van de de eeuw’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – , here ; j. p. zwanenburg, ‘het sionshofje. stichting van het gasthuis of hofje genaemd syon, binnen de stad leyden’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – , here ; turck, die leidener wohnstiftungen, ; leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, , . leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, – . sormani, ‘het salvatorhofje’, . ekkart, ‘cornelis sprongh’, . see, for this, van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history’. noordam, geringde buffels, ; zandvliet, de rijksten, . ral, arch. (hofjes), no. , will of catharina geschier. ral, arch. (hofjes), hofje samuel de zee. for example, in the case of st. anna aalmoeshuis, the chapel became a favourite spot for the regents to exult their lineage and involvement with the almshouse; p. a. terwen and r. crèvecoeur, ‘de glasvensters van het st. annahof-kapelletje’, in de leidse hofjes ( ), – . sormani, ‘het salvatorhofje’, . j. van nieuwenburg, ‘uit de geschiedenis van het woudendorphofje’, leids jaarboekje ( ), – , especially . such as the regents of the sint-elisabethgasthuis who placed their coats of arms over the door of their office; leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, – . particular elaborate examples in a ‘non-social’ context can still be seen on and near the keep of leiden, the remains of the castle that once dominated the city. ‘voorwoord’, in p. j. m. de baar, a. j. van dissel, j. f. dröge, h. j. m. van der geest, j. f. heijbroek, w. louwrier and g. c. quispel, meermansburg, leidens grootste hofje – (leiden, ), . van leeuwen notes a similar concern with status as an incentive to found almshouses; ‘giving in early modern history’. for the importance of family reputation in the dutch republic, see l. kooijmans, vriendschap en de kunst van het overleven in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw (amsterdam, ), – , – , – , , , , – , , – . namely, the foundations of: jan de latere; pieter loridan; charles tevel (counted as separate from his co-founders, his brother jacob and his sister-in-law), jacob tevel and elisabeth van den vinct; jan pesijn and marie de lannoy; anthonis jacobsz schacht; catharina geschier and jean michel; and samuel de zee; dad. noordam, geringde buffels, – . turck, die leidener wohnstiftungen, . van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history’; and van nederveen meerkerk, ‘the will to give’. note a similar concern for family in charitable bequests. leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, . h e nk l o o i je st ei j n van nieuwenburg, ‘uit de geschiedenis van het woudendorphofje’, – . i. w. l. moerman, ‘het hofje van samuel de zee’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – , here . leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, ; for other examples, see ibid. , and . ‘bouwgeschiedenis van meermansburg’, in de baar et al., meermansburg, – , here . leermakers and donkersloot, wonen om gods wille, – , . for some concrete examples of this, see prak, gezeten burgers, – ; and van leeuwen, ‘giving in early modern history’. obviously not all; in only about per cent of the households employed domes- tics; h. a. diederiks, ‘beroepsstructuur en sociale stratificatie in leiden in het midden van de achttiende eeuw’, in diederiks, noordam and tjalsma, armoede en sociale spanning, – , especially . noordam, geringde buffels, – ; prak, gezeten burgers, . although there were alternatives, such as leaving them a bequest or allowing them to remain in their house for a while. see, for example, boersma and dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden, – , – . ral, sa ii , will jan de latere and magdalena vijns, april . for his charitableness, and that of his wife, see also van nederveen meerkerk, ‘the will to give’. l.g. le poole, bijdragen tot de kennis van het kerkelijk leven onder de doopsgezinden, ontleend aan het archief der doopsgezinde gemeente te leiden (leiden, ), . catholicism was tolerated, but catholics were regarded as second-rate citizens and discriminated against in law. they were, for example, forbidden to bequeath to catholic priests and institutions; charles h. parker, faith on the margins. catholics and catholicism in the dutch golden age (cambridge, ma, ). the elisabethgasthuis – later, an almshouse – between and housed a total of widows, including foreigners, of which were widows from the southern netherlands; schmidt, overleven na de dood, . also in the st. anna aalmoeshuishofje in leiden in the years – inhabitants could come from the southern netherlands; a. j. van dissel, ‘van wege den hoochdringenden noot en uyt sonderlinge gratie. enkele bewoonsters van het sint annahofje in het eerste kwart van de de eeuw’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – . niekus and smit, van bouwvallig nest, , – . ral, arch. , no. , will of anthonis jacobsz van der schacht, september ; donatio inter vivos, august ; see also kees van der wiel, dit kint hiet willem. de heilige geest in leiden – jaar vondelingen, wezen en jeugdzorg (leiden, ), . sandra cavallo, charity and power in early modern italy. benefactors and their motives in turin, – (cambridge, ), , and ch. iv, notices a similar link between female charity and concern about female vulnerability in the late seventeenth century. p. j. m. de baar, ‘eva aelbrechtsdr van hoogeveen en haar familie’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – ; j. f. dröge, ‘de bouwgeschiedenis van het eva van hoogeveenshofje’, de leidse hofjes ( ), – . it has been suggested that she was unhappy with her unmarried state; boersma and dusseldorp-kingma, regenten en kuise maagden, . ral, hofjes , f. ; schmidt, overleven na de dood, . she ranks as no. in zandvliet, de rijksten, . kooijmans, vriendschap, – , , , , – , – , – , , , , – . f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es such as providing scholarships for promising students of theology; kooijmans, vriendschap, . ral, arch. (hofjes), no. , will of eva van hoogeveen, june . he destined the almshouse for dutch reformed elderly poor in general, but the fact that he had a commemorative tablet installed listing all his lordship titles suggests that the vlaardingen almshouse was meant to accommodate elderly persons from his lord- ships; bovée, ‘het van leydenshofje’, . for the importance of proximity for establishing who received charity, see also van nederveen meerkerk, ‘the will to give’. some historians combine these two layers together, while others separate them: paul knevel, ‘een kwestie van overleven. de kunst van het samenleven’, in thimo de nijs and eelco beukers eds., geschiedenis van holland. deel ii, tot (hilversum, ), – , here – , divides patricians and nobles from the great burghers; marco h. d. van leeuwen, de rijke republiek. gilden, assuradeurs en armenzorg – , volume i of: jacques van gerwen and marco h. d. van leeuwen, zoeken naar zekerheid. risico’s, preventie, verzekeringen en andere zekerheidsregelingen in nederland – (amsterdam and den haag, ), – , combines them. w. frijhoff and m. spies, . bevochten eendracht (den haag, ), – , use the same six-layer stratification as knevel, but in contrast, merge the ‘great burghers’ and the ‘broad burghers’ instead of the ‘broad’ and ‘small’ burghers. here we chose to follow knevel and van leeuwen. van leeuwen, de rijke republiek, . they could, for example, buy their way into a ‘proveniershuis’, a house in which one was assured of lifelong care, lodging and food after paying a certain sum of money. many medieval hospitals in fact had become such proveniershuizen; for example, see gerda kurtz, het proveniershuis te haarlem (haarlem, ); c. boschma-aarnoudse, sint-pietershof the hoorn: bedelnap en preuve, kruisheren en proveniers aan het dal (hoorn, ). m. h. d. van leeuwen, ‘guilds and middle-class welfare – : provisions for burial, sickness, old age, and widowhood’, economic history review ( ), – . knevel, ‘een kwestie van overleven’, – , – ; van leeuwen, de rijke republiek, – , – ; maarten prak, gouden eeuw. het raadsel van de republiek (nijmegen, ), – . see van leeuwen, de rijke republiek, passim, for the many risks to which early modern dutchmen were exposed. on registration habits in the dutch republic, see henk looijesteijn and marco h. d. van leeuwen, ‘identity registration in the dutch republic’, in k. breckenridge and s. szreter eds., registration and recognition. documenting the person in world history (oxford, forthcoming), ch. . van dissel, ‘van wege den hoochdringenden noot’, – ; appendix -xiv, – . french and german abstracts financement et fondation d’œuvres de charité privées à leiden: les hospices et leurs fondateurs, – cet essai présente une monographie consacrée aux fondateurs des hospices pour personnes âgées dans la ville hollandaise de leiden à partir de la fin du moyen âge et jusqu’à . on commence par donner une vue d’ensemble des hospices de leiden et évaluer leur importance pour les personnes âgées. ensuite l’auteur h e nk l o o i je st ei j n propose une étude prosopographique des fondateurs d’hospice à leiden et étudie les raisons pouvant expliquer leur démarche individuelle, prenant en compte leur religion, leur statut et le souci qu’ils eurent chacun de porter assistance à une personne qui leur était très proche ou extrêmement chère à leur cœur. il poursuit par une analyse de la classe sociale des résidents d’hospice. cet article affirme que, par ces actions charitables destinées aux hospices, les classes supérieures riches et privilégiées de la société hollandaise se sont occupées d’entretenir des membres (éloignés) de leur famille, leurs employés et d’autres personnes devenues à charge, appartenant à leur cercle de clientèle ou patronage et qu’ainsi les hospices pour personnes âgées, dans la pratique, offrirent surtout aux membres de la frange inférieure de la classe moyenne et à tous ceux dont la vie dépendait d’un salaire, une issue respectable à leur pauvreté visible et honteuse. gründung und ausstattung privater wohlfahrtseinrichtungen: armenhäuser in leiden, – dieser beitrag präsentiert eine fallstudie der gründer von armenhäusern für äl- tere menschen in leiden im spätmittelalter und in der frühen neuzeit. zunächst wird ein überblick über die leidener armenhäuser gegeben, wobei auch danach gefragt wird, welche bedeutung sie für ältere menschen besaßen. es folgt eine prosopographie der gründer der leidener armenhäuser, die auch die gründe für die stiftung von armenhäusern erörtert und vor allem danach fragt, welche rolle dabei die religion, der soziale status und das anliegen, seine nächsten und lieb- sten angehörigen zu versorgen, spielte. anschließend wird die sozialstruktur der insassen von armenhäusern analysiert. die ergebnisse münden in die these, dass die reichen und privilegierten oberschichten der holländischen gesellschaft durch die stiftung von armenhäusern ihre (entfernten) familienmitglieder, beschäftigten und andere abhängige innerhalb ihres patronagezirkels versorgten, und dass die armenhäuser somit in der praxis vor allem dazu dienten, für die mitglieder des kleinbürgertums und der lohnabhängigen klassen einen ehren- haften weg aus der offenen schande zu eröffnen, die mit der armut einher ging. f u n di n g a n d f o u n di n g pr i v a t e c h a r i t i es ipa a illustrations of the ipa mennonite plautdietsch (canadian old colony) christopher cox university of alberta christopher.cox@ualberta.ca jacob m. driedger saskatoon, saskatchewan jimdee@sasktel.net benjamin v. tucker university of alberta bvtucker@ualberta.ca mennonite plautdietsch (iso – : pdt) is a west germanic (indo-european) language belonging to the low prussian (niederpreußisch) subgroup of eastern low german (ostniederdeutsch), a continuum of closely related varieties spoken in northern poland until the second world war (ziesemer , mitzka , thiessen ). although its genetic affiliation with these other, now-moribund polish varieties is uncontested, mennonite plautdietsch represents an exceptional member of this grouping. it was adopted as the language of in-group communication by mennonites escaping religious persecution in northwestern and central europe during the mid-sixteenth century, and later accompanied these pacifist anabaptist christians over several successive generations of emigration and exile through poland, ukraine, and parts of the russian empire. as a result of this extensive migration history, mennonite plautdietsch is spoken today in diasporic speech communities on four continents and in over a dozen countries by an estimated , people, primarily descendants of these so-called russian mennonites (epp , lewis ). linguistic research on mennonite plautdietsch is extensive, spanning the past eight decades. general grammatical descriptions are provided by quiring ( ) for a s- era chortitza colony variety; baerg ( ) for a single molochnaya colony variety spoken in kansas; mierau ( ) for several unspecified varieties spoken in western canada; avdeev ( ), kanakin & wall ( ) and nieuweboer ( ) for several altai region varieties spoken in western siberia; and siemens ( ) for a diachronically-oriented perspective on the development of mennonite plautdietsch more generally. both goerzen ( , ) and lehn ( ) present studies on phonology and phonotactics, focusing on post- chortitza colony varieties spoken in western canada, while brandt ( ) describes the phonology of several northern mexican plautdietsch varieties related historically to canadian varieties. perhaps the most detailed studies of mennonite plautdietsch phonology and morphology are jedig ( ) for western siberia and buchheit ( ) for nebraska, the former study tracing the development of the phonology from its middle low german roots, the latter concentrating on synchronic phonological and morphological processes. naiditch ( , ) follows jedig ( ) in describing the diachronic development of the consonant and vowel systems of an unspecified variety of mennonite plautdietsch, while wiebe ( , , journal of the international phonetic association ( ) / c© international phonetic association doi: . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa a.o.) presents a series of psycholinguistically oriented studies on orthographic representation and phonological knowledge with a community in swift current, saskatchewan. although substantial research from both synchronic and diachronic perspectives addresses phonological organization, the authors are not aware of any phonetic descriptions of any variety of mennonite plautdietsch to date. the present illustration concentrates on one lesser-studied variety of mennonite plautdietsch commonly associated with the old colony (formerly reinländer) mennonites, members of one conservative mennonite denomination who immigrated to western canada from present-day ukraine primarily in the s (see redekop , reger & plett ). as a result of repeated rounds of mass emigration on the part of canadian old colony mennonites to latin america during the twentieth century, significant old colony mennonite plautdietsch speech communities exist today in mexico, paraguay, belize, and bolivia. other varieties of mennonite plautdietsch are attested in canada, as well, and have received some previous linguistic attention (e.g. goerzen , mierau , moelleken ). this description is based on the speech of the second author, born in in blumenheim, saskatchewan. the second author was raised in an old colony mennonite home and acquired canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch as his first language (see driedger ). his translation and production of ‘the north wind and the sun’ in mennonite plautdietsch is provided below. consonants bilabial labio- dental alveolar palato- alveolar palatal velar glottal plosive p b t d kʲ ɡʲ k ɡ ʔ nasal m n ɲ ŋ affricate ʦ tʃ fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ ç x ɣ h trill r approximant j lateral approximant l lʲ /p/ /poa/ poa ‘pair’ /kʲ/ /kʲoakʲ/ kjoakj ‘church’ /b/ /boa/ boa ‘bear’ /ɡʲ/ /ˈtɪ.ɡʲa/ tigja ‘eager’ /m/ /moaʦ/ moatz ‘march’ /ɲ/ /ˈɛ.ɲa/ enja ‘ends’ /f/ /foa/ foah ‘drive!’ /ç/ /ˈhɛ.ça/ hecha ‘higher’ /v/ /voa/ woah ‘true’ /j/ /joa/ joah ‘year’ /t/ /jɪ.ˈtoa/ jitoa ‘guitar’ /k/ /koa/ koa ‘car’ /d/ /doa/ doa ‘there’ /ɡ/ /ɡoa/ goa ‘cooked’ /n/ /ˈnoa.nɪç/ noanich ‘nowhere’ /ŋ/ /ˈhʊ.ŋa/ hunga ‘hunger’ /ʦ/ /ʦol/ zohl ‘number’ /x/ /ˈpra.xa/ pracha ‘beggar’ /s/ /ˈma.sa/ massa ‘knife’ /ɣ/ /dreɔ.ɣa/ dröaga ‘carrier’ /z/ /zot/ sot ‘seed’ /tʃ/ /ˈkʊ.tʃa/ kutscha ‘chauffeur’ /r/ /roa/ roa ‘cry!’ /ʃ/ /ʃoap/ schoap ‘sharp’ /l/ /lot/ lot ‘late’ /ʒ/ /ˈbʊ.ʒa/ buzha ‘tousled head of hair’ /lʲ/ /baʊlʲ/ baulj ‘bellows (n)’ /ʔ/ /ʔoam/ oam ‘poor’ /h/ /hoa/ hoa ‘hair’ mennonite plautdietsch has phonemic consonants, as illustrated by the above word list. where available, mennonite plautdietsch items were selected to illustrate the consonantal downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core christopher cox, jacob m. driedger & benjamin v. tucker: mennonite plautdietsch (canadian old colony) contrasts before /o/ in a stressed syllable, preferably in word-initial position. in cases when this environment was not available, a non-initial stressed syllable was sought which presented the necessary consonant before a nuclear /o/ (e.g. jitoa /jɪ.ˈtoa/ ‘guitar’). if neither of these conditions could be satisfied, items were selected where the relevant consonant preceded /a/ (e.g. /s/ in massa /ˈma.sa/ ‘knife’, /x/ in pracha /ˈpra.xa/ ‘beggar’). these environments were sufficient to demonstrate all consonantal phonemes except /lʲ/, which is only attested word-finally in canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch (e.g. baulj /baʊlʲ/ ‘bellows’, contrasting with baul /baʊl/ ‘ball’). while the glottal stop is treated here as an independent phoneme (see siemens : ), this segment appears only as a syllabic onset in lexemes which would otherwise lack one (e.g. oam /ʔoam/), and could thus potentially be treated as a phonetic segment, instead. notably, the phonemic inventory of canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch contrasts palatalized and non-palatalized velar stops, as in koasch /koaʃ/ ‘healthy’ vs. kjoasch /kʲoaʃ/ ‘cherry’, hack /hak/ ‘hoe’ vs. hakj /hakʲ/ ‘hedge’. while /kʲ/ occurs frequently in both syllable-initial and final positions, /ɡʲ/ is significantly more restricted, rarely occurring outside of syllabic codas and in relatively few lexical items overall. moreover, /ɡʲ/ only infrequently provides the basis for any phonemic contrast: the word list provided in epp ( ) presents only rikj /rɪkʲ/ ‘rich’ vs. rigj /rɪɡʲ/ ‘back (body part)’, and akj /akʲ/ ‘corner’ and agj /aɡʲ/ ‘edge of cloth, fringe’ as contrastive pairs. in other varieties of plautdietsch, these same segments are realized as [c] and [ɟ] (siemens : – ) or [tʲ] and [dʲ] (reimer, reimer & thiessen : ), respectively. the presence of these phonemic palatalized velar stops is rarely encountered in related germanic languages. siemens ( , ) suggests that these stops are an areal feature indicative of historical membership in the baltic sprachbund, while naiditch ( ) and others trace these phonemes’ emergence through regular diachronic sound changes, while not ruling out contact influences altogether. palatalized non-velar stops may also occur when followed by /j/, as in eedjen /əɪdʲən/ ‘gutters’, and may be part of a larger palatalization process. allophonic variation is reported between an alveolar trill [r], an alveolar tap [ɾ], and a retroflex approximant [ɹ] for /r/ in some varieties of mennonite plautdietsch, with the trill and tap occurring in free variation and the retroflex allophone only appearing in non-intervocalic coda position. this variation was first noted for speakers of mennonite plautdietsch in mexico by moelleken ( , ), who argues on the basis of comparative research on contemporary non-mennonite varieties of plautdietsch that the retroflex approximant is not a recent innovation prompted by contact with english. given the historical relationship between the mennonite plautdietsch speech communities in mexico and their source communities in canada, it is not surprising to find such variation attested in the canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch represented in the speech of the speaker described here (e.g. däaren [de.əɹn] ‘doors’, foahren [fo.əɹn] ‘to drive’, korn /kɔɹn/ ‘corn, maize’). the [ɹ] allophone is reportedly a sociolinguistically-marked variant associated with this particular variety and is subject to commentary by other mennonite plautdietsch speakers in saskatchewan (jake buhler, p.c.). unlike several other, related west germanic languages, word-final obstruents do not demonstrate final devoicing, maintaining phonemic contrasts in this environment; cf. beed /bəɪd/ ‘bid!’ ( sg imper) vs. beet /bəɪt/ ‘beet’, weed /wəɪd/ ‘weed!’ ( sg imper) vs. weet /wəɪt/ ‘knows’. mennonite plautdietsch has phonemic vowels, as illustrated in the vowel chart below and in the f -f vowel space plot in figure . considerable variation exists between varieties of mennonite plautdietsch in their realization of the phonemic vowel inventory, although these distinctions remain poorly documented. the following concentrates on the realization of vowel phonemes in canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch, leaving phonetic comparison with other varieties of mennonite plautdietsch as a topic for further research. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa vowels /i/ /bit/ biet ‘a bite’ /a/ /bat/ bat ‘until’ /ɪ/ /bɪt/ bitt ‘bites’ /ə/ /bəˈdit/ bediedt ‘means’ /y/ /byt/ buut ‘builds’ /ɔ/ /bɔt/ bott ‘bid’ /e/ /bet/ bät ‘a bit’ /o/ /bot/ bodt ‘bathes’ /ɛ/ /bɛt/ bett ‘a tub’ /ʊ/ /bʊtst/ butzt ‘bumps’ figure f -f plot of vowels from a combination of words and non-words (approximately tokens per vowel), produced with the phontools package in r (barreda ). while the distinction between monophthongs is presented here as being primarily a qualitative one, quantitative differences are also observed, with the mean durations of /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /y/ before /t/ and /d/ in word-initial, stressed syllables all being longer than those of /ə/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɔ/, and /ʊ/ in the speech of the second author. this may suggest that vowel quantity may serve as an additional cue to phonemic identity, in addition to the qualitative differences noted below. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core christopher cox, jacob m. driedger & benjamin v. tucker: mennonite plautdietsch (canadian old colony) monophthongs in canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch maintain a contrast in roundness only in the front high vowels (e.g. biet /bit/ ‘a bite’ vs. buut /byt/ ‘builds’), with the absence of a corresponding high back rounded vowel phoneme /u/ in this variety explained historically as the result of so-called ‘spontaneous palatalization’ (see naiditch : ). such asymmetry in the inventory is not paralleled among the diphthongs, however, where /u/ is found in items such as wua /vua/ ‘where’, and is distinct from /ya/ in items such as buua /bya/ ‘builder’. monophthongs are also often centralized in unstressed position, as in the reduction of /a/ to [ə] in romma /ˈɾɔ.ma/ [ˈɾɔmə] ‘around’ in connected speech. the realization of several of these vowel phonemes in canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch differs in some respects from what would be anticipated from the ipa symbols used to represent them here. in the speech of the second author, the front vowels /ɪ/ and /ɛ/ have lowered to [ɛ] and [æ], respectively, and /ʊ/ has centralized to [ɵ], leaving the entire high back vowel space empty of monophthongs. notably, as seen in figure , no difference in f or f values for /a/ and /ɔ/ is found in this variety, with these phonemes being realized as [ɐ] or [ɑ]. instead, this phonological distinction is likely maintained as a difference in length and, to a lesser extent, f values. in a small sample of these vowels appearing in stressed, word-initial syllables before /t/ and /d/ (n = ), instances of /a/ demonstrate almost twice the mean duration ( ms) of instances of /ɔ/ ( ms). to the authors’ knowledge, a phonemic length cue in any of the plautdietsch monophthongal vowels has not been reported in the previous literature, although occasional reference is made to the (non-phonemic) length characteristics of /a/ (see jedig ). diphthongs mennonite plautdietsch has eleven phonemic diphthongs: /ia/ /bia/ bia ‘pillow case’ /əɪ/ /bəɪd/ beed ‘bid!’ /ya/ /bya/ buua ‘builder’ /əʊ/ /bəʊd/ bood ‘shack’ /eɪ/ /beɪd/ beid ‘both’ /aʊ/ /baʊs/ bauss ‘boss’ /ea/ /bea/ bäa ‘berry; pear’ /oa/ /boa/ boa ‘bear; drill’ /eɔ/ /ˈbeɔ.ɣən/ böagen ‘bow’ /ua/ /vua/ wua ‘where’ /uɪ/ /fuj/ fuj ‘yuck!’ reduction of the /a/ off-glide in diphthongs is occasionally found in closed syllables and in rapid speech, as in woamen [ˈvoəmən] ‘warm:m.sg.acc’ and nuadwind [ˈnuədvɪnt] ‘north wind’ (see buchheit : – ). the variety of canadian mennonite plautdietsch considered here does not provide evidence of the phonemic contrast reported in epp ( ) for other varieties between /iə/ (biee /biə/ ‘bees’; contrast not present in this item in canadian old colony mennonite plautdietsch) and /ia/ (bia /bia/ ‘pillow case’). similarly, differences are reported across varieties of mennonite plautdietsch not only in the phonemic composition of the diphthong inventory, but also in their realization, with some varieties noting reduction of /aʊ/ to /ɒ/ or /ɔ/ (see kanakin & wall , moelleken ). the phonemic status of several of these diphthongs deserves closer attention. the distribution of /eɔ/ is predictable in this variety of canadian mennonite plautdietsch, appearing before non-palatalized velar consonants, e.g. böagen /ˈbeɔɣən/ ‘bow’, möaken /ˈmeɔkən/ ‘to make’, but stoakjste /ˈʃtoakʲstə/ ‘strongest’. it could thus be seen as an allophone of /oa/, which is consistent with the distribution of [oa] across both prevelar and non-prevelar contexts in other varieties of plautdietsch where /eɔ/ (or, in varieties with a rounded variant of this phoneme, /œa/) is not attested (see loewen ). exceptions to this generalization exist, however, as in joakob ‘jacob’ (although the /eɔ/ variant of this form is also attested, i.e., jöakob), motivating treatment as a separate phoneme. as well, the phoneme /uɪ/ is apparently restricted in this variety to a single lexical item, the interjection fuj ‘yuck!’. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa triphthongs little consensus exists between previous analyses of triphthongs, which are often discussed with diphthongs. with one exception noted below, all triphthongs in this variety involve a final off-glide /ɪ/, which some have analyzed as coda /j/. /əɪa/ /bəɪa/ beea ‘beer’ /iəɪ/ /viəɪ/ weaj ‘cradle’ /əʊɪ/ /jəˈrəʊɪ/ jerooj ‘movement’ /aʊɪ/ /paʊɪ/ pauj ‘paw’ /eəɪ/ /veəɪ/ wäaj ‘roads’ /oəɪ/ /boəɪ/ boaj ‘mountains’ monosyllabic contrasts between diphthongs and purported triphthongs are rare but identifiable, as in wäa /vea/ ‘who’ vs. wäaj /veəɪ/ ‘roads’, wea /via/ ‘was’ vs. weaj /viəɪ/ ‘cradle’, and boa /boa/ ‘bear’ vs. boaj /boəɪ/ ‘mountains’, as seen in the above wordlist. it is typical for orthographies and phonological analyses of canadian mennonite plautdietsch to recognize at least the triphthong /əɪa/ as distinguishing sets of minimal pairs such as beea /bəɪa/ ‘beer’, bia /bia/ ‘pillow case’, and bäa /bea/ ‘berry’; vea /fəɪa/ ‘four’, fia /fia/ ‘fire’, and väa /fea/ ‘before’; and heea /həɪa/ ‘honey (term of endearment)’, hia /hia/ ‘here’, and häa /hea/ ‘hither’. for the second author, however, this triphthong is typically perceived as two syllables (e.g. /bəɪ.a/ beea ‘beer’), as is the case with /oəɪ/, leaving the monosyllabic status of these two vowel sequences in question. whereas other canadian and american varieties have maintained a distinction between /əɪa/ and /ia/ consistently, the variety of old colony canadian mennonite plautdietsch considered here preserves the contrast only in a limited number of lexical items, following an earlier merger of ∗eea and ∗ia to /ia/. this merger appears characteristic not only of the present variety, but also of most varieties spoken by descendants of the earliest mennonite emigrants to the americas from the chortitza and bergthal colonies, as is apparent in the absence of this contrast from the phonemic inventory of mexican old colony mennonite plautdietsch found in moelleken ( ). phonemic descriptions of contrasting non-merged canadian and american varieties are found in goerzen ( ), baerg ( ), reimer et al. ( ), epp ( ), loewen ( ), and neufeld ( ). unlike several of these non-merged canadian varieties, the variety considered here lacks the triphthong /əʊa/ altogether (see loewen : – ). stress and intonation primary stress is generally predictable based on the morphological structure of the item, falling on the first non-prefix syllable. verbs ending in -earen represent an exception, with the penultimate syllable receiving primary stress, e.g. passearen /pə.ˈsia.ɾən/ ‘to happen’, opperearen /ɔ.pə.ˈɾia.ɾən/ ‘to operate’. similarly, some borrowed lexemes show non-morphologically determined stress patterns, such as perischkie /pə.ɾɪʃ.ˈki/ ‘pirozhki, fruit-filled pastries’ (< rus. пирожки, ukr. пиріжки) and warenikje /və.ˈɾɛ.nɪ.kʲə/ ‘perogies’ (< ukr./rus. вареники); as do occasional items in the native plautdietsch lexicon, such as (han) kefoojen /kə.ˈfəʊ.jən/ ‘to throw down forcefully’ and unjarenaunda /ˌʊ.ɲa.ɾəˈnaʊn.da/ ‘amongst, amidst, mixed’. stress may be contrastive, as in the following examples: unjastohnen /ˌʊ.ɲa.ˈʃto.nən/ ‘to determine, check out’ unjastohnen /ˈʊ.ɲa.ˌʃto.nən/ ‘to stand under’ wadaholen /ˌva.da.ˈho.lən/ ‘to repeat’ wadaholen /ˈva.da.ˌho.lən/ ‘to fetch again’ while stress is comparatively well documented in existing mennonite plautdietsch dictionaries and grammatical sketches, intonation remains without any detailed analytical treatment to date. baerg ( : – ) offers an impressionistic description of the intonation downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core christopher cox, jacob m. driedger & benjamin v. tucker: mennonite plautdietsch (canadian old colony) system of mennonite plautdietsch, providing hand-illustrated intonation contours for several sentence types (e.g. information and polar questions) and focus conditions. mierau ( : – ) likewise briefly notes distinctive intonation contours correlating with declarative, interrogative, and imperative modes, though acknowledging that this characterization is ‘admittedly an oversimplification’ (p. ) and that intonation in mennonite plautdietsch represents an area for further dedicated research. the sentences listed below, all variations of jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat ‘john had an old horse’ and haud jehaun ‘en oolet peat? ‘did john have an old horse?’, illustrate the prosodic contours commonly associated with neutral declarative statements (falling intonation), contrastive focus (pitch peak on contrasts), and clarification and polar questions (falling intonation with rise on last syllable). jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat. (neutral declarative) jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat. (contrastive focus: ‘john, not george’) jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat. (contrastive focus: ‘had, not has’) jehaun haud een oolet peat. (contrastive focus: ‘one, not two’) jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat. (contrastive focus: ‘old, not young’) jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat. (contrastive focus: ‘horse, not cow’) jehaun haud ‘en oolet peat? (clarification: ‘what did you say?’) haud jehaun (e’mol) ‘en oolet peat? (polar question) transcription of recorded passage there is no single, standardized orthography for mennonite plautdietsch at present with general acceptance across all diasporic speech communities. several distinct standard orthographies have been proposed, and appear to have converged in many respects upon similar conventions for representing phonemic contrasts common to most varieties (reimer , reimer et al. , epp , loewen , a.o.; see nieuweboer ( : chapter ) for an overview of plautdietsch orthographies). in the absence of an accepted orthographic standard for this variety, however, and in light of the sometimes controversial nature of orthographic choices in mennonite plautdietsch speech communities (see cox ), the passage from the ‘north wind and the sun’ is presented below in both the orthography originally chosen by the second author, as well as in the plautdietsch adaptation of the sass orthography outlined in epp ( ). /de ˈnuədvɪnt ɛn de zɔn ˈʃtɾəɪdn ̩ zɪkʲ | veə dɑʊt ˈʃtoəkʲstə viɑ | ɑʊs əɪn ˈfəʊtjɛɲa mɛt ən ˈvoəmən ˈmɑʊntl ̩ | ˈɛnjəˌvɛkəlt ˈʔɑʊnkʲɛɪm | zɛɪ bəˈzɔnən zɪkʰ | dɑʊt dɛɪ | veə dem ˈfəʊtjɛɲa dɑʊt ˈiəʃtə vʊd ˈkʲɛnən zin ˈmɑʊntl ̩ ʔytɾaˑkʲən ˈmeʌkən | dɑʊt ˈʃtoakʲstə vʊd ˈzɛnən | dɑn pyst de ˈnuədvɪnt zə ˈzɛɪa ɑʊs hɛɪ kʊn | obə jə ˈdɔla hɛɪ pyst | jə ˈdɔla ˈvɛkɛld de ˈfəʊtjɛɲa zin ˈmɑʊntl ̩ ˈɾɔma zɪkʲ | ˈɛntliç jəɪf de ˈnuədvɪnt noˑ | dɑn ʃəɪn de zɔn voəm | ɛn fuəts tɾɔk de ˈfəʊtjɛɲa zɪkʲ den ˈmɑʊntl ̩ yt | ɔn zəʊ mʊst deɪ ˈnuədvɪnt ˈtəʊʃtoˑnən dɑʊt de zɔn dət ˈʃtoəkʲstə ˈviɑ/ original orthography (driedger ) dee nuad wint onn dee sonn streeden sikj, wäa daut stoakste wia, auss een footjänga met een woamen mauntel enjewelkjet aun kjeem. sie besonnen sikj, daut dee, wäa däm footjänja daut ieschta wud kjennen sien mauntel üttrakjen mäaken, daut stoakste wud sennen. donn püst dee nuad wint soo seea auss hee kun, oba je dolla hee püst, je dolla wekjeld dee footjänga sien mauntel romma sikj. entlijch jeef dee nuad wint no. donn scheen dee sonn woam, onn downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core journal of the international phonetic association: illustrations of the ipa fuats trock dee footjänga sikj dän mauntel üt, onn so musst dee nuad wint too stonen, daut dee sonn daut stoakste wia. sass orthography (epp ) de nuadwind un de sonn streeden sikj, wäa daut stoakjste wea, aus een footjänja met een woamen mauntel enjewekjelt aunkjeem. se besonnen sikj, daut dee, wäa däm footjänja daut easchte wudd kjennen sien mauntel uttraikjen möaken, daut stoakjste wudd sennen. donn puust de nuadwind soo sea aus he kunn, oba je dolla he puust, je dolla wekjeld de footjänja sien mauntel ‘romma sikj. endlich jeef de nuadwind noh. donn scheen de sonn woam, un fuats trock de footjänja sikj dän mauntel ut, un soo musst de nuadwind toostohnen, daut de sonn daut stoakjste wea. references avdeev, ivan e. . fonetičeskij stroj nižnenemeckogo dialekta altajskogo kraja v ego istoričeskom razvitii. ph.d. dissertation, novosibirsk. baerg, marjorie. . gnadenau low german: a dialect of marion county, kansas. ph.d. dissertation, university of chicago. barreda, santiago. . phontools: a collection of functions useful for phonetics work. r package version . - . http://cran.r-project.org/package=phontools (accessed october ). brandt, carsten. . sprache und sprachgebrauch der mennoniten in mexiko (schriftenreihe der kommission für ostdeutsche volkskunde in der deutschen gesellschaft für volkskunde e.v. ). marburg: n. g. elwert verlag. buchheit, robert h. . mennonite ‘plautdietsch’: a phonological and morphological description of a settlement dialect in york and hamilton counties, nebraska. ph.d. dissertation, university of nebraska. cox, christopher. . corpus linguistics and language documentation: challenges for collaboration. in john newman, r. harald baayen & sally rice (eds.), corpus-based studies in language use, language learning, and language documentation, – . amsterdam: rodopi. driedger, jacob m. . enn bloomenheim oppjewossen. regina, saskatchewan: nickel’s worth publishing. epp, reuben. . the story of low german & plautdietsch: tracing a language across the globe. hillsboro, ks: reader’s press. epp, reuben. . the spelling of low german & plautdietsch: toward an official plautdietsch orthography. hillsboro, ks: reader’s press. goerzen, jacob warkentin. . the phonology of plautdietsch. ma thesis, university of alberta. goerzen, jacob warkentin. . low german in canada: a study of “plautdi ̂tsch” as spoken by mennonite immigrants from russia. ph.d. dissertation, university of toronto. jedig, hugo h. . laut- und formenbestand der niederdeutschen mundart des altai-gebietes (sitzungsberichte der sächsischen akademie der wissenschaften zu leipzig, phil.-histor. klasse ( )). berlin: akademie-verlag. kanakin, igor & margarita wall. . das plautdietsch in westsibirien. ms., rijksuniversiteit groningen. lehn, walter isaak. . rosenthal low german: synchronic and diachronic phonology. ph.d. dissertation, cornell university. lewis, m. paul (ed.). . plautdietsch. ethnologue: languages of the world, th edn. dallas, tx: sil international. loewen, jacob a. . toward a phonemic alphabet of plautdietsch. journal of mennonite studies , – . mierau, eric. . a descriptive grammar of ukrainian low german. ph.d. dissertation, indiana university. mitzka, walther. . die sprache der deutschen mennoniten. heimatblätter des deutschen heimatbundes danzig ( ). danzig: a. w. kafemann. moelleken, wolfgang w. . low german in mexico. publications of the american dialect society , – . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core christopher cox, jacob m. driedger & benjamin v. tucker: mennonite plautdietsch (canadian old colony) moelleken, wolfgang w. . niederdeutsch der molotschna- und chortitzamennoniten in british columbia/kanada (phonai . lautbibliothek der europa ̈ischen sprachen und mundarten. deutsche reihe. monographien ). tu ̈bingen: max niemeyer verlag. moelleken, wolfgang w. . retroflexes r im niederdeutsch der mexikanischen altkolonier mennoniten. zeitschrift für dialektologie und linguistik ( ), – . naiditch, larissa. . die entwicklung des vokalismus im mennonitenplatt. in angelika braun (ed.), beiträge zu linguistik und phonetik. festschrift für joachim go ̈schel zum . geburtstag, – . stuttgart: franz steiner verlag. naiditch, larissa. . on the development of the consonant system in mennonite low german (plautdietsch). in markku filppula, juhani klemola, marjatta palander & esa penttilä (eds), dialects across borders: selected papers from the th international conference on methods in dialectology (methods xi), joensuu, august (current issues in linguistic theore ), – . amsterdam & philadephia, pa: john benjamins. neufeld, eldo. . plautdietsch grammar: an aid to speaking, reading, and writing netherlandic- mennonite plautdietsch. munich: lincom europa. nieuweboer, rogier. . the altai dialect of plautdiitsch: west-siberian mennonite low german. munich: lincom europa. quiring, jacob. . die mundart von chortitza in süd-rußland. munich: druckerei studentenhaus münchen. redekop, calvin. . the old colony mennonites: dilemmas of ethnic minority life. baltimore, md: johns hopkins press. reger, adina & delbert plett. . diese steine: die russlandmennoniten. steinbach, manitoba: derksen printers. reimer, al. . there’s now an ‘official’ way to write low german. mennonite mirror (june), – . reimer, al, anne reimer & jack thiessen (eds.). . a sackful of plautdietsch: a collection of mennonite low german stories and poems. winnipeg, manitoba: hyperion press. siemens, heinrich. . der baltische sprachbund. korrespondenzblatt des vereins für niederdeutsche sprache ( ), – . siemens, heinrich. . plautdietsch: grammatik, geschichte, perspektiven. bonn: tweeback verlag. thiessen, john. . studien zum wortschatz der kanadischen mennoniten. marburg: n. g. elwert verlag. wiebe, grace e. . the segmental phonemes of swift current mennonite low german. ma thesis, university of alberta. wiebe, grace e. . the psychological reality of phonological units for speakers of an unwritten language. ph.d. dissertation, university of alberta. ziesemer, walther. . die ostpreußischen mundarten: proben und darstellungen. breslau: ferdinand hirt. downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use. https://www.cambridge.org/core william allan award: my multifactorial journey ashg awards and addresses william allan award: my multifactorial journey aravinda chakravarti ,* photo courtesy of ashg. i want to begin by expressing my sincerest appreciation to the american society of human genetics (ashg) for this wonderful recognition and award; vivian cheung, evan eichler, and stanislas lyonnet for their nominations; and evan eichler for his very kind introduction. i want to thank each of you who are here today and particularly my wife and my daughters, who seldom get to hear what i have been up to. i have been a member of ashg since , have been attending its meetings since , and have, over the years, seen and heard the very best of our scien- tists and clinicians receive this honor. i am both surprised and delighted to stand beside them and hope to convince you, over the next min, of my laboratory’s deep fascina- tion with human genetics. i do not stand here either alone or unassisted. i am the product of mentorship by many individuals, first while this article is based on the address given by the author at the meeting of the a ma, usa. the audio of the original address can be found at the ashg website mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine, johns hopkins university *correspondence: aravinda@jhmi.edu http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . . � by the american societ the american journal of human genetics , – , march an undifferentiated undergraduate in india (profs. j. roy, b.p. adhikari, t.a. davis, and r.l. brahmachari), then while trying to form my own research ideas in graduate school (drs. masatoshi nei and alfred knudson), and finally while a beginning assistant professor at pittsburgh (drs. c.c. li and haig kazazian). even when i thought i knew which ideas to pursue, i was immeasurably helped by a talented group of trainees without whom my accom- plishments would have been meager. and then there have been my numerous and diverse collaborators who have taught me new corners of genetics. so, where does one begin describing one’s journey into understanding the molecular basis of complex genetic dis- ease? i took my cue from rereading one of my favorite authors, john steinbeck, this past summer. steinbeck be- gins his cannery row as follows: ‘‘cannery row in monterey in california is a poem, a stink, a grating noise, a quality of light, a tone, a habit, a nostalgia, a dream.(how can this) be set down alive? when you collect marine animals there are certain flat worms so delicate that they are almost impossible to cap- ture whole, for they break and tatter under the touch. you must let them ooze and crawl of their own will onto a knife blade and then lift them gently into your bottle of seawater.’’ so, that’s what i will do: let the science from my labora- tory ‘‘ooze and crawl of [its] own will’’ across time as my ideas were developed, tested, and then refined. it is possible that some might contest my narrative, but it is my eyewitness account. from the beginning, the work from my laboratory had three cardinal features: it involved both statistical and experimental approaches, both family- based and population-based studies, and an evolutionary perspective. but, to understand how my work developed, i have to start at the beginning. i was born and grew up in calcutta, a much maligned and blighted city in the western imagination but one with a long tradition of excellence, independence, and dissent. founded in , it is an old city and has been continually exposed to foreign cultures, starting with the mughals and then continuing with a variety of european influences. calcutta was the nucleus of the bengal renais- sance and was once the center of indian education, sci- ence, culture, and politics. yes, i said ‘‘once’’: a reminder that current success is ephemeral. it is a city where merican society of human genetics (ashg) on october , , in boston, . school of medicine, baltimore, md , usa y of human genetics. all rights reserved. , mailto:aravinda@jhmi.edu http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.ajhg. . . &domain=pdf diversity is its dna and its residents are interested in the whole spectrum of the arts and humanities, science, and politics. it is this city’s crucible that exposed me to more possibilities than my mind could imagine. like my two older brothers, i attended the calcutta boy’s school (cbs), a methodist missionary school very much like the fictional english public school in lindsay ander- son’s movie if. cbs taught me to read widely, and i had two dedicated biology and mathematics teachers who taught me, through mendel’s pea experiments, that empir- ical observations are little without an underlying theory to generalize them. after graduation, i was accepted into the undergraduate class at the indian statistical institute (isi) into a program designed by p.c. mahalanobis, a cam- bridge physicist turned statistician, and j.b.s. haldane, the polymath geneticist who renounced his british citizenship to become an indian in and came to work at the isi. their joint imagination created a program of years of study in mathematics, statistics, and a variety of scientific disciplines (including laboratory work) that represented their broad scientific interests. haldane had passed away in , but his ghost was still alive at the isi when i began; naturally, i focused on human genetics. i left the isi in to pursue a phd in human genetics at a new univer- sity of texas health science center at houston graduate school headed by al knudson, the president of ashg and the recipient of the allan award. i studied with masatoshi nei (the doyen of neutral molecular evolu- tion in the united states), who first made me work and publish on theoretical aspects of genetic diversity (fst) before he allowed me to graduate with a dissertation on ‘‘the utility of linked marker genes in genetic coun- seling.’’ i was enamored then of how risk counseling would change if disease-associated markers were available, that is, by linkage disequilibrium (ld) rather than mere linkage. , i graduated in to my parents’ delight, and my father wrote to say, ‘‘today, your mother and i are so happy; two of our children have phds, and the third is successful!’’ subsequently, thinking i would learn genetic epidemi- ology, i pursued months of postdoctoral work with ryk ward at the university of washington, seattle, but my mind was elsewhere. – was the height of the recombinant dna period, even prior to the botstein restriction-fragment- length polymorphism (rflp) paper, and i was afraid i was unprepared. so, i accepted a teaching position at the school of public health at the university of pittsburgh (no startup, no office, and no moving expenses) and learned recombinant dna technology in the laboratory of another starting assistant professor, jim pipas, working on sv large t antigen. the benefit of my teaching posi- tion was that i had ‘‘free’’ time that allowed me to work with c.c. li at pittsburgh and start a very fruitful and long-term collaboration with haig kazazian and stylianos antonarakis at johns hopkins. i prospered in pittsburgh but was recruited by hunt willard to case western reserve university in cleveland, where my experimental phase the ame continued with even greater emphasis and i started my genomics studies. i was eventually recruited to the johns hopkins university school of medicine in baltimore to direct the new mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine in at a time when the genome sequence was in hand and excitement over its applications to under- standing human disease was paramount. to highlight my laboratory’s scientific research, i will focus today on only two aspects: how i came upon ld mapping and how i used genomic approaches to understand the molecular basis of hirschsprung disease (hscr). i apologize to the many whose work i cannot describe here. my focus on ld, or allelic association, arose from two unrelated events. first, as an undergraduate, i took hal- dane’s advice that ‘‘one can do human genetics in india without a lot of resources.’’ consequently, and knowing too little to deter me, i designed, collected, and analyzed familial phenotypic transmission of a simple observable trait: hand clasping, routinely used in many anthropomor- phic surveys. i demonstrated that it is inherited in a near- recessive manner and was surprised at its estimated high allele frequency. the trait is common around the world, and i was astounded (and still remain so) as to why such a benign (useless?) trait is so variable. i thought perhaps it was in allelic association with some beneficial mutation, but that would require approaches that were not yet avail- able and also unthinkable. second, november was a big month for me. most importantly, i got married to my wife, shukti. but, the very same month, i came across kan and dozy’s ground-breaking paper, which showed three successes: identification of the first human dna polymorphism, its location in noncoding dna, and its as- sociation (ld) with the sickle mutation! this study was a home run for me and opened many doors for me where none existed. as of today, it is the paper that set our field on a different trajectory. the finding of an association between a disease muta- tion and a specific marker, even outside a gene of interest, was remarkable given that it immediately suggested a way of mapping and identifying specific mutations: in reverse. however, the scale of such mapping in humans was un- known. i knew that in drosophila large regions could be in allelic association, but usually that was from suppressed recombination within common chromosomal inversions; the human genome was not known to harbor these and was times larger. to begin this ld-based reverse genetics, i required a test case. the globins were one of the most attractive genomic regions to tackle because their mutations were known, their genes had been recently cloned and mapped to individual chromosomes, and their physical arrangements had been elucidated. a chance encounter—my pursuit of data to understand molecular patterns of ld and haig kazazian and stylianos antonara- kis’s search to identify the molecular basis of b-thalasse- mias—led to our collaboration on understanding the patterns of diversity and association in the b-globin cluster. these studies, with my graduate student ken buetow, were rican journal of human genetics , – , march , the first quantitative studies of ld in the human to give us the scale of population recombination, demonstrate the existence of haplotype ‘‘frameworks’’ (now called blocks), and show that associations can dissipate over very short distances. we inferred that meiotic recombination is nonuniform in the human genome and mapped the loca- tion of a putative recombination hotspot adjacent to the b-globin-encoding gene. although these ideas and obser- vations were contested and very controversial when we published them in , they have stood the test of time and are now commonplace, no doubt because of mark daly’s subsequent studies on an interleukin cluster. the research i am not recounting, because it’s not my own, is haig and stylianos’s great success in using the b-globin frameworks for identifying a diverse set of molec- ular thalassemia mutations; haig received the allan award in partly for these successes. i wanted to do the same but in a situation where the gene for a phenotype was unknown. in the s, positional cloning had come into its own, but all of the successes, except stuart orkin and lou kunkel’s work on chronic granulomatous disease, were based on a chromosomal lesion interrupt- ing the coding sequence of the relevant gene. ld mapping suggested a new approach provided that the mutant allele was common. the perfect candidate was cystic fibrosis (cf) given that its high incidence defied the mutation-selection balance and suggested a single polymorphic ( %) mutant allele maintained through overdominant selection. in , at these meetings, lap-chee tsui presented the first dna marker linked to cf. i met lap-chee at these meet- ings, and we personally hit it off. this started my labora- tory’s work, specifically by graduate student tara cox matise, on ld mapping in cf. importantly, ld mapping played a very critical role in the positional identification of cftr in , and our elucidation of haplotypes in cf-affected families uncovered a rich haplotype diversity, of which the most frequent one harbored the now-famous common mutant df . these studies would have been impossible without lap-chee’s postdoctoral fellow bat- sheva kerem, who painstakingly generated tens of high- frequency rflp markers mapped relative to one another (an ld map). it is not surprising then that the cf studies, conducted in an outbred rather than isolated population, imprinted upon me the necessity of a high-frequency-polymorphism map across the human genome for disease mapping; i was not alone in this realization, given that neil risch, eric lander, and francis collins had individually proposed the same. – the first of these maps was created by eric lander’s group. however, it took completion of the human genome sequence for a group of us—largely francis collins, eric lander, david altshuler, david bentley, peter donnelly and myself—to eventually champion, partici- pate, and create the high-resolution maps of the hapmap project for common variants. , even prior to these studies, it was clear that having a technology for screening human genes directly for sequence variants, particularly the american journal of human genetics , – , march candidates for a given disorder, would be immensely help- ful. one of my graduate students, marc halushka, worked extensively with jian-bing fan at affymetrix to complete such a study for candidate hypertension genes by using the then novel array technology. these studies, and a near-identical one from eric lander’s laboratory, were published back to back in and showed how diverse some human proteins are and that purifying selection on nonsynonymous alterations is widespread, ideas now commonplace. consequently, by , a near-complete common-variant map including dense coverage of genes was freely available through the hapmap project, a feature that has changed complex disease mapping and its biology forever. indeed, with the completion of the genomes project, , which i also championed and participated in, i cannot imagine a nongenomic genetics world. let me now turn to another of my laboratory’s parallel developments that intellectually merged with the studies i have described so far. although my statistical training and interests allowed me to be useful to others in genetic studies of mendelian disorders, i was far more interested in understanding why some disorders are complex. r.a. fisher’s so-called synthesis in of the biometrical- mendelian debate on the nature of genetic inheritance was an artifice: it was a correct statistical description of complex inheritance, but not a molecular one. so, it was quite lucky that i came across an ideal opportunity: i was asked to review the master’s thesis of a university of pittsburgh genetic-counseling student who had studied the genetic epidemiology of hscr. my simple reading of the literature suggested that this disorder might be amenable to genetic dissection using the evolving genetic maps and positional cloning methods—perhaps not in , but soon. what sealed the deal was the conversation between the two senior committee members: the geneticist lamenting that ‘‘we might not ever understand the under- lying genes’’ and the pediatric surgeon arguing that ‘‘i am no geneticist, but all i know is that i am repairing the chil- dren of kids i repaired years ago.that must count for something.’’ in my mind, that counted for a lot! hscr (or congenital aganglionosis) is a neurodevelop- mental defect of the enteric nervous system and is charac- terized by a lack of nerve supply in segments of the gut, leading to an absence of peristalsis and a functional intes- tinal blockage. it is lethal if not surgically resected, and today, rates of postoperative complication can be as high as %. it is considered a multifactorial disorder and is fairly frequent at in , live births in newborns of european ancestry but is twice as common in asian in- fants. hscr also shows a curious sex bias in that four times as many males as females are affected. the available ge- netic data in showed some evidence of discrete genetic loci given that numerous syndromic associations, pedigrees in which hscr segregated in a near-dominant fashion, and recessive mouse models were already known. to settle the issue, one of my md-phd students, judy badner, performed statistical analysis of both the , extant published data and families we collected through the children’s hospital of pittsburgh to show four remark- able features: its very high heritability, high prevalence of associated anomalies, inverse relationship between the extent of aganglionosis and sex ratio, and predicted ge- netic etiologies in almost all cases! moreover, nearly % of our severe long-segment cases were compatible with incomplete dominance and were thus amenable to genetic mapping using the just discovered microsatellite markers. in the period from to , my group and others accomplished precisely that. in , misha angrist in my group and stan lyonnet in paris simultaneously pub- lished the mapping of a ‘‘dominant’’ form of hscr to prox- imal chromosome q, and within a year, stan lyonnet and giovanni romeo in genoa identified deleterious mutations in ret, encoding a receptor tyrosine kinase. we followed with a report on diverse loss-of-function mu- tations throughout the length of ret in all forms of hscr but found fewer coding mutations (at lower penetrance) than others did. nevertheless, we failed to find any ret variants in the vast majority of the families we studied. in parallel, erik puffenberger, another graduate student, followed up on an extensive old order mennonite kindred in which hscr segregated in an apparently ‘‘recessive’’ form by performing a genome-wide linkage study using identity-by-descent sharing to implicate a locus on chro- mosome q. subsequently, we engaged in an exciting collaboration with masashi yanagisawa at university of texas southwestern to implicate a common ( %) hypo- morphic missense substitution in the g-protein-coupled receptor ednrb. interestingly, this variant showed different degrees of penetrance in all three genotypes and also showed interaction with a common ret haplo- type. in quick succession, on the basis of our own studies and the published biochemistry, we also demonstrated substitutions in these two receptors’ ligands (namely gdnf and edn ) and, in collaboration with bill pavan at the national institutes of health, in relevant transcription factor sox . mutations in sox were identified by michele goosens’ group the previous year as a cause of shah-waardenburg syndrome, one of the hscr syndromes. however, the mystery of the reduced penetrance of all of the mutations identified still remained. we hypothesized that full penetrance came about from the joint action of both ret and ednrb mutations. given the commonality of the ednrb variant in mennonites, in , minerva carrasquillo, then a graduate student in my laboratory, performed one of the first microsatellite-marker-based genome-wide association studies in the genetically isolated old order mennonites to demonstrate that strong epistasis between ret and ednrb mutations leads to higher pene- trance. this work would have been less significant were it not buttressed in this and subsequent work (by andy mccallion, then a postdoctoral fellow in my laboratory) showing that these epistatic interactions could be fully the ame recapitulated and lead to sex-biased expression of aganglio- nosis in mice. honestly, we were quite pleased because in a matter of years, we had gone from a statistical description of hscr inheritance to knowing some of its molecular details with precision and how the complex phenotype was synthesized. we postulated a crude theory that hscr re- sulted from disrupted biochemical interactions either within enteric neuroblasts or between neuroblasts and the growth-factor-secreting cells of the gut mesenchyme. these studies automatically led to a search for multiple rare muta- tions within individual patients, and these we and others described. a persistent feature of all of these studies was the primacy of ret mutations in our patients. our idea at that time was that hscr patients had one primary ret mu- tation and at least one other in a ret-dependent modifier. stacey bolk gabriel, not the confident person of today but then a quiet graduate student in my laboratory, performed two of these screens to map such modifiers. , one of these screens, in short-segment hscr, was performed with remi salomon, visiting from stan lyonnet’s labora- tory in paris, and clearly demonstrated the primacy of the ret effect and the existence of at least two polymorphic modifier loci; interestingly, these three loci recapitulated both the hscr incidence and recurrence risk. what was to come was even more surprising. over time, we found fewer and fewer retcoding mutations; i reasoned that our early data were biased upward given that we had primarily collected multiplex families for linkage studies. i hypothesized that if ret was involved in nearly every hscr patient and coding mutations were relatively rare, then the remaining mutations must be in a neighboring gene or a noncoding functional element. in , in an elegant series of experiments, my postdoctoral fellow eileen emison and the newly independent andy mccallion, in collaboration with eric green at the national human genome research institute and his postdoctoral fellow matthew portnoy, performed old-fashioned se- quencing of retrieved bacterial artificial clones containing ret from vertebrates and used comparative sequence analysis to identify conserved noncoding elements. betsy grice, a graduate student with andy mccallion, did functional analyses of elements to identify numerous potential ret enhancers, including those acting in gut development in the mouse. our data on sequencing these enhancers in hscr patients quickly identified a highly polymorphic variant, called retþ , in the most potent gut enhancer within intron of ret as the causal site. to clarify its effect further, we collaborated in with the international hirschsprung disease consortium (with principal investigators salud borrego [sevilla], isabella cec- cherini [genoa], aravinda chakravarti [baltimore], robert hofstra [rotterdam], stanislas lyonnet [paris], and paul tam [hong kong]) to publish a large study that clearly demonstrated that this enhancer variant has unique prop- erties and explains many features of hscr’s complex inher- itance: it had the highest frequency in the commonest and rican journal of human genetics , – , march , least severe cases (simplex males with short-segment dis- ease) and the lowest frequency in the rarest and most severe cases (multiplex females with long-segment disease); interestingly, coding mutations had the precise opposite relationship. indeed, the enhancer genotypes varied in risk by -fold. we also demonstrated by functional anal- ysis that these effects arose from the abrogation of sox binding at the enhancer. our recent forays into the effects of ret enhancers are even more intriguing. in unpublished work (presented at this meeting) by two current postdoctoral fellows, suman- tra chatterjee and ashish kapoor, we show that hscr risk is affected by two interacting noncoding elements each imparting differential genetic risk. the second element identified by a genome-wide association study is kb upstream of the transcription start site and is the predicted binding site for a retinoic acid receptor, binding of which is attenuated in the risk variant. we need to prove this hypothesis functionally but believe in its likelihood given that independent work by robert heuckeroth at washington university in st. louis has shown that vitamin a deficiency in a ret heterozygote mouse leads to aganglionosis. therefore, ret genetic risk is affected by at least two ‘‘shadow’’ enhancers. these two cis-regulatory elements, which we show in collaboration with len pennacchio and eddy rubin, are both active in the gut and neurons, act at slightly different developmental time points, and use the two different transcription factors sox and rara. this is most likely the first description in humans of complex genetic disease arising from two in- teracting enhancers that, in the wild-type, provide exqui- site control over enteric nervous system development. to uncover all of hscr’s associated genes, in the past year, we have collaborated with stacey gabriel of the broad institute of harvard and mit in cambridge to complete initial analysis of the exome sequences of a diverse group of hscr probands. the chief protagonists of this exper- iment in my laboratory have been two graduate students, k.d. nguyen and tychele turner, who have had consider- able help from courtney berrios, my genetics counselor, and albee ling. compared to controls, hscr genomes show a ~ . % excess of highly deleterious variants. to iden- tify these specifically, we sought all genes with more delete- rious sequence variants than dictated by chance and further narrowed this set to those with three or more deleterious variants. we were astonished to net genes! is this list credible? we strongly believe so given that both ret and ednrb were identified, as were mutations in six other known hscr-associated genes. importantly, these genes are highly enriched with those expressed in the em- bryonic gut, as assessed by our rna-sequencing studies in mice at embryonic days . and . (over which time the gut and enteric nervous system develop) and human induced-pluripotent-stem-cell-derived neural crest cells. in total, of these genes are expressed in the gut, and the functional categories enriched in this set are genes affecting synaptogenesis, cytoskeletal architecture, and the american journal of human genetics , – , march the extracellular matrix. we also have begun analyzing these exome sequences for copy-number variants (cnvs) with nik krumm and evan eichler at the university of washington, seattle. a further surprise is that hscr pa- tients have an excess of recurrent cnvs already known to be associated with other neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism and epilepsy. in other words, these recurrent cnvs might predispose to a broad neuronal dysfunction whose specificity is produced when they reside in a genome with other genes mutated in hscr. all of these are recent results that require validation, confirmation, and peer review. i wanted to share them with you to demonstrate that even a rare disease like hscr is the result of tens, if not hundreds, of genes and has many valuable lessons to teach us. i will argue that we are just beginning to ‘‘understand’’ this complex genetic defect. but, before we do so, are any of the gut-expressed genes with deleterious variants true? we have begun the painstaking work of individually knocking down their function in zebrafish embryos, an excellent model for studying the migration of enteric neurons, to assess their phenotype. the first class we have focused on is a set of genes likely affecting neuronal ubiquitylation by showing that loss of function of ubr , which encodes an e ubiquitin ligase, clearly affects normal ganglionosis in zebrafish and demonstrates strong epistasis with ret. so, what have we learned? we now know the identity of the many genes that are mutant in hscr and are begin- ning to understand how they bring about their effects. enteric nervous system development is highly dependent on a group of early transcription factors, such as pax and sox , and two key signaling molecules, ret and ednrb. normal development requires passage through this rate-limiting developmental step, which is why delete- rious coding variants in these genes are associated with severe disease. weaker mutations, such as the enhancer alleles i spoke of, might allow passage through this step, which is why less severe and common forms of hscr occur from the joint action of these weaker deleterious alleles with additional mutations in subsequent develop- mental processes, such as in the formation of neuromus- cular junctions or in neuronal activity per se. quite impor- tantly, hscr is not exclusively a neuronal disease given that mutations in genes affecting nonneuronal tissue, such as the extracellular matrix, have now been identified. i have no doubt that human genetics will prove its worth in the subsequent few years to further solve these puzzles. none of the work i described would have been possible without a strong belief in the awesome power of human genetics, the principles of evolution, and my deep, deep respect for basic and fundamental research. many years ago, the great biochemist arthur kornberg laid down his ten commandments, such as the one on evolution: ‘‘what’s true for e. coli is true for elephants; what’s not true for e. coli is simply not true.’’ he also humorously wrote that moses, while coming down from the mountain after his meeting with the almighty, carried down three , tablets, one of which broke but contained the most impor- tant th commandment: ‘‘thou shalt respect basic research.’’ in these days, when translation of our science is imminent, the need for basic research is even greater, an aspect that i believe is given insufficient support. let me end with a few more thanks. first, to my parents, now both deceased. they did much more than give me their genomes; they were giants and have bequeathed to my brothers and me their lives as lessons. second, to my beautiful wife and our two lovely daughters. i thank them for their daily support and love and all that it takes to make our house a home; our lives are sometimes chaotic but always interesting. my wife, shukti, is a noted cell and molecular biologist of her own accord, and i have been lucky to have learned ‘‘real’’ biology from her through osmosis over our years together. also, thanks to this country and the ashg, which have given me so many op- portunities. however, this has not come without some pain. the life of immigrants, with the absence of our lan- guage, culture, and family, is largely an unobserved one to most of you and carries with it a permanent sense of dislocation and loss. still, it has been a great and worth- while journey, and i am not about to turn back. i will end by quoting the last paragraph from the last chapter of the book interpreter of maladies, written by one of the best short-story writers in the united states, the bengali american jhumpa lahiri. she writes in the ‘‘third and final continent’’ of a protagonist, modeled after her father and similar to mine, who left calcutta to study in england and then at the massachusetts institute of technology in this very city. the year is , and the protagonist rents a room in the home of the -year-old mrs. croft, who simply cannot believe that man has landed on the moon. it is to this simple beginning on which he reflects: ‘‘in my son’s eyes i see the ambition that had first hurled me across the world. in a few years he will graduate and pave his way, alone and unprotected. but i remind myself that he has a father who is still living, a mother who is happy and strong. whenever he is discouraged, i tell him that if i can survive on three continents, then there is no obstacle he cannot conquer. while the astronauts, heroes forever, spent mere hours on the moon, i have remained in this new world for nearly years. i know that my achievement is quite ordinary. i am not the only man to seek his fortune far from home, and certainly i am not the first. still, there are times when i am bewildered by each mile i have traveled, each meal i have eaten, each per- son i have known, each room in which i have slept. as ordinary as it all appears, there are times when it is beyond my imagination.’’ acknowledgments i wish to sincerely acknowledge the support, efforts, and hard work of numerous trainees and collaborators whose work i have described, as well as the patients and their families who lent them- selves to our investigations. importantly, i acknowledge the numerous contributions of the members of the international the ame hirschsprung disease consortium, particularly the junior leaders, jeanne amiel, merce garcia-barcelo, raquel fernandez, francesca lantieri, and yunia sribudiani. finally, i remain deeply indebted to the national institutes of health, which, despite my frequent complaints, have steadfastly and consistently supported my diverse research ideas since . i am a paid member of the scien- tific advisory boards of affymetrix and biogen idec. these poten- tial conflicts of interest are managed by the policies of johns hopkins university school of medicine. references . steinbeck, j. ( ). cannery row (new york: the viking press). . chakravarti, a. ( ). an autobiographical recollection of the indian statistical institute. in a bouquet of remem- brances, alumni association, ed. (kolkata: indian statistical institute), pp. – . . chakravarti, a., and nei, m. ( ). utility and efficiency of linked marker genes for genetic counseling. ii. identification of linkage phase by offspring phenotypes. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . chakravarti, a. ( ). utility and efficiency of linked marker genes for genetic counseling. iii. proportion of informative families under linkage disequilibrium. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . botstein, d., white, r.l., skolnick, m., and davis, r.w. ( ). construction of a genetic linkage map in man using restric- tion fragment length polymorphisms. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . haldane, j.b.s. ( ). an autobiography in brief (the illus- trated weekly of india). . chakravarti, a. ( ). certain considerations on the genetics of hand-clasping in human populations. in human popula- tion genetics in india, volume , l.d. sanghvi, v. balak- rishnan, h.m. bhatia, p.k. sukumaran, and j.v. undevia, eds. (new delhi: orient longmans), pp. – . . kan, y.w., and dozy, a.m. ( ). polymorphism of dna sequence adjacent to human beta-globin structural gene: rela- tionship to sickle mutation. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . chakravarti, a., buetow, k.h., antonarakis, s.e., waber, p.g., boehm, c.d., and kazazian, h.h. ( ). nonuniform recom- bination within the human b-globin gene cluster. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . rioux, j.d., daly, m.j., silverberg, m.s., lindblad, k., stein- hart, h., cohen, z., delmonte, t., kocher, k., miller, k., guschwan, s., et al. ( ). genetic variation in the q cytokine gene cluster confers susceptibility to crohn disease. nat. genet. , – . . kazazian, h.h., jr., orkin, s.h., markham, a.f., chapman, c.r., youssoufian, h., and waber, p.g. ( ). quantification of the close association between dna haplotypes and specific beta-thalassaemia mutations in mediterraneans. nature , – . . royer-pokora, b., kunkel, l.m., monaco, a.p., goff, s.c., new- burger, p.e., baehner, r.l., cole, f.s., curnutte, j.t., and orkin, s.h. ( ). cloning the gene for an inherited human disor- der—chronic granulomatous disease—on the basis of its chro- mosomal location. nature , – . . kerem, b.-s., rommens, j.m., buchanan, j.a., markiewicz, d., cox, t.k., chakravarti, a., buchwald, m., and tsui, l.-c. rican journal of human genetics , – , march , ( ). identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: genetic anal- ysis. science , – . . risch, n., and merikangas, k. ( ). the future of genetic studies of complex human diseases. science , – . . lander, e.s. ( ). the new genomics: global views of biology. science , – . . collins, f.s., guyer, m.s., and charkravarti, a. ( ). varia- tions on a theme: cataloging human dna sequence variation. science , – . . wang, d.g., fan, j.b., siao, c.j., berno, a., young, p., sapolsky, r., ghandour, g., perkins, n., winchester, e., spencer, j., et al. ( ). large-scale identification, mapping, and genotyping of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the human genome. science , – . . international hapmap consortium ( ). a haplotype map of the human genome. nature , – . . frazer, k.a., ballinger, d.g., cox, d.r., hinds, d.a., stuve, l.l., gibbs, r.a., belmont, j.w., boudreau, a., hardenbol, p., leal, s.m., et al.; international hapmap consortium ( ). a second generation human haplotype map of over . million snps. nature , – . . halushka,m.k., fan, j.-b., bentley, k., hsie, l., shen, n., weder, a., cooper, r., lipshutz, r., and chakravarti, a. ( ). pat- terns of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in candidate genes for blood-pressure homeostasis. nat. genet. , – . . cargill, m., altshuler, d., ireland, j., sklar, p., ardlie, k., patil, n., shaw, n., lane, c.r., lim, e.p., kalyanaraman, n., et al. ( ). characterization of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in coding regions of human genes. nat. genet. , – . . abecasis, g.r., altshuler, d., auton, a., brooks, l.d., durbin, r.m., gibbs, r.a., hurles, m.e., and mcvean, g.a.; ge- nomes project consortium ( ). a map of human genome variation from population-scale sequencing. nature , – . . abecasis, g.r., auton, a., brooks, l.d., depristo, m.a., dur- bin, r.m., handsaker, r.e., kang, h.m., marth, g.t., and mcvean, g.a.; genomes project consortium ( ). an integrated map of genetic variation from , human ge- nomes. nature , – . . fisher, r.a. ( ). the correlation between relatives on the supposition of mendelian inheritance. philosophical transac- tions of the royal society of edinburgh , – . . inati, m. ( ). hirschsprung’s disease: clinical and familial findings in patients treated at children’s hospital of pitts- burgh between – . ms thesis (pittsburgh: graduate school of public health, university of pittsburgh). . chakravarti, a., and lyonnet, s. ( ). hirschsprung disease. in the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease, eighth edition, c.r. scriver, a.l. beaudet, d. valle, w.s. sly, b. childs, k. kinzler, and b. vogelstein, eds. (new york, ny: mcgraw-hill), pp. – . . badner, j.a., sieber, w.k., garver, k.l., and chakravarti, a. ( ). a genetic study of hirschsprung disease. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . angrist, m., kauffman, e., slaugenhaupt, s.a., matise, t.c., puffenberger, e.g., washington, s.s., lipson, a., cass, d.t., reyna, t., weeks, d.e., et al. ( ). a gene for hirschsprung disease (megacolon) in the pericentromeric region of human chromosome . nat. genet. , – . . lyonnet, s., bolino, a., pelet, a., abel, l., nihoul-fékété, c., briard, m.l., mok-siu, v., kaariainen, h., martucciello, g., ler- one, m., et al. ( ). a gene for hirschsprung disease maps to the american journal of human genetics , – , march the proximal long arm of chromosome . nat. genet. , – . . edery, p., lyonnet, s., mulligan, l.m., pelet, a., dow, e., abel, l., holder, s., nihoul-fékété, c., ponder, b.a., and munnich, a. ( ). mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in hirsch- sprung’s disease. nature , – . . romeo, g., ronchetto, p., luo, y., barone, v., seri, m., cec- cherini, i., pasini, b., bocciardi, r., lerone, m., kääriäinen, h., et al. ( ). point mutations affecting the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature , – . . angrist, m., bolk, s., thiel, b., puffenberger, e.g., hofstra, r.m., buys, c.h., cass, d.t., and chakravarti, a. ( ). muta- tion analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirsch- sprung disease. hum. mol. genet. , – . . puffenberger, e.g., kauffman, e.r., bolk, s., matise, t.c., wash- ington, s.s., angrist, m., weissenbach, j., garver, k.l., mascari, m., ladda, r., et al. ( ). identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on hu- man chromosome q . hum. mol. genet. , – . . puffenberger, e.g., hosoda, k., washington, s.s., nakao, k., dewit, d., yanagisawa, m., and chakravart, a. ( ). a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell , – . . angrist, m., bolk, s., halushka, m., lapchak, p.a., and chakra- varti, a. ( ). germline mutations in glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (gdnf) and ret in a hirschsprung dis- ease patient. nat. genet. , – . . bolk, s., angrist, m., xie, j., yanagisawa, m., silvestri, j.m., weese-mayer, d.e., and chakravarti, a. ( ). endothelin- frameshift mutation in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. nat. genet. , – . . southard-smith, e.m., angrist, m., ellison, j.s., agarwala, r., baxevanis, a.d., chakravarti, a., and pavan, w.j. ( ). the sox (dom) mouse: modeling the genetic variation of waardenburg-shah (ws ) syndrome. genome res. , – . . pingault, v., bondurand, n., kuhlbrodt, k., goerich, d.e., préhu, m.o., puliti, a., herbarth, b., hermans-borgmeyer, i., legius, e., matthijs, g., et al. ( ). sox mutations in pa- tients with waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. nat. genet. , – . . carrasquillo, m.m., mccallion, a.s., puffenberger, e.g., ka- shuk, c.s., nouri, n., and chakravarti, a. ( ). genome- wide association study and mouse model identify interaction between ret and ednrb pathways in hirschsprung disease. nat. genet. , – . . mccallion, a.s., stames, e., conlon, r.a., and chakravarti, a. ( ). phenotype variation in two-locus mouse models of hirschsprung disease: tissue-specific interaction between ret and ednrb. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . bolk, s., pelet, a., hofstra, r.m., angrist, m., salomon, r., croaker, d., buys, c.h., lyonnet, s., and chakravarti, a. ( ). a human model for multigenic inheritance: pheno- typic expression in hirschsprung disease requires both the ret gene and a new q locus. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . gabriel, s.b., salomon, r., pelet, a., angrist, m., amiel, j., for- nage, m., attié-bitach, t., olson, j.m., hofstra, r., buys, c., et al. ( ). segregation at three loci explains familial and population risk in hirschsprung disease. nat. genet. , – . , . emison, e.s., mccallion, a.s., kashuk, c.s., bush, r.t., grice, e., lin, s., portnoy, m.e., cutler, d.j., green, e.d., and chak- ravarti, a. ( ). a common sex-dependent mutation in a ret enhancer underlies hirschsprung disease risk. nature , – . . grice, e.a., rochelle, e.s., green, e.d., chakravarti, a., and mccallion, a.s. ( ). evaluation of the ret regulatory land- scape reveals the biological relevance of a hscr-implicated enhancer. hum. mol. genet. , – . . emison, e.s., garcia-barcelo, m., grice, e.a., lantieri, f., amiel, j., burzynski, g., fernandez, r.m., hao, l., kashuk, c., west, k., et al.; international hirschsprung disease con- sortium ( ). differential contributions of rare and com- mon, coding and noncoding ret mutations to multifactorial hirschsprung disease liability. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . chatterjee, s., kapoor, a., and chakravarti, a. ( ). allelic heterogeneity of and interactions between polymorphic ret the ame enhancers affecting hirschsprung disease risk. proceedings of the rd annual meeting of the american society of hu- man genetics. . fu, m., sato, y., lyons-warren, a., zhang, b., kane, m.a., na- poli, j.l., and heuckeroth, r.o. ( ). vitamin a facilitates enteric nervous system precursor migration by reducing pten accumulation. development , – . . krumm, n., sudmant, p.h., ko, a., o’roak, b.j., malig, m., coe, b.p., quinlan, a.r., nickerson, d.a., and eichler, e.e.; nhlbi exome sequencing project ( ). copy number vari- ation detection and genotyping from exome sequence data. genome res. , – . . kornberg, a. ( ). ten commandments: lessons from the enzymology of dna replication. j. bacteriol. , – . . lahiri, j. ( ). the third and final continent. in interpreter of maladies (new york: houghton mifflin company), pp. – . rican journal of human genetics , – , march , 	 william allan award: my multifactorial journey 	acknowledgments 	references journal of european baptist studies : ( ) douglas j. heidebrecht, women in ministry leadership: the journey of the mennonite brethren, – (winnipeg: kindred productions, ), pages. isbn: - . in i read douglas j. heidebrecht’s doctoral dissertation (completed at ibts prague) with a focus on how he interpreted discernment in the processes of women in ministry leadership, in which he gave several insights that helped me to look at congregational processes in the netherlands. in this book, women in ministry leadership, emanating from his doctoral thesis, heidebrecht provides a thick description of many years of searching for discernment concerning women in ministerial leadership with the mennonite brethren in canada and the united states. heidebrecht critically examines how the mennonite brethren have dealt with the question of whether ‘all avenues of ministry and leadership are open to women as well as men, or are women restricted from certain roles and subordinated to male authority on the basis of gender alone?’ (p. ). he identifies three threads that emerge in the conversation: understanding the scriptures regarding the question; the praxis of communal discernment; and living faithfully amid contextual voices. heidebrecht gives an in-depth description of the ways in which the question of whether and how women can function in church leadership was engaged. starting with an emerging conversation (– ), via challenging tradition ( – ), discerning belief and practice ( – ), unravelling consensus ( – ), to conflicting convictions ( – ) and finally seeking consensus ( – ) — a road of almost years. heidebrecht analysed minutes of different conference meetings, columns and articles in periodicals, and symposia, which all provide insight into how the question of the place of women in ministerial leadership was influenced. only after a detailed description does heidebrecht move on to reflections and conclusions on each time period. he identifies three recurring areas of tension: the tension between ‘congregational autonomy and interdependence’; between ‘biblicism and interpretive discretion; and between the role of authoritative leadership and the value of community participation’ (p. ). heidebrecht observes the situation of the mennonite brethren in canada and the united states. this context is specific, and heidebrecht describes key actors such as katie funk wiebe, john toews and valerie rempel. however, at the same time, several developments he describes are book reviews also recognisable in other contexts: the influence of the broader evangelical gender debate; the previously mentioned areas of tension; men dominating the conversation at conventions; the importance of role models in practice and discussion. that is why this work of heidebrecht transcends the situation and context of the mennonite brethren and — despite all the differences — calls for recognition in different contexts. this thick description provides insight into how processes in conventions and unions run, and that is valuable for everyone involved in these lengthy discernment processes. reviewed by ingeborg te loo — co-ordinator of learning network, ibts centre, amsterdam. andrew j. kirk, being human: an historical enquiry into who we are (eugene, oregon: wipf & stock, ), pages. isbn: - . in this book andrew kirk focuses on the question of what it means to be human. this author is well-known for his contribution on the subject of mission and relevant aspects of missiology of western culture. being human is a fruit of kirk’s sustained interest in the aspects of secular culture and how these are related to the christian mission and message. the book is unique in that it offers an account of the views on humanity and human nature from the renaissance, including the reformation, through the enlightenment to the present. it is motivated by the intention ‘to grapple afresh with the notion of being human’ (p. ). the book encompasses a timespan of five centuries, different intellectual milieus, many authors and various topics. after introducing the foundational presuppositions of the enquiry (ch. ), kirk proceeds to a description of the renaissance shift towards humanism (ch. ) and its consequences for the external authority in politics represented by john locke (ch. ). chapters to explore the enlightenment humanism exemplified by such figures as hume and diderot, darwin and ‘masters of suspicion’ marx, nietzsche and freud. kirk argues that the enlightenment has departed from the yet theocentric renaissance humanism and that this has resulted in what he calls ‘secular humanism’ (ch. ), which denies any reality beyond the natural world (p. ). in two final chapters the author outlines the perspectives of some prominent christian theologians who have dealt with the issues relevant to human existence and identity. he summarises the key topics of the enquiry and in chapter proposes a method of abduction for ‘dialogue in the context of truth’ (p. ). religion, state & society, vo!. , no. , september • carfax publishing rti taylor&franclsgroup lutheranism in russia and the soviet union: another response to filatov and stepina gerd stricker sergei filatov's publications have made an enormous contribution to the analysis of religious life in postcommunist russia. his articles in the volume religiya i obshchestvo, sponsored and financed by keston institute, give a lively overview of the variety and complexity of new religious developments in russia since perestroika, as well as highlighting problematic issues. filatov is a sociologist with a remarkable understanding of socio-religious issues. he is not a historian, however, so he is to be forgiven for not always providing an adequate historical context. in his article 'lutheranism in russia: amidst protestantism, orthodoxy and catholicism' (rss, , , december , pp. - ) my friend filatov quotes me on several occasions, and the impression may arise that some of his historical errors are based on my writings, so i feel i must point out the places where he is on the wrong historical track. let me say, however, that i am in full agreement with the up-to-date, accurate and important analysis of the current standing of the various branches of lutheranism in the former ussr which he and aleksandra stepina provide in this article. the ingermanlanders: a bridge between scandinavian and russian lutheranism? filatov has a good deal to say about the scandinavian lutheran tradition, which was allegedly introduced into russia by the lutheran ingermanlanders. the question arises: what does 'the scandinavian lutheran tradition' actually mean? filatov never explains. perhaps he means a high church tradition that emphasises the liturgy. such a tradition was indeed widely influential in lutheranism in the russian empire. the ingermanlanders, or ingrians, are a finnish people. those living to the south of the gulf of finland and lake ladoga were subject to the princes of novgorod in the middle ages and from to the grand dukes in moscow, who later became the tsars. the region was annexed by sweden in and regained by peter the great in at the beginning of the great northern war; from he built st petersburg in the heart of the ingermanlanders' territory. the finnish ingermanlanders were deported to siberia in the late s, but were allowed to return to their baltic homeland after stalin's death and now live in leningrad oblast' again. they are mostly lutherans, like the peoples in the baltic provinces of estland and livland that, along with ingermanland, were incorporated into the russian empire at the peace of nystad ( ) (tschoerner, , pp. - ). the third russian baltic province, the former duchy of courland, which had belonged to poland since , became part of the russian empire at the third partition of poland in issn - print; issn - online/ / - © keston institute dol: . / gerd stricker . estland, livland and courland (today's estonia and latvia) had originally been the territory of the teutonic order, which from christianised the baltic peoples of the region (the ests, livs, letts, kurs and (later in german east prussia) the indigenous prussians (pruzzen). under the rule of the order the indigenous peoples declined into a peasant underclass, with the status virtually of serfs. the ruling class were the descendants of the teutonic knights, who owned the land in the baltic region and also de facto owned the inhabitants except for those who managed to rise into the german ruling class; the towns were purely german; supplies from germany never dried up. the order built a state that as far as efficiency was concerned was a model for its time and for its location on the 'edge' of europe. in the s the german ruling class in the order's lands, and even most of the clergy there, embraced the reformation; the leadership in reval (now tallinn), for example, introduced it into estonia in (kahle, , p. ; wittram, , pp. - ): this was earlier than in many other parts of the holy roman empire. the baltic serfs also compulsorily became lutherans: they were not even asked (wittram, , pp. - ). the lands of the order, now mostly lutheran, soon fell apart in the livland war ( - / ). estland and liv and went to sweden; courland (as mentioned above) came under polish rule. they were already by now well-established lutheran provinces, which were regarded as 'german' and where the non-german peasant under- class was hardly heeded. nothing changed in the social setup throughout the years of swedish and the years of polish rule. it was the local german body of knights i that communicated with the swedish and polish kings. under swedish rule the lutheranism of estland and livland received its scandinavian stamp; with its german clergy and its german, estonian and latvian congregations it became an integral part of scandinavian lutheranism. until almost the end of the nineteenth century practically all pastors in the baltic provinces were german, but it was a condition of their ordination that they should also be able to preach in estonian and latvian. from the time of the reformation german pastors laid the foundations of the later estonian and latvian literary languages and their grammar, beginning with translations of martin luther's small catechism and other key reformation texts. nothing changed in the situation when peter the great conquered the baltic provinces. he granted estland and livland a de facto inner autonomy, which involved various privileges, and catherine the great did the same for courland in . german was designated the official language of administration and lutheranism (not orthodoxy) the leading religion (first in livland and estland, and later in courland). conservative baltic german lutheranism was marked by scandinavian features: it was high-church and liturgical. these features did not however suit the mentality of the estonians and latvians: they preferred a plain warm spontaneity to stiff ceremonial. the pietist graf nikolaus ludwig zinzendorf, the founder of the hermhut brethren com- munity in saxony, spent a short time in the russian baltic provinces in , where the estonian and latvian peasants responded enthusiastically to his preaching. the peasants did not (and could not) formally withdraw from the high church of their german masters, but they saw the focus of their spiritual life in the pietist 'brethren communities' (briidergemeinschaften) (wittram, , pp. - ) which they formed in zinzendorfs spirit and for which they built large prayer houses on the outskirts of their villages. tension between these 'brethren communities' and the official german church was frequently high, one reason being that at the time of romanticism and 'national awakening' the brethren communities became national institutions for the estonians and latvians, which ever more opposed the german hegemony. national feelings amongst estonians, latvians and finnish ingermanlanders against the german church leadership increased during the second half of the nineteenth century within the evangelical lutheran lutheranism in russia and the soviet union church in russia, and not much could be done to tackle the causes of this tension until the first world war. in emperor nicholas i issued a decree establishing the evangelical lutheran church in russia (elcr) which included all lutherans in the empire: estonians, latvians, germans and ingermanlanders. it also included the reformed congregations. the supreme bishop (summus episcopus) in this state church (as in the orthodox church) was the russian emperor himself. culturally this multinational church was german. the official language and lingua franca in the church was german. teaching was in german at the theological faculty of the german university in dorpat (tartu) in livland (founded , refounded ; now in estonia) where all lutheran and some reformed theolo- gians in the russian empire studied (with the exception of the pastors of the ingermanlander parishes who were finns or studied in the grand duchy of finland, also an autonomous part of the russian empire). the church leadership comprised almost exclusively baltic germans (some of swedish origin). at the same time, in its liturgical style this church was scandinavian: first, because for a long time most of the lutheran pastors even in the interior of the russian empire had been baltic germans who had been thoroughly imbued in the scandinavian style, and second, because the dorpat theological faculty was unambiguously scandinavian in character and transmitted this even to those germans who had been born in russia and who started attending the faculty in increasing numbers in the last third of the nineteenth century. the lutherans in russia itself - from st petersburg to vladivostok - had come to russia in various waves of immigration from all german states. they had been invited by catherine the great (the volga germans in ) and by alexander i (the black sea germans in ). catherine herself was born a german princess: sophie friederike auguste von anhalt-zerbst. the potestants among them brought the full variety of lutheran traditions with them from their homelands: hessen, wtirttemberg, baden, bavaria, saxony, mecklenburg. the volga germans left their homelands for economic reasons, but a large proportion of the black sea germans, swabian pietists, had accepted the invitation to come to russia for religious reasons. these protestant black sea germans with a definite pietist background were particularly sensitive about religious matters. in their villages (in today's southern ukraine) conflicts between pastors and congregations often arose; their causes were a good deal more complex than filatov describes them. in wtirttemberg even today lutheranism is liturgically much more modest than in north germany or scandinavia - or in the baltic states at the time we are discussing. pastors trained at dorpat and bringing their high-church liturgical ritual to the black sea germans' villages met determined resistance in pietist parishes. the swabian pietists saw them as representatives of a baltic-scandinavian tradition that they rejected. conflicts abated only from about , when sons of the black sea (and also volga german) colonists were able to study theology at dorpat and as pastors began to reconcile the scandinavian tradition with the tradition of their villages. it was thus baltic german lutheranism with its scandinavian stamp which was the decisive formative influence on the whole of lutheranism in the russian empire. it was the german clergy in estonia, latvia and later courland who formed the bridge between scandinavian (i.e. swedish) lutheranism and lutheranism in the russian empire. the finns, whom filatov highlights particularly as bearers of the 'scandinavian tradition' (p. ), played no role in this context. they were statistically insignificant, they in fact tended strongly towards pietism (see below for more on both these points), and they concentrated exclusively on finland. they were tillers of the fields who resembled the estonians and latvians in their lack of any spiritual pretensions. moreover, they had no educated urban intelligentsia. like the baltic peoples, the ingermanlanders had belonged gerd stricker to the swedish lutheran church (from until about ). when ingermanland became part of the russian empire the ingermanlanders were, it is true, separated from sweden and from their finnish kin, but until most of their pastors came from finland; the ingermanlanders among them had done their theological studies in helsinki. what is more, after they were incorporated by the russian bureaucracy into the elcr (founded in ) they still remained orientated towards finland and took little interest in what was going on in the united church to which they now officially belonged. the ingermanlanders had no influence of any kind on the lutheran church in the russian empire. statistics for for the lutheran church in russia reveal the ingermanlanders and finns as very small groups in the united church (meyer, , p. ). out of . million members . million were latvians, . million estonians, . million germans ( , baltic germans and , russian germans in the rest of the russian empire), and just , finns and ingermanlanders. the parishes in ingermanland were divided amongst three deaneries (propsteibezirke) (schliisselburg, ost-ingermanland and west-ingerman- land) (amburger, , p. ) comprising parishes (with some - branches in small villages); they were under the jurisdiction of a special ingermanlander provost or dean (lngermanliider oberkirchenvorsteheramt). the marienkirche near nevsky propekt in st petersburg had a congregation of , finns and ingermanlanders ( ). this figure should be compared with , - , germans in st petersburg alone, as well as another few thousand colonists in german villages in st petersburg gubemiya. in the soviet union the october revolution of concentrated most of the estonians and latvians in their new states. estonia was formed from the old province of estland and northern livland, latvia from southern livland, courland and the hitherto polish (and hence catholic) latgalia. meanwhile the border changes meant that several tens of thousands of estonians and latvians found themselves in the soviet-baltic border country, this time on the soviet side. the ingermanlanders in petrograd gubemiya were cut off from their cultural centres in finland by the now almost impermeable frontier. filatov is wrong when he says that the elcr" ceased its activities during the turmoil of war, revolution and civil war. in it moved its administrative headquarters from petrograd to moscow. in a provisional synod produced temporary regulations (temporiire bestimmungen) (for the text see stupperich, , pp. - ) with which it sought to react to the new political, statistical and geographical circumstances. the church had lost its baltic parishes: more than churches altogether (including all their branches). in a general synod of the church then produced a new constitution (stupperich, , pp. - ). a survey from (kahle, , pp. - ) gives the following church structure. the top church body was the bishops' council (bischofsrat). this replaced the earlier general consistory (generalkonsistorium). to this were subordinated higher church councils (oberkirchenriite) (hccs) to run the parishes in the various regions of the soviet union. oberkirchenrat was the new name for konsistorium as the body in charge of an ethnically defined church region, or diocese (bistum). each hcc was to be headed by a bishop. the geographical areas under the jurisdiction of the hccs varied greatly in size since the main criterion for the church leadership was the national one. the aim was that the national minorities should feel themselves adequately represented by their own hcc. there were two german hccs (moscow and petrogradlleningrad) ( so-called 'kirchspiele' with some branches), a latvian hcc (five kirchspiele with some lutheranism in russia and the soviet union branches), an estonian hcc (four kirchspiele with some branches) and an ingerman- land-finnish hcc ( kirchspiele with some branches). these figures show that after the separation of the russian baltic provinces the church now consisted of more than per cent german parishes. filatov says (p. ) that in a finnish evangelical lutheran church split off from the german-dominated elcr. he is presumably referring to the following sequence of events. since tsarist times the ingermanland-finnish parishes had been culturally and theolog- ically orientated towards finland - mainly because their pastors usually came from the grand duchy of finland, and the few native-born ingermanlander pastors had all received their theological training in helsinki. this orientation towards finland was reflected in the particular character of the spirituality of the ingermanland lutheran parishes. since the second half of the nineteenth century finnish lutheranism had been dominated by pietism and the 'national awakening', including a strong finnish patriotism. the vehicle for this evangelical pietist spirituality was the finnish evangelical union which had just as much influence in ingermanland as in finland itself. the ingermanland-finnish parishes were not particularly interested in the lutheran state church of russia because they had been forced to join the latter by the tsarist bureaucracy: the ingermanlanders were supposed to have no institutional or church ties to finland. lutheran ingermanlanders certainly made efforts after the revolution to split off from the former lutheran state church and to organise themselves independently. on january a committee of ingerman and-finnish parishes was formed, a kind of synod comprising seven pastors, seven teachers from church schools and aypeople. uncer- tainty and hesitation were evident in the fact that this committee had several different names (the ingermanland-finnish consistory, for example). apparently the committee soon started trying to move back closer to the leadership of the old lutheran state church. it may well be that the soviet authorities were exerting pressure: they would have calculated that a dissatisfied finnish minority would be a destabilising element in the lutheran church, threatening schism and weakening the church from within. on january a synod of the finnish-ingermanland parishes in petrograd determined what its future relations were to be with the now moscow-based bishops' council of the elcr, and also recognised its financial responsibilities towards the church. from that time the ingermanlanders were represented at sessions of the bishops' council, either by delegates or through postal votes. in a document of (in russian, for the soviet authorities) the ingermanland hcc is called 'the finnish evangelical lutheran church in the north-west of the soviet union'. perhaps filatov was referring to this document when he wrote about an ingermanlander church splitting off in . the ingermanlanders were connected in numerous ways to the elcr, even though the contacts cannot be described as intensive. the head of the elcr, bishop conrad freifeldt l (based in petrograd), installed dean (propst) felix fridolf relander in as bishop of ingermanland in the finnish marienkirche in petrograd. in relander had to return to finland for health reasons (he died two years later). dean selim hjalmar laurikkala was chosen as his successor in and installed on behalf of the bishops' council of the elcr by the bishop of the estonian parishes in the soviet union, oskar palsa, in the marienkirche. the german bishops conrad freifeldt and arthur malm- gren l occasionally attended ingermanland regional synod meetings. the ingermanlanders did an important service for the elcr when a finnish pastor and his ingermanland parish provided a refuge for all students at the lutheran theological seminary in leningrad ls whose residence permits had been withdrawn by the city authorities. as far as internal church life was concerned, however, the ingermanlanders continued gerd stricker as in tsarist times to be orientated towards finland and to practise the same strict pietism. since the october revolution in almost all the pastors had left ingermanland; they had been born in the grand duchy of finland and automatically received citizenship of the new finnish state and thus had no problem in avoiding soviet persecution by emigrating. an acute shortage of pastors was meaning that former teachers in church schools and cantors were being ordained as pastors; although the church leadership in moscow, under its then leading bishop theophil meyer, had spoken out strongly against this practice, it nevertheless had to be adopted in practically pastorless ingermanland. teachers and cantors of proven ability and who were all members of the pietist finnish evangelical union, or closely associated with it, were ordained. four of these new 'pastors' were able to catch up on their theological education in the theological seminary in leningrad. to summarise, then, the ingermanland lutherans were a peripheral phenomenon in the whole spectrum of the elcr. in tsarist times they were a very small minority in the church ( per cent of its membership, including finns), their revivalist pietist spirituality was quite different from the high-church style of the church leadership in st petersburg, and (to a large extent because their clergy were either born in finland or educated there) they were completely orientated towards finland. in soviet times the ingermanland lutherans apparently decided after some initial hesitation to join the former lutheran state church again, but within this structure they continued more or less to live their own life. since almost all their pastors had emigrated to finland the ingermanlanders were forced to adopt the practice of ordaining competent laypeople, a practice rejected by the church leadership in moscow. in no sense did the ingermanlanders function as a bridge between scandinavian lutheranism and lutheranism in the russian empire or the soviet union. this bridging role was played by the german baits who were based in estland, livland and st petersburgipetrograd/leningrad and played a dominating role in the elcr, and by the german-language theological faculty in dorpat (tartu). lutheran 'brethren communities' in russia a good deal of what filatov writes about the lutheran 'brethren communities' in the areas of german colonisation often does not correspond to historical reality, particularly as far as the connections between pietism, the prayer 'hour' (stunde), stundism and the baptist faith are concerned. a very large proportion of the swabian colonists who came to russia in the early nineteenth century and who were settled in the black sea region (brandes, , pp. - ) had left wtirttemberg for religious reasons. they were mostly pietists ('die frommen', 'die stiflen im lande') and pietist dreamers and had been feeling increasingly alienated from the protestant church in wtirttemberg which was becoming ever more characterised by rationalism. many of them went to america in search of places of refuge where they could practice their own brand of piety; some tens of thousands went to russia too. the 'stunde' described by filatov is still a feature of pietism among the swabians in wtirttemberg. they gather once a week or more, mostly in private homes, for 'prayer hours' (,gebetsstunden') during which they sing pious revivalist songs, read the bible, study bible texts and pray intensively. the pietists brought the tradition of the 'stunde' with them to southern russia (today southern ukraine). as filatov correctly notes, there was a chronic shortage of clergy in the area, and the black sea germans continued with the 'stunde' in order to fill the spiritual vacuum in their new villages? however, the situation was rather different from the way filatov describes it, and a good deal more lutheranism in russia and the soviet union complicated. it is incorrect to say, for example, that the 'church' in the sense of the well-organised official church existed only in the cities and that lutheranism in the countryside (that is, in the german 'colony' villages) consisted exclusively of brethren communities. that would have meant that the developments described below which led to the formation of brethren communities would have been fully representative of village lutheranism. the fact of the matter is that a symbiosis of the 'official church' with its pastors and the brethren communities was typical for the lutheran villages in southern russia. the brethren communities played a relatively greater role among the black sea germans and a relatively smaller role among the volga germans, corresponding to the degree to which the pastors of the 'official church' were able to tend their flocks in the villages. relations between the pastors and the 'brethren' in the villages were character- ised by frequent tension but were not basically negative. some pastors understood the need to involve the brethren communities in the life of the parish. in there were some -- german 'colonies' in the russian empire; some had over , inhabitants and some only - families. the larger colonies had churches and the smaller ones prayer houses; in the smallest settlements the faithful gathered privately, and if a pastor came they would meet in the barn of a farmhouse. sixty per cent of the german 'colonists' were lutherans and - per cent reformed; the remaining third were in catholic and mennonite villages. we are thus talking about a total of some (larger and smaller) protestant 'colonies' in the russian empire. they were organised in 'kirchspiele' or 'pfarreien'. the pastor in the central village would have a number of villages in his care; most of these would have a church or a prayer house. most kirchspiele would consist of between four and villages; but in the far east of siberia there were as many as a thousand parishioners scattered in small communities hundreds of miles apart, which the pastor based in irkutsk could visit only once a year, in winter. there were also a good many communities in other parts of russia, for instance in volynia, which the pastors could visit only a few times a year. on such occasions there would be several services with proper sermons and the eucharist; there would be baptisms, weddings and confirmations, visits to the sick and meetings with local church elders and teachers. as an official of the russian empire the pastor would also have to complete the state register. discussions with the teacher were very important since when the pastor was away in other villages the teacher would take the services and read sermons officially approved by the church leadership in st petersburg. the lutheran church never managed to overcome the problem of a shortage of clergy in russia. from the very beginning the pietists with their 'stunde' were in competition with the official church in far-flung villages that the pastor could visit only occasionally. over the decades, while the spiritual situation barely improved in the german 'colony' villages (catholic as well as lutheran), the 'stunde', which had originally been an individual event, developed into a more structured institution: the 'brethren community' ('briiderge- meinschaft'). this became a closed group that accepted only the 'born again': those who had had a personal encounter with christ, who had repudiated their sinful life, repented and converted. only when a believer had completed this process of spiritual rebirth could the solemn ceremony of reception into the brethren community take place: a spiritual rebaptism. even in villages where the brethren community was strong, however, the other colonists were sceptical of it or rejected it altogether. in communities that were not regularly visited by a pastor the tendency was often to attend church on sundays only. the 'brothers' and 'sisters' would look down on those they disparaged as 'sunday christians'; the latter would mock their sanctimonious and self-righteous neighbours 'prayer-brothers' and 'prayer-sisters' (,betbriider', 'betschwester'). there were a number of pietist-inclined gerd stricker pastors (who had come to russia straight from wiirttemberg), and these won the trust of the brethren communities, but the majority of pastors had been trained in the theological faculty at dorpat with its high-church tradition, and more or less firmly rejected the pietists' plain legalistic fundamentalism. in the 'brethren gatherings' ('briidejllersammlun- gen') which had replaced the 'gebetsstunden' a simple table with a bible on it sufficed (no candles!) in a plain prayer room; the 'born again' brothers and sisters, whose preachers were all laypeople, rejected everything else. thus the baltic-scandinavian liturgical heritage and the plain worship style of swabian pietism came up against each other. however, although there was often tension between the pastors and pietist parishioners, they stayed together in one institution; for they had a good deal in common. the brethren communities might feel that the official church did not understand them, and might criticise the latter heavily for secularism and bureau- cratism (as a state church); but the brothers and sisters still received the eucharist from the pastor and were married and had their children baptised by the pastor; and the brethren communities were almost fanatical in their adherence to infant baptism, which kept them in the lutheran church despite all their affinity with the baptists. persecution under stalin in the great terror of the late s was followed by the deportation of germans to siberia, kazakhstan and central asia. o the official lutheran church collapsed after its pastors were arrested (stricker, , pp. - ). it now fell to the brethren communities to maintain lutheranism, in a simple, pietistic and often strange form, reduced to a fundamentalist and legalistic lay theology. this form of lutheranism had no problem with organising itself in the absence of pastors and official church structures and under external pressure. in these extreme circumstances 'church christians' who remained believers joined the brethren communities. the official church was dead but the brethren communities survived. since the mid- s the lutheran world federation has succeeded in persuading a number of german lutheran brethren communities to introduce liturgical services; in return they have received bibles, hymn books and religious literature in the german language. however, these liturgical services have not replaced the brethren gatherings; they have merely been added on as an optional extra. pastor haralds kalniq.s of riga, who from was sometimes allowed to visit the german lutheran parishes in the deportation areas, was recognised by the soviet authorities in as superintendent of the german lutherans in the soviet union, with the rights of a bishop (the right to ordain pastors, for example); in (during the perestroika period) he was officially installed as bishop. since the early s the evangelical church in germany (evangelische kirche in deutschland) (ekd) has been organising and financing the reconstruction of a lutheran church in the former soviet union. today this lutheran church of the german tradition is called the evangelical lutheran church in russia, ukraine, kazakhstan and central asia (elcros). ! since the collapse of the soviet union the complex problems so well described by filatov have arisen. it was this collapse that gave the ekd (along with other churches) the opportunity to intervene actively in russia. probably unintentionally, the ekd has been building a lutheran church with a german profile and based on german traditions. tensions both old and new have duly emerged between the new official church (elcros) under its archbishop, prof. dr georg kretschmar in st petersburg, and the old fraternal communities with their evangelical and fundamentalist principles. the latter maintain that the new lutheran parishes that have been formed on the basis of secular societies of city-dwelling germans, in which ethnic russians are also making their influence felt, are regrettable examples of liberal 'cultural protestantism'. they say that baptism is not taken seriously, they criticise the ordination of women, ecumenism, feminism and the free interpretation of the bible as aberrations that have been forced on lutheranism in russia and the soviet union the brethren communities by the lutherans of the ekd. some brethren communities have left the elcros on these grounds, and some brethren communities of the german tradition have even joined the traditional and conservative ingermanland lutherans; the latter, with an eye to accepting german communities, have been setting up centres in siberia. most brethren communities, however, are ceasing to exist, since most of their members have been part of a mass exodus to germany. meanwhile the ekd continues to finance the elcros (filatov, p. ); and indeed the elcros is still dependent on this drip-feed from germany. every effort is being made to enable the elcros to stand on its own feet financially, but so far without success. its member communities are too poor, and have perhaps grown used to the idea that the elcros is being almost completely financed by the churches in germany. the question of finance constantly comes up in germany and at all the synods of the elcros. 'stundists' in the nineteenth century filatov makes a direct connection between so-called 'stundism', which originated in today's ukraine in the s, and the german lutheran brethren communities. he says that it was participants in the german 'stunde' who developed into the 'stundists' who were involved in the 'stundist uprisings' of the s. however, by the s the 'gebetsstunde' had been superseded by the 'brethren community' for over years. 'stundism, j has more to do with mennonite brethren communities and with reformed communities in southern ukraine; it is connected only indirectly and peripherally with the lutherans (istoriya, , pp. - ). as noted earlier, the german colonists who arrived in the black sea region, especially those who immigrated between and , had a very strong religious motivation. there was continual religious unrest and ferment in the 'southern russian' german 'colonies', and it affected catholic and mennonite villages too. russian and ukrainian orthodox believers were also involved. thousands of these were employed as seasonal workers in german 'colonies'; the black sea germans (unlike the volga germans) were rich and needed extra labour at harvest time. most of the summer seasonal labourers lodged with their hosts year after year, and joined in with their religious life. the brethren communities seem to have made most impression on them: the morning and evening prayers in protestant and mennonite families and the 'brethren gatherings' which took place several times a week. when they went home to their orthodox villages after the harvest many of them would want to continue the practices they had learnt from their german hosts. they would ask their priests for bibles, ask them to discuss particular verses with them and sing revivalist hymns in german in their own homes. the priests, at a loss, would often end up calling in the police; there would be punishments, beatings, even arrests. none of this succeeded in putting an end to the dissident groups, but on the contrary provoked spontaneous resistance. in kherson and kiev gubernii in - orthodox russians and ukrainians in some villages processed to their churches and laid down their household icons before the doors, thus announcing their renunciation of orthodoxy. none of this protest was organised, and it is impossible to trace its subsequent development clearly. the dissidents did not unite and did not form an independent movement; they tended towards the baptist faith and were absorbed by it, particularly by the evangelical christians. coming out of orthodoxy, this movement thus flowed into the baptist faith, bringing with it elements of traditional russian sectarianism (like the sect of the molokans which was similarly largely absorbed into the baptist faith in the second half of the nineteenth century). 'stundism' is not a very precise term; it embraced various dissident movements within orthodoxy and manifested it in various ways in addition to gerd stricker that described above, for example a very strong stundist movement in kiev guberniya in the late s. in it was estimated that there were between and , stundists in 'southern russia' (diedrich, , pp. f.). the fact that the word 'stundism' has become so widely known is a success story for russian propaganda, which was energetically directed against anything german in the context of great russian chauvinism. it was very handy for the russian authorities to be able to put a german label on any trouble and to blame alleged german 'saboteurs' who were stirring up unrest among the russians and preparing the ground for a military attack by the german empire. this is the wider context within which the concept of the 'stundist movement' is to be understood: russian nationalist ideologues wanted to use it to foist onto the germans_the responsibility for a movement among russians and ukrainians away from the orthodox state church, to stigmatise the movement as a german initiative and to warn genuine russian patriots to keep away from it. this 'stundism' has little more than an etymological link with the german 'stunde'. true, it was inspired by german pietists in the german black sea 'colony' villages, but from an ethnic point of view it was a russian-ukrainian movement. various matters filatov is incorrect in saying that the church led by bishop hara ds kalniqs was ever a part of the latvian evangelical lutheran church. kalniqs was appointed 'superinten- denc of the german lutherans in the soviet union in by the soviet council for religious affairs (cra). he had been a latvian pastor in riga but the cra in moscow named him as head of a church of lutheran germans which was completely independent of the latvian archbishop and the latvian lutheran synod and which had no connection with latvia at all. when the soviet union collapsed riga became the capital of a sovereign state. however, the parishes of which kalniqs was now bishop were located mainly in siberia and central asia. the leadership of these parishes could obviously not be based abroad, in riga for example. in a restoration of the pre- situation, st petersburg was designated the centre of the future elcros, but the elderly bishop kalniqs, who was born in , was not prepared to move to st petersburg; his assistant prof. dr georg kretschmar was therefore elected as deputy bishop in and leading bishop in (archbishop since ). after retiring as bishop of the elcros in kalniqs was until his death in the bishop serving the four or five german-speaking parishes in latvia, but even in this role he was in no way subordinate to the latvian evangelical lutheran church or its archbishop. the 'united lutheran church' and its founder, joseph baron, are part of the most recent history of lutheranism in russia, about which a good deal is as yet unclear. amidst rumour, speculation, assertions and slander by those involved it is impossible to establish the truth. baron is an elusive and enigmatic figure who appeared in the lutheran world from an evidently catholic background and was soon being prepared as his successor by bishop kalniqs; later he disappeared into catholic circles again, but now he is serving in the st petersburg parish of the evangelical lutheran church of latvia in exile as an auxiliary pastor. in his article 'response to filatov and stepina on lutheranism in russia' (rss, , , december , pp. - ) baron complains that the 'united lutheran church' was manipulated into the elcros; but the reality is very far from clear. in st petersburg at the time many people were of the opinion that the 'united lutheran church' in fact comprised just one or two real parishes and that the other five or six, which were always being talked about, existed only on paper. it was said that baron was proceeding with the lutheranism in russia and the soviet uniotl registration of parishes only in order to gain possession of church buildings and church property to which such newly registered parishes could lay claim (stricker, , p. ). baron was never consecrated as a bishop, as he claims, but as a superintendent. moreover, there is serious dispute about his appointment as a superintendent of the 'united lutheran church'. he was appointed on march by archbishop eriks mesters, who had however been removed by the synod of the evangelical lutheran church of latvia in because (in the words of dean modris plate, speaking for the majority of synod members) for mesters 'the goodwill of the soviet state has always been more important than the wellbeing of his church' (stricker, b). as a deposed bishop living in retirement he had neither the canonical nor the spiritual authority to consecrate anyone for any post in the church, and baron's consecration at mesters' hands has no canonical validity. i have felt it necessary to correct some of filatov's historical passages. nevertheless i concur fully with his central arguments. the lutheran scene in the former soviet union today is colourful, confusing and often no cause for complacency, and filatov is surely right in his conclusions. if the contending groups can avoid bringing about each other's shipwreck, but succeed in cooperating in various fields in mutual recognition and the tolerance of diverse views, the lutheran church can potentially play a key role, for example as a crucible of the russian intelligentsia, in russia's further cultural develop- ment. notes . . . . . . 'ritterschaft': this was the local ruling corporation of gennan nobles (the so-called 'baltic barons'). he responded to the plight of the bohemian brethren, who were driven out of their homeland, by offering them a new home on his estates in saxony in . this was the origin of the herrnhut brethren. for the statute of this new ecclesiastical organisation, signed personally by nicholas i, see stupperich, , pp. - . for the history of the elcr, see stricker, / , pp. - ; for the few refonned parishes see ibid., pp. - . the (general) consistories «general- )konsistorien) in the three baltic provinces and in st petersburg and moscow were led by secular presidents - mostly lawyers - and ecclesiastical vicepresidents: (general) superintendents «general-) superintendenten) (later bishops). all the presidents and (general) superintendents of the central church administration and of the st petersburg and moscow consistories are listed in amburger, , pp. - . many of them have swedish names, like the last bishop, arthur malmgren ( - ). the confessional breakdown of the german immigrants to russia was: over per cent lutheran; - per cent refonned; per cent catholic; per cent mennonite. finland, which was added to the russian empire as a grand duchy, also belonged to sweden until . neither the lutherans in the grand duchy of finland nor the (predominantly gennan) lutherans in the russian kingdom of poland belonged to the elcr founded in : they had their own church structures. . petersburg gennans comprised the descendants of the generation of craftsmen, architects, officers and academics invited by peter the great, both baltic gennans and germans from the gennan empire. in they numbered some , ( , russian subjects and , german subjects) and in some , ( , russian subjects and , gennan subjects) (busch, , pp. f.). j . it continued to be called 'die evangelisch-lutherische kirche in russland' in soviet times, at least in german-language publications. filatov speaks of an 'evangelical lutheran church in the soviet union'; he is evidently referring to official russian-language documents. gerd stricker . in there were kirchspiele in ingermanland, looked after by pastors (kahle, , pp. ff.). u. here, as in many other respects, the developments in estonian and latvian lutheranism were similar: patriotism and nationalism were bound up with aggressive anti-german sentiments. . for more information relating to the following exposition of the relationships among the ingermanland lutherans see kahle, , pp. - . . conrad raimund freifeldt ( - ) was general superintendent of the elcr from and bishop from ; he was recognised as head of the church by the synod of that adopted the temporary regulations. see amburger, , p. . . laurikkala refused to use the title 'bishop' and continued to use the title 'propst' ('dean' or 'provost') as head of the ingermanland parishes. . arthur leopold malmgren ( -- ) was general superintendent of the petrograd consistory from and bishop of the petrograd hcc from . he was forced (or allowed) to leave the soviet union in and died in leipzig in (amburger, , pp. f.). . tschoerner, , pp. ff. officially this seminary, founded in , was called a bible high school (biblische hochschulkurse) as a result of a directive by the soviet authorities, who wanted to keep the words 'theological' and 'seminary' out of its title. . of the pre- ingermanlander pastors 'soon there were only three, then two, and then finally just one left' (kahle, , p. ). . alexander theophil meyer ( - ) was a member of the st petersburg general consistory from and from bishop of the moscow hcc and leading bishop of the elcr (amburger, , pp. f.). . i would prefer to translate 'briidergemeinschaften' as 'brethren communities' rather than 'fraternal communities'. . on the whole question of lutheran 'brethren communities', the shortage of pastors in russia and 'stundism' see stricker, / , pp. - , - , -- . . in nineteenth-century russia these german villages were officially called 'colonies' and the german settlers 'colonists'; these terms were still in colloquial use in soviet times. . in there were , volga germans, , black sea germans, , volynia germans, , germans living in the cities, , germans in siberia, , germans in the caucasus, , mennonites and , baltic germans. by there were still some , volga germans, the number of black sea germans had risen to , , the number of volynia germans had fallen to some , , and the villages of the siberian germans were gradually filling up with deported farmers accused of being 'kulaks'. . in the territory of the volga germans some 'colonies' were real towns: balzer ( , inhabitants), frank ( , ), grimm ( , ), katharinenstadt ( , ), norka ( , ) ( figures). see beratz, , pp. -- . . here we are talking only about the german 'colonies' in russia itself, not about the 'kirchspiele' in estland, livland and courland. . every german village had a school that was run and paid for by the church. teachers (called 'kuesterlehrer', 'schulmeister' or 'kantor') were trained in special seminaries called 'cen- tralschulen' and they deputised for the pastor (or the priest in catholic villages) in his absence. see: stricker, a; stricker, ; stricker, / , pp. -- ). . the 'colonists' in russia did not generally exhibit a high level of piety, but they were naturally members of the parish out of tradition, and after the village mayor the pastor, (church) schoolmaster and parish elders were the most important figures in the village. . in contrast to the situation with the lutherans, a similar situation with the mennonites in had led to a split: the 'mennonite brethren', who resembled their lutheran counterparts, split off from the traditional mennonite communities (later known as 'old' or 'church mennonites') (stricker and sawatsky, ). . a few weeks after the nazi invasion of the ussr in stalin had all the germans of european russia deported beyond the urals on the grounds that they were german spies; they were demoted to the status of second-class citizens without voting rights or the right to leave their place of exile (stricker, , pp. - ). this regime lasted from to . lutheranism in russia and the soviet union l elcros is actually an abbreviation of an older name, the evangelical lutheran church in russia and other states, but the abbreviation is still used today. it is also used in german in the form elkras (evangelisch-lutherische kirche in russland und anderen staaten). . between and the end of some . million russian germans left the (former) soviet union for germany (the figure includes russian spouses). . for a detailed investigation of stundism, see diedrich, , pp. - . . from the privileges of the germans in russia, which had been granted to them 'in perpetuity' when they arrived, were rescinded: freedom from military service and administration in the german language up to raion level. russification of german schooling also began . . . his mother was german and he spoke perfect german; he studied at the st chrischona evangelical seminary near basel and then until the outbreak of the second world war worked as a pastor in german parishes in alsace. . a superintendent ranks below a bishop in the lutheran hierarchy. . for more information on the following see stricker, , pp. , , , . . georg krestchmar, born , was a professor of church history in hamburg and munich. . filatov gives a figure of 'some communities' for this church that existed between and ; this figure is new to me. . see note . references amburger, e. ( ) die pastoren der evangelischen kirche russlands vom ende des . lahrhunderts bis (erlangen, martin-luther verlag; liineburg, institut norddeutsches kulturwerk). beratz, g. ( ) die deutschen kolonien an der unteren wolga in ihrer entstehung und ersten entwickelung, nd edn (berlin, verband der wolgadeutschen bauern). brandes, d. ( ) von den zaren adoptiert: die deutschen kolonisten und die balkansiedler in neurussland und bessarabien. - (munich, oldenbourg). busch, m. ( ) deutsche in st petersburg. - : identitiit und integration (essen, klartext). diedrich, h-c. ( ) urspriinge und anfiinge des russischen freikirchentums (erlangen, oikono- mialuniversitat erlangen). istoriya ( ) istoriya yevangel'skikh khristian-baptistov v sssr (moscow, izdatel'stvo yekhb). kah e, w. ( ) geschichte der evangelisch-iutherischen gemeinden in der sovetunion, - (leiden, e.j.brill). kahle, w. (ed.) ( ) lutherische kirche im baltischem raum (erlangen, martin-luther verlag). meyer, t. ( ) luthers erbe in russland: ein gedenkbuch (moscow, rigasche typo-lithogra- phie). stricker, g. ( a) 'deutschsprachige bildungseinrichtungen im russischen reich und in der sowjetunion', in m. hellman (ed.), lahre nachbarschaft: russland und die deutschen (munich, bruckmann), pp. - . stricker, g. (l b) 'die lutherischen kirchen in den baltischen republiken und die nationale frage', glaube in der . welt, , pp. - . stricker, g. ( ) 'neue lutherische kirche in rsfsrt, glaube in der . welt, . stricker, g. ( ) 'die schulen der wolgadeutschen in der zweiten halfte des . jhs', in d. dahlmann and r. tuchtenhagen (eds), zwischen reform und revolution: die deutschen an der wolga - (essen, klartext), pp. - . stricker, g. (ed.) ( / ) russland (vol. of deutsche geschichte im osten europas) (berlin, siedlerlrandom house). stricker, g. and sawatsky w. ( ) 'mennonites in russia and the soviet union: an aspect of the church history of the germans in russia', religion in communist lands, , , pp. - . stupperich, r. (ed.) ( ) kirchenordnungen der evangelisch-lutherischen kirche in russland (ulm, unser weg). gerd stricker tschoerner, h. ( ) 'die evangelisch-lutherische kirche des ingermanlandes', in h-c. diedrich, g. stricker and h. tschoerner (eds), das gute behaltet: kirchen und religiose gemeinschaften in der sowjetunion und ihren nachfolgestaaten (erlangen, martin-luther verlag), pp. - . tschoerner, h. ( ) das evangelisch-lutherische predigerseminar in leningrad, - (erlangen, martin-luther verlag). wittram, r. (ed.) ( ) baltische kirchengeschichte (gottingen, vandenhoeck and ruprecht). (translated from the german by phi lip waiters) sustainability and forest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture approach j s t b aq a a r r a k l t s l c y c f ( l t t a s t ( a s i a i i d p r o o f article in pressg modellup – land use policy xxx ( ) xxx–xxx contents lists available at sciencedirect land use policy j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / l a n d u s e p o l ustainability and forest transitions in the southern yucatán: he land architecture approach .l. turner ii ∗ rizona state university, school of geographical sciences, po box , tempe, az - , united states r t i c l e i n f o rticle history: eceived august eceived in revised form march ccepted march eywords: and architecture ropical forests ustainability a b s t r a c t consistent with the challenges of sustainability science, land architecture offers a comprehensive approach to land system dynamics useful for numerous types of assessments, ranging from the vulnera- bility of coupled human–environment systems to forest transitions. with antecedents in several research communities, land architecture addresses the tradeoffs within and between the human and environmen- tal subsystems of land systems in terms of the kind, magnitude, and pattern of land uses and covers. this approach is especially cogent for changes in tropical forests, given the broad-ranging forces acting on them and the equally broad-ranging consequences of their loss. the rudiments of the land architecture approach are illustrated for changes in seasonal tropical forests in the southern yucatán of mexico, the d and change oupled human–environment systems ucatán alakmul biosphere reserve orest transition pivot of which is the calakmul biosphere reserve. simplifying the dynamics involved, the region-wide land architecture is the collective design of stakeholders with different land-use goals that favor tradeoffs in subsystem outcomes serving better either the reserve and related programs or the smallholder farmers that populate the region. a major tradeoff involves forest cover per se, which holds implications for forest transition theory. evidence for an incipient transition involves the scale of analysis taken. the dynamics involved hold too much uncertainty to forecast a permanent transition to more forest cover and imply bust v a ( w l t a s e i i s a r r e c t ethat more complex but ro . introduction: the challenge sustainability science creates new and complex challenges holdren, ; kates et al., ; lubchenco, ; raven, ). and systems vulnerable to global environmental change consti- utes one of these challenges (glp, ; gutman et al., ; urner et al., ). vulnerability comprises a well-developed pproach in which specific types of hazards (perturbations or stres- ors) are connected to a subset of their consequences. until recently, hese consequences were treated as biophysical or societal in kind brooks et al., ; cutter et al., ; kasperson et al., ), n orientation inadequate for addressing the sustainability of land ystems, given the breadth of hazards and consequences operat- u n c o please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . ng on them (cutter et al., ; luers et al., ; turner et al., a). land systems are coupled human–environment systems nd require analytical approaches that treat this coupling explic- tly (elmqvist et al., ; folke et al., ; reynolds et al., ). ∗ tel.: + ; fax: + . e-mail address: billie.l.turner@asu.edu. a coupled human–environment system is one in which the societal and biophys- cal subsystems are so entwined that the system’s condition, function, and responses m a c o ( t s s - /$ – see front matter © published by elsevier ltd. oi: . /j.landusepol. . . ersions of the theory are required. © published by elsevier ltd. ttempts to capture this complexity in vulnerability approaches turner et al., a,b) fails to address explicitly the tradeoffs ithin and between the human and environmental subsystems. and architecture, in contrast, offers an approach that accounts for hese tradeoffs and which can be used to address not only vulner- bility but a range of themes and issues of interest to land change cience (turner et al., ). this paper defines land architecture and situates it within sev- ral research and practice traditions relevant to land systems, and llustrates the approach through a brief assessment of forest change n the southern yucatán, linking the outcomes to the forest tran- ition theory—the subject of this special section (rudel, schneider nd uriarte, this volume). the tropical forests of sy are part of a exican economic frontier in which a period of rapid deforestation orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture ppears to have run its course, signaling a transition to more forest over in a new architecture. but has it? guided by the objectives f land change science, the southern yucatán peninsular region sypr) project has examined forest change in the region since o a hazard (or any external forcing) is predicated on the synergy of the two sub- ystems. alternative terms referring to this synergy include social–environmental ystems (folke et al., ) and coupled human–natural systems (liu et al., ). dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.elsevier.com/locate/landusepol original text: inserted text southern original text: inserted text usa⁎ original text: inserted text humanenvironment original text: inserted text biosphere reserve original text: inserted text human-environment original text: inserted text biosphere reserve. original text: inserted text the challenge original text: inserted text human-environment mailto:billie.l.turner@asu.edu original text: inserted text human-environment original text: inserted text social-environmental original text: inserted text human-natural dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . anon sticky note united states is correct anon highlight anon sticky note see this in ref to q on query page. in bibilo it is rudel et al. . and it refers to their intro paper for this special feature. anon sticky note and school of sustainability, e d ing modelj e polic ( s i w o o t v e g ( ( m u t s t o r f a t a h a i p h c o h i u t l b ( i e e e e a o a a e d a s s o t l g s e ( s b s b t t ( t a t s r l i l u p g c o d d e e e a d f d t o w o g e b a t ( e o r r e c t articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us turner et al., ). the project has developed a sufficient under- tanding of the land system dynamics to offer the illustration and nsights noted. . elaboration of land architecture . . definition land architecture (la) refers to the structure of land systems, here structure refers to the kind, magnitude, and spatial pattern f land uses and covers in a bounded area. the three attributes f la largely determine the capacity of the land system to deliver he environmental services expected by society under the pre- ailing land uses and their impacts on the human subsystem. nvironmental (or ecosystem) services are the benefits society ains from nature, classified as provisioning (e.g., water), regulating e.g., climate control), supporting (e.g., nutrient cycling), preserving e.g., biotic diversity) and cultural (e.g., recreational space) (mea, ). a sustainable la delivers the environmental services while aintaining or improving the economic performance of the land ses without threatening the base function of the environmen- al systems to deliver the services in the first place—the goal of ustainability science (kates et al., ). the term architecture applies because land systems have struc- ure and are “designed”. their structure is internal to the definition f la (above). their design is linked governance. most of the ter- estrial surface of the earth is governed, either de facto or de jure, acilitating or constraining land uses (e.g., nagendra, ; vester et l., ) directly through policy and zoning and indirectly through he level of enforcement of rules of land access and use, as well s infrastructure development (watts et al., ). in this sense, uman action designs the pattern of land systems, if in circuitous nd indirect ways. the approach advocated here seeks foremost to understand the mplications of las on the operation of land systems treated as cou- led human–environment systems. this understanding, of course, olds clues for the design of new architectures. . . guiding principles drawing on the insights gained from global environmental hange and sustainability-resilience research, the la approach rec- gnizes that assessments of land change must move beyond their istorical emphasis on resource stocks (provisioning services) to nclude the full suite of environmental services, especially reg- lating, supporting, and preserving services (mea, ), and he systemic structures that sustain them. as coupled systems, and systems involve tradeoffs among environmental services and etween the outcomes in environmental and human subsystems defries et al., ; rosenzweig, ). these tradeoffs follow, n part, from the spatial incongruence of the different land cov- rs (i.e., environmental conditions) required to supply different nvironmental services (chan et al., ; nelson et al., ), specially as interrupted by human land uses. the complexity gen- rated by treating multiple services and tradeoffs between and u n c please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . mong subsystems is further amplified by the scalar dimensions f las (turner, ). land systems are connected locally to glob- lly with important up- and down-scale linkages. for example, sustainable solution established by a local-level la may not the sypr project began in and has involved clark university, harvard for- st, university of virginia, rutgers university, university of minnesota, and el colegio e la frontera sur-unidad quintana roo. it has been sponsored primarily by various wards from the nasa-lcluc and nsf-cnh programs. d f f i t p e l t p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx erve the same functions, if replicated to the regional or water- hed scales—a general scalar characteristic (dark and bram, ; penshaw and taylor, ; van gardingen et al., ). despite his recognition (wu, ; wu et al., ), the scalar issues of a, especially regarding forest change, have focused primarily on lobal climate issues through modeling exercises (e.g., henderson- ellers et al., ; o’brien, ). work on tipping points (lenton t al., ) and regional syndromes of environmental change schellnhuber et al., ) provide hints of the broader coupled ystem problems to which these scalar issues can be brought to ear. . . antecedents to land architecture la differs from but has antecedents in landscape architecture, ustainable development, and landscape ecology–conservation iology. landscape architecture has long examined the design of he land, foremost the built environment, with increasing atten- ion to ecological design and sustainable landscape architecture e.g., thompson and steiner, ; van der ryn and cowan, ). he overwhelming emphasis within this field of study is planning nd design of outdoor space in regard to immediate environmen- al impacts, such as the urban heat island effect or urban drainage ystems in smart growth design (us and sgn, ), despite ecent calls for a broader environmental approach (botequilha eitä and ahern, ; collinge, ). likewise, la is implied n environment and development research, especially that over- apping with land change science and seeking sustainable land ses (e.g., kammerbauer and ardon, ; laris, ; rao and ant, ). in this case, the non-built environment (e.g., older rowth forests, savannas and riparian forests) constitutes a criti- al facet in the land assessment. attention overwhelmingly focuses n sustaining provisioning environmental services (e.g., food pro- uction). la differs from landscape architecture and environment- evelopment in several ways. it aims to consider a full range of nvironmental services in the land system (above), and consid- rs environmental consequences from the land degradation and cosystem to the earth system levels. it examines all land covers nd uses, not the built or used environment only, and does so to evelop a systematic understanding of the land system, rather than ocusing foremost on those parts explicitly providing resource pro- uction and extraction (provisioning services). finally, la considers he critical scalar dimensions of land systems (above)—the impacts n environment services and human outcomes of las embedded ithin or covering other las. work underway in landscape ecology and conservation biol- gy, much of it tied to land change science as registered in the lobal land project (glp, ) and the resilience alliance (berkes t al., ), provides foundational elements for la. this work has egun to examine a full range of environmental services (daily et l., ; mea, ) and the spatial patterns of land covers on hose services and the structure and function of ecological systems brosi et al., ; king, ; moody and woodcock, ; pejchar t al., ; rosenzweig, ; turner, ). in addition, it has eveloped metrics and measures of land patterns, such as those ound in fragstats (leitão et al., ; mcgarigal and marks, ) and subsequent variants (mcgarigal et al., forthcoming) that acilitate comparison of different architectures. la shares these top- cal interests, goals for science and practice, and methods. indeed, orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture he use of geographical information science and remote sensing to roblem solve is shared as well with landscape architecture and nvironment-development (e.g., campagna, ; hanna, ). a, however, attempts to treat the human subsystem more fully han have the eco- and bio-inspired approaches. the latter tend to dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text land architecture original text: inserted text human-environment original text: inserted text principles original text: inserted text land architecture original text: inserted text ecology-conservation original text: inserted text savannas, original text: inserted text ) anon sticky note this is turner et al. anon sticky note change forthcoming to d ing modelj e polic e c f t s – i ( b e f i s t m ( a e a i t f t a i w i a g h a a d a t a o e e i f f a t ( o m iq a b a s e e t a h b u i e e t a t p s t p – n p a a g l f m i p i s t l t c f l b b f a o s p i f e o ( o r r e c t e articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us xamine changes in environmental services and extend the impli- ations to the human subsystem or develop generalization largely rom the biophysical subsystem and apply them to the coupled sys- em at large. such efforts tend to place human decision making, ocietal structures, and such economic principles as substitutability critical elements of the human subsystem – into the background. n those cases where the human subsystem is treated more fully daily, ; pnas, ; reynolds et al., ), as envisioned y the global land project ( ), la fuses with ecology-inspired fforts. . . significance for tropical forests developing sustainable land systems is especially important or the tropical world for several obvious reasons: the need for mproved human well being throughout most of the tropics; the pecial role of tropical forests for the functioning of the earth sys- em and maintenance of biotic diversity (steffen et al., ); the agnitude and pace of land changes underway in the tropical world achard et al., ; foley et al., , ); and the expected neg- tive impacts of climate change in the tropics on both people and nvironment (e.g., laurance, ; lobell et al., ; malhi et al., ; parry et al., ). despite this significance, surprisingly little research has ddressed sustainable la of tropical forest areas, although ecolog- cal work has linked the patterning of forests and opened lands o various impacts on environmental services. this patterning, or example, amplifies or attenuates fire impacts on intact forest hrough edge effects. the more edge exposed to fire, the more dam- ge to intact forests, and the biotic diversity it holds, especially n the first m from the edge (cochrane, ; laurance and illiamson, ). highly fragmented tropical forests with many rregularly shaped, open patches are apparently much more vulner- ble to the impacts of burning than are forests with a few large and eometrically shaped openings. likewise, tree diversity tends to be igher as the patch size of forest increases (hill and curran, ), nd species diversity for flora and fauna tends to drop dramatically s forest fragments reach critical size-related tipping points (e.g., ale et al., ; also daily et al., ). for example, one study in mazonia calculates that fragments of ha or less lose one half of he species of birds (ferraz et al., ). forest fragmentation also ffects “. . .species invasions, forest dynamics, the trophic structure f communities, . . .. [and] appears to interact synergistically with cological changes such as hunting, fires, and logging. . .” (laurence t al., , p. ). fragmentation, depending on its size and result- ng land-cover attributes, may even affect climate. modeling efforts or amazonia indicate that sufficient pasture placed among forest ragments “increase the mean surface temperature (about . ◦c) nd decrease annual evapotranspiration ( % reduction), precipi- ation ( % reduction), and runoff ( % reduction) in the region” nobre et al., , p. ; also shukla et al., ). specifically, pen forest patches less than km and greater than km ay reduce rainfall, while those between these parameters may ncrease precipitation (durieux et al., ; li et al., ; mahli et u n c please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . l., ). this important research provides a strong base on which to uild a broader understanding of sustainable las. it has yet to ddress the full range of environmental services (but see dale et pielke et al. ( ) demonstrate how land changes, generating a new la for outhern florida, have had impacts on region precipitation estimated to rival or xceed those associated with global climate change. while this work does not mphasize the pattern of land uses and covers, the architecture is embedded in he assessment, however, demonstrating its potential import. a e o b a p e t t p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx l., ; mea, ), however, and explicit assessments of the uman subsystems are typically lacking. for the most part, eco- and io-inspired work focuses on the land-cover consequences of land ses, including those spatial dimensions captured in remote sens- ng and modeling assessments (e.g., hall et al., ). linkages from nvironment-development studies to forest fragmentation and the arth system have only begun (e.g., sayer and campbell, ), but his work need not pay explicit attention to las (but see aldrich et l., ; serrão et al., ). much less attention has been given o reversing the research lens to examine the consequences of the atterning of las on income, human wellbeing, social justice, and o forth. finally, tropical deforestation has largely been treated as a local- o state-directed activity – at least in regard to the institutions romoting, constraining, or regulating it (e.g., bray et al., ) although these institutions may be linked to broader socioeco- omic dynamics (e.g., hecht and cockburn, ; lambin et al., ). increasingly, however, international accords and protocols ortend important roles. as an example, international concern bout climate change and links to aerosols from landscape burning s well desertification in the sahel filtered through funding pro- rams to affect land uses in western africa, including patterns of andscape burning, with impacts on las and human well being (e.g., airhead and leach, ; laris, ). similarly, the clean develop echanisms of the kyoto protocol and its program aimed at reduc- ng emissions from deforestation and land degradation (redd) is a ending international accord that will surely affect the las of trop- cal forests. if implemented, redd will affect the amount, and in ome cases, location of forest preservation and restoration within he countries involved, adding yet another factor interacting with ocal-to-state policies and local-to-global economic forces to shape he las of forests. . land architectures in the southern yucatán the land systems in the southern yucatán (sy) are the out- ome of the confluence of state, market, and other socio-cultural orces operating within several governance structures affecting and access and resource use, foremost those set by the calakmul iosphere reserve (cbr) in cooperation with the mesoamerican iological corridor (mbc; a united nations program that aims to acilitate the movement of biota across the peninsula and central merica), and the many ejidos or communally owned land units perating within and around and reserve. these structures help hape, intentionally and unintentionally, the kind, amount, and attern of land uses and covers—the land systems’ architectures. n turn, the different architectures have important implications or environmental services and on-land household livelihoods. by xploring as fully as possible these linkages, an expansive range f questions central to land change science are opened to analysis defries et al., ). . . the study region the sy is a project-defined region that surrounds the cbr nd covers much of southeastern quintana roo and southwest- rn campeche (fig. ; turner et al., ). it delimits the meseta r rolling hill lands that form the spine of the yucatán peninsula, eginning about m amsl and rising to m amsl, and captures orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture n important ecocline between the xeric forests of the northern eninsula and the humid forests of el petén, guatemala (lawrence t al., ; vester et al., ). much of the sy (ca. , km ) was he subject of systematic settlement from the middle of the twen- ieth century, mostly by smallholder farmers within mexico’s ejdio dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text —critical original text: inserted text —into original text: inserted text tropical forests original text: inserted text ; foley et al., ); original text: inserted text : original text: inserted text —at original text: inserted text —although original text: inserted text clean develop mechanisms original text: inserted text protocol original text: inserted text architectures original text: inserted text southern original text: inserted text biosphere reserve original text: inserted text biological corridor original text: inserted text study region original text: inserted text peninsula, anon sticky note change mahli to malhi
 anon highlight anon sticky note change mahli to malhi; malhi et al. are in refs e d o f article in pressg modeljlup – b.l. turner ii / land use policy xxx ( ) xxx–xxx and c s l a e s a ( o d s o o t c a v t e s h s m g l o o c g a k p a t t c f e d s i a e d s t t i o s h o m d t fi c o a h c i r r e c t fig. . the southern yucatán (sy) ystem (communally owned lands). its population exploded in the ast quarter of that century as major highways were developed. bout , legal residents currently reside there. in this tropical forest and economic frontier, smallholders mbarked on major land clearing for cultivation and pasture, in ome cases stimulated by state-run, development projects. as much s . % or km of the forests of the sy had been cut by vester et al., , p. ), registering the sy as a global “hot spot” f tropical deforestation (achard et al., ). in tandem with the evelopment of the cbr to preserve biotic diversity and carbon torage, the rates of deforestation declined and farmers focused n temporal intensification (decreasing the crop-fallow cycles) f shifting cultivation (vester et al., ) and the diversifica- ion of household income. this diversification includes commercial hili cultivation (keys, , ), investment in pasture (klepeis nd vance, ; schmook and radel, forthcoming; schmook and ance, forthcoming), off-farm activities, and in some cases, interna- ional male labor migration (radel and schmook, ). household conomies can be categorized in a number of ways (e.g., radel and chmook, ), but in regard to on-farm activities two house- old extremes are useful for analysis: those largely maintaining a ubsistence orientation, and those aggressively involved in com- ercial chili production and investment in pasture (alayón and urri, forthcoming). four types of land governing units dominate: state-controlled ands, forest ejidos, private ranches, and agricultural ejidos. state- wned land is restricted to the center of the reserve; large portions f reserve’s periphery are composed of forest extraction and agri- u n c o please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . ultural ejidos. access to ejido land is usually through usufruct rights iven to member households. a few private ranches are scattered cross the sy, most of which have cut their forest at least once and eep their lands in different phases of pasture, shrub, and secondary it is noteworthy that almost all the sy was largely denuded by the classic eriod maya until their collapse and depopulation of the region between about .d. – (turner et al., ). hurricanes regularly disturb these forests on he century-level scale (boose et al., ), and selective logging took out most of wo species of hardwoods during the last century (klepeis, ). these figures are based on the amount of land controlled by land units totally ontained within the demarcation of the sy. the total area of these lands covers , . km (vester et al., , p. ). e t d u a p ( p p r oalakmul biosphere reserve (cbr). orest. together, reserve agents, ejido members, and, to a lesser xtent in terms of total land area, managers of private, generate ifferent land architectures that lead to a “collective design” for the y. with the cbr in the center, agricultural ejidos and ranches dom- nate the eastern side of the sy and along the major north–south nd east–west highways. some portion of older growth forest in the jidos is preserved, but otherwise households and ranch managers etermine the lands taken to cultivation and pasture, triggering ubstantial land-cover changes (vester et al., ). phasing into his century, however, the cutting of older growth forest began o wane and the intensification of uses on extant opened land ncreased, largely by reducing the period of fallow or age of sec- ndary vegetation cut. the decision to cut forest – older growth in the past and econdary forest today – takes place in increasingly complex ousehold circumstances predicated on lands controlled or rented; ff-farm economic activities, including remittances from migrant ale heads; state and ngo programs that have provided subsi- ies and direct payments for crops and double cropping (taking wo harvests from the same field in one calendar year); intensi- cation practices (e.g., disking and fertilizer use) and commercial ultivation; forest use activities ; investment in pasture in hopes f populating it with livestock; and for some ejidos, cbr rules bout forest cutting (abizaid and coomes, ; busch, ; aenn, ; keys and roy chowdhury, ; klepeis and vance, ; porter bolland et al., ; radel and schmook, ; roy howdhury and turner, ; schmook and vance, forthcoming). n addition, this decision involves the type of forest available to the jido and household. the ecocline of the sy supports three main upland forest ypes: short stature, deciduous forest; medium stature, semi- orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture eciduous forest; and tall stature, humid forest (pérez-salicrup, ; lawrence et al., ; vester et al., ). while short decid- ous and tall humid forests tend to be distributed to the northwest nd south, respectively, medium semi-deciduous forest dominates an ngo forestry program (forestry pilot plan) has been implemented in various arts of quintana roo, mexico, including a few ejidos in the eastern side of the sy bray et al., ; primack et al., ; taylor and zabin, ). complementary rograms to it have not succeeded well within the sy proper, however. dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text southern original text: inserted text biosphere reserve original text: inserted text nd; schmook and vance), off-farm original text: inserted text nd original text: inserted text nd). original text: inserted text - original text: inserted text north-south and east-west original text: inserted text —older original text: inserted text —takes original text: inserted text disking, original text: inserted text nd). anon sticky note anon sticky note change forthcoming to anon sticky note anon sticky note d o f in pressg modelj e policy xxx ( ) xxx–xxx t i u m c s w s e b f i t t b p t m g t s i a b r a d s t p l r p a a m s c r e i i i u l ( s i s t q b c d a t g e l t o t f r f b i s t t p p l i g o t l c the second ejido, with much larger land pressures than first, o r r e c t e articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us he central part of the sy, mixed with the other two types, depend- ng on location. the location of ejidos, of course, determines the pland forest types available to its members, but lands under edium semi-deciduous and tall humid forests are preferred for ultivation, reflecting superior soil moisture conditions. in addition, olution sinks or bajos exist throughout the sy. these features infill ith thick clays that hold water throughout much of the year. they upport a low stature, inundated forest that, for the most part, farm- rs avoid. the amount of upland forests per household is affected y the proportion of ejido land composed of bajos. the different forest types, characterized by the abundance of dif- erent species more so than their presence (pérez-salicrup, ; barra-manríquez et al., ), play important roles in maintaining he biotic diversity along the ecocline, and keystone species within hem are affected by human disturbance. the amount of distur- ance by forest type, including the connectivity among the types – art of the architecture of disturbance – is foundational to the mbc. he collective architecture of the sy created by the different land anagers plays a potentially important role in the function mbc, iven that the cbr and the region are centrally located between he drier north of the peninsula and the more humid petén to the outh. . . results and observations: illustrating land architectures the illustration offered constitutes a major simplification and dealization of the otherwise complex coupled system of two ejidos nd their surroundings located in the central sy, an area dominated y medium semi-deciduous forest (above). the land classes are educed (aggregated) to intact forest (all forest types > years in ge) and disturbed land (cultivated, pasture, fallowed and invasive- ominated) as they existed in . fallowed lands are in various tages of successional growth – shrub to secondary forest – or aken over by bracken fern (pteridium aquilinum). this fern is a fire- ropagated, invasive species that appears in all opened and burned and. the willingness of farmers “to fight” the invasion tends to be elated to how important cultivation is to the household (schneider, , forthcoming; schneider and geoghegan, ). only direct roduction from the land is considered in this illustration; excluded re off-farm employment, remittances, and specific types of ngo nd state assistance that households may entertain. the environ- ental and economic data are drawn from different parts of the ypr project research. . . . two ejido comparison the first ejido (fig. ) has an architecture based on internal poli- ies that favor preservation of as much intact forest as possible, elying on ngo and other assistance to do so. recognizing that this jido is large in size, with relatively low land pressures, agriculture s concentrated in a large patch of disturbance in the north, leav- ng the majority of ejido land to the south as one large forest patch n which upland and seasonally inundated forests remain largely ndisturbed. the resulting fragstat measures are indicative of ow levels of disturbance: patch density (pd = . ), edge density u n c please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . ed = . ), and landscape shape index (lsi = . ). this simple la upports a variety of environmental services. for the cbr and mbc, t maintains biotic diversity, including habitat for top predators, by ustaining large patches of the major forest types with an abun- patch density is number of patches in the landscape divided by the area in ques- ion. edge density is the total length of edges in the landscape divided by the area in uestion. landscape shape index is the total length of edge in the landscape divided y the minimum total length of edge in the landscape. the larger the lsi, the more omplex the shape. n b t e p r o r p r o fig. . ejido one land architecture. ance of slow-maturing, keystone tree species, the fruits of which re essential dry-season food for fauna (weterings et al., ). his la preserves high levels of above ground biomass (carbon), a oal of the cbr. it captures large amounts of phosphorus (about kg/(ha-year)); lawrence et al., ), the apparent limiting nutri- nt in the ecosystem, from atmospheric dust and maintains good evels of available phosphorus stocks in the system. this architec- ure may also assist in sustaining regional rainfall by the amount f water vapor released through evapotranspiration, and reduces he area prone to the invasive bracken fern (eaton and lawrence, orthcoming; lawrence and foster, ; lawrence et al., ; ead and lawrence, ; rivera and calmé, ; schneider, orthcoming; vester et al., ). cultivation in the ejido is largely classical milpa (slash-and- urn maize) modified by a year or two of commercial chili nterspersed within each crop-fallow cycle. in this case, only mall investments in fertilizers and pesticides are made (keys, ; roy chowdhury and turner, ), largely for chili, while he concentrated cultivation involves repeated crop-fallow cycles. his concentration triggers significant declines in available soils hosphorous (lawrence et al., ) and persistent bracken fern roblems (schneider, ). to maintain cropping, farmers add abor to weed the fern and, in longer run, must consider replen- shing the deplete phosphorus or expand cultivation into the older rowth forest. on-farm income for the ejidos’ largely subsistence riented households is only about us $ /ha, not accounting for he value of the consumption crops grown (keys, ). this low evel of income suggests that the inputs necessary to sustain the urrent cultivation system must come with off-farm activities. orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture ot only employs most of its land in cultivation but is occupied y households of aggressive, commercial-based farmers (fig. ). he resulting architecture is a mass of opened and bracken-fern as yet the project has not proven the evapotranspiration observation. local farm- rs claim, however, that the more forest cut, the drier the region becomes. local recipitation data are sparse and temporally incomplete, but suggest a decline in ainfall over the last several decades for those years without a hurricane, a period f major land clearing in the sy and beyond (lawrence et al., ). this decline, if eal, may be driven by many factors other than local land changes. dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text —part original text: inserted text —is original text: inserted text observations: illustrating original text: inserted text > yrs original text: inserted text —shrub original text: inserted text —or original text: inserted text ; original text: inserted text ejido comparison original text: inserted text shape index original text: inserted text one land architecture. original text: inserted text kg/ha/yr; original text: inserted text nd; original text: inserted text ; original text: inserted text us$ /ha, anon sticky note anon sticky note anon sticky note e d f article in pressg modeljlup – b.l. turner ii / land use policy xxx ( ) xxx–xxx i r f b p o t g t a r o f t i f i r h f e e f m t m t p s d a n i r o e t ( k l c e w b i a b g i w t a f t e t i p f b d i w t f t s t i p t n c o r r e c t fig. . ejido two land architecture. nvaded land, with large amounts of secondary forest that will be ecut for cultivation and pasture. small patches of older growth orest are present, the largest in the southwest portion of the ejido, ut they are not well connected and offer much less habitat for top redators. pd ( . ), ed ( . ), and lsi ( . ) reflect the high levels f disturbance observed in this ejido, with its reduced habitat for op predators. the prevalent secondary forest is dominated by fast rowing species, and the keystone species are too immature to fruit. otal biomass and above ground carbon decline significantly (eaton nd lawrence, forthcoming); the capture of dust-blown phospho- us is reduced by the amount of secondary growth and the loss f soil phosphorus from cropping is significant; and the secondary orest produces less evapotranspiration, perhaps affecting precipi- ation (see above). the more level but non-inundated lands are disked and planted n rows for intensive chili production, with major investments in ertilizers and pesticides to offset the negative consequences of ncreased crop-fallow cycles (keys and roy chowdhury, ). bar- ing a drought or hurricane, these commercial farmers generate a igh farm-based income, reaching more n $ /ha, not accounting or the value of crops directly consumed (keys, ). the income arned is invested in off-farm activities and in planting pasture with ye towards gaining livestock in the future (schmook and radel, orthcoming). the differences in the las of these idealized ejidos reflect much ore than the different aspirations and land uses of their members. hey have major implications for the tradeoffs between environ- ent services and human outcomes, and thus the sustainability of he land systems for the farmers and the cbr and mbc. the first case rovides a la consistent with the needs of the reserve and corridor, coring well in most of the environmental services considered, but oes not perform well in regard to on-farm food and income gener- tion. the second case improves on-farm income, barring a major atural hazard or failure in the chili market, but does so by signif- cantly reducing environmental services, especially those that the eserve and corridor seek to maintain. . . . scalar comparisons the variants of the two las (above) among the many ejidos and u please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . ther land units in the sy provide a measure of architectural het- rogeneity that differentially serve the goals of cbr and mbc, and he smallholder farmers. if the la of the second or deforested ejido fig. ) were replicated throughout the sy (fig. ) and chili mar- ets remain strong, on-farm income across the region would rise, at – s c t a p r o o fig. . multi-ejido land architecture. east initially. the environmental services required for the reserve, orridor, and ecocline would, of course, decline. over the long haul, conomical substitutes for soil phosphorus and other lost nutrients ould be required to maintain on-farm income, all other factors eing equal, and rainfall might be reduced regionally. alternatively, f the la of first or forest preservation ejido (fig. ) were replicated cross the sy, the aims of the cbr and mbc would be well served ut at the cost of the on-farm livelihoods that smallholders would enerate. similarly, the sustainability of any ejidos’ la involves the dynam- cs generated by the totality of the individual ejido architectures in hich it is embedded. consider, for example, the forest preserva- ion ejido that renders the biophysical outcomes sought by the cbr nd mbc. this ejido is surrounded by others (fig. ) maintaining undamentally different las weighted to outcomes more favorable o the human subsystem, as in the case of the second ejido. the jido set thus maintains a la more similar to the aggressively cul- ivated ejido (fig. ). indeed, ed ( . ) and the lsi ( . ) actually ncrease for the ejido set, compared to that ejido. even the large atch of older growth upland forest in that ejido is isolated, cutoff rom other large patches of upland forest, raising questions about iotic diversity and the ecocline functions. . implications for forest transition despite its simplification, the illustration above indicates that ifferent las present different implications for sustainability by ndividual land management units and by those units taken as a hole. currently, the las generated by agricultural ejidos outside he cbr are not necessarily compatible with the preservation of orest cover and environmental services that the reserve seeks. he thin soils and markets in this frontier economy, in turn, raise erious questions about the capacity of all ejidos, but especially hose in the reserve with restrictions on forest–land use, to sustain mproved livelihoods by way of on-farm activities alone. a com- romise architecture of the land systems that fulfills the needs of he two principal stakeholders – farmers/ejidos and agents/reserve may evolve, but it too will involve tradeoffs that must be con- orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture idered carefully. among these tradeoffs is the amount of forest over for the full set of forest types in the sy, apparently critical for he maintenance of biotic diversity as well as carbon storage. the nswer holds insights for forest transition theory. dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text two land architecture. original text: inserted text nd); original text: inserted text n$ /ha, original text: inserted text nd). original text: inserted text comparisons original text: inserted text land architecture. original text: inserted text forest transition original text: inserted text forest-land original text: inserted text —farmers/ original text: inserted text —may anon sticky note change forthcoming to anon sticky note d ing modelj e polic s t e s d e m e c t s l o w l i a b p i o “ d f t l s ( l f f c f i t t t d f c i s v t f a m u a b a p f k t a n d l w e m u w e m i t m a p c a e h p s t t h ( l t u s e i e o d c f ( o i c s e a r l e r e c t e articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us forest transition theory developed from assessments of large- cale and “permanent” reforestation in the western world, linked o major shifts in the base economy of the area in question from xtractive and agricultural activities to industrial production and ervice economies (e.g., mather, ; for details see rudel, schnei- er and uriarte, this volume). the population formerly engaged in xtractive activities follows these changes because of the enhanced aterial livelihoods gained by doing so; thus the demand for xtractive uses of forest lands declines and long-term forest land- over returns (i.e., granger, ; walker, ). perz ( ) links he theory to modernization principles, which, he claims, have not ucceeded well in the tropical word (for a critique, walker, ). ambin et al. ( ), however, note the variance and complexity f land dynamics in tropical forests suggestive of multiple path- ays towards forest recovery, and rudel et al. ( ) point to at east one such pathway—forest product scarcity leading to replant- ng trees. given that successional forest growth may be identified s a sign of a forest transition or the incipient stages of it, the num- er of potential pathways enlarges. for example, an arrested first hase of the forest transition can be detected throughout the trop- cal world. this reduced pace of deforestation and regeneration f forest cover occurs not because the local-to-regional economy develops” or forest products become scarce. rather, economic con- itions are such that extractive land uses, including agriculture, ail to yield livelihood expectations. land managers seek alterna- ive livelihoods, reducing pressures on use of forested or cleared ands, in some cases assisted by ngo and state agencies which sub- idize or directly pay for non-timber, forest extraction programs e.g., bray et al., ). such conditions, a variant of which may be inked to the creation of parks and reserves with their rules about orest use, have been framed by rudel et al. ( ) as a hollow rontier. portions of the sy may be witnessing a forest transition asso- iated with an arrested first phase: rapid deforestation has halted or various reasons and some formerly denuded lands are in var- ous stages of forest recovery. this recovery has little to do with he two recognized pathways to forest transition (above), either angible economic development or forest scarcity replanting, given he large tracts of older growth in the region. rather, the forest ynamics underway are attributable to at least three interactive actors that affect the collective design of land systems in the sy: hanges in the mexican agrarian economy, part of its neoliberal- zation program that de-emphasizes support (direct payments and ubsidies) of the ejido system (de janvry et al., ; liverman and ilas, ; randall, ); the creation of the cbr and mbc with heir emphasis on forest preservation, including rules that restrict orest cutting among ejidos residing within the reserve (primack et u n c o r please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . l., ); and the sy’s status as an economic frontier in which land anagers search for, but have not found low-risk, good profit land ses (busch, ; schmook and vance, forthcoming). transition theory must resolve the role of successional versus planted and man- ged regrowth. much of the transition in the western world, on which they theory is ased, involved successional processes of forest regrowth, leading to functioning, if ltered, forest ecosystems. identification of forest transition in the tropics includes lanted trees, as in plantations (e.g., rudel et al., ), which need not provide a ull array of environmental services expected from forest cover (see chazdon, ; auppi et al., ). bray et al. ( ), for instance, refer to a more forested, sustainable land systems o the north of the sy, an interpretation predicated on including successional growth re more or less permanent forest cover that will move into old growth phases. it is noteworthy that large-scale, mechanized cultivation takes place to the orthwest of the sy region among high-capital investing, mennonite farmers. these evelopments are sufficiently recent that the longer-term economic viability of the and system cannot be determined. d a t r c o s o t v o i f i p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx the first factor and indirectly, the second are partially consistent ith forest transition theory. while the mexican and sy regional conomy have not yet entered the stages of economic develop- ent that triggered forest recovery in western europe and the nited states, the actions of the mexican state have been taken ith economic development in mind. the decline in support for jidos is part of state-led initiatives to modernize the economy of exico by de-emphasizing “marginal” agriculture, while attempt- ng to increase non-farm alternatives to the affected land users. he cbr and mbc, in turn, have been implemented partly because exico believes it can improve the sy and state economies through rchaeo-eco-tourism, with spinoffs assisting local people, while reserving and enlarging the area of forest as part of mexico’s ommitment to international environmental concerns (primack et l., ). in this reality, policy has shifted to push the regional conomy beyond extractive activities, which in turn has pushed ouseholds to explore ways to diversify their income-generating ortfolios, including illegal international migration (radel and chmook, ). the third factor, which involves the concentration of agricul- ural activity on extant opened lands, has yet to reveal land uses hat, alone, can lead to sustained and improved household liveli- oods. commercial chili production is a boom-bust proposition keys, ); livestock ventures in past have proven difficult in arge part due to the paucity of water during the extended win- er dry season; and smallholder farmers do not have the assets to ndertake large-scale farming akin to mennonites just beyond the y borders (in campeche and belize). diversifying the household conomy, which in some cases appears to reduce forest clearing and ncrease the area of successional growth, is a safety measure that jido members employ given the precarious economic performance f the land systems. it is noteworthy that the first and third factors are especially ynamic compared to the second, and they have the potential to hange dramatically the collective design of the la of the region. or example, households have not relinquished claims to the land e.g., abizaid and coomes, ), which is retained as a safety net r with an eye towards projected, higher reward uses. off-farm ncome, including state payments intended for other purposes, is ommonly directed to expanding pasture, especially among ejidos urrounding the cbr that do not have formal constraints on for- st–land uses (busch, ; klepeis and vance, ; schmook nd radel, forthcoming; schmook and vance, forthcoming). this esponse leads to conditions akin to the hollow frontier. should ivestock production ultimately prove sufficiently rewarding, defor- station rates for the sy are likely to rise again with shifts in las. the appearance of an incipient forest transition in the sy is also etermined by the scale of analysis employed. the cbr and its rules bout cutting forest lands, which has halted deforestation within he reserve, provide a region-wide outcome indicative of forest estoration (rueda, ). in contrast, ejidos to east and west of the br either continue to deforest, if at modest rates, or show little sign f permitting opened lands to return to older growth status (rueda, ). if these trends hold, the sy will maintain a bifurcated la con- istent. enforced policies of the cbr will induce substantial stands f old growth forest within the reserve, although not a result of orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture he modernization of the regional economy in which smallholders oluntarily move into other economic sectors or of forest scarcity. utside the reserve, however, deforestation will continue depend- ng of the circumstances, creating a highly fragmented and open ngo-sponsored programs focused on non-timber, forest extraction, such as the orestry pilot plan, are also challenged by the macro-economic changes underway n mexico (bray et al., ; taylor and zabin, ). dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text and associates original text: inserted text and colleagues original text: inserted text nd). original text: inserted text and colleagues original text: inserted text forest-land original text: inserted text nd; original text: inserted text vance), off-farm activities, and anon sticky note anon highlight anon sticky note again see q . this in reference to bibilo of rudel et al. ... anon sticky note anon sticky note e d ing modelj e polic l b o o i e a s g v t d l r i m m m a f t o s t c o t y i h o d p a i t r a l uq a s s t p r f d o i i p r a a a a q b b b b b b b b c c c c c c d d d d d d d e q e f f f n c o r r e c t articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us andscape on all but the south side of reserve which abuts the maya iosphere reserve in guatemala. such a bifurcated, general la not nly raises questions about forest transition but about the capacity f the cbr to function adequately (vester et al., ). alternatively, f no acceptable agricultural alternatives emerge in the region and conomic opportunities elsewhere in the mexico or abroad draw way much of the population, reducing land pressures, the lands urrounding the cbr will cease being deforested and successional rowth may be permitted to reach older growth stages. which of these situations, or some other, prevails will pro- ide insights about forest transition theory. it is clear, however, he pace of deforestation and reforestation observed for the region epends on lens taken. the variations observed are differentially inked to forest transition theory, suggesting that the base concept equires elaboration and modification (mather, ), that reduces ts elegance but provides greater explanatory power. among these odifications is the role of direct government intervention (mather, ), as in the case of establishing parks and reserves, as well as acro-policies guiding the rural economy. . conclusions the search is underway to develop tropical forest lands in a ore sustainable ways, foremost with an eye towards preserving nd conserving, as much as possible, the critical roles of tropical orests in the maintenance of the earth system and biotic diversity. o date, this search has not systematically addressed a full array f environmental and human tradeoffs inherent in different land ystems and amplified by the consideration of the architecture of hose systems. the land architecture approach appears to be espe- ially cogent for questions of the coupled systems consequences f land change and such themes and theories as forest transition. he sy example illustrates how the collective design of regional la ields tradeoffs supporting differing land-use goals with different mplications for the functioning of cbr and mbc and for house- old livelihoods. the recent changes in the land architecture hints f a possible forest transition, but one only ephemerally embed- ed in the rationale of forest transition theory. the current arrested hase of initial deforestation, if it should prevail, suggests possible lterations of or additions to the formal theory. given sociopolit- cal uncertainties in the mexican and sy regional economies, the ransitions of forest cover in sy cannot be forecasted adequately. egardless, the las for the region will continue to affect the inter- ctions and the outcomes of the coupled (human–environment) and systems. ncited references rudel et al. ( ) and turner et al. ( ). cknowledgements i recognize the global land project of the international geo- phere–biosphere programme and international human dimen- ions programme, both of which influenced the development of he ideas presented here. i am indebted to the southern yucatán eninsular region project personnel who have undertaken the base esearch on which i draw. i particularly thank deborah lawrence u please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . or her comments on and marco millones for his assistance in the evelopment of this paper. i thank thomas rudel for his comments n drafts of this paper and, laura schneider, maria uriate and he for nviting me to participate in the activity that generated this paper n the first place. finally, i think the anonymous reviewer(s) for ointing out several inadequacies in earlier versions of this work. f f p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx eferences bizaid, c., coomes, o.t., . land use and forest fallowing dynamics in season- ally dry tropical forests of the southern yucatan peninsula. land use policy , – . chard, f., eva, h.d., steibig, h.-j., mayaux, p., gallego, j., richards, t., malingreau, j.p., . determination of deforestation rates of the world’s humid tropical forests. science , – . ldrich, s., walker, r., arima, e., caldas, m., browder, j., perz, s., . land-cover and land-use change in the brazilian amazon: smallholders, ranchers, and frontier stratification. econ. geogr. , – . layón a., gurri, f.d., forthcoming. comparing home garden production and ener- getic sustainability between households practicing subsistence and households practicing commercial agriculture in calakmul, campeche, mexico. j. hum. ecol. erkes, f., colding, j., folke, c. (eds.), . navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for complexity and change. cambridge university press, cambridge. oose, e.r., foster, d.r., plotkin, a., hall, b., . geographical and historical variation in hurricanes across the yucatán peninsula. in: gómez-pompa, a., allen, m.f., fedick, s., jiménez-osornio, j.j. (eds.), lowland maya area: three millennia at the human–wildland interface. haworth press, new york, pp. – . otequilha leitä, a., ahern, j., . applying landscape ecological concepts and metrics in sustainable landscape planning. landsc. urban plan , – . ray, d.b., ellis, e.e., carmijo-canto, n., beck, c.t., . the institutional drivers of sustainable landscapes: a case study of the ‘mayan zone’ in quintana roo, mexico. land use policy , – . ray, d.b., merino, l., barry, d. (eds.), . the community forests of mexico. university of texas press, austin. rosi, b.j., armsworth, p.r., daily, g.c., . optimal design of agricultural land- scapes for pollination services. conserv. lett. , . rooks, n., adger, w.n., kelly, p.m., . the determinants of vulnerability and adap- tive capacity at the national level and the implications for adaptation. global environ. change , – . usch, c.b., . deforestation in the southern yucatan: recent trends, their causes, and policy implication. ph.d. dissertation, university of california, berkeley. ampagna, m. (ed.), . gis for sustainable development. crc press, boca raton. han, k.m.a., shaw, m.r., cameron, d.r., underwood, e.c., daily, g.c., . conser- vation planning for ecosystem services. plos biol. , – . hazdon, r.l., . beyond deforestation: restoring forests and ecosystem services on degraded lands. science , – . ochrane, m.a., . synergistic interactions between habitat fragmentation and fire in evergreen tropical forests. conserv. biol. , – . ollinge, s.k., . ecological consequence of habitat fragmentation: implications for landscape architecture and planning. landsc. urban plan. , – . utter, s., mitchell, j.t., scott, m.s., . revealing the vulnerability of people and places: a case study of georgetown county, south carolina. ann. assoc. am. geogr. , – . aily, g.c. (ed.), . societal dependence on natural ecosystems. island press, washington, dc. aily, g.c., ehrlich, p.r., sanchez-azofeifa, g.a., . countryside biogeography: use of human-dominated habitats by the avifauna of southern costa rica. ecol. appl. , – . ale, v.h., pearson, s.m., offerman, h.l., o’neill, r.v., . relating patterns of land-use change to faunal biodiversity in the central amazon. conserv. biol. , – . ark, s.j., bram, d., . the modifiable area unit problem (maup) in physical geography. prog. phys. geog. , – . efries, r., foley, j.a., asner, g., . land-use choices: balancing human needs and ecosystem function. front. ecol. environ. , – . e janvry, a., gordillo, g., sadoulet, e., . mexico’s second agrarian reform: household and community responses, – . center for u.s. mexican studies, university of california, san diego. urieux, l., machado, l.a.t., laurent, h., . the impact of deforestation on cloud cover over the amazon arc of deforestation. remote sens. environ. , – . aton, j.m., lawrence, d., forthcoming. effects of land-use history on the carbon budget of secondary forests in the yucatan. ecology. lmqvist, t., folke, c., nyström, m., peterson, g., bengtsson, j., wlaker, b., norberg, j., . response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. front. ecol. environ. , – . airhead, j., leach, m., . misreading the african landscape: society and ecology in a forest-savanna mosiac. cambridge university press, cambridge. erraz, g., russell, g.j., stouffer, p.c., bierregaard jr., r.o., pimm, s.l., lovejoy, t.e., . rates of species loss from amazonian forest fragments. science , – . oley, j.a., defries, r., aner, g.p.m., barford, c., bonan, g., carpenter, s.r., chapin, f.s., coe, m.t., daily, g.c., gibbs, g., patz, j.a., prentice, i.c., ramakutty, n., snyder, p.k., . global consequences of land use. science , – . oley, j.a., asner, g.p., costa, m.h., coe, m.t., defries, r., gibbs, h.k., howard, e.a., orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture olson, s., patz, j., ramakrishnan, n., snyder, p., . amazonia revealed: forest degradation and the loss of ecosystem goods and services in the amazon basin. front. ecol. environ. , – . olke, c., caprenter, s., emqvist, t., gunderson, l., holling, c.s., walker, b., . resilience and sustainable development: building adaptive capacity in a world of transformations. ambio ( ), – . dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text biosphere reserve original text: inserted text (human-environment) original text: inserted text , original text: inserted text i original text: inserted text geosphere-biosphere original text: inserted text dyanmics original text: inserted text f.d. nd. original text: inserted text human-wildland original text: inserted text landscape original text: inserted text conservation letters original text: inserted text chang. original text: inserted text c. b. original text: inserted text recent original text: inserted text causes, and policy implication. original text: inserted text biology original text: inserted text implications original text: inserted text landscape and original text: inserted text a original text: inserted text ann assoc am geogr original text: inserted text ecol. (forthcoming). original text: inserted text ssecies original text: inserted text g.p.m. anon highlight anon sticky note alayón-gamboa j.a., gurri f.d. . home garden production and energetic sustainability in calakmul, campeche, méxico; j. hum. ecol. : - 

see name and title changes
 anon sticky note see notes above and below. this is cited in the text in two places above as rudel, schneider, uriarte this volume.

see page , col. , lines - 
also page , col. , lines - 
 anon sticky note this is listed incorrectly as turner on line ...i noted there to change to this anon sticky note eaton, j.m., lawrence, d. . loss of carbon sequestration potential after several decades of shifting cultivation in the southern yucatán. forest ecol. manag. (in press).
 anon cross-out anon cross-out d ing modelj e polic g g g h h h h h h h i k k k k k k k k k k l l l l l l l l l l l q l l l l l m m m m m q n m m n n o o c p p p p p p p r r r n c o r r e c t e articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us lp (global land project), . science plan and implementation strategy. glp, stockholm. ranger, a., . the forest transition: an alternative approach. area , – . utman, g., janetos, a., justice, c., moran, e., mustard, j., rindfuss, r., skole, d., turner ii, b.l. (eds.), . land change science: observing, monitoring, and under- standing trajectories of change on the earth’s surface. kluwer academic, new york. anna, k.c., . gis for landscape architects. environmental systems research institute, redlands, ca. aenn, n., . fields of power, forests of discontent: culture, conservation and the state in southern mexico. university of arizona press, tucson. all, c.a.s., tian, h., qi, y., pontius, r., cornell, j., . modelling spatial and temporal patterns of tropical land use change. j. biogeogr. , – . echt, s.b., cockburn, a., . the fate of the forest. in: developers, destroyers and defenders of the amazon. penguin, new york. enderson-sellers, a., dickinson, r.e., durbidget, t.b., kennedy, p.j., mcguffie, k., pit- man, a.j., . tropical deforestation: modeling local- to regional-scale climate change. j. geophys. res. , – . ill, j.l., curran, p.j., . area, shape and isolation of tropical forest fragments: effects on tree species diversity and implications for conservation. j. biogeogr. , – . oldren, j.p., . science and technology for sustainable well-being. science , – . barra-manríquez, g., luis villaseñor, j., durán, r., meave, j., . biogeographical analysis of the tree flora of the yucatan peninsula. j. biogeogr. , – . ates, r.w., clark, w.c., corell, r., hall, j., jaeger, c., lowe, i., mccarthy, j., schellenhu- ber, h.-j., bolin, b., dickson, n., faucheaux, s., gallopin, g., grübler, a., huntley, b., jäger, j., jodha, n., kasperson, r., mabogunje, a., matson, p., mooney, h., moore iii, b., o’riordan, t., svedin, u., . sustainability science. science , – . asperson, j.x., kasperson, r.e., turner ii, b.l., schiller, a., wen-hua, h., . vul- nerability to global environmental change. in: kasperson, j.x., kasperson, r.e. (eds.), social contours of risk. earthscan, london, pp. – . eys, e., . commercial agriculture as creative destruction or destructive cre- ation: a case study of chili cultivation and plant-pest disease in the southern yucatán region. land degrad. dev. , – . eys, e., . exploring market based development: market intermediaries and farmers in calakmul, mexico. geogr. rev. , – . eys, e., roy chowdhury, r., . cash crops, smallholder decision-making and institutional interactions in a closing frontier: calakmul, campeche, mexico. j. lat. am. geogr. , – . ing, a.w., . translating models across scales in the landscape. in: turner, m.g., gardner, r.h. (eds.), quantitative methods in landscape ecology. springer–verlag, new york, pp. – . lepeis, p., vance, c., . neoliberal policy and deforestation in southeastern mex- ico: an assessment of the procampo program. econ. geogr. , – . lepeis, p., . forest extraction to theme parks: the modern history of land change. in: turner ii, b.l., geoghegan, j., foster, d. (eds.), integrated land-change science and tropical deforestation in the southern yucatán: final frontiers. oxford university press, oxford, pp. – . ammerbauer, j., ardon, c., . land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical watershed in the hillside region of central honduras. agric. ecosyst. environ. , – . auppi, p.e., ausubel, j.h., fang, j., mather, a.s., sedjo, r.a., waggoner, p.e., . returning forests analyzed with the forest identity. proc. natl. acad. sci. , – . ambin, e.f., turner ii, b.l., geist, h., agbola, s., angelsen, a., bruce, j., coomes, o., dirzo, r., fischer, g., folke, c., george, p., homewood, k., imbernon, j., leemans, r., li, x., moran, e., mortimore, m., ramakrishnan, p., richards, j., skånes, h., steffen, h., stone, g., svedin, u., veldkamp, t., vogel, c., xu, j., . the causes of land-use and land-cover change-moving beyond the myths. global environ. change , – . aris, p., . burning the seasonal mosaic: preventative burning strategies in the wooded savanna of southern mail. hum. ecol. , – . aurance, w.f., . a crisis in the making: response of amazonian forests to land use and climate change. trends ecol. evol. , – . aurence, w.r., lovejoy, t., vasconcelos, h., bruna, t., didham, r., stouffer, p., gascon, c., bierregard, r., laurence, s., sampaio, e., . ecosystem decay of amazonian forest fragments: a year investigation. conserv. biol. , – . aurance, w.f., williamson, g.b., . positive feedbacks among forest fragmenta- tion, drought, and climate change in the amazon. conserv. biol. , – . awrence, d., foster, d.r., . changes in forest biomass, litter dynamics and soils following shifting cultivation in southern mexico: an overview. interciencia , – . awrence, d., vester, h., pérez-salicrup, d., eastman, j.r., turner ii, b.l., geoghegan, j., . integrated analysis of ecosystem interactions with land-use change: the southern yucatán peninsular region. in: defries, r., asner, g., houghton, r. (eds.), ecosystem interactions with land use change. american geophysical union, washington, dc, pp. – . u please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . awrence, d., d’odorico, p., diekmann, l., delonge, m., das, r., eaton, j., . ecological feedbacks following deforestation create the potential for a catas- trophic ecosystem shift in tropical dry forest. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . eitão, a.b., millier, j., ahern, j., mcgarigal, k., . measuring landscapes: a plan- ners handbook. island press, washington, dc. r r r p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx enton, t.m., held, h., kriegler, e., hall, j., lucht, w., rahmstorf, s., schellnhuber, h.-j., . tipping elements in the earth’s climate system. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . i, w., fu, r., dickinson, e., . rainfall and its seasonality over the amazon in the st century as assessed by the coupled models for the ipcc ar . j. geophys. res. , d . . iu, j., dietz, t., carpenter, s., alberti, m., folke, c., moran, e., pell, a., deadman, p., kratz, t., lubchenco, j., ostrom, e., ouyamng, z., provencher, w., redman, c., schneider, s., taylor, w., . complexity of coupled human and natural systems. science , – . iverman, d.m., vilas, s., . neoliberalism and the environment in latin america. annu. rev. environ. res. , – . obell, d.r., burke, m., tebaldi, c., mastrandrea, m., falcon, w., naylor, r., . pri- oritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in . science , – . ubchenco, l., . entering the century of the environment: a new social contract for science. science , – . uers, a.l., lobell, d., sklar, l., addams, c., matson, p., . a method for quantify- ing vulnerability, applied to the agricultural system of the yaqui valley. global environ. change a , – . ather, a.s., . the forest transition. area , – . ather, a.s., . recent asian forest transitions in relation to forest transition theory. int. forest. rev. , – . alhi, y., timmons roberts, j., betts, r., killeen, t., li, w., nobre, c., . climate change, deforestation and the fate of the amazon. science , – . cgarigal, k., marks, b.j., pacific northwest research station, . fragstats: spa- tial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. united states department of agriculture, portland, or. cgarigal, k., tagil, s., cushman, s.a., forthcoming. surface metrics: an alternative to patch metrics for the quantification of landscape structure. landsc. ecol. agendra, h., . drivers of reforestation in human-dominated forests. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . ea (millennium ecosystem assessment), . ecosystems and human well- being: synthesis. island press, washington, dc. oody, a., woodcock, c.e., . the influence of scale and the spatial characteris- tics of landscapes on land-cover mapping using remote sensing. landsc. ecol. , – . elson, e., polasky, s., lewis, d.j., plantinga, a.j., lonsdorf, e., white, d., bael, d., lawler, j.j., . efficiency of incentives to jointly increase carbon sequestra- tion and species conservation on the landscape. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . obre, c.a., sellers, p.j., shukla, j., . amazonian deforestation and regional cli- mate change. j. climate , – . ’brien, k.l., . upscaling tropical deforestation: implications for climate change. climatic change , – . penshaw, s., taylor, p.j., . the modifiable areal unit problem. in: wrigley, n. (ed.), quantitative geography: a british view. routledge and regan paul, london, pp. – . ontribution of working group ii to the fourth assessment report of the intergov- ernmental panel on climate change, . climate change . in: parry, m.l., canziani, o., palutikof, j., van der linden, p., hanson, c. (eds.), impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. cambridge university press, cambridge. ejchar, l., morgan, p., caldwell, m., palmer, c., daily, g., . evaluating the poten- tial for conservation development: biophysical, economic, and institutional perspectives. conserv. biol. , – . érez-salicrup, d., . forest types and their implications. in: turner ii, b.l., geoghegan, j., foster, d. (eds.), integrated land-change science and tropical deforestation in the southern yucatán: final frontiers. oxford university press, oxford, pp. – . erz, s., . grand theory and context in the study of forest dynamics: forest transition theory and other directions. prof. geogr. , – . ielke sr., r.a., walko, r., steyaert, l., vidlae, p., liston, g., lyons, w., chase, t., . the influence of anthropogenic landscape changes on weather in south florida. mon. weather rev. , – . nas, . special feature: going beyond panaceas. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . orter bolland, l., drew, a.p., vergara-tenorio, c., . analysis of a nature resources management system in the calakmul biosphere reserve. landsc. urban plan. , – . rimack, r.b., bray, d., galletti, h.a., ponciano, i. (eds.), . timber, tourists, and temples: conservation and development in the maya forests of belize, guatemala, and mexico. island press, washington, dc. ao, k.s., pant, r., . land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical micro watershed in the mid elevation zone of central himalaya, india. agric. ecosyst. environ. , – . adel, c., schmook, b., . mexican male transnational migration and its linkages to land use change in a southern campeche ejido. j. lat. am. geogr. , – . andall, l. (ed.), . reforming mexico’s agrarian reform. m.e. sharpe, armonk, ny. orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture aven, p.h., . science, sustainability, and the human prospect. science , – . ead, l., lawrence, d., . recovery of biomass following shifting cultivation in dry tropical forests of the yucatan. ecol. appl. , – . eynolds, j.f., stafford smith, m., lambin, e., turner ii, b.l., mortimore, m., batter- bury, s., downing, t., dowlatabadi, h., fernandez, r., herrick, j., huber-sannvald, dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text . stockholm.granger, original text: inserted text fate of the forest original text: inserted text mexico. geogr. original text: inserted text springer-verlag original text: inserted text the original text: inserted text agri. ecosyst. env. original text: inserted text nat. original text: inserted text chang. original text: inserted text nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text p. nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text e. . original text: inserted text valley original text: inserted text chang. part original text: inserted text s. a. . original text: inserted text landscape ecology (forthcoming). original text: inserted text p. nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text well-bing: original text: inserted text landscape original text: inserted text nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text change original text: inserted text pnas (p. nat. acad. sci. usa)special original text: inserted text original text: inserted text landscape urban plan original text: inserted text agr. original text: inserted text agrarian reform anon sticky note dickson, r.e. anon highlight anon sticky note .

 : - . d ing modelj e polic r r r r r rq r s s sq sq s sq s s s s t t t t t t t t t u v v v w w w articlelup – b.l. turner ii / land us e., leemans, r., lynam, t., mestre, f., ayarza, m., walker, r., . global deser- tification: building a science for dryland development. science , – . ivera, a., calmé, s., . forest fragmentation and the changes in the feeding ecology of the black howler monkey (alouatta pigra) in the calakmul region. in: estrada, a., garber, p., pavelka, m., luecke, l. (eds.), new perspectives on the distribution, ecology and conservation of mesoamerican primates. springer, new york, pp. – . osenzweig, m.l., . win-win ecology: how the earth’s species can survive in the midst of human enterprise. oxford university press, oxford. oy chowdhury, r., turner ii, b.l., . reconciling agency and structure in empir- ical analysis: smallholder land use in the southern yucatán, mexico. ann. assoc. am. geogr. , – . udel, t.k., bates, d., machinguiashi, r., . a tropical forest transition? agricul- tural change, out-migration and secondary forests in the ecuadorian amazon. ann. assoc. am. geogr. , – . udel, t.k., coomes, o., moran, e., achard, f., angelsen, a., xu, j., lambin, e., . forest transitions: towards a global understanding of land use change. global environ. change , – . udel, t.k., schneider, l., uriarte, m., . forest transitions: an introduction. land use policy. ueda, x., . landscapes in transition: land-cover change, conservation, and structural adjustment in the southern yucatán. ph.d. dissertation, clark uni- versity, worcester, ma. ayer, j., campbell, b., . the science of sustainable development: local liveli- hoods and the global environment. cambridge university press, cambridge. chellnhuber, h.j., black, a., cassel-gintz, m., kropp, j., lammel, g., lass, w., lienenkamp, r., loose, c., lüdeke, m., moldenhauer, o., petschel-held, g., plöchl, m., reusswig, f., . syndromes of global change. gaia , – . chmook, b., radel, c., forthcoming. international labor migration from a tropical development frontier: globalizing households and an incipient forest transition the southern yucatán case. hum. ecol. chmook, b, vance, c., forthcoming. agricultural policy, market barriers, and defor- estation: the case of mexico’s southern yucatán. world dev. chneider, l.c., . bracken fern invasion in southern yucatán: a case for land- change science. geogr. rev. , – . chneider, l.c., forthcoming. invasive species and land-use: the effect of land man- agement practices on bracken fern invasion in the region of calakmul, mexico. j. latin am. geogr. chneider, l.c., geoghegan, j., . land abandonment in an agricultural frontier after bracken fern invasion: linking satellite, ecological and household survey data. agric. res. econ. rev. , – . errão, e.a.s., nepstad, d., walker, r., . upland agricultural and forestry devel- opment in the amazon: sustainability, criticality and resilience. ecol. econ. , – . u n c o r r e c t e please cite this article in press as: turner ii, b.l., sustainability and f approach. land use policy ( ), doi: . /j.landusepol. . . hukla, j., nobre, c., sellers, p., . amazon deforestation and climate change. science , – . teffen, w., sanderson, a., tyson, p., jäger, j., matson, p., moore iii, b., oldfield, f., richardson, k., schellnhuber, h.-j., turner ii, b.l., wasson, r., . global change and the earth system: a planet under pressure, igbp global change series. springer–verlag, berlin. w w p r o o f press y xxx ( ) xxx–xxx aylor, p.l., zabin, c., . neoliberal reform and sustainable forest management in quintana roo, mexico: rethinking the institutional framework of the forestry pilot plan. agric. hum. values , – . hompson, g.f., steiner, f.r., . ecological design and planning. john wiley, new york. urner ii, b.l., geoghegan, j.g., foster, d.r. (eds.), . integrated land-change sci- ence and tropical deforestation in the southern yucatán: final frontiers. oxford university press, oxford. urner ii, b.l., matson, p., mccarthy, j., corell, r., christensen, l., eckley, n., hovelsrud, g., kasperson, j.x., kasperson, r.e., luers, l., martello, m., mathiesen, s., naylor, r., polsky, c., pulsipher, a., schiller, a., selin, h., tyler, n., a. illustrating the coupled human–environment system for vulnerability analysis: three case studies. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . urner ii, b.l., kasperson, r.e., matson, p.a., mccarthy, j.j., corell, r.w., christensen, l., eckley, n., kasperson, j.x., luers, l., martello, m., polsky, c., pulsipher, a., schiller, a., b. a framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. ( ), – . urner ii, b.l., klepeis, p., schneider, l., . three millennia in the southern yucatán peninsular region: implications for occupancy, use and “carrying capacity”. in: gómez-pompa, a., allen, m.f., fedick, s., jiménez-osornio, j.j. (eds.), lowland maya area: three millennia at the human–wildland interface. haworth press, new york, pp. – . urner ii, b.l., lambin, e.f., reenburg, a., . the emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – . urner, m.g., . landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. ann. rev. ecol. syst. , – . urner, m.g., o’neill, r.v., gardner, r.h., milne, b.t., . effects of changing spatial scale on the analysis of landscape pattern. landsc. ecol. , – . .s. and sgn (united states, & smart growth network), . this is smart growth. environmental protection agency, washington, dc. ester, h.f.m., lawrence, d., eastman, j.r., turner ii, b.l., calme, s., dickson, r., pozo, c., sangermano, f., . land change in the southern yucatán and calak- mul biosphere reserve: implications for habitat and biodiversity. ecol. appl. , – . an der ryn, s., cowan, s., . ecological design: a ten-year retrospective. island press, washington, dc. an gardingen, p.r., foody, g.m., curran, p.j. (eds.), . scaling up: from cell to landscape. cambridge university press, cambridge. alker, r., . forest transition: without complexity, without scale. prof. geogr. , – . atts, r., compton, r., mccammon, j., rich, c., wright, s., owen, t., oureen, d., . roadless space of the conterminous united states. science , – . eterings, m.j.a., weterings-schonck, s.m., vester, h.f.m., calmé, s., . senes- orest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture cence of manilkara zapota trees and implications for large frugivorous birds in the southern yucatan peninsula, mexico. forest ecol. manag. , – . u, j., . cross-disciplinarity, landscape ecology, and sustainability. landsc. ecol. , – . u, j., jones, k., li, h., loucks, o. (eds.), . scaling and uncertainty analysis in ecology: methods and applications. springer, dordrecht. dx.doi.org/ . /j.landusepol. . . original text: inserted text perspectives original text: inserted text distribution, ecology and original text: inserted text primates original text: inserted text assoc, original text: inserted text env. original text: inserted text x. . original text: inserted text land-cover original text: inserted text nd. original text: inserted text c. nd. original text: inserted text yucat original text: inserted text the original text: inserted text agr. original text: inserted text springer-verlag original text: inserted text agr. original text: inserted text human-environment original text: inserted text nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text human-wildland original text: inserted text nat. acad. sci. usa original text: inserted text landscape original text: inserted text washington dc original text: inserted text mexico. forest anon sticky note this refers to covering article for the special feature in which my article is to appear. i don;t know the specifics to it.
 anon sticky note 

 : - . anon sticky note 

 : - . anon sticky note 

 : - 	sustainability and forest transitions in the southern yucatán: the land architecture approach 	introduction: the challenge 	elaboration of land architecture 	definition 	guiding principles 	antecedents to land architecture 	significance for tropical forests 	land architectures in the southern yucatán 	the study region 	results and observations: illustrating land architectures 	two ejido comparison 	scalar comparisons 	implications for forest transition 	conclusions 	uncited references 	acknowledgements 	references american judaism: a history (review) american judaism: a history (review) lee shai weissbach shofar: an interdisciplinary journal of jewish studies, volume , number , spring , pp. - (review) published by purdue university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /sho. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /sho. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ book reviews ♦ vol. , no. ♦ individualism blurs the ethnic, racial, and religious boundaries that the former seek to maintain. gertel’s dour observations are not always accurate or consistent. he cites the americanization of the goldbergs without mentioning how jewish the show had been until . while he praises the jewish theological seminary’s production saying kaddish as a sincere effort to portray the soul searching done during shiva, he dislikes the show’s pat ending. without any convincing proof, he insinuates that keeping the faith, one of the few movies to advocate spirituality as an antidote to an obsession with career advancement, treats the priest played by edward norton jr. more positively than the rabbi played by ben stiller. gertel considers the undeservedly neglected film the plot against harry as one of the most “jewish” films ever made because it affirms harry’s teshuvah. harry undoubtedly comes off as a real mensch despite his criminal record, but his repentance results from a near fatal heart attack and not from any religious revelation. finally, the brash black pilot in independence day was will smith and not eddie murphy. the difference between these two books is that the first applies historical and sociological analysis to understand a topic that is a product of these forces; and the other is a judaic exegesis of media creations whose purpose is to entertain rather than preach. lawrence baron lipinsky institute for judaic studies san diego state university ♦ ♦ ♦ american judaism: a history, by jonathan d. sarna. new haven and lon- don: yale university press, . pp. $ . . in american judaism, brandeis university scholar jonathan sarna has pro- duced a marvelous survey that masterfully recounts the history of jewish re- ligious life in america and in the process provides much insight into other aspects of american jewish history as well. sarna’s book opens with a con- sideration of the colonial era, when synagogue and community were more or less coterminous, and it follows the saga of american judaism all the way to the beginning of the twenty-first century, touching in its final sections on such contemporary issues as the impact of feminism and the quest for spirituality among american jews. the excellence of sarna’s volume has been recognized by the national jewish book awards, which named american judaism ’s “jewish book of the year.” sarna’s decision to concentrate on religion in exploring the jewish experi- ence in the united states differentiates his text from similar surveys and gives angelia fell new muse ♦ book reviews shofar ♦ an interdisciplinary journal of jewish studies it a sense of cohesion. a major theme in the book is the creative responsiveness of american judaism to changing circumstances, and sarna demonstrates how periods of religious decline have, in the past, always been followed by periods of “awakening” or “renewal.” another of sarna’s themes is the internal diver- sity that has always characterized american judaism, and he often turns his attention to arguments within the faith, which he describes as “not so much conclusive as defining” (p. ). as a study focused on religion, american judaism highlights the role of rabbis and other religious leaders in american jewish life. the volume includes many highly informative profiles of individuals, ranging from david einhorn, an early advocate of radical reform, to the lubavitcher rebbe menachem mendel schneerson, and from jane evans, a leader of the national federation of temple sisterhoods, to shlomo carlebach, the charismatic “jewish guru.” so too, sarna frequently compares developments in american judaism to de- velopments in other faiths. at one point, he describes reform judaism’s turn toward social justice as “the jewish equivalent of the protestant social gospel” (p. ), for instance, and at another point he compares post-world war ii hasidim to the amish, hutterites, and mennonites. despite sarna’s focus on the jewish religion, he takes many opportuni- ties to connect religious matters to other aspects of american jewish history that are not, strictly speaking, part of the story of judaism as a faith. so, for example, in sections of the book with titles such as “judaism and yiddishkeit” or “jewishness without judaism,” he examines jewish identities that were alter- natives to those grounded in religion. moreover, sarna often sets his discus- sions of religion matters in context by describing developments in american jewish history more broadly. before positing that during world war i “the central communal challenge posed by the thousands of jews in uniform . . . was a religious one” (p. ), for instance, he considers several aspects of ameri- can jewry’s involvement with the war that had little to do with religion per se. similarly, even while observing that the characterization of group visits to israel as missions or pilgrimages “underscores their deep religious significance” (p. ), he writes about support for the state of israel mainly as a substitute for religious engagement as a marker of jewish commitment. sarna is well known as a master of the bibliography of american jewish history, and he has put his vast knowledge of the literature in the field to very good use in preparing this volume. in one form or another, the book covers just about all the standard topics normally considered in surveys of american jewish history, and it does so very well. to take but one example, sarna’s ac- count of the mass migration of east european jews to america is excellent, summarizing everything from the factors that prompted jewish immigration book reviews ♦ vol. , no. ♦ to migration statistics, and from rabbinic opinions about moving to america to divisions among various groups of newcomers. the richness of american ju- daism is enhanced, however, by the introduction of some subjects that are not usually mentioned in general discussions of the american jewish experience. so, for instance, sarna provides information about an organization called key- am dismaya, founded in to promote causes such as sabbath observance; about the nature of fraud in the kosher meat trade; and about the formation of a group called the m’lochim, an early antimodernist hasidic sect. sarna has taken an essentially objective approach in exploring the his- tory of american judaism, and this becomes most evident when he considers more controversial topics. raising the question “could american jewry have done more to rescue the jews who fell under nazi rule” (p. ), for example, sarna reports a number of views on this matter but refrains from expressing any clear conclusion. similarly, in describing the condition of american jewry at the turn of the twenty-first century, sarna informs his readers that some observers have noticed “welcome signs of revitalization” while others have fo- cused on “disturbing evidence of assimilation” (p. ), but he does not reveal where he stands on the issue. sarna’s decision to withhold his own judgment on matters such as american jewry’s responses to the shoah or the future of the american jewish community is probably appropriate in a survey text, but some readers may find it frustrating. of course, it is always possible to identify some flaws in just about any book, and american judaism does have some minor faults: some subjects get perhaps more attention than they deserve (general grant’s infamous general orders number gets two full pages); there are a few slips of the pen (the lighting of candles on friday night is not a “sabbath restriction” [p. ]) and the book’s illustrations, though well chosen, are disappointingly reproduced. still, as a work that endeavors to cover a subject as broad as american juda- ism, this volume is a superb achievement. its author has generally made wise decisions about what to include and what to leave out, and he has written in a most engaging style. yet another strength of this volume is that it is accessible to readers who may have little knowledge of jewish practice. so, for instance, when sarna mentions tefillin for the first time, he goes on to describe them as “leather boxes with handwritten scriptural passages that traditional jews strap to their weaker arm and forehead during weekday morning prayers” (p. ). the book also includes a useful glossary. this reviewer has had the instructive experience of participating in a ha- vurah (a friendship circle cum study group) that chose to base its discussion sessions on american judaism for several months. taking part in these ses- sions has made it clear to me that sarna’s book is being seen as a splendid ♦ book reviews shofar ♦ an interdisciplinary journal of jewish studies success not only by scholars in jewish studies, but also by lay readers of many stripes. members of my havurah have praised sarna for his judicious interpre- tive approach, for his resistance to oversimplification, and for his presentation of history in such a way as to stimulate thinking about current issues in jewish life. ultimately, the havurah paid sarna’s text its ultimate compliment: in some twenty-five years of book discussions, american judaism is the first volume for which all members of the group have expressed admiration. lee shai weissbach department of history university of louisville ♦ ♦ ♦ mordecai: an early american family, by emily bingham. new york: hill and wang, . pp. $ . . unlike most jewish immigrants to the united states, who arrived in the mid- and late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the mordecais arrived be- fore the revolution, and one branch of the family settled in the south. these southern mordecais sought to define themselves as americans, even as the nation was defining itself, and as southerners, even as the region was becom- ing distinct in the new nation. but unlike most white americans, the morde- cais were part of a tiny jewish minority, and they had to define themselves as jews, even as american judaism was itself emerging. their goal was always to achieve success, by which they meant to become prosperous, accepted, and respected members of the developing middle-class. in this book, emily bing- ham traces in fascinating detail how this family adopted what she terms “a protective covenant fusing bourgeois domesticity, intellectual cultivation, and religious liberalism” (p. ) to become americans and southerners and the ef- fects this had on the family over three generations. for some members of the family, their achievements came while remaining jews—at least nominally. but for other mordecais, indeed, for most of them by the third generation, becoming americans and southerners meant assimilation, intermarriage, and complete abandonment of judaism. the mordecai story begins when moses mordecai arrived in the colo- nies as a convict indentured servant. after serving his indenture term moses moved to philadelphia where he became a moderately successful merchant and married an english woman, elizabeth whitlock, who converted to juda- ism, marking her conversion by changing her name to esther. jacob morde- cai, the oldest of their three sons, was born in colonial philadelphia in . a brief mercantile career in new york, including a short stint in the employ linkage between a new splicing site mutation in the mdr alias abcb gene and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy linkage between a new splicing site mutation in the mdr alias abcb gene and intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy gudrun schneider, teresa c. paus, gerd a. kullak-ublick, peter j. meier, thomas f. wienker, thomas lang, patricia van de vondel, tilman sauerbruch, and christoph reichel , intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (icp) is defined as pruritus and elevated bile acid serum concentrations in late pregnancy. splicing mutations have been described in the multidrug resistance p-glycoprotein (mdr , abcb ) gene in up to % of icp women. pedigrees studied were not large enough for linkage analysis. ninety-seven family members of a woman with proven icp were asked about pruritus in earlier pregnancies, birth complications and symptomatic gallstone disease. the familial cholestasis type (fic , atp b ) gene, bile salt export pump (bsep, abcb ) and mdr gene were analyzed in relatives. we identified a dominant mode of inheritance with female restricted expression and a new intronic mdr mutation c. � g>a resulting in a bp ( – ) inframe deletion via cryptic splicing site activation. linkage analysis of the icp trait versus this intragenic mdr variant yielded a lod score of . . a bayesian analysis involving mdr , bsep, fic and an unknown locus gave a posterior probability of > . in favor of mdr as causative icp locus. during the episode of icp the median �-glutamyl transpeptidase (�-gt) activity was u/l ( % ci, . to . u/l) in the index woman. four stillbirths were reported in seven heterozygous women ( pregnancies) and none in five women ( pregnancies) without mdr mutation. symptomatic gallstone disease was more prevalent in heterozygous relatives ( / ) than in relatives without the mutation ( / ), (p � . ). conclusion: this study demonstrates that splicing mutations in the mdr gene can cause icp with normal �-gt and may be associated with stillbirths and gallstone disease. (hepatology ; : - .) i ntrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (icp) is a chole- static disorder of pregnant women which was first described by ahlfeld in . the incidence of icp in europe is approximately . to . % of pregnancies. in contrast, incidence rates as high as % have been described in chile and bolivia. - icp is generally charac- terized by a benign course of disease with a good progno- sis. however, vehement itching, jaundice and fat malabsorption may impair the mother’s quality of life. on the other hand, an increased perinatal fetal risk with possible lethal outcome has been described. , - early studies on icp considered its etiology as idio- pathic. however, even in these early studies several cases of familial recurrent icp were identified in various re- gions of the world. reyes et al. described a family from chile in which of multiparous women developed icp over two generations. in holzbach et al. pre- sented their analysis on dominant familial icp in three generations of a pedigree comprising more than indi- viduals. these studies were mainly descriptive and did not allow conclusions on the pathophysiology of icp. this changed when jacquemin and co-worker discovered that heterozygosity for a non-sense mutation in the mdr alias name abcb gene was associated with icp in family members of a child with a severe form of pro- gressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type three (pfic ). this observation fostered the assumption that mdr gene variants may be associated with a familial abbreviations: �ss, �splicing sites; �-gt, �-glutamyl transpeptidase; bric,be- nign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis; bp, base pares; bsep, bile salt export pump; fic , familial cholestasis type ; id, identification number; icp, intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy; lc, liability class; lod score, decadic logarithm of a likelihood ratio; mdr , multidrug resistance p-glycoprotein ; nt, nucleotides; pfic, progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis; s&s, shapiro and senapathy; snp, single nucleotide polymorphisms. from the department of internal medicine i, university of bonn, germany; department of clinical pharmacology and toxicology, university hospital, zü- rich, zürich switzerland; institute for medical biometry, informatics, and epi- demiology, university of bonn, bonn, germany; epidauros biotechnologie ag, bernried, germany; department of gynecology and obstetrics, university of bonn, bonn, germany; and rehabilitation center bad brückenau, hartwald clinic, german pension insurance, federal office, germany. received may , ; accepted october , . supported by the “herbert-reeck-stiftung zur förderung der humanmedizinis- chen forschung bonn,” germany. address reprint requests to: priv.-doz. dr. christoph reichel, deutsche rentenver- sicherung bund, rehabilitationszentrum bad brückenau, klinik hartwald, schlüchterner strasse , bad brückenau, germany. e-mail: christoph.reichel@ web.de; fax: ( ) . copyright © by the american association for the study of liver diseases. published online in wiley interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). doi . /hep. potential conflict of interest: nothing to report. form of icp. further support came from several studies identifying mdr gene variants as being presumably as- sociated with icp in small families. - however, the majority of studies were retrospective in design and the pedigrees studied were usually not large enough to allow a linkage analysis or genetic differential diagnosis. thus, the question whether linkage can be demonstrated be- tween mdr gene variants and familial forms of icp remained to be answered conclusively. , , , , in ad- dition, we demonstrated in an earlier study that of icp women harbored intronic mdr variants presum- ably associated with aberrant splicing. however, aber- rant splicing was not verified in those cases. in this study, we present evidence that dominant familial icp is linked to a newly identified intronic mdr gene splicing mutation resulting in a bp ( – ) inframe dele- tion via cryptic splicing site activation. materials and methods characterization of the index patient. a -year- old pregnant women ( rd week of gestation) suffering from intense pruritus was included in a prospective study on the genetic background of icp. after a hour fasting period, serum and whole blood was collected for liver function tests, various routine laboratory tests and dna extraction. the �-glutamyl transpeptidase (�-gt) activity was expressed as iu at °c. the reference values ( . to . percentile) for �-gt activity were . to u/l in our laboratory. these were assessed in women without liver disease and icp in the last trimenon of their pregnancy. overall two consecu- tive pregnancies were studied in the index patient. family study. our patient was found to be a member of a mennonite kinship, comprising more than family members (fig. ), living in germany, paraguay, canada fig. . pedigree of a familiy with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. squares indicate males, circles females and rhombus unknown gender. black filled circles represent affected females, and grey shaded circles represent proven unaffected females, respectively. a diagonal line through symbol indicates deceased individuals. below each symbol is the identification number, id, in arabic numerals, and the genotype for the mdr c. � g�a variant, if analysed (n � ). the index case (id ) is marked with an arrow. hepatology, vol. , no. , schneider et al. and kazakhstan. blood specimens were drawn from family members: individuals are related by blood, and individuals were related by married. dna was ex- tracted using the qiaamp dna blood mini kit (quia- gen, hilden, germany). whenever dna extraction could not be performed directly, dna was stabilized by using the qiaamp asi and asii buffer system (quiagen) and samples were stored until dna extraction. like the index patient identification number (id) all family members included were interviewed according to a stan- dardized questionnaire asking about outcome and com- plications during previous pregnancies, symptomatic liver and gallstone disease, operations on the biliary tract, epi- sodes of pruritus during pregnancy and clinical signs of liver disease during use of medications or oral contracep- tion. the interviewer was blinded to the individuals ge- notype. the study was approved by the ethics committee of the university of bonn and written informed consent was obtained from all participating individuals. sequencing. genomic and cdna sequences were de- rived from known sequences (bsep: genbank accession number ac for promoter and exon - , ac for exon – and nm_ for cdna; mdr : ac . for noncoding exons - to and coding exon and , ac for exons - , ac for exons - and nm_ for cdna; fic : ac . for exons , , , , , , , , and . primers for genomic dna were de- signed to span all exons and at least base pares (bp) of flanking intronic sequences at the � and � end of each exon in case of bsep and mdr . in case of fic all primers were designed to span exons and their branch and splicing sites known to be mutated in cholestatic liver diseases i.e. exons , , , , , , , , , . - the dna sequences were analyzed on an abi capillary sequencer (abi, weiterstadt, germany) using the phred- phrap, consed and polyphred software (university of washington, seattle, wa). details are available by e-mail from: info@epidauros.com. analysis of variants of the mdr gene. the ge- netic variability of the mdr gene in the index patient (id ) (table ) was compared with results of earlier studies. , for previously unreported intronic variants in the vicinity of authentic splicing sites ( �ss), the sha- piro and senapathy (s&s) consensus values were calcu- lated. identification and verification of cryptic splicing sites was performed using splice-junction primer combi- nations designed according to nm_ . the aber- rant bands were cut out from agarose gels, purified (high pure pcr product purification kit, roche, germany) and sequenced in both directions by manual sequencing using semi automated sequencers (pe biosystems, foster city, ca) after probe preparation according to the man- ufacturer’s protocol. statistical analysis. for linkage analysis the follow- ing assumptions were made. all women with a positive history of pruritus during pregnancy were classified as affected and labeled with the highest liability class (lc ). women with three pregnancies and a negative history of pruritus were classified as unaffected with lc . the lia- bility decreased to the lowest lc in women with a neg- ative history of pruritus and only one pregnancy carried to term. all male family members were typed as of unknown affection status. the genotype-phenotype relationship was described by a liability class dependent penetrance vector. the penetrance for the homozygous wild-type is the phenocopy rate and was assumed to vary from . (lc ) to . (lc ), whereas the penetrance for the het- erozygous genotype was assumed to be . (lc ) to . (lc ), and for the homozygous mutant a penetrance of . was assumed for all liability classes (lc - ). these assumptions are in accordance with a standard dominant genetic model with a reduced penetrance graded accord- ing to diagnostic information. table . mdr genetic variability in the index patient variant dna position nucleotide reference nucleotide variant effect c.� _� insag* prom a insag n.a. c.� a>t* prom b a t n.a. c. � _� delgaaaa intron gaaaa del gaaaa n.a. c. c>t exon c t syn c. � delt intron del t n.a. c. a>g exon a g r g c. � a>g intron a g n.a. c. � a>g* intron a g n.a. c. � g>a* intron g a splicing c. � t>c intron t c n.a. note. coding dna numbers are relative to the atg site and based on the cdna sequence from genbank accession number nm_ . the promoter sites (prom) are relative to noncoding exon . nucleotide changes in the intronic region are from the accession numbers ac . (promoter and non-coding exon - ), ac . (exon - ) and ac . (exon - ). the amino acid position is indicated for those variants in the coding exonic sequence. syn: synonym; n.a.: not applicable; splicing: if located in a splicing region. variants not published before are marked by “*”. schneider et al. hepatology, january implying these assumptions, we performed a paramet- ric, standard decadic logarithm of a likelihood ratio (lod score) analysis involving the three candidate gene loci mdr (omim * , located on chromosome # q . , alias name abcb ), bsep (omim * , # q , alias abcb ) and fic (omim * , # q alias atp b ). a two-point linkage analysis was performed using the new intronic variant c. � g�a at the mdr gene as marker. for bsep and fic we performed a multipoint linkage analysis. involving in- tragenic bsep variants from the family members id , id , id , id , id and intragenic fic vari- ants from the family members id and (table ). linkage analyses were performed using the program mlink of the linkage package version . , and the genehunter program (version . beta r ). - in order to assess the linkage informativity of the pedigree and its phenotypic segregation we calculated the maxi- mum reachable lod score (lodmax). for this, the dis- ease model and the individual phenotypic assignments are not changed. a fully informative marker locus with zero distance to the putative disease locus was assumed. to allow for a joint statement involving the three can- didate loci simultaneously, we additionally performed a “genetic differential diagnosis” implying a bayesian anal- ysis under the neutrality principle. for reasons of com- pleteness, an additional fourth unknown locus mapping elsewhere in the genome, and thus taken as unlinked to any of the markers, was included into the genetic differ- ential diagnosis. the antilog of the maximum lod score in a candidate gene region was taken as a conditional probability for each candidate locus to harbour the caus- ative gene variant. the neutrality principle provided for equal prior probabilities. the protocols of the interviews of all genotyped indi- viduals (n � ) were evaluated by investigators blinded to the genotype of the individuals studied. differences in prevalence of gallstone disease and stillbirths in individu- als of different genotypes were compared by the fisher’s exact test. results follow up of the index patient. the fasting total bile acid serum concentrations were �m (normal � . �m) on admission in the rd week of her first pregnancy and �m in the st week of her second pregnancy. pruritus started in the nd week of gestation during her first and in the th week during her second pregnancy. in both pregnancies pruritus was so intense that the patient had multiple excoriations on her lower limbs due to itch- ing. several measurements of liver function tests were el- evated: alkaline phosphatase (ap) maximum u/l (normal � u/l), alanine amino transferase (alt) max- imum u/l (normal � u/l), aspartate aminotrans- ferase (ast) maximum u/l (normal � u/l) and table . linkage analysis and genetic differential diagnosis locus chromosomal location mdr # q . bsep # q fic # q unknown elsewhere individuals studied n � n � n� n� snps studied n � n � n� n� c. � g>a* c.� t>c c. � a>g c.� g>a c. � c>t** c.� a>g c. t>c c. � a>g c. � c>t c. t>c c. a>c c. � c>t c. � c>t c. � t>c c. � c>a c. � t>c c. g>a c. � g>a prior probabilities . . . . max. lod-scores antilog (conditional weights) . . � . . � . . . . posterior probabilities > . < � < � < . note. the snps shown and variants for the three known candidate loci fic , bsep and mdr were entered into the linkage analysis and genetic differential diagnosis. the ten bsep snps not marked by asterisk were already described in earlier studies.( ) newly identified variants are marked by asterisk. in case of the fic -gene, a total of snps and variants were entered into the multipoint linkage analysis. the new identified variants are marked by asterisk. one asterisk (*) if identified in the dna of id and two asterisks (**) if identified in id . the following fic -variants known to be associated with fic -disease were not found in the individuals (id , id ) studied: c. t�c, c. c�t, c. g�t, c. g�a, c. t�c, c. t�a, c. � t�c, c. � _ � delct�insaa, c. _ delgaaaccgtg, c. b�a, c. c�t. the identified wild-type genotypes at these positions, although not shown in the table, were also entered into the multipoint linkage analysis, and the subsequent genetic differential diagnosis. hepatology, vol. , no. , schneider et al. serum bilirubin concentrations maximum . mg/dl (normal � . mg/dl). almost similar values were found in the second pregnancy. repeated measurements be- tween the rd and th week of gestation revealed a median �-gt activity of u/l ( % confidence inter- val, . to . u/l) during this first episode of icp. during the second episode of icp the maximum �-gt activity was u/l. only on one occasion, seven weeks after the first pregnancy the �-gt was found to be u/l but returned to normal before the second pregnancy. ur- sodeoxycholic acid (udca, mg times a day) was tried. however, due to diarrhea occurring on the third day of treatment and only limited success in suppressing pruritus the treatment was changed to cholestyramine ( g two times a day). the diarrhea ceased within days after discontinuation of udca and the intensity of pruritus fell from to on a scale with a maximum of . after both pregnancies the index woman delivered a healthy child without further complications. six years after start of the study the index patient is well without any symp- toms of liver disease. formal genetics of the pedigree. the index patient (id ) and additional five women (id , id , id , id , id ) of the pedigree met the phenotypic criteria for the affection status “affected”. furthermore, six women (id , id , id , id , id and id ) met the phenotypic criteria of the affection status “unaffected” (table ). applying the phenotype definitions, the trait segrega- tion was found to be consistent with a regular mendelian segregation, characterized by a dominant mode of inher- itance with female restricted expression, depending on the number of pregnancies carried to term (fig. ). characterization of a new splicing mutation in the mdr gene. overall ten variants were identified in the mdr gene of our index patient (table ). six of these variants were identified in earlier studies and found not to be associated with the occurrence of icp. two variants c. _ insag and c.- a�t were promoter variants. another new intronic variant c. � a�g was located nucleotides (nt) down- stream the exon/intron boundary and thus highly un- likely to be of any significance. examining the remaining new variant c. � g�a it became evident that this variant was located in the vicinity of the authentic �ss between exon and intron (fig. ). the s&s score was . for the authentic �ss and . for the mutated �ss (fig. ). the s&s consensus value for a cryptic �ss nt upstream of the authentic �ss was . (fig. ). to verify this assumed cryptic �ss rna was obtained from four women heterozygous for the mutated �ss (id , id , id , id ) and from two women homozygous for the authentic �ss (id , id ). amplification of cdna using splice junction primers revealed aberrant bands for the cdna of women heterozygous for the mu- tant �ss (fig. ). after sequencing the obtained aberrant bands a bp exon ( – ) inframe deletion could be verified. overall, four women tried oral contraceptives. three (id , and ) were heterozygous for c. � g�a and one did not harbour the mutation (table ). two of three heterozygous women id and the index patient id reported pruritus during oral contraceptives whereas id did not (table ). the other women of the pedigree denied intake of oral contraceptives. other forms of symptomatic drug induced cholestasis, symp- tomatic liver injury or chronic liver disease where not reported. only the father of the index patient (id ) reported of episodes of recurrent choledocholithiasis de- spite cholecystectomy. in four of pregnancies ( %) of table . phenotype and genotype of all consanguineous women with positive history of pregnancy id pregnancies carried to term stillbirths episodes of icp phenotype genotype mdr c. � g>a a �/m a �/m a �/m a �/m * a �/m * a �/m ua �/m ua �/� ua �/� ua �/� ua �/� ua �/� note. the table gives an overview over all pregnancies of icp affected and unaffected consanguineous women including the indexpatient (id ). overall four of these women did take birth control pills (id , , and ) of which two experienced pruritus during intake (id and marked by an asterisks “*”). the other women of the pedigree denied intake of oral contraceptives. a: affected of icp; ua: unaffected of icp; �/�: genotype homozygous wild-type; �/m: genotype heterozygous mutant. schneider et al. hepatology, january women heterozygous for the c. � g�a mutation stillbirths occurred, whereas no stillbirth was recorded in the pregnancies of four women not harboring this mutation. however, this difference was not significant (p � . , fisher�s exact test). furthermore, seven of family members heterozygous for c. � g�a had a positive history of gall stone disease whereas this preva- lence was significantly lower in family members negative for the c. � g�a mutation (one of ) (p � . ). genetic analysis. first, we analyzed whether the mu- tated �ss (c. � g�a) segregated with the history of icp in the family of our index patient. not mutated women did not experience icp. furthermore, all women who fulfilled the criteria for the phenotypic affection sta- tus “affected” (id , id , id , id , id , id ) (fig. , table ) were heterozygous for the mutated �ss (c. � g�a). on the other hand, of the six women (id , id , id , id , id and id ) who met the criteria for “unaffected” only one (id ) was mutated (table ). interestingly, she was cholecystectomized due to symptomatic gallstone disease at the age of . further- more, she experienced only one pregnancy, thus the ap- parent unaffected phenotype was believed to be due to limited phenotypic information. thus, for mdr the variant c. � g�a was en- tered as marker into a two-point linkage analysis. multi- point linkage analysis for bsep involved the single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) identified (table ). ten of these have been described by pauli-magnus. genotyping four affected women for these snps re- vealed inconsistent results for the ten variants already known to be of non disease causing type. in all four affected women the newly detected promoter variant could not be detected. thus, it is very unlikely that this new variant may be disease causing. the fic -gene was analysed in the index patient (id ) and one other affected woman (id ). both women were homozygous wild-type at each of the eleven known polymorphisms (table ). additionally in the se- quence of id homozygous mutations for two intronic and two silent exonic variants were detected (*). sequence analysis in id for the above stated genomic region revealed heterozygositiy for two new intronic variants (**). overall, snps and variants were entered into the multipoint linkage analysis for fic . the linkage informativity of the pedigree and its phe- notypic segregation expressed as lodmax was found to be . . the linkage analysis revealed the following lod scores: for mdr (marker locus c. � g�a) lod score . , for fic (marker loci see table ) lod score fig. . schema of cryptic �ss activation in human mdr gene due to the c. � g�a variant. the diagram shows exon and (grey box) and intron (thin line). the sequence around the exon /intron splicing site is shown. vertical arrows indicate the �ss, whose gt dinucleotides are underlined. the number in paren- thesis is the relative position of the nucleotides relative to the authen- tic �ss at � . at position � the intronic c. � g�a mutation is located. red numbers above the splicing sites are their s&s con- sensus values. fig. . verification of the bp deletion caused by the new mdr mutation c. � g�a. after reverse transcription cdna was studied on agarose gel by bromide staining. the genotype for c. � g�a is shown above each lane. the homozygous wild-type genotype (�/�) corresponds to the presence of one fragment (sized at bp). heterozy- gosity (�/m) results in two fragments, one sized at bp correspond- ing to the wild-type allele and one sized at bp corresponding to the mutated allele. lane : healthy control not related to the kindred, wild-type homozygous genotype (�/�). lane : family member (id ), negative phenotype definition, wild-type homozygous (�/�). lane : index patient (id ), icp, heterozygous genotype (�/m). lane : family member (id ), positive phenotype definition, heterozygous genotype (�/m). lane : bp standard. hepatology, vol. , no. , schneider et al. � . and bsep (marker loci see table ) lod score � . . the antilogs of these lod scores went into the bayesian analysis as conditional probabilities. with equal prior probabilities (motivated by the so-called neutrality principle). the genetic differential diagnosis involving all three candidate loci and an additional unknown locus gave a posterior probability of � . for mdr indi- cating overwhelming evidence in favour of mdr as the causative candidate locus. discussion our family study demonstrates evidence for linkage of the dominant form of familial icp to heterozygosity for a new intronic mdr mutation. earlier studies had already identified mdr mutations in four icp families. , , , the size of our kindred enabled us to identify a regular mendelian segregation characterized by a dominant mode of inheritance (moi) with female restricted expres- sion (fig. ). with one exception (id ), there were no consanguineous marriages in the pedigree. thus, a mono- genic nature of the icp phenotype in this pedigree was found to be very likely. the same moi has been observed in earlier studies. , furthermore, we demonstrate that the new identified mdr mutation led to a bp exon ( – ) inframe deletion in women with the icp phenotype (fig. ; fig. ). as mechanism responsible for this deletion an activation of a cryptic � splicing site bp upstream the mutated authentic � splicing site (fig. ) was found. this is the first time that cryptic splicing site activation due to a disease related mutation has been verified in the mdr gene. however, in an earlier study pauli-magnus in col- laboration with our group identified icp specific splicing site mutations in four out of icp women. neither these earlier described splicing site mutations nor our newly identified c. � g�a mdr splicing site mu- tation were found in controls. thus, it is highly unlikely that particularly our new identified mutation is a common polymorphism in healthy adults. interestingly, similar to the findings in our index patient, a significant decrease in the s&s consensus value can be found for all splicing site mutations described by pauli-magnus and coworkers (data not shown). thus, it is tempting to spec- ulate that cryptic splicing site activation may have caused functional relevant mdr gene deletions in almost % of icp patients in the swiss/german collective studied by pauli-magnus. it is interesting to note that the majority of individuals in our pedigree are members of the men- nonite church which in part originates from switzerland. thus, the high prevalence of splicing site mutations found by pauli magnus and our findings in mennonites may reflect this common genetic background. furthermore, it is known that cholestatic diseases like the benign recur- rent intrahepatic cholestasis (bric) — a fic disease — are more prevalent in members of the amish mennonite church which separated from the mennonite church in switzerland in . in this context, it is very important to note, that we did not find any of the known genetic variants linked to fic disease in individuals from our pedigree (table ). the same holds true for the bsep gene which was sequenced completely (table ). in addition, the multipoint linkage analysis for bsep and fic did not show any linkage (negative lod scores) to icp. in contrast to these negative findings the two point linkage analysis using the mdr gene muta- tion c. � g�a as intragenic marker gave a positive . lod score which was very near to the lodmax score of . achievable in our kindred (table ). the low lodmax in such a large kindred reflects the fact that lod score analysis is highly dependent on the number of in- formative meioses going into the analysis. furthermore, only two generations and four segregating sibships could be studied in our pedigree (fig. ); and the female re- stricted expression of the trait further limited the available phenotypic information. despite this limitations, we present overwhelming evidence that the new identified mdr gene mutation c. � g�a is linked to icp in the pedigree presented. as no generally accepted in vitro mdr expression system exists we were not able to test for the functional relevance of the bp exon ( – ) inframe deletion caused by the mdr gene mutation. further- more, in vivo expression studies were not possible, as for ethical reasons no liver biopsy was performed. however, if the position of the putative amino acid deletion del - corresponding to the bp ( – ) inframe deletion in exon is analyzed in the transmembrane topology scheme it seems to be possible that the function of the intracellular atp binding sites of the mdr gene may be modified by this deletion (fig. ). the anamnestic data revealed, that individuals het- erozygous for the mdr gene mutation had a signifi- cantly higher prevalence of symptomatic gall stone disease irrespective of gender. this finding is in accordance with earlier findings that identified mdr as a so called lith- gene , and demonstrated a higher prevalence of symp- tomatic gall stone disease in women with icp. , , in this respect it appears noteworthy that the father (id ) of our index patient is heterozygous for the c. � g�a mutation and suffers from recurrent cho- ledocholithiasis despite cholecystectomy (fig. ). fur- thermore, we speculate that c. � g�a may be responsible for the rather high rate of stillbirths ( %) reported from heterozygous women. such an elevated rate schneider et al. hepatology, january of stillbirths has also been observed in earlier icp studies especially if the bile acid serum concentrations were as high as in our index patient. , , furthermore, two of three heterozygous women reported of pruritus during intake of oral contraceptives. although not conclusive this may support the hypothesis that cholestasis linked to mdr defects may be induced by birth control pills. despite all these risks associated with the mutation our index patient and the other heterozygous family members did not show any signs of symptomatic liver disease six years after start of the study. furthermore, �-gt activity during icp was normal in two pregnancies of the index patient. thus, the type of icp observed in our index patient would best be described as normal �-gt icp of the benign type or classical icp. in case of pfic , and it has been stated in different studies and reviews that y-gt is a reliable marker to dif- ferentiate between mdr , fic and bsep defects. the normal �-gt values found in our index patient sup- port the view that normal �-gt values (� u/l in preg- nant women) do not exclude icp linked to mdr mutations. of note, no general agreement exists concern- ing gender specifc reference values for �-gt. data of bacq et al. obtained in women and our data in women in late pregnancy support lower reference values for y-gt in women. in conclusion our study demonstrates that the domi- nant familial form of icp observed in this large menno- nite pedigree is linked to the mdr mutation c. � g�a. we further demonstrate that this in- tronic mutation results in an bp ( – ) in- frame deletion in exon due to cryptic splicing site activation, a mechanism not described so far in mdr disease. furthermore, we speculate from our present and from earlier studies, that the prevalence of icp caused by mdr splicing site mutations may be rather high up to % at least in women suffering from icp who share a swiss mennonite genetic background. acknowledgment: the authors would like to thank the index patient and her family for their support, interest and participation in the study and dr. ricardo wiens hospital filadelfia, filadelfia-chaco, paraguay. we thank prof. dr. f. lammert and dr. gruenhage depart- ment of internal medicine i, university of bonn, ger- many for discussing the manuscript. further we thank prof. dr. h. heckers gastroenterologische endoskopie und ambulanz, university of gießen, germany for pro- viding the liver function tests during the second preg- nancy of the index patient. references . ahlfeld f. berichte und arbeiten aus der geburtshilflichen-gynäkolgis- chen klinik zu giessen - . leipzig: grunow, : . . glantz a, marschall hu, mattsson la. intrahepatic cholestasis of preg- nancy: relationships between bile acid levels and fetal complication rates. hepatology ; : - . . bacq y. intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. clinics liver dis ; : - . . reyes h, gonzalez mc, ribalta j, aburto h, matus c, schramm g, et al. prevalence of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in chile. ann intern med ; : - . . abedin p, weaver jb, egginton e. intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: prevalence and ethnic distribution. ethn health ; : - . . alsulyman om, ouzounian jg, ames-castro m, goodwin tm. intrahe- patic cholestasis of pregnancy: perinatal outcome associated with expectant management. am j obstet gynecol ; ( pt ): - . . shaw d, frohlich j, wittmann ba, willms m. a prospective study of patients with cholestasis of pregnancy. am j obstet gynecol ; ( pt ): - . . berg b, helm g, petersohn l, tryding n. cholestasis of pregnancy. clin- ical and laboratory studies. acta obstet gynecol scand ; : - . . laatikainen t, tulenheimo a. maternal serum bile acid levels and fetal distress in cholestasis of pregnancy. int j gynaecol obstet ; : - . fig. . secondary structure of the mdr transmembrane protein. the transmembrane topology schematic was rendered using topo (s.j. johns and r.c. speth, transmem- brane protein display software, **http://www.sacs.ucsf.edu/topo- run/wtopo.pl). shown in orange are putative walker a, c-signature ele- ment and walker-b. shown in blue is the putative aminoacid deletion from position to result- ing from the proven bp exon ( – ) inframe deletion caused by the c. � g�a mutation. hepatology, vol. , no. , schneider et al. . jacquemin e, cresteil d, manouvrier s, boute o, hadchouel m. het- erozygous non-sense mutation of the mdr gene in familial intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. lancet ; : - . . paus tc, schneider g, van de vondel p, sauerbruch t, reichel c. diagnosis and therapy of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. z gastro- enterol ; : - . . haemmerli up, wyss hi. recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. report of six cases, and review of the literature. medicine baltimore ; : - . . reyes h, ribalta j, gonzales-ceron m. idiopathic cholestasis of pregnancy in a large kindred. gut ; : - . . holzbach rt, sivac da, braun we. familial recurrent intrahepatic cho- lestasis of pregnancy: a genetic study providing evidence for transmission of a sex-limited, dominant trait. gastroenterology ; : - . . dixon ph, weerasekera n, linton kj, donaldson o, chambers j, egg- inton e, et al. mdr missense mutation associated with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: evidence for a defect in protein trafficking. hum mol genet ; : - . . pauli-magnus c, lang t, meier y, zodan-marin t, jung d, breymann c, et al. sequence analysis of bile salt export pump (abcb ) and multidrug resistance p-glycoprotein (abcb , mdr ) in patients with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. pharmacogenetics ; : - . . mullenbach r, linton kj, wiltshire s, weerasekera n, chambers j, elias e, et al. abcb gene sequence variation in women with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. j med genet ; :e . . lucena jf, herrero ji, quiroga j, sangro b, garcia-foncillas j, zabalegui n. a multidrug resistance gene mutation causing cholelithiasis, cholesta- sis of pregnancy and adulthood biliary cirrhosis. gastroenterology ; : - . . rosmorduc o, hermelin b, poupon r. mdr gene defect in adults with symptomatic intrahepatic and gallbladder cholesterol cholelithiasis. gas- troenterology ; : - . . oude elferink rp, paulusma cc, groen ak. hepatocanalicular transport defects: pathophysiologic mechanisms of rare diseases. gastroenterology ; : - . . gendrot c, bacq y, brechot mc, lansac j, andres c. a second heterozy- gous mdr nonsense mutation associated with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. j med genet mar; :e . . beuers u, pusl t. intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy–a heterogeneous group of pregnancy-related disorders? hepatology ; : - . . savander m, ropponen a, avela k, weerasekera n, cormand b, hirvioja m-l, et al. genetic evidence of heterogeneity in intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy. gut ; : - . . ganne-carrie n, baussan c, grando v, gaudelus j, cresteil d, jacque- min e. progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type revealed by oral contraceptive pills. j hepatol may; : - . . bull ln, van eijk ml, pawlikowska l, deyoung ja, juijn ja, liao m, et al. a gene encoding a p-type atpase mutated in two forms of hereditary cholestasis. nat genet ; : - . . tygstrup n, steig ba, juijn ja, bull ln, houwen rh. recurrent familial intrahepatic cholestasis in faroe islands. phenotypic heterogeneity but genetic homogenteity. hepatology ; : - . . klomp lw, bull ln, knisely as, van der doelen ma, juijn ja, berger r, forget s, et al. a missense mutation in fic is associated with the green- land familial cholestasis. hepatology ; : - . . chen hl, chang ps, hsu hc, ni yh, hsu hy, lee jh, et al. fic and bsep defects in taiwanese patients with chronic intrahepatic cholestasis with low gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase levels. j pediatr ; : - . . klomp lw, vargas jc, van mil sw, pawlikowska l, strautnieks ss, van eijk mj. characterization of mutations in atp b associated with hered- itary cholestasis. hepatology ; : - . . pauli-magnus c, kerb r, fattinger k, lang t, anwald b, kullak-ublick ga, et al. bsep and mdr haplotype structure in healthy caucasians, primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. hepatology ; : - . . shapiro mb, senapathy p. rna splice junctions of different eukaryotes: sequence statistics and functional implications in gene expression. nucleic acids res ; : - . . lathrop gm, lalouel jm, julier c, ott j. strategies for multilocus linkage analysis in humans. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : - . . kruglyak l, daly mj, reeve-daly mp, lander es. parametric and non- parametric linkage analysis: a unified multipoint approach. am j hum genet ; : - . . kruglyak l, lander es. faster multipoint linkage analysis using fourier transforms. j comput biol ; : - . . terwilliger jd, ott j. handbook of human genetic linkage. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press, . . knisely as. progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis: a personal per- spective. pediatr dev pathol ; : - . . figge a, matern s, lammert f. molecular genetics of cholesterol choleli- thiasis: identification of human and murine gallstone genes. z gastroen- terol ; : - . . rosmorduc o, hermelin b, boelle py, parc r, taboury j, poupon r. abcb gene mutation-associated cholelithiasis in adults. gastroenterol- ogy ; : - . . ikonen e. jaundice in late pregnancy. acta obstet gynecol scand ; :(suppl ): - . . dalen e, westerholm b. occurrence of hepatic impairment in women jaundiced by oral contraceptives and in their mothers and sisters. acta med scand ; : - . . lucena jf, herrero ji, quiroga j, sangro b, prieto j. is intrahepatic cho- lestasis of pregnancy an mdr -related disease? gastroenterology ; : - . . elferink rpjo, paulusma cc, groen ak. hepatocanalicular transport defects: pathophysiologic mechanisms of rare diseases. gastroenterology ; : - . . bacq y, sapey t, brechot mc, pierre f, fignon a, dubois f. intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy: a french prospective study. hepatology ; : - . schneider et al. hepatology, january development of carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in the wisconsin plain population education report © american college of medical genetics and genomics introduction the plain population represents “christian groups that live simply, dress plainly, and live in the modern world but remain separate from it.” these communities originated from the anabaptist movement in europe in the s. a small number of each group immigrated to the united states in the s and s and eventually settled in wisconsin. in wisconsin, the plain population includes individuals from both the old order amish and mennonite communities. in , the state’s plain population was approximately , , including approximately , amish and , mennonite members (d kraybill, per- sonal communication). wisconsin’s amish population is the fourth largest in the united states. as a result of religious separation and a restricted founder gene pool from subsequent consanguinity within these communities, there is a high prevalence of certain autosomal- recessive conditions, including several disorders currently detected by newborn screening programs (see table ). , newborn screening is aimed at early identification of various genetic disorders, including several inborn errors of metabo- lism, and allows early treatment and thus improved long-term clinical outcomes. however, the plain population’s culture and way of life lead to several challenges in collecting newborn screens from neonates and treating those affected with identi- fied disorders. lack of medical follow-up due to financial (e.g., lack of medical insurance), logistical (e.g., the need to hire driv- ers to get to medical centers or home births that require a sepa- rate midwife visit for newborn collection), or cultural beliefs (e.g., the viewpoint that a physician need not be seen unless a child is seriously ill) is a common barrier. this project is an initiative through the university of wisconsin biochemical genetics clinic and the wisconsin newborn screening program to help families in the plain pop- ulation identify family members who may be at risk for having a child with maple syrup urine disease (msud; omim ) or propionic acidemia (pa; omim ) or who may be at risk for having pa themselves. these conditions were chosen for this project because of their high prevalence in the plain population as well as the importance of detection and the poten- tial for early intervention for these life-threatening conditions. pa and msud are inborn errors of branched-chain amino acid metabolism caused by the deficiency of propionyl- coa-carboxylase (pcc) and branched-chain dehydroge- nase (bckdha), respectively, leading to the accumulation of amino acids and by-product organic acids. each of these enzymes has multiple subunits, with variability in presentation associated with the subunit. in pa, reduced enzyme activity leads to an accumulation of propionic acid and its associated metabolites that are particularly toxic to the central nervous system and cardiac tissue. in msud, accumulation of all three submitted january ; accepted june ; advance online publication august . doi: . /gim. . purpose: this community project is an initiative through the uni- versity of wisconsin biochemical genetics clinic and the wisconsin newborn screening program to identify members of the plain popu- lation who are at risk for having children with maple syrup urine dis- ease (msud) or propionic acidemia (pa) or who have pa. methods: because of the high prevalence of metabolic condi- tions in the plain population and the importance of early inter- vention, a statewide outreach project was developed to provide targeted variant analysis of the common msud and pa patho- genic variants in this population through health-care provider distribution of blood spot testing kits. awareness was achieved through outreach efforts with the state midwives guild and plain population meetings. results: eighty individuals were tested; diagnosis was confirmed for three adults with pa and one couple was identified as being at risk for having a child with pa. genetic counseling was provided to those identified. follow-up diagnostic testing was completed for the at-risk couple’s children; none were found to be affected. conclusion: this initiative successfully provided accessible clinical testing for msud and pa for a high-risk population. early identifi- cation of at-risk couples sets the foundation for early care of at-risk neonates, thereby improving future clinical outcomes. genet med advance online publication august key words: carrier testing; maple syrup urine disease; propionic acidemia; plain population waisman center, university of wisconsin–madison, madison, wisconsin, usa; department of pediatrics, university of wisconsin–madison, madison, wisconsin, usa; department of molecular and medical genetics, oregon health and science university, portland, oregon, usa; newborn screen lab at wisconsin state lab of hygiene, newborn screen lab madison, madison, wisconsin, usa. correspondence: jessica scott schwoerer (jscottschwoerer@pediatrics.wisc.edu) development of carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in the wisconsin plain population ashley kuhl, cgc , , sandra van calcar, phd, rd , mei baker, md , , christine m. seroogy, md , gregory rice, md , and jessica scott schwoerer, md , volume | number | march | genetics in medicine http://www.nature.com/doifinder/ . /gim. . mailto:jscottschwoerer@pediatrics.wisc.edu carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in wisconsin’s plain population | kuhl et al education report branched-chain amino acids occurs, but elevations in leucine and -ketoisocaproic acid have particularly neurotoxic effects. in the amish population, pa is caused by a com- mon pathogenic variant, c. a>g, in the β-subunit of propionyl-coa-carboxylase, pccb, and the clinical disease can present at any time during the life span. during the neo- natal period, pa presents with poor feeding, lethargy, profound acidosis, and hyperammonemia. it can also present with meta- bolic decompensation in the setting of a stressor, often an inter- current illness. during decompensation, all individuals with pa are prone to brain injury resulting in ataxia, lethargy, coma, and seizures. long-term complications can include developmental delays, seizure disorder, and movement disorders due to basal ganglia injury. more recently, a cardiac phenotype with dilated cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia, and sudden death has been asso- ciated with pa. – the clinical phenotype most commonly seen in the old order amish includes cardiac involvement, although metabolic decompensation and neurologic sequelae have also been described. in the amish population, there are biochemically affected but seemingly clinically healthy indi- viduals who have not had the symptoms associated with the neonatal presentations of pa. they are later recognized to have pa after the sudden cardiac death of a family member prompts testing (j.s.s, g.r., personal experience). treatment includes diet; medications, including carnitine, biotin (pcc cofactor), and citrate; close cardiac monitoring; and standard care for car- diomyopathy and arrhythmia. unlike pa, msud in the old order mennonite population presents most often during the neonatal period. with accu- mulation of leucine, the neonate can quickly become enceph- alopathic—initially presenting with poor feeding, lethargy, and eventually coma. symptoms can develop at as early as – days of life, often before routine newborn screening results are available. immediate initiation of dietary therapy to reduce the leucine concentration is lifesaving; with long-term dietary and illness management, growth and developmental outcomes can be normal. unlike the general population, in which the incidence of msud is / , (carrier frequency of / ), approximately / individuals in the mennonite popula- tion carries a specific pathogenic variant (c. t>a) in the bckdha that causes classic, severe disease. the carrier testing provided through this project enables identification of couples who are at risk for having an infant with one of these conditions as well as preparation for the birth of a potentially affected baby, including diagnosis by variant analy- sis before  h of life and immediate initiation of dietary treat- ment for an affected neonate. this identification of increased risk, through either carrier testing or a known affected family member, has been shown to preempt nicu stays (j.s.s, g.r., personal experience). carrier testing also allows the identifica- tion of previously undiagnosed individuals with pa. this type of carrier testing has previously been performed for msud in the old order mennonite population in pennsylvania but has not previously been performed for pa. materials and methods patients all amish and mennonite families residing in wisconsin are eligible for msud carrier testing and pa carrier and diagnostic testing for the common pathogenic variants found in the plain population. the general population and plain families living outside wisconsin are not eligible for this study. the testing is provided by the wisconsin newborn screening program and is offered free of charge as part of the services the program pro- vides. this genetic testing is clinical testing and therefore did not require institutional review board approval for this study. carrier testing kits the genetic testing was performed using kits that included specimen collection supplies as well as consumer-friendly, con- dition-specific information, provider collection and condition information, and patient consent forms (see supplementary information online). for those who pursued testing, a blood sample obtained by finger prick was collected on a filter paper card, dried, and mailed to the wisconsin state laboratory of hygiene for analy- sis. targeted analysis for the common pathogenic variants found in the plain population for msud (bckdha c. t>a) and pa (pccb c. a>g) was completed using a laboratory- developed test. testing was ordered through a health-care provider but could be collected by a health-care provider or the family. families were made aware that this testing did not table metabolic newborn screening disorders more common in the amish and mennonite populations amish mennonite both galactosemia tyrosinemia type ( pathogenic variants) phenylketonuria glutaric acidemia type tyrosinemia type -methyl crotonyl coa carboxylase deficiency homocystinuria (due to methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase) phenylketonuria ( pathogenic variants) propionic acidemia medium-chain acyl coa dehydrogenase deficiency maple syrup urine disease biotinidase deficiency data from refs. , . genetics in medicine | volume | number | march kuhl et al | carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in wisconsin’s plain populationeducation report replace the standard newborn screen. a diagram of this process can be seen in figure . the plain population does not provide formal education beyond the eighth grade and maintains different cultural norms than those outside of the plain population regarding the discus- sion of certain topics, such as pregnancy. thus, it was important that the material used to inform families about this testing and the testing results be clear, accurate, and culturally sensitive. all forms and information sheets were reviewed by metabolic geneticists, dietitians, genetic counselors, and a licensed mid- wife who follows patients in the plain population. outreach activities to increase accessibility, mail-order kits for both msud and pa testing were provided to midwives and other health-care providers following at-risk families. kits were also distrib- uted at plain population meetings where clinical information about these conditions and the available testing was provided. newborn screening education was also provided at the com- munity meetings through physician-led discussions and mid- wife workshops to increase awareness of these disorders in the plain population. in a deliberate effort to build trust through community rela- tionships, the family information for msud was also reviewed by a respected elder of a wisconsin plain community who has a family history of msud. the larger wisconsin partnership program (wpp) project also includes community elders on its board, and their input was sought for the carrier testing project as well as the other projects associated with this grant (newborn screening awareness and provision of research-based testing for a wider range of clinical conditions in the plain population). to better understand and meet community needs, we uti- lized existing local relationships and the current infrastructure of the wisconsin newborn screening program and wisconsin midwife guild. the majority of prenatal/perinatal care for the plain population is provided by midwives (licensed and unli- censed birth attendants from the community referred to as lay midwives) and sometimes local physicians. working closely with this group of care providers helped to establish trust with community members and facilitated effective and efficient access to and distribution of education materials, testing, and results. patient communication testing results were sent by mail to both the couple and the ordering provider. no letters were returned as undeliverable. those who tested positive or were at increased risk for hav- ing a child with msud or pa were offered further counsel- ing and medical care in an outreach clinic located in la farge, wisconsin, or at the university of wisconsin biochemical genetics clinic in madison, wisconsin. the results and kit dis- tribution were tracked in an excel spreadsheet. results distribution of kits from april to may , testing kits were distributed to four midwives ( kits), one local physician ( kit), and one public health nurse ( kits). these wisconsin health-care pro- viders were from the cities of withee, blue river, unity, athens, and eau claire. thirty-seven of these kits were utilized for test- ing. in addition, approximately kits were used directly by university of wisconsin biochemical genetics clinic and la farge medical clinic providers at outreach clinics and a com- munity meeting. nineteen of these kits were utilized for testing. carrier testing findings results were provided to individuals as well as their mid- wives or local physicians (table ). of these, three siblings in their early s were diagnosed with pa. for these individuals, the diagnosis of pa had been made with biochemical testing in infancy or early childhood but the family was lost to follow-up. they were returning for care and wanted to confirm the patho- genic variant for other family members. similarly, an at-risk couple pursued testing because they had a son who died from suspected pa and wanted to know if their adult children were at risk. they were both determined to be carriers of pa. testing figure flow diagram of the carrier testing process. patient information and consent forms were reviewed by plain community elders as well as healthcare providers and midwives working with the plain community for readability and cultural competency. each kit contained: patient information sheet patient consent form provider information sheet blood spot test card addressed envelope to return card and consent kits were mailed to requesting healthcare providers, including: local physicians and nurses midwives public health nurses healthcare providers were informed about kit availability through: plain community meetings wisconsin guild of midwives patients needed to sign a consent form and send this in with their sample before testing would proceed. consent included: recurrence risk testing only for common mutation does not replace newborn screen testing is voluntary results letter was sent to both the patient (s) and the ordering provider. the provider was also sent the lab report. testing was done at no charge as a service through the wisconsin newborn screen lab. if positive, an in-person appointment was set up at the uw genetics clinic or the la farge medical clinic. testing kit patient consent patient information about condition and test provider information about condition and test patient consent results letter labreport nbs lab pat ien t providertest card test card tonbs lab to nbs lab volume | number | march | genetics in medicine carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in wisconsin’s plain population | kuhl et al education report was subsequently provided to all nine of their adult children. none were found to have pa caused by the common patho- genic variant, but four were found to be carriers. carrier test- ing was offered to their (future) spouses, and none of the tested spouses was found to be a carrier. because this testing looked only for these common patho- genic variants, negative results did not completely eliminate risk for the family or individual, but they did give a family and its health-care providers the ability to prepare for the possibility of an affected newborn. given the possibility of adult-onset pa in the amish population, variant analysis could also provide a diagnosis and allow initiation of treatment prior to the onset of symptoms. discussion targeted carrier screening for genetic disorders in specific pop- ulations is not new and has been successfully completed in other populations. as an example, screening for tay–sachs disease in the ashkenazi jewish population has been shown to be success- ful. using this example, various aspects need to be considered in developing a carrier screening project, including severity of the disease and availability of treatment, testing accuracy, cost- effectiveness, funding for testing and genetic counseling, defini- tion of the target population to be screened, development of a public/professional education program, informed consent for screening, and level of awareness in the community. the measure of success may vary depending on whether the disease is treatable. for the nontreatable tay–sachs disease, suc- cessful screening showed a dramatic decline in the incidence of the disease in the ashkenazi jewish population. for treatable metabolic diseases, however, preventing clinical presentation and need for hospitalization is a successful end point. this cur- rent approach of carrier screening and aggressive management of “at-risk” infants was initiated for infants at risk for msud at the clinic for special children in strasburg, pennsylvania. over years, at-risk neonates (identified by carrier testing or family history) were evaluated within  h and none required hospitalization. without this identification, other infants were identified; had clinical presentations of critical illness requiring hospitalization. because the common msud and pa pathogenic variants are site-specific in the plain population, the testing and its results are straightforward. molecular dna testing for both msud and pa was already offered by the wisconsin newborn screening program, and utilizing this existing service enabled economical testing. the needed outreach efforts in the plains population indicate the importance of education and counseling for any population- based testing program. – indeed, the educational component of this program was the key to its success. as part of a larger project funded by the wisconsin partnership program, sev- eral community meetings hosted by the plain population and attended by community elders, families, local physicians, and midwives were held and provided the opportunity to increase awareness of the disorders, the testing that was available, the benefits of newborn screening, and the treatability of many of these conditions. to encourage midwives to attend, training for the newborn screening process was provided. to establish trust and exemplify the benefit of this testing, panel discussions were held during the meeting and individuals with a family member who had either pa or msud spoke of their experience. communicating the testing information and results was a challenge because many plain communities do not use or have limited access to certain forms of communication (e.g., phones, e-mail). because of this limitation, information outside of meet- ings was communicated through health-care providers and word of mouth. it was unclear what background information the providers and community members had regarding genetic disorders. to overcome this challenge, we created provider and patient information sheets and sent the results letter to both the patients and the providers. we also provided a toll-free number for our clinic on the information sheets to help promote timely communication for those with phone access. although we did not diagnose any unsuspecting individu- als or unsuspecting at-risk couples, plans were in place to fol- low up in person with any patients with abnormal results, at the outreach clinic in la farge or the university of wisconsin clinics in madison. the testing greatly lowered the estimation of occurrence risk for the couples who underwent carrier test- ing (from as high as % to less than %) and promoted the importance of newborn screening to all who underwent this testing. there are limited survey data about the view of genetic test- ing among the amish and mennonites, and much of it is based on clinicians’ experience with the communities. a survey of amish, mennonites, and hutterites about genetic testing for cystic fibrosis showed that it is important to understand cul- tural differences as well as variability in the attitudes for test- ing. this fits with our current experience with the amish and mennonites in that this population is heterogeneous in its view of western medicine and the use of its services (unpublished data). for example, a survey performed through this wisconsin table results of testing over the course of year propionic acidemia msud molecular dna testing completed age in years (median age) – ( ) – ( ) known at-risk couplea b type of testing   carrier   diagnostic wild-type (no pathogenic variant) heterozygous (one pathogenic variant) homozygous (two pathogenic variants) c aat-risk couple is a couple with both partners who are at least heterozygous for the common pathogenic variant; therefore, risk for an affected offspring is at least %. bfamily identified as being at risk due to family history. cprior biochemical diagnosis as infant/young child and molecular dna testing to confirm diagnosis. msud, maple syrup urine disease. genetics in medicine | volume | number | march kuhl et al | carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in wisconsin’s plain populationeducation report partnership program found that more than % of the plain families surveyed felt that newborn screening was encour- aged or common within their community, whereas just under % were unsure about their community view about newborn screening or felt it was uncommon or (rarely) discouraged. this project illustrates the importance of developing relation- ships with health-care providers who work closely with plain population members, community elders, and the community members themselves. future plans include improving the general communication of results and testing information through continued educational and training efforts with local health-care providers and mid- wives, continuing to work with the plain population to improve our cultural competency in order to optimize the offerings of the current carrier and diagnostic testing, and expanding our test menu to include similar conditions that are common in this pop- ulation, specifically, glutaric acidemia type and galactosemia. supplementary material supplementary material is linked to the online version of the paper at http://www.nature.com/gim acknowledgments we thank catherine reiser, laura birkeland, and gretchen spicer, for reviewing the manuscript. this study was funded, in part, by a wisconsin partnership program opportunity grant. disclosure the authors declare no conflict of interest. the authors have full control of the primary data, which are available for review by the journal if requested. references . strauss ka, puffenberger eg. genetics, medicine, and the plain people. annu rev genomics hum genet ; : – . . hostetler, ja. the amish, rd edn. herald press: harrisburg, va, . . young center for anabaptist and pietist studies, elizabethtown college. amish population by state, . http://www .etown.edu/amishstudies/population _by_state.asp. accessed september . . puffenberger eg. genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet ; c: – . . saudubray j, van den berghe g, wlater jh (eds). inborn metabolic diseases diagnosis and treatment, th edn. springer: new york, . . omim (online mendelian inheritance in man). johns hopkins university center for medical genetics: baltimore, md, . http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/ omim/. . pena l, franks j, chapman ka, et al. natural history of propionic acidemia. mol genet metab ; : – . . lee tm, addonizio lj, barshop ba, chung wk. unusual presentation of propionic acidaemia as isolated cardiomyopathy. j inherit metab dis ; suppl :s – . . laemmle a, balmer c, doell c, sass jo, häberle j, baumgartner mr. propionic acidemia in a previously healthy adolescent with acute onset of dilated cardiomyopathy. eur j pediatr ; : – . . jameson e, walter j. cardiac arrest secondary to long qt(c) in a child with propionic acidemia. pediatr cardiol ; : – . . kakavand b, schroeder va, di sessa tg. coincidence of long qt syndrome and propionic acidemia. pediatr cardiol ; : – . . bhan ak, brody c. propionic acidemia: a rare cause of cardiomyopathy. congest heart fail ; : – . . lücke t, pérez-cerdá c, baumgartner m, et al. propionic acidemia: unusual course with late onset and fatal outcome. metabolism ; : – . . mardach r, verity ma, cederbaum sd. clinical, pathological, and biochemical studies in a patient with propionic acidemia and fatal cardiomyopathy. mol genet metab ; : – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, morton dh. maple syrup urine disease. january (updated may ). in: pagon ra, adam mp, ardinger hh, et al. (eds). genereviews. university of washington: seattle, wa. . love-gregory ld, dyer ja, grasela j, hillman re, phillips cl. carrier detection and rapid newborn diagnostic test for the common y n maple syrup urine disease allele by pcr-rflp: culturally permissible testing in the mennonite community. j inherit metab dis ; : – . . vallance h, ford j. carrier testing for autosomal-recessive disorders. crit rev clin lab sci ; : – . . kaplan f. tay-sachs disease carrier screening: a model for prevention of genetic disease. genet test ; : – . . morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, et al. pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet ; c: – . . falik-zaccai tc, kfir n, frenkel p, et al. population screening in a druze community: the challenge and the reward. genet med ; : – . . zlotogora j, carmi r, lev b, shalev sa. a targeted population carrier screening program for severe and frequent genetic diseases in israel. eur j hum genet ; : – . . kaback m, lopatequi j, portuges ar, et al. genetic screening in the persian jewish community: a pilot study. genet med ; : – . . miller sr, schwartz rh. attitudes toward genetic testing of amish, mennonite, and hutterite families with cystic fibrosis. am j public health ; : – . . sieren s, grow m, goodsmith m, et al. cross-sectional survey on newborn screening in wisconsin amish and mennonite communities. j community health ; : – . volume | number | march | genetics in medicine http://www.nature.com/gim http://www .etown.edu/amishstudies/population _by_state.asp http://www .etown.edu/amishstudies/population _by_state.asp http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/omim/ http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/omim/ 	development of carrier testing for common inborn errors of metabolism in the wisconsin plain population 	introduction 	materials and methods 	patients 	carrier testing kits 	outreach activities 	patient communication 	results 	distribution of kits 	carrier testing findings 	discussion 	disclosure 	acknowledgements 	references words on fire: the unfinished story of yiddish (review) words on fire: the unfinished story of yiddish (review) daniel j. gilman journal of american folklore, volume , number , winter , pp. - (review) published by american folklore society doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /jaf. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ detailed overview of north african folklore begins with the “ancient egyptian legacy” and continues up to recent decades, highlighting important books and current trends. research- ers looking for a variety of sources and accurate references will also appreciate the entries on education (“folklore in schools”) and libraries, as well as the appendices, especially the com- prehensive treatment of films related to folklore listed in the last pages. since we are dealing with african folklore, there are countless entries for oral traditions and heritage: “jokes and humor,” “oral nar- rative,” “oral performance and literature,” “performance in africa,” “proverbs,” and “ver- bal arts,” plus an original text, “gossip and rumor.” all of these, as well as the accurate entry on popular culture, insist that africa be viewed as a diverse continent, not a cultural monolith. the contributors to the encyclopedia are clearly aware of the developments and crises that have occurred during recent decades in africa, and some authors discuss the presence of folklore in new media and technologies (“electronic media and oral traditions,” “ra- dio and television dramas”). on a tragic note, one article refers to tales of genocide in rwanda. an exemplary effort, african folklore: an encyclopedia is the kind of book that one can read for hours, since each article invites the reader toward another, and so on. one of the work’s strongest points is its accurate portrayal of the current state of research on every topic discussed. readers and critics in the field would be unfair to ask for more entries or to try to indicate the missing elements in such a hefty reference book. perhaps its high price may keep younger scholars from buying it, but most uni- versity libraries should acquire a copy. my only complaint is that there are too many biblio- graphical references in english for an interna- tional encyclopedia; i would have liked to find even more french authors mentioned. this marvelous encyclopedia confirms once again routledge’s expertise as a publisher of fine, up- to-date, readable reference books. i recommend that any scholar in ethnology or african studies be aware of and use this fine work. words on fire: the unfinished story of yid- dish. by dovid katz. (new york: basic books, . pp. xvi + , acknowledgments, notes on transcription, introduction, photographs and illustrations, index.) daniel j. gilman university of texas–austin dovid katz’s words on fire thoroughly lays out the history (and prehistory) of the yiddish lan- guage. starting with earliest antecedents of yid- dish in pre-biblical aramaic and canaanite, the book examines its birth in medieval germany, its development throughout the european con- tinent, the literary flowering of the language during its nineteenth-century “secular outburst,” and its most recent innovations in grammar and internet content. as much a history of the ash- kenazi diaspora as (in his phrase) a “linguogra- phy” (p. ), words on fire is a richly informed, well written, and critically engaged work. in his historiography, katz pays a good deal of attention to the cultural baggage that the language eventually accumulated, in particular the rise of various gendered understandings of yiddish’s place in the world of jewish europe. in one form or another, yiddish speakers have for centuries figured their native language as feminine or feminized. rabbinical judaism dis- couraged women from studying sacred texts, leaving educated women only yiddish writings to enjoy. as ashkenazi culture established itself, the social divide between educated men who mastered the hebrew of the bible and the ara- maic of the talmud (the “real men” of tradi- tional jewish culture) and uneducated men who generally could read only yiddish fo- mented an additional derogatory association with yiddish as the province of the unpresti- gious (and to a degree, unmanly) majority of the population. as katz demonstrates, the dis- missal and derogation of yiddish as an effemi- nate language persists up to the present day in some quarters—this, despite yiddish modern- ists who revalued their literary medium as a constant lover and hasidic sects that declared its sanctity as the proper language for the diasporic faithful. yiddish presents a fascinat- ing case study of the intersections of language book reviews journal of american folklore ( ) ideology and gender politics, especially in its relationship to the classical jewish languages and the majority tongues that surrounded and overlapped its territory. although katz painstakingly charts the his- tory of speakers of yiddish and provides an excel- lent framework for understanding how the lan- guage emerged and grew, he is rather parsimonious with the details of how the lan- guage itself changed over time and distance. he delves into this subject most deeply in the chap- ter “genesis,” in which he shows not only how historical analysis of word variants and grammar allows for a rough estimate of the place and time of the language’s origin but also how newly ar- rived jewish immigrants from southern europe and the near east to germany acclimated to the environment, playfully assigning biblical names to the european territories in which they found themselves. (ashkenaz, the name given to ger- many and later to all of yiddishland, comes from the book of jeremiah.) then again, katz is clearly concerned primarily with elucidating the social contexts of yiddish rather than linguistic nuts and bolts. as a professional linguist, katz has covered the technical details of yiddish in depth in many previous publications. the final chapter of the book addresses the most controversial aspect of yiddish: its future. katz treats this topic with admirable clarity and honesty, and he states unapologetically what yid- dish enthusiasts consider, to put it gently, to be a bitter pill to swallow: the linguistic and demo- graphic evidence suggests that, outside of aca- demia, the world of secular yiddish is doomed to die a natural death, albeit one tragically has- tened by the holocaust and stalin’s purges. the future of yiddish lies with the hasidic sects for whom the language has always been their native tongue and an important literary vehicle. katz makes the claim that yiddish as a living language cannot exist without its speakers maintaining intimate contact with the world of traditional jewish scholarship and its associated classical languages—what he summarizes as the “trilin- gualism of old ashkenaz” (p. ) —as well as retaining a privileged place in the home and in daily life. as he observes, even the most radical leftist yiddish writers were steeped in traditional learning before breaking with religion. without the classical teaching, katz argues, too many of the nuanced expressions of hebrew or aramaic derivation lose their psychosocial significance and disappear from the lexicon. likewise, with- out pride of place in ordinary communication, yiddish will gradually cede ground to the host languages that surround it in every community. in short, yiddish cannot long survive outside of a jewish community that largely keeps to itself and uses yiddish in at least some aspects of daily life. katz therefore ends with a call for linguists to focus seriously upon the living language of the hasidim, even as masters of secular yiddish literature offer a few last pearls of their craft for us to appreciate. mennofolk: mennonite and amish folk tra- ditions. by ervin beck. (scottsdale, ny: herald press, . pp. , foreword, preface, pho- tographs and illustrations, notes, suggested readings, credits.) alan l. chan lutheran theological seminary, hong kong the forty-sixth addition to the studies in ana- baptist and mennonite history book series published by herald press, ervin beck’s men- nofolk: mennonite and amish folk traditions demonstrates that mennonites and amish con- stitute a religious faith with folk traditions that can be traced to the anabaptists in europe in the sixteenth century. the nine chapters cover diverse traditional genres such as ethnic slurs, origin tales and beliefs, trickster tales, urban legends, protest songs, material culture, and festival. the author was an english professor at goshen college from to and is con- sidered to be an insider of the mennonite and amish culture. beck’s purpose for writing this book is to make both mennonites and interested non- mennonites more aware of the group’s cultural traditions. these traditions have been learned by word of mouth or customary example and have been transmitted to succeeding generations of mennonites. they involve both long-estab- lished materials and creative variants, and they express feelings, ideas, and values that are im- paraguay-hoyer( - ) the chaco of paraguay, occupying two thirds of the ter- ritory of the republic of paraguay, is a region with an extreme subtropical climate, a lack of a modern infra- structure and scarce potable water resources. an on- going bilateral co-operation project between germany and paraguay has the objective to improving the water supply conditions in the area. this aim is achieved through parallel project activities: (a) investigation of groundwater conditions jointly with the dirección de recursos hídricos, at the same time strengthening the operational capacity of this institution. (b) development of methods for sustained utilisation of the scarce fresh water resources and for the protection of groundwater against contamination. (c) construction of water supply systems applying a simple technology for rural settle- ments of the native indian population and the campesinos. introduction the chaco ( km ) occupies approximately two thirds of the territory of the republic of paraguay, but only percent of the pop- ulation live in this region (figure ). the extreme subtropical cli- mate, the lack of a modern infrastructure and above all the scarcity of potable water have so far prevented a large scale colonisation of the area. at present the country experiences a high population growth, which the traditional settlement areas in the east of the rio paraguay cannot support. the development and colonisation of the chaco is therefore the declared objective of the government of paraguay. given the fragility of the ecosystem of the chaco much effort has been made to achieving a sustainable development of the area. the limited availability of drinking water is a principal con- straint for the establishment of settlements and for cattle ranching industry. the governments of germany and paragua, under a bilat- eral agreement of co-operation, initiated a project in with the objective to improving the accessibility of good quality drinking water in urban and rural areas of the chaco. to achieve its goals, the project has pursued the philosophy of working at the local level with local institutions, and in direct contact with water consumers. the project is carried out by the federal institute for geo- sciences and natural resources (bgr), the german partner, and the dirección de recursos hídricos (drh), residing in filadelfia in the central chaco, the paraguayan institution in charge of water resources development in the chaco. it is directed at three target groups with differing objectives: (a) dirección de recursos hídri- cos: training of technical and scientific personnel, introduction of modern methods for the exploration and development of groundwa- ter resources combined with the installation of the necessary techni- cal equipment; (b) the population of the urban centres: development of methods for improved underground storage of fresh groundwater, and protection of fresh groundwater resources against contamina- tion; (c) the population of the rural areas i.e. campesinos, indigenous indians: construction of water supply systems with the participation of the village communities. strengthening of the local water development institution project activities centre on the dirección de recursos hídricos (drh). due to the lack of large surface water bodies, groundwater is of great importance for the water supply. much investigative work was done by the drh in the s and s with the support of the undp, but knowledge of the hydrogeological conditions has still been fragmentary. the project therefore combines the investigation of groundwater resources with the training of personnel. starting with university leavers, the german experts introduce young geolo- gists to the practical hydrogeological work, whilst the theoretical base knowledge of hydrogeology is acquired in university master's study programmes after completion of all field work. important for the long term working capability of the drh is the fact that all trained personnel retain permanent posts with the drh, thus the episodes, vol. , no. by michael von hoyer and eugenio godoy v. methods for the improvement of the water supply in the chaco of paraguay federal institute for geosciences and natural resources (bgr), p. o box , hannover, germany. figure locaton of the chaco in paraguay. acquired knowledge remains and can be reproduced within the region of the chaco. to enable the drh to perform standard hydrogeological inves- tigations in the chaco, the project has purchased drilling equipment and hydrogeological field instruments, equipped a water quality lab- oratory and installed computer hardware and software. the drh not only carries out exploration work with drilling rigs; it constructs water wells for farms and settlements, thus generating an income that is reinvested in the maintenance of the equipment and offices and allows a certain degree of independence from the budget of the central government. the water quality laboratory, the only one in western paraguay, is often consulted by farmers and town engineers. the project has succeeded in establishing the drh as an institution that offers services to the region. in turn, it receives the political sup- port of the local and provincial authorities which is indispensable for its future existence. investigation of the groundwater resources the main objective of the hydrogeological investigations carried out by the project is to improve the knowledge of groundwater condi- tions in the central part of the chaco, where three mennonite colonies have led to a population concentration (figure ). a brief overview explains the hydrological conditions in the area which govern the availability of drinking water. the annual mean precipitation is between and mm. in individual years up to , mm have been recorded. most of the rain falls during the months from november to march, when tem- peratures and plant growth are at their peak, and hence evapotran- spiration is at its highest, so that a major portion of the rainwater is directly evaporated. to develop storage of rainwater for the annual long dry period is the essential task, if an uninterrupted water supply is to be guaranteed. three methods are in use and their technology has been further developed by the project. (a) rainwater harvesting: rainwater is being collected from house roofs and drained into underground cisterns from where it is pumped into a raised water tank. water then is piped into the house. a cistern capacity of , litres per person is recommended (keller, ). provided drain pipes and cisterns are kept clean a good quality water supply is obtained. of course, this water collec- tion system requires a fairly large and rigid roof area plus electricity for the water lifting pump. therefore, it can only be operated at town or farm houses. the poor population of the rural settlements living in grass or wood shingle covered huts cannot use this technology. (b) water wells: in the area between the towns of mariscal esti- garribia in the west and loma plata in the east, groundwater occurs at shallow depths ( to m below ground surface) in fine-grained sands. it is generally saline with the exception of a few specific local- ities where fresh groundwater lenses are encountered. the ground- water is recharged by the annual rains (echeverria, , godoy, ). the project has developed methods for the detection of such fresh water lenses. these include field surveys of soils, vegetation and drainage (von hoyer & godoy, ), combined with the inter- pretation of air photos and satellite images and hand-drilled investi- gation holes (mollat & larozza, ). the lenses are generally small and thus sufficient only for the supply of homesteads and small settlements. over-pumping leads to the intrusion of the surrounding saline water. the natural process of rainwater infiltration in a morphological depression underlain by sands with the subsequent formation of a fresh water lens, floating on the surrounding saline groundwater, can be reproduced artificially. in a morphological depression, which receives the surface runoff of a larger catchment area, an open air reservoir, a so-called tajamar, is excavated by earth-moving equip- ment. the dimensions of the reservoir are determined by the lateral extent of the sandy formation, the depth to the groundwater table and the slope stability of the reservoir walls. storage volumes normally are in the range of , to , m . in urban areas the runoff from a network of street ditches may be channelled into the taja- mares. in the towns of filadelfia, loma plata and neu-halbstadt a system of several infiltration tajamares with production wells supply the commercial centre, small industrial plants, schools, hospitals and hotels. the project studied the artificial recharge process in model cases and defined the parameters which determine the size of the fresh water body underneath a tajamar as well as the quantity of extractable fresh water (junker, ). (c) surface water storage: the extensive areas of the central chaco are covered by loams and sandy clays and the technique of artificial infiltration of rainwater cannot be practised. these are also the areas where only saline groundwater is encountered. here taja- mares are excavated in the low permeable formation and surface water is stored during dry months. this method of water supply is the least favourable: firstly, because of the high water loss due to evaporation ( , mm per year), and secondly, because of the poor water quality. the tajamar water carries a high content of clay and silt in suspension, together with a multitude of micro-organisms, many harmful to man. intestinal infectious diseases are abundant. this observation is also true for the water found in lagoons and water holes. most of the indigenous indian population and the poor campesinos living in remote areas rely however exclusively on such unhygienic water resources. direct measures of providing drinking water for the poor rural population in the chaco in view of the inadequate water supply of the rural population in the chaco the project embarked on the construction of water supply sys- tems in small settlements in . depending on the local water resources conditions, one or a combination of the above described water supply techniques was implemented. from the onset the project pursued the aim that the water sup- ply systems that were to be constructed should be operated and maintained by the village communities. consequently the technol- ogy used had to be simple and adapted to the local supply conditions and the communities had to be involved from the planning stage right through to the construction. the baseline adopted for the sup- ply standards was: a guaranteed year-round water supply if possible from groundwater and water points in form of cisterns with hand pumps at a maximum distance of m from each household. the project reacts to applications from village communities, and the application has to state the input of the community. in the majority of cases the contribution is labour. in the planning phase the village community has to form a water committee which identifies the water needs and at the same time names the persons responsible for the organisation and execution of work. the project staff and the water committee plan the supply network and water points. often this has to be repeated until the final layout is agreed upon. during the construction phase the project supplies the building material and necessary tools free of cost. the building material is delivered not in bulk, but as work progresses, in order to avoid waste and to call in the work contribution from the villagers. the project staff teach the workers various mechanical skills needed and make sure that the work is carried out as planned. running the water project in this manner means of course that the community dictates the speed of the work; it guarantees however that the village people carry the project all the way. this is essential for future operation and maintenance of the installations. technically modified wind pumps are used to lift water from wells and tajamares and pump the water into the mains under low pressure. they yield between , and , liters of water on a windy day, depending on the type of pump construction and the length of pipeline. flexible pvc-water pipe mm in diameter car- march ries the water to underground cisterns, where the flow is regulated by float and valve. from here the water is lifted by hand pumps. the cis- terns have a storage capacity between , and , litres and serve as reservoirs, when there is no wind. where muddy tajamar water is the only supply, slow-flow-gravity sand filters, built next to the cisterns, achieve a part reduction of the silt load and germs and improve the taste of the water. from until the project constructed water supply sys- tems in villages with a total of approximately , inhabitants. construction costs, not counting the labour input of the village com- munity, were between us$ , (well water supply) and us$ , (tajamar water supply) for a typical village of houses with inhabitants. technical staff of the drh have been trained to carry out main- tenance services that require the facilities of a mechanical work shop. thus the village people can call on these services when major repairs become necessary. to secure the financial means for the maintenance work, agreements have been signed by the provincial administrations in the chaco and the drh, according to which the provinces remunerate the drh for work performed in the communi- ties. conclusions the joint german-paraguayan project, in the underdeveloped chaco region, is an example for the direct application of scientific knowl- edge for the improvement of living conditions in very poor rural set- tlements. an all-year-round supply of good quality drinking water is the prerequisite for an improvement of the health status of the native indian population and the paraguayan settlers (campesinos). despite a fairly high annual rainfall, water supply conditions are however unfavourable due to high evaporation losses, the lack of perennial rivers and lakes and the high salinity of the shallow groundwater. the results of hydrogeological investigations are used to detect existing small fresh groundwater lenses and develop these resources for the village water supply. local, well-established, simple technol- ogy is employed for the construction of the supply systems and the pumping of the water. the practical involvement of the village com- munities in the planning and construction of the water supply is essential to the long-term operation and maintenance of the installa- tions. references echeverria, s. et al. ( ), calidad química de las aguas subterr·neas del chaco paraguayo para consumo humano, agrícola y ganadero. - rec. nat., geol. hídrol., agua subt. chaco parag.: publ. dpto. abast. agua para el chaco, s. - , abb, taf.; drh, filadelfia, paraguay. godoy, e.v. ( ), caracteristicas hidrogeológicas e hídroquímicas de la region oeste del chaco paraguayo: dpto. abast. agua para el chaco, s., abb., taf.; drh, filadelfia, paraguay. junker, m. ( ), determinación de las caracterÌsticas hidrogeológicas y evaluación de la recarga de agua subterránea en el ·rea del tajamar serenidad, filadelfia: info. téc. no. , coop. hidrol. parag. - alem., s, abb., taf.; bgr/drh, filadelfia, paraguay. keller, s. ( ), posibilidades de desarollo del chaco paraguayo por el con- trol del consumo del agua subterránea y el aprovechamiento de las precipitaciones: info. téc. no. , coop. hidrol. parag. - alem., s., abb.; bgr/drh, filadelfia, paraguay. mollat, h. & larroza, f. ( ), los sensores remotos aplicados a la busqueda de agua subterránea somera en el chaco central paraguayo: info. téc. no. , coop. hidrol. parag. - alem., s., abb., taf.; bgr/drh, filadelfia, paraguay. von hoyer, m. & godoy, e.v. ( ), metodos para la localización de lentes de agua dulce en el chaco central - paraguay: mem. xii congr. geol. de bolivia, tom. i, s. - ; soc. geol. bol.,tarija. eugenio godoy v. received his master's degree in hydrogeology in from the university of pernambuco, brazil. born in the remote chaco of paraguay he spent all his professional life in the investiga- tion of the groundwater resources of this region, with the aim of improving the water supply and living conditions of the chaqueños. in he became the director of the dirección de recursos hídri- cos, the central institution for water resources research and devel- opment in the chaco and his great vision and professional talent transformed it into a capable groundwater investigation agency. professionally known beyond paraguay, he was co-author of the hydrogeological map of south america ( ). his tragic death in was a great loss to his colleagues and paraguay. episodes, vol. , no. michael von hoyer studied geology and hydrogeology at the university of tübingen, germany. from to , he worked as a hydrogeolo- gist in south africa and the middle east in the field of groundwater exploration and development. he joined the bgr in and has been the leader of groundwater pro- jects in the semiarid and arid zones of africa and south america. his interests are directed towards the study of natural and artificial groundwater recharge, groundwa- ter protection and water legislation. ontario baptists and the war of copyright © the ontario historical society, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : ontario history ontario baptists and the war of gordon l. heath volume , numéro , fall uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) the ontario historical society issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article heath, g. l. ( ). ontario baptists and the war of . ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article cet article examine à la fois l’impact de la guerre de sur les églises baptistes de l’ontario et la réaction des baptistes à la guerre. la guerre a eu un effet dévastateur sur les églises du haut-canada en général, et celles des baptistes ont souffert comme les autres. tous les baptistes ont été coupés de leurs coreligionnaires, amis, et appuis américains. ceux du haut-canada ont souffert davantage par l’ignominie de pasteurs déloyaux et la fermeture d’églises. les baptistes haut-canadiens ne semblent pas avoir purgé leurs rangs d’américains comme l’ont fait peut-être les méthodistes. sans doute leur besoin désespéré d’aide américaine explique en bonne partie le fait qu’ils ont rapidement accepté le retour de missionnaires américains. une fois la guerre finie, les églises ont vite rétabli leurs relations avec leurs consoeurs aux États-unis et ont repris leur travail évangélique. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/onhistory/ the oswego canal pennsylvania-born michael smith ( -c. ) moved with his family to upper canada in where he taught school at �ia- gara (now �iagara-on-the-lake) and engaged in itinerant baptist preaching. shortly after the out- break of war, he and his family fled back to the united states be- cause he refused to take the oath of allegiance as demanded by the government. he made it clear to his readers why he fled: “and fur- ther i will remark, that i am a firm friend of my native country, the united states; in consideration of which, i left the province of up- per canada, where i was settled with my family, and all the prop- erty i had in the world, rather than fight against my countrymen.” unlike smith, american-born joseph winn, pastor of ontario baptists and the war of by gordon l. heath abstract this paper examines both the impact of the war of on the baptist churches in ontario, as well as on the response of baptists to the war. to be sure, the war had wrought devasta- tion upon upper canadian churches, and baptist churches were no exception in this regard. all baptists were isolated from their american colleagues, friends, and support. upper canadian baptists had suffered even more through the ig- nominy of disloyal pastors, and the closure of churches. there may have been a purging of americans from the methodists of upper canada, but there does not seem to be the same happening among the baptists. no doubt the desperate need among upper canadian baptists for american help was a factor in this willingness to have american missionaries re- turn. the most passionate loyalty expressed in the evidence that remains was a cross-border ecumenism that speaks to the power of the evangelical impulse. once the war ended, the churches could quickly reopen relations and get back to the work of the church. résumé: cet article examine à la fois l’impact de la guerre de sur les églises baptistes de l’ontario et la réaction des baptistes à la guerre. la guerre a eu un effet dévasta- teur sur les églises du haut-canada en général, et celles des baptistes ont souffert comme les autres. tous les baptistes ont été coupés de leurs coreligionnaires, amis, et appuis améric- ains. ceux du haut-canada ont souffert davantage par l’ignominie de pasteurs déloyaux et la fermeture d’églises. les baptistes haut-canadiens ne semblent pas avoir purgé leurs rangs d’américains comme l’ont fait peut-être les mé- thodistes. sans doute leur besoin désespéré d’aide américaine explique en bonne partie le fait qu’ils ont rapidement accepté le retour de missionnaires américains. une fois la guerre finie, les églises ont vite rétabli leurs relations avec leurs con- soeurs aux États-unis et ont repris leur travail évangélique. thanks to ray hobbs for the shar- ing of his expertise on this subject, and for providing some much-needed tips on where to find sources. thanks to bill sumners at the southern baptist histori- cal library and archives for sending me copies of association minutes, as well as for the granting of the lynn e. may, jr., study grant that allowed me to travel to the southern baptist historical library and archives. appreciation is also extend- ed to �ick caric and melissa richer for identifying the ontario baptist records at the canadian baptist archives, mcmaster divinity college. michael smith, a geographical view of the province of upper canada and the promiscuous remarks on the govern- ment in two parts, with an appendix: ontario history / volume ciii, �o. / autumn ontario history the baptist church in ameliasburg (later referred to as murray baptist church), remained in the province and even assist- ed the government by using his team to carry supplies for the troops. when the war ended, ontario baptists immediately asked american churches for missionar- ies and financial support, and that assist- ance arrived within months and contin- ued for decades. these disparate reactions provide concrete examples of the impact of the war on a small struggling evangelical de- nomination, as well a glimpse of the range of political loyalties that existed within upper canadian baptist churches. they also illustrate the central argument of this article: the war did not entirely eclipse evangelicalism’s cross-border relation- ships, nor did evangelicalism completely erase national identities. john moir has noted that “regional- ism seems to be the most important factor in determining the degree of american influences, both positive and negative, on canadian protestantism.” this re- search supports this claim, for there were very different experiences of the war in the maritimes and upper canada. this study of ontario baptists and the war does, however, challenge some assump- tions about post-war anti-americanism and nascent canadian nationalism. there was no quick movement to purge their churches of american influences, few, if any, displays of “canadian” identity, and good reasons for upper canadian au- thorities to be concerned about baptists and their allegiance to the crown. it also challenges some assumptions about the strength of cross-border evan- gelicalism. historians of christianity have begun to note the importance of the imperial and british connection to denominations in early nineteenth-cen- containing a complete description of the niagara falls and remarks relative to the situation of the inhabit- ants respecting the war, and a concise history of its progress to the present date (trenton: william and david robinson, ), . john moir, “american influences on canadian protestant churches before confederation,” church history : ( ), . for maritime baptists and the war, see gordon l. heath, “‘the great association above:’ mari- time baptists and the war of ,” (under consideration). ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of tury british �orth america. rather than placing the denominations on a trajec- tory towards independence from britain (and becoming more “canadian”), they have correctly noted that the imperial connection and identity often remained (though frequently contested or as im- agined constructions) and provided an ideological framework for their relation- ships with one another and their role in canada and the world. this imperial and british connection is important to note, for it provided a crucial ideological back- drop for the churches’ support for late- victorian conflicts. but what also needs to be noted is the radical evangelicalism of baptists in the earliest decades of the nineteenth century and how it provided an ideological framework for baptist identity and relationships. while a number of prominent upper canadians had ideological, social, and eco- nomic ties that “spanned the border” and which encouraged and sustained cross-bor- der relations, radical evangelicalism was a vibrant ideology that encouraged and sus- tained cross-border contacts among bap- tist communities. radical evangelicalism was, as george rawlyk argues, “the heart of canadian evangelicalism.” evangelical services were informal and often emotion- al. itinerant ministry was commonplace, with numerous individuals on the road preaching revival and seeking converts. it was a culture whereby rank and deference to authority was giving way to ideals of individual self-expression, social equality, and democratic consent. this emotional and revolutionary evangelical religion of the baptists and methodists flourished in the frontier situation, for as dan goodwin notes, it was adaptive, provided comfort for those in hardship, and required mini- mum requirements for leaders. regenera- �ancy christie, “introduction: theorizing a colonial past: canada as a society of british settle- ment,” in transatlantic subjects: ideas, institutions, and social experience in post-revolutionary british north america, edited by �ancy christie (montreal/kingston/london/ithaca: mcgill-queen’s univer- sity press, ), - ; todd webb, “how the canadian methodists became british: unity, schism, and transatlantic identity, - ,” in transatlantic subjects, - ; michael gauvreau, “the dividends of empire: church establishments and contested identities in the canadas and the maritimes, - ,” in transatlantic subjects, - ; todd webb, “making �eo-britons: the transatlantic relationship between wesleyan methodists in britain and the canadas, - ,” british journal of canadian stud- ies , ( ), - ; denis mckim, “‘righteousness exalteth a �ation’: providence, empire, and the forging of the early canadian presbyterian identity,” csch papers , - . gordon l. heath, a war with a silver lining : canadian protestant churches and the south african war, - (montreal/kingston/london/ithaca: mcgill-queen’s university press, ). jane errington, the lion, the eagle and upper canada: a developing colonial identity (montreal/ buffalo: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), . george a. rawlyk, the canada fire: radical evangelicalism in british north america, - (montreal/kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), xv. daniel goodwin, into deep waters: evangelical spirituality and maritime calvinistic baptist minis- ters, - (montreal/kingston/london/ithaca: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), ff. �ancy christie, “in these times of democratic rage and delusion,” in the canadian protestant experience, edited by george rawlyk (burlington: welch, ), . goodwin, into deep waters, . ontario history tion, as rawlyk notes, “was the pivotal and quintessential christian experience,” and itinerant baptist preachers or methodist circuit riders sought to make converts at every stop. this radical evangelicalism was so extreme that it “was able to cut itself free from largely secular concerns and preoccu- pation.” what the experience of ontario baptists indicates is that the cross-border evangelical impulse was strong enough to allow for rapid reintegration of american missionaries with the churches as soon as the war ended. however, evangelicalism did not completely eradicate national iden- tities, for during the war a number of bap- tist leaders revealed their pro-american loyalties and fled to the states and, in one instance, one was arrested for sedition. william gribbin’s study is the au- thoritative work on the subject of the american churches and the war. he notes how the war exacerbated tensions in the states that already existed between the various denominations, and was both a challenge and an opportunity to the various churches. he also makes it clear that there was no religious uniform- ity; in general, baptists (especially in the southern states) and methodists were supportive of the war effort, whereas �ew england congregationalism was “the heart of religious opposition to the war.” �umerous other studies have also been made on the american churches and the war. however, how canadian churches responded to the war has been a neglected subject. one can find refer- ences to particular denominations and the war imbedded in various books and articles, but there is very limited research specifically on the war and the churches. ray hobbs’ research on upper canadian churches and the war has been presented in various contexts, but his conclusions have so far remained unpublished. james robertson’s “band of brothers” looks at methodists in upper canada and some of their cross-border troubles, peter rawlyk, the canada fire, xvi. ibid. william gribbin, the churches militant: the war of and american religion (�ew haven/ london: yale university press, ). ibid., . ralph beebe, “the war of ,” in the wars of america: christian views, edited by ronald a. wells (grand rapids: eerdmans, ), - ; william gribbin, “covenant transformed: the jeremiad tradition and the war of ,” church history (september ), - ; william gribbin, “war of and american presbyterianism: religion and politics during the second war with britain,” jour- nal of presbyterian history (december ), - ; william gribbin, “american episcopacy and the war of ,” historical magazine of the protestant episcopal church (march ), - ; j. earl thompson, “an ‘unnecessary, unjust, and inexpedient’ war: congregational clerg y dissent against the war of ,” andover newton quarterly (september ), - ; lawrence s. kaplan, “a �ew englander defends the war of : senator varnum to judge thacher,” mid-america (october ), - . see ray hobbs, “religion and the war of in upper canada – part one: british military chaplains,” unpublished paper. interviews with hobbs revealed a number of important insights, especially about baptists serving in the militia. james tyler robertson, “band of brothers: connection and tension within upper-canadian ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of brock explores the dilemma mennonite, tunker and quaker settlers faced when pressured by the government in upper canada to support the war effort, and gordon heath’s “the great association above” examines maritime baptists and their cross-border relations with ameri- can baptists. but much more is needed in order for a clearer picture to emerge of what occurred in upper canadian reli- gion during the war years. the primary sources available for a study of ontario baptists and the war of are limited. there were no denomi- national newspapers published in british �orth america at that time, no larger- than-life political figure in ontario bap- tist circles like church of england cler- g yman john strachan (whose personal papers and public statements provide am- ple opportunity for analysis), no printed sermons, and limited commentary on the war in what has survived. �evertheless, there are sources that do provide helpful glimpses of the condition and convic- tions of baptists during the war. local church minutes and association records (both from ontario and the united states) provide important details. oth- er records that have been consulted are court documents in the upper canada sundries relating to elijah bentley (bap- tist pastor), the funeral sermon of elder elkanah holmes (baptist pastor), pub- lications of michael smith (baptist lay preacher and educator), and material in various postwar publications. baptists in upper canada baptists separated from the church of england in early-seventeenth-cen- tury england in part due to their belief methodism during the war of ,” csch papers (forthcoming ). robertson is working on a phd dissertation that will explore canadian churches and the war of , but that is a few years away from completion. peter brock, “accounting for difference: the problem of pacifism in early upper canada,” ontario history : (spring ), - . heath, “‘the great association above.” the first canadian baptist publication in british �orth america was the baptist missionary maga- zine of nova scotia and new brunswick in . for a brief summary of the development of the religious press in canada, see gordon l. heath, “‘forming sound public opinion:’ the late victorian canadian protestant press and �ation-building,” journal of the canadian church historical society xlviii ( ), - . upper canadian church records are located at the canadian baptist archives, mcmaster divinity college, hamilton, ontario. american association material can be located at the southern baptist his- torical library and archives, �ashville, tennessee. depositions from his trial are located at the �ational archives, ottawa (upper canada sundries, microfilm #c- ). william parkinson, the funeral sermon of elder elkanah holmes (�ew york: g.f. bunce, ). smith, a geographical view of the province of upper canada; michael smith, a narrative of the sufferings in upper canada, with his family, in the late war, and journey through virginia and kentucky, of m. smith, minister of the gospel (lexington, ). marilla marks, memoirs of the life of david marks, minister of the gospel (dover, �h: freewill baptist printing establishment, ); i.d. stewart, the history of the freewill baptists, for half a century with and introductory chapter, volume one (dover, �h: freewill baptist printing establishment, ); ontario history in baptizing adults who believed, rather than baptizing infants who could not. they also rejected the church of england hierarchy and emphasized a local church government that worked with other bap- tist churches through “associations.” they were not inherently pacifists like mennonites or quakers, nor did they have qualms about political allegiances. the ending of the american revo- lutionary war in brought about a remarkable change in the religious com- position of the british territory, for dur- ing and after the war over , loyalists headed north to british-held territory (both the maritimes and upper and low- er canada). within the mix of loyalists who arrived in the frontier land of upper and lower canada were anglicans, pres- byterians, methodists, lutherans, men- nonites, and quakers, but few baptists. after the flood of loyalists came ameri- can settlers to ontario lured by the offers of land rather than by any commitment to the crown. by there were , settlers in upper canada (approximate- ly eighty percent american born), and , settlers in lower canada (with less than ten percent american born). the religious diversity of upper canada, as curtis fahey notes, “mocked the lofty notions [the church of england] had of its status.” a summary of ordained clerg y in indicates that there were ordained ministers in upper canada: were methodist, presbyterian or re- formed, church of england, baptist, roman catholic, mennonite, and lutheran. these figures do not indicate the number of itinerant baptists and oth- er missionaries who travelled throughout the province. john peck and john lawton, an historical sketch of the baptist missionary convention of the state of new york; embracing a narrative of the origin and progress of the baptist denomination in central and western new york (utica: bennett and bright, ); john howson, sketches of upper canada, domestic, local, and characteristic: to which are added, practical details for the information of emigrants of every class; and some recollections of the united states of america (edinburgh: oliver and boyd, ); f.a. cox and j. hoby, the baptists in america: a narrative of the disputation from the baptist union in england to the united states and canada (�ew york: leavitt, lord and company, ); and various issues of the canadian baptist magazine and missionary register. baptists rejected any outside authority over the local church (such as a bishop), and ran their churches on a “congregational model” of church governance that left all decisions in the hands of each lo- cal church. an “association” was the name given to a group of baptist churches in geographical proximity that chose to associate with one another and work together on common projects. a group of associations often formed a convention or denomination. a baptist church does not have to join an association, but most did (and still do). although they were one of the first protestant groups to advocate for religious freedom—mean- ing that all denominations should be free to worship as they saw fit without government (or established church) coercion. christie, “in these times of democratic rage and delusion,” . curtis fahey, in his name: the anglican experience in upper canada, - (ottawa : carle- ton university press, ), . john webster grant, a profusion of spires: religion in nineteenth-century ontario (toronto/buf- ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of baptist work in both upper and lower canada was primarily the result of american missionaries. john web- ster grant notes that the shaftesbury association of vermont was the “vir- tual founder of the… denomination in the province,” but other american baptist associations and missionary so- cieties sent missionaries northwards as well. these american links were criti- cal, for, as albert �ewman writes, with- out the aid of american missionaries “it is doubtful… the few scattered bap- tists among the loyalist settlers would have succeeded in organizing churches and keeping their baptist faith alive.” the first baptist church in lower can- ada was founded at caldwell’s manor ( ), and the first in upper canada at hallowell ( ) in the bay of quinte area. thurlow ( / ) and beamsville/ clinton ( ) followed. by there were eight baptist churches in the two canadas. the thurlow association of three small churches was founded on the north shore of lake ontario in , and four churches in lower can- ada joined the richmond baptist asso- ciation, vermont ( - ). michael smith noted in that in upper can- ada methodists were the most numerous denomination, and that there were baptist churches with , members and preachers. the clustering of baptist churches in the �iagara region, western ontario, and the north shore of lake ontario between york and the bay of quinte (as well as in the eastern townships) meant the baptists were to experience the american invasions and hardships of war firsthand. i. impact of the war on june the united states declared war on great britain, a war that continued to the signing of the treaty of ghent on december . one region severely affected by the war falo/ london: university of toronto press, ), - . grant goes on to note that a significant percent- age of these clerg y were of american origin. grant, a profusion of spires, . the six associations were the shaftesbury baptist association of vermont, �ew york, and massa- chusetts, massachusetts baptist missionary society, lake baptist missionary society (renamed hamilton baptist missionary society, which later merged with the baptist missionary convention of the state of �ew york), �ew york baptist missionary society, and the black river baptist association. see ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada before , - . anderson also notes the important role that american mission societies and associations played in the arrival of baptists in upper and lower canada. see elmer g. anderson, “the work of american baptist missionaries in upper canada to ,” b.d. thesis, mcmaster university, . see also davis woolley, baptist advance: the achievements of the baptists of north america for a century and a half (�ashville: broadman press, ), . albert h. �ewman, “sketch of the baptists of ontario and quebec to ,” bcoq yearbook ( ), . cramahe-haldimand, hallowell, and thurlow. smith, a geographical view of the province of upper canada, - . battles continued after this date, for it took months for all of the combatants to receive notice of the cessation of hostilities. ontario history was upper canada. one visitor travel- ling from �iagara to detroit in was astounded by the damage: i was most sensibly struck with the devasta- tion which had been made by the late war, [farms] formerly in high cultivation, now laid waste; houses entirely evacuated and forsaken; provisions of all kinds very scarce; and, where peace and plenty abounded, poverty and destruction now stalked over the land. the �iagara peninsula was devastated due to the number of battles and de- struction caused by troop movements. it should come as no surprise, then, to note that the churches in upper canada were the most impacted by the war. as moir notes: the churches…suffered as armies marched and counter-marched through the coun- tryside and bands of raiders burned towns and farmsteads. the brunt of the damage fell on the �iagara peninsula where church buildings were requisitioned as barracks by the opposing forces and one church, st. an- drew’s presbyterian at �iagara-on-the-lake, was fired by retreating americans in and its minister taken prisoner. semple, landon, and robertson claim that the war dramatically upset meth- odist work in ontario, and that the war meant that postwar methodism had to move away from any identification with american leadership. moir and landon note some of the damage inflicted on the presbyterian churches, and how they too faced difficulty due to a lack of american support. but what about the baptists? services the war upset the worship and regu-lar activities of the baptist churches. clinton (beamsville) baptist minutes note on september that the church had not met for over two months due to the “troubles of the wars.” haldi- wesley b. turner, the war of : the war that both sides won (toronto/oxford: dundurn group, , second edition), . john howson’s conclusions after his postwar visit indicate that the war did bring prosperity to some, but also undermined the hard working character of farmers: it had a “pernicious effect upon the morals of the people.” see howson, sketches of upper canada, - . despite the devastation in upper canada, adam short argues that the war of “was the occasion of the great- est era of prosperity which it had heretofore enjoyed.” see adam shortt, “the economic effect of the war of on upper canada,” in the defended border: upper canada and the war of , edited by morris zaslow (toronto: macmillan, ), - . george sheppard argues that the war led to financial ruin for many. see george sheppard, plunder, profit and paroles: a social history of the war of in upper canada (montreal : mcgill-queen’s university press, ). john moir, the church in the british era: from the british conquest to confederation (toronto/ montreal: mcgraw-hill ryerson, ), . echoing moir, christie argues that the war “abruptly cur- tailed” the ministry of evangelical churches. see christie, “in these times of democratic rage and delu- sion,” . �eil semple, the lord’s dominion: the history of canadian methodism (montreal: mcgill- queen’s university press, ), ; fred landon, western ontario and the american frontier (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), - ; robertson, “band of brothers.” john moir, enduring witness: the presbyterian church in canada, d ed. (eagle press printers, ), - , - ; landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . beamsville baptist church minutes, september . ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of mand baptist minutes note that during the war years there was “very little to record of the doings of the church,” in no small measure due to “most of the men” either in the army or supporting the army by moving supplies. the baptist church in charlotteville (vittoria) had to deal with the war interrupting the activities of the church. the events of the war also contributed to the church’s move away from the shaftsbury association. the townsend minutes suggest that the clin- ton conference did not meet during the war. american support while baptists in the bay of quinte area started the thurlow asso- ciation in , baptist churches in the �iagara region, along lake erie, and around the thames river were satisfied with remaining in american associa- tions. the baptist churches in charlot- teville, townsend, clinton, oxford, and malahide (talbot street) were all mem- bers of the shaftesbury association of vermont, �ew york and massachusetts. the baptist church in queenston was attached to the �ew york association. the system was flexible but not ideal, for distances meant that communication and visiting was difficult. the standard way for personal contact was for ameri- can missionaries to be the link between the churches and the association, but the war destroyed this system, for the com- mencement of hostilities meant that all communication between the churches and their american counterparts ended. in fact, moir claims that ontario bap- tist’s considerable reliance on americans meant that they were the worst off out of all denominations. the minutes of various associations in the states indicate this breakdown. the �ew york baptist association min- utes show that no messenger from the queenston (�iagara) church visited the association meetings from to , and the minutes from the shafts- bury baptist association show no mes- sengers from the clinton, townsend and oxford churches at the association meetings. the shaftesbury minutes also record the following message from two missionaries who could no longer travel haldimand baptist church minutes, page . see also ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . a history of the first baptist church of charlottville (vittoria), - , located at canadian baptist archives. see also ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . �o delegate was sent to the conference - . see ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . landon claims that ontario baptist churches were too few and remote from one another to have their own associations. see landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . moir, the church in the british era, . minutes of the new york baptist association ( ), ; minutes of the new york baptist association ( ), ; minutes of the new york baptist association ( ), ; minutes of the new york baptist associa- tion ( ), ; minutes of the new york baptist association ( ), . minutes of the shaftsbury baptist association ( ), , ; minutes of the shaftsbury baptist associa- tion ( ), - ; minutes of the shaftsbury baptist association ( ), - ; minutes of the shaftsbury baptist ontario history to upper canada: elders cyrus andrews, and daniel haskall, whom we employed last year on a mission into the destitute parts of the north and west parts of the state of �ew-york, and the prov- ince of upper-canada, return accounts of their labors highly satisfactory to your com- mittee. they report, that, in consequence of the present war existing between america and great-britain, they can have no access to many places where they have labored with success. the baptists churches in lower canada (in the eastern townships) belonged to asso- ciations in vermont, and their experience mirrored that of upper canadian bap- tists. a glimpse of this break can be seen in benedict’s general history of the baptist denomination. benedict writes that the fairfield association in vermont met in “great harmony” with their canadian bap- tist counterparts until . in that year the churches planned on meeting in one of the three lower canadian churches of the association. however, once war was declared it was “deemed by the brethren in vermont inexpedient” to go into canada, and they met in the states instead. pastors the pattern of baptist church devel-opment in upper canada was that american missionaries and itinerant pastors were the ones who founded, and then led, the churches. as will be seen below, a number of these men from the states remained loyal during the war. the problems were related to the conduct of elijah bentley and elkanah holmes ( - ). the details surrounding the pro-american sympathies of these two men will also be dealt with below, but suffice it to say that the churches as- sociated with these two men suffered, and did not survive the war. bentley planted a church in markham in and became its pastor, but in he was arrested for sedition. the church in markham was shattered by this experience, and it took twenty-five years before it was able to gather together enough people to meet again as a church. holmes was the leader of the local baptist church in �iagara (queenston), and he was even- tually forced to flee to the states in after revealing his pro-american sympa- thies. the �iagara church did get samuel burdick to preach on alternate sundays (on the other sunday he preached at clinton), but the church struggled and eventually died. the epitaph for the church can be read in the minutes of the �ew york baptist association: association ( ), - . minutes of the shaftsbury baptist association ( ), . st. armond, stanbridge, duhman. david benedict, a general history of the baptist denomination in america and other parts of the world (�ew york: l. colby and company, ), - . see “elijah bentley,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume ( - ) (toronto/buf- falo/ london: university of toronto press), - ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - ; - . ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . see “elkanah holmes,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume ( - ) (toronto/buf- ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of “a letter from our venerable brother el- kanah holmes, was reported by brother parkinson, giving the painful intelligence that the church at �iagara, owing to their dispersion during the war, and other cir- cumstances, is dissolved.” ii. resilient cross-border evangelicalism john howison’s observations on his extensive trip to upper canada after the war paint a bleak picture of postwar american-canadian relations: the americans returned their hostility with vehemence; and the two nations became so completely estranged from each other, that the long peace which followed the rebel- lion had little effect in restoring harmony between them. however, the invasion of canada in removed all chance of rec- onciliation, and made both parties more per- sonal, and more inveterate, in their dislike. and, as the social and moral condition of the two countries is growing more dissimilar every day, the aversion, with which their inhabitants regard each other, is not likely to diminish.” if howison were even only partially cor- rect, it would seem that postwar ontario baptists would have had little to do with their american coreligionists. but they did, and without the rancor that howi- son identified. it speaks to the power of the evangelical impulse that baptists were able to transcend the animosities that inevitably follow from a border con- flict that had turned increasingly vicious and vindictive. while there was a trajectory estab- lished that led to increased independence from american associations, there was no significant immediate postwar animos- ity between the canadian churches and the american missionaries or their send- ing associations. american missionaries played a part in the life of the clinton conference in the months and years im- mediately following the war. for instance, the hamilton baptist missionary society from �ew york state sent three mission- aries in : �athan baker, timothy sheppard, and john upfold (an eng- lishman who had lived in america). af- ter an itinerant ministry across ontario, upfold ended up accepting a call to pas- tor at the clinton church where he stayed for nine years before returning to the falo/ london: university of toronto press), - ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada before , - ; - ; beamsville baptist church minutes, september . minutes of the new york baptist association ( ), - . howison, sketches of upper canada, - . a number of contemporary scholars agree that the war jeopardized cross-border relations. err- ington argues that the war eroded the bonds between the prominent upper canadians and their ameri- can contacts. see errington, the lion, eagle and upper canada, . landon writes that the war “was to weaken the american connection” among baptists. see landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . rawlyk argues that the war “unleashed” anti-americanism in upper canada. see rawlyk, the canada fire, . account of baker’s visit in august in anderson, - . account of sheppard’s visit in anderson, - . account of upfold in anderson, - ; peck and lawton, an historical sketch of the baptist mis- sionary convention of the state of new york, - . the beamsville minutes record the arrival and some ontario history states. the hamilton baptist mission- ary society continued sending mission- aries to upper canada as late as . the shaftesbury association quickly sent missionaries who travelled, preached, and helped the churches. stephen olm- stead, an american missionary with the shaftsbury association, was moderator of the clinton conference in . american baptist missionaries and preachers continued to arrive into the s. a number carried out extensive itinerant ministries and returned to the united states, whereas others remained to plant churches. for instance, in the fall of , thomas tallman arrived near oxford in order to settle his son (tallman was the pastor of first free communion baptist church of worchester, sharon and cobuskill, �ew york). he returned shortly thereafter in april to estab- lish a church in the town of oxford. in the years that followed, tallman also as- sisted other baptists in the surrounding area. one example of an itinerant in the s was david marks, who crossed the �iagara river in october , attend- ed local services (including a number of methodist services) and preached the gospel. he departed a few days later, only to return to upper canada a month later for further ministry among baptists. even into the s the majority of ministers were from the united states, a number of pastors received financial support from the states, and missionar- ies still travelled to the province. the following report in the canadian baptist magazine and missionary register reveals the continued american presence in the churches, but also a growing british tra- jectory in the churches. there are, in the upper province, about fifty baptist churches; some of them flourishing, others stationary, and a few, we fear, dying. in the lower provinces the number is not so great; but the influx of english baptists last year into the eastern townships would give great facility to the formation of new ones, if there were but preachers to instruct and organize them. the majority of pastors in the upper province are, we believe, from the united states; and to that quarter the churches look principally for supplies. sev- eral british missionaries are now to be found settled in both provinces, and these have exerted themselves, at different times, but of of the ministry of upfold. see beamsville baptist church minutes, april to january . henry a. renfree, heritage and horizon: the baptist story in canada (mississauga: canadian baptist federation, ), ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . peck and lawton, an historical sketch of the baptist missionary convention of the state of new york, - . minutes of the shaftsbury baptist association ( ), . r.w. sawtell, the history of the first baptist church, woodstock, ontario: for the first seventy years – from april , , to april , (the woodstock times, ), - . marks, memoirs of the life of david marks, - . for examples of other american missionaries and church planters in the s, see stewart, the history of the freewill baptists, - . landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . for instance, the american baptist home missionary society had one missionary in lower canada and seven in upper canada. see “the canadas,” canada baptist magazine and missionary register, september , . ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of late more actively, to obtain help from their native land. by this time not everyone was pleased with the american presence among the churches. there had been discus- sion in about who should fund the churches—british baptists said the american baptists should due to proxim- ity, but american baptists said that brit- ish baptists should due to their being in british territory —but the issue was still not settled in when the canadian baptist magazine and missionary regis- ter made its reports. the trend, however, was for seeking british baptist aid for the churches. �ot to be overlooked was the arrival of slaves from america who sought free- dom in upper canada. the underground railway began to develop around , and the arrival of fugitive slaves in on- tario led to the establishing of african- american baptist churches. as early as fugitive slaves arrived around am- herstburg, and around an african- american baptist church was formed. by a number of african-american baptist churches in the area bordered by toronto, �iagara falls and windsor formed the amherstburg baptist asso- ciation, and cross-border relations con- tinued with african-american baptists in detroit. it should be noted that these ameri- can missionary visits and contacts were not forced upon the churches; on the contrary, american participation was coveted and requested as soon as the war ended (similar to the actions of leading upper canadian elites ). for instance, the minutes of beamsville baptist indi- cate that as soon as peace was declared the church decided to send a letter to the shaftsbury association in order to re-es- tablish contact. the ministry of these american preachers was also quite suc- cessful. the haldimand church minutes recorded the following about the visit of elder shepherd: in the church was reorganized after the “canada,” canada baptist magazine and missionary register, june , . british visitors in thought that upper canada should have british rather than american preachers. f.a. cox and j. hoby, the baptists in america, . see also landon, western ontario and the american frontier, - . �ote that this opposition was from outside the province, for those inside the province no doubt realized that the churches could not survive without the support of their american coreligionists. f.a. cox and j. hoby, the baptists in america, ; “the canadas,” canada baptist magazine and missionary register, september , - . see also landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . “canada,” canada baptist magazine and missionary register, june , - ; “british baptist missionary society in canada,” canada baptist magazine and missionary register, june , - . some churches in lower canada remained in american associations as late as the s. see ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . james k. lewis, religious life of fugitive slaves and rise of coloured baptist churches, - , in what is now known as ontario (�ew york: arno press, ), , - , . errington identifies how quickly “leading residents” of upper canada acted to re-establish contacts with the united states. see errington, the lion, eagle and upper canada, . beamsville baptist church minutes, april . ontario history war. meetings were held near the lake shore about old mr. wyatts and the lord wrought upon the minds of the people in a wonderful manner and mostly upon young and married people…about the first of february elder shepherd came from the states on a mission preaching the word of life. he was a son of consolation to the new-born babes in christ declaring glad tidings of great joy and he baptized many in haldimand and hamilton, and since that many converts have dated their first awakenings from his preaching. the cross-border relationships were cut off during the war, but what is remark- able is how the relationships picked up very quickly almost right where they left off. these seemingly collegial visits and the quick reintegration of american leadership in the churches suggest that the devastation of the war did not lead to as much hatred as supposed, and that a process of canadianization was not as immediate as some assume. they also sup- port moir’s contention that anti-ameri- canism was not a dominant motif in the postwar years—at least for baptists. it also indicates that baptists did not expe- rience a post-war purging of american leadership like the methodists. but why the willingness to be reunit- ed with people who were just recently the enemy? errington argues that in the eyes of prominent citizens the formal and in- formal contacts were deemed to be “vital to the colony’s well-being.” for baptists, the involvement of american missionar- ies was crucial to the well being of the fledgling churches. along with desperate need (heightened due to the absence of any immediate aid coming from british baptists), friendships and family ties were factors in the quick reinstatement of rela- tionships. it was almost, as errington sug- gests, as if the border states were not even a part of the united states. however, one important ideological reason for the willingness to accept the americans back so quickly was the bond and purpose that transcended national identity. a number of scholars have noted the cross-border links between denomina- tions in the united states and canada. mark �oll notes the importance of not downplaying the “significant commonal- ties that have always bounded canadian and american churches together.” both rawlyk and christie have identified the strength of evangelicalism during this period, and how it was a dynamic cross- border movement. more recently, sam reimer has identified a subculture that continues to exist among evangelicals in the states and canada that, in many ways, haldimand baptist church minutes, . moir, “american influences on canadian protestant churches before confederation,” . moir, the church in the british era, . errington, the lion, eagle and upper canada, . ibid., . mark �oll, “canadian evangelicalism: a view from the united states,” in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience, edited by george a. rawlyk (montreal/kingston/london/buffalo: mcgill- queen’s university press, ), . christie, “in these times of democratic rage and delusion.” ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of transcends national boundaries. in the war of one gets a glimpse of this type of dynamic evangelical subculture that united evangelicals from �ew york state and ontario; they were more than americans, british subjects, or even cana- dians, they were baptists engaged in seek- ing converts and building the church. michael gauvreau notes how “early nineteenth-century evangelicalism was, first and foremost, a passion, a living force, a pulsating energy infusing the individual soul and human communities.” and one of the passions of baptists was the neces- sity of personal conversion and the obli- gation to spread that message. this em- phasis on evangelism at all costs should not surprise, for one of the defining char- acteristics of evangelicalism was the need for personal conversion. once the war ended, missionaries and pastors were des- perately needed to carry out the work of the church, and nationality was not some- thing that was to get in the way of such a task. consequently, baptists on both sides of the border had what they deemed a higher purpose and loyalty, one that called them to rise above the postwar rancor. iii. political loyalties while the trans-national evangeli-cal impulse was strong enough to survive the bitterness of the war, it was not so strong as to eliminate all vestiges of political loyalties. in the evidence that remains, there are glimpses of loyalty to the british crown, as well as clear exam- ples of baptists who were on the side of the american invaders. there was also a trajectory of canadianization in regards to organization, but this seemed to be a practical decision devoid of any nascent canadian nationalism. while many of the motives behind the actions of pastors remain unknown, there does seem to be a discernable pat- tern to political loyalties. contrary to what strachan assumed, a number of loy- alists were not members of the church of england, and the diversity of loyalist backgrounds can be seen in the examples of baptists with loyalist pedigree. what is important for this research is to note that whereas a number of baptist minis- ters that remained loyal (or neutral) had a loyalist and/or british background, min- isters that remained loyal to the united states came to upper canada primarily for the land and/or fought for the united states in the revolutionary war. this observation is not an attempt to resurrect old loyalist myths about saving canada, for �orman knowles has shown how such myths tended to be invented stories sam reimer, evangelicals and the continental divide: the conservative protestant subculture in canada and the united states (montreal/kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ). michael gauvreau, “protestantism transformed: personal piety and the evangelical social vision, - ,” in the canadian protestant experience, edited by george rawlyk (welch, ), . david bebbington’s four-fold characteristics of evangelicalism are generally recognized as the most helpful description of evangelical identity: biblicism, conversionism, activism and crucicentrism. see david bebbington, evangelicalism in modern britain: a history from the ’s to the ’s (grand rapids: baker book house, ). fahey, in his name, . however, loyalist background did not guarantee a pro-british position, for, as craig notes, there ontario history rather than inherited truths. however, it is to say that allegiances going into the war had a bearing on how various baptist pastors responded to the pressures of di- vergent wartime calls for loyalty, and that apparently not all political loyalties were eclipsed by the evangelical impulse. loyal to the crown in regards to the support for the war, there are examples of american-born baptist pastors who remained in upper canada and did not stir up resentment towards the british cause or support for the americans. in fact, there is evi- dence that baptists served in the militia or helped the military with transporting goods. there is also no record of baptists having the same types of crisis of con- science, as did the mennonites, tunkers or quakers in this regard. hobbs’ research indicates that bap- tists fought in the militia. he bases this conclusion on a comparison of militia rosters with church membership lists: he claims that a number of baptist names are on the militia rosters. bits of other evi- were examples of some with loyalist backgrounds supporting the american cause or showing sympathy for it. see craig, upper canada, . �orman knowles also argues that the “loyalist response to the call to arms during the war was, at best, equivocal.” see �orman knowles, inventing the loyalists: the ontario loyalist tradition and the creation of usable pasts (toronto: university of toronto press, ), . knowles illustrates how the loyalist tradition played a “prominent place” in nineteenth and early twentieth century political and social discourse in canada, and how loyalist identity and tradition was invented, not inherited. see knowles, inventing the loyalists. see robynne rogers healey, from quaker to upper canadian: faith and community among yonge street friends, - (montreal/kingston/london/ithaca: mcgill-queen’s university press, ), - ; brock, “accounting for difference,” - . this information is not published, but was passed on to me through correspondence with ray hobbs. haldimand baptist church minutes, page . see also ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . see also stuart ivison, “joseph winn – forgotten pioneer,” quest, april , . dence confirm that a number of baptists fought for the crown. the minutes of haldimand baptist church indicate that most of their male congregants fought and supported the war effort: for six years during the war to most all the men were enlisted in ranks or engaged moving goods & men and supplies. they drew cannon to toronto with ox teams. my grandfather and of his sons were from home. there was very little to record of the doings of the church. american-born joseph winn, pastor of the baptist church in ameliasburg (later referred to as murray baptist church), as- sisted the government by using his team to carry supplies for the troops. this sup- port is not surprising, since winn had fought for the loyalists in the revolu- tionary war and saw himself as a united empire loyalist. american-born settler jonathan wolvertine, a member of the clinton (beamsville) baptist church, took the oath of allegiance when he, his wife, and four children arrived in , and then took it again in to prove his loyalty. although he was in his sixties ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of during the war, he also aided the govern- ment by driving his team to transport supplies and troops. other baptist leaders also remained in ontario, but their involvement in the conflict is unknown. american-born ti- tus finch was both a farmer and preacher who was a charter member of the char- lotteville baptist church. abel stevens came from vermont, and played an im- portant role in bringing settlers from vermont to upper canada. peter fair- child was the pastor of townsend baptist church during the war years. all three of these men had previously fought for the crown, or had allied themselves with it, so one may infer with a degree of con- fidence that they remained in the prov- ince out of loyalty to the crown. american-born reuben crandall arrived in upper canada in , and very quickly began an itinerant ministry helping to plant churches in cramahe and haldimand townships. there is no record of his activities or thoughts during the war, but he is another example of an american-born minister deciding to stay in upper canada. james hulse, pastor at rawdon in (and later thurlow), may have fought for the crown during the war. �ot much is known of hulse, however, so whatever he thought and did during the war remains a mystery. the story of john upfold is quite dif- ferent. his experience provides a glimpse into the loyalties of a baptist pastor who had lived in england, america and up- per canada. he was born in england in , but immigrated to america in . upfold lived in the states during the war, but was unsympathetic to the american cause. he moved to canada in , and became the pastor of clinton (beamsville) baptist church, as well as a widely recognized leader among bap- tists in upper canada. he eventually ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . during the revolutionary war finch had fought on the side of the crown in the prince of wales regiment, and after the war he immigrated to �ew brunswick. he then moved to upper canada in or where he helped plant the church in charlotteville. there is no record of his activity during the war, but it is unlikely that he would have been sympathetic to the american side after having spent years fighting against them a few decades earlier, and the burning of his mill by american troops certainly would not have endeared the americans to finch. see ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . he convinced over two hundred settlers to move northwards to settle in the townships of bastard and kitley; he also preached in baptist churches and helped to plant new ones. there is no record of his activity during the war, but having remained loyal to the crown during the revolutionary war it is likely he supported the british side in . he chose to remain in upper canada until his death c. . see stuart ivison, “abel stevens, u.e.l.,” quest, december , ; ernest cruikshank, “the activity of abel stevens as a pioneer,” ontario history ( ), - ; ernest cruikshank, “the adventures of roger stevens, a forgotten loyalist pioneer in upper canada,” ontario history ( ), - . he was on the official united empire loyalist list, but there is no record of his activities during the war. see ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . “reuben crandall,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume , - (toronto/buffalo/ london: university of toronto press, ), - . ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . ontario history moved back to the states where he died in . how are these examples to be inter- preted? limited as they are, they indi- cate that not all baptists were disloyal and that the authorities could count on a number to support the war effort (or at least to remain acquiescent). as for mo- tives, a number of these baptist leaders may have remained in ontario out of a sense of loyalty to the crown, and others may have merely been waiting to see how the war developed. their sympathies may have been with the americans, but their sense of duty to their congregation may have led them to keep quiet. as for those who fought on the side of the british, was it for money, for patriotism, or due to co- ercion? what is clear is that a number of baptist did remain in the province (and a number fought for the crown), despite their american background. loyal to the republic if the evidence for loyalty to the crown is difficult to interpret, the examples of a number of baptist leaders who remained loyal to their land of birth are not. and were difficult years for upper canadians, and increasingly sympathy grew among its citizens for the american cause. as ernest cruickshank and oth- ers have noted, the government in upper canada had serious concerns about the loyalty of its citizens and took great pains to counter pro-american propaganda and activities. the shear number of ameri- can settlers meant that no one could as- sume widespread loyalty to the crown, and, contrary to what theo gibson says about republican bias among baptists being “probably rare,” an examination of three baptists indicates that there was ample justification for such fears. michael smith was born in penn- renfree, heritage and horizon, ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, , - . craig, upper canada, , . ernest a. cruikshank, “a study of disaffection in upper canada in - ,” in the defended border: upper canada and the war of , edited by morris zaslow (toronto: macmillan, ), - ; ernest a. cruikshank, “john beverley robinson and the trials for treason in ,” ontario history ( ), - ; william renwick riddell, “the ancaster ‘bloody assize’ of ,” ontario history ( ), - ; r. arthur bowler, “propaganda in upper canada in the war of ,” american review of canada studies : ( ), - ; errington, the lion, eagle and upper canada, - . gibson notes that a number of american missionaries, whether consciously or not, were bringing a republican bias into their ministry. however, he claims that it was “probably rare.” see theo gibson, rob- ert alexander fyfe: his contemporaries and his influence (burlington: welch publishing, ), . the arrest of american baptist pastor rev. avery moulton indicates that there was suspicion from michael smith’s geographical view of the province of upper canada. ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of sylvania, but moved with his family to upper canada in where he taught school at �iagara-on-the-lake. his decision to move to upper canada was based on the availability of free land, however he purchased his land to avoid making an oath to the king. in decem- ber he and his family fled back to the united states because he refused to take the oath of allegiance as demanded by the government (all who did not would be considered spies or prisoners of war). back in the states he supported himself by occasionally preaching in bap- tist churches and to troops. one reason why we know of smith is that he wrote an eyewitness account of the geography and politics of upper canada, and in his actions and writing we see the very at- titudes that were at the root of govern- ment fears of settler disloyalty. smith pointed out that the majority of settlers ( of ) were american-born and only came to upper canada for the free land. he wrote how in the opening days of the conflict brock had tricked many of the militia into joining, and had they known the truth they would not have joined. he also claimed how there would have been a rebellion if the assembly had suspend- ed habeas corpus as a wartime measure. he did note that while the american set- tlers in the militia would not have fought against hull in the early weeks of the war, they also would not have fought against the british—they just wanted to be left alone with their farms. despite smith’s assertion to be neutral in his observances, his conduct was quite pro-american. in his summary of the province, he noted defensive locations, numbers of troops, shipbuilding potential, and the best place for americans to attack; he also celebrat- ed perry’s naval victory over the british. his closing words on the final page reveal where his sympathies lay: “and further i will remark, that i am a firm friend of my native country, the united states; in con- sideration of which, i left the province of upper canada, where i was settled with my family, and all the property i had in the world, rather than fight against my countrymen.” smith was not alone in his pro- american sympathies. elkanah holmes was another baptist who could not bring directed to baptist pastors even in lower canada. the account of his arrest and release reads: “a reforma- tion was in progress in compton and ascott. some thought that he would be carried to montreal as a prisoner. there were those wishing baptism before his departure. on the day that his trial came he bap- tized them in front of the very house where the court was to be held. changing his clothing, he entered the house and faced judges and accusers with such an innocent, noble look that ‘an awful silence pervaded the assembly.’ he made his own defense, weaving in scriptural instances of the imprisonment of the apostles. ‘amen!” resounded from the gathered crowd, and the trial assumed the appearance of a religious meeting. his innocence was so clear that he was honorably dismissed.” see g.a. burgess and j.t. ward, free baptist cyclopedia: historical and biographical (free baptist cyclopedia company, ), . material on michael smith taken from smith, a geographical view of the province of upper can- ada; smith, a narrative of the sufferings in upper canada; “michael smith,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume , - (toronto/buffalo/ london: university of toronto press, ), - . his account includes a reference to a methodist minister, george w. dinsmore, who also fled upper canada rather than fight against his homeland. see smith, a narrative of the sufferings in upper canada, - . ontario history himself to fight against his american compatriots. after a career as a chaplain and soldier fighting for the americans in the revolutionary war, he began a mis- sionary work among the �ative ameri- cans in western �ew york state. he was a missionary with the �ew york mis- sionary society, and helped to establish a church in at queenston (�iagara) as well as pastor at the church in clinton (beamsville). he welcomed american troops advancing into upper canada in , and even entertained their officers in his home. when the americans were later forced to retreat in december of that same year, the elderly holmes and his wife were forced to flee with them; the amer- ican officer had kindly sent them a wagon to aid in their flight. the adventure was not over, and the following days read like a movie script. advancing british troops captured holmes. lieutenant colonel cyrenius chapin, whose daughter had married one of holmes’ sons, then led a daring and successful two-hundred-man rescue mission that whisked him away to buffalo. he had to flee once again when the advancing british burned buffalo. as noted above, the church in queenston did not survive the departure of holmes, nor did his conduct do anything to allay government fears of loyalty among amer- ican-born settlers and church leaders. elijah bentley, the pastor of the bap- tist church in markham, also welcomed the invading american troops. bentley was born in the united states, but ar- rived in upper canada in . he even- tually settled in markham in . he helped to plant the church in markham in , and in the following years was active in baptist life in the province. the american capture of york in , and reports of pro-american sentiments be- ing expressed during the american oc- cupation, led to the government crack- ing down on what they deemed to be treasonous behavior. over thirty people were arrested; bentley was one of them. the charges were sedition, spreading false intelligence, and encouraging the militia to accept dearborn’s offer of parole. his ardent zeal for american republicanism was exactly what some feared about evan- gelicalism. he was arrested in october , tried in march , found guilty, and sentenced to six months in prison. it is not clear whether or not he served the entire sentence, but it seems that upon his release he and his family fled back to the states. the church in markham did not survive the scandal and loss of leader- ship, and it took twenty-five more years before the church met again. semple claims that while there were some pro-american methodists in up- material on elkanah holmes taken from parkinson, the funeral sermon of elder elkanah hol- mes; “elkanah holmes,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume , - (toronto/buffalo/ london: university of toronto press, ), - ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . material on elijah bentley taken from depositions from his trial, upper canada sundries, micro- film #c- ; “elijah bentley,” in dictionary of canadian biography, volume , - (toronto/buf- falo/ london: university of toronto press, ), - ; ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, - . ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of per canada, most were “sincerely loyal to the british cause.” the evidence for upper canadian baptist conduct is more embarrassing for those who want to claim denominational loyalty to the crown. there certainly were those who fought and assisted the government in its war effort. however, there were at least three high-profile examples of american- born baptists whose loyalties lay south of the border. many settlers either fled southward on their own, or were forced to flee because they refused to swear an oath of allegiance; how many of these un- named people were also baptists? there is no way of knowing. what is known is that there seems to be ample reason for the authorities to fear the political loyal- ties of baptists. �ot surprisingly there was a spirit of loyalism in upper canada after the war, and pressure to prove that a denomina- tion was loyal to the crown. the meth- odists and presbyterians sought to dem- onstrate just that. the formation among upper canadian baptists of a distinctly canadian conference in (and then a more formal association soon after) was a move in that direction, but the con- tinued presence of american missionar- ies and connections to american asso- ciations indicates that the canadianizing process among baptists was slow. much has been made out of church of england archdeacon john strachan’s reaction to dissenters (especially methodists) as pro- american. however, it seems that stra- chan should have been just as concerned with baptist loyalty. the reason for his ignoring the baptists is most likely due because baptists were numerically and politically insignificant compared to the methodists. loyal to canada? errington’s admonition that “the his-torian must accept that early upper canada is a foreign world and translate its historical records accordingly” needs to be kept in mind when looking for the development of canadian identity and loyalty within the postwar churches, partly because of the creation of previ- ous myths regarding the role that the war played in the formation of canadian na- tional identity, but mainly because of the paucity of evidence for such a shift within postwar baptist churches. both grant and moir note that after the war there was a move towards cana- dianization within upper canadian de- nominations. denominations that had semple, the lord’s dominion, . see moir, the church in the british era, - ; christie, “in these times of democratic rage and delusion,” - . strachan was aware of bentley, for in september he was a signatory to a list of accused that included bentley. see depositions from bentley’s trial, located at �ational archives, ottawa. moir suggests this as well. see moir, “american influences on canadian protestant churches be- fore confederation,” . errington, the lion, eagle and upper canada, . for instance, see knowles, inventing the loyalists. grant, a profusion of spires, - ; moir, the church in the british era, - . ontario history been reliant on american leaders and support not only had their loyalty ques- tioned, but were also vulnerable during any future crisis. consequently, there was a need for more indigenous canadian leadership, and well as loyal leaders from britain rather than questionable ones from the states. once peace had been declared, baptists in upper canada, like other denominations such as methodists and presbyterians, began a shift away from reliance on their american sup- porters. however, the baptist move away from american influence was not as fast as grant and moir seem to imply. at least two changes were in progress in upper canada that began to move baptists towards a more indigenous and increasingly “canadian” identity. first, the arrival in of british baptist im- migrants from britain began to change the composition of the denomination away from its american origins. over the next few decades, subsequent waves of british immigrants transformed the upper canadian baptists into a more distinctly british (and thus loyal-to- the-crown) denomination. second, the churches began to develop their own as- sociations. renfree suggests that the one good of the war was that it forced upper and lower canadian baptist churches to mature more quickly and find local support systems. the cross-border re- lationship had benefited the churches in upper canada, but the war had shown that the relationship was untenable in times of political tensions. the earliest association in the cana- das, founded in , was the thurlow association in the bay of quinte area comprised of cramahe-haldiman, hal- lowell and thurlow baptist churches. upper canadian churches had formed the clinton conference in , but this was more of an informal network rather than an official association. in the clinton conference formed “the upper canada domestic mission- ary society for the sending of the gospel among the destitute of this province and parts adjacent,” and began to operate as an association. in the shaftesbury association officially dismissed its ca- nadian churches so that they could join the clinton conference; other churches, such as the one at queenston, joined as well. over time, the clinton conference evolved into the western, eastern, and grand river associations. but as the previously-noted activities of postwar american missionaries indi- semple, the lord’s dominion, - ; moir, enduring witness, - . landon claims that the war began a “strong feeling of british allegiance” among upper canadians that was strengthened by waves of british immigrants in subsequent decades. landon, western ontario and the american frontier, . see also renfree, heritage and horizon, - ; gibson, fyfe, ; woolley, baptist advance, ; stuart ivison, first baptist church, brockville, - (no publisher, c. ), - . for a summary of the british influence in the denomination, see robert s. wilson, “british influence in the �ineteenth century,” in baptists in canada: search for identity amidst diversity, edited by jarold k. zeman (burlington: g.r. welch, ), - . renfree, heritage and horizon, . ibid., . ivison and rosser, the baptists in upper and lower canada, . ontar�o bapt�sts & the war of cates, these organizational shifts did not immediately canadianize the churches. the on-going and much-needed pres- ence of american missionaries, pastors, settlers, and financial support meant that postwar upper canadian baptists remained a denomination with a decid- edly american flavor into the s, and in some cases, beyond. the evidence of divided loyalties during the war provides even more evidence that among baptists there were divergent loyalties, and signs of the republicanism that many saw as the threat of evangelicalism. conclusion the disparate wartime reactions of baptists like michael smith and joseph winn provide concrete examples of the impact of the war on a small strug- gling evangelical denomination, as well a glimpse of the range of political loyal- ties that existed within upper canadian baptist churches. they also illustrate the central argument of this article: the war did not entirely eclipse evangelical- ism’s cross-border relationships, nor did evangelicalism completely erase national identities. almost a century later canadian bap- tists were ardent nationalists, imperialists, and often criticized their coreligionists in the states. in fact, almost a century lat- er there was often a mean streak of anti- americanism in their literature. but that sheppard argues that the war did contribute to nationalism, but it was a much later development ( s). see sheppard, plunder, profit and paroles, . for instance, see heath, a war with a silver lining. was not the case during or immediately after the war of . to be sure, the war had wrought devastation upon upper canadian churches, and baptist churches were no exception in this regard. during the war baptists were isolated from their american colleagues, friends, and sup- port, and they had suffered even more through the ignominy of disloyal pastors and the closure of churches. the involvement of americans in up- per canada in the months immediately af- ter the war, and in the following decades, indicates that there was not a virulent postwar anti-americanism among bap- tists. there may have been a purging of americans from the methodists of upper canada due to external political pressure and internal desire for gaining broader so- cial acceptance, but that was not the case for baptists. the desperate need among ontario baptists for american help was certainly a factor in this willingness to have american missionaries return, but a significant ideological reason for this rap- prochement was the evangelical impulse that stressed spiritual realities rather than political loyalties. however, the strength of the evangelical impulse was not able to eclipse political loyalties entirely. smith, bentley and holmes were three baptist ministers who felt no loyalty to the crown, and risked and lost much in maintaining their allegiance to the united states, even at the cost of their churches. coordinated reset neuromodulation for parkinsons disease: proofofconcept study coordinated reset neuromodulation for parkinson’s disease: proof-of-concept study ilya adamchic, md, christian hauptmann, phd, utako brigit barnikol, md, , , , norbert pawelczyk, oleksandr popovych, phd, thomas theo barnikol, md, alexander silchenko, phd, jens volkmann, md, g€unter deuschl, md, wassilios g. meissner, md, phd, , , , mohammad maarouf, md, volker sturm, md, , hans-joachim freund, md, and peter alexander tass, md, phd , , * institute of neuroscience and medicine-neuromodulation, j€ulich research center, j€ulich, germany department of neuromodulation, university of cologne, cologne, germany department of child- and adolescent psychiatry, university of cologne, cologne, germany clinic for stereotactic and functional neurosurgery, university of cologne, cologne, germany department of neurology, university w€urzburg, w€urzburg, germany department of neurology, university kiel, kiel, germany institut des maladies neurod�eg�en�eratives, univ. de bordeaux, bordeaux, france cnrs institut des maladies neurod�eg�en�eratives, bordeaux, france service de neurologie, chu de bordeaux, pessac, france centre de r�ef�erence atrophie multisyst�ematis�ee, chu de bordeaux, pessac, france abstract background: the discovery of abnormal synchroniza- tion of neuronal activity in the basal ganglia in parkin- son’s disease (pd) has prompted the development of novel neuromodulation paradigms. coordinated reset neuromodulation intends to specifically counteract excessive synchronization and to induce cumulative unlearning of pathological synaptic connectivity and neuronal synchrony. methods: in this prospective case series, six pd patients were evaluated before and after coordinated reset neuromodulation according to a standardized protocol that included both electrophysiological recordings and clinical assessments. results: coordinated reset neuromodulation of the subthalamic nucleus (stn) applied to six pd patients in an externalized setting during three stimulation days induced a significant and cumulative reduction of beta band activity that correlated with a significant improve- ment of motor function. conclusions: these results highlight the potential effects of coordinated reset neuromodulation of the stn in pd patients and encourage further develop- ment of this approach as an alternative to conventional high-frequency deep brain stimulation in pd. vc the authors. movement disorders published by wiley periodicals, inc. on behalf of international parkinson and movement disorder society. key words: parkinson’s disease; coordinated reset neuromodulation; dbs; beta band oscillation; stn deep brain stimulation (dbs) of the subthalamic nucleus (stn) is a well-established treatment for patients with advanced parkinson’s disease (pd), , novel stimulation approaches, for instance, closed-loop neurostimulation that have only been tested in an acute setting, turned out to be more effective than classical dbs in reducing motor signs as well as pallidal firing rate and oscillatory activity in parkinsonian nonhuman -methyl- -phenyl- , , , -tetrahydropyridine (mptp)- treated primates and pd patients during stimulus delivery. , this is an open access article under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. *correspondence to: prof. peter a. tass, institute of neuroscience and medicine-neuromodulation, j€ulich research center, j€ulich, germany, e-mail: p.tass@fz-juelich.de funding agencies: the authors reported no financial support. relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures: dr. tass is employed by the j€ulich research center; formerly working with anm gmbh (cologne, germany) to develop an implantable device for cr neuromodulation in patients, shareholder of anm gmbh. he has received research funding from the european community, the federal ministry of education and research (germany), the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft, the helmholtz association, bio- medical primate, and the michael j fox foundation. dr. hauptmann is employed by the j€ulich research center and formerly employed by anm gmbh (to develop an implantable device for cr neuromodulation in patients). he has received research funding from the european community, the federal min- istry of education and research (germany), the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft, and the helmholtz association. dr. freund is employed by the inter- national neuroscience institute, hannover; formely working with anm gmbh (cologne, germany) to develop an implantable device for cr neuromodulation in patients; and is a shareholder of anm gmbh. dr. sturm is employed by the university clinic w€urzburg; was formerly employed by the university clinic cologne; formerly working with anm gmbh (cologne, germany) to develop an implantable device for cr neuromodulation in patients, shareholder of anm gmbh. he has received research funding from the federal ministry of education and research (germany). drs. adamich, barnikol, pawelczyk, popovych, barnikol, silchenko, maarouf, volkmann, deuschl, and meissner report no disclosures related to research covered in this article. several patents protect electrical cr neuromodulation, for example, the us patent , , “device for the desynchronization of neuronal activity.” the inventor of this patent is peter a. tass, assignee is forschungszentrum juelich gmbh, juelich, germany. full financial disclosures and author roles may be found in the online version of this article. received: november ; revised: april ; accepted: april published online june in wiley online library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). doi: . /mds. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ c r n e u r o m o d u l a t i o n o f t h e s u b t h a l a m i c n u c l e u s movement disorders, vol. , no. , http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / another original approach, electrical coordinated reset (cr) neuromodulation, , specifically targets pd- related pathological neuronal synchrony , by desynchronization and is based on extensive computa- tional , and in vitro studies. coordinated reset neu- romodulation means to consecutively deliver brief high-frequency pulse trains through the different stim- ulation contacts of the implanted lead (see supplemen- tal data fig. s ) to sequentially reset the phases of the different stimulated subpopulations and, hence, divide the neuronal population into phase-shifted subpopula- tions, ultimately causing an unlearning of both patho- logical neuronal synchrony and pathological synaptic connectivity. , , according to the model, cr neuro- modulation of sufficient duration is expected to shift the neuronal population into a stable desynchronized state, characterized by downregulated synaptic con- nectivity. accordingly, one may speculate that neuro- nal desynchronization along with positive effects on motor control may outlast the cr neuromodulation duration. in both mptp-treated monkeys and pd patients, only short-lasting aftereffects are observed when con- ventional high-frequency neurostimulation is termi- nated. in parallel, abnormal oscillatory activity and neuronal synchrony reemerge shortly after turning off classical dbs. , in contrast, in mptp-treated nonhu- man primates, cr neuromodulation delivered to the stn for hours per day on consecutive days had both acute and sustained long-lasting aftereffects on motor function for up to days. as yet, physiological aftereffects of cr neuromodu- lation of the stn on abnormal neuronal synchrony were studied neither in mptp monkeys nor in pd patients, and a clinical proof-of-concept is lacking in humans. here we aimed to assess ( ) initial safety and tolerability of electrical cr neuromodulation, ( ) ini- tial estimation of the action of electrical cr neuromo- dulation on the abnormal local field potential (lfp) oscillations, ( ) initial estimation of the action of elec- trical cr neuromodulation on motor function of patients with parkinson’s disease in a small proof-of- concept study of short duration. specifically, we hypothesize that cr neuromodulation causes a lasting reduction of abnormal power in beta or theta fre- quency bands in parallel with a reduction of motor symptoms. , , results of this study will provide information necessary regarding potential trial end- points and therapeutic regimen(s) for future controlled trials of electrical cr neuromodulation. methods six patients ( women and men) aged to years (mean standard deviation, . . years) with pd ( with akinetic-rigid and with equivalent type; see supplemental data for the definition; mean- standard deviation disease duration, . . years) were selected for the study. the mean unified parkinson’s disease rating scale (updrs) motor score (sum of the items - , on medication) was . . in the presurgery phase. the local ethical committee approved the study design, and all patients gave written informed consent. we set out to investi- gate electrophysiological and neurological outcomes of electrical cr neuromodulation of the stn in this cohort of six pd patients. all patients underwent bilateral implantation of quadripolar deep-brain electrodes (medtronic ) into the stn, and stimulation was applied through the externalized electrodes, using a portable external stimulation and registration device. medication was suspended days before starting test stimulation and throughout the entire testing period. coordinated reset neuromodulation was applied for consecutive days in two daily sessions of up to hours (mean duration of each sessions was . . hours; fig. a) and consisted of brief high-frequency pulse trains (intra-burst frequency: hz, intensity: . - . ma, cycle repetition rate - hz, pulse width: - ms, each pulse train was composed of to sin- gle pulses, pulse train duration was - ms) that were applied following the dedicated cr pattern (see supplemental data fig. s ) through the three lower contacts of the stimulation electrode, and the upper contact served as current return. because of technical constraints, cr neuromodulation was performed uni- laterally, exclusively contralateral to the more severely affected side. standardized evaluations using updrs motor scores were undertaken in all patients minutes before (morning scores) and minutes after (evening scores) stimulation sessions (fig. a) on every stimulation day to assess motor performance before and after cr neu- romodulation. the lfps of the stn were recorded before and after stimulation sessions on every stimula- tion day according to the scheme presented in fig. a. we calculated the individual peak beta power (in the - hz range), which is believed to be related to bra- dykinesia and rigidity , and individual theta power ( - hz), which corresponds to tremor frequency. the spectral power values were then normalized for every patient separately and finally averaged over all six patients. acute after-effects on beta (or correspondingly theta) band activity and updrs motor scores achieved within a single stimulation day were calculated with the formula: (morning beta power evening beta power)/morning beta power. to assess lasting afteref- fects, that is, effects persisting overnight, we deter- mined relative changes of quantities measured in the morning of days and with respect to the baseline value obtained in the morning of day , for example, a d a m c h i c e t a l movement disorders, vol. , no. , fig. . effect of cr neuromodulation on normalized lfp activity and motor performance in six pd patients. coordinated reset neuromodulation and measurements followed the experimental scheme in (a) on each of the stimulation days. example of the raw lfp signal at baseline (b, first day before stimulation) and after days of cr neuromodulation (c, in the evening of the third day of stimulation) and the lfp power spectrum (d) obtained from the patient where an extended spontaneous lfp was obtained before and hour after cessation of cr neuromodulation illustrate the effect of cr neuromodulation. the normalized reduction of updrs motor scores and the reduction of the averaged beta band power obtained at the third stimulation day (e, after stimulation) were positively correlated. effects of cr neuromodulation on normalized individual lfp activity and individual motor performance in six pd patients (f, g, h, i) on the evening of the third day of stimulation. patients and did not show tremor, and therefore theta band activity was not analyzed in these two patients. the averaged normalized beta band power (k), the average normalized theta band power (l, obtained from the patients with tremor), as well as updrs motor score (items - ) (m) and updrs motor score subitems through (n), improved cumulatively and consistently over days of stimulation. wilcoxon matched-pairs test was performed to evaluate changes of lfp activity and scores. significant results are marked by the star (p < . ). please note, because of the small sample size of this exploratory proof of concept study, the statistical analysis has limited explanatory power. therefore, the beneficial clinical effects observed in all subjects con- sistently are of more importance. abbreviations: cr, coordinated reset; lfp, local field potential; updrs, unified parkinson’s disease rating scale. (baseline beta beta in the morning of day )/baseline beta. in addition, if a repeated administration of cr neuromodulation produces effects that are more pro- nounced than those produced by the first daily cr neuromodulation dose, such as leading to better improvement in the evening on day as opposed to the evening on day , we term these effects cumula- tive. a wilcoxon matched pairs test was performed to evaluate changes in lfp activity and updrs scores. see supplemental data for a detailed description of the methods. results all six enrolled subjects received cr neuromodula- tion during stimulation days. the averaged peak beta power decreased gradually over the stimulation days, resulting in a mean reduction of . %, p . / . %, p . in the morning/evening of day relative to baseline in all six patients (fig. f, k; table ). acute cr-induced effects were already observed on day in five patients (mean reduction, . %; p . , n ; fig. k, table ), with a mean acute aftereffect on the peak beta band power table . absolute and relative changes in beta and theta activity and updrs motor scores in patients over the -d period of cr neuromodulationa day day day morning assessment (before stimulation) evening assessment (after stimulation) morning assessment (before stimulation) evening assessment (after stimulation) morning assessment (before stimulation) evening assessment (after stimulation) beta activity mean (sd), a.u . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) change from base- line, mean (%)c - . % . % . % . % . % significanceb - . . . . . number/percentage of patients with beta activity reduc- tion (%) - / . / . / . / . / . theta activity mean (sd), a.u. . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) change from base- line, mean (%)c - . % . % . % . % . % significanceb - . . . . . number/percentage of patients with theta activity reduc- tion (%) - / . / . / . / . / . updrs total motor score - mean (sd) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) change from base- line, mean (%)c - . . . . . significanceb - . . . . . number/percentage of patients showing improvements (%) - / . / . / . / . / . updrs tremor subscore - mean (sd) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) change from base- line, mean (%)c - . . . . . significanceb - . . . . . number/percentage of patients showing improvements (%) - / . / . / . / . / . updrs bradykinesia/ rigidity subscore - mean (sd) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) change from base- line, mean (%)c - . . . . . significanceb - . . . . . number/percentage of patients showing improvements (%) - / . / . / . / . / . a.u., arbitrary units. aa positive change from baseline indicates a reduction (i.e., an improvement) in physiological activity and updrs motor scores. bwilcoxon matched pairs test. comparison vs baseline. cpercentual changes were calculated for each patient individually (compared with the individual baseline) and averaged afterward. positive values indicate a reduction. a d a m c h i c e t a l movement disorders, vol. , no. , averaged over the stimulation days of . % (p . ). effects of cr neuromodulation on the lfp theta band power are presented in figure g, l, and table . the acute theta change averaged over the stimulation days was . % (p . ). the updrs motor score averaged over six patients on the morning of the first day was . . (p . compared with pre-implantation scores) and served as baseline. in the morning of the third day before stimulation, the updrs motor scores were reduced in five patients (mean reduction, . %; p . , n ), followed by a more pronounced improvement in all six patients on the third day after stimulation (mean reduction, . %; p . , n ; fig. h, m, and table ). tremor-related updrs motor score subitems to were reduced in all four patients presenting with tremor by an average of . % (p . , n ) on the evening of the third day, whereas the updrs motor score subitems through (rigidity and bradykinesia) were reduced in all six patients (mean reduction, . %; p . , n ), respectively (table and fig. i). coordinated reset neuromodulation showed significant acute after- effects (averaged over the stimulation days in all patients, . %, p . ). the reduction of updrs motor scores positively correlated with the decrease in individual beta band peak power (fig. e; r . ; p . ; n ), whereas theta band power did not show such a correlation. no adverse events were observed. discussion we show here in pd patients that cr neuromodu- lation has significant as well as cumulative afteref- fects on beta lfp oscillations that were positively correlated with a reduction of motor symptoms. all six patients responded well to cr neuromodulation. our results are in accordance with theoretical pre- dictions, , in vitro experiments , preclinical results in mptp monkeys, and pathophysiological findings relating abnormal neuronal synchrony to motor signs. , the cr effects on motor symptoms and abnormal brain oscillations are quite consistent. beta oscillations , and corresponding updrs subitems through were reduced in all six patients in the morning and evening of the third day. in addition, tremor-related theta lfp oscillations and updrs subitems and were reduced in all four patients with tremor in the morning and evening of the third day. the electrophysiological and clinical cr effects, observed in all six patients (reduction of lfp beta activity by % and of updrs motor scores by % compared with baseline), were cumulative; that is, after the third daily dose of cr neuromodulation (in the evening of day ) updrs motor scores showed a significant improvement (p . ), and beta activity showed a trend toward a significant reduction (p . ) compared with the evening of the first day. this cumulative improvement is particularly remark- able, because it is in the opposite direction of the worsening typically observed (personal observations) as a consequence of the fading insertional effect. despite limitations because of the small sample size, the non-blinded, open-label design, missing high- frequency or placebo comparison, and short treatment duration, our conclusive electrophysiological data, correlated with clinical improvement confirm, previ- ous theoretical , and experimental , data and ena- ble one to elaborate effects of cr neuromodulation of the stn in pd patients. the risk of a type i error attributable to multiple statistical comparisons is also present. of course, the effects of electrical cr neuro- modulation have to be confirmed in a randomized controlled trial. however, conducting randomized controlled trials and developing the corresponding implantable device for electrical cr neuromodulation require substantial investments. proof-of-concept studies such as ours are, hence, key for the overall decision making as well as for the design of future tri- als. should appropriate randomized controlled trials ultimately confirm the encouraging preliminary results shown here, electrical cr neuromodulation could rep- resent a substantial advancement for the treatment of parkinson’s disease. acknowledgments: this study was funded by j€ulich research center (helmholtz society). . we thank pd dr. h. treuer & dr. b. lysyansky for their support of the study. ia, ch and pat had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integ- rity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. references . deuschl g, schade-brittinger c, krack p, et al. a randomized trial of deep-brain stimulation for parkinson’s disease. n engl j med ; : - . . volkmann j, moro e, pahwa r. basic algorithms for the program- ming of deep brain stimulation in parkinson’s disease. mov disord ; (suppl ):s -s . . rosin b, slovik m, mitelman r, et al. closed-loop deep brain stimulation is superior in ameliorating parkinsonism. neuron ; : - . . little s, pogosyan a, neal s, et al. adaptive deep brain stimulation in advanced parkinson disease. ann neurol ; : - . . tass pa. a model of desynchronizing deep brain stimulation with a demand-controlled coordinated reset of neural subpopulations. biol cybern ; : - . . tass pa, majtanik m. long-term anti-kindling effects of desynch- ronizing brain stimulation: a theoretical study. biol cybern ; : - . . hammond c, bergman h, brown p. pathological synchronization in parkinson’s disease: networks, models and treatments. trends neurosci ; : - . . k€uhn aa, kempf f, bruuecke c, et al. high-frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus suppresses oscillatory activity in patients with parkinson’s disease in parallel with improvement in motor performance. j neurosci ; : - . . tass pa, silchenko an, hauptmann c, barnikol ub, speckmann ej. long-lasting desynchronization in rat hippocampal slice c r n e u r o m o d u l a t i o n o f t h e s u b t h a l a m i c n u c l e u s movement disorders, vol. , no. , induced by coordinated reset stimulation. phys rev e ; : . . tass pa, qin l, hauptmann c, et al. coordinated reset neuromo- dulation has sustained after-effects in parkinsonian monkeys. ann neurol ; : - . . temperli p, ghika j, villemure jg, burkhard pr, bogousslavsky j, vingerhoets fj. how do parkinsonian signs return after discontin- uation of subthalamic dbs? neurology ; : - . . meissner w, leblois a, hansel d, et al. subthalamic high fre- quency stimulation resets subthalamic firing and reduces abnormal oscillations. brain ; : - . . fahn s, elton rl. unified parkinson’s disease rating scale. in: fahn s, marsden cd, calne d, goldstein m, eds. recent develop- ments in parkinson’s disease. florham park, nj: macmillan health care information, : - . . hauptmann c, roulet jc, niederhauser jj, et al. external trial deep brain stimulation device for the application of desynchroniz- ing stimulation techniques. j neural eng ; : . . tass pa, smirnov d, karavaev a, et al. the causal relationship between subcortical local field potential oscillations and parkinso- nian resting tremor. j neural eng ; : . supporting data additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher’s web-site. clinical, positron emission tomography, and pathological studies of dnajc p.n s parkinsonism silke appel-cresswell, md, * ali h. rajput, md, vesna sossi, phd, christina thompson, bsc, vanessa silva, bsc, , jessamyn mckenzie, lpn, katherine dinelle, msc, siobhan e. mccormick, msc, carles vilari~no-g€uell, phd, a. jon stoessl, md, dennis w. dickson, md, chris a. robinson, md, matthew j. farrer, phd, and alex rajput, md pacific parkinson’s research center, division of neurology, university of british columbia, vancouver, bc, canada department of neurology, university of saskatchewan and saskatoon health region, saskatoon, sk, canada department of physics and astronomy (v.s.), university of british columbia, vancouver, bc, canada djavad mowafaghian center for brain heath, department of medical genetics, university of british columbia, vancouver, bc, canada department of neuroscience, mayo clinic, jacksonville, florida, usa division of neuropathology, department of pathology, saskatoon health region/university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sk, canada abstract background: families of dutch-german-russian men- nonite descent with multi-incident parkinsonism have been identified as harboring a pathogenic dnajc p.n s mutation and are awaiting clinical and patho- physiological characterization. methods: family members were examined clinically longitudinally, and underwent dopaminergic pet imaging. four family members came to autopsy. results: of the symptomatic dnajc mutation carriers, had clinically definite, probable, and possible parkinson’s disease (pd). symptoms included bradykinesia, tremor, rigidity, and postural instability, with a mean onset of years (range, - ) and slow progression. eight of ten subjects who required treat- ment had a good levodopa response; motor complica- tions and nonmotor symptoms were observed. dopaminergic pet imaging revealed rostrocaudal stria- tal deficits typical for idiopathic pd in established dis- ease and subtle abnormalities in incipient disease. pathological examinations revealed lewy body pathology. conclusion: pd associated with a dnajc p.n s mutation presents as late-onset, often slowly progres- sive, usually dopamine-responsive typical pd. vc international parkinson and movement disorder society key words: parkinson’s disease (pd); positron emis- sion tomography (pet); lewy body pathology; dnajc ; mennonite; familial pd parkinson’s disease (pd) has a comparatively high prevalence in mennonite communities, with a relative frequency . -fold higher than other north american caucasian populations. recently, a pathogenic muta- tion in dnajc (receptor-mediated endocytosis ) was linked with autosomal-dominant parkinsonism in mennonites. by whole-exome sequencing, dnajc p.n s was observed in symptomatic family mem- bers (pedigree sk ii- , iii- , and iii- ). subsequent sanger sequencing and genotyping showed the muta- tion segregated with parkinsonism and identified more multi-incident pedigrees (bc and sk ) and ------------------------------------------------------------ *correspondence to: dr. silke appel-cresswell, pacific parkinson’s research center, department of medicine (neurology), university of brit- ish columbia, wesbrook mall, vancouver, bc, v t b canada; silkec@mail.ubc.ca funding sources: funding sources include the canadian federal gov- ernment, including the canadian institutes of health research or are phi- lanthropic, as specified in the acknowledgments. there are no commercial sponsors. relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures: nothing to report. full financial disclosures and author roles may be found in the online ver- sion of this article. received: april ; revised: july ; accepted: july published online september in wiley online library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). doi: . /mds. a p p e l - c r e s s w e l l e t a l movement disorders, vol. , no. , http://www.phcfm.org open access african journal of primary health care & family medicine issn: (online) - , (print) - page of obituaries read online: scan this qr code with your smart phone or mobile device to read online. in memorial: raymond downing – author: jeremiah laktabai affiliation: department of family medicine, college of health sciences, moi university, eldoret, kenya corresponding author: jeremiah laktabai, drlaktabai@yahoo.com how to cite this article: laktabai j. tribute to dr raymond downing: – . afr j prm health care fam med. ; ( ), a . https://doi.org/ . /phcfm.v i . copyright: © . the authors. licensee: aosis. this work is licensed under the creative commons attribution license. raymond victor downing was born on february in massachusetts, usa. he was the second of three children born to harry and ebba downing. he was brought up in the plymouth brethren church in auburn, massachusetts, and lived in massachusetts for his early childhood. in , he went to tufts university, and in , received his doctor of medicine (md) from new york medical college. afterwards, raymond completed his residency in family medicine at the university of tennessee hospital and worked in tennessee for years. he met dr janice armstrong, also a family physician, during his stay in tennessee and they married in october . there they had two children: elizabeth and timothy. in , they moved with their two young children to sudan to work in a refugee settlement clinic. from there, in , they moved to tanzania to work in a mennonite mission hospital. four years later in , they moved again to kenya, and began working at friends lugulu hospital in western kenya. in , raymond and janice joined the department of family medicine, moi university in webuye, bungoma county., and worked with other colleagues to design the first family medicine training programme in the country. in , raymond retired from moi university, and shortly afterwards joined the medical team at dreamland mission hospital, where he worked until his death. raymond was also a prolific writer and has written several books and essays on global health and medicine, which include his thoughts on death and dying. his most recent titles include such a time of it they had and global health means listening. he was a devout christian, a family medicine physician, mentor, author, teacher, brother, father, husband, colleague and a great friend. raymond passed away comfortably on monday, january , in the evening at his home in kimili, western kenya surrounded by his entire family. he leaves behind his wife, janice armstrong; two sisters, mary-ellen welsher and nancy kline; and two children, elizabeth and timothy downing. he would certainly be missed. tribute to dr raymond downing: – read online: scan this qr code with your smart phone or mobile device to read online. note: photo of raymond downing provided by jeremiah laktaba. republished with permission from jeremiah laktaba. http://www.phcfm.org https://orcid.org/ - - - mailto:drlaktabai@yahoo.com https://doi.org/ . /phcfm.v i . https://doi.org/ . /phcfm.v i . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /phcfm.v i . =pdf&date_stamp= - - shieldsquare captcha we apologize for the inconvenience... ...but your activity and behavior on this site made us think that you are a bot. note: a number of things could be going on here. 	if you are attempting to access this site using an anonymous private/proxy network, please disable that and try accessing site again. 	due to previously detected malicious behavior which originated from the network you're using, please request unblock to site. please solve this captcha to request unblock to the website 	 		you reached this page when trying to access 		https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/ - from 		 . . . on 		april , : : utc 	 mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function erik g. puffenberger*†, diane hu-lince†‡, jennifer m. parod†‡, david w. craig‡, seth e. dobrin‡, andrew r. conway§, elizabeth a. donarum¶, kevin a. strauss*, travis dunckley‡, javier f. cardenas‡, kara r. melmed‡, courtney a. wright‡, winnie liang‡, phillip stafford‡, c. robert flynn�, d. holmes morton†, and dietrich a. stephan‡** *clinic for special children, strasburg, pa ; ‡neurogenomics division, translational genomics research institute, phoenix, az ; §silicon genetics, redwood city, ca ; ¶department of neurodevelopmental genetics, barrow neurological institute, phoenix, az ; and �arizona biodesign institute and harrington department of bioengineering, arizona state university, tempe, az edited by albert de la chapelle, ohio state university, columbus, oh, and approved june , (received for review february , ) we have identified a lethal phenotype characterized by sudden infant death (from cardiac and respiratory arrest) with dysgenesis of the testes in males [online mendelian inheritance in man (omim) accession no. ]. twenty-one affected individuals with this autosomal recessive syndrome were ascertained in nine separate sibships among the old order amish. high-density single- nucleotide polymorphism (snp) genotyping arrays containing , single-nucleotide polymorphisms evenly distributed across the human genome were used to map the disease locus. a genome- wide autozygosity scan localized the disease gene to a . -mb interval on chromosome q . -q . . this interval contained genes, including two testis-specific y-like genes (tspyl and tspyl ) of unknown function. sequence analysis of the tspyl gene in affected individuals identified a homozygous frameshift mutation ( � insg) at codon , resulting in truncation of translation at codon . truncation leads to loss of a peptide domain with strong homology to the nucleosome assembly protein family. gfp-fusion expression constructs were constructed and illustrated loss of nuclear localization of truncated tspyl, suggest- ing loss of a nuclear localization patch in addition to loss of the nucleosome assembly domain. these results shed light on the pathogenesis of a disorder of sexual differentiation and brainstem- mediated sudden death, as well as give insight into a mechanism of transcriptional regulation. over two generations, nine families from the bellevilleamish community have lost infants to a recently discovered disorder we have entitled sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt; fig. ) [online mendelian inheritance in man (omim) accession no. ]. the condition is not seen in the lancaster county old order amish population. three of these infants have been cared for at the clinic for special children. most previous cases were studied extensively at regional medical centers; however, no diagnostic tests were available, and clinical recognition of the syndrome was difficult, particularly in affected females. caretakers say that they can often recognize affected infants at birth by the unusual sound of their cry, which is a staccato sound, similar to the cry of a goat (see materials and methods for a complete description of the syndrome). homozygosity mapping to identify disease genes in autosomal recessive disorders common in founder populations by using traditional methods has often been hampered by microsatellite marker density ( , ). typically, � microsatellite markers are used in such linkage studies spaced at an average -centimorgan density throughout the genome. single-nucleotide polymor- phisms (snp) are present in the genome at an average density of � per , bp and hold enormous potential as a high-density high-throughput genotyping strategy for disease gene mapping ( ). information content is a function of marker heterozygosity, distance between markers, and pedigree structure. although each individual biallelic snp is less informative than a single microsatellite marker in most cases (e.g., average heterozygosity of . on affymetrix k array vs. . on the center for inherited disease research database), the greater number of snps in aggregate leads to higher information content at any particular point in the genome ( ). the affymetrix k array assay requires only ng of dna and generates , snp genotypes with an average resolution of one snp every kb ( ). this new genotyping platform has a throughput -fold greater than microsatellite genotyping and an accuracy of � . % with automated allele calling. the high density and information content of this genotyping platform make it ideal for localizing small regions of homozygosity. blinded validation studies were done to verify that gene mapping could be accomplished using the snp arrays in small disease pedigrees with known map location. the gene for each disease was previously mapped and the causative mutation identified. in each case, we were able to reproduce the mapping results. a software analysis package entitled varia (silicon genetics) was developed to handle the large amount of data inherent to these assays and to correctly localize disease-carrying loci from markers that are in linkage disequilibrium with one another. the genome-wide linkage scan conducted on the multiplex siddt pedigree rapidly and unambiguously mapped this disorder to q with a location score of . [maximum -point logarithm of odds (lod) of . ] in a . -mb interval. sequencing of two candidate genes in the region identified a nonsense mutation in the testis-specific y-like gene (tspyl). functional validation was performed through construction of gfp-fusion proteins of both the full-length and truncated tspyl proteins to investigate the effect of truncation on cellular localization. materials and methods subjects and samples. dna samples used in mapping and se- quencing studies of siddt were acquired by the clinic for special children, with informed consent. peripheral blood was collected from four affected individuals, their parents, siblings, and extended family members. samples from maple syrup urine this paper was submitted directly (track ii) to the pnas office. freely available online through the pnas open access option. abbreviations: siddt, sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome; tspyl, testis-specific y-like; snp, single-nucleotide polymorphism; nap, nucleosome assembly protein; lod, logarithm of odds. data deposition: the disorder reported in this paper has been deposited in the online mendelian inheritance in man (omim) database (accession no. ). †e.g.p., d.h.-l, and j.m.p. contributed equally to this work. **to whom correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: dstephan@tgen.org. © by the national academy of sciences of the usa www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. pnas � august , � vol. � no. � – g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , disease, crigler–najjar syndrome, and congenital nephrotic syndrome families were previously collected with informed consent and described elsewhere ( , ). genealogies for all families in the four diseases described herein were prepared through interviews and several published family histories. ad- ditional research was performed at the lancaster mennonite historical society (lancaster, pa). clinical description of the condition. infants with siddt appear normal at birth, develop signs of visceroautonomic dysfunction early in life, and die before months of age of abrupt cardiorespiratory arrest. one infant died in the hospital while awake and attached to a cardiac-respiratory monitor. the mon- itor showed simultaneous asystole and cessation of respiratory efforts. another infant died suddenly and unexpectedly at home, with no premonitory signs. in both cases, neuropathological examinations were done by experts in sudden infant death syndrome. brain and peripheral nerves were normal. specifi- cally, there was no dysplasia or inf lammation of the brainstem and no pathology of cervical anterior horn cells or lower motor neurons of the hypoglossal nerve. the absence of anterior horn cell pathology contrasts with signs of progressive craniocervical and upper thoracic motor unit dysfunction in affected patients. these signs can include tongue fasciculations, ocular palsies, symmetric weakness of the facial nerve, and diminished upper extremity ref lexes. signs of abnormal autonomic and visceral nerve regulation manifest within the first months of life and include neonatal bradycardia, hypothermia, severe gastroesophageal ref lux, la- ryngospasm, bronchospasm, and abnormal cardiorespiratory patterns during sleep. all affected infants have a hyperactive startle ref lex that can be provoked by loud noise, bright light, movement, or tactile stimulation (e.g., bathing). the ref lex is unresponsive to clonazepam. affected newborns are difficult to feed and may require nasogastric tube alimentation. infant vii- was evaluated twice, at and weeks of age, for feeding and respiratory problems. at age weeks, she presented with poor growth, persistent stridor, and episodes of laryngospasm and cyanosis. a barium swallow excluded tracheoesophageal fistula. a five-channel pneumogram and ph probe showed esophageal ph � for % of study (normal � %), with central, obstruc- tive, and mixed apneas. direct laryngoscopy revealed aretynoid and postcricoid supraglottic erythema. she had persistent bilat- eral perihilar consolidations on serial chest radiographs. this infant underwent gastrostomy tube placement and fun- doplication, which prevented acid ref lux and provided airway protection, but she continued to have life-threatening apnea and obstructive breathing. when a five-channel pneumogram and ph probe was repeated at age weeks, attempted passage of the probe through both left and right nares provoked severe brady- cardia and cyanosis. this -h study showed normal lower esophageal ph, frequent isolated bradycardias, extreme back- ground heart rate variability (range – beats per minute), and multiple bradycardic events associated with disorganized breathing or prolonged apnea. a salivagram showed normal transit of sublingual tracer from mouth to stomach, with no aspiration. a cranial mri was normal and electroencephalo- gram showed normal waking, drowsiness, and slow-wave sleep electrical patterns. despite exclusive gastrostomy tube feeding, growth remained poor, and she died suddenly before her first birthday. genotypic males with siddt syndrome have fetal testicular dysgenesis and ambiguous genitalia and can be mistaken for females. in two genetically male but externally phenotypic female infants with the syndrome, intraabdominal testes were examined at autopsy. they were dysplastic, with tortuous vas- cularity and an arrest of cell development at an early stage. both leydig and sertoli cells were present but diminished in number and nested in rudimentary fibrotic cords. normal regression of mullerian structures in males indicates that sertoli cells secrete mullerian inhibiting hormone. however, leydig cells fail to produce the testosterone and dihydrotestosterone throughout fetal life necessary to sustain growth and development of the external male organ. this can be detected postnatally as an abnormal response to human chorionic gonadotropin challenge. development of male genitalia arrests at variable embryologic stages. at birth, some males were thought to be females on the basis of external genitalia, but other male infants had fusion and rugation of the gonadal sac and partial development of the penile shaft. variable maturation of male genitalia indicates that leydig cell failure can occur at different times throughout fetal development. female sexual development is normal, as is neonatal hypo- thalamic and ovarian function. patient vii- , a genotypic and phenotypic female, had normal internal and external genitalia and normal postpartum elevation of serum estradiol, luteinizing hormone (lh), and follicle-stimulating hormone (fsh). adre- nal and gonadal pathways of steroid biosynthesis were studied extensively in patient vi- and found to be normal. in this child, pituitary and hypothalamic functions were also normal with regard to serum thyroid, corticotropin (acth), cortisol, lh� fsh, and prolactin levels. additional endocrinological and biochemical studies were done on siddt syndrome patients at various stages of investi- fig. . siddt in a consanguineous old order amish pedigree. (a) tspyl � insg mutation status is indicated for available pedigree members (m denotes � insg, whereas � represents wild-type sequence). (b) sequencing of tspyl reveals a homozygous single base-pair insertion ( � insg) in siddt syndrome patients. (i) tspyl sequence from a normal control. (ii) � insg heterozygote. (iii) � insg homozygote. � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. puffenberger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , gation. plasma sterol and organic analyses by gas chromatogra- phy mass spectrometry, serum acylcarnitines by tandem mass spectrometry, steroid immunoassays for congenital adrenal hy- perplasias, and plasma amino acid analyses yielded normal results. cerebrospinal f luid amino acids and neurotransmitter metabolites were normal in patient vii- . chromosomes were done in many cases, both to establish genotypic sex and to detect structural aberrations; no abnormalities were found. pcr and gene sequencing excluded spinal muscular atrophy (smn exon deletion). an assay was done for the triplet repeat expansion of the testosterone receptor gene, which in adult males causes testicular failure and progressive bulbar weakness (kennedy syndrome), and results were normal. genotyping. dna from whole blood was isolated by using the puregene dna isolation kit (gentra systems). snp geno- typing was done by using the genechip mapping k array and assay kit (affymetrix). the genotyping protocol was modified from kennedy et al. ( ). all incubations were done by using a tetrad thermal cycler (mj research, cambridge, ma). internal positive and negative controls were performed in parallel by using the supplied genomic dna (affymetrix). two hundred fifty nanograms of double-stranded genomic dna was digested with xbai (new england biolabs) for h at °c followed by heat inactivation for min at °c. digested dna was then incubated with a . m xba adapter (affymetrix) and dna ligase (new england biolabs) in standard ligation buffer (new england biolabs) for h at °c followed by heat inactivation for min at °c. ligated products were amplified in quadruplicate by using . m of the supplied generic primer xbai (affymetrix) in pcr buffer ii (applied biosystems) with . mm mgcl � . mm dntps� units of amplitaq gold polymerase (applied biosystems) under the following pcr conditions: °c for min, followed by cycles ( °c for sec, °c for sec, and °c for sec) and a final extension at °c for min. fragments in the - to , -bp size range are preferentially amplified under these conditions. pcr products were purified with the qiaquick pcr purification kit (qiagen, valencia, ca) according to the manufacturer’s recommendations, with the exception of the elution procedure. dna from each of four pcr replicate samples was bound to separate columns and washed. the eluant collected from column was used to elute the remaining three columns in series. the final purified product is the combination of four purified pcr product samples. eighteen to twenty micrograms of purified pcr products were fragmented with . units of the supplied genechip fragmentation reagent (af- fymetrix) for min at °c followed by a heat inactivation for min at °c. samples were then labeled with units of terminal deoxytransferase (affymetrix) and . mm of sup- plied genechip dna labeling reagent in tdt buffer (af- fymetrix) for h at °c followed by min at °c. after end-labeling, the fragments were hybridized to a genechip human mapping k array for – h at °c while rotating at rpm. microarrays were washed by using the fluidics station (affymetrix) in . � sspe (sodium chloride, sodium phosphate, and edta), followed by a three-step staining pro- tocol. we incubated the arrays first with �g�ml streptavidin (pierce), washed with � sspe and incubated with �g�ml biotinylated antistreptavidin (vector laboratories) and �g�ml streptav idin–phycoer ythrin conjugate (molecular probes), and finally washed with � sspe per the manufactur- er’s recommended times. microarrays were scanned by using the genechip scanner according to the manufacturer’s pro- tocol (affymetrix). data acquisition was performed by using the genechip gcos software. initial data analysis was done by using the genechip dna analysis software and then exported to varia (silicon genetics) for analysis. all raw genotype data and call statistics for the four disorders are in tables – , which are published as supporting information on the pnas web site. the overall performance statistics of the genotyping arrays over the , genotypes in individuals (including the siddt pedigree), yielded average call rates of . % and average signal detection rates of . %. linkage mapping. data analysis was done by using the varia software package developed by silicon genetics. snp positions came from dbsnp build and national center for biotech- nology information build v of the human genome. varia searches for genomic regions that are identical by descent between all affected individuals and assumes no mutation het- erogeneity within affected individuals. several assumptions were made for the analysis, including a genotype error rate of % and hardy–weinberg equilibrium. details on the generation of ‘‘location scores’’ can be found at http:��www.silicongenetics. com�support�autozygosity.pdf (referred to as ‘‘regional lod scores’’ in the pdf; ref. ). brief ly, the two-point lod scores across the autozygous region are summed to produce the loca- tion score, accounting for size of the shared interval as well as the magnitude of allele frequency differences within the interval. one hundred seventy old order amish control chromosomes (including six untransmitted chromosomes from the siddt parents and from the three mapping validation sibships) were used to estimate snp allele frequencies. the three regions of the genome having the highest location scores are illustrated in figs. and . sequencing. mutation analysis was performed for the tspyl and tspyl genes in the linked region on chromosome q . the exon of each target gene was amplified by using specific primers and ng of genomic dna from affected and unaffected family members. the tspyl gene lacks introns and contains a coding region of fig. . snp genotyping reveals a . -centimorgan region ( . mb) on chromosome q . -q . that contains the siddt gene. asterisks denote individuals who were genotyped. the three regions across the genome with the highest location scores are ranked by descending score. the four affected individuals are homozygous for adjacent snps at the q locus. horizontal red bars indicate the autozygous region (with physical distance illustrated), and two-point lod scores for each snp are plotted to illustrate that informa- tion content of biallelic markers in small pedigrees alone make mapping difficult. the region is bounded by snps rs and rs . the prox- imal and distal transmitted haplotypes flanking the homozygous region were not diverse, whereas there was little haplotype sharing in intervals b and c outside the autozygous segment, indicating these were false-positive regions. the two regions with the next best location scores had small numbers of contiguous homozygous snps, smaller homozygous intervals, and little shar- ing outside the homozygous interval. puffenberger et al. pnas � august , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , , bases (genbank accession no. al ). the mrna is � , bases in length (genbank xm� ), and the mature tspyl protein is aa. primer sequences for tspyl amplifica- tion were �-agatctccagtcctgacgacac- � (forward) and �-agga a acagggtgcaga a a agt- � (reverse). tspyl sequencing primers (in addition to the forward and reverse primers, above) were tspyl -f: �-ggccgagtgg- tgtctctttcta- �; tspyl -f: �-ggaggatagattg- gaggaggag- �; tspyl -f: �-tactccccagatc- cgagttgtt- �. in addition to the � insg mutation, two polymorphic variants were incidentally detected while sequencing control samples: a known nonsynonymous snp g�a (a t) and a unique in-frame short tandem repeat [ (gtg) - ] that codes for either two or three adjacent valine residues at positions – in the peptide. the a allele had a frequency of . %, whereas the (gtg) allele had a frequency of . % on control chromosomes. primer sequences for pcr amplification of tspyl were �-aaaactccccttccagactgac- � (forward) and �-cacaatgcagaaaagcatgaag- � (reverse). tspyl sequencing primers (in addition to the forward and reverse primers, above) were tspyl c -f: �-acacaggtgatggcgaac- acag- �; tspyl c -f: �-ccatcgatcaagagttgtc- aaa- �; tspyl c -f: �-caggctcatatccacaga- aacc- �; and tspyl c -r: �-taatgaaacttctgc- gctgcat- �. pcr products were purified by using qiaquick columns (qiagen) and then sequenced using the bigdye terminator cycle sequencing protocol (applied biosystems). extension products were size-fractionated on an applied biosystems genetic analyzer. sequences were compared to normal sequence for each gene using genbank al , which contains both genes. population-based control samples were sequenced in an identi- cal fashion. functional validation. full-length and truncated tspyl cdnas were amplified by using gene-specific primers for the full-length: fig. . accurate disease gene localization using the affymetrix genechip mapping k assay kit and the silicon genetics varia software package. mapping of the congenital nephrotic syndrome locus, maple syrup urine disease locus, and the crigler–najjar syndrome locus was accomplished by using minimal numbers of individuals in each pedigree. the three highest location scores across the genome are indicated for each disorder in descending order. the location score combined with physical distance was found to be the best predictor of the correct region in each case. no affected individuals were genotyped in the nphs pedigree, yet it was still possible to detect the correct locus, and the inferred region of autozygosity is indicated by a green horizontal bar. � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. puffenberger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , forward, �-caccatgagcggcctggatggggtca a- gagg- �; reverse, �-tagctcgagaccagactggaac- ccaaagggcctggggatc- �; and the truncated: identical forward to above; reverse, �-tagctcgagtggcggct- gctcctctacctcc- � versions from genomic dna using the expand high fidelity pcr system (roche, indianapolis). cy- cling conditions were °c for min and then cycles ( °c for sec, °c for min, and °c for sec) followed by °c for sec and then cycles ( °c for min, °c for min) and then °c for min. pcr products were cloned directionally into the pentr-d-topo gateway vector (invitrogen) and then into the gateway destination vector pcdna-dest (invitro- gen) containing a c-terminal gfp tag. all clones were sequence verified. helaf cells ( ) were grown in dmem supplemented with % fbs (gibco�brl). the helaf cells were trans- fected with �g of the tspyl full-length or truncated gfp constructs, respectively, using lipofectin reagent (invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. twenty-four hours post-transfection, subconf luent helaf cells were washed three times with pbs. the transiently transformed cells were fixed in % formaldehyde and permeabilized in . % triton x- . nuclear localization was confirmed by using a �, - diamidino- -phenylindole dihydrochloride stain from molecular probes. images were captured with fitc and uv filter sets and a � oil immersion objective in conjunction with a leica (deerfield, il) tcs-nt confocal microscope. results and discussion we first wanted to verify that statistically significant and unam- biguous disease gene mapping could be accomplished with a very small number of affected sibships and a dense genotyping platform. these blinded validation studies used three small disease-mapping sets from the old order amish and old order mennonite populations of southeastern pennsylvania, namely, maple syrup urine disease ( , ), crigler–najjar syndrome ( , ), and congenital nephrotic syndrome ( , ). the gene for each disease had been previously identified. genome-wide linkage scans were performed and regions of autozygosity identified through a location score statistic. heterozygous markers f lank- ing the identical by descent homozygous segment in affecteds define the minimal genetic interval. in each of the three test cases, the interval with the largest location score correctly identified the true gene location (fig. ). the location score is not a formal statistic, but a summation of two-point lod data across a region of homozygosity. equal marker density across physical distances is assumed, which is a f law of the statistic, but this issue should resolve as marker spacing stabilizes in future array iterations. the siddt mapping panel was comprised of four affected individuals (fig. , vi- , vi- , vi- , and vii- ) and their parents from three sibships. the region that received the highest two-point lod score ( . ; fig. ) and the highest location score ( . ; fig. ) was on chromosome q . -q . [genome build v , national center for biotechnology information (ncbi)]. the homozygous segment spanned . mb, corresponding to . centimorgans. examination of the minimal shared region in affecteds, which was f lanked by snps rs and rs , revealed known and hypothetical genes based on both the ncbi and celera annotations, of which are characterized (fig. ). the siddt phenotype includes testicular dysgenesis; thus genes with known or inferred function related to sexual differentiation and testicular development were sought. two genes were possible candidates based on sequence homology to the testis-specific gene tspy at chromosome yp : the paralogs testis-specific y-encoded like genes tspyl and tspyl . unlike tspy, which has testis-restricted expression, tspyl is expressed in the brain and testes (as well as other tissues). complete sequencing of the tspyl gene in an affected individual (vi- ) revealed a homozygous single base insertion, � insg (fig. ). this variant causes premature truncation of the protein at codon . this change was not seen as a polymorphic variant in genbank. sequencing of all individ- uals in the siddt pedigree revealed that all affected individuals were homozygous for the change, all parents of affected indi- viduals were heterozygous, and no unaffected siblings were homozygous for the change. fifty-eight old order amish con- trols were genotyped for the insertion (n � chromosomes). most of these samples were from the lancaster county old order amish population; however, eight controls were available for study from the juniata and miff lin county old order amish. none of the lancaster county old order amish carried the variant, but four heterozygotes were detected from the miff lin and juniata county old order amish. although the sample size is small (n � chromosomes), this suggests that the tspyl � insg variant has an especially high carrier frequency in this genetic isolate. a subset of sudden infant death syndrome and�or ambiguous genitalia in these populations could be caused fig. . mutation of the tspyl gene causes siddt. (a) the gene content of the interval contained characterized and hypothetical genes (not shown). the genomic interval surrounding tspyl and tspyl ( -kb proximal) contains only two documented (ca)n repeats, neither of which is in the standard applied biosystems linkage panel; thus, this locus might have been missed by using the small dna sample set and a standard microsatellite marker screen. (b) individuals with siddt syndrome were found to have a tspyl frameshift mutation at codon causing cessation of translation at codon . the predicted secondary structure shows a series of �-helixes and �-strands in the nap homologous region. (c) the primary amino acid sequence. we speculate that the � domain may be a dna-binding domain or may interact with regulatory complexes within the chromatin. (d) subcellular localization of tspyl is altered through loss of the � portion of the peptide (upper, trun- cated tspyl; lower, full-length tspyl). loss of the nap functional domain probably directly affects the ability of tspyl to shuttle histones from the cytoplasm to the nucleus but also disrupts the nuclear localization signal on the tertiary surface of the peptide. tspyl localizes to the nucleus with a punctate staining pattern, whereas the truncated form illustrates diffuse cytoplasmic staining. the nucleus is counterstained with �, -diamidino- - phenylindole dihydrochloride. puffenberger et al. pnas � august , � vol. � no. � g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , by tspyl loss of function. a second gene family member, tspyl , was found kb proximal to tspyl, but direct sequencing of an affected individual identified no coding vari- ants. the truncated tspyl exhibited inappropriate subcellular targeting in an in vitro assay (fig. ), providing additional evidence that tspyl is causative of siddt. aspects of the molecular function of tspyl can be gleaned from its primary sequence (fig. ). the tspyl nucleosome assembly protein (nap) domain is preceded by a region of low complexity with no known functional motifs. naps are a family of proteins that function as chaperones, shuttling histones from the cytosol to the nucleosome. studies in yeast show that naps are critical to nucleosome assembly, mitotic progression, and chromatin formation ( – ). nap domains may also function as transcription factors during embryogenesis. during the devel- opment of xenopus embryos, the nap-containing protein nap l is broadly expressed at its highest level during develop- ment of hematopoietic tissue. when nap l is overexpressed, genes involved in tissue development are up-regulated, specifi- cally gata- , a gene essential for hematopoiesis ( ). although we focused on tspyl based on its similarity to tspy, the knowledge that genotypic females are affected suggests that tspyl, unlike tspy, is expressed in other tissues ( , ). tspyl may play a role in development by altering regulation of specific developmental genes and contributing to region-specific chromatin remodeling. several data sets within the gene ex- pression omnibus (geo) illustrate that tspyl is highly and almost exclusively (with respect to adult structures) expressed in the fetal brain (geo no. gsm ). in addition, tspyl has been shown to be negatively regulated in the hippocampus in a linear dose-dependent fashion by corticosteroids (geo no. gsm ), sensitively negatively regulated by jnk (geo no. gsm ), and positively regulated by testosterone (geo no. gsm ). elucidation of tspyl function may shed light on fundamental aspects of embryogenesis of the human nervous and reproductive systems through a previously not described signaling mechanism. more important, studies of tspyl ex- pression and function in the developing brain may provide new insight into the genetic basis of apnea, dysphagia, cardiac arrests, and sudden unexplained deaths in infancy. present clinical evidence suggests that in siddt, sudden death may result from dysregulation of the autonomic brainstem systems that control cardiac and pulmonary protective ref lexes ( – ). the lethal event may be profound vagally mediated laryngobronchospasm or asystole. we thank the old order amish families who participated in the research and the old order amish community for their willingness to participate in research studies, robert wells at affymetrix, inc., and g. terry sharrer at the smithsonian institution for facilitating this work, drs. allen ettinger and bruce lidston for bringing this disorder to our attention, phanindra tangirala for posting data on the web, and john pearson for bioinformatics support. this work was supported in part by national institute of neurological disorders and stroke grant u ns - (to d.a.s.) and by national research service award fellowship f ns - (to d.h.-l.). . puffenberger, e. g. ( ) am. j. med. genet. c, – . . bolk, s., puffenberger, e. g., hudson, j., morton, d. h. & chakravarti, a. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . cargill, m., altshuler, d., ireland, j., sklar, p., ardlie, k., patil, n., shaw, n., lane, c. r., lim, e. p., kalyanaraman, n., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . matsuzaki, h., loi, h., dong, s., tsai, y., fang, j., law, j., di, x., liu, w., yang, g., liu, g., et al. ( ) genome res. , – . . kennedy, g. c., matsuzaki, h., dong, s., liu, w. m., huang, j., liu, g., su, x., cao, m., chen, w., zhang, j., et al. ( ) nat. biotechnol. , – . . daly, m. j., rioux, j. d., schaffner, s. f., hudson, t. j. & lander, e. s. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . zhang, b., kuntz, m. j., goodwin, g. w., edenberg, h. j., crabb, d. w. & harris, r. a. ( ) ann. n.y. acad. sci. , – . . kadakol, a., ghosh, s. s., sappal, b. s., sharma, g., chowdhury, j. r. & chowdhury, n. r. ( ) hum. mutat. , – . . ishimi, y. & kikuchi, a. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . mosammaparast, n., ewart, c. s. & pemberton, l. f. ( ) embo j. , – . . steer, w. m., abu-daya, a., brickwood, s. j., mumford, k. l., jordanaires, n., mitchell, j., robinson, c., thorne, a. w. & guille, m. j. ( ) mech. dev. , – . . vogel, t., dittrich, o., mehraein, y., dechend, f., schnieders, f. & schmidtke, j. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , – . . schnieders, f., dork, t., arnemann, j., vogel, t., werner, m. & schmidtke, j. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . lucet, v., de bethmann, o. & denjoy, i. ( ) biol. neonate , – . . canning, b. j. & mazzone, s. b. ( ) am. j. med. , s– s. . kinney, h. c., filiano, j. j. & white, w. f. ( ) j. neuropathol. exp. neurol. , – . � www.pnas.org�cgi�doi� . �pnas. puffenberger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , african heath sciences vol no .p african health sciences vol no june expansion of hiv- screening and anti-retroviral treatment programs in a resource-poor setting: results from a faith- based organization in jos, plateau state, nigeria lum, hillary ; isichei, christian ; isichei-wakili, mercy ; redfield, robert . university of wisconsin school of medicine and public health, madison, wi ; faith alive foundation hospital and department of chemical pathology, university of jos, jos plateau state, nigeria . faith alive foundation and surgery department, jos university teaching hospital ; institute of human virology, baltimore, md ; key words: hiv; art program; nigeria, resource-poor abstract background: until recently, availability of anti-retroviral therapy (art) in nigeria has been limited to government and university- based programs. through the united states’ president’s emergency plan for aids relief (pepfar), additional funding has become available for the treatment of hiv-positive patients. objective: to report the expansion of hiv- screening, enrollment in an art program, and treatment outcomes over twelve months among hiv-positive patients at a nonprofit, non-governmental faith-based clinic providing free and holistic care in jos city, plateau state, nigeria. design: this was a retrospective analysis of hiv- screening and art received by patients at faith alive foundation hospital (fafh). from january through december , voluntary counseling and testing (vct) was freely available to all patients who requested it. also beginning in december , hiv- infected patients were enrolled in an expanded hiv/aids program at fafh, where patients in clinical stages or based on world health organization (who) clinical classification, or had a cd + cell count of less than / ml, were initiated on a simplified highly active art (haart) regimen through pepfar funding. data from the first six quarters of the fafh-pepfar art program are presented here. additionally, analysis of patients who have received art for one year, including changes in cd + cell count from baseline is shown. results: in , a total of persons received vct and ( . %) hiv- positive results were found. from october to march , the total number of patients enrolled in the fafh hiv/aids program rose from to people. over the same period, the number of patients who received art increased from to . a majority of patients received an oral art regimen consisting of generic nevirapine, lamivudine, and stavudine. the number of patients initiated on art each quarter ranged from - , and the number of deaths of patients on art was between and people per quarter. analysis of patients initiated on art during the first quarter of the fafh-pepfar art program revealed that the median cd + cell count at baseline was /ml and the median increase was /ml (median time of follow-up, . months). conclusions: comprehensive hiv/aids care has been significantly expanded at fafh, a free and holistic medical center in jos, nigeria. cumulative data from the first year of this pepfar-funded art program indicated that promising outcomes are achievable through delivery of care at this faith-based medical center. african health sciences ; ( ): - introduction correspondence christian isichei jos, nigeria e-mail: christian_isichei@yahoo.com nigeria, africa’s most populous country, has an estimated total population of - million. based on national sentinel surveys, the prevalence of hiv among adults in nigeria increased from . % in to . % in , and in at . %.with more than . million peo- ple estimated to be living with hiv at the end of , nigeria has the largest number of hiv/aids cases in west africa. a recent study at jos university teaching hospital (juth), in collaboration with the aids prevention in nigeria (apin) program, found that the prevalence of hiv among pregnant women was estimated to be . % . furthermore, this study showed that the prevalence of hiv infection was as high as . % in subjects ages - years old. in january , the federal government of nigeria initiated a national art program. this program has provided over adults with a -drug arv combination regimen consisting of the generic brands of lamivudine, stavudine, and nevirapine at a highly subsidized rate of $ for the monthly treatment of a patient. the overall results within the first twelve months of treatment indicated an effective suppression of viral replication, the reconstitution of the immune system, and improvement of the physical well-being of the small african health sciences vol no june lamivudine (lamivir, cipla), mg twice daily, and stavudine (stavir, cipla), mg twice daily, unless otherwise indicated. prior to initiation of art, clinical history and baseline data, including cd + cell count by flow cytometry, were documented. patients with a sus- picion of tuberculosis (tb) were assessed by chest x-ray, and any hiv-infected patients with concurrent tb infec- tion underwent standard tb treatment for no less than two months before addition of art. critically-ill pa- tients due to severe infections and/or malnourishment were not started on art in an attempt to prevent deaths related to arv intolerability or severe immune recons- titution syndrome. patients had regular clinic visits every two weeks and then monthly as the patient’s health status improved and drug adherence was assured. cd + cell counts were obtained at baseline and between four and months later. multiple cd + cell counts within the first year of treatment were only available for pa- tients. thus, the analysis of cd + cell count change was based on the first available measurement following ini- tiation of art. adherence was monitored through interviewing at each scheduled clinic visit, and emphasized through regular teaching sessions to patients. patients received nutritional support if needed, and antibiotic prophylaxis with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (bactrim ds mg/ mg) was provided according to who guidelines to hiv-positive patients until initia- tion of art . patient counseling and support all patients in the fafh-pepfar program were counseled initially and monthly regarding the impor- tance of medication adherence. patients are strongly encouraged to disclose their hiv status to close family relations to increase adherence and to sign partnership contract forms with partners who help to encourage adherence. a mobile, multidisciplinary medical/ psychosocial team (home-based care) visited critically- ill patients approximately days each week. this enabled fafh staff to monitor arv administration and adherence, as well as to assess the impact of factors in the home and family on treatment. a weekly patient-led support group of approximately members meets to discuss issues pertinent to people living with hiv and aids. the fanol bank was available to provide patients with food as needed. analysis of data data collected for each patient at baseline and follow-up visits were stored in patient charts, entered into the hrsa careware medical record system, and individually recorded by each team. quar terly repor ts were generated by fafh monitoring and evaluation staff. patients for the cohort analysis were drawn from each team, and confirmed by careware records. all the data were collated and analyzed statistically using epi- info version . (centers for disease control, atlanta, ga) and stata version . (college station, tx). the median and interquartile ranges were estimated for cd + cell count at baseline and at follow-up. changes from baseline with respect cd + cell count were analyzed using the wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test. results hiv- screening and counseling fafh is a major referral center for persons potentially infected and affected by hiv infection, especially among persons unable to pay for medical care. on-site vct services are coordinated by faith alive counseling and laboratory personnel. figure a shows the number of adult men, adult women, and children who were screened for hiv- serostatus in each month of . a total of persons were screened over the twelve month period, and sixty-four percent of the population screened was female. four hundred ( . %) children were screened. surveys administered by the fa vct counseling section at the time of hiv- screening were used to determine the primary reason individuals requested testing among seven possible factors, shown in table . figure a: hiv- screening and results at fafh in the year . number of hiv- screening tests performed for men, women, and children (age < years) per month, as described in “methods.” african health sciences vol no june table . reason for requesting hiv- testing. men women children voluntary counseling and testing known hiv+ partner - pregnant mother n/a n/a known hiv+ mother n/a n/a doctor referred history of stds . . - case-worker referred - . - figure b: percentage of hiv- positive results among men, women, and children. a total of people, or . %, were found to be hiv- infected. the prevalence of hiv- positivity among individuals requesting screening at fafh is significantly higher than the documented nigerian average of . % in ( ). faith alive sees many patients who are at higher risk and impoverished. also, its free medical and social services make care accessible to many who cannot afford care elsewhere. a second confirmatory screening test of unigold rapid test kit was required before a figure a: cumulative enrollment and arv therapy through the fafh-pepfar program. total number registered in the fafh-pepfar hiv/aids care program, including men, women, and children, at the end of each quarter. results from surveys of individuals requesting hiv- screening at fafh in . data shown are percentages of total number of men, women, or children (age < years), who identified a specific factor as their primary reason for seeking testing. n/a = not applicable. for all three populations, vct and doctor referral accounted for greater than % of cases. among children, . % were tested because their mother was hiv-infected. the percentages of hiv- results among each population tested are shown in figure b. patient was registered in the fafh-pepfar art program and considered for art. enrollment in art and initiation of arv therapy. enrollment in the fafh-pepfar art program began in december , and resulted in significantly expanded hiv/ aids services for hiv-infected individuals. the total number of hiv-infected individuals reg istered at fafh increased significantly over the next several months, as shown in figure a. african health sciences vol no june figure b: total number of patients on arv therapy, including men, women, and children, at the end of each quarter. from december to march , the total number of patients registered at fafh rose from to people. based on figures at the end of the reporting period (march ), the majority ( %) of those enrolled were women, and only . % were children less than years old. due to the high patient volume, most paediatric cases received at fafh were referred to the ecwa/evangel hospital art program less than one mile away in jos, which specializes the care of paediatric patients, and recently received pepfar funding. additionally, since mother-to-child transmission is a common cause of paediatric hiv infection, many of these hiv/aids care program at fafh monitoring the expansion of art programs in resource- poor settings has been shown to be effective through the use of quarterly arv cohort analysis forms . thus, table presents data from the first six quarterly reports of the fafh-pepfar art program as a means of summarizing aspects of hiv/aids care provided at fafh during the expansion of art in this setting. the number of patients initiated on therapy greatly increased in the first two quarters of , and then slowed as the four patient-care teams were filled. the significant increase in new patients on art seen during the first quarter of resulted from the addition of three more patient-care teams (including a specialized team e which focuses on cases with co-infections, paediatric cases and complicated cases while the other teams provide care for naïve cases, i.e. teams a , a , b , b , c, and d), increasing the total to seven, in this period. however, despite this expansion in clinical care capacity, the waiting list for patients seeking art among patients enrolled at fafh in march was between four and five thousand people. a majority of patients were started on first-line simplified haart consisting of oral nevirapine, lamivudine, and stavudine, as described in the “methods” section. other regimens commonly provided at fafh are shown in table . the number of each arv combination dispensed indicates the relative proportions of each combination prescribed, as well as the total volume of drugs provided during each quarter. art patients who did not continue on therapy are reported based on death, no longer coming or unable to be contacted (i.e. lost to follow up), or transfer to another art program, during each quarterly reporting period. reasons for termination have not been noted for the first reporting period (oct – dec ) since patient enrollment began in december and subsequent clinic visits did not occur during this period. there were however about patients on treatment through the $ /patient/year sponsored art program before pepfar whose records were revealing in terms of good follow up and adherence. the quarterly reports of these early recruits into the children receive hiv care through the pmtct-specific apin program at juth. hiv- infected patients in who clinical stages or , or with a cd + cell count of less than /ml, were entered onto one of four patient care teams that opened in december and caters mainly for naïve patients. the total number of patients on art during this expansion in care is shown in figure b. over a sixteen month period, the number of patients who received art through the fafh-pepfar program increased from to , of which seventy percent were women. african health sciences vol no june figure b, total number of patients on arv therapy, including men, women, and children, at the end of each quarter. from december to march , the total number of patients registered at fafh rose from to people. based on figures at the end of the reporting period (march ), the majority ( %) of those enrolled were women, and only . % were children less than years old. due to the high patient volume, most paediatric cases received at fafh were referred to the ecwa/evangel hospital art program less than one mile away in jos, which specializes the care of paediatric patients, and recently received pepfar funding. additionally, since mother-to-child transmission is a common cause of paediatric hiv infection, many of these hiv/aids care program at fafh monitoring the expansion of art programs in resource- poor settings has been shown to be effective through the use of quarterly arv cohort analysis forms . thus, table presents data from the first six quarterly reports of the fafh-pepfar art program as a means of summarizing aspects of hiv/aids care provided at fafh during the expansion of art in this setting. the number of patients initiated on therapy greatly increased in the first two quarters of , and then slowed as the four patient-care teams were filled. the significant increase in new patients on art seen during the first quarter of resulted from the addition of three more patient-care teams (including a specialized team e which focuses on cases with co-infections, paediatric cases and complicated cases while the other teams provide care for naïve cases, i.e. teams a , a , b , b , c, and d), increasing the total to seven, in this period. however, despite this expansion in clinical care capacity, the waiting list for patients seeking art among patients enrolled at fafh in march was between four and five thousand people. a majority of patients were started on first-line simplified haart consisting of oral nevirapine, lamivudine, and stavudine, as described in the “methods” section. other regimens commonly provided at fafh are shown in table . the number of each arv combination dispensed indicates the relative proportions of each combination prescribed, as well as the total volume of drugs provided during each quarter. art patients who did not continue on therapy are reported based on death, no longer coming or unable to be contacted (i.e. lost to follow up), or transfer to another art program, during each quarterly reporting period. reasons for termination have not been noted for the first reporting period (oct – dec ) since patient enrollment began in december and subsequent clinic visits did not occur during this period. there were however about patients on treatment through the $ /patient/year sponsored art program before pepfar whose records were revealing in terms of good follow up and adherence. the quarterly reports of these early recruits into the children receive hiv care through the pmtct-specific apin program at juth. hiv- infected patients in who clinical stages or , or with a cd + cell count of less than /ml, were entered onto one of four patient care teams that opened in december and caters mainly for naïve patients. the total number of patients on art during this expansion in care is shown in figure b. over a sixteen month period, the number of patients who received art through the fafh-pepfar program increased from to , of which seventy percent were women. african health sciences vol no june table . overview of the art program at fafh, based on quarterly reports. arv quarterly cohort analysis form period of evaluation: oct –dec jan-mar apr-jun jul-sep oct-dec jan-mar months, year number of patients registered for hiv+ care in quarter number of patients initiated on art in quarter treatment regimen: d t- tc-nvp d.n.a. d t- tc-efv d.n.a. zdv- tc-nvp d.n.a. zdv- tc-efv d.n.a. other arv combinations d.n.a. termination of art: death d.n.a. lost to follow up d.n.a. transferred out of program d.n.a. number of monthly formulations provided to patients during each quarter. d.n.a., data not available; tc, lamivudine; d t, stavudine; nvp, nevirapine; azt, zidovudine; efv, efavirenz. follow-up data is not available for the short enrollment period in this quarter. pepfar program do not reflect deaths of patients who received care at fafh, but were not initiated on art. investigation of this group of patients found concurrent tb infection to be a significant cause of mortality (data not shown). furthermore, among patients who died while on art, tb was a leading cause of death when the reason for death was known (data not shown). cohort analysis of patients on art for twelve months at fafh. as one indicator of response to art, a cohort of patients was analyzed for baseline and follow-up cd + cell table . cd + cell count response among patients initiated on art between january – march following art. baseline follow up number in cohort number with cd + count ( ) median follow up (months) n/a . median cd + count/ml (iqr) ( - ) ( - ) < (%) ( ) ( . ) termination of art: death (%) n/a ( ) lost to follow up (%) n/a ( ) transferred out (%) n/a ( . ) patients with follow-up cd counts, but who were terminated as of march , were excluded from this analysis. counts while on art. the cohort consisted of patients who began art in the months of january, february or march of . prior to initiation of art, clinical and biologic baseline characteristics of patients registered and eligible to receive art through the fafh-pepfar program were recorded, and data obtained are shown in table . the median cd + cell count at baseline was /ml, where ( %) patients had a cd + cell count of less than /l. throughout art, patients received medical, social, and spiritual suppor t as described in “methods”. african health sciences vol no june at least twelve months after initiation of art for all pa- tients in this cohort (april ), analysis of follow-up cd + cell counts was performed in patients still on art (table ). a remarkable increase was seen after . months, the median time to follow-up for the cohort. of the patients in whom follow-up cd + cell counts were available, the median cd + cell count was / ml, with a median increase of /ml over the treatment period. the number of patients who terminated art in this cohort is also shown in table . over twelve months after initiation of art, ( %) were still on art, ( %) had died, nine ( . %) were lost to follow up, and two ( . %) had transferred into other art programs. among those who died, at least ( %) were also being treated for tb, and their deaths were attributed to com- plications due to this opportunistic infection (data not shown). discussion this report documents the implementation and expan- sion of simplified haart at a faith-based medical center in a resource-poor setting. over the first sixteen months of art program expansion, over people were screened for hiv- infection, enrollment in the hiv/ aids care program increased by over percent to nearly patients, and more than new patients were initiated onto art. in addition to pepfar-provided funding for arvs, this increase in care reflects significant support through private donors, such as the mennonite central committee and the faith alive foundation, as well as substantial commitment by fafh staff, many of whom volunteer a portion of their time. altogether, fafh is a rare model of sustained hiv/aids holistic care that is available at no-cost to the patient. the team approach to care is unique and allows continuity of pa- tient care. the response to art seen in patients at fafh compares well to that of other sub-saharan studies also carried out in resource-limited settings. optimal response to effective art is indicated by a median rise in cd cell count of - /ml within the first year of treatment . in malawi, a study including individuals at baseline showed a median increase in cd count of /ml and nineteen percent mortality after a median follow-up time of . months . the nigerian national government study of patients receiving art showed an increase in median cd + cell count from /ml at baseline to /ml at six months . as presented here, the median increase in cd + cell count in fafh patients was /ml at seven months of follow- up. interestingly, the median cd + cell count of these patients at baseline ( /ml) was substantially lower than seen in these other study populations or a healthy population. a recent analysis of healthy hiv-negative adults performed in jos, nigeria found the mean cd + cell count to be cells/ml . along with the very high rates of hiv- infection among patients seeking hiv screening and care at fafh, we infer that patients at fafh are a particularly vulnerable population with relatively advanced stages of disease. nonetheless, in agreement with an analysis that showed attainment of similar increases in median cd + cell count among art programs in low- and high-income settings following months of drug therapy , barriers to hiv care in this resource-poor setting did not significantly affect patient outcomes in this study. despite the small, but significant, success we have shown in the delivery of art in this resource-limited setting, this review of our program has also emphasized the increased efforts that are needed to improve the care we provide in prevention, screening, and treating hiv- positive individuals. specifically, women are nearly two- thirds of the total screening population, raising the ques- tion of how can men in this community be more effectively reached. significant issues, including stigma, pride, and fear of losing one’s job or family, are commonly cited reasons with respect to why men are less willing to be tested. unfortunately, many women come to be tested at fafh after their husbands have already died of aids. in this study, we have shown achievement of increased cd + cell count, one biologic endpoint that strongly supports the efficacy of art in the restoration of the immune system in poor resource settings that do not have access to viral load analysis. in the future, more comprehensive analyses of outcomes of patients treated with art at fafh are needed, including changes in viral load, body mass index, and rate of opportunistic infec- tions. it has been shown that the provision of treatment free of charge in low-income settings was associated with lower mortality (adjusted hr . ; % ci . - . ) . fur ther analysis of several art programs in resource-poor settings found that the pro- vision of medications free of charge was associated with a significantly increased probability of virologic suppres- sion at months six and twelve of art than when patients were required to pay part or all of the cost of therapy . in our experiences at fafh, patients not only require provision of arvs, but also appropriate treatment of any opportunistic infections, coverage of clinic visit costs, and emergency in-patient care if needed along with pro- vision of some basic african health sciences vol no june therefore, we have observed that the provision of art and medical care in a completely no-cost setting, in conjunction with consistent counseling and teaching, positively contributes to art response and survival among patients seen at fafh. acknowledgements the authors thank the us pepfar program and the faith alive foundation for provision of funding for art, the mennonite central committee for provision of hiv- screening tests, and the faith alive foundation for pro- vision of additional medications, programs, and support that enable the provision of holistic medical care. additionally, we are grateful to the patients who chose to seek their care at fafh. we also thank the many clinical and support staff of fafh who were involved in the care of these patients. references . report of / hiv sentinel sero-surveillance in ni- geria. federal ministry of health, national aids/std control programme. may , abuja, nigeria. . a technical report on the national hiv/syphilis sentinel survey among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in nigeria. federal ministry of health, national aids/std control programme. december , abuja, nigeria. . national hiv sero-prevalence sentinel survey. federal ministry of health, national aids/std control pro- gramme. april , abuja, nigeria. . sagay as, kapiga sh, imade ge, et al. hiv infection among pregnant women in nigeria. int j of gyn and ob. ; : - . . idigbe eo, adewole ta, eisen g, et al. management of hiv- infection with a combination of nevirapine, stavudine, and lamivudine: a preliminary report on the nigerian antiretroviral program. jaids. ; : - . . harries ad, gomani p, teck r, et al. monitoring the response to antiretroviral therapy in resource-poor settings: the malawi model. trans royal soc trop med and hygiene. ; : - . . kumarasamy n, chaguturu sk, majan ap, et al. safety, tolerability and effectiveness of generic antiretroviral drug regimens for hiv-infected patients in south india. aids. ; : - . . stringer js, zulu i, levy j, et al. rapid scale-up of antiretroviral therapy at primary care sites in zambia: feasi- bility and early outcomes. jama. aug ; ( ): - . . zachariah r, teck r, buhendwa l, et al. community sup- port is associated with better antiretroviral treatment out- comes in a resource-limited rural district in malawi. trans r soc trop med hyg. jan; ( ): - . . world health organization. guidelines on co-trimoxazole pro- phylaxis for hiv-related infections among children, adolescents and adults. available at http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guide- lines/ctx/en/index.html. accessed on january , . . who/unaids/ias. safe and effective use of antiretroviral treatment in adults with particular reference to resource limited settings. p. munderi, e. prag, and s. vella, eds. geneva, switzerland: who/ais; : - . . ferradini l, jeannin a, pinoges l, et al. scaling up of highly active antiretroviral therapy in a rural district of malawi: an effectiveness assessment. lancet. apr ; ( ): - . . aina o, dadik j, charurat m, et al. reference values of cd t lymphocytes in human immunodeficiency virus- negative adult nigerians. clin diag lab imm. ; : - . . braitstein p, brinkhof mw, dabis f, et al. mortality of hiv- -infected patients in the first year of antiretroviral therapy: comparison between low-income and high-income countries. lancet. ; : - . . ivers lc, kendrick d, and doucette k. efficacy of antiretroviral therapy programs in resource-poor settings: a meta-analysis of the published literature. clin infect dis. ; : - . "ad " and the " / window": a preliminary assessment robert t. coote a year and a half ago the mission committee of our local church decided to adopt the han chinese in laos for its special interest. first baptist church, meriden, connecticut, is but one of thousands of churches around the world that have had their interest in mission spurred by the ad movement, with its em phasis on the / window' and its goal of completing world evangelization by december , . it is time for an assessment. what was to be accomplished by the end of the century? was it realistic to expect to establish believing communities in all of the several thousand unchurched people groups across the globe, such as the han chinese in laos ? was this just another case of naive american evangelical enthu­ siasm ? a high-profile campaign at the end of the millennium lacking depth and holistic integrity? a crass example of manage­ ment by objective? a dubious attempt to trigger the second coming of christ by fulfilling the conditions of matthew : ? first, it needs to be said that the ad program has not been confined to fiery-eyed evangelicals. american baptists, of which our local church is a part, have focused on a number of people groups in asia and latin america. top denominational leaders from the presbyterian church (u.s.a.) , the reformed church in america, and the u.k. anglican church were among participants who held an ad strategy consultation in de­ cember and who endorsed the ad watchword "a church for every people and the gospel for every person by the year ." in january mission leaders from fifty countries met in singapore in the global consultation on world evangelization (gcowe) to consider marking the end of the century as a goalfor completing world evangelization. representatives of the roman catholic communion were among the participants. they too had sights set on the millennial year. pope john paul ii, in , had already proclaimed - the "universal decade of evangelization, in order to put the good news of salvation in the hands of every person before the dawn of the third millennium." the goal of the program was "a world more christian than not by the year ." the ad movement not only has been interdenomina­ tional in its constituency but international as well. in the individual who canvassed mission leaders to see if there was interest in launching an ad program was thomas wang, a chinese, then serving as international director of the lausanne committee; he would soon become chairman of the ad movement. the ad international director, luis bush, is the son of a british businessman who raised his family in argentina and brazil. bush served as a pastor in ei salvador and as director of partners international before taking up the leadership of ad . the two primary collectors of global data are british: david b. barrett, director of world evangelization movement, rich­ mond, virginia, and patrick johnstone, research secretary for wec international, gerrards cross, england. in july , some , mission leaders and supporters of the ad project met in pretoria, sou th africa, to strategize for a final push toward ad goals. eighty percent were non- robert t. coote is associate editor oftheint ernational b ulletin of mission­ ary r esearch andassociate director oftheoverseas ministriesstudy center. westerners, and they largely paid their own way. the ad movement has achieved a remarkable degree of effectiveness in involving the global, interdenominational christian community. a worthy heritage old testament prophets envisioned a day when "the earth will be full of the knowledge of the lord as the waters cover the sea" (isa. : ; hab. : ). in isaac watts responded to that biblical dream with the hymn "jesus shall reign where'er the sun." during the years of the great awakening in colonial america and in england, local revivals were seen as precursors to the worldwide extension of the gospel, the "end of history," and the millennial reign of christ.' william carey was one of the first to marshal global popu­ lation data to demonstrate the need for foreign missionary ef­ forts . by the mid-nineteenth century mission researchers had developed a grid of shaded squares, each square representing a million people, with the non -christian world indicated by the darker sections of the diagram," in the late s this visual aid was employed by fanny (mrs. h. grattan) guinness, cofounder with her husband of the east london institute for home and foreign missions (harley house), and by benjamin broomhall, secretary of the china inland mission," guinness titled her page "a dark picture." broomhall's version was relieved by three white squares in the middle of the darkest sections to indicate diagram recreated from benjamin broomhall, the evangelisation of the world ( ) p. , showing the estimated population of the world. (total world population , , , (each square equals million). protes tants, , , ============== ============== greek churc h, m""~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ggggggggggg~~oo , , . ll iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiililliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilllllllllill rom an ca tholics, , , . jew s, , , . mohamm ed ans , , , . mission converts, , , . heath en, , , . i nternational b ulletin of missiona ry r esearch three million "mission converts" out of , million "heathen" and "mohammedans." a comment by the vicar of islington accompanied the display: "is it not a solemn fact that ... of every three persons walking on the vast globe, two have never heard of the saviour?" this popular diagram from the nineteenth century appeared again in . pope pius xi had called for a holy year missions exhibit to be held in rome in . supervision and preparation for the event was entrusted to robert streit, o.m. . ( - ), the pioneer roman catholic mission bibliographer. in follow-up to the exhibition, streit produced catholic missions in figures and symbols. in this volume the diagram displays , squares, accounting for a world population of , million. understand­ ably, this time it is the catholic section-featuring white squares-and not the protestant that crowns the top of the diagram. the "pagan" section is just under percent of the whole, and "mohammedans" account for another percent. streit's commentary reads: "[christian mission is] only at the beginning.... for the sake of souls, our lord and saviour jesus christ gave his mission command two thousand years ago .... the religious map of the world should not be merely looked at but meditated upon on our knees before a crucifix. more than half of mankind is still sitting in darkness and the shadows of death."? reviving an old dream obviously the architects of the ad movement had a great deal of history to inform their vision. one who played a major role in helping them to take history seriously was todd johnson, a member of youth with a mission (ywam) and a son-in-law of ralph d. winter. winter, founder of the u.s. center for world mission and general director of the frontier mission fellowship, pasadena, california, is known for his plea for the unreached peoples at the international congress on world evangelization, held in in lausanne, switzerland. over the last quarter of a century winter has been developing some of the key missiological concepts behind the present movement. the first half of the ad watchword, "a church for every people by a.d. ," was forged at a frontier missions consultation held in edinburgh, scotland, in , a meeting substantially inspired by winter. thus, thanks to his father-in-law, todd johnson has been breathing the air of ad . he now serves as director of the world evangelization research center in richmond, virginia, where he is a colleague of david b. barrett and compiler with barrett of this journal's "annual statistical table on global mission," which appears each year in the january issue. in johnson published a monograph entitled countdown to : world evangelization at the end of the nineteenth centurv" this is a detailed study of a late nineteenth-century campaign led by arthur t. pierson, editor of missionary reviewof the world, a. j. gordon, founder of the boston missionary training school (later gordon college), and many others. thanks to johnson's essay, pierson's ideas and passion for world evangelization have been quoted frequently by leaders in the contemporary move­ ment, including the declaration, "it can be done; it ought to be done; it must be done."? prodded by matthew : the rhetoric of the ad movement has given the impression that the church can expect jesus to return as soon as it completes its assigned task of world evangelization-potentially, there- october fore, on or about december , !a century ago pierson gave a similar impression. he also was charged with advocating a program that fell far short of what jesus intended by the words of matthew : - . pierson responded by stating that preach­ ing the gospel to every creature was only "the initial stage of fulfilling the great commission." pierson wanted "to see this world mapped out for god, to see a definite organized move­ ment for the occupation of the whole world for christ.... then, when evangelization is world-wide, we may bend our energies to deepening the impression which a first hearing of the gospel has made."!" eugene stock, secretary of the british church mis­ sionary society, joined in pierson's defense: "[pierson] has no sympathy with the scampering notion of a witness just telling the tidings of salvation once, and then boasting that mt. : is fulfilled."!' in a editorial pierson wrote, dr. gordon and myself firmly believe that "preaching the gospel as a witness among all nations" means setting up churches, schools, a sanctified press, medical missions, and, in fact, all the institutions which are the fruit of christianity and constitute part of its witness; but that our lord's purpose and plan are that we should not wait in anyone field for the full results of our sowing to appear in a thoroughly converted community before we press on to regions beyond. missions begin in evangelization, but have everything to do with christian education, and the printing press, and the organization of churches, and the training of a native pastorate." in other words, while pierson saw a direct relation between completion of world evangelization and the return of christ, he did not intend his words to be understood as necessarily or certainly indicating that christ would return just as soon as an initial proclamation of the gospel had reached the world's last unevangelized community. and he acknowledged that making bona fide disciples of christ entailed more than a quick an­ nouncement of the gospel. his goal, in the final analysis, was a human one, not to be equated with fulfillment of the great commission. ad and the end of history in connection with the ad program, ralph winter has used the dramatic phrase "end of history." as winter noted in , the student volunteer movement students in "looked for­ ward fourteen years to evangelizing the world by the year . dare we look forward fourteen years to accomplishing the same goal-the evangelization of the world by the end of the century? ... can we believe that we are now on a new, final threshold leading to the end of history in the year ?" in the compilation of articles prepared for the singapore gcowe (global consultation on world evangelization) meet­ ing, thomas wang quoted winter approvingly: "we believe there are ample evangelical resources . . . to make a serious attempt to plant the church within every people [group] by the year .... we believe ... that the very end of history may therefore be near."!' it is difficult to imagine a statement more explicit than that of j. philip hogan, then director of the assem­ blies of god division of foreign missions, at the consulta­ tion in singapore: "the end of this function is to bring jesus back.f" johnstone also endorses the connection: "jesus gave the promise in matthew : that when this task was accomplished, the end would come." these words resonate with the spirit of a long roster of evangelical mission leaders: pierson and gordon, a. b. simpson, hudson taylor, samuel zwemer, robert hall glover, j. oswald smith, and others. this understanding of % o f p eople in the l east ev angelized countries l ive in tile / wl"l oow. matthew : received support almost half a century ago in the blessed hope,a landmark eschatological study by new testament scholar george eldon ladd of fuller seminary.'? nevertheless, in a september essay, in which winter again speaks of "closure" and the "end of history," he emphati­ cally states that he is not implying any prediction: "nothing could be more thrilling than to talk about finishing the great commission, or finishing what jesus described as bringing us to the end of history, as this verse in matthew [ : ] does.. . . [but] i don't believe we are interpreting scripture correctly if we assume that there is an inevitablelinking between completion and his return, although this verse may mean that. i certainly do not feel we ought to try to predict the date of his return, even if we feel w e can be certain what kind of work can be done by the year ." bush has also asserted that he attaches no eschatological importance to the year : "the year a.d . is not being announced as the year of the lord's return or as the primary motivation for obedience to the great commission.r"? winter, while reiterating his belief that the movement's goals can be achieved by december , , recently declared: i know of no reputable mission agency which has ever spoken officially of completing the great commission by any particular date. the great commission is an undefined concept. . .. if [world evangelization] means evangelizing every individual person by a particular date, it will be an ach ievement immediately undone one singl e second later as more children grow into the age of accountability, thus needing to be evangelized . that is, you can't "finish" evangeliza tion in this sense, ever . well, what can be finished by the end of this century? missions! . .. it would mean a "mi ssiolo gical breakthrough" [in the form of a viable believing community in] every group in the world ." winter patiently insists, in countless writings and discus­ sions, that he reserves the term missions for the initial cross ­ cultural breakthroughs in previously unreached ethnolinguistic or socially or politically isolated people groups. the extension of a gospel witness after that point, in winter's thinking, is evange­ lism (which is best carried out by indigenous believers). there­ fore for winter the ad goal is to plant a church in every unreached people group, not to guarantee a presentation of the gospel to every person. once this distinction is understood, it is easier to accept his disclaimers about matthew : . like pierson, he is advocating what amounts to a human goal; if achieved, it will certainly help the cause of world evangelization, but winter is not presuming how close it may come to fulfilling the implica­ tions of jesus ' words. sharpening the focus: the / window benjamin broomhall's generation used a rectangular diagram of coded squares to represent the world's need for the gospel-the ad movement has used the / window. in july , bush and pete holzmann, a specialist in computerized mapping, found that the great majority of nations with miniscule evangeli­ cal populations formed a band of about countries with at least half their area lying between ' and ' latitude above the equator. the countries within this rectangle extend across africa, the middle east, and asia, from morocco to [apan." bush imme­ diately saw the potential for a simple way to focus the christian world's attention on the most gospel-needy part of the globe. at first glance, the resulting / window seems to offer a criteria: the least evangelized countries ar e tho se with the smallest percenta ge of evan gelical and chr istian population. source: operation world , . aboveillustration has been reproduced from the ad brochure "the / window: getting to the core of the core," published in . clean, concrete picture of the unfinished task. but in actual operation, th e window proves balky. how many countries and how many people are we talking about? the first promotion of the window appeared in the september-october issue of ad and beyond, the magazine of the ad movement. here bush explains that the window contains countries and nonsovereign entities . (the latter include gibraltar, west bank, gaza strip, hong kong , and macao.) out of least evangelized countries in the world, bush continues, are among the in the window; and percent of the billion people in the world's least evangelized countries live in these lea st evangelized countries." as a measure of least evangelized, holzmann and bush or iginally settled on any country having less than . percent (l person out of every ) evangelical population, but they did not publish this piece of the criteria . the most elaborate presentation of the window, a colorful, eight-page brochure entitled "the / window: getting to the core of the core," with commentary by bush (repeated from his original text in ), came out in mid- . in small print under the map we learn that the (new) source of the data used to develop the map is patrick johnstone's edition of operation world. the criteria for color-coding­ indicating least evangelized-is said to be countries "with the smallest percentage of evangelical and christian population," but again, the actual parameters are not stated. later literature suggests that the parameters used were less than percent evangelical and less than percent christian. this change to a double criteria, depending upon how it is applied, could result in numbers of middle eastern and other countries falling out of the net because of large populations of roman catholic, greek orthodox, coptic, and / or other orthodox christians. in other words, these large christian populations might be viewed as "trumping" low evangelical populations, such as found in por ­ tugal. the map itself shows significant revision . spain is no longer identified as being at least half inside the window; azerbaijan, uzbekistan, and kyrgyzstan-which only recently had gained status as independent nations, and which are not at least half within the window-are added to the color-coding to include them among the least evangelized; evidently they are associated w ith the window, despite the violation of the original criteria. (the reader wonders, why are they not also found in the accom­ panying list of countries?) portugal has been removed from color-coding, apparently-along with spain-no longer consid­ ered least evangelized. eth iopia has been add ed to the color­ coded set. (why now? why not in the first place?) inexplicably, laos is not color-coded in either the or the version, i ntern atio nal b ulletin of mission ary r esearch • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• gh.t • • • • • • • from david hesselgravemuslims. magic and the kingdom of god rick love this book combines folk n o r th america an d beyo n d planting churches cross-culturally planting hurches cross­ culturally ..... wcl williamcarey library, paperback, pp. re ta il 'who lesa le $ . communicating christ cross­ culturally an introduction to m issionary c ommunication, secon d edi tion this revised edi tio n of david hesse lg rave 's grea t w or k updates th e origina l an d in tera cts w ith the most recent liter ature on this inc reas ing ly important top ic. it h as come to be one of the most wi de ly used textboo ks ' ch ristia n cross -cu ltu ral com mu n ication . zondervan , pap erba ck, pp . !""!r--....__ in corp or atin g relevant sociologica l, anthropologica l, and h istorical insig h ts, hesselgrave ex trapolates ten ph ases of cross­ cu ltura l ch urc h plan ting th at are faithf u l to jesus' com ma ndmen t to make dis cip les and to pa u l's mission ar y exa mple. baker books, paperback, pp . re ta il ' wholesale $ . for ch rist. these articles approach th e islam, biblical pe rspectives, and stra tegies for chu rch p lan ting amo ng mu lsims. in h is th eory on mus lim evangelism love tackles the ma jor issues of enco un te ring spi ritu al $~ dis count $ . powers, con textua l­ iza tion, and leadership developmen t. teache rs contextualizationof islami c subjects and practitioners in mu slim coun tr ies enth usiastically w elcom e th is book. wcl - william carey libra ry, paperback, pp. re t ail $tjl-:- di sc ount $ . 'whol es al e $ . ministry to muslim women (a nd edward rommen) th is classic textboo k b rings togeth er th e mea nings, p roposals, and tasks involved in cont extu alization . h esselgr ave and romrn en exp lore th e h ist ory of contex tua liza tion in th e ch urc h and the bible w hile also exami n ing th e p rop osals se t forth by p rom inent thinker s. th ey concl ude th e book wi th th eir ow n d efinit ion &;.~o!! j i i fran love and [eleia eckheart iii.ii• • • • a nd approac h to con tex tua liza tio n.longin g to call th em sist ers $~ d isco u n t $ . edi ted b y fra n love an d [e leta eckhea rt th is boo k is a compi lation of rea l-life experiences by wo me n actively in vo lved in reaching mu slim wo me n ques tio n of th e gos pe l and islam fro m a fema le persp ective, and hel p ch ris tia ns com e to a bett er und ers tan d ing of th eir mu slim sis ters . wcl - william carey library, paperb ack, pp . retai l $t -:- d isc ount $ . 'who lesa le $ . the bible in cross-cultural-.-.,....---:---:....",.. socia l-cu ltura l creation of western ch rist ian ity. too ofte n scrip tu re is read 'illililiiiililiillas if th e eve n ts took place ou tside of reta il $~ disco u n t $ . 'who lesa le $ . perspective ja cob a. loewen in th is w ide-ra ngi ng vo lume loewe n clearl y shows that th e tru th of god's word is for all peopl e. this wor k forces wiruamus to confron t the relat ion ship between go d's word and human lan gu ages, cultures, an d h istor ies, no t least of all th e carey . . · · · · · libraru cu ltu ra l and h istor ical con texts. loew en ch allenges us to thin k more d eeply a nd consi de r ou r ow n cu ltura l contexts wh en we read and in terp ret th e bible. he raises important ques tions th at book publisher and dist ributor must be an sw ered in th is era of a cross -cu ltu ral, glob al church. wcl - william carey lib rar y, pap erb ack, pp . p.o. box , pasadena, ca ret a il $~ di s cou n t $ . 'wh ol e s al e $ . i-boo-mission orders@wc books .com 'order thr ee or more of the same title an d pay who lesa le although it falls below both the christian and the evangelical parameters. albania is color-coded in both versions, though it falls almost entirely outside the window. benin, burkina faso, greece, guinea-bissau, sudan, and taiwan are not color-coded in either the or versions, though they fall below the evangelical, if not the christian, parameters. the accompanying commentary says there are (not as we were told in ) countries in the window, (not ) least evangelized in the world, and (not ) least evangelized in the window. we are left to speculate that the new authority for the data (johnstone), combined with the new double criteria em­ ploying christian as well as evangelical percentages, combined further with redefinition as to what countries are associated with the window, together have the net effect of reducing the number of least evangelized countries within the window from to . despite this reduction in the number of countries, the text still asserts, "those countries comprise % of the total population of the least evangelized countries!" (p, ). in other literature on the window, not all of it originating from the ad international office but rather from numerous other agencies participating in the movement, we read that there are countries in the window; that the criteria of least evange­ lized is ( ) less than percent christian, ( ) less than percent evangelical, ( ) less than percent christian and less than percent evangelical, and ( ) less than percent evangelical. the number of unevangelized persons in the window is also given variously. are they . billion ( percent of the billion cited in ), billion, or-as stated by patrick johnstone- . billion, maybe even under a billion." over the last five years, i have seen different nations named as least evangelized and identified with the / win­ dow. that is twice the number given by bush in the primary source of . what one ends up with is a irregular map (no longer a "window") that looks very much like the map used on the cover of samuel zwemer's publication the unoccupied fields of africa and asia, or the stylized map employed by bryant myers in his the changing shapeof worldmission (marc/world vision, ). i grant that the / window may indeed have been useful as a generalization (holzmann's intention). but as a sympathetic reviewer trying to take the original parameters and descriptions at face value, it was enormously frustrating! progress in reaching the unreached? the ad movement added a second phrase to the edinburgh watchword: "and the gospel for every person." winter presumably would not have endorsed this complication to the original, narrower focus on a church for every people. bush, however, expressed the sense of the majority when he wrote, "the expected result is the presentation of the gospel to every person in every nation and people group and the establishment of a church planting movement in every country and people group by the year ." similarly, in the goal of a century earlier-the completion of world evangelization by -proc­ lamation to all (whether or not conversion resulted) was the desire. in his time, pierson surely was naive about how difficult it would be to physically reach all people and present the gospel in a way and in a language they would understand. but ad advocates have argued that contemporary means of radio, cas­ sette, tv, and video, with the tremendous strides made over the noteworthy----------------. personalia fuller theological seminary, pasadena, california, has ap­ pointed veli-matti karkkainen of iso kirja college in finland as associate professor of systematic theology at fuller theo­ logical seminary, pasadena, california, the chair previously held by dr. miroslav volfe calvin theological seminary, grand rapids, michigan, has appointed roger s. greenway, professor of world missiology, as chief operating officer; the seminary has also appointed ruth a. tucker, a contributing editor to the inter­ national bulletin of missionary research, as associate profes­ sor of domestic missiology. brian stanley, director of the currents in world chris­ tianity project at the university of cambridge, england, has been appointed director of the henry martyn centre, westminster college, england, effective september . stanley is the successor to canon graham kings, a contribut­ ing editor to the international bulletin of missionary re­ search, who has been appointed vicar of islington (london) at s . mary's church. sebastian kim, who is completing doc­ toral studies at the university of cambridge, will serve as interim director of the henry martyn centre during the aca­ demic year - . nancy heisey, secretary of mennonite central committee's theological education for five continents pro­ gram, has been named president-elect of the mennonite world conference. the first-ever person to hold the newly created position, she will take office at mwc's assembly. died. h. mckenzie goodpasture, , emeritus professor of christian missions at union theological seminary, rich­ mond, virginia, june . a former president of the american society of missiology, goodpasture taught church and mis­ sion history at union for thirty years until retirement in . a graduate of union in and university of edinburgh, scotland, in , he served as administrator of protestant theological seminary, lisbon, portugal, from to . announcing the asociacion latinoamericana de misionologia, an asso­ ciation for latin american missiologists, held its founding meeting during the first simposio misionol gico latinoamericana, may - , , in cochabamba, bolivia. "we see mission not as an obstacle, but rather as one of the most effective paths to christian unity, searching together how to arrive at a common witness to the gospel," declared john f. gorski, m.m., a member of the association's four­ member executive board. thirty roman catholic missiologists from latin america, including representatives from bolivia, colombia, peru, and paraguay, participated in the conference. with "christianity in china: growing on holy ground" as its theme, the u.s. catholic china bureau, seton hall, new jersey, will hold its eighteenth national conference november - in harpers ferry, west virginia. nicholas standaert, s.j., catholic university, of leuven, belgium, will deliver the keynote lecture. for details, email chinabur@shu.edu. international bulletin of missionary research last century in communications, bible translation, and global mobility, make the modem version of the goal feasible and realistic. winter's people-group emphasis, it seems to me, carries the greater weight, if for no other reason than that it unmistakably requires contextual incarnation on the part of the messenger. if every person is to have a bona fide opportunity to hear the gospel in his or her own language and cultural idiom, christian mission must first establish a beachhead via a well-trained, cross­ cultural, incarnational mission team. once a small believing, indigenous community is established, the opportunity for in­ creasingly wider, effective evangelism will develop through the witness of local believers. such breakthrough ministries are not often achieved in a few months or even a few years." winter argues that it is only the positive response to the gospel that assures the messenger that the message has indeed been heard and comprehended. accordingly, the existence of new, indig­ enous, believing communities is the only reliable way of measur­ ing progress. (why this line of reasoning didn't give winter pause about embracing a.d. as a target date i cannot imag­ ine.) therefore, for the purpose of this assessment, i am inclined to discount the"every person" dimension of ad ' s goal and focus rather on progress in reducing the number of unreached people groups. at the lausanne international congress in , winter suggested that world population was comprised of about , people groups, and that nearly , were still unreached, with no indigenous, viable, reproducing church in their midst. he estimated their population at about . billion. at lausanne ii, held fifteen years later ( ) in manila, , was announced as the remaining number of people groups ("mini-peoples") to be reached, with a population of about . billion (world popu­ lation had increased by more than a billion in the intervening years)." a simplification of categories, offered by barrett and the lausanne task force, focused on what are labeled "ethnolinguistic peoples." this recalculation produced a global total of , to , groups, with only , ethnolinguistic peoples unreached." following lausanne ii the ad adopt-a-people clear­ inghouse went back to a version of the mini-peoples category and came up with , unreached." this list was made available to the , participants at the second gcowe conference, held in seoul, korea, in may . subsequently the process of settling on the ad list took one more step, namely, the decision to concentrate on groups having populations of , or more, in the hope that a witness established in those groups would ultimately filter across social boundaries to smaller groups of similar cultural background. this approach produced a list of about , unreached peoples, defined as having less than percent christian and less than percent evangelical population. as a result of on-going research, the list finally settled out at just under , groups. now, today, what can the ad movement report? luis bush provides a comprehensive and admirably forthright report in the june issue of missionfrontiers,pages - . he states that there are a little more than , groups still lacking a minimal believing fellowship of members; these figures indicate progress on the order of groups newly reached in the last decade. as for the remainder, about half have a church planting team on site or in preparation, and a further to are on the "committed " lists of various agencies. only groups are left without any mission initiative on the horizon. a complete picture must also keep in view groups with populations number­ ing less than , . bush reports that some , of such smaller groups remain without a viable, indigenous church. conclusion space limitations prevent proper recognition of the tremendous movement of prayer that was stimulated and facilitated by the ad movement. and the educational impact on the world christian community is surely incalculable. many hundreds of thousands have a greater awareness of the urgency and chal­ lenge of the great commission than they did ten years ago. in terms of the watchword's focus on a church for every people, relatively modest but real progress appears to have been made. a definitive assessment will require a more seasoned view twenty or more years from now. the confusion generated by ever-shifting numbers and missiological emphases makes it im p ossible to express a truly confident evaluation. the ad movement involved many more leaders, re­ searchers, organizations, publishers, and major initiatives at the grassroots level than could be acknowledged in this brief article. one cannot review the literature without concluding that an absolutely enormous amount of effort, talent, prayer, and de­ voted service has been invested in the ad movement. nevertheless, there are major areas of disagreement over theory and biblical interpretation that could not be addressed here. in addition, the advances recorded over the last decade are admit­ tedly limited." and there are younger leaders within the move­ ment who are contemplating radical reconceptualizing of what is involved in fulfilling world evangelization as implied in the great commission. one is reminded of a remark of bishop stephen neill: ''we plan extremely well. but it may sometimes happen that our plans and god's will are not the same." ?' notes·-------------------------------------­ .	 the / window refers to a band of countries extending from the west coast of africa to japan, lying between · and · latitude above the equator, and considered by mission demographers to be the area of the greatest concentration of unevangelized peoples. .	 unsigned report, mission frontiers (u.s. center for world mission) , nos. - (march-april ): - . .	 tom forrest, "the strategy of evangelization , " new evangelization , no . , . the hope was to "give jesus the th birthday gift most pleasing to him : the world for which he died . .. won for him!" forrest's article was reprinted in towards ad and beyond: a reader, compiled by luis bush, jay gary, and mike roberts for the (singapore )global consultation on world evangelization by ad and beyond. october 	 .	 j. a. de jong documents the connection christian thinkers have made between missions and the coming of the millennial kingdom of christ in as the waters cover the sea: millennial expectations in the rise of anglo-american missions , - (kampen: j. h . kok, ). .	 for example, see joseph hassell, from pole to pole: a handbook of christianmissions,for the useof m inisters,teachers,andothers (london: james nisbet, ). . mrs. h . grattan guinness, the wide world and our work in it (london: hodder & stoughton, ), p . . benjamin broomhall, the evangelisation of the world . a missionary band: a record of consecration, and an appeal (london: morgan and scott, ), p. . . streit, catholic missions in figures and symbols , based on the vatican missionary exhibition (rome: society for the propagation of the faith, ), p. . .	 todd m. johnson, countdown to : world evangelization at the end of the nineteenth century (birmingham, ala.: new hope, ). this monograph appeared in a "provisional version," prior to the new hope edition, in international journal of frontier missions , nos. - (january-october ), under the title "the crisis of missions: the historical development of the idea of the evangelization of the world by the year ." citations are based on the ijfm version. . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. , . . ibid., p. . . dana l.robert, "the legacy of arthur tappan pierson," international bulletin of missionary research , no. (july ): . . ralph d. winter, "the student volunteers of , their heirs, and the year ," international journal offrontier missions , no. (april ): , . this essay was presented by winter at a conference of the institute of american evangelicals, held in wheaton, illinois in june . despite its dating, the cited ijfm issue was published after the conference. . thomas wang, "by the year ," in towards ad and beyond, p. . . j. philip hogan, remarks presented at gcowe, singapore , as printed in jay and olgy gary, thecountdown has begun: the story of the global consultation on ad (ad global service office: rockville,va., ), p. . . patrickjohnstone, operation world(grandrapids:zondervan, ), p. . . george eldon ladd, the blessed hope (grand rapids: eerdmans, ). in the penultimate chapter, ladd writes, "the church ... has a task which is divinely given ... : world-wide evangelization and the gathering of the saved into the body of christ. ... christ is tarrying until the church has completed its task. when matthew : has been fulfilled, then christ will come. there is no more notable 'sign of the times' than the fact that the greatest impetus in world-wide evangelization since apostolic times has taken place in the preceding century. the world is nearly evangelized; anygeneration whichisreally dedicated tothetaskcancomplete themission. the lord can come in our own generation, in our life-time-if we stir ourselves and finish our task" (p, ). see also a second ladd volume, the gospel of the kingdom (grand rapids: eerdmans, ). a chapter from this volume is reprinted in perspectives on the world christian movement: a reader, ed. ralph d. winter and steven c. hawthorne (pasadena, calif.: william carey library, ), chap. a . nearly half a century after ladd's book, we find the same stance set forth in the dictionary of evangelical missions, m. scott moreau, ed., in the article "eschatology," authored by edward rommen. matthew : features prominently in the essay. . winter, "unreached peoples: recent developments in the concept," mission frontiers , no. - (august-september ): . . luis bush, "announcing the second global consultation on world evangelization," ad and beyond , no. (march-april ), p. . also see bush's article"ad and beyond: a church growth initiative," global church growth , no. (july-august-september ), p. . in spite of these disclaimers, many readers will continue to wonder, especially given bush's recent announcement of a final consultation, to be held in jerusalem december , , to january , . the purpose of the jerusalem gathering, he states, is "to hasten the day of [christ's] return by presenting the gospel of the kingdom to every people, tribe, nation, and language. once this is done, the 'end' will come (mt. : )." see "celebrate messiah ," mission frontiers , nos. - (july-august ): - . . winter, mission frontiers , nos. - (may-june ): . . holzmann, in e-mail dated february , , to michael 'rear (president of global mapping international), describes the mapping experiment. the criteria used included countries with half or more of their mass inside the / window and having less than . percent evangelical populations (lout of ). exceptions were made for china and india, which were included despite having more than . percent evangelicals, because of their huge non­ christian populations. holzmann stresses that the map was "intended as a useful generalization." . the countries outside the window and considered to be among the least evangelized because of very small evangelical populations are belgium, poland, the former yugoslavia, mongolia, sri lanka, and somalia. see map in luis bush, "getting to the core of the core-the / window," ad andbeyond , no. (november-december, ): . a clearer reproduction of the map will be found in global church growth , no. (july-september ): .since there are said to be least evangelized countries in the world, with of these inside the window, there should be outside the window. on the map, however, countries are marked as least evangelized outside the window. . johnstone, operation world, edition, p. . "between million and , million people still need to be given their first opportunity to respond to the gospel." notice that johnstone here includes the whole world, not just the / window. . luis bush, "ad and beyond: a church growth initiative," global church growth , no. (july-september ): . . barrett and others have observed that much of the non-christian world remains non-christian not because it has not heard the message from dedicated and able messengers but simply because up until now the gospel has been rejected, and the breakthrough is yet to come. (see,for example, stan guthrie, "just saying no," evangelical missionsquarterly , no. [april ]: - .) in the providence of god, how many more years or decades or centuries remain to be invested? simply setting a chronological goal is not enough. . the reduction to , sounded like progress, except for the fact that winter had already gone on record as having agreed to the lower figure to accommodate the aim of the lausanne task force to simplify the categories. see "the finishable task!" missionfrontiers , no. (march ): , in which winter writes, "we are being asked ... to set aside our [larger number] for a somewhat more optimistic estimate of , which, it is hoped, will create a simpler, clearer picture for the public." . the figure of unreached peoples was first published in the lausanne ii workbook, ; the most comprehensive treatment is found in barrett and johnson, our globe and how to reach it (birmingham, ala.: new hope, ), p: . the , figure is also found in frank kaleb jansen, target earth: the necessity of diversity in a holistic perspective on world mission (kailua-kona, hawaii: university of the nations; pasadena, calif.: global mapping international, ), p. . johnstone arrives at , groups with "little outreach" and , groups with "some outreach." see operation world, edition, p. . .	 whether this was an actual reduction due to progress among the original , or simply a simplification of categories is not clear. winter saw it as the latter. he writes that the ultimate challenge probably still ranges upwards of , culturally diverse groups, "even though all those groups can be listed under , accepted names for groups." ("what is an unreached people group?" mission frontiers , nos. - [january-february ]: .) .	 dan scribner, "identifying the peoples where church planting is most needed," mission frontiers ,nos. - (november-december ): - . pages - present a list of , peoples. a few months later a list of , was published in ijfm , no. (april­ june ): - . subsequent research reduced the list to just under , .see luis bush, "where are we now?" missionfrontiers , no. (june ): . .	 david barrett actually increased his estimate of the world's unevangelized population from percent in to percent in . see his "annual statistical table on global mission" in the january issue of the international bulletin of missionary research, january as compared to january . . stephen c. neill, "a revolutionary church," in renewal andadvance: christian witness in a revolutionary world, ed. c. w. ranson (edinburgh: edinburgh house press, ), p. . 	 international bulletin of missionary research i charles van engen i - t heql ogy f m issiori ·i . i i i ,j. paul pierson history of mi ssion and ' _. l atin american srudie i i .t­ i ... . .i .."" -' i ntercultural communication . , i! i ,. . i charles !\.raft i ' r an thropology and . . • study with faculty and students from around the world faculty on the cutting edge, each experienced in global mission students national leaders on campus from more th an countries and over denomination s curriculum strong core of th eology of mission with concentrations commitment stro ngly evangelical, committed to biblical autho rity programs m .a., th.m ., d.min., d.miss., ph.d ., continuing education, combining resident and extension studies call our office ofadmissions - -afuller www.fuller.edu n. oakland ave. pasadena, ca full er theological seminary school of world mission mutation screening of the dyt /thap gene in italy mutation screening of the dyt / thap gene in italy monica bonetti, bsc, chiara barzaghi, phd, francesco brancati, md, phd, , alessandro ferraris, md, phd, emanuele bellacchio, phd, alessandro giovanetti, bsc, tamara ialongo, md, phd, giovanna zorzi, md, carla piano, md, martina petracca, md, alberto albanese, md, nardo nardocci, md, bruno dallapiccola, md, anna rita bentivoglio, md, phd, barbara garavaglia, phd, and enza maria valente, md, phd , * irccs casa sollievo della sofferenza, css-mendel institute, rome, italy; unit of molecular neurogenetics, department of child neuropsychiatry and department of neurology, irccs neurologic institute carlo besta, milan, italy; department of biomedical sciences, ce.s.i. aging research center, gabriele d’annunzio university foundation, chieti, italy; institute of neurology, catholic university, rome, italy; department of child neuropsychiatry, irccs neurologic institute carlo besta, milan, italy; department. of neurology, irccs neurologic institute carlo besta, milan, italy; department of medical and surgical pediatric sciences, university of messina, messina, italy video abstract: mutations in the thap gene on chromosome p -p (dyt locus) have been recently reported as causative of autosomal dominant primary torsion dystonia (ptd) in four amish–mennonite families and in addi- tional probands of different ancestry. we sequenced the thap gene in patients with dyt -negative ptd who had onset of symptoms below years and/or posi- tive family history. one sporadic greek male patient, aged years, was found to carry a novel heterozygous missense variant in thap exon (p.cys arg), of likely pathogenic significance. this subject first presented with right writer’s cramp at age of years and, subse- quently, developed left arm dystonia and an extremely severe left laterocollis, without further spreading to other body districts. our findings expand the genotypic spectrum of thap and strengthen the association with upper body involvement, including the cranial and cervi- cal districts that are usually spared in dyt -ptd. � movement disorder society key words: primary torsion dystonia; dyt ; thap ; tor- ticollis primary torsion dystonia (ptd) is characterized by sustained muscle contractions, causing twisting and re- petitive movements and abnormal postures, and can be inherited as an autosomal dominant or recessive trait. only two genes (tor a/dyt and thap /dyt ) have been identified so far that cause autosomal domi- nant ptd with reduced penetrance. a -base pair (gag) deletion in the tor a gene represents a com- mon cause of early-onset dystonia, especially among ashkenazi jews. the dyt phenotype usually presents with onset in a limb and rapid generalization, with sparing of the cranial-cervical district. – recently, mutations in the thap (thanatos-associated protein domain-containing apoptosis-associated protein ) gene have been identified in dyt -linked families, including a founder amish-mennonite mutation. two large screenings of ptd patients have subsequently identified thap mutations in of ( %) dyt -negative families with early-onset nonfocal ptd and in of ( %) patients with ptd that was early-onset and/or generalized and/or familial and/or involving the face and laryngeal districts. , in the patients with thap mutations so far reported, the dyt phenotype appears to be characterized by onset mostly in the first two decades, with generalization in about half cases and frequent involvement of the upper body, including arms, cranial, and cervical districts. in particular, up to % patients presented cranial dysto- nia, of whom a large proportion experienced speech problems related to dysarthria and/or spasmodic dys- phonia. , aim of this study was to investigate the frequency and phenotypic spectrum of thap mutations in a large cohort of ptd patients ascertained in italy. patients and methods the thap gene was first tested in patients with familial or sporadic early-onset ptd, recruited from the movement disorders centers of the catholic university in rome and the c. besta institute in milan. an arbitrary cut-off has been set at years, as > % of known patients with thap mutations had an onset below this age. – we subsequently tested a second group of ptd probands with onset above years the first two authors contributed equally to this work. additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article. *correspondence to: dr. enza maria valente, neurogenetics unit, css-mendel institute, viale regina margherita , rome , italy. e-mail: e.valente@css-mendel.it potential conflict of interest: none reported. received july ; revised september ; accepted october published online november in wiley interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). doi: . /mds. m. bonetti et al. movement disorders, vol. , no. , and positive family history. all patients tested negative for the dyt deletion, fulfilled a diagnostic flow-chart for dystonia and had no signs of secondary dystonia. inclusion criteria did not consider either the site of onset or the distribution of dystonia at latest ex- amination (table ). the project was approved by the local ethics committees and written informed consent was obtained by all patients or legal representatives. the three thap exons and exon-intron junctions were amplified from genomic dna by polymerase chain reaction (primers and conditions available upon request), purified and sequenced bidirectionally using the big dye terminator chemistry and an abi prism xl automated sequencer (applied biosystems). multiple sequence alignments of the human thap protein and its orthologues were generated by clus- talw software (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/clustalw/). predic- tion of the possible impact of the identified variant on the protein function was obtained using polyphen (http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph/) and sift (http:// sift.jcvi.org/) software. the structure of thap in the amino acid range – has been modeled with the program modeller� v , using as a template the crystallographic structure of general control protein gcn (pdb entry: efr). similarly, the putative dime- rization between two thap molecules has been simulated by reproducing the same topology of interac- tions observed for the dimer of gcn . results only patient with early-onset ptd was found to carry a novel heterozygous missense variant in thap exon (c. t>c, p.cys arg). this -year-old sporadic male patient was born in xanthi (in the northern greek region of thraki) from greek ances- tors; pregnancy, delivery, psychomotor development were uneventful. at age , he presented with right writer’s cramp. over the following years, he devel- oped abnormal posturing of the left arm and neck. the latest progressed in a few years to a severe left latero- collis associated with levoscoliosis, much more inva- lidating than the writer’s cramp (see video). dystonia failed to improve with anticholinergics, tetrabenazine, and myorelaxants. botulinum toxin injections improved pain but failed to affect the dystonic posture. no other muscular districts have become affected over time, and dystonia remained segmental. in particular, no cranial or speech involvement could be observed. brain mag- netic resonance imaging and routine testing were nor- mal. his parents died at and years without mani- festing any dystonic feature; as far as the patient recalls, none of his family members (including his - year-old brother and -year-old daughter) is affected by any movement disorder. the p.cys arg variant affects an highly con- served residue in the coiled coil domain (ccd) (aa – ), was predicted as damaging both by poly- phen (psic score: . ) and sift (score: . ), and it was not detected in control chromosomes (fig. ). to gain insights into the effects of this mutation on the protein, we generated a structural model of thap ccd (aa – ). we observed that all hydrophobic amino acids faced the same side of the ccd, while charged residues were regularly placed outwards. this pattern of alternating charged and hydrophobic residues in this specific region of thap is consistent with potential intermolecular interactions between ccds of two proteins. this is in line with the results of a previously reported large scale yeast-two-hybrid assay, that identified several putative thap interactors among which the thap protein itself, suggesting homodimerization. we have therefore generated a possible model of self- interaction between two thap molecules, although it is expected that thap also heterodimerizes with different proteins through the same ccd. in our model, the cys residue fell at the interface between the two molecules and replacement of this residue with an arginine produced a disruptive effect on the predicted intermolecular interaction (fig. ). in addition, the cys arg change introduces a posi- tively charged residue that likely interacts with the negatively charged glu forming an intramolecular salt-bridge that perturbs thap structure. table . demographic and clinical data of tested patients early-onset ptd late-onset ptd number (sex m/f) ( m/ f) ( m/ f) origin italian a all italian age at onset . . ( – ) . . ( – ) age at examination . . ( – ) . . ( – ) family history positive negative distribution of dystonia focal segmental multifocal generalized unknown b ages at onset and at examination are presented as mean stand- ard deviation (range). a one greek, one albanian. b latest examination < year from onset. dyt /thap dystonia in italy movement disorders, vol. , no. , discussion we detected a thap missense variant of potential pathogenic significance in of ptd patients ( . %), which is broadly in line with the % frequency reported in a recent study on european patients. these figures are markedly lower than the % frequency reported by bressman et al who included in the screen- ing only familial cases in which at least patient had nonfocal dystonia with onset below years. yet, it must be noted that both our and the patients carrying thap mutations reported by djarmati et al. were sporadic, although one of these had two asymptomatic relatives with subtle signs of dystonia who also carried the mutation. this lack of family history can be explained by the reduced penetrance of thap muta- tions, although we were not able to confirm this in our patient since both parents were dead and healthy rela- tives were not available for genetic testing. indeed, we found no positive cases among our probands who matched the inclusion criteria of the bressman study, and the mutation frequency in our cohort reached only . % among patients with nonfocal dystonia and onset below years (n ). moreover, the only subject carrying a thap missense change in our cohort was from northern greece, whereas none of the italian patients carried pathogenic mutations. thus, despite two families of italian ancestry have been previously reported bearing thap mutations, it appears that dyt -dystonia represents a rare occurrence in italy. our patient presented with segmental upper limb and neck dystonia in the absence of any facial, lingual, jaw or laryngeal involvement, supporting the conclu- sion that laryngeal dystonia or speech involvement, albeit frequently observed, are not mandatory features of the dyt phenotype. , however, the presence of cranial-cervical involvement may help differentiate this form from dyt -ptd, that could present similar fea- tures but usually spares the cranial-cervical regions. , the thap gene encodes a protein characterized by a conserved putative dna-binding motif at the n-ter- minus, a proline-rich region, and a large coiled coil region at the c-terminus, which includes a nuclear- localization domain (fig. ). overall, eleven muta- tions including six missense, one nonsense, and four frameshift mutations have been described to date, with no obvious genotype-phenotype correlations. the novel fig. . characterization of the p.cys arg mutation. a: schematic of the protein encoded by thap . dbd, thap dna-binding domain; pr, low-complexity proline-rich region; ccd, coiled-coil domain, including the nuclear localisation signal (dashed). b: multiple alignment of thap orthologues (aa – ). hydrophobic residues are highlighted in grey, cys is indicated by an arrow. c model of homodimerization of thap . each monomer (aa – ) is represented as a ribbon. hydrophobic residues and cys are shown respectively as sticks and spheres on each monomer. movement disorders, vol. , no. , m. bonetti et al. missense change identified in our study (p.cys arg) is of likely pathogenic significance because it was not detected in over caucasian control chromosomes (although we did not have access to control samples from northern greece), and it was predicted to be del- eterious by two distinct bioinformatic prediction soft- ware (polyphen and sift) and affected a highly con- served amino acid across species. interestingly, the mutant residue represents the first variant to fall within the ccd of the protein, since all other missense changes clustered within the dna binding domain. although the function of the ccd is still largely unknown, it has been suggested that thap may homo- or heterodimerize with another thap protein or another member of the thap family through this domain, and our molecular modeling results would be in favor of this hypothesis. these protein–protein inter- actions may be critical to enhance the dna binding activity of the thap zinc finger domain, which appears to be relatively weak, and in this light a muta- tion disrupting such intermolecular interactions may severely hamper the key function of dna binding. in conclusion, our results expand the mutational spectrum of dyt -ptd and implicate that this genetic form of dystonia is rare in italy. legend to the video the video illustrates the features of dystonia in the -year-old greek patient carrier of the p.cys arg mutation in the thap gene. segment . (year ), note the marked left latero- collis with subsequent limitation in neck movements, and the typical ‘‘geste antagoniste’’ (moving the right arm to the head) that completely abolishes the dystonic posturing of the neck. when the patient is sitting with his arms out- stretched, there is dystonic posturing of both arms. segment . (year ), the left laterocollis and the arm dystonic posturing have not changed over time. note the writer’s cramp when the patient is writ- ing and the levoscoliosis associated with neck dystonia while the patient is walking. acknowledgments: this work was supported by the ital- ian ministry of health (ricerca corrente ; ricerca final- izzata). the support of fondazione livio patrizi and transge- nomics is also gratefully acknowledged. part of dna sam- ples were obtained from the ‘‘bank for the diagnosis and research of movement disorders’’ (b.g.) of the eurobiobank network (www.eurobiobank.org). financial disclosure: alberto albanese: occasional con- sultancy advisory boards and honoraria from drug companies: teva, allergan, merz, ipsen; anna rita bentivoglio: occa- sional consultancy and honoraria from allergan, ipsen, novartis, boheringer ingheleim, ucb-pharma. monica bonetti, chiara barzaghi, francesco brancati, alessandro ferraris, emanuele bellacchio, alessandro giovanetti, tam- ara ialongo, giovanna zorzi, carla piano, martina petracca, nardo nardocci, bruno dallapiccola, barbara garavaglia, enza maria valente have nothing to disclose concerning any source of financial support and funding (including: stock ownership in medically-related fields, consultancies, advisory boards, partnerships, honoraria, grants, intellectual property rights, expert testimony, employment, contracts, royalties, etc) for the preceding months, regardless of relationship to this manuscript. author roles: m. bonetti and a. ferraris were involved in execution of the project, data analysis, and manuscript writing; c. barzaghi, f. brancati, e. bellacchio, and a. gio- vanetti, were involved in execution of the project and data analysis; t. ialongo, g. zorzi, c. piano, and m. petracca were involved in ascertainment of patients; a. albanese, n. nardocci, b. dallapiccola, and a.r. bentivoglio were involved in ascertainment of patients, review, and critique of the manuscript; b. garavaglia and e.m. valente were involved in conception and organization of the project, review and critique of the manuscript references . müller u. the monogenic primary dystonias. brain ; : – . . ozelius lj, hewett jw, page ce, et al. the early-onset torsion dystonia gene (dyt ) encodes an atp-binding protein. nat genet ; : – . . valente em, warner tt, jarman pr, et al. the role of dyt in primary torsion dystonia in europe. brain ; : – . . bressman sb, sabatti c, raymond d, et al. the dyt pheno- type and guidelines for diagnostic testing. neurology ; : – . . fuchs t, gavarini s, saunders-pullman r, et al. mutations in the thap gene are responsible for dyt primary torsion dystonia. nat genet ; : – . . bressman sb, raymond d, fuchs t, heiman ga, ozelius lj, saunders-pullman r. mutations in thap (dyt ) in early-onset dystonia: a genetic screening study. lancet neurol ; : – . . djarmati a, schneider sa, lohmann k, et al. mutations in thap (dyt ) and generalised dystonia with prominent spas- modic dysphonia: a genetic screening study. lancet neurol ; : – . . albanese a, lalli s. is this dystonia? mov disord ; : – . . sali a, blundell tl. comparative protein modelling by satisfac- tion of spatial restraints. j mol biol ; : – . . rual jf, venkatesan k, hao t, et al. towards a proteome-scale map of the human protein-protein interaction network. nature ; : – . . fasano a, nardocci n, elia ae, zorzi g, bentivoglio ar, albanese a. non-dyt early-onset primary torsion dystonia: comparison with dyt phenotype and review of the literature. mov disord ; : – . . bessière d, lacroix c, campagne s, et al. structure-function analysis of the thap zinc finger of thap , a large c ch dna-binding module linked to rb/e f pathways. j biol chem ; : – . dyt /thap dystonia in italy movement disorders, vol. , no. , experiences----reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn by harold heatwole editor in chief, icb -present when i was born into a rather conser-vative mennonite community in the early s, the chances of my becom- ing an academic were remote---a sunday school teacher maybe----but a biologist teaching evolution!!?! my father was the first in our community ever to graduate from high school, my elder brother and sister, and i, were the first three to go to college. but, i had one singular advan- tage. my father, elmer heatwole, was an enquiring, open-minded person and deep- ly regretted that he never had the chance to get a college education. in his youth, mennonite sons who took a job other than on their father’s farm gave their wages to their father until reaching the age of . my father went to high school against pa- s p r i n g a h e a d ! by billie j. swalla, sicb president spring ahead! march came in like a lion, but then the buds began ap- pearing on the trees, flowers began poking out of the ground, and spring is officially here. now that we are operat- ing on daylight savings time, are you enjoying the longer days after the long hard winter that most of the u.s.a. en- dured? the winter storms affected sicb meetings in a harsh way, stranding east coast speakers and leaving gaps in well-planned symposia. i heard stories of students in airports for hours, only to be told that all flights were cancelled. nevertheless, for those who did make it to the sicb austin meet- ings, there was something for every- one. we had some awesome plenary speakers who were still fielding ques- tions after the receptions were over. we had shortened talks to minutes, to coordinate with the symposia and allow more speakers. there are those of you who really dislike this format, but when we polled sicb members after the meeting, most were overwhelmingly for it. we also went back to an hour and a half lunch, to allow participants to really go out, eat together and talk science in an informal atmosphere. this was also appreciated, as seen by the survey, so we’ll keep these in our schedule for sicb . sicb is thriving and financially sound, but we are continuing to build our en- dowments so that the high level of sup- port that students have experienced will continue to be possible. one new aspect of the meeting in austin was the pub crawl to get students acquainted and raise a bit of money. i went and talked to many students who were first-time at the meetings, and their enthusiasm for science and for the sicb meetings was contagious. inside this issue: donations report treasurer’s report program officer search for editor elections divisions of sicb: animal behavior comparative biomechanics comparative endocrinology comparative physiology & biochemistry ecoimmunology and disease ecology evolutionary developmental biology ecology & evolution invertebrate zoology neurobiology phylogenetics & comparative biology vertebrate morphology harold heatwole, as a high school sophomore, lec- turing to the natural history club of eastern menno- nite high school, harrisonburg, virginia ( ) continued on page continued on page rental opposition and he was determined that his children would have the best edu- cation possible. one year his expenditure of money for his four children’s education exceeded his total income of that year, something i only discovered accidentally years later when browsing through his old income tax returns. it was his vision and support that gave me the opportunity to break out of an oppressive culture and fol- low my own dream. that dream was to be a naturalist. http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dab.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dcb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dce.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dcpb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dcpb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dede.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dede.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dedb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dedb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dee.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - diz.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dnb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dpcb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dpcb.pdf http://sicb.org/newsletters/nl - / - dvm.pdf https://www.facebook.com/groups/sicbmembers/ https://twitter.com/sicbtweets sicb newsletter, spring page your donations have a profound effect on this society and the future of compara- tive biology. prior to the meeting in austin, the sicb development committee implemented a tiered donor recognition plan. five levels of giving are recognized and acknowledge donations from january (including the san francisco meet- ing) through the end of the austin meeting this past january. the society leadership wishes to extend sincere thanks to these individuals and encourages all members to consider donating to the society’s endowment. several funds make up the endow- ment and you can request that your donation be applied to the fund of your choice. the society plans to continue to recognize donors in this fashion. please know that the endowment is crucial to the continued success of the society and that every dol- lar counts. again, many thanks. go to the sicb home page and click donate to sicb on the lower left panel. d o n at i o n s t o sicb a report from the development committee support your favorite sicb fund. click on the “donations” button on the home page. diamond ($ and up) ken dial m. patricia morse jared simons platinum ($ - ) karen burnett louis burnett emily carrington thomas hahn darwin jorgensen robert roer kenneth sebens sherry tamone cheryl wilga gold ($ - ) mark chappell jim clegg thomas daniel joan davis levin scott macdougall-shackleton duncan mackenzie duane mcpherson rita mehta donald mykles john s. pearse robert podolsky mary rice michael romero michael salmon richard strathmann billie swalla silver ($ - ) michael greenberg jon harrison john hermanson matthew lovern sarah woodley bronze (up to $ ) elizabeth davis-berg lisa hazard raymond huey matthew landau sara o’brien sicb executive officers billie swalla president - u. of washington ken sebens past president - u. of washington peter wainwright president-elect - u. of california, davis karen martin treasurer - pepperdine university lou burnett secretary - college of charleston sherry tamone prog. officer - u. of alaska southeast jon harrison past prog. officer - arizona state univ. brett burk executive director mclean, va the finances of the society are solid. the total assets have increased from $ , , in fy to $ , , in fy , an increase of $ , . investments rose from $ , , as of nov to $ , , as of december , an increase of $ , . the investments were re-bal- anced mid-year. of these investments, approximately % are in the endowed (restricted) funds and % are in the unrestricted funds. endowed funds received over $ , in donations last year, including a major gift of stock to the hyman fund, auction funds for the hyman fund, donations to the symposium enhancement fund re- sulting from the wine tour, and dona- tions to the grants in aid of research sicb f i n a n c e s treasurer’s report, karen martin fund from the octopus travel mugs. in the coming year, new guidelines for fund maintenance and growth are being im- plemented so that the endowments will be able to support their missions sus- tainably and also grow in a sensible way. annual meetings continue operating in the black, as they have since . in the annual meeting in san fran- cisco brought in revenues of $ , against expenses of $ , . travel support was provided to students. the budget approved for fy predicted revenue of $ , against expenses of $ , , with an expect- ed loss of $ , . the actual revenue was $ , , and expenses were $ , , with a positive balance of $ , . over the past four fiscal years, http://www.sicb.org/ sicb newsletter, spring page approved budgets have anticipated finishing in the red, but results for the past four years have been in the black. based on past per- formance and reason- able predictions, the budget for fy proposes expected revenues conserva- tively at $ , and expenses of $ , . this results in a positive balance of $ , . this is the first time, in at least ten years, that the sicb executive com- mittee has been asked to approve a balanced budget for the coming year. the budget for fy was approved at the sicb annual meeting in austin. donations report endowment funds receive gener- ous support from sicb members and friends over the past few years. a total of $ , was donated to sicb in fy , spread over of the funds. www.sicb.org sicb f i n a n c e s , c o n t i n u e d treasurer’s report, karen martin in fy , donations were $ , . in the current fiscal year, fy , gifts have already exceeded $ , , thanks in large part to a generous donation of stock from dr. jarid simons for the libbie hyman fund. again, eleven of the funds received donations. as a nonprofit organi- zation, sicb depends on a budget with a narrow margin between expens- es and revenues. dona- tions allow more support to be provided to student members and meeting ac- tivities benefitting a broad spectrum of the member- ship. donations can be earmarked for any of the funds of the society, or given unrestricted. please consider a donation when you reaffirm your membership, especially as you have enjoyed this extended mem- bership year. note that membership dues have been steady since . thanks to your involvement, sicb is financially sta- ble with an active, growing membership. “thanks to your involvement, sicb is financially stable with an active, growing membership.” endowment fund carl gans award $ $ $ , $ george bartholomew fund $ $ $ , $ libbie h. hyman fund $ $ , $ , $ , dwight d. davis fund $ $ $ , $ , john a. moore lectureship fund $ $ $ $ , adrian m. wenner fund $ $ $ $ dorothy m. skinner fund $ , $ $ $ symposium enhance- ment fund $ $ $ $ charlotte mangum fund $ $ $ $ grants-in-aid-of-re- search fund $ $ $ , $ howard bern lecture fund $ , $ , $ $ c. ladd prosser symposium fund $ $ $ $ total $ , $ , $ , $ , sicb newsletter, spring page as the incoming sicb program officer, i want to congratulate the outgoing pro- gram officer, jon harrison, for putting to- gether an excellent program for the sicb meeting in austin, texas, this year. what a great venue! i hope you were able to get out, visit historical austin, and listen to live music at some point during the meeting. i spent much of the meet- ing learning the ropes of being a program officer and attending sicb committee meetings and workshops. nevertheless i was able to attend many talks, visit post- ers, get together with many colleagues, and walk the streets of austin. the sicb meeting in austin was the second largest sicb meeting ever with over registrants ( in san francisco holds the record). we were able to accommodate talks in sessions because of the re- cent change to allot minutes instead of minutes for oral presentations. while fewer than % of sicb mem- bers disapproved of this change (online sicb meeting survey) most meeting participants ( . %) were enthu- siastic about the change. members overwhelmingly appreciated the lon- ger lunches and the ability to move seamlessly between regular talks and symposium presentations. members noted that speakers often used the entire minutes and there was no time remaining for questions, a nega- tive consequence of the minute oral presentation time. i was guilty of this myself and will make appropriate changes next year so that there remains at least minutes for questions and dis- cussions. over members contributed to the post-meeting survey which provides us with important information about our meetings. most members ( . %) rated this meeting as very good to excellent. it is encouraging to read the responses of members to this question because the survey responses reaffirm what a great society sicb is and what a great resource this meeting is for students and postdocs. - sicb a u s t i n r e c a p a n d u p d at e s program officer, sherry tamone sicb is particularly supportive of its members with families. having children should not preclude members from at- tending and actively participating at sicb meetings. for over years, sicb has arranged for childcare services at each meeting and past surveys revealed general satisfaction with this service. this year, sicb opted to subsidize over % of the cost to members, and partic- ipants who used the child care service in austin were extremely satisfied and ex- pressed their thanks for the significant sicb subsidy of costs. some members would not have been able to attend and present at sicb if not for the available childcare services. there was excellent attendance dur- ing all days of the scientific program and the evening lectures (bartholomew, bern and moore lectures) were also well attended. the program committee makes a point of providing a meaning- ful program through the entire days of meetings and, while some members do choose to leave early on the final day, oral sessions and symposia still attract- ed a sizable audience. for the second year, we incorporated a meeting app (core-apps) for use with mobile phones and tablets. approxi- mately % of the members did not use this app at all (see figure below). in fact, more full members than graduate students or post docs chose not to use the app. of those that did find the app useful, graduate students and post docs found it more useful than did full mem- bers. we received many excellent sug- gestions that we will consider for next “...the survey responses reaffirm what a great society sicb is and what a great resource this meeting is for students and postdocs.” continued on page sicb newsletter, spring page year’s meeting app. the meeting app will not replace the hard copy program that many members feel is most useful. the symposia for the west palm beach meeting have been se- lected and are posted on the sicb web site (http://sicb.org/meet- ings/ /). there are excellent symposia during each of the days of the meeting (see below). january , •	 towards a general framework for predicting animal move- ment speeds in nature organizer: robbie wilson; spon- sors: sicb wide; dab, dcb, dcpb, dee, & dvm •	 physiology in changing land- scapes: an integrative perspec- tive for conservation biology organizers: christine madliger & glenn crossin & oliver love; spon- sors: dce & dcpb •	 integrative biology of the croc- odilia organizer: valentine lance; spon- sors: dab, dcpb, dedb, dnb, dee & dpcb january , •	 soft bodies, hard jaws: phylo- genetic diversity of prey cap- ture and processing in jawed, soft-bodied invertebrates organizers: rick hochberg & eliza- beth walsh; sponsors: diz, dpcb & ams •	 origins of neurons and parallel evolution of nervous systems: the dawn of neuronal organi- zation organizer: leonid moroz; spon- sors: dedb, diz, dnb and dpcb, & ams •	 thinking about change: an in- tegrative approach for exam- ining cognition in a changing world organizers: timothy roth ii & zoltan nemeth; sponsors: dab, dce & dee & , c o n t i n u e d program officer, sherry tamone january , •	 unsteady aquatic locomotion with respect to eco-design and mechanics organizers : frank fish & paolo do- menici; sponsors: dcb, dvm & diz •	 neurohormones, brain and be- havior: a comparative approach to exploring rapid neuroendo- crine function organizers: rebecca calisi & colin sandanha; sponsors: dce, dab & dcpb •	 leading students and faculty to quantitative biology through ac- tive learning organizers: laura miller & lindsay waldrop; sponsors: sicb wide; dab, dcb, dcpb, & dvm january , •	 chemicals that organize ecology: towards a greater integration of chemoreception, neuroscience, organismal biology, and chemi- cal ecology organizers: james murray & russell wyeth; sponsors: dnb, dcpb and diz •	 linking insects and crustaceans: comparative physiology of the pancrustacea organizers: jon harrison & sherry tamone; sponsors: tcs, ams, diz, dedb, dpcb, & dce •	 new insights into suction feed- ing biomechanics and evolution organizers: c. darrin hulsey & ste- ven day & tim higham & peter wain- wright; sponsors: dcb, diz, & dvm in addition to the symposia there will be regular talks and workshops through- out the meeting. dr. ken sebens (friday harbor laboratory, university of washing- ton) will give the opening plenary talk as past president of the sicb. plan to come to the meeting early and enjoy a few days at the beach or in the bahamas. i know that i will be enjoying a week away from the weather in alaska. west palm beach, florida member benefit: % discount on oxford university press books go to the sicb home page http://sicb.org/meetings/ / http://sicb.org/meetings/ / sicb newsletter, spring page from the researchers database: dnb - neuroendocrine mechanisms of social and reproductive behaviors, lisa mangiamele hal heatwhole, the editor of the so- ciety journal integrative and compara- tive biology (icb), will be stepping down after years of service. we thank hal for his unparalleled dedication, and now open the search for a new editor, to as- sure a smooth transition. integrative and comparative biology (formerly american zoologist) is one of the most highly respected and cited journals in the field of biology. its im- pact factor has shown steady increases over the last several years, and the jour- nal continues to be ranked within the top ten journals in zoology. with this strong foundation, we would like to encourage interested individuals who have both a strong sense of the journal’s relevance to the sicb community, and who have ideas for innovative expansion of the journal’s scope, to apply for the editor position. the successful candidate will take up the post on january, following a transition period of ten months working with the current editor, starting in march . the initial term of the position is five years, which can be extended by mutual agreement and approval of the sicb executive committee. financial compensation and assistant support will be provided. the primary areas of responsibility for the editor include the overall editorial re- sponsibility for the journal in maintain- ing and improving the journal’s scientific quality; implementation of editorial poli- cies as identified in the journal’s mis- sion statement; service as an ambas- sador and spokesperson for the journal, promoting it at relevant meetings and workshops; management of submis- sions through scholar one manuscripts; to work within an annually approved page budget; to work closely with the icb editorial board (divisional represen- tatives), the sicb executive committee, and the publisher. we seek interested individuals who have knowledge and experience with scientific journal management and publication, appropriate oral and writ- ten communication skills, scientific ex- pertise, scientific review expertise and objectivity, evidence of leadership, cre- ativity, and innovation related to scien- tific publication, fiscal experience and administration skills related to scientific enterprises, and a willingness to attend the annual sicb meetings. a history of active involvement in sicb would be preferred. we will welcome personal applications and nominations. for the former, please provide a cover letter of no more than two pages with a summary of qualifica- tion and experience; a concise curricu- lum vitae of no more than pages; a two-page vision statement for the jour- nal addressing personal ideas/philoso- phies on the operation of a journal like icb, ideas for future development of the journal, and estimated assistance needs for running the journal. please email applications materials to the chair of the icb editor search com- mittee (rich satterlie – satterlier@ uncw.edu) no later than august, . nominations or letters identifying potential candidates can be sent as well. evaluation of applications will take place in the fall, with the final decision sched- uled for the annual meeting in january, . o p e n s e a r c h f o r e d i t o r o f i n t e g r a t i v e a n d c o m p a r a t i v e b i o l o g y member benefit: % discount on oxford university press books go to the sicb home page mailto:satterlier% uncw.edu?subject= mailto:satterlier% uncw.edu?subject= sicb newsletter, spring page my first introduction to evolution was at the age of five, and strangely enough, it took place in a mennonite evangelistic revival meeting. a visiting evangelist had come to hold a week- long revival meeting at our church. in one of his sermons, he ranted “if people think they came from monkeys, why don’t they go live with them?” i didn’t have any idea what evolution was, but his aggressive stance against monkeys repelled me. monkeys were cute and anyone who was mean to them couldn’t be a very nice person. whatever evolution was, it couldn’t be all that bad! the second person to have a profound influ- ence on my later life was my high-school literature teacher, elizabeth wenger. although a conserva- tively dressed teacher in a mennonite high school, she taught me that there was more to life than the stern authoritarianism of fundamental christianity---there was humor in lit- erature, beauty in language, and noble emotions in poetry. she also pled my case in front of the high school disci- pline committee when i ran afoul of strict regulations. years later, in her late ‘ s, she confided to me that she “had more time for the mischievous students who loved poetry, than for the pious ones who didn’t.” she revealed to me glimpses of a secular life that had meaning and excitement. the fact that i became a voracious reader and lat- er wrote books and became an editor stems directly from the gentle nudges she gave me in that direction during my formative high school years. reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole my third mentor was prof. samuel wit- mer, of goshen college , a mennonite college. he taught practically everything- --general botany and zoology, compara- tive anatomy, mycology, bacteriology, he- redity; in fact he would assemble the five, non-premed, biology majors near the end of the semester to ask what courses we would like the following semester. after discussion, we would agree upon a top- ic, and he would teach it. he never once mentioned the word evolution. toward the end of my senior year, i asked prof. witmer: “you have never told us what you think about evolution. what is your opinion?” he eyed me quizzically and said: “mr. heatwole you mean to say that you have studied biol- ogy under me these years, and you still don’t know what i think about evolu- tion?” i did know, of course. he had taught it, but just didn’t use the word. thanks to that gentle man, i was well-prepared to launch into my professional career. in looking forward to graduate school, i was peering down two different forks in the paths, simultaneously. one was whether to follow my original intention and go for a phd in zoology and study herpetology, or to change course and pursue a phd in botany (then including mycology). prof. witmer had inspired an intense interest in the higher fungi in me and i seriously considered making that change. the other choice was where to go for my phd. the two decisions were intertwined. i applied to, and was accepted, both at harvard and at the university of michigan (um) for a phd program in zoology, with a declared interest in herpetology. the decision to se- lect um, rather than harvard was because the renowned authority on the higher “after five cold, snowy winters in michigan, and realizing that % of the biology is in the tropics but only % of the biologists, i made the decision to seek a job somewhere in the tropics.” continued on page please note that my references to goshen college, mennonite high schools, and the mennonite church in general relate to a particular place and time. today, the church varies geographically in its degree of conservatism from something similar to the amish on one hand to congregations one could scarcely distinguish from, say, methodists, on the other. temporal change has been enormous as well. in the con- gregation in which i grew up, most of the members wore distinctive clothing, women wore prayer head coverings, you could be excommunicated for the sin of owning a radio, and movies, bowling, jewelry (even wedding rings), and men appearing without a shirt in public were serious matters. now, in the same congregation only the elderly wear distinctive clothing and everybody has a tv set. during my lifetime, apparently an immutable god changed his mind. experiences - part in a series of articles about the research experiences of members of sicb. continued from page “sicb members like a good story about an expedition, a lab experiment or another researcher.” sicb newsletter, spring page fungi at that time, prof. alex smith, was located at the university of michigan. i reasoned that if i went there, i could do my phd in zoology and at the same time take a course in the higher fungi under prof. smith, which is what i did. jobs my first job after my phd didn’t really involve a choice of alternatives. my ma- jor professor, prof. frederick test, was going on sabbatical for the year following the completion of my phd degree, and he asked whether i would take a year as in- structor at um and teach his courses while he was away. that instructorship was the first time i had full responsibility for lec- turing. one of my courses was a gradu- ate course and my students were my peer graduate students of the previous year; most were senior to me in age. when that year was up, i opted out of making a choice and left the finding of my next job to fate. after five cold, snowy winters in michigan, and realizing that % of the biology is in the tropics but only % of the biologists, i made the decision to seek a job somewhere in the tropics. what i left to chance was where. i shot-gunned ap- plications for every available job around the world’s tropics, wherever one could begin in english, and decided to accept the first offer made. it came from the uni- versity of puerto rico (upr). the third of my four university appoint- ments was unanticipated and also based on chance. one day in the biology build- ing at upr, i crossed paths with a visitor who enquired whether this was the biol- ogy department. it was prof. john brere- ton from the university of new england (une) in australia who had just complet- ed a sabbatical in jamaica and on his re- turn to australia had detoured to several other islands for a brief holiday. i gave him a tour of the department and spent the rest of the afternoon discussing water balance of frogs (my research) and the languages of parrots (his research). that led to cocktails and dinner at my house and subsequently a regular exchange of reprints. several years later, i unexpect- edly received an invitation to apply for a position that had become vacant at une-- -one thing leads to another. reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole my final academic appointment was a consequence of the passage of time. when i took up my post at une my con- tract included the then standard require- ment of retiring on the st of december following one’s th birthday. although australian law had changed and such agreements were no longer made for new hires, years later my contract may still have been valid and i decided to examine alternative possibilities. the result was that i accepted an appoint- ment at north carolina state university (ncsu) carrying an obligatory five-year term as head of zoology. having fulfilled that, i returned to the more satisfying primary roles of teaching and research. research the topics of my research were decid- ed not only as choices of paths diverging in the woods, but also of one thing lead- ing to another. the resulting pattern was a rather tortuous path, much like the branching of a phylogenetic tree. although a dedicated herpetologist, i couldn’t squelch the temptation to look into other mysteries. my phd thesis was a comparison of habitat use by amphibi- ans in tropical and temperate forests, and part of it involved a study of terrestrial salamanders in a beech-maple-hemlock forest in northern michigan. every day i passed a large decaying log on which three species of ichneumonid wasps si- multaneously were going through an elaborate contortion of their ovipositors to drill into the wood and deposit their eggs on wood-boring sawfly larvae. why the elaborate means of oviposition? did these species compete? males of all three species aggregated around a fu- ture emergence site of a female boring from the wood but two left before she emerged. how did they know she was there, and how did the two inappropriate species detect her specific identity before they could see her? i got a small grant to study this problem simultaneously with my phd program---already i had di- verged slightly from herpetology. i hired two fellow graduate students (one being adrian wenner, later of honeybee fame and whose name graces one of sicb’s from the researchers database: nereis virens burrowing in gelatin by crack propaga- tion, kelly dorgan continued on page sicb newsletter, spring page awards) and we completed a small re- search project. we didn’t solve all the mysteries, but we satisfied our curios- ity on some points. the next divergence from my professional trajectory came while at upr and during a herpetological survey of the islands and cays (keys) of the puerto rican-virgin island ar- chipelago. i became intrigued with island biogeography and col- laborated with richard levins on a grant to investigate that topic, expanding our taxo- nomic coverage to a variety of taxa, espe- cially ants. those were the days when robert macarthur and e. o. wilson were in the ear- ly stages of developing their subsequently fa- mous theory of island biogeography. macar- thur was a visitor to our laboratory and we were stimulated by his ideas. while at upr, i spent three summers ( - ) in pana- ma working on a joint research project with owen sexton on a study of the herpetofauna in a rain- forest straddling the proposed route of the panamerican highway. the plan was to study the herpetofauna prior to the building of that section of highway, with a follow-up study after the road was completed to assess the changes wrought by opening the area to the on- slaught of human influence. the road took decades to build and by the time it had reached our study area, i had gone to australia and owen had moved on to other things. i understand the change in the habitat has been enormous, and if anyone wants to conduct the follow-up, the project is available. reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole there were four short-term divergences in research topics while at upr, that at- tracted my attention. one was a study of the energetic advantage accruing to cattle egrets by following large animals, anoth- er was a study of the conservation status of mangroves in puerto rico, and a third was the comparative ecol- ogy and physiology of tree snails. a scorpion attracted my atten- tion by stinging me and my fourth project was research on scor- pion behavior. in australia, at une, i pursued my herpetological inter- ests, primarily on reptilian thermoreg- ulation initially, but later concentrating on diving physiology, behavior, ecology, and taxonomy of sea snakes. in the early days, i relied heav- ily on opportunistic means to conduct my fieldwork: as an expert consultant for published articles (national geograph- ic), a volunteer diver for underwater tele- vision films (crawford productions, wild kingdom, ron and valerie taylor, ben cropp); i also hitch-hiked aboard an aus- tralian naval minesweeper, hmas teale, on a sovereignty cruise in the coral sea, and aboard a supply ship of the queensland lighthouse service. my sea snake work was put on a more professional footing that allowed for laboratory work by partici- pation in two alpha helix expeditions and an acheron expedition, both led by william dunson (ashmore reef, caroline islands, timor sea, philippines, great barrier reef, chesterfield reef), the belgian expedition to the great barrier reef, and two japa- nese expeditions led by the late nobuo “a scorpion attracted my attention by stinging me and my fourth project was research on scorpion behavior.” continued on page my tortuous foray into science, illustrated as a branching tree. the trunk was, and is, her- petology with some major limbs into island ecology, ant ecology, and various aspects of community ecology. separate saplings grew up under that tree such as the applications of technology to teaching, and a miscellaneous one, dealing mainly with methods. there are also cauliflorous twigs dealing with side proj- ects (not all described in the text). the num- bers indicate the numbers of publications arising from these endeavors, and hence are a rough guide to the time spent engaging in those studies. artwork by suzanne miller sicb newsletter, spring page tamiya to the southwestern pacific. these were followed by working on sea snakes in prof. tamiya’s laboratory at tohoku uni- versity in japan, and in the laboratory of the late andré ménez at the french nu- clear centre (centre d’etudes nucleares), gif-sur-yvette, france. in later years, i fi- nanced my own expeditions from grants, and most recently collaborated with har- vey lillywhite on his project on water bal- ance of sea snakes. a highlight of my sea snake research was a dissertation on the role of cenozoic paleogeography in the distribution and speciation of sea kraits, for which in i earned a phd in earth and environmen- tal science (ge- ography) from james cook uni- versity. my sus- tained work in ecological herpe- tology over the years also led to a thesis-based d.sc from une. in australia i followed several of the divergent paths i had begun to tread in puerto rico. i con- tinued my studies of island biogeography by an intensive investigation of the community ecology of a small cay, one tree island, and a survey of the biota of the islands and cays of the great barrier reef. both of these projects not only involved me in biogeography, per se, but increasingly in the commu- nity ecology of insular biota, e.g., the impact of sources of instability such as erosion and prograding of islands, disturbance to vegetation by nesting seaturtles, washover during storms, and modifica- tion by sea birds of soils and vegetative succession on is- lands. this path also diverged; in one di- rection it led to the study of vegetation dynamics on small islands that became reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole the subject of a dissertation for a phd in botany (university of queensland), and in the other direction to a long-term banding project on gannets that detailed their population changes and responses to instability. this emphasis on the ecol- ogy of insular communities, as well as my sustained interest in ant assemblag- es, developed into a general fascination with how communities are structured. i reasoned that the best approach to un- derstanding such a complex topic was to start with the simplest communities available and try to develop basic prin- ciples that might then be applied toward understanding more complex commu- nities. the simplest naturally occurring biotic communities on earth are those in antarctica, so i carried out fieldwork at all three of the major australian ant- arctic bases and by camping for several months in a tent in the prince charles mountains. one of the main components of antarctic communities is the phylum tardigrada and because of the excep- tional attributes of these animals, such as ability to survive practically any en- vironmental insult while in a deeply dor- mant state (anhydrobiosis), and because they are personally endearing, i began a still-continuing research interest in them in collaboration with a former phd student, randy miller. we expanded the geographic range studied to include the subantarctic islands. continued on page a nunatak range in the prince charles mountains, interior of antarctica, . heatwole’s tent is located slightly to right of center of the picture. harold heatwole having a conversation with an olive sea snake, aipysurus laevis, at mystery reef, swain reefs, great barrier reef, australia, . sicb newsletter, spring page a further spin-off from my interest in community ecology was in the inter- action of grazing insects and eucalypt trees. that interest was stimulated by meg lowman. her first job after her phd was a postdoctoral fellow- ship under me at une and we spent six years study- ing this plant-herbivore interaction, including its role in the die-back of trees in the new england region of australia. i also continued my work on ants while at une, looking especially at the change in assem- blage structure across environmental and ele- vational gradients. thanks to that uni- versity’s generous allowance for over- seas research, i extended the project geographically to include sampling across tundra-birch forest-conifer forest ecotones in finland; running transects from rainforest to above tree-line at mt. kinabalu in sa- bah; comparing rainforests in suri- name and malaysia; and comparing vari- ous deserts (ata- cama, patagonian, namib, kalahari, kara-kum, gobi, taklamakan, and arabian) with aus- tralian ones. i was able to take part in the program of the us/ibp desert bi- ome project, - , spending . - . months per year in the sahara, examining the role of ants in that ecosystem. when i took up a professorship at ncsu, i maintained some of the major threads of my skein of research: rep- tiles, amphibians, insect-plant interac- tions, ants. perhaps i should add anoth- reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole er cliché to the title of this article: “what goes around, comes around.” you may re- call that meg lowman was a postdoctoral fellow under my supervision for six years in australia. now, fast-forward a decade or so. in the meantime she had moved to the united states and had taken up an academic position there. she called my attention to the opening at ncsu that i subsequently filled. i sub- sequently became part of a french expedition to mada- gascar, of which my part was to study the grazing of canopy leaves by insects, in collaboration with her and with sybille unsicker from germany. meg and i fur- ther collaborated on another project. she was in charge of a study of the biodiversity of remnant church-forests in ethiopia, of which my part was to do an ecological sur- vey of ants. thus, over several decades, we went from me being boss (australia), to the two of us being collaborators (can- opy biology in madagascar), to her be- ing boss (church forests in ethiopia). the wheel does turn. one of the transitions in my research career was a shift from pure, curiosity- based research to more practical applica- tions such as conservation and manage- ment. my first excursion in that direction was the mangrove study in puerto rico and a study of the effects of radiation on snails in their natural habitat. howard odum, then of the puerto rican nuclear center, headed a project in which a patch of rainforest was to be studied first as its own control, then irradiated from a cesi- um source, and the effects assessed by follow-up investigations. my task was to mark the tree snails and assess death rates and compare various attributes be- fore and after radiation. although trees and some other biota were killed within a certain radius of the source, my snails sur- vived, including one whose home range included the source. later, in australia, several of my pa- pers on sea snakes were directed toward harold heatwole and research assistant eliza- beth broese van groneau on saharan sand dunes at ksar rhilane, tunisia, . www.sicb.org continued on page “thus, over several decades, we went from me being boss (australia), to the two of us being collaborators (canopy biology in madagascar), to her being boss (church forests in ethiopia).” sicb newsletter, spring page questions of sustainability or manage- ment. my work on the island ecosystems of the great barrier reef revealed to me how interdependent the insular and ma- rine ecosystems are, and how fragile they are in the face of threatening changes in the global system. i was a council mem- ber (later president) of the great barrier reef committee, and participated in a consultancy to the australian federal gov- ernment to recommend a conservation strategy and zoning plan for the great barrier reef. the broad outlines of the plan we proposed are still intact today, about years later. as universities and governmental agencies took over many of the functions of the great barrier reef committee, i disbanded it and in its place founded the australian coral reef soci- ety. the emergence of the decline and extinction of amphibians pushed me much further in the direc- tion of management, and the most recent four of the volumes of the series of books i edit on amphib- ian biology dealt with that topic, as have some of my individual papers. i was amazed to find in prepara- tion for this article that (about %) of my to- tal publications to date are directly related to conservation or other practical issues, most of these in recent years. the partial transition from pure sci- ence to conservation was not intended. although interested in physiology, anato- my, histology, and various other medically related aspects of biology, i never had an interest in pursuing a medical career. i simply am not interested in that, wor- thy though it is. in a similar way, i am fascinated by ecological interactions and how animals and plants function and are adapted to their natural environments; i have an esthetic appreciation for the sym- metry between organisms and environ- ment, but i am not interested in crippled ecosystems or in how to repair them. my studies in that direction have been driven reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole more my duty and urgency, than by cu- riosity or pleasure. editing editing has been an important, and enjoyable part of my career, beginning with serving on editorial boards, later be- coming an editor of the australian jour- nal of ecology, then of a series of books on amphibian biology, and finally editor of icb. the main challenge to editing icb is the broad coverage of topics and taxa. my delving into different fields, formally receiving training in several disciplines, and taking a wide range of courses, has served me well. the diversity of the journal has been not only a challenge, but a delight and an educational experience. it is extremely difficult to keep up with the fast-moving pace of modern biology. the literature has burgeoned and there are now whole fields of study that didn’t even exist when i was a graduate student. integra- tive and comparative biology is a most effective way of keeping abreast of de- velopments in a broad range of biological disciplines at a high level. each sympo- sium is like taking a short-course on the prograding edge on an exciting field, but without having to pay tuition. one of the great challenges to re- sponsible editing is to expand the “com- pact” style characterizing modern scien- continued on page from the dee researchers data- base: what influence do de- velopmental processes have on evolution?, christian peter klingen- berg harold heatwole using a helium balloon over rain forest in madagas- car to sample leaves from the canopy, . sicb newsletter, spring page reflections: one thing leads to another, but paths do diverge in the woods, and the wheel does turn - harold heatwole tific writing into grammatically correct, meaningful, precise language. do you know, for example, that there are “lar- val ecologists”---perhaps named tad pohl or mag ott; i wonder whether they will ever metamorphose into adult ecol- ogists. the “living language” and the coining of new scientific terms should contribute to, not detract from, the ef- fectiveness of communication. what next? as i moved through my s, i decid- ed that, despite a family history of lon- gevity, i should be prudent and reduce my primary research to more modest levels and begin paring down and pub- lishing my rather voluminous backlog. consequently, i am not applying for any more major grants but will concentrate on publishing results of the data i already have and on writing reviews and books. i will continue my teaching and strive to improve the quality of education at my university. in , i will have served ten years as editor of icb and have declined to consider a further term. i will reach my th birthday this year and will not celebrate further ones. rather, from now on, on the appropriate day i will celebrate having reached another year beyond my life expectancy (assessed as . years at the time i was born). i have adopted a personal mascot who i try to emulate: the pink, drum-beating energiz- er bunny that advertises batteries on tv, and who “keeps on keeping on.” s p r i n g f o r w a r d president’s report, billie swalla thank you to the sicb officers who work tirelessly to make the society and the meetings run smoothly. the better they do their jobs, the less you notice, because it seems effortless. i feel privi- leged being involved with such a won- derful group of scientists and educators. so, what’s my biggest challenge for sicb in the - year as sicb pres- ident? finding a new editor for the soci- ety’s journal integrative and compara- tive biology (icb). editor search current icb editor hal heatwole has been in this post since . hal is well into his second five year term and wish- es to step down when his appointment ends in january . under hal’s lead- ership the journal has thrived. strong symposia have been published in a most timely way, the journal’s reputation has grown and the impact factor is up. thank you hal!!! we have established a search com- mittee for hal’s replacement, chaired by richard satterlie (past president), with mike alfaro, alice gibb, sandra shum- way, ian sherman, and peter wain- wright (president-elect). please con- tact rich satterlie if you are interested in this position or know someone that would be excellent. richard satterlie sat- terlier@uncw.edu. thanks! be a sicb donor we have been carefully looking at our various funds and deciding whether to keep those that are not endowed to the $ , mark. you’ll be hearing more about this in the coming year. in the meantime, please consider giving some extra donations to your favorite fund when you renew your dues. your contributions are carefully managed and used to sup- port sicb activities, and we are grateful for them. we would like to concentrate on increasing donations to our moore fund this year, in order to sponsor educational speakers. if you would like to get involved with this aspect of sicb, please let me know, we can use your help. on to west palm beach finally, plans are underway for the meeting next year in west palm beach, florida. we have chosen twelve interest- ing symposia and are busy helping the or- ganizers look for funding, and otherwise be sure that we have a dynamite program. we have some of the best symposia and symposia organizers to be found, and i would like to thank all of those involved in the effort, but especially our program officer, sherry tamone. happy spring! continued from page support your favorite sicb fund. click on the “donations” button on the home page. mailto:satterlier% uncw.edu?subject= mailto:satterlier% uncw.edu?subject= sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring electionscandidates for president: • lou burnett • dianna padilla ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large louis e. burnett current position: professor of biol- ogy, college of charleston, sc. education: b.s. college of william and mary ( ); ph.d. university of south carolina ( ); postdoctoral fellow, university of aarhus, denmark ( ). professional experience: assistant through full professor, university of san diego ( - ), dept. chair ( - ); professor and dept. chair, college of charleston ( - ); director, grice marine labora- tory ( - ); associate editor, the biological bulletin ( -present); edi- torial boards, comparative biochem- istry & physiology ( -present) and journal of experimental marine biology & ecology ( - ). sicb activities: member for over years; secretary ( - ); pro- gram officer, dcpb ( - ); chair, dcpb ( - ); associate editor, american zoologist ( - ); in- ternational union of physiological sci- ences repre- sentative for sicb ( - ); interna- tional union of biological sci- ences, section of comparative physiology and biochemistry, r e p r e s e n t a - tive for dcpb; co-organized a number of symposia for sicb. other memberships: american physiological society; council on un- dergraduate research; coastal & es- tuarine research federation; national shellfisheries association; southeast- ern estuarine research society; southern association of marine labo- ratories (president - ). research interests: environmen- tal physiology of animals; influence of environmental variables, especially hypoxia and co , on the physiology, immunology, and disease resistance of animals; the transition from water breathing to air breathing. statement of goals: as sicb presi- dent, i will work to strengthen our voice in public forums on things that we as biologists know something about and especially biological issues associated with climate change and species diversity and resilience. i will also work hard to continue to build our endowments which will enable us to continue our excellent meeting pro- grams and at a reasonable cost. sicb has grown and evolved because inte- grative and comparative biology reso- nates with the community. but sicb is also strong because of its emphasis on students and young professionals and its efforts to broaden the partici- pation in biology of underrepresented people. our tradition of strong scien- tific meetings and our recent public stands on important educational and scientific issues have gained us na- tional attention. sicb played an im- portant role in how i view the world as a scientist starting in the s when i was a graduate student; it is why i bring my students to sicb each year. i have had the honor and plea- sure of being involved in the leader- ship of this society working with some really great people. my service to sicb, most recently as society secre- tary, have allowed me to give back to sicb. i would be honored to be your president. sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections dianna k. padilla current position: professor of ecol- ogy and evolution and affiliated profes- sor, school of marine and atmospheric sciences, stony brook university, ny. education: b.a. university of wash- ington ( ); m.s. oregon state university ( ); ph.d. university of alberta ( ); postdoctoral fellow, cornell university ( - ). professional experience: professor and associate professor, stony brook university ( -present); associate and assistant professor, university of wisconsin madison ( - ); pro- gram director, integrative organismal systems, biology, national science foundation ( - ). sicb activities: chair, diz ( - ); editorial board, integrative and comparative biology ( - ); nominating committee ( , chair ); member-at-large ( - ) ; committee to in- crease diversity (broadening par- ticipation) ( - , chair ); chair, dee ( - ); nsf-funded workshop with dr. f. thomas in to develop plan for broadening partici- pation in sicb and the field of integra- tive and comparative biology, which led to the standing committee and current activities on broadening participation; co-authored (with schwenk, bakken and full) the first paper in icb articulat- ing the grand challenges of organismal biology; participated in several subse- quent workshops and papers on grand challenges of organismal biology; lead organizer of nsf-funded workshop and recent symposium (with swalla and tsukimura) on developing a research agenda to address the grand chal- lenge of “how animals walk the tight- rope between stability and change.” other memberships: ecological so- ciety of america; aaas (aaas fellow ); american association of uni- versity women; american malacologi- cal society; american microscopical society; national shellfisheries asso- ciation; sigma xi. research interests: functional ecology; functional morphology; evo- lutionary ecology; phenotypic plastic- ity; marine and freshwater ecology of invertebrates and plants; invasion biology. statement of goals: i am honored to be considered to run for sicb presi- dent, and excited by the prospect of lead- ing our society. we are in the midst of a renaissance in or- ganismal biology. each of the divisions in our society is of growing relevance across biology. re- cent efforts develop- ing grand challenge questions and pursu- ing a forward-think- ing research agenda has placed our so- ciety at the leading edge of our field. the past leadership of sicb has kept our society financially secure and growing. my goals are to keep sicb sound, serve the needs of its membership, and keep us at the forefront of organismal biology. the members of sicb are clearly poised to be important intellectual leaders, as well as leaders in science policy and impacts of our science on society at large. one of my goals is to see that we do just that. candidates for president: • lou burnett • dianna padilla ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections lara a. ferry current position: associate direc- tor and associate professor, school of mathematical and natural sciences, arizona state university, glendale, az. education: b.s. california polytech- nic state university san luis obispo ( ); m.s. moss landing marine laboratories, san francisco state uni- versity ( ); ph.d. university of california irvine ( ); postdoctoral scholar, university of california irvine ( - ), university of california da- vis ( - ). professional experience: associate professor ( to present) and associ- ate director ( to present), school of mathematical and natural sciences, arizona state university; research fac- ulty, moss landing marine laboratories ( - ). sicb activities: member of dvm since ; secretary of dvm ( - ); icb editorial board member ( to present); judge of dvm best student papers at two meetings. other memberships: ameri- can society of ichthyologists and herpetologists (gibbs award and broadening participating commit- tees); american elasmobranch society (grant funds award com- mittee, president - , ex- ecutive board to present); western society of naturalists (treasurer - ); arizona nevada academy of sciences. research interests: biome- chanics/functional morphology of fish jaws, particularly jaw inno- vations for feeding in the aquatic realm. statement of goals: having served as the treasurer for two different non- profit organizations, one of which was a scientific society, i am keenly aware of the importance of the society’s fi- nances. this is not just safeguarding our funds so we can pay the bills, but includes planning for the future and ensuring that our goals as a society can continue to be met for the long term. this is an exciting time for sicb as our membership numbers are fairly strong (compared with many societ- ies right now), and our finances are sound. however, that does not mean it is time to sit back and relax. this means it is time to plan, and to se- cure our strength heading into the next decade, and beyond. our en- dowments could be shored up, and many divisions are looking to create new endowments. endowments are lasting legacies that sicb can provide to honor some of our greatest mem- bers posthumously. i hope to work with our excellent finance committee members and with our professionals in this arena, as well as in meeting our other financial needs. sicb remains, to me, the standard of excellence by which i measure other societies. i am committed to helping to make sure that sicb can continue to provide the excellent programming, mentoring, and personal development opportuni- ties for which it is so well known. candidates for treasurer: • lara ferry • karen martin ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections karen l. martin current position: professor of biol- ogy and frank r. seaver chair in nat- ural sciences, pepperdine university, malibu, ca. education: b.s. and m.s. univer- sity of oklahoma; ph.d. university of california, los angeles ( ); friday harbor postdoctoral fellowship, uni- versity of washington ( - ). professional experience: assis- tant through full professor, pepper- dine university ( -present; frank r. seaver chair awarded in ); research associate, scripps institu- tion of oceanography ( - ). sicb activities: treasurer ( - ); life member of sicb; sec- retary, dcpb ( - ). publica- tions committee ( - , chair, - ); co-organized symposia “aquatic organisms, terrestrial eggs” with richard strathmann ( ) and “environmentally cued hatching across taxa” with karen warkentin and richard strathmann ( ). both were funded by nsf and many divisions of sicb, and published in our journal. judge for student awards in dcpb and dee multiple times. other memberships: american soci- ety of ichthyologists and herpetologists (life member, also on board of gover- nors since ); american institute of fishery research biologists (fellow; former vice-director of southern cali- fornia district); american fisheries so- ciety, cal-neva division; southern cali- fornia academy of sciences (formerly on board of governors); society for the study of sandy beaches; beach ecol- ogy coalition (board of directors and secretary). research interests: i am a physiolog- ical ecologist at the interface between water and land, particularly in coastal marine ecosystems. i study in- tertidal and air-emerging fishes, beach spawning fishes, and ter- restrial embryo development of marine and aquatic animals. i work with over citizen scien- tists in the grunion greeters pro- gram and am developing a new outreach for conservation of the sandy beach ecosystem in south- ern california. statement of goals: as treasur- er, i am committed to supporting student research and travel, along with the many activities that en- courage professional growth and development of sicb members. i endeavor to increase transparen- cy of the budget process and sen- sibly grow the endowment funds. candidates for treasurer: • lara ferry • karen martin ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections richard w. blob current position: professor, depart- ment of biological sciences, clemson university, clemson, sc. education: b.a. university of pennsyl- vania ( ); ph.d. university of chi- cago ( ); nih-nrsa postdoctoral fellow, field museum, chicago ( - ). professional experience: assistant ( - ) and associate ( - ) professor, clemson university. sicb activities: member of dvm and dee since ; member of dcb since its founding in ; dvm program of- ficer ( - ); chair of dvm davis award for best student presentation ( ), and judge for student pre- sentations in dvm ( , , , ) and dcb ( , ); dvm ( ) and sicb ( ) nominating committees; sicb ad hoc committee for review of oxford university press as icb publisher ( - ); organized southeast regional joint dvm-dcb meeting at clemson ( ); co-orga- nized sicb symposia “going with the flow: ecomorphological adaptations to aquatic flow regimes” ( ), “ver- tebrate land invasions: past, present, and future” ( ), and “terrestrial lo- comotion: where do we stand, where are we going?” ( ). other memberships: society of vertebrate paleontology (predoc- toral fellowship committee - ; chair, awards committee - ); society for experimen- tal biology; international society of vertebrate morphologists; american society of ichthyologists and herpe- tologists; herpetologists’ league; so- ciety for the study of amphibians and reptiles; sigma xi. research interests: evolutionary and ecological morphology and bio- mechanics, including: comparative musculoskeletal function during lo- comotion and feeding in vertebrates; functional correlates of evolutionary and ontogenetic changes in habitat and behavior; biomechanical model- ing of fossil taxa to gain insight into the evolution of function. statement of goals: the richness and diversity of the sicb program has helped the society to grow even through the difficult economy of recent years. i will work to keep us build- ing from these strengths. during program organization, i will facili- tate communication across divi- sions, and help divisional program officers to coordinate sessions that maximize integrative oppor- tunities for attendees. symposia form the core of our journal as well as a major cross-disciplinary focus of the meeting. i will work with divisional program officers to recruit forward-looking symposia, and provide advice to members who are developing symposia and seeking funds to support them. i will encourage members to advance creative ideas for strengthening the program, such as new presentation formats, particularly as our meet- ings become larger. and to ensure a strong future for sicb, i will promote workshops and other efforts that en- hance student training, broaden par- ticipation, and reach out to the public. candidates for program officer: • rick blob • jonathon stillman ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections jonathon h. stillman current position: associate profes- sor, romberg tiburon center and de- partment of biology, san francisco state university, ca; adjunct assistant professor of integrative biology, uni- versity of california berkeley, ca. education: b.s. university of minne- sota ( ); ph.d. oregon state uni- versity ( ); postdoctoral fellow, johns hopkins university ( - ), hopkins marine station, stanford uni- versity ( - ). professional experience: assistant, then associate, professor, san fran- cisco state university ( -present); adjunct assistant professor, university of california berkeley ( -present); assistant professor, university of hawaii manoa ( - ); visiting assistant professor, oc- cidental col- lege ( - ). sicb activi- ties: mem- ber since ; pro- gram officer dcpb ( - ); sec- retary dcpb ( - ); co-author of two grand challenges in o r g a n i s m a l biology manu- scripts ( , ); orga- nized sympo- sia, including “physiological responses to simulta- neous shifts in multiple environmental stressors: relevance in a changing world” ( ) and “recent advances in crustacean genomics” ( ); orga- nized sicb workshops, including mac- rophysiology ( ) and grand chal- lenges in organismal biology ( ). other memberships: past member of aaas, sigma xi, american physi- ological society (aps); society for ex- perimental biology; protein society; aibs. co-organizer of the aps comparative physiology meeting. research interests: marine envi- ronmental physiology; thermal biolo- gy; ocean acidification; multi-stressor, integrative genomics. statement of goals: since , when i attended my first asz meeting as a freshman undergraduate, sicb has been an important mainstay of my professional career. the strengths of sicb as a broad and student-post- doc friendly meeting that still draws notable mid-career and senior re- searchers are important to maintain. i feel that many comparative biolo- gists have chosen to attend society meetings other than sicb (e.g., com- parative physiologists who solely at- tend experimental biology), which is a loss for sicb. elizabeth pennisi described the sicb flight phenom- enon in her science article following the meeting (http://www.sci- encemag.org/content/ / / . summary), but noted that sicb is now again on a steady growth trajec- tory. as sicb program officer i will focus my efforts on two goals: first, i will work towards ensuring that the sicb annual meetings remain a core high-priority meeting for comparative biologists to attend because of the im- portance to the field and the attrac- tiveness of the venues, paying par- ticular attention to retaining the many young and diverse scientists who have recently joined the society. second, i will strongly encourage the develop- ment of interdivisional symposia that reflect the multi-disciplinary nature of comparative biology, that meet the grand challenges in organismal biol- ogy that sicb members have out- lined, and that promote fruitful future directions for strengthening the field of comparative biology so that sicb’s growth and prominence continues to increase. candidates for program officer: • rick blob • jonathon stillman ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections bram v. lutton current position: associate professor of biology and biotechnology, endicott college, beverly, ma. education: b.a. colby college ( ); ph.d. boston university ( ). post- doctoral investigator in transplantation immunology, massachusetts general hospital and harvard medical school ( - ) professional experience: associate professor of biology and biotechnology, endicott college, ( - ); visit- ing professor, franklin w. olin college of engineering, needham, ma ( - ). sicb activities: member of dce and the dcpb since , and i’m looking forward to the new division of ecoim- munology!; member of the education council ( - ); coordinated the first ecoimmunology symposium, “re- cent advances and applications for conservation and public health,” with colleagues at princeton, to foster inter- disciplinary collaborations among col- leagues studying various model species from both basic science and clinical perspectives ( ); judge for many sicb poster sessions; represented sicb education council at the aaas meeting focused on involving professional societies with stem edu- cation reform in the u.s., which led me to coordinating the inaugural sicb teaching and learning workshop: in- troductory biology - a huge success! other memberships: mount desert island biological laboratory alumni association (president); north shore chapter of sigma xi (secretary); de- velopmental and comparative im- munology; transplantation society; society for experimental hematology; american society for reproductive immunology. research interests: comparative cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuroendocrine-immune interactions in tissue regeneration. through col- laborations with the cat cove marine laboratory (salem state university) and the mount desert island biologi- cal laboratory, my students and i are able to conduct in vivo, in vitro, and in situ studies in elasmobranchs (sharks, skates and rays). these marvelous species offer novel insight regarding the evolutionary mechanisms govern- ing physiological systems. statement of goals: if elected edu- cation council chair for sicb my aim would be to continue working dili- gently with the other members on the council, who i know from experience are highly motivated to continue in the footsteps of bob podolsky, chair for the past two terms. i have had the privilege to serve with bob since , and his innovative approach to guid- ing society decisions that emphasize undergraduate and graduate student training need to continue as a prior- ity for sicb. luckily, sicb has a rich history of supporting education, along with the leadership necessary to con- tinue with this goal. candidates for chair of the educational council: • bram lutton • erika iyengar ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections erika iyengar current position: associate profes- sor of biology, muhlenberg college, allentown, pa. education: b.s. stanford univer- sity ( ); ph.d. cornell university ( ). professional experience: as- sistant, then associate, professor, muhlenberg college ( -present); visiting assistant professor, the col- lege of wooster ( - ); sum- mer course instructor, shoals marine laboratory, maine ( , ). sicb activities: secretary of diz ( - ); broadening participa- tion committee ( - ); auc- tioneer for two diz libbie h. hyman auctions. research interests: ecology of in- vertebrates, especially gastropod and isopod feeding and predator-prey in- teractions. statement of goals: cutting-edge re- search is critically important, but equally important is the ability to convey those findings and their implications, the sci- entific process, and a general excite- ment for science to the next generation of scientists, voters, and the general public. therefore, sicb has an impera- tive to assist its members in examining, discussing, and disseminating the most effective ways to intermesh science in all aspects of education. as a graduate student, sicb encouraged me to contin- ue my research, helped hone my scien- tific communication skills, and provided me with an extensive network of scien- tific advisors/friends. as a professor, my students and i have benefited tremen- dously from my continued involvement in sicb through its extensive network of scientists and educators. i am commit- ted to benefit sicb members and the students they reach through facilitat- ing activities that promote understand- ing the issues facing science education today, current best practices, and new ideas, and creating a supportive struc- ture where educators can discuss fail- ures and frustrations and seek advice, as well as celebrating successes. i have taught two courses a semester over the past years at a primarily under- graduate institution, and these classes span the range: the first semester of introductory biology ( students, in both large lecture and weekly groups of for interactive hands-on activi- ties), small (< ) upper-level courses with laboratories (both field-based and indoors), field-based intensive residen- tial courses, capstone courses for our majors, non-majors courses, and first- year writing seminars. for all of these courses, i am constantly investigating new ways to alter and improve my ped- agogy. currently, i am in the second of my -year term on the board of the fac- ulty center for teaching at muhlenberg college, and served a . year term on this board previously. candidates for chair of the educational council: • bram lutton • erika iyengar ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections jennifer l. burnaford current position: assistant professor of biological science, california state university, fullerton, ca. education: b.a. dartmouth college ( ); ph.d. oregon state university ( ); nsf international postdoctoral fellow, arizona state university, inter- cultural center for the study of deserts and oceans, puerto peñasco, mexico ( - ). professional experience: visiting instructor, university of washington friday harbor laboratories ( ); vis- iting assistant professor, university of puget sound ( - ); assistant professor, california state university, fullerton ( -present). sicb activities: sicb member since (dee and diz); chair, libbie h. hyman memorial scholarship commit- tee, diz ( – present); diz student poster judge. other memberships: phycological society of america (science and public policy committee - ); society for the advancement of chicanos and native americans in science; western society of naturalists. research interests: plant-herbi- vore interactions; physiological ecol- ogy; community ecology; habitat modification; invasive species. statement of goals: i am strong- ly committed to all three prongs of sicb’s mission to foster “research, education, and public awareness.” my period of service to the society be- gan only recently, but my experienc- es have made me eager to become more involved and i welcome the op- portunity to represent and work with members from all divisions as mem- ber-at-large. at the annual meeting and year-round through the web site, sicb provides opportunities for con- nections and collaborations which are critical to advancing our understand- ing of our changing world. our annual meetings set a remarkably high stan- dard in scheduling events that inspire interaction across study systems and sub-disciplines, as evidenced by the fact that more than % of the sym- posia in our last three meetings were sponsored by three or more divisions. the society’s long-standing commit- ment to supporting student research is shown through the large number of student grants, and i would work to continue and expand these funding opportunities which are so important to our new members and subsequent- ly to the future of the society. i also support the large number of programs designed to enhance the experience of students at our meetings, including the travel scholarships and the broad- ening participation committee activi- ties. sicb’s continued commitment to science education and outreach, so evident with the recent establishment of the morse award and the expansion of the digital library, are important as- pects of the society. as member-at- large my priority would be to make and strengthen connections across divisions to support and expand all of these activities to help the society grow. candidates for member- at-large: • jennifer burnaford • jimmy liao ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large sicb newsletter, spring page candidate profiles - spring elections james c. liao current position: assistant profes- sor of biology, the whitney laborato- ry for marine bioscience, university of florida, gainesville, saint augustine, fl. education: b.a. wesleyan univer- sity ( ); m.a. harvard university ( ); ph.d. harvard university ( ); postdoctoral fellow, cornell university ( - ). professional experience: as- sistant professor of biology, the whitney laboratory for marine bio- science ( -present); research associate, division of vertebrate zo- ology, american museum of natu- ral history ( -present); affili- ate assistant curator of ichthyology, florida museum of natural history ( -present); research associate, department of neurobiology, cornell university ( - ); nih nrsa postdoctoral fellow, cornell univer- sity ( - ); visiting research faculty, undergraduate and graduate tropical field biology, organization for tropical studies, costa rica and pan- ama ( -present). sicb activities: member of dvm since and, in the past several years, dcb and dnb. best student presenta- tion judge dcb ( ); organizer and best student presentation judge dvm ( ); best student presentation judge, dvm, dnb ( ). other memberships: association for research in otolaryngology; society for neuroscience; international society for neuroethology; society for experimen- tal biology; american society of ichthy- ologists and herpetologists. research interests: neurobiology of vertebrate sensory and motor sys- tems; biomechanics of aquatic locomo- tion; ecology, evolution and behavior of fishes. statement of goals: the professional opportunities that a young biologist has at sicb are unrivaled in today’s scien- tific societies. from precocious high school students to wide-eyed assistant professors, sicb has always provided a fertile ground to advance questions in the diversity of biological life. the fabric of science is experiencing some ripples, and among my interests are to keep the type of science we do relevant to the public. this comes through not only innovative techniques but a desire and understanding of how to connect our work with the society at large. i would also like to attract and maintain energetic and talented students from non-traditional backgrounds, as science progresses fundamentally by the invita- tion and vetting of creative ideas. sicb does a lot that is right; where else can a first year graduate student rub elbows with macarthur fellows, or discuss a pe- culiar finding with a leading expert in the field over dinner? i hope my cross- disciplinary research approach and ex- perience at small liberal arts universities as well as large research institutions will help me continue sicb’s noble mission of training and developing the next gen- eration of biologists. candidates for member- at-large: • jennifer burnaford • jimmy liao ballots will be issued later in the spring. special thanks to the nominating committee: • donal manahan, chair • sarah berke • patricia hernandez • amy moran, sicb member-at-large contributors contributors modern drama, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by university of toronto press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /mdr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /mdr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ modern drama, : (spring ) contributors asbjørn aarseth has been a professor of scandinavian literature at the uni- versity of bergen since and was adjunct professor at the ibsen study center, university of oslo, from to . he was editor of edda: scan- dinavian journal of literary research from to and has published books and articles on subjects in scandinavian literary history, on the period concepts of realism ( ) and romanticism ( ), on ibsen’s peer gynt ( ), and on ibsen’s modern prose plays ( ). he is currently engaged as associate editor of henrik ibsen’s writings. bilha blum teaches in the department of theatre studies and in the interdis- ciplinary program of the arts at tel-aviv university. she has published extensively on theoretical issues concerning play and performance analysis, modern drama and theatre, theatre and media, poetic drama, and specifically, the drama of federico garcia lorca. her forthcoming book, classic drama as israeli theatre, discusses aspects of cultural transference and audience recep- tion of canonical plays in israeli theatre. kyle gillette is a phd candidate in drama in his fourth year at stanford uni- versity. he writes about and teaches modern and contemporary avant-garde drama, performance practices, and theory. as a director, dramatist, performer, and critic he seeks to interrogate the phenomenology of theatre as it relates to perception offstage. he has directed plays ranging from robinson jeffers’ medea to karl valentin’s the christmas tree stand, to peter handke’s kas- par. the main performer and his major collaborator on kaspar, rachel joseph, has gone on with kyle to co-create original works based on memory, home, travel, and the blurry boundaries that separate video, performance, and life. kyle is currently writing a dissertation about theatre artists who engage the space, time, and motion of travel – particularly how spatial and temporal sherry massoni newlogo contributors perceptions aboard modern modes of transportation express themselves in the space and time of theatre. martha greene eads serves as associate professor of english and chair of the language and literature department at eastern mennonite university in harrisonburg, va. she earned a ba in english and an ma in religion from wake forest university, and an ma and a phd in english from the university of north carolina at chapel hill. her research and teaching interests include modern drama, contemporary southern fiction, and detective fiction, and her articles on those topics have appeared in the carolina quarterly, christianity and literature, the cresset, modern drama, and theology. antonina harbus teaches english literature at macquarie university, syd- ney. she has published helena of britain in medieval legend (cambridge: brewer, ) and the life of the mind in old english poetry (amsterdam: rodopi, ) as well as articles on english language and poetics. she edited, with russell poole, a collection of articles on medieval linguistic and cultural exchanges, verbal encounters: anglo-saxon and old norse studies for rob- erta frank, to be published by university of toronto press in early . her current research focuses on metaphor and the drama of direct discourse in poetry. graham ley is reader in drama and theory in the university of exeter. he publishes on the modern and contemporary theatre, notably on modernism/ postmodernism and performance theory, as well as on performance in the ancient greek theatre. he serves as joint editor of the series theatre and per- formance practices for palgrave-macmillan, and of the series performance studies for the university of exeter press. he is currently leading a major project researching and documenting the history and practice of british asian theatre, funded by the arts and humanities research board in the uk. in the fall of , he was australian studies fellow in theatre in the university of new south wales. john mckellor reid is principal lecturer in drama in the school of english and drama at the university of the west of england, bristol. he has just com- pleted a book-length study of chekhov’s plays entitled being and polemic in chekhovian comedy. his version of marivaux’s the island of slaves is being staged in bristol and bath in . beth meszaros, professor of english/communications at college of south- ern maryland, is the author of one full-length study of contemporary drama, the gothic impulse in contemporary drama ( ). she has published on the phenomenology of painful and extreme embodiment as well as representa- contributors tions of the disabled body in theatre: “‘enlightened by our afflictions’: figu- rations of disability in the comic theatre of beth henley and martin mcdonagh” appeared in disability studies quarterly in fall ; “beyond disability: staging the grotesque body” was published in disability studies: definitions and diversity ( ). “‘der straf-block’: performance and execu- tion in barnes, griffiths, and wertenbaker,” which appeared in modern drama ( ), studies the staging of public execution and contemporary scaf- fold plays by peter barnes, trevor griffiths, and timberlake wertenbaker. she has also written on performance art: “beyond offending the audience: violating the audience body” is a study of the california “risk/pain” artists of the s (contemporary theatre review ). ricardo ortíz teaches u.s. latino literature in the english department at georgetown university; in , he finished a book-length project entitled diaspora and disappearance: political and cultural erotics in cuban amer- ica as well as two additional articles, one on arturo islas and the other on edwidge danticat. craig n. owens teaches performance theory, drama studies, and irish litera- ture at drake university in des moines, ia. he writes and presents on embod- iment in representation, absurdism, identity theory, and desire. currently, he serves as secretary of the international harold pinter society and sits on the executive committee of the midwest modern language society. with kyle schlabach, he is co-authoring the historical dictionary of irish drama, due out from scarecrow press in . richard rankin russell is an assistant professor of english at baylor uni- versity, where he teaches british and irish literature. he has published essays in new hibernia review, english language notes, colby quarterly, and journal of modern literature. his current book project explores the work of the belfast group writers in the context of regionalism and reconciliation. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ article global survey of haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibrium at the ret locus pratima chattopadhyay , andrew j pakstis , namita mukherjee , sudha iyengar , adekunle odunsi , friday okonofua , batsheva bonne-tamir , william speed , judith r kidd and kenneth k kidd*, department of genetics, yale university school of medicine, new haven, ct - , usa; department of epidemiology and biostatistics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa; department of gynecological oncology, roswell park cancer institute, buffalo, ny, usa; department of obstetrics and gynecology, faculty of medicine, university of benin, benin city, nigeria; department of genetics, sackler school of medicine, tel aviv university, tel aviv, israel we have constructed haplotypes based on normal variation at six polymorphic sites–five single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) and one short tandem repeat polymorphism (strp)–at the ret locus for samples of normal individuals from populations distributed across the major continental regions of the world. the haplotyped system spans . kilobases and encompasses most of the coding region of the gene. all of the markers are polymorphic in all regions of the world and in most individual populations. expected heterozygosities for the six-site haplotypes range from to % for all populations studied except for two amerindian groups from the amazon basin at and %. individual populations had from four to eight haplotypes with frequencies exceeding %. in general, african, southwest asian and european groups have the highest numbers of total and of commonly occurring haplotypes; the lowest numbers are observed in amerindian populations. overall linkage disequilibrium (ld) for the five snp sites was very significant (pp . ) for all the non-african populations, but significant at that level for only one of the seven african populations. in general, the permutation-based n coefficient that quantifies overall ld tends to increase the farther the population is from africa, but variability of this measure of ld is often large within geographic regions. pairwise ld measures among the snps also show considerable variation among populations. association of strp alleles with the snp-defined background haplotypes is generally higher outside of africa than in africa, but is highly variable. european journal of human genetics ( ) , – . doi: . /sj.ejhg. keywords: haplotypes; linkage disequilibrium; population genetics; polymorphisms introduction ret is the gene symbol for the ret proto-oncogene located near the centromere of chromosome in band q . . the protein encoded by ret is the common component of the receptors for the gdnf family of neurotrophic factors. – gain of function mutations in ret result in dominant oncogenic conversion causing men (types a and b). , yet, mutations in ret resulting in loss of biological activity are associated with hirschsprung disease. , the early linkage studies also showed that ret was within a region of markedly reduced recombination. the entire ret genomic sequence has been cloned in a contig of cosmids encompassing kilobases (kb), from the strp stcl- to the region upstream of the ret promoter. the entire genomic sequence of the region is now available (see genbank accessions aj , ac , and al ).received december ; revised april ; accepted april *correspondence: dr kk kidd; department of genetics, yale university school of medicine, cedar street, new haven, ct - , usa. tel.: + ; fax: + ; e-mail: kidd@biomed.med.yale.edu european journal of human genetics ( ) , – & nature publishing group all rights reserved - / $ . www.nature.com/ejhg genetic studies of complex disorders have been shown to be more powerful if linkage disequilibrium (ld) exists between susceptibility alleles and normal genetic mar- kers. however, little is known about the magnitude and extent of ld in humans except that it varies among loci studied and among populations (eg see tishkoff et al, kidd kk et al, kidd jr et al, stephens et al, reich et al, and osier et al ). ld can be evaluated by a variety of statistics , that are functions of the haplotype frequen- cies in the population. thus, the starting point for studies of ld is determining haplotype frequencies. the expecta- tion–maximization (em) algorithm gives accurate esti- mates of the frequencies of common haplotypes – especially when there is significant disequilibrium. those haplotype frequencies can also provide information on evolutionary histories, beyond what can be learned from individual markers. , we are studying ret both in order to understand the evolutionary histories of normal allelic variation at this locus and as an example of a centromeric locus in a region of known reduced recombination. in this study, we examine the haplotype frequencies and ld relations of six ret polymorphisms (figure ) in populations distributed around the world. these data reinforce the growing consensus that african populations have significantly less ld than non-african popula- tions. , , , materials and methods populations sampled the populations we have typed for six markers at ret are listed by geographic region in table . sample sizes range from individuals (nasioi) to individuals (irish) with a mean sample size of about individuals. descriptive information and literature citations for these population samples can be found in the allele frequency database alfred (http://alfred.med.yale.edu/) under the uids in table . all samples were collected with informed consent from the participants and approval from the appropriate institutional review boards. the dna in this study was purified by means of standard phenol–chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation from epstein–barr virus–transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines for all samples. polymorphic sites and typing protocols the six ret markers typed for this study include five biallelic single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) – intron g/c snp (this study), exon haeiii, exon taqi, exon rsai, and intron taqi (this study) – and a -allele (ca)n short tandem repeat polymorphism (strp) within intron , altogether spanning . kb as shown in figure . all typings were pcr-based, using the primers and protocols described in alfred and at the kidd lab web site. the three coding region snps are synonymous changes described previously. the intron g/c snp at nucleotide position of intron was identified by resequencing in our laboratory and was typed on all samples by fluores- cence polarization. the snp within intron is a g/a snp at position of the intron and alters a taqi restriction site. this snp was noted in in silico analysis of genbank sequences and validated in african-american and european-american samples. for the four restriction site markers, the pcr product was digested with the appro- priate enzyme, according to the manufacturers’ protocols, and the fragments were electrophoresed on agarose gels and stained with ethidium bromide. for the intron (ca)n strp, the amplification products were run on a % polyacrylamide gel on an abi dna sequencer. frag- ment sizes were determined by the genescan and genoty- per software. all typing results were entered, as individual phenotypes, into phenodb , our client–server database system for genetic marker data. kb . kb . kb = exon # exon rsa i intron (ca)n exon hae iii exon taq i intron taq i . kb intron g/c snp . kb figure physical map of the ret locus and positions of the polymorphisms studied. the alfred uids for these sites and haplotypes are as follows: intron g/c snp: si p; exon haeiii: si o; intron (ca)n: si u; exon taqi: si h; exon rsai: si i; intron taqi si u; five-snp haplotype: si p; six-snp haplotype: si o. haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics determining ancestral alleles the primate ancestral alleles for the three coding snps were determined by comparing the homologous sequences obtained from samples of other apes using the logic in iyengar et al. the pcr primers used for typing the human polymorphisms were used to generate template for sequen- cing from genomic dna from one chimpanzee, one gorilla, and one orangutan for each site. for the fourth site, intron taqi site, pcr products of two gorillas and two orangutans were tested by digestion with taqi. two chimpanzee samples did not amplify with the same primers. the ancestral allele for the intron g/c snp has not yet been determined. statistical methods allele frequencies at the individual sites were calculated by gene counting. the assumption of hardy–weinberg ratios was tested for the separate sites by means of an auxiliary program, fengen. variation in allele and haplo- type frequencies across populations was measured as fst table frequencies for the nine most frequent haplotypes geographic region population n het. c g g c g c g g g residual alfred sample uid africa biaka pygmies . . . . . . . . sa f mbuti pygmies . . . . . . . . sa g yoruba . . . . . . . sa j ibo . . . . . . . . . sa s hausa . . . . . . . . sa b ethiopian jews . . . . . . . . . sa g african americans . . . . . . . . . . sa c sw asia yemenite jews . . . . . . . . . . sa h druze . . . . . . . . . . sa i europe adygei . . . . . . . . . . . sa i russians . . . . . . . . . . sa k finns . . . . . . . . . sa j danes . . . . . . . . . sa h irish . . . . . . . . . . . sa m euro americans . . . . . . . . . . . sa c east asia sf chinese . . . . . . . . . . sa j tw chinese . . . . . . . . . sa b hakka . . . . . . . . . sa d japanese . . . . . . . . . . . sa b ami . . . . . . . . sa c atayal . . . . . . sa d cambodians . . . . . . sa e pacific nasioi . . . . . . . sa d micronesians . . . . . . . sa j siberia yakut . . . . . . . . . sa c north america cheyenne . . . . . . . . sa f pima arizona . . . . . . . . . sa h pima mexico . . . . . . . . sa i maya . . . . . . . . . . sa e south america ticuna . . . . . . . . sa j r. surui . . . . . . sa f karitiana . . . . . sa k the haplotype labels consist of the alleles present at each of the individual sites, listed in chromosomal order as in figure . the intron g/c snp is represented by the nucleotide (see text). the alleles at the four snps altering enzyme sites are labeled as ‘ ’ indicating the restriction site is absent and ‘ ’ indicating the restriction site is present. the residual column gives the total frequency of all the remaining haplotypes in the population. het.=heterozygosity. haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics estimated as � p=ð�pp�qqÞ for each biallelic site and as the weighted average of the standardized variance for each allele for the strp. for each site and the haplotype, expected heterozygosities were computed as �spi where the pi are the individual allele frequencies. the multi- site haplotype frequency estimates were calculated with haplo, which implements the em algorithm. the haplo program also calculates two kinds of standard error estimates, jack-knife and binomial. using the haplo- type frequency estimates, pairwise ld coefficients were computed both as the conventional pairwise d values and as d . the haplo/p and permstat programs were used to compute the overall ld values in the form of x coefficients for the five-snp and the six-site haplotypes. the permutation-based calculations also provide a test of whether overall disequilibrium is statistically significant. the haplo/p program was also used for the group test of whether the strp showed significant ld against the background haplotypes defined by the five snps, as discussed elsewhere. , , results primate ancestral alleles based on identical sequences for the three non-human primates at the three coding snp sites, the site-absent or ‘noncutting’ alleles, coded as ‘ ’, are ancestral at the exon rsai (ctac-gtac) and the exon taqi (gcga- tcga) sites, while the site-present or ‘cutting’ allele, coded as ‘ ’, is ancestral for the exon haeiii (ggcc-agcc) site. the intron taqi site also has a site-present or cutting allele ancestral based on the presence of the restriction site in gorillas and orangutans. the primate sequences for the three coding snps have been submitted to genbank (af - , af - , and af - ). allele frequencies at individual sites marker typings for the six sites have been collected on a total of individuals. typing was more than % complete across all markers and populations. none of the data deviated significantly from the hardy–weinberg expectation. frequencies and standard errors of all six polymorphisms are given in alfred. allele frequencies for the five biallelic sites are graphed in figure . while frequencies of alleles at the snps generally do not differ much among populations within the same geographic region, there are occasional exceptions obvious in figure . allele frequency variation globally is highly significant at all five sites. with the following few exceptions, all five snps are polymorphic in all populations. in the samples of yoruba and ibo, only the g allele (site present) occurs at the exon haeiii site. in the atayal and cambodian samples, only the c allele (site absent) is found at the exon rsai site. at the intron strp, different alleles have been seen globally with sizes ranging from to bp in a perfect bp ladder. the frequencies are all in alfred. sequencing of selected homozygotes indicates that this range corre- sponds to – tandem repeats of the ca dinucleotide. the numbers and size ranges of alleles are greater in african populations than anywhere else. only five of the different alleles are globally common: , , , , and . these account for from % of all chromosomes (in the mexican pima) up to % of all chromosomes (in the karitiana) with an average around the world of more than %. two of these are always ‘common’: with a . . . . . . . . . b ia ka p yg m ie s m b u ti p yg m ie s y o ru b a ib o h au sa e th io p ia n j ew s a fr a m er ic an s y em en it e je w s d ru ze a d yg ei r u ss ia n s f in n s d an es ir is h e u ro a m er ic an s s f c h in es e t w c h in es e h ak ka ja p an es e a m i a ta ya l c am b o d ia n s n as io i m ic ro n es ia n s y ak u t c h ey en n e p im a, a ri zo n a p im a, m ex ic o m ay a t ic u n a r o n d o n ia n s u ru i k ar it ia n a f re q u e n c y inntro g/c exon haeill exon taqi exon rsai intron taqi figure allele frequencies for ret snps. allele frequencies are plotted for the g allele of intron g/c snp and allele (site absent) of the four other snps in populations. populations are ordered and grouped as in table . haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics mean frequency of . and a range of . – . , and with a mean frequency of . and a range of . – . . the other three are very rare to absent in at least one population. the fst values for these polymorphisms, based on these populations, are . for intron g/c snp, . for exon haeiii, . for exon taqi, . for exon rsai, . for intron taqi, and . for intron (ca)n strp. the biallelic fst values are close to the mean value of about . that we have obtained for the distribution of fst values of more than snps that we have studied on the same populations. the fst for the strp site is close to the mean value of . reported by calafell et al in a series of strps typed on populations that are a subset of the population samples reported here and similar to the mean in the larger study by rosenberg et al. haplotype frequency distributions the maximum-likelihood estimates of the frequencies of the possible five-snp haplotypes are given in alfred for the populations studied. of the possible haplotypes, nine occur at a frequency above % in at least one population (table ). only one haplotype is present in every population sampled: c . haplotype g is common in populations in all regions except the south americans, while haplotype g is common in populations in all regions other than african. haplotype heterozygosity is greater than . for all populations except one south american group and generally greater than . (table ). regional averages of the five-snp haplotype frequencies are graphed in figure . although there is frequency variation among populations within each region, espe- cially in africa, these averages make the regional trends more obvious than the data in table . including the strp increases the number of possible haplotypes to of which have a nonzero estimate in at least one population. in most of the world, the most common strp allele, , occurs on the two most common snp haplotypes, c and g . heterozygosity of the six-site haplotype is generally significantly greater for each population than for the five-snp haplotype, reflecting multiple strp alleles on many of the snp-defined haplotypes. linkage disequilibrium the regional pattern of ld is clear for the five-snp haplotypes: overall nonrandomness, as quantified by x, is relatively low and generally nonsignificant in african populations while relatively higher and generally highly significant (pp . ) in populations from the rest of the world (figure ). however, there are individual populations that do not clearly fit the pattern. two of the african population samples, hausa and ethiopian jews, show borderline significance ( . p . ). among those population samples significant at po . , the x-value quantifies the nonrandomness and shows considerable variation. the overall ld pattern for the six-site haplotypes is similar to the five-snp ld pattern but is at a considerably higher level and the statistical significance levels are stronger (data not shown). figure also shows the association of the strp with the five-site backbone haplotypes. except in sub-saharan african populations, the association is generally significant at po . . four populations showed marginally significant associations at . p . : russians, japanese, ami, and r. surui. pairwise ld values, as d , are given in table . while there is variability within each geographical region for the figure regional averages of frequencies of common five-snp haplotypes. values within parentheses represent number of populations averaged in the geographical region. data from table . haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics pairwise ld results, the overall trend across the populations is remarkably similar for all four independent chromosomal segments (in boldface) defined by the five snps although the intervals differ in size ( . , . , . , and . kb). these pairwise disequilibrium values are on average smallest in africans, somewhat larger in europeans and eastern asians, and largest for native americans. interestingly, however, the values for non-african popula- tions are consistently higher for the two longest of the four regions except for the native american populations. the two smaller regions show the greatest similarity in ld values across populations (table ). with two exceptions, the d - values in table that are . have permutation-based p- values o . while all ld values x . have p-values o . . the two exceptions involve the nasioi where ld values of . – . were not significant at the % level. for the remaining d -values in the range between . and . , all have p-values o . while % have p-values o . . for the d -values p . , % are significant at the % level and a third of these have p-values o . . discussion frequency estimates and variation extensive genetic variation is shown at all of the six polymorphisms that we have thus far studied at the ret locus. the average heterozygosities for the five snps are highest in the european samples. this is not surprising since three of the five snps were originally identified as rflps in samples of individuals of european ancestry. this ascertainment bias is undoubtedly the explanation for that aspect of the global patterns. the heterozygosities are generally lower in the african populations with considerable variation among the populations and snps. outside of africa, the hetero- zygosities of the exon haeiii and intron taqi sites are highly correlated and generally high (data not shown) as apparent graphically in figure . the correlations are themselves indicators of ld between those two sites. in contrast, the exon rsai site shows a different pattern with lower heterozygosities in eastern asian populations and higher heterozygosities in north american indian populations. although it is not a striking difference, the heterozygosity for the strp is higher in africans than elsewhere. again, this is not surprising and reflects the well-known higher levels of variation in african popula- tions. , as a result, the heterozygosities of the six-site haplotypes are, on average, higher in african than european populations. this pervasive genetic diversity makes it feasible to compare ld for the different intervals and populations. the populations studied here are sufficient in number with diverse enough geographic origins to allow many general conclusions about the ret locus. - . . . . . . bi ak a py gm y m bu ti py gm y yo ru ba ib o ha us a et hi op ia n af ra m er ye m en ite dr uz e ad yg ei ru ss ia ns fi nn s da ne s iri sh eu ro am er sf ch in es e tw ch in es e ha kk a ja pa ne se am i at ay al ca m bo di an na si oi m ic ro ne si an ya ku t ch ey en ne pi m aa z pi m am x m ay a ti cu na rs ur ui ka rit ia na overall xi for the - snp haplotype ca strp on the -snp background figure ld measures. x-values are plotted for overall nonrandomness for the five-snp ret haplotypes (triangles) and for the association of strp alleles with the five-site haplotypes (squares). solid triangles indicate pp . ; open triangles indicate p . except hausa (p ¼ . ) and ibo (p ¼ . ). solid squares indicate po . ; open squares indicate p . except russian (p ¼ . ), japanese (p ¼ . ), ami (p ¼ . ), and rondonian surui (p ¼ . ). haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics the haplotype frequency estimates in table that are x % should be accurate estimates of the common haplotypes in these populations and reflect the global variation in haplotype frequencies. haplotypes with true frequencies of b / n might not have been observed in our samples. also, haplotypes estimated to be absent in a population might actually have been present in the sample but not unambiguously so. conversely, haplotypes with estimated frequencies on the order of /n or smaller may not actually be present. in all, of these populations had more than % of the individuals with unambiguous marker phenotypes (homozygous for four or five sites) for the five-snp haplotypes. a total of populations had – % of the individuals with unambiguous marker phenotypes. the smallest percentages were in the finns with only % unambiguous marker phenotypes. thus, the haplotype frequency estimates are usually based on considerable phase-known data. table pairwise ld as d for all pairs of snps geographic region population intron – exon . kb intron – exon . kb intron – exon . kb intron – intron . kb exon – exon . kb exon – exon . kb exon – intron . kb exon – exon . kb exon – intron . kb exon – intron . kb africa biaka pygmies . . . . . . . . . . mbuti pygmies . . . . . . . . . . yoruba nc . . . nc nc nc . . . ibo nc . . . nc nc nc . . . hausa . . . . . . . . . . ethiopian jews . . . . . . . . . . african americans . . . . . . . . . . sw asia yemenite jews . . . . . . . . . . druze . . . . . . . . . . europe adygei . . . . . . . . . . russians . . . . . . . . . . finns . . . . . . . . . . danes . . . . . . . . . . irish . . . . . . . . . . euro americans . . . . . . . . . . east asia sf chinese . . . . . . . . . . tw chinese . . . . . . . . . . hakka . . . . . . . . . . japanese . . . . . . . . . . ami . . . . . . . . . . atayal . . nc . . nc . nc . nc cambodians . . nc . . nc . nc . nc pacific nasioi . . . . . . . . . . micronesians . . . . . . . . . . siberia yakut . . . . . . . . . . north america cheyenne . . . . . . . . . . pima arizona . . . . . . . . . . pima mexico . . . . . . . . . . maya . . . . . . . . . . south america ticuna . . . . . . . . . . r. surui . . . . . . . . . . karitiana . . . . . . . . . . the distance between sites is given for each pair. independent pairs are in bold. nc indicates noncomputable values due to fixation of allele at one or both site polymorphisms. table correlation coefficients of the pairwise d -values across populations in –ex ex –ex ex –ex ex –in in –ex ex –ex . ex –ex . . . ex –in . . . . the interval data are those in the corresponding columns of table . independent pairs are in bold. in=intron; ex=exon. haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics the haplotype frequency data (table ) and the regional averages (figure ) show that the haplotype frequencies do reflect the geographical clustering of our samples. there- fore, the ret polymorphisms will be useful markers for studies of population relationships, especially on a global level. as can be seen in figure , individual sites can be selected as more informative for comparisons among populations from specific regions. for example, the intron taqi site is not informative among sub-saharan africans, but the exon taqi site and the exon rsai site should be very informative among such populations. linkage disequilibrium although only six sites across . kb are involved, the ret data illustrate many of the complexities of studying ld in human populations. the classic approach to ld is use of a coefficient such as d and d or other measure , to quantify the pairwise associations of alleles on chromo- somes in a population. recently, researchers have begun to consider defining the segments of dna within which only a few haplotypes account for the majority of the chromo- somes in a population. , the value of this ‘hap-map’ approach is that it may be possible to identify the very small subset of the snps in a block that will serve to identify and discriminate among these common haplo- types. although a short segment, ret is interesting to consider from this second perspective. in all non-african populations, there is highly significant overall ld for the five-snp haplotypes. however, in european and southwest asian populations, this does not translate into a subset of these markers being sufficient to identify all common haplotypes. the most common haplotype is never % and except for the adygei and russians who require more, six different haplotypes are required to reach a cumulative frequency of %. all five snps are required to define these six haplotypes. some other regions of the world require fewer haplotypes to account for the majority of chromo- somes in a population because of reduced heterozygosity. this reduced heterozygosity can be explained as ascertain- ment bias for high heterozygosity of each site in europeans. however, even where only three haplotypes account for % (eg native americans), three of the four snps are still required to discriminate among them. the test of ld of the strp against the background haplotypes provides evidence on the mutation rate at the strp and on recent human evolution. the absence of significant ld in african populations but the presence of significant ld in most non-african populations argues that the african populations have existed for a longer time than the non-african populations. the finding of several non- african populations with nonsignificant ld indicates that the mutation rate at the strp is at least moderate relative to the time since founding of the non-african populations. this is also indicated by the occurrence of more than one strp allele on evolutionarily derived haplotypes. in contrast to an expectation of a negative correlation between pairwise ld and interval length (higher ld for shorter intervals, lower ld for longer intervals), we find that the two longer of the four independent intervals have generally higher ld than the two shorter intervals (table ). in the african populations, all intervals generally have nonsignificant (or noncalculable) ld values, but the longer internal intervals, intron g/c snp to exon haeiii and exon haeiii to exon taqi ( . kb), have markedly increased ld for non-african populations. this pattern suggests that the founder effect associated with the expansion of modern humans out of africa established this pattern of relatively higher ld for the longer regions and lower ld for the shorter regions. subsequent random genetic drift of different magnitudes for different popula- tions and another founder effect associated with migration into the americas would then modify this general pattern. the situation is more complex, however, because the pairwise ld spanning the . kb between exon taqi and intron taqi is generally much higher in all non- african populations than the ld across either of the two internal intervals exon taqi to exon rsai and exon rsai to intron taqi. in fact, for many populations this is the largest d -value. the correlation coefficients in table show that these two smaller segments have a very similar pattern of ld among populations (r ¼ . ), while neither is as highly correlated with the ld for the region encompassing both (r ¼ . and . ). since the same few haplotypes are involved in all cases, the unusual pattern does not relate to recombination but to frequency differences among the haplotypes. such complex patterns of ld emphasize that ld is a statistical phenomenon, not an inherent property of a segment of dna and that random genetic drift, more than ‘hot spots’ of recom- bination, may be the major factor determining patterns of ld. in a study of hirschsprung disease in the genetically isolated old order mennonite community, carrasquillo et al. found a ‘block’ of ld at the end of the gene that was strong in chromosomes transmitted to hirschsprung patients and less pronounced in the untransmitted chro- mosomes from those families. a more diffuse ‘block’ was also present in the part of the gene in both sets of chromosomes. the untransmitted chromosomes are likely to represent random chromosomes from the old order mennonites. the strong ld patterns they found at the ’ and the ’ ends of ret may well be due to a founder effect in their sample of mennonites and differ from what we find with our more limited number of markers in our samples of normal variation in most populations including the european populations. three of the markers, intron (ca)n, exon taqi, and exon rsai, were the same as we have typed. our intron and exon markers fall within haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics the block of carrasquillo et al and our exon , exon , and intron markers fall within their block. in just over half of the populations we studied, the ld between the intron and exon markers (‘intrablock’) is less than the ld between the exon and exon marker (‘interblock’), two intervals of roughly equal length. as noted above, the ld values for the exon to exon and the exon to intron intervals, which are both within the ‘ block’, are generally much smaller even though the interval lengths are shorter. recently, a founder haplotype, possibly accounting for many cases of hirschsprung disease in spaniards, was described using several snps at ret. the exon haeiii, exon taqi, and exon rsai in the present paper were included in that study along with others. by extrapolation of the association of these markers with hirschsprung disease, a possible susceptibility variant close to exon of the gene was postulated. the distance of the extrapolation was kb. it is generally impossible to predict association across such distances because, as shown here for these and other ret snps, the patterns of ld are complex and do not follow simple regressions with molecular distance. how- ever, the new intron g/c snp will now allow that hypothesis to be more robustly tested. the ld among markers in normal individuals bears no necessary relation to the association expected for any one marker and a disease susceptibility allele. therefore, our study does not predict what might be found for association of this intron g/c snp with hirschpsrung disease. haplotype variation at ret contrasts with the pattern seen at drd , pah, and comt for many of the same population samples. at those other loci, there were more haplotypes and higher heterozygosities in the african populations. however, the data are consistent among all these loci in showing less ld in the african samples than elsewhere. thus, ret is another locus that shows low levels of ld in multiple african populations strengthening the conclusion that low levels of ld is a characteristic of african populations in general. while the snp-defined haplotype diversity at ret does not support an out-of- africa model of recent human evolution, the strp diversity and its disequilibrium with the background, snp-defined haplotypes (figure ) do support an out-of- africa model with a significant founder effect in the ancestry of the non-african populations. electronic databases cited alfred (allele frequency database): http://alfred.me- d.yale.edu/alfred/ kidd lab web site: http://info.med.yale.edu/genetics/ kkidd genbank: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/index. html acknowledgements this work was supported in part by nih grants gm (kkk and jrk) and mh (kkk). we thank valeria ruggeri and mellissa mc demille for their help in running the sequencing gels and determining the fragment sizes of strp alleles with the genescan software. we are indebted to the following people who helped assemble the diverse population collection used in this study: fl black, ll cavalli-sforza, k dumars, j friedlaender, d goldman, e grigorenko, k kendler, w knowler, f oronsaye, j parnas, l peltonen, lo schulz, and k weiss. in addition, some of the cell lines were obtained from the national laboratory for the genetics of israeli populations at tel aviv university, israel, and the african-american samples were obtained from the coriell institute for medical research, camden, nj, usa. special thanks are due to the many hundreds of individuals who volunteered to give blood samples for studies such as this. without such participation of individuals from diverse parts of the world, we would have been unable to obtain a true picture of the genetic variation in our species. references durbec p, marcos-gutierrez cv, kilkenny c et al: gdnf signaling through the ret receptor tyrosine kinase. nature ; : – . treanor jj, goodman l, de sauvage f et al: characterization of a multicomponent receptor for gdnf. nature ; : – . trupp m, arenas e, fainzilber m et al: functional receptor for gdnf encoded by the c-ret proto-oncogene. nature ; : – . santoro m, carlomagno f, romano a et al: activation of ret as a dominant transforming gene by germline mutations of men a and men b. science. ; : – . eng c: multiple endocrine neoplasia type and the practice of molecular medicine. rev endocr metab disord ; : – . pasini b, borrello mg, greco a et al: loss of function effect of ret mutations causing hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . parisi ma, kapur rp: genetics of hirschsprung disease. curr opin pediatr ; : – . simpson ne, kidd kk: the mapping of the locus for multiple endocrine neoplasia type a by linkage with chromosome markers. j horm metab res ; : – . pasini b, ceccherini i, romeo g: ret mutations in human disease. tig ; : – . risch n, merikangas k: the future of genetic studies of complex human diseases. science ; : – . tishkoff sa, goldman a, calafell f et al: a global haplotype analysis of the dm locus: implications for the evolution of modern humans and the origin of myotonic dystrophy mutations. am j hum genet ; : – . kidd kk, morar b, castiglione cm et al: a global survey of haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibrium at the drd locus. hum genet ; : – . kidd jr, pakstis aj, zhao h et al: haplotypes and linkage disequilibrium at the phenylalanine hydroxylase locus (pah) in a global representation of populations. am j hum genet ; : – . stephens jc, schneider ja, tanguay da et al: haplotype variation and linkage disequilibrium in human genes. science ; : – . reich de, cargill m, bolk s et al: linkage disequilibrium in the human genome. nature ; : – . osier mv, pakstis aj, soodyall h et al: a global perspective on genetic variation at the adh genes reveals unusual patterns of linkage disequilibrium and diversity. am j hum genet ; : – . haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics devlin b, risch n: a comparison of linkage disequilibrium measures for fine scale mapping. genomics ; : – . zhao h, pakstis aj, kidd jr, kidd kk: assessing linkage disequilibrium in a complex genetic system i. overall deviation from overall association. ann hum genet ; : – . tishkoff sa, pakstis aj, ruano g, kidd kk: the accuracy of statistical methods for estimating haplotype frequencies: an example from the cd locus. am j hum genet ; : – . fallin d, schork nj: accuracy of haplotype frequency estimation for biallelic loci, via the expectation–maximization algorithm for unphased diploid genotype data. am j hum genet ; : – . zhang s, pakstis aj, kidd kk, zhao h: comparisons of two methods for haplotype reconstruction and haplotype frequency estimates from population data. am j hum genet ; : – . tishkoff sa, dietzsch e, speed w et al: global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the cd locus and modern human origins. science ; : – . gabriel sb, schaffner sf, nguyen h et al: the structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome. science ; : – . sambrook j: molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. cold spring harbor, ny: cold spring harbor press, . anderson ma, gusella jf: use of cyclosporin a in establishing epstein–barr virus-transformed human lymphoblastoid cell lines. in vitro ; : – . edery p, attie t, mulligan lm et al: a novel polymorphism in the coding sequence of the human ret proto-oncogene. hum genet ; : – . tahira t, shiraishi m, ishizaka y et al: a taq i rflp in the human ret proto-oncogene. nucleic acids res ; : . ceccherini i, hofstra rm, luo y et al: dna polymorphisms and conditions for sscp analysis of the exons of the ret proto- oncogene. oncogene ; : – . pasini b, hofstra rmw, yin l et al: the physical map of the human ret proto-oncogene. oncogene ; : – . chen x, levine l, kwok py: fluorescence polarization in homo- geneous nucleic acid analysis. genome res ; : – . cheung kh, nadkarni p, silverstein s et al: phenodb: an integrated client/server database for linkage and population genetics. comput biomed res ; : – . iyengar s, seaman m, deinard as et al: analyses of cross species polymerase chain reaction products to infer the ancestral state of human polymorphisms. dna sequence ; : – . wright s: the theory of gene frequencies. chicago: university of chicago press, , vol ii. hawley me, kidd kk: haplo: a program using the em algorithm to estimate the frequencies of multi–site haplotypes. j hered ; : – . lewontin rc: the interaction of selection and linkage. i. general considerations: heterotic models. genetics ; : – . zhao h, pakstis aj, kidd kk, kidd jr: overall and segmental levels of linkage disequilibrium. am j hum genet ; (suppl): a . demille mmc, kidd jr, ruggeri v et al: population variation in linkage disequilibrium across the comt gene considering promoter region and coding region variation. hum genet ; : – . pakstis aj, kidd jr, kidd kk: a reference distribution of fst values for biallelic dna markers. am j hum genet ; (suppl): . calafell f, shuster a, speed wc, kidd jr, kidd kk: short tandem repeat polymorphism evolution in humans. eur j hum genet ; : – . rosenberg na, pritchard jk, weber jl et al: genetic structure of human populations. science ; : – . bowcock am, ruiz-linares a, tomfohrde j, minch e, kidd jr, cavalli-sforza ll: high resolution of human evolutionary trees with polymorphic microsatellites. nature ; : – . patil n, berno a, hinds da et al: blocks of limited haplotype diversity revealed by high-resolution scanning of human chromosome . science ; : – . ardlie kg, kruglyak l, seielstad m: patterns of linkage disequilibrium in the human genome. nat rev genet ; : – . carrasquillo mm, mccallion as, puffenberger eg et al: genome- wide association study and mouse model identify interaction between ret and ednrb pathways in hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . borrego s, wright fa, fernandez rm et al: a founding locus within the ret proto-oncogene may account for a large proportion of apparently sporadic hirschsprung disease and a subset of cases of sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. am j hum genet ; : – . haplotypes and ld at the ret locus p chattopadhyay et al european journal of human genetics 	global survey of haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibrium at the ret locus 	introduction 	materials and methods 	populations sampled 	polymorphic sites and typing protocols 	determining ancestral alleles 	statistical methods 	results 	primate ancestral alleles 	allele frequencies at individual sites 	haplotype frequency distributions 	linkage disequilibrium 	discussion 	frequency estimates and variation 	linkage disequilibrium 	electronic databases cited 	acknowledgements 	references ps • july business ©american political science association, meet the apsa rbsi scholars the ralph bunche summer institute (rbsi) is an annual five-week pro-gram designed to introduce under- graduate students from under represented racial/ethnic groups or students interested in broadening participation in political science and pursuing scholarship on issues affecting under-represented groups to the world of graduate study and to encourage application to phd programs. this is the st year of rbsi excellence! the rbsi program, held at duke university, runs from may -june , . sydney carr sydney carr is a student in the honors program at the university of connecticut, majoring in political science and minoring in africana studies. sydney currently serves as the president of the university of con- necticut’s chapter of the national coun- cil of negro women, as well as a college of liberal arts and s c i e n c e s s e n a t o r in the undergradu- ate student govern- ment. as a dean’s list scholar, sydney has had a wide range of research and intern- ship experiences. in her most recent role, she served as a congressional intern in the united states house of represen- tatives in the office of representative rosa l. delauro (nm). additionally, she conducted research last summer at michigan state university under the guidance of corwin smidt on a project that examined voters’ attitudes toward female political candidates. sydney’s research interests include the representa- tion of women and minorities in politics, with a specific focus on african ameri- can women political candidates and elected officials. sydney has presented her research findings at conferences and symposiums, including the annual meeting of the national conference of black political scientists and the michigan state university mid-sure research symposium. after her gradua- tion, sydney plans to enter into a dual- degree jd-phd program that will allow her to merge her interests in political sci- ence and africana studies. rebecca gonzalez rebecca gonzalez is an honors student studying political science at temple universi- ty. interested in global affairs, rebecca serves as the president of model united nations at temple univer- sity, and is currently working as a pro- grams intern at the world affairs council of philadelphia where she conducts research to help develop the organization’s pro- grams. she is a recipi- ent of the merit-based jessie marie watkins scholarship, and has participated as a panel- ist for tu tv’s aired series, race in the race . expanding her professional and per- sonal growth, she has directly interviewed and hired colleagues in her position as stu- dent coordinator of the office of orientation and new student family programs. appoint- ed as the liaison to the parliament for temple student government, and serving as strate- gist and manager of multiple student govern- ment campaigns, her leadership experience is considerable. rebecca’s research interests are rooted in defending minority rights and ending inequality through intercultural dia- logue and education. in the future, she hopes to earn a doctoral degree in political science and pursue a career in transnational advocacy and international relations. kamri hudgins kamri hudgins is a third year student at the university of michigan with honors. her majors include political science and african american studies with a minor in criminal justice. throughout her college career, kamri has developed a strong interest in the criminal justice system. she has done research in the area of mass incarceration and other aspects of the criminal justice system. along with her scholastic endeav- ors, kamri has a strong passion for men- torship and volunteering. by developing a mentoring organization that caters to young african american girls in middle school and volunteering at a group home for teen girls, kamri is able to effectively give back to her community and encourage young girls to pursue a college education and develop skills that are crucial to their matriculation into adulthood. upon her graduation in she plans to pursue a dual degree (phd in political science and a jd with a focus on criminal law). in the future she aspires to advocate on behalf of oppressed groups and become a law professor. this will allow for the development of ground breaking research to assist in the fight for political, economic, and social equality for historically oppressed groups. joan joseph joan joseph is a student at florida state uni- versity (fsu), pursuing a dual degree in polit- ical science and statistics, along with minors in mathematics and computational science. she has recently com- pleted the research- intensive bachelor’s certificate in politi- cal science at fsu where she conducted empirical research in comparative poli- tics which focused on comparative politi- cal corruption. her current research aims to flesh out patterns of democratization and introduce haiti as a case that can inform our understanding of the racially charged con- text of colonialism, as well as its impacts on future development and democratic consol- idation. as a social science scholar, a fsu program for distinguished social science majors, joan has received grants to conduct archival research and trace the progression of democratic consolidation in postcolonial haiti by probing colonial period political and administrative systems present in historical and oral narratives. upon graduation, joan plans to pursue a ms in mathematical statis- tics, and then a phd in political science with subfields in comparative politics and political methodology. kangkana koli kangkana koli is a student at eastern michigan university majoring in politi- cal science with minors in public law and government and asian studies. she has a strong passion for social justice issues, and advocating for change at her school. ps • july business ©american political science association, she serves as vice president of her uni- versity’s mock trial team, the director of social justice for stu- dent government, a political science tutor, and director of special events for college democrats. beyond her campus and community engagement positions, kangkana places a great amount of importance on academic research related to topics about developing countries and the immigrant experience in america. she is a presenter on the topic of religious extremism in developing countries at the eastern michigan university undergraduate symposium and is working on a senior thesis on this topic. she plans to pursue this research in her graduate studies in the hopes that she can contribute to the formation of a positive relationship between the united states and its international coun- terparts, as well as advocate for immigration policy reform in the united states. monique newton monique newton is a student at oberlin college double majoring in politics and law and society with a minor in africana studies. as a mellon mays undergraduate research fellow at oberlin college, she is currently working on a research project that examines the relationship between african americans and the government through an analysis of african american political participation. her project is titled “myths vs. reality: uncovering the causes of african american voter turnout in the united states.” she has also conduct- ed research for a member of boston city council on a potential policy that guaran- tees state housing for citizens who have just been released from jail or prison. her overall research interests include african american voting behavior and the affect public policy has on disadvantaged groups in the united states. in addition to her research, she has served for two years as a member of the stu- dent finance committee, a seven-student committee that allocates . million dollars from the student activity fund to student organizations. in the future she plans to pursue a doctoral degree in political science. pamela ortega pamela ortega is a double major in jour- nalism and political science at the univer- sity of oklahoma. a mcnair scholar, her research focuses on religion and politics, specifically a com- parison of political behaviors between mennonite commu- nities in mexico and the united states. she is currently a research assistant for a project on the oklahoma girl scout murders. pam has presented her research on severe weather vulnerabilities in spanish speaking communities at the american meteorological society confer- ence and the oklahoma service learning conference. she covered the presi- dential election for the huffington post and reported on voting rights with news . she cofounded the roosevelt institute, a think tank at her school. pam is currently a propublica emerging reporter, reporter for oklahoma routes and a member of pi sigma alpha. she hopes to earn a doctoral degree in political science and teach. preston parrish preston parrish is an international affairs major at the university of cincinnati (uc), and is working toward certificates in securi- ty studies and international human rights. as well as being on the dean’s list, he is a scholar under the mcnair program and the minority empowerment ini- tiative trust; and is currently serving as the president of uc’s arabic language club. preston has worked under tom carroll, city manager for the village of silverton, as well as assisted in research on the impli- cations of clandestine operations under dr. brendan green at uc. preston’s current research involves the social and economic impact of refugee resettlement in cincin- nati. in the future, he is interested in look- ing at the connections between liberalism and realism, as well as exploring the bal- ance between freedom and security within american politics and how that dichoto- my plays out through the various cultures across the country. preston plans to go to graduate school to pursue a phd. diana pavon diana pavon is a student at the university of wisconsin–madison majoring in politi- cal science and latin american, caribbean, and iberian studies with a minor chican@ and latin@ studies. d i a n a ’s c a m p u s involvement includes serving as the cochair for la mujer latina, a student organiza- tion that creates an annual conference with resources for all the madison com- munity. she has gotten politically involved as an undergraduate interning for both senator tammy baldwin and representa- tive jocasta zamarripa which allowed her access to the inner-workings of the politi- cal sphere. diana has previously conducted research for the labor historical society in madison that is developing an educational map website. she is also an open advocate against social injustice, and she hopes to address these issues in her community. diana has won the jesus salas activist scholarship for serving as an advocate in her latino community as well. last sum- mer, diana was awarded the university of wisconsin global getaway due to high aca- demic achievement and accomplishments. as a result, she was able to travel to rio de janeiro where she became educated about brazil’s government and internation- al law. in the future, she hopes to edu- cate marginalized students about social inequalities and become involved in politi- cal campaigns. avery d. pearl avery d. pearl is a student at augustana col- lege, in rock island, illinois majoring in politi- cal science and africana studies. vice president of his college’s naacp chapter, avery has worked to improve the social life of all dis- enfranchised people on campus and cre- ate an environment w h i c h e m b o d i e s diversity and inclu- sion. he is the presi- dent of his campus’s multicultural men’s association, works on the college president’s student advisory council, on his institution’s sexual health and violence prevention com- mittee, and has created multiple workshops focused on perspective and diversity. within ps • july business ©american political science association, his community, avery has coordinated panels on diversity, participated in voter registration drives, worked on political campaigns, and enacted programs such as youth library card registration days in impoverished communi- ties. avery is a firm advocate for those who are disenfranchised, who feel as though they have no voice. andre ross andre ross is a student at the university of houston. after a career in business that spans for over a decade, he is currently majoring in political science with an empha- sis on law and the effects of democrati- zation. andre is also currently interning at outreach strategists, a political consult- ing and public rela- tions firm in hous- ton, texas. he helps this firm connect needful communities with various resourc- es. he has been an active member of clubs on campus such as uh democrats and phi alpha delta. his research interests have emphasized ways to observe how domestic and international legal institutions impact minority communities within the united states and developing countries across the globe. andre is implementing work with fe y justicia worker center, an organization committed to fighting human trafficking. in the future, andre has plans to develop sev- eral research topics including the manage- ment of poverty and mass incarceration in the united states, political economy of latin america and africa, and the development of authoritarian regimes. his ultimate goal is to become a professor while maintaining a role in exploring ideas that help develop underprivileged communities. rodolfo solis rodolfo solis is a native of pharr, texas and is currently a third year student at wabash college in crawfordsville, indiana. at wabash, he is majoring in both political science and spanish with a specialization in american politics and international relations. during his sophomore year, he was elected as presi- dent for a student organization, known as unidos por san- gre which serves to represent the latino population among the student body. his area of research interest is on migration, both internal and external. rodolfo, there- fore, assessed the relationship between drug-trafficking organizations (dtos) and migration trends while he participat- ed in the nsf-reu program. he presented his results for the nsf-reu project at the th annual mpsa conference program in april . at the moment, he is coauthor- ing an encyclopedia entry for a forthcoming book, latinos in the us political system: an encyclopedia of latinos as voters, candidates, and office holders. in the future, rodolfo plans to pursue a doctoral degree in politi- cal science with a focus on immigration and, ultimately, teach at the collegiate level. asia stewart asia stewart is a junior at harvard univer- sity, currently pursuing a joint concentra- tion in government and women, gender, and sexuality studies and a secondary in ethnicity, migration, rights. after work- ing at the new york state division of human rights and the internationally recognized organi- zation, physicians for human rights, asia identified her growing interest in notions of sexual citi- zenship and belonging, diaspora, and queer migration. in search of ways to enact social change through the mechanism of the law, asia began to conduct research on asy- lum law and us immigration policies at the harvard center for american politi- cal studies in . currently, her research specifically focuses on the legal barri- ers that lgbt asylum seekers face in the united states. she is particularly interested in the effect that various performances of gender and sexuality in the courtroom have upon asylum case outcomes. in the future, asia hopes to attend law school and later defend the rights of those most marginal- ized in society. angie torres angie torres is a student at the univer- sity of central florida (ucf) in orlando, florida, majoring in international and global studies with a minor in global peace and security studies. her research inter- ests focus on gender studies, internation- al security, and developing nations. angie currently serves on the vice president’s student advisory council and is a c r e a r f u t u r o s peer mentor, a pro- gram supported by the hispanic federa- tion that focuses on promoting hispanic student success, along with three other organizations on campus. in her spare time, angie teaches students in her community as a substitute teacher. she actively participates in volunteer events and went to santa catarina barahona, gua- temala during spring break to assist “small change big change,” an organization focused on sustainable health and educa- tion to promote rural community develop- ment. angie also does extensive research on women’s roles and development as the central and south america intern for the global perspectives office at ucf. she is a research assistant working with jonathan powell on the effects on women after major conflicts in certain latin american coun- tries and will conduct original indepen- dent research through ucf’s honors in the major program this fall. upon graduation, she plans to earn her phd in political sci- ence and teach at the university level. erica wheeler erica wheeler is a student at the university of louisville where she is majoring in politi- cal science and minoring in pan-african studies. erica is passionate about studying and researching poli- tics and race, particu- larly regarding black and latino commu- nities. recently, she completed an inde- pendent study on mass incarceration in america, discover- ing a pattern of con- tributing factors that led to the devastat- ing increase. erica is a woodford r. porter scholar whose scholastic performance has placed her on the dean’s list. she works in the office of admissions as an admissions volunteer who introduces prospective high school students to the university of louis- ville. upon graduation, erica plans to pursue a doctoral degree in political science where she plans to produce and publish research that will influence policy-makers and legis- lation impacting race and social justice in a career as a university professor. ■ doi: . / letters to the editor table ret and ednrb mutations in male patients with isolated hscr patient number genea exon nucleotide change amino acid change type of case length of aganglionosis hscr ednrb g a s n sporadic short hscr ednrb del a n i familial short hscr ret c a q k sporadic ultrashort hscr ret c t i i sporadic short hscr ret g a s s sporadic short hscr ret g a r q sporadic short hscr ret g � a sporadic long a for the ret, ednrb, and edn genes, primer sequences and pcr-sscp conditions have been described elsewhere (ceccherini et al. ; auricchio et al. ). to screen the gdnf gene we used both sscp (for exon ) and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (dgge) (for exon ) with the following primer sets: f/r ( ′-aggcttaacgtgcattctg- ′ and ′- gggaacggttcttacagt- ′), af/r ( ′- -bp gc clamp-gatcatttttgtctcatg- tgcca- ′ and ′-tcctctaattctctgggt- ′), bf/r ( ′-gagcggaatcggcaggctg- ′ and ′- -bp gc clamp-caagagccgctgcagtacct- ′) and cf/r ( ′-cttgggt- ctgggctatgaa- ′ and ′- -bp gc clamp-gcaatacacagcagtctctg- ′). pcr anneal- ing temperatures were �c– �c. sscp was done as reported elsewhere (ceccherini et al. ), whereas a %– % denaturing gradient in #tea buffer at v constant for . – . h was applied for dgge analysis. am. j. hum. genet. : – , double heterozygosity for a ret substitution interfering with splicing and an ednrb missense mutation in hirschsprung disease to the editor: hirschsprung disease (hscr [mim ]) is a de- velopmental disorder resulting from the arrest of the craniocaudal migration of enteric neurons from the neu- ral crest along gastrointestinal segments of variable length (behrman ). the involvement of the ret proto-oncogene and the endothelin-b receptor-mediated signaling pathways in the migration and differentiation of enteric ganglion cells has been demonstrated in both humans and mice. heterozygous, incompletely penetrant point muta- tions and deletions of the ret proto-oncogene have been described in sporadic and familial cases of hscr (edery et al. ; romeo et al. ; angrist et al. ). in addition, homozygous ret-targeted disrup- tion in mice results in megacolon with renal abnormal- ities (schuchardt et al. ). this phenotype is remi- niscent of the knockout for gdnf, encoding for the glial cell-line–derived neurotrophic growth factor (moore et al. ; pichel et al. ; sanchez et al. ), a pro- tein that has been demonstrated to bind specifically and to activate ret with a glycophosphatidylinositol (gpi)- anchored protein, the gdnf receptor-a (gfra ) (jing et al. ; treanor et al. ). although no nucleotide changes have been found at the gfra locus (angrist et al. ; myers et al. ), rare heterozygous mu- tations of the gdnf gene, in some cases in combination with ret mutations, have been detected in a few pa- tients (angrist et al. ; ivanchuk et al. ; salomon et al. ). similarly, a missense mutation in the neur- turin (ntn) gene, a component of a second ret bind- ing complex including the ntn receptor (also known as gdnfr-a , gdnfr-b, or gfra ), has been found in an hscr family cosegregating with a ret missense mutation (doray et al. ). rarely, megacolon pres- ents in association with pigmentary anomalies in the shah-waardenburg syndrome, a human autosomal re- cessive disease similar to the mouse piebald lethal and lethal spotting spontaneous mutants. the study of these models of syndromic megacolon has led to the identi- fication of homozygous mutations in the endothelin-b receptor gene (ednrb) and the endothelin (edn ) gene in both humans and mice (baynash et al. ; hosoda et al. ; puffenberger et al. ; attié et al. ). in particular, in a large mennonite pedigree, a founder homozygous w c ednrb mutation has been found in association with a specific ret haplotype, thus suggesting a possible genetic interaction between the two genes in the mennonites affected with the shah- waardenburg syndrome (puffenberger et al. ). ednrb and edn , respectively, encode the endothelin- b receptor, a g-protein–coupled receptor with seven tm domains, and its ligand endothelin- . we and others have demonstrated heterozygous incompletely penetrant mutations in the ednrb gene in individuals with iso- lated megacolon (amiel et al. ; auricchio et al. ; kusafuka et al. ), although mutations at the edn locus are rarely found in hscr (bidaud et al. ). recently, mutations of the transcriptional factor sox (pingault et al. ) and of the endothelin- letters to the editor figure sscp analysis of the ret exon transcript from affected individuals carrying the i i silent mutation. pcr products corresponding to this exon from father, mother, and patient genomic dna are represented in lanes , , and , whereas lanes , , and show the pcr products obtained from the cdna of patients and and a control individual, respectively. note that the shifted upper band corresponding to the mutated allele present in lanes and is absent in the cdnas of patients and (lanes and ), which show only the normal allele present in the cdna from a control individual (lane ). figure arms analysis of the ret exon from patient genomic dna and cdna. pcr products were obtained by use of oligonucleotide primers specific for either the normal (lanes and ) or the i i (lanes and ) ret alleles. a band of the expected size is amplified from patient genomic dna with both sets of primers (lanes and ), whereas at the cdna level the normal (lane ), but not the mutated, allele (lane ) is present. converting enzyme (ece ) (hofstra et al. ) have been reported in hscr patients with pigmentary and cardiac defects. ret, gdnf, ednrb, and edn are mutated in a variable proportion of individuals affected with isolated hscr, accounting for %– % of all cases (edery et al. ; eng and mulligan ; hofstra et al. ). in addition, these mutations alone do not explain the variable expressivity and the incomplete penetrance of the disease for which, according to a complex model of inheritance, the combined presence of mutations in more than one of the known or still unknown hscr suscep- tibility genes can be inferred. to better understand the contribution of ret, gdnf, ednrb, and edn to the pathogenesis of hscr, we collected samples from patients and analyzed them for mutations at these loci. forty-seven of these patients represented unrelated sporadic cases, and three belonged to two different families in which a polygenic or recessive mode of inheritance could be inferred on the basis of the pedigree. they were affected with isolated mega- colon, including long, short (“classic”), and ultrashort forms. none of them was born of consanguineous par- ents, and all were of italian origin. table shows two heterozygous incompletely pene- trant ednrb mutations (s n and n i) we re- cently described in two patients with isolated short-seg- ment hscr disease, inherited from healthy parents (auricchio et al. ). these two mutations were iden- tified during a first screening of patients and were absent in control chromosomes. we then analyzed samples from additional patients with isolated hscr and could not detect any novel mutations at the ednrb locus. the mutation screening of the exons of the ret proto-oncogene was done on all patients. as shown in table , two missense mutations in exons and (c a and g a, respectively) and a nu- cleotide change affecting the ′ end of intron (g � a) were identified in three different patients. in particular, the q k missense mutation affects the last codon of exon , namely the cys-rich region located in the juxtamembranous extracellular domain, suggest- ing either an effect on the folding of the ligand-binding domain or an interference with ret dimerization, a cru- cial step preceding its activation. mutation r q, af- fecting exon , is likely to alter the ret tyrosine kinase activity, whereas the gra transition at the ′ end of intron might interfere with correct processing of the primary transcript. in addition, we found two synony- mous nucleotide changes in ret exon , leading to neutral substitutions i i and s s in patients and , respectively (table ). these were absent in con- trol individuals. we could not detect any gdnf or edn mutations in our patients, thus confirming that they play a minor role in hscr pathogenesis. letters to the editor figure in vitro analysis of the ret exons and splicing products from both the normal and the i i mutated alleles (see text for details). a, schematic representation of the ret constructs used for the in vitro splicing analysis. b, rt-pcr amplification using primers designed in exons and , as indicated in a, from total rna of cos- cells transiently transfected with the ret wild-type (lane ) and the i i (lane ) constructs. note the abnormal products present in lane . c, sequence analysis of the -bp products from lanes and shown in b corresponded to the normal and mutated ret alleles, respectively, an observation consistent with the use of canonical “gt” and “ag” donor and acceptor splice sites (underlined in the partial intronic sequence given in lowercase letters). conversely, sequence analysis of the - bp and -bp products revealed two exon deleted forms resulting from the use of cryptic acceptor “ag” sites activated to generate the two abnormal products (underlined in the sequence of the ′ portion of exon given in capital letters). the two alternative nucleotides involved in the neutral substitution of codon (t in the normal allele and c in the variant allele) are shown in boldface type. interestingly, patient (from now on, patient ) car- ries both a ret synonymous nucleotide change, c t (i i), inherited from the unaffected mother, and an ednrb missense mutation, s n, transmitted by the healthy father. this latter mutation results in the substitution of a serine, located in the third intracellular loop, with an asparagine (auricchio et al. ). this serine, highly conserved between different species, has been shown to be a site of in vivo phosphorylation (roos et al. ), suggesting that it plays an important role in the receptor regulation and that its absence can result in the protein loss of function. intraexonic silent mu- tations can alter correct mrna processing, thus result- ing in either altered mrna levels or truncated proteins (steingrimsdottir et al. ; de meirleir et al. ; li et al. ; richard and beckmann ; jin et al. ; llewellyn et al. ; ploos van amstel et al. ; liu et al. ). to test the hypothesis that the ret i i variant could play a causative role in the development of the disease phenotype in patient , we analyzed, both in vitro and in vivo, the ret mrna expression, using cdna and genomic dna from patient and from an additional proband (patient ) with the same i i change, described elsewhere (ceccherini et al. ). as an in vivo approach to study the ret transcrip- tion, we performed reverse transcription (rt) pcr with total rna from lymphoblastoid cell lines of these two patients, by means of two different techniques—the sscp (orita et al. ) and the amplification-refractory mutation system (arms) (newton et al. ) analysis. results obtained from sscp analysis of the ret exon are shown in figure . the shifted upper band cor- responding to the mutated allele present in the genomic dna of patient and his healthy mother (lanes and ) is absent in the cdnas of patients and (lanes and ). they depict only the normal allele present in the cdna from a control individual (lane ). similar results have been obtained from arms analysis of the ret exon from patient genomic dna and cdna (fig. ). in particular, using oligonucleotide primers specific for either the normal (lanes and ) or the i i (lanes and ) ret alleles, we were able to amplify a band letters to the editor of the expected size from patient genomic dna with both sets of primers (lanes and ), although at the cdna level the normal (lane ), but not the mutated, allele (lane ) was present. in addition, direct sequence analysis of the pcr product, as well as bsmi enzymatic restriction of an exon ret polymorphism, the phase of which is known with respect to the i i mutation, confirmed the absence of the mutated allele in the cdna of the affected individuals (data not shown). to elucidate whether the i i silent mutation could interfere with splicing, thus resulting in unstable prod- ucts undetectable in vivo in lymphoblast cdnas, we cloned the -kb genomic region encompassing ret ex- ons , , and , from both the normal and the i i mutated alleles, into the pspl eukaryotic vector (church et al. ) (fig. a). rt-pcr amplification from total rna of sv -transformed african green monkey kidney cells (cos- ) transiently transfected with the ret wild-type construct (fig. b) shows the expected fragment of bp (lane ). two additional products of bp and bp were amplified when the i i construct was transfected (lane ). as shown in figure c, sequence analysis of the -bp products from the above lanes and corresponded to the normal and mutated ret alleles, respectively, an observation consistent with the use of canonical “gt” and “ag” donor and acceptor splice sites (underlined in the partial in- tronic sequence given in lowercase letters). conversely, sequence analysis of the -bp and -bp products revealed two exon deleted forms. both products re- sulted from the fusion of the ′ end of exon to two different sites located bp and bp downstream of the exon starting nucleotide in the largest and the smallest abnormal products, respectively. if translated, these mrnas would result in two proteins: the one cor- responding to the largest transcript truncated bp downstream of the newly activated splice site, and the smallest mrna resulting in an in-frame interstitial loss of amino acids, including the transmembrane do- main. nevertheless, we postulate that this abnormal pro- cessing of the i i allele may reduce the mutant rna to a level that escapes detection by the commonly used in vivo rt-pcr approach. thus, the presence in our patient of an inactive form of the endothelin-b receptor and of reduced levels of the ret protein could impair the normal enteric neuronal migration. in conclusion, we confirm that in isolated hscr the major susceptibility locus is the ret proto-oncogene, with ednrb accounting for a minority of cases. more relevantly, we demonstrate in two different patients, both in vivo and in vitro, that the same silent ret mu- tation can interfere with correct transcription, thus pos- sibly leading to a reduced level of the ret protein. finally, the coexistence, reported for the first time, in the same patient of two functionally significant ednrb and ret mutations suggests a direct genetic interaction between these two distinct transmembrane receptors in polygenic hscr disease. acknowledgments the financial support of telethon–italy (grant e ) is grate- fully acknowledged. this work was also funded by the italian telethon foundation, the italian ministry of health, and the european community (contract mh -ct - ). alberto auricchio, ,∗ paola griseri, maria luisa carpentieri, nicola betsos, annamaria staiano, arturo tozzi, manuela priolo, helen thompson, renata bocciardi, giovanni romeo, , andrea ballabio, and isabella ceccherini telethon institute of genetics and medicine, milan, laboratorio di genetica molecolare, istituto giannina gaslini, genova-quarto, dipartimento di pediatria, università �federico ii,� naples, and dipartimento di oncologia biologia e genetica, università degli studi di genova, genova, italy; and genetic cancer susceptibility unit, lyon, france electronic-database information accession number and url for data in this study are as follows: online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim (for hscr [ ]) references amiel j, attié t, jan d, pelet a, edery p, bidaud c, lacombe d, et al ( ) heterozygous endothelin receptor b (ednrb) mutations in isolated hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – angrist m, bolk s, halushka m, lapchak pa, chakravarti a ( ) germline mutations in glial cell line-derived neuro- trophic factor (gdnf) and ret in a hirschsprung disease patient. nat genet : – angrist m, bolk s, thiel b, puffenberger eg, hofstra rm, buys chcm, cass dt, et al ( ) mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – angrist m, jing s, bolk s, bentley k, nallasamy s, halushka m, fox gm, et al ( ) human gfra : cloning, mapping, genomic structure, and evaluation as a candidate gene for hirschsprung disease susceptibility. genomics : – attié t, till m, pelet a, amiel j, edery p, boutrand l, munnich a, et al ( ) mutations of the endothelin-receptor b gene in waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – . auricchio a, casari g, staiano a, ballabio a ( ) endothe- lin-b receptor mutations in patients with isolated hirsch- letters to the editor sprung disease from a non-inbred population. hum mol genet : – baynash ag, hosoda k, giaid a, richardson ja, emoto n, hammer re, yanagisawa m ( ) interaction of endo- thelin- with endothelin-b receptor is essential for devel- opment of epidermal melanocytes and enteric neurons. cell : – behrman re ( ) nelson textbook of pediatrics, th ed. w. b. saunders, philadelphia, pp – bidaud c, salomon r, van camp g, pelet a, attie t, eng c, bonduelle m, et al ( ) endothelin- gene mutations in isolated and syndromic hirschsprung disease. eur j hum genet : – ceccherini i, hofstra rm, luo y, stulp rp, barone v, stel- wagen t, bocciardi r, et al ( ) dna polymorphisms and conditions for sscp analysis of the exons of the ret proto-oncogene. oncogene : – church dm, stotler cj, rutter jl, murrell jr, trofatter ja, buckler aj ( ) isolation of genes from complex sources of mammalian genomic dna using exon amplification. nat genet : – de meirleir l, lissens w, benelli c, ponsot g, desguerre i, marsac c, rodriguez d, et al ( ) aberrant splicing of exon in the pyruvate dehydrogenase-e alpha mrna linked to a silent mutation in a large family with leigh’s encephalomyelopathy. pediatr res : – doray b, salomon r, amiel j, pelet a, touraine r, billaud m, attie t, et al ( ) mutation of the ret ligand, neur- turin, supports multigenic inheritance in hirschsprung dis- ease. hum mol genet : – edery p, eng c, munnich a, lyonnet s ( ) ret in human development and oncogenesis. bioessays : – edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm, pelet a, dow e, abel l, holder s, et al ( ) mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature : – eng c, mulligan lm ( ) mutations of the ret proto- oncogene in the multiple endocrine neoplasia type syn- dromes, related sporadic tumours, and hirschsprung dis- ease. hum mutat : – hofstra r, osinga j, buys c ( ) mutations in hirschsprung disease: when does a mutation contribute to the phenotype. eur j hum genet : – hofstra r, valdenaire o, arch e, osinga j, meijers c, buys chcm ( ) a loss of function mutation in the endo- thelin-converting enzyme in a patient with hirschsprung disease and cardiac defects. paper presented at the third international meeting on hirschsprung disease and related neurocristopathies. evian, france, february – hosoda k, hammer re, richardson ja, baynash ag, cheung jc, giaid a, yanagisawa m ( ) targeted and natural (piebald-lethal) mutations of endothelin-b receptor gene produce megacolon associated with spotted coat colon in mice. cell : – ivanchuk sm, myers sm, eng c, mulligan lm ( ) de novo mutation of gdnf, ligand for the ret/gdnfr-alpha receptor complex, in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – jin y, dietz hc, montgomery ra, bell wr, mcintosh i, coller b, bray pf ( ) glanzmann thrombasthenia: cooperation between sequence variants in cis during splice site selection. j clin invest : – jing s, wen d, yu y, holst pl, luo y, fang m, tamir r, et al ( ) gdnf-induced activation of the ret protein ty- rosine kinase is mediated by gdnfr-alpha, a novel receptor for gdnf. cell : – kusafuka t, wang y, puri p ( ) novel mutations of the endothelin-b receptor gene in isolated patients with hirschs- prung’s disease. hum mol genet : – li x, park w-j, pyertz re, jabs we ( ) effect on splicing of a silent fgfr mutation in crouzon syndrome. nat ge- net : – liu w, qian c, franke u ( ) silent mutation induces exon skipping of fibrillin- gene in marfan syndrome. nat genet : – llewellyn dh, scobie ga, urquhart aj, whatley sd, roberts ag, harrison pr, elder gh ( ) acute intermittent por- phyria caused by defective splicing of porphobilinogen de- aminase rna: a synonymous codon mutation at � bp from the ′ splice site causes skipping of exon . j med genet : – moore mw, klein rd, farinas i, sauer h, armanini m, phil- lips h, reichard lf, et al ( ) renal and neuronal ab- normalities in mice lacking gdnf. nature : – myers sm, salomon r, goessling a, pelet a, von deimling a, lyonnet s, mulligan lm ( ) analysis of the gfra family in hirschsprung disease. paper presented at the third international meeting on hirschsprung disease and related neurocristopathies. evian, france, february – newton cr, graham a, heptinstall le, powell sj, summers c, kalsheker n, smith jc, et al ( ) analysis of any point mutation in dna: the amplification refractory mutation sys- tem (arms). nucleic acids res : – orita m, suzuki y, sekiya t, hayashi k, ( ) rapid and sensitive detection of point mutations and dna polymor- phisms using the polymerase chain reaction. genomics : – pichel jg, shen l, sheng hz, granholm ac, drago j, grin- berg a, lee ej, et al ( ) defects in enteric innervation and kidney development in mice lacking gdnf. nature : – pingault v, bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, goerich de, prehu mo, puliti a, herbarth b, et al ( ) sox mutations in patients with waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. nat genet : – ploos van amstel jk, bergman aj, van beurden ea, roijers jf, peelen t, van den berg ie, poll-the bt, et al ( ) hereditary tyrosinemia type : novel missense, nonsense and splice consensus mutations in the human fumarylacetoace- tate hydrolase gene; variability of the genotype-phenotype relationship. hum genet : – puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, de wit d, yanagisawa m, chakravarti a ( ) a missense mu- tation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung disease. cell : – richard i, beckmann js, ( ) how neutral are synonymous codon mutations? nat genet : romeo g, ronchetto p, yin l, barone v, seri m, ceccherini i, pasini b, et al ( ) point mutations affecting the tyrosine letters to the editor kinase domain of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature : – roos m, soskic v, poznanovic s, godovac-zimmermann j ( ) post-translational modifications of endothelin recep- tor b from bovine lungs analyzed by mass spectrometry. j biol chem : – salomon r, attié t, pelet a, bidaud c, eng c, amiel j, sar- nacki s, et al ( ) germline mutations of the ret ligand gdnf are not sufficient to cause hirschsprung disease. nat genet : – sanchez mp, silos-santiago i, frisen j, he b, lira sa, barbacid m ( ) renal agenesis and the absence of enteric neurons in mice lacking gdnf. nature : – schuchardt a, d’agati v, larsson-blomberg l, costantini f, pachnis v ( ) defects in the kidney and enteric nervous system of mice lacking the tyrosine kinase receptor ret. na- ture : – steingrimsdottir h, rowley g, dorado g, cole j, lehmann ar ( ) mutations which alter splicing in the human hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase gene. nu- cleic acids res : – treanor jj, goodman l, de sauvage f, stone dm, poulsen kt, beck cd, gray c, et al ( ) a characterization of a multicomponent receptor for gdnf. nature : – address for correspondence and reprints: dr. isabella ceccherini, laboratorio di genetica molecolare, istituto giannina gaslini, largo g. gaslini, , genova, italy. e-mail: isa.c@unige.it � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . am. j. hum. genet. : – , a mutation ( delg) in the usher syndrome type iia gene: high prevalence and phenotypic variation to the editor: usher syndrome (ush), an autosomal recessive condi- tion, is characterized by hearing impairment associated with retinitis pigmentosa (rp). it is a clinically and ge- netically heterogeneous condition. three clinical forms of ush have been described, and eight loci have been mapped (hereditary hearing loss home page). ush type i (ush ) is the most severe form, manifested by profound congenital deafness, constant vestibular dys- function, and prepubertal onset of rp. ush type ii (ush ) is characterized by congenital moderate-to-se- vere hearing impairment, normal vestibular responses, and rp (smith et al. ). ush type iii (ush ) is characterized by progressive hearing loss, variable ves- tibular problems, and rp (pakarinen et al. ). the ush b gene has been identified (weil et al. ), and a variety of mutations leading to ush have been cat- alogued in the myo a gene (liu et al. ). ush is the most common of the three types of ush, accounting for more than half of all cases (hopes et al. ; ro- senberg et al. ). recently, eudy et al. ( ) reported the identification of the ush type iia gene (ush a; mim ). ush a encodes a putative extracellular matrix protein of , amino acids with laminin epidermal growth factor and fibronectin type ii motifs. expression of the ush a gene has been detected by reverse transcriptase pcr (rt-pcr) from fetal human cochlea, eye, and adult human retina (eudy et al. ). three different mu- tations were identified in patients with ush a, the most frequent of which is the delg mutation. of pro- bands tested, carried the delg mutation. in the present study, we have undertaken mutational analysis of the ush a gene in families with ush (both ush and atypical ush), from the united king- dom and china. we found that the majority of families with ush carry the delg mutation. surprisingly, we determined that the delg mutation in the ush a gene can also lead to atypical ush. of families with ush analyzed in this study, have been described elsewhere (hopes et al. ). all available affected subjects were examined by one of the authors. full clinical histories were obtained, with em- phasis on any potential causes of hearing impairment. the audiovestibular and ophthalmic evaluations were done on the basis of recommendations by the usher syndrome consortium (smith et al. ). the details of the clinical evaluations can be found in hopes et al. ( ). the cases studied here are classified clinically into the following two groups: ( ) ush , consisting of congenital sloping moderate/severe hearing impairment, normal vestibular function, and rp (smith et al. ); and ( ) atypical ush, consisting of bilateral sensorineu- ral progressive hearing loss without other obvious fac- tors as the cause of the progression of the hearing im- pairment, along with variable vestibular dysfunction and rp. of families studied, were given a diagnosis of ush and were given a diagnosis of atypical ush. eighteen families living in the united kingdom and five in china were included in our analyses. twenty-three probands with ush were screened for the delg mutation by combined sscp/heteroduplex analysis. twelve families ( %) carried the delg mutation— ( %) of patients with typical ush and ( %) of patients with atypical ush (table ). of families with this mutation, were identified with only one af- fected member (sporadic cases). of the remaining five families with more than one affected individual, two families (ush. and ush. ) with two affected sibs were tested for cosegregation of the disease with the ush a locus (eudy et al. ). the segregation anal- ysis was consistent with linkage to ush a (data not 	double heterozygosity for a ret substitution interfering with splicing and an ednrb missense mutation in hirschsprung disease 	acknowledgments 	references journal of clinical medicine opinion complementary medicine: risks to infants and children terry polevoy - sandowne dr., waterloo, on n k c , canada; drpolevoy@yahoo.com; tel.: + - - - received: june ; accepted: june ; published: june ���������� ������� abstract: complementary alternative medicine (cam) that targets infants and children can place them at grave risk. our plan is to review some of the major cases of cam used by parents, and by unlicensed and even licensed health professionals. complications from cam are rarely the focus of regulatory bodies, or even the courts. even regulated health professionals, who have profited by misrepresenting science-based evidence for treatment or prevention of disease, have been rarely sanctioned by their respective boards or colleges. this must change. in addition, there is a dire need for regulators, including the governments, who allow quack products and devices to be marketed in their respective countries, to prosecute them. existing regulations must be coupled with more effective enforcement. some of these cases have had a direct connection to me personally, while others are examples of just plain dangerous quackery. keywords: complementary alternative medicine; quackery; infants; children; regulation; anti-vaccine; autism; cancer; chiropractic; naturopathy; homeopathy; health fraud . why does complementary alternative medicine (cam) seem to thrive and why is it almost always ignored by regulators and the government? misinformation about cam for infants and children is just far too easy to find. just search on amazon for “pediatrics alternative medicine” and you can find hundreds of books that ignore science-based methods. the internet is full of so-called “experts”, including celebrities, hucksters, politicians who are in the pockets of the nutraceutical manufacturers, and yes, even licensed health professionals. we will review some extreme cam cases that have resulted in fatalities. this will include some deranged parental belief systems, which directly resulted in their child’s death, with or without direct intervention by health professionals. other cases directly involved licensed medical practitioners, who ignored everything they learned in medical school and residency training to flog their treatments, or lack of treatments (i.e., immunizations) on vulnerable families. some of the topics we will review include the cam anti-vaccine movement, the quack treatment of children with cancer, cerebral palsy, and other chronic conditions. extreme nutritional advice by parents has also killed children. here in canada, where i trained in pediatrics, we have had our share of headline cases over the years. some have left a deep impact on me personally, while others have stayed in the headlines for years. others have been too often just forgotten. by writing this article, i hope that we will all be reminded of the risks when cam endangers our children. one of the major dangers to child health has been the regulators themselves. medical, chiropractic, and naturopathic boards and colleges around the world have been lax in overseeing their members. doctors of medicine (mds) have maintained their licenses, despite their opposition to immunizations. some have promised parents that they can treat children with profound conditions, like mental j. clin. med. , , ; doi: . /jcm www.mdpi.com/journal/jcm http://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcm http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /jcm http://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcm http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= j. clin. med. , , of retardation, cerebral palsy, and cancer. even after numerous complaints, many practitioners have survived unscathed. cam professionals may or may not actually believe what they do. some are just snake-oil salespeople, while others are gurus who spend their lives mesmerizing their flock of true believers. . chiropractic pediatrics chiropractors who treat infants, children, and even pregnant mothers have formed professional associations like the international chiropractic pediatrics association (icpa). in my opinion, they exist to sustain the unbelievable charade that infants and children should go to a chiropractor from birth [ ]. this group claims to be experts. but, in fact all they do is to promote parental fear that their babies have been “damaged” when they go through the birth canal. they make bogus claims that this will result in serious health problems later on in life [ ]. marketing organizations are widespread, selling full-scripts, supportive flyers, magazines, web sites, and videos that target the vulnerable minds of parents [ ]. a simple search of pediatric chiropractic web sites reveals most of their false claims. the trouble is that chiropractic regulatory bodies refuse to take any firm action against their members who violate their standards or policies. in , a group of four chiropractic authors from canada published a review of vaccinations and chiropractic [ ]. in ontario, the college of chiropractors of ontario (cco) has a history of sitting on complaints for years, and then when complaints are appealed to our health professions appeal and review board (hparb), and are sent back to the cco, it again takes years for the cco to respond. one of the most egregious examples of the cco’s lack of firm action goes way back to the s, when many of their members were known for anti-vaccine activities. it took years for them to pass any meaningful policies or standards to control it. a prime example that i personally witnessed in here in waterloo, ontario, canada, involved jeffrey winchester, dc. he placed himself in front of the bluevale collegiate institute, our local high school, and told the students that they really did not have to get the meningitis vaccine. two teenage girls had just died, but it did not stop his bizarre protest. i have many examples in my collection of anti-vaccine chiropractors here in ontario, but very few of them were adjudicated. chiropractic promotions at health fairs, malls, and in the media, are sometimes more like a “three ring circus”. over the years, i have attended a number of large and small presentations where chiropractors set up shop and try to sell various programs. some of them targeted families with young children. one of the funniest was dr. roger turner, a dc from barrie, ontario. he and his young son, who was not a chiropractor, claimed to be able to move the skull bones to improve kids with autistic spectrum disorder (asd). i even volunteered to have my skull manipulated at a quack-filled alternative health convention in toronto. in may , sharon kirkey, a reporter for canada’s national post newspaper, authored one of the best articles on pediatric chiropractors [ ]. it was met with applause from the usual science-based groups and authorities [ ]. there is absolutely no debate that those who adhere to their title of “pediatric chiropractor” really love their stuff. in september , one group organized the chiropractic pediatric & family conference in newark, nj, usa [ ]. the usual anti-vax brigade will be there along with the usual sales people selling all sorts of goodies to help chiropractors build their practices. among the speakers are canadian and american chiropractors, along with a long history of anti-medical opinions. they have even invited larry palevsky, an anti-vaccine md from nyc to round out the conference. in summary, the basic spin of pediatric chiropractors has never been confirmed in any major study. but, the case against them has not seemed to stop their marketing in any way. as more chiropractors graduate each year, they are having difficulty finding practice opportunities that would help them pay back their tuition. that is my belief! that is why there are so many of them who have swallowed the sales pitch of organizations who skillfully sell them expensive programs. j. clin. med. , , of . dangers of licensed and unlicensed quacks there are thousands of unlicensed individuals who prey on children and their families around the world. in developing countries, they are called shamans, or “medicine men” or “medicine women”. i will not be discussing this. but, i will attempt to identify an area of grave concern, especially when it comes to children in canada. children are victimized because either their parents allow them to be treated by these quacks, instead of real medical professionals, or their health providers, who are licensed as regulated health professionals, treat them without regard for science-based medicine. i will choose from a few of these tragic cases here in canada, where even though we have “socialized medicine”, the practice of quackery sadly exists. little has changed over the last few decades. it is particularly troublesome here in ontario, because we have authorized the regulation of naturopathy, homeopathy, and traditional chinese medicine. socialized medicine was supposed to provide oversight of these cam professions, but we have found little has changed. claims made by these “professionals” have little basis in science, and some are downright dangerous. fortunately for us, very few of their flock try to recruit infants and children . . . yet! cam tragedies ravi devgan: nearly two decades ago, i was contacted by a reporter in ontario who had identified a poor mexican mennonite family who had twins that had major neurologic and mental health issues. they reached out to a physician, ravi devgan, who claimed to be able to cure them. using dangerous injections of sheep fetuses, he defrauded them for over $ , [ ]. devgan was sentenced to jail. but, even after his first conviction and the loss of his license, he continued to rip people off from his house in toronto. he died in prison after his last conviction. tyrell duec: in the spring of , a -year-old saskatchewan boy, tyrell dueck garnered headlines around the world because his bone cancer treatment was stopped by his parents. they were convinced by a local chiropractor, lawyer, who was a fundamentalist christian, and politician that the best treatment was to pray and take him to a quack clinic in tijuana for treatment. he died of his cancer in july after the courts said that the parents could basically do what they wanted. his death raised many issues, ethically, morally, and in the courts; it was the death of tyrell dueck that sent me on my journey of “quackbusting” [ – ]. makayla sault: an -year-old girl from the credit first nation reserve in caldonia, ontario, became the victim of brian clement. he is a notorious florida-based quack, who runs the hippocrates health institute, a facility in west palm beach, florida. the case pitted the mcmaster university pediatric oncology department, social service agencies, and the first nation’s chief against each other. the courts finally gave the go-ahead to stop chemotherapy for her leukemia, which had a good chance of putting her into remission. the case involved more than one aboriginal girl suffering from treatable leukemia. the state of florida had originally charged clement with practicing medicine without a license. the case was quietly dropped in march . one of the puzzling things about clement is the question of his supplying illegal supplements, which were shipped to the reserve and other health food stores in ontario. this was reported to health canada, but little seemed to be accomplished. furthermore, the aboriginal band sponsored several appearances of clement to recruit more patients and flog his quackery. clement continues to flog nonsense treatments and prey on vulnerable people. we can assume that there are many more cases like makayla in his files [ – ]. ezekiel stephan: this case has been in the headlines for six years. it began when a -month-old toddler from alberta died of meningitis. years ago, thousands of infants and toddlers died of meningitis in north america every year. what makes the death of ezekiel especially unusual was the legal case against his parents. his father, david stephan, and mother, collet, were charged and convicted in an alberta court for failing to provide the necessaries of life in . after years of legal battles and j. clin. med. , , of appeals, the case finally reached canada’s supreme court in may , where the case was overturned on a technicality. david and collet have to be retried all over again back in alberta. there have been scores of incisive articles, extensive television coverage, and ethical and legal opinions from around the world. the case took years to finally be prosecuted, and the actual trial lasted for weeks. public opinion, which was largely against the couple from the start, seemed to be opposed due to david stephan’s blogs, television appearances, and especially his own facebook pages which were basically his way of casting the blame on others. he has never, to this day, told the public that he or his wife had any role in ezekiel’s horrible death. the most interesting part of the case was david stephan’s direct links to truehope nutritional support, a company started by his father anthony stephan. it markets natural health products and has withstood health canada’s challenges for years. david works for the company directly. the company’s early days was the focus of our book, pig pills, inc. the anatomy of an academic and alternative health fraud [ ]. the book was co-authored with marvin ross and ron reinhold. truehope’s original product, empowerplus, made major claims for treating severe mental illness. they marketed it from alberta, but it has always been made by several companies in the u.s. the reason i mention this company is because the stephans used them to treat their own children, particularly ezekiel. the foundation for the charges and the conviction were because the parents failed to provide the necessaries of life. during the trial, it was revealed that ezekiel had never been to a medical doctor. he was delivered at home in rural alberta by a nurse. ezekiel, like his other siblings, had never received any immunizations. when ezekiel became ill with a respiratory condition on february , his health went downhill steadily. even after he was visited by his grandfather, anthony stephan, there was no improvement. he became so “stiff” that he was unable to get into his car seat. he was finally rushed to the calgary children’s hospital in a coma and was declared “brain dead” on march . the post-mortem showed bacterial meningitis and an empyema (pus in the lung). why did the parents fail to recognize how sick he was? were they entirely to blame? they clearly ignored warning signs that any parent should have recognized. why did collet take him to see a naturopath in lethbridge, but never brought him into the office? it seemed that she just asked the naturopath’s front office for blast, an natural health product containing echinacea. of course, his meningitis could have easily been prevented and his life could have been saved if they were caring parents. instead, they were basically anti-vaccine, anti-medical zealots who instead treated him with olive leaf extract, garlic, onions, pepper, ginger root, and horseradish. the crown’s evidence was overwhelming, and throughout the trial, david would rant and rave of how bad the government’s case was. it was a giant conspiracy! evidence was tampered with or withheld! the pathologist was wrong! there was a massive cover-up! after their conviction by a jury in april , they appealed. the appeal was finally heard in november . david stephan continued to attack the original conviction with insane rants against the prosecution’s case and the jury’s decision. he concocted a conspiracy theory about withheld evidence, that ezekiel did not actually have meningitis or an empyema, and that the ambulance drivers and the staff of the children’s hospital caused ezekiel’s death because they didn’t have the right sized tube when they attempted to intubate him during transport to calgary. in may , the case was thrown out by the supreme court of canada in ottawa. the court ordered a new trial on the original charges. if the stephans were again convicted, they might actually face more severe consequences. . lessons learned? what can we learn from the dangers of cam and the risks to our children? • cam practitioners are sometimes just basically crooks and frauds who have no morals. j. clin. med. , , of • regulated health professionals who are trained to believe that they have the answers, when they demonstrate no evidence that their treatments works. • parents who ignore basic public health measures. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. some of my views are tempered by my contributions over the last years to help make the public aware of cam quackery in the media and by my testimony at meetings of regulatory bodies and organizations. references . international chiropractic pediatrics association, a nonprofit corporation. available online: https:// icpa kids.com (accessed on june ). . the annals of quackademic medicine: testing chiropractic in pregnancy. available online: https:// respectfulinsolence.com/ / / /the-annals-of-quackademic-medicine-testi/ (accessed on june ). . the pediatric section of chiro.org. available online: http://www.chiro.org/pediatrics/ (accessed on june ). . on vaccination & chiropractic: when ideology, history, perception, politics and jurisprudence collide. available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc / (accessed on june ). . pediatricians alarmed by chiropractic treatments for babies that ‘border on the fraudulent’. available online: http://nationalpost.com/health/pediatricians-alarmed-by-chiropractic-treatments-for- babies-that-border-on-the-fraudulent (accessed on june ). . sciencebasedmedicine.org’s response to sharon kirkey’s article in national post, may . available online: https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/a-canadian-journalist-calls-out-pediatric-chiropractic- and-a-chiropractor-responds/ (accessed on june ). . chiropractic pediatric & family conference. available online: https://www.chiropediatrics.net/live-event- sales-page (accessed on june ). . ravi devgan, md jailed for defrauding farmer of $ , . available online: https://www.thestar.com/ news/gta/ / / /exmd_gets_ _years_for_drug_scam.html (accessed on june ). . cancer patients go where hope carries price tag. available online: http://www.quackerywatch.com/ cancer/dueck/gm dueck-mexico.html (accessed on june ). . arthur, shafer. who decides for the child? available online: http://umanitoba.ca/philosophy/ethics/ media/who_decides_for_the_child.pdf (accessed on june ). . griffiths, o. power & the glory. available online: https://www.amazon.ca/power-glory-griffiths/dp/ (accessed on june ). . walker, c. makayla sault, the girl who refused chemotherapy for leukemia dies. cbc news, january . available online: http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/makayla-sault-girl-who-refused- chemo-for-leukemia-dies- . (accessed on june ). . walker, c. makayla sault, case reignites debate over a minor’s right to refuse treatment. cbc news, january . available online: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/makayla-sault-case-reignites-debate- over-a-minor-s-right-to-refuse-treatment- . (accessed on june ). . coyne, j. canada lets makayla sault die of leukemia over religious sensitivity. the new republic, january . available online: https://newrepublic.com/article/ /canada-lets-makayla-sault- die-leukemia-over-religious-sensitivity (accessed on june ). . update: recent case regarding parent refusing chemotherapy for first nation’s child in favour of traditional medicines: what are the implications for health care providers? available online: http://canliiconnects.org/ en/commentaries/ (accessed on june ). . walker, c.; luke, m. brian clement, hippocrates health institute head, ordered to stop practicing medicine. cbc news, february . available online: http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/brian-clement-hippocrates- health-institute-head-ordered-to-stop-practising-medicine- . (accessed on june ). . blackwell, t. florida drops charges against clinic that treated aboriginal girls with cancer. national post, march . available online: http://nationalpost.com/news/world/florida-drops-charges-against- clinic-that-treated-canadian-aboriginal-girls-with-cancer (accessed on june ). https://icpa kids.com https://icpa kids.com https://respectfulinsolence.com/ / / /the-annals-of-quackademic-medicine-testi/ https://respectfulinsolence.com/ / / /the-annals-of-quackademic-medicine-testi/ http://www.chiro.org/pediatrics/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc / http://nationalpost.com/health/pediatricians-alarmed-by-chiropractic-treatments-for-babies-that-border-on-the-fraudulent http://nationalpost.com/health/pediatricians-alarmed-by-chiropractic-treatments-for-babies-that-border-on-the-fraudulent https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/a-canadian-journalist-calls-out-pediatric-chiropractic-and-a-chiropractor-responds/ https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/a-canadian-journalist-calls-out-pediatric-chiropractic-and-a-chiropractor-responds/ https://www.chiropediatrics.net/live-event-sales-page https://www.chiropediatrics.net/live-event-sales-page https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/ / / /exmd_gets_ _years_for_drug_scam.html https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/ / / /exmd_gets_ _years_for_drug_scam.html http://www.quackerywatch.com/cancer/dueck/gm dueck-mexico.html http://www.quackerywatch.com/cancer/dueck/gm dueck-mexico.html http://umanitoba.ca/philosophy/ethics/media/who_decides_for_the_child.pdf http://umanitoba.ca/philosophy/ethics/media/who_decides_for_the_child.pdf https://www.amazon.ca/power-glory-griffiths/dp/ https://www.amazon.ca/power-glory-griffiths/dp/ http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/makayla-sault-girl-who-refused-chemo-for-leukemia-dies- . http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/makayla-sault-girl-who-refused-chemo-for-leukemia-dies- . http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/makayla-sault-case-reignites-debate-over-a-minor-s-right-to-refuse-treatment- . http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/makayla-sault-case-reignites-debate-over-a-minor-s-right-to-refuse-treatment- . https://newrepublic.com/article/ /canada-lets-makayla-sault-die-leukemia-over-religious-sensitivity https://newrepublic.com/article/ /canada-lets-makayla-sault-die-leukemia-over-religious-sensitivity http://canliiconnects.org/en/commentaries/ http://canliiconnects.org/en/commentaries/ http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/brian-clement-hippocrates-health-institute-head-ordered-to-stop-practising-medicine- . http://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/brian-clement-hippocrates-health-institute-head-ordered-to-stop-practising-medicine- . http://nationalpost.com/news/world/florida-drops-charges-against-clinic-that-treated-canadian-aboriginal-girls-with-cancer http://nationalpost.com/news/world/florida-drops-charges-against-clinic-that-treated-canadian-aboriginal-girls-with-cancer j. clin. med. , , of . walker, c.; luke, m. health canada investigates florida spa director’s illegal supplements. cbc news, may . available online: http://www.cbc.ca/news/investigates/supplements-clement-six-nations- . (accessed on june ). . polevoy, t.; ross, m.; reinhold, r. the anatomy of an academic and alternative health fraud. pig pills, inc. . available online: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/b mhfyeu/ref=cm_sw_r_em_tai_i_c_si abbd a cb (accessed on june ). © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://www.cbc.ca/news/investigates/supplements-clement-six-nations- . http://www.cbc.ca/news/investigates/supplements-clement-six-nations- . https://www.amazon.ca/dp/b mhfyeu/ref=cm_sw_r_em_tai_i_c_si abbd a cb http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	why does complementary alternative medicine (cam) seem to thrive and why is it almost always ignored by regulators and the government? 	chiropractic pediatrics 	dangers of licensed and unlicensed quacks 	lessons learned? 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ one hundred rings and counting: forestry education and forestry in toronto and canada, - by mark kuhlberg copyright © the ontario historical society, this document is protected by copyright law. use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ this article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the université de montréal, université laval, and the université du québec à montréal. its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ document generated on / / : p.m. ontario history one hundred rings and counting: forestry education and forestry in toronto and canada, - by mark kuhlberg nathan basiliko imagining new worlds in the new world: entertainment, agency, and power in upper canada volume , number , fall uri: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi: https://doi.org/ . / ar see table of contents publisher(s) the ontario historical society issn - (print) - (digital) explore this journal cite this review basiliko, n. ( ). review of [one hundred rings and counting: forestry education and forestry in toronto and canada, - by mark kuhlberg]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ ontario history the title. jones has arranged the essays in a rough chronolog y, and readers who pro- ceed from cover to cover will get a quirky history of the town. but one can read the stories in any order, any time, much in the manner of the weekly column where they first appeared. i could wish that jones had listed the publication dates of the essays, allowing me to appreciate the randomness of his experience, the way so much history comes to us. i admire a scholar who can jump deftly from topic to topic, and accept the resultant repetition. the names dob- bin and duffus echo throughout, not a problem unless one tries to read the book in a single day. one really shouldn’t. a few essays stand out: trent univer- sity’s history through its landholdings, the barnardo children reception centre, the big brass band war involving a bandmaster by the name of rackett. then there is the voter in harvey township whose rowboat capsized, whereupon he swam to the pol- ing station to cast the tie-breaking vote in the provincial by-election. jones marvels at a collection of old photos, of- fers thoughts on the americanness of pe- terborough, and explores heritage politics. and who can overlook robertson davies, examiner publisher and voice of small- town ontario, admonishing a local histo- rian who had lost his literary way? ( jones may consider himself fortunate not to be of the davies era.) lingering questions: why does the bibliography omit the names of publishers? do we need the biography of the inventor of the pianoforte who died in england in ? and did the essay on canadians’ displeasure with the brown-macdonald coalition of give pause to opposition leaders plotting in ottawa late in ? jones has come up with an extraordi- nary book. one learns just about enough to write one’s own ordinary history of pe- terborough; in that sense an historian’s notebook is a primary source. more than that, however, jones offers entertainment and enlightenment sufficient to stir some readers to compile their own stories of vil- lage life in landscapes and eras yet to be re- corded. jones shows how an archive opens doors, and unselfishly shares a career of steering people through those doors into a world of surprises and fun, all of it making the study of history the great pleasure that all of us, i hope, feel. thomas f. mcilwraith university of toronto mississauga before reading one hundred rings and counting, i doubted that the history of one small faculty at one university could have wide appeal. howev- er professor mark kuhlberg of laurentian university has largely dispelled my doubt in this chronicle of the faculty of forestry at the university of toronto. forestry at u of t has been, at least at times, unloved by its own university and province and has dealt its share of obstinacy to higher-ups over its century-long history. kuhlberg sup- one hundred rings and counting: forestry education and forestry in toronto and canada, - by mark kuhlberg toronto: university of toronto press, . xi + pages. $ . hard- cover. isbn - - - - <www.utppublishing.com> book rev�ews plies enough drama to keep readers often on the edges of their seats, deftly tying the history of canada’s oldest forestry faculty to the broader political story and history of forestry in the province and country. to some extent the plight of this small faculty has been a barometer of the broader plight of sustainable forest management nation- ally, fraught with misunderstanding and indifference. more than ninety percent of cana- da’s forest is publicly owned and managed, unique in the world. one might imagine that this circumstance could lead to pru- dent, well-regulated utilization of forest resources and a perpetual income stream to the public purse. however, unlike the european situation (and to some extent the american one also), canada did not embrace forestry as a profession or estab- lish the goal of long-term sustainability until well into the twentieth century. only then, burdened by a legacy of wanton cut- ting, did ontario recognize that its forests were not inexhaustible. the uphill battle to establish sustainable forest management in canada in many respects is paralleled by the challenges faced by the faculty itself. the university appears to have pushed for forestry simply to prevent queen’s univer- sity or its own satellite ontario agricul- tural college campus (now university of guelph) from doing so. both would have arguably been better homes. kuhlberg asserts that judson clark, ontario’s first provincial forester, was ide- ally suited to be dean of the new faculty, but was astute enough to sidestep an aca- demic post where he believed his activity would have been ignored by province and industry alike. instead, u of t offered the position to bernard fernow, clark’s phd super visor at cornell university and a scholar less aware of the province’s weak stand on forest management. u of t be- gan turning out well-trained, progressive foresters, but government and industry were reluctant to offer them jobs, still not inclined to endorse forest sustain- ability. furthermore, the university was not prepared to provide adequate staff and facilities. kuhlberg notes how re- markable it was that, despite these strug- gles, forestry at toronto nevertheless has had important periods of glory. clearly it has had a meaningful impact on cana- dian society. kulhberg points out that the faculty has not helped its own cause, having missed some key opportunities. one, in the late s, was the proposal to move out of downtown toronto to erindale college, the new suburban campus in mississauga, located in a wooded setting along the re- vitalized credit river. less than a decade later forestry rejected what seemed to be a viable move to u of t’s other suburban ontario history campus, in scarborough. in both cases for- estry could have been a big fish in newer, smaller ponds (and ponds surrounded by actual forests!). kuhlberg believes that the failed scarborough move may have set in motion the termination of toronto’s un- dergraduate forestry program, concluded in . yet one hundred rings and counting ends on an optimistic note. in , the centennial year, kuhlberg had found forestry—now a faculty for gradu- ate study only—to have become a research powerhouse with a strong conservation ethic and a firm national and international reputation. in contemporary times, however, i note (as does kuhlberg ) a relapse into old denials, particularly the belief that cana- dian forests were inexhaustible. in com- parison with most developed countries, can we honestly label ourselves today as exemplary environmental stewards? as of early , forestry at the university of toronto also sits on another precipice of major restructuring. can one imagine the outcome, had queen’s or guelph been home to forestry? is lakehead university poised to be home for the leading (or only) forestry faculty in ontario in the present century? the title of the concluding chap- ter— “all that is old is new again”—rings on even beyond the end of one hundred rings and counting. i greatly enjoyed one hundred rings and counting, both as an exciting and easy read and as an important historical summary of a yet broadly undocumented and important piece of ontario’s forestry legacy. it should appeal to anyone with a concern for resource management and will have a particular pull for those with an interest in forestry or the inner work- ings of canadian universities. i hope that this book also finds a place in the courses of canada’s (remaining ) forestry programs. nathan basiliko university of toronto mississauga one of the gratifying events in the life of a curator or art historian is discovering a new voice. rarely does an artist appear fully formed with a body of work that is unique, deeply felt and resonant. all the more is the pleasure when the artist’s life and work are digested between the covers of a book that explores the art fully, in depth and with an intelli- gence that accords the artist a proper place woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - by laurence neufeld and monika mckillen, eds., hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, . vi + pages. $ . hard- cover. isbn - - - - (www.wlupress.wlu.ca) in the landscape of canadian art. hildi froese tiessen and paul gerard tiessen have done such a service in their sensitive and nuanced analysis of the art of wolde- mar neufeld, a mennonite artist whose work is deceptively simple, yet speaks to the great feelings of loss and longing clothed in the garments of what the artist saw in front of his eyes and in the back of his mind. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ successful pregnancy in maple syrup urine disease: a case report and review of the literature case report open access successful pregnancy in maple syrup urine disease: a case report and review of the literature sarah catharina grünert*, stefanie rosenbaum-fabian, anke schumann, karl otfried schwab, nadja mingirulli and ute spiekerkoetter abstract background: maple syrup urine disease (msud) is an autosomal recessive disorder of branched-chain amino acid metabolism. patients with msud are at risk of life-threatening metabolic decompensations with ketoacidosis and encephalopathy. these episodes are often triggered by physiological stress. only few cases of pregnancies in msud mothers have been reported so far. case presentation: we present the favorable outcome of a pregnancy in a woman with classical msud. she presented in the metabolic outpatient clinic in week of gestation. branched-chain amino acid concentrations were measured at least weekly to adjust dietary leucine intake. despite excellent compliance, leucine concentrations frequently exceeded the target value of < μmol/l during the first trimester. from the second trimester until delivery, protein and leucine intake increased continuously to about threefold compared to pre- pregnancy values. to maximize patient safety during delivery and the postpartum period, a detailed plan including peripartal infusion therapy, dietary recommendations and monitoring parameters was developed. primary caesarean section was performed in week of gestation, and the patient gave birth to a healthy girl. lactation was successfully implemented. leucine levels were maintained within the target range throughout the complete postpartum period. in addition to our case, we give an overview about all cases of pregnancies in msud mothers published so far. conclusions: management of pregnancy, delivery, postpartum period and lactation may be challenging in patients with msud. careful monitoring and interdisciplinary collaboration is essential to minimize the risk of metabolic crisis, especially after delivery. keywords: maple syrup urine disease, msud, pregnancy, leucine tolerance, protein tolerance, branched-chain amino acids, obstetrics, metabolic disease background maple syrup urine disease (msud, omim ) is an autosomal recessive inborn error of branched-chain amino acid (bcaa) metabolism caused by deficiency of the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. mutations in of four genes that encode the catalytic subunits of the enzyme complex (e , e , e ) have been described. msud is a rare disease in most populations, with incidence estimates of : , live births [ , ]. much higher incidences are found in certain mennonite populations due to a founder variant resulting in a fre- quency for classic msud as high as approximately one in live births [ ]. diagnosis is based on the detection of markedly elevated concentrations of bcaa and allo- isoleucine in plasma and urine as well as branched-chain ketoacid analogues in urine of affected individuals. pa- tients with msud are prone to metabolic crises, present- ing with ketoacidosis, vomiting, poor feeding, neurological symptoms and encephalopathy, often triggered by catabol- ism due to intercurrent infections, surgery or excessive intake of bcaa. the toxic metabolite is leucine, and high concentrations are associated with ketosis and the risk of * correspondence: sarah.gruenert@uniklinik-freiburg.de department of general pediatrics, adolescent medicine and neonatology, medical center – university of freiburg, faculty of medicine, mathildenstraße , freiburg, germany © the author(s). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf mailto:sarah.gruenert@uniklinik-freiburg.de http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / cerebral edema [ ]. although most patients manifest within the neonatal period, metabolic crises can occur at any age. long-term treatment of msud includes a low- protein diet with supplementation of a bcaa-free amino acid mixture. only few cases of pregnancies in msud patients have been reported so far [ – ]. the overall outcome seems to be favorable. nevertheless, pregnancy can put patients at risk for decompensation due to possible hyperemesis gravidarum, catabolic stress during delivery and exces- sive protein turnover during the postpartum period. we report the successful outcome of a pregnancy in a - year-old woman with classical msud and our experi- ences in the management from pregnancy to lactation. additionally, we provide a review of the literature includ- ing all cases of pregnancies in msud patients published so far. case presentation the patient is a -year-old woman who was diagnosed with classical msud presymptomatically within the first days of life due to an older affected brother. she has been on a low-protein diet with supplementation of a bcaa-free amino acid mixture since birth with good metabolic control and normal intellectual development. a number of short hospitalizations had been necessary during childhood because of mild metabolic decompen- sations during intercurrent illnesses. the highest leucine concentration ever measured was μmol/l within the neonatal period. leucine tolerance prior to preg- nancy was - mg per day. genetic analysis revealed a homozygous mutation in the bckbhd gene, c. a > t, p.k *. the patient presented in the metabolic outpatient clinic as early as week of gestation. this was the first pregnancy of the patient. no relevant problems such as nausea or hyperemesis gravidarum occurred during the first trimester. pre-pregnancy weight was kg, and body mass index was . kg/m . weight gain during pregnancy was kg ( kg during st trimester, kg during nd trimester, kg during rd trimester). serum amino acids were monitored weekly throughout pregnancy and the diet was adapted regularly according to bcaa concentrations. target concentrations of bcaas were: leucine - μmol/l, isoleucine - μmol/l and valine - μmol/l. during the first trimester, these goals were hard to achieve and leucine levels ranged between and μmol/l. from the sec- ond trimester protein tolerance increased significantly to up to mg (= mg/kg/d) leucine per day prior to delivery. details of the prescribed diet including leucine intake, total protein, synthetic protein as well as isoleu- cine and valine supplementation are shown in fig. . additionally, examples of dietary protocols with different amounts of leucine are given in additional file : table s , additional file : table s , additional file : table s . from the third month of pregnancy, a bedtime snack was introduced. the bcaa-free amino acid mixture was divided to to daily doses. bcaa levels during preg- nancy are outlined in fig. . laboratory values including whole blood count, iron status, total protein, albumin, transaminases and creatinine were checked regularly and remained normal throughout pregnancy. a pregnancy- specific vitamin supplement containing folic acid, jodine, vitamin b , b , b , b , c, d , e, biotin and niacin was given during the first trimester according to routine gynecological recommendations. from gestational week the patient additionally received progesterone. later in pregnancy, magnesium and iron were substituted to prevent premature contractions and pregnancy-related anemia, respectively, and omeprazole was added due to gastroesophageal reflux. pregnancy was uneventful, and no major problems oc- curred. mild proteinuria was present within the second trimester, but resolved spontaneously. fetal arrhythmia was noted in week , but considered non-pathological by a cardiologic specialist. during pregnancy the patient was followed by the metabolic team of the university children’s hospital for treatment of msud in collabor- ation with the obstetric department of the university hospital. as the patient lived quite far from the meta- bolic center delivery was planned as cesaerean section to ensure maximal safety for the patient. a treatment plan was tailored for the peripartal period, including in- fusion therapy to prevent perioperative catabolism, diet- ary management and necessary monitoring of mother and child. the cesaerean section was performed in week . the patient was admitted day in advance, and a triple-lumen central venous catheter was inserted. few hours before surgery, when she had to be nil per os, par- enteral nutrition containing g glucose per kg body weight per day (g %) and g fat per kg body weight per day ( % intravenous fat emulsion) was given to- gether with . l per day of an isotonic electrolyte infu- sion. surgery was without complications, and the patient delivered a healthy female infant with a birth weight of g, birth length of cm and a head circumference of cm. apgar scores at and min were and , respectively. newborn screening results were normal in- cluding that for msud. on the day of delivery nutritional leucine intake was reduced to mg/day due to concerns about postpar- tum catabolism and protein turnover associated with uterus involution. the dietary protocol with details on food intake on that day is shown in additional file : table s . oral intake, especially supplementation of the bcaa-free amino acid mixture was possible few hours after delivery. as the patient was in a good condition grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of and able to take the targeted caloric amount orally, par- enteral nutrition was already reduced to and % within the following days, and could be stopped on day after birth. bcaa concentrations were measured daily during the postpartum period, and bcaa intake (protein intake, isoleucine and valine supplementation) was adjusted accordingly. vigilance was checked every h, and blood gases, electrolytes and glucose levels were monitored - times per day as were ketone bodies in urine. the patient was encouraged to take additional nonprotein calories orally from food and beverages. lac- tation was well-established, and dietary leucine intake was gradually increased. the patient could be discharged from hospital on day postpartum. the clinical course dur- ing breastfeeding remained stable with leucine levels ran- ging between and μmol/l. the leucine tolerance during lactation was mg/day (at months after birth), around twice the pre-pregnancy intake. her weight post- partum decreased by kg within months. infant growth and development was normal at months (body length cm ( nd percentile), body weight g ( th percent- ile), head circumference cm ( th percentile) and bmi , kg/m ( nd percentile)). discussion and conclusions adult patients with inborn errors of metabolism are a relatively new phenomenon. medical progress with re- spect to newborn screening, early diagnosis and medical treatment including dietary management has resulted in an increasing number of patients with inborn errors of metabolism who nowadays reach child-bearing age. however, experience in the management of pregnancy, a b c fig. details of dietary prescriptions during pregnancy. a intake of total protein, natural protein and synthetic protein. b leucine tolerance. c supplementation of isoleucine and valine grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of delivery and lactation is still limited for most disorders. only nine cases of pregnancy in classical msud patients have been reported so far [ – ]. details on these cases are displayed in table . all were managed successfully and resulted in healthy offspring. although there may be a publication bias in favor of cases with favorable out- come, the experience available so far suggests that preg- nancy with successful outcome can be achieved. it is known that pregnancy may be a challenge in the management of msud requiring careful monitoring and regular dietary adjustments. the pregnancy in our patient became known as early as week of gestation. amino acid concentrations were monitored at least weekly throughout pregnancy and lactation. despite excellent compliance meta- bolic control was not easy to achieve during the first trimes- ter and leucine levels were often above the target range, possibly due to an inadequate caloric intake. grossly ele- vated leucine levels throughout the whole course of preg- nancy have also been reported in cases by tchan et al. due to compliance problems [ ]. evidence on potential harmful effects of high concentrations of leucine, -oxoiocaproic acid and other msud related metabolites is very limited. data from animal models are not available. however, all reported pregnancies with msud resulted in healthy newborns, mak- ing a teratogenic effect of msud metabolites unlikely. nevertheless, subtle long-term effects cannot be excluded as none of the children was followed for more than years, and standardized developmental testing was only performed in one infant at months [ ]. as it has been shown for healthy pregnancies as well as for msud pregnancies that amino acid concentrations in cord blood are . fold the maternal levels owing to active transport via the placenta it is recommendable to keep bcaa levels in pregnant msud patients as close to the normal range as possible [ , , ]. as known from other cases leucine tolerance increased progressively from the second trimester. this can possibly be explained by both enhanced protein synthesis due to fetal growth and new capacity for bcaa metabolism gained from the liver of the heterozygous fetus [ ]. in our case, leucine intake could be increased to mg/day prior to delivery, which was about times the pre- pregnancy leucine tolerance. to minimize metabolic stress during delivery and the postpartum period leucine intake was reduced to mg/day on the day of delivery and subsequently titrated up to mg/day during lactation based on bcaa concentrations in serum. the nutritional therapy was based on the recommendations published by frazier et al. [ ]. to provide maximal safety for mother and child we recommended that our patient should give birth in a specialized metabolic center. primary cesaerean section was proposed due to geographical distance between the patient’s place of residence and our university hospital. alternatively, planned induction of labour can also be considered in case of good compliance of the patient and geographical proximity to the obstetric/ metabolic centre. previous reports have shown that mothers with msud are at risk of developing high blood leucine con- centrations especially in the postpartum period, possibly due to uterine involution. three patients reported in the literature had leucine concentrations of more than μmol/l on day - postpartum [ , , ], demon- strating that bcaa levels should be closely monitored during this period. only one patient showed neurologic symptoms including dizziness and lethargy. in all cases leucine levels dropped spontaneously, and infusion ther- apy was not necessary. there is one report of maternal death at day postpartum, however, it is unclear whether fig. concentrations of branched-chain amino acids in serum during pregnancy grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of t a b le o ve rv ie w o n al l p re g n an ci es in m su d m o th er s p u b lis h ed in th e lit er at u re m su d su b ty p e p re se n ta ti o n in m et ab o lic o u tp at ie n t cl in ic (w ee k/ m o n th o f g es ta ti o n ) co m p lia n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy le u ci n e to le ra n ce b ef o re p re g n an cy (m g /k g /d ) n at u ra l p ro te in to le ra n ce b ef o re p re g n an cy m ax im u m le u ci n e to le ra n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy (m g /k g /d ) m ax im u m p ro te in to le ra n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy m o d e o f d el iv er y p er ip ar ta l in fu si o n th er ap y d is ch ar g e fr o m h o sp it al (d ay p o st p ar tu m ) o ff sp rin g b re as tf ee d in g ad d it io n al in fo rm at io n re fe re n ce cl as si ca l m o n th s g o o d n .a . . - . g /k g /d n .a . . g /k g /d sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n ye s n .a . h ea lt h y n o sl o w ed fe ta l g ro w th in w ee k w it h co n co m it an t lo w bc a a le ve ls , d ay s p o st p ar tu m d iz zi n es s an d le th ar g y, le u ci n e le ve l μm o l/ l va n c al ca r [ ] cl as si ca l t h w ee k g o o d n .a ., - n .a . n .a . sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n n o n .a . h ea lt h y ye s le u ci n e p ea k o f μm o l/ l o n d ay p o st p ar tu m g rü n ew al d [ ] n .a . th w ee k g o o d n .a . n .a . n .a . . g /k g /d sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n n .a . d ay h ea lt h y n .a . el ev at ed bc a a le ve ls p o st p ar tu m , d ea th o f th e m o th er o n d ay p o st p ar tu m , b ila te ra l p u lm o n ar y co n tu si o n s an d b ra in ed em a yo sh id a [ ] cl as si ca l w ee ks p o o r n .a . – g /d n .a . n .a . sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n n .a . d ay h ea lt h y n .a . m et ab o lic d ec o m p en sa ti o n w it h se ve ra l se iz u re s an d u n co n ci u sn es s in w ee k o f g es ta ti o n ;m as ti ti s o n d ay p o st p ar tu m ,l eu ci n e le ve l μm o l/ l. tc h an [ ] cl as si ca l w ee ks p o o r n .a . - g /d n .a . n .a . em er g en cy c ae sa re an se ct io n d u e to ru p tu re o f m em b ra n es an d fa ilu re to p ro g re ss , w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n n .a . se lfd is ch ar g ed ag ai n st m ed ic al ad vi ce o n d ay h ea lt h y n .a . po o r co m p lia n ce w it h le u ci n e le ve ls ty p ic al ly – μm o l/ l; ac u te fe b ril e ill n es s an d th re at en ed p re m at u re la b o u r in w ee k o f g es ta ti o n ; m in er al ,v it am in an d p ro te in d ef ic ie n cy d ia g n o se d d u rig p re g n an cy tc h an [ ] cl as si ca l w ee ks g o o d - n .a . n .a . in d u ce d la b o u r in w ee k , ch o rio am n io n it is an d fa ilu re to p ro g re ss af te r h , ye s d ay h ea lt h y ye s m ild n au se a an d vo m it in g in ea rly p re g n an cy ;m ild in cr ea se in b lo o d p re ss u re an d co n ce rn s w es se l [ ] grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of t a b le o ve rv ie w o n al l p re g n an ci es in m su d m o th er s p u b lis h ed in th e lit er at u re (c o n tin u ed ) m su d su b ty p e p re se n ta ti o n in m et ab o lic o u tp at ie n t cl in ic (w ee k/ m o n th o f g es ta ti o n ) co m p lia n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy le u ci n e to le ra n ce b ef o re p re g n an cy (m g /k g /d ) n at u ra l p ro te in to le ra n ce b ef o re p re g n an cy m ax im u m le u ci n e to le ra n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy (m g /k g /d ) m ax im u m p ro te in to le ra n ce d u rin g p re g n an cy m o d e o f d el iv er y p er ip ar ta l in fu si o n th er ap y d is ch ar g e fr o m h o sp it al (d ay p o st p ar tu m ) o ff sp rin g b re as tf ee d in g ad d it io n al in fo rm at io n re fe re n ce se co n d ar y c ae sa re an se ct io n ab o u t p re ec la m p si a in w ee k ; ep is o d es o f el ev at ed le u ci n e le ve ls u p to μm o l/ l d u rin g la ct at io n cl as si ca l t h w ee k g o o d - g /d g /d sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n ye s d ay h ea lt h y ye s n o co m p lic at io n s h ei b er [ ] m o d er at e n .a . n .a . n .a . g /d n .a . n .a . n .a . n .a . n .a . h ea lt h y n .a . sa m e m o th er ,f irs t p re g n an cy o f th e m o th er n o t re p o rt ed in d et ei l, b u t „w as m an ag ed in a si m ila r w ay to th e se co n d o n e“ ;p er si st en t n au se a th ro u g h o u t th e p re g n an cy br o w n [ ] m o d er at e n .a . g o o d n .a . g /d n .a . g /d sp o n ta n eo u s, w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n n o d ay h ea lt h y n o br o w n [ ] cl as si ca l t h w ee k g o o d - g /d g /d c ae sa re an se ct io n , w ee ks o f g es ta ti o n ye s d ay h ea lt h y ye s n o co m p lic at io n s th is ca se n .a . n o t av ai la b le grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of the patient died of metabolic decompensation or domestic violence [ ]. our case demonstrates that successful management of pregnancy in classical msud is possible. metabolic de- compensations can be prevented by an individually tailored treatment plan including protein restriction, adequate caloric supply and prevention of catabolism. optimal management for pregnant patients with inborn errors of metabolism requires close collaboration of all specialists involved and delivery should be arranged in a center with experience in the treatment of inborn errors of metabolism. additional files additional file : table s . msud diet prior to conception (leucine intake mg/day). (docx kb) additional file : table s . msud diet at the end of pregnancy (leucine intake mg/day). (docx kb) additional file : table s . msud diet at the day of delivery (leucine intake mg/day, additional to a high-caloric infusion therapy). (docx kb) abbreviations bcaa: branched-chain amino acids; musd: maple syrup urine disease acknowledgements we thank the patient and her family for everything we were allowed to learn from their experience and are grateful for their consent to publish this case. availability of data and materials data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study. details on the patient treatment are documented in the medical records of the hospital documentation system, but cannot be shared for privacy reasons. authors’ contributions all authors were involved in the care of the patient as part of the metabolic team. they were involved in tailoring the management plan for the peripartal period. sg drafted the manuscript and analyzed the available literature data. all authors read and approved the final manuscript. ethics approval and consent to participate ethics approval not applicable as no interventions apart from routine treatment were performed. the patient consented to the publication of this case report. consent for publication the patient gave her consent for the publication of this case report. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. received: january accepted: april references . nellis mm, kasinski a, carlson m, allen r, schaefer am, schwartz em, et al. relationship of causative genetic mutations in maple syrup urine disease with their clinical expression. mol genet metab. ; : – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, morton dh. maple syrup urine disease. in: adam mp, ardinger hh, pagon ra, wallace se, bean lj, mefford hc, et al., editors. genereviews(®). seattle: university of washington; . http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk /. accessed oct . . puffenberger eg. genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet. ; c: – . . wessel ae, mogensen km, rohr f, erick m, neilan eg, chopra s, et al. management of a woman with maple syrup urine disease during pregnancy, delivery, and lactation. jpen j parenter enteral nutr. ; : – . . van calcar sc, harding co, davidson sr, barness la, wolff ja. case reports of successful pregnancy in women with maple syrup urine disease and propionic acidemia. am j med genet. ; : – . . brown j, tchan m, nayyar r. maple syrup urine disease: tailoring a plan for pregnancy. j matern-fetal neonatal med. ; : - . . yoshida s, tanaka t. postpartum death with maple syrup urine disease. int j gynaecol obstet off organ int fed gynaecol obstet. ; : – . . grünewald s, hinrichs f, wendel u. pregnancy in a woman with maple syrup urine disease. j inherit metab dis. ; : – . . heiber s, zulewski h, zaugg m, kiss c, baumgartner m. successful pregnancy in a woman with maple syrup urine disease: case report. jimd rep. ; : – . . tchan m, westbrook m, wilcox g, cutler r, smith n, penman r, et al. the management of pregnancy in maple syrup urine disease: experience with two patients. jimd rep. ; : – . . ghadimi h, pecora p. free amino acids of cord plasma as compared with maternal plasma during pregnancy. pediatrics. ; : – . . frazier dm, allgeier c, homer c, marriage bj, ogata b, rohr f, et al. nutrition management guideline for maple syrup urine disease: an evidence- and consensus-based approach. mol genet metab. ; : – . grünert et al. nutrition journal ( ) : page of https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/nbk / 	abstract 	background 	case presentation 	conclusions 	background 	case presentation 	discussion and conclusions 	additional files 	abbreviations 	availability of data and materials 	authors’ contributions 	ethics approval and consent to participate 	consent for publication 	competing interests 	publisher’s note 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ ugyldig lenke til dokument i vitenarkiv | unit hopp til hovedinnhold direktoratet for ikt og fellestjenester i høyere utdanning og forskning 	 tjenester 	 handlingsplan for digitalisering 	 digitalisering 	 om unit søk meny 	 digitalisering 	 digitaliseringsstyret 	 handlingsplan for digitalisering 	 fagutvalgene 	 tjenesterådene 	 tjenester 	 utdanningstjenester 	 forskningstjenester 	 administrative tjenester 	 bibliotekstjenester 	 digitalt læringsmijø 	 generelle verktøy 	 vårt arbeid 	 prosjekter 	 prosjektrammeverk 	 styringsmodell for informasjonssikkerhet i høyere utdanning og forskning 	 open tilgang (open access) 	 klagenemnder 	 om unit 	 organisering 	 ansatte 	 jobb i unit 	 units vedtekter 	 offentlig journal 	 Årsrapportar og tildelingsbrev 	 personvern og informasjonskapsler 	 generelle tjeneste- og leveransebetingelser 	 dette er de vi er til for 	 aktuelt 	 aktuelt 	 arrangement 	 nyhetsbrev 	 kontakt oss 	 om unit 	 fakturainformasjon 	 presse 	english 	norsk ugyldig lenke til dokument i vitenarkiv brage - åpent vitenarkiv sist endret: . . del: share to linkedin share to facebook share by mail share to twitter du prøver å nå et dokument via en lenke som ikke er gyldig. hvis du vet hvilken institusjon som har publisert dokumentet, kan du finne det i institusjonens vitenarkiv. se liste over vitenarkiv her. you are trying to reach a document via a link that is not valid. if you know which institution has published the document, you can find it in the institution's open access repository. see list of open access repositories here. del: share to linkedin share to facebook share by mail share to twitter fant du det du lette etter? ja nei hva lette du etter? din tilbakemelding hjelper oss å forbedre nettstedet til toppen kontakt hovedkontor: abelsgate , teknobyen, trondheim avdeling oslo: fridtjof nansens vei , oslo telefon: +     e-post: postmottak@unit.no om unit 	 om unit 	 hiring (no) 	 ansatte 	 presse 	 offentlig journal 	 vedtekter 	 personvern og informasjonskapsler 	 tildelingsbrev våre tjenester 	 utdanningstjenester 	 forskningstjenester 	 administrative tjenester 	 digitalt læringsmijø 	 bibliotektjenester 	 generelle verktøy hold deg oppdatert linkedin facebook e-post twitter rss feed meld deg på vårt nyhetsbrev og hold deg oppdatert nyhetsbrev fra unit hirschsprung disease, associated syndromes and genetics: a review j amiel, e sproat-emison, m garcia-barcelo, f lantieri, , g burzynski, s borrego, a pelet, s arnold, x miao, p griseri, a s brooks, , g antinolo, l de pontual, m clement-ziza, a munnich, c kashuk, k west, k k-y wong, s lyonnet, a chakravarti, p k-h tam, i ceccherini, r m w hofstra, r fernandez, for the hirschsprung disease consortium université paris -descartes, faculté de médecine; inserm u- ; ap-hp, hôpital necker- enfant malades, paris, france; mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine, johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, usa; division of paediatric surgery, department of surgery, li ka shing faculty of medicine of the university of hong kong, hong kong sar, china; laboratorio di genetica molecolare, istituto g. gaslini, l.go g. gaslini , italy; dipartimento di scienze della salute, sezione biostatistica, università degli studi di genova, genova, italy; department of genetics, university medical center groningen, university of groningen, groningen, the netherlands; unidad clinica de genetica y reproduccion. hospitales universitarios virgen del rocio and centro de investigación biomédica en red de enfermedades raras (ciberer), sevilla, spain; department of clinical genetics, erasmus mc, rotterdam, the netherlands correspondence to: dr jeanne amiel, inserm u et département de génétique, hôpital necker-enfants malades, , rue de sèvres paris cedex , france; amiel@ necker.fr received august revised august accepted august published online first october abstract hirschsprung disease (hscr, aganglionic megacolon) represents the main genetic cause of functional intestinal obstruction with an incidence of / live births. this developmental disorder is a neurocristopathy and is characterised by the absence of the enteric ganglia along a variable length of the intestine. in the last decades, the development of surgical approaches has importantly decreased mortality and morbidity which allowed the emergence of familial cases. isolated hscr appears to be a non-mendelian malformation with low, sex-dependent penetrance, and variable expression according to the length of the aganglionic segment. while all mendelian modes of inheritance have been described in syndromic hscr, isolated hscr stands as a model for genetic disorders with complex patterns of inheritance. the tyrosine kinase receptor ret is the major gene with both rare coding sequence mutations and/or a frequent variant located in an enhancer element predisposing to the disease. hitherto, genes and five loci have been found to be involved in hscr development. harald hirschsprung, a danish paediatrician, first described in two unrelated boys who died from chronic severe constipation with abdominal distension resulting in congenital megacolon. the absence of intramural ganglion cells of the myen- teric and submucosal plexuses (auerbach and meissner plexuses, respectively) downstream of the dilated part of the colon was recognised as the cause of the disease in the s. this allowed a simple and reliable diagnostic confirmation from rectal suction biopsies using histochemical staining for acetylcholinesterase (ache). in , swenson and bill developed a surgical procedure and the survival of patients uncovered familial transmis- sion of hirschsprung disease (hscr). in , bolande proposed the term neurocristopathy for syndromes or tumours involving the neural crest (nc) cells. hscr resulting from an anomaly of the enteric nervous system (ens) of nc origin is therefore regarded as a neurocristopathy. – isolated hscr appears to be of complex, non- mendelian inheritance with low, sex-dependent penetrance, variable expression according to the length of the aganglionic segment and suggestive of the involvement of one or more gene(s) with low penetrance. these parameters must be taken into account for accurate evaluation of recurrence risk in relatives. with a relative risk as high as , hscr appears an excellent model to study common multifactorial diseases. the major sus- ceptibility gene is ret, which is also involved in multiple endocrine neoplasia type (men ) and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (fmtc). coding sequence mutations are identified in about % and % of familial and sporadic hscr cases, respectively. the far most frequent hscr predis- posing event at the ret locus is a haplotype which comprises an snp lying in an enhancer element of ret intron . the identification of modifier genes is currently underway by using various approaches and an international consortium has been settled in in order to achieve this goal. hscr occurs as an isolated trait in % of patients, is associated with a chromosomal abnormality in % of the cases, and with additional congenital anomalies in % of the cases. – in the latter group of patients, some monogenic syndromes can be recognised. indeed, thus far, genetic heterogeneity in hscr has been demonstrated with specific genes involved. the aim of this paper is to update a year old review on clinical and molecular data about isolated and syndromic hscr. definition and classification hscr is a congenital malformation of the hindgut characterised by the absence of parasympathetic intrinsic ganglion cells in the submucosal and myenteric plexuses. it is regarded as the conse- quence of the premature arrest of the craniocaudal migration of vagal neural crest cells in the hindgut between the fifth and th week of gestation to form the enteric nervous system (ens) and is therefore regarded as a neurocristopathy. while the internal anal sphincter is the constant inferior limit, patients could be classified as short-segment hscr (s-hscr: % of cases) when the aganglio- nic segment does not extend beyond the upper sigmoid, and long-segment hscr (l-hscr: % of cases) when aganglionosis extends proximal to the sigmoid. four hscr variants have been reported: ( ) total colonic aganglionosis (tca, – % of cases) ; ( ) total intestinal hscr when the whole bowel is involved ; ( ) ultra-short segment hscr involving the distal rectum below the pelvic floor and the anus ; ( ) suspended hscr, a controversial condition, where a portion of the colon is aganglionic above a normal distal segment. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ clinical features and diagnosis in most cases, the diagnosis of hscr is made in the newborn period due to intestinal obstruction with the following features: ( ) delayed of passage of meconium (. h after birth); ( ) abdominal distension that is relieved by rectal stimulation or enemas; ( ) vomiting; and ( ) neonatal entero- colitis. some patients are diagnosed later in infancy or in adulthood with severe constipation, chronic abdominal disten- sion, vomiting, and failure to thrive. finally, although a rare presentation, unexplained perforation of the caecum or appen- dix should make the diagnosis considered. on abdominal x ray a distended small bowel and proximal colon, with absence of rectal gas, are common findings. the classical image is a dilated proximal colon with the aganglionic cone narrowing towards the distal gut. on barium enema a small rectum with uncoordinated contractions is seen. the transitional zone represents the site where the narrow aganglionic bowel joins the dilated ganglionic bowel. on a delayed plain x ray taken h after the enema, barium retention is observed. anorectal manometry shows absence of relaxation of the internal sphincter (rectal inhibitory reflex) in response to rectal distension. the reliability of this test becomes excellent from day after birth where the normal rectoenteric reflex is present. suction rectal biopsy remains the gold standard for confirming the diagnosis in most cases demonstrating an increased acetyl cholinesterase activity. nonetheless, full thickness rectal biopsy is the golden standard in reaching the diagnosis. furthermore, seromuscular biopsies will be needed at operation to define the proximal limit of the aganglionic segment. differential diagnoses other causes of intestinal obstruction should be discussed when abdominal distension and failure to pass meconium occur in a newborn infant: ( ) meconium ileus resulting from cystic fibrosis; ( ) intestinal malformations such as lower ileal and colonic atresia, isolated or occasionally associated with hscr, intestinal malrotation or duplication; ( ) ens anomalies grouped as chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction syndromes; and ( ) functional intestinal obstruction resulting from mater- nal infection, maternal intoxication or congenital hypothyroid- ism. treatment and prognosis the treatment of hscr is surgical. after careful preoperative management, the underlying principle is to place the normal bowel at the anus and to release the tonic contraction of the internal anal sphincter. since the initial protocol of swenson described in , a series of operative approaches, such as the soave and duhamel procedures, have been developed. a one stage procedure is possible when diagnosis is made early, before colonic dilatation, in short segment disease. otherwise, a primary colostomy is required. for long segment disease and total colonic aganglionosis, temporary enterostomy is often the first step in management before definitive surgery. laparoscopic and transanal pull-through techniques have been proposed more recently in hscr surgery. these techniques can provide patients with almost scarless surgery. comparative long term results are pending. neuronal precursor cells isolated from the developing human ens may open the route to cell therapy. fistula or stenosis of the anastomosis and entero- colitis are the main short term complications. long term complications include chronic constipation ( – %) and soiling. mortality has been below % since the s and may be related to short term complications or caused by the associated malformations. however, the treatment of children with tca remains hazardous. epidemiology the incidence of hscr is estimated at / live births. however, the incidence varies significantly among ethnic groups ( . , . , . , and . per live births in hispanics, caucasian-americans, african-americans, and asians, respectively). s-hscr is far more frequent than l-hscr ( % and %, respectively). there is a sex bias with a preponderance of affected males and a sex ratio of / . interestingly, the male:female ratio is significantly higher for s-hscr ( . – . ) than for l-hscr ( . – . ) (table ). molecular genetics in isolated hscr several genes have been implicated in isolated hscr, the two major ones being ret and ednrb. the ret signalling pathway the first susceptibility locus was mapped to q . in multigenerational families segregating hscr as an incompletely penetrant autosomal dominant trait. this region had been targeted because of the observation of an interstitial deletion of chromosome q in patients with tca and mental retarda- tion. the proto-oncogene ret (rearranged during transfection), identified as disease causing in men and mapping in q . , was regarded as a candidate gene owing to: ( ) co-occurrence of men a and hscr in some families; and ( ) expression in neural-crest derived cells. consequently, ret gene mutations were identified in hscr patients (fig ). over mutations have been identified including large deletions encompassing the ret gene, microdeletions and insertions, nonsense, missense and splicing mutations. – there is no mutational hot spot at variance with men a, where mutations occur in a cluster of six cysteines (exon : residues , , , ; exon : residues , ), and men b where the mutation is almost unique (m t, exon , tyrosine kinase domain). – in vitro, men mutations have been shown to be activating mutations leading to constitutive dimerisation of the receptor and to transformation, while haploinsufficiency is the most likely mechanism for hscr mutations. – biochemical studies demonstrated variable con- sequences of some hscr mutations (misfolding, failure to transport the protein to the cell surface, abolished biological activity). however, a simple activating versus inactivating model of gene action is not sufficient to explain the co- occurrence of hscr and men a in patients with a men a ret gene mutation. table epidemiology and recurrence risk figures in hscr l-hscr s-hscr % probands sex ratio (male:female) . . genetic model dominant multifactorial or recessive penetrance (%) (male:female) : : recurrence risk to sibs* (%) male proband / / female proband / / relative risk = . *recurrence risk is given for male/female siblings, respectively. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ despite extensive mutation screening, a ret mutation is identified in only % of familial and – % of sporadic hscr cases. however, most families with few exceptions are compatible with linkage at the ret locus. case–control and transmission disequilibrium test in several ethnic backgrounds had first pointed to a frequent snp lying in exon and leading to a silent change as over represented and transmitted in patients (fig ). – later, the same observation was made for haplotypes comprising this snp lying in exon and an snp at – from the transcription start site of ret. – as there was no convincing evidence for a functional role of these two snps, the most likely hypothesis was that an ancient, low-penetrant founder locus was in linkage disequilibrium with the haplotype of the two snps previously identified and distant of about kb. comparative genomics focused on conserved non-coding sequences and an snp lying in intron was shown associated to hscr susceptibility, making a -fold greater contribution to risk than coding sequence mutations. this t.c snp lies in an enhancer-like sequence and the t allele reduces in vitro enhancer activity. moreover, this sequence drives reporter expression in tissue consistent with the one of ret during mouse and zebra fish development. interestingly, the frequency of the predisposing t allele varies according to hscr prevalence in various ethnic backgrounds from about – % in european and chinese, respectively. the t allele high frequency in control populations emphasises, as speculated by the oligogenic model, the pivotal role of the ret gene in hscr susceptibility despite low penetrance. finally, the penetrance of the t allele for the hscr trait is both dose-dependent and greater in males than in females. conversely, an snp lying in the utr of the ret gene and lowering stability to ret mrna degradation has been shown to be under transmitted in hscr cases. again, this snp lies on a haplotype that is of variable frequency according to ethnicity (about – % in caucasian and absent in chinese). a recombination spot lies on intron at the ret locus. ret is a amino acid transmembrane receptor with a cadherin-like extracellular domain, a cysteine-rich region and a intracellular tyrosine kinase domain. the role of ret in mice development has been expanded to kidney, – spermatogen- esis – and peyer’s patch. between the two ret major isoforms (ret and ret ) with different c-terminal tails as the result of alternative splicing, ret is critical for both kidney and ens development. gdnf, known as a major survival factor for many types of neurons, was shown to be the ret ligand by both phenotypic similarities between ret / and gdnf / knock-out mice, – and xenopus embryo bioassays. gdnf is a tgf-b related residue protein, proteolytically cleaved to a residue mature protein that homodimerise. to activate ret, gdnf needs the presence of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gpi)-linked co- receptor gfra . four related gpi-linked co-receptors, gfra - , and four related soluble growth factor ligands of ret have been identified, namely: gdnf, ntn, persephin (pspn) and artemin (artn). specific combinations of these proteins are necessary for the development and main- tenance of both central and peripheral neurons, and all can signal through ret. gdnf mutations have been identified in only six hscr patients to date, and could be regarded as a rare cause of hscr (, %). – moreover, gdnf mutations may not be sufficient to lead to hscr since / patients have additional contributory factors, such as ret mutations or trisomy . similarly, an ntn mutation has been identified in one family, in conjunction with a ret mutation. finally, although gfra homozygous knock-out mice are phenotypically very similar to ret and gdnf / mice, no gfra mutations have been identified in hscr patients except a deletion at the locus with incomplete penetrance in one family. – worth noting, ret exerts a pro-apoptotic effect that is inhibited by gdnf and some ret gene mutations may impair the control of this activity by gdnf. the endothelin signalling pathway the endothelin pathway was first studied for its vasoconstric- tive effect and putative role in hypertension. ednrb and ednra are g-protein-coupled heptahelical receptors that transduce signals through the endothelins (edn , , ). a susceptibility locus for hscr in q was pointed out for three main reasons: ( ) a significant lod-score at q in a large inbred old order mennonite community with multiple cases of hscr – ; ( ) de novo interstitial deletion of q in several patients with hscr ; ( ) synteny between the murine locus for piebald-lethal (sl), a model of aganglionosis, and q in human. the critical role of the endothelin pathway in hscr figure mutations, haplotypes and recombination spot at the ret locus. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ was demonstrated with the finding that piebald-lethal was allelic to the ednrb knock-out mouse and harboured an ednrb mutation (table ). subsequently, an ednrb missense mutation was identified in the mennonite kindred (w c). however, the w c mutation was neither necessary (affected wild-type homozygotes) nor sufficient (non-affected mutant homozygotes) to cause hscr, and penetrance was sex-dependent (greater in males than in females). piebald-lethal was considered a mouse model for ws in humans, and some of the mennonite affected individuals had pigmentary anomalies and sensorineural deaf- ness in addition to hscr. this prompted a screen of the ednrb gene in ws , and homozygous mutations in a fraction of ws families were found. at the same time, an edn mutation was identified in the lethal spotting (sl) natural mouse model for ws and, subsequently, edn homozygote mutations were identified in ws in humans (table ). both ednrb and edn were screened in large series of isolated hscr patients. while edn mutations were seldom found, ednrb mutations were identified in approximately % of the patients. – it is worth mentioning that the penetrance of edn and ednrb heterozygous mutations is incomplete in those hscr patients, de novo mutations have not hitherto been observed, and that s-hscr is largely predominant. interstitial q deletions encompassing the ednrb gene in hscr patients makes haploinsufficiency the most likely mechanism for hscr (table ). although ednrb binds all three endothelins, the similarity of phenotype of the ednrb knock-out mice to that of the edn knock-out mice suggests that ednrb’s major ligand is edn . preproendothelins are proteolytically cleaved by two related membrane-bound metalloproteases to give rise to the mature -residue endothelin. ece processes only edn and edn . ece knock-out mice show craniofacial defects and cardiac abnorm- alities in addition to colonic aganglionosis. a heterozygous ece mutation has been identified in a single patient combining hscr, craniofacial and cardiac defects (r c). sox the last known mouse model for ws in human is dominant megalon (dom), homozygous dom mutation being embryonic lethal. the dom gene is sox , a member of the sry (sex determining factor)-like, high mobility group (hmg) dna binding proteins. subsequently, truncating heterozygote sox mutations have been identified in patients with ws , – yemenite deaf-blind-hypopigmentation syndrome and ws (bondurand et al in am j hum genet website) but also in patients presenting in addition neurological impairment due to central and peripheral dysmyelination. the latter combination is known as pcwh for peripheral demyelination- central dysmyelinating leucodystrophy-waardenburg syn- drome and hirschsprung disease. genotype–phenotype correla- tion relies on nonsense-mediated decay being effective (ws ) or not (pcwh). the penetrance of the hscr trait appears to be high, although sibs sharing a mutation and discordant for hscr have been described in one family. therefore, sox is unlikely to be a major gene in isolated hscr. interaction between pathways ret and ednrb signalling pathways were considered biochemi- cally independent. however, g-protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors could be engaged in crosstalk. moreover an hscr patient heterozygote for weak hypo- morphic mutations in both ret and ednrb has recently been reported. each mutation was inherited from a healthy parent. genetic interactions between ednrb and ret have been demonstrated in the mennonite population where hscr predisposition is high (incidence of / ). finally, no complementation of aganglionosis could be observed in mouse table genes involved in hscr in humans and known mouse models of megacolon gene human mouse map location mode of inheritance phenotype in mutants penetrance of the hscr trait refs natural mutant knockout refs ret q . ad hscr % in males and % in females for cds mutations , , , – l renal agenesis gdnf p ad hscr cases reported low penetrance – – l – renal agenesis ntn p ad hscr case reported – – sox q ad ws about % – dom (ad) l coat spotting ednrb q ar/ad ws /hscr low , – sl (ar) s coat spotting edn q ar/ad ws /hscr case reported ls (ar) s coat spotting ece p ad hscr case reported – s coat spotting craniofacial defects cf and cardiac defect zfhx b (sip ) q ad mca-mr, facial gestal, % – – letal at gastrulation phox b p ad cchs % , – tia no ans ventilatory anomalies in phox b+/ , tcf q ad epileptic encephalopathy case – – early letality abnormal maturation of lymphocytes , ad, autosomal dominant; ans, autonomic nervous system; ar, autosomal recessive; cf, craniofacial; l, long-segment megacolon; mr, mental retardation; s, short-segment megacolon; spo, sporadic; sl, piebald lethal; ls, lethal spotting; tia, total intestinal aganglionosis. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ inter crosses between hypomorphic piebald alleles of ednrb (ednrbs/s) and a null allele of ret. sox is involved in cell lineage determination and is capable of transactivating mitf synergistically with pax . similarly, ednrb transcripts are either absent or drastically reduced in dom / and dom+/ mice, respectively. sox ;ednrb and sox ;edn double mutants have a severe ens defect with no enteric progenitor cells extending beyond the stomach at all embryonic stages studied. interestingly, genetic interactions for the hscr trait have been shown between ret and phox b and bbs genes responsible when mutated for cchs and bardet- biedl syndromes, respectively. such correlation was not found between ret and sox . along these lines, a genome-wide screen aimed at localising modifier genes for the aganglionosis of dom mice did not point to the ret locus but, among others, a locus encompassing the phox b gene. taking it all together, several general comments can be made: ( ) ret is the major gene in hscr with either cds mutations or, more frequently, a low penetrant snp lying in an enhancer element within intron ; ( ) ret mutation penetrance is incomplete and sex-dependant; ( ) genotype–phenotype corre- lation is poor; ) hscr is genetically heterogeneous and due to mutations in distinct pathways; ( ) some patients with mutations in more than one hscr susceptibility gene are known (ret+gdnf, ret+ntn, ret+ednrb); ( ) the ret gene plays a role in hscr penetrance of some but not all syndromic hscr (see below). multigenic inheritance of isolated hirschsprung disease as mentioned above, ret plays a key role in hscr genesis and multiple genes may be required to modulate clinical expression. on the other hand, genetic heterogeneity where mutation in one of several genes is sufficient for phenotypic expression of hscr has been demonstrated (ret, ednrb, edn , ece ). segregation studies in hscr showed that the recurrence risk in siblings varies from . – % depending on the gender and the length of the aganglionic segment in the proband, and the gender of the sibling (table ). consequently, hscr has been assumed to be a sex modified multifactorial disorder, the effect of genes playing a major role as compared to environmental factors (relative risk of ). according to the segregation analysis where an autosomal dominant model in l-hscr and a multifactorial model in s- hscr were more likely, different approaches have been chosen to test these hypotheses in l-hscr and s-hscr independently. a. linkage analysis in hscr families with three or more affected individuals in two or more generations where l- hscr is largely predominant. all but one family showed linkage to the ret locus. mutational analysis identified a nonsense or missense mutation at highly conserved residue in six families, a splice mutation in two families and no coding sequence variation in three families. linkage to a novel locus in q was identified only in families with no or hypomorphic ret gene mutation. therefore, a severe ret mutation may lead to phenotypic expression by haploinsufficiency while hypomorphic ret mutations would require the action of other mutations. b. a sib-pair analysis in families with s-hscr probands. this studies shows that only three loci on chromosomes p , q and q are both necessary and sufficient to explain the incidence and sibling recurrence risk in hscr. a multiplicative risk across loci with most affected individuals being heterozygotes at all three loci seems the best genetic model. finally, linkage to q was confirmed in the sib- pairs with no or hypomorphic ret mutation. c. a genome-wide association study was conducted in mennonite family trios and identified a susceptibility locus on q in addition to the loci of the two predisposing genes in this population (ret and ednrb at q . and q , respectively). d. linkage analysis in a multigenerational hscr family where the ret gene had been previously excluded, showed linkage to q -q . the route to the identification of modifier genes is now based on various approaches. a differential screen for ens expressed genes was conducted by a probe dna micro array of embryonic ret+/+ and ret / mice and identified over genes over expressed in ret+/+ mice. these genes are regarded as critical for enteric neurogenesis and therefore potential candi- dates in hscr. by synteny, some lie at candidate modifier loci for isolated hscr. other approaches undertook by the hscr consortium are microarrays of rnas from microdissection of enteric neurons and glia on the one hand and k snp genotyping in trios on the other hand. syndromic hscr hscr occurs as an isolated trait in % of cases. a chromosomal abnormality is associated in % of cases, trisomy being by far the most frequent (. %). associated congenital anomalies are found in % of the hscr patients. the one occurring at a frequency above that expected by chance include gastrointestinal malformation, cleft palate, polydactyly, cardiac septal defects and craniofacial anomalies. the higher rate of associated anomalies in familial cases than in isolated cases ( % vs %) strongly suggests syndromes with mendelian inheritance. assessment of all hscr patients by a trained dysmorphologist should provide a careful evaluation for recognisable syndromes. table recurrent chromosomal anomalies with hscr as a feature chromosome key features number of reports gene references tri down syndrome, s-hscr, . to . male: female sex ratio – % of hscr cases ? , – del q mental retardation, l-hscr cases ret , del q mental retardation, growth retardation, dysmorphic features, s-hscr . cases ednrb del q -q postnatal growth retardation and microcephaly, mental retardation, epilepsy, dysmorphic features, hscr* . cases zfhx b – , , del q . case ? dup q -q mca/mr cases ? tri pter-q cat eye syndrome ? *both s-hscr and l-hscr have been observed. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ chromosomal anomalies a large number of chromosomal anomalies have been described in hscr patients. free trisomy (down syndrome) is by far the most frequent, involving – % of ascertained hscr cases. – in these cases, both the unbalanced sex ratio ( . – . : male:female) and the predominance of s-hscr are even greater than in isolated hscr. over-expression of gene(s) on chromosome and predisposing to hscr has been hypothe- sised and a susceptibility gene mapping to q postulated in a mennonite kindred. however, these data were not con- firmed. hitherto, coding sequence mutations in genes predis- posing to hscr, ret, ednrb and gdnf, respectively, were found in only three patients with down syndrome and hscr. however, the common hscr predisposing ret hypomorphic allele is over represented in patients with down syndrome and hscr when compared to patients without hscr. some chromosomal interstitial deletions reported in combi- nation with hscr, have been important for the identification of hscr predisposing genes, namely: ( ) q . interstitial deletion observed in a few patients with l-hscr or tca leading to the mapping and identification of the first hscr predisposing gene (ret); ( ) q . - . interstitial deletion in patients with s-hscr leading to the mapping of the second gene (ednrb) – ; ( ) q - interstitial deletion syndrome in patients with a multiple congenital anomaly–mental retardation (mca-mr) syndrome with hscr or severe chronic constipation further delineated as mowat-wilson syndrome (table ), leading to the identification of the zfhx b gene (previously named sip gene). rarer chromosomal anomalies reported in combination with hscr are summarised in table . digeorge syndrome, mosaic trisomy , xxy chromosomal constitution, partial duplication of chromosome q, tetrasomy p, and p deletion, have been observed at least once with hscr. interestingly, a patient with s-hscr, postnatal growth retardation, mild developmental delay, dysmorphic facial features and a deletion at p encompassing the phox b gene has been reported. syndromes and associated anomalies both the recognition of known entities and the delineation of novel ones including hscr as a feature are of importance for disease prognosis, accurate genetic counselling and search for candidate genes. syndromes reported associated with hscr are numerous. some associations are well characterised with a penetrance of hscr ranging from % to . % (table ). for rare disorders, whether an association with hscr observed once is meaningful or occurred by chance alone is not possible to decide. these conditions are summarised in table . both frequent and occasional associations may be of interest for the identification of susceptibility genes to hscr. syndromes frequently associated with hscr: neurocristopathies the nc is a transient and multipotent embryonic structure that gives rise to neuronal, endocrine and paraendocrine, craniofacial, conotruncal heart and pigmentary tissues. neurocristopathies encompass tumours, malformations and single or multifocal anomalies of tissues mentioned above with various combina- tions. men , neuroblastoma (nb) conotroncal heart defects and waardenburg syndromes illustrate each of these categories, and are associated with hscr. multiple endocrine neoplasia type and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (fmtc), men type a (men a) and type b (men b) are cancer predisposition syndromes with an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance. men a is defined by an age-related predisposition to medullary thyroid carcinoma (mtc, % by the age of years), pheochromocytoma ( % of cases) and hyperplasia of the parathyroid glands ( – %). in addition to mtc and pheochromocytoma, individuals with men b present with oral neuromas, marfanoid habitus and hyperganglionosis of the hindgut. germline missense mutations of the ret gene have been identified in men a, men b and fmtc. both fmtc and men a can be associated with hscr in some families. – interestingly, these families present a germline ret mutation of the men a or fmtc type (see below). – this raises the question of whether all individuals with hscr, regardless of non-contributive family history, should be screened for ret exon and mutations to rule out cancer predisposition ( / cases in our series with c w, c r and c r ret gene mutations, respectively). neuroblastoma neuroblastoma (nb) is the most frequent solid tumour in childhood with an incidence of / . the tumour can arise at any site of the sympathetic chain or the adrenal medulla (both originating from ncc). in some families, tumour predisposition segregates through generations with incomplete penetrance. – nb is found associated to hscr and con- genital central hypoventilation (cchs, see below) in various combinations and, in each combination, heterozygous muta- tions of the paired-like homeobox b gene (phox b) have been identified. – however, germeline phox b mutations remain rare in sporadic, isolated nb. congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (cchs, mim ). initially termed ondine’s curse, cchs is a rare, life-threatening condition characterised by abnormal ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia due to failure of autonomic respira- tory control. cchs is not per se a neurocristopathy due to the involvement of both the central and peripheral autonomic nervous system. cchs patients often present symptoms resulting from a broader dysfunction of the autonomous nervous system and predisposition to neural crest cell derived tumours ( – % of cchs cases, neuroblastoma, ganglioblas- toma, ganglioneuroma). – haddad syndrome (mim ) is defined by the association of hscr and cchs and is found in about % of cchs patients. in these cases, l-hscr (including tca) is the most frequent, and the sex ratio is almost equal at variance to what is observed in isolated hscr. phox b is the disease causing gene with de novo heterozygous mutation in the proband, the far most frequent being in frame duplication leading to polyalanine expan- sion. parents of patient with molecularly proven cchs must be tested for accurate genetic counselling as about % carry a somatic mosaic and some parents may develop late onset chs. finally, genotype/phenotype correlations allow the detection of patients with a high risk to develop tumours (and carry a frameshift mutation) and reassurance about tumour predisposition to those carrying a polyalanine expan- sion. review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ waardenburg syndromes (ws) and related pigmentary anomalies ws, an autosomal dominant condition, is by far the most frequent condition combining pigmentary anomalies and sensorineural deafness ( / live births and – % of all congenital deafness), resulting from the absence of melanocytes of the skin and the stria vascularis of the cochlea. ws is clinically and genetically heterogeneous (mim , mim , mim ). the combination of hscr with ws defines the ws type (shah-waardenburg syndrome, mim ), a genetically heterogeneous condition. indeed, homo- zygous mutations of the endothelin pathway and heterozygous sox mutations have been identified in ws patients. patients carrying a sox mutation may also present with cns involvement including seizures, ataxia, and demyelinating peripheral and central neuropathies and ws (bondurand et al in am j hum genet website). related syndromes associating pigmentary anomalies and hscr include: ( ) yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome (mim ), a sox mutation having been reported in one of these families ; ( ) black locks-albinism- deafness syndrome (bads, mim ) with tca-hscr in one case ; ( ) aganglionic megacolon associated with familial piebaldism (mim ) ; ( ) hscr and profound congenital deafness but with no other ws features has also been reported. other neurocristopathies familial dysautonomia syndrome (fds, riley-day syndrome, mim ) has been reported once in association with hscr. although it could have arisen by chance alone, it is interesting to note that fds maps to q where a susceptibility locus for hscr has been identified. other occasional associations table syndromes associated with hscr syndromes mim key features references syndromic ncc disorders ws (shah-waardenburg) pigmentary anomalies (white forelock, iris hypoplasia, patchy hypopigmentation) , – , yemenite deaf-blind- hypopigmentation hearing loss, eye anomalies (microcornea, coloboma, nystagmus), pigmentary anomalies bads hearing loss, hypopigmentation of the skin and retina piebaldism patchy hypopigmentation of the skin , haddad congenital central hypoventilation – men a medullary thyroid carcinoma, pheochromocytoma, hyperplasia of the parathyroid , – riley-day autonomic nervous system anomalies hscr mandatory goldberg-shprintzen mental retardation, polymicrogyria, microcephaly, cf, coloboma, facial dysmorphic features – hd with limb anomalies polydactyly, unilateral renal agenesis, hypertelorism, deafness postaxial polydactyly, ventricular septal defect hypoplasia of distal phalanges and nails, dysmorphic features preaxial polydactyly, heart defect, laryngeal anomalies brachydactyly type d breshek brain abnormalities , retardation, ectodermal dysplasia, skeletal malformation, hirschsprung disease, ear/eye anomalies, kidney dysplasia mowat-wilson mental retardation, microcephaly, epilepsy, facial gestalt, hypospadias, renal anomalies, acc, ccd , , – hscr occasionally associated bardet-biedl syndrome and/or pigmentary retinopathy, obesity, hypogenitalism, mild mental retardation, postaxial polydactyly , kauffman-mckusick hydrometrocolpos, postaxial polydactyly, congenital heart defect smith-lemli-opitz growth retardation, microcephaly, mental retardation, hypospadias, – toes syndactyly, dysmorphic features cartilage-hair hypoplasia shortlimb dwarfism, metaphyseal dysplasia immunodeficiency hsas/masa hydrocephalus, aqueductal stenosis, spasticity adducted thumbs, acc, mental retardation hscr rarely associated fukuyama congenital muscular dystrophy muscular dystrophy, polymicrogyria, hydrocephalus, mr, seizures , clayton-smith dysmorphic features, hypoplastic toes and nails, ichthyosis kaplan agenesis of corpus callosum, adducted thumbs, ptosis, muscle weakness okamoto hydrocephalus, cleft palate corpus callosum agenesia werner mesomelic dysplasia , pitt-hopkins epileptic encephalopathy, facial dysmorphic features, bouts of hyperventilation, dysautonomia – jeune asphyxing thoracic dystrophia miscellaneous associations pallister-hall (cave) fryns aarskog fronto-nasal dysplasia osteopetrosis goldenhar lesch-nyhan rubinstein-taybi toriello-carey semdjl adapted from: scriver cm et al. the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited diseases. th ed. mcgraw-hill, pp - . review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ reported thus far include cleft lip with or without cleft palate, neural tube defects (myelomeningocoele) and neurofibroma- tosis type i. the significance of these associations is not yet established. other syndromes with hscr as a frequent feature mowat-wilson syndrome (mim ) mowat-wilson syndrome (mws) is an mca-mr condition first delineated among the heterogeneous group of patients with hscr and mr. the condition is associated with micro- cephaly, epilepsy, a facial gestalt and severe mental retardation. the spectrum of possibly associated malformations is wide and encompasses, in decreasing frequency order, hypospadias, renal anomalies, congenital cardiac defect, agenesis/hypoplasia of the corpus callosum and hscr. heterozygous de novo dele- tions encompassing the zfhx b (zinc finger homeo box b) gene or truncating mutations within the gene are found in over cases. some rare splicing and missense mutations have also been reported. loss of function by haploinsuffi- ciency is the disease causing mechanism in humans. zfhx b acts as a transcriptional repressor of smad protein targets and has key functions in early embryonic development in several animal models. a knock-out restricted to ncc precursors in mice demonstrated a wide range of anomalies in ncc derivatives. goldberg-shprintzen syndrome (mim ). this autosomal recessive mca-mr syndrome combines hscr, moderate mental retardation, microcephaly, polymicrogyria, facial dysmorphic features (hypertelorism, prominent nose, synophrys, sparse hair), cleft palate and iris coloboma. the disease causing gene kiaa has been identified in a large consanguineous family and encodes a protein of unknown function. gss is a rare condition within the group of patients with mr and hscr. several reports with variable association of microcephaly, iris coloboma, cleft palate and mental retarda- tion, and regarded as possible variants gss, are unlikely allelic conditions. hscr with limb anomalies several rare syndromes with hscr and distal limb anomalies (polydactyly or hypoplasia) have been reported. these are: ( ) hscr with polydactyly, unilateral renal agenesis, hypertelor- ism and congenital deafness (mim ) ; ( ) hscr, postaxial polydactyly and ventricular septal defects (mim ) ; ( ) hscr, hypoplasia of the distal phalanges and nails and mild dysmorphic features (mim ) ; ( ) hscr with preaxial polydactyly, heart defect and laryngeal anomalies (mim ) ; ( ) hscr with brachydactyly type d (mim ) ; ( ) hscr with brachydactyly, macrocephaly and vertebrae anomalies ; ( ) breshek syndrome ; and ( ) werner mesomelic dysplasia. bardet-biedl syndrome (mim ) and mckusick-kauffman syndrome (mim ) bardet-biedl syndrome (bbs) is characterised by progressive pigmentary retinopathy, obesity, hypogenitalism, renal involve- ment (including cysts, renal cortical loss or reduced ability to concentrate urine), mild mental retardation and postaxial polydactyly of the hands and feet. bbs is genetically hetero- geneous with at least loci and genes identified, all involved in ciliary function. hscr has been reported in several bbs cases. mckusick-kauffman syndrome (mkks) is a rare condition, allelic to bbs and characterised by hydrometrocolpos, postaxial polydactyly and congenital heart defect. hscr is found in % of cases. mutations in the mkks/bbs gene, encoding a chaperonin protein, were identified in some bbs patients confirming that both conditions are allelic. jeune syndrome, also ascribed to a gene involved in the ciliary function, has been occasionally associated to hscr. smith-lemli-opitz syndrome (mim ) smith-lemli-opitz syndrome (slo) is characterised by pre- and postnatal growth retardation and microcephaly, severe mental retardation, facial dysmorphic features, hypospadias and syn- dactyly between toes and . slo results from cholesterol metabolic impairment with mutation of the -dehydro-choles- terol reductase gene (dhcr , chromosome q -q ). hscr is observed in a significant number of severe slo patients. cartilage-hair hypoplasia syndrome (mim ) the skeletal dysplasia cartilage-hair hypoplasia syndrome (chh), first described in the old order amish community, combines metaphyseal dysplasia with short limb dwarfism, fine, sparse and blond hair, transient macrocytic anaemia and immunodeficiency. hscr is associated in approximately % of the cases. the gene rmrp has been mapped to chromosome p . interestingly, hscr has been reported in the holmgren-connor syndrome (mim ) which may be allelic to chh. the ret gene plays a pivotal role in both isolated and syndromic hscr. indeed, epistatic interactions with the common ret hypomorphic allele has been demonstrated for hscr predisposition in down, cchs and bbs. conversely, the role of the ret hypomorphic allele is not significant in mws and ws due to sox mutation. of note, a case–control study in a chinese population identified an snp in intron of phox b (ivs + ) as over represented in the hscr group of patients. miscellaneous observations this can be include; ( ) syndromes with myopathy ; ( ) syndromes with dermatological findings ; and ( ) syndromes with central nervous system anomalies, among which the hsas/masa spectrum ascribed to mutations in the x-linked l cam gene. indeed, at least five different mutations in l cam have been identified in patients with hydrocephalus and hscr. interestingly, l cam is an ens-expressed gene. the question of l cam being a modifier gene in hscr has been raised with no definitive answer given thus far. other rare associations include the finding of hscr with fryns, aarskog, jeune asphyxing thoracic dystrophia, joubert, fronto- nasal dysplasia, osteopetrosis, goldenhar, lesch-nyhan, rubinstein-taybi, toriello-carey, pallister-hall, spondylo-epi- metaphyseal dysplasia with joint laxity (semdjl, mim ), persistent mullerian duct syndromes, and asplenia with cardiovascular anomaly. associated anomalies a wide spectrum of additional isolated anomalies have been described among hscr cases, with an incidence varying from – % according to series. – no constant pattern is observed and these anomalies include distal limb, sensorineural, skin, central nervous system, genital, kidney and cardiac malformations. however, cardiac defects, and mostly atrio- or review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ ventriculoseptal defects, are found with an incidence of % of hscr cases, once removed patients with trisomy and hscr. renal dysplasia or agenesis was reported in fmtc and found in . % in a series of hscr cases and may still be underestimated (personal data). this is of interest since homozygous knock-out mice for genes involved in the ret signalling pathway present with renal agenesia/dysplasia in addition to megacolon. genital anomalies including hypospa- dias are reported in up to – % of hscr patients. gastrointestinal malformations such as meckel diverticulum, pyloric stenosis, single umbilical arteria, inguinal hernia or small bowel atresia are also found. – finally, facial dysmorphic features seem extremely frequent when looked for. these data highlight the importance of a careful assessment by a clinician trained in dysmorphology for all newborns diagnosed with hscr. skeletal x ray, cardiac and urogenital ultrasound survey should be systematically performed. the observation of one additional anomaly to hscr should prompt chromosomal studies and/or molecular karyotyping. the unanswered question of sex-dependent penetrance in hscr expression and penetrance of a ret mutation is variable and sex-dependent within hscr families. in large series, the estimated penetrance is % in males and % in females. accordingly, the penetrance of the hscr predisposing t allele for the hscr trait is greater in females than in males. a significant parent-of-origin effect at the ret locus, % of shared ret alleles by affected sibs being maternally derived, could explain the sex difference in hscr expression. epigenetic effects at the ret locus have been hypothesised. of note, a sex difference in disease expressivity (that is, length of the aganglionic segment) of ret+/ ; ednrbs/s mice has been observed. none of the genome wide scans performed in hscr families identified a locus on the x chromosome thus far. however, a differential screen for ens expressed genes performed in mice pointed to several x-linked genes. finally, the observation of a skewed sex ratio in ret-independent syndromic hscr (that is, mws and ws ) suggests that the sex bias observed cannot entirely rely on a gender effect at the ret locus. genetic counselling hscr is a sex-modified multifactorial congenital malformation with an overall recurrence risk in sibs of the proband of % (relative risk = ). in isolated hscr, adequate relative risk figures will be provided by taking into account the sex and length of the aganglionic segment in the proband and the gender of the sibling ( – %). according to carter’s paradox, the highest recurrence risk is for a male sibling of a female proband with l-hscr (table ). according to poor genotype–phenotype correlation thus far, the benefit of mutation screening for hscr patients appears low except for systematic testing of exon and of the ret gene, owing to cancer predisposition of men a mutations. this, however, is still not routine practice in most countries. many hscr cases are associated with other congenital anomalies. in these cases, the long term prognosis is highly dependent on the severity of the associated anomalies. several known syndromes have straight mendelian inheritance. this emphasises the importance of careful assessment by a clinician trained in syndromology of all newborns diagnosed with hscr. acknowledgements: we thank the hscr patients and their families, and the french hirschsprung disease association (afmam), for their cooperation and active participation over years. we sincerely acknowledge colleagues from all over the world for providing us samples as well as all the students and collaborators of the groups who joined in a consortium on hirschsprung disease. competing interests: none declared. references . hirschsprung h. stuhlträgheit neugeborener infolge von dilatation und hypertrophic des colons. jb inderheilk ; : . . whitehouse f, kernohan j. myenteric plexuses in congenital megacolon; study of cases. arch int med ; : . . meier-ruge w, lutterbeck pm, herzog b, morger r, moser r, scharli a. acetylcholinesterase activity in suction biopsies of the rectum in the diagnosis of hirschsprung’s disease. j pediatr surg ; : – . . swenson o. early history of the therapy of hirschsprung’s disease: facts and personal observations over years. j pediatr surg ; : – . . bodian m, carter c. a family study of hirschsprung disease. ann hum genet ; : . . bolande rp. the neurocristopathies; a unifying concept of disease arising in neural crest maldevelopment. hum pathol ; : – . . le douarin n, kalcheim c. the neural crest. nd ed. cambridge: cambridge university press, . . iwashita t, kruger gm, pardal r, kiel mj, morrison sj. hirschsprung disease is linked to defects in neural crest stem cell function. science ; : – . . badner ja, chakravarti a. waardenburg syndrome and hirschsprung disease: evidence for pleiotropic effects of a single dominant gene. am j med genet ; : – . . passarge e. the genetics of hirschsprung’s disease. evidence for heterogeneous etiology and a study of sixty-three families. n engl j med ; : – . . goldberg el. an epidemiological study of hirschsprung’s disease. int j epidemiol ; : – . . garver kl, law jc, garver b. hirschsprung disease: a genetic study. clin genet ; : – . . spouge d, baird pa. hirschsprung disease in a large birth cohort. teratology ; : – . . brooks as, breuning mh, meijers c. spectrum of phenotypes associated with hirschsprung disease: an evaluation of patients from a single institution. the third international meeting: hirschsprung disease and related neurocristopathies.evian, france, . . torfs cp. an epidemiological study of hirschsprung disease in a multiracial california population. the third international meetings: hirschsprung disease and related neurocristopathies.evian, france, . . taraviras s, pachnis v. development of the mammalian enteric nervous system. curr opin genet dev ; : . . nihoul-fékété c, ricour c, martelli h, lortat jacob s, pellerin d. total colonic aganglionosis (with or without ileal involvement): a review of cases. j pediatr surg ; : . . neilson ir, yazbeck s. ultrashort hirschsprung’s disease: myth or reality. j pediatr surg ; : – . . parc r, berrod jl, tussiot j, loygue j. [megacolon in adults. apropos of cases]. ann gastroenterol hepatol (paris) ; : – . . emir h, akman m, sarimurat n, kilic n, erdogan e, soylet y. anorectal manometry during the neonatal period: its specificity in the diagnosis of hirschsprung’s disease. eur j pediatr surg ; : – . . lopez alonso m. [manometric study in the newborn]. cir pediatr ; : – . . kurer mh, lawson jo, pambakian h. suction biopsy in hirschsprung’s disease. arch dis child ; : – . . soave f. hirschsprung’s disease. technique and results of soave’s operation. br j surg ; : – . . newbern wr. hirschsprung’s disease–the duhamel modification. am j gastroenterol ; : – . . albanese ct, jennings rw, smith b, bratton b, harrison mr. perineal one-stage pull-through for hirschsprung’s disease. j pediatr surg ; : – . . langer jc, durrant ac, de la torre l, teitelbaum dh, minkes rk, caty mg, wildhaber be, ortega sj, hirose s, albanese ct. one-stage transanal soave pullthrough for hirschsprung disease: a multicenter experience with children. ann surg ; : – ; discussion – . . el-sawaf mi, drongowski ra, chamberlain jn, coran ag, teitelbaum dh. are the long-term results of the transanal pull-through equal to those of the transabdominal pull-through? a comparison of the approaches for hirschsprung disease. j pediatr surg ; : – ; discussion . . rauch u, hansgen a, hagl c, holland-cunz s, schafer kh. isolation and cultivation of neuronal precursor cells from the developing human enteric nervous system as a tool for cell therapy in dysganglionosis. int j colorectal dis ; : – . . heanue ta, pachnis v. enteric nervous system development and hirschsprung’s disease: advances in genetic and stem cell studies. nat rev neurosci ; : – . . hackam dj, filler rm, pearl rh. enterocolitis after the surgical treatment of hirschsprung’s disease: risk factors and financial impact. j pediatr surg ; : – . . yanchar nl, soucy p. long-term outcome after hirschsprung’s disease: patients’ perspectives. j pediatr surg ; : – . review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ . moore sw, albertyn r, cywes s. clinical outcome and long-term quality of life after surgical correction of hirschsprung’s disease. j pediatr surg ; : – . . jasonni v, martucciello g. total colonic aganglionosis. semin pediatr surg ; : – . . tsuji h, spitz l, kiely em, drake dp, pierro a. management and long-term follow-up of infants with total colonic aganglionosis. j pediatr surg ; : – ; discussion . . badner ja, sieber wk, garver kl, chakravarti a. a genetic study of hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : – . . lyonnet s, bolino a, pelet a, abel l, nihoul-fekete c, briard ml, mok-siu v, kaariainen h, martucciello g, lerone m, et al. a gene for hirschsprung disease maps to the proximal long arm of chromosome . nat genet ; : – . . angrist m, kauffman e, slaugenhaupt sa, matise tc, puffenberger eg, washington ss, lipson a, cass dt, reyna t, weeks de, et al. a gene for hirschsprung disease (megacolon) in the pericentromeric region of human chromosome . nat genet ; : – . . martucciello g, biocchini m, dodero p, cirillo m, puliti a, gimelli g. total colonic aganglionosis associated with interstitial deletion of the long arm of chromosome . pediatr surg int ; : . . mulligan lm, kwok jb, healey cs, elsdon mj, eng c, gardner e, love dr, mole se, moore jk, papi l. germ-line mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type a. nature ; : – . . donis-keller h, dou s, chi d, carlson km, toshima k, lairmore tc, howe jr, moley jf, goodfellow p, wells sa. mutations in the ret proto-oncogene are associated with men a and fmtc. hum mol genet ; : – . . edery p, lyonnet s, mulligan lm, pelet a, dow e, abel l, holder s, nihoul-fekete c, ponder ba, munnich a. mutations of the ret proto-oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature ; : – . . romeo g, ronchetto p, luo y, barone v, seri m, ceccherini i, pasini b, bocciardi r, lerone m, kaariainen h, et al. point mutations affecting the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto- oncogene in hirschsprung’s disease. nature ; : – . . angrist m, bolk s, thiel b, puffenberger eg, hofstra rm, buys ch, cass dt, chakravarti a. mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . attie t, pelet a, edery p, eng c, mulligan lm, amiel j, boutrand l, beldjord c, nihoul-fekete c, munnich a, et al. diversity of ret proto-oncogene mutations in familial and sporadic hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . seri m, yin l, barone v, bolino a, celli i, bocciardi r, pasini b, ceccherini i, lerone m, kristoffersson u, larsson lt, casasa jm, cass dt, abramowicz mj, vanderwinden jm, kravcenkiene i, baric i, silengo m, martucciello g, romeo g. frequency of ret mutations in long- and short-segment hirschsprung disease. hum mutat ; : – . . hofstra rm, wu y, stulp rp, elfferich p, osinga j, maas sm, siderius l, brooks as, vd ende jj, heydendael vm, severijnen rs, bax km, meijers c, buys ch. ret and gdnf gene scanning in hirschsprung patients using two dual denaturing gel systems. hum mutat ; : – . . mulligan lm, eng c, attie t, lyonnet s, marsh dj, hyland vj, robinson bg, frilling a, verellen-dumoulin c, safar a, et al. diverse phenotypes associated with exon mutations of the ret proto- oncogene. hum mol genet ; : – . . eng c, smith dp, mulligan lm, nagai ma, healey cs, ponder ma, gardner e, scheumann gf, jackson ce, tunnacliffe a, et al. point mutation within the tyrosine kinase domain of the ret proto- oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type b and related sporadic tumours [erratum in hum mol genet ; : ]. hum mol genet ; : – . . hofstra rm, landsvater rm, ceccherini i, stulp r, stelwagen t, luo y, pasini b, hoppener jw, van amstel hkgr. a mutation in the ret proto-oncogene associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type b and sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. nature ; : – . . carlson km, dou s, chi d, scavarda n, toshima k, jackson ce, wells saj, goodfellow pj, donis-keller h. single missense mutation in the tyrosine kinase catalytic domain of the ret protooncogene is associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type b. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . plaza menacho i, koster r, van der sloot am, quax wj, osinga j, van der sluis t, hollema h, burzynski gm, gimm o, buys ch, eggen bj, hofstra rm. ret-familial medullary thyroid carcinoma mutants y f and s a activate a src/jak/stat pathway, independent of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor. cancer res ; : – . . santoro m, carlomagno f, romano a, bottaro dp, dathan na, grieco m, fusco a, vecchio g, matoskova b, kraus mh. activation of ret as a dominant transforming gene by germline mutations of men a and men b. science ; : – . . pasini b, borrello mg, greco a, bongarzone i, luo y, mondellini p, alberti l, miranda c, arighi e, bocciardi r, et al. loss of function effect of ret mutations causing hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . carlomagno f, de vita g, berlingieri mt, de franciscis v, melillo rm, colantuoni v, kraus mh, di fiore pp, fusco a, santoro m. molecular heterogeneity of ret loss of function in hirschsprung’s disease. embo j ; : – . . iwashita t, murakami h, asai n, takahashi m. mechanism of ret dysfunction by hirschsprung mutations affecting its extracellular domain. hum mol genet ; : – . . pelet a, geneste o, edery p, pasini a, chappuis s, atti t, munnich a, lenoir g, lyonnet s, billaud m. various mechanisms cause ret-mediated signaling defects in hirschsprung’s disease. j clin invest ; : – . . iwashita t, kurokawa k, qiao s, murakami h, asai n, kawai k, hashimoto m, watanabe t, ichihara m, takahashi m. functional analysis of ret with hirschsprung mutations affecting its kinase domain. gastroenterology ; : – . . manie s, santoro m, fusco a, billaud m. the ret receptor: function in development and dysfunction in congenital malformation. trends genet ; : – . . lantieri f, griseri p, ceccherini i. molecular mechanisms of ret-induced hirschsprung pathogenesis. ann med ; : – . . sancandi m, ceccherini i, costa m, fava m, chen b, wu y, hofstra r, laurie t, griffths m, burge d, tam pk. incidence of ret mutations in patients with hirschsprung’s disease. j pediatr surg ; : – ; discussion – . . garcia-barcelo m, sham mh, lee ws, lui vc, chen bl, wong kk, wong js, tam pk. highly recurrent ret mutations and novel mutations in genes of the receptor tyrosine kinase and endothelin receptor b pathways in chinese patients with sporadic hirschsprung disease. clin chem ; : – . . bolk s, pelet a, hofstra rm, angrist m, salomon r, croaker d, buys ch, lyonnet s, chakravarti a. a human model for multigenic inheritance: phenotypic expression in hirschsprung disease requires both the ret gene and a new q locus. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . fitze g, schreiber m, kuhlisch e, schackert hk, roesner d. association of ret protooncogene codon polymorphism with hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : – . . borrego s, saez me, ruiz a, gimm o, lopez-alonso m, antinolo g, eng c. specific polymorphisms in the ret proto-oncogene are over-represented in patients with hirschsprung disease and may represent loci modifying phenotypic expression. j med genet ; : – . . borrego s, ruiz a, saez me, gimm o, gao x, lopez-alonso m, hernandez a, wright fa, antinolo g, eng c. ret genotypes comprising specific haplotypes of polymorphic variants predispose to isolated hirschsprung disease. j med genet ; : – . . garcia-barcelo m, sham mh, lui vc, chen bl, ott j, tam pk. association study of phox b as a candidate gene for hirschsprung’s disease. gut ; : – . . burzynski gm, nolte im, osinga j, ceccherini i, twigt b, maas s, brooks a, verheij j, plaza menacho i, buys ch, hofstra rm. localizing a putative mutation as the major contributor to the development of sporadic hirschsprung disease to the ret genomic sequence between the promoter region and exon . eur j hum genet ; : – . . pelet a, de pontual l, clement-ziza m, salomon r, mugnier c, matsuda f, lathrop m, munnich a, feingold j, lyonnet s, abel l, amiel j. homozygosity for a frequent and weakly penetrant predisposing allele at the ret locus in sporadic hirschsprung disease. j med genet ; :e . . borrego s, fernandez rm, dziema h, niess a, lopez-alonso m, antinolo g, eng c. investigation of germline gfra mutations and evaluation of the involvement of gfra , gfra , gfra , and gfra sequence variants in hirschsprung disease. j med genet ; :e . . sancandi m, griseri p, pesce b, patrone g, puppo f, lerone m, martucciello g, romeo g, ravazzolo r, devoto m, ceccherini i. single nucleotide polymorphic alleles in the ’ region of the ret proto-oncogene define a risk haplotype in hirschsprung’s disease. j med genet ; : – . . garcia-barcelo m, ganster rw, lui vc, leon ty, so mt, lau am, fu m, sham mh, knight j, zannini ms, sham pc, tam pk. ttf- and ret promoter snps: regulation of ret transcription in hirschsprung’s disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . fernandez rm, boru g, pecina a, jones k, lopez-alonso m, antinolo g, borrego s, eng c. ancestral ret haplotype associated with hirschsprung’s disease shows linkage disequilibrium breakpoint at - . j med genet ; : – . . fitze g, paditz e, schlafke m, kuhlisch e, roesner d, schackert hk. association of germline mutations and polymorphisms of the ret proto- oncogene with idiopathic congenital central hypoventilation syndrome in patients. j med genet ; :e . . griseri p, bachetti t, puppo f, lantieri f, ravazzolo r, devoto m, ceccherini i. a common haplotype at the ’ end of the ret proto-oncogene, overrepresented in hirschsprung patients, is associated with reduced gene expression. hum mutat ; : – . . emison es, mccallion as, kashuk cs, bush rt, grice e, lin s, portnoy me, cutler dj, green ed, chakravarti a. a common sex-dependent mutation in a ret enhancer underlies hirschsprung disease risk. nature ; : – . . widlund hr, fisher de. microphthalamia-associated transcription factor: a critical regulator of pigment cell development and survival. oncogene ; : – . . chattopadhyay p, pakstis aj, mukherjee n, iyengar s, odunsi a, okonofua f, bonne-tamir b, speed w, kidd jr, kidd kk. global survey of haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibrium at the ret locus. eur j hum genet ; : – . . griseri p, sancandi m, patrone g, bocciardi r, hofstra r, ravazzolo r, devoto m, romeo g, ceccherini i. a single-nucleotide polymorphic variant of the ret proto- oncogene is underrepresented in sporadic hirschsprung disease. eur j hum genet ; : – . . griseri p, pesce b, patrone g, osinga j, puppo f, sancandi m, hofstra r, romeo g, ravazzolo r, devoto m, ceccherini i. a rare haplotype of the ret proto-oncogene is a risk-modifying allele in hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : – . . griseri p, lantieri f, puppo f, bachetti t, di duca m, ravazzolo r, ceccherini i. a common variant located in the ’utr of the ret gene is associated with protection from hirschsprung disease. hum mutat ; : – . review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ . ceccherini i, bocciardi r, luo y, pasini b, hofstra r, takahashi m, romeo g. exon structure and flanking intronic sequences of the human ret proto-oncogene. biochem biophys res commun ; : – . . schuchardt a, d’agati v, larsson-blomberg l, costantini f, pachnis v. defects in the kidney and enteric nervous system of mice lacking the tyrosine kinase receptor ret. nature ; : – . . costantini f, shakya r. gdnf/ret signaling and the development of the kidney. bioessays ; : – . . clarke jc, patel sr, raymond rm jr, andrew s, robinson bg, dressler gr, brophy pd. regulation of c-ret in the developing kidney is responsive to pax gene dosage. hum mol genet ; : – . . cao t, shannon m, handel ma, etkin ld. mouse ret finger protein (rfp) proto- oncogene is expressed at specific stages of mouse spermatogenesis. dev genet ; : – . . meng x, lindahl m, hyvonen me, parvinen m, de rooij dg, hess mw, raatikainen- ahokas a, sainio k, rauvala h, lakso m, pichel jg, westphal h, saarma m, sariola h. regulation of cell fate decision of undifferentiated spermatogonia by gdnf. science ; : – . . jain s, naughton ck, yang m, strickland a, vij k, encinas m, golden j, gupta a, heuckeroth r, johnson em jr, milbrandt j. mice expressing a dominant-negative ret mutation phenocopy human hirschsprung disease and delineate a direct role of ret in spermatogenesis. development ; : – . . naughton ck, jain s, strickland am, gupta a, milbrandt j. glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor-mediated ret signaling regulates spermatogonial stem cell fate. biol reprod ; : – . . fukuyama s, kiyono h. neuroregulator ret initiates peyer’s-patch tissue genesis. immunity ; : – . . veiga-fernandes h, coles mc, foster ke, patel a, williams a, natarajan d, barlow a, pachnis v, kioussis d. tyrosine kinase receptor ret is a key regulator of peyer’s patch organogenesis. nature ; : – . . de graaff e, srinivas s, kilkenny c, d’agati v, mankoo bs, costantini f, pachnis v. differential activities of the ret tyrosine kinase receptor isoforms during mammalian embryogenesis. genes dev ; : – . . moore mw, klein rd, farinas i, sauer h, armanini m, phillips h, reichardt lf, ryan am, carver-moore k, rosenthal a. renal and neuronal abnormalities in mice lacking gdnf. nature ; : – . . sanchez mp, silos-santiago i, frisen j, he b, lira sa, barbacid m. renal agenesis and the absence of enteric neurons in mice lacking gdnf. nature ; : – . . pichel jg, shen l, sheng hz, granholm ac, drago j, grinberg a, lee ej, huang sp, saarma m, hoffer bj, sariola h, westphal h. defects in enteric innervation and kidney development in mice lacking gdnf. nature ; : – . . durbec p, marcos-gutierrez cv, kilkenny c, grigoriou m, wartiowaara k, suvanto p, smith d, ponder b, costantini f, saarma m, et al. gdnf signalling through the ret receptor tyrosine kinase. nature ; : – . . jing s, wen d, yu y, holst pl, luo y, fang m, tamir r, antonio l, hu z, cupples r, louis jc, hu s, altrock bw, fox gm. gdnf-induced activation of the ret protein tyrosine kinase is mediated by gdnfr-alpha, a novel receptor for gdnf. cell ; : – . . treanor jj, goodman l, de sauvage f, stone dm, poulsen kt, beck cd, gray c, armanini mp, pollock ra, hefti f, phillips hs, goddard a, moore mw, buj-bello a, davies am, asai n, takahashi m, vandlen r, henderson ce, rosenthal a. characterization of a multicomponent receptor for gdnf. nature ; : – . . rosenthal a. the gdnf protein family: gene ablation studies reveal what they really do and how. neuron ; : – . . kotzbauer pt, lampe pa, heuckeroth ro, golden jp, creedon dj, johnson em, milbrandt j. neurturin, a relative of glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor. nature ; : – . . milbrandt j, de sauvage fj, fahrner tj, baloh rh, leitner ml, tansey mg, lampe pa, heuckeroth ro, kotzbauer pt, simburger ks, golden jp, davies ja, vejsada r, kato ac, hynes m, sherman d, nishimura m, wang lc, vandlen r, moffat b, klein rd, poulsen k, gray c, garces a, johnson em, et al. persephin, a novel neurotrophic factor related to gdnf and neurturin. neuron ; : – . . baloh rh, tansey mg, lampe pa, fahrner tj, enomoto h, simburger ks, leitner ml, araki t, johnson em, milbrandt j. artemin, a novel member of the gdnf ligand family, supports peripheral and central neurons and signals through the gfralpha - ret receptor complex. neuron ; : – . . angrist m, bolk s, halushka m, lapchak pa, chakravarti a. germline mutations in glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (gdnf) and ret in a hirschsprung disease patient. nat genet ; : – . . salomon r, attie t, pelet a, bidaud c, eng c, amiel j, sarnacki s, goulet o, ricour c, nihoul-fekete c, munnich a, lyonnet s. germline mutations of the ret ligand gdnf are not sufficient to cause hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . ivanchuk sm, myers sm, eng c, mulligan lm. de novo mutation of gdnf, ligand for the ret/gdnfr-alpha receptor complex, in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . doray b, salomon r, amiel j, pelet a, touraine r, billaud m, attie t, bachy b, munnich a, lyonnet s. mutation of the ret ligand, neurturin, supports multigenic inheritance in hirschsprung disease [erratum in hum mol genet ; : ]. hum mol genet ; : – . . cacalano g, farinas i, wang lc, hagler k, forgie a, moore m, armanini m, phillips h, ryan am, reichardt lf, hynes m, davies a, rosenthal a. gfralpha is an essential receptor component for gdnf in the developing nervous system and kidney. neuron ; : – . . enomoto h, araki t, jackman a, heuckeroth ro, snider wd, johnson em, milbrandt j. gfr alpha -deficient mice have deficits in the enteric nervous system and kidneys. neuron ; : – . . angrist m, jing s, bolk s, bentley k, nallasamy s, halushka m, fox gm, chakravarti a. human gfra : cloning, mapping, genomic structure, and evaluation as a candidate gene for hirschsprung disease susceptibility. genomics ; : – . . myers sm, salomon r, goessling a, pelet a, eng c, von deimling a, lyonnet s, mulligan lm. investigation of germline gfr alpha- mutations in hirschsprung disease. j med genet ; : – . . bordeaux mc, forcet c, granger l, corset v, bidaud c, billaud m, bredesen de, edery p, mehlen p. the ret proto-oncogene induces apoptosis: a novel mechanism for hirschsprung disease. embo j ; : – . . inoue a, yanagisawa m, kimura s, kasuya y, miyauchi t, goto k, masaki t. the human endothelin family: three structurally and pharmacologically distinct isopeptides predicted by three separate genes. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . sakurai t, yanagisawa m, masaki t. molecular characterization of endothelin receptors. trends pharmacol sci ; : – . . cohen it, gadd ma. hirschsprung’s disease in a kindred: a possible clue to the genetics of the disease. j pediatr surg ; : – . . puffenberger eg, kauffman er, bolk s, matise tc, washington ss, angrist m, weissenbach j, garver kl, mascari m, ladda r, et al. identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet ; : – . . van camp g, van thienen mn, handig i, van roy b, rao vs, milunsky a, read ap, baldwin ct, farrer la, bonduelle m, et al. chromosome q deletion with waardenburg syndrome: further evidence for a gene involved in neural crest function on q. j med genet ; : – . . shanske a, ferreira jc, leonard jc, fuller p, marion rw. hirschsprung disease in an infant with a contiguous gene syndrome of chromosome . am j med genet ; : – . . hosoda k, hammer re, richardson ja, baynash ag, cheung jc, giaid a, yanagisawa m. targeted and natural (piebald-lethal) mutations of endothelin-b receptor gene produce megacolon associated with spotted coat color in mice. cell ; : – . . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewit d, yanagisawa m, chakravart a. a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell ; : – . . baynash ag, hosoda k, giaid a, richardson ja, emoto n, hammer re, yanagisawa m. interaction of endothelin- with endothelin-b receptor is essential for development of epidermal melanocytes and enteric neurons. cell ; : – . . hofstra rm, osinga j, tan-sindhunata g, wu y, kamsteeg ej, stulp rp, van ravenswaaij-arts c, majoor-krakauer d, angrist m, chakravarti a, meijers c, buys ch. a homozygous mutation in the endothelin- gene associated with a combined waardenburg type and hirschsprung phenotype (shah- waardenburg syndrome). nat genet ; : – . . edery p, attie t, amiel j, pelet a, eng c, hofstra rm, martelli h, bidaud c, munnich a, lyonnet s. mutation of the endothelin- gene in the waardenburg- hirschsprung disease (shah-waardenburg syndrome). nat genet ; : – . . pingault v, bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, goerich de, prehu mo, puliti a, herbarth b, hermans-borgmeyer i, legius e, matthijs g, amiel j, lyonnet s, ceccherini i, romeo g, smith jc, read ap, wegner m, goossens m. sox mutations in patients with waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . touraine rl, attie-bitach t, manceau e, korsch e, sarda p, pingault v, encha- razavi f, pelet a, auge j, nivelon-chevallier a, holschneider am, munnes m, doerfler w, goossens m, munnich a, vekemans m, lyonnet s. neurological phenotype in waardenburg syndrome type correlates with novel sox truncating mutations and expression in developing brain. am j hum genet ; : – . . southard-smith em, angrist m, ellison js, agarwala r, baxevanis ad, chakravarti a, pavan wj. the sox (dom) mouse: modeling the genetic variation of waardenburg- shah (ws ) syndrome. genome res ; : – . . herbarth b, pingault v, bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, hermans-borgmeyer i, puliti a, lemort n, goossens m, wegner m. mutation of the sry-related sox gene in dominant megacolon, a mouse model for human hirschsprung disease. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . chakravarti a. endothelin receptor-mediated signaling in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . amiel j, attie t, jan d, pelet a, edery p, bidaud c, lacombe d, tam p, simeoni j, flori e, nihoul-fekete c, munnich a, lyonnet s. heterozygous endothelin receptor b (ednrb) mutations in isolated hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . kusafuka t, wang y, puri p. novel mutations of the endothelin-b receptor gene in isolated patients with hirschsprung’s disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . auricchio a, casari g, staiano a, ballabio a. endothelin-b receptor mutations in patients with isolated hirschsprung disease from a non-inbred population. hum mol genet ; : – . . bidaud c, salomon r, van camp g, pelet a, attie t, eng c, bonduelle m, amiel j, nihoul-fekete c, willems pj, munnich a, lyonnet s. endothelin- gene mutations in isolated and syndromic hirschsprung disease. eur j hum genet ; : – . . hofstra rm, valdenaire o, arch e, osinga j, kroes h, loffler bm, hamosh a, meijers c, buys ch. a loss-of-function mutation in the endothelin-converting enzyme review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ (ece- ) associated with hirschsprung disease, cardiac defects, and autonomic dysfunction. am j hum genet ; : – . . yanagisawa h, yanagisawa m, kapur rp, richardson ja, williams sc, clouthier de, de wit d, emoto n, hammer re. dual genetic pathways of endothelin-mediated intercellular signaling revealed by targeted disruption of endothelin converting enzyme- gene. development ; : – . . lurie iw, supovitz kr, rosenblum-vos ls, wulfsberg ea. phenotypic variability of del( ) (q -q ): report of a case with a review of the literature. genet couns ; : – . . mowat dr, croaker gd, cass dt, kerr ba, chaitow j, ades lc, chia nl, wilson mj. hirschsprung disease, microcephaly, mental retardation, and characteristic facial features: delineation of a new syndrome and identification of a locus at chromosome q -q . j med genet ; : – . . wakamatsu n, yamada y, yamada k, ono t, nomura n, taniguchi h, kitoh h, mutoh n, yamanaka t, mushiake k, kato k, sonta s, nagaya m. mutations in sip , encoding smad interacting protein- , cause a form of hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . van de putte t, maruhashi m, francis a, nelles l, kondoh h, huylebroeck d, higashi y. mice lacking zfhx b, the gene that codes for smad-interacting protein- , reveal a role for multiple neural crest cell defects in the etiology of hirschsprung disease-mental retardation syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . . trochet d, o’brien lm, gozal d, trang h, nordenskjold a, laudier b, svensson pj, uhrig s, cole t, munnich a, gaultier c, lyonnet s, amiel j. phox b genotype allows for prediction of tumor risk in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . . trang h, dehan m, beaufils f, zaccaria i, amiel j, gaultier c. the french congenital central hypoventilation syndrome registry: general data, phenotype, and genotype. chest ; : – . . pattyn a, morin x, cremer h, goridis c, brunet jf. the homeobox gene phox b is essential for the development of autonomic neural crest derivatives. nature ; : – . . dauger s, pattyn a, lofaso f, gaultier c, goridis c, gallego j, brunet jf. phox b controls the development of peripheral chemoreceptors and afferent visceral pathways. development ; : – . . peippo mm, simola ko, valanne lk, larsen at, kahkonen m, auranen mp, ignatius j. pitt-hopkins syndrome in two patients and further definition of the phenotype. clin dysmorphol ; : – . . amiel j, rio m, de pontual l, redon r, malan v, boddaert n, plouin p, carter np, lyonnet s, munnich a, colleaux l. mutations in tcf , encoding a class i basic helix- loop-helix transcription factor, are responsible for pitt-hopkins syndrome, a severe epileptic encephalopathy associated with autonomic dysfunction. am j hum genet ; : – . . zweier c, peippo mm, hoyer j, sousa s, bottani a, clayton-smith j, reardon w, saraiva j, cabral a, gohring i, devriendt k, de ravel t, bijlsma ek, hennekam rc, orrico a, cohen m, dreweke a, reis a, nurnberg p, rauch a. haploinsufficiency of tcf causes syndromal mental retardation with intermittent hyperventilation (pitt- hopkins syndrome). am j hum genet ; : – . . wang g, zhang sh, lin hj, tong ec, huang yh, huang gt, zhuang ft. nonoperative treatment of hirschsprung’s disease: a new approach. j pediatr surg ; : – . . bergqvist i, eriksson m, saarikettu j, eriksson b, corneliussen b, grundstrom t, holmberg d. the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor e - is involved in t lymphocyte development. eur j immunol ; : – . . fewtrell ms, tam pk, thomson ah, fitchett m, currie j, huson sm, mulligan lm. hirschsprung’s disease associated with a deletion of chromosome (q . q . ): a further link with the neurocristopathies? j med genet ; : – . . mcmilin kd, reiss ja, brown mg, black mh, buckmaster da, durum ct, gunter ka, lawce hj, berry tl, lamb oa, olson cl, weeks ff, yoshitomi mj, jacky pb, olson sb, magenis re. clinical outcomes of four patients with microdeletion in the long arm of chromosome . am j med genet ; : – . . de pontual l, pelet a, clement-ziza m, trochet d, antonarakis se, attie-bitach t, beales pl, blouin jl, dastot-le moal f, dollfus h, goossens m, katsanis n, touraine r, feingold j, munnich a, lyonnet s, amiel j. epistatic interactions with a common hypomorphic ret allele in syndromic hirschsprung disease. hum mutat ; : – . . brewer c, holloway s, zawalnyski p, schinzel a, fitzpatrick d. a chromosomal deletion map of human malformations. am j hum genet ; : – . . brewer c, holloway s, zawalnyski p, schinzel a, fitzpatrick d. a chromosomal duplication map of malformations: regions of suspected haplo- and triplolethality– and tolerance of segmental aneuploidy–in humans. am j hum genet ; : – . . mahboubi s, templeton jm jr. association of hirschsprung’s disease and imperforate anus in a patient with ‘‘cat-eye’’ syndrome. a report of one case and review of the literature. pediatr radiol ; : – . . lane pw, liu hm. association of megacolon with a new dominant spotting gene (dom) in the mouse. j hered ; : – . . bondurand n, kuhlbrodt k, pingault v, enderich j, sajus m, tommerup n, warburg m, hennekam rc, read ap, wegner m, goossens m. a molecular analysis of the yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome: sox dysfunction causes different neurocristopathies. hum mol genet ; : – . . inoue k, khajavi m, ohyama t, hirabayashi s, wilson j, reggin jd, mancias p, butler ij, wilkinson mf, wegner m, lupski jr. molecular mechanism for distinct neurological phenotypes conveyed by allelic truncating mutations. nat genet ; : – . . auricchio a, griseri p, carpentieri ml, betsos n, staiano a, tozzi a, priolo m, thompson h, bocciardi r, romeo g, ballabio a, ceccherini i. double heterozygosity for a ret substitution interfering with splicing and an ednrb missense mutation in hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : – . . carrasquillo mm, mccallion as, puffenberger eg, kashuk cs, nouri n, chakravarti a. genome-wide association study in mennonites identifies multiple genes for oligogenic hirschsprung disease. am j hum genet ; : . . potterf sb, furumura m, dunn kj, arnheiter h, pavan wj. transcription factor hierarchy in waardenburg syndrome: regulation of mitf expression by sox and pax . hum genet ; : – . . southard-smith em, kos l, pavan wj. sox mutation disrupts neural crest development in dom hirschsprung mouse model. nat genet ; : – . . stanchina l, baral v, robert f, pingault v, lemort n, pachnis v, goossens m, bondurand n. interactions between sox , edn and ednrb during enteric nervous system and melanocyte development. dev biol ; : – . . owens se, broman kw, wiltshire t, elmore jb, bradley km, smith jr, southard- smith em. genome-wide linkage identifies novel modifier loci of aganglionosis in the sox dom model of hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . gabriel sb, salomon r, pelet a, angrist m, amiel j, fornage m, attie-bitach t, olson jm, hofstra r, buys c, steffann j, munnich a, lyonnet s, chakravarti a. segregation at three loci explains familial and population risk in hirschsprung disease. nat genet ; : – . . brooks as, leegwater pa, burzynski gm, willems pj, de graaf b, van langen i, heutink p, oostra ba, hofstra rm, bertoli-avella am. a novel susceptibility locus for hirschsprung’s disease maps to q . -q . . j med genet ; :e . . sakai t, wakizaka a, nirasawa y, ito y. point nucleotidic changes in both the ret proto-oncogene and the endothelin-b receptor gene in a hirschsprung disease patient associated with down syndrome. tohoku j exp med ; : – . . sparkes rs, sparkes mc, kalina re, pagon ra, salk dj, disteche cm. separation of retinoblastoma and esterase d loci in a patient with sporadic retinoblastoma and del( )(q . q . ). hum genet ; : – . . lamont ma, fitchett m, dennis nr. interstitial deletion of distal q associated with hirschsprung’s disease. j med genet ; : – . . bottani a, xie yg, binkert f, schinzel a. a case of hirschsprung disease with a chromosome microdeletion, del( )(q . q . ): potential mapping of one disease locus. hum genet ; : – . . benailly h, lapierre j, laudier b, amiel j, attie t, de blois m, vekemans m, romana s. pmx b, a new candidate gene for hirschsprung’s disease. clin genet ; : – . . attie t, till m, pelet a, amiel j, edery p, boutrand l, munnich a, lyonnet s. mutation of the endothelin-receptor b gene in waardenburg-hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . gross a, kunze j, maier rf, stoltenburg-didinger g, grimmer i, obladen m. autosomal-recessive neural crest syndrome with albinism, black lock, cell migration disorder of the neurocytes of the gut, and deafness: abcd syndrome. am j med genet ; : – . . mahakrishnan a, srinivasan ms. piebaldness with hirschsprung’s disease. arch dermatol ; : . . kaplan p, de chaderevian jp. piebaldism-waardenburg syndrome: histopathologic evidence for a neural crest syndrome. am j med genet ; : – . . haddad gg, mazza nm, defendini r, blanc wa, driscoll jm, epstein ma, epstein ra, mellins rb. congenital failure of automatic control of ventilation, gastrointestinal motility and heart rate. medicine (baltimore) ; : – . . verloes a, elmer c, lacombe d, heinrichs c, rebuffat e, demarquez jl, moncla a, adam e. ondine-hirschsprung syndrome (haddad syndrome). further delineation in two cases and review of the literature. eur j pediatr ; : – . . amiel j, laudier b, attie-bitach t, trang h, de pontual l, gener b, trochet d, etchevers h, ray p, simonneau m, vekemans m, munnich a, gaultier c, lyonnet s. polyalanine expansion and frameshift mutations of the paired-like homeobox gene phox b in congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. nat genet ; : – . . verdy m, weber am, roy cc, morin cl, cadotte m, brochu p. hirschsprung’s disease in a family with multiple endocrine neoplasia type . j pediatr gastroenterol nutr ; : – . . borst mj, vancamp jm, peacock ml, decker ra. mutational analysis of multiple endocrine neoplasia type a associated with hirschsprung’s disease. surgery ; : – . . caron p, attie t, david d, amiel j, brousset f, roger p, munnich a, lyonnet s. c r mutation in exon of the ret proto-oncogene in a kindred with multiple endocrine neoplasia type a and hirschsprung’s disease. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . peretz h, luboshitsky r, baron e, biton a, gershoni r, usher s, grynberg e, yakobson e, graff e, lapidot m. cys arg mutation in the ret proto-oncogene associated with familial medullary thyroid carcinoma and maternally transmitted hirschsprung’s disease suggesting a role for imprinting. hum mutat ; : – . . decker ra, peacock ml, watson p. hirschsprung disease in men a: increased spectrum of ret exon genotypes and strong genotype-phenotype correlation. hum mol genet ; : – . . romeo g, ceccherini i, celli j, priolo m, betsos n, bonardi g, seri m, yin l, lerone m, jasonni v, martucciello g. association of multiple endocrine neoplasia type and hirschsprung disease. j intern med ; : – . review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ . borrego s, eng c, sanchez b, saez me, navarro e, antinolo g. molecular analysis of the ret and gdnf genes in a family with multiple endocrine neoplasia type a and hirschsprung disease. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . goldberg rb, shprintzen rj. hirschsprung megacolon and cleft palate in two sibs. j craniofac genet dev biol ; : – . . brooks as, breuning mh, osinga j, vd smagt jj, catsman ce, buys ch, meijers c, hofstra rm. a consanguineous family with hirschsprung disease, microcephaly, and mental retardation (goldberg-shprintzen syndrome). j med genet ; : – . . brooks as, bertoli-avella am, burzynski gm, breedveld gj, osinga j, boven lg, hurst ja, mancini gm, lequin mh, de coo rf, matera i, de graaff e, meijers c, willems pj, tibboel d, oostra ba, hofstra rm. homozygous nonsense mutations in kiaa are associated with malformations of the central and enteric nervous systems. am j hum genet ; : – . . santos h, mateus j, leal mj. hirschsprung disease associated with polydactyly, unilateral renal agenesis, hypertelorism, and congenital deafness: a new autosomal recessive syndrome. j med genet ; : – . . laurence km, prosser r, rocker i, pearson jf, richard c. hirschsprung’s disease associated with congenital heart malformation, broad big toes, and ulnar polydactyly in sibs: a case for fetoscopy. j med genet ; : – . . al-gazali li, donnai d, mueller rf. hirschsprung’s disease, hypoplastic nails, and minor dysmorphic features: a distinct autosomal recessive syndrome? j med genet ; : – . . huang t, elias er, mulliken jb, kirse dj, holmes lb. a new syndrome: heart defect, laryngeal anomalies, preaxial polydactyly, and colonic aganglionosis in sibs. genet med ; : . . reynolds jf, barber jc, alford ba, chandler jg, kelly te. familial hirschsprung’s disease and type d brachydactyly: a report of four affected males in two generations. pediatrics ; : – . . toriello hv, komar k, lawrence c, higgins jv, waterman df. macrocephaly, hirschsprung disease, brachydactyly, vertebral defects, and other minor anomalies. dysmorphology and clinical genetics ; : – . . cacheux v, dastot-le moal f, kaariainen h, bondurand n, rintala r, boissier b, wilson m, mowat d, goossens m. loss-of-function mutations in sip smad interacting protein result in a syndromic hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . . amiel j, espinosa-parrilla y, steffann j, gosset p, pelet a, prieur m, boute o, choiset a, lacombe d, philip n, le merrer m, tanaka h, till m, touraine r, toutain a, vekemans m, munnich a, lyonnet s. large-scale deletions and smadip truncating mutations in syndromic hirschsprung disease with involvement of midline structures. am j hum genet ; : – . . zweier c, thiel ct, dufke a, crow yj, meinecke p, suri m, ala-mello s, beemer f, bernasconi s, bianchi p, bier a, devriendt k, dimitrov b, firth h, gallagher rc, garavelli l, gillessen-kaesbach g, hudgins l, kaariainen h, karstens s, krantz i, mannhardt a, medne l, mucke j, kibaek m, krogh ln, peippo m, rittinger o, schulz s, schelley sl, temple ik, dennis nr, van der knaap ms, wheeler p, yerushalmi b, zenker m, seidel h, lachmeijer a, prescott t, kraus c, lowry rb, rauch a. clinical and mutational spectrum of mowat-wilson syndrome. eur j med genet ; : – . . radetti g, frick r, pasquino b, mengarda g, savage mo. hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction and hirschsprung’s disease in the bardet-biedl syndrome. helv paediatr acta ; : – . . lorda-sanchez i, ayuso c, ibanez a. situs inversus and hirschsprung disease: two uncommon manifestations in bardet-biedl syndrome. am j med genet ; : – . . davenport m, taitz ls, dickson ja. the kaufman-mckusick syndrome: another association. j pediatr surg ; : – . . patterson k, toomey ke, chandra rs. hirschsprung disease in a ,xy phenotypic infant girl with smith-lemli-opitz syndrome. j pediatr ; : – . . makitie o. [cartilage-hair hypoplasia–a finnish growth disorder]. duodecim ; : – . . okamoto n, del maestro r, valero r, monros e, poo p, kanemura y, yamasaki m. hydrocephalus and hirschsprung’s disease with a mutation of l cam. j hum genet ; : – . . mandel h, brik r, ludatscher r, braun j, berant m. congenital muscular dystrophy with neurological abnormalities: association with hirschsprung disease. am j med genet ; : – . . kim jj, armstrong dd, fishman ma. multicore myopathy, microcephaly, aganglionosis, and short stature. j child neurol ; : – . . mallory sb, haynie ls, williams ml, hall w. ichthyosis, deafness, and hirschsprung’s disease. pediatr dermatol ; : – . . kaplan p. x linked recessive inheritance of agenesis of the corpus callosum. j med genet ; : – . . okamoto n, wada y, goto m. hydrocephalus and hirschsprung’s disease in a patient with a mutation of l cam. j med genet ; : – . . hall cm. werner’s mesomelic dysplasia with ventricular septal defect and hirschsprung’s disease. pediatr radiol ; : – . . goldenberg a, milh m, de lagausie p, mesnage r, benarif f, de blois mc, munnich a, lyonnet s, cormier-daire v. werner mesomelic dysplasia with hirschsprung disease. am j med genet a ; : – . . aurora p, wallis ce. jeune syndrome (asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy) associated with hirschsprung disease. clin dysmorphol ; : – . . hansford jr, mulligan lm. multiple endocrine neoplasia type and ret: from neoplasia to neurogenesis. j med genet ; : – . . chatten j, voorhess ml. familial neuroblastoma. report of a kindred with multiple disorders, including neuroblastomas in four siblings. n engl j med ; : – . . clausen n, andersson p, tommerup n. familial occurrence of neuroblastoma, von recklinghausen’s neurofibromatosis, hirschsprung’s agangliosis and jaw-winking syndrome. acta paediatr scand ; : – . . knudson ag jr, meadows at. developmental genetics of neuroblastoma. j natl cancer inst ; : – . . rohrer t, trachsel d, engelcke g, hammer j. congenital central hypoventilation syndrome associated with hirschsprung’s disease and neuroblastoma: case of multiple neurocristopathies. pediatr pulmonol ; : – . . trochet d, bourdeaut f, janoueix-lerosey i, deville a, de pontual l, schleiermacher g, coze c, philip n, frebourg t, munnich a, lyonnet s, delattre o, amiel j. germline mutations of the paired-like homeobox b (phox b) gene in neuroblastoma. am j hum genet ; : – . . mosse yp, laudenslager m, khazi d, carlisle aj, winter cl, rappaport e, maris jm. germline phox b mutation in hereditary neuroblastoma. am j hum genet ; : – . . van limpt v, schramm a, van lakeman a, sluis p, chan a, van noesel m, baas f, caron h, eggert a, versteeg r. the phox b homeobox gene is mutated in sporadic neuroblastomas. oncogene ; : – . . perri p, bachetti t, longo l, matera i, seri m, tonini gp, ceccherini i. phox b mutations and genetic predisposition to neuroblastoma. oncogene ; : – . . mcconville c, reid s, baskcomb l, douglas j, rahman n. phox b analysis in non-syndromic neuroblastoma cases shows novel mutations and genotype- phenotype associations. am j med genet a ; : – . . gozal d. congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: an update. pediatr pulmonol ; : – . . roshkow je, haller jo, berdon we, sane sm. hirschsprung’s disease, ondine’s curse, and neuroblastoma– manifestations of neurocristopathy. pediatr radiol ; : – . . levard g, boige n, vitoux c, aigrain y, boureau m, navarro j. [neurocristopathy. the association of hirschsprung’s disease-ganglioneuroma with autonomic nervous system dysfunction in children]. arch fr pediatr ; : – . . weese-mayer de, silvestri jm, marazita ml, hoo jj. congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: inheritance and relation to sudden infant death syndrome. am j med genet ; : – . . croaker gd, shi e, simpson e, cartmill t, cass dt. congenital central hypoventilation syndrome and hirschsprung’s disease. arch dis child ; : – . . weese-mayer de, berry-kravis em, zhou l, maher bs, silvestri jm, curran me, marazita ml. idiopathic congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: analysis of genes pertinent to early autonomic nervous system embryologic development and identification of mutations in phox b. am j med genet ; a: – . . matera i, bachetti t, puppo f, di duca m, morandi f, casiraghi gm, cilio mr, hennekam r, hofstra r, schober jg, ravazzolo r, ottonello g, ceccherini i. phox b mutations and polyalanine expansions correlate with the severity of the respiratory phenotype and associated symptoms in both congenital and late onset central hypoventilation syndrome. j med genet ; : – . . weese-mayer de, berry-kravis em, zhou l. adult identified with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome–mutation in phox b gene and late-onset chs. am j respir crit care med ; : . . waardenburg pj. a new syndrome combining developmental anomalies of the eyelids, eyebrows and nose root with pigmentary defects of the iris and head hair and with congenital deafness. am j hum genet ; : – . . hageman mj, delleman jw. heterogeneity in waardenburg syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . . jacobs jm, wilson j. an unusual demyelinating neuropathy in a patient with waardenburg’s syndrome. acta neuropathol (berl) ; : – . . weinberg ag, currarino g, besserman am. hirschsprung’s disease and congenital deafness. familial assocation. hum genet ; : – . . brunoni d, joffe r, farah lm, cunha aj. syndrome identification case report : hirschsprung megacolon, cleft lip and palate, mental retardation, and minor congenital malformations. j clin dysmorphol ; : – . . merkler rg, solish sb, scherzer al. meningomyelocele and hirschprung disease: theoretical and clinical significance. pediatrics ; : – . . papin c, van grunsven la, verschueren k, huylebroeck d, smith jc. dynamic regulation of brachyury expression in the amphibian embryo by xsip . mech dev ; ( – ): – . . van de putte t, francis a, nelles l, van grunsven la, huylebroeck d. neural crest- specific removal of zfhx b in mouse leads to a wide range of neurocristopathies reminiscent of mowat-wilson syndrome. hum mol genet ; : – . . hurst ja, markiewicz m, kumar d, brett em. unknown syndrome: hirschsprung’s disease, microcephaly, and iris coloboma: a new syndrome of defective neuronal migration. j med genet ; : – . . halal f, morel j. the syndrome of hirschsprung disease, microcephaly, unusual face, and mental retardation. am j med genet ; : – . . reish o, gorlin rj, hordinsky m, rest eb, burke b, berry sa. brain anomalies, retardation of mentality and growth, ectodermal dysplasia, skeletal malformations, hirschsprung disease, ear deformity and deafness, eye hypoplasia, cleft palate, cryptorchidism, and kidney dysplasia/hypoplasia (bresek/bresheck): new x-linked syndrome? am j med genet ; : – . review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ . tobin jl, beales pl. bardet-biedl syndrome: beyond the cilium. pediatr nephrol ; : – . . stone dl, slavotinek a, bouffard gg, banerjee-basu s, baxevanis ad, barr m, biesecker lg. mutation of a gene encoding a putative chaperonin causes mckusick- kaufman syndrome. nat genet ; : – . . slavotinek am, stone em, mykytyn k, heckenlively jr, green js, heon e, musarella ma, parfrey ps, sheffield vc, biesecker lg. mutations in mkks cause bardet-biedl syndrome. nat genet ; : – . . wassif ca, maslen c, kachilele-linjewile s, lin d, linck lm, connor we, steiner rd, porter fd. mutations in the human sterol delta -reductase gene at q - cause smith-lemli-opitz syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . . waterham hr, wijburg fa, hennekam rc, vreken p, poll-the bt, dorland l, duran m, jira pe, smeitink ja, wevers ra, wanders rj. smith-lemli-opitz syndrome is caused by mutations in the -dehydrocholesterol reductase gene. am j hum genet ; : – . . sulisalo t, sistonen p, hastbacka j, wadelius c, makitie o, de la chapelle a, kaitila i. cartilage-hair hypoplasia gene assigned to chromosome by linkage analysis. nat genet ; : – . . de pontual l, pelet a, trochet d, jaubert f, espinosa-parrilla y, munnich a, brunet jf, goridis c, feingold j, lyonnet s, amiel j. mutations of the ret gene in isolated and syndromic hirschsprung’s disease in human disclose major and modifier alleles at a single locus. j med genet ; : – . . miao x, garcia-barcelo mm, so mt, leon ty, lau dk, liu tt, chan ek, lan lc, wong kk, lui vc, tam pk. role of ret and phox b gene polymorphisms in risk of hirschsprung’s disease in chinese population. gut ; : . . hofstra rm, elfferich p, osinga j, verlind e, fransen e, lopez pison j, de die-smulders ce, stolte-dijkstra i, buys ch. hirschsprung disease and l cam: is the disturbed sex ratio caused by l cam mutations? j med genet ; :e . . parisi ma, kapur rp, neilson i, hofstra rm, holloway lw, michaelis rc, leppig ka. hydrocephalus and intestinal aganglionosis: is l cam a modifier gene in hirschsprung disease? am j med genet ; : – . . ikeda k, goto s. additional anomalies in hirschsprung’s disease: an analysis based on the nationwide survey in japan. z kinderchir ; : – . . edward e, ecker j, christakis n, folkman j. hirschsprung’s disease: associated abnormalities and demography. j pediatr surg ; : . . russell mb, russell ca, niebuhr e. an epidemiological study of hirschsprung’s disease and additional anomalies. acta paediatr ; : – . . sarioglu a, tanyel fc, buyukpamukcu n, hicsonmez a. hirschsprung-associated congenital anomalies. eur j pediatr surg ; : – . . lore f, di cairano g, talidis f. unilateral renal agenesis in a family with medullary thyroid carcinoma. n engl j med ; : – . . whalen tv jr, asch mj. report of two patients with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis and hirschsprung’s disease. coincident or common etiology? am surg ; : – . . sayed m, al-alaiyan s. agenesis of corpus callosum, hypertrophic pyloric stenosis and hirschsprung disease: coincidence or common etiology? neuropediatrics ; : – . . janik jp, wayne er, janik js, price mr. ileal atresia with total colonic aganglionosis. j pediatr surg ; : – . . mccallion as, stames e, conlon ra, chakravarti a. phenotype variation in two- locus mouse models of hirschsprung disease: tissue-specific interaction between ret and ednrb. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . date for your diary international forum on quality & safety in health care – april le palais de congrès de paris paris, france http://www.internationalforum.bmj.com why attend? c join over healthcare professionals from over countries worldwide c learn from experienced leaders and improvement experts c find out what is current in quality and safety c gain new skills and tools for creating change in your organisation c take home practical solutions for improvement methods c network with like-minded colleagues this is a premier event for those dedicated to improving quality and safety in healthcare. our focus is on practical, take-home ideas that will leave you inspired to implement valuable, lasting change on your return to the workplace. register online from january onwards for more information on the forum visit - http://www.internationalforum.bmj.com review j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmg. . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . o n o cto b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ global histories a student journal third world intervention in the global cold war: the german federal republic in paraguay authors: vincent kammer and carla venneri doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /ghsj. . source: global histories, vol. , no. (december ), pp. - . issn: - x copyright © vincent kammer and carla venneri license url: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / publisher information: ‘global histories: a student journal’ is an open-access bi-annual journal founded in by students of the m.a. program global history at freie universität berlin and humboldt-universität zu berlin. ‘global histories’ is published by an editorial board of global history students in association with the freie universität berlin. freie universität berlin global histories: a student journal friedrich-meinecke-institut koserstraße berlin contact information: for more information, please consult our website www.globalhistories.com or contact the editor at: admin@globalhistories.com. global histories: a student journal | vi - - third world intervention in the global cold war: the german federal republic in paraguay by vincent kammer and carla venneri v. paraguay global histories: a student journal | vi - - abstract the following paper aims to contribute to the study of the global cold war and western interventionism in the so- called third-world countries. specifically, it explores the role of the federal republic of germany, as a western bloc actor, in its bilateral relations with paraguay under the stroessner dictatorship ( - ), one of the longest and most repressive regimes in latin america. moreover, this study analyses the impact of the global cold war in the contemporary system of global governance and international order. the ideological and political dimensions of the cold war, compounded with its military, economic and cultural confrontations, opened a window onto the rise of west- germany as a prominent actor in international relations. an exploration of the case of its relations with paraguay helps to achieve a broader understanding of how third-world actors increased the spectrum of the conflict to a global level. by engaging in the study of this case within a historical perspective, this article aspires to stimulate a new analysis of the federal republic (frg) interventions within the binarism of the global cold war. this study focuses on how bilateral relations between the frg and paraguay, inserted into the arena of a global iron curtain, were shaped by anti-communist discourses and oriented towards economic goals. the latter were pursued through development projects and strategies to achieve industrialization in third-world countries. in this context, this paper explores the technical and financial aid provided to support development and modernization in several economic sectors. v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - . introduction the following article explores the role of the federal republic of germany (frg) in the global cold war and its bilateral relation with paraguay. it focuses on the time frame encompassing the big coalition cdu/csu-spd ( - ), during which willy brandt was simultaneously minister for foreign affairs and vice-chancellor in the cabinet, and his subsequent chancellery ( - ). in a speech given by willy brandt on june , , in the occasion of the us president john f. kennedy visit to berlin, the mayor of the divided city renewed the german’s gratitude to americans for their commitment against national socialism and fascism in europe, while also underlining the commonality of interests, ideals, and objectives linking west-germany and the usa. in the forthcoming years, brandt became one of the most prominent and accredited german politicians at the international level due to his ostpolitik and his presidency of the socialist international. the engagement demonstrated by brandt as a president in the north-south- commission led him to receive the   “rede willy brandts am rathaus schöneberg zum berlin-besuch von us-präsident john f. kennedy, . juni, ,” (deutschlandfunk) willy brandt online biografie: bundeskanzler willy brandt stiftung, audio, : , https://www.willy- brandt-biografie.de/quellen/audios/ kennedy- /. nobel peace prize and the investiture as the main spokesman of the so- called “third way” between capitalism and communism. however, the focus of this study will neither be on the head of the cdu/csu-spd coalition kurt georg kiesinger, nor brandt, but on the elements of their governments that tightened the bilateral relationship between the frg and paraguay. the main goal of this study is to achieve a deeper understanding of the political and economic components that were shaping the bilateral relation between paraguay and the frg. simultaneously, it attempts to highlight the points of rupture and continuity in the foreign policy related to paraguay implemented by the kiesinger coalition and subsequently by the social democratic party (spd) led by brandt. by analyzing the ideological and political dimensions from this period, this research also explores the economic patterns that shaped the “third-way” in-between the two hegemonic superpowers. this analysis acknowledges the events and development of the third world as a central concern during the cold war and considers this conflict a continuum of the european colonial project, although driven by the paradigm of “control and improvement,” rather than “exploitation or subjection.”   odd arne westad, the global cold war. third world intervention and the making of our times (cambridge university press, ), - . v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar https://www.willy-brandt-biografie.de/quellen/audios/kennedy- / https://www.willy-brandt-biografie.de/quellen/audios/kennedy- / https://www.willy-brandt-biografie.de/quellen/audios/kennedy- / global histories: a student journal | vi - - according to some scholars, the origins and global evolution of the conflict are deeply embedded in western conceptions of development and progress, modernization, and americanism. historian odd arne westad underlines that these ideas were expressed in the full acceptance of free-market economies as the “logical extension of the virtues of capitalism and universal liberty.” the frg’s foreign policies related to latin america and in particular to paraguay should be understood within this framework. this should not be solely conceived as a result of the so- called “americanization of europe,” but also as the continuation of the european colonialist project. the relationship built by the frg and paraguay during the expansion phase of the stroessner regime shows   nils gilman, mandarin of the future. modernization theory in cold war america (baltimore and london: the johns hopkins university press, ), - .   westad, the global cold war, .   see alexander stephan, the americanization of europe: culture, diplomacy, and antiamericanism after (berghahn book, ).   some scholars like nickson and chambers recognized phases of stroessner´s dictatorship. the first phase, the “consolidation” decade ( - ), is characterized by the suppression of political opponents, the centralization of power in stroessner’s figure, and the successive adoption of the first international monetary fund (imf) program for economic stabilization. the expansion phase ( - ) the operating principles of what patrick iber calls “anti-communist entrepreneurs.” furthermore, it suggests an affinity to a mentality that preferred “developmental dictatorship, rather than vulnerable democracies.” some scholars of that time enshrined progress and modernity as the most desirable objective for every state. within this context, undemocratic behavior was justified and legitimated. the case of paraguay and the overthrow in guatemala ( ) represent the emblematic beginning of a series of military dictatorships in latin american directly supported through soft or hard intervention; orchestrated with the collaboration of also described as the “paraguayan miracle” will be analyzed in this article. the third phase ( - ) represents the crisis and the end of stroessner’s regime; kevin chambers, “paraguay” in the south america handbook. regional handbooks of economic development, eds. monique lamontagne and patrick heenan (london: routledge, ): - ; andrew r. nickson, el regimen de stroessner ( - ) (university of birmingham, ).   patrick iber, “anti-communist entrepreneurs and the origins of the cultural cold war in latin america,” in de-centering cold war history local and global change, ed. jadwiga pieper mooney and fabio lanza (new york: routledge, ), .   gilman, mandarin of the future, .   edward shils, “political development in the new states,” comparative studies in society and history , no. (april ): . v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - the central intelligence agency (cia), they converted the region into one of the most unequal and insecure areas of the globe. to reach a wider understanding of the economic and political relationship between the frg and paraguay in the global cold war, it might be useful to place the two countries in the orbit of american hegemony, while also considering the colonial era history and the period of german immigration and colonization. this analysis is mainly based on a qualitative approach compounded by historical, sociological, and political reviews. the core of its data is composed by the diplomatic correspondence between the frg embassy in asuncion and the paraguayan embassy in bonn, but also between other frg ministries and paraguayan institutions ranging from to . the first part of this work addresses the history of european settlers who arrived in paraguay before the first world war (wwi), as well as the spread of german national socialism in paraguay during the second world war (wwii). the second section examines the beginning of the cold war, the strengthening of relations between the frg and paraguay under the anti- communist flag, and their affiliation to the western bloc. here a review of the role played by the usa is essential. finally, the article moves from the ideological links between   joseph s. nye, “soft power,” foreign policy no. (autumn, ): . both nations, to the economic aspect of the bilateral relationship. the frg’s financial and technical aid to paraguay was directed to several sectors of production to support development, industrialization, and modernization, which was considered necessary to acquire a more prominent position in the global stage. . new forms of colonization the political and economic affairs between the kingdom of prussia and the independent republic of paraguay officially began in with an agreement on trade and navigation that ended a long period of economic isolation. the main purpose of the agreement was the sale of weapons to the paraguayan market. the agreement also paved the way for a future german market of yerba mate. the export of this herb remained under the monopolized administration of the state and was a primary source of profit for the economy. the end of the paraguayan war ( - ) and   heinz schneppen “deutschland und paraguay von der ersten bis zur letzten diktatur, - “ jahrbuch für geschichte lateinamerika , no. (december ): .   barbara potthast, „die historische entwicklung paraguay‘s,“ bundeszentrale für politische bildung, january , , https:// www.bpb.de/internationales/amerika/ lateinamerika/ /geschichte. v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar https://www.bpb.de/internationales/amerika/lateinamerika/ /geschichte https://www.bpb.de/internationales/amerika/lateinamerika/ /geschichte https://www.bpb.de/internationales/amerika/lateinamerika/ /geschichte global histories: a student journal | vi - - the catastrophic consequences for the population led the government to approve a law aimed at encouraging foreign immigration through land concession and financial aid, a step toward officially legitimating a new phase of colonization. the first legitimate colony for german migrants was founded in by the swiss immigrant jakob schärer under the name san bernardino, in the cordillera department. in , bernhardt förster, richard wagner, and other anti-semitic fanatics celebrated the foundation of new germany in the department of san pedro. at the turn of the century, german migrants founded yet another successful settlement, currently known as hohenau, and established an agriculture-based economy. the most conspicuous project was held by mennonites, who established numerous settlements in the chaco region based on the agricultural sector too. the german historian and diplomat heinz schneppen highlighted how the mennonites sympathized with hitler’s politics without identifying themselves within the national socialist ideology. other   rudolf plett, el protestantismo en el paraguay: su aporte cultural, económico y espiritual (asunción: fac. latinoamericana de estudios teológico, ): ; ralph rotte, “paraguays ‘großer krieg’ gegen die tripel-allianz, - ” Ömz Österreichische militärische zeitschrift (february ): .   schneppen “deutschland und paraguay,” . scholars, like benjamin w. redekop and frank henry epp, underlined the cultural, racial, and political ties of mennonites to germanism. with law from july , , the paraguayan government entitled rights and ensured privileges to the new colonies. for instance, mennonites obtained the autonomy to establish their own institutions and create an education system where pupils were taught in their own language. moreover, they were exempted from paying importation duties and national/ municipal taxes for a decade. as kleinpenning shows, the land assigned for mennonite settlements was purchased through the direct financial aid of an intercontinental company, la corporación paraguaya, which was officially recognized by the government as a colonization company. mennonite colonies established in the chaco area were a successful form of legitimized colonization based on cooperatives devoted to agriculture and breeding.   frank h. epp. “an analysis of germanism and national socialism in the immigrant newspaper of a canadian minority,” (phd diss., university of minnesota, ), - ; benjamin w. redekop, “german identity of mennonite brethren immigrant in canada, - .” (phd diss., university of british columbia, ), - .   jan m.g. kleinpenning, the mennonite colonies in paraguay. origin and development, (berlin: ibero- amerikanisches institut, ), .   kleinpenning, the mennonite colonies in paraguay, . v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - with the support of the paraguayan government and incentives (technological and economic) from la corporación paraguaya, the colonization of chaco became an achieved goal. by the end of the s, the activity of the colonies was extended to the production of cotton, the extraction of palo santo oil, and other activities related to seeds and new strains of plants. the case of chaco is crucial for the present analysis, due to the strategic importance acquired by the area in the forthcoming years. the war between bolivia and paraguay ( - ) for the control over the gran chaco region was marked by a strong presence of germans in the ranks of the paraguayan military. amongst them was alfredo stroessner, who would later rule paraguay during the years of the cold war. at the end of the s german immigration to latin america was conspicuous and, as schneppen underlines, paraguay was for them “das land der verheißung,” the promised land.   kleinpenning, the mennonite colonies in paraguay, - .   schneppen “deutschland und paraguay,” . all citations have been translated from german or spanish to english by the authors. . . us interference in the political internal affairs of paraguay despite the german- paraguayan history of colonization, paraguay did not play any relevant role in the usa foreign policy towards latin america until the beginning of wwii. as the paraguayan historian alfredo seiferheld underlines, in paraguay faced the foundation of the first nazi party recognized and directly supported by germany. the penetration of german national socialism in latin america and the constant growth of trade between germany and paraguay alarmed the us, which then regarded national socialism as a global threat to the idea of a free market economy and thus, deemed necessary an american intervention in the southern cone. the american interest in expanding their sphere of influence to paraguay was not just moved by the fear of nazism, but mainly by economic interests. at the dawn of wwii, two conspicuous rounds of financial aid amounting to . and million usd were allocated to paraguay in military equipment, in   alfredo m. seiferheld, nazismo y fascismo en el paraguay. víspera de la ii guerra mundial. gobierno de rafael franco y felix paiva ( / ) (asunción: editorial histórica, ), .   frank o.mora, “the forgotten relationship: united states-paraguay relations, - ,” journal of contemporary history, no. (july ): - . v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - exchange for the concession over the port of asunción in to an american corporation, which officially formalized the start of the era of american financial aid to paraguay. from this time until , the us financial aid provided by the usa to paraguay increased continuously. through this strategy, the americans foreign policy toward paraguay was able to reach two significant results: first, these commercial, financial and diplomatic ties led paraguay to become economically dependent on foreign assistance, opening new perspectives of profit for the us investment market and, more generally, for the private sector. second, the dependency—enhanced through soft intervention—-enabled the usa to exercise influence and control, forcing paraguay to break its alliance with german national socialists. during wwii and in the forthcoming decades, foreign capital aid became essential for paraguay. according to statistics, the end of was characterized by the presence of million usd in foreign capital, percent of which was provided by the united states, and percent by germany.   michael grow, the good neighbor policy and authoritarianism in paraguay: u.s. economic expansion and the great-power rivalry in latin america during world war ii (lawrenz: regents press of kansas, ), .   naciones unidas: comisión económica para américa latina y el caribe, “las empresas transnacional en la economía del paraguay,” in estudios e informe de la cepal, no. . frg, the usa, and paraguay after wwii the usa imperialist strategy of intervention in third-world countries had begun before and during wwii, as a reaction to the military confrontation with bolsheviks during wwi and a “response to the great depression.” at the beginning of the s, the cold war was already global and third-world interventions became one of its important characteristics. according to nicolas guilhot, at the end of wwii, development aid to the third world provided by the usa concealed the intention to enlarge the international circuits of capital and the appropriation of new territories to be exploited. the us strategy of backing the rise of nationalism in third-world countries, as guilhot continues to explain, was aimed at preventing these countries from ending up under soviet influence and jeopardizing the american dream of world leadership. in that sense, stroessner’s dictatorship was part of the us strategy for political stability in the southern cone. in , the year of the paraguayan military coup, the cold war had reached its peak. the small ( ): .   westad, the global cold war, , , .   nicolas guilhot, the democracy makers: human rights and international order (new york: columbia university press, ), .   guilhot, the democracy makers, . v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - country in the southern cone was strategically located. by the end of the s, the frg completed the integration process in the western bloc through its official entrance in the north atlantic pact (nato) and the unification of west berlin. these events signalized the return of the frg as a power actor on the international stage. according to historian william gray, the frg’s concerns at that time were directed towards affirming its monopoly on the international scenario as the only legally recognized german state. in the first half of the global cold war, the foreign policy towards latin america complied with the hellerstein doctrine, an effort to undermine the international legitimacy of east-germany. the first trade agreement between the frg and paraguay after wwii is reported by the weekly magazine die zeit on march , . with a trade exchange of . million usd, the deal aimed to provide new machinery and metals, but also equipment for industrial and domestic use. at the top of the list of the most exported goods from paraguay to the frg were   william g. gray, “cold war hinterland: west germany and the establishment of the brazilian dictatorship,” in german yearbook of contemporary history (berlin/ boston: de gruyter, ), .   cornelia navari, internationalism and the state in the twenty century (new york: routledge taylor & francis groups, ), . cotton, hides, and lumber. from september to , , berlin hosted the first post-war industry forum under brandt’s leadership titled “foreign trade and private investment.” the forum involved latin american countries that were part of the alliance for progress, an organization engaged in avoiding the spread of the cuban revolution. the central theme of this forum focused on exports enhancement through economic planning and new cooperation between public and private companies. another topic of the forum concerned the world bank’s project in latin america. in this context, the presence of the paraguayan minister of industry and trade josé moreno gonzales, as well as the participation of prominent members of new regional institutions such as the economic commission for latin america and the caribbean (cepal), the latin american free trade association (lafta), the secretary of economic integration of central america (sieca) signalized the beginning of a new globalized era. . . global cold war in times of the uprising the beginning of the kiesinger-brandt era in the frg coincides with the collapse of the   “paraguay-baumwolle” die zeit, nr. / , march , .   “latin american countries at the industry forum, berlin in lab, b rep. , nr. . v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - hallerstein doctrine. the german democratic republic (gdr) had obtained its legitimacy as an independent state in other third world countries. this period remains characterized by a strong anti- communism agenda, which was, as thomas banchoff points out, an overlapping priority for kiesinger and brandt´s foreign policies. in the stroessner regime started a period of economic growth that some scholars defined as “the paraguayan miracle.” in the political report of the same year, the german embassy in asunción reported a situation of “innenpolitischer stabilität” (internal political stability) in contrast to the revolutionary movements active throughout the southern cone. this was a crucial year for paraguay, due to the introduction of a new constitution which increased the president’s political power. the ambassador hubert krier considered the constitution as a “milestone” for the beginnings of a democratic process. the declared state of   thomas banchoff, the german problem transformed: institution, politics, and foreign policy - (ann arbor: the university of michigan press, ), .   kevin chambers, “paraguay,” in regional handbook of economic development. the south america handbook, ed. by rory miller and david roch (new york: routledge taylor&francis group, ), .   “annual political report paraguay ,” from german embassy in asunción to federal foreign office bonn . . , pa aa, b , bd. exception in the provinces of itapúa and alto paraná was enforced under the excuse of the increasing activities of the organización latinoamericana de solidaridad. this report displays the german diplomat’s distorted view of the situation in the area. such a perspective seems to be driven by the classic fear of a possible revolutionary influence in the region, rather than an objective observation of the events. stroessner positioned himself as a bitter anti-communist enemy. he supported “unser wunsch,” the frg’s desire to recognize the exclusion of the gdr from the united nations. the loyalty to the western bloc was functional to legitimize his power and to justify the corrupted system of bureaucratic clientelism he created. the third re-election of strossner in —carried out under conditions imposed by the new constitution, approved despite the massive protests of the three opposition parties and the paraguayan episcopate—plunged the country into a spiral of violence and repression. this was recognized by the comisión de verdad y justicia as the “consolidación de la dictadura con rostro democratico,” .   “annual political report paraguay , pa aa b. , bd. ; , .   “annual political report paraguay ”, from german embassy in asunción to federal foreign office bonn, . . , pa aa, b , bd. .   “annual political report paraguay ,” pa aa, b , bd. .   mario melanio medina, “informe v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - as the consolidation of a dictatorship disguised as democracy. it was also the year paraguay obtained membership at the united nations as a non-permanent member. the alleged conspiracy to kidnap the paraguayan foreign minister raúl sapena pastor to cuba functioned as an excuse to increase the repression against any kind of dissent. the opponents of the colorado party, stroessner’s party, had to seek exile in uruguay and could not take part in the internal political life of the country. any attempt at communist propaganda failed in the face of the effectiveness of the repressive apparatus put in place by the regime. for david rockefeller’s visit to paraguay on june , , stroessner prohibited all forms of propaganda and opposition through the so-called “decreto n. .” the loyalty of stroessner to anti-communism was used domestically to pursue the economic and political interest of its corporative apparatus, and to justify the spread of state violence. externally, the frg comisión verdad y justicia paraguay conclusiones y recomendaciones” , accessed november , , http://www.derechoshumanos.net/ lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/ informe_comision_verdad_y_ justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_ recomendaciones.pdf   “conspiracy about the abduction of the foreign paraguayan minister to cuba”, from german embassy in asuncion to federal foreign office bonn, . . , pa aa, b , bd. .   “annual political report paraguay ”, pa aa, b , bd. ; , . took advantage of the dictatorship’s position to enlarge its imperialistic influence over latin america. . . frg as an expert of global development according to fernando pedrosa, the frg’s politics towards latin america were not a projection of the us policy in the continent, but the affirmation of its own interests. the global uprising overlap with the formalization of the frg’s interests in latin america and the official new strategy of “elastic cooperation” pursued by the german social democracy party. while brandt was visiting chile, uruguay, argentina, and brazil, the two state secretaries rolf lahr and george ferdinand duckwitz were sent to mexico, colombia, peru, and paraguay. the report of the visits makes the main purpose of the mission clear: it was time to increase the economic and political interventionism in latin america. a central point of the global cold war from the american perspective—and consequently for its allies—was “to ensure that developing countries (…) reach modernity and statehood without triggering more social upheavals,”   fernando pedrosa, “elastic cooperation” in willy brandt and international relations: europe, the usa, and latin america, – eds. bernd rother and klaus larres (bloomsbury, ), .   pedrosa, “elastic cooperation” , . v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/informe_comision_verdad_y_justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_recomendaciones.pdf http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/informe_comision_verdad_y_justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_recomendaciones.pdf http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/informe_comision_verdad_y_justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_recomendaciones.pdf http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/informe_comision_verdad_y_justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_recomendaciones.pdf http://www.derechoshumanos.net/lesahumanidad/informes/paraguay/informe_comision_verdad_y_justicia_paraguay_conclusiones_y_recomendaciones.pdf global histories: a student journal | vi - - which had the potential to destroy the geopolitical balance of the global cold war. from this perspective, argues guilhot, modernity could be achieved through a rigorous path of scientific knowledge, conceived in the civilized global north, and exported to developing third world countries. therefore, the mission of the industrialized nations was to provide both capital aid and specialists. on the strict basis of their scientific knowledge, they were supposed to support development, preparing third world countries to independently pursue their way to progress. in the context of the fgr, the term “modern” had already become a central political concept by . the period between and saw the proliferation of trade agreements that triggered development aid in the form of capital and technical support. the development and implementation of new private projects reflected the commitment of the frg to expand its already considerable technical assistance to paraguay. the amount of capital aid in the s was conspicuous and directed to small and middle industries, divided into two tranches, each one amounted to million dm. capital aid was mainly directed to specific companies in the timber processing industry, aiming to contribute to the   nicolas guilhot, the democracy makers, , , .   “annual political report ,” , , pa aa, b , bd. . diversification of the paraguayan production with an export-oriented vision. the capital aid that the frg provided in those years ( - ) for development in paraguay coincided with the capital provided by other international organizations such as the world bank or the inter- american development bank (bid). the numerous and meticulous exchanges of information between the german embassy in asunción and the foreign relations office in bonn seems to indicate a synchronized developmental policy: for the construction of the hydroelectric power plant acaray (alto paraná), the % of the financial capital is provided by the bid, the % comes from the state electricity authority ande […]. the second major infrastructure project, regarding an asphalt road from encarnacion to asunción, is held by the german company hochtief. in a similar gesture of cooperation, brandt’s report as chairman of the nord-süd- kommission in recommended the use of the world bank guarantee authority to improve access of developing countries to the capital market, and a common international presence in the global project of   “paraguay economic development report ,” from german mbassy in asuncion to foreign office bonn . . , pa aa, b , bd. ; , .   “paraguay economic development ”, , . v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - development. while the public funding by the fgr to the industrial progress in paraguay was significant, the private interests of certain german industry giants were not an exception. thyssen krupp company began to build a cement factory in valley with a capacity of , tons of cement . siemens was responsible for building the telephone infrastructure in paraguay. the city network of asunción was extended to six central offices. the technical support for development that was not sent through capital aid entailed the dispatch of qualified advisers. the involvement of german scientists covered almost every segment of production identified by bonn as strategic for future profits. from agriculture to animal breeding, including the chemical and metallurgical industries, the interference of the fgr extended into key institutions for the future planning of paraguayan development. one of the crucial paraguayan institutions responsible for the planning of development programs, banco del fomento, employed a german industrial expert in . by the end of , an expert was sent to paraguay   “paraguay economic development report ” from german embassy in asunción to foreign office bonn . . , , pa aa, bd. .   “paraguay economic development ” , ; pa aa b , bd. .   “capital aid for paraguay; second tranche of million dm” pa aa, b , bd. . for a two-year mission to advise the secretary for development, economy, and social order to set up regional and macroeconomic development programs, and to train the local professionals in these fields. , dm were provided just to begin. the project completed the goal in a meaningful way, sending another industrial-engineering advisor, who had been employed at the paraguayan development bank under german technical assistance. frg’s development aid to paraguay went hand in hand with the regime’s rise in the international arena. in , during his visit to the united state, stroessner made a short speech to the members of the council of the organization of american states (oas). paraguay’s foreign policy focused on efforts to promote regional alliances within the latin american free trade area (alalc). the dictator considered the implementation of a selective, duty-free regime, to be an improper measure for the paraguayan economy. in contrast, he promoted a tight regional integration policy within the alalc, which was crucial for building a common development policy.   “expert for the secretary for development, economy, and social order” ira technical aid . . , pa aa, b , bd. . “presentation to the interministerial committee for technical aid” from the federal minister for economic cooperation bonn . . , pa aa, b , bd. .   “annual political report paraguay ”, from germany embassy in v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - in the era of social democracy, the transfer of aid in the form of capital or through technical experts continued. on april , , the frg granted paraguay another capital aid of . million dm to complete its telecommunications network, an amount further increased by . million in may . these loans were accompanied by the deployment of five german telecommunications experts and by the granting of scholarships for paraguayan telecommunications technicians. the financial and technical aid provided by the frg and the participation of private giants in the modernization of the country underlines how ambitious and competitive this development- imperialist project was. . . development plans for the chaco region the example of the gran chaco region, and the interest displayed for the other colonies distributed all over the paraguayan territory, illustrate the way european colonialism and imperialism have never waned. the , german mennonites who moved to paraguay after wwii gained considerable recognition from the paraguayan government and were subsidized by the federal government. asunción . . , pa aa , b. , bd. . (zwischenarkiv)  “foreign economy circular no. , ,” in pa aa, b , bd. .   deutsche kolonie for the chaco region, the frg’s plans were ambitious. in , in response to a request submitted by some colonies of this region (menno neuland and fernheim), the frg undertook a significant development project designed to be a guide for improving the selective breeding of cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. the project set up a study about the market possibilities, the preparation, preservation and construction of slaughterhouses, cold stores, and cooperatives. german support of the great plan to tame the “green hell,” wanted by stroessner gesprächsinfortmation in pa aa, b , bd. .   “support for the technical aid to menno, fernheim and neueland,” from german mennonites council to german embassy, asuncion . . , pa aa, b , bd. . “technical aid for paraguay; support for the mennonites colonies in gran chaco; resolution of the water´s issued”, from german embassy in asuncion to foreign office bonn . . , pa aa, b. bd. . “slaughterhouse for mennonites colonies in chaco, church aid, capital aid for the improvement of cattle industry”, from german embassy in asuncion . . , pa aa b. , bd. .   green hell is used by different scholars, writers, and also by the mennonites to describe the harsh climate conditions in the chaco region, rendering human settlements and life difficult. temperature is daily reaching ºc and arid zones are covering the entire territory. adrian g. english, “the green hell: a concise history of the chaco war between bolivia and paraguay - ” (stroud, gloucestershire: spellmount, v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - himself, continued in the brandt era. the project was made possible only through the agrarian reform of . the reform’s intention was to create a property-owning class of farmers able to be part of the national economy and enable paraguay to join the international competition on an equal level with argentina and brazil. through public financial support, the dictatorship assigned lands to colonists and eliminated the old peasant’s practice of spontaneously occupy vacant lands. the capital aid to produce crops was provided by the banco nacional de fomento and the crédito agricultura de habilitación. the technical and financial aid aimed at boosting the industrialization in chaco continued to increase in the brandt era. after a long history which included mennonite efforts and the support of the frg and other foreign capital aid, chaco has been transformed into the sixth larger exporter of beef worldwide. despite this “success,” since the colonists started to settle in chaco, the indigenous peoples have been dispossessed from their land, excluded, and exploited as cheap worker force. ).   michael albertus, “political regimes and distribution” (phd diss., standford university, ), .   joel correia “mennonites helped turn paraguay into a mega beef producer- indigenous people maybe pay the price,” center for latin america studies university of florida, march , .   paola canova, “los ayoreos en las . . power to the military and technology in the frg became a member of nato, restarting its military production. according to the historian dimitrios gounaris, every latin american country was a customer of the frg military industry. diplomats ensured that military aid or sell reached the governments that maintained the “political stability” of the southern cone. in the frg office for foreign affairs, in cooperation with the frg ministry for economic development, supplied the paraguayan police with radio transmitters. they included training in how to use the technology. the equipment was offered to the paraguayan forces at no cost and the german side was even willing to organize shipping and distribution. in the frg office for foreign affairs allowed the company rheinmetall to export colonias mennonitas. analisi de un enclave agro-industrial en el chaco paraguayo,” in capitalismo en la selvas. enclave industrial en el chaco y amazonia, ed. cordoba, bossert, and richard (san pedro de atacama: edicciones del desierto, ), - .   dimitrios gounaris, die geschichte des sozialliberalen rüstungsexportpolitik: ein instrument der deutschen außenpolitik – (nürnberg, ).   “response by german minister of defense to paraguayan ministry of defense”, juli st , pa aa, b , bd. . v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - , rifles and automatic rifles to paraguay. the approval regulating the export of war weapons was accompanied by the note about the importance of the military for the paraguayan state. as per usual in a military dictatorship, the paraguayan forces oversaw many tasks that were technically the realm of civil society. this situation led the frg administration to promote the support of the paraguayan armed forces as a supposedly civil and peacefully operating actor. for example, the military organized most of the civil air traffic in paraguay. the airline transporte aéreo militar (tam) was responsible also for most of the civil air traffic. the frg state was willing to go to unusual lengths when the possible sale of planes to the paraguayan air force was being negotiated in . even though the volume of the transaction was much higher than the officially estimated recommendation for business with paraguay, and there were disagreements about the condition of the dornier company, the frg government approved a federal guarantee for the trade. the considerations enabling these aid and trade agreements were   response by german minister of defense to the german ministry of economy, january th , pa aa, b , bd. .   “sell of military aircrafts by dornier ag,” letter from german embassy in asuncion to the german foreign ministry in bonn, . . pa aa, b , bd. . accompanied by discourses about civil society and development aid as a road to democracy. however, it was the stable modernization of paraguay and thereby the strengthening of an economic partner of the frg, with whom they also shared a long history, that was the decisive argument in the negotiations. correspondence between the ministries of defense of paraguay (general leodegar cabello) and the frg (kai-uwe von hassel) appears in documents of the successful negotiations for the sale of military equipment from the frg army (trucks and radios) to the paraguayan state. the trade was approved even though it remains unclear if paraguay was at that time involved in an armed conflict with argentina. the crucial role that the military played in stroessner’s presidency, argued the ministry of defense, implied that the frg’s support should increase in the military sector, especially with regard to the increasing activity of communist guerrilla. this last example further shows that the frg repeatedly used the threat of a potential rise of communism to legitimize dangerous transactions to paraguay that did not contribute at all to peace and democracy. this is also closely linked to the long history of german settlements in paraguay. the companies dornier, krupp, and rheinmetall for example were already   “response by german minister of defence to the german ministry of economy, . . pa aa, b , bd. . v incent kam m er and c arla venneri | third w orld intervention in the g lobal c old w ar global histories: a student journal | vi - - making business in the region for a long time. however, despite this trade, paraguay received less military equipment from the frg than other latin american countries. . conclusion the analysis of the diplomatic correspondence and the historical literatures revisited by this paper have provided insights into the global geopolitical setup that framed the political decisions of those times. it also sheds light on the ideologic and economic interests that motivated officials in their respective national administrations when negotiating international affairs. since the end of the wwii, the frg’s ties to latin american countries have been shaped by its close alliance with and dependence on the usa. the frg foreign policy towards paraguay combined the intention to re-establish the frg as global power into the global free- market economy with a strong anti- communist stance. this encouraged   christian leitzbach, “stories from years of rheinmetall,” rhein etall ag, accessed march , , https:// www.rheinmetall.com/de/rheinmetall_ ag/group/corporate_history/index. php. hans michael kloth, “als die wale fliegen lernten,” der spiegel, , accessed march , , https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/ luftfahrt-legende-a- .html.   gounaris, die geschichte des sozialliberalen rüstungsexportpolitik, . the frg to approve developmental dictatorships rather than real democracies. the implementation in the third world of an interventionist- developmental approach was fuelled by a concept of modernity that originated in the colonial history of german/european expansion and was heavily influenced by american imperialism. the analysis of the bilateral relations between paraguay and the frg contributes to a re-evaluation of the cold war as a global conflict, underlining its ideological origins and its long effects on third world countries. this era began much earlier and extended its effect lasted longer than thought. for this reason, we hope to stimulate new research about the context of a global cold war as a preparatory historical, political, and economic frame for the current globalization. v in ce nt k am m er a nd c ar la v en ne ri | th ird w or ld in te rv en tio n in th e g lo ba l c ol d w ar https://www.rheinmetall.com/de/rheinmetall_ag/group/corporate_history/index.php https://www.rheinmetall.com/de/rheinmetall_ag/group/corporate_history/index.php https://www.rheinmetall.com/de/rheinmetall_ag/group/corporate_history/index.php https://www.rheinmetall.com/de/rheinmetall_ag/group/corporate_history/index.php https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/luftfahrt-legende-a- .html https://www.spiegel.de/geschichte/luftfahrt-legende-a- .html 	_hlk 	_gjdgxs 	ole_link 	ole_link 	_ j zll wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ immunoglobulin haplotypes: markers of reproductive success? j.c. stevenson, m.s. s c h a n f i e l d , m.h. c r a w f o r d , a n d p.m. e v e r s o n abstract immunoglobulin haplotypes are highly polymorphic and are useful for analyses of both macro- and microdifferentiation of populations. the origins of this diversity are not known, but recent reports suggest strong selection at this locus. increased rates of first-trimester spontaneous abortions have been reported when parents share gm phenotypes. reduced fertility has been observed in mixed european descent white and hutterite populations when both parents share immunoglobulin haplotypes. population samples with completed family information and gm haplotype data are rare; the objective here is to provide this information on another sample. a sample of mennonite couples with mothers older than years was divided into groups of matings based on how many haplotypes were shared: , , or . the distribution of mean completed family sizes for the three groups were . ± . (n = ), . ± . (n = ), and . ± . (n = ), respectively; these values were not significantly different (f = . , p = . ). the log-rank test was used to compare the time-to-next-birth curves. the intervals between first and later births ( - births) were not significantly different for the three subgroups either. there is also only limited evidence for segregation distortion in another sample of offspring (in which at least one parent is heterozygous). inherited differences in human immunoglobulins known as allotypes or allotypic markers are found on igg h chains (gm markers), iga h chains (am markers), and k-type l chains (km markers, formerly called inv) (schanfield ). each allotypic determinant is normally restricted to anthropology department, western washington university, bellingham, wa . analytical genetic testing center, cherry creek drive south, # , denver, co . laboratory of biological anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, ks . -firs research, e. victor, bellingham, wa . human biology, august , vol. , no. , pp. - . © wayne state university press, key words: gm, mennonites, segregation analysis / stevenson et al. one of the igg or iga subclasses and thus far are found on only the constant regions of the igg and iga h chains. different combinations of allotypic markers are inherited as closely linked units known as haplotypes. populations are readily distinguished by this system because there are many haplotypes that can serve as unique population markers (johnson et al. ; ropartz et al. , ; schanfield , ; steinberg ; steinberg and cook ). widely separated populations are readily differentiated by this system, but one can also distinguish populations in closer proximity because of conspicuous differences in haplotype frequencies. the origins of this diversity are not yet understood, but recent re- ports suggest strong selection at the gm loci (ober et al. ; weitkamp ; weitkamp et al. ). reduced fertility has been reported in mixed white and hutterite populations when both parents share immunoglobu- lin haplotypes (ober et al. ; weitkamp ; weitkamp et al. ). there are also increased rates of first-trimester spontaneous abortions when parents share gm phenotypes (weitkamp et al. ). population samples with both completed family information and gm haplotype data are rare. the objective here is to corroborate weitkamp and colleagues' findings with data on another population. the association of shared hla antigens and reduced reproductive performance has already been documented in hutterite couples (ober et al. , ; ober, elias, o'brien et al. ; ober, elias, hauck et al. ) and in couples having habitual abortions [reviewed by gill ( b)]. in hutterite couples, where large families are the rule, intervals between births are larger when couples share one or more hla antigens, and this effect is more apparent with increasing parity (ober et al. , ; ober, elias, o'brien et al. ; ober, elias, hauck et al. ). reduced fertility resulting from shared antigens has also been re- ported for the gm system. in preliminary studies a significant reduction in family size was observed by weitkamp et al. ( ) in a sample of white couples with or more children (selected originally over years for family studies of various diseases and for linkage analysis) when the couples shared the same gm phenotype ( . ± . for like couples versus . ± . for unlike couples). the effect was also observed in the couples with mothers older than years ( . ± . for like couples versus . ± . for unlike couples). this difference was also apparent in hutterite couples ( . ± . versus . ± . ) and was even more dramatic among the hutterite couples with mothers older than years ( . ± . versus . ± . ). of the mixed white couples who had been both hla and gm typed, virtually all the differences in family size "as a function of sharing immunoglobulin haplotypes / gm phenotypes was limited to the couples who also shared one or more hla-a or hla-b antigens" (weitkamp et al. , p. ). weitkamp et al. then compared couples who had first-trimester spontaneous abortions (and at least three pregnancies) with control couples who had three or more offspring, according to whether or not they shared hla-a or hla- b antigens. spontaneous abortions increased significantly in couples who share gm haplotypes when compared to control couples ( x = . with yates correction, p < . ). weitkamp et al. believe that this represents an interaction "between hla and gm in susceptibility to spontaneous abortion and in fecundity" ( , p. ). thus there is some evidence for an association between reduced completed family size and sharing of immunoglobulin markers in popu- lation samples representing larger families. in this study we present data from a mennonite sample not chosen for family size. a segregation anal- ysis was performed to test whether a fetus identical with the mother for both gm haplotypes is at a selective disadvantage compared to a fetus that shares only one haplotype with the mother. methods and materials the populations studied consisted of one sample of mennonite cou- ples with mothers older than years (women born before ) and a sample of mixed caucasian matings and offspring. the mennon- ite couples represent the communities of goessel and meridian, kansas, and henderson, nebraska, and were recruited during an interdisciplinary aging study (crawford and rogers ). there are no significant differ- ences among the communities for completed family size (stevenson et al. ). the second sample consisted of matings (in which at least one parent is heterozygous) ascertained from paternity studies and family studies of various diseases (not selected for family size). the offspring of the mennonite couples had not been allotyped and were not included in the segregation analysis. all samples were tested minimally for g m (a, f, and x) and g m (bo, bl, b , b , g) using previously described methods (schanfield et al. ). the nomenclature used for immunoglobulin allotypes is consistent with the recommendations of shows e t a l . ( ). the mennonite sample was divided into three groups of matings based on how many haplotypes were shared. there are three gm hap- lotypes common to european caucasians: ighgta g *g, ighg *a,x g *g, and ighg *f g *b (steinberg and cook ). each person carries two haplotypes. thus "zero haplotypes shared" means that the / stevenson et al. parents do not share any one of the three haplotypes, and "one (two) haplotypes shared" means that they share one (two) of the three haplo- types. weitkamp and colleagues (ober et al. ; weitkamp ; weit- kamp et al. ) recognized two subdivisions for g m matings: "like" versus "unlike." their category of like matings corresponds to two haplotypes shared, because all other matings are phenotypically unlike. the distinctions used here are more consistent with the recent hla studies in which subdivisions of matings are based on , , or + antigens shared (ober et al. ; ober, elias, o'brien et al. ; ober, elias, hauck etal. ). distributions of completed family sizes were checked for skewness and kurtosis, and an analysis of variance was performed. life table analyses provide another means of comparing the effects of shared haplotypes on mean completed family size (anderson et al. , pp. - ; cox ). reproductive outcome was assessed indirectly by estimates of the length of the interval from first birth to each successive birth. time from year of first birth was used rather than from date of marriage because there was no information on the date of marriage for the women of the meridian and goessel congregations. couples were considered to be at risk from the time of the first birth through the time of menopause (or the surgically induced end of the fertility period). the log-rank test was used to compare the time-to-next- birth curves. the distribution of offspring from various kinds of matings formed the basis of a segregation analysis. ratios based on mendelian inheritance were used to predict expected frequencies of offspring; these ratios were then compared in a chi-square analysis to actual distributions of phenotypes in the offspring. a minor adjustment was made for phenotype gm a,x g. the phe- notype gm a,x g consists of two genotypes (ighg *a g *g/g *a,x g *g and ighg *a,x g *g/g *a,x g *g). therefore the transmis- sion likelihood for the ighg *a,x g *g allele will be greater than . . the estimate of the transmission likelihood can be calculated using the expected values from the hardy-weinberg equation. the formula for the calculation of the probability of transmission for ambiguous situations is t = [(*a,xght/*a,xgt) x . ] + [(*a,xghm/*a,xgt) x . ], ( ) where *a,x g ht is the hardy-weinberg estimate of the frequency of heterozygous *a,xg, *a, x g hm is the hardy-weinberg estimate of the frequency of homozygous *a,xg, and *a,xgt is the sum of het- immunoglobulin haplotypes / table . summary statistics for completed family size completed number ofhalotypes shared family size % % % totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n . . . . mean number of . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . offspring median number of . offspring modal number of offspring skewness - . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . kurtosis - . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . erozygous and homozygous frequencies. the probability of transmission estimated using us white frequencies (dykes ) is . . results the distribution of completed family sizes for the total mennonite sample and for the three subgroups of the mennonite sample are pre- sented in table . completed family sizes for the total sample range from to with a mean of . (±a, a = . ), a median of , and a mode of children. the distribution is leptokurtic. the three subgroups consist of , , and families for , , and haplotypes shared, respectively, with corresponding mean completed family sizes of . ± . , . ± . , and . ± . . the variances of the three subgroups are not significantly different (bartlett's box f = . , p = . ; cochrane's c = . , p = . ). analysis of variance was performed to determine the effects of shared haplotypes on completed family size, and the results are presented in table . the low f value ( . ) shows that mean completed family size does not vary significantly {p = . ) among the subgroups. the results of the birth interval analyses are presented in table . / stevenson et al. table . a n a l y s i s of variance: c o m p l e t e d family s i z e by h a p l o t y p e subgroup sum of degrees mean f f source squares of freedom squares ratio probability total . between groups . . . . within groups . . table . intervals ( y e a r s ) from first birth to s u c c e s s i v e b i r t h s ( u p p e r quartile)* haplotype subgroups chi-square degrees of parity value freedom probability . . . . . < p < . . . . . . < p < . . . . . . < p < . a. upper quartiles: % of couples completed the interval from first birth to this birth within the time period (number of years). upper quartiles are estimated from time-to- birth curves generated from survival analysis; p values (two-tailed) are based on the log- rank test and compare the full time-to-birth curves for each parity. the length of the interval from the first to the fourth birth does increase slightly, as seen in figure . however, the length of the intervals from first birth to second, first to third, and first to fourth were not significantly different for any of the three subgroups. the results of the segregation analyses are presented in table . there are two statistically significant deviations from mendelian ex- pectations. mothers with phenotype gm f b mated to fathers with phenotype gm a,x g have a slight excess of gm a,f,x,z b,g and slight deficiency of gm a,f b,g phenotypes in the offspring. this is most likely an artifact of the fact that the gm a,x g phenotype is a combination of two genotypes, ighg *a,x g *g/gl *a g *g and ighg *a,x g *g/g *a,x g *g; neither can be distinguished with- out further pedigree analysis. in addition, mothers with phenotype gm a g mated to fathers with gm a,f b,g produce a slight excess of gm a,f b,g phenotypes and a slight deficiency of gm a g pheno- types in the offspring. small sample size ( ) may account for this dis- crepancy. this last deviation from mendelian expectations, if biologi- cally real, would represent low-level selection against the homozygous ighg *a g *g/g *a g *g genotype. in the matings of moth- ers with phenotype gm a,f,x b,g with fathers with gm a,f b,g, the results are not statistically significant given four outcomes of equal prob- ability. the chi-square value could also be calculated as a : ratio of gm immunoglobulin haplotypes / . . . . . . . . . . . • t ? i -i t- h f- h h h h time (in years) t o f o u r t h birth figure . time to third child by haplotype subgroup. filled circles, shared haplotypes; open circles, shared haplotype; squares, shared haplotypes. f b versus the other three phenotypes. observed (to expected values) of ( ): ( ) result in a chi-square value of . , which for degree of freedom is now significant ( . < p < . ). thus there is a slight excess of gm f b phenotypes, or in other words, evidence for low-level selection in favor of the ighg *f g *b/g *fg *b homozygotes. discussion and conclusions it is hla or gm compatibility (rather than incompatibility) that is correlated by weitkamp and colleagues with a reduction in fertility in couples not selected for excessive abortions (ober et al. , ; weitkamp ; weitkamp et al. ) and in couples with abortions (gill b). it is likely that both immunologic and genetic mechanisms are operating (gill a; gill and repetti ; gill, macpherson et al. ; hedrick ; hedrick and thomson ; schacter et al. ; weitkamp et al. ). there is growing evidence that histoincompati- ble fetuses elicit a maternal response to paternal antigens that increases the frequency of successful implantation and may prevent rejection of the implanted ovum (gill, macpherson et al. ). it is likely that an unidentified class antigen is the primary stimulus in eliciting the im- mune response to the conceptus, and in humans the antigen is coded by / stevenson et al. table . segregation analysis gm phenotypes of parents (at least one parent gm phenotypes of offspring: heterozygous) observed (expected) offspring mother father fb a,fb,g a,f,xb,g ag a,xg x a g a,fb,g . * ( ) ( ) a g a,f,x b,g id a g a , x g id a,fb,g a g id a,f b,g a,fb,g . ( ) ( ) ( ) a,fb,g a,f,x, b,g id a,f b,g a,x g id a,f b,g f b . ( ) ( ) a,f,x b,g a g id a,f,x b,g a,f b,g . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a,f,x b,g a,f,x b,g . ( . ) ( ) ( . ) a,f,x b,g a , x g . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) a,f,x b,g f b . ( ) ( ) a,x g a g id a,x g a,f b,g id a,x g a,f,x b,g id a,x g a,x g id a,x g f b . ( . ) ( . ) f b a,f b,g . ( . ) ( . ) f b a,f,x b,g . ( ) ( ) f b a,x g . * ( . ) ( . ) id = insufficient data. * . < p< . . immunoglobulin haplotypes / gene(s) in the hla a,b,c region of the major histocompatibility com- plex (mhc) [gill b; see also faulk and mclntyre ( ), hedrick and thomson ( ), mclntyre and faulk ( , ), ober et al. ( ), ober, elias, o'brien et al. ( ), and ober, elias, hauck et al. ( )]. in addition, there may be lethal recessive genes (such as the t haplotypes in the mouse and the grc in the rat) epistatically linked to the hla loci that may come together more frequently in homozygous matings, result- ing in increased frequencies of spontaneous abortions (gill et al. ; gill, wegmann et al. ; hedrick ; schacter et al. ). whatever the mechanism(s), there is little evidence here for reduced fertility in matings homozygous for gm haplotypes. statistically signif- icant differences were not demonstrated among the three subgroups of this study for mean completed family sizes or mean times from first to second, first to third, and first to fourth births. the segregation analy- sis provided little evidence for statistically significant deviations from mendelian expectations. low-level selection is not ruled out. birth histories collected from mennonite women reveal that miscarriages and stillbirths were reported for . %, . %, and . % of women who share , , and haplo- types, respectively, with their husbands. plus, the trend to increasing in- tervals between first and fourth births as the number of haplotypes shared increases, although not statistically significant, is suggestive. future re- search should include more information on birth and marriage. more sensitive detection of fetal loss would also be helpful [see ober, elias, hauck et al. ( )]. finally, detection may be possible only in large samples or samples consisting primarily of couples who are maximizing family size (e.g., hutterites). acknowledgments this research was supported in part by the national institutes of health under grant ago - . we also wish to thank the goessel, meridian, and henderson congregations and the anonymous reviewers. received january ; revision received november . literature cited anderson, s., a . auquier, w . w . hauck, d . oakes, w. vandaele, h . i . weisberg, a.s. bryk, and j. kleinman statistical methods for compar- ative studies: techniques for bias reduction. new york: wiley. cox, d.r. regression models and life-tables. j. r. statist. soc., ser. b, : - . crawford, m.h., and l. rogers population genetic models in the study of aging and longevity in a mennonite community. soc. sci. med. : - . / stevenson et al. dykes, d.d. the use of frequency tables in parentage testing. in probability of inclusion in paternity testing: a technical workshop, h. silver, ed. arlington, va.: american association of blood banks, - . faulk, w.p., and j.a. mclntyre trophoblast survival. transplantation : - . gill, t.j., iii a immunogenetic aspects of the maternal-fetal interaction. in im- munology of reproduction, t.g. wegmann and t.j. gill, iii, eds. n e w york: oxford university press, - . gill, t.j., iii b immunogenetics of spontaneous abortions in humans. transplanta- tion : - . gill, t.j., iii, and c.f. repetti immunologic and genetic factors influencing reproduction. am. j. pathol : - . gill, t.j., iii, s. slew, and h.w. kunz major histocompatibility complex (mhc)-linked genes affecting development. j. exp. zool. : . gill, t.j., iii, t.g. wegmann, and e. nlsbet-brown immunoregulation and fetal survival. london: oxford university press. gill, t.j., iii, t.a. macpherson, h.n. ho, h.w. kunz, a.c. hassett, k.s. stranick, and j. locker immunological and genetic factors affecting im- plantation and development in the rat and in the human. in immunoregulation and fetal survival, t j . gill, iii, t.g. wegmann, and e. nisbet-brown, eds. london: oxford university press, - . hedrick, p.w. hla-sharing, recurrent spontaneous abortion, and the genetic hy- pothesis. genetics : - . hedrick, p.w., and g. thomson maternal-fetal interactions and the mainte- nance of hla polymorphism. genetics : - . johnson, w.e., p.h. kohn, and a.g. steinberg gm and km (inv) frequencies in two roumanian populations. hum. genet. : - . mclntyre, j.a., and w.p. faulk antigens of human trophoblast: effects of heterologous anti-trophoblast sera on lymphocyte responses in vitro. j. exp. med. : . mclntyre, j.a., and w.p. faulk allotypic trophoblast-lymphocyte crossreactive (tlx) cell surface antigens. hum. immunol. : - . ober, c.l., l. weitkamp, and s. elias gm mating types and family size differ- ences among hutterite couples. abstr. am. j. hum. genet. :a . ober, c.l., s. elias, w.w. hauck, and d. kostyu evidence for genes in more than one mhc region influencing fertility in hutterite couples. abstr. am. j. hum. genet. :a . ober, c.l., s. elias, e. o'brien, d.d.' kostyu, w.w. hauck, and a. bombard hla sharing and fertility in hutterite couples: evidence for prenatal selection against compatible fetuses. am. j. reprod. immunol. microbiol. : - . ober, c.l., w . w . hauck, d . d . kostyu, e. o'brien, s. elias, j.l. simpson, a n d a.o. martin adverse effects of human leukocyte antigen-dr sharing on fertility: a cohort study in a human isolate. fertil. steril. : - . ober, c.l., a.o. martin, j.l. simpson, w.w. hauck, d.b. amos, d.d. kostyu, m. fotino, and f.h. allen, jr. shared hla antigens and reproductive performance among hutterites. am. j. hum. genet. : - . ropartz, c., l. rivat, and p.-y. rousseau les a n t i g l o b u l i n s humaines: leur specificite, leur frequence et les mecanismes probables de leur apparition. nouv. rev. fr. hematol. : - . ropartz, c., l. rivat, p.-y. rousseau, h . baitsch, and j. van loghem les systemes gm et inv en europe. acta genet. (basel) : - . immunoglobulin haplotypes / schacter, b., l.r. weitkamp, a n d w.e. johnson parental h l a compatibility, fetal wastage and neural tube defects: evidence for a t/t-like locus in humans. am. j. hum. genet. : - . schanfield, m.s. genetic markers on human immunoglobulins. in review of basic and clinical immunology, d ed., j.l. caldwell, h.h. fudenberg, j.v. wells, and d.p. stites, eds. los altos, cal.: lange medical publications, - . schanfield, m.s. the anthropological usefulness of highly polymorphic systems: hla and immunoglobulin allotypes. in current developments in anthropological genetics. m.h. crawford and j.h. mielke, eds. new york: plenum press, - . schanfield, m.s., h.f. polesky, and e.b. sebring g m a n d inv testing. in paternity testing, h.f. polesky, ed. chicago, .: american society of clinical pathologists, division of educational media services, - . shows, t.b., p.j. mcalpine, c. boucheix, et al. guidelines for human gene nomenclature: an international system for human gene nomenclature (isgn, ). cytogenet. cell genet. : - . steinberg, a.g. globulin polymorphisms in man. annu. rev. genet. : - . steinberg, a.g., and c.e. cook the distribution of the immunoglobulin allo- types. london: oxford university press. stevenson, j.c., p.m. everson, and m.h. crawford changes in completed family size and reproductive span in anabaptist populations. hum. biol. : - . weitkamp, l.r. g m a n d h l a m a t i n g types in relation to reproductive success. abstr. am. j. hum. genet. :a . weitkamp, l.r., c. ober, and b. schacter g e n e t i c a n d i m m u n o g e n e t i c mark- ers of reproductive success. in reproductive immunology, d.a. clark and b.a. croy, eds. new york: elsevier, - . -.y- o n a p ril , a t c a r n e g ie m e l l o n u n iv l ib r h ttp ://jb .a sm .o rg / d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jb.asm.org/ abib benbridtk fgerp" q-- david hendricks bergey was born on the mennonite meeting- house farm in shippack township, montgomery county, penn- sylvania, december , . as was the custom in the rural sections of pennsylvania in those days, he worked as a boy on the home farm during the summer time and attended school in the winter time. after he was , he attended private and nor- mal schools and finally taught for two winters in rural schools before he decided to study medicine. it is interesting to note that he started his medical training in the good old fashioned way in the office of the local physician, dr. samuel wolfe of shippack. after this, he entered the university of pennsylvania for fur- ther scientific and medical training and secured his b.s. and m.d. degrees simultaneously in at a time when knowledge of pasteur and koch's recent discoveries was causing eager discus- sion in american medical circles. dr. henry formad of the medical school staff had made two visits to dr. koch's labora- tory during this period, and dr. bergey received his first intro- duction to bacteria in dr. formad's laboratory and from his lec- tures on the germ theory of disease. in june, , he married anne s. hallman of shippack, a sister of one of his former pupils. for nearly ten years, dr. bergey practiced medicine at north wales, pennsylvania, before he returned to the university in as a student, and later as the scott fellow in hygiene in the newly built laboratory of hygiene. in he was made assist- ant in chemistry and when dr. abbott was appointed director of the laboratory in he became first assistant. later ( ) he was made assistant professor and in professor of hygiene and bacteriology. in , he took charge of the teaching of bacteriology to the medical students at the uni- president, society of american bacteriologists, . jouraal of bactrexology, vol: , no. o n a p ril , a t c a r n e g ie m e l l o n u n iv l ib r h ttp ://jb .a sm .o rg / d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jb.asm.org/ obituary versity, and continued this work until he retired in . during the world war dr. bergey served as a major in the sanitary corps at fort oglethorpe, georgia. not content to retire even at , dr. bergey became interested in the development of tetanus toxoid and other biologic products for his friend dr. h. k. mulford of the national drug company and continued at this work until his death on september , at the age of . dr. bergey was a tireless investigator as well as a teacher and his studies led to the publication of a long list of scientific papers beginning with his report as a fellow on the nature of the air expired from the lungs. his principles of hygiene which ap- peared first in , ran through a series of seven editions, and was widely used. bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology has been preeminent in its field ever since it was first published in . the manuscript for this book was started soon after he served as president of the society of american bacteriologists in , at a time when the society was active in revising the older classification outlines to fit the newer knowledge. feeling that the work would be more satisfactorily accomplished if carried out by a group of individuals, dr. bergey requested the society to appoint a committee to work with him in developing the manual. this was done and through the publication of four successive editions under the auspices of the society, the manual came to have a more and more widely recognized field and au- thoritative standing. it was dr. bergey's wish from the beginning that all profits from this book be used to develop research in the field of sys- tematic bacteriology. as it proved difficult to carry out his plan under the auspices of the society, the accrued royalty funds were returned to him in , and he placed them in the hands of a self perpetuating board of trustees who have accepted the responsibility for preparing the fifth and later editions of the manual. thus, he has established for himself a memorial that will remain as long as competent workers can be found to carry out the trust. the journal of bacteriology was established by the society o n a p ril , a t c a r n e g ie m e l l o n u n iv l ib r h ttp ://jb .a sm .o rg / d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jb.asm.org/ obituary of american bacteriologists during the time that dr. bergey was president of the society. the enterprise commanded his interest from its start and his presidential address on "the pedagogics of bacteriology" is the first article in the first volume of the journal. the interest aroused by this address led him to prepare a further report on "early instructors in bacteriology in the united states" which appeared in the next volume of the journal. it will interest his scientific colleagues to know that his hobby was genealogy. he served as recording secretary and historian for the bergey family association for many years and in published a page book under the title the bergey family in america giving the lineage of over five thousand descendants of john ulrich berge who came to america probably from switzer- land in , finally settling in southeastern pennsylvania in . as a teacher, he insisted on high standards of work and thereby won the lasting friendship and regard of a host of younger work- ers. by his modesty, unassuming attitude and unwillingness to enter into controversies, he won many warm friends. it is a tribute to his sterling worth to report that those that knew him best respected and admired him most. a friend has left us, his work well done; and his spirit lives on in the lives of those with whom he came in contact. robert s. breed o n a p ril , a t c a r n e g ie m e l l o n u n iv l ib r h ttp ://jb .a sm .o rg / d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jb.asm.org/ book reviews sees is a small group of defenseless women hemmed in by a large, armed regiment of nazi soldiers on horseback, all of whom are male. it is a sobering photograph. but the caption reads: “residents of the molotschna mennonite colony in southeast- ern ukraine, including a cavalry squadron of the waffen-ss, celebrate a visit from heinrich himmler, ” (back flap). though that adequately captures goossen’s conclusions of mennonite complicity in nazi atrocities in ukraine during world war  ii, at no point does he investigate who those women were in the photograph, and to what degree they might have felt compelled to “celebrate,” if “celebrate” they did. his own commentary on page suggests that alternate narratives are entirely plausible. yet for reasons unclear, goossen declares that (some? all? many?) “mennonite leaders had assisted hitler’s empire building in ukraine and poland,” and that ukraine’s mennonites were a “tool of nazi colonialism” ( ). at no point does he engage any russian language sources or the work of viktor klets, the leading ukrainian historian of mennonites during the nazi occupation. here and elsewhere, goossen’s text reveals the dangers that arise in attempting to cover too vast a territory. the reader often is unsure how goossen’s conclusions have been reached. taken as a whole, goossen has provided valuable insight into how select mennonite progressive “leaders” in the german lands responded to german unifica- tion, and how they worked to transform their confession up to and after world war i. it is to be hoped that goossen will now dig deep into the german mennonite experience, and investigate the people within those “collectivisms” whose voices, until now, have rarely been heard. leonard g. friesen wilfrid laurier university fascism in manchuria: the soviet-china encounter in the s. by susanne hohler. london: i.b. tauris, . ix, pp. notes. bibliography. index. $ . , hard bound. doi: . /slr. . by focusing on – , susanne hohler breaks new ground in english language studies by writing about emigres in manchuria after the japanese occupation. she is also the first scholar to argue that russian fascism was an integral part of civil soci- ety. drawing on recent challenges to the definition of civil society as inherently toler- ant or democratic, she is interested in examining the function of movements in civil society and how they spread their influence. to achieve this she focuses on fascists’ activities in russian clubs, russian education, and in promoting antisemitism. she offers a new explanation for the spread of russian fascism in the s: she argues that it was their dense networks of associations that allowed the fascists to deeply penetrate émigré society. arguing that russian fascism was not just a copy of italian or german fascism, she illustrates how effective russian fascists were at working with likeminded individu- als and groups. her most persuasive evidence is that of the russian clubs that they established. because they downplayed their association with these seemingly apo- litical institutions, they were able to serendipitously promote their political agenda. unlike john stephen, hohler also emphasizes how russian fascism differed from its western european counterparts in promoting itself as a defender and advocate of religion, and how this helped increase its popularity. yet while all émigré organiza- tions focused, as do all diasporas, on preventing denationalization, and the fascists’ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /slr. . &domain=pdf slavic review concept of the nation, like most russian nationalists, included all of the nationalities of the russian empire except the jews, they were the only émigré group attempting to create new men and women, rather than simply return to the past. hohler emphasizes the dynamism of this era and that her study is the only study of russian fascism that focuses exclusively on manchuria. while she convincingly demonstrates how japanese policies toward emigres changed over time, she does not discuss japanese fascism once. she even writes that she is surprised that the japanese decided to ally themselves with the russian fascists ( ). in turn, she never addresses what was specific to the russian diaspora in manchuria that would explain why the russian fascist party originated there. for example, she explains that she is interested in how the fascists overshadowed russian liberals without explaining that there were few liberals in manchuria after , just as there were few russian liberals in other countries where russian fascism flourished. considering her focus on the growing influence of fascism, it is also surprising that she doesn’t take into account the abrupt departure from manchuria of approximately , soviet citizens, most of whom were pro-communist, in . because hohler tracks changes over a brief period of time, she draws extensively, and much more so than stephen, on the contemporary press. this approach is fruit- ful, although few complete runs have been preserved of émigré publications. but considering this methodology, her decision not to employ the brem archive, now fully accessible to scholars in khabarovsk, is puzzling. brem, the semi-autonomous émigré organization created by the japanese to rule manchurian emigres, included many fascists in its leadership positions. instead, like john stephen, who more than fifty years prior was not allowed to use soviet archives, she employs the archives of foreign governments. the brem archive includes records that provide more insight into émigré’s daily life from – than any other source, including personal files for almost all emigres filled with denunciations, petitions, records of political party membership, autobiographical narratives, and surveillance reports. brem kept a closer watch over its population than the soviet state ever did. use of the brem archive would have allowed her to definitively ascertain the relationship between the russian orthodox church and the fascist party, and to gauge how many individu- als belonged to the party and attended fascist demonstrations. in lieu of the brem archive, she frequently cites fascist publications as her only source for her conclu- sions. curiously, despite her vow to largely avoid narratives produced in hindsight, hohler liberally cites the memoirs of, and interviews others have conducted with, jewish emigres from manchuria. she may view them as less biased because they are victims rather than perpetrators. she also laments (erroneously) the non-existence of narratives by russian fascists. several have been published in post-soviet russia, a few who survived the gulag have been interviewed, and the post-stalinist correspon- dence of some is in russian and us archives. stephen himself conducted interviews, and drew on balakshin (whom holher does not cite), who requisitioned several fas- cists to write their memoirs. these memoirs and his correspondence with them are now available in u.s. archives. russian diaspora studies is still in its infancy, and hence hohler is in many ways a pioneer. although she does not situate her work within the framework of diaspora studies, all diaspora organizations can be viewed as organs of civil society, and her interest in how civil society effects identity formation and acculturation is perfectly suited for diaspora studies. the criticisms voiced in this review are indicative of how rich and complicated this subject is, and should not dissuade readers from this wel- come addition to the historiography. laurie manchester arizona state university account suspended account suspended this account has been suspended. contact your hosting provider for more information. jphs ( - ) journal online.vp circles of support: a restorative justice initiative robin j. wilson, phd, cpsych michelle prinzo, ma summary. this paper addresses the increasing difficulties faced in community-based management of sexual offenders in canada. those of- fenders at particularly high-risk to re-offend (e.g., sadistic rapists and se- rial child molesters) often receive indeterminate sentences, and are rarely released to the community prior to death or incapacitating illness. however, many other high-risk offenders are released from custody at the end of a determinate sentence, often without the benefit of adequate supervision or treatment. in a restorative justice initiative managed by the mennonite central committee of ontario, high-risk sexual of- fenders released at sentence completion were provided with community support in the form of circles of support and accountability. a brief overview of the canadian penal system and its handling of sexual of- fenders is given to provide the social and political framework in which many current restorative justice projects have been undertaken. it is ar- robin j. wilson is affiliated with the correctional service of canada, central ontario district (parole), keele street, main floor, toronto, ontario, m p k canada. michelle prinzo is affiliated with the ontario correctional institute, brampton, ontario, canada. the authors would like to thank andrew j. r. harris for his comments on an earlier version of the manuscript. the views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the correctional service of canada, the ministry of the solicitor general and correctional services, or the governments of ontario and canada. [haworth co-indexing entry note]: “circles of support: a restorative justice initiative.” wilson, robin j., and michelle prinzo. co-published simultaneously in journal of psychology & human sexuality (the haworth press, inc.) vol. , no. / , , pp. - ; and: sex offender treatment: accomplishments, chal- lenges, and future directions (ed: michael h. miner, and eli coleman) the haworth press, inc., , pp. - . single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from the haworth document delivery service [ - -haworth, : a.m. - : p.m. (est). e-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc.com].  by the haworth press, inc. all rights reserved. ***do not run alt-a again *** gued that traditional punitive measures have done little to address risk to the community and that effective interventions in the community must not be limited to time under warrant. the circles of support initiative fo- cuses on the need to engage the community in the offender reintegration process. data are provided regarding recidivism rates in comparison to actuarial projections determined from static- (hanson & thornton, ) survival curves. recidivism across high-risk offenders, with a mean follow-up time of months, currently stands at less than % of that predicted by static- . [article copies available for a fee from the haworth document delivery service: - -haworth. e-mail address: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> website: <http://www.haworthpress.com> © by the haworth press, inc. all rights reserved.] keywords. sexual offenders, restorative justice, community man- agement, supervision introduction the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders has been the subject of much recent debate in popular and scholarly circles in many nations of the world, particularly as the discussion pertains to sex offenders. in- ternational symposia, such as the th international conference on the treatment of sex offenders (during which the following paper was pre- sented), have been convened to stimulate dialogue regarding the safe and ethical risk management of sexual offenders. while the goal of all parties concerned is the prevention of further victimization, the means by which individual nations or jurisdictions strive to achieve that goal have been varied. although much of the discussion regarding offender risk manage- ment has focused on traditional methods of correctional sanction, reha- bilitative programming, and psychological or psychiatric treatment, there has been a recent trend towards investigation of alternative meth- ods of furthering reintegration of offenders released to the community. collectively, a group of these alternative methods have come under the heading “restorative justice,” although some might challenge the actual linkages between various initiatives. overall, the restorative justice movement is one that seeks to facilitate the restoration of offenders to communities by combining education, support, and accountability, for both offenders and members of the community-at-large. the following sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions http://www.haworthpress.com paper discusses a canadian restorative justice initiative intended to fa- cilitate community reintegration of high-risk sexual offenders. how- ever, we would like to start with a brief history of the management of offenders in canada, as a means to set the stage for our presentation of the initiative proper. early attempts to maintain law and order in canada may be seen as being directly descendent from practices originating in england and france, the two nations which primarily colonized what later became canada. prior to the th century, the response to criminal offenders in canada focused largely on corporal punishment. during the th cen- tury, there was a transition from corporal punishment to imprisonment as the sanction of choice. imprisonment in workhouses was established as the primary mode of punishment in many provinces. in these work- houses, prisoners were employed to perform labour jobs within the in- stitution. persons awaiting trial or those awaiting sentencing were held in gaols. over the period of - , major shifts occurred in the perception of crime and the roots of criminal behavior. crime came to be viewed as a consequence of community disorder and family instability (griffiths & cunningham, ). the canadian penitentiary act of emphasized the use of penitentiaries as a general deterrent and as a mechanism for re- forming criminals through hard labour. reflecting the origin of the word “penitentiary,” religion was a focal point and moral reeducation of in- mates was strongly encouraged. hard labour was also used. in , kingston penitentiary (canada’s first) opened its doors in ontario. but by , concerns arose regarding the effectiveness of punishing and reforming offenders. recidivism rates were high and there was extensive use of corporal punishment inside the facility. the penitentiary act of reflected calls for improvement in institutional conditions and to deal with offender needs in more effective and hu- mane ways. during the s, various prisons were constructed across canada. the act to permit the conditional release of first offenders in certain cases introduced the practice of releasing offenders on their own recognizance rather than imposing a sentence. probation was first mentioned in revisions to the criminal code of canada in . changes to the code in required offenders to report to an officer of the court. this “probation” became the cornerstone of what has become “community corrections” in canada. in canada, jurisdiction regarding supervision of offenders is split be- tween the provinces and the federal government. unlike the united robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo states, where jurisdiction is determined by offense type, canadian of- fenders are routed to provincial or federal supervision based solely on the length of sentence to be served. sentences of less than two years (i.e., two years less a day, or under) are administered by the province in which the offense occurred, while offenders serving sentences of two years or more fall under federal jurisdiction. all probationary sentences are supervised by the provincial correctional service. currently, the majority of canada’s federal offender population achieves conditional release at some point during their sentence, be that day parole, full parole, or statutory release. parole is roughly equiva- lent to earned remission or “time off for good behavior,” and is granted by the national parole board, which is independent from the correc- tional service. statutory release (sr) is mandated in law, but may be suspended (i.e., this keeps the offender in prison) for those who meet rigorous criteria demonstrating that some undue risk is posed to com- munity safety. those offenders who achieve conditional release are su- pervised by a parole officer who ensures adherence to release conditions imposed by the national parole board. although conditional release in canada has a long history, recent shifts in policy reflect the community’s increasing intolerance for crim- inal behavior, particularly in regard to sexual offenders. the sociopolit- ical pendulum has swung back to punishment, away from rehabilitation. public outcry has led to political responses such as longer sentences, more stringent criteria for granting conditional release, and measures to enhance supervision in the community. accordingly, there has been a decline over the past decade in the proportion of federal offenders af- forded community supervision (correctional service of canada, ). as a result, fewer federal offenders achieve conditional release prior to their statutory release date, and many sr candidates are being de- tained until sentence completion (or warrant expiry date–wed). this is particularly true for sexual offenders. although maintaining offenders in prison for longer periods of time may satisfy some of the public’s belief that offenders require punish- ment and a significant period of removal from society, the practice of limiting community supervision is a proverbial double-edged sword. indeed, research shows that the availability of facilitated community re- integration significantly impacts risk for future involvement in criminal activities, with those offenders receiving community support being at less risk for recidivism (andrews & bonta, ; wilson, stewart, stirpe, barrett, & cripps, ). andrews and bonta ( ) have clearly shown that imprisonment without appropriate rehabilitative ser- sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions vices amounts to a virtual “deep freeze,” in which offenders are returned to the community slightly worse than when they went in. conversely, in- terventions which attend to risk levels, criminogenic needs, and of- fender responsivity can significantly increase success on release. traditionally, offenders released at wed have not had the benefit of services (e.g., treatment, advocacy) available to conditionally released offenders. this is in clear contradiction to the research noted above. sexual offenders the criminal code of canada has undergone numerous modifica- tions during the th century. however, it was not until the s that changes were made regarding the classification of sexual offenses as crimes of violence. these changes reflected the public’s call for clearer definitions of offenses, appropriate sentencing, and rules governing evi- dence and legal proceedings. for example, prior to , common law rules allowed evidence pertaining to the woman’s sexual and moral character to be entered as evidence for the defense. as such, the trial process was often biased against the victim, in that it was assumed that the victim had likely consented to the particular act in question if she had previously consented to sexual activity with the accused. in , amendments were made to the criminal code of canada providing that no questions could be asked about the sexual conduct of the complain- ant with other people unless “reasonable notice” had been given to the courts. this has been colloquially referred to as the “rape shield.” in , the law reform commission of canada (lrcc–see review in holden, , available from the present authors) published a work- ing paper which gathered the majority of sexual offenses (e.g., rape, in- decent exposure, indecent assault) together under the general crime of “sexual assault.” sexual assault, as defined by the lrcc, would be committed if a person had sexual contact with another person without consent. the recommendations of the lrcc were enacted in , and comprised the first major attempt to operationalize the canadian legal community’s definition and handling of sexual offenses and offenders. since that time, other legislation has been enacted to further clarify the criminal code of canada sections related to sexual offenses. subse- quent laws have dealt with protection of victim rights, the reporting and prosecution of sexual assaults, victim impact statements, and defini- tions of consent. presently, penalties for sexual offenses range from six months to life imprisonment. substantial changes in regard to correctional policies robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo were reflected in the corrections and conditional release act (ccra) of . the ccra set out policy and guidelines for correctional ser- vices and parole boards in their dealings with offenders. one specific change was in regard to detention provisions, in that the act made it easier to detain sex offenders, particularly those who committed crimes against children. one of the two criteria for detention states that if “the offense was a sexual offense involving a child and there are reasonable grounds to believe that the offender is likely to commit a sexual offense involving a child before expiration of the offender’s sentence according to law” then a referral for detention will be considered. many jurisdictions in canada (and, indeed, other countries) have ex- perienced the difficulties associated with high profile cases of sexual assault or sex offender recidivism. it would appear that the public’s sen- timents towards sexual offenders are hardening and, as such, policy changes have resulted in more restrictive measures for many sexual of- fenders. in particular, more canadian sexual offenders are being de- clared “dangerous offenders” (dos), a legal definition which provides for the imposition of an indeterminate sentence for repeat, serious of- fenders and, in particular, sexual offenders. experience has shown that few dos are ever granted conditional release and, thus, serve % of their sentences in penitentiaries. for those serious offenders not meet- ing the do standard, the courts now have the additional option of im- posing long term offender (lto) designations, which consist of up to years of post-sentence community supervision. of those offenders not designated as dos or ltos, many more are being detained to wed in accordance with provisions of the ccra. while the result of the policy changes noted above has been that sex- ual offenders are removed from society for longer periods, there are considerable concerns regarding the larger implications of such legisla- tion. in particular, resources in the community (e.g., parole supervision, counselling, psychoeducational programming) are normally linked to a supervising agency, like the correctional service of canada (csc). of- fenders released at wed have not traditionally had the benefit of access to community reintegration services. over the years, community-based management of sexual offenders has become an increasingly public af- fair, to the extent that many jurisdictions now have policies regarding public notification, sex offender registration, and provision of dna samples. in canada, sex offenders comprise % of all federal inmates. national parole board statistics reveal that the percentage of prisoners in the total prison population actually referred for detention increased from . % in - to . % in - (mennonite central sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions committee, ). the majority of the difference is attributable to in- creased detention rates for sexual offenders. policy documents of the correctional service of canada define com- munity reintegration as “all activity and programming conducted to prepare an offender to return safely to the community and live as a law-abiding citizen” (thurber, ). csc personnel use offender-spe- cific information, including static and dynamic risk determinants, in their efforts to reduce risk for re-offense. comprehensive data manage- ment allows for actuarial assessment, and also serves to better inform parole supervisors about offender functioning in the community. such data are crucial for program development and implementation, as well as the formulation of correctional plans for individual offenders. these measures help offenders to reintegrate to society while allowing for en- hanced monitoring of offense-specific behavior patterns. close super- vision of precursors to offending allows for therapeutic suspension of conditional release, and periodic revocation where indicated. if an of- fender is detained until wed, the community loses the ability to moni- tor these variables and, subsequently, the spirit of reintegration is defeated. in the past, decision makers were forced to rely on clinical judgments rendered by professionals; however, the average predictive accuracy of such judgments in predicting sex offence recidivism has been shown to be only slightly better than chance (hanson & thornton, ). in- creasingly, the decision to detain an offender is determined using em- pirically-derived, standardized procedures and resultant actuarial measures (hanson, ). however, despite advances in this domain (e.g., static- –hanson & thornton, ), the procedures used in determining risk are still subject to limitations of reliability and validity. notwithstanding recent findings and innovations in sex offender risk assessment, much debate remains in the literature regarding how risk should be assessed and managed. hanson and bussière ( ) conducted a rigorous meta-analysis of the predictors of sexual recidivism, the results of which suggest that sex offence recidivism is closely related to sexual deviance. the strongest predictors were positive phallometric assessments, a history of sex of- fences, and a history of diverse sexual crimes. they also found that sex- ual recidivism was associated with prior nonsexual offences and a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder (particularly, those ex- treme cases of apd commonly thought to be reflective of psychopa- thy–hare, ). the meta-analysis also revealed that predictors of general and non-sexual violent recidivism were similar to predictors of robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo general recidivism among non-sexual criminals. almost all predictors of sexual offence recidivism were historical or stable (i.e., unlikely to change, regardless of the intervention employed). the most changeable risk factor was motivation for treatment, in that offenders who rejected or performed poorly in treatment were at higher risk to re-offend. the rise of restorative justice over the last years, “restorative justice” has been widely recog- nized in canadian public discourse (roach, ). this has happened as many nations grapple with burgeoning prison populations and the difficulties associated with returning previously incarcerated persons to increasingly intolerant communities. those at the forefront of the re- storative justice vanguard assert that any successful reintegration of of- fenders to the community must include active participation of all community stakeholders. this has been, at times, a bitter pill for fearful citizens to swallow, particularly in regard to sexual offenders. although restorative justice is not a new concept in canada, it was never fully embraced until sentencing reforms were made in . ear- lier committees had acknowledged the potential for use of such princi- ples, but the reforms were the first to recognize the restorative concept that the provision of reparations to victims and the community are legitimate goals of sentencing (martin’s annual criminal code, ). since those reforms, restorative justice continued to rise in crimi- nal justice discourse, and can be seen in decisions made by the supreme court of canada (see review in roach, ). the multiple purposes of sentencing, which include rehabilitation, deterrence, incapacitation, and retribution, have resulted in a great deal of subjectivity in regard to sentencing decisions by judges. adding re- storative justice opportunities to the mix is likely to exacerbate this dif- ficulty but, nonetheless, represents a potential for transforming the way in which we deal with offenders and the goals of sentencing. the con- cept of restorative justice includes important principles such as fairness, equality, accountability, reparation, forgiveness, inclusion, and healing. in traditional criminal justice systems, justice is used to heal victims and requires that all stakeholders have an opportunity to be involved in harm assessment and reduction (miller & schacter, ). the law commission of canada outlines three fundamental princi- ples of restorative justice: sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions . crime is a violation of a relationship among victims, offenders, and the community; . restoration involves the victim, the offender, and community members; and . a consensus approach should be used in the application of justice. (roach, ) the supreme court of canada has ruled that restorative sanctions can achieve the multiple purposes of punishment, including denunciation, de- terrence, proportionality, and rehabilitation (r. v. gladue; see roach, ). restorative justice is often defined and used as a means to promote accountability of offenders for crime. offenders are encouraged to ac- cept responsibility and to face the victims of their crime, as well as other members of the community. some argue that accountability is a more meaningful response in acknowledging the consequences of crime than are short terms of imprisonment. accepting responsibility and making amends are key features of restorative justice. these are also particu- larly helpful in establishing workable offender reintegration programs. restorative justice has also shown that rehabilitation of offenders is an important and achievable goal. the s saw a decline in the sup- port for rehabilitation of offenders, as many subscribed to the “nothing works” philosophy (martinson, ; roach, ). many continue to adhere to this doctrine, in spite of evidence to the contrary (gendreau, smith, & goggin, in press; hanson, ). further, the supreme court of canada has defended the efforts of restorative justice and identified that rehabilitation does not end in prison, but that community participa- tion in justice, including treatment, and the participation of families and the community at large, plays a pivotal role. to summarize, restorative justice is defended as a more effective means of crime prevention than punitive approaches (roach, ). the focus is on the specific deterrence of offenders such that an of- fender who is restored, or is on the road to restoration, is less likely to re-offend. further, restorative justice initiatives act as a general deter- rent in that they serve to increase community involvement regarding, and monitoring of, particular behaviors in particular communities. re- storative justice in canada is continuing to grow in its appeal, as com- munity groups, victims, women, and aboriginal peoples continue to work together to help restorative principles gain acceptance by criminal justice professionals. robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo circles of support and accountability notwithstanding the advances reported above, risk assessment con- tinues to be an inexact science and complete accuracy is likely unob- tainable. with that in mind, it is unlikely that the public will tolerate even the comparatively small recidivism rates to which innovations in risk assessment and community supervision and treatment strategies have contributed (wilson, kirkegaard, & heise, ). in essence, without the ability to completely eradicate recidivism, communities will continue to call for measures to keep high-risk offenders away. nonetheless, most sexual offenders are serving determinate sentences, and will face reentry to the community at some point. as noted above, those offenders detained to wed are released with few structured sup- ports to assist in their reintegration, with the end result being that there are no additional safeguards for the public other than those afforded by the police. such offenders are not bound by any release conditions, are not supervised by parole or probation officers and, at present, are not routinely required to inform law enforcement of their residence or ac- tivities. efforts to address the latter point, using megan’s law in the united states as a model, are presently before the ontario legislature. presently, police may apply to the court to have peace bonds imposed on certain offenders, which allows for the imposition of conditions for remaining in the community. the community reintegration project (crp–mennonite central committee, ) was specifically conceived to address the needs of communities by providing outreach to high-risk sex offenders released at wed and by providing a framework for the formation of circles of support and accountability. the purpose of the crp is to speak to the fears of victims, to reduce the risk of re-offence, and to ease offenders’ transition from institutional to community settings. circles of support are intended to provide the development of a relapse prevention team for an ex-offender. a typical circle is comprised of concerned citizens (volunteers) who have a common interest in helping to prevent further sexual victimization through guidance, advocacy and monitoring of of- fender activities in the community. the circle has the dual responsibil- ity of providing a caring community for the core member (i.e., the offender) while striving to increase community safety. a graphic repre- sentation of a circle of support is shown in figure . the primary initiative of the crp is a pilot project set up for south-central ontario involving recruitment of volunteers from the community to form circles of support around high-risk/high-profile sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions sex offenders. circles provide intensive support for the core member to assist in a safe, orderly adjustment to everyday life in the community. in order to achieve this, circle members must fulfil many roles: . circle members function as advocates, working to increase coop- eration with police, victims, treatment providers, and the commu- nity. . they confront the core member about those attitudes and behav- iors which put him at risk for relapse. . members are available to assist the core member through emer- gencies. robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo community family and friends circle of support core members police–special agencies, consultants faith community and general services figure . relationships of the circle within the community . as part of the greater community, circle members mediate com- munity concerns. . circle members encourage and join the core member in celebrat- ing anniversaries, milestones, and other victories in their reinte- gration. optimal circle size is four to six community volunteers, in order to provide a variety of opinions. members of circles have included mem- bers of faith congregations, police officers, psychologists, family medical practitioners, and community advocates. all circle volun- teers are screened and informed of the initial one-year commitment. the first two months of any circle are usually intense, involving one to two contacts with the core member per week. depending on the of- fender and his needs, daily contact may be required during the period immediately following release. the full circle meets weekly and once the core member adjusts to his new life in the community, meetings are reduced to twice monthly. to be effective in the reintegration pro- cess, circles should meet on an as-needed basis. it is expected that some circles will be maintained for several years, reflecting the real- ity that, for some offenders, reintegration is a long-term process. to date, circles have been undertaken in south-central ontario, as part of the pilot project. circles have been undertaken in other parts of canada; however, data regarding their success or failure will not be presented here. method subjects subjects were federally-sentenced, male sexual offenders de- tained until their warrant expiry date (demographic data are presented in table ). all subjects were identified by institutional staff as being at substantial risk to re-offend following release, hence the detention order by the national parole board. each subject is currently, or has recently been, involved in a circle of support in south-central ontario, under the management of the mennonite central committee of ontario. aver- age time of follow-up, which is an approximation of the length of time of involvement in a circle, is months with the range being from to months. sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions actuarial measures the static- (hanson & thornton, ) was created by adding together items from two previously-existing measures, the rapid risk assessment of sex offender recidivism (rrasor–hanson, ) and the structured anchored clinical judgement (sacj–grubin, ). the resultant scale was found to be more accurate in its predic- tive ability than either measure alone. hanson and thornton also showed that the static- is more accurate than unstructured clinical judgment, and that it possesses moderate accuracy in predicting any vi- olent recidivism among sex offenders. the sex offender risk assessment guide (sorag–quinsey, har- ris, rice, & cormier, ) is an actuarial risk assessment tool devised by its authors to measure risk for recidivism by sexual offenders. it is simi- lar in construction to the violence risk appraisal guide (vrag– quinsey et al., ). while the sorag has no published validation data, the vrag has demonstrated reasonable predictive validity with respect to potential for violent recidivism, including sexual re-offend- ing. the static- , rrasor and the sorag were completed for each offender after review of the documents and reports on the offender management system (oms), the national offender data bank of the robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo table . group demographics (n = ) m(sd) age in years . ( . ) % deviant phallometrics . m(sd) static- . ( . ) m(sd) rrasor . ( . ) m(sd) sorag . ( . ) victims m number . % female only . % familial only . % children only . % predicted survival (static- ) . % actual survival . m(sd) follow-up (months) ( . ) range (months) - correctional service of canada. each offender’s level of risk was as- sessed by his scores on the static- , rrasor, and sorag (see table ). once each offender’s level of risk was calculated using the ac- tuarial measures, survival analysis was used to estimate recidivism probabilities. survival analysis calculates the probability of recidivating for each time period as long as the offender has not yet recidivated (hanson & thornton, ). survival analysis was used due to its ad- vantage of being able to estimate month-by-month recidivism projec- tions when follow-up periods vary across offenders. instances of recidivism were defined as charges or convictions recorded on an of- fender’s criminal record. results mean time at risk was months with the range being from months to just over six-and-a-half years. average scores on the static- , rrasor, and sorag (n = ) were . , . , and . , respectively. these ratings confirm the higher risk status of of- fenders involved in the study. using mean time at risk and average static- score, in combination with established survival data (hanson, personal communication), we predicted that approximately seven instances of sexual recidivism should have occurred in this group to date. average expected survival over the cases was . % using the formula: s (survival probabilities)/n however, only three persons have recidivated to date: one for indecent telephone calls, another for offenses against a child, and the last for sex- ual assault against a female adult. in each case, the offense committed was categorically less severe or invasive than the crime for which the offender had previously served a prison sentence. the difference be- tween the expected survival and the observed survival in our sample was . %. using a z test with a correction for small sample (hardyck & petrinovich, , pp. - ) in which the deviation of the observed survival proportion is compared to the expected survival proportion, based on hanson’s data, we were able to demonstrate a strong trend toward significance (z = . , n = , p < . ). sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions discussion this paper discusses a canadian approach to restorative justice with conditionally-released, high-risk sexual offenders. since the pilot pro- gram began, many others have “sprung up” around the nation. further, members of our group have been invited to present the model in numer- ous international settings, including the united states, united king- dom, and south africa. generally, the response has been favorable, indicating significant interest in the prospect of adding another dimen- sion to the safe and ethical management of offenders. the circles of support initiative uses community volunteers to aid in the management of sex offender risk. while these volunteers are screened and provided with training and support from professionals (e.g., psychologists, psychiatrists, etc.), and many of the volunteers are retired social service workers, the point is well taken that these are aver- age community persons involved in a potentially dangerous enterprise. we argue, however, that the risk management provided by government agencies has fallen short of the needs of the community. this is particu- larly true of offenders released at sentence completion, usually to no treatment and no correctional supervision. of those services that might be available through other agencies, decreases in funding and the resul- tant longer waiting lists have jeopardized community safety. therefore, it is our position that the community must take a greater stake in ensur- ing its own safety. by including community members in the risk man- agement process, we increase the level of understanding of the issues at hand, and empower citizens to be informed as to the risks present in their surroundings. while some may argue that this is fatalistic, we be- lieve that an informed community is a safer community. this study recorded scores on three actuarial sexual offense risk as- sessment measures (rrasor, sorag and static- ), using the latter to predict estimated sexual recidivism rates. all three measures assessed the subjects to be high risk to re-offend sexually, demonstrat- ing concurrent validity of the measures. this confirms earlier research in which the static- predicted sex offense recidivism with similar levels of accuracy to the sorag (hanson & thornton, ). the results of comparisons between projected and actual recidivism show that the group of offenders included in this analysis are recidivating at a rate less than % of that expected using the static- survival data provided by hanson (personal communication). of the core members included in this study, only three have recidivated to date, while the probability was that seven would have done so. while it is robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo possible that more offenders might have recidivated, the likelihood of that having occurred is decreased by the level of involvement of the cir- cle in the core member’s life. while difficult to determine conclusively, the strong trend toward significance in comparing the observed and expected recidivism pro- portions suggests that involvement in a circle of support has aided the offenders reported here in making a smoother transition to the commu- nity. specifically, being held accountable for their actions, and being af- forded a close community support network, has given them the kind of support that might have been available had they received conditional re- lease. results of a recently-reported investigation looking at recidivism rates for conditionally-released offenders to the same geographic area (wilson et al., ) also suggested that collaborative facilitation of of- fender reintegration, including a variety of stakeholders, increases the likelihood of success. in that study, recidivism rates were also lower than those reported elsewhere in the literature (barbaree, seto, & maric, ; motiuk & brown, ). at present, the recidivism rates of our subject group have not been compared specifically to an analogous group released without the bene- fit of a circle of support. national data reported by motiuk, belcourt, and bonta ( ) suggest that the sexual recidivism rate of detained sexual offenders is in line with, if not slightly higher than, the predic- tions made by the static- survival data used here. it would be of in- terest to many to establish whether or not a statistically significant difference exists in regard to recidivism rates. however, barbaree ( ) has suggested that, due to low base-rates, the demonstration of “treatment” effects is difficult. nonetheless, this should not be seen as a rationale for discontinuing initiatives such as that detailed here. indeed, gendreau and his colleagues (in press) have ably demonstrated that small differences in recidivism rates have large social implications with respect to victim harm and a variety of cost indicators (e.g., trying, in- carcerating, and treating offenders; and providing services for victims). the circles of support model might be of particular interest to those ju- risdictions where the costs associated with maintaining offenders have grown unwieldy. the current study used actuarial assessment, primarily of static vari- ables, to predict a recidivism rate which was then compared to an actual recidivism rate. the reader is cautioned that, although certainly better than clinical judgment alone, actuarial assessment is also less than per- fect. hanson and thornton acknowledge that the static- provides only moderate predictive ability in regard to sexual or violent recidi- sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions vism. recent research (hanson & harris, ) has suggested that gen- eral risk assessment efforts would be greatly enhanced by consideration of dynamic factors, such as intimacy deficits, treatment failure, and non-cooperation with supervision. hanson and harris ( ) have recently introduced the sex offender needs assessment rating, or sonar, which attempts to accomplish the same goal as the static- , however, in re- gard to dynamic factors. while static indicators of risk have been tradi- tionally viewed as superior in determining risk for re-offense, meta- analyses conducted by gendreau, little, and goggin ( ) demon- strated that offender needs (or dynamic variables) are able to predict re- cidivism with similar strength. dynamic factors are often more useful to treatment and supervisory personnel in managing offender risk in the community. we argue that circles of support are a good first step in in- cluding the community-at-large in risk management, and that they are a viable means to increase public safety. references andrews, d.a. & bonta, j. ( ). the psychology of criminal conduct, second edi- tion. cincinnati, oh: anderson. barbaree, h.e. ( ). evaluating treatment efficacy with sexual offenders: the insen- sitivity of recidivism studies to treatment effectiveness. sexual abuse, , - . barbaree, h.e., seto, m.c., & maric, a. ( ). sex offender characteristics, response to treatment and correctional release decisions at the warkworth sexual behaviour clinic (working papers in impulsivity research report). toronto, on: clarke insti- tute of psychiatry. correctional service of canada ( ). the safe return of offenders to the community: statistical overview . ottawa, on: research branch, csc. (available at www.csc-scc.gc.ca) gendreau, p., little, t., & goggin, c. ( ). a meta-analysis of the predictors of adult offender recidivism: what works? criminology, , - . gendreau, p., smith, p., & goggin, c. (in press). treatment programs in correc- tions. in: j. winterdyk (ed.), corrections in canada: social reaction to crime. scarborough, on: prentice-hall. griffiths, c. & cunningham, a. ( ). canadian corrections. scarborough, on: nel- son thomas learning. grubin, d. ( ). sex offending against children: understanding the risk (police re- search series paper ). london: home office. hanson, r.k. ( ). the development of a brief actuarial risk scale for sexual offense recidivism (user report - ). ottawa: on: department of the solicitor general of canada. (available at www.sgc.gc.ca) hanson, r.k. ( ). risk assessment: prepared for the association for the treatment of sex abusers. beaverton, or: atsa. robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo hanson, r.k. ( , november). the effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: report of the atsa collaborative research committee. plenary address made at the th annual research and treatment conference of the association for the treat- ment of sexual abusers, san diego, ca. hanson, r.k. & bussière, m.t. ( ). predictors of sexual offender recidivism: a meta-analysis (user report - ). ottawa, on: department of the solicitor gen- eral of canada. (available at www.sgc.gc.ca) hanson, r.k. & bussière, m.t. ( ). predicting relapse: a meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. journal of consulting and clinical psychology, , - . hanson, r.k. & harris, a.j.r. ( ). the sex offender need assessment rating (sonar): a method for measuring change in risk levels (user report - ). ot- tawa, on: department of the solicitor general of canada. (available at www. sgc.gc.ca) hanson, r.k. & thornton, d. ( ). static- : improving actuarial risk assessments for sex offenders (user report - ). ottawa, on: department of the solicitor general of canada. (available at www.sgc.gc.ca) hanson, r.k. & thornton, d. ( ). improving risk assessments for sex offenders: a comparison of three actuarial scales. law and human behavior, , - . hardyck, c.d. & petrinovich, l.f. ( ). introduction to statistics for the behavioral sciences. philadelphia, pa: w.b. saunders. hare, r. ( ). without conscience. new york, ny: guilford. holden, r. ( ). legal implications of sexual assault. in: r.j. wilson & d. lagace (eds.), assessment, treatment, & supervision of sex offenders. ottawa, on: correc- tional service of canada. martin’s annual criminal code ( ). aurora, on: canada law book. martinson, r. ( ). what works? questions and answers about prison reform. the public interest, , - . mennonite central committee ( ). community reintegration project manual. to- ronto, on: mcc. miller, s.b. & schacter, m. ( ). from restorative justice to restorative governance. canadian journal of criminology, , - . motiuk, l.l. & brown, s.l. ( ). factors related to recidivism among released fed- eral sex offenders (research report # r- ). ottawa, on: research division, cor- rectional service of canada. (available at www.csc-scc.gc.ca) motiuk, l.l., belcourt, r.l., & bonta, j. ( ). managing high risk offenders: a post detention follow-up (research report #r- ). ottawa, on: research branch, cor- rectional service of canada. (available at www.csc-scc.gc.ca) quinsey, v.l., harris, g.t., rice, m.e., & cormier, c.a. ( ). violent offenders: appraising and managing risk. washington, dc: american psychological associa- tion. roach, k. ( ). changing punishment at the turn of the century: restorative justice on the rise. canadian journal of criminology, , - . thurber, a. ( ). understanding offender reintegration. forum on corrections re- search, . (available at www.csc-scc.gc.ca) sex offender treatment: accomplishments, challenges, and future directions wilson, r.j., kirkegaard, h., & heise, e. ( , september). community reintegration project for high risk sex offenders. presentation at the rd annual training institute of the american probation and parole association, norfolk, va. wilson, r.j., stewart, l., stirpe, t., barrett, m., & cripps, j.e. ( ). commu- nity-based sex offender management: combining parole supervision and treatment to reduce recidivism. canadian journal of criminology, , - . robin j. wilson and michelle prinzo book reviews sandra birdsell, the two-headed calf (toronto: mcclelland & stewart, ). paperback, pp. $ . . a new work of fiction by the talented sandra birdsell is always a welcolne gift. when the book is as good as this one, her readers can enjoy an added bonus. birdsell began as a writer of short fiction back in the eighties with two highly promising collections-night travellers ( ') andladies ojtheho~ise ( )- followed by two novels which fiirther enhanced her reputation. now she is back with an even stronger collection of short stories, her first in a dozen years, and one that richly demonstrates what an accomplished short story writer she has become. in mavis gallant and alice monroe, canada boasts two o r the finest writers of short fiction in english, and with this vol~une sandra birdsell proves she is not far behind. she lnay not yet display quite the wise coslnopolitanisln and subtlety of forln displayed by gallant, or quite match the startling depths of insight of monroe, but she is getting closer to both in all these qualities. each of these nine stories is a polished gem, but then not all gems are of equal quality or value. and although mennonite readers lilte to think of birdsell as one ol'their own, only three of these stories draw explicitly on mennonite back- gro~mds and contain identifiable mennonite characters. but those three-"a necessary treason," "the man from mars" and the title story "the two- i-ieaded calf --are among the strongest in the book in their vivid authenticity, relevant themes and searing emotions. in "the two-headed calf" she explores with wonderful colnplexity a theme close to her heart, the theme oftrying to find self-identity in the cultural and familial confusion ofgrowing up partly menno- nite and partly french-metis. sylvia, born out of wedlock to betty, her rebel jour-?in/ o / . m e ~ ~ r ~ o ~ ~ i t e stirdies val. , book reviatjs .?$ lious, teen-aged mennonite mother, grows up not knowing who her father is. i-ier wise old mennonite grandfather keeps urging her to "just be you," but for sylvia it's not that simple. i-ier grandmother malvina spurns her as illegitimate and holds up as a paragon the memory of neta, her beautiful daughter who was raped and killed by anarchists in russia. by the tiine sylvia intuits that her lather was the brother of lucille, her mother's adolescent french pal, the revelation comes too late. sylvia knows she will always reinain the "two-headed calf," an apparition she once saw at the fair, a freakish image that still haunts her. its two brains, she realizes, would always cancel each other out and "the c a l f s heart had stopped beauty." in "a necessary treason," janice, the middle-aged daughter of sadie, finally comprehends that her ageing mother, still harboring illusions of cultuu-a superiority bred by lier early years in mennonite russia, had to commit "a necessary treason" against her family in order to free herself from rigid mennonite restraints. sadie was only thirteen when she left r.ussia in tile twenties, and relneinbers the times of terror very clearly. i-fer aunts and older sisters she suspects, had "come to lmow desperate things she doesn't." now, remaining as head-strong as ever in lzer old age, sadie has developed "an apocalyptic eye" and sees symbols, portents and omens everywhere as she awaits "the r e t ~ u n of christ." it takes neil, the mennonite friend janice brings home, to place her noth her in a dubious mennonite context. he tells her that mennonites are probably pacifists because "they're lixated by death and dying." janice can only watch helplessly as her mother reinains trapped in the past. "the man from mars" is a inoving story about an impoverished mennonite family returning to canada from mexico in a battered old truck and with no specific destination. birdsell gets everything achingly right in this story as she depicts willie, the coarse, shiftless, sex-obsessed father bringing his put-upon wife and two young daughters to manitoba, the province he had left with his parents as a child. suffering rro~n culture shock, unable to adapt himself to new conditions get anything but the most menial of jobs, willie finally defects, slinking away from his family only to get killed by a car outside ivlinot, north dakota. released from her brutally oppressive husband, eva, the sex-abused wife, takes out a new lease on life, works happily as a cook in a hotel, and evenh~ally inarries a retired mennonite fanner. the crude evcnts ofthe story are sensitively filtered through the mind and sensibility of sara, one of the two daughters. both prove to be "whiz lcids" who grow up getting an e'ducation and later look back at their father as a "man froin mars" who "is overcome by air too heavy to breathe or to speak the deserts and fires he carries inside." most of the other (non-mennonite) stories are eqtiall y accomplished, several utilizing ~ n u s u a l techniq~~es and narrative strategies. in "disappearances" an elderly couple, frances and donald, are on their way to saskatoon to attend the trial of their errant granddaughter, who has been charged with manslaughter. the focus of the story is not on the trial, however, but on the complex kelings the j o u ~ ~ z n l oj‘me~z~torzite studies grandparents have about the inimaginably horrible experience that awaits them in saskatoon. as respectable and responsible members of an older generation, they can only go helplessly over the incriminating evidence as they know it, reflect on their dauglltcr's need for money to pay for their grandda~~ghter's trial, and to dread what is to come. the story ends before they even gel to their destination. having resigned herself to the inevitable, frances, at the end of the story, watches in helpless fascination as donald "marches towards the dug-out pond" where they have stopped, and disappears. does he actually drown himself, or is it a trick of the eye experienced by the suffering frances? it's a trick ending that may only work for readers who do not demand explicit realism. the first two stories, "i used to play brass in a band" and "the midnight i-iour" explore the delicate, manifold play of forces between lorraine and her daughter christine. the first story is narratedby lorraine, who as amiddle-aged mother returns to her home in winnipeg after living in vancouver and remem- bers the time christine, now living in japan, had brought home tlree strange brothers because they had nowhere else to go. lorraine had herself become involved in the lives of the brothers after christine left for japan. the mother learns to cope with her daughter's generation through these contacts in ways she was unable to do directly with her daughter. in "the midnight hour" it is clu-istine who narrates the tangled story of her fifteenth birthday. birdsell skilfttlly captures the conflicting feelings and aspirations of the teen-aged girl, who is bright but increasingly bored living with her mother. the experience of being picked lip, along with her two girl friends, by an older man in assiniboine park who takes theln to his apartment with the aim of seducing them, in the end brings her closer to her mother as she realizes the danger she has barely escaped. the clevcr reversal of generational point of view tellingly reveals the nuances of a mother-claughter relationship. sandra birdsell is not afraid to tackle off-beat themes or venture into scenes of the macabre that mix grim ~ nor with sinister effects. "the ballad of the sargent brothers" is a country gothic tale about a pair of confirmed bachelor twins living in isolation on a fann in southern manitoba. their stagnant lives are suddenly disrupted and tragically hirned by a well-meaning y o ~ n g woman from a neighboring farm who invades the brothers's lives withdevastating effect. it is a haunting story with a beautifi~lly written ending, and birdsell demonstrates that she can manage the difficult combination of gothic mood and thwarted romance with impressive style. with t h ~ s collection sandra birdsell shows that she has it all as a writer of fiction: she can be wryly funny, she can provide finely judged insights, create memorable characters and command moods that shade from sunny to dark to disturbingly ominous. above all, she shows that she has the command of style and form we expect from the top ecllelon of canadian writers. a reimer, winnipeg, manitoba book revie~vs helene dueck, dtirch triibsnl und not (winnipeg: centre for mennonite brethren studies, winnipeg, ). whenever a group of post world war i mennonite immigrants above the age of - gets together, a part of the conversation inevitably turns to the so- called "great trek" of to , when mennonites were evacuated from ukraine (of w h o ~ n about were later "repatriated" by the soviet union). the mode of transportation of these evacuees rangedfrom freight trains (in the old colony and sagradowka), arelatively fast and safe mode, to caravans of covered wagons of motley description (in the molochnaia) over frequently soggy roads. old men and young boys were among the few inales in this exodus, the able bodied inen were either in the gulag or else had been recruited by the german occupation forces. as the proverbial saying goes, this trelc "beggars all description." it is the subject of the above mentioned boolc. almost any nuimber of descriptions, poems and reflections, :some good, some mediocre and maudlin, have surfaced from this unprecedented collective experience. this book is one of the latest of this genre. its author s iiclene dueck whose family was torn apart in three violent stages. iier father was a victim of the purges of the 's; her brothers were part of the evacuation of the molochnaia (half of the molochnaia was evacuated to the east by the sovlets before the arrival of the gerinan troops) and her mother and her sisters were "repatriated" by the soviets in . the author has divided her book into two parts: the story of her inother and sisters, and the story of her own odyssey. she did not share the fate of her family because she was a student of the priscliib lba (teacher training instituite) operated by the occnpying german forces for the ethnic gerinan (volksdeutsche) of ulcraine. these schools, including one in kiev, were evacuated by the retreating gerrnans to some extent separately from the other ethnic germans and mennonites. while the author was together with her mother and sisters for part of the evacuation, she was not there when they were "repatriated" she was far enough west to escape the soviets and to be an early beneficiary of the allied efforts to resettle the refi~gees as early as possible. through the help of benjamin unruh and the kfe itsche rlii~cisci?~ll she established contacit with an unclc in canada and inoved there in early . by and large the account is fascinating reading. in places i t is a veritable "page turner". on the other hand, the reader frequently catches himself wishing for a little more coherence and clarity the march of tunes and places hecolnes a bit bluu-red after a while (as no doubt it was experienced at the time) while the foreword states that the text has been capably edited, this reviewer too often found hilnself wishing for inore stringent editorial incisions iic: was surprised (if not dismayed) at the kind and nuunber of orthographical and gralnmatlcal errors, not to speak of stylistic infractions which the editors must have over- looked. a good revislon of the text would make a good boolc into one jotrt.tza ofmetzr~or~ite studies approaching excellence. but another building block has been added to an edifice of epic proportions. the story of the "great trek" in its entirety has yet to be written. i-iistorians will be grateful far every piece of information. i-iere is a sizable brick. gerhard ens winnipeg george k. epp, gesctzichte derikieiznorziten in rtissland: de~itsche tae~lfer in r~lssland b a n d (lage, germany: logos verlag, ). pp., $ . can. some years ago george epp promised a two-volume work on mennonites in russia the it appeared that three voltunes would be needed to cover the mennonite experience in russia. this is the first vol~une. epp always had tlie allssiecllel* in (germany in mind as his primary reader target, hence the use of the gcrlnan language and the smaller voliune size. it was probably a wise decision both ways. the price may be a factor, of course, which could discourage access by readers somewhat, in germany, north america or elsewhere. people familiar with the russian mennonite story inay have hoped for more new data in a new history. for gennan-language readers (and indeed for others) a lot of material will in fact be new. did you know that jacob i-ioeppner's expulsion from his congregation led to his becoming the first registered mennonite resident of alexandrovsk, and that his ukrainian neigl~bo~u-s sought to alleviate s financial distress in numerous ways? for those who really do not know the stor!{ at all, as is the case with inany aussiedler, it will be an excellent introduction to the subject. several things are noticeable at once. the broad contextual approacll is laudable. there is a discussion of european and especially pnlssian history of the eighteenth century. there is reference to the i-iutterites who helped to set some patterns for mennonite emigration. and socio-political factors, sucli as the phenomenon of the larger german emigration of the time, and the ramifications oftlie ongoing threat of fi~rther conflict with tlie turks, are told here, but are not always included in other works. as an lilstorian able to read russian well, epp was able to incorporate the works of earlier russian historians like piserevksii and stach to good advan- tage, along with other russian language sources (such as the p j. braun archives from odessa) which few western scholars have really brought into the picture until now. some readers will be interested to see the significant role attributed to book reviwvs .i samuel kontenius i n getting the new mennonite colonists on a sound financial footing. his contacts with the senate are illuminated inore clearly than in other worlcs. these same readers may wonder why the worlts of johann cornies are not stressed more (the book includes the period up to ), while those of claas wiens are given inore prominence, although even wiens' contribution could have seen greater elaboration. the assessment of the relative contributions of the non -mennonite directors appointed by the russian goveanlnent is viewed as a crucial factor in sizing up the achievements ofthc first settlers. tlne itnplication is that here is another theme that merits even lnorc research than has been attempted in this s~u-vey. statistical data related to the founding ofthe first villages helps to sketch the settlement situation clearly, and specific attention to the development of religious life, especially the selection of church leaders provides the larger view of community development often missed by earlier accounts. the klaas reimer-related schism gets its rightful place, and the hostilities between leaders like jacob e m s and claas wiens receive an objective treat- ment. there is probably still rooin to write a focused non no graph on the russtan mennonites as a church community throughout the entire period of russian settlement. there are some typos, as in most pu~blicalions (reference to on pp. and are both in fact to ), and the bibliographical oinission of j a m s urry's work on russian mennonites will pres~unably be rectified in the next vol~une. the reference to the berdianslc region (p. , line ) is no doubt to berislav. the type font of the appendices and indexes seeins needlessly large, detracting sornewhat froin the otherwise pleasant fonnal and actually very readable quality of the text (even for seniors). volume i is projected for publication this spring , while the third voliunc (closing with the revolution of ) will require some time to complete. it will be a welcome close to the trilogy which is now well underway; and a fitting tribute to the strong interest dr. epp always had in the russian mennonite story. lawrence klippenstein mennonite heritage centre winnipeg jounlol ol'metlt~ot~ite studies david ewert, honotlr stlch people (winnipeg, manitoba: centre for mennonite b,rethren studies, ). paperback, pp., $ . cdn. in this book, new testament scholar and cl~uuchman david ewert, pursues his interest in mennonite brethren biography. having written a biograplly of a. h. unmh (stul~iart for the trzitk, ) and his own autobiography (journejj of' faith, ), ewert now offers a series of eight biographical sketches in the spirit of paul's adlnonltion that the philippians sho~ d l l o n o ~ r their leaders (philippians : ). the eight inen ewerl has singled out for attention are chosen for reasons personal to hiinself, giving the reader a fuuther glimpse into ewert's own place among the array of mennonite brethren leadership at mid-century. all were bible teachers and colleagues of ewert in various mennonite brethren schools duuring his own scllolarly and teaching ministry, representing as they do the period from to , all but one are russian-born, placing them in the generation of leaders that served the mennonite brethren climcli and beyond in the aftermath of the s migration of mennonites to canada and its attendant assiinilation into canadian society. in offering these sltetcl~es as candid personal tributes to his teachers, colleagues and friends, it is obvious that for ewert this book is a respectful, well- researched, journey into his own reminiscences. still, ewert has an eye on the future as well, hoping his book will also sellre to introduce these leaders to the youth of today. in this, ewert's hopes are well-placed. abrahain h. unrudl ( ), cornclius wall ( ), iienry i-i. janzen ( , bernllard w. sawatslcy ( ), john a toews ( ), jacob . franz ( ), jacob i-i. quiring, and frank c. peters ( ) will be reineinbered by inany mennonites in canada as l ~ o ~ ~ s e l ~ o l d naines at mid-century, but ewert's younger readers will find this book to be a winsome introduction to a generation of leaders they never knew. employing a readily accessible narrative style, ewert uses just under twenty pages as he places each subject within the mennonite family, traces their story a l n ~ d numerous anecdotes and, in inany instances, offers appreciative, but not altogether nncritical, perspectives on their accomplislunents and contributions. the portraits drawn in this book exhibit the shades of nuance and telling detail available only through the eye of a fellow sojourner. the appeal of ewert's book for those who itnew and appreciated these leaders and teachers as ewert does is obvious these portraits, however, also offer the inore detached reader a ready store of information and potential insight into the circumstances, challenges, opportunities and attitudes that shaped a generation of mennonite b r e t l ~ e n leadership. generally unencumbered by analysis, but ably presented in the natural stream of experience, one encounters diinensions of the canadian mennonite story such as the russian mennonite experience, the realities of iininigrant life, the sensitive interplay of family relationships, and the stresses and challenges of ministry in congregational and conference-related contexts. at the appropriate time, i t will be interesting to use ewert's sketches as a basis book revimvs for comparing mennonite bretluen c h ~ u c h leaders of his generation with those of today. gerald c. ediger concord college winnipeg john friesen, field of broken dreams: mennonite settlement in seminole, west texas (winnipeg: self published, ). this page account, pages of which comprise the main text, is a worthwhile contribution to the documentation of the dynamics of the social and economic driving forces operating withindhe framework of mexican mennonite colonization ventmes. in inany ways, to appropriate a frequently repeated redundancy attribute, i believe, to baseball player yogi berra, it's "a case of dija vu all over again." like other mennonite colonization attempts, the west texas venture was rooted in the rigidity of institutions and traditions which, in the face increasingly severe shortages of land, failed to legitimize and promote intellectual, social and econolnic outreach and expansion into an otherwise beclconing range of non- agrarian endeavors. the seminole story therefore recapitulates a recurring reality: people thwarted by arbitrary institutional curtailments on lifestyle and opportunity and desperate to improve on conditions for which they perceive no remedy at home, collectively embark on ventmes pre-programmed for misad- venture. lacking education and experience, they readily accept the leadership of persuasive, ambitious persons equally lacking in education and experience. they altogether too readily accept the offhand assurances ofpromoters, lawyers and politicians in respect to real estate transactions and the particulars of admissibility to, and fi~ture civil status in, another country. contracts are entered into, based upon unrealistic projections of committed participat~on by "inter- ested" individuals "back home." doctrinal differences, however minor, are assiduonsly maintained between and among the intending migrants. the ven- ture therefore dissolves into a number of separate thrusts. the potential sinanc- ing is thus diluted, as are the prospects for satisfying the conditions for legal immigration. as successive difficulties are encountered, intending migrants increasingly withhold their capital commitment, and the venture ilnplodes or has to be drastically revised. its autl~orslleaders sorsalte it tl~emselves or are set aside. the leaderless and largely destitute group of those already irrevocably committed then readily accepts other "leadership," and further misadventures ensue. ultimately pity and co~npassion on the part of higher authority (state and federal government) and outside agencies (m.c.c. ) achieve a narrow rescue for - jou . a of metztzo~~ite studies the s~iwivors, who gradually accommodate and adopt to realities over whose structuring they never had any significant control. the seminole experience deserves comparison with comparable mennonite colonization efforts in the twentieth cent~lry, in which the luge to escape "intolerable" conditions at home led to incompetently-led, badly-researched internationallintercontinental colonization ventures. some were total fiascoes. those which survived, not infrequently after having been abandoned by those whose means permitted retreat, and sometimes by their religious leaders, are testaments to the resilience and adaptability of the desperate and the destitute for whom no option remained except to "stick it out." john friesen's field of' broken dreams renders a tangible contribution to the documentation of menno- nite colonization history and geography. it is to be hoped that others who, as he did, encounter the opportunity in the context of voluntary service, will be stimulated to follow lfis example. h. l. sawatzky department of geography university of manitoba rudy p. friesen, with sergey shamakin, into the past, btlildings of the menlvlonite common~lealth (winnipeg: raduga publications, ). soft cover, pp., index. $ . . recently mennonite historiography has talcen a n~unber of interesting twists and turns. originally much history was documented by ministers, of course empl~asizing tl~eological developments. but particularly after the recovery of the anabaptist vision, historians participated from their well padded office chairs. now a new breed is demonstrating that what really happened may be much more complex, and perhaps better understood by those who have exper- tise in a wlde range of specific fields. james urry has brought not only the viewpoint of an outsider (a very well informed outsider), but also his anthropological training. jolm friesen has loolced at some regions tluough the eyes of a land-use specialist-not inappro- priate, considering that the predominant occupation of mennonites was farm- ing. now iin architect has joined the fray on the supposition that "buildings are an expression of the people who built them. they can tell us a great deal about the society that was responsible for their creation." rudy friesen, an architect living and practicing his profession in winnipeg, has photographed, obtained the plans of and studiedmany of the buildings of the mennonite colonies of the former soviet union. the essence of, and probably the ttnique contribution to m e ~ o n i t e historiography of this book s best summed up in his own introduction: "today little is left of the mennonite commonwealth in russia, but many buildings still remain. they tell us about a people that went from modest agrarian beginnings, relatively isolated from the society around them, to considerable wealth, pride and significant involvement in society." the book begins with a brief outline of anabaptistimennonite illstory, followed by a general analysis o'f buildings and their meaning as relating to this history. in collaboration with sergey shalnakin of zaporoshye (ukraine), local photographer p. reitsin and architect p. tuukovsky, friesen surveys a n~unber of former mennonite colonies-chortitza, yazylcovo, baratow and schlachtin, molotschna, zagradovka and the crimea. each village survey begins with a brief history, often with an excellent map, and then continues with photographs and descriptions of the varcious buildings in the area. architecttual plans are often included, and so too are advertisements from publications ofthe time. a number of cemeteries have been studied; the names and dates gathered from the gravestones should help people find the linal resting places of some of their ancestors. finally, tile appendices includc a useful list of infonnation sources and a good index. rudy friesen has added much valuable information to the lanowledge base of those who wish to study the "mennonite commonwealtl~" of russia. this is, ofcomse, of great interest to those who travel to find their roots or those of their parents or grandparents. in the broader scope the documentation ancl analysis is also an important for russian mennonite history in general. helmut t. huebert winnipeg, manitoba rachel waltner goossen, women against the good wof. (chapel hill and london: the university of north carolina press, ). paper, pp. american women who held pacifist convictions during world war i experienced the war differently, both from the men who claimed religious exemption from it and and from non-pacifist women who maintained "the homc front." in women against the good war rachel waltner goossen, history professor at goshen college, examines the experiences of those women who duuing world war i were associated with civilian public service, a program designed by the american government to offer alternatives to war service. from to , approxi~nately women's lives intersected with this program, ancl thcir contribution to it was considerable. some of their stories appeared in thc vfol~ren 's concerns reporl (# , sept. oct. ). this issue centred around the theme "women and civilian public service," and was co~npiled by rachel waltncr goossen. as a canadian who had heard only canadian men's co stories, i read the issue with interest. in the first two chapters of wo~izen against tlze good war, the author provides the background for her study by outlining the federal government's conscription policics and its launching of the cps, administered jointly by mennonites, brctluen and friends, the historic peace churches with which most cps worlcers were affiliated. she illustrates the cultural attitudes in the s and what i t meant to be pacifist at a time when patriotism, and the law, cle~nandcd support ofa war that was popular. ironically, the war-rejecting yotmgpeople she writes about generally conformed to the patriarchal co~ninunities they came from, but in the larger, war-dominated context they became radical non- conformists. chaptcrs and deal with the rolesplayed by wives and friends ofcpsers as well as by professional wolnen who were pacifist during the war. for them, as for their non-pacifist sisters, the war meant new sacrifices, but also opport~ni- ties to travel (though cpsers did not travel abroad), to earn lnoney outside the horne, to be financially autonomous, ancl to experience something of the world. goossen describes the l i k of camp followers, those woinen who left home to be with husbands or friends in, or near, cps camps; who shared in the harassment meted out to cos; who raised children inhostile settings without the public and govcrnlncnt support given to wives of servicemen. professional women were recruited to work as matrons, dieticians and nurses-all traditional women's roles~--in camps established by cps. chapter details the experience of college agc pacifist women who wanted to do inore than si~iiply discuss post-war relief and rcconstnlction. they looked for direct involve~nent in cps. such involvement becaine available in when coeducational relief training schools were launched at mennonite, breth- ren and friends colleges, and when woinen were accepted for service in state mental institutions, s o ~ n e t i ~ n e s in all-women's cps units, often with hostile staff. in these settings young women could test their convictions and gain self- knowledge. in the introduction, goossen quotes elisc boulding, sociologist and peace scholar: "i reinember feeling [diuing world war ] like many woinen did, that i wished i were a lnan so that my conscientious objection could be recorded." in chapter , lhe author quotes a former cps dietician who, fifty years after the war, said: "i had never been asked about my experience." with this book, goossen aclcnowledges and analyzes the participation and contribution of these women. eiowever, she is interested not only in how they experienced the war, but also in how that experience influenced their thinking about gcnder and conscientious objection, and subsequently affected their post war choices and actions. book reviews - . conclusions are not startling, but significant neverlheless co women's experience of war was determined not--as was the case for wwz suffagettes and feminists during the vietnam war-by gender concerns or political activ- ism, but by pacifist convictions and by a willingness to serve their country through significant, huunanitarian work. both motives were nurtured in the patriarchal communities they came firan. these women did not intent~onally ,challenge gender roles. nevertheless, their experience in the work farce, and as partners with the men, pushed sufficiently at patriarchal structures.todter their expectations with respect to gender roles and marital equality. when the war ended, many remained in the labour 'force. some, along with the men, found sewice opportunities abroad in the wark of post-war moonstmction. of those who slipped quietly into traditional roles many 'became, as a result of their experiences, promoters of non-resistance and humanitarian endeaiwms. their influence helped nuztm-eaan-resistance in the next generation. although many of thesewomen criticized the cps for its shortcomings,~continuad,a~aehment to it is evidenced in reunions and letters. the material in this book is presented in a coherent, well-organized fasluon and illustrated with brief personal stmies or comments, and photos. goossen's sources include archivalmaterial and an impressive range of post-war literature on topics of war and war resistance. in addition, she has conducted oral interviews with former cps women and sent questionnaires to more, of whom responded. these primary sources, ,capably~employed by phe author, lend freshness to theaext. women against the good war, researelled rortunately while there are still cpsers able to respond to quesldonnaires, comes at a time when few of us feel obliged to think seriously a b o a conscription, i found this book engaging and highly informative. i t will prove a valuable resource for stutdents, provide enrichment for laypersons, old o r young, and perhaps it will also stimulate readers, inale or female, to examine their convictions with regard $ war and gender. i can't help wondering if sufficient stories, uncovered in the author's research, are somewhere wai#ing to be collected, with inore personal details than this book allows, into another volume? sarah klassen winnipeg, manitoba marvin e. kroeker, comanches and mennonites on the otlczalzor?za plains (winnipeg: kindred press, ). releasing this paperback is a venture as courageous as i t is precarious. marvin igoeker and kindred press deserve credit for bringing rorward the joorttal o/'~we~t~tortite studies findings of a cent~uy of mennonite missions amidst the comanche peoples of southwestern ol<lahoma. by docunlenting and distributing the well researched findings of this lnlsslon history the author has made his analysis available for open scrutiny. the book should be of keen interest to the sponsoring mission body, to students of missions theology, to archivists and especially to the host peoples, the comanches it s the response of the comanche peoples that will in the end validate or inval~date this century of missions. iierein lies the precariousness of a missionary self-portrait since otus is an era of growing aboriginal self-assertion which includes talk-back to the church's missionary work. george tinker's "missionary conquest" serves as an ex- ample. it is on this theme that kroeker might have included comanche feed- back both from within and from ontside the mission circle. responses in the form of comanche poetry, artwork, legends and oratory pertaining to the ruthless frontier history of forced relocation wouldhave convinced the reader of a broader representation of comanche perspectives. the book of short chapters describes the search for a mennonite mission m oklahoma during the last decade of the nineteenth century. precipitated by contacts with cheyenne people from an already established mennonite mission just north of the comanches, the mennonite brethren launched a mission at post oak iiere in the midst of the relocated comanche the mission had its crisis- centred beginning, its growth and its eventual own relocation prompted by a military expropriation of comanche and mennonite land holdings. figuring prominently in kroeker's account is the legendary quanah parker, "last chief ofthe comanches." parker's significant role lies in the missionary's acknowledgment of comanche leadership for local decision making and his liasonship will governlnent pertaining to detribalization, land negotiation and his adherence to traditional comanche belief. reference to parker's role in the mennonite mission offers valuable insight to the relationship. parker, whose chieftaincy was designated not by his fellow comanche but by the u.s. government and who received financial benefits from suuroimding white ranchers, represents a type of culture broker. in this liasonship of conflict it is not always clear, from the author's stance, on which side the mennonite mission lent its support. on the matter of their own identity kroeker notes the paradox of mennonite resistance to assimilation while seemingly endorsing comanche assimilation into mainstream society. the book's title reflects a refreshing alternative to prevailing missionary styles. cast into a "people to people", rather than into an individually delegated relationship, the title connotes an important cultural self-awareness both with reference to the sending as well as the "sent to" peoples. this two way alertness is prompted, in part, by kroeker's notation of four languages forging the many faceted weltanschauung in this cross cultuual encounter. coming into play at one point or the other are realities variantly cast into low german, high german, english and comanche languages. the language of mission theology, book resiavs however, and of spiritual convergence is the language of assimilat~on, engl~sh. with language as an index of thought one is left to wonder which do~nains of either mennonite or comanche thought are circumvented in the process. kroeker's alertness to c o ~ n ~ n l n i t y building as an ingredient of mission seems especially significant in light of cultural resurgence among aboriginal peoples. in effect, a peoples' corporate rebirth is acknowledged ,against the substantial odds of dispersion, forced 'relocation and decimation. thus, a wholesome alternative to the church as a competitive community div~der is presented. thus also, the actual mission reflects achievements beyond the stated goals of soul winning and chu~rch planting. word and deed flow together especially~in the hands of magdalena becker and the day to,day,participation of her husband in comanche life. the immense awards of friendship accorded to the entire beclter family by the comanche people reflects not o ~ l y their durable tenure as long term missionaries but to a mutual discoveny ,ofione another as children of on,e god. 'is the reader eft.with perplexities afler reading the book? the answer is yes. one is left to wonder about the church as an agent of assimilation especially at a time when mennonites are deliberately seeking to abandon any semblance of cultural heritage in favor of the american mainstream. this, while aboriginal people are experiencing cnltural rebirth. a second perplexity has to do with a christian response to tbeiulgly history of indian land displacement and deliberate cultural decimation. whether a chris- tian gospel ofjustice must reach beyond an internal sp~ritual,domah in order to be credible is a question worthy of addressing and left to the reader. becautse kroeker's book documents an entire century of a m e ~ o n l t e - comanche encounter and because it,auudes to issues requiring d!heological reply it deserves serious thought. 'menno wiebe native concerns, mcc canada winnipeg katherine martens and heidi harms, in her own voice: c,lzildbii-th stoi-iesjhom mennonite women (winnipeg: university of mani- toba press, ). to begin, some autobiographical disclosure is in order, since i'in about to review a book co-written by one ofmy aunts. not only is katherine martens my mother's sister, but several of the narratives from her onln voice come from the women in my family (including my mother). reviewing a book that describes one's own birth is an odd position to be in. despite tliese close - jorrr-rzal oj'metzrzotzite studies connections, i chose to review the book because of my own scholarly and personal interests in both childbirth and mennonite women. her ow~n voice is a compelling and artfully presented collection of mennonite women's childbirth narratives. providing generous, though edited, portions ofwomen's conversations with martens, the book records much of the joy, sorrow, and anger that has accompanied twentieth-centtry women's childbearing. as a collection of narratives with only a small degree of analysis, her o i i ~ i ~ voice seems to be directed towards a general reader. the introduction-part history and part autobiography-situates martens as the interviewer within her project of documenting mennonite childbirth. the short introd~~ctions to each narrative also place martens in relation to the women she is interviewing, so over the course of the book the stories emerge as conversations between two women, not clisembodied transcriptions. the strengths of the book lie in its presentation of a range of mennonite women's stories, in terms of age, piety, and methods and philosophies of cllildbirth. by interviewing three generations of childbearing women (from women who gave birth in the s to the s), martens and hanns capture a peculiarly twentieth-century shift in childbirth practices that saw birth move from home to the hospital and, in a small minority of cases, back home again. their inclusion of stories from adoptive mothers extends the notion of what a "childbirtl~ story" is: one does not necessarily have to give birth to be able to tell such a story. though i consider this book a success in tel-ms of its goals to "preserve a part of mennonite culture" (xiv) and to pass on "m~itterwitz'"xxiii), it left me with several questions and some criticisms. the overall question this collection cvolccd for ~ n c concerns the ambig~~ities of mennonite identity. the women categorized as "mennonite" who tell their stories in this collection include women born into mennonite homes who stayed in the church and those who left it, as well as women who married mennonite men and joined the mennonite church, and athers who did not. while my interest is not in separating the sheep from the goats, i found myself asking what it is that ties all these women together as "mennonite women." furthermore, did they experience childbirth differently because they were mennonite, or would the childbirth stories of ukrainian orthodox women on the prairies be remarkably similar? certainly, the authors did not need to engage in the misleading debate over whether mennonite is an ethnic or a religious category, but they could have offered more reflection on just why mennonite women's childbirth stories were interesting as a group. without critical reflection on their terms, boolcs on mennonite subjects can chaw on the category "mennonite" in a way that risks fetishizing a nostalgic vision of the "quiet ofthe land." . her ow voice avoids this kind of nostalgia because it brings together the stories of so inany different women: single mothers by choice, divorced women, married women, academics, nurses, homemalcers, prairie-born women and immigrants from russia and mexico. but, intpresenting such diversity, it agaln begs questions dbout~what binds these women together not only as mothers, but also as mennonites. questions about mennonite identity lead mc to another query, that, perhaps ironically, is based on ainore stable notion of the term "mennonite " what effect did mennonite notions olseparation from the world have on the,transforinat~on of traditional childbirth practices? did a wariness about the city and the engl~sh keep mennonite childbearingwomen at hoine longer than theirnon-mennonite counterparts? or was the medical model of ~hildbirth not included within this distrust of the world? how did mennonite women interact wifh.medical figures of authority, english or mennonite? given its genre as a collection of stories it makes sense ithat i i i her omjii voice does not answer all ,these questions. qndeetl, part of its success lies in raising these wider questions about mennonite identity and +history its most lasting success, however,iis n presenting the words ofthe ~womcn~hemselves, in engrossing and readable transcriptions. reading 'their storiesm&esplain again and again that childbirth is a rich site of memory and meaning in women's lives. pamela e. klassen department for the study of religion university of toronto keith graber miller, wise as serpents, innocent as doves: ameri- can mennonites engage was,hington (knoxville, t n : university of tennesse press, ). graber miller has undertalcen an engaging study of how a historically "quiet" people-mennonites-have become embroiled in matters public- superpower politics. iie inquires into the dynamics of the inevitable "christian world meet public policy" clash resulting froin such a shift. he asks particularly how traditional mennonite notions like pacifism, humility and service have inforined both the style and content of their national-political involvement through this inquiry he offers "an inside view of how a set of theological and ethical precepts-precepts bound within particular institutional contexts which both give them power and constrain them-are working il~e~nsclves out in the pragmatic world of politics. it is intended to provide a thick description of what an alteinpt at faithful, mennonite political praxis loolcs like in one lcey location" ( ). this location washington, dc morc particularly, this book narrates the account of how the memonlte central comlnlttee washington officc has presented itself in the "corridors ofpowcr." the author draws upon documents, correspondence and experiences of the mcc washington office staff, the mcc peace officc secretaries respons~ble jour.r~nl of'mer~r~or~ite studies for thc washington office, as well as mcc field secretaries. most interesting, however, is the information and the tl~eological perspective gleaned froin on- site worlters, especially delton franz, long-time ( - ) mcc washing- ton director. the account of franz's encounters with washington's whose who is fascinating and invaluable. graber miller suggests that franz embodies a unique "mennonite style" of theological engagement with public policy-makers which may have been more significant than his theological theory, or absence thereof. i suspect he is right. the theological analysis represented in this book casts a much wider net than merely that of the washington office staff. afier all, they themselves are products of and participants in the bigger debate taking place within the mennonite tl~eological world. and that debate itself has a still broader intellec- tual baclcdrop. so the author examines the language of h.s. bender and guy f. i-iershberger on the question of pacifism and non-resistance, the debate between jolm h . yoder and reinhold n i e b d ~ r , as well as the nuances of the "younger" us mennonite ethicists, ted koontz, i-i.r. burltholder and duane friesen. froin beyond the mennonite fold he invokes especially the likes of max weber, michael walzer, john rawls, and jiirgen habermas as dialogue partners in sorting out how to translate christian faithfulness into national-political prac- tice. not tllat he simply accepts either the latters' analyses or models for how the dialogue should take place, but his i~nplicitly advocated mennonite approach gets positioned in relation to that debate. this forces him to draw upon what at the beginning of his boolc he adinits is an oversimplified dichotomy between a "pacifism as strategy" and a "pacifism as obedient witness" (l ). in spite of its limitations, he suggests, towards the end of his book, that as mennonites get more and more involved in the dialogue in washington, we will be ever more deeply drawn into strategic pacifism. in the inaze of mennonite diversity graber miller explores many important questions: what does it mean for an office to represent a mennonite perspective when mennonites are all over the political map ( ff)? what lcinds of stateinentslletters produced by other organizations, who are not officially pacifist, - who do not share our tl~eological convictions about such things as service and discipleship, can we sign-oil without compromising the integrity of our mennonite witness (, ffl? how do we decide our "strategies" when the larger questions remain unanswered concerning whether we aiin at ef;fectiveness or/uitl~iil ess ( ff), or whether we are to be prophetic orpriestlj~ (: ff) in our presence there, or whether our witness is based on a two itingdom or a one kingdom theology (passim')? the book suggests that the impact that mennonites have had in washington is rooted in our good reputation in the "field." several high profile and fascinating "success" stories get told, such as murray and linda hiebert's work in laos in the mid- s, leading to the "first humanitarian aid to laos" ( ), the patricia erb abduction story in argentina in , leading to the end of book reviews - military aid to argentina ( ), and the story ~ n v o l v ~ n g anglican bishop festo kivengere of uganda and the coffee boycott in , leading to the sall of dictator idi amin one year later ( ). throughout the book the llnpact of john paul lederach's international conciliation work in several places in the world is cited as evidence that politicians accept practical alternatives to violence and injustice when they are presented in a credible manner. for this reviewerjhe most interesting part ofthe book comes~m thelast fifty pages. i-iere the author embarks o n a inore systematic reflection on amennonite theory of social engagement. i-ie puts the matter thus: ':one o.f the problerns mennonites face is that they have never fully worked out how they may draw on sowces outside the faith when speaking in public discourse. tme~monite ethicist duane friesen has long argued that mennoniteslneed to develop an adequate theelogy,to affirm the use of human reason in ethical thinking. %iowr does one relate ,a rchr;istologiical :norm to the insights of human reason and wisdom?" ( ). .it seems to me that this way of putting the matter begs some important questions. wby the implied tension between the chnstological nonn and human reason and especially human wisdom? why would the use ofhumanreason need to be affirmed in ethical thinking? who doesn't use h ~ u n a n reasonm the ethical enterprise? what sources outside the faith are we talking about? what does it mean to "draw on" them. a further concern stems from the way graber miller addresses the matter of the two kingdoms. "a traditional two-kingdom perspective does not explain how mennonites on capitol hill could be botlz faithful aild effective, encourag- ing and bringing about positive change without expecting pacifism froin the state" ( ). he may well be right here. however, is the implied corrective a non-traditional two-kingdom perspective, or a single iungdom perspective? the overall impact of the argument tends to suggest thelatter. and if so, is there then not the danger of loss of identity for christians? must not the word of god be "made strange" (john milbank) in order for it to become good news? there can be no question of the need to debate public policy loudly and clearly but the question is from where do we do the speaking. to speak only "as one of them" overly commits us to an agenda that is not ours. did not god in christ call a counter community into existence to be an alternative witness, a school out of which to speak? the challenge of the christian community is not to dilute our witness in sucha way that the public can accept it without needing to believe; our challenge is rather to make our claim of christ's lordship so persuasive that it will be seen as good news, even to those who do not yet believe. the notion of translating ethical precepts into practice is a part~cularly blunt metaphor for followers ofjesus. the implied ideal-real dichotomy is exactly the way enlightenment rationality has insisted on puttlng it. yet that s not the only form moral reasoning can take. i have become convinced that christian e t h ~ c s must be more imaginative. to sec our own actions in "sign" and "wonder" imagery may help us to understand that at most our involve~nent as church wlth state politics should be ad hoc. this is precisely how i see franz's "low key" j o u n ~ a l oj~meizizo~zite studies washington presence, even though it may not have resulted from a well articulated theology. the naive discipleship approach and experiences form the field have co~npelled us to speak. and the value of a less than fully for~nalized metl~odology lies in that it legitimates refi~sal to accept choices that commit us to practices we believe christians cannot participate in. i believe that graber miller's choice of dialogue partners prejudices his way of statlng the matter. i-iadhe chosen alasdair macintyre or john milbank instead of jiirgen habermas, john rawls and max weber i believe he would have been pushed far inore deeply into john i-ioward yoder's recent work on engaging the public realm. and therein i believe lies the hope for a proper perspective. iiaberlnas may well be right that "science and technology are sources of 'systematically distorted communication' . . . since they are rooted in a form of rational-puqosive action that excludes values from the discussion" ( ). but the implication in saying it this way is that if only values were allowed into the discussion then mennonites would be at home in the dialogue. i must confess scepticism here. the injection of mennonite "values" into the public realm will create as anuch ~niscommunication, conflict, and rejection as the apparent current state of affairs. the issue is not w l ~ e t l ~ e r one can speakvalues language in washington; the issue is how to ensure that they are christian. also, i want to urge caution on how one says that the language of the church is "inappropriate parlance for public discourse" because if one does not say this right, we as christians will soon be speaking only the language of public discourse ( ). and how can that be good news for anyone? my critical comments should not be seen as my reluctance to endorse this book i consider it a must read for all who think about such matters. my comments are rather a testimony to the profound attention that has been given to the argmnents. views less clearly stated wouild deserve less comment. a significant value of this book is that it does not hesitate to identify the difficult issues mennonites must deal with. in this way it clarifies the agenda of contemporary mennonite theologians. the challenge is to renarrate the c l ~ i s - tian story in order to find new tl~eological nuances which can make of our "signs" a practical message. harry huebner canadian mennonite bible college winnipeg book r e v i a v s .? paul robert magocsi, a history ofukraine (toronto: u n i ~ ~ e r s i t y of toronto press, ). hardback, xxvi + pp., $ ; paper, $ . this is not the first large book on the history of ukraine published by the university of toronto press; only three years have passed since the second edition of orest subtelny's ukraine: a history appeared. there are also rnlunerous other single and mdlti-vol~uned histories claiming {to "cover" the history ofukraine and its peoples. so whatlis new about magosci's book'? the book is o b v i o ~ ~ s l y intended for a general readership and is based on introductory courses given to students on the history of ukraine. the book is divided into ten chronological parts and fifty chapters. the language used is simple but elegant, and references are kept to a minimum, relegated to endnotes. for those who want to extend their knowledge, reco~n~nendations for further reading based upon the ten major parts are provided. separate one or two-page discussions, often with long extracts from doo~unents and contemporary ac- counts of analytical statements, illustrate points made in the chapters. a large number of excellent maps complement the text and there i s an extensive, detailed index. for mennonite readers, even those who think they have some knowledge of the region's history, there is much to learn from the book the extensive and complex history of the lower dnieper and the s~urounding steppe region is particularly fascinating. those who t h o ~ ~ g h t this was a relatively uninhabited region before mennonite settlement will be swprised to read of its long, complex past. the role of the cossacks and the power struggles of different states and peoples is especially interesting. magosci provides a broad overview, giving an account of the region's political history, and devoting chapters to its different inhabitants, their religious beliefs and social customs. any reader who wishes to get an overview of the region mennonites settled in, its peoples and its history, will find this an excellent book with which to begin any study. an additional reward for mennonite readers is that mennonites appear in the text, not perhaps in the detail some readers might like, but certainly proportion- ate to their relative importance in a work covering such a vast area, such diverse peoples and such an extensive period of time. if anything, magosci has been generous with space allotted to mennonites. one ofthe sections in the chapter on the civil war inclndes an excerpt from neufeld's izussiali dalice of death (a reimer's translation). magosci is also aware of much c~u-rent scholarship on mennonites. there are a few problems and errors, however (references are to pp. - unless otherwise indicated). while he seems willing to accept that the mennonites do not fit comfortably into a "german" category, magosci seems unaware that the category "german" itself hides a complex set of ldent~ties among tile non-mennonite, but germanic language- speaking colonists this may stem from his readiness to assign distinct, ethnic categories to peoples, including the all-important "ukrainians" (see comments below). the with- drawal of colonist privileges in the reform era was not a response to public jourrtal of'mer~r~otzite studies criticisms, bu~t was consistent with the removal ofprivilege in russian society in an attempt lo rnobilise all the empire's peoples. "schultz" means "mayor" not a "self-governing body." the tenn " s c h ~ ~ a r z m e e ~ r l e ~ ~ t s c k e l l " was not used by russian officials or the colonists themselves (cf. p. ); it was a tenn which became common in germany during the s and s, particularly in nazi writings. the majority of mennonites did not emigrate from the "city-state" of danzig, but from surrounding areas, and the term "west pn~ssia" was the administrative urnit of the prussian government given after partition. while some mennonite teachers in russia may have taught in low german before , high german was intended as the primary language of instn~ction long before that date. private secondary schools were founded much earlier than the author indicates (khortitsa ; moloclma ) and not as german-language schools. by law, instruction in all cotuses except religion had been in russian since the late s. by there were over , mennonites in the entire russian empire, not in the area the author refers to as ukraine where the population was closer to , . mennonites had a small, but significant urban population by and the decline in n~unbers of all colonists by was as much a rcsult of internal and especially external migration than deaths in the war, revolution, civil war or deportations (p. ). deportations of gennans during world war i were minimal except in volhynia. these criticisms may seem small, but are significant. magosci generalises in order to cover a large field, but attention to detail is important. he fails to note that mennonites before and after considered themselves "russian ," as russian mennonites or at times as part of a larger category ofgerman- russians, although he does mention a similar sub-identification among many jews even after emigration to escape persecution (p. ). it is not that mennonites rejected the term "ul<rainian," but it is an indication of its limitations in southern russia before world war i. after the establishment of soviet power and the soviet ukraine, mennonites ~tndoubtedly had difficulty identifying as ukrainianrather than as russian mennonites. peasants were little russians, both to themselves and mennonites, but the term does not sit easily with magosci. ulcrainians who fail to identify with a singular identity or seek independence must have become "russified" and therefore "lost" their t n ~ e identity (p. and passim). where nationalism is concerned there are only dominant peoples, and then there are traitors or minorities. in this sense the book is unashamedly a "national" history, clearly written by a nationalist. ideas such as nation, identity and territoriality are seen through the lenses of twentieth centuuy nationalism, a teleological approach which restricts, rather than enhances, understanding. it is o b v i o ~ ~ s that in pre-modern times religion and estate instead of ethnic identity and nationalism marked the primary dividing lines between peoples in the region. christians were opposed to tatars and hence christendom to islam; catholicism was opposed orthodoxy; noble elites ruled merchants and peasants; there were free men and the enserfed; the exploiters and the exploiters. all these factors were hopelessly muddled by book reviews shifting alliances, wars and ecolog~cal disasters to produce a colnplex nerworks of allegiances, identities 'and groupings magosci discusses aspects these coinplex~tics, but in the final instance they arc subordinatcd to the doininant theme of emergent national identity and the "need" and "right" of people to realise their ~dentity in an independent territorial state. magosci states at the outset of the,baolt.l;hat his fo~u~wofanalysis is territorial, defined in two ways. first t h e ~ e i s ,the territory "delimited by the ibo~mchries of the ukrainian state that evolved in the twentieth century" and secondly, what he calls "ukrainian ethnolinguistic territory" inhabited by a "'group" who speak the same llanguage or dialects of alaqguage and wbo have " c o ~ m o n e t h o ~ r a p h i c characteristics" (p. ). but are %bhesecniteria sufficient to justify a "history" of a land without nahral borders of numerous peoples mho come and go 'and wl~ose identities we plastic, multiple and often turclear? emerging like ,a ghost b e l n d almost every map in the book is the line of the border of the present ukrainian state, itself bonicaillg a produck o f soviet imperialism and covering one of largest areas ofnenitory ever conceived of by any nationalist dreamer since tie idea of a ukrainian nation-state first emerged. there is that hint that somehow there exists a "natural" territory in which a specifjc people have an inalienable right to exist: a place and tiine where primordial ethnicity meets primordial territorialism. land and people await ltheir destiny; the legitimate ethnolinguistic group only needs to be awaltened from their slumber by the kiss of nationalism to seize lheir rightful patrimony. in the text of the baok, 'lillrrainians, long before the term had cmrency especially among the "people," mysteriously appear almost f d l y formed, identifying those people with prime rights in a territory of a future nation still to be clearly defined. history truly belongs to the victors and all roads lead to kiev. the c n ~ c i a l questions to aslt of all such studies of modern nation states and their people is: "when were the x?" and "when was the land of y, y? to put it in this particular context: "when were the ultrainians?" and "when was ulu-aine'," the difficulties sucl~ questions pose are not ones for historians of "ukraine" alone. eric i-iobsbawm has recently reminded us "not to confuse politics, h~story and geography" especially where they relate to "shapes on the pages of atlases, which are not natural geograpl~ical units, but merely human names l i ~ r parts of the global land-mass." he was referring to histories of "continents," but his comments are just as appropriate to historical accounts of modern nation states which begin in the darkness and silence of prehistory and proceed to the present in a triuuinphant march. once placed in a broader context oftiine and space, w ~ t h an awareness of thc complexity of cultural categories, all "national" liistorics are fatally flawed from the outset it is the genre which is at fault as much as the historian rut where the historian is a nationalist, writing a national history o f the lands and people they identify with, critical faculties are usually at risk before the venture has begun. lest i be accused of being unfair, magosci's book is not a nat~onalist rant jolo~rtal of'mettttwtite studies i-iis approach is informed, balanced and nuanced, although as the story ap- proaches and enters the twentieth century it becomes more passionate and his views inore polarised. i-ie is aware of many of the issues i have noted above. in the cnd though, if you believe in nationalism as something "essential," neces- sary and noble you have only one option in constn~cting an account. the alternative is to remain cynical ofall such ventures. then you do not write books on "nations"; you nlerely write critical reviews ofthern. james urry victoria university of wellington new zealand peter penner, rt~ssians, north americans and tzilz~gas: the menno- nite bretlzi-en mission in india. (winnipeg: kindred press, ). pp. this substantial work by peter pemer will, i believe, serve the church well. it is a must for the libraries of all post-secondary mennonite brethren schools. it will serve a useful purpose in any christian educational instih~tion that wants to work seriously at preparing people for cross cultural and international christian ministry. given the ciurent trend in north america in which local congregations seek increasingly to have a direct involvement in international missions, it should also be read by pastors, particularly those involved in preparing people/ t e a m for such ministry. in this book penner seeks to write "history from below." with a heavy reliance on primary sources including letters and reports written by ~nissionaries he has sought to "let the missionaries tell the story in their own words." what emerges is a story that is significantly different from the public story, i.e. the story that nor~nally gets to the church membership via conference and mission board reports or missionary prayer letters. the book documents the human frailties of the people involved inmission. it i night have served a better purpose a couple of decades ago when there was still an unrealistic aura surrounding missionaries and missions. today it merely documents what most of us already know-that missionaries, mission adminis- trators and mission board members are human. they struggle with egos, make mistakes, sin, and need to be held accountable. on the flip side, they are also capable of malting great sacrifices for the sake ofthe fingdoln and occasionally rise to great heights for the benefit of others. it is helpful to see penner confess that "i am conv~nced that i would not have handled myselfany better ..." pemcr states "i am more interested in the persons than in the institutions book reviews - they developed." the result is a book with a focus on individuals. that is not to say, however, that the value of the'book is limited to detailed ~nformation about individuals. in the process the reader may gain insight into s~gnificant issues which are, in many cases, as relevant today as they were in the years that penner seeks to describe. perhaps a few illustrations are useful here. the early 's struggle between mission administration [personified in j.b.toews] and the missionary leadership on the field [personifiediin a a . u m h ] is an excellent illustration d h o w difficult it is to bring one era to a close and to launch another. it is m~uch more than a struggle for power between a lew strong willed individuals. it illustrates differing perspectives on how decisions are to be made in the church. it displays atgenuine fearthat thelifetime investment on the part of many could be jeopardized by apparently uninfonned decisions on the part of a few with much less of an investment. it is not ~mlike some of the challenges facing missions today. the stories of the individuals and families also &tlstra%e eloquently the demands that cross cult~ual missions places on the cbildren of missionaries. penner summarizes this point in his iintrod~~ction as follows. "this question of the children ... was in a c t ~ ~ a l fact tihe most serious one faced by missionary parents. the problem and its solution are discussed in family terms because each generation, despite similarities, faced this question differently." this challenge for missionaries and their children is as real today as ever. lastly, concerning the place of single women in mission, penner states: "of the missionaries, if any group is to be singled out for a dedication, i choose the single women, whose remarkable story appears in these pages." the "double whammy" experienced by single women in missions, i.e. local cultures as well as theological positions and mission agencies which limit their role, is well documnented. nevertheless those of us critical of the mennonite brethren stance vis-a-vis women in ministry may draw at least a little encouragement from penner's conclusion that in this mennonite brethren story there was greater equity between single menand single women than was the case for many others. peter penner's work does not make for easy reading-the kind of book one reads in a few pleasant evenings. it is, however, an excellent source of information for people who wish to be informed. dave dyck mennonite brethren missions and services winnipeg joltnlal ofmewzotzite studies . a. raw yk, ed., aspects ofthe canadian evangelical experience (montreal & kingston: mcgill-queen's university press, ). hard-cover., xxv + pp. this volume brings together a collection of essays by various contribu- tors and an introduction by george a. rawlyk, a well-known canadian baptist scholar who passed away in before the boolc was filly prepared sor publication. the papers were first prcsented at a conference on the theme organized by rawlyk which convened at queen's university in kingston in may, and was sponsored by the pew charitable trusts. it was well attended by canadian scholars and signalled the arrival of a degree of maturity in the academic study of canadian evangelicals. the book is divided into six parts: i) views froin outside and inside, ) evangelical impulse in the methodist, presbyterian, anglican, and united churches, ) baptists, mennonites, and lutherans, iv) e-ioliness, christian and missionary alliance, and pentecostalism, v) evangelical networks, leaders, and revivals, and vi) women, spirituality, and the evangelical impulse. the authors include such well-known scholars as mark a. noll, john g. stackhouse, david w . bebbington and edith l. bllunhoser. others are not well known, including some graduate students who had worked closely with rawlyk on various aspects of his "evangelical project." as might be expected from such a diverse collection, the quality of the essays varies considerably. most, however, arc of high academic quality. the one paper which focuses specifically on mennonites is entitled "living with a virus: the enigma of evangelicalism among mennonites in canada." it is written by bruce l. guenther, a mennonite brethren graduate student at lmcgill who lives in e-iepburn, sasltatchewan. guenther notes quite accurately that mennonites have often been quite critical of evangelicalism because of the lack of emphasis on discipleship, its dogmatisin and its individualism. others have been much more sympathetic and have appreci- ated evangelicalism's emphasis on personal faith, missions and biblical authority mennonite brethren have often viewed themselves as both evan- gelical and anabaptist. in addition to the onc paper focusing specifically on mennonite, there are many other references to mennonite, especially mennonite brethren, in the book. in sact, mark noll cites the disproportionate contribution of mennonite brethren, in relation their numbers, to the evangelical scene in canada. menno- nites made a significant contribution to the bible school movement (see essay by robert k. burkinshaw) as well as to various transdenominational or nonde- nominational organizations. most ofthe papers are quite sympathetic to evangelicalism, even though the writers do not all represent evangelical denominations or institutions. a voltune of this nature should have included some essays that might have assessed evangelicalism inore critically and issued more of a prodhetic cail. . mennonite scholarship also needs more:representation at such conferences. abe dueck centre of m b studies winnipeg joanne hess (siegrist, mennonite 'womea of la,ncaster cozinty: a story in photographs $ - o m - . (intsr~oiwse, pa: good books, ). $ : . joanne ihess siegrist has performed a valuable service for historians of north american mennonite life and for ,anyme curious about f i e lives of mennonite women. her collection of photographs of lancaster county women docuunents the lives of plain women and wofidly women (offhen in the same photo), as they played, worked, travelled, and wed. aimed largely at a popular audience, and \with an occasionally devotional cast, the book is also a resource for those with more scholarly interests. siegrist gathered these photos from lancaster area families and, where she could, sought out stories to accompany the iimages. stories and photos are orgainzed in sections that follow the cycle of a woman's life in a somewhat idiosyncratic way: for example, "motherhood and children" precedes "school and studies." many of the phoios were taken by amateur photographers and in several cases both the photographers and their subjects are unidentified. the ability of many of these photos to capture how these women were very much "in the w o r l d while striving, through dress or demeanor, to remain separate is one of the most intriguing aspects of the collection. for example, a photo of alta (barge) shenk and her newly-wed husband, j. clyde shenk, depicts thein lounging on deck chairs in wool coats and caps on a boat bound for east africa. on their way to mission work, both alta and clyde are reading inspirational books about missionary life, and both are smiling. alta's smile drew my attention, because she looks so young and so delighted to be sailing- whether away froin lancaster county or to tanganyika is not clear. i'm left wondering whether and how she was transformed by africa and marriage the promise and the disadvantage of this bookrest in its siinultaneous ability to excite a desire to know more about these women's lives and to iiustrate that desire. siegrist typically supplies only short captions. in part, this brevity is an aspect of the genre of a photography book itself, but it stems here, as well, from a wish to keep the sources of some of the photographs anonymous and l'roin the relative paucity o f doctunentation o f these women's livcs ( ) in the face o f this lack of written evidence, the pictures themselves are even inore valuable sources, provoking both answers and more questions. jout- a of metttlorzite studies one of the main themes they point to is the difjeiaences among mennonite women's lives. for example, pictures ofcrowds ofgirls, a wedding shower, and an ascens~on day party show that the uniform~ty of plain dress existed within a diversity of f'rlendships. wornen who had already made their choice to join the c h ~ r c h an'd become plaln continued to socialize with their friends in worldly garb did these wolnen talk about the significance of thelr sartorial differences, or were they silently ass~lmed? the significance of the shift to plain dress is tangibly presented in the two p ~ c t ~ u e s of bertha (stauffer) widders, before and aftcr her baptism in at years old ( ) beside each other, the photos evoke a striking difference between the confident, sophisticated bertha in an elaborate flowered hat and the inore demure, slightly smiling bertha, albeit with a large, silk bow from her black bonnet t ~ e d beneath her chin i-ierein lies the limitation of photographs, how- ever: we can read what we will into them and they will not contradict us. perhaps the worldly bertha was not so confident as she appears; perhaps the plain bertha was not so demure. we must remember that taking a picture is itselfa social act, and the photographer affects both what [he viewer sees and how the subject acts. in addition to these evocations of difference, siegrist's book shows that mennonite women, like most women, were playfiil and hard-working, joyous and sorrowful. an photo of young wolnen and lnen engaged in the gender- bendlng play of exchanging flowery hats for dark, felt ones shows that an ironic sense of h u m o ~ r was at home in these people's lives ( ). the liaumting photograph from around of anna (i-iaverstick) rohrer, interrnpted in her work of pulling bread from a dutch oven, displays the rigours of a mennonite woman's life anna was about in the picture, but loolcs mucholder ( ). the photo of nannie lizzie (engle) miller cuddling with her toddler annie (who is thc subject of some of the most beautif picttres in the book) tangibly summons up the joys of motherhood ( ). conversely, the photo of mary (goocl) tragically rclninds us of its sorrows ( ). as these brief examples show, siegrist's book richly portrays the diversity of mennonite women's lives as they inoved through the life cycle, encountering new responsibilities, emotions, and relationships. my primary complaint about the book is related to siegrist's choices of text. some photos beg for inore information, such as the picture ofthe sixteen young women who took the trolley from lancaster to strasb~ug, inany bedecked in what seems like military garb and fancy hats. why did they ernbark on this trolley outing, and where did they get those coats? similarly, her choice of the term "social impurities" to descr~be the behavior of lancaster youth evokes a different age, without colnmunicating much in particular ( ). a more forthright discussion of sexuality n mennonite women's lives would be welcome. s~egrist assiduously reminds the reader that these women's lives could be both paradisiacal and arduou~s ( , and the photos corroborate her claim. most cornpcllingly for me, these photos convey the spirit of adventure that these early-twentieth-century mennonite wornen shared with the wider culture around book eviwvs - them, as they travelleilzto the jersey shore, california, rome, and tanganyilta. many of those who stayed home tending the children, qu~ilting the quilts, and cultivating the fields brought that spirit of adventt~e~into their home communi- ties, whether flying over a river on a pulley swing, flying in a plane, or brlnglng new technologies, like photography, into their communities. that these photo- graphs even exist today is a sign of the pervasiveness of that spirit of adven- ,ture-and indeed, .of resistancje tto !church authority-since many of these women and thetinembers of their families would have t a k e n % a g t i m l vows to burn their photographs and renounce further picture-taking. siegrist's work is an achievement in and of itself, but is also a call for scholars to takephotographs ,more seriously ,as a source for ctke .work of piecing ikogepher the stories of women's lives. ~pamela,e. klassen department ofthe studysof !religion university of toronto dale r. stoffer, editor, the lord's szpyet.:believers church per- spectives (scottdale paiwaterloo o n : herald press, ). this book dealing with believers church perspectives on the lord's supper provides a welcome complement to john rempel's publication, tile lord's supper in aizabaptism. this new volume, the product of the eleventh believers church conference, gives "voice to a significant tradition in the church that generally has been silent." (p. ). through the thoughtful editorial work of dale r. stoffer, readers of ti e loi-d's supper: believers churclz perspectives have a comprehensive and penetrating analysis of the background and the current practice of the lord's supper in the various branches of the believers church tradition. twenty-six writers in all contributed to the book, as also to the eleventh believers church conference. at least two contributors, jeffrey gros, a brother ( f. s .c. ) in the roman catholic church, and vladimir berzonslcy, an archpriest of the orthodox church in america, were observers at the conference. their brief chapters are highly respectful of the believers cllurch perspectives on the lord's supper, and are written out of a throughly ecumenical conviction. one wonders, though, why their observations wcre included in a book that set forth believers church perspectives. perhaps an equally puzzling contribution comes from seventh day adventist minister, peter m. van uemmelcn. prcsu~nably the seventh day adventist church is considered part of the historic believers churches along with brethren, methodist, free methodist, baptist, brethren in .? jour.tia of'merttiot~ite studies cluist, moravian, frlends, church of cluist, church of god, mennonite and mennon~te dretluen, all of which are represented in the twenty-seven chapters. the vartous chapters arc grouped under six headings t s: "i-iistorical pcrspcctlves on the lord's supper," "biblical interpretation of the lord's supper," "theological proposals for the lord's supper," "denominational perspectives on the lord's supper," "special presentations on the lord's supper," and "reflections, ectunenical dialogue, and findings." what strikes me as rather odd about the six sections is that of the six, the second section has only one chapter. all of the other section have at least three chapters. is there only one "biblical interpretation ofthe lord's supper," that ofben witherington who treats the meal "in its first centmy social setting" (pp. - ) ' or is the focus of the book intended to be particularly the "denominational perspectives on the lord's supper," a large section containing some eleven chapters? if the latter is the case, then why the need to create part two on "biblical interpreta- tion of the lord's supper" and then liinlt such a crtlcial facet of the discussion to a single chapter on the social setting? for me the book would have carried far greater appeal if a half dozen disciplined biblical scholars from the various denolninations had engaged significantly with the priinary texts of scripture from which the ctoctrine and practice of the lord's supper come. particularly helpful were the first t h e e chapters that provided the historical setting for the believers c h ~ u c h ideas about the lord's supper these three chapters span the perlod of at least f o ~ r t e e n h ~ ~ n d r c d years, second century to the sixteenth, with the focus finally falling on the vision of the anabaptists. the anabaptists were part of the lnovelnent ofreforln that questioned some of the beliefs and practices ofthe roman catholic church, and as such departed fro the super-sacramental notion of trans-substantiation. the anabaptists adopted much ofzwinglils and luther's views, which emphasized the syinbolic charac- ter of the bread and wine but for t h c ~ n "the lord's supper, disciplesl~ip, and church d~scipllne were all integrally connected. if unity were not present, then communion could not follow" (p. ). and tnle commtnion of the body of cluist meant for anabaptists the practice of love towards neighbour. right relatlonsl~ip to fellow members and to neighbours became the condition of members' participation in communion (pp. . david ewert's chapter about the changes in the celebration of lord's supper in my own denomination, the mennonite brctlxen church, is faithful and frank, but m the end disturbing. my concern with the changes that ewert cites s not that the celebration "is no longer as solemn an occasion as it used to be," nor that communion is "no longer closely tied together with discipline." the problem arises from the decision of the conferencc in to have un-baptized believers participate fully at the lord's table. if new testament baptism was the ordinance of mitiation into the corninunity of christ, and the lord's supper the repeated ordinance in the experience of the baptized community, then imagine what thls declsion of the mennonite bretluen c h ~ u c h does not only to the meaning of baptism, but also to the sacred celebration of the lord's supper. i book reviavs appreciate the forthright presentation of the trend in t h ~ s chapter, but grlcve the loss of significance from he ordinances in the life of this denomination the many facets bound together in this voluune are both ill~uninatlng and provocative. the book calls for a wide readership among people of the inany believers church traditions and beyond. a consistent and meaningful under- standing of the lord's supper is vital for congregat~onal experience, but somewhat laclung in believers churches, according to the rqport of the findings committee of the conference recorded in the last chapter of book. some of the stated findings call for attention here. the committee finds "great diversity both in the practice and the ~tnderstand- ing of the lord's supper in chuuches standing in the b e l i e m s c h u ~ c h tradit~on." these churches "represent reactions to the churdh traditions with (sic) which they brolte" (p. ). the committee found only five "items on,wlueh believers churches generally agreed" as compared to a total of nineteen areas in which different practices and different meanings were observed. the committee issues a challenge to all believers churches to make the lord's supper meaningful to the people, to know well the significance of the ritual for the chuwch, to exercise an inclusive attitude at the lord's table, to relate to traditions other than the believers church, and to "clarify ouu position on the placei~f~children and guests from other chuuch traditions at the table of the lord in our congregations" (pp. - ). every pastor of a believers chuuch, or of any ofher chu~rch tradition for that matter, should read $his book carefillly, and keep it near the pastoral desk for ready reference. v. george shillington professor of new testament concord college, winnipeg paul toews, mennonites in american socieol, - : moder- nity and the persistence ofreligiotls commzlnity (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). softcover, pp. this book is the fourth and final voluine in the melri~onite experience in america, a series treating the history of mennonites and related groups in the u.s. it differs froin the first three volumes, not only in its prosaic title, but in its historiography. toews offers what is essentially an intellectual history, and that is the study's greatest strength and its greatest wealmcss. deciding how to tell the story of mennonite expericncc in the mid-twentieth centmy is no simple matter. these decades saw a tre~nendous expansion in cll~uch institutions and programs, a dramatic lncrease in mcnnonltes' rac~al, ethnic and geographic diversity, the opening of opportunities for women, the - jour. o of'metltlot~ite studies influence of three major wars, increasing acculturation for some mennonites and increasing sectarianism for others, significant upward social mobility, the transfer of religious authority to congregations, and the list could go on. as a way of bringing some clarity and coherence to such complexity, toews chooses to focus on mennonites' changing ideologies (and the institutions and cult~ual practices that derive from them:) as the organizing principle ofhis story. he begins with the fundamentalist-modernist controversy and ends with the reformulation of "nonconformity" and "nonresistance" as politically activist and prophetic principlcs. in between, le stresses the importance of i-i. s. bender's version of the anabaptist vision as the apex of mennonites' intellec- tual endeavors during this period. he calls it "the crowning acliievement of twentieth-century ideological reconstruction of mennonite identity" (p. ). this is probably one of the more contentious claims in the book; but it provides toews with a useful frameworlc for discussing the many institutional and cult~tral developments of the period, and mennonites' continuous negotiation and renogotiation of their opposition to and engagement with "the world." toews does a masterful job of reconstructing the intellectual history and connecting it lo mennonite institutions and practices. because this volume is different from the first three volumes in its liistoriographic approach, it is a usefill colnplement to the others in the series. toews' methodological choice, liowevcr, docs not come without its costs. as an intellectual history, the book is necessarily the story of mennonite elitcs - intellectuals and church leaders who had the power to set the param- eters of' mennonite discourse. the story tends to revolve around the interests and ideas ol'a relativcly fcw prominent individuals, and we learn most about what wcnt on in places where colleges, seminaries, and churcli agencies were located. toews docs makc some attempt to remedy this problem. one example is an oddly-placed chaptcr that presents an excursus on old order groups. but there are still a number of important lacunae. chicf among tlie absent voices are those of women. the only significant trcalnient o f w o ~ n e n ' s experience is found in the chapter on world war , where toews devotes several pages to a discussion of cps wives, nluses, and matrons. but women are not tlic only ones who go unheard. vincent i-iarding is tlie sole representative of african-american mennonites, even though there were sig- nificant numbers of black congregants and congregations in the u.s. dating back to well before the civil rights movement. we hear virtually nothing from native american or i-iispanic congregations. important geographic areas are also ignored. the signiiicant mennonite populations in the southeastern and southwestern u.s. arc entirely unmentioned. urban congregations in new yorlc city, chicago, and los angeles appear but infrequently. the absence of such voices makes the u.s. mennonite experience from - appear more unilinear than it was. dcspite these gaps, however, toews is to be commended for taking a very cotnplicated story and making it coherent. for those who may wish to explore book reviavs the experience of mennonites absent froin this account, toews' work will provide a useful fraineworl< and ioilrfor future research. fred kniss department of sociology and anthropology loyola university chicago paul toews, mennonites in american society, - : moder- nity and the persistence ofrelligioris comrnwniiy i(,scottdale, pa: .herald press, ). softcover, pp. the last in a four-part series of the story of mennonites in h e united states, this final vol~une provides a helpfi~l framework for u n d e r s t a n h g mennonite people, congregations, conferences, and related organizations in the middle- half of the twentieth century. highly interpretive, paul toews ably builds on the previous three volumes in this series and presents the story of mennonites struggling to keep their people, theology and institutions from the pressing influence of modernity as exeinpli- fied within the larger american society. i-ie selects and describes a number of ideas which have shaped mennonite thought and action between to . the initial chapters on tradition, change and f~~ndamentalism are crucial to understanding what mennonites thought of themselves and their role within society at the beginning of the twentieth century. reviewing the passionate arguunents between traditionalists and progressives within the major church groups, toews provides a glimpse of the dynamics within mennonite congrega- tional and organizational life. he depicts mennonites as many different bodies struggling on the one hand with ideas of consolidation and conservatism and on the other hand facing the pressing need for adaptation and change to the dominant society. within this struggle to understand the church in the modern age, toews examines the work of a number of significant leaders who, he maintains, were able to shift the thinlcing of a large portion of mennonites from a preservation inindset to that of a distinctive christian order which no longer focused on a call for radical withdrawal from the world. these leaders, who most often were scholars, worked not from ~ i i t h o u t the history and theology of the mennonite church, but rather from within. as toews aptly phrases it, they searched for, and found, a "usable past." chief among these new leaders was harold s. bender. historian, teacher and tireless worker on variol~s inter-mennonite committees, bender was to redirect - jour.rln of'mer~rlor~ite studies the thougllts and actions of the larger body of mennonite c l l ~ r c l ~ e s . while he is perhaps best ltnown for his historical interpretation of the anabaptist-menno- nite past, as exemplified in his landmark address "the anabaptist vision," toews argues that the work of bender and others represented much more. this group of educated leaders and thinkers included such people as guy f. i-iersberger and orie . miller. these men, toews says, proposed aparadoxical strategy for both separation from and integration with the world. this included withdrawal and engagement as well as consolidation and dispersion. their contribution to mennonites in america (:in fact, one would argue mennonites world-wide) was a new ideological self-consciousness. without rejecting men- nonite tradition they forcefillly pushed their ideas that distinct colnrnunities such as mennonites could ernbody a witness to the world. they could show the world that corporate ethical discernment and reconciliation were indeed pos- sible. they argued for an integration of mennonites into the world while preserving a rhetoric for difference and clissent. as toews states it, "it provided mennonites with an identity rootedina particularistic past anda global present." this theological reinterpretation now fit admirably with past as well as sut~re mennonite corporate organizations such as mennonite disaster service, various christian service organizations and, of course, alternative service heginning wit wwii tlxough the vietnam war. chief among these organiza- tions was mennonite central committee (mcc). under the capable leadership osorie . miller, this organization moved from its earlier mandate of a relief organization assisting mennonites in the soviet union, to a vibrant organization that dialogued with issues such as war, the modern industrial order and the popularity of pacifism within the larger american society. the activities of mcc raised questions of how mennonite pacifism, reconciliation, or as toews describes it "servant activism" related to the larger world. this rethinking of the church and its mission profoundly affected a large portion of thc mennonite c o ~ n ~ n u n i t y for decades. nevertheless, american evangelicalism, ~rbanization and the dominant american cult~tre kept pushing the tl~inlting of mennonites as to how they were to respond to eacl~new situation. the consensus built around the "anabaptist vision" at mid-century began disintegrating during the vietnam war. a new unease developed wherein mennonites found themselves polarizing along lines such as age, law-abider versus protester, establishment versus counterculture and quietist versus activ- ist. this polarization was evident in congregations, conferences, church institu- tions and deno~ninational periodicals. toews argues that it stimulated menno- nites to rethink their relationsliips to government and even to revisit the meaning of jesus and his incarnation. this book is well-written and easily read. in inany ways it is a history of institutions and institutional thinking. while it is interpretive, it is still reason- ably anecdotal. throughout the narrative the writer places the story of menno- nite people, congregations, conferences, organizations and churcl~ schools within the historical context of twentieth century america. book reviews that this book captures the most significant mennonite issues, and their context, in the middle of this century is evident. it certainly is an important work in that it ably identifies and describes the ideas and actions of mennonites m america during this century. every american mennonite 'ch~u-cl~ leader and student of american mennonite history should read this volume. ken reddig, director mennonite heritage centre winnipeg sjouke voolstra, ,menno simons: his image and message (north newton, k s : bethel college, ). paperbadk, pp., illustra- tions, index. this book coinprises the published lectures of professor sjo~ike voolstra given at bethel college on october - , , ,on the oocasion of the th anniversary of menno simons' ( - ) birth. the book is volume in the cornelius h. werlel historical series, edited by john d. thiesen. chapter , titled "the art of oblivion: menno si~nons in dutch mennonite historiography," surveys the unease with which dutch mennonites have viewed the life and writings of their refonner who sought to establish achurch "without spot or wrinkle '. a.m. cramer, the first biographer of menno silnons in the nineteenth century, was, according to voolstra, "sufficiently honest to admit that menno would not have recognized the nineteenth-century doopsgezind as kindred spirits." (p. ) in the epilogue to this chapter the author concludes: "the memory of the messenger is kept alive, while the message is scarcely listened to." (p. ) chapter , "the anticlerical priest: from father confessor to lay preacher of tnle penitence," deals with the importance of the sacrament of penance in menno' s life before and after his conversion to h a b a p t i s m . "penitence" seems to be the one word w l ~ i c l ~ , according to this study, characterized nlenno's life and teaching and led to a ratller somber christianity among memo's followers, one of the reasons why the waterlanders and subsequent liberal groups never felt close to their reformer and elder. chapter , "the real presence of christ: the congregation of t n ~ e peni- tents," shows as no other study of m e m o simons, how the former priest wrestled with the "real presence" understanding of holy comm~nion until he experlcnced the "real spiritual presence" of christ in the heart of the penitent believer and in the faithful community of loving brothers and sisters. "in the eyes ofmenno simons," the author stunmarizes, "the true lord's suppcr was a spiritual coininunion with christ in the assembly of true penitents, served by true penitents." (p. ) jourrtal ofme~rrrwrite studies in chapter , "the longing for perfection: the separation ofthe latter-day saints," we have menno's anguished progress toward believer's baptism and the influence that melchiorite apocalypticism exerted on memo's theology. voolstra shows inasterfully the fine line menno simons had to walk between the militant muensterites (many of whom had been close to memo) and the more pacifistic followers of hoffinan. both believed in the imminent return of christ and the establishment of his kingdom; they only differed in the methods to be used for its realization. end-time thinking, according to the author, motivated anabaptist reforms in general and menno's work in particular. voolstra credits walter klaassen for drawing "our attention to apocalypticisin as one of the constituting elements of the anabaptist reforlnation and as an indispensable key to its interpretation." (p. ) while the author believes that the "socio-historical approach provides a valuable addition to a purely theological approach to the history of the reforma- tion," he cautions that the socio-historical method, with its anticlericalisln as key to understanding the radical nature of h a b a p t i s m , cannot adequately explain menno's christology, his doctrine of justification, and his church discipline. (p. ). the menno sirnons that emerges in this book is one who worked zealously at bringing the word of god, both law and gospel, to his people with the view of establisl~ing not only a pure c h ~ ~ r c h but a moral society as well, preparing both for the ltingdo~n of god. to this end he did not separate church and state as the southern anabaptists seemed to do, but acknowledged that n ~ l e r s also could and must govern according to god's principles. voolstra goes so far as to state that had menno "succeeded in finding a local or regional authority which could have ilnplelnented a reformation in the anabaptist style ... then this would not have been in conflict with his theology." (p. ) menno failed to achieve his goal for two reasons: the local authorities who sympathized with the anabaptists were repressed by the hapsburgs; and "the severe delnands made on the moral standard of the purified chnrch by the anabaptists with their strict discipline made it i~npossible for the governlnent to enfold all its subjects within such a church without spot or wrinkle."(p. ) several questions arise after reading this interesting and important study. did menno sink into oblivion among his countrymen and the dutch mennonites because ofthe high demands he placed upon them? did menno's ideals of a piire church survive at least in part among the frisian and flemish mennonites who left their homeland for poland, prussia, russia, and ultimately north and south america'? is menno's inessage of penitence what mennonites and society need today'? or is menno's inessage too severe to allow for substantial numerical growth amongst the one lnillion mennonites worldwide'? should mennonites be concerned about the "little flock" they have remained after half a millennium? i-iarry loewen kelowna, british col~unbia dallas wiebe, .otlr asian jozlrnejl. a nollel (waterloo, o n : mir editions canada, ). soft cover, pp. this is a remarkable novel about one of the stranger chapters of mennonite history, the trek that followed klaas epp to central asia in search of the "place of refi~ge." it is an imaginative reconstruction of an episode which was in itself an imaginative tour de force in religious history. the lnineteenth-century religious imagination was attuned to the eschatological messages of scripture, which were given authority by the theologian albrecht bengel .and figurative shape by the writings of johann heinrich j~mg-stilling. dallas wiebe has captured this drastic adventure in the form of a diary lcept by a participantin the futile venture, joseph toevs, a moderate mennonite minister who s u n ~ v ~ ~ the whole experience. the greatest strengths of the novel are its historical depth and its concrete- ness. the reader is drenched in the details of russian mennonite life and introduced to a cast of believable characters. joseph's wife sarah, for example, is described by her husband in the crude, bumbling manner of a loving but mennonite peasant. themore he dwells on her overly abundant cliias and ankles the more the reader perceives the st~ength of his attachment to his wise mate, who always has a fitting riddle ready to hand. wiebe has a good feel for the presentation of a setting in which the decision is taken to sell everything and move off to a destination defined only by biblical incantations. one may well ask how otherwise pragmatic mennonite farmers would let themselves in for such an adventure, but wiebe demonstrates how such matters take over a situation and its cast of characters. not all the pilgrims are " t n ~ e believers"; there are many reasons for staying with one's people, and so the trek itselfremains caught up in the ongoing discussion of what this is all about. joseph, every inch the mennonite preacher, goes about his sermonizing regardless of the "outer" circtunstances, always finding the perfect text for every situation. when he finally arrives at the train station in bethel, kansas, he is disappointed that no one seems interested inhearing the sermon which lie had prepared for this occasion. dallas wiebe deals with the suffering of the trekkers by means of the kind of understatement which one inight expect from the diary of a minister, to whom funerals are part of the job description. the trek is "dogged" by, what else, vicious dogs, a inotif which runs through the narrative and takes on a symbolic character. the limited joys and multitudinous sorrows of the pilgrims are expressed in language moving dialectically between zion and zwieback, never leaving the gronnd level of ordinary speech, with one notable exception dreams recur in the novel, although the significance of the dreams is not clear. joseph, like his biblical model, is a dreamer, and the stuffof his drealns is flu-nished by the books of daniel and revelation it can be argucd that tliesc drealns are necessary to provide a no ti vat ion for such a drastic adventure, but joseph is not "the leader" (as klaas epp is called througl~out), and the nightly visions do not motivate even him in any radical way. jour~lnl of me~lrlor~ite studies but that cannot distract from the remarkable achievement of this novel, which represents an attempt almost as daring as the trek itself. as joseph emphasizes in his explanation of why he wrote his diary in the first place, this is not so much a bizarre tale abou~t a lot of foolish, misled individuals as it is about ordinary, god-fearing follc who talce faith seriously (according to their lights). we know from the nuunber of whole comm~nities in germany who also relocated from the proxi~nity of anti-christian revolutionary france to suppos- edly safer ground in asia or america in the mid-nineteenth century, that this was a colnlnon expectation; it was in the air. the novel is not abont the reasons for this trek, but rather about this extraordinary experience, which affected several mennonite commuinities profoundly. above all, our asiarl jou . zej~ is a very readable and engrossing novel. annoying particulars are rare, as in the early chapter in which expressions like " heck" and "jiminy cricket" obtn~de, and the author himself intrudes in a self- conscious and awkward manner. but in the main the detailed narration is fascinating (at times functioning allnost as a primer to russian mennonite cooking). it is a boolc i wished would not end, even in the arid plains of kansas and idaho. victor g. doerlcsen kelowna, british col~unbia katie funk wicbe, thestorekeeyer s daughter.: amernoir (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). after her recent writings on aging, katie funk wiebe has given attention to her growing-up years and found in them raw material for her latest work. tlze storekeeper's daughter centres around her memories from early childhood through high school. wiebe was born to russian mennonite immigrants of the s and her growing up in blaine lalce, saskatchewan happened largely during the depres- sion years. these circuunstances offer classic canadian themes of immigration, depression rand small town life in the west for the author to exploit in expanding and enriching the central tlu-ead of growing up. she announces in her preface: "the essential elements are true ... to convey this tnith i have used the fictional mode." although blaine lake provides the backdrop for wiebe's account of childhood and adolescence, six out of the seventeen chapters (and snatches in others) are set mainly in the southern ukraine, in the old colony, from to , the years of revolution, typhus epidemic and famine. of those events, book reviews - which tend to upstage her own experiences, wiebe cannot, of course, have personal memories, but like many of us, she has received, filtered through her parents' memories, details ofthe foundation myth on which life in a new country is grounded. in the segments set in ukraine, it is the author's father, jacob funk, who takes centre stage. risking his life he rescues, heroically, his wife's starving family. his deeds are remembered and highlighted in this book, which is as i see it, not only a personal memoir of katie funk wiebe, but also (and perhaps mainly) a daughter's tribute to her father. his sharing of the bool<s stage with the memoiree is signalled in the title, where his identity and work are named: it is clinched in the final chapter where ;the .author addresses him directly and personally, in gratitude. jacob funk was often the one who initiated the storytelling sessions where the family ,history was recalled over and over again and passed on to the children. "da,d never had patience for l m g stories," 'wiebe remembers. "he preferred the short, fiumy ones." it fell to his wife to play a supporting role, providing the details he had no patience for. wiebe sympauhlzes with her father's disappointments and struggles. as she is the daughter of a struggling, small-town storekeep.er in a new country, so her father was the son of a landless operator of a small mill in a community of more prosperomis mennonites. he suffered humiliation from teachers who treated his le&-handedness as a case of stubborn insubordination and eventually he dropped o u ~ ofschool anear-death experience due to typhus contracted while serving as red cross orderly in the russian army triggered a spiritual struggle that drove him to seek help, but he largely failed to get the sympathetic co~lnsel he needed. it was a russian baptist who helped him find inner peace. he was evenh~ally baptized in the mennonite brethren chuuch and ordained in the alliance church in rosental, old colony. his daughter was shattered to discovered that "he was still figuring things out for himself as an adult. and a lot of pieces still did not fit neatly into a pattern." she watched him work at fitting the pieces together, as he worked at pyramidology, an interest to which a local british israelite had introduced him. i-ie drew, diligently, diagrams of burial places of pharaohs in an effort to umlock the mystery of end times. wiebe not only absorbed her father's stories, but also observed his positwe example and this outweighed, in the end, her embarrassment at the way he "saucered his tea" and spoke in immigrant english. the father's coming-of-age acts as an effective foil to the author's own initiation into life and its various mysteries. the memoir begins with the mystery of death, introduced by a black-edged letter from sagradowka bringing ncws of the recent dying of wiebe's maternal grandmother. wiebe was a young g ~ r l at the tlme. years later, deaths in the blaine lake co~mumity enlarge her understanding of this mystery and when a sick neighbour cloes not succumb to death but rccovcrs she s assuued that life, too, is strong. i-ierjourney into the mystery of sin and salvation is set in the united c h ~ ~ c h and salvation army meetings in blaine lake, in the "across-the-river" menno- nite church, and in her own reflections. she is puzzled by sin: "to be saved i had to be sinful and feel sinful. i didn't. i felt good." the emphasis on personal guilt in the across-the-river c l ~ ~ r c h is reflected in songs lilte "are you saved"; in the blaine lake united church they sing, "jesus loves me." the whole matter ofbeing mennonite presents another mystery: is it a "final and fatal" condition, "something terrible and catching.. .something that you didn't talk about?" the entire book speaks to this question, in narration and reflection. this kind of rneinoir wouldn't be coinplete without delving into the mystery of sexuality, and the author accolnplishes this with circuinspection and humour, offering lively details o f a young girl's growing interest in the lnunan body, both funale and male, tile initiation into menstruation, the first girdle, the violent agony of giving birth as observed in fan animals. it is all both momentous and quite innocent. in this memoir of one who is a writer, i looked for evidence of a young girl's longing to write and accounts of her first efforts. tllough wiebe passes rather lightly over this, traces of early influence are there, in the family stories, in her mother's participation as wiebe's older sisters read english poems aloud, in wicbe's lneinorizing of "nearly every poem in the english literat~u-e course, fro shelley's 'ode to the west wind' to wordsworth's sonnet and the main speeches in shaltespeare's plays." this labour earned her fill points on her final literature exam and the governor general's award. when she leaves blaine lake to take the stenographer's course that will equip her to earn a living, she allows herself to wonder: "would i be a writer like j o i n little wonzeil?" many of the chapters in this book have appeared earlier in various publica- tions as independent stories or articles. put together they forin a satisfying wllole, blending the father's (and mother's) earlier experience with the family's blaine lake years in a form that's not sitnply a linear account. the north saskatcllewan river, a natural barrier that divides the land and prevents the family from attending the "across-the-river" mennonite church in wintcr, becomes, it seeins to me, a metaphor for the various binaries illat play a role in wiebc's growing awareness of who she is: russian pastlcanadian present; mennonite heritagelcanadian reality; savedlnot-saved; deatldlife; innocence experience. wiebe's book adds one inore itnportant telling of the mennonite story of escape and starting over in the early decades of this century. readers may agree, sadly, with wiebe, who found in the mennonite church in canada the same "loveless power and powerless love" that her father experienced in russia. "life is not fair," wiebe heard her father say. in spite of the unfairness, jacob flmlc kept "that kind of faith that sufferedcotuageously and endured to the end." sarah klassen, winnipeg, manitoba wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ cultural perception of triatomine bugs and chagas disease in bolivia: a cross-sectional field study salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - r e s e a r c h cultural perception of triatomine bugs and chagas disease in bolivia: a cross-sectional field study andrea salm and jürg gertsch* abstract background: chagas disease remains a major public health risk in bolivia, particularly among rural indigenous com- munities. here we studied the cultural perception of the triatomine vectors and chagas disease among selected rural and urban ethnic groups from different socio-economic and geographical milieus. we focused on the indigenous communities in the bolivian chaco where the disease is hyperendemic. methods: a cross-sectional study using field observations and structured interviews was carried out among informants in five different regions of bolivia. additional semi-structured interviews were conducted. statistical analy- ses were performed to determine the correlation of socio-economic variables and indigenous chagas disease knowl- edge systems. a total of domestic triatoma infestans vectors were collected and infection with trypanosoma cruzi was analyzed by real-time pcr. results: triatomine bugs were associated with chagas disease in . % (n = ) of the responses ( . % ayoreo, . % chiquitano, . % guaraní, . % quechua, . % la paz citizens and . % santa cruz citizens). generally, indigenous informants have been educated on the association between triatomine bugs and chagas disease by insti- tutional anti-chagas disease campaigns. while communities were largely aware of the vectors as a principal mode of disease transmission, rather unexpectedly, health campaigns had little influence on their prevention practices, appar- ently due to cultural constraints. overall, . % of the collected domestic vectors in the chaco region were infected with t. cruzi, matching the high infection rates in the indigenous communities. conclusions: among the guaraní, ayoreo and quechua communities, the groups living in traditional houses have not integrated the scientific knowledge about chagas disease transmission into their daily hygiene and continue to cohabit with t. infestans vectors hyperinfected with t. cruzi. an effective translation of western disease concepts into traditional preventive measures is missing because asymptomatic infections are not generally perceived as threat by the communities. new participatory approaches involving existing ethnomedical knowledge systems could be a suc- cessful strategy in the control of t. cruzi infection. keywords: chagas disease, triatominae, triatoma infestans, knowledge systems, perception, vector, t. cruzi, neglected tropical diseases, bolivia © the author(s) . this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creat iveco mmons .org/licen ses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creat iveco mmons .org/ publi cdoma in/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. open access parasites & vectors *correspondence: gertsch@ibmm.unibe.ch institute of biochemistry and molecular medicine, university of bern, bern, switzerland http://orcid.org/ - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : background american trypanosomiasis, also known as chagas dis- ease (cd), is a chronic, systemic, parasitic life-long infection caused by the protozoan trypanosoma cruzi [ ]. about to million people are infected worldwide, mostly in latin america, where the disease is endemic [ ]. the parasite t. cruzi non-selectively infects mam- mals and birds and it is mainly transmitted to humans by hematophagous reduviid bugs of the subfamily triatomi- nae (triatoma spp.) [ , ]. transmission occurs subse- quent to the insect blood meal when feces deposited by infected bugs come into contact with open wounds or mucous membranes [ , , ]. although mainly a vec- tor-borne disease, cd also can be acquired by humans through uncontrolled blood transfusions and organ transplantation, congenitally, and through oral contami- nation [ ]. cd remains a major public health concern throughout much of latin america. it is strongly associated with low socio-economic conditions [ , ] and results in an eco- nomic burden [ ]. bolivia has the highest infection rates in the world and cd occurs in many geographical areas of the country [ – ]. poor rural dwellings (traditional houses), where vectors progressively adapt and co-exist, are highly associated with parasite infection and cd [ – ]. as a consequence, indigenous communities are more often affected by vector-mediated infection [ – ]. as there is neither a vaccine against infection nor a completely effective treatment for the chronic phase of the disease [ , ], the southern cone initiative has implemented control strategies that have been focused on the eradication of the vector through insecticide spraying campaigns (mainly pyrethroid insecticides) and screen- ing of blood donors and pregnant women [ , ]. in , bolivia launched the chagas national programme (programa nacional de chagas) throughout endemic departments of bolivia with financial support from the inter-american development bank (banco interameri- cano de desarrollo, bid) and technical support from the pan american health organization (paho). the programme consisted of an initial widespread, massive insecticide spraying campaign in the early ’s [ , ]. in , the elimination of the disease was made a national priority by bolivia’s cd law [ ]. besides vec- tor control activities, diagnosis and free treatment were offered in all major cities. however, for the implementa- tion of this initiative, the ethnic socio-cultural aspects of vector control were not taken into account. the knowl- edge and perception of cd and its vectors by the target population is of great importance for the success and sustainability of cd prevention. consequently, the who has recognized the importance of incorporating social sciences into the study of neglected tropical diseases [ ]. different studies in latin america have reported on distinct knowledge and belief systems related to cd, showing central factors like the epidemiological severity of the disease, cultural background of the affected ethnic group and presence of vector control and health educa- tion activities [ – ]. despite the cd endemicity in two-thirds of the country, little information is available about the knowledge related to triatomine vectors and cd in bolivia, particularly in the bolivian chaco [ – ]. infection prevention by vectors has been recognized to demand interdisciplinary, culturally sensitive approaches [ , , ]. given the fact that cd is a chronic condition, which in only about % leads to a lethal cardio-digestive disease and only decades after the first infection [ , ], the threat of infection is not immediately evident. here we assessed to which extent selected indigenous ethnic groups in bolivia associate cd with its triatomine vectors two decades after first vector control intervention. methods study sites and population groups the survey was carried out between june –august and november –may in five different regions of bolivia, in two major settlements (cities of la paz and santa cruz) and in three different geographical rural areas (inter-andean valleys, chaco and chiquitanía region). in and we revisited some locations. the communities and respective municipalities where the study was conducted are in the indicated rural zones (fig.  ). the selection of the study sites was based on the reported incidence cd [ , , – ], cultural back- ground, accessibility (prior informed consent) and vary- ing degree of acculturation. in the inter-andean valleys, the population was native quechua speaking and largely monolingual, while in the chaco region the population was primarily of the native american guaraní ethnicity. both are isolated regions due to restrictions in transportation and communica- tion. in the chaco, also mennonite colonies are present. individuals from the mennonite religious community are of european descent, speak plautdietsch and have lit- tle interaction with local people. among this group, only unstructured interviews were conducted. in the chiqui- tanía region, over % of the population belongs to the lowland ethnic group chiquitano and are native spanish speakers [ , ]. additionally, we included the ayoreo ethnic group in our survey. ayoreo people speak ayor- eode dialects of the zamucoan family [ ]. traditionally nomadic hunter-gatherers, the majority of the commu- nities have been sedentarized and acculturated by mis- sionaries in the mid twentieth century, with the aim to integrate them into bolivian society. during their process of acculturation, the ayoreo communities have suffered page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : a traumatic change in their way of live and today are one of the most marginalized ethnic groups in bolivia. some striking problems are alcoholism, drug abuse and prosti- tution, particularly among young ayoreo people [ ]. the survey was carried out in rural ayoreo communities in the chiquitanía region and in urban ayoreo settlements in the city of santa cruz de la sierra. moreover, the sur- vey was conducted in the cities of santa cruz de la sierra and la paz. in both cities most of the population is of “mestizo” origin and native spanish speakers. in the city of la paz, a large proportion of inhabitants originated from aymara rural communities. cd transmission in all studied rural areas was endemic and varied from one region to another, with the highest infection rates reported from the chaco region and inter-andean valleys [ , , – ]. the later region has a history of high rates of human infec- tion with t. cruzi [ ] and is a reported location of sylvatic t. infestans [ – ] and of t. sordida [ ]. the gran chaco has the highest prevalence of cd in the world [ ]. despite the presence of insecticide spraying campaigns in the last years in this region, t. cruzi prevalence remains extraordinarily high, with close to universal infection among adults over years-old [ , , , ]. in this region t. infestans, t. sordida and t. guasayana have been shown to infest houses [ , ] and sylvatic populations of these tree species have been described [ , , – ]. in the chiquitanía region, t. sordida and t. infestans have been reported to colonize dwellings [ ]. in general, cd is associated with peasant families and rural dwelling infested by triatomine vec- tors. nevertheless, migrations to the cities and increase of poverty in the urban areas have also transformed the disease into an increasingly urban health problem [ , , ]. in fact, a study indicates a large prevalence of cd in santa cruz city, as an incidence of . % of t. cruzi infection was detected in pregnant women [ ]. moreover, the presence of t. infestans and t. sordida has been reported in the metropolitan area of santa cruz city [ , ]. owing to the altitude of la paz city, fig. a geographical map showing the study area in bolivia ( municipalities within departments) indicating the villages where the survey was carried out page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : this region is not an incidence area for triatomine bugs [ ]. in all three rural areas, dwellings are predominantly constructed of wood and adobe walls, earthen floors and thatched roofs. therefore, they constitute a suitable habi- tat for t. infestans (fig.  ). each household comprises one to four separate structures, usually of one or two rooms. rooms are dark because of the wall materials and small windows. animals, which are also hosts to t. infestans and other triatomine vectors (primarily t. sordida and t. guasayana in the chaco) are raised in close proxim- ity. the peridomestic area comprises several structures such as chicken coops, goat and sheep corrals. in all rural areas, the main economic activity is subsistence agricul- ture. cd related prevention activities have been carried out during the last decade as part of the chagas national programme, mostly as vector control intervention and to a lesser extent (in bigger settlements) serological surveys with pregnant women and school children [ , , ]. in the cities of la paz and santa cruz, public and private hospitals, clinics, medical practitioners and pharmacies provide medical health care. the largest hospitals treat the full range of health issues. in all rural areas, bigger communities have primary health centers adapted to the very basic local needs, which offer chil- dren vaccination, assistance of pregnant women and ambulatory care (painkillers, antibiotics, anthelminthic drugs, rehydration salts, etc.). however, most of them are insufficiently equipped. moreover, large distances and a lack of transport limit accessibility to health ser- vices in remote rural areas. in rural areas, respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases and dermatological dis- orders are the most common medical consultations in primary health centers [ , , ], which indicates the high prevalence of these illnesses. moreover, after hav- ing been integrated to the bolivian society, the ayoreo have been exposed to a variety of diseases that were new to them [ ]. two emerging examples are diabe- tes and aids. the first is probably a consequence of the dramatic change of alimentary habits and the second is related to ayoreo sex workers in the city of santa cruz. a b c d fig. images of rural dwellings in the study sites. a typical guaraní house in the chaco region. b typical quechua house in the interandean valleys. c peridomicile structure close to a guaraní house in the isoso. d interior of a quechua dwelling page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : study design and ethnographical data collection ethnographic fieldwork by means of structured and semi-structured interviews provided a basis for the quan- titative study. a structured questionnaire was designed to assess the cultural perception of cd and its triatoma spp. vectors among the selected groups of the bolivian population (guaraní, quechua, ayoreo and chiquitano indigenous peoples and residents of the cities la paz and santa cruz). it consisted of three major themes: (i) socio-demographic characteristics; (ii) knowledge and perception of triatomine vectors (local names, pres- ence, perceived dangerousness); and (iii) awareness of cd (knowledge, direct experience or indirect through affected relatives, modes of transmission of the disease, sources of information). questions related to knowledge of triatomine bugs were asked prior to the questions con- cerning cd in order to avoid bias. a total of people between and years-old were interviewed. inform- ants were selected consecutively in order of appearance, each representing a different family and according to the prior informed consent, availability and willingness of the informants. a minimum of interviews was carried out for each ethnic group or respectively city. for each visited community, a minimum of representative interviews were conducted with local informants and corroborated by semi-structured interviews (see below). in some very small communities, the minimum number could not be achieved. in urban areas, interviews took place in public places, while in rural communities in the households dur- ing the visits. the interviews lasted from to   min- utes. if possible, interviews were conducted in spanish, else with the assistance of a local translator. selected interviews were recorded by video. the informant’s prior informed consent was obtained, and relevant socio-eco- nomic data were gathered. in rural areas, semi-structured interviews of approximately to  minutes were based on general aspects of the informant’s daily life in relation to and experience with cd, focusing on the knowledge of insect vectors. interviews related to the ecological knowl- edge about triatoma spp. were recorded. additionally, we conducted interviews with local health workers and fumigation technicians. the interviews and observa- tions were registered in field notebooks, photographs or recorded as videos. upon completion of the structured interviews (see above), the informants were educated about the role of triatomine bugs in cd transmission. data analyses structured interview data were collected in microsoft office excel spreadsheets. percentages were calculated for descriptive statistics. the obtained data were ana- lyzed comparatively. responses were compared among population groups, which were classified according to people’s ethnicity. hence, ayoreo people living in urban settlements were included into the group ayoreo. in a preliminary analysis, we found no significant differences in the responses of ayoreo people living in urban or rural settlements. further, analyses of the influence of socio- demographic and socio-economic factors on inform- ants’ responses were conducted within each population group. we calculated differences by pearson’s chi-square test of independence or fisher’s exact test. the connec- tion of triatomine vectors and cd was explored by means of logistic regression analysis (univariate and multivari- ate) from which odds ratios were computed. a p-value of . was considered as statistically significant. all statis- tical analyses were conducted using r software version r . . . determination of infection of triatoma vectors by t. cruzi a total of t. infestans bugs were collected during the fieldwork from six rural communities in the chaco region and from two rural communities in the inter- andean valleys. insects were collected from domestic and peridomestic areas (by local residents), transported to the laboratory and stored at −   °c before analysis. dead vectors were dissected with a razor blade for dna extraction and –   mg of tissue from each insect’s abdomen were transferred in a micro-centrifuge tube with a forceps. in order to avoid cross-contamination, all tools were washed with bleach and rinsed with water after each dissection. dna extraction followed using the dneasy kit (qiagen, valencia, ca, usa) according to the protocol for animal tissues. the lysis step was conducted over night. dna yield was determined using a nanodrop spectrophotometer (thermo scientific, waltham, ma, usa). infection with t. cruzi was analyzed by real- time pcr. each pcr reaction was performed in   μl containing  μl of fast sybr® green mastermix (applied biosystems, foster city, ca, usa), .   μm t. cruzi spe- cific primers tcz -f ( ′-cga gct ctt gcc cac acg ggt gct- ′) and tcz r ( ′-cct cca agc agc gga tag ttc agg- ′), which amplify bp of a repetitive nuclear sequence [ ], – ng dna and molecular biology grade water. the pcr cycling program consisted of an initial denaturation at   °c for s, cycles of   °c for s and   °c for s. amplification was followed by a melting program with an initial dena- turation at  °c for s, cooling to  °c for  min and then a stepwise temperature increase of .  °c/s from to  °c. for each -well reaction plate a standard curve was generated from dilutions of positive control. effi- ciencies of the amplification were calculated (e = (− / slope)). negative controls consisted of a reaction with t. cruzi-specific primers without dna. each sample was evaluated in duplicate. page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : results general characteristics of informants upon prior informed consent, we conducted struc- tured oral interviews based on a questionnaire with informants representing different gender and age groups. table  summarizes the general socio-demographic char- acteristics of the overall study population. knowledge, experience and perception of cd and its vectors the community knowledge, experience and percep- tion of cd and its vectors were assessed with a ques- tionnaire, accompanied by pictures of two species of triatomine bugs (t. infestans and t. sordida) in distinct nymphal stages for identification. in cases where the bug was identified, t. infestans was the species pointed most frequently. only in few cases also t. sordida was recog- nized as a different species. a black and less dangerous vinchuca was mentioned in the chaco, possibly refer- ring to panstrongylus megistus. results of the interviews and differences among the studied population groups are summarized in table  . naming triatomines: general and vernacular nomenclature vinchuca was the most commonly name used for tri- atomine bugs and generic for different triatoma spe- cies. the term was used in all surveyed regions. ethnic vernacular names were timbucu, used by guaraní people, chanyupoay (t. infestans) and dipeche (t. sordida), used by ayoreo and uluchi, used by quechua. the last term was mostly referred to nymphal stages of the insect. the mennonites living in the chaco area refer to the bug as steinkwainz, referring to the mennonite low german (plautdietsch) term for bugs or bluttier (blood animal). triatomine knowledge and experience overall, the vector was correctly identified in . % (n = ) of all surveyed subjects (table  ). however, there were significant differences among the studied groups (χ = . , p < . ). rural indigenous inform- ants from all four studied ethnic groups correctly identi- fied triatomine bugs in over % cases, while informants from the cities did this in . % (la paz) and . % (santa cruz). the existence of vectors and the associ- ated experience were examined by asking informants whether they had seen triatomine bugs. as expected, the studied ethnic groups and urban residents of the cities had very distinct direct experiences with the vector and their answers about having ever seen them significantly differed (χ = . , p < . ). expectedly, indigenous people living in rural areas were more knowledgeable of triatomine bugs (vinchucas) and claimed to have encoun- tered them more often than people living in the cities (see table  , fig.  ). informants in the rural areas had a detailed knowledge of t. infestans and its habits in gen- eral. in all rural regions, some informants mentioned a higher presence of the insect during hot and dry weather conditions, others referred to the blood-feeding behavior, while others mentioned a flying behavior of bugs “coming from the woods to the houses” and some mentioned the night activity of the bugs. in all rural areas, informants affirmed to have seen vinchucas inside the houses, by the corrals and in the woods. many of the affected communi- ties asserted that there was a decrease of triatomine bugs table socio-demographic characteristics of the individuals participating in the survey abbreviations: l.p., la paz; s.c., santa cruz socio- demographic characteristics ayoreo (n = ) chiquitano (n = ) guarani (n = ) quechua (n = ) citizens l.p. (n = ) citizens s.c. (n = ) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) sex male ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) female ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) age group – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) educational level none ( . ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) ( ) ( ) primary ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) secondary ( . ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) university ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : during the last decade and attributed this to the presence of vector control strategies (insecticide spraying). how- ever, vectors were only temporarily eliminated from these communities. in fact, some communities, especially in the isoso district (chaco) lived in highly infested dwell- ings (see below). generally, reports on number of vec- tors present in the community varied and could only be table knowledge, perception and awareness of chagas disease and its triatomine vectors of participants according to their ethnicity survey question ayoreo chiquitano guarani quechua la paz santa cruz total p-value n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) χ test identification of triatomine bugs < . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) have seen triatomine bugs < . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) “do you think this bug is dangerous?” . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) does not know ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) “have you heard of chagas disease?” < . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) “do you have a family member who has chagas disease?” < . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) does not know ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) association of triatomine bugs and chagas disease < . yes ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) no ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) indigenous urban (non-indigenous) % no yes a ____________* indigenous urban (non-indigenous) % no yes *____________b fig. comparison of knowledge and experience with triatomine bugs between indigenous and urban (non-indigenous) informants. a proportion of informants who correctly identified pictures of triatomine bugs (n = ). b proportion of informants claiming to have seen triatomine bugs (n = ). *significant association (p < . ) page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : assessed by vector sample collection in the houses (see below). perception of vinchucas in general, vinchuca bites were regarded as unpleasant. the vinchuca itself was considered dangerous by . % (p = . ) of all informants (n = ) when this ques- tion was posed. interestingly, some informants in the chiquitanía and chaco region distinguished between red and black vinchucas and claimed that only the for- mer were dangerous. the black vinchucas might be panstrongylus megistus while the red vincuchas were associated to t. infestans. in the village of santiago de chiquitos (chiquitanía region) it was often stated that the red vinchucas coming from the chaco region (which arrived together with immigrant workers from that region) are dangerous, while the black vinchucas from santiago are not, since these attack wild animals but no human beings. informants were asked to iden- tify the reason/s why triatomine bugs are dangerous. answers are presented in table  . cd was spontane- ously mentioned by . % (n = ) of the informants ( . % among ayoreo, . % among chiquitano, . % among guaraní, . % among quechua, . % among la paz citizens, . % among santa cruz citizens). in general, the relationship of vinchucas and a disease was largely identified, even if the disease was not explicitly named. the bite itself as the reason was the answer of . % (n = ) of the interviewees (by . % ayoreo, . % chiquitano, . % guaraní, . % quechua, . % la paz citizens and . % santa cruz citizens). some informants ( . %, n = ) referred to insects carrying a poison, probably due to the acute symptoms after the bite, while others ( . %, n = ) mentioned the blood- sucking behavior of the bug. interestingly, among the mennonites, vinchucas were generally not associated with cd but said to suck blood from domestic animals like chicken, which makes them sick. unexpectedly, the large proportion of positive answers about vinchucas being dangerous is contra- dictory to the observed behavior in the field. a natural cohabitation with vinchucas in rural guaraní, ayoreo and quechua households and a lack of threat percep- tion of these insects were commonly observed. vinchu- cas did not awe rural informants and their ubiquitous presence did not seem to disturb them, in contrast to the knowledge about them being dangerous. many inhabitants were familiar with the bugs and sight- ing them was a common event. for example, inform- ants were not afraid to touch vinchucas with their bare hands. they claimed that vinchucas be sometimes dis- turbing, but they typically coexisted in the house. con- sequently, vinchuca bites, although unpleasant, were considered normal and frequent. among the ayoreo, the vector disease association was significantly lower (table  ). moreover, a large proportion of indigenous informants, regardless of the ethnic group, mentioned that they heard that vinchucas have a disease or dis- eases. some informants were skeptical and did not truly believe that the triatomine bugs were dangerous. as one male ayoreo informant stated, “it bit me previ- ously, but i didn’t feel anything of the disease”. on the contrary, in urban areas (la paz and santa cruz) people clearly perceived vinchucas as dangerous and expressed their fear of this bug. table question survey: “why is this bug dangerous?” abbreviation: na, not applicable ayoreo chiquitano guarani quechua la paz santa cruz total % (n = ) % (n = ) % (n = ) % (n = ) % (n = ) % (n = ) % (n = ) chagas disease . . . . . . . chagas symptoms mentioned . . . . . . . it has a disease/s . . . . . . . it makes us feel sick . . . . na na . lethal disease . . . . . na . bites are a nuisance . . . . . . . it sucks blood . . . . . . . poisonous . . na . . . . appearance na . na na . . . every bug is dangerous na . na na . na . other reason . . . na . . . does not know . . . . . . . not dangerous . . . . . . . page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : knowledge of cd the term cd was familiar to the majority of the informants, as . % of the interviewees (n = ) rec- ognized it as a disease. in agreement with the previ- ous questions, many informants indicated vinchuca bites as the main mode of transmission. guaraní and chiquitano people were in general well aware of cd in their communities and recognized its different clinical manifestations. however, among quechua and ayoreo informants, cd and its transmission seemed not always to be clear concepts. some interviewees claimed to have heard about the illness, although they were not sure about the underlying pathology and symptoms, and transmission mechanisms. altogether, only informants ( . %) explicitly stated that the vinchuca feces transmit the illness. transmission through blood or congenitally was mentioned by a small proportion of the interviewees ( . % and . %). overall, a high proportion of informants ( . %, n = ) claimed either to suffer personally from cd or to have family members or relatives who were affected by the illness (table  ). especially, the studied commu- nities in the region chaco were severely affected. . % of the interviewees had cd history in their families. as one male guaraní (aged ) stated, “here almost every- body has chagas”. the majority of the affected people in the chaco and chiquitanía region suffered from heart disease, while a large proportion of the affected quechua population suffered from digestive or mixed alterations. mostly, people diagnosed with cd learnt about their con- dition after tests conducted at pregnancy, blood donation and sometimes at serological surveys in schoolchildren or in workers, whose employers required such tests. in some communities some informants remembered having been tested, but stated that they never got the results. in more remote locations, informants were never tested. in some guaraní and quechua informants there was a sus- picion based on the symptoms. the informants gave a wide range of sources of infor- mation related to cd. in indigenous communities, health facilities and health promoters were the most prominent sources (principal transmitters). for example, a female guaraní (aged ) stated, “sometimes doctors tell us that there is chagas in isoso”. another female guaraní (aged ) remembered, “about two years ago they came here and taught us, but i have already forgotten”. quechua and guaraní informants mentioned announcements about cd over the radio as an important source of information. ayoreo people mentioned health education workshops organized by external institutions at community meet- ings as another sources of information. other informants in rural areas acquired their knowledge from technicians from spraying campaigns. association between triatomine vectors and cd the data from the structured interviews were analyzed to assess the perceptual association between vinchucas and cd. responses that mentioned the relationship of triatomine bugs with cd or a chronic condition with- out naming the disease scored as positive answers. many informants had heard about the term cd and about its relation to vinchucas. if they did not know the health consequences and/or clinical manifestations of the dis- ease, their answers scored negative (no association). overall, vinchucas have been positively associated with cd in . % cases (n = ). however, there were significant differences (χ = . , p < . ) among the population groups, as . % ayoreo, . % chiquitano, . % guaraní, . % quechua, . % la paz citizens and . % santa cruz citizens could connect vinchucas’ bites with a chronic health condition. further, binomial univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyzes were performed in order to determine which socio- demographic and socio-economic factors influence the association between vinchucas and cd within each studied population group (table  ). among guaraní and quechua informants, gender, age group and educa- tional status were not significant (p > . ). we detected significant gender differences in the univariate regres- sion analysis among the ayoreo, chiquitano and la paz groups (p < . ). within these three groups, males associated vinchucas with cd more often than females. after univariate logistic regression analysis, age had a sig- nificant influence (p < . ) on the responses among the chiquitano informants and residents of la paz and santa cruz. among the la paz group, the association between cd and its vector linearly increased with the age of the informants. the educational background clearly had an influence only among informants living in the surveyed urban areas in the univariate analysis (p < . ). la paz and santa cruz citizens associated vinchucas and cd more frequently with increasing educational level. in gen- eral, the responses among rural interviewees appeared to be more homogeneous in comparison to urban inter- viewees (fig.  ). the results of the multivariate analysis indicated that the variables age and educational level remained significant (p < . ) among urban informants from la paz and santa cruz (table  ). the factor gender remained significant in the final regression model among the ayoreo and chiquitano informants as only . % of ayoreo female informants connected triatomine vectors with cd. infection of vectors with t. cruzi a total of triatomine bugs were collected from com- munity houses (fig.  ) and analyzed for infection with t. cruzi. we found that . % of collected bugs (n = ) page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : table univariate (unadjusted or) and multivariate (adjusted or) logistic regression to identify socio-economic variables for awareness of triatomine bugs as vectors of chagas disease demographic background % who connected unadjusted adjusted bugs with chagas or % ci or % ci ayoreo participants age ≤ * . reference reference – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education no formal education . reference reference basic or higher . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . guaraní participants age – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . > a . reference reference p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education no formal education . reference reference basic . . . – . . . – . intermediate and highera . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . chiquitano participants age – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . – . reference reference p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education basic . reference reference intermediate and highera . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : table (continued) demographic background % who connected unadjusted adjusted bugs with chagas or % ci or % ci quechua participants age – . reference reference – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education no formal education . reference reference basic . . . – . . . – . intermediate or higher . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . la paz participants age – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . – . reference reference p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education basic . . . – . . . – . intermediate . . . – . . . – . advanced . reference reference p = . p = . santa cruz participants age – . . . – . . . – . – . . . – . . . – . > a . reference reference p = . p = . gender female . reference reference male . . . – . . . – . p = . p = . education basic . . . – . . . – . intermediate . . . – . . . – . advanced . reference reference p = . p = . a levels grouped together because of small sample size abbreviations: or: odds ratio, % ci: % confidence interval page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : - - - - guarani participants age groups % no yes a - - - - participants in la paz age groups % b no yes _______________________* a m b years guarani participants educational level % no yes c a m b participants in la paz educational level % *_____________________ d no yes fig. influence of age and educational level on guaraní and la paz informants’ association of triatomine bugs and chagas disease (cd). a age and c educational level had no influence among guaraní informants (n = ) while both variables had an influence among informants in la paz (n = ), b and d. *significant association (p < . ) fig. images of triatomine vectors. a t. infestans collected in a guaraní dwelling in the chaco. b living nymph stage t. sordidas found inside tree trunk which was part of a structure of a sheep corral in the peridomestic area (mizque municipaty). c t. infestans collected in a guaraní house for subsequent real-time pcr analysis page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : were infected with t. cruzi, and that % of the collec- tion sites (n = ) yielded > infected specimens. geo- graphical origin and infection rates are summarized in fig.  . the percentage of infected insects per locality was variable (median . %, range . – . %). the variability is likely to the small sample size in some localities. most of the collected insects were from isoso district, where we found t. cruzi infection rates of . ± . % (n = insects). in the charagua district, . ± . % (n = insects) of the collected triatomine vectors were infected. the real-time pcr analysis showed a lower t. cruzi infec- tion of the insects collected in the communities located in the interandean valleys ( . %, n = insects) in com- parison with the two former districts located in the chaco region. discussion the data from this field study suggest that the majority of the interviewed informants had heard about cd and had knowledge about its vectors. vinchucas (t. infestans) were associated with cd in . % cases (n = ). our data show that the majority of the affected indigenous chiquitano ( . %, n = ), guaraní ( . %, n = ) and quechua ( . %, n = ) population recognized the causal relationship between the insect’s bites and cd, thus more frequently than the informants who lived in the cities santa cruz ( . %, n = ) and la paz ( , %, n = ). this is explained by the fact that in the la paz region vectors are lacking. intriguingly, in comparison to other ethnic groups, a significantly lower percentage ( . %) of ayoreo informants associated triatomine bugs with cd, despite their overall good knowledge of tria- toma ecology. multivariate logistic regression analyses indicate that age and educational level were significantly correlated (p < . ) with a better knowledge on the asso- ciation between triatomine bugs and cd among urban informants, while there were unexpected gender differ- ences (p < . ) among ayoreo and chiquitano inform- ants concerning this knowledge. in the cities of la paz and santa cruz, the knowledge about triatomine vectors and cd was mostly acquired through formal education and it linearly increased with age and educational level. in contrast, the responses of rural indigenous inform- ants were mostly homogeneous (fig.  ). our data show that informants in rural areas know about triatomine bugs and cd at an early age because age had no influence (p > . ) on the association between the two. this find- ing is not surprising as in indigenous societies adult-level knowledge is acquired at the age of to and there is generally a high consensus within a given community [ , ]. however, gender played a role among ayoreo and chiquitano informants. this is probably because males in these communities had higher literacy, or a bet- ter understanding of spanish, especially in the case of ayoreo informants. unfortunately, ayoreo women still lack education about cd and only . % associated tri- atomine bugs with infection. this reveals that health education for both genders is necessary. moreover, some ayoreo informants reported that fumigation and health education campaigns did never take place in their vil- lages. clearly, in the ayoreo ethnomedical system, dis- ease concepts and etiologies strongly differ from western biomedical concepts [ ]. in the past, prolonged illness was generally considered of supernatural origin. the con- cept of curing diseases was embedded in ritual forms, shamanism and performative practices that constituted an ayoreo “tradition” which has nowadays been entirely abandoned [ ]. people no longer tell adode myths nor do they heal one another by sucking out or blowing away sickness with sarode and ujñarone curing chants, nor do they smoke sidi tobacco and canirojnai roots to enter into shamanic trances for spiritual healing [ ]. after having been sedentarized in the second half of the twen- tieth century, the ayoreo got exposed to new diseases like respiratory infections, diabetes and more recently also aids. there is the believe, especially among the older ayoreo, that diseases come from the cojñone (non ayoreo people) who are able to transmit them intention- ally. for instance, we recorded an association between diabetes and being a community or political leader. some ayoreo say that diabetes in political leaders is caused by witchcraft from jealous people or that it is a punish- ment because of lying. ethnomedical concepts have been largely unintelligible to anthropologists because % infected bugs chaco m.a.s.l. interandean valleys m.a.s.l. fig. geographical origin of triatomine bugs and infection rate determined with real-time pcr (% of total). numbers indicate amount of bugs collected from – houses per community page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : of restricting ayoreo acculturation to an impoverished notion of “tradition” which now represents both, a lack of shamanistic practice due to christianization and a lack of knowledge about western medicine. all indigenous communities show a relatively good biological and ecological knowledge of the triatomine vectors t. infestans and t. sordida (e.g. reproduction, occurrence and general nocturnal blood sucking behav- ior), which is consistent with previous findings [ , , , ]. however, the overall higher percentage regarding the association of vinchucas and cd significantly differed from previously conducted studies in similar endemic areas of bolivia (quechua [ ] and guaraní communities [ ]), where there was limited knowledge of cd. this dis- crepancy may be attributed to the efforts of the national anti-cd campaigns in the surveyed rural areas. indeed, a recent study within the valleys and chaco region iden- tified that people recognized that cd is transmitted by triatoma infestans to a similar extent as in our findings [ ]. in another recent study in a rural, non-indigenous area of santa cruz department all informants under- stood cd was transmitted by vinchucas and the majority recognized the symptoms of the disease [ ]. however, our study is the first to provide information about the knowledge and perception concerning cd among chiq- uitano and ayoreo in bolivia. in accordance to previous findings in endemic regions, the affected rural families have developed over time an attitude of naturalization of the problem and acceptance of triatomine bugs as they basically coexist with them [ , , , , , , ]. however, contrary to other studies [ , ], none of our informants mentioned having experienced discrimina- tion or stigmatization because of having cd. we found that in rural areas informants received health education about cd from non-indigenous insti- tutions (mainly from municipal vector control personnel or health care workers). however, external transmitters had little impact on the perception regarding the threat of infection by vincuchas. the message of the anti-cd campaigns is therefore not convincing enough and does not transmit the nature of the risk to local communi- ties. knowledge and awareness of cd did not efficiently translate into changes in practice among the indigenous communities. no personal protection measures were implemented in the households visited. preventive prac- tices, such as restoration, amelioration and rigorous cleaning of the houses were rarely observed in the sur- veyed rural indigenous communities. surprisingly, the informants did not report active searching for insects inside the dwellings or at the corrals. moreover, a lack of hygiene and the presence of animal farming in close proximity were noticed in many indigenous communi- ties. domestic animals slept in the same room as family members, despite of people’s awareness that vinchucas attack these animals as well. such practices are causative for transmission of the infection as reported previously [ – ]. occasional spraying with household insecticides was the only control action undertaken by some chiqui- tano informants. most of the affected population relies on the yearly national governmental insecticide campaigns. the bolivian national chagas campaign puts emphasis on organized vector control but not on personal protec- tion measures. to date, no participatory approaches have been integrated in the surveyed communities. the absence of actions against vector infestation of the houses could be explained by the cd pathophysiol- ogy. cd is a chronic condition that remains largely silent and manifests itself in about % of infected people, i.e. most patients will remain asymptomatic lifelong. in addi- tion, there is a relatively low probability of being infected even when being continuously bitten [ ]. these aspects are important when trying to understand people’s behavior. the chance of getting a disease at some hypo- thetical future date does not seem to be a real problem. something similar happens in western countries where young adults still start smoking despite of being aware that smoking is associated with lung cancer [ ]. prob- ably, the most disadvantaged sectors are the least likely to respond to health messages, as they are already under considerable strain coping with the exigencies of every- day life. moreover, there is a divide between communities and health centers mainly because communication barri- ers exist in terms of language and lack of cultural under- standing. the relationship between health personnel and indigenous people is sometimes plagued by mistrust [ ]. among doctors there is the tendency to perceive rural, indigenous peasants as inferior and often the prescription of medicines goes without explaining the diagnosis [ , , , ]. for instance, we encountered quechua and ayoreo informants who were diagnosed with cd but did not know anything about this illness as nobody explained them what it meant “to be positive”. in few extreme cases, quechua and ayoreo informants reported that they were tested but never obtained the result. despite the efforts to control the disease, it is still highly prevalent in some of the surveyed communities in the chaco. our pcr analysis reveals t. cruzi hyperinfec- tion (infection rates of over %) in domestic triatomine bugs. the difference between infected triatomine bugs in the interandean valleys and the chaco (fig.  ) may be because in the former, houses are temporarily abandoned (according to the agricultural cycle of the seasons) and the villages are less densely populated. overall, the infes- tation of houses in this region was lower (a lower num- ber of bugs was collected). vector control was reported to be effective in a similar region in the inter-andean page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : valleys, where infestation of about % of dwellings was detected [ ]. in both geographical regions, previous studies reported varying infection rates in t. infestans [ , , , ], which ranged between – %, depending on the localities and habitat of the vectors (domestic or sylvatic). clearly, the high t. cruzi prevalence in domes- tic triatomine vectors in the chaco is contradictory to people’s perception of vinchucas. triatomine bugs were not attributed any particular (e.g. religious, ecological, ethnomedical) characteristics and no negative traditional cultural believes regarding these bugs could be recorded. thus, it is likely that the millennial co-existence of para- site and host in this area did not induce a selection pres- sure to justify actions against the vectors. indeed, the mortality of children due to t. cruzi infections among these communities is relatively low and many children are born from mothers already infected [ ] and live long enough to get married and have children. there is an urgent need to improve the efficacy of health education interventions. our findings have identi- fied some areas where campaigns or interventions could be targeted to enhance community health behavior. edu- cators should be better qualified. if possible, they should speak local languages and have training about ways to increase cultural sensitivity within their practices. fur- thermore, innovative methods of educating residents of the local communities should be applied. current health education models have the simple goal to impart knowl- edge through organized verbal instruction. however, learning always takes place in a specific socio-cultural setting. learning in traditional rural societies is infor- mal and experimental, taking place in an unstructured environment. knowledge is acquired through hands-on experience and direct observations and interactions [ , – ] and learning abilities need social interactions to be effective [ ]. hence, the implementation of partici- patory learning activities could be an important strategy in the battle against cd. events using audio-visual tools may be implemented at healthcare facilities. for exam- ple, popular theatre could be used as a tool for com- munication and dissemination of health information [ – ]. plays can overcome literacy barriers. further, workshops and seminars could be organized with com- munity members, health center personnel and school- teachers, as they are important intermediaries. indeed, education of elementary school children has been found to be an effective strategy to promote behavior change in parents [ , ]. it is of great significance that communi- ties are actively involved in the identification of problems and needs, search for solutions and evaluation of applied measures. successful experiences involving community participation in cd control have been reported across latin america [ , – ]. bottom-up approaches could be applied [ ] putting emphasis on preventive or personal protection measures and environmental management. long-term community-based surveillance strategies need to be applied along with government- sponsored insecticide spraying. for example, community members could be engaged in voluntary and active ento- mological surveillance as they were very efficient in cap- turing triatomine bugs during the fieldwork. triatoma vectors could be searched, deposited in special contain- ers and reported to community leaders or coordinators. ideally, fumigation of infested houses should follow, which could also be accomplished by community mem- bers who received special training in insecticide spraying. previous studies reported experiences with people who sprayed their own houses [ , ]. the use of mosquito nets, window insect screens, cleaning activities, personal hygiene, mud coating of walls, and insect traps are fea- sible preventive measures that could be imposed by the community. the use of physical barriers (insect screens) was identified as a good alternative strategy for the con- trol of sylvatic and peridomiciliated vectors [ – ]. another alternative might be the use of insecticide- impregnated materials, which has been proved to be a cost-effective option [ , ]. also low-cost improve- ments using local materials have been reported as a suc- cessful intervention [ , ]. conclusions this study reveals a significant discrepancy between local knowledge of cd and the practices to reduce risk of trans- mission among the studied ethnic groups ayoreo, guaraní and quechua. in parts, this can be explained by an insuf- ficient understanding of vector disease transmission, but also the lack of an acute effect on health upon infection may account for the apparent indifference towards vector bites. indigenous ethnomedical knowledge systems dif- fer from western concepts of chronic diseases. this was particularly evident among the ayoreo, who also suffered from a range of other diseases, including, acute respiratory infections, acute diarrheal diseases, diabetes and aids [ ]. clearly, the indigenous communities in this study did not associate danger with cd as it may not be lethal among the majority of the infected people [ , ]. although past insecticide spraying campaigns in the isoso region tempo- rarily reduced the vector infestation in the villages, during this fieldwork people literally cohabited with t. infestans. the bugs collected in domestic dwellings among the guar- aní showed an approximately % overall infection, clearly indicating hyperendemic disease transmission among indigenous communities in this area. intriguingly, no action was taken to eliminate the bugs from the dwellings. public health programmes aim to replace “false” beliefs with “accurate” knowledge. by changing community page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : knowledge, it is assumed, behavior will also be changed [ ]. although education programmes have raised aware- ness, they did not greatly affect the behavior of people. accordingly, a significantly high proportion of the affected indigenous informants had some knowledge of the disease vector but they did not translate it to prevention or protec- tion practices. therefore, a change of perception regarding triatomine bugs as being potentially lethal is indispensa- ble. while it is unnecessary that the affected population understands cd from a biomedical perspective, the sci- entific information needs to be translated into culturally appropriate categories that are sensitive to indigenous values, traditions and motivations [ ]. an early and thor- ough education of children on the danger of triatomine bugs should accompany the current anti-cd campaigns. continued vector control activities (e.g. regular collect- ing of bugs from dwellings) with community-based health intervention programmes using strategies of community participation could be an important strategy to break the vicious circle between hyperendemic cd communities and hyperinfected vectors infesting their houses. two dec- ades after disease intervention, the rural populations still suffer from t. cruzi infections, which could be reduced solely by changing the widespread view on the nature of threat by vector bites. overall, we believe that through the involvement and experience of local people the impact of current interventions should be translated into changes of practice. abbreviations aids: acquired immune deficiency syndrome; bid: banco interamericano de desarrollo; cd: chagas disease; paho: pan american health organization; pcr: polymerase chain reaction; who: world health organization. acknowledgments we would like to acknowledge the local informants in the different indige- nous communities, in particular the informants dope etacorei, rocio picanere and donato abaguazu. we thank giovanna rocio almanza vega, universidad mayor de san andres, bolivia, for logistical assistance during fieldwork. authorsʼ contributions as performed fieldwork, collected and analyzed data, performed real-time pcr and wrote the paper. jg performed and supervised fieldwork in the chaco, collected data and revised the paper. both authors read and approved the final manuscript. funding research was funded by the phd fellowship (early stage researcher) under the eu fp marie curie initial training network (itn) medplant (medplant. project id: ). availability of data and materials data supporting the results reported in the article, if not provided in the article, can be obtained from authors. the datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. ethics approval and consent to participate prior informed consent and permission to work in the study communities were solicited during in-person meetings with community leaders, where a clear explanation about the objectives of the study was given. the partici- pation was voluntary, as oral consent was obtained in each interview. an overall overview of the study was provided to individual informants. after the interviews, we provided general basic information (education) about cd transmission and prevention measures. consent for publication consent to publish (fig. c) was obtained from that person. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. received: february accepted: may references . rassi a, rassi a, marin-neto ja. chagas disease. lancet. ; : – . . world health organization. who |chagas disease (american trypanoso- miasis); . http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheet s/detai l/chaga s-disea se-(ameri can-trypa nosom iasis ). accessed may . . noireau f, diosque p, jansen am. trypanosoma cruzi: adaptation to its vectors and its hosts. vet res. ; : . . coura jr, borges-pereira j. chagas disease: years after its discovery. a systemic review. acta trop. ; : – . . gaspe ms, provecho ym, cardinal mv, del pilar fernández m, gürtler re. ecological and sociodemographic determinants of house infestation by triatoma infestans in indigenous communities of the argentine chaco. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . hotez pj, molyneux dh, fenwick a, kumaresan j, sachs se, sachs jd, et al. control of neglected tropical diseases. n engl j med. ; : – . . lee by, bacon km, bottazzi me, hotez pj. global economic burden of chagas disease: a computational simulation model. lancet infect dis. ; : – . . de araújo-jorge tc, medrano-mercado n. chagas disease in bolivia: a brief review of the urban phenomena. rev biomédica. ; : – . . cassab jra, noireau f, guillén g. la enfermedad de chagas en bolivia - conocimientos científicos al inicio del programa de control ( – ). la paz, bolivia: ministerio de salud y previsión social; . . organización panamericana de la salud. estimación cuantitativa de la enfermedad de chagas en las americas. uruguay: montevideo; . . world health organization. chagas disease in latin america: an epidemiological update based on estimates. wkly epidemiol rec. ; : – . . ehrenberg jp, ault sk. neglected diseases of neglected populations: thinking to reshape the determinants of health in latin america and the caribbean. bmc public health. ; : . . gurevitz jm, ceballos la, gaspe ms, alvarado-otegui ja, enríquez gf, kitron u, et al. factors affecting infestation by triatoma infestans in a rural area of the humid chaco in argentina: a multi-model inference approach. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . hidron ai, gilman rh, justiniano j, blackstock aj, lafuente c, selum w, et al. chagas cardiomyopathy in the context of the chronic disease transition. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . samuels am, clark eh, galdos-cardenas g, wiegand re, ferrufino l, menacho s, et al. epidemiology of and impact of insecticide spraying on chagas disease in communities in the bolivian chaco. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . cardinal mv, orozco mm, enriquez gf, ceballos la, gaspe ms, alvarado- otegui ja, et al. heterogeneities in the ecoepidemiology of trypano- soma cruzi infection in rural communities of the argentinean chaco. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . lucero rh, brusés bl, cura ci, formichelli lb, juiz n, fernández gj, et al. chagas’ disease in aboriginal and creole communities from the gran chaco region of argentina: seroprevalence and molecular parasitologi- cal characterization. infect genet evol. ; : – . . moretti e, castro i, franceschi c, basso b. chagas disease: serological and electrocardiographic studies in wichi and creole communities http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis) http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/chagas-disease-(american-trypanosomiasis) page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : of misión nueva pompeya, chaco. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . castro ja, demecca mm, bartel lc. toxic side effects of drugs used to treat chagas’ disease (american trypanosomiasis). hum exp toxicol. ; : – . . coura jr, de castro sl. a critical review on chagas disease chemo- therapy. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . dias jcp. southern cone initiative for the elimination of domestic populations of triatoma infestans and the interruption of transfusional chagas disease. historical aspects, present situation, and perspectives. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; (suppl. ): – . . schofield cj, kabayo jp. trypanosomiasis vector control in africa and latin america. parasite vectors. ; : . . fiusa lj, zuniga c, vera m, salvatella r, fidel sm, enriquez m. situacional de la epidemiología y el control de la enfermedad de chagas en bolivia. gac médica boliv. ; : . . inter-american development bank. bolivian epidemiological shield and support for health-sector reform (bo - ); . http://www.iadb. org/proje ctdoc ument .cfm?id= . accessed apr . . ley . la paz: estado plurinacional de bolivia; . . holveck jc, ehrenberg jp, ault sk, rojas r, vasquez j, cerqueira mt, et al. prevention, control, and elimination of neglected diseases in the americas: pathways to integrated, inter-programmatic, inter-sectoral action for health and development. bmc public health. ; : . . Ávila montes g, martínez hernández m, ponce c, ponce e, soto hernán- dez r. la enfermedad de chagas en la zona central de honduras: cono- cimientos, creencias y prácticas. pan am j public health. ; : – . . cabrera r, mayo c, suárez n, infante c, náquira c, garcía-zapata m. knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning chagas disease in schoolchildren from an endemic area in peru. cad saúde pública. ; : – . . valdez-tah a, huicochea-gómez l, ortega-canto j, nazar-beutel- spacher a, ramsey jm. social representations and practices towards triatomines and chagas disease in calakmul, méxico. plos one. ; :e . . villela mm, pimenta dn, lamounier pa, dias jcp. avaliação de conheci- mentos e práticas que adultos e crianças têm acerca da doença de chagas e seus vetores em região endêmica de minas gerais, brasil. cad saude publica. ; : – . . williams-blangero s, vandeberg jl, teixeira arl. attitudes towards chagas’ disease in an endemic brazilian community. cad saúde pública, rio janeiro. ; : – . . yevstigneyeva v, camara-mejia j, dumonteil e. analysis of children’s perception of triatomine vectors of chagas disease through drawings: opportunities for targeted health education. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . dell’arciprete a, braunstein j, touris c, dinardi g, llovet i, sosa-estani s. cultural barriers to effective communication between indigenous com- munities and health care providers in northern argentina: an anthro- pological contribution to chagas disease prevention and control. int j equity health. ; : . . genero s, nasir j, cayre a, pascual m, gorostegui f, chaparro r, et al. knowledge and attitudes about chagas disease in the population of avia terai, province of chaco. rev argent salud pública. ; : – . . hurtado la, calzada je, pineda v, gonzález k, santamaría am, cáceres l, et al. conocimientos y factores de riesgo relacionados con la enferme- dad de chagas en dos comunidades panameñas donde rhodnius pallescens es el vector principal. biomédica. ; : – . . lópez sm, salomón od. conocimiento, percepción y actitud sobre la enfermedad de chagas en un centro de referencia urbano. rev patol trop. ; : – . . rosecrans k, cruz-martin g, king a, dumonteil e. opportunities for improved chagas disease vector control based on knowledge, atti- tudes and practices of communities in the yucatan peninsula, mexico. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . sanabria rojas ha, guevara saravia m, bianchi vallejos s, vera ortiz g, palomino salcedo g. estudio sobre el vector de la enfermedad de chagas. estudio cualitativo en parcona. universidades. ; . http:// www.redal yc.org/expor tarci ta.oa?id= . accessed may . . sanmartino m. “tener chagas” en contexto urbano: concepciones de varones residentes en la región de la plata (argentina). rev biomed. ; : – . . sanmartino m, crocco l. conocimientos sobre la enfermedad de chagas y factores de riesgo en comunidades epidemiológicamente diferentes de argentina. rev panam salud pública. ; : – . . caballero zamora a, de muynck a. actitudes y creencias de los indios quechuas de la provincia de zudáñez, departamento de chuquisaca, bolivia, frente al vector de la enfermedad del chagas. in: cassab j, noireau f, guillen g, editors. la enfermedad de chagas en bolivia. conocimientos científicos al inicio del programa control ( – ). la paz: ministerio de salud y previsión social; . p. – . . lardeux f, depickère s, aliaga c, chavez t, zambrana l. experimental control of triatoma infestans in poor rural villages of bolivia through community participation. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; : – . . verdú j, ruiz mt. control del chagas en comunidades guaraníes: cono- cimiento y hábitos higiénicos dentro del proyecto de mejoramiento de viviendas en bolivia. gac sanit. ; : – . . manderson l. applying medical anthropology in the control of infec- tious disease. trop med int health. ; : – . . ventura-garcia l, roura m, pell c, posada e, gascón j, aldasoro e, et al. socio-cultural aspects of chagas disease: a systematic review of quali- tative research. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . barrett mp, burchmore rj, stich a, lazzari jo, frasch ac, cazzulo jj, et al. the trypanosomiases. lancet. ; : – . . ribeiro al, nunes mp, teixeira mm, rocha moc. diagnosis and management of chagas disease and cardiomyopathy. nat rev cardiol. ; : – . . brenière sf, bosseno mf, noireau f, yacsik n, liegeard p, aznar c, et al. integrate study of a bolivian population infected by trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of chagas disease. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . chippaux j-p, postigo jr, santalla ja, schneider d, brutus l. epidemio- logical evaluation of chagas disease in a rural area of southern bolivia. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; : – . . gürtler re. sustainability of vector control strategies in the gran chaco region: current challenges and possible approaches. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . ministerio de salud. revista epidemiologica. la paz, bolivia; . https ://www.minsa lud.gob.bo/image s/libro s/epide mio/revis ta-epide miolo gica_opt.pdf. accessed may . . desarrollo económico local en la provincia chiquitos. st edition. santa cruz de la sierra: ceam-cepad; . http://www.dhl.hegoa .ehu.es/ fiche ros/ / /desar rollo _econ%c %b mic o_local _en__chiqu itos.pdf. . estrategia de desarrollo económico local. municipio de san josé. . https ://provi nciac hiqui tos.files .wordp ress.com/ / /estra tegia -de- desar rollo -munic ipio-de-san-jose-de-chiqu itos.pdf. . fabre a. los pueblos del gran chaco y sus lenguas, cuarta parte: los zamuco. suplemento antropológico. ; : – . . roca ortiz i, cutamiño dosapé t, picaneré chiqueno r, nostas ardaya m, sanabria salmón ce, nominé chiqueno t. pigasipiedie ijí yoquijon- ingai. aproximaciones a la situación del derecho a la salud del pueblo ayoreode en bolivia. santa cruz de la sierra, bolivia: apcob, canob; . . brenière sf, aliaga c, waleckx e, buitrago r, salas r, barnabé c, et al. genetic characterization of trypanosoma cruzi dtus in wild triatoma infestans from bolivia: predominance of tci. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . brenière sf, buitrago r, waleckx e, depickère s, sosa v, barnabé c, et al. wild populations of triatoma infestans: compilation of positive sites and comparison of their ecological niche with domestic population niche. acta trop. ; : – . . cortez mr, emperaire l, piccinali r, gürtler re, torrico f, jansen am, et al. sylvatic triatoma infestans (reduviidae, triatominae) in the andean valleys of bolivia. acta trop. ; : – . . cardinal mv, sartor pa, gaspe ms, enriquez gf, colaianni i, gürtler re. high levels of human infection with trypanosoma cruzi associated with the domestic density of infected vectors and hosts in a rural area of northeastern argentina. parasit vectors. ; : . http://www.iadb.org/projectdocument.cfm?id= http://www.iadb.org/projectdocument.cfm?id= http://www.redalyc.org/exportarcita.oa?id= http://www.redalyc.org/exportarcita.oa?id= https://www.minsalud.gob.bo/images/libros/epidemio/revista-epidemiologica_opt.pdf https://www.minsalud.gob.bo/images/libros/epidemio/revista-epidemiologica_opt.pdf https://www.minsalud.gob.bo/images/libros/epidemio/revista-epidemiologica_opt.pdf http://www.dhl.hegoa.ehu.es/ficheros/ / /desarrollo_econ%c %b mico_local_en__chiquitos.pdf http://www.dhl.hegoa.ehu.es/ficheros/ / /desarrollo_econ%c %b mico_local_en__chiquitos.pdf http://www.dhl.hegoa.ehu.es/ficheros/ / /desarrollo_econ%c %b mico_local_en__chiquitos.pdf https://provinciachiquitos.files.wordpress.com/ / /estrategia-de-desarrollo-municipio-de-san-jose-de-chiquitos.pdf https://provinciachiquitos.files.wordpress.com/ / /estrategia-de-desarrollo-municipio-de-san-jose-de-chiquitos.pdf page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : . fernandez ab, nunes mcp, clark eh, samuels a, menacho s, gomez j, et al. electrocardiographic and echocardiographic abnormalities in chagas disease findings in residents of rural bolivian communities hyperendemic for chagas disease. glob heart. ; : – . . noireau f, gutierrez t, flores r, brenière f, bosseno mf, wisnivesky-colli c. ecogenetics of triatoma sordida and triatoma guasayana (hemip- tera : reduviidae) in the bolivian chaco. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . perez e, monje m, chang b, buitrago r, parrado r, barnabé c, et al. predominance of hybrid discrete typing units of trypanosoma cruzi in domestic triatoma infestans from the bolivian gran chaco region. infect genet evol. ; : – . . acosta n, lópez e, lewis md, llewellyn ms, gómez a, román f, et al. hosts and vectors of trypanosoma cruzi discrete typing units in the chagas disease endemic region of the paraguayan chaco. parasitology. ; : – . . noireau f, flores r, gutierrez t, dujardin jp. detection of sylvatic dark morphs of triatoma infestans in the bolivian chaco. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . waleckx e, depickère s, salas r, aliaga c, monje m, calle h, et al. new discoveries of sylvatic triatoma infestans (hemiptera: reduviidae) throughout the bolivian chaco. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . briceño-león r, méndez galván j. the social determinants of chagas disease and the transformations of latin america. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . provecho ym, gaspe ms, del pilar fernández m, enriquez gf, weinberg d, gürtler re. the peri-urban interface and house infestation with triatoma infestans in the argentine chaco: an underreported process? mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; : – . . salas clavijo na, postigo jr, schneider d, santalla ja, brutus l, chippaux jp. prevalence of chagas disease in pregnant women and incidence of congenital transmission in santa cruz de la sierra, bolivia. acta trop. ; : – . . laura sandoval d, zurita añez h. riesgo de transmisión de trypa- nosoma cruzi por medio de triatominos infectados en la localidad de paurito, municipio de cotoca - santa cruz, . univ cienc soc. ; : – . . loza-murguía m, noireau f. vectorial capacity of triatoma guasayana (wygodzinsky & abalos) (hemiptera: reduviidae) compared with two other species of epidemic importance. neotrop entomol. ; : – . . bourdy g, chavez de michel lr, roca-coulthard a. pharmacopoeia in a shamanistic society: the izoceño-guaraní (bolivian chaco). j ethnophar- macol. ; : – . . vandebroek i, thomas e, sanca s, van damme p, van van l, de kimpe n. comparison of health conditions treated with traditional and biomedi- cal health care in a quechua community in rural bolivia. j ethnobiol ethnomed. ; : . . cummings kl, tarleton rl. rapid quantitation of trypanosoma cruzi in host tissue by real-time pcr. mol biochem parasitol. ; : – . . lozada m, ladio ana, weigandt m. cultural transmission of ethnobo- tanical knowledge in a rural community of northwestern patagonia, argentina. econ bot. ; : – . . zarger rk, stepp jr. persistence of botanical knowledge among tzeltal maya children. curr anthropol. ; : – . . lind u. die medizin der ayore-indianer im gran chaco. beiträge zur eth- nomedizin, ethnobotanik und ethnozoologie v. münchen: kommission klaus renner verlag; . . bessire l. ujnarone chosite: ritual poesis, curing chants and becoming ayoreo in the gran chaco. j soc am. ; : – . . forsyth c. controlled but not cured: structural processes and explanatory models of chagas disease in tropical bolivia. soc sci med. ; : – . . bastien j. the kiss of death: chagas’ disease in the americas. salt lake city: the university of utah press; . . arrom c, arrom m, arrom c, rolón m, vega m, rojas de arias a. comportamientos que favorecen la dinámica de reinfestación de triatoma infestans del chaco paraguayo. mem inst investig cienc salud. ; : – . . cecere mc, gürtler re, chuit r, cohen je. effects of chickens on the prevalence of infestation and population density of triatoma infestans in rural houses of north-west argentina. med vet entomol. ; : – . . fabrizio mc, schweigmann nj, bartoloni nj. modelling american trypanosomiasis in an endemic zone: application to the initial spread of household infection in the argentine chaco. zoonoses public health. ; : – . . nouvellet p, dumonteil e, gourbière s. the improbable transmission of trypanosoma cruzi to human: the missing link in the dynamics and control of chagas disease. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . ganley bj, rosario di. the smoking attitudes, knowledge, intent, and behaviors of adolescents and young adults: implications for nursing practice. j nurs educ pract. ; : – . . cerón a, ruano al, sánchez s, chew as, díaz d, hernández a, et al. abuse and discrimination towards indigenous people in public health care facilities: experiences from rural guatemala. int j equity health. ; : . . gamlin jb. shame as a barrier to health seeking among indig- enous huichol migrant labourers: an interpretive approach of the “violence continuum” and “authoritative knowledge”. soc sci med. ; : – . . espinoza n, borrás r, abad-franch f. chagas disease vector control in a hyperendemic setting: the first years of intervention in cocha- bamba, bolivia. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . peralta c. estudio de la mortalidad por chagas. el caso de argentina; . https ://www.acade mia.edu/ /estud io_de_la_morta lidad _por_chaga s._el_caso_de_argen tina._año_ . accessed may . . zarger rk. children’s ethnoecological knowledge: situated learning and the cultural transmission of subsistence knowledge and skills among q’eqchi’ maya. ph.d. thesis, university of georgia, usa; . . hunn es. evidence for the precocious acquisition of plant knowledge by zapotec children. in: stepp jr, wyndham fs, zarger rk, editors. ethnobiology and biocultural diversity. athens: international society of ethnobiology; . p. – . . atran s, sperber d. learning without teaching: its place in culture. in: landsmann lt, editor. culture schooling and psychological development. norwood, nj: ablex; . p. – . http://www.sscne t.ucla.edu/comm/steen /cogwe b/abstr acts/sperb er_atran _ .html. accessed may . . reyes-garcía v, broesch j, calvet-mir l, fuentes-peláez n, mcdade tw, parsa s, et al. cultural transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge and skills: an empirical analysis from an amerindian society. evol hum behav. ; : – . . eyssartier c, ladio ah, lozada m. cultural transmission of traditional knowledge in two populations of north-western patagonia. j ethno- biol ethnomed. ; : . . ghosh sk, patil rr, tiwari s, dash ap. a community-based health edu- cation programme for bio-environmental control of malaria through folk theatre (kalajatha) in rural india. malar j. ; : . . kidd r. popular theatre and nonformal education in the third world: five strands of experience. int rev educ. ; : – . . mbizvo e. essay: theatre—a force for health promotion. lancet. ; (suppl. ): – . . das jk, salam ra, arshad a, maredia h, bhutta za. community based interventions for the prevention and control of non-helmintic ntd. infect dis poverty. ; : . . winch pj, leontsini e, rigau-pérez j, clark gg, gubler dj. community- based dengue prevention programs in puerto rico: impact on knowledge, behavior, and residential mosquito infestation. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . abad-franch f, vega mc, rolón ms, santos ws, de arias ar. commu- nity participation in chagas disease vector surveillance: systematic review. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . cardinal mv, lauricella ma, marcet pl, orozco mm, kitron u, gürtler re. impact of community-based vector control on house infestation and trypanosoma cruzi infection in triatoma infestans, dogs and cats in the argentine chaco. acta trop. ; : – . . de urioste-stone sm, pennington pm, pellecer e, aguilar tm, samayoa g, perdomo hd, et al. development of a community-based intervention for the control of chagas disease based on peridomestic https://www.academia.edu/ /estudio_de_la_mortalidad_por_chagas._el_caso_de_argentina._a%c %b o_ https://www.academia.edu/ /estudio_de_la_mortalidad_por_chagas._el_caso_de_argentina._a%c %b o_ http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/steen/cogweb/abstracts/sperber_atran_ .html http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/comm/steen/cogweb/abstracts/sperber_atran_ .html page of salm and gertsch parasites vectors ( ) : • fast, convenient online submission • thorough peer review by experienced researchers in your field • rapid publication on acceptance • support for research data, including large and complex data types • gold open access which fosters wider collaboration and increased citations maximum visibility for your research: over m website views per year • at bmc, research is always in progress. learn more biomedcentral.com/submissions ready to submit your research ? choose bmc and benefit from: animal management: an eco-bio-social perspective. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; : – . . garcía-zapata mt, marsden pd. chagas’ disease: control and surveil- lance through use of insecticides and community participation in mambaí, goiás, brazil. bull pan am health organ. ; : – . . gürtler r, kitron u, cecere m, segura e, cohen j. sustainable vector control and management of chagas disease in the gran chaco, argentina. proc natl acad sci usa. ; : – . . gürtler re, yadon ze. eco-bio-social research on community-based approaches for chagas disease vector control in latin america. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; : – . . vazquez-prokopec gm, spillmann c, zaidenberg m, kitron u, gürtler re. cost-effectiveness of chagas disease vector control strategies in northwestern argentina. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . cornwall a, jewkes r. what is participatory research? soc sci med. ; : – . . barbu c, dumonteil e, gourbière s. optimization of control strategies for non-domiciliated triatoma dimidiata, chagas disease vector in the yucatán peninsula, mexico. plos negl trop dis. ; :e . . ferral j, chavez-nuñez l, euan-garcia m, ramirez-sierra mj, najera- vazquez mr, dumonteil e. comparative field trial of alternative vector control strategies for non-domiciliated triatoma dimidiata. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . waleckx e, cámara-mejía j, ramírez-sierra mj, cruz-chan v, rosado- vallado m, vázquez-narváez s, et al. una intervención innovadora de ecosalud para el control vectorial de la enfermedad de chagas en yucatán, méxico. rev biomédica. ; : – . . kroeger a, ordoñez-gonzalez j, behrend m, alvarez g. bednet impreg- nation for chagas disease control: a new perspective. trop med int health. ; : – . . kroeger a, villegas e, ordoñez-gonzález j, pabon e, scorza jv. preven- tion of the transmission of chagas’ disease with pyrethroid-impreg- nated materials. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . lucero de, morrissey la, rizzo dm, rodas a, garnica r, stevens l, et al. ecohealth interventions limit triatomine reinfestation follow- ing insecticide spraying in la brea, guatemala. am j trop med hyg. ; : – . . schofield cj, marsden pd. the effect of wall plaster on a domestic pop- ulation of triatoma infestans. bullpan am heal organ. ; : – . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in pub- lished maps and institutional affiliations. 	cultural perception of triatomine bugs and chagas disease in bolivia: a cross-sectional field study 	abstract 	background: 	methods: 	results: 	conclusions: 	background 	methods 	study sites and population groups 	study design and ethnographical data collection 	data analyses 	determination of infection of triatoma vectors by t. cruzi 	results 	general characteristics of informants 	knowledge, experience and perception of cd and its vectors 	naming triatomines: general and vernacular nomenclature 	triatomine knowledge and experience 	perception of vinchucas 	knowledge of cd 	association between triatomine vectors and cd 	infection of vectors with t. cruzi 	discussion 	conclusions 	acknowledgments 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ asmscience | branches: asm activities at the local level toggle navigation toggle navigation more toggle navigation toggle navigation 	 personal account sign-in / register access provided by: carnegie mellon university (# ) asm member status join asm 	 sign-in as administrator 	 	 username: password: sign in need login help? 	 sign out 	 	 www.asm.org 	 membership 	 subscriptions 	 contact us 	 home 	 search/browse selected topics coming soon! concepts/taxonomy search content by concept advanced search advanced search and filter tools 	 journals/magazines open access journals microbiology resource announcements™ journal of microbiology & biology education® mbio® msphere® msystems® subscription journals antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy® applied and environmental microbiology® clinical microbiology reviews® clinical and vaccine immunology® eukaryotic cell® ecosal plus® infection and immunity® journal of bacteriology® journal of clinical microbiology® journal of virology® microbiology and molecular biology reviews® microbiology spectrum molecular and cellular biology® magazines microbe® magazine subscribe to asm journals journal packagesindividual asm journals 	 books 	 reports/guidelines american academy of microbiology colloquia reports faq series education resources laboratory protocols curriculum archive image gallery visual media briefs 	 webinars 	 this periodical all content periodicals books all content advanced search home / periodicals / microbe magazine / volume , issue / article microbe magazine 	 current issue 	 past issues 	 podcasts 	 connect 	 current issue 	 past issues 	 podcasts 	 connect 	 features 	 current topics 	 asm news 	 departments 	 forum january     cover imagecover: closeup of a piece of mimolette cheese. the affinage, or finishing, stage of cheese making involves a whole new set of microbes that determine its final character (see p. ). (photo © plainview/istockphoto.) /docserver/fulltext/microbe/ / /coverfig.gif /docserver/fulltext/microbe/ / /coverfig.gif microbe magazine, cover image cover imagecover: closeup of a piece of mimolette cheese. the affinage, or finishing, stage of cheese making involves a whole new set of microbes that determine its final character (see p. ). (photo © plainview/istockphoto.) full text loading... /deliver/fulltext/microbe/ / /znw .html?itemid=/content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . &mimetype=html&fmt=ahah related content /content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . pub_author -contenttype:journal -contenttype:contributor -contenttype:concept -contenttype:institution related content from pubmed louise temple robyn puffenbarger michael g. schmidt 	 personal account sign-in / register access provided by: carnegie mellon university (# ) asm member status join asm 	 sign-in as administrator 	 username: password: sign in need login help? 	 sign out 	 share tools 	 export citations 	 bibtex 	 endnote 	 zotero 	 plain text 	 refworks 	 mendeley 	 recommend to library these fields are mandatory: * librarian details name: * email: * your details name: * email: * department: * why are you recommending this title? select reason: i need to refer to this publication frequently this publication is an essential resource for my studies/research i'll refer my students to this publication 	 i'm an author/editor/contributor to this publication 	 i'm a member of the publication's editorial board 	 other:   eventtype:personalisation;jsessionid:ck x_ ciyzearnugyeuzqaew.asmlive- - - - ;itemid:http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . ;timestamp: invalid site public key invalid site private key invalid request cookie incorrect. try again. unabled to verify parameters could not contact recaptcha for validation i am not a robot * recommend — recommend this title to your library thank you your recommendation has been sent to your librarian. 	 request permission/order reprints access key 	 free content 	 open access content 	 subscribed content back to top about us 	about asm 	contact us 	terms of use 	privacy policy 	copyright & licenses 	public access policy 	permission & reprints resources 	 for authors 	 for librarians 	 for advertisers 	 for instructors 	 for reviewers 	 for the press publications 	 individual member journal subscriptions 	 journal of microbiology & biology education® 	microbiology spectrum® 	ecosal plus® 	books 	colloquia reports 	faq series 	protocols 	curriculum archive american society for microbiology © this is a required field please enter a valid email address please check the format of the address you have entered. approval was a success invalid data an error occurred approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error correspondence re: the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field to the editor: as a physician who was trained and is licensed in the united states and is also licensed in el salvador and has practiced in mission medicine in rural el salvador for years, i enjoyed dr. ventres’s per- spective on primary care in central america. i concur with that author’s observation that el salvador does a fine job of providing community-level primary health care. community health care promoters are providing outstanding care related to universal vaccinations, prena- tal health care, environmental interventions for out- breaks of dengue fever, and hospital referrals for emer- gencies. being personally acquainted with some of these promoters, i also see the unfortunate side of the efforts to improve health care outcomes: these promoters, them- selves generally from impoverished communities, are fre- quently threatened and sometimes penalized for negative outcomes beyond their control. these rural promoters perceive themselves as being virtually voiceless and pow- erless in a system where the lowest tier of workforce may be easily replaced by others eager for work. however, for the many impoverished people who will die of acute and chronic disease if they are only vacci- nated and given prenatal care, el salvador is providing inadequate health care. our clinic is barraged with pa- tients who left the (free) public health care system be- cause there is no metformin available for diabetes, who continue suffering from a wheezy cough despite having (inappropriately) received amoxicillin, and whose cancers are misdiagnosed and undertreated until treatment is no longer an option. dr. ventres teaches in san salvador; i understand why he doesn’t experience this daily aspect of the grave limitations of the health care system. at the time when el salvador’s care of acute/chronic diseases matches the wisdom and thoroughness of their preven- tion of diseases, we will have a model for the world. jana l. nisly, md amish mennonite aid, santa ana, el salvador erclinicjn@gmail.com reference . ventres wb. the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field. j am board fam med ; : – . doi: . /jabfm. . . response: re: the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field dr. nisly expresses frustrations about her daily work as a mission physician in el salvador and notes several examples of how the health care sys- tem is failing there. she is absolutely correct in noting that the reality of health care in el salvador is far from perfect. i suspect that pretty much the same could be said currently about any system in any place around the world. that such frustrations and realities exist, how- ever, should not blind us to the hope of building more rational systems of health care delivery. efforts to develop community-based, locally ac- cessible primary care services are worthy of sup- port. four years after the first peaceful demo- cratic transfer of power in el salvador’s history, the current ministry of health is slowly making progress on its platform of reform. i applaud it for even trying. more to the point for readers of the journal of the american board of family medicine, every sys- tem of health care around the globe has weak- nesses and strengths. our greatest challenge as practitioners in the global community is to learn both from failures as well as successes— be they “theirs” or “ours”—and to acknowledge them honestly with measures of humility and respect. above all else, that is the take home point from my article and this response. william ventres, md, ma institute for studies in history, anthropology and archeology, university of el salvador san salvador, el salvador wventres@gmail.com doi: . /jabfm. . . re: journal of the american board of family medicine issue on communities of solution to the editor:we appreciated the journal of the american board of family medicine issue (may/june ) dedicated to communities of solution (coss) and believe that this topic enhances meaningful conversation around the role of health care institutions in improving individual and population health. griswold et al highlighted key themes of coss, such as crossing “jurisdictional bound- aries” and community-based initiatives. the rest of the dedicated issue focused on specific examples of coss related to these themes, including ferrer et al’s “ad- vanced” multidisciplinary primary care and garney et al’s health resource centers. these examples are salient, jabfm september–october vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ but as clinicians we found that the articles failed to present a roadmap for describing how providers can break down barriers to intersectoral collaboration from within the health care setting to build coss that address social determinants of health. we identify major chal- lenges to creating such a roadmap: ( ) rigorous research and evaluation; ( ) concrete strategies for dissemination and implementation of coss; and ( ) recommendations for sustainable funding. there is a concerning lack of research about the most effective ways for health care institutions to ad- dress social determinants of health. linkage programs such as those described by ferrer et al and garney et al have for the most part failed to be accompanied by rigorous evaluation to demonstrate health status or utilization outcomes. there is also a lack of evidence about how to build effective coss across sectoral boundaries and a paucity of data about related popu- lation-level outcomes. furthermore, how can practitioners work to develop mod- els that can be implemented, scaled, and disseminated? the health resource centers described by garney et al link the delivery of health care and social services. this intervention reaches individual patients, geographic clinical catchment ar- eas, and public health networks, but it offers insight into only one regional example rather than providing a tool kit that can be used by other regions. garney et al conclude that solutions built and sustained within a cos are most effective. we would emphasize instead that interventions designed in external set- tings are not inauthentic but rather allow each community to base their efforts on an established framework. in fact, we believe that there should be networks in place to bridge learning and improve efficiency across different coss, although there remain questions about what kinds of networks can be used and how recruitment, training, and data platforms can be shared across settings. finally, funding for innovative cos approaches that address social determinants of health in clinical settings is at best insufficient, although new demonstrations of payment reform are being explored in some state medicaid pro- grams. while there are studies suggesting that models for service linkage decrease ultimate health care costs, costs of implementation and concerns about ensuring subsequent reimbursement are major barriers. these barriers are great, but so are the potential benefits of helping providers participate in coss. novel approaches to intersectoral collaboration are currently underway in programs around the country, some of which are described in the may/june issue of the journal. electronic health records and regional information networks provide additional opportunities to facilitate linkages across health and nonhealth set- tings. important next steps include proving that these approaches make a difference in health outcomes for individuals and populations, articulating dissemination plans, and creating sustainable funding strategies. such an approach will help to scale evidence-based cos models to regional and national forums. abby burns, mdc, mswc school of medicine and center for health and community university of california, san francisco management and planning, school of social welfare university of california, berkeley abby.burns@ucsf.edu laura m. gottlieb, md, mph center for health and community department of family and community medicine university of california, san francisco references . griswold k. s, lesko se, westfall jm. communities of solution: partnerships for population health. j am board fam med ; : – . . ferrer rl, gonzalez schlenker c, lozano romero r, et al. advanced primary care in san antonio: linking practice and community strategies to improve health. j am board fam med ; : – . . garney wr, drake k, wendel ml, mcleroy k, clary hr, ryder b. increasing access to care for brazos valley, texas: a rural community of solution. j am board fam med ; : – . doi: . /jabfm. . . response: re: journal of the american board of family medicine issue on communities of solution we appreciate the thoughtful comments of burns and gottlieb and agree with many of their points. throughout our work examining the folsom re- port, we have noted many of the same pitfalls re- garding current fledgling communities of solution (coss): the lack of rigorous research, outcomes data, and nationwide or regional networks. burns and got- tlieb’s cogent suggestions to further the rigor of coss and assess outcomes are critical next steps. health care providers are crucial members in a cos. while some barriers to provider inclusion do exist, providers often choose not to participate be- cause of other pressing work or lack of payment for community-focused work. alternatively, providers do not necessarily have to lead a cos but can join instead as partners. groups may more willingly add providers to their invite lists if the providers are merely one of the stakeholders. the concept of any particular local cos is not always scalable; it may not provide evidence for the same solution in another cos. however, there is a need for a lattice that can connect coss for ideas, support, funding, research. health insurers and hospitals also play an important role in concordance with their mandates for community benefits. funding agencies and foundations could con- sider supporting a national research network to inform the coalition of public health and primary care across correspondence o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ jurisdictions. hopefully future work will feature cos outcomes on population health. sarah e. lesko, md, mph, drlesko@gmail.com kim s. griswold, md, mph john m. westfall, md, mph for the folsom group center for researching health outcomes mercer island, wa references . burns a, gottlieb lm. re: journal of the american board of family medicine issue on communities of solution [letter]. j am board fam med ; : – . . folsom group. communities of solution: the folsom report revisited. ann fam med ; : – . doi: . /jabfm. . . jabfm september–october vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter wednesday, february , a -pos board b cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin- related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission natalia stepanyants, patrick macdonald, rajesh ramachandran. physiology and biophysics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa. cardiolipin (cl) is a unique, dimeric phospholipid essential for mitochondrial dynamics in eukaryotic cells. dynamin-related protein (drp ), a member of the dynamin superfamily of large gtpases, maintains the balance of mitochon- drial division and fusion by rapidly catalyzing mitochondrial fission. although recent studies have indicated a role for cl in stimulating drp self-assembly as well as gtpase activity on the mitochondrial surface, the exact mechanism by which cl functions in membrane fission remains unclear. here we use a variety of fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging approaches, together with model membranes, to demonstrate that drp and cl function cooperatively in effect- ing membrane fission in three distinct steps: (i) drp ’s preferential association with unconstrained, fluid-phase cl molecules located at a high spatial density in the membrane bilayer, (ii) cl’s reorganization in concert with drp self- assembly, and (iii) cl’s rapid phase transition from a lamellar, bilayer structure to an inverted hexagonal, non-bilayer configuration in the presence of drp and gtp, resulting in the creation of localized membrane constrictions that are primed for fission. we propose that drp thus catalyzes mitochondrial division. -pos board b vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin- sensitive channels oscar teijido hermida , adam j. kuszak , susan k. buchanan , sergey m. bezrukov , tatiana k. rostovtseva . program on physical biology, nichd, nichd, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, program on physical biology, nichd, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa. the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac) forms the major pathway for metabolites across the mitochondrial outer membrane (mom). mammalian mitochondria have three isoforms of this protein: vdac , vdac , and vdac which may play different roles in the regulation of mitochondrial func- tions. vdac is the most studied isoform, since it is the major protein of the mom in most cells, followed by vdac . both, vdac and vdac recon- stituted into planar membranes form voltage-dependent anion-selective chan- nels whose conductance is modulated by dimeric tubulin. as counterpart, the poor channel-forming ability of vdac together with its low proficiency in restoring normal growth in pore-less yeast led to hypothesize that this isoform does not form channels and could be just a modulator of the other two isoforms. we developed an improved protocol of purification and refolding of mouse re- combinant vdac that allowed us to fully characterize channels formed by vdac reconstituted in planar lipid membranes and to compare its channel properties with those of vdac and vdac . we observed the typical vdac channel behavior of vdac , such as high conductive open state ( . - . ns in m kcl) and multiple low conductive states at potentials r mv, selectivity for anions with pcl -/pk þ¼ . , and typical voltage- gating. this suggests a structural homology of vdac with the other two iso- forms. interestingly, the most distinct characteristic of vdac is its signifi- cantly lower sensitivity to the blockage by tubulin, which would lead to an increased permeability of this channel to atp and other metabolites. this might explain why the down-regulation of vdac expression among the three vdac isoforms in some cancer cells causes the most drastic decrease in their mitochondrial membrane potential, or why vdac is predominantly ex- pressed in the short-term high energy demanding cells, such as spermatozoa. -pos board b channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential victor v. lemeshko. escuela de fisica, universidad nacional de colombia, medellin, colombia. mitochondria are the main source of energy in eukaryotic non-proliferating aer- obic cells. in cancer cells, significant part of the energy metabolism is sup- ported by the aerobic glycolysis. oxidative phosphorylation metabolites cross the mitochondrial outer membrane through the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac). the possibility of the voltage-gating functioning of vdac under physiological conditions and proposed mechanisms of generation of the outer membrane potential (omp) require further study. in this work, we present a computational thermodynamic analysis of a possible generation of omp by the creatine kinase(ck)-vdac and vdac-hexokinase(hk) com- plexes, as well as by their intermembrane complexes with the adenine nucleo- tide translocator (ant). the ck-vdac and vdac-hk complexes function as direct steady-state voltage generators, using the free energy of kinase reac- tions, while the ant-ck-vdac and ant-vdac-hk complexes allow the application of a part of the sum of the corresponding ‘‘kinase voltage’’ and the inner membrane potential to the outer membrane. the developed computa- tional models demonstrate a high probability of generation of the metabolically-dependent omp with magnitudes high enough to close free vdacs. we suggest that in case of cardiac cells, the ck-vdac-mediated channeling of mitochondrial energy, earlier postulated by saks and wallimann, leads to the metabolically-dependent generation of a high omp during systole, thus causing electrical closure of free vdacs and essentially avoiding the mitochondrial atp usage by non-contraction system consumers. in case of cancer cells, that have a very high percentage of hexokinase attached to mito- chondria, the electrical closure of free vdacs by omp allows the preferential vdac-hk-mediated channeling of the mitochondrial atp to initiate the aer- obic glycolysis by an anti-turbo mode. (research grants # and # , colciencias). -pos board b alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease philip a. gurnev , , tatiana k. rostovtseva , david p. hoogerheide , , olga protchenko , thai leong yap , jennifer c. lee , sergey m. bezrukov . physics department, umass-amherst, amherst, ma, usa, section on molecular transport, ppb/nichd/nih, bethesda, md, usa, center for neutron research, nist, gaithersburg, md, usa, liver diseases branch, niddk/nih, bethesda, md, usa, laboratory of protein conformation and dynamics, nhlbi/nih, bethesda, md, usa. alpha-synuclein (a-syn), an intrinsically disordered neuronal protein, is impli- cated in the etiology of parkinson disease (pd) and a number of other neurode- generative dementias. though recent research demonstrates the involvement of a-syn in a variety of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration, the mo- lecular mechanism of a-syn toxicity and its effect on neuronal mitochondria remain vague. we demonstrate a functional interaction between a-syn and the voltage-dependent anion channel (vdac), the major conduit for atp and other bioenergetics metabolites in the mitochondrial outer membrane. we found that at nanomolar concentrations, the full-length a-syn, its amino acid c-terminal truncated mutant, as well as b- and a-synuclein isoforms induce reversible and highly voltage-dependent blockage of vdac reconsti- tuted into planar lipid bilayers. binding parameters varied with each isoform, revealing the key role of the negatively charged c-terminal of synucleins in blocking a positively charged pore of vdac. synuclein-blocked states of vdac differ in ionic selectivity, implying the existence of several conforma- tion states of synuclein molecules in the channel pore. we propose a model of a-syn interaction with vdac, in which the negatively charged c-terminus of a-syn enters the net-positive channel pore, providing a steric block for atp flux. experiments with a yeast strain deficient in vdac demonstrate that a-syn toxicity in yeast depends on vdac, revealing a-syn interaction with the channel in living cells. thus, our findings show the long-sought physiolog- ical and pathophysiological roles for monomeric a-syn, which reconcile previ- ous observations of various synuclein effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics. -pos board b mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter meagan mcmanus , martin picard , alessia angelin , prasanth potluri , jagat narula , douglas wallace . chop/upenn, philadelphia,, pa, usa, mt sinai, new york, ny, usa. cardiac conduction defects and cardiomyopathy are commonly reported in pa- tients with inborn errors of metabolism harboring pathogenic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear dna (mtdna and ndna, respectively). we hypothesized that the pathophysiology of inborn errors of metabolism varies due to synergistic heterozygosity between the two genomes. we examined a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy due a mutation in the adenine nucleotide translocator- (ant ). substantial variability in the progression of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and the severity of cardiomyopathy correlated with the mtdna haplogroups (strauss, et al ). to determine the causative nature of this correlation, we examined the influence of inherited mtdna mutations on ant - cardiomyopathy in the mouse. we introduced homoplasmic mtdna nd or coi missense mutations into the mouse female germ line, generating mice with complex i or iv deficiency, respectively, and analyzed ant -dependent cardiomyopathy on the different mtdna backgrounds. on wt mtdna back- ground, the ant -/- mice developed a distinctive concentric dilated cardiomy- opathy, characterized by substantial myocardial hypertrophy and ventricular dilation. both coi and nd mtdna mutations accelerated ant -/- age- dependent cardiomyopathy, as evidenced by ultrastructrural abnormalities, bio- energetic defects, mtros production, sensitized mitochondrial permeability transition, increased mtdna damage, and heart failure, which ultimately a wednesday, february , attenuated the lifespan of ant -deficient mice. our results prove mtdna dic- tates the penetrance of age-related cardiomyopathy and mammalian lifespan. therefore, therapeutics that most effectively preserve mitochondrial dna and bioenergetics will provide the most promise for healthy aging. -pos board b activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore leads to the increase in amount of c-subunit of atp synthase associated with channel- forming complex of polyhydroxybutyrate and inorganic polyphosphate pia a. elustondo , alexander negoda , alejandro m. cohen , evgeny pavlov . physiology and biophysics, dalhousie university, halifax, ns, canada, department of basic sciences, college of dentistry, new york universty, new york, ny, usa. low permeability of the mitochondrial inner membrane is critical for maintain- ing the mitochondrial electrochemical potential - the driving force for atp pro- duction. acute stress conditions, lead to the increase in the mitochondrial inner membrane permeability due to the opening of the permeability transition pore (ptp). ptp allows free movement of ions and small molecules leading to mito- chondrial depolarization, atp depletion and cell death. recent studies suggest that c-subunit of the mitochondrial atp synthase plays a central role in ptp. previous work in our laboratory showed that mitochondria contain non-protein complex composed of polyhydroxybutyrate, inorganic polyphosphate and cal- cium that forms an ion channel with properties resembling ptp. here we explore the possibility of interactions between these non-protein components and c-subunit during the induction of ptp. to induce ptp,isolated energized mitochondria were treated with calcium. control mitochondria were treated with calcium either in the presence of ruthe- nium red, inhibitor of calcium uptake or cyclosporin a, inhibitor of ptp. this was followed by a water-free chloroform extraction of channel forming fraction of ptp. components of the extract were analyzed using immunoblot analysis. we found significantly increased amount of c-subunit associated with channel forming fraction extracted from mitochondria with activated ptp. in contrast, c-subunit was not detectable in the extract when ruthenium red was present and significantly decreased in the presence of cyclosporin a or in the absence of calcium. these results show that c-subunit is likely an interacting partner of the pore- forming complex of polyphosphate, calcium and polyhydroxybutyrate. we hy- pothesize that fully functional ptp requires calcium-induced formation of the pore made of both the complexed polymers and the c-subunit of atp synthase -pos board b small-molecule pkd inhibitor prevents mitochondrial fragmentation and dysfunction during gq-protein coupled receptor stimulation in car- diac cells bong sook jhun, xiaole xu, jyotsna mishra, stephen hurst, jin o-uchi, shey-shing sheu. thomas jefferson university, philadelphia, pa, usa. regulation of mitochondrial morphology and dynamics is crucial for the main- tenance of various cellular functions in cardiomyocytes. abnormal mito- chondrial morphologies concomitant with mitochondrial dysfunction are frequently observed both in human heart failure (hf) and in animal hf models. however, it is still unclear which cardiac signaling pathways regulate mitochon- drial morphology and function under pathophysiological conditions. recent reports suggest that gq-protein coupled receptor (gqpcr) signaling pathways are critical for the development and progression of hf. therefore, we hypoth- esize that gqpcr stimulation induces mitochondrial fragmentation and dysfunc- tion, which initiates cardiomyocyte death. we found that protein kinase d (pkd) activated by gqpcr signaling was translocated to outer mitochondrial membrane (omm) observed by western blot analysis of cytosolic and mitochondria-enriched fractionated proteins and by live cell imaging of fluores- cence resonance energy transfer (fret). we also found that gqpcr-mediated pkd activation induced mitochondrial fragmentation, leading to increased reactive oxygen species (ros) generation as well as increased mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mptp) opening, which initiates apoptotic signaling activation and cardiomyocyte death. these morphological and func- tional changes in cardiac mitochondria were mediated via pkd-dependent phos- phorylation of mitochondrial fission protein, dynamin-like protein (dlp ) at s . moreover, pretreatment with a novel potent pkd inhibitor crt effectively inhibited gqpcr-mediated pkd translocation to omm, dlp phosphorylation at s , mitochondrial fragmentation, ros generation and mptp activation. in conclusion, we demonstrate that gqpcr stimulation induces mitochondrial fragmentation and dysfunction through pkd-dependent phosphorylation of dlp at s , which likely contributes to cardiomyocyte injury. thus, small-molecule pkd inhibitor may become a novel and potent therapeutic for preventing cardiac cell injury and death during hf. -pos board b epr data support the existence of a symmetric bh -in-groove homo- dimer in oligomeric bak tirtha mandal, kyoung joon oh. biochemistry and molecular biology, rosalind franklin university of medicine and science, north chicago, il, usa. the bax or bak oligomeric pore formation in the mitochondrialouter membrane isacriticalstepinapoptosis,yettheirstructuresarenotclearlyunderstood.czabotar et al. (cell , , ) reported a crystal structure of a water-soluble tetramer of the bax fragment (helices a -a ) fused to the green-fluorescent protein (gfp), inwhichthea -a extendedhelicesandthea helix,respectively,werejuxtaposed to each other, in an anti-parallel orientation, forming a symmetric ‘‘bh -in-groove homodimer (bgh).’’ we have constructed a gfp-bak fusion protein using the a -a helices of mouse bak, designated as gfp-baka -a , which also forms a soluble tetramer. to determine whether the bgh exists in the bak oligomers in the membrane or not, we spin labeled the c-terminal hexahistidine-tagged solu- ble form of mouse bak (helices a -a ) at residues , , and and the corresponding residues in gfp-baka -a . we then compared the continuous wave (cw) epr spectra of the spin-labeled residues from the tetrameric gfp- baka -a with those from the oligomeric bak in membrane. spin labeled resi- due r , located in the loop interconnecting helices a and a in the homology model of the gfp-baka -a tetramer, displayed a mobile lineshape. the corre- sponding residue in the oligomeric bak also had a remarkably similar lineshape, indicating that the two residues are in similar structural environments. residues r , r and r , located at the anti-parallel helical interfaces in the bgh also had remarkably similar immobile lineshapes both in the gfp-baka - a tetramer and in the oligomeric bak in membrane, further strengthening the above conclusion. the intra-dimer distances between r spin label pairs in the gfp-baka -a and the oligomeric bak, determined by the double electron electron resonance (deer) method, also support this interpretation. -pos board b modulation of membrane interactions of anti-apoptotic regulator bcl-xl by lipids mauricio vargas-uribe, mykola v. rodnin, alexey s. ladokhin. biochemistry and molecular biology, kumc, kansas city, ks, usa. the bcl- family of proteins (e.g., pro-apoptotic bax and anti-apoptotic bcl-xl) regulates the mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization during the early stages of apoptosis. the prevalent embedded together model of bcl- action suggests that the membrane environment is critical for their proper functional interactions, consistent with the increasing evidence of lipids being involved in the regulation of apoptotic response. in this study, we apply a collection of fluorescence-based methods to investigate the effect of various lipids on the ph-triggeredmembraneinteractionsofbcl-xl.theinitialmembraneassociation was studied using a fret assay with donor-labeled bcl-xl and acceptor-labeled vesicles, while the insertion/refolding of bcl-xl into the membrane was moni- toredusingtheenvironment-sensitive probenbdselectivelyattachedinthemid- dle of hydrophobic helix a . our results demonstrate that the lipid composition affects the ph-dependence of both initial membrane association and subsequent insertion/refolding of bcl-xl. we found that a linear correlation exists between the membrane surface potential created by anionic lipids and the pka of mem- brane binding, suggesting that the initial step is controlled by an electrostatic mechanism. the effect of lipids on the membrane insertion/refolding step is more complex and appears to be influenced by the size of the lipid headgroup. thekinetics ofboth themembrane associationandmembrane insertion/refolding is affected by the presence of non-bilayer forming lipids commonly found in mitochondria. while the presence of phosphatidylethanolamine accelerated the process, addition of lysophosphatidylcholine had the opposite effect, suggesting that mechanical properties of the bilayer also play a role. taken together our results indicate that lipids can modulate the membrane interactions of bcl-xl in multiple ways, providing an additional regulatory mechanism that ensures proper control of a complex cascade of apoptotic reactions leading to cell death or survival. nihgm- , fulbright-conicyt, brtp. -pos board b binding of pro-apoptotic protein bax to cytoprotective udca and tudca tânia sousa , ana coutinho , soojay banerjee , rui castro , richard youle , cecı́lia rodrigues , manuel prieto , fábio fernandes . centro de quı́mica-fı́sica molecular and institute of nanoscience and nanotechnology, instituto superior tecnico, universidade de lisboa, lisbon, portugal, dep. quı́mica e bioquı́mica, faculdade de ciências da universidade de lisboa, ins, lisbon, portugal, ninds, national institutes of health, bethesda, md, usa, faculdade de farmácia da universidade de lisboa, lisbon, portugal. hydrophobic bile acids, such as deoxycholic acid (dca), strongly induce apoptosis in both hepatic and non-hepatic cells while hydrophilic bile acids, 	cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission 	vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels 	channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential 	alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease 	mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter 	activation of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore leads to the increase in amount of c-subunit of atp synthase a ... 	small-molecule pkd inhibitor prevents mitochondrial fragmentation and dysfunction during gq-protein coupled receptor stimul ... 	epr data support the existence of a symmetric bh -in-groove homodimer in oligomeric bak 	modulation of membrane interactions of anti-apoptotic regulator bcl-xl by lipids 	binding of pro-apoptotic protein bax to cytoprotective udca and tudca chh volume issue back matter early american methodism russell e. richey offering a revisionist reading of american methodism, richey suggests a new approach to the examination of denominations. focusing on the evangelical vernacular language of the early ( - ) methodist church, he reconsiders important interpretive issues in american religious historiography and the study of methodism. religion in north america cloth $ . from sin to salvation stories of women's conversions, to the present virginia lieson brereton by examining women's conversion experiences, the author provides a corrective to the much popularized tv evangelism. she examines the stories u.s. women have told of their profound realization of their sinfulness and the necessity of turning to god's grace and love for forgiveness, cloth $ . paper $ . now in paperback! salvation and suicide an interpretation of jim jones, the peoples temple, and jonestown david chidester "(this) ambitious and courageous book . .. offers an important benchmark of theology by which questions about the meaningful history of the peoples temple may be measured." —journai of the american academy of religion "an impressive tour de force." —religious studies review religion in north america paper $ . cloth $ . a new journal from indiana: religion and american culture a journal of interpretation edited by conrad cherry, rowland a. sherrill, and jan shipps religion and american culture explores the interplay between religion and other spheres of american culture. the journal embraces a diversity of methodo- logical approaches and theoretical ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ perspectives. although concentrated on specific topics, articles illuminate larger patterns, implications, or contexts of american life. published two times per year. subscriptions: individuals $ . , institutions $ . indiana university press n. morton street, bloomington, in orders: - - - cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core prizes of the american society of church history the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize the brewer prize is a subsidy of $ to assist the author in publishing a booklength manuscript in church history. the winning manuscript shall be published in a manner acceptable to the society. manuscripts accepted for publication may be submitted for this award, but the winning manuscript must have printed on its title-page, "the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize essay of the american society of church history." if competing works are otherwise of equal quality, preference will be given to topics relating to the history of congregationalism. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by november each year, with return postage included. the award will be announced at the spring meeting of the society. the philip schaff prize the schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ to be paid to the author of the best book originating in the north american scholarly community which presents original research in the history of christianity or any period thereof. books considered for the next award must have been published during the year or . any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration for the schaff prize. copies of books nominated do not have to be submitted. titles nominated for consideration must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by march . the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december . the sidney e. mead prize the mead prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent recipient whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to stephen j. stein, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, e. maxwell lane, bloomington, in , by july each year. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core john smyth's congregation: english separatism, mennonite influence, and the elect nation to escape harsh new measures by king james i enforcing conformity in the state church of england, a group of puritans separated from the church for reasons of conscience and fled to amsterdam under the leadership of john smyth. there was division in the group and one faction, led by john smyth, united with the mennonites, pursuing a vision of a peaceful international community. this union exacerbated divisions among the mennonites and led to the breakup of the mennonite alliance known as the "pacified brotherhood." james r. coggins analyzes the story of smyth's congregation as it wrestled with great theological questions of church and state, separation from the world, church polity, the role of women in the church, the meaning of the incarnation, the sovereignty of god alongside the free will of human beings, and the relationship of salvation, regeneration, and justification. volume in the studies in anabaptist and mennonite history series. hard, $ . ; in canada $ . herald press books are available through your local bookstore or write to herald press. please include % for shipping. canadian customers, add % of total for gst. herald press dept. jch walnut avenue scottdale, pa - herald press dept. jch dutton drive waterloo, on n l h cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history the outler prize was established to encourage the critical study of ecumenical church history, broadly conceived, and to facilitate the publication of such studies. "ecumenical" is to be construed as chiefly concerned with the problems of christian unity-and-disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) in any period of church history; or with interactions between christianity and other religious movements. works of a partisan nature are excluded. the following categories are eligible: a. studies, chiefly narrative and critical, of ecumenical church history dealing with historical controversies and divisions, or with notable instances of reconciliation and consensus. b. analyses of church councils, dialogues, and debates, or interactions between christianity and other religious traditions. c. biographical studies of significant leaders, or of persons whose involvement in ecumenical dialogue and action was noteworthy. d. critical editions (preferably annotated) of significant ecumenical documents. e. bibliographical reviews and evaluations in major areas of ecumenical church history. f. pioneering studies that advance scholarly knowledge and ecumenical understanding. the prize consists of an award of $ to the author and a possible grant of up to $ for publication (or in exceptional cases, for necessary expenses in the preparation of a book-length manu- script accepted for publication). the prize will be awarded annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by june. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. the jame dempsey douglass prize the douglass prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay on some aspect of the role of women in the history of christianity. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to stephen j. stein, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, e. maxwell lane, bloomington, in , by august each year beginning in . no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core american society of church history membership information the american society of church history was founded in by philip schaff and a group of colleagues. it is affiliated with the american historical association. its purpose is to foster interest in the history of christianity, and its interrelationship with its cultural context by encouraging research, writ- ing, and teaching in this discipline. the membership of the society consists of scholars, men and women, the majority of whom serve on faculties of colleges, universities, and seminaries. others are archivists, clergy members, professional writers, and students, or simply those who have a serious interest in church history. the society is ecumenical in character, comprising members of various religious persua- sions. in addition to church history, a journal published quarterly, the society holds an annual meeting in conjunction with the american historical associ- ation and a spring meeting on the campus of a host institution. the meeting programs and the journal provide opportunities for exploring a wide variety of subjects and the exchange of thought. membership dues entitle one to receive the journal, with its informative articles and large book review section, and attend the meetings of the society. in order to interest younger scholars, particularly those of ethnic minori- ties, in the work of the society, the council has voted to offer a dues-free membership (up to two years) to all graduate students working in the area of church history at an accredited institution upon the approval of a professor who is also a member of the society. application for membership american society of church history name: address present last first : street institutional affiliation/last de; middle city *ree earned—when and (title) state where zip signature professor's signature (if graduate student) annual dues are $ . , plus $ . foreign postage, including canada. graduate students working in the area of church history with the approval and verification of a professor who is also a member of the society may join without paying a fee. persons who have been members of the society for at least five years and are now retired from professional life may continue membership at $ . per year. membership in the society includes a subscription to church history. the council approves applications at its semiannual meetings. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core now available church history index, - (volume ) includes index of all articles by author, title, and subject and all book reviews by title, author index, and reviewer which were published in church history from - pages $ . (including postage) a limited number of previously published volumes of the church history index are still available at $ . each including postage: ..volumoa, cq pg§€ volume , - — pages requests for copies, with covering remittance, should be forwarded to: william b. miller, secretary american society of church history deland avenue indialantic, florida cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the religion of the heart "better than any other source i know of, it brings together strands of a widespread european movement that helped set the agenda that shaped many american religious patterns." —george marsden, duke divinity school "this is a readable, insightful and well-documented analysis of a huge historical phenomenon . . ." —lawrence a. hoffman, hebrew union college- jewish institute of religion cloth, isbn - - - , $ . ted a. campbell is assistant professor of church history at duke divinity school. university of south carolina press women's studies in religion a master's degree program • active feminist community • interdisciplinary emphasis • extensive selection of courses • intense faculty-student cooperation for more information, contact: professor karen torjesen, director women's studies in religion program the claremont graduate school n. dartmouth avenue claremont, ca telephone: ( ) - , ext. • highly regarded faculty • can serve as the foundation for the internationally- recognized claremont graduate school ph.d. program in religion the claremont i wjk graduate efschool cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core (rgn£ joneswalt this study of protestant missionary activity compares the approach and success of several protestant denominations in new mexico after it became a territory in . cloth: - - - $ . at bookstores, or call ( ) - university of new mexico press albuquerque, new mexico - cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core uttiicrmtttci) church-state relations in america, - robert t. handy in the middle of the nineteenth century, a stable relationship between american religious organizations and the state was taken for granted. here a preeminent scholar of american religious history shows what happened when that settled relationship was challenged. the decades from to were marked by an unprecedented influx of immigrants, increasing conflicts between public and private school systems, excitement over imperialism, the growth of progressivism in politics, the rise of the social gospel, and the impact of world war i. providing an overview of how these developments affected church-state relationships, robert handy's work is fascinating as a view of this period and as a clue to the tensions in american church-state relations today. studies in church and state; john f. wilson, editor cloth: $ . isbn - - - princeton university press william st. • princeton, nj • ( ) - orders: -prs-isbn ( - ) • or from your local bookstore • call for papers the annual meeting of the american society of church history will be held in washington, d.c., december - . the program committee welcomes proposals for antiro ooooioos?* individual papers^-or- panel£~"each proposal must include an abstract and a curriculum vitae. please send proposals to professor george marsden, the divinity school, duke university, durham, nc . the dead- line for submission is february . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core none cover godly republic a centrist blueprint for america's faith-based future john j. diiulio, jr. a former white house official explodes ten polarizing myths about religion and government in america today "dilulio rejects the kind of evangelical triumphalism that declares america to be a christian nation, even as he turns from that secularity which leares no room for religion in the pyfcfic sector. writing in a lucid style, h i shows how religion and government can maintain legal relationship needs r campolo the search for meaning a short history dennis ford "around its centerpiece—meaning—this book weaves a tapestry so encompassing, so intriguingly beautiful, i am stunned by its accomplishment. ford approaches this many angles, touching istorical, spiritual ernes." on smith, author of world's religions of the greate: wildavsky ft s s a l f p thfwewfa social engage donald e. tetsunao includes a c "wri with vid an n co-|uthorof h&m* sacred at bookstores or order ( ) - • www.ucpres .edu p r e s s terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www.ucpres .edu https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core '••-- ^ $ s i k *^w ,# ^ "baker has long specialized in sports. in this worthy addition to his works, he again considers sports in america, this time studying the mutual influence of sports and religion...well written and highly informative." —james f. deroche, library journal "that old quarterback bill baker, once the passing preacher, plays with the old question, is sports america's true religion?, then scores with this readable and fascinating study of their interlocking history." —robert lipsyte, former new york times sports columnist harvard university press terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core spending to religion ^ : ^ ^ - -- --v. mm **w*-l."-̂ j r • ••;;• ; "cfcfgi&ijr tetyt&f&wd ike sways i tw& p&yskal affliction.. i k§a!ifc.,cttrtts encour- iwjmrt^'ts^ theological, p&iees that come into i; aw purpose of • •?*£?•:iu- •-.vr-v.r *.-••• . ' •-. <u»d^vetwss,lb*d the • - tî jettgcics'of gtgtary influence." —john^on%^>,'!llfflada state university mennonites, amish, and the american civil war james o. lehman and steven m. nolt "a well researched and carefully argued treatment that reminds us that not all churches fell into lockstep support for either the union or the confederacy." —george c. rable, university of alabama, author of fredericksburg! fredericksburg * '•.•"..; ( enter books in anabaptist and pietist studies: i >•••:.,:'.•' li. kraybill, series editor i l j s hardcover american catholics in the protestant imagination rethinking the academic study of religion michael p. carroll "carroll's challenge to the 'protestant degradation narrative' is creative, credible, and one that is long overdue. carroll is insight- ful in illuminating discrepancies between actual historical fact and (protestant) theological assumptions in regard to both the definition and understanding of god and that of religion." —william d. dinges, catholic university of america $ . hardcover v the johns hopkins university press - - - • www.press.jhu.edu terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www.press.jhu.edu https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core aw * « > . * • • ; .«*. * . : ^«.." *&'.- *^:. - i , , - i ; - k ^ « terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core c o m m e n t a r y culture, race, and hierarchy mary-jo delvecchio good published online: april � springer science+business media new york i read these essays with immense appreciation for the creative construction of reflective analyses, elaborated through conversation between ethnographers and academic physicians, as designed and realized by the special issue’s editors, elizabeth carpenter-song and sarah willen, and their collaborating authors. i also appreciate the authors’ frankness in critical reflection, exposing, and puzzling over the conflicts and ‘‘pitfalls’’ in the pedagogical interventions discussed and their rise to the challenge set by willen, drawing on george devereux, to ‘‘lift the hood.’’ i approach my commentary having spent decades studying the culture of medicine in its many guises, at times through observations and surveys but mostly through conversations with physicians across the globe from highly diverse institutional and societal settings. i have published with some of these physicians representing a conversation internal to our projects, most recently in shattering culture, american medicine responds to cultural diversity (good et al. b), for which willen and hannah are contributors and co-editors and bullon and carpenter-song contributors. i have often engaged collaborating physicians who were also subjects of my research in jointly authored essays, for instance on psychiatry, oncology, end-of-life research primary care, hiv in africa, maternal and child health, global health, and medical education. a few examples of essays in which i drew in my clinician collaborator-subjects as co-authors include ‘‘american oncology and the discourse on hope’’ ( ); ‘‘oncology and narrative time’’ ( ); ‘‘conversations with oncologists’’ ( ); ‘‘clinical realities and moral dilemmas’’ ( ); ‘‘physicians narratives at the end of life’’ ( ); ‘‘the culture of medicine and disparities in healthcare by race, ethnicity and social class’’ ( , ); and ‘‘communi- cation barriers among physicians in care at the end of life’’ ( ). as primary author, my voice most often dominated as i wove the clinicians’ voices into the text. what is refreshing and unique in this issue of culture, medicine, and psychiatry are m.-j. d. good (&) department of global health and social medicine, harvard medical school, boston, ma, usa e-mail: maryjo_good@hms.harvard.edu cult med psychiatry ( ) : – doi . /s - - - the critical conversations, as well as reflective analyses on pedagogical projects, that are carried on not through jointly authored essays, but rather via independent contributions in which disciplinary voices speak to each other through the volume’s structure of paired essays. as readers, we too can engage in an expansive discourse across the disciplinary and positional divide as we interpret the emergent links within each pair of positional essays. thus, we come to a dominant theme throughout: the often unexplicated ‘‘under the hood’’ or silent discourse on race, hierarchy, and privilege, and the pedagogical difficulties in addressing these issues directly in medical educational settings. pair one: teaching cultural sensitivity or cultural competence sarah willen and antonio bullon set the pace with their paired essays on an ethnographic study that began with willen’s observations of a required cultural sensitivity course for a (highly multicultural) group of psychiatry residents in which she not only attended the course sessions, but also interviewed at length the residents and the two faculty psychiatrists who were its committed teachers. in puzzling over the course’s limitations with residents and faculty (willen et al. ), she was drawn to george devereux’s warning that, as she puts it, ‘‘if unacknowledged, unspoken and unconscious influences have the capacity to torpedo interaction.’’ this warning helps her make sense of the strong emotional reactions of residents, including one who claimed the course each week would open ‘‘a big huge gaping wound.’’ in framing the residents’ reactions through a lens of transference and counter-transference, willen links the ‘‘gaping wound’’ imagery to the awkwardness of race talk that invades social spaces in american society. is the awkwardness perhaps related to the exceptional diversity among participants? emotions exploded in particular in a session led by an african-american psychiatrist, who presented four cases that illustrated the depth of american racism and ‘‘horrendous health disparities’’ of those not ‘‘relatively privileged.’’ willen ends with reflections on key recommendations drawn from residents: ‘‘safe spaces,’’ collegial experiential learning, robust and nuanced concepts of culture, and avoidance by faculty of assumptions about residents and their cultural interest and knowledge. i ask: what is a safe space in today’s american health care institutions? personally, the residents’ comments amuse me since they echo those of psychiatry residents and medical students from a much earlier era at the university of california, davis in the late s and early s, where i was at times forced to teach dreaded courses on race and ethnicity along with an anthropologist (my midwestern mennonite husband) and a male psychiatrist (who was mexican-italian- american but could barely speak a word of spanish). only when we devised courses in collaboration with medical students, psychology graduate students, and psychiatry and family medicine residents did i feel some satisfaction with the pedagogical experience and ‘‘safe’’ from derision. my recommendation for all medical education on culture is make it collaborative and seductively elective! antonio bullon’s response to sarah willen’s paper is remarkable for its frank honesty and personal insight. upon moving from peru to the u.s. for residency cult med psychiatry ( ) : – training, bullon became a ‘‘designated minority’’ and ‘‘the other’’ which intrigued him, and as a social justice activist and new graduate from psychiatry residency, he was asked to teach a ‘‘culture course’’ in partnership with two colleagues who were also recent residency graduates and social activists with college educations in the humanities. bullon describes how after putting together ‘‘the course of their dreams’’ they would have liked to have had as residents, they were dismayed by ‘‘the lukewarm responses of many residents year after year.’’ although bullon looks for sources of difficulty and suggests ways such a course might be improved to make it more relevant to residents’ immediate concerns, the three faculty members were influenced by the civil rights era and perspectives on social justice and were ‘‘very different from the generation of young physicians we were training.’’ although trained to de-escalate angry patients, he writes, ‘‘we had no models in how to defuse tension between doctors after a heated discussion about race and privilege.’’ i empathize with his argument for training in conflict resolution and negotiation skills as i reflect on my own past experiences. however, i disagree with his recommendations that older clinicians should teach such a course and that experience is the solution, as i recall years of observing and being engaged in the missteps of clinical and social science faculty, young and old, who end up having to teach cultural competence courses. the authors of these paired essays lead us to ask if it is not precisely the heated debates, transferences, and counter transferences generating emotional distress and anxiety that should be the essence of such courses, in which part of learning about ‘‘culture and race and privilege’’ involves speaking about that which is normally unvoiced and sometimes arguing very loudly about it. is learning space not safe space but rather anxious space and at times hot space? can one tolerate this heat while erasing negative consequences of the hierarchy of power? might not managing relationships with fellow residents who intensely and emotionally disagree and experience ‘‘cultural sensitivity cases’’ differently simply be part of learning to be a culturally competent psychiatrist in american society? pair two: residency research training collaboration the next pair of essays, carpenter-song and whitley’s ‘‘behind the scenes of a research and training collaboration: power, privilege, and the hidden transcript of race’’ and malik’s ‘‘a collaboration between a historically black university (hbu) and an ivy league psychiatric research center: a psychiatrist’s reflections of the impact on residency training,’’ delve deeply into the issues of ‘‘assumptions and perspectives on race and identity’’ as well as organizational culture, disciplinary divides, and deeply felt and difficult to discuss inequalities of privilege. i was struck again by the authors’ reflective openness in talking about the ‘‘under the hood’’ or ‘‘behind the scenes’’ difficulties of collaboration between a rich ivy league university (ilu) and rural bastion of white privilege, and an urban, hbu. when the authors write about the hostility of senior psychiatry faculty who dismissed the ivy league anthropologist-researchers ‘‘with contempt’’—asking, ‘‘how could we as non-clinicians understand anything about mental illness? what cult med psychiatry ( ) : – was the point of such ‘‘soft research’’? ‘‘how could we dare to critique psychiatry?’’ (ms p )—i too felt discomfort, empathizing to my core as the authors described their own discomfort. the essay builds, illustrating the difficulties of getting residents at the hbu to buy into the research training experiences offered by this collaboration. what emerges is not only a clash of institutional cultures, but the american ‘‘gaping wound’’ of differences of race, and disparities of privilege. were the senior hbu psychiatrists perhaps voicing something else when they questioned the ‘‘right’’ of the white ivy league anthropologists to enter their psychiatric turf? this difficult and uncomfortable story unfolds as the authors explore issues of privilege and race, hierarchy and authority, and the cultural differences between these two educational institutions—‘‘all this to say that things that are easy at [the ilu] and … taken for granted—are often problematic at [the hbu].’’ furthermore, issues of race, as they are experienced in the context of our interactions with one another, are not made explicit. we have never, as a team, come together to discuss our perspectives on race and our lived experiences of coming from diverse backgrounds. instead race only explicitly enters into the collaboration as part of the official transcript of our research and training efforts. yet hidden dynamics of power and privilege shape day to day interactions among members of the collaboration. (p. ms) mansoor malik, the training director of the psychiatry residency program at the hbu, was a psychiatry fellow at the ilu following his residency training first in the united kingdom and then at a philadelphia hospital in the u.s. he writes directly about his own ethnicity and minority status, noting that he is an immigrant physician from pakistan and a member of the ahmadiyya, a minority muslim sect persecuted in pakistan (and elsewhere in the muslim world). he notes that ‘‘cultural competency has assumed an ever increasing role in our curriculum’’ and that ‘‘we take care to select residents that are sympathetic and possibly committed to reducing racial disparities in mental health.’’ his goal is the collaborative program goal—to build research capacity in minority and in particular african-american mental health. his view of the influence of the summer training program on residents is somewhat startling. he notes, perceiving that the introduction of anthropological methods of inquiry was uncovering the latent anxieties about power sharing and hierarchy within the residency program, we initiated a regular confidential process group. … the residents have come to appreciate anthropological methods and theory that place disparities research in the context of social justice and promote a sophisticated understanding of ‘culture’ and its role in disparities. (p. ms) as a bridging figure between the two institutions, and perhaps between black and white america as immigrants are at times able to do, malik identifies negative aspects of the culture of hierarchy between senior faculty and residents at the hbu and introduces the uncomfortable challenges it poses for the research training collaboration. while not going as far ‘‘under the hood’’ as the ivy league anthropologists, his essay sets forth warnings to entrenched hierarchies to step aside and let new researchers grow. cult med psychiatry ( ) : – pair three: patrolling your blind spots and a safe place to speak seth hannah, elizabeth carpenter-song, and roxana llerena-quinn offer com- mentary on a faculty development course to reduce bias. as roxana notes in her essay, the course in its third iteration replaced one that, in my experience, was driven by the s generation grounded in social justice and civil rights. the pedagogical strategy of this course, hannah and carpenter-song tell us, is promoting self-awareness and introspection and creating safe spaces in which to speak without blame or criticism to reduce bias. llerena-quinn highlights the importance of reducing bias and disparities in treatment in line with the agenda set forth in the institute of medicine’s ‘‘unequal treatment’’ ( ) and national policies at the national institutes of health, as well as local policies to reduce health disparities by reducing disparities in medical care and treatment that may be caused by bias and prejudice. hannah and carpenter-song attended the twelve meetings of the course and had informal conversations with participants and instructors as well as formal interviews with three instructors and five participants. through interviews and their own observations, the ethnographers ‘‘lift the hood,’’ exploring the motivation and responses of participants and the philosophy of the course founders. llerena-quinn, one of the course instructors and developers, welcomes the feedback and again sends out a clarion call for a commitment to social justice and reduction in disparities. she argues for cultural sensitivity and knowledge as well and for cultural competence in the widest sense, despairing at supervisors who dismiss those who are too poor to be well served. llerena-quinn draws on the movements against disparities and inequalities in mental health care—calling attention to ‘‘culture matters’’ in reducing disparities and ‘‘unequal treatment.’’ this pair of essays presents a positive and contemporary intervention, one that can perhaps be improved given the newness of the course format. yet the course was a success. why? the course is voluntary! faculty who join for the twelve sessions are committed to introspection in a safe space and are interested in culture and reducing blind-spot bias, or what the authors note is now referred to as ‘‘ethical self fashioning.’’ the detailed ethnographic description of the course, its highly successful small group discussions, its over-all agenda, and the participants’ positive responses show that the small group method achieved the instructors’ pedagogical goals. the authors note a steadfast commitment to social justice and reducing health disparities by minimizing bias and exploring one’s own negative bias and cultural identities. all three authors argue for a more robust link between a focus on the micro-aspects of the self and macro structural concerns. what a marked contrast this pair of essays is to the discomfort generated in the willen and bullon essays on the residency training course. what are the essential differences between this faculty seminar and the residency seminar? my own reflections are shaped in part by a short stint in an earlier version of the course, which was established many years ago by one of the faculty leaders of the new pathway revolution in medical education at harvard medical school. dan goodenough, a highly esteemed and popular professor with students and faculty, offered a course on racism and self-awareness designed to reduce racism and bias. the ideological core of the course was a commitment to social justice, civil rights, cult med psychiatry ( ) : – redressing prejudice and inequalities for minorities, and affirmative action. at the time we spoke about the poor, minorities, and inequalities rather than disparities. we were a multicultural group of faculty members, but only one of us was african american, a highly esteemed surgeon. we anthropologists soon excused ourselves from yet one more evening we could not spare given an overload of nighttime seminar obligations, but the respect dan held for others, and faculty for him, was extraordinary. this was a s generation course in its ideology and leadership. the participants and those who returned and collaborated in various versions of the course were enchanted with the safe space for hard talk that dan and his colleagues created. the contrasts with the residency course are curious. dan’s course, much like the one hannah, carpenter-song, and llerena-quinn describe, was elective; the psychiatry residency course was not. the faculty courses were collaborative and small group based and focused on the self in a s sort of way, and the residency course was not. the faculty course was a place where young and old and junior and senior faculty met to speak about themselves, and the residency course was not. dan’s course, and perhaps this course too, was playful; it was time for faculty imagination to play out. the residency course was also initially for the faculty a time for imagination to play out, but the residents were not in a space to relish the intellectual play. one wonders what vulnerabilities made it so hard for them to enjoy and engage what their young faculty found so interesting? perhaps third year residents are not worthy of such a course? perhaps the rule of law rather than education is what matters? pair four: the canadians and working with culture seminar the canadians in montreal have their own fascinating cultural modalities for teaching clinical cultural psychiatry, where diversity is the message. authors jaswant guzder and cécile rousseau, cultural psychiatrists, offer a fine essay on the ‘‘diversity of voices’’ in their summer seminars on working with culture. psychiatrist laurence kirmayer comments on their ‘‘distinctive pedagogical values and orientations.’’ the working with culture seminar, which takes place as part of a month long program in social and transcultural psychiatry, is case based and uses an all-encompassing biopsychosocial model. the case however holds the center, and the conversation rousseau and guzder seek to create interweaves the voices of seminar teachers and participants who engage each other in a zone of ‘‘cultural safety.’’ discussing therapist–client relationships and therapeutic process is at the core of their agenda, and cultural competency training is incorporated into the whole model. the course sounds like summer intellectual fun, engaging, bonding, and conversing about ‘‘uncertainty and non-closure’’ in therapeutic work. the ‘‘universal and culturally specific are woven through the seminars’’ (p. ms) even as specific modes of therapeutic engagement are taught by visiting faculty. guzder and rousseau hope the seminars will provide a place for critical thinking and the emergence of new ideas useful in structuring clinical training experiences and managing local cultural challenges. cult med psychiatry ( ) : – kirmayer, highlighting hannah’s concept of hyperdiversity (hannah ; good et al. b) to reflect on canada’s multicultural state, notes that ‘‘for the last years, – % of canadians were born outside canada and that in a sense everyone is a hyphenated canadian.’’ he notes how guzder and rousseau focus on collective identities and the larger political dynamics of drawing diverse perspec- tives from seminar participants (see bibeau ( ) on multicultural quebec and the first nation of wasena-waseya ( )). he also sees rousseau and guzder as successful, confirming the seminar has created a community of practice that supports culturally informed and politically aware clinicians, offering a broader role for clinicians as advocates and partners with patients and community systems. perhaps the seminar, which sounds intellectually fun and invigorating, might enhance the role of traditional therapists, whose cultural and professional authority may well be eroding in canada as it is in the united states, where institutional pressures are leading to compromises in terms of check box psychiatry (bullon et al. ) and financial pressures (good et al. a, b, p. ; hannah et al. ). references bibeau, gilles cultural psychiatry in a creolizing world: questions for a new research agenda. transcultural psychiatry ( ): – . bullon, antonio, mary-jo delvecchio good, and elizabeth carpenter-song paper life: documentation practices in the care of minority and low-income patients. in shattering culture: american medicine responds to cultural diversity. mary-jo delvecchio good, sarah s. willen, seth donal hannah, ken vickery, and lawrence t. park, eds. new york: russell sage foundation. good, mary-jo delvecchio, nina m. gadmer, patricia ruopp, matthew lakoma, amy m. sullivan, ellen redinbaugh, robert m. arnold, and susan d. block narrative nuances on good and bad deaths: internists’ tales from high-technology work places. social science & medicine ( ): – . good, mary-jo delvecchio, byron j. good, cynthia schaffer, and stuart e. lind american oncology and the discourse on hope. culture, medicine and psychiatry ( ): – . good, mary-jo delvecchio, cara james, byron j. good, and anne e. becker the culture of medicine and racial, ethnic, and class disparities in healthcare. in unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in healthcare. brian d. smedley, adrienne y. stith, alan r. nelson, eds., pp. – . washington, dc: national academies press. good, mary-jo delvecchio, tseunetsugu munakata, yasuki kobayashi, cheryl mattingly, and byron j. good oncology and narrative time. social science & medicine ( ): – . good, mary-jo delvecchio, esther mwaikambo, erastus amayo, and james m’imunya machoki clinical realities and moral dilemmas: contrasting perspectives from academic medicine in kenya, tanzania, and america. daedalus ( ): – . good, mary-jo delvecchio, sarah s. willen, and seth donal hannah a shattering culture, an introduction. in shattering culture: american medicine responds to cultural diversity. mary-jo delvecchio good, sarah s. willen, seth donal hannah, ken vickery, and lawrence taeseng park, eds., pp. – . new york: russell sage foundation. good, mary-jo delvecchio, sarah s. willen, seth donal hannah, ken vickery, and lawrence t. park, eds. b shattering culture: american medicine responds to cultural diversity. new york: russell sage foundation. cult med psychiatry ( ) : – good, mary jo delvecchio, irene kuter, simon powell, herbert c. jr. hoover, maria e. carson, and rita linggood medicine on the edge: conversations with oncologists. in technoscientific imaginaries: conversations, profiles, and memoirs. george e. marcus, ed., pp. – . chicago: university of chicago press. hannah, seth clinical care in environments of hyperdiversity in shattering culture: american medicine responds to cultural diversity. mary-jo delvecchio good, sarah s. willen, seth donal hannah, ken vickery, and lawrence t. park, eds., pp. – . new york: russell sage foundation. hannah, seth donal, lawrence taeseng park, and mary-jo delvecchio good physicians’ perspectives on financial barriers to equitable care. in shattering culture: american medicine responds to cultural diversity. mary-jo delvecchio good, sarah s. willen, seth donal hannah, ken vickery, and lawrence taeseng park, eds., pp. – . new york: russell sage. muhaimin, amalia, mary-jo delvecchio good, yati soenarto, and retna siwi padmawati communication barriers among physicians in care at the end of life: experience from a postgraduate residency training in java, indonesia. asian bioethics review ( ): – . tousignant, m., a. laliberté, g. bibeau, and d. noël comprendre et agir sur le suicide chez les premières nations: quelques lunes après l’initiation. frontières ( ): – . willen, sarah s., antonio bullon, and mary-jo delvecchio good opening up a huge can of worms: reflections on a ‘‘cultural sensitivity’’ course for psychiatry residents. harvard review of psychiatry ( ): – . cult med psychiatry ( ) : – 	culture, race, and hierarchy 	pair one: teaching cultural sensitivity or cultural competence 	pair two: residency research training collaboration 	pair three: patrolling your blind spots and a safe place to speak 	pair four: the canadians and working with culture seminar 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ home | digital collections jump to navigation digital collections main menu 	home 	about 	browse 	collections 	theses & dissertations search collections featured: group photo of wesleyan women (sarah abbott, lena adams, caroline robbins, clara davis, etc.) recently added faculty scholarship correlates of beverage intake in adolescent girls: the national heart, lung, and blood institute growth and health study breakfast consumption by african-american and white adolescent girls correlates positively with calcium and fiber intake and negatively with body mass index the relationship of ready-to-eat cereal consumption to nutrient intake, blood lipids, and body mass index of children as they age through adolescence psychometric properties of the self-perception profile for children in a biracial cohort of adolescent girls: the nhlbi growth and health study epidemiology and natural course of eating disorders in young women from adolescence to young adulthood disordered eating, acculturation, and treatment-seeking in a community sample of hispanic, asian, black, and white women factors that influence food amount ratings by white, hispanic, and asian samples psychosocial and health consequences of adolescent depression in black and white young adult women. self-reported symptoms of depression in late adolescence to early adulthood: a comparison of african-american and caucasian females does adolescent depression predict obesity in black and white young adult women? recently added theses & dissertations last writings of japan's special attack corps members the sonic construction of identity in taipei's kuajie (crossover) music scene contemporary revival of finno-ugric music in st. petersburg, russia performing blackness and african diasporic identity finiteness of strictly n-regular and almost n-regular hermitian lattices partial marked length spectrum rigidity of negatively curved surfaces manipulation of differential metal ion reduction towards the synthesis of bimetallic nanoparticles part i progress towards the asymmetric total synthesis of biologically active furanoids via the classic interrupted feist bènary (ifb) reaction followed by c-h activation part ii asymmetric ifb-like reactions of , , -triones and electron-rich phenols for the synthesis of a tetracyclic antiviral the genetic basis of evolved toxin resistance in insects an op(timally) permissive state recently added photographs center for african american studies (malcolm x house, high street) - photos campus ix - - photos campus viii, - - photos campus vii, - - photos campus vi, - - photos campus v, - - photos campus iv, - - photos campus iii, - - photos campus ii, - photos campus i, - - photos recently added correlates of beverage intake in adolescent girls: the national heart, lung, and blood institute growth and health study breakfast consumption by african-american and white adolescent girls correlates positively with calcium and fiber intake and negatively with body mass index the relationship of ready-to-eat cereal consumption to nutrient intake, blood lipids, and body mass index of children as they age through adolescence psychometric properties of the self-perception profile for children in a biracial cohort of adolescent girls: the nhlbi growth and health study epidemiology and natural course of eating disorders in young women from adolescence to young adulthood disordered eating, acculturation, and treatment-seeking in a community sample of hispanic, asian, black, and white women factors that influence food amount ratings by white, hispanic, and asian samples psychosocial and health consequences of adolescent depression in black and white young adult women. self-reported symptoms of depression in late adolescence to early adulthood: a comparison of african-american and caucasian females does adolescent depression predict obesity in black and white young adult women? wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ refractions of germany in canadian literature and culture (review) refractions of germany in canadian literature and culture (review) alexander freund seminar: a journal of germanic studies, volume , number , february , pp. - (review) published by university of toronto press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /smr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /smr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ this recording is potentially useful in a number of different areas of the discipline of german studies. in ricarda huch studies, for example, a discussion of the statement in the cd booklet that ullmann “strengthened the prevailing mood of the poetry, and added new components to it” ( ) could be very fruitful. in addition, ullmann’s editing of rilke’s text and its effect on the work promises a fascinating project, while ullmann’s entire biography offers a particularly compelling instance of an artist’s confrontation with national socialism and the holocaust. given an academic climate that actively promotes interdisciplinarity, it is wonderful to find a recording that brings music and germanistik together in so many ways. sharon krebs independent scholar, victoria, british columbia heinz antor, sylvia brown, john considine, klaus stierstorfer, eds. refractions of germany in canadian literature and culture. berlin: de gruyter, . pp. euro (hardcover). isbn - - - . germany and germans figure in canada’s literary consciousness in complex ways. canadian and german literary critics explore some of these “refractions” in this important collection. the seventeen essays, originating as presentations at a conference in banff, alberta, in , are carefully edited and, essentially, of evenly high quality. they are grouped in three sections: “diaspora and settledness,” “jewish experience and the holo- caust,” and “literature and cultural exchange.” these themes are “refracted” rather than merely summarized in john considine’s introduction and in an essay/poem by robert kroetsch. in the first two essays of section one, sylvia brown and anna wittmann claim german immigrants’ oral histories about flight, displacement, and eventual settlement in canada during and after wwii as canadian literature. brown examines her father’s and other prussian-germans’ stories and silences about the loss of heimat. juxtaposing fiction and oral history, wittmann investigates east european germans’ continually shifting identities in times of war and migration. while it is unclear how the life stories are shaped by the canadian experience, it is clear that their marginalization has shaped the two authors. thus both articles are expressions of second generation german-canadians finding their voice in canadian society. peter webb echoes this political motivation in his carefully crafted rehabilitation of martin blecher, a german-american living part-time in ontario, who until recently has been suspected by germanophobic anglo-canadians of murdering canadian painter tom thomson in . the next three essays pick up the idea of constructing a german-canadian cultural memory. considine analyzes jack thiessen’s mennonite dictionaries as an archive of language and thus as a (or the) heimat for mennonites. others felt that “home” could or even should be religious rather than ethnic, as is evident in thomas mengel’s descriptive analysis of “der deutsche katholik in kanada ( – ).” that identity and heimat are socially contested concepts is evidenced by heinz antor’s useful examination not only of the impact of rudy wiebe’s mennonite heritage on his writings but also of his writings about mennonites on canadian society. wiebe writes against truisms held about and by mennonites. reviews mary botto muse the holocaust is at the center of section two, in which four scholars from germany examine jewish canadians’ writings. axel stähler investigates the journalistic and fictional writings of a. m. klein, whose zionist view of jewish identity and history was deeply shaped by his critical understanding of post-holocaust germany, and vice versa. henry kreisel’s view of the holocaust, nazi germany, and postwar germany is much less straightforward. klaus stierstorfer shows that kreisel’s writings, e.g. betrayal, are informed by his experience as both a refugee from austria and an immigrant on the canadian prairie. even more ambiguous, as laurenz volkmann shows, is leonard cohen’s holocaust poetry. seen by some critics as holocaust trivialization, poems such as “flowers for hitler” have been understood by others as intelligent interventions in the discussion about poetry after auschwitz. canadian playwrights have reflected on the holocaust, as albert reiner glaap documents in his analysis of contemporary plays, in order to deal with personal issues such as the troubling quest for vengeance and political issues such as canada’s failure to accept jewish refugees in the s. the first two essays in section three continue the analysis of canadian authors’ writings about the nazi legacy. annette kern-stähler juxtaposes mavis gallant’s writings about postwar germany and alexander and margarete mitscherlich’s socio- psychological study the inability to mourn to show that there continued to be reminders of the war and the holocaust in german society because it repressed the nazi past. writing from the social position of the child of german and jamaican immigrants, suzette mayr enters the debate from yet another perspective, as doris wolf emphasizes. in the widows, three generations of german-canadian women reestablish mother- daughter relationships (“motherlines”) that had been broken by migration and the history of nazism and racism and engage in vergangenheitsbewältigung within a specifically canadian and immigrant setting. the next two essays, which are on jane urquhart’s the stone carvers, continue the theme of german-canadians’ interaction with german and canadian history. gordon bölling analyzes the two german-canadian protagonists’ role in the shaping of canadian history around the battle of vimy ridge. james skidmore examines urquhart’s use of german stories and literary forms – which he calls the “german cultural imaginary” – to craft canadian literature. two different kinds of cultural exchange are the subject of the last two essays. jörg esleben reconstructs the canadian reception of goethe’s faust between and and shows canadian society’s use of faust performances as foils for negotiating contemporary social issues and national identity. eva-marie kröller’s essay about the influences of german history and canadian landscape on the design of the new canadian embassy in berlin expands the understanding of canadian literature. overall, this collection documents the complex and fragmented refractions of germany and germans in some of canada’s many literatures. alexander freund the university of winnipeg seminar wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ humanities article learning from past displacements? the history of migrations between historical specificity, presentism and fractured continuities susanne lachenicht chair of early modern history, universitaet bayreuth, bayreuth, germany; susanne.lachenicht@uni-bayreuth.de received: march ; accepted: april ; published: april ���������� ������� “during the last decade it has become more than clear to historians working in the field of migration that this phenomenon has to be regarded as a normal and structural element of human societies throughout history.” (lucassen and lucassen , p. ) . introduction in , more than , people arrived in the federal republic of germany, seeking refuge and asylum. in the same year, another , eu citizens moved to germany as well. almost , people (non-german citizens) left the country within the same year. however, media coverage mainly dealt with the group of refugees and asylum seekers—people mostly fleeing from theatres of war in syria, iraq and afghanistan. debates among germans—pro and contra asylum—were concerned with a number of issues (and the list is not exhaustive): integration and assimilation, islam and the islamic state, terror, cultural difference, crime (sexual abuse in particular), reasons behind flight and migration, jobs and housing markets, escape conditions and death in the mediterranean. discourse on flight and migration was by no means random. expectations, prejudice and fears as much as aid built on past experiences (or, more precisely, on narratives of past experiences)—more recent and less recent ones. germans, the media and politicians in particular, turned to history (and at times also to historians) in order to understand two things: ( ) next to political, religious and economic aspects they became interested in historical reasons behind flight and mass migrations in the second decade of the twenty-first century; ( ) they inquired into historical examples of migration, integration and/or assimilation. people from a great variety of social strata and with different educational backgrounds turned to ‘the past’ in order to understand the present. however, can we understand present migrations through their historical ‘making’? can we compare present migrations with other, past migrations? and what can we learn from this? . early modern migrations ( s to late s) before i tackle these questions in a more systematic way, i would like to start with a brief analysis of early modern migrations from and within europe, which is my area of expertise as a historian. i will then use these in order to answer the questions as introduced in the previous paragraph. in following the editors of this special issue, i am opting for the term displacement in the title as it “allows for cross-historical perspectives” (isayev and jewell ). throughout this paper, i will use the terms migration, refuge and asylum, sometimes interchangeably, which might “conflate” these terms. however, it is not always practicable to clearly distinguish between these phenomena in discourse (and practice). while—as analytical terms—they mean distinct phenomena, this is not the case with regard to (historical) migrations. see also text below, especially section and lucassen and lucassen ( , pp. – ) (federal office for migration and refugees bamf). humanities , , ; doi: . /h www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities http://dx.doi.org/ . /h humanities , , of in the early modern period, people migrated for a number of reasons: wars (often causing temporary migrations (e.g., oltmer ), natural catastrophes/disasters such as droughts or floods, earthquakes, climate change (“little ice age” between the early fifteenth and the nineteenth centuries, or the dantean anomaly of – (cowie ; parker ; brown , pp. – ), epidemic plagues, scarcity of food and land, overpopulation, better economic opportunities elsewhere and persecution (more often than not for religious reasons). one of the largest migrations of the early modern period was forced: between the sixteenth and the early nineteenth centuries europeans deported more than million slaves from africa to the caribbean and the americas to supply the rising plantation systems (on the so-called black atlantic e.g., (gilroy ; heywood ; smallwood ). within and from early modern europe, mass displacements were often triggered by the persecution of the religious ‘other’. a common phenomenon since late antiquity, efforts to ‘purify’ state and society increased with the reformation. the ‘body of the nation’ was to share one faith, it was not to be ‘contaminated’ (terpstra , pp. – ) by the (religious and racial) ‘other’—it was supposed to be christian and, after , catholic or protestant. from the reformation onwards, christians not only persecuted and expelled jews or muslims, but catholics and protestants alike drove out anabaptists (and later mennonites), protestants persecuted and expelled catholics and vice versa. with regard to jews and muslims, the early modern period saw a number of major periods of displacement, forced by state and church, or voluntarily—as staying would have resulted in forced mass conversions. in , following the spanish conquest of the emirate of granada, the last muslim stronghold on the iberian peninsula, the alhambra edict brought the expulsion of some , to , sephardi jews. most of them went to portugal, north africa and more eastern parts of the ottoman empire (gerber , pp. – ; benbassa and rodrigue , pp. – ). granada’s muslims left in smaller numbers, as they were not immediately expelled from the territories of isabella of castile and ferdinand of aragon. deportation, resettlement and—for many—expulsion followed between and when some estimated , to , moors (the so-called moriscos) were forcibly moved from their settlements (harvey , pp. – ). in portugal, mass conversion of jews followed the edict of expulsion of . from , with the establishment of the inquisition in portugal, and from , when portugal came under the rule of philipp ii of spain, larger waves of emigration followed. the portuguese jewish diaspora came into place. many of these sephardim re-settled in bordeaux, amsterdam, london, hamburg and much of the forming atlantic world (benbassa and rodrigue , pp. – ; lachenicht , pp. – ). protestants persecuting catholics and vice versa also entailed mass migration—as stated above. one of the largest occurred in france, that of french protestants, huguenots, first between the s and and then from the late seventeenth century. in , the edict of fontainebleau put an official end to protestantism in france. this brought about the dispersion of , to , huguenots (of , huguenots in total; france had a population of million people at the time). it confronted europe with the need to accommodate refugees on a large scale (lachenicht , p. ). other, sizeable religious migrations happened in the period between and when some , to , protestant dutch left the spanish netherlands (with a total population of million people), during the dutch revolt, to re-settle in the united provinces, england, the palatinate and brandenburg-prussia (esser ; janssen , pp. – ). with the peace of westphalia in , the emigration of catholics and protestants from german territories became more important as it solidified the cuius regio, eius religio and the ius emigrandi principle, already established with the peace of augsburg in . this meant that a respective territory’s prince or an imperial city council decided on his/their and all his/their subjects’ christian denomination. those who were not willing to conform while some scholars estimate , to , jewish exiles (israel , pp. – ; swetschinski , pp. – ), more recent research establishes the number of exiles at some , (terpstra , p. ). humanities , , of had the right to leave the territory or imperial city. with re-catholicization in bohemia the emigration of protestants to prussia and saxony took shape (schunka , ). from the s, english puritans left england to re-settle in north america, followed by english catholics in the s and presbyterians and quakers from the s onward (bremer ; garrett ; hamm ). in the s the austrian habsburgs and the prince bishop of salzburg deported or expelled their crypto-protestants from their territories (wilson ; walker ; van horn melton ). moravian brothers, the herrnhuters, had to move from saxony to denmark, sweden, the netherlands and then onward to north america (wellenreuther ). between and britain deported some , french catholics from acadia (today nova scotia) to purify its empire from the ‘catholic threat’ (hodson , ). some of these refugee groups—from the more privileged estates and social strata—left escape accounts: refugees were able to flee with the help of trafficking gangs or illegal emigration networks—by sea on board vessels with the refugees often being packed in barrels or crates. other escape routes led refugees on foot. upon arrival in a place of refuge, they would be quartered in the households of the local population (for huguenots see (lachenicht , pp. – )). as with the sephardi diaspora (swetschinski , p. ), some of these refugees never found a permanent new home (magdelaine , pp. – ). would—and if so why—early modern states, empires, cities and provinces accommodate these refugees? studying early modern religious migrations in a comparative perspective (lachenicht a) shows that states, towns and cities, empires had specific motives for granting refugees asylum. one of the most important which comes up in many state and church-related sources of the sixteenth to the late eighteenth centuries is christian charity. it was christian duty to relieve distressed brethren—not solely but preferably of one’s own denomination. it ordered european states and empires to also grant asylum to jews despite wide-spread anti-judaism in early modern europe (lachenicht a). other motives were much more utilitarian in character: demographic reasons (increasing the number of a prince’s subjects), colonization and civilization schemes (often related to the former), economic, military and confessional reasons. epidemics and wars, high mortality rates (for children and mothers in particular) caused time and again major population losses in many of the european states. increasing the number of subjects was meant to make good these losses. demographic growth, however, was also considered a value per se, manifesting the potential economic and military might of the early modern state and empire. colonization, internal and external, within europe and overseas, required colonists who more often than not were recruited among refugees or people from other countries willing to emigrate and populate the newly subdued territories in the americas, asia and—in the later eighteenth century—australia and new zealand. we find the same refugee groups in colonization schemes of a variety of european imperial states: sephardi and ashkenazi jews in the british, dutch, french and russian empires, huguenots within the dutch, british and russian empires, moravians in the dutch, british and russian empires, mennonites in the british, dutch and russian empires. the accommodation of religious refugees was an important tool in the building of early modern empires. colonization and the establishment of plantations were supposed to have a “civilizing” effect on indigenous peoples: in ireland, prussia and russia or on the balkans as much as in the caribbean or the americas. economic reasons behind asylum and settlement privileges depended on a refugee group’s reputation: some minorities such as sephardi jews were settled for their global networks of trade and commerce (frijhoff , pp. – ; israel , pp. , , , ; kaplan , p. ; po-chia hsia , pp. – ). for spain, portugal, england, the netherlands and france sephardi or converso communities became ‘agents and victims of empire’ (israel , p. ) who largely contributed through their networks to imperial and commercial structures as much as quakers or huguenots. huguenots were also settled for their assumed knowledge in wine-growing, as well as the establishment of manufacturing and textiles (lachenicht b). confessional reasons also motivated the settlement of religious refugees. foreign catholics or protestants could increase the number of orthodox subjects: in brandenburg-prussia dutch, swiss and french protestants were accommodated humanities , , of to raise the number of calvinist subjects. this was also the case in ireland where a catholic majority should have become (but never did) outnumbered by protestant settlers who were to foster ireland’s loyalty to the british (protestant) empire. settling refugees and migrants on the frontier of expanding early modern states and empires was meant to protect these frontiers against competing powers: in late sixteenth and throughout the seventeenth century, protestant settlers in irish provinces such as munster and ulster were to defend english plantations against the catholic irish (canny ). the same was true for german lutherans in georgia whose settlements were built on the frontier against the spanish and american indians (wilson , pp. – ), mennonites and moravians did the same within the russian empire (gestrich , p. ). utilitarian reasons and great expectations behind the accommodation of refugees and migrants often clashed with realities. more often than not they were not met—at least not in the first place. christian charity had its limits if the refugees did not fulfil the prince’s or city council’s expectations (lachenicht a, pp. – ). early modern states, towns, cities and provinces were by no means willing to or capable of sustaining refugees or displaced people on a large scale. while church(es) and state(s) supported refugee groups with offertories, refugee communities (called “stranger communities”, “nations” or “refugee churches”) (pettegree , p. ; lachenicht , pp. – ) had to organize poor relief, accommodation, job opportunities, education and many other things. in other words: early modern laws allowed refugees to settle within the confines of a given state or province of a city but made sure that entire groups were settled as corporations that had to care for themselves. these ethnic or religious enclaves often established their own administration, social aid and educational systems, sometimes their own jurisdiction, and at the frontier of empires sometimes their own militia. stranger communities had to swear an oath to the monarch (or republic) and were responsible for their members’ offences against the state’s, province’s, or city’s laws (lachenicht a, pp. – ). as many of these groups had been persecuted for their faith, the leaders of refugee communities—pastors, rabbis, imams, military leaders, social elites at large—tried to (re-)create communities with strong and orthodox belief systems, a high degree of endogamy, and educational systems, which were supposed to ensure the survival of what people might want to call group identity. at the same time, stranger communities aimed at naturalisation or denization. many displaced people, however, did not adhere to these stranger communities but opted for what we would call today acculturation or integration strategies, through intermarriage with other groups, economic cooperation and adherence to other religious communities (lachenicht ). with regard to perceptions of the ‘other’ we find many migrant group stereotypes, prejudices and xenophobia—on the part of the hosting societies as well as on the part of migrants and refugees. huguenot refugees in seventeenth century brandenburg-prussia thought of german lutherans as “uncultured oafs”, as “stingy people”, while huguenots in england described the english as “degenerated”, “unpatriotic” and “dishonourable”. the irish were considered an “idle”, “papist” and “bigot nation”. huguenots also shared anti-jewish sentiments—as was common throughout the early modern period (lachenicht , pp. – ). in sixteenth century england, francis bacon considered french protestants (so huguenots) to be unpatriotic and incapable of developing patriotic feelings for the english nation (yungblut , p. ), while all strangers in late sixteenth century london were held responsible for the rising prices for food and housing, vagrancy and the corruption of morals (luu , p. ). we find the same fears in late seventeenth century halle or berlin (lachenicht , p. ). at the same time, petitioners in london exhorted “aliens” (so foreigners) to intermarry with englishmen and share their competencies as craftsmen with english people (luu , p. ). numbers of refugees in the city were often exaggerated, rumours about crime spread through city and country. at the same time, we find descriptions of migrants as “poor refugees” in need of aid and relief (lachenicht , p. ). humanities , , of . presentism, historical specificity and (fractured) continuities many of the above developments sound familiar—too familiar perhaps. the apparent familiarity of narratives of the past often provokes simplistic comparisons or equations. themes such as reasons behind displacements and the accommodation of refugees/migrants, myths and expectations among refugees and hosting societies, flight conditions, legal status, integration and assimilation, mutual prejudice all seem to be the general, universal categories connected with flight and migrations. however, these are not early modern but twenty-first century—our contemporary—categories, which we use as a lens to consider past displacements. this presentism or anachronistic use of current concepts has often been criticized as a primary “fallacy” of historical work. one of the general assumptions is that presentism serves to validate present-day beliefs and moral judgements and neglects or even ignores historical specificity (fischer , pp. , ). with his concept of “radical historicity”, michel foucault went further and challenged the universality and teleologies of historical writing as much as the categories of analysis (foucault ; more on this, see below). but can we do otherwise? can we consider the past without using the lens of present concepts, present discourses? in die anwesende abwesenheit der vergangenheit achim landwehr suggests that we reflect on the “chronoferential” claims we make when establishing relations between the present and the past—when we project our present questions and categories into past times (landwehr , pp. – ). landwehr reminds us to consider the diversity of opportunities of the present and the multitude of histories of the past, the plethora of possible histories. this requires us to ask why we look at certain aspects of the past (and why we neglect others) and how we look at them. we choose those histories (over others) by asking questions that, in the first place, have more to do with our present times than the past times we enquire into. this past no longer exists—it has elapsed, it is gone, it is no longer there (landwehr , pp. – ). can we reconstruct “the remains of those traces, the habits, the manufacturing, the thinking, that is no longer present”? and how much “imagination” does the historian need? (segatto , p. ) past times, despite their absence, are present(ed) in a relational way: we constantly refer to them, we recontextualise material and immaterial objects from the past. we make claims about the past to understand our present times. the past and our relationship with it is a paradox (landwehr , pp. , ). our inquiries into past times, as problematic as they might be, can bring about more reflexivity with regard to present times. this is what landwehr and many other historians call “the critical potential of historical analysis” (landwehr , p. ). critical analysis comes with and produces uncertainties. historical analysis understood this way does not produce or reinforce identities or certainties about present or past times (landwehr , p. ). it triggers reflection with regard to the specificities of past and present times, with regard to (fractured) continuities, with regard to possibilities of what the past could have been about and what present times could be. in projecting our contemporary categories on past flight and migrations and in comparing the latter to present-day displacements we might not only miss out on forgotten histories but also on historical specificity, on the radical historicity of past phenomena. historical contexts—even more recent ones as evoked in alessandro petti’s text (petti , pp. – )—hardly resemble present-day contexts, either with regard to political, legal, social, cultural or situational contexts or with regard to discourses—so how people thought and spoke about the world, how they constructed their realities (landwehr , p. ). in terms of context, early modern europe differed significantly from today: weak states with weak institutions, no constitutions, no legal equality, no legal security. today, european legal contexts provide human rights (including the right to asylum), state constitutions, on discourse and historical discourse analysis see (martschukat , pp. – ; landwehr , pp. – ). following martschukat and landwehr, i understand discourse as the thinkable, utterable and doable of/in historical situations/moments. discourses thus always are also practices and vice versa. humanities , , of legal equality and security as well as state institutions—depending on the european state we look into—responsible for the application of laws, social aid, healthcare, education and many other issues. while most european states include people from a variety of backgrounds, the legal framework of the constitutional state is supposed to guarantee each individual basic human rights, legal equality and safety, freedom of religion, freedom of thought and speech. these contexts, as much as the european union’s regulations and the unhcr convention, provide a context for today’s migrants and refugees arriving within the european union that differs radically from past experiences. while some phenomena seem to allow comparisons or even equations—historical difference is the more important feature. despite historical specificity and/or the historicity of past displacements, the narrative on early modern religious migrations, as produced in section two, contains a number of issues that appear as ‘fractured continuities’. by ‘fractured continuities’ i mean the products of individuals and groups who constantly relate themselves to past times, consciously or subconsciously—in other words as the product of a dynamic process of re-inscribing ourselves (also as historians or social scientists) into (historical and present-day) political, social, cultural, economic, environmental, situational contexts—as becomes also evident from petti’s text on refugee camps and how they are being compared to colonial and totalitarian contexts (petti , pp. – ). historical examples, comparisons—and terminology—are tricky. one of the most obvious examples of ‘fractured continuities’ comes with language, with the terms and concepts we choose. in using notions such as ‘refugee’, ‘exile’, ‘displaced person’, ‘migrants’ or ‘asylum’, people evoke a plethora of past migrations from antiquity to the present day. many of these notions are heavily loaded: with the term “refugee” both migrants and hosting societies might associate ‘persecution’, ‘flight’, ‘rescue’ or ‘(christian) charity’—sometimes without a profound knowledge of the past displacements that have shaped these terms and the theological and ideological connotations that were once associated with them. as such, they (more often than not) subconsciously draw on the jewish diasporas as well as on other religious migrations—which are, however, different from modern ones. in some contexts today, the term ‘migration’ is associated with dehumanizing terms such as ‘flood’, ‘crisis’, ‘spread’, ‘dispersal’ or ‘masses’. depending on who uses these terms and for which purposes, the term ‘migrant’ can come across as profoundly negative: in germany this is especially true for the term wirtschaftsmigrant (‘economic migrant’) as it is associated with ‘fortune seekers’, ‘profiteers’ and ‘adventurers’ and seems to evoke individual and collective memories of some, not very well defined, but somehow perceived past experience. in the canadian context of the s and s the term ‘refugee’ had negative connotations, while the term ‘migrant’ was associated with people who would enrich the young ‘nation’. again, vague ‘memories of the past’ had intense repercussions on expectations with regard to ‘refugees’ or ‘migrants’. however, these ‘fractured continuities’—not only with regard to the language we use but also with regard to the practices that result from it—are highly problematic. the relationship between present and past contexts is never the same, re-inscriptions never reproduce the same realities but create new realities through the process of re-inscribing (e.g., landwehr , pp. – ). in his interpretation of michel foucault, jürgen martschukat reminds us of this radical historicity of every single moment, context or situation (martschukat , pp. – )—which is at the same time the dynamic and relational product of our constant references to (lost) past times. the first and most persistent fractured continuity is migration itself. as the introductory quote insinuates, humans have migrated and will always migrate. migration as a “normal and structural element of human societies throughout history” is a continuity in human history indeed. however, using the term ‘migrant’ on the part of people on the move, or by those in receiving societies, obscures or ignores complexities, novelties, singularities, uncertainties, possibilities. do people know—once they start moving—what their experiences will be? whether they will be temporary or permanent refugees, pilgrims, migrants, seasonal workers, return migrants, adventurers, profiteers—or something else? do hosting societies know whether the terms they use—‘migrant’, ‘migration’—correspond with humanities , , of the complex and uncertain situations of the people they qualify? ‘migration’ as a term (especially with the various histories behind it) produces a set of associations and mental images that might have very little to do with the realities and lives of those who are being concerned. the term ‘migration’ comes with questions about the ‘why’. people will ask for ‘motives behind migration’. while the ones presented in section two are among the more obvious, others might occur (lucassen and lucassen ; canny ; moch ). furthermore, more often than not, individuals and groups will leave their homes for more than one reason. migration history as much as interviews with present-day migrants show that dichotomies such as forced versus voluntary migrations or migrants versus refugees do not really reflect the complex, multifaceted realities of displacement and how people would describe themselves (lucassen and lucassen , pp. – ). as such, it has always been and will always be difficult to clearly identify the push- and pull-factors behind individual and group migrations. as motives for migration are complex and varied, we need to carefully reconstruct specific historical and situational discourses on displacements. no displacement equals another. attempts to establish migration patterns and systems of migration are useful. at the same time, however, the stories and histories are historically (and individually) specific and unique, despite apparent parallels and resemblances (see also the concluding remarks). the second ‘fractured continuity’ in the history of migrations is the persistent practice of constructing the ‘other’. migrants and hosting societies alike produce essentialising discourses about one another—they produce “cultural difference” (bhabha ) . according to bhabha, situations of contact create a third space which is a “contradictory and ambivalent space of enunciation”. third space makes evident that “the meaning and symbols of culture have no primordial unity or fixity; that even the same signs can be appropriated, translated, rehistoricised, and read anew” (bhabha )—as some of the examples in alessandro petti’s text clearly show (petti , pp. – ). essentialising discourses deny the plurality and variety of possible enunciations of the construction of the ‘self’ and the ‘other’ in situations of contact. some of these essentialising discourses, stereotypes and prejudice are rather old: anti-jewish and anti-muslim sentiment has a long history in europe—as section two has shown. however, the histories of anti-jewish and anti-muslim discourses are never the same. they might build on past discourses. new and ever-changing contexts, however, produce ever-new varieties of religious and (at the same time) racialised discourse. third, linked to the construction of the ‘other’, and the production of cultural difference, is the question of whether migrants or refugees are considered ‘good’, ‘bad’ or ‘ugly’ (lucassen and lucassen , p. ). while some migrant groups seem to have always been treated or looked upon in one specific way, critical historical analysis makes clear that narratives on the ‘good’, the ‘bad’ and the ‘ugly’ migrant/refugee can change substantially—in the short, middle and long term. they depend highly on context and on political, economic, social, cultural discourses which do not only vary depending on time and space but on the situational as well. the example of the huguenots in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is among the most striking: while in the early s protestant (especially calvinist) states considered them ‘ideal migrants’, their arrival produced sentiments of unfulfilled expectations. many protestants european states closed their borders and refused further admission; anti-huguenot sentiment rose in many of the hosting states. through a process of integration (which included the integration of the story of their ‘usefulness’ into the national historiographies of the hosting countries), huguenots are today (again) according to bhabha “cultural difference is a process of signification through which statements of culture or on culture differentiate, discriminate, and authorize the production of fields of force, reference, applicability, and capacity”. opposed to “cultural diversity” which “is also the representation of a radical rhetoric of the separation of totalized cultures that live unsullied by the intertextuality of their historical locations, safe in the utopianism of a mythic memory of a unique collective identity”, “cultural difference” is a process of negotiation, it points to a third space where “culture as a homogenizing, unifying force, authenticated by the originary past, kept alive in the national tradition of the people” is being profoundly challenged ( ). humanities , , of considered a successful example of migration and integration—in all (former) countries of refuge (lachenicht , pp. – ). fourth: from the few examples provided for the early modern period, we can see—apparently—claims towards the acculturation, integration and assimilation avant la lettre of migrants and refugees. if, however, situations of contact produce cultural difference ad infinitum, if there is no “primordial unity or fixity” of culture(s) (bhabha ) what do concepts such as acculturation, integration and assimilation mean? hosting societies are far from homogeneous. variety or multiplicity are normal features of every society, nation, ethnicity or whatever marker for collective identity or imagined community we might use (lucassen and lucassen , pp. – ). so, what does it mean if we talk about acculturation, integration and assimilation—at present or in a historical perspective? in the history of migrations it would be vital to enquire into specific discourses of acculturation, integration and assimilation. in today’s europe is it about shared values, legal security and protection, about equality, about human rights? who voices these claims? in which contexts? with what aims? how do those who are being ‘summoned’ react to these claims? . conclusions in his pour une histoire comparée of marc bloch argued for two purposes behind comparison. according to him (green , pp. – ) comparisons can help understand (or, as i would put it, produce more understanding of) specific phenomena, they can draw our attention to the (more) specific and the (more) general of the past and present (bloch ). historians have argued that “the comparative approach yields contradictory processes of unification and diversification” (bouvier , p. ). nancy l. green has opted to move toward “post-structural structuralism” in migration studies, which means “examining and reinterpreting the structures surrounding the migration process in light of individual choice and vice versa”, “generality and difference” (green , p. ). this needs to be done in a synchronic and diachronic perspective. we might not be able to approach “the (historical) truth” as such (landwehr , pp. – ). however, these seeming dichotomies, dualities or antagonisms between the specific and the general produce a tension field and thus the ground for critical inquiry. the latter might bring forth more understanding than simple equations, generalisations or unique particularities. in an attempt to integrate bloch, green and foucault this means the following: as the specific reinscribes itself in discourses that produce realities, the specific is always part of the more general. applied to the history of migrations and the question of what we can learn from it, i would suggest the following answers: . present migrants and/or refugees always relate themselves to past migrations as much as home and hosting societies relate them to displacements of the past—consciously and subconsciously. while each case is specific and unique, it is always embedded in ever-changing, historically contingent discourses that produce realities. these discourses need to be analysed as fractured continuities—on the micro and the macro level. . comparisons between present and past migrations need to be aware of our presentist perspective. while we use our concepts, our categories, we must critically assess that we project our presentist expectations into past phenomena. furthermore, asking specific questions and using specific categories already implies a number of choices about what we are interested in and what we want/tend to ignore. comparisons are about choice; they are never neutral; they always come with specific agendas on the part of the historian (green , p. ). thus, we leave aside a plethora of aspects coming with present and past migrations—and as such, historical specificity, too. . following discourse analysis, it is vital to enquire into the following: (i). who is inquiring into past migrations? (ii.). for which reasons? (iii). what are its consequences? (iv). which discourses yield our questions? humanities , , of approached in a more (self-)reflexive way, the history of migrations might not produce absolute certainties—which are not possible given the infinity of past histories, present and future stories. however, critical historical analysis will produce more understanding of the complexities of displacements. it will do more credit to the specific and explain how it is embedded into the more general. it also allows us to see the individual case as specific and general at the same time. also, it will strengthen the individual and specific experience as it keeps enlarging our more general perspective. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references benbassa, esther, and aron rodrigue. . sephardi jewry. a history of the judeo-spanish community, th– th centuries. berkeley, los angeles and london: university of california press. bhabha, homi. . cultural diversity and cultural difference. available online: http: //monumenttotransformation.org/atlas-of-transformation/html/c/cultural-diversity/cultural-diversity- and-cultural-differences-homi-k-bhabha.html (accessed on february ). bloch, marc. . pour une histoire comparée des sociétés européennes. in mélanges historiques. edited by marc bloch. paris: cnrs editions, pp. – . first published . bouvier, pierre. . différences et analogies. in france-u.s.a. edited by pierre bouvier and olivier kourchid. paris: méridiens klincksieck, pp. – . bremer, francis j. . the puritan experiment: new england society from bradford to edwards. lebanon: university press of new england. brown, neville. . history and climate change: a eurocentric perspective. london: routledge. canny, nicholas. . kingdom and colony: ireland in the atlantic world – . baltimore: johns hopkins university press. canny, nicholas. . europeans on the move. studies on european migration, – . oxford: oxford university press. cowie, jonathan. . climate change: biological and human aspects. cambridge: cambridge university press. esser, raingard. . niederländische exulanten im england des . und . jahrhunderts. berlin: duncker & humblot. federal office for migration and refugees (bamf). . zuwanderung und integration. aktuelle zahlen, entwicklungen, maßnahmen. available online: http://www.bamf.de/de/service/top/presse/interviews/ -kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp/kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp-node.html (accessed on january ). fischer, david h. . historians’ fallacies. toward a logic of historical thought. new york: harper. foucault, michel. . die ordnung der dinge: eine archäologie der humanwissenschaften. frankfurt/main: suhrkamp. frijhoff, willem. . religious toleration in the united provinces: from ‘case’ to ‘model’. in calvinism and religious toleration in the dutch golden age. edited by ronnie po-chia hsia and henk van nierop. cambridge: cambridge university press, pp. – . garrett, christina hallowell. . the marian exiles. a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism. new york: cambridge university press. gerber, jane s. . the jews of spain: a history of the sephardic experience. new york: free press. gestrich, andreas. . german religious migration to russia in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. in in search of peace and prosperity. new german settlements in eighteenth century europe and america. edited by hartmut lehmann, hermann wellenreuther and renate wilson. philadelphia: the pennsylvania university press, pp. – . gilroy, paul. . the black atlantic. modernity and double consciousness. cambridge: harvard university press. green, nancy l. . the comparative method and poststructural structuralism: new perspectives for migration studies. in migration, migration history, history: old paradigms and new perspectives. bern, berlin and brussels: peter lang, pp. – . hamm, thomas d. . the quakers in america. new york: columbia university press. harvey, l. p. . islamic spain, to . chicago: university of chicago press. heywood, linda. . central africans, atlantic creoles, and the foundation of the americas, – : the first generation of african americans in north america and the caribbean, – . cambridge: cambridge university press. http://monumenttotransformation.org/atlas-of-transformation/html/c/cultural-diversity/cultural-diversity-and-cultural-differences-homi-k-bhabha.html http://monumenttotransformation.org/atlas-of-transformation/html/c/cultural-diversity/cultural-diversity-and-cultural-differences-homi-k-bhabha.html http://monumenttotransformation.org/atlas-of-transformation/html/c/cultural-diversity/cultural-diversity-and-cultural-differences-homi-k-bhabha.html http://www.bamf.de/de/service/top/presse/interviews/ -kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp/kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp-node.html http://www.bamf.de/de/service/top/presse/interviews/ -kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp/kreienbrink-fachartikel-bpp-node.html humanities , , of hodson, christopher. . idlers and idolaters. acadian exiles and the labour regimes of british north america, – . in religious refugees in europe, asia and north america ( th– st century). edited by susanne lachenicht. hamburg: lit, pp. – . hodson, christopher. . the acadian diaspora: an eighteenth-century history. new york: oxford university press. isayev, elena, and evan jewell. . special issue information. available online: http://www.mdpi.com/ journal/humanities/special_issues/manifestos_ancient_present (accessed on february ). israel, jonathan i. . the dutch republic: its rise, greatness and fall, – . oxford and new york: oxford university press. israel, jonathan i. . diasporas within a diaspora: jews, crypto-jews and the world maritime empires, – . leiden: brill. janssen, geert h. . the dutch revolt and catholic exile in reformation europe. cambridge: cambridge university press. kaplan, benjamin. . dutch religious tolerance: celebration and revision. in calvinism and religious toleration in the dutch golden age. edited by ronnie po-chia hsia and henk van nierop. cambridge: cambridge university press, pp. – . lachenicht, susanne. . sephardi jews—cosmopolitans in the atlantic world? in diaspora identities. exile, nationalism and cosmopolitanism in past and present. edited by susanne lachenicht and kirsten heinsohn. frankfurt, new york and chicago: campus and the university of chicago press, pp. – . lachenicht, susanne. . hugenotten in europa und nordamerika. migration und integration in der frühen neuzeit. frankfurt/main and new york: campus. lachenicht, susanne. . etude comparée de la création et de la survie d’une identité huguenote en angleterre et dans le brandebourg au xviiie siècle. in l’identité huguenote. faire mémoire et écrire l’histoire (xvie-xxie siècle). edited by philip benedict, hugues daussy and pierre-olivier lechot. geneva: droz, pp. – . lachenicht, susanne. a. refugees and refugee protection in the early modern period. journal of refugee studies : – . [crossref] lachenicht, susanne. b. the huguenots’ maritime networks, th– th centuries. in connecting worlds and people. early modern diasporas. edited by dagmar freist and susanne lachenicht. london: routledge, pp. – . landwehr, achim. . historische diskursanalyse. frankfurt/main and new york: campus. landwehr, achim. . die anwesende abwesenheit der vergangenheit. essay zur geschichtstheorie. frankfurt: fischer. lucassen, jan, and leo lucassen. . migration, migration history, history: old paradigms and new perspectives. in migration, migration history, history: old paradigms and new perspectives. bern, berlin and brussels: peter lang, pp. – . luu, lien bich. . assimilation or segregation: colonies of alien craftsmen in elizabethan london. huguenot society proceedings : – . magdelaine, michelle. . frankfurt am main: drehscheibe des refuge. in die hugenotten. edited by rudolf von thadden and michelle magdelaine. munich: c.h. beck, pp. – . martschukat, jürgen. . geschichte schreiben mit foucault—eine einleitung. in geschichte schreiben mit foucault. edited by jürgen martschukat. frankfurt and new york: campus. moch, leslie page. . moving europeans. migration in western europe since . bloomington: indiana university press. oltmer, jochen. . migration, krieg und militär in der frühen und späten neuzeit. in krieg, militär und migration in der frühen neuzeit. edited by matthias asche, michael herrmann, ulrike ludwig and anton schindling. berlin: lit, pp. – . parker, geoffrey. . global crisis: war, climate change and catastrophe in the seventeenth century. new haven: yale university press. pettegree, andrew. . foreign protestant communities in sixteenth-century london. oxford: oxford university press. petti, alessandro. . refugee heritage. justification for inscription. humanities : . [crossref] po-chia hsia, ronnie. . introduction. in calvinism and religious toleration. edited by ronnie po-chia hsia and henk nierop. cambridge: cambridge university press, pp. – . schunka, alexander. . gäste, die bleiben. zuwanderer in kursachsen und der oberlausitz im . und frühen . jahrhundert. münster, hamburg, berlin and london: lit. http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities/special_issues/manifestos_ancient_present http://www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities/special_issues/manifestos_ancient_present http://dx.doi.org/ . /jrs/few http://dx.doi.org/ . /h humanities , , of schunka, alexander. . krieg, konfession und die ausprägung eines migrationssystems im . jahrhundert. in krieg, militär und migration in der frühen neuzeit. edited by matthias asche, michael herrmann, ulrike ludwig and anton schindling. berlin: lit, pp. – . segatto, diego. . quantum notes on classic places. humanities : . [crossref] smallwood, stephanie. . saltwater slavery. a middle passage from america to american diaspora. cambridge: harvard university press. swetschinski, daniel m. . reluctant cosmopolitans. the portuguese jews of seventeenth-century amsterdam. oxford and portland: littman library of jewish civilization. terpstra, nicholas. . religious refugees in the early modern world. an alternative history of the reformation. cambridge: cambridge university press. van horn melton, james. . from alpine minder to lowcountry yeoman: transatlantic worlds of a georgia salzburger, – . past & present : – . walker, mack. . the salzburger migration to prussia. in in search of peace and prosperity. new german settlements in eighteenth-century europe and america. edited by hartmut lehmann, hermann wellenreuther and renate wilson. philadelphia: pennsylvania university press, pp. – . wellenreuther, hermann. . the herrnhuters in europe and the british colonies ( – ). in religious refugees in europe, asia and north america ( th– st century). edited by susanne lachenicht. hamburg: lit, pp. – . wilson, renate. . land, population and labor. lutheran immigrants in colonial georgia. in in search of peace and prosperity. new german settlements in eighteenth century europe and america. edited by hartmut lehmann, hermann wellenreuther and renate wilson. philadelphia: the pennsylvania university press, pp. – . yungblut, laura hunt. . strangers settled here amongst us: policies, perceptions and the presence of aliens in elizabethan england. london: routledge. © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /h http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	early modern migrations ( s to late s) 	presentism, historical specificity and (fractured) continuities 	conclusions 	references appendices all rights reserved ©, adele baruch this document is protected by copyright law. use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ this article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the université de montréal, université laval, and the université du québec à montréal. its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ document generated on / / : p.m. narrative works issues, investigations, & interventions appendices adele baruch special issue: a narrative works monograph. listening to stories of courage and moral choice: creating conversations about inclusive care in our schools and communities volume , number , uri: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi: https://doi.org/ . / ar see table of contents publisher(s) centre for interdisciplinary research on narrative, st. thomas university issn - (digital) explore this journal cite this document baruch, a. ( ). appendices. narrative works, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar article abstract appendix a presents a further discussion of methodology as it relates to both the courage and moral choice project (cmpc) and the zakynthos and hurricane katrina interviews and analyses. appendix b contains the interview questions. appendix c presents a curriculum map for those interested in undertaking a project similar to the cmcp. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/nw/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/nw/ -v -n -nw / https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/nw/ narrative works: issues, investigations, & interventions ( ), – © adele baruch, robert atkinson, & holly khiel, contact: adele.baruchrunyon@maine.edu lliisstteenniinngg ttoo ssttoorriieess ooff ccoouurraaggee aanndd mmoorraall cchhooiiccee creating conversations about inclusive care in our schools and communities edited by adele baruch, robert atkinson, and holly khiel special issue: a narrative works monograph appendices adele baruch university of southern maine appendix a presents a further discussion of methodology as it relates to both the courage and moral choice project (cmpc) and the zakynthos and hurricane katrina interviews and analyses. appendix b contains the interview questions. appendix c presents a curriculum map for those interested in undertaking a project similar to the cmcp. keywords: methodology, interview questions, curriculum map atkinson, baruch, & khiel: appendices appendix a methodology for interpreting the data from participant essays and interviews adele baruch in our analysis, we principally strove to understand the meaning of our participants’ responses. to this end, we used a hermeneutical, and therefore dialogical, approach to understanding as articulated by gadamer ( ). hermeneutical analysis is based on the assumption that a tradition (cultural content or the investigator’s horizon) informs the investigator’s interpretation (schwandt, ). in order to reach an understanding that effectively builds a translation between the participant’s context and the investigator’s context, the researcher must be willing to risk his or her perspective through a process of back-and-forth dialogue about meaning (gadamer, ). our initial interviews were loosely guided by a brief interview (see appendix b, interview schedule). we then used questions or requests for further elaboration to check our understanding of the initial interviews. the follow-up questions we used often involved an initial rudimentary translation and paraphrasing of meaning so that our initial interpretation might be commented on and refined by interviewees. once we gathered data from our initial interviews, we identified categories using a mapping process described as axial coding, which illustrates the relatedness and proximity between categories (corbin & strauss, ). in keeping with corbin and strauss’ model, we then searched the data for themes that fell into the subcategories created by the supraordinate categories. using a hermeneutical approach, we then brought these categories, both subordinate and supraordinate, back to our participants to test their soundness. typically, we would present our thematic understanding as a tentative hypothesis, to be built on or questioned by participants. for instance, the supraordinate category of “reciprocity” was suggested in our reading of the initial interviews. particularly in the initial interviews related to helping and shelter during the holocaust, participants spoke about the desire to “give back” to those who sheltered and helped, as conveyed in the stories related about the stained-glass windows on zakynthos. for those who experienced help and shelter during katrina, the helpers were not generally at tremendous risk of losing their lives, and narrative works ( ) they had a well-developed and fairly self-sufficient helping organization in place. in these contexts, immediate back-and-forth reciprocity was not most fitting. melody’s husband kept asking the mennonite builders, “is there something we can do for you?” to no avail. in these cases, the desire to give back was transformed into the continuing gift of service that melody and her husband expressed during the catastrophic earthquake in haiti and in their ongoing work with the musician's village. these “other kinds of giving” led to a refinement of the supraordinate category of reciprocity to include the “gift of service” to others, an indirect way of “giving back.” clifford geertz ( ) has described the categories that researchers name in their qualitative analysis of interviews as “experience distant” (p. ). the subcategories (for example, “what can we do for you?”) were developed directly from the words of participants; this process is described by geertz as “experience-near” categories (p. ). geertz frames the researcher’s task as that of putting experience-near concepts in “illuminating connection” with experience-distant concepts. the juxtaposition of interviewer and interviewee concepts is highlighted in an effort to reliably translate the meaning of symbolic interaction. categories and their relationships are refined through dialogue about researchers’ interpretations and understanding during follow-up interviews. both the researchers and participants search for examples that may bear out the worthiness of categories through their application to lived experience. knowledge that cannot be directly applied to a concrete situation or lived experience remains meaningless and even risks obscuring meaning (gadamer, , p. ). kvale ( ) points to a hermeneutically-based approach in which researchers and participants develop an understanding of the same context through dialogue and then “apply this knowledge by new actions in the situation; thus, through praxis, they test the validity of the knowledge” (p. ). before completing our manuscript, chapters were sent to participants to obtain their feedback and to ensure that the refined analysis makes sense and speaks truth to their lived experience. to further test our categories against lived experience, data from the personal essays were triangulated into our later analysis. we searched for data that might disconfirm or add new meaning to our understanding of the categories. for instance, the theme of “making each other more human” from santiago’s essay added new dimensions to the subtheme emerging from the katrina interviews of “a return to relationships the atkinson, baruch, & khiel: appendices way it should be.” santiago’s essay expanded our understanding of the subcategory and the result was a more broadly applicable and meaningful category of lived experience. this methodology was particularly well suited to our central purpose, which was to gain understanding of the experience of hearing stories about helping under stress. our methodology has directed our attention to the insights, questions, and conversations these stories engendered as we observed common themes across different contexts. the give and take of back-and-forth dialogue allowed us to translate differing meanings across contexts and build a shared understanding. references corbin, j., & strauss, a. ( ). basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory ( rd ed.). thousand oaks, ca: sage. gadamer, h.-g. ( ). truth and method. new york, ny: crossroad. geertz, c. ( ). from the native’s point of view: on the nature of anthropological understanding. in p. rabinow & w. m. sullivan (eds.), interpretive social science: a reader (pp. – ). berkeley, ca: university of california press. kvale, s. ( ). the social construction of validity. qualitative inquiry, ( ), – . schwandt, t. a. ( ). three epistemological stances for a qualitative inquiry: interpretism, hermeneutics, and social constructivism. in n. k. denzin & y. s. lincoln (eds.), handbook of qualitative research ( nd ed.), (pp. – ). thousand oaks, ca: sage. appendix b interview schedule adele baruch . can you tell me about the stories you heard about rescue efforts, or altruism under duress? . how were you related to the teller? . how have these stories affected you? . any observations about the effects of the telling of the story on the story teller? . have you intentionally passed the stories on? . if you have, how have you passed them on? narrative works ( ) appendix c curriculum map adele baruch, amanda lane, and molly rand one of the strengths of the courage and moral choice project (cmcp) curriculum, as it has been applied, is its balance between structure associated with district learning standards and enough freedom to allow rich, spontaneous learning moments to occur. the successes of the first and second phases of the project are integrated here with ideas for improved application, resulting in the curriculum map that follows this introduction. it is described as a “map” because we point to a number of learning events and strategies developed out of our experience and analysis, but we envision it being applied flexibly, with the particular needs of the school and students involved driving the full structure. in the project’s second phase, it was taught by two teachers; one who relied on more structured plans and one who typically taught more extemporaneously (after comprehensive planning outside the classroom). the two styles balanced each other well. both teachers agreed that in implementing the cmcp curriculum, it was important to constantly remain open to the ways that they could connect the larger themes of moral choice and altruism to the student’s immediate experience. the teachers noticed that they ran into a lull in teacher and student focus and enthusiasm for the project at about weeks into its implementation. they attributed this to the fact that both teachers had deaths in their immediate families, resulting in missed time at school and less school focus for both of them. the strategy they used to move forward was to address this lull in energy head-on in a project-wide meeting, seeking ways to rejuvenate energy and attention. the curriculum map is described below, with some description of the planning that took place in the months prior to the start of the project. specific narrative description follows the map, offering clarification around some of the pedagogical approaches and choices. “amanda lane” and “molly rand” are pseudonyms for teachers who participated in the cmcp. their names have been changed to protect confidentiality. atkinson, baruch, & khiel: appendices suggested curriculum map planning participants: two teachers; two artist-educators; local participants interested in stories of helping. i. – months pre-cmpc a. teachers discuss an integrated curriculum about stories of helping and history using the expressive arts, including such skills as writing, poetry, songwriting, and visual art. b. teachers and artist-educators discuss and create a preliminary workshop schedule. c. teachers hold a meeting with individuals willing to share stories of helping to design a panel presentation and discuss potential follow-up interviews with cmcp student participants. ii. – months pre-cmcp a. teachers present cmcp plans to school board and/or administration as needed; once cmcp is approved, teachers and designated school staff discuss a project timeline. b. teachers begin holding conferences with individual student volunteers who have been selected to participate in the project iii. cmcp begins a. teachers and student participants co-define “moral courage” b. student participants read, view, and listen to stories of courage that required moral choices. c. teachers and student participants identify mission statement for the cmcp. d. teachers facilitate peer circles for student participants to interview panel participants and to identify community service opportunities narrative works ( ) e. teachers discuss with student participants the interview skills necessary to gather sufficient information to write about cmpc; skills include: . writing techniques for effective storytelling. . art techniques for visual description of stories. f. artist-educators are introduced to student participants and visit the cmcp to participate in classroom activities. g. teachers contact community sites to secure service opportunities. h. teachers arrange time each week for conferences with student participants (each teacher meets with a group for . hours per each day of the cmcp). iv. rd month of cmcp a. artist-educators implement workshops to facilitate interpretive creation of songs, visual art, poetry, and essays by student participants inspired by the stories they’ve heard. b. panel of individuals with stories of helping is implemented during school; panel includes stories and a question-and-answer session for student participants. c. students begin community service and interviews (including interviews with panel participants). v. th– th months of cmcp a. student participants prepare their final assignments. . each student participant creates a poem, an essay, and a visual art piece, and participates in the collaborative writing of a song. . each student participant is expected to choose one of their pieces to share with the community in the concluding cmcp event. atkinson, baruch, & khiel: appendices b. student participants view a guest speaker who will talk about public speaking. (it is recommended that student participants rehearse their presentations prior to the concluding event.) c. teachers and appropriate school administrators decide on public venue for the concluding cmcp event. d. teachers conference with each student participant about their projects and engage student participants in dialogue around each of the identified learning targets. e. student participants and teachers share the evaluation process in individual meetings. vi. cmcp concluding event concluding event is held for cmcp that features student participants’ presentations of their chosen expression in response to their experience of stories of moral courage; community at large is invited final comments the two teacher participants focused on interviewing skills with student participants so that students could gather stories of helping from within their community. one of the skills they introduced was a technique called “explode the moment,” which means that the interviewer, in order to seek rich thematic moments, essentially “slows down” their inquiry to allow all of the complex details and facets of the moment to unfold. the teachers noted that this technique was particularly helpful for some of the students in telling their gathered or personal stories. during the implementation of the cmcp, every student participant created an essay, a work of visual art, a poem, and a collaboratively-written song, each featuring a story of courage and moral choice. toward the end of the project, the participating teachers asked students to refine one of their projects and to prepare it for sharing at a concluding community event. (in the cmcp’s pilot stage, the concluding event was a school board presentation.) the teachers noted that the editing of the students’ essays was a labor-intensive project involving a narrative works ( ) number of one-to-one meetings with each student as they worked on revising their pieces. as noted above, individual project assessment and evaluation meetings occurred at the conclusion of the project between teachers and student participants. during these conferences, each of the students considered the district’s learning targets. student participants evaluated themselves on each of the targets and engaged in dialogue with their teachers about their teachers’ assessment of the same thing. the final assessment was a collaborative evaluation that was a product of the final teacher/student participant meeting. adele baruch, phd, is associate professor and chair of counselor education in clinical mental health counseling at the university of southern maine. amanda lane and molly rand are pseudonyms for teachers who participated in the courage and moral choice project. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ microsoft powerpoint - tremblay m.s. (think tank abbreviated symposium).ppt moving forward bymoving forward by looking back:looking back: lessons learned from longlessons learned from long--lost lifestyleslost lifestyles dr. mark tremblay, ph.d., facsmdr. mark tremblay, ph.d., facsm chair, active healthy kids canadachair, active healthy kids canada national: % % % % % % % % % % % current physical activity levels in current physical activity levels in canadian youth, canadian youth, -- y (> kkd) y (> kkd) source: / cchs youth watching t.v.youth watching t.v. ((≥≥ hours per day hours per day)) yr boys yr boys yr boys yr girls yr girls yr girls week days weekend days % young people’s health in context: hbsc. who, shields. statistics canada, prevalence of overweight and obesity: effects of screen-time canadian children (ages - ) < hour - hours + hours obese overweight physical activity and clustered physical activity and clustered cardiovascular risk in childrencardiovascular risk in children o dd s r at io s of c v d r is k* andersen et al. lancet : - , . *composite risk factor score: sbp, triglyceride, tc/hdl, insulin resistance, so s, aerobic fitness physical activity quintile ““i like to play indoors better i like to play indoors better ’’cause thatcause that’’s where all the s where all the electrical outlets are.electrical outlets are.”” a fourth-grader in san diego from r. louv. last child in the woods. naturenature--deficit disorderdeficit disorder is our frame of reference changing? is the change temporally unstable i s o u r f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e c h a n g i n g ? sedentary to to to to + sedentary distribution of sedentary behaviour duration (hours) of children - yrs self-report direct measure % m ee ti ng g ui de lin es is our frame of reference changing? direct measure vs self-report physical activity nhanes and brfss trends in households with entertainment trends in households with entertainment equipment that promotes sedentary behaviourequipment that promotes sedentary behaviour % one tv cable +tv computer vcr/dvd internet statistics canada, ; “hyper-parenting” “are we are falling prey to the fantasy that we can engineer the perfect child?” ““ironically the childhood obesity ironically the childhood obesity epidemic has coincided with a epidemic has coincided with a dramatic increase in childrendramatic increase in children’’s s organized sportorganized sport.. this does not mean this does not mean that organized sports contribute to that organized sports contribute to obesity, but that an overobesity, but that an over--scheduled, scheduled, overover--organized childhood mayorganized childhood may”” r. louv. last child in the woods. (p. ) ““recreation has gone from recreation has gone from spontaneous to organized and spontaneous to organized and regimented activity: parents exercise regimented activity: parents exercise at the gym while the young play soccer at the gym while the young play soccer and hockey in leagues with schedules and hockey in leagues with schedules rather than in the backyard or the rather than in the backyard or the street in front. more time is often spent street in front. more time is often spent preparing for and getting there rather preparing for and getting there rather than on the activity itself.than on the activity itself.”” friedman. room for thought. nsns . ** . ** . * . * nsns . ** . ** . * . * . ** . ** . * . * . ** . ** nsns nsns . ** . ** nsns nsns nsns nsns . ** . ** nsns . ** . ** . ** . ** organized sportorganized sport unorganized sportunorganized sport art/music/danceart/music/dance clubsclubs video gamesvideo games tv tv -- hrs/day hrs/day tv tv -- hrs/day hrs/day low seslow ses high seshigh ses single parentsingle parent odds of odds of overweightoverweight odds of odds of obesityobesity variablevariable tremblay and willms. int j obese, a little means a lot!a little means a lot! the case of the tv remotethe case of the tv remote •• average age yearsaverage age years •• years x wks x hrs/wk = , hrs of tv years x wks x hrs/wk = , hrs of tv •• years x wks x . hrs/wk = , hrs of tv years x wks x . hrs/wk = , hrs of tv •• ( , + , ) x cc/hr = , cc in lifetime( , + , ) x cc/hr = , cc in lifetime •• , x . kcal / cc = , kcals , x . kcal / cc = , kcals •• , / , kcal / lb of fat , / , kcal / lb of fat •• . pounds of fat!!! . pounds of fat!!! what aboutwhat about ““incidental movementincidental movement”” oror ““lifestyle embedded activitylifestyle embedded activity”” oror neat?neat? a look at the past traditional contemporary lifestylelifestyle resultsresults directly measured physical activitydirectly measured physical activity •• old order mennonitesold order mennonites ––↑↑ average movement counts per dayaverage movement counts per day ––↑↑ minutes of moderate physical activity ( minutes of moderate physical activity ( -- mets) mets) ––↑↑ minutes of mvpa ( + mets)minutes of mvpa ( + mets) ––↑↑ total daily energy expendituretotal daily energy expenditure tremblay et al., msse, despite having no physical despite having no physical education, no institutionalized education, no institutionalized sport, and low socioeconomic sport, and low socioeconomic status, old order mennonite status, old order mennonite children are more active than children are more active than children living a contemporary children living a contemporary canadian lifestyle.canadian lifestyle. tremblay et al., msse, steps/day in children (ages steps/day in children (ages -- ); ); average of weekdaysaverage of weekdays , , , , , , , , , ca na da ( am is h) be lg iu m sw ed en cy pr us au st ra lia us a (s ou th w es t) s te ps /d ay canada canada kenya school / opa domestic transport leisure energy expenditure (kcal)energy expenditure (kcal) physical activity guidelinesphysical activity guidelines ↑↑ activity min beyond currentactivity min beyond current ↓↓ inactivity min beyond currentinactivity min beyond current health canada, health canada, hr/day mod activity ( / if inactive) hr/day mod activity ( / if inactive) x/wk strength, flexibility, bone x/wk strength, flexibility, bone hea, hea, min from or more bouts daily min from or more bouts dailynaspe, naspe, active daily, x min mvpa/wk (y)active daily, x min mvpa/wk (y)int. consensus, int. consensus, -- min vigorous each day (c+y) min vigorous each day (c+y)acsm, acsm, guidelineguidelinegroupgroup m in o f m v p a p er d ay proportion of children meeting guidelines % % subject id# tremblay. cphi report, usk children meeting usk children meeting guidelinesguidelines av mvpa al mvpa av mvpab al mvpab > min > min p e r c e n t m e e ti n g g u id e li n e chms chms -- self-report direct measure % m ee ti ng g ui de lin es direct measure vs self-report physical activity nhanes and brfss our challenge!our challenge! •• reduce time reference from an hour to a minutereduce time reference from an hour to a minute •• reduce activity reference from kcal to kcalreduce activity reference from kcal to kcal •• reduce exercise ref to a few muscle contractionsreduce exercise ref to a few muscle contractions •• reduce reduce autodependencyautodependency •• reduce financial dependencyreduce financial dependency •• reduce reward (food, awards, prizes) dependencyreduce reward (food, awards, prizes) dependency •• reduce institutional approaches and dependenciesreduce institutional approaches and dependencies •• reduce naturereduce nature--deficit disorderdeficit disorder •• reduce screen timereduce screen time •• reduce chair timereduce chair time •• get back to the basicsget back to the basics wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ original article aspirin-exacerbated asthma mathew varghese, md and richard f. lockey, md this review focuses on aspirin-exacerbated asthma (aea). the review includes historical perspective of aspirin, prevalence, pathogenesis, clinical features and treatment of aea. the pathogenesis of aea involves the cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase pathway. aspirin affects both of these pathways by inhibiting the enzyme cycooxygenase- (cox- ). inhibition of cox- leads to a decrease in prostaglandin e (pge ). the decrease in pge results in an increase in cysteinyl leukotrienes by the lipooxygenase pathway involving the enzyme -lipooxygenase ( -lo). leukotriene c (ltc ) synthase is the enzyme responsible for the production of leukotriene c , the chief cysteinyl leukotriene responsible for aea. there have been familial occurences of aea. an allele of the ltc synthase gene in aea is known as allele c. allele c has a higher frequency in aea. clinical presentation includes a history of asthma after ingestion of aspirin, nasal congestion, watery rhinorrhea and nasal polyposis. treatment includes leukotriene receptor antagonists, leukotriene inhibitors, aspirin desinsitaztion and surgery. aea is the most well-defined phenotype of asthma. although aea affects adults and children with physician-diagnosed asthma, in some cases there is no history of asthma and aea often goes unrecognized and underdiagnosed. key words: aspirin desensitization, aspirin exacerbated asthma, aspirin exacerbated respiratory disease, aspirin sensitive asthma, cysteinyl leukotriene, leukotriene, leukotriene c , leukotriene c synthase a cetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is one of the most prescribed and frequently used over-the-counter medications of all time. aspirin-exacerbated asthma (aea) was first reported years ago after severe bronchospasm in an individual with asthma was observed following aspirin ingestion and is characterized by eosinophilic rhinosinusitis, nasal polyposis, aspirin sensi- tivity, and asthma. , all cyclooxygenase- (cox- ) inhib iti ng nonsteroidal anti-inflamma tory drugs (nsaids), including aspirin, induce bronchospasm, rhi- norrhea, and nasal obstruction in these subjects. – in addition, the ocular administration of the cox- -inhibit- ing nsaid ketorolac has been linked to aea. individuals with aea usually have moderate to severe persistent asthma and often require treatment with high-dose inhaled corticosteroids and even systemic corticosteroids in some instances. , although the exact mechanism causing the aea has yet to be fully elucidated, there is considerable evidence that an alteration in the metabolism of arachi- donic acid is responsible. – another clinical entity, chronic idiopathic urticaria with aspirin sensitivity, although perhaps similar at a biochemical level to aea, is clinically different as this reaction is confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissues. this review focuses on aea. historical perspective and background the medicinal properties of the group of alkali metal salts and esters known as salicylates have been known since ancient times. records dating back to the time of hippocrates ( bc) describe powders derived from the bark of the white willow tree (salix alba) used for pain relief; the name salicylic acid is derived from salix, the latin name for this tree. – in , the french chemist gerhardt neutralized salicylic acid by buffering it with sodium salicylate and acetylchloride, creating acetylsa- licylic acid or aspirin. the discovery of aspirin by gerhardt was abandoned until felix hoffman, a german chemist, rediscovered it in and learned of its unique property of reduced gastrointestinal irritation compared with mathew varghese: university of south florida division of allergy and immunology, department of internal medicine, university of south florida college of medicine, tampa, fl; and richard f. lockey, university of south florida division of allergy and immunology, department of internal medicine, university of south florida college of medicine, tampa, fl correspondence to: mathew varghese, university of south florida division of allergy and immunology, department of internal medicine, university of south florida college of medicine, c/o the veterans hospital , bruce b. downs boulevard, tampa, fl , email: mvarghes@hsc.usf.edu doi . / . . allergy, asthma, and clinical immunology, vol , no (summer), : pp – salicylic acid. shortly afterward, ‘‘aspirin’’ was patented by bayer in as a new analgesic wonder drug. the reduced gastrointestinal irritation can be attributed to the acetylation of the phenolic hydroxyl group (-oh) of sodium acetylate. salicylic acid was synthesized by kolbe, a german chemist, in and was used as a analgesic; however, severe gastrointestinal irritation was a common side effect. in , maclagan and stricker demonstrated that salicylic acid was an effective treatment for rheumatic fever; it was used later for chronic rheumatoid arthritis and gout. today salicylic acid and its derivatives have a variety of clinical uses. salicylic acid is often used because of its keratinolytic properties as a topical solution for acne, cutaneous exfoliation in chemical skin peels, and psoriasis and for treatment of cutaneous fungal infections. aspirin is used as an analgesic and to treat fever, migraine, rheumatic fever (drug of choice), kawasaki disease (along with intravenous immunoglobulin), pericarditis, and even ulcerative colitis ( -acetylsalicylic acid or mesalamine). in addition, it is used to prevent coronary artery disease and for both primary and secondary prevention of cerebrovascular accidents. however, serious side effects are associated with its use, such as occurs in aea. there are both short- and long- term side effects of aspirin, such as nephropathy, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, prolonged bleeding, and reye syndrome. , aea was first described by widal and colleagues in . in , samter and beers reported and popularized the phenomenon of aea (table ). definition over the past several decades, aea has also been referred to as the samter triad, aspirin triad, aspirin-sensitive asthma, aspirin-intolerant asthma (ata), aspirin sensitiv- ity, and aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. aea best defines this phenomenon as this term describes the disease in which the exacerbation of asthma occurs following the ingestion of aspirin and other cox- inhibiting nsaids. aea is used to refer to this syndrome throughout this article. , prevalence jenkins and colleagues found that prevalence rates are % and % for asthmatic adults and children, respectively, when examining primarily unblinded oral provocation tests in a systematic review of articles on aea. prevalence was dependent on the method used to diagnose aea, with patients’ histories alone giving a much lower prevalence rate of . % in adults and % in children. in , vanselow first reported aea exacerbated by indomethacin. jenkins and colleagues confirmed the finding that some other nsaids also exacerbated aea by reporting the sensitivity to ibuprofen, , mg, of %; naproxen, mg, of %; and diclofenac , mg, of to %. vally and colleagues reported that the prevalence of respiratory symptoms triggered by aspirin in three different asthma study populations surveyed in australia was to %. in a random sample by postal table . historical perspective of aspirin and aspirin- exacerbated asthma date person discovery bc hippocrates described properties of powders derived from bark of white willow tree (salix alba) gerhardt created asa by acetylation of phenolic hydroxyl group of salicylic acid kolbe synthesis of salicylic acid, used as a painkiller, although with severe gi side effects hoffman rediscovered the medicinal properties of asa without gi irritation; mass marketing by bayer abrami and lemoyez reported a case of anaphylaxis to mg asa samter and beers reported the phenomena of asa intolerance, nasal polyposis, asthma vanselow bronchial asthma induced by indomethacin sir john vane identified mechanism of action of asa as inhibition of cyclooxygenase pathway lockey et al reported mechanism of the mode of inheritance of aea as autosomal recessive stevenson reported successful desensitization to asa szczeklik reported eicosanoids (cysteinyl leukotrienes) in pathogenesis of aea aea aspirin-exacerbated asthma; asa acetylsalicylic acid; gi gastrointestinal. allergy, asthma, and clinical immunology, volume , number , survey of , adults in southern finland, the prevalence of aea reported in the general population was . %; however, individuals with pre-existing physician-diag- nosed asthma had reported prevalence rates of . %. a database study from poland in which , adults were randomly selected showed a prevalence of aea of . % in the general population and . % of subjects with a known diagnosis of asthma. with nasal polyps, aspirin sensi- tivity may be as high as to %, and with chronic rhinitis, it is . to . %. aea may be widely underdiagnosed; for example, in the european network of aspirin-induced asthma (aiane), % of participants were unaware of aspirin sensitivity before undergoing unblinded aspirin provocation tests. the reasons for underdiagnosis may be the lack of recognition by the aea individual of mild symptoms induced by aspirin and low clinical awareness of this syndrome among health care professionals. a study by lockey and colleagues showed that if subjects are not double-blind challenged, the results may be falsely positive. only one of three of the individuals challenged had positive results when tested using double-blind, controlled challenges. therefore, without double-blinded challenges, the true prevalence of aea cannot be ensured. pathogenesis an immunoglobulin e (ige) mechanism does not explain the aea phenomena. an elevated total ige, dermograph- ism, and increased sensitivity to antibiotics were associated with aea in one study, but skin test responses with lysine- aspirin were negative. no antibodies against aspirin or other nsaids have been consistently detected in this disease. , – in , vane added credence to the theory that aspirin-precipitated attacks are not due to an allergic reaction but to inhibition of cox- in the airways when he discovered that aspirin inhibited the cox- enzyme. – that discovery led to the aea cox pathway theory. some studies demonstrated an increase in the number of bronchial submucosal mast cells in aea compared with ata, whereas others have not confirmed this finding. , the cytokine profile of the mast cell was investigated in another study and reported an increase in bronchial submucosal mast cells expressing interleukin- and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. cowburn and colleagues did not report any significant differences in bronchial mucosal mast after lysine-aspirin challenges between ata and aea individuals even though the number of mast cells was lower in both groups when compared with healthy controls. cyclooxygenase pathway phospholipids are a class of lipids formed from four components: a fatty acid, a negatively charged phosphate group, nitrogen-containing alcohol, and a backbone of either glycerol or sphingosine. four different groups of phospholipases exist, a, b, c, and d, with each group serving a unique function. phospholipase a produces arachidonic acid. it is from arachidonic acid that various eicosanoids are produced from the action of lipoxygenase and cycloxygenase, namely leukotrienes and prostanoids. there are two main cox enzymes, cox- and cox- , encoded by two specific genes on chromosomes q and q , respectively. cox- also exists, and two smaller forms of cox- , derived from alternative splicing of cox- messenger ribonucleic acid (mrna), have been identified. cox- is activated during periods of inflammation, whereas cox- is active during periods of quiescence. the inhibition of cox- by aspirin causes the reactions associated with aea, and this inhibition leads to a decrease in the production of prostaglandin e (pge ), which acts like a brake on the uncontrolled synthesis of cysteinyl leukotrienes (cys-lts). – picado and colleagues found decreased cox- mrna expression by analysis of nasal polyps in subjects suffering from aea. since cox- was found to be underexpressed, inadequate cox- regulation may also be involved in the pathogenesis of aea. nsaids that are highly selective for cox- , for example, celecoxib and rofecoxib, do not cause acute exacerbations of asthma in aea. , cowburn and colleagues demonstrated that although aspirin removes pge -dependent suppression in all subjects, only in aea is there an increase in leukotriene c (ltc ) synthase, leading to a marked overproduction of cys-lts. lipoxygenase pathway and production of cys-lts arachidonic acid is first converted by -lipoxygenase ( - lo) into -hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid ( -hpete) and then into leukotriene a (lta ). lta is converted into leukotriene b (ltb ) by the enzyme lta epoxide hydrolase. eosinophils, mast cells, and alveolar macro- phages use the enzyme ltc synthase to conjugate glutathione with lta to make ltc . ltc can be transported out of the cell and its glutamic acid moiety aspirin-exacerbated asthma removed by ubiquitous enzymes to make leukotriene d (ltd ). ltd , in turn, can be cleaved by dipeptidases to make leukotriene e (lte ). ltc , ltd , and lte make up the cys-lts. the cys-lts cause bronchoconstric- tion, mucus plugging and edema, and cellular infiltration and recruitment in the airways. the overexpression of cys-lts occurs in both bronchial and nasal mucosa in aea. – in a study by adamjee and colleagues, eosinophils from nasal polyps, immunopositive for ltc synthase, were fourfold more numerous in aea than in ata. there were also threefold more cells expressing -lo in the nasal polyp mucosa. these investigators found that fivefold higher eosinophil counts accounted for the increased ltc synthase expression in polyps from aea. the inhibitory effect of pge in aea was also investigated in a study that showed that inhaled pge affords almost complete protection in aea by blocking aspirin-induced bronchoconstriction. the inhibitory effect, however, is still controversial as pge levels have been found to be both increased and decreased in nasal and bronchial lavages (figure ). , , familial inheritance lockey and colleagues in described four members of a mennonite family with aea, three of whom were first cousins. one of the cousins, whose husband was a member of the isolate, had twin daughters, one with aea and another with allergic rhinitis and extrinsic asthma but no aea. the twin with aea and her husband shared common ancestors in the eighth ancestral generation. the presence of aea in relatives, influenced by the presence of consanguinity, suggests an autosomal reces- sive mode of inheritance. it also suggests that the discordance seen in the twins may be an indication of environmental influences on the phenotypic expression of this phenomenon. also mentioned in this article was a report of two sisters of a non-mennonite family who had aea and a third sibling with intrinsic asthma who improved after aspirin ingestion. curiously, there are other case reports of aea improving after aspirin ingestion. miller described a pair of sisters with the aea in another report of familial inheritance. von maur and colleagues described a family with mild aea and suggested a dominant mode of inheritance. in this study, an early onset of asthma in most affected members of the family and a lack of symptoms of sinusitis or nasal polyposis predominated. familial occurrence of aea was reported in . % of subjects studied in aiane. in these families, affected individuals were usually siblings. szczeklik and sanak reported on two sisters, aged and years, who, after being given unblinded aspirin challenges, had widely different reactions, with the older sibling experiencing an asthma exacerbation and the younger marked nasal congestion. both sisters shared the variant allele of ltc synthase associated with aea. the parents of the twins and some other family members who were atopic or had moderate eosinophilia were challenged with aspirin and had negative responses. ltc synthase ltc , one of the cys-lts, is proposed as the primary leukotriene that causes bronchospasm in aea. cys-lts are first synthesized by -lo and -lipoxygenase- associated protein (flap ). expression of -lo is modulated by a genetic variation in the transcription factor binding motif of the -lo gene. no association between the allelic variants of -lo gene promoter and aea has been observed, nor has there been any difference in the results from immunostaining of bronchial biopsy specimens for -lo and flap . , ltc synthase is a terminal enzyme that mediates production of cys-lts. , , this enzyme is expressed in eosinophils, basophils, and macrophages. in these cells ltc synthase alternatively converts ltc from lta . ltc is rendered powerless owing to the lack of figure . cox- cyclooxygenase- ; cys-lt cysteinyl leukotriene; ltc leukotriene c ; ltd leukotreine d ; lte leukotriene e ; pge- prostaglandin e . allergy, asthma, and clinical immunology, volume , number , concomitant -lo expression in platelets and epithelial and endothelial cells. production of ltc synthase depends on external sources of lta . ltc synthase has been cloned by lam and col- leagues and its function and sequence studied. an allelic variant of the ltc synthase gene has been identified and is referred to as allele c. this allele has a % to % or higher frequency in aea, % in ata, and % in normal individuals. allele c is formed by the transversion of adenine to cytosine, bases from the translation start. semiquantitative studies by sanak and colleagues of ltc synthase transcripts in peripheral blood eosinophils showed increased numbers of mrna copies in individuals with aea. the increased transcripts correlated with the allelic c variant. the nature of this interaction has yet to be fully elucidated. of note, the transient increase in urinary lte in aea following oral aspirin provocation has been observed only in allele c variants. a japanese study also showed that the variant c allele is higher in aea than in ata. clinical presentation the age at onset of subjects with aea in the united states was, on average, years. in women, the age at onset is usually earlier than in men, and severity is usually classified in the moderate to severe persistent category. presentation in one european study showed a character- istic sequence of symptoms, first beginning with persistent rhinitis at around age years of age and followed by asthma, aspirin sensitivity, and then nasal polyposis. atopy was reported in one-third of cases. rhinorrhea and nasal congestion are usually the first symptoms of aea and are commonly refractory to pharmacologic therapy. it becomes perennial and more difficult to treat and then becomes associated with anosmia, recurrent and chronic sinusitis, and nasal polyposis. , , , after the ingestion of aspirin or other cox- inhibitors, bronchospasm occurs within to hours. care must be taken to differentiate selective cox- inhibitors from preferentially selective cox- inhibitors such as rofecoxib, meloxicam, and ibuprofen. preferentially selective cox- inhibitors are selective for cox- at low doses but at higher doses also inhibit cox- . – however, despite their overall safety profile, caution must be used with these medications as several cases have been described in which bronchospasm occurred with their use. bronchospasm with cox- challenge can be accompanied by profuse rhinorrhea, conjunctival injection, a scarlet flushing of the head and neck, periorbital edema, abdominal pain, and even urticaria. , a refractory period to the administration of aspirin or other cox- inhibitors develops after sufficient quantities of one or another of these medications is given to an aea subject. this refractory period lasts for an average of to days. , – diagnosis aea should be suspected when the following exists: . a history of exacerbation of asthma after ingestion of aspirin or other non-nsaids . chronic and intractable nasal congestion and watery rhinorrhea, especially if specific ige tests are negative . nasal polyposis . total or near-total opacification of the sinus cavities as demonstrated by computed tomography . an individual with the rapid onset of a severe attack of asthma with no previous insult who necessitates acute emergency care, intensive care unit admission, or endotracheal intubation , , the oral challenge, beginning with small amounts of aspirin and increasing the dose, is commonly used to confirm the diagnosis. threshold doses of to mg (averaging – mg) evoke positive reactions and are the most sensitive diagnostic tool. inhaled bronchial chal- lenged with acetylsalicylic acid–lysine is also used to detect this syndrome. so, too, is nasal provocation with aspirin-lysine, but this technique is much less sensitive than bronchial challenge. urinary lte can also be measured following aspirin challenge as an adjunctive measure to confirm a positive bronchial challenge. preferably, aspirin challenge tests should be preceded by a ‘‘placebo challenge’’ to exclude the variability of bron- chial responsiveness; however, as with any study, double- blinded control studies are ideal. , , , stevenson and colleagues also reported that intranasal ketorolac admin- istration is a reasonably accurate and safe method to diagnose aea. prevention aea subjects should avoid all aspirin-containing com- pounds and other analgesics that have the potential to inhibit the cox- enzyme. they can safely ingest sodium salicylate, salicylamide, choline magnesium trisalicylate, aspirin-exacerbated asthma benzydamine, chloroquine, azapropazone, and dextropro- poxyphene. however, these drugs are poor analgesics and have little anti-inflammatory effect. most individuals can ingest acetaminophen, which primarily inhibits cox- while weakly inhibiting cox- and cox- . however, in some subjects, very sensitive to low provoking doses of aspirin, acetaminophen-induced asthma is more common. it can cause bronchoconstriction at doses greater than , mg in % of individuals with this syndrome. treatment the guidelines used to treat and manage aea are no different from those used to treat moderate to severe persistent ata asthma. individuals with aea occasionally require systemic corticosteroids in addition to their regular maintenance therapy. leukotriene inhibitors, such as zileuton, which inhibits -lo, and leukotriene receptor antagonists, such as montelukast and zafirlukast, are used to treat aea. however, ata and aea subjects on leukotriene inhibitors have similar clinical outcomes, and urinary lte cannot be used to determine responses to these medications. , aea subjects with the c allele appear to have a better response with leukotriene receptor antagonists. surgery for nasal polyposis associated with aea results in an % subjective improvement rate with a % chance or more of recurrence of nasal polyps and persistence of nasal symptoms. thus, following sinus surgery, treatment with topical and systemic corticosteroids, aspirin desensitization, and leukotriene inhibitors is recommended. , mild to marked improvement in quality of life was reported in individuals with aea following sinus surgery in a japanese study. mcfadden and colleagues also reported improve- ments in quality of life and pulmonary function tests (pfts) and a reduction in systemic and topical corticosteroid requirements. simple polypectomy alone does not seem to be as useful as endoscopic surgery owing to the excessive amount of polypoid tissue burden in aea. , , aspirin desensitization desensitization became possible because of the discovery of the refractory period in aea. , stevenson and colleagues, in , reported on two individuals with aea who were successfully desensitized to aspirin. they were continuously treated with daily aspirin, and both individuals reported improvement in nasal patency, with one regaining her sense of smell. therapy with aspirin was continued for months, with persistent nasal airway patency and a diminished growth in nasal polyps, with an overall reduction of half in the use of systemic corticosteroids and improvement in rhinitis and asthma. in another study by the same investigators, published in , of subjects, % experienced a reduction in their nasal airway symptoms and systemic and corticoster- oid requirements as long as they maintained their daily intake of aspirin. in subjects who completed a year or more of such treatment, % experienced good or excellent improvement in sense of smell and general assessment of nasal-sinus and asthma symptoms. this study suggests that aspirin desensitization be used for those who do not respond to topical glucocorticoids or oral leukotriene antagonists. those ideal for desensitiza- tion have nasal polyposis, necessitating treatment with systemic corticosteroids. , sousa and colleagues reported that desensitization is associated with a reduction in the number of inflammatory cells in the nasal mucosa expressing the cys-lt receptor and that downregulation of receptor expression after aspirin desensitization is the likely mechanism of action. pretreatment with cys-lt receptor antagonists prior to aspirin desensitization significantly decreases the risk of aea. , other new modalities are under investigation, some involving high-dose aspirin therapy for emergent desensi- tization using oral protocols based on rapidly escalating doses of aspirin. in individuals with aspirin-induced urticaria-angioedema, a separate clinical entity with perhaps similar pathogenic mechanisms, wong and colleagues reported the safe, rapid oral challenge desensi- tization to aspirin. in this study, aspirin administration permitted individuals with coronary artery disease to receive aspirin. some other promising treatments, such as tacrolimus, have proven ineffective. conclusion aea is perhaps the most well-defined asthma phenotype compared with other asthma phenotypes, such as allergic, non-allergic, exercise-induced, and infectious asthma. it is a relatively common phenotype of asthma, affecting primarily adults but also children with physician- diagnosed asthma and, in some cases, subjects with no previous history of asthma. it is often unrecognized and underdiagnosed. subjects with moderate to severe asthma who have severe nasal congestion, nasal polyposis, and radiologic evidence of opacification of sinuses and who require emergent care and/or intubation should be suspected to allergy, asthma, and clinical immunology, volume , number , have this form of asthma. a history of exacerbation associated with the ingestion of aspirin or other cox- nsaids can be diagnostic for the phenotype. a refractory period following aspirin challenge during which no additional symptoms occur with additional aspirin or other cox- nsaids may last up to to days. pge acts as a brake on ltc synthase, which moderates the production of cys-lts. individuals with aea have decreased levels of pge , which, in turn, causes an overproduction of cys-lts, which theoretically causes aea. genetic mechanism studies suggest that there is a familial incidence; however, the exact mode of inheritance is unknown. treatment of aea primarily involves use of systemic and inhaled glucocorticosteroids, short- and long-acting b-agonists, leukotriene-modifying agents, and medical and sometimes surgical treatment of the rhinitis and/or nasal polyposis. leukotriene-modifying agents and inhaled corticoster- oids, often in high doses, are the mainstay of therapy. aspirin desensitization is also a useful tool and in up to to % of these patients, and the response sometimes can be dramatic in reducing the overall dependence on inhaled and/or systemic glucocorticosteroids. references . widal mf, abrami p, lemoyez j. anaphylaxie et idiosyncrasie. presse med ; : – . . szczeklik a, stevenson dd. aspirin-induced asthma: advances in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . vanselow n. bronchial asthma induced by indomethacin. ann intern med ; : – . . sitenga gl, ing eb, van dellen rg, et al. asthma caused by topical application of ketorolac. ophthalmology ; : – . . stevenson dd, szczeklik a. clinical and pathologic perspectives on aspirin sensitivity and asthma. allergy clin immunol ; : – . . szczeklik a, niankowska e. clinical features and diagnosis of aspirin induced asthma. thorax ; suppl :s – . . sanak m, szczeklik a. genetics of aspirin induced asthma. thorax ; suppl :s – . . mastalerz l, setkowicz m, sczceklik a. mechanism of chronic urticaria exacerbation by aspirin. curr allergy asthma rep ; : – . . kim sh, ye ym, lee sk, park hs. genetic mechanism of aspirin- induced urticaria/angioedema. curr opin allergy clin immunol ; : – . . chiej r. encyclopaedia of medicinal plants. macdonald; . . rainsford kd. aspirin and the salicylates. london: butterworths; . . vane jr, botting rm. aspirin and other salicylates. london: chapman and hall medical publishers; . . verg e, plumpe g, schultheis h. meilensteine: the official bayer publication in commemoration of the centenary of aspirin’s release. . . mctavish j. what’s in a name? aspirin and the american medical association. bull hist med ; : – . . buselmeier tj. combination urea and salicyclic acid ointment nail avulsion in nondystrophic nails. cutis ; : , . . pullman h, lennartz kj, steigleder gk. effect of salicylic acid on epidermal cell proliferation kinetics in psoriasis. arch dermatol forsch ; : – . . regueiro m, loftus ev, steinhart ah, cohen rd. clinical guidelines for the medical management of left sided ulcerative colitis and ulcerative proctitis. inflamm bowel dis ; : – . . berger js, roncaglioni mc, avanzini f, et al. aspirin for the primary prevention of cardiovascular events in women and men. jama ; : – . . lanas a, hunt r. prevention of anti-inflammatory drug-induced gastrointestinal damage: benefits and risks of therapeutic strategies. ann med ; : – . . aaron th, muttitt el. reactions to acetylsalicylic acid. can med assoc j ; : – . . samter m, beers rf. intolerance to aspirin. clinical studies and consideration of its pathogenesis. ann intern med ; : – . . kalyoncu af. aspirin-induced asthma needs a classification. allergol immunopathol (madr) ; : – . . szczeklik a, stevenson dd. aspirin-induced asthma: advances in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . jenkins c, costello j, hodge l. systematic review of prevalence of aspirin induced asthma and its implications for clinical practice. bmj ; : . . vally h, taylor ml, thompson pj. the prevalence of aspirin intolerant asthma (aia) in australian asthmatic patients. thorax ; : – . . hedman j, kaprio j, poussa t, nieminen mm. prevalence of asthma, aspirin intolerance, nasal polyposis and chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease in a population-based study. int j epidemiol ; : – . . kasper l, sladek k, duplaga m, et al. prevalence of asthma with aspirin hypersensitivity in the adult population of poland. allergy ; : – . . kalyoncu af, karakaya g, sahin aa, et al. occurrence of allergic conditions in asthmatics with analgesic intolerance. allergy ; : – . . szczeklik a, nizankowska e, duplaga m. natural history of aspirin-induced asthma. aiane investigators. european network on aspirin-induced asthma. eur respir j ; : – . . lockey rf. aspirin-improved asa triad. hosp pract ; ( ): , , . . pierzchalska m, mastalerz l, sanak m, et al. a moderate and unspecific release of cysteinyl-leukotrienes by aspirin from peripheral blood leukocytes precludes its value for aspirin- sensitivity testing in asthma. clin exp allergy ; : – . . gray pa, warner td, vojnovic i, et al. effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on cyclo-oxygenase and lipoxygenase activity in whole blood from aspirin-sensitive asthmatics vs healthy donors. br j pharmacol ; : – . aspirin-exacerbated asthma . szczeklik a, gryglewski rj, czerniawska-mysik g. relationship of inhibition of prostaglandin biosynthesis by analgesics to asthma attacks in aspirin-sensitive patients. br med j ; : – . . szczeklik a. the cyclooxygenase theory of aspirin-induced asthma. eur respir j ; : – . . szczeklik a, sanak m. the role of cox- and cox- in asthma pathogenesis and its significance in the use of selective inhibitors. clin exp allergy ; : – . . vane sj. aspirin and other anti-inflammatory drugs. thorax ; suppl :s – . . vane jr, botting rm. the mechanism of action of aspirin. thromb res ; : – . . vane jr. inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs. nat new biol ; : – . . smith jh, willis al. aspirin selectively inhibits prostaglandin production in human platelets. nature ; : – . . vane jr, botting rm. mechanism of action of aspirin-like drugs. semin arthritis rheum ; : – . . vane jr, bakhle ys, botting rm. cyclooxygenases and . annu rev pharmacol toxicol ; : – . . nasser sm, pfister r, christie pe, et al. inflammatory cell populations in bronchial biopsies from aspirin-sensitive asthmatic subjects. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . nasser s, christie pe, pfister r, et al. effect of endobronchial aspirin challenge on inflammatory cells in bronchial biopsy samples from aspirin-sensitive asthmatic subjects. thorax ; : – . . sousa ar, lams be, pfister r, et al. expression of interleukin- and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in aspirin- sensitive and non-aspirin-sensitive asthmatic airways. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . cowburn as, sladek k, soja j, et al. overexpression of leukotriene c synthase in bronchial biopsies from patients with aspirin- intolerant asthma. j clin invest ; : – . . antczak a, montuschi p, kharitonov s, et al. increased exhaled cysteinyl-leukotrienes and -isoprostane in aspirin induced asthma. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . chandrasekharan nv, hu dai, lamar turepu roos k, et al. cox- , a cyclooxygenase- variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expres- sion. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . picado c, fernandez-morata jc, juan m, et al. cyclooxygenase- mrna is down-expressed in nasal polyps from aspirin-sensitive asthmatics. am j respir cell mol biol ; : – . . kowalski ml, pawliczak r, wozniak j, et al. differential metabolism of arachidonic acid in nasal polyp epithelial cells cultured from aspirin-sensitive and aspirin-tolerant patients. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . mullol j, fernandez-morata jc, roca-ferrer j, et al. cyclooxygenase and cyclooxygenase expression in abnormally regulated in human nasal polyps. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . szczeklik a. prostaglandin e and aspirin-induced asthma. lancet ; : . . pavord id, tattersfield ae. bronchoprotective role for endogenous prostaglandin e . lancet ; : – . . adamjee j, suh yj, park hs, et al. expression of -lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase pathway enzymes in nasal polyps of patients with aspirin-intolerant asthma. j pathol ; : – . . el miedany y, youssef s, ahmed i, el gaafary m. safety of etoricoxib, a specific cyclooxygenase- inhibitor, in asthmatic patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. ann allergy asthma immunol ; : – . . sanak m, kielbasa b, bochenek g, szczeklik a. exhaled eicosanoids following oral aspirin challenge in asthmatic patients. clin exp allergy ; ( ): – . . sestini p, armetti l, gambaro g, et al. inhaled pge prevents aspirin-induced bronchoconstriction and urinary lte excretion in aspirin-sensitive asthma. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . szczeklik a, mastalerz l, nizankowska e, cmiel a. protective and bronchodilator effects of prostaglandin e and salbutamol in aspirin-induced asthma. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . lockey rf, rucknagel dl, vanselow na. familial occurrence of asthma, nasal polyps and aspirin intolerance. ann intern med ; : – . . miller ff. aspirin-induced bronchial asthma in sisters. ann allergy ; : – . . von maur k, adkinson nf jr, van metre te jr, et al. aspirin intolerance in a family. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . szczeklik a, sanak m. genetic mechanisms in aspirin-induced asthma. am j respir crit care med ; ( pt ):s – . . kennedy bp, diehl re, boie y, et al. gene characterization and promoter analysis of the human -lipoxygenase-activating protein (flap). j biol chem ; : – . . lam bk, penrose jf, freeman gj, austen kf. expression cloning of a cdna for human leukotriene c synthase, an integral membrane protein conjugating reduced glutathione to leukotriene a . proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . sanak m, pierzchalska m, bazan-socha s, szczeklik a. enhanced expression of the leukotriene c synthase due to overactive transcription of an allelic variant associated with aspirin-intolerant asthma. am j respir cell mol biol ; ( ): – . . kawagishi y, mita h, taniguchi m, et al. leukotriene c synthase promoter polymorphism in japanese patients with aspirin-induced asthma. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . nizankowska e, duplaga m, bochenek g, szczeklik a, on behalf of the aiane project. clinical course of aspirin-induced asthma: results of aiane. in: szczeklik a, gryglewski r, vane j, editors. eicosanoids, aspirin and asthma. new york: marcel dekker; . p. – . . berges-gimeno mp, simon ra, stevenson dd. the natural history and clinical characteristics of aspirin exacerbated respiratory disease. ann allergy asthma immunol ; : – . . szczeklik a, nizankowska e, bochenek g, et al. safety of a specific cox- inhibitor in aspirin-induced asthma. clin exp allergy ; : – . . yoshida s, ishizaki y, onuma k, et al. selective cyclo-oxygenase inhibitor in patients with aspirin-induced asthma. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . woessner km, simon ra, stevenson dd. the safety of celecoxib in aspirin exacerbated respiratory disease. arthritis rheum ; : – . . baldassarre s, schandene l, choufani g, michils a. asthma attacks induced by low doses of celecoxib, aspirin and acetaminophen. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . allergy, asthma, and clinical immunology, volume , number , . zeiss cr, lockey rf. refractory period to aspirin in a patient with aspirin-induced asthma. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . pleskow ww, stevenson dd, mathison da, et al. aspirin desensitization in aspirin-sensitive asthmatic patients: clinical manifestations and characterization of the refractory period. j allergy clin immunol ; ( pt ): – . . sclano g. refractory period to aspirin after aspirin-induced asthma. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . micheletto c, tognella s, visconti m, et al. changes in urinary lte( ) and nasal functions following nasal provocation test with asa in asa-tolerant and -intolerant asthmatics. respir med ; ( ): – . epub . . white a, bigby t, stevenson d. intranasal ketorolac challenge for the diagnosis of aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. ann allergy asthma immunol ; : – . . szczeklik a, gryglewski rj, czerniawska-mysik g. clinical patterns of hypersensitivity to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and their pathogenesis. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . setipane ra, stevenson dd. cross-sensitivity with acetaminophen in aspirin sensitive subjects with asthma. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . dahlen s-e, malmstrom k, nizankowska e, et al. improvement of aspirin-intolerant asthma by montelukast, a leukotriene antagonist. a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. am j respir crit care med ; : – . . yoshida s, sakamoto h, ishizaki y, et al. efficacy of leukotriene receptor antagonist in bronchial hyperresponsiveness and hyper- sensitivity to analgesic in aspirin-intolerant asthma. clin exp allergy ; : – . . mastalerz l, nizankowska e, sanak m, et al. clinical and genetic features underlying the response of patients with bronchial asthma to treatment with a leukotriene receptor antagonist. eur j clin invest ; : – . . fuji, et al. effect of endoscopic sinus surgery on aspirin-induced asthma. jpn j rhinol ; ( ): – . . mcfadden ea, woodson bt, fink jn, toohill rj. surgical treatment of aspirin triad sinusitis. am j rhinol ; : – . . hosemann w. surgical treatment of nasal polyposis in patients with aspirin intolerance. thorax ; (suppl ):s – . . amar yg, frenkiel s, sobol se. outcome analysis of endoscopic sinus surgery for chronic sinusitis in patients having samter’s triad. j otolaryngol ; : – . . stevenson dd, simon ra, mathison da. aspirin-sensitive asthma: tolerance to aspirin after positive oral aspirin challenges. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . berges-gimeno mp, simon ra, stevenson dd. long-term treatment with aspirin desensitization in asthmatic patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . sousa ar, parikh a, scadding g, et al. leukotriene-receptor expression on nasal mucosal inflammatory cells in aspirin-sensitive rhinosinusitis. n engl j med ; ( ): – . . berges-gimeno mp, simon ra, stevenson dd. the effect of leukotriene-modifier drugs on aspirin-induced asthma and rhinitis reactions. clin exp allergy ; : – . . white aa, stevenson dd, simon ra. the blocking effect of essential controller medications during aspirin challenges in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. ann allergy asthma immunol ; : – . . wong jt, nagy cs, krinzman sj, et al. rapid oral challenge- desensitization for patients with aspirin-related urticaria-angioe- dema. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . . stevenson dd, mehra pk, white aa, et al. failure of tacrolimus to prevent aspirin-induced respiratory reactions in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease. j allergy clin immunol ; : – . aspirin-exacerbated asthma 	historical perspective and background 	definition 	prevalence 	pathogenesis 	cyclooxygenase pathway 	lipoxygenase pathway and production of cys-lts 	familial inheritance 	ltc synthase 	clinical presentation 	diagnosis 	prevention 	treatment 	aspirin desensitization 	conclusion 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory http://ptx.sagepub.com/content/ / / the online version of this article can be found at: doi: . / : originally published online january political theory corey brettschneider reasons for rights a transformative theory of religious freedom: promoting the published by: http://www.sagepublications.com can be found at:political theoryadditional services and information for http://ptx.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsemail alerts: http://ptx.sagepub.com/subscriptionssubscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.navreprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.navpermissions: http://ptx.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.htmlcitations: at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ http://ptx.sagepub.com/content/ / / http://www.sagepublications.com http://ptx.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://ptx.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav http://ptx.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.html http://ptx.sagepub.com/ articles political theory ( ) – © sage publications reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav doi: . / http://ptx.sagepub.com a transformative theory of religious freedom: promoting the reasons for rights corey brettschneider abstract religious freedom is often thought to protect, not only religious practices, but also the underlying religious beliefs of citizens. but what should be said about religious beliefs that oppose religious freedom itself or that deny the concept of equal citizenship? the author argues here that such beliefs, while protected against coercive sanction, are rightly subject to attempts at transformation by the state in its expressive capacities. transformation is entailed by a commitment to publicizing the reasons and principles that justify the basic rights of citizens. keywords religious freedom, free exercise, citizenship, rights, accommodation i. introduction defenders of religious freedom often seek to protect existing religious beliefs from the influence of the state. they therefore tend to adopt a “static” con- ception of religious freedom: they assume that the current beliefs and practices of any given religion merit protection simply because they are reli- gious in character. on a static conception, state influences that lead to changes in these beliefs are at least presumptive violations of religious freedom. the brown university, providence, rhode island corresponding author: corey brettschneider, brown university, box , providence, ri email: corey_brettschneider@brown.edu at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) “accommodationist” accounts of michael mcconnell and martha nussbaum are prominent examples of the static conception. both of these theorists seek to protect existing religious beliefs from the influence of state policy, regard- less of whether change is sought intentionally or unintentionally by the state. religious beliefs in general, they argue, have a special weight in the public forum because they are linked to the value of religion itself. for those with static conceptions of religious freedom, therefore, even unintentional bur- dens by the state on religious beliefs are problematic; intentional attempts at transforming these beliefs are an even more dangerous threat to religious liberty. the static view is often assumed, not only in constitutional jurisprudence, but also in normative accounts of religious freedom. for example, it is seen as being required by the account of legitimacy offered in john rawls' theory of political liberalism. many theorists argue that political liberalism should be concerned to preserve existing religious beliefs when forging an overlap- ping consensus between reasonable comprehensive views. nussbaum has prominently defended the position that political liberalism requires what amounts to a static notion, and several others have advanced a similar con- nection. the static view is also assumed in prominent accounts of religious freedom that lie outside the political liberal framework. fundamental to these accounts is the contention that the liberal state should, in addition to respecting religious practices, refrain from interfering at all with religious belief, intentionally or otherwise. in this essay, i appeal to a conception of political liberalism in arguing against static models of religious freedom and defend what i call a “transfor- mative” model of religious freedom. i argue that any robust conception of religious freedom will find itself at odds with some existing religious beliefs and that defenders of religious freedom should favor a role for the state in seeking to change some religious beliefs. in particular, i suggest that the state has an interest in actively promoting the shared values of free and equal citizenship—values that are rightly understood to underlie the rights of reli- gious freedom. i argue that when the state seeks to transform religious beliefs that are at odds with the shared reasons for rights necessary to the state’s legitimacy, it does not violate religious freedom or freedom of conscience when it complies with two limits. first, the state should limit its attempts at transformation to those beliefs that are fundamentally at odds with the shared reasons for rights. second, it should pursue transformation through its expres- sive, rather than its coercive, capacities. my argument proceeds in three stages, each of which is designed to allay fears that a transformative account of religious freedom is antireli- gious and antiliberal. first, i argue that religious freedom is a principled at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider commitment that requires the transformation of religious viewpoints at odds with it. second, i place this transformative account in the context of a wider theory of political liberalism. i argue that this transformative account does not require an all-or-nothing choice between a commitment to liberalism or to religion. finally, i emphasize the compatibility of my transformative account of religious freedom with basic rights such as freedom of association. throughout this article, i draw on u.s. supreme court cases related to the free exercise clause of the first amendment. but i do so to develop an argument in political theory about how religious freedom should be understood, not to affirm existing case law or to develop a new free-exercise jurisprudence. ii. religion v. religious freedom: the lukumi principle on a static analysis of religious freedom, such as that suggested by accom- modationist thinkers, the first concern should be whether laws intentionally or unintentionally burden religious practices. on this view, an account of religious freedom must be sensitive not only to the dangers of the state’s directly attacking religious belief but also to unintended effects of policy on religious exercise. accommodationists assume that religious freedom is endangered whenever existing religious beliefs are burdened or changed. accommodationist thinking figured strongly in the supreme court’s juris- prudence prior to employment division v. smith in . a fundamental flaw in static views that associate religious freedom with the preservation of existing religious beliefs is that they cannot account for the potential tensions between these beliefs and the desire to protect religious freedom. consider, for instance, the court’s decision to strike down munici- pal legislation prohibiting animal sacrifice in church of the lukumi babalu aye v. city of hialeah. in this case, the city of hialeah, florida, had inten- tionally targeted the practice of the santeria religion, which involves the sacrifice of live animals. the legislation was designed to single out animal sacrifice in particular for criminal sanction, although similar forms of animal slaughter were permitted. a unanimous court suggested that this legislation could not be explained on any basis other than animus toward the santeria religion. i suggest that we study this example to understand the tensions pres- ent in thinking about the political morality of religious freedom. in particular, i wish to use this case because it is commonly thought to be a paradigmatic example of the judicial protection of religious freedom. i hope to push this common understanding of lukumi to show that religious freedom at times at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) requires attempts at transformation. my aim is not to oppose the accommo- dationists’ claim that religious freedom requires some exemptions to general laws. rather, i examine the philosophical inadequacy of such an approach when issues of equal citizenship are implicated. since the ordinance at issue in lukumi hindered religious practices, a static analysis would likely suggest that it should be struck down. not only did the hialeah city councilmen who passed the law limit the religious prac- tice of animal sacrifice, but they apparently did so with the intent of burdening the santeria religion specifically. the flaws and limits of the static approach, however, can be found by looking at the transcript of the meeting in which the city as a whole discussed the ordinance. the transcript, quoted in justice kennedy’s majority opinion, reveals that the ordinance itself was religiously motivated. one councilman justified his opposition to the practice of animal sacrifice by stating, “i don’t believe the bible allows that.” the chaplain of the hialeah police department variously described santeria practices as “an abomination to the lord” and the worship of “demons.” thus, whatever the court’s decision in lukumi, there would have been an adverse effect on some religion. the santeria practitioners would have been adversely affected if the law had been allowed to stand. on the other hand, striking down the law would apparently burden the religious views of the councilmen and others, who hold that it is a christian moral duty to ban animal sacrifice. in striking down the ordinance, the court not only protected the santeria religion from illiberal, coercive legislation. it also served to condemn the illiberal beliefs behind the legislation. the fact that these beliefs were motivated by religion does not immunize them from condemnation. as i see it, the court’s decision to strike down this law also expressed the message that those particular views of the councilmen that led them to pass the ordinance, regardless of whether they were religious or not, have no place in a free society’s deliberations about coercion. we are thus confronted by a seeming paradox of religious freedom. it is usually understood that religious freedom protects certain religious practices. in a related vein, religious freedom is thought to protect the religious beliefs that underlie such practices. but not all religious practices, and not all reli- gious beliefs, should be protected. some religious practices and religious beliefs are at odds with the principle that citizens should be allowed to prac- tice their religion and to believe what they wish free of state sanction. these beliefs are rightly condemned and discouraged by the legitimate state. in particular, the religious “practice” of the councilmen to ban the santeria religion—as well as the religious beliefs behind this practice—are rightly subject to transformation. specifically, the case of the hialeah ordinance suggests that those who seek to use the power of the state to restrict a religious at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider belief or practice, even when motivated by their own religious beliefs, should be stopped as well as criticized. of course, when a law such as the hialeah ordinance is struck down on first amendment free exercise grounds, those who passed the law are not sanctioned through criminal law. but the court’s decision should be interpreted, on my view, to legally prohibit government officials from enacting policies at odds with the ideal of religious freedom. the decision also sends a message that the beliefs and arguments behind such statutes, even if religious in nature, are incompatible with religious freedom. this example suggests that an account of religious freedom must be able to distinguish between two sorts of existing religious beliefs: those that are inconsistent with the ideal of religious freedom—such as the councilmen’s views, which motivated them to pass the hialeah ordinance—and those that are compatible with the ideal of religious freedom. unlike the views of the councilmen, for instance, nothing in the santeria practice of animal sacrifice suggested the need to use the force of law to impose beliefs on others. the court’s invalidation of the hialeah ordinance sends the message to its propo- nents that their reasoning fails to comport with the ideal of religious freedom. the example reveals how a principle of religious freedom might itself con- flict with existing religious beliefs. in the face of such conflicts, a principle of religious freedom is transformative with regard to religion. regardless of justice kennedy’s personal intentions, i contend, lukumi highlights why an account of religious freedom might conflict with, and require the transformation of, an existing set of religious beliefs. toward the end of the opinion, kennedy writes, the free exercise clause commits government itself to religious toler- ance, and upon even slight suspicion that proposals for state intervention stem from animosity to religion or distrust of its practices, all officials must pause to remember their own high duty to the constitution and to the rights it secures. the fundamental question is what we should do when “animosity to religion” is itself based in religion. i propose that, according to what i call the “lukumi principle,” the commitment to “religious tolerance” is twofold. first, it entails the prohibition of any law that would use the state to limit the religious practices or beliefs of others—even if such hostility is based in religion itself. second, the principle entails the condemnation of the beliefs that directly motivate such laws. when religious views conflict with religious freedom, therefore, the latter must trump the former. importantly, the phrase “animosity . . . or distrust” cannot refer only to intentional hatred. even if attempts to limit religious practice are based in the love that might at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) be said to come with a desire to convert others to a “true” religion, they still must be rejected as incompatible with religious freedom. the state therefore rightly challenges religion when religious views conflict with the principle of religious tolerance itself. i want to be clear about precisely which kinds of motivating beliefs are rightly subject to condemnation by the state. the councilmen in lukumi believed that their general set of religious beliefs supported the ordinance; but it is not their general set of beliefs that should be condemned. some of these beliefs can be set off from what they took to be the implication for out- lawing the religious practices of others. for instance, as i elaborate in the next section, a religious belief in god is compatible with the requirements of the lukumi principle. the motivating beliefs that are rightly condemned can be defined as those that linked the councilmen’s general religious beliefs to the conclusion that santeria should be legally prohibited. the councilmen’s belief that their religion required legally sanctioning the santeria religion is incompatible with the ideal of free and equal citizenship, and is rightly sub- ject to transformation. some might object that i am mistaken in discussing the beliefs of authors of and deliberators about law rather than restricting my concern to criticizing their actions after the fact. one could argue that what threatened religious freedom was not the beliefs of the proponents of the law per se but rather the fact that they specifically issued an ordinance restricting the practice of another religion. on this view, religious freedom is not about limitations on belief at all but rather about limits on the kinds of actions lawmakers can take—or, more specifically, on the kinds of laws they are allowed to enact. i think it is a mistake, however, to separate belief and action in this way. although the court is concerned to protect rights against certain kinds of state action, in its opinions and reasoning it also addresses the kind of prin- ciples that should underlie law. when it strikes down illegitimate laws, it does so often because the reasons and beliefs for such laws violate public principles central to the state’s legitimacy. these beliefs, moreover, are not only relevant after a law has successfully been passed. if, for instance, the hialeah councilmen were unsuccessful in passing the ordinance at issue, their flawed beliefs about coercion would still rightly have been subject to public scrutiny. therefore, in rulings like lukumi, the supreme court acts as an “exem- plar” of public reason in two senses. first, it acts as an enforcer of public reason by striking down unconstitutional laws, such as those that constrain the practice of one religion because it is viewed as incompatible with another. second, it acts as a model for the wider citizenry, including public officials who deliberate about and make law, when it explains why such laws at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider are illegitimate and when it speaks in defense of the values of free and equal citizenship. supreme court opinions certainly are concerned with the imme- diate task of whether to strike down law. but their audience also rightly includes all those potentially involved in lawmaking, including citizens con- cerned to think and deliberate publicly about lawmaking. in lukumi specifically, the primary purpose of the court’s decision was to strike down a law violating religious freedom. but it did more than this. the decision also expressed disapproval of the reasons its proponents gave for passing this law, and it issued a rebuke to them for violating their duty to respect religious freedom. the religious nature of the reasons advanced by the law’s proponents does not immunize them from this rebuke. nor should they be shielded from criticism by their right of free-speech, which protects them from being punished merely for holding their views. they may still be criticized by those who defend the core principle of religious freedom. for example, the court in lukumi expressed a principled disapproval of the kind of religious reasoning that would use the state to impose religious beliefs on others; it therefore directly criticized the views of the hialeah law’s propo- nents. the decision, moreover, is relevant for all those who would attempt to use similar reasoning to pass equivalent laws in other locales. it is especially important that decisions such as lukumi serve as an example for the wider citizenry in a democracy in which citizens vote not only for repre- sentatives but at times directly for legislation. these opinions can warn citizens about the pitfalls of passing unconstitutional laws that would impose one set of religious beliefs on fellow citizens. however, given that most supreme court opinions are not widely read, the ruling in lukumi is not itself sufficient to pro- mulgate the principle established in it. wider publicity and promotion of the court’s holding—and, as importantly, its reasoning—are necessary if its exam- ple is to transform citizens’ thinking. a variety of institutions within the legitimate state should take on this task of publicity and promotion. while it is commonly recognized that the content of rights should be widely promulgated, i want to emphasize why it is also important to promote the reasons for rights. these rea- sons include the lukumi principle and the more general ideal of equal citizenship, which underlies rights to religious freedom. such a task should not be left to any one organ of the state, including the supreme court. rather, the promul- gation of the reasons that underlie rights is a diffuse duty incumbent on all state actors and citizens. when the state seeks to transform beliefs at odds with the values and rea- sons that underlie religious freedom and other basic rights, it should respect two distinct limits. the first concerns the method through which transforma- tion should be attempted and the principle of equal citizenship should be promoted. the second concerns limits on the content of the beliefs targeted at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) for transformation. the first, which i call the “means-based” limit, requires that the state not pursue transformation of citizens’ views through any method that violates fundamental rights such as freedom of expression, conscience, and association. for example, the state cannot prohibit meetings of the anti- santeria society or threaten criminal sanctions against the hialeah councilmen for holding and expressing beliefs that conflict with the lukumi principle. how- ever, a public articulation of why the councilmen’s views are inconsistent with religious freedom would not violate their rights, even if this point were articulated by state officials. the lukumi principle ideally should be defended by those in power as well as by citizens participating in democratic debate. ideally, citizens and their representatives will successfully defend the lukumi principle such that laws that would violate will not come before the court. as i have argued elsewhere, it is better for public principles to be defended through majoritarian processes than through judicial review. it is only as a last resort, when lawmakers and citizens fail to heed this duty, that they are rightly rebuked by the courts. on the view developed in this essay, the state can avoid violating the “means-based” limit by confining its attempts at transformation or promotion to its expressive rather than its coercive capacities. for example, public offi- cials and citizens may make arguments that defend the lukumi principle when engaged in public discussion, even in the face of religious opposition. moreover, as i suggest in the next section, there is a role for educators to teach the importance of religious toleration even if some parents hold reli- gious objections. the right to hold and express a belief at odds with the ideal of equal citizenship does not entail a right to hold it unchallenged. i take the position that mere reasoning by the state addressed to citizens is not tantamount to coercion. it is a familiar millian point that the fact that i have a right to free speech does not keep you from convincing me that some of my opinions are wrong. moreover, if you are successful in persuading me through reason, and my views are transformed, this is certainly not evidence that i have been coerced. to the contrary, we tend to regard such “transformations” as freely chosen. one need not be a full-blown kantian to accept as much. when we move from the question of individual persuasion to state persua- sion, we should observe that the state has a particular interest in advancing principles, such as the ideal of religious freedom articulated in lukumi, that are essential to its own legitimacy. it is also essential that the state use as much as possible the means of reasoning to defend its most fundamental principles. like the supreme court, state officials should reason by means of an appeal to public principles. it might be objected that because of the state’s massive power, its own expression can be in a sense overwhelming. if the only viewpoint that at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider citizens were able to hear on the subject of religious toleration was the one articulated by the state, certainly state expression might be tantamount to propaganda. however, this merely suggests why the state’s voice must not preclude a diversity of opinion in the polity at large. the state should there- fore work to establish and protect public forums in which citizens are free to express views at odds with its own. another objection might emphasize the fact that particular state officials will not always advance the lukumi principle—indeed, they might contradict it. yet this no more would be an argument against a role for state expression of core principles of legitimacy than the fact that state officials sometimes enact unprincipled law would be an argument against principled limits on state action. in sum, the means- based limit emphasizes the importance of reasoning on behalf of the principles of the legitimate state. the second limitation on attempts at transformation, which i call the “substance-based” limit, concerns the kind of beliefs the state is rightly con- cerned to transform, and when it is justified in doing so. it is necessary not only that the state use its expressive, rather than coercive, capacities in defending the lukumi principle but also that it endeavor to challenge only those religious beliefs that both violate the ideal of free and equal citizenship. there are a variety of religious beliefs that might appear to violate the lukumi principle, but which need not affect our capacity, to see each other as free and equal. for instance, one might believe that all non-christians are condemned to hell but also that sinners cannot be saved through legislation and that therefore theistic reasoning has no role in lawmaking. because this view says nothing about which beliefs should be imposed on others, it is not publicly relevant. the need for transformation arises only in regard to those views that conflict with the ideal of free and equal citizenship, including those views that would seek to impose by law religious beliefs at odds with this ideal. as such, it is not the belief in the superiority of one’s religion per se that transformation should target. moreover, the substance-based limit suggests that it is only those beliefs most blatantly at odds with the principles of equal citizenship that are rightly subject to transformation. for instance, reasonable people might disagree about the implications of equal citizenship for issues such as affirmative action—and no position on this issue should rightly be subject to transformation. rather, it is those beliefs, religious and otherwise, that are openly hostile to or implausibly consistent with the values of equal citizenship that the state should seek to transform. these two limits offer some traditional privacy protections. in emphasiz- ing why it is beliefs about coercion that are rightly targeted by the state, i have left immune from persuasive interventions many beliefs about, for example, the internal structure of the family and civil society. for instance, at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) the government’s scrutinizing my dinner guest list would be a clear misap- plication of the need to promote the lukumi principle. nor should the state, for example, spy on citizens to determine whether they hold beliefs that con- flict with the ideal of free and equal citizenship. such a practice violates the means-based limit by employing coercive, not expressive, methods. but it also violates the substance-based limit because it unjustifiably targets citi- zens who have not demonstrated that they seek to use the force of law to “enforce” views that are antagonistic to public reason. as my discussion of bob jones university v. united states will illustrate, however, beliefs about internal affairs are not always immune from public scrutiny. it might be objected that, even if we accept the authority of the state to target beliefs at odds with core liberal principles such as a commitment to religious freedom, this need not commit us to a purposeful transformation of religious belief per se. one could argue, drawing on rawls’ distinction between neutrality of effect and neutrality of intent towards religion, that the aim of state action should be to challenge illiberal beliefs at odds with the ideal of free and equal citizenship. on this account, we should think of the transfor- mation of religious beliefs as an acceptable but unintended consequence of challenging illiberal beliefs. but this doctrine ignores the fact that some illiberal beliefs are explicitly religious. the hialeah councilmen’s arguments, for instance, are couched entirely in terms of the need to save practitioners of santeria from a false religion. when one councilman said that he was “totally against the sacrificing of animals” but that kosher slaughter was acceptable because it had a “real purpose,” he was expressing a belief that denied the equality of santeria’s adherents, and a belief that cannot be explained by any other than religious grounds. the city’s police department chaplain, too, was guilty of contradicting the ideal of free and equal citizenship when he made a leap from a statement that is protected by the lukumi principle (“we need to be helping people and sharing with them the truth that is found in jesus christ”) to a statement that violates the principle (“i would exhort you . . . not to permit this church to exist”). there is, in short, no way of getting around the fact that attempting to transform an illiberal belief is sometimes tantamount to attempting to inten- tionally transform a religious belief. indeed, rawls maintained, despite his claim of “neutrality of intent” toward religious doctrines, that he hoped unreasonable religions would become reasonable over time. but i have argued that the account of transformation should not, as rawls suggests, be a mere “hope.” it is rather a commitment that is fundamental to the idea of religious freedom itself. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider iii. dialectics of religious transformation in this section, i suggest how the transformation of illiberal religious beliefs could be achieved, and i explain why such transformation does not constitute an attack on religious freedom itself. susan okin, whose work on multicul- turalism is one example of a transformative account of liberalism, concedes that the promotion of certain liberal values, in particular those of equality, might cause some cultures—and, we can gather, some religions—to go “extinct.” a challenge to my view of transformation might suggest that, like okin, i risk extinguishing religion. moreover, does my view that the state should seek to transform certain illiberal religious beliefs force a choice between the secular and the religious? i respond to the concern about religious extinction by emphasizing why the transformative theory does not entail an all-or-nothing choice between religious freedom and the continued existence of religious beliefs. if it did, i would have undermined my own claim to be offering a defense of religious freedom. for two reasons, i contest the claim that any abandonment of “static” models of religious freedom is an attack on religion. first, i argue that the relevant type of transformation is dialectical in the sense that it does not force a stark either-or trade-off between religion and core liberal princi- ples. rather, it suggests a synthesis between liberal principles and religious views. in addition, at times this synthesis might occur when religious tradi- tions help to clarify the very meaning of these principles. second, the type of transformation called for by norms of legitimacy cannot be forced on any religious groups. although religious freedom ideally results in dialectical transformation, i emphasize that it also protects religious groups that choose to resist such transformation. i therefore use “dialectic” in its traditional sense: to mean only that religious beliefs and the freestanding ideal of equal citizenship can result in new and varied combinations or “syntheses.” in elaborating on why the transformative account of religious freedom is dialectical, i want to begin by highlighting a distinction, suggested by rawls, between discrete principles that are “freestanding” from particular compre- hensive conceptions and beliefs that are comprehensive in themselves. i say that the former principles are “discrete” to emphasize the fact that they can be separated from the web of wider beliefs with which they often intersect. freestanding beliefs serve as the basis for a legitimate society because they are based solely on what is owed to citizens in virtue of their being regarded as free and equal. they thus stand in contrast to comprehensive beliefs, which are often linked to persons’ understandings of deep metaphysical and reli- gious questions. a commitment to religious freedom is itself an essential at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) aspect of a freestanding political conception. i want, however, to broaden the discussion to consider the broader and underlying freestanding commitment to an ideal of free and equal citizenship. on rawls’s view, religious beliefs would ideally reinforce freestanding beliefs that are grounded in the ideal of free and equal citizenship. in such instances, religious conceptions and the fundamental commitments neces- sary for liberal legitimacy would be in harmony, and there would be no need for transformation of beliefs. such an idealized view pervades much of the discussion about the role of religion in contemporary political theory. rawls and amy gutmann, for instance, cite martin luther king, jr.’s arguments against segregation as an example of how religious identity can enhance the liberal commitment to justice. gutmann writes that king’s “civic genius was his ability to move between religious and secular sources of the same politi- cal argument in the course of communicating to his fellow citizens, showing that the religious identities of believers can be a powerful public force in sup- port of democratic justice.” king’s distinctive contribution appealed to christian morality to promote norms of equal citizenship. although king serves as an example of an ideal synthesis of equal status and religious values, many cases also arise in which particular religious views come into conflict with freestanding principles that are fundamental to the state’s legitimacy or indeed come into conflict with religious freedom itself. in such cases, the lukumi principle should be invoked. the lukumi principle demands that when religious views oppose the ideal of religious freedom itself—for example, because they demand the imposition of their views on nonbelievers—the state must challenge the beliefs in question. moreover, the principle is a freestanding one that is not based on any com- prehensive doctrine. it is grounded in an attempt to think about the kind of religious freedom that would be protected in a society of free and equal citi- zens. by extension, when particular religious beliefs are at odds with freestanding principles of free and equal citizenship more generally, the state seeks to transform those existing beliefs to defend fundamental freestanding principles. thus, while my theory retains a commitment to freestanding princi- ples and avoids appeal to comprehensive conceptions, it rejects the static claim that every existing religious view could serve to reinforce freestanding principles. the suggestion that religious freedom is a principle detachable from and inde- pendent of actual religious beliefs might seem at odds with what rawls has called the “wide” or “inclusive” view of public reason. but i believe that the way this idea has sometimes been understood risks underplaying the transformative char- acter of these ideas. the idea of inclusive public reason is meant to suggest why religious claims have a place in public discussion. on rawls’s view, there is no at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider reason to prevent citizens from making public arguments from religious view- points so long as they also provide arguments from freestanding principles. but it would be wrong to suggest that this principle somehow prioritizes existing religious beliefs in the manner of the static view. inclusive public reason requires that arguments that are couched in reli- gious language also be translatable into freestanding arguments that address citizens solely in light of their status as free and equal, without appealing to religious or other comprehensive views. freestanding public reason, there- fore, serves as a standard by which we can evaluate religious claims. for this reason, the idea of inclusive public reason reinforces, rather than undermines, my argument that the state must seek to transform existing religious beliefs when they conflict with freestanding principles. when religious arguments work in concert with arguments from the freestanding principles of free and equal citizenship, religious beliefs rightly serve to refine and reinforce free- standing principles. by contrast, when religious arguments work to undermine freestanding principles, the state rightly seeks to transform the existing reli- gious beliefs in question. for this reason, i suggest that my view is dialectical. at times, existing religious beliefs can serve to clarify and reinforce our com- mitments to freestanding principles of free and equal citizenship. at other times, existing religious beliefs will undermine those principles; in such cases, existing religious beliefs are rightly targeted by the state for transformation. freestanding principles, then, have a moral priority over conflicting existing religious beliefs and might sometimes require their transformation. for this reason, as i have argued, my view is not a static one. this position conflicts with a common misunderstanding of rawls’s theory, partially due to mislead- ing labeling. it has often been thought that dedication to an “overlapping consensus” requires basing public principles on an existing or “latent” intersec- tion of secular and religious views in the public political culture. rawls explicitly rejects such an understanding, however, and his reasons demonstrate why his view is transformative and not static. in short, freestanding principles, such as religious freedom, are often at odds with currently existing views. rawls’s idea of the overlapping consensus and the freestanding principles present within it are ideal political conceptions. when they conflict with existing religious views, therefore, we should “work backward” to seek to transform those views at odds with this ideal. having argued that society’s commitment to freestanding principles of equal status for all citizens commits the state to seeking the dialectical trans- formation of religion, i turn now to the contention that my view constitutes an “attack” on religion. does the commitment to freestanding principles of liberal legitimacy, such as religious freedom and the concern to treat citizens at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) as equals, require that we ask those who hold religious views incompatible with these principles to abandon religion itself? some liberal political theorists in the rawlsian tradition, such as stephen macedo and rob reich, have suggested that, at times, this might be the case. reich, for instance, argues that citizens must be committed to the individual rights of children and that the “state must take its own side” when these rights conflict with the norms of identity groups. reich points to examples that illustrate that the divide between the state’s rightful commitment to princi- ples of legitimacy and the commitment of some identity groups to other conflicting values might sometimes be unbridgeable. macedo emphasizes why conflicts in education policy between religious views and secular com- mitments to free and equal citizenship might be irresolvable through deliberation. he argues that the case of mozert v. hawkins county board of education, for instance, pits the norms of a liberal society that requires respect for a variety of cultures against a religious worldview that would exclude even knowledge of these cultures. such respect requires, at mini- mum, basic knowledge of other cultures, thus rendering the conflict between the religious viewpoint and liberal norms intractable. although these liberal theorists might acknowledge that we should seek to avoid these confrontations through innovative policy, they help to elucidate the fact that, in some instances, there will not be an easy policy solution to conflicts between religious beliefs and the commitment to equal status. even if we concede that macedo and reich are correct that conflicts between norms of legitimacy and some comprehensive conceptions are inevitable, however, such conflicts do not require that we sacrifice religious beliefs alto- gether when we attempt to transform them to be compatible with norms of legitimacy. that the comprehensive doctrines of some identity groups are in partial tension with freestanding principles such as religious freedom or equal respect does not mean they must be rejected entirely. freestanding principles can be endorsed by and derived from a variety of comprehensive conceptions of the good, both religious and secular. the standard of legiti- macy thus may require the transformation of identity, but it does not demand the replacement of one identity with another. again, the model here is not all-or-nothing but dialectical. the value of equal status might interact with religious norms to produce changes in identities that make them compatible with liberal values. consider, for instance, the story told by anne fadiman in her book, the spirit catches you and you fall down, in which a hmong family’s religious values led them to reject medical care for their daughter’s epilepsy. if we are committed to the individual rights of the child, it might be thought that we need to reject an identity featuring unbridgeable conflicts with principles of at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider legitimacy. it is important to notice, however, that although the state might require that medical treatment for a minor be imposed on a religious com- munity against its wishes, the members of the community might, over time, grow to accept such a requirement without abandoning their religious iden- tity. ideally, they would learn to accommodate this specific policy based on their considered acceptance of the discrete principle, in accordance with lib- eral principles of legitimacy and not just religious views, that decisions about medical care must incorporate a concern to care for their children. religious identity itself might change to accommodate modern medicine in such a case, but it is important to note that religious groups would not be required to aban- don their beliefs. even if some change in identity were necessary, only very conservative notions of culture (e.g., devlin’s) equate any change in a culture with its destruction. religious identities might be transformed through a dialectic between specific norms of legitimacy and general comprehensive conceptions so as to become more liberal without being abandoned. indeed, if we examine two of the most famously contested cases that pitted the freedom of religious belief against norms of equal status, we can see that these beliefs were changed rather than abandoned. i begin with the case of bob jones university v. united states. bob jones university is an evangelical christian school in greenville, south carolina, that had banned interracial dating and maintained other racially dis- criminatory policies. bob jones administrators considered these racially discriminatory policies to be grounded in the institution’s understanding of the bible. when the irs instituted a new policy that withheld tax-exempt status from groups that discriminated based on race, it revoked bob jones’s nonprofit status. defenders of the static view, who espouse the principle of accommoda- tion, might suggest that bob jones should have been given an exemption from the policy because its discriminatory policies were based in religion. i want to first suggest why the irs action against bob jones is an example of the kind of transformation i have been defending here. because this is a harder case than that of lukumi, it will help to deepen and clarify my argu- ment for the lukumi principle. some might contend that, unlike the town council’s ordinance in lukumi, which clearly involved state action, bob jones’s policy involved only a private belief. it could be argued, for instance, that even if these policies were morally objectionable, they were not grounded in a belief that the political rights or equal citizenship of others outside the university should be undermined. on this view, we might see bob jones’s policy as merely an internal matter of campus organization, not relevant to beliefs about public policy. a close look at the facts, however, gives one indication of why bob jones’s policy cannot be distinguished from public advocacy of beliefs at odds with at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) the ideals of free and equal citizenship. namely, the school explicitly extended its policies to punish those who were members of groups that advo- cated interracial marriage in the wider society. this broad provision prohibited students not only from expressing support for interracial marriage while on campus but from even holding membership in a public organization such as the naacp. i take such a position to be at odds with at least one core right of equal citizenship: the right of interracial marriage, protected by the supreme court in loving v. virginia. this would be a harder case if bob jones’s policies did not include such an explicit provision against public support of interracial marriage. it might be logically possible for a school like bob jones to have an internal policy that prohibited interracial dating and marriage but that said nothing about whether the university was opposed to the legality of interracial relationships in the wider society. absent some explicit clarification, this policy would likely be perceived by students to express disapproval of the legal recogni- tion of interracial relationships even outside its campus. given bob jones’s status as an educational institution and its concern to instill moral values, few students might distinguish an ostensibly internal message about race rela- tions from a claim about the status of blacks and whites as equal citizens. however, an inquiry into students’ perceptions about the wider implica- tions of the policy would not be determinative on this issue. a more conclusive inquiry should ask whether jones could have some principled reason for believing its prohibition on interracial dating was compatible with an endorsement of the legality of interracial marriage. such a principle would have to avoid any appeal to worries about so-called miscegenation in the larger society—worries that are incompatible with the ideal of free and equal citizenship. for instance, a presbyterian institution might prohibit interfaith marriage among its students out of a concern to preserve its own community of faith without suggesting any implications about the acceptability of inter- faith marriage, which is protected by law, in the wider society. i doubt that an institution like bob jones has any such justification available. in sum, what makes bob jones’s policy subject to transformation is its direct affront to the ideal of equal citizenship. the university does not merely object to a law, or even a basic right, but rather, because of its racist policy, directly challenges the very idea of equal citizenship. it is important to note the significant difference between the kind of pres- sure an institution like bob jones experiences in the threatened loss of nonprofit status and the kind of pressure citizens might feel in the face of purely expressive state action. bob jones faced financial, not merely persua- sive, pressure to change its views. yet despite the “quasi-coercive” nature of such pressure, it is still justifiable. nonprofit status is a tax advantage that at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider should be linked at minimum to an institution’s willingness not to undermine the ideal of free and equal citizenship. on my view, institutions granted this status do not have to actively promote these public values, but they do have to be willing not to undercut them. bob jones might enjoy an intuitive advan- tage in the argument about its nonprofit tax status because its continued existence might seem to depend on this status. however, the intuition might push in the other direction if we ask whether an institution with these views has a right to be founded in the first place. there is a difference, moreover, between institutions that should be charged, at minimum, with not undermin- ing public values and, for example, a household. while the tax benefits enjoyed by a university can be linked to its obligation not to undermine public values, citizens are not assigned a tax status based on their beliefs about free and equal citizenship. in sum, although the pressure from the irs is more intense than mere reasoning, the option to resist or ignore transfor- mation, on my view, means that its rights were not violated. in , seventeen years after the supreme court ruled against the school, the president of bob jones university appeared on television to announce that the school was lifting its policy against interracial dating. in addition, a page now exists on the school’s web site with a statement that expresses regret for having “allowed institutional policies to remain in place that were racially hurtful.” despite the university administration’s rhetoric about how its discriminatory policies were based in fundamental religious beliefs, it is far from clear that jones is a less religious institution because it now permits interracial dating. unsurprisingly, these changes have not prevented the school from enforcing a strict code of sexual conduct. regardless of the reasons why bob jones decided to change its policies, its transformation did not involve an all-or-nothing change. as was the case when bob jones began to admit black students, the decision to end the racially discriminatory policies in question did not require the abandonment of its religious belief altogether. indeed, even if we concede that bob jones’s particular commitment to racially exclusive policies was genuinely religious and that the state intended to transform this religious belief, the university remains undeniably a religious institution, despite its abandonment of these particular views. so far, i have largely focused on the ways that conflicts between commit- ments to equal citizenship and religious identity can result in the transformation of particular group identities. as i have suggested, however, at times identity groups themselves can help clarify a society’s understanding of public values such as equal status. the case of mozert cited by macedo, for instance, could easily be seen as “all-or-nothing.” in that case, a mother objected to her child’s being subject to a certain curriculum, including a textbook that at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) included non-biblical literature and information about other cultures. the court in mozert refused to grant a free-exercise objection. the case is thus a classic instance of religious belief being pitted against public values, such as respect for and knowledge of other cultures. but the story does not end there. the litigant who brought the case continued to engage in public debate and has arguably come to hold a view that is compatible with my conception of religious freedom. as archon fung has described in a detailed look at the mother’s views, her new position was not that the textbook objectionably included non-christian perspectives but that the curriculum failed to empha- size that women who choose to stay home to raise a family also have a legitimate conception of the good, which the state ought to recognize. i take this case to illustrate both that religious perspectives can change to become more publicly justifiable and that the religious perspectives them- selves can generate and clarify public values. the claimant in this case was right that the perspectives of homemakers should be included, and the text- book’s exclusion of this viewpoint may have resulted from a position that was not publicly justifiable because it was excessively secularist. one way of understanding this dialectic is to see it as an argument against forcing a choice between religion and public values. but i think this case demonstrates the opposite. the dialectic emerged precisely because the court forced the claim- ant to choose between public values and the discrete aspects of her religious beliefs that conflicted with those values. her beliefs both became more rea- sonable and resulted in a position that educated the public at large. i now want to address one final challenge to my contention that my view is not hostile to religion itself. i have thus far sought to demonstrate that a religious viewpoint’s transformation does not entail its destruction. the evi- dence for this is that there are cases when religious viewpoints were able to change yet survive. but despite these specific instances of dialectical change, one might counter that part of the essence of religion is its insularity from public culture and principles. on this view, a religious doctrine could not, without destroying its religious character, be open to change by appeal to a specific discrete liberal principle. suppose, for instance, that a particular citi- zen of hialeah derived her commitment to outlawing the practice of santeria from a particular passage in the bible prohibiting idolatrous sacrifice. if this citizen’s religious views required a literal reading of the entire biblical text, she could not abandon a discrete commitment to outlawing idolatrous sacri- fice without abandoning biblical literalism itself and therefore her entire comprehensive religious view. here, i believe, i must bite some bullets. if defenders of religion insist on defining it by its insularity, i respond that my view is clearly incompatible with some religions. as i have argued, however, many religions are at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider decidedly not marked by insularity and illiberality. such religious views not only are entirely consistent with the principles of free and equal citizenship, but they also support them from within. i believe, moreover, that the static nature of such an insular account of religion ignores the reality that religions have survived for centuries precisely because they are able to evolve—not only to fit various cultural contexts but also to incorporate fundamental values such as those that i have suggested form the basis of a free society. iv. the right to resist religious transformation and the freedom of association i have suggested an alternative to static conceptions of religious freedom; on my view, the state should promote principles of free and equal citizenship even in the face of religious doctrines that oppose them. because of the substance-based limit on such transformation, some groups whose internal policies make them appear hostile to these principles might not rightly be subject to transformation as long as they do not seek to impose their religious beliefs on others with the force of law. however, if we also adhere to what i have called the means-based limit, even those groups that do seek to impose their religious beliefs on others by law—those who are actively hostile to the ideal of free and equal citizenship—retain certain rights to resist transforma- tion. the persuasion and the financial inducements i have defended must stop short of coercion. core liberal commitments to the freedoms of expres- sion, association, and conscience require that the state not use force to change religious viewpoints. of course, the state should not view religious belief as justification for violent crimes, and it rightly punishes even those who give religious reasons for such actions. but policies involving coercive sanction cannot serve as the means of transforming illiberal beliefs. to ensure this, an account of religious transformation must endorse a robust conception of free- dom of association. the right to freedom of association entails what might be called a series of rights to resist or “opt out” of the process of liberal dialectic, which i defended in the previous section. for instance, it is essential that even associations that advocate views of coercion at odds with the lukumi principle not be forced to publicize their membership lists or the content of their meetings. subject to the reasonable limitations that accompany any rights, the rights to exist and to congregate should be granted to even deeply illiberal groups. more- over, absent public subsidy, private associations have a fundamental right to decide on their own membership and to keep their membership lists private. this right is particularly important when membership is connected to a group’s expressive purpose. for instance, i take it to be a right of religious at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) groups to exclude nonbelievers. often, these rights protect matters of internal membership and organization, matters that do not necessarily violate the political ideals of free and equal citizenship. however, even for groups with views clearly opposed to these ideals, the rights of association must be pro- tected. i therefore stress in this section why, alongside the state’s role in promoting public values of equal citizenship through its expressive capacity and its role as an effective subsidizer of nonprofits, there exists a right for groups or individuals to resist transformation. this exit option is the comple- ment to my claim that the state should limit its pursuit of transformation to reasoning and financial inducement. to clarify this idea, consider a hypothetical university that, when faced with a choice between tax-exempt status and racial discrimination, chose the latter. this university would retain its right to promote values antithetical to liberal legitimacy. however, permitting the continued existence of such an institution does not imply that it should be “left alone”; i believe that institu- tions that retain racially exclusive policies, like our hypothetical university, should be widely condemned by citizens and representatives of the state. yet their rights to freedom of association and expression require that they not be forcibly shut down. for this position to work, of course, it is important not to regard the concern to protect such a university’s rights as an endorsement of its values. an actual case involving a religious institution’s decision to opt out of the dialectical process concerns a recent controversy in boston over gay adop- tion and the catholic church. in march , catholic charities of boston, which had long been a nonprofit entity licensed to facilitate adoptions, shut down its adoption services rather than comply with a state law requiring adoption agencies not to discriminate against gay families. while it might seem that this is an unacceptable instance of the state coer- cively preventing a religious organization from participating in charity work, a closer examination of the situation reveals otherwise. as i suggested earlier in my discussion of bob jones, catholic charities certainly must have felt more pressure than it would have if the state of massachusetts had merely objected to its refusal to facilitate gay adoptions. but the state’s action is not objectionable in the way that it would have been if there had been an outright prohibition on catholic charities’ ability to operate under its favored polices. the issue here concerns catholic charities’ financial relationship to the state. like bob jones, the group received nonprofit status. moreover, the group directly received state funds for each adoption it carried out. the question of whether to force the organization to respect gay couples’ right to adopt, then, should be evaluated with regard to the state’s role as a potential subsidizer because the organization directly receives state funds. for this reason, the at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider state may permissibly seek to transform religious belief when it violates the lukumi principle. in no way was catholic charities compelled to participate in a state program funding adoption. indeed, if massachusetts were to allow private adoption, catholic charities would be able to resume its adoption program, but not as a nonprofit licensee eligible for federal funds. we can illustrate this important point simply by imagining a hypothetical state discontinuing a subsidy to a faith-based adoption agency because of its noncom- pliance with an antidiscrimination law against gays but still allowing the agency to operate. in such a case, the state, as spender, decides not to subsidize a reli- gious policy that is fundamentally at odds with its commitment to equal status for gay citizens. at the same time, the adoption agency and its associated church are forced to give up their religious beliefs about the immorality of homosexual- ity or the importance of charity work. the state is thus able to express its commitment to equal status and its disapproval of the church’s actions without resorting to the kind of coercion that would come with an outright ban on adop- tion services that did not facilitate gay adoption. in sum, if religious groups that hold such illiberal discrete views wish to opt out of the dialectical process, they should be allowed to do so as a matter of law. these rights to opt out, however, do not imply an acceptance by the state of these views nor an acknowledgment that they are consistent with freestanding public principles fundamental to legitimacy. v. conclusion in this essay, i suggested why static conceptions of religion neglect the fact that a commitment to religious freedom itself requires transformation of some religious beliefs. religions, on my view, are not rightfully protected by a metaphorical “wall” or private space into which public values cannot interfere. on the con- trary, the “lukumi principle” i have proposed suggests that when conflicts emerge between existing religious views and the freestanding public values cen- tral to legitimacy, the state should work to transform religious belief. i argued, moreover, that such transformation must respect both a “means-based” and a “substance-based” limit. the state should seek transformation through persua- sion, not coercion, and should attempt to change only those beliefs at odds with the shared values of free and equal citizenship. in recognizing these limits, the legitimate state can promote its own values while respecting the rights of all citi- zens. my approach therefore grounds a transformative theory of religious freedom in the promulgation and promotion of the reasons that underlie rights, including rights of religious freedom. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) acknowledgments i am grateful for opportunities to present this article at the harvard university center for ethics, the harvard law school, columbia university, and the university of north carolina, chapel hill. i would especially like to acknowledge the helpfulness of comments from dennis thompson, phillip pettit, jed purdy, jeff spinner-halev, john goldberg, richard fallon, melissa schwartzberg, and mitchell cohen. i thank amy gutmann, george kateb, stephen macedo, nancy rosenblum, david estlund, john tomasi, sharon krause, james morone, and michael mcconnell for discussions about the themes and general argument of this article. charles larmore and lucas swaine kindly provided very helpful comments on a late draft. for excellent research assistance i thank michael bechek and minh ly. declaration of conflicting interests the author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article. financial disclosure/funding the author received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article. notes . see michael mcconnell, “free exercise revisionism and the smith decision,” university of chicago law review (fall ): . nussbaum also defends a version of mcconnell’s jurisprudence in her liberty of conscience: in defense of america’s tradition of religious equality (new york: basic books, ). the accommodationist approach was employed by the supreme court prior to its decision in employment division, department of human resources of oregon v. smith, u.s. ( ). . martha nussbaum makes the link most explicit in the final chapter of liberty of conscience. also see john tomasi, liberalism beyond justice (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); and lucas swaine, the liberal conscience: politics and principle in a world of religious pluralism (new york: columbia university press, ). . see nancy rosenblum, membership and morals: the personal uses of plural- ism in america (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ); nancy rosen- blum, “okin’s liberal feminism as a radical political theory,” in toward a hu- manist justice: the political philosophy of susan moller okin, ed. debra satz and rob reich (new york: oxford university press, ), - . rosenblum argues against a “logic of congruence” that suggests we should seek to promote liberal values “all the way down” in citizens’ personal morality. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider . nussbaum has provided a book-length defense of the principle of accommoda- tion, which suggests that policies that adversely affect religious belief are limits on religious freedom, but she defends this principle by reference to a deeper value of equality. in contrast, i am concerned to highlight tensions between a commit- ment to equal citizenship and the principle of accommodation. our projects are united, however, by an attempt to theorize about religious freedom through the lens of political liberalism. see nussbaum, liberty of conscience. . employment division. . church of the lukumi babalu aye v. city of hialeah, u.s. ( ). . ibid., at . . john rawls terms the supreme court an “exemplar” of public reason. it is clear he means to do so in my first sense, but it is unclear whether he would agree with my extension of this term to the second sense, that the court should be an ex- ample for the wider citizenry. see rawls, political liberalism, nd ed. (new york: columbia university press, ), . . i develop this argument at length in my democratic rights: the substance of self-government (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ). . it is an open question as to the amount of transformation the lukumi principle requires. in societies in which the views of the councilmen are widely invoked in public deliberation, there could be a fairly robust role for the state in seeking transformation. in societies in which the lukumi principle is widely internalized, such a role might be minimal. i have argued elsewhere about why the ideal of public reason should not necessarily be thought of as a minimal principle. see brettschneider, “the politics of the personal: a liberal approach,” american political science review , no. (february ): - . . both of these limitations help to clarify why the law targeting the santeria vio- lated the lukumi principle, while a concern to transform illiberal beliefs such as the councilmen’s is justified by it. the law banning animal sacrifice sought to change a santeria belief not at odds with the ideal of free and equal citizenship. moreover, the councilmen used outright coercion, not persuasion, to challenge this practice. in contrast, the court’s message to the councilman did address a belief at odds with free and equal citizenship, as was evidenced by the statements of the proponents of the law quoted above. moreover, this message was delivered through expressive, not coercive, means. . rawls, political liberalism, - . . lukumi, at , . i assume that the we here does not refer to official state actors. . it is possible, moreover, that this belief in saving one’s fellow citizens through law was central to the beliefs of these councilmen. in my analysis, therefore, i do not appeal to a claim that these particular religious beliefs are tangential to those religions subject to transformation. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) . arguably, rawls’s use of the word hope, despite his attempt to hedge here, implies that religious transformation is normatively desirable. see rawls, political liberalism, . . susan okin, is multiculturalism bad for women? (princeton, nj: princeton uni- versity press, ), . okin certainly did not mean to say that such extinction should be the intention of any liberal regime—merely that it might be the byprod- uct of promoting certain values in the face of cultures that oppose them. . i do not mean to imply, in using the term dialectical, that religious reasons will have an equally weighted presence in the resulting synthesis. it is open to ques- tion whether this dialectic will play out more by having equality clarified by religious views, as in the case of king, or whether it will result in fundamental transformation of religious views. . on rawls’s account, “political liberalism, then, aims for a political conception of justice as a freestanding view. it offers no specific metaphysical or epistemologi- cal doctrine beyond what is implied by the political conception itself.” rawls, political liberalism, . . amy gutmann, identity in democracy (princeton, nj: princeton university press, ), . . christopher eisgruber and lawrence sager note that another downside of insisting on literal and complete separation of church and state is that such a reading forbids the use of persuasive religious reasons in political arguments for policies. a literal interpretation of the “wall of separation,” then, might have precluded king’s use of christian arguments for civil rights. see eisgruber and sager, religious freedom and the constitution (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), - . . see brettschneider, “politics of the personal.” for a good general discussion of how liberal citizens might seek to change the minds of illiberal citizens, see swaine, liberal conscience, . . rob reich, “book review: amy gutmann, identity in democracy,” theory and research in education ( ): . . mozert v. hawkins county board of education, f. d ( th cir. ). . stephen macedo, diversity and distrust: civic education in a multicultural de- mocracy (cambridge, ma: harvard university press, ), - . . see anne fadiman, the spirit catches you and you fall down: a hmong child, her american doctors, and the collision of two cultures (new york: farrar, straus and giroux, ). the case is also discussed in gutmann, identity in democracy, and in reich’s review of gutmann’s book. . see patrick devlin, the enforcement of morals (oxford, uk: oxford university press, ). . bob jones university v. united states, u.s. ( ). at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider . provision of the policy read, “students who are members of or affiliated with any group or organization which holds as one of its goals or advocates interracial marriage will be expelled.” u.s. . . loving v. virginia, u.s. ( ). . bob jones university, “statement about race at bju,” http://www.bju.edu/ welcome/who-we-are/race-statement.php (accessed june , ). despite this change, bob jones has not reclaimed its tax-exempt status. . archon fung, “loosening the constraints on public reason” (unpublished). fung’s view differs from my own in that he seeks to make public reason less demanding on religion. fung bases much of his analysis of the mother’s own views on quotations reported in stephen bates, battleground: one mother’s crusade, the religious right, and the struggle for our schools (new york: henry holt, ). . another example of the role religious belief can play in educating the wider cul- ture about the requirements of public values can be drawn from an amicus curiae brief filed by the mennonites in the bob jones case. ultimately, the brief suggests that the court should support the university’s free exercise claim. yet the brief is also clear in its condemnation of the practice of racial discrimination. indeed, the brief’s point is that, overall, there has been more promotion of the values of justice from groups that have been “let alone” by the state than from those that have faced state interference. the mennonites cite, for instance, the passive resistance of their own fol- lowers to the vietnam war. while it is an empirically contestable claim whether justice has been promoted more by the state or by religious groups that have separated themselves from the state, the mennonites’ claim has certainly been true in some instances. the civil rights movement, for example, was largely incited by the black church, which was excluded for most of its history from equal status and recognition by american society at large. the flaw in the brief’s argument, however, is that it fails to distinguish be- tween instances when private religious groups promote public values and instances when they undermine them. the mennonites clearly distinguish, on substantive grounds, the examples they cite from the case of bob jones’s discriminatory poli- cies. yet they fail to see that this distinction should be the basis of policy. in this sense, their stance is a static one that takes an excessively monolithic view of religion. they advise against state meddling in religion because religions fre- quently promote social justice, but they do not recognize that the current state of religion as a whole, however beneficial individual religions may be to society, is not necessarily optimal. state efforts to change specific illiberal religious beliefs need not deprive religion of its power to work for justice and change. . one way of defending this insular understanding of religion as protected against incursions from discrete principles, moreover, might be to appeal to the long-term at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ political theory ( ) impact of such transformation. it could be contended that, without a commitment to insularity, religions would progressively weaken to the point of extinction. i have little confidence in anyone’s ability to make a long-term prediction with any degree of certainty whether this will in fact occur, but if the long-term outcome of making religions compatible with freestanding public principles is the decline of religion, we must view this as the inevitable result of living in a free society. . consider, for example, the significant liberalization of the catholic church that was brought about by the vatican ii conference, partially in response to interac- tion with wider liberal society. although some conservative factions within catholicism have lamented vatican ii’s changes, these changes have largely met with approval by both laypeople and clergy within the catholic faith. . naacp v. alabama, u.s. ( ). . see, e.g., roberts v. united states jaycees, u.s. ( ), in which the court found that the jaycees did not have such an expressive purpose in exclud- ing women, as opposed to boy scouts of america v. dale, u.s. ( ), in which the court found the boy scouts had an expressive purpose in excluding gays. the first question according to my account is whether excluding gays went beyond an internal policy and indeed rejected free and equal citizenship. but even if the latter were the case, my means-based limit would suggest that the organiza- tion might still have a right to exclude gays. it would be a different matter, on my analysis, whether those groups that received public subsidies could have them revoked. still another question would be raised if such groups claimed a right to meet in public facilities. . one of the only universities that relinquished federal funding rather than comply with such legislation is hillsdale college, a small, nondenominational liberal arts school in rural michigan. hillsdale’s administration justifies its decision on the grounds that federal guidelines that require the college to count students by race would violate the college’s commitment to nondiscrimination. . originally, the board members of catholic charities had agreed that, as a state licensee, catholic charities should comply with state policy on the right of gays to adopt. the policy of the lay-dominated board came into conflict with vatican doctrine, however, which opposes gay adoption. following the failure of boston bishops to obtain an exception to the law, the organization stopped facilitating adoptions. for an important discussion of this and related issues, see martha l. minow, “should religious groups ever be exempt from civil rights laws?” boston college law review (september ): . i read minow’s general argument to suggest caution about the state’s means of transformation. even if my account of transformation is correct as a matter of political legitimacy and at the level of principle, i take minow’s account to offer a warning about how imprudent means of transformation might at times backfire. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ brettschneider . the fact that massachusetts, unlike the large majority of states, requires the use of a licensed adoption agency for a child to be legally adopted complicates the issue. if massachusetts allowed unlicensed adoptions, it could deny state funds to catholic charities; having denied funding, the state would have to allow catholic charities to continue operating. the fact that massachusetts state law combines the licensing and subsidy-provision process makes the question more difficult. should the state be allowed to forbid catholic charities from operating because that operation would automatically entail public funding, or should the state be forced to continue financing an organization that refuses to comply with antidis- crimination laws? in the particular case of massachusetts, the state’s action may well qualify as action in its role as coercer rather than as spender and as a result may be illegitimate. of course, all this analysis rests on the claim that gay citizens have a right to adopt, which i do not attempt to establish here. . even in the massachusetts example, the church remains free to find potential foster families for children. its lack of a license to facilitate adoption merely forces it to refer such families to other adoption agencies to perform the legal adoption process. . there is thus a contrast between my view and those that seek merely to show that a commitment to transformation—for instance, through education—does not entail a limit on rights. my account does not just posit compatibility but argues for a neces- sary moral connection between the protection of religious freedom and transforma- tion. for a narrow account of compatibility that admits to being open to the charge of ethical liberalism, see macedo, “liberal civic education and religious fundamen- talism: the case of god v. john rawls,” ethics (april ): - . bio corey brettschneider is associate professor (with tenure) of political science and public policy at brown university, where he teaches courses in political theory and public law. he is the author of democratic rights: the substance of self-government (princeton university press, ). the first article of his current book project, which offers a rethinking of the public/private distinction, is “the politics of the personal: a liberal approach,” in the american political science review (february ). brett- schneider’s case book on constitutional law will be published by aspen press. brettschneider is the recipient of the cornell university young scholar award, a fel- lowship from the american council of learned societies, and a faculty fellowship in ethics from harvard university. he has also been visiting associate professor at harvard law school. he received a phd in politics from princeton university and a jd from stanford university. at brown university on september , ptx.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://ptx.sagepub.com/ “it’s festival time again”: sounding tensions with/in an a/r/tographical inquiry into participation in competition music festivals a thesis submitted to the faculty of graduate and postdoctoral studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master of arts degree in education faculty of education university of ottawa by jessica anne duerksen thesis supervisor: dr. patricia palulis thesis committee members: dr. cynthia morawski & dr. raymond leblanc © jessica anne duerksen, ottawa, canada ii acknowledgements i am in-debted to my thesis supervisor, pat palulis for her wisdom and support throughout my graduate studies at the university of ottawa. to committee members dr. cynthia morawski and dr. raymond leblanc, i am grateful for your helpful suggestions, comments and encouragement. thanks to mary and graeme for our numerous meetings and grilled cheese sandwiches. to my parents, my sisters and the matys family - i appreciate your continual support. a huge thank you to scott for your patience, understanding and encouragement. finally to shuggies, my cat, you sat on my lap for countless hours and kept me on task while i was writing. iii dedication to scott and my parents with thanks iv abstract reflecting on my musical past, my annual participation in competition music festivals in solo and ensemble categories at the local and provincial levels shaped my music education as well as my development as a music educator. i inquire into how re/visiting moments of tension in my lived experiences as a participant in competition music festivals can facilitate my current praxis as artist, researcher and teacher. my inquiry is informed by understandings of a/r/tography as an arts-based educational research methodology. i inquire into these sites of music-making drawing on a theoretical framework of a soundscape, a concept originally proposed by canadian composer r. murray schafer, to generate rhizomatic pathways with/in my research. through this framework i consider how musical form informs the processes and structures of my thesis. emphasizing a/r/tography as process-oriented inquiry, understandings emerge through music- making, arts-based journaling and autoethnographic renderings. rhizomatic soundscapes evoke new understandings and questions contributing to literature on student perspectives participating in competition music festivals and teaching and learning in one-to-one music instruction. v table of contents acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... ii dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iii abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv table of contents .............................................................................................................................v list of audio tracks .................................................................................................................... viii prologue ........................................................................................................................................... “it’s festival time again” .............................................................................................................. listening (re)verberations ............................................................................................................ sounds e/merging, evoking tensions ............................................................................................ (h)earing pathways ...................................................................................................................... chapter : musical maps unravelling ............................................................................................. competition music festivals ......................................................................................................... current research trends ........................................................................................................ arts-based research and music ................................................................................................... musical form informing research....................................................................................... a/r/tographical research and music education ................................................................... music autoethnographies ................................................................................................... soundscapes in research ............................................................................................................. acoustic ecology ................................................................................................................ soundscape composition .................................................................................................... soundscapes in arts-based research ................................................................................... soundscapes as theoretical framework .............................................................................. chapter : re/sounding methodology ........................................................................................... a/r/tography: questioning and living inquiry ............................................................................. epiphanies, “epiphonies” and schafer’s soundscapes ....................................................... re/locating sounded moments ................................................................................................... towards a praxis as artist/researcher/teacher ............................................................................. “performance collage” and musical inquiry ...................................................................... sounding stories ................................................................................................................. chapter : sounding stories from my past .................................................................................... vi introducing my arts-based journal ..................................................................................... there’s a polar bear on the piano! .............................................................................................. recapitulating (festival) ............................................................................................................. waterfalls of mentos .................................................................................................................. fleeting improvisations .............................................................................................................. waltz in b minor ........................................................................................................................ dissonance reverberates ............................................................................................................. rehearsing .................................................................................................................................. a trip to highlights night ............................................................................................................ rendering pianos (s/p/laces) ...................................................................................................... paper cranes flying ..................................................................................................................... articulating cadences ................................................................................................................. utterances of haydn ................................................................................................................... ostinati ....................................................................................................................................... spectrums in flux ....................................................................................................................... memorizing memories ............................................................................................................... dressing up ................................................................................................................................. exchanging harmonies ............................................................................................................... ants! ........................................................................................................................................... listening backwards ................................................................................................................... showcasing ................................................................................................................................. chapter : performing soundscapes .............................................................................................. soundscape .............................................................................................................................. soundscape .............................................................................................................................. soundscape .............................................................................................................................. keynote sounds .................................................................................................................. conventions ........................................................................................................... rituals .................................................................................................................... traditions ............................................................................................................... support ................................................................................................................... soundmarks........................................................................................................................ pianos as place ....................................................................................................... vii signals .............................................................................................................................. adjudicators as educators .................................................................................... festival songs ....................................................................................................... musical scores as “messy texts” .......................................................................... breaking in/to festival noise ................................................................................ chapter : understandings ........................................................................................................... sounding inquiries through the arts ......................................................................................... practice and preparation ........................................................................................................... soundings (backstage) .............................................................................................................. audience ................................................................................................................................... performance ............................................................................................................................. adjudication sheet .................................................................................................................... post-performance ..................................................................................................................... learning from adjudicators .............................................................................................. re/listening ...................................................................................................................... interpretation .................................................................................................................... epilogue ....................................................................................................................................... rhizomatic soundscapes ................................................................................................. re/sidues re/sounding ...................................................................................................... appendix a .................................................................................................................................. references .................................................................................................................................... viii list of audio tracks track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ........................................................................................................................................... track ......................................................................................................................................... track ......................................................................................................................................... prologue “the audience is hushed and expectant as it waits in the darkness. the stage lights blaze down on the nervous performers. the accompanist, poised to play, watches as the conductor raises her hands to begin…and out floats the sweet clear voices of the young choristers. it’s festival time again” (mcconnell, ). “it’s festival time again” were words that i heard every year while growing up. performing and competing in the local music festival was an annual part of my music education. each year, my repertoire (songs to be learned and memorized) was chosen with the help of my music teacher and carefully prepared through months of practice, lessons, and rehearsals before the final performance at the festival. several months before the festival started, the program was released. each year, trembling in anticipation, i remember opening the program to read the schedule of events. students registered to compete in “classes” where they were grouped with others who were performing musical pieces in a similar style at a similar level. other information contained in the program included the order of performance within the classes as well as biographical information about the adjudicators (the judges of the festival). for myself, performing first or last in a class was undesirable. the agony of having to perform first on stage or alternatively wait until all the other performers had their turns to play sometimes felt unbearable. while i competed in music festivals in many different disciplines, solo performances in piano and violin stand out most vividly as part of my past experiences in music education. listening (re)verberations listening through muted whispers, swirling dissonances, pulsing rhythms and lyrical harmonies, i reflect on my past experiences in music education while inquiring into arts-based research methodologies. embarking on a thesis project, i hear sonorities from my past reverberating with/in the spaces of my lived experience. lingering in the residue of sounds, i reflect on my participation in competition music festivals as “meaningful biographical experience” (denzin, ). i am drawn to re/visit and inquire in/to these moments in my musical past articulating a/r/tography as an arts-based research methodology to inform my work. preparing for and participating in competition music festivals was an important part of my music education growing up in a small town on the canadian prairies. echoes resonate through my fingers on/to piano keys as i re/member music students performing on stage while being evaluated by an adjudicator who provided feedback on their performances (abbott, ). my qualitative inquiry draws on the methodological approach of a/r/tography to inquire in/to my past lived experiences as a music student participating in competition music festivals. a/r/tography is an arts-based research methodology which emerged from the work of researchers at the university of british columbia (irwin & de cosson, ; springgay, irwin, leggo & gouzouasis, ). an a/r/tographer is someone who lives in the arts and works to create, teach and research their art-making as part of their lived experiences. in a/r/tography, the letters of the word “art” are divided by slashes. this highlights the researcher’s roles as artist, researcher and teacher as a central part of the research process. in a/r/tography, the emphasis is not on the final results of the project but rather on the process of inquiry. this continuous process of reflection plays a critical role in rendering a/r/tographical inquiry as a form of living inquiry. through conceptualizing a/r/tography as process-oriented living inquiry, i re/visit these sites of tension in my music education drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape to inform my research (schafer, ). inquiring into these sites of music-making drawing on the notion of a soundscape generates rhizomatic pathways with/in the processes of my inquiry. the term soundscape was originally created by canadian composer, educator and theorist, r. murray schafer and has been influential in the fields of acoustic ecology (schafer, ), soundscape composition (drever, ; truax, ; ) and recently in arts-based research (toth, ). listening through fleeting spaces as openings for my contrapuntal overtones, i immerse myself in a variety of materials from my past participation in competition music festivals. these include recordings and videos of myself performing and preparing for music festivals as a student. i also re-read adjudication forms, programs and other written materials such as newspaper articles and lesson records from my classes with music teachers. cultivating moments of listening and playing, i examine the musical scores which i used to prepare for competition music festivals, containing markings and notes, recorded memories, on the process of my preparation. including these materials as harmonic utterances enables me to work reflectively and reflexively (irwin & springgay, ) with/in my process-oriented inquiry. in representing my artistic processes, i craft stories, poetry and music from my experiences in response to my memories emanating through vibrant glissandi, fissures in melodic lines and fading ambiences. i consider intersecting connections and understandings with/in my experiences through the notion of a soundscape, selecting musical occurrences to form a “performance collage” (jenoure, ). sounds e/merging, evoking tensions as i inquire in/to the significance of sounding memories and lived experiences of my music education, questions emerge in response to my reflections. how have my past experiences as a music student shaped my current practices as an artist/researcher/teacher? more specifically, i wonder how my experiences as a participant in competition music festivals as part of my music education have shaped my current practices as an artist/researcher/teacher? how can understandings of a/r/tography facilitate inquiry in/to memories of my lived experiences as a music student? how do my memories of music festivals perform tensions in my personal narrative as an artist/researcher/teacher? through schafer’s ( ) terminology surrounding the notion of a soundscape, rhizomatic pathways begin to emerge with/in my personal narrative as i consider my roles as artist/researcher/teacher. how can i represent moments of lived curriculum through theoretical notions of a soundscape? from my stance of questioning, several foundational questions e/merge which i inquire in/to through this thesis project:  how do my past experiences as a music student participating in competition music festivals shape my current practices as an artist/researcher/teacher?  how can my current musical praxis and identity as an artist/researcher/teacher facilitate my inquiry into my experiences as a participant in competition music festivals?  how can theoretical notions of a soundscape facilitate a/r/tographical inquiry in music education? (h)earing pathways “sound gets to places where sight cannot. sound plunges below the surface” (schafer, , p. ). listening to schafer ( ) while inquiring in/to my past experiences as a music student participating into competition music festivals, i embark on a literature review in chapter rendering several areas of academic literature which inform my work. i re/turn in/to cadences of the history of competition music festivals in canada, circle the emergence of arts-based research involving music and consider how the notion of a soundscape has inspired several fields of study including acoustic ecology and soundscape composition. in chapter , i re/sound a/r/tography as autoethnographic and living inquiry. i consider identities of artist/researcher/teacher and the importance of including music-making as a central part of the research process. this leads to a discussion of my project drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape as a way of bringing musical ways of knowing in/to my inquiry. i outline an acoustically inspired map guiding my process-oriented inquiry through sounded moments in my past. i perform with/in an arts-based journal in chapter a combination of visual, textual and musical art that i have created reflecting on my past lived experiences participating in competition music festivals. this chapter sings through working materials, fragments of sounded memories combining to form a métissage (irwin & decosson, ). the notated musical excerpts are accompanied by audio tracks included on cd as part of this thesis project. drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape to generate rhizomatic pathways, chapter contains reflections on these musical moments. i seek to dwell in-between spaces allowing for multiple renderings and further questioning as i consider living inquiry through music-making. i create a “performance collage” inspired by jenoure ( ), engaging with working materials from my arts-based journal through notions of the soundscape. chapter reflects on new understandings which emerge through my musical journey engaging with re/verberations of my research questions in the form of a concert performance. i consider the notion of rhizomatic soundscapes as a framework for further inquiries into music- making and learning in the epilogue, while also addressing directions for future research and further questioning. excerpts of poetry, visual art and musical notation are included throughout this thesis. i have created these pieces throughout the process of this inquiry. emerging as i compose musical soundscapes, i engage with these working materials embodying and celebrating ways of knowing through the arts and the centrality of music-making in my process-oriented inquiry. chapter : musical maps unravelling as i review academic literature relating to my work, i am reminded of the process of learning a new piece of music. i listen to gouzouasis ( ) who explains that “one may consider that living inquiry is embodied by performing arts. that is because music performance is a lifelong cyclical process of practice, research, reflection and performance” (p. ). before learning a new song on the piano, i engage with a large variety of different music. i am listening for a piece of music that inspires my imagination as well as challenges me technically to improve my playing. once i choose a song, i begin to practice. this is a process of working/re/working and engaging with all aspects of the music including pitches, articulations, rhythm and dynamics. sometimes the music i have chosen is written on a score for me to follow. other times, i learn through playing by ear. researching the context and history of musical styles shapes how i interpret the music i play. my music is constantly changing in a process that emerges through a cycle of feedback and reflection. no two performances are exactly the same. gouzouasis’ ( ) words resonate: “practice, research, reflection and performance” (p. ). connections or intersections? flurried movement on a page springing to life living breathing sighing sounding competition music festivals the concept of a competition music festival, also referred to as a music festival, originated in england in the s. in , earl grey, governor general of canada proposed organizing small local music festivals across canada culminating in a dominion-wide music festival with representatives from each province (abbott, ). the idea was to give students a chance to perform in a local event and receive feedback on their performances with winners competing against each other at a national level. it was hoped that the festivals would increase appreciation of the arts in canada as well as provide entertainment for local communities. the first music festival was held in edmonton, alberta in . saskatchewan hosted its first music festival in and manitoba followed in . by , music festivals were held in all canadian provinces including newfoundland and labrador. the process of instituting music festivals involved creating a community association to organize and host the festival as well as developing a festival syllabus. the festival syllabus outlined the levels of different musical works that could be played and contained registration information for participants (abbott, ). abbott’s ( ) dissertation outlines some of the early events in the history of music festivals in canada. the purpose of his dissertation is to examine the growth of the music festival movement in canada as well as reflect on the involvement of the music festival movement in the music education of canadian students. he concludes that the success of music festivals in canada has relied on the interest of local community members, music educators and students (p. ). music festivals continue to be held at the local, provincial and national levels in canada through numerous community organizations. current research trends since abbott ( ), many other scholars have chosen to research various aspects of competition music festivals. while no others studies have taken such a comprehensive look at music festivals in canada, many have chosen to focus on a specific aspect of the music festival experience. i reflect on previous studies which have focused on competition music festivals from a sociological perspective (mccormick, ) as well as from a historical perspective in canada (abbott, ). the perspectives of teachers, parents and administrators (fleming, ; rogers, ; sweeney, ), the evaluation criteria of festival adjudicators (bergee & mcwhirter, ; wapnick, mazza & darrow, ), and survey data documenting the perceptions of students (gouzouasis & henderson, ; stamer, ) have also been considered in relation to competition music festivals. relevant to my inquiry are studies which have considered music festivals from the perspective of students participating in competition music festivals (gouzouasis & henderson, ; stamer, ) and piano competitions specifically (mccormick, ). providing a sociological perspective on piano competitions, mccormick ( ) analyzes the van cliburn international piano competition held in texas every four years. she suggests that music competitions in general, “have been a visible and controversial part of the classical music world for over a century, yet sociologists have strangely neglected to study their social significance” (p. ). her article draws on discourse analysis to suggest that piano competitions have numerous discourses which can be studied in different ways including the analogy of piano competitions as sport games and the goal of the musical hero to win the competition. participation in competition music festivals has also been studied from the perspectives of students in choirs and concert bands. stamer ( ) surveyed students using a researcher developed “choir competition survey” (p. ). the purpose of his study is to examine student perceptions of participation in choral music festivals. his findings suggest that there are differences across age and gender categories in student perceptions of the competition experience. younger high school students placed more importance on the contests while older students did not find them as motivating. additionally male students are more motivated than female students by participation in the choral competition experience. gouzouasis and henderson ( ) surveyed band students from surrey, british columbia to interrogate student perceptions of participation in district band festivals. their findings suggest that generally students felt participation in band festivals was a positive experience and a beneficial part of their music education. in their conclusion, gouzouasis and henderson ( ) contend that additional studies involving “ethnographic (ellis, ) and autoethnographic research (bartleet & ellis, ; gouzouasis, ) in this area could be very enlightening and provide broad, nuanced contributions to the literature” (p. ). currently, the majority of studies involving student perceptions of music festivals are from the perspective of students participating in ensemble performances such as band and choirs. student participation in performance and competition music festivals as part of music education has been understudied in research from an arts-based, autoethnographic perspective. my inquiry provides a unique narrative from the perspective of a music student’s participation in solo performances at competition music festivals. arts-based research in music as a teacher education student and now graduate student, i began to read studies about current practices in music education research. i learned that music education is often characterized as “conservative” compared to other disciplines in the arts (gouzouasis, ; lines, ). lines ( ) describes music education research “as a field that has well- established ideas about what constitutes effective learning in and through music” (p. ). gouzouasis ( ) furthers this idea by describing how these established traditions in music education might help explain the lack of musicians and music education researchers involved in arts-based methodologies compared to other disciplines. despite these challenges, new research involving arts-based methodologies in music education has been emerging. i review three ways that music has informed arts-based methodologies unravelling a spectrum of possibilities. first, several scholars (bresler, ; gouzouasis, ; ; ) have discussed how musical form can influence and inform the research process. second, a/r/tographers have considered music-making while inquiring in/to lives as artists, researchers and teachers. in a/r/tography, these studies are process-oriented and the results often generate more questions than answers. third, the methodology of autoethnography has drawn on musical understandings while storying music and teaching lives. musical form informing research within the context of arts-based research involving music, scholars have considered how musical form can inform the process of inquiry (bresler, ; ; gouzouasis, ; ; ; gouzouasis & lee, ). when considering different ways that music can inform arts- based research, leavy ( ) suggests that, “researchers can use music to contemplate the importance of form in life and research…” (p. ). form in music refers to the way a musical work is organized. leavy ( ) reminds me that this notion of form relates not only to the organization of the whole and the parts but also to elements such as variation, repetition and silence and the way that these elements interact within musical forms (p. ). musical form has been used by bresler ( ) to draw attention to the social relationships and forms used to organize interactions within research in the social sciences. for example, repetition may occur within life writing to draw attention to certain aspects of the stories (leavy, , p. ). gouzouasis ( ; ; ) draws on a variety of forms commonly used in western classical music including the toccata, fugue, and sonata form in his a/r/tographical inquiries. reflections on these musical forms are included in gouzouasis’ research processes and written works. for example, gouzouasis & lee ( ) structure their writings in the form of the fugue featuring a conversation between teacher and graduate student which examines and interrogates research traditions leading to a discussion of the notion of truth. before publication, the editors asked gouzouasis and lee to remove several sections from the article. the editors of the journal didn’t recognize the musical form of the fugue and its contribution to the article. gouzouasis ( ) reflects back on this publication noting how others have noted the absence of these sections and how this change affected the overall structure of the article (p. ). in contrast, bresler ( ) considers how specific aspects of musical form including dynamics, timbre, polyphony, harmony and melody can inform the research process. she suggests that by reflecting on these specific aspects of musical form, musical ways of knowing can provide insights into qualitative research. drawing on the notion of texture, bresler ( ) describes harmony as a specific aspect of musical form. in musical pieces, there are expectations about the harmonic progressions which create the musical work based on the style, context and form in which the music was created. bresler argues that the same expectations apply to the study of a classroom where there are also expectations and conventions embedded within the setting much like harmonic progressions in music. bresler ( ) continues by also comparing the “tolerance for dissonance” within a musical work. this tolerance for dissonance differs depending on musical style, form and harmonic progressions. making a similar comparison, she suggests that there are also variations in the tolerance for dissonance in different classrooms as in music. this review of musical form and its uses in qualitative research methodologies is particularly important to my research as i consider the form of a soundscape as a theoretical framework for my inquiry. i am inspired by the work of bresler ( ) and gouzouasis ( ) as i consider the importance of musical form with/in my own research processes. however, rather than draw on musical forms common in the canon of classical music, i draw on schafer’s ( ) notion and terminology of the soundscape. through reflections on the soundscape as a musical form evoking the environment and lived experiences, i am reminded of one of my research questions: how can theoretical notions of a soundscape facilitate a/r/tographical inquiry in music education? a/r/tographical research and music education a/r/tographical inquiry in music and music education has been featured in the work of several scholars at the university of british columbia (bakan, ; bakan, ; gouzouasis & lee, ; gouzouasis, ; ; ). a/r/tography as a methodology will be discussed in more detail in chapter , however, this section will review some of the current trends and issues in a/r/tographical praxis including music-making. in his article, bakan ( ) discusses the creation of a song with lyrics entitled, this is the beauty. written for a graduate seminar on arts-based methodologies, the song has autoethnographic meaning for bakan which he expands upon as part of his paper. he explains how he considered his audience (colleagues in a graduate seminar on research methodologies) when creating and composing his song. with this acknowledgement, he highlights the relationship between the audience and performer as part of arts-based research involving music. as the subject of the article, bakan ( ) focuses on the transition of his identity as an artist towards an emerging identity as a researcher and phd candidate. through his discussion, “a complex and multi-dimensional bricolage has formed/informed an emerging theory of song as artographical inquiry” (bakan, , p. ). embedded within the article are the lyrics of the song as well as a video recording of bakan performing the song for his research seminar class. bakan ( ) considers this to be “a documentation of the birth of the song”. he contends that the song “is not a perfected artistic rendering but rather a field note that informs my research process. the song and video represents a transitory moment in my a/r/tographical queries into song and research as pedagogy” (p. ). gouzouasis ( ; ; ) incorporates original musical compositions as well as other musical works in his articles inquiring into the role of music in a/r/tographical research. in his first article on a/r/tography, gouzouasis ( ) discusses new possibilities in music education research drawing on a/r/tography. he cites some of the challenges and reasons that a/r/tography and other arts-based research methodologies haven’t been adopted by more music education researchers. these include the specialized nature of music training programs and the conservative nature of music education research. additionally, gouzouasis explains some of the connections that can be made with music through the six renderings of a/r/tography. using a metaphor of tonality to engage with a/r/tography as a form of “living inquiry”, gouzouasis ( ) characterizes a/r/tography as “a hybrid research form that in this essay employs narrative, autoethnography, lyrics, poetry, music and pedagogical inquiry – as a music research method” (p. ). through the inclusion of music, he renders new understandings in the processes of a/r/tography. musical excerpts are embedded into the article and can be accessed by readers as part of the performance of reading the article. gouzouasis’ work as an artist/researcher/teacher has also bridged a gap between a/r/tography and the research methodology of autoethnography. while some of his work combines a/r/tographical research with autoethnographic reflections (gouzouasis, ), more recent work also addresses new possibilities for autoethnographic research between students and teachers in music education (gouzouasis et. al., ; gouzouasis & ryu, ). gouzouasis and ryu ( ) examine the teacher-student relationship between a year old piano student and a piano teacher in private one-on-one music lessons. the authors contend that “by considering autoethnography as creative, didactic non-fiction, our essay sings out with a call for transformation in how we engage with children in teaching and learning piano – on how we engage in a “listening pedagogy” to transform piano teaching and learning into a much more expressive, meaningful, playful and positive learning experience” (gouzouasis & ryu, , p. ). the article tells the story of “young buddha”, a piano student who asks many questions during his lessons and struggles to play a song all the way through without pausing to curiously inquire with his teacher about aspects of the music. at the year-end recital, the young boy performs his favourite song, alouette, for the first time all the way through and his teacher is very proud of his achievement. after the recital, the boy presents the teacher with a handmade bracelet which is made of beads of the teacher’s favourite colours. the teacher realizes that the student asked her months ago about her favourite colours and that the student has retained this knowledge applying it to create the bracelet. gouzouasis and ryu ( ) use this story, to highlight the importance of conversation as well as the relationship that forms between music teachers and young music students. the authors discuss the importance of a “listening pedagogy” and how teachers must consider the perspectives of students as part of curriculum. gouzouasis and ryu conclude that autoethnography can be used as a means of inquiring into pedagogical interactions between music teachers and their students. music autoethnographies autoethnographic research in music has also become more prominent in recent years in a variety of contexts (bartleet, ; bartleet & ellis, ; gouzouasis & ryu, ; manovski, ). bartleet and ellis ( ) edited music autoethnographies: making autoethnography sing/making music personal which seeks to inspire readers “to listen closely and hear the music in the stories that are shared” (p. ). this volume contains sixteen autoethnographic works that engage with music in different areas including composition and improvisation, teaching and learning, and identities as researchers. in the first chapter on teaching and learning, yuyan ( ) describes her journey as a music student in rural china. her inquiry provides insights into emergent pathways that led to her career as a percussionist with renowned orchestras and more recently as graduate student in music education. through her inquiry, she describes how her early experiences as a music student, both triumphs and failures, have shaped her current identity as a performer and musician. drawing from a conservatory setting, schindler ( ) investigates her experiences as a performer/teacher of vocal pedagogy. through her narrative, autoethnographic inquiry she traces a journey through her experiences as a student, performer and teacher. she concludes that “as a teacher of one-to-one voice, the opportunity to examine my own story truthfully has produced some key pedagogical insights as well as some profound observations about myself” such as how her experiences as a performer have shaped her relationships with current students (p. ). in contrast, dunbar-hall’s ( ) autoethnographic study on teaching and learning through autoethnographic inquiry and music focuses on learning balinese gamelan from teachers in bali. by inquiring into how learning balinese music and learning about balinese music relates to processes of learning, thinking and doing, dunbar-hall especially comments on connections to his role as a university professor. he concludes that his autoethnographic reflection became an integral part of his life that he was able to continually apply in his university teaching. for example, he concludes that he analyzes his actions in his teaching as a result of his experiences with autoethnographic research methods. reflecting on lived experiences of teaching and learning music, manovski ( ) combines arts-based research approaches with autoethnography in his dissertation which represents his journey as a voice student through his experiences learning to sing. on a quest to find “his voice”, manovski conducts an autoethnographic inquiry using recordings of himself taking voice lessons at various points in his life for his doctoral dissertation in music education. much of his work focuses on lessons with his current voice teacher as well as a discussion of vocal pedagogy. he describes his work as, “essentially, i am an artist, thinking about my artistic process through my artistic thinking, crafting what i hope will be perceived as artful narratives, interlaced with visual art, music and more” (manovski, , p. xvi). throughout his creative writing and analysis, manovski’s dissertation discusses themes of marginalization, music education and sexuality and includes art-making in music, the visual arts as well as poetry. shoemaker ( ) has written an autoethnography about her relationship with the music of jazz icon miles davis. she connects the music of davis to her lived experiences in her home town in texas where she was introduced to davis’ music by her uncle who struggled with mental illness and died tragically at a young age in a single vehicle car accident. drawing on memories of her relationship with her uncle and her reflections on a performer interpreting the work of miles davis, shoemaker cites stacy l. holman jones who reminds her that “music works on us; it materially moves us into new places of possibility over years of listening, singing, playing and dancing along” (p. ). shoemaker concludes by including reflections on the relationship between performance and music in an autoethnographic context. in another example of autoethnographic research, two professors sefton and beyley ( ) discuss their identities as performing musicians within the context of a faculty of education at a canadian university. they reflect on how faculties of education in canada value written words over musical training (p. ). their autoethnographic project had two goals, “to reclaim our identity as musicians through performance and to make a space for our performance work in the academy” (p. ). sefton and beyley videotaped their joint rehearsals and reflected on the processes of preparing for performances as the focus and subject of their autoethnographic study. considering how musicians are familiar with the notion of “practicing as a process of discovery”, they note that this notion was regarded as largely unfamiliar to colleagues in the faculty (p. ). they conclude that the music-making relationship that they established through the autoethnographic study resulted in the formation of complex identities as researchers, performers and professors as well as opened up possibilities for other relationships within the faculty. autoethnographies connect music-making and musical lives to the larger social, political and cultural context with/in which they are lived. while some of the studies (dunbar-hall, ; schindler, ; yuyan, ) are autoethnographic reflections from musicians also trained and employed as music teachers, others reflect on musical lives more generally including teaching and learning in other forms (shoemaker, ; manovksi, ). autoethnographies involving music continue to rely mainly on written text to describe music-making activities. manovski’s ( ) study stands out as an example that includes a variety of arts-based forms in an autoethnographic study including text, music and visual arts. soundscapes in research the notion of a soundscape also informs my inquiry. canadian composer r. murray schafer originally discussed the idea of the acoustic environment as a soundscape. schafer ( ) describes a soundscape as, “the sonic environment. technically, any portion of the sonic environment regarded as a field for study. the term may refer to actual environments, or to abstract constructions such as music composition” (p. - ). schafer’s work in this area has focused on the environmental impact of the soundscapes in which we live and for this reason he has been called the “father of acoustic ecology” (king, gillmor & mackenzie, , para. ). schafer ( ) elaborates on the notion of a soundscape by defining parts of a soundscape including terminology such as keynote sounds, signals and soundmarks. the keynote sounds refer to the background or “tonality” of a soundscape. schafer describes keynote sounds as “those which are heard by a particular society continuously or frequently enough to form a background against which other sounds are perceived” (p. ). signals are defined by schafer as “foreground sounds and they are listened to consciously” (p. ). schafer also introduces the term soundmark which “is derived from landmark and refers to a community sound which is unique or possesses qualities which make it specially regarded or noticed by the people in that community” (p. ). theoretically i inquire into my experiences as a participant in competition music festivals drawing on the terminology of the soundscape as a framework for my inquiry in chapter . since schafer’s initial use of the term soundscape, several fields of study including acoustic ecology, soundscape composition and arts-based research have used the concept of the soundscape in varying ways. i review these fields of research to position my own narrative drawing on understandings of the soundscape. acoustic ecology in addition to the terminology outlined above, schafer’s work with soundscapes included the founding of the “world soundscape project” through simon fraser university in british columbia, canada, which documented the unique soundscapes of communities across canada and around the world during the s and s. the purpose of the project was to study the relationship between “people and their acoustic environment” (king, gillmor & mackenzie, ) especially focusing on the impact of noise pollution in urban centres. soundscape composition as a result of r. murray schafer’s work involving the soundscape, a new field of soundscape composition emerged (drever, ; truax, ). soundscape composition retains the soundscape’s connection with the environment, although this environment can be real or artificially constructed in the composition. generally soundscape composition has been associated with the field of acousmatic music (electronic music) and features several key components described by truax ( ), one of the leading scholars in the field of soundscape composition. the primary aim of soundscape composition is to “enhance our understanding of the world” and also preserve the recognition of sound clips from the environment for the listener (drever, , p. ). in addition, both composer and listener have active and distinct roles to play in engaging with soundscape compositions. the composer uses knowledge of musical composition and the environment to influence the shape of the composition while the listener is expected to use their prior knowledge to engage with the soundscape composition. while the work of soundscape composers represents one possible application of r. murray schafer’s notion of a soundscape, this project is also informed by the work of toth ( ) as he creates soundscapes as part of an arts-based thesis project drawing on a/r/tography and music. soundscapes in arts-based research the notion of a soundscape drawing on the metaphor of sculpting soundscapes was proposed by toth ( ) as an integral part of his a/r/tographical and autoethnographically inspired thesis. his project combines music, life writing and poetry “to create a multi-faceted tapestry that exposes my life roles, my feelings, my values and the greyer in-between areas of knowing, teaching and learning” (p. ii). the metaphor of sculpting soundscapes used throughout the thesis illustrates toth’s artistic processes when working with soundscapes to accompany his autobiographically inspired poetic renderings. toth’s final project includes an audio recording of his soundscapes which is meant to accompany the reading of his work. in addition to the creation of soundscapes to accompany his narratives, toth ( ) also draws on understandings of jazz improvisation as a method of inquiring into his identity as an artist, teacher and musician. looking into the question of “who is the real me?” toth analyzed his poetry, narratives and soundscapes considering emerging themes in his work (p. ). his thesis project represents seven themes including: “personal context and context formation, heroes, regrets, issues with the prevailing culture, new beginnings, artistic/transcendent/arational spaces and reflections and intimate looks into the form and function of education landscape” as part of his findings (p. ii-iii). reflecting on toth’s use of soundscapes to accompany his autobiographically inspired poems, i consider how soundscapes can provide openings for telling my own autobiographically inspired stories. soundscapes as theoretical framework all accurate descriptions of sound will be biographical, based on personal experience. anything otherwise would be romantic or illusionary. therefore, all i can do in these pages is to track a few of the many sounds that have been close to me in the parts of canada i have known. (schafer, , p. ) reflecting on the notion of music as the study of sound in music education has led me to consider how the soundscape, a concept proposed by canadian composer r. murray schafer ( ; ) and used by toth ( ) in an a/r/tographical inquiry, can serve as a theoretical framework for re/visiting sites of my participation in competition music festivals. i draw on toth’s ( ) work in my own a/r/tographical inquiry along with the language of soundscapes proposed by schafer ( ) as a framework for inquiring in/to my participation in competition music festivals. toth ( ) defines soundscapes in his project as “various musical compositions that support the autoethnographic narratives and poetic renderings that i, and others, have written (p. ). like toth, i create originally composed soundscapes inspired by my lived experiences e/merging throughout the process of my inquiry. i also reflect on the terminology of a soundscape as a way of structuring my arts-based inquiries. chapter : re/sounding methodology drawing on the methodological approach of a/r/tography, i consider how the processes of my inquiry unfold, identities of artist/researcher/teacher informing my work. i re/sound frequencies of a/r/tography that have shaped the form, process and product of this thesis. recapitulating a sounded journey, i trace a map articulating amplifications, vibrations and sonorities highlighting processes in my inquiry towards pathways of questioning, interconnections and possibilities. a/r/tography: questioning and living inquiry a/r/tographical research is not subject to standardized criteria, rather it remains dynamic, fluid and in constant motion. (irwin & springgay, , p. xix) a/r/tography is an arts-based research methodology which emerged from the work of researchers at the university of british columbia (irwin & de cosson, ; springgay, irwin, & wilson kind, ; springgay, irwin, leggo & gouzouasis, ). while considering a/r/tography as a means of inquiry, the emphasis is not on the final results of the project but rather on the process of inquiry. according to irwin and springgay ( ), “a/r/tography is a living practice, a life creating experience examining our personal, political and/or professional lives” (p. xxix). this continuous process of reflection plays a critical role in enacting a/r/tographical inquiry as a living form of inquiry. an a/r/tographer is someone who lives in the arts and works to create, teach and research their art making as part of their lived experiences. as noted in the prologue, in a/r/tography, the letters of the word “art” are divided by slashes. this highlights the researcher’s roles as artist, teacher and researcher as a central part of the research process. additionally, the word a/r/tography can be viewed as “art” and “-ography”. according to irwin et al. ( ) this “purposely illustrates a doubling of identities and concepts rather than a separation/bifurcation of ideas” (p. ). the concept of the rhizome also informs understandings of a/r/tography and has been discussed in a number of a/r/tographical works (irwin, ; sinner, leggo, irwin, gouzouasis & grauer, ; irwin, beer, springgay, grauer, gu & bickel, ). for example, in irwin et al. ( ), a/r/tographers collaborated with immigrant families on a project called the city of richgate project. the project involved a community of arts-based researchers working with immigrant families in richgate, british columbia to tell stories drawing on art-making as a mode of inquiry. the project drew on conceptions of a rhizome throughout the process of research as well as influenced the structure of the published article. in this particular project, collaboration between a/r/tographers also became an important part of praxis. by using the rhizome as a framework for inquiry, a/r/tographers are able to inquire into the processes of their work and reflect on connections that emerge as part of living inquiry. my work is informed by a rendering of a/r/tography as a living inquiry. in the study of music and a/r/tography, gouzouasis ( ) has compared the process of living inquiry to the process of musical performance which involves a “lifelong, cyclical process of practice, research, reflection and performance (p. - ). this connection with music and music-making makes a/r/tography particularly relevant in my project. understandings of a/r/tography also consist of autoethnographic renderings (irwin and de cosson, ). in my inquiry, i am inspired by bakan ( ) and manovski ( ) who both characterize their arts-based research processes as autoethnographic. bakan’s article engages with his composition of song and lyrics in the context of his life story growing up with a researcher-mother and dealing with her death while in the process of becoming a researcher himself. manovski’s work describes his process of writing down stories from his life and analyzing them for emergent themes in his phd dissertation. as part of this process, he re- worked chosen stories into a narrative which would connect with larger issues that emerged from lived experiences in the arts providing autoethnographic connections in his work. bartleet & ellis ( ) define autoethnography as “an autobiographical genre that connects the personal to the cultural, social and political” (p. ). there is an emphasis on process in autoethnography which mirrors an emphasis on process as well as product in a/r/tographical inquiry. scholars have been writing in diverse and creative areas in the field of autoethnography including discussing autoethnography as methodology (denzin, ; ellis, ; ellis & bochner, ; ; ), in performance studies (pelias, ; ; ; spry, ; ), and in music (bartleet, ; bartleet & ellis, ) which together inform my project. drawing on autoethnography, ellis ( ) reminds me: autoethnographers “look through an ethnographic wide angle lens, focusing outward on social and cultural aspects of their personal experiences; then, they look inward, exposing a vulnerable self that is moved by and may move through, refract, and resist cultural interpretations. as they zoom backward and forward, inward and outward, distinctions between the personal and cultural become blurred, sometimes beyond distinct recognition. (p. - ) while autoethnography draws on autobiographical experiences, it differs from other autobiographical genres of writing in that it connects individual experiences with culture, “seeking a resonance” (pelias, , p. ). as i reflect on how to connect my stories with culture, i am reminded of pelias ( ) who suggests, “culture is not static; it is an ongoing process of social construction, ever changing, always in negotiation” (p. ). denzin ( ) also echoes this sentiment as he urges scholars to “connect autobiographies and lived experiences, the epiphanies of lives, to the groups and social relationships that surround and shape persons” (p. ). although music autoethnography is a relatively new area of research, bartleet & ellis ( ) observe that “autoethnography frees musicians from writing dry descriptions or reports of musical experiences. rather, this approach encourages them to convey the meanings of vibrant musical experiences evocatively” (p. ). these possibilities and opportunities to write evocatively as i inquire into my lived experiences as a participant in competition music festivals are welcomed as i further consider how renderings of a/r/tography inform my inquiry. epiphanies, “epiphonies” and schafer’s soundscapes another feature in some forms of autoethnography is the notion of an epiphany (denzin, ; ellis, ). gouzouasis and ryu ( ) remind me that “as a form of enlightened realisation, an epiphany is often spurred by an object or event that enables the individual to make an inference or develop a new, deeper understanding of a phenomenon” (p. ). similarly denzin ( ) simply conceives of an epiphany as “meaningful biographical experience” (p. ). he suggests that “this event, the epiphany, how it is experienced, how it is defined, and how it is woven through the multiple strands of a person’s life, constitutes the focus of critical interpretive inquiry” (denzin, , p. ). i consider the notion of an epiphany as a significant part of my inquiry. when reflecting on my experiences as a participant in competition music festivals, moments of “biographically meaningful experiences” emerge through sounds from my participation. evoking polyphonies of lived experiences, i inquire into how these events, epiphanies, have shaped my development as an artist/research/teacher. i listen with denzin ( ) as biographical experience and memories are re-imagined in the context of autoethnography to reveal new understandings and meanings. essences of experiences create stories that are not necessarily factually accurate, but evoke understandings in the life of the artist/researcher/teacher. the biographical project begins with personal history, with the sting of childhood memory, with an event that lingers and remains in the person’s life story (ulmer, , p. ). this is the space where biography intersects with history, politics and culture. autoethnography re-tells and re-performs these life experiences as they intersect in these sites. the life story becomes an invention, a re-presentation, an historical object often ripped or torn out of its context and recontextualized in the spaces and understandings of the story. in writing an autoethnographic life story, i create the conditions for rediscovering the meanings of a past sequence of events (ulmer, , p. ). in so doing, i create new ways of performing and experiencing the past. to represent the past this way does not mean to recognize it “the way it really was”. it means to seize hold of a memory as it flashes up at a moment of danger” (benjamin, , p. ), to see and rediscover the past not as a succession of events, but as a series of scenes, inventions, emotions, images and stories (ulmer, , p. ). (denzin, , p. ) gouzouasis ( ) also draws on the notion of an epiphany in his autoethnographic work. he applies the term “epiphony” to conceive of an epiphany which is sounded and contains a musical origin (p. ). gouzouasis and ryu ( ) contend that “the suffix, “phony” means “sound” and for musicians important discoveries about the self and others (eg. music students, peers, colleagues) are often based upon acoustic experiences” (p. ). considering sound as epiphony requires the creation of sounds as well as careful listening in order to relate the epiphony to the experiences of the self and others. my inquiry draws on a similar metaphor, except that i use the terminology of a soundscape as a way of interrogating sounded moments, epiphanies, in my past experiences as a participant in competition music festivals. re/locating sounded moments in my musical past my inquiry draws on both a/r/tographical and autoethnographic approaches as i consider my lived experiences as a piano student, re/visiting sites of my performances in competition music festivals. i am reminded of britzman ( ) who states: “the sources of theory, then, are in practice; in the lives of teachers, in the values, beliefs, and deep conviction enacted in practice, in the social context that encloses such practice, and in the social relationships that enliven the teaching and learning encounter” (p. - ). prior to immersing myself in a variety of materials, evocative objects (turkle, ), from my participation in competition music festivals, i obtained ethical approval for secondary use of data from the research ethics board at the university of ottawa. the materials that i engaged with as part of my research process included recordings and videos of myself performing and preparing for festivals as a music student. i also located musical scores containing writing from myself and my music teacher. these are messy texts with sounded memories leaping from the page each time my fingers touch the piano keys. while performing old songs and improvising new melodies on piano and violin i also re-read adjudication forms, programs from festivals and other written materials such as newspaper articles and lessons records. adjudication forms are the written records of my performances in competition music festivals which include commentary on the performance by judges of the competition. as a central part of my work, i include music-making as part of my research praxis by re/learning and re/visiting the repertoire that i performed in competition music festivals as a student. music-making is included during the process of my inquiry as well as in representations of my inquiry that take shape in this project. including these materials with/in my inquiry enables me to work reflectively and reflexively (irwin & springgay, ; lymburner, ) with/in this process-oriented inquiry. towards a praxis as artist/research/teacher throughout my inquiry, i engage in a process of art-making and reflection through journal writing, note taking and crafting stories of my experiences. i am mindful of a/r/tography as a continuous process and emphasize this process as part of interrogating my own identity as an a/r/tographer. irwin and springgay ( ) state that in a/r/tography, rigour “comes from its continuous reflective and reflexive stance to engagement, analysis and learning” (p. xxix). lynburner ( ) reminds me, “arts-based journaling methods provide the opportunity to reflect in action and on action aesthetically, intellectually and introspectively” (p. ). chapter contains excerpts from my arts-based journal that i created while working with/in this thesis project. the journal includes text, poetry, visual art and music combined to form a “metissage” (irwin & decosson, ). i craft these stories of my experiences in response to my memories and engagement with evocative objects and music through a process of note-taking, arts-based journaling and creative writing. chapter considers emergent understandings with/in my arts-based journal through original compositions, soundscapes, to accompany my narratives. the theoretical framework of a soundscape allows for multiple openings to emerge in this inquiry. drawing on the autoethnographic nature of a/r/tographical inquiry, i hope to “seek a resonance” (pelias, ) as i connect my work with the “cultural, social and political” (bartleet & ellis, ). “performance collage” and musical inquiry from time to time, a/r/tographers may choose to share their inquiries with others and it is here that products are refined and shared. these living inquiry moments are not end results, but rather understandings of experiences along the way. thus, a/r/tography needs to be pursued continuously over time while searching for ways to disseminate aspects of the work at particular moments in time. (springgay and irwin, , p. xxix) while this inquiry must necessarily take a textual (thesis) form to fulfill requirements for a master’s degree in education, i also draw on mediums that reflect the musical nature of my work. with jenoure ( ), i also feel the need to “begin the process of integrating my performing with other aspects of my life” (p. ). jenoure ( ) develops musical portraiture and performance collage as methods for representing findings from her study involving african american artists working in higher education. in musical portraiture, jenoure ( ) uses sounded materials from her interviews with participants to create sonic portraits as part of her findings. she compares the process of creating these portraits to riffs in jazz improvisation. after completing her musical portraits and publishing a book related to her research, jenoure embarks on a journey to “breathe even more life” into her research by creating sweeping the temple, a performance collage of one portrait from her research (p. ). leavy ( ) defines performance collage as “the process of musically coding and writing up data culminating in a musical performance” (p. ). jenoure ( ) writes that she was inspired to represent her work using performance collage to make her research “more tangible to an audience” as well as more accessible (p. ). this idea of a musical performance as part of my inquiry resonates as i reflect on understandings of a/r/tography as a continuous process of inquiry. i am reminded by wilson ( ) that “if we have a holistic view of research and art production, the process of creating, the research and the final product are all integral to the final outcome” (p. ). inspired by jenoure ( ) and drawing on understandings of performance collage and the ongoing nature of a/r/tographical inquiry, i view my arts-based journaling as a form of performance collage, combining text, music and art as an act of performance. sounding stories hearts beating across time and place, soundscapes emerge sounding of stories as part of a research class at the university of ottawa, i was reminded to consider the limitations of my work. i reflect on denzin ( ) who writes, “a story is always an interpretive account, but, of course, all interpretations are biased” (p. ). i consider that a limitation of telling my own stories is that my memory is “personal, idiosyncratic and often distorted” (pelias, , p. ). at the same time, writing personal narratives also offers ways of knowing which i engage with throughout my a/r/tographical inquiry. pelias ( ) remarks that “memory is not what emerges from an individual mind but what emerges from social life. so together we share the burden of what is to be told” (p. ). it is with this knowledge that i recognize while telling my personal narratives could be considered a limitation of this inquiry, there are also generative possibilities in sharing these personal narratives. i hope that my stories of lived experiences will also be considered a strength of this inquiry through sharing and inquiring in/to my unique narratives, soundscapes in music education. chapter : sounding stories from my past as i step onto the stage, my heart is pounding. the lights are much brighter than i remember them during the rehearsal. i don’t dare look out into the audience. people are shifting in their seats, but i don’t even notice, i am completely focused on moving my legs towards the bench. it’s festival time again re/visiting re/sounding re/locating today i am performing a bach partita. why did i choose to start with bach? he is the hardest to memorize and there are so many people watching me! unravelling sounds, moments on a musical journey artist teacher researcher ok, i am playing now. my fingers are moving, my brain is moving faster. i look down at my hands. i gaze in wonder at their movement. i urge myself to focus on the slurs, feeling into the rise and fall of the music. stories from my past evoking soundscapes and suddenly it’s festival time again introducing my arts-based journal the poem above reflects my re/turn to sounded moments from my participation in competition music festivals. my arts-based journal represents moments of working material, fragments of poetry, music and narrative engaged with/in processes of listening and performing music from the soundscapes of my past. i chose to create this journal to capture the nature of the improvisatory and sounded moments of my inquiry. fragments of poetry, music, narrative and visual art that i have created are not illustrative of each other but work together each positioned to perform moments from my experiences as part of this arts-based inquiry. a large part of my inquiry included improvising as well as relearning/revisiting songs from past festival performances at the piano and violin. while i revisited festival songs in a variety of orders and formats, the entries in this journal are arranged in chronological order to allow the audience to experience my stories with me. the characters in my arts-based journal including adjudicators and other performers are composite characters loosely based on my experiences and details of my narrative have been changed to protect the identities of others that played a role in my stories. this chapter may feel fragmented as sounds emerge and fade throughout the journal, composing/re/composing experiences of my music education participating in music festivals. many of the stories are set at the local music festival in western canada where i performed primarily on piano as a solo instrument. there are also stories from my participation at the provincial level of the festival where each local festival recommended representatives to participate. throughout the narrative there are also references to my experiences performing solo violin as well as a member of ensembles including piano duets, trios, french horn ensembles, concert band and jazz bands. this chapter can be read in order, however, i also encourage readers (the audience) to also skip around in the chapter, reading different sections at different times. sections can also be conceived as different sounds from moments of my participation in music festivals. reflecting on this journal as rhizomatic, my hope is that by reading the sections in different orders, new understandings and connections can be made as a result of my experiences participating in competition music festivals as part of my music education. there’s a polar bear on the piano! i meet fred the polar bear the first time i play piano in the local music festival. when i arrive with my mom at an old church which had been rented for the event, i notice a white, fluffy stuffed toy sitting on the piano. after handing in my music book to a lady at the front of the room, we find seats in a church pew. my mom shows me the written program and whispers to me that there are two kids playing piano before it is my turn to play the piano. she reminds me that i am playing my song, march in f major which i have just played for my mom before leaving our house to come to the festival. i look back at the stuffed polar bear sitting on the piano at the front of the church. he looks very soft and has a smile stitched into his white face. just then, an older man stands up and starts talking next to the polar bear. “hello everyone, my name is mr. james and i am going to be the adjudicator for the festival this afternoon. i am so excited to see you all!” i wondered what the word adjudicator meant. he continued, “as the adjudicator, it’s my job to listen to you play the piano and tell you about all the wonderful things you are doing while you play! i am also going to write about some things that you can do to help you play piano even better.” mr. james picks up the polar bear off the piano. he pats the polar bear’s head and says, “this is my friend, fred! i brought fred with me because i live far up north in canada where there are many polar bears. this way you can know a little about me and where i am from. fred and i travelled very far to be with you today. i know that sometimes it can be scary to play piano in front of other people, that’s why fred is going to sit at the piano so that you won’t be alone. let’s get started and have some fun!” the first student walks up to the front of the piano. she smiles shyly and sits down on the piano bench. her legs dangle off the edge as she isn’t tall enough to touch the ground while sitting on the bench. she plays her piano song called to fly like an eagle and takes a bow before running back to her parents who are sitting in the second row of the church. there is a break while mr. james writes on a sheet of paper and then a boy is called up to the piano to play. he sits down on the bench and looks at the piano keys. he tries touching a few and then looks back at the audience towards his mom. mr. james jumps up from his seat to stand beside the boy. he whispers, “do you know where to put your fingers?” the boy shakes his head, looking nervous. mr. james shows the boy how to place his fingers, smiles and whispers quietly, “i can’t wait to hear your song. i will be right here if you need any more help. give your song a try!” the boy starts tentatively at first but plays the rest of his song without difficulty. he takes a bow and he walks towards his parents who are each holding a camera and beaming. after mr. james finishes writing, it is my turn. my name is called and i walk up towards the piano. i sit down and look up at fred the polar bear. fred is much larger when i am sitting so close to him! i place my hands on the piano and play my song. since i had been practicing it for almost a year, i don’t have to think much about playing it. after i finish, i am so excited to leave the stage that i forget to take a bow! halfway down the church aisle, i remember and take a quick half bow while the audience claps. my mom smiles at me when i return to my seat and she tells me that i played my song very nicely. she asks me what the polar bear is like. i tell her it is much bigger up close! there are kids who played songs in the class. once everyone has finished, mr. james stands up to speak again. he smiles, pats the polar and sits down at the piano. “can i have all the performers come up to the front and stand around me by the piano? i am going to show you some of the wonderful things you did today and also some things to work on as you get older and keep learning the piano. i was so impressed with how well you all played your piano pieces. you played them without the music too which is not easy to do! he pauses and continues, “as you keep learning to play the piano, make sure you play with lots of dynamics. does anyone know what the word dynamics means?” a little boy answers, “louds and softs in music.” “that’s right!” says mr. james. “there are signs for louds and softs written into the songs that we are playing. can anyone tell me the names of any of these signs?” the same boy looks excited and bursts out, “fortissimo!” “and what does fortissimo mean?” asks mr. james. “can someone else answer the question?” from the back of the group a small voice says, “very loud.” mr. james responds, “wonderful! let’s all try making a very loud sound! fred will help us! mr. james roared like a bear and the students laughed. “what dynamic would fred be making sound if he was roaring quietly?” several students in group respond by saying, “piano.” “excellent”, says mr. james. “in order to improve your piano playing, try to add more louds and softs to your playing. often they are written right into your music. if they aren’t there you and your piano teacher can also add them.” mr. james stands up from the piano and smiles, “i want to thank each of you for playing the piano for me today. i am now going to call your name and hand back your book, your sheet of comments and a ribbon for playing so beautifully today. i hope you will all come back and play again at the festival!” i receive my ribbon from mr. james and look back to see fred the polar bear. i smile and in my head say, “goodbye fred!” and i head home with my mom. the next year i return again to play in the festival. track recapitulating (festival) walking, sitting, standing, bowing moving fingers marches, sonatinas, minuets, toccatas walking, sitting, standing, bowing bowing and smiling clapping and waiting curled fingers ta dot ti ta titi ta ta ta walking, sitting, standing, bowing forte, piano, crescendo pedals pushing up and down wet shoes squeaking hands on lap walking, sitting, standing, bowing fingers slowing staccatos ending walking, sitting, standing, bowing waterfalls of mentos three years later, i am years old and playing piano in the festival again. i didn’t play last year since my family went on vacation during festival time. my mom and i arrive at the new community centre which has just opened. there is a grand piano placed in a room normally reserved for dance classes. students pour into the room and the festival class begins with the festival secretary introducing the adjudicator. the adjudicator is an older woman this year from another province. she smiles when the secretary who sits beside her introduces her but she doesn’t speak. the secretary calls the name of the first performer, a boy playing sonatina in g who rushes down the short aisle and begins playing. i am playing last in the class and have to wait for all the other students to play before my turn. after he finishes playing his song, everyone claps. the adjudicator begins writing. it takes her a long time to write and the other performers in the audience begin shuffling nervously. i am not wearing shoes since my boots were very wet from the melting snow. i wiggle my toes in my black socks and feel the hardwood floor beneath my seat. the secretary stands up and calls the name of the second performer. another boy walks to the front and begins to play his song, song of twilight. after he finishes, he takes a bow and returns to his seat. the adjudicator begins writing again taking a long time to write her comments. a baby, a sibling of one of the other performers, starts crying and anxious shifting among the audience begins again. another student is called to play and the process repeats. while we are waiting, i glance at the program sitting on my mom’s lap. there are still performers before my turn! i start feeling very nervous. my mom senses this and reaches into her purse. she pulls out a package of candies, mentos. they are fruit flavoured and there are three different kinds in a roll of candy: lemon, orange, and strawberry. at the top of the roll is an orange flavoured mento, my favourite kind! i quietly chew the mento in my mouth while i wait for the next performer. more performers until my turn. i smile at one of my friends sitting across the room. her turn is in three performers. performers performers waiting waiting my mom offers me another mento. it is strawberry this time and i take it quietly and eat it while i wait for my turn. performers performers performers i whisper to my mom that i would like one more mento before my turn. she points to the performer on the stage and motions that i will have to wait until the adjudicator is writing. performers performers it’s my turn next! butterflies swirl in my stomach and i wait for my name to be called. “jessica duerksen is playing the song waterfall.” i walk in my socks up to the front. i sit down and test out the pedal. my teacher spent lots of lesson time coaching me to test the pedal before playing. she said this was because all pedals feel different and you need to get the feel before you start playing. i start playing my song and it is going well. as i get to the middle section, i make a mistake and miss a low a but keep playing. i continue to the next section and keep going. before i know it, i am playing the ending of the song. i lift my foot off the pedal and take a bow. as i reach my seat, my mom is holding the pack of mentos. she tells me i played well and asks me if i would like one. i take one and wait for the adjudicator to finish writing. since i was the last performer, the adjudicator stands up and starts talking after my turn, “you all played very nicely. i have written down a few things for you to work on. i am going to call you up one by one and talk to you and the audience about some things to work on.” she calls up each student individually and then it is my turn. i walk to the front and the adjudicator tells me, “you did a beautiful job playing the dynamics in the song. i know you missed that low a today, can you make sure you use the correct fingering there? i think that will help you not miss it next time. also at the end, there are finger numbers written in your book. i noticed that you didn’t use those fingers. can you fix that with your teacher at your piano lessons?” i nod as she hands me my paper, my book and a ribbon. i walk back to sit with my mom. the adjudicator clears her throat and says, “now it’s time to announce the winners.” i look up, surprised. winners? there have never been winners before in the festival. usually everyone gets a ribbon for participating but no one was the winner! the adjudicator continues speaking, “now that you have reached level piano, i choose a winner and a second place performer in each music festival class. the winner of this class is franklin oreal and the second place performer is jessica duerksen.” track fleeting improvisations autumn listening to songs played on piano my teacher’s hands fall across the keys punctuated by laughter and smiles hands moving quickly now sparkling tones soaring sitting back at the piano bench the smell of coffee open books scattered across the floor my mind is whirling “i liked the third one and the fourth one you played” pencils writing, decisions made. track winter many songs chosen lists are handed in in the countdown to festival practicing begins learning notes how to count dynamics accents tone memory is hardest “keep practicing” “sounds great!” “bring out the r.h.” “sparkly fingers!” spring snow is melting countdown is on practice challenge is completed final lessons, finishing touches where has the time gone? waltz in b minor the next year i play a song called waltz in b minor at the music festival. i notice in the festival program that there is one other student playing the same waltz in b minor and she is performing right before me in the festival class. i return to the same piano and same room as the year before. at least i am familiar with the piano from last year! after sitting down, my mom pulls out a package of mentos to show me. i smile and remember last year eating mentos while waiting for my turn to play waterfall. one of my friends, kara, comes and sits down right beside me. i ask her, “are you playing in this class too?” kara responds, “no. i am playing in the class after you, but there is no break in between so i get to watch you play too!” the secretary stands up, introduces the adjudicator and calls the first performer to play his song. he sits down at the piano and begins to play. in between performers, my mom passes me the package of mentos. kara and i each take one. there isn’t as much waiting between the performers this year since the adjudicator seems to write very quickly. before long, there is only one performer left to play before my turn. she is from a neighbouring small town and i have performed in festival classes with her before. she sits down at the piano and begins playing the same song that i am going to play, waltz in b minor. i notice right away that her version of waltz in b minor sounds very different than my version. her performance is much quicker and she doesn’t take any pauses throughout the piece. she plays well and after the final notes sound, she takes a bow and sits down. the adjudicator writes comments and i can hear the scratching of the pencil against the page. “the next performer is jessica duerksen and she will also be playing waltz in b minor” i stand up and walk towards the piano. i feel very nervous, my waltz in b minor doesn’t sound at all like what the last girl played. what if i was playing it wrong and the adjudicator doesn’t like my playing? i begin to play, my interpretation is slower emphasizing melodic lines in the right hand. i take my time and perform the “rubato” sections just as my teacher has taught me. rubato, i remember, was used in musical songs from the romantic era to give songs a feeling of ebb and flow by using slight tempo changes. i am flushed and nervous the entire time i am playing. i don’t even feel relief when the song is over. as i am sitting down, i suddenly become aware of a lot of whispering amongst the audience. does the audience always whisper so much between performances? i had never noticed before. maybe they were whispering about how my version of the song was so different from the other girl’s version? i sit back down in my seat. i wonder why the person who made the program decided to put myself and the other girl playing the same song right beside each other in the festival class? there were many other people playing in the class. couldn’t they have separated us so our two performances wouldn’t have been compared so directly? while i was thinking about these things, the final performers played their songs and the adjudicator finished writing. the adjudicator stands up and begins speaking, “today you gave some great examples of music from the romantic era. you may have noticed from our performances today that there are many different ways to interpret music from the romantic era. for example, jessica and louisa both played the same song, waltz in b minor, but they had very different ways of interpreting it.” i breathed a sigh of relief, the adjudicator hadn’t thought my way of performing was wrong, just different from the other performer. even though i wasn’t wrong, i still didn’t like the feeling of playing the same song as another performer. dissonance reverberates the same year that i played waltz in b minor on the piano, i also played solo violin in the festival. the violin festival was only hosted every other year at the local music festival since it wasn’t as popular an instrument and there were not enough students to pay for having an adjudicator every year. in the violin festival, each performer had to have a piano accompanist perform with them. this added an element of difficulty as the piano accompanist usually had an introduction and the violinist had to remember when the violin part started. i walk onto the stage with my accompanist. holding my violin, i stand close to the piano accompanist and get ready to play. suddenly i hear someone yelling, “stop! stop! you are standing in the wrong place!” i look up and see the adjudicator rushing towards me. she runs from the top of the auditorium, down the stairs and onto the stage. “you aren’t standing in the correct spot on the stage!” she abruptly pulls my arm and leads me to another place on the stage. “there you go, now wait until i get back to my chair and then you can start playing.” i glance over at my piano accompanist. she smiles reassuringly at me, but i feel quite stressed and i do not want to play my song. i squint to see that the adjudicator has found her place and i begin to play. starting on an up bow, i perform concerto in c with my accompanist. the whole time i am playing, i am thinking about how the adjudicator surprised me by running down onto the stage. part way through the song, i realize that i can’t make eye contact with my accompanist like i normally do, because i am standing in a new place! i finish the song, barely aware of what i am playing. my accompanist and i take a bow. the students who perform after me make sure to stand exactly where the adjudicator positioned me. following the performances, the adjudication begins. the adjudicator shows me again, “this is the correct place to stand on the stage. you have to be able to stand correctly in order to perform the violin. i hope that you remember this for the next time you perform.” rehearsing stage lights beam down the piano feels large and unfamiliar i sit in the nearly empty auditorium surrounded by a few friends and my teacher “jess, it’s your turn next!” “what are you going to play for us?” “i think i will try out my nocturne” “wonderful choice! don’t forget to slow down at the end! give us time to settle into the beauty!” i walk up to the piano and sit down the lights are even brighter and the gleam of the piano reveals a perfect reflection of my hands i begin notes swirl around me drawing inwards breath movement of sounds energy channeled through finger tips must remember to slow down at the end slowing, lingering, holding release everyone claps as i practice a bow. “great performance jess! the ending is just right now! i had a couple of thoughts about your middle section. on this piano the left hand sounded a bit too loud. do you think you could play it a bit more quietly?” “would you like me to try it for you now?” “give it a try! i will let you know if it’s still too loud” track a trip to highlights night “and the winner of this class is jessica duerksen” winning a class in the music festival means that i am invited to play at “highlights night”. highlights night features all the winners of all the classes for a particular grade and instrument. the winners compete against each other for medals, trophies and scholarships which are decided and announced by the adjudicator at the end of the evening. the highlights evenings is recorded by the local radio station and the performances are broadcast on air several weeks later. the names and photos of the winners are also published in the local newspaper. in grade piano, i won several classes and am invited to perform at highlights night. the highlights night is taking place in a local church which seated over people. the auditorium isn’t full, but there is a substantial audience of friends and family members to support the competitors. the president of the festival greeted us, “welcome everyone to the highlights evening for grade - piano! we are celebrating excellence this evening as each student here has practiced hard and performed wonderfully this past week. as you can see, the order of performers and the classes that they have won are printed on the program. you should have received this program when you entered the auditorium. we will follow this order with a very short break between each student for the adjudicator to make notes. i will announce the name of each student when we are ready for them to perform. remember students, you are each performing two selections! one song must be the one that you won the class for and the other song can be your own choice. please announce your songs to the audience when you come up to play. sit back and enjoy the show everyone! oh, and please turn off all cellphones, pagers and refrain from entering and exiting the auditorium while a performer is playing.” sitting in the audience, i am surrounded by my parents and two sisters, shelley and katherine. since i am in grade piano, i am playing near the end of the evening. my sister, shelley, is also performing in grade piano and it is almost her turn to play. my mom smiles at us reassuringly and offers my sister some mentos. she turns to me and offers one to me as well. before i know it, it is my turn to play. i had performed lots of songs at the festival this year and have chosen two of my favourite pieces to play again at highlights night. i walk onto the stage and turn to face the audience. “i will be playing sonatina in d by haydn and midsummer song by kioke. i am much more nervous playing at highlights night than i was during the regular festival competition. i can see all the gleaming trophies and medals. they look beautiful! despite being more nervous, i play my songs and return to my seat. after all the performers finish playing, the adjudicator stands up to announce the winners. “starting with grade piano, shelley duerksen wins the trophy for outstanding piano performance!” my sister had won a trophy! i was thrilled but also nervous for the winners of my level to be announced. the adjudicator continues, “in grade piano, jessica duerksen wins a trophy for her outstanding festival performance.” i won a trophy too! i am very excited and nervous, walking up to shake the adjudicators hand and receive the trophy. i had never won a trophy before! after highlights evening, i go to mcdonalds with my family to celebrate the end of the festival for the year. since the festival happens in the spring time each year, we order crème egg mcflurries, an ice cream treat which isn’t available all year. after winning the trophy, i get to keep it for a year. we sit the trophies on the piano and our names are engraved into them at the local sports store. we also go down to the offices of the local newspaper to have our photos taken with the trophies. i am very proud to win an award at the festival. i think i will play more songs in the festival next year too! rendering pianos s/p/laces i an old church piano upright, dark brown the golden pedals creak they barely move when i push them i want to push further and further into the pedals, but they won’t move i have to trust the sounds to come out the keys are very square and feel bulky to the touch their angular shapes unfamiliar to my slender fingers sounds emerging, brassy and clear the shrillness and brilliance of a lark singing on a bright spring day ii in the room of mirrors a large black grand piano imposing and strong angular keys suit this monster a heavy bench and hard to adjust will i be able to move it as i walk to the front of the room? bright but sensitive textures and colours are coaxed from the beast exaggerating every gesture every moment easily too harsh soft brushes on keys fail to sound challenging the extreme taming the beast yearning for control iii under bright stage lights old worn seasoned sounds experience gleaming lights on black lacquer then glimpses of fingers dashing running sighing across the keys flickers of light drawing in searching for an escape in the house of mirrors finely tuned possibilities become endless soft delicate sounds, emerging across the otherwise empty stage attacks can be tamed tempered controlled control brings pleasure creating textures, tones and sounds varying changing morphing breathing swaying silent paper cranes flying as i get older, i start getting more nervous about my festival performances. i become more self-conscious and more nervous about making mistakes in performances. while waiting for my turn to perform had always been difficult, i now begin to feel very anxious during the periods of waiting. being from a small town, the performers at my level are generally the same from year to year. the more advanced students compete at the auditorium in the local high school which is home to the best piano in town. at this particular festival class, there is a last minute change in location to the community centre because of an event at the high school. i am nervous about playing on this other piano, a piano i hadn’t performed on in many years. sitting again with my mom and waiting for my turn, i am watching members of the audience during the pauses between performers. a girl sitting next to me, who is a couple years older than i am, is fiddling with some post-it notes on her music book. she smiles at me and then starts folding one of the post-it notes in between performances. it is a good distraction for me to watch her folding this tiny post it note. at first, i think she is making a paper airplane but she keeps folding. she is quite good at origami. after some more folding, she finishes making a miniature paper crane. she smiles at me again and passes it to me while the adjudicator was writing about another student’s performance. she whispers, “it’s for you! i always get so nervous at these things. i hope you aren’t too nervous and that you play really well!” i smile back and whisper, “thanks!” i hold the paper crane until it is my turn to play then i pass it to my mom to hold. i perform my sonata. i had chosen an obscure piece to play for this class as i didn’t want to play the same songs as other performers after my experience with waltz in b minor. hearing the sound of the piano ringing out when i touched the keys is exciting. i play my song, take a bow and return to my seat, taking the paper crane back from my mom. after the class is over, i take the paper crane home with me and place it on my desk in my room. receiving this gift made me aware that other performers feel the same type of nervousness and insecurities as i do. after reflecting on how much that paper crane meant to me, i learned that everyone needs encouragement and support when performing. track articulating cadences pencil markings erased from music books hiding mistakes from view can’t be hidden in sound circles highlight “slow!” arrows point “don’t stop!” keeping time “ + + + +” clarifying tones “singing” mood and character “bright and cheerful” messy scores red, purple, yellow, blue weekly layers adding through time green, brown, orange, pink interpretations carefully noted respecting valuing learning continues track utterances of haydn pacing in circles in my bedroom. the fluorescent lights are glaring down on me. “remember to start on g and d,” i tell myself. “g b d g!” i sing out loud. “they have to be sparkly, vibrant and loud.” “there has to be energy running through my fingers.” “i need to start in time and continue at that pace for the rest of the song.” “can’t forget to bring out the right hand too.” “that piano is so hard to play different volumes on!” “g major and then d major at the end of the exposition.” “the last note of that section is a high d with a d major triad underneath.” i sigh, “ok, i will talk through that section again.” i continue pacing around my room in circles. my feet are keeping the beat with the music that is playing in my head. i reach the development section and i motion alberti bass in the air while saying bass notes out loud. “g, a, b, g….ahh what comes next?” walking over to the musical score open on my desk, i see that i must go down to play an f#. “ok, starting that section again. g, a, b, g, f#.” “the dominant preparation on d leads me back into g major for the recapitulation.” i spend another minute looking over the final chords in the score before starting again and running through the whole song in my head with the my fingers and mind working together to test my memory. feeling confident, i hear my parents calling from upstairs. “time to leave for the festival!” arriving at the auditorium, i sink into a familiar rhythm, handing in my music, i sit down and get ready to play. “jessica duerksen is playing sonata in g major by haydn.” i walk onto the stage where bright lights shine down on me just like in my bedroom. “remember to start on g and d,” i tell myself. track ostinati mentos sit on the kitchen table construction paper covered in hand-drawn practice charts littering the floor a metronome ticks songs practiced in the order performed a paper crane sits on the piano concerts for family and friends on a sunday afternoon the piano sits silent before a performance tally charts motivate countdowns keep time forgetting to remember ice-cream to celebrate practicing to perform a metronome ticks spectrums in flux while i mostly compete in the local festival, i am also recommended to represent the local music festival at the provincial level on several occasions. the format is similar to that of the local music festival. there are still classes of students grouped by instrument and level however each student plays two songs instead of one in the class. the provincial festival is hosted in large cities throughout the province. it is usually over a weekend and i travel with my family to perform. we stay in a hotel the night before and then i perform the following day. one of the challenges of this is that i am not able to warm up prior to performing. this is stressful as i have to trust myself to remember my songs even though my fingers aren’t warm before playing on stage. at the provincial level, adjudicators provide written and verbal feedback on my performance to help me improve my playing. at the provincial festival, i have an identity crisis. there are so many people who look just like me! teenage girls playing the piano all dressed the same with flared black pants and shirts from the mall in the same style. i wonder if the adjudicator has trouble distinguishing between so many people who look quite similar. there are also boys who perform at provincials although there are fewer boys than girls. the winner of the provincial festival is almost always from a large city and as a girl from a small rural town, i am not sure if i belong. track memorizing memories i have been watching a class where my sister katherine is playing the piano. the first student to go up and play can’t remember how to start his song. this is a somewhat common occurrence and the adjudicator offers that the student play with the music instead of playing for memory. the student is clearly flustered but agrees. with the music now in place, he tries to continue. he isn’t able to continue. after numerous more tries at restarting the student leaves the stage and returns to his seat without completing his song. this experience represents my greatest fear of performing…that i will forget my song and not be able to continue in front of an audience. the class continues on and the rest of the students performed their pieces. when the adjudicator stands up to provide comments at the end of the class, he says encouraging words to the student who forgot his piece. he also notes how difficult it is to be the first performer on the stage. the class finishes and all the performers are leaving. the adjudicator walks over to the student who forgot his song and asks if he would like to try it again for just him after all the students leave? the student nods and smiles. music is taken away is the sound gone? no the sound is remembered it is felt it is heard it is movement how do you remember sounds? how can you recreate sounds? how can sounds be exactly the same? how are sounds played again and again? sounds are refined sounds are studied sounds are learned and sometimes sounds are forgotten dressing up i am years old and getting dressed for a piano competition. it is the provincial finals – a big deal for a mennonite girl from a small town. i had noticed differences in ethnicity between competitors before but when i looked in the mirror, i felt like i had no visible representation of my ethnicity. and mennonites have a reputation of being musical too! i had a problem though, i didn’t look like a mennonite. the judges at the competition wouldn’t be able to “see” me as a mennonite. without knowing it, i am looking for ways to represent part of my identity. i rifle through my closet until i find a long plain grey skirt. it reaches to my ankles. i put a zip up sweatshirt over a green blouse. i wear no makeup and pull my hair into the traditional hair style of my ancestors. as i emerge from the basement, my mom bursts out laughing and asks if i mean to compete “looking like that”. i explain to her that i thought this was a way i could show the judges that i am a mennonite. i arrive at the provincial music festival in my “mennonite outfit”. it gives me confidence as i am preparing to perform. it makes me feel proud of my heritage and i hope that others would recognize me as a mennonite. i am focused on my appearance and i perform with confidence. exchanging harmonies four hands fingers flying everywhere rehearsals are held across the street running back and forth six hands mozart singing dancing over top rising between strings voices breathe harmonies expand drawing inwards soaring outwards brass gleams horns in fifths medieval melodies trumpeting new songs ants! playing piano at an advanced level, the festival classes have fewer performers in each class but the songs are quite long. fellow performers are friends and acquaintances from many years of performing together at the local music festival. we share mentos while waiting between performances and cheer each other on. i am playing a song by debussy in a class on impressionist music. in debussy’s music the sonorities are rich and i enjoy the changes in tone quality and pacing throughout the song. after all the performers are finished playing, the adjudicator calls us to sit at the front of the auditorium and she conducts her adjudication in a workshop style where she calls each performer up to the piano and works with us to improve our pieces. i enjoy this approach for several reasons. i sometimes find it hard to read the adjudicator’s writing on the page so this way i can speak with the adjudicator directly. also i have a chance to learn from everyone else’s workshop time too. sitting at the front of the auditorium with my friend sara, we are watching one of the other students on the stage. the adjudicator is describing how to pedal in impressionist music. “it’s important to follow the markings the way they are written in the musical score. the composers themselves often wrote these markings in and had particular ideas about how to pedal their music. it’s very different from the romantic period. musical style is evolving….” the adjudicator continues speaking but my attention is drawn to sara who is motioning to me to look at the big ant crawling across the floor. i smile. this is highly unusual! we both continue to follow the ant with our eyes while the adjudicator continues speaking about some of the challenges of performing ravel, debussy and satie. sara is called on the stage to receive feedback on her performance. my attention is diverted from the ant to watch her. the adjudicator is coaching her to bring out the melody in her left hand thumb. “the left hand thumb must sing through the right hand chords. do you see how the melody transfers between the hands here? it’s very important that the audience hears this transition. try it one more time for me, really sing those left hand thumbs!” sara continues playing and my attention momentarily shifts back to the ant…. it’s still crawling on the floor! i clap for sara who has finished her workshop and it is my turn to go up and play. i smile at sara as we pass on the stairs up to the stage. the adjudicators starts talking about having a flowing left hand as move across the piano. “try playing this section a bit faster. i think it will help the flow of your left hand.” i play the section faster. “much better,” says the adjudicator. “now can you also try slowing down more when you get to the end of that section, but maintain that sense of flow. oh, and don’t forget to keep highlighting the top of the chord in your right hand. that’s the melody and we must hear that at all times.” my workshop time continues as i try out a few new ideas with the adjudicator. returning to my seat, sara can barely contain her laughter. “what’s going on?” i whisper. “it’s the ant!” she replies. “i can’t find it!” “where did you last see it?” “it was crawling under the chairs close to where you are sitting!” listening backwards “a nice quick march” “good pause before performing” “opening felt a bit rushed” “pedal was a bit blurry – work for better clarity” “make sure the opening ths are exactly in time” “a gentle character to this playing, very appropriate” “expressive playing!” “opening phrases were well shaped” “work for more legato phrasing” “good sense of haydn style” “well done!” “m. - start quietly!” “nice control of trills” “promising musician” “place octave firmly m. - ” “watch that sounds don’t become pressed into the keys” “beautiful lyrical approach to this piece!” showcasing now i am at an advanced piano level and the local music festival has introduced showcase evenings. at these evenings, the trophy winners from all of the disciplines across the festival are invited to perform and there is no adjudication at the event. it is meant rather to showcase the talent in the local community. trophies also start to be presented on this evening. in my last year participating at the local music festival, i win a trophy. i am allowed to select any song to perform on the showcase evening. this is to be my final performance at the local music festival. i choose my favourite song, i leap through the sky with stars by alexina louie. it is a song i am very proud of and have practiced hard. i enjoy the style that alexina louie composed in and i feel an emotional connection with this song. i have already performed the song in the festival and was recommended to play this song at the provincial level. the lights shine down on me as i walk on stage. after pausing for a moment, i begin to play. quietly sounds emerge, swelling louder and then back down. a sharp trill, long and loud chords punctuate the left hand. music of the extremes. i feel my body move with the music and i am transported to another time. there’s a ringing. it’s loud. it’s not my music. i continue to play and i realize that the fire alarm is sounding! i continue to play, perhaps it will stop. another seconds and the fire alarm doesn’t cease adding to my musical score. i stand up and leave the stage with the audience who are also filing out of the auditorium. outside, the director of the festival informs me that there is no fire and someone pulled the alarm. i can continue to play if i choose so when everyone returns. it is my decision. once everyone returns to their seats, i return to the stage, and take a bow. chapter : performing soundscapes this chapter engages with materials from my arts-based journal drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape. listening to themes and variations in my stories, i consider a multiplicity of ways of bringing the notion of a soundscape into my experiences participating in competition music festivals. i conceive of the smaller sections in this chapter as a performance collage of sounded moments, writings, and music (jenoure, ). while inquiring into my lived experiences drawing on the terminology of a soundscape, text is not placed higher than music or visual art-making. i encourage this chapter to be read in any order allowing for new understandings and interactions between moments in the collage to come to the foreground. these multiple entry points into soundscapes remind me of the notion of a rhizome (deleuze & guattari, ). i am inspired to begin in the middle engaging with a/r/tography as a process-oriented inquiry. the soundscape i present here is my own and is performed for an audience of readers/listeners. i experienced music festivals as a participant for over years including performances in solo piano, violin ensembles and bands. i encourage artist/researcher/teachers to inquire into lived experiences as part of artistic praxis and i hope that the audience will hear a resonance in stories, soundscapes and connections. soundscape while composing a musical soundscape i reflect on possibilities of including music- making and musical form as ways for structuring my inquiry. the basis for my compositions are many of my improvised sounded moments from my arts-based journal in chapter . this process of joining and combining musical fragments to create a large work is a familiar activity for musicians, composers and improvisers across a variety of music styles. music-making has been included as an important process throughout this thesis. i now draw attention to some of these experiences so that audience may also reflect on the compositional process of my soundscapes. when i started my inquiry into my past experiences as a participant in competition music festivals, i spent much of my time working with written materials sitting at my piano. i would improvise small sections of melody and harmony at the piano while thinking about details, contexts and meanings, of my past lived experiences. at other times, i re/learned and re/played songs that i performed in the festival many years ago. as part of this process i located musical scores from when i was a student participating in music festivals. i reviewed markings written in the scores and also re-read adjudication forms while playing the songs. some of the music came back quickly to my fingers. it was as if i had played the songs only days ago, even though it had been years. others returned to my fingers and body after much practice. for these songs, i had to practice small sections over and over. i was returning not only to the experience of performing but also to the experiences of practicing and preparing for a performance. i improvised melodies on the violin as well, sometimes transferring melodies from the piano to the violin and then back again. this process made me aware of the timbres and technical considerations of different musical instruments. i also became aware of the distinctness of sounds. this distinctness created different resonances as i interrogated my experiences and reflected on my sounded past. as a current piano teacher, i also considered moments from my musical past while teaching my current students. listening to my own students perform songs that i had once played in the festival brought back my own sounded moments including the struggles and challenges of learning new pieces in time for festival performances. these experiences as a piano teacher also shaped my current inquiry as i reflect on moments from my past as a participant in competition music festivals. in writing this soundscape, i reflect on gouzouasis ( ) who reminds me that music as arts-based research is not necessarily accessible for an audience of non-musicians. gouzouasis notes his own disappointment when collaborating with visual artists and poets that questions from an audience were rarely addressing the musical aspects of the presentation. he expresses further frustration about having to defend and explain his musical art while other artistic disciplines do not always require the same amount of explanation. it is my hope that listeners will be able to engage with this soundscape as part of the arts-based findings of this project. the music included here is not meant to be “decorative” but rather contributes to understandings and questions that emerges from this inquiry. track track track soundscape one of the challenges i experienced while writing this thesis was discussing my project with others who were interested to hear what i was working on. i found myself explaining my thesis in different ways depending on who i was speaking to. when i was struggling to understand an idea and how it would fit into my project, i would call upon my thesis supervisor or fellow graduate students to discuss my project with me. our discussions were on-going from when i started graduate school until the completion of this project. these sounded interactions and the feedback i received played a critical role in shaping this project to its completed form. when discussing the project with others who weren’t involved in the project directly, i would often generalize and state that my project was about “music education”, “music festivals and the student experience” or “my experiences competing in music festivals as a student”. if someone expressed interest in this topic, i would expand my discussion and inform them about some of the complexities and details of the project. it was through these discussions that i became aware of the importance of audience. i realized that i wanted to make my work accessible to a number of different audiences including academics, musicians, and others who were interested in music festivals and their role in music education. i was already in the process of writing my thesis following many months of arts-based journaling and music-making when i was discussing my project with some interested friends and family. someone suggested that i form a visual representation from excerpts of musical scores that i performed in music festivals as sounded moments to create a model of some of the connections and interactions that occurred through my experiences participating in music festivals. mark, who suggested this idea, kindly offered to help me make a digital model, however, in the spirit of using my hands and body in performance, i opted to make a hand-made model and photograph it to be included in this project. many thanks to mark for giving me this new perspective on visualizing my experiences through the music i performed in competition music festivals. the idea of creating a visual sculpture drawing on fragments of music that i performed in music festivals appealed to me for several reasons. initially it reminded me of r. murray schafer’s ( ) article on sound sculptures using found and recycled objects. schafer states that his “junk sound sculptures are forms of bricolage; they are expressions of energy conservation and recycling. they breathe new life into old objects” (p. - ). in the article, schafer chronicles how he had never conceived of sound sculptures until he started constructing one with a friend made from found materials in his barn in southern ontario. through constructing several sound sculptures and by observing others interacting with his sound sculptures, he concludes the article by reflecting on possibilities for constructing sound sculptures with students as a new way to interact with music. this concept of representing my experiences through a sculpture or model also reminded me of the notion of the rhizome. several scholars have started to make connections between the philosophies of deleuze and guattari ( ) and new pathways in the field of music education (gould, ; ; lines, ; ; richerme, ). reviewing the work of previous scholars helps me conceptually situate my own work with/in this space. lines ( ) conceives of deleuze and guattari’s philosophies as “machines for change” in music education (p. ). learning is characterized as a rhizome, pathways extending in all directions, a metaphor for emerging possibilities. the rhizome encourages music educators to reconsider understandings of differences within musical education. “always in the middle, the deleuzian music educator is aware of the historical past and the prospective future in relation to the immediate musical events they are immersed in” (p. ). this notion of the middle along with the rhizome inspires me to consider my musical past performing in competition music festivals. richerme ( ) calls on music educators to make more localized connections between music education and the communities where their students live. she draws on the philosophies of deleuze and guattari including the notions of mapping and nomads. she suggests that educators must become nomads and continually redraw their mappings and understandings of music education. richerme also urges music educators and students to actively work to form both global and local connections in their lived experiences in music education. the idea of mapping reminds me of soundscapes and possibilities for connections with place that can emerge through inquiry. considering my own experiences through the notion of the rhizome, i compose my musical soundscape and visualize my experiences not as a way of simplifying my experiences but rather a way of capturing some of the complexity and interactions between my many lived experiences participating in music festivals. through this sculpture i recognize how performances from music festivals are part of my sounded memories still playing themselves with/in my hands and my body. rhizomatic soundscapes emerge as i continue my inquiry drawing on musical, visual and textual methods of arts-based research. soundscape “a soundscape consists of events heard but not objects seen.” (schafer, , p. ) interrogating my lived experiences based on schafer’s ( ) terminology of the soundscape, i listen to fluttering polyphonies, intensities of reverberations and echoes of stillness. schafer ( ) defines the soundscape as “any acoustic field of study. we may speak of a musical composition as a soundscape, or a radio program as a soundscape or an acoustic environment as a soundscape. we can isolate an acoustic environment as a field of study just as we can study the characteristics of a given landscape” (p. ). in interrogating my lived experiences participating in competition music festivals drawing on schafer’s terminology of the soundscape, i position myself as a soundscape analyst. through my work in the previous chapters, i have composed and constructed soundscapes in a variety of forms, both literally and metaphorically through my engagement with my sounded memories. i now listen to schafer ( ) who reminds me, “what the soundscape analyst must do first is to discover the significant features of the soundscape, those sounds which are important either because of their individuality, their numerousness or their domination” (p. ). interspersed throughout this section, i reflect on schafer’s work by including quotes on soundscapes and the importance of sound as a way of viewing lived experiences. these quotes provoke questions and interconnections in between my own sounded moments. schafer describes the tonality of a soundscape using the term keynote. this refers to the musical “key” that a soundscape is composed in. metaphorically, it also represents the sounds in a soundscape composition that form the foundation of the musical piece. modulations (moving away from the keynote or tonality) can occur within a soundscape, but the keynote sounds are still the reference point around which the musical moments in a soundscape are centred. schafer ( ) reminds me that “keynote sounds do not have to be listened to consciously; they are overheard but cannot be overlooked, for keynote sounds become listening habits in spite of themselves” (p. ). while keynote sounds may be conceived as existing in the background of a soundscape, the term signals is used to describe foreground sounds in a soundscape. schafer ( ) notes that technically any sound can become a signal within a soundscape since signals enter the foreground when “they are listened to consciously” such as the example of bells and sirens as foreground sounds in an urban soundscape (p. ). these sounds are designed specifically to exist in the foreground as they signal a message to be communicated within the soundscape. in my work as a soundscape analyst, i consider signals in my own soundscape to be like epiphanies (denzin, ) or epiphonies (gouzouasis, ). the notion of an epiphany or epiphony describes important sounded moments which serve as turning points or tensions in my soundscape from my past participating in competition music festivals. schafer also uses the term soundmark to describe sonic moments in a soundscape. “the term soundmark is derived from landmark and refers to a community sound which is unique or possesses qualities which make it specially regarded or noticed by people in that community” (schafer, , p. ). in my soundscape, i consider moments of cultural significance, such as my identity as a mennonite-canadian to be a soundmark with/in my soundscape. reading my experiences through the structures of a soundscape, i notate some of my musical experiences in textual form, bringing sounds onto the page. schafer ( ) reminds me, “notation is an attempt to render aural facts by visual signs. the value of notation for both the preservation and analysis of sound is therefore considerable…” (schafer, , p. ). keynote sounds the keynote sounds of a landscape are those created by its geography and climate: water, wind, forests, plains, birds, insects and animals. many of these sounds may possess archetypal significance; that is, they may have imprinted themselves so deeply on the people hearing them that life without them would be sensed as a distinct impoverishment. they may even affect the behaviour or life style of a society… (schafer, , p. ) in the quote above, schafer ( ) mentions how keynote sounds may have “imprinted themselves” within a soundscape. while reflecting on my experiences participating in music festivals, i begin to listen to sounds that reflect the tonality my own soundscape. i come to listen to these sounds as grounding sounds with/in my participation in competition music festivals. the keynote sounds of my soundscape may have varied from time to time, but they are the sounds that continued, supported and conveyed the tonality of my experiences. festival conventions it didn’t matter what discipline or music festival i was participating in, the conventions of the music festival remained similar. upon arriving at the festival site, there was a secretary who signed me in and collected my musical score to give to the adjudicator. after handing in my musical score, i walked into the room where the competition was scheduled to take place and sat down. there was never anyone warming up in the performance room. if there were practice rooms available, participants might use those, but the performance room was always silent before the competition began. at the beginning of the festival class, the secretary welcomed participants and introduced the adjudicator. a brief biography of the adjudicator was read by the secretary, explaining where the adjudicator had studied and the experiences that qualified him/her to adjudicate at the festival. following these introductions, student names were called, one by one, to perform on stage. the performer walked on stage, performed their song, took a bow and returned to his/her seat. the room was very quiet between performances when the adjudicator would be consulting the musical score and writing comments for the participants. these structures became familiar and constituted “conventions” from my experiences participating in music festivals. occasionally a student would forget to bow on stage and would walk off quickly. this would elicit a smile from the audience as a convention had been broken (often nervousness was apparent as a factor in the lack of bowing). another convention of my music festival experience was the issue of memorization. while it didn’t apply to larger musical ensembles like choirs or concert bands, solo performances in piano and violin demanded that the musical piece be memorized. participants could still perform a piece if it wasn’t memorized, but memorization was considered a mark of excellence and students were very unlikely to “win” a class if their musical piece wasn’t memorized. memorization was my biggest source of anxiety while competing in music festivals. i was always nervous about forgetting my song and being left on the stage unable to continue without the assistance of the adjudicator to help me find my place. as a result, i spent a great deal of my preparation time working on memorization. not only would i memorize the piece of music weeks in advance, but i would also work with my teacher to determine places in the music i could “jump” to if i had a memory slip. these places were usually cadence points or the start of a new section that i would practice starting at, as if they were the beginning of a song. my teacher marked these places in my music with stars and i would always review them in the days leading up to the performance at the festival. in addition to having spots to jump to if i had a “memory slip” during a performance, i would also make sure i memorized the final notes of a piece i was performing so that if i couldn’t remember anything else, i would play the final notes, take a bow and walk off the stage. my piano teacher would schedule many practices prior to the festival to give me a chance to “practice performing” my pieces to see if there were any places where i would forget my songs. having these practice sessions, where i could get “practice nervous” was also another technique to make sure that memory slips didn’t happen. reflecting back on my experiences performing, it was a common occurrence for me to forget some notes while on stage performing. it seemed to be a common occurrence for others as well. while i was always able to continue playing, the threat of forgetting my song on stage motivated me to practice and added increased anxiety to my experiences performing in competition music festivals. rituals many rituals became part of my preparation and participation in competition music festivals. i conceive of these rituals also as keynote sounds in my soundscape. i have already mentioned how i prepared for memorization at the festival. this method of memorizing pieces was part of a much larger system of preparation which i enacted annually and which became ritualistic through my participation in competition music festivals. as part of my preparation for music festivals, my teacher would hand out practice charts to all her students. i wasn’t normally given practice charts throughout the year but around festival time i would keep track of the amount of time that i practiced. i would receive a prize from my teacher if i spent lots of time practicing. i extended this idea of creating practice charts and also made my own charts and lists as part of my preparations for my performances. i kept some paper by the piano and would write out a daily schedules for myself of what i was going to practice. after making the daily schedule i kept a tally chart of my practicing and returned to the piano throughout the evening until i had completed my practice goals for the day. these daily tally charts surrounded the piano, and keeping track of my preparation became a ritual in making sure i was prepared for my performances. another important ritual which was part of my preparation for festival was to “practice performing”. this was a phrase i first heard from a choral director when i was in elementary school. she told us that if we practiced performing our songs the way we wanted them to sound in performance then that would be the result in the real performance. i would practice performing for the festival in many different ways. my piano teacher would host practice performances before the festival both at her house and at the venue where the festival was being held. these events would be conducted as if they were performances to give students a chance to “test out” musical pieces. i would also perform for family and friends prior to the festival. my family, including grandparents, aunts and uncles would come to visit and my sisters and i practiced performing our songs for them prior to the festival. this was another opportunity to get nervous and make sure that i remembered my song. friends who were also performing in the festival came over to my house and we would take turns performing for each other. this helped us all prepare and test out our songs in a safe environment. recording songs using audio or video also became part of the practicing performing and preparing for the festival. i would take turns with my sisters and we would record each other performing in preparation for the festival festival traditions “sound affects individuals differently and a single sound will often stimulate such a wide assortment of reactions…” (schafer, , p. ). there were a number of traditions that emerged through my years of participating in competition music festivals which i also conceive as keynote sounds. these annual traditions as keynote sounds served as central tonalities in my lived experiences. one tradition that started when i was in grade piano was going for crème egg mcflurries on the final night of festival with my family each year. it started as a celebratory event at the end of the music festival (after the highlights night). crème egg mcflurries were available at mcdonalds around festival time each year and they were only available for a limited time annually. my whole family enjoyed ice cream and we went at the end of the festival which was usually on a school night. it was a treat to be able to stay out late with my parents and get ice cream. as a family, we discussed what had happened that year in festival. for example, was the adjudicator kind? how did the performances go? did we hear any songs we liked and wanted to play next year? after highlights night, which could be very stressful, it was something to look forward to each year. we were able to go for mcflurries regardless of our performance (it wasn’t a reward for doing well). my parents were always positive about our efforts in the festival. it was a way of giving us confidence, debriefing after the experiences and making us feel good about working hard (regardless of the outcome). another tradition which became part of my festival experience was bringing mentos to festival performances. this tradition started when my mom first offered me some mentos when i had to wait before for my performance of waterfall in grade piano. having mentos at the festival became an annual part of my experiences participating in music festivals. my mom would buy several packages of mentos in the weeks leading up to the festival. they would sit un-opened on the kitchen table, a sign that festival time was coming. when we first started bringing mentos, my mom, my sisters and i would eat them. eventually as friends started sitting with us at the festival too, we would offer friends and acquaintances mentos at the festival. the tradition grew and some of my friends also started bringing their own mentos and we shared them together between performances. the tradition of bringing mentos started from my mother who was offering me and my sisters support while we were nervous and waiting for our turn to play at the festival. it grew into a tradition through which performers supported each other. by sharing mentos with friends, especially right before and after performances, it was a way of sharing support and encouragement for an activity which was stressful, involved lots of waiting and could be very anxiety provoking especially if a performance didn’t go as planned. support from teachers, parents, community and friends “repetition is the memory medium for sound. repetition is the means by which sounds are retained and explained” (schafer, , p. ). support i received from my teacher, parents, the community and friends represents another keynote sound in my participation in competition music festivals. without this support, i wouldn’t have been able to participate for many years and the experience wouldn’t have been such a positive part of my music education. while the foreground sounds of the adjudicator’s words and the outcome of my performances were often the most vivid memories of my experiences, it was the support from those around me which represents tonality and the foundation of my experiences. my piano teacher put lots of effort into helping me to prepare for the music festival. this included choosing songs that were an appropriate level as well as engaging to learn. i received high quality teaching which ensured that i was prepared both technically and mentally for the challenges of performing. i have already mentioned how my teacher spent extra time preparing her students by creating practice charts, hosting extra rehearsals and booking performance spaces in advance so students had a chance to perform on the piano which was used in festival competition. in addition to these very practical ways of assisting in my festival preparation, my piano teacher also had a very positive attitude towards teaching and music making. she provided feedback on my performances in both oral and written form at each lesson, continually pushing for improvement in my playing. no piece of music was ever “perfect” or “finished”, the emphasis was on process, learning and improvement. while she always congratulated her students for performing well in the festival, she also ensured that the process of learning music was fun, engaging and challenging. by teaching this way, it made the competition aspect of the festival less important and put the focus back on learning and improvement. having this focus on learning helped encourage lifelong learning in music and i believe is one of the reasons i continue to improve my own skills playing piano and also teach others to play piano. the community that i grew up in was also very supportive of music learning. i will discuss this in more detail when i talk about canadian-mennonite identity and music-making in my community as a soundmark, but music was highly valued in the community that i grew up in. there were many opportunities to perform and take part in musical activities. additionally, the local community came to watch events at the music festival. especially on highlights nights, there were members of the community in attendance who didn’t have children currently competing in the festival. these community members congratulated performers on performances after the competition. this support and recognition was very encouraging and made learning the piano more relevant to me. having parents and family who supported my participation in competition music festivals was also a critical part of my success and played a foundational role in the soundscape of my experiences. support from my parents included driving me to weekly music lessons and extra rehearsals and festival classes. when i was younger my parents would help me practice to make sure i understood the assignments and also learned to practice regularly. these skills became habits which i continue to use into adulthood. my parents had a similar philosophy to my piano teacher. hard work was valued but winning wasn’t the most important part of participation in competition music festivals. my family also played an important role in debriefing from festival experiences. there were times when participating in the festival was stressful. this included when a performance didn’t go well or when a performance did go well but the adjudicator didn’t like it. in these moments it was important to have a supportive family to discuss the outcomes and debrief about events and experiences. by having this support underlying my soundscape of lived experiences, i continued my participation in competition music festivals for many years. soundmarks “sounds that have been in a particular place for a long time i call soundmarks. like landmarks, they define its essential character, rendering it unique.” (schafer, , p. ) i begin thinking about the soundmarks of my soundscape through sounded moments in my music education. looking to my past (musically), i am reminded of aoki’s ( ) article, experiencing ethnicity as a japanese canadian teacher. i consider how sounded moments and my experiences have become inextricably tied to my identity. my identity as a mennonite- canadian and the music-making practices of my family as part of my past becomes a sounded moment which i introduce into my soundscape, improvising four part harmonies on the piano. reading dueck’s ( ) article, i am transported on a journey. i feel tension as i am reminded of issues of social class that created challenges for mennonites in manitoba, canada in the early th century (p. ). my own family were russlaenders coming to canada in the s. as i read berg’s ( ) social history of the growth of the four-part choral singing in mennonite communities, i hear the sound(ed) voices in my past. these traditions of choral singing and participation in orchestras were nurtured and grew to be identified as part of the collective musical past of mennonites in western canada (berg, ). i am drawn to dueck’s ( ) call for more individualized studies of mennonite music-making as it resonates with/in my own identity. his research seeks to explore “unexamined notions of difference and to collaboratively make new meanings for global mennonite music” (p. ). four parts together voices rise, voices falling sounding harmonies? growing up in a mennonite community meant that music was a large part of my childhood. from an early age, i studied piano and violin along with all the requisite rudiments, counterpoint, harmony and history of western classical music. i was raised on the understanding that performing in church was an important part of everyday life and that local musicians in the community were esteemed for their musical abilities and talents. i feel with epp who states that “to say that music is an important element of mennonite cultural and religious identity is merely to state the obvious” (epp, , p. ). there has been an increased interested in recent years in defining what constitutes mennonite music and music- making practices. much of the work in this area has occurred through festival/conferences held at conrad grebel university college at the university of waterloo in ontario, canada. the first joint conference/festival was held in may and was entitled “sound in the land”. weaver ( ) notes that, “this event marked the first time that mennonites, in their -plus years of being in north america, gathered together for the express purpose of discovering, hearing, studying and celebrating collective mennonite voices in music” (p. ). the gathering focused primarily on mennonite music-making in north america and encompassed a wide range of musical styles including hymnody, folk music, popular styles and jazz. a subsequent conference hosted in expanded on the first conference to include mennonite music-making from around the world. the conferences and subsequent publications ( ; ) “champions the widest possible definition of what it means to be mennonite, and with it, the broadest possible definition of what might constitute mennonite music. in doing so, it challenges traditional assumptions and biases that restrict the potential for dialogue by constructing false boundaries and borders” (janacek, , p. ). my identity as a mennonite works as a soundmark on my experiences performing in competition music festivals. it is something unique to my experiences and located in the community, culture and places that i grew up in. by reflecting on my identity as a mennonite canadian, i become aware of the soundmarks present with/in the soundscape of my arts-based journal. during my childhood, music-making was closely tied to music and music-making opportunities in the church. attending church on a weekly basis, music was a part of the services including choral singing and playing instruments. i was first invited to play in church when i was around years old. i was invited after several members of the church listened to me play the piano at a festival highlights evening. since festival highlights evenings were well attended by the community and later broadcast on local radio, members of the community were aware of my music making abilities. i was invited to play a piano solo as an offertory as part of the church service. i learned a special song for this occasion which my teacher helped me to prepare. after this first experience, i continued to perform music in church in various capacities throughout my childhood. the music festival was connected to the community and was therefore also connected to the church and church music- making. reflecting on my childhood, music festivals were a training experience for students who played in church and likewise, performing music in church offered a place to improve my skills in an authentic learning environment. sometimes i learned songs for the festival that were also suitable for church and i would perform them in church after the festival was over. this was usually as part of a prelude or offertory section of the service. other opportunities for performance also came from having members of the church hear my performances in festival. for example, when i was in grade piano and an advanced player, i was invited to perform my festival songs as part of a fundraiser concert for emergency relief funds to be sent overseas. having another opportunity to perform my festival songs in a different context provided me with the opportunity to connect my experiences performing in festival with my experiences in the community making music. the type and style of music that i was performing was valued by others in the community and this encouraged me to continue making music and learning to play the piano. participation in the local music festival was also rewarded by members of the church community. the local festival was announced as an upcoming event at weekly church services. in addition, following the completion of the festival, the pastor invited participants of the festival to stand and the congregation would recognize our efforts with a round of applause. this was a very special moment as other events recognized with applause included announcements of marriage engagements and the birth of new children. it was very rewarding to be recognized by the community for my efforts to learn and take part in music making activities. sometimes when my sisters or i would win a prize in the local music festival, a member for the church community would leave a card in our mailbox explaining that a donation had been made in our name to a charity on behalf of our “win” in the festival. as soundmark events, my efforts were recognized and supported by the community i lived in as i learned and improved my music making skills. in chapter i mentioned how i chose to “dress mennonite” at a provincial finals competition. i wanted the adjudicator and audience to be able to see my mennonite identity. i was aware from a young age of the connection between being mennonite and making music. displaying this identity gave me confidence in performances where i was out of my comfort zone such as performing at the provincial music festival. pianos as place reflecting on the numerous instruments that i performed on as part of my participation in competition music festivals represent numerous other soundmarks on my soundscape. pianos in particular were always different depending on the location, and many of my memories of the festival are rooted in the piano that i performed on. in my arts-based journal i included some descriptions of some of the pianos i played on regularly as part of the festival experience. the physical feelings and places where these pianos were situated each represent unique sounded moments in my soundscape. not only did the pianos shape my experience, but i would often practice my song with a particular piano and acoustic space in mind. for example, if i knew that i was performing on a piano which sounded brighter but was in a small room, i would make sure that my accents and dynamics weren’t too exaggerated. whereas, if i was playing the same song in a large church auditorium, i would expand my range of articulation and dynamics to create the same effect in a larger space. with solo piano especially, the places where i performed are soundmarks in my soundscape. each performance in the festival took into consideration the instrument and space where i was performing. these memories are marks of place represented in the soundscape of my lived experiences. signals sounds cannot be known the way sights can be known. seeing is analytical and reflective. it places things side by side and compares them (scenes, slides, diagrams, figures…). this is why aristotle preferred sight as “the principal source of knowledge. sights are knowable. sights are nouns. sounding is active and generative. sounds are verbs. like all creation, sound is incomparable. thus there can be no science of sound, only sensations…intuitions…mysteries…. (schafer, , p. ) signals are the sounds that are noticed in the foreground of a musical soundscape. in my own musical soundscape, i reflect on signals as several different types of events. as schafer ( ) notes, any sounds can become a signal in the foreground of a soundscape when they are noticed consciously by the listener (p. ). while the readers/audiences of my soundscape may have noticed different sounds coming to the foreground in the soundscapes that i perform here, i now lead the audience on a soundwalk, pointing out the sounds that are noticeable to me as i journey through my past and walk in my own musical soundscape. this process of soundwalking was originally proposed by schafer as a way of engaging with a soundscape. schafer describes the soundwalk as “an exploration of the soundscape of a given area using a score as a guide. the score consists of a map, drawing the listener’s attention to unusual sounds and ambiances to be heard along the way” (schafer, , p. ). as i consider signals, i now trace a map seeking to act as a guide, drawing attention to sounds along the travelled path and bringing an audience into my performed soundscape. adjudicators as educators i reflect on my experiences with the adjudicators of competition music festivals as signals in my soundscape. each adjudicator shaped the tone of the festival and emphasized different types of learning through their feedback and discussions at the festival. for example, some adjudicators spent more time writing comments for individual student feedback while other adjudicators spent more time coaching students in a workshop format following the session. when providing feedback to students, some adjudicators focused on the technique of playing the piano while others focused on the interpretive decisions regarding the music of performance. the educational focus of the adjudicator as well as the tone in which they addressed students had a large impact on my annual experience of the festival. each adjudicator was responsible for setting the tone of the festival as an educational experience. my first experience at the music festival was with mr. james, an experienced music educator who worked with young students and presented age appropriate curriculum within the festival context. his choice of topics to discuss with beginning piano students was appropriate for my age level and development as a pianist. the tone he set was positive and students were encouraged to play their best. festival songs continuing through my soundwalk of signals, i listen to the songs that i performed in the festival. these songs, chosen with the help of my teacher, represent lasting signals in the soundscape of my experiences. while i performed each song only once for an adjudicator as part of the festival, i spent most of my time practicing my songs by myself in preparation for the festival. i also performed the songs weekly for my piano teacher who would provide me with feedback. the music i played was central to my preparing and performing in the festival. many of the songs that i performed, i continue to play for my own enjoyment. the experience of re/visiting and re/performing songs as part of this thesis project has furthered my connection with the music i performed in festivals. as a piano teacher myself, i also often recommend and perform songs i played in music festivals for my own students to learn. this is not just because of my familiarity with this music, but also because i hope my own students will feel the same emotional connection and understand the joy of learning a musical instrument. musical scores as “messy texts” looking through and playing with the musical scores that i performed has made me aware of the many lessons i learned from my piano teacher and through my participation in competition music festivals. especially when i played the scores in chronological order, i can see a path of learning through the markings written by myself and my teacher as i studied each musical score. though the convention was to erase markings on the musical score prior to a festival performance, i often left my markings on the score, making my scores “messy texts” (palulis & low, ). this evidence of my learning was too valuable to erase and traces a path of my learning as a process oriented endeavour. the markings on my music don’t simply comprise a record of past challenges, learning and struggle. they also are living, breathing, changing as i continue to perform these musical scores beyond my performances in the festival. i continue to add markings to the musical scores, changes in my performances representing the continuing process of learning beyond the festival. i also consult these markings when teaching my own students. these markings show a progression of a beginning student, concerned with performing the correct notes, rhythms and dynamics to a performer adding interpretive elements beyond the scope of the musical score itself. these writings on the score have been a valuable resource as a young teacher by providing insights into my own learning and offering ways of providing feedback to my own students about their performances. breaking in/to festival noise i notice how breaks in the conventions of the music festival experience also represent signals in my soundscape. these breaks were the memories that i recalled the most easily about my participation in music festivals. for example, when my friend sarah and i weren’t able to locate the ant which we had been watching, we laughed and bonded over the experience. to someone else, the story might not sound very funny, but we thought it was hilarious. i think this was because we had both had been competing in the music festival for many years. observing an ant in the festival environment was out of the ordinary and made the experience extraordinary and notable with/in the soundscape of my past. this signal, an epiphany, helped me to realize the value of the friendships and partnerships i made as a result of my participation in music festivals. many of my stories in my arts-based journal are breaks in convention in my festival experience. when i was performing violin and the adjudicator ran down the stairs and interrupted the start of my performance, i was very anxious about my performance after that interruption. i learned from that experience to be sensitive as an educator about how vulnerable students may feel when performing and to consider the form and timing of the feedback i provide to students. this is a lesson that i continue to draw on in my own teaching. these breaks in the conventions of the festival are meaningful epiphanies, memories that stand out vividly in my festival experiences. chapter : understandings it is a series of utterances, like sounds themselves, each occurring at its own point in time or space, some carefully prepared, others more spontaneous or passionately argued. to have arranged things in a more linear progression, to have given them a methodology, would have been to surrender to the visually dominant culture and its love of systems that stands in opposition to the uncontrollable work of sounds. (schafer , p. ) listening through chromatic melodies, rubato ebbs and flows as i reflect on the processes of my thesis project. i consider understandings that have emerged throughout this project by re/visiting my research questions through performance inspired by my entanglement with/in the sounded forms of a musical concert/performance. i reflect on the nature of sounds as generative and how my own engagement with soundscapes has generated more questions than answers on a euphonious pathway on the road to becoming. sounding inquiries through the arts with schafer ( ), i consider how presenting my understandings in a linear progression would “surrender to the dominant visual culture” (p. ). instead i choose to structure this chapter as a rhizomatic soundscape, a performance of understandings generated through this inquiry recognizing sounds. drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape in my inquiry brings musical/acoustic ways of thinking about lived experiences into my praxis as artist/researcher/teacher. considering music as the study of sound, sounds from my past experiences are an important part of my inquiry involving music. while i reference terminology from classical music as part of my soundscape, other musicians drawing on the framework of a soundscape might include musical language and forms from their own music education. i also acknowledge the importance of the environment in my sounded moments. by recognizing this connection with/in environments, i connect my experiences to larger social, cultural and political landscape situating my learning and experiences in an autoethnographic context (ellis, ). the musical program university of ottawa april , adjudicators: tbd class (ma thesis in education) . jessica duerksen…………………………………………………________ i. how do my past experiences as a music student shape my current practices as an artist/researcher/teacher? ii. how can my current music praxis and identity as an artist/researcher/teacher facilitate my inquiry into my festival experiences? iii. how can theoretical notions of a soundscape facilitate a/r/tographical inquiry? practice and preparation i arrive at my piano lesson a couple of minutes early today. my teacher welcomes me and asks me to sit on a chair next to the piano. she has a stack of music open, the light above the piano shines down onto the crisp, clean pages. “today we are going to choose some songs for the festival!” i listen to a haydn sonata, the light and humourous melodies flow quickly off the page. i imagine my fingers sparkling, flying quickly and imaginatively through the air as i move to strike the keys. next i hear schumann, chords pressing deep into the keys. there is tension throughout, easing for brief moments and then emerging again through a crescendo of rich sonorities. several songs by alexina louie glimmer across the keys. i hear strings inside the grand piano resonate and ring as they are struck and caressed. changes in timbre are imaginative, musical styles that are yet unfamiliar. “what do you think, jess?” i connect immediately with the laughter and lightness in haydn’s music. i love how the sonorities work together and how the music doesn’t take itself too seriously. i have already played haydn in the festival several years in a row and i tell my teacher that i would be delighted to play another haydn sonata. all of my past experiences, performing and receiving feedback on haydn’s sonatas has given me plenty of arriving to my class at the university of ottawa, i climb the staircase to the fourth floor. i sit down in a chair, next to several of my classmates. today we are discussing the requirements for our thesis project. “please form small groups of three or four students and share with your colleagues some of the ideas you have for your thesis.” suzy speaks first, “i am interested in studying visually impaired students and their experiences at recreational summer camps. it’s something i have been interested in since i worked with visually impaired students several years ago.” jonny chimes in, “i want to write something about the social studies curriculum, i am still searching for ideas though.” it’s my turn to share next. i think about my love of music and my experiences performing piano and violin at a variety of different venues. “i would like consider something in the area of music education, i think…….” “spend some time thinking about your projects over the next several weeks and make a decision about your topics!” i read gouzouasis ( ) who observes that, “few musicians reside in the world of both general education and arts education, and even fewer attempt to draw connections, content to either perform music, research music or teach music and never seem to hear the connections between broader possibilities” (p. ). experience to draw from as i continue my learning. i also choose a song by alexina louie, inspired by the changing textures and intrigued by the unconventional musical notation. the cycle of practicing and preparation for a performance is a familiar one to me. playing the written notation on the page, my fingers feel slow and heavy. my body isn’t familiar with the movements of my new repertoire. i re/turn to practice each day, first learning notes and rhythms, and then adding to the markings on the score, some were added by the composer and others are added at weekly lessons through the support of my teacher. i engage with a process of practicing. each day i re/visit my songs through practice. part of my practicing is researching the musical context in which each song was written. this allows for new connections to be formed in my interpretations of the musical score. the process of practicing includes reflecting on my practicing and performance to continue my learning as i engage with music. i listen through this statement and am immediately inspired to consider some of the connections between performing, teaching and research in my own life. i decide to consider these connections in my own lived experiences, drawn to the possibilities of this inquiry. the cycle of practicing and preparation for a performance is a familiar one to me. reading the written notation on the page, the ideas are unfamiliar. the process is tedious as my mind is engaging with new ideas. i re/turn to practice each day, first learning and studying my initial sources, gradually i expand my thinking, connecting new ideas as i engage with material through the support of my thesis supervisor. i engage with a process of practicing on a daily basis as part of my inquiry. i also begin to consider the process of conducting research through a model of practicing. my continued engagement in this process-oriented inquiry adds complexity to my understandings. the notion of practice becomes an important part of my identity as a researcher as i engage with the musical processes of “practice, reflection, performance and research” (gouzouasis, , p. ). soundings (backstage) parents do you need any help practicing? is there anything you don’t understand about your assignment? make sure you practice today! would you like me listen to you play your songs? wow, that song sounds really good today! all that practice is paying off! why don’t you try playing that one again for me? you can do it! how’s the memorization going for your sonata? time for your piano lesson! you played well! participation is important, winning isn’t the most important thing. let’s go for ice-cream after the festival! what did you think of the adjudication this year? did you hear any songs you want to play next year? you worked really hard, that’s great! how’s the thesis going? what sections are you working on now? can’t wait to read it! teachers keep working on your memory! nice playing, jess! now, take a look at the dynamics and we will add some this week! what do you think about changing the pedalling at m. ? after listening to that recording of your chopin, what did you like about that performance? what did you learn in the festival this year? i can’t believe how much your songs keep improving! why don’t we try adding some of the adjudicator’s suggestions? i love how sparkling your haydn is! why don’t you try playing with the metronome this week to make sure your tempo is steady? we don’t have to take all the advice of the adjudicator, but we can incorporate some of the suggestions! what a great performance! you have worked hard to improve your songs! i enjoyed reading a draft of your thesis! why don’t you try reading pelias ( ) while you are writing? have you thought about including gouzouasis ( ) in this section? i really like how this passage flows onto the next page! friends how’s your practicing going? do you want to get together and perform for each other some time? when are you playing in the festival? how’s the adjudicator this year? hey jess! awesome performance! i made you this medal because i thought your playing was amazing! what section are you working on now? do you want to have lunch and discuss our thesis projects? could we exchange writing and provide feedback? email me a draft! i would love to read it over! audience i look out over the audience as i take a bow before my performance. my parents and siblings are clapping and smiling at me. my teacher is sitting near the back at the top right of the auditorium with the other piano teachers. henry and fran from church are sitting with their children near the front of the auditorium. there are many unfamiliar faces, connections made through performance only. woman child man kate seth jon woman woman woman lisa frank jeremy my teacher another teacher another teacher man woman adjudicator secretary fred marie zach paula child child man dad katherine shelley mom man child child woman woman man child child henry fran frank julie man woman tracy emily sara kara child hanna jessica (bowing) piano/thesis performance walking on stage feels like habit each time, the heart pounds and the knees shake my mind is fluttering, i remember my preparation and i remember how to act as a performer. smile take a bow adjust the bench test the pedal i place my fingers on the keys and i begin to play… pelias ( ) reminds me, “performance is an opening, a location – a curtain drawn, a wooden floor washed with light, a window that invites the voyeur, a circle in the square, a podium that stands before, an arena of play, passion and purpose” (p. ). my fingers strike the keys melodies ring out, fading slowly a paintbrush swishes across paper swishes cease, colour remains a pencil scratches, erases and scribbles scratches notate sounds my fingers tap a computer capturing, moving to a new beat sounds swirling i stir the sounds sonorities mixing “performance is an opening, a transitional, liminal space, where one learns, for better or worse, the heart of the social, the clash of the cultural, and the twist of the linguistic. after, one may never be the same” (pelias, , p. ). each finger presses at a different strength the feeling of these pressures is artistic flowing melodies rising and falling rhythms pounding and swaying harmonies consonant and dissonant i am filled with movement my body is in flux as i navigate feelings of tension and joy in performance “performance is an opening, a breach, a deconstruction of the discursive system, be it artistic, linguistic, or social that offers possibilities” (pelias, , p. ) once the performance ends, i return to old habits smiling standing bowing adjudication sheet class (ma thesis in education)…………………………………..grade: ___________ . jessica duerksen performing………………………………………………………… “it’s festival time again”: sounding tensions with/in an a/r/tographical inquiry into participation in competition music festivals adjudicator’s comments: post-performance (reflections as a current music educator) my experiences performing in competition music festivals have influenced my current practices as a music teacher. as a student, i only had several music teachers but through my participation in competition music festivals, i was exposed to a variety of teaching styles and received different forms of feedback on my playing. reflecting on my performances as a participant in competition music festivals, i re/visit sounded moments, connections, which emerge through my identity as an artist/researcher/teacher. learning from adjudicators through observing adjudicators teach myself and other students, i learned about interpretations of musical characteristics in different musical styles. for example, listening to an adjudicator provide feedback on how to perform the music of chopin has influenced my own interpretations of chopin’s music. i also learned how to teach musical concepts such as rubato in ways that were appropriate for students by listening to different adjudicators model discussions on the topic and apply it to specific musical pieces. now as a music teacher myself, i draw on these memories from competition music festivals as i present this same knowledge about interpreting chopin and rubato to my own students. in addition to teaching musical concepts, adjudicators had a variety of approaches as they interacted with and provided feedback to students. adjudicators, as educators, had different philosophies of education which determined what they valued in musical performances. when mr. james was my festival adjudicator, it was a very memorable experience to have fred the polar bear on the piano to help students not be nervous when performing for the first time in a music festival. when i teach piano to my students, i also have a stuffed animal, harry, who sits on my piano. i place harry on the piano because i want my own students to feel comfortable playing the piano like i felt when performing for mr. james. my students and i practice performing for harry and reflect on how practice is an important part of learning to play the piano. re/listening when i was re/visiting videos of myself that i had recorded as part of my preparation for competition music festivals, i am not only re/listening and re/watching myself to re/experience sounded moments but i am also re/listening to myself as a current music educator. when viewing and listening to myself perform a sonata by beethoven, i was surprised at how well i handled some of the technical challenges. i remember being really disappointed as a student that i couldn’t play the piece “perfectly”. my sounded memories were filled with mistakes in my mind. i remember that i was especially disappointed in my performance at the music festival as not only did i make mistakes but i also had some trouble with memorization. re/listening to myself perform through the perspective of an educator made me realize that my performance was developmentally appropriate for my current level in piano. even though it wasn’t a “perfect” or professional level performance, i felt proud looking back at my performance and what i had accomplished. through the lens of an educator, i heard my performance not as simply correct or incorrect notes, but as sounded moments on a pathway of my own learning. interpretation as i became more advanced, comments from adjudicators stopped addressing mistakes i made in my performance (mistakes always existed in my performances) but the feedback reflected issues of interpretation which would help me further improve my playing. it was assumed that more advanced musicians could address mistakes in notes and rhythms by themselves and adjudicators provided comments regarding additional musical elements to add to the performance. as a result of this change, an adjudicator’s feedback became more subjective based on their musical training and opinions. through discussions with my music teacher, i was aware that multiple interpretations of pieces of music were possible and that there was not one correct way to perform a musical work. this possibility of multiple different ways of performing and interpreting music is something that i consider in my multiple roles and identities as artist/researcher/teacher. through a combination of support and learning modeled by my music teacher and festival adjudicators, i recognize the complex nature of teaching identities and the continued development of my identities as artist/researcher/teacher as an important part of this process-oriented inquiry. epilogue splashes of sound sonic movement flutters extending directions pianos echo acoustic colourings questioning processes of inquiry ways of knowing soaring in/to soundings openings are unfinished e/merging rhizomatic soundscapes this inquiry has encouraged me to walk through sounds and silences, listening as frequencies amplify in a spectrum of tempos. the utterances clash, sway and emanate while rendering my arts-based project through music, visual art and textual métissage (irwin & de cosson, ). i consider my musical past as a rhizomatic soundscape. linear progressions reverberate amplifying as sounds proliferate in weed-like resonances (deleuze & guattari, ). i listen with schafer ( ) as sonic methodologies resist linear chord progressions insisting on polyphonically inspired soundings. connections unravelling cultivate relationships between reader/listener and soundscape creator/analyst. drawing on the theoretical framework of a soundscape, awareness(es) of past occurrences articulate multiple openings and generative possibilities. i consider how reflecting on rhizomatic soundscapes within other lived experiences in education will generate further questions and new understandings. re/sidues re/sounding this inquiry informs several areas of research including the student experience participating in competition music festivals and arts-based research involving music. while there have been previous studies examining the student perspective participating in competition music festivals, most of these studies are from the perspective of students as members of musical ensembles (gouzouasis & henderson, ; stamer, ). these studies also rely on survey data from a large number of students while my project focuses on the in-depth experiences of one music student drawing on a/r/tography to inform my understandings. in future research projects, it would be valuable for others, including current participants in competition music festivals to examine their experiences drawing on arts-based methodologies to allow for further understandings and complexities to emerge. my current work offers an example of an autoethnographic, arts-based project which considers the student experience learning music. gouzouasis & ryu ( ) have also conducted an autoethnographic study on the importance of the relationship between student and teacher in private piano lessons. using autoethnographic methods to draw attention to the process of teaching and learning in music education, i add my voice to gouzouasis & ryu’s call for additional studies which focus on autoethnographies involving music teachers and students as ways towards new understandings music education. additional studies drawing on the notion of a soundscape in arts-based research may further consider the possibilities of the soundscape as a theoretical framework for inquiries in music education. for example, arts-based research involving soundscapes conducted in classrooms with music students or by individual artist/researcher/teachers who wish to inquire into experiences learning and creating music may enable inquiries into lived experiences in music education in the school system. soundscapes can also offer possibilities to researchers interested in applying the theoretical framework of a soundscape to collaborative research projects. my process-oriented and sounded inquiry is not finished with the completion of this thesis project. i will continue to inquire into my past experiences as a participant in competition music festivals living as an artist/researcher/teacher. as a next step on my sounded journey, i hope to create a live performance of some of my experiences participating in competition music festivals drawing on the forms of musical portraiture inspired by jenoure ( ) and multidimensional sonic performance (leavy, ). drawing on these forms, i will re/engage with soundscapes from my musical past participating in competition music festivals to present live musical renderings drawing on some of the sonic materials from my inquiry. through echoes, silences and sounds, i reflect on my continued engagement with musical moments from my past. [in]conclusions (morawski & palulis, ): i listen with schafer ( ) who reminds me: now i wish to speak of sounds. the world is full of sounds. i cannot speak of them all. i shall speak of sounds that matter. to speak of sounds, i make sounds. (schafer, , ) references abbott, e.o. ( ). the evolution of the canadian music festival movement as an instrument of musical education. unpublished doctoral dissertation, boston ma: boston university. aoki, t. ( ). experiencing ethnicity as a japanese canadian teacher: reflections on a personal curriculum. curriculum inquiry, ( ), - . bakan, d. ( ). this is the beauty: song as a/r/tographical exploration. unesco observatory multi-disciplinary journal in the arts, ( ), retrieved from http://web.education.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/pdfs/ejournals/vol iss _ / _bak an_paper.pdf bakan, d. ( ). a song of songs: a/r/tography, autoethnography, and songwriting as music education research. unpublished doctoral dissertation. vancouver, bc: the university of british columbia. bartleet, b.-l. ( ). behind the baton: exploring autoethnographic writing in a musical context. journal of contemporary ethnography, ( ), - . bartleet, b.-l. & ellis, c. (eds.) ( ). music autoethnographies: making autoethnography sing/making music personal. bowen hills, qld: australian academic press. bergee, m.j. & mcwhirter, j.l. ( ). selected influences on solo and small-ensemble festival ratings: replication and extension. journal of research in music education, ( ), - . berg, w. ( ). from russia with music: a study of the mennonite choral singing tradition in canada. winnipeg: hyperion press. bresler, l. ( ). what musicianship can teach educational research. music education research, ( ), - . doi: . / bresler, l. ( ). research education shaped by musical sensibilities. british journal of music education, ( ), - . doi: . /s britzman, d. ( ). practice makes practice: a critical study of learning to teach (revised ed.). new york ny: suny press. carter, m.r. ( ). the teacher monologues: an a/r/tographical exploration. creative approaches to research, ( ), - . doi: . /car carter, m.r. ( ). becoming a crossroads: an a/r/tographic journey in the borderlands. unesco observatory multi-disciplinary journal in the arts, ( ), - . carter, m.r. ( ). the teacher monologues: exploring the identities and experiences of artist-teachers. rotterdam: sense publishers. clandinin, d.j. & connelly, f.m. ( ). narrative inquiry: experience and story in qualitative research ( st ed.) san francisco: jossey-bass. clandinin, d. & huber, j. ( ). narrative inquiry: toward understanding life’s artistry. curriculum inquiry, , - . creswell, j.w. ( ). research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. th ed. thousand oaks ca: sage publications inc. deleuze, g. & guattari, f. ( ). a thousand plateaus: capitalism and schizophrenia. minneapolis mn: university of minnesota press. denzin, n.k. ( ). interpretive autoethnography. nd ed. qualitative research methods. vol. . thousand oaks ca: sage publications inc. drever, j.l. ( ). soundscape composition: the convergence of ethnography and acousmatic music. organised sound, , - . doi: . /s dueck, j. ( ). worship wars, world music, and menno-nots: recent studies in mennonite music. journal of mennonite studies, , p. - . dunbar-hall, p. ( ). studying music, studying the self: reflections on learning music in bali. in b.-l. bartleet & c. ellis (eds.), music autoethnographies: making autoethnography sing/making music personal. (pp. - ). bowen hills, qld: australian academic press. ellis, c. ( ). the ethnographic i: a methodological novel about autoethnography. walnut grove, ca: altamira press. ellis, c. & bochner, a. (eds.) ( ). composing ethnography: alternative forms of qualitative writing. walnut creek ca: altamira press. ellis, c. & bochner, a. ( ). autoethnography, personal narrative, reflexivity: researcher as subject. in n. denzin & y. lincoln (eds.), the handbook of qualitative research ( nd ed.) (pp. - ). thousand oaks: sage. ellis, c. & bochner, a. ( ). analyzing analytic autoethnography: an autopsy. journal of contemporary ethnography, ( ), - . epp, m. & weaver, c.a. (eds.). ( ). sound in the land: essays on mennonites and music. kitchener on: pandora press. epp, m, weaver, c.a., klassen, d. janecek, a. (eds.). ( ). sound in the lands: mennonite music across borders. kitchener on: pandora press. fleming, r. c. ( ). instrumental music contests and festivals: perceptions of selected educational personnel. dissertation abstracts international, , a. (umi no. - ). gould, e. ( ). dancing composition: pedagogy and philosophy as experience. international journal of music education, ( ), p. - . doi: . / gould, e. ( ). legible bodies in music education: becoming-matter. action, criticism and theory in music education, ( ), - . gouzouasis, p. ( ). a/r/t/ography in music research: a reunification of musician, researcher, and teacher. arts and learning journal, ( ), - . gouzouasis, p. ( ). toccata on assessment, validity, and interpretation. in s. springgay, r.l. irwin, p. gouzouasis, p. & c. leggo (eds.), being with a/r/t/ography, (pp. - ). rotterdam: sense publishers. gouzouasis, p. ( ). the metaphor of tonality in artography. unesco observatory multi- disciplinary journal in the arts, ( ), retrieved from http://web.education.unimelb.edu.au/unesco/pdfs/ejournals/vol iss _ / _gouz ouasis_paper.pdf gouzouasis, p., bakan, d., ryu, j., ballam, h., murphy, d. ihnatovych, d., virag, z., yanko, m. ( ). where do teachers and learners stand in music education research? a multi- voiced call for a new ethos of music education research. international journal of education & the arts, ( ), retrieved [ november ] from http://www.ijea.org/v n /. gouzouasis, p. & ryu, j.y. ( ). a pedagogical tale from the piano studio: autoethnography in early childhood music education research, music education research, doi: . / . . gouzouasis, p. & henderson, a. ( ). secondary student perspectives on musical and educational outcomes from participation in band festivals. music education research, ( ), - . doi: . / . . gouzouasis, p., irwin, r.l., miles, e., gordon, a. ( ). commitments to a community of artistic inquiry: becoming pedagogical through a/r/tography in teacher education. international journal of education & the arts, ( ), - . gouzouasis, p. & lee, k.v. ( ). do you hear what i hear? musicians composing the truth. teacher education quarterly, ( ), - . gouzouasis, p. & lee, k.v. ( ). the cage: stuff, tunes and tales. reflective practice: international and multidisciplinary perspectives, ( ), - . gouzouasis, p. & ryu, j.y. ( ). a pedagogical tale from the piano studio: autoethnography in early childhood music education research. music education research, doi: . / . . irwin, r.l. ( ). towards an aesthetic of unfolding in/sights through curriculum. journal of the canadian association for curriculum studies, ( ), - . irwin, r.l. ( ). a/r/tography: a metonymic metissage. in r.l. irwin & a. de cosson (eds.), a/r/tography: rendering self through arts-based living inquiry (pp. - ). vancouver, bc: pacific educational press. irwin, r.l. & de cosson, a. (eds.) ( ). a/r/tography: rendering self through arts‐based living inquiry. vancouver, bc: pacific educational press. irwin, r.l. r. beer, s. springgay, k. grauer, g. xiong, and b. bickel. ( ). the rhizomatic relations of a/r/tography. studies in art education, ( ), - . irwin, r.l. & springgay, s. ( ). a/r/tography as practice based research. in s. springgay, r.l. irwin, c. leggo, & p. gouzouasis (eds.), being with a/r/tography (pp. xiii-xxvii). rotterdam: sense publishers. janacek, a. ( ). introduction. in m. epp, c.a. weaver, d. klassen, & a. janecek (eds.), sound in the lands: mennonite music across borders (pp. - ). kitchener on: pandora press. jenoure, t. ( ). navigators: african american musicians, dancers, and visual artists in academe. albany: state university of new york press. jenoure, t. ( ). sweeping the temple: a performance collage. in c. bagley & m. b. cancienne (eds.), dancing the data (pp. - ). new york: peter lang. kelman, a.y. ( ). rethinking the soundscape: a critical genealogy of a key term in sound studies. senses & society, ( ), - . king, b. n., gillmor, a.m. & mackenzie, k. ( ). "r. murray schafer". the canadian encyclopedia. toronto: historica canada, retrieved [ march ] from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/r-murray-schafer-emc/ leavy, p. ( ). method meets art: arts-based research practice. new york ny: guilford press. leavy, p. ( ). method meets art: arts-based research practice. ( nd ed.) new york: guilford press. lee, k.v. ( ). riffs of change: musicians becoming music educators, unpublished doctoral dissertation. vancouver, bc: the university of british columbia. lee, k.v. ( ). a fugue about grief. qualitative inquiry, ( ), - . doi: . / leggo, c. ( ). autobiography: researching our lives and living our research. in s. springgay, r.l. irwin, c. leggo, & p. gouzouasis (eds.), being with a/r/tography (pp. - ). rotterdam: sense publishers. leggo, c. ( ). living love: confessions of a fearful teacher. journal of the canadian association for curriculum studies, ( ), - . leggo, c., sinner, a. e., irwin, r. l., pantaleo, k., gouzouasis, p. & grauer, k. ( ). lingering in liminal spaces: a/r/tography as living inquiry in a language arts class. international journal of qualitative studies in education, ( ), – . lines, d. ( ). deleuze, education and the creative economy. in i. semetsky (ed.), nomadic education: variations of a theme by deleuze and guattari (p. - ). rotterdam: sense publishers. lines, d. ( ). deleuze and music education: machines for change. in d. masny (ed.) cartographies of becoming in education: a deleuze-guattari perspective (p. - ). rotterdam: sense publications. low, m. & palulis, p. ( ). teaching as a messy text. journal of curriculum theorizing, ( ), - . lymburner, j. ( ). interwoven threads: theory, practice and research coming together. in r.l. irwin & a. de cosson (eds.), a/r/tography: rendering self through arts-based living inquiry, (pp. - ). vancouver, bc: pacific educational press. manovski, p.m. ( ). arts based research, autoethnography and music education: singing through a culture of marginalization. rotterdam nl: sense publishers. matsunobu, k. & bresler, l. ( ). qualitative research in music education: concepts, goals and characteristics. in c.m. conway (ed.), the oxford handbook of qualitative research in american music education. doi: . /oxfordhb/ . . mcconnell, w. ( , march ). festival is music to consultant’s ears. the manitoba herald. pp. , . mccormick, l. ( ). higher, faster, louder: representations of the international music competition. cultural sociology, ( ), - . doi: . / morawski, c. & palulis, p. ( ). auto/ethno/graphies as teaching lives: an aesthetics of difference. journal of curriculum theorizing, ( ), - . pelias, r.j. ( ). a methodology of the heart: evoking academic and daily life. walnut creek ca: altamira press. pelias, r.j. ( ). leaning: a poetics of personal relations. walnut creek ca: left coast press, inc. pelias, r.j. ( ). performance: an alphabet of performative writing. walnut creek ca: left coast press, inc. prendergast, m., gouzouasis, p., leggo, c. & irwin, r. ( ). a haiku suite: the importance of music making in the lives of secondary students. music education research, ( ), - . richerme, l.k. ( ). complicating, considering, connecting: rhizomatic philosophizing in music education. unpublished doctoral dissertation. tempe, az: arizona state university. richerme, l.k. ( ). nomads with maps: musical connections in a glocalized world. action, criticism & theory for music education, ( ). - . retrieved from http://act.maydaygroup.org/articles/richerme _ .pdf rogers, g. l. ( ). attitudes of high school band directors, band members, parents, and principals toward marching contests. update: applications of research in music education, ( ), – . schafer, r.m. ( ). bricolage: there’s a twang in your trash. music educators journal, ( ), - . schafer, r. m. ( ). the thinking ear: complete writings on music education. toronto: arcana editions. schafer, r. m. ( ). voices of tyranny: temples of silence. toronto: arcana editions. schafer, r. m. ( ). our sonic environment and the soundscape: the tuning of the world. rochester, vermont: destiny books. schindler, m. ( ). “where was i when i needed me?” the role of storytelling in vocal pedagogy. in b.-l. bartleet & c. ellis (eds.), music autoethnographies: making autoethnography sing/making music personal (pp. - ). bowen hills, qld: australian academic press. sefton, t. & bayley, j. ( ). the performing professor: conflicts of identity and work in faculties of education. in s. o’neill (ed.), personhood and music learning: multidisciplinary perspectives and narrative voice. canadian music educators association. shoemaker, d.b. ( ). kind of blue (music for the muse): re/playing autoethnographic stories through music. text and performance quarterly, ( ), - . doi: . / . . slawsky, m. m. ( ). transitioning from student to teacher in the master-apprentice model of piano pedagogy: an exploratory study of challenges, solutions, resources, reflections and suggestions for the future. (doctoral dissertation). university of south florida. proquest dissertations and theses, . sinner a., leggo c., irwin r. l., gouzouasis, p. & grauer, k. ( ). arts-based educational research dissertations: reviewing the practices of new scholars. canadian journal of education, ( ), - . springgay, s., irwin, r., & wilson kind, s. ( ). a/r/tography as living inquiry through art and text. qualitative inquiry, ( ), - . springgay, s., irwin, r., & kind, s. ( ). a/r/tographers and living inquiry. in j.g. knowles & a.l. cole (eds.), handbook of the arts in qualitative research: perspectives, methodologies, examples and issues. thousand oaks: sage publications, inc. springgay, s., irwin, r., gouzouasis, p. & leggo, c. (eds.) ( ). being with a/r/t/ography. rotterdam: sense publishers. spry, t. ( ). call it swing: a jazz blues autoethnography. cultural studies ↔ critical methodologies, ( ), - . doi: . / spry, t. ( ). body, paper, stage: writing and performing autoethnography. walnut creek ca: left coast press, inc. stamer, r.a. ( ). choral student perceptions of the music contest experiences. update: applications of research in music education, , - . doi: . / sweeney, c. r. ( ). a description of student and band director attitudes toward concert band competition. unpublished master’s thesis, university of miami. toth, m. ( ). explorations in intuition: breaking boundaries and reclaiming voice through a/r/tographic process. unpublished master’s thesis, vancouver, bc: the university of british columbia. truax, b (ed.). ( ). handbook for acoustic ecology. ( nd ed.). (cd-rom version). cambridge street publishing. truax, b. ( ). the aesthetics of computer music: a questionable concept reconsidered. organised sound, ( ), - . truax, b. ( ). genres and techniques of soundscape composition developed at simon fraser university. organised sound, ( ), - . doi: . /s truax, b. ( ). soundscape composition as global music: electroacoustic music as soundscape. organised sound, ( ), - . doi: . /s truax, b. ( ). sound, listening and place: the aesthetic dilemma. organised sound, , - . doi: . /s turkle, s. ( ). evocative objects: things we think with. cambridge, ma: the mit press. wapnick, j., mazza, j.k., & darrow, a.a. ( ). effects of performer attractiveness, stage behaviour and dress on evaluation of children’s piano performances. journal of research in music education, ( ), - . weaver, l. ( ). “pleasure enough”: four-part a cappella singing as a survival strategy for a mennonite-in-exile. in m. epp & c.a. weaver (eds.) sound in the land: essays on mennonites and music. kitchener on: pandora press. wilson, s. ( ). fragments: life writing in image and text. in r.l. irwin & a. de cosson (eds.), a/r/tography: rendering self through arts-based living inquiry, (pp. - ). vancouver, bc: pacific educational press. yuyan, w. ( ). the road to becoming a musician: an individual chinese story. in b.-l. bartleet & c. ellis (eds.), music autoethnographies: making autoethnography sing/making music personal. (pp. - ). bowen hills, qld: australian academic press. microsoft word - nijssen & nyssen jhg post-print res.doc pre-industrial headstones across the continental north sea plain jaak nijssen†,a, jan nyssenb,* a veurserveld , b- sint-martens-voeren, belgium b department of geography, ghent university, krijgslaan (s ), b- ghent, belgium * corresponding author: jan.nyssen@ugent.be abstract this paper examines the spatial and temporal distribution of grave headstones in the relatively homogeneous north sea plain and adjacent regions during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as well as the various lithological, cultural, religious and transportation factors influencing this distribution. findings from close inspection of cemeteries across the study area were complemented with data from existing surveys. the larger part of the production of headstones was for local consumption. high densities of cruciform (catholic) headstones in the boulonnais and in most of the ardennes- rhenish massif are illustrated with the cases of the berwinne and vesdre headstone production workshops. beyond concentrations along the meuse and rhine rivers, there is a large area stretching from northern france to north-west germany in which no headstones can be found (with the notable exception of a few jewish cemeteries). beyond this area devoid of headstones, the marsh islands and adjacent continental areas again have high densities (more than headstone per km²), occurring in two well-differentiated clusters. one cluster contains simple poles in belgian palaeozoic limestone in north- holland and the west-frisian islands, and the other cluster, on the german and danish marsh islands, holds richly-decorated tablets made in sandstone from the weserbergland. the headstones on the marsh island, a unifying cultural element in this unesco world heritage area, bear witness to the significance of a lucrative whaling activity and the intense trade that developed despite political, religious and linguistic differences across the region. key words: gravestone, cemetery, grave cross, low countries, marsh islands, stone trade, palaeozoic limestone many headstones dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have survived in europe (figure ). the evidence concerning the dates of these upright standing grave markers, or steles, is relatively abundant and reliable. from the sixteenth century, dates were increasingly used on various items of material culture across europe, such as church bells. selecting the continental north sea plain (a total area of , km²) as a focus for this study allows us to analyse the distribution of headstones, as well as the lithologies used for them, in a relatively homogeneous and level region with a linear source area on h. mytum, materiality and memory: an archaeological perspective on the popular adoption of linear time in britain. antiquity ( ) – . nijssen, j., nyssen, j., . pre-industrial headstones across the continental north sea plain. journal of historical geography, ( ): - . one side (the rhenish-ardennes massif), and transport routes (rivers) stretching away from it. in addition to questions relating to production and transport, the turbulent history of the period, including schisms in christianity and devastating conflicts such as the thirty years’ war, will also be considered. figure . basic types of headstones. : boulder; : discoid; : tablet; : pole; : cruciform; : composite. headstones belong to a range of memorial objects, including epitaphs, slabs, tombs, catafalques or tombs inside churches, most of which tend to be associated with a higher class of sculpture. headstones themselves were generally used for memorialising lives in the vernacular world, especially for men of a higher social standing such as the miller, the baker, the better-off farmer, the judge and the sheriff. in terms of the techniques by which they were made, headstones have much in common with baptismal fonts, way crosses, milestones or house inscriptions. the use of stone in headstones is clearly related to its use in vernacular building and this suggests that headstones should rather be seen as a by- product of stonecutters’ activity. stone was mainly worked for the production of columns, door and window jambs, or dimension stones, in other words the basic components needed for the construction of buildings. the absence of headstones in the major part of the netherlands, in contrast to the regions to the south-east (characterised by the dense occurrence of cruciform headstones) and the north-west (mainly in the form of tablets and poles), has previously been noted in a study by belonje. the author also referred to related monuments on the north-frisian islands near denmark (figure ), connecting these ‘stone charters’ more specifically to the history of arctic whaling. belonje supposed that in former times headstones existed in the intermediary area between the south-east and north-west of the netherlands, yet did not study this matter in depth. g. franz, der dreissigjährige krieg und das deutsche volk, stuttgart, . h. mytum, remembering the dead on stone markers, british archaeology ( ) - . s. de jonghe, h. gehot, l. genicot, p. weber and f. tourneur, pierres à bâtir traditionnelles de la wallonie, manuel de terrain, namur, ; w. kasig, zur geologie des aachener unterkarbons (linksrheinisches schiefergebirge, deutschland): stratigraphie, sedimentologie und palaeogeographie des aachener kohlenkalks und seine bedeutung für die entwicklung der kulturlandschaft im aachener raum, aachen, . de jonghe, gehot, genicot, weber and tourneur, pierres à bâtir traditionnelles de la wallonie (note ); kasig, zur geologie des aachener unterkarbons (note ); r. dreesen, m. dusar and f. doperé, atlas natuursteen in limburgse monumenten, hasselt, ; m. dusar, r. dreesen and a. de naeyer, renovatie en restauratie - natuursteen in vlaanderen, versteend verleden, dordrecht, ; a. slinger, h. janse and g. berends, natuursteen in monumenten, zeist/baarn, ; r. dreesen and m. dusar, historical building stones in the province of limburg (ne belgium): role of petrography in provenance and durability assessment, materials characterization ( ) - . j. belonje, steenen charters (oude grafsteenen), amsterdam, . belonje, steenen charters (note ). in this paper, we seek to investigate the diffusion of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century headstones across the continental north sea plain, particularly in relation to the evolution of christianity in this region and to the supply of stone from the stony heights across long distances to places such as the marsh islands. our study also aims to shed light on the degree to which the cross was accepted or rejected by various christian faiths as a shape for headstones, a topic which has not received much attention. in contrast to earlier studies, the approach taken is supported by quantitative and cartographic methodologies. the empirical data for this research was gathered in fieldwork by the first author over the period between and , as well as from existing surveys. figure . headstones (seventeenth-century tablets) in kirkeby on the danish marsh island of rømø (photo: jaak nijssen, ). the study area: bio-physical and socio-historical contexts m. vogt-lüerssen, der alltag im mittelalter, . k. fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum - eine typenuntersuchung. (diss. th darmstadt, ); w. lüden, redende steine - grabsteine auf der insel föhr, hamburg, ; t. möller, der kirchhof in nebel auf amrum und seine alten grabsteine, neumünster in holstein, ; kik-irpa, royal institute for the study and conservation of belgium's artistic heritage photolibrary. http://www.kikirpa.be/www /wwwopac/en/object.html, ; türk, christliche kleindenkmale in börde und neffeltal, habelt ; p. bloys van treslong prins, j. belonje and j. westra van holthe, genealogische en heraldische gedenkwaardigheden in en uit de kerken der provincie [all dutch provinces], assen, - ; knrm, voorloopige lijst der nederlandsche monumenten van geschiedenis en kunst, - ; c. clasen, r. wesenberg, a. verbeek and h. hilger, die denkmäler des rheinlandes (rheydt, viersen, kleve, duisburg, mönchengladbach, oberbergischer kreis, krefeld, dinslaken, bergheim, rheinisch-bergischer kreis, mülheim an der ruhr, oberhausen), düsseldorf, - ; m. sabrowsky, grabstelen und grabplatten im oldenburger land aus dem . und . jahrhundert - cdrom www.familienkunde-oldenburg.de, ; u. siebert, historische grabsteine, sammlung - eine foto- und inschriftendokumentation historischer grabsteine für den raum bremen. http://www.genealogy.net/vereine/maus/datenbanken/grabsteine/siebert.php ; j. t. bremer, oorkonden in steen - e en e eeuwse grafzerken op de oude begraafplaats van huisduinen / den helder, schoorl, ; g. quedens, die alten grabsteine auf dem amrumer friedhof, amrum, ; d. vermeulen, grafschriften en andere genealogische en heraldieke merkwaardigheden in en om de kerken tussen flie en lauwers (v). grafschriften vlieland, ; f. j. falk, gamle kommandørsten på rømø: tid og evighed; i ord og billeder, rømø, ; k. freckmann and h. bölling, alte grabkreuze im siebengebirge und an der unteren sieg, köln, ; r. jeuckens, die alten steinkreuze im aachener grenzland, aachen, ; w. kaefer, témoins muets du passé. croix vicinales de la région de malmedy. Étude d'épigraphie. . commune de bellevaux-ligneuville, malmédy-folklore ( ); h. kandt, n. göbel and e. wolin, steinerne grabkreuze aus drei jahrhunderten im stadtgebiet grevenbroich, grevenbroich, ; a. puters, croix de pierre en pays mosan, liège, ; j. azzola and f. azzola, mittelalterliche scheibenkreuz-grabsteine in hessen, kassel, ; k. müller-veltin, mittelrheinische steinkreuze aus basaltlava, neuss, ; c. kockerols and t. dagnelie, schiste, pierre d'ardenne: croix funéraires, croix des chemins et autres monuments en ardenne, etalle, . the continental north sea plain ( ° ’ to ° e; ° to ° n) is bordered in the south- east by the ‘mittelgebirge’ of the ardennes and rhenish massif and the weserbergland which reach a height of m above sea level in belgium (botrange) and m in germany (grosser feldberg). the study area covers the whole plain as well as the rocky heights that border it towards the south and south-east (figure ). figure . study area (mercator projection). this shows the percentage of cemeteries that were investigated in each grid cell of ’ longitude by ’ latitude (approx. km²). blank areas were not investigated or not mentioned in any of the existing surveys. source areas for the rocks used in headstone production are indicated. (the location of coastlines and rivers may vary). aspects of demand: economy and society after , the use of headstones became increasingly prevalent in the low countries. headstones dating from before this period can be found only in the surroundings of hainaut, namur, liège, maastricht and köln as well as the thiérache. the subsequent expansion in the production and transport of headstones needs to be seen in the context of wider economic, political and social changes in the region as a whole during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. the period under study ends in , as the pre- industrial era itself is coming to a close. in the course of the nineteenth century, industry was to undergo revolutionary change in terms of both production and distribution. j. nijssen, vijf verwante gotische grafkruisjes, in de band-heem- overmaas jaarboek - , ; j. nijssen, die anfänge der steinernen grabkreuze des maaslandes, in: internationale tagung für klein- und flurdenkmalforschung (st. magdalena, linz, austria, - may ), ; j. timmers, de kunst van het maasland - deel , de gotiek en de renaissance, assen, ; fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum (note ). see below. fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum (note ). providing a headstone for a deceased person depends on a certain level of prosperity, which in turn may be related to biophysical conditions, demography, and economic activity. the north sea coastlands and the adjacent, generally narrow,strip of marshland were relatively fertile and therefore prosperous areas. in the netherlands, the marshes were exceptionally wide, reaching up to a maximum of km. further inland there was a poorer belt of moraines, riverine and/or aeolian sands, heaths, swamps, making up the largest portion of the north sea plain. further south lies another fertile belt, composed of aeolian silt (loess), roughly parallel to the limit of the pleistocene glaciations, stretching from northern france through the central belgian loess belt to germany, where the narrower and rather discontinuous börden are located. the southern part of this belt coincides with the northern edge of the rocky heights bordering the plain. at the longitude of the rhine, this succession is interrupted by the km-wide cologne bight with loess soil, an especially mild climate and a southern border composed of volcanic rocks. the eastern part of the north sea plain is bordered by the teutoburger wald. besides favourable soils, the fortunes of local agriculture depended on proximity to markets in large towns. during the sixteenth century, rates of urbanisation in the south- western part of the study area - bruges, ghent, brussels and liège - were twice that found in the rest of the study area. subsequently, during the eighteenth century, other cities, especially amsterdam, experienced a demographic boom. bremen started its boom at the beginning of the industrial revolution, reaching , inhabitants in . north sea whaling and seal hunting also had an important impact on the regional economy during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. commercial and military navigation and shipbuilding were a significant basis for local wealth, generating a market for headstone supply. ship owners from hamburg and particularly from amsterdam organised whaling and seal hunting, recruiting sailors as well as officers from the marsh islands. ‘kapitänshäuser’ in vegesack (bremen) and on the islands, as well as many headstones, were erected to memorialise the captains, who were often mennonites. after , arctic whaling activities declined, due to the effects of overhunting. by just a handful of whale ships sailing under hamburg or bremen flags (though financially supported by dutch entrepreneurs) worked the cold waters of svalbard and the davis strait. more generally, the coastal settlements on the north sea plain provided access to the arctic and atlantic oceans for a hinterland stretching to the alps. the dutch republic in particular exploited its strategic location to become a civilian as well as a h. mytum, popular attitudes to memory, the body, and social identity: the rise of external commemoration in britain, ireland and new england, post-medieval archaeology ( ) - ; s. tarlow, bereavement and commemoration: an archaeology of mortality, oxford, . examples are the houtland in france, the kempen in belgium, the veluwe in the netherlands as well as the geest area and the lüneburger heide in germany. e. landsteiner, mitteleuropa im . jahrhundert, in e. bruckmüller and p. hartmann, eds., putzger historischer weltatlas, , . a. maddison, the world economy: a millennial perspective, paris, . h. l. schaefer, bremens bevölkerung in der ersten hälfte des neunzehnten jahrhunderts, veröffentlichungen aus dem staatsarchiv der freien hansestadt bremen ( ) . belonje, steenen charters (note ). p. alexander, the north-west and north-east passages - , ; k. lengsfeld, der historische walfang der nordfriesen, ; j. schokkenbroek, trying-out: an anatomy of dutch whaling and sealing in the nineteenth century, - , amsterdam, ; c. van bochove and j. luiten van zanden, two engines of early modern economic growth? herring fisheries and whaling during the dutch golden age ( - ), in s. cavaciocchi, ed., ricchezza del mare secoli xiii-xviii, - (prato, italy, ). schokkenbroek, trying-out (note ). military maritime world power. in the zaanstreek, the epicentre of shipbuilding in the netherlands, hundreds of ocean-going vessels were built, on dozens of wharves, each year. during the period covered by this study, antwerp was under habsburg control and was separated from the sea by political borders. as european merchants were increasingly oriented to the atlantic trade, hamburg grew in importance and bremen/ vegesack started to be used as a harbour in . the marking of graves must be understood in the context of religious practice, which played a significant role in everyday life – and death. in the area and period under study, the only organised religions were christianity and judaism. christians were inclined to exteriorize their confession by the use of crosses to mark graves. during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, especially, the study area was marked by the proliferation and differentiation of christianity. anabaptists (mennonites), reformed (calvinists), lutherans and (catholic counter-reformist) tridentines conquered and consolidated somewhat homogenous territories, respectively in the north, the northwest, the east and the south-east of the north sea plain. baptists demanded sobriety in marking graves, even prohibiting grave marking by headstones. on the other hand, the wish for commemoration and the value placed on status would also have led to increased demand for more substantial markers of graves. ashkenazi jews meanwhile preferred headstones as grave markers, while sephardim preferred slabs (which are not considered in this study). the supply of materials stone was supplied to the low countries from the east-west stretching hercynian chain of the rhenish-eifel-ardennes massif, which is interrupted by the cologne bight and limited in the east by the weserbergland. the core of the massif consists of metamorphic rocks, mostly slate, with a rather poor value as construction material. this core is bordered to the north and the west by a fringe of mid-devonian to late carboniferous rocks, products of alternating sea transgressions and regressions during the first stages of the hercynian orogenesis. at the southern edge of the massif, this fringe is less important (limburg-an-der-lahn). the fringe consists of limestone and sandstone, in intermittent crests and troughs, roughly stretching from east to west. the proto-hercynian belt was the principal pre-industrial provider of stone for construction material and headstones for the plain. from west to east (figure ), it consists of ( ) the ‘boutonnière du boulonnais’, an isolated geological feature, very restricted in area, with a devonian and carboniferous core; ( ) in hainaut, devonian-carboniferous limestone strata schokkenbroek, trying-out (note ). w. jochmann and h.-d. loose, hamburg : geschichte der stadt und ihrer bewohner. bd. . von den anfangen bis zur reichsgrundung, hamburg, .; d. steilen, geschichte der bremischen hafenstadt vegesack, bremen-vegesack, . p. ariès, images de l’ homme devant la mort, paris, . m. straatsma, de amelander walvisvaart, ameland, ; r. veit and m. nonestied, new jersey cemeteries and tombstones: history in the landscape, . j. lokers, die juden in emden - , aurich, ; jewish community of middelburg (nl), personal communication, . p. de béthune, carte géologique de la belgique et des régions voisines - : , louvain, ; r. walter, geologie von mitteleuropa, stuttgart, . de jonghe, gehot, genicot, weber and tourneur, pierres à bâtir traditionnelles de la wallonie (note ). outcropping in river incisions through the southern part of the post-hercynian strata (quarries of the tournaisis at ecaussines); ( ) north of the sambre-meuse-vesdre string, a proto-hercynian belt providing limestone, for example at vinalmont; ( ) from north- western france to the south of aachen (germany), devonian and carboniferous strata alternating in the avesnois and the condroz (limestone and sandstone); ( ) the cologne bight bordered at the south by tertiary and quaternary igneous rocks of vulkaneifel and siebengebirge, providing andesite, trachyte and basalt; ( ) triassic sandstone from the weserbergland which was an extremely important material in the construction of both buildings and headstones. within the north sea plain, isolated areas with sand concretions, whether calcareous or silcretic, sometimes provided a significant amount of building materials, such as the balegem and gobertange sandy limestones or the bentheim sandstone, but these were of merely local interest in the production of headstones. therefore, they will not be considered further in this study (table ). table . post-hercynian materials with only local significance for headstone production, in the continental north sea plain geological unit lithology era number of pre- industrial head-stones identified dates balegem/lede lime-sandstone eocene only building material gobertange sandy limestone eocene - tienen quartzite palaeocene- eocene only building material maastricht valkenburg chalk cretaceous nievelstein sandstone pliocene - liedberg sandstone miocene - bentheim sandstone cretaceous only building material w.-d. grimm, bildatlas wichtiger denkmalgesteine der bundesrepublik deutschland, münchen, ; p. laga, s. louwye & s. geets, paleogene and neogene lithostratigraphic units (belgium), geologica belgica ( ) - . from field observation and existing surveys in the study area. unlike ‘higher’ stone work such as slabs, there is relatively little evidence available on the processes by which headstones were cut and shaped. in particular, it is unclear whether headstones were cut by a particular class of stonecutters. we assume that much of the processing of the stone took place in the quarry itself, since the mass of the stone was reduced to half when producing a tablet and to a third when producing a cross, representing a significant saving in potential transport costs. this does not include that the mid-devonian sandstone of this area has not been found in headstones : see de jonghe et al., pierres à bâtir traditionnelles de la wallonie (note ). liedberg, nievelstein and tienen sandstones. d. j. meer, grafschriften en andere genealogische en heraldieke merkwaardigheden in en om de kerken tussen flie en lauwers (iv). grafschriften menaldumadeel, ; l. nys, la pierre de tournai. son exploitation et son usage aux xiiième, xivème et xvème siècles, louvain-la-neuve, . part of the processing, especially the fine work, which was done closer to the final location of the monument, the village burial ground. one must also consider the possible influence of itinerant craftsmen. moving or displaced stonecutters introduced new styles. for instance, some discoid crosses in the pyrenees, in the north sea plain and adjacent heights as well as in kent so closely resemble each other that they may well have been the work of travelling craftsmen, reflecting common practices in mediaeval building yards. trade, politics and language in the distribution of such a bulky product, navigable rivers played a major role. due to their position between the heights and the sea, approximately ten rivers cross the east- west geomorphological belts perpendicularly. this orientation contrasts sharply with the subsequent structural orientation of the central meuse valley, in combination with its tributaries, the sambre and the vesdre. their common valley is parallel to the ardennes crest, and incises a major part of the proto-hercynian fringe mentioned above. at the river mouths, the coastline was used for coastal navigation. this river trade was seriously affected by political circumstances. around , a large part of the power over the study area was in the hands of the habsburg dynasty, and so linked to the kingdom of spain and austria as well as to catholicism. large sovereign bishoprics (liège, köln, münster, bremen) as well as various smaller domains (jülich, eastern frisia) made up the rest of the territory. the treaty of westphalia ( ) resulted in the secession of the dutch republic. immediately, the scheldt estuary was closed. the dutch emerged as a maritime world power during their golden century; they had the largest mercantile fleet in europe, ensuring a dominant position in european, especially baltic, trade. sephardic jews, expelled from portugal, contributed to the wealth of the new republic and protestant areas like middelburg, amsterdam, bremen or hamburg, which welcomed them. somewhat later, less wealthy ashkenazi jews came to these areas, after being expelled from eastern germany. jews had their own commercial circuits. following the coastline eastward, the east-frisian princes held power, under the influence of reformed and mennonite christianity. further to the east, the confession was lutheran in the imperial town of bremen, the duchy of bremen-verden, the imperial town of hamburg, the danish (but partly german-speaking) territories of holstein and slesvig and the danish-linked county of oldenburg. along the elbe river, denmark had established the harbours of altona and glückstadt as rivals to hamburg. further inland, the bishoprics of liège, köln and münster remained catholic. the other major areas of stone supply remained habsburgian and catholic. the french annexed lüden, redende steine (note ); möller, der kirchhof in nebel auf amrum (note ). j. nijssen, fehlen scheibenkreuze sowie rad- und ringkreuze zwischen ems und seine?, journées de carcassonne: signalisations de sépultures et stèles discoïdales v-xix siècles - ; - ( ); j. nijssen, les discoïdales et leurs alternatives dans le nord-ouest du continent, hil harriak (bayonne) ( ) - ; j. nijssen, un monumento casi-discoideo en mastrique (maastricht), países bajos, cuadernos de etnología y etnografía de navarra ( ) - ; p. ucla, atlas des stèles discoïdales, paris, . because of its neutrality, oldenburg remained immune from the terrible devastations to which nearly all the other states of germany were exposed during the thirty years’ war: see franz, der dreissigjährige krieg und das deutsche volk (note ). parts of the habsburgian low countries, especially during the reign of louis xiv. an example of direct political intervention in commercial matters is the ban on the import of stone by louis xv of france. throughout the period under study, tolls continued to restrict trade. by the end of the eighteenth century, the map of the whole region had been transformed by the effects and consequences of the french revolution.. interregional trade does not seem to have been significantly hampered by linguistic differences, of which there were many. the more prosperous western part of the stone- providing areas were dominated by roman language speakers (walloon and french) living under habsburgian, catholic episcopal rule, while a large part of their customers in the downstream areas were low german speakers who converted into calvinism in the republic. ashkenazi jews, meanwhile, mainly spoke yiddish, though their official language was hebrew. the tiny population on the marsh islands used the frisian language. headstones provide rich evidence of these linguistic circumstances. for example, headstones with inscriptions in two or three different languages coexist in the same cemetery. it is worth mentioning that an analysis of epigraphy on these thousands of gravestones would yield important information on the spatio-temporal evolution of language forms in this region where different cultures were in such close contact. as grave crosses were used as a means of displaying religious conviction, if not proselytism, they could also be targeted and destroyed in periods of religious conflict. such was the case with the iconoclasm of the reformation in in the western part of the north sea plain and also during the french revolution, when much religious imagery was destroyed. in , napoleon forbade cemeteries within town walls and many of them were destroyed. in the course of the twentieth century, there were major destructions of jewish headstones during the holocaust period ( - ), as well as destruction caused by the effects of the two world wars, poorly conceived (urban) planning or simply negligence. we consider destruction due to negligence as a random factor inasmuch as these destructions will not have affected the overall spatial distribution of headstones in the study area. on the other hand, increasing awareness regarding the value of small monuments has also led to the recovery of many of them from the forgotten corners of local cemeteries. research methodology this study considers the geographical locations of headstones, the materials used to construct them, and the variation in their design (figure ). in some regions, especially western hainaut, the avesnois and the region around antwerp, upstanding slabs and epitaphs embedded in church walls were used in place of headstones. neither these constructions nor footstones are included here. in line with our focus on headstones, we during the period of this study, the dutch language continued to develop across the region that is now belgium and the netherlands. in northern germany, the low german was gradually replaced by the high german, particularly under the influence of luther’s high german translation of the bible. j. nijssen, oude stenen graf- en veldkruisen, ons heem ( ) - . p. moreaux, quelques aspects de l’histoire funéraire dans la civilisation judéo-chrétienne en france, etudes sur la mort ( ) - . lokers, die juden in emden (note ); joods historisch museum, amsterdam. http://www.jhm.nl/, author’s observations; kik-irpa (note ). have also excluded the few surviving grave markers constructed in whale jawbone, in wood, or in cast or forged iron. fieldwork and sources between and , the first author conducted extensive fieldwork in the study area, documenting around , headstones in approximately , cemeteries, using standard procedures. the area between °- ° ’e and ° ’- ° ’n was exhaustively investigated. further fieldwork was concentrated in the islands of terschelling, vlieland, texel, rømø, nordstrand, amrum, pellworm and föhr, as well as the alkmaar, middelburg, boulonnais, wesermarsch and oldenburg regions. all these headstones were recorded in a database. an investigation such as this, concerned with the presence or absence of particular kinds of grave marker, necessarily raises questions about interpretation. for example, does the absence of evidence really mean that there are areas where certain kinds of headstone were never used, or do they suggest incomplete investigation? for this reason, selected areas without reported headstones, particularly in northern france as well as between rhine and weser in germany, were exhaustively re-visited (all the cemeteries in clusters of a dozen of villages for every sample). this allowed confirmation of the absence of headstones or (in a few cases) correction of the original data. additional observations with the same aim in mind were made along randomly spread transects of cemeteries. archival research yielded some information on events leading to the erection of a few headstones but was less useful in interpreting overall patterns of distribution. over the course of several decades, the first author, a local history researcher, scoured hundreds of archives, finding only a few mentions of the erection or presence of headstones. neither did they offer significant additional information, which might have complemented in situ observations on graveyards. for parts of our study area, surveys of headstones have already been published. however, they vary in quality and utility. the inventories done in the netherlands in the first half of the twentieth century neglected objects which did not bear an inscription, as those are less interesting for genealogists, and did not include any information about the source material. however, a comparable edition, this time including such details, is available for parts of the german land nordrhein-westfalen. the former grand duchy of oldenburg has also been treated exhaustively, as well as land bremen. belgium, belonje, steenen charters (note ); a. van deinse, de walvischachtige dieren van nederland. fossiele zoowel als recente, paris, amsterdam, ; h. de walle, friezen uit vroeger eeuwen: opschriften uit friesland, - , ; h. hilger, die denkmäler des rheinlandes. kreis kleve , düsseldorf, ; b. c. zeguers, kruisen in limburg, rotterdam, ; türk, christliche kleindenkmale in börde und neffeltal (note ); w. f. van heemskerk-düker and h. j. van houten, zinnebeelden van nederland, amsterdam, ; d. van loo, van grafstenen en begraafplaatsen, hamer ( ) . f. j. baker, d. farber and a. g. giesecke, recording cemetery data, markers i ( ) - . this corresponds to the region between the towns of namur, malmédy, xanten and ‘s hertogenbosch. bloys et al., genealogische en heraldische gedenkwaardigheden (note ); knrm, voorloopige lijst (note ). clasen et al., die denkmäler des rheinlandes (note ). sabrowsky, grabstelen und grabplatten im oldenburger land (note ); siebert, historische grabsteine (note ). meanwhile, is documented by a valuable collection of photographs of monuments, including , headstones. in addition, the well-documented case studies of the marsh islands and of the wider köln-aachen area have considerable value for the purposes of this study. while some geneaologists have undertaken comprehensive surveys of headstones in some areas, they seldom specify the materials used. other authors confine themselves to some specific aspect of the headstones such as discoidal shape, or to lithology, thus limiting their usefulness for this study. furthermore, the focus of previous studies is on existing headstones: there are no studies which consider the absence of headstones in particular areas. who has ever seen a publication entitled ‘the nonexistent headstones of x’? it is only possible to evaluate the significance of presence or absence in regional- level surveys of the distribution of monuments, provided that these are detailed to the level of individual headstones. database management and spatial analysis all the data collected for this study ( , headstones in , settlements) were stored in a database (filemaker pro ) and manipulated in excel, for instance for the purpose of calculating densities and the analysis of temporal patterns. in order to detect configurations in the distribution of headstones, the spatial variability of their density was analysed. this analysis involved a certain simplification, as for this purpose the chronology was neglected (but see also the discussion of chronology below). approximately , cemeteries (estimated by extrapolation) were grouped by grid cells, spherical rectangular tetragons with a latitude of ’ by a longitude of ’. this unit of investigation appears as a square on maps using the mercator projection (which is justified as the study area is sub-continental). while it was not possible to visit every cemetery in every individual grid cell, around half of the cells were exhaustively investigated, and sampling at different densities was done on the remainder (figure ). the headstone density per grid cell was then calculated. kik-irpa (note ). lüden, redende steine (note ); möller, der kirchhof in nebel auf amrum (note ); bremer, oorkonden in steen (note ); quedens, die alten grabsteine auf dem amrumer friedhof (note ); vermeulen, grafschriften vlieland (note ); falk, gamle kommandørsten på rømø (note ); fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum (note ); türk, christliche kleindenkmale in börde und neffeltal (note ); freckmann and bölling, alte grabkreuze im siebengebirge (note ); jeuckens, die alten steinkreuze im aachener grenzland (note ); kaefer, témoins muets du passé (note ); kandt et al., steinerne grabkreuze aus drei jahrhunderten (note ); puters, croix de pierre en pays mosan (note ). including jewish genealogists: joods historisch museum (note ). ucla, atlas des stèles discoïdales; azzola and azzola, mittelalterliche scheibenkreuz-grabsteine in hessen (note ); müller-veltin, mittelrheinische steinkreuze aus basaltlava (note ); kockerols and dagnelie, schiste, pierre d'ardenne (note ). j. nijssen, maasländische kleindenkmäler zu internetzeiten, in: arbeitstreffen der agd arbeitsgemeinschaft denkmalforschung in niedersachsen (elze (d), september ), . the area of the different cells varies with latitude but is approximately km². all headstones on the cemeteries of a grid cell were considered as concentrated in its centre (rastering). we introduced four classes: first, grid cells that are exhaustively known ( % at least, mostly %). the second class consists of cells which we know for to %, whereas the third class includes cells of in the existing surveys, the absence of headstones is seldom considered explicitly. for the grid cells in which more than % of the cemeteries were investigated, the sample proved to be large enough so that ‘zero headstones’ really means that headstones are absent. those grid cells where less than % of the graveyards were investigated were not taken into account for quantifying the negatives. while tallying headstones, we considered both those that are accessible today, as well as those recorded in earlier surveys, some of which may have disappeared. once the densities per (investigated) grid cell were obtained, regional density maps were established through quadratic interpolation in mapinfo© gis software. jewish headstones were additionally mapped in cells that were otherwise void of headstones. table . characteristics of rectangles in which the temporal pattern of headstone construction was analysed (see also fig. ) central town land area (km²) longitude (°e) latitude (°n) number of dated headstones sw sint-truiden ° – ° ’ ° ’ – ° se euskirchen ° ’ – ° ° ’ – ° nw alkmaar ° ’ – ° ° ’ – ° ne oldenburg ° – ° ’ ° – ° ’ as stated above, while many existing headstone inventories are quite detailed in recording shape and especially epigraphy, most do not mention lithology. similarly, lithology was not accounted for in the first decades of the first author’s field observations on headstones ( - ). we have based this part of the study on absolute numbers of headstones for which the lithology was recorded; observations on lithology are too fragmentary to calculate exact densities for wider regions. these observations enabled the preparation of distribution maps that use an ordinal scale including low, medium and high densities. timelines were drawn for selected parts of the study area. we chose four areas of . ° longitude by . ° latitude, which were thoroughly investigated with regard to number and date of headstones. these rectangles are centred on the towns of sint-truiden, euskirchen, alkmaar and oldenburg (figure ) and each contain grid cells (table ). to analyse trends in headstone establishment per rectangle, all dated headstones were grouped per decade and trend lines were established on the chronological pattern of the number of erected headstones. which our knowledge is (very) limited. finally, the fourth class contains the cells about which we have no information (figure ). headstone density per grid cell was expressed as d = n / (a * i * l), where: d = density of headstones pertaining to the study period (km- ), n = absolute number of headstones counted on the surveyed cemeteries within the grid cell, a = area of the cell (km ), i = fraction of cemeteries investigated (dimensionless), and l = fraction of land within the cell (dimensionless). figure . density of seventeenth- eighteenth-century headstones in continental north-western europe. the figure is based on observations represented in figure and calculated using quadratic interpolation. the interpolation also includes the small intermediate areas that were not investigated. note the logarithmic interval between the isolines. the major geographical patterns are ( ) high density near the source areas (generally hercynian mountain chains), ( ) a belt stretching from northern france to northern germany that contains few headstones (with the notable exception of some jewish cemeteries, which are only denoted in those areas which otherwise do not contain headstones), ( ) bulges in the belts where headstones have been transported from the source areas along major rivers (meuse, rhine and weser) and ( ) high density in the western and northern marsh islands. (the location of coastlines and rivers may vary). the spatial distribution of headstones the headstone distribution map (figure ) shows very strong gradients in density; therefore a logarithmic rather than a linear scale needed to be used when establishing the equidistance between isolines. especially noteworthy are high densities (> headstone per km ) in the stony uplands, as well as on the western and northern marsh islands. the larger part of the production was for local customers, as indicated by the high densities in the boulonnais and in most of the ardennes-rhenish massif (figure ). the central ardennes were unproductive in sandstone grave crosses, yet had a high production of crosses in schist; the eifel highlands produced a large number of buntsandstein headstones, which were however only used locally. two cases illustrate the intimate relation between quarry, stone carver and headstones. first, in an area of about km² between liège, maastricht and aachen, a set of gothic crosses is present, very similar in design (figure ). they are in flamboyant gothic style; if it is present, the corpus is the principal motif on the crosses, some of which also kockerols and dagnelie, schiste, pierre d'ardenne (note ). have a short gothic inscription. they are all undated, but were probably erected between and . most typically, all these crosses were made of carboniferous sandstone, the only known local quarry site of which is located along the berwinne river near the val-dieu abbey (aubel) at the centre of the cluster of crosses (figure ). figure . gothic headstone, made of carboniferous sandstone, at julémont cemetery (photo: jan nyssen, ). in a second case, to the east of the previous example, grave crosses in palaeozoic limestone have been produced by another workshop which was particularly active between and . major outcrops of this lithology are located nearby, on the north flank of the vesdre valley (figure ). they bear a crucifix with a typical corpus having a head strongly bent towards the right shoulder, lengthy thorns on the crown and long, mostly bent arms. minor additional symbolism and sometimes heraldic elements are used. remarkably, one of the crosses produced in this workshop that stands in the field near grand-rechain was actually erected in memory of a stone carver, most probably employed in the workshop. it bears the following inscription in a mix of french and walloon languages: priez diev povr l'Âme d ' honnest ievne home franÇoy fils de syer d' gra taillevr d 'pirre qvi es mort d' occision le feb pray god for the soul of the honest young man françois son of a nobleman from gra[nd-rechain] stone carver who died by murder on j. nijssen, fasen und nasen an alten steinernen kreuzen im lande an der maas - beitrag zum arbeitstreffen der agd arbeitsgemeinschaft denkmalforschung (tepla (cz) april – may ) . kik-irpa (note ). r. dreesen, personal communication, mol (b.), . c. bury, le coin des chercheurs: croix d'occis, bulletin du vieux-liège ( ) - . feb might his workshop have been located in or near one of the quarries of palaeozoic limestone nearby the village of grand-rechain? whatever might have been the case, only one more cross was produced in this workshop after (in ). figure . distribution of the headstones produced in seventeenth-century workshops at berwinne (carboniferous sandstone) and vesdre (palaeozoic limestone). across the continental north sea plain a widespread and dense group of headstones in palaeozoic limestone extends throughout the broader meuse valley over a length of km with a maximal width of km. the headstones are cross-shaped and the epigraphy shows remarkably little relief (in comparison to neighbouring groups). this group of headstones occurs near to the meuse river, both where it incises the northern fringe of the ardennes massif (with numerous quarries) and northward along the meuse valley well into the tertiary and quaternary terrains without hard rock of the netherlands (figure ). nijssen, journées de carcassonne (note ). headstones in palaeozoic limestone occur for instance at 's-hertogenbosch, zaltbommel and zutphen (figure ). figure . occurrence of palaeozoic limestone at the southern rim of the continental north sea plain and areas where the same material was widely used for headstones. the meuse can be observed winding through the outcrops, and further north it served as a transport route, causing a bulge in the isolines of headstone distribution, away from the source area. the hypothetical route to north holland and the marsh islands was through the river ijssel and the zuiderzee. the area where palaeozoic limestone was used for embedded slabs of the same age is tentatively indicated by a dashed line. in contrast, old steles are rare in the west of belgium and the centre and north of the netherlands. the only exception is the rich collection of steles in the extreme north-west of the netherlands (figure ). on the churchyard of huisduinen there are more than a hundred steles from the seventeenth and eighteenth century. similar monuments are conserved on other churchyards in the neighbourhood, including the western marsh islands (figure ) albeit in smaller numbers. the inscriptions clearly suggest that the burials are mostly of people linked with the amsterdam sea navigation, in particular with whaling. they include members of the dutch reformed church, anabaptists and catholics. figure . poles at the strijperkerkhof in terschelling (dutch marsh islands) in (photo: jaak nijssen). the cemetery and headstones have been restored in recent years. the region without headstones extends from the central and northern netherlands towards münster in the east. at the edge of this region, hilger‘s kleve mentions the presence of headstones in only of the settlements covered in his study. to the south, the region extends to the whole centre and west of the netherlands to include both belgian flanders and, surprisingly, the western hainaut stone-producing area. in this area, particularly in the reformed netherlands, there exist a few cemeteries with jewish headstones in regions which lack other headstones. finally, to the extreme north of the study area, namely on the german and danish marsh islands, there is an area with a higher density of headstones. transfers after construction some headstones were moved, sometimes long after their erection. in many cases, headstones aligned against church walls were moved over short distances, as were headstone fragments sealed in the walls of churches and adjacent buildings. some headstones were also found to be reused or years later, in which case either the old inscriptions had been ground off or the back was used (such as at huisduinen and helmond). at xhoffraix (east belgium), headstones that were removed during the french revolution were re-erected along roads. some headstones may have been moved over greater distances, which interfered with our analysis of spatial distribution. six headstones, present in an otherwise ‘vacuum’ area at the st. lucas institute in ghent were originally erected at aubel, some km to the east. in this case, and in a few others where the original location could be retraced, the headstones have been accounted for within their original location. chronological patterns in the southern parts of the study area (sint-truiden, euskirchen), headstone production was already important in , with around headstones per decade that have survived until today. the production of headstones soared in the early seventeenth century, especially in the area of sint-truiden. the number of established headstones is considerably lower and started later in the northern regions than in the southern regions, where there is also a time lag from west to east (figure ). figure . number of headstones per decade in four selected areas of approximately the same size. the graph shows that in the southern regions, near the source areas, there is a larger number of headstones; and also that these clearly peaked in the seventeenth century, as opposed to the north-western alkmaar region which experienced a gradual increase in number of headstones throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. hilger, die denkmäler des rheinlandes (note ). own observation. source materials evidence concerning the lithology of stones was retrieved for , headstones and then mapped (figure ). out of these, there are , headstones in palaeozoic limestone, in various sandstones, in volcanic rock and in other rocks. very high densities of headstones in palaeozoic limestone, and very low densities of other lithologies, occur at the margin of the protohercynian fringe: for example, in the grid cell around visé, around sint-truiden, and around aubel. in this latter area, the cemetery of hombourg is the hotspot of seventeenth-century limestone grave crosses. furthermore, the north-western netherlands are outstanding for headstones in palaeozoic limestone, particularly the cemetery of huisduinen. the highest densities of sandstone crosses can be found in the siebengebirge: in the bergisches land and in altenberg. headstones in volcanic rock occur in the contact area between eifel and cologne bight: around bonn and in the grid cell around brühl. other lithologies mainly comprise schist, which appears particularly in grave markers in the ardennes. centres of grid cells: visé ( ° ’n, ° ’e), sint-truiden ( ° ’n, ° ’e), aubel ( ° ’n, ° ’e). centres of grid cells: bergisches land ( ° ’n, ° ’e), altenberg ( ° ’n, ° ’e). centres of grid cells: bonn ( ° ’n, ° ’e), brühl ( ° ’n, ° ’e). kockerols and dagnelie, schiste, pierre d'ardenne (note ). figure . occurrence of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century headstones in continental north-western europe by lithology. dark and light grey tones represent high and medium densities of headstones of a particular lithology. the southern polygons stand for areas with rock of the same lithology. hypothesised trade routes are indicated. as mentioned in the case of the berwinne and vesdre areas, local materials were used in the massifs. in the meuse valley down to ’s hertogenbosch headstones in palaeozoic limestone were established, originating from numerous quarries along the upper course of that river (figure ). the steles in north-holland were also quarried from a uniform limestone, most probably from the liège-namur area, which is directly connected to the north-holland cluster through the meuse and ijssel rivers (figure ). materials used in the marsh islands are belgian limestone in the dutch islands, and sandstone originating from the weserbergland in the german and danish islands. however, local lore on the island amrum suggests that sailors living on the island brought the headstones from holland. a similar suggestion is also found in tourist information regarding the danish island rømø, although no evidence has yet been found to support it. design and epigraphy cruciform headstones obviously form a distinct group, usually referred to as grave crosses. these are generally linked to the roman catholic confession and tended not to be used by members of the reformed churches (especially by the calvinists). the catholic preference for the use of crosses on headstones, and for religious profession in general, is well known. by contrast, protestants were rather reserved in using such a high symbol in the rather common context of headstones. there is one eighteenth-century instance in which the dutch general vlodrop, passing sint-truiden, ordered the destruction of a headstone in memory of one of his ancestors, because it had the shape of a cross. in contrast, on the northern marsh islands, half of the (protestant) headstones bear bible texts. discussion the highest densities of headstones are found in the stone producing areas, and in regions to the north that follow the zones of influence of river transport along the meuse, rhine and weser (figure ). headstones are also present in the boulonnais stony heights. from this high-density area to the north-west, there is a remarkably rapid decrease in headstone density. the western area around hainaut in which stones were produced is almost entirely devoid of headstones, as are the downstream belgian flanders provinces (including ghent and bruges) as well as dutch zeeland. one notable exception is a cemetery with jewish headstones at middelburg. besides the possible influence of destructions in the source area, there was a marked preference for slabs in church walls, which exist both in the tournaisis and the antwerp area (figure ). low headstone density in many towns of the south-western part of the study area may be related to iconoclastic or napoleonic destructions of churchyards. overall, however, the hypothesis that the low density of headstones in the lowlands is due to high transportation costs from the source areas remains valid given the absence of archaeological evidence of extensive and systematic destruction of headstones at such a scale (from dunkirk to münster). the numerous headstones on jewish cemeteries within the large area that is otherwise devoid of headstones (including middelburg, amsterdam and groningen) reflects cultural influences that the ashkenazi jews brought from central europe, as is evidenced by the möller, der kirchhof in nebel auf amrum (note ). fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum (note ). j. p. lensen and j. nijssen, croix, potales et chapelles au pays de visé - étude des témoins externes d'art religieux du doyenné de visé (blégny, dalhem et visé), visé, . fischer, die alten steinernen grabkreuze im kölner raum (note ). b. w. schijndel, het geslacht van vlodrop in brabant en limburg, de nederlandsche leeuw: maandblad van het koninklijk nederlandsch genootschap voor geslacht- en wapenkunde , - . own observations; kik-irpa (note ). moreaux, quelques aspects de l’histoire funéraire (note ). existence from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries of tablets on jewish cemeteries in worms, mainz or prague. on the north sea coast, headstones were concentrated in two isolated clusters, namely ( ) north-holland and the dutch marsh islands and ( ) the north-frisian islands up to hamburg. this distribution is related to shipping and particularly whaling activities. prior to the nineteenth century, holland imported a great deal of its stone from belgium because natural hard stone was absent. this was the case not only for architectural use but also for (well-dated) gravestones. on the other hand, holland had an important colonial trade. it was common for ships to carry shaped stones as ballast on their outbound journey. particularly known is the case of the batavia which carried tonnes of building stones as ballast from amsterdam to java in . some of these seafarers transported with them their own gravestones, and had them carved during their lifetime. this is particularly interesting as these slabs were already imported stone, generally composed of early carboniferous limestone, used both for building purposes and for small monuments. at nagasaki in japan, for instance, there is an imported dutch headstone dating back to . similarly, arctic seamen, the whalers and especially their commanders carried building materials for their houses, as well as headstones from the amsterdam and bremen home ports to the islands from which they largely originated. since the whalers of the marsh islands had a common attitude towards headstones, it is possible to group the various forms of funerary art on these islands into a common school, from the now empoldered island of callantsoog in the west to fanø in denmark. concerning the overall temporal pattern evident in the database, the late establishment of headstones in the northern clusters indicates that the headstones were first prepared for the local population in the stony heights, where the first headstones date back to well before . the south-eastern locations peaked some years later than the south- western (in , as compared to ), which shows that the tortuous course of the meuse through the ardennes massif made this region the hotspot of headstone production in north-west europe. from the ardennes, the innovation spread easily along the major rivers, but it took some time to reach the marsh islands. this delay was related both to distance and to cultural, socio-economic and religious differences. finally, it is notable that the timing of the peaks in the erection of headstones in the seventeenth century o. böcher, der alte judenfriedhof zu worms, neuss, ; f. reuter and c. wiesner, der judenfriedhof zu worms, in ein edler stein sei sein baldachin. jüdische friedhöfe in rheinland-pfalz (ed. rhein-lahn- kreis) (rheinland-pfalz, ); b. a. vest, der alte jüdische friedhof in mainz, mainz, ; h. volavkova, o. muneles and t. jakobovich, the old jewish cemetery of praha: a guide through the cemetery, prague, . p. c. buckland and j. sadler, ballast and building stone: a discussion, in d. parsons, ed., stone: quarrying and building in england, ad - , chichester, ; j. n. green, maritime archaeology: a technical handbook, london, . r. gould, archaeology and the social history of ships, cambridge, . o. c. nerong, die kirchhöfe föhrs, . m. mioch, de hollandsche begraafplaats te nagasaki, kwartaalblad van het centraal bureau voor genealogie ( ). j. nijssen, de oudste stenen grafkruisen van het maasland, in a. roeck, j. theuwissen, s. top and s. van den eijnde, eds., liber amicorum prof. dr. jozef van haver, , - . contrasts with the situation in britain and ireland, where rapid growth in the establishment of headstones had to wait until the eighteenth century. concerning the use of source materials, it is clear that palaeozoic limestone was in widespread use as the preferred stone for carving, the highest densities occurring in the belgian limestone belt at the northern fringe of the ardennes. sandstone is represented mainly by the headstones in the stony heights of eifel and siebengebirge, with a second concentration along the german north sea coast. in the cologne bight, at some distance from the stony heights, a rich mix of various lithologies appears, with volcanics and sandstone from the nearby mittelgebirge and palaeozoic limestone from the ardennes (figure ). headstones in volcanic rock are located on or nearby the volcanic outcrops of the eifel, and among volcanic rocks, there seems to be a preference for latite. materials used in the stony heights and their surroundings are of local origin, as shown for example in the cases of vesdre and berwinne. further, the establishment of headstones in areas along the meuse, used to transport palaeozoic limestone, is also obvious. at the end of the trade chain, in the marsh islands, the northern and western clusters of headstones are related to the nearby streams: meuse for the western area and weser for the northern area. for the north-frisian island amrum, for instance, the hypothesis that the stones were of belgian origin has been rejected. after all, if the northern headstones had been products imported through holland, why then is the material different from that in the north-western cluster? moreover, would the dutch have brought wealthier headstones to these northern areas than those used in their own region? (compare figure to figure ). conclusions the hercynian chain of the rhenish-eifel-ardennes massif, its fringes marked by belts of limestone and sandstone, provided materials for the production and distribution of headstones in the more fertile, increasingly populous areas to the north. the trade in headstones, related to but distinct from that in building materials, clearly depended on local initiatives and displayed a highly uneven geography. as a result, the limestone belt between tournai and namur produced relatively few headstones, while in the namur- aachen section, evidence of an extremely rich production, traded on a large scale, has survived until the present day. the erection of headstones began within the immediate neighbourhood of the stone quarrying regions themselves, as shown in the cases of berwinne and vesdre, the latter workshop having an extremely well developed epigraphy. lithological variations account for the differential development of headstone patterns between the east and the west of the study area. the temporal analysis (figure ) shows that the headstones developed first on the stony heights, and that soon a local trade developed in which the vesdre area provided headstones up to km further north and in the aachen area up to köln. then the meuse trade brought similar types of headstones up to the centre and east of the netherlands. finally, the tablet culture developed on the north sea fringes, and was characterised by two parallel foci in north holland and in the weser/eastern marsh area. the former consisted of plainly executed belgian walloon mytum, popular attitudes to memory (note ). quedens, die alten grabsteine auf dem amrumer friedhof (note ). möller, der kirchhof in nebel auf amrum (note ). limestone monuments (figure ). the latter, provided by the weserbergland, were richly decorated, presenting protestant bible citations (figure ). these monuments were not simply memorials for the dead, but were often also an exteriorisation of prevalent religious beliefs. both marsh island groups formed isolated clusters at the extremes of the north sea bay and these concentrations are also related to shipping and whaling in the arctic seas. the tablets were used for the upper class of this community. the similarity between, and grouping of, these two clusters of tablets on the marsh islands is not based on the role of particular quarries but rather reflects the impact of maritime trade on the north sea. it is likely that the spread of headstones to the northern part of the study area was hindered in the early part of the period under study by transportation costs, as well as by protestant attitudes to the use of the cross as a symbol on graves. the increasing use of headstones in the marsh islands reflected the influence of whaling and the consequent development of coastal transport. the dominance in that area of tablet-shaped headstones also enabled potential religious objections to be bypassed. this study has sought to provide a rigorous quantitative analysis of the distribution of headstones in the low countries, and represents an advance on belonje’s qualitative assessment. we have also considered in more detail regional patterns in the use of source materials, historical changes over the period and cultural/religious aspects of change. the analysis highlights the extent of a large-scale trade in stones across the region, cutting across significant political, religious and linguistic differences. last but not least, we have highlighted the particular case of the headstones on the marsh islands, a unifying cultural element in this unesco world heritage area, reflecting the impact of maritime activity in this region between the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. acknowledgements the late jaak nijssen ( - ) passed away writing out the manuscript, which aims at presenting the major findings of his life work. special thanks are due to his widow elza vandenabeele for critical revision of successive versions of the manuscript. we also want to thank jaak and elza’s children, bart, piet, koen, liesbet, rik and mieke for participation in a seemingly endless campaign of field visits to cemeteries across the low countries s.l. furthermore, inspiring thoughts were offered by the wider headstone investigation community and particularly the international congresses on headstone research organised by arbeitsgemeinschaft denkmalforschung (trebur, germany) as well as arbeitskreis für klein- u. flurdenkmalforschung (linz, austria). numerous fruitful discussions were also held with members of likona (belgian limburg cercle of natural history and geology) and of the société royale archéo-historique de visé (belgium). the valuable comments by three anonymous reviewers and the strong editorial hand of felix driver greatly contributed to the final version of this paper. belonje, steenen charters (note ). l. fischer and h. waterbolk, landschap en cultuurgeschiedenis van het waddenzeegebied, in wadden, verhalend landschap (ed. m. bemelman) - , . biographies the late dr. jaak nijssen ( - ) (dr. med. vet, ugent) was a researcher on late mediaeval small monuments. prof. dr. jan nyssen is a physical geographer with research interests in the interactions between humans and the environment. he holds a phd from kuleuven ( ) and is currently at the department of geography, ghent university, belgium. nov.dec.orgs.indd a n na l s o f fa m i ly m e d i c i n e ✦ w w w. a n n fa m m e d . o r g ✦ vo l . , n o. ✦ n ov e m b e r / d e c e m b e r family medicine updates from the american academy of family physicians ann fam med ; : - . doi: . /afm. . aafp policies on industry relations well established, well managed many aafp members have had questions about recent reports and opinion pieces that call on medical pro- fessionals to keep their distance from pharmaceutical companies in terms of industry support—particularly for cme. the so-called macy report from the ama’s coun- cil on ethical and judicial affairs; a special communi- cation in the journal of the american medical association (jama); and an exhaustive (and exhausting) -page report from the institute of medicine addressing “con- fl icts of interest in medical research, education and practice,” all lead members to ask, “what is the posi- tion of the aafp regarding interactions with pharma- ceutical companies?” these reports and opinions start from a basic premise that any engagement with the pharmaceutical industry is a confl ict and must be eliminated. but the aafp does not accept this “good money/bad money” hypothesis, and neither do most professional associa- tions. pharmaceutical and other companies have a signifi cant role to play in informing health care profes- sionals about the availability and proper use of medica- tions and other therapies. as the nation’s fi rst recognized accreditor of cme, and as a medical specialty society with an established membership and renewal criteria requiring accredited cme, the aafp has consistently demonstrated its dedication to supporting physicians in their obligation to learn and advance scientifi c knowledge by engaging in lifelong learning. long experience has shown that potential confl icts of interest and relations with industry can and must be managed consistently and effectively. to the extent that an industry’s products are based on solid medical science and best clinical practices, physicians and physicians-in-training have the right and the responsibility to be trained in the appropriate use of such products so as to provide appropriate qual- ity care for their patients. the aafp has many policies in place to manage relationships between cme providers and funders, beginning with full disclosure. in addition, the acad- emy takes the necessary steps to create fi rewalls between content and funding and to resolve confl icts as needed. the aafp has done this very successfully for more than years. why would the academy sud- denly believe that this approach is insuffi cient? is there evidence? to the contrary, a study performed by the accredi- tation council for continuing medical education, or accme, in demonstrated that there is no dif- ference in the level of bias between pharmaceutical company-funded cme and nonfunded cme, as long as the cme is accredited according to the accme standards for commercial support. the aafp continues to build on its belief in trans- parency by undertaking additional steps to resolve confl ict. for example, • staff members are working to ensure that the aafp's confl ict of interest forms for leaders and cme are standardized, consistent, and clearly understood • the aafp is enhancing its faculty database reporting and searching functionality to prepare for organization-level reporting of faculty with industry relationships • faculty and staff members involved in aafp cme are expected to complete the educational national faculty education initiative program offered by the alliance for cme and the society for academic cme that clarifi es the differences between promotional and educational activities • the academy is pursuing ways of incorporating patient, practice, and clinical data into the needs assessment and outcome evaluation of aafp-pro- duced cme each of these initiatives demonstrates that the aafp is committed to a model of continuous process improvement in the quality of the cme it provides. in the interest of full disclosure, the aafp does receive funds from pharmaceutical companies for an array of activities, from advertising in its journals to exhibits at the annual scientifi c assembly to grants for cme. when you extract the fi rst categories, as the jama article recommends, the aafp’s level of pharmaceutical industry funding is %, which is well below the “acceptable threshold” of % proposed by the authors of the jama article. in addition, academy staff members go to great lengths to keep the board of directors, commission members, and the congress of delegates apprised of all a n na l s o f fa m i ly m e d i c i n e ✦ w w w. a n n fa m m e d . o r g ✦ vo l . , n o. ✦ n ov e m b e r / d e c e m b e r fa m i ly m e d i c i n e u p d at e s the academy’s funding activities, particularly the rela- tionships the aafp has with pharmaceutical companies. the aafp has confi dence in the structure that it and others have put in place over the years, includ- ing the accme’s standards for commercial support, which are designed to ensure and reinforce indepen- dence in cme activities. the academy also has a high degree of confi dence in the ability of the overwhelm- ing majority of our , members to know right from wrong and to refuse to let their professional judg- ment be infl uenced by trivial contacts that some indi- viduals and government types now seek to criminalize. if industry support is lost or reduced, who will pay for continuing medical education? two words—physi- cians will. individual learners or organizations, such as the aafp, already pay more than % of cme costs, but the burden will have to shift even more. that may be fi ne for physicians in academic medical centers, but it will be an added stress on family physicians in clini- cal practice. in fact, we could be headed for the worst of both worlds if less cme is available to practicing physicians and more funds are shifted to promotional spending, such as direct-to-consumer ads. the aafp supports a heightened sense of profes- sionalism in industry relations, which could be a good outcome of this current debate. and the organization reaffi rms its pledge to promote high-quality, innova- tive education for physicians, residents and medical students that will improve professional practice and patient outcomes and encompass the art, science, evi- dence and socioeconomics of family medicine. “as we see it: voices of the aafp” staff from the american board of family medicine ann fam med ; : - . doi: . /afm. pisacano scholars the pisacano leadership foundation, the philan- thropic arm of the american board of family medicine (abfm), recently selected its pisacano scholars. these medical students follow in the footsteps of scholar alumni who are practicing physicians and current scholars who are enrolled in family medicine residency programs across the country. the pisacano leadership foundation was created in by the abfm in tribute to its founder and fi rst executive director, nicholas j. pisacano, md ( – ). each pisacano scholar has demonstrated the highest level of leadership, academic achievement, communication skills, community service, and character and integrity. bethany enoch, a pisacano scholar, is a th-year medical student at the university of kansas school of medicine. she graduated summa cum laude from midamerica nazarene university with a bach- elor of arts in biology and music performance. as an undergraduate, bethany received a number of honors and awards, including the president’s award, a half- tuition scholarship based on act scores. as a medical student, bethany has continued to receive numerous awards and has achieved signifi cant leadership positions. at kansas, she served as the president of the family medicine interest group and the vice president of the kansas alpha omega alpha chapter. bethany also served as a student representa- tive to the kansas academy of family physicians board of directors, and at the national level was elected as the student chair of the american academy of family physicians’ national conference of the family medi- cine residents and students. after moving to kenya at the age of with her parents who became missionaries, and witnessing the disadvantages that so much of the world endures, beth- any decided in th grade that she wanted to become a doctor. at a very young age, she served children of aids victims who were living in orphanages and deliv- ered food and blankets to victims of tribal violence near her school. bethany is confi dent that her experi- ence as a child is what led her to medical school. as a doctor, bethany plans to provide full-spectrum care from delivering babies to providing end-of-life care. she plans to be active in her community and work for her patients by helping to implement healthy measures in the community. pamela ferry, a pisacano scholar, is a th- year medical student at baylor college of medicine. a national merit scholar, she graduated from stanford university with a bachelor of arts in human biology. she also received a master of health science with a major in international health from johns hopkins university. as a liberty hyde bailey fellow at cornell university, pamela completed doctoral coursework for her phd before deciding to pursue her medical degree. from - , pamela served as a missionary with the mennonite central committee in yapacani, bolivia working as a regional coordinator and health educator. after returning from bolivia, pamela joined baylor, where she is currently the assistant director for the center for educational outreach and assistant professor of allied health sciences. pamela was instru- mental in the development of the texas joint admis- sion medical program (jamp), which is now a well << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /all /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /warning /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness false /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages false /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages false /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages false /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile () /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /enu ([based on '[high quality print]'] use these settings to create adobe pdf documents for quality printing on desktop printers and proofers. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /bleedoffset [ ] /convertcolors /noconversion /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /na /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure true /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles true /marksoffset /marksweight . /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /na /pagemarksfile /romandefault /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /leaveuntagged /usedocumentbleed false >> << /allowimagebreaks true /allowtablebreaks true /expandpage false /honorbaseurl true /honorrollovereffect false /ignorehtmlpagebreaks false /includeheaderfooter false /marginoffset [ ] /metadataauthor () /metadatakeywords () /metadatasubject () /metadatatitle () /metricpagesize [ ] /metricunit /inch /mobilecompatible /namespace [ (adobe) (golive) ( . ) ] /openzoomtohtmlfontsize false /pageorientation /portrait /removebackground false /shrinkcontent true /treatcolorsas /mainmonitorcolors /useembeddedprofiles false /usehtmltitleasmetadata true >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice vitamin k deficiency presenting in an infant with an anterior mediastinal mass: a case report and review of the literature case report vitamin k deficiency presenting in an infant with an anterior mediastinal mass: a case report and review of the literature mauricio a. palau, amanda winters, xiayuan liang, rachelle nuss, susan niermeyer, megan gossling, and clyde wright school of medicine, university of colorado, boulder, co, usa correspondence should be addressed to mauricio a. palau; mauricio.palau@childrenscolorado.org received november ; accepted january ; published february academic editor: roland broadbent copyright © mauricio a. palau et al. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. we report a case of a -month-old infant with spontaneous thymic hemorrhage secondary to severe vitamin k deficiency. he was brought to medical attention due to scrotal bruising and during evaluation was noted to be tachypneic and hypoxemic. chest x- ray revealed an enlarged cardiothymic silhouette, and a follow-up echocardiogram revealed a mass in the anterior mediastinum. routine laboratory work-up revealed severe coagulopathy. further questioning revealed the patient had not received prophylactic vitamin k at birth. the coagulopathy resolved with administration of vitamin k, and a biopsy confirmed the anterior mediastinal mass was due to spontaneous thymic hemorrhage. . introduction vitamin k deficiency bleeding (vkdb), formerly known as hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, is a coagulopathy infants acquire due to insufficient vitamin k stores. vitamin k is necessary for the synthesis of functional forms of coagula- tion factors ii, vii, ix, and x in the liver [ ]. these proteins are secreted into the blood and ultimately assist in the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin and the formation of a hemostatic thrombus. therefore, infants who accumulate inactive vita- min k-dependent coagulation factors have an increased bleeding tendency [ ]. herein, we report the case of a - month-old infant whose vkdb presented as scrotal bruising and respiratory distress due to an anterior mediastinal mass that was ultimately determined to be spontaneous thymic hemorrhage, representing an unusual clinical manifestation of vkdb. . case presentation a term -day-old male, born at home, was referred by the family midwife to the emergency department for ecchymosis of his left hemiscrotum. this exclusively breastfed infant, without significant family history, had been thriving at home when the parents noted acute discoloration of his right testicle at days of age. in the hours prior to admission, the discoloration of his right testicle migrated to the left testicle. his parents reported that he had become progressively fussy with decreased oral intake and appeared more pale. the parents denied increased work of breathing, fevers, apnea, cyanosis, emesis, or rash. the parents stated that he had been previously healthy. prenatal care was provided by a midwife, and prenatal labs were reported as negative. a prenatal ultrasound performed at home by the midwife at mid-gestation was reported as nor- mal. pregnancy was uncomplicated, as was his spontaneous vaginal delivery. the infant did not receive vitamin k pro- phylaxis at birth, though his mother was taking oral vitamin k, a prenatal vitamin, and herbal supplements daily. the baby was taken care of by his parents, who were mennonite. there was no consanguinity. the baby’s father had flu-like symptoms the week of his admission; otherwise there had been no known sick contacts. on arrival to the newborn intensive care unit, the infant appeared lethargic, pale, and jaundiced and had evidence of oozing from peripheral iv attempts. his left hemiscrotum was purpuric; otherwise, there was no evidence of bruising or petechiae. he had increased work of breathing with hindawi publishing corporation case reports in pediatrics volume , article id , pages http://dx.doi.org/ . / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / / case reports in pediatrics figure : anterior-posterior (ap) chest x-ray demonstrating marked enlargement of the cardiothymic silhouette. retractions and had a normal cardiac and abdominal exam. he had no dysmorphic features and other than lethargy had an appropriate neurological exam. an anterior-posterior (ap) chest x-ray (figure ) performed in the emergency department demonstrated marked enlargement of the car- diothymic silhouette, which prompted further evaluation. an echocardiogram revealed a large anterior mediastinal mass with bilateral pleural effusions. a complete metabolic panel was positive for a mild indirect hyperbilirubinemia (tsb . , db . ; normal range tsb< . mg/dl, db – . mg/dl) and negative for metabolic acidosis or transaminitis. a complete blood count and coagulopathy studies were significant for anemia (hgb . , hct . , normal range hgb . – . g/dl, hct . – . %), mildly low platelets ( , , normal range – /𝜇l), a markedly abnormal prothrombin time (greater than , normal range . – . seconds), a pro- foundly abnormal partial thromboplastin time (greater than , normal range – seconds), and a normal fibrinogen ( , normal range – mgs/dl). based on the severely abnormal coagulation studies, the patient was treated acutely for suspected vitamin k deficiency related bleeding. the patient received three iv doses of vitamin k, packed red blood cells ( ml/kg total), fresh frozen plasma ( ml/kg), and platelets ( ml/kg). within hours, the infant’s hema- tologic indices normalized and his clinical bleeding resolved. despite resolution of the coagulopathy, the anterior medi- astinal mass remained. the differential diagnosis included venous or lymphatic malformations, thymic enlargement, or rarer tumors. therefore, further diagnostic imaging of the anterior mediastinal mass was pursued. a chest ultra- sound revealed a solid mass without cystic components, making an infantile lymphangioma unlikely. a ct of chest/ abdomen/pelvis (figure ) demonstrated a homogeneously enhancing anterior mediastinal mass which maintained thymic contour, with mass effect upon the vessels and airway. the homogeneity of the mass was thought to be inconsistent with the typical appearance of a germ cell tumor. while the infant’s coagulopathy and borderline thrombocytopenia initially raised concern for kasabach-merritt phenomenon figure : ct of chest/abdomen/pelvis demonstrated a homoge- neously enhancing anterior mediastinal mass which maintained thymic contour, with mass effect upon the vessels and airway. (kmp), no significant vascularity was demonstrated on the ct imaging, making the diagnosis of kaposiform heman- gioendothelioma with associated kmp less likely. the infant underwent ultrasound-guided biopsy of his mediastinal mass on the hospital day following admission once his coagulopathy had resolved. this biopsy was critical in making the diagnosis of spontaneous thymic hemorrhage. representative histology of the mass is shown in figure . the patient’s tissue was consistent with normal thymic ultrastruc- ture with hassall’s corpuscles noted and slightly increased in number compared to normal tissue. cytokeratin staining was performed and showed no increase in intensity or aberrant distribution, ruling out the differential diagnosis of thymoma. many red blood cells were noted in the tissue sample, and the biopsy specimen was grossly bloody as noted by the pro- ceduralist. flow cytometry revealed immunophenotype of immature t cells consistent with normal cortical thymocytes. in light of these pathologic findings as well as the medical history and clinical response to vitamin k and ffp, the final diagnosis for this patient was thymic hemorrhage secondary to vitamin k deficiency, with possible component of thymic hyperplasia. the patient’s respiratory distress resolved over a few days and he was discharged home on hospital day # with follow-up by his general pediatrician. . discussion newborns, in particular those who are exclusively breastfed, have multiple risk factors for vkdb. first, placental transfer of vitamin k is limited with extremely low cord concentra- tions (< . 𝜇g/l) compared to adult levels [ ]. second, infant liver reserve levels are substantially lower than adult levels [ ]. third, infant production of vitamin k is reduced secondary to immature or altered gut flora [ ]. lastly, vitamin k content in breast milk ( 𝜇g/l) is significantly lower ( 𝜇g/l) than found in formula [ ]. these risk factors predispose infants to develop vkdb, classified by the age of onset. early vkdb occurs in the first hours of life but typically only is seen in infants whose mothers take medications that interfere with vitamin k metabolism (e.g., anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, or anti- tuberculosis drugs). classic vkdb occurs between and days of life and is primarily secondary to inadequate feed- ing. late vkdb arises between day and months of case reports in pediatrics ∗ x x cytokeratin n or m al th ym us pa tie nt a .m . figure : representative histology. comparison of core biopsy specimen from the patient’s mediastinal mass with histology of normal thymus. the x view demonstrates overall preservation of cortical and medullary regions, with the suggestion of increased rbc’s in the patient sample compared to the normal specimen. this is better seen on the x view (arrows) and is consistent with hemorrhage into the thymic tissue. asterisks mark normal hassall’s corpuscles, which can be seen in normal tissue and in cases of thymic hyperplasia. cytokeratin staining in the patient is of normal intensity and distribution, ruling out the differential diagnosis of thymoma. life, with peak incidence between and weeks. this form nearly always occurs in exclusively breast-fed infants and is often associated with undiagnosed hepatobiliary dysfunction impairing absorption of vitamin k [ ]. to prevent all forms of vkdb, administration of intra- muscular vitamin k at birth has been a standard practice in the united states since when the american academy of pediatrics’ recommended the injection for all newborns [ ]. without prophylaxis, early and classical vkdb have an inci- dence as high as % and % of live births, respectively [ , ]. the relative risk for developing late vkdb was estimated at times greater among infants who did not receive prophylaxis [ ]. however, authors speculate these estimates are lower than the actual figures because the number of exclusively breastfed infants who do not receive intramuscular vitamin k are unknown. surveillance programs in different coun- tries, including the british isles, sweden, switzerland, and germany, demonstrate that the im injection of mg of vit- amin k is more effective at preventing late vkdb than when given by the oral route [ ]. the clinical presentation of early and classic vkdb is variable, with bleeding most commonly occurring from the gastrointestinal tract ( %) and umbilicus ( %) [ ]. the main distinguishing feature of the late syndrome is the higher frequency of intracranial hemorrhage (ich). an analysis of published cases of late vkdb revealed % had presented with severe ich, with % mortality and % long-term neurological morbidity among surviving infants [ ]. in , cases of late vkdb were reported at a children’s hospital in tennessee, of which suffered ich [ ]. three of the infants were born at major area hospitals and one was born at home. in each case, parents had declined intramuscular vitamin k prophylaxis. given the potential catastrophic consequences of vkdb and the attenuation of the disease with treatment, rapid diag- nosis is paramount. a confirmed case fulfills the following diagnostic criteria [ ]: ( ) elevation of the prothrombin time (pt)≥ times the laboratory limit of normal; ( ) normal or elevated platelet count, normal fibrinogen, and absent fibrin degradation products (excludes disseminated intravascular coagulation); and ( ) pt returning to normal after vitamin k administration. once diagnosed, infants who present with a non-life-threatening bleeding should receive a single - mg intravenous dose of vitamin k (synonyms include phyllo- quinone and phytonadione) [ ]. for life-threatening bleeding presentations, additional treatment with fresh frozen plasma (at a dose of – ml/kg) may be necessary [ ]. despite the most common manifestations of vkdb outlined above, our patient’s thymic hemorrhage is an exceed- ingly rare clinical presentation. our literature review identi- fied four case reports of neonatal thymic hemorrhage [ – ]. three of the infants did not receive vitamin k prophylaxis at birth. additionally, one infant with both true thymic hyper- plasia and spontaneous thymic bleeding was described [ ]. in all of these infants, respiratory distress in the context of imaging revealing an anterior mediastinal mass were shared features. the combination of the ultrasound and ct find- ings for the neonate in our case helped deter the team from performing a thoracotomy given how it narrowed the dif- ferential diagnosis. case reports in pediatrics in the present case, the overwhelming concern was the anterior mediastinal mass. although the vitamin k deficiency was diagnosed and corrected early in the infant’s hospitaliza- tion, the work-up of the anterior mediastinal mass continued. while the differential diagnosis included spontaneous hem- orrhage into normal thymic tissue, malignancy or vitamin k associated bleeding into benign or malignant tissue could not be ruled out. anterior mediastinal masses in neonates and infants could represent venous or lymphatic malformations and thymic enlargement (whether due to thymic hyperplasia, thymic cysts, thymoma, or thymic hemorrhage). rarer possi- bilities include germ cell tumors (primarily teratomas), neu- roblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, lymphoma, langerhans cell histiocytosis, or wilm’s tumor [ ]. however, coagulopathy as an additional clinical feature narrows the spectrum of possibilities to primarily venous/lymphatic malformations and (less likely) lymphomas [ – ]. venous and lymphatic malformations represent a diverse category of rare lesions that are nevertheless most commonly described in neonates and infants. the most common of these are infantile lymphangiomas (formerly known as cystic hygromas) and kaposiform hemangioendotheliomas (khe). lymphangiomas are benign congenital malformations char- acterized by proliferation of normal lymphatic tissue and are frequently cystic in nature [ ]. they are commonly diag- nosed in children less than years of age and most frequently arise in the head/neck or axillae; only - % are found in the mediastinum. they can be incidentally found or diagnosed due to respiratory compromise or recurrent superinfection of the abnormal cystic tissue. kaposiform hemangioendo- thelioma is an aggressive vascular tumor with incidence of approximately in , children, with % of cases diag- nosed before the age of one year [ ]. it can arise anywhere in the body. while intrathoracic lesions are among the rarest, this location dramatically increases (∼ -fold) the risk of the major complication of khe, which is termed kasabach- merritt phenomenon (kmp) [ ]. kmp is thought to arise from tortuosity of the abnormal vessels in the tumor, causing trapping of platelets and secondary thrombocytopenia. asso- ciated platelet activation then causes secondary elevation in d-dimer and hypofibrinogenemia, mimicking disseminated intravascular coagulation (dic), often with abnormalities in pt and ptt values. amelioration of the kmp is achieved by targeted therapy designed to cause regression of the tumor itself. pathologically, khe is diagnosed by its characteris- tic infiltrative nature, presence of spindled epithelial cells, microthrombi, and lymphatic endothelial markers such as cd and (variably) factor viii-related antigen [ ]. our patient’s platelet count was low normal and the fibrinogen level was in the normal range, ruling out dic and kmp. primary thymic enlargement represents about – % of all pediatric mediastinal masses and can occur secondary to a variety of etiologies [ ]. thymic hyperplasia is among the most common cause of enlarged thymus in younger children and is defined as increase in size and weight of the gland with- out change in its normal histology [ ]. the true incidence is unknown, as many cases are diagnosed incidentally without associated symptoms [ ]. lymphofollicular hyperplasia is another potential cause of an abnormally large thymus and is characterized histologically by increased number and size of germinal centers. it is often associated with autoimmune disease, particularly myasthenia gravis [ , ]. in addition to histologic examination, flow cytometry can help differentiate these two etiologies, as well as evaluating t-lymphoblastic lymphoma [ ]. thymic cysts can arise as remnants of the thymopharyngeal duct or can be acquired via degeneration of hassall’s corpuscles [ ]. finally, thymomas are indolent tumors of the thymic epithelium, most commonly seen in middle age and very rare in children [ ]. only cases have been described in the pediatric literature, with patients diagnosed at a variety of ages and tumor stages [ ]. prolif- eration of epithelial cells, as demonstrated pathologically by cytokeratin staining, is diagnostic [ ]. while lymphoma is a common cause of mediastinal mass in older pediatric patients [ ], it is exceedingly rare in infants less than one year of age, with estimated incidence of . cases per million or less [ , ]. those case reports that exist typically describe aggressive disease with leukemic and other organ-system involvement and suggest that rare cancer predisposition syndromes such as ataxia-telangiectasia may be responsible for the young age at presentation [ , , ]. . conclusion it is crucial as a medical provider to be aware of the varied pre- sentation of vkdb in the neonatal period. although they are a relatively rare constellation of signs and symptoms, a non- consumptive coagulopathy, respiratory distress, and an ante- rior mediastinal mass should prompt the work-up of acute thymic hemorrhage. vitamin k deficiency bleeding should be suspected and treated as an emergency in this situation. as in our reported patient, prompt recognition and diagnosis can lead to rapid clinical resolution and avoidance of thora- cotomy. our case also led to an educational opportunity on the critical importance of vitamin k prophylaxis at birth. competing interests the authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. references [ ] m. j. shearer, “vitamin k metabolism and nutriture,” blood reviews, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. zipursky, “prevention of vitamin k deficiency bleeding in newborns,” british journal of haematology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. schulte, l. c. jordan, a. morad, r. p. naftel, j. c. wellons iii, and r. sidonio, “rise in late onset vitamin k deficiency bleeding in young infants because of omission or refusal of prophylaxis at birth,” pediatric neurology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] r. v. kries, m. shearer, p. t. mccarthy, m. haug, g. harzer, and u. göbel, “vitamin k content of maternal milk: influence of the stage of lactation, lipid composition, and vitamin k supple- ments given to the mother,” pediatric research, vol. , no. , pp. – , . case reports in pediatrics [ ] american academy of pediatrics, “report of committee on nutrition: vitamin k compounds and the water-soluble ana- logues,” pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] american academy of pediatrics, “committee on fetus and newborn. controversies concerning vitamin k and the new- born,” pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. j. hamrick, e. k. gable, e. h. freeman et al., “reasons for refusal of newborn vitamin k prophylaxis: implications for management and education,” hospital pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. j. shearer, “vitamin k deficiency bleeding (vkdb) in early infancy,” blood reviews, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. lulseged, “haemorrhagic disease of the newborn: a review of cases,” annals of tropical paediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] p. m. loughnan and p. n. mcdougall, “epidemiology of late onset haemorrhagic disease: a pooled data analysis,” journal of paediatrics and child health, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] centers for disease control and prevention (cdc), “notes from the field: late vitamin k deficiency bleeding in infants whose parents declined vitamin k prophylaxis—tennessee, ,” morbidity and mortality weekly report, vol. , no. , article , . [ ] m. d. williams, e. a. chalmers, and b. e. gibson, “haemostasis and thrombosis task force, british committee for standards in haematology. the investigation and management of neonatal haemostasis and thrombosis,” british journal of haematology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. lemaitre, f. leclerc, j. p. dubos, v. marconi, and d. lemaire, “thymic hemorrhage: a cause of acute symptomatic mediastinal widening in an infant with late haemorrhagic disease—sono- graphic findings,” pediatric radiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] l. sieger, g. r. higgins, s. van adelsberg, and h. isaacs, “acute thymic hemorrhage: an unusual cause of respiratory distress in infancy,” american journal of diseases of children, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] e. urvoas, d. pariente, a. rousset, d. de victor, and a. leblanc, “ultrasound diagnosis of thymic hemorrhage in an infant with late-onset hemorrhagic disease,” pediatric radiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] n. r. bees, s. w. richards, c. fearne, d. p. drake, and c. dicks- mireaux, “neonatal thymic haemorrhage,” the british journal of radiology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. eifinger, k. ernestus, g. benz-bohm et al., “true thymic hyperplasia associated with severe thymic cyst bleeding in a newborn: case report and review of the literature,” annals of diagnostic pathology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] f. gun, b. erginel, a. nvar, r. kebudi, t. salman, and a. çelik, “mediastinal masses in children: experience with cases,” pediatric hematology and oncology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. b. barak, r. elhasid, o. b. itzhak et al., “infant anaplastic lymphoma: case report and review of the literature,” pediatric hematology and oncology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. e. croteau, m. g. liang, h. p. kozakewich et al., “kaposi- form hemangioendothelioma: atypical features and risks of kasabach-merritt phenomenon in referrals,” journal of pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] s. e. croteau, h. p. w. kozakewich, a. r. perez-atayde et al., “kaposiform lymphangiomatosis: a distinct aggressive lym- phatic anomaly,” journal of pediatrics, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] i. adaletli, a. j. towbin, m. ozbayrak, and r. madazli, “anterior mediastinal lymphangioma: pre- and postnatal sonographic findings,” journal of clinical ultrasound, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] d. iwami, s. shimaoka, i. mochizuki, and t. sakuma, “kaposi- form hemangioendothelioma of the mediastinum in a -month- old boy: a case report,” journal of pediatric surgery, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] h. d. hoerl, m. wojtowycz, h. a. gallagher, and d. f. i. kur- tycz, “cytologic diagnosis of true thymic hyperplasia by com- bined radiologic imaging and aspiration cytology: a case report including flow cytometric analysis,” diagnostic cytopatho- logy, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. l. fonseca, d. e. ozgediz, e. r. christison-lagay, f. c. detterbeck, and m. g. caty, “pediatric thymomas: report of two cases and comprehensive review of the literature,” pediatric surgery international, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] c. weidmann, r. j. black, e. masuyer, and d. m. parkin, “inci- dence of non-hodgkin’s lymphoma in children between and in nine european countries,” european journal of cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] n. howlader, a. m. noone, m. krapcho et al., eds., seer cancer statistics review, – , national cancer institute, bethesda, md, usa, , http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/ /. [ ] u. s. overberg-schmidt, r.-d. wegner, e. baumgarten et al., “low-grade non-hodgkin’s lymphoma after high-grade non- hodgkin’s lymphoma in a child with ataxia teleangiectasia,” cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] m. onciu, f. g. behm, s. c. raimondi et al., “alk-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma with leukemic peripheral blood involvement is a clinicopathologic entity with an unfavorable prognosisreport of three cases and review of the literature,” american journal of clinical pathology, vol. , no. , pp. – , . http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/ _ / tf-lebm .. http://informahealthcare.com/ebm issn: - (print), - (electronic) electromagn biol med, early online: – ! informa healthcare usa, inc. doi: . / . . o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e evidence that dirty electricity is causing the worldwide epidemics of obesity and diabetes samuel milham retired washington state department of health, olympia, wa, usa abstract the epidemics of obesity and diabetes most apparent in recent years had their origins with thomas edison’s development of distributed electricity in new york city in . his original direct current (dc) generators suffered serious commutator brush arcing which is a major source of high-frequency voltage transients (dirty electricity). from the onset of the electrical grid, electrified populations have been exposed to dirty electricity. diesel generator sets are a major source of dirty electricity today and are used almost universally to electrify small islands and places unreachable by the conventional electric grid. this accounts for the fact that diabetes prevalence, fasting plasma glucose and obesity are highest on small islands and other places electrified by generator sets and lowest in places with low levels of electrification like sub-saharan africa and east and southeast asia. keywords body mass index, diabetes, diesel generator sets, dirty electricity, fasting plasma glucose, islands, obesity, oceania, transients history received august revised january accepted january published online june introduction of the children who used inhalers for asthma in a mid- western us school, only needed the inhalers after the dirty electricity levels were reduced, in an attempt to cure a ‘‘sick building’’ syndrome (braggia, ). in researching asthma incidence and its possible connection to electricity, i became interested in disease on islands after learning that the highest asthma rate in the world is in the population of the island of tristan da cunha (zamel et al., ). the island’s electricity is provided by six diesel generator sets, which are a major source of dirty electricity. i hypothesize that the electricity supplied to residences on the island has high levels of dirty electricity which is causing symptomatic asthma. in , the global burden of metabolic risk factors of chronic diseases collaborating group published two papers in the lancet funded by the bill and melinda gates foundation, one on the national, regional and global trends in fasting plasma glucose (fpg) and diabetes prevalence (danaei et al., ) and the other on the global distribution of obesity, measured by body mass index (bmi) (finucane et al., ). remarkably, the worldwide distributions and trends of diabetes and obesity were nearly identical, favoring the small islands of pacific oceania. i hypothesized that the island excess was due to dirty electricity from diesel generator sets used almost universally to electrify small islands and places unreachable by the conventional electric grid. method the imperial college, london, interactive website (http:// www .imperial.ac.uk/publichealth/departments/ebs/projects/ eresh/majidezzati/healthmetrics/metabolicriskfactors/) has extensive worldwide data on cholesterol, high blood pressure, diabetes prevalence, fasting plasma glucose (fpg) and body mass index. the cholesterol and blood pressure data were unremarkable, but a cursory examination of the diabetes and obesity data showed a strong link with islands. small islands were identified among the countries ranked for bmi, fpg and diabetes prevalence. a search identified all the countries in the highest and lowest disease rankings for males age plus in . a web search identified the extent of their electrical grids and the sources of their electricity. wave forms of the electrical output of commercial diesel generator sets were obtained using a fluke b oscilloscope, and dirty electricity levels in the generators’ outputs were measured with a graham/stetzer microsurge meter. results table shows that of countries in the world with the highest bmis in are small islands, in pacific oceania (nauru, cook island, tonga, samoa, palau, marshall islands, kiribati) and in the caribbean (st. kitts and nevis). all of these places are electrified by diesel generator sets. seven of the places with the highest fpg are also small islands in oceania. seven small islands in oceania are also among the places with the highest diabetes prevalence. the cook islands, tonga, marshall islands, palau and kiribati and samoa are among the top places for bmi, fpg and address correspondence to samuel milham md, gravelly beach loop nw, olympia, wa , usa. e-mail: smilham@dc.rr.com e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . http://informahealthcare.com/ebm mailto:smilham@dc.rr.com diabetes prevalence in men in . because about % of the countries listed are small islands, . islands would be expected in the highest countries when or were observed (p . ). the non-islands with high bmi, fpg or diabetes prevalence are saudi arabia, kuwait and jordan and the united states, all three mid-eastern countries have sizable off-grid populations served by generator sets, and generator sets are also used to electrify portions of the grids in these countries. the high obesity levels in the united states is not surprising, because the united states uses the earth as the major conduit for neutral return currents, allowing dirty electricity to enter homes through conductive water and sewer pipes and through the grid. diesel generators are also used extensively for back-up power in peak load periods. many utilities have dozens of standby generators. with the single exception of timor leste (east timor), there are no islands in the places in the world with the lowest bmis, fpgs or diabetes prevalence. their electric grid was damaged by wars and only % of rural residents of timor leste currently have electricity. most of the other low prevalence places are in sub-saharan africa and in east and southeast asia, places with a low levels of electrification. the fact that the united kingdom and the netherlands are among the low prevalence countries may be due to their grids being of the closed delta type with no use of the ground for current return. figure is an oscilloscope tracing of the electrical output of a large commercial diesel generator set. it shows a ‘‘dirty’’ wave form and high dirty electricity levels. two other gasoline-powered generator sets also had ‘‘dirty’’ wave forms and high dirty electricity levels (tracings available on request). table . country trends in metabolic risk factors, males age þ, . ten highest and lowest countries of body mass index (bmi) fasting plasma glucose (fpg) diabetes prevalence (a.s.) country kg/m country mmol/l country percent highest countries of : nauru* . marshall islands* . marshall islands* . cook islands* . kiribati* . kiribati* . tonga* . samoa* . saudi arabia . samoa* . saudi arabia . samoa* . palau* . cook islands* . cook islands* . marshall islands* . palau* . palau* . kiribati* . jordan . jordan . kuwait . tonga* . solomon islands* . usa . kuwait . kuwait . st. kitts and nevis* . solomon islands* . tonga* . lowest countries of : india . central african r. . indonesia . viet nam . philippines . dem. rep. congo . eritrea . united kingdom . philippines . nepal . dem. rep. congo . timor leste* . zambia . timor leste* . malawi . timor leste* . myanmar . burundi . afghanistan . rwanda . myanmar . bangladesh . burundi . netherlands . ethiopia . peru . peru . democratic r. congo . cambodia . cambodia . * ¼ islands; (a.s.)¼age standardized figure . oscilloscope tracing of electrical output of a katolight kv diesel generator set. s. milham electromagn biol med, early online: – e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . discussion dirty electricity is a term coined by the electrical utilities to describe electrical pollution contaminating the hz and hz electricity on the electrical grid. it is generated by arcing, sparking and any device which interrupts current flow. on september , thomas edison began generating electricity at the pearl street plant in manhattan, new york city. from the beginning, his ‘‘jumbo’’ generators were plagued with brush arcing and commutator wear (edisonia): there was considerable sparking at the copper commutator brushes of the ‘‘jumbo,’’ due to the odd number of commutator bars, necessitated by the form of armature winding employed. . . this means that dirty electricity was being sent to edison’s customers through the wires that lit their lamps as early as . since the wertheimer–leeper study (wertheimer and leeper, ), there has been concern that exposure to power frequency ( / hz) electromagnetic fields (emfs), espe- cially magnetic fields, may contribute to adverse health effects including cancer. until recently, the most commonly used exposure metric in emf studies has been the time- weighted average of the power frequency ( and hz) magnetic field. however, the low risk ratios in most studies ( . ) suggested that magnetic fields might be a surrogate for a more important metric. in , dirty electricity was shown to be a potent universal carcinogen in a cohort study of teachers (milham and morgan, ) at a california middle school. cancer incidence analysis of the teacher population showed a positive trend of increasing cancer risk with increasing cumulative exposure to high-frequency voltage transients measured on the classroom’s electrical wiring, with high risk ratios ( . ) for a number of cancers. the attributable risk of cancer associated with this exposure was %. a single year of employment at this school increased a teacher’s cancer risk by %. dimmer switches, compact fluorescent lights, computers, copy machines, all transmitters, including cell towers, and all devices containing switching power supplies generate dirty electricity. dirty electricity generated by electrical equipment in a building is distributed throughout the building on the electric wiring. dirty electricity generated outside the build- ing enters the building on electric wiring and through ground rods and conductive plumbing. in recent years in the united states, nearly % of neutral return currents travel to the substations via the earth, carrying an increasing load of dirty electricity. dirty electricity in building wiring is measured with a simple plug-in graham/stetzer microsurge meter (graham, ), which measures the average magnitude of the rate of change of voltage as a function of time (dv/dt). this preferentially measures the higher frequency transients. dirty electricity has been associated with diabetes (havas, ), asthma (sbraggia, ), attention deficit hyperactiv- ity disorder (adhd) (milham, ) and cancer (milham and morgan, ). although much attention has been paid to the obesity and diabetes epidemics recently, there is good evidence that both epidemics started at the beginning of electrification in the united states. most large cities in the united states and the world had electricity by . in the united states, the great distances and the expense slowed rural electrification. it took until for us farms to reach urban and rural non-farm electrification levels. both populations were covered by the us vital registration system. the us census of population, , and contained information on residential electrification. in , urban (electrified) death rates were much higher than rural (unelectrified) rates for cardiovascular diseases, malignant diseases, diabetes and suicide. rural death rates were significantly correlated with level of residential electric service by state for most causes examined. between and , the death rates from all of the so-called diseases of civilization, including diabetes increased steadily in the united states. i hypothesized that the th-century epidemic of the diseases of civilization, includ- ing cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes and suicide, was caused by some facet of electrification (milham, ). there is no historical vital record source for bmi, but komlos and brabek (komlos and brabek, ), using historical data from the west point military academy and the citidel military academy in charleston sc, showed that there was very little change in cadet weight in the th century, but that -year-old men had a body weight increase of kg ( . pounds) during the th century, with half of the increase occurring in those born before world war ii. the – citidel birth cohort was kg heavier than the – birth cohort. before world war ii, the major source of dirty electricity was generator and motor brush arcing and arcing and sparking from bad electrical connec- tions. microwaves were not invented until shortly before world war ii. there is some recent evidence that emf exposure from cell towers, which generate both microwaves and dirty electricity, affects both neurotransmitters and adrenal hormones (buchner and eger, ; eskander et al., ), which can impact blood sugar, appetite and obesity. testing the hypothesis the three commercial generator sets i have access to have dirty wave forms and high dirty electricity levels in their electrical output. the islands in oceania with high levels of fpg, diabetes and bmi should all have high levels of dirty electricity in their generator outputs. the more generators operating in a power plant, the higher the output dirty electricity levels should be, because the parallel electrical connection of multiple generators should make their dirty electricity additive. the populations of one or more of these islands should be examined before and after a clean-up of residential dirty electricity with capacitive filters and followed for a generation. long-term follow-up is required because childhood leukemia (greaves, ), asthma (li et al., ) and obesity (li et al., ) have all been associated with in utero emf exposure. symptoms associated with emf and dirty electricity exposures should improve rapidly, and type diabetics should use less insulin. the old order amish in the united states and canada, a mennonite sect who live without electricity and therefore with low levels of dirty electricity exposure, gives a strong doi: . / . . dirty electricity obesity and diabetes e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . indication of the sort of mortality and morbidity improvement that is possible. their type diabetes prevalence rates (hsueh, ) and cancer rates (westman, ) are about half those of the non-amish. there is no adhd and little obesity in amish children (ruff, ). i conclude that the epidemics of diabetes and obesity are caused by exposure to dirty electricity. declaration of interest i declare no conflicts of interest. references buchner, k., eger, h. ( ). changes of clinically important neuro- transmitters under the influence of modulated rf fields – a long-term study under real-life conditions. umwelt-medizin-gesellschaft. : – . (original in german). danaei, g., finucane, m. m., lu, y., et al. ( ). national, regional, and global trends in fasting plasma glucose and diabetes prevalence since : systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with countries and . million participants. lancet. : – . ‘‘edisonia’’, a brief history of the early edison electric lighting system (google ebook). p. . available from: http://www.archive.org/ stream/edisoniaabriefh expogoog/edisoniaabriefh expogoog_dj- vu.txt (accessed may ). eskander, e. f., estefan, s. f., abd-rabou, a. a. ( ). how does long term exposure to base stations and mobile phones affect human hormone profiles? clin. biochem. : – . finucane, m. m., stevens, g. a., cowan, m. j., et al. ( ). national, regional, and global trends in body-mass-index since : systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with country-years countries and . million participants. lancet. : – . graham, m. h. ( ). circuit for measurement of electrical pollution on power line. united states patent , , b . greaves, m. ( ). pre-natal origins of childhood leukemia. rev. clin. exp. hematol. : – . havas, m. ( ). dirty electricity elevates blood sugar among electrically sensitive diabetics and may explain brittle diabetes. electromagn. biol. med. : – . hsueh, w. c., mitchell, b. d., aburomia, r. ( ). diabetes in the old order amish: characterization and heritability analysis of the amish family diabetes study. diabetes care. : – . komlos, j., brabec, m. ( ). the evolution of bmi values in us adults: – . available from: http://www.voxeu.org/article/ -years- us-obesity. li, d. k., chen, h., odouli, r. ( ). maternal exposure to magnetic fields during pregnancy in relation to the risk of asthma in offspring. arch. pediatr. adolesc. med. : – . li, d. k., ferber, j., odouli, r. et al. ( ). prospective study of in-utero exposure to magnetic fields and the risk of childhood obesity. sci. rep. doi: . /srep . milham, s., morgan, l. l. ( ). a new electromagnetic exposure metric: high frequency voltage transients associated with increased cancer incidence in teachers in a california school. am. j. ind. med. : – . milham, s. ( ). historical evidence that electrification caused the th century epidemic of ‘‘diseases of civilization’’. med. hypotheses. : – . milham, s. ( ). attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and dirty electricity. j. dev. behav. pediatr. : . ruff, m.e. ( ). available from: http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/ article/ .html. sbraggia, c. ( ). letter regarding health effects of graham-stetzer filter installation. available from: www.electicalpollution.com (accessed may ). wertheimer, n., leeper, e. ( ). electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. am. j. epidemiol. : – . westman, j. a., ferketich, k. a., kauffman, r. m., et al. ( ). low cancer incidence rates in ohio amish. cancer causes control. : – . zamel, n., mcclean, p., sandell, p. r., et al. ( ). asthma on tristan da cunha: looking for the genetic link. the university of toronto genetics of asthma research group. am. j. respir. crit. care med. : – . s. milham electromagn biol med, early online: – e le ct ro m ag n b io l m ed d ow nl oa de d fr om i nf or m ah ea lt hc ar e. co m b y . . . on / / f or p er so na l us e on ly . s jed .. from the editor anniversaries prompt reflection both retrospective and prospective in our personal and scholarly lives. historians and anthropologists of religion suggest that anniversaries, particularly celebrations of a new year, provide opportunities for renewal that might be understood even as cosmic in scale. the year  is a particularly important year for christians as it marks the five-hundredth anniversary of the reformation. from academic symposia to a dizzying array of travel agencies using the anniversary to spark tourism in germany to a best-selling playmobil plastic doll of martin luther that has sparked significant controversy, the reformation is drawing attention. the editors, therefore, are pleased to provide our readers with special features focused on the anniversary in each edition of horizons in . in addition to the editorial essay by david whitford in this issue, i invited a number of colleagues who devote significant portions of their scholarly work to ecumenical endeavors to reflect briefly on what the anniversary means for them and for us as theologians, teachers, and preachers. their responses below provoke renewed thinking on the meaning of the reformation and prompt us to consider the enduring ques- tion, “what does reform and renewal mean for the practice of christians in the world today?” * * * our context today is far from wittenberg of , and yet many of the gifts and challenges from the reformation still leave their deep imprint. thinking of the reformation, what comes to mind are the centrality of the bible for faith, the recognition of vocations in ordinary life, the changing roles of women, the good of universal education, popular hymnody and compelling liturgy, the commitment to social justice and communal well-being, and a bold confidence in the good news of god’s grace. these are christian values with the power to transform lives and communities even within our secular, technological, and global world.  though his theories have been subsequently contested, a classic expression of the religious importance of anniversaries is found in mircea eliade, the sacred and the profane: the nature of religion, trans. williard r. trask (new york: harcourt, brace, ).  see, for example, “how a toy figure of luther sparked charges of anti-semitism,” the christian century, january , , https://www.christiancentury.org/article/how-toy-figure-luther-sparked-charges-anti-semitism. horizons, , pp. v–x. © college theology society,  doi: . /hor. . v terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https:// https:// http://www.christiancentury.org/article/how-toy-figure-luther-sparked-charges-anti-semitism http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /hor. . &domain=pdf https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core five hundred years later, we continue to heal from the harsh polemics and divisions of the reformation. signs of hope include the lutheran world federation’s  request for forgiveness from the mennonites for past perse- cutions and the  “declaration of the evangelical lutheran church in america (elca) to the jewish community” repudiating martin luther’s anti-jewish diatribes. we celebrate the full communion partnerships that the elca now enjoys with the presbyterian church usa, the reformed church in america, the united church of christ, the episcopal church, the moravian church, and the united methodist church, and we value our ongoing bilateral dialogues with other church bodies, including the roman catholic church and the orthodox church, among others. we desire to “live in harmony with one another” (rom :). commemoration of the five-hundredth year of the reformation needs to take into account the global dimensions of the church today, where christians in the southern hemisphere are a growing majority. it also needs to be broadly ecumenical and interfaith, as befitting our diverse society. observance of the reformation finally needs to take seriously our current social context, in which the gap between rich and poor is widening, in which racial, ethnic, and religious tensions are heightened, and in which climate change affects especially the economically vulnerable. it is here that we stand today, ready to engage fully the world that god so loves. —esther menn, academic dean, lutheran school of theology at chicago this is the first commemoration of the reformation in an ecumenical age. the task of mending division has a human face. ecumenical work builds friendships—deep, lasting friendships—across differences. in these relationships we learn to view christian discipleship through the eyes of another and to recognize the integrity of the other’s motivation and vision. ecumenical efforts toward christian unity provide a powerful witness to peace and reconciliation in a violent, war-torn world. as vatican ii’s pastoral constitution on the church in the modern world (gaudium et spes) states, “we are also mindful that the unity of christians is today awaited and desired by many non-believers. for the more this unity is real- ized in truth and charity under the powerful impulse of the holy spirit, the more will it be a harbinger of unity and peace throughout the whole world” (§). —susan k. wood, scl, phd, professor of theology at marquette university and member of the us lutheran–roman catholic dialogue for quite a long time, the study of church history and lived christian faith saw martin luther’s “ninety-five theses” as a dividing line. however, through the events of the second vatican council as well as a variety of vi f r o m t h e e d i t o r terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core collaborative endeavors both global (e.g., “joint declaration on the doctrine of justification”) and more local (e.g., the gathering of baptists and catholics at the annual meeting of the college theology society), new light has shined on luther’s momentous act. the five-hundredth anniversary of this occasion serves as a reminder that, among other insights, catholics are always reform- ing and protestants have been always catholic. as a protestant who mourns the fragmentation of the body of christ, i believe these more recent develop- ments offer an ecumenical hope that should be embraced as part of luther’s extended legacy. —derek c. hatch, associate professor of christian studies at howard payne university it would be blasphemous to deny the tragic results of the reformation for the unity of the church, the proclamation of the gospel, and the many lives destroyed as a consequence of mutual misunderstanding in the sixteenth century and beyond. the dangerous memory of these tragedies, and all our churches’ mutual responsibility for sins of omission and commission, should be lamented and repented. but given the power of the spirit of god to draw good even out of human evil, i wonder how christians , or , years from now might look back on these centuries of divided christianity. rather than the seemingly intractable predicament in which we feel ourselves today, the reunited church of the future might look back at these centuries as we sometimes look at the arian controversies in the early church; that is, christians of the future might lament the real pain of our separation and its consequences, but they also might appreciate some of the surprising goods that the spirit brought forth from the controversies of the sixteenth century and their subsequent history. these surprising, tragic graces might include a greater clarity about the authority of the word of god and its expression in the tradition and institutions of the church; an awareness of the complex goods of christian diversity and christian unity across liturgical, theological, geographical, and cultural differences; greater thanksgiving for unity in christ as pure gift, and as a fragile gift requiring careful tending; or reception of the continuing call to christians as individuals and communities to die to the alluring security of identity over-against another, in order to receive their identity from christ. in this year of com- memoration, i think we must hold on to both our repentance for the tragedy of our separation, and our hope in what that spirit is bringing to birth in our midst even now. —brian flanagan, associate professor of theology and religious studies at marymount university, virginia from the editor vii terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core perhaps the most significant slogan to emerge from the reformation is ecclesia semper reformanda, “the church is always being reformed.” the passive voice leaves open the question of who is doing the reforming of the church, and we pray that it is god who is the active subject. even with that being the case, though, there is an implicit posture for those who live and lead in the church. not only is that posture one of receptivity to change; it is also one of principled self-criticism. if god is always reforming the church to be adequate to its calling in ever-changing circumstances, then we as members of the church need to be asking, at every moment, where the reform may be necessary. in other words, we need to be asking where the church is becoming inadequate to its calling. we hold that in tension, of course, with the confidence that the body of christ is god’s agent for witness and wellness in the world, and that god can work through it effec- tively even when it is flawed. such confidence must be carried with humility, not becoming hubris or arrogance about the church’s perfection. the achievement of the lutheran-roman catholic “joint declaration on the doctrine of justification” in  demonstrates that the roman catholic church can recognize luther’s criticism as a catholic self-criticism, as most lutherans are taught that it was. the adoption of more episcopal forms of leadership and the use of the threefold offices of ministry by many north american lutherans in recent years demonstrate that the challenge of reform continues within the church and can accommodate changes that were once thought anathema because of their papist character. the best grounding for an ecumenical future may lie not so much in specific doctrinal concurrence as in the common adoption of an ecclesial posture that recog- nizes self-criticism as a key virtue. then we can look to other faithful members of the one body of christ, particularly those with whom we dis- agree, as partners and sources for our self-critique, embracing the diversity of the body’s parts with an intentional pluralism that affirms god’s oneness as the source of our unity. indeed, we among god’s people in christ might even find courage to risk such a posture with regard to god’s people in torah, the jewish people, and others to whom god has reached out in yet other ways. for it is not only the church that god is always reforming, but creation itself, until it shall come to its fulfillment in the kingdom. —rev. dr. peter a. pettit, associate professor of religion studies at muhlenberg college remembering martin luther as a reformer is a step toward identifying church history as reform history, however messy it may be (and it is). many, perhaps most catholics would be riled even after fifty years of a very viii f r o m t h e e d i t o r terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core fruitful lutheran-catholic dialogue to hear (let alone accept) the statement, “luther was a good catholic.” the positive attitude behind that statement reflects an ecumenical and scholarly sea change, of course, and we are indebted to a half century and more of material led especially by gerhart ladner, yves congar, heiko oberman, and john o’malley, sj. specifically, the pivot to personal reform as the sine qua non of true reform is often lost when we discuss luther, vatican ii, or any other moment in church history. inner change is far more crucial than outer change. as pope francis put it in an interview a few months after his election in march , “the structural and organizational reforms are secondary—that is, they come afterward. the first reform must be the attitude.” without a change of heart, which is the very essence of personal reform, even the most well-thought-out plans for structural reform will not take root. that is the most important lesson in remembering reform as one of the few constants in church history. —christopher bellitto, professor of history at kean university as an evangelical professor teaching at an evangelical liberal arts college, i think the reformation serves as a touchstone for our sense of place within christian history. the five solas shape our ecclesiology, soteriology, and piety, emphasizing the priesthood of all believers and bible reading by the laity. some of these emphases are found in vatican ii writings, which create openings for conversation. understanding each other could lead to working more closely together, which i think will become increasingly neces- sary as western society becomes more secular, and the church becomes cen- tered in the global south. —lynn cohick, chair of the department of biblical and theological studies and professor of new testament at wheaton college for almost five hundred years, many western christians have looked upon the age of reformation—from the posting of luther’s “ninety-five theses” to the promulgation of the council of trent—as having provided the church with a litmus test for distinguishing the justified saint from the damned heretic. when i look upon it from the vantage of our ecumenical age, i see things differently. i see in the reformation a twofold inheritance. the first is a salutary warning about what happens when we members of christ’s body cease to reverence him when he speaks to us through one another. the second is a sacred call to transcend the tragedy of our division and together embrace what the reformers, evangelicals, and catholics truly  antonio spadaro, “a big heart open to god: an interview with pope francis,” america: the jesuit review, september , , http://www.americamagazine.org/faith////big-heart-open-god-interview-pope-francis. from the editor ix terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://www.americamagazine.org/faith/ / / /big-heart-open-god-interview-pope-francis http://www.americamagazine.org/faith/ / / /big-heart-open-god-interview-pope-francis https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core sought: a church so renewed in its faith that it may be the living proclamation of god’s saving love for the world. “may all be one, as you, father, are in me and i in you, that they also may be in us, that the world may believe that you sent me” (john :). this is what this anniversary of the reformation means to me. —russel murray, ofm, animator general for evangelization and president of the service for dialogue of the order of friars minor * * * with this edition, i thank most sincerely the members of the editorial board who have served horizons faithfully since , and i welcome the members of the new board who are now listed on our masthead. it is an honor and a privilege to be associated with all these colleagues who passion- ately pursue the tradition of “faith seeking understanding” in both careful writing and the art of teaching. as always, i thank our authors for sharing their scholarship with our readers, and i thank all the members of the editorial team for their inspiring creativity, diligent work, and unwavering commitment to excellent scholarship. x f r o m t h e e d i t o r terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /hor. . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /hor. . https://www.cambridge.org/core engaging religious communities in human rights dan wessner* received: / / accepted: / / doi: . /hr. . . abstract there is an urgent need for methods by which people and communities of faith peacebuilding and human rights development. this paper argues for a holistic understanding of peacebuilding that includes security of life, a guarantee of subsistence, and the pursuit of other fundamental human rights. this need is especially acute in countries of rising instability or post-conflict rebuilding. more and more countries face a downward spiral of instability even though many leaders and bodies seek to reverse this trend. sadly, even among those countries that emerge from conflict, one-half revert to conflict within five years. hence the question this paper addresses is, “how shall people and communities of religious conviction be effectively engaged in a peacebuilding and human rights process?” this people factor is too little understood, even though the role of citizens in transitional states has long been acknowledged as essential for just and sustainable change. for peace accords and international conventions, in and of themselves, do not make peace or deliver human rights. neither does the arrival of international peacekeepers nor the speeches of clerics and political leaders. while these developments are helpful stimuli, real human peace and security derives from community-based initiatives that create a “positive deviance” for peaceable, rights-oriented living vis-à-vis governments and other forces. thus this paper will hypothesize a methodology whereby citizens engage religious institutions, governments (local and national), and international change agents to transform conflict into promising peace and rights. it will identify common peacebuilding principles operating across sectors of human development, security, and rights-oriented work. these sectors may include at least the following: health, conservation, education, security, labor, spirituality, and corporate social responsibility. this paper also seeks to hone a typology of human rights and peacebuilding challenges facing countries of instability and post-conflict rebuilding. categories may include at least the following: stages and types of conflict, fragile and failed states, overlooked populations, ethnic and racial discrimination, transnational politics and justice, natural resource and wealth distribution, and social capital. keywords: religious communities; peacemaking process; partnership; religious organizations; countries in crisis. * professor of international and political studies, future generations university of america. email: dan.wessner@future.edu حقوق بشرۀدوفصلنام پاییز و زمستان ، ة، شماردوازدهمسال - صص، پیاپی ةشمار the journal of human rights semi-annual, vol. , no. , fall -winter issue , pp. - https://dx.doi.org/ . /hr. . . mailto:dan.wessner@future.edu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - how shall religious communities engage human rights, just development, and peacebuilding? academically and religiously motivated students pose this question in the two milieux where i teach and learn. their question begs an age-old theodicy: “can god be just and merciful yet condone abuse of human rights? where is god when both society and state heap pain upon vulnerable populations?” drawing on shared religious traditions, there is promise in the ancient wisdom literature of job, whose understanding of humanity and god is severely tested. his theodicy turns on empathy – the ability to identify with the experience and perspective of people situated differently than oneself. job models empathy that may motivate our present-day religious human rights endeavors. if religious communities are to further human rights, they need transcendent humility and empathy, but there is a paradox. rather than seeking relations and understanding among others, many religious communities define themselves and god’s grace in exclusive terms. they differentiate themselves in opposition to others. they shy from outside critique. and they limit “community” to being nothing larger or more promising than what they presume to know of themselves and others. religious communities, therefore, must bridge beyond their bonded definitions of self if they are to plumb the truth claims of their own faith. social capital – “the norms and social relations embedded in the social structures of society that enable people to coordinate action and to achieve desired goals” – causes some societies to function well, which a lack of social capital causes others to face rising instability or failure. bonded communities based on religion, ethnicity, nationalism, or culturally-bound knowledge tend to reinforce boundaries and fears of unknown others. there is some positive gain to this, for social capital enables a well-bonded community to nurture its own constructs of mutual assistance, association, and a common good. if a well-bonded group can, however, engage other bonded communities, it has the potential to bridge social capital toward a new framework for learning and perhaps a greater common good. bridging communities may thereby attain metanoia – fresh normative thinking and behavior. while members within a bonded community have the potential to build association and democratization for the sake of a given group, the . see: field ; narayan, . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner flip side is that this shared knowledge and relations may become exclusivist and communitarian. alternatively, bonded communities that seek to bridge with others may enjoy evolutionary learning that unites diverse peoples. political philosophers, human ecologists, and botanists see this happening in borderlands or “ecotones.” these are regions where two diverse ecological communities meet, be they a wood and a meadow, or two different cultures, two religions, black and white, male and female, oneself and another. new speciation occurs because of interaction at such ecotones. standing in proximity to new cultures, one observes and digests new learning and thought processes. one may take that new knowledge back into his or her bonded community to inform perceptions and broaden knowledge. although western civilization “has a long and dark history with respect to edges” where the unknown is to be “thrust back and ultimately eliminated,” this alternative is to explore the fecundity born of inter-cultural, inter-religious borderlands. such metanoia or new ideas and critique from borderlands/ecotones must reframe the dominant post- / discourse of powerful (even fundamentalist) state and non-state actors that beat the drums of fear and battle against “the other.” in so doing, religious communities have the capacity to organize around a loving, just, and humble vocation. they can transcend the bonds of exclusivity and self-interest. as at this conference sponsored by the center for human rights studies at mofid university, bridging religious communities may seek metanoia in their faithful response to human rights needs today. teaching/learning context: i engage two diverse learning communities, and each shows me the potential for bridging communities of learning. one setting is undergraduate life at eastern mennonite university, a virginia campus where liberal arts studies are rooted in protestant christian anabaptist principles of service, peace and justice, and global consciousness. these young students pursue various disciplines but share a global village curriculum, community learning requirements, and a cross-cultural experience that immerses them in an “alien” culture near or far. in the international, political, and legal classes that i teach, these students . see: coles, ; dula, ; lopez, . . see: www.emu.edu. http://www.emu.edu/ the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - resonate with the above theodicy but puzzle over these questions: “why should we engage; and why empathize across cultural, religious, and international borders when faithful living is complex enough in the context of home? another setting for my teaching and learning is an experimental master’s program, future generations. here fifteen students from as many cultures form a cohort. their campus is the world. their blended learning has three components: interactive online work, applied research in their community, and study tours of “best practices” for delivering human rights in india, the united states, peru, nepal, and tibet/china. each student is a community change agent. in the present cohort, their communities follow shi’a and sunni islam, mahayana and vajrayana buddhism, catholic and protestant christianity, hinduism, judaism, socialism, a local tribal belief of donyi polo, and post-communist agnosticism. they have witnessed both hope and resilience. their work in medicine, social work, conservation, and development causes them to see the plight of others. they have been challenged to develop at least a community-wide empathy. some have defeated colonizers. others have survived genocide. still if they are asked to consider human rights and peace beyond their immediate community, most ask why and by whose instigation? why care about basic human rights? both groups – one anabaptist/mennonite christian and the other inter- religious – value human rights. both groups of students are familiar with the international bill of rights and constructs of basic human rights. relying on henry shue’s definition of a “human right,” it is that for which one has a rational basis for justifying a demand to enjoy the substance of a socially guaranteed right against certain threats. human rights, therefore, are not gifts or favors, nor charity or love, nor a guarantee for some but not all people. there is no reason to celebrate or parade these rights, which are indeed inherent to human livelihood and liveliness. my students concur that universal concepts of subsistence and security rights apply in their respective communities and faiths. a human . see: www.future.org. . see: donnelly, : . . see: shue, . . see: shue, : . . see: shue, : . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner right to basic security is a shield of defensiveness against being subject to murder, torture, mayhem, rape, or assault. shue posits, “a right to full physical security belongs … among the most basic rights – not because the enjoyment of it would be more satisfying to someone who was also enjoying a full range of other rights, but because its absence would leave available extremely effective means for others, including the government, to interfere with or prevent the actual exercise of any other rights that were supposedly protected.” (shue, : ) the full complement of this basic security right is one of minimum subsistence, including a guaranteed enjoyment of “unpolluted air, unpolluted water, adequate food, adequate clothing, adequate shelter, and minimal preventive public health care.” (shue, : ) people who lack these essentials, according to shue, are worse off than those who must fight for their basic security rights, for those without “basic subsistence” are “utterly hopeless.” (shue, : ) he argues that the enjoyment of both security and subsistence rights is essential to the enjoyment of all other human rights. still my students ask why engage “the other” in protecting basic human rights, why empathize across borders when managing one’s own life is hard enough, and by whose instigation ought we change our behavior to ensure others’ basic human rights to subsistence and security? in sum, why engage, empathize, or change? in these two learning milieux, students and i have examined a wide spectrum of factors that might motivate engagement, empathy, or change. these factors include instrumental and intrinsic valuation, religious faith, experience, and physical/relational immediacy. instrumentalist factors could include one’s job, sense of power, the profitability of working international development and relief services, and an understanding of reciprocal obligations to help another. intrinsic factors might be one’s valuation of friendships and relations, a sense of self-esteem, the power of principled ideas, or an underlying philosophy of life. religious and spiritual reasons could include love for others, justice and peace, truth-seeking, an understanding of duty and obedience to god, guilt or shame for enjoying god’s abundance while seeing other’s deprivation, beliefs about sacrifice and penitence, stewardship, or doctrinal instruction. experiential factors might be the need to prove oneself, the satisfaction or happiness of problem-solving and fixing things, or the wanderlust of quest. the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - lastly, my students and i considered the motivating factor of physical or relational immediacy. foremost, they were certain that they would aid a family member for there is intrinsic worth in a loving family bond. second, aiding a fellow citizen or member of one’s religion carries a broader sense of intimacy, but it is tinged with the self-interested instrumentalism of the golden rule – helping others as you’d expect them to help you in times of need. here, one considers the degree to which the “community” enjoys “bonded” identity and reciprocal support. third, my students felt that if they were to experience directly another’s suffering, they would extend immediate help … maybe. this conditionality is complex. on the one hand, experiential intimacy includes a global appeal to help strangers a world away when they suffer from a tsunami wave that comes ashore at christmas time. on the other hand, there are calculations as to whether experiential immediacy is enough in times of accident, emergency, and dire straits, for even in the new testament parable of the good samaritan, priestly and social leaders can rationalize not helping a dying stranger just beside oneself. and in times of war, distinguishing friend from foe trumps other calculations. in sum, these motivating factors of instrumentalism, intrinsic value, religious community, experience, and immediacy are subservient to one ingredient: whether or not we relate empathetically to another who is suffering or in need of protected human rights. if empathy is the capacity to identify with the experience and perspective of another, there are very few automatic instances of empathy beyond family members and loved ones. my students at eastern mennonite university and future generations honestly reflect the norms of modern state and society. countless media, political, ideological, fundamentalist, and religious variables reinforce this norm. this bodes poorly for victims of human rights abuse since it is relatively easy to know or conjure up reasons to avoid the worries of particularly vulnerable populations. religion, however, obstinately reframes state-societal norms. it calls people of a bonded community to think, pray and worship in a special time and place with regularity and accountability so as to live apart from mainstream politics, markets, and media. religion calls us to think of the numinous, not simply the material; of tolerance and love, not simply fear and hate; of humility, not simply pride and hubris; of confession and repentance, not simply defensive righteousness; and of conflict enabling engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner creative and possibly transformative action, not simply as an object to be controlled or resolved. religion provides historic evidence and narrative of legions of transcendent community members who model the faith and courage to live by alternative values and ethics. in my own tradition – mennonite/anabaptist christianity – those scriptural people who bridged the exclusivist bonded interests of religious community to forge relations among strangers and enemies; these are the transcendent pillars of faith – job, esau, joseph, moses, ruth, and jesus. job’s theodicy and basic human rights: as in the story of job, our religious stance on justice, mercy, pain, vulnerability, and conflict may well depend a great deal on where we sit. in the story’s first scene on earth, we meet job, who is blameless, upright, god-fearing, religious, and rich in terms of family and abundant herds. given where he stands in terms of comfort, he can scarcely imagine life without privilege. so in the opening scene, job sits as do most of us attending this human rights and religion conference. who among us can imagine living without food and security as in an indonesian slum; or fleeing marauding troops as in darfur; or testifying against state torture as in the guatemalan dirty war; or finding hope as in the occupation and firestorm of baghdad; or planning a crop as a family subsisting amidst floods or draught; or enjoying life as one absorbed in the comforts of consumer culture? whether or not we engage, empathize or change our behavior to address suffering, is religion apt to hold us to honest reflection and action? or must we first know suffering or live among those who do suffer? this question presents the second scene of job’s story, where in heaven satan and god debate the cause of job’s religious obedience. is he upright simply because his life is abundant? would he bless god were he made to suffer? is he faithful to enjoy the fruits of god’s reward? god and satan place this stark reality before him. like suffering populations facing natural disaster or man-induced war, like those who must engage human rights as a matter of course, satan and god deprive job of his wealth, flocks, herds, servants and children, and then afflict him with a horrible skin disease; eventually, job’s wife encourages him to just curse god and die. and like suffering populations who absorb the structural adjustment plans and democratic prognostics of leading states and market institutions, job endures platitudes and condemnation from friends the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - eliphaz, bildad and zophar, and then the inquisition of elihu. so, too, do we choose to address human rights in order to correct the errors of others, or do we choose human rights to minister with costly empathy? the story’s underlying theodicy – “how can god be just and loving yet allow good people to suffer” – offers two responses, one superficial and another that is puzzling. first, the easy response: job suffers because satan and god have a bet as to whether job will curse god were he to suffer. the second response is harder but revealing. although job in the end “repents in dust and ashes,” this is not because he has figured things out. he admits freely that he understands very little. he is unmoved by the accepted wisdom that the righteous shall rest well in the confidence of their heavenly reward. he is unconvinced by the logic that suffering is the result of offence, only to be rectified by repentance. his pain and disillusionment are so profound that he wishes never to have been born. but even as he wishes to die, he wants his story to be told truthfully before god and others. and at odds with himself, he pleads to be left alone while at the same time talking non-stop to god. he demands an advocate in heaven. (ironically, god has been job’s advocate all along, ever since the bet with satan.) exhausted and knowing well what it means to suffer, job finally repents: “i know that thou canst do all things and that no purpose is beyond thee. but i have spoken of great things which i have not understood, things too wonderful for me to know. i knew of thee then only by report, but now i see thee with my own eyes. therefore i despise myself; i repent in dust and ashes.” in the end, job does not serve god for reward, but it is precisely for his human obedience and repentance that god rewards job. his family and fortune are restored. job, moreover, has gained empathy and wisdom. he is a model of empathy humility in the face of human suffering. religions, of course, struggle with this theodicy. their honest theological inquiry leads to our diverse ways of explaining how humans – by grace, or mercy, or enlightenment – may sojourn from suffering to hope. whether we are citizens of hegemonic empires or failed states, muslim or christian, male or female, community leaders or young students, we all find ourselves somewhere along this sojourn. and we are . the delegates of the oxford university press and the syndics of the cambridge university press, the new english bible with the apocrypha (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), job : - , p. . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner all facing significant change – both that which is natural and that exacerbated by the whipsaw effects of globalization, industrialization, climate change, and many theaters of war. if these forces rage unabated, we are sure to witness increased suffering and consequent loss of basic rights to human security and subsistence. our modern-day plight beckons searching theodicy and potential metanoia, helping us understand our relations to god and humanity, and providing a moral and pragmatic compass to guide faith-based human rights, development, and peacebuilding. social capital and conflict transformation: bonded communities may become bridging communities, learning from the borderlands/ecotones, and engaging in strategic peacebuilding. this outcome, though, requires faith and reframing for there are both social capital benefits and hazards in community life. as argued above, a broader, more relational perspective on peacebuilding emphasizes “bridging” communities of diverse identities. here, peacebuilding has the task of stimulating cross-cutting ties of interdependence, trust, and co- existence among otherwise separate, even conflicted social groups that likely speak a different language, are deeply embedded in their respective religious and cultural constructs, and are thus hampered in understanding others. lisa schirch suggests this possibility in her analysis of strategic peacebuilding, which aims to build bridging and linking social capital in communities that are mapping complex processes at today’s borderlands of inter-cultural peacebuilding. first, she defines peacebuilding as that which “seeks to prevent, reduce, transform and help people recover from violence in all its forms, even structural violence that has not yet led to massive civil unrest. at the same time, it empowers people to foster relationships at all levels that sustain them and their environment.” (schirch, : ) she posits four interlinked objectives: building capacity, transforming relationships, reducing direct violence, and waging conflict nonviolently. if there is to be conflict transformation, strategic peacebuilding must explicitly fit the dynamics of contended states and societies, as well as the vision of what peace means to contending groups. . see: woolcock, . . see: savage, tampubolon & warde, . . see: schirch, . the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - it is likely to occur on many tracks and across sectors with the integrated goal to create or enhance healthy and sustainable interactions, relationships, and structures that tolerate and respond to root causes of conflict over the long term. this augments john paul lederach’s process of “middle-out” strategic peacebuilding, which depends on evolving inter- cultural relationships across horizontal and vertical sectors of society and state. for dealing with today’s inter-cultural challenges and needs, the most pertinent horizontal relationships are those that cut across the fault lines of identity (religion, ethnicity, sect, clan, nation, regional affiliation) along which societies fracture and fight. vertical relations are those that exist along an axis of asymmetrical power between people, communities, and leaders. while states codify and police vertical and horizontal relationships, conflict transformation ultimately depends on bridging communities that value wisdom and praxis wrought of inter-cultural collaboration. it is imperative that religious communities understand their capacity to bridge horizontal networks of co-learners. in this way, they can maintain a broad alliance of spiritual and religious collaborators who can, as needed, reframe the dominant discourse of power, fear, and division. since modern nation-states seek to affect the bonding and bridging social capital, religious groups must study how to link vertically with state and international governance to promote a broader public good for diverse communities. together, bonding and bridging social capital across multiple levels may create social cohesion. there is, however, no guarantee that greater horizontal (bridging, inclusive, trustworthy) and vertical (linking, multi-track, partnering) social capital is good. one hazard is the establishment of deeply embedded group interests – elitism, classism, and doctrines of ethno- racial hatred. such exclusivist agenda can gain widespread support. they can diminish potential learning between communities. among the most virulent forms of exclusivist bonded social capital is religio-political fundamentalism. the next two sections of this article, first, describe this phenomenon in u.s. evangelical political circles and the current bush administration. . see: fast and neufeldt, . . see: lederach, : - . . see: halpern, . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner recognizing that colleagues at mofid university have greater understanding of how this phenomenon unfolds in muslim contexts, i here only sketch how one may discern parallel developments of exclusively hazardous bonded religio-political behavior in both christianity and islam. i do, however, offer in the following section constructive examples of how bridging religious communities are succeeding in collaborative human rights development. religio-political fundamentalist juggernaut in the latter part of the nineteenth century (and apart from any perceived threat from islam), protestant evangelical fundamentalism was born in america. it reacted against modernist methods of historical criticism, insisted upon scriptural inerrancy, preached a dispensationalist picture of divine rapture, and opposed secularist responses to social welfare and gendered norms. only in recent years has this variant on fundamentalism increasingly focused on islam. it achieved surprising influence in global affairs through its ardent support of the “clash of civilizations” and “end of history” arguments. these concepts align neatly with an apocalyptic expectation of doing battle against the antichrist at megiddo, a hill in israel. engaging this “evil other” in the battle of armageddon is said to usher in the thousand-year reign of christ. in the s to s, this form of fundamentalism grew impatient with the u.s. government. from abortion clinics to the white house, a fundamentalist “chosen elect” politicked to take back the supreme court, the congress, the public schools, textbook publishing houses, foreign affairs, and the executive branch. this crusade is evident in the words and deeds of the current bush administration. there are at least nine fundamentalist factors that are dangerously uncompromising, especially as they fan the flames of intolerance and threaten basic human rights. . fundamentalism is an ideology both shaped by and constitutive of a tortured interpretation of history. an idealized past is based on a narrow spectrum of readings and facts. it may be factual, but is more likely an elitist manipulation of events. it can choose the traumatic history of victimhood, humiliation, scorn, and persecution. . see: cf. thesis of reza aslan, “the future of islam: toward the islamic reformation,” bridgewater college, bridgewater, va ( march ), in which aslan argues that bush administration religio-political fundamentalism is a reaction against islamic jihad. the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - . fundamentalism includes the well-orchestrated study, preaching, and cultural re-enactment of this constitutive history. this re-enactment blends worship, patriotism, and nationalism. it melds the private sphere of family life with the public affairs of state and religious defense. . fundamentalism is a high-stakes discourse of dualism. this storyline prescribes a life-or-death drama whereby one upholds the righteous or is duped by the evil other. one is expected to choose the solace of disciplined faith over eternal damnation. these stark options are presented with “radical simplicity.” (said, : ) a manichaean construct of private and public life stokes intolerance of others’ thought or experience. . fundamentalism combines secular and sacred evidence in a transcendent narrative. this storyline shuns the complexity of counter- evidence, self-scrutiny, or another’s compelling argument. . while fundamentalists shy away from others’ interpretations of events, they may be very attentive to unfolding global and political events. their level of interest, though, is to shore up a received doctrine and worldview. . moreover, fundamentalism is messianic. often reiterated is the belief in one’s own deliverance from pain and evil, just as surely as one’s anticipation of a righteous person’s receipt of just deserts versus another’s just damnation. this apocalyptic vision proclaims a triumphal end to the timeless struggle of good and evil. this victorious path is by definition exclusivist. it cannot permit the contamination of unworthy, unclean others unless they wholly convert to the fundamentalist’s path. . with a strategy of such magnitude, violence is justified in the cause of a higher, ordained, fundamentalist end. this violence may be defensive or pre-emptive as one fights for a better social, political, and spiritual world. . one’s predilection to view the world (and treat the world) as described above reinforces all of these constitutive elements. it rises to hubris. it becomes an embedded ideology that keeps both adherents and apostates “in their place.” . fundamentalism seeks to change state and ecclesial laws to conform to a particular interpretation of doctrine. these nine common factors of fundamentalism show how faith can become a juggernaut of political unilateralism. they can feed the engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner unilateralism of a hegemonic power or further the terrorist threats of a cell group or subaltern state. there are, for example, in hinduism the virulently anti-muslim shiv sena and the nationalistic bharatiya janata party, and in judaism the ultra-orthodox haredi and zionist gush emunim, and in buddhism and roman catholicism the strict limitations on women’s leadership roles. in any of these settings, fundamentalist factors can fortify a unilateralist agenda. how then can religious human rights discourse moderate fundamentalism? if the post-cold war era allowed some space for postmodern discourse, today’s post- / world may be more prepared to revert to a past that muted alternative perspectives. al qaeda and the bush administration, alike, call upon fundamentalism to assert local and global might. both focus on asymmetrical, lethal forces. both pit realpolitik against populist empowerment. their posturing is more coercive and militarist than persuasively political, diplomatic, or spiritual. nonetheless, civil society may still feel emboldened by the gains of non- state, non-powerful voices of the s. just one example of this is that leading up to the march u.s. invasion of iraq, an estimated million citizens pounded city pavements worldwide in a concerted anti- hegemonic, anti-war protest. u.s. evangelical fundamentalism while i recognize that more than a single ideology or religious belief informs the thought process of the bush administration, it is clear that protestant evangelicalism is a guiding variable. the above-mentioned elements of fundamentalism have unabashedly become common word and deed for the current bush administration. first, the president’s tortured interpretation of personal and world history is constitutive of an evangelical fundamentalism that is re-enacted regularly for public consumption. second, this civil religion reinforces a high stakes dualism that conflates complex state-societal identities, international relations, and the historical record. third, this struggle is transformed into a transcendent picture of benign american hegemony and messianism. fourth, the end result of this pax americana is that the righteous and unrighteous shall gain their just deserts. president bush’s biographer, david frum, contends that a “culture of modern evangelicalism” is the “predominant creed” in white house policymaking, its executive branch bible studies, and the president’s oft- the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - mentioned time spent in prayer. david gergen observes that bush is confident that he is a key actor in this creed. the president believes that he is a powerful instrument of god whose providence has already saved him from alcoholism, and whose guiding hand is behind every political act, decision, and step toward war or peace—“behind all of life, and all of history.” (goodstein, : ) this is why, according to newt gingrich, the president during his campaign argued that jesus christ was “a political philosopher” of immense influence. this confident belief is re- enacted often on diverse public political stages. so from the presidential campaign trail, to the national prayer breakfast, to state of the union addresses, the story of bush’s divinely inspired victory over alcoholism conflates with others’ struggles, be they afghani women chafing under taliban rule, baghdad civilians post-saddam hussein’s regime, or mourning family members after the september th terrorism, or those american injured in its present wars. bush unreservedly applies this personal sense of religio-political certainty to domestic and foreign affairs. at home, he demonstrates unwavering stewardship of the religious right’s position on tax reform, abortion, delivery of social welfare, and private-public education issues. i focus here on his fundamentalist approach to international affairs. the president’s firm evangelical convictions allow him to target an “axis of evil” or any other citizen, leader, or country standing in god’s way. so kim jong il is flippantly called a “pygmy” whom the president “loathes,” arafat is routinely denied an audience, role, and compound in the israeli- american-palestinian debacle, sharon is the most frequent visitor to the white house of all foreign heads of state, and those not with the president are for terrorism and the forces of evil. this harmonizing of executive branch and public propagation of an increasingly fundamentalist civil religion is an example of bonded community that creates divisive ends. it unites one portion of the american public, while excluding other sectors of the u.s. populace committed both to spirituality and good governance. all the while, this propaganda incites general outrage and distrust among muslims and non-americans worldwide. the president underscored this division and . see: the progressive, : . . see: brookhiser, : . . see: goodstein, : ; the progressive, : . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner self-righteous identity in his state of the union address. he looked directly into the camera and intoned, “‘there’s power, wonder-working power’ in the goodness and idealism and faith of the american people.” the actual words of this standard refrain sung during the altar call of many evangelical revivals are that this wonder-working power is “in the blood of the lamb.” by analogy, the inference to be taken from the president’s tortured read of hymnology is that christ’s passion is realized in the righteousness of certain american people. in the hours leading up to the u.s. invasion of iraq, bush further equated his own spiritual quest with christ’s suffering and the narrow path of righteous decision making. “and i, on bended knee to the good lord, asked him to help me to do my job in a way that’s wise.” (bumiller, : ) michael klare among others has noted there are blended strains of apocalyptic messianism, control of world oil resources, and militant fervor in this self-righteous proclamation of u.s. intentions. chalmers johnson contends that the president’s fundamentalist ideology “is there to cover the militarism.” (the progressive, : ) either way, bush’s particular read of personal and world history allows the president to believe he is the key figure in a pivotal struggle between the forces of good and evil. this confrontationalism permits a level of risk-taking that is wholly inappropriate to fragile international and inter-religious relations. elaine pagels argues that the president’s fundamentalist language is “enormously divisive and dangerous. if there is an axis of evil, that obviously places him in the axis of good, and also means that anyone who disagrees with the policies he is advocating is placed on the other side. this dualism denigrates individuals trying to decipher world events, and simultaneously creates a high stakes geopolitical gamble. bush intentionally conflates his personal story with complex state-societal identities, international relations, and the historical record. take, for example, the conflation of september th terrorism and his later pronouncement of imminent threats from an “axis of evil,” and especially the government of saddam hussein. on october , mr. bush articulated in cincinnati his reasons for war against iraq. president bush posited unilateralist “might makes right” calculations of power and merit. although his rhetoric spoke of securing freedom, his stress of the word . see: goodstein : . the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - “terrorism” – thirty times in thirty minutes – was meant to produce fear and loathing. he intoned: america must not ignore the threat gathering against us. facing clear evidence of peril, we cannot wait for the final proof—the smoking gun—that could come in the form of a mushroom cloud… … [w]e have every reason to assume the worst, and we have an urgent duty to prevent the worst from occurring. … failure to act would embolden other tyrants, allow terrorists access to new weapons and new resources, and make blackmail a permanent feature of world events. the united nations would betray the purpose of its founding, and prove irrelevant to the problems of our time. and through its inaction, the united states would resign itself to a future of fear. … we refuse to live in fear. this nation, in world war and in cold war, has never permitted the brutal and lawless to set history’s course. now, as before, we will secure our nation, protect our freedom, and help others to find freedom of their own. (bush, ) paul krugman is chagrined that the american populace so blithely accepted bush’s case for war on the basis of a manufactured threat—the “mushroom cloud.” clearly, the u.n. inspection regime and the post-war sweep of iraq have not supported this bold and undocumented assertion, whether for nuclear or other forms of weapons of mass destruction. krugman asks, therefore, whether or not “the leaders of a democratic nation [are] supposed to tell their citizens the truth.” (krugman, ) he begs the question as to why the mainline media and citizenry expect so much less. in this case, the fundamentalist bent of the president’s mission allows him to cow the public into quiet observance while he reconfigures current events and history to suit the dualism he is prosecuting. nonetheless, if bush were demanded by a democracy to defend more cogently the post-world war ii record of the u.s. “securing” itself and “finding freedom” for others through its overt and covert wars, there would either be a humbling truth-telling or an egregious redressing of history in the stories of u.s. operations in afghanistan, belgian congo, cambodia, chile, china, cuba, el salvador, guatemala, grenada, indonesia, iraq, korea, laos, libya, nicaragua, panama, peru, sudan, vietnam, and yugoslavia. the u.s. “contribution engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner to freedom” in these states is remarkable for its extensive reliance on disproportionate military intervention. in the present middle east and central-south asian context, the u.s. is making forward deployment of its troops, planes, munitions, bases, and military advisors in afghanistan, bahrain, diego garcia, djibouti, georgia, israel, jordan, kazakhstan, kyrgyzstan, kuwait, oman, pakistan, qatar, saudi arabia, tajikistan, turkey, united arab emirates, uzbekistan, and yemen. krugman’s comment on bush’s cincinnati speech only scratches the surface of the depth to which cathartic truth-telling might draw the american citizenship and leadership. u.s. (humanitarian) intervention for the sake of freedom actually means that “freedom” and grass roots movements that differ from the desires of u.s. government policy makers will be suppressed, often violently. mr. bush’s cincinnati speech was also problematic in that he demonstrated contempt for international legal constraint on the use or threat of force. his administration’s policy to preempt, prevent, and eliminate unsavory governments runs roughshod over the charter of the united nations, whose underlying principles are pacific, deliberative, collective, defensive, and self-determinative so as to preserve state, group, and individual fundamental freedoms and human rights. the emerging bush doctrine and its apocalyptic pictures of impending threats did not arise from a pre-september th vacuum. rather, it is based squarely on three pre-existing and largely fundamentalist policy papers that argue for pre-emptive, preventive strikes against any entity that threatens the security of u.s. values, beliefs about benign global leadership, profligate consumption, and unparalleled power. these three plans buttress limitless pursuit of oil, promise the growth of the american consumer culture, and project a dominant u.s. military-economic presence. as the first piece of the bush doctrine, the white house released the may “national energy policy report,” also known as the cheney plan. vice president cheney’s plan takes for granted the growing dependence of the u.s. and world economies on the iraqi and caspian sea states’ oil reserves over the next two decades. combined, both proven and anticipated iraqi reserves likely overshadow saudi, russian, and u.s. petroleum resources. the cheney plan posits that u.s. economic (hence national) interests must seek to control, if not . see: hartung, : - . the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - possess, these middle eastern and south-central asian regions. this expanded sphere of u.s. influence stretches from iraq and iran, through azerbaijan and kazakhstan, and through afghanistan and pakistan, to the arabian sea. the deployment of u.s. forces aer september th covers this terrain, and begins to project unprecedented u.s. influence over european, middle eastern, and asian economies dependent on these oil reserves. simultaneously, the u.s. is positioned to secure its own growing demand for foreign oil. the second piece of the bush doctrine comes from a policy paper called “defense planning guidance,” draed in by paul d. wolfowitz for the first bush administration. more than a decade ago in the early post-cold war years, wolfowitz sought to guarantee that no counter-hegemonic superpower could threaten u.s. domination of geopolitics and global economics. bill keller reports that this pax americana imagined: [w]ith the demise of the soviet union the united states doctrine should be to assure that no new superpower arose to rival america’s benign domination of the globe. the u.s. would defend its unique status both by being militarily powerful beyond challenge and by being such a constructive force that no one would want to challenge us. we would participate in coalitions, but they would be ‘ad hoc.’ the u.s. would be ‘postured to act independently when collective action cannot be orchestrated.’ the guidance envisioned pre-emptive attacks against states bent on acquiring nuclear, biological or chemical weapons. it was accompanied by illustrative scenarios of hypothetical wars for which the military should be prepared. one of them was another war against iraq. (keller, : ) taken together, the cheney and wolfowitz plans are two of three pillars meant to secure the bush doctrine. it presumes the right to exercise military force globally, regardless of long-honored self-defense principles of international law, state necessity to survive immediate threats and secure fundamental interests, or humanitarian response to gross human rights violations. this doctrine means either to manipulate or disregard u.n. principles in chapters vi and vii of the charter, . see: falk, . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner favoring collective pursuit of security, fundamental freedoms and human rights, and tolerance. it mutes provisions for regional peacebuilding, dialogue, and u.n. security council study, monitoring, decision making, and specified action in response to concrete threats to international peace and security. a third pillar of the bush doctrine is the september “rebuilding america’s defenses” document, published by the project for the new american century. wolfowitz was one of the guiding participants in this project, which urged then-president bill clinton and the current president bush to challenge unsavory regimes, shape circumstances preemptively, and remove from office “axis of evil” regimes in iraq, iran, and north korea. this document was circulated in the executive branch two years ahead of mr. bush’s state of the union address that publicly identified this alleged axis. this document calls for preemptive strikes at an additional defense expenditure of $ billion per year in a number of other continents and countries, including china, southeast asia, europe, syria, and saudi arabia. in sum, the bush doctrine carries with it a level of fundamentalist hubris that belies forward- and backward-looking consciousness. this evangelical pax americana that divides the world into righteous and unrighteous actors projects a confidence of economic-military security. it rests, however, upon very uncertain knowledge of “the other.” this gaze into the unknown, though, is transformed into a more definite future because of profound faith in an american god and american policymakers, who can by this god’s grace control others’ responses. richard brookhiser concludes, “bush’s faith means that he does not tolerate, or even recognize, ambiguity: there is an all-knowing god who decrees certain behaviors, and leaders must obey.” (brookhiser, : ) thus the president is certain when he proclaims, “i will seize the opportunity to achieve big goals,” because “god is not neutral” with regard to the war on terrorism. these bush doctrine considerations raise a series of questions. does this fundamentalist quest for absolute security actually diminish our own, not to mention others’ justice, freedom, liberty, and equality? does state- centered security increasingly take on an unabashed machiavellian or manichaean calculation of power and good-evil caricatures? does it . see: the progressive, : . the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - presume the right to coerce and subordinate regional and international economic and political interests of others to the immediate desires of u.s. policymakers? does this current policy exceed the hegemonic reach of cold war realpolitik? moderating/mentoring it may well be easier to join a bonded, even a fundamentalist group, political party, or civil religion than to bridge across diverse interpretations, perspectives, and religious convictions in today’s conflicted world. richard falk offers four positive and emancipatory reasons. each helps to nurture a culture that hears the other, is self-ironic, commits to “politically engaged spirituality,” and eagerly comes to terms with others who are “different.” these commitments are to a culture of nonviolence and respect for all of life, a culture of solidarity and just economic order, a culture of tolerance and faithfulness, and a culture of equal human rights and partnership. altogether, this is clearly a less traveled post-september th path. it takes seriously various fundamentalisms’ fears of modernity and a complex world. it studies their rhetorical claims and worldview, but then builds one’s own faith ethic and approach to normative laws. it calls upon inter-religious inquiry and international legal constructs. it creates a forum of dialogue and venues for service. this closing section presents the possible scope of such a stage for politically engaged spirituality. when surveying the mindset underlying the direction of the bush administration, there is clearly an awesome sense of self-importance and righteousness, but also a fundamentalism rooted in evangelical hope and empathy. politically engaged spirituality asks that we call upon multiple disciplines, embrace service and learning among others situated differently than we, and insist that these various perspectives be held accountable for a more just world. this high expectation is not possible if fundamentalism is dismissed out of hand. it cannot be labeled as the enemy. falk’s proposed multilateral path means to contain the extremism of any state’s, or any leader’s, or any religion’s claim to possess the sole truth. but to even begin to moderate such exclusivity, falk’s “citizen pilgrim” who embraces a politically engaged spirituality must learn how respective fundamentalisms come to believe that their sense of truth is absolute. . see: falk, : , . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner a religio-political approach to today’s troubling domestic and international milieu is also humbling. it is daunting to consider the number of committed religious, academic, political, medical, non- governmental, and legal professionals who may be called upon to help rebuild conflict-ridden lands. so besides the essential discipline of quiet reflection, one must also consider “best case arguments” from diverse disciplines and perspectives. arguably, this is a given in the practice of international law. for instance, rather than focus on the specific criminal accountability of a single leader or terrorist, one must examine simultaneously a sense of justice in systemic terms. one weighs diverse paths for the containment of threats to peace and security through truth commissions, war tribunals, criminal courts, and cross-civilizational, inter-religious dialogue and debate. second, one must see that threats to home security and the earth’s fragile ecology require two forms of investigation. one is to examine the possible security breaches of leaders, be they terrorists, totalitarians, or elected representatives. another investigates populist and statist accountability for social, cultural, and economic rights alongside civil political rights. third, one must discern and empower both indigenous and exogenous sources and experts in the process of rebuilding conflict-torn lands. the mosque and church are logical places to begin to gather and call upon the people to craft and own their personal and national needs and belongings. i posit that “security” in our present domestic and global milieu is best served by examining our collective past – insuring that our read of history is not a tortured, victimized one as is commonly found and re-enacted in islamism and evangelical fundamentalism. as a lawyer, professor and minister committed to faithful community, i propose a new “confessing church” whose vocation would be to secure good governance at a time when the bush administration’s hegemony is insufficiently tested. a forum would hone a political, theological, legal and ethical perspective on whether today’s wars strengthen or threaten the basic human security and subsistence of people. i draw upon my own pacifist theology, as well as the insights of reformed theology, an understanding of just war in the abrahamic faith traditions, and diverse interpretations of realism. a modern-day confessing church should demand the accountability of any administration that is unleashing policies, troops, and armaments. i borrow from the template of theologians reinhold niebuhr and john c. bennett, who in the early s craed a confessing and searching forum the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - in a journal they co-founded, christianity & crisis. they engaged inter- religious debate and international relations/legal concerns at a time when successive american administrations were launching american’s longest war. the debacle in southeast asia cost nearly sixty thousand american battlefield deaths and over eighty thousand suicides among recently returned u.s. veterans. less often addressed was the troubling fact that more than three million vietnamese soldiers and citizens died. critical to a functioning democratic republic, according to niebuhr and bennett, was the vocation of theologians, lawyers and other professionals to press the right questions at the right time. one may call upon pacifist thinking, mainline just war doctrine, and abrahamic faith traditions that share a historical and religious trek to hold presidents, fundamentalists, pastors, policymakers, and academics accountable in a lively and public forum. this community of speech and service would seek to minister to people generally as we recalibrate collectively our values and sense of security. this challenge privileges no particular perspective. islamism and evangelicalism, realism and pacifism, modernist and post-modern voices need to be heard. the religio-political imperative is to understand another’s perspective at least as well as one’s own. falk posits that we need to be rooted in the “unfolding of the modern world, sensitive to the material needs of people and the concreteness of their suffering … politically engaged spirituality implies both the will and the capability to intervene nonviolently yet with behavioral consequences in situations of conflict and oppression.” (falk, : ) such a forum may further a collective response to presumptive, preventive “just war” against terrorism as much as jihad against western globalizing hegemony. this quest is not naïve, for those with powerful force – be they states or terrorist cells – are perhaps the least willing to join such a forum. still a moderating and cooperative moral spirit among the diverse group of citizens and professionals mentioned above grounds a broader populace in theology, law, and political theory as a basis for responding to escalating militarist u.s. policies in the middle east, central asia, northeast asia, and southeast asia. one critical lesson from niebuhr here is how to address or contain the “unrestrained egoism” of leaders and ideologues. he concedes that there is . see: viet nam veterans foundation , pollock et al. : - , cbs news , cbs news , spencer, . . see: niebuhr, : xi-xii, - , . engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner a political tendency toward international anarchy since people generally fail to observe how leaders abuse patriotism and altruism, and thus neglect their own duty to demand “moral restraint” on the exercise of power. hence we see a religio-political hedge on raw realism. there is a “grounded hope” that a thinking and gracious community of speech and praxis may, indeed, mitigate the destructive consequences of unchecked realpolitik. a first step is identifying and unmasking strenuously the self-righteous piety of any form of fundamentalism. the limitations and dangers of fundamentalist beliefs and illusions inform our critique of power at all levels. a forum for discourse, legal covenants, social democratizing forces, and a collective awareness of community-wide, class-oriented, and statist- nationalist interests may check the arrogance of any leader’s economic, political, militarist, and priestly coercion. second, this forum admits that all leaders rely on coercion. their assertions of discursive power and police- military force are part of social cohesion. we must scrutinize how these forces may both guarantee peace and security, as well as make for injustice, “a poison which blinds the eyes of moral insight and lames the will of moral purpose.” (niebuhr, : ) ird, a democratic republic, such as that enshrined in the u.s. constitution, embodies “the principle of resistance to government within the principle of government itself.” (niebuhr, : ) it bears constant repeating that citizens must question authority. for it is only so long as a democratic government remains mindful that its conception relies upon the criticism of leaders that it is able to form better instruments of government. thus we may accept no particular state-societal balancing of power, belief system, or concept of justice as normative. in both domestic and international arenas, people must reach tentative and tolerable adjustments between their competing interests and those of others, in order to achieve order and some common notions of justice that transcend partial interests. here an inter-religious grounding informs our sense of history that stretches across millennia. if our initial task is to know history, know current events, and then elect officials for sake of present and future order and justice, then our second task is to prevent any leader—domestic or international—from becoming tyrannical. for american citizens, since the u.s. government projects such hegemonic weight globally, it is incumbent upon us to think as internationally as we do domestically when acting . see: niebuhr, : . the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - within the u.s. political arena. niebuhr posits that the “human capacity for justice makes democracy possible; but [human] inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.” (niebuhr, : xi ) two critical religio-political resources for this human effort to enhance our state-societal constructs are our collective sense of love and justice. islam and christianity – the religions underlying islamist and evangelical fundamentalisms – hold these resources as their highest virtues. shari’a law and western rule of law place different emphases on the role of these ethical resources in meting out political justice and security. but they do wrestle with the same balance of virtues and needs. whereas shari’a law would hold that the religious ethic flowing from these virtues can deeply inform the ethic of the state, western legal constructs separate rational and ethical goals here. in the west, rule of law fuses the interest of others and oneself in an ideally equalized playing field, whereas the religious ideals place the needs of one’s neighbor above one’s own. thus a muslim state may consciously seek to blend reason and religion, while a western modernist state stresses that religious moralists and their fundamentalism should not qualify national policies. these concerns are highly relevant to the discourse within islamism and the bush administration’s fundamentalism. what is the source of justice? what is the source of service and compassion for the other? is it to be secured in religious conviction and fervor, or in a just equilibrium of power? i argue that justice as dialogically discerned through a broad forum becomes a moderating and more secure check on the messianic, apocalyptic, and self-righteous illusions of leaders, moralists, and preachers who are certain they know what is best for others. a forum— rather than combat, terrorist cells or the unquestioned heights of executive branch—is a better place to arbitrate differences, employ moral suasion, and address domestic and international human rights. thus we find ourselves at a crossroads. are we to diminish the sense of religious and legal insights, while quietly accepting at face value the words and deeds of world leaders? or are we to demand fresh thinking in washington, in our places of worship, and in the media? regardless of polls, approval ratings, and a fleckless u.s. congress that demands little concrete evidence of threats to security, a religio-political forum of “pilgrim citizens” may press harder for factual, historical, legal, ethical, and theological points. we may embrace the wonderful complexity of this post-september th world. we may unabashedly shake up complacent engaging religious communities in human rights/ dan wessner illusions about today’s spreading wars. we may cultivate responsible thinking by staging this debate in public squares, online, in classes, in places of worship, through mainline and alternative media, and in interpersonal relations. we may ground our respective communities in a true and honest reading of history, for if we allow fundamentalists to co- opt and reshape our histories, then we “betray our own time-based faith, our belief in judgment and our need for repentance.” (harding, : ) closer examination of our own historical understanding and those tortured historical constructs of fundamentalists reveals everyone’s tendency toward fear and pride, lack of empathy for those who suffer, and general inclination to allow systemic injustice to continue. at present, diverse religious bodies within islam and christianity are speaking to these truths of accountability. in the years of the american- vietnam war, vincent harding, a civil rights activist and minister among methodists and mennonites, reminded his community that “the christian churches cannot afford such arrogance. the body of christ cannot be so calloused to the suffering of innocent people. the universal family must not kill for national honor or die for a negative creed.” (harding, : ) four decades later, looking back on the annals of that earlier war, we see that people of “all political persuasions and all generations and all walks of life must work to expand the sense of ‘we’ and to diminish the sense of ‘they’. if we cannot humanize those whose destinies have impinged upon our own, if we cannot increase empathy and vanquish self-righteousness, if we cannot expand our moral imaginations to discern and accept the pattern that connects us all in a common human condition, then we shall all continue to have lost … to perpetuate a struggle in which there are no winners.” (jamieson, : ) are people and communities of faith more or less able to respond with empathy, strategy, and resources? if yes, it seems that a religiously-based political and inter-cultural metanoia of fresh thinking and praxis may yet answer the cries for genuine humanity and peace. if no, then arguably our many religious bodies are essentially insular, likely arrogant, and perhaps dangerous. where we go with these questions is important, for the modern era stands at a crossroads. with the end of the bipolar cold war and worsening responses to the terrorism of / , this crossroads is uncertain. there are paths that lead to a divisive world full of pain, fragmentation and disorder. and there are religiously conscientized and humble paths toward peaceable order and enjoyment of human rights. the journal of human rights \ issue \ pp. - bibliography a) book & articles: . brookhiser, richard ( ). “e mind of george w. bush,” the atlantic monthly, vol. , no. , pp. - . . bumiller, elizabeth ( ) “e loneliest moment that presidents face,” international herald tribune, march, pp. , . . cbs news ( ). “vietnam .” minutes (new york: cbs news, october ). . cbs news ( ). “e wall within.” minutes (new york: cbs news, june ). . donnelly, omas, ed ( ). rebuilding america’s defenses: strategy, forces and resources for a new century, washington: the project for the new american century. . falk, richard ( ). “a dangerous game”, the nation, october , pp. . . falk, richard ( ). “e rush to war,” in: richard falk and david krieger, eds., the iraq crisis and international law, santa barbara: nuclear age peace foundation, pp. - . . goodstein, laurie ( ). “a president puts his faith in providence,” the new york times, february , pp.a . . harding, vincent ( ). “vietnam: history, judgment and redemption: repentance is called for”, christianity & crisis, october , pp. - . . hartung, william d., frida berrigan, and michelle ciarrocca ( ). “operation endless deployment”, the nation, october , pp. . . jamieson, neil l ( ). understanding vietnam, berkeley: university of california press. . johnson, chalmers ( ). blowback: the costs and consequences of american empire, new york: owl. . keller, bill ( ). “e sunshine warrior”, new york times magazine, september , pp. - . . klare, michael t ( ). resource wars: the new landscape of global conflict, new york: owl. . niebuhr, reinhold ( ). the children of light and the children of darkness: a vindication of democracy and a critique of its traditional defense, new york: charles scribner’s sons. . niebuhr, reinhold ( ). the nature and destiny of man: a christian interpretation, new york: charles scribner’s sons. . niebuhr, reinhold ( ). moral man and immoral society: a study of ethics and politics, new york: charles scribner’s sons. . pollock, daniel a, philip rhodes, coleen a. boyle et al. ( ). “estimating the number of suicides among vietnam veterans”, american journal of psychiatry vol. , no. , pp. - . . editorial board, ( ). “bush’s messiah complex”, the progressive, vol. , no. , pp. - . . spencer, david ( ). facing the wall, new york: macmillan. b) websites: . bush, george w ( ). “president bush on iraq,” online newshour. http://www.pbs.org/newshour /bb/middle_east/july-dec /bushspeech_ - .html (october ). . krugman, paul ( ). “matters of emphasis,” the new york times (www.nytimes.com/ / / /opinion/ krug.html?ei= &en=d f c d (april ). . said, edward ( ). “o ughts about america”, al-ahram weekly online. http://www.ahram. org.eg/ weekly/ / /op .htm. 	engaging religious communities 	in human rights 	abstract 	teaching/learning context: 	why care about basic human rights? 	job’s theodicy and basic human rights: 	social capital and conflict transformation: 	religio-political fundamentalist juggernaut 	u.s. evangelical fundamentalism 	moderating/mentoring 	bibliography 	a) book & articles: 	b) websites: neotropical ( ).text. .indd neotropical primates ( ), august role of predation risk, proximity to feeding sites, and ter- ritorial defence. ethology ( ): – . heymann, e. w. . sleeping habits of tamarins, sagui- nus mystax and saguinus fuscicollis (mammalia, primates, callitrichidae), in northeastern peru. j. zool., lond. : – . huang, c., wei, f., li, w., li, y. and sun, r. . sleep- ing cave selection, activity pattern and time budget of white-headed langurs. int. j. primatol. ( ): – . jones, c., jones, c. a., jones jr., j. k. and wilson, d. e. . pan troglodytes. mammalian species : – . liu, z. h. and zhao, q. k. . sleeping sites of rhi- nopithecus bieti at mt. fuhe, yunnan. primates ( ): – . lorenzi, h. and souza, h. m. . palmeiras no brasil: nativas e exóticas. nova odessa, são paulo. miranda, g. h. b. and faria, d. s. . ecological aspects of black-pincelled marmoset (callithrix penicillata) in the cerradão and dense cerrado of the brazilian central plateau. brazil. j. biol. ( ): – . spironello, w. r. . the brown capuchin monkey (cebus apella): ecology and home range requirements in central amazonia. in: lessons from amazonia: the ecol- ogy and conservation of a fragmented forest, r. o. bier- regaard jr., c. gascon, t. e. lovejoy and r. mesquita (eds.), pp. – . yale university press, new haven, connecticut. stevenson, m. f. and rylands, a. b. . the genus cal- lithrix. in: ecology and behavior of neotropical primates, vol. , r. a. mittermeier, a. b. rylands, a. f. coimbra- filho and g. a. b. da fonseca (eds.), pp. – . world wildlife fund – us, washington, dc. zhang, s. y. . sleeping habits of brown capuchin mon- keys (cebus apella) in french guiana. am. j. primatol. : – . on the occurrence of the owl monkey (aotus azarai ) in cerro leon, chaco, paraguay juan manuel campos, ivon benítez dennis a. meritt jr. the owl monkey, aotus azarai, has been described from various parts of northern argentina and paraguay (see stall- ings, , ; fernandez-duque et al., ). one of the earliest reports is found in kerr ( ), in a descrip- tion of a pioneering exploration of the chaco from to along the río pilcomayo. the most recent review de- tailing this primate’s distribution in northern argentina and paraguay is provided by neris et al. ( ). in the northern paraguayan chaco, they describe low canopy scrub forest and high canopy forest as suitable aotus habitat. they de- scribe its activities in paraguay as mainly crepuscular, al- though sometimes active on cloudy or overcast days. during fieldwork on the chacoan peccary, catagonus wagneri, in the chaco central in the austral spring of , an opportunity presented itself to investigate two locations in the extreme north and west of the country. one of these was the defensores del chaco national park and its unusual land formation, cerro leon. these are the only places one may find rocks of any type in the entire chaco region. the observation reported here provides an additional location for aotus azarai in paraguay, verifying that it is capable of survival and reproduction in a xero- phytic habitat. defensores del chaco and cerro leon are located from ° ’ to ° ’s, and ° ’ to ° ’w in the depart- ment of alto paraguay and a small portion of boquerón. av- erage annual rainfall is from to mm, and tempera- ture ranges from – °c. the park has a xerophytic fauna and flora, locally referred to as seca—literally dried up, arid and barren. at the time of our visit the region had been suf- fering from an extended period of extreme drought. while visiting cerro leon during late october of , we observed an adult pair of aotus azarai with a very young infant in a candelabra tree cactus (cereus sp.), near a foot trail leading to the summit of the highest ridge. the day was cloudless, with bright sun and an ambient tempera- ture of about °c. the adults were alert but not obvi- ously alarmed; the infant was clinging to an adult’s neck and upper back. it was movement by the adults that clued us to their presence. there were no vocalizations, and we saw no aggressive behavior, such as the typical rapid and jerky movement of the head and upper body. we observed the pair and their offspring closely for more than twenty minutes, after which time—and perhaps in response to our attempts to take photographs—the trio moved rapidly out of the tree cactus, into the adjacent shrubby vegetation and out of sight. given the steepness of the hillside and the density of the thorny vegetation, it was not possible to follow them. the environment in which this family group of aotus was found is a stunted, thorny, dry forest region with no large trees or emergent vegetation, except for occasional palo borracho trees (chorisia insignis) in the infrequent and somewhat more humid lowland areas. the “soil” at cerro leon is largely broken rocks of various sizes, making human movement and climbing noisy and extremely dif- ficult. the large amount of rock present at this site is un- characteristic of the chaco—a flat, plain-like habitat that is without stone or rocks of any type. all stone and rock used there for road building or construction is either im- ported or brought from the eastern and southern part of the country. chaqueños tell the folk story of the chaco being a great inland sea whose bottom was devoid of rock or stone. plant growth is precarious; rainfall is limited and subject to rapid runoff, and there is little natural shade. overall the vegetation rarely exceeds m, with the excep- tion of the occasional tree cactus (cereus sp.) or palo bor- racho tree. given these circumstances, we were unable to determine whether or not these owl monkeys were demonstrating neotropical primates ( ), august cathemeral activity. however, given the nature of the habi- tat, and the obviously restricted food resources, one could logically conclude that such activity was likely in order to ensure survival. a careful survey of the habitat revealed a number of small tree holes, cactus tangles, and other suitable retreats of sufficient size to accommodate an adult aotus or a small family group. those which we investigated did not contain any owl monkeys or other mammals, nor did they show any signs of recent use, such as food remnants, waste, hair, or rub marks. this is the furthest north that we have observed aotus in the chaco, although handen et al. ( ) documented the presence of owl monkeys in a location identified as area ii in the northernmost department, the chaco. mul- tiple observations of a pair with and without offspring be- tween and have been made in a farming area outside of the mennonite colony of neuland in the chaco central (d. meritt jr., unpublished observation: it is un- clear if they were of the same pair, their offspring or un- related animals). the habitat is considerably different in that location, as are the potential food resources. neuland is part of the mennonite colony located near filadelphia in the chaco central. it is typical chaco, without rocks and with dense thorny shrubs and an abundance of trees. the region is several hundred kilometers south and west of defensores del chaco and cerro leon, and consider- ably wetter. redford and eisenberg ( ) report the presence of infant aotus in the paraguayan chaco in august, sep- tember, and october. this corresponds with the present observation and those mentioned above in neuland (d. meritt jr., unpublished). a number of authors have previ- ously reported the presence of aotus in large tree cacti, including rathbun and gache ( ), stallings ( , ), stallings and mittermeier ( ) and stallings et al. ( ). at the time of year when this observation was made, there were no fruits or seeds present in or on the vegetation and no flowers to be seen. there were a number of small lizards and infrequent small birds, but no large flying insects. a search for aotus droppings to try to determine possible food sources was unsuccessful. acknowledgments: the authors are grateful for permission to carry out scientific studies in paraguay through the cour- tesy and authority of the ministro, secretaria del medio ambiente. partial support for this work was provided by the chacoan peccary species survival plan (ssp) of the ameri- can zoo & aquarium association (aza) through funds provided by m. scott for “proyecto tagua”. juan manuel campos, dvm and ivon benítez, proyecto tagua toledo, chaco, paraguay, and dennis a. meritt jr., department of biological science, depaul university, north clifton avenue, chicago, il , usa. e-mail: <dmeritt@depaul.edu>. references fernandez-duque, e., rotundo, m. and sloan, c. . density and population structure of owl monkeys in the argentinean chaco. am. j. primatol. : – . handen, c. e., unger, j. and meritt, d. . current status of the tagua (catagonus wagneri ) in paraguay. zool. garten n. f. ( ): – . kerr, j. g. . a naturalist in the gran chaco. syndics of cambridge university press, boston. neris, n., colman, f., ovelar, e., sukigara, n. and ishii, n. . kato’s data book on larger mammals of paraguay — distribution, population trends, and utilization. secretaria de ambiente, madame lynch . c/primer presidente, asunción, paraguay. rathbun, g. b. and gache, m. . ecological survey of the night monkey, aotus trivirgatus, in formosa province, argentina. primates : – . redford, k. h. and eisenberg, j. f. . mammals of the neotropics: the southern cone. volume . chile, argentina, uruguay, paraguay. the university of chicago press, chi- cago. stallings, j. r. . status and conservation of paraguayan primates. master’s thesis, university of florida, gainesville. stallings, j. r. . distribution and status of primates in paraguay. primate conserv. ( ): – . stallings, j. r. and mittermeier, r. a. . the black-tailed marmoset, callithrix argentata melanura, recorded from paraguay. am. j. primatol. : – . stallings, j. r., west, l., hahn, w. and gamarra, i. . primates and their relation to habitat in the paraguayan chaco. in: advances in neotropical mammalogy, k. h. redford and j. f. eisenberg (eds.), pp. – . sandhill crane press, gainesville, florida. the use of camera-traps in a survey of the buff-headed capuchin monkey, cebus xanthosternos maria cecília martins kierulff, gabriel rodrigues dos santos gustavo canale, carlos eduardo guidorizzi camila cassano introduction the buff-headed or yellow-breasted capuchin monkey (cebus xanthosternos) is endemic to a restricted region of the atlantic forest of eastern brazil, one of the richest and most threat- ened ecosystems in the world (sos mata atlântica et al., ; myers et al., ). due mostly to habitat destruction and hunting, this once-abundant species is rapidly declining in number, and is one of the most endangered primates in the world (mittermeier and konstant, ; konstant et al., ; mittermeier et al., in prep.). in we began a survey of the remaining yellow-breasted capuchin monkey populations throughout its original distribution, in order to establish the conservation status of the species and to iden- tify the threats to its survival. published by blackwell publishing ltd., garsington road, oxford ox dq, uk, and main street, malden, ma , usa. © the author journal compilation © iom international migration vol. ( ) issn - *department of sociology and anthropology and cross-disciplinary programs, james madison university, harrisonburg, virginia, usa. the latinization of the central shenandoah valley laura zarrugh* abstract virginia is among a number of southern states in the united states, such as north carolina, arkansas and georgia, which have experienced a sudden growth in latino immigration during the past decade. not only is the volume of growth unprecedented, but many of the destinations are new and located in rural areas. places that have not hosted immigrant populations for generations are quickly becoming multicultural. the small city of harrisonburg (population , according to the estimate), which is located in the rural central shenandoah valley of virginia, is perhaps the premier example of this new pattern of change. while local advertising once promoted harrisonburg for its “ . % american-born and . % white” population, the area today holds the distinction of hosting the most diverse public school enrollment in the state (in - ), with students from countries who speak languages. among them are spanish speakers from at least different countries. drawing on social network theory, the paper examines how social networks among latino immigrants become activated in new settlement areas. it presents a case history of the historic process of “latinization” involving the settlement of a number of diverse latino populations (from mexico, guatemala, el salvador, honduras, cuba and uruguay) in harrisonburg and the surrounding central shenandoah valley. the study demonstrates how a number of key institutions, including local agricultural industries (apples and poultry), a refugee resettlement office and churches recruited “pioneers” from these immigrant groups to the area and how “pioneers” subsequently engaged in further social network recruitment, thus creating multiple transnational “daughter communities” in the harrisonburg area. the policy implications of this historical process are explored. zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom virginia, like many other southeastern states in the united states, is being transformed by a new and rapid influx of latino immigrants (torres , kochar, suro and tafoya ). although virginia has not incurred as dramatic an increase in its latino population as some states farther south, most notably north carolina ( per cent) and georgia ( per cent) (kochar, suro and tafoya ), the commonwealth experienced a substantial per cent growth in latinos between and (weldon cooper center n.d.). bypassing traditional immigrant “gateway” states and cities, many of the newcomers are headed for rural destinations in areas of the country that have little or no experience with latinos or immigrants. as scholars (e.g. mohl , ) and journalists begin to document this movement, a new term, “latinization,” has emerged as a shorthand way of referring to the demographic and other changes that occur when latinos (i.e. people of latin american origin) settle in a particular locale. although nowhere explicitly defined, the term “latinization” implies not only demographic change, but other attendant changes, such as increasing demands for services, housing, education, new cultural interests (rochin ) and the institutionalization of spanish use in many areas of life (castro ). while the term might also be construed to imply a movement of many different latin american nationalities to an area (or toward pan-ethnic community formation), it is most often used to refer to mexicans who make up the vast majority of the new immigrants. in this paper, i use the term “latinization” to refer to the dramatic growth in the diverse latino populations of harrisonburg, virginia (estimated population , in ) over the past decade. between and the latino/ hispanic population in harrisonburg, which includes people from at least different latin american countries, grew almost per cent. while mexicans constitute the largest group, there are also substantial numbers of immigrants from el salvador, honduras, cuba and uruguay. their presence has brought about social and cultural changes similar to those documented for latinos, and particularly mexicans, in other rural areas of the south and midwest (e.g. arreola , gozdziak and martin , millard and chapa and murphy, blanchard and hill ). however, in the growing literature on latinos in the rural south, very little attention has been given to the issue of diversity among latinos and the implications of this diversity for their integration in new areas of settlement. it may be that the small city of harrisonburg represents a unique case, since diversity in immigrant populations is usually associated with much larger metropolitan areas. focusing on the historic dimension of the process of “latinization,” this paper examines the diversity among the latino immigrants in the harrisonburg area and how it came about. the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom in addressing the question of why latinos from a number of different countries have come to harrisonburg, a non-traditional immigrant destination, i give special emphasis to pre-existing social links and active recruitment by local institutions. typically, attempts to explain why people leave home and move to particular destinations highlight either macro-level structural factors, such as economic globalization (e.g. world systems theory) or more micro-level “push” and “pull” factors (lee ). although harrisonburg should be regarded as a case study in globalization as it is manifested at the local level, it is beyond the scope of this paper to consider the ultimate global causes of migration in detail. instead, i focus on more proximal push and particular pull factors. according to this approach, immigrants are “pushed” out of their home communities and “pulled” toward particular destinations. thus, much of the recent research on the south as a new immigrant destination in the united states examines the “structures of opportunity” created by economic restructuring in the region and the “pull” for immigrant labor of specific low-wage, non-unionized industries, such as poultry processing (see griffith, and kandel and parrado, ). while these factors provide a context for decision-making, they do not explain how people actually decide where to go among various possible alternatives. a partial explanation is provided by research on the crucial role played by social networks in determining why people choose specific destinations. in other words, people go to places where they have prior social ties to relatives, friends or acquaintances. the problem with this explanation, as critics such as light, et al ( ) suggest, is that social network theory explains only how migration to specific destinations is perpetuated once the flow has been initiated. it does not account for how the process begins. as light notes, “neither massey nor other network theorists have shown how networks find, designate and target new migrant-supporting localities when existing destinations have been saturated” ( : ). virtually no attention has been given to the issue of how “pioneer” immigrants choose specific destinations. historian hasia diner ( ) argues that historians of immigration have also failed to address this question. one exception is repack’s ( ) analysis of the informal recruitment of central american women by diplomatic families to work as domestics in the washington, dc area. these small, individual actions initiated a movement that has resulted in one of the largest salvadoran communities in the united states. because the history of latino immigration to harrisonburg is still recent and the population relatively small, i have been able to trace a number of distinct social networks originating in specific towns and cities in mexico and other latin american countries back to the first individuals or “pioneers” to arrive in the area. in this paper, i document the pre-existing links that existed between the “pioneers” and harrisonburg as a result of active recruitment by local industries or other institutions, such as churches, and that have encouraged and facilitated zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom immigrant settlement. most accounts of immigrant-receiving communities suggest that such communities are, at best, passive or, at worst, hostile recipients of immigrant populations and do not usually cope well with the resulting, often rapid population change. in considering the history of latino immigration to harrisonburg, i suggest that host communities may play a more active role in the immigration process than is usually considered. while it is well documented that the meat-processing industry recruits latino and other immigrant labor to rural communities (broadway and stull, ; fink ; gouveia and stull, ; grey ; stull ; and stull, broadway and griffith, ), the meat- processing industry is by no means the only source of recruitment. i examine the role of other industries (i.e. apples) and local institutions, such as churches and refugee resettlement programs, as well as immigrants’ own social networks in the “latinization” of harrisonburg and the surrounding area. in the first part of the paper, i consider harrisonburg’s unique history as an immigrant receiving community and in subsequent sections, i discuss the role of agricultural industries (i.e. apples and poultry), refugee resettlement programs, churches and other social networks in the recruitment of immigrants from a number of different latin american countries. the paper concludes with policy implications of the research. methodology the paper is based upon long-term ethnographic research during my years of residence in harrisonburg, as well as my active and continuing involvement in several local, grassroots organizations that focus on immigrant and refugee issues. in addition to long-term participant observation in local community life, i have conducted numerous formal and informal interviews within all relevant sectors of the community, including all of the nationality groups discussed here, service providers, employers, and pastors. interviews were conducted in spanish or english depending on the preference of the interviewees and all translations are my own. the study also draws on the growing multidisciplinary research literature (i.e. anthropology, sociology, history) on recent latino immigration to the southeast united states, as well as related research on latin american refugee resettlement and local labor history. additional information, particularly on the marval plant strike, was gleaned from local newspaper accounts from the s. with the exception of public figures, i have used pseudonyms to protect the privacy of the individuals interviewed and referenced in the paper. the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom harrisonburg and rockingham county as new immigrant destinations harrisonburg, which is located in the heart of the shenandoah valley of virginia, is in the midst of a dramatic population and social change. for much of its history, the surrounding blue ridge and allegheny mountains have sheltered and isolated the valley from the rest of the world. during the colonial period, when the eastern part of virginia was being settled by english anglicans, many of the earliest settlers who came to the central shenandoah valley and especially rockingham county, of which harrisonburg is the county seat, were german mennonites and dunkards (now called church of the brethren) who fled religious persecution in europe for pennsylvania, but finding land there increasingly scarce, took the great valley road south to the shenandoah valley where their settlement was encouraged by the british who tolerated religious diversity in the valley in the interest of expanding the colony of virginia’s western borders (brehm, ). as in other areas of the upland south, over time, the shenandoah valley developed an agricultural economy based on mixed farming of grains, fruit and livestock in contrast to the plantation system that dominated the lowlands of the deep south. associated with these contrasting agro-economic systems were contrasting social systems composed of yeoman farmers in the uplands as opposed to a planter gentry in the lowlands (jordan-bychkov, ). from the colonial period until the early s, family farms-- many, if not most of which were owned by individuals of german mennonite and brethren origin-- formed the economic backbone of the central shenandoah valley. due not only to economic constraints, but also to mennonite and other churches’ opposition to slavery, there were relatively few slaves in the central shenandoah valley prior to the civil war and the african american population has always been much smaller than in the rest of virginia and the south. for example, in the s, slaves comprised per cent of the population of rockingham county compared to per cent of the population of the four adjacent counties east of the blue ridge mountains (wayland, ). over the last century, the black population of the harrisonburg area has decreased, so that in , african americans represented a little less than per cent of city population and about per cent of county population (u. s. census, ). in contrast, the foreign- born population of the harrisonburg area was a negligible fraction of per cent for over a century and represented only about per cent of the population as recently as (u.s. census, ). a city directory described harrisonburg in as “ . % american-born and . % white” (hill directory company, : xiii). from to , the foreign-born population increased per cent from to , (jlarc, ). latinos, most of whom are immigrants, make up the largest group of foreign-born in harrisonburg, having grown � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom per cent between and , while the total population grew per cent. although latinos constituted less than per cent of the population in , they represented over per cent of the population in (u.s. census, ) and an estimated per cent in (weldon cooper, n.d.). local estimates suggest that the real figures may be double or even triple the official statistics. a more accurate measure of the size of the foreign-born population is reflected in esl (english as a second language) enrollment figures from harrisonburg public schools. in - , harrisonburg public schools hosted the most diverse student body in virginia, with esl students from countries speaking languages. in the same year, esl students constituted per cent of the total school enrollment. the largest group of esl students, about per cent, was spanish speakers from latin american countries. although concentrated in the city, latinos have also increased in the county where they constituted about per cent of the population in , according to official statistics. the native-born euro-american or white population of the central shenandoah valley consists of many individuals with family roots stretching back eight generations in the local area. in , john wayland, a local historian, estimated that about per cent of the population of rockingham county was of german descent (wayland, ). while use of the german language faded faster in the shenandoah valley than in pennsylvania, where german speakers were more densely concentrated, german was still spoken by some mennonites in church and business until world war i, when they were pressured to shift to english. today, according to the valley brethren-mennonite heritage center, there are an estimated , mennonites and brethren (approximately one in ten individuals) in the central shenandoah valley, including about old order mennonites. similar to the old order amish, old order mennonites maintain a distinctive dress and lifestyle that makes them visible but remote to outsiders (clark, ). any attempt to understand harrisonburg and the surrounding area as a host community to new immigrants must take into consideration the strong influence of the mennonite church and closely allied church of the brethren on local values and attitudes. both churches are within the anabaptist tradition (i.e. believe in adult baptism) and historically espoused “plain” ways of living and non-involvement in government and politics. like the quakers, the mennonites and church of the brethren are “peace churches” that have been persecuted for their pacifism. world war ii experience with alternative service and the presence of a “liberal” mennonite college in harrisonburg have contributed more recently to a subculture of community service and conflict resolution, as well as a disproportionate representation of local mennonites in the helping professions. both the mennonite church and church of the brethren also have long histories �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom of involvement in refugee and immigrant assistance within the us and in relief and development work overseas. as the pastor of one local mennonite church explained, “mennonites have been hounded from place to place and of all people, we should be empathetic to immigrants. we should but we aren’t always, but from our own history we should be. mennonites, like current immigrants, also hoped to be able to provide a better living for their families”. with a growth rate that has been at times the fastest of the state’s largest cities, harrisonburg has experienced a population boom in recent years. the total population of the area has grown as much in the past years as in the previous eight decades, from , in to , in (longley, ). this growth from small town into urban center was officially recognized in , when the city and adjacent towns and parts of rockingham county were designated a “metropolitan statistical area” due to their combined population of over , (bolsinger, ). local officials have attributed the growth primarily to the presence of a state university (james madison university) with an ever-increasing student enrollment (currently , ) and the city’s location on interstate , while saying nothing about the growing immigrant population. as a local newspaper reporter commented, “it’s the growth that few talk about, but everyone knows is there” (bolsinger, ). harrisonburg’s population growth is directly due to an expanding economy and consistently low unemployment rate of less than per cent during the last decade. plentiful jobs, particularly in agro-related industries, have attracted many newcomers, in many cases, actively recruited to the area by local employers. since its founding in , harrisonburg has been a county seat and principal commercial center for the central shenandoah valley, as well as adjacent counties in what is now west virginia. although the contemporary city has a diversified economy that includes two universities, a regional hospital, manufacturing (including poultry processing), retail and a growing service sector devoted to tourism, the economy of the surrounding area continues to depend heavily on agriculture, particularly poultry and to a lessening extent apples. considered by some to be the birthplace of the nation’s commercial turkey industry in the s, rockingham county by emerged as the self-described “turkey capital of the east”. although no longer the largest turkey-producing county in the united states, rockingham county still ranks in second place nationally (first is sussex county, delaware) (bradshaw, ). the county also ranks first in the state in the production of chickens (broilers and layers). approximately farm families are engaged in growing turkeys or chickens for the five local poultry-processing plants that operate in the city and county with a combined workforce of approximately , (bauhan, ). according to the virginia poultry federation, for over years, jobs created by the poultry industry constituted two-thirds of the local � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom economy, as “each poultry processing job supports seven more jobs outside the industry”. commercial apple production also has a long history in the shenandoah valley, extending back to the s. although rockingham county ranks fourth in virginia in annual apple production (“county” dnr - - ) the local apple industry, never as significant as in the northern part of the valley, has declined during the last decade due in large part to competition from washington state and china (vaden, ). the decline has caused a decreased demand for labor, and land that once contained orchards is now being sold to real estate developers. the role of local agricultural industries in immigrant recruitment both the local apple and poultry industries have played major roles in recruiting mexicans, who constitute the largest latino group, to the valley. the first latinos to come in appreciable numbers to the central shenandoah valley were mexican farm workers who passed through the valley in the s as part of an annual migrant circuit that began and ended in florida, texas or mexico. arriving in the fall to harvest peaches and apples, migrant workers would stay a couple of months before continuing north as far as new york. according to several apple growers, prior to world war ii, growers were able to meet their labor needs locally, but due to labor shortages during the war, german pows and bahamians on work visas provided supplemental labor during the harvest. in the s, no longer able to depend on local labor, growers sent busses “all over the south” to pick up black and white agricultural workers. according to one old-timer, even a few puerto ricans were recruited. later, jamaicans on work visas and a “handful of ‘legal-to-work’ mexicans also came from florida.” the history of agricultural labor importation from puerto rico and other areas of the caribbean to the eastern united states is well documented (see, for example, griffith and kissam, and hahamovitch, ), but local accounts suggest that puerto ricans were not as widely recruited in the valley as they were elsewhere. during the carter administration, haitian “boat people”, who were granted parole and temporary work permits, began to come particularly to the northern part of the valley. but in rockingham county in the s and s, the majority of migrant workers were mexican. in the s, most of the workers were young, single men, but there were also some young families whose numbers increased over time. according to armando fernandez who came to harrisonburg from puerto rico in , “sometimes the growers sent a bus to the border to pick up the workers who came on special contracts. sometimes the workers brought their families and they also lived in the bunkhouses with just a little curtain separating their area”. �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom in contrast to the s and early s, when most migrant laborers who came through rockingham county were african american men from florida, by the s the migrant camps housed mainly mexican families along with young, single mexican men. marjorie smith, who worked for the federally-funded migrant education program at that time, would go to the camps, which she described as “concrete houses scattered in the orchards”, to sign up the children who were eligible for services every fall. the migrant education program, which has operated in the valley since , began to see mexican children in the early s. the first family she served was the garcia family who are recognized by many in the community as one of the first three mexican families to settle locally. carlos was the first one in the family to come to harrisonburg in to work in the apple orchards, having previously worked in apple orchards in oregon. when marjorie met the garcias, the parents were working in a poultry plant and the children had come directly from mexico. she observed that although there were many adolescents in the camps, they were not in the migrant education program because compulsory education ended at age at that time and “the older kids were here to work and didn’t go to school”. she added that the same children returned every year, so she got to know them. they “all knew each other, but arrived at different times and by different routes”. various service providers who worked with migrants during the s and s agreed that the same people tended to come back each fall and over time, more and more came. “they made good money so they called their cousins. after awhile everyone in national coach (a trailer park) was mexican”. according to another migrant education worker, “they were originally from mexico, especially the state of michoacán”. they would leave here in early november and return to florida to pick oranges during the winter. then they would pick their way back up the east coast until they arrived here again in the fall to pick apples. in the last few years, very few families have come to the area as migrant farm workers and growers have returned to hiring crew chiefs who recruit groups of single men. the reason for the return to the old system, in marjorie’s opinion, is that the growers “didn’t like the hassle with families and federal regulations”. from to , according to marjorie, “there were a lot of ins [immigration and naturalization service] raids of the migrant camps, but everyone knew that anyone who was deported would be back in a couple of weeks. the kids would come to school and tell me that there had been a raid and once they said they covered their grandmother up by putting a paper bag over her head, but they never took the kids”. through her work in the migrant education program, marjorie saw many “settle outs”, farm workers who “settled out” of migrant labor for year-round jobs in � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom the local area. although the children were eligible for services for several years after their parents left agriculture, regardless of the type of jobs they took, most of parents worked in the poultry-processing plants. they remained in the area because they liked the tranquility and pastoral scenery that reminded them of rural mexico, but primarily because they could get permanent jobs in the poultry- processing plants. according to lucía mendez, her father decided to change from orchard work to poultry processing after he brought his family to the united states. he switched jobs so that his children would not have to keep changing schools, which would have been necessary if he had continued picking apples. he got a job in poultry, which by comparison, he felt was “good money”. while apple orchards still exist in rockingham county, the number is dwindling every year and in the last few years, the migrant education program has registered very few children in the migrant camps. in contrast, poultry growing appears to have eclipsed apples in economic importance in rockingham county and produced a greater demand for labor than apple harvesting. poultry and particularly turkey growing and processing have been part of the local economy since the s when many small feed mills and “produce” (processing) plants dotted the landscape. through a complicated series of acquisitions and consolidations over several decades, two local families emerged as owners of fully vertically integrated operations and as the dominant players in the local industry during the s and s. having achieved greater control over live production by the early s, local plants, which had previously operated about six months of the year, began to operate on a year-round basis. prior to that time, processing plants operated seasonally due to the seasonal nature of turkeys and because they “couldn’t get enough chickens to run the plant for the rest of the year”, according to one industry old-timer. at the same time, the turkey industry expanded production as a result of increased consumer demand, the introduction of new convenience products (e.g. lunch meat) and increased exports. expansion of production necessitated increasing the size of the labor force in the plants especially since poultry processing is a labor-intensive industry due to the many steps in the process that, despite automation, must still be performed by hand. automation has also been more difficult to achieve in turkey- than in chicken- processing plants because birds of varying weight are still processed (gangwer, : ). prior to the s, most of the labor in the poultry plants, as in other areas of the south (see griffith, ), was provided by poor white locals and particularly women who also worked in local “sewing” (garment) factories. according to patsy russell whose family owned a poultry plant, “during the s- s, before the immigrants”, they hired mostly locals, especially from the mountain “hollows,” places like hopkins gap and the peak. some locals describe this �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom mountainous part of rockingham county as “a rough area where people made money off of moonshining”. according to sociologist peggy schifflett, who has written a book about growing up in hopkins gap, “the moonshine industry was replaced by the poultry industry” in the s. the men raised the poultry at home and the women worked in the poultry-processing plants or sewing factories in harrisonburg” (shifflett, : ). as she explained, “a major economic opportunity came to hopkins gap with the poultry industry. many families built poultry houses to raise chickens to meet the increasing demand for processed chicken and the growth of the processing plants in harrisonburg”. according to patsy, people also came across the mountains from west virginia since there was very little industry in franklin and no industry in brandywine. for the women of hopkins gap, working in the poultry-processing plants became a “tradition” when they finished high school or dropped out of school to go to work and brought about major changes in the community (shifflett, : ). there is considerable agreement among long-time residents that there were more women than men working in the poultry processing plants, especially on the eviscerating line. men predominated only in operations requiring heavy labor. with the income from their work, the women, who initially shared rides to work because there were few cars in the community, were able to buy their own cars and remodel their homes, installing new kitchens and indoor bathrooms (shifflett, : ). they were also able to buy fashionable clothes for their children so that they would not stand out as “gappers,” still a pejorative label, in the schools that they attended with residents of the valley. by the s, the community produced “many high school graduates, several college graduates and a few with higher degrees” (shifflett, ), and work in the plants became less of a community necessity. unlike other areas of the south, such as the delmarva peninsula (which includes delaware and parts of maryland and virginia), african americans were never a significant part of the workforce in the local poultry plants. after the civil rights movement in the s, the hinton plant tried to hire african americans, but, according to patsy, “there weren’t very many locally and they didn’t want to work in poultry.” she recalled asking an african american woman who lived on the peak if she would like to come to work, but the woman told her that she thought it would be too hard since she would be the only african american. according to patsy, “one day a van of blacks came to the plant asking for work and they were hired, but they never came back”. she did not know where they came from, but she did not think they were locals. she thought, “it was just a test” (to see if they would hire african americans). she concluded, “there still aren’t any in the plant”. although some members of harrisonburg’s small african american community worked in the poultry-processing plant that was located in the city, they generally did not work in the plants in the county, according to other informants. zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom armando fernandez traces the beginnings of what he calls “the hispanic explosion” to - . “workers who were disenchanted with apples, went to work for rocco, which had ample jobs and you didn’t have to have any skills. it paid good money, six to seven dollars an hour. word spread like wildfire. the floodgates opened and many mexicans came. they are the largest group. then the salvadorans came and the latest group is the hondurans”. other old-timers in the local poultry industry affirm that mexicans came to work in the processing plants by way of the apple orchards. according to one industry old-timer, “we grew beyond the capacity of local labor and other industries came in that were cleaner, such as sewing factories, and had better working conditions and better pay…for a long time it was hard to keep all the labor we needed. we continued trying to recruit labor. in the beginning the plants paid a low wage, although now the wages are more comparable to other industries”. at first migrant workers who came through the area to harvest apples would show up at the plant in pickup trucks looking for seasonal work, usually during september to january. “we started hiring them (mexican migrants) for the hardest jobs that no one would do.” i asked what the hardest jobs were and he replied “live hanging”, which involved moving the birds from the coops to the line, and “the blood tunnel”, in which they did the killing. “now we couldn’t operate without them”. in the mid- s two events converged that also facilitated the movement of mexicans from seasonal migrant labor to permanent settlement in the central shenandoah valley. one of these events was the passage of the immigration reform and control act (irca) in , which granted amnesty to undocumented immigrant workers (edwards, ). although the federal law contained a provision for sanctioning employers who hired “illegals”, many immigrants were able to legalize their status through the federal amnesty program and found that having a “green card” made it easier to get jobs in the poultry plants. however, their movement from apple harvesting to poultry processing in the local area began prior to . several industry old-timers agreed that many of the migrants who came looking for work were probably “illegal,” but they had no way of knowing if they were legal or not. patsy recalled that the sheriff at that time used to call to tell them they were coming to round up the immigrants. she chuckled about that, adding that when they came, “half of the employees would run down the creek” and those that didn’t run would be caught, but “in three weeks they would be back.” in the mid- s, one of the poultry plants opened a new section for deboning turkeys and another plant also expanded. when luis vega came from uruguay and started working in one of the plants in , there were already some mexicans working there more or less permanently. one of the men he worked with was from mexico. he worked in the plant seasonally, returning to the area every year, sometimes working in apples and sometimes in poultry. because he did not have papers, he would get picked up in the ins raids the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom on the plant. he used to joke that he was known by name and when the plant was raided, they would tell him “jose, it’s time to go home”. but jose would always be back in a few weeks. from the mid- s to the mid- s, latinos, who at that time were mostly mexican, made up no more than - per cent of the plant’s workforce. although mexicans began showing up at the doors of the poultry-processing plants in the s, they were also actively recruited. at least one turkey-processing plant recruited workers from outside of the area as early as . leopoldo cruz, who is the son of mexican immigrants, was one of the first latinos to work in the local poultry plants. almost years ago, he was living in el paso, texas when he saw a “want ad” for couples to come to the valley to work for marval, a turkey-processing plant in rockingham county. he decided to go and because his sister wanted him to take her husband, the three of them ended up traveling to the valley together. having been given $ by the poultry company for their expenses, they took a greyhound bus to dayton, virginia where they arrived on april . the company, which has since been sold twice, treated them “like royalty” and sent their “best cars” to pick them up. they received help finding lodging and were invited to attend church. however, leopoldo also recalled that people looked at them as though they were “something really exotic” and it was hard to find food they were used to eating. for example, leopoldo’s sister could not find jalapenos (hot chili peppers) anywhere, so she had them shipped to her by united parcel service. although the company wanted couples, they actually brought only people and of those, only four or five stayed. “they got homesick and disappeared. it was a fiasco”. they did not sign a contract, but it was expected that they would at least stay for some time. leopoldo stayed for three years and because he was bilingual, he became an unofficial “welcomer” for those who came afterward. he believed that when he was hired, workers had to be “legal”; that is, have a passport or citizenship. but after the el paso experiment, the company started bringing “illegals” from colorado; they were brought to the area by a “coyote” (smuggler) who received us$ for each person. after that, people started to come from florida; they tended to be individuals who had come to the area previously to work seasonally as apple-pickers. according to leopoldo, eventually workers started showing up, “three or four at the door of the plant on any morning and the poultry plants had all the help that they needed”. other mexicans arriving in the area in the s- s found work in a poultry- related “spin-off” business started by don carlos ortega, who everyone knows as the first mexican to have settled in the area. don carlos and his brother came to harrisonburg to look for work in . it was don carlos’s first trip to the united states, although his brother and brother-in-law had previously worked in the apple orchards. they sought work at a local poultry plant and were hired. zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom one of the employees, who spoke a little spanish, having lived in the panama canal zone for a few years, was very helpful. he found them a place to stay and took them across the street from the plant to the store where he asked what they needed to eat and signed for the food. despite the helpfulness of this individual, don carlos found it very hard being one of only two mexicans in town. nevertheless, he stayed and two years later started his own business buying and reselling turkey feathers. the business involved buying the feathers on contract from one of the processing plants, drying them in a warehouse and then transporting them to chicago or new york from where they were shipped overseas for further processing as fill for pillows and jackets. according felipe garcia, who came to harrisonburg in , don carlos was “the key” to a job for many because he gave them work in his business. the other development of the s that probably facilitated the entry of latinos into the poultry plants was a poultry workers’ strike. there is fairly wide agreement among locals that mexicans did not displace local workers in the poultry plants, but rather, that the plants, as a result of expanded production needed more workers than were available locally (tilson, ). however, that picture is complicated by the long-forgotten ouster of the labor unions from local poultry-processing plants in a process reflective of national developments in meat processing during that period (ollinger, macdonald and madison, ). in , approximately half of all workers in meat and poultry processing in the united states were unionized and earning us$ . an hour under united food and commercial worker (ufcw) contracts, but “many meat processors demanded that the ufcw agree to a cut in wages to the $ . an hour that many non-union plants paid” (“meat and migrants,” ). between and there were strikes over wage cutbacks and by , “unions represented only per cent of meat processing workers” with “fewer differences between wages between large and small plants and between plants in different regions” (meat and migrants, rural migration news). although there is no evidence that immigrants were used locally as strike breakers, it is well documented (e.g. grey, griffith, stull) that meat-processing companies over time recruited and replaced unionized native-born workers with non-unionized immigrant workers. a similar process appears to have occurred in the poultry-processing plants in the harrisonburg area during the mid- s. on june , workers, per cent of them women, walked out on strike at marval, described in company literature (marval poultry company, inc., ) as the “largest turkey processing plant in the united states”. the strike, which lasted for five months, ended with the decertification of the union. although the plant had been unionized for years without a strike under a previous owner, problems developed after the plant was sold to rocco in , beginning with the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom a per cent reduction of the workforce (dulan, ). in the dispute over a new contract that precipitated the strike, issues were raised, half of them by the union and the other half by the company. the union’s complaints focused primarily on harsh working conditions (e.g. bathroom break policy and line speed) and “union busting” efforts by the company. among the company’s demands were that workers be permitted to quit the union at any time, rather than just during an annual fifteen-day window. while given less attention in the local newspaper at the time, there were also money and benefit issues. according to company literature, marval’s wages for hourly workers in ranged from us$ . to us$ . an hour and their average rate was “$ . per hour above the turkey industry average in the southeastern united states” (marvel poultry company, inc,. ). while the union sought a one dollar an hour increase in wages for three years (dulan, - - ), the company offered a -cent an hour increase in the first year, rising to cents an hour in the second year and cents an hour in the third year. negotiations stalled. within the first week of the strike, according to newspaper accounts, the company began “aggressively recruiting” new workers and warned strikers that they would be permanently replaced if they did not return to work. they also offered bonuses to employees who recommended new hires. by the end of the first month of the strike, the company received , applications from “within a -mile radius” and hired workers to replace those who remained on strike (reinke, - - ). although the company announced that they would not rehire any strikers who had been replaced, that statement was later retracted and a new statement issued that the company would rehire workers as jobs became available and would keep their names on a waiting list for a year (dulan, - - ). describing the new workers to a reporter, the personnel director commented, “if there is anything that i’ve been most pleased about it’s the quality of the people we’ve hired. the quality and attitudes of the new workers surpassed my wildest imagination. absenteeism is lower than we’ve ever seen it for the entire plant” (reinke, - - ). newspaper accounts of the strike give no hint about who the new hires were, but because there were increasing numbers of mexican immigrants already working in the poultry plants in the s, it seems very likely that there were mexicans among the new hires. as the strike continued into its fifth month, a “decertification committee” at the plant organized a petition campaign that garnered enough workers’ signatures to oust the union (shetterley, - - ). during roughly the same time, another local poultry plant, shenandoah valley poultry processors, also succeeded in ridding itself of union representation. according to a union official, by closing the plant, which had changed ownership in july of , the new owner, perdue, “legally relieved (company officials) of any obligation to recognize the union” when the � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom plant reopened a short time later (murphey, - - : ). by the late s, when local unemployment was about per cent, an estimate offered in a much later report commissioned by the housing authority suggests that “probably no more than . % of the hourly workers” in the poultry plants were immigrants (rer consultants, : ). according to the same report, the dependence on immigrants increased during “the rapid expansion of the industry in the mid- ’s as unemployment dropped below . %” and “the outflow of young shenandoah valley natives continued,” so that by , - per cent of new poultry plant applicants were immigrants (rer consultants, : ). with local unemployment rates hovering at or below per cent for much of the past decade, poultry-processing companies have continued to actively recruit workers from out of state and even used a labor contract agency to import puerto rican workers on a weekly basis (edwards, ). in , of rocco’s , employees were hispanic (tilson, ). current estimates of the proportion of immigrants working in the poultry plants, most of whom are latino, range from per cent at one plant and - per cent at a second, to as much as per cent for second shift workers at any plant. in , none of the poultry-processing plants in the local area were unionized and the vast majority of workers were immigrants. as a company official explained, “locals don’t want to do the jobs. the rooms they work in are cold, degrees due to the usda regs. they stand all day. it’s knife work. it’s hard work”. until recently, the poultry plants served as the main point of entry into the local job market for many immigrants and refugees regardless of their education, occupational history or knowledge of english. even today, the ranks of poultry production workers include not only the unschooled and unskilled, but also those who were once doctors, teachers and engineers in their pre-migration lives. at least in the past, some immigrants and refugees felt that they were confined to poultry work because no one else would hire them. for example, when pablo cuevas, a cuban who had been granted political asylum, arrived in the area in for a second time, he went to work in a poultry plant for a year, earning us$ . an hour and, as he noted, “making dog food with a college education”. although he applied for a number of jobs, no one else would hire him. he commented, “hispanics, blacks and foreigners didn’t get easy jobs. they thought all foreigners were bad. they weren’t exposed to foreigners. it hurt. it was lonely. those knocks drove my life. ‘making it’ became my life”. when he retired recently, he owned per cent of the stock at a local engineering company and for the last years, he has served as a member and president of the rockingham county board of supervisors. similarly, david puerto, who now owns his own small business, recounted how, when he first came to harrisonburg in , he suffered a series of job rejections from a variety of local employers despite his �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom college degree from el salvador. he commented, “at first, they wouldn’t accept hispanics in construction. they drew a closed circle. they think all hispanics are illiterate, ignorant and they won’t give us an opportunity. it’s not true that all of us hispanics have no education”. unable to find another job, he went to work in a poultry plant. according to david, at that time about per cent of the production workers were hispanic, but the line leaders were all americans. however, six months after he started working in the plant, there were three hispanic line leaders. speaking about the current situation in the plants, he added that “now the workers are per cent hispanic for all shifts, but the people in the higher positions-- the executives, the managers-- are still all american. they wouldn’t give the hispanics an opportunity for the higher positions. most americans think that if you haven’t studied in the united states, you don’t know anything. it doesn’t matter what you studied, but if you have the paper from here, you are a genius”. other latino business-owners have recounted similar barriers to job mobility in the poultry plants (see zarrugh, ), leading them to start their own businesses. stepped up security measures along the us-mexican border have also inadvertently contributed to the heightened influx of mexican immigrants and their permanent settlement in the community (see massey, ). according to poultry plant officials, in the s and the early s, most mexican workers were men who, having left their families in mexico, would leave the plants to visit home in december and return one or two months later. but in recent years fewer workers have left work to return to mexico in december, at least in part, because of the increased difficulty and expense of crossing the border. at the same time, the continuous increase in enrollment of esl students in the public schools suggests that men are bringing their wives and children to the area instead of returning home to mexico on a yearly basis. as families become established in the local community, permanent return to mexico becomes more unlikely. the role of refugee resettlement in immigrant recruitment in addition to serving as a not-so-new “gateway destination” for mexican immigrants who have been coming to the area for over years, the harrisonburg area also has a long history of involvement in refugee resettlement that predates the establishment of the current federal refugee resettlement program in (duchon and murphy, ). the first refugees, a dutch indonesian family, were resettled in the local area almost years ago. they were sponsored by members of the bridgewater church of the brethren in as part of the denomination’s refugee resettlement � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom program (coordinated through new windsor, maryland), which began in with a national conference that called upon congregations to resettle , refugees displaced by world war ii. between and , the church of the brethren also participated in the virginia council of churches’ resettlement of - cubans who were among the scores of professionals and businesspeople fleeing the revolution in cuba. although no one seems to be certain, at least one of this first group of cubans may have been settled in the harrisonburg area as part of that effort. in , pablo cuevas, who is arguably the first latino immigrant to settle in the area, was granted political asylum after returning to cuba for christmas vacation while attending college in dayton, a small town just south of harrisonburg. “i knew i couldn’t go back”. he returned to harrisonburg in , having first come to the valley in to attend a small college that was affiliated with the united evangelical church. (the college later merged with the methodist church and moved from dayton to winchester where it became known as shenandoah university.) it was one of many church-affiliated colleges that were recruiting students in cuba during that time. pablo’s father made contact with a broker who “got a per cent of the tuition to get you enrolled”. the choice of college was arbitrary. as pablo explained, cubans were just anxious to get their children out of the country during the unrest preceding castro’s takeover of the government. “by there were killings on the streets and sabotage of the electricity, so people with the means got their kids out temporarily so they wouldn’t be involved in the conflict. they were waiting to see what was going to happen with the new government”. pablo was one of eight cuban students, “two girls and six guys,” who enrolled in the college in dayton, along with a couple of students from korea and thailand. although he initially suffered culture shock, particularly upon encountering segregated public facilities, among the positive things he remembered from that time was foreign student night. as he noted, “the churches invited to students and we got a free meal. it was a neat thing”. over time the bridgewater church of the brethren became more involved in the refugee resettlement program and eventually purchased a building containing two apartments to house refugees. over the last years the congregation has sponsored about families, although relatively few of them have been from latin america. other church of the brethren congregations, as well as several mennonite churches in the area also sponsored refugees before a refugee resettlement office was established in harrisonburg in . the refugee resettlement office in harrisonburg, which is one of about mostly religious-based affiliates of the federal program (patrick, ), is operated by the virginia council of churches under the auspices of church world services. duchon and murphy ( ) suggest that since the s the state department �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom has targeted the south for refugee resettlement because of its strong economic growth. harrisonburg is considered a desirable site for refugee resettlement because of the availability of church sponsors, low-skill jobs requiring little english and the relatively lower cost of living compared to larger metropolitan areas. since opening, the refugee resettlement office has resettled refugees of many nationalities, but the largest number have been religious refugees from the former soviet union and more recently, bosnians, iraqi kurds and meshketian turks. nationally, the refugee resettlement program has offered resettlement to far fewer refugees from latin america ( , ) over the past - years than any other region of the world and cubans ( , ) constitute the majority of latin americans accepted for refugee resettlement (us department of state, ). prior to the opening of the refugee resettlement office, harrisonburg did receive some cubans from the mariel boatlift of , but they did not come through an organized resettlement program. instead, they came on their own after spending time in refugee camps in the united states. according christina solano, a more recent cuban newcomer, “fidel opened the coasts and people left on anything that would float”. about to marielitos came to harrisonburg during the s and some of them are still in the area. “they were probably going to new york and stayed here because they didn’t have enough money or they found jobs”. the refugee resettlement office began resettling cuban refugees in the area in the mid- s and colombian refugees in , since colombians were not eligible for resettlement prior to that date. both the cubans and colombians who qualify for resettlement as political refugees (as opposed to immigrants or asylees) have personal histories of persecution, imprisonment and torture. as of , seven colombians have come to harrisonburg through the resettlement program. the first cubans, a family of five and two single women, arrived in . the refugee resettlement office also resettles cubans in harrisonburg who have come to the united states through the cuban-haitian program, which involves individuals who have parole rather than refugee status. as part of the joint us-cuban migration accords of , the program allows , cubans a year entry into the united states through a special lottery that is separate from the worldwide immigration diversity lottery. church world service is one of two national voluntary agencies or volags (catholic conference is the other) that have had federal contracts since to resettle cubans from this program. as one of seven offices nationally involved in the program, the harrisonburg office has a contract to settle a quota of five to eight individuals a month. unlike the “marielitos,” the cuban-haitian program entrants come as families and are eligible for immigrant visas obtained through a lottery system. and unlike refugees, the cubans in the cuban-haitian program have no church � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom sponsors because of the short notice involved before they arrive. as a resettlement worker explained, “cubans are known as ‘out-migrators’ who move to miami” regardless of where they are initially settled. therefore, in order to discourage them from staying in miami where jobs are scarce, “there is an intensive effort to get them out of miami in hours.” as one participant explained, upon their arrival in miami, individuals are given a list of locales and asked to choose one. with virtually no prior knowledge of any of the places on the list, new arrivals generally “just put their finger” on one. as of , close to cubans have settled in harrisonburg through the cuban-haitian program. over the last two decades, other refugees from latin america have resettled themselves. with or without official sponsorship, central americans from guatemala, el salvador and nicaragua began coming to the harrisonburg area in the s when much of central america was engulfed in civil wars. in contrast to mexican immigrants, central americans’ motives for coming to the united states tended to be more political (i.e. to escape the violence) rather than economic (chavez, ). although nicaraguans were usually granted refugee status, few guatemalans or salvadorans were officially recognized as refugees (hamilton and chinchilla, ). according to one estimate, fewer than per cent of salvadorans were granted political asylum compared to per cent of poles and per cent of iranians who applied for asylum during the s (repack, : ). as a result, there was no federal government program to resettle the salvadorans and guatemalans who nevertheless attempted to enter the united states as “illegals” during the s. their plight generated considerable sympathy among american churches and synagogues and particularly those opposed to us military intervention in central america. initiated by a couple of churches in tucson, arizona in , the sanctuary movement, which offered salvadorans and guatemalans in the united states various kinds of support and assistance, spread to “ sanctuary churches and , support congregations” across the country (gibson, : ). in harrisonburg, there was at least one public demonstration against us military involvement in central america, as well as a conference sponsored by a group called the virginia central american network. the conference, which was held at eastern mennonite college (now eastern mennonite university), which is located in harrisonburg, was titled “can there be justice for central america?” and was endorsed by almost three dozen local and state organizations. it included workshops on the “pledge of resistance” and “developing sanctuary refugee programs”. although no local churches appear to have been “sanctuary churches” (i.e. offered shelter within their sanctuary), individual members of several churches were involved in organized efforts to help salvadorans in the united states and central america. a number of emc graduates worked for mennonite central �the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom committee in el salvador, guatemala and nicaragua during the s and s. one of these individuals recalled that there were some salvadorans in harrisonburg when he left for central america in . he guessed that they “probably began coming into the area in - when things began heating up in el salvador”. others remembered that there were local mennonites and brethren working in the sanctuary movement who transported salvadorans on an “underground railroad” for at least part of their journey from the mexican border to the canadian border. one mennonite congregation in harrisonburg, which was known for sponsoring laotian and vietnamese refugees during the vietnam war, informally sponsored a salvadoran man, who had been a baker, and even helped him open a bakery in harrisonburg. however, the business venture did not work out and the man apparently “became disappointed and moved away”. ana herrera and her husband came to harrisonburg from guatemala in after being detained by immigration authorities for three months on the texas border. ana recounted how she and her husband were “taken from” detention by the church of the brethren in new windsor, maryland and stayed there for six months until the church arranged for them to get work permits. the church gave them food and a place to stay. according to ana, “the church felt compassion for those who were persecuted and couldn’t return”. when i asked if it is correct to say that she and her husband came as refugees, though without official sanction, she replied, “it is correct. we came as refugees”. asked how they came to harrisonburg, she said the church workers asked them where they wanted to go and since ana knew two nicaraguan refugees who were already in harrisonburg, that is where they went. upon their arrival in harrisonburg, the church of the brethren found them a place to stay and when ana, who was pregnant, gave birth, the church paid the $ , hospital bill. the church also got them jobs at one of the poultry plants. ana has since owned two small businesses and brought many of her family here from guatemala. the role of the churches in immigrant recruitment religion, which has been an important feature of life in the shenandoah valley since the first european settlement in the s, continues to play a vital role in the lives of both native-born residents and newcomers to the area today. there are at least churches in the city and county (office on youth, ). although individual churches of various denominations have sponsored refugees, mennonite and church of the brethren congregations have been particularly active in refugee resettlement efforts for many years. a much larger number of churches have been involved with immigrants in other ways that, even if not constituting active recruitment, have created a welcoming environment for settlement. � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom one of the principal ways that churches have been involved with latino immigrants has been through the creation of special ministries catering to their needs. while it has been suggested that migrant farm workers do not interact with the institutions or members of the surrounding society (chavez, ), this has not been the case in the valley. when the first mexicans arrived in the valley to work in the apple orchards, churches from harrisonburg and nearby timberville established “migrant ministries” to assist them materially and spiritually. marjorie smith, who worked in the migrant education program in the early s, recalled that there were many outreach programs operated by local churches in the camps. “churches in the timberville area did bible study and brought stuff”. marjorie herself used to take children from the camps roller-skating and on fieldtrips. she also took them for vaccinations and school physicals and to buy shoes and eye glasses, using money from the school’s “shoe fund”. she explained that living conditions in the camps were bad and the children were barefoot. “the kids only had summer clothes, so we had to get them coats”. because some of the mothers were sick, she also became involved in getting them help. many of the individuals who were involved in migrant ministries were either latino themselves or local euro-americans who had missionary experience in latin america. for example, armando fernandez, who was originally from puerto rico, came to harrisonburg in and became involved in a migrant ministry while attending harrisonburg baptist church. with other volunteers from the church and jmu students who were studying spanish, he would go out to the migrant camps, taking cakes and other food, to play soccer or basketball and hold religious services with the migrant workers. similarly, angela diaz, who is from guatemala, came to harrisonburg in with her husband who was from the valley. they met while both were working for mennonite central committee in guatemala. soon after coming to harrisonburg, angela began going to the apple orchards as a volunteer with her husband and others from grace covenant church. “we went to talk to the people...we invited them to church and had activities. sometimes i took food. we went to see what the needs are.” one of the needs was interpreting so angela, along with two other women, one latina and the other a euro-american missionary, volunteered as interpreters, taking families to doctors’ appointments and to enroll their children in school. in recent years other mainstream protestant churches (e.g. presbyterian, methodist, nazarene and mormon) have initiated “hispanic ministries” that combine religious and “social ministry” components. for example, the mormon church in harrisonburg, through the efforts of a member who was a missionary in latin america, initiated a spanish branch in the summer of that now has about members. according to a church outreach worker, “the harrisonburg program offers hispanics more than scripture. others in the church help their brethren with such transitional tasks as obtaining housing and jobs” (mitchell, : ). � the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom of all of the churches with migrant or hispanic ministries, the catholic church has had the most extensive program. compared to the various protestant denominations represented in harrisonburg by multiple church congregations, there is only one catholic church in the city (and an additional one in the town of elkton). the catholic church in harrisonburg began its hispanic ministry in the s when a priest came from richmond to hold a spanish mass for the migrant workers in the apple orchards. thirty or so people would attend mass and afterward they would hold a dinner prepared by volunteers from the church followed by soccer games. having discovered that the migrant workers lacked blankets and cooking and eating utensils, the volunteers brought them needed items. on more than one occasion, the volunteers found the ins waiting to pick up the “illegals” as they emerged from mass. because the migrant camps were raided at least three times by the ins after mass during the s, the spanish mass, although still held once or twice a year, was moved to the church where it was conducted by the parish priest who spoke some spanish. efforts by church volunteers to help the migrant workers also continued and became more organized with the arrival of more spanish-speaking professionals (primarily from south american countries) over time. one of the most important free services they provided was interpretation in doctors’ offices, the police station and court. a doctor, who was himself an immigrant from colombia, also treated migrant workers without charge. one of the most important individuals in this effort was a woman known to spanish and english speakers alike as señora martina de mendoza, because of her insistence on the spanish formal term of address. señora de mendoza was originally from chile, but had lived elsewhere in the united states before coming to harrisonburg in because of her husband’s professional position in the local poultry industry. when she first arrived in town she met a woman who was married to a colombian physician. the woman invited señora de mendoza to join a group of women who, from the early s, met in each other’s homes regularly to practice speaking spanish. although the membership changed over the years, the group included mainly native speakers from latin american countries and spain who were connected to the local universities and euro-americans with missionary experience in various central or south american countries. the same woman also invited señora de mendoza to attend spanish mass and dinner at the catholic church where she had a chance to talk to the priest. when he heard that señora de mendoza had experience teaching english as a second language, he asked her to volunteer to teach the migrant workers survival english. the following year señora de mendoza started teaching beginning level spanish classes at jmu and recruited her students to help teach survival english classes at the lutheran church in timberville. she found the classes disappointing because there were always new people and they were always starting over, since most � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom of the migrant workers picked apples between august and november and then left the area. nevertheless, they offered the classes into the s. they also continued to visit the camps to give the migrants “basic necessities, blankets, pots and pans”. when the parish priest was transferred, the new priest, who did not speak spanish, hired señora de mendoza to head the hispanic ministry and act as a liaison between the latino and euro-american communities. after the passage of irca in , referred to by many immigrants as “la amnistía” (the amnesty), señora de mendoza, at the new priest’s request, received training to help people apply for the amnesty and permanent residence. señora de mendoza estimated that there were only “a handful” of latinos working in the poultry plants at that time, while the rest worked in the apple orchards and only a few stayed in the area all year. they would go home to mexico in november and return in february. there were also some families from puerto rico in the community who spoke english and worked in the poultry plants. she estimated that she and her assistants helped “arrange papers” for about people through the amnesty program. according to señora de mendoza, “as soon as people got their papers, they started working in the poultry plants and stopped working in the orchards. there were no more migrants. the community started to grow in ”. however, only a few men brought their families until the s. however, by , attendance at the catholic church’s weekly spanish mass had grown to about people. much of the church’s growth over the past two decades has been due to the influx of latino families. church membership more than doubled, from to , households, between and , with most of the growth among spanish-speaking parishioners. in , church membership had grown to , , almost equally divided between , latinos and , non-latinos. at the same time that local churches were establishing links with the growing mexican population, other church efforts brought the first uruguayans to the area. uruguayans began arriving in harrisonburg in . they came from two separate communities in uruguay for unrelated reasons, only one of which was church-related. the first group has its origin in a couple of friends who, through previous contact with the friend of the italian owner of a local pizzeria, came to harrisonburg to work in the restaurant in . the second group has its origin in a mennonite church in uruguay that had links to harrisonburg. the pastor of the uruguayan church had attended seminary at eastern mennonite college and returned to harrisonburg in in order to establish a “spanish” church under mennonite sponsorship. the pastor and his wife, who were from wealthy families, brought adopted children with them. two brothers, luis and enrique vega, who were not adopted, but who had lived with the pastor in uruguay also joined the group in harrisonburg. although the pastor returned to uruguay without establishing a “spanish” church, some of his adopted children and both � the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom brothers remained behind in the local area. one of the brothers began working with a retired mennonite minister, who had previously “opened” churches in mexico, to establish a “spanish” church locally. they began visiting the apple orchards on a weekly basis with a guitar and a bible. the minister also took migrant workers to arrange their “papers” and helped them with employment forms. at the same time, he began to evangelize the people he helped. eventually, “things clicked” with the men they were visiting in the orchards and the “spanish” church was inaugurated with one or two families and some single men. luis vega commented, “people saw how they were treated and respected and showed up during the week”. many people came to the church because of the help they received from the minister. “there were several brothers attending the church. they brought their families and the families brought more people, so the church grew”. currently, the congregation, now called “pacto de gracia”, has members of nationalities, including many uruguayans, and is part of grace covenant church, a non-denominational church that has a total membership of about , individuals. at the same time that luis was working to help establish a “spanish” protestant church in harrisonburg, he also attended the spanish mass at the catholic church where he met and socialized with other members of the fledgling latino community. according to luis, “the catholic church attracted everyone and father kyle tried to give sermons in spanish”. luis estimated that there were perhaps - spanish speakers in rockingham county in and probably no more than spanish speakers in the entire shenandoah valley from winchester to staunton. in addition to mexicans, there were some puerto ricans. the latino population was small enough at that time so that many of the spanish speakers sought out and knew each other regardless of their national origins. since the s local mennonite congregations have also been interested in “planting a hispanic church”. however, finding insufficient interest because “immigrants tend to settle relatively easily within church families that already exist,” (oswald, ), they shifted their effort to help meet basic needs through an immigrant resource center. new bridges, which opened in harrisonburg in , was developed by mennonite central committee to assist immigrants with such issues as language, jobs, childcare, financial training and finding and using social services, medical and educational resources. the center is supported by the virginia mennonite board of missions and a half dozen mennonite congregations in harrisonburg. according to the director, “the congregations—striving to live out mennonite church usa’s priority of becoming missional at home and around the world—believe that new bridges brings missions to their backyard” (oswald, ). �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom the role of social networks in immigrant recruitment although the poultry plants and churches have played significant roles in initiating and facilitating migration to harrisonburg, it is social networks that have perpetuated the flows and created a series of transnational “daughter communities” (chavez, ) in the local area. once settled, it is rare that newcomers do not try to convince friends and family to join them. some individuals bring only their immediate family, but others are known within their communities for bringing or “inviting” large numbers of family and friends to the area. after hearing many people use the word “invited” to refer to how they came to the valley, i asked ricardo ramos, who is from mexico, to explain what precisely was meant by the term. he thought for a moment and responded that “to invite” someone to migrate implies providing them with initial help. more precisely, it means providing the person with a place to stay, something to eat and help finding a job. he added that sometimes these arrangements end due to “conflicts”. the invitee often stays with the family for a long time before they find their own place and that sometimes creates friction. or the person making the invitation might be a mayordomo (supervisor) in a poultry plant, which “gives him influence and makes him think he is rich and has power”. “he may make the invitee work more, so they separate over this”. when ricardo came to harrisonburg, his brothers were already here, staying with an aunt. since there was no room for him, they couldn’t “invite” him and ricardo had to find his own apartment. among the salvadorans, susana alvarez, who is a successful business-owner, is known for bringing many of her relatives to harrisonburg. after listing all of the relatives that susana has brought, susana’s friend catarina commented that she likes the way they all get together to make “fiestas”. she would also love to bring all of her family. catarina convinced one of her sisters to move here from california and has tried to get another sister to move here, too, but the sister says she is not interested because harrisonburg “is very boring”. catarina also noted that when she lived briefly in the washington, dc area before moving to harrisonburg, other salvadorans would ask her if she was from chirilagua or intipucá because there are a couple of apartment complexes in the suburbs that have only residents from those two towns. “it started with a few people who helped others with their rent and food and now there is a large community”. affirming catarina’s observation, repack, in her study of central americans in washington, dc, estimates that half of the population of chirilagua has relocated to a northern virginia suburb and notes that the town of intipucá in el salvador has renamed one of its main avenues “washington street” in recognition of its large expatriate population residing in the washington area (repack, : ). like susana, pablo cuevas, as one of the first in his family to leave cuba, also brought many relatives to the united states. “it took me years to get relatives out…”. although he brought members of his family to the harrisonburg area, ��the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom they stayed for only a short time before moving to miami. according to pablo, “they couldn’t wait to get out of here because there were no black beans and rice”. when asked to explain, he responded that there were actually a number of reasons. the first was language. when he first started bringing his relatives to the area in the early s, they could not speak english and “there weren’t too many spanish-speaking people to talk to. second, was the food. there was no food they were used to. you couldn’t just go to food lion. they had to go to the international food stores to find the food they liked. there was one in charlottesville…they couldn’t watch tv. there was no satellite tv. that goes for the culture part. then there was the weather, working in -degree weather. they were used to seeing the sun and degrees”. through such invitations or sponsorship, certain individuals initiate and perpetuate migration chains involving overlapping networks of relatives, friends and acquaintances usually from the same home community. over time these social networks, originating in one or more villages, towns or cities in various latin american countries, have coalesced into multiple small communities in harrisonburg. while the pattern of linkages between hometown and immigrant communities is well established in the literature, the focus is usually on the ties between one destination and one specific sending community. for example, writing on the connection between mexican immigration and meatpacking in marshalltown, iowa, grey ( ) refers to the town of villachuato, michoacan as marshalltown’s “unofficial sister city” because it is the source of as many as half of marshalltown’s immigrants and one third of the local meatpacking plant’s workforce (grey, ). in contrast to marshalltown, harrisonburg could be said to have a number of identifiable “unofficial sister cities” in at least six latin american countries. in harrisonburg, i have been able to identify what i prefer to call multiple “daughter communities” rather than “sister cities,” since the latter term suggests parallel status, chambers of commerce and business connections, while the former evokes an expansion of roots into a new environment, as well as the deeper interdependence of a parent and child. these “daughter communities” have their origins in multiple, specific hometowns in mexico, guatemala, el salvador, honduras, cuba and uruguay, as well as in the efforts of specific “pioneers,” or first individuals, to arrive in the valley from these small towns or cities. for example, many mexicans in the local area know that the garcia brothers, who were among the first mexicans to settle in harrisonburg, “invited” family and friends from their hometown (population , ) in the state of jalisco, so that over a period of almost thirty years, they have now created a community of anywhere from to people, depending on the individual making the estimate. in the past, many lived in the same trailer park in harrisonburg. although the garcia family organizes “fiestas,” mainly at christmas, for the whole group, �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom it is becoming difficult to find a place large enough to hold everyone since no one has a big enough house. no formal “hometown association” exists yet despite some interest in starting one. on the other hand, other members of this community do maintain an internet website, including a chat room, for the use of community members who are living both in mexico and several locales in the united states. similarly, ramon mendez was one of the first individuals from his hometown in the mexican state of guanajuato to come to harrisonburg in the s and there are now over people from the same small town and surrounding “ranchos” (smaller settlements) living in the harrisonburg area. according to ramon’s niece lucía, many came here thinking that their stay would be temporary. her own parents were very reluctant to stay. they originally planned to remain in the united states only long enough to earn some money to fix up their house in mexico, but they have been here years and bought a house in the harrisonburg area instead. as a result of everyone leaving, lucía says that their hometown in mexico “is a ghost town”. she explained that they want to close the school because there are so few students. “there aren’t many people there now who live there permanently. mostly they are elderly or some women and children whose husbands haven’t brought them here”. at least three other small communities in harrisonburg have been formed by immigrants from specific towns in the mexican states of zacatecas, queretero and oaxaca. for example, there are an estimated mixteco speakers (an indigenous group in mexico) from the same town in oaxaca living in harrisonburg. according to a migrant education worker who has worked with the mixtecos, “they have parties all the time and many still return home each year at christmas”. the phenomenon of transnational community building is not limited to mexican immigrants. as a latina service provider commented, “the (latino) population is growing more and more. it’s amazing. people come here from all over. it’s like in stages. in one year people come from one place and the next year from somewhere else. normally, two or three get here for any reason and start bringing cousins, their moms and friends. if they are good friends, they help them”. her analysis is apt, since the local influx of various latin american nationality groups can be divided into overlapping stages, beginning in each case with a few individual “pioneers”, who initiated the migration of entire or large segments of social networks through chains of interlocking relationships. in the case of the guatemalans, ana herrera was the first to come to harrisonburg in the s. since then, she has run a boarding house where many of the guatemalans eat meals and, as one of her friends remarked, “she made everyone feel that she was their mother”. today, many of the guatemalans in harrisonburg are from ana’s hometown area near the border with mexico. she estimated that there are perhaps guatemalans in harrisonburg from that area alone. in contrast, ��the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom rosa luna, who was another of the first guatemalans in harrisonburg, is from a different town, and, as a friend of both of the women remarked, “she has not brought a group of people here like ana has”. although the refugee resettlement office estimates the number of cubans in harrisonburg at , the number is actually closer to because not all of the cubans have come under the auspices of the refugee resettlement office, according to christina solano, a member of the local cuban community. “those who came through the office brought others including relatives from miami. miami is the american dream, but there is little opportunity there, so little by little people have been moving here. they are all from the same town…which is located in the western-most part of cuba. they are not refugees, but economic refugees”. she explained that cubans have a special arrangement with the us government by which “any cuban who sets foot on american soil can stay no matter how they entered. if they put one foot on american soil, they have guaranteed residence. it’s easier to get legal status as a cuban than for other immigrants. residents can then bring their kids and if they become citizens, they can bring everyone”. although many of cubans in harrisonburg claim to have university degrees, none of them has been able to resume their former career because of language and credentialing problems and have ended up working in the poultry-processing plants. christina concluded that although everyone wants to go to miami because of their problems with english, it is difficult to move because of the lack of jobs and the higher cost of living in a big city. uruguayans in harrisonburg, according to paula alvarado, really belong to “two branches” from two different small cities. for a number of years, uruguayan migration to the united states was facilitated by the fact that uruguayans were able to legally enter the united states without visas. the first three uruguayans came to harrisonburg together from new york in after receiving information from a friend about restaurant jobs. the three friends had traveled to the united states together from the same town in uruguay where they had been members of the same rugby team. however, only one of the three, lorenzo guevara, has brought other uruguayans to the area. according to several more recent arrivals, lorenzo “has brought his whole family here”. the other two friends stayed for only a short time and returned to uruguay, but one of them subsequently married and returned with his wife and children to harrisonburg in . many uruguayans came to harrisonburg at about the same time in - . paula remarked that she really does not know the people from the other uruguayan town who have come to harrisonburg, but she does know that they are a group of related people, many of whom belong to the same church and that one of the vega brothers, who was a founding member of the church, brought many people here. when paula came in , economic conditions in uruguay “were bad and many people had gotten into debt”. she estimated that there were - �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom uruguayan families in harrisonburg in , but there has been “a lot of coming and going since then”. other uruguayans’ estimates range from to families in . hondurans are the newest latino immigrant group to come to harrisonburg. they began arriving in the valley in the mid- s, many after hurricane mitch caused considerable damage in honduras (and nicaragua) in . most of them are from locales in the department of olancho. regardless of their initial legal status, hondurans (and nicaraguans) have benefited from being granted (and having repeatedly renewed) temporary protected status by the federal government, which allows them to live and work legally in the united states. santiago flores, who was one of the first hondurans to settle in harrisonburg, came via new york city. about the many hondurans in new york, he explained that they tend to settle in “colonias” (neighborhoods) based on the department and district they come from in honduras. he estimated that there are about , hondurans in the harrisonburg area and most have come in the last five years. when he came to harrisonburg in , there were only - hondurans in the area and they all used to get together to celebrate birthdays. according to santiago, they came to harrisonburg because of the availability of work and way of life. “it is a tranquil life without commotion and in some ways it is similar to the countries we come from. it’s not a fast pace like new york”. conclusions and policy implications harrisonburg, like other new immigrant destinations in the south, is experiencing the arrival and settlement of a growing number of latinos, but the origins of this growth are neither random, new nor comprehensible as a phenomenon separate from the town itself. the process of “latinization” in harrisonburg has a history that now extends back over years and three generations in some of the “pioneer” families and that owes as much to the actions of locally-based institutions and individuals as it does to the actions of immigrants who have come to the area to make it home. although the primary purpose of this paper has been to illustrate a distinctive case of “latinization” in a non-traditional destination, there are policy implications that can be drawn from examining this historical process. the first involves the need for more attention to be paid to the diversity of immigrant populations in non-traditional and particularly smaller urban destinations. although the body of research on latinos in new destinations in the south and midwest is growing, most of it focuses on mexican immigrants, suggesting that mexicans are the only latino/ hispanic or for that matter immigrant population that is migrating to rural and small urban areas and that the only reason for the flow is labor migration. ��the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom more importantly, use of such terms as “latino” or “hispanic” to encompass these groups may suggest more homogeneity of experience and circumstances than actually exists. as the paper has shown, there are clearly differences in us immigration policy and law that impact various latin american immigrant groups differently, benefiting some groups with legal status and assistance, while penalizing others. this diversity among latino immigrants also needs to be taken into consideration in policies that impact the provision of services. nationality and immigration status differences as well as other dimensions of diversity among latinos, such as rural versus urban origins, indigenous or minority status in the home country and socioeconomic class and educational background, suggest that a “one-size-fits-all” approach to the provision of services may be less effective. at minimum, programs should incorporate sensitivity to these differences. for example, a single approach to designing programs for teaching english as a second language to adult learners will not be as effective as programs that take into account the varying levels of first language literacy among various groups of latinos. similarly, the existence of multiple “daughter communities” originating in towns in at least a half dozen different countries has exacerbated the problem of identifying community leaders when service providers and other interested parties attempt to find those individuals who can speak for a single presumed “hispanic community” in harrisonburg. another policy implication of the research involves the need for more attention to be given to the role of various “stakeholder” groups within the host community in actively recruiting and facilitating the settlement of immigrant populations. while it is widely recognized that specific industries (e.g. food processing) have a long history of immigrant recruitment, it is less often acknowledged that other groups, and specifically those associated with faith communities, may also play a role in recruitment. on the other hand, such “stakeholders,” as illustrated in the paper, can also be very effective at the local level in the provision of services and support to immigrants, thus shifting some of the cost and burden from public agencies. as the harrisonburg case shows, it is not just large cities that have the capability and resources for dealing with influxes of new immigrants. without comparable data it is difficult to say how unique the harrisonburg area is in its access to such resources, but the strong mennonite emphasis on community service and conflict resolution, as well as the presence of two universities, one of which is mennonite, have undoubtedly created a more international orientation locally than would be expected in other rural areas. in particular, the presence of many individuals, whether latino or euro-american, with spanish language skills and experience living in latin america, may be distinctive or even unique to harrisonburg considering its status as a small city in a rural location. formal policies for recruiting bilingual, bicultural service providers and for creating � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom mentoring programs for potential cultural mediators and service providers among the second generation would benefit other small towns and cities dealing with new immigrant populations. finally, the paper illustrates how the process of migration is initiated and proceeds at the micro-level of individual decisions and actions (albeit within the context of structural changes associated with economic globalization). while decision-making at this level may be idiosyncratic, the net result of a multitude of such decisions within social networks over time is the formation of “daughter communities” in areas of settlement that are made up of individuals with ties to the same places of origin. the presence of these “daughter communities” and the phenomenon of transnational migration, in which individuals and groups live their lives in more than one geographic locale, suggest often-neglected aspects of immigration that need to be understood in developing policy. although other studies have documented the existence of such “daughter communities”, researchers usually focus on links to a single place of origin (e.g. grey, ) rather than the multiple links to multiple places of origin uncovered in harrisonburg. if, as in harrisonburg, other new immigrant destinations contain myriad “daughter communities”, consideration should be given to how various stakeholder groups can harness the “sister city” potential inherent in these communities for the economic and social benefit of both immigrant-sending and receiving communities. a latino business owner suggested one example of how this might be done. he mused about holding a trade fair in harrisonburg that would showcase the handicrafts for which his hometown in mexico is famous and that could facilitate the development of commercial and tourist ties between the town and harrisonburg. his idea could easily be extended to encompass all of harrisonburg’s unofficial “sister cities”. predicting the future is always a dangerous venture, but at least in the short-term, it appears likely that many latino immigrants in harrisonburg will continue to be oriented largely toward their own social networks originating from specific hometowns. it is also likely that they will continue to resent it when locals refer to them as “mexican” regardless of where they are actually from. in the long- term, it may be that the mingling of immigrants of diverse origins within the local community in work, school, churches and recreation (e.g. soccer leagues), as well as the fact that they are persistently viewed and treated by non-latinos as an undifferentiated racial group may eventually bring greater saliency to a pan- ethnic/racial identity and with it a further “latinization” of the community. � the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom notes i have chosen to use the term “latino” to refer to immigrants from latin american countries, recognizing that the term “hispanic” is often used to refer to the same population. both terms are used locally. the expansion of turkey processing locally was spurred in part by an increase in consumer demand. the average per capita consumption of turkey has increased from three pounds in the s- s to pounds in and . pounds in , owing to a shift from seasonal to year-round consumption and the introduction of turkey luncheon meats in recent years. since the s, expansion of the poultry industry has also been spurred by significant increases in poultry exports from less than per cent of total production in to per cent by . approximately per cent of the chicken and per cent of the turkey products from the local area are currently exported. (wright, dan, “more nations ban imports of u.s. birds,” dnr - - : , ). before workers were not required to show identification, such as a social security card, in order to prove their legal status and thus, work eligibility in the united states. see chavez, : . compared to the national average poultry processing wage of $ . /hr. (u.s. bureau of labor statistics), the local starting wage was about $ . /hr. in . my thanks to bruce busching for making available his records on the ufcw local strike against marval. in , marval had hourly workers, of whom were union members. see reinke, - -- . marval claimed that workers had returned to work by december and workers were on “a preferential list for available openings”. see marval poultry company, inc., . the us federal government operates separate programs for asylum seekers and resettled refugees. according to patrick ( : ), most asylum seekers are individuals who have “transported themselves to the country in which they are seeking asylum”, while refugees are more likely to have fled “en masse” and once accepted by the country of resettlement generally do not undergo an additional adjudication process after their arrival to determine if they have a “well founded fear of persecution”, which is the legal definition used for determining refugee status. as the largest of ten traditional resettlement countries, the united states tends to resettle refugees by country of origin and “the urgency of the individual situation”. see patrick, : . the number of cubans who could legally enter the united states and the criteria for granting them refugee status became more restricted after passage of the refugee resettlement act of . after , cubans had to apply for admission like other immigrants and, in order to obtain refugee status, individuals had to prove that they would be persecuted for their religious or political beliefs if they returned to cuba. see olson and olson, : . according to repack ( : ), “…countless parishioners in washington churches sheltered immigrants from el salvador during the war years until they could find housing and jobs on their own”. � zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom according to one estimate, on the national level, - per cent of the catholic church’s budget for charitable works is spent on aiding immigrants and refugees. see freemantle, . references arreola, d. (ed.) hispanic spaces, latino places: community and cultural diversity in contemporary america, university of texas press, austin, tx. bauhan, h. “poultry industry faces difficult challenge”, daily news record, - : . bolsinger, a.s. “figures could create ‘metro” rockingham”, daily news record, - : . “the more things change…” daily news record, - : , . bradshaw, v. “poultry center of trade fight”, daily news record, - : . brehm, b.c. “strangers made this familiar land”, the winchester star (millennium legacy), january ,http://www.winchesterstar.com/thewinchester/ millennium% star broadway, m., and d. stull “we come to the garden…again: garden city kansas, - ”, urban anthropology and studies of cultural systems and world economic development, ( ): - . castro, m. “the politics of language in miami”, in m. romero, et al (eds.), challenging fronteras: structuring latina and latino lives in the u.s., routledge, new york: - . chavez, l. shadowed lives: undocumented immigrants in american society, harcourt brace jovanovich college publishers, fort worth, tx. clark, j. “unworldliness: an endangered spirit,” daily news record, - : , . “county no. in farm income,” daily news record, - - : duchon, d.a., and a.d. murphy “introduction: from patrones and caciques to good ole boys”, in a.d. murphy, et al (eds.), latino workers in the contemporary south. the university of georgia press, athens, ga: - . � the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom diner, h. “history and the study of immigration: narratives of the particular”, in brettell, c.b. and j.f. hollifield (eds.), migration theory: talking across disciplines. routledge, new york: - . dulan, t. a “marval complaints aired”, daily news record, - . b “marval hiring will end strike”, daily news record, - : . c “afl-cio endorses boycott”, daily news record, - . edwards, c. “hispanics working to adapt to life as valley residents”, daily news record, - : . edwards, c. “false hopes,” eightyone, - : - . fink, d. cutting into the meatpacking line: workers and change in the rural midwest, university of north carolina press, chapel hill. freemantle, t. “at casa juan diego, there are no borders”, houston chronicle. com, - . http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/ .html, accessed - - . gibson, m. “public goods, alienation and public protest: the sanctuary movement as a test of the public goods model of collective rebellious behavior”, working paper - , department of political science, university of colorado-boulder, boulder, http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/full_text_search/allcrcdocs/ - .htm accessed - - . gouveia, l., and d. stull “latino immigrants, meatpacking and rural communities: a case study of lexington, nebraska.” jsri research report . the julian samora research institute, michigan state university, east lansing, mi.: gozdziak, e., and s. martin (eds.) beyond the gateway: immigrants in a changing america. lexington books, lanham, md. grey, m.a. “immigrants, migration and work turnover at the hog pride pork packing plant”, human organization, ( ): - . “unofficial sister cities: meatpacking labor migration between villachuato, mexico and marshalltown, iowa”, human organization, ( ): - . griffith, d. “hay trabajo: poultry processing, rural industrialization and the latinization of low-wage labor” in d. stull, et al (eds.), any way you cut it: meat processing and small town america, university of kansas press, lawrence, ks:. - . griffith, d., and e. kissam working poor: farmworkers in the united states. the university of north carolina press, philadelphia, pa. �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom hahamovitch, c. the fruits of their labor. the university of north carolina press, chapel hill, nc. hamilton, n., and n. s.chinchilla “central american migration: a framework for analysis” in p.hondagneu- sotelo, et al (eds.), challenging fronteras: structuring latina and latino lives in the u.s.. routledge, new york: - . hill directory company hill’s harrisonburg (rockingham county, va) city directory . hill directory co, inc., publishers, richmond, va. joint legislative audit and review commission “acclimation of virginia’s foreign-born population”, house document no. . commonwealth of virginia, richmond. jordan-bychkov, t.g. the upland south: the making of an american folk region and landscape, center for american places/university of virginia press, santa fe, nm and harrisonburg, va. kandel, w., and e.a. parrado “hispanics in the american south and the transformation of the poultry industry”, in d. arreola, hispanic spaces, latino places, university of texas press, austin: - . kochar, r., r. suro, and s. tafoya the new latino south: the context and consequences of rapid population growth. pew hispanic center, washington, dc. lamphere, l., a. stepick, and g. grenier (eds.) newcomers in the workplace: immigrants and the restructuring of the u.s. economy, temple university press, philadelphia, pa. lee, e. “a theory of migration”. demography, : - . light, i., p. bhachu, and s. karageorgis “migration networks and immigrant entrepreneurship.” conference papers vol. v, - , california immigrants in world perspective, institute for social research, ucla. april. longley, b. “folks keep coming to the ‘burg,” daily news record, - . marval poultry company inc. director of public relations “straight turkey talk: before you decide, learn the facts in the marval poultry labor case”, brochure dated december . “marval says jobs not lost”, daily news record, - - . “marval talks: no settlement”, daily news record, - - : . massey, d. “foolish fences”, washington post, - :a . massey, d., et al return to aztlan. university of california press, berkeley, ca. “meat and migrants”, rural migration news ( ), july , http://migration.ucdavis. edu/rmncomments.php?id= _ _ _c. ��the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom mennonite central committee website (http://www.mcc.org/about/history.html) millard, a., and j. chapa apple pie & enchiladas: latino newcomers in the rural midwest, university of texas press, austin. mitchell, t. “on the rise: mormon church adds spanish branch”, daily news record, - : - . mohl, r.a. “latinization in the heart of dixie: hispanics in late-twentieth century alabama”, the alabama review : - . “globalization, latinization and the nuevo new south”, in globalization and the american south, j.c. cobb and w. stueck (eds.), the university of georgia press, athens, ga:.. - . murphey, r. “arbitration proposal rejected”, daily news record, - : murphy, a., et al (eds.) latino workers in the contemporary south, the university of georgia press, athens, ga. office of children and youth church survey, james madison university, harrisonburg, va. ollinger, m., et al “structural change in u.s. chicken and turkey slaughter”, agricultural economic report , economic research service, usda, washington, dc. olson, j.s., and j. e. olson cuban americans: from trauma to triumph. twayne publishers, new york. oswald, l.l. “ministry provides “new bridges” for immigrants moving into virginia conference”, mennonite church u.s.a news service, december , http:// mennoniteusa.org/news/news/ _ _ .htm. patrick, e. “the u.s. refugee resettlement program”, migration policy institute, washington, dc, june , http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus accessed - - . reinke, m. a “marval union pact vote today”, daily news record, - : . b “talks set to resume at marval”, daily news record, - . repack, t.a. waiting on washington: central american workers in the nation’s capital, temple university press, philadelphia. rer economic consultants market analysis: city-wide housing trends harrisonburg virginia. paper prepared for harrisonburg redevelopment & housing authority, rer economic consultants, herndon, va. �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom rochin, r.i. “the features and roles of rural latinos: cross-national perspectives”, occasional paper , the julian samora research institute, michigan state university, east lansing, mi. shetterley, m. “union doubts marval claim of neutrality”, daily news record, - . shifflett, peggy ann the red flannel rag: memoirs of an appalachian childhood, brightside press radford, va. stull, donald “when the packers come to town: changing ethnic relations in garden city, kansas”, urban anthropology : - . stull, d., et al any way you cut it: meat processing and small-town america university press of kansas, lawrence, ks. tilson, b. “valley hispanics fare well at orchards, poultry plants”, daily news record, : - . torres, c.c. “emerging latino communities: a new challenge for the rural south”, st century , southern rural development center, mississippi state, august. u.s. bureau of the census n.d. “harrisonburg city quickfacts from the u.s. census bureau,” http://quickfacts. census.gov/qfd/states/ / .html. u.s. department of state “fact sheet: refugee admissions program for latin america and the caribbean”, bureau of population, refugees and migration, washington, dc, november , http: www.state.gov/g/prm/rls/fs/ .htm. vaden, h. “’a’ is for…adaptable,” shenandoah valley business journal ( ): , . wayland, j. a history of rockingham county, virginia, ruebush-elkins company dayton, va. weldon cooper center, uva. demographics and workforce section, virginia n.d. demographics, “virginia’s hispanic population - .” http://www . ccps.virginia.edu/demographics/magazine/dw% pages/ _hispanicspart _ dw/ _pop - .html accessed - - . zarrugh, laura “from workers to owners: hispanic entrepreneurs in the shenandoah valley”, (unpublished) . ��the latinization of the central shenandoah valley © the author journal compilation © iom la latinisation de la vallÉe centrale de shenandoah au même titre que la caroline du nord, l’arkansas et la georgie, la virginie est l’un de ces etats du sud des etats-unis qui ont été témoins d’une poussée soudaine de l’immigration latino-américaine au cours de la dernière décennie. non seulement il s’agit d’un rythme de croissance sans précédent, mais bon nombre de destinations choisies sont nouvelles et situées en zone rurale. des lieux qui n’avaient pas accueilli de population immigrée depuis des générations prennent brusquement un caractère multiculturel. la petite ville de harrisonburg ( habitants selon un décompte approximatif de ), qui est située dans la vallée centrale de shenandoah, en virginie, est peut-être le principal exemple de cette nouvelle évolution. alors qu’elle se vantait autrefois d’être composée d’américains de souche à hauteur de , % et d’être blanche à , %, cette ville se distingue aujourd’hui par la plus grande diversité d’origine des enfants scolarisés à l’échelle de l’etat (pour la période - ), puisqu’on y dénombre nationalités parlant langues. on y trouve notamment des hispanophones originaires d’au moins pays différents. a partir de la théorie des réseaux sociaux, l’auteur examine comment ces réseaux se sont activés chez les immigrants latino-américains dans les nouvelles zones d’installation. il présente un historique du processus de “latinisation”, en citant notamment l’installation de populations latino-américaines diverses (originaires du mexique, du guatemala, d’el salvador, du honduras, de cuba et d’uruguay) à harrisonburg et dans la vallée centrale shenandoah entourant cette ville. l’auteur montre comment un certain nombre d’institutions clés, et notamment les industries agricoles locales (pommeraies et élevages de poulets), un bureau de réinstallation de réfugiés et des églises ont recruté des “pionniers” au sein de ces groupes d’immigrants, et comment ces “pionniers” ont par la suite poursuivi cette action de recrutement à l’aide de réseaux sociaux, créant ainsi de multiples “communautés affiliées” transnationales dans la région de harrisonburg. l’étude examine aussi les implications politiques de ce processus historique. �� zarrugh © the author journal compilation © iom la latinizaciÓn del valle central shenandoah virginia es uno de los estados sureños de los estados unidos, al igual que carolina del norte, arkansas y georgia, que ha experimentado un incremento repentino de la inmigración latina durante el último decenio. no sólo se trata de un incremento sin precedentes, si no que además los destinos son nuevos y localizados en zonas rurales. estos lugares que no han albergado a poblaciones inmigrantes durante generaciones se están convirtiendo rápidamente en entornos multiculturales. la pequeña ciudad de harrisonburg (con . habitantes según el censo de ), está localizada en el valle rural central de shenadoah en virginia, y es quizás el primer ejemplo de este nuevo patrón de cambio. si bien la publicidad local promocionaba a harrisonburg porque sus habitantes eran “ , por ciento nacidos en américa y , por ciento blancos” hoy en día se destaca por albergar la población más diversa inscrita en los colegios públicos del estado (entre y ), con estudiantes provenientes de países que hablan idiomas. entre ellos están estudiantes de habla hispana provenientes de por lo menos países distintos. sobre la base de la teoría de redes sociales, este artículo examina redes sociales entre los inmigrantes latinos que se activan en nuevas zonas de asentamiento. se presenta un estudio por caso de un proceso histórico de “latinización” que implica el asentamiento de toda una variedad de poblaciones latinas de “méxico, guatemala, el salvador, honduras, cuba y uruguay” en harrisonburg y el valle central aledaño de shenandoah. el estudio demuestra cómo una serie de instituciones clave,- incluidas las industrias agrícolas locales (manzanos y avicultura), una oficina de reasentamiento de refugiados y las iglesias - reclutaron a los “pioneros” de estos grupos de inmigrantes en la región y cómo esos “pioneros” entablaron ulteriormente el reclutamiento a nivel de su red social, creando “comunidades hermanas” transnacionales y múltiples en la región de harrisonburg. también se examinan las repercusiones políticas de este proceso histórico. spiritual companioning: a guide to protestant theology and practice by angela h. reed, richard r. osmer, marcus g. smucker (review) spiritual companioning: a guide to protestant theology and practice by angela h. reed, richard r. osmer, marcus g. smucker (review) joseph driskill spiritus: a journal of christian spirituality, volume , number , spring , pp. - (review) published by johns hopkins university press doi: for additional information about this article [ access provided at apr : gmt from carnegie mellon university ] https://doi.org/ . /scs. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /scs. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ spiritus | . does it have impressive documentation and historical analysis of a critical moment in our recent spiritual history, but it should also inspire in us a critical questioning of our own work. to what extent does our commitment to spiritual practice out in creation depend upon transcendentalist, romantic, or some other heterodox com- mitment? and if so, what is at stake in that commitment? have we forgotten the scriptural witness of wilderness as struggle, temptation, and death in the wake of john muir’s eloquence? do we read the transfiguration as complete with the confi- dence of an anthropocentric salvation from our ecological self-destruction? these sorts of reflective questions should not be received as threatening but rather should help us to separate the wheat from the chaff in the search for the truth to which we witness. this book, while not without its flaws, can help us ask good questions of our own work as we continue to articulate a concern for creation that remains robustly orthodox in its christian spirituality and theology. devoted to nature is an accessible read appropriate to undergraduate, gradu- ate, and professional researchers. it would be at home in any historical, sociologi- cal, or theological inquiry into american environmentalism. j.w. pritchett university of aberdeen spiritual companioning: a guide to protestant theology and practice. by angela h. reed, richard r. osmer, and marcus g. smucker. grand rapids: baker academic, . pp. $ . . a joint effort by three praxis scholars representing the baptist, presbyterian, and mennonite traditions has occasioned a valuable new resource focused on protes- tant spirituality. this work should find its way to the syllabi in practical theology classes in protestant seminaries as well as to the libraries of pastors and protestant churches where a deep commitment to spiritually enriched leadership exists. it embraces the concerns of spirituality scholars who, in the words of anton boisen, study “living human documents.” by shifting the focus from spiritual direction to spiritual companioning, while continuing to draw upon the insights of classics in the field, the authors have provided an approach to spiritual life, which is focused not simply on individuals but also on small groups and congregations. this shift, though not dramatic, addresses a number of issues. over the past three decades significant numbers of protestant clergy and laity have been trained as spiritual directors through highly respected programs at roman catholic retreat houses or in other ecumenical training centers. anecdotal evidence suggests that many who train as spiritual directors never go on to provide direction to others. hence, one can hypothesize that they have sought this training to increase their understanding of spirituality and to deepen their personal prayer life. spiritual companioning offers an alternative way to provide practitioners with background and training in spirituality, is less formal than traditional one-on-one spiritual direction, and has as its focus the wider life of the congregation. this book offers clergy and laity with the gifts for spiritual companioning a number of avenues for this ministry. book reviews the book’s introduction provides widely accepted definitions of key terms common in the literature: spiritual guidance, spiritual direction, and spiritual friendships. spiritual companioning is defined as “a way of accompanying others in intentional relationships of prayerful reflection and conversation that help them notice god’s presence and calling in their personal lives, local communities and the world.” each of the book’s seven chapters explores the various ways in which spiritual companioning has the potential to transform small groups, congregations, narratives of everyday life, the metanarrative journey of life, and the practice of spiritual direction. each of these arenas is explored through a framework common to all chapters: understanding the cultural context, listening to scripture, mining the protestant tradition, practicing spiritual companioning, exploring stories of congregations, and engaging exercises for developing spiritual companioning skills. the authors draw on robert wuthnow’s insights in support of a practice- oriented approach to spirituality as contrasted to either a dwelling-oriented spiri- tuality (more institutionally focused) or seeking-oriented spirituality (concerned primarily with an individual’s quest). the emphasis on practices has a number of advantages: it offers a means for entering into a relationship with the living god who continues to speak today, it grounds one in the tradition from which the practices arise, and, if taught, used, and supported in a congregational context, it encourages both solitude and community. drawing generously from dietrich bon- hoeffer’s insights, spiritual companioning is understood as a spiritual practice as well as a ministry where other spiritual practices are valued as a means to faithful- ness by integrating both the personal and the communal aspects of faith. spiritual practices are sprinkled throughout the book and introduced in a manner to appeal to protestant communities who may be skeptical at first blush of practices used by christian traditions outside their orbit or whose origin predates the reformation. the authors recognize that members of their three protestant tra- ditions are accustomed to bible study as the primary means of faith development. they encourage readers to explore their spiritual lives using a variety of practices such as lectio divina, daily examen, luther’s four-stranded garland, spiritual auto- biography, and clearness committees. using metaphors (for example, life as a river) for personal reflection is also recommended. the practices are often described in the book’s narrative sections, but each chapter includes a set of exercises, which al- lows for practice and skill development. an annotated bibliography with references for further exploration concludes each chapter. these bibliographies include classic texts from an array of sources, including roman catholic, anglican, and various evangelical and mainline protestant traditions. spiritual companioning requires skill sets from both the social sciences and theology. drawing from active listening training the authors demonstrate the importance of non-judgmental listening where deep trust is cultivated in a rela- tionship of genuine caring. one means of building such relationships involves learning to ask strategic, open-ended questions about matters of faith. i especially appreciated the key questions laced throughout the book, sometimes in the text and often in the practice sections, that helped both individuals and groups notice god’s on-going activity. examples include: “what are some key moments in your spiritual life over the years?” “how do you think god feels about your pain?” “where do you sense god’s presence in our small group?” the intensity of the questions that john wesley used with his small groups (bands) are included—“do spiritus | . you desire to be told of your faults?”—to demonstrate the level of intimacy wesley sought to develop among his members. the authors acknowledge that while most contemporary church members would not desire this level of intimacy in a small group, much healing does occur in twelve step programs where such honesty and transparency is the norm. the distinction between life cycle theory and life course theory for the pur- pose of spiritual companioning is introduced in the chapter on life’s journey. while life cycle theory explores predictable patterns common to various stages of life, life course theory explores the impact of specific events and the social context in shaping one’s personal narrative. this approach has the advantage of minimizing essentializing by not only exploring life events and turning points in a person’s life, but also by placing that life in the context of its various religious, social, and famil- ial communities. the authors are clear that spiritual companioning is not “therapy lite,” but seeks to deepen one’s faith. the authors note that not infrequently persons of faith are reluctant to discuss their spiritual experiences because they fear such experiences are odd or open to ridicule. spiritual companions must remain open to non-judgmentally receiving these stories so that those sharing are able to connect with others about their deep- est spiritual experiences. the theological anthropology which informs the context of this book understands people as social beings seeking genuine connections with themselves, others, and god. however, technological tools like ipads and black- berries that discourage in-depth conversations shape the contemporary cultural context. thus, a dilemma: humans are wired for meaningful relationships but frequently find the need frustrated. spiritual companioning is one way to address this need. the christological focus found in the “listening to scripture” section of each chapter is heavily informed by richard peace’s interpretation of mark’s gospel. his view of atonement—with an emphasis on the need for jesus to suffer and die to ransom humanity from sin and death—results in believers coming to the realiza- tion that they must take up their cross and follow jesus in a life of discipleship. spiritual companioning is viewed as having implications for evangelism, namely, carrying the good news to all creation. the conversion narratives of the puritans, wesleyan emphasis on holiness, and baptist testimony are all referenced as spiritual practices that can be furthered through spiritual companioning. the value of spiri- tual companioning as it is presented, however, can easily be affirmed with other theological interpretations of scripture. the book could be used in a variety of praxis focused seminary classes. those with more liberal theological beliefs could encourage their students to identify their own theological positions and explore the way their beliefs influence their approach to and expectations of the ministry of spiritual companioning. the final chapter explores the role of spiritual companioning in the lives of clergy who are frequently in need of support, yet whose competitiveness contrib- utes to personal and professional burnout. this chapter also helpfully outlines a number of ethical and practical considerations congregations committed to spiri- tual companioning must consider. while these issues are too numerous to cover in depth, the bibliography provides well-established resources to pursue. the major omission in this work is its lack of case study material that draws on the insights and practices of racial/ethnic faith communities. white communities book reviews of faith are recognizing that they cannot assume as normative the ethnicity their privilege has traditionally afforded them. thus, case studies in the book, which are generally used to demonstrate an insight from the text, would benefit from includ- ing more people of color. joseph driskill pacific school of religion from despair to faith: the spirituality of søren kierkegaard. by christopher b. bar- nett. minneapolis: fortress press, . pp. $ . . as christopher b. barnett notes in this fine study, harold bloom’s definition of genius as “capacious consciousness” certainly describes søren kierkegaard, famed not only as a philosopher but also as a poet, theological writer, and social critic. nonetheless, important features of kierkegaard’s life and work still suffer neglect, and one of those is kierkegaard’s spirituality. barnett’s aim is ambitious: not only to appreciate kierkegaard as a “spiritual writer” but “to treat kierkegaard’s oeuvre as a place where one’s relationship with god can be illuminated and deepened” (xvii). in what sense is kierkegaard a “spiritual writer”? building on his earlier book, kierkegaard, pietism and holiness (farnham: ashgate, ), barnett in chapter one explores the pietist and moravian background of kierkegaard’s upbringing and his fondness for pietist writings, not only by pietism’s father, the lutheran johann arndt, but also, through arndt, kierkegaard’s “cautious” appropriation of medieval catholic mystical writers such as johannes tauler and thomas à kempis. this pietist background gave kierkegaard a central concept that defined the pur- pose of his entire authorship: “upbuilding” (danish opbyggelse), aimed at aiding his reader’s spiritual development and love for god. yet within the totality of kierkegaard’s writings, one finds two narrower strands of kierkegaard’s more directly spiritual literature, first, the “humanistic” spirituality of the eighteen upbuilding discourses ( – ) that kierkegaard published under his own name to accompany his many pseudonymous writings, and second, his more explicitly christian articulation of the nature of god, sin, and the imitation of christ, following the publication of concluding unsci- entific postscript. barnett argues, correctly in my view, for complementarity rather than rupture between the “humanistic” and “christian” strands in kierkegaard’s spiritual literature. here barnett notes similarities with two other classical spiritual writers, bernard of clairvaux and meister eckhart. with them, kierkegaard envi- sions a twofold approach to spirituality: “an intrinsic human desire for that which brings fulfillment, as well as . . . the christian claim that the triune god can best satisfy this desire” ( ). in chapter two, barnett develops in more detail this basic claim of a progres- sion from human longing to divine fulfillment by exploring kierkegaard’s under- standing of god, self, and the spiritual journey. barnett identifies kierkegaard with the classical exitus-reditus (exit-return) theme in christian thinking (but without its neoplatonic tendencies), and agrees with lee c. barrett’s recent argument that untitled annals of the „constantin brâncuşi” university of târgu jiu, economy series, special issue eco-trend – performance, competitiveness, creativity „academica brÂncuŞi” publisher, issn – /issn-l - illusion of excessive consumption and its effects mungiu-pupĂzan mariana claudia lecturer phd, “constantin brÂncuŞi” university of tg-jiu e-mail: e-mail:claudia.mungiu@gmail.com abstract the aim is to explore, explain and describe this phenomenon to a better understanding of it and also the relationship between advertising and the consumer society members. this paper aims to present an analysis of excessive and unsustainable consumption, the evolution of a phenomenon, and the ability to find a way to combat. unfortunately, studies show that this tendency to accumulate more than we need to consume excess means that almost all civilizations fined and placed dogmatic among the values that children learn early in life. this has been perpetuated since the time when the goods or products does not get so easy as today. anti-consumerism has emerged in response to this economic system, not on the long term. we are witnessing the last two decades to establish a new phase of consumer capitalism: society hiperconsumtion. keywords: society hiperconsumtion, excess consumption, anti-consumerism, non consumerism, welfare. classification jel : e .introduction the issue of the study was to identify the role, functions and techniques for running the advertising in the social, economic and cultural, to meet the numerous criticisms publicity relating to the quality of the advertising message, content, quantity and form, but also on ethical and moral issues regarding the negative impact on consumers. moreover, we watched and changes over time within consumer with its transition to a new stage - was hiperconsumption. consumerism is the result of an economic model which is based on production rather than on needs. it is a system that, when oversaturated market, decided to produce and more. has converted desires into needs, changed social positions, overturned value systems, has mystified within the purchasing of products. we are lead to think that buying a bottle of water, but the freshness of mountain air, do not buy some clothes, but an attitude, do not buy a car, but a place among the top placed, a social position. people are just consumers and categorized in terms of how and quantity of consumption, masses of people are the target sites, countries measured in purchasing power and consumption. all these models have worked well for decades and included around the world and whatever the peculiarities consumer economy stifled any political ideology or model of living. globalization is also a consequence of consumerism. we are told that we need more products around the world. it is so civilized to eat certain foods and then we call civilized. civilization does not seem to be related to morality, education, and science, but the goods they consume. and because the earth is a closed system means that if you take a hand somewhere is shrinking. . anti-consumerism anti-consumerism has emerged in response to this economic system, not on the long term. they say we should distinguish between wants and needs, to look pragmatically products, to seek happiness and welfare elsewhere.ideally to buy as little and as local environmental reasons or nominal income. buying local products reduces the consumption of carbon dioxide that it quantifies the product transport and help the local economy, ie those around you. when you buy a product you should know what's behind it, where it's made, what it's made, whether the local market can find a similar one. you should know that the whole system is based on your money. you do not have the excuse that you did not know. the buyer is not only a privilege, but a responsibility. already there are economic models that bring economic engine of production in society and places new concepts based on the green economy. degrowth (in french, décroissance) is a political movement, economic and social, and ecological economics based on the idea anticonsumeriste and anticapitalist. the authors and advocates of degrowth economics pledază for decreasing production and consumption and economic contraction, arguing that overconsumption underlying long-term environmental problems and social inequality. the key concept of degrowth is that reducing consumption does not require individual sacrifice and a decrease in welfare. annals of the „constantin brâncuşi” university of târgu jiu, economy series, special issue eco-trend – performance, competitiveness, creativity „academica brÂncuŞi” publisher, issn – /issn-l - history books usually study social movements of the second half of the nineteenth century from the point of view of the split between anarchists and marxists. both theories played an important role in debates of the great workers’ movements of the following century, and for a long time, no one seemed to question the root they shared: the idea that the origin of the “social problem” was in the way in which the production of things was organized. it’s normal for that powerful idea to occupy, almost without question, the center of historical stories: from the first international to the fall of the communist regimes of eastern europe, the story of european reforms and revolutions was written in terms of work stoppages, general strikes, “wildcat” strikes and factory occupations. in the world of alternatives in the same days, not much was different. for two centuries, to say “cooperative” in continental europe or in south america automatically meant “worker cooperative,” and it was the most powerful community movement of the time. israeli “kibbutzim” (communities) were founded to create a productive base in the wastelands of jewish migration in asia. even when the catholic church started to develop its “social doctrine” with the encyclical rerum novarum, its focus was on the same starting point as the theoreticians of the iwa: the drama of proletarianization of the artisan and the peasant, the transition from the workshop and its culture to the factory and alienation. social anglicanism but the anglo-saxon world was going the other direction. in great britain, a strong philanthropical tradition existed, linking both liberals and conservative social christianity, which was afraid that unions would be “contaminated” by the radical ideas of the continent. at the end of the nineteenth century, this tendency had little influence on unions, but had a strong relationship with different experiments of workers’ stores and little mutuals, often linked to the social outreach of anglican parishes. little by little, from this effort there emerged a “friendly cooperativism.” the worker cooperative showed the possibility of a world where capitalists were not the owners of the businesses; however, a consumer cooperative can put in question the need for a shopkeeper-owner, but not owners as a group, so it didn’t question the social order. these are the cooperatives that met in the “first british co-operative congress” in . wanting to create an “alternative” to the dominant workers’ movements, they will rewrite the history of cooperativism as it was then commonly understood, placing its origins in robert owens, a liberal philanthropist–rather than in fourier–and will date the birth of cooperativism to “the rochdale pioneers,” an english consumer cooperative, ignoring the fishing, agrarian and artisan commons that had been modernizing and becoming modern [worker] cooperatives for at least sixty years prior. for a long time, this reductionist interpretation was almost exclusively anglo-saxon. in , when the first assembly of the “international cooperative alliance” took place, the delegates belonged almost exclusively to the british empire: england, australia, india, and ireland. the anglo-saxon homogeneity was only broken by the participation of german christian cooperativism, born of the lutheran church, a minority in an environment of overwhelming development of social democracy. united states after the second world war, “consumerism” took off in the united states. us unions spread consumer and housing cooperativism across the country as a way to protect their members from the economic crisis following the japanese recovery. the idea that “conscious consumption” can not only relieve crises but transform the very international economic structure is made manifest in , when the committee central mennonite creates “ten thousand villages,” the first “fair trade” association. meanwhile, society is stunned to discover the proportions of the jewish genocide, and the media have to explain how “hitler’s madness” could have led to electoral success and social consensus in enlightened germany. the attention of academics and creators of opinion turns to techniques of mass manipulation. there is a growing distrust of the power of the media and the effects of the then nascent television. the publicists of madison avenue (“mad men”) will soon become the epitome of the new industrialist fascism, which is able to use goebbels’ mass techniques in a new way, to make us consume what we don’t need. alternative consumption and what soon will be called the “counterculture” are then defined as a new form of resistance. europe in europe, during the ’ s, a good number of college kids–then much less numerous than today–discovered the radical left. after failing again and again to convince the workers that they needed a revolutionary party, they wonder the same thing that, years before, bordieu and castoriadis had asked in the magazine socialism or barbarism: “why is the proletariat no longer revolutionary?” castoriadis’ answer, and above all, bordieu’s, later followed by his situationist disciple guy debord, will be very well developed intellectually. according to these authors, capitalism had entered a new phase, where the determining factor of the social order, including the control and the generation of identities, was carried out not in the direct relationship between capital and labor, in production, but rather in the system of reproduction of the labor force, consumption, where the new contradictions of the system were concentrated. more than capitalism, we would have to call the new mode of social production/reproduction “consumerism.” the discourse is soon taken up by the non-parliamentarian german and dutch left: the fundamental contradiction of capitalism is no longer between capital and labor, as marx described, but between capital, culture and natural resources. the enemy was no longer capitalism, but consumerism and industrialism. the discourse recovers the annals of the „constantin brâncuşi” university of târgu jiu, economy series, special issue eco-trend – performance, competitiveness, creativity „academica brÂncuŞi” publisher, issn – /issn-l - priority and urgency of an alternative: the dream of a world revolution–something that the people make, and would have to make–will gradually be substituted with a global ecological catastrophe, something that would be beyond people’s control if they don’t change their lifestyles and consumption habits. in that ideological framework, die grünen, the greens, are born, the first european political party to systematically organize campaigns of alternative consumption. the fall of the communist regimes of eastern europe, with the consequent loss of influence of the parties of marxist inspiration, gave even more relevance to anti-consumerism–and therefore to “consumerism”–in alternative discourse in a wide variety of forms and topical associations: from catastrophism and radical ecologism to the discourse of movements against climate change and a good part of the “sharing economy.” today and in fact, it has been the development of a whole series of movements born in the english-speaking world over the two latest decades that has ended up establishing the argument of the “centrality of consumption” among new social sectors in europe and latin america. alternative discourse has gone from the productive kibbutz, still a major point of reference in the ’ s, to “ecovillages” that only share ownership of common services, from cooperatives with houses to “co-living,” and even from consumer co-ops themselves to “collaborative consumption” platforms listed on the stock market. and if there is no belief that production is the center of social organization, it is difficult to understand the nature and distribution of property as the determinant institution of an era. . conclusions the “consumerist” discourse, the idea that consumption patterns can modify the social structure through the market, has gained extraordinary strength. paradoxically, it has fed and given legitimacy to a certain sense of “guilt” about consuming and enjoying doing so, a certain ascetic and degrowthist ideal, closer to christian millenarianism than to the dream of abundance of the utopian and revolutionary movements of the nineteenth century. a new social consensus about how to change the world seems to have formed. and yet, we realize that something substantial is diluted when we ignore production. maybe it’s because our empowerment as consumers, by definition, has a ceiling. perhaps because we realize that unemployment and poverty can’t be addressed by changing only our purchases, or only distributing production another way. perhaps because consuming “less,” or “even less,” is the immediate result of the crisis (economic “degrowth”), and we see that it means nothing but poverty. or simply because, inside, we know that, for as valuable and important as sharing culture is, our sovereignty and that of our communities continues to depend on our ability to satisfy the needs of our loved ones, and that that, beyond cultural change, in the end has to do with capacity and the mode of production of goods, both material and cultural, that satisfy them. . bibliography [ ] cătoiu, i., teodorescu n., comportamentul consumatorului, editura uranus, bucureşti, ; [ ] datculescu p., cercetarea de marketing : cum pătrunzi în mintea consumatorului, cum măsori şi cum analizezi informaţia, bucureşti, brandbuilders, ; [ ] gueguen n., psihologia consumatorului: factorii care ne influenteaza comportamentul de consum, editura polirom, iaşi, ; [ ] iliescu, d., petre, d, psihologia consumatorului, bucureşti, ed. comunicare.ro, ; [ ] kotler, p., managementul marketingului, editura teora, bucureşti, ; *** http://www.revistadestatistica.ro/suplimente/ / /srrs _ a .pdf the international scene: news and abstracts ronald j. plavchan, editor acuril ix—caa . the ninth conference of the association of car- ibbean university and research libraries (acuril) in conjunction with the caribbean archives association (caa) took place at willemstad, curacao, on november - , . the conference was held with the cooperation and as- sistance of the government of the netherlands antilles, the curacao archives library and documentation association (carbidov), and institutional mem- bers of both acuril and caa in curasao. the theme of the meeting was "caribbean resources: sharing, conservation, and photoduplication." from a historical standpoint, this joint meeting of acuril and caa marked the first time that librarians and archivists had met at a conference in the caribbean to discuss mutual problems and needs. some topics of the sessions included the training of archivists in the caribbean, resource sharing, preservation problems and methods, regional microfilming projects, and photoduplication programs in the dissemination of information. in a separate session the caa executive committee approved the main theme of the forthcoming third caribbean archives conference, scheduled to be held in nassau in september . it will be "the role of the archivist in nation building." [d. gail saunders, public records office, nassau.] fid congress. the thirty-ninth congress of the international federation for documentation (fid), scheduled for september - , , at the uni- versity of edinburgh in scotland, will take place at a critical juncture in its eighty- year history. the role, objectives, and even the existence of the international body are under severe criticism by both members and non-members. in , the general assembly agreed in mexico that the forthcoming congress should provide an opportunity for fid to undertake a self-evaluation and to consider in which directions fid should move to serve its professional membership and fulfill its international role. there is general agreement that the growth of activity of intergovernmental bodies on a worldwide level has merely increased the need for an international organization like fid to focus on the requirements of those professionals en- gaged in the fields of documentation and information. the future program of fid should, therefore, concentrate on the professional aspects, and by so doing fid will enhance its value to its membership. the theme of the congress is "new trends in documentation and informa- tion." the december issue of the fid news bulletin contains a draft pro- gram of the congress. materials for this department should be sent to ronald j. plavchan, presidential materials staff, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . the american archivist vol. , no. april d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april new foreign microform distribution service. the clear- water publishing company, inc., announces the creation of the international microform distribution service (imds) for libraries and scholars. this new ser- vice is described by the company as "a central clearinghouse for foreign micro- forms, regardless of publisher or country of origin." scholars can use the ser- vice to determine the availability of specific materials or to ascertain what may be available within a subject area. rare books, documents, or manuscript mate- rials not available as a published microform can be filmed on demand through a network of correspondents headquartered in paris. all titles of available works are offered for sale at the foreign list price. in addition to distributing foreign microforms, imds provides a selective dis- semination of information (sdi) service by distributing catalogs of foreign pub- lishers to participating libraries. for further information regarding imds and sdi service, write to clearwater publishing company, inc., rockefeller plaza, new york, new york . prospective canadian users can order through the company's new toronto office at hollyberry trail, willowdale, ontario m h p . new international newsletter. as a supplement to the novem- ber issue of its news bulletin, international federation for documentation (fid) has published under contract with unesco a twelve-page international newsletter on education and training programs in librarianship, archives, and information work. the idea of such a newsletter for specialized information personnel was first discussed in the fid education and training committee (fid/et) several years ago. in unesco requested a feasibility study on such a project for the unisist ad hoc committee on education and training policy and program. out of a discussion between these two committees grew the contract between unesco and fid for preparation of an experimental issue of the newsletter. if there is a favorable response to the newsletter, fid will publish it on a quarterly basis in . requests for copies should be addressed to fid, p.o. box , gc the hague, netherlands. australia. on july , , the lutheran church of australia dedicated a new $ , permanent archives building to house its collection of valuable historical documents, books, photographs, and records which date as early as . the building, designated as an archives and research center, is located adjacent to the church headquarters in north adelaide. some of the features incorporated in the building are compactable shelving which moves on tracks to provide maximum storage of materials in minimum space, air conditioning and humidity control, and smoke and heat detectors, in addition to an automatic alarm connection with a nearby fire station. besides the main storage area, the archives building includes a foyer/display area, research room to accommodate up to six researchers at one time, administrative offices, staff workroom, utility room, and a special antechamber for fumigation purposes. j. t. p. stolz is church archivist and is assisted by a part-time staff of six persons who do most of the work gratis or for a small allowance. canada. the public records division of the public archives of canada (pac) has produced three inventories in its general inventory series: no. , records of the wartime prices and trade board (rg ); no. , records of the privy d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene council office (rg ); and no. , records of the canadian commercial corporation (rg ). lists of major accessions for / and / are also available. copies of any of these pac publications may be obtained free of charge from the information services division, pac, wellington street, ottawa, ontario k a on . during the provincial archives of newfoundland and labrador con- tinued its program of photocopying parish records to meet the steadily increas- ing demands of genealogists and other researchers. the archives has also re- ceived a large quantity of court records throughout the year, including early items from the long-defunct surrogate's court and a notebook of john reeves ( - ), who was the first chief justice of newfoundland. renovations to the archives record centre and basic organizational work is progressing as expected. it is hoped that the record facility will be ready in the spring ( ) to receive the first shipment of provincial government records. the archives also reports a number of additions to its photograph collection, especially in the area of the late nineteenth century. some important finds have occurred in the area of lantern slides, especially those of coastal labrador. provincial archives of nova scotia. hugh a. taylor, formerly director of the archives branch, public archives of canada, succeeded bruce fergusson as provincial archivist in january . archives of ontario. the private manuscripts section reports the following accessions: papers ( ) relating to the survival of thomas home of welland, a passenger on board the torpedoed cunard liner lusitania; letters, business papers, and photographs (ca. - ) of reginald drayton of gore's landing; diaries, letters, scrapbooks, and photographs ( - ) of duncan fraser macdonald, a journalist, photographer, timber ranger, lumberman, and indian agent in parry sound; and additional correspondence and memorabilia ( - ) of phillips thompson. provincial archives of alberta. recent acquisitions include the diary ( - ) of h. l. hollingworth, a barr colonist; the patents, specifications, and drawings ( - ) of inventor kenneth stuart; records ( - ) of the mcdermid engraving co. ltd. and mcdermid studios ltd.; records ( - ) of the calgary school for nursing aides; provincial chapter records ( - ) of the imperial order, daughters of the empire (i.o.d.e.); minutes ( - ) of the edmonton hebrew school-ialmud iorah; records ( - ) of the crossfield united church; records ( - ) of the survey branch, alberta lands and forests; records ( - ) of the alberta municipal finance cor- poration; and files ( - ) relating to the provincial coat of arms. the provin- cial archives has also published a new information pamphlet, sources of ethno- cultural information at the provincial archives of alberta. the aural history program of the provincial archives of british columbia has recently acquired and cataloged the c. d. orchard collection. the collection consists of seventy-four hours of interviews with forty-three men who played an important role in the development of the british columbia forest industry from the late s to the late s. the interviews were conducted by c. d. or- chard, chief forester of the british columbia forest service, between and . the quality of the recordings as documents in sound, however, is disap- pointing, which probably reflects orchard's unfamiliarity with sound recording techniques and the type of equipment used. despite this aspect of the record- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april ings, the informational content of most of the tapes is excellent. the collection is particularly strong in the following areas: logging camp and work conditions for the - period, corporate history of firms in the provincial forest industry, and the mass transfer of students and teachers from the sopron school of forestry to the university of british columbia in the wake of the unsuccessful hungarian uprising in - . copies of the collection are also held by the university of british columbia library, special collections, and by the public archives of canada. saskatchewan archives board. this joint government-university body, formed in with offices at the universities of regina and saskatoon, has the tradition and structure to allow free intellectual inquiry within a suitable administrative framework. in december , don faris, minister of education and chairman of the archives board, announced the history of saskatchewan project, and the provincial government has approved a special grant for the project as part of the jubilee celebration. john h. archer, president emeritus of the univer- sity of regina and a former provincial archivist, joins the archives board staff to research and write a new history of the province. the proposed history will be issued in as a two-volume set. volume is envisioned as a -page analytical narrative, whereas volume will be a supplementary visual history of saskatchewan combining photographs, maps, paintings, and drawings with con- temporary diaries, letters, or travellers' accounts. the announcement of the saskatchewan project coincided with the thirtieth anniversary of the continuous publication of saskatchewan history. to mark the anniversary, a full index to volumes to has been prepared for publication in march . in the six-month period from april to september , , the two offices of the archives board accessioned a large quantity of government records and private papers. the bulk of this accession comprises administrative files ( - ) of the department of health, and the complete series of defunct company files ( - ) from the registrar of companies. this latter series contains over , files of companies registered in saskatchewan, including articles of incorporation, annual reports, and documents relating to their disso- lution or bankruptcy. special approaches were also made to labor unions in the province, resulting in a series of significant accessions by the saskatoon office. these include the records ( - ) of the service employees international union, prairie regional council no. , and two of its saskatoon locals; records ( - ) of the canadian union of public employees, saskatchewan region, and one of its locals at fort san; records ( - ) of the united association of journeymen and apprentices of the plumbing and pipe fitting industry, local union no. , saskatoon; and records ( - ) of three saskatchewan locals of the brotherhood of painters and allied trades. these records consist of minutes, financial records, correspondence files, briefs, contract agreements, printed material, and photographs. an agreement has also been reached with the saskatchewan government employees' association for subsequent deposit of their records in the regina office. access to some of these materials, however, is restricted. the oral history program, "towards a new past," begun in by the department of culture and youth, has been permanently transferred to the archives board and renamed the saskatchewan oral history program. during , twenty-five man-months were spent collecting oral history material on d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene eleven projects. project topics included: the two metis leaders, malcolm norris and james brady; trappers in saskatchewan; saskatchewan river development association; early saskatchewan writers; and unionization of government em- ployees. provincial archivist ian e. wilson has been appointed chairman of the newly created heritage advisory board. this board is to advise the minister of culture and youth on all matters relating to the conservation and protection of the her- itage of the province. in addition to the appointment of wilson, t. d. regehr, head of the department of history at the university of saskatchewan, was ap- pointed vice-chairman and john h. archer of the university of regina was named to the board. the ottawa city archives established a conservation unit in october with the hiring of gilbert wilson, a retired preservation specialist from the pub- lic record office and the southampton civic archives. one of his duties while under contract with the municipal archives will be to train canadians in conser- vation techniques. the city archives has also acquired equipment for lamination by the langwell process as well as for traditional repairs. it is also hoped that the archives will be able to obtain all the necessary facilities for hand bookbinding in the near future. recent collections available to researchers at the vancouver city archives include papers ( - ) of the vancouver merchants exchange; records ( - ) of the vancouver grain exchange; records ( - ) of the work- men's compensation board of british columbia; records ( - ) of the architectural institute of british columbia; records ( - ) of the vancou- ver festival society; files ( — ) of the international longshoremen's and warehousemen's union, local no. ; papers ( ) of the united nations conference on human settlements; and records ( - ) of the british columbia telephone company. other acquisitions relating to the maritime his- tory of the area include papers ( - ) of the british columbia wharf op- erator's association; records ( - ) of the chamber of shipping; and files ( - ) of the british columbia towboat owners association. the photographic section has received a grant from the vancouver founda- tion to assist in cataloging all nitrate negatives for conversion to safety film. the matthews collection, comprising over , prints, is now available to research- ers in album form in the public research room. the theater department of the metropolitan toronto library has recently received two major manuscript collections as gifts. as a result of these donations, the department now holds the complete archives of the studio lab theatre, a toronto-based touring company active from to . these records in- clude scripts for both children's and adult productions, video and phono tapes, photographs, posters, correspondence, business files, programs, and music. the department's resources in canadian theater history have been enriched by the papers ( - ) of cosette lee, a well-known canadian character ac- tress whose career on the stage, radio, television, and film extended over more than fifty years. the cosette lee collection consists of programs, press clip- pings, photographs, correspondence, scripts, elocution materials, business pa- pers, documents from professional organizations, and miscellaneous memora- bilia. the estate of cosette lee donated these materials to the metropolitan toronto library. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april the mcgill university archives has recently received additions to the rec- ords of henry morgan and co. ltd., consisting of directors minutes ( - ) and executive committee minutes ( — ). other accessions include ledgers, daily sheets, and related materials ( -ca. ) of the montreal stock ex- change; minutes, correspondence, scrapbooks, and photographs ( - ) of the montreal parks and playground association; and minutes and programs ( - ) of the montreal elgar choir. queen's university archives. recent accessions by the university archives include the papers (ca. - ) of olga bernice bishop; papers (ca. - ) of leonard g. macpherson; and additions to the john james deutsch papers (ca. - ). inventories have been completed for the kingston chamber of commerce records, le comite organisateur des jeux olympiques de , the sir charles g. d. roberts papers, the donald gordon papers, and the farm and country records. in the area of conservation, the university archives has taken such measures as the encapsulation of the newsland architectural draw- ings and the sorting of the kingston and queen's university photograph collec- tions in specifically designed folders. the george brown college archives has recently acquired the case files ( - ) of louis fine, a labor relations consultant for the ontario depart- ment of labor. also included in the accession is a file of letters ( - ) from the president and general secretary of the united cloth hat and cap makers of north america. concordia college in edmonton, alberta, is currently establishing a college archives based upon existing materials stored in the college. hilda m. robinson, archivist, will be in charge of the archives. glenbow-alberta institute archives. during recent months the archives has acquired a considerable number of additions significant to the history of western canada. some of these are: extensive additions to the social credit movement consisting of papers of frank thorn, who was an organizer and longstanding worker in the social credit local at wetaskiwin; a collection of scrapbooks ( - ) assembled by william wray; papers of robert n. thompson, a social credit organizer and a former president of the federal party; papers which originated with rev. p. j. hoekstra, president of the immigration committee for canada of the christian reform church (nobleford, alberta) relating to dutch immigration following world war ii; diaries of dr. john h. robertson, dental officer with the canadian steamer c. d. howe, in the arctic; a small col- lection of papers of the alberta section of the worldwide free french movement of world war ii; diaries ( - ) of george h. gooderham relating to his work as indian agent at the blackfoot reserve; copies of the annals of the faith- ful companions of jesus, a women's religious order, which record the daily happenings of the nuns' westward trip and the establishment of early convent schools in western canada since . recent photographic collections of particular interest include photographs ( - ) originating with freddie mccall relating to flying and world war i and albums ( — ) containing an interesting collection of survey views in northern alberta and british columbia. canadian jewish congress central region archives. the central region archives has received the records of the toronto hebrew benevolent society. founded in , this particular organization is one of the oldest jewish men's societies in toronto. the collecticn includes minute books, financial records, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene trophies, ballot box, and other three-dimensional objects. other major acces- sions include minute books, correspondence, and case files ( - ) of the hebrew national association (folks farein); minutes ( - ) of the pioneer women's organization, hamilton, ontario; and minutes and newsletters of the toronto hadassah-wizo organization. jewish historical society of western canada. the archives of the society now contains , photographs and a manuscript collection of units, all of which is held in the provincial archives of manitoba. in and the society received provincial government grants for archival and oral history proj- ects. as a result of this financial support, oral history tapes, comprising about hours, have been transcribed in outline form and indexed. a large collection of jewish immigrant aid society and canadian jewish congress ma- terial dating from the early s has been loaned by the society to the public archives of canada for microfilming and cataloging. mennonite archives convention. a group of about twenty canadian and american mennonite archivists and librarians met on november , , at the canadian mennonite bible college in winnipeg. the one-day conference in- cluded discussions on inter-institutional communication, microfilming and mi- crofiche production, collection of materials, joint planning projects, and ways to relate to other historical societies and organizations. participants at the conven- tion strongly affirmed a proposal presented by nelson springer of the mennon- ite historical library, goshen, indiana, to designate one institution in each church conference or major region as the central repository for surplus period- ical holdings related to that group. [carole marshall, public archives of canada] great britain. the bulletin of the modern records centre, university of warwick library, coventry, for january , reports realignment of staff following changes in the centre's financing, effective october , , and a new emphasis on cataloging. the centre continues to operate under the direc- tion of richard storey, whose position has been redded archivist, and pat bowen continues as records assistant. the new two-year post of assistant archivist (cat- aloging) is held by christine woodland, who together with cameron hazlehurst compiled a guide to the papers of british cabinet ministers - ( ). david mayall, a graduate student of the centre for the study of social history, - , has been appointed to a one-year post of assistant archivist (catalog- ing), effective january , . with the creation of two positions of assistant archivist to concentrate on cataloging, the centre plans to include in subsequent issues of the bulletin notification of catalogs completed or in progress. during the past quarter, a catalog of those sections of archives of the national and local government officers association (nalgo) that have been deposited in the centre (mss. ) has been completed; the catalog of the tarbuck papers (mss. ) has been typed; and another section of the temporary box list of the iron and steel trades confederation deposit (mss. ) has been listed. according to the bulletin for april , the centre's holdings in the area of education have been strengthened by extensive deposits from the association of teachers of domestic science and the national association of teachers in fur- ther and higher education. this issue also reports a second major acquisition of maitland-sara material which reinforces coverage of the left in great britain d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april and of the arbitration papers ( - ) of sir jack scamp which significantly extend the centre's coverage of industrial relations development. the centre also informs researchers that the following lists have been completed and typed during the past quarter: national association of schoolmasters (mss. a), gatehouse motors (mss. ), london rank and file busmen's movement (mss. ), and the main nalgo list (mss. ). the following lists have been completed but not typed: central labour college (mss. ), sir leslie scott papers (mss. ), and parnell and son, builders, rugby (mss. ). the publishing house of phillimore & co. ltd. announce the publication of primary sources for victorian studies by richard storey and lionel madden. the aim of the authors is to provide young scholars and junior staff personnel with a short and uncomplicated introductory guide to the identification and use of collections of primary source material, as well as to acquaint researchers of nine- teenth-century studies with finding aids to unpublished sources within particular subject fields in various british repositories. guides to overseas collections are also briefly noted. full bibliographic references to guides, finding aids, and other reference works cited are included in the book in addition to a select index to assist users in quick reference to main topics. for further information, write to phillimore & co. ltd., shopwyke hall, chichester, sussex. israel. in the israeli knesset passed the ben-gurion law and one of the provisions of that law was to name the ben-gurion research institute and archives of the ben-gurion university, sde-boker campus, as the official re- pository of the personal papers ( - ) of david ben-gurion ( - ). since that time the staff has been in the process of organizing the material into two main record groups: the pre-independence period, and the post- pe- riod. the papers, consisting of some , documents covering most of the crucial phases of the development and upbuilding of israel during the twentieth century, were collected from his home at kibbutz sde-boker and his house in tel-aviv and transferred to the archives of the israel defense forces a short time after his death in december . subsequently, they were duplicated and the copies deposited in the institute. the first record group, consisting of approximately , documents and pertaining to the ottoman period ( - ) and the british mandate ( - ), has been organized and is now available for scholarly use. the ma- terials are greatly varied, and include diaries, general correspondence, proto- cols, and subject files dealing with a wide range of subjects pertinent to the his- tory of zionism and the creation of israel. the papers are mostly in hebrew, but many are in english, russian, german, yiddish, and other languages. those documents in english generally pertain to relations with the british government and the mandate administration. for american scholars many documents in the general correspondence shed light on the activities of the zionist movement in the united states. the second record group, covering the period after the estab- lishment of the state of israel up to approximately , is still in preparation, and it is hoped that some of the material will be available in the near future. those interested in further information may write to the ben-gurion re- search institute and archives, pob , sde-boker campus, doar hanegev, is- rael. [alexandra korros, ben-gurion university of the negev.] d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene new zealand. the archives and records association of new zealand (aranz), established in october , reports encouraging progress in both programs and membership. currently, aranz membership stands at in- dividual and institutional members, and branches have been formed in'welling- ton, auckland, hamilton, and dunedin. the proceedings of the first aranz seminar, a week long seminar on ar- chives and manuscript administration, held in wellington, have been published as archives and manuscripts: a new zealand seminar ( ). since its formation, aranz has organized in collaboration with other institutions shorter seminars on such archival topics as conservation, arrangement and description, and use of local records in historical research. on october - , , aranz held its first annual general meeting in wellington. the main theme of the meeting was "access to government ar- chives." during the two-day meeting some sixty members attended seminars and workshops on records management, access to government records, carto- graphic records, and the use of visual images (photographs) in historical re- search. for further information, write to rosemary collier, secretary, aranz, in care of the national archives, p.o. box , te aro, wellington. stuart r. strachan, editor of archifacts and formerly archivist of the hocken library, has been appointed as one of two senior archivists at the national ar- chives. his new duties will pertain to arrangement and description of records, and user services. under a special governmental program to relieve unemploy- ment, the archives has been able to increase the size of staff by hiring a number of assistant archivists. the local government amendment bill no. , which became effective on april , , will have profound consequences in the archives field. under this new legislation, local governmental bodies will assume the responsibility to pre- serve local records and to provide suitable arrangements for their administra- tion. also, the chief archivist of the national archives is charged with establish- ing categories of local records which may not be destroyed without prior authorization and approval. when it is unfeasible for local jurisdictions to fulfill their obligations under the new legislation, the national archives will then as- sume the responsibility to advise, assist, and to care for local records. there is a growing number of new zealand institutions displaying a concern for archives. as a direct consequence, an increasing number of these institutions have sought advice and assistance from the national archives and have sent some of their staff members to training seminars. a few have even appointed archivists to their staffs. an example of this new awareness is the appointment of t. j. lovell-smith, formerly on the staff of the national archives, as archivist for the union steamship company. this shipping firm possesses probably the largest holding of business archives in new zealand. furthermore, the auckland institute and museum, alexander turnbull library, canterbury archives council, and hocken library have combined their resources to conduct a cam- paign to locate and preserve farming records. the wanganui regional museum, wanganui, has been recognized by the government as a repository under the archives act. qudith s. hornabrook, national archives of new zealand] peru. a symposium on archives, organized by the general secretariat of the national bank of peru, was held in lima on january - , . the purpose d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april of the symposium was to promote an awareness of archival knowledge and tech- niques among top and mid-level management personnel as well as among other bank employees. more than persons from the bank and from various public and private repositories in the city attended the three-day conference. partici- pants heard five prominent specialists discuss various aspects of archives. cesar gutierrez munoz, chief of the historical archives of riva-aguero, lectured on the archival science; francisco iriate brenner of the national university of fed- erico villarreal analyzed the reasons why men create archives; armando nieto velez, s.j., assistant director of the riva-aguero institute, inquired into the im- portance of archives for research; guillermo durand florez, director of the ar- chivo general de la nacion, described the archives in relation to legislative decree no. ; and jose martinez begazo reflected on business and financial archives in general. at the conclusion of the symposium, participants endorsed a series of recommendations: reclassification of archival personnel, establish- ment of a school for archivists, promotion of the return of national historical documents held by former colonial nations and a halt to the illegal transfer of these records to other countries, support for an archival consciousness among the people, and establishment of chairs of archival science at universities. the peruvian association of archivists has published the first issue of a new professional j o u r n a l , boletin de la asociacion peruana de archiveros (no. , ). the aim of the semi-annual journal is to disseminate news about various archival activities, to present the different aspects of archival science, and to stress the basic importance of the archival discipline in contemporary life. [cesar gutierrez munoz, historical archives of riva-agiim>, lima] spain. the revista de archivos bibliotecas y museos (vol. , no. , july-september ) reports the microfilming of the collection of royal me- dieval documents in the municipal archives of avila. between and jesus molinero fernandez, then city archivist, undertook a special project under the direction of manuel de foronda to transcribe all the royal medieval docu- ments in the municipal archives. fernandez's work comprises three volumes ( , folio-size pages) with accompanying indexes. although this collection possesses great historical value in documenting the history of castille in general and of the institution of the municipality in particular, a lack of money has pre- vented any work beyond the initial transcription phase. in an attempt to pre- serve his father's work from oblivion, antonio molinero received permission to microfilm the collection through the facilities of the national microfilm center. [celso rodriguez, organization of american states] abstracts argentina. [celso rodriguez, organization of american states] revista del arckivo general de la nacion, no. ( ). the principal article in this issue per tains to the basic theories and practical problems of the arrangement of records according to the principle of respect des fonds or provenance. michel duchien, chief conservator, the technical services of the archives de france, discusses (pp. - ) the practice of preserving the classification of documents (archives) in accordance with their original order, and the theory behind this principle. duchien attempts to reconcile the perplexing problem of the organic unity of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene documents and their value for research to scholars. to assist the researcher in bridging the gap, he stresses the importance of finding aids. other articles in this issue deal with archival topics related to argentina. luis fernando piazzali, president of the argentine association of archivists and chief of the archives of the post office department, presents (pp. - ) a brief review of the rules and procedures for the management of the administrative records of the postal system. federico castro nevares, chief of the classification and archives department at the archivo general de la nacion, writes (pp. - ) about the "archives of the argentine confederation" ( - ), which many scholars have long regarded as totally lost. the author disputes this traditional view and contends that many of the documents from this archives are actually scattered throughout the republic and have probably been incorporated into the official records of other governmental bodies. alberto david leiva, chief of the accessions and research division of the archivo general de le nacion, continues with his investigation of the last will and testament in argentine law from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. this interesting study was sponsored by the national council of technical and scientific research. in this issue, leiva focuses (pp. — ) attention on the provincial records from mendoza. from a sampling of wills written between ca. and , he discloses some of the legal, social, and economic aspects of these deathbed last testaments; as well, he sheds some light on the early his- tory of the town and the life style of its inhabitants. also in this issue, cesar a. garcia belsunce, director general of the archivo general, reviews (pp. - ) the proceedings of the eighth international congress on archives and the interamerican seminar on archives, both held in washington, d.c., in . there is also a brief resume of the activities of ar- gentine archivists during the past year. the need to enhance the status of the profession, especially through the news media, seemed to be the primary con- cern of these archivists. brazil. [laura v. monti, university of florida-gainesville, and margo mil- leret, university of kansas] mensdrio do arquivo national, vol. , no. (february ). the entire issue is devoted to a review of the various activities in each of the numerous units within the national archives during . raul do rego lima, director-general of the archives, reports (pp. - ) on relations with var- ious international archival institutions and organizations, cooperation with other brazilian groups, visits by leading politicians and scholars, and general observa- tions. the annual report also contains descriptions of activities by the var- ious section chiefs from each of the six divisions comprising the national ar- chives. also, there is a section of the annual report dealing with archival education and coordination of archives instruction within brazil during the past year. mensdrio do arquivo national, vol. , no. (march ). this issue contains an article (pp. - ) about planning the site for a national archives during the period of the empire. according to a report dated march , , joaquim pires machado portela describes a plan to erect a building to house not only a public archives and national library, but also to serve as a site for scientific and literary conferences. the project, outlined fully in two documents reproduced in the article, includes such essential requirements as proper location, size and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april shape of the building, number of rooms, types of construction material to be used, proper atmospheric conditions, and dimensions for doors, windows, and shelving. one feature of the proposed national archives/library, a feature con- temporary archivists should find of interest, is a description of the living quar- ters for the director within the proposed building. also, the addendum to the main report instructs the architects to make ample provisions in their plans for safety measures to insure the archives and library collection against loss due to fire. arquivo &f administragdo, vol. , no. (april ). three topics of archival interest are analyzed in this issue. the first article (pp. - ), a translation by andresa de moraes e castro, pertains to records management. t. l. croteau describes how canada decided to construct a facility for the temporary storage of governmental records. some of the main points included in the article are the reasons for the treasury department's assumption of responsibility for the es- tablishment of a records depository; and the principal characteristics of an inter- mediate records storage facility, the kinds of equipment needed, the proper storing of records, the difficulties one should expect to encounter, and the eco- nomic effects of intermediate records storage. the second subject discussed in this issue is the increasing need in brazil for a national archival system. jose pedro esposel, a professor at the universidade federal de santa maria and a leading authority on archives, discusses (pp. - ) this important issue. since , brazilian archivists have recognized the need for national legislation to regulate and standardize archives operations at the various repositories; yet little has been done toward this objective despite the repeated pleas of prominent archivists. while legislators procrastinate on upgrading the profession, there is a strong feeling that many valuable documents are in danger of serious damage, loss, or destruction. the final subject matter in this issue pertains (pp. - ) to the archives course at the federal university of santa maria in the state of rio grande do sul. this school, which launched the archives program in april , became the first institution of higher learning to offer coursework and training for ar- chivists. students who enroll in the -credit program receive a bachelor's de- gree in archives as well as certification for public or private archives work. there is talk that the program will be duplicated at other brazilian universities in the future. arquivos de guarapuava, bulletin no. ( ). this bulletin in the history department series of the federal university of parana communicates the efforts of archivists from the university and members of the history department, of the humanities faculty, to preserve the historical records of the city of guarapuava, a major urban center in western parana. in , a team of archivists and his- torians, working in agreement with the federal council of culture, surveyed and inventoried the holdings of the city's three major archival repositories: the archives of the parish of our lady of bethlehem, the archives of the munici- pality, and the archives of the city council. alcioly therezinha g. de abreu and pura domingues bandeira of the university staff describe the results of the team's investigation. the records in the archives of the church of our lady, which date from , comprise baptismal, confirmation, marriage, and death registers; registers of charters and land titles; enrollment records of the parish school; and various other parish-related records. the archival holdings of the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene municipality contain extensive records dating from documenting the di- verse activities of the municipal government. in their survey of the documents in the custody of the city hall, archivists identified twenty-four separate record series. although the archives of the city council was smaller in size than that of the municipality, the special team identified eleven record series documenting the historical development of the local council in guarapuava. following a de- scription of each archival repository, the authors provide a detailed inventory of the various record series and subseries, indicating the type (physical) of records surveyed and the inclusive dates. a possible by-product of the survey, as sug- gested by the authors, is creation of a municipal archives whose purpose would be to preserve all the important records of the city and make them available to scholars and researchers. colombia. [celso rodriguez, organization of american states] revista del archivo national, no. , d series, no. ( ). this issue marks the reemerg- ence of the revista, which was first published in , but suspended in . this new edition represents a radical as well as a welcome departure, both in format and in content, from the earlier series. in keeping with modern trends among developing countries, this new series reflects the paramount need of co- lombian archivists to elevate professional standards. the leading article (pp. - ) in this issue is on the basic requirements to- ward the establishment of an archival policy and is a study report prepared by a special four-member study group headed by father alberto lee lopez, director of the national archives. the major topics of this report focus on the role of the archives within the governmental structure, guidelines for the creation of a na- tional archival system, the actual condition of colombian repositories, and the steps taken to improve the current situation. in this report each member of the task force makes specific recommendations toward formation and implementa- tion of a policy for a national archival program. other articles include the annual report of the national archives (pp. - ); an historical account of the national archives by juan carrasquilla (pp. - ); a presentation on microfilming techniques by jorge alberto montoya godoy, chief of the microfilm and reproduction laboratory (pp. - ); sum- mary of the unesco-sponsored regional meeting of experts for the devel- opment of national archives in latin america, held in bogota (pp. - ); and a report on the solutions adopted at the interamerican seminar on regional cooperation for the development of archives, held in washington. also, there is a section containing transcripts of documents relating to the estab- lishment of the national archives in the s, and another one summarizing the archival activities in colombia for the first three quarters of . czechoslovakia. [johnmendelsohn. national archives and records service] iv. konferenz der akademie-archive sozialistischer lander. praha-bratislava . materialien ( ). the fourth conference of the academy-archives in socialist countries was held in both prague and bratislava, september - , . v. vaneccek, president of the conference, delivered the opening and clos- ing addresses and made special reference to the th anniversary of the soviet academy of sciences as well as to the th anniversary of what is now the east german academy. the conference proceedings, published in german and rus- sian editions, include papers presented by participants from the soviet union, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april german democratic republic, czechoslovak socialist republic, and the people's republics of poland and bulgaria. a brief discussion follows each presentation. the various papers delivered at the conference emphasize publication of archi- val sources, problems of accessioning scientific papers, and the importance of a dictionary of archival terminology. b. w. lewschin of the soviet academy of sciences discusses (pp. — ) the archival holdings of the academy, stressing scientific correspondence, documentation on its history, and finding aids. in the academy's archives was preoccupied with its historical record in utiliz- ing various media including motion pictures. klaus mlynek, a member of the east german academy of sciences, delineates (pp. - ) problems con- nected with the acquisition of records, particularly the nachlasse. zygmunt ko- lankowski of the polish academy of sciences reports (pp. - ) on the prog- ress of the dictionary of archival terminology in socialist countries. other papers presented at the conference include: problems for archivists arising from scien- tific and technical publications, by jindfich schwippel of the czechoslovak academy of sciences (pp. - ); publication of sources and works in prog- ress at the bulgarian scientific archives, by david koen (pp. - ) and by cvetana antova (pp. - ) of the bulgarian academy of sciences; and ques- tions concerning records accessions by academy archives, by jozef klacka of the slovak academy of sciences. in addition to the presentation of papers, the del- egates agreed to continue publishing segments of a dictionary of archival ter- minology and of an international archives bibliography. they also resolved to hold the fifth conference of the academy-archives in sofia, bulgaria, in - . france. [frances dowling, national archives and records service] la gazette des archives, n.s., no. ( ). this issue is devoted to specialized archives: geological, marine, business and labor, private, and oral. the two principal ar- ticles deal with the first two types of special archives. in discussing geological archives, j. vogt of the service geologique national points out (pp. - ) the need for geologists and archivists to become aware of the wealth of geological material already deposited in archives and of the need to publicize it. more im- portant however, the absence of a general records disposition policy with regard to these records distresses the author. the result has been the unfortunate hap- hazard destruction of some geological material at various repositories by archi- vists who view the material in their custody as unsuitable for permanent reten- tion. vogt believes that individual series of geological records, which seem of no value by themselves, are permanently valuable as an integral part of the total picture. according to vogt, such a policy will not only insure the preservation of these unique records, but will also serve the needs of scholarly researchers in this field. christian pfister reports (pp. - ) on a deposit of marine records at the community archives of dunkirk by the port authority in and . the deposit, consisting of registers and boxes of port records for the period from to , fills a -year gap in hhe maritime history of the port. also discovered in the records of the dunkirk port authority were records relating to the port of ostend. it had been feared that all the records of the ostend port had not survived destruction during world war ii. a direct result of the dunkirk deposit has been a renewed interest in maritime records. with the discovery of the ostend port records within the dunkirk records vogt won- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene ders if the records of other french ports also contain similarly valuable material that might supplement incomplete admiralty records. in other articles in this issue, francoise vignier describes (pp. - ) the circumstances and methods involved in the arrangement and microfilming of private archives still in private ownership. as part of its task to preserve the national patrimony, the archives nationales has instituted a special program as a public service to the owners of non-public archives in which the departmental archives arrange and microfilm chateau records. according to vignier, the job has required much cooperation among the various interested parties: local learned societies, associations of owners of chateaus, municipal governments, the regional services of the general inventory of monuments and artistic riches, and regional offices of the conservation des batiments de france. jean cavignac reports (pp. - ) that the records of the worker movement are threatened with destruction because they have not been deposited in either pub- lic or private archives. the author cites ideological as well as practical reasons for the neglect of these records. cavignac suggests, however, that archivists should seek membership in labor organizations as one way for them to seek the preservation of worker movement records. also, michel duchein, chief conser- vateur at the direction des archives de france,'points out (p. ) the desirabil- ity for archivists to collect oral history interviews and to create oral history ar- chives. this sector of historical documentation, according to duchein, has been very much neglected by french archivists in the past, but there is a growing consciousness of this important area in the profession. german federal republic. [george o. kent, university of maryland, and john mendelsohn, national archives and records service] der archivar, vol. , no. (february ). this entire issue, with one minor exception, is de- voted to a summary of the proceedings of the eighth international congress on archives, held in washington, d.c., between september and october , . the first section comprises reports (col. - ) pertaining to the different aspects of the general theme of the congress, the archival revolution. these re- ports describe the radical changes in archival technology concerning automatic data processing, reproduction, and restoration techniques; changes in the usage and accessibility of records; and expansion of archives and archival problems throughout the world. the second part of the ica report summarizes (col. - ) the papers of the various ica committees: archival developments, mi- crofilm, automatic data processing, restoration, and special or unique archives. in the one article which does not pertain to the ica, fritz wolff describes (col. - ) the reorganization of the training program for upper-level archivists at the archives school in marburg. in addition to the articles mentioned above, the issue contains the regular features on foreign archives, book reviews, personal notes, and a bibliography of archival material for and . der archivar, vol. , no. (may ). the articles in this issue deal with a variety of subjects. robert uhland presents (col. - ) a report on his two years experience with the regional archives administration of baden-wiirttem- berg. herbert stower and wilma wilms describe (col. - ) some of the ad- vantages of using the punchcard system in a general index. in two separate articles, wolfgang kohte and dietrich hofmaier discuss (col. - ) stan- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april dards for and experiences with security filming techniques, whereas hermann rumschottel reports (col. - ) on the cooperation between the bavarian state archives and the institute for contemporary history in munich on the project, "resistance and persecution in bavaria, - ." sections pertain- ing to archival meetings, regulations, book reviews, and personal notes complete this issue. der archivar, vol. , no. (july ). two articles in this issue deal with new archives buildings and two other articles pertain to methods of preservation. jiirgen wetzel describes (col. - ) the new building of the landesarchiv berlin, and l. g. seed reports (col. - ) on the new archival facility of the public record office in kew, england. otfried moeller and giinther brannahl discuss (col. - ) the use of microbiological methods in records preserva- tion, and helmut lippert and wolf-dieter mohrmann delineate (col. - ) methods of restoring manuscripts. other articles of interest deal with the map section of the staatsbibliothek preussischer kulturbesitz (prussian state library) in berlin by lothar zogner (col. - ) and sources for chambers of agricul- ture and cooperatives during the weimar republic ( - ) by martin schu- macher (col. - ). friedrich facius discusses (col. - ) contemporary problems of printed archives stressing appraisal, collection, and types of records. der archivar, vol. , no. (november ). wilfried schontag discusses (col. - ) the relationship of state archives in the federal republic with the gen- eral public, emphasizing public access to records, and willibald fischer com- pares (col. - ) town archives and libraries in this issue. an additional item of interest deals with (col. - ) communal archives, by ernst jakobi. there is also a challenging report (col. - ) on a conference pertaining to tradi- tional and controversial methods of record preservation. great britain. [meyer h. fishbein, national archives and records service] adpa: archives & automationllnformatique, vol. (august ). this issue, pub- lished in london by the ica committee on automation, includes a summary report in english by claes granstrom of the swedish royal archives concerning a report by the dataarkiveringskommitten; a study by jean pieyns, of the royal belgian archives, about automated access to information about persons; and a description by michael roper of the public record office (pro) on prospec, the system adopted by pro for accessing information about its holdings. the swedish committee (dataarkiveringskommitten) was appointed in by the minister of education and culture to consider questions concerning the pres- ervation of information on electronic media. the report deals with legislative and regulatory problems, appraisal of machine-readable records, and the pres- ervation of and access to those records that contain permanently valuable infor- mation. the pieyn article dealing with name indexing by computer is based upon the author's experience in the retrieval of vital data about individuals among early records in the belgian archives. the issue also includes the minutes of the automation committee's meeting in liege, , and a proposed sylla- bus for providing orientation on automation to archivists. republic of south africa. [maryna fraser, barlow rand limited, johannesburg] s.a. argiefbladls.a. archives journal, no. ( ). this issue con- tains three useful articles on primary sources for south african historical re- search; two of the sources are located outside the country. c. f. j. muller's article (pp. - ) is a preliminary report on late eighteenth-century notarian d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene archives in the gemeentelijke archiefdienst (municipal archives service) in am- sterdam. he points out that very little or no attention has been paid to these documents as a supplement to those in the cape archives depot in cape town. h. f. heese describes (pp. - ) documents in the arquivo historico de angola relating to the afrikaners who settled in this neighboring portuguese territory during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. the author visited these archives personally and obtained photocopies of relevant material for in- clusion in the south african government archives. since the angolan archives is now inaccessible to south africans, these photocopies are the only source of information on the history of the afrikaner in angola, and it is imperative that they be translated into english or afrikaans. south african university libraries have been actively acquiring collections of historical manuscripts and archives during recent years. l. m. fourie outlines (pp. - ) the establishment of the archives for western transvaal history at the ferdinand postma library of the potchefstroom university, and the acqui- sition of the archives of the ossewa-brandwag ( - ) as well as other col- lections of historical interest. all the articles in this issue are in afrikaans, but summaries in english are appended. archives study tour a u s t r a l i a . . . n e w z e a l a n d . . . f i j i (optional stops in hawaii and san francisco) the society of american archivists has announced its sixth archives study tour, archives in the south pacific, for february . the program will feature visits to public and private archival agencies, manuscript repositories, and libraries. at each city there will also be historical orientation tours and opportunities for individual visits to museums and related cultural institutions. the study tour is available to members of the society of american archivists, their families, and other persons interested in archives, manuscripts, libraries, and records management activities. all saa individual and institutional members will receive a special mailing containing details of the study tour. anyone else desiring information may write t o : archives study tour, society of american archivists, s. wells st., suite . chicago, illinois . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .n xw n u k by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril translating molecular technologies into routine newborn screening practice international journal of neonatal screening review translating molecular technologies into routine newborn screening practice sarah m. furnier , , maureen s. durkin , , and mei w. baker , , , ,* department of population health sciences, university of wisconsin school of medicine and public health, madison, wi , usa; furnier@wisc.edu (s.m.f.); maureen.durkin@wisc.edu (m.s.d.) waisman center, university of wisconsin-madison, madison, wi , usa department of pediatrics, university of wisconsin school of medicine and public health, madison, wi , usa wisconsin state laboratory of hygiene, university of wisconsin school of medicine and public health, madison, wi , usa * correspondence: mei.baker@wisc.edu received: september ; accepted: october ; published: october ���������� ������� abstract: as biotechnologies advance and better treatment regimens emerge, there is a trend toward applying more advanced technologies and adding more conditions to the newborn screening (nbs) panel. in the current recommended uniform screening panel (rusp), all conditions but one, congenital hypothyroidism, have well-defined genes and inheritance patterns, so it is beneficial to incorporate molecular testing in nbs when it is necessary and appropriate. indeed, the applications of molecular technologies have taken nbs to previously uncharted territory. in this paper, based on our own program experience and what has been reported in the literature, we describe current practices regarding the applications of molecular technologies in routine nbs practice in the era of genomic and precision medicine. keywords: newborn screening; next generation sequencing; droplet digital polymerase chain reaction; real-time polymerase chain reaction; tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system–polymerase chain reaction; severe combined immunodeficiency; spinal muscular atrophy; cystic fibrosis . introduction the goal of newborn screening (nbs) is to identify presymptomatic newborns with serious or fatal disorders that can be successfully treated, thereby achieving a significant reduction in morbidity and mortality. the more than -year history of nbs demonstrates that nbs is an extremely successful and cost-efficient public health undertaking in the field of preventive medicine. in the united states alone, approximately four million infants are screened annually, and over , are identified with one of the screened conditions and receive early medical attention [ ]. as biotechnologies advance and better treatment regimens emerge, there is a trend toward applying more advanced technologies in the nbs context and adding more conditions to the nbs panel. in the current recommended uniform screening panel (rusp), a list of conditions recommended for inclusion in state nbs programs by the department of health and human services, all conditions but one, congenital hypothyroidism, have well-defined genes and inheritance patterns, so it is beneficial to incorporate molecular testing in nbs when it is necessary and appropriate. indeed, the application of molecular technologies has taken nbs to previously uncharted territory. in a publication, jinks and colleagues reported a method to isolate dna from nbs dried blood specimens and to use the isolated dna to detect a pathogenic variant of the hbb gene that causes sickle cell disease [ ]. in int. j. neonatal screen. , , ; doi: . /ijns www.mdpi.com/journal/ijns http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijns http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijns https://www.mdpi.com/ - x/ / / ?type=check_update&version= int. j. neonatal screen. , , of , wisconsin researchers adapted this dna isolation method to detect cftr c. _ delctt (also-known-as f del), the most common variant associated with cystic fibrosis (cf), in a randomized clinical trial for nbs for cf in which nbs specimens with elevated immunoreactive trypsinogen (irt), a biomarker elevated in newborns with cf, underwent f del analysis [ ]. this so-called irt/dna strategy in nbs for cf was later carried forward when routine nbs for cf was implemented in wisconsin in [ ]. the irt/dna protocol has also successfully been implemented in routine screening in nbs programs in australia and europe [ , ]. in recent years, more and more dna-based assays have been integrated into routine nbs testing. in this paper, based on our own wisconsin program experience and what has been reported in the literature, we attempt to present the current practice regarding molecular technologies in routine nbs practice in the era of genomic and precision medicine. here we describe those applications in three categories (table ). table . molecular technology applications in wisconsin routine newborn screening. molecular application example condition molecular marker technology first-tier markers severe combined immunodeficiency t-cell receptor excision circles real-time polymerase chain reaction (pcr) spinal muscular atrophy homozygous smn exon deletion real-time pcr second-tier markers cystic fibrosis cftr variants next generation sequencing supplemental “just-in-time” information galactosemia galt c. a>g, c. c>t, and c. a>g tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system (tetra-primer arms)–pcr maple syrup urine disease bckdha c. t>a tetra-primer arms–pcr sickle cell disease hbb c. a>t sanger sequencing pompe disease gaa coding region and intron-exon junctions sanger sequencing spinal muscular atrophy smn copy number droplet digital pcr screening positive determination is based on the first-tier result, and “just-in-time” gene variant information is intended to help clinicians better interpret the first-tier testing results and be better prepared for their initial communication and discussion with families regarding newborn screening positive results. . molecular marker identification as primary screening methods in nbs for severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) and spinal muscular atrophy (sma) scid is a disorder of abnormal development of the immune system, leading to an inability to mount an adequate immune response. when undiagnosed and untreated, the disorder has a high mortality rate, and the success of intervention is dependent on how early it is implemented [ ]. prior to the development of an nbs method for detecting scid, at a centers for disease control and preventions conference, scid was recognized as a disorder that met important criteria for inclusion in nbs [ ]. soon afterwards, chan and puck demonstrated that measurement of t-cell receptor excision circles (trecs) in dried blood samples can be used for scid screening in newborns [ ] based on a method to study the effectiveness of anti-retroviral treatments in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome by measuring trec copies as a proxy for newly generated t cells after treatment [ ]. baker and colleagues adopted the concept of using trecs as a scid screening marker and further optimized the process of isolating dna from routine nbs dried blood specimens in order to maximize dna yield and improved the dna amplification in a real-time pcr analysis. by doing so, they reduced the false positive rate [ ]. int. j. neonatal screen. , , of in , the wisconsin nbs program implemented a molecular screening assay for scid, the first dna-based assay used as a first-tier screen in nbs history [ , ]. in , scid screening was added to the rusp [ ]. by the end of , all nbs programs in the united states had added scid to their nbs panels, and the experience of nbs for scid in screening programs throughout the united states was reported in [ , ]. progress in population-based nbs for scid has also been made in many other countries, including saudi arabia, spain, france, sweden, the netherlands, taiwan, brazil, japan, and israel [ – ]. although scid screening methods are dna-based assays, trecs are not a genetic marker and are used in scid screening as a surrogate marker of t-cell development [ ]. currently, there are two predominant methods for measuring trecs in routine nbs for scid: real-time pcr and end-point pcr [ ]. three reports in the literature have reported scid screening methods that involve a combination of trec assays and genetic testing by next generation sequencing (ngs). in addition to an end-point-pcr trec analysis (enlite neonatal trec kit, perkin elmer, turku, finland), al-mousa and colleagues performed targeted ngs using a panel of genes known to be associated with primary immunodeficiencies (pids), later confirmed through sanger sequencing. they also used a copy number-based assay (rt-qpcr and single nucleotide polymorphism microarrays) to detect the chromosome q . deletion, a non-scid pid [ ]. muramatsu and colleagues used a similar approach, but the chromosome q . deletion was included in the ngs panel [ ]. strand and colleagues reported a two-tier approach in a pilot nbs for scid: the first tier consists of real-time pcr for trec and the second-tier ngs of a targeted panel of pid-associated genes with results confirmed by sanger sequencing [ ]. this combination method allows the addition of relevant gene variant information to infants identified by trec assays as at high risk for scid as a part of the routine nbs process which has been demonstrated by the above cited three reports. sma is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disease caused by pathogenic variants in the survival motor neuron (smn ) gene. sma is characterized by loss of lower motor neurons, or anterior horn cells, in the spinal cord and brain stem nuclei leading to progressive symmetrical muscle weakness and atrophy. it is the most common inherited cause of childhood mortality and, in the general population, the incidence is approximately in , live births [ ]. the survival motor neuron (smn ) copy number is a major modifier of the sma phenotype with higher smn copy numbers associated with later onset and a milder phenotype. ninety-five percent of sma patients have a homozygous exon deletion of smn , and infants with this deletion and two copies of smn account for the most common severe infantile form of sma, type i. however, symptom onset and disease severity in infants and children who have three or more copies of smn are more variable [ ]. based on a natural history study, the sma mortality rate is % by the age of two years old [ ]. recent food and drug administration-approved effective gene modulation and gene therapy treatments have enhanced the justification for adding sma to nbs programs. in , the advisory committee on heritable disorders in newborns and children recommended expanding the rusp to include sma caused by homozygous deletion of exon in smn , and the secretary of health and human services accepted the recommendation [ ]. subsequently, the wisconsin department of health services added sma to the wisconsin nbs condition panel by an emergency rule, effective on october . most nbs programs that have implemented nbs for sma use a real-time pcr assay to simultaneously screen for scid and sma. the pcr assay identifies the absence of exon in the smn gene while simultaneously evaluating trec copy numbers; the additional cost for an sma screening test is minimal because it is multiplexed with an existing screening assay used to identify infants with scid. in some programs, the smn copy number assessment is also carried out on specimens with no functional copies of smn to provide “just-in-time” supplemental information to clinicians. in wisconsin, we use our laboratory-developed and validated triplex real-time pcr assay to simultaneously screen for scid and sma. in addition to trecs and smn , the amplification of a reference gene, rpp , is included in the assay as a quality/quantity indicator for dna isolated from . -mm dried blood nbs specimens. specimens with absent smn amplification undergo a droplet digital pcr assay int. j. neonatal screen. , , of to assess copy numbers of smn . infants with an absent smn result are reported as screening positive for sma, with smn copy number information provided to the follow-up pediatric neurologists. with the smn copy number information, clinicians are better equipped to let families know what to expect and convey treatment options during their initial conversations with families following positive sma screening result. at the first follow-up clinical visit, the physician orders a confirmatory smn and smn test through a diagnosis reference laboratory. there are several publications regarding the experience of nbs for sma [ – ]. we have summarized these experiences in table . kay and colleagues acknowledged the first year of the new york state sma nbs resulted in a much lower sma birth incidence rate than ones reported in the literature and offered some potential explanations [ ]. int. j. neonatal screen. , , of table . selected spinal muscular atrophy newborn screening studies. reference region screening method smn inclusion number of newborns screened reported incidence in sample study type chien et al. [ ] taiwan real-time pcr smn assay to detect homozygous exon deletion; verified by droplet digital pcr assay droplet digital pcr assay to assess smn copy number , in , pilot boemer et al. [ ] belgium real-time pcr smn assay to detect homozygous exon deletion no not applicable not applicable pilot vill et al. [ ] germany real-time pcr smn assay to detect homozygous exon deletion; verified by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (mlpa) mlpa to assess smn copy number , in pilot kariyawasam et al. [ ] australia real-time pcr smn assay to detect homozygous exon deletion droplet digital pcr assay to assess smn copy number , in , pilot kay et al. [ ] new york real-time pcr smn assay to detect homozygous exon deletion no , in , routine int. j. neonatal screen. , , of . targeted gene variant panel as second-tier testing as described earlier, the irt/dna strategy in nbs for cf started with one single cftr variant, f del. yet as of , many newborns in europe and most babies in north america, australia, and new zealand are being screened with an irt/dna algorithm that often employs a cftr variant panel with multiple cf-causing variants [ , , , ]. there has been a trend in recent years to add more cf-causing variants for screening. in , a reported study demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating ngs into cf screening, which allows the inclusion of hundreds of cftr pathogenic variants [ ]. since april , the wisconsin nbs program has implemented such an ngs assay to identify cf-causing variants. currently, irt testing is the first-tier nbs test for cf. specimens in the daily highest four percent of irt values then undergo a second-tier cftr variant analysis using ngs technology. a miseqdx cystic fibrosis -variant assay (illumina, san diego, ca, usa) is utilized to generate sequences of the cftr gene coding regions and intron–exon junctions. these data are then filtered to display cf-causing variants. the assay-accompanied software identifies cf-causing variants, including the most common cftr deletion of exon and exon and cftr deletion of exon and exon . a laboratory-developed variant-call pipeline is also used to include additional cf-causing variants based on cftr , a website that provides information about whether the variant or variant combination is cf-causing and some functional analysis results with this variant or variant combination [ ]. the current predefined panel consists of cf-causing cftr variants. any newborn with one or more cf-causing variants identified is referred for a follow-up with a sweat chloride test as confirmatory testing. ngs data are reanalyzed for infants with sweat chloride greater than mmol/l and one cf-causing variant identified through a regular nbs screening protocol. the ngs data reanalysis is performed by removing preset panel limitations and viewing all variants. this practice allows the identification of the additional cf-causing variants that are not included in the predefined panel and to identify infants with the cftr-related metabolic syndrome, also known as cystic fibrosis screen positive, inconclusive diagnosis, which requires medical attention [ ]. figure illustrates the wisconsin cf screening process. in the literature, several nbs programs have proposed using ngs to survey the whole cftr gene as third-tier testing in cf nbs screening after the first-tier irt analysis and second tier of single f del analysis or a panel of cftr variants for the purpose of maximizing the opportunity to identify two cf-causing variants in true cf screening positive cases [ , ]. a drawback of this approach is that it also identifies cftr variants with unknown clinical significance. int. j. neonatal screen. , , of int. j. neonatal screen. , , x for peer review of figure . wisconsin nbs for cystic fibrosis workflow. . targeted gene variant or variants as “just-in-time” information the third group of applications of molecular technologies in routine nbs is a targeted pathogenic gene variant analysis performed as a supplemental test after the biochemical or enzymatic test is completed and screening positive specimens have been determined. the “just-in-time” gene variant information is intended to help clinicians better interpret the biochemical or enzymatic testing results and be better prepared for their initial communication and discussion with families regarding nbs-positive results. here we provide some examples from our nbs program to demonstrate the rationale and clinical utility of this practice. for example, “just-in-time” information can help distinguish between different subtypes of a disorder. in the wisconsin nbs program, galactose- -phosphate uridylyltransferase (galt) enzyme activity is the primary marker for galactosemia screening. specimens with low or absent galt activity undergo a galt gene panel analysis. dna isolated from dried blood specimens undergoes pcr amplification. with the tetra-primer arms–pcr, the internal control, wild-type allele, and variant allele can be amplified simultaneously in the pcr reaction and, because of the difference in amplicon length, can be distinguished by agarose gel electrophoresis [ ]. the variant panel includes galt c. a > g (gln arg), c. c > t (ser leu), and c. a > g (asn asp). the galt c. a > g homozygote is the most common genotype in classic galactosemia. the galt compound heterozygote of c. a > g and c. c > t causes clinical variant galactosemia, and the compound figure . wisconsin nbs for cystic fibrosis workflow. . targeted gene variant or variants as “just-in-time” information the third group of applications of molecular technologies in routine nbs is a targeted pathogenic gene variant analysis performed as a supplemental test after the biochemical or enzymatic test is completed and screening positive specimens have been determined. the “just-in-time” gene variant information is intended to help clinicians better interpret the biochemical or enzymatic testing results and be better prepared for their initial communication and discussion with families regarding nbs-positive results. here we provide some examples from our nbs program to demonstrate the rationale and clinical utility of this practice. for example, “just-in-time” information can help distinguish between different subtypes of a disorder. in the wisconsin nbs program, galactose- -phosphate uridylyltransferase (galt) enzyme activity is the primary marker for galactosemia screening. specimens with low or absent galt activity undergo a galt gene panel analysis. dna isolated from dried blood specimens undergoes pcr amplification. with the tetra-primer arms–pcr, the internal control, wild-type allele, and variant allele can be amplified simultaneously in the pcr reaction and, because of the difference in amplicon length, can be distinguished by agarose gel electrophoresis [ ]. the variant panel includes galt c. a>g (gln arg), c. c>t (ser leu), and c. a>g (asn asp). the galt c. a>g homozygote is the most common genotype in classic galactosemia. the galt compound heterozygote int. j. neonatal screen. , , of of c. a>g and c. c>t causes clinical variant galactosemia, and the compound heterozygote of c. a>g and c. a>g results in duarte variant galactosemia, which might not need clinical intervention [ ]. for other disorders, “just-in-time” information can help identify the true disease status that otherwise would be masked by medical intervention prior to the collection of the dried blood spot, such as a blood transfusion. the primary screening method for sickle cell disease is a hemoglobin fraction pattern on an isoelectric focusing gel. however, this pattern could be altered when an infant receives a blood transfusion, and the hemoglobin fraction pattern for a newborn with sickle cell disease could appear instead as a sickle cell disease carrier pattern. in the wisconsin nbs program, specimens collected after blood transfusion that present the sickle cell disease carrier pattern are subject to sickle cell disease genetic testing. dna isolated from dried blood specimens undergoes pcr amplification with a pair of primers flanking the hbb gene variant c. a>t region, which can be detected by a targeted sanger sequencing analysis. the homozygous hbb c. a>t result indicates the presence of sickle cell disease. “just-in-time” information can also be used to quickly detect genetic markers of disease in high-risk groups when immediate intervention is critical. although maple syrup urine disease (msud) is rare with an incidence of in , live births in the general population based on nbs data, among north american old order mennonites, severe (”classic”) msud affects as many as in births due to a founder variant of bckdha (c. t>a, p.tyr asn) [ , ]. classic msud can present metabolic encephalopathy and critical brain edema within the first to hours of life. in order to identify newborns with classic msud in the wisconsin mennonite communities as early as possible, a dried blood specimen is collected one hour after birth, the specimen is delivered to the nbs laboratory by a family-arranged driver, and the laboratory runs the bckdha c. t>a assay based on the tetra-primer arms–pcr immediately upon receiving the specimen. the testing results can be obtained as early as h after birth. another nbs specimen is collected between and hours after birth for routine nbs, including screening for msud using primary markers of leucine and isoleucine by mass spectrometry. finally, in the wisconsin pompe nbs pilot project, acid alpha-glucosidase (gaa) enzyme activity in dried blood spots is used as a primary screening tool. specimens with gaa activity lower than % of the daily median are deemed as screening positive and undergo a gaa gene variant analysis. dna isolated from dried blood specimens undergoes pcr amplification with primers flanking all gaa gene coding areas, and the gaa variant is detected by a sanger sequencing analysis with the gaa variant database managed by erasmus mc university medical center serving as a main reference for the pathogenicity assessment [ ]. from july to march , a total of , infants were screened with infants screening positive based on gaa enzyme activities. two pathogenic gaa variants were identified among these infants screening positive, indicating late-onset pompe disease. genetic variant information in nbs for pompe disease can help to determine variant-phenotype and genotype–phenotype correlations [ ]. when performing the whole gene sequencing, it is possible to encounter gene variants with unknown significance, which need to be described in the report. . discussion we have described current applications of molecular technologies in routine nbs practice with the intention of illustrating their uses and assay principles. the nbs conditions presented here are examples and by no means an exhaustive list. furthermore, some routinely used nbs practices involving molecular techniques might not have been reported in the literature at the time of this review. molecular technologies will likely continue to play an important role in future nbs conditions, such as first-tier real-time assays for congenital cytomegalovirus infection [ , ], and the cf nbs two-tiered testing approach might be applicable to nbs for duchenne muscular dystrophy [ , ]. additionally, it is probable there will be increased desire to incorporate more complicated molecular or genetic assays in routine nbs—for example, whole exome or genome sequencing. these developments call int. j. neonatal screen. , , of for further considerations and a discussion of the many implications of technological advances in nbs, including their clinical utility, feasibility, bioinformatics support, interpretation and reporting of results, unintended findings and consequences, turn-around time, cost-benefit and effectiveness, and implications for data storage. author contributions: conceptualization: m.w.b., m.s.d., s.m.f.; literature search: s.m.f., m.w.b.; data curation: m.w.b.; writing-original draft preparation: s.m.f., m.w.b.; writing-review and editing: s.m.f., m.s.d., m.w.b.; supervision: m.s.d. and m.w.b., all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. funding: this project received no external funding. acknowledgments: we would like to acknowledge the staff members who have carried out all molecular testing at the wisconsin state laboratory of hygiene: sean mochal michael cogley; amy wiberley-bradford; bethany zeitler, and zachary piro. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . centers for disease control and prevention. cdc grand rounds: newborn screening and improved outcomes. mmwr morbid. mortal. wkly. rep. , , – . . jinks, d.c.; minter, m.; tarver, d.a.; vanderford, m.; hejtmancik, j.f.; mccabe, e.r. molecular genetic diagnosis of sickle cell disease using dried blood specimens on blotters used for newborn screening. hum. genet. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . gregg, r.; wilfond, b.; farrell, p.; laxova, a.; hassemer, d.; mischler, e. application of dna analysis in a population-screening program for neonatal diagnosis of cystic fibrosis (cf): comparison of screening protocols. am. j. hum. genet. , , – . [pubmed] . baker, m.w.; groose, m.; hoffman, g.; rock, m.; levy, h.; farrell, p.m. optimal dna tier for the irt/dna algorithm determined by cftr mutation results over years of newborn screening. j. cyst. fibros. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . ranieri, e.; ryall, r.g.; morris, c.p.; nelson, p.v.; carey, w.f.; pollard, a.c.; robertson, e.f. neonatal screening strategy for cystic fibrosis using immunoreactive trypsinogen and direct gene analysis. brit. med. j. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . southern, k.w.; munck, a.; pollitt, r.; travert, g.; zanolla, l.; dankert-roelse, j.; castellani, c.; ecfs cf neonatal screening working group. a survey of newborn screening for cystic fibrosis in europe. j. cyst. fibros. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . puck, j.m.; scid newborn screening group. population-based newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency: steps toward implementation. j. allergy clin. immun. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . lindegren, m.l.; kobrynski, l.; rasmussen, s.a.; moore, c.a.; grosse, s.d.; vanderford, m.l.; spira, t.j.; mcdougal, j.s.; vogt, r.f., jr.; hannon, w.h. applying public health strategies to primary immunodeficiency diseases: a potential approach to genetic disorders. mmwr recomm. rep. , , – . . chan, k.; puck, j.m. development of population-based newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency. j. allergy clin. immun. , , – . [crossref] . douek, d.c.; mcfarland, r.d.; keiser, p.h.; gage, e.a.; massey, j.m.; haynes, b.f.; polis, m.a.; haase, a.t.; feinberg, m.b.; sullivan, j.l. changes in thymic function with age and during the treatment of hiv infection. nature , , – . [crossref] . baker, m.w.; grossman, w.j.; laessig, r.h.; hoffman, g.l.; brokopp, c.d.; kurtycz, d.f.; cogley, m.f.; litsheim, t.j.; katcher, m.l.; routes, j.m. development of a routine newborn screening protocol for severe combined immunodeficiency. j. allergy clin. immun. , , – . [crossref] . verbsky, j.w.; baker, m.w.; grossman, w.j.; hintermeyer, m.; dasu, t.; bonacci, b.; reddy, s.; margolis, d.; casper, j.; gries, m.; et al. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency; the wisconsin experience ( – ). j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] . newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency a summary of the evidence and advisory committee decision. available online: https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/ heritable-disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/scid- -june- .pdf (accessed on september ). http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jcf. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /bmj. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jcf. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jaci. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jaci. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jaci. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/scid- -june- .pdf https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/scid- -june- .pdf int. j. neonatal screen. , , of . newsteps. newborn screening status for all disorder. available online: https://www.newsteps.org/ resources/data-visualizations/newborn-screening-status-all-disorders (accessed on september ). . kwan, a.; abraham, r.s.; currier, r.; brower, a.; andruszewski, k.; abbott, j.k.; baker, m.; ballow, m.; bartoshesky, l.e.; bonagura, v.r. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency in screening programs in the united states. jama , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . al-mousa, h.; al-dakheel, g.; jabr, a.; elbadaoui, f.; abouelhoda, m.; baig, m.; monies, d.; meyer, b.; hawwari, a.; dasouki, m. high incidence of severe combined immunodeficiency disease in saudi arabia detected through combined t cell receptor excision circle and next generation sequencing of newborn dried blood spots. front. immunol. , , . [crossref] . argudo-ramírez, a.; martín-nalda, a.; marín-soria, j.l.; lópez-galera, r.m.; pajares-garcía, s.; gonzález de aledo-castillo, j.m.; martínez-gallo, m.; garcía-prat, m.; colobran, r.; riviere, j.g. first universal newborn screening program for severe combined immunodeficiency in europe. two-years’ experience in catalonia (spain). front. immunol. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . audrain, m.a.; léger, a.j.; hémont, c.a.; mirallié, s.m.; cheillan, d.; rimbert, m.g.; le thuaut, a.m.; sébille-rivain, v.a.; prat, a.; pinel, e.m. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency: analytic and clinical performance of the t cell receptor excision circle assay in france (depistrec study). j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] . barbaro, m.; ohlsson, a.; borte, s.; jonsson, s.; zetterström, r.h.; king, j.; winiarski, j.; von döbeln, u.; hammarström, l. newborn screening for severe primary immunodeficiency diseases in sweden—a -year pilot trec and krec screening study. j. clin. immunol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . blom, m.; bredius, r.g.; weijman, g.; dekkers, e.h.; kemper, e.a.; den akker-van marle, v.; elske, m.; van der ploeg, c.p.; van der burg, m.; schielen, p.c. introducing newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) in the dutch neonatal screening program. int. j. neonatal screen. , , . [crossref] . chien, y.-h.; yu, h.-h.; lee, n.-c.; ho, h.-c.; kao, s.-m.; lu, m.-y.; jaing, t.-h.; lee, w.-i.; chang, k.-w.; shieh, c.-c. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency in taiwan. int. j. neonatal screen. , , . [crossref] . kanegae, m.p.p.; barreiros, l.a.; sousa, j.l.; brito, m.a.s.; de oliveira, e.b. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiencies using trecs and krecs: second pilot study in brazil. rev. paul. pediatr. , , – . [crossref] . muramatsu, h.; kojima, d.; okuno, y.; kataoka, s.; nakajima, y.; ito, t.; tsuge, i.; yoshimi, s.; kato, t.; kojima, s. combination of trec measurement and next-generation sequencing in newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency: a pilot program in japan. blood , , . [crossref] . rechavi, e.; lev, a.; saraf-levy, t.; etzioni, a.; almashanu, s.; somech, r. newborn screening for severe combined immunodeficiency in israel. int. j. neonatal screen. , , . [crossref] . hazenberg, m.d.; verschuren, m.c.; hamann, d.; miedema, f.; dongen, j.j. t cell receptor excision circles as markers for recent thymic emigrants: basic aspects, technical approach, and guidelines for interpretation. j. mol. med. , , – . [crossref] . association of public health laboratories; newsteps. expanding the reach of scid testing: a report on the severe combined immunodeficiency newborn screening implementation experience. available online: https://www.aphl.org/aboutaphl/publications/documents/nbs- nov-scid-implementation- report.pdf (accessed on september ). . strand, j.; gul, k.a.; erichsen, h.c.; lundman, e.; berge, m.c.; trømborg, a.k.; sørgjerd, l.k.; ytre-arne, m.; hogner, s.; halsne, r. second-tier next generation sequencing integrated in nationwide newborn screening provides rapid molecular diagnostics of severe combined immunodeficiency. front. immunol. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . kolb, s.j.; kissel, j.t. spinal muscular atrophy. neurol. clin. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . calucho, m.; bernal, s.; alías, l.; march, f.; venceslá, a.; rodríguez-Álvarez, f.j.; aller, e.; fernández, r.m.; borrego, s.; millán, j.m. correlation between sma type and smn copy number revisited: an analysis of unrelated spanish patients and a compilation of reported cases. neuromuscul. disord. , , – . [crossref] https://www.newsteps.org/resources/data-visualizations/newborn-screening-status-all-disorders https://www.newsteps.org/resources/data-visualizations/newborn-screening-status-all-disorders http://dx.doi.org/ . /jama. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /fimmu. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /fimmu. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . / - /; ; ; ; http://dx.doi.org/ . /blood- - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijns http://dx.doi.org/ . /s https://www.aphl.org/aboutaphl/publications/documents/nbs- nov-scid-implementation-report.pdf https://www.aphl.org/aboutaphl/publications/documents/nbs- nov-scid-implementation-report.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /fimmu. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ncl. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.nmd. . . int. j. neonatal screen. , , of . zerres, k.; rudnik-schöneborn, s. natural history in proximal spinal muscular atrophy: clinical analysis of patients and suggestions for a modification of existing classifications. ann. neurol. , , – . [crossref] . newborn screening for spinal muscular atrophy a summary of the evidence and advisory committee decision. available online: https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/heritable- disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/sma-consumer-summary.pdf (accessed on september ). . boemer, f.; caberg, j.-h.; dideberg, v.; dardenne, d.; bours, v.; hiligsmann, m.; dangouloff, t.; servais, l. newborn screening for sma in southern belgium. neuromuscul. disord. , , – . [crossref] . chien, y.-h.; chiang, s.-c.; weng, w.-c.; lee, n.-c.; lin, c.-j.; hsieh, w.-s.; lee, w.-t.; jong, y.-j.; ko, t.-m.; hwu, w.-l. presymptomatic diagnosis of spinal muscular atrophy through newborn screening. j. pediatr. , , – . [crossref] . kariyawasam, d.s.; russell, j.s.; wiley, v.; alexander, i.e.; farrar, m.a. the implementation of newborn screening for spinal muscular atrophy: the australian experience. genet. med. , , – . [crossref] . kay, d.m.; stevens, c.f.; parker, a.; saavedra-matiz, c.a.; sack, v.; chung, w.k.; chiriboga, c.a.; engelstad, k.; laureta, e.; farooq, o. implementation of population-based newborn screening reveals low incidence of spinal muscular atrophy. genet. med. , , – . [crossref] . vill, k.; kölbel, h.; schwartz, o.; blaschek, a.; olgemöller, b.; harms, e.; burggraf, s.; röschinger, w.; durner, j.; gläser, d. one year of newborn screening for sma–results of a german pilot project. j. neuromuscul. dis. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . comeau, a.m.; parad, r.b.; dorkin, h.l.; dovey, m.; gerstle, r.; haver, k.; lapey, a.; o’sullivan, b.p.; waltz, d.a.; zwerdling, r.g. population-based newborn screening for genetic disorders when multiple mutation dna testing is incorporated: a cystic fibrosis newborn screening model demonstrating increased sensitivity but more carrier detections. pediatrics , , – . [crossref] . wilcken, b. newborn screening for cystic fibrosis: techniques and strategies. j. inherit. metab. dis. , , – . [crossref] . baker, m.w.; atkins, a.e.; cordovado, s.k.; hendrix, m.; earley, m.c.; farrell, p.m. improving newborn screening for cystic fibrosis using next-generation sequencing technology: a technical feasibility study. genet. med. , , – . [crossref] . united states cystic fibrosis foundation; john hopkins university; the hospital for sick kids. cftr : clinical and functional translation of cftr. available online: https://cftr .org/ (accessed on september ). . munck, a.; mayell, s.; winters, v.; shawcross, a.; derichs, n.; parad, r.; barben, j.; southern, k. cystic fibrosis screen positive, inconclusive diagnosis (cfspid): a new designation and management recommendations for infants with an inconclusive diagnosis following newborn screening. j. cyst. fibros. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . currier, r.j.; sciortino, s.; liu, r.; bishop, t.; koupaei, r.a.; feuchtbaum, l. genomic sequencing in cystic fibrosis newborn screening: what works best, two-tier predefined cftr mutation panels or second-tier cftr panel followed by third-tier sequencing? genet. med. , , – . [crossref] . skov, m.; bækvad-hansen, m.; hougaard, d.m.; skogstrand, k.; lund, a.m.; pressler, t.; olesen, h.v.; duno, m. cystic fibrosis newborn screening in denmark: experience from the first years. pediatr. pulm. , , – . [crossref] . ye, s.; dhillon, s.; ke, x.; collins, a.r.; day, i.n. an efficient procedure for genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms. nucleic acids res. , , e . [crossref] . carlock, g.; fischer, s.t.; lynch, m.e.; potter, n.l.; coles, c.d.; epstein, m.p.; mulle, j.g.; kable, j.a.; barrett, c.e.; edwards, s.m. developmental outcomes in duarte galactosemia. pediatrics , , e . [crossref] . therrell, b.l., jr.; lloyd-puryear, m.a.; camp, k.m.; mann, m.y. inborn errors of metabolism identified via newborn screening: ten-year incidence data and costs of nutritional interventions for research agenda planning. mol. genet. metab. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . strauss, k.a.; carson, v.j.; soltys, k.; young, m.e.; bowser, l.e.; puffenberger, e.g.; brigatti, k.w.; williams, k.b.; robinson, d.l.; hendrickson, c. branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase deficiency (maple syrup urine disease): treatment, biomarkers, and outcomes. mol. genet. metab. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] http://dx.doi.org/ . /archneur. . https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/sma-consumer-summary.pdf https://www.hrsa.gov/sites/default/files/hrsa/advisory-committees/heritable-disorders/rusp/previous-nominations/sma-consumer-summary.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.nmd. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jpeds. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jnd- http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /peds. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /gim. . https://cftr .org/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jcf. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /gim. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ppul. http://dx.doi.org/ . /nar/ . .e http://dx.doi.org/ . /peds. - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ymgme. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ymgme. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ int. j. neonatal screen. , , of . erasmus university medical center. pompe disease gaa variant database. available online: http: //cluster .erasmusmc.nl/klgn/pompe/mutations.html?lang=en (accessed on september ). . reuser, a.j.; van der ploeg, a.t.; chien, y.h.; llerena, j., jr.; abbott, m.a.; clemens, p.r.; kimonis, v.e.; leslie, n.; maruti, s.s.; sanson, b.j. gaa variants and phenotypes among patients with pompe disease: data from the pompe registry. hum. mutat. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . beswick, r.; david, m.; higashi, h.; thomas, d.; nourse, c.; koh, g.; koorts, p.; jardine, l.a.; clark, j.e. integration of congenital cytomegalovirus screening within a newborn hearing screening programme. j. paediatr child. h. , , – . [crossref] . gantt, s.; dionne, f.; kozak, f.k.; goshen, o.; goldfarb, d.m.; park, a.h.; boppana, s.b.; fowler, k. cost-effectiveness of universal and targeted newborn screening for congenital cytomegalovirus infection. jama pediatr. , , – . [crossref] . baker, m.; griggs, r.; byrne, b.; connolly, a.m.; finkel, r.; grajkowska, l.; haidet-phillips, a.; hagerty, l.; ostrander, r.; orlando, l. maximizing the benefit of life-saving treatments for pompe disease, spinal muscular atrophy, and duchenne muscular dystrophy through newborn screening: essential steps. jama neurol. , , – . [crossref] . scully, m.a.; farrell, p.m.; ciafaloni, e.; griggs, r.c.; kwon, j.m. cystic fibrosis newborn screening: a model for neuromuscular disease screening? ann. neurol. , , – . [crossref] publisher’s note: mdpi stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://cluster .erasmusmc.nl/klgn/pompe/mutations.html?lang=en http://cluster .erasmusmc.nl/klgn/pompe/mutations.html?lang=en http://dx.doi.org/ . /humu. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jpc. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jamapediatrics. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jamaneurol. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ana. http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	molecular marker identification as primary screening methods in nbs for severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) and spinal muscular atrophy (sma) 	targeted gene variant panel as second-tier testing 	targeted gene variant or variants as “just-in-time” information 	discussion 	references expansion of religious pluralism in korean civil society: a case study of conscientious objection in south korea religions article expansion of religious pluralism in korean civil society: a case study of conscientious objection in south korea kwang suk yoo sociology, kyung hee university, seoul , korea; ksyooii@khu.ac.kr received: september ; accepted: october ; published: october ���������� ������� abstract: this paper analyzes a socio-cultural adaptation of the concept of religious pluralism, focusing on the matter of conscientious objection in korean pluralistic situation. the issue of conscientious objection in korea has extended from a religious and philosophical field to a political, diplomatic, and international problem, being influenced heavily by irfr and unhrc. regardless of their numerical marginality, its social implication is revealed more clearly in recent decisions of local or higher courts and triggers another significant public discourse on how korean civil society should expand a concept of pluralism to integrate them. the paper concludes that the concept of pluralism advances into an operational principle to prop up the civil society of korea beyond the narrow concept of religious pluralism. keywords: korean conscientious objection; pluralism in korea; korean religious market; sectarian pacifism; korean civil society . introduction conscientious objection based on religious belief makes the most significant discourse of how religious pluralism has been evolved in korean public sphere. especially the international religious freedom reports (irfr) issued by the u.s. government since has touched the imprisonment of conscientious objectors in korea (irfr – ), which caused both religious majority and minority to be engaged in the public discourse. the u.n. human rights commission (unhrc) has recommended korean government introduce an alternative service for conscientious objectors many times since . although the irfr and u.n. recommendations have no legal binding in korea, their impact on korea is never slight, socially and politically, because korean government greatly depends on moral as well as political or diplomatic support of the u.s. and u.n. in a global society. in this context, korean society is now under pressure to find a new way of relieving about conscientious objectors who are imprisoned every year. this paper analyzes a socio-cultural adaptation of the concept of religious pluralism, focusing on the matter of conscientious objection in korean pluralistic situation, even if it is a universal principle of law binding global as well as korean society. while such international norms as u.n. recommendations and the irfr invokes religious freedom as a necessary condition of religious pluralism in a christian or american way (smith , p. ), both religious freedom and pluralism are new concepts that could not be made in korean culture before the era of colonialism and modernization. from the first korean constitution of on, the korean legal system has obviously codified the separation of state and religion and guaranteed religious freedom as one of basic human rights, but those fundamental principles have not strictly been kept in real religious market. similar to the monopolistic confucianism of chosun dynasty, which served as a political ideology to justify an absolute authority of the king, religious majorities such as korean protestantism and buddhism have made a strong religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of alliance with an absolute sovereign of national state during the period of modernization. this unequal structure of korean religious market controlled by the existing religious and state powers in korea encouraged the issue of conscientious objection, mostly jehovah’s witnesses, to be closed within the conceptual framework of religious pluralism. in fact, korean religious majorities focused mainly on attacking conscientious objectors’ morality in the field of public discourse, not on the concept of conscientious objection itself, criticizing them for conspiring to avoid a compulsory military service in korea. the national demographic census of statistics korea shows clearly that religious minorities occupy no more than % of the whole korean population (k. yoo ). an extreme imbalance of religious majority and minority remains rarely unchanged since when religious affiliation was initially asked (statistics korea ). under this socio-religious structure, it is reported that . % of conscientious objectors worldwide are south korean nationals (irfr – ) and that , jehovah’s witnesses have been imprisoned due to conscientious objection since in korea (wol – ) . american jehovah’s witnesses press the u.s. government to intervene in the issue of korean conscientious objectors in terms of universal human rights. as a result, the issue of conscientious objection in korea has extended from a religious and philosophical field to a political, diplomatic, and international problem, being influenced heavily by irfr and unhrc. now the issue of conscientious objectors, regardless of their numerical marginality, triggers another significant public discourse on how korean civil society should expand the concept of pluralism to integrate them. in short, this paper focuses on a semantic expansion of pluralism from religious to secular field through tracking down the following questions: how religious majorities have comprehended religious minorities with conscientious objectors; how the latter have adapted itself to the established order supporting religious majorities; and how pluralism has changed into a functional principle inherent in korean civil society. for a theoretical analysis, this article compares jehovah’s witnesses with seventh-day adventists in terms of religious market strategy in korea, because the two minority groups have in common a tradition of conscientious objection based on christian pacifism. . previous studies a substantial amount of literature and empirical research exists on the issue of conscientious objection in europe and america. among them, the legal approach to religious minorities has become a dominant research trend, enough to overwhelm all other studies on historical, sociological, psychological, political, and economic relationship (kaplan ; richardson ; peters ; richardson and introvigne ). analysis and interpretation of changing court judgments, laws, acts, and constitutions are very useful for understanding various legal aspects concerning conscientious objection based on religious belief (todd ; barker ; flowers ; wah ; richardson ). another research paradigm of conscientious objection comes from a socio-historical approach in that religious pacifism is a historically important tradition to understand its various successors in catholicism and protestantism (stevenson ; sibley ; brock ; walters ; moskos and chambers ). these historical studies greatly contribute to a better understanding of conscientious objection based on religious belief. robert c. stevenson’s article, “the evolution of pacifism,” explains very well how western society evolved from individualistic pacifism to collective or social pacifism in christian tradition, ranging from early christians such as augustine or ambrose to the present quakers known as unique pacifists (stevenson , pp. – ). likewise, korean research on conscientious objection is mostly biased on the aspects of religious freedom, human rights, sociological theory of law, comparative study of law, and social ethics (s. kim ; s.-s. kang ; k.-d. yoo ; chin ), and there are only a few studies of jehovah’s witnesses dealing limitedly with the issue see . see yb , p. . religions , , of of conscientious objection (d. kang ; yoon ) unless many christian theological articles are considered (d. kim ; shin ; k.-d. yoo ). this article pays more attention to a socio-cultural aspect of pluralistic religious market which has rarely been handled by previous studies. as korean conscientious objectors belong to jehovah’s witnesses without great exception, a multi-dimensional approach on them is necessarily required for a better understanding of their behavior as a religious minority. the unique pacifism of jehovah’s witnesses cannot be understood without considering a historical, social, and cultural expansion of christian pacifism. for example, while conscientious objectors belonging to jehovah’s witnesses can be considered as a relatively radical wing of the american christian tradition, they are apt to be regarded simply as a deviant cult which deny both legal justification of social order and historical tradition in korean culture. while they can be good citizens that the legal system of society should protect in american civil society, they in korea have been only criminals who cannot be tolerated socially, culturally, and legally. this multi-dimensional difference is not only a matter of the legal system, but also a matter of socio-cultural tradition to justify such legal system. in short, a new religiosity adhering to conscientious objection makes both religious and secular citizens internalize a pluralistic nature of civil society in a different way that imported religions such as buddhism, confucianism and christianity grew into a religiously monopolistic majority throughout all korean history. given that there are no sociological studies on the social impact of korean conscientious objectors (i. kang , ), it is meaningful to analyze drastic changes of recent judicial judgments surrounding conscientious objection in korea rather than an unchanging principle of law or human rights. after all, the paper examines not only actual impact on korean religious policy and pluralistic features of korean religious market, but also how such international norm as international covenant on civil and political rights (iccpr) and international recommendations issued by irfr and u.n. human rights commission (unhrc) has influenced the qualitative progress of korean civil society. . a historical review of korean religious regulation korea has a long history of religious regulation since the era of chosŏn dynasty in the th century. from its beginning, the dynasty officially announced and enforced its policy to promote confucianism and oppress buddhism because it had been founded on the confucian political philosophy and bureaucratic system. in addition to buddhism, it expelled almost all traditional religions out of the capital of seoul and prohibited buddhists and shamans from entering the capital of the dynasty. historically, this represented the start of religious regulations based on the national legal system in korea, although it was only partially valid and very limited in the scope and extent of its regulations. as soon as the japanese colonialists occupied korea in , religious regulation became more systematic and oppressive to make korean religious organizations accommodating to japanese colonialism. various religious restrictions during the period of japanese rule mainly focused on institutional religions that had organizational networks across the country. from the start of japanese rule, korean buddhism and catholicism were cooperative with the colonialist government, while korean protestantism and nationalistic new religious movements protested against it. non-institutional and non-organizational religions such as shamanism or folk religions were regarded as superstition or pseudo-religion, and frequently punished as frauds. when shamans wanted to perform rituals, called kut, they had to shw a registration card issued by the japanese government (cho , p. ). despite this japanese restriction, fortune-telling practices were generally found across the nation. murayama’s survey sponsored by the chosŏn governor-general of japan shows the widespread popularity of fortune-telling at that time (murayama [ ] ). however, things changed after the liberation. the legal structure of the religious market turned out to be even more favorable for major official religions such as buddhism, catholicism, and protestantism. in , the first constitution of the republic of korea announced in article : ( ) all people have the freedom of faith and conscience. ( ) an establishment of religion is denied, and religion is separate from state. religions , , of article remains even through the ninth amendment since without any serious revisions, but the idea of equality between religions is controlled by a legal system of hierarchy that consists of the constitution, laws, regulations, judicial decisions, customs, and so on. as the korean government had the independent right to enact laws and regulations under the centralized presidential system, it was and is still the most influential actor of religious enactments except for the national assembly in korea. with regard to religious policy, it is noteworthy to recognize two korean presidents who had a remarkable impact on both the pattern of religious enactment and eventually the structure of the korean religious market. syng-man rhee, who took power from to , established very clearly a religious policy based on christian political ideals. he, as an elder of a korean protestant church, pursued a relationship between religion and state to serve his christian ideals. after the korean war, his regime was heavily dependent on protestantism because many american assistance groups such as team mission, world vision, and compassion inc., actively engaged in various activities for reconstructing post-war korean society, as well as supporting korean protestant churches (i. kim , p. ). in , president rhee allowed protestant chaplains to be assigned to all military bases, which was stipulated in . this contributed to the basis of an evangelical movement to convert all military men into protestants in the s (i. kim , p. ). given that all male citizens have an obligatory military duty in korea, such stipulations on the level of law or regulations caused to empty the ideal of religious freedom on the level of the constitution. chung-hee park, who ruled from to , was known to be a buddhist, but he separated his religious conviction from the political reality because he especially considered major institutional religions as political resources. similar to rhee’s administration, park still pushed an evolutionary concept of religion under which world religions such as buddhism and christianity would be “developed religions,” while confucianism and folk religions were remains of pre-modern and anachronistic traditions. religion had to become a cultural resource of economic development to be modernized as soon as possible. in this point of view, the state intervened actively in the religious as well as economic market. the law of hyangkyo (confucian shrine) properties and the law of management of buddhist properties in legalized the direct control of confucian and buddhist properties by the military regime (k. yoo , p. ; kamibeppu , pp. – ). hyangkyos and buddhist temples were restricted severely in terms of the management and possession of their properties because the laws imposed complex administrational procedures and requirements on their economic activities. protestantism and catholicism faced no limitations in terms of taking advantage of their own economic resources, whereas the special laws seriously limited buddhism and confucianism in accessing various economic resources. the special laws remain even today. . conscientious objectors in korea religious market this brief review of the historical changes in religious regulations of korea suggests that korean religious market remains structurally unequal, depending on the religious preferences of political regimes. however, as the imprisonment of conscientious objectors belonging to jehovah’s witnesses in korea was declared by uhhrc in in violation of article of iccpr, korean religious market began to be under serious pressure from various international norms and organizations, including u.n. human rights council, u.n. human rights commission, european court of human rights, irfr of u.s., and so on. given that the ruling institutions of administration, national assembly, and judicial courts regarded conscientious objection as a purely domestic issue, they could not recognize a pluralistic nature of korean religious market concerned with the issue of conscientious objection. historically, both the rapid growth of christianity and the decline of confucianism in modern korea resulted in a socio-cultural internalization of christian dualistic worldview: the only god vs. idolatry, religion vs. superstition, good vs. evil, rationality vs. irrationality, modernity vs. feudality, etc. in this context, the governmental attitude toward conscientious objectors was compatible with the oligopolistic structure of korean religious market controlled explicitly by christianity and implicitly by buddhism. the extreme pacifism as a religious doctrine, especially for korean regimes religions , , of and religious majorities, was stigmatized simply as a reflection of “irrational and fanatic” religiosity that could never be matched up with the post-war korean political situation. in fact, the ministry of defense of korea claimed continuously that conscientious objection eventually denies a nation-state ideology in which national security comes prior to religious faith. as the police physically oppressed shamanistic rituals (g. kim , p. ), the ruling system of administration, national assembly, and judicial courts did not hesitate to put conscientious objectors in jail because it could not integrate such practices into the ready-made category of “religion.” they were even treated as “para-religions” or “pseudo-religions” in actual execution of religious laws, even though it is never possible to find a definition of religion in any korean laws. r.r. holister and w.j. holister brought some literature of jehovah’s witnesses to korea from japan and also got the first korean convert in (wol – ). during the period of the japanese imperialist wars in the s in east asia, similar to jehovah’s witnesses in japan and taiwan, conscientious objectors in korea were first imprisoned as traitors in because they refused to take up arms for japanese imperialist wars. ironically, some documents issued by korean government describe the deungdaesa (燈臺社) incident as part of independence movement (han ). after the liberation from the japanese in , believers composed the first korean congregation of jehovah’s witnesses in and became organizationally independent of their japanese center. don and earlene steele sent by the ibsa (international bible students association) had publishers in seven congregations in (wol – ) . as fundamentalist protestants come to occupy a religious hegemony in korea since the liberation, the legal, social and political persecution of conscientious objectors has strengthened to justify morally the anti-communist ideology of military regimes and dictatorship. since the korean war, the witnesses’ uncompromising pacifism, refusal of blood transfusion, and door-to-door visit made them more isolated and sectarian from the established order of the post-war society. both religious majorities and social elites did not hesitate to regard them as a dangerous and anti-social fanatic community. it seems that this social circumstance had a negative influence on the increase of their religious membership, even though they have about , members and congregations in (mcst , p. ). it was until the s that international political organizations such as un recognized korean conscientious objectors’ reality because both north and south korea were allowed to join un in . since then, korean government had to report its situation of human rights regularly and simultaneously many international norms such as iccpr came into effect equal to domestic laws. based on the reports of korean government, unhrc continue to recommend to make conscientious objectors free and enact an alternative service for them in , , , , and . meanwhile, the irfr first included a brief description of conscientious objection in its issue. this impact of irfr was very different from that of unhrc recommendations because any decisions of the u.s. government based on the irfr could determine the political, economic, and socio-cultural future of korea, and in reality the u.s. embassy’s deputy chief of mission discussed the problem of conscientious objectors with representatives of jehovah’s witnesses and then asked korean government to introduce an alternative service as soon as possible (irfr – ) . in response to this international pressure, the ministry of national defense of korea “established a seventeen-member committee, made up of scholars, lawyers, journalists, religious leaders, civic activists, and military officials, to study ways to introduce and to establish the standards for such alternative service” (irfr – ) . despite a negative conclusion of the committee against the introduction of alternative service, the administration announced the introduction an alternative https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r /lp-e/ ?q=hollister&p=par (accessed on october ). see yb , p. . see yb , p. . see . see . https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r /lp-e/ ?q=hollister&p=par religions , , of service for conscientious objectors on september , but cancelled its plan on december after the launch of myung bak lee’s conservative regime. about conscientious objectors, as figure shows, have been put in jail or judicial trial every year for the last ten years. it is reported that , young people were imprisoned due to conscientious objection so far, even if there is no official statistics issued by the government.religions , , x for peer review of figure . ( ) conscientious objectors imprisoned; and ( ) pending cases of conscientious objectors . a groundbreaking change was made in by a local court of seoul district ( kodan ), which declared conscientious objectors from jehovah’s witnesses not guilty of violating military law. for the first time, the local court as a government institution regarded conscientious objection as a just reason to avoid the compulsory conscription. since then, many local or high courts found religious conscientious objectors innocent of violating military law in totally cases (hankyoreh august ) . nonetheless, both the supreme court and the constitutional court would not change their previous decisions and judgments which conscientious objectors are still violating the current positive law of korea, while asking the national assembly to revise the military law for introducing an alternative service ( do ; do ; hunga ; hunga ). finally, the constitutional court of korea declared on june that the current military law should be revised to introduce an alternative service by december because it violates conscientious objectors’ human rights excessively ( hunba ). . from sectarian pacifism to democratic pluralism although . % of conscientious objectors worldwide are imprisoned in korea (irfr – ) , almost all of them stick to a unique pacifism of jehovah’s witnesses (jw) which can be interpreted as a sectarian choice made in a competitive religious market. from its beginning, jehovah’s witnesses shared common roots with seventh-day adventists (sda) who believed in imminent eschatology derived from the millerite movement in the s. the two groups were not only initially very similar, but on other measures, such as international spread, growth rates, and total membership, have also remained remarkably alike (lawson , p. ). especially during world wars i and ii, sectarian conscientious objectors became well known for their rigid attitude toward conscription and military service, which caused a very serious persecution of them across the world (penton ; wah ; brock ; stoltzfus ). jw and sda started to dispatch their missionaries into korea in and , respectively, and, during the period of japanese rule, they were seriously persecuted by the japanese colonialist government. it was not until the end of the korean war that jehovah’s witnesses and seventh-day adventists did their missionary work intensively in korea. in the s, however, the seven-day adventists allowed their members to decide freely on the issue of completing korean military service in various ways, whereas jehovah’s witnesses adhered to their unique pacifism and hence refused to compromise with secular authorities. following the sectarian pacifism of the mennonites, brethren, https://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/south-korea/jehovahs-witnesses-in-prison (accessed on september ). http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/ .html (accessed on september ). see . figure . ( ) conscientious objectors imprisoned; and ( ) pending cases of conscientious objectors. a groundbreaking change was made in by a local court of seoul district ( kodan ), which declared conscientious objectors from jehovah’s witnesses not guilty of violating military law. for the first time, the local court as a government institution regarded conscientious objection as a just reason to avoid the compulsory conscription. since then, many local or high courts found religious conscientious objectors innocent of violating military law in totally cases (hankyoreh august ) . nonetheless, both the supreme court and the constitutional court would not change their previous decisions and judgments which conscientious objectors are still violating the current positive law of korea, while asking the national assembly to revise the military law for introducing an alternative service ( do ; do ; hunga ; hunga ). finally, the constitutional court of korea declared on june that the current military law should be revised to introduce an alternative service by december because it violates conscientious objectors’ human rights excessively ( hunba ). . from sectarian pacifism to democratic pluralism although . % of conscientious objectors worldwide are imprisoned in korea (irfr – ) , almost all of them stick to a unique pacifism of jehovah’s witnesses (jw) which can be interpreted as a sectarian choice made in a competitive religious market. from its beginning, jehovah’s witnesses shared common roots with seventh-day adventists (sda) who believed in imminent eschatology derived from the millerite movement in the s. the two groups were not only initially very similar, but on other measures, such as international spread, growth rates, and total membership, have also remained remarkably alike (lawson , p. ). especially during world wars i and ii, sectarian conscientious objectors became well known for their rigid attitude toward conscription and military https://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/south-korea/jehovahs-witnesses-in-prison (accessed on september ). http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/ .html (accessed on september ). see . https://www.jw.org/en/news/legal/by-region/south-korea/jehovahs-witnesses-in-prison http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/ .html religions , , of service, which caused a very serious persecution of them across the world (penton ; wah ; brock ; stoltzfus ). jw and sda started to dispatch their missionaries into korea in and , respectively, and, during the period of japanese rule, they were seriously persecuted by the japanese colonialist government. it was not until the end of the korean war that jehovah’s witnesses and seventh-day adventists did their missionary work intensively in korea. in the s, however, the seven-day adventists allowed their members to decide freely on the issue of completing korean military service in various ways, whereas jehovah’s witnesses adhered to their unique pacifism and hence refused to compromise with secular authorities. following the sectarian pacifism of the mennonites, brethren, and quakers, who do not adopt the theory of just war as a traditional doctrine of christianity, jw never gave up their resistance against the korean conscription system, leading to about , conscientious objectors being put in jail thus far. the first federal conscription law of america allowed draft substitution upon payment of $ as early as and further congress enacted the selective service act in (todd , p. ), whereas korean politicians and bureaucrats have been unwilling to introduce an alternative service. especially there is no cultural tradition of such sectarian pacifism in korean history, even if a historical origin of conscientious objection can be traced back to chinese taoism, buddhism, and christian reformation groups such as the waldensians and anabaptists (kauffman , p. ). rather, korean buddhism is well known for “hokuk bulkyo (patriotic buddhism)” because korean buddhists have never hesitated to participate in various wars and power struggles throughout all korean history. korean protestantism has also played an important role in supporting or justifying korean political regimes since its introduction in the th century. korean people have never had a cultural experience to imagine the unique pacifism which transcends both national interest and security. after all, conscientious objectors of jw have failed to draw any political or emotional support even from mainstream protestants as well as other religious majorities because they would not consider any cultural adaptation or compromise in contrast with the flexible strategy of sda. obviously, conscientious objection is only one sectarian market strategy in terms of religious market theory (k. yoo , pp. – ). especially, religious market theorists such as rodney stark, roger finke, and l. r. iannaccone regard it as a rational strategy to exclude free riders out the sectarian organization (iannaccone ; stark and iannaccone ; stark and finke , p. ). this strategy proved very effective for the growth of religious membership in the american cultural context, whether belonging to sectarian or church-like organizations (finke and iannaccone ; iannaccone ; finke ). according to grim and finke’s research to verify the pluralism thesis of religious market theory, the increase of religious freedom tends to promote social peace, while the price of religious freedom being denied is social conflict (grim and finke ). in short, to legally protect a free and fair competition system between religious majorities and minorities now becomes one of the most important duties of democratic civil society in realizing religious freedom as human rights. nonetheless, as the concept of conscientious objection based on a sectarian pacifism itself is still very foreign in the korean civil society, the supreme court of korea (sck) has consistently confirmed the legitimacy of the current military service law which punishes conscientious objectors based on the sectarian pacifism of jw. a public poll conducted by the government in also showed that . % of respondents objected to the introduction of an alternative service (hankyoreh , december ). it was the local courts across the country that began to protect the sectarian pacifism under the principle of pluralism, interpreting it as a basic operational rule of every democratic civil society. since the decision of “not guilty”, many local courts followed the judgment of acquittal, criticizing both legal interpretations and logical impropriety inherent in the previous sck judgments. a local court in http://h .hani.co.kr/arti/column/ / .html (accessed on september ). http://h .hani.co.kr/arti/column/ / .html religions , , of the city of gwangju justified its decision of “not guilty”, citing a judgment of the european court of human right (bayatyan vs. armenia): as democracy should guarantee a fair and reasonable treatment to the minorities instead of the abuse of the ruling power by the majorities, giving religious minorities the chance to serve the entire society implies not that it, as the government claims, causes an inequality and a unfair discrimination, but that it promotes the tolerance and harmony among religions and brings a stable pluralism. the european court of human right explained the features of democracy as pluralism, tolerance, and broadmindedness.... the democratic majorities of a society should be responsible for realizing such democracy and social integration through protecting human rights of the minorities and making the protection of the socially weak institutionalized. if there are the majorities who neglect this duty in a society, the political system run by them is nothing but a nominal democracy because they are just the oppressive and numerical majorities. ( no ) given that mainstream korean protestants have shown a strong hatred against the word “pluralism” itself and both korean politicians and scholars of religion have been unwilling to use it in a field of public discourse, this judicial interpretation of pluralism by the local courts was a significant and historical turning point on which one should acknowledge that pluralism is bound to function as an essential principle of the korean civil society. besides, a few social polls in showed an important change in the necessity of introducing an alternative service as soon as possible. a relative majority of respondents examined by amnesty international and by the bar association in seoul began to support the introduction of an alternative service by % and by . %, respectively, even if most of them answered that they cannot entirely accept a logical ground of conscientious objection. thanks to these changes in public polls and many challenging decisions of local courts, the constitutional court of korea (cck) finally ordered on june that the government and national assembly introduce an alternative service in accordance with the higher idea of the korean constitution to protect conscientious freedom ( hunba ). the issue of conscientious objection in recent korea concerns not only the socio-religious dimension, but also the construction of collective identity of a nation state (pace , p. ). that makes korean civil society rethink what pluralism is and how it works in the korean context. the drastic decision of cck is not a final solution, but only a new starting point for answering the self-reflective questions of korean civil society. the integration of sectarian pacifism into a macro-level principle of pluralism was never touched in the cck decision in contrast with many decisions of the local courts concerned with conscientious objectors. in addition to domestic conditions, the above-mentioned international factors such as irfr and unhrc make it much more complicated to understand the meaning of pluralism in a process of globalization because it is invoked in different ways such as a political ideology, a religious creed, and a basic principle of society, as the issue of conscientious objection in korea shows clearly. . conclusions this paper focuses on the case of conscientious objection in the korean socio-cultural context, which cannot be entirely comprehended by a religious concept of pluralism, particularly explaining how the concept of pluralism could be expanded through integrating a sectarian pacifism of jw into the entire civil society of korea. since korea joined the u.n. in , the criminal punishment and imprisonment of conscientious objectors in korea has become a more complicated international issue because both u.s. and u.n. have intervened in this issue in the diplomatic, legal, or moral dimension. although there was no sectarian and unique pacifism in the korean cultural tradition, international powers forced korean society to comprehend the non-korean worldview in the name of human rights and pluralism. religions , , of except for conscientious objectors, jehovah’s witnesses in korea have enjoyed a high level of religious freedom for their missionary activities, including door-to-door visits, whereas their colleagues in european countries are in trouble legally or socially (stark and finke , pp. – ; richardson and introvigne ). unlike sda, it is noteworthy that they chose conscientious objection as a market strategy in the korean religious market. indeed, religious market theorists tend to attribute their growth in american membership to this kind of religious strictness and conservativeness. however, they remain a sectarian minority isolated from the korean civil society. the absolute majority of korean people, including politicians and bureaucrats, do not agree to conscientious objectors in a moral, religious, or logical dimension. the first judgment of acquittal by a local court in seoul in has been followed by many decisions of the local or higher courts across the country. in parallel with the increasing religious diversity in contemporary korea, the local courts tried to interpret the concept of pluralism in a much broader context of meaning than dealing with the matter of conscientious objection as a by-product of sectarian pacifism. that changed the matter of how korean civil society should protect pluralism as a necessary element of democracy, and hence how pluralism in the korean context can work in harmony with a global expansion of pluralism motivated by international powers. funding: this research was funded by the national research foundation of korea funded by the ministry of education of the republic of korea (nrf- s a a ). conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references barker, rachel. . conscientious, government and war: conscientious objection in great britain – . london and boston: routledge & kegan paul. brock, peter. . radical pacifists in antebellum america. princeton: princeton university press. brock, peter. . these strange criminals: an anthology of prison memoirs by conscientious objectors from the great war to the cold war. toronto: university of toronto press. chin, sang-beom. . hankuksahoi yangshimjuk byungyeok kuboo ei daehan kukga wa jongkyo ui daeung (confrontation of state and religions against conscientious objectors in contemporary korean society). religion and culture studies : – . cho, hung-youn. . mukyo sasangsa (history of korean shamanism). in hankuk jongkyo sasangsa iv. seoul: yonsei university press, pp. – . finke, roger. . the illusion of shifting demand: supply-side interpretations of american religious history. in retelling u.s. religious history. edited by thomas tweed. berkeley and london: university of california press, pp. – . finke, roger, and laurence r. iannaccone. . supply-side explanation for religious change in america. the annals : – . flowers, ronald b. . to defense the constitution: religion, conscientious objection, naturalization, and the supreme court. lanham: scarecrow press. grim, brian j., and roger finke. . the price of freedom denied: religious persecution and conflict in the twentieth century. new york: cambridge university press. han, hong-gu. . ‘yeohowa ui jeungin’ apeseo pookeulupda (shameful in front of jehovah’s witnesses). hankyoreh , may . available online: http://legacy.h .hani.co.kr/section- / / / .html (accessed on august ). iannaccone, laurence r. . sacrifice and stigma: reducing free-riding in cults, communes, and other collectives. journal of political economy : – . [crossref] iannaccone, laurence r. . why strict churches are strong. american journal of sociology : – . [crossref] international religious freedom report (irfr). – . issued by u.s. department of state. available online: http://www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt/index.htm (accessed on september ). kamibeppu, masanobu. . keunhyundai hanil jongkyojungchaek bikyoyeonku (a comparative study of korean and japanese religious policy in pre-modern and modern ear). seoul: jishik kwa kyoyang. http://legacy.h .hani.co.kr/section- / / / .html http://legacy.h .hani.co.kr/section- / / / .html http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.state.gov/j/drl/irf/rpt/index.htm religions , , of kang, incheol. . cheonjaing kwa jongkyo (war and religion). osan: hanshin university press. kang, incheol. . hankuksahoi wa yangshimjuk byungyeok kuboo: yeoksa wa teuksunghistory (korean society and conscientious objection: history and features). religious and cultural studies : – . kang, seung-sik. . mikuk hunbupsang jongkyo ui jayoo (freedom of religion in the united states constitution). the korean journal of american history : – . kang, dongu. . yeohowa ui joungin ui teukjing kwa jeongae (the characteristics and development of ‘jehovah’s witness’). korean journal of religious studies : – . kaplan, william. . state and salvation: the jehovah’s witnesses and their fight for civil rights. toronto: university of toronto press. kauffman, j. howard. . dilemmas of christian pacifism within a historic peace church. sociological analysis : – . [crossref] kim, dushik. . yangshimjuk byungyeok kubooj wa kidokkyo (conscientious objection and christianity). human rights and justice : – . kim, suntaek. . hankunae yangshimjuk byungyeok kubooja ei daehan daechebokmoo injungyeoboo ei kwanhan ironjuk shiljoungjuk yeonku (a theoretical and empirical research on alternative service of conscientious objector in korea). seoul: national human rights commission of korea. kim, insoo. . hankukkidokyo kyohoisa (history of korean christianity). seoul: korean presbyterian publishing company. kim, geumhwa. . bidankot neomsae (silk flower called as neomsae). seoul: sangkak ui namu. lawson, ronald. . sect-state relations: accounting for the differing trajectories of seventh-day adventists and jehovah’s witnesses. sociology of religion : – . [crossref] ministry of culture, sports and tourism of korea (mcst). . hankukui jongkyohyunwhang (the index of korean reliigons); seoul: religious affairs office. moskos, charles c., and john whiteclay chambers, ii, eds. . the new conscientious objection: from sacred to secular resistance. new york: oxford university press. murayama, jijun. . chosun ui jeombok kua yeiun (divination and prophecy in chosun). translated by heekyung kim. seoul: dongmunsun. first published . pace, enzo. . the socio-cultural and socio-religious origins of human rights. in the oxford handbook of the sociology of religion. edited by peter clarke. new york: oxford university press, pp. – . penton, m. james. . apocalypse delayed: the story of jehovah’s witnesses. toronto, buffalo and london: university of toronto press. peters, shawn f. . judging jehovah’s witnesses—religious persecution and the dawn of the rights revolution. lawrence: university press of kansas. richardson, james. t. . legal status of minority religions in the united states. social compass : – . [crossref] richardson, james. t. . the sociology of religious freedom: a structural and socio-legal analysis. sociology of religion : – . [crossref] richardson, james t., and massimo introvigne. . brainwashing theories in european parliamentary and administrative reports on cults and sects. journal for the scientific study of religion : – . [crossref] shin, wonha. . yangshimjuk jipchongkuboo uthukkae boaya hana? (how should we see conscientious objection?). ministry and theology january: – . sibley, mulford q. . the political theories of modern religious pacifism. the american political science review : – . [crossref] smith, thomas w. . review: religious freedom as foreign policy priority. international studies review : – . stark, rodney, and roger finke. . acts of faith: explaining the human side of religion. berkeley and london: university of california press. stark, rodney, and laurence r. iannaccone. . why the jehovah’s witnesses grow so rapidly: a theoretical application. journal of contemporary religion : – . [crossref] statistics korea. . population census . available online: http://kosis.kr/eng/statisticslist/statisticslist_ list.jsp?vwcd=mt_etitle&parentid=a (accessed on september ). stevenson, robert c. . the evolution of pacifism. international journal of ethics : – . [crossref] stoltzfus, duane c. s. . pacifists in chains: the persecution of hutterites during the great war. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /socrel/ . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://kosis.kr/eng/statisticslist/statisticslist_ list.jsp?vwcd=mt_etitle&parentid=a http://kosis.kr/eng/statisticslist/statisticslist_ list.jsp?vwcd=mt_etitle&parentid=a http://dx.doi.org/ . /intejethi. . . religions , , of todd, timothy g. . religious and conscientious objection. stanford law review : – . [crossref] wah, carolyn r. . jehovah’s witnesses and the empire of the sun: a clash of faith and religion during world war ii. journal of church and state : – . [crossref] walters, leroy. . a historical perspective on selective conscientious objection. journal of the american academy of religion : – . [crossref] watchtower online library (wol). – . yearbook of jehovah’s witnesses. new york: watch tower bible and track society. available online: https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/h/r /lp-e (accessed on october ). yoo, kyung-dong. . yangshimjuk byungyeok juboo wa kidokkyo sahoiyoonli (conscientious objection and christian social ethics). theology and world : – . yoo, kwangsuk. . applicability of religious economy model (rem) to the growth of fortune-telling in contemporary korea. ph.d. dissertation, the university of ottawa, ottawa, on, canada. yoo, kwangsuk. . jongkyo shichang ui lihai (understanding of religious market). seoul: dasan publication. yoo, kwangsuk. . numbers and categorization of korean religious minorities: a comparison of demographic census and international religious databases. discourse : – . yoon, yong-bok. . yeohowa ui joungin ui yeoksa wa teuksung (the history and characteristic of ‘jehovah’s witnesses’). korean journal of religious studies : – . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /jcs/ . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jaarel/xli. . https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/h/r /lp-e http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	previous studies 	a historical review of korean religious regulation 	conscientious objectors in korea religious market 	from sectarian pacifism to democratic pluralism 	conclusions 	references menno home: a parochial housing project for the aged a comparative assessment; vancouver by peter schroeder thesis submitted i n p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of master of social work i n the school of s o c i a l work accepted as conforming to the standard required for the degree of master of s o c i a l work school of s o c i a l work the university of b r i t i s h columbia i n p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , i a g r e e t h a t t h e l i b r a r y s h a l l m a k e i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e a n d s t u d y . i f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y i n g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s m a y b e g r a n t e d b y t h e h e a d o f m y d e p a r t m e n t o r b y h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . i t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t c o p y i n g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t b e a l l o w e d w i t h o u t m y w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n . t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , v a n c o u v e r , c a n a d a . d e p a r t m e n t o f . . - i i i - abstract the m a i n t a s k o f any group a t t e m p t i n g t o p r o v i d e p r o p e r h o u s i n g f o r t h e aged i s t h a t o f m a k i n g i t more t h a n s i m p l y " a p l a c e t o s t a y . " the m e n n o n i t e community, t o o , i s f a c e d w i t h t h i s t a s k as i t l o o k s f o r a n answer t o t h e h o u s - i n g dilemma o f i t s o l d e r members. t h i s s t u d y u n d e r t a k e s t o s u r v e y one k i n d o f answer - t h a t o f menno home. t h i s s u r v e y o f a m e n n o n i t e home l o c a t e d i n c l e a r - b r o o k , b.c., i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f h o u s i n g t e n d s t o c u t i t s r e s i d e n t s o f f f r o m t h e s t r e a m o f l i f e . the p a r t i c i - p a t i o n o f t h e s e e l d e r l y p e o p l e i n community a f f a i r s becomes v e r y l i m i t e d . the s t u d y b e g i n s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e a g i n g p r o c e s s i n g e n e r a l . i t d e s c r i b e s some t y p e s o f h o u s i n g p r o - j e c t s w h i c h h a v e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n on b e h a l f o f t h e aged. in t h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f menno home i s r e v i e w e d , and a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e h o u s i n g u n i t i s u n d e r - t a k e n . i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r t h e s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e o f f e r - e d a r e t r a c e d a g a i n s t the b a c k g r o u n d o f a s t r o n g and d e v o t e d c h u r c h - o r i e n t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . a c o m p a r i s o n i s drawn w i t h o t h e r homes f o r t h e aged. t h i s i s done t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f s e v e r a l s t u d i e s u n d e r t a k e n b y m a s t e r o f s o c i a l work s t u d e n t s i n p r e v i o u s y e a r s . i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r t h e n e e d s o f t h e r e s i d e n t s of menno home a r e c o n s i d e r e d . t h i s i s f o l l o w e d b y a d i s c u s s i o n o f what s o c i a l w o r k e r s w o u l d be a b l e t o do t o make a b e n e f i - c i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o merino home. menno home i s f o u n d t o be q u i t e s i m i l a r t o o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e same p u r p o s e s . the v a r i a t i o n s t h a t a r e e v i d e n t c o n s i s t i n d i f f e r e n t p o l i c i e s o f a d m i s s i o n , d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and some d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p h y s i c a l p l a n t i t s e l f . however, t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a - t u r e o f menno home l i e s i n i t s s t r o n g k i n s h i p t o t h e mennon- i t e c h u r c h , and i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t s e r v e s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a r u r a l , m e n n o n i t e , german o r low german s p e a k i n g g r o u p . menno home w o u l d l e n d i t s e l f w e l l t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a c a p - a b l e s o c i a l w o r k e r , as t h a t w o r k e r c o o p e r a t e s w i t h t h e c h r i s t i a n m i n i s t e r s now e n g a g e d i n s e r v i n g t h e r e s i d e n t s o f menno home. - i v - acknowledgements to dr. leonard c. marsh of the school of s o c i a l work, university of b r i t i s h columbia, who has provided constant guidance and encouragement i n t h i s study. his i n t e r e s t s i n the problems of the aged, and h i s extensive knowledge of pre- sent and projected housing projects, have been a valuable re- source at a l l times. to reverend gerhard peters, chairman of the mennonite benevolent society, who provided information dealing with the background of menno home, and who gave encouragement for t h i s study. to mr. john dyck, manager of menno home, who made a v a i l - able some of the s t a t i s t i c s used i n t h i s study, and who pro- vided information about the physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of menno home. - i i table op contents chapter . housing f o r the aged page the aging process. the place of the aged to- day. types of housing for older people. development of services f o r the aged. scope of present study • ...... chapter . merino home: f a c i l i t i e s and residents developments of mennonite benevolent society. menno i n v a l i d home. the buildings. administration. admissions procedure and p o l i c y . comparison with other homes. residents of menno home chapter . menno home: welfare services i n housing the types of services rendered. what other i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r . counseling services. the minis- ter and the s o c i a l worker chapter menno home: new potentials needs of residents of menno home. is s o c i a l work relevant for menno home? a counseling service. admission and e l i g i b i l i t y . recreational a c t i v i t i e s . conclusions appendices: a. sample application form b. bibliography tables and illustrations (a) tables table . age d i s t r i b u t i o n of menno home residents table . source of income, merino home residents (b) i l l u s t r a t i o n s f i g . . menno home ( ^) (b) f i g . . cottage ( |-) .. (b) f i g . . menno i n v a l i d home (i ) (b) h m o home: a parochial housing project por the aged chapter housing for the aged in a t y p i c a l mennonite community, i n a farming area, old people are increasingly l e f t to themselves and so must depend on t h e i r own resources f o r happiness. i t i s true that there are rest homes, which provide care for the aged and furnish f a c i l i - t i e s i n an e f f o r t to keep them contented. however, true happi- ness must depend on the personal resources of the i n d i v i d u a l as they are given an opportunity f o r expression within a setting that i s ready to o f f e r more than mere accomodation. the cru* c i a l problem f o r the mennonite community at the moment arises out of the urgent need to reconcile the needs and p o t e n t i a l of i t s senior c i t i z e n s with the present tendency to place a l l per- tinent values on the energy and boldness of youth. the mennonite denominations are urgently looking for a solution to these problems. being, t r a d i t i o n a l l y , an agrarian people, the problem f o r the mennonites i n canada has never be- fore assumed such gigantic proportions. from the community o r i g i n a l l y self-contained, self-maintained and rotted to the s o i l , has sprouted and grown to f u l l bloom a migratory people l o s i n g basic t i e s with i t s own agrarian o r i e n t a t i o n . mennon- i t e s , in common with others, tend to move too often and too f a s t to b u i l d the strong home l i f e and c u l t i v a t e l i f e - l o n g friendships as was done i n former years. the r e s u l t i s a f e e l - ing of loneliness and i s o l a t i o n even when mixed i n with the general populace. having l o s t t h e i r roots, older mennonite people f e e l that t h e i r worth to others i s meager, and soon de- tect within themselves a nagging loss of s e l f - r e s p e c t . the solu- t i o n to the problem i s slow i n coming about for various reasons: one being that not enough e f f o r t has been put into seeking the guidance of the professions that have concerned themselves with the aged. an e f f o r t w i l l be made to discover what s o c i a l work thinking i s as i t r e l a t e s to the aged, and then to f i n d avenues i n which t h i s thinking can be made useful f o r mennonites who are operating and contemplating homes f o r the aged. one of the basic assumptions of s o c i o l o g i c a l and anthro- p o l o g i c a l approaches to the study of old age i s that the cate- g o r i z a t i o n of p a r t i c u l a r stages i n l i f e i s v a l i d not only on chronological and p h y s i o l o g i c a l bases, but also on the basis of s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l patterns. pollak has noted that s o c i a l science has increasingly singled out various population groups as subjects f o r study, such as minority groups, economic groups and various deviant groups which have been considered to be a s o c i a l problem. * in keeping with t h i s trend to single out f o r . pollak, otto, s o c i a l adjustment i n old age, s o c i a l science research council; new york; k®, pp. - . - - study c e r t a i n age groups the aged, too, have come under closer scrutiny. thus, we may conclude that age grades are not merely a r b i t r a r y categorizations f o r the sake of s c i e n t i f i c study, but they are recognized as having various common denominator s o c i a l connotations. the aging process aging i s a complex process r e l a t e d to the passage of time. pollak r e f e r s to aging as "a process of change and, as such, a phenomenon of v a r i a t i o n correlated with the dimensioned? time." he thus accounts t h e o r e t i c a l l y for the interdependence of the chronological and the functional factors i n aging, admitting, though, that the way i n which these factors a f f e c t people varies with the i n d i v i d u a l . in other words, aging proceeds at d i f f e r - ing rates f o r d i f f e r e n t people. every human organism undergoes c e r t a i n progressive changes with age which are not necessarily the r e s u l t of disease. these changes involve physical d e t e r i o r a t i o n of body systems, which r e s u l t s i n decreasing e f f i c i e n c y of performance, p a r t i c u l a r l y of the manual type. charles s. becker says, aging consists of two simultaneous components; anobolic, b u i l d i n g up and catabolic, breaking down. i t i s well recognized that the f i r s t two decades of l i f e are e s s e n t i a l l y anabolic... while the l a s t two or three are predominantly catabolic. . pollak, otto, op. c i t . , p. . . becker, charles s., "physical functioning of older people" towards better under standing of the aged, new york; • p. ij.. selye attributes physical d e t e r i o r a t i o n to what he c a l l s " s t r e s s . " he describes strees as e s s e n t i a l l y "the wear and tear i n the body caused by l i f e at any one time." he contends that true age depends l a r g e l y upon the extent of this wear and tear. psychological research bears out the tendency f o r i n t e l l i - gence t e s t scores to reach t h e i r peak i n the l a t e teens or early twenties and thereafter decline gradually. i t i s known,however, that the a b i l i t y to learn continues f o r much longer than the age stage these scores would suggest. a recent study on the learning a b i l i t y of older persons suggests that, although older people may have some i n i t i a l resistance to learning, and also somewhat slower comprehension and more l i m i t e d speed, as com- pared with younger people, these d i f f i c u l t i e s may be overcome by persuasion and suitable adjustments in teaching procedures and t r a i n i n g techniques. donahue writes that, i t i s possible, however, f o r mental function to be main- tained at maximum performance or even to be increased for many years. cerebral capacity begins to weaken only i n l a t e r years and then r e l a t i v e l y slowly. at the age of seventy, a person i s s t i l l as capable as at f i f t y . at eighty, the i n t e l l e c t i s equivalent of that of the twenties. at ninety, the return i s back to the teens, a period often considered the best of l i f e . . selye, hans, the stress of l i f e , new york; °. p. "k. . grueriberg, e.m., and kaufman, k., "mental health," charter por aging, p. . . donahue, wilma, "the human machine at middle l i f e , " aging i n today's society, p. . i t i s a known f a c t that o f f i c e s of v i t a l and urgent r e - s p o n s i b i l i t y are entrusted to the care of older people to a large degree. the a b i l i t y to be involved i n abstract thinking, while slower, i s s t i l l acute. older people are s t i l l able to l e a r n from new experiences and novel s i t u a t i o n s . taking part i n a symposium on health, dr. d. l. sampson said, i n r e f e r r i n g to psychological research on aging, that, learning a b i l i t y was another f a c u l t y which waned with the years, but again at very variable rates. there was noth- ing actually to prevent the e l d e r l y from learning new material, but they took longer at i t , and they generally succeeded best with material which had some f a m i l i a r i t y . in general, attitudes and i n t e r e s t s were of p i v o t a l im- portance, and the decline which took place could well be o f f s e t through experience and the r i g h t kind of motiva- t i o n . various and obvious s o c i a l changes come with aging. some of the more obvious ones include retirement from f u l l time em- ployment by men and the relinquishment of household duties by women. the r e s u l t s are, of course, lowered income, loss of vo- cational associates and an excess of free time. changes i n family r e l a t i o n s h i p s occur through loss of spouse or when c h i l - dren leave home, these changes frequently necessitating changes i n l i v i n g arrangements also. one other team of research associ- ates, i n a d e f i n i t i o n study of o l d age, points out that, the problems associated with old age are often a consequence of the breakdown of the o l d person's f a m i l i a r patterns of l i v i n g which usually involves relinquishment of s o c i a l re- lationships and r o l e s t y p i c a l of old age. . sampson, dr. d. l., "psychological changes," the needs and problems of the aging. a report of proceedings of the f i r s t b.c. conference on the needs and problems of the aging. van- couver, . p« . . cavan, ruth s., et a l , personal adjustment i n old age; chicago; k . p. . - - old age i s not to be determined s o l e l y on the basis of the number of years l i v e d , nor s o l e l y on the person's adequacy of functioning, but rather must take into account a t h i r d d i - mension - that of the immediate setting within which the aged person finds himself, and i t s impact upon him. the mennonite f a i t h holds that people who l i v e according to the teachings of the new testament are prepared to meet old age, for i t i s con- sidered a time when, as the more strenuous a c t i v i t i e s slow down more attention can be given to the deeper values i n l i f e . i t holds, too, that a person does not become "old" when he reaches a c e r t a i n age, but when he ceases to grow mentally and s p i r i t u - a l l y . the place of the aged i n today's society in canada, immigration has been a strong influence on upper l e v e l s of the age d i s t r i b u t i o n of the population. the proportion of the canadian population at what i s generally re- garded as "retirement age," that i s , years and over, has a l - most doubled since l l, r i s i n g from percent i n that year to . percent i n l» the heavy immigration, p a r t i c u l a r l y during the years p r i o r to ). i s beginning to show up i n the number of people who have reached the higher age range and have thus increased the proportion of older people c o n s t i t u t i n g the population. . the canada year boofc. ottawa; table ; p. . - - for mennonite people, immigration has had i t s special e f f e c t . the f i r s t major migration from europe to canada occurred i n , when a large group s e t t l e d i n the waterloo - kitchener d i s t r i c t i n ontario. almost simultaneously, another sizeable group s e t t l e d i n manitoba i n what i s now the steinbach area, east of the red river. up u n t i l recent times these people were s t i l l productive members of the household, contributing to the labour force on the farm, i n the shops, and i n the home. now, because of t h e i r age, they are not producers and, therefore, not contributing materially to the upbuilding of a community. h i s t o r i c a l l y , t h i s s i t u a t i o n would not have presented too great a problem since, although f i n d i n g i t necessary to give up many of the former ac- t i v i t i e s , the e l d e r l y person was s t i l l presumed to embody per- tinent wisdom and advice which he was able to dispense as a r e s u l t of l i f e - l o n g observation and application. even i f the older people were immobilized, or bed-ridden, they did'not con- s t i t u t e too great a burden for the family, since the practice of l i v i n g i n c l o s e l y - k n i t co lonies provided for ease i n communica- t i o n with r e l a t i v e s and neighbors, thus removing the fear of loneliness or being l e f t alone to struggle with t h e i r d i f f i c u l - t i e s . presently, however, with the trend towards higher educa- t i o n , with better communication and better transportation, and because of greater s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , the younger generation can ob- t a i n s u f f i c i e n t knowledge to get along without the s a l i e n t advice of - - older r e l a t i v e . this has a l l but robbed the older person of the r o l e or status he knew people his age enjoyed when he was young. in complex i n d u s t r i a l societies the roles of the older person are not at a l l c l e a r l y defined. many of the former family functions have been abondoned, or have been taken over by i n s t i t u t i o n s other than the home. mennonite families mov- ing into i n d u s t r i a l i z e d areas have not remained immune to these trends. some of the moral and r e l i g i o u s sanctions which formerly reinforced family t i e s and f i l i a l obligations towards e l d e r l y parents have, to a large degree, been relaxed, or else have disappeared altogether. associated with the changes i n family l i f e are changes i n the e l d e r l y person's p o s i t i o n i n the community. f i n a n c i a l need e x i s t s , yet employment i s not r e a d i l y available f o r older people, with the r e s u l t that they must frequently look to either the church, the family or the community for assistance. although older people within the mennonite community do carry respon- s i b l e positions i n many cases, the tendency seems to be that they are considered incapable of serving adequately on committees or boards since t h e i r education and o v e r a l l experience has been too l i m i t e d to provide the technical and communicating s k i l l s necessary to f u l f i l l these functions. in degrees varying with the person, the role of the older person i n the community has s h i f t e d from one of independence and helpfulness to one of - - dependence and ineffectiveness. this i s more true of those who have moved into urban or i n d u s t r i a l areas. this i s because of the f a c t that many l i v i n g i n r u r a l areas s t i l l own quite valuable property, and have a voice i n public a f f a i r s by v i r - tue of this equity and t h e i r a b i l i t y to manage i t . types of housing f o r older people housing designed to accommodate e l d e r l y people has generally included two major types. t he f i r s t i s the type de- signed to keep the e l d e r l y person within the main stream of &he community, accomplished through the p r o v i s i o n of smaller, c o t t - age-style unit c l u s t e r s , ^he second, i s designed to give such people more privacy and, while not segregating them, make i t possible for them to have enough common space where they can meet among themselves. some i n s t i t u t i o n s have made a d e l i b e r - ate attempt to provide housing which would r e f l e c t both trends. a possible t h i r d type of housing would be nursing or convale- scent homes, where medical care could be dispensed to those r e - quiring i t . however, for the purpose of t h i s study, discussion w i l l be l i m i t e d to the f i r s t two general types noted above. with respect to the f i r s t type, i t i s thought that segre- gation of the aged into housing units i s apt to give r i s e to restlessness and discontent. old people as a rule l i k e to main- t a i n contact with the r e s t of the community. there was a time when the i d e a l s i t e f o r a home for the aged was considered to be i n the deep country away from noise and d i s t r a c t i o n , and some of the older housing projects s t i l l give evidence of t h i s way of thinking. an objective look at the l i v e s of most older people, however, seems to indicate the problem to be too much silence and too l i t t l e d i s t r a c t i o n . at the f i r s t b.c. conference on aging i n , dr. l. c. marsh, i n stressing the importance of suitable housing as one aspect "of the general problem of the welfare of the aged," said, i think we are a l l agreed that the practice of segregat- ing the aging members of our communities i n neat and hygienic but s o c i a l l y impoverished projects o f f by them- selves i s cruel and unnecessary. we need some sort of viable a l t e r n a t i v e . as i see i t , the key word here i s neighborhood. now t h i s i s an elusive idea to l a y hold of, and d e f i n i t i o n i s not easy. but i f we think of those p a r t i c u l a r physical l i v i n g arrangements which lead to the maximum of meaningful human intercourse, which conduce to a s a t i s f y i n g sense of geographically-focus sed c o l l e c t - ive i d e n t i t y , which tend to ensure that the pleasures of fellowship are a normal expectation of one's d a i l y routine, then i think we s h a l l have embraced the e s s e n t i a l elements of the idea. the second type comprises c e n t r a l housing i n which the e l d e r l y people make up t h e i r own community. here people may have t h e i r own rooms and apartments, l i v e independently, manage t h e i r own l i v e s , and know that there w i l l be a superintendent who would look after t h e i r needs should an unexpected need occur. the alternative to t h i s , s t i l l dnder this general type, i s to have people assigned to rooms, but eating i n common dining h a l l s . under these conditions, the residents would not be able . marsh, l. c., "good housing and the good l i f e , " the needs and problems of the aging. vancouver; . p»l . - to manage t h e i r l i v e s independently i n c e r t a i n important areas of l i f e . the way i n which older people are housed has a d i r e c t hearing on family r e l a t i o n s h i p s . the trend to independence i n l i v i n g arrangements for the older person stimulated by the change i n income status of the past decade, may have been started because of the pressure created by a lack of housing adequate f o r everyone i n the family. a change i n l i v i n g arrange- ments i n l a t e r years comes about not only because family and economic circumstances are d i f f e r e n t but also because i n d i v i d u a l needs have changed. many older people need housing that affords companionship, personal attention, recreation and medical care. housing for the aged, whether government sponsored or p r i v a t e l y financed, must cater to some, and maybe to a l l of the above needs. hertha kraus offers a sensible approach i n suggesting that companion apartments be made available f o r e l d e r l y people "whose idea of fun i s doing something with others" and "for people who l i k e to be good neighbors." she says that, aging people of such background and long-established habits of cooperation may be suited by a dwelling which allows f o r both privacy and group experience i n the same u n i t . ^ after l i s t i n g some of the features that such a u n i t might have, the author points out some of the advantages that would arise from i t . she says, . kraus, hertha, housing our older c i t i z e n s . reprinted from "she annals of the american academy of p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l science. philadelphia, . - - i t i s l i k e l y to meet such personal needs as the desire f o r sheltered independence, f o r belonging, for recogni- t i o n , f o r s o c i a b i l i t y and f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s . . . i t lends the support of neighborly help and, i n c i d e n t a l l y , pro- vides a new outlet f o r resourcefulness, i n i t i a t i v e , and s k i l l s , as applied to d a i l y and f a m i l i a r problems. menno home i s representative of the type of housing mennonites seek to provide for t h e i r aged population. in canada there are approximately such i n s t i t u t i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d across the f i v e western provinces. in the succeeding chapters, several of the d i f f e r e n t types of housing projects i n the general vancouver area w i l l be discussed and the s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences of menno home w i l l be more apparent. development of services f o r the aged s o c i a l work i s slowly being accepted by the mennonites. the apparent apprehension has been nurtured by the strong c u l - t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n to r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s which i s characteri- s t i c of mennonites. they are people strongly rooted i n religiqus b e l i e f s o r i g i n a t i n g with c h r i s t , and furthered, i n turn, by the apostles, the early church fathers, by reformers such as luther, zwingli, knox, and by anabaptists such as blaurock, ©rebel, manz, and, f i n a l l y , pinpointed by menno simons, under whose credentials as a r e l i g i o u s leader the mennonite church took form. with such a strong emphasis on r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n they hold that t h e i r . kraus, hertha, op. c i t . , p. . - - b e l i e f s are s u f f i c i e n t to solve a person's private problems as well as h i s p u b l i c l y known ones. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , the mennonites have maintained that to be an "overcomer" i t i s necessary to follow christ's entreaty to a l l to enter the "new b i r t h i n c h r i s t . " i f t h i s i s done unreservedly, d i f f i c u l t i e s of an emotional and s o c i a l nature w i l l gradually be solved as c h r i s t - l i k e mannerisms, and c h r i s t i a n concepts of l i f e and of service, are put into p r a c t i c e . however, mennonites are also accepting the idea that i n order to be of service to others, i t i s necessary to u t i l i z e a more studied approach to the problem that may be presented. mennonites are increasingly accepting the profession of s o c i a l work as one d i s c i p l i n e that offers a s c i e n t i f i c enquiry into the etiology of the i l l s of man. in part t h i s increasing acceptance i s no doubt due to what sue spencer terms a w i l l i n g - ness on the part of s o c i a l work p r a c t i t i o n e r s to admit that they must operate within the l i m i t s of competence, and admit t h e i r own r e l i a n c e on other d i s c i p l i n e s . sue spencer says, ...the s o c i a l work profession i s increasingly affirming i t s i n a b i l i t y to solve the world's problems alone, and i s seeking to share appropriately with other groups re- s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i t had considered i t s own. these aspects of the s o c i a l work profession's maturation process have set the stage f o r : ( ) a willingness to ad- rait f a i l u r e or uncertainty, ' ) a readiness to seek help from other community groups, and ( ) a determination to broaden the base of knowledge provided i n the profession- a l schools of s o c i a l work. . spencer, sue w., "religious and s p i r i t u a l values i n s o c i a l casework p r a c t i c e , " s o c i a l casework, v o l . > no. , december, . p. . - . " although s o c i a l work has made i t s more s i g n i f i c a n t con- t r i b u t i o n s i n f i e l d s other than services f o r the aged, i t i s now making s i g n i f i c a n t contributions here also. social work teachers recognize that the aging person brings to his s i t u a - t i o n h i s former patterns of behavior, h i s experience i n solv- ing other l i f e problems and making the necessary adjustments, and he brings his emotional needs. s o c i a l workers have sought to help the aged person assess his p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n and to acquire whatever insight i s f e a s i b l e i n moving to change his l i f e s i t u a t i o n or to make an acceptable adjustment to i t . they have served as coordinators i n u t i l i z i n g available r e - sources to meet the person's needs. as a constituent part of an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y team, s o c i a l workers have pointed to the meaning of family r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c u l t u r a l influences, the many aspects of s o c i a l and economic problems, the s p e c i a l i z e d services needed and the kinds of resources a v a i l a b l e . in determining the necessity for a housing project, as well as the type of units to be onstructed, s o c i a l workers have been i n a p o s i t i o n to f u r n i s h information regarding the requirements and desires of the people to be housed. in one l o c a l study of housing for old people, mackinnon and angel suggest that, a s o c i a l worker's constribution does not necessarily end when the i n i t i a l planning of a project i s completed, as he can also be of assistance i n e l i g i - b i l i t y p o l i c i e s , and i n interpreting these to the - - admissions committee. another area of competence for the s o c i a l worker would he i n t e r p r e t i n g the project to applicants; ...^ i t i s e s s e n t i a l that the various bodies necessary to planning f o r the housing of the aged be coordinated to make a housing project meaningful, and more than mere shelter. this w i l l mean bringing together town planning o f f i c i a l s , welfare representatives, p o l i t i c i a n s (if involved), medical personnel and programme and a c t i v i t y personnel. s o c i a l workers, through s k i l l i n the area of r e l a t i o n s h i p s , have made important c o n t r i - butions i n t h i s area of the coordination of available resources and services. scope of present study this study i s an enquiry into the manner i n which a seg- ment of the mennonite population, namely that of the matsqui municipality i n b.c., has sought to provide for the care of the aged people who are members of t h e i r brotherhood. i t w i l l also attempt to define what contributions s o c i a l work theory and practice may make towards a parochial i n s t i t u t i o n dedicated to the cause of looking a f t e r i t s older generation. the mennonite church, both i n canada and i n the united states, has long sought to provide services f o r i t s aged. homes of s i g n i f i c a n t size are today located i n f i v e provinces: ontario, manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta and b.c. however, most of these vi mackinnon, d.p., and angel, j.h., housing needs and preferences among senior citizens (west vancouver). master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, . p. . - - homes follow a c e r t a i n stereotype of construction and service, so that the need for v a r i a t i o n i s quite evident. this w i l l involve a good deal of study of the needs of senior c i t i z e n s , and an assessment of the p o t e n t i a l within the community to pro- vide the needed services. in t h e i r search f o r an answer the mennonites are ready to entertain suggestions from a l l q u a l i f i e d sources and, with the increasing number of mennonites engaged i n s o c i a l work, t h i s profession should be able to make a s i g n i f i c a n t contribution. for purposes of this study, menno home has been chosen since i t represents f a i r l y the general endeavor of the mennonite; church to provide accommodation f o r i t s senior c i t i z e n s . com- paring menno home with other mennonite i n s t i t u t i o n s is not con- sidered e s s e n t i a l , since any v a r i a t i o n would indicate degree rather than essence. however, an attempt w i l l be made to point? out s a l i e n t features noted in studies of other homes i n the general vancouver area because of the value this might have f o r the i n s t i t u t i o n under consideration here. this w i l l be done through u t i l i z a t i o n of several tie ses concerned with housing for the aged. in pointing out the features of other homes, some comparisons can be drawn between the features of the plants as such, the administration, intake procedure, and the types of services that the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r . chapter menno home: facilities and residents menno home i s the outgrowth of a conviction on the part of the b r i t i s h columbia mennonite youth organization that they ought to undertake a project whereby they could help the older generation of people of mennonite f a i t h to f i n d happiness in t h e i r t w i l i g h t years. when they f i r s t explored the region f o r a suitable l o c a t i o n on which a project could be started, the executive of the organization discovered that the f i n a n c i a l undertaking would be much too great for them. they therefore r e f e r r e d the project to the two major mennonite conferences i n b r i t i s h columbia, namely, the general conference of mennonites, and the mennonite brethren conference. after some negotiation, these two bodies were not convinced that a p r o f i t a b l e working agreement could be forthcoming, so the idea of forming a mennonite benevolent society was conceived. a meeting f o r pur- poses of organizing such a society was c a l l e d i n , but only ten people appeared. however, i n march of the following year, - - another meeting took place i n abbotsford; t h i s was more success- f u l , and at that time the mennonite benevolent society came i n - to being. the society's constitution states that "the objects for which the society i s formed are to provide a haven and asylum and supervised care for the aged and i n f i r m . " i t states, further that "the operations of the society are to be c a r r i e d on c h i e f l y i n the municipality of matsqui. one a r t i c l e i n the constitution deals with membership thus, "any member of good standing of some mennonite congregation s h a l l be q u a l i f i e d to become a member of the society. new members to pay an entrance fee of . ." o r i g i n a l l y an annual fee of $ . was also projected, but t h i s clause has since been eliminated. at the present time, the society i s made up of & members, approximately eighty percent coming from the general conference and twenty percent from the mennonite brethren conference. the board of directors consists of members elected on the basis of personal q u a l i f i c a t i o n s rather than on conference orientation, although attention i s given to maintaining some equity i n r e - l a t i o n to conference representation on the board. in march, » a l o t facing marshall road was purchased, nine and a h a l f acres: i n size.. a b r i e f campaign among the membership of the mennonite churches i n the matsquie area was undertaken, with the r e s u l t that construction of menno home was started i n september of the same year. the b u i l d i n g was ready - - for occupancy in may, l"-> and o f f i c i a l l y opened on may , . menno invalid homer during the summer of i , another building which had been erected on the same premises was o f f i c i a l l y opened. it became urgent to have this provision because provincial regulations would not permit invalids to be taken care of i n menno home. this building, licenced under the name menno invalid home, has been designed to accommodate thirty-five persons. however, at the time of this writing there are only twenty four patients being taken care of since the home i s not staffed to look after a larger number. thus, menno invalid home i s a species of housing, but it serves a clientele who have the added problem of chronic illness or physical d i s a b i l i t y . for this reason, i t w i l l not be con- sidered further i n this present study. the buildings structurally, menno home is a long, rather narrow build- ing, feet i n length and feet wide. it is a one-storey building with two short wings jutting out of the east side of i t , one at the centre of the building and the other at the northern end. the home is of frame construction, painted white with pink.trim. the centre wing houses the combined sitting pig. menno home ( l(.) pig. menno invalid home (i ) - « room and dining room. the northern wing was o r i g i n a l l y i n - tended, and i n i t i a l l y used, as an infirmary, but has now been converted to ordinary rooms since the construction of menno i n v a l i d home. for p r a c t i c a l purposes, the b u i l d i n g divides into two wings with the central kitchen and the dining room - s i t t i n g room separating the two. each wing has a f u l l length hallway with rooms on both sides. each wing has i t s own washroom and two showers. there i s a small sunroom running the f u l l width of the b u i l d i n g , facing marshall road. the basement serves as a sub-strueture f o r the southern h a l f of the b u i l d i n g . i t houses the laundry room, f r u i t stor- age space, the b o i l e r room, a workshop, storage room with t h i r t y s i x lockers, and f i v e rooms which are occupied as l i v i n g quarters by some of the s t a f f . the b u i l d i n g houses t h i r t y f i v e persons, men and women. there are f i v e double rooms and twenty s i x single rooms. each room i s supplied with the minimum necessary f u r n i t u r e . the rooms are rather small, and seem somewhat crowded when the tenants add a few of t h e i r own possessions to those already i n the room. menno home has been b u i l t on a s l i g h t i n c l i n e just on the eastern foot of a small h i l l , the buildings facing east. the surrounding d i s t r i c t i s e n t i r e l y r e s i d e n t i a l , composed mainly of single dwelling homes with small farms or large l o t s . the - - d i s t r i c t i s quiet, with no schools, parks or playgrounds i n the immediate neighborhood. there i s a moderate volume of t r a f f i c on marshall road. the nearest business section i s i n abbotsford, about one mile d i s t a n t . in addition to the main b u i l d i n g there i s one small c o t t - age on the property which was b u i l t on a private basis by an older couple. the agreement i s that as long as either party l i v e s , the cottage remains t h e i r property and i s at a l l times at t h e i r disposal. they have w i l l e d the cottage, on t h e i r death, to the mennonite benevolent society. the cottage consists of a l i v i n g room, bedroom, bathroom and small u t i l i t y room. the residents have t h e i r meals pro- vided fori; them i n the main b u i l d i n g . the cottage i s located just east of the main b u i l d i n g and so placed that i f other people desire to undertake a similar venture, a cottage v i l l - age could be started similar to the idea suggested by helen kraus. however, being located as i t i s between menno home and menno i n v a l i d home, i t looks unduly conspicuous, and cases the grounds to appear rather c l u t t e r e d . there are several additional buildings on the property. two small residences facing marshall road serve as l i v i n g quarters f o r the administrators of the two homes. these two buildings are situated on either side of the driveway. since . kraus, helen, op. c i t . p. - - the buildings were on the property before i t was purchased by the society, they have merely been taken over by the admini- s t r a t o r s , and l e f t where they were. these houses, too, tend to detract from the general appearance of the t o t a l project. near the northern boundary of the property, a f a i r sized barn houses two cows and some chickens, the property of the society. the milk supplied by these cows i s s u f f i c i e n t for the needs of the home; and a large garden supplies a portion of the vegetables needed. much of the property i s fenced i n to pro- vide pasture f o r the c a t t l e . menno home i s a very modest looking structure, situated i n a semi-rural area. the s i m p l i c i t y of structure and decora- t i o n i s deliberate since i t i s both economical, and f i t s i n with the mennonite emphasis on s i m p l i c i t y . i t i s conveniently located f a i r l y close to various mennonite churches so that those who so desire may get to t h e i r church without unduly i n - conveniencing anyone, a unique feature of menno home i s the fact that i t may r a i s e some of i t s own produce. since most of the residents were connected with farm l i f e i n some form or another, this unique feature i s a d i s t i n c t a t t r a c t i o n . administration menno home i s the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of the board of directors of the mennonite benevolent society under the chairmanship of - - rev. gerhard i . peters. this board rte ets every month to con- sider problems and to make new plans for further areas of ser- v i c e . to look a f t e r the d e t a i l s of running the home, the board has employed a manager. the present manager has no p a r t i c u l a r t r a i n i n g i n this f i e l d . his duties include bookkeeping, pur- chasing supplies, maintenance of buildings and the performance of innumerable routine tasks. the management of menno home as at present seems to be adequate for immediate needs. the f i r s t task of a new i n s t i t u - t i o n w i l l be the r o u t i n i z i n g of a c t i v i t i e s and of services. however, as they become more or l e s s automatic management w i l l need to look farther a f i e l d , e s t a b l i s h i n g a program of unique- ness for the home involved. certainly, when the younger of the old people enter the home demands f o r variety of a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be made. when that time comes, management w i l l need to do more than merely provide custodial care. at present menno home also employs a matron, a p r a c t i c a l nurse, who manages the household duties of menno home. the manager and matron are husband and wife. this arrangement appears to be quite adequate f o r menno home at present. how- ever, as menno home grows, and accepts younger adults, and possibly more adults who are not of the mennonite f a i t h , i t w i l l be necessary to develop a program of i n t e r e s t s which take into account the habits and attitudes of the various residents. in other words, i t w i l l require either an administrator trained i n - k - group work with the older people, or else the employing of a programme d i r e c t o r who would arrange f o r recreation, group discussions and public r e l a t i o n s , leaving to a resident care- taker smaller tasks, such as providing t a x i service f o r the residents and procuring drugs as prescribed by the physician. the programme director would regulate the various volumtary services that are being offered by the churches, women's groups and individuals of the community. admissions procedure and policy except for a regular form giving pertinent date of a p p l i - cants, admissions procedures are not at a l l formalized. the manager i s at l i b e r t y to determine whether the applicant next on the waiting l i s t could be accepted by the i n s t i t u t i o n . in cases of doubt, he may take h i s concerns to the monthly meeting of the board. the reason why no separate admissions committee has been appointed thus f a r i s because the waiting l i s t at any time has been small, so that the i n s t i t u t i o n has accepted with- out h e s i t a t i o n whoever was on waiting l i s t and immediately available. should the waiting l i s t become lengthy, as i t l i k e l y w i l l in a short while, i t w i l l be necessary to devise some method of screening applicants. this point w i l l be discussed i n chapter k. the admissions p o l i c y provides f o r e l d e r l y people of any f a i t h or race to be taken i n should the applicant wish to be - - admitted. i n i t i a l l y , menno home was conceived of as serving the mennonite people exclusively, but the board has seen f i t to open the doors of the i n s t i t u t i o n to other f a i t h s also. the reason so few of other f a i t h s or cultures have availed themselves of t h i s opportunity i s because the general atmos- phere of the i n s t i t u t i o n i s known to carry d i s t i n c t mennonite culture undertones. much of the conversation takes place either i n german or low-german; the worship services are con- ducted i n german so that people of other n a t i o n a l i t i e s f e e l l e f t out. comparison.:, with other homes a comparative view of mennonite housing for the aged can be made by reference to a study conducted i n of four selected housing projects for older people i n vancouver and area. the four homes covered i n t h i s survey are the pair haven, lions' view, dana home and the west vancouver housing project. the pair haven i s a home sponsored by the united church. it consists of a large number of buildings, the main b u i l d i n g being a large two-storey structure. there are f i v e single cottages where couples reside, twenty duplex cottages and four one-storey multiple dwellings. these smaller buildings are located on both sides and behind the main structure. lions' view i s sponsored by the b r i t i s h columbia housing foundation, . sharp, p a t r i c i a louise, housing projects f o r old people, master of s o c i a l work thesis; vancouver, . - - which i s a private c orporation. this i s a low-rental housing project f o r people with l i m i t e d incomes. there are three two-storey apartment buildings. the r e s t of the buildings are one-storey structures placed around a central lawn area. dania home resulted from e f f o r t s of a small group of c i t i z e n s of danish o r i g i n who wanted to provide housing similar to that prevalent i n denmark. dania home i s a remodelled farm house which has had wings added on to i t . in addition to t h i s central b u i l d i n g , there are four small cottages and one duplex. the main b u i l d i n g i s a two-storey b u i l d i n g . the west vancouver housing project i s sponsored by the west vancouver kiwanis club. there are, i n a l l , s i x , buildings; a two storey apartment b u i l d i n g , four one-storey duplexes and a "community centre." a f t e r having described the physical d e t a i l s of the v a r i - ous homes, the survey considers the extent to which there are s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences i n the four housing projects studied. the s i m i l a r i t i e s l i e i n the f a c t that a l l four pro- jects included i n the physical arrangements both main buildings and smaller u n i t s . the differences appear i n the variations of design and functional set-up of the various homes. menno home, although considerably smaller than the homes mentioned above, also has s i m i l a r i t i e s and c e r t a i n differences, when compared with them. pair haven consists of a large number of buildings housing persons. the large main b u i l d i n g i s - - c e n t r a l l y placed, with the smaller units uniformly spaced around i t . menno home at t h i s time has only one smaller u n i t , but the idea i n both instances is s i m i l a r . lions' view d i f f e r s from dania i n that dania has a number of single cottages whereas the smaller units of lions' view s t i l l provide from four to s i x apartments. the west vancouver housing project d i f f e r s from the others p a r t i c u l a r l y i n including a "community center" f o r the use of tenants. i t d i f f e r s from menno home i n having a common room where the residents may gather for t h e i r various a c t i v i t i e s . menno home has only one central area which must serve both as common room and dining area. administratively there are s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences. dania home, f o r example, has its d a i l y management taken care of by a matron who l i v e s i n the home. she i s assisted by a s t a f f of three to help with the cooking and the cleaning. the residents are at l i b e r t y to help with the work should they wish to do so. menno home also has a matron with three a s s i s t - ants. however, dania home i s a bigger i n s t i t u t i o n , and should require more help were i t not f o r the fact that the residents themselves do some of the work i n contrast with menno home where a l l the work is done by the s t a f f . the west vancouver housing project i s managed by the secretary-treasurer of i t s board of directors. one couple occupying a cottage receives a rent reduction i n exchange f o r - - some caretaking duties. this type of management d i f f e r s only s l i g h t l y from that of pair haven where the administration i s c a r r i e d out by the board of d i r e c t o r s . the work of the board i s conducted by several committees: finance, building, business, ma nagement, admitting, p u b l i c i t y , landscape, v i s i t i n g and the m i n i s t e r i a l advisory committee. a couple l i v i n g - i n serve as caretaker and matron. this arrangement i s somewhat s i m i l a r to that of menno home. i t may be seen, then, that p a t r i c i a sharp's comment that "each (home) has c e r t a i n q u a l i t i e s to commend i t , none i s en- t i r e l y without drawbacks," does hold true also f o r menno home. the r e a l problem i n developing a housing project of any s i g n i f i - cant size i s that the physical structure must be present before any programme can be entered i n upon. no organization can possibly anticipate a l l the innovations that the needs and de- s i r e s "of the future residents may i n i t i a t e . even seeking ad- vice from l o c a l i t i e s where projects have been operating f o r some time can be of help only to the extent that the l o c a l situations and the c l t u r e groups served are s i m i l a r . to ad- mit and allow for variations i n the p e r s o n a l i t i e s of i n d i v i d u a l older people precludes the recognition of variations i n the personality of communities of older people. menno home i s no exception i n t h i s respect, and so w i l l need to look at possible modifications, some of which w i l l be suggested i n chapter k. - - residents of menno home the majority of the old people now r e s i d i n g at menno home were admitted between the ages of and . average age at admittance was . table i. age d i s t r i b u t i o n of menno home residents age: at time of entry into b.c. at time of entry into b.c. present age under - - - - - mm - k - . + total the average age at time of admittance to menno home is higher than that of other homes located i n urban areas. for instance, the average age at time of admittance to taylor manor (an i n s t i t u t i o n i n vancouver) was or . comparing menno home and taylor manojb, i t i s to be noted that admittance ages for the tenants of menno home i s higher by about ten years. the difference l i k e l y stems from the area of residence p r i o r to . guest, dennis t., taylor manor, a survey of the f a c i l i t i e s of vancouver's home for the aged. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, . p. - - attendance. while taylor manor draws most of i t s tenants from the urban areas where retirement age i s and old age pension becomes e f f e c t i v e f o r those f i n a n c i a l l y needy, the residents of menno home reside on farms where they can be employed to an older age. then, too, since menno home is a r e l a t i v e l y new i n s t i t u t i o n , i t i s understandable that the oldest of the older members would apply f o r acceptance f i r s t . of the residents at the time of t h i s survey, by f a r the larger number were women. there i s only one couple in the home at present. twenty seven of the residents are either widows or widowers, four are single and s i x married (includ- ing the resident couple). although there may be numerous reasons for the wide margin of women over men, one i s of par- t i c u l a r significance for mennonites. during the 's and again a f t e r the second world war, scores of mennonite women migrated to canada with t h e i r children, not knowing where t h e i r husbands might be, or even whether they were a l i v e . families i n russia were frequently scattered by revolutionary uprisings when members of a family were sent to s i b e r i a , or else forced to f l e e because they refused to j o i n the bolshevik army. these widows, who have now grown old, were not able to save enough money while i n canada to enable them to l i v e i n - dependently i n old age. also, t h e i r sons and daughters could not be expected to house t h e i r parents; indeed, they also usually started out with l i v i n g quarters barely s u f f i c i e n t to - - house t h e i r own growing f a m i l i e s . in many cases the married partners were presumed to be a l i v e , but were s t i l l behind the "iron curtain," and agencies such as the mennonite central committee have not been able to locate too many to date. the majority of the inmates were born outside canada. twenty seven entered b r i t i s h columbia after the close of the second world war. the remaining residents, entered either during or before the war; the f i r s t of the group a r r i v i n g i n . a l l but i . had by the time of admission obtained cana- dian c i t i z e n s h i p . mennonite migration to b r i t i s h columbia from the p r a i r i e provinces increased manifold during the l a t e ^ *s and early 's. this sudden i n t e r e s t i n b r i t i s h columbia was due..to at least three factors: a) the b u i l d i n g boom, with a l l the employment opportunities i t provided for the tradesmen from the "old country," and for farm labourers from the p r a i r i e s ; b) the warmer climate; c) the opportunity to buy f r u i t farms and chicken ranches, two highly prized methods of l i v e l i h o o d . approximately h a l f of the occupants of menno home gave t h e i r "home address" as that of either children or close r e l a t i v e s . one individual came to the home from a d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n . the r e s t l i v e d p r i v a t e l y , either i n small semi- urban residences or on small farms near yarrow, sardis, clear- brook and v i c i n i t y . t h i r t y one of the residents mentioned t h e i r next-of-kin residing i n the area as either son or - - daughter. this gives evidence that the representation at the home could not be housed by t h e i r own children, or else that the residents themselves questioned the a d v i s a b i l i t y of moving i n with t h e i r own c h i l d r e n . most of the people i n the home have been able to q u a l i f y for the b r i t i s h columbia supplementary pension. the exception includes four who came to b r i t i s h columbia recently. two are being subsidized by the b r i t i s h columbia mennonite r e l i e f organization to the extent of $ . per person per month. two of these four do not q u a l i f y for the dominion old age pension and so are supported i n the entire amount by the mennonite r e l i e f organization. this organizationwas esta- blished f o r the express purpose of helping people who f o r various reasons need assistance, but who do not q u a l i f y f o r any of the contributory insurance plans available f o r the general public. one of the residents i s on s o c i a l assistance, and one pays the balance needed f o r maintenance i n the home out of private savings. a l l the residents of menno home who were sick and unable to look a f t e r themselves were transferred into menno i n v a l i d home when i t was opened i n i . only those who do not require extra care are accepted i n menno home. - - table i i . source of income source of income number dominion old age pension with bonus old age pension and mennon- i t e r e l i e f organization mennonite r e l i e f organiza- t i o n only old age pension and private funds s o c i a l assistance total good housing alone cannot solve a l l the varied and com- plex problems that face the older generation. yet, to deny the importance of good housing i s to deny the need for hous- ing altogether. geneva mathiesen says that something to do, and a place to l i v e "are the two great needs that time puts upon a l l those who l i v e into old age." just to provide shelter for them i s not enough. on the occasion of the symposium on aging i n , mr. michael wheeler (at that time research planner with the c i t y of vancouver) summed up the vancouver s i t u a t i o n as follows: there were housing projects for senior c i t i z e n s i n b r i t i s h columbia, y i e l d i n g a t o t a l of around separ- ate u n i t s . . . (but) probably ten times as many as t h i s were required i f the housing needs of the e l d e r l y of the province were to be met... he reminded the con- ference, however, that i t was misleading to hold the problem i n categorical i s o l a t i o n and to think of senior c i t i z e n s projects as the only solution to the problem. he endorsed the view e a r l i e r enunciated by dr. marsh that the housing needs of the e l d e r l y were i n essence the same as those of the r e s t of the community, and he pointed out that the problem d i d not spring into existence at the age of . i f a married couple did not have a house by the time they were i n t h e i r f i f t i e s , they were u n l i k e l y to acquire one afterwards, and even i f they did, declining income and waning physical powers created d i f f i c u l t i e s i n looking after i t . the residents of menno home seem to be average older c i t i z e n s , with problems common to a l l the aged. menno home seeks to help i t s residents not only with housing but also with the s o c i a l amenities, which w i l l be discussed i n the following chapter. . mathiesen, geneva, "better buildings for the aging," buildings for the aging. the national committee on the aging of the national welfare assembly; chicago, . chapter menno home: welfare service in housing the modern home for the aged increasingly serves men and women of advanced age, and those faced with the f a c t or fear of f r a i l t y , i n f i r m i t y or i l l n e s s . to bedrand-board ser- vices have now been added many other services to maintain s o c i a l , physical and s p i r i t u a l well-being. in many homes not the least of these i s s o c i a l service. the manner i n which these services are provided varies somewhat. the cor- poration of burnaby, for instance, has one s o c i a l worker assigned to homes where r e c i p i e n t s of s o c i a l assistance are housed. this s o c i a l worker v i s i t s her c l i e n t s regularly, but serves also as consultant to the regular s t a f f of the various homes. other homes make use of the r e f e r r a l system in guid- ing an e l d e r l y resident to where he can obtain the assistance the home cannot provide. the middlechurch home f o r the aged i n manitoba, has employed a s o c i a l worker as f u l l time ad- ministrator. this administrator was trained i n denmark, and has brought to t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n many of the ideas that have been found to be of advantage through research and experimen- - - t a t i o n done i n t h a t c o u n t r y . menno home h a s n o t a v a i l e d i t s e l f o f any o f t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e s . one r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h e s e r v i c e s t h a t a r e t o b e o f f e r e d a r e l a i d down b y a b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s whose members b e l o n g t o t h e v a r i o u s m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h e s . i t i s n a t u r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d a r e a l i g n e d t o t h e r e s o u r c e s t h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h t h e s e c h u r c h e s . s e c o n d l y , menno home i s s t i l l a y o u n g i n s t i t u t i o n s e e k i n g t o c l e a r a p a t h t o - wards s e r v i c e s t h a t w o u l d be m e a n i n g f u l f o r t h e r e s i d e n t s , and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n as s u c h . time i s an i m p o r t a n t commodity as management l e a r n s t h e a r t o f r u n n i n g an i n s t i t u t i o n and de- v e l o p i n g a programme w h i c h c o u l d i n v o l v e a l l p r o f e s s i o n s known t o have made c o n t r i b u t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o homes f o r t h e a g e d . the s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d b y menno home may be s e e n as coming, f r o m two s o u r c e s : a) t h o s e o f f e r e d b y t h e i n s t i t u t i o n as s u c h and, b ) t h o s e o f f e r e d b y t h e s u r r o u n d i n g i m m u n i t y , i n c l u d i n g the n e a r b y c h u r c h e s . the s e r v i c e s o f f e r e d b y menno home i t s e l f , o u t s i d e o f p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e b a s i c e v e r y d a y r e q u i r e m e n t s , have so f a r b e e n q u i t e l i m i t e d . t h i s i s l i k e l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no programme d i r e c t o r whose t i m e c o u l d be s p e n t o n programming a l o n e . the management i t s e l f i s t o o o c c u p i e d w i t h r o u t i n e s t o be a b l e t o e v e n i n i t i a t e e x t r a s e r v i c e s , n o t t o s p e a k o f t h e n e e d f o r r e s e a r c h t o d e t e r m i n e what i n t h e way o f e x t r a s e r - v i c e s c o u l d be o f f e r e d . - - s e v e r a l d o c t o r s w i t h i n t h e c l e a r b r o o k a r e a h a v e made t h e i r s e r v i c e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e r e s i d e n t s o f menno home. e a c h o c c u p a n t o f menno home i s p e r m i t t e d t o c h o o s e one o f t h e s e p h y s i c i a n s as t h e i r d o c t o r . when a p a t i e n t a s s i g n e d t o a c e r t a i n d o c t o r i s i l l , r e g u l a r v i s i t s a r e made b y t h a t p h y s i c i a n . g e n e r a l l y , h o w e v e r , he c a l l s o n l y when r e q u e s t e d b y t h e management. r e s i d e n t s who g e t v e r y i l l a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e l o c a l h o s p i t a l f o r m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n , r e t a i n i n g t h e i r room a t t h e home, r e a d y f o r t h e i r r e t u r n . however, when t h e i l l n e s s t u r n s o u t t o be c h r o n i c o r d i s a b l i n g , o r b o t h , t h e p e r s o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o menno i n v a l i d home. one good f e a t u r e o f t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t a r i s e s o u t o f the f a c t t h a t s i n c e the two p r o j e c t s a r e s i t u a t e d o n t h e same g r o u n d s , t h e t r a n s f e r i n t o t h e i n v a l i d home does n o t b r i n g w i t h i t d i s p l a c e m e n t f e a r s i t o t h e r w i s e c o u l d w e l l h a v e . the r e s i d e n t s o f t h e home a p p r e c i a t e t h e m e d i c a l f a c i l i t i e s t h e home p r o v i d e s , and r e s t i n t h e amount o f s e c u r i t y t h a t i t b r i n g s w i t h i t . m i n o r i l l n e s s e s o f the i n m a t e s a r e l o o k e d a f t e r b y t h e m a t r o n ; a p r a c t i c a l n u r s e . d r u g s and o t h e r n e e d e d s u p p l i e s a r e p a i d f o r t h r o u g h t h e m e d i c a l s e r v i c e s d i v i s i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e f o r t h o s e on s o c i a l a s s i s t a n c e . the home s u p p l i e s t h e d r u g s f o r t h o s e n o t on s o c i a l a s s i s t a n c e , b u t who c a n n o t p a y f o r them t h e m s e l v e s . i n menno home, c o m p l e t e room s e r v i c e i s p r o v i d e d . the m a t r o n and h e r s t a f f see t o i t t h a t t h e b e d s a r e made, t h e - - rooms kept tidy, and that the d a i l y routines are on schedule. they also prepare and serve three f u l l meals per day. in addition, f o r those residents desiring i t , two snacks per day are provided; one at about three o'clock i n the afternoon and another p r i o r to r e t i r i n g at night. outside of a few opportunities provided for the male residents to work about the yard, there are no outlets where- by the residents may spend their time. some of the female residents spend a good deal of time k n i t t i n g , hand sewing and crocheting. one reason why so l i t t l e i n the way of recreation i s available r e s u l t s from the assumption that because of the higher age range, most of the residents would not be too i n - terested i n 'recreation of the general sort. the people there- fore spend most of t h e i r time either by themselves i n t h e i r rooms, or else s i t t i n g i n the central d i n i n g - s i t t i n g area t a l k - ing with fellow residents. v i s i t i n g hours are l i m i t e d to two periods per day, namely, from two to four o'clock and seven to nine p.m. this provides the main contact with the surrounding community that the residents have, for the shopping centre and community stores are too remote for the residents to v i s i t frequently. a welcome feature of menno home l i e s i n i t s l o c a t i o n . being s e t t l e d as i t i s i n a semi-rural qd mmunity, i t i s possible for the older persons to go for v/alks, to get acquaint- - - e d with, a t l e a s t some o f t h e n e i g h b o r s and t o e n j o y t h e r u r a l s e t t i n g g e n e r a l l y . i t a l s o p r o v i d e s f o r l o c a l p e o p l e t o v i s i t t h e i r r e l a t i v e s i n t h e home f r e q u e n t l y , f o r t h e home i s e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e . a f u r t h e r f e a t u r e o f menno home i s t h a t i t p r o v i d e s a number o f r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s . the c h a i r m a n o f t h e b o a r d , a member o f t h e c h r i s t i a n m i n i s t r y , u n d e r t a k e n what i s c a l l e d "an hour o f b i b l e s t u d y " e v e r y wednesday a f t e r n o o n . t h i s p e r i o d c o n s i s t s o f some s i n g i n g where a l l t a k e p a r t , a d i s - c u s s i o n o r d i s s e r t a t i o n o n a p a r t i c u l a r p o r t i o n f r o m t h e s c r i p - t u r e s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y a l l so i n c l i n e d i n a u d i b l e p r a y e r . i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d b y t h e home i t s e l f t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s w h i c h t h e s u r r o u n d i n g community, t h r o u g h t h e i r m i n i s t e r s , l a d i e s ' o r g a n i z a t i o n s and y o u t h g r o u p s , p r o v i d e b y way o f r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s . u s u a l l y t h e w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s a r e a r r a n g e d f o r sunday a f t e r n o o n s when t h e v a r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s t a k i n g p a r t s e r v e o n a r o t a t i o n b a s i s . e x t r a programmes a r e r e n d e r e d b y l a d i e s a i d s who u s u a l l y make t h i s an o c c a s i o n t o d e l i v e r t o t h e home some o f t h e p r o d u c t s t h e y have g a t h e r e d f o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . m i n i s t e r s o f t h e v a r i o u s c h u r c h e s a r e a l s o a s k e d t o s e r v e t h e r e s i d e n t s on s p e - c i a l o c c a s i o n s s u c h as c h r i s t m a s , good f r i d a y and e a s t e r . the w o r s h i p s e r v i c e s a r e u s u a l l y c o n d u c t e d i n a manner, as n e a r l y a k i n t o t h e way t h e y a r e c o n d u c t e d i n t h e c h u r c h e s , as p o s s i b l e . t h i s i s i n t e n t i o n a l , f o r i t i s t o s e r v e as one - ko - area of l i f e that has continuity regardless of place or l o - cation. the services include hymn singing, special musical selections by outside groups, a sermonette, maybe the r e c i - t a t i o n of a poem and other smaller v a r i a t i o n s . one further a c t i v i t y on the part of the community i s to provide t a x i service for individuals i n the home who wish to attend worship services i n some p a r t i c u l a r church. fre- quently these members w i l l entertain the residents as dinner guests before returning them to the home. different choirs or choral groups v i s i t the home frequently just to sing for the residents some of the songs and hymns long f a m i l i e r to them. after ths singing service, the members of the v i s i t i n g group make a point of contacting the residents to exchange f r i e n d l y greetings. the residents appreciate this informal type of a c t i v i t y on the part of the community. personal counseling i s also available f o r the residents, but i n menno home t h i s i s supplied by the pastors. the pastors of the approximately f i f t e e n mennonite churches are available at any time, should t h e i r services be requested. in many instances, the residents are members of a church quite distant . therefore, the pastors are cooperating i n serving the people i n whatever way they can. what other i n s t i t u t i o n s offer an assessment of any one project cannot be made on i t s - . - terms alone. for t h i s reason, some other housing projects w i l l be r e f e r r e d to here. in the study of taylor manor, which i s an older type i n s t i t u t i o n , the l e i s u r e time a c t i v i t i e s of a number of the residents of taylor manor were evaluated. the author notes that i n twenty-five cases, the adjustment i n the area of l e i s u r e and r e c r e a t i o n i s seen as "average" i n f i v e and "poor" i n twenty cases. the study revealed that reading was the most popular pasttlme. hobbies rated low. i t was found that " s o l i t a r y pursuits such as w r i t i n g l e t t e r s , reading, l i s t e n i n g to the radio, were common methods of passing the time." group a c t i v i t i e s such as playing golf, p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n community or church work, were not rated as f a v o r i t e i n - t e r e s t s , taylor manor i s geared to complying with these more private pursuits of the residents by providing a l i b r a r y and a large recreation room. the "new v i s t a " i s a low-rental housing project consist- ing of duplex bungalows and apartment blocks. selection of residents i s based on c r i t e r i o n of the f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n and health of the applicants. in a study of this housing pro- ject by dorothy barberie , several of the a c t i v i t i e s are noted. one good example is the bookmobile service which i s . guest, dennis t., op. c i t . p. l . barberie, dorothy joan, the "new v i s t a " ; a housing project, burnaby, b.c. .master of social work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, . - h- - o p e r a t e d by the burnaby p u b l i c l i b r a r y . the l i b r a r y van d r i v e s up t b ' t h e b u i l d i n g so t h a t the r e s i d e n t s may s e l e c t t h e i r r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l . o u t l i n i n g other a c t i v i t i e s , the author of t h i s study says, w i t h i n the p r o j e c t the tenants have i n i t i a t e d a i p e c r e a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n to meet some o f t h e i r needs f o r s o c i a l o u t l e t s . . . the tenants have broadened t h e i r c o n s t i t u t i o n to i n c l u d e , as members, any f r i e n d s o f the tenants or people from the neighborhood who w i s h to j o i n . . . the p r e s e n t r e c r e a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n was h e l p e d i n f o r m a t i o n by a member of the board o f d i - r e c t o r s who was a l s o a p r o f e s s i o n a l group worker. i t has been found t h a t merely h e l p i n g the tenant a s s o c i a t i o n to form, however, i s not enough. they appear to need some a s s i s t a n c e i n m a i n t a i n i n g imagina- t i o n , i n i t i a t i v e and v i s u a l i z i n g new and broader p r o - grammes o f a c t i v i t i e s . there would a c t u a l l y be s u f f i c i e n t work f o r a part-time group worker i f there were f i n a n c i a l p r o v i s i o n f o r such a person. the m i d d l e c h u r c h home f o r the aged, l o c a t e d near winni- peg, which i s a r u r a l and danish model, o f f e r s gardening as a hobby to men so i n c l i n e d . small p l o t s are a s s i g n e d to the e n t h u s i a s t s , and then become t h e i r domains. other men are a s s i g n e d to bee-keeping. s e v e r a l of the women have assumed the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f l o o k i n g a f t e r s m a l l f l o w e r beds. another i n t e r e s t i n g e n t e r p r i s e i s a monthly paper e d i t e d and p u b l i s h e d by the r e s i d e n t s . the paper describes, the events o f the home, p r o v i d e s s o c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t s on b e h a l f o f the management any new p o l i c i e s of the home which might have a b e a r i n g on the i n t e r e s t s o f the t e n a n t s . . b a r b e r i e , dorothy joan, op. c i t . p. u - - - many of the above features could conveniently be i n - corporated i n the programme at menno home, because of i t s r u r a l setting, and because of the willingness on the part of the board to make menno home a pleasant experience. counseling services counseling services f o r residents of menno home have been l i m i t e d to those offered by the ministers of the v a r i - ous churches (not only mennonite) and p a r t i c u l a r l y to those offered by the chairman of the board. the reason for the emphasis on s p i r i t u a l counseling rests on the b e l i e f of the mennonite f a i t h that a l l of l i f e i s a struggle to get back into- favour with the creator. l i f e " i n this world" i s but a sojourn;'man i s a stranger here. however, man cannot f i n d t h i s way back to god on his own, and must, therefore accept the o f f e r of the "new l i f e " from jesus c h r i s t who says, "i am the way, the truth and the l i f e . no man commeth unto the father buy by me." s p i r i t u a l counseling i s , therefore, necessary for those who, towards the end of t h e i r l i f e , are unable to reconcile the demands of t h i s "new way" with the p r a c t i c a l , everyday aspects of l i v i n g . i t i s necessary, too, for encouragement to those who may not be plagued by this con- f l i c t , but who s t i l l long to grow in the f a i t h . s o c i a l workers recognize the value and the power r e l i g i o n - *- - may have within the older person, and r e a l i z e , also, that this power and influence could well be used f o r the good of that person. sue spencer says, physicians, p s y c h i a t r i s t s , s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s and others concerned with i l l n e s s , economic dependency, family breakdown and deliquency are expressing openly t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n understanding the place of r e l i g i o u s and s p i r i t u a l values i n human l i f e and i n a s s i s t i n g people i n the appropriate use of r e l i g i o n i n t h e i r d a i l y l i v e s . speaking further about ways i n which human needs f i n d expression i n r e l i g i o u s f a i t h , miss spencer notes that one such way i s , "the b e l i e f that there i s a purpose behind the universe i n which we l i v e and a power that controls the uni- verse and the destinies of a l l who l i v e i n i t (or the doc- trine of a deity who loves us and i s concerned about our wel- fare." and a second way i s , "the b e l i e f that man can reach out and make contact with t h i s higher power, and, i n ways that sometimes seem miraculous, but often are natural and unspectacular, can draw from t h i s source the strength to l i v e a better l i f e and to perform at a higher l e v e l than would otherwise be possible. the t h i r d way miss spencer mentions i s p a r t i c u l a r l y applicable to old age, for i t e n t a i l s , "the b e l i e f that man's l i f e should be concerned with the welfare of others and that he should subjugate s e l f i s h interests and desires to the w i l l of god for h i s l i f e . < l . spencer, sue ¥., "religious and s p i r i t u a l values i n s o c i a l casework practice," s o c i a l casework; december, . v o l . , no. , p. . . i b i d , p. . - ks - that s p i r i t u a l counseling i s of p a r t i c u l a r significance f o r most of the residents of menno home arises out of the fact that menno home, i s , after a l l , a parochial i n s t i t u t i o n , designed to serve people whose l i f e has been an e f f o r t to l i v e i n conformity with c h r i s t i a n teachings. continuing these services represents a r e a l strength to people for whom many other meaningful t i e s have been disrupted. the minister and the s o c i a l worker parochial i n s t i t u t i o n s are not peculiar to the mennon- i t e s . the united church and the presbyterian church as well as various other denominations, have established housing pro- jects for the aged i n the d i f f e r e n t provinces. these paroch- i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s have been established not only to provide shelter f o r the aged, but also to provide s p i r i t u a l care. for t h i s reason, reference to the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the minister and the s o c i a l worker w i l l be made. alan keith-lucas says, for some time the r e a l l y important question i n the rapproachment between r e l i g i o n and s o c i a l work has not been 'how do s o c i a l workers and r e l i g i o u s work- ers cooperate?' or even, 'how do we as s o c i a l work- ers take into account or make use of our c l i e n t ' s r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ? ' it has been, 'how does a s o c i a l worker who professes through h i s r e l i g i o n a a p a r t i c u l a r view of man reconcile t h i s view with his professional p r a c t i c e , i n which he also believes?' . keith lucas, "some notes on theology and s o c i a l work," s o c i a l casework, february, i , vol. | . no. . p . . - k - leroy waterman f e e l s that one reason why s o c i a l workers have not been prone to u t i l i z e the c h r i s t i a n minis- try as a resource i n many instances i s because i t s highest authorities (of the dominant r e l i g i o n s ) "cannot agree as to what constitutes the content of r e l i g i o n . however, waterman does claim that there i s a constant aim i n a l l r e l i g i o n . he says, when man awakened to the abiding values of personality, the r e v e l a t i o n , for i t was also that, was so arresting, so a l l u r i n g , that his e f f o r t s to preserve those values constitute the most persistent, enduring and consistent endeavor that s t i l l characterizes man as man. therein the aim of r e l i g i o n stands revealed, as constant through the ages as the magnetic needle that always points to the pole. s o c i a l workers r e a l i z e the abiding values of personality. c l a s s i c a l terminology accepts man as having dignity and worth, and as having a r i g h t to s e l f respect. whereas the mennonite church sees these values as deriving from the fact that they have been vested by the creator-god, s o c i a l work p r i n c i p l e s usually attribute man's higher status to h i s i n t e l l i g e n c e and r e f i n e d modes of response, as well as to the fact that cer- t a i n natural, irrevocable r i g h t s reside with the person as part of a fundamental concept of democratic theory. the difference f o r p r a c t i c a l purposes, relates to the orientation of each, the church stressing that the use of these values must be accounted f o r as required by the creator, while s o c i a l . waterman, leroy, "religions and religious observances i n old age." t i l b i t t s & donahue (ed.), aging i n today's society, prentice-hall inc.; englewood c l i f f s , n.j.; i , p. . - kl - work s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e y o u g h t t o be r e g a r d e d as b e i n g n e c e s s - a r y f o r p r e s e n t s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g . however, the method e a c h employs t o h e l p t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d s t i l l be u s e d as r e s o u r c e s b y t h e two g r o u p s . h e n r y morrow, i n a s t u d y o f t h e community s e r v i c e s o f an o l d e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h i n v a n c o u v e r w r o t e i n + f r e q u e n t l y , p r o t e s t a n t m i n i s t e r s who i n t e l l e c t u a l l y r e c o g n i z e t h e p l a c e o f t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e a g e n c i e s i n t h e f i e l d o f s o c i a l work f a i l t o u s e t h e s e r v i c e s w h i c h a r e a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n t h e community. p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s , m i n o r e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s and m a r i t a l p r o b l e m s a r e d i s c u s s e d w i t h p a r i s h i o n e r s w i t h o u t any c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f u s i n g s o c i a l a g e n c i e s s a v e as r e - s o u r c e s f o r r e l i e f , t o p r o v i d e c a r e f o r a n e g l e c t e d c h i l d , o r t o p r o v i d e m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t . the agency i s a r e s o u r c e . the c o n v e r s e i s a l s o t r u e . s o c i a l a g e n c i e s may e a s i l y f o r g e t t o c o n s i d e r t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e m i n i - s t e r ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the c l i e n t and do n o t t a k e him i n t o t h e i r c o n f i d e n c e as t h e y t a k e s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n u r s e s and d o c t o r s . so, f r e q u e n t l y , t h e two p r o f e s s i o n s p a r a l l e l e a c h o t h e r . ^ what morrow h a s s a i d i s t r u e o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e - tween t h e m e n n o n i t e m i n i s t r y and s o c i a l work. the r e a s o n b e - h i n d t h i s s t r a i n e d r e l a t i o n s h i p i s w e l l e x p r e s s e d i n a v e r y r e c e n t l o c a l s t u d y on i n t e r p r o f e s s i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , u n d e r t a k e n b y a l f r e d a s k e n f i e l d i n i . m i s s s k e n f i e l d r e c o g n i z e s t h a t , " w i t h i t s t r a d i t i o n o f c e n t u r i e s o f w e l f a r e work, t h e c h u r c h f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t the y o u n g "up- s t a r t , * s o c i a l xtfork, w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s on s c i e n t i f i c method and o f t e n , a s e e m i n g d i s r e g a r d o f a l l t h a t t h e c h u r c h h a d . morrow, h e n r y m., the community s e r v i c e s o f f i r s t u n i t e d c h u r c h , m a s t e r o f s o c i a l work t h e s i s , u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a s c h o o l o f s o c i a l work, i i . . p.l+ - k - done and was d o i n g . . . t h e r e a r e p r o b l e m s o f s e m a n t i c s ; what i s meant b y ' s i n ? ' ' p e r m i s s i v e n e s s ? - p r o b l e m s o f s e l f de- t e r m i n a t i o n o v e r a g a i n s t t h e o l o g i c a l dogma - p r o b l e m s o f p o i n t s o f v i e w b e t w e e n m i n i s t e r and n o n - r e l i g i o u s c a s e w o r k e r . " e s s e n t i a l l y , t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r i s t r a i n e d t o l o o k . a t and d i a g n o s e p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d t o h e l p p e o p l e t o make p r o p e r a d j u s t m e n t t o l i f e . s i n c e t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r i s u s u a l l y w o r k i n g i n a c e r t a i n a g e n c y , he o r she o f f e r s a s p e c i f i c s e r - v i c e t o t h e community. b e i n g d e p e n d e n t on p s y c h i a t r y and s o c i o l o g y f o r much o f h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c l i e n t , and o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s t o be u s e d i n d e a l i n g w i t h v a r i o u s p r o b l e m s , t h e s o c i a l w o r k e r i s p r e p a r e d t o w o r k i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h s e l e c t e d p r o b l e m s , as t h e s e a r e s c r e e n e d b y i n t a k e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e agency where t h e w o r k e r i s employed. the m i n i s t e r , b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f h i s c a l l i n g , must s e r v e a l l t y p e s o f c l i e n t e l e w i t h e v e r y t y p e o f p r o b l e m . t h e r e i s a g r e a t n e e d f o r h i g h l y t r a i n e d c o u n s e l o r s i n m o d e r n h o u s i n g p r o j e c t s f o r t h e aged, and menno home i s no e x c e p t i o n . i t i s t r u e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t any p e r s o n t r a i n e d as a c o u n s e l o r w o u l d n e e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t menno home i s a p a r o - c h i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , s u p p o r t e d b y p e o p l e who a r e i n t e n t on p r o - v i d i n g f o r t h e i r aged a home w h i c h w i l l s u p p o r t t h e b e l i e f s t h e s e p e o p l e have c h e r i s h e d f o r so l o n g . menno &ome c a n b e - . s k e n f i e l d , a l f r e d a , the s o c i a l worker and m i n i s t e r i n w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s , m a s t e r o f s o c i a l work t h e s i s , u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , i , p. . - + - come just that through the u t i l i z a t i o n of the knowledge of various professions. alfreda skenfield has put i t this way: the coming together of clergy and social workers, possi- ibly i n the company of the doctor and psychiatrist, for the purpose of knowing each other i s one of the answers to the many questions posed herein. that there are many settings i n which this can be done, and is being done, is apparent. if each group makes the most of these and creates other opportunities, wherever possible, the tenta- tive approaches to each other w i l l become continued intermingling with resultant understanding, acceptance and sharing of s k i l l s to the ultimate benefit of the individual who is crying for help.' it would appear, then, that the minister and the social worker have much to offer to each other. there are special p o s s i b i l i t i e s in a housing situation where inmates and staff may develop their sense of "community" within the home, to which both have much to contribute. . skenfield, alfreda, op. c i t . p. . chapter k menno home: new potentials entrance into a home f o r the aged i s an event r a d i a t i n g various degrees of pleasure and pain, s a t i s f a c t i o n and depriva- t i o n . contrary to the old concept that held t h i s step to be the "end of the road" f o r a l l who entered, i t i s now being viewed as a p o t e n t i a l for a new new of l i f e . but to make t h i s possible requires adequate accommodati on with the necessary f a c i l i t i e s such as suitable furniture f o r both the l i v i n g quarters and the lounge, s u f f i c i e n t kitchen f a c i l i t i e s to prepare and serve meals e f f i c i e n t l y . the rooms, and i n t e r i o r generally, should be decorated i n cheerful, pleasant colors to lend to the i n s t i t u - t i o n a home-like, warm atmosphere. i t requires a good counsel- ing service for the residents, so that any private concerns they may have can be dealt with. there should be provision f o r group a c t i v i t i e s i n which a l l the residents would be welcome to take part. furthermore, to make a home more than a "dwelling place" requires a s t a f f capable of viewing keenly the broad drama of l i f e as i t takes place i n that home, observing the interplay of p e r s o n a l i t i e s and the degree of i n d i v i d u a l and group adjustment - - and m a l a d j u s t m e n t w h i c h e x i s t s . the b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s and t h e management o f menno home a r e c e r t a i n l y i n t e n t on m a k i n g menno home more t h a n a s h e l t e r f o r t h o s e who e n t e r . they have a t t e m p t e d t o make t h e r e s i d e n t s f e e l welcome, and a l s o v i t a l t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . b u t t h e methods t h a t h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d t o e f f e c t t h i s a r e m o s t l y t h o s e t h a t h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n u s e d . the new o c c u - p a n t s have b e e n made as c o m f o r t a b l e as p o s s i b l e . p r o v i s i o n h a s b e e n made f o r t h e i r m e d i c a l and s p i r i t u a l n e e d s , and most b a s i c e s s e n t i a l s h a v e b e e n f u r n i s h e d . however, i n s p i t e o f t h e s e b a - s i c s e r v i c e s , man s t i l l r e q u i r e s o u t s i d e i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h as t h e s c h o o l s , c h u r c h e s , h o s p i t a l s , c l u b s t o g i v e p e r s p e c t i v e and b a l a n c e t o t h e i r l i f e . s i n c e many o f t h e r e s i d e n t s a r e n o t c a p a b l e o f s e e k i n g o u t t h e s e o u t s i d e s e r v i c e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s e r v i c e t o move i n t o t h e home. the b e g i n n i n g o f p r o g r a m s f o r t h e a g e d i s i n income m a i n t e n a n c e and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . weaknesses i n t h e s e two a r e a s w i l l show up i n h o u s i n g p r o j e c t s . however, t h e p r o j e c t s them- s e l v e s a r e b e s t a d v a n c e d b y t a k i n g as b r o a d a v i e w o f t h e i r s e r v i c e s as t h e y a r e a b l e . heeds o f r e s i d e n t s o f menno home m o s t o f t h e n e e d s b a s i c t o r e s i d e n t s o f menno home a r e a l s o b a s i c t o a l l o t h e r p e o p l e . u n f o r t u n a t e l y , many o f t h e s e n e e d s a r e o f t e n n o t p r o p e r l y r e c o g n i z e d u n t i l t h e r e s o u r c e s - - w h i c h o r d i n a r i l y w o u l d p r o v i d e s u b s t i t u t i o n s o r a l t e r a t i o n s a r e no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e . f i r s t , o l d f o l k s h a v e a n e e d f o r r e s p e c t . one r e a l r e a s o n f o r r e s p e c t i s t h a t t h e y a r e human b e i n g s who h a v e t h r o u g h many t r i a l s and e x p e r i e n c e s l e a r n e d t o cope w i t h l i f e ' s p r o b l e m s . the a d v i c e and g u i d a n c e t h e y a r e a b l e t o d i s p e n s e as i t r e l a t e s t o a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n i s t o be h o n o r e d s i n c e i t i s b a s e d o n t h e r e s u l t s o f d e c i s i o n s t h e y h a v e b e e n o b l i g e d t o make t h r o u g h - o u t t h e y e a r s . a d d i t i o n a l l y , m e n n o n i t e s , as a l s o members o f v a r i o u s o t h e r f a i t h s , h o l d t h a t one o f t h e b a s i c s c r i p t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n s i s t h a t t h e r e w i l l be r e s p e c t f o r p a r e n t s . i t was w r i t t e n i n - t o t h e f i f t h commandment, "honor y o u r f a t h e r and y o u r m o t h e r , " and i t was p a r t o f t h e c u l t u r a l t e a c h i n g o f j u d a i s m . h o n o r , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , i s n o t to be m e r e l y a s e n t i m e n t a l g e s t u r e o f p a t r o n a g e , b u t a d e e p - s e a t e d d e v o t i o n . the m e n n o n i t e f a i t h h a s i n h e r i t e d t h i s i d e a o f r e s p e c t f o r t h e e l d e r l y from j u d a i s m . not u n t i l r e c e n t changes i n t h e e c o n o m i c and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e t o o k p l a c e has t h e m e n n o n i t e f a i t h w a v e r e d i n i t s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d o l d e r p e o p l e . the r e s i d e n t s o f menno home know o f t h i s c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e , and may v i e w i t as f a i l u r e on t h e i r p a r t t o t r a i n t h e i r y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n p r o p e r l y . s e c o n d l y , t h e r e i s t h e n e e d t o f e e l u s e f u l . i t i n v o l v e s a f e e l i n g t h a t d e r i v e s f r o m s e r v i c e t o o t h e r s . the o l d e r p e o p l e n e e d t o t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s as stex^ards o f a l i f e t h a t i s f u l - - - f i l l i n g t h e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h i t was o r d a i n e d . u n w i t t i n g l y , y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e l o s s o f s t e w a r d s h i p b y f a i l i n g t o p r o v i d e u s e f u l t h i n g s f o r t h e aged t o a c c o m p l i s h . "use us o r l o s e u s " i s as t r u e o f t h e s e p t u a - g e n a r i a n as o f any o t h e r age g r o u p , b u t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y k e e n f o r them. t h i r d , i s t h e n e e d f o r s e c u r i t y . the y e a r n i n g f o r e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a t a l l a g e s , a p p a r e n t l y , i s a d e e p r o o t e d large imbedded i n m a n k i n d . p e o p l e do d e p e n d on o t h e r s , be i t p a r e n t s , c h i l d r e n , s p o u s e , a s s o c i a t e s , f o r t h e dynamic e m o t i o n - a l s e c u r i t y t h a t i s t h e b e d r o c k o f h a p p i n e s s . r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e , t h e r e f o r e , i s a b a s i c m a t t e r i n any good h o u s i n g p r o j e c t . t h e s e c a n b e . p a r t i c u l a r l y m e a n i n g f u l when t h e y become s t r u c t u r e d t h r o u g h g r o u p w o r k e r l e a d e r s h i p e l i c i t - i n g f u l l g r o u p p a r t i c i p a t i o n . e c o n o m i c s e c u r i t y i n v o l v e s t h e a s s u r a n c e t h a t f o o d , s h e l t e r and c l o t h i n g w i l l , u n d e r o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , be g r a n t e d . i t i n v o l v e s a l s o t h e w i s h on t h e p a r t o f t h e a g e d p e k s o n t h a t t h e r e w i l l be some s a v i n g s , e v e n i f meager, w h i c h may be p a s s e d on t o t h e c h i l d r e n and t o w o r t h w h i l e p r o j e c t s . m e n n o n i t e t e a c h i n g has a l w a y s b e e n t h a t " i t i s more b l e s s e d t o g i v e t h a n t o r e c e i v e . " i n a b i l i t y t o s h a r e f i n a n c e s i s p a r t o f t h e aged p e r s o n ' s f e e l i n g t h a t h i s l i f e and t i m e a r e e s s e n t i a l l y u s e l e s s . y o u n g e r g e n e r a t i o n s o f t e n f a l s e l y b e l i e v e t h a t o l d e r p e o p l e do n o t r e q u i r e any f u n d s . i t i s t r u e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t - k - t h e y u s u a l l y do n o t demand much f o r t h e m s e l v e s , b u t t h e a b i l i t y t o s h a r e a l i t t l e o f s o m e t h i n g l i k e money r e p r e s e n t s t h e f a c t t h a t a l o n g w i t h t h e money goes the g i f t o f g o o d - w i l l . the o l d age p e n s i o n , and t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y b e n e f i t s , h a v e g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e d t o a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f economic s e c u r i t y . , i f n o t h i n g e l s e , t h e y a t l e a s t g u a r a n t e e t h a t , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g e m e r g e n c i e s o f a g r a v e s o r t , d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r f a m i l i e s w i l l n o t be t o o e x t e n s i v e . a r e l a t e d n e e d e x p e r i e n c e d b y a l l o l d p e o p l e i s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r e x p r e s s i o n o f i n t e r e s t . o l d p e o p l e r e q u i r e avenues w h e r e b y t h e y may show t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n l i f e , and i n t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e community i n g e n e r a l . p r e v i o u s t o e n t r y i n t o t h e home, c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h i n the community b r o u g h t i s s u e s t o t h e i r a t t e n t i o n w h i c h t h e y c o u l d e x p r e s s i n t e r e s t i n a n d s t a t e o p i n i o n s a b o u t . b e i n g removed f r o m the community t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , o t h e r ways o f e x p r e s s i n g i n t e r e s t s and p r o v i d - i n g f o r e x p r e s s i o n o f t a l e n t s a r e n e e d e d . the way i n w h i c h t h e b a s i c n e e d s o f p h y s i c a l , e m o t i o n a l and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y and t h e i r f u l f i l l m e n t f i t t o g e t h e r g i v e s m e a n i n g t o l i f e . a good h o u s i n g p r o j e c t w i l l t a k e t h i s i n t o a c c o u n t , and w i l l s e e k t o e s t a b l i s h f a c i l i t i e s and s e r v i c e s w h i c h w i l l i n t h e m s e l v e s be o f r e a l v a l u e . - - is s o c i a l work relevant for menno home ? the professional s o c i a l workers of b r i t i s h columbia, and indeed generally, have for quite a number of years been v i t a l l y interested i n housing projects for the aged. this i n - terest arises out of the f a c t that housing projects as such cannot be divorced from the basic needs of older people. i f , however, these basic needs are not understood, i t follows that the housing project cannot be planned on the basis of need. s o c i a l workers have sought to understand the dynamics of the behavior of the d i f f e r e n t age groups, and many have made special e f f o r t s to understand the fears, longings and ambitions of the aged. since menno home is a r e l a t i v e l y small i n s t i t u t i o n , i t would at t h i s stage l i k e l y not be p r o f i t a b l e to employ a f u l l time group worker or caseworker, or one trained i n both f i e l d s . however, i t would be p r o f i t a b l e f o r both the s t a f f , and the board of directors, to consider employing a s o c i a l work con- sultant, who:(a) could advise the board regarding admissions p o l i c y and procedure and (b) could develop knowledge on what community resources are available to the aged. this consultant could also (c) advise the board on recent findings i n g e r i a t r i c research i n the f i e l d s of vocational r e h a b i l i t a t i o n , health services, housing, and r e c r e a t i o n a l programmes. given time and the opportunity to know the residents, this consultant could become increasingly h e l p f u l to the administration i n (d^ assessing - - t h e needs o f t h e r e s i d e n t s , d i s c u s s i n g v a r i o u s and p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n s as t h e y a r i s e , and d e t e r m i n e w i t h them what c o u l d be done u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . i n t h i s way the c o n s u l t a n t c o u l d a s s i s t (e) i n d e v e l o p i n g a p r o g r a m o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t w o u l d be b e n e f i c i a l n o t o n l y t o t h e r e s i d e n t , b u t a l s o t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n . a c o u n s e l i n g s e r v i c e r e f e r r i n g t o some a r e a s i n w h i c h s p e c i a l s k i l l s w i l l be r e q u i r e d i n programmes f o r a g e d , l i l l i a n s i b u l k i n p a y s p a r t i c u - l a r a t t e n t i o n t o c o u n s e l i n g n e e d s : some a g e n c i e s a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s s o l e l y t o t h e a g i n g p e r s o n and g i v e l i t t l e o r no a t t e n t i o n t o f a m i l y t i e s o r t o l a c k o f s o c i a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t s w i t h - i n t h e f a m i l y . our ( s o c i a l work) p r a c t i c e i s t o c o n - s i d e r t h e o l d e r p e r s o n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s f a m i l y , b u t a l s o when he i s l i v i n g a p a r t f r o m them... the c a s e w o r k e r must a l w a y s keep i n p e r s p e c t i v e t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e o l d e r c l i e n t , t h e p r o b l e m s o f h i s r e l a t i v e , a n d n a t u r e o f f a m i l y t i e s i n p l a n n i n g s e r v i c e t h a t w i l l i m - p r o v e t h e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f e a c h . ' s p e c i a l s k i l l i s n e e d e d i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e o l d e r p e r s o n whose c a p a c i t y t o t h i n k has d e t e r i o r a t e d . s i n c e c l i e n t s o f t h i s t y p e c a n n o t c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e one p o i n t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e c o u n s e l o r m#st l e a r n t o a s k q u e s t i o n s and r e - d i r e c t t h e d i s - c u s s i o n so as t o g i v e t h e i n t e r v i e w t h e n e e d e d f o c u s . s i n c e . s i b u l k i n , l i l l i a n , " s p e c i a l s k i l l s i n w o r k i n g w i t h t h e o l d e r p e r s o n , " s o c i a l casework, a p r i l , , v o l . k o . p. . - - a b s t r a c t t h i n k i n g i s n o t as a c u t e as i n p r e v i o u s y e a r s , s k i l l w i l l be n e e d e d t o e l i c i t d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v i e w c l u e s t h a t m i g h t l e a d t o a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f what t h e p e r s o n ' s r e a l n e e d s and c o n c e r n s a r e . a d m i s s i o n and e l i g i b i l i t y one p a r t i c u l a r a r e a i n w h i c h a s o c i a l w o r k e r c o u l d be h e l p f u l i s i n " i n t a k e , " e n t e r i n g a home o f t e n r e p r e s e n t s a d r a s t i c b r e a k w i t h p a s t l i f e . the e x p e r i e n c e s may be q u i t e t r a u m a t i c i f no i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s u c h a move i s g i v e n , o r e l s e i f no s u p p o r t d u r i n g s u c h a t r a n s i t i o n i s o f f e r e d . many p e r s o n s who a p p l y f o r a d m i s s i o n do so i n d e s p e r a t i o n . i n some i n s t a n c e s , p e o p l e c o u l d be h e l p e d t o e x p l o r e community r e - s o u r c e s w h i c h w o u l d p e r m i t o t h e r p l a n s t h a t m i g h t be more s u i t e d t o t h e p e r s o n ' s n e e d s . menno home h a s , up t o t h e p r e s e n t , n o t h a d l o n g w a i t i n g l i s t s . t h i s h a s meant t h a t t h e home has a c c e p t e d v i r t u a l l y any p e r s o n who c o u l d be a d m i t t e d w i t h i n the framework o f e s t a b l i s h e d h e a l t h and l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n s . however, t h e t i m e w i l l l i k e l y come when t h e w a i t i n g l i s t w i l l be l o n g e r , a n d when s e l e c t i o n o f t e n a n t s , who c o u l d most b e n e f i c i a l l y u s e t h e home e x p e r i e n c e , w i l l n e e d t o be made. i f a t r a i n e d s o c i a l w o r k e r c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y be employed, e v e n i f on a p a r t - t i m e b a s i s t o s t a r t o u t w i t h , t h a t w o r k e r c o u l d p r e p a r e t h e a p p l i c a n t f o r what may w e l l be h i s f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e i n s u c h i n t i m a t e , c o r p o r - a t e l i v i n g . on a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s , the w o r k e r c o u l d h e l p t h e - - new r e s i d e n t with, p r o b l e m s o f a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e home and t o t h e o t h e r r e s i d e n t s . the w o r k e r w o u l d be i n c l i n e d t o k e e p t h e f a m i l y o f t h e o c c u p a n t i n f o r m e d as t o t h e p e r s o n ' s p r o g r e s s and a d j u s t m e n t , a n d h e l p i n g them t o c a r r y a s h a r e o f r e s p o n s i - b i l i t y f o r t h e o l d e r p e r s o n ' s w e l l - b e i n g . f u r t h e r , t h e w o r k e r c o u l d h e l p i n w o r k i n g o u t a l t e r n a - t i v e p l a n s o f h o u s i n g f o r a p p l i c a n t s r e j e c t e d f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n . one s u c h a l t e r n a t i v e may, f o r i n s t a n c e , be "homemaker s e r v i c e . " l o u i s k u p l a n s a y s , i t h i n k we n e e d t o d e v e l o p a s t r u c t u r e o f s e r v i c e s w h i c h w i l l remove t h e p r e s e n t h e a v y emphasis on i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a r e and p l a c e i t i n s t e a d , where i t r i g h t l y b e l o n g s o n t h e home. we n e e d , f o r example, a s y s t e m o f v i s i t i n g h o u s e k e e p i n g s e r v i c e s w h i c h w i l l h e l p o l d p e o p l e cope w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l p r o b l e m s o f m a i n t a i n i n g a home. we n e e d a s y s t e m o f f r i e n d l y v i s i t o r s e r v i c e s t o h e l p o v e r - come t h e l o n e l i n e s s a n d i s o l a t i o n w h i c h a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o l d age. we n e e d , a l s o , a s y s t e m o f v i s i t i n g n u r s - " i n g s e r v i c e s so t h a t we c a n a v o i d t h e a l l t o o common e x p e d i e n t o f c o m m i t t i n g t h e e l d e r l y t o h o s p i t a l as s o o n as t h e y f a l l i l l . one f a c t o r w h i c h w i l l remove i n t a k e p r e s s u r e o f f menno home i s t h a t s t i l l a n o t h e r home i s b e i n g b u i l t i n c l e a r b r o o k . t h i s new ko b e d home i s u n d e r t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n c h u r c h , and w i l l c a t e r p r i m a r i l y t o i t s own c o n s t i t u e n t g r o u p . t h i s w i l l mean t h a t a t l e a s t s e v e r a l o f t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n r e s i - d e n t s now a t menno home w i l l l i k e l y t r a n s f e r t o t h e i r own i n - s t i t u t i o n . when t h i s h a p p e n s , t h e p r e s e n t w a i t i n g l i s t o f f i v e . k u p l a n , l o u i s , " l e i s u r e time s e r v i c e s f o r t h e a g e d and p a t t e r n s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n . " p r o c e e d i n g s , t h e f i r s t b.c. c o n f e r - e n c e on the heeds and p r o b l e m s o f t h e a g i n g . the u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , p . . - - w i l l be depleted. however, once i t is known that long waiting periods are not necessary, applicants w i l l request immediate entrance once the decision to enter the home has been made. accepting a l l who apply may present the d i f f i c u l t y of having i n the home r e s i - dents who simply do not f i t i n . here, too, a trained s o c i a l worker aware of community resources could make r e f e r r a l s on behalf of the c l i e n t s to other services which might more nearly s a t i s f y the needs of the person concerned. a further area i n which a s o c i a l worker could be h e l p f u l i s that of providing protective services. these are services which are required where the person's capacity to act prudently i n h i s own behalf are diminished, and which demand varying measures of intervention with the intent of protecting the i n - terests of the aged person. reviewing a great variety of such services which might be relevant, mary hemming and marcella parror, writing on this point, suggest that, the nature of the protective problem i s such that re- sources of many kinds must be r e a d i l y available, to be used immediately and f l e x i b l y , to supplement those of the c l i e n t , his family, and friends. among these resources are medical and p s y c h i a t r i c care, l e g a l ser- v i c e s , nursing care, h o s p i t a l and home nursing care, family home care, housekeeper and homemaker services, drugs, ambulance service, and funds f o r immediate needs such as rent, ( clothing, and food. the s o c i a l worker i s at the hub i n mobilizing each needed.resource quickly, both for diagnosis and treatment. . hemming, mary, l., and parror, marcella s., "protective services for older people." social casework, january, i , v o l . k . p. . - - although menno home already provides many of the above services, there are some that could more reasonably be handled by u t i l i z i n g resources, public and private, which are generally available for senior c i t i z e n s i n the community or province. i t would seem p r o f i t a b l e f o r menno home to take steps to employ a s o c i a l work consultant f o r the board of directors and the administration. some i n s t i t u t i o n s elect such a person to the board, and then assign c e r t a i n duties to this consultant. eventually, the services would be developed s u f f i c i e n t l y , both i n q u a l i t y and quantity, to warrant contemplation of h i r i n g a f u l l - t i m e group worker or caseworker. an alternative to the above might be to make provision f o r a s o c i a l worker - chaplain to be employed f u l l time. there are students i n schools of s o c i a l work who are also graduates of b i b l i c a l seminaries. these could be used to advantage i n de- veloping a program for menno home that would minister to "the whole man." recreational a c t i v i t i e s the residents of housing projects have free time they some- times just "do not know what to do with." they need an a c t i v i t y program geared to t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , capacities, and needs. of course, since the residents of menno home at present are on the average between and years of age, there may be the temptation to think that people of this age would not be too interested i n - - v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s and t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , i t w o u l d he s e n s e l e s s t o e v e n b o t h e r p l a n n i n g a p r o g r a m . however, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t , i n t i m e , p e o p l e i n t h e t o age r a n g e may be t h e p r e d o m i n a n t g r o u p , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e m e n n o n i t e s t o d a y a r e g o i n g i n t o v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s where t h e c o m p u l s o r y r e t i r e m e n t age i s f o r men a n d f o r women. b e i n g d e p r i v e d o f a r e g u l a r i n c o m e , t h e y move i n - t o h o u s i n g p r o j e c t s w h i c h t h e y c a n a f f o r d . however, a t t h i s age t h e r e i s s t i l l a good d e a l o f e n e r g y and a m b i t i o n a v a i l a b l e , and i t w i l l n e e d t o be c h a n n e l e d i f t h e home i s t o p r o v i d e a b e n e f i - c i a l "way o f l i f e . " a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t o l d e r p e o p l e l i k e t o do t o g e t h e r c a n be i n c l u d e d i n t h e p r o g r a m . c e r t a i n games s u c h as c h e s s , c h e c k e r s , c h i n e s e c h e c k e r s a r e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t o l d e r p e o p l e e n j o y t h o r o u g h l y i n t h e i r own homes, and c o u l d w e l l i n v e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n w h i l e i n an i n s t i t u t i o n . t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l a r e a s w h i c h c a n be e x p l o r e d . as s u g g e s t e d i n t h e s t u d y b y p a t r i c i a s h a r p , the p a i r haven home h a s a s o c i a l committee w h i c h was e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e b o a r d o f d i r e c t o r s , w i t h one o f t h e b o a r d members a c t i n g as c h a i r m a n . t h i s c o m m i t t e e p l a n s p r o g r a m s , i n c l u d i n g o c c a s i o n a l t r i p s w h i c h t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h a t home e n j o y i m m e n s e l y . the r e s i d e n t s o f f a i r haven have a l o u n g e w h i c h t h e y u s e f o r many and v a r i e d a c t i v i t i e s . some homes e n j o y p r o v i s i o n s whereby p r o g r a m s a r e i n i t i a t e d b y o u t s i d e r s . d a n i a home h a s a number o f i n t e r e s t e d g r o u p s w h i c h c o n t a c t t h e m a t r o n t o o f f e r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . a l t h o u g h r e s i d e n t s - - of dania do not participate i n planning the programs and a c t i - v i t i e s , they do enjoy them and turn out in good numbers for them. other activities that could be of benefit to residents of menno home would be musical programs, discussion groups around various areas of interest, craftwork, sewing, knitting and making bandages for the red cross or some other such organization. the residents could well be encouraged to participate i n activities similar to those they took part in in earlier years, even i f on a much smaller scale. since most of the residents come from a rural, farming background, they could be encouraged to take part in some gardening or general maintenance work around the buildings. done properly, such activities would help the aged person to realize that there can be continuity in l i f e as l i f e advances from stage to stage; that there need not be an abrupt end to a l l activities even though circumstances place them i n a home for the aged. to create the most effective activity program, i t is necessary to let the residents take part i n the planning. the family, or even the referral source, may question the capacity of older people to be useful planning participants, but the re- sponsible program i n i t i a t o r w i l l need to determine to what ex- tent i t i s f a i r to c a l l upon the residents to do their own plann- ing. many of the ordinary problems the residents of menno home - - face are looked after by the management, and by the mennonite ministers i n the community. however, some of the problems could be lessened i f the residents were given i n t e r e s t i n g things to do. a trained s o c i a l worker would be able to a s s i s t the residents i n developing a program of a c t i v i t i e s geared to cor- porate interests of menno home occupants. this would mean an assessment of former i n t e r e s t s as well as a condideration of what things are s t i l l within t h e i r capacity. in the l i g h t of the considerations set out here, i t is a major recommendation of this study that steps should be taken to provide a lounge about equal i n size to the present dining area f o r recreational and worship purposes. in the opinion of the writer, t h i s could best be done by adding a wing, s i m i l a r to the one now housing the dining area, o f f the kitchen on the west side of the b u i l d i n g . this new part could then be used as dining area, and the present dining room could serve as a lounge. this would also permit the residents to profer a cup of tea to t h e i r occasional guests. a further recommendation i s that garden plots, f o r the men capable and interested, be developed. some of the produce thus r e a l i z e d could be u t i l i z e d by the i n s t i t u t i o n , giving the r e s i - dent the s a t i s f a c t i o n that he was able to contribute to the home i n ways other than cash. a group worker could be used to help the home f a c i l i t a t e the above a c t i v i t i e s by selecting residents who would be interested. - k - a f t e r a l l , the purpose of a group work program i n a home for the aged must be to help people to help themselves, through.the de- velopment of an i n t e r e s t i n g and v i t a l group experience. this could take place through discussion groups, panel discussions, short talks or through question and answer periods. it may be d i f f i c u l t , but i t s p o s s i b i l i t i e s are always worth exploring. i t i s too easy i n the area of leisure-time a c t i v i t i e s to "do f o r " older people rather than "do with" them. what louis kuplan says about doing things f o r older people i n the way of planning for t h e i r future applies to recreation as much as to any other area: i believe that we must not rewove from people responsi- b i l i t y for themselves and f o r others purely because of age. but we tend to do just that. in essence, what we do with our old people i s to k i l l them with kindness be- cause we take away from them t h e i r sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . we think we are being kind to our older people, to our parents, when we t e l l them not to work on the dishes, not to cook, not to mend, not to keep house or not to do v a r i - ous things they want to do... let us encourage the reten- t i o n of a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the aged and f o r others. to f u l f i l l the requirements necessary to s t a r t a good a c t i v i t y program, and to involve the residents themselves not only i n planning, but i n carrying out the plan, demands adequate t r a i n - ing. this i s where the group worker, grounded i n the knowledge of c o l l e c t i v e human behavior, could make a substantial contribution to the leisure-time a c t i v i t i e s of menno home. . kuplan, louis, building a philosophy towards aging, the univer- s i t y of b r i t i s h columbia, department of university extension, january, . - - conclusions the sponsors of menno home are to be commended not only for getting the home b u i l t , and made a r e a l i t y from i t s f i r s t d i f f i c u l t beginnings, but for t h e i r continuing a c t i v i t y on behalf of the o l d people w i t h i n the community. the overwhelming majority of the tenants spoken to by the w r i t e r expressed s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e i r l i v i n g quarters. the most.significant hesitance on the part of some was that they f e l t so lonely. menno home i s another example of the tendency to concentr- ate only on housing for the older person rathar. than providing public housing for old persons within the low income bracket. this has served to i s o l a t e the older person from the rest of the commun- i t y , with the r e s u l t that they cannot benefit from the many ser- vices the community o r d i n a r i l y affords for those able to get around. what i s worse, these experienced older people cannot contribute i n a s i g n i f i c a n t sense to the welfare of the community at large. recourse to parks, stores, l i b r a r i e s , churches and c i v i c a c t i v i - t i e s i s a l l too often quite not possible for these residents. i t can be f a i r l y said that simply to provide housing for the aged i s not enough to keep them content. they s t i l l desire, at least i n most instances, to remain a part of the community, sharing i n i t s i n t e r e s t s , and i n i t s general endeavors. however, for many of the residents of such homes t h i s i s impossible. therefore, i t becomes the duty of the administration to provide a program of a c t i v i t i e s that i s as nearly akin to ordinary, private - - l i v i n g as the resources and circumstances would allow. this means that the residents w i l l need to be advised and guided i n providing t h e i r own a c t i v i t i e s and entertainment. to make these a c t i v i t i e s meaningful requires the insights of a person w e l l versed in both s o c i a l and community r e l a t i o n s h i p s . menno home makes extensive e f f o r t s to serve i t s residents w e l l . the mennonite church m i n i s t e r s , and the ministers of other f a i t h s whose services may be required, are available at any time to anyone who may request t h e i r presence. the services these men render could p r o f i t a b l y be coupled with the experience, t r a i n i n g and good w i l l of a s o c i a l worker, r e s u l t i n g i n a progr- amme of a c t i v i t i e s that would minister to "the whole man."" - - appendix a mennonite benevolent society date a d m i t t e d : . name a g e . address from which admitted . date, month and year of birth . place of birth , . came to b.c . marital status . nationality . religion . what church . name and address of next of kin : a phone b .- phone . o l d - a g e securtiy (pension) file no a m o u n t $ ... . o l d - a g e assistance (bonus) file no a m o u n t $ ... . social welfare registration file n o a m o u n t $ ... . social responsibility of . medical identity n o . person or organization responsible for maintenance : ; a m o u n t $ . address of person or organization responsible for maintenance : . maintenance charges $ . date of discharge . reason for discharge .. . address discharged to m e n n o n i t e b e n e v . s o c i e t y m e n n o - h o m e m a r s h a l l r d . , r . r. „ & b b t s e r d , b . q< uk. - v y / / , . remarks - - appendix b bibliography general bonhoeffer, d i e t r i c h , the cost of d i s c i p l e s h i p . scm press limited, london, . cavan, r., burgess, e. w., havighurst, r. j., and goldhamer, h., personal adjustment i n old age. science research associates inc., chicago, k . pollak, otto, s o c i a l adjustment i n old age. s o c i a l science research council, new york, k . selye, hans, the stress of l i f e . mcgraw-hill co.,. new york, . ! smith, henry c , the story of the mennonites. mennonite publication o f f i c e , newton, kansas, . thiessen, henry c , introductory lectures i n systematic theo- logy. wm. b. eerdmans publishing company, grand rapids, michigan, . t i b b i t s , clark and donahue, wilma, aging i n today's society. prentice h a l l incorporated, englewoodcliffs, n.j., i . a r t i c l e s angell, s y l v i a , "the role of the s o c i a l worker i n a home for the aged." the s o c i a l worker, january, i , v o l . , no. . pp. - . h emmy, mary l., and parrar, marcella, "protective services f o r older people." s o c i a l casework, february, i , v o l . k l , no. . pp. - . mccabe, a l i c e r.,. "pastoral counseling and casework." the family, november, k , vol. k. pp. - . - - s i b u l k i n , l i l l i a n , "special s k i l l s i n working with older people." s o c i a l casework, a p r i l , , vol. ko, no. k. pp. - . spencer, sue, "religious and s p i r i t u a l values i n s o c i a l case- work p r a c t i c e . " s o c i a l casework, december, , v o l . , no. . pp. -^ ^ public documents canada year book, , . queen's p r i n t e r , ottawa, . pp. - . dominion bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , ninth census of canada, . pp. k - . reports charter for the aging. new york state conference convened by governor harriman at the state capitol i n albany, . pp. - . housing management. issued by the ministry of health. his majesty's stationery o f f i c e , london, . housing our older c i t i z e n s . reprinted from the annals of the american academy of p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l science, p h i l a - delphia, . pedersen, d., public housing management. reprinted from the journal of property management, national association of real estate boards, september, k . the f i r s t b.c. conference on the needs and problems of the aging. sponsored by the community chest and council of greater vancouver, and the university of b r i t i s h columbia, may, . vancouver housing association, building for senior c i t i z e n s . vancouver, . - - pamphlets becker, charles s., toward better understanding of the aged. council on s o c i a l work education, new york, . kuplan, louis, building a philosophy towards aging. occasional papers on adult education. the university of b r i t i s h columbia, department of university extension, . theses barberie, dorothy joan, the "new v i s t a " : a housing project, burnaby, b.c. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, b.c., . guest, dennis, t., taylor manor: a survey of the f a c i l i t i e s of vancouver's home for the aged. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, b.c., . mackinnon, dolina f., and angel, jerome h., housing needs and preferences among senior c i t i z e n s (west" vancouver). master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h colum- b i a , vancouver, b.c., . morrow, henry mcfarlane, the community services of f i r s t united church. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, b.c., k . sharp, p a t r i c i a , housing projects for old people. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, b.c., . skenfield, alfreda, s o c i a l worker and minister i n welfare services. master of s o c i a l work thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, vancouver, b.c., . q. adriaen verwer ( / – ) and the first edition of isaac newton's principia in the dutch republic | notes and records: the royal society journal of the history of science login to your account email password forgot password? keep me logged in new user institutional login change password old password new password too short weak medium strong very strong too long congrats! your password has been changed create a new account email returning user can't sign in? forgot your password? enter your email address below and we will send you the reset instructions email cancel if the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to reset your password. close request username can't sign in? forgot your username? enter your email address below and we will send you your username email close if the address matches an existing account you will receive an email with instructions to retrieve your username cookies notification this site uses cookies. by continuing to browse the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. find out more. × brought to you bycarnegie mellon university skip main navigationjournal menuclose drawer menuopen drawer menuhome	all journals	biographical memoirs 	biology letters 	interface 	interface focus 	notes and records 	open biology 	philosophical transactions a 	philosophical transactions b 	proceedings a 	proceedings b 	royal society open science brought to you by carnegie mellon university 	 	 	 	 	 	 sign in 	 cart 	 search	anywhere 	this journal quick search anywhereenter words, phrases, doi, keywords, authors, etc... searchgo quick search in journalsenter words, phrases, doi, keywords, authors, etc... searchgo advanced search skip main navigationjournal menuclose drawer menuopen drawer menuhome	home 	content	published ahead of print 	latest issue 	all content 	subject collections 	blog posts 	information for	authors 	guest organizers 	reviewers 	readers 	institutions 	about us	about the journal 	editorial board 	author benefits 	policies 	journal metrics 	open access 	sign up	purchase 	etoc alerts 	rss feeds 	newsletters 	request a free trial 	submit restricted access moresections 	get access get access tools	add to favorites 	download citations 	track citations share share on	facebook 	twitter 	linked in 	reddit 	email cite this article	ducheyne steffen adriaen verwer ( / – ) and the first edition of isaac newton's principia in the dutch republicnotes rec. – http://doi.org/ . /rsnr. . section restricted access research articlesadriaen verwer ( / – ) and the first edition of isaac newton's principia in the dutch republic steffen ducheyne steffen ducheyne vrije universiteit brussel, pleinlaan , room b , b- , brussels, belgium [email protected] google scholar find this author on pubmed search for more papers by this author steffen ducheyne steffen ducheyne vrije universiteit brussel, pleinlaan , room b , b- , brussels, belgium [email protected] google scholar find this author on pubmed search for more papers by this author published: july https://doi.org/ . /rsnr. . abstract the amsterdam-based merchant and mathematics enthusiast adriaen verwer ( / – ) was one of the few in the dutch republic to respond to the first edition of newton's principia ( ). based on a close study of his published work, his correspondence with the scottish mathematician and astronomer david gregory ( – ), and his annotations in his own copy of the first edition of the principia, i shall scrutinize the impact of newton's ideas on verwer's thinking. the proposed analysis, which will add nuance to earlier findings, also has broader implications for our understanding of the introduction of newton's ideas in the dutch republic, as will be shown. previous article next article access options 	sign in for fellows of the royal society please access the online journals via the fellows’ room 	not a subscriber? you canrequest a library trial. 	personal login username or email password forgot password? keep me logged in 	institutional login 	 purchase save for later item saved, go to cart notes and records - ppv article - less than year old $ . add to cart notes and records - ppv article - less than year old checkout notes and records - ppv issue - less than year old $ . add to cart notes and records - ppv issue - less than year old checkout 	restore content access 	figures 	related 	references 	details 	 september volume issue 	 article information	doi:https://doi.org/ . /rsnr. . 	published by:royal society 	print issn: - 	online issn: - history: 	published online / / 	published in print / / copyright and usage: © the author(s) published by the royal society. statistics from altmetric keywords	early dutch ‘newtonianism’ 	spinoza 	isaac newton 	david gregory 	adriaen verwer close figure viewer browse all figuresreturn to figurechange zoom levelzoom inzoom out previous figurenext figure caption 	notes and records 	about this journal 	contact information 	purchasing information 	submit 	author benefits 	open access membership 	recommend to your library 	help 	author benefits 	purchasing information 	submit 	open access membership 	recommend to your library 	contact information 	help 	royal society publishing 	our journals 	open access 	publishing policies 	permissions 	conferences 	videos 	blog 	manage your account 	terms & conditions 	privacy policy 	cookies 	our journals 	historical context 	open access 	publishing policies 	permissions 	conferences 	videos 	blog 	manage your account 	terms & conditions 	privacy policy 	cookies 	the royal society 	about us 	contact us 	fellows 	events 	grants, schemes & awards 	topics & policy 	collections 	venue hire 	about us 	contact us 	fellows 	events 	grants, schemes & awards 	topics & policy 	collections 	venue hire back to top 	 	 	 	 copyright © the royal society 	 dear editor hal id: hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- submitted on jul hal is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- entific research documents, whether they are pub- lished or not. the documents may come from teaching and research institutions in france or abroad, or from public or private research centers. l’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire hal, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés. from colonial domination to the making of the nation. ethno-racial categories in censuses and reports and their political uses in belize, th - th centuries elisabeth cunin, odile hoffmann to cite this version: elisabeth cunin, odile hoffmann. from colonial domination to the making of the nation. ethno- racial categories in censuses and reports and their political uses in belize, th - th centuries. caribbean studies, , ( ), pp. - . �hal- � https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal- https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - elisabeth cunin, odile hoffmann from colonial domination to the making of the nation. ethno-racial categories in censuses and reports and their political uses in belize, th – th centuries summary this paper presents an analysis of the processes of classification and racial-ethnic categorization of belize’s population during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, based on population censuses and government reports. we are not too interested in figures as such but in the categories of counting and their evolution, as indicators of the political logic of building a colonial and later a national society. while the censuses for the xix century relate to different forms of population management (transition from slavery to freedom, affirmation or denial of ethnic and racial diversity), the administrative reports paint a static and stereotyped demographic-territorial model as a tool of the political project. for the twentieth century, we analyze the difficult road to independence and the changes introduced by the new belizean state (categories, methods, actors) in the process of creating a “national identity”. keywords in text racialization, census categories, belize, politics of difference, nation curriculum elisabeth cunin is a doctor in sociology (university of toulouse le mirail, ), researcher at the institut de recherche pour le développement (ird-france) and at the urmis (unité de recherche migrations et société) et the university of nice. she worked as a guest researcher at ciesas (centro de investigación y estudios superiores en antropología social) and the university of quintana roo in mexico between and . her research deals with social construction of ethnic and racial categories in the case of afrodescendant population, in colombia, mexico and belize. she coordinated the project anr-aird afrodesc “african descentants and slaveries: domination, identification and legacies in the americas (xv-xxi centuries)” and participated in the european project eurescl “slave trade, slavery, caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - abolitions and their legacies in european histories and identities”. her most recent publications: edition of textos en diáspora. una antología sobre afrodescendientes en las américas (méxico, inah-cemca-ifea-ird, ); and of mestizaje, diferencia y nación. “lo negro” en américa central y el caribe (méxico, inah-unam-cemca-ird, colección africanía, ). odile hoffmann received her ph.d. in geography in in bordeaux and a degree in linguistics in paris that same year. in mexico, she researched on rural, agrarian and political issues ( - ), and later studied the political dynamics of identity in the black population of colombia ( - ). from to , she was director of cemca, the centre of mexican and central american studies of the ministry of foreign affairs of france (<http://www.cemca.org.mx>). she continues her research on populations of african origin in mexico and central america, within the framework of afrodesc (www.ird.fr / afrodesc) coordinated by e. cunin and in the european project eurescl she coordinates the working group “building of otherness: circulation and identity in europe and the americas”. she has published five books, five more as co-author and four as a coordinator, and over articles and book chapters. personal website: http://www.odilehoffmann.com http://www.odilehoffmann.com/ caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - from colonial domination to the making of the nation. ethno-racial categories in censuses and reports and their political uses in belize, th – th centuries introduction because of its recent national construction (it became independent in ), its history of intensive and diversified migrations and its small size ( , inhabitants), belize offers exceptional conditions for analyzing the contexts of the introduction, dissemination and appropriation of terms and categories referring to the concepts of race, ethnicity and nation. the existing sources allow then to analyze the relations between the socio-historical contexts and the census logics, as well as follow the counting strategy implemented over time and evaluate the capacities of the colonial or national state to build population monitoring tools such as the censuses. in this article, we will focus on racial and ethnic categories which are used in the population censuses. we will neither work on the categories created and used by social actors in their daily interactions or in specific mobilizations, which have led to the publication of numerous works (daugaard-hansen, ; moberg, ; m. palacio, ; j. palacio, ; stone, ; wilk, chapin, ). we will not present an ethnography of the colonial and later national administration, which remains to be done. our main objective is to study census categories, not as a result or a cause of social dynamics (what they are of course), but in their autonomous administrative logic in two ways: - making a long term genealogy of the construction of ethnic and racial categories of census, while questioning what these tools teach us about the capacities and strategies of the colonial then national state apparatus. this is the analysis of the implementation – or non-implementation- of the “national regimes of otherness” (lópez caballero, ) which involve forms of domination, the definition of otherness and the demands of citizens/ citizenship. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - - stepping out from the vision of the “all ethnic” or “all racial” of the majority of studies on belize, while showing that ethnic and racial argumentations appear and disappear, and change in their uses and meanings. several authors, for the most part belizean, u.s. and british, have explored the question of nation building in belize, and have emphasized history, geo-political negotiations, international relations, and more recently globalization, that is to say the main areas relating to the formation and recognition of “the nation” in classical terms. in his work, nigel bolland ( , , ) analyses the configurations of a colonial society marked by slavery and capitalist extractive exploitation, the concentration of power and the emergence of a “creole culture”. assad shoman ( , , ), a major player in the political transition of the years - , studies the history of the twentieth century, and shows interest in the long road to independence and the institutional and political construction of the new nation. joseph palacio ( ) emphasizes the country’s ethnic diversity, from the standpoint of the case of the garifuna. anne mc pherson ( ) highlights the role of women in the hectic and decisive period of the first half of the twentieth century, while richard wilk ( ) places the emerging national dynamics in the broader context of globalization(s). with these studies as a starting point, we wish to emphasize here some of the concrete practices of the “construction of the nation”, in this case those practices used to describe, name and thus distinguish the “one” from the “other” in a country inhabited by peoples and groups from extremely diverse backgrounds and today known as “creoles”, “garifuna”, “maya”, “east-indians”, etc. (see below). we propose an approach based on a criticism of the specific instruments of the colonial and later national construction, in particular the administrative techniques of the description and classification of the society. as benedict anderson reminds us, the very definition of the borders of the state supposes the identification and counting of the individuals and groups that comprise it. “the fiction of the census is that everyone is in it, and that everyone has one - and only one - extremely clear place” (anderson : ). three general sets of questions guided our thinking: caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - - how is the concept of “diversity”— of origin, nation, religion, “race”, ethnicity, etc. — adjusted over time? how do the instruments of population control take into account (or not) the diversity of the population? - how do these instruments and objectives vary depending on the political-institutional framework (colony, self-government, independence) that produces them? - if we consider that the question of the census is at the core of the techniques of “making the nation” in the sense expressed by anderson, how is the question of the nation, which traditionally equates a territory with a “people” and a “shared culture”, expressed in a particularly original colonial context that does not correspond or corresponds wrongly with this scheme? coming from academic fields where the references to race and ethnicity are problematic, including france (see carsed ) and mexico, where they were dissolved in post- revolutionary nationalism, before drawing new relations to the state in the multicultural context of the end of the th century (florescano , reina , lomnitz ), our epistemological starting point differs from the anglo-saxon studies, in which race and ethnicity appear more like “data” (cunin, ). we do not start from the definitions of “race”, “ethnicity” or from the competition between “substance” (which would be only from race) and “culture” (unique to ethnicity), but from the ethnization and racialization processes that lead to these notions and keep them alive (poiret, hoffmann, audebert, ). difference is thus created through a balance of power, sometimes mobilizing one dimension over another while modifying its contents and outlines when needed. belize is a small country in central america, with the caribbean sea to the east and with its giant neighbour, mexico, to the north, guatemala to the west and honduras to the south. it is also an anglophone country in the heart of a spanish-speaking central america, with a high percentage of blacks and creoles in the midst of countries with indigenous and mestizo traditions. it officially became a british colony in , half a century after its neighbours had achieved independence, and it only became independent towards the end of the twentieth century belize became the colony of british honduras in , and recovered the name belize in . it has , inhabitants according to the estimate of the statistical institute of belize (http://www.statisticsbelize.org.bz/). “creole” in belize refers to the descendants of europeans (principally british) and africans. http://www.statisticsbelize.org.bz/ caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - ( ), long after the last wave of decolonization that began in the s. belize is often viewed as a piece of the caribbean stuck in central america, with a caribbean façade and a latino interior, a mosaic of creoles, indigenous people and mestizos, but also of garifuna, chinese, indians and mennonites, a country out of sync with the rest of central america; there are plenty of contrasting— and often stereotyped—images that seek to describe this territory and its population that do not fit into the models of neighbouring countries. in fact, although geographically located in the viceroyalty of new spain from the sixteenth century, this region evaded spanish control from the beginning. it was, however, quickly reached by fluctuating populations of sailors, pirates and smugglers, very few in number, who did not seek to found a colony of people but rather to create a “settlement”, a living space protected from european military incursions. faced with these newly-arrived residents, the indigenous maya mopan and kekchi were so discreet that they remained ignored by the administration, almost until the twentieth century (a report by the colonial administration of ignores them completely, land in crown colonies, ). in the north, although they were very few in numbers and relatively inactive, the yucatec maya indians intervened continuously in the daily and political life of the territory (see successive mayan rebellions until , bolland ). for several decades until , the population was officially comprised of a majority of slaves, some free blacks and “coloured”, and a minority of “white” wood cutters (about one tenth of the population). their british origin allowed them to have a powerful ally, the british crown, defending them to the extent of founding a “colony” in , which nevertheless had to confront mexican and guatemalan territorial claims. some decades earlier, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, a minority garifuna people (descendent of african and indigenous people from the island of st vincent. see gonzález, ; cayetano et cayetano, ) had settled in the south. although few in number even today (they are predominantly present in only five locations), the garifuna community is important for its political and cultural roles. other communities, representatives of classic diasporas in the caribbean (east indians, chinese, syrian-lebanese) are also present in belize since the nineteenth century. the demographic dynamics, extremely “weak” for centuries, began to take off with the massive influx of refugees from the north, namely mexico, fleeing the caste war of yucatán in the caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - second half of the nineteenth century. several indigenous mayan groups, “ladinos”, “mestizos”, “criollos”, “spanish or “yucatecans” become temporary or permanent migrants, and many settle in the northern half of belize and develop its agriculture. in , the mariscal-spencer treaty appears as a solution to the border problem between the two countries. belize does not frown on the demographic consolidation of this portion of its territory, while mexico seeks above all to pacify the territory and it accepts, albeit reluctantly, this redistribution of the population. on the other hand, tensions remain strong between belize and guatemala, even after independence in and until today. but that's another story. in the first half of the twentieth century there are strong popular mobilizations against extreme poverty and colonial domination, leading to obtaining universal adult suffrage in , the status of “self-government” in , and finally independence in . the interpretation is based, indeed, on a diachronic analysis of the censuses of belize, from the first “count” of the population in to the census, but more than the “results” (figures) , what interests us here are the elaboration of the censuses, the categories used, the recommendations that accompany the censuses. thus, from our point of view, the census questionnaires provide as much or more information than the tables of results. this approach follows the proposal of david kertzer and dominique arel ( ) in their work on the role of censuses in the production of collective identities, in particular through ethnic and racial categories. the censuses go far beyond their status as a “technical instrument”, and reflect the state of knowledge of the technical and institutional elites of the country at the time of the census. the categories thus become an expression of “the collective”, colonial or national, as it is perceived and represented by the elites. but they can in turn influence, and even determine, the relationships between groups thus constructed and classified by the censuses, based on “criteria” presented as ethnic, racial, religious, regional, national, etc. as specified by the two authors, “the use of identity categories in censuses—as in other common mechanisms of state administration—create a particular vision of social reality. all people are assigned to a single the categories are extremely complex, especially as regards the original inhabitants of yucatan: those called “mestizos” on the mexican side are classified as “ladinos”, “spaniard”, “spanish”, and “hispanic” on the british side. the term “mestizo” itself leads to confusion, since in yucatan it means indigenous people recently “acculturated”, while it is applied in the rest of mexico to individuals that are no longer recognizable as indigenous. table gives data on census numbers after to show the global trends and inform the discussion on the post - independence “ethnic shift”. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - category, and hence are conceptualized as sharing, with a certain number of others, a common collective identity. this, in turn, encourages people to view the world as composed of distinct groups of people and may focus attention on whatever criteria are utilized to distinguish among these categories” (kertzer, arel : - ). it is necessary to first consider the diversity of sources and their relationship to each other. during the british period, censuses are accompanied by very informative annual reports. then we will examine the long process of decolonization and the role of the censuses in building the nation. the tables (see appendix) indicate the sources consulted: table presents the list of censuses from to , with reference to their “authors”, i.e. the institutions that conducted them; table gives the list of the colonial reports, a tool of the belize administration that provides, in particular, numerous descriptions of the population; table presents the changes of categories since . the data was obtained in the national archives of belize in belmopan and in the ministries and competent administrations. national experts on these matters are not very numerous and their interest in our research was not very evident. the production of categories and data is seen as a very technical issue, carried out by “technicians” supported by people of “good will”, that is to say the local political elites. it was only through informal talks and numerous digressions that we managed to have our research objectives understood and thus gain access to relevant sources, in particular the corollary documents that accompany the censuses (methodology, commentaries, etc.) . part th century - first half of the th century. defining population and territory, constructing differences. we begin this account based on the first population censuses, at the beginning of the nineteenth century. at this time, rivalries between european powers did not allow one to speak of a british we made interviews with two groups of people: technicians who often come from abroad, stay for a short period of time and don’t have interest in the uses and consequences of ethnic and racial categories; high ranked civil servants, almost never present at the statistical institute of belize and characterized by a strong turn over from an administration to another. our intuition is that individuals and groups alter census categories both by political and social interests (nobles ) and by very personal, informal, contextual logics of action. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - "territory", and britain's commitment was limited first to accounting for the population within its immediate ambit. gradually, the fixing of borders and the recognition of central american countries (end of th century) led britain to favour the economic and political control of territory. data show that censuses first tend to define and control the population (slaves and later freemen, yucatec refugees); then their orientation changed and ethnic and racial categories disappeared. at the same time, british administrative reports built a fix model of society, based on the association between identity and territory which ignored the changing categories of censuses. a slave colony: counting (part of) the population britain's victory against spain in the battle of saint george’s cay, on september , , marks, at least symbolically, the insertion of belizean territory in the british empire. but the rivalries between colonial powers for the control of belize were still far from ended, and it did not translate into a new commitment by britain to develop and administer the territory. this ambiguous situation, between a strategy of domination in relation to spain, and later to mexico, and a lack of interest for the local society that was being established, is again reflected in the censuses: since britain could not, or did not wish to, control a land whose boundaries were problematic and which remained largely unknown and difficult of access, it decided above all to focus on the population. the censuses are thus quite numerous at the beginning of the century ( , , , , , , and ) and draw the portrait of a unique model of slave society, masterfully analyzed by nigel bolland ( , ) or assad shoman ( ). this model gives priority to slave control (hence the large number of censuses) and the management of the slaves’ freedom. the rest of the population (mayans, garifunas, miskitos) is therefore “forgotten” by these first counting tools. a strong socio-administrative consistency is perceptible during the whole period: the census status and the categories used rarely vary, except when it was to account for the transition from slavery to post-slavery (bolland : - ). in parallel, this consistency is the result of the lack of institutionalization, stressed by the rivalries between the oligarchy of the settlers and the crown representatives. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - in the first half of the nineteenth century, what is at stake is primarily the management of the transition from slavery to its abolition (trade was abolished in and slavery in ) and to take into account a new free non-white population. the censuses of , , , , and thus considered four categories: “whites”, “coloured", “blacks” and “slaves”. society was conceived and organized around this structural distinction that was only concerned with populations of european and african descent (bolland ). however, already at this time other groups were living in the area: miskito (bolland : ), garifuna (bolland : ; palacio, ), maya (bolland : ; cal ; shoman : ). but these did not interest the british administrators, who focused on the port city of belize from where they managed the exploitation of forest resources. the censuses of and abolished the category of “slaves” and replaced it by “apprenticed labourers”: slavery was abolished, but the former slave continued to have a separate status that had to be indicated. revealingly, the presentation of results is exactly the same before and after abolition (a standard double page table, with a change of name in the last column), and the category “apprenticed labourers” provides the same information (names, ages) as did the category of “slaves”. two dynamics then seem to overlap: the management of slavery and abolition, and the introduction of racialized categories to describe the free population. the census: the emergence of multiplicity one event altered this mode of perceiving the population: the arrival, from , of refugees fleeing the caste war of yucatán in neighbouring mexico (cal ; reed ; villalobos gonzález ), which becomes obvious in the census of . although the population was very small in number ( people surveyed in , slightly less – – three years later), it increased significantly in ( , inhabitants), with nearly half the population in the north, on the border with mexico. and probably underestimated, as the british administrators themselves admit, particularly because of the poor return of questionnaires sent to forestry workers. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - the census of appears to be an exception, with its multiplication of categories of ethnic, racial, and national identity, and their components. it is also, as michael a. camille ( ) reminds us very well, the culmination of two centuries of history in belize. finally, it is the first attempt to take into account the diversity of the population. in the census of , the criterion described as “race” actually refers to a number of categories ( ) that seek to take account of the diversity of the population. the designations mixed references to ‘race’, language or nationality, with a luxury of details: anglo-hispanic, distinguished from spanish-english, or french-portuguese from portuguese-french, for example. then there are eight categories only for the “english”: anglo-saxon, anglo- honduran, anglo-african, anglo american, anglo-indian, anglo-hispanic, anglo-french, anglo-carib. this census shows the emphasis on defining and describing the categories of mixes based on multiple and non-hierarchical criteria. many refer to nationality, but more generic (“coolies”) or ethnic (“carib”, “indian”) descriptions are interposed “as needed”. thus, while the censuses at the beginning of the th century only took into account the “white” and “black” population and their mixtures, the census of introduced some of the categories that would last (with some adjustments that we will comment on later): “anglo”, “african”, “indian”, “spanish”, “carib”, “syrians”, “chinese”, “coolies”. finally, it should be noted that the nationalities mentioned all refer to european nationalities and exclude, in particular, mexico and central american countries. these “young nations” were, nonetheless, recognized by great britain from - in the case of mexico, and from (end of the federal republic of central america) in the case of guatemala. but they did not seem to be relevant for the administrators in charge of the census, who have a strictly european focus. in , a treaty between great britain and guatemala fixed the border between the latter country and the future british honduras. it was questioned in the s and continued to fuel conflicts between both countries to the point of causing the delay of belize’s independence (shoman ). we can notice, with camille ( ), that this critical time in the history of belize (the decline of mahogany, the beginning of agriculture with the settlements of the north and the migrations of foreign workers) is also a pivotal period for its political and diplomatic history, with the declaration of the colony in . the census of falls within these changes. a number of the composite categories it produced would not be used later, but they reflect the dynamism of caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - the population on the one hand, and the willingness to describe it on the other. at the same time, and we will return to this point, the accuracy of these data does not really seem relevant within a scheme of population control and this multiplicity of categories were no referred to by colonial administrators. the turn of the th – th centuries: consolidation of the colony the second half of the nineteenth century witnessed a strengthening of the british presence in belize, with the official adoption of the status of colony in . according to assad shoman, political power at that time passes from the settlers to the colonial office in london (shoman : ). while the central american neighbours were already independent, it became necessary to reaffirm the british presence in the region. relations with the new central american nations were normalized and, in , the mariscal-spencer treaty defined the border between mexico and belize. having established the institutional (colony) and diplomatic (borders) framework, britain could dedicate itself more directly to the control of its official territory whose territorial limits are recognized. censuses of the time demonstrate this: in the late nineteenth century ( , , ) and early twentieth century ( , , ), there is no mention of racial/ethnic groups. this logic is present throughout central america at the same period where liberal governments tried to eliminate racialized categories (gould ). it is also about asserting the british presence, which is specified through the control of the territory; identification with the colonial policy replaces the ethnic-racial identifications. we find here the “classical” vision of nineteenth century imperialism, which associates territory, people, state and nation— a vision crystallized in the berlin conference of and derived from the “westphalian model” which imposed an international order made of strictly equal and sovereign entities in the th century (badie ). in fact, with the turn of the century the logic that prevails is above all that of the management of the territory, rather than of the population as before, and the political affirmation of sovereignty over the colony. migrations were still it is interesting to note that, in the census, there is a summary of the earlier censuses ( , , y ): the division in the four categories we have already described are transformed to a very different classification of “free persons”, “slaves” and “troops”, as if the original racial logic were reinterpreted in light of a focus that privileges status and not racial belonging. the mention of “troops” is no accident in this period ( - ) when the territory of belize acquired a commercial strategic importance for all of central america torn by the wars of independence and their consequences. it was necessary to protect ports and transport vehicles. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - considerable (manual workers moving to the forest concessions of southern mexico, workforce from india and china, white north-american settlers) but were by then largely controlled by the colonial administration. this administration took advantage of migration in order to develop the economy (small scale agriculture, cane sugar, etc.), increase tax resources (taxation of wood and chicle from mexico), and consolidate its territory. the end of the caste war and the new presence of the mexican state at the northern border (creation of the territory of quintana roo) put an end to the migrations from mexico to belize and opened the way for return migration, this time from belize to mexico. the s had already seen the end of the conflict with the chichanhá mayans by the defeat and the death of marcos canul in (cal ; may zalasar ), which led to the pacification of the north of belize. the very image of the mayans, who until then were excluded and regarded as potential enemies, began to change. the mayans and the garifunas started then to be integrated into history and national society (bolland : ), especially in the implementation of the system of “alcaldes” (bolland : , moberg ) and in their participation in the development of agriculture and fishery. at the same time debates begin to develop around these people of mexican origin who decided to stay in belize: rather than "spanish" or "ladino", they should be regarded as "british" and swear allegiance to the british crown. this is how, at the time of the celebration of the centenary of the battle of saint george ( ) and the birth of the “founding myth” of belizean society (macpherson ), the descendants from the spanish are asked to adhere to the british empire. building a permanent model at the turn of the century, the emergence of a local elite who questioned british power (unofficial majority between and ) and then the mobilizations of workers in a dramatic socio-economical context (ashdown , soberanis and kemp , macpherson ) facilitated the appearance of a “creole society” (shoman : ) and a dynamic of “creolisation” (bolland : , judd ), both tending to integrate differences into a common political project (whether colonial or pre-national). however, the disappearance of caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - ethnic and racial data in the censuses does not prevent its continued use elsewhere; hence, it does not obviously correspond to a disappearance of ethnic and racial distinctions within the society. it is precisely one of the issues we consider major to stress: there might be some discrepancies, even contradictions between some social behaviours and logics of action, inspired by objectives, specific interests and multiple contexts. that is indeed where the driving force of social changes lies. parallel to the population censuses, regular reports were prepared that aimed to summarize the main information on belize; these reports address many fields (history, economics, infrastructure, etc.), including the population. they were published regularly in london, then in belize between and , and are divided into three types: colonial reports, handbooks and blue books (see table ). while the previously studied censuses aimed to provide an increasingly accurate account of the composition of the population (ending in the extreme case of ), and later ignored the ethnic and racial distinctions (from to ), these reports appear to construct a social reality without reference to the censuses. by this means they forged a stereotyped and immutable image of the different groups, associating them with a delimited territory and with the history of their arrival in belize. one thereby notes a form of institutional repetition that draws an invariable model of the demographic configuration of belize and justifies a standardized policy, known as “divide and rule”. the reports of the british administration reveal an impressive continuity of ethnic and racial distinction, while the census categories and figures are perfectly discontinuous, in a discrepancy between the quantification tools and their use. we illustrate this from the case of the handbook of british honduras, - , but the same conclusions could have been drawn from any other administrative document of the whole period (end of th and middle of th century) since their content is similar. the handbook of british honduras, - , by lindsay bristowe and philip wright, representatives of the british crown, describes four categories: the “natives”, the “ladinos”, also called “spaniards” or “the spanish element”, the “colored” or “creole” and “caribs”. the former occupy the north of the territory, “they live in villages industriously and inoffensively scattered over the [northern and north-western] district, cultivating their patches of maize and pulse in small and neatly enclosed fields known as milpa”. the “ladinos”, also located to the north and of spanish and indigenous descent, are characterized by a “freedom of thought and manners, as caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - well as information and enterprise. to this class most of the artisans and operatives belong” (bristowe and wright - : - ). with regard to the caribs of the southern region, it is recalled that “the usual division of labour among savage nations is observed by them. the daily drudgery of the household belongs to the women, who also cultivate the small fields in which the cassava (...) and other crops are raised. the men pursue their hunting and fishing, and undertake the more severe labour attendant upon the building of their huts” (bristowe and wright - : ). finally, they state that the creoles, “of european and african descent”, live mainly in the centre of the country and form “a hardy, strong, and vigorous race of people, who are the woodcutters of the interior, and the main instrument in keeping up the commerce of the colony” (bristowe and wright - : ). there is thus established a population/territory association based on a stereotypical classification of people (identity, occupation): the indians and “spanish” mestizos in the north, blacks, creoles and garifuna in the centre and south. this general pattern remained unchanged until , the date of the last report upon belize obtaining the status of “self-government” ( ). in the colonial reports, this description is repeated in an identical manner for long periods ( - , - , - ) and the changes in the entire period ( - ) are negligible. the repetition seems to comply with a mandatory annual report function directed at the metropolis rather than an attempt at updated analysis: “the corozal and orange walk districts are inhabited principally by the descendants of the spanish and maya peoples. the stann creek district is peopled, in the main, by caribs, while in the toledo district caribs and maya predominate. in the cayo district are guatemaltecans, mexicans and a few syrians. in the capital the “creoles” (descendents of the early settlers) are in the majority, but there are also a large number of people of latin extraction from the neighbouring republics, and syrians and chinese. there is a limited number of europeans and us citizens” (colonial report ). however, a comment that is also repeated accompanies this description: “owing to intermixing, racial classification of the population is difficult and unreliable”. the reports are, therefore, based on the repetition of an ethno-racial model, while insisting that miscegenation prevents the classification of people by racial criteria... thus, there is both a recognition and a denial of racial mixing; in fact, its evocation helps to revalidate the original” categories (spanish, creoles, caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - caribs, maya), while integrating new groups defined on the basis of nationality (mexican, guatemalan, syrians, chinese). the british settlers are not contemplated in this scheme, while all “others” are considered as migrants. this view includes the maya, who are denied their autochthonous condition, as it is shown in a report addressed to the colonial office by acting governor wilfred collet: “it may, perhaps, be well for me to mention that the only aboriginal natives of america in the colony are either immigrants or the descendants of persons who came to the colony after it became a british possession” (land in crown colonies : ). while not escaping the assignation of an identity, the creoles represent, because they are closer to the “whites”, the foundation of the society: the creoles, “together with the whites, are, in fact, the backbone of the colony” (bristowe and wright - : ). great britain establishes, in short, a model of society that blends racial, cultural and geographical characteristics and in which “everyone has his place” and that at the same time that the censuses abandon the ethnic-racial categories (end of the th century and beginning of the th). this conception of otherness, based on the anteriority of migrations and on the negation of autochthony, justifies the domination of a small group: the first european immigrants supported by the “creoles”, who have an ambiguous status, at once "other" and founders of this society. part two: the slow march toward independence. what nation to construct? numerous works focus on this second part of the th century to analyze the emergence of an independent nation in relation to ethnic and racial backgrounds (bolland , wilk , price and price , shoman ). the th century can also be considered, in the case of belize, as a period of multiple ethnic and racial negotiations and arrangements. the articulation of the nation, race, and ethnicity, have given birth to the identification of three models of nationalism (pluralist, synthetic, hegemonic, medina ) which overlap and cross over with each other depending on the context and the actors involved, rather than excluding and following one another. in the early twentieth century, the first convulsions, mainly social and economic, acquired a caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - political dimension. however, there is still no talk of independence. the priority is the phenomenon of extreme poverty, at times of hunger, which leads to race riots in (ashdown ) and the birth of trade unions. as in the rest of central america (anti-garifuna demonstrations in honduras, harshly repressed popular uprisings in el salvador), the s are agitated. in belize, the hurricane of exacerbated popular mobilization. this is heightened after the second world war, in reaction to the devaluation ( ), and it is organized around the foundation of the first local political party, the people's united party (pup, ) and the national strike of . the colonial government conceded universal adult suffrage in , proclaimed “self-government” in belize in , and from the s, approved the independence of the other territories of the west indies. belize's independence was delayed until , principally because of the border dispute with guatemala (shoman ). to what extent did the censuses interpret or report on these radical transformations of society, first organized under a colonial system and then as an independent nation? we shall proceed as for the previous period, analyzing the categories used and their evolution (see table no. ). from until the eve of independence. this period is marked by three censuses, in , and . they are developed within the general framework of the west indies and implemented in belize, with the clear intention of comparison with the anglophone caribbean grouping. thus, in , the census is applied simultaneously in barbados, british guiana, british honduras (belize), the leeward islands, trinidad and tobago, dominica, grenada, st. lucia and st. vincent. this is the first census planned for the whole of the west indies and it includes a detailed list of identical instructions to all the colonies involved. it represents an intention to affirm the strength and unity of the british empire. we are here faced primarily with a logic of insertion in the imperial project and of the almost mechanical management of territories and populations. the results of the census of have not been published. this census might have been at the core of tensions between the british administration (which imposed a unique model of census to the entire west indies) and george price, leader of the independence movement, stressing national unity, on the eve of obtaining the status of self- government in . caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - at the same time, however, the comments included in the census show the extent to which belize is different from the rest of the west indies. thus, in the censuses of and , a specific paragraph is directed generally at belize (as well as british guiana), recalling the difficulty of integrating it into the general pattern of the west indies: it is considered as "less racially homogeneous", the percentage of its amerindian population is more important, and it contains almost the totality of the “caribs” (garifuna) of the west indies. despite this, and if this situation of difference is properly diagnosed, belize is too small, too sparsely populated and does not merit the development of new categories or an adaptation of the general model of the census. this importation of categories reached ridiculous lengths, for example, with the “portuguese” that appear in the census of only because they are present in other parts of the west indies (as in british guiana, see christopher, : ), but this does not correspond to any reality in belize. or the case of the disappearance of the category carib/garifuna in and because this group only exists in belize and is not considered important enough to be recognized as a census category in the rest of the west indies. one of the liveliest debates is about the question of mixed categories. in effect, the criteria that take mixtures into account are transformed: in , it was recommended to classify as "blacks" the children of “mixed” and “black” ( : ). however, this approach changes as from ; and particular care is taken with the “so-called mixed group”. children born to “mixed” parents or to members of two different racial groups should be classified as “mixed”. distancing itself in this way from the british policy of “divide and rule” that tends to distinguish each ethnic category, the census of , drawn to the scale of the west indies, prefers to insist on the mixed categories and not on those that refer to a single origin. at that time when many british colonies achieved independence (and belize its “self-government”), we of course wonder about this coincidence between the statistical appreciation of mixed groups and the construction of national identities: disappearance of the categories linked with colonization and slavery, emphasize on a mixed population as a symbol of the new nation. in the case of belize, taking mixed groups into account is even more complex. in effect, miscegenation in the west indies relates above all to the descendants of african origin mixed with those of european or asian origin. the classic works of michael garfield smith ( ), caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - will legitimate the idea of the dual nature of the composition of belize, divided into a “negro- white creole” and a “spanish-indian mestizo” population, a legacy of the migrations caused by the caste war. despite their efforts to integrate the mixture of races, the censuses fashioned in the west indies fail to grasp this “other” miscegenation that refers to the descendants of indigenous and hispanic populations. there is thus observed in the census a certain importance given to the category “other races”, which brings together individuals who are not recognized in any of the existing categories, and which amounts to . % of the population. neither do the years of struggle for independence and for workers’ rights rely on the ethnic identification of the population . one thus finds a paradox or tension between two visions/practices: on the one hand a mobilization toward independence that seeks to overcome differences, and on the other hand census categories produced by the british administration that reaffirms the existence of ethnic groups. independence. censuses of , and . did independence imply that “the nation” should privilege “creolization” to the detriment of the previous racial and ethnic classifications? was there a desire to create distance from the association of territory-population so compelling in the colonial representations of the various reports, and thereby forge a new vision of the national society? how do the censuses reflect this? we do not have, in fact, all the elements necessary to answer these general questions; however, an analysis of changes in categories provides clues to understand this nation under construction. in general, according to the terms used in the technical documents of the censuses, there are considered racial categories ( , , ), racial and ethnic ( ), racial, ethnic and national ( ) and ethnic ( ). beyond the general classifications, the categories used generally mix references to “race”, ethnicity, nation, and even religion. the census of seems closer to international standards promoted especially by international agencies, as shown the position of george price, “father of the nation”, was quite ambiguous: he sought to forge national unity in a multi-ethnic society but was sometimes perceived as favoring the mayas or, on the contrary, as avoiding ethnicised politics (for example in the organization and discourse of his political party, the pup). . caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - in particular by the use of the category "caucasian/ white” or the abandonment of references to “race”. for the period - there are observed, for some categories, changes that are above all adjustments. even if the name is changed, there seems to be no confusion about the boundaries that the appellation represents, as for example the “whites” ( , , , ), classified as “european (or white)” in and “white/caucasian” in (in , the term used was “anglo-saxon”), the category "syrian" becomes “syrian-lebanese "in before disappearing in , the categories “chinese” and “east indian” (reminiscent of the "coolies" of ) do not change, except in for the former (“chinese” and “japanese”) and in for the latter (“indian” instead of “east indian”), the category “german/dutch/mennonite” appears in and is transformed into “mennonite” in , abandoning the european reference. these categories are never questioned, even though their names vary. they are “natural” and naturalized. they are the results of a consensus on ethnic barriers as described by wimmer ( : ). there is observed, however, two significant evolutions in our subject, noted in the change from categories developed in the framework of the west indies to categories increasingly elaborated locally. while the census still partially depended on the institutions of the west indies, the census was the first to be fully developed locally, causing some rivalries between two institutions of the new nation, the central statistical office and the ministry of home affairs, the first being finally left in charge of the census. these changes directly question the relationship between categories of the census and national independence. first, there is noted the emergence of a logic of ethnicization for two groups, the garifuna and the maya, based on the use of categories of self-designation. the former are identified with the colonial term “caribs” until , they disappear in and , and then return with the name of garifuna in , and . the latter are labelled with the generic terms “indians” in , “american indians” in and “amerindians” in (they were not counted in ), and then are differentiated as “maya” and “kekchi” in , “mopan”, “kekchi” and “other mayas” in , and finally “mopan”, “kekchi” and “yucatec” in caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - . there is thus noted an emphasis on multi-ethnicity (wilk and chapin , izard ), at the very time of the independence of belize. in contradiction to the independence and nationalist discourse, which aims to transcend ethnic differences, censuses, already being produced locally, promote the consolidation/ development/redefinition of ethnic groups, a process that is confirmed by the social dynamics. as if echoing the observed changes in the categories beginning with the census, there is a renewed affirmation of the ethnicization of certain groups, mainly garifuna and maya. the appearance of two ethnic organizations, the national garifuna council (in ) and the toledo maya cultural council (created in , but mostly active from the mid- s), is a symptom of those changes. if your ethnicity was formerly synonymous with marginalization and inferiority, it now becomes, in the new globalized multicultural landscape of the years - , an identity vector valued by the maya and garifuna peoples themselves. in the case of the garifuna, the existence of a specific language, religious rites (dügu), the transnational community (honduras, guatemala, nicaragua, belize and the united states), the wealth of musical forms (paranda, punta, punta rock, etc.) is used as an argument to highlight both their difference and their “authenticity” (gonzález , foster , cayetano and cayetano , izard , palacio ). their language, dances and songs were given the status of intangible heritage of humanity by unesco in . for its part, while the toledo maya cultural council works primarily on the recovery of maya history and culture, it was able to take advantage of a developing heritage tourism (exploitation of mayan archaeological and natural sites) and also engage in a more assertive course, as is witnessed particularly in the debates surrounding the creation of a “maya homeland” in the s or its participation in a network of mesoamerican mayan ngos. as in its neighbouring countries, these initiatives come with extremely practical claims, especially in land and territorial claims (berkey , tzec et al. ). the political dimension of this re-ethnicization is not expressed through an explicit political commitment (political parties, ethnic vote, specific claims) but rather serves to weaken a bit more a model of “creole society” that had been established so far on the basis of inclusion regardless of the garifuna and maya: as belizean citizens who did not embody the nation belize. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - the second development relates to two more problematic processes (at least in terms of analysis), which will detain us at greater length: the change of the categories of “african” ( ), “black” ( ), “african (black)” ( ) and “black” ( ) to those of “creole” as from , and the change of the categories of “mixed or coloured” in “other races and all other mixed races” in , and “mixed” in , to the category of “mestizo” after . this demonstrates a strong desire to change in , resulting in the presentation of a country essentially “creole” and “mestizo”, terms that appear because of a concern to account for the ethnic and racial composition of the country and to utilize the categories in use in belize. however, such a modification of the categories remains questionable: in effect, it supposes an equivalence between, on one hand, the terms “black”, “african”, and “creole” and on the other hand, between the words “mixed” and “mestizo”. in belize, the term “mestizo” refers to a precise historical event that defines a population: the descendants of migrants who came from yucatan in the second half of the nineteenth century, fleeing the violence of the caste war. it is, in some form, an ethnonym, as opposed to “mixed”, which defines a state of mixture, and unlike the common meaning of the word “mestizo” in central america and mexico, which refers to the descendants of spaniards and indigenous people. now then, as we have seen, this category was introduced in , when a wave of central american migration enters belize, beginning at the end of the s (political and economic migrants arriving mainly from guatemala, el salvador and honduras): the ethnonym that specifically designated refugees from the caste war of the th century began to be used, in the census, to designate all those who have in common the spanish language or "latin culture". this administrative assimilation, founded on origins and sometimes language, is not the sign of social assimilation. indeed, numerous mestizo belizeans do not consider themselves in organic solidarity with the mestizos of central america but rather see themselves in competition in the areas of access to work, land and public services (medina , moberg ). the significant confusions that occurred during the census of demonstrate that this transformation was not carried out without errors: while the questionnaire for introduced the new categories of “creole” and “mestizo”, some analyses of the census repeated the old categories of "black " and "mixed” ( - : iv, , , population census. major findings: ). simultaneously, the results of were presented with the categories used in (changing "black" to "creole" and "mixed" to "mestizo"). caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - the political context becomes heavily loaded, at the time of the independence of belize; the new nation has to deal with both ethnic claims and non-ethnic nationalism, at the very time the relations between creoles and mestizo groups get more difficult. in fact, in the census, the “mestizo” population is greater than the “creole”. the statistics are the order of the day, and observers (the media, intellectuals) are concerned about this “ethnic shift” that disrupts the face of the new nation (see for example wilk ). in this sense, far from being an instrument of population control, the censuses rather symbolize the birth of a state that has not yet perfectly mastered the instruments of power. the introduction of ethnic categories of self-designation (garifuna, different maya groups) and the use of the extremely heterogeneous term “mestizo” have statistically produced a society which does not correspond neither to an integration of ethnic groups or an overcoming of ethnic differences, nor to the hegemony of the creole society. conclusion while belize is systematically associated with ethnic issues, we wanted to demonstrate that ethnicity is unstable across time, and that while it was often structuring and mobilized, it can also be absent or underestimated at other times. the censuses thus confirm that the ethnic and racial categories disappeared sometimes from the full range of tools for defining and controlling the population; and they evolved considerably as the institutions changed. the nationalist ideology of inclusion, with two main categories (“creole” and “mestizo”) gave way to the assertion of ethnic and racial identities in the neo-liberal and multicultural environment of the s and s, but this renewed assertion is no longer comparable with the multiplicity of categories used in the census. belize grounding in the anglophone caribbean, which is directed towards an ethnic administration of the populations, should not obscure the considerable variations in the management of ethnicity and in the very definition of these categories. these variations may be related to the precarious status of the territory, in dispute between spain/mexico and great britain until , and then a british enclave in the midst of independent spanish speaking countries. in a symbolic manner, the census presents its results beginning with the “mestizos” (who became numerically more important), whereas the first column of the tables was until then reserved for the “blacks/africans” or the “creoles”. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - the first censuses in the nineteenth century manage the issue of the transition from slavery to freedom and focus on only a portion of the population, of european and african origin, concentrated in belize city. the arrival of refugees from the yucatan caste war in the mid- nineteenth century implies a change of perspective, and the census of aims, with extreme precision, to take account of the diversity of the population as a whole. in turn, this logic is quickly abandoned and, between and , censuses are no longer interested in the ethnic- racial composition of the population. belize is then officially a british colony, and the assertion of the british presence and control of the territory seems to prevail over the administration of the various components of the population. yet at the same time, in their many reports on belize, the british administrators reproduce an invariable scheme, ignoring changes in the statistics and drawing a stereotypical representation of the trilogy ethnicity- identity-territory. in this interim period between colony and independent country, ethnic diversity is both a component of the colony, an 'invariable' in the eyes of the british administrators, and a statistical data without interest, because policies favour a territorial vision of administration. after the beginning of a century marked by dramatic events (poverty, riots, hurricane) and the first anti-colonial demonstrations, the and subsequent censuses once again take into account ethnic and racial categories. they are much more technical and complete but, in a first stage, there seems to be a gap between the tool and the policy. in fact, the censuses are developed within the framework of the west indies, with an explicit desire for uniformity in a region with increasing centrifugal dynamics, and they are sometimes quite ill-adapted to the particular situation of belize. in , with independence, censuses tend to integrate local usage and give value to categories of miscegenation ("creoles" and "mestizos"), which embody the new "national identity". however the new administration is not able to control its own tools and faces the emergence of an « unexpected nation » with a majority of hispanic population. in parallel, some categories of ethnicity depart from an excluding hetero-denomination to a differentiated self-designation "standardized" at the international level (from "caribs" to "garifuna", from "american indian", "amerindian" or "maya" to a recognition of the different mayan groups, yucatec, mopan, kekchi). caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - bibliography anderson, benedict imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. london: new york, verso. appelbaum, nancy p., anne s. macpherson, karin alejandra rosemblatt race and nation in modern latin america. chapell hill and london: the university of north caroline press ariel de vidas, anath & odile hoffmann beyond reified categories: multidimensional identifications among ‘black’ and ‘indian’ groups in columbia and mexico, ethnic and racial studies, http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . ashdown, peter the growth of black consciousness in belize - . the background to the ex- servicemen’s riot of . belcast journal of belizean affairs, ( ): - . badie, bertrand la fin des territoires: essai sur le désordre international et sur l'utilité sociale du respect. paris: fayard. barnett, carla natalie , .the political economy of land in belize, “machete must fly”. univ.west indies mona, p. berkey, curtis maya land rights in belize and the history of indian reservations. report to the toledo maya cultural council, indian law resource center, washington dc. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - bolland, nigel belize. a new nation in central america. boulder and london: westview press. bolland, nigel struggles for freedom: essays on slavery, colonialism and culture in the caribbean and central america. belize city: angelus press. bolland, nigel colonialism and resistance in belize: essays in historical sociology. benque viejo: cubola books. bristowe, lindsay, and philip wright the handbook of british honduras, - . edinburgh and london: blackwood. cal, angel anglo-maya contact in northern belize: a study of british policy towards the maya during the cast war of yucatan, - . ma thesis, university of calgary, alberta. camille, michael a. population and ethnicity of belize, . in michael phillips (ed.), belize: proceedings from the second interdisciplinary conference. university press of america, - . carsed le retour de la race. contre les statistiques ethniques. paris, editions de l’aube. cayetano, sebastian, and fabian cayetano [ ] garifuna history, language and culture of belize, central america and the caribbean. bicentennial edition (april th – april th ). belize: brc. christopher, anthony j. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - race and the census in the commonwealth. population, space and place , – cunin, elisabeth la compétence métisse. chicago sous les tropiques ou les vertus heuristiques du métissage. sociétés contemporaines, n° cunin elisabeth belmopan, nouvelle capitale du belize indépendant. de la colonie caribéenne à la nation centre-américaine. no. . daugaard-hansen, flemming negotiating national identity in belize. creole processes of identification and differentiation in belize city. ma thesis, university of copenhagen. florescano, enrique etnia, estado y nación. mexico: taurus gonzález, nancy black carib household structure. washington: university of washington press. gould jeffrey to die in this way: nicaraguan indian communities and the myth of mestizaje, - . durham, nc, duke university press. grant, cedric h. the making of modern belize: politics, society and british colonialism in central america. cambridge, cambridge university press hartog, françois régimes d’historicité. présentisme et expériences du temps. paris: seuil. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - izard, gabriel herencia y etnicidad entre los garífuna de belice. revista mexicana del caribe : - . judd, karen “who will define us? creolization in belize”. speareport, : second annual studies on belize conference, - . kertzer, david i., and dominique arel censuses, identity formation, and the struggle for political power. in census and identity. the politics of race, ethnicity, and language in national censuses. david i. kertzer and dominique arel, eds. pp. - . cambridge: cambridge university press. land in crown colonies and protectorates (march). colonial office, hmso lomnitz, claudio deep mexico, silent mexico: an anthropology of nationalism. minneapolis, university of minnesota press. lópez caballero, paula altérités intimes, altérités éloignées : la greffe du multiculturalisme en amérique latine. critique internationale n° . macpherson, anne “imagining the colonial nation: race, gender, and middle-class politics in belize. - ”. in nancy p. appelbaum, anne s. macpherson, karin alejandra rosemblatt, race and nation in modern latin america. chapell hill and london: the university of north caroline press, - . macpherson, anne caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - from colony to nation. women activists and the gendering of politics in belize, - . lincoln and london: university of nebraska press. may zalasar, lilia selene migración de mayas y yucatecos en honduras británica - . tesis de maestría en historia, ciesas peninsular. medina, laurie kroshus defining difference, forging unity: the co-construction of race, ethnicity, and nation in belize. ethnic and racial studies, ( ): - . moberg, mark continuity under colonial rule: the alcalde system and the garifuna in belize, - . ethnohistory, ( ): - . moberg, mark myths of ethnicity and nation: immigration, work, and identity in the belize banana industry. knoxville, university of tennessee press. nobles melissa shades of citizenship: race and the census in modern politics. stanford, stanford university press. palacio, joseph the garifuna. a nation across borders. essays in social anthropology. benque viejo del carmen: cubola productions. palacio, myrtle redefining ethnicity. the experiences of the garifuna and creole in post-independence belize. ma tesis, new orleans, university of new orleans. caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - poiret, christian, odile hoffmann, cédric audebert contextualiser pour mieux conceptualiser la racialisation. revue européenne des migrations internationales ( ): - . price, richard and sally price. . executing culture: musee, museo, museum. american anthropologist, ( ): - . reed, nelson [ ] la guerra de castas de yucatan. méxico: biblioteca era. reina, leticia la etnización política: ¿necesaria para la construcción de la nueva nación mexicana? memoria americana ( ): - shoman, assad party politics in belize. - . benque viejo del carmen: cubola productions. shoman, assad backtalking belize: selected writings. edited by anne masherson. belize city: the angelus press limited. shoman, assad [ ] thirteen chapters of a history of belize. belize city: the angelus press limited. shoman, assad reflections on ethnicity and nation in belize. cuaderno de trabajo afrodesc no. . http://www.ird.fr/afrodesc/spip.php?article smith, michael garfield the plural society in the british west indies. berkeley: university of california press. http://www.ird.fr/afrodesc/spip.php?article caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - soberanis, antonio & l. d. kemp the third side of the anglo-guatemala dispute. belize city: commercial press. stone, michael. caribbean nation, central american state: ethnicity, race, and national formation in belize, - . ph.d. dissertation, university of texas at austin. tzec, angel, esther sánchez, deric chan, anita tzec, luis galindo iniciativa de orientación general para el desarrollo estratégico de los pueblos indígenas, belice. bullet tree falls, cayo, belice, informe de la cooperación técnica atn-jf- -bid (marzo). villalobos gonzález, martha herminia el bosque sitiado. asaltos armados, concesiones forestales y estrategias de resistencia durante la guerra de castas. méxico, ciesas-conaculta-inah-porrua, colección peninsular. wilk, richard beauty and the feast: official and visceral nationalism in belize. ethnos, ( - ): - . wilk richard home cooking in the global village. belizean food from buccaneers to ecotourists. belize city: the angelus press & london: berg publishers. wilk, richard & mac chapin “ethnic minorities in belize: mopan, kekchi and garifuna”. speareports, . wimmer, andreas the making and unmaking of ethnic boundaries: a multilevel process theory, american journal of sociology, volume number (january ): – caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - table : censuses from to date title categories author a census of the population of the british order of lieutenant colonel george arthur his majesty’s settlement of belize on the bay of honduras, taken by superintendent commandant, december white coloured black slave superintendant, belize census of the slave population for the british settlement (file title, original missing) white coloured black slave house of commons, uk census of the slave population of the british settlement of belize in the bay of honduras, st december house of commons, uk census of of the slave population for the british settlement (file title, original missing) white coloured black slave house of commons, uk census of the population of the british settlement of white coloured caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - belize, honduras, (file title, original missing) black slave census of the population of the british settlement, belize, honduras white coloured black slave census of the population of the british settlement of honduras for the year white coloured black slave slave register census of the population of the british settlement of honduras for the year white coloured black apprenticed labourer census of the population of the british settlement of honduras for the year white coloured black apprenticed labourer population census for (file title, original missing) anglo-saxon, anglo- honduran, anglo-african, anglo-american, anglo- indian, anglo hispanic, anglo french, anglo carib, african, african-english, african-spanish, african indian, african carib, indian, indian african, indian spanish, indian carib, spanish, spanish & english, spanish & african, census comisioners caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - spanish & indian, spanish & carib, carib, carib & english, carib & african, carib & indian, french, french & indian, french & spanish, french & portuguese, german, danish, portuguese, portuguese & french, belgian, dutch, syrian, chinese, coolies, italian, french & italian, not stated census of , enclosed in robert harley to grant, may , co / (cited by bolland : ) unavailable in the belmopan archives census of british honduras taken on the th of april, . hy. o. usher, chief commissioner for the census report on the result of the census of the colony of british honduras, taken on the st march, belize: printed at angelus office, not used report of the result of the census of the colony of bh, taken on the nd april, not used caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - , belize, printed at the angelus office, report on the census of , part . tables, taken on the th april, prepared by herbert dunk, register general and superintendent of census printed by the government printing office, belize, british honduras not used herbert dunk, register general and superintendent of census census of british honduras printed by the government press not used major sir john alder burdon, governor of the colony of british honduras west indian census . part e. census of british honduras, th april, . published by the government printer, belize, british honduras, . printed by the government printer, duke street, kingston, jamaica black, mixed or coloured, american indian, carib, white, syrian, east indian (hindu), chinese, not stated central bureau of statistics of the government of jamaica west indies population census. jamaica tabulation center. census of british honduras. th april, . volume . department of statistics, kingston, jamaica african, black, negro; european (or white); syrian; east indian; chinese (and japanese); other races and all the mestizo groups central bureau of statistics of the government of jamaica caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - population census of the commonwealth caribbean. volume , race and religion. census research programme, university of the west indies, . printed by the herald limited, , east street, kingston, jamaica. black, mixed, amerindian, white, portuguese, syrian/ lebanese, east indian, chinese, other races, not stated university of west indies, census research programme, jamaica technical help from the canadian international development agency - population census of the commonwealth caribbean belize, volume . printed in jamaica. creole, mestizo, maya, kekchi, garifuna, white, east indian, chinese, other races, not stated regional population census and regional census co-ordinating committee (caricom). realized in belize, with the help of the statistical institute of jamaica. technical help from un. population census. major findings. central statistical office, ministry of finance, belmopan, cayo, belize, c.a. population and housing census, administrative report. central statistical office, ministry of finance, belmopan, belize ca creole, mestizo, maya mopan, kekchi maya, other maya, garifuna, white, german/dutch/mennonites, syrian/lebanese, indian, chinese, others, dk/ns central statistical office, ministry of finance, belmopan. help of the regional census office (trinidad and tobago) caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - belize. abstract of statistics . central statistical office, ministry of finance, belmopan, november black/african, creole, mestizo, maya mopan, kekchi maya, yucatec maya, garifuna, caucasian/white, mennonites, east indian, chinese, others, dk/ns central statistical office, ministry of finance, belmopan table : reports tittle years (available in the belizean archives) blue book from to missing years; , , , , , , , , colonial reports , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , - , - , - the handbook of british honduras - and caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - table : categories from to black african, black, negro black black/african creole creole creole mixed or coloured mixed mestizo mestizo mestizo american indian amerindia n maya maya mopan maya mopan kekchi kekchi maya kekchi maya other maya yucatec maya carib garifuna garifuna garifuna white european (or white) white white white caucasian/white portugues e german/dutc h/mennonite s mennonites syrian syrian syrian/ lebanese syrian/ lebanese east indian (hindu) east indian east indian east indian indian east indian caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - chinese chinese (and japanese) chinese chinese chinese chinese other races and all the mestizo groups other races other races others others not stated not stated not stated dk/ns dk/ns caribbean studies, vol. , no. , july - december , p. - table : census numbers from to in percentage negro/ black, black/african . . creole . . . mixed or coloured . mestizo . . . amerindian/ american indian/ maya . . maya mopan . . kekchi maya . . . other maya/ yucatec maya . . carib/ garifuna . . . white/ european/ caucasian . . . . portuguese german/dutch/mennon ites . . syrian/ lebanese . east indian . . . . chinese . . . other races and all the mestizo groups/ others/ not stated . . . what the genealogist expects of an archival agency or historical society by milton rubincam past president, national genealogical society we are all aware of the fact that an unfortunate antipathyexists between members of the archival and historical pro-fessions and the genealogists. the former generally view the ancestry searchers with contempt, regarding them as people who contribute little or nothing to our knowledge of this country's past and are chiefly occupied in forging weak links between them- selves and such celebrities as charlemagne and william the con- queror. the genealogists, on the other hand, often think that ar- chivists and historical society personnel deliberately close their eyes to the real value of genealogical investigation and consequently are uncooperative when requested to make available records in their custody. there is some justification for both points of view. unhappily, there are some genealogists whose time could be better spent than in trying to find a royal or noble forefather or to lay claim to a fabulous fortune that does not exist. as classic examples, we have the claims of the coultharts to be descendants of a mythical ro- man soldier, coulthartus; of both the noble feildings of england and the mennonite rittenhouses of pennsylvania — of all people — to be male representatives of the house of habsburg; and of the springers of delaware to be male representatives of the caro- lingians and the true owners of the present city of wilmington. these claims, incidentally, are as nothing compared with the proud boast of the princely hungarian house of esterhazy that its pedi- gree begins with the grandfather of adam, the first man! one can readily understand why a keeper of records nearly loses his "ar- chival patience" when he is confronted by such people as the lady who once asked at the national archives for the census of paper read at the joint annual meeting of the society of american archivists and the american association for state and local history, raleigh, north carolina, oc- tober , . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist iowa and refused to believe the archivist-in-charge when he ex- plained that he could produce no such document because iowa was not one of the thirteen original states covered by that census. looking at the matter from the standpoint of the serious student of genealogy, however, i think you will agree that he too has a right to feel irritated when an archivist looks at him with disdain, giving every indication of an unwillingness to produce records for genealogical research, probably because he feels that to produce them would take time from his records administration functions. when such a situation occurs, the genealogist believes that he must remind the archivist that one of his chief functions is to serve the public; that the records in his custody are public property; and, therefore, that genealogists, as well as other students, have the right of equal access to them. in this connection, permit me to state that my own relations with representatives of the archival profes- sion, both in the national archives and in the several state agencies where i have worked, have been most cordial and cooperative. nevertheless, i think a frank discussion of the subject will do much to clarify the situation and pave the way for a better relationship between genealogists, archivists, and historical society personnel. during the past three quarters of a century genealogical research has made tremendous strides. under the leadership of the great english authority on feudal history, the late dr. j. horace round, and of the foremost american genealogist of the present day, don- ald lines jacobus, editor-in-chief of the american genealogist, a school of scientific genealogical investigators has arisen that not only hammers incessantly at false ancestral pride and faked pedi- grees, but also demonstrates ( i ) the close interrelationship be- tween genealogy and history; and ( ) the methods whereby work- ers in the one field may aid researchers in the other. a high code of ethics has been developed in the genealogical profession, a rigid code that is maintained by the state genealogical societies and, in an overall capacity, by the national genealogical society and the american society of genealogists, a semi-professional group. t o be a good genealogist one must have as specialized a knowl- edge of his profession as the archivist and the historian have of their professions. a genealogist must know his source materials and possess a working knowledge of genealogical bibliography for the country as a whole. h e must have critical ability and the cour- age to debunk the false and the fraudulent pedigrees that have done so much to discredit genealogy as an auxiliary science of history. by reason of his detailed researches, he is in a position to contrib- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril what t h e genealogist expects ute new data on obscure phases of history. for example, you will be interested to learn that it was a genealogist, who is also an ar- chivist, whose researches on the family of a certain elizabethan writer provided the details of that writer's life, whereas the cata- loguer in the library of congress was merely able to show that the writer "flourished" in the year . modern genealogy, if prop- erly pursued, throws much light on manners and customs, eugenics, economics, sociology, philology, topography, and other related studies. in an address before the national genealogical society many years ago dr. amandus johnson, the noted authority on the early swedes in the delaware valley, neatly summed up this concept when he observed: "history is based upon biography, and biography is based upon genealogy." genealogists represent the majority of the "customers" at ar- chival agencies. this fact is being recognized more and more by archivists. it is fitting, therefore, that in a desire to improve the service rendered by archival and historical agencies, a place has been provided on this program for a discussion of the genealogist's needs and point of view. the principal aid to efficient genealogical research is an adequate indexing system. much time is consumed when the genealogist is forced to ask questions about the types of documents in an archival agency's possession, or when the archivist finds it necessary to make a search of the records in his custody in order to ascertain if they contain desired data. i am not implying that every name in every document should be indexed on a x card although, i must con- fess, that such an index would be the answer to a working genealo- gist's prayers! but a system whereby the various groups and types of documents in custody could be readily indexed on cards would be of considerable help to the researcher whose time is limited. if it is not feasible to index the collections, a series of finding aids should be prepared. the genealogist has the feeling that an ar- chival agency has thousands of documents that would be of ines- timable value in his researches if he but knew what collections the agency possesses and what he may expect to find in them. it is diffi- cult, sometimes, to elicit the proper information in conversation with the archivist-in-charge. t h e researcher may not know quite what he is looking for, and the archivist may be equally uncertain of the object of the genealogist's search. finding aids would pro- vide both with the working tools that they need. archival agencies and historical societies can also aid genealo- gists by appointing certain staff members as genealogical consultants d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist who would become familiar with the needs of genealogists and acquaint themselves with the methods of genealogical research. such an arrangement would increase the efficiency of the agency or society and, at the same time, make the genealogist free to talk over his problems with a member of the staff who has both a knowledge of and sympathy for the work of genealogists. many types of documents engage the attention of family his- torians. in the national archives, for instance, are found the fed- eral census records, as well as military, naval, pension, land, and other records relating to personal history. but the national archives can serve the genealogist only insofar as the activities of a family or an individual are reflected in the records of the united states government. state archival agencies, local histor- ical societies, and county court houses are, therefore, the prin- cipal repositories of genealogical source materials. since the his- tory of a state, as well as of a nation, is based upon the activ- ities of its people, many genealogists believe that each state ar- chivist has an obligation to assemble in one place the records of the people of his state, either the original records or copies of them. some archivists are assuming that obligation by endeavor- ing to centralize the records of their states up to a certain period, say about . there is much to be said for centralization. the researcher is not forced to run around to different counties in order to consult his source-materials, but can find nearly everything he seeks in a central repository. on the other hand, the great disad- vantage of centralization is the danger of a catastrophe overtak- ing the archival agency and the consequent destruction of all the old records of the state. the problem of centralization or decentral- ization is one that only the state governments can solve. for many generations new england has been the seat of genea- logical development. extreme care has been exercised to preserve the vital records of the towns, and funds have been generously provided for their publication down to . the highest degree of efficiency in centralization of records has been attained by the connecticut state library, which has set up departments bearing the descriptive names of local history and genealogy, archives, vital records, church records, probate, and cemetery inscrip- tions or veterans grave survey. the library has prepared an al- phabetical general index of connecticut vital records, containing over one million entries, from all of the extant town records to . its collection of church records contains original registers of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril what the genealogist expects over connecticut churches. in cases where churches desire to retain their original records, the library has copies made of them for its files. these church registers now are being indexed. the library's collections also include about , family bible rec- ords, tombstone inscriptions from over , connecticut ceme- teries, newspaper notices of marriages and deaths (now comprising about a million entries), and about , files of estate papers. land records are still retained by the town clerks, but the library now is engaged in microfilming those records for each town. other states are following the example of connecticut in assem- bling documents of genealogical value. space will not permit me to describe in detail the efforts of certain states such as delaware, maryland, and virginia, to centralize in their archival agencies doc- uments bearing not only on the history but also on the genealogy of those areas. for various reasons it is impossible to transfer all of the county records to the state capitals, but efforts are being made to assemble as many official documents as possible, as well as collections of family papers, church registers, copies of tomb- stone inscriptions, and bible records. in north carolina the state department of archives and history is making a similar effort to assemble personal and unofficial collections, maps, news- papers, and noncurrent county records, all of which are invaluable to the historian of north carolina families.* to a certain extent, the functions of the historical society over- lap those of the state archival agency. whether this is a desirable circumstance i am not prepared to say at this time, although it is certainly helpful to the researcher. both institutions may assem- ble collections of family papers, bible records, and tombstone in- scriptions and, in some instances, official records even find their way to the historical society, as in the case of the excellent collection of early tax lists for chester county, pennsylvania, in the possession of the chester county historical society. in some of the court houses where i have worked, especially in one large city, the cus- todians have been so preoccupied with politics as to neglect their duties toward the public records. in the case just cited, i have found marjorie e. case, "connecticut resources for genealogical research," national genealogical society quarterly, march , pp. - . leon de valinger, jr., "delaware records for genealogical research," national genealogical society quarterly, march , pp. - ; roger thomas, "genealogical records at the hall of records," ibid., june , pp. - ; nellie p. waldenmaier, "source records in the virginia state library," ibid., march , pp. - . christopher crittenden, "the north carolina state department of archives and history and its manuscript collections," ibid., march , pp. - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist deed books falling apart at the mere touch of the hand and the index volumes virtually scattered in sections around the room! when such a deplorable situation occurs, it is well that progressive historical societies are making every effort to secure for their own collections the official records of the communities which they serve. an editorial in the american archivist for july, calls atten- tion to the necessity for safeguarding these treasures of the past. i might add, parenthetically, that some of the smaller court houses, such as those for chester, bucks, and beaver counties, pennsyl- vania, and the office of the recorder of deeds for allegheny coun- ty at pittsburgh, are models of orderliness and care in the preserva- tion of records. in some states funds may not be appropriated for the acquisition of documents that, strictly speaking, are not official records. under such circumstances, assistance may be secured by means of federal grants-in-aid or, in times of depression, by the activities of such agencies as the former w o r k projects administration. the publica- tions of that organization have been criticized by some historians and genealogists for being not too reliable at times, but the fact remains that they have been very useful tools for research. the national society of the daughters of the american revolution is constantly adding thousands of transcripts to its fine washington library as a result of the labors of its chapters throughout the country. i t may be that arrangements could be worked out to have the d.a.r. chapters in the various states prepare for presentation to the state archives copies of the records they are forwarding to d.a.r. headquarters in washington. these are but a few sugges- tions as to how records may be secured by the archival agencies if official funds and facilities are not available. i trust that in the course of this paper i have demonstrated that modern genealogy is not a senseless fad, indulged in by elderly gentlemen who have nothing more constructive to occupy their minds, or by "sweet old things" who love to gossip about their de- scent from kings, knights, and generals. genealogy is a very serious business, not only for those professional genealogists who earn their livelihood by its means, but also for those avocational genealo- gists who seek to show the influence families have exerted on the course of local, national, or even international history. if the his- torians, archivists, and genealogists can learn to understand each other's problems, they can form an unbeatable team in the recon- struction of the historic events that have made this country great. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .g u by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril j. med. genet. ( ). , . conductive hearing loss and malformed low-set ears, as a possible recessive syndrome* marvin c. mengel, bruce w. konigsmark, charles i. berlint, and victor a. mckusick from the division of medical genetics, division of laryngology and otology and department of pathology, the johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, md, u.s.a. more than phenotypically distinct forms of hereditary deafness have been found in man (konigsmark and mckusick, ; procter and procter, ). on the basis of associated defects caused by the same gene, these can be separated into different groups. these groups include: deafness associated with integumentary system disease (robinson, miller, and bensimon, ), heart disease (fraser, froggatt, and james, ), skeletal disease (forney, robinson, and pascoe, ), eye disease (alstrom et al., ), nervous system disease (matthews, ), renal disease (braun and bayer, ), thyroid disease (batsakis and nishiyama, ), external ear malformations (fourman and fourman, ; wildervanck, ), as well as deafness with no associated defects, and hereditary deafness with other associations. a mennonite group has been found to offer an excellent opportunity for the study of some reces- sive hereditary diseases, for two reasons: excellent family records are available and the rate of consan- guineous marriages is high. the two interrelated families described here were found in a health survey of conservative mennonites in lancaster county, pennsylvania. in family i, of children were affected with malformed low-set ears and conductive hearing loss, while in family ii, of living sibs were similarly affected. though two types of external ear deformities and hearing loss have been reported (fourman and fourman, ; wildervanck, ), the deformities are quite different from those in the two branches of this family. the affected children recorded here prob- ably have a heretofore undescribed type of familial received march , . * presented at the meeting of the american society of human genetics, toronto, december , . t present address: department of otolaryngology, louisiana state university, school of medicine. address reprint requests to: the johns hopkins hospital, baltimore, maryland (dr. konigsmark). hearing loss, recessive in transmission, and charac- terized by malformed low-set ears with conductive hearing loss. material and methods a pedigree was obtained by information from each family and by records in the mennonite information center. each of the affected children was tested in the hos- pital's hearing and speech center, with a standard test- ing procedure and criteria (berlin, ). the bat- tery of tests included: air conduction, bone conduction, speech reception threshold, speech discrimination and tone decay; the short-increment sensitivity index (sisi), and the alternate binaural loudness balance test were done when appropriate. in addition, all affected children had caloric vestibular tests, and physical and neurological examinations. chromosomal analyses were done on two affected children, skull x-rays on two, temporal bone polytomograms on one, and an explora- tory tympanotomy on one patient. psychological test- ing was done on three affected children. findings ear deformity. all six affected children showed this defect to some extent bilaterally. the pinna was small, sometimes low-set, with a large overturned skin flap at its dorsal edge. the mildest form of the deformity showed only mini- mally deformed pinna. however, in the most severe forms, the pinna was low-set, quite small, and half-moon in shape (fig. , , and ). mental status. by history three of the six affected children (fig. ) had been slow in sitting, walking, and speaking. one (ii. ) did not walk until years of age. now, at the age of , he can feed and dress himself and do simple household tasks. intelligence tests on four of the affected (i. , ii. , il , ii. ; fig. ) placed three (i. , ii. , o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ conductive hearing loss and malformed low-set ears, as a pcssible recessive syndrome i- fig. . the affected sibs in family i. ii. ) in the severely retarded category, and one (ii. ) in the normal range. hearing. pure tone audiograms showed four of the six affected children to have a to db hl iso three frequency average loss in at least one ear. bone conduction testing showed minimally decreased hearing, indicating a conductive loss with pathology in the middle ear. sisi and recruitment tests were negative, indicating no cochlear damage. tone decay tests were also negative, suggesting no retrocochlear pathology. speech reception threshold scores validated the pure tone audiometry. in one patient (ii. ), we were unable to get any response to tones to db hl iso. this patient was severely retarded and could not understand test instructions. another child (ii. ) could not be tested because of low iq, giving erratic responses at to db hl. ossicular chain deformity. an exploratory tympanotomy, was performed on one (ii. ). at operation, a single ossicle was noted; this had the shape of a malleus and was somewhat posteriorly positioned. no incus was seen. a loose cord, attached to the head of the malleus, passed medially to the oval window area. inspection of the oval window revealed no foot-plate or superstructure of the stapes present. the promontory was rela- tively normal, and a round window niche could not be seen. the bone in the area of the oval window was trephined, removing approximately mm. of bone, leaving in a very thin plate of bone over the vestibule. this plate was then removed, and a slight leak of perilymph noted. a no. teflon prosthesis was placed into the opening, and its wire end was attached to the neck of the malleus. the prosthesis was noted to move with the malleus when this was manipulated. the patient was noted to have a to db improvement in hearing on subsequent auditory tests, but because his other ear had a less severe hearing loss, this improvement was not clinically apparent. physical and neurological examination small stature. three of the six affected children were somewhat smaller than the average of their sibs for that age. head and neck. in addition to the ear defor- mity, three of the six affected children had a high arched palate, not noted in any of their non-affected sibs. otherwise, the head and neck examination showed no abnormalities. cardiovascular. five of the six affected children had a grade - / systolic blowing murmur heard best at the cardiac apex. none of the unaffected sibs had such a murmur. electrocardiograms were normal showing no cardiomegaly or axis deviation. there were no symptoms of cardiovascular disease. i- .... ::.,iwj \,ss;l oo. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ mengel, konigsmark, berlin, and mckusick l i-i t i -') ii- i i- fig. . the four affected sibs in family ii. other findings. two of the four affected males (i. and ii. ) had cryptorchidism with no testes palpable in the scrotum or canals. these and one other (ii. ) had hypogonadism, but chromosome examinations done on two of these (i. and ii. ) were normal. the two children in family i had genu valgum, but this may be an independent trait since their mother had a similar appearance and none of the children in family ii were affected. these two children also showed slight clinodactyly, not seen in any of the other children. one child (ii. ) had marked pes planus and valgus, not seen in any of the other children. neurological and vestibular examinations were normal in all six affected children. case reports case . the proband (i. ) was a -year-old girl, with one ear mildly affected and one moderately affected. she first sat up at months, later than her older sibs, though she did walk at months. the family grad- ually became aware of a hearing loss, probably alerted to expect it by the deformed external ear. she spoke her first words at about years of age, and could form sentences by years of age. she did well in a special class in public school. testing at her school placed her iq in the to range. on physical examination she was small for her age ( cm., - kg.), with a grade / systolic ejection murmur loudest at the apex, and transmitted to the carotids. she had slight asymmetry of the mouth and bilateral genu valgus. physical examination was other- wise normal. audiologically, her right ear was normal; o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ conductive hearing loss and malformed low-set ears, as a possible recessive syndrome i- i- i - ii- i- - fig. . composite picture showing the external ears of all affected children. the left and right ear on the right in each case. her left ear showed a conductive hearing loss of to db hl iso (fig. ), with to db narrow band masking in the appropriate ear. case . i. , her brother, was years old and had more severely affected pinnae bilaterally than his older sister. his father felt he had been slow in development, recalling only that he walked at about to months. he attended the local parochial school, doing fair work. he was a pleasant boy, slightly small for his age ( - cm., - kg.). he did not speak sentences but under- stood and obeyed very well. his mental retardation was milder than that of his sister. physical examination showed a harsh blowing systolic murmur (grade / ) loudest at the apex. his reflexes were brisk but symmetrical. he had extremely small genitalia, with well-marked mediam raphe and no testis in his scrotum. chromosome cultures showed a normal karyotype. he had slight genu valgum. audiological testing showed a severe conductive deafness bilaterally the left ear is on o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ mengel, konigsmark, berlin, and mckusick family i family ii fig. . pedigree showing affected sibs in family i, and affected sibs in family ii. (fig. ). conventional bone conduction results were supported by sal observations. the sisi was nega- tive in both ears at cps, suggesting no cochlear pathology. case . ii. , a -year-old boy, was the most re- tarded of the six affected, being unable to walk until he was years of age. he was cm. tall, and weighed - kg. he walked with a shuffle, showing marked planus and valgus of both feet. he understood simple visual commands and obeyed them willingly. the family communicated with him non-verbally, by illus- trating what they wanted him to do. they were unable to get his attention by shouting, but sometimes a loud clap caused him to turn and look. when left by himself, he sat hunched and drawn together, touching his cheek rhythmically with his finger. he placed in the severe mental defective range on the bender-gestalt visual motor test, and was unable to comprehend instructions for any of the other intelli- gence tests attempted. though he did not respond in any way to pure tone testing, unconditioned gsr showed a response to db hl tone at to cps. case . ii. , an -year-old brother, was - cm. tall and weighed - kg. he spoke poorly, probably due to poor hearing. he was able to finish the eighth grade at a parochial school in regular classes. his pinnae were severely affected (fig. and ); one was quite low-set. case . ii. , a -year-old boy, was normal on physical, neurological, and vestibular examination except for a / systolic murmur. the best two fre- quency averages in the speech range were db hl in the left ear and db hl in the right ear. his pinnae were mildly deformed (fig. and ). he had a mental age of / years with an iq of on the stanford binet intelligency scale form l-m. he scored in the mental age level - , with a quotient of on the peabody picture vocabulary test. his vocabulary was poor relative to his normal intelligence. case . ii. , a -year-old girl, had a completely normal physical, neurological, and vestibular test. she had no systolic murmur. her language development score was below the -month level, with visual motor and form perception functioning in the - to -year range. her over-all ability was in the to iq range. though she apparently could hear well in response to verbal commands, we were unable to obtain criterion level pure tone test results with this child. remainder of family. the parents in these two families were not affected with the syndrome described. in family i, the maternal great grandfather and two paternal uncles had a hearing loss in their th to th decade of life. in family ii, the father was years old and had a neural hearing loss without an air-bone gap. the paternal grandfather had a hearing loss since his th decade of life, and three paternal cousins were mentally retarded, one with histidinaemia. discussion syndrome. the features of this syndrome can be divided into those which appear in all affected and those which are inconstant. features present in all affected include: ( ) pinna deformity, varying greatly in degree (fig. , , and ), ( ) conductive hearing loss, usually bilateral, and vary- ing from mild to severe. the following features were present in only some of the affected, but probably are features of the syndrome: (a) low-set ears, present in three of the six affected; (b) mental retardation, present in three of the affected; (c) immature external genitalia, present in all affected males. in addition to these features, five of the six affected children were smaller than their sibs. three had a high arched palate, and five had a sys- tolic murmur with normal electrocardiograms and o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ conductive hearing loss and malformed low-set ears, as a possible recessive syndrome - ! ' - x x x x,̂ - , i ~~~~~~~~~i - i . !l--- ii. -rz---tt--i ~~ - * -~~~ , . ~ ~ ~ f ~~~~~~ -~~~~~~ -~i -. --t*.* -~~~ -. , a .. - *_ -- --<- - - : ii. __ '_ __ ftrq -i-- k n-- --- - +- t - -. ; _ o --~~~- xx~~- - -x~-- -- -- cycles per secd ln ln xoc) n la r- ln oo o cycles per second i. - i~~tttp~ . p ~~~a a a \;ft a - -i i . r -- t-t- -- ~ l ~- . * _ __ o. - -----o o ~~z~ ii --@ q x-- --- x * x ---x -. -x~. ._ _-- . l _ - ii. r-- r - --t-- t -to- - - ,i i _ - -b no ~~ no i consistent responses -_ - iil ___;-, j cjlo n c n e second cycles per second fig. . audiograms of all affected children. right air conduction bone conduction (with appropriate ear masked) t left x o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ mengel, konigsmark, berlin, and mckusick table summary of major clinical findings in each of affected children i. . ii. ii. ii. ii. age (yr.) sex f m m m m f right ear deformity + + +++ + + + ++ ++ left ear deformity +++ +++ +++ + + + ++ ++ right ear hearing loss* no unable to response test left ear hearing loss* no unable to m response test mental retardation + + + + + + +++ key: -not present, + -mild, + + -moderate, + ++ -severe defect. * frequency average in db hl iso. chest x-rays. two of the four males had hypo- gonadism and all four males had immature genitalia. mental retardation was present in three of the six affected. the retardation was not associated with the amount of hearing loss, severity of pinna abnor- malities, or any other features (table). three cousins of the children of family ii were retarded, and at least one had histidinaemia. pa- tient ii. also had a positive ferric chloride test for histidinaemia, as did both parents. the retarded child, ii. , had a negative ferric chloride test but had a history of prolonged cyanosis immediately after birth. the third retarded child, i. , had a negative ferric chloride test, and no history of cyanosis or illness consistent with retardation. there is no way of knowing the cause of the retardation; it may be part of the syndrome of ear deformity and deafness, it may be related to histi- dinaemia in one child, or it may be due to another rare recessive disorder. external ear malformations. three types of familial external ear malformations have been described. potter ( ) presented five genera- tions of a family with a pinna malformation but without hearing loss transmitted as an autosomal dominant. this deformity is somewhat similar to that in the present kindred, and best described as a small deformed, inverted pinna. none of these ears was low-set. fourman and fourman ( ) described a family with pre-auricular pits and neural hearing loss. the hearing loss in our patients was conductive, and no pre-auricular pits were found. wilder- vanck ( ) presented a family with dominantly transmitted conductive hearing loss associated with pre-auricular tags and malformed pinnae. in none were the ears malplaced. none of our patients had pre-auricular pits. origin of hearing loss. audiograms on most of the affected children indicated a conductive hear- ing loss. in one patient (ii. ) the hearing loss was due to malformation of the middle ear bones, as documented at operation. probably, middle ear malformation is responsible for the hearing loss in the remaining affected children. though several types of familial conductive hear- ing loss have been described, in only mandibulo- facial dysostosis has a malformation of the middle ear bone been documented (holborow, ). there is little similarity between the present syn- drome and the characteristic hypoplastic mandible and normal ears of treacher collins disease. type of transmission. the family trees were traced for generations. all four parents were descendants of a man who died in switzerland in . his four sons came to this country in the early th century. it appears that this syndrome is transmitted as a single autosomal recessive gene and was carried to this country by at least two sons of the progenitor. treatment. the mild improvement in hearing in one of our patients (ii. ) by insertion of a pros- thesis suggests that patients with this affection deserve a complete otological and audiological study, with the aim of possible surgical correction of the hearing loss. summary in a health survey of a genetic isolate, six cases of pinna deformity and conductive deafness were found. tympanoplasty in one patient showed mal- formation of the middle ear bones. other features, including mental retardation and hypogonadism, may be part of the disease. the mode of trans- mission is autosomal recessive. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ conductive hearing loss and malformed low-set ears, as a possible recessive syndrome we wish to thank dr. minerva stauffer for bringing these families to our attention. supported in part by grant rd- from the voca- tional rehabilitation administration, the john a. hart- ford foundation, inc., and nindb res. career dev. award d nb, , . references alstrom, c. h., hallgren, b., nilsson, l. b., and asander, h. ( ). retinal degeneration combined with obesity, diabetes mellitus and neurogenous deafness. acta psychiat. scand., , suppl. , . batsakis, j. g., and nishiyama, r. h. ( ). deafness with sporadic goiter: pendred's syndrome. arch. otolaryng., , . berlin, c. i. and the staff of the hearing and speech center ( ). manual of standard operating procedures. the johns hopkins medical institutions, baltimore. braun, f. c., and bayer, j. f. ( ). familial nephrosis associated with deafness and congenital urinary tract anomalies in siblings. pediat., , . forney, w. r., robinson, s. j., and pascoe, d. j. ( '. con- genital heart disease, deafness, and skeletal malformations: a new syndrome ? ibid., , . fourman, p., and fourman, j. ( ). hereditary deafness in family with ear-pits (fistula auris congenita). brit. med. j., , . fraser, g. r., froggatt, p., and james, t. n. ( ). congenital deafness associated with electrocardiographic abnormalities, faint- ing attacks and sudden death. a recessive syndrome. quart. j . med., , . holborow, c. a. ( ). deafness and the treacher collins syn- drome. . laryng., , . konigsmark, b. w., and mckusick, v. a. ( ). hereditary deafness. volta rev., , . matthews, w. b. ( ). familial ataxia, deaf-mutism, and muscu- lar wasting. j. neurol. neurosurg. psychiat., , . potter, e. l. ( ). a hereditary ear malformation transmitted through five generations. j. hered., , . procter, c. a., and procter, b. ( ). understanding hereditary nerve deafness. arch. otolaryng., , . robinson, g. c., miller, j. r., and bensimon, j. r. ( ). familial ectodermal dysplasia with sensori-neural deafness and other anomalies. pediatrics, , . wildervanck, l. s. ( ). hereditary malformations of the ear in three generations. acta oto-laryng. (stockh.), , . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ pii: s - ( ) - political geography ( ) – www.elsevier.com/locate/polgeo a project of doubtful utility: measuring legislative opposition to the pennsylvania canal francis p. boscoe department of geography, pennsylvania state university, university park, pa , usa abstract a spatial model of legislative roll call votes is used to examine the debate surrounding the decision to build a canal across pennsylvania in . the model reveals a sharp polarization between the english and german-speaking regions of the state, with marked splits over the establishment and funding of the pennsylvania canal and other fiscal issues. representatives from the german-speaking regions consistently opposed all spending initiatives. this regional split, underappreciated by geographers and historians, provides evidence in support of a broader positioning of culture and ethnicity in the study of political behavior. the model itself provides a novel means of analyzing and assessing geographically based voting blocs.  elsevier science ltd. all rights reserved. keywords: roll call analysis; pennsylvania germans; canal era; government programs the identification and explanation of sectional differences within states or geo- graphic regions is a recurring theme in political geography. this paper proposes an application of a model developed by poole and rosenthal ( ) that offers a means of measuring such differences quantitatively. the model involves mapping legislators onto a two dimensional space, where the distance between legislators is proportional to their commonality in voting behavior. to the extent that legislators represent the interests of their geographically based constituents, it is possible to see which geo- graphical areas are politically aligned or nonaligned with one another. the model is applied to the state of pennsylvania for the year , a year in which the state was debating construction of a statewide canal to link the eastern seaboard with the mississippi/ohio watershed. a conventional explanation for the voting on the canal is that the different sections e-mail address: fpb @psu.edu (f.p. boscoe). - / /$ - see front matter  elsevier science ltd. all rights reserved. pii: s - ( ) - f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – of the state voted for or against it depending on their economic self-interest (see majewski, ). the model invites another interpretation: that the different regions of the state all gave their support to the canal, with the significant exception being the areas of german ethnic settlement. since the german language was dominant in these areas, this distinction may be seen as an expression of linguistic regionalism (murphy , ), one that complements recent work identifying correlations between locality, ethnicity, and voting behavior (shelley, ; eagles, ; landa, copeland & grofman, ). typically such studies make use of popular election returns rather than legislative roll calls. roll calls have the advantage of allowing the analysis of specific issues, but associating them with geographic areas requires the assumption that legislators’ voting behavior correlates with the views of their constituents. such an assumption is reasonable where voting districts are small and relatively homogeneous, and this is the logical basis of the american system of particular representation (wood, ). on the other hand, poole and rosenthal ( ) have demonstrated that this assump- tion is fallacious at the level of the united states senate, where pairs of senators from the same state are no more likely to vote in tandem than random pairs of senators. in this paper, i will argue that the polarized voting records of legislators from the german and english speaking regions in pennsylvania are evidence of fundamental differences in the populations of these regions as a whole. pennsylvania in the national and world economy, the state of pennsylvania and the year are not parochial selections for study. the time and place represent a critical juncture in the development of america’s national and international economy. new york had just opened its cross-state erie canal in with phenomenal commercial success; pennsylvania, already having yielded commercial pre-eminence to new york over the prior decade, was now faced with the prospect of being completely shut out of trade with the continental interior of the united states. pennsylvania’s commercial interests also felt competition to the south, where baltimore and virginia interests were pursuing the simultaneous construction of the baltimore and ohio railroad and the chesapeake and ohio canal across the state of maryland. pennsylvania had long desired a better trans-appalachian transportation route. numerous turnpike companies were chartered and subsidized by the state toward this end in the first two decades of the nineteenth century. even so, the crossing remained arduous and costly. a canal-based route had figured in albert gallatin’s national transportation plan, but without federal subsidy such a project was inconceivable (meinig, ). the emergence of an international convertible bond market after provided an alternative means of funding. the bonds which new york, pennsylvania, maryland, virginia and other states would issue to finance their canals attracted the attention of capitalists and gentry in london, amsterdam and paris motivated by higher rates of return than those available in europe (ferguson, ). america’s stable political landscape was also attractive to european investors f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – “tired of seeing their accumulated capital wasted in powder and shot” (mcgrane, , p. ). the bill to authorize the construction of the pennsylvania canal received broad support from both sides of pennsylvania’s bicameral legislature, but opposition was not trivial. neither side provided the two-thirds majority required to overcome a gubernatorial veto. many accounts of the canal ignore this opposition entirely (shelling, ; rhoads, ; shank, ), or focus on the earlier technological debate between canals and railroads (rubin, ). where opposition is addressed, it is frequently explained in terms of the tensions between cities and their hinterlands, or “court and country”, that characterized this period (groves, ; wilson, ). while it is true that philadelphia interests spearheaded the canal concept, urban votes alone were not sufficient to see it through the pennsylvania legislature. philadelphia and pittsburgh legislators combined for only about / of the votes in what was then an overwhelmingly rural society. an alternate interpretation is to explain the “nay” votes in terms of economic interests (majewski, ). here, opposition is identified with areas that did not stand to benefit from a project, either because they were too far removed geographically from it or because an existing economic relationship was threatened. an example of the latter case is found in the south-central part of pennsylvania, where economic links with baltimore were greater than those with phi- ladelphia. these explanations for opposition to the canal, while valid, fail to account for key aspects of the voting pattern in pennsylvania. support for the canal came from both “court” and “country”, from areas extremely rural and very remote from its proposed alignment. in contrast, some of the most vocal canal opponents were from counties along the proposed alignment. a clearer explanation emerges when ethnicity is con- sidered. the areas of pennsylvania most closely aligned with opposing votes were the areas of german ethnic settlement. the pennsylvania german counties: a landscape of reluctance pennsylvania was distinctive among american states in that it had a sizeable, enfranchised, non-english speaking population. by , pennsylvania’s germans were primarily second, third, and fourth generation immigrants, with the largest influx having arrived between and . a majority had emigrated from the palatinate of what is now southwestern germany, with substantial contributions from württemberg and switzerland. these immigrants had found william penn’s “holy of course, most of these bond issues proved unprofitable in the long-term. pennsylvania would default on its interest payments in , joining a long list of other canal building states, punctuating one of the first modern international peacetime debt crises. pennsylvania’s canal, though it was completed by , never captured more than a few percent of the erie canal traffic. the use of the term “german” here and throughout this paper applies to these pennsylvanians of german descent, and reflects both the early nineteenth century vernacular as well as contemporary schol- arly usage (glatfelter, ). f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – experiment” the most receptive of the american colonies politically and culturally, and compared with later influxes of non-english speaking europeans, assimilation was modest. there was a thriving german language press in the s that would survive nearly another century until world war i; pennsylvania’s laws and reports were printed bilingually until the civil war. while the so-called “sect people”, such as the mennonites and amish, came to be the most iconographic of this group of immigrants, they represented no more than % of the pennsylvania german population. the vast majority were “church people”, primarily lutherans and german reformed (glatfelter, ). both church and sect groups tended to settle in well-defined contiguous areas (fig. ); even today the “german counties” are readily identifiable through toponyms and surnames. agriculture was the dominant economic activity. the legislators representing these areas, most of whom were farmers themselves (anonymous, ), accounted for the bulk of the nay votes on the pennsylvania canal. these nay votes reflect a general disinclination to countenance government spend- ing of any variety. the canal was but the largest of a series of expensive and expans- ive projects to have been proposed in the decade, projects that included radial peni- tentiaries with rigidly enforced solitary confinement (johnston, finkel & cohen, ) and mandatory schooling for all of the state’s children (wickersham, ). these projects, taken together, represented a wave of modernity that posed a threat to the german language and culture. they offered nothing that the typical german farmer did not already have, aside, perhaps, from the prospect of higher taxation. in their response to modernity, the pennsylvania germans were aligned with farmers from other regions, such as new england, where farmers objected to the damming of rivers for industrial use and to the presence of textile mills in their midst (prude, ; kulik, ). but the pennsylvania germans’ conservatism was more encompassing, frequently placing them at odds even with the english-speaking far- fig. . areas of german ethnic settlement in pennsylvania, . county boundaries after long ( ), german areas developed from lutheran and german reformed synod minutes (evangelical, ; gen- eral synod, ; editor, ). f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – mers of the state, reflecting their emphasis on self-sufficiency over the development of markets. one is tempted to offer the pennsylvania germans as a perfect case study in the recent trend of identifying “sites of resistance” against cultural oppression (clark, ; routledge, ; pile & keith, ). they were a minority group with an agrarian heritage, speaking a minority language, interested in protecting and preserv- ing their eighteenth century lifestyle against the onslaught of nineteenth century mod- ernity. their resistance, if we are to call it that, was largely exercised in a manner afforded to few traditional agrarian minorities, at the ballot box. while their minority status ensured they could not prevent large public projects and social experiments, they were able to mollify their final shapes. there are some advantages to this view of cultural resistance. it represents the germans as active agents in the production of their lived daily worlds, as opposed to the passive and tragic receivers of an inevitably encroaching anglo hegemony. they are the creators of an “authentic and not merely reactive politics” (ortner, ), even if it was a traditionally conservative one; they are not simply the creators of a quaint material folk-culture centered on stove plates and hex signs (pennsylvania folklife, ). given present-day sensitivity to the pitfalls of development (cowen & shenton, ), the anonymous german farmers who sued the canal commission for damages may deserve the label “heroic” as much as the canal designers themselves (rawle, penrose & watts, ; watts, ; shaw, ). the spectacle of pennsylvania’s canal-induced bankruptcy in provides the most substantial evidence authenticating the german perspective. yet i do not agree with the romantic trope (smith, ) and radical tone that is characteristic of resistance studies, where the savvy and resourceful resisters are very clearly distinguished from their tyrannical oppressors. the germans were not battling a colonial power; they were white, european, christian, landed, and enfranchised. there was no question over indigenous rights or original occupancy; they had arrived in tandem with the english, scots–irish and other ethnic groups. they were hardly peasants in the sense this term is usually used, nor poor (lemon, ). hence the term “reluctance”, with a nuance better reflecting the ambivalent character of pro- gress, would appear to be more fitting than the term resistance in this instance. mapping the canal vote the final vote in the pennsylvania house of representatives authorizing a canal was – , with the senate vote even closer, – (pennsylvania, a,b,c). the house vote is mapped in fig. , along with the two canal routes then under serious consideration. discussion of the eastern section between harrisburg and philadelphia (a section that would eventually be built as a railroad) had been deferred for the time being, as had a number of other knotty questions, such as how the canal would traverse the appalachian mountains and, indeed, how the entire enterprise would be funded. while the southern route was the preferred one, given its shorter length and alignment with pittsburgh, many still favored the northern route, as it provided a f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – fig. . house of representatives vote for commencement of the pennsylvania canal, with two routes under consideration. more convenient eventual connection to lake erie, where it was hoped much of the erie canal traffic could be diverted. the northern route also offered an somewhat easier mountain crossing. four of the nay votes cast were from districts that were on the potential canal routes, including one (perry county) that was guaranteed a canal presence, regardless of which route was chosen. when perry’s jacob huggins voted against the canal, he was voting against the commercial traffic, the population increase, the towns and perhaps even cities that would arise in his county in the same manner as the erie canal cities of syracuse, rochester and buffalo. clearly there were considerations beyond raw economic benefit that influenced his vote. twenty-two of the thirty-two dissenters in the house took the unusual step of publishing a letter in the house journal to explain their votes. the only such letter in the entire legislative session, its very existence suggests the passion felt by the naysayers on the issue. the letter raised objections to the vagueness of the legislation as well as its hasty passage. it questioned specious cost estimates that had the canal costing two-thirds as much as the erie canal, despite a route at least % longer and requiring over five times the number of locks. the letter also raised issues that had cultural and even ecological components. the canal would impact the lives of certain farmers, and even if this change resulted in greater income, it was still a change that was uninvited and unwelcome. farmers in the mohawk and genesee valleys in upstate new york had quickly capitalized on the increased market access provided by the erie canal (sheriff, ). but the twenty-two signatories were dismissive of this; to them the canal was, at its essence, “unnatural”. the bill, they f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – wrote, “undertakes to authorize impediments to the navigation of this great highway of nature”, referring to the slackwater dams to be constructed across the susquehanna river. even if canals can be rationalized in certain cases, they maintained, canals that parallel navigable rivers are not only unnatural, but redundant. ultimately this was “a project of doubtful utility” (pennsylvania, b, pp. – ). some of the signatories favored a scheme in which the natural channel of the river could be enlarged and deepened to permit steamboats to travel upstream on the susquehanna and other state rivers. notably, this did not violate their sense of “natural” in the same way the canal did. they seemed unrealistically sanguine about the navigation potential of the susquehanna, a river with numerous falls and rapids and one that can be traversed by foot in many spots after a dry summer. three steamboats constructed with baltimore money prior to the season gave reason for at least cautious optimism. while there were occasional problems ascending some of the larger falls, one of these boats did reach as far north as binghamton, new york (oliphant, ). other signers of the letter appear not to have even favored this alternative, prefer- ring instead to do nothing at all, leaving any river improvements to the steamboat companies themselves. this accounts for the fairly weak support that the collective body of river-improvement bills received during the session, with only two river projects funded (at levels on the order of % of the canal allocation) and neither ever commenced. modeling the – legislative session of greater interest than the outcome of single critical vote on the pennsylvania canal is the question of whether the pattern occurred systematically across all canal- related votes or even across other issues. to answer this question, i make use of a spatial model for legislative roll call analysis, w–nominate, developed by polit- ical scientists keith poole and howard rosenthal (poole & rosenthal , , poole & rosenthal, ). the nonlinear logit model is based on the presumption that each legislator has an ideal location and each vote carries two ideal locations, one for “yea” and one for “nay”. legislators will typically vote for the choice that is closer to their own location. for a legislature containing n members, each legislator’s location is a uniquely determined point in an n-dimensional space, defined as a vector containing each of his or her voting results. for example, the location of legislator a could be given as { , , , , }, where represents a yea vote and a nay vote. the model projects this n-dimensional space onto a lower dimensional space so that it can be represented graphically. like the projection of the three-dimensional globe onto a two-dimen- sional map, the process necessarily introduces error. poole and rosenthal have dem- the term “spatial” here and throughout this paper refers to the placement of legislators into an abstract euclidean space; it does not refer to real geographical space. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – onstrated that this error is modest, with approximately % of all legislative votes accounted for in just a two-dimensional space. while each higher dimension results in less error, the returns are diminishing above two dimensions, as are graphical representation possibilities (poole & rosenthal, ). such multidimensional scaling techniques have been in use since the s (kruskal, ), but have been used sparingly by geographers since the quantitative revolution (for some exceptions see gatrell, ; gatrell & smith, ; aitken, ). the poole and rosenthal model takes advantage of further insights and increases in computing power since early models to provide a more consistent and robust solution, as validated by bootstrapping analysis and monte carlo simulation (poole & rosenthal , ). the input to the model consists of a matrix with the legislators as rows and the roll call vote results as columns. each cell contained either a single digit representing a “yea” or a “nay”, or a blank entry signifying the absence of a vote. since there were house of representatives members and votes cast, the house matrix consists of , entries. (only the results from the house are reported in this paper; results were also calculated for the member senate but were similar enough to have been excluded for reasons of redundancy.) a graphic representation of the model output is shown in fig. . legislators close to one another in this imaginary fig. . position of house of representatives members in roll-call voting space, – session. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – roll-call voting space tended to vote similarly; legislators far from one another tended to vote dissimilarly. legislators towards the edge of the plot are more extreme in their positions and thus more predictable in their voting behavior, while those towards the center are less predictable, and can be viewed as swing voters. any straight line drawn through the plot that divides the voters into two groups is known as a “cutting line”. for a given vote, the cutting line is defined as the line equidistant from the ideal “yea” and “nay” locations. the legislators are indicated by political party affiliation and the “germanness” of their home county in fig. . there is a well-defined split between voters from german and english counties, and an ideal cutting line is shown that classifies of the members according to this division. party affiliation, cited by poole and rosenthal ( ) as the typical organizing framework of congress throughout most of its history, offers less in the way of explanation. the minority federalists are scattered throughout the house plot, and no cutting lines can be drawn to separate them meaningfully from the democrats. this time point does correlate to one of the periods in american history where party structures were weakened and in flux (ammon, ), but unlike most of the country, federalism persevered in pennsyl- vania (klein, ). even so, national party distinctions did not necessarily map themselves onto state issues. both parties advertised themselves in philadelphia as “the party of internal improvements” prior to the election, and campaigned on similar platforms (poulson, ; philadelphia, ). the vote to establish the pennsylvania canal is shown again in fig. . the cutting line for this vote is not very different than the ideal german–english line from the previous figure, and only contains two modeling errors: james bell of lebanon was expected to vote for the canal based on his graphical position, but in fact he voted against it; john nixon from fayette did the opposite. given that this line so cleanly bisects the distribution, this vote rates as one of the most typical of the session. in fact, with some roll-call votes directly related to the canal and another votes on taxation, most of which involved generating new tax revenues to subsidize the internal improvements fund, this issue defines the primary dimension of the model. hence the german–english context is the most critical distinction in the political geography of pennsylvania in – . sectional divisions are apparent on the y-dimension. the presence of capital-letter es at the extreme top and bottom of fig. suggests that there were voting differences within english counties that equaled the most extreme english–german divisions. to present a better visualization, i transferred the legislators from points in abstract roll-call voting space to vectors in concrete geographical space. in fig. , the legis- political party affiliations are taken from the election returns published in the pennsylvania intelli- gencer ( ). i developed a four-category measure of “germanness” using the census of religion, taking the ratio of lutheran, german reformed, mennonite, moravian, dunker and union denominations to all specified denominations for each county (bureau of the census, ). this is the earliest point at which such comprehensive data exists. the results compare closely with the data from the lutheran and german reformed synod minutes used in fig. . i did not consider the minutes alone to be sufficient for a quantitative measure as they only list the locations of churches and/or the hometowns of present ministers. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – fig. . position of cutting line for house of representatives vote to commence the pennsylvania canal. fig. . vector representation of roll-call voting space, – house of representatives. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – lators are placed in their correct county locations, and the vectors represent the trans- fer from cartesian to polar coordinates. thus the three slightly overlapping es at the extreme o’clock position in the previous figures, all representing legislators from luzerne and susquehanna counties, are translated into long vectors pointing in the o’clock direction in fig. . the length of the vector is proportional to the distance from the center of the plot, thus the longer the vector the more “extreme” the legis- lator. the geographic patterns here are striking. counties and regions tend to have the same directionality, though a smattering of political mavericks is readily apparent. while the most strongly german counties tend to point to the right, english counties variously point left, up, or down. counties with downward-pointing arrows, in gen- eral, are in the older, more heavily populated and more agrarian counties in the southern tier and the southeast. counties with upward-pointing arrows tend to be in the less-populated, less developed newer counties of the northern tier and north- central part of the state. this map reveals that chester and luzerne/susquehanna counties are as far apart politically as any german county is from any english county. this north–south sectional division was noted by klein ( ); fig. includes his suggested division line. an example of this sectional division is presented in fig. , a vote on an unfavor- able amendment to the bill chartering the lackawanna and susquehanna railroad. this proposed railroad was to serve newly developing coal regions in the north– fig. . position of cutting line for house of representatives vote pertaining to the chartering of the lackawanna and susquehanna railroad. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – central part of the state, and the amendment would limit the amount of coal-bearing lands that the railroad itself could own. representatives of the southern and south- eastern counties were the sponsors of this amendment. other issues that split along sectional lines included subsidies for colleges, river improvements, and miscellaneous acts of local legislation, such as relief to particular revolutionary war veterans or repair of specific roads and bridges. while some of these issues contained a fiscal component, they involved sufficiently small dollar amounts that they did not attract a systematic german opposition. a breakdown of legislative votes by topic and the manner in which the votes were split, along with two statistics that measure the explanatory quality of the model for these voting categories, are shown in table . “percent correct” is simply the percent- age of votes explained by the model. the model does not attempt to maximize this statistic, however; instead, it maximizes the weighted number of correct votes. weights are based on distance from the ideal points; hence, in general, “extreme” legislators are weighted more heavily than moderate ones. geometric mean percent- age (gmp) incorporates this distance-weighting and the table is ordered by this stat- istic. the table reveals that the canal and taxes dominated the legislative session, and that these votes tended to be split along ethnic-cultural lines; topics of lesser fiscal magnitude were more likely to follow a sectional pattern. one exception to this generalization were the votes related to criminal and judicial law. most of these votes concerned the eastern state penitentiary under construction in philadelphia, both its administration as well as the nature of crimes that were deserving of punishment by solitary confinement. the legislators from german coun- ties were opposed to the fabulous cost of the complex (though no new outlays were considered in – ) as well as the “modern” social principles upon which it was founded. another exception is found over the issue of slavery, which did not fit well into either of the dimensions of the model. still technically legal in pennsyl- vania by virtue of a -year old grandfather clause, the number of slaves in pennsyl- vania could be counted in the dozens. even so, the legislature could not muster enough votes to enact abolition, and anti-abolitionists were to be found representing table summary of roll-call analysis, – house of representativesa topic votes vote split % correct gmp pennsylvania canal german–english new taxes german–english corporate charters sectional river improvements sectional establish/fund colleges sectional criminal and judicial law german–english local legislation sectional slavery no pattern total a only topics receiving at least roll call votes ( % of the total) are listed. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – all parts of the state. such a result corroborates poole and rosenthal’s ( ) findings at the national level that slavery was the single issue that consistently cut across traditional liberal-conservative axes. conclusion the link between regional ethnic and linguistic differences and political behavior is one that has been historically neglected (murphy, ). nineteenth-century pennsylvania provides a case in point, where bilingualism has been seldom invoked in explanations of historical and geographical processes. specifically, existing histor- ies of the pennsylvania canal make no mention of the germans as a group and scant mention of any opposition to the canal at all, except with respect to the argument over competing technologies. recent work in human geography attentive to cultural difference and sites of resistance suggests a reinterpretation of the historical geogra- phy of pennsylvania along these lines, a reinterpretation that is borne out by empirical evidence via poole and rosenthal’s ( ) model. poole and rosenthal’s ( ) study on the voting behavior of united states sena- tors led them to conclude that sectionalism was unimportant, except in the broadest sense between the united states north and south. this paper, in contrast, provides evidence that ethnically and economically based sectional differences were very apparent at the state level at a critical point in the development of the american political culture. by extension, a legislative spatial model has the potential for wide- spread applicability in measuring the political affinities of geographic blocs, high- lighting issues where ethnicity or language plays a defining role. acknowledgements the author would like to thank the late peter gould, deryck holdsworth, lawr- ence mcglinn, and four anonymous reviewers of the journal for their helpful sugges- tions and criticisms of earlier drafts of this paper. the author would also like to thank the reference staff at the library company of philadelphia, where much of this research was conducted. references aitken, s. c. ( ). local evaluations of neighborhood change. annals of the association of american geographers, ( ), – . ammon, h. ( ). the decline of partisanship. in f. o. gatell, essays on jacksonian america (pp. – ). new york: holt, rinehart and winston. anonymous pennsylvania house of representatives member from philadelphia county ( ). house of representatives. hazard’s register ( ), . bureau of the census ( ). seventh census of the united states. washington, dc: r. armstrong. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – clark, h. ( ). sites of resistance: place, “race”, and gender as sources of empowerment. in p. jack- son, & j. penrose, constructions of race, place, and nation (pp. – ). london: ucl press. cowen, m. p., & shenton, r. w. ( ). doctrines of development. london: routledge. eagles, m. ( ). spatial and contextual models and political behavior: an introduction. political geogra- phy, ( / ), – . editor ( ). geographical and statistical report of the several stations and congregations connected with the german reformed church in the united states. magazine of the german reformed church ( ), – . evangelical lutheran ministerium of pennsylvania and the adjacent states ( – ). verhandlungen der deutschen evangelish-lutherischen synode von pennsylvanien. various publishers. ferguson, n. ( ). the house of rothschild: money’s prophets, – . new york: viking. gatrell, a. c. ( ). distance and space: a geographical perspective. oxford: clarendon. gatrell, a. c., & smith, a. ( ). networks of relations among a set of geographical journals. pro- fessional geographer, ( ), – . general synod of the evangelical lutheran church in the united states. synod of west pennsylvania ( – ). minutes of the convention of the synod of west pennsylvania. various publishers. glatfelter, c. h. ( ). the pennsylvania germans: a brief account of their influence on pennsylvania. university park: pennsylvania state university press. groves, p. ( ). the northeast and regional integration, – . in r. d. mitchell, & p. a. groves, north america: the historical geography of a changing continent (pp. – ). totowa, nj: rowman and littlefield. johnston, n. b., finkel, k., & cohen, j. a. ( ). eastern state penitentiary: crucible of good intentions. philadelphia: philadelphia museum of art. klein, p. s. ( ). pennsylvania politics – : a game without rules. philadelphia: historical society of pennsylvania. kruskal, j. b. ( ). multidimensional scaling. newbury park (ca): sage publications. kulik, g. ( ). dams, fish and farmers: defense of public rights in eighteenth-century rhode island. in s. hahn & j. prude, the countryside in the age of capitalist transformation. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. landa, j., copeland, m., & grofman, b. ( ). ethnic voting patterns: a case study of metropolitan toronto. political geography, ( ), – . lemon, j. t. ( ). the best poor man’s country: a geographical study of early southeastern pennsyl- vania. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. long, j. h. ( ). atlas of historical county boundaries. pennsylvania. new york: charles scribner’s sons. majewski, j. ( ). the political impact of great commercial cities: state investment in antebellum pennsylvania and virginia. journal of interdisciplinary history, ( ), – . mcgrane, r. c. ( ). foreign bondholders and american state debts. new york: mcmillan. meinig, d. w. ( ). the shaping of america: a geographical perspective on years of history. volume : continental america, – . new haven (ct): yale university press. murphy, a. b. ( ). regions as social constructs: the gap between theory and practice. progress in human geography, ( ), – . murphy, a. b. ( ). linguistic regionalism and the social construction of space in belgium. inter- national journal of the sociology of language, , – . oliphant, j. o. ( ). steamboats on susquehanna gave up after first season. pennsylvania department of internal affairs bulletin, ( ), – . ortner, s. b. ( ). resistance and the problem of ethnographic refusal. comparative studies in society and history, ( ), – . pennsylvania intelligencer october , . harrisburg. pennsylvania ( a). acts of the general assembly of the commonwealth of pennsylvania. harrisburg: c. gleim. pennsylvania ( b). journal of the house of representatives. vols. harrisburg: c. gleim. pennsylvania ( c). journal of the senate. vols. harrisburg: c. gleim. pennsylvania folklife ( ). vol. . lancaster: pennsylvania folklife society. f.p. boscoe / political geography ( ) – philadelphia democrat ( ). october , november . pile, s., & keith, m. ( ). geographies of resistance. london: routledge. poole, k. t., & rosenthal, h. ( ). a spatial model for legislative roll call analysis. american journal of political science, ( ), – . poole, k. t., & rosenthal, h. ( ). patterns of congressional voting. american journal of political science, ( ), – . poole, k. t., & rosenthal, h. ( ). are legislators ideologues or the agents of constituents? european economic review, ( / ), – . poole, k. t., & rosenthal, h. ( ). congress: a political-economic history of roll call voting. new york: oxford university press. poulson’s american daily advertiser ( ). october . prude, j. ( ). the coming of an industrial order: town and factory life in rural massachusetts, – . new york: cambridge university press. rawle, w., penrose, c. b., & watts, f. ( ). reports of cases argued and adjudged in the supreme court of pennsylvania. vol. . harrisburg (pa): welsh and miller. rhoads, w. r. ( ). the pennsylvania canal. western pennsylvania historical magazine, ( ), – . routledge, p. ( ). resisting and reshaping the modern: social movements and the development process. in r. j. johnston, p. j. taylor, & m. j. watts, geographies of global change: remapping the world in the late twentieth century (pp. – ). oxford: blackwell. rubin, j. ( ). canal or railroad? imitation and innovation in the response to the erie canal in philadelphia, baltimore and boston. philadelphia: american philosophical society. shank, w. h. ( ). the amazing pennsylvania canals. york (pa): american canal and transpor- tation center. shaw, r. e. ( ). canals for a nation: the canal era in the united states. lexington: university of kentucky press. shelley, f. m. ( ). geography, territory, and ethnicity: current perspectives from political geography. urban geography, ( ), – . shelling, r. i. ( ). philadelphia and the agitation in for the pennsylvania canal. pennsylvania magazine of history and biography, ( ), – . sheriff, c. ( ). the artificial river: the erie canal and the paradox of progress, – . new york: hill and wang. smith, j. m. ( ). geographical rhetoric: modes and tropes of appeal. annals of the association of american geographers, ( ), – . watts, f. ( ). reports of cases argued and determined in the supreme court of pennsylvania. vol. . philadelphia: james kay and brother. wickersham, j. p. ( ). a history of education in pennsylvania. lancaster (pa): inquirer. wilson, m. l. ( ). the “country” versus the “court”: a republican consensus and party debate in the bank war. journal of the early republic, ( ), – . wood, g. ( ). representation in the american revolution. charlottesville: university press of vir- ginia. notes on the epidemiology of multiple sclerosis, with special reference to dietary habits int. j. mol. sci. , , - ; doi: . /ijms international journal of molecular sciences issn - www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms review notes on the epidemiology of multiple sclerosis, with special reference to dietary habits klaus lauer eulerweg , d- griesheim, germany; e-mail: drklauslauer@aol.com received: december ; in revised form: january / accepted: february / published: february abstract: a hypothesis, based primarily on the occurrence of multiple sclerosis (ms) in the faroe islands and supported by numerous analytical epidemiological studies, is described. it proposes that ms is caused by the interaction of a virus disease with intestinal pathology, e.g., infectious mononucleosis, and application of smoked and nitrate/nitrite-cured meat products in the diet during circumscribed time intervals. the biological mechanisms might involve a break of tolerance by an alteration of self within the central nervous system, by nitrophenylated compounds conjugated to animal tissue, in particular to proteins occurring in the central nervous system. further research is needed. keywords: multiple sclerosis; epidemiology; diet; meat; nitrophenols . introduction the aetiology of multiple sclerosis (ms) is still unknown, but both the genetic and environmental fields contribute to the emergence of the disease. of the environment, in particular, prospective cohort studies revealed in recent years that prior infection with epstein-barr virus (ebv) [ – ], deficiency of vitamin d [ , , ], and tobacco smoking [ , , , ] are important for the generation of ms in a multifactorial way. with diet, as one of the possible causes of ms, the situation is at present inconsistent. in many reviewing articles of its epidemiology, diet is also mentioned as a factor of importance [ – ], but e.g., studies mainly devoted to nutrients, and fats in particular, remained controversial [ – ]. subsequently, processed meat or, more specifically, smoked meat, was outlined [ , ] as the further specification of an earlier hypotheses claiming the role of meat, or pork [ – ] in general. in the present review, the origin of this hypothesis is described in detail, recent ecological findings from australia are given, and biological mechanisms for the emergence of an autoimmune disease are outlined. open access int. j. mol. sci. , . the epidemiological origin of the hypothesis in , j.f. kurzke and k. hyllested [ ] described, for the first time, a unique feature of multiple sclerosis (ms) epidemiology. they reported on ms as an only transitory disease in the faroe islands (fi), in the north atlantic, which are a part of the kingdom of denmark. the disease had started there, with the first case ever, in followed by an epidemic lasting until the early s. subsequently four minor “outbreaks” of ms followed until [ – ]. the authors interpreted this pattern as indicating primarily an infectious aetiology of ms, and postulated a hypothetical “primary ms affection (pmsa)” virus, which was introduced by british forces during world war ii. in , i took up this epidemiological phenomenon and made an ecological study of diet over time, assembling a large number of books and papers in danish, faroese and english languages from the anthropological and socio-cultural human arts [ ]. i made also two visits to the fi in and . the period thus covered reached from ca. up to . the main result was rather surprising: only five dietary factors could be found which occurred only transitorily in the first half of the th century, in spite of numerous features which appeared newly over time, but remained present. four of these factors appeared rather anecdotic or were limited to an insular population, and could not explain the overall epidemiology of ms. the fifth aspect however, was of paramount interest. the population of the fi had traditionally preserved their fish, whale meat and mutton by drying in the sun and the ever blowing wind until the early th century [ ], as formerly did, in a very similar way, the population of the shetland islands [ , ]. in shetland, however, the habit of drying in the so-called vivda (a drying house) felt into complete oblivion, with the emergence of salt handling, until mid [ , ], and was replaced by salting and smoking [ ]. in the fi, however, wind-drying remained the usual method of meat preservation, which was still alive in ([ ]; own observation in ). however, in , there was a severe interruption in form of the first cookery book in faroese language, published by helena patturson in tórshavn, faroe islands, in which she recommended the smoking of meat and fish and the use of “wood vinegar” (a distillation product of natural wood, which was rather common at that time in the scandinavian countries, as it is now in many parts of the world) for meat preservation [ ]. later remarks in the literature from the s to early s confirmed this behavior [ – ], until electric appliances appeared in the kitchen in the s and s, and the usual peat-burning stoves, used for cooking and meat smoking before, disappeared within a decade [ , ]. the faroese, however, who were always in conflict with the “strange” method of smoking for preservation, took again quickly the old form of wind-drying, which is still present today ([ ]; own observation in ). however, another trait came into play from the mid s on, i.e., the import of pork and sausages, mostly from denmark, which finally amounted to a considerable part of meat products [ ]. this situation remained until the present day, with supermarkets located in the larger towns of the fi that provide both local and imported foods (own observation in and ). the ms incidence was shown, in , by p. joensen to have risen again, after a transitory decline from – , up to . per , per year in – , and the ms prevalence amounted to per , in [ ]. joensen, however, in contrast to kurtzke and hyllested [ ], found the first case of ms in the fi with onset of his disease in , and the second in [ ], followed by the “waxing-and-waning” curve which had already been shown by the former authors [ – ] and representing the first epidemic of ms in the fi. int. j. mol. sci. , . further epidemiological findings in support of the hypothesis in the following years, the method of meat preservation was studied in, so far, regions, which have a number of sub-regions sufficiently large to make an ecological investigation. in nearly all of these regions, a statistically significant association could be shown with either the ms prevalence, or the ms mortality, or the regional “case-control ratio” as an indicator of ms prevalence, ([ – ]; table ). only in australia, including seven territories, did a more complex pattern emerge [ ]: whereas the ms prevalence based on data from the ms society [ ], as compared with diet in [ ], indicated an even “protective” role of processed meat (n = ; rs = − . ; p = . ), data from the survey of disability, ageing and carers (sdac) of the australian bureau of statistics [ ] revealed exactly the reverse (n = ; rs = + . ; p = . ; [ ], table ). since this data source included only the more disabled patients of ms, it might be speculated that processed food causes a more severe course of ms rather than the risk per se. further studies are needed. table . correlation of ms prevalence, or ms mortality, with processed, or smoked, meat intake, favouring a pathogenetic role, in regions. * sdac: survey of disability, ageing and carers of the australian bureau of statistics, . spearman’s coefficient or mann-whitney test were applied. region subunits ms rate p-level references france regions mortality . [ ] switzerland cantons prevalence . [ ] sweden provinces prevalence . [ ] norway counties mortality < . [ ] finland counties prevalence . [ ] globe countries prevalence < . [ ] usa states case-control ratio < . [ ] lower saxony, germany regions mortality < . [ ] canada provinces mortality . [ ] european union countries prevalence . [ ] austria fed. states mortality . [ ] england/scotland statist. regions hospital admission rate . [ ] spain provinces mortality . [ ] globe countries prevalence < . [ ] australia territories sdac *. data . [ ] in scandinavia [ ] and canada [ ], coastal areas were also included, and these showed either no difference from the mean or even a lower ms rate. this fact gave rise to the further sub-hypothesis that some factor(s) occurring specifically in fish and seafood, which is traditionally more prevalent in the local diet in coastal regions, are rather more protective from ms. this was recently confirmed by d’hooge et al. [ ] who showed a less severe course of ms among patients with the relapsing—remitting type of ms who eat more fish. the individual risk of ms was also studied, so far, in six case-control studies ([ – ]; table ). with that study type, in which a much higher level of evidence can be reached, significant results were also found in all regions, implicating a higher risk for smoked meat. in two of these int. j. mol. sci. , studies, the search for risk factors was restricted to a particular class of so-called “hot-smoked” sausages, i.e., frankfurters, vienna sausages, or “hot dogs”. it should be mentioned that smoking was the usual method of meat preservation, in temperate regions of europe, since several thousand years of human history [ ], i.e., long before ms appeared around [ , ]. this is in contrast to another factor, which is linked to smoking, i.e., the pre-curing with nitrate, or nitrite. in germany, for example, it was introduced e.g., ca. , but it took a large up-swing after the detection of saltpetre mines in chile in the th century [ ]. the temporal pattern of its usage is very similar to the emergence of ms in the medical literature [ , ]. table . case-control studies of processed meats in the ms generation. region or p-value references south hesse, germany . * . [ ] gorski kotar, croatia . < . [ ] moscow, russia . < . [ ] montreal, canada . ** . [ ] south hesse, germany . * . [ ] Čabar, croatia . *** . [ ] or: odds ratio; * only hot—smoked sausages (frankfurters; hot-dogs; etc.); ** summary variable of pork and hot-dogs; *** own calculation from the reverse. the occurrence of ms in some religious groups gave also support to the present hypothesis [ ]. these anabaptist groups have their background in the haunting german history of the late th century. one community, the hutterites who are of southern german and austrian descent, but had finally, after a long migration mainly through moravia, romania and the ukraine, immigrated to southern canada and the northern usa in the late s, have a surprisingly low rate of ms [ , ]. mennonites, in contrast, which are of north german and dutch descent and also immigrated to southern canada, and later partly to latin america, seem to suffer from ms at least as common as their canadian ethnic neighbors [ ]. the hutterites who still practice communal property have, until the present day, the habit to preserve all their food in large refrigerated storing facilities ([ , ]; own observation in ), which is in line with the prescribed avoidance of any pleasure in daily food. old colony mennonites, in contrast, who rigidly observe their traditional faith, smoke and cure much of their processed meat with nitrites [ , ]. another example of a low rate of ms among whites is presented by immigrants to south africa [ ]. in that country, where the climate is comparatively warm and dry, biltong and droewors play a major role in the diet, and both products are cured with nitrite, but dried in the air [ , ]. this pattern indicates that only the synthesis of both preservation methods, i.e., curing with nitrites and subsequent smoking, is the center of the present hypothesis. the question of an association was also investigated in a single large epidemiological cohort study in the usa [ ]. in that investigation, no risk was found for processed meat, % of which are smoked in developed countries. however, only the year preceding the onset of ms, and not childhood and early adolescence relevant to ms emergence [ , ], were studied for exposure. thus, the hypothesis remains open at present. as a possible alternative, results of an extended case-control study of ms in int. j. mol. sci. , five regions of the globe, the envims study, which goes on in four european countries and in canada [ ] and which is including also food preservation methods in detail, must be awaited. . biological mechanisms the fact that only smoked meat, but not smoked fish, showed an almost universal relation to ms led to the further sub-hypothesis that (an) additional factor(s) peculiar to meat, but not to fish, interacts with smoking (vide supra). one factor meeting this criterion is prior curing, which today is commonly made by a mixture of cooking salt and nitrites, which is applied before smoking. nowadays, in the era of refrigerators and freezers, the main purpose of curing is to preserve the red color of the meat, by allowing chemical reactions with myoglobin [ ], but also an anti-botulinum activity of nitrites plays a role [ ]. fish, in contrast, is only rarely cured with nitrates, or nitrites, but exceptions occur, e.g., in scotland [ ]. in , knowles et al. [ ] described the formation of different nitrophenol compounds in raw and fried cured, smoked bacon. their findings were later confirmed in germany, where even dinitrophenols were found [ ]. some years earlier, the conjugation of smoke phenols, via lysine residues, to meat proteins was reported [ ] and, with all the likelihood, this conjugation also occurs with nitrophenols. unfortunately, however, no quantitative data are available until the present day. already in , w.o. weigle [ , ] had experimentally demonstrated the breaking of immune tolerance towards thyroglobulin, by altering the antigen-moiety by trinitrophenol (tnp)—binding of that protein. remarkably, thyreoiditis developed in two out of six surviving animals [ ], which was probably autoimmune in character. in later reports from the s, martin et al., and martin and weltzien investigated the consequences of nitrophenolation of autoantigens for t cell recognition, in the context of accommodation to the binding grooves of the major histocompatibility complex (mhc) molecules. they observed (a) the alteration of the framework, in contrast to the variable, parts of the t cell receptor by the trinitrophenylated antigen, which is unusual and might be a reason for the large spectrum of changed specificities; and (b) that hydrophobic, in particular phenolic, and heterocyclic amino acids played a major role in the binding contact [ – ]. the authors had devoted their studies to drug allergies, but the outstanding results may be generalized and applied to a broader range of conditions, including autoimmunity. furthermore, achtnich and zoeller demonstrated, in mice, the later development of a generalized autoimmune condition, with polyspecific antibodies to several autoantigens and tnp, when the reactive compound trinitrobenzensulphonic acid (tnbs) was applied very early to the animals [ ]. it is very likely that this low-weight compound, which is well known as a hapten, subsequently conjugates with different mouse proteins as carriers and, thus, causes autoimmunity. however the present hypothesis would still be more convincing and consistent with weigle’s data on autoimmune thyreoiditis, when animal proteins of the central nervous system (cns) and conjugated as carriers ex vivo were applied to the mucosal immune system of the gut via daily diet. this might be especially occurring in transitory time periods when the intestine is in an abnormal state of less stringent barriers, e.g., during a variety of gut infections [ ]. a survey of brain antigens that are present in processed meats revealed that . % of sausage samples were reacting positively with proteolipid protein (plp). this protein is practically specific to the cns and proves prior usage of brain material during the preparation of sausage [ ]. it had not been declared to the consumer by labeling, as prescribed by the int. j. mol. sci. , european union, even when non-cattle and non-ovine (e.g., swine) brain and spinal cord material is added. earlier studies, using a different methodology with cholesterol screening and neuron-specific enolase (nse) as markers of cns revealed % positivity [ , ]. in a later publication, with use of polyclonal anti plp-antibody, a lower percentage of positive results (ca. %– %) were found [ ], which were ascribed to the new bse crisis at that time. the usage of cns material in sausage preparation is of some advantage to producers due to its emulgating properties and its low price [ ]. in germany, however, the admixture of brain and spinal cord from cattle and sheep from age months is now prohibited, and meat products need a special declaration if they are made with cns material e.g., from swine regardless of age or from cattle younger than months [ ]. in many countries, it is now common to use commercial smoke distillation preparations (e.g., formerly called “wood vinegar”) for treating meat and sausages instead of applying natural smoke for preservation [ , ]. the composition of these products is varying by brand, but a common advantage is the removal of potentially cancerogenic pahs and tarry constituents. furthermore the application of liquid smoke, through mixing under the sausage batter or injecting into the meat, ensures a homogeneous flavor of the product [ ]. however, their content of e.g., phenols is in same range or even higher than in the natural glowing smoke [ ], and the possible consequences for the present hypothesis might even be accentuated due to their higher concentration also in the inner parts of the product. the sharp discrepancy between the frequent ingestion of smoked meat and sausages on one hand in developed countries, and the comparatively low frequency of ms on the other, suggest that at least one additional, or interacting, factor plays an important role, e.g., infections of the intestine. this assumption is all the more prudent as the mucosal barrier which is rather close under normal conditions, is transitorily disturbed during the period of infection [ ], and a more direct link to the core immune system occurs. the impact of infections, as one possible factor during late childhood and adolescence, is widely discussed since decades in the pathogenesis of ms [ – ]. in particular, infectious mononucleosis by ebv infection causes inflammatory intestinal alterations in a high percentage of cases [ ]. a possible synthesis, however, with other environmental factors was only rarely addressed. we had found such an interaction of cured, hot-smoked sausages and common childhood infections (including ebv infection) occurring after age in a case-control study of ms patients and hospital controls [ ], but more extended studies are needed. another hypothesis might be developed, based upon studies by berneman et al. [ ] on natural auto-reactive antibodies, which exist in all healthy individuals [ , ]. they demonstrated the cross-reacting affinity, among many other autoantigens that were reacting with natural antibodies, of myelin basic protein (mbp) (which is one of the central autoantigens discussed in ms [ ]) with tnp. one might speculate that prior repeated stimulations with nitrophenol in food (vide supra) paved the way to a permanent anti-mbp autoreactivity. some support was found in the experimental work by achtnich and zoeller already discussed who showed that the prenatal application of tnp in form of tnbs acid gave rise to increased later autoimmunity to thyroglobulin, myoglobin, single- and double-stranded dna in adulthood [ ]. a further sub-hypothesis is based on the observation of nitro-polyaromatic hydrocarbons (nitro-pahs, or nitro-arenes), which occur especially in smoked sausages, less so in other smoked int. j. mol. sci. , meat [ , ]. only sparse data are available in the literature on the consequences to the immune system. studies in diesel exhaust (which, however, contain these compounds in still much larger amounts) have shown that both immunostimulating and immunosuppressive processes, comprising numerous compounds, occur after exposure [ ]. studies on food are not available. however, the high concentrations of nitro-pahs also found in vegetable food sources [ ] argue, at first, against a major role of these compounds. furthermore, this view is strengthened by the occurrence of ms in the fi, since liquid smoke occurring at that time, is almost lacking the pahs, but nonetheless was related to a sharp increase of the ms incidence (vide supra). . conclusions some hypotheses can be delineated, based on published data, for the environmental factor “cured and smoked meat”, but if, and to what extent, these play some role in the pathogenesis of ms must await further investigations. epidemiological evidence is arguing for a role of processed meat and sausages in ms. research related to the food industry and artisan’s operations has elaborated alternatives to nitrite in meat curing [ ], but commercial considerations and arguments of flavoring are still under discussion. an answer, however, is urgently needed, since western foods, including hot-dogs, appear with rapidly increasing frequency in developing countries. for example, whereas all the arab countries had a low rate of ms before [ ], the increase of the ms prevalence, from to per , , that was observed in kuwait within only years [ ], is an alarming sign. in kuwait, there was, after , a large increase of hot-dog consumption which seemed to have changed considerably the local eating habits [ ]. in the united arab emirates (uae), even camel-meat hot-dogs are now offered in dubai [ ], where the ms prevalence was in the medium range of . per , in [ ]. in the neighboring abu dhabi, however, where the ms prevalence was . per , in [ ], a retreat has recently been beaten by banning, since , all hot dogs and burgers from public schools as a result of a scientific workshop [ ]. consequently, the present hypothesis could find considerable support, or may be disproved, by the further observation of ms in that country in the next years. an only transitorily frequent occurrence in abu dhabi, which was formerly demonstrated only in the fi [ – , ], would be a strongly supporting argument for the present hypothesis. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . ascherio, a.; munger, k. epidemiology of multiple sclerosis: from risk factors to prevention. semin. neurol. , , – . . ascherio, a.; munger, k.l. environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. part i: the role of infection. ann. neurol. , , – . . thacker, e.l.; mirzaei, f.; ascherio, a. infectious mononucleosis and risk for multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. ann. neurol. , , – . int. j. mol. sci. , . ramagopalan, s.v.; dobson, r.; meier, u.c.; giovannoni, g. multiple sclerosis: risk factors, prodromes, and potential causal pathways. lancet neurol. , , – . . sundström, p.; nyström, l.; jidell, e.; hallmans, g. ebna- reactivity and hla drb * as statistically independent risk factors for multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. mult. scler. , , – . . ascherio, a.; munger, k.l.; simon, k.c. vitamin d and multiple sclerosis. lancet neurol. , , – . . handel, a.e.; williamson, a.j.; disanto, g.; dobson, r.; giovannoni, g.; ramagopalan, s.v. smoking and multiple sclerosis: an updated meta-analysis. plos one , , e . . hedström, a.k.; bäärnhjelm, m.; olsson, t.; alfredsson, l. tobacco smoking, but not swedish snuff use, increases the risk of multiple sclerosis. neurology , , – . . kantarci, o.; wingerchuk, d. epidemiology and natural history of multiple sclerosis: new insights. curr. opin. neurol. , , – . . coo, h.; aronson, k.j. a systematic review of several potential non-genetic risk factors for multiple sclerosis. neuroepidemiology , , – . . marrie, r.a. environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis aetiology. lancet neurol. , , – . . smolders, j.; damoiseaux, j.; menheere, p.; hupperts, r. vitamin d as an immune modulator in multiple sclerosis: a review. j. neuroimmunol. , , – . . dworkin, r.h.; bates, d.; millar, j.h.d.; paty, d.w. linoleic acid and multiple sclerosis: a reanalysis of three double-blind trials. neurology , , – . . bates, d.; cartlidge, n.e.f.; french, j.m.; jackson, m.j.; nightingale, s.; shaw, d.a.; smith, s.; woo, e.; hawkins, s.a.; millar, j.h.d.; et al. a double-blind controlled trial of long chain n- polyunsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. j. neurol. neurosurg. psychiatr. , , – . . pantzaris, m.c.; loukaides, g.n.; ntzani, e.e.; patrikios, i.s. a novel oral nutraceutical formula of omega- and omega- fatty acids with vitamins (plp ) in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled proof-of-concept clinical trial. bmj open , , e . . torkildsen, Ø.; wergeland, s.; bakke, s.; beiske, a.g.; bjerve, k.s.; hovdal, h.; midgard, r.; lilleås, f.; pedersen, t.; bjørnarå, b.; et al. ω- fatty acid treatment in multiple sclerosis (ofams study). arch. neurol. , , – . . lauer, k. environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis. exp. rev. neurother. , , – . . lauer, k. dietary exposures and multiple sclerosis: a review. rev. esp. escl. múlt. , , – . . alter, m.; yamoor, m.; harshe, m. multiple sclerosis and nutrition. arch. neurol. , , – . . nanji, a.a.; narod, s. multiple sclerosis, latitude and dietary fat: is pork the missing link? med. hypothes. , , – . int. j. mol. sci. , . zorzon, m.; zivadinov, r.; nasuelli, d.; dolfini, p.; bosco, a.; bratina, a.; tommasi, m.a.; locatelli, l.; cazzato, g. risk factors of multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. neurol. sci. , , – . . kurtzke, j.f.; hyllested, k. multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands. i. clinical and epidemiologcal features. ann. neurol. , , – . . kurtzke, j.f.; hyllested, k.; heltberg, a.; olsen, a. multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands. . the occurrence of the fourth epidemic as validation of transmission. acta neurol. scand. , , – . . kurtzke, j.f.; hyllested, k.; heltberg, a. multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands: transmissions across four epidemics. acta neurol. scand. , , – . . kurtzke, j.f.; heltberg, a. multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands: an epitome. j. clin. epidemiol. , , – . . lauer, k. dietary changes in temporal relation to multiple sclerosis in the faroe islands. an evaluation of literary sources. neuroepidemiology , , – . . monteith, r. description of the islands of orkney and zetland [original: ]; thomas g. stevenson: edinburgh, uk, . . brand, j. a new description of orkney and zetland, pightland-firth and caithness; j.a. taylor: london, uk, . . anonymous. vivda. available online: http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/ res.pl?keyword=vivda&offset= (accessed on december ). . anonymous. taste shetland. vivda. available online: http://www.tasteshetland.com/history (accessed on december ). . nicolson, j.r. traditional life in shetland; hale: london, uk, . . patursson, h. matreglur fyri hvørt hus. føroysk kókibók (in faroese); prentsmiðja ”dimmalaetting”: tórshavn, faroe islands, ; pp. – . . harresen, e. køkkenets indretning–faerøske retter–spisevaner. in p. carl petersen fonds ernaeringsexpedition til faerøerne – ; gudjonsson, s.v., ed.; nyt nordisk forlag–a.busck: copenhagen, denmark, ; pp. – (in danish). . scharla, n. opskriftsbok fra faerøernes husholningsskole; b.z. jensen: tórshavn, faroe islands, (in danish). . mitens, e.; lørup-sørensen, c. faerøsk lovsamling – . landsprentsmiðian: tórshavn, faroe islands, ; pp. – (in danish). . joensen, j.p. fiskafólk; føroya sparikassi: tórshavn, faroe islands, ; pp. , , (in faroese). . lauer, k. environmental associations with the risk of ms: the contribution of ecological studies. acta neurol. scand. , , – . . joensen, p. multiple sclerosis: variation of incidence of onset over time in the faroe islands. mult. scler. , , – . . lauer, k. multiple sclerosis in relation to meat preservation in france and switzerland. neuroepidemiology , , – . . lauer, k. the fennoscandian focus of multiple sclerosis and dietary exposures: an ecological comparison. l'arcispedale s.anna di ferrara , , s –s . int. j. mol. sci. , . lauer, k. sausage preservation methods and the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: an ecological study. ecol. food nutr. , , – . . lauer, k. food consumption in northern and southern states of the usa: an ecological study on the risk of multiple sclerosis in space and time. mult. scler. , , s . . darmstaedter, e.; firnhaber, w.; lauer, k. food consumption in lower saxony, northern germany, in relation to the multiple sclerosis mortality – : an ecological study. in proceedings of the meeting of the german society of epidemiology (deutsche gesellschaft für epidemiologie), muenster, germany, – september . . lauer, k. the association of the multiple sclerosis mortality – in canada with food retail trade and food-related occupations: an ecological study. neuroepidemiology , , . . lauer, k. industrial food production in countries of the european union and the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: an ecological analysis. j. neurol. , , s . . lauer, k. multiple sclerosis and food consumption in austria: an ecological study. mult. scler. , , s . . lauer, k. the impact of food in the aetiology of multiple sclerosis: an ecological study in scotland and england. proc. ger. nutr. soc. , , . . lauer, k. multiple sclerosis mortality and dietary factors in spain: an ecological study. neuroepidemiology , , . . lauer, k. multiple sclerosis, vitamin d and meat smoking: a global ecological study. neuroepidemiology , , . . lauer, k. epidemiologist, griesheim, germany. unpublished work, . . palmer, a.j.; hitchens, p.l.; simpsen, s.; o’leary, b.; colman, s.; taylor, b.v. a novel method for calculating prevalence of multiple sclerosis in australia. mult. scler. , doi: . / . . mclennan, w.; podger, a. national nutrition survey. foods eaten, australia ; australian bureau of statistics: canberra, australia, . . d’hooge, m.b.; haentjens, p.; nagels, g.; de keyser, j. alcohol, coffee, fish, smoking and disease progression in multiple sclerosis. eur. j. neurol. , , – . . lauer, k. risk and severity of multiple sclerosis in relation to defined nutritional factors during childhood: preliminary results of a case–control study. schweiz. arch. neurol. psychiatr. , , – . . sepcic, j.; mesaros, e.; materljan, e.; sepic-grahovac, d. nutritional factors and multiple sclerosis in gorski kotar, croatia. neuroepidemiology , , – . . smirnova, n.f.; boiko, a.n.; deomina, t.l.; gusev, e.i. smoked meat is the main environmental risk factor in moscow population: data of a new case-control study. mult. scler. , , . . ghadirian, p.; jain, m.; ducic, s.; shatenstein, b.; morriset, r. nutritional factors in the aetiology of multiple sclerosis: a case-control study in montreal, canada. int. j. epidemiol. , , – . . lauer, k.; geilenkeuser, m.; wahl, a.; firnhaber, w.; claus, d. the intake of selected foods in multiple sclerosis: a possible interaction with late childhood infections. mult. scler. , , s . . perković, o.; jurević, a.; rudež, j.; antončić, i.; bralić, m.; kapović, m. the town of Čabar, croatia, a high risk area for multiple sclerosis. analytic epidemiology of dietary factors. coll. antropol. , , s –s . int. j. mol. sci. , . tóth, l. chemie der räucherung; verlag chemie: weinheim, germany, (in german). . murray, t.j. multiple sclerosis: the history of a disease; demos: new york, ny, usa, . . compston, a.; lassmann, h.; mcdonald, i. the story of multiple sclerosis. in mcalpine’s multiple sclerosis; compston, a., confavreux, c., lassmann, h., mcdonald, i., miller, d., noseworthy, j., smith, k., wekerle, h., eds.; churchill livingstone elsevier: philadelphia, pa, usa, ; pp. – . . lauer, k. on the history of nitrite in human nutrition: a contribution from german cookery books. j. clin. epidemiol. , , – . . lauer, k. divergent risk of multiple sclerosis in two anabaptist communities in america. med. hypotheses , , – . . ross, r.t.; nicolle, l.e.; cheang, m. varicella zoster virus and multiple sclerosis in a hutterite population. j. clin. epidemiol. , , – . . hader, w.j.; seland, t.p.; hader, m.b.; harris, c.j.; dietrich, d.w. the occurrence of multiple sclerosis in the hutterites of north america. can. j. neurol. sci. , , – . . jaworski, m.a.; severini, a.; mansour, g.; konrad, h.m.; slater, j.; hennig, k.; schlaut, j.; yoon, j.w.; pak, c.y.; maclaren, n.; et al. genetic conditions among canadian mennonites: evidence for a founder effect among the old colony (chortitza) mennonites. clin. investig. med. , , – . . peters, v. all things common. hutterian way of life; university of minnesota press: minneapolis, mn, usa, . . hostetler, j.a. hutterite society; john hopkins university press: baltimore, md, usa, . . shoewalter, m.e. mennonite community cookbook; universal book and bible house: philadelphia, pa, usa, . . rosenfeld, p.; warkentin, d.d.; peters, j.h. the mennonite treasury of recipes; derksen printers: steinbach, manitoba, . . bhigjee, a.i.; moodley, k.; ramkisson, k. multiple sclerosis in kwa zulu natal, south africa: an epidemiological and clinical study. mult. scler. , , – . . van wyk, m.; barton, p. traditional south african cooking; central news agency: johannesburg, south africa, . . van tonder, h. make your own biltong and droëwors; struik publisher: cape town, south africa, . . zhang, s.m.; willett, w.c.; hernán, m.a.; olek, m.j.; ascherio, a. dietary fat in relation to risk of multiple sclerosis among two large cohorts of women. am. j. epidemiol. , , – . . dean, g. annual incidence, prevalence, and mortality of multiple sclerosis in white south africa born and in white immigrants to south africa. br. med. j. , , – . . dean, g.; kurtzke, j.f. on the risk of multiple sclerosis according to age at immigration to south africa. br. med. j. , , – . . pugliatti, m.; casetta, i.; drulović, j.; granieri, e.; holmøy, t.; kampman, m.t.; landtblom, a.-m.; lauer, k.; myhr, k.-m.; parpinel, m.; et al. a questionnaire for multinational case-control studies of environmental factors in multiple sclerosis (envims-q). acta neurol. scand. , , – . int. j. mol. sci. , . honikel, k.o. principles of curing. in handbook of fermented meat and poultry; toldrá, f., ed.; blackwell publishing: oxford, uk, ; pp. – . . sofos, j.n.; busta, f.f. alternatives to the use of nitrite as an antibotulinal agent. food technol. , , – . . walker, d. practical food smoking. a comprehensive guide; neil wilson publishing: glasgow, uk, ; p. . . knowles, m.e.; gilbert, j.; mcweeny, d.j. phenols in smoked, cured meats: nitrosation of phenols in liquid smokes and smoked bacon. j. sci. food agric. , , – . . potthast, k.; hofmann, g. abschlussbericht über das forschungsvorhaben “einfluss der räuchertechnologie auf den gehalt an nitro- und nitrosophenolen in geräucherten fleischerzeugnissen; präparative gewinnung dieser verbindungen zur ermittlung ihres toxischen potentials im mikrobiologischen und/oder biologischen test”; bundesanstalt für fleischforschung, institut für chemie und physik: kulmbach, germany, (in german). . chen, l.b.; issenberg, p. interactions of some wood smoke components with epsilon-aminogroups in proteins. j. agric. food chem. , , – . . weigle, w.o. termination of acquired immunological tolerance to protein antigens following immunization with altered protein antigens. j. exp. med. , , – . . weigle, w.o. the induction of autoimmunity in rabbits following injection of heterologous or altered homologous thyreoglobulin. j. exp. med. , , – . . martin, s.; ruh, h.; hebbelmann, s.; pflugfelder, u.; rüde, b.; weltzien, h.u. carrier-reactive hapten-specific cytotoxic lymphocyte clones originate from a highly preselected t cell repertoire: implications for chemical-induced self-reactivity. eur. j. immunol. , , – . . martin, s. t lymphocyte-mediated immune responses to chemical haptens and metal ions: implications for allergic and autoimmune diseases. int. arch. allergy immunol. , , – . . martin, s.; weltzien, h.u. t cell recognition of haptens, a molecular view. int. arch. allergy immunol. , , – . . achtnich, m.; zoeller, m. autoreactive antibodies in thymus and spleen of neonatal and young adult balb/c mice: influence of prenatal tolerization. scand. j. immunol. , , – . . sanderson, i.r.; walker, w.a. uptake and transport of macromolecules by the intestine: possible role in clinical disorders (an update). gastroenterology , , – . . hammon, a.; düthorn, t.; bäuerlein, r.; becker, c.-m.; pitschesrieder, m.; pichner, r.; gareis, m. immunochemical detection of central nervous tissue in retail meat products using myelin prteolipid protein (plp) as marker. arch. lebensmittelhygiene , , – . . lücker, e.; horlacher, s.; eigenbrodt, e. brain in human nutrition and variant creutzfeldt–jakob disease risk (vcjd): detection of brain in retail liver sausages using cholesterol and neuron specific enolase (nse) as markers. br. j. nutr. , , s –s . . lücker, e.; eigenbrodt, e.; wenisch, s.; leiser, r.; bülte, m. identification of central nervous system tissue in retail meat products. j. food prot. , , – . . weigel, i.; schulze, g.; pitschesrieder, m. immunochemical detection of tissue from the central nervous system via proteolipid protein: adaptation for food inspection and development of recombinant bivalent fab mini-antibodies. j. agric. food chem. , , – . int. j. mol. sci. , . tóth, l.; potthast, k. chemical aspects of the smoking of meat and meat products. adv. food res. , , – . . lukes, r.j.; cox, f.h. clinical and morphological findings in fatal cases of infectious mononucleosis. am. j. pathol. , , . . berneman, a.; ternynck, t.; avrameas, s. natural mouse igg reacts with self antigens including molecules involved in the immune response. eur. j. immunol. , , – . . avrameas, s.; selmi, c. natural autoantibodies in the physiology and pathophysiology of the immune system. j. autoimmun. , , – . . avrameas, r.; ternynck, t. natural antibodies: the other side of the immune system. res. immunol. , , – . . sospedra, m.; martin, r. immunology of multiple sclerosis. ann. rev. immunol. , , – . . schlemitz, s.; pfannhauser, w. monitoring of nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in food using gas chromatography. zschr. lebensm. unters. forsch. , , – . . schlemitz, s.; pfannhauser, w. analysis of nitro-pahs in food matrices by on-line reduction and high performance liquid chromatography. food additives contam. , , – . . ma, j.y.c.; ma, j.k.h. the dual effect of the particulate and organic components of diesel exhaust particles on the alteration of pulmonary immune/inflammatory responses and metabolic enzymes. j. environ. carcinogen. ecotoxicol. rev. , c , – . . pugliatti, m.; rosati, g. epidemiology of multiple sclerosis. in multiple sclerosis: a comprehensive text; raine, c.s., mcfarland, h.f., hohlfeld, r.; eds.; saunders–elsevier: edinburgh, uk, , pp. – . . alroughani, r.; ahmed, s.f.; behbahani, r.; khan, r.; thussu, a.; alexander, k.j.; ashkanani, a.; nagarajan, v.; al-hasel, j. increasing prevalence and incidence rates of multiple sclerosis in kuwait. mult. scler. , doi: . / . . murphy, d. hotdogs and hamburgers blamed for making kuwaitis fat! available online: http://www.csmonitor.com/world/security-watch/backchannels/ / (accessed on november ). . anonymous. camel-meat hot dogs are now offered in dubai. available online: http://stephencburton.com/ / / /camel-meat-hot-dogs-are-now-offered-in-dubai/ (accessed on november ). . inshasi, j.; thakre, m. prevalence of multiple sclerosis in dubai, united arab emirates. int. j. neurosci. , , – . . auty, a. incidence and prevalence of multiple sclerosis in the united arab emirates. a centre–based study. mult. scler. , , s . . olarte-ulherr, o. hot dogs, burgers removed from capital school canteens. available online: http://www.khaleejtimes/kt-article-display- .asp?xfile=data/nationgeneral/ /february/ nationgeneral_february .xml&section=.nationgeneral (accessed on november ). © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ pentecostalization and politics in paraguay and chile religions article pentecostalization and politics in paraguay and chile henri gooren department of sociology, anthropology, social work and criminal justice, oakland university, rochester, mi , usa; gooren@oakland.edu received: july ; accepted: october ; published: november ���������� ������� abstract: this article analyzes pentecostal churches in paraguay and chile, tracing how their older ethos of politics as worldly and corrupt is gradually changing and why. it explores changing church–state relations and conceptions of political culture and citizenship among pentecostal members and leaders, and assesses some mutual influences that pentecostal and mainstream protestant churches exert on each other. chile has the oldest autochthonous pentecostal churches of latin america, whereas pentecostal growth only recently started in paraguay, providing a contrast in levels of pentecostalization. the article develops a general overview of modes of (in)direct involvement of pentecostal leaders and members in national politics by assessing the risks and advantages of five possible positions. keywords: pentecostalism; pentecostalization; politics; paraguay; chile . introduction this article analyzes pentecostal churches in paraguay and chile, tracing how their older ethos of politics as worldly and corrupt (lalive d’epinay , p. ; fediakova , p. ) is gradually changing and why. it explores changing church–state relations and conceptions of political culture and citizenship among pentecostal members and leaders, and assesses some mutual influences pentecostal and mainstream protestant churches exert on each other. hence, this article complements the literature on the consequences of pentecostal growth for different latin american societies. it also follows the early research advice of (levine , p. ) to begin with “what religious groups and people actually do.” paraguay and chile represent the extremes of pentecostal growth in latin america. chile has the oldest autochthonous pentecostal churches in latin america, whereas pentecostal growth only started in the s in paraguay, providing a contrast in levels of pentecostalization, a term that refers to the combination of pentecostal numerical growth, pentecostal influence on other religions, and/or pentecostal impact on the rest of society, including politics (gooren b). using ethnographic field research, participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and surveys, i studied pentecostal and non-pentecostal churches and organizations in asunción, paraguay ( and ) and santiago de chile ( ). seven trained research assistants (undergraduate students at two local universities) and i conducted formal semi-structured interviews with experts and church members using the same interview protocols. in each country, i visited ten different churches and, together with local experts, selected an illustrative sample of congregations for in-depth study through participant observation and interviews. this meant that i went to sunday meetings and other events for at least a month, conducted interviews with leaders and members, collected books and brochures, watched pentecostal tv programs, and analyzed the contents of church websites. interviews with church members and leaders as well as local experts were coded by topic and triangulated with other coded data from books, brochures, websites, and participant observation. a total of nine religious congregations were studied in-depth: five in asunción (centro familiar de adoración, más que vencedores, religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of a pentecostalizing mennonite congregation, and two charismatic catholic parishes), and four in santiago de chile (a vineyard and a pentecostalizing anglican congregation, and two charismatic catholic parishes). my fieldwork research allows me to present the unique voices of church members and a dozen congregational leaders from paraguay and chile and their perspectives on the connections between (their) churches and politics. chile is the birthplace of autochthonous pentecostalism in latin america; the iglesia metodista pentecostal (imp), the country’s biggest pentecostal church, was already underway by . pentecostalism in chile exploded in the s and s, stabilized in the s, and exploded again in the s and s during the pinochet dictatorship ( – ). protestants currently make up over one-fifth of the total chilean population, which ranks among the higher percentages in latin america (mandryk , p. ), and the vast majority of them—approximately percent—are pentecostals (parker , p. ). political involvement by pentecostal members and leaders, however, is low in chile in contrast to brazil. chile has “no major protestant political parties and few examples of protestants elected to major public office” (patterson , p. ). this article will explain why. pentecostal growth in paraguay started as late as the s, during the final years of the stroessner dictatorship ( – ), and has continued until the present day. in , pentecostals made up only percent of the paraguayan population, with mainstream protestants, especially mennonites and lutherans, accounting for another percent. by , pentecostals made up . percent of the population and mainstream protestants . percent (mandryk , p. ). the influence of pentecostalism, however, is greater than these numbers suggest, since popular elements of the movement are starting to find their way into mainstream protestantism. many baptist and especially spanish-speaking mennonite churches in asunción are “pentecostalizing”. they use pentecostal songs and worship styles, although they stop short of allowing members to speak in tongues. furthermore, in the protestant community overall, the two most successful churches in terms of membership growth are both pentecostal. más que vencedores, started by emilio agüero in , specializes in targeting young people. the centro familiar de adoración (the only megachurch in paraguay) started in and successfully appeals to families, thanks to its charismatic leader emilio abreu, its sophisticated evangelization methods, and its extensive use of mass media. the pentecostalization process in paraguay has made significant advances, then, although it remains in its initial phase, making the question of how paraguayan pentecostals view political involvement particularly interesting and offering a perspective on how these processes unfold over time. it is imperative to place any analysis of political involvement in paraguay and chile in a larger comparative context. paul freston has studied the wider topic of church–politics relations for over two decades, resulting in important books on evangelicals and politics in the global south and on protestant political parties. he also stressed the need for “more detailed country-level studies” (freston , p. ). freston developed a four-fold typology of protestant modes of national-level political involvement worldwide (freston , p. ff.): while universalist concerns such as human rights and democracy predominate among some actors, the practice of many is reducible to an ecclesiastical corporatism which seeks to enlist state resources for church aggrandizement (assemblies of god and universal church in brazil); or to a political imitation of the dominant actor in the religious field, whether catholicism or islam (iglesia metodista pentecostal in chile, much pentecostalism in nigeria); or to a triumphalism which talks of a divine right of evangelicals to govern (guatemala, zambia). (cleary and sepúlveda , p. ); (gooren , pp. – ). the protestant percentages in chilean censuses since are: , percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent; , . percent (cleary and sepúlveda , p. ; masías-hinojosa et al. , p. ). for , (mandryk , p. ) reported . percent: . percent mainline protestants and . percent pentecostals. (holland , p. ). (johnstone and mandryk , p. ) reported percent mainline protestants and . percent pentecostals for . religions , , of (freston , p. ) concluded that corporatism and triumphalism are “clearly prejudicial to democracy.” he saw corporatism as typical for evangelical leaders in brazil and central america (see, e.g., gooren a), triumphalism as typical of presidents ríos montt and serrano in guatemala, and political imitation of the dominant roman catholic church as uniquely typical of chile’s iglesia metodista pentecostal. while freston acknowledged the role of theology, he did not explore the main motivations for why churches and their leaders do or do not get involved in politics, which is what i will do here. this article proposes an overview of five possible modes for direct or indirect involvement of pentecostal leaders and members in national politics, each with its own risks and advantages. these are descriptive options that i derived from my fieldwork observations in these pentecostal congregations in paraguay and chile. i will distinguish patterns that run from low risk and low involvement to high risk and high involvement. first, the low-risk position involves staying focused on a core evangelical teaching: converting as many people as possible, with the expectation that this should eventually result in positive changes in politics and society, while fulfilling one’s civic duties by voting during elections. the second option limits the mobilization of the faithful to key moral-ethical issues like divorce, abortion, and same-sex marriage, often in alliance with conservative roman catholics. third, churches may mobilize the faithful around religious or political leaders who are thought to exemplify biblical principles and set a moral example, and who explicitly campaign against corruption in politics. the fourth option endorses the direct political involvement of church members, as exemplified by ernst bergen, a mennonite businessman who served as a minister in paraguay’s duarte government ( – ). finally, the fifth course of action involves church leaders getting directly involved in politics as office holders, as occurred in guatemala with general efraín ríos montt ( – ) and president jorge serrano ( – ). i will use these five options to analyze and understand pentecostal involvement in politics in paraguay and chile in historical and contemporary perspective. . the old ethos: protestantism and the state in paraguay and chile protestantism originally developed in paraguay as an embattled minority, persecuted by catholics until as late as the s and struggling to win official state recognition. furthermore, pentecostalism, for its part, reached paraguay relatively late. the philadelphia evangelical church arrived in , followed by the assemblies of god in . the church of god (cleveland, tn) started its mission work in . for many years, pentecostal success was very limited. more successful was a unique local brand of pentecostalism, el pueblo de dios (the people of god), founded in as an independent church. the latest pentecostal church from the united states arrived in : the foursquare gospel church. the biggest pentecostal churches were the assemblies of god, the iglesia de dios del paraguay, and the iglesia evangélica asamblea de dios misionera. paraguay experienced the highest pentecostal growth in the s and again after (gooren ). for most of their history, the dominant attitude of pentecostals and other protestants toward politics was one of abstinence (plett , p. ; duarte , ). protestant leaders were pleased when dictator stroessner reiterated the importance of religious freedom in (plett , p. ). in return for the freedom of religion and official state recognition they had long yearned for, they stayed out of politics, which was deemed corrupt and worldly. the legacy of foreign mission churches also depoliticized the protestant leadership and supported a theology of separation from society. this created a clear contrast with the roman catholic church, which historically sided with the elites (o’neill , p. ) reported that neo-pentecostals believed that guatemala can only change though conversion, individual repentance, bible study, and hard work, which open the believer to the “values of progress: punctuality, responsibility, and cleanliness.” however, members of the mega-church el shaddai “are more likely to pray for guatemala than pay their taxes; they tend to speak in tongues for the soul of the nation rather than vote in general elections; and they more often than not organize prayer campaigns to fight crime rather than organize their communities against the same threat” (o’neill , pp. xvi, ). religions , , of but had, since the s, moved toward “a preferential option for the poor” (gooren , p. ff.). as some bishops gradually became more political in the s and s, emphasizing human rights and confronting stroessner, the protestant and pentecostal leadership continued their earlier position of being “apolitical”. just as in paraguay, an ethos separating the church and “the world” (including the state) prevailed among the pentecostal churches in chile. the iglesia metodista pentecostal (imp) and the iglesia evangélica pentecostal (iep), which together dominated the protestant community there (johnstone and mandryk , p. ), shared “a passive ethic that proclaims total separation from the world” of politics and education (sepúlveda , p. ). this ethos is typical of classical pentecostalism and of mission churches in general, and it clearly hampered efforts by some progressive leaders and members to become more involved in chilean society in the s and early s. yet the authoritarian structure of the imp allowed its conservative leaders to lend legitimation to the pinochet military government through a pentecostal “te deum,” first celebrated in their new jotabeche “cathedral” in . this created tensions that eventually resurfaced in leadership struggles following the death of bishop vásquez in (see below). the old pentecostal political ethos is nicely summarized by a middle-aged male member of the methodist pentecostal church (imp) in san ramón, santiago: i believe that the orientation of the practicing christians in chile is not about establishing a presence in society. it’s to influence society to turn back to god, to improve the quality of life, to live with morality, with respect, according to what the word of the lord states. i personally believe that the church . . . i don’t believe we want to interfere with the political parties. this is a perfect expression of the first position in my overview of modes of political involvement of pentecostal leaders and members: focusing on the core task of converting as many people as possible to their church, hoping that through conversion they will have a change of heart and become better people, which in turn will make the country a better place. it is the position that used to be shared by the majority of protestants and pentecostals in latin america, including chile and paraguay. to explain its origins, we need to look at history. . protestantism, political parties, and electoral campaigns whereas chilean catholicism even before vatican ii ( – ) was more progressive than elsewhere in latin america (barrett et al. , pp. – ), chilean autochthonous pentecostalism (imp, iep, and their subsequent schisms) was dominated from the start by the traditional ethos proclaiming total separation from the world (sepúlveda , p. ). based on these radically different theological origins, more societal involvement from catholics than pentecostals was to be expected. yet fediakova identified two factors that have facilitated greater political involvement of pentecostals since the s: ( ) the need to protect their institutional interests (freston’s corporatism), especially during the pinochet dictatorship ( – ), and ( ) the development of chilean civil society after the return to democracy in . as relations between general pinochet and the catholic church deteriorated, the government looked to pentecostal leaders for support. the conservative imp leadership responded eagerly and positively. hence, the new jotabeche cathedral of the iglesia metodista pentecostal (imp) was officially inaugurated in september in the presence of general pinochet and other official representatives of the military dictatorship (fediakova , p. ). this happened during the “te deum,” which was originally a catholic ritual to bless the new government. the new version, however, was a much broader symbolic mixing of religious and political power and leadership. two days earlier, conservative protestant pastors and church members published a document supporting the september coup: “the military intervention of the armed forces in the historic chile interview ; august , . all chile interviews were conducted in santiago de chile. religions , , of process of our country was the response of god to the prayer of all believers who see in marxism the maximum darkness of satanic forces.” while some conservative pentecostal leaders had, like their protestant counterparts, rallied to the support of the military, their rank-and-file members—overwhelmingly poor and with less education—had mostly supported the leftist allende government ( – ) that was toppled by pinochet (tennekes ). (cleary and sepúlveda , p. ) concluded that conservative pentecostal leaders used pinochet to boost their resources and consolidate their power base—corporatism, again. meanwhile, the more progressive pentecostal groups pursued independence from the state and founded new organizations like fasic (fundación de ayuda social de las iglesias cristianas or foundation for social help of the christian churches) and sepade (servicio evangélico para el desarrollo: gospel service for development), working for socioeconomic development with key social actors of all religions, while the catholic hierarchy increasingly challenged pinochet on human rights violations (fediakova , p. ). yet pentecostals in chile remained sharply divided, both politically and theologically. they founded multiple umbrella organizations that were unable to coordinate collective evangelization campaigns or maintain an effective political lobby. augusto pinochet, the “perpetual general,” (allende , p. ) controlled politics in chile from to . upon the return to democracy, party politics were dominated for twenty years by the progressive concertación coalition governments of aylwin ( – ), frei ruiz-tagle ( – ), lagos ( – ), and bachelet ( – ). the victory of sebastián piñera in was the first for the right in twenty years and more the result of a vote against the concertación and in favor of change than a vote for piñera. following the return to democracy in , protestant leaders and their umbrella organizations were sometimes contacted by presidential candidates to court their votes in return for institutional support (fediakova , p. ). this was particularly clear during the lagos administration ( – ) and the first bachelet administration ( – ), when progressive protestant leaders maintained good relations with government officials. conservative protestant leaders had founded their own political party in november , the alianza nacional cristiana (anc, christian national alliance), but its candidates only obtained three percent of the vote in and the party soon disbanded. fediakova concluded that it was poorly organized and too narrowly identified with rightwing politics, and that protestants in chile were too divided to be represented by only one party (fediakova , pp. – ). politicians in chile did not court pentecostal voters as openly as in nicaragua or venezuela, where the corporatist model dominated (gooren a, pp. , , ff.). religion was not an important theme in the – presidential campaign at all, until bishop emiliano soto openly came out in support of frei of the progressive concertación coalition. in quick response, imp jotabeche pastor eduardo durán castro and other conservative pastors publicly came out in support of renovación nacional candidate sebastián piñera. before going on to win the elections, piñera made a list of thirty promises to these evangelical leaders, including updating the ley de culto (guaranteeing freedom of worship), greater equality before the law, financial support for protestant social ministries, and an increase of protestant chaplains in the armed forces. in , there was grumbling among evangelical leaders that the government was dominated by conservative opus dei catholics and that none of the thirty promises had been kept, illustrating the risks of corporatism. translated and quoted by (sepúlveda , p. ) from the declaración de apoyo a la junta de gobierno de las iglesias evangélicas no. in posición evangélica, edited by pedro puente (santiago: mimeo, ). chile interviews , , , and ; july and august , , and , . (meyer , p. ). bachelet served again as president in – and piñera was again inaugurated as president on march , . chile interviews , , and ; june , july , and july , . chile interviews , , , and ; july , july , and august (twice), . religions , , of institutional politics in paraguay demonstrated even more continuity than in chile. general stroessner based his authoritarian – rule on an iron alliance between the armed forces, the state, and the colorado party (carter , p. ). other political parties were allowed after , but the colorado party continued to hold power for almost twenty more years after stroessner was forced to resign as president in and the first truly free elections were organized. when internal strife in the colorado party in – led to the assassination of vice-president luis maría argaña ferraro, most people blamed president raúl cubas grau ( – ) rather than his colorado party (hanratty and meditz , p. ). under colorado president nicanor duarte ( – ), the paraguayan economy improved, although it remained uneven and highly unequal. duarte’s wife, maría gloria penayo solaeche, became a mennonite in and soon persuaded her husband to join her. hence, duarte became the first non-catholic president in paraguay and the mennonite churches gained their maximum political influence during his government. the wider protestant community also benefited from this; the duarte government was perceived as being favorable to protestants and maintaining more distance than usual from the catholic hierarchy. for the first time in history, protestants tasted the forbidden fruit of corporatism, finding that involvement in national politics could yield concrete advantages. however, president duarte’s popularity decreased at the end of his term over internal corruption scandals and conflicts with the owner of the abc color newspaper and tv channel telefuturo (méndez grimaldi , p. ; segovia , pp. – ; thompson ). in september , a center-left coalition of a dozen small parties plus the much bigger partido liberal radical auténtico (the liberal party—plra) selected fernando lugo as their presidential candidate. the plra provided the vice-president, federico franco. born in , lugo was a supporter of liberation theology and the former bishop of the impoverished northern san pedro department from until (o’shaughnessy and díaz , pp. – , pp. – ). because the paraguayan protestant community was so small, politicians routinely ignored the non-catholic vote. somewhat surprisingly, with a former roman catholic bishop running against the first ever female candidate of the colorado party, religion was not an important theme in the – presidential campaign at all, except for the question of whether the vatican would allow fernando lugo to become the first ever bishop to be elected as president in latin america. in an exceptionally dirty campaign, even by paraguayan standards, lugo was accused of fathering an illegitimate child, orchestrating the murder of a former president’s daughter, and “being an active member of the colombian guerrilla organization farc” (o’shaughnessy and díaz , p. ). only the first accusation was true; in , lugo admitted to fathering a child in a decade-long relationship with viviana carrillo, but denied parenthood in all other cases (o’shaughnessy and díaz , pp. – ). lugo surprised the colorado party and probably many of his supporters by winning the elections. by , the early popularity of the lugo government had shattered, partly because voters’ expectations had been unrealistically high (méndez grimaldi , pp. – ; espínola , pp. – ; beittel , p. ). lugo’s long affair and illegitimate son created an outcry among his political enemies, but his supporters were not much influenced by these revelations. lugo’s relationship to the paraguayan bishops was frosty, but his relations with the protestant community were not exactly cordial either. almost all my pentecostal informants had a negative opinion of lugo, based mostly on his moral character: for years ( – ), party politics in paraguay were dominated by the colorado party, which had been founded in by bernardino caballero to oppose the new liberal party. the duarte administration also included the first ever mennonite minister, ernst bergen (see bergen ). interview with dr. martín eitzen (instituto bíblico asunción), oakland university (rochester, mi); may , . blanca ovelar had been minister of education in the duarte government (méndez grimaldi , p. ). paraguay interviews , , and ; july (twice) and july , . see also (o’shaughnessy and díaz , pp. – , ). paraguay interview (july , ); (beittel , p. ). religions , , of lugo enters the presidency as a man of god, a religious man. in the eyes of god, he already failed from here to the moon because of the children, the fact that he’s a promiscuous man and all that. he already started badly. it’s a personal matter, ok, but next in his job as a politician he didn’t do anything either; everything was promises. he abandoned the people who helped him with percent to become president, who were the liberals. they got tired of him. this informant indirectly refers to the third position of pentecostal political involvement, mobilizing the faithful around church leaders, and holds up a catholic leader, lugo, as a negative (anti-)example. another informant reported that lugo made a loose remark during the electoral campaign that all evangelical church buildings would be converted into daycare centers. this greatly worried the protestant leadership. they were already suspicious of a former catholic bishop sympathetic to liberation theology who was elected president in with the backing of progressive sectors of civil society. similar to chile, the political culture in paraguay is intensely personal. . the new political ethos: “because we are part of this society” pentecostal informants in both countries consistently told me that their churches were not interested in politics, kept out of politics, or at best reluctantly allowed their members to get involved in it. however, many informants felt that pentecostals should get involved in politics to raise its moral standards and to fight corruption. i analyze this new political ethos, its origins, and its possible consequences by referring to the five modes of possible political involvement by pentecostals outlined above. most chilean pentecostal informants reported that their churches were just not interested in politics at all. two informants from the neo-pentecostal church tiempo de dios explicitly wanted pentecostals to show more involvement in society. however, a female -year-old university student from another independent pentecostal church resented the fact that their pastor had openly from the pulpit called on members to vote for sebastián piñera. yet she did want pentecostals to get more involved in chilean society; she had participated in massive protest marches in santiago against the projected hydro-aisén hydroelectric plant in a national park and in support of student demands for better access to higher education. a -year-old member of the iglesia evangélica pentecostal (iep) summarized the difference between the old and the new ethos, or the transition from the first position of pentecostal political involvement to the third, like this: in the old days, we the youth were told that we didn’t have to get into the universities because the university meant your perdition and the result was that our parents were the janitors in businesses. [..] nowadays we’re making the same mistake with politics. i have the experience of my daughter who wanted to be a spokesperson in her high school. but the [church] youth leader and others next to her wanted to prohibit this as if it were a sin to be a spokesperson for something, of a movement that is fighting for something that’s right for students today. we’re cutting off a part that she could develop. perhaps tomorrow, she might become a great political leader or a great religious leader—somebody who makes a difference in religion and in politics. paraguay interview ; july , . paraguay interview ; july , . o’shaughnessy and díaz ( ). lugo was impeached on june , in a controversial two-hour parliamentary session and succeeded by his vice-president federico franco (bbc ). chile interviews and ; august and september , . chile interview ; august , . chile interview ; august , . religions , , of (fediakova , p. ) traced the increased willingness of chilean evangelicals to engage with society to two main factors: the growth of civil society during the early part of the pinochet dictatorship and the return to democracy in . her sophisticated study of evangelicals and civil society used participant observation in churches, interviews, and surveys. seventy percent of her evangelical sample thought that evangelicals should be able to participate in chilean politics at any level; only . percent were against this (fediakova , p. ). some of the main motivations given were that “god needs christian politicians to help with his plan” and “because we are a good example for society.” another informant simply wrote, “because we are part of this society” (fediakova , p. ). pentecostal laity and leaders alike in both countries stressed that voting was not only a civic right, but an obligation. this represents the first position of pentecostal political involvement in the overview: trying to convert as many people as possible while voting during elections. a leader in an independent pentecostal church in asunción, paraguay, saw voting during elections as a civic duty of all pentecostals: i personally think that people should vote. fulfill their civic duty. in fact, i believe it is a biblical duty: to elect the authorities, to pray for them. i think we are part of a government system and a social system and we cannot live alienated from those. i don’t have a personal involvement in politics. i don’t have preferences for political party a or b [..]. but i do think that it is a civic duty of the believer to participate in elections. in my opinion, i think that some believers should be candidates . . . [but] i don’t defend the position of some governments to accept pastors or religious leaders as candidates, because i believe there is a conflict of interests. [..] sometimes i voted because a certain candidate impressed me in some way and i thought they were worthy of my vote as a citizen. but in other cases, i examined the candidates and i felt so frustrated with all of them that i cancelled my vote, i voted blank. i fulfilled my civic and legal duty, but i didn’t support any of them. this man was active in his local neighborhood committee, but not in any political party. like most paraguayans, he was thoroughly disillusioned with party politics. in chile, a fourth-generation imp member, years old, likewise thought that evangelicals should be more conscious of the importance of their vote, especially during presidential elections: deep down we all have our little preference, whether left or right or center. but the believer knows that all comes from god; he removes kings and raises up kings. the believer who believes in this must logically trust in god and ask him: “who does the lord want to be the next president of our country?” there were some political actions that all informants, not just leaders, agreed on as important duties. these included fighting against corruption at all levels of society (including politics), fighting against gay marriage and liberalization of abortion, and fighting to retain, and if possible expand, state recognition of protestant churches. a minority of catholic informants in paraguay and chile agreed with these points as well (except for the last one), creating favorable conditions for a possible future alliance between conservative catholics and protestants. this option is reflected in the second position in the overview of the pentecostal political involvement: limiting mobilization of the faithful to key moral-ethical issues. this second position now appears to be accepted by a majority of pentecostal believers across latin america, although with some significant differences between countries. a gradual transition from the first type of pentecostal political involvement to the more active third one is also expressed by founding pastor emilio abreu of the mega-church centro familiar de paraguay interview ; august , . chile interview ; august , . note the biblical reference to daniel , verse . religions , , of adoración (cfa) in asunción, who stressed that his church aims to help its members bring out “the talent that god gave them.” that god-given talent could also be in politics: ea: i have people who want to get involved in politics and we encourage them because politics needs honest people at this moment. people [..] who can stand firm and say: “well, we have to do things right.” hg: are there people who are involved with the parties here? ea: we have people in the parties; that’s right. hg: but it will be very difficult for them to change the structure of the political parties? ea: no, we are not trying to change the structure of the party; we change the people and the people will have an influence. abreu’s perspective mirrors a growing sentiment among protestant leaders generally that christians should get involved in politics to raise its moral standards and to fight corruption. one senior baptist leader said that the people who were currently involved in paraguayan politics were “aggressive, dishonest, and without scruples.” he thought that all protestants should get more directly involved in politics themselves and leave their old theological dualism of state and church behind. this new willingness to get more involved in society was also visible in recent pentecostal leadership struggles in chile. the iglesia metodista pentecostal (imp) is the oldest autochthonous pentecostal church in latin america and the biggest in chile, but has received little scholarly attention until recent years. after the death of the authoritarian bishop javier vázquez in , a severe leadership crisis ensued. the first power struggle was between bishop roberto lópez and bishop bernardo cartes; lópez became the national “presiding” imp bishop but cartes remained in office as bishop of chillán. a schism followed in which all imp congregations were forced to take sides and church buildings were registered under two different legal personalities. soon after, pastor eduardo durán castro of the huge jotabeche cathedral in santiago started making moves to separate himself from both bishop lópez and bishop cartes. the jotabeche cathedral has members and an estimated monthly tithing income of million pesos, or about us $ , (equivalent to almost us $ million a year), giving pastor durán castro a strong financial power base. of the three imp leaders, bishop roberto lópez was by far the most open to change. bishop lópez supported a stronger role for women in the imp, the creation of youth groups, more imp church involvement in chilean society through ngos, and more contact with other pentecostal and protestant churches, and even with the roman catholic church. these innovations challenged a century-old conservative classical pentecostal tradition and generated much controversy. bishop lópez was convinced that the imp must remain in control of finding its place in modern society; without renewal, he felt, the imp would keep losing members and risk becoming irrelevant in chilean society. none of the three imp factions provided membership statistics, but bishop lópez indirectly hinted at membership losses while a staff member of pastor durán castro mentioned steady membership growth. judging from their actions during the elections (see above), durán castro and lópez were more open to indirect involvement in politics than cartes. their church support base, which included well-educated staff members who tended to be middle-aged (for durán castro) or younger (lópez), encouraged this new ethos as well. young college-educated imp supporters of bishop lópez generally viewed greater church involvement in politics more favorably, although some expressed ambiguity. a -year-old female paraguay interview ; july , . paraguay interview ; july , . chile interview ; august , . chile interviews and ; july and august , . chile interview ; august , . chile interview ; august , . religions , , of manager participated in a political campaign in and was shocked by some pentecostal pastors offering to deliver votes for her: “i’ll support your candidate, but he has to guarantee that i’ll get a new lot for my church.” obviously, one main risk of the more direct political involvement represented by modes three and four is exactly this type of quid pro quo or, more generally, corporatism. not surprisingly, the most elaborate reflections on the pros and cons of direct involvement by pentecostals in politics (positions four and five) came from a -year-old paraguayan politician who had been a member of the nondenominational pentecostal church más que vencedores (more than conquerors) for ten years. he got involved in politics as a student leader during the violent – protests against the assassination of vice-president argaña ferraro. four years later, he had a conversion experience, which he described as “gradual and very rational.” in , he became national leader of the small social-democratic party encuentro nacional: the christian philosophy teaches a lifestyle, not just privately but also publicly. i believe that the bible teaches us behavior values and the bible talks often about the leaders of the past with christian biblical principles. personally, i believe that i have matured much as a politician and as a person through the teachings of the bible. it allows me to endure hard and difficult moments; it allows me to have an armored character during the moment of crisis, right? [ . . . ] i believe that politics is an expression of love for your neighbor, a public expression of love for your neighbor. this is what i practice: aristotle’s definition of politics as the search for the common good, the search for the good of all, not just my personal or private good but that of all of society. [ . . . ] i believe that is one of the hardest things to accomplish—not just in politics but in personal life . . . yet a great christian teaching [is] also that of nonviolence, loving your neighbor. in the bible, there are all these concepts that, if they were followed in politics, it would be much easier. the informants advocating greater political commitment of their churches were invariably more highly educated, most were under thirty, and many were also middle-class. the same was true of the supporters of bishop roberto lópez in chile, the most open to change among the three imp leadership contenders. yet pentecostal pastors in chile continued to keep their distance from politics. in paraguay as well, pastor emilio abreu (centro familiar de adoración) and pastor emilio agüero (más que vencedores) had very popular tv programs, but neither expressed a personal interest in political involvement, illustrating the historical pentecostal reserve. that position contrasts with steps taken by some fellow protestants in paraguay. for example, in early , shortly before my second fieldwork period in asunción, mennonite pastor arnoldo wiens, a well-known media personality thanks to his programs on the mennonite-owned stations radio obedira and tv red guaraní, surprisingly gave up his vocation (and his popular tv programs) to launch a presidential campaign. however, he found it impossible to raise sufficient funding as an independent candidate. soon after, wiens announced his support for horacio cartes as presidential candidate for the dominant colorado party; in return, cartes put wiens first on the list of colorado senate candidates. the responses to wiens’ candidacy from the pentecostal community were mixed, with many being very critical. chile interview ; july , . paraguay interview ; july , . this is in line with (levine , p. ): “media skills are notable and careers in religious or other broadcasting are increasingly common stepping-stones to political candidacies.” paraguay interviews , , and ; july , , and , . religions , , of . conclusions this article presented a range of different approaches among pentecostals to the challenge of political engagement and showed how those approaches have changed over time. based on that data, we are now in a position to revisit and refine the central features of these positions and explore their broader implications for the relationship between pentecostals and politics. below, i further develop my overview of five possible modes of (in)direct involvement by pentecostal leaders and members in national politics, assessing both their risks and advantages. the easiest and safest position is staying focused on a core evangelical teaching: converting as many people (including politicians and their children) as possible, which should eventually result in positive changes in politics and society. what is new relative to the traditional pentecostal position in this model of involvement is the conviction that pentecostals should always vote during elections. this position is nowadays accepted by virtually all pentecostals in latin america. it was explicitly espoused by mega-church pastor emilio abreu and was also visible in the small minority of neo-pentecostal and vineyard churches in chile (fediakova , p. ). this position takes few risks and has the advantage of keeping members and leaders focused on a core teaching: evangelization. however, the available evidence does not (yet?) show a correlation between high numbers of converts and positive changes in politics and society. the countries in latin america with the highest population percentages of protestants are el salvador ( . percent), nicaragua ( . percent), brazil ( . percent), honduras ( . percent), and guatemala ( . percent). these are also some of the region’s poorest countries (apart from brazil) with some of the world’s highest homicide rates. the second position aims to mobilize the faithful around key moral-ethical issues like divorce, abortion, and same-sex marriage, often in alliance with conservative roman catholics. almost all of my informants in both countries expressed support for this approach. successful applications of this position have been reported for brazil, nicaragua, chile, paraguay, and other countries in latin america where gender roles and social values are contested and gradually changing. however, the government of cristina fernández de kirchner passed a law in july legalizing same-sex marriage (bbc ) in spite of the intense, combined lobbying efforts of catholics and protestants. this substantially weakened an ad-hoc ecumenical alliance in argentina and vividly illustrated one main risk of this position: when a strong lobby is unsuccessful, it can seriously hurt the image of the churches and the leaders involved and create deep divisions between them. the third possible position of pentecostal involvement in politics is an extension of the second. it aims to mobilize the faithful by rallying around religious and political leaders who exemplify biblical principles, set a moral example, and explicitly campaign against corruption in politics. applications of this position can be seen in guatemala (see below), bolivia (wightman ), and especially brazil (brasil fonseca , pp. – ). this approach offers some important advantages and limits the risks, as stressed by a great number of informants in paraguay and chile. the position builds on the older tradition of pentecostal churches as corporatist groups lobbying for recognition. it allows pastors to mobilize their members, but does not necessarily require them to get personally involved in politics themselves. many pentecostals in both chile and paraguay wanted to see their churches get more involved with society and with politics, but they did not approve of pastors running as candidates for office. they considered the risks of failure and disillusionment as simply being too high. fourth, there is a position of direct political involvement of pentecostal members (but not leaders), which offers few risks and many advantages, as reflected in the political careers of persons like ernst bergen, the mennonite businessman serving as minister in paraguay’s duarte government ( – ). the main motivation for involvement here is to help one’s fellow countrymen; to serve both god and country. yet bergen possessed several advantages that few other trailblazers will share. he was a successful and wealthy businessman who had never broken the law. hence, bergen could present (clawson , p. ), based on figures from mandryk ( ). religions , , of himself as a technocrat without party affiliation or personal political ambitions. one suspects that few pentecostals across latin america will be able to follow bergen’s example (the literature on latin america documents no similar cases). the fifth position, synonymous with freston’s triumphalism or the divine right of evangelicals to govern, was developed by neo-pentecostal leaders in guatemala, building on “dominion theology”. this approach aims to get church leaders directly involved in politics as office holders. the main examples so far are two neo-pentecostal heads of state who aimed to redeem guatemala’s sinful past by setting a moral example, applying biblical principles to solve the country’s problems, counteracting mayan spiritual practices, and following neoliberal economic policies. yet the guatemala case also demonstrated the inherent risks of this position. general efraín ríos montt ( – ) waged a brutal counterinsurgency against guerrillas and mayas alike, while jorge serrano ( – ) combined biblical principles and neoliberal policies only to be impeached for corruption (garrard burnett ). more recently, neo-pentecostal pastor harold caballeros struggled to create the evangelical party viva (visión con valores or vision with values) and failed to become a presidential candidate, although he was recruited as minister of foreign affairs by otto pérez molina in his – government. yet in chile, no protestant leader has gotten involved in politics at all, and in paraguay, most pentecostals reacted negatively to wiens’ political activism. in the early stages of pentecostal growth in both countries, roughly up until the s, staying out of politics (position one) was the safest and also the best way to obtain state recognition, especially for mission churches. in this old ethos, even voting during elections was controversial for dualist theological reasons and for fear of ruffling powerful politicians’ feathers or attracting negative attention (lalive d’epinay , pp. – ). in chilean pentecostalism, this position dovetailed with its traditional ethos of a clear separation between church and world. however, it was altered by some conservative leaders of the iglesia metodista pentecostal who began angling for state recognition by organizing yearly “te deum” celebrations in their jotabeche “cathedral” soon after general pinochet’s coup. freston considered this to be a form of political imitation of the dominant roman catholic church, clearly reflected even in the catholic terms used (te deum, cathedral). in paraguay, being apolitical remained the best way for protestant churches to obtain official state recognition during the stroessner dictatorship ( – ). several factors contributed to the transition from the old to the new ethos of moderate political involvement in chile and paraguay. with the flourishing of civil society in both countries in the s and s, new opportunities for the political involvement of protestant churches opened. the return to democracy added the promise of obtaining favors from political candidates in return for support (freston’s corporatism with its concomitant risks). modern mass media like television and internet made believers more aware of politically active protestants and pentecostals in guatemala and especially brazil. increasing levels of education and upward social mobility among pentecostals likely influenced many committed believers to favor greater political involvement from their churches as well. yet pentecostal leaders in both countries remained reluctant to get directly involved in politics themselves, likely perceiving the risks (both to themselves and to their churches) to be greater than the potential rewards. together, the paraguay and chile cases can illuminate why pentecostal leaders in countries as varied as mexico, venezuela, peru, argentina, and uruguay tend to stay out of politics. based on genesis ( , verse ), in which god gave “dominion” over the earth to mankind, the dominion movement started in the united states “among socially conservative christians who sought to gain influence or control over secular civil government through political action. it was characterized by striving for a nation to be governed by christians or by biblical principles” (holvast , pp. – ). pérez ( ). caballeros, who has written four books and holds both an mbi and an mir, is obviously a successful pastor, yet struggles to find his place in guatemalan politics. see also (o’neill , pp. xix, ). president pérez molina ultimately resigned over a corruption investigation on september , (bbc ). (levine , p. ), in fact, saw the main role of protestant churches in the strengthening of civil society through building communities, not through direct (partisan) political involvement. see gooren ( ) for an extended analysis of the impact of mass media on the churches in paraguay. religions , , of the chilean case demonstrated that even a century-long history of autochthonous pentecostalism and pentecostal influence on mainstream protestant churches does not necessarily lead to a strong pentecostalization of civil society or, one phase later, of political culture. the traditional dualist pentecostal theology was one main reason for this fact, as was the long pinochet dictatorship ( – ). however, most neo-pentecostals in chile did want to see more societal involvement of their churches and the same was true among younger members of the autochthonous imp and iep. the paraguay case showed that even recent pentecostal growth could lead to pentecostalizing effects on mainline protestantism, but also, perhaps more surprisingly, that this was a two-way process. the mennonites’ economic power led them, by way of radio obedira and tv red guaraní, into politics. one trailblazer, mennonite businessman ernst bergen, became a government minister, but arnoldo wiens’s senate candidacy showed that direct political involvement of protestant leaders was still controversial in paraguay. as pentecostals gradually become part of mainstream society, as happened in guatemala and is still continuing to happen in chile, younger and increasingly better-educated members will want their churches to get more involved in society and to follow the lead of other, more directly engaged protestants, profoundly affecting their churches’ theology, leadership, organization, evangelization, and political practices in the process. acknowledgments: i conducted fieldwork in asunción, paraguay (june–august and ) and santiago de chile (june–august ). my individual research project, “the pentecostalization of religion and society in paraguay and chile,” was funded by the pentecostal-charismatic research initiative (pcri), which was sponsored by the john templeton foundation and administered by the university of southern california under grant number (see http://crcc.usc.edu/initiatives/pcri). special thanks go to martin h. eitzen, daniel jordan smith, and richard l. wood for their critical comments on earlier versions of this article. additional thanks are due to three anonymous peer reviewers and to roger g. robins, the editor of this special edition. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflicts of interest. references allende, isabel. . my invented country: a nostalgic journey through chile. new york: harpercollins. barrett, david b., george t. kurian, and todd m. johnson. . world christian encyclopedia, nd ed. oxford: oxford university press. bbc (british broadcasting corporation). . argentine gay couple tie knot under new marriage law. available online: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america- (accessed on march ). bbc (british broadcasting corporation). . removal of paraguay’s president lugo draws strong reactions. available online: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america- (accessed on march ). bbc (british broadcasting corporation). . renuncia el presidente de guatemala, otto pérez molina. available online: http://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/ / / _renuncia_perez_molina_guatemala_ corrupcion_aw (accessed on june ). beittel, june s. . paraguay: political and economic conditions and u.s relations. washington, dc: congressional research service of the library of congress. available online: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/gettrdoc? ad=ada (accessed on june ). bergen, ernst. . jumping into empty space: a reluctant mennonite businessman serves in paraguay’s presidential cabinet. intercourse: good books. brasil fonseca, alexandre. . religion and democracy in brazil: a study of the leading evangelical politicians. in evangelical christianity and democracy in latin america. edited by paul freston. new york: oxford university press, pp. – . carter, miguel. . el papel de la iglesia en la caída de stroessner. asunción: rp ediciones. clawson, david l. . latin america and the caribbean: lands and peoples, th ed. new york: oxford university press. cleary, edward l., and juan sepúlveda. . chilean pentecostalism: coming of age. in power, pentecostals, and politics in latin america. edited by edward l. cleary and hannah stewart-gambino. boulder: westview press, pp. – . duarte, rogelio. . el desafío protestante en el paraguay. asunción: centro cristiano de comunicación creativa. duarte, rogelio. . historia y mensaje de los bautistas en el paraguay. asunción: etigraf. http://crcc.usc.edu/initiatives/pcri http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america- http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america- http://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/ / / _renuncia_perez_molina_guatemala_corrupcion_aw http://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/ / / _renuncia_perez_molina_guatemala_corrupcion_aw http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/gettrdoc?ad=ada http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/gettrdoc?ad=ada religions , , of espínola, gabriel. . la situación política y las tareas principales para el gobierno de lugo. in gobierno lugo: herencia, gestión y desafíos. edited by luis rojas villagra. asunción: base investigaciones sociales, pp. – . fediakova, evguenia. . “somos parte de esta sociedad”: evangélicos y política en el chile post autoritario. política : – . freston, paul. . evangelicals and politics in asia, africa and latin america. cambridge: cambridge university press. garrard burnett, virginia. . terror in the land of the holy spirit: guatemala under general efraín ríos montt, – . new york: oxford university press. gooren, henri. . catholic and non-catholic theologies of liberation: poverty, self-improvement, and ethics among small-scale entrepreneurs in guatemala city. journal for the scientific study of religion : – . [crossref] gooren, henri. a. ortega for president: the religious rebirth of sandinismo in nicaragua. european review of latin american and caribbean studies : – . [crossref] gooren, henri. b. the pentecostalization of religion and society in latin america. exchange : – . [crossref] gooren, henri. . the growth and development of non-catholic churches in paraguay. in spirit and power: the global impact of pentecostal growth. edited by richard flory, donald e. miller and kimon sargeant. new york: oxford university press, pp. – . gooren, henri. . the growth and development of non-catholic churches in chile. review of religious research : – . [crossref] gooren, henri. . mass media impact on christian churches in paraguay. paper presented at the annual meeting of the society for the scientific study of religion, las vegas, nv, usa, october . hanratty, dannin m., and sandra w. meditz. . paraguay: a country profile; washington, dc: federal research division for the library of congress. available online: http://lcweb .loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/paraguay.pdf (accessed on october ). holland, clifton l. . paraguay. in worldmark encyclopedia of religious practices: volume , countries m-z. edited by andrew riggs. detroit: thomson gale, pp. – . holvast, rené. . spiritual mapping in the united states and argentina, – : a geography of fear. leiden: brill. johnstone, patrick, and jason mandryk. . operation world, th ed. carlisle: paternoster lifestyle. lalive d’epinay, christian. . haven of the masses: a study of the pentecostal movement in chile. london: lutterworth. levine, daniel h. . religion and politics in comparative perspective. comparative politics : – . [crossref] levine, daniel h. . politics, religion, and society in latin america. boulder: lynne rienner. mandryk, jason. . operation world, th ed. colorado springs: biblical publishing. masías-hinojosa, víctor hugo, paola ramírez-pérez, and maría inés winkler-müller. . construcción de identidad en personas convertidas a la iglesia metodista pentecostal de chile. forum: qualitative social research : – . méndez grimaldi, idilio. . batalla contra el imperialismo, la oligarquía y la corrupción. in gobierno lugo: herencia, gestión y desafíos. edited by luis rojas villagra. asunción: base investigaciones sociales, pp. – . meyer, peter j. . chile: political and economic conditions and u.s. relations. washington, dc: congressional research service of the library of congress. available online: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/r . pdf (accessed on november ). o’neill, kevin l. . city of god: christian citizenship in postwar guatemala. berkeley: university of california press. o’shaughnessy, hugh, and edgar venerando ruiz díaz. . the priest of paraguay: fernando lugo and the making of a nation. london and new york: zed books. parker, cristián. . religion and culture. in chile in the nineties. edited by cristián toloza and eugenio lahera. stanford: stanford university press, pp. – . patterson, eric. . religious activity and political participation: the brazilian and chilean cases. latin american politics and society : – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /erlacs. http://dx.doi.org/ . / x http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://lcweb .loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/paraguay.pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/r .pdf http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/r .pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x religions , , of pérez, rodrigo. . pérez confirma que harold caballeros será el canciller. siglo xxi, november . plett, rodolfo. . el protestantismo en el paraguay. asunción: flet/iba. segovia, diego. . la necesaria democratización de las comunicaciones. in gobierno lugo: herencia, gestión y desafíos. edited by luis rojas villagra. asunción: base investigaciones sociales, pp. – . sepúlveda, juan. . pentecostal theology in the context of the struggle for life. in faith born in the struggle for life: a re-reading of protestant faith in latin america today. edited by dow kirkpatrick. grand rapids: eerdmans, pp. – . tennekes, hans. . el movimiento pentecostal en la sociedad chilena. amsterdam and iquique: cultural anthropology vu university/ciren. thompson, warren. . evangelizing the state: mennonite brethren technocrats in paraguayan state reform, – . albuquerque: ma thesis in sociology, university of new mexico. wightman, jill m. . healing the nation: pentecostal identity and social change in bolivia. in conversion of a continent: contemporary religious change in latin america. edited by timothy j. steigenga and edward l. cleary. new brunswick: rutgers university press, pp. – . © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	the old ethos: protestantism and the state in paraguay and chile 	protestantism, political parties, and electoral campaigns 	the new political ethos: “because we are part of this society” 	conclusions 	references university of groningen review of johannes müller, exile memories and the dutch revolt. the narrated diaspora, – van der linden, david published in: early modern low countries doi: . /emlc. important note: you are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's pdf) if you wish to cite from it. please check the document version below. document version publisher's pdf, also known as version of record publication date: link to publication in university of groningen/umcg research database citation for published version (apa): van der linden, d. ( ). review of johannes müller, exile memories and the dutch revolt. the narrated diaspora, – . early modern low countries, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . /emlc. copyright other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like creative commons). take-down policy if you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. downloaded from the university of groningen/umcg research database (pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. for technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to maximum. download date: - - https://doi.org/ . /emlc. https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/review-of-johannes-muller-exile-memories-and-the-dutch-revolt-the-narrated-diaspora- (ee efd -ab - - -c a c ef a).html https://doi.org/ . /emlc. early modern low countries ( ) , pp. - - eissn: - doi . /emlc. - url: http://www.emlc-journal.org publisher: stichting emlc, supported by utrecht university library open access journals | the netherlands copyright: the author(s). this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . international license. review johannes müller, exile memories and the dutch revolt. the narrated diaspora, - , leiden, brill, , pp. isbn - - - - . the dutch revolt produced one of the larg- est exile waves of the early modern period. as alessandro farnese’s armies ploughed through the southern provinces in the s, at least , lutherans, men- nonites and calvinists fled to germany, england, and the nascent dutch republic. whereas the socio-economic fortunes and religious beliefs of these exiles have been amply studied, müller focuses on their memory culture. his core argument is that memories of persecution and flight proved foundational to the identity of the refugees, who continued to remember their exile for generations. müller uncovered traces of dutch exile memories well into the eight- eenth century, thus countering the received wisdom that early modern migrants quickly integrated into their host societies and forgot about their homeland. moreover, he argues that such memories were not the exclusive domain of exiles and their descendants, but were also adopted by dutch, german, and english protestants, for whom exile narratives gradually became part of their own identity. chapters and are by far the most compelling part of müller’s study, exploring the evolution of exile memory across generations. these chapters debunk the myth that exile was a one-way street that turned strangers into citizens, and presumably consigned mem- ories of their homeland to oblivion. as müller shows, the first generation of refugees in fact remembered their flight for decades, initially because it fueled hopes that once the fortunes of the dutch revolt would change, they could return to their homes in the south. müller labels these narratives “hot memory”: not only were stories of flight and persecu- tion recounted by those who had first-hand experience of the events, exiles also used such memories to call for political action, in particular the reconquest of the south. in , http://www.emlc-journal.org review for example, the antwerp exile jacob duym published his ghedenck-boeck, a series of belligerent plays that showcased the persecutions and the treachery of the spaniards to argue against a truce with spain. the children and grandchildren of first-generation exiles, however, produced a “cold memory” that was devoid of political claims, but instead cen- tered around identity: essentially, being descended from exiles conferred status on these families. in making these identity claims, descendants often reinterpreted their exile past to forge a mythical origin story of religious flight. the reason exile narratives became so prominent and were sustained for generations, müller argues, was because they were adopted by their host nations. this argument is explored most persuasively in chapter , which takes us into the eighteenth century. english puritans for instance admired the dutch stranger churches because they practiced a form of calvinism that struck closer to their ideals than the halfway house that was the anglican church. moreover, the memory of exclusiveness and persecution became a template the puritans could easily adopt to describe their own precarious situation. german pietists in frankfurt likewise borrowed the narrative of wandering pilgrims from the reformed stranger churches, while descendants of dutch exiles played a key role in emerging pietist networks. it was surely no coincidence that william penn, founder of the pennsylvania colony, garnered support for his enterprise among former exile milieus in frankfurt. this transnational interaction between exile memories is also evident in chapter , which shows that southern exiles continued to travel along routes and exile centers of the initial refuge, just as they offered aid to persecuted brethren in germany, citing their own past of persecution as the reason to help these suffering protestants. as such, this book offers important lessons for historians of early modern exile and migration, but for scholars of memory the read is less rewarding. because müller does not offer an explicit definition of memory, it often remains unclear whether the exile narra- tives he cites are actual evidence of an early modern understanding of the past, or simply part of a religious discourse that was prevalent throughout this period. the protestant justifications for exile he discusses in chapter , for example, also recur in catholic pub- lications and in huguenot exile sermons after , which probably points to a shared biblical outlook rather than the recycling of “exile memories”. the same could be argued about the adoption of exile narratives by puritans and pietists, which were not necessarily influenced by exile memories, but by long-standing biblical tropes. nevertheless, this is an important book for readers interested in the transnational and trans-generational aspects of the early modern exile experience. david van der linden, university of groningen – – doi: . / - - УДК . . the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series mariia v. kolmakova* institute of human philosophy herzen state pedagogical university of russia st. petersburg, russian federation received . . , received in revised form . . , accepted . . abstract. the article concerns a series of atheist guide books, published by the omsk publishing house within the period from to . the books represent a developed atheist education system, which takes into account the peculiarities of the religious life in omsk and the omsk region. the material of the books may be of interest to religious theorists and historians as a source of additional information about atheistic upbringing in siberia. the authors of the series view religion as a naturally developing social phenomenon that evolves under various factors. at the same time, these texts consider religion to be a form of manifestation of the omsk citizens’ low education level. in general, the books in the series not only call for overcoming religious misconceptions but also for regarding religion as a phenomenon that plays an important role in the lives of soviet people. keywords: scientific atheism, science of religion, ussr, omsk, book series. the research is funded by rfbr, project no. - - . research area: philosophy of religion and religious studies. art history and cultural studies. citation: kolmakova, m.v. ( ). the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series. j. sib. fed. univ. humanit. soc. sci., ( ), – . doi: . / - - . journal of siberian federal university. humanities & social sciences ( ): – © siberian federal university. all rights reserved * corresponding author e-mail address: kolmakovamv@yandex.ru orcid: - - - – – mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series introduction in the s, scientific and atheistic propa- ganda in omsk was spread widely and covered almost all parts of the region. after the release of resolutions of the central committee of the communist party of the soviet union (cpsu) (on further improvement of ideological, polit- ical and educational work (dd. april , ) and on strengthening the atheistic upbring- ing (dd. september , )), the pace and quality of the work increased, and communist party officials, university and school teachers, students, journalists, and many others joined it with great diligence. propaganda departments and the regional scientific atheism house widened the scope of their activities too. they hosted open lectures and discussions along with many other events. the publication of methodical and sup- plementary literature for propagandists and lecturers was also one of the types of atheistic upbringing. these kinds of books always had several objectives, the primary goal being to increase the educators’ public speaking pro- ficiency and, consequently, the quality of ed- ucation the listeners or students received. in the s, a number of such publications had a quite obvious character of atheistic upbringing. until the end of the s, religion appeared in these texts as an undesirable part of the public life, with which the readers were urged to fight relentlessly. related works at present, there is a growing interest in the history of religious science in the ussr, and especially in the question of the place re- ligion took in the soviet people’s life. rela- tively recently, st. petersburg (smirnov, ; shakhnovich, chumakova ; etc.) and moscow (mitrokhin, ; antonov, vo- rontsova, kolkunova, etc.) colleagues released great comprehensive publications on this topic. modern bibliographic and historio- graphical analysis of texts published in the sec- ond half of the th century will significantly help to supplement the available information about the specifics of this scientific field devel- opment. publications devoted to the history of religious science development in siberia repre- sent an important and in its own way unique experience coupled with a variety of regional and cultural specificities and thus are of special interest (dashkovskii (ed.), – ; kho- mushku, ; dashkovski, ). book series analysis in this article, we are going to consider four examples of brochures for teachers and educators united in the atheist guide series that was published in the period from to by the omsk publishing house. the se- ries had a recognizable design. the books were small in size ( * mm; about printed sheets in volume) and were published in a soft colored paper cover, the style of which sym- bolized the transition of an enlightened person from the “darkness of religious ignorance” to the “light of atheistic knowledge”. the book circulation was very impressive by today’s standards: , copies. the list of authors included cpsu officials, scientists, university professors, representatives of the media, and other educators. the back of the title page of each book in the series contained an abstract with a keynote idea of “overcoming religious ignorance”. bearing the self-explanatory title atheist guide, the series can be very interest- ing for religious theorists, as the material repre- sented within the covers of books is a striking example of educational literature for the scien- tific atheist workers, at the same time contain- ing interesting facts about the religious life in omsk and the region. the first book, guiding a person (zharin- ov et al., ), was published in and rep- resented a collection of articles written by v.i. zharinov (head of propaganda and agitation department of the regional committee of the cpsu), iu.m. shalaev (associate professor of omsk state university, candidate of sciences in philosophy), l. shnyreva (head of propaganda and agitation department of lubinsk regional committee of the cpsu), l. zhilich (deputy editor of the vechernii omsk newspaper), a. guchenkov (senior lecturer at omsk higher militia school of the ministry of internal af- fairs of the ussr, ph.d), g. tatarinova (head of cpsu related department of the omskaia pravda newspaper, m. borovikov (director of – – mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series the regional scientific atheism house). the publication’s general tone was embodied in the title of its first article: atheistic upbringing is an important task for communist party or- ganizations (zharinov et al., , – ). the author devoted a lot of attention to the history of the omsk region and the formation of its multi-confessional throng of believers: “long before the great october socialist revolution, a large number of ukrainians, belarusians, and germans moved to western siberia in search of a better life. the settlers often came in en- tire religious communities. kazakhs sought refuge in russian west siberian steppes from their feudal lords called bais. in this way, islam came to be close to the original orthodoxy, ju- daism – to the doctrine of baptists and some sectarian communities, including mennonites, lutherans, pentecostals, adventists, etc. this kind of religious diversity has survived in the region to this day. there are eleven religious denominations in its territory” (zharinov et al., , – ). we should also note the conver- sational language of the narrative, which was rather conversational than popular scientific and thus solved one important task: easy and intelligible presentation allowed to draw into ranks of readers both potential atheistic educa- tion activists and all soviet citizens en mass, that were interested or curious about religious matters. obviously, these books were not in- tended to provide a general reader with deep theological knowledge of religious organiza- tions’ activity in the territory of the omsk re- gion. instead, they embodied the strategy of the government in relation to religion in general. as in scientific researches of the s, the first book of the atheist guide series fixed the idea that believers were not always anti-social elements, and there were also some known be- lievers among model soviet citizens: “relative to such people, as it was stressed at the plenum, our methods should include education, persua- sion, and propaganda” (zharinov et al., , ). the book also emphasized the necessity of a respectful attitude to a person’s feelings and beliefs: “patient, benevolent educational work, involvement in public life, promotion of ac- tive attitude to life, filling the labour activity with high social meaning. this is the way of spiritual liberation, restructuring of believers’ consciousness, transition to the materialistic worldview position, and getting rid of religious illusions” (zharinov et al., , – ). the au- thor claims that this approach allows achieving more significant results by minimizing con- flicts with local residents, encouraging reli- gious organizations to register their activities with the relevant authorities, etc. the second book in the atheist upbring- ing series (shalaev, ) was published in . the monograph of iu.m. shalaev, candi- date of sciences in philosophy and omsk state university professor, consists of two chapters: real socialism and religion and how to raise a committed atheist? it is important that the author concentrates not only on “overcoming religious prejudices” and repeatedly notes that “in atheistic work, we need to pay special at- tention to people, who have fallen under the influence of religious extremists… we must more actively involve believers in social and political affairs, expand their horizons, deep- en their knowledge, and satisfy their ‘secular’ interests” (shalaev, , ). certain recom- mendations are offered regarding the content of atheistic upbringing, which should include “critical consideration of religion as a social phenomenon, scientific and materialistic ex- planation of laws of its origin, evolution, and ways of overcoming, as well as modern activ- ities of religious associations” (shalaev, , ). the book abounds in examples of conver- sations between atheistic lecturers and believ- ers during lectures, as well as successful and unsuccessful answers to certain questions re- lated to religion. it should be noted that iu.m. shalaev was actively engaged in scientific and educational work, exploring religions of omsk and the omsk region (shalaev, , , , etc.), participating in a number of scientific and practical conferences and editori- al boards of several publications, which in one way or another concerned the topic of religion and soviet people (sadretdinov (ed.), ; ve- toshkin (ed.), ). his texts testify to a deep understanding of the life of believers of differ- ent faiths in the city of omsk (filatov, ). the third book, the overcoming (ol’khov, ianev, ), logically continues the – – mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series narrative of the first two books. as we can see from the title, the book urges to “overcome religious prejudices” and to “form a scientific worldview”, which is confirmed by the content of chapters what is a modern believer like?, what are the priests calling for, do religious prejudices do harm, etc. a special feature of the publication is frequent references to statis- tical data of scientific researches on the quan- titative and qualitative composition of believ- ers in omsk and the region, with authors also citing the data of various sociological surveys conducted among the believers. the authors emphasize: “moreover, these differences ul- timately determined by social causes are also influenced by some form of religion, traditions and customs, way of life, historical and local conditions, which can in each case be very dif- ferent. this once again confirms the need for their careful study” (ol’khov, ianev, : ). the book pays special attention to the oppo- sition between the ritual, ideological positions inherent in the representatives of various reli- gious and soviet organizations. the priority in all cases is naturally given to the latter. it is important that the book is, on the one hand, a repetition of the main theses presented in the previous books of the series (heterogene- ity of the composition of believers, history of the religious expansion in siberia, the need of collective effort to “overcome religious mis- conceptions”, etc.), while, on the other hand, it prepares the reader for the content of the fourth book, in which the main place would be given to a believer’s personality. the fourth book, the way to the heart and mind (foigel’, ), terminates the cy- cle of narratives about working with believers. this book is a guide to individual work with each believer and clearly shows the scheme of actions for an atheistic educator to undertake in various situations arising in his/her education- al work. it is important to note that the main theme of the entire presentation is a respectful, but very persistent, attitude to believers: “with- out imposing obvious analogies on a believer, one can make them think about the main ques- tion: how does the god of their religion differ from the god of a different religion?” (foigel’, , ). in addition to direct “overcoming”, a special role is given to securing the achieved result, i.e. creation of ‘atheist conviction’: “it is very difficult for a person, who has just broken up with religion, to move on to a materialistic understanding of social processes. after all, they are leaping from one level of knowledge to another, and if there is no one to help, such persons will not be able to do it on their own” (foigel’, , ). the author also mentions the pertaining dangers. some of them are very cu- rious, like the belief in science: “for example, the idea of science in the service of mankind is beautiful. however, assuming that belief in it on this basis is beautiful too would be wrong, because science requires studying and knowl- edge, rather than belief. an atheist should tact- fully call the attention of a former believer to every misstep of this kind” (foigel’, , ). the authors note that the ultimate understand- ing for any atheistic educator is the idea that a believer is, first of all, a soviet citizen, who requires the same support and development as any other member of the society, who can ben- efit the common goals. the goal of atheistic up- bringing was to organically include believers in the well-functioning mechanism of the soviet society. conclusion the atheist guide series is a complete supporting package of materials for the athe- istic upbringing that, according to the authors, included four levels for a student: ) aware- ness of religion as an undesirable component in the soviet people’s life; ) balancing the world outlook priorities in accordance with atheistic propaganda; ) overcoming religious prejudices through the involvement of believ- ers in activities of the soviet society; ) re- placing the religious component with the athe- ist. the four small books contain the whole atheistic upbringing system based on actual knowledge about features of religious life in omsk and the region. the authors of the series consider religion as a naturally developing phenomenon that evolves under various fac- tors of people’s daily life and changes depend- ing on the social and political environment. while scholars in their researches increasing- ly revealed the failure of the idea of the com- – – mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series plete overcoming of religious views through the results of scientific achievements (kapus- tin, ; elenskii, ; mitrokhin, et al.), the authors of the considered books did not demonstrate such views (here, we need to take into account the nature and the target au- dience of publications). at the same time, the authors of the series still perceived religious faith as a lack of education on the part of cit- izens, which required methodical educational interventions. a large number of scientific and statistical materials significantly enriched the content of these books, and their specific lan- guage made the texts accessible (primarily in their meaning) to a wide range of educators and students. as a result, the book series views religion as a complex social phenomenon dependent upon a number of historical and regional fea- tures, having its own causes of origin and de- velopment, and in general playing an important role in the life of soviet people. references antonov, k.m., vorontsova, e.v., kolkunova, k.a. ( ). “nauka o religii”, “nauchnyi ateizm”, “religiovedenie”: aktual’nye problemy nauchnogo izucheniia religii v rossii xx – nachala xxi v. [“sci- ence of religion”, “scientific atheism”, “religious studies”: actual problems of the scientific study of religion in russia of the xx – beginning of the xxi century]. -nd ed. moscow, orthodox st. tikhon humanitarian university, p. dashkovskii, p.k. (ed.) ( – ). mirovozzrenie naseleniia iuzhnoi sibiri i tsentral’noi azii v is- toricheskoi retrospective [the worldview of the population of southern siberia and central asia in histor- ical retrospective]. barnaul, azbuka. dashkovskii, p.k. ( ). mirovozzrenie kochevnikov saiano-altaia i sopredel’nykh territorii pozd- nei drevnosti i rannego srednevekov’ia (otechestvennaia istoriografiia i sovremennye issledovaniia) [the worldview of the nomads of the sayan-altai and adjacent territories of late antiquity and the early mid- dle ages (russian historiography and modern research)]. barnaul, altai state university, p. elenskii, v.e. ( ). protestantskoe sektantstvo v sovetskom obshchestve: analiz adaptivnykh prot- sessov [protestant sectarianism in soviet society: an analysis of adaptive processes]. kiev, p. filatov, v.i. ( ). o kafedre filosofii [on the department of philosophy]. in ocherki istorii omskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta v vospominaniiakh, dokumentakh, litsakh [essays on the history of omsk state university in memoirs, documents, faces]. omsk, – . filist, g.m. ( ). urbanizatsiia i sektantstvo [urbanization and sectarianism]. minsk, , [ ] p. foigel’, a.m. ( ). put’ k serdtsu i razumu [way to heart and reason]. omsk, omsk book publish- ing house, , [ ] p. kapustin, n.s. ( ). osobennosti evoliutsii religii: na materialakh drevnikh verovanii i khristian- stva [features of the evolution of religion: on the materials of ancient beliefs and christianity]. moscow, p. khomushku, o.m. ( ). religiia v kul’ture narodov saiano-altaia [religion in the culture of the peoples of sayano-altai]. moscow, russian academy of public administration under the president of the russian federation, p. mitrokhin, l.n. ( ). khristianstvo v epokhu nauchno-tekhnicheskoi revoliutsii. stat’i – [christi- anity in the era of the scientific and technological revolution. articles to ]. in nauka i religiia [science and religion], , – ; , – ; , – . mitrokhin, l.n. ( ). filosofskie problemy religiovedeniia [philosophical problems of religious studies]. st. petersburg, russian christian academy of humanities, p. ol’khov, o.p., ianev, i.g. ( ). preodolenie [overcoming]. omsk, omsk book publishing house, , [ ] p. sadretdinov, g.k. (ed.) ( ). problemy ideino-politicheskoi bor’by v stranakh zapadnoi evropy v novoe i noveishee vremia [problems of the ideological and political struggle in western europe in modern and recent times]. omsk, omsk state university, p. – – mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series shakhnovich, m.m., chumakova, t.v. ( ). muzei istorii religii akademii nauk sssr i rossiiskoe religiovedenie ( – ) [the museum of the history of religion of the ussr academy of sciences and russian religious studies ( – )]. st. petersburg, nauka, p. shakhnovich, m.m., chumakova, t.v. ( ). ideologiia i nauka: izuchenie religii v epokhu kul’turnoi revoliutsii v sssr [ideology and science: the study of religion in the era of the cultural revolution in the ussr]. st. petersburg, nauka, p. shalaev, y.m. ( ). sovremennoe pravoslavie i nauka. o bogoslovskikh popytkakh primireniia re- ligii i nauki [modern orthodoxy and science. on theological attempts to reconcile religion and science]. moscow, mysl’, p. shalaev, y.m. ( ). osobennosti sovremennogo etapa bor’by nauki i religii [features of the modern stage in the struggle of science and religion]. omsk, p. shalaev, y.m. ( ). ekzamen na zrelost’ [maturity exam]. in sovetskaia rossiia [soviet russia], march. shalaev, y.m. ( ). rol’ predmeta “osnovy nauchnogo ateizma” v formirovanii nauchno-ateis- ticheskogo mirovozzreniia studencheskoi molodezhi [the role of the subject “fundamentals of scientific atheism” in the formation of the students’ scientific and atheistic worldview]. in aktual’nye voprosy teorii i praktiki kommunisticheskogo vospitaniia studencheskoi molodezhi. tezisy dokladov i nauchnykh soobsh- chenii oblastnoi nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii [actual issues of the theory and practice of commu- nist education of student youth. abstracts of reports and scientific reports of the regional scientific and practical conference]. omsk, – . shalaev, y.m. ( ). vospitat’ ateista [to raise an atheist]. omsk, omsk book publishing house, , [ ] p. smirnov, m.y. ( ). religiia i religiovedenie v rossii [religion and religious studies in russia]. st. petersburg, p. vetoshkin, a.p. (ed.) ( ). chelovecheskii faktor v mekhanizme uskoreniia obshchestvennogo pro- gressa: vospitanie i obrazovanie: tezisy dokladov nauchnoi konferentsii “chelovecheskii faktor v mekha- nizme uskoreniia obshchestvennogo progressa: problemy formirovaniia aktivizatsii” [the human factor in the mechanism of accelerating social progress: upbringing and education. abstracts of the scientific conference “the human factor in the mechanism of accelerating social progress: the problems of the formation of activation”]. omsk, omsk state university, p. zharinov, v.i., shalaev, y.m., shnyreva, l., zhilich, l., guchenkov, a., tatarinova, g., borovikov, m. ( ). pomoch’ cheloveku [to help a person]. omsk, omsk book publishing house, , [ ] p. mariia v. kolmakova. the book as an element of atheistic upbringing through the example of the atheist guide series Книга как элемент атеистической воспитательной работы на примере серии «В помощь атеисту» М.В. Колмакова Институт философии человека Российский государственный педагогический университет им. А.И. Герцена Российская Федерация, Санкт-Петербург Аннотация. Статья посвящена серии книг «В помощь атеисту», опубликованных в период с по год в Омском книжном издательстве. Книги содержат чет- ко разработанную атеистическую воспитательную систему, учитывающую особен- ности религиозной жизни г. Омска и области. Материал, заключенный в книгах, может быть интересен религиоведам и историкам в качестве вспомогательного комплекса сведений об атеистическом воспитании в Сибири. Авторы серии рассма- тривают религию в качестве закономерно развивающегося социального явления, эволюционирующего в соответствии с различными факторами, но в то же время религия в этих текстах является одной из форм проявления низкого уровня образо- ванности граждан. В целом, книги серии призывают не только «преодолевать рели- гиозные заблуждения», но воспринимать религию как феномен играющий важную роль в жизни советских людей. Ключевые слова: научный атеизм, наука о религии, СССР, Омск, книжная серия. Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РФФИ в рамках научного проекта № – – . Научная специальность: . . – философия религии и религиоведение. Искус- ствоведение и культурология. doi: . / am. j. hum. genet. : – , report gene preference in maple syrup urine disease mary m. nellis and dean j. danner graduate program in nutrition and health sciences and department of genetics, emory university school of medicine, atlanta untreated maple syrup urine disease (msud) results in mental and physical disabilities and often leads to neonatal death. newborn-screening programs, coupled with the use of protein-modified diets, have minimized the severity of this phenotype and allowed affected individuals to develop into productive adults. although inheritance of msud adheres to rules for single-gene traits, mutations in the genes for e a, e b, or e of the mitochondrial branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex can cause the disease. randomly selected cell lines from individuals with clinically diagnosed msud were tested by retroviral complementation of branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase activity to identify the gene locus for mutant alleles. the frequencies of the mutations were % for the e a gene, % for the e b gene, and % for the e gene. ten percent of the tested cell lines gave ambiguous results by showing no complementation or restoration of activity with two gene products. these results provide a means to establish a genotype/phenotype relationship in msud, with the ultimate goal of unraveling the complexity of this single-gene trait. this represents the largest study to date providing information on the genotype for msud. maple syrup urine disease (msud; msud type ia [mim ], msud type ii [mim ], msud type ib [mim ]) is a rare inborn error of metabolism affecting ! in , newborn infants in the general population (peinemann and danner ; chuang and shih ; danner and doering ). despite its rare occurrence, msud is found in all racial and ethnic groups throughout the world (danner and elsas ). neurological complications and death in the neonatal period can result from this inability to catabolize the branched-chain amino acids (bcaa) leucine, isoleucine, and valine. the pathophysiology of untreated msud is not well understood. newborn-screening programs in most states and in several foreign countries detect those individuals at risk for expressing the disease. affected individuals are protein intolerant and must be nurtured with synthetic diets that limit the intake of these essential bcaa (elsas and acosta ). these protein-modified received october , ; accepted for publication november , ; electronically published december , . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. dean j. danner, department of genetics, clifton road, room , emory uni- versity school of medicine, atlanta, ga . e-mail: ddanner @emory.edu � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . diets enable near-normal growth and development for affected individuals but must be tailored to the individ- ual, demonstrating one aspect of the complexity of this single-gene trait (scriver and waters ; dipple and mccabe ). the inability to catabolize the bcaa results from de- fective function of the branched chain a-ketoacid de- hydrogenase (bckd) complex. bckd oxidatively de- carboxylates the branched-chain a-ketoacids (bcka) formed by the transamination of the bcaa. this mi- tochondrial multienzyme complex is encoded entirely by nuclear genes. four protein products impart catalytic function, and two other protein products are used to regulate bckd activity-state in the different tissues (gil- lim et al. ; wagenmakers et al. ). this regu- lation is necessary to prevent the depletion of bcaa, since bckd is present in all cells. the need for this wide tissue distribution of bckd is not understood. of the four genes that impart catalytic function, three encode proteins with specificity for the bcka substrates. the fourth catalytic gene product also functions with other mitochondrial complexes (yeaman ). although inheritance of msud adheres to a simple autosomal re- cessive pattern, mutations in each of these three bckd- specific genes have been shown to cause msud. two of these genes encode subunits (e a [z ] and e b core metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by elsevier - publisher connector https://core.ac.uk/display/ ?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v reports table bckd activity in lymphoblast lines with defined genotypes, from patients with msud cell line mutant gene mutation mean � sd total bckd activitya (pmol co /mg protein/ h) not transduced e a e b e em e a y nb � � � � em c e b n y/r x � � � � em d e gra/ ( -kb del) � � � � dg none , � nd nd nd a all cells were treated with mm a-chloroisocaproate for min prior to addition of substrate to induce ability to measure full activity of the bckd complex. nd p not done. b known mennonite cell line. c from mcconnell et al. ( ). d from herring et al. ( ). figure western blot of bckd proteins in mitochondria. mi- tochondria were prepared from em cells without viral transduc- tion or after transduction with either the e or e b vector, and mg were resolved for immunoblots. mitochondria from dg cells serve as a wild-type control line. [m ]) that form a heterotetramer that uses thiamin pyrophosphate as a cofactor to decarboxylate the bcka (Ævarsson et al. ). the third gene product, the acyl- transferase (e [x ]) core protein, transfers the branched-chain acyl moiety to coenzyme a (yeaman ; reed and hackert ). the majority of mutations described to date have been in the gene that encodes the e a subunit (danner and doering ). it remains to be shown whether any one of these three genes has an increased tendency toward mutation. although all the genes have been character- ized and their chromosomal location identified, no easy method is available to determine whether the e a, e b, or e gene harbors the mutant alleles. the only mutant allele found with any frequency exists in the mennonite community and is associated with a founder effect (dan- ner and doering ). finding a simple, reliable method to identify the spe- cific mutant gene that causes msud from the three pos- sible choices has presented a challenge. western blots can be used to define individuals with msud who lack the e protein (danner et al. ). however, reduction in the antigenic presence of e a, e b, or both can result from mutations in either gene, because the ability to form the a b tetramer is affected. in some msud cell lines, the proteins of the complex are antigenically in- distinguishable from those seen in cells with normal ac- tivity. thus, immunoblots have limited value in helping to identify the gene harboring the mutant alleles. enzyme-activity measurements in cultured cells de- rived from patients are used to confirm the clinical di- agnosis of msud made by quantification of plasma bcaa concentration. we and others have shown that impaired bckd activity is functionally restored to cul- tured cells by episomal addition of a wild-type cdna for the defective gene (litwer et al. ; koyata et al. ; mueller et al. ). here we use this bckd- activity-complementation approach to identify the gene harboring the mutant alleles. retroviral plasmids hold- ing the wild-type cdna sequence were constructed for each of the three msud-specific genes in order to ef- fectively and efficiently transduce both fibroblasts and lymphoblasts. cell lines with defined mutations from individuals with msud were used to establish condi- tions for bckd assay after transduction. as shown in table , the return of function to bckd is clearly evident by h after transduction of lymphoblasts and can spe- cifically distinguish the defective gene despite an esti- mated transduction efficiency of only %. production of the subunit encoded by the viral vector was dem- onstrated by western blot of mitochondrial protein from an e -negative cell line transduced with the e and e b vectors (fig. ). efficiency of transduction in fibroblast cultures is % by h; thus, assays of bckd activity can be performed at this time (table ). this enzyme-complementation analysis was applied to cell lines from individuals with msud and without a known mennonite ancestor. this represents the largest single study sample used for analysis of the msud ge- notype. no other qualification was placed on sample selection. the cell lines were obtained from physicians am. j. hum. genet. : – , table bckd activity in fibroblast lines with unknown genetic mutations, from patients with msud cell line mean � sd total bckd activitya (pmol co /mg protein/ h) not transduced e a e b e em � , � � � em � � , � � em � � � , � em b , � nd nd nd a conditions for the assay are described in the text and in table . nd p not done. b control cell line. figure percentage of cell lines with mutations in each of three genes that cause msud. a, results of cell lines using restoration of bckd activity assay. twenty-nine females and males, excluding those with known mennonite heritage, were tested. b, summary of percentages based on mutations described elsewhere. throughout the world and included individuals from north, central, and south america; europe; and asia. this sample includes males and females, in ac- cordance with the autosomal recessive nature of msud. as depicted in figure a, mutations in the gene for e b on chromosome are approximately equal to the fre- quency of e a mutations, whereas those of e are some- what less common. in contrast, % of the previously characterized mutant alleles were the result of defects in the gene for the e a subunit on chromosome , and % were defects in e , as summarized in figure b (chuang and shih ; danner and doering ). results from five lymphoblastoid lines and one fibro- blast line were ambiguous when this bckd comple- mentation analysis was used. for four cell lines, no stim- ulation of residual activity was observed with any subunit in three separate transductions for each cell line. the other two cell lines exhibited ! % increases in residual activity with two different subunits. five of the six cell lines have residual activity % of wild-type bckd activity, a condition that has been used to define an “intermittent” or “intermediate” form of msud (pei- nemann and danner ). in contrast, the majority of the other cell lines have residual activity that is ! % of wild-type bckd activity (table ). western blots of mitochondrial proteins from five of the six cell lines that gave ambiguous results show the antigenic presence in all subunits. one lacked the antigenic presence of both e a and e b. another cell line that was found to be ambiguous in the lymphoblast assay was resolved when fibroblasts from the patient were analyzed; this was likely a result of the higher transduction efficiency for fibroblasts. unfortunately, fibroblasts are not available for all patients studied. definition of the specific mu- tations in the cells with ambiguous complementation data will resolve these questions and offer a clearer un- derstanding of msud variability, especially regarding the “intermediate” phenotype (peinemann and danner ). the somewhat lower frequency of mutations associ- ated with the e gene on chromosome may be real, but other explanations are possible. first, if the cell lines that give ambiguous results have mutations in the e gene, then an equal distribution of mutations among the three genes would result. a second explanation may be that the e mutations are being missed at the clinical level. as seen in table , individuals with e mutations can have higher residual activity than that found in cell lines with mutations in the other two genes. in some individuals there is no antigenic protein being produced (fig. ) and yet some decarboxylation of the ketoacid substrate occurs (danner et al. ; ellerine et al. ). mutations in e have also been associated with the “thiamin-responsive” form of msud (danner et al. ; fernhoff et al. ; ellerine et al. ). one possible explanation for the thiamin response is that the e decarboxylase, which uses thiamin pyrophosphate as a cofactor in the reaction mechanism, can function in- dependently of the e protein. the branched-chain acyl- thiamin pyrophosphate intermediate formed in the de- carboxylation reaction is displaced by the excess thiamin pyrophosphate in the cell, thus allowing the enzyme to catalyze another round of decarboxylation (herring et al. ; danner and doering ). the independent function of e could explain the higher residual activity observed for the e mutant cell lines. in some cases this activity could be high enough to prevent the full clinical phenotype, and therefore these individuals are never classified as having msud. the ability of the enzyme complementation analysis to identify the mutant genes was confirmed by nucleotide sequence analysis of the indicated mutant gene with the primers listed in table . results for one patient from each complementing group are reported in table . pa- rental cell lines for each proband were used to confirm the transmission of the mutant allele. the three examples all happened to be homozygous for the mutant allele, which is unusual for msud, since most probands thus far characterized are compound heterozygotes. another reports table distribution of msud cell lines, based on mutant gene and percent residual activity of bckd above that in the control lines mutant gene no. of msud cell lines in which residual activity compared with that in wild-type bckd is ! % %– % % e a e b e ambiguousa a bckd activity was complemented with more than one subunit, or there was no complementation. table primers used to prepare dna for nucleic acid sequence analysis gene and primer sequence ( ′r ′) position in coding sequence annealing temperature (�c) e a: forward ctaaaccgtggtttgagcca – reverse gcgtacgccgcccccaccgcc – forward ggcggtgggggcggcgtacgc – reverse ggtgggggtgggctgagcagg – e b: forward cgggactacgggcaaactca – reverse agagccccatgaccaacacagcccc – forward tggctactcaggctcagg – reverse tccccagagcgatagcgatacttg – forward ggaatcggaattgcggtcactggag – reverse tcgcgaattccagttacgttaatgtcagggg – e : forward gctgcagtccgtatgctga – reverse ctagtagcataaaagctggg – unexpected result was that the mutant allele defined for the e a gene in proband em was the allele that accounts for % of msud in the mennonite popu- lation. it was previously thought that this allele was not found with greater frequency than other mutations in this gene in the general population. this proband’s fam- ily has no known mennonite heritage and the mating is not consanguineous. as more of the cell lines with mu- tations in this gene are defined, it will become possible to ascertain the true frequency of this mutant allele in the general population. mutations described in the e b gene are for a pro- band who is the product of a consanguineous mating, of turkish origin. the mutant allele results in a v a substitution in the protein. according to the crystal structure coordinates (Ævarsson et al. ), the valine residues are on the surface of the a b tetramer, pos- tulated to be in a region of interaction with the e core protein. it is not yet known how this alanine substi- tution in this position disrupts the function of bckd (Ævarsson et al. ). a second turkish proband (also the product of a consanguineous mating) who complemented with the e b subunit was homozygous for the nucleotide change tra, introducing a stop codon at y . these results argue against the presence of a common allele within families of turkish decent. the homozygous mutation in the e gene in proband em produces an r p amino acid substitution. at present it is not known whether this is a consan- guineous mating. the r residue is just c-terminal to the putative coenzyme a binding site of the protein (danner et al. ). the crystal structure for the e protein has not been solved, so it would be highly spec- ulative to predict the way in which this amino acid sub- stitution might change the ability to form the coa ester. the complex nature of single-gene traits has been at- tributed to variation in specific mutation sites, amino acid substitutions in the protein product, and the ge- nomic background of affected individuals (scriver and waters ; dipple and mccabe ). variation in msud can also result from the fact that mutations in three different genes can produce a similar phenotype. the products of these genes must interact in a multien- zyme complex to achieve their cellular function. to be- gin to unravel the complexity of msud we must first ask whether there is a variation in the occurrence of mutations in the three genes. here we used this rescue technique to identify the defective subunit, and therefore the gene, with the mutant alleles. the method was ef- fective in � % of cell lines tested. previously, it was necessary to sequence all three genes and to exclude polymorphic changes. now only one gene needs to be am. j. hum. genet. : – , table nucleic acid changes in mutant genes identified by bckd complementation analysis cell line mutant gene mean � sd total bckd activitya (pmol co /mg protein/ h) nucleotide changeb amino acid changebaseline rescued em e a � � tra y n em e b � � trc v a em e � � grc r p a bckd activity is defined in table . b all three probands were homozygous for the indicated change, and both parental lines in each family were heterozygous for the mutant allele. scrutinized for nucleic acid changes. it appears that mu- tations occur in each of the three genes, and analysis of additional cell lines will allow a better estimation of the exact frequency. when amino acid substitutions result from these nucleic acid changes, it may be possible, in the future, to design specific reagents that will interact with the mutant protein in a way that alters the structure into a functional form. these reagents would offer a new and improved therapy for individuals with msud. acknowledgments we thank all the physicians who have sent patient material to us over the past � years. without their help this study would not have been possible. special thanks are given to dr. joshy jacobs (department of microbiology and immunology, emory university school of medicine) for his help in retrovi- ral vector construction. lymphocyte transformations were done by the clinical research facility service laboratory with grant support from nih mo -rr , and some fibroblast cultures were obtained through the courtesy of the emory ge- netics laboratory. m.m.n. was supported in part by an nih training grant t dk - . we also thank barbara sum- mers for her technical assistance. a preliminary report of this work was presented at the annual meeting of the american society of human genetics, philadelphia, october . electronic-database information accession numbers and urls for data in this article are as follows: genbank, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (for e a [ac- cession number z ], e b [accession number m , and e [accession number x ]) online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/ (for msud types ia [mim ], ib [mim ] and ii [mim ]) references Ævarsson a, chuang jl, wynn rm, turley s, chuang dt, hol wg ( ) crystal structure of human branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the molecular basis of mul- tienzyme complex deficiency in maple syrup urine disease. structure fold des : – chuang dt, shih ve ( ) disorders of branched chain amino acid and keto acid metabolism. in: scriver cr, beau- det al, sly ws, valle d (eds) the metabolic basis of in- herited disease. vol. . mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – danner dj, armstrong n, heffelfinger sc, sewell et, priest jh, elsas lj ( ) absence of branched chain acyl-trans- ferase as a cause of maple syrup urine disease. j clin invest : – danner dj, davidson ed, elsas lj ( ) thiamine increases the specific activity of human liver branched chain a-ke- toacid dehydrogenase. nature : – danner dj, doering cb ( ) human mutations affecting branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase. front biosci : d – danner dj, elsas lj ( ) disorders of branched chain amino acid and keto acid metabolism. in: scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d (eds) the metabolic basis of inherited dis- ease. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – danner dj, litwer s, herring wj, pruckler j ( ) construc- tion and nucleotide sequence of a cdna encoding the full- length preprotein for human branched chain acyltransferase. j biol chem : – dipple km, mccabe erb ( ) phenotypes of patients with “simple” mendelian disorders are complex traits: thresholds, modifiers, and systems dynamics. am j hum genet : – ellerine np, herring wj, elsas lj, mckean mc, klein pd, danner dj ( ) thiamin-responsive maple syrup urine disease in a patient antigenically missing dihydrolipoamide acyltransferase. biochem med metab biol : – elsas lj, acosta pe ( ) nutritional management of inher- ited metabolic disorders. in: shils me, young v (eds) mod- ern nutrition in health and disease. lea and febiger, phil- adelphia, pp – fernhoff pm, lubitz d, danner dj, dembure pp, schwarz hp, hillman r, bier dm, elsas lj ( ) thiamine responsive maple syrup urine disease. pediatr res : – gillim se, paxton r, cook ga, harris ra ( ) activity state of the branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase com- plex in heart, liver, and kidney of normal, fasted, diabetic, and protein-starved rats. biochem biophys res commun : – herring wj, mckean m, dracopoli n, danner dj ( ) reports branched chain acyltransferase absence due to an alu- based genomic deletion allele and an exon skipping allele in a compound heterozygote proband expressing maple syrup urine disease. biochim biophys acta : – koyata h, cox rp, chuang dt ( ) stable correction of maple syrup urine disease in cells from a mennonite patient by retroviral-mediated gene transfer. biochem j : – litwer s, herring wj, danner dj ( ) reversion of maple syrup urine disease phenotype of impaired branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex activity in fibroblasts from an affected child. j biol chem : – mcconnell bb, burkholder b, danner dj ( ) two new mutations in the human e b subunit of branched chain a- ketoacid dehydrogenase associated with maple syrup urine disease. biochim biophys acta : – mueller gm, mckenzie lr, homanics ge, watkins sc, rob- bins pd, paul hs ( ) complementation of defective leu- cine decarboxylation in fibroblasts from a maple syrup urine disease patient by retrovirus-mediated gene transfer. gene ther : – peinemann f, danner dj ( ) maple syrup urine disease to . j inherit metab dis : – reed lj, hackert ml ( ) structure-function relation- ships in dihydrolipoamide acyltransferases. j biol chem : – scriver cr, waters pj ( ) monogenic traits are not simple. trends genet : – wagenmakers ajm, schepens jtg, veldhuizen jam, veer- kamp jh ( ) the activity state of the branched-chain - oxoacid dehydrogenase complex in rat tissues. biochem j : – yeaman sj ( ) the -oxo acid dehydrogenase complexes: recent advances. biochem j : – 	gene preference in maple syrup urine disease 	acknowledgments 	references chh volume issue cover and front matter church history studies in christianity & culture american society of church history march core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president h a n s j . hillerbrand, duke university president-elect amanda porterfield executive secretary henry w. bowden, rutgers university editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater h a n s j . hillerbrand russell e. richey grant wacker duke university members of the council class of philip krey amanda porterfield mark g. toulouse charles i. wallace class of r. scott appleby dennis c. dickerson nancy a. hardesty r. bruce mullin class of ellen louise babinsky catherine a. brekus charles l. cohen leigh eric schmidt lee palmer wandell the society was founded in by philip schaff, was reorganized in , and was incorporated by act of the legislature of the state of new york in . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. march no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history , the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater hans j. hillerbrand russell e. richey grant wacker senior assistant to the editors caroline t. schroeder assistants to the editors christine shepardson edwin r. tait duke university associate editors william adler north carolina state university david aers duke university laurie f. maffly-kipp university of north carolina at chapel hill donald g. mathews university of north carolina at chapel hill david c. steinmetz duke university thomas a. tweed university of north carolina at chapel hill advisory editors jon butler yale university caroline walker bynum columbia university averil cameron keble college, oxford university robert e. frykenberg university of wisconsin-madison nathan o. hatch university of notre dame christine leigh heyrman university of delaware e. brooks holifield emory university hartmut lehmann max planck institute, university of gottingen patricia cox miller syracuse university heiko a. oberman university of arizona robert a. orsi indiana university andrew porter king's college, university of london john h. van engen university of notre dame merry wiesner-hanks university of wisconsin-milwaukee church history (issn - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles forging papal authority: charters from the monastery of montier-en-der constance b. bouchard "we speak to god with our thoughts": abelard and the implications of private communication with god susan r. kramer audacious nuns: institutionalizing the franciscan order of saint clare lezlie knox retelling the history of the early church: erasmus's paraphrase on acts hilmar m. pabel antiguan methodism and antislavery activity: anne and elizabeth hart in the eighteenth-century black atlantic john saillant a political factor in the rise of protestantism in korea: protestantism and the march first movement timothy s. lee books book review forum marius, richard, martin luther: the christian between god and death martin brecht author's response richard marius book reviews and notes d u n c a n , a n d r e w a n d m i c h a e l o p a t o w s k i , war in the holy land: from meggido to the west bank yaakov ariel b u s c h m a n n , g e r d , das martyrium des polykarp everett ferguson slusser, m i c h a e l , t r a n s . , st. gregory thaumaturgus: life and works joseph w. trigg g o e h r i n g , j a m e s e., ascetics, society, and the desert: studies in early egyptian monasticism georgia frank meyer, m a r v i n w. a n d r i c h a r d s m i t h , e d s . , ancient christian magic: coptic texts of ritual power melissa m. aubin lieu, samuel n. c , manichaeism in central asia and china john c. reeves carey, john, trans, with intro., king of mysteries: early irish religious writings joseph f. kelly core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core brubaker, leslie, ed., byzantium in the ninth century: dead or alive? papers from the thirtieth spring symposium of byzantine studies, birmingham, march patrick viscuso gerstel, sharon e. j., beholding the sacred mysteries: programs of the byzantine sanctuary annabel wharton dahan, gilbert. jody gladding, trans., the christian polemic against the jews in the middle ages kenneth d. snyder murray, alexander callander, ed., after rome's fall: narrators and sources of early medieval history. essays presented to walter goffart harry rosenberg kaelber, lutz, schools of asceticism: ideology and organization in medieval religious communities charmarie j. blaisdell cowdrey, h. e. j., pope gregory vii, - kathleen g. cushing blumenthal, uta-renate, papal reform and canon law in the th and th centuries john e. lynch bouchard, constance brittain, strong of body, brave and noble: chivalry and society in medieval france joseph p. byrne nicholson, helen, ed., of the military orders. welfare and warfare, vol william chester jordan shirley, janet, trans., crusader syria in the thirteenth century: the rothelin continuation of the history of william of tyre with part of the eracles or acre text james m. powell ferreiro, alberto, ed., essays in honor of jeffrey b. russell. the devil, heresy and witchcraft in the middle ages malcolm barber courtenay, william j., parisian scholars in the early fourteenth century: a social portrait larissa juliet taylor cannon, joanna and andre vauchez, margherita ofcortona and the lorenzetti: sienese art and the cult of a holy woman in medieval tuscany helen hills brett, annabel s., trans, and ed., william ofockham: on the powers of emperors and popes michael w. blastic gilmont, jean-frangois, ed., the reformation and the book ralph keen elwood, christopher, the body broken: the calvinist doctrine of the eucharist and the symbolization of power in sixteenth-century france sarah beckwith sacquin, michele, entre bossuet et maurras: l'antiprotestantisme en france de a joan l. coffey james iii, frank a., peter martyr vermigli and predestination: the augustinian inheritance of an italian reformer robert m. kingdon klein, lawrence e. and anthony j. la vopa, eds., enthusiasm and enlightenment in europe, - rick kennedy chadwick, owen, a history of the popes, - michael a. fahey, s.j. burigana, riccardo, la bibbia nel concilio: la redazione della constituzione "dei verbum" del vaticanoll stanley b. marrow brassloff, audrey, religion and politics in spain: the spanish church in transition, - antonio cazorla-sanchez mitchell. timothy j., betrayal of the innocents: desire, power, and the catholic church in spain david ortiz kronenfeld, judy, king lear and the naked truth: rethinking the language of religion and resistance jeffrey knapp ferrell, lori anne, government by polemic: james i, the king's preachers, and the rhetorics of conformity, - j. sears mcgee rambuss, richard, closet devotions allen j. frantzen moran, gerard, ed., radical irish priests: - charles b. paris barnard, leslie w., thomas seeker: an eighteenth century primate myron c. noonkester core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core e l l i s o n , r o b e r t h . , the victorian pulpit: spoken and written sermons in nineteenth-century britain a l l e n h o r s t m a n p e r e i r o , j a m e s , cardinal manning: an intellectual biography j o h n r. griffin n e v i l l e , g r a h a m , radical churchman: edward lee hicks and the new liberalism d a v i d b. m c l l h i n e y j o h n s o n , d a l e a., the changing shape of english nonconformity, - r o b e r t d . c o r n w a l l p h i l l i p s , k e v i n , the cousins' wars: religion, politics, and the triumph of anglo-america a. g. r o e b e r p a y n e , r o d g e r m . , the self and the sacred: conversion and autobiography in early american protestantism bret e. c a r r o l l m c c l y m o n d , m i c h a e l j., encounters with god: an approach to the theology of jonathan edwards ava c h a m b e r l a i n w a l t e r s , k e r r y s., benjamin franklin and his gods a l l e n c. g u e l z o f i t z m i e r , j o h n r., new england's moral legislator: timothy dwight, - m i c h a e l j. m c c l y m o n d b r e k u s , c a t h e r i n e a . , strangers and pilgrims: female preaching in america, - l y d i a h u f f m a n h o y l e l a d e r m a n , g a r y , the sacred remains: american attitudes toward death, - k a t h l e e n m. joyce p h i l l i p s , p a u l t., a kingdom on earth: anglo-american social christianity, - r a l p h e . l u k e r vogel, d a n , e d . , early mormon documents s u s a n r i d g e l y bales q u i n n , d . m i c h a e l , early mormonism and the magic world view, d e d d o u g l a s d. a l d e r avery, v a l e e n t i p p e t t s , from mission to madness: last son of the mormon prophet r i c h a r d l y m a n b u s h m a n b e n n i o n , j a n e t , women of principle: female networking in contemporary mormon polygyny r i c h a r d d . r u s t billingsley, a n d r e w , mighty like a river: the black church and social reform p a u l h a r v e y m a r t i n , s a n d y d w a y n e , for god and race: the religious and political leadership ofamez bishop james walker hood j u d i t h weisenfeld s e r a i l e , w i l l i a m , fire in his heart: bishop benjamin tucker tanner and the a.m.e. church a n t h o n y b. p i n n g r e g g , r o b e r t , sparks from the anvil of oppression: philadelphia's african methodists and southern migrants, - c a r o l v. r. g e o r g e o v e r a c k e r , i n g r i d , the african american church community in rochester, new york, - s a n d y d w a y n e martin w i e c z e r z a k , j o s e p h , a n d t h e o d o r e l z a w i s t o w s k i , e d s . , bishop francis hodur: biographical essays a n t h o n y j. k u z n i e w s k i b u s h , p e r r y , two kingdoms, two loyalties: mennonite pacifism in modern america c. n o r m a n k r a u s j o n e s , l o y a l , faith and meaning in the southern uplands d o n a l d g. m a t h e w s s m i t h , c h r i s t i a n , american evangelicalism: embattled and thriving j o h n r . w i e r s > w u t h n o w , r o b e r t , after heaven: spirituality in america since the s r i c h a r d e. w e n t z > w a r n e r , r. s t e p h e n a n d j u d i t h g. w i t t n e r , e d s . , gatherings in diaspora: religious communities and the new immigration d a v i d yoo h a m m o n d , p h i l l i p e., with liberty for all: freedom of religion in the united states j a m e s e. b r a d l e y ? turley, d a v i d , e d . , american religion: literary sources and documents p e t e r w. w i l l i a m s ! c o h e n , t h o m a s m . , the fire of tongues: antdnio vieira and the missionary church in brazil and portugal virginia g a r r a r d - b u r n e t t core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core greenlee, james g. and charles m. johnston, good citizens: british missionaries and imperial states, to brian stanley haile, getatchew, aasulv lande and samuel rubenson, eds., the missionary factor in ethiopia: papers from a symposium on the impact of european missions on ethiopian society, lund university, august james t. connelly pacini, andrea, ed., and fiona tupper-carey, trans., christian communities in the arab middle east: the challenge of the future charles a. frazee core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core © histoire sociale / social history, vol. xlviii, no (mai / may ) competing cosmologies: reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper royden loewen* between and , the mennonitische post, a canadian-based newspaper, published thousands of letters by members of a unique diaspora. the extended community of mennonites whose grandparents had emigrated from canada in the s to resist the imposition of english-language public schools now rediscovered old ties within the pages of this newspaper. it was, however, a divided community: many of the children and grandchildren of the emigrants had “returned” to middle-class canada; others had built “horse and buggy” communities in central and south america. yet the two groups shared the literary space of the post, and in doing so they engaged in an intricate task of setting boundaries, both external and internal. this essay thus considers how immigrants speak to one another through letters published in ethnic newspapers in transnational contexts. when they do so, they enter a complex, multilayered discussion, articulating not only a common social boundary between the diasporic community and the host society, but significantly, self-validating sub-lines built on competing cosmologies within the diaspora. entre et , le mennonitische post, un journal qui a son siège au canada, publia des milliers de lettres provenant de membres d’une incomparable diaspora. la communauté étendue des mennonites dont les grands-parents avaient émigré du canada dans les années afin de résister à l’imposition d’écoles publiques de langue anglaise redécouvrit alors des liens anciens dans les pages de ce journal. il s’agissait cependant d’une communauté divisée : bon nombre d’enfants et de petits-enfants des émigrants étaient « rentrés » au canada où ils faisaient partie de la classe moyenne; d’autres, par contre, avaient formé en amérique centrale ou en amérique du sud des communautés utilisant encore le cheval de trait. les deux groupes partagèrent pourtant les pages du post consacrées au courrier des lecteurs, assumant de la sorte une tâche complexe : celle consistant à fixer des frontières, à la fois intérieures et extérieures. nous examinons ici la façon dont des immigrants se sont parlé par le truchement de lettres publiées dans * royden loewen is a faculty member in the department of history at the university of winnipeg. the author would like to acknowledge the helpful suggestions by jane errington and franca iacovetta, the research and editorial assistance of kerry fast, susie fisher and robyn sneath, and the patient editorial team at histoire sociale/social history. histoire sociale / social history des journaux ethnoculturels en contexte transnational. ce faisant, ces gens ont amorcé un débat complexe, multidimensionnel, qui, en plus de donner expression à une frontière sociale commune entre la communauté diasporique et la société d’accueil, a validé par lui-même des sous-entendus reposant sur des cosmologies concurrentes à l’intérieur de la diaspora. in the mennonitische post, a canadian-based newspaper, was launched with the goal of linking a unique diaspora. its aim was to bring together an extended community of , mennonites whose grandparents had emigrated from canada in the s to resist the imposition of english-language public schools. scattered across the americas—mexico, belize, paraguay, bolivia, and argentina, as well as canada to which many had returned—its readers rediscovered old ties within the pages of a common newspaper. by far the largest section of each issue of the post was the letter column consisting of writings from ordinary readers. the post’s editors copy-edited and published a veritable deluge of such letters, usually submitted as hand-written texts, an estimated , from to . a study of of those letters reveals a body of writing in rudimentary high german, speaking about the mundane, everyday lives of a migrant people. the letters convey messages about loved ones, births and deaths, weather patterns, transnational visits and secondary migrations, church life, and market strategies. in the process of producing and reading these texts, however, the writers engaged in a complex process of setting social boundaries. indeed, as they wrote they entered into an intricate, overlapping medium of discussion. it reinforced not only a common social boundary between the diasporic community and the host society, but, significantly, also reinforced and demarcated self-validating ethno-religious subgroups built on competing cosmologies within the diaspora. these letters reached out to the widely dispersed ethnic group on the one hand, but also to family members and close friends in more intimate language on the other. in both cases the writers did more than share stories and news items; they implicitly announced their cosmologies, their particular ways of looking at the world. their letters reflected specific ideas on religion, ethnicity, class, and the modern world. often, the underlying ideas in these messages were sharply at odds with the ideas of other members within the wider ethno-religious group. thus the messages reflected competing cosmologies among subgroups within the diaspora. those mennonite subgroups included the most communitarian and parochial on the one hand and the more acculturated and upwardly mobile on the other. the communitarian were often the least polished of the writers; in their letters they for a history of the migrations from canada to latin america in the s, see frank h. epp, mennonites in canada: a people’s struggle for survival (toronto: macmillan, ). for an overview of this diaspora, see royden loewen, village among nations: “canadian” mennonites in a transnational world (toronto: university of toronto press, ). an estimate based on the post editor’s report in that in the first six and a half years the newspaper had received , letters (mennonitische post, august , ). for further information on the old colony mennonites, see the corresponding entry in the global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online and delbert f. plett, ed., old colony mennonites in canada: - (steinbach: crossway, ). articulated a culture and even asserted a belief system that has hitherto been rooted in an oral culture. in the process they shored up old ways, reinforcing them with vocabulary recognized by their closest kith and kin, telling stories that assumed common understandings. conversely, the most assimilated of the writers spoke in a different vocabulary in which they announced their own, more acculturated cosmology. their narratives suggested greater comfort with the wider world, an ability to negotiate its labour markets and integrate into middle-class cultures, to find meaning in “symbolic ethnicity,” to embrace a more individualistic religiosity, and even to pursue a paternalistic diaspora-wide altruism. this literary co-habitation by both the communitarian and the acculturated subgroups, both the pre-modern and modern, in a single genre or medium may have strengthened a common ethno-religious identity, but, hidden from the view of the casual reader, it also reinforced sharp sub-identities. the post had been founded by the mennonite central committee, a progressive social service agency based in canada, with the hope of bridging the various subgroups that had descended from the migration of the s. as sectarian pacifists, speaking their ancestral west prussian low german (an unwritten dialect infused with dutch and russian words), the mennonites were either strangers in latin american cultures or newcomers who had “returned” to canada. over the years, the migrants had diverged, a separation underscored by particular migration patterns. while the original , settlers had settled mostly in northern mexico, with a smaller group in the paraguayan chaco, subsequent generations had undertaken a series of secondary migrations, often reflecting changing religious ideas. in general terms, the most traditionalist— the so-called “horse and buggy” old colony mennonites—moved ever farther southward, from northern mexico to british honduras (currently belize) in the s, to the bolivian oriente beginning in the s, to east paraguay in the s, and to southern mexico’s campeche state and the argentine pampas in the s. the most accommodating—including “car-driving” old colonist, reinlaender, sommerfelder and kleine gemeinde mennonites, as well as several overtly mission-minded, evangelical groups—demonstrated a willingness to embrace a degree of modernization, even urbanization. beginning in the s, but especially in the s and s, they “returned” northward in large numbers and found wage labour or founded small businesses in various points of canada (mostly in southern ontario, manitoba, and alberta), but also as “undocumented” migrants to the western united states. despite the unusual nature of this mennonite diaspora, its internal dynamic reflects migration culture in general, especially in that no migration occurs without significant internal divergence and even conflict. to seek an understanding of for the classical work on “symbolic ethnicity,” see herbert gans, “symbolic ethnicity: the future of ethnic groups and cultures in america” in herbert j. gans, ed., on the making of americans: essays in honour of david riesman (philadelphia: university of philadelphia press, ), pp. - . for a recent discussion on “symbolic ethnicity,” see philip kasinitz, “herbert gans and the death of miss norway,” ethnic and racial studies, vol. , no. ( ), pp. - . for a survey of recent trends in migration history, see christine harzig and dirk hoerder with donna gabaccia, what is migration history (malden ma: polity, ). see also historians who have variously reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history the genre of the published letter in the ethnic press and its impact on immigrant communities, i begin by considering two more general genres, the ethnic newspaper and the private immigrant letter. in a sense, the published letter in the newspaper is a hybrid of these two genres. both the ethnic newspaper and the private letter are produced in the context of dislocation and the search for validation and meaning. the public forum of the newspaper reaches out broadly to a dynamic and evolving ethnic community, while the private letter is highly personal, often a testimonial from the heart. in the newspaper-based letter the two literary projects converge. the ethnic newspaper itself is usually seen as bridging two cultures, the immigrant and the host societies. in immigrant mind, american identities, norwegian literary scholar orm overland argues that the “foreign language press ... served many functions” for the immigrant, most importantly, perhaps, “to introduce immigrants ... to american society and politics,” not in a simplistic, unilinear communication feed, but in a complex dialectic in which old ways were not discarded but “transformed to american qualities.” the ethnic press in this instance served as an instrument of integration. in her work on slovakian newspapers in the united states, june granatir alexander takes a somewhat different tack, arguing that, by reading immigrant newspapers, newcomers found the cultural material to hone simultaneous american nationalism and an ethnically oriented slovakian patriotism: newspaper editors, for example, insisted during world war i that slovaks “were prepared to do ... [their] duty [as president wilson] leads us to victory”; during events in czechoslovakia leading up to world war ii, newspapers were easily able to “stir ... an interest in european matters among rank and file members,” one infused with slovakian nationalism. in both cases, the newspaper supported a “reinvented” ethnic culture that allowed the immigrant to survive a heart-wrenching uprooting and transplanting. like the ethnic press in general, the private immigrant letter sought stability within the chaos of relocation, but at an individual level. certainly david gerber’s extensive work on immigrant letters, as well as ryan eyford’s in this issue, examine a genre with its own dialectic across space, but shedding light nevertheless on what transpires within the immigrant letter section of the newspaper. gerber insists that immigrant letters possessed a “specific textuality,” distinguished by a particular “epistolary ethic” in which two parties agreed to exchange letters, thus producing written about “ethnic frationalization,” “intra-ethnic conflict,” and “internecine conflict in immigrant churches,” including the following: eric kaufman, “land, history of modernization: explaining ethnic fractionalization,” ethnic and racial studies, vol. , no. ( ), pp. - ; john higham, “the mobilization of immigrants in urban america,” norwegian-american studies, vol. ( ), pp. - ; jon gjerde, “conflict and community: a case study of the immigrant church in america,” journal of social history, vol. ( ), pp. - . for a discussion of this term, see kathleen neils conzen, et al., “the invention of ethnicity: a perspective from the usa,” journal of american ethnic history, vol. ( ), pp. - . orm overland, immigrant minds, american identities: making the united states home, - (urbana: university of illinois press, ), p. . june granatir alexander, ethnic pride, american patriotism: slovaks and other new immigrants in the interwar period (philadelphia: temple university press, ), pp. , . david gerber, “epistolary ethics: personal correspondence and the culture of emigration in the nineteenth century,” journal of american ethnic history, vol. ( ), p. . a “dialogical genre,” that is, “a mutual creation conceived in dialogue.” in this instance, this particular genre described “negotiations through which the culture of emigration was formed.” letter writers responded to earlier letter writers; their conversations created and reinforced the narratives of particular migrations. like all parties in conversation, writes gerber, the letter writers screened their lives; they selectively disclosed and even engaged in “acts of deceiving and withholding.” in a way every letter was a political act, meant to secure a particular emotional and cognitive response from the reader—whether sympathy, empathy, admiration, or affection. as they wrote, letter writers reflected that “psychological need for continuity,” maintaining “relationships with particular others who [were] significant to the immigrants’ understanding of themselves.” a comparison of the narrative forms of the immigrant newspaper and the immigrant letter clarifies the genre of the published immigrant letter. what seems clear is that the genre differs from the ubiquitous “letter to the editor,” usually seen as a means of engaging the most widely conceived public and recognized by benedict anderson and others as constituting one among many ways that “allow citizens to imagine publics they cannot directly observe.” if such “letters to the editor” are meant to contribute to political debate, whether local or national, the immigrant letters in ethnic newspapers serve quite a different function. they are epistolary texts reaching out simultaneously to loved ones and to strangers, in the process reinforcing both those internal social demarcations and wider ethnic boundaries. in short, they represent a hybrid writing. their cultural effect is similar to what judith r. blau argues occurs within the ethnic press generally. employing georg simmel’s ideas, blau speaks of “overlapping circles of association” that are “constructed from memberships in various groups” within the wider immigrant community. readers opening the pages of a newspaper look for news of people they know personally, and at the same time they imagine a wider public, one filtered by the editors of the newspaper. they address tightly interwoven subgroups within the immigrant community as well as the more fluid, imagined diasporic community, itself shaped by the wider social categories of regions and nations, including their politics, climates, and economies. in reaching across these “overlapping circles of association,” the writers articulate a high degree of self-awareness set within a wider world in flux. like writers generally in ethnic newspapers, the ordinary letter writers reached outward and inward at the same time. as did writers of individual, unpublished letters, they “couched” and ibid., p. . david a. gerber, “acts of deceiving and withholding in immigrant letters: personal identity and self- preservation in personal correspondence,” journal of social history, vol. ( ), pp. , . see also david a gerber, “the immigrant letter between positivism and populism: the uses of immigrant personal correspondence in twentieth century american scholarship,” journal of american ethnic history, vol. ( ), pp. - . andrew j. perin and stephan vaisey, “parallel public sphere: distance and discourse in letters to the editor,” american journal of sociology, vol. , no. ( ), pp. - . judith r. blau, “group enmity and accord,” social science history, vol. , no. ( ), p. . see also judith r. blau, mim thomas, beverly newhouse, and andrew kavee, “ethnic buffer institutions: the immigrant press, new york city, - ,” historical social research, vol. ( ), pp. - . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper file:///users/chantallalondeimac /documents/imac% clients/histoire% sociale/re%cc% pertoire/xlviii% no% /chantal% march% /javascript:__dolinkpostback('','ss% e% ear% % kavee% c% andrew% % c% csl% e% erl',''); histoire sociale / social history “withheld” to achieve an end that legitimized their life worlds within the diaspora. in these acts they implicitly pitted their particular understandings of life against those of fellow ethnic and ethno-religious members. a communitarian cosmology one of the surprising developments in the canadian-based mennonitische post after its launch in was the extent to which the most insular of the mennonites, the traditionalist “horse and buggy” old colonists, joined in the transnational conversation. often only their addresses—capulin or sabinal in chihuahua, shipyard in belize, nuevo durango in east paraguay, guatrache in argentina, riva palacios or las piedras and a dozen other colonies in bolivia—identified them as “horse and buggy” people. most letters held little drama and contained little emotion; they were the stories the reclusive old colonists felt safe speaking about in the ethno-religious wider world. they were news items—deaths and marriages, bad crops or good prices, notices of migration—or they were friendly greetings to friends and kin scattered throughout latin america. the writers, who included both men and women, the elderly and the youthful, also articulated a distinctive world view, including their specific ideas of right and wrong and their understanding of what held the world together. it was not that they wanted others to know why they were “good” mennonites or what it meant for them to be devotees, for they were not a proselytizing body. rather, it seems they spoke in the vocabulary they knew in order to communicate to loved ones. these anti-modern writers, for example, especially engaged readers within the imagined borders of the dispersed “horse and buggy” old colony community, and, judging from their responses to other letters, they typically ignored letters from more progressive quarters, unless they involved immediate kin members. clearly the writers imagined a wider low german village superimposed on half a dozen countries of the americas—from canada to paraguay. mostly, however, they focused on the specific communities home to traditionalist old colonists, still faithful to the old teachings on simplicity. thus, when farmer dietrich braun of durango, mexico, wrote the post in its founding year, , to encourage residents from la batea and la honda in the neighbouring state of zacatecas also to submit letters, he was addressing other “horse and buggy” mennonites. these people were his particular circle of engagement. when marie bergen of la honda described the christmas travels of her uncle and aunt, “the bernard bergens” of campeche state in southern mexico, she too was mapping her old colony “horse and buggy” world. she noted that for christmas the couple from steamy campeche “travelled [ , kilometres north] to capulin [near the united states border], for new years to [nearby] sabinal, for epiphany they were here [in la honda in central mexico] and on the th of january they returned to campeche.” the boundaries of a network of “faithful” congregations marked the primary social field of each writer. mennonitische post, july , . mennonitische post, march , . often within these letters was another “map,” shaped by kinship networks, layered over the primary one. it revealed itself in references and greetings to non- practising old colonist relatives in the wider diaspora. thus, in his letter, abram banman of las piedras in bolivia, having described his own life as a poor, middle-aged cheese maker and mechanic, quite abruptly announced, “and so, now i wish to take a world trip.” he conveyed personal greetings to his car-driving children in ontario and the in-laws at taber in southern alberta as well as in la crete in the province’s northern boreal forest. this importance of family lines, extending over national boundaries, was also readily evident in the numerous obituaries submitted by the “horse and buggy” mennonites. grandparents in particular were seen as the anchors of these networks. thus when “widow abram froese” of riva palacios, bolivia, died in april at age , not only was her death announced, but she was heralded as a stammutter (matriarch) par excellence; being a mother of nine children, a grandmother of , a great-grandmother of , great-great-grandmother of , made “her the stammutter of souls.” the tenor of the obituary was non-sectarian, reaching out into a wider hemispheric diaspora. in these letters, rarely addressed to anyone outside either their kin group or faith subgroup, the old colonist traditionalists also articulated a world view hitherto spoken only in action and oral tradition. even if the primary intended audience consisted of co-religionists, the public nature of the post meant that a wider mennonite audience could now observe the goings on and musings within the most reclusive of the sectarian communities. inadvertently the letters told of the religious values that constituted the inside story of the old colonists’ mindset, implicitly contesting the ideas of more modern mennonites. indeed, the sum of their letters illuminated the contours of their particular, anti-modern cosmologies and communitarian values. the first of such values was the idea among the old colonists that one’s destiny was not to be moulded but accepted. this a priori idea could be contained in any letter, from the salutation to the funeral announcement. “good health and a strong faith,” was isaak bergen’s wish for his readers when he wrote from riva palacios, bolivia, in , but it was less a challenge to secure “good health” than a wish that this fortune was one’s fate. similar ideas laced the body of the letter, especially the many references to weather patterns. for the agrarian householder, joy was linked to rainfall and unhappiness to drought, but both were divinely determined. in a typical letter, a writer signing herself as “mrs. johann b. heide,” of little belize colony in belize, noted in that she wished her readers “courage and strength ... even when, at this time ... one wonders why it remains so dry here that people have been unable even to plant.” she reminded her readers that “the lord knows what he has in mind for us and we want to be thankful, hoping that the future holds promise for us.” it was in moments of reported tragedy, however, mennonitische post, january , . mennonitische post, july , . mennonitische post, april , . mennonitische post, september , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history that divine fate was uttered most unequivocally. in susanna hildebrandt of nuevo durango, east paraguay, wrote a two-part letter: the first was penned just before the joyous engagement party of daughter lena, one of the last two children at home; the second, a few weeks later, now reported an horrific tragedy, the death of lena’s newlywed husband, peter wall, due to a head wound he incurred while drilling a well on the farmyard. a grieving hildebrandt wrote how death came to this isolated agrarian community within hours of the accident. it was “all too sudden for the young wife,” no matter that “only loving god knows, how many prayers we sent to ... heaven.” the ultimate moment of death, susanna was sure, was divinely appointed. it came only after “the hand that had kept death from occurring was pulled back, suddenly allowing death to happen; thus we could see what almighty god can do.” in a society separated from modern medicine, only complete acquiescence to divine will allowed hildebrandt to make sense of her situation. rather overt, almost naive, affective expressions of a communitarian love marked a second component of the old colonists’ religious outlook. indeed, the use of the word “love” was ubiquitous in their letters. references to “our loving mother,” “beloved aeltester,” and “loving god” were common. helena braun invoked the words “loving god” three times in her letter of : she uttered “thanks to the loving god” for “health”; she spoke about her ailing mother, dying until restored by “loving god [who] saw it otherwise”; and she prayed that “loving god accompany” her aeltester and ministers on a “danger- filled journey” to mexico. such utterances of affection anchored an amorphous wider world. even a people’s state of spirituality was measured with reference to “love,” a living love versus a “cold love.” in , wilhelm braun of tres cruses, bolivia, offered by the way that “love” among the mennonite colonies “need not be considered ‘dead’,” but, judging from unspecified local behaviour, “it is quite evident that it is ‘cold’.” braun’s idea of “love” spoke less to degrees of affection than to a particular teleology. as he concluded, the lack of “love” should not be surprising, “for jesus prophesized that the ‘love’ would become cold in many [people] during the ‘last times’.” rational thought, social contract, or common citizenship had no place in braun’s apocalyptic world view. a third component of an old colonist religiousness more specifically separated the “horse and buggy” people from their more modern kin in the north: their biblically referenced identity of being “pilgrims and strangers,” a migrant people unsettled in a temporal world. often, letters hinted at an uncertain citizenship and worry that the mennonites’ venerated privilegium—the legal guarantee or “privilege” of church-run schools and military exemption they had negotiated with latino governments—might be stripped by hostile regimes. one sign of this concern was a fascination with stories of mennonite suffering in the soviet union, even though it was an experience quite outside the old colony narrative of emigration from new russia to western canada in the s. in a typical letter abram neufeldt of durango, mexico, a retired schoolteacher and father of mennonitische post, october , . mennonitische post, february , . twelve, shared a multi-layered set of worries in . he had read “much about russia [in the years after ], what mennonites experienced at that time,” and he confessed that “such events produce worry,” for, as he saw it, the old colony’s own moral failings must disappoint god who might well withdraw the hand of divine protection. as neufeldt saw it, “[w]e have forgotten it too quickly, or talk too little about it to our children, what the government did for us.... to date the government is still gracious to us, for which we still owe a great gratitude.” present life was always uncertain. reflecting this outlook, funeral announcements spoke of a hope for a better life in eternity, the inevitable quiet passing of pilgrims to another world. thus when aganetha klassen announced her mother’s death in she also offered that “from our heart we know she is resting, but we also have a certain hope that she will acquire god’s kingdom, as she was always very hungry for god’s word.” here was no protestant claim of certain life in heaven, but a hoped-for reward after a life lived faithfully. a fourth aspect of the old colonist religious worldview, the adherence to their church ordnung (specific codes of conduct), most sharply delineated the writers’ worlds within the mennonite diaspora. indeed, this teaching of obedience to a church order infused the most visible features of the old colonists’ faith, the material markers of simplicity: the full-length, dark-coloured, home-sewn clothes; the ubiquitous horse and buggy; the lantern-lit houses; and the small, steel-wheeled tractors. still, the writers who spoke of the ordnung did so without apology or explanation. in , jacob redekop of durango, mexico, reminded readers that the “ordnung is to guide us towards salvation,” meaning that “we are to be obedient in all things” and especially to one’s own “mother and father.” his further elaboration on the point separated the general readers from the old colony church members. he added that the ordnung also entailed submission to “the gemeinde [the church], this we have been taught since childhood.” he concluded with a lament, quite clearly addressed to his own co-religionists. as he put it, if “only the ordnung would be observed ... the aeltesten [the lead ministers] wouldn’t have to preach so much about pride and arrogance, and they would be able to attain more strength from above.” this deference to the church and its leaders signalled a textual construction meant for rather intimate conversation with fellow “horse and buggy” people. when helena woelke of durango, mexico, wrote in that “i attended church today,” where “rev. jakob neudorf served us with the ‘word’,” she added a confession: “too bad that one forgets it so quickly.” woelke’s utterance of personal failing was offered in old colonist parlance, implicitly inviting a response from similar-minded migrants. old colonist writers in the south may have written mostly for their own acquaintances with specific religious vocabulary, but in their letters they also reached out more generally to modern mennonites in the wider diaspora. while many old colony writers in latin america sent friendly greetings to non-practising mennonitische post, june , . mennonitische post, march , . mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, march , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history family members in the dispersed low german communities in the americas, and to canada in particular, the letters could also be overtly critical of mennonites in the north. some even expressed utter disdain for middle-class culture in north america. a letter from bolivia, identified only as having been written by “the searching pilgrim,” recounted life in canada from to , where the writer recalled that english-language schools had produced a generation “ashamed to be identified as mennonites” and willing to trample on the very “birthright” passed on by “our great-grandparents and grandparents and mothers and fathers, who moved from germany to russia, from russia to canada and mexico, and so forth.” northern assimilation met with this southern “pilgrim’s” contempt. in his letter from riva palacios colony in bolivia in , jacob klassen also lambasted evil in canada. he described “certain people” deceptively leaving his colony, heavily indebted, without conscience, obtaining canadian citizenship and flying off to canada. he warned that “a day will come when god will judge the world in justice and then we will all have to stand before the judgment seat.” migrants could travel from one country to another, but their final destination was the same, a final, divinely appointed accounting. reaching out beyond the immediate group also exhibited itself in more general stories told by old colonist writers. often these accounts were imbued with general mennonite understandings. in a letter from , a durango colony resident from mexico related a tragic accident that spoke of historic mennonite teachings on non-violence and non-retribution. in this account, a car-driving mexican visited frank klassen’s farm and, upon leaving, accidentally drove over and killed the klassens’ toddler playing in the farmyard. according to the writer, the shocked and terrified mexican “offered the klassens money, as much as they wished,” but frank klassen’s mennonite values interceded: “‘no,’ said klassen, ‘we are not the kind of people who take payment for our children when they are killed,’ and klassen added, ‘i will also not report you.’” in a country of “rough and tumble” justice, klassen was at once offering grace and reasserting his mennonite identity. similar messages were sent into the diaspora in letters describing crimes against mennonites in the south, where police protection was either non-existent or unpredictable. in the same year as the accident at the klassens’ farm in mexico, numerous mennonite homes in bolivia were subjected to home invasions. a letter writer from riva palacios described the invasion of ten old colonist households in which a party of nine armed and masked spanish-speaking thieves crashed through doors, threatened families at gun point, fired their guns into the walls “screaming, give us money,” and stole a variety of household items, including cattle and farm equipment. according to the mennonite letter writer, local bolivian officials cited the mennonites’ own economic success for the home invasion, as well as the fact “that the mennonites as a religious group do not allow mennonitische post, august , . mennonitische post, september , . mennonitische post, august , . mennonitische post, march , ; february , ; april , . any force, even when they are held up.” this message would have had resonance in the wider mennonite world. indeed, old colonists in the south assumed that mennonites generally rejected state intervention in their lives. during the drought of , for example, david g. redekop of durango, mexico, announced that the “government has come and offered money to help the farmers, including poor mennonite farmers.” he warned, however, that “when the world comes and offers poor people money ... this is seen by many as not right, because the farmland is the foundation for everything, for people, for cattle, etc.; it is land that we lack.” land offered mennonites autonomy; state aid was a bridge to cultural subservience. this generally accepted social boundary between the general mennonite diaspora and the wider world was articulated also with reference to physical space. heinrich banman of valle esperanza wrote in that “today ... ‘carnival’ is celebrated here in bolivia, a day i believe all mennonites are ... more or less happy to be at home, to such an extent, as far as i know, that the bus didn’t even leave [for the city] today.” it was understood that a revelling latina would give pause not only to the most traditionalist of the mennonites, but even to the more modern car-driving groups. occasionally old colony writers did share their localized, internecine upheavals with the wider mennonite community. some writers spoke of the old colonists’ bitter ecclesiastical infighting in emotional and compelling ways. anna s. janzen of nuevo durango, paraguay, lamented in that her old colony family had been torn apart at its core in a move southward to escape modern practices in mexico: “for years i have had to battle with deep longing, as the world is so unspeakably big,” she wrote. it was a broad diaspora that had occurred for no other reason than that “no unity can be found, especially amongst us old colonists.” she was deeply saddened and found comfort only in the scriptures, promising that “blessed are those who are poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of god.” the lure of riches—technology and consumer goods—from the outside world produced profound social upheaval for simple people on the inside. specific stories of conflict in some letters added detail to general laments. in and , letters from durango, mexico, for example, spoke of a schism in which ministers, including the “old aeltester johann klassen,” had stopped attending church to protest the growing use of cars and public electricity and ordered the stalwart within the congregation to prepare for a migration farther southward, from modern mexico to more isolated bolivia. the wider diaspora was intensely curious about internal old colony battles; the old colonists’ willingness to speak openly about conflict suggested how deeply searing they were. spoken lament was hardly the only medium employed by old colonist letter writers to address members of the wider diaspora, however. the letters also revealed a penchant for humour, even the sarcastic, self-deprecating, and ironic, mennonitische post, march , . mennonitische post, june , . mennonitische post, april , . mennonitische post, august , . mennonitische post, october , ; september , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history meant to bridge the gap between various sub-groups in the dispersed community. their jokes could parody gendered behaviour and question power structures, but they could also reaffirm both internal and external social markers. jacob m. wiebe’s lengthy letter of november covered everything from the weather to social networking, and it concluded with a response to news he had heard of “people who had sent their money out of the country so that ‘moth and rust’ might not consume them,” whereupon he added sardonically, “[i] wonder if panama is without rust?” wiebe’s slight was directed to modern mennonites using an international banking system to fight currency fluctuation. less biting, but not without its underlying moral tone, was the letter from a durango writer who noted in that he had heard about millionaires in canada and wanted to take the opportunity “to write about the ‘mennonite’ millionaire, as i am one of them; here, in mexico, the one who owns a cow is a millionaire, and if the cows gives a bit of milk, one can well be a double or triple millionaire.” the joke highlighted the devalued peso in latin america’s unstable economy, leaving any farm family with millions in almost worthless currency, but it was also an assertion of the old colonists’ life world of self-imposed poverty. despite their desire to be left alone, old colonist “horse and buggy” mennonites did engage the wider world by writing to the canadian-based mennonitische post. as they wrote, however, they did more than converse with kin or like-minded co-religionists; they articulated their particular anti-modern world view. perhaps in the very act of writing to the post they assisted in drawing a circle around the wider ethno-religious group scattered in the americas. they also drew overlapping social circles within the diaspora, one demarcating their immediate religious sub- group committed to contesting a middle-class hegemony and another to include close kin outside that group, occasionally extending to anyone interested in their stories. cosmologies of the acculturated the letters from accommodating low-german-speaking mennonites who had “returned” to canada differed measurably from those of the old colony stalwarts in latin america. they were linked by kin and recalled vividly their former old colony worlds in latin america, but, as newcomers to canada, they now embraced new ideas on social space, work and class, and religion and culture. their worlds removed them from the cycles of agrarian culture and the demands of a communitarian religiousness and placed them in worlds of wage labour, personal piety, and “symbolic ethnicity.” few canadians wrote without reference to their status as residents in the northern hemisphere. common allusions to weather were not lethargic attempts to make conversation as much as declarations of global location. references to seasons and especially to winter—both in negative and positive terms—were common. margaretha siemens wrote from ontario in , for example, to say that “we have a large house which in winter costs very much to heat.... as we mennonitische post, january , . mennonitische post, november , . are only three people, it also seems very lonely.” even cold weather could be celebrated, however. gerhard bartsch, a member of a “car-driving” old colony church, wrote in from eden, ontario, to report on early spring weather in canada: “quite differentiating, one day snow, another rain, the third day sunshine,” but no matter that he could “see snowflakes fall through the window ... people and the birds seem to be joyful that spring has come.” winter alone drew romantic allusion from other writers. an especially poetic writer (with a religious touch) from plum coulee, manitoba, described the region’s first snowfall in november : “quiet and beautiful, quite unremarkably, falls the first snowflake, then comes the second, third, the hundredth. soon come thousands, then millions of flakes, falling to earth in complete silence.... the earth and our errors are covered over, as if with a newly constructed white woolen blanket. it all looks so fresh and clean and painted ... white.” such a letter certainly demarcated the writer from kin in the dusty northern mexico mountain valleys or steamy rainforest and bush land of campeche, belize, and eastern bolivia. having established their new locations, the canadians also seemed eager to share their larger worlds, indeed, their broad social maps beyond canada. it was clear that the canadians travelled farther and more frequently and that their transnational interactions were more complex than their kin in the south. travel logs outlined expensive trips to the south to visit kin: by bus to northern mexico or by air from toronto, winnipeg, or calgary, via miami and atlanta and denver, to asuncion, santa cruz, or belize city. some letters spoke of an even larger world, of trips by canadian mennonites to various parts of the globe and within a remarkably reconstructed mennonite world. a letter from chilliwack, british columbia, for example, described the travels of friend c. w. friesen to nairobi, kenya, one of “many who were there to plan the next [mennonite] world conference,” the global assembly held once every six years by modern mennonites from north american and european cities and the offspring of converts to the faith in africa and asia. consisting of professionals, social activists, and missionaries, the world of the mennonite world conference lay a cultural light year away from the low german communitarians scattered in the americas. other writers referred casually to missionaries returning home to canada, notes reflecting the significant cultural distance from the writers’ own non-proselytizing pasts in the south. in his letter from blumenort, manitoba, in , gerhard koop, a newly arrived immigrant from belize, reported in passing that he had picked up his sister maria koop from the winnipeg airport when she “arrived home for a four month furlough from mexico, where she serves as a missionary” and, without elaboration, offered her a second hearty and approving “welcome home!” mennonitische post, april , . mennonitische post, april , . mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, november , . mennonitische post, april , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history canadian mennonites who travelled to the south for visits shared little of the “white man’s burden” of their missionary kin, but many nevertheless reported with a special eye to the strange and the primitive. typical letters recounted myriad friendly reunions in the south, often encased with references to the unusual and even mysterious. true, many travelogues, such as one kept by frank peters of aylmer, ontario, describing a two-week bus trip to mexico, did little more than list visits to some households in chihuahua and zacatecas states, noting whom they met and where. others offered more cultural detail. when johann and katherine wiebe of coatsworth, ontario, made their -day visit to bolivia in the summer of , they highlighted meeting a new stepmother at tres cruces, but added that they had seen many “new things” at the colony, including how the johann ennses in rosenhof had “discovered how to smoke pork sausage and hams under water” and that “the taste is very good!” perhaps the “exotic” here was tepidly encased within a familiar foodway, but other references focused on mysterious places, in the dark. a. n. hiebert’s description of his tenth trip to mexico in emphasized the night he searched for his cousin’s home in a particular mennonite village, amidst myriad “small lights” and looming “brick walls” and treacherous looking “waterholes.” other letters contained paternalistic perspectives on economic survival in the poor and fledgling communities of the south. johann neufeld of alberta, for example, visited the old colony community of shipyard, belize, in early and mailed the post a detailed evaluation of it. in a tone of self-assuredness, he reported that in “places it did not look all that poor, the businesses are very much focused on butchering chickens, others are contractors, some are carpenters.” he also offered his racialized perspective that shipyard’s neighbours, “the native people, have much to learn; time is not worth a lot out there; the people hang out around the streets, as if they have no worries; it will all happen already.” this letter and others demonstrated a perception that seemed to come from the privileged position of mobile people from the north. by happenstance, this sense of certainty is also evident in the newly arrived migrants from the south as they described their new worlds in canada. letters filled the post’s columns under the provincial headings of ontario, manitoba, and alberta and occasionally nova scotia, saskatchewan, and british columbia. invariably, these letters described life in canada and often the struggle to assimilate to modern ways in new places in strange economies. no matter how difficult the struggle, though, the letters sounded the bravado of survival. even the most vulnerable, those moving between canada and mexico, sojourning for economic survival in the former in summer and seeking solace among kin and familiar places in the winter, exuded human agency. in abe neufeld described his work in the following manner: “[i]n summer and fall we work on a tobacco farm [in ontario], in winter i work in my workshop [in mexico], repairing automobiles or doing [finish] carpentry, and in spring i haul families from mexico mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, september , . mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, may , . to ontario.” there was no mention of the difficulty of uprooting, of parachuting children into strange places, or of uncertain and exploitative work situations. those who settled down as wage labourers, tradespersons, or managers sounded a similar positive attitude. in , abram doerksen of winnipeg, formerly of paraguay, wrote about job volatility: he had worked “for the last five and a half years installing cabinets in houses,” but now, because the “company is closing down at the end of this month,” he said, “i will need to obtain another job.” it seemed barely a concern for him, as he quipped that he might find that job “perhaps at kitchenkraft.” doerksen seemed nonplused about the challenge of negotiating this labour market. other letters also hinted at personal satisfaction gained from wage labour in the highly technologized agricultural sector, even if in less than savoury working conditions. maria buekert’s letter from winkler, manitoba, in reported on having met “jacob fehr of the plum coulee region, a son of isaac fehrs of mexico, who relayed his ‘good day’” to friends in the south and added that “he and his daughter chore hogs and do all the work involved in that.” buekert may have been slightly condescending with her quip, “good, if this is what you know how to do,” but the large number of animals in his care clearly gave fehr all the status he needed in the circle of readers for whom buekert wrote. even letters from wage labourers who reported on class difference and wealth differentiation seemed less likely to speak of exploitation than of falling into the lure of consumer culture and unchecked capitalism. true, abram banman’s christmas-time letter noted increasingly difficult working conditions in the leamington, ontario, greenhouse in which he worked. he even attributed the problem to “the owner [who] always gets greedier” and proceeded to describe his avarice: “he currently has twenty one greenhouses, and this summer he wishes to build another five, as well as a large warehouse, from which the semi trucks are to pick up cucumbers. it appears as if [his] money never runs out and [he believes] the world has no end.” banman was especially saddened to think that canadian culture cajoled ordinary workers into similar self-centredness. he added, “[t]he worker can also become greedy, as ... [some] people work seven days a week, refusing to forfeit either time and money ... and [ironically] use sunday to make their purchases for christmas!” it was the world of material striving that worried him; indeed, he felt “sorry for people who have slid so far.” if the problem in latin america was the worry of drought and poverty, the overriding concern in canada was with the lure of wealth and materialism. middle-aged anna giesbrecht of saskatchewan, a mother to adult children in bolivia, drew a similar conclusion in her missive in announcing the death (at swift current’s palliser hospital) of her -year-old aunt margaret. in a subtle but pointed criticism of the state of the mennonite household in canada, where both husband and wife worked away from home, giesbrecht described her aunt’s mennonitische post, january , . mennonitische post, april , . mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, january , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history difficult last years at her son’s and daughter-in-law’s house, compelled to be alone during the day as her children worked away from home, a social arrangement, giesbrecht pronounced publicly, that “was not good for her.” one aspect of life in canada that the newcomers accepted broadly, even if they did not crow about it, was its social safety net of free state medicine and institutional support for the elderly. few letters featured narratives similar to that of one post reporter who highlighted the successful home of isaac klassen, his wife, and five children of horndean, manitoba: isaac’s income as an electrician allowed the klassens to own their own home after a mere two years in canada, but, as importantly, they had succeeded in their aim to take advantage “of the [public] schools and medicare” in canada. if such overt aims by immigrants to partake in state medicine usually went unmentioned, letters nevertheless frequently referred to ill relatives within modern health facilities. from across canada, letter writers listed regional and local hospitals as if they were household names: a note from leamington spoke of two local men in the windsor regional hospital; another from the same year described a -year-old boy from kennetcook, nova scotia, in the truro colchester hospital; a letter from hague, saskatchewan, referenced royal university hospital in saskatoon. some writers injected their texts with references—in english—to state-of-the-art medical devices: a second writer from kennetcook in spoke not only of “pillen” and “x-rays,” but of a “lithotripter,” a “biopsy,” and a “cat scan” at a hospital in halifax. myriad other notes referenced the mennonite elderly prospering in seniors’ homes: one letter writer reported in that her uncle and aunt, “the gerhard d. ungers,” had just moved into lions manor in winkler, manitoba, a good move as “they are enjoying this arrangement”; another from ontario wrote in that “widow [mrs.] jacob quiring is in the seniors’ home” and sends “hearty greetings to her children in bolivia.” while there was little boasting of participation in the modern welfare state of the north, the matter-of-fact language with which life in this context was presented suggested a full embrace of modern canada’s social amenities. many canadian immigrants also expressed a comfortable cultural accommodation with a multicultural canada. they might have been “quiet in the land” in the south, but, having returned to the north, they now took their place in the land of immigrants, ironically celebrating aspects of the very latina culture they had avoided in the south. in canada, they developed their own “symbolic ethnicity” exhibited in what came to be known as treffen days, literally “meeting” days. at these events, hundreds of low-german-speaking immigrants, mostly from mexico and paraguay, gathered to eat “ethnic” foods that combined russian and latin american cuisines, hear speeches of yesteryear, and simply be reacquainted with old friends. in a typical note, a writer invited fellow immigrants mennonitische post, september , . mennonitische post, november, , . mennonitische post, april , ; march , ; may , . mennonitische post, march , . mennonitische post, april , . to a treffen day at morden, manitoba’s stanley park and promised an afternoon with “coffee and [gas] barbeques available to cook sausages and hamburgers.” in a much fuller invitation, another manitoba writer announced in that it was apparent that now that one can “buy tacos in the stores in winkler and yerba tea in steinbach ... that the influence of mennonites from mexico and paraguay has [rooted itself] in southern manitoba.” the writer was not satisfied, however, as “tacos and yerba tea” were tangential to the immigrant account, and “what matters is that mennonites are moving in here and no one carries out a festivity for them.” the writer suggested that the thousands of immigrants across canada plan for “an annual celebration,” perhaps “at the village museum [in steinbach, because] ... these immigrants from the south are also pioneers and have had to struggle a lot, not with farming and hunger as their ancestors, but with the language ... and unemployment.” a year later the post carried a story of just such a gathering at steinbach’s museum, featuring paraguayan folk music and a day of pronounced “latin taste,” including “food, exhibits and stories,” all meant to welcome “the many thousands of mennonites who have returned to canada over the past years.” canada was a welcoming land, and a reinvented ethnicity affirmed a confident stance within the broader host society. the treffen days signalled a new religious turn, a new separation between ethnic and faith identities. many letter writers in canada may still have adhered to old colony churches, including some old teachings on traditional dress and craft- based vocations, but others now wrote about being drawn to modern evangelical churches that allowed for assimilation to middle-class ways. they also spoke a religious vocabulary that highlighted the individual over the communitarian. contrasted to the old notions of communal love, acquiescence to a divinely ordered destiny, humble pilgrimage, and obedience to a church “order” common in the south, canadian writers described competing ideas of personal piety, the “assurance of salvation,” and evangelical outreach. their ideas implicitly pitted a modern pietism against an old religiousness. three letters from british columbia underscore this new view on religion that was seemingly gaining ground among the uprooted old colonist newcomers in canada. when john and helen penner wrote from vanderhof in , they shared the story of a deathbed conversion of “brother-in-law dyck who in the ‘twelfth’ hour accepted the lord as saviour and asked for the forgiveness of sins and thus with clear consciousness took his farewell from this world.” his was an eternal certainty arising from sudden conversion, not a humble utterance of hope after a lifelong pilgrimage. it marked a religious accommodation to the large canadian evangelical churches’ emphasis on personal spirituality, a claim on “salvation” and sunday church attendance. a letter writer from clearbrook, reporting the passing of two ministers, felt compelled to add that the “bible says those who are in jesus christ are not damned,” that what mattered was that one “walked ... in mennonitische post, june , . mennonitische post, february , . mennonitische post, june , . mennonitische post, july , . reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper histoire sociale / social history the spirit,” and that, in his , -seat church, “our mennonites are punctually in church on sundays.” if the old colony pilgrim in the south spoke of “following” the teachings of a physical christ within agrarian community, the northern cousins increasingly spoke of celebrating a “life in” a spiritual christ during prescribed worship services. it was a fundamental religious difference, and canadians did not mind hinting at it. when widow maria wall of northern prespatou, british columbia, mentioned her gratitude for good health in , she invoked language unknown among “horse and buggy” people in the south: “one receives [divine blessing] not because one has earned it, but only as pure grace, from our heavenly father” and “god be with you till we meet again, if not here then there, where no separation will occur again.” her idea of “grace” reflected a broadly conceived protestant ethic; her dismissal of “earning” a blessing was also a dismissal of the old ordnung that kept her kin firmly rooted in their anti-modern ways in the south. finally, like their stalwart relations in the south, the migrants in canada employed humour to convey the social contours of their worlds. however, unlike the jokes from the “horse and buggy” people that contextualized their anti-modern worlds, northern writers poked fun at their bumpy pathways of integration into canadian society. they told jokes about driving canada’s busy roads, drinking its chlorinated water, and especially learning the english language. frequent accounts had the newly arrived immigrant struggling to speak english to a canadian—only to discover that the very person he or she was addressing was a fellow mennonite quite capable of speaking high or low german. abram doerksen of winnipeg wrote in of such an event soon after arriving in canada from paraguay. he reported visiting a watch repair shop, where he decided that since his “mouth ... was tired of speaking english” he would let “my hands communicate as well as my mouth.” after a torturous time of “explaining and showing everything” with his hands, the watch repair technician suddenly quipped in german, “you evidently speak better in german than in english.” doerksen could only demur: “well yes, then i finally just gave up; after years in canada, i can rest my hands when i speak in german.” to his mind, learning english was a good thing, a necessary tool of integration, but acquiring that tool was profoundly difficult. conclusion the letter published within an ethnic or ethno-religious newspaper sheds light on migration culture in numerous ways. as a medium written in private, but made available for public consumption, it was a hybrid source, neither entirely public nor wholly private. it was addressed to readers with whom the writer had close kin or congregational relations, but couched in ways to make it understandable to a wider public. if the ethnic newspaper reached across a wide diaspora, and the individual immigrant letter worked to create intimate and self-validating affinities within a small subsection of the diaspora, the published immigrant letter did both. mennonitische post, december , . mennonitische post, september , . mennonitische post, april , . it thus helped articulate both the social boundary of the wider diaspora and the internal lines of social demarcation. the thousands of letters published in the mennonitische post in the generation after its founding in served to link the canadian-descendent, low-german- speaking mennonites spread across the americas. the letters shared a common vocabulary of an immigrant people within spanish or english host societies. they comprised a religiously informed pacifist community, a people with a history that spanned holland, russia, and canada, now scattered within the western hemisphere. as the letters also addressed subsections within the diaspora— the old colony traditionalists calling on one another to live out old teachings in faithfulness, and the more accommodating, canadian-based, return migrants speaking of middle-class worlds and symbolic ethnicity—each subgroup also embraced and strengthened the identities and cultural agendas of its own kind. by doing so they certainly also exposed their particular understandings of religion and culture to less-than-sympathetic readers. it is unlikely that, by reading the accounts of fellow religionists across the ideological divide within the diaspora, readers became convinced to embrace hitherto antithetical positions. more likely they glanced at texts constructed from competing cosmologies and were reassured that they were best situated in their present cultural location. what may not be apparent from a cursory glance at a newspaper like the mennonitische post is that, within the pages of the paper, under tidy headlines, an immigrant culture was not only being reported, but also being formed. it was a culture that was bifurcated, dynamic, and intersecting. the ethnic newspaper may have been a single document, but it rarely contained a single culture. reading migration and identity in an ethno-religious newspaper edinburgh research explorer another way of reading stanley hauerwas? citation for published version: fergusson, d , 'another way of reading stanley hauerwas?', scottish journal of theology, vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/doi: . /s digital object identifier (doi): doi: . /s link: link to publication record in edinburgh research explorer document version: early version, also known as pre-print published in: scottish journal of theology publisher rights statement: ©fergusson, d. ( ). another way of reading stanley hauerwas?. scottish journal of theology, ( ), - doi: doi: . /s general rights copyright for the publications made accessible via the edinburgh research explorer is retained by the author(s) and / or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. take down policy the university of edinburgh has made every reasonable effort to ensure that edinburgh research explorer content complies with uk legislation. if you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright please contact openaccess@ed.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. download date: . apr. https://doi.org/doi: . /s https://doi.org/doi: . /s https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/another-way-of-reading-stanley-hauerwas( bbf - b - b- c - efae ).html scottish journal of theology http://journals.cambridge.org/sjt additional services for scottish journal of theology: email alerts: click here subscriptions: click here commercial reprints: click here terms of use : click here another way of reading stanley hauerwas? david fergusson scottish journal of theology / volume / issue / may , pp - doi: . /s , published online: january link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/ abstract_s how to cite this article: david fergusson ( ). another way of reading stanley hauerwas?. scottish journal of theology, , pp - doi: . / s request permissions : click here downloaded from http://journals.cambridge.org/sjt, ip address: . . . on dec another way of reading stanley hauerwas? by david fergusson t he writings of stanley hauerwas create an excitement which is attributable not merely to an elegant style, arresting illustrations, his generosity and wit. he speaks to those who are conscious of the increasing dissociation of church and culture in the late twentieth century. the old strategy of seeking to articulate a moral consensus for those within and without the church is breaking down. christian theology and ethics become distorted by attempting to stand on common ground with those outside the colony. 'jesus was not crucified for saying or doing what made sense to everyone. people are crucified for following a way that runs counter to the prevailing direction of the culture.' this stress upon the distinctiveness of the christian community and its narrative provides a stronger basis upon which ministry can be con- ducted. in a context of social fragmentation and moral disar- ray greater christian authenticity becomes possible. having faded from the social landscape, christian faith emerges as something radically different and compelling. we should not underestimate the extent to which hauerwas is calling for a distinctive church. his hints as to what we should actually do in our current situation are often oblique, but he suggests, for example, that the church should not admit to the lord's supper those who make a living from building weapons, that 'this paper is a condensed version of a longer paper delivered at the center of theological inquiry, princeton, in march , and has benefited from the comments of those present. this is a central theme in hauerwas' reading of the recent history of theological ethics in america. cf. 'on keeping ethics theological', against the nations, (indiana: notre dame press, ), - . 'resident aliens, (nashville: abingdon press, ), . * resident aliens, ibid., . another way of reading stanley hauerwas? christians should publicly declare their income in the fellow- ship of the church, that separate christian schools are what we need, and that vegetarianism may be an appropriate witness to the eschatological vision of creation. the position frequently encounters the charge of sectari- anism but this can be resisted. his ecclesiology is world- affirming and his writings wrestle with the major moral conun- drums of the day. by being the church, christians have the task of disclosing to the world its true identity. this may sound imperialist to some, but it is not sectarian. hauerwas' claim is simply that by living genuinely as a distinctive christian com- munity the church may have more impact in its surrounding society than by advocating consensus solutions to the prob- lems we face. the purpose of a counter-cultural distinctiveness is not isolationism but a proper contribution to the wider social world. it might be countered that this church advocated by hauerwas nowhere exists. it is a fantasy community, the conception of which fails to reflect the ways in which the members of the church are also positioned within civil society. it does not correspond to any visible communion within the oikumene. hauerwas' own status as a methodist who describes himself as a high-church mennonite under no particular ecclesiastical discipline reflects this dissonance between the church described in his theology and the church as we actually find it. on one level, this criticism may be side-stepped by arguing that his proposal is prescriptive rather than descrip- tive. it is a call for the church to be the community that it ought to be rather than a description of any empirical reality. at the same time, hauerwas has struggled to show that the church he describes is present in the stories of many christian congrega- tions and lives. it is these which provide the most eloquent testimony and inspiration. 'good communities are known by '•after christendom (nashville, abingdon, ), . ibid., . /n good company (indiana: notre dame, ), - . 'this is argued persuasively by arne rasmusson, the church as polis: from political theology to theological politics as exemplified byjurgen moltmann and stanley hauerwas (indiana: notre dame press, ). e.g. a community of character (indiana: notre dame press, ) . scottish journal of theology their saints. by naming these ordinary but theologically and morally impressive people, we discover resources that we did not know we had.' the claim that his ecclesiology contains a critical stand- ard by which to challenge the empirical church is necessary if hauerwas is to meet feminist criticisms that his theology legitimises a patriarchal institution. thus gloria albrecht accuses him of legitimizing the stranglehold on ecclesiastical authority exercised by a white, male elite." this attack is one instance of the recurrent criticism that communitarian ethics is characteristically oppressive and authoritarian. this charge can be met but only if a clear distinction is maintained between the church as it is and the church as it is called by god to be. this in turn requires some criterion of theological truth over and against the particular claims of ecclesiastical tradition. it is here that i find myself beginning to differ from hauerwas on account of his over-concentration upon the distinctiveness of the church. he insists upon the close relationship between christology and ecclesiology to the extent that the truth about jesus can only be perceived from within a life of discipleship in the community of the church. at times, this becomes an attack on protestant individualism. the bible should be taken away from christians until they have developed better habits of discipleship to facilitate its correct understanding. he even commends the insistence of vatican ii that tradition and scripture together form one sacred deposit of the word of god. this resonates with the emphasis throughou t his writings that the life of discipleship within the church is the indispen- sable epistemological condition for confessing christ. however, the way in which he seeks to integrate his description of the person and work of christ with its ecclesial resultant raises a number of difficulties. in outlining the significance of christ for the christian life, hauerwas fre- quently implies that jesus is to be understood as the exemplar win good company, op. cit., . '' the character of our communities (nashville: abingdon, ), chapter . e.g. the criticism of gerhard ebeling's treatmentof the solascriptura principle in unleashing the scripture (nashville: abingdon press, ) . another way of reading stanley hauerwas? and initiator of a new social order, the kingdom of god. the traditional language of the incarnation and atonement is muted by contrast with his insistence upon the importance of the life of jesus as this is narrated in the synoptic gospels. this clearly arises out of concern with the way in which the exposi- tion of dogma can too easily prescind from the way in which jesus' mission is loaded with ethical import. yet the outcome of this concern is that jesus is generally characterised as the prototype of christian existence, the founder of the church, and the one in whom god reveals how we are to live. the christological language tends to be that of revelation rather than redemption. the latter seems confined to quality of life realised only in the church. despite the desire to integrate ethics and dogmatics there is some imprecision in hauerwas' exposition of dog- matic themes. in particular, it is not clear in what sense the work of christ can be described as completed in his resurrec- tion and ascension, or in what sense christ is active in the church by the power of the spirit. if his work is principally the establishment of a community then its continuing significance must be defined in terms of an act of recollection by which that community is reminded of its constitution. christ's continu- ing presence and activity to his disciples are thus a function of memory inspired by the sacramental re-enactment of a story. if, however, one construes the work of christ as 'a once for all' achievement which is accomplished extra nos, then its relation- ship to the life of the post-easter community is altered. christ continues to be present and active in the life of the church and the world, but this presence and activity are dependent upon what is already accomplished in his life, death and resurrec- tion. the church is not the extension of the incarnation, but exists to bear witness and to live faithfully in light of this unrepeatable and unsubstitutable event. hauerwas points to the significance of the eucharist in our coming to understand l 'even though i do not share the liberal rejection of the classical christological formulas, the liberal concern to recover the centrality ofjesus' life strikes me as right." a community of character, op. cit., . "e.g. the peaceable kingdom, (indiana: notre dame press, ), ff. i i am thinking here especially of the peaceable kingdom, op. cit., chapter and a community of character, op. cit., chapter . scottish journal of theology the story of jesus. yet the eucharistic prayer is one of praise and thanksgiving which declares what god has already done in creation and redemption. here there is a commemoration of what god has brought about in the birth, life, death, resurrec- tion and ascension of christ. the agency of the church derives from this action and continues by the spirit to be dependent upon it. this relationship is more nearly described by barthian language of correspondence than by hauerwas' more linear notion of continuing what has been begun. afurther feature of this overdetermination of the distinc- tiveness of the church is that it becomes difficult to understand both how the will of god may be done outwith the church and how christians may make common cause with other agencies and individuals. yet a dogmatics which distinguishes the sover- eign word from the written and spoken witness is in better shape to deal with this. the sovereignty of the word over scripture and church is compatible with the view that god may enable the church to hear the word through the effects of forces, agencies and examples extra muros ecclesiae. this was the position defended by the later barth in his argument for secular parables of the word of god. there is only one word, jesus christ, but there can nonetheless be witnesses to him outwith the church. any putative witness must be tested by reference to scripture, tradition and the life of the church, but the conviction that god is the creator and redeemer of the world gives grounds for confidence that such witnesses will be encountered. it is because of the lack of attention to this possibility that hauerwas over-dramatises the crisis of liberalism and the counter-cultural force of the christian polity. this is evident in a range of positions adopted. his exaggeration of the differ- ences between christian and secular marriage and parenting places him at odds with both the catholic and protestant traditions which have seen these institutions as wider in scope > unleashing the scripture, op. cit., ff. "it is perhaps significant that the lutheran formula of concord, article xii, makes a similar criticism of the anabaptists. i am indebted to george hunsinger for this reference. "church dogmatics iv/ (edinburgh: t&t clark, ) ff. another way of reading stanley hauerwas? than the church, and have detected good practice in non- christians as well as christians. his remark that 'from the world's perspective the birth of a child represents but another drain on our material and psychological resources' is, to say the least, hyperbolic. his argument against abortion shows how a christian perspective sets the issues in a new light, yet if he is not to criticise methods of contraception pari passu, he still needs to engage in well-worn debates about when a human life begins, the moral status of the embryo, and criteria for personhood. his pacifism provides a perspective from which we can perceive the way in which violence is endemic to our way of life, but to describe an argument against nuclear weapons based on concern for the future of life on this planet as 'idolatrous' is to depict secular arguments in the worst possible light. while not only unfair on much that is sane and decent outwith the church, this characterisation of an alterna- tive position hinders the task of making common cause. he disjoins also to an unnecessary degree the liberal discourse of 'innate human dignity' with the christian recognition of the claim of god upon each human person. the 'secular' insight into the dignity of the human being differs from the christian claim that human beings are created in the image of god, redeemed by christ and sanctified by the holy spirit. yet the latter claim is capable of recognising that there is some wisdom in the former. in the light of christian convictions about the status of the world as created, it should not be surprising if there are secular affirmations of the dignity of the human person. jeffrey stout has pointed out that the moral disagree- ments in liberal societies tend to take place on the basis of a moral consensus on other issues. there is a range of moral principles which are platitudinous and precisely because of that fact do not receive the attention of philosophers and theologians. it is wrong to torture the innocent for pleasure; it is wrong to abuse sexually little children; disagreements between the major religions should not be settled violently; i a community of character, op. cit., . *°ibid., . "ethics after babel (clarke, cambridge, ), . scottish journal of theology slavery is evil. anyone who queried these platitudes would be regarded as a dangerous moral deviant rather than someone whose opinion is to be respected within the pluralism of the body politic. it may thus be possible to find common ground with those outwith the church even in the absence of any common theory which can be assented to by all parties. as michael walzer has argued, different thick moralities typically display accounts of thin moralities. these are minimal stand- ards and practices which should be demanded of all people and societies. they are a function of thicker and culturally determined moral understandings, but the convergence of these on minimal common ground provides some basis for the maintenance of pluralist societies. it ought to be possible to provide a theological description of this phenomenon in terms of a (thick) understanding of our created nature, without returning to earlier theories of natural law and the orders of creation. most christian people in liberal societies do not belong only to the community of the church. they belong to other communities through their work, leisure, political and cultural interests, and there they make common cause in a variety of ways with others who do not share their religious convictions. some theological description of how this is possible and how they should comport themselves is owed them. hauerwas himself wishes to acknowledge that the king- dom is not co-existensive with the church, and what is required, therefore, is a reading of the church's constitutive narratives which displays the implications of this. the church enacts and witnesses to the eschatological kingdom before a fallen and hostile world, yet since god has not abandoned the ke.g. thick and thin: moral argument at home and abroad (indiana: notre dame press, ). scf. the strangely undeveloped comment: 'what allows us to look expectantly for agreement among those who do not worship god is not that we have a common morality based on autonomous knowledge of autonomous nature, but that god's kingdom is wider than the church.' christian existence today, (durham: labyrinth press, ), . similar observations elsewhere are generally not integrated into his overall argument. 'unity comes not from the assumption that all people share the same nature, but that we share the same lord. though certainly the fact that we have a common creator provides a basis for some common experience and appeals.' a community of character, op. cit., . another way of reading stanley hauerwas? world we may expect signs of that same kingdom in strange and surprising places. the community, as barth says, is not atlas bearing the burden of the whole world on its shoulders. even within the world which opposes it, god will ensure that there will be raised up witnesses to that cause, 'this is the message which the community has to learn through these true words of a very different origin and character. in this respect, too, it would be foolish and ungrateful if it closed its ears to them.' there emerges here an ambivalent account of the rela- tionship between church and civil society, but it is one for which we find scriptural warrant. the early christians were taught that their highest loyalty was to christ and therefore to the church rather than the state or any other institution. this required a new orientation of their lives and often brought conflict, tension and even martyrdom. yet the virtues of the christian life, despite the way in which they were now re- situated, sometimes overlapped with those advocated in the graeco-roman world. christian writers could defend their practice by arguing that it reflected and often surpassed the highest standards acknowledged elsewhere. the state could be the enemy but it could also exercise a legitimate authority and where possible christians were urged to live peaceably with others. thus a path was marked out between withdrawal and assimilation by those whose citizenship was ultimately in the church but who were called to serve god in other places and communities. david fergusson department of divinity with religious studies university of aberdeen aberdeen ab ub scotland, uk "karl barth, church dogmatics iv/ , op. cit., - . t&t clark publishers the shadow of scotus philosophy and faith in pre-reformation scotland alexander broadie now in paperback this book opens up all the philosophical vigour and liveliness of pre- reformation scotland and overturns any notion that scottish philosophical culture only began with the enlightment. paperback pp £ . the promise of trinitarian theology colin e. gunton new edition argues that the theology of the trinity has profound implications for all dimensions of human life. an accessible introduction to trinitarian thought. paperback pp £ . in the making of modern theology series g. w. f. hegel edited by peter c. hodgson the only anthology of hegel's religious thought, peter hodgson provides a comprehensive guide to his major texts. x hardback pp £ . god and rationality thomas f. torrance now in paperback the sequel to the classic theological science, explores further the nature of science and theology and their deeper interrrelationships. paperback pp £ . space, time and incarnation thomas f. torrance now in paperback analyses the philosophical problems of space, time and incarnation for christian theology. opens a new dimension for theological thinking in this age of science. x paperback pp £ . t&t clark publishers george street, edinburgh eh lq tel: - fax: - doi: . / letter to the editor am. j. hum. genet. : – , novel truncating mutations in the polyglutamine tract binding protein gene (pqbp ) cause renpenning syndrome and x-linked mental retardation in another family with microcephaly to the editor: although several families with x-linked mental retar- dation (xlmr) (martin and bell ; allan et al. ; bickers and adams ; losowsky ) had been reported prior to the renpenning study (renpen- ning et al. ), the term “renpenning syndrome” (mim ) came into general use for xlmr, en- compassing both syndromic and nonsyndromic forms (richards ; gerrard and renpenning ; steele and chorazy ; howard-peebles et al. ; jen- nings et al. ; mclaughlin and kriegsmann ; proops and webb ; archidiacono et al. ). ren- penning et al. ( ) described a mennonite family in which males in three generations had mental retar- dation (mr). manifestations in affected males included microcephaly, short stature, and small testes; carrier fe- males appeared normal. previously, we reported linkage of the family described by renpenning and colleagues ( ) to xp . –p . (stevenson et al. ) (fig. a). in addition, we iden- tified another family exhibiting microcephaly and mr (fig. b). herein, we report truncating mutations in the polyglutamine tract binding protein (pqbp ) gene (mim ) in both families. mutations in the gene that codes for the polyglutam- ine tract binding protein , located in xp . , have been found in patients with sutherland-haan syndrome (mim ), cerebropalatocardiac (hamel) syn- drome, and mrx , as well as in two other families (kalscheuer et al. ). pqbp consists of six exons that code for a protein of amino acids. a ww do- main is encoded by the amino acid positions – , which has been shown to play an important role in reg- ulation of transcription activity by interacting with the carboxy-terminal domain of the rna polymerase ii (su- dol et al. ). additionally, a polyglutamine-binding region (in the polar-amino-acid–rich domain [prd]), a dr/er stretch, is encoded by exon and is involved in transcriptional control by binding to the polyq region of the transcription factor brn that silences transcrip- tion (sudol et al. ). the unifying findings in these patients with xlmr are microcephaly and short stature. a variety of other manifestations, including ocular co- lobomas, cleft palate, cardiac defects, small testes, anal anomalies, and spasticity, have occurred in a minority of patients. so far, all mutations have been found in exon (genbank accession number nm_ ), where they are predicted to disrupt the polyglutamine-binding prd and to shorten the protein (kalscheuer et al. ). the mutation in the family described by renpenning and colleagues ( ) is an insertion of one cytosine residue in exon (c. insc). this frameshift insertion causes a premature stop codon at amino acid position (fig. a). the observed mutation was found in all available males with mr in the pedigree, including one male who was found to have milder cognitive impair- ment ( ) (individual v- ) (fig. a). x-chro-iq p mosome inactivation in carrier females was not skewed. in the other family presenting with mr and microceph- aly (k ), we detected a novel ag dinucleotide de- letion at the end of exon (c. _ delag), causing a frameshift and introducing a new stop codon at amino acid position (fig. b). neither of these truncating alterations was found in x chromosomes from un- affected males. in contrast to the previously found mutations in the pqbp gene that are all located in the middle of exon , these mutations, at either the end of exon or exon , do not affect the prd (fig. ). taking into account all mutations in the pqbp gene that have been de- scribed here and by kalscheuer et al. ( ), two groups of mutations can be classified: ( ) deletions or insertions of ag nucleotides affecting the dr/er repeat in the prd and ( ) frameshift aberrations leaving the prd undis- turbed (fig. ). however, the common clinical manifes- tations, mr, microcephaly, and short stature, are present in all families. therefore, it might be of interest to de- termine whether the prd in the truncated proteins from the family described by renpenning and colleagues ( ) and the k family still interacts with brn or whether the loss of the last or amino acids disturbs this function. alternatively, the interaction with other, yet-unknown proteins might be disrupted. advances in clinical delineation and in molecular un- figure families with novel mutations in the pqbp gene. a, partial pedigree of the family described by renpenning and colleagues ( ) (family k ), with the c. insc mutation. numbering of the pedigree is consistent with that published elsewhere (stevenson et al. ). the c. insc mutation, highlighted and indicated by the arrow, is present in exon and is very close to the exon/intron boundary. the shaded region shows the intronic sequence. this mutation causes a frameshift in the c domain, resulting in the premature truncation of the protein. b, pedigree of family k , with the c. _ delag mutation in the nls (nuclear localization signal) domain. this deletion is in exon (highlighted in yellow) and occurs very close to the exon/intron boundary (sequence contributed from the intron is shaded). this mutation causes a frameshift and results in a premature truncation of the pqbp protein, which lacks the c domain. letter to the editor figure truncating mutations in the pqbp protein. this figure shows the structure of the pqbp protein with the ww domain, the prd with dr/er repeats, the nls domain, and the c domain (modified from waragai et al. ). the novel mutations reported in this study (c. _ delag and c. insc) are in boldface. the three different mutations in the dr/er domain reported by kalscheuer et al. ( ) are in italics. derstandings of xlmr have now identified syn- dromic forms of xlmr and families with nonsyn- dromic xlmr (stevenson et al. ). to date, mu- tations in genes have been linked to xlmr. of these genes, have been linked exclusively to syndromic xlmr, exclusively to nonsyndromic xlmr, and to both (stevenson and schwartz ). with the exception of allan-herndon syndrome [mim ], all xlmr syndromes reported prior to the discovery of the fragile x syndrome [mim ] have now been linked to mutations of a specific gene. identification of a pqbp mutation in renpenning syn- drome and other xlmr syndromes (kalscheuer et al. ) exemplifies the lumping of xlmr syndromes that has become justified on the basis of molecular studies (stevenson ). as mr, microcephaly, and short stat- ure seem to be consistent findings among individuals with pqbp mutations, patients with these findings should be included in any testing scheme. in a south carolina study of mental retardation, among , males with mr of unknown cause, ( %) have microcephaly, ( %) have short stature, and ( %) have both (r.e.s., unpublished data). hence, mi- crocephaly is the most common physical finding among males with mr of unknown cause (stevenson et al. ) and is a reliably ascertained finding that may be useful in the selection of cases for pqbp mutation testing. acknowledgments the authors express their gratitude to the families involved in this research and to julianne collins, ph.d., sharon card- well, celeste krauss, m.d., martha macmillin, and lynda holloway for clinical information and assistance. this work was supported by the german ministry for research and ed- ucation (bmbf, kw ), the european community (qlg -ct- - ) (a.m.), grants from the national in- stitutes of health (hd [c.e.s.] and mh [r.e.s.]), a grant from the belgian national fund for scientific re- search—flanders (fwo), and the interuniversity attraction poles program (iuap-v) (r.f.k.). this study is dedicated to the memory of ethan francis schwartz ( – ). claus lenski, fatima abidi, alfons meindl, alice gibson, matthias platzer, r. frank kooy, herbert a. lubs, roger e. stevenson, juliane ramser, and charles e. schwartz department of medical genetics at the ludwig- maximilians-university, munich; j.c. self research institute, greenwood genetic center, greenwood, sc; royal university hospital, saskatoon, canada; institute for molecular biotechnology, jena, germany; department of medical genetics, university of antwerp, antwerp, belgium; and mailman center for child development, university of miami school of medicine, miami, fl electronic-database information accession numbers and urls for data presented herein are as follows: genbank, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (for pqbp [accession number nm_ ]) online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/ (for renpenning syndrome, pqbp , sutherland-haan syndrome, allan-herndon syn- drome, and fragile x syndrome) references allan w, herndon cn, dudley fc ( ) some examples of the inheritance of mental deficiency: apparently sex-linked idiocy and microcephaly. am j ment defic : – archidiacono n, rocchi m, rinaldi a, filippi g ( ) x- linked mental retardation. ii. renpenning syndrome and letter to the editor other types (report of families). j genet hum : – bickers da, adams rd ( ) hereditary stenosis of the aq- ueduct of sylvius as a cause of congenital hydrocephalus. brain : – gerrard jw, renpenning hj ( ) sex-linked mental retar- dation. lancet : howard-peebles pn, stoddard gr, mims mg ( ) familial x-linked mental retardation, verbal disability, and marker x chromosomes. am j hum genet : – jennings m, hall jg, hoehn h ( ) significance of phe- notypic and chromosomal abnormalities in x-linked mental retardation (martin-bell or renpenning syndrome). am j med genet : – kalscheuer vm, freude k, musante l, jensen lj, yntema hg, gécz j, sefiani a, et al ( ) mutations in the polyglutam- ine-binding protein gene cause x-linked mental retarda- tion. nat genet : – losowsky ms ( ) hereditary mental defect showing the pattern of sex influence. j ment defic res : – martin jp, bell j ( ) a pedigree of mental defect showing sex-linkage. j neurol psychiatry : – mclaughlin jf, kriegsmann e ( ) developmental dys- praxias in a family with x-linked mental retardation (ren- penning syndrome). dev med child neurol : – proops r, webb t ( ) the fragile x chromosome in the martin-bell-renpenning syndrome and in males with other forms of familial mental retardation. j med genet : – renpenning h, gerrard jw, zaleski wa, tabata t ( ) familial sex-linked mental retardation. can med assoc j : – richards bw ( ) “renpenning” syndrome. lancet : steele mw, chorazy al ( ) renpenning’s syndrome. lan- cet : – stevenson re ( ) splitting and lumping in the nosology of xlmr. am j med genet : – stevenson re, arena jf, ouzts e, gibson a, shokeir mhk, vnencak-jones c, lubs ha, may m, schwartz ce ( ) renpenning syndrome maps to xp . am j hum genet : – stevenson re, procopio-allen am, schroer rj, collins js ( ) genetic syndromes among individuals with mental retardation. am j med genet a: – stevenson re, schwartz ce ( ) clinical and molecular contributions to the understanding of x-linked mental re- tardation. cytogenet genome res : – sudol m, sliwa k, russo t ( ) functions of ww domains in the nucleus. febs lett : – waragai m, lammers ch, takeuchi s, imafuku i, udagawa y, kanazawa i, kawabata m, mouradian mm, okazawa h ( ) pqbp- , a novel polyglutamine tract-binding pro- tein, inhibits transcription activation by brn- and affects cell survival. hum mol genet : – address for correspondence and reprints: dr. charles e. schwartz, j.c. self research institute, greenwood genetic center, gregor mendel circle, green- wood, sc . e-mail: schwartz@ggc.org � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . 	novel truncating mutations in the polyglutamine tract binding protein gene (pqbp )cause renpenning syndrome and x-linked mental retardation in another family with microcephaly 	acknowledgments 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ stray (review) stray (review) lania knight the missouri review, volume , number , summer , pp. - (review) published by university of missouri doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /mis. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /mis. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ t h e m i s s o u r i r e v i e w / s u m m e r forced by a loss to start anew. as mary’s husband, dylan, says to her, “with- out stella, it’s hard to remember who we are.” hood shows us how mary starts over—though she does so just barely, and only through the friendship of her knitting circle. as so many writers have recently shown, the emotion of deep loss is enor- mously compelling when translated into art. yet it is diffi cult to write about one’s own personal grief while still maintaining the necessary distance to craft a piece of art. � ough her novel lacks the toughness, independence and imagination that characterize her short stories, hood has done remarkably well in distancing her experience from � e knitting circle, allowing her per- sonal story to become the stories of others. (lh) stray by sheri joseph macadam/cage, , pp., $ sheri joseph’s debut novel, stray, is a fearless examina-stray, is a fearless examina-stray tion of the myriad deeds and relationships love inhab- its—from charitable acts of kindness, to marriage, to sexual liaisons so unlikely that they appear to make no sense. a lover’s triangle of two men and a woman would usually be thought to consist of a wife cheating on her husband, a woman with two lovers. in stray, stray, stray it’s the husband who has two lovers—one his wife and the other his boy- friend. � e husband is a thirty-year-old musician just beginning to settle into married life. his wife, maggie, is a mennonite lawyer of unshakable faith in her place in the world, and the lover is a college student surviving on the tired kindness of an ailing professor. it is more than the seductive storyline that drives this novel, though; it is the unrelenting mess created when good intentions overlap again and again with unavoidable physical en- tanglement. joseph’s fi rst book, bear me safely over, is a cycle of stories that features bear me safely over, is a cycle of stories that features bear me safely over two of the characters from stray, kent and paul, and describes the awkward stray, kent and paul, and describes the awkward stray genesis of their relationship. love and how it blends and mutes the bound- aries between straight and gay are themes of both books. in stray, however, stray, however, stray there are few traces of previous characters’ homophobia; rather, what occurs is a manifestation of genuine compassion through the portrayal of modern- day mennonites and the quiet tolerance evident in daily private acts of kind- ness and pacifi sm. s u m m e r / t h e m i s s o u r i r e v i e w joseph is able to render authentic moments of spiritual refl ection, ram- bling, self-loathing tirades, and the fear inherent in self-deception just as eas- ily as intimate moments between lovers, whether they’re gay, straight, young and virile or old and dying. � roughout the novel, characters are unable to commit to their choices or to believe that the world they’ve created through their decisions is the same as the one they currently inhabit. “� is comes from wanting the wrong things,” kent tells himself after a murder has led paul to seek refuge—at maggie’s urging—in the couple’s home. “too much of him had wanted paul asleep in the house, and now it had come.” kent loves his wife, but he has been unable to stop imagining his lover being part of his married life. later, after maggie has become paul’s lawyer, she brings him to the graveside of the murder victim. “� e sun’s slanted beam may have caused the heat and fl ush in her face,” but she kisses his hair, and his response is to kiss “her neck, a soft, searching brush of lips that lingered enough to suggest possibility, not much, only an unhardened question in her mind. . . .” she loves kent, her husband, but is attracted to this third person, paul, knowing the boy is gay but not that he is her husband’s lover. in stray, joseph exposes the layering of friendship, love and devotion stray, joseph exposes the layering of friendship, love and devotion stray through her subject matter and characters and makes an unfl inching asser- tion that relationships aren’t discrete but rather messy and often slightly be- yond our control. (lk) body language by kelly magee university of north texas press, , pp., $ . � e stories in kelly magee’s debut collection explore the compass of female sexuality, including among their protagonists em, a half-cuban lesbian in south tam- pa; gyp, a queer-identifi ed woman in love with a mtf transvestite; lucha, a ten-year-old migrant worker, in- structed in kissing by an older girl; and dana, a thirty-something actress who expects her good looks to get her places with the male executives of orlando’s nascent fi lm community. set mainly in ohio and the deep south, these eleven stories depict characters who are often stifl ed, either by their circumstances or by their own temperaments. when they fi nally act on their desires, they do so wildly, amid terrains whose racial and class complexities magee renders skillfully. toward me. many other people beyond my family and the maryknoll community, too numerous to mention here, have also shared with me abundantly their wisdom, courage, clarity, and joy as we have journeyed together. friendship has to be the most important sustaining feature of life. it is the basis of our mutual growth in faith. collegiality, collaboration, and partnership have replen­ ished my energy for the journey. over thirty years of friendship and collaboration with fr. jack sullivan, a maryknoll missioner in hong kong, has created a ministerial partnership, through which we have served people in more than forty countries. mutuality, equality, shared commitment to mission in maryknoll, and a redeeming humor born of faith have made our mutual ministry credible and helpful to other missionaries and friends. i am grateful for the richness, companionship, and meaning these living treasures have given me along the way. they were not part of any planned choices but have been gifts along my journey in faith, mission, ministry, and maryknoll. this has been a journey full of surprise meetings with our god hidden in every disconnection, loss, and trauma, as well as in joy, communion, and fulfillment. would i change anything of what has been? a part of me would like to erase the pain, the traumas, and the losses. but with each of these i have realized something of the wondrous mystery of god's loving spirit. i would not want to exchange any of this! i hope to spend the rest of my life cherishing and deepening my awareness of loving relationships with friends everywhere. i hope to continue journeying with friends and colleagues as we act together to seek and to struggle to make present the reign of god among us all. i am not sure where the journey is leading me but remain open to the discovery of god's ongoing creation and love of our glorious universe. the legacy of william milne p. richard bohr w illiam milne was born in at kennethmont, aberdeenshire, scotland. after his father's early death, milne supported the family as a farmhand and carpenter while receiving an education from his mother and a sabbath school. at sixteen, milne sensed god's "free grace" remitting the "eternal wrath" that he feared his previous indifference to religion and his "profane swearing" had surely incurred.' three years later, he left the church of scotland for the congregational "missionary kirk" at neighboring huntley, which endorsed the conviction of the evangelical awakening that christians must extend the spiritual revival and social reform taking place at home to their non-christian brothers and sisters abroad and thereby hasten the in-gathering of the imminent worldwide kingdom of god. gratitude for his own redemption, admiration for mission heroes like david brainerd ( - ), avid reading of the mis­ sionary magazine, and dedication to "the coming of christ's kingdom among the nations," inspired milne to become a for­ eign missionary, but not before earning enough money to secure his mother's retirement. the london missionary society (lms) accepted milne in , sent him to its seminary at gosport, england, ordained him in as "missionary in the east," and assigned him to work with robert morrison ( - ), the english last and boot-tree maker whom the lms had sent in as protestantism's first missionary to the chinese.' eight decades before morrison arrived in china, however, the imperial throne had banned christianity as "the ruin of morals and of the human heart," because it "neither holds spirits in veneration nor ancestors in reverence."! since morrison also served as chinese translator to the british east india company (eic),he could reside but not openly proselytize in canton's tiny foreign trade enclave. nor.were the catholic authorities in neigh­ boring macao sympathetic to morrison's desire to evangelize in that portuguese colony. to prepare for china's opening to christ, p. richard bohr is professor of history and director of asian studies at the college ofsaintbenedict andsaintjohn's university, st.joseph andcollegeville, minnesota. morrison's task was to translate and publish the bible, prepare chinese-language materials for future lms recruits, and estab­ lish a mission beachhead on china's doorstep. developing a mission strategy on july , , milne and his wife, rachel cowie ( - ), arrived in macao. after studying chinese with morrison in canton for several months, milne distributed his mentor's new testament translation and preached among several over­ seas chinese communities in southeast asia, where he also scouted the terrain for a new lms mission station. under milne's management (while morrison continued to alternate between canton and macao) and free of chinese government interfer­ ence, he recommended malacca as best suited to become a center of evangelism, education, and publication. a traditional entrepot between south and east asia on the western malay coast, malacca (melaka) was now a european port (alternating between dutch and english administrations) friendly to protestant missions. with , muslim malays, , chinese, , indians, and , europeans and eur­ asians, it was easily accessible to other chinese settlements in bangkok, penang, singapore, and batavia (jakarta). from mal­ acca, milne claimed, the word would spread among southeast asians and, through the overseas chinese, into china itself. in the spring of the milnes arrived at malacca with their young daughter and newborn twins. the british colonial gov­ ernment donated land for milne's mission near malacca's west­ ern gate. milne threw himself into chinese and malay language study and began preaching in the dutch church on sundays. on street comers and in chinese homes, shops, boats, and temples, milne distributed the new testament and explained evangelical faith in the following indigenous terms. god, "formless and invisible" and "maker of the heavens and the earth, is the only true and living god, and there is none else." god knows that people have sinned and deserve punishment. but because god is "merciful and gracious," he sent jesus, his only son, to "practice october virtue, and redeem ... [people] from their iniquities, in order that all who repent of their sins, and trust in jesus, should obtain eternal life in heaven." however, those "who do not receive his doctrines, but work iniquity, must go down to hell, (that is, earth's prison) and suffer undefined punishment."? inquirers were told that in addition to grace, individual salvation required moral action, milne therefore exhorted the chinese to "seek-god's gracious favor; deal justly with all; let not the rich greedily oppress the poor, nor the poor discontentedly complain of their lot, for both rich and poor must shortly die." he further admonished: "parents, teach your children to read the sacred book-to write-to trust in jesus christ-to venerate the aged-to discharge filial piety to you-to love their brothers and sisters-to pity the poor, and to do good to all men-then all will be well." finally, people should not set their hearts on "things under the sun [because they] are vanity.?" milne believed that there was much that was good in china. yet several factors soon convinced him that to "impart the knowledge of the true god-the triune jehovah-to this people, will be no easy task." milne observed that while the skeptical philosophy of the school of confucius stressed such biblical virtues as filial piety, it also ignored monotheism, the sinfulness of disobeying god's commandments, and the ability of common people (not merely china's ancient sages) to participate in divine providence. worse, milne lamented, the chinese saw christ as a bodhisattva whose atoning power was based not in miraculous deeds but on fantasy, whose resurrection was simply an act of reincarnation, and whose sacrificial death was ignominious. moreover, such buddhist notions as transmigration of souls "confound the christian doctrine of future retributions...." the missionary's challenge, milne concluded, was to win converts by finding points of contact between confucianism and christianity and by building a communal, educational, and publishing infrastructure in which to embody the chris­ tian message. defining mission fundamentals in january milne completed the first phase of mission construction in malacca. the compound included a chapel, where milne held daily and sabbath worship (consisting of prayers and homilies on bible readings) in both chinese and malay. the mission also included a library of works in chinese and english, a printing shop, and living quarters for missionar­ ies, language assistants, translators, and printers. in china, the jesuits had proselytized the scholar-official elite before the emperors began proscribing christianity. but malacca's chinese elite were marginally educated merchants who resembled the targets of evangelical preaching, education, and good works back home. realizing that the malacca chinese must become more literate in their own language to understand the written word, milne made education a top priority. in mid­ august , with contributions from british army friends in bengal, he converted a stable on the mission grounds into asia's first christian "charity school" for poor chinese boys. by mid­ milne oversaw six such boys' schools around malacca­ four for chinese, one for malay, and one for indians-where local teachers taught the respective languages and literature as well as western mathematics. milne introduced a mentoring system in which older students tutored the younger ones accord­ ing to fixed lesson plans and textbooks. moreover, milne accom­ modated local custom by opening new schools on "auspicious" days in the lunar calendar, introducing christian themes in lessons on confucian ethics and ritual, enticing students to worship services by first inviting their teachers, and composing a christian catechism and prayers in indigenous terms. in morrison appointed milne principal of the anglo­ chinese college. this institution was to integrate eastern and western civilizations by teaching chinese and southeast asian languages as well as the confucian classics to asia-based euro­ pean boys, some of whom might become missionaries. and through courses in english, scripture, philosophy, history, geog­ raphy, mathematics, science, and (eventually) medicine, morrison and milne hoped that asian students would not only come to see christianity as the core of western culture but also convert and become protestant clergy, teachers, and social reformers. when the building (which morrison funded from his own eic salary) was completed in august , the college included seven stu­ dents (some were on scholarship), a dormitory, classrooms, a milne hoped the christian literature produced at malacca would penetrate china via merchant vessels. museum showcasing chinese and western antiquities, and a chapel, the daily services at which students were invited (but not compelled) to attend. milne himself taught geography and chi­ nese, utilizing morrison's chinese-language materials. among his students were lmsrecruits who, once they became language­ proficient, worked in the chinese or malay sides of the malacca mission or founded other lms stations in the region.'? milne admired morrison's view that religious tracts were "the means of exciting serious and godly thoughts, which bring the proud sinners heart to mercy's throne."!' milne hoped that, once educated, the overseas chinese would be moved by those tracts and that the christian literature produced at malacca would circulate through the archipelago and penetrate china itself via merchant vessels. by late milne had secured english-, malay-, and chinese-language presses. in the lms sent walter henry medhurst ( - ), a printer and gifted linguist, to superintend the chinese press." the chief chinese printer was liang fa ( - ), a poorly educated peasant­ turned-woodblock carver who had clandestinely printed morrison's new testament in canton before coming to malacca with the milnes. publishing began with the second edition of morrison's new testament and two widely circulated journals: the chinese monthly magazine (in chinese), devoted to christianity and western learning, and the indo-chinese gleaner, an english-lan­ guage quarterly highlighting missions in asia as well as trends in world religion, philosophy, literature, and history. in addition to writing for and editing these periodicals, milne translated thirteen old testament books for the morrison-milne bible, completed in november . before the malacca press pub­ lished it in , both missionaries were honored with honorary doctorates from the university of glasgow. while morrison focused primarily on translating scriptural and doctrinal works, milne became the first missionary to por­ tray, in nineteen chinese-language pamphlets, evangelical the­ ology in the chinese cultural idiom. writing in the vernacular style of contemporary confucian "morality books" and reflect­ . international bulletin of missionary research • .. __ _ _ _ . _ _ "'" * ., _ _ _ ... _ n • •_ ~ ~ ~ xo _ _ _ _ _ • _~ ~. ~ school of intercultural studies you 're embark ing on the journey of life. you'll be traveling to multicultural places whether you stay home or go abroad. we'll help you pack your breifcase or suitca se with cross cultural communication, language and education. you can be an international bu siness person, a professor, a linguist or one of a hundred professions. we're more than missionary training. at biola university's school of intercultural studie s, we're your preperation for the journey of life. your journey begins here . call now for information. - - prog rams • ba or minor in intercultural studies • ma in app lied lingui stics • minor or cer t ificat e in tesol • ma in intercultural studies • sillwycliffe lin guistics program • dmiss doctorate of missiology • ma in tesol • phd in intercultural education ing evangelical concern for culture's impact on the individual's soul, milne condemned what he perceived to be malacca's habits of lying and commercial malfeasance as well as gambling's harm to family and community." in an pamphlet milne character­ ized that year's cholera epidemic as god's punishment for immo­ rality and a call for people to embrace each other as brothers and sisters under the same creatorgod. in the folly ofidolatry, milne lambasted china's deities for feigning god's powers and de­ nounced the practitioners of astrology, divination, geomancy, necromancy, spells, and charms. in milne published his masterpiece: the two friends. described by daniel h. bays as the "most famous of all nine­ teenth-century christian tracts,"!' the pamphlet gives chinese voice to evangelical faith. after realizing he is a sinner and fearing eternal damnation, zhang, the story's hero, tells his friend yuan that he has been redeemed through repentance of his sinful past and belief in jesus' "merit." zhang claims that because jesus is both god and man and sacrificed his life to redeem the world, he is superior to china's sages. and zhang is grateful to the holy spirit for improving his behavior and saving his soul. like other chinese, zhang asserts, he values human rela­ tionships but worships the one true god instead of false gods. although ridiculed for being unfilial, zhang is serene, knowing that jesus' second coming will see the dead bodily resurrected, milne formed a bond with liang fa, whose background and spiritual crisis mirrored his own. judged by jesus, and sent to hell or heaven as god's kingdom draws near. meanwhile, the conversion process is ongoing, zhang insists. so the believer, cognizant of the reality of sin and the last judgment, constantly repents, confesses, forgives, rejects materialism, does not confuse transmigration of souls with res­ urrection, reforms behavior by following god's commandments, and reads the bible and prays daily. god rewards prayer not materially but with forgiveness, cleansing of heart, and eternal salvation. because christian faith is nourished within commu­ nity, zhang believes, chinese christians are eager to share their faith with family and friends. bobwhyte has insightfully observed: "too few missionaries were concerned to establish lasting friendships with chinese."ls milne was among that minority; he formed an enduring bond with liang fa, the mission printer and contributor to the indo­ chinese gleaner, whose personal background and spiritual crisis mirrored milne's own." in fact, liang had initially resisted milne's invitations to mission worship, fearing that the buddha would "soon bring punishment and death on such an opponent of the gods." but carving the woodblocks for milne's lifeofjesus in and exposure to the missionary's pious demeanor coin­ cided with liang's growing guilt over his earlier "drunkenness and other kindred vices," including gambling, lust, cheating, and lying. liang was not consoled by quiet sitting at home, sutra-reading at malacca's goddess of mercy temple, or the resident monk's assurances of western paradise because, liang concluded, buddhist ritual and self-cultivation lacked christianity's connection with god's moral commandments, from which emerged the "virtuous act" needed to "obtain for- giveness."l after weekly bible reading and prayer sessions with milne, liang became a christian through a conversion scenario strikingly similar to the one played out in the two friends. on november , -as liang acknowledged his sinful nature and vowed to repudiate idol worship, believe in jesus' atonement, follow god's commandments, and act justly-milne baptized him. (milne accommodated liang's request to perform the rite precisely at noon to avoid the sun's casting shadows on such a sacred ritual.) liang subsequently thanked the holy spirit for casting out his "evil self." after studying christianity part-time at the anglo-chinese college, liang emulated milne's missionary example. in he visited his village near canton, where he married and baptized his wife (the first known chinese woman to be baptized a protestant), preached, and published a tract denouncing his lineage's idol worship. soon, however, local officials confiscated the booklets, imprisoned liang for defying the anti-christian prohibition, and beat him on the soles of his feet with bamboo. the following year, liang returned to malacca to publish the morrison-milne bible. sadly, his joyful anticipation of further study with milne was thwarted. in march milne's beloved rachel had succumbed to dysentery, becoming the first protes­ tant missionary wife to perish in asia. refusing to slow his work routine despite a worsening tuberculosis, milne himself died on june , .from its orphan fund, malacca's dutch community supported milne's daughter and three sons, including william charles ( - ) who later joined the lms and collaborated with john robert morrison ( - ) in carrying on their fathers' efforts to christianize china. milne as mission pioneer william milne exemplifies the first generation of british evan­ gelical missionaries, who, as max warren has noted, were buoyed by the democratic, moralistic values and social activism of their emerging "skilled mechanic" class in the early nineteenth cen­ tury." artisans such as william carey, morrison, and milne were "inner-directed" improvisers who, with whatever noncon­ formist education they could acquire, mastered difficult lan­ guages to plant christianity-despite dangerous circumstances­ into time-honored civilizations they came to admire. as carey did in his educational, translation, and publishing enterprise at serampore, morrison and milne developed a mis­ sion strategy and infrastructure on china's gateway designed to extend evangelical missions into the rest of asia. the preaching, education, tract writing, and publication to which they dedicated themselves remain mainstays of protestant missions today. dur­ ing their remarkable nine-year partnership, morrison and milne approached mission through the prism of cultural interchange. mingling freely with the overseas chinese, milne studied their religious life and their confucianism; in their social ethics he found points of contact with evangelical morality. working hard to find commonalities to win chinese converts first to superior western learning and then to christianity, milne's accommodationist approach anticipates one of the most endur­ ing aspects of christian missions. milne pioneered protestant elementary education in asia, which became coeducational soon after his death. by , for example, boys and girls were enrolled in malacca's lms chinese schools, with boys and girls in the malay schools. in the lms opened a school for adult chinese women and in set up a boarding school for chinese girls. some gradu­ ates of milne's schools would, he hoped, seek higher education, international bulletin of missionary research convert, and become christian pastors and teachers. among the anglo-chinese college students in , chose baptism. the alumni of the school included chinese government inter­ preters, clerks, merchants, shopkeepers, ship captains, a medical assistant, and a doctor of traditional medicine. by three students at the college were preparing for the protestant minis­ try. in malacca alone, there were chinese christians in need of such indigenous clergy." by the time he died in , milne had trained ten lms missionaries in chinese language and culture. in malacca and elsewhere in southeast asia, these colleagues continued milne's emphasis on preaching, teaching, and publishing. by the time of milne's death, they had produced no less than pamphlets on ever-modern printing presses. by , seven years after all of china was opened to evangelism, protestant missionaries had published religious and secular tracts." the lms giant james legge ( - ) carried milne's inno­ vations into a second generation of evangelical missions. raised in milne's parish at huntley, legge had been led to missions through evangelical revivals, studied chinese in london with lms malacca veteran samuel kidd ( - ), and was himself assigned to malacca in . three years later legge moved the mission to hong kong, one of six coastal enclaves that the first opium war ( - ) opened to global trade and christianity. convinced, like milne, that "confucianism is not antagonistic to christianity," legge established coeducationalboarding schools there to teach poor students the confucian classics, knowledge, mathematics, and science. having also moved the anglo-chi­ nese college (of which he became principal in ) to hong noteworthy personalia tile tienou, chair of the department of mission and evange­ lism and professor of theology of mission, trinity evangelical divinity school, deerfield, illinois, has been appointed dean of the seminary. a contributing editor of the international bulletin of missionary research, tienou joined the overseas ministries study center board of trustees last year. ron flaming, executive secretary of the commission on overseas mission, general conference mennonite church, has been appointed director of international programs for the mennonite central committee, as of february . darrell l. whiteman, who joined the faculty of asbury theological seminary, wilmore, kentucky, in ,was named dean of the e. stanley jones school of world mission and evangelism, effective july , . he succeeded the retiring dean george g. hunter, iii. whiteman, who has been editor of missiology: an international review since , will be suc­ ceeded in that position by terry muck, in june . muck, former executive editor of christianity today, is professor of mission and world religions at asbury seminary. died. stanley j. samartha, , indian theologian in the church of south india and first director of the world council of churches' sub-unit on dialogue with people of living faiths and ideologies, in bangalore, india, july , . he was professor of history of religions and philosophy, united theological college, bangalore, and principal of karnataka theological college, mangalore, and serampore college, kong, legge hoped it would train chinese christian leaders able to plant christianity throughout the treaty ports. but after real­ izing that the college was falling short in this effort, legge closed it in . nevertheless, as lindsay ride, vice chancellor at the university of hong kong, observed a century later, the college remains the "forerunner of all the british colleges and universi­ ties that exist in the far east to-day.?" legge had also brought four chinese christians with him from malacca, including liang fa and ho tsun-sheen ( - ). while legge and ho wrote bible commentaries and itinerated around canton, evangelical ideas had already begun to pen­ etrate china's heartland, thanks to liang fa. in morrison fulfilled milne's wish by ordaining liang as the first chinese evangelist. among the villages around canton, liang distrib­ uted and preached on the scriptures and milne's two friends, baptized dozens of chinese, and even briefly established a christian rural "charity school." as mission evangelism, educa­ tion, publication, and medicine continued to expand in canton, liang became a well-known pastor of several small congrega­ tions, two mission hospitals, and a chapel at his home in that city. liang is best remembered for authoring twenty-one chi­ nese-language tracts, the most celebrated of which is good words to admonish theage ( ). in it, liang sought to explain milne's evangelical faith in chinese terms and advocated china's imme­ diate conversion to missionary christianity, because, he thought, the kingdom of god was more imminent than even milne had supposed. in hong xiuquan ( ~)read good words, identified god as china's authentic ruler described in the pre-confucian calcutta. an authority on hindu-christian dialogue, samartha wrote between two cultures: ecumenical ministry in a pluralist world ( ). announcing in july trinity theological college, singapore, launched the centre for the study of christianity in asia to facilitate in­ depth research on the identity and role of the church in the asian context. the center focuses on clarifying the church's identity, mission priorities, methods, and strategies, and on leadership development. hwa yung, former principal of seminari theoloji, malaysia, is the director. e-mail the center at csca@ttc.edu.sg. a documentation and archives conference, sponsored by the international association of catholic missiologists and the international association for mission studies, will be held at the pontifical urban university, rome, september to october , .with "rescuing the memory of our peoples" as their theme, archivists and documentalists from around the world will share experiences, review the impact of changing technology, and explore the effect of globalization on the documentation of the story of the church. particular attention will be given to minority situations where the oral and written history of the memory of the poor is at risk. contact john roxborogh, knox college, dunedin, new zealand, at rescue@missionstudies.org,orvisitwww.missionstudies.org/ rescue. october texts, and concluded that he himself was jesus christ's younger brother. hong's monotheism was so literal that he denied christ's (and his own) divinity, denigrated the trinity, and misunder­ stood the soul and other evangelical concepts. but by embracing moral transformation and iconoclastic reform activism as the antidote to the abuses of the imperial confucian old order, hong unleashed the taiping rebellion ( - ), the world's bloodiest civil war, in which to million chinese perished. in the mid- s hong claimed that, under his authority as god's vice-regent, his theocratic "new jerusalem" at nanjing was the center of a universal, millennial taiping tianguo (heav­ enly kingdom of great peace). hong engendered revolutionary discipline by superimposing the ten commandments and man­ dating gender equality, universal coeducation, social welfare, and communal land holding." despite hong's embrace of west­ ern christians as his ''brothers and sisters," missionaries and chinese christians alike condemned his "sinified" faith. al­ though no trace of taiping religion survived, christian ideas were linked with chinese sectarianism well into the twentieth century. after the taipings' defeat, evangelical missions continued in china for another eighty-five years. but missionaries split over milne's accommodationism. on one side was the "liberal evan­ gelical tradition" carried on by legge, who-having discovered monotheism in pre-confucian china-accommodated chris­ tian belief to chinese culture. on the other side were the nonaccommodationists who sought merely to "transplant chris­ tian civilization within china.":" between these extremes, a chinese protestantism, independent of the missionaries, also developed." containing many core evangelical beliefs, indig­ enous chinese christianity survives today, gathering more con­ verts than at any lime during the pre- missionary period. notes---------------------------------------­ .	 quoted in [edwin stevens], "a brief sketch of the life and labors of the late rev. william milne, d.d.," chinese repository (december ): - . .	 quoted in robert philip, the life and opinions of the rev. william milne, d.o. (london: john snow, ), p. . . for an overview of morrison, see j. barton starr, "the legacy of robert morrison," international bulletinofmissionary research , no. (april ): - . for the first protestant missionary generation represented by morrison and milne, see murray a. rubenstein, the origins of the anglo-american missionary enterprise in china, ­ (lanham, md.: scarecrow press, ). .	 quoted in a. j. broomhall, hudson taylor and china's opencentury, book , barbarians at the gate (sevenoaks: hodder & stoughton, ), p. . .	 quoted in lindsay ride, robert morrison: the scholar and the man (hong kong: hong kong univ. press, ), p. . .	 for a biographical sketch of rachel milne, see biographical dictionary ofchristian missions, ed. gerald h. anderson (new york: macmillan reference, ), p. . . the excerpts are taken from milne's "farewell letter to the chinese of java," quoted in philip, life, pp. - , . . ibid. . ibid., pp. - , , . . for a study of milne's educational endeavors, see brian harrison, waiting for china: the anglo-chinese college at malacca, - , and early nineteenth-century missions (hong kong: hong kong univ. press, ). . philip, life, p. . . for a biographical sketch of medhurst, see biographical dictionary, pp. - . . in his english-language writings, milne denounced the growth of chinese opium addiction, which he attributed to the east india company's increasing involvement in opium smuggling. see philip, life, pp. - . . daniel h. bays, "christian tracts: thetwofriends," in christianity in china: early protestant missionary writings, ed. suzanne wilson barnett and john king fairbank (cambridge, mass.: harvard univ. press, ), p. . . bob whyte, unfinished encounter: china andchristianity (harrisburg, selected bibliography the london missionary society materials are located at the library of the school of oriental and african studies at the university of london. works by william milne a retrospect of thefirstten years of the protestant mission to china. the anglo-chinese press. thememoirs of the rev. william milne. edited by robert morrison. dublin, n.p. pa.: morehouse publishing, ), p. . . for liang fa's spiritual transformation, see p. richard bohr, "liang fa's quest for moral power," in barnett and fairbank, christianity in china, pp. - . .	 quoted in george hunter mcneur, china's firstpreacher: lianga-fa, - (shanghai: kwang hsueh publishing house [ ?]), p. . . max warren,	 social history and christian mission (london: scm press, ). . harrison, waitingfor china, chaps. - . . w. h. medhurst, china. its stateand prospects (london: john snow, ), pp. - . . john k. fairbank, "introduction: the place of protestant writings in china's cultural history," in barnett and fairbank, christianity in china, p. . .	 quoted in harrison, waitingfor china, p. . for a study of legge, see lauren f. pfister, "the legacy of james legge," international bulletin of missionary research , no. (april ): - . for an overview of the growth of the hong kong church, see carl t. smith, chinese christians: elites, middlemen, and the church in hong kong (hong kong: oxford univ. press), . . ride, robert morrison, p. . . p. richard bohr, "the theologian as revolutionary: hung hsiu­ ch'iian's religious vision of the taiping heavenly kingdom," in tradition and metamorphosis in modern chinese history: essays in honor of professor kwang-ching liu's seventy-fifth birthday, ed. yen­ p'ing hao and hsiu-mei wei (taipei: institute of modern history, academia sinica, ), : - , and idem, "christianity and rebellion in china: the evangelical roots of the taiping heavenly kingdom," in the chinese face of jesus christ, ed. roman malek, s.v.d., vols. (sankt augustin: monumenta serica monograph series, ). . daniel h. bays, "christianity and chinese sects: religious tracts in the late nineteenth century," in barnett and fairbank, christianity in china, pp. - . . pfister, "legacy of james legge," p. . . daniel h. bays, ''the growth of independent christianity in china, - ," in barnett and fairbank, christianity in china, pp. ­ . works about william milne chu yiu kwong. "between unity and diversity: the role of william milne in the development of the ultra-ganges missions." m.phi!. thesis, hong kong baptist univ., . philip, robert. the life and opinions of the rev. william milne, d.o. london; john snow, . [stevens, edwin]. "a brief sketch of the life and labors of the late rev. william milne, d.d." chinese repository (december ): - . 	 international bulletin of missionary research wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ resenhas archetti, eduardo p. . masculin- ities. football, polo and the tango in argentina. oxford/new york: berg. pp. simoni lahud guedes profa de antropologia, departamento de antropologia, ppgacp-uff em busca das imagens de homens e masculinidades atuantes na argentina atual, investigadas a partir da reconstru- ção de um poderoso sistema de repre- sentações coletivas, eduardo archetti toma como pano de fundo o contexto histórico da modernização de buenos aires nas primeiras décadas do século xx. na efervescência da cidade dese- nhada em tintas vivas, no interior de um multifacetado processo de produção cultural, os argentinos começam tam- bém a exportar corpos, desempenhos, música, dançarinos, jogadores de pólo, cavalos híbridos e, sobretudo, jogado- res de futebol. a avassaladora entrada de imigran- tes europeus, a maioria italianos e es- panhóis e a forte presença dos britâni- cos, não é o aspecto menos relevante desse processo. É esta cidade, percebi- da como locus da nação, vista pelos ar- gentinos como “uma típica cidade eu- ropéia” (: ), habitada por brancos, uma reprodução da paris da belle époque, que percorremos em todo o livro. insta- la-se ali o palco da construção comple- xa de uma essência criolla, capaz de fertilizar a essência européia, transfor- mando-a e produzindo novos seres masculinos através da dinâmica da con- trastação, símbolos de uma nação que se define pelos homens que produz, construtos específicos e peculiares, mas não unívocos. dessa perspectiva, a ci- dade é recuperada em suas contradições e ambigüidades, nas suas míticas áreas sombrias e marginais, desde suas aca- demias de bailes, seus cafés de camare- ras, seus cabarets, passando pelos cam- pos de futebol improvisados nos bairros pobres, chamados potreros, até as pla- nícies dos pampas, reconstruídas no meio urbano pelas ideologias eruditas e populares como fonte da especificidade nacional. desenhando os espaços sim- bólicos nos quais transitam e são sele- cionados os complexos valores morais que atuam como “modelos e espelhos” para os homens argentinos (:xviii, pas- sim) e delineando seus míticos persona- gens – o gaucho, o compadrito, a milon- guita, o pibe –, o autor conjuga refle- xões teóricas acerca da construção da masculinidade, da moralidade e das identidades nacionais nas “culturas hí- bridas”. escolher trabalhar essas questões mediante a análise do futebol, do pólo e do tango embute algumas opções me- todológicas. o autor opta por uma com- paração intracultural que lhe permite a complexificação das imagens de mas- culinidades em atuação, a análise da resenhas mana ( ): - , forma como transitam de uma arena a outra e, ainda, uma mais nítida identifi- cação dos “outros” relevantes que são chamados a atuar em tais sistemas sim- bólicos: os europeus, em geral, com sig- nificados e posições relativas substanti- vamente diferentes para os ingleses, de um lado, e os latinos, de outro, isto é, italianos e espanhóis. uma comparação com outros países da américa latina é ensaiada no epílogo, tomando o traba- lho de roberto damatta sobre carnaval e futebol no brasil como referência. em- bora sugestiva de uma continuidade potencialmente reveladora, em nenhum momento, já que não é esta a opção me- todológica de archetti, tal comparação é levada adiante. do mesmo modo, é inspirando-se explicitamente no traba- lho do antropólogo brasileiro e na teoria do ritual de victor turner, que o autor opta por estas específicas criações cul- turais, por considerá-las como “zonas livres”, contextos definidos como dota- dos “das propriedades antiestruturais da liminaridade e sacra híbridos no tra- balho de turner, [os quais] permitem a articulação de linguagens e práticas que podem desafiar um domínio públi- co oficial e puritano. ‘zonas livres’ são também espaços para misturas, para o aparecimento de híbridos, para a se- xualidade e exaltação de performances corporais. nas sociedades modernas, esportes, jogos e dança são loci privile- giados para a análise da ‘liberdade’ e criatividade cultural.” (: ) e como apreender essas “zonas li- vres”? de que modo registrar atuações e performances corporais, danças e jo- gos que misturam homens com homens, homens com mulheres e homens e ca- valos? como inscrever paixões? o livro combina “trabalho de campo tradicio- nal e oralidade – estórias e histórias contadas pelos informantes – com aná- lise textual – ensaios históricos, escri- tos ideológicos dos autores nacionalis- tas, jornais, revistas e letras de tango.” (:xii), em um trabalho que se estendeu irregularmente ao longo de dez anos. se essa multiplicidade é um dos vários motivos da sua fecundidade é, também, fonte de uma certa descontinuidade que, se não compromete a unidade do livro, traz algumas dúvidas em relação à comparabilidade das construções ela- boradas. por exemplo, ao mesmo tempo que se dispõe de uma minuciosa elabo- ração das narrativas que constroem o desempenho no futebol, comparáveis às que, embora um pouco menos traba- lhadas, são fornecidas acerca do pólo, o desempenho no tango não recebe o mesmo tratamento. na verdade, é o pró- prio trabalho de archetti que sugere que as narrativas prototípicas sobre o desempenho cumprem papel funda- mental como marcadores simbólicos nesse sistema. apesar de o material reunido ser muito diversificado, de haver uma níti- da predominância das reflexões sugeri- das pelo futebol, e da peculiaridade que cerca cada um dos campos empíri- cos pelos quais o autor optou para re- construir as concepções de masculini- dade na cultura argentina, a unidade do livro é evidente, estabelecendo uma forma de argumentação reiterativa em que cada novo material acrescentado reforça os achados anteriores. essa uni- dade pode ser buscada, igualmente, no cenário que é amplamente fornecido pela buenos aires do início do século, mas jaz, sobretudo, na confluência das problemáticas que intitulam as duas partes em que se organiza o livro, res- pectivamente, “hibridação” e “morali- dades masculinas”. são estes os dois grandes eixos de debate teórico em cu- jo entrecruzamento se coloca o autor, ambos recuperados a cada momento, sob ângulos diversos, permitindo a cons- resenhas resenhas trução dos modelos de masculinidade atualizados na cultura argentina. a primeira dessas problemáticas re- mete a um antigo, extenso e complexo campo de debates nas ciências sociais, particularmente quando referido à amé- rica latina. archetti posiciona-se nesse campo, na discussão sobre a “hibrida- ção”, em três capítulos na primeira par- te. assume a proposta de canclini, em- bora vá debater e trabalhar com vários outros autores, incorporando a hetero- geneidade como característica da amé- rica latina atual, produzida por uma história em que a modernidade dificil- mente se instala substituindo o tradicio- nal e o antigo. busca, entretanto, pro- blematizá-la, pressupondo a existência de diversos modelos de “hibridação”, inquirindo sobre os atores concretos que produz e os espaços e tempos em que ocorre (: ). e é isto que se propõe a fa- zer, percorrendo as concepções que per- meiam o futebol, o pólo e o tango na ar- gentina. É sob esse prisma teórico que a figura do gaucho – forte, corajoso, ho- nesto e livre – emerge dos míticos pam- pas e assoma com todo o vigor, encar- nando as melhores e mais heróicas qua- lidades da nação (: ), meticulosamen- te examinada no capítulo , mediante análise da literatura e das construções nacionalistas de intelectuais urbanos premidos pela ameaça que a imigração maciça representa (: , ). alguns des- ses autores, em suas formulações mais radicais, colocam em questão até mes- mo o suposto caráter civilizatório da imigração e o próprio valor da mestiça- gem. mas é através da construção de “machos híbridos” no futebol (capítulo ) e no pólo (capítulo ) que a operação simbólica assume seu formato, conti- nuamente reiterado e recriado em es- paços e momentos posteriores. É funda- mental, para a compreensão da concep- ção produzida – “o estilo crioulo no fu- tebol e no pólo”, cuja cristalização ocor- re, em ambos os casos, na década de –, o fato de que são esportes concebidos como de origem britânica, partes do grande processo civilizatório que é vis- to, positivamente, como modernizador da argentina. É em confronto com esse modelo construído do inglês, do gentle- man (: ), cuja característica mais mar- cante é a ética do fair play (: ), que se constrói o “estilo crioulo”, baseado no toque, no virtuosismo e no drible (: , passim), incorporando às qualidades fí- sico-morais dos gauchos as dos descen- dentes de italianos e espanhóis (: ). opõe-se, desse modo, à disciplina e for- ça de vontade dos ingleses, o desempe- nho argentino, representado como indi- vidualista, sensível, artístico e baseado na improvisação (: ). o material sobre o pólo, no capítulo , é extremamente interessante pois, além da reiteração desse “estilo crioulo” incorporado nos homens, nos jogadores, neste caso mais facilmente dando vida aos instintos atá- vicos dos gaúchos, seus valores e suas qualidades morais (: , passim), enfati- zando-se seu extraordinário senso de sacrifício e sua força física (: ), o pro- cesso configura-se igualmente na cria- ção dos cavalos com a mistura de puros- sangues e animais crioulos, estes dota- dos de liberdade, heroísmo e força, qua- lidades que se supõe manter-se no novo híbrido (: ). na segunda parte do livro, a discus- são teórica sobre as formas da masculi- nidade em relação às moralidades é es- tendida, explanando-se recentes abor- dagens sobre a masculinidade. ali é enfatizada a diversidade das formas as- sumidas pelas concepções de homem, acentuando-se, inclusive, em consonân- cia com as tendências recentes das teo- rias sociais, a recusa dos constructos fe- chados e a necessidade de enfrentar as contradições e as fragmentações (: ). É curioso que seja, possivelmente, nas letras dos tangos analisadas (capítulo ), que as distintas possibilidades de construção da masculinidade se apre- sentem mais claramente, evidenciando as diferenças internas, as porosidades e aberturas do constructo do macho que se alimenta da figura do gaucho. a aná- lise de narrativas sugeridas pela pai- xão, a tematização das perdas e do so- frimento, expõem as “tensões, dúvidas, paradoxos e ambigüidades” (: ) que cercam esses seres masculinos, apre- sentados em sua força e em sua fragili- dade na relação com as mulheres. mas os dilemas masculinos ali, perspectiva- dos como “escolhas morais”, presos nos terrenos da cognição mas também da emoção e do desejo, são da mesma or- dem simbólica que os que são retoma- dos no texto sobre as virtudes masculi- nas nacionais e a moralidade no fute- bol (capítulo )? essas narrativas não estariam recuperando, como sombra das femmes fatales e das milonguitas, um outro mundo e não este em que “não há lugar para a família, o trabalho e a pa- ternidade” (: )? no caso do futebol, as narrativas pa- radigmáticas centram-se claramente nos desempenhos, por meio dos quais se debatem arte e disciplina, elegância e força, improvisação e tática, o predo- mínio do desejo da vitória ou da alegria de fazer e ver o jogo bonito, categorias em oposição que, metaforicamente, ex- põem a ambigüidade da atuação dos atores híbridos. nesse caso, não se po- de deixar de registrar, mesmo en pas- sant, que estes são dilemas por demais conhecidos dos antropólogos que estu- dam o futebol brasileiro, reforçando a necessidade de comparações sistemáti- cas. mas deve-se também observar que, por maiores que sejam as similari- dades, não é possível, após a decisiva demonstração de archetti, ignorar que esse “estilo crioulo” de futebol, la nues- tra, como dizem, se constitua como par- te do conjunto de transformações do modelo do gaucho fecundado, como os garanhões puro-sangue fizeram com as éguas crioulas, pelas qualidades físico- morais dos imigrantes europeus de ori- gem latina. no brasil, recuperamos nos- sa hibridação também de modo bastan- te peculiar, pelo mito das três raças, e, por meio do futebol, atribuímos particu- larmente aos negros – simbolicamente ausentes do modelo argentino – nossas potencialidades e limites. são também muito similares as con- cepções sobre os nossos campos de pe- lada e os potreros argentinos, espaço onde os pibes, os garotos pobres, são li- vres, onde se aprende e se exercita uma criatividade específica, sem mestre, na rua, na vida. É dali que surge marado- na, el pibe de oro (: , passim), anali- sado em um sensível capítulo como uma personagem arquetípica (: ) que materializa de modo perfeito esse “esti- lo crioulo”, cuja “criatividade é uma vi- tória contra a disciplina e o treinamen- to” (: ). mas, como afirmei acima, apenas a comparação sistemática que archetti sugere ao final do livro será capaz de nos levar mais longe na compreensão dessas diversas formas de criatividade cultural que se expressam nas “zonas livres” da vida social. essa comparação é tanto mais interessante porque eles, como nós, brasileiros, supõem ser os “melhores do mundo” no futebol (: ). resenhas resenhas barreira, irlys e palmeira, moacir (orgs.). . candidatos e candidatu- ras: enredos de campanha eleitoral no brasil. são paulo: annablume. pp. ana rosato doutora em antropologia, universidade de buenos aires candidatos e candidaturas tem o obje- tivo explícito de mostrar a multiplicida- de de leituras que as ciências sociais são capazes de produzir sobre as cam- panhas eleitorais no brasil. cada um dos artigos expressa a busca dos estu- diosos por novos modos de explicar – novas teorias? – essa realidade. um es- forço que se vê recompensado, tornan- do interessante a sua leitura, tanto para o meio acadêmico, quanto para aqueles preocupados com o tema da “política”. o livro está organizado em três se- ções, que consideram os diversos olha- res sobre as campanhas eleitorais: “di- ferentes modos de fazer campanha”, “valores sociais e atributos de gênero: as divisões como marcas” e “profissões, carreiras e vocações: operadores de en- trada na política”. a seção inicial compreende três ar- tigos. o primeiro deles, de m. goldman e a. cruz da silva, “por que se perde uma eleição?”, está centrado na análise das eleições para vereador em um mu- nicípio do estado do rio de janeiro. o trabalho procura demonstrar que as concepções sobre a política se modifi- cam em função de contextos sociais e culturais específicos e que, para com- preendê-las, é necessário “estabelecer a conexão, sempre particular, entre as várias dimensões que compõem ‘a po- lítica’” (: ). ao mesmo tempo, mostra a importância da “crença” daquele que deve explicar uma derrota ou uma vitó- ria, “crença” que é analisada em fun- ção dos resultados dos “trabalhos reali- zados” e das relações estabelecidas pe- los atores. o segundo artigo, “a campanha eleitoral na tv em eleições locais: es- tratégias e resultados”, de k. kuschnir, l. piquet carneiro e r. schmitt, trata também das eleições para vereador em , no rio de janeiro. a ênfase, aqui, é posta na articulação entre política lo- cal e nacional, através do vínculo que se estabelece entre candidatos e parti- dos. examinando as diferentes estraté- gias de campanha, em função dos re- sultados eleitorais, e utilizando a distin- ção entre reputação pessoal e partidá- ria, os autores concluem que “os parti- dos têm tido uma importância decisiva para a dinâmica dos resultados eleito- rais no brasil” (: ). a conclusão, que refuta a idéia generalizada de que ocor- re o contrário, ilustra a importância que os partidos (e suas frações) adquiriram no processo de legitimação da repre- sentação política. o artigo de o. luiz coradini, “ori- gens sociais, mediação e processo elei- toral em um município de imigração italiana”, examina as eleições para pre- feito e vereador em um município do estado do rio grande do sul, em . sua análise mostra as transformações das “bases eleitorais” dos diferentes candidatos, chegando à conclusão de que, na atualidade, “os princípios de classificação que as definem e circuns- crevem remetem às mais diferentes ló- gicas e campos sociais, sendo que o próprio processo eleitoral pode ser visto como a sua interseção e reconversão naquilo que é definido como ‘política’” (: , ênfases minhas). nos três artigos, encontramos temas e perguntas recorrentes, relativos à ati- vidade política: o trabalho de reconver- são, o uso de relações sociais e de tra- balho, a importância tanto do contato personalizado durante as campanhas locais, quanto de quem é o candidato e que partido representa, enfim, a relação entre candidato e eleitor. o eixo que ar- ticula essas questões é o da representa- tividade, cabendo perguntar-se se basta ter sido o “mais votado” para ter direito a denominar-se representante de ou- tros, a falar e agir em nome de outrem. a segunda seção está composta por três artigos que discutem as candidatu- ras de mulheres nas campanhas eleito- rais. o primeiro, de c. jardim pinto, in- titulado “afinal, o que querem as mu- lheres na política?”, baseia-se em tra- balho realizado em porto alegre duran- te as eleições para vereador em . formula a seguinte questão: existe uma forma específica de as mulheres faze- rem política? a resposta, que se faz evi- dente também nos outros dois artigos, é que “existe, na maioria das vezes, mui- to mais por força das características da luta política do que por um posiciona- mento dessas mulheres” (: ). para dar conta dessa resposta, a autora reto- ma os pontos centrais levantados na primeira seção: os partidos políticos e a representatividade. em relação aos par- tidos, demonstra, por um lado, que es- tes constituem a via de acesso à ativida- de política, tanto da mulher quanto do homem, e que a diferença de gênero se expressa na posição que cada um ocu- pa nas estruturas partidárias. por outro lado, é no seio do partido que são, prio- ritariamente, criadas as novas identida- des políticas. o tema da representação é tratado também em sua relação com os partidos, já que o “fato de ser mu- lher” tem uma forte presença na busca por um espaço institucional, ao mesmo tempo que a inserção da mulher se le- gitima pelo fato de existirem temas que dizem respeito exclusivamente a ela. o trabalho de i. firmo barreira, “entre mulheres: jogo de identifica- ções e diferenças em campanhas elei- torais”, que também aborda essa forma de legitimação, analisa as candidaturas a prefeito nas cidades de fortaleza, na- tal e maceió. observa que a condição de gênero aparece como um elemento destacado nas atividades das candida- tas mulheres durante as campanhas, expressando-se em suas “interpelações discursivas” e em suas afirmações de valores considerados femininos. apelar a essa condição, por um lado, não seria nada mais do que cumprir o “enigma” da legitimação: o de “transformar inte- resses partidários em identificações am- plas geralmente justificadas a partir de valores que são colocados como repre- sentativos de ‘interesses gerais’” (: ); por outro, pode condicionar a “constru- ção de um espaço de reconhecimento que demanda provas de competência” (: ), através do qual se perfilam estra- tégias de valorização que transformam o “negativo” em “positivo” (por exem- plo, a mulher é menos eficaz que o ho- mem em questões de governo). esse processo de “conversão”, que como assegura firmo barreira não é apenas uma prática das candidatas fe- mininas, está amplamente documenta- do no terceiro artigo dessa seção, “a ‘modernidade’ como emblema políti- co”. nele, a. lemenhe examina as cam- panhas eleitorais de dois candidatos a prefeito da cidade de fortaleza que cen- traram suas estratégias na oposição tra- dicional/moderno da atividade política, oposição que subsume a condição de gênero. a última parte do livro é onde se aborda, de modo mais explícito, os no- vos modos de fazer política. está com- posta por três artigos: “os sindicatos no poder. que poder?”, de m. palmeira, que analisa a candidatura de “sindica- listas” nas eleições municipais de , em pernambuco; “lugar de policial é resenhas resenhas na política? estratégias simbólicas de afirmação e negação”, de c. barreira, sobre candidatos “policiais” a prefeito e vereador no estado do ceará; e, final- mente, “o jeito cristão de fazer políti- ca: representações, rituais e discursos nas candidaturas pentecostais e caris- máticas”, de j. miranda, que trata das candidaturas de pessoas provenientes das igrejas pentecostal e carismática. mediante a análise de campanhas de candidatos oriundos de esferas coti- dianas que não faziam parte da ativida- de político-eleitoral – sindicalistas, poli- ciais, carismáticos ou pentecostalistas –, os três artigos mostram claramente a passagem ou a transformação de um modo “anterior” para um modo “novo” de fazer política. o estudo desses “no- vos” candidatos, bem como de suas es- tratégias de campanha, aponta para mudanças tanto nos contextos social, econômico e político, quanto na relação entre essas esferas. assim, o exame do trabalho de reconversão de um tipo de capital em outro, denota uma nova re- lação entre política e sociedade. o ofí- cio/profissão do político se faz possível porque os novos candidatos recorrem a uma “habilidade” e a um capital adqui- ridos em outro espaço. ainda na terceira parte do livro, o tema da representatividade é retoma- do. nesse sentido, a conclusão é ex- pressa por m. palmeira, quando susten- ta que, para além da intenção político- sindical de definir as relações adequa- das entre os dois âmbitos, os casos ana- lisados “ajudam a pensar a questão da conversão de uma espécie de autorida- de em outra.” (: ). em síntese, os artigos aqui reunidos têm como ponto de partida as eleições municipais de e analisam tanto o processo eleitoral, quanto as candidatu- ras, os partidos e as bases eleitorais. de- finitivamente, o tema central do livro é o da representatividade. todos os tra- balhos, de alguma forma, dão conta da importância dos diferentes tipos de ca- pital na configuração do que se enten- de por “capital político”. assim, nas eleições municipais de , a distância entre esferas diferentes, claramente de- limitadas, parece ter se apagado, dando lugar – através da conversão de um “capital não político” em outro “políti- co” e ao uso desse capital agora político em outros campos – a uma nova relação entre campos e, portanto, a novas for- mas de fazer política. a leitura do livro contribui ainda pa- ra uma reflexão sobre as transforma- ções que se produziram, nos últimos anos do século xx, no brasil na esfera política. da mesma forma, permite per- guntar-se sobre os motivos dessas trans- formações e, em que medida, estas – produzidas nos planos municipal, das bases políticas/sociais e das trajetórias dos candidatos – estariam relacionadas a mudanças estruturais. cardoso de oliveira, roberto. . o trabalho do antropólogo. brasília/ são paulo: paralelo quinze/editora da unesp. pp. regina m. de carvalho erthal pesquisadora do cnpq – convênio museu nacional – ufrj/museu amazônico – ua a unidade deste livro pode ser encon- trada na explicitação, pelo próprio au- tor, de uma “história de vida” marcada pela disposição de buscar o conheci- mento em seu sentido mais geral e, ao mesmo tempo, no seu encontro com a antropologia, buscar o “conhecimento produzido na prática profissional”. o exercício da antropologia é referencia- do por uma epistemologia que se reali- menta da sua prática, ambas se consti- tuindo a partir de uma relação dialógi- ca, no encontro de culturas. os artigos que compõem o livro fo- ram escritos no período de a . são textos produzidos, na sua versão original, para apresentações em “aula inaugural”, “seminário”, “conferên- cia”, “comunicação”, em diferentes ins- tituições de ensino e pesquisa ou ainda em congressos promovidos no brasil e no exterior. alguns trabalhos já haviam sido publicados anteriormente, caso dos capítulos , , , e . as revisões e/ou ampliações ocorridas em alguns ensaios para a presente publicação foram, no entanto, realizadas sob a condição de não descaracterizá-los em relação aos contextos originais em que foram pro- duzidos e apresentados. o livro divide-se em três partes que remetem a uma obra anterior do autor, de significado especial para a temática enfocada. a primeira parte, sob o título “o conhecimento antropológico”, que abrange os cinco capítulos iniciais, está especialmente referida ao livro sobre o pensamento antropológico, que reúne artigos produzidos durante a década de . tomando esta obra como referência para a discussão sobre a formação da “matriz disciplinar” – expressão cara ao autor, e que aponta para a articulação “tensa” de um conjunto de paradigmas constitutivos de uma antropologia mo- derna –, cardoso de oliveira sublinha a necessidade de compatibilizar o mo- mento metódico e o não metódico (ex- plicar e compreender) na construção do conhecimento. a segunda parte do livro, constituí- da pelos capítulos , e , trata das “tradições intelectuais”. a questão da constituição da antropologia em regiões “periféricas”, transplantada a partir dos países centrais onde se dá o seu desen- volvimento original, já está anunciada pelo autor em trabalhos anteriores, reu- nidos no livro estilos de antropologia ( ), que serve de referência para es- sa seção. organizado em conjunto com o antropólogo guillermo r. ruben, este livro é uma compilação dos trabalhos apresentados no “seminário sobre esti- los de antropologia” (unicamp, ), resultado das pesquisas propostas ao “programa de pesquisa sobre estilos de antropologia”, coordenado por cardo- so de oliveira. esses trabalhos tiveram como referência a antropologia realiza- da em países como Índia, austrália, ar- gentina, venezuela, canadá e brasil, países “periféricos” em relação aos cen- tros “fundadores” da disciplina (fran- ça, inglaterra e estados unidos), onde a antropologia pôde se desenvolver e “flo- rescer com um estilo próprio”. cardoso de oliveira localiza na década de o início de seu interesse pela constituição da “singularidade” da antropologia na “periferia”, e sua relação com a “uni- versalidade” expressa na matriz disci- plinar. esse tema é, ainda hoje, o “prin- cipal foco” de suas preocupações de caráter epistemológico e histórico. na terceira parte, sobre “eticidade e moralidade”, desenvolvida nos capí- tulos e , a referência é o livro en- saios antropológicos sobre moral e Éti- ca” ( ) publicado com luiz roberto cardoso de oliveira. este livro é tam- bém constituído por ensaios produzidos para o cumprimento de diferentes com- promissos acadêmicos. o propósito dos autores é discutir questões de moral e ética a partir do olhar antropológico, no que chamam de “consórcio cognitivo” estabelecido pelo convívio interdiscipli- nar com a filosofia, o direito, a história, a ciência política e a sociologia. essa forma de organizar o trabalho do antropólogo, um tanto temporal, um tanto temática, parece sugerir uma es- tratégia do autor, mais uma vez peda- resenhas resenhas gógica, de apresentar suas preocupa- ções fundamentais, apontadas como questões seminais para a constituição da própria antropologia enquanto ciên- cia, e o posicionamento do antropólogo nos seus compromissos com as socieda- des que estuda e sua constituição en- quanto sujeito político: primeiro, a cons- trução do conhecimento unificada atra- vés do olhar/ouvir/escrever, atos cogni- tivos disciplinados “pela disciplina”, in- vocando sua natureza epistêmica; se- gundo, a renúncia a um objetivismo “perverso”, mediante o questionamen- to da posição de poder do investigador e da historicização do “encontro etno- gráfico” indicada pelo paradigma her- menêutico; e terceiro, ainda o desenvol- vimento da antropologia nos países “pe- riféricos”, seu sentido político e ético, indicando a constituição de um “estilo” próprio no fazer antropológico. desse modo, nos capítulos , , e , cardoso de oliveira retoma e amplia o tema da antropologia enquanto mo- dalidade de conhecimento, recusando- se, por esta via, a diagnosticar um mo- mento de “crise” da antropologia mo- derna, localizada como crise de perda de objeto. a antropologia estaria, ao contrário, sendo constantemente revi- gorada pela tensão existente, em sua matriz disciplinar, entre os diferentes paradigmas que a compõem e suas pos- sibilidades de articulação/complemen- taridade. o conhecimento antropológico tem se realizado historicamente através de diferentes “escolas” representantes dos paradigmas racionalista, estrutural-fun- cionalista, culturalista e hermenêutico, com os quais cardoso de oliveira estru- tura a matriz disciplinar. os três primei- ros, “paradigmas da ordem”, que reali- zam uma “exclusão metódica” da sub- jetividade, do indivíduo e da história, puderam ser questionados a partir de um posicionamento crítico desenvolvi- do por uma “antropologia interpretati- va”, implementada pelo paradigma her- menêutico. a intensificação de uma tensão en- tre os paradigmas que compõem a ma- triz disciplinar com a introdução do pa- radigma hermenêutico se fez tanto por meio da atualização dos temas da rela- ção sujeito/objeto, no que diz respeito ao condicionamento histórico desse en- contro – fato que se desdobra, conse- qüentemente, na necessidade de se questionar a posição de poder que nes- sa relação se estabelece –, como também pela discussão sobre os limites da razão científica. nesse sentido, o autor chama a atenção para o lugar central da rela- ção sujeito cognoscente/objeto cognos- cível na constituição do conhecimento. se as disciplinas e os seus paradig- mas condicionam o nosso ouvir e olhar (cap. : ), então não somente há que se discutir o “verdadeiro encontro etno- gráfico”, que capta o “excedente de sentido” que escapa àquelas metodolo- gias de cunho positivista, explicativas da realidade que se observa e se pode controlar; há também que se estar aten- to para a qualidade do encontro inter- disciplinar que se tem realizado, cada vez com mais freqüência, nos estudos junto a comunidades indígenas sobre problemas colocados pela perda de qua- lidade do meio ambiente e da saúde, estruturados, via de regra, a partir de uma profunda descontinuidade entre o “saber científico” e os “saberes locais”. as ciências naturais, em especial as ciências da saúde, têm procurado par- cerias com a antropologia exatamente por intermédio das escolas com as quais se identificam na busca primordial pela objetividade, descrevendo o funciona- mento do fenômeno observável, desvin- culando-o de suas condições de produ- ção e reprodução, em que a noção de “doença” se coaduna com a de “des- vio”, a ser submetido a mecanismos de controle, preservando a integridade do sistema. nesse esquema, trabalha-se com categorias universais de classifica- ção de doença, o que pode ser estatisti- camente anotado e comparado, impos- sibilitando então aos “cientistas” o “ou- vir” e entender os fenômenos expressos a partir dos conhecimentos locais, que são tratados como pertencentes ao pen- samento “mágico” e/ou “irracional”, ou são simplesmente ignorados. apontando caminhos para o enri- quecimento da questão esboçada aci- ma (parte das minhas preocupações), o autor indica a necessidade de uma vinculação entre o “explicar” e o “com- preender”, no sentido da construção de “empreendimentos cognitivos específi- cos” (: ), eliminando ilusões objetivis- tas, “revelando uma instância não-me- tódica, porém provedora de conheci- mentos igualmente tangíveis” (: ). es- sa postura, a qual cardoso de oliveira denomina “hermenêutica moderna, ou dialética”, não tendo por objetivo a eli- minação de nenhum outro modo de in- terpretação, propõe-se a exercer uma “dupla interpretação”, reconhecendo a “explicação” (nomológica/busca da ob- jetividade) e a “compreensão” (herme- nêutica/busca do sentido) como fases do processo de conhecimento. nos capítulos , e , cardoso de oliveira trata das formas singulares que assume a antropologia nos países “peri- féricos”, a partir de uma “abordagem estilística” que destaca as suas preten- sões à universalidade, e o seu exercício em contextos socioculturais específicos. já no capítulo , acompanhando o “mo- vimento dos conceitos”, cardoso de oliveira indica uma constituição espe- cífica da disciplina na américa latina, um “deslocamento crítico” em face das abordagens correntes, solidárias a con- ceitos elaborados no interior dos “para- digmas da ordem” inscritos na matriz disciplinar. essa constituição crítica da disciplina é localizada, em especial, nos estudos indígenas, não ocorrendo de forma tão evidente nas pesquisas que têm por objeto a sociedade nacional. assim, os conceitos de fricção interétni- ca e etnodesenvolvimento (trabalhados por cardoso de oliveira e rodolfo sta- venhagen) implicam propostas que: ( ) levam em consideração as relações de conflito/poder estabelecidas no contato interétnico; e ( ) propõem um desenvol- vimento “alternativo” que atenda às necessidades da população alvo e que por ela seja definido e controlado. É es- te compromisso político e ético, impres- so no fazer científico, que especifica a antropologia realizada na américa la- tina, que constrói seu objeto em um ce- nário de relações assimétricas entre po- pulações indígenas e estados nacionais. nos capítulos finais, o autor nos conduz a fechar o circuito do aprendi- zado, reforçando a importância da an- tropologia enquanto disciplina por ex- celência, propiciadora das “condições de possibilidades de diálogo” entre in- divíduos inseridos em campos semânti- cos diversos. o “diálogo interétnico” deve instaurar-se tendo por base o re- conhecimento e neutralização das ques- tões de poder envolvidas no encontro de etnias no qual, no entanto, o discur- so ocidental é hegemônico e impõe sua estrutura e suas normas de comunica- ção. nesse sentido, cardoso de oliveira propõe posturas, o olhar antropológico informando a necessidade do estabele- cimento de uma “nova normatividade” (: ), construída por um processo de- mocrático, ancorado em um “imperati- vo moral” em que a negociação do con- senso se dá como questão de direito. vale destacar, finalmente, na dis- cussão sobre questões éticas, a impor- resenhas resenhas tância e a atualidade de temas que en- volvem as práticas intervencionistas, ou seja, temas que envolvem a “aceitação voluntária” e, por conseguinte, partici- pação da comunidade e controle social das (nem sempre) novas propostas de ação junto a populações indígenas. todas essas questões, enfrentadas de forma magistral por roberto cardoso de oliveira, fazem do livro um instru- mento indispensável tanto para aqueles que se iniciam nas lides antropológi- cas, ressaltando o compromisso do au- tor com o exercício da docência, quanto para os que se vêem cada vez mais en- volvidos em trabalhos com abrangência interdisciplinar (antropólogos, médicos, enfermeiros, engenheiros sanitaristas e florestais, zootécnicos etc.), nas suas di- ferentes esferas de atuação junto a po- pulações indígenas. carrara, sérgio. . crime e lou- cura: o aparecimento do manicômio judiciário na passagem do século. rio de janeiro/são paulo: eduerj/edusp. pp. adriana r. b. vianna doutoranda, ppgas-mn-ufrj os dez anos que separam a escrita de crime e loucura, originalmente uma dissertação de mestrado defendida no programa de pós-graduação em antro- pologia social do museu nacional, e sua publicação integral não tornaram a pesquisa de carrara defasada ou obso- leta. sua atualidade pode ser atestada tanto pelo pequeno número de títulos publicados desde então que se dedicam a discutir a tensa (e às vezes tênue) fronteira entre transgressão e insanida- de, quanto pelas reflexões mais amplas que ela suscita. acrescido de um posfácio de , em que o autor faz um balanço da bi- bliografia produzida simultânea ou pos- teriormente ao seu próprio trabalho, o texto original praticamente não foi alte- rado, mas ganhou, com o tempo, a pos- sibilidade de ser contextualizado em re- lação às preocupações intelectuais e políticas da época em que foi produzi- do. desse modo, o próprio autor chama a atenção, no posfácio em questão, para a conexão existente entre trabalhos co- mo o seu, produzidos na segunda meta- de dos anos , e a preocupação com a medicalização dos comportamentos des- viantes, tema presente na produção in- telectual da década anterior. nessa li- nha, o trabalho de carrara estabelece diálogo direto, por um lado, com as pro- posições de goffman acerca das rela- ções sociais estabelecidas em “institui- ções totais” e, por outro, com as formu- lações de foucault sobre o universo do “biopoder”. a influência de foucault, por sinal, é decisiva não apenas em ter- mos conceituais, mas também metodo- lógicos, já que o objeto construído ao longo do texto é evidentemente tributá- rio da discussão genealógica por ele es- tabelecida. em termos políticos, por sua vez, o trabalho foi beneficiado pelos contextos de abertura política e do primeiro go- verno brizola no rio de janeiro, o que suscitou, como lembram o autor e tam- bém seu orientador, peter fry, um qua- dro de discussões fecundas sobre a de- mocratização das instituições em geral e das psiquiátricas em particular. a en- trada do pesquisador no universo do manicômio judiciário do rio de janei- ro, onde se desenrolou parte da pesqui- sa, deu-se em um contexto de debate interno entre terapeutas da instituição sobre a viabilidade de mudança das re- lações ali estabelecidas com os internos e com outros profissionais da mesma instituição (guardas, sobretudo). com isso, criou-se para carrara uma situa- ção especialmente favorável para a ob- servação das contradições internas da instituição, tornando ainda mais evi- dente a ambigüidade que sempre per- meou um local criado ao mesmo tempo para lidar com o universo da loucura e o da criminalidade. esse contexto de observações é re- cuperado ao longo do primeiro capítulo do livro, “o objeto da investigação e sua construção”. partindo do universo palpável do manicômio judiciário e de seus dilemas contemporâneos (o anta- gonismo entre guardas e terapeutas, as classificações locais, a difícil localização simbólica e institucional das “persona- lidades psicopáticas” etc.), carrara ini- cia sua arqueologia da instituição, que o leva, novamente fazendo jus à heran- ça foucaultiana, à genealogia da figura do “louco criminoso”, razão da criação do manicômio judiciário. desse modo, carrara estabelece pontes importantes entre passado e presente, bem como entre etnografia e história, restituindo à análise histórica incômodos analíticos e éticos fundamentais. carrara focaliza os primeiros deba- tes em torno da necessidade e do cará- ter da instituição, demarcando como período privilegiado para sua pesquisa os anos entre e , este último o ano de criação do manicômio. o seu surgimento e de seu objeto privilegia- do, o “louco criminoso”, são persegui- dos pelo autor através tanto dos deba- tes teóricos que têm lugar a partir da metade do século xix, quanto de pro- cessos judiciais em que tais debates são materializados como projetos concretos de intervenção sobre o tecido social. do diálogo constante entre os textos cientí- ficos e a dinâmica dos julgamentos e sua repercussão pública resta a sensação nem sempre confortável do papel social que a “ciência” desempenha na regu- lação de comportamentos e na criação de mecanismos de estigmatização. no segundo capítulo, “loucos e cri- minosos”, o autor procura rastrear os debates científicos que permitem a “pa- tologização do crime”. desse processo, emergem três categorias privilegiadas, cada qual comportando subdivisões e variações: a dos monomaníacos, a dos degenerados e a dos criminosos natos. através da complementaridade e do confronto entre elas tornou-se possível estabelecer a compreensão dos atos cri- minosos como fruto de anomalias, taras, heranças genéticas malignas, enfim, como território não mais do livre-arbí- trio individual, mas da doença e, por- tanto, da medicina. nessa trajetória, a migração de princípios presentes na no- ção de monomania para a de degenera- ção desempenhou papel decisivo, uma vez que esta última categoria permi- tia um diálogo intenso e circular entre doença e transgressão, ao supor que, ao mesmo tempo que a hereditariedade de- terminava a transgressão, a opção por uma vida desregrada podia inscrever- se como uma patologia nos indivíduos e, pior ainda, perpetuar-se em seus des- cendentes por intermédio da transmis- são hereditária. por outro lado, ao cons- tituir-se como conceito extremamente dinâmico, a degeneração permitia o es- tabelecimento de um variado quadro de gradações entre normalidade e anor- malidade e, conseqüentemente, entre crime e loucura, necessitando para sua identificação e qualificação correta um universo diversificado de peritos. com a emergência da categoria dos “criminosos natos”, cuja fronteira com os degenerados era bastante tênue, es- se universo de peritos se complexificou ainda mais, sendo possível perceber ci- sões entre antropólogos criminais, ins- pirados em lombroso, psiquiatras de resenhas resenhas diferentes orientações e juristas. em jo- go, estava não apenas a construção de categorias identificadoras e normati- vas dos indivíduos, mas sobretudo a autoridade de intervir sobre eles, e, con- seqüentemente, sobre o tecido social co- mo um todo. É esse embate, em algumas de suas variações, que vem à tona com a análise do caso de custódio serrão, no terceiro e último capítulo do livro. preso por matar o comendador be- larmino brasilense, amigo de seu faleci- do pai e tutor legal de sua irmã e de seu irmão, este último por se encontrar in- ternado no hospício nacional, serrão busca desesperadamente provar que não é louco e que o crime, em verdade, só havia sido cometido como uma for- ma de defesa diante da intenção do co- mendador de interná-lo, tal como fizera com seu irmão. em uma trama kafkia- na, porém, quanto mais procurava pro- var que cometera o ato lucidamente, tanto mais se enredava custódio serrão em diagnósticos que patologizavam seus atos, sobretudo sua obsessão em pro- var-se sadio. todo o processo de avalia- ção pericial do acusado, a produção de notícias jornalísticas sobre o fato, o jul- gamento propriamente dito e os recursos apresentados após o julgamento trans- formam o drama de custódio serrão em uma situação privilegiada para observa- ção e desdobramento dos arranjos teó- ricos explorados no capítulo anterior. o seu julgamento, em especial, transformou-se, nos dizeres de carrara, em um “julgamento de atos e de doutri- nas” (: ), a partir do qual se defini- ram ou realinharam posições e ganha- ram mais clareza e visibilidade proje- tos específicos de intervenção. a linha mestra que dividia os médicos chama- dos a diagnosticar o caso de serrão e, com isso, ditar as diretrizes de sua sen- tença, opunha, de um lado, os médicos- legistas da polícia, partidários da tese da loucura e conseqüente irresponsabi- lidade do acusado, e, de outro, os médi- cos ligados à assistência médico-legal a alienados do distrito federal e à fa- culdade de medicina do rio de janeiro, partidários da tese de que custódio serrão era em verdade um degenerado e que deveria ter sua responsabilidade penal reconhecida. o principal expoen- te desse grupo, por sua vez, era o psi- quiatra teixeira brandão que, uma vez vendo sua posição derrotada em julga- mento, recorre da sentença e trava uma batalha doutrinal com nina rodrigues. dessa nova fase da trajetória do ca- so serrão o que mais chama a atenção é o fato de que, partilhando diagnósti- cos bastante próximos – tanto teixeira brandão como nina rodrigues identifi- cam em custódio os sinais da degene- ração –, os debatedores chegam a con- clusões absolutamente opostas sobre o destino a ser dado ao criminoso, eviden- ciando que o conflito de posições podia ser tão intenso no âmbito das discussões psiquiátricas e antropológicas quanto entre estas e a produção jurídica. por fim, além do caso serrão, carra- ra utiliza de forma menos intensa outros processos que reforçam, na virada do século e nas duas primeiras décadas do século xx, a necessidade de um mani- cômio criminal, evidenciando como es- sa opção institucional vai ganhando materialidade através dos embates ju- diciais. nesse processo, o assassinato de clarice Índio do brasil, em , e a rebelião ocorrida em na seção lombroso do hospício nacional tive- ram papel decisivo. não escapa ao au- tor também a importância de este ter si- do construído nos fundos da casa de correção da rua frei caneca, eviden- ciando seu compromisso com o comple- xo penitenciário como um todo, mas também a ambigüidade que é a base de sua constituição. erguido a partir do im- passe entre concepções antagônicas de pessoa, o manicômio judiciário busca- va uma espécie de “solução de compro- misso”: ao apresentar-se como prisão, respeitava a noção do indivíduo que, responsável por seus atos, deveria pa- gar pelos crimes cometidos; ao identifi- car-se com os hospitais e asilos, porém, satisfazia as interpretações patologi- zantes e biodeterministas do indivíduo. criava, portanto, um lugar social espe- cífico para o encontro entre crime e lou- cura. as cobranças que podem ser feitas ao texto de crime e loucura dizem me- nos respeito a lacunas ou falhas inter- nas ao trabalho e mais às possibilidades que ele levanta em relação aos proces- sos de normatização, tutelarização e marginalização social. investindo em dissecar o processo social de construção dos loucos criminosos, carrara abre-nos possibilidades de perguntar que outras “figuras” poderiam fazer par com eles, bem como que indicações esse proces- so pode fornecer acerca de práticas bu- rocráticas e científicas de invenção de “outros” nas sociedades contemporâ- neas. recuperando, desse modo, for- mulações foucaultianas tão presentes na construção do objeto do livro, cabe perguntar quais as fronteiras sociais que o “biopoder” alcança e constitui, de forma que se torne possível estabe- lecer a relação entre dispositivos sociais aparentemente dispersos. assim, situa- ções e processos analisados em sua es- pecificidade, do modo como feito por carrara, podem ser compreendidos co- mo facetas singulares de um mesmo es- forço social de criação e controle de “bárbaros internos”. comerford, john cunha. . fa- zendo a luta: sociabilidade, falas e ri- tuais na construção de organizações camponesas. rio de janeiro: relume dumará/núcleo de antropologia da política (coleção antropologia da po- lítica, ). pp. sérgio pereira leite professor do curso de pós-graduação em desenvolvimento, agricultura e sociedade, ufrrj o leitor acostumado aos trabalhos vol- tados para a análise do meio agrário brasileiro, especialmente aqueles cen- trados na organização social e política dos trabalhadores rurais, certamente no- tará a originalidade e o esforço bem-su- cedido da iniciativa de john comerford neste seu novo livro. quinto número da série coleção antropologia da política, a obra constitui-se de cinco capítulos versando sobre diferentes questões re- lativas a sociabilidade, organização, ri- tuais, processos sociais, lutas políticas comuns a um determinado conjunto de trabalhadores rurais, quer na condição de assentados ou de pequenos agricul- tores familiares, em distintas regiões do país. na realidade, como indica o autor na introdução, neste estudo são resgatados, em primeiro plano, aspec- tos geralmente percebidos como “irre- levantes”, “banais” ou “caricatos” que conformam o processo de organização social de comunidades camponesas. longe de prender-se às explicações centradas nos esquemas formais sobre as regras do jogo político e social no ambiente rural, e sem negligenciar a importância de estudos dessa natureza, o autor envereda por um caminho dife- rente, buscando em situações aparente- mente sem importância, como a brinca- deira, por exemplo, uma compreensão resenhas resenhas das formas de “sociação” propriamente dita desses sujeitos tratados no livro, permitindo que as considerações resul- tantes dessa observação contribuam, também, para a reflexão em torno das possibilidades de atuação de movimen- tos sociais e organizações políticas no quadro nacional recente. vale destacar que, apesar de tratar do lúdico como perspectiva de abordagem, a tarefa da qual se incumbe comerford é extrema- mente desafiadora e complexa, tratan- do de retirar o “sério” do “lúdico” e o “lúdico” do “sério”, como coloca moa- cir palmeira na apresentação do livro. dessa forma fazendo a luta embu- te uma amálgama thompsoniana, no sentido de refletir a “construção” de di- ferentes processos sociais, posiciona- mentos políticos e definição de identi- dades, recolhidos a partir de uma abor- dagem fina e perspicaz, mesmo quando os objetivos do autor não incluíam ne- cessariamente uma visão voltada à “efi- ciência” das instituições ou ao compor- tamento dos “atores políticos”. na rea- lidade, a obra desfia uma série de ge- rúndios da questão agrária: fazendo a luta; lutando; reunindo; brincando; dis- cursando e ocupando, palavras que in- titulam o livro e os respectivos capítulos e que permitem ao leitor vislumbrar o texto como um caleidoscópio: quando se olha a partir de determinada perspecti- va tem-se a impressão de que o traba- lho é composto por cinco capítulos autô- nomos (e, em certas passagens, suficien- temente abstratos com relação ao mate- rial etnográfico pesquisado); mudando o foco e tornando a ver o conjunto, obser- va-se coerência entre as diferentes par- tes do livro, costuradas pela preocupa- ção do autor em tratar em profundidade (e, em certos casos, de maneira bastante detalhista e elucidativa) essas situações não convencionais, mas bastante reve- ladoras da sociabilidade camponesa. no primeiro capítulo, que trata dos múltiplos significados do termo luta no cotidiano dos trabalhadores rurais, fun- damentalmente pequenos agricultores do oeste baiano, “falar que se está (ou se esteve) lutando, e lutando apesar da impossibilidade de ‘vencer’ (‘lutando até morrer’, ‘a gente luta, luta e fica tu- do do mesmo jeito’), é sempre uma afir- mação de seu valor, de sua dignidade e respeitabilidade, um testemunho do seu sofrimento, uma forma de negar que nessa situação haja motivo de ver- gonha” (: ). igualmente, ao se referi- rem à luta, os informantes destacam o pertencimento a determinadas organi- zações e/ou situações sociais, que, co- mo coloca comerford, dão sentido à existência de uma comunidade. nesse garimpo no campo simbólico, a luta também refletirá um projeto político, uma estratégia de atuação que extrapo- la o conflito localizado ou o sofrimento da população pobre do campo. assim, da moral à religião, da comunidade às organizações sociais, da situação de po- breza à definição de categorias atuan- tes no universo rural (assalariados, mu- lheres, pequenos produtores, latifundiá- rios etc.), emergem representações e oposições em que nem sempre é preci- so existir o conflito efetivo para se estar “lutando”, ou ainda, para retornarmos a thompson, é justamente na luta que se configuram situações de classe. a seção seguinte, que tem como ba- se a dissertação do autor sobre um as- sentamento rural na região norte do es- tado do rio de janeiro, volta-se para as reuniões no contexto da associação de produtores residentes nesse projeto. em vez de tratar da forma da organização social em si, ou seja, a própria associa- ção (ou o sindicato em outras circuns- tâncias), o autor busca nas reuniões um momento privilegiado para tratar de questões relativas à participação políti- ca, à sociabilidade entre as famílias e moradores da comunidade, aos limites e alcance das resoluções obtidas em as- sembléias, aos rituais praticados e even- tos promovidos durante a realização das reuniões. como atento observador, comerford descreve competentemente o “decálogo” de uma reunião (em suas diferentes etapas, da abertura ao encer- ramento), analisando situações referen- tes à pauta, à coordenação, à discussão em si, ao público participante (aliás, ou- tro bom momento dessa “análise ilustra- da” promovida pelo autor pode ser en- contrado na sua “crônica de uma ocupa- ção”, no último capítulo). destacaríamos aqui uma passagem que nos pareceu central: “as dificuldades para promover a participação nas discussões, por exem- plo, são vistas recorrentemente como um problema. É relativamente comum ver essas dificuldades atribuídas a algu- ma espécie de ‘carência’ do público que comparece a esses eventos (apatia, fal- ta de consciência, falta de informações) ou à falta de técnicas ou métodos ade- quados para encorajar a fala dos partici- pantes menos acostumados com discus- sões. mas o que procuro mostrar aqui é que o que aparece como dificuldade de participação pode ser encarado, de ou- tro ponto de vista, como algo congruen- te com a dinâmica que as reuniões [...] podem acabar assumindo, e congruen- te também com uma série de concep- ções através das quais os participantes percebem as reuniões: concepções de autoridade, de ordem pública, do caráter de eventos coletivos, da forma adequa- da de ‘participar’ desses eventos, da na- tureza do grupo que é celebrado e do ca- ráter da união que é simbolizada” (: ). É justamente essa capacidade de subverter o viés da análise que permite a comerford sistematizar oposições que emergem das reuniões (a “equipe de frente”, cunhada pelo autor a partir de goffman, e o público assistente), bem como a busca e a necessidade de con- sensos que preservem o grau de unida- de e representação da organização. es- se movimento, nada linear, é extraído pelo autor das falas e intervenções rea- lizadas dentro e fora das reuniões. o terceiro capítulo trata da constru- ção social da amizade por meio das brincadeiras estabelecidas entre traba- lhadores rurais, em boa parte observa- das a partir do assentamento acima mencionado. tratando dos diferentes ti- pos de brincadeiras – na realidade pro- vocações que não redundam em ofen- sas dada a cumplicidade dos partici- pantes desse “jogo” –, o autor traduz sua capacidade de fortalecer laços de amizade e a constituição de um todo in- dissociável, análogo à mesma capaci- dade demonstrada pela magia. não se trata necessariamente de uma relação diádica, mas do estabelecimento de si- tuação prazerosa, mesmo quando o as- sunto é sério: “a brincadeira, encena- ção da falta de respeito que simboliza o respeito real entre os que brincam, as- sume seu lugar no discurso da associa- ção: ali todos são amigos e, portanto, to- dos se respeitam e respeitam o conjun- to, por isso mesmo todos brincam” (: ), o que inclui uma certa dissimulação en- tre situações de trabalho e entreteni- mento. há aqui um sentido adicional, ressaltado pelo autor, que reporta ao “uso” da brincadeira em situações com maior grau de formalização. nesses ca- sos, mantida a distância entre os partici- pantes e a preservação de seus respecti- vos espaços, a brincadeira torna-se um veículo para o controle de situações im- portantes (do ponto de vista social, polí- tico, econômico, moral etc.) e seu domí- nio constitui-se em um trunfo para a ca- nalização e a geração de energia social. os dois últimos capítulos do livro, com fôlego um pouco mais curto do que resenhas resenhas os anteriores, estão voltados à análise do discurso e ao processo de ocupações (no caso, um prédio público em um mu- nicípio próximo ao assentamento referi- do anteriormente). na quarta parte do livro o autor dedica-se à interpretação dos discursos proferidos em clima de eleições sindicais (local/nacional), mas o tema volta a aparecer no quinto capí- tulo, na análise das intervenções reali- zadas na ocupação em pauta. no tocan- te à retórica e à capacidade de moldar a fala e a própria interpretação que deve ser feita coletivamente da mesma, co- merford oferece quatro felizes momen- tos nos quais questões como a dicoto- mia nós (trabalhadores, sindicalistas comprometidos etc.) versus eles (gover- no, proprietários, “pelegos” etc.) apare- cem freqüentemente, transfiguradas ainda na intenção do portador da fala de unir-se ao público ao qual se dirige diretamente, anulando o binômio eu/ vocês através da construção sublimada de um nós homogeneizador. finalmen- te, no entendimento das ocupações si- tua um leque de possibilidades, que abrange desde a entrada em proprieda- des rurais privadas ou públicas que não cumprem com sua função social, até festas comemorativas, passando por ro- marias, caminhadas, passeatas, acam- pamentos etc. na raiz desse processo está a capacidade de visibilidade e o grau de centralidade dessas manifesta- ções, que, bem-sucedidas ou não, con- tribuem para a construção de uma de- terminada noção de pertencimento e identidade dos personagens envolvi- dos, para a problematização do papel dos mediadores e para a interlocução direta com outros segmentos (estado, proprietário de terras etc.). em um rápido balanço da obra em tela é possível admitir a importância da leitura do trabalho de john comerford, que mescla competência no manejo da literatura antropológica (especialmente da antropologia política) com a expe- riência com pesquisas no ambiente agrá- rio e suas especificidades. certamente contribui, justamente por caminhos me- nos percorridos, para apurar o entendi- mento dessa realidade complexa e “tei- mosa” quando se trata de pensar os ru- mos da chamada “modernização agrí- cola brasileira”. por outro lado, agrega interpretações oportunas sobre deter- minados processos sociais, que contra- postas à literatura “convencional”, per- mitem uma problematização desta últi- ma, depurando-a e complementando-a. losonczy, anne-marie. . les saints et la forêt: rituel, société et figures de l’Échange entre noirs et in- diens emberá. paris: l’harmattan. pp. josé maurício andion arruti doutorando, ppgas-mn-ufrj o livro de anne-marie losonczy anali- sa as relações interétnicas de negros e índios, em especial os emberá, localiza- dos na região colombiana do chocó, onde partilham o território e significati- va parcela de um mesmo universo ri- tual, econômico e de parentesco. resul- tado de estudos desenvolvidos entre e , que somam meses de trabalho de campo, o texto tem por refe- renciais teóricos principais lévi-strauss (fonte de uma perspectiva mais geral) e r. bastide (fonte de seus principais marcos e instrumentais analíticos). É a partir da distinção estabelecida por este último entre três tipos de “civilização” formadas pelos descendentes de escra- vos africanos na américa, que a autora define a região do chocó colombiano como “negro-colombiana” e assume um programa de investigações que é oferecido à etnologia americanista já estabelecida – restrita aos grupos indí- genas – como um novo e promissor campo de investimentos. losonczy parte da crítica às aborda- gens correntes sobre as sociedades “ne- gro-americanas” que ou pretendem re- pertoriar traços culturais africanos ou insistem no lugar socioeconômico mar- ginal dessas populações. em lugar des- tas, que são explicações externas à ló- gica daquela cultura, a autora se pro- põe a abordar os “negro-colombianos” como conjunto social e étnico dotado de uma organização social própria, cuja explicação passa pela análise genética das suas diversas fontes culturais. tra- ta-se de estabelecer a legitimidade das “culturas negro-americanas” enquanto objetos dignos da etnologia estrutura- lista, vinculada a problemas teóricos próprios das “terras baixas”. uma legi- timidade que, no entanto, não é incon- dicional – como se poderia esperar, ca- so o argumento enfrentasse diretamen- te a dualidade substantiva índios/ne- gros – mas que se justifica em termos de área cultural e estrutura social. primei- ro, porque a organização social negro- americana se aproximaria substantiva- mente da organização social ameríndia das “terras baixas”; segundo, porque entre ambas as sociedades existe todo um campo de trocas lingüísticas, rituais e econômicas; terceiro, porque, con- forme o próprio programa de bastide, a análise da herança das etnias africanas na américa não deveria prender-se à descrição da sua distribuição demográ- fica, cultural e lingüística, mas à análise da estrutura de seus cultos. a única crítica da autora ao progra- ma originalmente desenhado por basti- de está no seu emprego da noção de sincretismo. losonczy não descarta a noção, pelo contrário, a recupera e am- plia, ao concebê-la como uma modali- dade de relacionamento simbólico com o “outro”, engendrada em situações de contato e conflito potencial, capaz de revelar virtualidades latentes à lógica dos sistemas de representações impli- cadas no contato. situa o sincretismo em termos de dominação e violência, relativas não apenas à dominância do catolicismo, mas sobretudo aos conflitos que marcam o encontro entre as heran- ças negras e indígenas. nesse caso, o sincretismo serve como uma solução cultural para o conflito social iminente. se faz guerra simbólica, decorrente do desequilíbrio imposto entre eles pelo sistema colonial escravista e, atual- mente, pelo tenso partilhamento de um território comum, que ambos conside- ram seu. uma questão central à investigação é como compreender o desaparecimen- to da herança africana e a construção da nova identidade que caracteriza as comunidades afro-americanas. como o sistema de representações negro-co- lombiano não possui um referente mito- lógico rico, nem oficiantes religiosos possuidores de um conhecimento exe- gético acima do comum – de que lo- sonczy, como “americanista”, sente fal- ta –, sua interpretação da realidade cul- tural busca restituir a ordem de inteligi- bilidade subjacente às práticas. suas principais hipóteses são, primeiro, que na formação da cultura negro-colom- biana, a maior influência não foi do ca- tolicismo, mas do xamanismo indígena; e que, segundo, a sensibilidade que es- sa cultura negra demonstrou no contato com o xamanismo indígena, aponta pa- ra a origem étnica banto dos negros da região do chocó. a autora segue a su- gestão de luc de heusch, para quem o sistema ritual banto participaria do mesmo “fundo xamânico” que as cren- ças do catolicismo popular europeu, re- resenhas resenhas lativas ao pacto com o diabo, formando com ele um campo de transformações estruturais. para isso, a autora apresenta-nos a região do chocó e seus habitantes, sua demografia, a histórica do seu “povoa- mento biétnico” e das formas de resis- tência que foram impostas à sua coloni- zação pela rebeldia escrava e indígena. descreve as transformações trazidas com o fim do período colonial e com as guerras de independência, que manti- veram a colonização da região incom- pleta, o que faz dela ainda hoje, no ima- ginário nacional colombiano, um terri- tório selvagem e misterioso. ainda que baseada em um esboço histórico muito geral, a autora procura fornecer um qua- dro dos paralelos, em geral contrastan- tes, que caracterizaram o tratamento das autoridades com relação a essas popu- lações, assim como dos seus mecanismos de adaptação às mudanças de contexto. partindo da forma de colonização da região, caracterizada por uma explora- ção aurífera dispersa e relativamente autônoma, apesar de escravista, dado o absenteísmo dos proprietários, a orga- nização das comunidades negro-colom- bianas se dá em agrupamentos familia- res multicentrados, fluidos e dispersos pelos diferentes afluentes do rio capá. esse traço básico só seria atenuado nos últimos trinta anos quando, por influên- cia da catequese, surgiram os primeiros agrupamentos residenciais em torno das capelas e escolas, sem no entanto alterar o lugar central ocupado pelos rios e seus afluentes (diz-se que se “per- tence” a uma “comunidade” de um rio) na sua organização social. a população local usa o termo “chocoense” para uma adscrição étnica que abarca todos os negros originários da região, excluindo índios e brancos, mas incluindo aqueles “morenos” que migraram para a perife- ria da capital quibdó, onde os bairros reproduzem, em miniatura, a organiza- ção espacial dos rios de onde as famí- lias se originam. a organização social das “comunidades” negras do chocó não conta com grupos formais perma- nentes e suas unidades locais estão su- bordinadas a “chefes” apenas por im- posição das relações com o estado. in- tegra-as uma vasta rede de parentesco, demarcada pela consangüinidade ou pela afiliação ritual, estabelecida pelo compadrio, que dá coerência aos gru- pos locais e ao conjunto multicomunal chocoano. É também por meio dos “ritos de compadrio” que uma família emberá pode escolher um casal negro para apa- drinhar seus filhos, como forma de es- tender tais alianças por sobre as fron- teiras étnicas, mas o inverso nunca acontece. isso revela uma das assime- trias dessas trocas sociais, e também a diferença de significado que tal ritual assume para cada grupo. para os ne- gros do chocó, seu apadrinhamento completaria a pessoa indígena, tanto em termos espirituais, quanto civis, já que, de um lado, a nominação de um indivíduo é a materialização de sua “sombra” (alma que todo ser adquire no momento do nascimento) e, de ou- tro, eles se assumem como intermediá- rios entre os selvagens e as instituições nacionais. para o indígena, por outro la- do, o nome cristão é uma espécie de “nome-tampão”, que esconde o verda- deiro nome indígena, preservando-o dos ataques de espíritos maléficos. essa relação se traduz ainda em uma topografia simbólica que, do lado negro, opõe o espaço civilizado dos san- tos católicos ao espaço selvagem dos espíritos xamânicos e, do lado indíge- na, permite aos emberá, reconhecidos “mestres da floresta”, se pensarem co- mo donos naturais da terra, que esta- riam emprestando aos negros. residiria aí o núcleo do que a autora interpreta como mal-entendidos das trocas lin- güísticas interétnicas, que ocupam um lugar de destaque em sua análise. tais trocas estão submetidas a uma série de restrições: sociais, por serem possíveis apenas em situações bem definidas; le- xicais, por utilizarem um espanhol re- duzido ao essencial; e gramaticais, por utilizarem apenas o gerúndio, que en- fatiza seu aspecto impessoal. mesmo na época das festas, quando os negros re- cebem em suas casas as famílias indí- genas com as quais têm laços de com- padrio, os grupos convivem sem rom- per esse claro limite, enfatizado pelo contraste entre o alegre falatório dos negros e o silêncio impenetrável dos emberá. além disso, as trocas matrimoniais são veementemente recusadas por am- bas as partes. para os emberá, isso sig- nificaria perder sua força vital; para os negros, isso contaminaria sua “som- bra” e tornaria selvagens seus sonhos. neste último caso, trata-se da inversão de uma estratégia histórica: os escravos casavam com índios para livrarem seus filhos da servidão, hoje, autodenomina- dos livres, eles recusam tais casamen- tos pelo mesmo motivo. o espaço de troca estabelecido em meio a essa descontinuidade é aberto pelo exercício ritual, do qual tratam os capítulos , e . losonczy descreve sucessivamente o campo religioso e ri- tual dos negros, o sistema terapêutico, relativamente partilhado por ambos os grupos, e o sistema xamânico emberá. instrumentalizados pelos recursos dos brancos, os negros podem curar as doen- ças infecciosas dos emberá, enquanto estes, por meio do seu xamanismo, se fazem responsáveis por restabelecer o equilíbrio entre o mundo dos homens e dos seres da floresta, que também mo- lestam os negros. a autora, dessa for- ma, trabalha com a noção de campo interétnico, mas de um modo que o aproxima do modelo malinowskiano da terceira cultura: dois conjuntos culturais autônomos e em grande medida encer- rados em si mesmos que se abrem para as trocas apenas em um espaço funcio- nal de mediação cultural, o campo in- terseção (: - ). isso pode ser per- cebido na própria distribuição da maté- ria pelos capítulos, cujo arranjo simula a imagem de dois conjuntos estanques, integrados pelo sincretismo estritamen- te terapêutico, cuidadosamente conti- do por regras impressionantemente in- flexíveis, que o impedem de contami- nar as outras dimensões do cotidiano daquelas populações. o último capítulo é justamente aquele que tenta dar uma visão geral e sintética do campo interétnico, abor- dando as representações acerca das tro- cas realizadas entre negros e índios. nele, a autora destaca a questão pro- blemática dos limites dos grupos sociais chocoenses, cujos laços de parentesco ritual e de troca simbólicas se tornam interdependentes, localizando a lógica cultural de uma sociedade no coração da outra, ainda que sua integração seja barrada por esses diversos mecanismos sociológicos e lingüísticos. tal sistema de trocas restritas traz o outro para o in- terior do seu próprio campo social de uma forma instrumental. em ambas as sociedades, a presença do outro teria a função de neutralizar as ameaças, exter- nas, no caso negro – ao situá-lo na pró- pria periferia social – e, no caso indíge- na, internas – quando a imagem ou no- me serve para mascarar os componen- tes imateriais constituintes da pessoa. assim, como resultado da mescla de uma plasticidade banto não com outras tradições de possessão africanas, mas com o xamanismo indígena de um lado e, de outro, com o catolicismo rural eu- resenhas resenhas ropeu, cuja humanização das divinda- des está ligada a um modelo contratual de relacionamento com o sobrenatural, a cultura negro-colombiana do chocó teria dado origem a um “xamanismo atenuado”, de onde se exclui o transe possessório. para losonczy, seria justa- mente nessa solução sincrética, que compõe elementos de heranças cultu- rais distintas, de forma ao mesmo tempo funcional e conflituosa, que estaria a ori- ginalidade e a própria condição de se fa- lar em uma “cultura negro-colombiana”. miller, elmer s. . nurturing doubt: from mennonite missionary to anthropologist in the argentine chaco. chicago: university of illinois press. pp. rosana guber pesquisadora do consejo nacional de investigaciones (conicet) e do instituto de desarrollo económico y social (ides) pretendo examinar o alcance da reflexi- vidade na construção da pessoa do in- vestigador-autor, analisando a autobio- grafia de um antropólogo norte-ameri- cano que, entre e , realizou seus trabalhos de campo como missio- nário menonita e etnólogo junto ao po- vo toba (qom), nas províncias de cha- co e formosa (argentina). como antro- póloga argentina, esperava que essa história fosse uma via de conhecimento crítico aos mundos institucionais, cultu- rais e políticos da argentina, chaco e eua. esta resenha trata do que encon- trei no livro. nurturing doubt segue a ordem dramática de uma ouverture, três atos divididos em cenas e um epílogo. a ou- verture apresenta cinco episódios que ilustram a recíproca perplexidade entre os nativos e o autor-missionário-investi- gador. o primeiro ato, “discurso Étnico, sementes de dúvida”, apresenta a vida de miller desde a sua infância, no esta- do da pensilvânia, até o seu treinamen- to para ser missionário no chaco argen- tino. o segundo ato, “primeira expe- riência de campo, maturação da dúvi- da”, dá conta de sua presença e de suas reflexões na argentina chaquenha, en- quanto missionário menonita. no ter- ceiro ato, “discursos profissionais e o processo da dúvida”, o autor reconstitui o seu trabalho antropológico de campo e as etapas de sua teorização do mundo toba. no epílogo, intitulado denoue- ment, miller compara os alcances e li- mitações da comunicação intercultural nos três segmentos de sua trajetória. o eixo do livro é a certeza da qual os povos necessitam para viver, os mis- sionários para evangelizar e os antropó- logos para desconstruir. o título, nutrir a dúvida, assinala não apenas um as- pecto da tarefa acadêmica, mas uma di- mensão crucial do estar-no-mundo de miller, um processo que abarca toda a sua trajetória pessoal, uma razão de vi- da desde que abandonou sua comuni- dade de origem, para a qual duvidar é questionar a verdade de deus (:viii). no entanto, a dúvida não é apenas teológi- ca. nessa trajetória, expressa como uma épica de combate à certeza, duvidar é também um desafio ao dogmatismo teó- rico. por isso, o autor apresenta um per- curso simétrico, em que a dúvida origi- nal se sistematiza e recria, recaindo so- bre a disciplina acadêmica que mais profundamente interrogou a verdade universal: a antropologia. o etnógrafo termina em uma solidão similar à expe- rimentada nos seus questionamentos teológicos de juventude (: -ss). se duvidar era anátema para os me- nonitas, o segundo sentido, que estru- tura a autobiografia para miller, está mais próximo à sua origem etnorreligio- sa: “ser peregrino”, não pertencer ao aqui-e-agora, estar de passagem para um mundo verdadeiro e transcendente. segregação e transitoriedade definem os menonitas, assim como os antropólo- gos, que não costumam pertencer aos mundos que estudam. entre a universi- dade de temple, na filadélfia, e suas prolongadas estadias no chaco, miller transita por mundos familiares e exóti- cos, povoados por toba, menonitas e antropólogos, mas não se converte em nenhum deles. a simetria entre o antropólogo e o missionário, expressa na quase reversi- bilidade dos três atos, é o acerto e a ar- madilha de nurturing doubt. seu po- tencial reside em permitir questionar a racionalidade científica ocidental como única fonte de explicação do cultural, neste caso, da obstinação etnorreligiosa toba. como outras coletividades, os me- nonitas têm sua própria racionalidade científica, suas universidades, publica- ções, professores, corpos teóricos e ex- periências de campo. quanto de missio- nário tem um antropólogo, e quanto de antropólogo tem um missionário, é a grande questão dessa autobiografia. no entanto, a postura adotada pelo autor para analisar essa relação não é subme- tida à crítica reflexiva. miller provê o contexto menonita no qual floresceu sua dúvida e se expan- diu sua peregrinação, e explica o que significou para este ex-missionário me- nonita “converter-se à antropologia”, mas não abandona completamente seu duplo pertencimento. da mesma forma, não discute explicitamente a relação conflituosa entre quem duvida sempre – propriedade do sujeito racional – e quem não duvida em seu peregrinar – propriedade do sujeito dogmático-reli- gioso. em vez disso, mantém a tensão e conclui que a dúvida obriga a peregri- nar por povos e teorias, e que essa pere- grinação consolida a dúvida porque in- valida todo pertencimento: “ao revisar os processos de desenvolvimento impli- cados nesses escritos, o que me chama a atenção como talvez mais significati- vo foi meu esforço consistente em evitar a adesão a um determinado discurso por extensos períodos de tempo” (: ). compelido a duvidar e peregrinar, miller produz-se enquanto uma pessoa individual, despolitizada e masculina, perdendo a oportunidade de usar sua reflexividade para examinar suas certe- zas. isto fica evidente em relação à aca- demia antropológica argentina, ao con- texto político que a permeou e às condi- ções de produção masculina de seu tra- balho. do contexto acadêmico argentino, miller cita os nomes daqueles antropó- logos com quem conversou – etnólogos da universidade de buenos aires, an- tropólogos sociais reunidos no claso etc. – mas não os incorpora como interlocu- tores e inspiradores de seu percurso in- telectual. a única ocasião possível se vê frustrada sob a acusação de mau uso (plágio?) de sua tese de doutoramento e, no início dos anos , na sua decep- ção por ter sido tachado de “antropólo- go yankee”. a réplica de miller é sem- pre individual e defensiva. diante da necessidade de se afirmar como indiví- duo-investigador, não chega a mostrar que na academia argentina de então “a dúvida” equivalia à traição, os grupos de pesquisa a camarilhas que margina- lizavam os dissidentes, e as teorias ope- ravam menos como instrumentos de co- nhecimento e mais como profissão de fé política. concomitantemente, a anulação da dúvida teórica foi parte da dramática intrusão da política nacional no meio acadêmico. miller, no entanto, não men- ciona o fato. É difícil aceitar seu silêncio resenhas resenhas sobre os estragos da violência política no âmbito universitário, assim como so- bre a politização das ciências sociais, já que o autor se encontrava na argentina em , quando a “revolução argen- tina” interveio militarmente na univer- sidade. da mesma forma, deixou de via- jar a este país quando, em - , se intensificava a repressão aos simpa- tizantes e ativistas chaquenhos das li- gas agrárias, retornando somente com a democracia, em . o que é passí- vel de objeção aqui não é seu registro incompleto dos fatos do passado, mas o sentido despolitizado de uma realidade que a maioria dos argentinos lia a partir de uma chave política. mais ainda, a forma pela qual os toba expressaram a opressão militar dos anos , se nesta ou noutra chave, permanece obscura. este silêncio revela o lugar do nati- vo na imagem especular do autor. “a constante através dos meus anos de adulto como missionário e antropólogo tem sido a imagem de um si mesmo es- treitamente identificado com as expe- riências de campo entre os toba” (: ). para miller, o nativo é o outro constitu- tivo da pessoa do antropólogo. mas, em se tratando dos toba, apresentados por ele como os que mais reagiram à intru- são branca, essa caracterização reforça a identificação do autor com um outro alheio aos avatares do mundo terrenal- ocidental (imagem matizada até o fim do livro com a crescente presença do estado provincial na vida nativa). as- sim, suas extensas seções ilustradas com notas de campo confirmam a afini- dade entre o peregrinar toba e o do mil- ler-missionário e antropólogo, assim co- mo a oposição entre o indivíduo miller e o coletivo indígena. “os toba”, ainda que com seus “indivíduos” xamãs, caci- ques etc., são o principal termo de con- traste e confirmação da pessoa indivi- dual de miller. esse individualismo se ratifica em um outro aspecto. sem superar a ainda existente divisão sexual do trabalho (de campo) entre ele (por exemplo, predi- cando, curando, caçando) e sua esposa lois (cozinhando, conversando com mu- lheres toba, acompanhando), esta não alcança o status de interlocutora na aventura intelectual do marido. apesar de ter recebido seu próprio nome toba (: ), lois é um pano de fundo que pre- serva em silêncio o mundo familiar pri- vado menonita e norte-americano em meio a tobas e chaquenhos. nem a pa- ternidade de miller, que tem duas filhas mulheres, parece demandar-lhe uma reelaboração a respeito. o peregrino menonita dos eua e do chaco renasce no peregrino-antro- pólogo que viaja sem pertencimento... nem étnico, nem teórico. É certo que a ficção do pensador como ave solitária, ainda que não por isso desinteressado das necessidades deste mundo, faz com que o peregrino, o menonita e o et- nógrafo apareçam como três condições de uma mesma postura: o individualis- mo masculino sem sujeição ao império do estado e à política. mas nurturing doubt oferece material para reexami- nar o quanto dessa lógica individualista já estava na prédica menonita, e quan- to o próprio miller retomou disto para dar sentido à sua experiência de ser an- tropólogo na argentina. talvez, isso se deva ao fato de esta autobiografia inte- lectual e de campo de nova geração ser uma peça aberta a outras interpreta- ções; ou talvez, à dedicação e franque- za com que miller resenhou sua apai- xonante passagem por este mundo; e talvez, ainda, ao fato de ter tentado tra- duzir sua experiência de pertencimento a uma minoria religiosa no norte, para a experiência de pertencer a uma mi- noria étnica no sul. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ naldc jump to main content an official website of the united states government here’s how you know here’s how you know official websites use .gov a .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the united states. secure .gov websites use https a lock ( a locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. toggle navigation national agricultural library digital collections u.s. department of agriculture 		home 	naldc api 	contact us 	search history search for search 	 selections ( ) 	show selections 	clear selections naldc main content area 	 the new national agricultural library digital collections the naldc offers access to collection materials available in digital format. use this site to explore several collections of full-text historical documents on the agricultural and food sciences.   access more digitized materials through the national agricultural library collection available in the internet archive: https://archive.org/details/usdanationalagriculturallibrary naldc collection lists historical dietary guidance digital collection pomological watercolor collection animal welfare act history digital collection historical gypsy moth publications collection world poultry science association collection plant inventory, u.s. department of agriculture collection fruit and vegetable market news collection usda publications collection rural development publications collection organic roots collection reports of bean improvement cooperative and national dry bean council research conference nal information centers collection footer 	home 	sitemap social links 	 facebook 	 twitter 	 youtube 	 rss government links 	policies and links 	plain writing 	foia 	accessibility statement 	privacy policy 	non-discrimination statement 	anti-harassment policy 	information quality 	agricultural research service 	usda.gov 	usa.gov 	whitehouse.gov sign up for ars news updates your email address sign up association of single measurement of dipstick proteinuria with physical performance of military males: the chief study research article open access association of single measurement of dipstick proteinuria with physical performance of military males: the chief study chia-hao fan , ssu-chin lin , kun-zhe tsai , tsung-jui wu , yen-po lin , yu-kai lin , , shao-chi lu , chih-lu han and gen-min lin , , * abstract background: proteinuria, a marker of kidney injury, may be related to skeletal muscle loss. whether the severity of proteinuria is associated with physical performance is unclear. methods: we examined the association of proteinuria severity with physical performance cross-sectionally in military young males, free of chronic kidney disease, from the cardiorespiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces (chief) study in taiwan. the grades of proteinuria were classified according to one dipstick urinalysis which were collected at morning after an -h fast as unremarkable ( , +/−, and +), moderate ( +) and severe ( + and +). aerobic physical performance was evaluated by time for a -m run and anaerobic physical performance was evaluated by numbers of -min sit-ups and -min push-ups, separately. multiple linear regressions were used to determine the relationship. results: as compared with unremarkable proteinuria, moderate and severe proteinuria were dose-dependently correlated with -m running time (β: . ( % confidence intervals (ci): − . , . ) and . ( % ci: . , . ), respectively), and inversely with numbers of -min push-ups (β = − . (− . , − . ), and − . (− . , − . ), respectively) with adjustments for age, service specialty, body mass index, blood pressure, alcohol intake, smoking, fasting plasma glucose, blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine and physical activity. however, there was no association between proteinuria severity and -min sit-ups. conclusions: our findings show a relationship of dipstick proteinuria with aerobic physical performance and parts of anaerobic physical performance in military healthy males. this mechanism is not fully understood and requires further investigations. keywords: proteinuria, physical performance, military male adults © the author(s). open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's creative commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article's creative commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. * correspondence: farmer @yahoo.com.tw department of medicine, hualien armed forces general hospital, no. , jiali rd., xincheng township, hualien , taiwan department of medicine, tri-service general hospital, national defense medical center, taipei, taiwan full list of author information is available at the end of the article fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - -w http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - -w&domain=pdf http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / mailto:farmer @yahoo.com.tw background protein is one of the major materials such as the actin and myosin components of sarcomere constituting skel- etal muscle fibers in the body [ ]. under normal condi- tions, protein loss is less than mg per day and excreted by the kidney in healthy adults [ ]. proteinuria is defined as excess proteins excreted in the urine and commonly observed in several clinical situations [ ]. pathological proteinuria is related to urinary tract abnor- malities (e.g. hematuria), systemic inflammation, dia- betes, hypertension, malignancies, dehydration, drugs and chronic kidney disease [ – ]. by contrast, physio- logical proteinuria is usually asymptomatic and associ- ated with intense physical activity, also referred as exercise-induced proteinuria [ , ]. the pathophysiological mechanisms of proteinuria can be reasoned by an increase of glomerular capillary per- meability to proteins, reduced protein reabsorption in the renal tubules, and overflow of low-molecular-weight proteins [ ]. with regard to exercise-induced protein- uria, the main cause is not clarified, but the renin- angiotensin system and prostaglandins are considered to play a major role [ ]. the plasma angiotensin ii con- centration increases at exercise, possibly resulting in fil- tration of proteins through the glomerular membrane [ ]. strenuous exercises which activate the sympathetic nervous system, secrete catecholamine and produce lac- tate, would increase the permeability of glomerular ca- pillary membrane and related excessive protein excretions as well [ ]. in addition, intense physical ac- tivity is at higher risk of rhabdomyolysis and dehydra- tion, and leads to presence of proteinuria [ ]. previous studies have shown that exercise-induced proteinuria is associated with the amount and the length of exercise performed [ ]. in an elderly cohort higher albuminuria is a predictor of a decline of physical performance > years [ ]. it is important to monitor proteinuria in the general population; however in young adults, the rela- tionship with exercise capacity has not been explored. military personnel are a special group of young indi- viduals, required to receive intensive training regularly. we hypothesized that presence of proteinuria in military personnel may be related to skeletal muscle injury caused by rigorous training and thus they have poor ex- ercise performance. in this study, we aimed to investi- gate the association of proteinuria severity with physical performance in a military population in taiwan. methods study population the study of cardiorespiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces (chief) was performed in east- ern taiwan [ – ]. all participants carried out a formal health examination and self-reported a questionnaire for their habits of cigarette smoking and alcohol intake status (current vs. former or never) and physical activity in leis- ure times per week in the past months in hualien armed forces general hospital. after the health examin- ation, all participants took at least one of the three exer- cise tests including -min sit-ups, -mininute push-ups, and a -m run at the hualien military physical train- ing and testing center. the study design of chief study has been described in detail previously [ , – ]. in , there were participants receiving the health examination and exercise tests in the study. we excluded males for the bun > mg/dl or serum creatinine > . mg/dl, and presence of sediments, casts, crystals, glu- cose, bacteria, positive nitrates, leukocytes and red blood cells in the urine, and the urine specific gravity > . or < . , leaving a final sample of males for ana- lysis. in addition, the remaining sample of females were used for a sensitivity test. anthropometric and blood tests before taking the laboratory examinations, each partici- pant took his temporal temperature and was interviewed by a military physician. if there were any infection symp- toms or signs along with the body temperature over 。c, the examinee would be asked to make another appointment while recovery from the sickness to complete the health examination. anthropometric pa- rameters of body height and body weight were assessed in a standing position of each participant. body mass index was defined as a ratio of body weight (kilogram) divided by square of height (meter ). waist circumfer- ence was measured at the midpoint between the highest point of the iliac crest and the last palpable rib. all par- ticipants measured their blood pressure once over right upper arm in a sitting position following a rest for at least min by an automated blood pressure monitor (ft- , parama-tech co ltd., fukuoka, japan). la- boratory data of blood biochemical tests for blood urea nitrogen (bun), serum creatinine and fasting plasma glucose were obtained in the morning after a -h fast. dipstick urine examination to avoid a stress status of participants, possibly con- founding the interpretation of proteinuria, the urine sample was collected prior to a venous puncture for drawing the blood sample in the morning. urine pro- teins were measured using the aution dipsticks (arkray. inc., shiga, japan) by a fully automated urine chemistry analyzer (ax- , arkray. inc., shiga, japan). on the basis of the clinical classifications recom- mended by the national kidney foundation [ ], the concentrations of urine proteins of – mg/dl are de- fined as “ +”, – mg/dl as “ +”, – mg/dl as “ +” and ≥ mg/dl are defined as “ +”. the intra- fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of assay coefficient of variation in grading proteinuria was . %. physical performance assessment aerobic physical performance was evaluated by -m running time, a strong indicator of the velocity at lactate (anaerobic) threshold [ ]. all runs were carried out on a flat playground at : pm only if the risk coefficient of heat stroke, the product of outdoor temperature (°c) and relative humidity (%) × . , was lower than and no raining. anaerobic physical performance was separ- ately evaluated by numbers of -min push-ups and - min sit-ups. the procedures were standardized perform- ing on a sponge pad and scored by computer infrared sensing systems. all testing courses of each participant were monitored by the observing officers and video re- corded. since the exercise tests are closely related to the rank promotion and military award, the performance is regarded as the best physical fitness of each participant. this study was reviewed and approved by the institu- tional review board of the mennonite christian hospital (no. – - ) in hualien of taiwan and written in- formed consent was obtained from all participants. statistical analysis the severity of proteinuria were classified to groups based on the results of dipsticks as unremarkable (grades: , +/−, +, n = ), moderate (grades: +, n = ) and severe (grades: + and +, n = ). the char- acteristics of subjects were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (sd) for continuous data, and numbers with percentages for categorical data. the relationship of moderate and severe proteinuria with the performance in each exercise (i.e., time for a -m run, numbers of -min push-ups and numbers of -min sit-ups) were in- vestigated by using analysis of covariance (ancova), and the results were expressed as mean ± standard error (se). multiple stepwise linear regression analyses of each exercise performance with moderate and severe protein- uria, relative to unremarkable proteinuria, were also per- formed as the main analysis. since the performance in each exercise was centrally distributed (supplemental figure), it might not be appropriate using the linear re- gression analysis to evaluate the possibility of remarkable proteinuria for the highest or lowest physical perform- ance. therefore, multiple logistic regression analyses were used to determine the odds ratio (or) of being the superior (highest th percentile) and the inferior (low- est th percentile) performers in each exercise with moderate and severe proteinuria compared to unremark- able proteinuria (secondary analysis). the levels for the superior/inferior performances in each exercise were al- ternatively set as and % for a comparison with %. in model , age and military service specialty were ad- justed. in model , body mass index, bun and serum creatinine were additionally adjusted. in model , sys- tolic blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, smoking status, alcohol intake status and physical activity were further adjusted. these potential confounders for the models were chosen based on prior published associa- tions with physical performance [ ] and those with a significant difference among the groups. a value of p < . was considered significant. statistical analyses were done with a standard program (statistical package for social sciences, spss, version . ). results subject characteristics the subject characteristics of each group are revealed in table . the males with unremarkable proteinuria had relatively older ages, greater body mass index and waist circumference, a lower prevalence of current cigarette smokers, and lower concentrations of bun, serum cre- atinine and fasting plasma glucose than those with mod- erate and severe proteinuria. on the contrary, the males with severe proteinuria had a higher level of systolic blood pressure and higher concentrations of bun, serum creatinine and fasting plasma glucose than those with unremarkable or moderate proteinuria. group means comparisons table shows the number of military males specifically for an exercise test and the mean of physical perform- ance in the three proteinuria groups. there were signifi- cant differences in -m running time ( . s vs. . s vs. . s, p < . ) and -min push-ups num- bers ( . vs. . vs. . , p < . ) among the unre- markable proteinuria, moderate proteinuria, and severe proteinuria groups after adjusting for all covariates in model . however, there were similar -min sit-ups numbers among the three proteinuria groups in models – . in addition, since there was only one young female categorized in the moderate proteinuria group, the mod- erate and severe proteinuria groups were combined to the remarkable proteinuria group in the sensitivity ana- lysis which demonstrated similar tendencies for each physical performance, despite statistically insignificance (supplemental table ). multiple linear regressions the results of multiple linear regressions of each exer- cise performance, with moderate and severe proteinuria relative to unremarkable proteinuria, shown in table are consistent with the findings of ancova in table . as compared with unremarkable proteinuria, moderate proteinuria and severe proteinuria were dose- dependently and positively correlated with time for a fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of -m run (β = . and . ; p-values = . and < . , respectively) and inversely with -min push-ups num- bers (β = − . and − . ; both p-values < . , respect- ively) in model . however, moderate proteinuria and severe proteinuria were not correlated with -min sit- ups numbers in models – . the sensitivity test for fe- males also showed similar tendencies in each physical performance, despite insignificance in models – (sup- plemental table ). multiple logistic regressions the results of multiple logistic regressions of the best % and the worst % performances in each exercise, with moderate and severe proteinuria relative to unre- markable proteinuria, are shown in table . as com- pared to those with unremarkable proteinuria, the males with moderate proteinuria and the males with severe proteinuria were more likely to be the worst % performers in the -m run test in models (or = . and . , respectively). in addition, the males with severe proteinuria but not the males with moderate pro- teinuria were more likely to be the worst % per- formers in the -min push-ups test (or: . ). on the contrary, the males with moderate proteinuria and the males with severe proteinuria were not associated with the performances in -min sit-ups in models – . the results of multiple logistic regressions of the best and the worst performances in each exercise at the level of and %, respectively with moderate and severe protein- uria relative to unremarkable proteinuria, are in line with that at the level of %, which are shown in supple- mental table . discussion our principal findings were that more severe proteinuria in one urine dipstick test was associated with lower table baseline characteristics of the study cohort (n = ) characteristics unremarkable proteinuria (n = ) moderate proteinuria (n = ) severe proteinuria (n = ) p-value age (years) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . specialty, n (%) army [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] . navy [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] air force [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] body mass index (kg/m ) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . waist circumference (cm) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . systolic blood pressure (mmhg) . ± . . ± . . ± . . diastolic blood pressure (mmhg) . ± . . ± . . ± . . blood test blood urea nitrogen, bun (mg/dl) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . serum creatinine (mg/dl) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . fasting plasma glucose (mg/dl) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . alcohol consumption, n (%) former or never alcohol intake [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] . current alcohol intake [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] betel nut chewing, n (%) former or never chewer [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] . current chewer [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] cigarette smoking, n (%) former or never smoker [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] < . current smoker [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] physical activity, n (%) never or occasionally [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] . – times/week [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] ≥ times/week [ . ] [ . ] [ . ] continuous variables are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (sd), and categorical variables as n [%]. unremarkable proteinuria was defined as dipstick proteinuria grades: , +/−, or +; moderate proteinuria as grades: +; and severe proteinuria as grades: + or + fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of cardiorespiratory (aerobic) and part of anaerobic physical performance, particularly for muscular endurance of the chest wall and upper extremities in physically fit male adults with euvolemia and without chronic kidney disease, independent of age, body mass index, kidney function, fasting plasma glucose, cigarette smoking, alcohol intake and physical activity. while the effect sizes may be small, the results are still concerning given the young age and general good health of the study population, especially be- cause proteinuria is suspected to worsen over time. previous studies have revealed that there was an asso- ciation between muscle wasting and a decrease of renal function. people with chronic kidney disease are predis- posed to muscle wasting and vice versa, those with sar- copenia have a decrease of glomerular filtration rate, which may progress to chronic kidney disease status and result in presence of persistent proteinuria [ – ]. our findings were in line with this concept by the character- istics of lower body weight and greater bun and serum creatinine levels which were mainly found in the males with moderate or severe proteinuria. in addition, it is reasonable that decreased muscle mass in the study sub- jects could lead to lower aerobic physical performance and impair part of anaerobic physical performance. table differences in each exercise performance -min push-ups (numbers) -min sit-ups (numbers) -m run (seconds) n mean (se) p-value n mean (se) p-value n mean (se) p-value model unremarkable proteinuria . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . moderate proteinuria . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . severe proteinuria . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . model unremarkable proteinuria . ( . ) < . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . moderate proteinuria . ( . ) < . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . severe proteinuria . ( . ) < . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . model unremarkable proteinuria . ( . ) < . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . moderate proteinuria . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . severe proteinuria . ( . ) < . . ( . ) . . ( . ) < . overall p-value; unremarkable proteinuria vs moderate proteinuria; unremarkable proteinuria vs moderate proteinuria mean ± standard error (se) for each exercise performance estimated using analysis of covariance with adjustments for model : age and service specialty adjustments; model : the covariates in model , body mass index, bun and serum creatinine adjustments; model : the covariates in model , systolic blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, alcohol intake status, cigarette smoking status, and weekly physical activity adjustments table multiple liner regressions of dipstick proteinuria severity with each exercise performance moderate proteinuria severe proteinuria β-value % ci p-value β-value % ci p-value model -min push-ups (n) − . − . – . . − . − . – − . < . -min sit-ups (n) − . − . – . . − . − . – . . -m run (sec) . − . – . . . . – . < . model -min push-ups (n) − . − . – − . < . − . − . – − . < . -min sit-ups (n) − . − . – . . − . − . – . . -m run (sec) . . – . . . . – . < . model -min push-ups (n) − . − . – − . < . − . − . – − . < . -min sit-ups (n) − . − . – . . − . − . – . . -m run (sec) . − . – . . . . – . < . data are presented as βand % confidence intervals (ci) using pearson’s correlation coefficient for model : age and service specialty adjustments; model : the covariates in model , body mass index, blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine adjustments; model : the covariates in model , systolic blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, alcohol intake status, cigarette smoking status, and weekly physical activity adjustments fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of the other important findings were that higher preva- lence of higher fasting plasma glucose levels and cigarette smoking were observed in those with moderate or severe proteinuria. as is known, exercise induced pro- teinuria has been associated with higher insulin resist- ance [ ] which in turn may lead to muscular protein degradations by suppression of phosphatidylinositol - kinase (pi k)/protein kinase b (akt) signaling and sub- sequently activation of caspase- and the ubiquitin- proteasome proteolytic pathway [ ]. in addition, current cigarette smoking can increase inflammation [ ] and induce insulin resistance [ ], which may lead to muscle wasting, and has been associated with the emergence of dipstick proteinuria in healthy middle aged populations [ , ]. therefore, insulin resistance and cigarette smoking may be a mediator for the relationship of proteinuria with lower physical performance. our study had several advantages. first, the laboratory examinations and the procedures of exercise tests were all performed standardly. second, a large number of military males were included for the analysis which could provide sufficient power detecting the difference between the groups. third, . % of the male partici- pants were retained in the analysis that the selection bias would be minimized. fourth, the daily schedule of mili- tary such as training program was unified so that the bias from unmeasured confounders could be controlled at baseline. however, there were several weak points in this study. first, the presence and grades of proteinuria were measured only by one urine dipstick test, which table multiple logistic regressions of dipstick proteinuria severity with the best % and the worst % of each exercise performance moderate proteinuria severe proteinuria unremarkable proteinuria or % ci p-value or % ci p-value ref top % of performance level model -min push-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -min sit-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≤ s . . – . . . . – . . . model -min push-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -min sit-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≤ s . . – . . . . – . . . model -min push-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -min sit-ups ≥ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≤ s . . – . . . . – . . . bottom % of performance level model -min push-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . < . . -min sit-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≥ s . . – . . . . – . < . . model -min push-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . < . . -min sit-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≥ s . . – . . . . – . < . . model -min push-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . < . . -min sit-ups ≤ numbers . . – . . . . – . . . -m run ≥ s . . – . . . . – . < . . data are presented as odds ratios (or) and % confidence intervals (ci) using multiple logistic regression analysis for model : age and service specialty adjustments; model : the covariates in model , body mass index, blood urea nitrogen and creatinine adjustments; model : the covariates in model , systolic blood pressure, fasting plasma glucose, alcohol intake status, cigarette smoking status and weekly exercise frequency adjustments fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of was easily influenced by many physiological and environ- mental conditions [ ]. second, although numerous co- variates were adjusted, we could not completely avoid the existence of other potential confounders that may lead to a bias. third, although the statistical differences in the outcome of interests (physical performance) were significant, probably because of the large sample size in this study, the absolute differences were relatively small, which might limit the practical applications. conclusion our findings show a dose-dependent relationship of dip- stick proteinuria with aerobic physical performance and part of anaerobic physical performance in military healthy males free of chronic kidney disease. cigarette smoking and increased insulin resistance may play a po- tential role on the relationship between remarkable pro- teinuria and muscle wasting, leading to impaired physical performance. this mechanism is not fully understood and requires further investigations. supplementary information supplementary information accompanies this paper at https://doi.org/ . /s - - -w. additional file . additional file . abbreviations akt: protein kinase b; ancova: analysis of covariance; bun: blood urea nitrogen; chief: cardiorespiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces; ci: confidence interval; or: odds ratio; pi k: phosphatidylinositol - kinase; sd: standard deviation; se: standard error acknowledgements none. authors’ contributions chf wrote the paper; scl and tjw collected the data; kzt made the analyses; ypl, ykl, scl and clh revised and raised the comments; gml was the principal investigator and made the study design. all authors have read and approved the manuscript funding the chief study was supported by the grants from the hualien armed forces general hospital (no. -c – and -c – ), where was the main place involved in the study design, data collection, analyses and writing of this research. availability of data and materials as the study materials were obtained from the military in taiwan, the data were confidential and not allowed to be opened in public. if there are any needs for clarification, the readers can contact colonel dr. gen-min lin, the corresponding author for sharing the data. ethics approval and consent to participate the institutional review board (irb) of the mennonite christian hospital (no. – - ) in hualien of taiwan approved access to the data for the chief study, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. consent for publication not applicable. competing interests none. author details department of nursing, hualien armed forces general hospital, hualien, taiwan. department of medicine, hualien armed forces general hospital, no. , jiali rd., xincheng township, hualien , taiwan. department of critical care medicine, taipei tzu chi hospital, new taipei, taiwan. department of medicine, tri-service general hospital, national defense medical center, taipei, taiwan. department of medicine, taipei veterans general hospital, taipei, taiwan. department of preventive medicine, northwestern university feinberg school of medicine, chicago, il , usa. received: october accepted: july references . leung ak, wong ah, barg ss. proteinuria in children: evaluation and differential diagnosis. am fam physician. ; ( ): – . . carroll mf, temte jl. proteinuria in adults: a diagnostic approach. am fam physician. ; ( ): – . . mcconnell kr, bia mj. evaluation of proteinuria: an approach for the internist. resident staff phys. ; : – . . rose bd. pathophysiology of renal disease. nd ed. new york: mcgraw-hill; . . hebert la, parikh s, prosek j, nadasdy t, rovin bh. differential diagnosis of glomerular disease: a systematic and inclusive approach. am j nephrol. ; ( ): – . . abdelmalek ja, gansevoort rt, lambers heerspink hj, ix jh, rifkin de. estimated albumin excretion rate versus urine albumin-creatinine ratio for the assessment of albuminuria: a diagnostic test study from the prevention of renal and vascular endstage disease (prevend) study. am j kidney dis. ; ( ): – . . shephard rj. exercise proteinuria and hematuria: current knowledge and future directions. j sports med phy fitness. ; ( ): – . . saeed f, naga pavan kumar devaki p, mahendrakar l, holley jl. exercise- induced proteinuria? j fam pract. ; ( ): – . . khanna r. clinical presentation and management of glomerular diseases: hematuria, nephritic and nephrotic syndrome. mo med. ; : – . . kdigo work group. kdigo clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. kidney int suppl. ; : – . . filha rs, pinheiro svb, cordeiro tme, feracin v, vieira Élm, miranda as, silva ac se. evidence for a role of angiotensin converting enzyme in proteinuria of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome. biosci rep. ; ( ): bsr . . kohn o. review: combination therapy with renin-angiotensin inhibitors reduces proteinuria more than single drugs alone in renal disease. ann intern med. ; ( ):jc – . . ellis en, mauer sm, sutherland de, steffes mw. glomerular capillary morphology in normal humans. lab investig. ; ( ): – . . totou nl, moura ss, coelho db, oliveira ec, becker lk, lima wg. swimming exercise demonstrates advantages over running exercise in reducing proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis in spontaneously hypertensive rats. physio int. ; ( ): – . . bůžková p, barzilay ji, fink ha, robbins ja, cauley ja, ix jh, mukamal kj. higher albumin:creatinine ratio and lower estimated glomerular filtration rate are potential risk factors for decline of physical performance in the elderly: the cardiovascular health study. clin kidney j. ; ( ): – . . lin gm, li yh, lee cj, shiang jc, lin kh, chen kw, chen yj, wu cf, lin bs, yu ys, lin f, su fy, wang ch. rationale and design of the cardio- respiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces study in eastern taiwan. world j cardiol. ; ( ): – . . lin gm, lu hh. a -lead ecg-based system with physiological parameters and machine learning to identify right ventricular hypertrophy in young adults. ieee j transl eng health med. ; : . . lin gm, liu k. an electrocardiographic system with anthropometrics via machine learning to screen left ventricular hypertrophy among young adults. ieee j transl eng health med. ; : . . su fy, wang sh, lu hh, lin gm. association of tobacco smoking with physical fitness of military males in taiwan: the chief study. can respir j. ; : . fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of https://doi.org/ . /s - - -w https://doi.org/ . /s - - -w . chung ps, tsai kz, lin yp, lin yk, lin gm. association between leukocyte counts and physical fitness in male military members: the chief study. sci rep. ; ( ): . . chen yj, chen kw, shih yl, su fy, lin yp, meng fc, lin f, yu ys, han cl, wang ch, lin jw, hsieh ty, li yh, lin gm. chronic hepatitis b, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and physical fitness of military males: chief study. world j gastroenterol. ; ( ): – . . tsai kz, lin jw, lin f, su fy, li yh, lin yp, lin yk, han cl, hsieh cb, lin gm. association of betel nut chewing with exercise performance in a military male cohort: the chief study. j r army med corps. ; ( ): – . . tsai kz, lai sw, hsieh cj, lin cs, lin yp, tsai sc, chung ps, lin yk, lin tc, ho cl, han cl, kwon y, hsieh cb, lin gm. association between mild anemia and physical fitness in a military male cohort: the chief study. sci rep. ; ( ): . . chao wh, su fy, lin f, yu ys, lin gm. association of electrocardiographic left and right ventricular hypertrophy with physical fitness of military males: the chief study. eur j sport sci. ; ( ): – . . chen kw, meng fc, shih yl, su fy, lin yp, lin f, lin jw, chang wk, lee cj, li yh, hsieh cb, lin gm. sex-specific association between metabolic abnormalities and elevated alanine aminotransferase levels in a military cohort: the chief study. int j environ res public health. ; ( ): . . simerville ja, maxted wc, pahira jj. urinalysis: a comprehensive review. am fam physician. ; ( ): – . . grant s, craig i, wilson j, aitchison t. the relationship between km running performance and selected physiological variables. j sports sci. ; ( ): – . . fernández i, canet o, giné-garriga m. assessment of physical activity levels, fitness and perceived barriers to physical activity practice in adolescents: cross-sectional study. eur j pediatr. ; ( ): – . . foley rn, wang c, ishani a, collins aj, murray am. kidney function and sarcopenia in the united states general population: nhanes iii. am j nephrol. ; ( ): – . . ozkayar n, altun b, halil m, kuyumcu me, arik g, yesil y, yildirim t, yilmaz r, ariogul s, turgan c. evaluation of sarcopenia in renal transplant recipients. nephrourol mon. ; ( ):e . . moon sj, kim th, yoon sy, chung jh, hwang hj. relationship between stage of chronic kidney disease and sarcopenia in korean aged years and older using the korea national health and nutrition examination surveys (knhanes iv- , , and v- , ), - . plos one. ; ( ): e . . lim d, lee dy, cho sh, kim oz, cho sw, an sk, kim hw, moon kh, lee mh, kim b. diagnostic accuracy of urine dipstick for proteinuria in older outpatients. kidney res clin pract. ; ( ): – . . wagner r, machann j, lehmann r, rittig k, schick f, lenhart j, artunc f, linder k, claussen cd, schleicher e, fritsche a, häring hu, weyrich p. exercise- induced albuminuria is associated with perivascular renal sinus fat in individuals at increased risk of type diabetes. diabetologia. ; ( ): – . . wang x, hu z, hu j, du j, mitch we. insulin resistance accelerates muscle protein degradation: activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway by defects in muscle cell signaling. endocrinology. ; ( ): – . . sauriasari r, sakano n, wang dh, takaki j, takemoto k, wang b, sugiyama h, sato y, takigawa t, takahashi n, kanbara s, hitomi y, nakamura h, ogino k. c-reactive protein is associated with cigarette smoking-induced hyperfiltration and proteinuria in an apparently healthy population. hypertens res. ; ( ): – . . willi c, bodenmann p, ghali wa, faris pd, cornuz j. active smoking and the risk of type diabetes—a systematic review and meta-analysis. jama. ; ( ): – . . maeda i, hayashi t, sato kk, koh h, harita n, nakamura y, endo g, kambe h, fukuda k. cigarette smokinfg and the association wioth glomerular hyperfiltrtation and proteinuria in healthy middle-aged men. clin j am soc nephrol. ; ( ): – . . yoon hj, park m, yoon h, son ky, cho b, kim s. the differential effect of cigarette smoking on glomerular filtration rate and proteinuria in an apparently healthy population. hypertens res. ; ( ): – . . abuelo jg. proteinuria: diagnostic principles and procedures. ann intern med. ; ( ): – . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. fan et al. bmc nephrology ( ) : page of 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusions 	background 	methods 	study population 	anthropometric and blood tests 	dipstick urine examination 	physical performance assessment 	statistical analysis 	results 	subject characteristics 	group means comparisons 	multiple linear regressions 	multiple logistic regressions 	discussion 	conclusion 	supplementary information 	abbreviations 	acknowledgements 	authors’ contributions 	funding 	availability of data and materials 	ethics approval and consent to participate 	consent for publication 	competing interests 	author details 	references 	publisher’s note new genes causing hereditary parkinson’s disease or parkinsonism genetics (v bonifati, section editor) new genes causing hereditary parkinson’s disease or parkinsonism andreas puschmann , published online: july # the author(s) . this article is an open access publication, corrected publication august/ abstract purpose of review this article reviews genes where putative or confirmed pathogenic mutations causing parkinson’s dis- ease or parkinsonism have been identified since , and summarizes the clinical and pathological picture of the asso- ciated disease subtypes. recent findings newly reported genes for dominant parkinson’s disease are dnajc , chchd , and tmem . however, the evidence for a disease-causing role is not conclu- sive, and further genetic and functional studies are warranted. ric mutations have been reported from one family but not yet encountered in other patients. new genes for autosomal re- cessive disease include synj , dnajc , vps c, and ptrhd . deletions of a region on chromosome ( q . del) are also associated with early-onset pd, but the mode of inheritance and the underlying causative gene remain unclear. podxl mutations were reported in autosomal recessive pd, but their roles remain to be confirmed. mutations in rab b cause an x-linked parkinsonian disorder. summary mutations in the new dominant pd genes have gen- erally been found in medium- to late-onset parkinson’s disease. many mutations in the new recessive and x-chromosomal genes cause severe atypical juvenile parkinsonism, but less devastating mutations in these genes may cause pd. keywords parkinson’s disease . parkinsonism . dominant . recessive . monogenic . genetic introduction since the discovery of the first gene for parkinson’s disease (pd) years ago, a large number of additional genes have been implicated as monogenic causes for pd, or for disorders with parkinsonism as a more or less prominent clinical fea- ture. today, genetic testing of patients with young-onset, he- reditary or unusual parkinsonian disorders has become part of clinical practice in many healthcare settings. this review at- tempts to evaluate the reports since on new genes with mutations associated with monogenic pd or parkinsonism, concentrating on the clinical and pathological descriptions of these new forms of disease. for reasons of space, this review does not include new results on pd genes identified before , where new results acquired in recent years have consol- idated, expanded, and sometimes refuted previous knowledge. readers are referred to broader previous reviews that summa- rize the knowledge in the field available at the time of their writing [ – ]. new genes for dominant pd since , mutations in dnajc , chchd , tmem , and ric have been reported as new causes for monogenic dominant pd. the following sections provide a review of the available reports on the clinical picture and genetic informa- tion. all of these discoveries are recent, and it is today not definitely proven that mutations in these genes cause pd. the present evidence appears most robust for a causative role of chchd mutations in pd because of the description of more this article is part of the topical collection on genetics * andreas puschmann andreas.puschmann@med.lu.se lund university, skåne university hospital, department of clinical sciences lund, neurology, lund, sweden department for neurology, skåne university hospital, getingevägen , lund, sweden curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : doi . /s - - - mailto:andreas.puschmann@med.lu.se http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf than one family with co-segregation of clinical phenotype and genotype, but less robust for dnajc and tmem , be- cause these mutations were found in only one, albeit large, pedigree, and least robust for ric that has only been reported from one less extensive family. table provides an overview over presently known genes for dominant pd, which general- ly cause medium- to late-onset parkinsonism or pd, for most genes with few or no additional features. dnajc in , vilariño-güell et al. identified c. a>g (p.n s) mutations in dnajc in a large family with au- tosomal dominant pd. eleven pd patients from two succes- sive generations carried these mutations, whereas one family member with progressive supranuclear palsy and two addi- tional members with pd did not. dnajc p.n s muta- tions were also identified in two additional familial and three sporadic cases from canada [ ••, ], but not in other popula- tions so far [ – ]. a recent follow-up study identified three additional members of the original family who had become symptomatic by that time [ ]. all known carriers reside in saskatchewan or british columbia, canada, and reported dutch-german-russian mennonite origin, strongly suggest- ing a common founder. this was supported by results of ge- netic comparisons of the haplotype surrounding the disease- causing mutation [ ••]. the clinical phenotype of dnajc p.n s carriers was described as clinically definite parkinson’s disease in out of the patients reported so far [ , ]. the remaining four patients had relatively mild disease with rigidity and bradyki- nesia as well as action or postural tremor, but no resting trem- or. six patients, including all who only had action or postural tremor, did not require levodopa treatment at all, despite dis- ease durations of up to years. symptom onset was between and years (mean . ; standard deviation, s.d., . ), and disease progression was generally slow. patients in earlier disease stages responded to levodopa, but patients at late dis- ease stage (hoehn and yahr ) did not [ ]. multitracer pet examinations revealed a dopaminergic deficit in the striatum with a pattern as in idiopathic pd, affecting the putamen more than the caudate [ ]. three mutation carriers from the origi- nal kindred have been examined neuropathologically after disease durations of to years. all had alpha-synuclein- positive lewy body pathology with cell loss in the basal nu- cleus of meynert and substantia nigra, and the distribution of alpha-synuclein pathology was brainstem only in one and transitional in two. all three showed tau pathology with neu- rofibrillary tangles including hippocampal involvement and arteriosclerotic vascular disease. two patients had evidence of cerebrovascular accidents [ ••, ]. dnajc p.n s mutations are rare events [ ]. another mutation in dnajc , c. g>t (p.r l), was identified in two patients and one unaffected member of one tunisian family [ ••]. it is uncertain if this mutation is pathogenic. dnajc protein is present on endosomal mem- branes where it is involved in clathrin coating of early endosomes. p.a s-mutated dnajc impairs endosomal transport by a toxic gain-of-function mechanism [ ••]. no coding variants in dnajc were detected when the gene was sequenced in caucasian pd cases and patients with pathologically confirmed lewy body disease [ ]. variants in the gene have been identified as pd suscep- tibility factors [ , ]. chchd in , funayama et al. reported chchd c. c>t (p.t i) mutations in a large japanese family with ten affected mutation carriers in two successive generations. the same mutation was found in a different family with autosomal dom- inant pd where, interestingly, one of the mutation carriers had fine tremor since age , but no parkinsonism at age [ ••]. seven of nine mutation carriers with pd had been treated with levodopa, and all had good response. two of ten patients described had hyperreflexia. this mutation was also found in two affected siblings from a chinese family with seemingly autosomal dominant pd. also in this family, a third sibling carried the p.t i mutation and had only mild tremor from age and a symptomatology compatible with essential trem- or years later, without overt parkinsonism [ ]. pet studies showed mildly reduced dopamine reuptake in the posterior putamen in this individual, and more markedly reduced dopa- mine uptake in the putamen and the caudate nucleus in an affected brother [ ]. two of seven patients from the chinese family had dysphagia, one displayed a positive babinski sign and one had electrophysiological evidence for neurogenic muscle degeneration. the average age at symptom onset in the three families combined was years (s.d. . ; table monogenic causes for autosomal dominant parkinson’s disease gene year additional clinical features besides parkinsonism snca cognitive, behavioral, and autonomic dysfunction, myoclonus lrrk few, variable. possibly only milder non-motor disturbances eif g probably not pathogenic vps cognitive and behavioral changes (?) dnajc none chchd none. two carriers with tremor only tmem one large family only ric one family only gene names not in bold print indicate that pathogenicity remains unconfirmed page of curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : range – ) [ ••, ], and typically there was asymmetric bradykinesia, rigidity, and resting tremor that responded well to levodopa. no neuropathology of patients with chchd mutations has so far been reported. several other studies have since examined the chchd gene in patients and controls. from germany, a pd patient with chchd c. c>t (p.gln x) mutation has been reported and this mutation has been suggested to be pathogen- ic as it leads to protein truncation [ ]. other rare variants mutations in chchd have been identified in pd patients, but their pathogenicity remains more uncertain [ ••, , ], and chchd variants have been shown to increase pd risk [ ]. in total, more than pd cases and more than unaffected controls have been analyzed to date [ ••, , – ]. definite confirmation of the pathogenicity of chchd mutations is currently lacking. ric in a three-generational family from karnataka state in southern india, sudhaman et al. identified ric c. c>a (p.p t) mutations [ ]. in this family, five members in two generations had bradykinesia and rigidity, and two of these also tremors and the oldest individual had parkinsonism and dystonia. the average age at onset was years (s.d. . , range – ). four of these individuals also had restless legs syndrome, and two rem-sleep behavior disorder. an addi- tional member with pd was deceased at the time of study. four members of the successive generation displayed very mild signs such as reduced arm swing, bradykinesia, and/or rigidity on clinical examination at age to years, while five of their siblings and cousins did not show any movement disorder. ric p.p t mutations were present in all nine af- fected members and absent in all five unaffected members tested [ ]. the fact that only mild symptoms were reported from the only reported family’s third generation opens up for the possibility that some of these individuals may not develop pd, and conversely, some of their younger siblings or cousins may still develop the disease. no additional kindred with mu- tations in ric has so far been identified; why the pathoge- nicity of ric mutations for pd remains unconfirmed. variants in ric have not been associated with pd in one case-control study performed to date [ ]. tmem in , deng et al. reported the results of their independent analysis of the same canadian mennonite kindred where vilariño-güell et al. previously found mutations in dnajc (see above) [ ••, ••]. deng et al. instead identi- fied tmem c. g>t (p.r l) as the cause of the dis- ease in that kindred. they emphasized the fact that two family members with pd and one with progressive supranuclear palsy did not carry dnajc mutations, whereas all affected individuals they tested carried tmem mutations. no ad- ditional large family with clear co-segregation of a tmem mutation and pd has been identified. deng et al. also identified three additional tmem var- iants in pd patients, among them tmem c. _ deltaginscccggg (p.* proglyext* ). this mutation was unusually common among chinese pd families, reported from out of families, who were either homo- zygous or heterozygous carriers, and co-segregated with pd in two affected sib-pairs from these seven families [ ••, ]. several additional studies examining large series of pd pa- tients, mostly of caucasian and chinese origin, have remained negative and have not identified the p.* proglyext* var- iant [ – ]. the pathogenicity of tmem variants needs to be considered unconfirmed. new genes for recessive and x-linked pd or parkinsonism compared to monogenic dominant pd and to the well- established recessive early-onset pd genes park , dj- , and pink , the newly identified recessive forms appear more complex both for clinicians and researchers. the clinical pic- ture of the newly identified recessive forms is often more severe and multifaceted. however, in a few instances, there appears to be a genotype-phenotype correlation where muta- tions that lead to pronounced alteration of normal protein function cause a complex disorder with severe additional neu- rological or neuropsychiatric impairment, often from birth, and juvenile parkinsonism, whereas mutations with a milder effect on the protein cause parkinsonism with fewer atypical features. table summarizes currently known and putative genes for recessive and x-linked pd or parkinsonism. q . deletion syndrome hemizygous deletions of a segment within the . band on the long arm of chromosome are known to cause a clinical syndrome, q . deletion syndrome, with very variable signs and symptoms, often including learning difficulties, midline developmental abnormalities, especially of the palate, larynx, trachea, and/or esophagus, subtle facial dysmorphies, and deficiencies of the immune system [ ]. autism spectrum disorder or schizophrenia is a common manifestation, as well as relatively milder disturbances such as difficulties with so- cial interaction, anxiety, or attention deficit disorder. there may be hypocalcemia and renal or skeletal abnormalities. the designation q . deletion syndrome includes pheno- types previously known as velocardiofacial syndrome and digeorge syndrome. q . deletion syndrome is consid- ered to be the most common microdeletion syndrome in curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : page of humans, occurring in more than per births. the major- ity of patients have a deletion of million base pairs, encompassing about genes, but a minority have shorter nested deletions. many of the anomalies are present from birth, but some of the other symptoms, especially the psychi- atric symptoms, may develop in mid-adult life [ ]. parkinsonism had already been described between and in four patients with this syndrome [ – ]. in , butcher et al. reported additional three unrelated patients with q . deletion syndrome and parkinsonism, and, importantly, provided the results of a neuropathological examination of three patients [ ]. two of these had cell loss in the substantia nigra and prominent alpha-synuclein-positive lewy bodies in the brainstem; one patient had marked cell loss in the substantia nigra, locus coeruleus, and dorsal nucleus of the vagal nerve but without alpha-synuclein pathology. there was also amyloid and tau pathology. the findings confirmed the presence of the neurodegenerative process typical for pd and ruled out that all parkinsonian signs and symptoms were solely induced by neu- roleptic treatment for the psychiatric disease manifestations. case reports and small case series on six additional patients have been published since [ – ]. the clinical phenotype of these patients included parkinsonism, starting at a mean of years (s.d. ) of age, often with resting tremor or gait disturbance. there was good response to levodopa or other dopaminergic treatment, which often was combined with withdrawal of antipsychotic medi- cation, and early development of motor fluctuations was re- ported. frequently, worsening of psychotic symptoms limited the dose of dopaminergic medications. however, all patients reported in these reports had marked additional symptoms such as severe and difficult-to-treat psychosis or schizophre- nia, learning disabilities, or obvious midline imaging anoma- lies. these additional features were usually present from birth or childhood or young adult age, long before parkinsonian signs were noted. spect examinations have been reported from six patients who all showed bilaterally reduced dopami- nergic reuptake in the striatum [ , , ]. mri brain imag- ing has shown cava septi vergae, white matter hyperintensities in t , and reduced brainstem volume in these case reports. mibg scintigraphy was performed in one patient and showed normal cardiac autonomous innervation [ ]. in a large multicenter case-control study, mok et al. ad- dressed the question whether hemizygous q . deletions are associated with idiopathic pd. among patients en- rolled in their case series with a clinical diagnosis of pd, eight were found to be hemizygous carriers of q . deletions; no such deletion was found among , control subjects [ ]. the eight mutation carriers had developed parkinsonian signs or symptoms at a median of years. given the large scale of the study, detailed individual data was not available for each of the mutation carriers, but retrospectively other features of q . deletion syndrome were present in all of the mutation carriers, although they may have been mild at the time of inclusion in the study, and may not have been specifically asked for at the time of enrollment in research studies focused on pd [ ]. patients with hemizygous q . deletions also showed additional movement disorder phenomena, such as postural and action tremor, myoclonic jerks, and in- termittent oculogyric movements, alone or in combina- tion with parkinsonian signs [ ]. medical treatment of the symptoms of q . deletion syndrome requires a careful balance of antiparkinsonian and antipsychotic agents, and the readiness to accept suboptimal treatment responses regarding both parkinsonism and psychosis. presently, it is not known which mutation(s) in which of the genes in the deleted segment causes the development of parkinsonism in these patients, or if the microdeletion per se is causative. several possible candidate genes have been sug- gested [ ]. all patients with q . deletion syndrome for whom the extent of the deletion was examined showed forms of the long, . to . million base pair deletion, and not the rarer shorter deletions [ , , ]. one additional pd patient with a shorter, atypical deletion of only kb length was reported but not considered to represent q . deletion syn- drome; this deletion overlapped only to a small part with the area usually deleted in the shorter deletions [ ]. table monogenic causes for autosomal recessive or x-linked parkinson’s disease or atypical juvenile parkinsonism gene year atypical clinical features park (parkin) none dj- none. psychiatric features, dystonia (in some patients) pink none. cognitive/psychiatric symptoms (in some patients) fbxo spasticity, equinovarus deformity (in some patients) q . del intellectual disability synj dystonia, cognitive decline, seizures rab b severe intellectual disability. x-linked mode of inheritance dnajc intellectual disability, other neurological features podxl none. one family only. to be confirmed in independent studies vps c severe cognitive dysfunction, tetraplegia ptrhd severe cognitive dysfunction, muscular weakness mutations in additional genes have long been known to cause recessive neurological diseases that in various proportions of patients may cause parkinsonism [ , ]. these syndromes are not included here since they are clearly distinguishable from pd clinically, and/or not newly identified since . gene names not in bold print indicate that pathogenicity remains unconfirmed page of curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : investigation for q . deletions was suggested in the diagnostic workup of patients with early-onset pd who have congenital palatal or cardiac defects, recurrent infections or other signs of immune deficiency, late developmental mile- stones, or marked psychiatric comorbidity [ ]. it has been pointed out that early detection of q . deletions might be beneficial for timely recognition and treatment of manifes- tations such as hypocalcemia, abnormal thyroid or parathyroid function, abnormal magnesium levels, or cardiac abnormali- ties [ ]. synj quadri et al. and krebs et al. simultaneously described two families with homozygous mutations c. g>a (p.r g) in the synj gene [ ••, ••]. in each of the two families, one from sicily and one from iran, there were two affected siblings, and parents were consanguineous. in the italian family, one son developed slowness of move- ments, leg stiffness, fatigue, and upper arm involuntary movements at age years. he soon became unable to walk and to work and within years lost his ability to talk. dystonia, irregular tremor, eyelid apraxia, and supranuclear vertical gaze limitation were noted. levodopa was ineffective but worsened the oromandibular and limb dystonia. the patient had severe cognitive dys- function. symptom progression was unusually rapid ini- tially, but after more than two decades, the disorder remained generally stable, with some degree of fluctuation [ ]. his sister had similar but perhaps somewhat milder symptoms starting at years. mri showed cerebral cor- tical atrophy, quadrigeminal plate thinning, and hippocam- pal t hyperintensity. further imaging showed nigrostriatal dopaminergic deficit and cortical hypometabolism [ ••]. the two siblings from the iranian family additionally had seizures during infancy and from the age of years, respectively. the developed a severe progressive parkinsonian syndrome with chin tremor in their s. they had oculomotor abnormalities and severe hypophonia. a short but marked improvement after admin- istration of low levodopa doses ( mg) was noted in one of the patients whereas his sister developed dyskinesia at the same dose. cognitive function was considered normal. mri showed cortical atrophy and white matter abnormal- ities. one of the siblings had a meningioma, impressing on the brainstem why interpretation of the symptoms is diffi- cult [ ••]. a third family with the same synj r g mutation, also from southern italy, was identified soon thereafter [ ]. their clinical presentation was similar to the previous families, but the two siblings had reached developmental milestones of childhood development somewhat late. no abnormalities on mri could be discerned. follow-up examinations after and years of disease duration showed progress of parkinsonism, albeit not unusually rapid, depression, and progressive cogni- tive impairment. there were no indications for rem-sleep behavioral disorder, and mibg scintigraphy showed normal cardiac sympathetic innervation [ ]. a different synj mutation, c. c>g (p.r p), has since been identified in a consanguineous indian family from jharkhand state [ ]. the two affected individuals had devel- oped tremor and at age and years developed parkinsonism that was alleviated by levodopa, dystonia, and dyskinesia but had not developed dementia after and years of disease duration. two german siblings, compound heterozygous for two different synj mutations c. g>a (p.w *) and c. g>a (p.r g), had seizures within the first years of life, and developed generalized, dopa-responsive dystonia at ages and years, with action tremor of the tongue, head, and extremities. one of them had reached developmen- tal milestones late, both had cognitive dysfunction in early adult life. csf analyses showed signs associated with impair- ments in dopamine synthesis, including decreased homovanillic acid and tetrahydrobiopterin [ ]. other synj mutations cause a recessive epilepsy syn- drome with progressive and very severe neurological decline during the first years of life [ , ]. it has been noted that mutations associated with parkinsonism affect the protein’s sac -like domain, whereas mutations causing the severe ep- ilepsy syndrome impair the protein’s dual phosphatase activity [ ••, , – ]. no pathology has been reported from a patient with synj-related parkinsonism, but one pakistani child with synj c. c>t, p.r x mutations, and a most severe neurodevelopmental syndrome with intractable epilepsy was examined neuropathologically after death at age . years. macroscopically, there was general white mat- ter atrophy but, remarkably, the most prominent pathology on microscopic examination was found in the substantia nigra: there was marked cell loss, and intensely positive tau pathology with neurofibrillary tangles, in cell bodies, axonal hillocks, and neuropil threads. similar but milder pathology was found in the basal ganglia. there was no immunoreactivity to alpha-synuclein [ ]. the parkinso- nian patients with synj mutation showed clinical and radiological signs reminiscent of other tauopathies, such as vertical gaze palsy and atrophy of the quadrigeminal plate, suggesting that a tauopathy might be the underlying cause. recently, taghavi et al. reported a synj p.r c muta- tion in a small iranian family with two affected siblings with poorly levodopa-responsive parkinsonism and generalized seizures since years of age. longitudinal fissures were present on the tongue of this family’s index patient and were thereafter also noticed on the tongue of a previously described curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : page of iranian patient carrying synj p.r g [ ••, ], why the authors suggest this might be an additional disease sign. rab b in , wilson et al. reported deletions of the entire rab b gene on the x chromosome in an australian family with three affected brothers [ ••]. these individuals had intellectual disability from birth with delayed speech initiation and early learning difficulties in all three, to a degree that independent living was impossible. one individual also had delayed early motor milestones as well as obsessional and ritualistic behav- ior [ ••]. tremor was noted from late childhood in one of the three brothers, and the other two had tremor by age and subsequently developed akinetic-rigid parkinsonism which was responsive to levodopa. one of these patients with parkinsonism had side effects to treatment, and mild t mri signal changes in the substantia nigra and globus pallidum that were interpreted as deposition of iron or calci- um. this individual came to autopsy at age , which revealed cell loss and alpha-synuclein-positive lewy bodies in the substantia nigra as well as an abundance of cortical alpha- synuclein-positive lewy bodies. also, there were some tau- positive neurofibrillary tangles in the substantia nigra, and rare axonal spheroids in the white matter tracts of the basal ganglia area [ ••]. the pathology of this patient was thus compatible with the pathology that typically defines pd [ ], and added rab b-related disease to the list of synucleinopathies [ ]. wilson et al. also found c. c>a (p.t k) mutations in the rab b gene in a large family from wisconsin, usa, where seven male members from one generation were affect- ed. the wisconsin family was originally described in , and all affected members had intellectual disability, persistent frontal lobe reflexes, tremor, rigidity, and parkinsonian pos- tural abnormalities [ ]. seizures, strabismus, and macrocephaly occurred in some members. by linkage analy- sis, the genetic locus of the disorder in the wisconsin family had been narrowed down to the distal long arm of the x chromosome [ ], where rab b is located. mutations in rab b had already in been identified in (other) families with x-linked intellectual disability associ- ated with autism, epilepsy, and macrocephaly: in one large kindred (designated mrx ) from sardinia, italy, eight male members displayed moderate to severe intellectual disability and global delay of all psychomotor development, three of whom had seizures and one an autism spectrum disorder [ ]. affected members had previously been reported to carry an intronic mutation, c. + g>a, in a ′ splice site of rab b that affects normal splicing and disrupts protein bio- synthesis [ ]. a second family (named fam. x, or d- ) carried rab b c. c>a (p.y x) mutations that introduce an early stop codon [ ]; six members in two generation had mild to severe intellectual disability and macrocephaly, two of which had autism, and four had short stature [ ]. interestingly, duplications and triplications of rab b lead to intellectual disability and behavioral disturbances; these mutations have been described in children, some of whom also had mild motor symptoms or reached milestones of motor development late [ , ]. however, no parkinsonian features were reported from any of these families. additional individuals and families with rab b and parkinsonism have been described: rab b c. g>a (p.g r) mutations co-segregated with disease in a large us family of european origin [ ], compatible with x- linked dominant inheritance. seven affected members had parkinsonism with symptoms developing between and years in five males and at and in two females. heterozygous mutations were found in females who were clinically unaffected, seen as evidence for incomplete pene- trance and later disease onset in female compared to male mutation carriers. mild lifelong intellectual disability was doc- umented for two of the affected members, but not for the other; however, the article refrains from describing the methods for clinical assessment, and mostly typical pd motor manifestations are described. based on the published informa- tion, it cannot be excluded with certainty that more detailed investigations for non-motor signs, or psychological assess- ment, would have revealed intellectual disabilities in these patients as well. rab b c. dupa (p.e fsx ) was identified in a small chinese family with two male patients who had learning difficulty from childhood and mild intellectual disability [ ]. both developed tremor and rigidity at age and years, progressing to moderate or severe pd by ages and years. levodopa treatment had a mild effect on the younger patient but not the older one. the older individual had severe cogni- tive decline at age . both patients showed calcifications of the globus pallidus in ct. rab b mutations have also been found in additional sin- gle individuals [ , ]. detailed clinical information is pro- vided on one french patient with rab b c. g>a (p.w x) who had mild intellectual disability, requiring sheltered employment, and who developed asymmetric trem- or at rest and akinetic-rigid parkinsonism at age years. by age , he had developed motor fluctuations, dyskinesia, and dystonia, and dysthymia with impulsiveness to a degree that he was considered unsuitable for dbs surgery [ ]. thus, rab b mutations are a well-established cause for intellectual disability, and parkinsonism, with alpha- synuclein-positive pathology, was observed in some of these patients. the rab b mutations described in patients who devel- oped parkinsonism are loss-of-function mutations. rab b belongs to the rab gtpase superfamily of proteins that regu- late vesicular trafficking. rab b is present in high amounts in neurons where it also appears to be involved in the vesicular page of curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : recycling pathways between the synaptic cell membrane, endosomes, and the trans-golgi network. furthermore, rab b may have a role in maintaining intraneuronal alpha-synuclein homeostasis [ ••, , ]. dnajc in , edvardson et al. described a homozygous intronic c. - a>g mutation in the dnajc gene that affects nor- mal splicing, in two affected siblings of a palestinian family [ •]. the two patients had normal early development, but signs of childhood-onset parkinsonism were noted at the age of and years. both patients soon developed severe and debilitating disease with pronounced bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability, and rest tremor, and both were unable to walk at age and years. pharmacological treatment at- tempts were made with several types of dopaminergic medi- cation but did not improve symptoms. hypometric saccades were noted in one of the patients. subsequently, the truncating mutation c. c>t (p.q x) was found in four affected members of a consan- guineous turkish kindred [ ]. these individuals had a severe disease with mild to moderate intellectual disability, seizures (in three individuals), parkinsonism, and pyramidal signs. age at onset was to years, and all four patients became wheelchair bound or bedridden in their s. motor symptoms included resting and postural tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and intermittent dystonia. levodopa ( . mg) had good ef- fect on these symptoms but caused severe motor and psychi- atric side effects. a patient who underwent mri scanning in his s had diffuse brain atrophy. two patients each had sco- liosis and myoclonus [ ]. by sequencing the dnajc gene in patients with early- onset pd, olgiati et al. discovered three patients with double mutations in this gene [ ••]. two of them had familial dis- ease, and analysis of affected and unaffected family members showed complete co-segregation. moreover, homozygosity analysis and whole-exome sequencing supported the conten- tion that the dnajc mutations were disease-causing. one dutch family carried dnajc c. a>g (p.r g) muta- tions, and one brazilian family the c. a>t mutation that is not predicted to cause any amino acid change, but there was good evidence that it may affect splicing. patients developed hand tremor and/or motor slowness at ages between and years. bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability en- sued in all four, and rest tremor in three of them. the disease progressed, motor fluctuations developed, and the oldest pa- tient was bound to a wheelchair at years of age. all had good effect of levodopa, but three of the patients developed levodopa-induced hallucinations. in contrast to most of the previously described patients with dnajc mutations, no intellectual disability was noted. however, one patient required neuroleptic treatment at age because of psychosis, and parkinsonism developed at this age as a side effect [ ••]. in one patient of sudanese family with yemeni origin, a homozygous dnajc c. c>t (p.q *) was found; there were no additional affected family members, but the four unaffected members examined genetically did not share the same genotype [ ]. the patient started to have terrifying visual hallucinations at age . years, followed by rapidly deteriorating cognition and motor function. severe rigidity and resting tremor developed, as well as pyramidal signs, and the patient started to have epileptic seizures, and addition- al psychotic features. motor function also deteriorated rapidly; at age . , the patient was almost entirely akinetic. dnajc is thus a well-established cause of parkinsonism with childhood onset, often associated with cognitive or psy- chiatric symptoms. however, a genotype-phenotype effect has been observed where mutations that have a large impact on protein function lead to very severe, early-onset disease, and mutations that affect protein function more mildly cause adult early-onset pd with few, or no, additional signs and symp- toms [ ••, ]. vps c also in , lesage et al. reported three apparently sporadic patients with mutations in vps c [ ••]. the first mutation, homozygous c. + t>g, was identified in a turkish pa- tient by homozygosity linkage mapping and exome sequenc- ing of consanguineous families with early-onset parkinsonism. two additional patients from france were com- pound heterozygous for mutations in vps c, c. _ inscaga/c. g>t (p.r sfs* /p.e *), and c. g>c/c. delc (p.g r/p.q kfs* ). the patients all had a relatively similar clinical presentation with an asymmetric akinetic rigid syndrome starting at , , and before years of age. there was initial or partial effect of levodopa treatment, and two of the patients developed motor fluctuations or dyskinesias. however, progression was rapid and severe. all three patients developed severe and early cog- nitive dysfunction; two each had dysautonomia or limb dys- tonia. all patients were bedridden at , , and years of age, and two developed dysphagia. all three had pyramidal signs or symptoms with hyperreflexia, limb atrophy, or spastic tetraplegia. mri of the homozygous patients showed asym- metric cerebral atrophy. neuropathology of one of the patients who died after a -year disease duration revealed mild frontal atrophy, and widespread and abundant alpha-synuclein- positive lewy bodies and neurites, resembling diffuse lewy body disease. in addition, there was widespread tau-pathology with neurofibrillary tangles. the mutations have been shown to alter mitochondrial function and pink /parkin-dependent mitophagy, and to upregulate the response of parkin to mito- chondrial damage [ ••]. curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : page of podxl in an indian family with three affected siblings from the state of uttar pradesh, sudhaman et al. recently identified a homo- zygous frameshift podxl c. _ insgtcgcccc that re- sults in complete loss of podxl protein [ ]. patients devel- oped levodopa-responsive parkinsonism at – years of age, developed dyskinesia and off-dystonia, and showed no obvious additional signs. five additional unaffected siblings as well as the unaffected, consanguineous parents were either heterozygous or did not carry the mutation, which was shown to influence neuronal branching. confirmation of these find- ings in independent patients and families is awaited. ptrhd two independent reports from iran have linked ptrhd (c orf ) to recessive parkinsonism. khodadadi et al. de- tected homozygous ptrhd c. c>t (p.h y) mutations in two siblings with intellectual disability and motor abnor- malities from childhood, who developed muscle stiffness, resting and postural tremor, and anxiety, hypersomnia, and hypersexuality [ ••]. parkinsonism developed as a relatively late part of that syndrome in the late s to s and was improved by levodopa in daily doses of to mg. jaberi et al. described a second family with two brothers who had a similar clinical presentation [ ]. the patients had developed gait disturbance, slowness of movements, tremor, and falls in the mid- s. neurological examination yielded parkinsonian signs but also distal muscular atrophy and weakness, hyperreflexia and positive babinski sign, and evidence for axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathy. one of the patients had severe intellectual disability, the other one atten- tion deficits, difficulty concentrations, and perseveration of speech. genetic analyses of the second family identified two possible disease causes: one was a mutation in adora , and the other one c. g>a (p.c y) in ptrhd . jaberi et al. attributed the disorder to adora , but khodadadi et al. sub- sequently considered the mutations in ptrhd , affecting the same protein domain and present in both families with similar clinical pictures, as the true cause of the disease also in the family described by jaberi et al. microdeletions of the locus including the ptrhd gene are known causes of syndromes with intellectual disability [ ••]. further confirmation in ad- ditional families is desirable. conclusion a large body of work has nominated several new genes for dominant, recessive, and x-linked pd or parkinsonism during recent years, and high-throughput technologies such as exome sequencing will continue to suggest new genetic causes in the near future. some of the genes have been connected to pd or parkinsonism by a solid body of evidence with observations of the mutation’s co-segregation with clinically similar disease subtype in more than one family. other, more recently identi- fied or rarer mutations await confirmation. there have been instances where initially suggested genes turned out to be— most probably—not pathogenic after subsequent studies, in- cluding the diverging observations on eif g mutations in pd patients and healthy subjects [ , ], as well as the initial identification of adora as disease-causing mutations [ ] in a family who also have ptrhd mutations, and there is ongoing uncertainty on the truly pathogenic variant in the large canadian mennonite kindred discussed above, where dnajc and tmem mutations have been postulated to be disease-causing [ ••, ••]. clinicians need to be aware of possible uncertainties in our present knowledge on these new- ly discovered genetic entities when providing genetic counsel- ing to patients and families with monogenic forms of pd or parkinsonism. several of the genes discussed above do not cause pd but syndromes with parkinsonism and other characteristic signs. despite the addition of these newly identified genes to our lists of pd genes, the majority of cases of familial aggrega- tion of pd remain unexplained, and the search for a mono- genic cause for pd in many such families has not been fruitful despite large effort [ ]. alternative explanations may include digenic or oligogenic inheritance, where two or a few genetic variants have a pathogenic effect when they occur together in individuals and some of their relatives [ , ••]. such variants need not be extremely rare, and may have an intermediate effect size, so that they by themselves do not cause disease, but will be pathogenic in combination with other genetic variants. they may be in newly discov- ered genes or in genes that also harbor disease-causing mu- tations, such as the pink p.g s variants for whom we and others recently have shown that they markedly increase pd risk, but are not per se disease-causing in all carriers [ – ]. one example of an interaction between two genetic variants has recently been identified, whereby genetic varia- tion in dnm modifies the effect of the common lrrk p.g s mutations [ ]. research networks with exome or whole-genome data from a large number of patients can be predicted to identify many additional similar variants and complex gene-gene interactions, gradually filling the gap of “missing heritability” in idiopathic pd. compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest andreas puschmann declares no conflict of interest. human and animal rights and informed consent this article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors. page of curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • of importance •• of major importance . bonifati v. genetics of parkinson’s disease—state of the art, . parkinsonism relat disord. ; (suppl ):s – . . puschmann a. monogenic parkinson’s disease and parkinsonism: clinical phenotypes and frequencies of known mutations. parkinsonism relat disord. ; ( ): – . . singleton ab, farrer mj, bonifati v. the genetics of parkinson’s disease: progress and therapeutic implications. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . puschmann a, wszolek z. genotype-phenotype correlations in parkinson disease. in: ledoux ms, editor. movement disorders: genetics and models. ed. elsevier; . . lill cm. genetics of parkinson’s disease. mol cell probes. ; ( ): – . . ferreira m, massano j. an updated review of parkinson’s disease genetics and clinicopathological correlations. acta neurol scand. ; ( ): – . .•• vilarino-guell c, rajput a, milnerwood aj, shah b, szu-tu c, trinh j, et al. dnajc mutations in parkinson disease. hum mol genet. ; ( ): – . in this article, vilariño-güell et al. describe the first discovery of variants in dnajc as causes of pd. . gustavsson ek, trinh j, guella i, vilarino-guell c, appel- cresswell s, stoessl aj, et al. dnajc genetic variants in par- kinsonism. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . foo jn, liany h, tan lc, au wl, prakash km, liu j, et al. dnaj mutations are rare in chinese parkinson’s disease patients and con- trols. neurobiol aging. ; ( ): .e – . . lorenzo-betancor o, ogaki k, soto-ortolaza ai, labbe c, walton rl, strongosky aj, et al. dnajc p.asn ser mutation screen- ing in parkinson’s disease and pathologically confirmed lewy body disease patients. eur j neurol. ; ( ): – . . ross jp, dupre n, dauvilliers y, strong s, ambalavanan a, spiegelman d, et al. analysis of dnajc mutations in french- canadian/french cohort of parkinson's disease. neurobiol aging. ; : .e – . . appel-cresswell s, rajput ah, sossi v, thompson c, silva v, mckenzie j, et al. clinical, positron emission tomography, and pathological studies of dnajc p.n s parkinsonism. mov disord. ; ( ): – . .•• funayama m, ohe k, amo t, furuya n, yamaguchi j, saiki s, et al. chchd mutations in autosomal dominant late-onset parkinson’s disease: a genome-wide linkage and sequencing study. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . this paper describes funayama et al.’s discovery of chchd mutations as the cause for dominant pd, and, in one patient, tremor only. . shi ch, mao cy, zhang sy, yang j, song b, wu p, et al. chchd gene mutations in familial and sporadic parkinson’s disease. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . mao cy, wu p, zhang sy, yang j, liu yt, zuo ct, et al. brain glucose metabolism changes in parkinson’s disease patients with chchd mutation based on ( )f-fdg pet imaging. j neurol sci. ; : – . . koschmidder e, weissbach a, bruggemann n, kasten m, klein c, lohmann k. a nonsense mutation in chchd in a patient with parkinson disease. neurology. ; ( ): – . . jansen ie, bras jm, lesage s, schulte c, gibbs jr, nalls ma, et al. chchd and parkinson’s disease. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . . ogaki k, koga s, heckman mg, fiesel fc, ando m, labbe c, et al. mitochondrial targeting sequence variants of the chchd gene are a risk for lewy body disorders. neurology. ; ( ): – . . foo jn, liu j, tan ek. chchd and parkinson’s disease. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . . gagliardi m, iannello g, colica c, annesi g, quattrone a. analysis of chchd gene in familial parkinson’s disease from calabria. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . puschmann a, dickson dw, englund e, wszolek zk, ross oa. chchd and parkinson’s disease. lancet neurol. ; ( ): . . gao c, chen ym, sun q, he yc, huang p, wang t, et al. mutation analysis of chchd gene in chinese han familial essential tremor patients and familial parkinson’s disease patients. neurobiol aging. ; : e –e . . tejera-parrado c, jesus s, huertas-fernandez i, bernal-bernal i, bonilla-toribio m, cordoba-tevar i, et al. genetic analysis of chchd in a southern spanish population. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . zhang m, xi z, fang s, ghani m, sato c, moreno d, et al. mutation analysis of chchd in canadian patients with familial parkinson’s disease. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . rubino e, brusa l, zhang m, boschi s, govone f, vacca a, et al. genetic analysis of chchd and chchd in italian patients with parkinson’s disease. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . sudhaman s, muthane ub, behari m, govindappa st, juyal rc, thelma bk. evidence of mutations in ric acetylcholine receptor chaperone as a novel cause of autosomal-dominant parkinson’s disease with non-motor phenotypes. j med genet. ; ( ): – . . ross jp, dupre n, dauvilliers y, strong s, dionne-laporte a, dion pa, et al. ric variants are not associated with parkinson’s disease in french-canadians and french. neurobiol aging. ; : e –e . .•• deng hx, shi y, yang y, ahmeti kb, miller n, huang c, et al. identification of tmem mutations in familial parkinson’s dis- ease. nat genet. ; ( ): – . in this article, deng et al. provide their results on the analysis of the same canadian mennonite kindred where vilariño-güell et al. previously found mutations in dnajc to be causative. . mandemakers w, quadri m, stamelou m, bonifati v. tmem : how does it fit in the etiology and pathogenesis of parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; doi: . /mds. . . giri a, mok ky, jansen i, sharma m, tesson c, mangone g, et al. lack of evidence for a role of genetic variation in tmem in the risk for parkinson’s disease in the caucasian population. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . yan w, tang b, zhou x, lei l, li k, sun q, et al. tmem mutation analysis in parkinson’s disease in a chinese population. neurobiol aging. ; : e – . . quadri m, breedveld gj, chang hc, yeh th, guedes lc, toni v, et al. mutations in tmem are not a common cause of parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . shi ch, li f, shi mm, yang zh, mao cy, zhang sy, et al. genetic analysis of the tmem gene in chinese han patients with parkinson’s disease. sci rep. ; ( ): . curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : page of http://dx.doi.org/ . /mds. . yang x, an r, xi j, zheng j, chen y, huang h, et al. sequencing tmem in chinese patients with sporadic or familial parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . wu h, zheng x, cen z, xie f, chen y, lu x, et al. genetic analysis of the tmem gene in chinese patients with familial parkinson disease. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . baumann h, wolff s, munchau a, hagenah jm, lohmann k, klein c. evaluating the role of tmem variants in parkinson’s disease. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . he yc, huang p, li qq, sun q, li dh, wang t, et al. tmem stop codon mutation is rare in parkinson’s disease and essential tremor in eastern china. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . ibanez l, dube u, budde j, black k, medvedeva a, davis aa, et al. tmem in parkinson’s disease. neurobiol aging. ; doi: . /j.neurobiolaging. . . . . buongarzone g, monfrini e, franco g, trezzi i, borellini l, frattini e, et al. mutations in tmem are rare in autosomal dominant parkinson’s disease. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . mcdonald-mcginn dm, sullivan ke, marino b, philip n, swillen a, vorstman ja, et al. q . deletion syndrome. nat rev dis primers. ; : . . krahn le, maraganore dm, michels vv. childhood-onset schizo- phrenia associated with parkinsonism in a patient with a microdeletion of chromosome . mayo clin proc. ; ( ): – . . zaleski c, bassett as, tam k, shugar al, chow ew, mcpherson e. the co-occurrence of early onset parkinson disease and q . deletion syndrome. am j med genet a. ; a( ): – . . booij j, van amelsvoort t, boot e. co-occurrence of early-onset parkinson disease and q . deletion syndrome: potential role for dopamine transporter imaging. am j med genet a. ; a( ): – . . butcher nj, kiehl tr, hazrati ln, chow ew, rogaeva e, lang ae, et al. association between early-onset parkinson disease and q . deletion syndrome: identification of a novel genetic form of parkinson disease and its clinical implications. jama neurol. ; ( ): – . . rehman af, dhamija r, williams es, barrett mj. q . deletion syndrome presenting with early-onset parkinson’s disease. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . boot e, butcher nj, van amelsvoort ta, lang ae, marras c, pondal m, et al. movement disorders and other motor abnormalities in adults with q . deletion syndrome. am j med genet a. ; a( ): – . . foo jn, lee j, tan lc, liu j, tan ek. large -mb deletions at q . locus in parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . oki m, hori s, asayama s, wate r, kaneko s, kusaka h. early- onset parkinson’s disease associated with chromosome q . deletion syndrome. intern med. ; ( ): – . . pollard r, hannan m, tanabe j, berman bd. early-onset parkinson disease leading to diagnosis of q . deletion syn- drome. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . mok ky, sheerin u, simon-sanchez j, salaka a, chester l, escott- price v, et al. deletions at q . in idiopathic parkinson’s dis- ease: a combined analysis of genome-wide association data. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . . ogaki k, ross oa. chromosome q . deletion may contain a locus for recessive early-onset parkinson’s disease. parkinsonism relat disord. ; ( ): – . .•• quadri m, fang m, picillo m, olgiati s, breedveld gj, graafland j, et al. mutation in the synj gene associated with autosomal reces- sive, early-onset parkinsonism. hum mutat. ; ( ): – . in these two papers, published back-to-back, quadri et al. and krebs et al. provide independent evidence that mutations in synj cause a neurological syndrome with parkinsonism, dys- tonia, cognitive decline, and seizures. .•• krebs ce, karkheiran s, powell jc, cao m, makarov v, darvish h, et al. the sac domain of synj identified mutated in a family with early-onset progressive parkinsonism with generalized sei- zures. hum mutat. ; ( ): – . in these two papers, pub- lished back-to-back, quadri et al. and krebs et al. provide in- dependent evidence that mutations in synj cause a neurolog- ical syndrome with parkinsonism, dystonia, cognitive decline, and seizures. . picillo m, ranieri a, orefice g, bonifati v, barone p. clinical progression of synj -related early onset atypical parkinsonism: -year follow up of the original italian family. j neurol. ; ( ): – . . olgiati s, de rosa a, quadri m, criscuolo c, breedveld gj, picillo m, et al. park caused by synj homozygous arg gln mu- tation in a new italian family. neurogenetics. ; ( ): – . . de rosa a, pellegrino t, pappata s, lieto m, bonifati v, palma v, et al. non-motor symptoms and cardiac innervation in synj - related parkinsonism. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . kirola l, behari m, shishir c, thelma bk. identification of a novel homozygous mutation arg pro in synj gene of an indian family with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism. parkinsonism relat disord. ; : – . . rauschendorf ma, jost m, stock f, zimmer a, rosler b, rijntjes m, et al. novel compound heterozygous synaptojanin- mutation causes l-dopa-responsive dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . dyment da, smith ac, humphreys p, schwartzentruber j, beaulieu cl, bulman de, et al. homozygous nonsense mutation in synj associated with intractable epilepsy and tau pathology. neurobiol aging. ; ( ): .e – . . hardies k, cai y, jardel c, jansen ac, cao m, may p, et al. loss of synj dual phosphatase activity leads to early onset refractory seizures and progressive neurological decline. brain. ; (pt ): – . . taghavi s, chaouni r, tafakhori a, azcona lj, firouzabadi sg, omrani md, et al. a clinical and molecular genetic study of families with autosomal recessive parkinsonism revealed known and novel gene mutations. mol neurobiol. ; doi: . / s - - - . .•• wilson gr, sim jc, mclean c, giannandrea m, galea ca, riseley jr, et al. mutations in rab b cause x-linked intellectual disability and early-onset parkinson disease with alpha-synuclein pathology. am j hum genet. ; ( ): – . this paper de- scribes the identification of rab b mutations as the cause for x-linked parkinsonism with severe intellectual disability. . dickson dw, braak h, duda je, duyckaerts c, gasser t, halliday gm, et al. neuropathological assessment of parkinson’s disease: refining the diagnostic criteria. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . . puschmann a, bhidayasiri r, weiner wj. synucleinopathies from bench to bedside. parkinsonism relat disord. ; (suppl ): s – . . laxova r, brown es, hogan k, hecox k, opitz jm. an x-linked recessive basal ganglia disorder with mental retardation. am j med genet. ; ( ): – . . gregg rg, metzenberg ab, hogan k, sekhon g, laxova r. waisman syndrome, a human x-linked recessive basal ganglia dis- order with mental retardation: localization to xq . -qter. genomics. ; ( ): – . . russo s, cogliati f, cavalleri f, cassitto mg, giglioli r, toniolo d, et al. mapping to distal xq of nonspecific x-linked mental retardation mrx : linkage analysis and clinical findings in a three-generation sardinian family. am j med genet. ; ( ): – . page of curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.neurobiolaging. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - . giannandrea m, bianchi v, mignogna ml, sirri a, carrabino s, d'elia e, et al. mutations in the small gtpase gene rab b are responsible for x-linked mental retardation associated with autism, epilepsy, and macrocephaly. am j hum genet. ; ( ): – . . el-hattab aw, fang p, jin w, hughes jr, gibson jb, patel gs, et al. int h- /int h- -mediated xq rearrangements: intellectual disability associated with duplications and in utero male lethality with deletions. j med genet. ; ( ): – . . vanmarsenille l, giannandrea m, fieremans n, verbeeck j, belet s, raynaud m, et al. increased dosage of rab b affects neuronal development and could explain the cognitive impairment in male patients with distal xq copy number gains. hum mutat. ; ( ): – . . mata if, jang y, kim ch, hanna ds, dorschner mo, samii a, et al. the rab b p.g r mutation causes x-linked dominant parkinson’s disease. mol neurodegener. ; : . . shi ch, zhang sy, yang zh, yang j, shang dd, mao cy, et al. a novel rab b gene mutation in x-linked juvenile parkinsonism with basal ganglia calcification. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . lesage s, bras j, cormier-dequaire f, condroyer c, nicolas a, darwent l, et al. loss-of-function mutations in rab b are asso- ciated with typical early-onset parkinson disease. neurol genet. ; ( ):e . .• edvardson s, cinnamon y, ta-shma a, shaag a, yim yi, zenvirt s, et al. a deleterious mutation in dnajc encoding the neuronal- specific clathrin-uncoating co-chaperone auxilin, is associated with juvenile parkinsonism. plos one. ; ( ):e . edvarson et al. provide the first description of dnajc mutations in two siblings with very severe childhood-onset parkinsonism. . koroglu c, baysal l, cetinkaya m, karasoy h, tolun a. dnajc is responsible for juvenile parkinsonism with phenotypic variabili- ty. parkinsonism relat disord. ; ( ): – . .•• olgiati s, quadri m, fang m, rood jp, saute ja, chien hf, et al. dnajc mutations associated with early-onset parkinson’s dis- ease. ann neurol. ; ( ): – . in this report, olgiati et al. have identified dnajc variants in patients with early- onset pd without prominent additional neurological signs or symptoms. . elsayed le, drouet v, usenko t, mohammed in, hamed aa, elseed ma, et al. a novel nonsense mutation in dnajc expands the phenotype of autosomal-recessive juvenile-onset parkinson’s disease. ann neurol. ; ( ): – . . olgiati s, quadri m, mandemakers w, bonifati v. reply. ann neurol. ; ( ): – . .•• lesage s, drouet v, majounie e, deramecourt v, jacoupy m, nicolas a, et al. loss of vps c function in autosomal-recessive parkinsonism causes mitochondrial dysfunction and increases pink /parkin-dependent mitophagy. am j hum genet. ; ( ): – . lesage et al. used an interesting approach, selecting patients with early-onset pd from consanguineous parents, and also provide functional evidence for the pathoge- nicity of vps c mutations. . sudhaman s, prasad k, behari m, muthane ub, juyal rc, thelma bk. discovery of a frameshift mutation in podocalyxin-like (podxl) gene, coding for a neural adhesion molecule, as causal for autosomal-recessive juvenile parkinsonism. j med genet. ; ( ): – . .•• khodadadi h, azcona lj, aghamollaii v, omrani md, garshasbi m, taghavi s, et al. ptrhd (c orf ) mutations lead to autosomal-recessive intellectual disability and parkinsonism. mov disord. ; ( ): – . khodadadi et al. report ptrhd mutations from one iranian family and correctly relate to jaberi et al.’s previous report on a family with similar phenotype. . jaberi e, rohani m, shahidi ga, nafissi s, arefian e, soleimani m, et al. mutation in adora identified as likely cause of early- onset parkinsonism and cognitive dysfunction. mov disord. ; ( ): – . . puschmann a, pfeiffer rf, stoessl aj, kuriakose r, lash jl, searcy ja, et al. a family with parkinsonism, essential tremor, restless legs syndrome, and depression. neurology. ; ( ): – . . hill-burns em, ross oa, wissemann wt, soto-ortolaza ai, zareparsi s, siuda j, et al. identification of genetic modifiers of age-at-onset for familial parkinson’s disease. hum mol genet. ; ( ): – . .•• lubbe sj, escott-price v, gibbs jr, nalls ma, bras j, price tr, et al. additional rare variant analysis in parkinson’s disease cases with and without known pathogenic mutations: evidence for oligogenic inheritance. hum mol genet. ; doi: . /hmg/ ddw . lubbe et al. used data from exome sequencing and neurox analyses from pd cases to study possible oligogenic mechanisms in pd. . gan-or z, ruskey ja, spiegelman d, arnulf i, dauvilliers y, hogl b, et al. heterozygous pink p.g s in rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder. brain. ; ( ):e . . puschmann a, fiesel fc, caulfield tr, hudec r, ando m, truban d, et al. heterozygous pink p.g s increases risk of parkinson’s disease via a dominant-negative mechanism. brain. ; (pt ): – . . puschmann a, fiesel fc, caulfield tr, hudec r, ando m, truban d, et al. reply: heterozygous pink p.g s in rapid eye move- ment sleep behaviour disorder. brain. ; ( ):e . . trinh j, gustavsson ek, vilarino-guell c, bortnick s, latourelle j, mckenzie mb, et al. dnm and genetic modifiers of age of onset in lrrk gly ser parkinsonism: a genome-wide linkage and association study. lancet neurol. ; ( ): – . curr neurol neurosci rep ( ) : page of http://dx.doi.org/ . /hmg/ddw http://dx.doi.org/ . /hmg/ddw 	new genes causing hereditary parkinson’s disease or parkinsonism 	abstract 	abstract 	abstract 	abstract 	introduction 	new genes for dominant pd 	dnajc 	chchd 	ric 	tmem 	new genes for recessive and x-linked pd or parkinsonism 	 q . deletion syndrome 	synj 	rab b 	dnajc 	vps c 	podxl 	ptrhd 	conclusion 	references 	papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • of importance •• of major importance chh volume issue cover and front matter r £ y . au<vost n. suelflgw c mum a v t . s t . l o u i s , wit cm church history published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for winthrop s. hudson _ president raymond w. albright ..._ _ secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer peter stiansen assistant secretary matthew spinka chairman of the editorial board other members of the council e. r. hardy,, jr. ernest g. schwieeert harold s. bender sandford fleming percy v. norwood james hastings nichols kenneth s. latouhette massey h. shepherd cyril c. richardson sidney e. mead editorial board of church history matthew spinka, managing editor winthrop s. hudson ray c. petry james hastings nichols robert hastings nichols, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, elizabeth st., hartford , conn. church history is a quarterly journal published in march, june, septem- ber, december by the american society of church history. the subscrip- tion price is three dollars per year. the price of single copies is seventy-five cents. to foreign countries, twenty-five cents a year should be added. sub- scriptions should be sent to professor matthew spinka, elizabeth street, hartford , conn., or to professor robert hastings nichols, claremont ave., new york , n. y. remittances should be made to the order of amer- ican society of church history. all communications regarding contributions, book reviews, and all other matters of editorial nature should be sent to professor matthew spinka, elizabeth st., hartford , conn. claims for missing numbers and changes of address should be addressed to prof. r. h. nichols, claremont ave., new york , n. y. entered as second class matter march , , at the post office at berne, ind., under the acts of march , . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka winthrop s. hudson ray c petry james hastings nichols robert hastings nichols volume xvii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews abrams, ray h., ed., organized religion in the united states - addison, william, the english country parson _..-. - aulen, gustaf, church, law and society ..._ — - bainton, b. h., tr., the martin luther christmas boole _ barnes, ernest william, the sise of christianity _ - bartos, f . m., cechy v dobs husovi, - _ berdyaev, nicolas, the russian idea - bettenson, henry, ed., documents of the christian church _ - bishop, claire huchet, france alive _ - - blegen, theodore c , grass soots bistory - brearley, mary, hugo gurgeny, prisoner of the lisbon inquisition - brydon, george maelaren, virginia's mother church and the political conditions under which it grew _ - bryson, lyman; finkelstein, louis; maclver e. m.; eds., conflicts of power in modern culture - _ - caillet, emile and blankenagel john c , trs., great shorter works of pascal - chorley, e. c. lowes, quarter of a millennium: trinity church in the city of new york, - - coulter, e. merton, the south during reconstruction - danniel, benjamin, jesus, jews and gentiles . . - dodge, guy howard, the political theory of the huguenots of the dispersion - drury, c. m., united states navy chaplains, - $ „ - dunham, james h., the religion of philosophers ...„ - duus, olaus f . (ed. blegen t. c.) frontier parsonage - eckardt, a. boy, christianity and the children of israel _ - fedotov, g. p., ed., a treasury of russian spirituality _. - ferm, vergilius, ed., religion m the twentieth century „ - frankfort, henri, kingship and the gods; a study of ancient near eastern religion as the integration of society and nature - froom, leboy edwin, the prophetic faith of our fathers, ii - gabriel, brother angelus, f . . c, the christian brothers in the united states, - _ _ - galeotto marzio da narni (ed. mario frezza), quel che i piu, non sanno (de incognitis v-ulgo) _ - goodman, abram voosen, american overture: jewish rights in colonial times — — ~ - grant, bobert m., the bible in the church _ - green, evarts b., church and state _ hardy, e. b., ed., orthodox statements on anglican orders _ - haselmayer, louis a., lambeth and unity „ - hopf, constantin, martin bucer and the english reformation - hrejsa, ferdinand, dijiny kfestanstvi v ceskoslovensjcu ..._ _... - hyma, albert, albertus v. van raalte, and his dutch settlements in the united states _ - _ „ - johnson, f . ernest, ed., wellsprings of the american spirit - jones, charles w., saints' lives and chronicles in early england - kelly, j. frederick, early connecticut meetinghouses, vols core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews kemp, charles f., a pastoral triumph; the story of riehard baxter and sis ministry at kidderminster - klingberg, frank j., a free church in a free state - law, william, a serious call to a devout and holy life ~ lefebvre, georges, the coming of the french revolution - lloyd, eoger, the church of england in the twentieth century, i - maciver, e. m., ed., unity and difference in american life - mcneill, john t., boojcs of faith and power - middleton, e. d., newman and bloxam: an oxford friendship - millman, thomas e., jacob mountain, first lord bishop of quebec - nettl, paul, luther and music _ - parsons, wilfried, s. j., the first freedom - pepper, george wharton, an analytical index to the book of common prayer pfeffermann, hans, die zusammenarbeit der renaissance papste mit den tiirken - pope, liston and others, labor's relation to church and community bice, anna v., a history of the world's young women's christian association ...... . ....................... . ............. ................. - eickert, edith, et at, chaucer's world .... _ _ ~.~ - eightmyer, nelson waite, the anglican church in delaware - eogers, elizabeth frances, ed., the correspondence of sir thomas more - eommen, h. a., the natural law - both, cecil, the house of nasi: dona grada - eupp, e. g., studies in the making of the english protestant tradition - sargent, daniel, thomas more _ schmitz, eobert morrell, hugh blair -. schweitzer, albert, the psychiatric study of jesus smith, wilbur m., dwight lyman moody: an annotated bibliography srawley, j . h., the early history of the liturgy _.. - starr, edward c , a baptist bibliography: section a. ...„ - sweet, william warren, the american churches—an interpretation - thompson, a. h., the english clergy and their organization in the late middle ages _.._ „ - tillich, paul, the protestant era - toynbee, arnold j., civilization on trial - vidler, alec e., witness to the light: f. d. maurice's message for today - wallace, william parker, the papacy and european diplomacy: - - watters, a. c , history of the british churches of christ - weaver, biehard m., ideas have consequences wenger, john c, glimpses of mennonite history and doctrine - wieand, albert cassall, gospel records of the message and mission of jesus christ wieand, david j., ed., the church today and tomorrow - willoughby, h. e., ed., the study of the bible today and tomorrow - wolf son, harry austryn, philo: foundations of religious philosophy in judaism, christianity and islam - zabriskie, alexander c , bishop brent: crusader for christian unity - zieglschmid, a. j. f., ed., das klein-geschichtsbuch der hutterischen bruder „ _ _. - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial boabd matthew spinka, managing editor wintbrop s. hudson r a y c. petry j a m e s hastings nichols robert hastings nichols, ex officio vol. xvii december, no. contents of previous issues of church history may be found by con- sulting the international index to periodicals in your library. table of contents t h e significance of isaac w a t t s i n t h e development of hymnody kenneth h. cousland from seeker to f i n d e r : a study i n seven- teenth century e n g l i s h spiritualism before t h e quakers george arthur johnson abraham kuyper and t h e r i s e of n e o - c a l - vinism i n t h e netherlands justus m. van der kroef book reviews : frankfort, henri : kingship and the gods douglas g. haring bettenson, henry, ed.: documents of the christian church robert hastings nichols thompson, a. h.: the english clergy and their organi- zation in the later middle ages james f. maclean nettl, paul (trs., f. best and r. wood): luther and music e. g. schwiebert bainton, r. h., tr.: the martin luther christmas book richard r. caemmerer sargent, daniel : thomas moore e. harris harbison core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents brearley, mary: hugo gurgeny, prisoner of the lisbon inquisition f. a. norwood kemp, charles f . : a pastoral triumph, the story of richard baxter and his ministry at kidder- minster j. minton batten. rommen, h. a. (tr. t. r. hanley) : the natural law james luther adams roth, cecil : the house of nasi: dona gracia .. frederic c. church schmitz, robert morrell : hugh blair .... ernest trice thompson kelly, j. frederick : early connecticut meeting- houses matthew spinkai wallace, lillian parker : the papacy and european diplomacy: - george h. williams vidler, alec r.: witness to the light: f. d. maurice's message for today c. howard hopkinsi waiters, a. c.: history of the british churches of christ howard elmo short lloyd, roger : the church of england in the twentieth century, vol. i roy w. battenhouse tillich, paul (tr. james l. adams): the protestant era albert c. outler abrams, ray h., ed.: organized religion in the united states charles t. thrift, jr. parsons, wilfrid, s. j.: the first freedom w. e. garrison dunham, james h.: the religion of philosophers .... george gordh drury, c. m., dir. (compiled by chaplains activity bureau, naval personnel): united states navy chaplains - fred w. neal eckardt, a. roy : christianity and the children of israel james r. branton danniel, benjamin : jesus, jews and gentiles .... james r. branton pepper, george wharton : an analytical index to the book of common prayer percy v. norwood toynbee, arnold j.: civilisation on trial k. s. latourette fedotov, g. p., ed.: a treasury of russian spirituality matthew spinka! a r t i c l e s on c h u r c h h i s t o r y from r e c e n t p e r i o d i c a l s compiled by d. j. heap and james h. nichols announcement concerning the brewer prize contest, and core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core immunization rejection in southern alberta: a comparison of the perspectives of mothers and health professionals. | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / corpus id: immunization rejection in southern alberta: a comparison of the perspectives of mothers and health professionals. @article{vandenberg immunizationri, title={immunization rejection in southern alberta: a comparison of the perspectives of mothers and health professionals.}, author={shannon y. vandenberg and j. kulig}, journal={the canadian journal of nursing research = revue canadienne de recherche en sciences infirmieres}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	shannon y. vandenberg, j. kulig 	published 	medicine 	the canadian journal of nursing research = revue canadienne de recherche en sciences infirmieres qualitative grounded theory was used to compare and contrast the understanding and decision-making process of non-immunizing mothers and health professionals' perceptions of these mothers' understanding and decision-making process. the sample comprised mothers with purposefully unimmunized children under the age of years and health professionals. semi-structured interviews were conducted and the data generated were analyzed using data immersion, memo-writing, and stages of coding. the… expand view on pubmed doi.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationshighly influential citations background citations view all topics from this paper 	decision making citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency parents' experiences and nurses' perceptions of decision-making about childhood immunization. 	sharolyn mossey, shelly hosman, p. montgomery, karen a. mccauley 	medicine 	the canadian journal of nursing research = revue canadienne de recherche en sciences infirmieres 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the factors that promote vaccine hesitancy, rejection, or delay in parents 	umair majid, m. ahmad 	psychology, medicine 	qualitative health research 	 	 	highly influenced 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed underlying factors impacting vaccine hesitancy in high income countries: a review of qualitative studies 	È. dubé, d. gagnon, n. macdonald, a. bocquier, p. peretti-watel, p. verger 	psychology, medicine 	expert review of vaccines 	 	 	view excerpt, cites background save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency refusals and delay of immunization within southwest alberta. understanding alternative beliefs and religious perspectives. 	j. kulig, c. meyer, s. hill, cathy e. handley, sue m. lichtenberger, sharon l. myck 	political science, medicine 	canadian journal of public health = revue canadienne de sante publique 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed refusals and delay of immunization within southwest alberta 	j. kulig, c. meyer, s. hill, cathy e. handley, sue m. lichtenberger, sharon l. myck 	psychology 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed parental beliefs and decision making about child and adolescent immunization: from polio to sexually transmitted infections 	l. sturm, r. mays, g. zimet 	medicine 	journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : jdbp 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed information on childhood immunisation: parents' views. 	h. bedford, m. lansley 	medicine 	community practitioner : the journal of the community practitioners' & health visitors' association 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed parents' difficulties with decisions about childhood immunisation. 	h. austin, c. campion-smith, s. thomas, w. ward 	psychology, medicine 	community practitioner : the journal of the community practitioners' & health visitors' association 	 	 save alert research feed immunization and the chiropractor-patient interaction: a western canadian study. 	s. page, m. russell, m. verhoef, h. injeyan 	medicine 	journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics 	 	 save alert research feed systematic review of qualitative studies exploring parental beliefs and attitudes toward childhood vaccination identifies common barriers to vaccination. 	e. mills, a. jadad, cory p ross, k. wilson 	medicine 	journal of clinical epidemiology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed beliefs and behaviours: understanding chiropractors and immunization. 	m. russell, h. injeyan, m. verhoef, m. eliasziw 	medicine 	vaccine 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed addressing parents’ concerns about childhood immunizations: a tutorial for primary care providers 	b. levi 	medicine 	pediatrics 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed personal and professional immunization behavior among alberta chiropractors: a secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data. 	e. medd, m. russell 	medicine 	journal of manipulative and physiological therapeutics 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue seventeen alpha-hydroxylase deficiency j formos med assoc | • vol • no -hydroxylase deficiency seventeen -hydroxylase deficiency ( ohd) is a rare form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in which defects in the biosynthesis of cortisol and sex steroid result in mineralocorticoid excess, hypokalemic hypertension and sexual abnormalities such as pseudohermaphroditism in males, and sexual infantilism in females. the disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, and is caused by mutations in the gene encoding cytochrome p c (cyp ), which is the single polypeptide that mediates both -hydroxylase and , -lyase activities. we report the case of a -year-old patient with ohd who had a female phenotype but male karyotype ( ,xy). the diagnosis was made based on classical clinical features, biochemical data and molecular genetic study. two mutations were identified by polymerase chain reaction amplification and sequencing, including a s p point mutation in exon and a -bp (gactctttc) deletion from nucleotide position in exon of cyp . the first of these mutations was found in the father and the second in the mother, and both have been previously reported in asia. the patient’s hypertension and hypokalemia resolved after glucocorticoid replacement and treatment with potassium-sparing diuretics. sex hormone replacement was prescribed for induction of sexual development and reduction of the final height. prophylactic gonadectomy was scheduled. in summary, ohd should be suspected in patients with hypokalemic hypertension and lack of secondary sexual development so that appropriate therapy can be implemented. [j formos med assoc ; ( ): – ] key words: -hydroxylase deficiency, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, hypertension, hypokalemia ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ department of pediatrics, taichung veterans general hospital, taichung, department of pediatrics, chia-yi christian hospital, chia-yi, and chung shan medical university, taichung, taiwan, r.o.c. received: august , revised: october , accepted: may , seventeen -hydroxylase deficiency ( ohd) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder with an esti- mated incidence of approximately in , in- dividuals. it was initially described in by biglieri et al in a genotypical female, whose con- dition was characterized by hypertension, hypoka- lemia and lack of puberty. in , new reported an affected genotypical male presenting with male pseudohermaphroditism. the disease affects both adrenal and gonadal glands. genetic mutations have been demonstrated in the gene encoding cytochrome p c (cyp ) on chromosome q -q , causing -hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency. , the consequent defects in the synthe- sis of cortisol and compensatory hypersecretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth) stimulate *correspondence to: dr. san-ging shu, department of pediatrics, taichung veterans general hospital, , chung kang road, section , taichung, taiwan, r.o.c. e-mail: ssgs@vghtc.gov.tw the synthesis of a large quantity of -deoxycorti- costerone (doc) and corticosterone by the zona fasciculata. high concentrations of doc, which is a potent mineralocorticoid, lead to hypertension, hypokalemia, a suppressed renin-angiotensin system, and low plasma aldosterone concentration. however, normal or high aldosterone levels have been reported in several cases. in gonads, the ab- sence of , -lyase activity prohibits the synthe- sis of androgens, which causes pseudohermaphro- ditism in males and sexual infantilism with pri- mary hypogonadism in females. to date, more than cases of ohd and nearly different mutations in cyp have been reported, although they are more prevalent in cer- tain ethnic groups, particularly in brazilians and case report seventeen alpha-hydroxylase deficiency siew-lee wong, , san-ging shu, , * chi-ren tsai © elsevier & formosan medical association j formos med assoc | • vol • no s.l. wong, et al male external genitalia with a normal hymen. breast and pubic hair development were tanner stage i. she was cm tall and weighed kg. her blood pressure was / mmhg at the first visit. laboratory evaluation (table) revealed hy- pokalemia ( . mmol/l) without alkalosis. plas- ma -hydroxyprogesterone ( . miu/ml; nor- mal range, . – . miu/ml) and cortisol ( . g/dl; normal range, a.m.: – g/dl, p.m.: half of a.m.) were decreased, and progesterone ( . ng/ml; normal range, < . ng/ml) was increased. plasma acth ( pg/ml; normal range, nd– pg/ml) was markedly elevated. plasma renin ac- tivity was normal, but aldosterone level ( pg/dl; normal range, . – pg/dl) was high. follicle stimulating hormone ( . miu/ml) and luteinizing hormone ( . miu/ml) were elevat- ed and at adult castrate levels. testosterone and estradiol levels were undetectable. pelvic ultrason- ogram revealed neither uterus nor ovaries, and testes were undetectable. karyotype analysis was ,xy. bone age was . years for males and adre- nal magnetic resonance imaging showed no abnor- mal findings. in order to identify genetic mutations, poly- merase chain reaction (pcr) amplification and japanese. , here, we describe the clinical, hor- monal and molecular genetic characteristics of a taiwanese patient with ohd. case report this -year-old patient was an apparently normal female born to non-consanguineous parents. she weighed kg when she was uneventfully delivered at full term, and had achieved normal develop- mental milestones. she had a history of hyper- tension, found incidentally during school screen- ing years previously, which did not respond to treatment with antihypertensive agent. there was no family history of chronic illness, including hypertension. the father and mother were cm and cm tall, respectively, and had normal pubertal and reproductive histories. she had an older sister with normal female phenotype and secondary sexual development with regular menstruation. the patient sought medical atten- tion for sexual infantilism and uncontrollable hypertension. meanwhile, she was depressed and suicidal as a result of her symptoms. on physical examination, she had normal fe- table. laboratory data before and after glucocorticoid replacement variable normal range months of treatment acth nd– pg/ml – . – aldosterone . – pg/dl renin . – . pg/dl (standing) . . . . – cortisol a.m.: – g/dl . – – – – p.m.: half of a.m. -oh pgtr . – . miu/ml . – – – – progesterone m < . ng/ml – . – . – fsh m: . – miu/ml . – – – – lh m: . – . miu/ml . – – – – estradiol m < pg/ml < – – – – testosterone m: . – . ng/ml ( – yr) < . – – – – sodium – mmol/l – potassium . – . mmol/l . . . – . ph/hco – – . / . – – – acth = adrenocorticotropic hormone; -oh pgtr = -hydroxyprogesterone; fsh = follicle stimulating hormone; lh = luteinizing hormone; m = male. j formos med assoc | • vol • no -hydroxylase deficiency sequencing were performed after genomic dna was extracted from peripheral blood. exons – of the cyp gene were individually amplified by pcr with amplitaq gold (applied biosystems, foster city, ca, usa) as described previously. two different mutations were identified, includ- ing a point mutation s p in exon and a -bp (gactctttc) deletion from nucleotide position in exon of p c (figure). these results confirmed the diagnosis of ohd. after the first month of treatment with dexa- methasone ( mg/day), systolic blood pressure was reduced from mmhg to mmhg, and po- tassium ( . mmol/dl), aldosterone ( pg/ml) and acth ( pg/ml) returned to within normal limits. nevertheless, the patient was very concerned about the side effect of body weight gain with glucocorticoid therapy, so the dose was tapered ( . mg/day) from the second month of treatment. potassium and aldosterone levels remained with- in normal levels but hypertension rebounded. therefore, spironolactone ( mg, qd) was add- ed to the regimen from the third month. systolic blood pressure decreased to – mmhg in the following months. during treatment, plasma acth and aldosterone were elevated ( . pg/ml and pg/ml, respectively) due to poor drug compliance (table). estrogen replacement thera- py to induce pubertal development was started soon after the clinical diagnosis of ohd. her initial predicted adult height (by the bayley and pinneau method) was . cm, and bone age was measured according to the greulich-pyle method. therefore, sex hormone replacement was increased rapidly for the purpose of reducing the predicted adult height and final height. her last predicted adult height was . cm after hormone replace- ment therapy for months. discussion the classical presentation of ohd is hyperten- sion, hypokalemia and lack of secondary sexu- al development; all of these features were found in our patient. affected genetic males usually pre- figure. direct genomic dna sequence analysis of exon and exon of cyp in the index patient. the -bp (gactctttc) deletion from nucleotide position of exon and t>c (s p) mutation of exon . sent with a complete female phenotypic appear- ance or, less often, with ambiguous external genitalia. , the magnitude of impaired masculi- nization in the male fetus correlates with enzy- matic activity of the severity of the block in - hydroxylation and the degree of the subsequent defect in fetal testosterone synthesis. analysis of enzymatic activity has shown that more than % of normal activity is necessary for normal fetal masculinization of the external genitalia. , the clinical presentation of our patient was con- sidered severe due to the completely female phe- notype, although enzyme activity tests were not available in our country at the time of treatment. in ohd, decreased cortisol secretion causes increased acth production, which results in overproduction of -deoxysteroids by the ad- renal cortex, including doc, corticosterone and -hydroxycorticosterone. however, data on - deoxysteroids were not obtained in our patient due to lack of availability of these tests in our country. serum progesterone, which is one of the -hydroxylase substrates and is a useful marker in the diagnosis of ohd, was elevated in our patient. after acth stimulation test, the level of progesterone changed little, from . ng/ml to . ng/ml. the final diagnosis was con- firmed by cyp genotyping. most patients with ohd have very low or subnormal production of aldosterone. , it has been suggested that the inhibition of aldosterone biosynthesis is mediated by the increased levels of doc, which leads to suppression of the renin- j formos med assoc | • vol • no s.l. wong, et al angiotensin system via an increased reabsorp- tion of sodium and increased blood volume. in contrast, serum aldosterone was elevated in this patient. several other studies reported similar findings, especially in japanese patients ( / cases). , , yamakita et al speculated that the more severe the deficiency of -hydroxylase activity, the more active is the corticosterone me- thyl oxidase in fasciculata cells, resulting in great- er production of aldosterone from corticosterone. patients with severe deficiency of -hydroxylase activity may fall into a broad category of glucocor- ticoid-remediable hyperaldosteronism. ohd with glucocorticoid-remediable hyperaldosteron- ism, as well as elevated aldosterone levels that increased following acth stimulation and which responded to steroid replacement, has been reported. since our patient had no family history of hypertension, particularly in her parents, and neither her aldosterone level (from pg/dl to pg/dl) nor cortisol level (from . g/dl to . g/dl) were significantly responsive after -hour acth stimulation test, glucocorticoid- remediable aldosteronism was considered unlikely. the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis is inde- pendent from the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, and its regulation and interactions are very complicated. therefore, the mechanism of low nor- mal renin level in this case remains to be clarified. usually, hypertension resolves with glucocor- ticoid therapy, but it may persist if the diagnosis is delayed. mineralocorticoid antagonists such as spironolactone or potassium canrenoate can be added to the regimen to achieve better control of blood pressure. the addition of a calcium chan- nel blocker to the regimen is usually effective if hypertension persists despite adequate blockade of mineralocorticoid production and action. , female sex assignment was continued in this chromosomally male patient due to established psychosexual development and identity. estrogen replacement therapy was given for induction of female secondary sex characteristics. this therapy may also reduce final height. prophylactic gonadectomy should be per- formed in genetic males with ohd because of the risk of malignant change. the testes may be intra-abdominal, in the inguinal canal, or in the labioscrotal folds. as this patient was depressed and suicidal due to lack of sexual development, removal of gonads was postponed. nearly different mutations in cyp have been reported since . most of the mutations appear to be random, except for one reported in canadian mennonite descendants of dutch fries- landers. in our patient, the compound hetero- zygous mutations, including a -bp (gactctttc) deletion in exon and s p mutation in exon , were identified as inherited from the father and mother, respectively. both of these mutations have been previously described in two unrelated gua- manian patients and a patient from thailand, as well as in two siblings from china. – in conclusion, ohd is a rare condition which has not been previously reported in taiwan. it should be suspected in patients with hypokalemic hypertension and lack of secondary sexual devel- opment so that appropriate therapy can be im- plemented. references . grumbach mm, hughes ia, conte fa. disorder of sex dif- ferentiation. in: larsen pr, kronenberg hm, melmed s, et al, eds. williams textbook of endocrinology, th edition. philadelphia: saunders, : – . . biglieri eg, herron ma, brust n. -hydroxylation deficiency in man. j clin invest ; : – . . new mi. male pseudohermaphroditism due to alpha- hydroxylase deficiency. j clin invest ; : – . . chung b, picado-leonard j, haniu m, et al. cytochrome p c (steroid -hydroxylase/ , lyase): cloning of human adrenal and testis cdnas indicates the same gene is expressed in both tissues. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . . picado-leonard j, miller wl. cloning and sequence of the human gene encoding p c (steroid -hydroxylase/ , lyase): similarity to the gene for p c . dna ; : – . . matteson kj, picado-leonard j, chung b, et al. assignment of the gene for adrenal p c ( -hydroxylase/ , lyase) to human chromosome . j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . yanase t, simpson er, waterman mr. -hydroxylase/ j formos med assoc | • vol • no -hydroxylase deficiency , -lyase deficiency: from clinical investigation to mole- cular definition. endocr rev ; : – . . costa-santos m, kater ce, auchus rj, et al. two prevalent cyp mutations and genotype phenotype correlations in brazilian patients with -hydroxylase deficiency. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . yamakita n, murase h, yasuda k, et al. possible hyper- aldosteronism and discrepancy in enzyme activity deficiency in adrenal and gonadal glands in japanese patients with alpha-hydroxylase deficiency. endocrinol jpn ; : – . . monno s, ogawa h, date t, et al. mutation of histidine to leucine in cytochrome. j biol chem ; : – . . martin rm, lin cj, costa emf, et al. p c deficiency in brazilian patients: biochemical diagnosis through pro- gesterone levels confirmed by cpy genotyping. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . kater ce, biglieri eg. disorders of steroid alpha- hydroxylase deficiency. endocrinol metab clin north am ; : – . . biglieri eg. mechanisms establishing the mineralocorti- coid hormone pattern in the -hydroxylase deficiency syndrome. j steroid biochem ; : – . . cottrell da, bello fa, falko jm. case report: alpha- hydroxylase deficiency masquerading as primary hyper- aldosteronism. am j med sci ; : – . . peter m, sippell wg, wernze h. diagnosis and treatment of -hydroxylase deficiency. j steroid biochem mol biol ; : – . . mantero f, opocher g, rocco s, et al. long term treatment of mineralocorticoid excess syndrome. steroid ; : – . . grumbach mm, auchus rj. estrogen: consequences and implications of human mutation in synthesis and action. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . kagimoto m, winter js, kagimoto k, et al. structural char- acterization of normal and mutant human steroid - hydroxylase gene: molecular basis of one example of com- bined -hydroxylase/ , lyase deficiency. mol endocrinol ; : – . . lin d, harikrishna ja, moore ccd, et al. missense mutation serine -proline causes -hydroxylase deficiency. j biol chem ; : – . . fardella ce, zhang lh, mahachoklertwattana p, et al. dele- tion of amino acids asp -ser -phe in human cytochrome p c causes severe alpha-hydroxylase deficiency. j clin endocrinol metab ; : – . . qiao j, hu rm, peng yd, et al. a complex heterozygous mutation of his leu and asp -ser -phe deletion in human cytochrome p c causes - hydroxylase/ , -lyase deficiency in three chinese sisters. mol cell endocrinol ; : – . s jed .. editorial foreword cssh at sixty at sixty-years strong, the journal remains as fit and agile as ever. the print edition is now accompanied by a dynamic website including interviews, conversations between authors, features on the research processes behind groundbreaking articles, and much more. please visit our website at http://cssh.lsa.umich.edu/ to see all that’s new. ten years ago, in honor of the journal’s half-century jubilee, we celebrated the occasion with an expanded issue. we’re pleased to continue that tradition on this anniversary, presenting fifteen extraordinary essays. gods in things divinities need mundane materials in order to appear and be perceived by human devotees. those materials of appearance, in turn, give contour and definition to sacred powers. how these transductions occur is hotly debated within religious traditions themselves. webb keane’s and stephan palmié’s essays each consider the material risks and affordances faced by gods. keane’s essay, “divine text, national language, and their publics: arguing an indonesian qur’an,” interprets the controversies that fol- lowed efforts to render the qur’an in a poetic, literary, and vernacular form. palmié’s article, “when is a thing? transduction and immediacy in afro- cuban ritual; or, ant in matanzas, cuba, summer of ,” revisits william bascom’s fieldwork in cuba to explore how gods (orichas, in this case) come to dwell in specific stones, and the tension between notions of stones as representations versus stones as the god’s body. armored bodies soldiers and athletes attempt extraordinary phys- ical feats with bodies that too often fail or let them down. far from extinguish- ing such efforts, the vulnerabilities of the human body provoke further efforts to craft new versions that transcend the limits of pain, exhaustion, injury, and death. “from idiophylaxis to inner armor: imagining the self-armoring soldier in the united states military from the s to today,” by andrew bickford, explores efforts by military biologists and engineers to solve this body problem. they developed programs to make and deploy modified human soldiers outfitted with special components or hyper-durable skin. bick- ford shows how fantasy, imagination, and violence are interwoven in the figure of the (always) future supersoldier. niko besnier, daniel guinness, mark hann, and uroš kovač’s article, “rethinking masculinity in the neoliberal order: cameroonian footballers, fijian rugby players, and senegalese wres- tlers,” enters the arena of global sport to consider the forms of masculinity pro- duced by sports markets. they find both repetitions—especially in the neoliberal gendering of men, the historically homosocial character of spectator comparative studies in society and history ; ( ): – . - / # society for the comparative study of society and history doi: . /s terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core http://cssh.lsa.umich.edu/ https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core sports, and the precarious position occupied by men who spend lives devoted to skills that rarely translate to economic spheres outside the field or stadium—as well as striking local differences. ironically, they show how the forms of phys- ical strength produced by sporting masculinities leave their subjects especially at risk in the game of life. architectural politics built structures shape the social lives that move through them. they shelter, direct, invite, decorate, obstruct, capti- vate, imprison, and enliven. the designs of buildings quite literally “give form” to a nation, or an internationalist order. leo coleman’s essay, “building scotland, building solidarity: a scottish architect’s knowledge of nation,” offers an ethnography of infrastructure. it examines scottish architecture through the planning vision of robert hurd, who envisioned the “small burgh” as at once a political resource, a social plan, and a kind of physical struc- ture to build scotland. michał murawski’s “actually-existing success: eco- nomics, aesthetics, and the specificity of (still-) socialist urbanism,” takes apart the persistent myth of “failed” socialist architecture, routinely imagined as either too economistic or as not attentive enough to economic realities. working against the grain, murawski shows the “success” of many socialist structures, from warsaw’s palace of culture and science to khruschev’s mass-housing program. socialist structures produced boredom, but also togeth- erness, adventure, spontaneous encounters, love, and conflict in equal measure. murawski argues that socialist architecture needs to be read in its own terms, as “social condensers” addressing a key question of economics and aesthetics, namely, what structures and spaces could activate a properly socialist social life? religious others and the french republic the polit- ical implications of the french term laïcité are far from transparent. in her “‘we are all republicans’: party articulation and the production of nationhood in france’s face veil debate,” emily laxer reaches into one of laïcité’s many pockets of ambiguity. the niqab and burqa, she argues, played a key part in the realignment of political parties. the ban derived less from arguments or assaults on freedom of religion than from political parties’ struggles for legiti- macy. parties on the left toughened their positions on the covered face in order to regain power lost to the front national, all the while veiling their attack as a “defense” of women’s dignity. through fieldwork interviews with members of the commissions that generated the key documents, laxer sheds needed light on the political stakes of religious practices in the public sphere. kimberly a. arkin’s “historicity, peoplehood, and politics: holocaust talk in twenty-first-century france,” meanwhile, takes on the issue of shoah memo- rialization in france. she shows the ambiguity of north african jewish expe- rience under nazi roundups, previously excluded from the narratives of the european holocaust, but now increasingly incorporated into those commemo- rations. which versions of time and history, arkin asks, expand “outward” e d i t o r i a l f o r e w o r d terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core toward a broad, universal, or more inclusive jewish holocaust, and which ver- sions restrict the holocaust to a specifically european, and ashkenazi, event and trauma? diasporic belonging this pair of essays interprets german migrant communities in the americas—paraguay and the united states—in relation to the relative sense of affinity a given community maintained for the homeland, and the degree of belonging to the hostland they cultivated. john eicher’s “rustic reich: the local meanings of (trans)national social- ism among paraguay’s mennonite colonies” compares two different auslands- deutsche communities in paraguay during the s. he asks why one group readily adopted nazi programs while the other was resistant to them. one set- tlement repurposed the german national narrative as central to their local story; the other used their local identity, local material repertories, and an extra- national “theology of migration” to reject the national socialist project of an extended german volk. “integration and identities: the effects of time, migrant networks, and political crises on germans in the united states,” by félix krawatzek and gwendolyn sasse, presents an analysis of over a thou- sand letters written by germans in the united states across a century-long period. their focus on a wide range of data allows them to discern trends of engagement with the homeland over the longue durée, and the degree to which variables like the shifting political environment of the host country, and the opportunities for inclusion, influenced the sense of integration or its lack. their essay offers insight on how large data sets and statistical analysis can prove useful to establish qualitative historical claims. edges of sovereignty in “denouncing sovereignty: claims to liberty in northeastern central african republic,” louisa lombard opens a window onto the issue of how legality and governance work in the many places where little state presence exists. in the borderlands of the central african republic, armed conservation park guards, foreign settlers, poachers, and other groups coexist in a zone of contested sovereignty, a “negative liberty” premised on not being encroached upon, and potential violence. in this place, the capacity to generate persuasive and potent denunciations against another party determines the right to kill, and the consequences of vio- lence. by comparing two vivid acts of killing and their consequences, lombard shows how sovereignty is less a stable thing than a continuum of power from being highly centralized in a “sovereign” at one end, to widely distributed and debated at the other. sheetal chhabria guides us to colonial bombay and the wilds of caste and capital in the absence of any single governing legal process for land acquisition, in “the aboriginal alibi: governing dispossession in colonial bombay.” here the “aboriginal alibi” refers to the concessions allotted to claims made about aboriginal koli lands in the city that in fact allowed for the dispossession of others. the diverse applications of nativist claims to land accelerated as the values of capitalist land markets rose. even more, chhabria e d i t o r i a l f o r e w o r d terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core shows, the claims of aboriginal concessions even hastened the acceleration of land speculation in bombay. what empires can and can’t do the title of this rubric is taken from richard lachmann’s incisive essay reviewing major recent studies of empire, in works by krishan kumar, valerie a. kivelson and ronald grigor suny, and jane burbank and frederick cooper. all the books discussed by lachmann, we add parenthetically, are by cssh authors, though this was not by design. he draws the work of these scholars into con- versation to reflect comparatively on empire in its many iterations: china, rome, the ottoman empire, russia, france, great britain, the austro- hungarian empire, and the united states and its neocolonial extensions. lach- mann draws out key themes and gaps in the books, including counterintuitive ones like the ways empire often depended on the maintenance of fissiparous rivalry and competition between its constituents in order to survive, rather than absolute centralization. in “theologies of auspicious kingship: the islamization of chinggisid sacral kingship in the islamic world,” jonathan brack explores imperial dimensions and effects of ideas about islamic king- ship in fourteenth-century iran. he demonstrates how persian and islamic con- cepts of kingship were activated to translate mongol claims to govern as divinely mandated, and thus to expand mongol power. this produced a new vocabulary and discursive realm of sacred kingship that was later deployed by other imperial regimes far afield in time and space. jean-philippe dedieu and aïssatou mbodj-pouye’s entry, “the fabric of transnational political activism: ‘révolution afrique’ and west african radical militants in france in the s,” explores the post-imperial space linking france and africa. they consider the effects of may ’ through the prism of activist alli- ances between africans and french in the fight against neocolonialism and a lingering french empire. even though the movement dissipated by the s, it left key consequences in its wake. the “révolution afrique” move- ment helped define and form a new african political leadership. it helped develop new vocabularies and tools for french belonging. yet, at the same time, it also helped to institute and sediment new divisions between french african elites and the working class. in a comparative vein, dedieu and mbodj- pouye’s project leads to broader considerations of how transnational activism is transformed into national forms of political action. inaugural jack goodyaward in this last issue of volume , we are pleased to announce the jack goody award for the best cssh article in volume . nominations were made by cssh editorial board members. a special jury of esteemed outside readers, sherry ortner, krishan kumar, and gregory starrett, read and adjudicated the five finalists. the winners of the first jack goody award are isabelle grangaud and simona cerutti for their paper “sources and contextualizations: comparing eighteenth-century e d i t o r i a l f o r e w o r d terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core north africa and western european institutions.” here is what the jury wrote to describe the winning contribution: “sources and contextualizations: comparing eighteenth-century north africa and western european institutions” provides not only a clear and systematic summary of common ways of thinking about comparison, but offers a fresh way of conceptualizing what kinds of comparisons might be done, what results from them, and how this method both illuminates particular cases and prompts further questions about broader issues. reorienting the existing literature on the institutions of the french droit d’aubaine and the ottoman bayt al-mal, cerutti and grangaud show that what seemed like mech- anisms of state expropriation come to appear instead as mechanisms for the definition and protection of private interest, particularly as concern lineages and families. at first reading, the intriguing approach they propose appears methodologically trouble- some, as the similarities between the two institutions are only discoverable after the fact. but in the end, the extraordinary insight and depth of the actual interpretation may not have been possible without the framework they set forth. by not taking at face value the textual statements of laws and regulations, but instead digging away at the actual interpretations and actions of administrative agents, the authors show affinities and similarities that are counter-intuitive and highly revealing. in doing so they open up a whole series of questions relating to distinctions between the religious and the secular, the foreign and the local, family and property, poverty and belonging. what is particu- larly important are the implications for the general study of citizenship and “foreign- ness” in ancien regime societies. by demonstrating that, for both early-modern french society and ottoman society, “foreignness” and “poverty” belong in the same category, reflecting the same condition of being “unplaced” and lacking social bonds, they undermine many anachronistic accounts of citizenship and belonging in the early- modern state. altogether this is a very fine and original piece of work, an inspiring model for how one might approach any number of issues. the award comes with a $ , prize, and we urge the winners to spend it unwisely. congratulations to professors grangaud and cerutti, and our heartfelt thanks to the jury! e d i t o r i a l f o r e w o r d terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core available online at www.annclinlabsci.org annals of clinical & laboratory science, vol. , no. , - / / - . © by the association of clinical scientists, inc. introduction maple syrup urine disease (msud) (mim # ) is a rare ( : , ), autosomal recessive disorder of branched-chain amino acid (bcaa) metabolism caused by dysfunction of the multi-enzyme branched-chain alpha- ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckdh) complex [ ]. the bckdh complex is organized into three subunits: dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e ), address correspondence and reprint requests to chang-seok ki, m.d., ph.d., department of laboratory medicine & genetics, samsung medical center, sungkyunkwan, university school of medicine, irwon-dong, gangnam-gu, seoul, - , korea; tel + - - - ; fax + - - - ; e-mail changski@ skku.edu, or yong-wha lee, m.d., ph.d., department of laboratory medicine and genetics, soonchunhyang university bucheon hospital and soonchunhyang university college of medicine, jung-dong, wonmi-gu, bucheon, - , korea; tel + - - - ; fax + - - - ; e-mail lywmd@schbc.ac.kr three korean patients with maple syrup urine disease: four novel mutations in the bckdha gene hyung-doo park , dong hwan lee , yong hee hong , dong hee kang , you kyoung lee , junghan song , soo-youn lee , jong-won kim , chang-seok ki , and yong-wha lee department of laboratory medicine and genetics, samsung medical center, sungkyunkwan university school of medicine, seoul, korea; department of pediatrics, soonchunhyang university college of medicine, seoul, korea; department of laboratory medicine and genetics, soonchunhyang university bucheon hospital and soonchunhyang university college of medicine, bucheon, korea; department of laboratory medicine, seoul national university college of medicine, seoul, korea abstract. maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder of branched- chain amino acid (bcaa) metabolism caused by dysfunction of the multienzyme branched-chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckdh) complex. although a few cases of msud have been reported in the korean population, the genetic background of msud is not well understood. in this study, we investigated three newborn males who were diagnosed with msud using a standard newborn screening test and amino acid analysis. we screened all coding regions of the bckdha, bckdhb and dbt genes for abnormalities using direct sequencing. changes in these genes are associated with msud. for one patient with complex deletion/duplication mutations, we also performed topo ta cloning sequencing. amino acid analysis showed elevated levels of all branched chain amino acids (bcaas) in all patients. three patients were either homozygous or compound heterozygous for the bckdha mutations. patient was homozygous for c. c>t (p.r c); patient was heterozygous, with c. c>t (p.t m) and c. c>t (p.a v); and patient had c. _ dupaaaccc (p.l _p dup) and c. _ deltgg (p.l _a delinsp). among these mutations, c. c>t, c. c>t, c. _ dup and c. _ del were novel. these patients had no mutations in either the bckdhb or the dbt gene. although this study included only three patients, the five different mutations in these patients may indicate mutational heterogeneity in korean patients with msud. in addition, the bchdha gene may present a primary target for clinical genetic analysis. to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of genetically confirmed msud in korea. keywords: msud, bckdha, novel mutation, korean annals of clinical & laboratory science, vol. , no. , branched-chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (e ) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (e ). bckdh catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of branched-chain alpha- ketoacids (bckas) produced by transamination of the bcaas leucine, isoleucine and valine [ ]. msud occurs in five clinical forms that differ in presentation and severity [ ]. classic msud is the most common phenotype, affecting about % of patients, and typically presents with severe neurological impairment during the neonatal period. less common phenotypes include the later-onset intermediate type, episodic intermittent type, intermediate-like thiamine-responsive type and e deficiency with lactic acidosis [ ]. in classic msud, the activity of the bckd complex is less than % of normal. affected infants typically show lethargy, weight loss, metabolic derangements and progressive neurologic signs, which include alternating hypotonia and hypertonia [ ]. genetic abnormalities related to dysfunction of the bckdh complex are described according to the loci involved: bckdha (e - alpha subunit), bckdhb (e -beta subunit) or dbt (e subunit) [ - ]. the prevalence of msud is about / , in korea [ ]. however, previous reports on korean patients with msud did not describe the associated genetic abnormalities [ - ]. in the present study, we examined dna samples from three korean newborn males with the classic msud phenotype for mutations in the bckdha, bckdhb and dbt genes. materials and methods patients the subjects of this study were three korean neonatal males. the diagnosis of msud was based on the standard newborn screening test (nst), which was performed on dried blood spots by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (lc-ms/ms). the parents of these patients were not bound by consanguineous marriages. an analysis of three genes associated with msud was performed for each subject. we also recorded each patient’s age at diagnosis, signs and symptoms associated with msud, amino acid profiles in plasma and urine, and radiologic findings. due to technical limitations, we were unable to measure bckdh activity directly. amino acid analysis was performed in plasma and urine using high performance liquid chromatography. urine organic acids were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. genetic analysis with parental informed consent, peripheral venous blood samples were collected from each of the subjects. genomic dna was isolated from peripheral blood leukocytes using the wizard genomic dna purification kit (promega, madison, wi, usa). the exon-coding regions of the bckdha ( exons), bckdhb ( exons) and dbt ( exons) genes, along with their flanking intronic regions, were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) using primers designed by the authors (sequences available upon request) and a thermal cycler (model ; applied biosystems, foster city, ca, usa). five-microliter samples of the amplification product were treated with u shrimp alkaline phosphatase and u exonuclease i (usb corp., cleveland, oh, usa). direct sequencing of the dna was performed using the abi prism genetic analyzer (applied biosystems, foster city, ca, usa) with the bigdye terminator cycle sequencing- ready reaction kit (applied biosystems). the cdna nucleotide sequences of the three genes examined were numbered according to their respective genbank accession numbers: nm_ . for bckdha, nm_ . for bckdhb and nm_ . for dbt. our mutation nomenclature follows the recommendations of the human genome variation society (http://www.hgvs.org/ mutnomen/), with nucleotide + corresponding to the a of the atg translation initiation codon. the frequencies of the novel mutations were investigated through the genotyping of control chromosomes. the pcr product of the bckdha exon in patient was cloned bckdha mutations in korean patients with msud into a topo vector (cosmo genetech, seoul, south korea) to obtain eight clones, which we attempted to sequence using the bigdye reaction kit and the abi prism genetic analyzer. to avoid misinterpretation of the reading frames, we used both forward and reverse sequencing. we then compared these clones with a control clone of the bckdha gene. results clinical findings patient was brought to the outpatient clinic on day of life because of abnormal findings on the nst. he was born at + weeks by vaginal delivery, with a birth weight of . kg. an lc-ms/ms analysis revealed elevated concentrations of leucine ( μmol/l; normal ≤ μmol/l), valine ( μmol/l; normal ≤ μmol/l) and alloisoleucine ( μmol/l; normal, not detected). the patient had previously been breastfed, but the infant’s ability to suckle was poor. his activity decreased and he experienced a seizure-like episode on day of life. when admitted to our hospital, he was feeding poorly, irritable, somnolent, and spastic. a sweet aroma was detected from the patient’s urine, similar to that of maple syrup. an amino acid analysis of his serum and urine showed elevated concentrations of the bcaas isoleucine, leucine and valine. a urine organic acid analysis revealed elevated aromatic amino acid metabolites ( -hydroxyphenyllactate, -hydroxy-phenylpyruvate, and n-acetyltyrosine) and azelaic acid, without similar elevations in branched-chain ketoacids and branched- chain -hydroxyacids. plasma ketone body levels were increased to μmol/l (normal, < μmol/l). the patient had normal levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, glucose, and electrolytes. the ammonia level was elevated to . μmol/l (normal, - μmol/l), but there was no hepatosplenomegaly. after switching to bcaa- free formula, the patient’s symptoms, including irritability and limb stiffness, improved. patient was born at + weeks by vaginal delivery, with a birth weight of . kg. he was presented to our hospital on day of life, having had an abnormal nst. an initial screening test for six major inborn errors of table . plasma and urine amino acid analyses in patients with msud. specimen metabolites reference units case case case range plasma isoleucine . - . μmol/l leucine . - . μmol/l valine . - . μmol/l urine isoleucine < . mmol/g cr . . . leucine . - . mmol/g cr . . . valine < . mmol/g cr . . . table . bckdha mutations in three korean patients with msud. the nucleotides of the bckdha cdna were numbered according to genbank accession no. nm_ . . cdna numbering commences from the atg start codon, where + is the a of the atg translation initiation codon. case gender age of clinical exon mutation analysis no. presentation phenotype of bckdha gene (days) nucleotide level protein level m classic c. c>t p.r c novel c. c>t p.r c m classic c. c>t p.t m novel c. c>t p.a v known m classic c. _ dupaaaccc p.l _p dup novel c. _ deltgg p.l _a delinsp novel annals of clinical & laboratory science, vol. , no. , metabolism showed slightly elevated leucine ( . μmol/l; normal < . μmol/l). an lc-ms/ms analysis revealed elevated total concentrations of leucine and isoleucine ( μmol/l; normal < μmol/l). the aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, glucose, and electrolyte levels were normal, although ammonia was elevated to . μmol/l. interestingly, his parents reported that their son had the episodic vomiting only during breastfeeding, and a urine organic acid analysis was normal. however, the amino acid analysis confirmed the diagnosis of msud, and the patient was started on bcaa-free formula, which resolved the vomiting. patient was presented to our hospital with the suspicion of msud on day of life. he was born at + weeks by vaginal delivery, with a birth weight of . kg. an nst showed elevated leucine ( . umol/l; normal < . μmol/l) and alloisoleucine levels ( . μmol/l; normal not detectable). subsequent urine organic acid analysis demonstrated an elevation in branched-chain -ketoacids (bckas), such as -oxoisovaleric acid, -oxo- -methylvaleric acid and -ketoisocaproic acid, and branched- chain -hydroxyacids ( -hydroxyisovaleric acid and -hydroxy- -methylvaleric acid). plasma and urine amino acid analyses are described in table . in patient , plasma ketone body levels were increased to μmol/l and ammonia was elevated to . μmol/l. the aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, glucose, and electrolyte levels were normal. brain ultrasonography revealed a grade germinal matrix hemorrhage. given his amino acid analysis, the patient was diagnosed with msud and placed on bcaa-free formula, which normalized plasma isoleucine and valine. plasma leucine levels remained elevated, however, so the patient was given a formula free of leucine as well. genetic analysis we analyzed the bckdha, bckdhb, and dbt genes from the three korean neonates suffering from msud. among these patients, we identified three mutations and two variations of unknown significance in the bckdha gene (table ). patient was homozygous for the -bp substitution of c. c>t in exon . this missense mutation caused a change in amino acid sequence from arginine to cysteine at codon (figure ). patient was shown to be a compound heterozygote for the missense mutations of c. c>t and c. c>t (figure ). the c. c>t mutation induced an amino acid substitution of methionine for threonine at codon (p.t m), while the c. c>t (p.a v) is a previously described mutation [ ]. these two bckdha mutations occurred at exons and , respectively. patient was a compound heterozygote for the c. _ dupaaaccc and c. _ deltgg mutations, which induced two amino acid duplications (p.lys _ pro dup) and an in-frame deletion (p.l _ a delinsp), respectively. except for p.a v, all variations were novel. we screened healthy normal subjects by direct sequencing, and none of these carried any of the mutations in the bckdha gene described above. no mutations in either the bckdhb or dbt genes were found in the three msud patients. fig . sequence analysis of the bckdha gene in korean patients with msud. patient was homozygous for the c. c>t (p.r c) mutation. patient showed compound heterozygosity for the mutations c. c>t (p.t m) and c. c>t (p.a v). bckdha mutations in korean patients with msud the p.t m, p.a v and p.r c mutations of the e subunit are most likely responsible for the enzymatic dysfunction of the bckdh complex because they occur at amino acid residues that are highly conserved across species (including rattus norvegicus, mus musculus, pan troglodytes, equus caballus, canis lupus familiaris, bos taurus and macaca mulatta) (figure ). we performed a cloning study with patient because he had both a small deletion and a duplication in exon of bckdha. in patient , three of eight clones had the c. _ dupaaaccc, whereas five of eight clones had the c. _ deltgg (figure ). discussion although the measurement of enzyme activity is important for an msud diagnosis, our institute lacks the technical capability to assay bckdh. instead, we investigated mutational defects in three genes associated with msud. mutational heterogeneity is observed in msud [ ], and mutations in three specific genes, bckdha, bckdhb and dbt, are associated with approximately %, % and %, respectively, of msud cases previously described [ ]. in addition, % of patients with bckdh mutations are homozygous [ ]. interestingly, only one patient in the current study was homozygous for a mutation, and all three patients had only bckdha mutations with normal bckdhb and dbt genotypes. within the bckdha gene, most of the allelic variants ( / alleles) that have been detected are clustered within exons and [ ]. however, we found only one mutation within these two fig . evolutionary conservation of the amino acid residues for mutant sites. multiple sequence alignment shows the amino acid sites of three novel mutations (p.t , p.a and p.r ) are highly conserved among different species. fig . mutation in the bckdha exon in msud patient . dna sequence traces obtained after ta-cloning. the alignments of the wild-type and mutant exon bckdha allele sequences are shown. nucleotides are indicated by capital letters. annals of clinical & laboratory science, vol. , no. , exons in our subjects. the rarity of msud in the korean population may be associated with the lack of a founder gene cluster. mutations in the human e b subunit probably induce msud through defects in protein structure, because losses of enzyme stability and function correlate well with disease severity [ ]. some bckdha mutations, such as p.r w, p.a t and p.g r, are associated with a severe form of msud. these generally reduce enzyme activity substantially. in a previous study, the mutant bckdha genes encoding p.n s or p.g r produced e proteins with residual activity ( . and . % of normal activity, respectively), while all other purified mutant e proteins tested were inactive [ ]. when the significance of a novel sequence variant is unknown, pathogenicity can be supported through family studies, functional analysis, an assessment of its frequency in unaffected controls, conservation across species, and in silico analyses. in this study, we were unable to measure the activity of proteins encoded by genes with the missense mutations; however, we believe that two of the novel missense variations directly cause the loss of bckdh activity, because the amino acids p.t and p.r are highly conserved across species. in addition, we did not detect bckdha mutations at these sites in any of control alleles. the effects of these mutations on protein function await further investigation. the c. c>t (p.a v) mutation, first reported in a spanish population, is located in the alpha helix region near the ei-beta interface [ ]. a p.r h mutation, induced by the mutation c. g>a, has also been reported. this mutation, while close in proximity, is distinct from the c. c>t mutation that we report here. there were changes in the hydrophobic compatibility matrix (p.t m and p.r c) and the electrical charge compatibility matrix (p.r c) of the amino acid characteristics [ ]. these data indicate that changes in amino acid sequence caused by missense mutations most likely play a causal role in msud pathogenesis because the conformational changes they would induce imply changes in bckdh activity and stability. in-frame deletion and duplication variations such as the c. _ deltgg and c. _ dupaaaccc, do not shift the triplet reading frame, but can lead to synthesis of an abnormal protein. it is unclear that they actually influence protein function, but we think these are mutations rather than polymorphisms, because in-frame deletion mutations in the bckdha and bckdhb genes are reported [ , ]. in addition, two in-frame variations, c. _ deltgg and c. _ dupaaaccc, are located within the active domain of the bckdha gene spanning amino acid positions to . these findings suggest that in-frame deletions or duplications may alter the structure and function of bckdh. although msud is a heterogeneous disorder in the general population, evidence suggests that founder mutations or mutational hotspots may reside in the bckdha or bckdhb genes [ , , ]. in old order mennonites from pennsylvania, msud is linked closely to the bckdha p.y n mutation; and some non-mennonite msud patients with this allele are believed to share some degree of mennonite ancestry [ ]. the allelic frequency of the c. delc mutation in the bckdha gene among healthy transients from southern portugal is estimated at . % and may be attributable to a founder effect [ ]. in addition, the p.r p mutation in the bckdhb gene may represent a founder event within the ashkenazi jewish population [ ]. from this study of only three patients, we are unable to determine whether a founder mutation exists in the korean population. however, a founder mutation seems unlikely considering that we found five distinct mutant alleles among three msud patients. if it exists, a founder effect or genotype-phenotype correlation with msud may be revealed through genetic analysis of a larger sample from the korean population at large. early diagnosis and treatment are essential to reduce mortality of patients with msud, and bckdha mutations in korean patients with msud the value of prenatal testing and/or carrier screening is shown in certain circumstances [ , ]. in our study, three patients were predicted by nst to have msud, which was subsequently confirmed using amino acid analysis and organic acid analysis. these patients responded well to early treatment. in summary, we identified four novel mutations of the bckdha gene in three korean newborns. to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of msud confirmed by genetic analysis in korea. though this study included only three patients, our results may reflect the mutational heterogeneity in korean patients with msud. in addition, bckdha may present a key target for genetic analysis in msud. references . chuang dt, shih ve. maple syrup urine disease (branched- chain ketoaciduria). in: the metabolic and molecular basis of inherited disease (scriver cr, ed, mcgraw-hill, new york, , pp - . . quental s, macedo-ribeiro s, matos r, vilarinho l, martins e, teles el, rodrigues e, diogo l, garcia p, eusebio f, gaspar a, sequeira s, furtado f, lanca i, amorim a, prata mj. molecular and structural analyses of maple syrup urine disease and identification of a founder mutation in a portuguese gypsy community. mol genet metab ; : - . . edelmann l, wasserstein mp, kornreich r, sansaricq c, snyderman se, diaz ga. maple syrup urine disease: identification and carrier-frequency determination of a novel founder mutation in the ashkenazi jewish population. am j hum genet ; : - . . chinsky j, appel m, almashanu s, costeas p, ambulos n, jr., carmi r. a nonsense mutation (r x) in the branched- chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase e alpha subunit gene (bckdha) as a cause of maple syrup urine disease. mutations in brief no. . online. hum mutat ; : . . lee dh. the prevalence of pediatric endocrine and metabolic diseases in korea. korean journal of pediatrics ; : - . . o cg, jung ys, yoo bh, lee dk, lim is. a case of maple syrup urine disease detected by tandem mass spectrometry in newborn screening test. j korean soc neonatol ; : - . . moon kh, gwon os, lee ji, rho sw, jeon ss, seo ss. a case of maple syrup urine disease associated with acrodermatitis enteropathica-like syndrome due toiisoleucine deficinecy during diet therapy. j korean pediatr soc ; : - . . kim jw, huh j, park wi, lee kj, lee hj. a case of maple syrup urine disease controlled by peritoneal dialysis and diet. j korean pediatr soc ; : - . . cho dh, lee hm, kim sy, ra cs. a case of maple syrup urine disease. j korean pediatr soc ; : - . . rodriguez-pombo p, navarrete r, merinero b, gomez-puertas p, ugarte m. mutational spectrum of maple syrup urine disease in spain. hum mutat ; : . . nobukuni y, mitsubuchi h, hayashida y, ohta k, indo y, ichiba y, endo f, matsuda i. heterogeneity of mutations in maple syrup urine disease (msud): screening and identification of affected e alpha and e beta subunits of the branched-chain alpha-keto-acid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. biochim biophys acta ; : - . . flaschker n, feyen o, fend s, simon e, schadewaldt p, wendel u. description of the mutations in subjects with variant forms of maple syrup urine disease. j inherit metab dis ; : - . . aevarsson a, chuang jl, wynn rm, turley s, chuang dt, hol wg. crystal structure of human branched-chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the molecular basis of multienzyme complex deficiency in maple syrup urine disease. structure ; : - . . wynn rm, davie jr, chuang jl, cote cd, chuang dt. impaired assembly of e decarboxylase of the branched-chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in type ia maple syrup urine disease. j biol chem ; : - . . biro jc. amino acid size, charge, hydropathy indices and matrices for protein structure analysis. theor biol med model ; : . . danner dj, doering cb. human mutations affecting branched chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase. front biosci ; :d - . . quental s, gusmao a, rodriguez-pombo p, ugarte m, vilarinho l, amorim a, prata mj. revisiting msud in portuguese gypsies: evidence for a founder mutation and for a mutational hotspot within the bckdha gene. ann hum genet ; : - . . love-gregory ld, grasela j, hillman re, phillips cl. evidence of common ancestry for the maple syrup urine disease (msud) y n allele in non-mennonite msud patients. mol genet metab ; : - . doi: . / am. j. hum. genet. : – , the molecular basis of -methylcrotonylglycinuria, a disorder of leucine catabolism m. esther gallardo, , ,* lourdes r. desviat, ,* josé m. rodrı́guez, ,* jorge esparza-gordillo, , celia pérez-cerdá, belén pérez, pilar rodrı́guez-pombo, olga criado, raul sanz, d. holmes morton, k. michael gibson, thuy p. le, antonia ribes, santiago rodrı́guez de córdoba, , magdalena ugarte, and miguel á. peñalva centro de investigaciones biológicas csic, fundación jiménez dı́az, and centro de biologı́a molecular csic-uam, universidad autónoma de madrid, madrid; clinic for special children, strasburg, pa; department of molecular and medical genetics, oregon health sciences university, portland; department of pediatrics, university of california san diego school of medicine, la jolla; and institut de bioquı́mica clı̀nica, corporació sanitària clı́nic, barcelona -methylcrotonylglycinuria is an inborn error of leucine catabolism and has a recessive pattern of inheritance that results from the deficiency of -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase (mcc). the introduction of tandem mass spec- trometry in newborn screening has revealed an unexpectedly high incidence of this disorder, which, in certain areas, appears to be the most frequent organic aciduria. mcc, an heteromeric enzyme consisting of a (biotin-containing) and b subunits, is the only one of the four biotin-dependent carboxylases known in humans that has genes that have not yet been characterized, precluding molecular studies of this disease. here we report the characterization, at the genomic level and at the cdna level, of both the mcca gene and the mccb gene, encoding the mcca and mccb subunits, respectively. the -exon mcca gene maps to q - and encodes a -residue protein with a biotin attachment site; the -exon mccb gene maps to q -q and encodes a -residue polypeptide. we show that disease-causing mutations can be classified into two complementation groups, denoted “cga” and “cgb.” we detected two mcca missense mutations in cga patients, one of which leads to absence of biotinylated mcca. two mccb missense mutations and one splicing defect mutation leading to early mccb truncation were found in cgb patients. a fourth mccb mutation also leading to early mccb truncation was found in two nonclassified patients. a fungal model carrying an mcca null allele has been constructed and was used to dem- onstrate, in vivo, the involvement of mcc in leucine catabolism. these results establish that -methylcrotonylgly- cinuria results from loss-of-function mutations in the genes encoding the a and b subunits of mcc and complete the genetic characterization of the four human biotin-dependent carboxylases. introduction -methylcrotonylglycinuria (mcg [mim ]) is an inborn error of leucine catabolism and results from isolated, biotin-insensitive deficiency of -methylcro- tonyl-coa carboxylase (mcc; e.c. . . . ), the enzyme converting -methylcrotonoyl-coa to -methylgluta- conyl-coa (sweetman and williams ). this mito- chondrial enzyme is one of the four biotin-dependent carboxylases known in humans (wolf ), together with acetyl coa carboxylase (acc), pyruvate carbox- ylase (pc), and propionyl coa carboxylase (pcc). in marked similarity to pcc, mcc is a hetero-oligomeric received november , ; accepted for publication december , ; electronically published january , . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. magdalena ugarte, centro de biologı́a molecular csic-uam, universidad autónoma de madrid, madrid, spain. e-mail: mugarte@cbm.uam.es ∗ the first three authors contributed equally to this work. � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . enzyme consisting of a and b subunits. both pcca and mcca contain a covalently bound biotin moiety, as well as binding sites for two of the substrates, hco � and atp, whereas the b subunits contain the binding site for the acyl-coa substrate (lau et al. ; lamhonwah et al. ; song et al. ; sweetman and williams ). patients with mcg, which is inherited as an auto- somal recessive trait, show a highly variable clinical phenotype, ranging from asymptomatic to severe. in the latter phenotype, episodes of acute metabolic decom- pensation can lead to coma, lethargy, and death (sweet- man and williams ). the metabolic phenotype characterizing mcc deficiency is the elevated excre- tion of the diagnostic compounds -methylcrotonylgly- cine or -hydroxyisovaleric acid and the presence of abnormally elevated blood or urine levels of -hydrox- yisovalerylcarnitine (c -oh), as determined by tandem mass spectrometry (ms/ms) (van hove et al. ; gib- son et al. ). the recent introduction of neonatal screening of organic acidurias by ms/ms has revealed gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency table primers for amplification of mcca and mccb sequences forward primer ( ′r ′) reverse primer ( ′r ′) amplified target pcr-fragment size (bp) mcca tggaatttctagtaaggcaagca aagttgtgtttctcttgccttca exon accattgaatgaagacagcggb gtgctgggactacaggcttgb exon cataagaaacactattctattgccb aatatgctagacagttctgtaagb exon aatcagacaaaagggaatcgga taattagtgacccaaatgcatga exon mccb gctatattttggattaagtattatgc tacaagactgtctaataaagtacc exon atctcttaaattctctctcaatgc caaactatttgcattttaccagcc exon gctgtcattgatacaagtttccc catcccagagtacctaattcgc exon ctatagaagtcactgcatgagctgc tgttctgcatatttaatttcatcgc exon gaaaattaacacatgtagtagcca tatattaatcatctcaataatacaga exon aggcagccaatgtgttggcd ctttattaggaaaacatttgatagd ′ utr , a used only in rh mapping. b used both in mutation screening and/or sscp analysis with human genomic dna as template and in rh mapping. c used only in mutation screening and/or sscp analysis with human genomic dna as template. d used to amplify the alternative long ′ utr of the mccb gene; the template here was human liver cdna. mcg as an unexpectedly frequent disorder (naylor and chace ; ranieri et al. a; roscher et al. ; smith et al. ; wilcken et al. ). despite the exponentially increasing genomic information availa- ble, the genes for human mcc subunits have not yet been characterized, precluding molecular studies of this disease. here we report the cdna sequence and the structure of the human mcca and mccb genes, encoding the mcc a and b subunits, respectively. we also report, for both genes, the identification of mutations leading to mcg. finally, we use a fungal model for mcg car- rying an mcca null allele, to demonstrate, in vivo, the specific involvement of mcc in leucine catabolism. patients, material, and methods patients seven patients have been included in this study. all eight probands showed an mcc activity of ! % of that in the controls, in extracts of lymphoblasts or cul- tured skin fibroblasts, and showed elevated urinary ex- cretion of the diagnostic compounds -methylcroton- ylglycine or -hydroxyisovaleric acid. probands (spain), (argentina), and (united states) presented, at ! mo of age, with a severe episode of metabolic decompensation with hypoglycemia, hyper- ammonemia, hypocarnitinemia, and metabolic acidosis. proband (united states) was diagnosed at years of age. probands and were two clinically asymptomatic female adults belonging to the amish/ mennonite population who came to clinical attention after their children were suspected to be obligate carriers (gibson et al. ). expressed-sequence tags (ests), dna sequencing, and chromosomal localization of mcca and mccb human image ests were obtained from incyte ge- nomics. aspergillus nidulans ests were obtained from the fungal genetics stock centre. dna sequencing was performed with a dye-terminator cycle-sequencing kit (pe biosystems) and an abi prism automatic se- quencer. the mcca and mccb genes were mapped by radiation hybrid (rh) mapping in the stanford human genome center g panel and the genebridge (ra- diation hybrid mapping database) panel (gyapay et al. ; stewart et al. ) (research genetics). primers are shown in table . fish mapping metaphase chromosomes from human peripheral blood lymphocytes were prepared as described elsewhere (moorhead et al. ). slides were treated with # ssc at �c for min, were dehydrated, were dena- tured for min at �c in % formamide, # ssc ph , and then were dehydrated again. one microgram of the human mcca plasmid artificial chromosome (pac) rpcip- h (resource center/primary da- tabase rzpd) was labeled, by nick-translation, with spectrumgreen-dutp (vysis) and was coprecipitated with mg of human cot- dna (vysis). dna was resuspended in % formamide, # ssc, % dextran sulfate, were heat-denatured for min at �c, and were hybridized to slides for h at �c. slides were am. j. hum. genet. : – , washed for min in # ssc at �c. chromosomes were counterstained with ng of dapi/ml. images were visualized by use of a nikon eclipse e fluo- rescence microscope and were analyzed by smart- capture software (vysis). cell culture, complementation, and biotin-labeling assays fibroblast and lymphoblast cell lines obtained from patients were confirmed to be deficient in mcc, which was assayed in extracts by measurement of the incorpo- ration of [ c]-hco � into acid-precipitable material, as described elsewhere (gibson et al. ). cells were cul- tured, according to standard procedures, in minimal es- sential medium (mem) (life technologies) supplement- ed with % glutamine, % fetal calf serum, and an- tibiotics. for complementation experiments, cells from two different lines were plated together at an equal den- sity, and cell fusion was induced in mem (without serum) in the presence of % peg for min. cells were washed to remove residual polyethylene glycol and were cultured for a further h under standard condi- tions. then the cells were incubated in mem with % fetal calf serum and . mm [ - c]-isovalerate ( mci/ mmol; american radiolabeled chemicals). complemen- tation was monitored by measurement of the incorpo- ration of labeled isovalerate into macromolecules. fibro- blast cell lines deficient in the leucine degradation– pathway enzyme isovaleryl-coa dehydrogenase were used as positive controls complementing mcc-deficient cell lines. all assays were done in triplicate, with stan- dard deviations, which, in all cases, were within % of the mean value. sds-page analysis of [ h]-biotin labeled mitochondrial carboxylases was as described elsewhere (lamhonwah et al. ). immunohistochemical localization of hmccb in mitochondria a his-tagged (at its n-terminus) hmccb protein con- taining residues – was expressed in bl escher- ichia coli cells and was purified by ni � affinity chro- matography. the purified protein was used to raise a mouse polyclonal antiserum. this antiserum detects, in western blot analysis, a liver protein with the expected electrophoretic mobility for human mccb. cultured hu- man fibroblasts were fixed with % paraformaldehyde, were treated with . % triton x- (in pbs), and were incubated, for h at �c, with mouse anti-mccb an- tiserum (diluted : in mm tris-hcl ph . , mm nacl, . % tween , and % bovine serum al- bumin). anti-mouse biotinylated secondary antibody and alexa –conjugated streptavidin were from dako and molecular probes, respectively. immunostaining was an- alyzed by means of a confocal imaging system. identification of mutations in patients with mcg all mutations reported here were identified at both the genomic level and the cdna level. to identify mu- tations at the mrna level, reverse transcriptase–pcr (rt-pcr) was performed with the thermoscript rt- pcr system (life technologies), with mrna ( mg) iso- lated from fibroblasts of patients and controls. the entire coding sequence of the mcca gene and the mccb gene was amplified in seven or six overlapping fragments, respectively, and subsequently was sequenced. for ge- nomic characterization, exons and flanking intronic se- quences were pcr-amplified by means of primers de- signed to be specific to the intronic genomic sequences (table ). both sequencing of pcr-amplified fragments and sscp analysis were essentially as described else- where (beltrán valero de bernabé et al. ). to rule out the possibility that missense mutations are frequent polymorphisms in north american or spanish popula- tions, we built a control sample including chro- mosomes, using anonymous donors from madrid and new york. aspergillus techniques a lembl library was screened with fungal est can- didates (fungal genetics stock center) for genes encod- ing mcca or mccb. the cloned inserts in two partially overlapping positive clones were used to reconstruct a -kb region containing mcca, mccb, and a fungal iso- valeryl-coa dehydrogenase gene. intron positions were determined by comparison with the cdna sequence. a linear fragment containing genomic flanking sequences upstream ( . kb) and downstream ( . kb) of the mcca open reading frame in which the complete mcca coding region between the initiation and stop codons had been replaced by an argb� allele was used to trans- form an arginine-requiring methg argb bia strain to arginine prototrophy. transformed colonies were pu- rified in minimal medium lacking arginine and were an- alyzed by southern blot analysis using mcca- and argb- specific probes to select a number of independent transformants carrying the expected replacement of the resident mcca gene by the argb� allele. all these dmcca transformants were phenotypically indistinguishable and were unable to grow on leucine. an argb� trans- formant in which the argb� allele had replaced the res- ident mutant argb allele was used as an isogenic mcca� control. growth tests were performed as described else- where (fernández-cañón and peñalva a), with each amino acid used, at mm, as sole carbon source. plates were incubated for d at �c. gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency results identification and characterization of human mcca and mccb cdnas the cdna sequence of mcca (genbank accession number af [genbank overview]) (fig. a), en- coding human mcca (hmcca), was assembled by a combination of dbest (expressed sequence tags data- base) searching and conventional cdna screening of cdna libraries. tblastn (blast) searches of the hu- man dbest database, with the arabidopsis thaliana mcca amino acid sequence (song et al. ) used as a probe, identified incomplete (at the n-terminal coding region) uterus (genbank accession number aa [genbank overview]; . kb, excluding polya) and ad- renal carcinoma (aa [genbank overview]; . kb) est clones. sequencing of these clones revealed a predicted protein with a biotin-binding site (león del rı́o and gravel ) whose amino acid sequence differed from those of pcca and other biotin-dependent carbox- ylases. it therefore fulfilled the criteria expected of mcca. the largest clone was used as a [ p]-labeled probe in a hybridization screening of a human liver cdna library, which failed to identify clones carrying the translation start codon but which yielded sequences extending farther upstream of codon (the most n-terminal codon in the probe). a further dbest search with these sequences identified a muscle est (aw [genbank over- view]) that provided the missing ′ region of the transcript containing the initiator methionine codon, as predicted on the basis of multiple-sequence alignment (data not shown) with arabidopsis thaliana and aspergillus nidu- lans (see below) mcca polypeptides. hmcca contains residues and includes the tetra- peptide -amkm- matching the consensus bind- ing sequence for the essential biotin cofactor (león del rı́o and gravel ), predicted to be attached, via an amide bond, to the e-amino group of lys (fig. a). residues – of human mcca show % identity to the biotin-carboxylating polypeptide of escherichia coli acc (waldrop et al. ) and include the sequence -ggggkgmr- , which is strongly conserved among biotin-carboxylating enzymes. the crystal struc- ture of bacterial acc (thoden et al. ) revealed that this peptide makes a major contribution to the atp- binding pocket. hmcca shows ∼ % identity to its fungal homologue (see below) and ∼ % identity to hpcca. a human mccb cdna, encoding mccb, was ini- tially identified by a search of the dbest, with the hu- man pccb amino acid sequence used as a probe. tblastn searches of human dbest identified a can- didate clone (genbank accession number aa [genbank overview]) for mccb. although this clone is not currently available, the translation product of the deposited sequence identified an aspergillus nidulans est (for mccb) (accession number n c [fungal (as- pergillus nidulans, aspergillus parasiticus, and neuro- spora crassa) cosmid and cdna sequencing]). in a third tblastn search, this fungal amino acid sequence iden- tified kidney (genbank accession number ai [genbank overview]; . kb) and uterus (genbank ac- cession number ai [genbank overview]; . kb) ests, the sequencing of which, combined with rt- pcr using human liver mrna, served to assemble a full-length mccb cdna (genbank accession number af [genbank overview]). human mccb encodes a -residue mccb poly- peptide (fig. b) showing % sequence identity to its aspergillus nidulans orthologue (the mccb product; see below) and % identity to human pccb. during the course of this work, the arabidopsis thaliana mcc-b gene was reported (mckean et al. ). arabidopsis mcc-b is also % identical to hmccb, which con- firms the correct identification of the human sequences. both mcca and mccb contain putative signal pep- tides, in agreement with their predicted mitochondrial localization. a polyclonal antiserum raised against his- tagged mccb purified from recombinant bacteria was used to confirm the mitochondrial localization of the protein in normal human fibroblasts (fig. d). structure and chromosomal localization of the mcca and mccb genes the intron-exon organization of the human mcca gene was obtained from sequence data, available from the human genome project, of a bacterial artificial chro- mosome (bac) (genbank accession number ac [genbank overview]), and from our sequencing data for a human pac clone (rzpd rpci- h ). the human mcca gene is split into exons (fig. c and table ). rh mapping with the stanford g and genebridge (gb ) panels was initially used to determine the gene’s chromosomal location. mcca was linked to rh markers mapping to different chromosome locations in either the g ( p . -p ) or the gb ( q - ) rh panel. to solve this contradiction, we used fish. the analysis of individual metaphases from two independent ex- periments unambiguously mapped mcca to the telo- meric region in the long arm of chromosome (fig. ). we conclude that mcca maps to q - (fig. a). we used three human genome sequence clones (genbank accession numbers ac , ac , and ac [genbank overview]) to determine the structure of the -exon human mccb gene (fig. c and table ). the mccb “aa ” est sequence, in- cluded within these genomic clones, belongs to a unigene cluster (h. ; sts accession number sgc or am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure cdna nucleotide sequence and intron-exon organization of human mcca and mccb. a and b, nucleotide sequence of mcca (a) and mccb (b) cdnas, with deduced translation sequences. red arrowheads indicate the position of the introns. c, intron-exon organization of the mcca gene (top) and the mccb (bottom) gene. d, mccb protein localizing in mitochondria. a mouse polyclonal antiserum raised against histidine-tagged mccb purified from bacteria was used to reveal the mitochondrial localization of mccb, in immunohistochemical localization experiments with cultured fibroblasts. shgc- [genemap’ ]) mapping either to q - . (reference interval d s –d s ) in the gb map or to q (reference interval d s –d s ) in the g map. in agreement, our rh experiments using primers that generate an amplicon in the ′ utr of exon (table ) consistently linked the human mccb gene to markers mapping to chromosome q -q . , in both the g panel and the gb panel. gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency table structure of human mcca and human mccb exon size (bp) ′ splice exon ′ splice intron size (bp) mcca: gcccaaaggtag.......ctg ccg ccg ag gtgggtggaggg , tttatgttatag g aca tgg gtg.........aca gcc aca g gtactgacagac , tgttttaaacag ga aga aac att......cat gta gat atg gtatgtgttaaa , tttcttaaacag gca gat gaa gca.....tct gct gca cag gtgagggttgtg , tctcatttctag gct atc cat cca......ggt ata aag ag gtatgagtttat , cccactctaaag c aca tcc aaa.......gga gga gga aaa gtaagattgtgc tttctctcttag gga atg agg att......gac aca ccg ag gtgggttggcct , gcttttatatag g cat gta gaa...gag gcc cca gcg gtaaggaccttg , tttttttcatag cct ggt att aaa.......gtt gga gca g gtaggttaagat , tttaccttttag gg act gtg gag......tgg cag ctt aga gtgagaatattt , ttctattgccag att gca gca gga.......gta cgg caa g gtaaagtgaaag , tttcaatttcag ga gac gaa gtt......cgt cag tac aat gtgagtgatctg , ttctcttcctag att gtt gga ctg.......cag gca cat g gtatggaaggct , aattttttctag at caa ttc tct........ggt aaa aac a gtaagtaatgtt , ttttccataaag at gta gcc ata......tat agc atg cag gtaagccttact , catttttttcag att gaa gat aaa.....cta ttt tcc aag gtaatgtctctt , ttctgtttctag gaa gga agt att.....acc att gaa aag gtaatcacatga , ctgaatctcaag gtg ttt gtc aaa.....atg aag atg gag gtaaggaaatca , gtgtctctgcag cat acc ata aag....tttttattggaagcc mccb: ggggctgcaagg......gcc ctc tac cag gtaggctgagcg , tttctgttttag gag aac tac.........ata aaa cta g gtaaacacagca , tttctatcatag ga ggt ggt.........ata gac cca gg gtgcgtacatag , tcttcgctttag g tct cca ttt......aga gta tca gg gtgagtatttac , tctgcctttcag a gta gaa tgc.......atc tac tta g gcaagtcaccag , tcttgtcttcag tt gat tcg gga....aat att gca cag gtaatttttcat , cttggattccag atc gca gtg.......gga ccc ccc ttg gtaagaacataa , tccttgttgtag gtt aaa gcg gca....ctt cat tgc ag gtgaaacagaaa , cttattctgtag a aag tct gga.....aag aaa ttg gat gtgagtacgata gtatttctgcag gtc acc att gaa...gat gtc cga gag gtatgtgaaagt , ttttcctcttag gtc att gct aga.....tta gtt aca g gtataaaggtga , ctttcttttgag ga ttt gct cga....tct gca aaa aag gcaagtactgtt , atttgcttatag ggt act cac ttt.....aac att act g gtaagaaaatag , tctttctctcag ga ttt atg gtt.....aga gcg tat ag gtaggtgtcatg ttcttcccccag c cca aga ttt.....gaa gga aag cag gtcggtgtcgtt , cttttcctttag ttc tcc agt gct....tcc agc gca ag gtgggggccaga , ttcttttgtcag g gta tgg gat.....attttcactgaaatg transcription pattern of the mcca and mccb genes: agreement with the predicted physiological role unlike most amino acids absorbed across the intestine, the branched-chain amino acids leucine, valine, and iso- leucine are not taken up to any great extent by the liver, which leads to a large increment in their arterial con- centration after a protein-rich meal (wahren et al. ). muscle is the primary site for branched-chain–amino acid transamination (goldberg and chang ; chuang and shih ). the resulting branched-chain ketoacids can be either further metabolized there (gold- berg and chang ) or transported to liver, kidney, and heart, where they are oxidized (chuang and shih ). in the liver, a-isocaproic acid, the product of leucine transamination, is further metabolized, via - methycrotonyl-coa and mcc, to acetyl-coa (fig. a), which can serve as a precursor for ketone-body and is- oprenoid biosynthesis. in the muscle, leucine can be a source of energy, via full oxidation to co (goldberg and chang ). in agreement with both the predicted involvement of mcc in the oxidation of leucine in these tissues and the heteromeric nature of mcc, northern blot hybridization showed that the mcca and mccb transcripts are coordinately expressed at high levels in liver, kidney, heart, and skeletal muscle (fig. b). mcca is transcribed as a single . -kb message; mccb gives rise to a minor . -kb transcript and a major -kb tran- script. this long transcript almost certainly results from further downstream polyadenylation of exon , which would lead to a long (∼ . kb) ′ utr. the presence of this long ′ utr within the human transcriptome was confirmed by both rt-pcr (table ) and the identifi- am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure chromosomal localization of mcca (a) and mccb (b). rh-mapping results with the gb panel (for mcca) and with the g and gb panels (for mccb) are shown. the nearly telomeric chromosomal localization of mcca was confirmed by fish (see insets of individual chromosomes, in panel a). cation of est clones (genbank accession numbers aw and ai [genbank overview]) con- taining this region. mutations in mcca or mccb, in patients with mcg to confirm the involvement of mcca and mccb in mcg, we screened for mutations in the cloned genes in seven probands. these patients (one from argentina, one from spain, and five from the united states) were un- related, although two of them (gibson et al. ) be- long to the amish/mennonite population in lancaster county, pennsylvania. these patients either showed el- evated excretion of the diagnostic compounds -meth- ylcrotonylglycine or -hydroxyisovaleric acid or came to clinical attention because of their abnormally increased blood levels of c -oh. all of them had been shown to be deficient for mcc but were normal for at least one of the other biotin-dependent carboxylases (gibson et al. ) and showed normal [ h]-biotin labeling of pc and pcca (see below). these data rule out a multiple- carboxylase deficiency (i.e., a deficiency of all four bi- otin-dependent carboxylases) resulting from defects ei- ther in the insertion of the biotin cofactor into the apoenzymes or in the recycling of the cofactor (wolf ). polyethylene glycol–mediated heterokaryosis between fibroblast cell lines from five of these patients (fibroblasts were not available for the remaining two patients) was used to classify them into two complementation groups (table ). by analogy to the deficiency of the dicistronic enzyme pcc (gravel et al. ; ugarte et al. ), each of these two complementation groups would be defined by recessive loss-of-function mutations in one of the two genes encoding the mcc subunits. fibroblasts from the argentine patient were arbitrarily used as the reference. two complementing patients were included within complementation group a (cga), and two non- complementing patients were included, along with the reference patient, within complementation group b (cgb) (table ). in addition, we used [ h]-biotin labeling of mitochondrial biotin carboxylases, followed by sds- page and autoradiography, to resolve pc, mcca, and pcca (lamhonvah et al. ). fibroblasts of all of these five patients showed normal pc and pcca labeling (data not shown). however, whereas the three cgb pa- tients showed normal mcca labeling, one of the two cga patients did not (fig. ), strongly indicating that cga is defined by mutations in mcca. we detected two missense mutations in mcca in the two cga patients (fig. and table ). these mutations were absent in a sample of control chromosomes. m r involves a nonconservative substitution leading gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency figure a, leucine-degradation pathway. the absence of mcc leads to the accumulation of the upstream compounds isovaleryl-coa and methylcrotonyl-coa, which lead to -hydroxyisovaleric ( -hiva) and -methylcrotonylglycine ( -mc-gly), which are biochemical land- marks of the isolated, biotin-insensitive mcc deficiency. b, multitissue northern blot hybridization, showing coordinated, high-level expression of mcca and mccb in liver, kidney, heart, and skeletal muscle. b-actin was used as a loading control. mcca and mccb probes were ests “aa ” and “ai ,” respectively. b p brain; h p heart; sm p skeletal muscle; c p colon; t p thymus; s p spleen; k p kidney; li p liver; si p small intestine; p p placenta; lu p lung; pbl p peripheral blood lymphocytes. the human multiple-tissue northern filter was purchased from clontech. to absence of [ h]-biotin mcca labeling (fig. ), which would indicate that it affects either protein stability or biotinylation. r s involves a substitution of an ar- ginine residue that is strictly conserved among humans, plants, and fungi. human mcca arg corresponds to arg in the biotin-carboxylating component of e. coli acc, which appears to form part of a positively charged pocket for bicarbonate binding (thoden et al. ). this mutation could lead to a kinetic defect with- out mcca destabilization, as indicated by the normal [ h]-biotin labeling of mutant mcca in fibroblasts of our patient (table ). in addition to these mutations, we detected two frequent polymorphisms in mcca—the synonymous point mutation c. trc (l l) and the missense mutation c. arc (h p). proline rather than histidine is present in the corresponding position in arabidopsis mcca (song et al. ). we detected three mutations in the mccb gene in the three cgb patients (fig. and table ). an additional mccb mutation was found in the two patients who were not included in complementation studies (table and fig. ). no mutation was detected in the mcca gene of the latter two patients, who, like the three cgb patients, showed normal mcca labeling (table ). two of these four mccb mutations almost certainly repre- sent null alleles: d fs (c. inst) truncates mccb after residue , and ivs � grt is a splicing mu- tation leading to skipping of exon , frameshift, and early truncation (fig. ). the remaining two mutations (c r and a t) are missense mutations involving nonconservative substitutions of mccb residues that are strictly conserved among humans, fungi, and plants. both mutations are absent from a sample of normal chromosomes. in vivo involvement of mcc in leucine catabolism the haploid fungus aspergillus nidulans is able to grow on a number of amino acids, as the sole carbon source, using catabolic pathways that are very similar to those found in humans (fernández-cañón and peñal- va a). in previous studies, we have exploited this metabolic versatility and the relatively facile genetic ma- nipulation of this lower eukaryote in order to charac- terize the human genes of phenylalanine metabolism (fernández-cañón and peñalva a, b, , ). aspergillus nidulans grows on leucine and iso- leucine—and, to a lesser extent, on valine—as the sole carbon source. dbest searches allowed us to identify aspergillus nidulans mcca and mccb cdnas, which en- code fungal mcca and mccb, respectively. their ge- nomic characterization showed that, together with the am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure results of in vivo [ h]-biotin labeling of mitochondrial biotin-containing polypeptides pc, pcca, and mcca. cultured fi- broblasts (relevant genotypes are shown at the top of each lane) were incubated in the presence of the labeled vitamin and were lysed, and the protein extracts were loaded onto a . % sds-polyacrylamide gel. labeled proteins were revealed by fluorography. table mcca and mccb mutations in patients with mcg patient (origin) group a mcca [ h]-biotin labeling? mutation in b nucleotide change c predicted consequence(s)mcca mccb (spain) cgb yes c r mccb c. trc cys arg substitution in mccb (argentina) cgb yes a t mccb c. gra ala thr substitution in mccb (united states) … yes d fs mccb c. inst mccb sequence frameshifted after residue (united states) … yes d fs mccb c. inst mccb sequence frameshifted after residue (united states) cgb yes ivs � rt mccb c. � grt mccb exon skipping, frameshift after residue (united states) cga no m r mcca c. trg met arg substitution in mcca (united states) cga yes r s mcca c. arc arg ser substitution in mcca a an ellipsis (…) denotes that the individual was not classified. b found in apparent homozygosis (or in a hemizygosis-like situation; see the text). missense mutations, which are underlined, were absent from normal chromosomes. c nucleotide numbering referred to the a in the initiation atg codons of the cdna sequences in figure . isovaleryl-coa dehydrogenase gene, these genes are closely linked within a -kb region, in a likely leucine- degradation cluster (j.m.r. and m.a.p, unpublished data). we constructed, by homologous recombination, a null dmcca strain. in contrast to the parental strain, this dmcca strain is unable to utilize leucine but grows normally on threonine, isoleucine, or valine (which are catabolized via propionyl-coa and pcc) (fig. ). these data establish in vivo the specific involvement of mcca (and, by extension, mcc) in leucine catabolism. discussion we have characterized, at both the genomic level and the cdna level, the human mcca and mccb genes encoding the subunits of mcc, which is an enzyme of leucine catabolism and which, when deficient, leads to mcg; and we have detected six mcca or mccb mu- tations in patients diagnosed with the disease. all these mutations are most likely in homozygosis. however, since no relatives of the patients were available for seg- regation analysis, we cannot formally rule out the pos- sibility that, among the probands, there are compound heterozygotes carrying a partial or complete deletion of either the mcca gene or the mccb gene. the six mutations reported here fulfill the criteria for pathogenic mutations (cotton and horaitis ): (i) each of these mutations was detected in a particular proband after direct sequencing of the complete coding region of either mcca or mccb; (ii) they were con- firmed in two independent rt-pcr experiments; (iii) they were confirmed by direct sequencing of genomic dna; (iv) they were confirmed by rflp or sscp anal- ysis of the corresponding amplified exons; (v) all six were absent from a sample of normal chromo- somes; and (vi) the m r mcca missense mutation leads to absence of biotinylated mcca, which is a for- mal proof that this mutation is pathogenic, since the biotin cofactor is essential for enzyme function (see wolf ); (vii) arg , the mcca residue affected by the second mcca missense mutation (r s), is predicted to be involved in the binding of one of the enzyme substrates (see the results section); (viii) d fs and ivs � grt, two of the four mutations found in mccb in homozygosis (or in a hemizygosis-like situ- ation), result in early protein truncation (table ) and almost certainly lead to null alleles; and (ix) the other two mutations found in mccb involve nonconservative substitutions of residues that are strictly conserved among the three mccb sequences available (i.e., hu- man, arabidopsis, and aspergillus). we therefore con- clude that mcg results from loss-of-function mutations gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency figure mutations in mcca and mccb. a, mutations in mccb: results of direct sequencing of pcr-amplified genomic dna from controls and from cgb patients who have mcg are shown. arrows indicate the mutated positions. b, results of direct sequencing of pcr- amplified genomic dna from controls and from cga patients who have mcg. arrows indicate the mutated positions. c, ivs � grt mccb mutation, which results in skipping of exon . the gel shows the results of agarose-gel electrophoresis and direct sequence analysis of mccb cdna from the region surrounding the exon /exon junction, amplified by rt-pcr with fibroblast mrna as template, from a control (lane c) and from the patient (lane p) carrying this mutation. lane m, molecular-wieght marker. in either mcca or mccb, the genes encoding the a and b subunits, respectively, of mcc. the mcca m r mutation leading to absence of biotinylated mcca deserves particular attention. in hu- man pcca, a polypeptide comprising the carboxyl-ter- minal amino acids that include the biotin-attachment sequence ala-met-lys-met functions as an independent domain that can be biotinylated in e. coli (león del rı́o and gravel ). met , affected by this mcca mu- tation, lies considerably upstream of the corresponding region in hmcca (see fig. ), and therefore the absence of biotinylated mutant mcca almost certainly reflects the absence of the protein, rather than an impairment of biotinylation. with regard to the efficiency of rt- pcr amplification, we noticed no differences between the mcca transcript from m r fibroblasts and that from normal fibroblasts, which would suggest both that this mutation does not result in mrna destabilization and that the absence of mcca labeling possibly results from decreased protein stability. only two of the probands in the present study carry the same mutation (d fs). these individuals are fe- male adults shown to be deficient for mcc but clinically asymptomatic at the moment of diagnosis (gibson et al. ). they belong to the amish/mennonite pop- ulation and came to clinical attention because their chil- am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure knockout of the gene for mcca in aspergillus nidulans. an aspergillus nidulans dmcca strain carrying a complete deletion of the gene encoding fungal mcca is unable to utilize leucine as the sole carbon source but grows on other branched-chain amino acids. the parental strain and three independent transformants (denoted “# ”–“# ”) deleted for the mcca gene were grown on synthetic minimal medium with ammonium chloride as the nitrogen source and with mm of the indicated amino acids as the sole carbon source. plates were incubated for d at �c. fungi can synthesize carbohydrates from acetyl-coa, via the glyoxylate cycle—thereby bypassing the krebs cycle, which leads to complete oxidation of acetyl-coa to co and water. dren, later shown to be normal obligate carriers (gibson et al. ; present study), showed increased quantities of c-oh in blood, possibly as a result of the accu- mulation of maternal c-oh in the red cells of these children during pregnancy (ranieri et al. b). the absence of symptoms in these mennonite female adults is an extreme example of the variable clinical phenotype of mcg (sweetman and williams ), in which the symptoms range from mild muscular weakness to severe episodes of metabolic decompensation. it is noteworthy that these two clinically asymptomatic female adults carry an mccb null mutation, apparently in homozy- gosis, and show highly elevated levels of c-oh and -methylcrotonylglycine, in blood and urine, respec- tively (gibson et al. ), which is consistent with their genotype. this shows the significant influence that en- vironmental factors (such as minor intercurrent infec- tions or adoption of a protein-rich diet, which fre- quently trigger metabolic crises) and/or genetic makeup may have in the clinical outcome of this potentially severe disease. therefore, in mcg, as in other metabolic monogenic traits, the enzyme-structural gene(s) is the major determinant of the biochemical phenotype, but the associated clinical features are complex, somehow resembling the so-called complex traits (scriver and wa- ters ). although mcg previously had been thought to be a rare inborn error of metabolism, the introduction of massive neonatal screening by ms/ms of urine or blood spots in neonates has revealed that mcg is unexpect- edly frequent, with an incidence, for example, of ∼ / , in south australia (ranieri et al. a), ∼ / , in north carolina (smith et al. ), ∼ / , in new south wales (wilcken et al. ), and ∼ / , in bavaria, where mcg appears to be the most frequent of the organic acidurias (roscher et al. ). our work provides the molecular tools to an- alyze the molecular basis of this emergent disease, paves the way for future studies on phenotype-genotype cor- relations, and should facilitate the detection of hetero- zygote carriers and false positives of neonatal screening. finally, this work completes the characterization of all four biotin-dependent carboxylases of human inter- mediary metabolism. note added in proof.—we have recently learned that the molecular basis of mcg has also been identified by baumgartner et al. (in press). acknowledgments we thank herbert n. arst, for critical reading of the man- uscript; r. navarrete, e. reoyo, and staff in the sequencing gallardo et al.: -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency facility at the centro de investigaciones biologı́cas, for tech- nical assistance; the fundación ramón areces, for an insti- tutional grant to the centro de biologı́a molecular csic- uam; and the dirección general de investigacion cientifica y técnica, for support through grant fd - . electronic-database information accession numbers and urls for data in this article are as follows: blast, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/ expressed sequence tags database, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih .gov/dbest/index.html fungal (aspergillus nidulans, aspergillus parasiticus, and neu- rospora crassa) cosmid and cdna sequencing, http://www .genome.ou.edu/fungal.html (for aspergillus nidulans [ac- cession number n c ]) fungal genetics stock center, http://www.fgsc.net/ (for fungal est clones) genbank overview, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ genbankoverview.html (for human mcca ests, [accession numbers aa , aa , and aw ], human mccb ests [accession numbers aa , ai , ai , aw , and ai ], full-length human mcca cdna [accession number af ], full-length mccb cdna [accession number af ], human mcca bac [accession number ac ], and human mccb bacs [accession numbers ac , ac , and ac ]) genemap’ , http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genemap / (for overview of human chromosome maps, for unigene mccb cluster h. [sts accession number sgc or shgc- ]) incyte genomics http://www.incyte.com/ (for human est clones) online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/ (for mcg [mim ]) radiation hybrid mapping, http://carbon.wi.mit.edu: / cgi-bin/contig/rhmapper.pl (for genebridge panel) resource center/primary database rzpd, http://www.rzpd .de/ (for human pac clones) (for mcca, rpci- h ) stanford human genome center, http://shgc-www.stanford .edu/rh/index.html (for g panel) references baumgartner mr, almashanu s, suormala t, obie c, cole rn, morton dh, packman s, baumgartner er, valle d. the molecular basis of human -methylcrotonyl coa car- boxylase deficiency. j clin invest (in press) beltrán-valero de bernabé d, granadino b, chiarelli i, porfirio b, mayatepek e, aquaron r, moore mm, festen jj, san- martı́ r, peñalva ma, rodrı́guez de córdoba s ( ) mu- tation and polymorphism analysis of the human homogen- tisate , - dioxygenase gene in alkaptonuria patients. am j hum genet : – chuang dt, shih ve ( ) disorders of branched chain amino acid and ketoacid metabolism. in: scriver c, beaudet a, sly w, valle d (eds) the metabolic basis of inherited disease, th ed. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – cotton rgh, horaitis o ( ) quality control in the dis- covery, reporting and recording of genomic variation. hum mutat : – fernández-cañón jm, granadino b, beltrán-valero de ber- nabé d, renedo m, fernández-ruiz e, peñalva ma, ro- drı́guez de córdoba s ( ) the molecular basis of alkap- tonuria. nat genet : – fernández-cañón jm, peñalva ma ( a) fungal metabolic model for human type i hereditary tyrosinemia. proc natl acad sci usa : – ——— ( b) molecular characterization of a gene encod- ing a homogentisate dioxygenase from aspergillus nidulans and identification of its human and plant homologues. j biol chem : – ——— ( ) characterization of a fungal maleylacetoace- tate isomerase gene and identification of its human homo- logue. j biol chem : – gibson km, bennet mj, naylor ew, morton dh ( ) - methylcrotonyl-coenzyme a carboxylase deficiency in amish/mennonite adults identified by detection of increased acylcarnitines in blood spots of their children. j pediatr : – gibson km, ugarte m, fukao t, mitchell ga ( ) molec- ular and enzymatic methods for detection of genetic defects in distal pathways of branched-chain amino acid metabo- lism. methods enzymol : – goldberg al, chang tw ( ) regulation and significance of amino acid metabolism in skeletal muscle. fed proc : – gravel ra, lam kf, scully kj, hia y ( ) genetic com- plementation of propionyl-coa carboxylase deficiency in cultured human fibroblasts. am j hum genet : – gyapay g, schmitt k, fizames c, jones h, vega-czarny n, spillett d, muselet d, prud’homme jf, dib c, auffray c, morissette j, weissenbach j, goodfellow pn ( ) a ra- diation hybrid map of the human genome. hum mol genet : – lamhonwah am, barankiewicz tj, willard hf, mahuran dj, quan f, gravel ra ( ) isolation of cdna clones coding for the alpha and beta chains of human propionyl-coa car- boxylase: chromosomal assignments and dna polymor- phisms associated with pcca and pccb genes. proc natl acad sci usa : – lamhonwah am, lam kf, tsui f, robinson b, saunders me, gravel ra ( ) assignment of the a and b chains of hu- man propionyl-coa carboxylase to genetic complementa- tion groups. am j hum genet : – lau ep, cochran bc, fall rr ( ) isolation of -methyl- crotonyl-coenzyme a carboxylase from bovine kidney. arch biochem biophys : – león del rı́o a, gravel ra ( ) sequence requirements for the biotinylation of carboxyl-terminal fragments of human propionyl-coa carboxylase alpha subunit expressed in es- cherichia coli. j biol chem : – mckean al, ke j, song j, che p, achenbach s, nikolau bj, wurtele es ( ) molecular characterization of the non- biotin-containing subunit of -methylcrotonyl-coa carbox- ylase. j biol chem : – am. j. hum. genet. : – , moorhead ps, nowell pc, mellman wj, battips dm, hun- gerford da ( ) chromosome preparation of leukocytes cultured from human peripheral blood. exp cell res : – naylor ew, chace dh ( ) automated tandem mass spec- trometry for mass newborn screening for disorders in fatty acid, organic acid, and amino acid metabolism. j child neu- rol suppl :s –s ranieri e, gerace r, barlett b, barnard k, fletcher jm ( a) the introduction of tandem mass spectrometry into the south australian neonatal screening program: benefits and costs. j inherit metab dis suppl : (poster) ranieri e, gerace r, metz m, harrison jr, nelson pv, fietz m, fletcher jm ( b) localisation of the -hydroxyval- erylcarnitine within the cellular fraction of blood in a case of -methylcrotonyl coenzyme a carboxylase deficiency. j inherit metab dis suppl : (oral presentation) roscher a, liebl b, fingerhut r, olgemöller b ( ) pro- spective study of ms-ms newborn screening in bavaria, ger- many: interim results. j inherit metab dis suppl : (poster) scriver cr, waters pj ( ) monogenic traits are not simple: lessons from phenylketonuria. trends genet : – smith we, muenzer j, frazier d, millington ds kishnani ps, mcdonald m, koeberl dd ( ) evaluation of elevated hydroxyisovalerylcarnitine in the newborn screen by tandem mass spectrometry. am j hum genet suppl : song j, wurtele es, nikolau bj ( ) molecular cloning and characterization of the cdna coding for the biotin-con- taining subunit of -methylcrotonoyl-coa carboxylase: identification of the biotin carboxylase and biotin-carrier domains. proc natl acad sci usa : – stewart ea, mckusick kb, aggarwal a, bajorek e, brady s, chu a, fang n, et al ( ) an sts-based radiation hybrid map of the human genome. genome res : – sweetman l, williams jc ( ) branched chain organic ac- idurias. in: scriver c, beaudet a, sly w, valle d (eds) the metabolic basis of inherited disease, th ed. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – thoden jb, blanchard cz, holden hm, waldrop gl ( ) movement of the biotin carboxylase b-domain as a result of atp binding. j biol chem : – ugarte m, pérez-cerdá c, rodrı́guez-pombo p, desviat lr, pérez b, richard e, muro s, campeau e, ohura t, gravel ra ( ) overview of mutations in the pcca and pccb genes causing propionic acidemia. hum mutat : – van hove jl, rutledge sl, nada ma, kahler sg, millington ds ( ) -hydroxyisovalerylcarnitine in -methylcro- tonyl-coa carboxylase deficiency. j inherit metab dis : – wahren j, felig p, hagenfeldt l ( ) effect of protein in- gestion on splanchic and leg metabolism in normal man and in patients with diabetes mellitus. j clin invest : – waldrop gl, rayment i, holden hm ( ) three-dimen- sional structure of the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl- coa carboxylase. biochemistry : – wilcken b, wiley v, carpenter k ( ) two years of routine newborn screening by tandem mass spectrometry (msms) in new south wales, australia. j inherit metab dis suppl : (poster) wolf b ( ) disorders of biotin metabolism. in: scriver c, beaudet a, sly w, valle d (eds) the metabolic basis of in- herited disease, th ed. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – 	the molecular basis of -methylcrotonylglycinuria, a disorder of leucine catabolism 	introduction 	patients, material, and methods 	patients 	expressed-sequence tags (ests), dna sequencing, and chromosomal localization of mcca and mccb 	fish mapping 	cell culture, complementation, and biotin-labeling assays 	immunohistochemical localization of hmccb in mitochondria 	identification of mutations in patients with mcg 	aspergillus techniques 	results 	identification and characterization of human mcca and mccb cdnas 	structure and chromosomal localization of the mcca and mccb genes 	transcription pattern of the mcca and mccb genes: agreement with the predicted physiological role 	mutations in mcca or mccb, in patients with mcg 	in vivo involvement of mcc in leucine catabolism 	discussion 	references spigel | introducing the new studies in the maternal | studies in the maternal 	articlesarrow_drop_down 	submissionsarrow_drop_down 	aboutarrow_drop_down 	login 	register 	articlesarrow_drop_down 	submissionsarrow_drop_down 	aboutarrow_drop_down 	login 	register menu 	articles 	collections 	issues 	submissions 	author guidelines 	start submission 	about 	contact 	become a reviewer 	editorial team 	articles 	collections 	issues 	submissions 	author guidelines 	start submission 	about 	contact 	become a reviewer 	editorial team editorial introducing the new studies in the maternal editorial introducing the new studies in the maternal 		 		 how to cite spigel s. & baraitser l., ( ) “introducing the new studies in the maternal”, studies in the maternal ( ). p. . doi: https://doi.org/ . /sim. views downloads issue ( ) is the first issue of studies in the maternal that is published by open library of the humanities (olh), a publishing platform funded by a consortium of libraries that are committed to keeping scholarly publication accessible with no article processing charges for authors. studies in the maternal began in , and over the last seven years has produced eleven scholarly peer-reviewed issues that have been hosted by birkbeck, university of london. this institutional platform has allowed the journal to remain outside of the commercial publishing world, enabling us to fulfil our mission of publishing open access, online, interdisciplinary scholarship about motherhood and the maternal across the humanities, arts and social sciences. although hosted at birkbeck, the journal remains unfunded. as good ‘thrifty’ citizens, we have, until now, happily embraced the ‘homemade’ aesthetic and piecemeal approach that this has given rise to, literally putting each issue together by hand, with the help of naomi bain in the it department, who has consistently offered us her considerable skills and talents in making eleven beautiful electronic objects. working in this way reminds us of the long history of entanglements between gender, craft, and home-based labour. crucially it has allowed editors, guest editors, students, editorial assistants, contributors and readers control over content and distribution of the journal. however, as an unfunded journal that has been reliant on the goodwill and hard work of all those involved, we have welcomed the opportunity to now move the journal to the olh platform. launched as an international network of scholars, librarians, programmers and publishers in january , olh is a charity that has aims and desires not dissimilar to those of studies in the maternal – to make scholarly publishing fairer and more accessible, and to ensure its ongoing future through digital archiving. in addition to launching issue ( ) with olh, the eleven back issues of studies in the maternal have now also been moved to the new platform (see issue archive), and have retained much of their original look and feel. the new system for author submission and peer review frees up valuable time for those of us working on the editorial side of the journal, and the journal is now even more widely accessible. crucially, we have managed to avoid introducing any charges to authors, artists and practitioners for processing their scholarly work. we do hope you will continue to use and enjoy the journal in its new form. issue ( ) is an open issue. by its nature it is not collated around a particular theme. and yet, in retrospect, the contributions to this issue appear to cluster around the issue of maternal relationality and the inherent and yet precarious transformational qualities and capacities within motherhood and the maternal. in her meticulous and economical poem reading list or what was i thinking? stav poleg captures the absurdity of trying to keep on doing what one has been doing before becoming a mother. her funny and poignant writing irradiates the destabilised maternal subject, grasping the initial naivety and then the surprise that the changes bring with them. in the creation of meaning during pregnancy filipa falcão rosado & maria emília marques share their initial findings from a qualitative and longitudinal relational investigation of the psychic processes of pregnancy. this research extends our understanding of the experience of pregnancy as the beginning of transformational psychic process that bion characterises in terms of catastrophic change (bion, ). their study has important implications for the practices of health care professionals who work with pregnant women, which need to shift to allow for the ongoing process of birthing oneself as a mother, and of creating a baby in the mind of the mother-to-be during the temporal frame of pregnancy itself. keeping with the psycho-political, we are delighted to publish jo littler and alison winch’s edited transcript of a round table discussion on feminism and childcare held at city university, london, in late . ever since second wave feminisms called for the rearrangement of the domestic division of labour there have been attempts, across a range of disciplinary, policy and practice dimensions, to make childcare everyone’s business. the participants of the seminar were sara de benedictis, gideon burrows, tracey jensen, jill rutter and victoria showunmi, who were asked to reflect on the stop-start progress we have made towards men and women sharing childcare, and to probe the barriers – social, psychological, cultural, economic, political – to this psychosocial transformation. their comprehensive critical reflections open up important questions about current cultural representations of feminist debates about childcare and domestic work, the nuances of unequal childcare that include social impediments to being able to care for children, the resonant histories and politics of daycare, the complexity of families and the resulting complexity of discussions about equality and care, and men’s place in a feminist debate about childcare. victoria scotti and ashanti prentice offer a collaborative visual inquiry about transitioning to motherhood. using the subversive artistic method of altering, defacing, and remaking books, they present a project that entails their material interventions into coffee table photographic books about new motherhood. assigning new, less idealised, meanings to the already existing texts allows them to suggest more realistic representations of motherhood in all its ambivalence and complexity. our ‘in conversation’ piece is conversation between lisa baraitser and the poet and philosopher denise riley, that takes as a starting point her work, time lived without its flow (capsule editions, ) which is a maternal response to the loss of a child. the conversation takes in the relations between motherhood, futurity, attachment, care, and writing, and is framed by a discussion of what happens to time after the sudden death of a child. this moving and captivating conversation mirrors the book and beautifully conveys the creative tensions maternal states generate. in elena marchevska’s evocative piece, the place where we were last together: encountering the border from within, she works with both bracha ettinger and gloria anzaldúa’s notions of border crossings and border linkings, in order to explore the maternal-feminine as a structuring dimension in the affects and ethics of compassion. using her own experiences of crossing national borders ‘with child’, the medicalized experience of birth, and the transformation of these disturbing experiences through art practice that involves cutting and stitching, she reveals the relations between national, bodily and psychic borders and the struggles to find a ‘voice’ through processes of border crossings. in the review section, penelope mendonça reviews the fallen woman an exhibition curated by the art historian lynda nead at the foundling museum, london. the museum is situated on the original foundling hospital site, a hospital that was set up to care for babies at risk of abandonment. the exhibition brought to life the experiences of women who applied to have their babies taken into the hospital. finally, we are pleased to include a book review by heather belnap jensen of mothering mennonite, a collection of essays, creative writing, and poetry edited by rachel epp buller and kerry fast. the book was published by demeter press, a feminist academic publisher based in canada that publishes books on the topic of motherhood. we look forward to your comments on facebook, twitter and the mamsie blog. sigal spigel and lisa baraitser 	mamsie facebook: mamsie - mapping maternal subjectivities, identities and ethics 	mamsie twitter: @mamsienetwork 	mamsie blog: http://mamsie.org/mamsieblog/ competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. share authors sigal spigel (university of cambridge centre for gender studies) lisa baraitser (birkbeck, university of london) download 	 download xml 	 download pdf issue 	 volume • issue • • volume dates 	submitted	 - - 	published	 - - licence creative commons attribution . peer review this article has been peer reviewed. file checksums (md ) 	 xml: b aa d f c f cad cc 	 pdf: cb bfed b f e c ba table of contents non specialist summary this article has no summary close | - | published by open library of humanities | privacy policy | the german identity op mennonite brethren immigrants in canada, - by benjamin wall redekop b.a., fresno pacific college, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of history in the faculty of graduate studies department of history we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british columbia september ©benjamin wall redekop, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british c o l u m b i a , i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive c o p y i n g of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. department of l i £ p / ' the university of british c o l u m b i a vancouver, canada date de- ( / ) i i abstract l i t t l e scholarly research has been done on the function of germanism among mennonites who immigrated to canada from russia in the 's, and what has been done often relies on an oversimplified "desire for separation" to explain the phenomenon. at the same time, i t has been argued that the enthusiasm for nazi germany among mennonite immigrants in canada is to be understood as part of a larger "volks-german awakening". in fact, the mennonite experience of brutal treatment during the bolshevik revolution, the economic conditions of the great depression, and assinflationist pressures from canadian society put them in a naturally receptive position for the cultural, p o l i t i c a l and ethnic ideas associated with the "new germany". the mennonite ethno-religious culture which had emerged in russia appeared to be breaking down, more rapidly in some areas than others; at the same time, distinctions between p o l i t i c a l and cultural germanism were just beginning to be understood, as they were bound up in a single "package" which seemed to offer answers to the problems of fragmentation, i n s t a b i l i t y and loss of identity. germanism, and the german language in particular, functioned as an instrument of socio-religious integration for the russlaender brethren in the years after their a r r i v a l in canada. in the interwar years, mennonite germanism took on certain p o l i t i c a l , "volkish", and nationalistic overtones; by the end of the second world war, these elements had largely faded. in the postwar period germanism becomes more clearly identifiable in i t s primary role as symbol and agent of the distinctive configuration of religious faith, i i i sense of peoplehood, and way of l i f e which had emerged in imperial russia. the germanism which was expressed in the canadian context was in large part a conservative response to the challenges posed by the forces of assimilation and acculturation, the effects of anti-germanism brought on by two world wars, and an inherent tendency of the brethren to identify with north american "english" evangelicalism and to denigrate their cultural heritage because i t was f e l t to detract from effective evangelism. a variety of sources have been used in writing this thesis, including church records, newspapers, personal papers, interviews, conference minutes and school committee minutes, as well as a wide range of secondary sources, including unpublished theses, dissertations and papers. in addition to outlining the contours of brethren germanism i t s e l f , efforts have been made to portray adequately the context in which brethren germanism was expressed, including that of the brethren constituency as a whole, other "evangelical" groups, and the larger social and p o l i t i c a l currents of canadian society. extending the analysis into the decades after adds conclusive evidence that the brethren germanism of the 's was related more to mennonite goals and aspirations than those of nazi germany, despite the presence of a significant (misguided) sympathy for the hitler regime. iv contents abstract i i acknowledgements v introduction chapter one: the canadian context and the impact of national socialism chapter two: germanism in the mennonitische rundschau. - chapter three: some comparisons: per bote and germanism in other settings during the 's chapter four: germanism and brethren congregational l i f e : the struggle for socio-religious integrity chapter five: postwar developments in higher education and german language preservation chapter six: conclusion: some theoretical and comparative perspectives bibliography v acknowledgements warm thanks to paul toews and kevin enns-rempel at the centre for mennonite brethren studies in fresno, california, for their encouragement, help and friendship. ken reddig at the centre for mennonite brethren studies in winnipeg, manitoba provided courteous assistance as well. i am grateful to lawrence klippenstein at the mennonite heritage centre in winnipeg for his helpful and relaxed attitude. joe springer at the mennonite historical library of goshen, indiana gave me a place to stay while there, as did gilbert and susan brandt while i was in winnipeg. richard and b i l l i e wiebe also provided friendly accomodations on one of my trips to fresno. thanks to john b. toews for helping to conceptualize this project. finally, special regards to john conway, who has been a good friend, c r i t i c , interlocutor and hiking companion. his support has been greatly appreciated. introduction mennonites trace their origins to reformation europe and two primary ethnic groups, dutch north-german and swiss south-german. menno simons was a leader of dutch origin who brought a number of anabaptist groups together, through his leadership and writings. the earliest anabaptists emerged in the context of the zurich reform and the "social-revolutionary movement" associated with the peasants' war ( ), and strove to effect a radical transformation of prevailing socio-religious structures following the new testament example of the early church, and christ's teachings. it was only with considerable opposition and persecution that they became conscious of themselves as an alternative community, a fellowship of the redeemed. the congregation or "worshipping community" became the "organizing principle" of anabaptist-mennonite l i f e , and has remained so to this day. while i t is perilous to try to locate a doctrinal core of the early anabaptist vision, principles such as adult baptism (voluntarism), nonresistance, a n t i - clericalism, the renewal of the christian l i f e , discipleship, and bearing the cross of christ have a l l been a part of the movement, which is based on a l i t e r a l i s t biblicism. extreme persecution caused the various strands of the movement to turn inward and migrate to areas where they were tolerated. many of the dutch north-germans gathered in prussia, before moving on to russia in the late th century. the mennonites in prussia maintained dutch as their congregational language for years after their a r r i v a l , switching to german shortly before their migration to russia in the late th century. closed settlements were founded in the ukraine, and mennonites prospered there for the next years primarily as agriculturalists. by the turn of this century a rapid cultural and economic expansion was taking place, and by the f i r s t world war a population of , was spread across colonies and , , acres of land. the colonies were essentially self-governing and autonomous u n t i l the 's, when russification pressures began to increase, and service in state forestry camps was demanded in l i e u of military service. at this point , mennonites migrated to north america, with , settling in the united states and , in canada. the attempts at russification tended to reinforce mennonite identity, and i t s germanic aspects. mennonites conversed in high german in church and at school, and spoke a low german dialect at home; russian became the compulsory language of the schools between - . the relationship with germany was of a cultural and s p i r i t u a l nature, as a steady supply of german educational and devotional materials flowed into the colonies. mennonite p o l i t i c a l allegiance, when i t was acknowledged, rested with the czar and the russian fatherland, as events surrounding the outbreak of the f i r s t world war demonstrated. the mennonite brethren were a religious subgroup within the larger russian mennonite society. german-baptist and -pietist influences had reached the colonies by the 's, and in the early 's a renewal movement began simultaneously in the two largest colonies, stressing personal religious experience, conversion, evangelism, and a cohesive religious brotherhood (sic), hence the brethren name. mennonite brethren church historian j.a. toews has l i s t e d brethren theological distinctives thus: . practical biblicism . experiential faith . personal witnessing . christian discipleship . brotherhood emphasis . evangelism and missions . christ-centred eschatology. theology as a mennonite brethren l i t e r a r y genre has been sparse u n t i l recent years; traditionally mennonites have distrusted theologizing, focussing instead on the ethics, morals and l i f e s t y l e of the body of believers as the most significant expression of religious principles. the traditional explanation for the brethren movement cites a decline in voluntarism, religious experience and morals in the colonies as having been the grounds for renewal. colony power structures had become intertwined with congregational l i f e , and birth rather than belief had become the determining element in church membership. while ideological factors were undoubtedly central in the emergence of the movement, i t has recently been argued that the brethren belonged to an educated, landless, upwardly mobile group which had been excluded from colony and congregational power structures, and hence sought to find i t s own niche in c i v i l and religious affairs. in any case, by the turn of this century the brethren were becoming increasingly reintegrated into the socio-economic and cultural l i f e of the larger mennonite community, and participated in the general "era of prosperity and progress" which took place between and . previously there had been some harrassment and oppression of brethren by the larger mennonite society, brought on largely by a negative reaction to early brethren emotional excesses, fanaticism and despotism. one interesting aspect of early brethren identity was the use of the more informal low german dialect in worship services, clearly aimed at breaking down the perceived formality and r i g i d i t y of russian mennonite r e l i g i o s i t y . this eventually gave way to high german, as the movement s o l i d i f i e d and became more systematic. the brethren displayed a "genius" for organization, forming the f i r s t all-russian mennonite church conference body in , twelve years after the movement began. they also exhibited an ongoing concern with evangelism, and an openness to non-mennonite groups like the german lutherans and baptists. by , the brethren constituted % of the population of the two original mennonite colonies, and % of the many daughter settlements. the f i r s t world war and the bolshevik revolution were disastrous for the mennonites in russia, as i t was for a l l successful farmers, or "kulaks". although there were many twists and turns in this period of their history, the overall effect was a steady destruction of a l l that had been b u i l t in the previous years, and the loss of the russian mennonite fatherland. by the early 's, serious efforts were being made to allow for the emigration of russian mennonites to canada. although many more wished to leave, , mennonites were able to escape the ussr between and , and settle in canada. the bulk of the immigrants came to canada between and . their primary reasons for leaving were loss of economic and socio-religious freedoms; the latter loss, especially, convinced mennonites that there was no future for them in soviet russia. the majority of the immigrants settled in the prairie provinces; migration trends during the 's and after were to ontario and british columbia. by , % of immigrant families were l i v i n g in ontario, % resided in the three prairie provinces, and % in b r i t i s h columbia. the canadian mennonite population prior to the 's migration numbered , , and was concentrated in the five westernmost provinces. this number was divided into congregational families, with mennonites of swiss south-german origin predominating in ontario, and those of dutch north-german stock (i.e. former russian colonists) inhabiting the prairies. the swiss mennonites had generally adopted the english language, while the russian mennonites on the prairies conversed in low german among themselves, reserving high german for church, school and written communication. the mennonite immigrants of the 's, or "russlaender", tended to speak more high german, although the dialect was s t i l l very much in use. they had become increasingly germanized, culturally, in the period after their more conservative members emigrated from russia in the *s. no precise figures exist on low german/high german usage. interviews indicate that some russlaender families spoke high german in the home, and that low german was perceived to be a threat to the maintenance of the high german in canada. e.k. francis found high rates of high german usage in the homes of the russlaender, with a tendency to replace the low german dialect with high german as time passed. the russlaender "had come to view low german as a language too low and uncultivated to pass on to their children," according to frank epp. some of the russlaender f e l t that the 's immigrants to canada, or "kanadier", spoke a lower-grade high german. this study w i l l be concerned primarily with the role that high german played in the maintenance of mennonite brethren identity. the relationship between low german and high german is further discussed in chapter six. in the total number of individuals in canada l i s t i n g german as their mother-tongue was , , or about . % of the canadian population. on the prairies the ratio was higher, with manitoba german-speakers comprising % of the total population, in saskatchewan %, and alberta %. thus the majority of the russlaender settled in areas with relatively large numbers of german-speakers. it is estimated that , of the , russlaender were of mennonite brethren affiliation. prior to this influx, there were approximately baptized brethren in canada; the addition of family members would have meant the total brethren community numbered between - individuals. these brethren were the result of the missionary efforts of american brethren from the 's russian emigration among canadian mennonites and other german-speakers. four-fifths resided in saskatchewan, although the church in winkler, manitoba, was the f i r s t and largest of the canadian brethren congregations, having been founded in . the year "marked the rapid expansion of the mennonite brethren church throughout canada." the aggressive russlaender soon assumed positions of leadership in the canadian mennonite community, "taking over" many of the existing institutions, and starting many more themselves. a prominent example is the winkler bible school in winkler, manitoba, started by brethren bible expositor a.h. unruh and others, upon their a r r i v a l from russia in . the brethren rapidly integrated themselves into the existing north american brethren conference structures, which included an american general conference and a canadian northern d i s t r i c t conference, which was both a division of the american general conference and a semi-autonomous canadian body. the canadian brethren counted over baptized members by ; this growth was due both to the recent immigration and normal familial growth, and to the brethren a b i l i t y to absorb other mennonites. as frank epp put i t , russlaender brethren soon knew where they belonged, and so impressive and attractive was the mennonite brethren sense of missionary purpose, the c l a r i t y of their doctrine, and the predictability of their church discipline that they not only won a l l their own but absorbed...(other mennonites as well). the brethren were more numerous, had stronger leaders, and offered a more l i v e l y , committed, and simple religious experience. the russlaender of a l l congregational families found themselves in a society which had recently become suspicious of both mennonites and germans. prior to the f i r s t world war, ethnic germans had generally been considered among the best of citizens; but the war and the mennonite education c r i s i s of the late 'teens and early twenties combined to discredit pacifist and german-speaking "enemy aliens" in the minds of many. close to , conservative mennonites from manitoba and saskatchewan emigrated to latin america during the 's, due to increasing pressures for anglo-conformity in the schools brought on by the f i r s t world war. anti-mennonite feelings had become so intense that a l l mennonite immigration to canada was forbidden from - , by a special government order-in-council. declining nativist sentiment and the renewed desire for economic expansion helped to pave the way for further immigration in the mid and later 's, which was carried out under the railways agreement of - . the russlaender were part of a larger migration of , central and eastern european immigrants who came to canada under this agreement. by the later 's another nativist reaction set in, especially towards sectarian groups like the mennonites, who had become "locked together" in the public mind with "unassimilable" groups like the doukhobors and hutterites a decade earlier. by , with the onset of the great depression, attitudes toward immigration had become t o t a l l y negative, and immigration was reduced to a t r i c k l e for the next decade. mennonites who had immigrated from soviet russia had cause to feel both grateful to their hosts for being l e t in, and alienated towards them, when only a small number of their desperate co-religionists who had assembled in moscow during - were admitted into canada, amidst a loudly negative public reaction to the prospect. the russlaender were not able or willing to duplicate the closed colonies of russia. a strong element of individualism and the lack of consensus on land-settlement policy ensured the demise of various attempts to duplicate the russian experience. mennonite "clustering" was due more to the unconscious adhesion to other mennonites than to conscious policy. this lack of physical integration would make cultural and ideological factors more important. the mennonites who had migrated from russia to western canada in the 's were much more successful in forming closed settlements, due at least partly to the fact that their migration was a voluntary, conservative phenomenon, as well as to the emptiness of the prairies upon their a r r i v a l . in the intervening years the mennonites remaining in russia had, as already indicated, become relatively prosperous, educated, and sophisticated. and as e.k. francis observes, the "better and more enterprising classes" of these were primarily the ones who were able to emigrate in the 's. thus the russian mennonite immigrants of the 's were known to be "progressive" and interested in finding a niche for themselves in the larger society, in contrast to the indigenous mennonites from previous migrations. they were positive towards education and relatively eager to learn english, at f i r s t primarily for economic benefits. as well, they displayed a greater tendency to urbanize, despite the fact that the conditions of their entry into canada required they settle on farms. the majority were in fact settled on farms, but depression crop conditions and high unemployment rates among recent immigrants caused a high degree of mobility among mennonites, paralleling the general trend on the prairies. it is the aim of this study to chart the contours and meanings of the german identity for the russlaender immigrants, particularly the mennonite brethren, in the t h i r t y years subsequent to their a r r i v a l in canada. it i s an important but little-studied aspect of canadian mennonite history. the germanism issue evoked great emotions and was a factor in many of the developments which took place in this period among the brethren. in the f i r s t three chapters, the brethren are considered alongside other mennonites, because a strong sense of belonging to a larger mennonite community prevailed, especially in the period immediately following immigration, and periodicals like the mennonitische rundschau were read by a l l types of mennonites. brethren often worshipped with other mennonites in the early years of settlement, u n t i l numbers and resources were sufficient to form separate congregations. the brethren have been selected for particular scrutiny because they were a cohesive, rigorous, identifiable sub-group within mennonite society, and because i feel that the inherent mennonite problem of reconciling theological beliefs and aspirations with earthly needs and r e a l i t i e s is v i v i d l y and poignantly illustrated in their experience. in the most recent and comprehensive treatment of mennonite society, calvin redekop argues that at the root of mennonite identity is a utopian ideology, and that instead of becoming solely an ethnic group, as some have argued, mennonites developed into a "religious people...that maintained i t was keeping the truth and the vision of christianity alive." ethnicizing tendencies have always been present, but the consciousness of l i v i n g out a "faithful original christianity" has remained a powerful ideological animus which distinguishes mennonites from groups which are constituted primarily by ties of culture, kinship and common history. on the other hand, there is much to the assertion by another mennonite sociologist that: a common history, a collective biography, a transgenerational cultural legacy and a shared fate constitute the ethnic glue which fuses mennonites together above and beyond religious experience...a powerful t r i b a l memory recalls that "we were in this together," and a collective anxiety worries about the common future "that we face together." the present study w i l l indicate that both religious and " t r i b a l " or ethnic factors were involved in the concern over the german identity, and that as such they were both important components of canadian mennonite identity for the period under study. while the german identity of the mennonite brethren in i t s various forms is the general topic of this study, the german language was the most important component of this identity, and garners the most attention. edward sapir lucidly described the communal function of language thus: language is a great force of socialization, probably the greatest that exists. by this is meant not merely the obvious fact that significant social intercourse is hardly possible without language but that the mere fact of common speech serves as a peculiarly potent symbol of the social solidarity of those who speak the language. h. richard niebuhr echoes this assertion in analyzing european immigrant churches in america, and notes further that; conservatives in...(immigrant) churches have always maintained that the abandonment of the old, european tongue and the adoption of english as the language of worship and instruction involved the abandonment of a l l the ways of the fathers and introduction of a new "english or american religion." the insights of sapir and niebuhr provide an important theoretical background for understanding the russlaender experience in canada. during the 's, other forms of germanism, in addition to the language, performed the function of maintaining the social and religious integrity of the group. after , these other elements declined, leaving the german language as a primary reference point for russlaender brethren socio-religious identity. finally, a few terms require definition. "germanism" is generally used to refer to a conscious affirmation of any of a vide range of actual or perceived components of the german culture, nation, "race", and way of l i f e . "militant germanism", a term which is used primarily in the 's context, has nationalistic and m i l i t a r i s t i c connotations and implies a strong feeling that germanism, in one form or another, provided solutions to pressing problems and f u l f i l l e d certain inherent personal or communal needs. as indicated, "russlaender" were immigrants of the 's migration, and "kanadier" were primarily those who came in the 's from russia. the term "volk" has been l e f t untranslated. it implies a group of people sharing a unique history, landscape, culture, s p i r i t u a l i t y , ethnicity and way of l i f e . for the mennonites i t could mean a l l these things, or more simply, "our people". the term "volkish" refers to the th and early th century ideology of volk which originated in germany and tended to exalt the germanic "race", and was anti-modern and -semitic. in regards to the terms "assimilation" and "acculturation" i have followed e.k. francis, who defines the former as the process "whereby individual members of a minority (group) are transferred into the host society with permanent loss to the...group;" and the latter as "the acceptance of culture t r a i t s from the large(r) society." each term implies a certain measure of the other, although "assimilation" is clearly the more general term, implying a large degree of acculturation. a distinction is sometimes made in the text between brethren "membership" and " a f f i l i a t i o n " . baptized adults were members, while their families vere brethren by a f f i l i a t i o n . this distinction, vhich can also be used for other mennonites, vas especially important to the brethren, vho stressed individual conversion and baptism by total immersion as crucial conditions for inclusion in adult brethren churchly society. at other points the ethnic side of mennonitism is acknowledged by use of the terms "brethren" and "mennonite" to denote the t o t a l i t y of the mennonite community. although i argue that the germanism which was expressed in the canadian context is best understood as a function of the attempt to maintain the socio-religious integrity of the russlaender brethren, i do not wish to imply that mennonite l i f e in russia was monolithic. there were differences in class, status, wealth, education and dialect among mennonites, and a certain degree of "regionalization" had begun to take place among the scattered russian colonies by the turn of this century. however, i t is undeniable that the russian mennonites, and perhaps especially the brethren, belonged to a relatively integrated and cohesive society in which a distinct configuration of language, religious faith, way of l i f e and sense of peoplehood had emerged. in addition, i t has been argued that the common experience of migration and settlement in canada helped to bind the russlaender closer together. as to the actual ethnic background of the russian mennonites, the majority originated in the netherlands, while a smaller percentage of germanic and other central and eastern european peoples joined the mennonites along the way. what is important for this study is less the actual genetic makeup of the mennonites than their own perceptions of their origins. notes, introduction . hans-juergen goertz, die taeufer: geschichte und deutung (munich: ch. beck, ), pp. - ; - . . calvin redekop, mennonite society (baltimore: the johns hopkins university press, ), p. . . jack thiessen, "a new look at an old problem: origins of the variations in mennonite plautdietsch," mennonite quarterly review (july ): - . . john b. toews, czars, soviets and mennonites (newton, kansas: faith and life press, ), p. f f . . frank h. epp, mennonites in canada, - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), pp. - . . john b. toews, czars, soviets and mennonites, p. . . john b. toews, czars, soviets and mennonites, chapters - ; john b. toews, "the russian mennonite intellect of the nineteenth century," paper on f i l e at centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, box , folder , no. ; harry loewen, "the german-russian tensions among the mennonites in russia ( - )," paper on f i l e at cmbs, winnipeg, box , folder , no. ; e.k. francis, in search of utopia: the mennonites of manitoba (altona, manitoba: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), pp. - . . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), pp. - . . jbid., chapters - . . james urry, "a religious or a social elite? the mennonite brethren in imperial russia," paper on f i l e at cmbs, winnipeg, box , folder e., no. . urry's analysis, while helpful, undervalues the religious dimension of the mennonite brethren movement. . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, chapter . . harry loewen, "echoes of drumbeats: the movement of exuberance among the mennonite brethren," journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . . peter m. friesen, the mennonite brotherhood in russia ( - ) (fresno: board of christian literature, ), p. ; john a. toews, a. history of the mennonite brethren churchf p. . . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, pp. - ; harry loewen, "echoes of drumbeats," p. . . see john b. toews, lost fatherland: the story of the mennonite emigration from soviet russia. - (scottdale, pa: herald press, ). . eighty percent came in this period. frank h. epp, mennonite exodus: the rescue and resettlement of the russian mennonites since the communist revolution (altona, manitoba: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), p. . . john b. toews, lost fatherland, pp. - , - . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. . . epp, mennonite exodus, p. . . sixth census of canada, (ottawa: the king's printers, ), vol. i, pp. - . . epp, mennonites in canada. - , pp. - . . ibid., pp. - . . e.k. francis, in search of utopia, pp. - ; ca. dawson, group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada (toronto: the macmillan co., ; reprinted by kraus reprint co., ), pp. - . frank h. epp, mennonites in canada. - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), p. . epp, mennonites in canada. - , p. . . the movement towards more high german usage probably began as part of the reaction to russification pressures beginning in the 's, and the general trend towards greater sophistication during the "golden years" of - , which was accompanied by a "conscious cultural-intellectual journey in the direction of germany." see john b. toews, czars. soviets and mennonites, chapter . quote from p. . see also frank h. epp, mennonites in canada. - pp. - . . interview with gerhard ens, editor of der bote. winnipeg, manitoba, june , ; interview with jack and eleanor dueck, waterloo, ontario, july , ; interview with anne brandt, kelowna, b.c., june , ; interview with david schroeder, professor at canadian mennonite bible college, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . . francis, in search of utopia, pp. - . . epp, mennonites in canada, - , p. . . epp, mennonites in canada. - , p. , note . . seventh census of canada. (ottawa: the king's printers, ), vol. i l l , pp. - . . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. . . yearbook of the general conference of the mennonite brethren church of north america. - (hillsboro,ks: mb publishing house), pp. - . . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. . . epp, mennonites in canada, - f p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook for the year - (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house), p. . . epp, mennonites in canada. - . p. . . howard palmer, patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta (toronto: mcclelland and stewart limited, ), pp. - ; arthur grenke, "the formation and early development of an urban ethnic community: a case study of the germans in winnipeg, - ," (ph.d. dissertation, university of manitoba, ), p. ; john norris, strangers entertained: a history of the ethnic groups of british columbia (vancouver: british columbia centennial ' committee, ), pp. - . . donald avery, "dangerous foreigners": european immigrant workers and labour radicalism in canada, - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart limited, ), p. ff, , ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, p. , ff.; epp, mennonites in canada, - , p. ff.; norris, strangers entertained, p. ; m.k. mott, "the 'foreign p e r i l ' : nativism in winnipeg, - ," (m.a. thesis, university of manitoba, ), p. i l l ; grenke, a case study of germans in winnipeg, p. ff; aron sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta and their assimilation," (m.a. thesis, university of alberta, ), p. ; dawson, group settlement, p. ; interview with gerhard ens, editor of per bote. winnipeg, manitoba, june , . . palmer, patterns of prejudice, p. , ; mott, "the 'foreign p e r i l , ' " p. i i i , . . palmer, patterns of prejudice, p. , , ; avery, dangerous foreigners, pp. - ; epp, mennonite exodus, p. ff; alan b. anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan," (ph.d. dissertation, university of saskatchewan, ), p. . . avery, dangerous foreigners, pp. - ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, p. ; gerald friesen, the canadian prairies: a history (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - . . a total of of the estimated , individuals who had gathered in moscow were allowed into canada. another migrated to south america, and the rest were banished to siberia or exiled elsewhere in the soviet union. epp, mennonites in canada, - , p. ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, pp. - . e.k. francis writes of a "collective resentment" by the russian immigrants toward canada, due to the hardships and injustices suffered during the immigration process, as well. while cases of this must have existed, francis has overstated the case. francis, in search of utopia, p. . . peter f. bargen, "mennonite land settlement policies," mennonite l i f e , october , pp. - ; aron sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," pp. - , - . see further discussion on this topic in chapter three below. . francis, in search of utopia, p. . george k. epp estimates the migration to have included at least % of the russian mennonite "intelligentsia". george k. epp, "mennonite immigration to canada after world war ii," journal of mennonite studies ( ): . . epp, mennonites in canada. - . p. , - ; sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," pp. - , ; epp, mennonite exodus, pp. - ; francis, in search of utopia, pp. - ; dawson, group settlement, p.. . . avery, dangerous foreigners, p. ; jonathan f. wagner, brothers beyond the sea: national socialism in canada (waterloo: wilfred laurier press, ), p. . . epp, mennonites in canada, - . p. ff; friesen, the canadian prairies, p. , - ; sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," p. . the great depression h i t the russlaender especially hard, as they had both personal and collective debts, the latter incurred in their migration to canada. see e.k. francis, in search of utopia, p. . . the one significant work on the topic is frank epp's analysis of the mennonite newspaper der bote during the 's, which is discussed in chapter three. gerald ediger, professor at mennonite brethren bible college, is currently writing a doctoral dissertation on the brethren german identity. otherwise, l i t t l e has so far been done which goes beyond cliches and generalizations based on personal experience or individual cases, to analyse the topic in any depth. . e.k. francis, "the russian mennonites: from religious to ethnic group," the american journal of sociology liv (september ): - . . calvin redekop, mennonite society, p. . . ibid., p. . . donald b. kraybill, "modernity and identity: the transformation of mennonite ethnicity," in calvin redekop, ed., mennonite identity; historical and contemporary perspectives (lanham, md: university press of america, ), pp. - . . edward sapir, "language," encyclopedia of the social sciences ix (new york: macmillan, ), p. . . h. richard niebuhr, the social sources of denominationalism (hamden, ct: the shoestring press, ), p. . j . a good review of the intellectual origins of this movement is george l. mosse, the c r i s i s of german ideology (new york: grasset & dunlap, ). . francis, in search of utopia, p. . . francis, in search of utopia, p. ; h.a. peters, "das mennonitische volkstum: eine skizze seiner entstehung und des verfalles," per bote. december , p. ; thiessen, "a new look at an old problem: origins of the variations in mennonite plautdietsch," pp. - ; james urry, "through the eye of the needle: wealth and the mennonite experience in imperial russia," journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . . francis, in search of utopia, p. ; frank h. epp, "problems of mennonite identity," in leo driedger, ed., the canadian ethnic mosaic: a quest for identity (toronto: mcclelland & stewart, ), p. . . epp, mennonite exodus, p. ; j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. ; epp, mennonites in canada, pp. - ; thiessen, "a new look at an old problem". chapter one the canadian context and the impact of national socialism historical circumstances had brought about the dissolution of the russian mennonite commonwealth at the same moment that a powerful movement of volk- unification was emanating from germany. it was very easy to appropriate the ideas and rhetoric of this movement and apply them to mennonites scattered across miles of western canada. pro-germanism in this context meant not only the separation from the "worldly" canadian environment, but the possible reintegration of the scattered remnant on a linguistic, religious, and ideological basis. thus while germany did become a surrogate fatherland for some, the pro-german and nazi-volkish rhetoric espoused by mennonites during the 's must be interpreted within the framework of s p e c i f i c a l l y mennonite concerns and aspirations. as the forces of assimilation and acculturation absorbed them into canadian society with great rapidity, the russlaender saw their ethno-religious community not only fragmented, but dissolving before their very eyes. the most important event of the 's for people of german ethnic or linguistic a f f i l i a t i o n was the rise of the "nev germany" under adolf hitler and the national socialists (nsdap). this movement seemed to hold great promise for germans, and i n i t i a l l y brought substantial benefits to many german people, i f i t also persecuted others. as v e i l , i t inspired germans everywhere to be proud of themselves and their a b i l i t i e s , and to rise above the shameful image engendered by the defeat of the f i r s t world war and the negative interpretation placed on the treaty of versailles. the movement meant different things to different people; cultural, psychological, religious, economic, ethnic and national renewal vere a l l associated vith national socialism under hitler. at a basic level, the pride in a l l things german which vas a part of the movement vas an important encouragement to german-speakers vho, living in non-german environments, feared for the loss of their cultural and linguistic identity. the unconscious emotional attachment to the german language and customs should not be underestimated as an important impetus for mennonite germanism in the 's and beyond. in addition, german benevolence toward mennonites, along vith nazi anti-communism, vere key factors in mennonite pro-germanism during the 's. for many mennonites, hitler became a divinely appointed figure vho vas sent to right past wrongs and save germany and the vorld from communism; thus the "cognitive dissonance" created by the tension between mennonite faith and trust in god, on the one hand, and the apparent success of the "godless communists" and the subsequent persecution of christians in the soviet union, on the other, could be alleviated. it vas the combination of a l l these factors vhich gave canadian mennonite germanism its particular intensity during the 's. after the desire for socio-religious solidarity and integrity remained a potent factor in mennonite germanism, vhile the other elements quietly evaporated. harsh economic conditions and a high rate of mobility during the great depression undoubtedly contributed to the unease and uncertainty vhich gave rise to pro- german sentiments, but cannot in themselves be conclusively cited as causing them. the national socialist movement in canada vas itself weak and never able to gain a large following among german-canadians. in the most extensive study of the national socialist movement in canada, jonathan wagner concludes that although "significant numbers" of ethnic germans probably sympathized with hitler's cause in one way or another, nazism was too unrelated to canadian social and economic realities, and ethnic germans identified too heavily with canadian institutions, for i t to appeal to large numbers of them, despite the efforts of the approximately nazi-party members to gain a following. according to gerald priesen, ethnic germans were "divided into so many parts and so affected by the events of world politics that they never achieved a pan-german identity in canada." the "focal point" of nazi activity was on the prairies, which had absorbed some , german-speaking immigrants (including most of the , mennonites from russia) during the 's. there were seven german- language newspapers published on the prairies during the 's, and of these, five expressed pro-nazi sentiments. three of these were mennonite publications, and a fourth, der nordwesten, was widely read by mennonites. before the large 's influx of german-speakers, german culture had been in decline in canada, acculturation and assimilation having been aided by the anti-germanism engendered by the first world war. the majority of the new immigrants, like the mennonites, were "volks-germans", i.e. those who had settled outside germany as part of the widespread diaspora throughout eastern europe, and were agriculturalists.il but the mennonites differed from many of their german-speaking counterparts in that they were not, as jonathan wagner has argued, previously a part of a central and eastern european "volks-german awakening", with its nationalistic and expansionist overtones. wagner's attempt to explain mennonite support for national socialism solely in terms of the larger volkish movement is spurious and based on l i t t l e research or understanding of mennonites. http://agriculturalists.il the migration of german-speakers to the prairies during the 's was part of a larger influx of immigrants in the f i r s t three decades of this century. with a sixfold increase in prairie population between and , cultural diversity was, as friesen has shown, a "striking feature of prairie society" in these decades. it resembled a "stew" of different ethnic groups simmering in the same pot, each retaining i t s own flavour. most immigrants conversed in their mother-tongue, as "ethnic identity remained a real and important factor in the l i f e of many prairie canadians in the 's." by , % of the western canadian population was of central and eastern european origin. the "british" character of the prairies predominated, however, the typical town existing as "an outpost of british-canadian civilization." p o l i t i c a l parties, schools and churches exhibited a "militant view of b r i t i s h c i v i l i z a t i o n , " and were instruments of anglo-canadian conformity and assimilation. public schools, in particular, were important in this regard, as "the lessons of the education system in each province were consciously directed at the creation of a new british-based western-canadian race." although anti-germanism was often superseded by negative sentiment towards labour "radicals" of eastern-european origin, i t was s t i l l a prevalent feature of the interwar period and beyond. the great depression also exacerbated negative feelings toward "foreigners" who were thought to take jobs away from anglo-canadians and swell the r e l i e f rolls. the general canadian reaction to national socialism was negative or indifferent. although the influential editor of the winnipeg free press, j.w. da foe, repeatedly warned that a world c r i s i s was looming, canadians were largely apathetic to the deteriorating international situation of the 's. i t vas unthinkable for canadians that they might again have to send t h e i r sons to f i g h t europe's b a t t l e s , and thus i s o l a t i o n i s t sentiment grew as "gangsterism" increased i n europe. while t h i s isolationism would, i n the event of war, prove to be i l l u s o r y , i t took canadians a very long time to come to the understanding that i t a l y and e s p e c i a l l y germany vere on an unalterable c o l l i s i o n course v i t h the international interests and domestic values of b r i t a i n , many of vhich canada shared. in the canadian olympic team gave h i t l e r the nazi salute at the b e r l i n games, and canadian f a s c i s t a c t i v i t i e s vere l a r g e l y ignored by the canadian public u n t i l a number of newspaper and magazine a r t i c l e s covering t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s began to appear i n e a r l y . i t vas only v i t h the provocative events of - that h i t l e r began to generally be viewed as a menace, and that serious anti-nazism emerged i n canada. the a n t i c o s t i a f f a i r , munich and the sudeten c r i s i s confirmed the growing anti-german, p r o - b r i t i s h sentiment; the royal v i s i t of may-june , vhich evoked great emotion from canadians, sealed the commonwealth connection. on the other hand, i t i s incorrect to give the impression that canadians vere unconcerned v i t h nazi germany u n t i l the l a t e 's, as some historians have done. the canadian press, as perceived by german-canadians, vas a source of "constant adverse c r i t i c i s m of germany. " a cursory perusal of the saskatoon star pheonix and winnipeg free press indicates that the dangers and excesses of the nazi regime vere publicized from the beginning of i t s tenure. on the p r a i r i e s , at least, nazism vas consistently portrayed as a threat to democracy and human r i g h t s . nor vas the public response to these events e n t i r e l y apathetic. shortly a f t e r the outbreak of the f i r s t jevish pogrom i n late march and e a r l y a p r i l of (the so-called "jevish boycott"), winnipeg c i t i z e n s converged on the c i v i c auditorium " i n one of the biggest single-purpose demonstrations in the history of the city." over organizations were represented at this "firm protest" against nazi persecution of jews. it was in this context that russlaender mennonites found themselves during the 's. a recent analysis of the coaldale, alberta mennonite community during the intervar period provides an excellent view into russlaender l i f e at this time. coaldale is significant because the mennonites who settled there were exclusively russlaender, and i t became home to one of the most prominent brethren communities in canada during this period. the coaldale brethren church counted members by the mid- 's, and had grown to almost by the end of the decade. part of the reason for this growth stemmed from coaldale being located in an irrigation district which didn't suffer as heavily as some communities during the depression, and hence attracted those looking for work. there had been no brethren communities in alberta prior to the 's; besides coaldale, other congregations were started at gem, la glace, lindbrook, namaka and vauxhall. by coaldale was home to over % of alberta's brethren population. alberta's brethren and their families were among , native german- speakers in alberta, or about % of its population ( ). in her study of the coaldale mennonite community, joanna buhr found that "controlled accomodation" to the norms of anglo-canadian society was a dominant feature of mennonite identity maintenance. this entailed both the accentuation of certain aspects of mennonite ethno-religious identity, including germanism, as well as the formation of "certain symbiotic social and economic ties with the coaldale establishment." mennonite immigrants were anxious to acquire land of their own, and were well-represented at the local "english" farming demonstrations. there was immediate interest in learning the language, as i t quickly became clear that command of the language was an economic asset. the predominantly anglo-saxon host community was "generally congenial" towards the newcomers, and offered enticing social and economic prospects, especially to the young people. generous debt-terms extended to the mennonites during the decade gave them hope that they could succeed in canada despite the effects of drought and depression, and they were eager to prove themselves worthy of the confidence placed in them by the canadian establishment. it vas in this milieu that mennonite leaders recognized the need for well-defined boundaries to maintain the essential contours of mennonite identity. as the language of religious communication, german was perceived to be a crucial component in the long-term persistence of the group and i t s vision: "to many russian mennonites, the replacement of german with english represented a crucial step in a movement toward alignment with the 'world'." a german lending-library vas established in coaldale in , and the brethren started a german "saturday school" in . the language issue became divisive among coaldale mennonites by the later 's, as i t became clear that an almost complete language transition (from german to english) vas taking place in one generation. one side f e l t that group cohesion and integrity vas dependent upon retaining the german language, while the other saw the imminent alienation of the youth i f more wasn't offered to them in english. the brethren emphasis on religious conversion and evangelism, combined with a desire to relate to the host community in an acceptable way, gave rise to some interaction vith local english-speaking evangelists and the staging of an english outreach program by the youth on sunday evenings. these a c t i v i t i e s were eventually stopped because of the threat they posed to brethren identity. p o l i t i c a l l y , coaldale mennonites were "keenly loyal" to the canadian government, and supported william aberhart in provincial politics. yet culturally and s o c i a l l y they remained aloof; gratitude towards canada and the hope of becoming economically successful did not deter mennonites from their goal of maintaining a specific ethno-religious identity. the greatest threat to the mennonite vision "lay in i t s destruction from within through internal fragmentation." the second generation was rapidly becoming "canadianized" through the public school system; this, coupled with the stress of immigrant economic l i f e , tended to outweigh the effects of the german saturday school and other such institutions in promoting a positive identification with the mennonite heritage and i t s accompanying germanic aspects. there seems to have been an inherent tension between the desire for economic success and social respect, on the one hand, and the maintenance of a distinct mennonite identity, on the other. the predominantly anglo- canadian host community put pressure on mennonites to assimilate, and the second generation responded. this in turn brought on a more self-conscious germanism which was directed towards the maintenance of ingroup unity and doctrinal integrity. indeed, "to some, germanism and opposition to war were inseparable tenets in the ethno-religious package...in the process of de- emphasizing german cultural loyalties (during wwii), nonresistance also came into jeopardy. " this helps to c l a r i f y the relationship between germanism and the principle of nonresistance. militant germanism challenged nonresistance among some first-generation immigrants who hadn't been socialized in canada (see chapter two); on the other hand, the loss of the german identity threatened the principle among the second generation, because i t implied absorption into anglo-canadian society, and participation in its military endeavours. buhr's study indicates that pro-nazi sympathies, when held in an environment like coaldale's, would have been muted. more importantly, i t demonstrates that most new arrivals vere eager to find a niche for themselves in canada, vere responsive to the host society, and felt that their future lay in canada. this fact, coupled vith the rapid acculturation of the second generation, indicates that the pro-germanism of the 's vas largely a reaction to the threatened dissolution of the remaining contours of russian mennonite society. parallels exist between the experience of coaldale mennonites and those vho settled in ontario. approximately russlaender settled there; of these, around % vere of brethren affiliation. the kitchener mennonite brethren church became the mother-church for the brethren in ontario, counting members, or approximately % of the ontario brethren church membership, by . there had been no mennonite brethren in ontario prior to this migration. many also settled on the niagara peninsula, in the areas of vineland, st. catherines and virgil. these brethren joined approximately , other native german-speakers in ontario, or % of the total population ( ). in his study of the russlaender in ontario during the intervar period, henry paetkau found that "without the familiar structures of the mennonite commonwealth to give form and content to their lives, the immigrants vere at the mercy of the forces of acculturation and assimilation." economic considerations brought about the rapid acquisition of english and influenced settlement patterns, causing a third of the immigrants to locate in c i t i e s and towns, despite pressures from both the host community and immigrant leaders to find rural occupation. schools were a powerful force of acculturation for the scattered immigrants, and thus "a language c r i s i s ensued in many families as early as the mid-thirties, precisely when 'das deutschtum' was becoming increasingly meaningful to older immigrants." it was in this familiar context that leaders and organizations like the ontario provincial immigrant assembly (vertreterversammlung) attempted to draw mennonites together and perpetuate a common identity, which included the important components of "german and religion". saturday and sunday schools, bible schools, youth groups and german lending-libraries were instituted, but economic and geographic factors caused only "sporadic support" of these endeavours by the immigrants. the rise of germanism, according to paetkau, "appears to have been more sympathetic than overt, more ideological than real." despite the general desire on the part of most immigrants to become established canadians, there was enough of a pro-german feeling present to give rise to rumours in some areas that mennonites were nazi sympathizers, and that they stored weapons in their churches. one ontario church was set on f i r e by anti-nazi arsonists and later raided by police, while another was vandalized as an anti-nazi protest. declarations by mennonites of loyalty to canada in the later 's were common, and the degree of assimilation into canadian society was proven by relatively high enlistment figures, for mennonites, at the outbreak of the second world war. germanism was delivered a "devastating blow" by the war, and "only the influx of another group of russian mennonite refugees after prevented a complete language transition within a single generation." in a recent a r t i c l e , paetkau has argued that a general feature of the russian mennonite immigrant experience was a tension between a desire to reestablish the lost unity of the russian settlement, and an individualistic impulse toward economic and social success in canada. "while a few leaders strove valiantly and eloquently to rebuild a people...individuals sought primarily to rebuild their lives and their families." the general thrust of paetkau's work has been to indicate that although the russlaender may have desired to reestablish in some way a lost community, i t was not to be at the expense of participation in anglo-canadian social and economic structures. buhr's study also illustrates this, i f to a lesser degree, given the more rural and isolated atmosphere of southern alberta. thus i t may be more profitable to see the russlaender as being primarily concerned with in-group reintegration, on various levels, than with separation from the host society per se. separation could at most be ideological; geographic dispersion, coupled with assimilationist trends, tends however to make the ideological medium, germanism, look as much like an agent of group cohesion and doctrinal integration as of separation from canadian society. it was a carrier of an identity which had meaning in i t s e l f ; thus i t did not merely set one apart from the rest of canadian society, although this was clearly important. germanism, especially during the 's, brought with i t a whole host of associations which helped to define what i t meant to be mennonite, and i t held out the p o s s i b i l i t y of being the source of communal and religious perpetuation and renewal. the prairie provinces of manitoba and saskatchewan evidenced similar trends as in alberta and ontario, with the possible difference that the generally more isolated, homogeneous communities fostered a stronger sense of pro-germanism and -nazism. discussion here w i l l centre on manitoba, owing to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of sources. mennonites from russia had settled on two large blocs of land in southern manitoba during the 's, and when some of them l e f t in the 's for latin america, a number of russlaender took their place. figures vary, but i t is clear that a sizeable number of immigrants, perhaps a few thousand, settled on farms abandoned by the emigrants on the west reserve. winkler was an important brethren centre there, and attracted some of the newcomers. other congregations were formed in arnaud, niverville, steinbach, morden, newton siding and manitou, among others. winnipeg also absorbed a number of brethren, with three congregations meeting by the mid- 's. the total manitoba brethren church membership increased sixfold with the immigration, numbering baptised members by . these brethren and their families were part of a larger population of , mennonites in manitoba, and a total german-speaking population roughly double that, or % of the provincial population ( ). a total of russlaender families, or a third of the russian migration, i n i t i a l l y settled in manitoba. studies by c.a. dawson and e.k. francis have outlined the general trends of acculturation and assimilation among russian mennonite immigrants already discussed. dawson, writing in the 's, saw a class of mennonite "small townsmen" coming into existence, and f e l t that the influx of the " l i b e r a l " russian mennonites during the 's, along with the emigration of the most conservative mennonites to latin america, helped to speed the process of secularization and assimilation among manitoba mennonites. he found that young people in mennonite towns like winkler and gretna spoke english to each other on the streets, and that the brethren, especially, were tolerant of "new ideas." mennonites were currently midway in the transition from sectarian to secular culture, and their absorption into canadian society was seen to be inevitable. e.k. francis, writing years later, agreed that acculturation had taken place, but argued that widespread assimilation had not. the russlaender in particular had been eager to learn english, promote public schools, and adopt canadian ways; but by a "newly gained pride" in mennonite traditions was evident, and the manitoba mennonite community showed no signs of breaking up. this is understandable given the fact that by a third of the prairie population was of non-english (mostly continental european) origin, that a large influx of german-speakers accompanied the mennonite migration to the prairies in the 's, and that manitoba was home to over a third of a l l canadian mennonites. one half-hour to one hour of german instruction was given in some public schools, and in some of the predominantly mennonite communities, low german was spoken by everyone, including non-mennonites. even urbanization did not have the same impact as in other areas: mennonites moving to winnipeg tended to congregate on the north side and in east kildonan, both predominantly non-english european immigrant communities. interviews indicate that pro-german and -nazi feelings ran high among southern manitoba mennonites during the 's and into the second world war; individuals who were children at the time have vivid memories of the pro- hitler atmosphere, primarily among the russlaender, and of the impression that "great things were happening in germany." wagner reports that steinbach mennonites turned out in significant numbers to hear the travelling nazi-propagandist karl goetz in , and that some mennonites were present at the provincial "german day" in winnipeg. francis notes that the "ideological dividing-^ ine" on the issue of pro-germanism among manitoba mennonites was drawn essentially between the russlaender and the kanadier. the russlaender evidenced a stronger sense of german nationalism, while the kanadier "were more sensitive to public opinion and more emphatic about loyalty to canada." there also appears to have been some mennonite involvement with indigenous fascist organizations. the high-water mark for this a c t i v i t y was reached in . in early a brethren leader from winkler reported in the mennonitische rundschau that: here in our l i t t l e town a movement is becoming noticeable. hitler is known as a striving, christian young man, and we hope that the same qualities are present in the local organization of the canadian nationalists. the "canadian nationalist party" was a fascist organization led by william whittaker and centred in winnipeg. as the quote indicates, direct links were made between nazism and this canadian movement. it appears that attempts were also made to organize in the largely brethren community of yarrow, b.c., in early . it is d i f f i c u l t to estimate what degree of success such efforts had at this time, but the comments of one brethren leader in early are significant: the rush of p o l i t i c a l waters, that quickly becomes a wild flood, is coming ever closer to us...this flood has come so close that i t has begun to wash a portion of our volk away with i t . therefore i t i s our duty to warn our people against participation in p o l i t i c a l and nationalistic organizations. it was in winnipeg during the summer of that the most notorious canadian mennonite encounter with fascism took place. as reported in per bote, young mennonite "hotheads" had taken part in a june scuffle between whittaker's "brownshirts" and communists, and had sustained some injuries. the most significant aspect of the whole a f f a i r was that, according to the writer, there was widespread sympathy among mennonites for the brownshirts. this was due, in his opinion, to the general wish to see the communists "get their just deserts". concern over participation in fascist organizations was indicated by a resolution taken at the canadian brethren conference (the northern d i s t r i c t conference) meeting in early july of that year. in the context of a resolution on nonresistance, i t was stated: it must be stressed that i t is contradictory for the conference to work towards guaranteeing freedom of conscience for us (in regards to military exemption), while at the same time some brothers take part in volk-movements in which force is used. in addition to the above cases, there are reports that a few young men enlisted in the national socialist cause and travelled to germany sometime in the '.s, and that an undisclosed number of ontario families who sympathised with the third reich also migrated there. it should also be mentioned that in bernard bott, who was a nazi party member and editor of the deutsche zeitung fuer kanada. organized a "saskatchewan german committee" which included the saskatchewan mennonite provincial organization in i t s membership. these instances should not be ignored, but overt involvement of canadian mennonites with fascist groups was minimal, although constituting enough of a threat to bring forth condemnations. a more pervasive and widely cited occurrence was the purchase of shortwave radios to tune in to broadcasts from germany. in general, the trend toward acculturation and assimilation into anglo- canadian society was present on the prairies, but counter-forces were also at work which mitigated i t . these included a greater concentration of mennonites, german-speakers, and non-english europeans in general; greater homogeneity of mennonite communities; a large proportion of russlaender immigrants; and in winnipeg a centre of western canadian nazism. a broader use of the german language, a more prevalent support for the "new germany", and even a few cases of involvement with fascist groups were a few results of these factors. there were no mennonites in b r i t i s h columbia prior to . at that time, ten families settled at yarrow in the fraser valley, i n i t i a t i n g a migration which would see over mennonites l i v i n g in the province by , and three times that number by . a majority of these were russlaender mennonite brethren, and they were concentrated in yarrow, sardis, chilliwack and abbotsford. the yarrow mennonite brethren congregation formed in , and grew to members by . a brethren congregation with over members had also formed in vancouver by this time. the mennonites present in b.c. in were among , german-speakers in the province, or about % of the total provincial population. by a l l accounts, the 's were years of hard work and many pressures on the newcomers. young g i r l s worked as maids in vancouver (as mennonite g i r l s did in most canadian urban areas), and many mennonites worked as labourers in local hopfields or in vancouver. delegates from b.c. present at the annual brethren canadian conference meetings lamented the unwholesome contact with "worldly" influences brought about by this, and the strong assimilationist pressures present. the mennonitische rundschau reported in late that a number of anglo- canadian nativist meetings had taken place in the fraser valley, with concern being expressed over the high immigration rate of "poor europeans" from the prairies, and the high birthrate of the oriental population. the mennonites were clearly objects of concern, and motions were even made proposing b.c. become an independent nation, in order to control the "flood" of unwanted newcomers. the host community was obviously quite open about i t s nativist and racist feelings. peter ward has argued that the "structurally plural" nature of the british columbia population gave rise to a longing by anglo-canadians for r a c i a l homogeneity, which was openly expressed in terms of racial prejudices. although asians were the targets of most harassment, the fact that anglo-canadian nativism was a "cultural norm" means that there was an inherent psychological tension between anglo-canadians and a l l non-british immigrants. john norris downplays these tensions, but does point out that both germans and mennonites were objects of h o s t i l i t y by the host community in the interwar years. rumours circulated in the 's "to the effect that mennonites were similar to doukhobors and detrimental to the state," and during the second world war there was resentment at mennonite unwillingness to join the armed forces. recollections by a mennonite in the mid- 's reveal the extent to which mennonites wanted to be seen as successful members of b.c. society. it was ironically this success which engendered resentment toward the mennonites. a study of b.c. mennonites done in by john krahn indicates the typical set of responses to this environment. the brethren started german "saturday schools" in nearly every community, and eventually two high schools and three bible schools. retention of the german language was generally a goal in a l l such educational efforts, and not just the saturday schools (see chapters four and five). krahn argues, like buhr, that a basic goal of leaders was "controlled integration" with the larger canadian society. urbanization, acculturation and assimilation were basic trends from the 's onward; by the 's low german was s t i l l spoken by older mennonites, but the younger people spoke english among themselves and at home. high german was s t i l l used in church services, but that too was headed for decline. krahn feels that brethren integration into canadian society was "perhaps attributable to educational and missionary contact with the environment." a recent study by robert burkinshaw adds weight to the notion that the brethren missionary emphasis had an effect on other aspects of brethren identity. burkinshaw locates the brethren in the general growth of evangelicalism in b.c. from the late 's onward. the brethren p i e t i s t i c and evangelistic emphases led i t s members and churches to identify gradually more with the wider evangelical community in the province than with their own heritage. the brethren were s t i l l a distinct group in from others like baptists and pentecostals, due to remaining linguistic and cultural "barriers", but they displayed characteristics which would "encourage increasing cooperation and identification with the wider evangelicalism." while burkinshaw underestimates the strength of attempts to preserve the mennonite socio-religious identity, he has identified a key element in bringing about rapid acculturation and assimilation among the brethren. the fact that the less evangelically-oriented general conference mennonites were also more conservative on linguistic and cultural issues adds weight to this conclusion. in b r i t i s h columbia, the brethren tendency to identify with north american evangelicalism, along with strong assimilationist pressures, the presence of nationalistic schools which wouldn't hire mennonites, and a small non-mennonite german community with a weak base of support for the "new germany", mitigated strong and open identifications with nazi germany. on the other hand, these trends were the background to those germanist reactions which did occur. wagner provides part of the reason why canadian nazism would have appealed to groups like the mennonites: i t was a n t i - assimilationist, and appealed to those who f e l t inferior or the victims of injustice or discrimination. the mennonite experience of brutal treatment during the bolshevik revolution, the economic conditions of the great depression, and the threat of rapid assimilation put them in a potentially receptive position for the cultural, p o l i t i c a l and ethnic ideas associated with the "new germany". russian mennonite ethno-religious culture appeared to be breaking down, more rapidly in some areas than others; at the same time, distinctions between p o l i t i c a l and cultural germanism were just beginning to be understood, as they were bound up in a single "package" which seemed to offer answers to the problems of fragmentation, i n s t a b i l i t y and loss of identity. the essential argument of this thesis is that germanism, and the german language in particular, functioned as an instrument of socio-religious integration for the russlaender brethren in the t h i r t y years after their a r r i v a l in canada. in-the interwar years, mennonite germanism took on certain p o l i t i c a l , "volkish", and nationalistic overtones; by the end of the second world war, these elements had largely faded. in the postwar period germanism becomes more clearly identifiable in i t s primary role as symbol and agent of the distinctive configuration of religious faith, sense of peoplehood, and way of l i f e which had emerged in imperial russia. notes, chapter one . it is generally agreed that the russlaender were more prone to assimilation than most other mennonites had been. a few general studies which acknowledge this are george g. thielman, "the canadian mennonites," (ph.d. dissertation, western reserve university, ), pp. - ; e.k. francis, in search of utopia (altona, mb: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), p. ; frank h. epp, mennonites in canada. - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), p. . . george l. mosse, the c r i s i s of german ideology (new york: grosset & dunlap, ); martin broszat, "die voelkische ideologie und der nationalsozialismus," deutsche rundschau (january ): - ; ernst- christian helmreich, the german churches under hitler: background, struggle, and epilogue (detroit: wayne state university press, ), chapter , esp. pp. - ; john s. conway, the nazi persecution of the churches - (toronto: the ryerson press, ), pp. - ; jonathan wagner, brothers beyond the sea: national socialism in canada (waterloo, on: wilfred laurier press, ), pp. - . . the appeal,which hitler's anti-communism held for mennonites i s widely citeid. john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), p. ; frank h. epp, mennonite exodus (altona, mb: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), p. ; watson kirkconnell, canada. europe and hitler (toronto: oxford university press, ), p. ; francis, in search of utopia, p. ; interview with anne funk, vancouver, b r i t i s h columbia, may , . . the theory of cognitive dissonance was f i r s t proposed by leon festinger in . the theory has been defined thus: an emotional state set up when two simultaneously held attitudes or cognitions are inconsistent or when there is a conflict between belief and overt behavior. the resolution of the conflict is assumed to serve as a basis for attitude change in that belief patterns are generally modified so as to be consistent with behavior. from arthur s. reber, the penguin dictionary of psychology (new york: viking penguin, ), p. . for mennonites, one way of making sense of what had happened to them was to interpret events as a battle between the forces of good and e v i l , embodied in hitler and the bolsheviks, respectively. . it is beyond the scope of this study to document a correlation between mennonite economic conditions during the 's, and germanism. the discussion contained in the rest of this chapter indicates, however, that mennonites f e l t positive about their economic prospects in canada at this time, and worked hard to "make i t " in canadian society. it should be added that the typical mennonite response to problems was mutual assistance, and thus they looked f i r s t to the larger mennonite group for solutions, rather than nation-states. for mennonite efforts at mutual aid during the 's see epp, mennonites in canada, - . chapter , "overcoming the depression," esp. p. ff. . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. , - ; see also elizabeth gerwin, "a survey of the german-speaking population of alberta," (m.a. thesis, university of alberta, ), pp. - . the author was intent on distancing german-canadians from the nazi regime, arguing that the majority of german-speaking immigrants in alberta had "the mixed feelings of a sympathetic bystander," but no real nationalistic feeling for germany. . gerald friesen, the canadian prairies: a history (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . see also alan b. anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan: a comparative study of identity change among seven ethno-religious groups in a canadian prairie region," (ph.d. dissertation, university of saskatchewan, ), p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - ; kirkconnell, canada. europe and hitler, p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. ; kirkconnell, canada. europe and hitler, pp. - . in the russlaender community of coaldale, alberta, der nordwesten was as popular as der bote, a paper published by and for russlaender. epp, mennonite exodus, p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - ; arthur grenke, "the formation and early development of an urban ethnic community: a case study of the germans in winnipeg, - ," (ph.d. dissertation, university of manitoba, ), pp. - ; anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan," p. ; kirkconnell, canada. europe and hitler, p. ; john norris, stranger's entertained: a history of the ethnic groups of b r i t i s h columbia (vancouver: british columbia centennial ' committee, ), p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. , - . . jonathan f. wagner, "transferred c r i s i s : german volkish thought among russian mennonite immigrants to western canada," canadian review of studies in nationalism ( ): - . there is l i t t l e evidence that russian mennonites had any part in the volkish movement prior to coming to canada. see john b. toews, czars, soviets and mennonites (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), p. ff., ; francis, in search of utopia, pp. - ; alan b. anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan," p. ; harry loewen, "the german-russian tensions among the mennonites in russia ( - )," paper on f i l e at the centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, box , folder h, no. , pp. - ; john b. toews, "the russian mennonite intellect of the th century," paper on f i l e at cmbs, winnipeg, box , folder h, no. ; h.a. peters, "das mennonitische volkstum: eine skizze seiner entstehung und des verfalles," per bote. december , pp. - . . friesen, the canadian prairies, pp. - . . donald avery, •dangerous foreigners': european immigrant workers and labour radicalism in canada. - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . . friesen, the canadian prairies, p. , ; see also howard palmer, patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), pp. - . . friesen, the canadian prairies, pp. - ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, pp. - and passim. . friesen, the canadian prairies, p. , ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, p. , ; epp, mennonites in canada. - . p. . ca. dawson, group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada (toronto: macmillan, , reprinted by kraus reprint co., ), pp. - . . avery, 'dangerous foreigners', p. ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, pp. - . . interview with gerhard ens, editor of per bote. winnipeg, manitoba, june , ; interview with anne brandt, kelowna, b.c., june , ; gerwin, "a survey of the german-speaking population of alberta," p. and passim. . avery, 'dangerous foreigners', pp. , - ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, pp. - . . john herd thompson with allen seager, canada - : decades of discord (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . examples of dafoe's feelings toward nazism include "germany and the world," winnipeg free press. april , p. ; "hitler's reichstag speech," ibid., february , p. . . thompson and seager, decades of discord, p. . . ibid., p. ff; wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - . . this is the general impression given by thompson and seager, decades of discord, chapter , "canada on the road to war". . gervin, "a survey of the german-speaking population of alberta," p. ; wagner, "transferred c r i s i s , " p. . lita rose betcherman, the swastika and the maple leaf: fascist movements in canada in the thirties (toronto: fitzhenry & whiteside, ), p. . my analysis of the mennonitische rundschau confirms the existence of this general feeling of german denigration by the canadian press. . e.g. "german massacre widely rumoured: nazi plot to wipe out leftists reported," saskatoon star pheonix. march , p. ; "editorial", ibid., p. ; "democracy, communism doomed as nazi vote assures big majority," ibid., march , p. ; "hitler and the jewish people," ibid., march , p. ; "catholics face nazi campaign," ibid., july , p. ; "dictators partners: mussolini and hitler may have agreement on locarno issue," ibid., july , p. ; "hitler plans new anti-jewish drive," winnipeg free press. april , p. ; "nazis strip, chain and torture distinguished jew, reporter states," ibid., april , p. ; "germany and the world," ibid., april , p. . . "huge winnipeg gathering protests alleged attack upon jews in germany," winnipeg free press. april , p. . . mennonite brethren northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house), p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; john a toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church. (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . seventh census of canada. , vol. iv (ottawa: king's printers, ), p. . . joanna r. buhr, "pursuit of a vision: persistence and accomodation among coaldale mennonites from the mid-nineteen.twenties to world war ii," (m.a. thesis, university of calgary, ), p. . . ibid., p- . . ibid., pp. -- . . ibid., pp. -- . . ibid., p- . . ibid., p- . . ibid., p. . . epp, mennonites in canada. - r p. . . anna wiebe, "the mennonite brethren in ontario: a short history," mennogespraech. (march ): . wiebe counts individuals of brethren a f f i l i a t i o n ; this would have worked out to around families/households. . ibid., pp. - . . seventh census of canada. . vol. iv (ottawa: king's printers, ), p. . . henry paetkau, "a struggle for survival. the russian mennonite immigrants in ontario, - ," (m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, ), p. . . ibid., p. . . each province had such an assembly, where a wide range of issues and concerns relevant to the russlaender were discussed. economic and agricultural issues tended to dominate during the 's, although issues like the german identity were discussed as well. the central mennonite immigrant committee, located in rosthern, saskatchewan, tied the provincial assemblies together and, as mentioned, featured a cultural section. through the german vda (society for germanism abroad) the committee was able to procure books to start german lending-libraries in various communities. as epp reports, the cmic was...active in the promotion of the german language. from time to time i t was reported that not enough was being done for "das deutschtum". to promote german language and german culture a representative was appointed to work with the german canadian central committee in the promotion of a "german day" in regina on july , . (epp, mennonite exodus, pp. - .) . paetkau, "a struggle for survival," p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., p. . . henry paetkau, "russian mennonite immigrants of the 's: a reappraisal," journal of mennonite studies ( ): . . frank epp's work has tended to emphasize the desire for separation among canadian mennonites. see epp, mennonites in canada. - , p. ff. while this may have been appropriate for some groups, the russlaender brought with them a weaker separatist mentality. the brethren stress on outreach and evangelism further detracted from the traditional isolationist stance. . sociologists have observed that ethnic assimilation in rural contexts is retarded, especially where ethnic communities exist. see kathleen neils conzen, "historical approaches to the study of rural ethnic communities," in frederick c. luebke, ed., ethnicity on the great plains (lincoln: university of nebraska press, ), pp. - . . ca. dawson reports the figure at individuals, while e.k. francis claims that families, or - individuals, settled on the reserve. frank epp's figure of families for the whole province seems most accurate, and supports a figure closer to dawson's for the west reserve. dawson, group settlement, p. ; francis, in search of utopia, p. ; epp, mennonites in canada. - . p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . seventh census of canada, (ottawa: king's printers, ), vol. i l l , p. ; vol. iv, p. . . epp, mennonites in canada, - . p. . . dawson, group settlement, pp. - . . ibid., - . . francis, in search of utopia, pp. - ; . . avery, %dangerous foreicmers'. p. ; wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - ; seventh census, ,.vol. i l l , pp. - . . interview with gerhard ens, editor of der bote, winnipeg, manitoba, june , ; interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor and conference leader, kelowna, british columbia, june and december , ; dawson, group settlement, p. . . francis, in search of utopia, p. ; gerhard lohrenz, "the mennonites in winnipeg," mennonite l i f e . january , pp. - . . interview with herb brandt; interview with peter neudorf, mennonite businessman, vancouver, b.c., december , ; interview with jack and eleanor dueck, kitchener, ontario, july , . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - ; . . francis, in search of utopia, pp. - . . p.h. penner, mennonitische rundschau, february , pp. - . . canadian nationalist party leaders wore swastika pins and openly identified themselves with the nazi movement. betcherman, the swastika and the maple leaf, p. . . h. klassen, mennonitische rundschau, march , p. . . h. toews, mennonitische rundschau, january , p. . ; "um hohen preis," der bote, june , pp. - . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . epp, mennonite exodus, p. . . paetkau, "a struggle for survival," p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. . . epp, mennonite exodus, p. . interviews have confirmed the f a i r l y common use of shortwave radios. interview with herb brandt; interview with peter neudorf. mr. brandt remembers walking into a room f i l l e d with mennonites reverently listening to hitler. peter neudorf f e l t that most of the russlaender mennonites in the area of manitoba where he grew up were "for" hitler, both before and during the second world war. . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. ff. . eighth census of canada. vol. ii (ottawa: king's printers, ), p. ; ninth census of canada, vol. i (ottawa: queen's printer, ), table - . . mennonite brethren northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house), pp. - . . seventh census of canada. vol. iv (ottawa: king's printers, ), p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . mennonitische rundschau, december , p. . . w. peter ward, white canada forever: popular attitudes and public policy toward orientals in b r i t i s h columbia (montreal: mcgill-queen's university press, ), pp. - ; - . . see ward, white canada forever, pp. - ; . . john norris, strangers entertained, pp. ; - ; - . . john j. krahn, "a history of the mennonites in british columbia," (m.a. thesis, university of british columbia, ), p. , . . norris, strangers entertained, p. . . b.b. wiens, "pioneering in b r i t i s h columbia," mennonite l i f e , july , pp. - . . norris, strangers entertained, pp. - ; p.w. luce, "unwelcome mennonites making model farms by the fraser," saturday night. february , p. . . krahn, a history of the mennonites. pp. - . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . robert k. burkinshaw, "strangers and pilgrims in lotus land: conservative protestantism in british columbia, - ," (ph.d. dissertation, university of b r i t i s h columbia, ), p. . . krahn, "a history of the mennonites," p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . . norris, strangers entertained, p. . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, pp. - ; ; - . chapter two germanism in the mennonitische rundschau. - one of the best sources of information for a broad picture of mennonite concerns and identity during the 's is the mennonite press. it functioned as an important medium of communication and connection for the relatively educated and literate russlaender. the papers featured a high proportion of contributions by readers, functioning as open forums for the dissemination of a l l types of information, and the discussion of any and every topic of concern to mennonites. the mennonitische rundschau (henceforth rundschau) has been selected as a central source on account of these attributes, and for other reasons as well. the primary one is that after the paper was edited in winnipeg by a mennonite brethren, and was essentially identified as serving the canadian brethren (most of whom had immigrated in the 's), in becoming a semi-official canadian conference organ. as well, i t had a more cosmopolitan character than i t s counterpart, per bote, which appealed more s t r i c t l y to general conference mennonites who immigrated to canada in the 's. the rundschau did appeal to canadian mennonite immigrants, but i t reflected the fact that these people were connected to other mennonites l i v i n g in canada, the united states, europe and south america. the rundschau had been published in elkhart, indiana from to , and in scottdale, pennsylvania from to , when i t was moved to winnipeg. a "european edition" of the paper had circulated widely in russia prior to the f i r s t world war, and when h.h. neufeld took over as editor in he helped to preserve i t s international, russian mennonite character. the paper was twice as large as der bote, generally containing pages of material, was published weekly, and i t s circulation of - was at least double that of der bote. thus the rundschau would seem to present a broader and more representative picture of canadian mennonite and s p e c i f i c a l l y brethren attitudes. my reading of the paper indicates that i t s broader readership and longer history gave i t a s t a b i l i t y and range lacking in the newer paper, whose editor exercised complete control over it. that the rundschau was read and contributed to by american mennonites is appropriate, as well, since the canadian brethren related quite closely to the american brethren, , adopting the american brethren's zionsbote as their o f f i c i a l organ, and joining the american brethren's general conference as a "northern d i s t r i c t " . the zionsbote w i l l not figure in this study because i t had a d i s t i n c t l y american flavour and was primarily devotional, treating a much narrower range of issues than the rundschau. in my analysis, i have indicated those individuals whom i have positively identified as being brethren; many others were undoubtedly brethren as well. it is also to be assumed that in the majority of discussions of germanism, the individuals involved were russlaender. many of the a r t i c l e s cited were submitted anonymously, or had no t i t l e , in which case reference has been made to issue and page number. the study consists of a relatively comprehensive reading of the rundschau for the years - , and ; i have divided i t into periods occurring before and after hitler's assumption of power in germany. the following is an attempt to summarize and interpret the germanist content and i t s context. - the issue which dominated the pages of the rundschau in the early 's was the continuing tragedy in soviet russia. the f i n a l act of the drama saw over , russian-germans, mostly mennonites, gathering at the gates of moscow during the winter of - , hoping to be granted exit visas. about half eventually made i t out, thanks to germany's temporary willingness to take them in, and i t s pledge of considerable financial support for their relocation. it was becoming clear that those mennonites remaining in russia had nowhere to go, and were doomed to virtual extinction as a religious people. pathetic letters from mennonites sent to siberia appeared in the rundschau, along with reports of horrors in the colonies themselves and general articles abhorring the atheism and communism of the new soviet regime. some of the editor's siblings wrote from germany, glad to be out of russia; one of neufeld's sisters, however, didn't make it. it would be d i f f i c u l t to overemphasize the importance of these events in affecting the russian mennonite psyche. the sense of tragedy and loss was overwhelming.il understandably, germany emerged as the great saviour and protector of the mennonites, and expressions of gratitude were unbounded: in heaven i t w i l l be reckoned/the great things germany has done. by i t the poor, the persecuted/were pulled from the clutches of the e v i l one./o bless, god, the german land,/protect i t with your almighty hand. a refugee wrote from hamburg that germany had provided for a l l possible needs, and that germans had even shown love to the refugees. "it is impossible to describe. there is no way we'll be able to pay them back." a letter of thanks to hindenberg (who had personally donated , reichsmarks for russian-german r e l i e f ) was drafted at the mennonite world conference in danzig. the fact that germany was actively involved in http://overwhelming.il furthering donations for russian r e l i e f could only add to the general sense of gratitude towards germany. mennonites were admonished never to forget what the germans had done for them. german efforts under hindenberg to aid russian mennonites moved rundschau editor neufeld to trace his ancestry back to prussia and apply for german citizenship. although very few people went this far, i t is clear that germany's positive example helped to make i t a strong reference point for mennonite identity in the aftermath of the breakdown of the russian commonwealth. expressions of concern over the fragmentation of mennonite society were present throughout the 's, and were coupled with laments over being a "people without a homeland". a poem illustrates well how germanism was identified as a positive, unifying characteristic, and how the german nation was seen as a kindly father welcoming home his wayward children: when in every land/the german volk is scattered/so hold tight the bonds/of loyalty and unity./great among the nations—the german homeland./it reaches gladly from afar/to i t s own the hand./to nurture unity/in joy or pain,/that is the german blessing. the "german" ethnic background of mennonites was cited as being responsible for the qualities which carried mennonites through their wanderings, helping them to make improvements on the land wherever they settled. this kind of claim was frequently made; what is of interest here is that german qualities were seen to be a stabilizing factor in mennonite identity. the emerging german volkish movement also had an impact on mennonites. a prominent elder of the newly formed schoenwiese congregation in winnipeg submitted an a r t i c l e in by a german writer which argued that the german volk could only be helped through a rebirth of s p e c i f i c a l l y german culture and r e l i g i o n — a l l non-german elements were to be expunged. the implication for mennonites vas clear. the rundschau followed events in germany quite closely, indicating that the "volkish rebirth" of the german nation was of prime interest. even rather m i l i t a r i s t i c nevs concerning germany vas featured, like reports that the stahlhelm veterans organization and the sa (a nazi paramilitary organization) vere being allowed to wear uniforms again, and that hitler had proclaimed that germans would have to be ready to sacrifice their lives i f germany vere to regain i t s place in the sun. there vere many such pieces vhich ran as "news", without comment. the fascination with germany extended to a l l manner of nevs. there vere a r t i c l e s on hindenberg, german shipping, times of german shortvave transmissions, and above a l l reports on german politics. hitler's progress vas followed, as were the results of the election between hindenberg and hitler. part of the interest and identification with germany vas due to the perception that the success or failure of communism in the west vould be decided in germany. mennonites' immediate experience vith communism gave them a very strong bias against i t , and fear vas evident that germany too might f a l l to the atheistic communists, vith the rest of the vorld soon to follov. an individual v r i t i n g in held that hitler vas the only bulwark against communism. a speech given by former canadian prime minister arthur meighen, in vhich he called for revisions of reparations payments demanded of germany and cited germany as being the linchpin in vorld resistance to bolshevism, vas covered in detail by the rundschau. harsh actions taken by the berlin government against communists vere reported approvingly. the unrest in germany was seen as being "instigated and covered up by moscow." high feelings for germany are further indicated in the number and range of strongly militant or p o l i t i c a l a r t i c l e s relating to germanism and germany printed during this period. it was in response to such articles that voices were raised in caution, as well, but at this point they were few and isolated. an example of a militantly german a r t i c l e from a non-mennonite source was the "german day" announcement for manitoba. these were festivals which had begun to be staged in the late 's on the prairies as primarily cultural events, eventually becoming controlled by national socialists. the notice was anti-slavic, -communist, and - p a c i f i s t . the "indestructible power and majesty of the german nature" was heralded as the only hope of mankind. the apex of heterodoxy was reached in the rundschau via the reprinting of a r t i c l e s from nazi julius streicher's "obscene" der stuermer. one of the a r t i c l e s had been sent in by two mennonite men who stated that "it is high time that p o l i t i c a l issues be c l a r i f i e d to the people." the a r t i c l e maintained that jesus was not a p a c i f i s t , and that the way to greatness lay in "aggressive struggle for the german volk and fatherland." another contribution argued that mennonites had been pacifists during the f i r s t world war only because they hadn't wanted to fight against fellow- germans; at the end the editor asked, "is i t true?" in addition, prussian militarism was heralded as being the backbone of "deutschtum", and in direct opposition to the s p i r i t of marxism. these sorts of views garnered l i t t l e response. more people were exercised by the possiblity that born-again christians could lose their salvation. loyalty to germany at this time seems to have overridden any concern about these challenges to the historic mennonite adherence to the principle of nonresistance. it was only in regard to the doctrines espoused by the german general ludendorff and his wife that some opposition vas voiced to militant germanism. the debate on ludendorff, a top general during the first world war and subsequent collaborator vith hitler, vas initiated by a reviev article on a book of "prophecies" by the general. typical of editorial policy at the time, the reviev did not take a position on ludendorff's strange and extreme ideas. a reader, hovever, pointed out that ludendorff vas "attempting to build a nev germany in vhich the christian faith, the freemasons and the jevs are simply done avay vith." ludendorff vanted to invoke the old pagan, german gods like "wotan, baldur and frya". this writer vas harshly attacked by a german in berlin for painting a false picture of ludendorff, vho vas a "burning patriot". an anonymous letter followed vhich attacked ludendorff, especially for his anti-semitism. the original c r i t i c then clarified his point further: "christ or wotan?" a "simple farmer" took ludendorff's side, arguing that ludendorff's heterodoxy should be excused, since intolerance in matters of faith vas more a jevish than a german trait. support for ludendorff's critics folloved. there was f u l l agreement, on the other hand, that the treaty of versailles, in its treatment of germany, vas "the crime of the century". opinions on hitler and the national socialists at this time vere either positive or undecided. one of the f i r s t positive assessments of hitler vas written in early by a mennonite living in germany. the vriter predicted an impending victory for the nazis, vho displayed a "healthy national and christian spirit", and asserted that the question of communism and vorld domination by the jevs vould be decided on german soil. heinrich schroeder, a teacher from the russian colonies vho had settled in germany and vho espoused national socialist and volkish ideas throughout the 's, helped to "introduce" hitler to canadian mennonites in , claiming that hitler was in favour of "positive christianity" and the furtherance of "deutschtum" throughout the world. when hitler came to power, he would remember germans everywhere, helping to right past wrongs against them so they could breathe easier. the f i r s t statement of pro-nazi views by a canadian mennonite occurred in , and non-mennonite writers also supported the new movement. in late a reader complained that the news on p o l i t i c a l events was too one- sided: a perspective broader than that of one race or volk was called for. earlier, the editor stated that he had been asked about his position on hitler, and had responded that he didn't have one, since mennonites were called to higher things than meddling in p o l i t i c s . he merely wanted "to observe how things stand in world p o l i t i c s , without taking a position on them." yet the tone and content of the paper in the 's contradicted this assertion of neutrality. just one example is an a r t i c l e on hitler by houston stewart chamberlain, one of the progenitors of the nazi ideology, which appeared in the "news" section in without comment. thus the opinions of a powerful advocate of nazi ideas and the "volksmensch adolf hitler" were featured as objective reportage. it is important to remember, however, that the outcome of events was unknown at this time, and that the majority of contributions to the rundschau made no comment on these issues. the foregoing illustrates the turmoil and uncertainty of the early 's: the effects of the wall street crash were beginning to be f e l t ; the door was being closed to the remaining friends and loved ones in russia, as stalinization set in; and communism seemed to be not only threatening germany, but also had i t s representatives in places like winnipeg. in addition, anglo-canadians had for various reasons again become hostile to "foreigners'* l i v i n g in their midst. russian mennonite identity vas in flux. an example of the struggle vith outside influences is seen in the prominent brethren abraham j. kroeker, former editor of the friedensstimme in russia, the semi-official organ of the brethren church there. kroeker had settled in minnesota, and vas a frequent contributor to the rundschau. among his many submissions to the paper vas a long a r t i c l e series written by a violently anti-semitic member of general ludendorff's m i l i t a r i s t i c "tannenberg bund", vho had recently visited the german colonies in soviet russia. on the other hand, kroeker maintained that his policy on book reviews had been to avoid books v i t h a "german- patriotic and m i l i t a r i s t i c tendency"; mennonites should only read good, christian material. kroeker appeared most comfortable dealing v i t h p i e t i s t i c topics. an issue vhich was closer to home for most canadian mennonites was the value of german volkish ideas in unifying mennonites and helping to perpetuate their socio-religious culture. what affected people the most vas the idea that german qualities and language vere important aspects of being mennonite, and that preservation of the language vas essential in maintaining the unity and integrity of the mennonite volk and i t s faith. a poem vritten by a "german father to his son" linked german virtues and the german language to good citizenship and the maintenance of the "old, true faith", and encouraged the son to "stay german" even i f "a thousand fools mock you". c f . klassen, a leading figure in the mennonite vorld, and a brethren, wrote in : "it is good i f ve always remember that religion and deutschtum vere the sources out of vhich ve have, u n t i l nov, been able to accomplish much, and remain the sources for future accomplishments." klassen was the chief collector for the mennonite "travel-debt" incurred in the migration to canada, and came into contact with many of the widely scattered immigrants. the issue of language was the most pervasive and enduring aspect of canadian mennonite germanism during the entire period under study. the discussion of "german and religion" instruction in the schools was l i v e l y during the 's in the rundschau, and w i l l be dealt with in chapter four. general articles such as j. john friesen's "spotlight oh the german language" also appeared. friesen maintained that "if a volk trades i t s language for another, i t loses i t s own l i f e — i t s soul." he also asserted that the loss of the german language would entail the loss of traditional mennonite religious distinctives. h.h. ewert, a leading mennonite educator of the kanadier, who had earlier encouraged the use of english, was cited in as saying much the same thing. other individuals called for a "surer foundation" in german and religion instruction in the schools: "we don't have anything against the public schools, we only want to make our children into pious mennonites and thereby good citizens of the land." a "strong desire for good german literature" was beginning to be f e l t among mennonites, another reported. a minister of the german government informed mennonites that loss of the german language would mean absorption into a non-german "volkstum". thus, most of the elements relevant to the german identity of mennonites were already present in the early 's, before the the national socialist revolution had f u l l y taken place. the shattering experience under the bolsheviks had prepared the way for german identification in two interrelated ways: on the one hand, germany was seen as a rescuing and caring parent which promised to stand up to the communists and make german-speakers everywhere proud. at the same time, the german language and culture was recognized as a force of unification, integration and perpetuation of mennonite socio-religious culture. - from the time hitler came to power in germany in january , u n t i l the outbreak of the second world war, the related issues of germanism, national socialism and mennonite unity were intensely discussed in the rundschau, as a number of competing claims were made on mennonite identity and purpose. a clamor of voices put forward a whole host of ideas and opinions on these topics, many of them remarkable for their extremism and deviation from the stereotypical view of mennonites as being quiet, a p o l i t i c a l and nonresistant people. it began to appear to some that russian mennonites were at a fork in the road: one way seemed to lead to some kind of rapprochement with themselves, their past, and even the german fatherland, as a german volk with german ways and a religion intimately tied to the german language. the other road seemed to lead to anglicization, assimilation, and loss of personal, communal and religious integrity. while i t is obvious that the majority of canadian mennonites did not take part in the discussion in any real way, and that some in leading positions stayed on the sidelines because "silence is golden", i t must be asserted that there was widespread and deeply-held interest in these issues. the rundschau continued to exhibit a strongly pro-german attitude, to the point of supporting german militarism, and an openness to a l l but the most heterodox points of view. at the same time, a significant opposition emerged to some of the more extremist ideas and fanciful projects, and a moderated german identity was articulated. although the horrors of the situation in the soviet union continued to garner attention, the rise of nazi germany became the focus of international events. in early , a number of a r t i c l e s were printed which aimed at combatting the alleged "hate propaganda" in the english-language press directed against hitler and the nazis. the uproar was due to the nazi boycott of jewish goods, commencing april , and accompanying acts of violence against jews. hitler's accession to power did not bring about great jubilation, but from october of through february of , speeches given by hitler, and edited by goebbels, were featured on the back pages of the rundschau. the twenty-five point programme of the national socialists appeared in september of . throughout this period letters were sent in by mennonites and others either travelling or l i v i n g in germany which extolled the great changes taking place there, including the suppression of communism. news a r t i c l e s on the communists "getting their comeuppance" from the nazis would have been read with approval. one mennonite, whose family had been exiled somewhere in the soviet union, shared the widespread i l l u s i o n of many germans that hitler carried a bible in his breast-pocket, was trusted by everyone, and had done a good job of cleaning up the "social- democratic, atheistic communist mess." there continued to be much news on developments in germany, and almost a l l of i t had a positive slant. press releases from the german consulate were printed, and statements by the german consul in winnipeg, heinrich seelheim, appeared frequently. much of the "news" must have originated from pro-german and -nazi sources. the rundschau reprinted a speech given at the "german day" in winnipeg by consul seelheim, who spoke of the "voice of the blood" drawing germans together, and of the need for germans everywhere to be true to their "volkstum". he spoke highly of the "national revolution" happening in germany, of i t s moral and s p i r i t u a l renewal, and of strengthening "true volksgemeinschaft" (volks-community) . one mennonite reader was transported "a thousand years into the past" to his gothic roots by the speech. this response is paradigmatic, i believe, of the overall mennonite feeling toward germany and germanism at this time. hardly anyone disputed the importance of the german identity in perpetuating the mennonite "volkstum" as i t had emerged in russia; but differences existed as to the degree people were willing to make germanism the defining feature of mennonite identity. a few became ardent german nationalists, advocating renunciation of traditional mennonite principles such as nonresistance, and even incorporation into the german reich. more f e l t that some kind of reintegration along the lines of a german-mennonite "mennostaat" was in order, to prevent the complete dissolution of "mennonitentum". the majority identified with events in germany, and promoted non-political forms of germanism at home as an important element in maintaining mennonite identity and solidarity, but drew the line at threats to mennonite doctrinal integrity and half-baked ideas of some kind of new mennonite commonwealth. the strong, almost rabid pro-germanists and -nazis were given much space in the rundschau throughout this period. heinrich schroeder was allowed to hold forth on his ideas of a synthesis between nazism and christianity, and of a mennonite "traditions-colony" named "priesenheil", to be located somewhere in germany. hindrances like the principle of nonresistance were to be cast off, and divisions within mennonitism would be ignored to ground a single "volks-church" of " r a c i a l l y pure knights of the third reich". schroeder was drawing on the volkish tradition of a "germanic utopia" for his ideas, which had some parallels with mennonites' own utopian vision. although schroeder's ideas were dismissed incredulously by some, others f e l t compelled to remonstrate c r i t i c s for being too "scornful" of schroeder's proposals. for some, excitement over events occurring in germany combined with vicious, often biblically-grounded anti-semitism. it is significant for this study that most a r t i c l e s dealing with the topic in this period shared the basic nazi position, arguing that jews were at the root of most of the world's problems, and that german treatment of them was f a i r , in contra- diction to reports from the "jewish-controlled" press. this sad aspect of canadian mennonite history is underscored by the fact that some went so far as to j u s t i f y jewish suffering, and that a synopsis of the phony "protocols of the elders of zion" was printed in the paper. in a l i b e l suit was brought against the editor, neufeld, for publishing fascist leader william whittaker's violently anti-seraitic paper the canadian nationalist. the general mennonite feeling towards jews is indicated by the fact that the paramount brethren leader b.b. janz, after comparing german patriotism with that of the jews, f e l t compelled to write another a r t i c l e in which he delineated the many perceived evils for which some jews were responsible, the prime one being the bolshevik terror. besides providing an identifiable scapegoat—the jews—for russian mennonite suffering, the national socialist ideology also seemed to offer much to a group which had traditionally been based on the separation of church and state, and which was in the process of trying to ensure i t s survival as a homogeneous people. one writer, intent on illuminating national socialism from a "mennonite" perspective, misguidedly argued that the nazi state had advanced two crucial p o l i c i e s — r a c i a l purity and the separation of church and state. another mennonite complained b i t t e r l y about the sad effects of the american "melting-pot" ideology: mixing the blood of differing races led inevitably to a lowering of physical, s p i r i t u a l and moral standards. the only answer was the nurture of germanism, which represented the highest culture and language in the world. a prominent and respected proponent of volkish and nazi ideas was benjamin h. unruh, who had been a mennonite leader and teacher in russia and came from a brethren family. he had been a russian patriot during the f i r s t world war; thereafter his loyalties and love of fatherland were transferred to germany, where he had settled. once there, he established the organization "brothers in need" to assist russian-germans fleeing the ukraine, and sedulously b u i l t up contacts with high nazi o f f i c i a l s , including heinrich himmler, so that he could procure special treatment for mennonites in germany and russia. unruh, who cared deeply for his "volk", considered himself to be a scholarly and objective authority on every issue he treated; his writings belie this assumption. he wrote d i l i g e n t l y of the "german" ethnic background of the mennonites, of the german church struggles, of volkish ideas and national socialism, among other things, doing his best to lead mennonites down the garden path of r a c i a l intolerance, support for nazism, and the general renunciation of those principles which had given mennonites their good name in the f i r s t place. he supported the idea that r a c i a l purity was part of the order of creation as explicated in the old testament, and that hitler was merely heeding the command to keep the peoples of the earth r a c i a l l y separate. unruh likened the heterodox "german christians" to the early ana- baptists, and the struggle within the german churches to the reformation. besides emphasizing the relevance to mennonites of the supposed nazi tenets of separation of church and state, and r a c i a l purity, unruh made direct connections between mennonite communalism and the nazi volkish ideology; in this regard, as in the others, mennonites had always been national socialists. the nazi slogan "geroeinnutz ueber eigennutz" (the good of the group before that of the individual) was trumpeted as a special point of correspondence between mennonite and nazi ideals: for hitler "national" means boundless love for the volk, and "social" means to act for the volksgemeinschaft. gemeinnutz ueber eigennutz a true patriot always thinks on the good of his volk. put in this way, i t would be very easy for mennonites to think of themselves as national socialists. russian mennonite immigrants to paraguay (from the - c r i s i s ) erected a banner with the "gemeinnutz ueber eigennutz" motto on i t in the fernheim colony hall. a brethren former student of unruh who became a prominent winnipeg doctor visited unruh in germany, and eagerly asked unruh's opinion of the new germany. unruh said that he was " % for hitler", comparing him to the russian-mennonite "oberschulzen" or mayors, who were men of action and not piety. to his credit, unruh argued against the ideas of rosenberg and the "german faith movement". unruh's high standing among the canadian brethren is confirmed by the fact that they sent him an o f f i c i a l greeting in through his brother a.h. unruh, the respected brethren bible teacher, for his work in r e l i e f and resettlement. it is evident, by the wide range of a r t i c l e s appearing which tied germanism to militarism, that mennonites were indeed open to the p o s s i b i l i t y of adjusting their traditional principles to accord with their new-found german identity. an odd piece honored "friedrich friesen, the ideal german nation-builder and freedom fighter," a german who apparently had been k i l l e d resisting napoleon. other historical pieces dealt with "the ancient german tribes", and "the role of the friesens (i.e. proto-mennonites) in the crusades." these articles differed in content but not in direction from a r t i c l e s which supported the german perspective on rearmamentll or gave glowing accounts of what a fine individual hitler was. particularly repugnant is the gloss given to the june , nazi blood purge and the wave of indiscriminate assassinations which followed, in which the best possible light was thrown onto the brutal affair. mennonites cynicism toward the bolshevik revolution was more than compensated by naivete toward the nazi one. during the 's there is considerable evidence of a growing pan-german consciousness among the russlaender, in contradistinction to traditional mennonite exclusivity and i n a b i l i t y to work together with other german- speaking peoples. german-speaking pastors met on occasion at the winnipeg jewish mission, and mennonites took part in the inter-german memorial service for hindenberg, who died in . the united mennonite church choir sang at the event, and schoenwiese mennonite church leader j.p. klassen read a poem praising hindenberg. winnipeg mennonites cabled twenty dollars to b.h. unruh for a wreath for hindenberg's gravesite. on may , , a celebration of the german "national labour day" was held in winnipeg, and again j.p. klassen spoke, praising hitler for having brought unity to the german volk, and wishing the third reich "great success". at this event consul seelheim spoke, the german baptist choir sang, and the german cross was given out to f i r s t world war veterans. advertisements announcing the e l i g i b i l i t y of veterans to receive the cross appeared in the paper, as did announcements for meetings of the pro-nazi "german league" and the fascist "canadian national party". the editor appears to have been accused by a non-mennonite of p o l i t i c a l leanings in the printing of such material, but he defended himself by stating that some were paid announcements, and that he was merely giving the reader a broad review of items crossing his desk. his involvement with fascist and pro-nazi leaders is indicated by the fact that in addition to publishing william whittaker's the canadian nationalist, he printed nazi party-member bernard bott's deutsche zeitunq fuer kanada. which was the o f f i c i a l organ of the german league. various other german-oriented events were advertised in the rundschau, l i k e the showing of nazi propaganda films in winnipeg, german "song clubs", and contests sponsored by the german league for best german essays. as well, conscription notices for "reichs-germans" began to appear in early , as the german war machine came to life. mennonites themselves indicated their growing consciousness of a familial relationship to germans in various ways, including the very common use of "german" in the place of "mennonite" (as in "we germans"), or in combination with i t ("we german mennonites"). one mennonite argued that i t was necessary for a l l german canadians, regardless of confessional or cultural differences, to cooperate in preserving german language and culture: "we should...nurture what binds us, brings us closer, joins us together...we germans of canada are truly called to a higher task than to be cultural fodder of this land:" pan-germanism was espoused from germany by b.h. unruh and heinrich schroeder, who worked hard at "proving" the germanic roots of the russian mennonites. this was done at least partly in response to the (for them) embarrassing fact that russian mennonites had claimed to be of dutch descent during the f i r s t world war and immediately thereafter. walter quiring, another russian mennonite teacher who had settled in germany and who vigorously supported national socialism, argued stridently in per bote that the dutch identification had been a big mistake, and that the mennonite exodus from the soviet union had been made possible by the german-engineered treaty of brest-litovsk of . the debate over this untruth s p i l l e d over into the rundschau, and blended with an emerging i f partial consensus among canadian mennonites, and mennonite brethren in particular, which rejected the ideas of the german triumvirate of quiring, unruh and schroeder and attempted to steer a middle way between extremist germanism and the renunciation of the german identity. what follows is an analysis of this trend, and some of the core elements of russlaender germanism during the *s: fears of assimilation and acculturation, the desire to reunify mennonites, and the notion that the german identity was a key component in maintaining doctrinal and communal integrity. an affection for the mother- tongue and german culture is taken for granted, as being a basic motivation for germanist sentiments. one type of response to the highly p o l i t i c i z e d atmosphere of the 's which should not be overlooked, especially among the mennonite brethren, was p i e t i s t i c or apocalyptic. in one brethren saw christian conversion as being the only answer to the foreboding future, as opposed to the enter- tainment of certain p o l i t i c a l or economic ideas. other brethren echoed the belief that christian conversion was the single most important issue of the day. a classic example of the genre, by another brethren, stated: our time is an extraordinary, d i f f i c u l t one. much is said of the changing times, the revaluation of a l l values...great unrest exists today in the world. the storm of our time makes mankind restless in p o l i t i c a l , economic, intellectual and s p i r i t u a l ways...the world despite i t s high culture is going bankrupt, because god has been shut out. the issues of militant germanism and related p o l i t i c a l involvement were rebutted on their own terms as well. the anabaptist historian cornelius krahn attempted to quell excitement for the new germany in mid- by exposing the heterodoxy of the "german christians" and pointing out that judaism and marxism could not be blamed for a l l of the world's i l l s . anabaptist principles were not harmonizable with either bolshevism or fascism. later in a "schoolmaster" chided mennonites to stop looking to the past and participating in german "beer-patriotism"; instead, they should look to the future, and make canada their home. heinrich toews, a brethren congregational leader from manitoba, warned mennonites against getting involved in p o l i t i c s and nationalism, both being based on the use of force. winnipeg resident j.j. hildebrand, who f e l t strongly about the german identity of mennonites and was the foremost promoter of the "mennostaat" idea then floating around (autonomous mennonite state, discussed below), also warned mennonites away from p o l i t i c s , with i t s " e v i l undercurrents". hildebrand's position is significant because i t illustrates that in the canadian context, germanism was largely directed inward, toward other mennonites and the perpetuation of their socio-religious culture. the most important individual to take issue with the r i s i n g germanist sentiment, and plot a course for canadian mennonites through the various p o l i t i c a l and volkish thickets of the time, was the eminent brethren leader b.b. janz. janz was widely respected by a l l russian immigrants for his unparalleled efforts in bringing about the exodus from russia in the 's, for which he was called "the mennonite moses". he was leader of the large and influential brethren congregation in coaldale, alberta, and was extremely active in brethren and inter-mennonite organizations. his writings are the single most important documents for understanding the dilemmas of the period, as they provided a reference point for many mennonites, especially the brethren. janz's f i r s t contributions to the discussion appeared in late , with two articles printed in the same edition of the rundschau. one quoted from brethren historian p.m. friesen on the dutch origins of the mennonites. the other a r t i c l e , "was menno simons a national socialist?", took issue with heinrich schroeder's intimation that menno simons would have approved of nazi steps to rearm germany. janz drove home the point that simons was no nazi, and that the doctrine of nonresistance was not to be wrested from simons' mantle, where i t rightly belonged. janz mentioned that schroeder's father had been an officer in the controversial mennonite "selbstschutz" (self-defence) units in the ukraine, which were organized in the time of chaos following the bolshevik revolution. the senior schroeder had demanded that janz and another preacher be expelled from the colonies because of their opposition to these self-defence units. thus the roots of schroeder's militant germanism went back to the "selbstschutz" debacle in the ukraine. john horsch, the eastern u.s. old mennonite leader, was also drawn to the defense of menno's principles. isaak toews, a brethren preacher from saskatchewan, wrote in praise of janz's a r t i c l e on menno simons and national socialism, and a r t i c l e s supporting the principle of nonresistance followed, one having been read at a brethren conference, and one by another brethren leader. b.b. janz followed his short opening volleys with a , word a r t i c l e series entitled "wherefrom and whereto: spotlights on the mennonite past, present and future", which ran in the rundschau during april and may of . this article-series was a watershed in the germanism debates of the 's, as janz posed the historic "faith of the fathers" d i r e c t l y against the national socialist ideology and germanism as normative for mennonite identity, c l a r i f y i n g in the process the issues at stake. however, although janz made a strong distinction between the universality of the christian faith and the particularity of cultures, he was in the end subtly ambivalent about the superiority of the german language and culture as a special carrier of mennonite identity. as well, the defensive tone of the piece indicates that he f e l t he was treading on rather thin ice. the a r t i c l e begins with a polemic against the more extremist statements made in the canadian mennonite press (this would include per botef discussed in chapter three) in support of the nazi ideology of blood, race, and nation. these aspects had been emphasized too strongly by the "hurrah-patriots" from overseas, according to janz, when they are peripheral to mennonite identity. the f i r s t argument janz uses to disengage mennonites from the nazi ideology is that one has to "rape" history in order to endow mennonites with truly german blood. in what must have been a cold slap in the face to his opponents, janz asserts that there is only one relatively pure blood on the earth, and that is jewish. salvation does not come from the german nation, but from jesus. god's kingdom reaches over a l l nations. much of the a r t i c l e is devoted to recounting the experiences janz had while travelling among american mennonite communities in . these people are now more english than german, yet they exhibit a strong piety and have done many good works, including r e l i e f work for the russian immigrants themselves. it is wrong for the more recent immigrants to look down upon earlier ones who have changed their language as having "degenerated". janz points out that attempts to cooperate with the non-mennonite germans in russia had failed, despite honest attempts to work together—why was this so, i f "deutschtum" was the key to mennonite identity? janz also critiques the "mennostaat" idea via a critique of the mennonite "state" which had emerged in russia. he argues that in the russian "mennostaat" the c i v i l realm often interfered with the s p i r i t u a l realm, to the latter's detriment. mennonite self-governance only led to persecution and division. also, those who had found their salvation in the mennostaat were now finding i t in the third reich. janz's a f f i l i a t i o n with the brethren, a dissenting minority in the russian colonies which emphasized personal religious experience and conversion, is evident here. another aspect of janz's distinctive brethren identity present in the a r t i c l e is an emphasis on faith of the "heart" as an indicator of true s p i r i t u a l i t y , and as being something which is discernible without knowing the same language or having the same blood. in this case brethren pietism contributed to a universalist rather than a nationalist point of view. in his discussion of nonresistance janz is most forthright, as i t was the threat to that tenet of the faith which had f i n a l l y compelled him to respond: again and again came articles from over there (germany), trying to mix our volk...into the p o l i t i c a l batter, where nonresistance no longer has a place. for that reason i could no longer be silent...our inner being has been attacked. janz concedes that he is not attacking germany i t s e l f , just those who were "overeager" to convert mennonites to the "new gospel" emerging out of i t . in fact, janz lauds hitler as having been sent from god to save the world from bolshevism, and warmly remembers the help germany extended to russian mennonites. this was the essential dilemma in which russian mennonites found themselves—what kind of a person would turn against the nation which had done much for him, and which had presented i t s e l f as bulwark against the forces which had destroyed his idyll? the problem of personal integrity again comes to the fore in janz's discussion of the german language. on the one hand he makes i t clear that no language is holy, and distinguishes quite strongly between the form or expression of faith, and i t s content. on the other hand, his love of the german language and culture, as his own point of reference, is evident: he writes of the importance of "german manners and morals" in the schools, and of the low german dialect for "trust and unity" amidst the unsettling mix of nationalities in north america. the mother who doesn't teach her child german starves i t s s p i r i t and contributes to the ruination of the family. those who bow to the inevitable and give up the german language are traitors to their home, church, and their precious german bibles, i f they do so needlessly. in the end, janz argues for a cultural germanism separate from the p o l i t i c s of berlin: like a farmer i need markers to plow a straight course. thus i point myself in the direction of my mother, the home, the german school, the german sermon, my german bible...(etc.) but not towards the german reich with i t s p o l i t i c a l centre berlin. in the context of this distinction janz posits a "conscious" and an "unconscious" germanism: the conscious form is p o l i t i c a l , while the unconscious variety includes a l l the other forms of germanism, which he supports. whereas earlier in the a r t i c l e janz had emphasized the faith of the fathers as being l i n g u i s t i c a l l y translatable, and that mennonites should change their language instead of losing their youth, now he encourages a l l efforts to maintain the german language and culture. although he asserts at various points that salvation is not dependent on a specific cultural medium, at others he denigrates both the slavic and english cultures, the two options he had been faced with in his lifetime. in general, the a r t i c l e exhibits most of the elements which made the mennonite encounter with nazi germany an ambivalent one. on the one hand, i t contains a vision of the mennonites as a people of faith which had largely remained obedient to god in the face of the conflicting demands of nation- states. on the other hand, there are indications that the german way was f e l t to be in fact superior, functioning as a bulwark against such degenerate influences as communism, and english and slavic culture, and acting as a medium of discourse which had a special meaning and function for mennonites. at the beginning janz essentially equalizes a l l cultural forms of religious l i f e , but in the course of the a r t i c l e some ground is granted to the germanists. but he remains quite firm in his distinction between p o l i t i c a l and cultural germanism, and in his insistence that his primary loyalties are with god and the traditional mennonite doctrines of nonresistance and the separation of church and state. at least two correspondents hailed the series as a "milestone" in the history of the russian mennonites. one stated that janz's lines had an "enduring effect" upon him, "and certainly also many others." he thanked janz for sharpening his conscience and c l a r i f y i n g the issues, noting that: a battle has raged among us in the last few years over certain essential goods. on the one side is the national, volkish idea, more s p e c i f i c a l l y the german national socialism (what do...wandering mennonites have to do with that?), and on the other side is the congregational principle—the idea of the kingdom of god. the volkish orientation has i t s justification...regrettable, however, is the threat i t poses to the kingdom of god idea. the other writer, besides supporting janz's general contribution, praised him for not rejecting cultural aspects of the mennonite identity—janz's love for the german mother-tongue was evident and gratifying and to him. correspondence between janz and rundschau editor h.h. neufeld reveals that they were on good terms, and that they stood together against "opponents" to the a r t i c l e series. d.h. epp, editor of per bote, had refused to print i t , for reasons d i r e c t l y related to janz's anti-volkish and -germanist comments (discussed below in chapter three). janz's comments to neufeld are indicative of the depth of pro-german feeling present among mennonites: you have shown real courage this time (in printing the series), as i t is seldom done. but for that reason we should hold fast to each other. as to whether our opponents w i l l grab us by the collar? however, you know i t is to me extremely important for the health of our volk...i'm glad we're standing on the same side of the barricades. neufeld allowed janz to preview responses to the series by walter quiring, and never did print them, raising a cry from quiring of censorship. neufeld told janz to write what he believed he should, even i f i t was hard for some to take: "the boil must be lanced for the health of our volk." this exchange helps to c l a r i f y neufeld's position somewhat. there were limits to his support of militant germanism, especially given the leadership of his co-religionist janz. another prominent brethren who espoused a qualified germanism was abraham kroeker. kroeker f e l t that although hitler had been sent by god to repel the threat of bolshevism in germany, mennonites did not need to say "yes and amen" to a l l of the events taking place there. nonresistance, especially, couldn't be compromised. in general, though, he f e l t quite strongly that the german culture was higher than the english, that mennonites were german, and that they should stay that way. "however, we are not reichs-germans and not nazis." a.a. toews, a brethren congregational leader from alberta, combined the same elements of warmth for the german cultural and linguistic identity with staunch rejection of i t s p o l i t i c a l aspects, in this case the hitler youth. in early a contributor maintained that mennonites, who had exhibited an "exceptional allegiance" to the russian czar, should now turn their patriotic loyalties to canada, and not get a l l worked up over english opposition to the german dictatorship. a letter written in had given the other side of the picture: this individual wanted to make canada his home, but had a hard time with canadian "defamation" of the new germany, which he f e l t had broken the back of communism in central europe. the high cultural and moral values which mennonites had inherited from germany were important, but i t was now necessary to become f u l l citizens of canada. given the fact that the majority of mennonites became canadian citizens in relatively short order, this would seem to be a representative point of view. in fact, as chapter one has made clear, the russian mennonite emigrants of the 's were generally more eager to assume a place in canadian society than those who l e f t russia in the 's, and this must be seen as one of the primary reasons for the strong germanist reaction by some russlaender. the fear of assimilation and acculturation, of "verenglischung", was a prevalent feature of canadian mennonite l i f e throughout the period covered by this thesis, and was very evident in the rundschau. in a mennonite wrote b i t t e r l y of the effects of canadianization and the "melting pot" on mennonites: together with the loss of a closed community, these forces were responsible for a growing mennonite crime-rate and the imminent demise of mennonite organization and discipline. a "worldly" (english) literature flooded the land while theaters, dance halls and bars seemed to spring up out of the earth like mushrooms. mennonites no longer had effective ways of controlling their proximity to such things, and this was leading to a general moral and s p i r i t u a l decline. a mother complained that although she had spoken in german to her children from the cradle onward, they s t i l l ended up speaking english among themselves. not only that, but the older ones were being tempted away to english bible schools. how would youth be able to join the mennonite church i f they lost the german? others picked up the theme of the "wild" and "unhealthy" aspects of the "modern" english evangelicalism, like nighttime meetings and a generally superficial approach. a winnipeg brethren leader warned of modernism and the teaching of the theory of evolution in english schools, which had turned four "german youth" (most l i k e l y mennonites) at the university of manitoba against the faith of their fathers to atheism. the neglect of "our magnificent mother-tongue" was a further danger for mennonite youth, who consequently found english "fun spots" more attractive than german mennonite church services. this was but an opening volley in what was to become a long battle against the encroachment of the english language. another concerned individual pointed out that in addition to the fact that the loss of the german language would be a great loss for mennonites, german books published in the u.s. had an "english s p i r i t " , and were to be avoided. by both the german-english academy at rosthern, saskatchewan, and the mennonite collegiate institute at gretna, manitoba, were reporting problems with student knowledge of, or willingness to learn, german. it is safe to say that within ten years of their a r r i v a l in canada, the threat of anglicization had become very real for the russlaender. at the british columbia provincial immigrant assembly, the "assimilation process" was a topic of discussion; a speaker stated that i t had proceeded to the point where parents were beginning to speak with their children in english, as resolve to keep the language waned. this was very regrettable, since so much of the mennonite uniqueness was bound up with the german language. british columbia seems to have been a particularly d i f f i c u l t place to maintain the german language, due to a strong sense of english nationalism among the host population. less than a month before the outbreak of the second world war, a rather strident germanist from winnipeg, who had been involved in youth work, asserted to rundschau readers that a decision would have to be made—either mennonites give up their "deutschtum" and assimilate into canadian society, or return home to the great german motherland. after the outbreak of war, i t became easier for individuals like gerhard lohrenz, future principal of the brethren high school in winnipeg ( - ), to argue that the solution to the problem of retention of the youth consisted in the a b i l i t y of mennonite churches to offer english church services to them. during the 's this solution was s t i l l generally unthinkable for mennonites, even i f they suspected that anglicization was inevitable. the result of b.b. janz's a r t i c l e series, for example, was to cause people to think in terms of bilingualism, not the total adoption of english. at this point in time, the german language and culture was one of the remaining common attributes of mennonites from the lost russian commonwealth. laments for this lost unity, coupled with fears of the imminent demise of the mennonites as a distinct "people", were uttered throughout the t h i r t i e s . j.j. hildebrand wrote: scattered must we perish,/as happens to us in a l l the world/ when in brother-love our unity/does not hold us together.../systematically they take/our mother-tongue away/which our creator gave to us/to harmonize what we say. a mennonite who had settled in holland reflected sadly on the loss of a world: " , this feeling of being cut o f f — e x t e r n a l l y but not internally—with such uncertainty as to whether we'll not eventually d r i f t away or become foreign to each other..." others echoed this basic desire for reunification. some turned an envious eye to the emerging sense of community in the new paraguayan mennonite colony, while others praised hitler for bringing unity to the german volk. a particularly concerned individual asserted that through "hundreds" of private conversations he had sensed the longing for mennonite reunification. he noted that a l l mennonites had watched hitler's success with expectation and joy. hitler had taught germans to be true to themselves, and strengthened their self-assurance and feeling of common identity. germans everywhere were holding fast to the motherland like never before—perhaps when germany regained some of her lost colonies, mennonites should start an "independent colony under german protection?" in this case important aspects of the complex relationship between mennonites and the new germany are very clearly expressed: germany provided a positive example of volk- renewal and -unification, i t gave a sense of rootedness and pride, and was seen as a nurturing/protective parent. in general, there is a feeling of both common identity and of separateness from "reichs-germans": germanism had both a wider, externalized dimension, and a narrower, inner-directed, meaning for mennonites. j.j. hildebrand and the above individual, b. warkentin, advanced a f u l l - blown proposal for a new "mennostaat" in , making the retention of the german language and culture a prime component of the projected autonomous mennonite state. hildebrand continued to try to generate excitement over this idea during and , u n t i l his writings were suppressed in june at the request of a group of manitoba mennonite preachers, on account of the fact that he was on record attacking the canadian government, that he was "distorting" mennonite history (in other a r t i c l e s ) , and because of his repeated harping on the mennostaat idea. hildebrand's plan evinced a fair amount of support in some quarters, while others liked the idea but f e l t i t to be impracticable. at least one other individual put forth an all-encompassing vision for a mennonite society, this one not necessarily geographically separate, but economically and culturally independent. here, too, the german language and culture figured as "a completely indispensable factor in our *mennonitentum'." the general response to such schemes, however, was negative. one person argued that such ideas were the beginning of nationalistic thought and went against basic mennonite principles. another said that mennonites* calling was to be sojourners in the world, not nation-builders, while others accused hildebrand of having leadership ambitions and an inflamed sense of personal mission. one person dismissed his ideas as so much "blather" and "twaddle", while s t i l l others f e l t that mennonites were called to confront the "world" in some way, rather than flee from it. b.b. janz also rejected the idea, as stated earlier. although there was a general rejection of some of these more fanciful ideas, most individuals would not have taken issue with the basic notion of germanism being an important ingredient in mennonite identity. even individuals like the highly regarded brethren bible teacher a.h. unruh, who did not seem to have much to say on the topic during the 's, had kind words for the german heritage twenty years later, when i t was being completely lost. c.f. klassen, another highly-regarded brethren figure, applauded the national socialist "housecleaning" in , and in went on record in the rundschau as being proud of winkler bible school graduates, who "weren't ashamed of either the gospel or their deutschtum." david toews, a general conference mennonite leader equal in stature with b.b. janz, f e l t the instruction of german and religion to be "enduring goods", and also gave his qualified support to the national socialist transformation of germany, after a v i s i t there in . jacob h. janzen was a leading general conference figure who strongly supported cultural germanism, writing extensively and passionately on the topic. f.c. thiessen, a prominent winnipeg brethren preacher, teacher and chorister, clearly f e l t that german language and culture contributed to high moral and s p i r i t u a l character, and was an important agent in the retention of youth within the mennonite tradition. there were others who f e l t that germanism bore a positive relationship to mennonite religion, and that loss of the german language led to loss of character. the relationship between mennonite faith and germanism was double-edged, however, as should already be clear. the more militant variety of germanism threatened basic mennonite principles such as nonresistance. yet i t was widely perceived that with the loss of the traditional language and culture of the russian mennonites, the mennonite "uniqueness", which included such principles, would also be lost. the former aspect posed a real "problem" by , while the latter was an underlying current of most statements concerning the close relationship between mennonite faith and the german language and culture made throughout the period covered by this study. by the rundschau s t i l l featured most of the currents of opinion and debate presented earlier in the decade. if b.b. janz was s t i l l writing anti- nazi broadsides, i t was because others continued to argue that national socialism deserved mennonite support, and that nazi principles were harmonizable with mennonitism. mennonite individuals continued to try to counteract the " l i e s " circulating about nazi actions and the german church struggle, and speeches given by hitler were again printed on a back page of the rundschau. it was argued publicly as late as july that germanism was the essence'of the mennonite "uniqueness", which i f lost would spell the end of mennonites' historic identity, including doctrinal and ethical aspects. however, articles encouraging nonresistance and loyalty to canada also appeared. the english royal family, touring canada during may and june of , was warmly welcomed and reported on in english, as were mennonite pledges of loyalty to the crown. when war broke out in september, english and canadian declarations of war were printed in english, and the editor, in one of his f i r s t substantial editorial comments on citizenship, stated that a l l of the rundschau workers were canadian citizens, that i t was a privilege to be l i v i n g in freedom in canada, and that mennonites should be true to their heritage as the "quiet in the land". after the outbreak of war the germanist debate departed from the pages of the rundschau. in conclusion, the mennonitische rundschau displayed a remarkable degree of openness to foreign ideas and a broad spectrum of positions on the germanism question during the 's. the communal consciousness of the mennonites, as well as the important function of the newspaper as a "bindemittel" or medium of binding mennonites together, is illustrated in the energetic and widespread participation in debates on issues of common import, like the germanism question. it must be remembered, however, that the majority of russlaender immigrants were simply struggling along with everyone else in trying to provide for themselves in the midst of economic depression and poor crop conditions. reports of the great things happening in nazi germany may have stimulated wistful thoughts in many, but relatively few individuals actively promoted the nazi cause, and they made much noise. one gets the sense of a receptive majority looking on in interest and affirmation, but eventually rejecting the more militant expressions of germanism and nazism. commenting in on the continued insistence by one individual that a person could be both a nazi and a mennonite, a kanadier mennonite wrote that this combination was "impossible and unthinkable" for kanadier as well as russlaender mennonites, "with very few exceptions". however, the communal, cultural, and religious associations of germanism with mennonitism would continue to be made into the »s. notes, chapter two . e.k. francis, in search of utopia (altona, mb: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), p. ; abram berg, dietrich heinrich epp - (saskatoon: heese house of printing, ), p. ; henry paetkau, "a struggle for survival: the russian mennonite immigrants in ontario, - ," (m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, ), p. ; john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), p. . . john a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, pp. - . frank h. epp, "an analysis of germanism and national socialism in the immigrant newspaper of a canadian minority group, the mennonites, in the 's," (ph.d. dissertation, university of minnesota, ), pp. - . . during the late 's and 's, der bote is reported to have had a circulation of around to , while the rundschau had a circulation of about to . these figures are from berg, dietrich heinrich epp, p. ; jonathan f. wagner, brothers beyond the sea: national socialism in canada (waterloo: wilfred laurier press, ), p. ; ca. dawson, group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada (toronto: the macmillan co., ; reprinted , kraus reprint co.), p. . a survey of periodicals read by the exclusively russlaender mennonites of coaldale, alberta, in revealed that the rundschau was almost exactly twice as prevalent as der bote. frank h. epp, mennonite exodus (altona, mb: d.w. friesen & sons ltd., ), p. . some homes subscribed to both periodicals. interview with john b. toews, mennonite historian, regent college, vancouver, british columbia, january , . . for a discussion of editor d.h. epp's persistent efforts to keep the paper f u l l y under his control see berg, d.h. epp, p. ff. see also the discussion below of epp's editorship of der bote, chapter three. . if the contributors were not identifiable as recent immigrants by name, they usually indicated as much through the content of their a r t i c l e s . if "kanadier" joined the discussion, they would often indicate that fact as well. as mentioned in chapter one, e.k. frances found the "ideological dividing line'' on the germanism question to follow "rather closely the natural division between the kanadier and russlaender groups." francis, in search of utopia, p. . . epp, mennonite exodus, p. ff. . e.g. mennonitische rundschau, april , p. . henceforth in this chapter the t i t l e of the newspaper w i l l not be cited when i t is the obvious reference. . e.g. may , p. ; may , pp. - . . e.g. march , p. ; february , p. . . january , p. . . articles with t i t l e s like "in the land of tears" were common. march , p. . for more see john b. toews, lost fatherland: the story of the mennonite emigration from soviet russia, - (kitchener: herald press, ). also helpful is harry loewen, "canadian mennonite literature: longing for a lost homeland", in walter e. riedel, ed., the old world and the new: literary perspectives of german-speaking canadians (toronto: university of toronto press, ). . j.p. klassen, "dem deutschen volk," march , pp. - . similar sorts of poems appeared in ibid., p. ; abram jac. loewen, "unser dank," june , pp. - ; p.p. isaak, "dem deutschen volk!," july , p. . . january , p. . other examples include january , p. ; january , p. ; november , p. . . october , p. . . this included both the german consulate in winnipeg and the german government. january , p. ; february , p. ; october , p. . . b.h. unruh., "unsere pakethilfe nach russland," october , p. . h.h. neufeld, "euer editor," june , p. . . examples for the - period include: march , pp. - ; peter dirks, "unser volk," april , pp. - ; p.p. isaak, "dem deutschen volk!," july , p. ; b.d., "ein mennonitisches problem," october , pp. - . . p.p. kornelsen, "volk ohne heimat," february , p. ; "mennoniten," april , p. ; may , pp. - . . p.p. isaak, "dem deutschen volk!," july , p. . . p.p. kornelsen, "volk ohne heimat," february , p. . . examples for the - period include: "chilenischer general ermahnt zum festhalten am deutschtum," july , p. ; "bleib deutsch," october , p. ; d.a.j., "das vierte gebot," july , p. . . e. sengler, "die voelkische bewegung," july , pp. - . . june , p. ; december , p. . . e.g. april , p. ; april , p. ; june , p. ; january , p. ; september , p. ; september , p. ; november , p. . there were many more. . december , p. . . july , p. . . june , pp. - . . a tew examples include: july , p. ; may , p. ; june , p. . . february , p. ; march , p. . . march , p. . . "wie steht's in deutschland?", february , p. ; july , p. ; january , p. ; july , p. ; j.p. klassen, "die groesste schande des . jahrhunderts," january , pp. - . . heinrich schroeder, "judenangst", august , pp. - . . november , p. . . january , p. . . february , p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. ff. . "deutscher tag", july , p. . the soteriological power of the german essence was also cited in another a r t i c l e in the same issue, p. . . william l. shirer, the rise and f a l l of the third reich (new york: simon and schuster, ), p. . . dr. theo haeuser, "ein apostel der wahrheit," february , pp. - . another stuermer a r t i c l e was reprinted two weeks later, covering christmas f e s t i v i t i e s of the hitler youth in nuremberg. february , p. . . "die mennoniten und der kriegsdienst," march , p. . . "preussenl" may , p. . . discussions of these issues were present in may ; june . . november , p. . . g.g. wiens, "ein neues deutschtum?", september , p. . . march , p. . . "zum 'neuen deutschland'", march , p. . . g.g. wiens, "christus oder wotan?", april , p. . . "das neue deutschland", may , p. . . october , p. . . j.p. klassen, "die groesste schande des . jahrhunderts," january , pp. - ; march , p. ; t.g., "das neue deutschland", may , p. . . "deutschland und unsere brueder in russland," january , p. . . heinrich schroeder, "die juden", august , pp. - . . c. m., july , p. . . hans schmidt, "dds neue deutschland , october , pp. - . . october , p. . . "hitler", february , p. . . houston stewart chamberlain, "volksmensch adolf hitler", september , p. . . for a discussion of canadian communism during the 's and 's see donald avery, 'dangerous foreigners': european immigrant workers and labour radicalism in canada - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), chapter . during the 's, the north end in winnipeg had provided a base for cpc a c t i v i t i e s , and the systematic suppression of the movement by government authorities during - was indicative of i t s feared influence. in a mennonite dourly reported that a communist had won a seat on the north end city council, and urged mennonites to get organized so this wouldn't happen again. j.k., "am morgen nach dem wahlen," december , p. . in another warning was made about growing communist influence, and support was urged for mayoral candidate r.h. webb, a staunch a n t i - communist. "deutsche treten fuer r.h. webb ein," november , p. . . the dire economic situation was at the root of the problem, as _ immigrants were linked to unemployment and labour agitation. general anglo- saxon nativism, exemplified most v i v i d l y by the growth of the ku klux klan on the prairies in the later 's, was also present. howard palmer, patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), pp. - , ff; gerald friesen, the canadian prairies: a history (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. , - ; avery, 'dangerous foreigners', pp. - ; joanna buhr, "pursuit of a vision: persistence and accomodation among coaldale mennonites from the mid-nineteen twenties to world war ii," (m.a. thesis, university of calgary, ), p. . . beginning june , p. , by herman anders. . a. kroeker, "das buch", september , p. . . e.g. a. kroeker, september , pp. - . . "bleib deutsch", october , p. . . c.f. klassen, "der weg der praktischen hilfe", february , p. . . j. john friesen, "streiflichter auf die deutsche sprache," april , p. . other examples for this period include: "die deutsche sprache in amerika," november , p. ; "an das deutsche elternhaus," february , pp. - ; a.j. fast, "einige bemerkungen ueber wert und bedeutung der deutschen sprache," june , p. ; . j. john friesen, june , p. . . "ein aufruf an lehrer", june , p. . . "religion und deutsche sprache in unseren schulen," june , pp. - . other examples include: "bericht des schulkomitees", september , p. ; september , p. . . september , p. . . dr. uoelitz, "muttersprache", april , pp. . . "einc ehrcnuchuid", meiinunilische rundsclictu. u june , p. . . as one individual stated, the issues of nonresistance, mother- tongue, and germanism were "extraordinarily important questions...questions of l i f e and death (for mennonites)." w.k.w., "unsere volkshochschule", der bote november , p. . the general intensity and range of discussion, as should become clear, indicate that many shared this feeling of urgency. . e.g. "die systematische vernichtung der russland-deutschen durch die sowjetmachthaber," february . , pp. - ; j.h. wiens, "warum? meinem lieben bruder, der im sowjetland umkam," april , p. ; september , p. . . e.g. "greuelmeldungen und ihre entlarvung," april , p. ; h. seelheim, "wie hetzpropaganda gemacht wird," april ; a.j. fast, "noch einmal, gegen die geistlose judenhetze," may , pp. - ; may , p. . . the f i r s t hitler text printed in the rundschau occurred earlier and was entitled, appropriately enough, "kampf gegen den bolschewismus". june , p. . an a r t i c l e by goebbels on hitler appeared earlier yet, in march . joseph goebbels, "jeder, der ihn wirklich kennt," march , p. . . september , p. . . heinrich schroeder, "der bolschevismus bedroht deutschland!", february , p. ; hans weber, july , p. ; j.w. simoleit, "wie es im neuen deutschland aussieht," january , pp. - ; "das neue deutschland," january , p. ; c. martens, "nicht enttaeuscht", october , p. ; frau k. esau, march , p. ; frau neufeld, december , pp. - . . e.g. march , p. ; "wie deutschland vor buergerkrieg bewahrt wurde," november , pp. - . . c. martens, "meine beobachtungen und eindruecke in deutschland," september , pp. - . . e.g. january , pp. - . . february , pp. - ; july , pp. , ; november , p. . . wagner documents the relationship between rundschau editor h.h. neufeld and the nazi foreign press office in wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. . a few examples of the many pro-german news pieces include: january , pp. - ; april , p. ; september , p. ; july , p. ; february , p. ; march , p. ; february , p. . . h. seelheim, "festreden des deutschen konsuls auf dem deutschen tag in winnipeg," july , pp. , . . g.g. wiens, august , p. . . the suppression of some writings by walter quiring, and a l l of j.j. hildebrand's after june, , w i l l be discussed below. . heinrich schroeder, "entwurf fuer die begruendung einer erbhofsiedlung," september , p. . other examples of schroeder's many contributions include: "hakenkreuz und kreuz c h r i s t i , " february , p. ; september , p. ; june , pp. - . . for more on the volkish "germanic utopias" see george l. mosse, the c r i s i s of german ideology (new york: grosset & dunlap, ), chapter . the sense of community and ideological mission and purity were some of the parallels between these two very different movements. . ein beobachter, "zu dem schroederischen projekt einer erbhofsied- lung," october , p. ; isaak warkentin, "etliche bemerkungen," october , pp. - ; j.a. wiebe, "was s o l i das bedeuten?", august , pp. - ; .. frau m. klassen, october , p. ; october , p. . . b. schellenberg, "zur judenfrage", october , pp. - ; walter quiring, "zur judenfrage," june , pp. - ; c. martens, "die ungerechtigkeit wird ueberhand nehmen," october , p. . . examples in addition to the three given in note above are: c. martens, "meine beobachtungen," september , pp. - ; a. kroeker, "bolschewismus und judentum," october , pp. - ; j.j. janzen, "russland auf dem wege zum national-sozialismus?", october , p. ; p. heinrichs, "frei-mauertum und abruestung," december , p. . dr. dinter, "deutsche volks-kirche," may , p. . there were also some defenses of jews printed, but most were rather apologetic, and framed largely in terras of b i b l i c a l understandinqs: "etvas ?.\w judenfrage," .july , p. ; "die stellunq des christen zur judenfrage," july , pp. - ; july , p. . . b. schellenberg, "zur judenfrage", october , pp. - ; a. kroeker, "zum judenproblem", march , pp. - . . "daemonismus—eine weltgefahr!", september , p. . . wagner, brothers beyond the sea, p. . lita rose betcherman, the swastika and the maple leaf: fascist movements in canada in the thirties (toronto: fitzhenry & whiteside, ), p. . . b.b. janz, "vorlaeufige antwort zur 'judenfrage'", june , p. . . b. warkentin, "der national-sozialismus in mennonitischer beleuchtung," may , p. . . j. john friesen, "randglossen deutschtum," august , pp. - . . john b. toews, czars, soviets and mennonites (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), p. . . dieter goetz lichdi, mennoniten im dritten reich: dokumentation und deutung (heilbronn: gustav hoelbe gmbh & co., ), pp. , , - . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen," october , pp. - . unruh was even caught by a discerning der bote reader changing the b i b l i c a l text to suit his interpretation. "bitte um aufklaerung," der bote, november , p. . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen," april , p. . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen," september , pp. - . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen," august , p. ; ibid, august , p. . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen," august , p. . . gerhard ratzlaff, "an historical-political study of the mennonites in paraguay" (m.a. thesis, california state university, fresno, ), p. . . n.j. neufeld, "unsere rueckreise von europa nach amerika," november , p. . . b.h. unruh, "grundsaetzliche fragen", march , pp. - ; ibid., september , pp. - . . january , p. ; herb brandt confirms the respect and standing which unruh commanded. interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor and conference leader, kelowna, b.c., june and december, . . a.g.c., "ftiedxich friesen," june , p. . . prof. heyck, "geschichtsstudium: die alten deutschen staemme," november , p. . . g.w.c., "die teilnahme der friesen and den kreuzzuegen," september , p. . . e.g. july , p. ; "was w i l l deutschland," may , pp. - ; . "hitler als mensch," may , pp. - ; "begegnung mit hitler," april , p. . . july , p. . . b.b. janz remarks on the i n a b i l i t y of mennonites in the molotschna to work together with the germans of the neighboring german volost of prischib, in russia, and that there was almost no intermarriage between the two communities. b.b. janz, "woher und wohin," april , pp. - . see also h.a. peters, "das mennonitische volkstum: eine skizze seiner entstehung und des verfalles," der bote, december , pp. - . . march , p. . . august , pp. - . . august , p. . . "der tag der nationalen arbeit," may , p. . . e.g. november , p. ; march , p. . . e.g. january , p. ; january , p. . . december , p. . . january , p. . . betcherman, the swastika and the maple leaf, p. . . t i t l e s included "deutschland erwacht" and "tag der nationalen arbeit". september , pp. , . . e.g. june , p. . . december , p. ; january , p. . . february , p. ; march , p. . . j. kroeker, "kulturbestrebungen", may , p. . . an example of schroeder's work is "zur abstammung der russland- friesen," july , p. ; for unruh, see his a r t i c l e series beginning may , , entitled "vorfragen"; see also his book, die niederlaendisch- niederdeutscnen hintergruende der mennonitischen ostwanderungen. (karlsruhe, ). . walter quiring, "hollaenderei als lebensretter?" der bote, july , pp. - . . h. kornelsen, "es war doch anders," april , pp. - ; "zum artikel *es war doch anders'," april , p. . . h.h. enns, "die gegenwaertige weltlage," march , p. . . abraham neufeld, october , p. ; j.g. thiessen, "weltfriede?", january , pp. - . . isaak ediger, "die aufgabe der boten des evangeliums in den noeten der gegenwart," june , p. . . cornelius krahn, "des deutschen volkes eigenkraft, sich seinen heiland selber schafft," april , p. . . "sind wir dem namen oder dem herzen nach buerger canadas geworden?" december , pp. - . . h toews, january , p. . . j.j. hildebrand, "notwendige warnung," april , p. . . for an excellent account of janz's l i f e see john b. toews, with courage to spare: the life of b.b. janz. (winnipeg: the christian press, ). . b.b. janz, "die herkunft der mennoniten russlands," december , pp. - . . for schroeder's comments, see december , p. . . b.b. janz, "kommt menno simonis unter die national-sozialisten?", december , pp. - . . john horsch, "menno simonis ueber die gottheit c h r i s t i , " january , p. . . isaak toews, january , p. . . "wehrlosigkeit," january , pp. - ; p.p. epp, "wehrlosigkeit noch einmal," l-'ebruary , pp. - . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin: streiflichter auf die mennonitischen vergangenheit, gegenwart und zukunft," april , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , p. ; ibid., april , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , p. ; ibid., april , p. ; ibid., may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. ; ibid., may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. ; also ibid., may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", april , pp. - . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. . . b.b. janz, "woher und wohin", may , p. ; ibid., may , p. . . "eine ehrenschuld," june , p. . . "leiden des deutschen schulmeisters," june , pp. - . . letter to d.h. epp of april , . b.b. janz collection, cmbs winnipeg, box folder . . walter quiring, "hollaenderei als lebensretter?", der botef july , pp. - . . letter of may , . b.b. janz collection, cmbs winnipeg, box folder . . abraham kroeker, "wie stehen wir zu der deutschen u. englischen sprache?", may , p. ; "unser vaeter glaube oder national- sozialismus," may , p. . . a.a. toews, "was koennen wir tun fuer die religioese resp. christliche erziehung unserer kinder, unserer jugend?", november , p. . . "die neue heimat," march , pp. - . . h. thiessen, "unser kampf," november , p. . . see epp, mennonite exodus, p. ff. practically a l l russlaender became citizens within five years of their a r r i v a l in canada. . frank h. epp, mennonites in canada, - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), p. ff. see introduction; chapter one note ; and chapter three for more on this. j.b. toews, a prominent brethren pastor, leader, and educator who lived through most of the events dealt with in this paper, feels that i t was the rapid transition from german to english which was at the root of the often strong germanist sentiments in canada. "there was a great difference" between language transition periods of the earlier and later immigrants. interview with j.b. toews, brethren educator and leader, winnipeg, manitoba, june . . interview with herb brandt; interview with j.b. toews. . b. warkentin, "mennoniten und verbrechen," february , pp. - . . "zu, de goadi o l i tied," july , pp. - . . "ungesundes in der modernen evangelisationspraxis," may , p. . . f.c. thiessen, "offener brief," september , p. . . march , p. . . july , p. ; november , p. . . examples of consciousness of this c r i s i s appearing in the rundschau include: may , p. ; j.j. hildebrand, march , p. ; h. janzen, "deutscher abend in neu-hamburg, ontario," march , p. . . johann d. jantzen, "die deutsche sprache, ihre erhaltung und pflege," july , p. . . j.w. neufeld, "schulen und schulgesetze in b.c.," may , p. . in the b.c. contingent to the canadian brethren conference reported a strong "english-nationalistic current" in the schools, and no way of counteracting i t , since teachers of non-english nationality weren't allowed to teach. mennonite brethren northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house) pp. - . . j.p. classen, "wehrlos," august , pp. - . . g. lohrenz, "die wichtigkeit der sonntag-schularbeit," november , p. . . in response to the series, a schoolteacher concluded: "alright then, learn two languages—that should and must remain our solution." "leiden des deutschen schulmeisters," june , pp. - . . j.j. hildebrand, april , p. . . jak. thiessen, "sind wir mennoniten einander entfremdet?", july , pp. - . . j.b.w., april , p. ; j.c., may , p. ; "nachtrag zum plautdietsch," july , pp. - . . "deutscher geist in chaco," april , p. . . j.p. klassen, "tag der nationalen arbeit," may , p. . . b.w., "analyse zum mennonitischen problem," april , p. . . b. warkentin and j.j. hildebrand, "mennostaat", march , pp. - ; j.j. hildebrand, february , pp. - . . j.j. hildebrand, "unser problem," june , pp. - ; ibid., "vereinigung des mennonitentums," may , pp. - . . "die mennonitische predigerversammlung," june , pp. - . . j.b.w., april , p. ; may , p. . this person thought others supported hildebrand as well; may , p. ; l.m., "zu, de goadi o l i tied," july , pp. - . . r.c. sauer, may , p. ; jac. thiessen, "ueber die einheit der mennoniten," october , p. . . j.p. dyck, october , pp. - . . g. lohrenz, february , p. . . may , pp. - . . may , p. ; c f . klassen, "eine bitte," may , p. . . may , p. . . jac. thiessen, "wir mennoniten," april , pp. - ; may , pp. - ; j.w. neufeld, "ein beitrag zur geschichte der mennoniten," june , p. . . see chapter five. . c f . klassen, "gegen die geistlose judenhetze," der bote, april , p. . . c f . klassen, "das war gut," april , p. . . david toews, "unsere probleme fuer ," january , p. . . david toews, "einige reiseeindruecke," september , pp. - . . e.g. j.h. janzen, august ; ibid., "deutsches," february , p. . . f.c thiessen, "offener brief," september , pp. - ; "deutsches konzert," april , pp. - . . e.g. march , p. ; g.g.k., december , pp. - . . ch. friesen, "haltet fest an der muttersprache!", august , p. ; "auf dem wege der p f l i c h t , " november , pp. - ; h. janzen, "deutscher abend," march , p. . . j.j. klassen, august , p. . . an example of an e x p l i c i t connection made between the retention of mennonite distinctives l i k e nonresistance, and germanism, is a speech given by d.j. duerksen at the b.c. provincial immigrant assembly in . d.j. duerksen, "protokoll," january , p. ; ibid., january , p. . . b.b. janz, "bin ich national-sozialist? bewahre!", january , p. . . j.p. classen, "gedanken ueber gemeindebau," may , p. . . j.p. dyck, "was ich bin," march , p. . . c. martens, june , p. ; j.j. kroeker, "nackte wirklichkeit," april , p. . . may , pp. - ; may , pp. - ; may , pp. - . . johann d. jantzen, "die deutsche sprache, ihre erhaltung und pflege," july , p. . speech given at the b.c. provincial immigrant assembly. . "stecke dein schwert in die scheide," february , p. ; ch. friesen, "die wehrlosigkeitsprinzip," july , p. ; j.j. koop, "zu dem artikel 'wehrlos'," august , pp. - . . these items f i l l e d the rundschau from may through june . . . . september , p. . "eine aufforderung," september , p. . p.p.h. "es interessiert mich," march , p. . chapter three some comparisons: germanism in der bote and in other settings during the 's in this chapter a brief look at the other major immigrant newspaper, der bote, w i l l be followed by an analysis of the response of mennonites in other countries to national socialism. the german catholics residing in st. peter's colony in saskatchewan w i l l also be examined as a further point of comparison. der immiqranten-bote began publication in , i t s name being shortened to der bote in . this was primarily a russian mennonite immigrant newspaper, sponsored i n i t i a l l y by the central mennonite immigrant committee in rosthern, saskatchewan, where a number of russlaender had settled. the editor, d.h. epp, was a former "zentralschule" (russian mennonite secondary school) teacher and a general conference mennonite. the paper, while aimed at a l l the russian immigrants, appealed more to general conference mennonites, eventually becoming the o f f i c i a l gc organ in . the intention of the paper was to serve specific immigrant interests and bind the scattered remnants of the russian colonies closer together. frank h. epp undertook a quantitative analysis of germanism content in der bote for the 's, and found that over five percent of a l l published space was devoted to germanism, with % favourable and % unfavourable. he c l a s s i f i e d germanist contributions in terms of p o l i t i c a l , cultural and ethnic subject matter, finding that % of germanist writings dealt with p o l i t i c a l subjects, % was culturally oriented, and % dealt with ethnicity. of the p o l i t i c a l germanism, epp found that % was favourable in some way toward german p o l i t i c a l events, while the balance was unfavourable. the cultural content vas almost completely pro-german, vhile the ethnic segments vere % pro, and % con. the majority of space devoted to cultural germanism vas concerned vith preservation of the language, a "missionary zeal" often being evident. the importance of the german language for mennonite religious identity is indicated by the fact that % of a l l references to the language used the phrase "german and religion". in a vord, the german-language question vas seen by many as a basic existential dilemma for mennonites. of the % unfavourable p o l i t i c a l content, % vas contained in tvo a r t i c l e series, according to epp. that the opposition vas so narrovly-based seems questionable, and in either case vas at least partly due to d.h. epp's editorial policy (discussed below). frank epp notes that c r i t i c s of p o l i t i c a l germanism seemed to feel "uneasy" about what they were doing, often making concessions of one type or another to their opponents. on the other hand there were, like in the rundschau, defenses of nonresistance, and injunctions for mennonites to stay out of p o l i t i c s and be loyal canadian citizens. epp counted reprints from german-language periodicals in der bote, and contributions from non-mennonite, ethnic germans, including adolf hitler and joseph goebbels. many of the press releases for german-oriented events in canada came from the german league, while bernard bott, chairman of the german-canadian central committee and editor of deutsche zeitunq fuer kanada. contributed much on cultural germanism. the german consul seelheim also contributed articles. interestingly, % of a l l mennonite contributions espousing germanism came from two individuals l i v i n g in germany, b.h. unruh and walter quiring. although my study of the rundschau was not quantitative, the combination of unruh and heinrich schroeder assumed a similar proportion of pro-germanist content in that periodical. schroeder also printed a number of a r t i c l e s in der bote, i f not as many as in the rundschau. epp concludes that the immigrant newspaper was a f a i r l y representative reflection of the mennonite immigrant mind, which in the 's was very strong on nurturing and preserving cultural germanism as essential to the mennonite way of l i f e , strong...in i t s identification with (ethnic) germanism, and though ambivalent on the question by and large also sympathetic to the p o l i t i c a l germanism of the third reich. while epp's analysis is informative and his conclusion seems generally correct, his quantitative method yields partial understanding at best, and skews the picture at worst. a brief interpretive look at the germanist discussions taking place during - w i l l help to put epp's results into better perspective. a central feature distinguishing der bote from the rundschau during the 's is that walter quiring tended to dominate i t s pages, openly challenging mennonite principles like nonresistance, espousing volkish and national socialist ideals, and viciously attacking anyone who disagreed with him. quiring argued that mennonites were not a separate volk, rather they were a segment of the german volk with a particular religious perspective. mennonites, he f e l t , were missing the chance of their lives by not actively taking part in the great rebirth of the german nation; they were surely going to lose their "deutschtum", their religion, and their identity as mennonites because of this neglect. of russian mennonite origin, quiring had migrated to germany, receiving his doctorate in munich in . besides teaching german history and geography, he wrote books on mennonite settlements in south america and worked with the dai (german foreign i n s i t i t u t e — a n organization which came under nazi control and which distributed primarily cultural propaganda to germans in foreign countries). he eventually served as a soldier in the german army, becoming highly decorated and r i s i n g to the rank of lieutenant in the nazi propaganda corps. epp counts separate entries by quiring in der bote during the 's, which works out to about one a r t i c l e for every ten issues published throughout the decade. while at least one other individual besides heinrich schroeder challenged nonresistance, there was a significant negative response to quiring and his ideas, in contradiction to the impression given by epp's analysis. for one thing, at least two individuals protested, during the heated debates of - , that quiring's views were not the least b i t representative for north american mennonites. two others implored canadian mennonite leaders to join the debate: important issues were being discussed primarily by "outsiders". another contributor stated that "i and many others would appreciate i t i f dr. quiring would keep his ideas to himself." one person took issue with quiring's germanism, arguing that i t was "worldly" and thus different than true mennonitism, and b.b. janz openly challenged quiring's "fanatical, one-sided and scornful attitude." privately, quiring made contact with janz and acknowledged janz's leading position among mennonites. he argued that mennonites, now scattered a l l over the world, were safer from unhealthy influences i f they rooted themselves in their german "volkstum". janz replied that mennonites needed to be rooted in the gospel. jacob h. janzen, prominent gc leader and germanist himself, f i r s t gently upbraided quiring for his national socialist views, but eventually became frustrated and answered schroeder and quiring's diatribes with one of his own. he made a strong distinction between cultural and p o l i t i c a l germanism, asserting that mennonites were cultural germans only. as well, "we a l l firmly believe that hitler is the right man for germany, but we are becoming troubled by the way people are divinizing him." further, nazism was a violent movement which appealed to mass instincts; and behind quiring's writings stood the "nazi-fist" challenging the reader to disagree with him. other contributors made the same distinction between p o l i t i c a l and cultural germanism, and between wishing germany well and bowing down to the altar of national socialism. finally, i t should be noted that other prominent mennonites like the historian cornelius krahn and eastern old mennonite leader john horsch joined the many voices rejecting militant germanism and the renunciation of nonresistance. most of the individuals writing in favour of nonresistance in - did i t in the context of the fierce germanism debates then taking place, which were instigated primarily by quiring, and thus were responding negatively to the militant germanism advanced by quiring, whether i t was mentioned or not. this is not to say that defenses of the principle had no . relevance to the canadian context, i.e. to young mennonite men joining the canadian army in the event of war. nor should the depth of pro-germanist feeling be underestimated. it must be asserted, however, that there was a significant negative reaction to some of the more militant views coming out of nazi germany. der bote editor d.h. epp was partly responsible for the ambivalent tenor of the paper on these questions. he printed two of b.b. janz's early rebuttals of the militant germanists, but balked at running the "wherefrom and whereto" series. he was uncomfortable with the early sections, which were c r i t i c a l of the third reich, militant germanism, and attempts to make mennonites into r a c i a l germans. his main argument was that such utterances would impair the chances of german financial aid for the paraguayan colonies, in the same way that the mennonite renunciation of german roots in the f i r s t world war period had hindered b.h. unruh's attempts to canvas support among germans for the refugees who had gathered in moscow in . epp also expressed unease at the prospect of the series appearing in the rundschau. when janz angrily demanded the a r t i c l e back, epp gave further indication of the source of his hesitancy: "if i defend germanism, i t ' s because i am utterly convinced that we are germans, not dutch, and i myself am a german." he himself supported the principle of nonresistance, but had allowed i t to be debated along with germanism in der bote to see where the congregations stood. "you would be amazed, i f you were to read a l l the private letters i receive on these two themes. you don't get off easy." the "wherefrom and whereto" series, then running in the rundschau, had also brought a number of letters: "up to now i haven't received one positive response." while this may have been the immediate case, in general the evidence suggests that epp's personal inclinations and the f r i c t i o n with janz may have clouded his view of the larger canadian mennonite picture. janz was not the only brethren denied a reply to quiring and schroeder. in a lengthy a r t i c l e appearing in the rundschau in april of , a brethren from coaldale, alberta complained b i t t e r l y that der bote "had made i t clear from the beginning" that i t wouldn't publish replies to certain articles by quiring and schroeder, and thus he had been forced to reply in the rundschau to articles printed in der bote. amidst various critiques and historical corrections, the writer blasted "those gentlemen from afar" for recommending mennonites give up their principles and dutch heritage: "no, gentlemen, our foundation is christ and only christ—and not deutschtum, not myths (let's say paganism)." d.h. epp's personal story, which is also the story of many others, helps to put his ambivalence into perspective. he had learned to love german literature as a student in russia, and had participated in the cultural and intellectual "aufschwung" (upswing) which took place in the mennonite colonies after , as a we -respected teacher in the chortitza zentralschule. he taught, among other things, german and russian, and experienced the excesses wrought in the name of "freedom, equality and brotherliness" by the "uneducated" russian peasantry during the bolshevik revolution. although he found i t very hard to leave the remnants of the russian mennonite i d y l l , he simply could no longer accept the russian nation and people. once in rosthern, epp started the newspaper not only as a way to make a living, but also to bind mennonites together and retain the german language "at a l l costs", since "so many of the cultural goods brought along from russia were intimately linked" to it. his faith was the "holiest" of goods he brought with him, and thus was also linked to his german past. epp was active in the central mennonite immigrant committee's "cultural section", and remained widely respected and loved as the teacher of many of the leading russian mennonite men. epp's love for german culture, his positive experience in the russian colonies and his affection for his people combined to shape his attitude of intolerance toward those who challenged germanism. epp's strong position on the germanism question was born out of a strong sense of loss, which was shared by other mennonite intellectuals. students of russian-mennonite literature have shown that the experience of loss and homelessness connected with the bolshevik revolution was the impetus for the emergence of the genre after the f i r s t world war, and gave i t i t s character and unity. some of the writers expressed pro-german views of one sort or another (e.g. arnold dyck, jacob h. janzen, f r i t z senn), and this has been seen as part of the longing for a homeland. some writers even travelled to germany, either before or after the second world war, but none found their homeland there, further confirming the notion that german nationalism was never really an "option" for canadian mennonites. in a study of the american mennonite encounter with national socialism, john thiesen concluded that there is " l i t t l e evidence" that american mennonites were attracted to the movement in any substantial way. there was, however, debate on the issue in both general conference periodicals, the christlicher bundesbote and the mennonite. the bundesbote, which served russian mennonite immigrants from the 's migration, expressed pro-nazi leanings until when the editor became c r i t i c a l of nazi treatment of jews and the confessing church. at about this time the english-language the mennonite turned from a c r i t i c a l to an approving stance toward the nazi regime, due to a new editor who was the "foremost nazi sympathizer among kansas mennonites." the christian fundamentalist gerald winrod, known as an anti-semite and nazi sympathizer through his virulent publication the defender, was widely supported by mid-western russian mennonites ( 's migration). in general, american-born mennonites were c r i t i c a l of nazism, while foreign-born individuals were more positive, especially i f they had some connection to the russian settlement and i t s tribulations in the f i r s t world war period and after. the mennonites who migrated to paraguay in - expressed the strongest pro-nazism and -germanism of a l l russian mennonite emigrants. the majority of these individuals, who settled primarily in the fernheim and friesland colonies, embraced national socialism in one way or another before . a total of of fernheim's approximately inhabitants signed petitions for german citizenship and patriation; given the fact that most of these individuals were heads of the typically large mennonite households, i t seems clear that a significant proportion of the colonists, perhaps a majority, seriously considered migration to germany. hitler's picture was posted in the colony's main h a l l , and the high-school came under the influence of ardent nazi sympathizers. a number of "the most able personalities of the colony" were behind the volkish movement, as the s p i r i t of national socialism inspired the colony economically, socially, and culturally. the movement appears to have been limited to mennonites from russia, and did not significantly penetrate the menno colony, which was begun by conservative mennonites fleeing canadianization of the schools in the early 's. the volkish movement in fernheim was part and parcel of the f l i g h t from communism, the german nation's "rescue" and resettlement aid, and thus the grounding of the colony i t s e l f . hard pioneer conditions and the longing for national and cultural security in the empty paraguayan chaco contributed to the identification with nazi germany. the great success of the nazi movement in germany, i t s appeal to mennonites' christian and communal s e n s i b i l i t i e s , and the p o l i t i c a l naivete of the unsuspecting mennonites further added to the wholesale acceptance of national socialist ideals. the young people, especially, seem to have been captured by the idealism of the movement, embodied in the person of f r i t z kliewer, a highly capable high- school teacher and leader of the colony's volkish movement. kliewer, who was a member of the mennonite brethren church u n t i l , c l e a r l y f e l t that mennonite "confessional barriers" hindered fellow-feeling for other "volks-germans". evidence indicates that opposition to the volkish movement in fernheim came primarily from the brethren, and that kliewer's a c t i v i t i e s brought about sharp divisions among the fernheim brethren. opposition to the movement began to emerge around , and was centred on the desire to retain the principle of nonresistance. it remained small until ; thereafter, although the war sparked great expectation and excitement, the opposition grew, and by there were open divisions in the colony, with the leaders of the volkish movement being eventually forced out of the colony, in a rather ugly incident. the foregoing is a striking example of the potential extent of russian mennonite immigrant involvement in the nazi movement, given the right conditions. that they emigrated from russia under conditions of extreme duress, and were aided by germany in the migration and resettlement, were crucial elements in their fervor for nazi germany. individuals from this migration who were allowed into canada evidenced the same degree of support for hitler and the "new germany". the total isolation and extremely d i f f i c u l t conditions in the early years coincided with germany's meteoric recovery under hitler, and were also key factors in the wholesale appropriation of the volkish ideology by the settlers. f r i t z kliewer himself emphasized the hardships and impending disintegration of the colonies in a article; the nazi-volkish movement, as i t did to a lesser degree in canada, became a glue which helped to bind mennonites together and inspire them toward achieving their goals of survival and the perpuation of their way of l i f e as an ethno-religious volk. when this movement threatened the doctrinal integrity of the group, i.e. the principle of nonresistance, there was a negative reaction which eventuated the rejection of the imported ideology. thus the paraguayan experience paralleled the canadian one in most respects, i f in a much more extreme and thoroughgoing manner. that paraguayan mennonites seriously considered migration to germany does not mean that they wanted to give up their status as mennonites. the desire to go to germany must be seen as a direct response to the d i f f i c u l t conditions in paraguay and the perceived a f f i n i t i e s between the "new germany" and mennonitism. heinrich schroeder's idea of a nazi-mennonite colony in germany ("friesenheil"—see chapter two) indicates that even the most extreme proponents of nazism f e l t that mennonites belonged together. in outlining the hardships facing the paraguayan colonists, f r i t z kliewer wrote: "at times i t seemed as though the entire colony would break up, but ever and again the strong sense of solidarity saved the colony from the danger threatened by the centrifugal forces." thus even though kliewer, who had drunk deeply at the well of national socialism while studying in germany, and who f e l t that mennonites had much in common with other volks-germans, saw mennonite "solidarity" as a positive good which helped to prevent the "danger" of the breakup of the colonies. in a recent study of mennonites l i v i n g in germany during the third reich, james lichti found that although there was general support for hitler and national socialism, loyalty to the state was not unconditional, and prominent mennonites distanced themselves from the "german-christian" movement, with i t s extreme racism. the german mennonites had previously given up the principle of nonresistance, and had essentially lost the more distinctive aspects of their identity. support for the third reich was tempered by an insistence upon mennonite institutional independence, on the other hand, which was a carryover from their more sectarian past. anti-bolshevism was a strong source of support for national socialism, as german mennonites identified with their russian cousins and feared a communist takeover of germany. hitler's agrarian reforms were also well-received by the primarily land-based mennonites: one individual remembers a special church service held to thank god for sending hitler, in which a formation of sa (nazi storm-troopers) paraded into the church in f u l l uniform and carrying banners, along with a detachment of hitler youth. there seems to have been significant nazi-party membership among some mennonites. lichti concludes that the german mennonite response to nazism was not so much due to the abandonment of principles such as nonresistance, as to the more general process of assimilation and the appropriation of mainstream german religious and social values. clearly, the abandonment of the principle of nonresistance would have been a part of this d i a l e c t i c a l process. others have argued persuasively that acceptance by mennonites of military service after the franco-prussian war "represented a basic reorientation of values" which l e f t l i t t l e basis for a c r i t i c a l stance toward national socialism. in a cursory comparison of the mennonitische rundschau to the german- mennonite gemeindeblatt. lothar fromm found that the german periodical exhibited a more cautious and "evangelical" attitude toward nazism than did the rundschau. this may have been due in part to the firmly cautious position of the german periodical's editor, in contrast to rundschau editor h.h. neufeld, who fromm feels to have exhibited a much looser, open policy. it is significant that german mennonites, who had largely become acculturated i f not f u l l y assimilated into german society, expressed reservations about nazism; with some mennonites wholeheartedly joining i t s ranks, and the movement posing a threat to mennonite institutions, i t is understandable that some unease would have been present. the canadian mennonites differed from their german counterparts in that they had personally suffered at the hands of the communists, and they were farther away from the actual apparatus of national socialism, affording them a vicarious participation in the movement without any of the costs. s t i l l , the fact remains that significant opposition to militant germanism and national socialism did emerge in the canadian context. the experience of german catholics of st. peter's colony in saskatchewan provides another point of reference for canadian mennonite germanism. in the f i r s t decade of this century, german catholics from the united states settled in an area east of saskatoon which comprised townships, under the guidance of benedictine priests from minnesota. st. peter's>colony was "the most s o l i d l y closed german catholic community" in canada. many of these settlers had originated in russia, and they joined other russian-germans who had been migrating to the canadian prairies from the 's onward. the german catholics who had resided in the united states had been part of a larger midwestern german catholic community that had developed a sense of the importance of the german identity in preserving catholicism. the original purpose of the migration, besides the quest for land, had been to form a homogeneous community which would protect against loss of the traditional language and religion. in russia, on the other hand, the german culture and identity had been in decline among lutheran and catholic colonists there. by the early 's, the colony counted over , inhabitants, in a community structure which differed l i t t l e from the prevailing prairie pattern of scattered homesteads. during this decade the colony's periodical, the st. peter's bote, expressed anti-nazi sentiments. this was largely due to concern over hitler's treatment of catholics in germany, and of the religious challenge represented by the "new heathenism" of the volkish movement. the colony had been declared an "abbacy nullius" in , receiving status as a bishopric directly responsible to the pope. thus any incipient german nationalism was tempered by a direct relationship with the pope, and a long sojourn outside of germany. less than , russian-germans migrated to the prairies during the 's, and they tended to scatter and urbanize, having l i t t l e effect on the overall shape of communities like st. peter's. prior to the f i r s t world war, the colony had boasted the strongest concentration of private german schools among german canadians. after the war, most such schools were eventually dissolved, and english-language public schools were "peacefully accepted". ca. dawson concluded in the 's that these german catholics were "far more tolerant", towards english culture than the mennonites; the general consensus among scholars is that they were f a i r l y individualistic, and became acculturated and assimilated to canadian society quite rapidly. in a comparative study, alan anderson found that german catholics were the least conservative, in terms of ethnic identity, of nine ethnic groups who had settled in saskatchewan. there was a resurgence of german cultural a c t i v i t i e s in the interwar period, but these were generally weak and ineffective. while the religious leaders were i n i t i a l l y the main proponents of the german language, within one generation they had become the strongest supporters of the adoption of english. the russian mennonites had always displayed superior organization, efficiency and sense of common purpose than their german-speaking neighbors, evident most clearly in the fact that they led the way out of russia in both the 's and 's. their b i b l i c i s t faith, and ongoing attempts to become a "true people of god", had given rise to a cohesive, p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c community with both ethnic and religious sanctions for perpetuating i t s way of l i f e . the sudden breakup of the highly successful and integrated russian community, coupled with the lack of a genuinely universalistic church orientation, such as catholics have, l a i d mennonites wide open to expanding their concept of group identity beyond language and culture to include nationalistic and racialist-volkish aspects. it has been the essential argument of the foregoing chapters that a l l these forms of identification had more to do with the specific russian mennonite experience, and the perpetuation of russian mennonite identity, than with the aims and ideals of the third reich. there were clearly other factors at work, as well, including the "cognitive dissonance" created by the gap between mennonite beliefs and the success of their persecutors, the "godless communists". the desire for a homeland to replace the one which mennonites had just lost also contributed to pro-german feeling, since many russlaender settling in canada i n i t i a l l y f e l t closer to germany, for various reasons, than they did to canada. but there was opposition to militant germanism, and the principle of nonresistance was the most important factor in this; as such, i t displays the central role of that tenet of the faith, and religious or ideological factors in general, in conditioning mennonite identity. the canadian brethren, with their p i e t i s t i c and evangelistic emphases, strong church discipline, conservative doctrinal stance, and close relation- ship with their american counterparts, constituted perhaps the most v i s i b l e bloc of opposition to militant germanism. the leadership of b.b. janz was the single most important factor in this. otherwise, they were sympathetic to many of the volkish and nazi currents of the 's. a linguistic and cultural germanism would continue to play an important role in maintaining brethren identity in the postwar period, as the battle to preserve the socio- religious integrity of the brethren fellowship went on. notes, chapter three . alan anderson estimates that , of the recent immigrants settled in the rosthern area. alan b. anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan: a comparative study of identity change among seven ethno-religious groups in a canadian prairie region," (ph.d. dissertation, university of saskatchewan, ), p. . . frank h. epp, "an analysis of germanism and national socialism in the immigrant newspaper of a canadian minority group, the mennonites, in the 's," (ph.d. dissertation, university of manitoba, ), p. , . . abram berg, dietrich heinrich eppr - . (saskatoon: heese house of printing, ), p. . . epp, "an analysis of germanism and national socialism," pp. - . . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. , . . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., p. . . schroeder was published at least times in the rundschau during the - period alone; this was the total number of a r t i c l e s he published in der bote for a l l of the 's, according to epp. ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . for example, the fact that five percent of a l l column space was devoted to germanism does not indicate the degree of interest with which these items were read. as well, the pro and contra s t a t i s t i c s measure long- windedness, but not the stature of the person writing. the quantitative method is also insensitive to how certain terms in the context of a discourse may cross neat categorical boundaries, e.g. a mennonite writing in favour of nonresistance may be rejecting p o l i t i c a l germanism without ever mentioning i t . my reading of the paper indicates a stronger rejection of p o l i t i c a l germanism than epp's study implies. . walter quiring, "kampf oder friedhofsruhe?", der bote, november , p. ; "bankrott der wehrlosigkeit?", december , p. ; "wehrlosigkeit als wuenschbild?", february , pp. - . hereafter, obvious references to der bote w i l l not c i t e the newspaper's t i t l e . . walter quiring, "der deutsche gruss," october ; june , p. . . walter quiring, "im fremden schlepptau," september , p. ; "warum schlaegst du deinen naechsten?", october , pp. - . . walter quiring, "mennonitisches 'volk'?", may , p. . . meir buchsweiler, volksdeutsche in der ukraine am vorabend und beginn des zveiten weltkriegs—ein f a l l doppelter loyalitaet?, (gerlingen: bleicher verlag, ), p. . . epp, "an analysis of germanism and national socialism," p. b. . "wehrlosigkeit auf kruecken," august , p. . . john horsch, " st unsere wehrlosigkeit preiszugeben?", march , p. ; "stumme wacht," june , p. . . w.k.w., "unsere volkshochschule," november , p. ; j. friesen, "widerspruch als p f l i c h t , " august , pp. - . . f., "zur volkshochschule," january , p. . . july , pp. - . . b.b. janz, "warum schlaegst du deinen naechsten?", september , pp. - . . letters of january , , and february , . b.b. janz collection, centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, box , folder . . j.h. janzen, "ein bekenntnis," november , p. . . j.h. janzen, november , pp. - . . "zu 'kampf oder friedhofsruhe'", december , pp. - ; "dem fragesteller in nr. ," january , pp. - . i l l . cornelius krahn, "menno simons' kampf fuer die reinheit des wortes gottes," february , p. ; also "noch einmal: mennonitisches volkstum," march , p. ; john horsch, "menno simons ueber die gottheit c h r i s t i , " january , p. ; also, " st unsere wehrlosigkeit preiszugeben?", march , p. ; other a r t i c l e s defending nonresistance and either implicitly or e x p l i c i t l y rejecting militant germanism include: "um hohen preis," june , pp. - ; "wehrlosigkeit," october , p. ; "zu *kampf oder friedhofsruhe?'," december , pp. - ; johann rempel, "die wehrlosigkeit aufgeben?", march , p. ; j. epp, "ein mennonitisches irrtum," april , p. ; p.p. dyck, "wehrlosigkeit", may , p. ; "unser deutschtum," may , p. ; j.j. klassen, "die biblische begruendung der wehrlosigkeit und ihre durchfuehrung im leben," august , p. . . b.b. janz, "die herkunft der mennoniten russlands," december , pp. - ; ibid., "kommt menno simons unter die national-sozialisten?", december , p. . . letter of march , . b.b. janz collection, cmbs winnipeg, box folder . . letter of may , . b.b. janz collection, cmbs winnipeg, box folder . . h. kornelsen, "es war doch anders," mennonitische rundschau, april , p. . . berg, d.h. epp. pp. - . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. - . . harry loewen, "canadian mennonite literature: longing for a lost homeland," in walter e. riedel, ed., the old world and the new: literary perspectives of german-speaking canadians (toronto: university of toronto press, ); victor doerksen, "post-war developments in canadian mennonite literature," unpublished paper on f i l e at the centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, box , folder f, no. . . doerksen, "post-war developments," p. . . john d. thiesen, "the american mennonite encounter with national socialism," unpublished paper for history , wichita state university, f a l l , in my personal possession, p. . . thiesen, "the american mennonite encounter," p. . . gerhard ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study of the mennonites in paraguay," (m.a. thesis, california state university, fresno, ), p. . . fernheim's population reached a high of in before dipping down to thereafter, due to the migration to east paraguay and the friesland colony. winfield fretz, pilgrims in paraguay (scottdale, pa: herald press, ), p. . . ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study," pp. - . . ibid., p. . . see f r i t z kliewer, "the mennonites of paraguay," mennonite quarterly review ix (january ): - , for a discussion by a leading nazi sympathizer in the colony of the threat of disintegration because of the tough conditions. . ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study", pp. , - . . ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study," p. . . f r i t z kliewer, die deutsche volksgruppe in paraguay: eine siedlungsgeschichtliche. volkskuendliche und volkspolitische untersuchung (hamburg: hans christian verlag, ), p. . . heinrich schroeder, "was geht im chaco vor?" der bote. october , pp. - ; ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study," pp. - ; john b. toews, with courage to spare: the life of b.b. janz ( - ) (winnipeg: the christian press, ), pp. - ; letter from f r i t z kliewer to the leader of the fernheim mennonite brethren congregation, november , b.b. janz collection, box , folder, cmbs winnipeg. . toews, with courage to spare, p. ; ratzlaff, "an historical- p o l i t i c a l study," pp. - . . ratzlaff, "an h i s t o r i c a l - p o l i t i c a l study," pp. - ; toews, with courage to spare, pp. - . . interview with anne funk, social worker, vancouver, b.c., may , . ms. funk came to canada with her family in this last, desperate migration, and recalls that her family, especially her father, was "very pro- hitler" u n t i l the end of the second world war. they were part of a program in which they were put into contact with a person l i v i n g in germany, who sent them a l l manner of reading materials, including nazi propaganda. . kliewer, "the mennonites of paraguay," pp. - . ." ibid., p. . . james i. l i c h t i , "religious identity vs. 'aryan" identity: german mennonites and hutterites under the third reich," (m.a. thesis, san francisco state university, ), pp. - . . interview with erwin cornelsen, retired pastor, vancouver, b.c., november , . l i c h t i cautions against sweeping generalizations about the effect of nazi land policy on mennonite support for the regime, pointing out that there were reasons for discontent among farmers as well. l i c h t i , "religious identity vs. 'aryan' identity," pp. - . however, i t seems clear that the perception that hitler was going to save the farmers was f a i r l y widespread among mennonites, especially in the beginning of his tenure. . the largest north-german congregation reportedly had a membership rate over ten times the national average. l i c h t i , "religious identity vs. 'aryan' identity," pp. - . figures for the more rural, p i e t i s t i c a l l y - inclined southern mennonites were undoubtedly much lower. . ibid., pp. - . . john friesen, "the relationship of prussian mennonites to german nationalism," in harry loewen, ed., mennonite images: historical. cultural and literary essays dealing with mennonite issues (winnipeg: hyperion press limited, ), p. ff. . lothar fromm, "nazistische einfluesse in mennonitischen zeitschriften," , unpublished paper on f i l e at the mennonite historical library, goshen, indiana. . edmund heier, "a study of the german lutheran and catholic immigrants in canada, formerly residing in tzarist and soviet russia," (m.a. thesis, university of b r i t i s h columbia, ), p. . . ibid., pp. - ; ca. dawson, group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada (toronto: the macmillan co., ; reprinted , kraus reprint co.), pp. - . . robert leckie, american and catholic (garden city, new york: doubleday & company, inc., ), pp. - . . bede hubbard, "st. peter's: a german-american marriage of monastary and colony," in benjamin g. smillie, ed., visions of the new jerusalem: religious settlement on the prairies (edmonton: newest press, ), p. ; dawson, group settlement, p. ; heier, "german lutheran and catholic immigrants," pp. - . . heier, "german lutheran and catholic immigrants," p. . . dawson, group settlement, p. ; . . jonathan f. wagner, brothers beyond the sea: national socialism in canada (waterloo: wilfred laurier press, ), p. ; watson kirkconnell, canada. europe and hitler (toronto: oxford university press, ), pp. - . . dawson notes that the universality of the catholic church also mitigated germanism, through german catholic interaction with other catholics like the french. dawson, group settlement, p. . . heier, "german lutheran and catholic immigrants," p. - . . ibid., p. ff. . dawson, group settlement, p. . . hubbard, "st. peter's," pp. - ; heier, "german lutheran and catholic immigrants," p. and passim; dawson, group settlement, pp. - ; . . anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan," p. . . heier, "german lutheran and catholic immigrants," pp. - . . ibid., pp. - ; . see also john b. toews, czars. soviets and mennonites (newton, ks: faith and life press, ), p. . chapter four germanism and brethren congregational l i f e : the struggle for socio-religious integrity the congregation is the centre of mennonite l i f e . l the mennonite brethren identity found i t s most immediate expression and relevance in the context of the local congregation, and efforts to maintain the social and religious integrity of the group, including german "saturday" schools and bible schools, originated there. congregations resisted the encroachment of secular "english" influences, with the moral and s p i r i t u a l decline which was perceived to accompany them, as well as the loss of younger brethren to the forces of the prevailing north american evangelicalism. the german language functioned as a kind of "church latin" which not only maintained "boundaries" between mennonites and the outside world, but also served to perpetuate a sense of closeness and solidarity with each other and their god, acting as a special form of expression for traditional doctrines and a symbol of the mennonite brethren way of l i f e . but the brethren faced the dilemma of entertaining an evangelical theology which tended to undermine germanism and hence the ethno-religious identity which had developed in russia, which was already under siege by the forces of urbanization, assimilation and acculturation. despite strenuous efforts, much soul-searching, and not a l i t t l e pain and frustration, the german identity was in irreversible decline by the 's, as churches gradually adopted english as the language of congregational l i f e . by germanism had ceased to function as an instrument of socio-religious integration for the brethren, having become a source of division and an unwanted r e l i c , at least in younger eyes, from a bygone era. my purpose in this chapter is to present a brief picture of the above- mentioned constellation of factors in mennonite brethren german identity during the t h i r t y years following their a r r i v a l in canada, with the congregation functioning as the centre of gravity in the discussion. it is beyond the scope of this paper to treat any one element in a comprehensive fashion. analyses of at least one sizeable congregation from each of the five western canadian provinces provide a significant portion of the data for this chapter. in the period leading up to the second world war the brethren maintained a relatively strong german identity, amidst a growing awareness that i t was endangered, and a growing perception that i t s loss would be accompanied by alienation from traditional moral and religious principles, and the disintegration of the mennonite "volk" i t s e l f . while congregations continued to function in german, children began to converse among themselves in english. most congregations instituted some sort of "german school" or "saturday school" in which the german language was instructed, using a few basic primers, soon after they were organized. the winnipeg north end congregation started a saturday school in , and the coaldale, alberta brethren had done the same by . the vineland, ontario congregation was supporting german instruction in conjunction with other mennonites by the mid- 's, and the yarrow, b.c. congregation was supporting a school by the later 's. the congregation at hepburn, saskatchewan began to hold a three-week "summer vacation school", which instructed children in german and religion, in . d.p. esau, a preacher in the hepburn church, articulated in the rationale for teaching german and religion to mennonite young people. congregational l i f e , according to esau, is dependent on the quality and type of training received in the schools. after outlining the important function of teachers in teaching religious principles and exhibiting a strong christian character, esau describes the role of the german language. it is an important "cultural good" (or possession) for the mennonites, who are of "german stock", just as other languages are important to other peoples. as soon as the language is lost, mennonites w i l l be robbed of intellectual, national, and s p i r i t u a l aspects of their character. some mennonite teachers and parents are beginning to deny the german language to the younger generation, which is a misfortune for the entire mennonite "gemeinschaft" (community). we german mennonites are a religious community. an extremely important stream of religious thinking flows through the congregations via the german language. this bears f r u i t for congregational and family l i f e . with the demise of the german language the flow w i l l stop and the congregational l i f e w i l l become dry. the youngsters cannot be properly introduced to the train of thought (gedankengaenge). and he also isn't used to the english bible-language. while most statements were not quite as sophisticated as this one, i t is paradigmatic of the sentiments held by many of the advocates of germanism, and helps to delineate the close connection between the congregations, germanism, and the many educational efforts which were made in the 's and 's. the canadian conference of mennonite brethren churches (the northern district conference) recommended in that mennonites assume d i s t r i c t school-board posts in order to further the instruction of german and religion in the time allotted by the government to such subjects. clearly, the need for some input into public school education was f e l t from the beginning of their residence in canada by the russlaender, who had previously maintained their own schools in russia. in and the conference went on record that i t was "deeply convinced that our congregations would be greatly served i f in a l l district schools there were (mennonite) teachers who themselves had a good background in religion and german." at the brethren conference school committee meetings the instruction of german and religion was a frequent topic of discussion; at a meeting a speech was given which emphasized the role of the german language in bringing up "churchly" mennonite youth. the speaker asked, "was moses ashamed to speak hebrew to his people?", before stating: "therefore let us seek to nurture and maintain the mother-tongue among the children, so that we don't allow the best, deepest aspects of ourselves to be taken from them!" there was widespread interest in expanding the instruction of german and religion in public schools. a "german school-superintendant committee" met annually to deal with this question, and various individuals supported the idea in articles in the mennonitische rundschau, which featured a column entitled "joys and sorrows of the schoolmaster" beginning in . in i t was reported that there had been increasing discussion in mennonite c i r c l e s concerning the instruction of german and religion in public schools; this particular individual advocated petitioning the government on the matter, and reminded the churches to do more to encourage the use of the german language in the home. a brethren indicated in that battles to teach german and religion in public schools in his area were yielding results, while in the same year another person cited a general growth in interest among mennonites for instruction in german and religion. despite the apparent success of mennonite teachers in introducing german and religion as subjects of instruction in some areas, there were also problems. as previous chapters have illustrated, there were strong pressures of assimilation and acculturation on the russlaender, and they were generally eager to find a niche for themselves in canadian society. pressure was exerted through the british-based school system, as well as by various other subtle and not so subtle means. in the brethren in coaldale, alberta attempted to teach german to their children in the building in which they had been holding church services, which was owned by the united church. the larger coaldale community reacted to this evidence of the mennonites* unwillingness to assimilate, and forbade the use of the building for such purposes, even posting a policeman at the door one saturday morning. in the mid- 's coaldale school o f f i c i a l s were reported to be wholly uninterested in allowing german instruction in the school, causing some mennonites to feel that more emphasis should be placed on the saturday school. mennonites themselves did not always support efforts to promote german and religion in public schools. in a report on school matters to the canadian conference meeting, william neufeld complained that some mennonites simply did not feel bound to maintain the german language any more. in one school d i s t r i c t , an attempt to introduce german language instruction, by electing a mennonite to the school board, failed because some of the local mennonites voted for the "english" candidate instead. in the face of being charged with impairing the "deutschtum" of the local mennonite community, one of those who had voted for the english candidate stated that mennonite germanism had led to the "hatred" of germans by the english in their d i s t r i c t , and that lines should be drawn between christians and non- christians, rather than between english and germans. a similar scenario seems to nave been present in coaldale in . an english candidate was elected in another d i s t r i c t with a large mennonite population because, as one mennonite commented, the atmosphere had become too partisan when they elected one of their own. this person was also not so worried about the language issue. although there was some ambivalence in dealings with host communities on the issue of german and religion in public schools, there was widespread support for privately-sponsored mennonite bible schools, which emerged in numerous communities in the fifteen years after the russlaender arrived in canada. these schools were normally begun and supported by one or more congregations, and were the single most important institutions in maintaining the kind of congregational l i f e which brethren had known in russia. here the bible and d i s t i n c t i v e l y mennonite doctrines could be taught unhindered in the german language, thus perpetuating both the traditional faith distinctives and linguistic solidarity. while religious instruction from a mennonite viewpoint was the leading raison d'etre for these schools, the role of the schools as perpetuators of the german language should not be overlooked. at least sixteen bible schools were started by mennonite brethren between and , with another five being added in the 's. the bible school in herbert, saskatchewan had been in existence since . many of them were small, growing out of the needs of local congregations. the bible school in coaldale, for example, began in a member's home in . the opening of a bible school by the stelnbach, manitoba brethren congregation was unceremoniously announced by a small notice in the mennonitische rundschau. in the f a l l of f.c. thiessen invited "eager german youth" to the "german bible school in winnipeg," which met evenings in the north end brethren church. a german language course would be added for those who did not have a good command of the language. some schools were larger, such as bethany bible school in hepburn, saskatchewan, and winkler bible school in winkler, manitoba. both were begun in the mid- 's, and provided lodgings for students. a l i s t of goals for the bethany school from would probably have been shared by most bible schools: . to give our...youth foundational bible instruction in the german and english languages... . to wrench our youth away from frivolous pursuits and the contemporary "zeitgeist". . to nurture the german language as a special possession handed down from our fathers. . to raise believing youth for the battle of the faith... . to take into account the needs of the congregations in the methodical training of sunday school teachers and sundry (church) workers. the strong bible school movement among the brethren p a r t i a l l y had i t s roots in the traditional informal "bibelstunde" (bible study) in brethren homes in russia. and as the above l i s t of goals suggests, the bible school was seen as a bulwark against negative influences and a way to perpetuate the traditional faith perspective and the german language. at brethren canadian conference meetings during the 's the bible schools were repeatedly affirmed on these counts. although the theory of evolution and other forms of "godless modernism" were aspects of the "zeitgeist" which some brethren f e l t should be avoided at a l l costs, a more insidious and increasingly troublesome challenge to the socio-religious integrity of the brethren was the strong upsurge of evangelical fundamentalism which took place in north america in the late 's and the 's, and the "bible school movement" which went with i t . the effects of these developments on brethren congregational l i f e began to be significantly f e l t in the 's and 's (dealt with further below), but had their roots in the 's. besides drawing mennonite brethren young people into a non-mennonite, english environment, and in some cases into other denominations, this movement tended ultimately to discourage germanism, which was perceived to hinder attempts at outreach and the incorporation of new converts into the brethren church. on the other hand, such bible schools, with their strong missionary emphasis, reinforced the brethren commitment to go forth and preach the good news of the gospel. the brethren bible schools thus emerged in the context of a larger phenomenon, and were partly a defensive reaction to i t , and also part of i t ; the larger movement had both a positive and a negative role in starting brethren schools and thus in furthering the primary goal of socio-religious integration already described. the bethany bible school, for example, was founded when a brethren individual who had graduated from the american bible institute in chicago arrived in hepburn at a time when the desire to establish a local mennonite bible school was growing. therefore the general contours of western canadian evangelicalism merit closer scrutiny. during the late 's and the 's, new religious movements grew rapidly in western canada, especially in alberta, which experienced something of "religious awakening" at that time. the growth of the social credit party was a part of the general strengthening of sectarian religious forces in the alberta community. the majority of sectarian growth was evangelical and fundamentalist in nature, and was rooted in a revivalist tradition in the prairie west, shifting social and economic circumstances, a reaction to religious "modernism" in the wake of the f i r s t world war, and the i n a b i l i t y of the mainline protestant churches to adjust to the needs of mostly lower- middle class, rural people. the fundamentalist sects shared a belief in the l i t e r a l truth of the bible, a fiery h e l l , the necessity of a dramatic conversion experience, as well as an aversion to the theory of evolution, the "higher" b i b l i c a l criticism, and the pleasure-oriented a c t i v i t i e s of the "world". there was much lay participation, informality, hearty singing and evangelical fervor at their meetings, which usually ended in a c a l l for repentance and conversion. the parallels between this sort of r e l i g i o s i t y and that of the brethren are obvious, and would have contributed to the relative ease with which many brethren identified with such groups. the emergence of a number of evangelical bible institutes and colleges in western canada was a part of this "awakening". between and t h i r t y such institutions were founded, including eight of the more prominent mennonite schools. the largest schools were "non-denominational"; prairie bible institute (pbi) of three h i l l s , alberta, and briercrest bible institute of caronport, saskatchewan were the trendsetters. pbi was founded in , and became the model for many subsequent schools, with i t s missions emphasis, s t r i c t moral standards, and strong music program. as such i t held a strong fascination for brethren youth, drawing many of them to i t by the 's. this evangelical movement began to encroach upon the mennonite brethren already in the 's. references were made at canadian conference meetings to the fact that a number of brethren youth were attending "english" bible schools, and in the brethren in coaldale found themselves dealing with the effects of local "english" evangelistic meetings on their young people. b.b. janz f e l t that there were some good things about these meetings, but that things seemed strange; a) when our brethren proclaim the word to our youth in a strange tongue, and a strange place, b) when they try to copy the english evangelists, c) ...sometimes you see young couples go off (alone) into the night, d) you don't notice these itinerant english evangelists dealing with seeking souls...rather they come, they speak and leave, e) there is the extortion of funds; the scolding of other denominations; the careless tone and questionable posture of some of these speakers—that is objectionable. there were other effects of this movement. because of the lack of leaders and teachers with formal theological training, and the lack of written material from their own theological frame of reference, brethren bible schools became dependent upon the literature of north american fundamentalism and evangelicalism. traditional brethren pietism and biblicism was easily combined with i t , which along with the example of such schools as pbi strengthened the traditional brethren stress on outreach. the prominent fundamentalist canadian sunday school mission found i t s brethren counterpart in the western children's mission, which emerged out of the bethany bible school. the winkler bible school promoted missions, including daily vacation bible schools, but was known to also be oriented towards producing teachers. thus a tension began to emerge between a stress on evangelism, which clearly undermined germanism, and the formation of good, german-speaking church workers and members. as the 's came to a close, the brethren could look back on a decade in canada in which much had been accomplished, despite drought, depression, and being strangers to canada. congregations had become organized, churches were b u i l t , and a wide array of institutions, including german saturday schools and bible schools, had been started. but there was a growing sense that religious integrity and social solidarity were becoming threatened, and increasing alienation from the german language was taken to be a major indication. reports concerning the lack of interest in the german language in mennonite schools began to be heard, along with double-edged statements that everything possible was being done to satisfy the wishes of the congregations on this matter. for example, a reassuring report made in by a teacher at the bethany bible school held that "great weight" was being laid on the german language at the school, and that "intense interest" in learning the language was present among the students; i t was belied by faculty discussions which took place in early . in the context of discussing disciplinary problems, two teachers pointed out that the brethren constituency f e l t more emphasis should be placed on german instruction, and that too much was being taught in english. the principal stated that students did not learn as easily when instruction was in german, and therefore the temptation existed to revert to english. one teacher faulted the "homes" for not i n s t i l l i n g a f a c i l i t y with the language into mennonite children, while another had perceived a "hidden aversion" to the language among the students, and that was the source of the problem. this "hidden aversion" was at least partly due to the fact that canada had once again gone to war with germany, causing increased pressures on german-speaking mennonites and other "enemy aliens". the bible school operated by the vineland, ontario brethren congregation was forced to close in due to public pressure; besides being conducted in german, the school had offered a course in the german language itself. although the coaldale congregation had f e l t free to affirm the work of i t s saturday school in late , pressure began to be exerted on the church's schools in by edmonton school o f f i c i a l s , causing the congregation to close the saturday school in order to keep the bible school open. in september of the bethany bible school quietly locked away any books i t had from germany, and in the principal voiced fears that the school, like some in other provinces, would be closed; consequently instruction in german was temporarily dropped. the hepburn congregation discontinued i t s summer- vacation german school, while saturday schools operated by the yarrow, b.c. and winnipeg north end congregations appear to have remained open during the war years. no o f f i c i a l attempt was made by the canadian government during the war to stop german instruction in private schools, although i t was halted in state-controlled elementary and secondary schools. wartime anti-german pressures obviously differed in degree by locale, but were clearly present in most canadian communities. the kitchener, ontario brethren congregation went so far as to debate, in early october , the p o s s i b i l i t y of switching over to the use of english during church services; the "impassioned" discussion concluded however that "the congregation does not wish to have anything other than the mother-tongue used in church services." in addition to the cases of harassment of mennonite churches cited in chapter one, three mennonite churches in alberta and manitoba were set on f i r e in the early war years (two of them belonging to the mennonite brethren), causing the coaldale congregation to post a watchman at the door of their new church building for a time. as b.b. janz put i t , "although the war was thousands of miles away, we f e l t the ungrounded mistrust towards us as new immigrants with a strange tongue." the events of the second world war had a profound impact upon canadian mennonites. the existing trends of accomodation and assimilation to the norms of canadian society were accelerated by the war, which revived a n t i - german and -mennonite sentiments among the canadian public. the principle of nonresistance was severely challenged, as at least one-third or of the e l i g i b l e mennonite men joined the armed services, while or one-half chose alternative service, as arranged by mennonite leaders and government o f f i c i a l s . the russlaender were generally eager to prove their loyalty to canada, i n i t i a l l y advocating noncombatant service in the army medical corps, an option rejected by the kanadier. thus the war marked a "turning point" for the russlaender; the doctrinal and cultural identity of the group was . severely shaken, as a broad movement of alignment with the ideological and cultural norms of anglo-canadian society suddenly became unmistakeable. the greatest anti-german and -nazi pressures were exerted by the canadian public in september and mid- . many thousands of german-canadians were forced to register as "enemy aliens" under the defense of canada regulations (docr), and german-canadians were interned. these internments generally occurred during the early high-points of anti- germanism, when a fearful public demanded that the rcmp take action against alleged domestic "subversives". the police themselves remained unconvinced as to the actual danger posed to canada by the individuals they f e l t compelled to intern. there is no indication that any mennonites were interned. after the scares of - the government relaxed pressure on a l l "enemy aliens" except the japanese, but suspicion towards the (partially) p a c i f i s t , german-speaking mennonites persisted among the general public. there were various indications during the war years that changes were under way. while b.b. janz spoke out strongly in support of nonresistance, even threatening excommunication for those who joined the military, russlaender young men enlisted in the army in unprecedented numbers. increasing use of english in the sunday schools and bible schools became apparent, and in i t was admitted on the floor of the canadian conference meeting that "we are in a (language) transition period, and have to reckon with that." the meeting noted that "many of our young people are turning away from our bible schools and entering english schools." the pressure on mennonites had obviously relaxed enough to allow the conference to recommend that congregations begin anew with their "religion schools"; the kitchener brethren responded by opening a "religion school" on saturday mornings "so that the children could better understand the bible in the mother tongue." if the younger generation moved in the direction of anglicism and canadianism, the older generation exhibited more ambivalence. on the one hand, mennonite leaders like b.b. janz and david toews did their best to disengage mennonites from any association with nazi germany, and declarations of loyalty to canada were widely made. also, canadian census records show a sharp drop in german ethnic identification at that time. in , % of canadian mennonites had claimed to be of dutch ethnic origin, and % german. in , only % claimed germanic origin, while dutch identification had gone up to %. on the other hand, the support for nazi germany outlined in chapters two and three did not evaporate overnight. interviews indicate that there was some support for the german cause during the early war years, and e.k. francis found divided national loyalties during wartime among the manitoba russlaender. a report made to the canadian conference meeting by the american editor of various brethren periodicals stated that i t was d i f f i c u l t to walk the line between publishing material which would be allowed into canada, yet acceptable to i t s readers: we're trying our best to be as neutral as possible in the reports on foreign events, which is not easy, considering the fact that many readers are not so neutral. we want however to do the best we can to follow the laws of the land. as the war came to an end, and the extent of the inhumanity of the nazi regime began to be discovered, any illusions which mennonites s t i l l had about nazi germany were shattered. even walter quiring, the ardent nazi- supporter who served in the nazi propaganda corps during the war, admitted to being misled. in a letter to his former adversary, b.b. janz, whom he now addressed as "uncle janz", quiring wrote: what i want to underline is the following: to be german and to be national socialist is not the same thing. anybody can be german, but doesn't thereby need to be nazi. the german volk let i t s e l f be deceived by hitler. myself included. the german volk today sees i t s mistake. i do too. hitler was the misfortune of the german people. thus shorn of i t s p o l i t i c a l and nationalistic ramifications, germanism would continue to play a part in brethren socio-religious identity during the postwar period, although i t was never again as strong as i t was in the 's. as mennonite brethren became more urbanized, educated, p l u r a l i s t i c , and acculturated and assimilated to anglo-canadian society, the important socio-religious function of the german language would be more e x p l i c i t l y recognized and emphasized by some, and more decisively rejected by others. a t t r i t i o n and indifference towards maintaining the russian mennonite way of l i f e undoubtedly contributed to the steady movement away from germanism. the decade and a half following the end of the second world war was a period of mobility and change for many i f not most canadians. the two major trends were economic expansion and, especially on the prairies, rapid urbanization. between and the percentage of prairie residents l i v i n g in urban areas almost doubled, to %, while urbanization in ontario and british columbia occurred at a rate of to %. the western provinces experienced a decline in anglo-canadian nativism, for various reasons, and prairie communities seemed "more open and harmonious," as they (and the rest of canada) "moved increasingly toward a homogeneous international culture." if the western provinces were s t i l l "far closer to a british-canadian cultural model than any other" in the postwar period, "each province saw greater tolerance generated by new social, economic, and intellectual conditions." while traditional sociological stress on the postwar assimilation of ethnic minorities is largely valid, there is also evidence of the survival of certain basic features of ethnic identity in the prairie west. in particular, ethnic languages, and ethnic institutions which paralleled "canadian" ones, retained a position of importance for many people. in general, i f canadian mennonite trends of urbanization and assimilation followed the larger pattern, there was also renewed resistance to the total loss of the russian mennonite ethno-religious identity. canadian mennonites urbanized rapidly in the postwar period, going from a predominantly rural existence to a situation where one-third of mennonites lived in urban areas by . at the same time, the other two-thirds remained in rural areas, with close to half ( %) of canadian mennonites l i v i n g on farms, which was s t i l l five times the national average. mennonites in b.c. were the most urban, with % l i v i n g in c i t i e s in , while those in alberta were the most rural, with % of mennonites s t i l l engaged in farming. the mennonite brethren were the most urbanized of canadian mennonite groups. concomitant with these trends was a significant movement into professions and business, by a l l mennonites. an important addition to the canadian mennonite community was the a r r i v a l of , russian mennonite refugees in the postwar period; they settled primarily in the lower fraser valley in b.c., in the winnipeg area in manitoba, and'on the niagara peninsula in ontario. although this influx is often cited as having slowed the process of acculturation in mennonite congregations, i t should not obscure the fact that the 's russlaender were the key players in most of the major postwar attempts at preserving the traditional social, cultural and religious identity of the brethren. the mennonite brethren continued to expand numerically as a religious body in the postwar period, growing from members in to a total of , in . one-third of these lived in b.c., one-quarter in manitoba, and the rest were spread f a i r l y evenly among the other three western provinces. although the majority of new members came from within the brethren and other mennonite groups, the fact that this growth occurred during the period of transition from german to english indicates quite clearly that the v i a b i l i t y of the mennonite brethren as a religious body was not dependent upon germanism. but this growth was a part of the enormous changes which were taking place at the time, and contributed to fears for the traditional socio-religious integrity of the group. the addition of a whole new generation of english-speaking members which f e l t at home in canadian society exacerbated the fears of the elders for their distinctive faith and way of l i f e . there is evidence that a significant "diaspora" of individuals from the typically large mennonite families was also taking place at this time. in analyzing surveys of alberta mennonites conducted in , aron sawatzky found that anywhere from % to % of individuals surveyed had in one way or another broken ties with the mennonite church. the unwillingness of mennonite churches to change from german to english usage in worship services contributed to this trend, being a factor in as many as % of the departures from mennonite churches. by most families conversed at least p a r t i a l l y in english, and the circulation of english-language periodicals had eclipsed that of german ones in such traditional brethren strongholds as coaldale, alberta. when taken together, these various trends present a f a i r l y complex picture of the postwar period. in general, i t can be said that the brethren were simultaneously experiencing numerical growth, assimilation, professionalization, urbanization, and l i n g u i s t i c , cultural and religious/ethical change. the germanist reaction of those concerned to preserve the traditional socio-religious integrity of the group resulted in the further alienation from the tradition of some. it bears repeating that much of the growing alienation from russian mennonite germanism can be traced to the experience of the second world war. the war with germany forced a decision not only between adherence to mennonite religious principles and the canadian state, but also between english and german cultural identities. if over half of younger canadian mennonites chose to honor the religious principle of pacifism, the same cannot be said of the germanic identity. the widespread support by mennonites of the nazi regime in the 's and early 's, the wartime anti-germanism of the larger canadian public, and the reprehensible actions of the nazi regime which came to light towards the end of the war contributed significantly to the alienation of canadian mennonites from the german language and culture, and in particular the mennonite version of i t , in the postwar period. anglicization was also induced by the war in that young mennonites, whether they joined the military or worked in alternative service occupations, were drawn in unprecedented numbers into an english-speaking environment. many attended english-language worship services for the f i r s t time, where they discovered that english could also be a religious language. a l l i e d to the general movement out of the germanic/mennonite world into the anglo-canadian environment in the postwar years was what frank epp has termed a "struggle for recognition" from canadian society at large, by mennonites, to be accepted as equals with something to offer to it. quite understandably, brethren youth became the main focus of concern in the struggle to maintain the traditional socio-religious integrity of the mennonite brethren. the alarm was sounded by leading individuals in various contexts in the postwar period, and is exemplified in a statement by h.f. klassen, editor of the mennonitische rundschau and konferenz jugendblatt. made in : we, the f i r s t generation (russlaender)...were too carried away with becoming economically established, and now we are faced with an acute, l i f e or death c r i s i s among our faith community. living scattered about in non-mennonite surroundings, with the influences of i r r e l i g i o n in the schools, radios and popular press, and l i t e r a t u r e — a l l these show the consequences a l l too clearly. elders, preachers and sunday school teachers are looking on in apprehension as time- honored authorities are ignored, and as many are ashamed to belong to the mennonites; other manners, attitudes and languages are admired and copied, and our own values and traditions, our simplicity and even our faith is despised. the experience of the war, especially, had jolted brethren leaders, as many of the young men who had appeared before mobilization boards "were ignorant of scriptural teaching as well as of historical distinctives to which their church was committed." in the aftermath of the war, as klassen's statement indicates, changing behaviour patterns reinforced the general notion that a serious decline in the brethren way of l i f e was in progress. many of the f i r s t generation russlaender perceived a correlation between these changes and the loss of the german identity, s p e c i f i c a l l y the german language. one individual lamented: the letting-go of the german language is an outer sign that the individual has also let go of the true mennonite principles. people want to accomodate themselves to the world...wearing (worldly) clothing and giving up the german language thus go together. evidence of the breakdown of traditional brethren l i f e seemed to be everywhere; young people were dressing, speaking and acting differently. brethren leader h.h. janzen f e l t that mennonites were losing their reputation for honesty. the growing use of television in the 's was one more example to the older generation of a decline in standards and the acceptance of "worldly" influences, and the issue of television thus became a "burning issue" at canadian conference meetings in the later 's. reports from bible schools to the conference indicated that the german language was being progressively eroded, as i t was also in the newly-grounded high schools and the bible college (see chapter five). an increasing number of mennonite youth were attending non-mennonite bible schools; between and , mennonite youth attended briercrest bible institute, while went to prairie bible institute. a survey of an extended brethren family in revealed that members had attended mennonite bible schools, and had gone elsewhere, mostly to pbi and briercrest. to b.b. janz, anglicization seemed to have no positive effect on congregational l i f e , and led to the rejection of brethren institutions. if we look into the canadian mennonite brethren congregations which have changed over to english, there we do not find a stronger congregational l i f e in terms of home visitation, evangelism, church discipline, and in love of the church and the conference...last year at pbi there were mennonites in attendance ( )—it is clear that...(most come from english-speaking brethren churches, like the one in abbotsford). this happens, even though brother j. redekop runs a perfectly acceptable mennonite school right on their doorstep. the continued growth of western canadian evangelicalism was also increasingly seen as a threat, and warnings about the "unbiblical" nature of movements like youth for christ were made on the canadian conference floor, and by the leading figure in brethren youth work, h.f. klassen, in the pages of the konferenz jugendblatt. klassen f e l t that this was sensationalized christianity without any of the proper sense of repentance and rebirth. radio programs like charles fuller's "old-fashioned revival hour" were widely received by the mennonite brethren, and represent another source of influence in the direction of mainline north american evangelicalism. there was obviously support present among the brethren for inter- denominational ism, and i t derived largely from the traditional brethren stress on outreach and evangelism, and openness to outside christian influences. these t r a i t s added to the other trends of assimilation and acculturation to bring about a rapid change in linguistic and socio-religious identity in the postwar period. brethren evangelistic impulses had originally come mainly from baptist sources, and mennonite brethren continued to attend baptist schools in the postwar period, along with the missions- oriented schools already mentioned. according to a student of mennonite brethren missions, this aspect of brethren congregational l i f e was lay-oriented, spontaneous, and always threatening to go beyond the control of the larger conference structures. mennonite brethren became involved in radio ministries, daily vacation bible schools, tract missions and evangelistic meetings, beginning in the late 's and early 's. an elemental tension emerged between evangelism, which was generally conducted in english and forged links with the english- canadian community, and the distinctive ethno-religious culture of the brethren. "arm's length evangelism", whereby missionary efforts were conducted in outlying areas, and converts were directed to other denominations, was a temporary and unsatisfying solution to the problem. in general, young people were attracted to missions work while the older generation became preoccupied with defending the "inner stronghold" of the faith. an emphasis on the german language was a part of the general brethren response to the growing threat that a l l the various changes taking place were perceived to pose to brethren socio-religious integrity. the institution of a number of high schools and the bible college after the war was a clear response to the new challenges, and instruction in the german language was part and parcel of this response (see chapter five). so too was the formation in of a conference committee for the retention of the german language, which merged with the all-mennonite society for the promotion of the german language (also covered in chapter five). another response was the formalizing of "youth work" at the conference level, beginning in , and the organization of various youth-oriented events and conferences. a significant attempt to deal with changing circumstances among brethren youth was the inauguration of the konferenz juqendblatt, which began in as a project of the manitoba brethren, and was taken over by the canadian conference youth committee in as an all-canadian project. h.f. klassen edited i t in winnipeg until , when h.h. voth took over. at that time i t became almost exclusively english. in the beginning the paper was published mostly in german, and became increasingly bilingual after that. during i t s f i r s t ten years the paper reflected attempts by the brethren to moderate the transition to english and encourage adherence to the traditional brethren f a i t h distinctiveness and sense of peoplehood. in the f i r s t issue, h.f. klassen stated that the goal of the periodical was to "help a generation of youth grow up firm in the principles of the mennonite brethren church and unashamed of their heritage, as they carry their message out into the world." thus the paper attempted to combine a forward-looking, evangelical perspective with a strong sense of mennonite peoplehood and tradition. it featured reports from the whole spectrum of youth a c t i v i t i e s , including missions. in the early years, profiles of prominent brethren leaders appeared as well. b.b. janz wrote a letter to the editor in stating: "on the whole i am very glad when this kind of beginning is made during a time when most good things can only be expected to be lost." articles encouraging the use and retention of the german language appeared in the paper, and the editor followed a policy of the "golden mean" in the ratio of german to english articles. this soon became a subject of some controversy. one reader insisted that our young people would prefer to have (the jugendblatt) a l l in english...i think that we cannot hold our young people with the german language, but with the gospel we can. some do emphasize the language above the gospel. this brought forth sharp, negative responses; one individual f e l t that switching completely over to english would exclude the older generation from youth a c t i v i t i e s , bringing disunity to the mennonites, which was unchristian. another person seemed baffled at the i n a b i l i t y of the younger generation to become bilingual, and the editor implied that this was due to laziness. citing in the "controversy" surrounding the increasing use of english among mennonite brethren, and i t s position as the "universal language among our youth," a youth worker from the winnipeg north end congregation allowed that the german was "equally important" to mennonites, but that parents needed to learn to be more tolerant towards the adoption of english. language was only a means, not an end; the writer acknowledged that some feared that the disappearance of the german language "will result in the decay of our mennonite faith and principles," but he obviously did not feel that this would happen. others were not so sanguine. in , mennonite educator gerhard lohrenz argued in the jugendblatt that mennonites were a unique volk with their own language, national character, and "uniquely christian" way of l i f e . the "foreign" cultural atmosphere of canada was threatening the mennonite volk identity, which shouldn't be "thrown overboard". in h.f. klassen asked the rhetorical question, "do we want to remain mennonite?" this question seemed to be on the minds of many people from the various walks of brethren l i f e , according to klassen; some were ready to l e t the mennonite name f a l l , and with i t the old confessional principles and teachings. indicating the extent to which the german language had become identified with mennonitism, klassen then stated: "it is not a matter of german or english, rather of a fundamental abandonment of the position of the fathers and founders of our church." klassen listed a number of reasons for this, including the fear of coming into conflict with the larger society, the (negative) effect of non-mennonite, interdenominational bible schools, high schools and colleges, and a special push against the tradition from missions supporters. a.a. toews, a brethren from alberta who had served on a number of conference committees, was even more pointed. in answering the question, "is our separation justified?", toews gave a hearty "yes", noting that the german language had always been involved in the struggle to be true to mennonite religious principles in the face of the demands of nation-states. toews advanced two basic imperatives: ) hold on to the old teachings, including nonresistance, non-swearing of the oath, etc.; ) "but then also hold tight onto the mother-tongue." on the other hand, toews was careful to point out that separation didn't mean isolation, for mennonites had a, message to share with the world. he, along with others, couldn't understand why mennonites were not able to continue being a bilingual people. the other side of the debate was presented in the same issue of the jugendblatt. a contributor stated that "canadians ought to be converted and brought into the church," and that the mennonite brethren should end their "spiritual and social isolationism," which he f e l t was the reason why so many younger brethren were leaving the church. once the church succeeded in bringing "lost canadians" into the fold, and gave up i t s isolationism, "we won't need to worry...about young people leaving the church nor w i l l we need to worry about the church dying o u t . " i l l it was very d i f f i c u l t for the older generation not to feel that the traditional faith was dying, as change accelerated in the postwar period. the wholehearted acceptance of "outsiders" and their "worldly" language would only quicken the transformation of mennonitism already underway, into something which appeared to have l i t t l e to do with the old, "tried and true" faith and way of l i f e . the russlaender brethren had only been in canada for years by this time; i t is understandable, i f in the long run mistaken, that a change in language, especially in the context of the local congregation, would be taken as a sign of the breakdown of social and religious integrity. the contours of the distinctive mennonite brethren way of l i f e , as i t had emerged in russia, were becoming hazy in the eyes of the elder generation, and seemed to be fast disappearing. most brethren congregations began changing over to the use of english in their worship services during the 's. it is not my intention to extensively analyse this often painful process here; a precise depiction of the changeover is beyond the scope of this study, which has aimed more at identifying the primary issues and general trends involved in brethren german identity during their f i r s t t h i r t y years in canada. however, a brief look at the experiences of a few brethren congregations during the twilight years of the german congregational identity is in order. the experience of the coaldale, alberta brethren congregation is i l l u s t r a t i v e of some of the general concerns and patterns of linguistic transition in the postwar years. by may of the saturday school appears to have been operating again. in the spring of $ . was allocated for every student attending the saturday school, and an appeal was made that " a l l those in that age-bracket be asked to attend." some concern was voiced at this time about the "great danger" that coaldale mennonite brethren children were in: how can we protect our children? it is pointed to the various meetings in the dance hall, the worldly christmas programs, and the various youth organizations—sea and air cadets, etc. what they couldn't achieve with our adult co.'s, they want to do with our children. parents are warned very earnestly, and urged to bring their children to church, where there is true l i f e . our children are also in great danger in the public schools. besides the above-mentioned perils, other evangelical groups such as pentecostals were posing a challenge to brethren integrity; they were branded a "false cult" by the church council in the spring of , as an ordained member of the coaldale congregation joined their ranks. the saturday school reported an attendance of students in , but experienced increasing problems throughout the 's. lack of discipline as well as opposition to learning the german language was reported among students. by the f a l l of attendance was dropping, and the project was "getting harder to administer every year." in i t was d i f f i c u l t to find teachers, discipline was lacking, and interest in german was waning. a shortage of staff was again reported in . clearly the battle was lost, even i f the school continued to be operated as late as , since in the church began the process of changing over to english in i t s worship services. already in some "younger members" of the congregation were accusing the congregational leader of refusing to order english hymnals. the church chose to "take a stand" on the matter, and appointed the youth committee to order english hymnals, cautioning members at the same time to "proceed very wisely in the language problem." in november of an english sermon was instituted every second sunday, and the ratio of english to german in the sunday morning service continued to be adjusted on into the late i 's. the move towards a changeover to english in the kitchener, ontario congregation began in late , when an occasional english service for the "younger members" was proposed for discussion. the issue next emerged in the context of an "evangelism week" which the congregation had decided to organize. since the effort seemed to be aimed primarily at "our youth", the question arose as to whether the program should be in english. after a long discussion and a secret ballot, the votes for english totalled , and for german. one can surmise that among those were individuals who contributed heavily to the discussion. the issue was closed thus: "it is once more asserted that this is not about a language change, rather only about the week of evangelization." in april the congregation voted for an english service once a month. things appeared to have stayed this way until , when another discussion about an evangelism program occurred. the decision this time was for i t to be held half in german, half in english. in the issue began to be characterized as a "problem". in september of that year a proposal was made for english and german sermons to be preached on alternating sundays, with a short english one on the german days as well. this proposal produced a " l i v e l y exchange of opinions". the issue was deliberated upon but not resolved in any satisfying manner until may , when i t was decided to have a normal length german sermon every sunday, with a shorter english one. sunday-evening services would alternate between german and english. in the issue was discussed again, but the only decision reached was to leave matters l i e . thus for at least six years the issue was a subject of debate. sometimes the only result of a meeting was agreement to discuss the issue again before voting on i t , and sometimes a vote could be quite close. in the early 's the leader of the winnipeg north end brethren congregation, d.k. duerksen, was also leader of the german school. b.b. fast and "other brothers" f e l t that this school " i s an organic part of our church work, as is the sunday school, youth work etc., and therefore i t is quite appropriate that the church leader be leader of this work." a major discussion on separation from the "world" took place among the congregation soon after the above statement was made, with injunctions being made against the use of makeup, and v i s i t i n g theatres and sporting events, etc. it is also significant that during this time d.k. duerksen began to lead discussions at every "youth evening" on the topic of nonresistance. the person of d.k. duerksen illustrates once again that maintenance of the german language was an elemental part of a general attempt to keep the s p e c i f i c a l l y brethren configuration of beliefs and principles intact. but the language transition had already occurred among the younger brethren. the sunday school committee reported in that foremost among the problems facing them was that of language: the confusion of languages at the tower of babel has become quite severe...our children now think in english instead of german. they would rather sing in english than german, hear stories in english,...(and) there doesn't seem to be much we can do about i t . there are only a few children in the sunday school who don't understand german, yet the instruction is already no longer % in german. even i f most children understood german, their f a c i l i t y with the language was not very good. the only "radical solution" to the problem would be to change completely into english. it was suggested that mothers leave their to - / year-olds in the nursery, where they would learn german from the woman in charge, who was fluent in german. attendance of the german saturday school in was at an all-time high, with students attending; the numbers climbed during the- 's, as they also did in other congregations. the need and interest in the school paralleled the period of german-language decline. in the sunday school continued to be instructed primarily in german, but thoughts were being uttered as to the exclusivity that this represented; these doubts were assuaged by the fact that the church operated a "mission school", in english and l i k e l y some distance away from the home church. in march of the youth began holding an english gathering on every second sunday of the month, and in august of that year an english sunday evening worship service was approved. thus began the changeover, culminating in the institution of bilingual services by the winter of . the congregation was by now involved with some of the local english- speaking churches in organizations such as the lord's day alliance, evangelical pastor's fellowship, and greater winnipeg ministerial association. the transition to english was f e l t to be a loss by elder members of this congregation, as a statement made in attests: for those of us who to a greater or lesser extent know the german language, i t is a natural good (gut) that we love and cherish, and want to retain. should we give up this good, i t would be a certain loss for our churches and for every one of us personally. stories abound concerning the misunderstandings and conflicts which occurred in mennonite congregations during the transition period. one individual recalls being the f i r s t person to give a personal testimony to his congregation in english. when he was finished, an older member stood up and stated in german: "i haven't understood a thing! is he even a christian?" calvin redekop travelled with a mennonite central committee (a major north american mennonite service institution) "peace team" in western canada during the late 's, v i s i t i n g mennonite churches and giving presentations on mennonite peace principles. the other team members gave their presentations in german, and redekop spoke in english, because his german wasn't too good and his message was directed primarily toward the youth. as he relates i t , in one situation i got up and started making my presentation; there was some discussion in the back of the church, and one gentleman stood up and said: "can't you speak german?" i responded that i could, but not very well, and he said, "there's no point in carrying this discussion any further!" at this point a debate erupted between church members, and the pastor f i n a l l y cancelled the remainder of the meeting. "in every congregation, we f e l t this tension, 'if you don't speak german, you really are giving us something which doesn't apply to us, is alien to us.'" b.b. janz, who was s t i l l active during the 's, was not pleased with the rapid changes that were taking place at this time, including the loss of the german language. in he s t i l l f e l t that "for the good of the mennonite brethren church in canada, the retention of the german language for a number of years yet is absolutely necessary. " at the canadian conference meeting, janz delivered a wide-ranging and c r i t i c a l address. in addition to decrying rampant "hypocrisy, superficiality, immodesty and rebelliousness" among the mennonite brethren, he attacked the "horrible materialism, pleasure-seeking and...overweaning ambition (that) are undermining the mennonite brethren church." concerning the "language problem", janz stated: the language problem in our congregations is a very serious matter which can cause the older members much pain, and bring an a i r of f r i v o l i t y to the churches. it wouldn't be a problem i f a l l else was s p i r i t u a l l y well among young and old. both sides need to display sound s p i r i t u a l i t y and wisdom, proceeding impartially but never pushing things to the breaking point. how sad, when mother and child can no longer understand each other, on account of the babylonian confusion! the allusion to the tower of babel story, in which a prelapsarian l i n g u i s t i c (and social) unity is destroyed, due to s i n f u l collaboration on a monument to human pride, drives home the message contained in janz's carefully chosen words. the rapid linguistic transition taking place was to him a reflection of a general breakdown of the socio-religious integrity of his people. in other contexts janz was more direct. when the konferenz jugendblatt became wholly english, janz wrote the new editor a letter, with the caption "funeral", protesting the move. in a study-paper entitled "confusion", from about the same time, janz expressed the feelings of a whole generation. while he admitted that a language transition must inevitably take place, he f e l t that i t was happening much too quickly: it is a direct, sharp break in about half a generation. a l l the roots of l i v i n g and working (according to god's word), morality, custom, family l i f e , conduct with modesty and humility, obedience and respect for parents and vice versa, and in part also our faith are ripped untested out of the earlier way of l i f e (which is disrespected) and stuffed into the new way of l i f e here. in this process much that is dear and precious is lost. the rapid break reminds one of a preciously laden ship f i l l e d with priceless goods that are rapidly being thrown overboard and new cargo from here taken on board. the new goods are said to be so much better. in the past, persecuted in their home country, plagued, b i t t e r l y poor, but not yet degenerated in heart and conscience, the people brought with them a great inner wealth...by a decent, gradual change we would strive carefully to retain a l l that is ideal and worthy of retention in our tested faith and l i f e and add the new and good to i t . with such a break in i t s way of l i f e in so short a time and often with violence to the th commandment, i t is definite that this generation w i l l in the next - years also degenerate in i t s way of l i f e . it is going downhill! many young people find our simple mennonite religious services, and a l l our various arrangements much too pale. but there, in that english church, there at least is l i f e ! yes, a l l kinds of bustle and antics, a l l those witticisms and gestures to awaken the people to echoing laughter; then at last also a short word of god." janz's biographer attributes such statements to the effects of old age and of belonging to a generation which was no longer needed. given the broad sweep of russlaender brethren history, i t also seems f i t t i n g to say that they were the death-cries of a way of l i f e . as the next chapter shows, concern over the demise of the particular configuration of language, volk, and religious s e n s i b i l i t y which was the foundation of the russian brethren way of l i f e led to substantial i f doomed efforts to preserve i t in the postwar period. despite the fears and efforts of janz's generation, however, a l l was not lost, and the brethren continued to function as a viable religious body, i f in a somewhat changed form. to conclude this chapter i w i l l present the story of one individual who was anglicized and attended an "english" bible school, yet remained in the brethren community and eventually became a leader of considerable stature. the experience of herbert brandt exemplifies both the perspective and dilemmas of the younger generation during the transition period, as well as the fact that the elder generation's fears were exaggerated. brandt, who has worked as a brethren pastor and leader for much of his l i f e , was born in saskatchewan of russlaender parents, and grew up speaking low german and english. his father was a schoolteacher who had a good command of the english language. brandt never attended saturday school, and never learned high german well enough to be comfortable with i t , even though i t was the language of church services, of some of his relatives, and was mandatory at the mennonite collegiate institute, a private high school which he attended (begun by kanadier and supported primarily by general conference mennonites). although the language gave brandt problems, he respected and trusted important "traditionalists" whom he learned to know through the school, including g.h. peters, d.p. esau, and a.h. unruh. however, a problem emerged for him when he made a christian commitment around this time: english was essentially his mother tongue, but the theological language he had learned was in german: "the problem for me was that everything i.experienced or learned in religious faith was in german, but i couldn't express everyday things in that language." it was a dichotomous situation: on the soccer f i e l d he spoke english, and in church german- "i had learned a religious language abstracted or compartmentalized from my everyday l i f e . i learned german as the language through which i communicate my faith, and thus my whole thinking process had to s h i f t gears." it didn't feel right to compartmentalize things that way. brandt got his military c a l l in august, ; by september he was working in a mental hospital in brandon, manitoba, as a conscientious objector (co). he was there u n t i l . he and other mennonite c.o.'s sometimes communicated among themselves in low-german, but they were "basically into english". they were f u l l y in the english world, german was "non-existent". although he did not ever think of himself as being fundamentally "different" than the english community, as a co. brandt experienced some ridicule for being of german- speaking background, and for being a p a c i f i s t . "you begin to think, xwhy continue to identify with the german element?'" when his term was up, and as he was deciding where to pursue further studies, he f e l t he had to make a decision whether to return to the german- mennonite community or continue to make his way in the english-canadian world. he didn't feel i t was necessary or important to study german in order to study the bible, and there would not have been as many options for him i f he followed this path. and he states that "in some ways i was rebelling, i guess." he was c r i t i c a l of the traditional community, "but not in the sense of wanting to cut myself off from i t . " because of his interest in missionary work, brandt decided to enroll at pbi, and there he "began to realize pretty quickly the difference in christian l i f e " between that of pbi and of his own experience. the atmosphere at pbi had m i l i t a r i s t i c overtones at this time, as returning soldiers were swelling i t s ranks. "now we co. 's were s i t t i n g beside majors in the army, some of them highly convinced they were great liberators." he perceived that there were different types of christian community, but he didn't feel he had to be german-speaking to experience the kind of community with which he had grown up and become comfortable. among the brethren who attended pbi during brandt's time were david ewert, p.r. toews, george geddart, and h.r. baerg. (ewert has been a prominent mb leader and geddart was a longtime librarian and teacher at bethany bible school.) "there was a very strong move in the 's to get bible-training in an english environment." some "pushed hard" for a changeover in brethren churches to english. brandt's roommate at pbi f e l t strongly that the mennonite "german emphasis" was out of order. brandt co- wrote a document with a number of pbi men c a l l i n g for change in this matter. evangelism and outreach were important elements in their desire to change to the language of the land. during his tenure at pbi brandt didn't have much contact with mennonite groups. mennonites at the school would get letters from leaders concerned about them losing their mennonite identity through becoming "verenglischt" (anglicized). "in retrospect, i can understand their concern." herb's choice of pbi over the mennonite brethren bible college or other schools like the winkler bible school was not solely a question of the mennonite german identity, although i t was an important factor, nor was he intent on rejecting the brethren tradition as a whole. pbi simply had a number of things to offer, while the unattractiveness of the mennonite schools was only compounded by their emphasis on the german language. after leaving pbi brandt worked as an elementary school teacher, before assuming pastoral duties in a number of english-speaking brethren churches, and serving as a brethren conference leader. although he has never f e l t that germanism was crucial to brethren identity, and he has been involved with the church during a time of growth and v i t a l i t y , brandt currently has reservations about the ongoing brethren rejection of certain aspects of their own heritage and faith, and the near complete transition from an egalitarian to hierarchical form of church polity. in conclusion, russlaender brethren identity and socio-religious integrity were closely linked to germanism, and the german language in particular, during the f i r s t three decades after their a r r i v a l in canada from soviet russia. for many people the rapid transition from german to english was symptomatic of a number of mostly negative changes which took place, especially in the postwar period. as a potent symbol of the "inner wealth" which mennonites had brought with them from russia, the german language was very d i f f i c u l t to let go, especially in the context of the local congregation, where mennonite brethren social and religious l i f e were merged into one. this resulted in some alienation from the group, yet the brethren continued to grow numerically, and were able to remain a viable and v i t a l religious body, i f in fact some c r i t i c a l changes were indeed taking place. notes, chapter four . calvin redekop, mennonite society (johns hopkins university press, ), p. ff. . delbert wiens, "the old wine; will i t sour?" the canadian mennonite, april , pp. - ; j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), pp. - ; interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor, june and december , , kelowna, b.c. this idea w i l l be discussed further in chapter six. . an analysis of the vineland, ontario brethren congregation done by gerry ediger is also used, and i thank him for making i t available to me. . minutes of the north end mennonite brethren church business meetings, september , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), fresno; minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, november , , folder ba , p. , cmbs fresno; gerry ediger, "language transition in the vineland mennonite brethren church," unpublished paper, may , in my possession; minutes of the yarrow mennonite brethren church business meetings, december , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno; minutes of the hepburn mennonite brethren church business meetings, march , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno. . d.p. esau, "was erwarten unsere gemeinden von den elementar und hochschulen in religion und deutsch," der bote. june , pp. - . . mennonite brethren northern district conference yearbook (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house), p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, pp. - . . "bericht des schulkomitees auf der konferenz zu langham am j u l i , ," mennonitische rundschau, september , p. ; ibid., mennonitische rundschau, september , p. . . "die jaehrliche schulvorsteherkonvention," mennonitische rundschau, may , p. . . e.g. december , p. ; h.h. ewert, february , p. ; march , p. ; a.a. toews, november , p. ; "leiden des deutschen schulmeisters," june , pp. - ; f.c. thiessen, "offener brief an die deutschen eltern und schulfreunde der stadt winnipeg," september , p. . . "religion und deutsche sprache in unseren schulen," mennonitische rundschau, june , pp. - . . alexander dirks, "freuden und leiden des schulmeisters," mennonitische rundschau. july , p. . . "deutsche reliqionsschule," mennonitische rundschau. october , p. . . there seems to be l i t t l e hard data on the degree to which the provisions for instruction in language and religion in public schools were made use of in predominantly mennonite areas. e.k. francis found that "many" mennonite d i s t r i c t s did not avail themselves of the opportunities available to them in this regard, but does not present any data. e.k. francis, in search of utopia: the mennonites of manitoba (altona, mb: d.w. friesen & sons, ), pp. - . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . "schulfragen und unsere schule," der bote. march , p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . "brueder, wo stuerst du hin?", mennonitische rundschau. february , pp. - ; mennonitische rundschau, march , pp. - . . "ein dunkles blatt in der geschichte von heute," mennonitische rundschau, april , p. . . "gouldtown, saskatchewan", mennonitische rundschau, march , p. . . mennonite brethren church historian j.a. toews was obviously aware of this, having taught in a number of bible schools himself, but the issue receives peripheral treatment in his chapter on schools. see j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), p. ff. in other studies of brethren schools very l i t t l e understanding of the relationship between cultural and religious values is present, e.g. john george doerksen, "mennonite brethren bible college and college of the arts" (ph.d. dissertation, university of north dakota, ); peter g. klassen, "a history of mennonite education in canada, - " (d. ed. thesis, university of toronto, ); john george doerksen, "history of education of the mennonite brethren of canada" (m. ed. thesis, university of manitoba, ). . this figure was arrived at by cross-referencing l i s t s found in peter penner, no longer at arm's length: mennonite brethren church planting in canada - (winnipeg: kindred press, ), p. ; and a.j. classen, ed., the bible school story - (mennonite brethren board of education, ). . minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, january , , folder ba , pp. - , cmbs fresno. . mennonitische rundschau, october , p. . . f.c. thiessen, mennonitische rundschau. august , p. . . from the - school calendar; bf, saskatchewan conference of mennonite brethren churches, box , folder , cmbs fresno. . j.b. toews, "mennonite brethren identity and theological diversity," in paul toews, ed., pilgrims and strangers: essays in mennonite brethren history (fresno, ca: centre for mennonite brethren studies, ), p. . . northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, pp. - ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; f.c. thiessen, "offener brief," mennonitische rundschau. september , p. ; "protokoll der provinzial vertreterversammlung," mennonitische rundschau. august , pp. - . . j.b. toews, "mennonite brethren identity," p. . . john george doerksen, "history of education of the mennonite brethren of canada," (m.a. thesis, university of manitoba, ), p. . . w.e. mann, sect, cult, and church in alberta (toronto: university of toronto press, ); ben harder, "the bible institute-college movement in canada," journal of canadian church historical society (april ): - ; david r. e l l i o t t , "studies of eight canadian fundamentalists," (ph.d. dissertation, university of british columbia, ). . harder, "the bible institute-college movement," p. ; mann, sect, cult, and church, p. ff; penner, no longer at arm's length, p. ; interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor, june and december , , kelowna, b.c.; letter from b.b. janz to j. quiring, july , , b.b. janz collection, box , folder , cmbs winnipeg; aron sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta and their assimilation" (m.a. thesis, university of alberta, ), pp. - . mann l i s t s many more reasons for the attractiveness of schools like pbi, including i t s radio programs and the chance to gain experience in radio broadcasting, the staging of missions conferences, low academic entrance requirements and fees, etc. herb brandt recalls the impressive travelling singing groups, and being attracted to pbi because of i t s reputation in the area of foreign missions. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, june , , folder ba , p. , cmbs fresno. . toews, "mennonite brethren identity," pp. - . . penner, no longer at arm's length, p. ff. . ibid., pp. - ; gerry ed iger,."language transition in the vineland mennonite brethren church," p. . this becomes more evident in the postwar period. . mennonitische rundschau, july , p. ; g.h. peters, "wie begegnen wir der gefahr der entfremdung der deutsch-mennonitischen jugend?", mennonitische rundschau, august , p. ; mennonitische rundschau, july , p. ; g.h. peters, mennonitische rundschau, november , p. ; g.h. peters, "und wieder: 'unsere deutsche sprache'," der bote. april , pp. - ; mennonitische rundschau, august , p. . . minutes of the bethany bible school committee meeting, february , bf saskatchewan conference of mennonite brethren churches, box , folder , cmbs fresno. . ediger, "language transition in the vineland mennonite brethren church," pp. - . . minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, november , , folder ba , p. ; ibid., december , , p. . . minutes of the bethany bible school committee meeting, september , , f i l e ; ibid., january , , p. , f i l e . . minutes of the hepburn mennonite brethren church business meetings, june , , microfilm r o l l , p. , cmbs fresno. . minutes of the yarrow mennonite brethren church business meetings, october , , microfilm r o l l , p. ; august , , p. ; .october , , p. , cmbs fresno. minutes of the north end mennonite brethren church business meetings, october , , microfilm r o l l , p. ; january , , p. ; january , , pp. - , cmbs fresno. . george g. thielman, "the canadian mennonites" (ph.d. dissertation, western reserve university, ), p. . . minutes of the kitchener mennonite brethren church business meetings, october , , microfilm r o l l , p. , cmbs fresno. . minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, december , , folder ba , p. , cmbs fresno. . hildegard m. martens, "accomodation and withdrawal: the response of mennonites in canada to world war ii," social history vii (november ): - ; t.d. regehr, "the influence of world war ii on mennonites in canada," journal of mennonite studies ( ): - ; howard palmer, "ethnic relations in wartime: nationalism and european minorities in alberta during the second world war," canadian ethnic studies xiv ( ):l- ; thielman, "the canadian mennonites," pp. - . enlistment figures have traditionally been estimated at one-half, or , of e l i g i b l e mennonite men. t.d. regehr reports however that a l i s t compiled from canadian military personnel f i l e s contained , mennonite names; the actual figure thus is somewhere between these two figures, being probably closer to the lower one. regehr, "the influence of world war ii," p. . . robert h. keyserlingk, "breaking the nazi plot: canadian government attitudes towards german canadians, - ," in hillman, kordan, luciuk, eds., on guard for thee: war. ethnicity, and the canadian state. - (ottawa: canadian committee for the history of the second world war, ), pp. - . . norman hillmer, "the second world war as an (un) national experience," in on guard for thee, p. x v i i . . palmer, "ethnic relations in wartime," pp. - . . northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . frank epp estimates that the rates of russlaender enlistment to be around %. frank epp, mennonite exodus (altona: d.w. friesen & sons ltd, ), p. . the actual rate may be somewhat lower—see note . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; see also northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. , . . northern district conference, p. . . minutes of the kitchener mennonite brethren church business meeting, november , , microfilm r o l l , p. , cmbs fresno. . frank h. epp, mennonites in canada - (toronto: macmillan of canada, ), pp. - ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - ; mennonitische rundschau, may-october ; thielman, "the canadian mennonites," pp. - . . seventh census of canada. , vol. i l l (ottawa: king's printers, ), pp. - . . eighth census of canada. vol. iv (ottawa: king's printers, ), p. . . interview with peter neudorf, mennonite businessman, december , , vancouver, b.c; interview with anne funk, mennonite social worker, may , , vancouver, b.c; francis, in search of utopia, pp. - . . p.a. berg, northern district conference yearbook, p. . . for example, a member of a strongly pro-hitler russlaender family remembers the d i s i l l u s i o n with the regime which the family experienced at the end of the war. interview with anne funk. . letter of february , , b.b. janz collection, box , folder , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg. . leo driedger, "a perspective on canadian mennonite urbanization," mennonite life (october ): . . howard palmer, patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. ff. . gerald friesen, the canadian prairies: a history (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. , . . friesen, the canadian prairies, p. ; palmer, patterns of prejudice, pp. - . . friesen, the canadian prairies, pp. - ; francis, in search of utopia, pp. - , - ; leo driedger, "urbanization of mennonites in canada," in poettcker and regehr, eds., call to faithfulness: essays in canadian mennonite studies (winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college, ), pp. - ; john friesen, "manitoba mennonites in the rural-urban shift," mennonite life xxiii (october ): . . driedger, "urbanization of mennonites in canada," pp. - . . .in b.c., the province in which mennonites were most highly urbanized, the brethren counted three times as many members as other mennonite groups. robert k. burkinshaw, "strangers and pilgrims in lotus land: conservative protestantism in british columbia, - " (ph.d. dissertation, university of british columbia, ), pp. - . in manitoba they also had the highest percentage of urbanized members, doubling their urban population in the decade and a half after the second world war. friesen, "manitoba mennonites," p. , and driedger, "urbanization of mennonites in canada," p. . in ontario during the early 's the brethren were found to be much more heavily concentrated in the professions than other mennonite groups. ibid., p. . . driedger, "urbanization of mennonites in canada," pp. - ; regehr, "the influence of world war ii on mennonites," pp. - . . george k. epp, "mennonite immigration to canada after world war ii," journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . . penner, no longer at arm's length, p. ; j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. , ; francis, in search of utopia, p. ; interview with j.b. toews, mennonite brethren leader, june , , winnipeg, manitoba. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," pp. - . . ibid., p. ; j.a. toews also notes this effect, without giving figures. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. . j.b. toews estimates that up to % of the membership of some brethren churches was lost because of the tensive atmosphere surrounding the language transition. interview with j.b. toews, brethren educator and leader, june , , winnipeg, manitoba. . sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," p. ; adolf ens, "changes in language and cultural symbols during the 's," unpublished paper, box , folder f, no. , cmbs winnipeg. . sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," p. . . interview with j.b. toews, mennonite brethren leader, june , , winnipeg, manitoba; interview with gerhard ens, editor of der bote. june , , winnipeg, manitoba; h.a. peters, "das mennonitische volkstum: eine skizze seiner entstehung und des verfalles," der bote, december , p. . interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor, june and december , , kelowna, b.c.; frank epp, "the struggle for recognition," in poettcker and regehr, eds., call to faithfulness, p. ; jacob loewen, "the german language, culture and faith," unpublished paper, box , folder e, no. , cmbs winnipeg, p. . . adolf ens, "changes in language and cultural symbols," pp. - ; interview with herb brandt; regehr, "the influence of world war ii on mennonites," p. . . frank epp, "the struggle for recognition," in poettcker and regehr, eds., call to faithfulness: essays in canadian mennonite studies (winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college, ), pp. - . . penner, no longer at arm's length, pp. - . . h.f. klassen, "editorial", konferenz jugendblatt. may , pp. - . . toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. , ; h.h. janzen, "strengthening the peace witness," the mennonite vii (january ), pp. - ; penner, no longer at arm's length, p. . . j.j.j., konferenz jugendblatt. may , p. ff. . h.h. janzen, "strengthening the peace witness," p. . . penner, no longer at arm's length, p. ; toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - . . northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . sawatzky, "the mennonites of alberta," pp. - . . letter to j. quiring, july , , b.b. janz collection, box , folder , cmbs winnipeg. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . h.f. klassen, "editorial", konferenz jugendblatt, march , p. . . penner, no longer at arm's length, p. ; mann, sect. cult, and church in alberta, p. ; interview with jack and eleanor dueck, july , , kitchener, ontario. . j.b. toews, "mennonite brethren identity," pp. - . . penner, no longer at arm's length. . toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. ff; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ff; northern district conference yearbook, p. ff; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ff. . h.f. klassen, e d i t o r i a l , konferenz jugendblatt, may , p. . . e.g."haltet solche maenner in ehren!", konferenz jugendblatt. march , pp. - ; ibid., march , p. . . b.b. janz, konferenz jugendblatt. march , p. . . anna wiebe, "wie e r z i e l t man liebe und verstaendnis fuer die muttersprache?", konferenz jugendblatt. june , pp. - ; "sprache", ibid., p. ; "die muttersprache," ibid., april ; "the german song, our heritage," ibid., june-august , p. ; h.f. klassen, "why two languages?", ibid., november , p. . . h.f. klassen, konferenz jugendblatt, october , p. . . "brief an editor u. hilfseditoren," konferenz jugendblatt, february , p. . . konferenz jugendblatt, april , p. , . . ibid., p. . . h.f. klassen, "why two languages?", konferenz jugendblatt. november , p. . . walfried dirks, "language tolerance," konferenz jugendblatt, june , p. . . gerhard lohrenz, "volk oder gemeinde?", konferenz jugendblatt,. april , p. . . h.f. klassen, "wollen wir mennoniten bleiben?", konferenz jugendblatt, january , p. . . a.a. toews, " st unsere absonderung berechtigt?", konferenz jugendblatt, september , pp. - . . r.c.l. minnton, "shall canadians be mennonites?", konferenz jugendblatt, september , pp. - . . gerry ediger, professor at mennonite brethren bible college, is currently working on a doctoral dissertation which promises to treat of this topic in greater d e t a i l . . minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, may , , folder ba , p. , cmbs fresno. hereafter referred to as "coaldale minutes", with date and page number given. . coaldale minutes, april , , p. . . coaldale minutes, january , , pp. - . . coaldale minutes, april , , p. ; may , , p. . . coaldale minutes, may , , p. ; february , , p. . . coaldale minutes, september , , p. ; october , , p. . coaldale minutes, november , , p. . . coaldale minutes, july , , p. . . coaldale minutes, march , , p. ; march , , p. . . . coaldale minutes, november , , p. . . coaldale minutes, january , , p. ; april , , p. ; april , , p. ; october , , p. . . minutes of the kitchener mennonite brethren church business meetings, december , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno. hereafter references w i l l be made to "kitchener minutes", date and page number. . kitchener minutes, march , , pp. - . . kitchener minutes, april , , p. . . kitchener minutes, april , , p. . . kitchener minutes, may , , p. . . for the ongoing saga see kitchener minutes, september , / p. ; september , , p. ; november , , p. ; december , , p. ; october , , p. ; october , , p. ; september , , p. ; october , ; may , , p. ; june , , p. . . minutes of the north end mennonite brethren church business meetings, september , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno. hereafter references w i l l be made to "north end minutes", date, microfilm r o l l and page number. . north end minutes, october , , r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, year-end report, r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, year-end report, r o l l , p. . . ibid. . attendance was up to in , and in . see north end minutes, year-end reports for and , r o l l , p. , . in the yarrow, b.c. congregation attendance at the saturday school climbed during the early 's, reaching in , before dropping thereafter. minutes of the yarrow mennonite brethren church business meetings, december , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno; ibid., december , , p. . the growth of the coaldale saturday school during the early 's has already been mentioned. . north end minutes, year-end report for , r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, march , , r o l l , p. ; august , , r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, november , , r o l l , p. ; february , , r o l l ; september , , r o l l , pp. - ; december , , r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, year-end report, r o l l , p. . . north end minutes, year-end report, r o l l , p. . . interview with gilbert brandt, mennonite brethren publisher, june , , winnipeg, manitoba. . interview with calvin redekop, mennonite sociologist, june , , harrisonburg, virginia. . ibid. . letter of july , , to j. quiring; b.b. janz collection, box , folder , cmbs winnipeg. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . interview with j.b. toews. . f i l e ba , f , alberta mennonite high school, cmbs fresno. . john b. toews, with courage to spare: the life of b.b. janz ( - ) (hillsboro, ks: the board of christian literature, ), pp. - . . interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor and conference moderator, june and december , , kelowna, b.c. chapter five postwar developments in higher education and german language preservation between the mid- 's and the early 's there was a significant institutional response to the rapid changes taking place among the brethren in the postwar period. increased material prosperity helped to f a c i l i t a t e the establishment of five brethren high schools and one bible college during this time. these institutions emerged in order to educate brethren youth in an atmosphere congenial to the brethren faith and way of l i f e . maintenance of the german language was an integral part of these endeavours, in their early years, and in this chapter i w i l l b r i e f l y highlight this aspect of the new "higher" institutions, treating f i r s t the high schools and then the mennonite brethren bible college. a brief look at the conference committee for the german language and the inter-mennonite society for the promotion of the german language w i l l conclude this chapter. between and , five high schools were started by the canadian mennonite brethren. the schools generally grew out of, and were supported by, local brethren congregations. they included the mennonite educational institute of clearbrook, b.c. ( ); sharon mennonite collegiate institute of yarrow, b.c. ( ); mennonite brethren collegiate institute of winnipeg, manitoba ( ); alberta mennonite high school of coaldale, alberta ( ); and eden christian college of v i r g i l , ontario ( ). each of these schools offered, in addition to government-required curricula, courses in bible, the german language, and mennonite history. during the early years instruction was done on a bilingual basis, with some variation, but as time passed the german language was relegated to courses on the bible and the language i t s e l f . a precedent had been set in russia for mennonite involvement in secondary education: at i t s height, the russian mennonite secondary school system comprised schools, most with a three-year program that included instruction in german and russian. the founding of private high schools and a bible college in canada was therefore a natural response to the challenges posed by the canadian environment to brethren identity. studies of these educational endeavours have tended to ignore the important role assigned in the schools to the german language in maintaining a sense of unity and continuity with the brethren faith, way of l i f e and community. as in so many other areas of brethren l i f e , the german language was intended to function in these institutions as an instrument of socio-religious integration; to ignore this dynamic is to miss a fundamental aspect of their operation. statements made at brethren canadian conference meetings in the later 's and early 's support this contention. in h.b. thiessen presented a paper on brethren high schools which illustrated the dynamics present in such schools. he began by stating: "when we consider the - year history of our volk, we find that our schools have played an essential role in the preservation and advancement of our teachings, special position and principles." as the russlaender began to prosper in canada, according to thiessen, mennonite youth started to attend public high schools; the lack of religious instruction, and the irreligious attitudes of some teachers, had necessitated something more "positive". thus "the goal and motive for grounding these schools was to make a christian education available to our youth." yet as his i n i t i a l statement made clear, there was much more to i t than that. the perpetuation of a common heritage and religious culture was an essential aspect of these schools: the greatest value of our high schools however l i e s in the opportunity to devote one-fourth of the classtime to religion and the german language. what there can't be achieved through that! there are also excellent opportunities for our youth to become familiar with the history of our volk. religion (of the mennonite variety), the german language, and mennonite history were key components of a "christian education". following the report, the conference adopted a resolution which recognized the high significance of the christian high schools which the lord has given our religious community, where students may receive alongside the state education a more or less thorough training in religion and the german language. five years later william neufeld presented a similar point of view to the conference. he noted that mennonite youth were seeking higher education in growing numbers; the irreligious influence of the public schools caused many of them "to become alienated from our religious community, and to find i t hard to return." the intention of the mennonite forefathers had been to pass down the faith to their children, and mennonite schools had emerged under this particular necessity: "so the f i r s t schools were actually such that only instructed religion and german; only later as needs grew were school programmes widened." although neufeld was referring to the emergence of schools in russia, he clearly f e l t that the essential core of mennonite education was religion and german. as he went on to state, "the existence of our high schools today are also born out of such (expanded) needs." the percentage of brethren youth attending brethren high schools is unclear, but presumably was lower than those attending public schools. by the later 's and early 's the german language seems to have been used around - % of the time, primarily during instruction of religion and german, and in morning chapel services. at the mennonite brethren collegiate institute in winnipeg, for example, - / to % of instructional time was conducted in german in , although faculty reported that there were many d i f f i c u l t i e s involved in using the language to this extent. by religious courses were being taught in english at the school, since the available books were in english and many students couldn't understand german anyway. the school board resisted this changeover to english, with the ironic result that "teachers of religion teach the german religious terminology even though classes in religion are taught in english." this phenomenon of german becoming a genuine l i t u r g i c a l language, for a short while at least, illustrates the degree to which i t had come to be identified with the mennonite faith. the story of the founding and early years of the conference-supported bible college provides perhaps the most vivid example of the role played by germanism in brethren higher education in the postwar period. the f i r s t indications that a "higher bible school" would be started as a conference project were given in at the canadian conference meeting held in coaldale, alberta. there j.a. toews read a report on "school endeavours" in the conference, in which he cited a growing awareness of the need for higher theological training from the mennonite brethren perspective. maintenance of the german mother-tongue was clearly linked to the successful perpetuation of brethren distinctives. bible-school teachers were needed who would be able to articulate the faith in german as well as english. a bible school committee was formed at the conference, electing a.h. unruh as chairman. at i t s f i r s t meeting, the committee expressed the perceived relationship between the german language and brethren faith distinctives in a statement of objectives: . spiritual nurture of the youth. . education of believing teachers for our day schools. these objectives give us the following goal: support of a l l endeavours to start schools which give our children a general education, and also religion and german, as well as to stimulate participation in such schools as already exist in our c i r c l e s ; because experience shows that teachers who have received their education in such schools gladly instruct their students in religion and german, and guide their upbringing according to our s e n s i b i l i t i e s (ihre erziehung in unserm sinne leiten). due to the circumstances brought about by the war, no great steps forward were taken on the issue until . to have attempted to expand german- language education would obviously have been foolhardy in the early war years. the most pressing issue at that time was securing alternative service for mennonite men conscripted by the canadian army. by , however, the committee was able to meet and further plan for the opening of a "higher bible school". the "language problem" was among the concerns of the committee. it was acknowledged that a l l of the "lower" bible schools had their own versions of this problem, and that in order for the generations not to be separated by language during the current "changeover period", this problem would have to be solved. language was not, however, the sole issue of this meeting: the concern was that young, educated, bilingual people were needed at a l l levels of brethren l i f e , as bible school teachers, youth workers, missionaries and preachers. the maintenance of the german language would ensure that the brethren faith perspective would be transmitted to these new leaders, but i t was a means to an end; there is no indication that anyone involved in this committee hoped for anything more than a bilingual church which would gradually change to english. the conference moved forward on the issue, and by october a building had been bought in winnipeg and i t s doors opened for business. a.h. unruh, who was not fluent in english, was elected i t s f i r s t president. j.b. toews, the most educated person from within the brethren constituency, took over the role in the summer of , with the intent of building a solid academic program for the college. by the - school year the curriculum included courses in theology, church history, missions, philosophy, greek, modern languages (including german), and music, among others. enrollment had reached students, one-third of them female. the college at this time offered a graduating diploma in theology as well as a master's of theology. in the primary instructional areas of theology and christian education, semester hours were taught in english, and in german. the amount of german instruction theareafter diminished to on average of about one-half the amount of english instruction. the conflicts and problems surrounding the early years of the school illustrate the dilemmas confronting the mennonite brethren in the immediate postwar years. on the one hand, the school had been called into being to provide higher theological training in a bilingual context. the feeling was that i f the brethren faith was not to be l e f t behind by the upcoming generation, an effort would have to be made to stem the tide of english language and culture, and the evangelical theology which went with i t . could the distinctive faith understandings survive such a rapid change in the form of their expression? thus pressure continued to be brought to bear on the college to provide a strong german component and fluently bilingual graduates. on the other hand, the effort appears to have been doomed from the beginning, given the chronic unavailability of current academic materials in german and the lack of proficiency and interest in german displayed by incoming students. the intractability of the problem soon became evident. a meeting of the college board early in indicated both how brethren theology was associated with the german language, and that students were not up to the task presented them. students showed a deficiency in b i b l i c a l knowledge, and further, a weakness in german language proficiency: "the students have religious ideas, but they often are unable to clothe the thoughts in words." "words", in this case, meant german words. as well, an "inner aversion" to the learning of german was f e l t to be exhibited by some students, hindering the whole process. indifference or aversion toward the german language was an ongoing problem, reported in various contexts. by the graduation ceremonies were conducted completely in english, although other assemblies were s t i l l being held in german. enrollment in the german course was weak from the beginning, and in only three students registered for german instruction. during , of books checked out of the library, only were german—not an encouraging figure, considering that there were almost german books in the library. the majority of periodicals received by the college were written in english. a l l of this did not go unnoticed by the mennonite brethren constituency. already in the canadian conference bible school committee had been concerned to "especially emphasize" to the mbbc board of directors that the general wish of the brethren constituency was for strong teaching of the german language, and that this was an area which needed to be improved upon by the college. at the conference meeting the report from the college acknowledged this expectation, and the ratio of german to english being taught was reported for the f i r s t time. questions were raised by delegates as to whether knowledge of german was obligatory, and the b.c. delegation proposed that i t be made mandatory, "so that future preachers would have f u l l command of the language." president j.b. toews answered that every student who wished to graduate had to know both languages. during further discussion i t was pointed out that the language needed to f i r s t be learned at home, in the church, and in religion and bible schools, i f students were to be rightly prepared for the college. at the same conference meeting i t was noted that english was being taught at about a f i f t y percent level in the congregational bible schools. after hearing the mbbc report, the conference recommended that "in family and church everything be set to the task of teaching our children the german language," in order to prepare future mbbc students. here a dynamic was begun in which pressure on the school to turn out bilingual graduates was reflected back onto the constituency, instigating a broader effort to perpetuate the language at a l l levels of brethren l i f e , culminating in the formation of the committee for the german language in , where the language issue was destined to die a slow i f not quiet death. the same sorts of issues were present at the conference, with the college reiterating i t s objective of expanded german instruction, in order to help the congregations to solve their language problems. in a.a. kroeker reported that he had visited almost a l l of the brethren congregations in the western provinces during , as a representative of the college. . the mennonite brethren, according to kroeker, had many fine youth, many of whom were unfortunately ending up in non-mennonite schools—the college was therefore of great importance in the retention and furtherance of the legacy which god had entrusted to the mennonites. the people in the churches were generally in favour of the work of the school, but what was sad was that "such a large percentage of mennonite brethren youth who want to go into some sort of ministry are doing i t in non-mennonite schools." at the end of a l l reports having to do with school endeavours, the conference went on record as "stressing i t s stated wish...that our college continues to work in the s p i r i t of the conference, in which the needs of the congregations are taken into account and workers are brought forward who are equally proficient in both languages and thus can properly serve the congregations." the faculty and administration of the college did what they could to respond to the pressure to turn out f u l l y bilingual graduates, but this period did not pass without i t s casualties. far-sighted college president j.b. toews resigned in , after three years with the college, largely because he f e l t that the problem of german retention was of more importance to the board of directors than building a solid academic program at the college: board meetings were often taken up with concern about how many chapels and courses were being conducted in english, how many in german, etc. the board f e l t that too much of the curriculum was being taught in english, and were "always putting the brakes on" to any new i n i t i a t i v e s . toews' desire to set up a really "respectable" program was not given top priority, thus limiting his ambition. he saw the next ten years being f i l l e d with battles which he didn't want to fight. the anticipation of the school was to prepare future church leaders, and thus the concern with the german language. that the best academic materials were written in english was of secondary importance. upon toews' unfortunate departure h.h. janzen took over, a german-speaking mbbc teacher who, according to toews, "provided an image that was f i t t i n g at the time." a.h. unruh summed up the dilemma faced by toews thus: he took pains to lead the institution in a way which corresponded to the conference's needs. certain circumstances in the conference he could not change; but he did what he could to please both the students and the conference. the new president h.h. janzen, more conservative than toews, worked to improve relations between the congregations and the college, trying to walk the thin line between the changing times and the wishes of the older generation. in a statement made in to the conference bible school committee, janzen claimed that there seemed to be a trend toward anti- denominational ism which was being picked up by the congregations and the younger people. this " s p i r i t " was threatening the mennonite congregational l i f e , as well as the youth, who through language and their contact with the outside world were most threatened. in early the college board had indicated that i t f e l t the conference as a whole did not have a clear idea of what i t wanted in a bible college. these statements indicate that while a strong pressure for the maintenance of the german language was coming from many sides, there were countervailing trends from within the brethren constituency which worked against the efforts made by the college to f u l f i l l i t s mandate. by his statement janzen seems to have been trying to encourage the congregations to take more responsibility for the preservation of the heritage. thus janzen focussed on the college-congregation relationship, and reiterated the fear that the loss of german was part of a general process of degeneration which the denomination was experiencing. as stated above, i t had been clear to the conference by that incoming students were neither properly prepared nor inclined towards becoming f u l l y bilingual, and as a result the instruction of german at a l l levels of brethren l i f e had been encouraged. at the conference meeting i t was again emphasized that more support needed to be given at the level of the home and local congregations i f the youth were to be won over to the german language. the meeting of the canadian conference adopted a lengthy resolution on the german language, including a request that german be taught at a l l levels of brethren l i f e , and that a committee for the preservation of the german language be formed. the stage had been set for these developments at the conference meeting, when f.c. thiessen read an impassioned report from a committee which had been set up to try to unify and regularize the curriculum of the conference bible schools and high schools. a course of instruction had been formulated which was to help prepare students for the bible college, but this was not enough. what was needed was a powerful "bildungskomitee" (educational/developmental committee) which would oversee a l l aspects of the bible schools and high schools, and would have the power to alter the curriculum as i t saw f i t . an elemental aspect of this committee would be to provide the coordination needed to perpetuate the german language among mennonites. thiessen, who had been a strong proponent of germanism in the 's, and who was a "prime mover" behind the founding of the brethren high school in i clearbrook, complained b i t t e r l y that the german language had been allowed to f a l l into neglect at every level of brethren l i f e , lamenting: that we in our volk have been born into the world as german-speaking children was no accident, rather god's w i l l . that the lord wants to now take our mother tongue from u s — i can not understand and find i t b i b l i c a l l y unsound. for thiessen, the issues of language, education and the brethren faith identity were a l l tied together. and he saw quite clearly the need for a broadly based foundation for the language i f the college was to be successful in i t s mandate of providing young, bilingual teachers: these teachers we now expect out of the college. can they give us the strength, which w i l l enable us as a conference to preserve our unique character and outlook (eigenart und einstellung), as we have done u n t i l today? to that also belongs, that our teachers in the bible and high schools have the command of both languages, as long as we yet have german worship services. the college finds this expectation to produce such teachers as unfair, since the students come to the college with neither the appropriate preparation in the german language nor the love for the mother tongue. it is certainly clear that the college cannot meet our expectations under such conditions and in four years turn out teachers who have a f u l l command of both languages. thus the pressure on the bible college was again reflected back upon the other levels of conference l i f e . the formation of the language committee in was a logical outcome of the mounting pressures on the school, as the proponents of germanism made a last, comprehensive bid to save the mother tongue. the language committee was dealt a severe blow even before i t started, however, with the death of thiessen in the interim between the and meetings. with or without thiessen's death, the committee and the issue i t represented was to fade into an obscure corner of mennonite brethren l i f e , since the language transition among the bulk of the constituency was well underway by this time. the german language preservation organizations should not however be l i g h t l y dismissed; they represented the culmination of years of struggle to maintain the socio-religious integrity of the russlaender brethren in canada, and the important i f misguided role germanism had played in that struggle. individual emotional attachment to the mother-tongue was also obviously a factor in language retention efforts, but i t s t i l l had the larger mennonite group as i t s reference point, and thus cannot be bracketed off from the general rubric of socio-religious solidarity and integrity. two language preservation organizations are of interest here. one is the mennonite brethren conference "committee for the german language", already alluded to, and the other is the inter-mennonite "society for the promotion of the german language". the conference committee eventually merged, for a l l practical purposes, with the society, although i t continued to report to the conference under i t s own name. i w i l l f i r s t examine the committee, then the society. at the brethren canadian conference meeting $ . was allocated to the new committee, and five members were elected. they were d.k. duerksen, h. regehr, johann goertz, a.h. unruh, and h.h. kornelsen. the stated purposes of the committee were: to stimulate the learning of the german language through lectures or a r t i c l e s in the german (mennonite) periodicals. it is also to help with the coordination of appropriate (german) materials for the saturday-, bible- and high-schools. at the conference meeting the committee gave a long report containing a l i s t of reasons for maintaining the german language. in addition to mentioning things such as the general benefits of being bilingual, and the need to be able to relate to recent mennonite immigrants from russia and germany, the following reasons were given: because with the loss of a language individual persons and whole groups close the door to intellectual, cultural and s p i r i t u a l goods. because the german language binds together our l i t t l e volk, which is scattered across the entire globe...because the german language in many c i r c l e s helps to hold together young and old in worship services and in the home. the committee expressed the feeling that the german language could be maintained in "many c i r c l e s " i f parents would speak high german to their children, and i f the brethren schools were supported. its main a c t i v i t y at this time was trying to organize german textbook distribution to the various mennonite schools. during the next year the committee sent questionnaires regarding german language usage to a l l of the brethren congregations and schools, and tried to give practical advice on how to nurture the german language. only % of the congregations responded to the p o l l , while the response from the schools was better. the committee recommended that schools build up their german libraries and that congregations expand their saturday schools. parents were again implored to speak high german, not english, with their children. by the committee reported that i t was working closely with the society for the promotion of the german language. an organizational meeting for the society took place in h.f. klassen's house in may of . over the next few years mennonite brethren who served on the society's executive committee included h.f. klassen, a.h. unruh, d.k. duerksen, n. neufeld and h. regehr. g.h. peters was the founding chairman of the society, and walter quiring the secretary. a l l of these individuals, with the exception of quiring, were russlaender immigrants from the 's. quiring had settled in germany and been an ardent nazi supporter in the 's (see chapter three). winnipeg was the locus of the society, which by i t s sixth meeting in the f a l l of had elected provincial representatives. the name of the organization was i n i t i a l l y the "society for the promotion of the german mother-tongue," but the reference to "mother- tongue" was eventually dropped. the society wanted to attract those of the younger generation for whom the german language was not the mother-tongue. the society met relatively often, in i t s early years, sometimes at two- week intervals. lectures were given in mennonite communities on the need to retain and nurture the german language, and the society did much to make sure that german text- and songbooks were made available to interested schools and individuals. the chairman, g.h. peters, organized a correspondence course. numerous articles supporting the language, and notices of gatherings to be held, were published in the mennonite newspapers, and summer courses and youth programmes were staged. the society also endowed prizes for excellence in the study of the language by students in mennonite schools, and operated a german lending-library. a l l of these a c t i v i t i e s served the primary goal of the society to raise consciousness among mennonites as to the importance of the language for the mennonite community. between and , the society recorded a total membership of approximately individuals. the number of active members who paid the $ . yearly fee was generally much lower, the highpoint having been reached in , with active members. of the total number of individuals who had at one time or another belonged to the society, at least or about % were of brethren a f f i l i a t i o n . it is highly probable that the actual figure was higher. the membership r o l l s indicate that the society was more than a winnipeg phenomenon, attracting mennonites from every province, primarily the western provinces of b.c., saskatchewan, alberta and manitoba. the majority of brethren members were from manitoba, but one-fifth were from alberta, and one-tenth from b.c. it is beyond the scope of this study to present a detailed history of the society, which was active into the 's and beyond. in the remainder of this chapter i w i l l present a few glimpses into the ideas and feelings expressed by the society and i t s members in regard to the german language and i t s significance for mennonites. although the society was not able to stem the tide of anglicization to any significant degree, i t did provide a forum for an older generation of canadian mennonites to express their feelings towards the language, religious l i f e , and sense of peoplehood which had been shared in russia. a wide range of motives for retaining the language was expressed by society members, including an emotional and s p i r i t u a l attachment. in isaac redekopp presented a short sermon to a meeting of the society which was summarized by the secretary thus: brother redekopp drew a parallel between the language of human beings and of jesus, as god's word become flesh. the lord jesus was magnificent, f u l l of grace and truth. so also should the language be magnificent and carry with i t the imprint of truth. it should allow us to express our deepest feelings and our most elevated thoughts...even jesus expressed his deepest feelings in his mother- tongue. his c a l l on the cross "my god, my god, why have you forsaken me?" was uttered in the aramaic language, which was his mother- tongue . although i t was clear that redekopp f e l t the german language to be "magnificent", he also indicated that language shouldn't be elevated to an all-important position. the society was careful to emphasize that i t didn't feel that any one language was better than another, rather i t wanted to nurture and maintain the particular "good" which had been inherited from the mennonite forefathers. the equality of languages may have been affirmed in principle by the society, but in practice there were strong feelings that for mennonites, at least, the german language (and culture) was special, and that the surrounding "english" culture was inferior and to be avoided. g.h. peters, who had been a high school teacher in mennonite schools for most of his l i f e , was especially concerned with losing mennonite youth to the "american melting-pot"; now only goal-directed countermeasures can save us from complete "verenglischung" (anglicization). we must win back our youth, i f we as a volk do not want to lose ourselves in the american melting-pot of nations. those in our volk who have recognized the danger dare not stand by and say "what's the use". we must continue to try to sharpen the sense of personal responsibility of our youth. in speeches to youth groups peters emphasized the "german" background of the mennonites, and the need to be proud of that aspect of their heritage. the german language carried with i t high cultural values, and bound mennonites together. peters had clearly been influenced by "volkish" thought, and saw the mennonites as a cultural, ethnic and religious unity which would be destroyed i f one element was removed. at the i n i t i a l membership meeting of the society in september , peters summed up his feelings about germanism: why german?...because i t is our mother-tongue—"acquire what you have inherited from your fathers, in order to possess i t . " i think that every human being belongs to a volk, and we belong to no other volk than the german. the german language is the root which connects us to the cultural ground of the german volk. closely bound with our language are our customs and morals, our traditions, and our most noble character t r a i t s . indeed, the language is also the carrier of our religion...the language is not just a form which can be changed without altering the content. no, the language forms, together with the content of our personality, an indivisible unity. with the loss of the mother-tongue must our personality, our culture, our traditions and our religion be altered, and certainly not in a positive way. many of these themes were present in an early society statement of the reasons for retaining the german language, but the volkish rhetoric was toned down and some more general grounds were added. summarized, the statement read: . keeping the language w i l l prevent a r i f t between generations. . with the loss of the language the religion w i l l also be influenced, because the mother-tongue is indivisibly tied to our religion. . the german language is the root of our culture, traditions and intellectual/spiritual development. with the loss of this language we lose our intellectual s t a b i l i t y and are then more open to corruptive and demoralising influences. . the german language is the connecting-link of mennonites throughout the world. . studying the german language gives a better understanding of the english. . canada is a rich nation because i t contains so many different nationalities. we w i l l be good citizens i f we retain ours. . the german language is our mother-tongue and the language of our ancestors, literature and religion. . the german language is one of the most important languages in the world. the foregoing statements represent the most self-conscious and wide-ranging reflections made, in the period under study, on the meaning of the german identity for the russlaender mennonites in canada. that they were made during the dying days of this particular constellation of language, peoplehood and religious faith is not surprising since the a b i l i t y to analyze is enhanced by greater distance from the object of analysis. also, with anglicization and many other social, cultural and religious changes well underway, i t had become necessary to rationalize what had previously been more generally taken for granted. but i f society members were engaging in some rather subtle and sophisticated thinking on the relationship between culture, religion and communal identity, they were also nostalgic and out of touch with the major trends of the religious mainstream of mennonite l i f e . a.h. unruh (not to be confused with his pro-nazi brother b.h. unruh—see chapter two) was a highly-respected brethren educator who was involved with the society in i t s early days, and his statements on language preservation illustrate the particular brethren perspective, which with i t s missionary emphasis tended towards a more moderate formulation of the problem. in early unruh gave a short lecture entitled "why is i t necessary to retain the german mother-tongue?" to the f i r s t f u l l membership meeting of the society, and the address was later published in the mennonitische rundschau. in the lecture, unruh argued for the maintenance of the german language from various "grounds", including educational, historical, business/occu- pational, missions, and "volks-grounds" (volksgruenden). in discussing educational reasons to keep the german language, unruh implied that the german language goes "deeper" than the english, c i t i n g a highly-educated english-speaking man who praised a german bible commentary for revealing depths which remained covered in english. the german-speaking world is a source of learning which is well worth studying. translations are worthwhile, but some things get lost. it is also necessary to retain the language for historical reasons— knowledge of i t w i l l bind the old world to the new, and provide better understanding between generations: "i've said i t once already, he who throws away the german language, throws out also his own history." as an "old world" language, german should be studied for an understanding of this past world, i t s prayers, and i t s bible. unruh also argued that for business and professional reasons i t is good to retain the language—it's useful to be able to communicate with people in their own language. and then there were grounds to retain the language from a missions perspective. "our" people are in south america, and they don't speak english. people may want to missionize there or in germany. the most interesting part of this lecture is his discussion of "volks- grounds". he had already alluded to bridging the gap between the old and new worlds, and keeping the generations together, and now he e x p l i c i t l y speaks of keeping the volk together. he argues against low german being the "volks- language" because i t is impure (containing russian and polish elements) and open to variation (english is easily added); the implication is that compared to high german, low german does not have the same unifying power. the low german language is dear to him, but just doesn't quite pass muster as a volks-language. if i t were to be cleaned up and a l l the foreign words expunged, there wouldn't be much left. in this context unruh cited the example of martin luther, who, finding the state of german to be "confused", determined a single german language for a l l german people; and...we're s t i l l today enjoying the blessings from that. we have the high german language right in the bible. when you publicly pray, when the preacher says a prayer, then he says i t in the high german, not the low german language. the high german language unites us...and therefore is this language society agreed, that i t is precisely the language which i t wants to raise up (heben); i t is doing a major work — the children are to be influenced as well as the elders. and in this manner can we perhaps come to a unified german mother-tongue. thus on volkish grounds, for the sake of the unity of our volk, i t would be good i f we came together and supported this matter. this lecture indicates that unruh was deeply convinced of the importance of the german language for mennonites, and gives some of the reasons why low german was neglected at the expense of high german. but this was not an enduring theme for unruh, as i t was for g.h. peters, walter quiring, d.k. duerksen and other members of the society. unruh seems to have been silent on the germanism issue during the 's and 's, and youth-oriented speeches given by unruh during the early 's made l i t t l e or no mention of the language issue, concentrating instead on s p i r i t u a l and moral themes. in a speech entitled "the service of language", given at meeting of the german language society in the f a l l of , the ambivalence of unruh's perspective comes into sharper focus. after repeating some of the themes present in the earlier address, including the purity and unifying power of the german "bible language", unruh compared the contemporary mennonite situation with that of the jews, whose hebrew "bible language" influenced the later aramaic. mennonites have an evangelical mission, thus they require a " b i b l i c a l mindset"; for that reason they should treasure, honor and teach the german "bible language." the tower of babel confused everybody, and therefore the more pure and unified a language i s , the easier i t is to find understanding. however, he points out that the building of the tower was aimed at making a name for the builders, and was thus based on pride. "the language is a servant for the good of mankind, not for self-aggrandizement." just like on pentecost every listener heard the gospel in their own language, so god gave mennonites the bible in their own language. but the language as such is neutral in relation to the gospel. it is proclaimed in every language. for that reason we value the study of a l l foreign languages and treasure that much more the study of our own mother-tongue as a legacy from father and mother. a basic ambivalence was present. on the one hand a strong impression is given that german is a superior, "pure" language; on the other hand, unruh essentially says that mennonites have a right to their language as much as anyone else does to theirs, but i t should not be regarded as qualitatively better or idolized. the ambiguity was overcome in unruh's discourse, ultimately, by the evangelistic imperative. the greatest goal of language is in preaching the gospel to a l l peoples. the contemporary mennonite situation, according to unruh, was similar to that of the early church, which existed in a world where greek and hebrew were both in use. the english and german language run side by side. our task is to hold onto these languages as a g i f t from god, as an inheritance. we must however purify them through the bible, in order that we f u l f i l l our f i n a l mission: the spreading of the gospel. we should be thankful for every man we have, who can in two or more languages proclaim the gospel. we want to bring this assemly before god's throne. we're not only "kulturmenschen" (cultural beings), also god's c a r r i e r — t o spread the gospel. and we don't want ourselves to have a falling-out for the sake of a language. unruh's message at this point is clear. language is not a good in i t s e l f , and should not, as an aspect of culture, divide mennonites. the overriding goal is to preach the gospel, in whatever language. clearly, though, german is the mennonite language for unruh. taken in the context of a gathering of the society when i t was peaking in popularity, this is a strong message against overemphasizing the language as a good in i t s e l f . the brethren concern with preaching the gospel was for unruh the f i n a l standard of judgement, and thus moderated his germanism. unruh's position is another example of the ambivalence f e l t by the brethren toward their cultural heritage. if on the one hand i t was f e l t to be an important instrument of socio-religious integration for them, i t was also balanced by the evangelistic aspect of brethren religious identity. in reports to the canadian brethren conference during the later 's, the german language committee/society began emphasizing the connection between german language preservation and missions, and the inherent value of knowing a second language, while the issues of mennonite volk unity and the importance of german as the mennonite religious language began to fade. clearly, the tolerance for that kind of talk had begun to wear thin. as d.k. duerksen reported in , "it is d i f f i c u l t to talk about the promotion of the german language in our c i r c l e s , because misunderstandings and opposition so easily appear." although the committee for the german language reported to the conference for a number of years after this, and the society for the promotion of the german language continued to operate into the 's and beyond, they became increasingly peripheral to the l i f e of the canadian mennonite brethren. thus significant efforts were made, in the decade following the end of the second world war, to provide an institutional base for german language preservation. this was a function both of the important role the language was perceived to play in the maintenance of mennonite unity and identity, and the rapid transition to english which was taking place, especially among the younger generation. this chapter has only begun to sketch an outline of the efforts in higher education and by the language preservation groups to preserve german as a special "mennonite language". the history of the society for the promotion of the german language, in particular, remains to be written. nevertheless, the broad outlines of the germanism prevalent in this period have been mapped, and i t has been demonstrated that renewed efforts were made, in the postwar period, to preserve the german language as an instrument of socio-religious integration for the brethren, and that these efforts were in fact closely linked to the new educational endeavours. notes, chapter five . peter g. klassen, "a history of mennonite education in canada, - " (d.ed, thesis, university of toronto, d), p. ff; john george doerksen, "history of education of the mennonite brethren of canada" (m.ed, thesis, university of manitoba, ), p. , ff. . klassen, "a history of mennonite education in canada," p. . . see klassen, "a history of mennonite education in canada"; doerksen, "history of education of the mennonite brethren of canada"; john george doerksen, "mennonite brethren bible college and college of the arts" (ph.d. dissertation, university of north dakota, ). j.a. toews alludes to the issue in his history of the mennonite brethren, but doesn't give any d e t a i l . see j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church (fresno, ca: board of christian literature, ), p. and p. , note . . mennonite brethren northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook (hillsboro, ks: mb publishing house), p. . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., p. . . northren d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . ibid. . see the northern district conference yearbook, p. , and the northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . surveys of congregations were far from complete, but the figures cited indicate that more than half of brethren youth attended public schools. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. . . mbci school committee minutes, october , , box l , folder , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), fresno. . ibid., july , . . ibid. . ibid., september , , box l , folder . . northern district conference yearbook, p. . . from the pamphlet "die enstehung der hoeheren bibelschule und die stellung der manitoba konferenz dazu", from the northern d i s t r i c t conference bible school committee f i l e s , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, hereafter bscf (bible school committee f i l e s ) . . there was no conference meeting at a l l in due to the strong anti-german feelings present among the canadian public during the early part of the war. at the northern district conference meeting the bible school committee reported that "it w i l l doubtless be understood by you that in the face of the present situation we are not able to report on groundbreaking work along the lines of school endeavours." northern district conference yearbook, p. . . minutes of the bible school committee meeting, bscf. also see minutes of a meeting of the conference bible school committee with the mbbc board of directors, december - , , microfilm r o l l no. , p. , cmbs fresno, hereafter bm (board minutes). at this meeting five goals of the school were l i s t e d : to produce bible school teachers, missionaries, church workers, music directors, and bilingual graduates, because in or years they would be needed in the churches—they were even then beginning to be needed, according to the report. . bm, p. . . northern district conference yearbook, pp. - . . mbbc faculty meeting minutes, september , , and september , . mbbc faculty minutes f i l e , cmbs winnipeg, hereafter fm (faculty minutes). . interview with j.b. toews, mennonite brethren educator and leader, june , , winnipeg, manitoba; meeting of the mbbc board of directors with the northern d i s t r i c t conference bible school committee, december - , , bm pp. - ; report to the northern district conference meeting given by h.p. toews, northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, pp. - ; report to the northern district conference bible school committee, given by j.a. toews, february - , , bscf. report from the college given by h.h. redekop at the northern district conference meeting, northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . bm, p. . . ibid., p. . . report from the college, january, , bm, p. ; report to the northern district conference bible school committee, given by j.a. toews, february - , , bscf; "a short overview of the work in the m.b. bible college" by a.h. unruh, , bscf. . minutes of the mbbc faculty meeting september , , fm. . ibid., december , . . ibid., january , . . report from the college, january , bm, pp. - . . report to the conference bible school committee for , february - , , bscf. . meeting of the mbbc board of directors with the northern d i s t r i c t conference bible school committee, december - , , bm, p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid. . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . northern district conference yearbook, p. . . ibid., p. . . the college took steps to encourage the learning of german through awards for proficiency in german study, and by making f a c i l i t y with german a pre-requisite for admission. (faculty minutes of may , , september , , and january , , fm.) it is not clear how strongly this requirement was enforced—in a.h. unruh reported that i t was impossible for the college to turn out "proper" bilingual preachers (a short overview of the work in the m.b. bible college, in winnipeg, manitoba," bscf.) . interview with j.b. toews. . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . report to the northern district conference bible school committee, february - , , p. , bscf. . report from the college to the bible school committee, january , bm, p. . . further evidence of the highwire act which the college was compelled to perform is contained in janzen's report on "the inner life of the bible college", presented to the conference bible school committee meeting of february - , , and subsequently presented to the canadian conference meeting. here he claimed that the atmosphere of the college had improved from the earlier years; the negativity experienced at that time was due to the influence of non-mennonite schools on incoming students. as things got r o l l i n g and students helped to create positive contact with congregations, the atmosphere was changing. many congregations were now supporting the school, although not a l l . helpful would be "an honest set-to in our hearts and in the congregations with various c r i t i c a l questions, not last the language question." the basic critique here seems again to be that the expectations of the constituency were too high considering the emotional and intellectual state of the students which i t sent to the college. bscf. . northern district conference yearbook, pp. - . . doerksen, "history of education of the mennonite brethren of canada," p. . . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . ibid. . . northern district conference yearbook . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook . northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook . minutes of the society for the promotion of the german language, may , , mennonite heritage centre (mhc), winnipeg. hereafter sm (society minutes). . sm, july , ; october , . . sm, october , , p. . . sm, april , and passim. . sm, passim; general files of the society, mhc, passim. hereafter "gf" (general f i l e s ) ; northern d i s t r i c t conference yearbook, p. . . gf, society membership catalogue. the card-catalog system used by the society did not record the church a f f i l i a t i o n of every member, only those who had specified i t upon becoming members. . figures were arrived at by an analysis of the membership catalogue. . sm, october , . . see for example the and reports given by the brethren conference committee for the german language to the conference: northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, p. . . letter to a.a. martens, january , , society correspondence f i l e , - , mhc. hereafter "scf" (society correspondence f i l e ) . . "ansprache auf den jugendvereinsprogramme der schoenwieser gemeinde, den juni, ", scf, - . . "vortrag gehalten von g.h. peters auf der gruenderversammlung des 'mennonitischen vereins zur pflege der deutschen muttersprache am september, , in der schoenwieser kirche in winnipeg," g.f. . a.h. unruh, "warum i s t es notwendig, unsere deutsche muttersprache zu erhalten?" mennonitische rundschau, june , p. . . ibid. . ibid., p. . see discussion of the low german/high german question in chapter six. . ibid. . e.g. "die gleichstellung mit der welt", read at a youth gathering and printed in the konferenz jugendblatt, may-august , pp. - ; "die positive beeinflussung der jugend in den mbg kanadas", manuscript of a speech read at a conference gathering, ah unruh collection, box , cmbs winnipeg. . "der dienst der sprache", a lecture given at a membership meeting of the society for the promotion of the german language, october , , and published in the rundschau november , . from ah unruh collection, box , cmbs winnipeg. . ibid. . e.g. northern district conference yearbook, p. ; northern district conference yearbook, pp. - ; northern district conference yearbook, pp. - . . northern district conference yearbook, p. . . interview with herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor and conference leader, june and december , , kelowna, b.c; j.a. toews, a history of the mennonite brethren church, p. . chapter six conclusion: some theoretical and comparative perspectives in the parlance of sociologists the canadian mennonites can be described as an "ethnic church". the term "ethno-racial-religious group," coined by isajiw and employed most recently by herberg ( ), can also be used to describe mennonites. i would add that the emphasis should be placed on "church", when using the former term, and "religious", when using the latter. breton has used the term "ethnic enclosure" to describe the existence of social boundaries between an ethnic group and others, and the mechanisms used by a group to maintain such intergroup boundaries. "compartmentalization" is the degree to which "institutional completeness" has been achieved, whereby ethnic institutions function to shield individuals from assimilative forces. the mennonite brethren clearly exercised a certain degree of "ethnic enclosure", and the german identity was an important mechanism in maintaining social "boundaries", even i f that was not i t s sole function. enclosure was resisted by many brethren, however, often because i t came into conflict with their evangelical theology. the "compartmentalization" which took place via the erection of various institutions, including a variety of schools, was in response to the perceived degenerative and assimilative effects of anglo- canadian institutions and culture, and again germanism played a part, although i t s role gradually declined. herberg advances the notion that "integration", or the temporary participation by members of an ethnic group in the larger societal structures and institutions, does not necessarily imply acculturation or disloyalty towards the originating group. it would be d i f f i c u l t to argue that in the case of the russlaender brethren the "integration" which took place did not have a significant effect upon loyalty to the group and i t s traditional religious culture. herberg presses the point further by arguing that "an ethnoculture can be maintained even though english or french is the language of communication." the f i r s t generation of brethren immigrants to canada f e l t that the german language was crucial to the maintenance of brethren identity, while those born in canada generally did not. the ethno-religious culture which had emerged in imperial russia was, in the eyes of the f i r s t generation immigrants, rapidly in decline in canada during the period under study. meanwhile the second and third generations were undergoing the process of "ethnic differentiation" whereby brethren identity was adapted to the canadian context. the pattern of brethren acculturation is in keeping with broader trends: as herberg remarks, "there were almost universally high rates of mother- tongue retention in the - era and then sharp declines by most groups through or ." it appears that the advent of o f f i c i a l multi- culturalism in the 's was too late to have a significant impact on the brethren german identity. by then they had joined other dutch and german groups at the bottom of l i s t s of ethnic group mother-tongue retention in canada. there is agreement among sociologists as to the importance of a common language as an indicator of both collective identity definition and ethnocultural cohesion. hertzler ( ) emphasized the double implication of sapir's theory of language as a source of social solidarity, which has been used as a basis for this study; a common language indicates both who is included and who is excluded from the ethnic group. lieberson ( ) has espoused a similar idea, stating that "language similarities can support both in-group unity and out-group distance since language serves both as a symbol of other differences as well as a restriction on the communication possible between ethnic groups." h. richard niebuhr found that the language and traditions of european immigrants to america "were both the uniting bonds of the group and the symbols of i t s social solidarity," and that the immigrant religion and religious leaders were the most common foci in the") struggle to maintain group identity. a l l of these statements clearly apply to the canadian mennonite brethren, but the inherent connection between the german language and the mennonite faith and way of l i f e also contributed to the brethren emphasis on language, and w i l l be discussed further below. support for sapir's theory has recently come from jeffrey reitz, who studied canada's four largest urban ethnic minorities, i.e. people of italian, german, ukrainian and polish descent. he concluded that language is important to ethnic communities not merely as an expression of traditional ethnic culture; the data suggest that ethnic language retention is a cornerstone of the ethnic communities themselves. failure to learn the ethnic language leads to failure to participate in the ethnic community, and this to a large extent explains reduced participation in the second and third generations. language loss is a well-founded concern of ethnic community leaders, however d i f f i c u l t might be i t s prevention. this accords well with the evidence presented in this study, pointing to the fact that in order to understand the dynamics of mennonite brethren germanism in canada, one must take seriously the elder generation's feeling that the socio-religious integrity of the group, at least as they had come to know i t , was breaking down. however, the question of why the german language and identity was so quickly and easily challenged, i f i t was so important, needs to be answered. as lieberson suggests, a " c r i t i c a l step" towards unilingualism involves "the transfer to the next generation of a mother tongue that is the second language of their parents." part of the answer may l i e in the fact that the brethren brought two competing ethnic languages with them; this w i l l be discussed further below. perhaps, following a theory of dorothy herberg, mennonites encountered few "surprises" in terms of climate, language and social and family structure in canada, and thus adapted rather quickly. it is commonly remarked by mennonite scholars that whereas in russia the surrounding slavic culture was deemed inferior, and thus easily avoided, in canada the newly-impoverished mennonites suddenly found themselves to be the poor, "backward" ones. the fact that the indigenous language is a potential social and economic assetl would have meant that english became doubly- important to russian mennonites eager to regain their former status. these factors are d i f f i c u l t to verify, but were undoubtedly operative to some degree among the brethren. throughout this study i have attempted to identify the most obvious and concrete reasons for the quick changeover, and these w i l l be b r i e f l y summarized below. but i t has been less my intention to give a final explanation of why the changeover occurred so quickly than to understand the contours of brethren germanism in i t s historical context. in their study of language loyalty among american ethnic and religious groups, fishman and nahirny ( ) found that most major religious bodies in america are powerful de-ethnicizing forces, although there is considerable evidence that in former days religion served as a strong force on behalf of ethnic and linguistic continuity among american immigrants and their children. a variety of factors were at work in this trend, including indifference to the mother tongue among parents, the increasing diversity of ethnic membership, and the choice of religious over ethnic factors when the two came into conflict. religion played a similarly ambivalent role in language maintenance among the mennonite brethren, although somewhat more synchronically. the high german language was intimately associated with the brethren faith and way of l i f e , but i t s retention was threatened, in addition to a host of other factors, by the brethren emphasis on evangelism. fishman and nahirny also offer insights into how language maintenance efforts become marginalized over time, with the goal of group maintenance ultimately becoming separated from that of language maintenance, and prevailing over i t : in the primordial ethnic community (the) two goals (of language and group maintenance) were indistinguishable. under the de-ethnicizing impact of urban mass culture, however, the two have become increasingly unravelled. there are clear parallels in the experience of the russlaender brethren in canada, especially in the post-second world war decades, and further comment on this w i l l be made below. there seems to be some variation in opinion as to the degree in which religion reinforces language maintenance among ethnic groups. on the one hand, hofman ( ) and fishman and nahirny ( ) conclude that ethnicity is dominant over religion/ideology in promoting language retention. on the other hand, heinz kloss ( ) maintains that the strongest factor contributing to language maintenance among ethnic germans in the u.s. is religio-societal insulation, whereby groups "maintain their language in order more f u l l y to exclude worldly influence and perhaps, because change in i t s e l f is considered sinful." again there are parallels in the experience of the brethren; and i t is indeed l i k e l y that change was resisted to a certain degree simply because people could not imagine any other viable versions of mennonitism. while i hesitate to assign relative weights to ethnicity and religion in promoting the german identity of the brethren, i t seems safe to state that both were important factors, with socio-religious reasons being most often and clearly articulated. in using the term "socio-religious integrity" in reference to the brethren, in this study, i have tried to indicate that both social and religious factors were involved; and by using the term "socio-religious" more often than "ethno-religious", i t has been my intention to emphasize the strength of ideology and sense of voluntaristic community among the brethren. glazer ( ) summarized the factors relevant to language maintenance among minority groups thus: we have spoken of the time of immigration, the spatial pattern of settlement, the social structure of the immigrant group (and in particular the role of the professional, intellectual, and middle- class elements within it) and the role of religion. to these four factors we w i l l add one more: the degree of ideological mobilization in the group. we may ask, is the emigration to be explained solely by economic factors, or are religious and p o l i t i c a l factors important? it seems reasonable that i f people emigrate because of oppression, because they are not allowed national freedom, cultural freedom, religious freedom, they w i l l cling more strongly to the national language than i f they emigrate only to improve their economic situation. in historical terms, the time of the russian mennonite brethren immigration to canada was not propitious, coming between two world wars in which germany, and hence a l l things german, were the enemy. the mennonite brethren did not settle in closed communities, which would have mitigated assimilation and acculturation. in terms of social structure, there was a relatively educated strata of preachers and teachers which made in some cases strenuous efforts to retain the german language and culture. the role of religion has already been mentioned, and w i l l be discussed further below. glazer's last factor, the ideological conditions of emigration, seems especially relevant to the brethren. in addition to suffering economic ruin, their cultural and religious identity was severely threatened in soviet russia, providing a f i n a l impetus to their departure. it is understandable that an emotional attachment to the particular configuration of language, faith and way of l i f e which had emerged in russia, and which had been saved only at great sacrifice, would have played a part in the resistance to linguistic, cultural and religio-ethical change in canada. there is some evidence that mennonites have been more attached to the german language than other contemporary german groups. the comparison made in chapter three to russian-germans in saskatchewan provides one example. writing in the late 's, elizabeth gerwin singled out mennonites among alberta german-speakers as displaying the strongest interest in german- language retention, because of i t s role as a kind of "church latin". in a study of ethnic-german university students conducted in the early 's, leo driedger and jacob peters found that "in a l l six identity factors, the mennonites have retained greater identity than other germans." these included religion and language, along with other factors such as endogamy and voluntary organizations. religion and endogamy were found to be more important than language as indicators of identity. this indicates the degree to which the german language had declined by this time; what had once been a bridge between ideology and ethnicity had crumbled, leaving the two poles standing alone. on the other hand, endogamy had always been an important sign of loyalty to both the community and the religious faith, since to marry an "outsider" implied rejection of the community and a lowering of religious and ethical standards. it is my feeling that during the - period religion was the most important indicator of brethren identity, followed by language and endogamy in close succession. such rankings threaten to cloud the picture, however, since a l l these factors were organically related to each other. however, the breakdown of the traditional organic community has been an underlying theme of this study, which parallels the general trend of mennonite sociological analysis. individual identity factors such as language and cultural adherence were becoming abstracted from communal l i f e ; in the process they were employed by some as instruments of socio-religious integration, while they were increasingly ignored or rejected by others as being peripheral to mennonite brethren identity and a hindrance to a viable perpetuation of the faith. this has much in common with the insights of mennonite sociologist donald kraybill, who has recently argued that the differentiating and individuating impact of modern society has resulted in ethnic t r a i t s , such as language, becoming abstracted from communal l i f e , and functioning as "portable" indicators of identity which can be employed or hidden at w i l l . traditional mennonite ethnicity was concretized and expressed in tangible practices in a communal context; with the encroachment of modernity i t has become situational and compartmentalized, allowing identity components to be acknowledged or discarded according to their immediate utility. calvin redekop has pointed out that kraybill's reliance on the rubric of ethnicity in analyzing mennonites, on the other hand, obscures the ideological animus of the group and hence the roots of mennonite behaviour. while mennonites have exhibited "ethnicizing tendencies", the primary factor which has informed their identity is the consciousness of l i v i n g out a "faithful original christianity"; instead of an ethnic group, mennonites have been and continue to be a utopian religious movement in conflict with its social environment, according to redekop. the revolutionary nature of the movement was not t o t a l l y lost, "but...was turned inward and expressed in the inner l i f e of the society, in an institutionalized form." further, maintaining a religiously informed "way of l i f e " when the external opposition and oppression is being weakened or transformed puts an enormous load on "mundane", i.e. normal l i v i n g , to continue to provide the ideology of protest and survival. redekop's perspective is a crucial corrective to the insights of kraybill, and helps to explain the importance of the german identity to mennonites in comparison with other "ethnic groups". there was more to their germanism than a concern to maintain their "ethnicity", however defined: as an important aspect of "mundane" l i f e , the communal language and culture took on added significance as a concrete symbol of being "mennonite" and hence faithful christians. the experience of polish catholics in canada provides a good point of comparison to the russlaender mennonite brethren, because in their case there was also an influx of better-educated, "progressive" individuals into canada during the 's, complementing the more rustic, pre- immigrant community. the earlier immigrants had been relatively unconcerned about controlling education and maintaining the polish language, in contradistinction to their mennonite counterparts. the home seems to have been the primary locus of language instruction and maintenance. the group which arrived in the 's, however, was able to give leadership in language and culture maintenance efforts, and thus "polish organizations in canada began to take greater interest in the education of children, and the period - witnessed greatly increased a c t i v i t y in this field." although the kanadier mennonites had been more concerned about language and r e l i g i o - culture maintenance than their polish counterparts, with a portion of them migrating south for just that reason, the influx of the russlaender in the 's also spelled a new era in conscious efforts by mennonites to preserve the german language and culture. despite greater efforts at retaining the language, a considerable proportion of the second generation immigrants did not speak any polish, and the amount of polish ethnic identification and knowledge of the polish language has decreased steadily since . radecki cites the high rate of i l l i t e r a c y among polish peasants, and the fact that canada attracted the poorest poles as immigrants, as being responsible for the "few incentives for the retention of the polish language." unlike the mennonites, who had a long history of language/culture maintenance, for the poles i t was primarily after immigration to canada that i t became a prominent issue, and then they were simply too i l l i t e r a t e and ignorant of educational practices to do much about it. in general, "neither the polish family nor the organizational structure was able to counteract the attractiveness or pressures emanating from canadian society." both the polish press and the polish catholic church were important agents in the institutional attempts to maintain the polish language and culture, but the church clearly did not play as significant a role in this regard as i t did for the mennonite brethren. a post-second world war influx of poles to canada again stimulated interest in language and culture maintenance, but the general trend among poles, like mennonites, has been steady acculturation and assimilation (as well as "differentiation") to canadian society. children born in canada simply do not have the necessary motivation or institutional support to learn the d i f f i c u l t grammar of the polish language. the catholic church, as indicated, did not make language into as big an issue as mennonite congregations did, and parents and leaders did not see the retention of the polish language as being a l l that important. the higher levels of brethren r e l i g i o s i t y , education and communal consciousness seems to have led to a somewhat more intense struggle with the language/culture issue, i f the end result was the same. using redekop's terminology, the utopian ideology of the brethren contributed to a greater stress on perpetuating "mundane" aspects of l i f e like the traditional communal language. it should be added that although there was some negative association in canada with being polish prior to the second world war, poles would not have had the same incentive to dissociate themselves from their heritage as german-speakers had. this, added to a significant number of educated immigrants arriving after , helps to explain the continuing operation of polish part-time schools. the mennonite identification of language with religion has a long history, and this may be related, along with the factors already cited, to the traditional anabaptist/mennonite suspicion of theology, and the consequent lack of a vibrant tradition of theological discourse. dutch was retained in church services for years among the mennonites who had migrated from holland to the vistula delta region of prussia. the transition to german was barely completed before the migration to russia, and some congregations, located in other parts of germany, continued to use dutch late into the th century. in russia the mennonites maintained high german as the congregational language until, their migration to canada. hence mennonites of dutch origin had for almost their entire history been conservative on language matters, and had maintained a religious language different from that of the local, "secular" society. at the same time, russian mennonites had refrained from theologizing, being content with the martyr's mirror, the writings of menno simons, and sundry german p i e t i s t devotional works; their theology was expressed primarily in their ethics and way of l i f e . it seems probable that in this context, language, normally a very important component of individual and collective identity, assumed even greater stress as a carrier of those ideas, attitudes and forms of expression which defined one as being "mennonite". instead of possessing an abstract theological discourse which expressed their identity, and was l i n g u i s t i c a l l y translatable, mennonites developed an organic configuration of language, religious beliefs, and way of l i f e , parts of which could only be changed gradually i f the whole were to survive intact. various individuals have reflected on the relationship between a distinctive language and the social-psychological attributes of minority groups. lieberson remarks that "if language influences cognition, then ethnic groups with distinctive tongues may respond differently in the same social situations." canadian mennonite theologian david schroeder has also reflected on this topic. "there is a whole world tied up in the language we learn," according to schroeder. "one can't just go direct from german to english and say the same thing." low german, especially, and also high german, condition the speaker to say things more "frontally"—"the language requires that a spade is called a spade." this was especially important to mennonites, schroeder asserts, because of their traditional stress on honesty and humility, and the sensitivity among some groups such as the sommerfelder (kanadier mennonites) to hypocrisy. gerhard ens, longtime teacher at the mennonite collegiate institute at gretna, manitoba, agrees that the form of expression also affects content. an example for him is the german word "bekehrung": associated with this word is a deep attitude of change and repentance, according to ens, quite unlike the english phrase into which i t was translated, "to be saved", which he feels is a much more passive, shallow term. another example is the german "gemeinschaft", with i t s connotations of union and "solemn communion", versus the english "fellowship", which in ens' mind implies "a wienie roast". mennonite scholar adolf ens, in an analysis of changes in language and cultural symbols among canadian mennonites during the 's, claims that mennonite english-language periodicals which were begun in the 's featured a style and content that were entirely different than that of der bote and the mennonitische rundschau. the use of english in church services brought about a more "protestant" form of worship and liturgy, according to ens, and the term "evangelical" became an important cultural symbol among the mennonites. "most of the changes in cultural patterns which occurred during the 's were adoptions, sometimes with only minor adaptation, of aspects of the dominant culture." abe j. dueck has argued that changes in mennonite brethren p o l i t i c a l attitudes paralleled the transition to english and the general process of familiarization with canadian institutions and culture. up until the later 's, canadian mennonites entertained their traditional view of p o l i t i c s as being an e v i l but necessary entity, which, except for voting, should be avoided at a l l costs. after this period, "a serious breakdown" of the traditional position took place, with mennonite brethren moving in a number of directions, most notably towards greater participation and acceptance of responsibility in the p o l i t i c a l process. while there were clearly many more factors than language transition at work in this change in attitudes, i t is noteworthy that changes in perspective and language took place nearly simultaneously. in his analysis of european immigrant churches in the united states, h. richard niebuhr noted that with the adoption of english as the church language other changes inevitably set in. the poetry of worship in liturgies and hymns is essentially untranslatable. though the immigrant church may make valiant efforts to retain i t s old forms within the medium of the new language, though i t may succeed in holding fast to such classics as "holy night" and "a mighty fortress is our god", yet the charm has departed from prayers, songs and litanies which some uninspired poetaster has turned into a conglomerate of english words...the change of language is only one aspect of adjustment to the total culture with i t s democratic s p i r i t , i t s industrialism, i t s patriotism. mennonite philosopher delbert wiens has echoed niebuhr in describing the religious meaning of the german language for mennonites. in a a r t i c l e , wiens pointed out that the mennonite low german dialect was the language of daily l i f e , while high german was the language of the mind and of the soul. it was their latin, a holy language. they did not have nor need recited creeds and organ pipes or gothic architecture. but they had the psalms, and they were close...in s p i r i t to high church anglicans...our elders were right to cling to the land and to our german dialects, though they gave bad reasons for their stubbornness. for they sensed that to lose them was to lose something basic. the loss of our languages and of our pre-scientific dependence oh the s o i l meant the loss of our liturgy and our worship. because we did not know how to talk directly about these things, how to analyze them, we could not transfer their meaning to some other forms. to translate the service to english, the language now for a l l our needs, does not mean the same at all. wiens's statement expresses well some of the notions already advanced in this chapter. it also raises the question of the role of the low german dialect in mennonite brethren german identity. as i stated at the outset, this study is concerned mainly with the high german language and culture, and neglects analysis of the dialect in the identity question. much research remains to be done on this topic. a few words on the relationship between the different german dialects spoken by mennonites, however, are in order here. there were two predominant variations of the low german dialect spoken by russian mennonites, and they had essentially been absorbed during the mennonite sojourn in prussia. the dialect was unwritten (except for the pioneering efforts of a few writers), but was extensively spoken in everyday l i f e . by the 's, however, a process had begun among the russlaender in canada whereby the low german was replaced by high german as an everyday language. that this occurred at the same time that the mennonite brethren german identity began to be seriously challenged was no accident. in encouraging the use of the high german in family l i f e , g.h. peters, respected teacher at the mennonite collegiate institute, stated: we can't allow ourselves the luxury of two languages here.in canada, like we did in russia. at the very least no special energies should be spent on maintaining the low german...experience shows that high german can be spoken in the family and children w i l l later s t i l l be able to pick up the low german. peters s t i l l f e l t at this time ( ) that i t was possible for mennonite families to avoid the use of english altogether. in the same year, another prominent educator, the brethren f.c. thiessen, also strongly encouraged the use of high german in families. as mentioned in chapter five, brethren bible expositor a.h. unruh explained, in the early 's, that low german could not serve as the common mennonite "volk-language" because i t was "impure" (containing russian and polish words), and was open to variation. he implied that when compared to high german, i t did not have the same unifying power. while the dialect was dear to him, i t did not quite pass muster as a source of mennonite identity and unity. other mennonite intellectuals who lived through this period agree that the two german dialects were put into competition with each other, and that high german was consciously selected by educators and church leaders as the language to be nurtured in canada. but low german had a way of surviving, as g.h. peters predicted. it was s t i l l prevalent in the decades after the second world war, remaining a "popular conversational language". david schroeder t e l l s the story of a mennonite pastor who decided that his family would speak only high german. the man's father was staying with the family at the time, and said to schroeder, when the pastor l e f t the room, "i would just like you to know that the low german w i l l outlast the high german." it is d i f f i c u l t to assess the degree to which this did or did not happen. what is certain is that eventually both dialects faded out of the mainstream of mennonite l i f e . gerhard ens feels that "we probably would have been better off, had we concentrated on keeping the dialect. as i t i s , we no longer have either (the low or high german)." thus i t is l i k e l y that an important reason for the rapid demise of the german language among the mennonite brethren was that the two dialects were put into competition with each other, neither receiving adequate stress to ensure i t s survival among the second generation. the bilingualism which had enriched mennonite l i f e in russia bore bitter f r u i t in the canadian context. in conclusion, the story of the canadian mennonite brethren german identity is rich, complex, and in need of further analysis. it is my hope that the foregoing study represents a f i r s t step in delineating the contours and patterns of the subject within i t s historical context. it should be clear that there were many more aspects to the german identity than a simple and conscious desire for "boundary maintenance". as i have argued throughout this study, the socio-religious integrity of the brethren was at stake in this issue, at least according to f i r s t generation immigrants to canada. in the interwar period, elements of p o l i t i c a l , ethnic and nationalist germanism vied for position in defining brethren identity and preserving brethren socio-religious integrity. these elements were purged in the crucible of the second world war, leaving the basic cultural and religious meanings of germanism to slowly fade away in the postwar period, despite strenuous attempts to preserve them. by then the steady forces of assimilation, acculturation, and urbanization, along with a societal bias against germanism, and an emphasis by the brethren on outreach and an openness to english "evangelical" groups, had taken their t o l l . many other factors were at work in the demise of germanism among the brethren, some of which have been discussed in this chapter, others have surfaced elsewhere. my primary intention, however, has been to understand canadian mennonite brethren germanism in a l l i t s complexity and fullness. to do otherwise is to deny the germanists their role as historical actors who were responding to very real challenges to their own identity and that of the mennonite brethren community as a whole. on the other hand, many of their fears were unfounded, and some of their efforts to preserve the germanic aspects of mennonite identity were misguided and f u t i l e . the german culture and language were not crucial to the mennonite brethren faith and way of l i f e , they were rather components of a particular configuration of i t . despite containing an often prescient understanding of the role of language and culture in maintaining religious identity and social solidarity, the germanist perspective was essentially conservative and unrealistic in the canadian context. that the mennonite brethren faith community has persisted and prospered in canada in a non-germanic form can be interpreted as a triumph of "religious" over "ethnic" elements in brethren identity. what makes this neat observation problematic is the fact that germanism served religious as well as ethnic goals, and hence i t s demise does not signal the clearcut victory of one sort of mennonitism over another. in fact, i t is possible that some traditional religious tenets (such as nonresistance) have more or less accompanied germanism into obscurity. this suggests a third possibility; namely, that a previous synthesis of faith, culture and community has been transformed into a new pattern which is different than the old one, but just as real. instead of comparing a "religious" present with an "ethnic" past, perhaps contemporary mennonite brethren should ask themselves i f the current synthesis of faith, culture and community does not have something to gain from an honest and respectful appraisal of the previous one. notes, chapter six . edward herberg, ethnic groups in canada: adaptations and transitions (scarborough: nelson canada, ), pp. - ; raymond breton, "institutional completeness of ethnic communities and the personal relations of immigrants," the american journal of sociology ( ): - . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . ibid., p. ; alan b. anderson, "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north-central saskatchewan: a comparative study of identity change among seven ethno-religious groups in a canadian prairie region," (ph.d. dissertation, university of saskatchewan, ), p. . . herberg, ethnic groups in canada, pp. - . . jeffrey g. reitz, "language and ethnic community survival," in rita m. bienvenue and jay e. goldstein, eds., ethnicity and ethnic relations in canada (toronto: butterworth & co., nd ed., ), p. . . stanley lieberson, language and ethnic relations in canada (toronto: john wiley & sons, inc., ), p. . . h. richard niebuhr, the social sources of denominationalism (hamden, ct: the shoestring press, ), pp. - . . reitz, "language and ethnic community survival," pp. - . . lieberson, language and ethnic relations in canada, p. . . herberg, ethnic groups in canada, p. . . lieberson, language and ethnic relations in canada, p. . . fishman and nahirny, "the ethnic group school and mother-tongue maintenance," in joshua fishman, ed., language loyalty in the united states: the maintenance and perpetuation of non-english mother tongues by american ethnic and religious groups (the hague: mouton & co., ), p. . . ibid., p. . . see fishman, ed., language loyalty in the united states, pp. and respectively. . heinz kloss, "german-american language maintenance efforts," in fishman, ed., language loyalty, p. . . nathan glazer, "the process and problems of language maintenance: an integrative review," in fishman, ed., language loyalty, p. . . elizabeth gerwin, "a survey of the german-speaking population of alberta" (m.a. thesis, university of alberta, ), p. ff. . leo driedger and jacob peters, "ethnic identity: a comparison of mennonite and other german students," mennonite quarterly review (july ): . . ibid., p. . . frank epp has pointed out that to the extent that religion and ethnicity, the "two main meanings of mennonite", are narrowly and superficially defined, they "become mutually exclusive with a consequent rending apart within the mennonite body." see frank h. epp, "problems of mennonite identity: a historical study," in leo driedger, ed., the canadian ethnic mosaic: a quest for identity (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . . leo driedger and calvin redekop, "sociology of mennonites: state of the art and science," journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . . donald b. kraybill, "modernity and identity: the transformation of mennonite ethnicity," in redekop and steiner, eds., mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives (lanham, new york, london: university press of america, ), pp. - . . calvin redekop, "the sociology of mennonite identity: a second opinion" in ibid., p. . . ibid., p. . . henry radecki with benedict heydenkorn, a member of a distinguished family: the polish group in canada (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), pp. - . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., p. . . ibid. . ibid., p. . . ibid., pp. - . . ibid., pp. , - . . jack thiessen, "a new look at an old problem: origins of the variations of mennonite plautdietsch," the mennonite quarterly review (july ): - . . lieberson, language and ethnic relations in canada, p. . . interview with david schroeder, mennonite theologian, june , , winnipeg, manitoba. . interview with gerhard ens, mennonite educator and current editor of der bote, june , , winnipeg, manitoba. . adolf ens, "changes in language and cultural symbols during the 's," unpublished paper ( ), box , folder f, no. , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, pp. - . . abe j. dueck, "church and state: developments among mennonite brethren in canada since world war ii," unpublished paper ( ), box , folder e, no. , cmbs winnipeg, pp. - . . niebuhr, the social sources of denominationalism, pp. - . . delbert wiens, "the old wine; will i t sour?" the canadian mennonite. april , p. . . jack thiessen, "a new look at an old problem: origins of the variations in mennonite plautdietsch," mennonite quarterly review (july ): - . . g.h. peters, "und wieder: *unsre deutsche sprache,'" der bote, april , p. . . f.c. thiessen, "wie erhalten wir bei unsern kindern die begeisterung fuer die ererbten gueter: religion und deutsche sprache?", der bote, july , p. . . a.h. unruh, "warum i s t es notwendig, unsere deutsche muttersprache zu erhalten?", mennonitische rundschau, june , p. . . interview with david schroeder; interview with gerhard ens. . john jacob krahn, "a history of the mennonites in british columbia," (m.a. thesis, university of british columbia, ), pp. - ; e.k. francis, in search of utopia: the mennonites of manitoba (altona: d.w. friesen & sons, ), p. . . interview with david schroeder. . interview with gerhard ens. . i have already noted frank epp's emphasis on "separation", and i t s inappropriateness when studying the russlaender, in chapter one. in the mennonite academic literature, "boundary maintenance" has almost become a cliche. for an example of this kind of approach taken to i t s absurd conclusion see elmer s. miller, "marking mennonite identity: a structuralist approach to separation," the conrad grebe review (fall ): - . for my response see the conrad grebel review (winter ): - . bibliography a. primary sources . general canadian census, - , passim. ottawa: king's printers. files of the alberta mennonite high school, ba , f , centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), fresno, california. files of the northern district conference bible school committee, - and passim. centre for mennonite brethren studies (cmbs), winnipeg, manitoba. minutes of the bethany bible school committee meetings, passim. bf, saskatchewan conference of mennonite brethren churches, box , folder . cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the coaldale mennonite brethren church business meetings, - . folder ba . cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the hepburn mennonite brethren church business meetings, - . microfilm roll . cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the herbert bible school committee meetings, passim. bf , cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the kitchener mennonite brethren church business meetings, - . microfilm roll . cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the mennonite brethren bible college board of directors meetings, - and passim. microfilm roll , cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the mennonite brethren bible college faculty meetings, - and passim. faculty minutes f i l e , cmbs, winnipeg, man. minutes of the mennonite brethren collegiate institute school committee meetings, - , box l , folders - , cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the north end mennonite brethren church business meetings, - . microfilm rolls - . cmbs, fresno, ca. minutes of the yarrow mennonite brethren church business meetings, - . microfilm roll . cmbs, fresno, ca. northern district conference yearbooks, - . hillsboro, ks: mennonite brethren publishing house. papers of the society for the promotion of the german language. mennonite heritage centre (mhc), winnipeg, manitoba. personal papers of b.b. janz. cmbs, winnipeg, man. and cmbs, fresno, ca. personal papers of a.h. unruh. cmbs, winnipeg, man. . interviews anne brandt, mennonite brethren church worker, kelowna, b.c., june , . gilbert and susan brandt, mennonite brethren publishers, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . herb brandt, mennonite brethren pastor and conference leader, june and december , , kelowna, b.c. erwin cornelsen, retired german mennonite pastor, vancouver, b.c., november , . jack and eleanor dueck, former mennonite brethren, kitchener, ontario, july , . gerhard ens, mennonite educator and current editor of der bote, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . anne funk, retired mennonite brethren teacher, vancouver, b.c., may , . lawrence klippenstein, mennonite archivist, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . peter neudorf, mennonite businessman, vancouver, b.c., december , . katie peters, mennonite brethren from russia, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . calvin redekop, mennonite sociologist, harrisonburg, virginia, june , . kathy rempel, former mennonite brethren, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . david schroeder, mennonite theologian, winnipeg, manitoba, june , . j.b. toews, mennonite brethren leader and educator, winnipeg, manitoba, june , ; fresno, california, march , . john b. toews, mennonite historian, vancouver, b.c., january , . . periodicals der bote, - and passim. konferenz juqenblatt. mennonite life, passim. mennonitische rundschau. - and passim. saskatoon star phoenix, passim. winnipeg free press, passim. . books and articles dyck, arnold. lost in the steppe. steinbach, mb: derksen printers, . gingerich, melvin. "the menace of propaganda and how to meet it." mennonite quarterly review (april ): - . kliewer, f r i t z . die deutsche volksgruppe in paraguay: eine siedlungsgeschichtliche. volkskundliche und volkspolitische untersuchung. hamburg: hans christiana verlag, . kliewer, f r i t z . "the mennonites of paraguay." mennonite quarterly review (january ): - . luce, p.w. "unwelcome mennonites making model farms by the fraser." saturday night. february , p. . quiring, walter. "the canadian mennonite immigration into the paraguayan chaco - ." mennonite quarterly review vii (january ): - . unruh, b.h. die niederlaendisch-niederdeutschen hintergruende der mennonitischen cstwanderungen. karlsruhe: im selbstverlag, . wiens, b.b. "pioneering in british columbia." mennonite life i (july, ): - . b. secondary sources . books. artibise, alan f.j. western canada since : a select bibliography and guide. vancouver: university of british columbia press, . avery, donald. dangerous foreigners: european immigrant workers and labour radicalism in canada, - . toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . berg, abram, ed. dietrich heinrich epp: aus seinem leben, wirken und selbstaufqezeichneten erinnerungen. saskatoon: heese house of printing, . betcherman, lita rose. the swastika and the maple leaf: fascist movements in canada in the thirties. toronto: fitzhenry and whiteside, . bienvenue and goldstein, eds. ethnicity and ethnic relations in canada. toronto: butterworth & co., . buchsweiler, meir. volksdeutsche in der ukraine am vorabend und beginn des zweiten weltkrieqs: ein f a l l doppelter lovalitaet?. gerlingen: bleicher verlag, . classen, a.j. the bible school story - . mennonite brethren board of education, . conway, john. the nazi persecution of the churches - . toronto: the ryerson press, . dawson, ca. group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada. toronto: macmillan, , reprinted by kraus reprint co., . epp, frank h. mennonite exodus: the rescue and resettlement of the russian mennonites since the communist revolution. altona: d.w. friesen and sons, . epp, frank h. mennonites in canada, - . toronto: macmillan of canada, . epp, frank h. mennonites in canada, - . toronto: macmillan of canada, . fishman, joshua a., ed. language loyalty in the u.s.: the maintenance and perpetuation of non-english mother tongues by american ethnic and religious groups. the hague: mouton & co., . francis, e.k. in search of utopia: the mennonites of manitoba. altona: d.w. friesen & sons, . fretz, j. winfield. pilgrims in paraguay. scottdale, pa: herald press, . friesen, gerald. the canadian prairies: a history. toronto: university of toronto press, . friesen, p.m. the mennonite brotherhood in russia. - . fresno: bclgc mennonite brethren church, . goertz, hans-juergen. die taeufer: geschichte und deutung. munich: ch. beck, . hamm, peter m. continuity & change among canadian mennonite brethren. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, . hartzler, j.e. education among the mennonites of america. danvers. i l l : central mennonite publishing board, . helmreich, ernst christian. the german churches under hitler: background. struggle, and epilogue. detroit: wayne state university press, . herberg, edward n. ethnic groups in canada: adaptations and transitions. scarborough: nelson canada, . kirconnell, walter. canada, europe and hitler. toronto: oxford university press, . klippenstein, lawrence. that there be peace: mennonites in canada and world war ii. winnipeg: the manitoba co. reunion committee, . leckie, robert. american and catholic. garden city, new york: doubleday & company, . lichdi, dieter goetz. die mennoniten im dritten reich: dokumentation und deutung. weierhof: mennonitischer geschictsverein, . lieberson, stanley. language and ethnic relations in canada. toronto: john wiley & sons, inc., . mann, w.e. sect. cult and church in alberta. toronto: university of toronto press, . mosse, george l. the c r i s i s of german ideology. new york: grosset & dunlap, . nawyn, william e. american protestantism's response to germany's jews and refugees. - . ann arbor: umi research press, . niebuhr, h. richard. the social sources of denominationalism. hamden, ct: the shoestring press, . norris, john. strangers entertained: a history of the ethnic groups of british columbia. vancouver: centennial ' committee, . palmer, howard. patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . penner, peter. no longer at arms length: mennonite brethren church planting in canada. winnipeg: kindred press, . radecki, henry and heydenkorn, benedykt. a member of a distinguished family: the polish group in canada. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . redekop, calvin. mennonite society. baltimore: johns hopkins university press, . redekop, calvin and steiner, sam, eds. mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. lanham, new york, london: university press of america, . shirer, william l. the rise and f a l l of the third reich. new york: simon and schuster, . smucker, donovan, ed. the sociology of canadian mennonites, hutterites and amish: a bibliography with annotations. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, . thompson, john h. and seager, allen. canada - : decades of discord. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . toews, john a. a history of the mennonite brethren church. fresno: board of christian literature, . toews, john b. czars. soviets and mennonites. newton: faith and life press, . toews, john b. lost fatherland: the story of the mennonite emigration from soviet russia. - . kitchener: herald press, . toews, john b. with courage to spare: the life of b.b. janz ( - ). winnipeg: board of christian literature, . wagner, jonathan f. brothers beyond the sea: national socialism in canada. waterloo: wilfred laurier press, . ward, w.p. white canada forever: popular attitudes and public policy toward orientals in british columbia. montreal: queen's university press, . . articles. bargen, peter f. "mennonite land settlement policies." mennonite life xv (october, ): - . bender, harold s. "language problem." in bender and smith, eds. mennonite encyclopedia vol. iii. scottdale, pa.: mennonite publishing house, . breton, raymond. "institutional completeness of ethnic communities and the personal relations of immigrants." the american journal of sociology ( )-. - . braun, peter. "the educational system of the mennonite colonies in south russia." mennonite quarterly review (july ) -. - . broszat, martin. "die voelkische ideologie und der national-sozialismus." deutsche rundschau (january ): - . conzen, kathleen n. "historical approaches to the study of rural ethnic communities." in luebke, f. ed. ethnicity on the great plains. lincoln: university of nebraska press, , pp. - . driedger, leo. "a perspective on canadian mennonite urbanization." mennonite life xxiii (october ): - . driedger, leo. "urbanization of mennonites in canada." in poettcker and regehr, eds. call to faithfulness: essays in canadian mennonite studies. winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college, . driedger, leo and peters, jacob. "ethnic identity: a comparison of mennonite and other german students." mennonite quarterly review xlvti (july, ): - . driedger, leo and redekop, calvin. "sociology of mennonites: state of the art and science." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . doerksen, victor. "language and communication among urban mennonites." mennonite life xxiii (october ): - . epp, frank h. "problems of mennonite identity: a historical study." in driedger, leo ed. the canadian ethnic mosaic: a quest for identity. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . epp, frank h. "the struggle for recognition." in poettcker and regehr, eds. call to faithfulness: essays in canadian mennonite studies. winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college, . epp, george k. "mennonite immigration to canada after world war ii." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . epp, reuben. "plautdietsch: origins, development and state of the mennonite low german language." journal of mennonite studies ( )-. - . francis, e.k. "the russian mennonites: from religious to ethnic group." the american journal of sociology liv, (sept. ): - . friesen, john. "manitoba mennonites in the rural-urban shift." mennonite life xxiii (october ): - . friesen, john. "the relationship of prussian mennonites to german nationalism." in loewen, harry, ed. mennonite images: historical. cultural, and literary essays dealing with mennonite issues. winnipeg: hyperion press, : - . gerlach, horst. "mennonites, the molotschna, and the *volksdeutsche mittelstelle' in the second world war." mennonite life (september ): - . hansen, marcus lee. "the third generation in america." commentary ( ): - . harder, ben. "the bible institute-college movement in canada." journal of canadian church historical society (april ): - . hillmer, norman. "the second world war as an (un) national experience." in hillman, kordan, luciuk, eds. on guard for thee: war, ethnicity, and the canadian state, - . ottawa: canadian committee for the history of the second world war, , preface. hubbard, bede. "st. peter's: a german-american marriage of monastary and colony." in smillie, benjamin ed. visions of the new jerusalem: religious settlement on the prairies. edmonton: newest press, . keyserlingk, robert h. "breaking the nazi plot: canadian government attitudes towards german canadians, - ." in hillman, kordan, luciuk, eds. on guard for thee, (see above), pp. - . kossok, manfred. "die mennoniten-siedlungen paraguays in den jahren ^- ." zeitschrift fuer geschichtswissenschaft ( ): - . kraybill, donald b. "modernity and identity: the transformation of mennonite ethnicity." in redekop and steiner, eds. mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. lanham, new york, london: university press of america, , pp. - . loewen, harry. "canadian mennonite literature: longing for a lost homeland." in riedel, walter, ed. the old world and the new: literary perspectives of german-speaking canadians. toronto: university of toronto press, , pp. - . loewen, harry. "echoes of drumbeats: the movement of exuberance among the mennonite brethren." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . martens, hildegard m. "accomodation and withdrawal: the response of mennonites in canada to world war ii." social history vii (november, ): - . paetkau, henry. "jacob h. janzen: *a minister of rare magnitude'." mennongespraech (march ): - . paetkau, henry. "russian mennonite immigrants of the 's: a reappraisal." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . palmer, howard. "ethnic relations in wartime: nationalism and european minorities in alberta during the second world war." canadian ethnic studies xiv ( ): - . peters, h.a. "das mennonitische volkstum: eine skizze seiner entstehung und des verfalles." per bote. december , pp. - . redekop, calvin. "the sociology of mennonite identity: a second opinion." in redekop and steiner, eds. mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. lanham, new york, london: university press of america, , pp. - . regehr, t.d. "the influence of world war ii on mennonites in canada." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . reitz, jeffrey g. "language and ethnic community survival." in bienvenue and goldstein, eds. ethnicity and ethnic relations in canada. toronto: butterworth & co., nd ed., : - . sapir, edward. "language." encyclopedia of the social sciences vol. ix. new york: macmillan, , pp. - . thiessen, jack. "a new look at an old problem: origins of the variations of mennonite plautdietsch." the mennonite quarterly review (july ): - . toews, j.b. "mennonite brethren identity and theological diversity." in.paul toews, ed. pilgrims & strangers: essays in mennonite brethren history. fresno: centre for mennonite brethren studies, . urry, james. "through the eye of a needle: wealth and the mennonite experience in imperial russia." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . wagner, jonathan f. "transferred c r i s i s : german volkish thought among russian mennonite immigrants to western canada." canadian review of studies in nationalism ( ): - . weissenborn, georg k. "three hundred years of german presence in canada." language and society (spring ): - . wiebe, anne. "the mennonite brethren in ontario: a short history." mennongespraech (march ): - . wiens, delbert. "the old wine; will i t sour?" the canadian mennonite. april , pp. - . . dissertations and theses anderson, alan b. "assimilation in the bloc settlements of north central saskatchewan: a comparative study of identity change among seven ethno-religious groups in a canadian prairie region." ph.d. dissertation, university of saskatchewan, . buhr, joanna r. "pursuit of a vision: persistence and accomodation among coaldale mennonites from the mid-nineteen twenties to world war ii." m.a. thesis, university of calgary, . burkinshaw, robert k. "strangers and pilgrims in lotus land: conservative protestantism in british columbia, - ." ph.d. dissertation, university of british columbia, . doerksen, john george. "history of education of the mennonite brethren in canada." m.ed, thesis, university of manitoba, . doerksen, john george. "mennonite brethren bible college and college of the arts." ph.d. dissertation, university of north dakota, . e l l i o t t , david r. "studies of eight canadian fundamentalists." ph.d. dissertation, university of british columbia, . epp, frank h. "an analysis of germanism and national socialism in the immigrant newspaper of a canadian minority group, the mennonites, in the 's." ph.d. dissertation, university of minnesota, . gerwin, elizabeth. "a survey of the german-speaking population in the province of alberta." m.a. thesis, university of alberta, . grenke, arthur. "the formation and early development of an urban ethnic community: a case study of the germans in winnipeg, - ." ph.d. dissertation, university of manitoba, . heier, edmund. "a study of the german lutheran and catholic immigrants in canada formerly residing in czarist and soviet russia." m.a. thesis, university of british columbia, . klassen, peter g. "a history of mennonite education in canada, - ." d.ed, thesis, university of toronto, . krahn, john jacob. "a history of mennonites in british columbia." m.a. thesis, university of british columbia, . l i c h t i , james i. "religious identity vs. 'aryan' identity: german mennonites and hutterites under the third reich." m.a. thesis, san francisco state university, . mott, m. "the foreign p e r i l : nativism in winnipeg, - ." m.a. thesis, university of manitoba, . paetkau, henry. "a struggle for survival. the russian mennonite immigrants in ontario, - ." m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, . peters, jacob. "the association of religious a f f i l i a t i o n , socio-economic status, generation, and segregation with german ethnocentrism." m.a. thesis, university of manitoba, . ratzlaff, gerhard. "an historical-political study of the mennonites in paraguay." m.a. thesis, california state university, fresno, . sawatzsky, aron. "the mennonites of alberta and their assimilation." m.a. thesis, university of alberta, . thielman, george gerhard. "the canadian mennonites: a study of an ethnic group in relation to the state and community with emphasis on factors contributing to success or failure of its adjustment to canadian ways of living." ph.d. dissertation, western reserve university, . warkentin, john h. "the mennonite settlements of southern manitoba." ph.d. dissertation, university of toronto, . . unpublished papers brandt, herbert. "church growth and the process of change in the mennonite brethren church." ( ) box , no. p, f. cmbs winnipeg. de fehr, albert william. "a critique of epp's *an analysis of germanism and national socialism in the immigrant newspaper of a canadian minority group'." ( ) associated mennonite b i b l i c a l seminaries, elkhart, indiana. driedger, leo. "mennonites in winnipeg." box , no. , d. cmbs winnipeg. doerksen, victor. "post-war developments in canadian mennonite literature." box , no. , f. cmbs winnipeg. dueck, abe j. "church and state: developments among mennonite brethren in canada since world war ii." ( ) box , no. , e. cmbs winnipeg. ediger, gerry. "language transition in the vineland mennonite brethren church." university of toronto ( ). in my personal possession. ens, adolf. "changes in language and cultural symbols during the 's." ( ) box , folder f., no. . cmbs winnipeg. ens, adolf. "the mennonites as reflected by the manitoba free press - ." ( ) box , folder h, no. . cmbs winnipeg. fromm, lothar. "nazistische einfluesse in mennonitischen zeitschriften." ( ) associated mennonite b i b l i c a l seminaries, elkhart, indiana. klassen, lois. "the language transition in mennonite brethren churches." box , no. , j. cmbs winnipeg. loewen, harry. "the german-russian tensions among the mennonites in russia ( - )." box , no. , h. cmbs winnipeg. loewen, jacob. "the german language, culture and faith." box , no. , e. cmbs winnipeg. thiesen, john d. "a case study of national socialism among foreign germans: paraguay, - ." wichita state university ( ). in my personal possession. thiesen, john d. "the american mennonite encounter with national socialism." wichita state university ( ). in my personal possession. toews, john b. "the russian mennonite intellect of the nineteenth century." ( ) box , no. , h. cmbs winnipeg. urry, james. "a religious or a social elite? the mennonite brethren in imperial russia." ( ) box , no. , e. cmbs winnipeg. pii: s - ( ) - elsewhere in biology a selection of interesting papers published last month in chemistry & biology’s sister journals, current biology and structure with folding & design, chosen and summarized by the staff of chemistry & biology. chemistry & biology , :r –r ■■ type iαα phosphatidylinositol- -phosphate -kinase mediates rac-dependent actin assembly. kimberley f tolias, john h hartwig, hisamitsu ishihara, yoshikazu shibasaki, lewis c cantley and christopher l carpenter ( ). curr. biol. , – . actin polymerization is essential for a variety of cellular processes including movement, cell division and shape change. the induction of actin polymerization requires the generation of free actin filament barbed ends, which results from the severing or uncapping of pre-existing actin filaments, or de novo nucleation, initiated by the arp / complex. although little is known about the signaling pathways that regulate actin assembly, small gtpases of the rho family appear to be required. in thrombin-stimulated platelets, the rho family gtpase rac induces actin polymerization by stimulating the uncapping of actin filament barbed ends. the mechanism by which rac regulates uncapping is unclear, however. the authors previously demonstrated that rac interacts with a type i phosphatidylinositol- -phosphate -kinase (pip -kinase) in a gtp- independent manner. because pip -kinases synthesize phosphatidyl- inositol- , -bisphosphate (pi( , )p ), a lipid that dissociates capping proteins from the barbed ends of actin filaments, they are good candidates for mediating the effects of rac on actin assembly. here, the authors demonstrate that pip -kinase α is a critical mediator of thrombin- and rac-dependent actin assembly. january , brief communication, current biology. ■■ role of the kinesin neck linker and catalytic core in microtubule-based motility. ryan b case, sarah rice cynthia l hart, bernice ly and ronald d vale ( ). curr. biol. , – . kinesin motor proteins execute a variety of intracellular microtubule-based transport functions. kinesin motor domains contain a highly conserved catalytic core, followed by a neck region, which is conserved within subfamilies and has been implicated in controlling the direction of motion along a microtubule. the authors have used mutational analysis to determine the functions of the catalytic core and the ~ amino acid ‘neck linker’ (a sequence contained within the neck region) of human conventional kinesin. replacement of the neck linker with a designed random coil resulted in a – -fold decrease in microtubule velocity. the catalytic core of kinesin alone displayed microtubule-stimulated atpase activity, nucleotide-dependent microtubule binding, and very slow plus-end-directed motor activity. on the basis of these results, the authors propose that the catalytic core is sufficient for allosteric regulation of microtubule binding and atpase activity and that the kinesin neck linker functions as a mechanical amplifier for motion. because the neck linker undergoes a nucleotide-dependent conformational change, this region might act in an analogous fashion to the myosin converter, which amplifies small conformational changes in the myosin catalytic core. january , brief communication, current biology. ■■ dopamine modulates acute responses to cocaine, nicotine and ethanol in drosophila. roland j bainton, linus t-y tsai, carol m singh, monica s moore, wendi s neckameyer and ulrike heberlein ( ). curr. biol. , – . in mammals, drugs of abuse facilitate the release of the neurotransmitter and neuromodulator dopamine in specific regions of the brain involved in reward and motivation. this increase in synaptic dopamine levels is believed to act as a positive reinforcer and to mediate some of the acute responses to drugs. the mechanisms by which dopamine regulates acute drug responses and addiction remain unknown. the authors present evidence that dopamine plays a role in the responses of drosophila to cocaine, nicotine or ethanol. a startle-induced negative geotaxis assay and a locomotor tracking system were used to measure the effect of psychostimulants on fly behavior. using these assays, acute responses to cocaine and nicotine are r cm else.qxd / / : page r blunted by pharmacologically induced reductions in dopamine levels. cocaine and nicotine showed a high degree of synergy in their effects, which is consistent with an action through convergent pathways. in addition, dopamine was found to be involved in the acute locomotor-activating effect, but not the sedating effect, of ethanol. the authors show that in drosophila, as in mammals, dopaminergic pathways play a role in modulating specific behavioral responses to cocaine, nicotine or ethanol, suggesting that drosophila can be used as a genetically tractable model system to study the mechanisms underlying behavioral responses to multiple drugs of abuse. february , research paper, current biology. ■■ clb/cdc kinases promote nuclear export of the replication initiator proteins mcm – . van q nguyen, carl co, kaoru irie and joachim j li ( ). curr. biol. , – . in the budding yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae, initiation of dna replication is limited to once per cell cycle by cyclin-dependent kinases of the clb/cdc family. these kinases prevent re-assembly of pre-replicative complexes (pre-rcs) at replication origins that have already initiated replication. this assembly involves the cdc -dependent loading of six minichromosome maintenance (mcm) proteins, mcm – , onto origins. how clb/cdc kinases prevent pre-rc assembly is not understood. in living cells, the mcm proteins were found to co-localize in a cell-cycle-regulated manner. mcm – , and were concentrated in the nucleus in g phase, gradually exported to the cytoplasm during s phase, and excluded from the nucleus by g and m phase. tagging any single mcm protein with the sv nuclear localization signal made all mcm proteins constitutively nuclear. cells containing or lacking functional cdc were examined for their ability to export a fusion protein between mcm and the green fluorescent protein (mcm –gfp). the results suggest that clb/cdc kinases prevent pre-rc reassembly in part by promoting the net nuclear export of mcm proteins. mcm proteins may become refractory to this regulation when they load onto chromatin and must be dislodged by dna replication before they can be exported. such an arrangement could ensure that mcm proteins complete their replication function before they are removed from the nucleus. february , research paper, current biology. ■■ ectopic g-protein expression in dopamine and serotonin neurons blocks cocaine sensitization in drosophila melanogaster. h li, s chaney, m forte and j hirsh ( ). curr. biol. , – . sensitization to repeated doses of psychostimulants is thought to be an important component underlying the addictive process in humans. in all vertebrate animal models, including humans and fruit flies, sensitization is observed after repeated exposure to volatilized crack cocaine. in vertebrates, sensitization is thought to be initiated by processes that occur in brain regions that contain dopamine cell bodies. the authors show that modulated cell signaling in the drosophila dopamine and serotonin neurons plays an essential role in cocaine sensitization. targeted expression of either a stimulatory (gαs) or inhibitory (gαi) gα subunit, or tetanus toxin light chain (tnt) in dopamine and serotonin neurons of living flies blocked behavioral sensitization to repeated cocaine exposures. these flies showed alterations in their initial cocaine responsiveness that correlated with compensatory adaptations of postsynaptic receptor sensitivity. finally, repeated drug stimulation of a nerve cord preparation that is postsynaptic to the brain amine cells failed to induce sensitization, further showing the importance of presynaptic modulation in sensitization. february , brief communication, current biology. ■■ structure of the zinc-binding domain of bacillus stearothermophilus dna primase. hu pan and dale b wigley ( ). structure , – . dna primases catalyse the synthesis of the short rna primers required for dna replication by dna polymerases. primases are composed of three functional domains: a zinc-binding domain that is responsible for template recognition, a polymerase domain and a domain that interacts with the replicative helicase, dnab.the crystal structure of the zinc-binding domain of dna primase from bacillus stearothermophilus has been determined. a model is discussed for the interaction of this domain with the single-stranded dna template. the structure of the dna primase zinc-binding domain confirms that the protein belongs to the r chemistry & biology , vol no cm else.qxd / / : page r zinc ribbon subfamily. structural comparison with other nucleic-acid- binding proteins suggests that the β sheet of primase is likely to be the dna-binding surface, with conserved residues on this surface being involved in the binding and recognition of dna. february , research paper, structure. ■■ crystal structure of rab geranylgeranyltransferase at . Å resolution. hong zhang, miguel c seabra and johann deisenhofer ( ). structure , – . rab geranylgeranyltransferase (rabggt) catalyzes the addition of two geranylgeranyl groups to the carboxy- terminal cysteine residues of rab proteins, which is crucial for membrane association and function of these proteins in intracellular vesicular trafficking. unlike protein farnesyltransferase (ft) and type i geranylgeranyltransferase, which both prenylate monomeric small g proteins or short peptides, rabggt can prenylate rab only when rab is in a complex with rab escort protein (rep). the crystal structure of rat rabggt reveals an assembly of four distinct structural modules. the β subunit forms an α–α barrel that contains most of the residues in the active site. the α subunit consists of a helical domain, an immunoglobulin (ig)-like domain, and a leucine-rich repeat (lrr) domain. the amino-terminal region of the α subunit binds to the active site in the β subunit; residue his α directly coordinates a zinc ion. the prenyl- binding pocket of rabggt is deeper than that in ft. lrr and ig domains are often involved in protein–protein interactions; in rabggt they might participate in the recognition and binding of rep. binding of the amino- terminal peptide of the α subunit to the active site suggests an autoinhibition mechanism might contribute to the inability of rabggt to recognize short peptides or rab alone. replacement of residues trp β and tyr β in ft by ser β and leu β, respectively, in rabggt largely determine the different lipid-binding specificities of the two enzymes. february , research paper, structure. ■■ a mutant shiga-like toxin iie bound to its receptor gb : structure of a group ii shiga-like toxin with altered binding specificity . hong ling, navraj s pannu, amechand boodhoo, glen d armstrong, clifford g clark, james l brunton and randy j read ( ). structure , – . shiga-like toxins (slts) are produced by the pathogenic strains of escherichia coli that cause hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome. these diseases in humans are generally associated with group ii family members (slt-ii and slt-iic), whereas slt-iie (pig edema toxin) is central to edema disease of swine. the pentameric b- subunit component of the majority of family members binds to the cell-surface glycolipid globotriaosyl ceramide (gb ), but globotetraosyl ceramide (gb ) is the preferred receptor for slt-iie. a double-mutant of the slt-iie b subunit that reverses two sequence differences from slt-ii (gt ; gln →glu, lys →gln, slt-i numbering) has been shown to bind more strongly to gb than to gb . the structure of the gt mutant b pentamer, both in native form and in complex with a gb analog, have been determined to understand the molecular basis of receptor binding and specificity. the structures confirm the previous observation of multiple binding sites on each slt monomer. analysis of the binding properties of mutants suggests that site is a secondary gb -binding site. the two mutated residues are located appropriately to interact with the extra βgalnac residue on gb . differences in the binding sites provide a molecular basis for understanding the tissue specificities and pathogenic mechanisms of members of the slt family. february , research paper, structure. ■■ crystal structure of human branched-chain αα-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the molecular basis of multienzyme complex deficiency in maple syrup urine disease. arnthor Ævarsson, jacinta l chuang, r max wynn, stewart turley, david t chuang and wim gj hol ( ). structure , – . mutations in components of the extraordinarily large α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complexes can lead to serious and often fatal disorders in humans, including maple syrup urine disease (msud). in order to obtain insight into the effect of mutations observed in msud patients, the authors determined the crystal structure of branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (e ), the kda α β heterotetrameric e b component of the branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. the structure of human e b revealed essentially the full α and β polypeptide chains of the tightly packed heterotetramer, as well as the positions of two important potassium (k+). one assists a loop that is close to the cofactor to adopt the proper conformation. the second is located in the β subunit near the interface with elsewhere in biology r cm else.qxd / / : page r the small carboxy-terminal domain of the α subunit. the known msud mutations affect the functioning of e b by interfering with the cofactor and k+ sites, the packing of hydrophobic cores, and the precise arrangement of residues at or near several subunit interfaces. the tyr→asn mutation at position -α occurs very frequently in the us population of mennonites and is located in a unique extension of the human e b a subunit, contacting the β′ subunit. essentially all msud mutations in human e b can be explained using this structure as a basis, with the severity of the mutations for the stability and function of the protein correlating well with the severity of the disease for the patients. the authors suggest that small molecules with high affinity for human e b might alleviate effects of some of the milder forms of msud. february , research paper, structure. ■■ crystallographic analysis of the specific yet versatile recognition of distinct nuclear localization signals by karyopherin αα elena conti and john kuriyan ( ). structure , – . karyopherin α (importin α) is an adaptor molecule that recognizes proteins containing nuclear localization signals (nlss). the sv t antigen contains a prototypical nls that is able to bind to karyopherin α, which consists of a short positively charged sequence motif. distinct classes of nlss (monopartite and bipartite) have been identified that are only partly conserved with respect to one another but are nevertheless recognized by the same receptor. crystal structures of two peptide complexes of yeast karyopherin α (kapα): one with a human c-myc nls peptide, and one with a xenopus nucleoplasmin nls peptide are described here. analysis of these structures reveals the determinants of specificity for the binding of a relatively hydrophobic monopartite nls and of a bipartite nls peptide. the peptides bind kapα in its extended surface groove, which presents a modular array of tandem binding pockets for amino acid residues. monopartite and bipartite nlss bind to a different number of amino-acid- binding pockets and make different interactions within them. the relatively hydrophobic monopartite c-myc nls binds extensively at a few binding pockets in a similar manner to that of the sv t antigen nls. in contrast, the bipartite nucleoplasmin nls engages the whole array of pockets with individually more limited but overall more abundant interactions, which include the nls two basic clusters and the backbone of its non-conserved linker region. versatility in the specific recognition of nlss relies on the modular and flexible structural framework of kapα. february , research paper, structure. r chemistry & biology , vol no cm else.qxd / / : page r chh volume issue cover and back matter interpreters of luther essays in honor of wilhelm pauck edited by jaroslav pel i kan in the history of protestant thought, every major figure has had to come to terms with martin luther, as did wuhelm pauck. these ten essays, dedicated to an eminent church historian, illuminate the thought of key protestant thinkers and their various ways of understanding luther. in addition an important study, "martin luther on luther" by karl holl is for the first time offered in english translation. $ , books of related interest the theology of martin luther by paul althaus the church, mysticism, sancti- f cation a n d t h e natural i n luther's thought edited by ivarasheim reformers in profile edited by b. a. gerrish luther on the christian home by william h. lazareth spiritus creator by regin prenter luther on worship by vilmos vajta luther on vocation by gustav wingren selected writings of martin luther edited by theodore g. tappert four volumes - - paperback - - at all bookstores m fortress press • philadelphia, pa. oxfo "a genial and pungent characterization"* harnack and troeltsch two historical theologians by wilhelm pauck distinguished professor of church history, vanderbilt university "these essays . . . are models of historiography.... dr. pauck has renewed a con- frontation between church historian and systematic theologian at the creative inter- section of personal faith with the freedom and integrity of scholarly learning."—paul lehmann, union theological seminary, new york. "here we have portraiture in the grand manner — precisely what is demanded by the stature of the men under scrutiny." — *james luther adams, union seminary quarterly review $ . also by wilhelm pauck and now in paper — the heritage of the reformation revised and enlarged edition "a valuable contribution to the study of the bearing of reformation thought and insight into the troubles of our time." — the times literary supplement a galaxy book, gb , paper, $ . oxford w university w press w new york available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core some recent, and momentous, treatises: theological dictionary of the new test- ament * . kitltl and s. fritdricb. "thtn k l i l i n " t i . « . vol i. t i m t : vat. u. . ; w . . tthvlnfits> jesus and the christian by willian manton. thii collection of aoays by tka i a n dr. mama* deals with new tntamaat thaalaw, suming " i t e immtdiscr tad iimlism mlt wtici um kn,iom • / c o r f . . . i i i r s e p o i o u r i t i l j l i l , r (fromtta intro- ikctlsn by t. f. tanaaeal cloth. m. what's new in religion ?b»ktonttth«nmon. a ailicil mrfr si mao thiolojy. n m morality, u d snalh cktlmianity. evalaaliwu at « n m a t t m a and fwhiom h ttaabgr • " * norahty h wmct huilton cancltto by dktcting ths ckardi t m w d a way sf umnitfflldi and n o m l . clotk. * . a creed for a christian skeptic by mary medamwtt shidalar. a nimulating ami provocli™ dituiuion af btliif baud aa llw aaasun' craa "...kith uiflitiat aft. s. liwh. dorothy sims, ui cbirlt: williims . . . itsuibn t flimibls ctristi>orlrud shows tow it,pplmlo tie bimir, coalition.. . " - s n n i a l j . wylia. d a m . ganaral taaala|ieal sanlaary. clot*. « js the encounter between christianity a i d science njittd by kcaart h. bobi. to aooribaad aa i m t i t tea c n a of ttia sciantllt and <a uia ttriibaa. it i t tha p a p o u ef tta authorj of this book to witnott to ida world dial dsdicatid a m af jtienct can a l n k t didicated disciples of chriil aot*.» .» christianity m o humanism by quitiiw br»n. euayi on tta roligioui awl intelltcluil kaiitasa of ranainaaca empa. "wt honor tmmm inn . . . aw ungritulili iim u f us upon tit publiutna afttli « t o » t . " - h e i l i e a. oborman. cloth. » . wm. b. eerdmans pubushing co. available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core just published colonial history from wesleyan the new england meeting houses of the seventeenth century by marian card donnelly the most detailed account ever published . . . "as the 'old ship' in hingham, now much enlarged and altered, is the only surviv- ing example, mrs. donnelly in studying seventeenth-century new england meeting houses resembles a palaeontologist reconstruct- ing an extinct monster from a handful of bones. she analyzes what can be gleaned from the records of towns in which one or more congregational meeting houses were built between and , considers continental protestant architecture before and the effect of the reformation oh english worship. this is a fascinating study, as thorough as it is unpretentious." —walter muir whitehall pages. with illustrations, appendixes, notes, bibliography, and index. $ . and congregational commonwealth connecticut, - by mary jeanne anderson jones from their establishment in the 's to the promulgation of the royal charter in , connecticut settlements were unique among the english colonies. their institutions of church and state were their own, and they existed independently under their own con- stitution, the fundamental orders. this study of the congregational commonwealth covers the polity of that quarter-century with admirable comprehensiveness, thor- ough scholarship, and a fullness of detail far surpassing that of any previous work. it treats the actual founding of the colony and the backgrounds in england and massachusetts; the churches, their claims, and the degree of their control; the fundamental orders themselves; the courts and the law; and the movement toward a royal charter. the focus ultimately is on the fundamental orders, their nature as an expression of the puritan environment, and the governmental system they established. pages. with illustrations, appendixes, notes, bibliography, and index. $ . * write for our new booklet on all our publications in history and political science. wesleyan university press riverview center middletown, connecticut available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core john hus: a biography matthew spinka in his book, john hus' concept of the church, professor spinka ex- amined the theology of hus. in this biography he extends our under- standing of the personality and work of the man he has characterized as "essentially a reformer whose ideal was the pure church." the study is based on new materials and on critical works about hus which have become available since , the date of the last similar study. hus' writings in latin and czech have been abstracted, thereby clarifying hus' teaching. $ . pacifism in the united states from the colonial era to the first world war peter brock called "a pioneer work of the first importance" by staughton lynd, this book traces pacifism from its origins in the reformation to its theory and practice in the new world by such groups as the quakers, mennonites, dunkers, the american peace society and garrison's new england non-resistance society. the institutional aspects are bal- anced by accounts of the experiences of individual pacifists. $ . selected portions available in paperback: radical pacifists in antebellum america by peter brock $ . princeton university "press princeton, new jersey available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core from cambridge the qreat church in captivity steven runciman a history of the patriarchate of constantinople from the eve of the turkish conquest to the greek war of independence. the first part describes the organization of the church before and its relations with the empire and with the roman and other churches. the second part— to —tells of the church's sub- servience to the turkish sultans before it attained its ultimate posi- tion as the focus of greek nationalism. new material is presented on relations between the greek church and the anglican, calvinist and lutheran churches during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. $ . elizabeth and the english reformation william p. haugaard professor haugaard reassesses and reconstructs the early years of elizabeth's rule when men argued, schemed and fought to bend the national church to conform to their own particular vision of an ideal christianity. the focal point of the study is the convocation of at which all major issues of the period were discussed, resulting in decisions that propelled the church of england along the route chosen by the queen and her bishops. $ . church wealth in mexico michael p. costeloe an objective study of the juzgado de capellanias in the archbishop- ric of mexico from to . this was the most important fiscal institution of the roman catholic church in latin america, operat- ing as a kind of bank and investing clerical revenues by means of loans at interest dr costeloe describes the organization and activities of the juzgado and discusses its place in church-state relations. $ . the secular clergy in the diocese of lincoln - margaret bowker a detailed study of the diocese of lincoln under three bishops: smith, wolsey and atwater. "should prove of great value to those who wish to penetrate the screen of contemporary and later propaganda in order to obtain a more accurate picture of the state of the church in england on the eve of the reformation."— times literary supplement $ . cambridge university press east th street, new york, n.y. available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core emi .. original research paper low toxocara seroprevalence in people in rural durango, mexico cosme alvarado-esquivel *, Ángel osvaldo alvarado-félix and gustavo alexis alvarado-félix biomedical research laboratory, faculty of medicine and nutrition, juárez university of durango state, avenida universidad s/n, durango, mexico colegio anglo-español durango, avenida real del mezquital , , durango, mexico received: jun ; accepted: jul *author for c de medicina méxico; tel/f doi: . © the this is an (https://creat purposes, pr the epidemiology of toxocara infection in rural mexico is largely unknown. therefore, we sought to determine the seroprevalence of toxocara infection in rural people in a northern mexican state. we performed a cross-sec- tional seroprevalence study of people living in rural durango state including subjects of the general popu- lation, subjects of huichol ethnicity, and subjects of mennonite ethnicity. sera of participants were analyzed for the presence of anti-toxocara immunoglobulin g (igg) antibodies using a commercially available en- zyme immunoassay. three ( . %) of the subjects tested were positive for anti-toxocara igg antibodies. of the toxocara seropositive subjects, two were females, aged and years, and one was male, aged years. they had contacted with dogs, cleaned cat excrement, consumed unwashed raw fruits, contacted soil, or lived in a house with soil floors. seroprevalence of toxocara infection was similar among the groups of population studied: . % for the general population, . % for huicholes, and . % for mennonites (p = . ). in conclusion, the toxocara seroprevalence found in subjects in rural durango is low as compared with those reported in people from rural areas in other countries. keywords: cross-sectional study, epidemiology, rural, ethnic groups, seroprevalence, toxocariasis introduction the parasite toxocara is the most ubiquitous intestinal nematode in dogs and cats [ ]. this parasite is a zoonotic pathogen that causes toxocariasis and associated complications including allergic and neurological disorders [ ]. toxocariasis is one of the most commonly reported zoonotic helminth in- fections in the world [ ]. transmission to humans occurs by accidental infection of eggs present in, for instance, contami- nated fruits or vegetables [ ]. toxocariasis is a neglected dis- ease reaching high prevalence independently of the economic conditions [ ]. most human infections are asymptomatic [ ]. patients with toxocariasis may present fever, respiratory symp- toms, gastrointestinal features [ ], decreased visual acuity, eyestrain, headache, paleness [ ], paresthesias, nervousness, and lipothymic states [ ]. ocular toxocariasis may lead to blindness [ ]. cardiac involvement is a rare but potentially life-threatening complication in toxocara infection [ ]. living in rural areas is considered a risk factor for toxocara infection as demonstrated in studies in several countries in- cluding iran [ ], gabon [ ], korea [ , ], egypt [ ], and poland [ ]. knowledge about the seroepidemiology of toxocara infection in rural mexico is quite limited; however, we are aware of only one study about the seroepidemiology of toxocara infection in rural mexico. in a serosurvey of tepehuanos (an indigenous ethnic group) in rural durango state, a . % seroprevalence of toxocara infection was found [ ]. in the present study, we attempted to determine the seroprevalence of toxocara infection and its association with the sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral character- istics of the general population in the rural communities in the northern mexican state of durango. orrespondence: laboratorio de investigación biomédica, facultad y nutrición, avenida universidad s/n, durango, dgo, ax: - - ; e-mail: alvaradocosme@yahoo.com / . . author(s) open-access article distributed under the terms of the creativ ivecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . /), which permits unrestricted ovided the original author and source are credited, a link to the materials and methods study design. we performed a cross-sectional serosurvey using serum samples from previous toxoplasma gondii seroepidemiology studies [ – ]. the aims of the original studies were to determine the seroprevalence of and risk factors for toxoplasma gondii infection in the studied population groups. study population. we studied people living in rural durango state including subjects of the general population, subjects of huichol ethnicity, and subjects of mennonite ethnicity. inclusion criteria for enrollment were as follows: ( ) living in rural durango state, ( ) aged years and older, and ( ) who accepted to participate in the survey. the socioeconomic status, gender, and educational level of the subjects were not restrictive criteria for enrollment. concerning the subjects of the general population, they were sampled in three communities: san dimas, villa montemorelos, and santa clara, whereas huicholes were sampled in the community of huazamota. for its part, mennonites were sampled in the community of nuevo ideal. in total, the tested subjects included females and males, aged – years (mean . ± . years). socio-demographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics of the subjects. we obtained the sociodemo- graphic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics of the study population from archival microsoft excel files recorded in the original studies [ – ]. sociodemographic data included age, gender, birthplace, occupation, socioeconomic status, educational level, and type of flooring at home. clinical data included history of blood transfusion or solid organ transplantation. behavioral data included animal contacts (cats, dogs, farm animals, and others), traveling (national or international trips), type of meat consumed (beef, pork, chicken, turkey, and others), degree of meat cooking (raw, undercooked, or well done), consumption of unpasteurized european journal of microbiology and immunology ( ) , pp. – first published online: august e commons attribution-noncommercial . international license use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial cc license is provided, and changes - if any - are indicated. unauthenticated | downloaded / / : am utc toxocara and rural mexico milk, untreated water, unwashed raw fruits or vegetables, eating in restaurants or fast food outlets, and soil contact. detection of anti-toxocara igg antibodies. anti- toxocara immunoglobulin g (igg) antibodies were detected in the sera of subjects using a commercially available enzyme immunoassay “toxocara” kit (diagnostic automation, inc. calabasas, ca, usa). all assays were performed following the manufacturer's instructions. we included in each assay the negative and positive controls provided in the kit. seropositivity was considered when an absorbance reading ≥ . optical density units was obtained. statistical analysis. we performed the statistical analysis using the software microsoft excel, epi info version , and spss version . we calculated the sample size using the following parameters: a population size of , , a reference seroprevalence of . % [ ] as the expected frequency of exposure, % of confidence limits, and a % confidence level. the result of the sample size calculation was subjects. we used the two-tailed fisher's exact test to assess the association of toxocara seropositivity and the sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics of the subjects studied. a p value < . was considered statistically significant. ethical aspects. in the present study, we analyzed only archival serum samples and data obtained in the previous studies. the original surveys were approved by institutional ethics committees [ – ]. results three ( . %) of the subjects tested were positive for anti-toxocara igg antibodies. of the toxocara seropositive subjects, were females, aged and years, and one was male, aged years. the occupations of these seropositive subjects were as follows: a student, a housewife, and an agri- culturist. they had contacted with dogs, cleaned cat excre- ment, consumed unwashed raw fruits, contacted soil, or lived in a house with soil floors. seroprevalence of toxocara infec- tion was similar among the groups of population studied: . % for the general population, . % for huicholes, and . % for mennonites (p = . ). the toxocara seropositivity rate did not vary (p > . ) with respect to sociodemographic characteristics of the study population including age, gender, birthplace, occupation, socioeconomic status, educational level, and type of flooring at home. concerning clinical char- acteristics, none of the toxocara seropositive individuals had a history of blood transfusion or solid organ transplantation. none of the behavioral characteristics analyzed including ani- mal contacts, traveling, type of meat consumed, degree of meat cooking, consumption of unpasteurized milk, untreated water, unwashed raw fruits or vegetables, eating in restaurants or fast food outlets, and soil contact was associated with toxo- cara seropositivity rate (p > . ). discussion the seroepidemiology of toxocara infection in rural mex- ico has been sparsely studied so far. therefore, in the current study, we sought to determine the seroprevalence of toxocara infection in several communities in rural durango state, mex- ico. we found a low ( . %) seroprevalence of toxocara infec- tion in people living in rural areas of durango state. this finding was unexpected since living in rural areas is consid- ered as a risk factor for toxocara exposure in several coun- tries in asia [ , , , ], africa [ , ], and europe [ ]. the toxocara seroprevalence found in our study is lower than those reported in rural populations in brazil ( . %) [ ], gabon ( . %) [ ], argentina ( %– . %) [ , ], poland ( . %) [ ], korea ( %) [ ], india ( . %) [ ], bo- livia ( %) [ ], the slovak republic ( . %) [ ], and ven- ezuela ( . %) [ ]. in addition, the seroprevalence found in our study is lower than the . % toxocara seroprevalence reported in tepehuanos in rural durango, mexico [ ]. in fact, the seroprevalence found in our study is the lowest ever reported in rural communities. it is not clear why the seroprev- alence in rural communities in durango found in this study is lower than those reported in similar populations elsewhere. it is possible that the rate of toxocara infection in dogs and cats and soil contamination with toxocara in the rural communi- ties explored was low. we cannot rule out previous deworm- ing in cats and dogs to reduce parasite transmission in the communities studied. however, we did not obtain information about deworming in animals in the communities studied. we looked for socioeconomic, clinical, and behavioral factors as- sociated with toxocara infection in people in rural durango; however, statistical analysis showed that none of the character- istics studied was associated with toxocara infection. the three toxocara seropositive individuals found in the current study had factors associated with toxocara infection including contact with dogs, cleaning cat excrement, consumption of un- washed raw fruits, and soil contact. however, the lack of asso- ciations between toxocara seroreactivity and the characteristics of the study population found in this study was probably due to the very low number of toxocara seropositive individuals found. this low rate of toxocara seropositivity was certainly a limitation of the survey. additional studies with large sample sizes to determine risk factors associated with toxocara exposure of people in rural durango are needed. in summary, we demonstrate a low rate of toxocara expo- sure among people living in rural durango state. the sero- prevalence found is lower than those reported in people living in rural setting in other countries. risk factors associated with toxocara exposure in rural mexico remain to be determined. funding sources this study was financially supported by juárez university of durango state. authors' contributions cae designed the study protocol, performed the laboratory tests and data analysis, and wrote the manuscript. aoaf and gaaf performed the data analysis and reviewed the manuscript. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . chen j, liu q, liu gh, zheng wb, hong sj, sugiyama h, et al. toxocariasis: a silent threat with a progressive public health impact. infect dis poverty. ; ( ): . doi: . /s - - - . . ma g, holland cv, wang t, hofmann a, fan ck, maizels rm, et al. human toxocariasis. lancet infect dis. ; ( ):e –e . doi: . / s - ( ) - . . nicoletti a. toxocariasis. handb clin neurol. ; : – . doi: . /b - - - - . - . . lötsch f, vingerling r, spijker r, grobusch mp. toxocariasis in humans in africa - a systematic review. travel med infect dis. ; : – . doi: . /j.tmaid. . . . . moreira gm, telmo pde l, mendonça m, moreira an, mcbride aj, scaini cj, conceição fr. human toxocariasis: current advances in diagnostics, treatment, and interventions. trends parasitol. ; ( ): – . doi: . /j.pt. . . . . rubinsky-elefant g, hirata ce, yamamoto jh, ferreira mu. human toxocariasis: diagnosis, worldwide seroprevalences and clinical expression of unauthenticated | downloaded / / : am utc c. alvarado-esquivel et al. the systemic and ocular forms. ann trop med parasitol. ; ( ): – . doi: . / x . . ain tiewsoh jb, khurana s, mewara a, sehgal r, singh a. clinical and laboratory characteristics of patients with toxocariasis encountered at a tertiary care centre in north india. indian j med microbiol. ; ( ): – . doi: . /ijmm.ijmm_ _ . . martínez m, montero j, pineda a, mijares v, lares m, catalano e, ferrer e. epidemiological, clinical and laboratory features of toxocariasis in school children from aragua state, venezuela. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; ( ): – . doi: . /trstmh/try . . cojocariu ie, bahnea r, luca c, leca d, luca m. clinical and biological features of adult toxocariasis. rev med chir soc med nat iasi. ; ( ): – . . martínez-pulgarín df, muñoz-urbano m, gomez-suta ld, delgado om, rodriguez-morales aj. ocular toxocariasis: new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. recent pat antiinfect drug discov. ; ( ): – . . kuenzli e, neumayr a, chaney m, blum j. toxocariasis-associated cardiac diseases–a systematic review of the literature. acta trop. ; : – . doi: . /j.actatropica. . . . . rezaiemanesh mr, afzalaghaee m, hamidi s, eshaghzadeh a, paydar m, hejazi sh. prevalence of toxocariasis and its related risk factors in humans, dogs and cats in northeastern iran: a population-based study. trans r soc trop med hyg. . pii: trz . doi: . /trstmh/trz . . lötsch f, obermüller m, mischlinger j, mombo-ngoma g, groger m, adegnika aa, et al. seroprevalence of toxocara spp. in a rural population in central african gabon. parasitol int. ; ( pt a): – . doi: . /j. parint. . . . . yang gl, zhang xx, shi cw, yang wt, jiang yl, wei zt, wang cf, et al. seroprevalence and associated risk factors of toxocara infection in korean, manchu, mongol, and han ethnic groups in northern china. epidemiol infect. ; ( ): – . . lee jy, yang mh, hwang jh, kang m, paeng jw, yune s, lee bj, et al. the prevalence of toxocariasis and diagnostic value of serologic tests in asymptomatic korean adults. allergy asthma immunol res. ; ( ): – . doi: . /aair. . . . . . el-shazly am, abdel baset sm, kamal a, mohammed ka, sakrs ti, hammad sm. seroprevalence of human toxocariasis (visceral larva migrans). j egypt soc parasitol. ; ( ): – . . zwoliński j. [the risk factors of toxocara canis infestation in population of patients from the lublin region]. wiad parazytol. ; ( ): – . . alvarado-esquivel c. seroepidemiology of toxocariasis in a rural tepehuanos population from durango, mexico. j helminthol. ; ( ): – . doi: . /s x . . alvarado-esquivel c, cruz-magallanes hm, esquivel-cruz r, estrada- martínez s, rivas-gonzález m, liesenfeld o, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in human adults from three rural communities in durango state, mexico. j parasitol. ; ( ): – . doi: . /ge- . . . alvarado-esquivel c, rojas-rivera a, estrada-martínez s, sifuentes- Álvarez a, liesenfeld o, garcía-lópez cr, dubey jp. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in a mennonite community in durango state, mexico. j parasitol. ; ( ): – . doi: . /ge- . . . alvarado-esquivel c, pacheco-vega sj, hernández-tinoco j, sánchez- anguiano lf, berumen-segovia lo, rodríguez-acevedo fj, beristain-garcía i, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in huicholes in mexico. parasit vectors. ; : . doi: . / - - - . . araújo ac, villela mm, sena-lopes Â, farias nadr, faria lmj, avila lfdc, et al. seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii and toxocara canis in a human rural population of southern rio grande do sul. rev inst med trop sao paulo. ; :e . doi: . /s - . . chiodo p, basualdo j, ciarmela l, pezzani b, apezteguía m, minvielle m. related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of argentina. mem inst oswaldo cruz. ; ( ): – . . fillaux j, santillan g, magnaval jf, jensen o, larrieu e, sobrino- becaria cd. epidemiology of toxocariasis in a steppe environment: the patagonia study. am j trop med hyg. ; ( ): – . . park hy, lee su, huh s, kong y, magnaval jf. a seroepidemiological survey for toxocariasis in apparently healthy residents in gangwon-do, korea. korean j parasitol. ; ( ): – . . malla n, aggarwal ak, mahajan rc. a serological study of human toxocariasis in north india. natl med j india. ; ( ): – . . cancrini g, bartoloni a, zaffaroni e, guglielmetti p, gamboa h, nicoletti a, genchi c. seroprevalence of toxocara canis-igg antibodies in two rural bolivian communities. parassitologia. ; ( ): – . . havasiová k, dubinský p, stefancíková a. a seroepidemiological study of human toxocara infection in the slovak republic. j helminthol. ; ( ): – . . lynch nr, eddy k, hodgen an, lopez ri, turner kj. seroprevalence of toxocara canis infection in tropical venezuela. trans r soc trop med hyg. ; ( ): – . unauthenticated | downloaded / / : am utc soviet policy towards evangelicals michael rowe some evangelical christians in the ussr are now enjoying more free- dom than before, whilst others face increasing hostility from the authori- ties. this apparently contradictory situation is described in recent reports from the soviet union. the churches of the all-union council of evan- gelical christians and baptists (aucecb) enjoy more freedom than they have for many years and foreign visitors are ever more impressed with their spiritual vitality. the unregistered churches continue to produce a mass of detailed documentation on the persecution of churches and in- dividual christians. the contradictions are not the fault of those who report but reflect the true situation: for the registered churches things get better all the time; and every year members of unregistered churches join the ranks of the registered, but the hard core of the unregistered (and nobody knows how big or small that hard core really is) face hos- tility from the authorities that seems to become more rather than less bitter as time passes. these contradictions may result from the left hand not knowing what the right is doing (and in a country as large as the soviet union this is only to be expected) but much of the evidence bdi- cates that the concessions and the repressions are two aspects of the same policy -the two sides of one coin. th~ year can be regarded as at least a minor milestone in the evolution of soviet policy towards religious believers. in july amendments to the law on religious associations were published: although these in- corporated unpublished changes in the law that had been operative since , they also introduced new features. although the amendments indi- cated no important policy changes compared with the version of the law their publication was in itself significant .. an authoritative com- mentary on the legal positiob of the churches was published later in . christians at last could find out what rights they had and what bodies were responsible for the churches. in august the final act of the helsinki conference on security and cooperation in europe was signed by mr brezhnev and published in the soviet press. although not adding to human rights guaranteed by the universal declaration of soviet policy towards evangelicals human rights and the pact on civil and political rights (both previously ratified by the soviet union), the helsinki final act gave christians a new awareness of the rights which they ought to enjoy. saw the widescale implementation of a new policy towards the registration of evangelical churches. from to the s evangelicals of the four major denominations - evangelical christians, baptists, pente- costals and mennonite brethren - could be registered only in affiliation with the union of evangelical christians and baptists (ecbs). registra- tion was a form of licensing and was apparently rarely withdrawn for failure to observe the official restrictions on religious activities. maybe the churches rarely overstepped the mark. at any rate, the general im- pression given is one of relative freedom and lax control over the churches in the post-stalin years.' after the immediate post-war years, however, few new congregations were able to register. registration as such was not seen as particularly restrictive: most unregistered congregations wished nothing better than to be registered but often could not do so because the authorities refused to register them. pentecostals sought to register separ- ately from the ecb union from onwards, mennonites from the and the reform baptists (initsiativniki) from , but without any suc- cess. reform adventists and pentecostals were specifically banned under the instruction on the application of the law on cults of march . when restrictions were placed on the churches these were often beyond the law like, for example, the widely reported ban on preaching the second coming of christ. the letter of instruction from the leaders of the ecb union, thought to have been issued under pressure from the state authorities, demanded that services be less evangelistic, that fewer young people aged to be baptized, and banned children from attending services. the - anti-religious campaign was an entirely arbitrary attack on the churches: although some churches which were closed are known to have been particularly active (e.g. the bezhitsa church in bry- ansk ), the overall strategy seems to have been to reduce drastically the number of places of worship. most, though not all, of the closed churches sided with the inlitsiativniki who opposed the new restrictions. on the whole, therefore, registration was used more as a means of controlling the number of churches rather than their activities. from the late s a few pentecostal churches were registered as in- dividual congregations not belonging to the ecb union,s but by there seem to have been no more than a dozen sllch instances. from the start such registrations must have required approval by the central coun- cil for religious affairs (cra), but, in addition, the conditions demanded by local authorities seem to have gone far beyond those specified in the law on religious associations. at the same time as the revised version of this law and golst's commentary on it were published, the authorities appear to have stopped imposing these extra-legal conditions, and the soviet policy towards evangelicals number of registered autonomous pentecostal churches began to increase. initsiativniki churches were also registered, the most well-known being the church in kiev of which georgi vins had been a leader, which was registered in the summer of . new pentecostal and baptist churches have also been registered in affiliation with the ecb union. ° the desire to observe the law, now published in full, on the part of the authorities may have been a factor in this volte-face towards independent groups, for the law does not discriminate between congregations which belong to a national organization and those which function at a local level without any such affiliation. however, other domestic and inter- national . factors probably carried greater weight. first, the policy of liquidating unregistered churches by arresting many of their leaders was seen to have failed. the number of initsiativniki prisoners (the only de- nomination for which there are comprehensive details) had begun to fall before , and since then it has dropped still further to below . second, unregistered congregations continued with unabated vigour and their activity was difficult to monitor, especially when these congrega- tions had no fixed meeting place; third, the western focus on "basket three" of the helsinki agreement meant that in the international sphere the soviet union was closely scrutinized to see whether it observed human rights, including the "freedom of the individual to profess and practise any religion or belief acting in accordance with the dictates· of his own conscience". fourth, the authorities wished to lessen the im- pact of the emigration movement among pentecostals, which began in and had grown to , applicants by may . since the soviet authorities, under instructions from the cra (which is now publicly stated to have 'the final say in questions of regis- tration and allocation of buildings) have actively sought to persuade un- registered congregations to register. paradoxically, there has been consid- erable resistance on the part of the leaders of unregistered churches who oppose accepting the restrictions on the activity of the church laid down in a'tt. of the law on religious associations/ and reject inter- ference in the internal affairs of the church which is legalized through art. - the authorities' veto oh the members of a church's executive committee.u they also reject the registration of pastors, which has been required since the instruction of january on the application of the legislation on cults.is it is the unwillingness of churches to register that has brought about the dual policy ofconcessionsa'nd repressions ~ to encourage registra- tion and to punish those whoiefuse to register. on the one hand mem- bers of unregistered congregations continue to be fined and arrested, and their services continue td be disrupted.' in berdichev, zhitomir region, tjki"aine, the presbyter and deacon of the pentecostal congregation have been threatened with arrest if the congregation does not register. in the soviet policy towards evangelicals city of zhitomir, pressure on the pentecostals began early in when the war-crime file on the presbyter s. demyanchuk was reopened, al~ though he had been convicted, imprisoned and amnestied for war crimes; the congregation was given three months to make up its mind whether to register. in zhitintsy, zhitomir region, the pentecostal congregation was allowed to meet freely after the signing. of the helsinki agreement. but, when the congregation refused to register the authorities began again to fine the members for organizing services. s on october the pleni- potentiary of the era for the moscow region, a. a. trushin, summoned pentecostal preachers for a meeting with two kgb officials. they de- manded that the congregation register and threatened prosecution if they refused. in december six moscow pentecostals were taken to a militia station and told that they would not be allowed to meet for wor- ship until the congregation registered. similar pressures have been placed on baptists. . ya. antonov, presby- ter in voroshilovgrad and a member of the initsiativniki council of ;churches, was arrested on the odessa to kharkov train on ii september ' . he and other members of his congregation were held for some hours and told they should register their church. subsequently he was re-arrested and sentenced to one year's detention in a labour camp for parasitism, because he was the full-time pastor of an unregistered churchzl 'and thus, in the eyes of the' authorities, was unemployed. in kharkov, too, the question of registration was raised by the authorities: the con- gregation at yasnaya polyana was visited by kgb officials from kharkov and kiev and by procuracy and militia officials who tried to persuade them to register. in barnaul the initsiatjvniki church was told in july ; that it should register,:'.:! while in omsk two leaders were threatened :with arrest and prosecution if they ignored the authorities' demands and 'continued to meet without registration. such attempts to force registration by threats and actual sanctions normally meet- increased resistance from the congregations. the auth- ;orities have therefore had to resort to positive inducements. in cher- novtsy, ukraine, newly registered pentecostal and baptist churches were ;both given unused church buildings for their services. local authorities . ;are empowered to make church buildings available free of rent but do ;not usually do so. thus most new churches have to be built at the be- 'lievers' expense - as would have been the case in barnaul had they agreed to register - and automatically become the property of the state. officials 'even go so far as to offer registration without demanding that a congre- gation commit itself to observing the legislation on religious cults, that js the congregation can be registered without accepting any restrictions on its activities. registration on this basis was offered to the leaders of the initsiativniki church in issyk (near alma-ata, kazakhstan) in . :on december the chairman of the town soviet, s. t. shabaldin, sum- soviet policy towards evangelicals :moned the members of the church committee for an interview and de- dared to them: "we have done away with the thing that you said pre- vented you· from registering, you can register on form no. , and the sentence about fulfilling the legislation on religious cults will be omitted; .you will be able to take your children with you to services." the leaders refused to register the church unless their presbyter ivan shteffen, recent- jy sentenced to years imprisonment, was released. they argued that he had been imprisoned for activities that the authorities were now prom- ising to allow. permission to meet without formal registration is another form of registration without conditions. it is in effect a declared truce, during which the authorities hope that the congregation will get used to meeting freely and ultimately prefer to register rather than resume 'an illegal existence. in some churches the presence of children at services causes no problems for the parents or the pastor, and children are even 'allowed to recite poetry. this flexibility in observing the law extends also to registered churches within the ecb union: youth choirs are organ- ized, special services and meetings for young people are held both in the 'church and in homes, and children are often to be seen at services. the 'ecb union is also experiencing greater cooperation from the authorities when it seeks permission to build new churches or to extend existing ones, and to register new congregations. although the present policy is the culmination of an experimental period, it represents nevertheless a complete reversal of the policy which operated until . before congregations sought registration and were refused by the authorities. today the authorities take the initiative in offering registration and attempt to make registration attractive by allow- ing both autonomous churches, and those in the ecb union, freedoms that are beyond the law. they are more responsive to the wishes of be- lievers for more and better church buildings. yet in many cases the con- gregations refuse to register and the policy can be said to have met with only limited success. a. m. bychkov, general secretary of: the ecb union, repojted in august that about initsiativniki churches had regis- tered, that had registered in september and that had registered by april . figures for pentecostal churches are less precise, but there are almost certainly rather more: in alone new pentecostal churches were reported to have registered. o an unknown number of pentecostal churches have accepted registration within the ecb union, and a constant trickle of initsiativniki returning ~o the union is reported (usually groups rather than whole congregations). why are the leaders of the unregistered churches so obstinate? firstly, in many cases the local authorities are not prepared to waive the re- quirement that the church should accept the restrictions specified in the legislation on religious cults. secondly, many of the leaders have suffered imprisonment or frequent fines for the right to organize their church life the baptist church in moscow. the head- quarters of the all-union council of evan- gelical christians and baptists (aucecb) are housed next door. (courtesy keston college) baptismal service of a registered congrega- tion. the service is being held in a river be- cause many baptist churches do not contain a baptistry. (courtesy keston college) unregistered evangelical christians and baptists (ecbs), called initsiativniki, baptize new members. © keston college a baptism at the moscow baptist church. for registered congregations like this one "things get better all the time" (see "soviet policy towards evangelicals", pp. - ). (courtesy keston college) ,unregistered e{:bs celebrate communion in the open air. without registration a congre- gation cannot obtain a building from the authorities for their services. © keston college left: members of unregistered ecb con- gregations in the ussr meet in the open air, away from the public eye. the position of unregistered evangelical congregations is dis- cussed in "soviet policy towards evangeli- cals" (pp. - ). © keston college above left reprisals against evangelical christians in volzhsk, mari assr. this is a rare photograph of arrests taking place. the hostility of the soviet authorities towards unregistered evangelical christians is growing more bitter (see "soviet policy towards evangelicals", pp. - ). above right a group of baptists wait outside a labol.\r camp (in the town of ust-labinsk, krasnodar krai) on iq september to welcome dina kravchenko, who is about to be released after a four-year sentence. upper left the remains of the hut (or "tent") built in by the rostov-on-don unregis- tered ecb congregation for their services. the hut was demolished by the police in august , rebuilt by the congregation and demolished by the police again. see the docu- ment "events in rostov-on-don", pp. - . lower left the rostov-on-don congregation meet for a service on the site where their hut once stood. a policeman holding a camera stands in the background. bottom left a shelter built for the wedding of a couple from an unregistered ecb congre- gation is torn down by the local authorities. the day before the wedding, which was due to take place on may in merefa, kharkov oblast, the couple were interrogated by the police and four other members of the congregation were arrested. bottom right planks removed from a bridge to prevent guests reaching the wedding in merefa, kharkov oblast. all those who man- aged to get there were arrested. some were fined and. others imprisoned for is days. soviet policy towards evanoelicals , and worship with no state interference. such leaders simply distrust the authorities when they offer registration, even without conditions. the legislation restricting religious life still stands and in many places is rigorously applied. they suspect that the authorities will sooner or later put pressure on them to observe the legislation, and the experience of some congregations already confirms this. thirdly, registration does not necessarily put an end to problems with the authorities. the bezhitsa church, re-registered within the ecb union in , had difficulty in finding a building which the authorities would allow them to purchase. then in august and september their church, which they had by then managed to buy and which they had almqst finished renovating, was confis<:ated and ,demolished. the dedovsk initsiativniki churc;:h, regis- tered as an autonomous congregation, found that the money which it had raised to buy a church building was confiscated in february . then in may' the house which they were using as a church was barricaded by ~he police, and they had to enter by the windows. this happened with the knowledge and apparent consent of ye. a. tarasov, the cra official responsible for evangelical churches throughout the ussr.s finally, the leaders of unregistered churches wonder what ad- vantages there are in this policy for the soviet government. pentecostals see the policy as an attempt to divert attention, both of pentecostals at home and of opinion abroad, from the movement to emigrate - as a tem- porary alleviation of persecution to encourage people to think that there is no need to emigrate after all. initsiativniki see the policy as an attempt to fragment their movement because they are asked to renounce all links with the unregistered council of churches. all fear ~hat registration would lead to greater surveillance and infiltration by the security police, and a gradual erosion of their freedom. some pentecostals and a few initsiativniki see the alternatives before, them as either:r~gistration, which they believe will lead to complete con- trol by the atheist authorities and the death of the church, or emigra- tion, which will allow them to carry on their church life without out- side interference. many others see a third way: the freedom of the out- law with all the risks that this entails. they believe that they are called to an uncompromising witness in soviet society, and will not voluntarily 'accept any limitations on their freedom. unregistered baptists continue their activity with undiminished effort and report many conversions, especially at youth rallies on may and november, the soviet union's two major public holidays. we council of churches continues to meet, and the council of prisoner!>' relatives is assembling more and more in- formation in its bulletins, which now cover the whole life of the un- registered churches: during seven bulletins appeared, the longest comprising pages. the bulletins and other literature are still printed and circulated in the soviet union, despite the discovery ofa printing soviet policy towards evangelicals press near leningrad in march . at least one other press is known to be functioning, for the march arrests were announced on a printed leaflet and the first copies of the whole bible were printed in . most pentecostals, particularly those who have decided not to apply to emigrate, prefer to avoid publicity, and as a result much less is known about their activities. the few reports available indicate some very large congregations whose size is growing (as many as , mem- bers worshipping in smaller groups in· private homes in vinnitsa, for example). as long as unregistered congregations still exist, some soviet officials will be tempted to use administrative or judicial sanctions against them. the initsiativniki church in rostov-on-don has recently undergone in- tense repression. but, equally, as long as there are still unregistered churches on a significant scale they will have a beneficial effect on con- ditions for the registered churches. the existence of the initsiativniki and the· desire of both the state and the baptist authorities to bring them back into the ecb union, led to far-ranging reforms in the union, begin- ning with the establishment of regular congresses since and cul- minating in a far greater degree of consultation at all levels of· church life. the quantity of religious literature printed in recent years by the ecb union, although still hopelessly inadequate, has increased dramati- cally, and some literature has been imported with the united bible socie- ties acting as intermediary. twenty-five thousand bibles and , con- cordances are due to be delivered by the end of . youth work, though not yet children's work, is possible in many churches, and the registered churches receive a constant stream of new members, many of them from non-religious families. the leaders of the unregistered churches, how- ever, will want to see much more christian literature produced in the ussr and will want religious education for children by the churches legal- ized before they will agree to register. if such concessions were ever made it might be difficult for the authorities to return to the old restric- tion~ without causing widespread unrest in the churches. a reversal of the limited liberalization which has already taken place in the treatment of the registered churches would lead to an increase in dissent within the churches and defections to the unregistered churches. this is what the present policy is aiming to avoid, so the situation of registered evangelical churches should not get worse; rather, further improvements are pos- sible. but harsh treatment of unregistered churches is likely to continue, and could become more serious, like that of the rostov church, in order to make lack of registration less attractive, and consequently registration more attractive. see waiter sawatsky. "the new soviet law on religion". rcl. vol. . no. . . pp. - . g. r. golst. religiya i zakon (religion and law). moscow. "yuridicheskaya literatura". . reviewed in rcl. vol. . no. . . pp. - . soviet policy towards evangelicals ii e.g. pravda, august . j a case of loss of registration and its restoration after stalin's death is reported in bratsky vestnik (fraternal herald) , no. - , p. ro . the congregation in stalinsk, kazakhstan, came under the influence of "extreme pentecostals" and lost its registration and meeting place. they were able to regain their registration after excommunicating some pentecostals, bought a church and recommenced worship on may . art. reads: "religious societies and groups of believers belonging to sects, whose doctrine and the nature of whose activities have an anti-state and fanatical character, may not be registered: jehovah's witnesses, penecostals, true orthodox christians, the true orthodox church, reform adventists, followers of murashko, etc." michael bourdeaux, relieious ferment in russia, macmillan, london, , pp. o-r. bratsky vestnik, no. , , p. . it was closed in and re-registered in . b ibid., no. , , p. . for example, m. khlevnoi was alleged to have influenced the nikolaev congre- gation to reject registration. among the conditions he opposed were renunciation of "fanatical rites" including speaking in tongues and breaking of bread and renun- ciation of monetary collections for the church and its ministers. see sentence of may of the korabelsky district people's court, nikolaev, p. (document listed in rcl, vo!' , nos. - , , os/ /p/ ). e.g. bratsky vestnik, no. , , p. . bulletin of the council of ecb prisoners' relatives, , puts the number at . conference on security and cooperation in europe, final act, i (a) vii. "religious associations are forbidden: (a) to create mutual aid funds, cooperatives, producer associations and in any way to use the property at their disposal for any purposes other than the satisfaction of religious needs; (b) to give material support to their members; (c) to organize special meetings for children, young people, or prayer meetings or other meetings for women, or general meetings, groups, circles or sections for bible study, study of literature, handicrafts or work, or to organize excursions and children's playgrounds, to open libraries or reading rooms, to set up sana- toria or medical aid programmes. in prayer buildings and premises only those books may be stored which are necessary for the conduct of the cult in question." "the registering bodies have the right to remove individual members from the memqership of the executive body of a religious society or group of believers." art. reads " ... the above-mentioned ministers of the cult may commence their activity only after the religious society or group of believers has presented details of them to the registering body." the instruction on keepine a record of relieious associations, prayer houses and buildines and also on the resistration of executive oreans of relieious associations and ministers of the cult, of october , arts. - elaborate on these arrangements. for a commentary on the appli- cation of the revised law on religious associations in the ukrainian ssr see docu- ment on pp. - . .. chronicle of current events, no. , russian edition, khronika press, new york, , p. . ibid., p. . report, undated, but autumn (listed in rcl, vo!. , no. , , os/ / p/i ). chronicle of current events, no. , russian edition, khronika press, new york, , p. . communication, december (listed in rcl, vo!. , no. , , os/ / p/ )· i soviet policy towards evanbelicals l. bulletin of the council of ece prisoners' relatives, , p. ll; bulletin , , pp. - . bulletin , , p. . bulletin , , pp. - . :?-' bulletin , , pp. - . information bulletin of the union' of evangelical christians-baptists of ussr, december . law on religious associations, april , art. . bulletin of the council of ecb prisoner~' relatives, , p. . see document on pp. - (pentecostal appeal to wcq. bratsky vestnik, no. , , p. ; ibid., no. , , p. ; british weekly, april , p. . so eurotlame, january , p. . bulletin of the council of ecb prisoners' relatives, , pp. - and - . see document on pp. - (extracts from chronicle of current events, nos. and ). appendix soviet law on religion: ukrainian comment the ukrainian atheist monthly lyudyna i svit (man and the world) in its june issue (pp. - ) published a com- mentary on the revised "regulations on religious associations in the ukrainian ssr". this commentary written by o. havrylyuk, is entitled "legal guarantees of freedom of conscience". the article emphasizes the restrictive nature of the legislation and illustrates the importance placed on registration as a means of contl,olling the activities of churches, whiff! denying that it in any way limits freedom of conscience. [ ... ] in our country citizens are guaran- teed full realization of freedom of con- science, that is the right to confess or not to confess any religion, to hold or not to hold a religious world-view, to perform religious cults or conduct atheist propaganda. it is not by chance that soviet legislation on cults is justifi- ably called legislation on freedom of conscience. it excludes any kind of constraint on man's conscience. soviet legislation on cults has been developed and refined simultaneously 'with ,the development of socialist de- mocracy. the "regulations on religious associations in the ukrainian ssr" were adopted by decree of the presidium of the supreme soviet of the ukrainian ssr on i november . [ ... ] the present legislation on cults makes provision for questions about the reg- istration of religious associations and the opening and closing of places of worship to be decided by a central body, the council for religious affairs (cra) attached to the ussr council of minis- ters. the "regulations" define the role and functions of the cra attached to the council of ministers of the ukrain- ian ssr, a state body which is one of the structural subdivisions of the cra attach- ed to the ussr council of ministers. in the new legislation the principle of centralization in the exercise of control over the implementation of the legisla- tion on religious cults, is embodied in several articles. the "regulations" state that believing citizens who have reached the age of may, for the satisfaction of their re- ligious needs, come together voluntarily into religious congregations, which are local associations of believing citizens of one and the same cult, denomination or_ movement. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa vol. , pp. – , august medical sciences a genetic defect resulting in mild low-renin hypertension robert c. wilson*, swati dave-sharma*, ji-qing wei*, varuni r. obeyesekere†, kevin li†, paolo ferrari‡, zygmunt s. krozowski†, cedric h. l. shackleton§, leon bradlow*, timothy wiens¶, and maria i. new*i *pediatric endocrinology, the new york hospital–cornell medical center, east th street, new york, ny ; †laboratory of molecular hypertension, baker medical research institute, p.o. box prahran, melbourne, australia ; ‡division of nephrology, inselspital bern, switzerland; §mass spectrometry facility, children’s hospital oakland, nd street, oakland, ca - ; and ¶wichita clinic, bethel office, south pine street, newton, ks contributed by maria i. new, june , abstract severe low-renin hypertension has few known causes. apparent mineralocorticoid excess (ame) is a genetic disorder that results in severe juvenile low-renin hypertension, hyporeninemia, hypoaldosteronemia, hypokalemic alkalosis, low birth weight, failure to thrive, poor growth, and in many cases nephrocalcinosis. in , it was shown that mutations in the gene (hsd b ) encoding the b-hydroxysteroid dehydroge- nase type enzyme ( b-hsd ) cause ame. typical patients with ame have defective b-hsd activity, as evidenced by an abnormal ratio of cortisol to cortisone metabolites and by an exceedingly diminished ability to convert [ - h]cortisol to cortisone. recently, we have studied an unusual patient with mild low-renin hypertension and a homozygous mutation in the hsd b gene. the patient came from an inbred mennonite family, and though the mutation identified her as a patient with ame, she did not demonstrate the typical features of ame. biochemical analysis in this patient revealed a moderately ele- vated cortisol to cortisone metabolite ratio. the conversion of cortisol to cortisone was % compared with – % in typical patients with ame whereas the normal conversion is – %. molecular analysis of the hsd b gene of this patient showed a homozygous c t transition in the second nucleotide of codon , resulting in a substitution of proline with leucine (p l). the parents and sibs were heterozygous for this mutation. in vitro expression studies showed an increase in the km ( nm) over normal ( nm). because ' % of patients with essential hypertension demonstrate low renin, we suggest that such pa- tients should undergo genetic analysis of the hsd b gene. a form of severe low-renin hypertension called apparent miner- alocorticoid excess (ame) first was described biochemically in ( ). similar patients subsequently were described, all of whom had prominent clinical signs and symptoms, including low birth weight, polyuria and polydipsia, failure to thrive, severe hypertension, hypokalemia, hypoaldosteronemia, nephrocalcino- sis, and suppressed plasma renin activity (pra), and it has been associated with sudden fatality. the deficiency of b- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type enzyme has been demon- strated in patients with ame and explains the pathogenesis of the disease, which results from excess cortisol binding to the miner- alocorticoid receptor ( ). the cause of the disease was shown to be mutations in the hsd b gene encoding the b-hsd enzyme ( ). we report here on a form of low-renin hypertension in which a gene mutation produces a mild deficiency in the b-hsd enzyme. in contrast to previously described patients with ame, this new patient has low-renin hypertension and hypoaldosteronism but no other phenotypic features that would lead to the diagnosis of ame. thus, the genetic mutation in the hsd b gene, which results in a mild b-hsd enzyme deficiency, may be the cause of low-renin essential hypertension, the diagnostic basis of which is mostly unknown. because % of patients with essential hypertension are associated with low renin, a number of these patients may have a mild form of ame. further, as spironolactone causes ready remission, it is important to seek the diagnosis by genetic and clinical studies. two isoforms of b-hsd have been identified and char- acterized, both of which originally were suspected of involve- ment in ame. the type isoform ( b-hsd ) was cloned and characterized by tannin et al. ( ); it is nadp-dependent and is expressed in several human tissues ( , ). this type was ruled out as the cause of ame ( ). later, a defect in the type isoform was shown to be the cause of ame ( ). the type isoform of the b-hsd enzyme is nad-dependent ( ). it normally protects humans from cortisol intoxication by con- verting cortisol to cortisone, which does not bind to the type mineralocorticoid receptor. because aldosterone is not metabolized by the b-hsd enzyme, it normally has unim- peded access to the mineralocorticoid receptor, which has equal affinity to aldosterone and cortisol ( , ). in patients with ame, however, because cortisol is secreted in milligram amounts whereas aldosterone is secreted in microgram amounts, cortisol saturates the mineralocorticoid receptor in patients with deficient b-hsd enzyme activity. the excess cortisol binding to the mineralocorticoid receptor produces a hypermineralocorticoid state, which results in hypokalemia, sodium retention, and volume expansion, thus suppressing plasma renin and aldosterone secretion. signs of mineralocor- ticoid excess caused by cortisol binding to the mineralocorti- coid receptor in the absence of aldosterone is the hallmark of the disease, which has therefore been called ‘‘apparent min- eralocorticoid excess.’’ the cdna for the enzyme b-hsd was cloned, and the gene (hsd b ) encoding the enzyme was mapped to human chromosome q ( , ). immunohistological and activity studies localized the type isoform to the distal nephron of the human kidney ( – ). recently, researchers have identified mutations in the gene (hsd b ) encoding b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type . thus far, patients in kindreds have had dna analysis, revealing a total of different mutations in the hsd b gene (refs. , , , and – ; p. m. stewart, personal communication) (table ). all of the patients had homozygous defects except three, who were compound heterozy- gotes (table , patients , , and ). to date, there have been a total of ' patients with ame and two -week fetuses with ame reported worldwide ( – , , , , – ) (table ). the publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. this article must therefore be hereby marked ‘‘advertisement’’ in accordance with u.s.c. § solely to indicate this fact. © by the national academy of sciences - y y - $ . y pnas is available online at www.pnas.org. abbreviations: ame, apparent mineralocorticoid excess; pra, plasma renin activity; thf, tetrahydrocortisol; the, tetrahydrocortisone, chop, modified chinese hamster ovary cell line. ito whom reprint requests should be addressed at: department of pediatrics, division of pediatric endocrinology, the new york hospital–cornell medical center, east th street, box , new york, ny . e-mail: minew@mail.med.cornell.edu. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , in a recent report of our extensive personal experience, geno- type, biochemical features, and phenotype of patients with severe low-renin hypertension caused by ame (patients – , table ) were examined ( ). all of the patients described had characteristic signs of a severe b-hsd defect. birth weights were significantly lower than their unaffected sibs, and the patients were short, underweight, and hypertensive for age. variable damage of one or more organs (kidneys, retina, heart, and central nervous system) was found in all of the patients except one. the follow-up studies of end organ damage after to years of treatment in six patients demonstrated significant im- provement in all patients. the urinary metabolites of cortisol demonstrated an abnormal ratio with predominance of cortisol metabolites ( ); that is, table . review of ame patients worldwide: signs and biochemical features at presentation and subsequent biochemical and genetic evaluation patient kin- dred ethnicity age, years sex birth weight, kg blood pressure, mmhg blood pressure ( th centile for age) serum k , mmoly liter thf athfy the f secretion rate, mgyd % con- version, f e hsd b mutation ref. * american indian . f . y y . . . e - frameshift zoroastrian . m . y y . . ‡ . r h, dy italian-moroccan . m . y y . . . nd l ryd n african american . f . y y . . . r c african american . f . y y . . . . r c east indian . m . y y . . . r h, dy east indian . m . y y . . . r h, dy middle eastern . m . y y . . . nd r c middle eastern . m . y y . . . nd r c american indian . m . y y . . . . l p, l s persian . f . y y . . nd nd r c persian . m . y y . nd nd r c persian . f . y y . . nd nd r c turkish . m . y y . . nd . n - frameshift mennonite . f . y y . . . . p l this report american indian m y y . r c caucasianysouth american indian f y y . . r c , caucasianysouth american indian . f y y . r c , * caucasianysouth american indian m – nd american indian f y y – . l p, l s european- american indian . m y y . . l p, l s , mexican american f y y – . intron (c to t) irish american . m y y – codon , d ntycodon , d nt asian-pakistani . m y y . r x , asian-pakistani . m y y r x , *† asian-pakistani – m – – – – – – – r x , *† asian-pakistani – m – – – – – – – r x , japanese m . y y . . r hy r h, dy brazilian f y y . . a v , german f y y . nd french f . y y . ‡ nd * american indian . f y y . . nd caucasian m y y . . nd northern european . m . y y . nd * caucasian . m . y y . . nd caucasian . f y y . ‡ r x§ caucasian m y y . . nd * asian-pakistani . m – low nd nd , turkish . m low y y low . nd french m . y y . nd french . m . y y . nd ¶ . nd ¶ . nd ¶ nd normal values . . . – . . . – % *died (patient died of stroke and may have been affected by ame. patients and were still born. patient died after fever, persistently raised blood pressure, and hypokalemia. patient , a twin of patient , died of a diarrheal illness; ame is suspected). †placental dna. ‡thfythe. §personal communication from p. m. stewart. ¶unreported potential ame patients. nd, not done; f, cortisol; b, cortisone. medical sciences: wilson et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , [tetrahydrocortisol (thf) athf]ytetrahydrocortisone (the) was . to whereas the normal ratio is . . infusion of [ - h]cortisol was used in patients to examine their ability to convert cortisol to cortisone by measuring the release of tritiated water. all of the previously reported patients with ame who were examined in this way exhibited little release of tritiated water compared with normal, indicating their failure to convert cortisol to cortisone. because of the small number of patients with identical muta- tions, it was difficult to correlate genotype with phenotype. for example, patient had one of the most severe mutations, resulting in the truncation of the enzyme b-hsd , and died at the age of years while under treatment whereas patient , with a similarly severe mutation, is thriving at age . three patients (patients , , and ) with identical homozygous mutations from different families had varying degrees of severity in clinical and biochemical features. herein we report studies of a patient with a mild form of low-renin hypertension. when the patient was referred with the diagnosis of ame but without hypokalemia and other classic signs and symptoms of the disease, b-hsd deficiency ap- peared unlikely. however, the diagnosis of ame proved correct on further examination. though she demonstrated only mild hypertension and hypoaldosteronism and was otherwise asymp- tomatic, the patient clearly had ame based on biochemical evidence and later was proven to be homozygous for the p l mutation of the hsd b gene. case r eport this patient is a member of a highly inbred mennonite population (fig. ). she was born by vaginal delivery with a normal birth weight ( . kg), similar to her unaffected her sibs (table ). she grew normally without typical symptoms of other patients with ame, such as polyuria and polydipsia, failure to thrive, or developmental delay. after the detection of asymptomatic mild low-renin hypertension during a routine sports physical at age . , she was referred to a kansas medical center for further evaluation. an extensive evaluation by her local mennonite physician included normal serum electrolytes, urine analysis, urine culture, renal sonogram, renal scan, intravenous pyelogram, renal arteriogram, and urinary catecholamines. the patient was considered to be a potential ame patient by t.w., the local physician and co-author, and was referred to the new york hospital–cornell medical center children’s clinical research center for further evaluation. on examination at the new york hospital–cornell medical center at years of age, her height was . cm ( th centile), her weight was . kg ( th centile), her body mass index was . , and she was tanner stage ii for pubic hair and breast development. her blood pressure was y ( th centile for age and sex, y ), she was normokale- mic (serum k concentration . mmolyliter), and did not have alkalosis (co mmolyliter) (table ). her endocrine evaluation revealed that her pra was low ( . ngymlyhr) and that her hormone levels were unremarkable, with the exception of her serum aldosterone and urinary ph aldosterone, which were both undetectable (see tables , , and ). materials and methods this patient was studied under an institutionally approved pro- tocol on the children’s clinical research center of the new york hospital–cornell medical center. blood pressures were measured every hr with a mercury sphygmomanometer after the patient had been supine for at least min throughout her hospitalization. the patient was given a diet calculated for calories, sodium, and potassium by the children’s clinical re- search center kitchen. her -hr urines were collected and checked for urinary steroids, sodium, potassium, calcium, and creatinine. blood samples for adrenal steroids, pra, and elec- trolytes were collected daily at a.m. hormone analysis. hormone studies were performed after all antihypertensive medications had been discontinued for days. serum cortisol, aldosterone, deoxycortisone, corticosterone, tes- tosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, d -androstenedione, and es- tradiol were measured according to reported methods ( – ). pra was measured by the method of sealey et al. ( ). urinary steroid metabolites were measured by assays as described by shackleton et al. ( ). corticotropin (acth) stimulation testing was performed by injecting . mg of cortrosyn i.v. serum hormones were assayed at and min after injection. metabolic studies. cortisol secretion rate and cortisol half-life were determined as described ( , , , ). to establish the fig. . pedigree of mennonite family showing consanguinity ( ). table . clinical and steroid hormone data age, years height, cm (centile) weight, kg (centile) blood pressure mmhg blood pressure, mmhg ( th centile for age) k , mmoly liter co , mmoly liter serum f., mgydl serum aldo, ngydl urine ph aldo, mgy h pra ngymlzh f secretion rate, mgym yd comments . . ( ) ( ) y y . nd nd , . , ud at presentation in kansas ( ) . ( ) y y . . ud ud . nd admission to new york hospital . ( ) . ( )* y y . . nd . . spironolactone ( mgyday) chlorothiazide ( mgyday) normal ( ) ( )† y . – . – – – – . – . . *body mass index . . †body mass index . . nd, not done; ud, undetectable; aldo, aldosterone; f, cortisol. medical sciences: wilson et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , dysfunction of the b-hsd enzyme, the metabolism of cortisol to cortisone was determined by measuring the release of tritiated water after [ - h]cortisol infusion, as described by hellman et al. ( ). the tritiated water was recovered from the plasma by lyophilization. molecular analysis. in this patient, exons through of the hsd b gene were sequenced, with the exception of the first base pairs of exon . dna sequencing was done after two rounds of pcr. in the first pcr, genomic dna ( – ng obtained from peripheral blood leukocytes) as described in ref. was denatured for min at °c and was amplified using primers gtgactctggttttggcaagga and aagta- cagtacatgcttccctgtgg. the following reagents were added to the denatured dna: mm kcl, mm triszhcl (ph . ), . mm mgcl , . % gelatin, . units taq polymerase (life technologies, grand island, ny), mm dntp, and . mm of each primer. the samples were subjected to denaturation at °c for min. five cycles consisting of °c for min, °c for . min, and °c for min were performed, followed by cycles consisting of °c for min, °c for . min, and °c for min. a final cycle consisted of °c for min, °c for . min, and °c for min. the second pcr was performed in a -ml volume containing ml from the first pcr with pmols of forward primer and pmols of reverse biotin primer, as described in ref. . the remaining reagents were identical to that of the first pcr. the samples were denatured for min at °c and then for cycles of min at °c, sec at °c, min at °c, cycles of sec at °c, sec at °c, min at °c, cycle of min at °c, . min at °c, and min at °c. the end of exon was pcr-amplified directly without the first round of pcr by using – ng of genomic dna, following the identical conditions of the second pcr by using primers f and b ( ). dna sequencing. sequencing of the hsd b gene was performed using solid phase single-strand sequencing with the sequenase dye primer kit (applied biosystems) containing m primers. single-stranded dna from the pcr fragments was purified with streptavidin-bound magnetic beads (dynal, oslo), following the procedure in bulletin from applied biosystems. after denaturation to remove the nonbiotinylated dna strand, the bound dna strand then was sequenced. sequencing was done following the procedure described in the sequencing manual supplied with the sequencing kit with the following modifications: for the a and c reactions, ml instead of ml of the respective dye primers were used; and, instead ml of the sequenase enzyme, ml were used. for the g and t reactions, ml instead of ml of the respective dye primers were used; and, instead of ml of the sequenase enzyme, ml were used. the reactions were incubated at °c for min, and then the four reactions were stopped by pooling them into ml of tt buffer ( mm triszhcl, ph . y . % tween ). the beads were concentrated with a magnet and were washed with an additional ml of tt buffer. the sequencing products were electrophoresed and ana- lyzed with an applied biosystems model a sequencer. in vitro expression studies. expression studies were per- formed as described ( , ). the palter vector containing the insert from phsd ( ) was mutagenized with the following oligonucleotide: gacatgccatatctgtgcttgggggcc. the mutated insert was subcloned in the mammalian expression vector pcdnai (invitrogen) to give the mutant plasmid pp l. chinese hamster ovary modified cell line (chop) cells were transfected, and homogenates were prepared and analyzed as described ( ), with the exception of the presence or absence of % glycerol. the addition of glycerol had little or no effect on the percent conversion of cortisol to cortisone. the km was determined in homogenates over the range of nm to nm cortisol. the km in whole cells was determined over a range of nm to nm cortisol. for western blot analysis, mg of transfected chop-cell homogenate protein was loaded per lane. antibody huh ( ) was used at mgyml. results metabolic studies. to study the patient’s cortisol secretion rate, she was infused with [ , - h]cortisol. her secretion rate was . mgyday, which is extremely low (see table ). to study the patient’s ability to convert cortisol to cortisone, the patient was infused with [ - h]cortisol. the release of tritiated water was used to measure the conversion of cortisol to cortisone. the patient converted . % of [ - h]cortisol to cortisone. normal conversion is % to % whereas previously studied patients with ame converted only % to % ( , , , , ). the patient’s -hr urinary cortisol metabolites are shown in table . her (thf athf)ythe ratio was . , whereas patients with fig. . mutations in the gene for b-hydroxysteroid dehydroge- nase type in patients with ame. these patients were investigated by our group, and the phenotypes are well described. the hsd b gene has five exons, is . kb long, and has been mapped to chromosome q . the mutation in patient is reported here (identified by an arrow). all mutations found in affected patients are homozygous except for patient , who is a compound heterozygote. table . urinary metabolites on admission to the new york hospital–cornell medical center urinary metabolites patient with mild ame typical ame normal controls thf (mgyd) . – . the (mgyd) ud– . athf (mgyd) ud– . thfythe . . – . , thf a thfythe . . – ud, undetectable. table . acth stimulation test at admission to the new york hospital–cornell medical center time -ohp, ngydl d , ngydl aldo, ngydl doc, ngydl b, mgydl f, mgydl d , ngydl t, ngydl ds, ngydl dhea, ngydl e , ngydl dht, ngydl b . . . b . . . -ohp, -hydroxyprogesterone; d , -hydroxypregnenolone; aldo, aldosterone; doc, deoxycorticosterone; b, corticosterone; f, cortisol; d , d -androstenedione; t, testosterone; ds, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; dhea, dehydroepiandrosterone; es, estradiol; dht, dihydrotestos- terone. medical sciences: wilson et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , ame previously studied by us had (thf athf)ythe ratios of . to ( ), and it has been reported to be as high as ( ). adrenal hormone studies. the patient’s baseline and -min acth-stimulated adrenal hormones were all within the normal limits or close to normal, with the exception of aldosterone (see table ). as with most patients with ame, after acth stimu- lation, her aldosterone level remained undetectable. gene mutational analysis. dna analysis of the patient’s hsd b gene revealed a homozygous c to t transition in the second nucleotide of codon (ccg to ctg), resulting in a substitution of a proline for a leucine (p l) (fig. ). the patient’s parents and her two siblings are heterozygous for this mutation. in vitro expression studies. in vitro expression studies were used to determine the kinetics and activity of the b-hsd enzyme with a p l mutation. wild-type phsd or mutant pp l plasmids were transfected into chop cells. kinetic analyses using cell homogenates revealed a km of nm (data not shown) from cells transfected with phsd and a km of nm from cells transfected with pp l (fig. ). kinetic analyses also were done in whole cells and revealed similar km [ nm for cells transfected with the wild-type phsd plasmid and nm for cells transfected with the pp l plasmid (data not shown)]. whole cell expression studies resulted in similar conversion activities. the conversion of cortisol to cortisone using the wild-type phsd plasmid was %, and the mutant pp l plasmid resulted in % conversion (data not shown). however, expression studies using cell homogenates resulted in only % conversion of cortisol to cortisone with pp l whereas phsd resulted in % conversion (data not shown). the presence or absence of % glycerol made no difference in the percent conversion. western analysis showed that comparable amounts of mutant and wild-type b-hsd were expressed (fig. ). discussion essential hypertension has been estimated to occur in million residents in the united states, and ' % are associated with low renin. because mild low-renin hypertension can affect a young patient, it is imperative that it is detected as early as possible for prophylactic therapy and careful monitoring of the patient. apparent mineralocorticoid excess is a severe form of low- renin hypertension that begins in childhood. thus far, it has been rarely reported, with ' patients identified worldwide. dna analysis has now been performed in patients with ame (table ; fig. ). we have examined the phenotype of of these patients at the new york hospital–cornell medical center, including the mild case (table , patients – ). before this report, all of the patients have displayed symptoms typical of ame, such as low birth weight, failure to thrive, poor growth, severe hypertension, hypokalemia, hyporeninemia, and hypoaldosteronemia. the pa- tient reported in this article did not report symptoms, though mild hypertension relative to her age and weight, low pra, and low aldosterone were found on examination. she also had moderately abnormal findings on her electroencephalogram: rare left front- to-central sharp waves occurred spontaneously accompanied by no observed behavioral change, which is suggestive of a seizure disorder of left front-to-central origin but is not diagnostic. from the data presented in table , it is evident that the genetic defect in hsd b is mild in this patient. she lacks (i) low birth weight, (ii) severe hypertension, (iii) failure to thrive, (iv) polyuria and polydipsia, (v) hypokalemia, and (vi) nephrocalcinosis and other significant end organ damage. indeed, her major manifes- tations of ame are hyporeninemia, hypoaldosteronemia, and mild hypertension. in addition, the studies of conversion of cortisol to cortisone indicate that this patient has b-hsd activity intermediate between severely affected patients with ame and normals. the p l construct gave a km for cortisol of nm as compared with a km of nm for the wild-type construct in whole cells. this is in contrast to the km in an expression study of a severely affected patient with ame, which was totally devoid of activity. the km of severely affected patients can be as high as , nm, as compared with the normal control of nm ( ). these studies indicate that the mutation p l is less severe than the mutations reported in other patients with ame. most reported patients with ame have homozygous muta- tions. homozygosity for a rare mutation classically is explained by consanguinity, endogamy, or a founder effect. historical evi- dence among reported patients with ame suggests that many are members of consanguineous populations ( , ). the patient described here is from a consanguineous mennonite family (of the alexanderwohl church) (see pedigree, fig. ). it is possible that the mild form of ame seen in this patient may be prevalent in this inbred mennonite population. a study is in place in which the mennonite population will be analyzed to determine whether fig. . determination of km value (michaelis–menten constant) for the metabolism of cortisol by b-hsd enzyme in chop cell homogenates transfected with pp l in the presence of % glycerol (transfection with phsd resulted in a km of nm). fig. . western blot analysis of homogenates from chop cells transfected with pp l, wild type (phsd ) or pcdna vector. fig. . calculation of the frequency of a mild form of ame among an inbred mennonite population of , members. this calculation would be a minimum frequency if no additional patients with ame are found. medical sciences: wilson et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , there are other cases of this mild form of ame. the gene frequency, heterozygote frequency, and disease frequency for ame in this population of , inbred mennonites will be calculated according to the hardy–weinberg equation (fig. ). if , members of the mennonite population are screened for the gene mutation observed in our patient, the degree of error in the estimated prevalence will be at most %. % of patients with essential hypertension are associated with low renin, a number of these patients may have a mild form of ame. as spironolactone causes ready remission, it is important to seek the diagnosis in this population by clinical studies and genetic analysis of the hsd b gene. we express our appreciation to laurie vandermolen for her editorial assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. significant sections of the work on which the data are reported herein were supported by u.s. public health service grant hd and general clinical research center grant rr . transportation for the patient and her parents was made possible by the mary t. harriman fund. . new, m. i., levine, l. s., biglieri, e. g., pareira, j. & ulick, s. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . dave-sharma, s., wilson, r. c., harbison, m. d., newfield, r., razzaghy-azar, m., krozowski, z., funder, j. w., shackleton, c. h. l., bradlow, h. l., wei, j., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . wilson, r. c., harbison, m. d., krozowski, z. s., funder, j. w., shackleton, c. h. l., hanauske-able, h. m., wei, j. q., herte- cant, j., moran, a., neiberger, r. e., balfe, j. w., et al. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . tannin, g. m., agarwal, a. k., monder, c., new, m. i. & white, p. c. ( ) j. biol. chem. , – . . whorwood, c. b., mason, j. i., rickets, m. l., howie, a. j. & stewart, p. m. ( ) mol. cell. endocrinol. , r –r . . nikkila, h., tannin, g. m., new, m. i., taylor, n. f., kalaitzo- glou, g., monder, c. & white, p. c. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) steroids , – . . lan, n. c., matulich, d. t., stockigt, j. r., biglieri, e. g., new, m. i., winter, j. s., mckenzie, j. k. & baxter, j. d. ( ) circ. res. (suppl. i) – . . lombes, m., kenouch, s., souque, a., farman, n. & rafestin- oblin, m. e. ( ) endocrinology , – . . albiston, a. l., obeyesekere, v. r., smith, r. e. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) mol. cell. endocrinol. , r –r . . mune, t., rogerson, f. m., nikkila, h., agarwal, a. k. & white, p. c. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . krozowski, z., maguire, j. a., stein-oakley, a. n., dowling, j., smith, r. e. & andrews, r. k. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . krozowski, z., albiston, a. l., obeyesekere, v. r., andrews, r. k. & smith, r. e. ( ) j. steroid. biochem. mol. biol. , – . . zhetcho, k., walker, p. d. & reeves, w. b. ( ) kidney int. , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a., watlington, c. o. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) endocrinology , – . . naray-fejes-toth, a., rusvai, e. & fejes-toth, g. ( ) am. j. physiol. , f –f . . wilson, r. c., krozowski, z. s., li, k., obeyesekere, v. r., razzaghy-azar, m., harbison, m. d., wei, j. q., shackleton, c. h. l., funder, j. w. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . stewart, p. m., krozowski, z. s., gupta, a., milford, d. v., howie, j. a. & sheppard, m. c. ( ) lancet , – . . kitanaka, s., katsumata, n., tanae, a., hibi, i., takeyama, k., fuse, h., kato, s. & tanaka, t. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . li, a., li, k. x. z., marui, s., krozowski, z. s., batista, m. c., whorwood, c. b., arnhold, i. j. p., shackleton, c. h. l., mendonca, b. b. & stewart, p. m. ( ) j. hypertens. , – . . werder, e. a., zachmann, m., vollmin, j. a., veyrat, r. & prader, a. ( ) res. steroids , – . . ulick, s., levine, l. s., gunczler, p., zanconato, g., ramirez, l. c., rauh, w., rosler, a., bradlow, h. l. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . shackleton, c. h., rodriguez, j., arteaga, e., lopez, j. m. & winter, j. s. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . stewart, p. m., corrie, j. e., shackleton, c. h. & edwards, c. r. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . batista, m. c., mendonca, b. b., kater, c. e., arnhold, i. j., rocha, a., nicolau, w. & bloise, w. ( ) j. pediatr. , – . . monder, c., shackleton, c. h., bradlow, h. l., new, m. i., stoner, e., iohan, f. & lakshmi, v. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . kitanaka, s., tanae, a. & hibi, i. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . sann, l., revol, a., zachmann, m., legrand, j. c. & bethenod, m. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . shackleton, c. h., honour, j. w., dillon, m. j., chantler, c. & jones, r. w. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . honour, j. w., dillon, m. j., levin, m. & shah, v. ( ) arch. dis. child. , – . . milford, d. v., shackleton, c. h. l. & stewart, p. m. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . muller-berghaus, j., homoki, j., michalk, d. v. & querfeld, u. ( ) acta. paediatr. , – . . fiselier, t. j., otten, b. j., monnens, l. a., honour, j. w. & van munster, p. j. ( ) horm. res. , – . . harinck, h. i., van brummelen, p., van seters, a. p. & moolenaar, a. j. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . winter, j. s. d. & mckenzie, j. k. ( ) in juvenile hyperten- sion, eds. new, m. i. & levine, s. (raven, new york), pp. – . . gourmelen, m., saint-jacques, i., morineau, g., soliman, h., julien, r. & fiet, j. ( ) eur. j. endocrinol. , – . . abraham, g. e., corrales, p. c. & teller, r. c. ( ) anal. lett. , . . abraham, g. e., manlimos, f. s., solis, m. & wickman, a. c. ( ) clin. biochem. , – . . korth-schutz, s., levine, l. s. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . rauh, w., levine, l. s., gottesdiener, k., chow, d., oberfield, s. e., gunczler, p., pareira, j. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . sonino, n., chow, d., levine, l. s. & new, m. i. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . sealey, j. e., campbell, g. & preibisz, j. j. ( ) renin, aldosterone, peripheral vein, renal vein, and urinary assays (raven, new york). . shackleton, c. h. l. ( ) j. steroid biochem. mol. biol. , – . . dimartino-nardi, j., stoner, e., martin, k., balfe, j. w., jose, p. a. & new, m. i. ( ) clin. endocrinol. , – . . hellman, l., nakada, f., zumoff, b., fukushima, d., bradlow, h. l. & gallagher, t. f. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . wilson, r. c., wei, j. q., cheng, k. c., mercado, a. b. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . obeyesekere, v. r., ferrari, p., andrews, r. k., wilson, r. c., new, m. i., funder, j. w. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . ferrari, p., obeyesekere, v. r., li, k., wilson, r. c., new, m. i., funder, j. w. & krozowski, z. s. ( ) mol. cell. endocrinol. , – . . ulick, s., ramirez, l. c. & new, m. i. ( ) j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , – . . wedel, d. c. ( ) the story of alexanderwohl (mennonite press, newton, ka). medical sciences: wilson et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ geoffrey o. hartzler, md in memoriam geoffrey o. hartzler, md a tribute barry d. rutherford, md; joel k. kahn, md; david strelow; david r. holmes, jr, md on saturday, march , , cardiology sadly lost oneof its brightest stars. geoffrey o. hartzler died suddenly at his home at the lake of the ozarks; he was years old. geoff was a very special individual, intellectually brilliant, intense, energetic, and controversial. he was born in in goshen, in, the second of brothers, the youngest of whom died tragically of a berry aneurysm as a teenager. his father was a mennonite minister who in a later career was instrumental in establishing the first outpatient community mental health center in the united states. his mother contracted polio when geoff was years old and survived in an iron lung. she remained the focus of the family’s energy for nearly decades. he entered medical school at indiana university. while a freshman, he worked -hour shifts watching a telemetry monitor and responding to car- diac arrests. at that time, he developed a keen interest in acute care medicine. he won an essay contest sponsored by the mayo clinic and spent a -month summer externship at mayo. during that externship, he met and worked with an- other student clerk, david r. holmes, jr. both went on to complete internal medicine and cardiology training at the mayo clinic and became mayo faculty members in . i (b.d.r.) first encountered geoff hartzler in the early s when he was a cardiology fellow at the mayo clinic. at that time, i was a young consultant working in the coronary care unit at st. mary’s hospital. we were floating polyethylene catheters at the bedside to the pulmonary artery in patients with acute myocardial infarction. hemodynamics were monitored and nitroprusside was infused to control left ventricular filling pressures—a complex procedure ahead of its time. geoff was on call with me one night, and by the time i arrived at the unit, he had the procedure done and indicated to me that i should go home and get some sleep. i knew then that i was dealing with a very special individual. at this time, geoff also had a keen interest in the early development and clinical application of invasive electrophys- iology. his practice included the laboratory study of patients with supraventricular tachycardia and ventricular tachycardia, leading to the elucidation of ba- sic mechanisms of tachycardia and to unique treatment modal- ities. he developed techniques for catheter-based endocardial mapping that subsequently fa- cilitated catheter-based ablation. he developed techniques for de- livering critically timed stimuli and burst pacing to terminate refractory arrhythmias and, while in rochester, performed the first such procedure. work- ing with cardiovascular sur- geons and others, he developed protocols for intraoperative electric mapping of the heart, allowing the guided resection of bypass tracts for the supraven- tricular tachycardia known as wolff-parkinson-white and the guided resection of myocardial tissue to prevent recurrent ven- tricular tachycardia, and performed intraventricular catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia. these techniques have become the standard of care. geoff first met andreas gruentzig in miami in when gruentzig presented data on balloon angioplasty in dogs. after the first human was treated in in zurich, switzer- land, the mayo clinic developed a protocol to perform peripheral angioplasty on patients before any coronary patients were to be treated. however, before the peripheral pictured from left to right, dr andreas gruentzig (ag), dr geoffrey o. hartzler (goh), and dr barry d. rutherford (bdr) at saint luke’s mid america heart institute catheterization labora- tory in . from the interventional cardiology research program (b.d.r.) and cardiovascular laboratory services (d.s.), saint luke’s mid america heart institute, kansas city, mo; department of medicine, university of missouri–kansas city school of medicine (b.d.r.); preventive cardiology, detroit medical center, and department of medicine, wayne state university school of medicine, detroit, mi (j.k.k.); and cardiovascular diseases, mayo clinic, rochester, mn (d.r.h.). correspondence to barry d. rutherford, md, saint luke’s mid america heart institute, wornall rd, old mahi , kansas city, mo . e-mail brutherford@saint-lukes.org (circulation. ; : - .) © american heart association, inc. circulation is available at http://circ.ahajournals.org doi: . /circulationaha. . d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , angioplasty protocol was completed, geoff was asked to treat a patient with an isolated proximal lesion of the left anterior descending artery. only balloon catheters were available at mayo. geoff asked dave strelow (laboratory director) to find him a big dog and then took the first catheter and manipulated it into the dogs’ left anterior descending artery. unfortu- nately, the dog died before he completed the angioplasty. undeterred, geoff said, “we are ready!” the patient was taken to the catheterization laboratory the next day, and multiple catheters were placed to measure coronary blood flow, but after almost hours, geoff could not get the balloon to cross the lesion. a large crowd had gathered in the laboratory, including many of geoff’s superiors. at the last minute, the balloon crossed the lesion, the angiogram showed a perfect result, and coronary blood flow rose greatly, the first direct measurement of this response in humans. this first mayo angioplasty was presented to the entire division a few days later. some years later, when geoff returned to rochester as a visiting professor, the mayo faculty presented a baseline angiogram for his interpretation. unbeknownst to geoff, the mayo faculty had selected the diagnostic angio- gram from the first patient that geoff had treated in roches- ter, and he immediately recognized it. this was a testimony to his incredible visual memory and educational skills. by , the contrast between geoff’s pioneering spirit and the conservative setting at mayo led him to look for an opportunity to join former mayo colleagues at saint luke’s hospital in kansas city, mo, including drs david mcco- nahay, ben mccallister, and barry rutherford. geoff then undertook the first balloon angioplasty at saint luke’s mid america heart institute in . the field was in its infancy at that time; equipment was primitive; indications for the procedure were limited; and results were uncertain. from that time on, however, geoff became the bright, brilliant light that revolutionized interventional cardiology. he possessed enor- mous energy, intense concentration, and unparalleled techni- cal skill. he published extensively and described some of the first cases using and wires, kissing balloons, hugging balloons, removal of debris from the coronary tree, and management of complications. he extended the use of angio- plasty procedures to patients with multivessel disease, teach- ing that, as equipment became more refined, , , or vessels could be safely opened during a single procedure. use of angioplasty was extended to all lesion types— ostial, bifurcation, diffuse disease, saphenous vein grafts, left internal mammary artery grafts, left main disease, chronic total occlusion, thrombus aspiration, and even a retrograde approach. his skill in the laboratory was amazing, but his demeanor should be a lesson to all young interventional cardiologists. he was always thinking ahead, never used any derogatory language, never blamed others for complications, and always spoke personally to family members. it was always rumored that geoff and andreas gruentzig were at odds with each other, with geoff being considered the “cowboy from the midwest” and andreas “the thoughtful scientist.” they had enormous respect for each other, however, and andreas visited saint luke’s in the early s to exchange ideas with geoff. perhaps his greatest contributions were in the fields of acute myocardial infarction and in patients with complex multivessel disease. in the s and s, the mortality from acute myocardial infarction was % to %, patients were on bed rest for or weeks, and most never returned to a full, active lifestyle. geoff had the vision to treat these patients with direct balloon angioplasty, a difficult, techni- cally challenging, and highly controversial procedure in . the first acute infarct patient was treated at saint luke’s mid america heart institute in . a patient who had demonstrated a focal right coronary lesion on diagnostic angiography developed an inferior myocardial infarction in the wards. geoff brought him down to the laboratory and crossed and dilated his now totally occluded artery. the patient’s pain resolved, and he was discharged home in a few days. geoff wrote a protocol for infarct angioplasty and began applying it to more patients. the initial results were published and influenced practice around the world. despite at times being under intense criticism, he was able to stay the course; he continued to refine and defend the procedure, and finally after years, direct angioplasty was established as a class recommendation and the preferred standard of care. mortality has now decreased to single digits, and patients are dismissed from the hospital in to days and are able to return to active lifestyles. it is no exaggeration to state that in developing the procedure, geoff has saved millions of lives in the united states and around the world. today, the american college of cardiology and the american heart association consider acute angioplasty to be the critical step in the management of acute myocardial infarction patients as de- scribed in “guidelines for the management of patients with st-elevation myocardial infarction.” geoff’s commitment to research and teaching was legend- ary. beginning with the first patient treated in kansas city, a prospective database of procedural details and outcome was maintained. a staff of research assistants was developed, and the database numbered thousands and then tens of thousands of patients; many seminal observations in interventional cardiology emanated from this database. beginning in the early s, geoff also began to offer small courses to teach angioplasty to other physicians. these grew in size and frequency, moving to a larger auditorium and including an annual course in hawaii. by , teaching courses had been developed: course in basic angioplasty techniques and courses in advanced angioplasty techniques. approximately physicians attended these courses each year, and over a -year span, a generation of interventional cardiologists was trained. geoff had the un- canny ability to speak what he was thinking, so during a complex, difficult procedure, he continued to teach and instruct the audience. these conferences set the tone for all future teaching courses in interventional cardiology and were influential in defining conferences such as the tct. in , he also developed the first advanced angioplasty fellowship program, training cardiologists annually in advanced tech- niques. paul teirstein was the first fellow in to . gregg stone and james o’keeke were fellows in to rutherford et al geoffrey o. hartzler, md: a tribute d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , ; joel kahn and tommy lee, from to . this heritage of education has continued to the present day. geoff also was involved in the early development of internal defibrillators. he and other pioneers incorporated ventritex, inc, in to develop a superior defibrillator. he incorporated programmed stimulation and burst pacing as a means of terminating tachycardias. by , geoff had been practicing invasive cardiology at a pace only a few could match. he chose to change direction and stepped back from clinical medicine to become director of cardiovascular research at saint luke’s mid america heart institute, a post he held until his retirement in decem- ber . at the time of his retirement, we presented him with a plaque with a quotation that summarizes our feelings about this remarkable man: with boundless energy, creative genius and unparal- leled skill, you have propelled the field of complex coronary angioplasty from its infancy to widespread clinical acceptance and maturity. those of us that have been privileged to work with you remain in your debt. as an internationally acclaimed teacher, a kind and caring physician and especially as a dear friend—you are truly “masterly.” geoff will be greatly missed by his wife and daughters, colleagues, nursing staff, and technicians, all of whom loved him dearly. he will be missed by interventional cardiologists around the world who did not ever have the chance to interact with and to be taught by him, as well as by all other interventional cardiologists who have been influenced by his seminal work. finally, his presence will be felt by the unnamed millions of patients to come whose care has been dramatically improved by the innovations pioneered by geoff. disclosures none. reference . antman em, anbe dt, armstrong pw, bates er, green la, hand m, hochman js, krumholz hm, kushner fg, lamas ga, mullany cj, ornato jp, pearle dl, sloan ma, smith sc jr. acc/aha guidelines for the management of patients with st-elevation myocardial infarction: executive summary: a report of the acc/aha task force on practice guidelines (committee to revise the guidelines on the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction). circulation. ; : – . circulation june , d ow nloaded from http://ahajournals.org by on a pril , william v. davidson: recipient of preston e. james eminent career award william v. davidson: recipient of preston e. james eminent career award kent mathewson journal of latin american geography, volume , number , , pp. - (article) published by university of texas press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /lag. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /lag. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 				 awards 	 	 	 william v. davidson recipient of preston e. james eminent career award kent mathewson it	 is	 indeed	 a	 pleasure	 and	 an	 honor	 to	 present	 clag’s	 	 preston	 e.	 james	 eminent	career	award	to	william	v.	davidson.		bill	davidson	is	a	professor	of 	geography,	 and	 chair	 of 	 the	 department	 of 	 geography	 and	 anthropology	 at	 louisiana	 state	 university.		a	native	arkansan	with	deep	delta	roots,	davidson	joined	the	department	 in	 .			his	master’s	thesis	was	on	the	maya	 settlement	patterns	of 	isla	cozumel,	and	his	 phd	 dissertation	 recounted	 the	 historical	 geography of anglo-hispanic conflict in and around	the	bay	islands,	honduras.		he	came	 with	 skills	 and	 interests	 directed	 at	 cultural	 and	 historical	 questions	 and	 reconstructions	 along	 central	 america’s	 caribbean	 coast.		 he	 has	 honed	 and	 extended	 them	 over	 the	 past	 	 years.	 	 he	 has	 also	 moved	 inland	 at	 various	points,	particularly	in	honduras.			 before	moving	to	these	details,	i’d	like	 to	note	in	passing,	the	passing,	of 	robert	c.	 west.		dr.	west	died	may	 th	--	one	month	 ago	today.		west	came	to	lsu	in	 ,	some	 	 years	 before	 davidson	 arrived.	 	 west	 remained	 very	 active,	 save	 for	 the	 last	 three	 years.	 	 their	 time	 overlap	 was	 more	 than	 matched	 by	 their	 complementarities.	 	 most	 of 	 the	 hallmarks	 of 	 lsu’s	 latin	 americanist	 tradition	 –	 coastal	 &	 lowland	 contexts,	 material	 culture	 and	 landscape	 topics,	 focus	 on	 indigenous	 and	 non-dominant	 ethnic	 groups,	 from	 cultural	 and	 historical,	 or	 biophysical	 perspectives,	 were	 put	 in	 place	 by	 west.		davidson,	through	his	own	ample	contributions,	and	those	of 	his	students,	has	 raised	the	relief,	extended	the	scope,	and	made	it	an	ongoing	concern.		this	enterprise	 has	set	the	tone	for,	and	produced,	much	of 	the	geographic	research	on	honduras	over	 the	past	two	decades.		 permit	me	one	more	detour,	before	turning	to	davidson’s	career.	those	new	to	 clag	may	not	know	much	about	our	awards,	and	who	has	received	them	in	the	past.		 and	even	our	veteran	members	may	not	remember	all	the	details.		bill	davidson	will	be	 the thirteenth geographer to receive this award. the first clag award went to preston james	 in	 	 for	 “outstanding	 contributions	 in	 teaching,	 research,	 and	 service.”		 subsequently,	 six	 other	 clag	 members,	 including	 robert	 west,	 received	 the	 same	 award.	 	 in	 	 this	 award	 was	 split	 into	 two	 separate	 categories:	 the	 eminent	 career	 award,	and	the	distinguished	scholarship	award.		in	 	these	awards	were	renamed	 --the	preston	e.	james	eminent	latin	americanist	career	award,	and	the	carl	o.	sauer	 distinguished	scholarship	award.		the	james	award	honors	the	triad	of 	achievements	 –	research,	service,	and	teaching	–	in	equal	measure. the first james award went to dan stanislawski, a cultural-historical geographer with boots in both iberia and the new world, nicely reflecting the 	 	 	 											journal of latin american geography theme	 of 	 this	 conference.	 	 the	 subsequent	 recipients	 have	 been:	 clarence	 minkel	 ;	 david	 robinson	 ;	 angel	 bassols	 batalla	 ;	 daniel	 gade	 ;	 josh	 dickenson	 ;	 césar	 caviedes	 ;	 gerhard	 sandner	 ;	 clarissa	 kimber	 ;	 carl	 johannessen	 ;	 david	 preston	 ;	 and	 bernard	 nietschmann	 .		 this	 group	 includes	 some	 of 	 our	 foremost	 central	 americanists:	 dickenson,	 sandner,	 johannessen,	 and	 nietschmann.	 	 	 each	 is	 known	 for	 their	 unique	 and	 notable	 contributions.	 	 so	 is	 davidson,	 but	 perhaps	 what	 is	 most	 outstanding	 about	 his	 career,	 is	 the	 equipoise	 with	 which	 he	 puts	 effective	 research,	 teaching,	 and	 service	 on	 equally	 high	 planes.	 	 	 a	 superb	 natural	 athlete,	 he	 must	 draw	 on	 some	 of 	 this	 grace	 for	 his	 abilities	 to	 produce	 good	 solid	 research,	 teach	 legions	 of 	 both	 undergraduates	 and	 graduates	 about	 latin	 america	 with	 a	 legendary	 lecture	 style,	 and	 quietly	 serve	 on	 a	 crushing	 array	 of 	 committees	 and	 other	 obligations	 at	 the	 university,	 national,	 and	 international	 levels.	 	 and	 with	 such	 a	 sunny	 disposition!	 a	fuller	accounting,	of 	course,	will	appear	in	the	published	version	of 	these	remarks.		here,	 i	have	time	to	only	skim	the	surface.		let	me	give	you	then	a	quick	“roster”	of 	davidson’s	 contributions	 and	 accomplishments.	 	 the	 publications	 include	 his	 book	 on	 the	 bay	 islands,	several	edited	volumes,	and	some	sixty	other	articles,	book	chapters,	and	reviews	 primarily	dealing	with	the	historical	geography	of 	ethnic	minorities	in	central	america.		 while	 a	 popular	 and	 effective	 teacher	 in	 the	 classroom,	 it	 is	 in	 taking	 students	 to	 the	 field, where his talents are really on record. davidson is one of our most seasoned pros.	 	 since	 	 he	 has	 led	 some	 	 student	 trips	 to	 latin	 america,	 more	 than	 one	 a	 year.	 	 he	 has	 served	 as	 major	 professor	 for	 	 lsu	 graduate	 students.	 	 this	 has	 led	 to	 ten	 doctoral	 dissertations	 and	 	 master’s	 thesis	 on	 latin	 american	 topics.		 while	 i	 can’t	 recount	 their	 titles,	 i	 will	 mention	 some	 of 	 the	 topics.	 peter	 herlihy’s	 indigenous	 geographies	 in	 panama	 and	 honduras	 stand	 out.	 	 rick	 samson’s	 pech	 work	 and	 elizabeth	 fraser’s	 ladino	 study	 follow	 his	 honduran	 leads.	 	 peter	 galvin’s	 pirate	 geographies,	 scott	 brady’s	 colonial	 roads,	 taylor	 mack’s	 trujillo	 study,	 and	 craig	 revel’s	 mahogany	 work	 are	 (or	 will	 be)	 valued	 contributions	 in	 honduran	 historical	 geography.	 	 terri	 mitchell’s	 protestants	 and	 ben	 tillman’s	 moravians	 add	 to	 cultural	 geographic	 work	 on	 religious	 landscapes	 in	 honduras.		 his	 master’s	 theses	 cover	 an	 even	 greater	 collection	 of 	 cultural	 geographic	 topics.	 	 they	 include:	 salt	 making	 in	 nicoya	 and	 charcoal	 making	 in	 mexico,	 guavas	 in	 colombia	 and	 coconuts	 in	 honduras,	 gathered	 plants	 in	 jalisco	 and	 kitchen	 gardens	 in	 nicaragua,	 causeways	 in	 the	 petén	 and	 folk	 houses	 in	 belize	 and	 also	 honduras,	 confederates	 and	 mennonites	 in	 belize,	 and	 jews	 in	 suriname.	 	 as	 you	 can	 see,	 themes	 involving	 material	 culture	 and	 ethnogeography	 loom	 large.			 his	 many	 services	 performed	 on	 behalf 	 of 	 latin	 americanist	 geography	 include:	 u.s.	 alternative	 delegate	 to	 the	 o.a.s.	 pan	 american	 institute	 of 	 geography	 and	 history;	 geography	 editor	 of 	 the	 u.s.	 library	 of 	 congress’	 handbook of latin american studies;	 fulbright	 scholar	 and	 long-standing	 reviewer	 of 	 fulbright	 and	 title	 vi	 programs	 involving	 latin	 america;	 consultant	 for	 various	 projects	 in	 central	 america.	 	 in	 	 he	 was	 elected	 honorary	 member	 of 	 the	 honduran	 academy	 of 	 geography	 and	 history,	 the	 only	 non-national	 so	 honored. 	 his	 service	 to	 clag	 has	 been	 equally	 meritorious.	 	 he	 has	 been	 a	 board	 member	 twice,	 and	 oversaw	 the	 yearbook	 production	 when	 it	 was	 published	 at	 lsu	 in	 the	 s.	 	 perhaps	 most	 impressive,	 he	 has	 organized	 not	 one,	 but	 two,	 of 	 clag’s	 best	 meetings	 –	 at	 mérida,	 yucatán	 in	 ,	 and	 tegucigalpa	 in	 .		 nobody	 can	 run	 a	 more	 cost-effective	 meeting	 than	 bill	 davidson.	 	 if 	 we	 could	 only	 secure	 his	 services	 as	 permanent	 director	 of 	 clag’s	 conference	 bureau,	 we	 could	 probably	 afford	 to	 double	 the	 frequency	 of 	 our	 gatherings.	 	 i	 could	 go	 on	 in	 this	 vein	 for	 much	 more	 time	 than	 i	 have	 here.	 	 i	 am	 delighted,	 that	 despite	 other	 commitments,	 bill	 and	 his	 wonderful	 wife	 sharon,	 were	 able	 to	 make	 the	 trip. 	 in	 closing,	 i	 would	 like	 to	 return	 to	 the	 collective	 identity	 of 	 the	 previous	 preston	 james	 award	 winners.	 	 remember,	 the	 group	 includes:	 stanislawski,	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 				 awards robinson,	bassols	batalla,	gade,	dickenson,	caviedes,	sandner,	kimber,	johannessen,	 preston,	 and	 nietschmann.	 	 as	 a	 group,	 they	 share	 various	 things	 –	 not	 only	 their	 multiple accomplishments, but save lamentably for the first and the last, they also demonstrate	 an	 ongoing	 engagement	 with	 latin	 americanist	 geography.	 	 as	 it	 has	 evolved,	 this	 award	 does	 not	 have	 to	 be	 seen	 as	 a	 capstone	 event.	 	 just	 look	 at	 david	 robinson	 over	 there	 –	 ten	 years	 later,	 and	 still	 accelerating!	 	 so	 don	 guillermo,	 soon	 freed	 from	 your	 administrative	 and	 formal	 teaching	 duties,	 we	 hope	 that	 this	 award	 gives	 you	 –	 doña	 sharon	 willing	 –	 all	 the	 more	 license	 to	 do,	 what	 we	 all	 know	 you	 love	 best,	 and	 that	 is	 getting	 down	 with	 people,	 and	 getting	 dirty	 in	 all	 sorts	 of 	 places	 –	 from	 roatán	 to	 ocotepeque;	 from	 el	 triunfo	 to	 cabo	 gracias	 a	 dios.		 	 y	gracias	a	gaia	–	la	diosa	de	la	tierra	–	that	you	left	law	school	to	become	a	 cultural-historical geographer. you have been at it now for thirty-five committed years. ojalá	que	no	nos	abandones	en	tu	jubilación	y	que	nos	proporciones	varias	décadas	más!	 renaissance and reformation, book reviews / comptes rendus / recouverte d'une casaque tout aussi sophistiquée évoquant le prestige du prince, à la fois "homme et bête" d'après machiavel, et auquel les décorations emblématiques, imprégnées de réminiscences antiques confèrent une dimension mythique. cette in- fluence de l'antiquité, confirmée par quelques illustrations, est également mise en évidence par martine vasselin, ainsi que le rôle intermédiaire joué par la renaissance italienne: gravures d'ouvrages historiques, portraits, décors des résidences royales et des entrées princières s'efforcent d'harmoniser les exigences de ressemblance avec le modèle contemporain et la distanciation résultant du recours à l'antique, qui atteint son degré superlatif dans le trophée, substitut de l'image du guerrier. jean jacquart et gabriel-andré pérouse, l'un historien, l'autre littéraire, ont apporté chacun leurs conclusions respectives à cette évocation très variée de l'homme de guerre, soldat, capitaine ou prince. voyage dans le temps, du treizième au dix-septième siècle, voyage dans l'espace aussi: la matière était ample et peu d'aspects du problème ont été laissés dans l'ombre. ni l'idéalisme humaniste, ni l'embellissement artistique ou l'affabulation littéraire n'ont masqué l'omniprésence de la guerre étrangère ou civile et de son cortège de violences, accrues en ce siècle de la renaissance par le choc des idéologies et les perfectionnements techniques. etienne vaucheret, université de pau werner o. packull. hutterite beginnings. communitarian experiments during the reformation. bauimore and london: johns hopkins university press, . pp. xi, . hutterite beginnings is much more than just a chronicle of the early years of the hutterites. instead, packull sets out to narrate the early history of the hutterites, and of moravian anabaptism more generally, with close attention to its political, social and religious milieu. part i of the book examines the conditions in moravia which made it the "promised land" for a number of anabaptist groups in the late s and early s. it also investigates anabaptist traditions, both within moravia and without, which set the stage for the emergence of hutterite communitarianism. on the one hand, this leads to a reassessment of the roots and nature of the biblicism of the swiss brethren and of the significance of swiss congregational organizations for the development of other anabaptist traditions. on the other hand, it involves a reconstruction of the histories of non-hutterite early anabaptist movements in moravia: the austerlitz brethren, the phillipites and the gabrielites. much of this narrative, especially on the phillipites and gabrielites, has been pieced together from packull 's own research, and our knowledge of the history of early moravian anabaptism is significantly enriched by the publication of this book. finally, in this section of the book packull also revisits pilgram marpeck's literary conflict with / renaissance and reformation / renaissance et réforme spiritualists among the early anabaptists (likely christian entfelder and hans biinderiin) in strasbourg during and . he suggests that both the scope and the significance of this conflict are broadened when it is viewed within the context of developments in moravian anabaptism, with which all ofthe participants were associated. in part ii of the book, packull traces the origins and initial development of the hutterite movement and sets the stage for its emergence as the dominant anabaptist tradition in moravia. he chronicles the activities of jacob hutter and many of his followers in the tyrol. packull's attention to the details of the attempted suppression of austrian anabaptism, and to the anabaptist responses to persecution, provides a valuable social history of austrian anabaptism complementing the work of gary waite on northern anabaptism. the narrative then follows the proto-hutterites on the treks to moravia and their interaction — initially marked by fellowship, but all too soon by conflict — with other anabaptist groups there. a study of the persecu- tion of moravian anabaptists beginning in , carefully attuned to the shifting habsburg political fortunes, provides the context for an assessment of the fate of the various anabaptist groups: the resilience of the hutterites and the demise of the austerlitz brethren, the phillipites and the gabrielites in independent entities. packull's research provides crucial background for the more intensely studied hutterite golden age stretching from the s through to the early seventeenth century. his emphasis on the significance of persecution and the refugee experience in moulding hutterite self-understanding highlights the seriousness of earlier neglect of this chapter of hutterite history. at the same time, hutterite beginnings reflects the growing awareness among historians of the importance of the moravian experience for the history of anabaptism as a whole. after persecution decimated anabaptist ranks in switzerland and southern germany in and , the vital centres of the movement shifted to moravia and northwestern germany and the netherlands. yet, of the three anabaptist traditions which survived the sixteenth century — the hutterites, the swiss brethren and the mennonites —, the hutterites have usually been shunted to the periphery of anabaptist studies; in earlier historical writing moravia has functioned as little more than a distant promised land attracting the faithful away from the centres of the movement, and the hutterites have appeared as a communitarian aberration of the mainstream swiss brethren/men- nonite tradition. packull's book goes a long way towards redressing this imbalance. his conclusions on the role of the moravian anabaptists in copying and dissemi- nating anabaptist literature, and his demand that marpeck's debate with the spiritualizing anabaptists be evaluated within the context of developments in moravian anabaptism, suggest the importance of assigning moravia its rightful place in the history of anabaptism. furthermore, working through the implications of james stayer's research into anabaptist community of goods, packull indicates that hutterite communitarianism was not a deviation from mainline anabaptism, book reviews / comptes rendus / but rather the logical conclusion of early anabaptist thought about the nature of property and possessions. hutterite beginnings also has significance for the understanding of anabap- tism which extends beyond reassigning the hutterites and other moravian anabap- tists to their rightful place in the history of the movement. as a melting pot of swiss and south german anabaptist traditions, moravia provides the opportunity to test some basic assumptions in anabaptist studies. packull's analysis of the interaction of these traditions involves a revision on the polygenesis model of early anabaptism to which he contributed significantly. this is not to suggest that polygenesis has been abandoned, but rather that it has become more nuanced to accomodate new research. equally important are the implications of packull's re-evaluation ofthe debate between marpeck and the spiritualizing anabaptists and its aftershocks down to the s which further erode the sharp boundaries drawn between "spiritualists" and "sectarians" in the radical reformation. hutterite beginnings, like its subject matter, has significance far beyond the boundaries of the hutterian briiderhofe or the borders of moravia. it will provide stimulating and profitable reading for scholars of anabaptism and the reformation more generally. geoffrey dipple, university of toronto "christophe colomb et la découverte de l'amérique. réalités, imaginaire et réinterprétations," actes de la rencontre de la société des italianistes de l'ensei- gnement supérieur et de la société des hispanistes français, Études hispano- italiennes, ( ). ces actes abordent cinq aspects de la "découverte" de l'amérique par colomb: les influences et le milieu, l'idéologie et l'écriture, la géographie et l'imaginaire, le discours historiographique, enfin l'iconographie. deux "communications introductives" amorcent la réflexion. dans la pre- mière, ricardi garcia cârcel rappelle, fort à propos dans un ouvrage publié à l'occasion du cinquième centenaire de la "découverte," les manipulations de la mémoire historique lors des précédentes commémorations. dans la seconde, ga- briella airaldi, qui n'a malheureusement pas tenu compte de cette mise en garde, rappelle "le parcours exemplaire" de colomb et présente un portrait quelque peu hagiographique de l'homme. mais dans son analyse de "l'influence de toscanelli et de son milieu sur christophe colomb," franck la brasca redonne au colloque sa dimension critique en proposant un ambitieux programme de recherches qui permettrait de mieux cerner "le rôle de l'humanisme philologique, philosophique et scientifique dont correction at the last line of page of the july issue of this journal, in morris rieger's article, " t h e international council on archives: its first quarter century," a line was omitted, rendering the paragraph containing it unintelligible. t h e line omitted was: ered to have the highest priority on the basis of proposals made by those of its in its entirety, the paragraph which begins on page and goes on to the top of page should read: against this background the committee of archival development soon recognized that rigorous planning was an essential prerequisite for successful development action and accordingly has sought to stimulate its use within the developing nations themselves, and also to apply its principles in the formulation of its own program of archival technical assis- tance on behalf of the third world. the committee is in the process of drafting its third world archival development plan, a four-year medium-term plan comprising regional and national projects considered to have the highest priority on the basis of proposals made by those of its members who represent the seven main developing regions of the world, the so- called regional rapporteurs, in collaboration with the national archival authorities of these regions. the plan as finally adopted will also take into account the recommendations made by the participants in the international conference on the planning of archival devel- opment in the third world, held in dakar under ica auspices in . it is hoped that sup- port will be found for the plan's constituent projects from a wide variety of concerned intergovernmental, governmental, and nongovernmental sources. t h e american archivist is published by the society of american archivists, s. morgan, chi- cago, illinois , four times yearly, in january, april, july, and october. postmaster: send all corre- spondence and forms to saa. box , university of illinois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois . subscriptions, $ a year to north american addresses, $ a year to other addresses; single copies, $ to members, $ to nonmembers. articles and related communications: c. f. w. coker, editor, the american archivist, national ar- chives building, washington, d.c. ; telephone ( ) - . advertising correspondence, membership and subscription correspondence, society of american archivists publications and back issues: ann morgan campbell, executive director, saa. box , university of illinois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois ; telephone ( ) - . notice of nonre- ceipt of an issue must be sent to the executive director by domestic subscribers within four months of issue publication date and by international subscribers within six months. the american archivist is indexed in library literature and is abstracted in historical abstracts. the american archivist and the society of american archivists assume no responsibility for statements made by contributors. © society of american archivists . all rights reserved. second-class postage paid at chicago, illinois, and additional mailing office. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a n n o u n c i n g the publication of the microfiche edition of the papers of benjamin henry edward c. carter ii editor in chief this collection offers the complete journals, correspondence and drawings of america's first professional architect and engineer. over original latrobe documents in the maryland historical society, some letters, reports, and drawings from repositories throughout the united states and europe, and more than sketches and drawings have been filmed to create this imposing edition. the society, politics, and culture of the emerging nation are illuminated and a pictorial representation of the new country is provided in this compendium of material vital to the pursuit of american studies. this set is issued in a unique book/jiche format in which a durable, attractive binder holds fiche in protective pockets. the binder also contains bound, printed pages providing background information on the collection; a guide to the contents and use of the fiche; a latrobe chronology; and a , -entry, cross-referenced index to the entire microfiche collection. thomas e. jeffrey microfiche editor "without any question the most important collection dealing with all aspects of american social history in the early nineteenth century." anthony n.b garvan ('nivmity of pennsylvania $ isbn - - - published for the maryland historical society by james t. white & company state highway three, clifton, n. j. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril specialists n nicrofich readers, reader printers, and supplies microfilming to specifications microform enlargements microform publishing microform systems book catalogs/catalog cards inmanst. cambridge, ma. work done in your plant or ours ^ for fast, dependable service d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril one is soon after information design's microfilm reader was intro- duced in , it was rated "best" in side-by-side tests with virtually every mm roll film viewer in use. it's still the easiest reader for patrons to use. and it's still the only reader that offers you all of these advantages: a big " screen that pro- jects an entire newspaper page; an automatic film gate that protects your film from being scratched; full ° image rotation. since , we've made dozens of engineering modifications to improve the i.d. 's performance and ease of operation. prove it to yourself —the big one's still the best and better than ever! for a copy of the study entitled "user evaluations of micro- film readers," or to arrange a demonstration of the model - microfilm reader, write to information design, inc., middlefield road, menlo park, ca . or telephone ( ) - . information design, inc. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! acid free "x " ' ' ' ' x " x " x " x " x " museum mounting board • archival board with a professional appearance • designed for absolute protection of your prints • will last to years • completely acid free hollinger off-white mounting board is alkaline (ph . ), and is buffered to combat atmosphere pollutants and acids that may migrate from papers attached to it. available in sizes . . . order in units of or more. the hollinger corporation write today for free information, sample and prices -a a south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril anuscript clamshell boxes all boxes have card holders clamshell drop side drop front } * x } stock boxes available for immediate shipment long-life protection for valuable documents, such as manuscripts, first editions, folios and flat-stored newspapers, archives and legal instruments. easy to store . . . easy to open for frequent reference. these clamshell manuscript boxes were especially designed to serve libraries, museums, law offices and government agen- cies. all clamshell boxes are cloth cov- ered, triple-strength cloth hinged and lined with permalife paper, which has a life expectancy of years. unsurpassed dur- ability for preserving valuable documents. boxes shown are our most popular mod- els. for many uses the style, with hinged lid for ready access from the top, is pre- ferred. other models have a drop front, or drop side. send for price quotation, stating size, model and quantity requirements. these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined with permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents. pohlig bros. iimc. th & franklin streets richmond, virginia years ^ d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril for those government officials who are serious about obtaining operational efficiency (available on g.s.a. schedule) for more facts about fuji microfilm, call or write: u. s. microfilm sales corporation, montgomery st., san francisco, ca . ( ) - . distributed exclusively by: u.s. microfilm sales corporation boston • st. louis • san francisco sustaining member d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american university department of history in cooperation with the national archives and records service, gsa library of congress and maryland hall of records announces three offerings during - the institute: introduction to modern archives administration national archives building pennsylvania avenue and th street, n.w. washington, d.c. november - , february -march , june - , for details and application forms, write department of history the american university massachusetts and nebraska avenues, n.w. washington, d.c. the american university provides equal opportunity for all qualified persons in its educational programs and activities. the university does not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, color, national and ethnic origin, age or sex. the policy of equal opportunity applies to every aspect of the university's operations and activities generally and that indeed extends to admissions and to employment. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes clark w. nelson, editor the technical article that follows was submitted by a member of the library science faculty at queens college, flushing, new york. the author has his ph.d. in engi- neering, in addition to his degree in library science; he is doing research in inte- grating modern technology with library and information science. technical notes, as such, will be resumed in the january issue. microfilming continuous tone materials by marcr. d'alleyrand library materials very often present widely varying densities within the same original. aging and deterioration of the document fabric can cause different shades and colors of text and background to exist within the same page. as a result, ordi- nary microfilm techniques utilizing exposure averaging or automatic illumination often cannot produce satisfactory master negatives. because of the high contrast in microfilming emulsions, sometimes the operator must expose the same document at various different illumination levels, in order to capture its total content. this procedure is costly and time consuming, and it requires highly trained personnel. in addition, improper rendition of contrast during the filming of the master nega- tive is accentuated during the production of a positive copy, either on film or on pa- per, since these media are also of high contrast. a first approach to obviating this situation is based on modifying the characteristics of the emulsion so that its contrast is reduced to accept high levels of illumination without reaching saturation. this modification can be done by changing processing conditions, in particular by lowering the temperature of the developing process, using a suitable modified developer. there are several draw- backs to this method. first, the reduction of temperature requires an increase in pro- cessing time in order to compensate for reduction in developer activity at the lower temperature. second, the need for two different processing procedures, for normal and low contrast work, will result in inefficient use of machine and operator times and consequently very high processing costs. a third, and more fundamental, draw- back of the method is that it does not address itself to the basic reason for poor tonal rendition—the fact that the characteristic of a standard photographic emulsion is not linear, it is of high contrast, and it presents a recording threshold. although a reduction in contrast will result in a sometimes noticeable improvement of the over- all aspect of the negative, the reduction does not by any means lower the threshold recording level. a second approach, usable without the drawbacks mentioned above, consists in the "conditioning" of regular microfilm, so that it can be processed under normal conditions. we have successfully used this approach for reproducing glossy photo- readers are encouraged to send brief or extended contributions to this department and should address them to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo foundation, rochester, minnesota .ials the american archivist vol. , no. october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october graphs, line and artwork materials, faded catalog cards, and other documents. the method is derived from the old process of emulsion sensitization by auxiliary expo- sure, and is similar to the biasing techniques used in electronics. the approach is based on the fact that it is possible to register a signal below the threshold level of the recording emulsion by adding to this signal a "pedestal" provided by an auxiliary illumination (figure ) with sufficient intensity to bring the weak signal above threshold level, and small enough to preserve most of the emulsion's dynamic range. this biasing effect can be obtained in three different ways. a first way, administering the auxiliary illumination after filming, presents one drawback stemming from the fact that one is working on a fully exposed roll of film and that any error in setting the auxiliary illumination level, or post-exposure, might result in total blackening of the film. a second method, pre-exposure by administering the auxiliary illumination before regular filming, offers some attractive features. first, it can be closely con- trolled and its quality assessed prior to actual filming. second, it is possible to adjust pre-exposure parameters to meet specific job requirements, retaining the benefit of such adjustments for a few days by refrigerating the pre-exposed film. however, this method requires an additional operation of post-exposure, in addi- tion to regular microfilming. the third method, called "flashing" in other branches of photography, does not offer the security of pre-exposure, but, if carefully designed, is much safer than post- exposure. it is performed during regular filming and can be automatized so that no special handling of the film is required. all three methods involve a one-time calibration of the microfilming camera to reflect the apparent increase in film sensitivity. one interesting aspect of these methods is that they result in lower filming illumination, which can be translated into longer lamp life and lower operating costs. the methods pre- or post-exposure. the roll of microfilm to be treated is run through a device (schematized in figure ) which presents a constant running speed and a uniformly illuminated slit, the level of illumination having been adjusted for speed, slit width, and emulsion sensitivity. calibration of the device is done by running a test roll of raw stock and adjusting either speed or light intensity so that, after processing, the base-plus-fog density is slightly above the original value of the unexposed emulsion. calibration of the microfilming camera is done simply by inserting a roll of pre- exposed film and adjusting the light intensity so that the maximum background density on the film does not go beyond the value set of microfilming standards in force at the time. in any case, this background density should not exceed . - . , in order to take full advantage of the linear portion of the characteristics. flashing. for this method, the auxiliary illumination is directed onto the microfilm emulsion at or about the time of filming. two approaches can be envi- sioned which, depending on the camera used, can be implemented with more or less ease. in the first approach, an electronic flash, synchronized with the camera shut- ter, is caused to illuminate uniformly the surface of the emulsion. in the other approach, the auxiliary illumination comes from a steady source. a simple exam- ple of realization using an incandescent source is depicted in figure . in addition to r. w. wood, "photography of very faint spectra," astronomical journal, volume , , p. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes density exposure figure principle of sensitization by auxiliary exposure the use of an auxiliary illumination, giving an exposure of magnitude e, allows suppression of the thresh- old in the emulsion characteristics, as demonstrated by the shift from curve i (untreated emulsion) to curve ii (treated emulsion). the film t< slit ( ). figure be treated ( ) passes in front of a lantern ( ) projecting the image of a uniformly illuminated d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—october figure diagram principle of a device suitable for illumination during filming. itirough the use of a semi-transparent mirror ( ), die film ( ) receives at the same lime the light coming from (lie document being microfilmed ( ) and the auxiliary source ( ). the light source, a semi-transparent mirror is presented and necessary optical components to provide in the film plane a uniform illumination. the incandescent light source is alimented by a direct current power supply the intensity of which can be adjusted to meet auxiliary exposure requirements. choice of method. choice of the most appropriate method will depend on factors such as amount of work, nature of documents, equipment available, quality control procedures, and overall operating costs. for a large volume of preservation micro- filming, it might be worthwhile to acquire an illuminator which can be mounted permanently on the microfilming camera. for small operations it might be, to the contrary, beneficial to have a pre-exposure done by a custom laboratory, providing the film is kept at low temperature between treatment and use in the camera. advantages of auxiliary illumination as noted above, auxiliary illumination does not require special film processing and, once the set-up costs are amortized, additional operating costs can be kept to a minimum. additional costs, if they do exist, are much lower than those incurred in retakes of incorrect exposures. auxiliary illumination can, as a matter of fact, be used routinely for the produc- tion of all master negatives, since such illumination is designed to capture all variations in densities on the original. specific requirements, such as production of high contrast microfilms, can then be controlled during the generation of print cop- ies. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes auxiliary illumination can be used in many preservation and nonpreservation microfilming tasks such as microfilming or photographs, half-tones, faded newspaper clippings, and smudged catalog cards. in many cases, a standard average exposure can be set for a large number of documents, and the cameras can be run at this standard exposure, a particular advantage in the case of rotary cameras, where the nature of the work makes difficult the constant adjustment of the level of exposure. finally, auxiliary illumination can be used with print films and, specifically, can help to produce legible positive copies from poor master negatives. conclusion auxiliary exposure is a very versatile technique which can be quickly mastered by an operator with average experience. auxiliary exposure should be used routinely with library materials, since reflective densities vary widely between documents and often across the surface of the same document. ingenuity and method can keep the cost of microfilming with auxiliary exposure competitive with regular microfilming. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril • modern archives and manuscripts: a select bibliography ° f*^ compiled /<&*<£*£ by ^sfrs frank b. evans ' # ^ published by '°s a - ' % * : q^ the society of american archivists , ^ s /'•»% " h ' a \b portions of the table of contents are reproduced above. a revision of evans' earlier guide, this comprehensive work is published in a new format with many new entries, including new chapters on machine-readable records and archives, and chapters on international aspects of archives. additional chapter subheadings, the expanded subject index, and the new and separate author index facilitate the use of this expanded guide. softbound. $ . saa members, $ others. add $ postage and handling charge on orders under $ not prepaid. society of american archivists po box , university of illinois at chicago circle, chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes thomas e. weir, jr., editor this department includes brief reports of events, new programs, significant new accessions and openings, publications, education and training opportunities, and other news of professional interest to members of the society. much of the infor- mation has been furnished by one or more of the several reporters listed below. in addition, news notes have been extracted from publicity releases and newsletters sent to the american archivist and to the national archives library. more current information about training opportuni- ties, professional meetings, and legislative trends can be found in the saa newsletter. members are urged to contribute items to these news notes. information can be sent direct to the editor, american archivist, national archives building, washington, d.c. , or to one of the following reporters: news of state and local archives to julian l. mims, south carolina depart- ment of archives and history, box , capitol station, columbia, s.c. ; news of manuscript repositories to carolyn h. sung, manuscript division, library of congress, washington, d.c. ; news of scientific and technologi- cal archives to maynard j. brichford, uni- versity archivist, library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, illinois ; news of religious archives to f. donald yost, general conference of seventh-day adventists, eastern avenue, nw, washington, d.c. ; and news of regional and state archival associations to alice m. vestal, special collections dept., main library, room , university of cincinnati, cincinnati, ohio . the u.s. army military history research collection, carlisle barracks, pennsylvania , has announced the acquisition of the gianni baj macario col- lection: seventy-three boxes of manu- scripts, hundreds of photographs and maps, and , books concentrating on nineteenth and twentieth-century military history. much of the unpublished material—both official wartime papers and postwar correspondence with many senior italian and austro-hungarian generals—concerns the italian front in world war i. among other primary and secondary items are significant holdings on the balkan wars, - , plus some rare books dating back to the mid-sixteenth century. also accessioned were: the diary ( - ) of lieutenant edmund d. hal- sey of the th new jersey infantry regi- ment; letters, memoirs, and historical writ- ings of the famous cavalry officer and army historian, colonel matthew' forney steele ( - ); and the official papers, speeches, diaries, and reminiscences ( - ) of lieutenant general john w. o'dan- iel covering his entire career but concen- trating on his service in the mediterranean theater, europe, korea, and viet nam ( - ). a collection of the personal papers of the late robert benchley, popular humorist, has been given to the twentieth-century archives, of boston university. the pa- pers include manuscripts and drafts of cor- respondence, film and radio scripts, hum- orous essays, and magazine articles. manuscripts of other literary figures, including several by benchley's friend and collaborator dorothy parker, are also part of the benchley collection. the editors (george e. carter and c. peter ripley) of the black abolitionist papers editorial project, funded by the national endowment for the humanities and the national historical publications and records commission, seek assistance in locating correspondence, speeches, edi- torials, and any other primary source materials of black abolitionists, through . while the project is topical, it focuses on nine prominent figures: wil- liam wells brown, the fortens (robert, james, and charlotte), henry highland the american archivist vol. , no. october d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october garnet, william c. nell, j. w. c. penning- ton, charles lenox remond, samuel ringgold ward, david ruggles, and j. mccune smith. please contact: black abo- litionist papers, main hall, university of wisconsin-la crosse, la crosse, wis- consin (telephone: - - , ext. ). colby college special collections has recently accessioned: the diary ( - ) of richard shannon, civil war soldier, minister to central america, and u.s. con- gressman from new york; papers of asher c. hinds ( - ), clerk to thomas b. reed, speaker of the united states house of representatives; papers of henry clay merriam, a career soldier, who lead a black contingent during the civil war, partici- pated in the indian wars, and served as quartermaster general of the american forces in.the philippines in ; and pa- pers of george otis smith ( - ) who was director of the u.s. geological survey from to . the eleutherian mills historical library has accessioned volumes of rec- ords ( - ) of the national industrial belting association. harold t. pinkett, former editor of the american archivist, was elected president of the forest history association at its annual meeting in santa cruz, california, august - . the international associa- tion publishes the journal of forest his- tory and is composed of persons interested in the history of north american forests, conservation, and the forest products industries. with a grant from the national endow- ment for the humanities, george mason university will develop a federal theater project center for the material received on permanent loan from the library of con- gress in . the center staff will prepare an index by play, author, and subject. to supplement the collection, the ftp center will interview surviving directors, artists, and administrators employed by the project. the seventh gulf coast history and humanities conference will be held in pensacola, florida, february - , . the theme is military presence on the gulf coast. further information and copies of the published proceedings of the six pre- vious conferences are available by writing to w. s. coker, program chairman, gchhc, the library, university of west florida, pensacola, florida . the idaho first national bank has lent its nineteenth-century records ( - ) to the idaho historical society for micro- filming. the material includes personal accounts, transactions with other banks, warrants, registers, and certificate registers. also accessioned were one hundred and fifty photographic negatives of southwest idaho made by walter lubken during the s. the illinois state archives has been awarded a grant of $ , from the national endowment for the humanities for the establishment of a regional archival depository system throughout the state for the preservation of local governmental rec- ords of historical research value. the illinois regional archival depository (irad) system will involve the cooperation of at least six state universities acting under the direction of the illinois state archives diyision of the office of the secretary of state. the universities which have already signed agreements to partici- pate in the program include northern illi- nois university, southern illinois univer- sity, eastern illinois university, western illinois university, and sangamon state university. each will serve a region con- sisting of an average of seventeen contigu- ous counties and will provide depository space for local public records drawn from that region. the state archives will furnish overall direction for this program, including the formulation of all procedures, the training of student interns selected at each univer- sity, who will staff the depositories, and the location and transportation to each depos- itory of the records judged by the archives staff to be of research value. the interns at each university depository, whose stipends, tuition, and fees are funded by the endow- ment, will be immediately responsible for accessioning, arranging, and inventorying the records delivered to them, as well as making them available to researchers for use. the state archives will ultimately com- pile and distribute a unified, descriptive inventory of all the materials held in the de- positories, and publish it in a form that will allow it to be updated as new acces- sions are gathered in. recent accessions by the state archives include illinois civil service commission minutes ( - ) and correspondence d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes ( - ); university of illinois personnel notices ( - ); department of mental health and developmental disabilities, policy and procedure directives ( - ); department of transportation, division of aeronautics, airport legal engineering files ( - ); and division of waterways, trac- ings for contracts for flood relief, illinois and michigan canal, and maintenance ( - ). ' in a special project, the state archives is preparing a comprehensive, computer- assisted finding aid for the state land rec- ords. several different but interrelated agencies generated the records, and the ser- ies is now dispersed in fifty bulky, unin- dexed volumes making comprehensive or convenient use impossible. the program has been written and tested and approxi- mately percent of the project has been completed with the coding of claims aris- ing from french grants. computer-printed transcripts can be produced in whatever form is most useful for the search at hand, allowing the archives to provide name searches for genealogists or statistical data sets for social historians. among recent accessions of the indiana jewish historical society are: records ( -) of the brazillai lodge of b'nai b'rith, records of the indianapolis b'nai b'rith lodge , records ( - ) of the indiana state association of b'nai b'rith, and copies of records of phil oppenheim's race for congress. the iowa state historical department, a division of the state historical society, has processed the papers ( - ) of gilbert n. haugen, iowa congressman ( - ), and chairman ( - ) of the house agriculture committee. although the collection contains business and per- sonal correspondence, the manuscripts pri- marily derive from haugen's membership in the house and pertain to farm relief and other agricultural topics as well as to state and local politics. volunteers are translat- ing more than five hundred letters from norwegian constituents. manuscripts and records which the department has accessioned include: pa- pers ( - ), including civil war letters, of isaac stamper, keokuk butcher; papers ( - ) of lawrie tatum; records ( - ) of the v. v. club of des moines; and records ( - ) of the west liberty p. e. o. chapter a. h. the archives of the leo baeck institute in new york has accessioned the collection ( - ) of the art historian, archaeolo- gist, and writer, julie braun-vogelstein. the collection includes her personal and research correspondence, drawings, manu- scripts, and photographs. in addition to the braun-vogelstein papers the collection includes the papers of heinemann vogel- stein ( - ), her father, a liberal rabbi in pilsen and stettin; heinrich braun ( - ), her husband, prominent in the socialist party of germany; and pa- pers of other members of her family and that of her husband. the archives has also accessioned the pa- pers of the following: fritz haber ( - ), a german chemist and nobel prize laureate; richard beer-hoffman ( - ), an austrian poet and playwright; margarete berent ( - ), one of the first women lawyers in germany; rudolph simonis ( - ), an archivist and genealogist in germany and sweden; and frederick h. brunner, an international banker and one of the founders of the leo baeck institute. included in the brunner papers is much material about jews in the economies of germany, france, and en- gland and some nineteenth-century roth- schild correspondence. the manuscript division of the maryland historical society has recently accessioned the pannell family papers ( - ) including account books and other financial records of this baltimore merchant family; and the charles j. bona- parte papers ( - and - ), mostly requesting political favors. secretary of state paul guzzi, keeper of the archives of the commonwealth of mas- sachusetts, recently released plans to con- struct a $ million state archives next to the john f. kennedy library at columbia point in dorchester. construction is sub- ject to approval as part of the state capital outlay budget. the proposed building would replace the , square foot archives in the state house basement. inadequate facilities have severely hampered the ability of the archives to collect, display, restore, and ser- vice the irreplaceable historic records of massachusetts from the early s to the present. the new structure would permit proper attention to the documentary heri- tage of massachusetts by means of a , square foot, six-story building containing an expanded museum, document preserva- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october tion rooms, modern offices, plus a , square foot archives storage area. the new state archives will be located adjacent to the university of massachusetts, providing excellent opportunities for joint research, academic programs, and the sharing of mutual facilities. in addition, through its proximity to the john f. kennedy library, the archives will attract significant numbers of the projected one million yearly visitors to the library. a recent accession by the michigan historical collections of the university of michigan is the papers of u.s. senator premiss m. brown ( - ), democrat, from st. ignace, michigan. brown served in congress during the depression, and after his defeat in he headed the office of price administration for one year before returning to private business and his law practice. the papers include correspon- dence, political files, speeches, scrapbooks, photographs, diaries, and phonograph rec- ords of speeches he gave as administrator of o.p.a. also recently accessioned were the pa- pers of kasimir fajans ( - ), a pro- fessor of chemistry at the university of michigan. fajans had established his repu- tation as a scientist in germany, before emigrating to the united states. his pa- pers include material related to teaching, and publications and correspondence with such prominent scientists as ernest rutherford, fritz haber, and linus pauling. among manuscripts which the immi- gration history research center of the university of minnesota has accessioned are: papers ( - ) of andrew rolik, an american lutheran minister in pennsyl- vania, ohio, and michigan; papers ( - ) of zdena rypka, a czech pioneer in iowa and minnesota; papers ( - ) of anthony sarcone, editor and publisher of the american citizen, an italian newspa- per in des moines, iowa; papers ( - ) of thomas cotton, founder of the folk fes- tival council of new york city. the center has also accessioned the following records: records ( - ) of the minnesota eesti selts, an estonian cultural society in minneapolis; records ( - ) of the worker's socialist publishing company, the finnish-american publisher of indus- trialist in duluth, minnesota; records ( - ) of the italian-american society of new york city; records ( - ) of the citizens' committee on displaced persons, a post-world war ii refugee aid society in new york; and records ( - ) of czas publishing company, a polish-american newspaper company in brooklyn. the minnesota historical society's black history project has culminated in the publication of blacks in minnesota: a preliminary guide to historical sources. the staff collected, inventoried, and pre- served published and unpublished works, records of organizations and churches, per- sonal papers, photographs, and taped oral interviews. much of the material is now in the collections of the society. the archives and manuscripts division of the university of missouri-st. louis has recently received the dyson-bell-sans souci papers which have been arranged for use. the collection includes eighty-three letters written by or to absalom roby dyson ( - ) and his wife, louisa johnson dyson ( - ); and photo- graphs of louisa dyson and their daugh- ter, cornelia. prior to the civil war, absa- lom dyson was a p o s t m a s t e r , schoolteacher, and part-time farmer in franklin county, missouri. he held strong opinions on the issue of slavery, and when the war began he joined the th missouri volunteers, csa, serving until his death in . many of the letters are written to his wife describing camp life, battles, medical conditions, and experiences as a prisoner of war. national archives and records service. in honor of the bicentennial, nars has published an over-all index to the thirty- four volume journals of the continental congress, - . the printed jour- nals, published by the library of congress between and , reproduce the pro- ceedings of the continental and confeder- ation congresses. the -page alphabeti- cal subject and name index, compiled by the national archives center for the docu- mentary study of the american revolu- tion, consolidates and standardizes listings found in the annual indexes of the original volumes. the howard university press has pub- lished two additional volumes in the national archives conference series. one, world war ii: an account of its docu- ments, edited by deputy archivist james e. o'neill and robert w. krauskopf of the archives staff, includes essays on the archives of the french resistance, research d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes on world war ii history in the soviet union, sources and problems in writing the biography of general joseph w. stil- well, american policy toward palestine and indochina, world war ii military rec- ords in the national archives, resources in the presidential libraries, and declassifica- tion and accessibility of war records. the second volume, indian-white relations: a persistent paradox, edited by jane f. smith and robert m. kvasnicka, of the national archives staff, covers a span of a century and a half of relations between the federal government and the north american indian tribes. subjects include indian assimilation, the role of the military, indian reservation policy, and aspects of twentieth-century indian policy. in the civil archives division, the industrial and social branch recently ac- cessioned records ( - ) from the presi- dent's committee on 'employment of the handicapped. its minutes, reports, corre- spondence, budgetary materials, newslet- ter, and press releases document govern- ment efforts to encourage employers to hire handicapped persons. the branch also received records of the eglin air force base refugee camp. the principal records are logs of vietnamese refugee cases assigned to voluntary agencies for further handling. the legislative, judicial, and fiscal branch has accessioned ten series of bureau of the budget records. these series are from the budget bureau's estimates and admi- nistrative management, resources and civil works, labor-welfare, and com- merce and finance divisions. they docu- ment the budgetary administration of emergency and war agencies ( - ) and of the departments of agriculture; health, education, and welfare; interior; justice; treasury; and certain independent agen- cies ( - ). the cartographic archives division recently accessioned from the u.s. geolog- ical survey , negative mm. micro- film copies of topographic survey field and office computation notebooks. created by the topographic division, these note- books contain field data and office compu- tations relating to triangulation, transit traverse, and leveling for almost all states of the united states, puerto rico, haiti, and antarctica. the general archives division has recently accessioned records ( - ) of the mare island naval shipyard in califor- nia. these consist of bound volumes of labor rolls, apprentice books, time books, expenditure and payroll ledgers, and other personnel and work progress records. also accessioned were correspondence, memo- randums, and reports ( - ) of the office of the surgeon general of the army. of particular interest are correspondence and reports relating to prevention of bio- logical and chemical warfare and records of programs at the army medical installation at ft. detrick, maryland. the military archives division recently accessioned records ( - ) of the fleet marine force, nd brigade. included are a geographic file consisting primarily of reports on the military and geographic fea- tures of, and economic, social, and politi- cal conditions in western hemisphere countries and related war contingency plans. also accessioned were: medical journals ( - ) of ships and shore stations; correspondence (primarily - ) of the ship movements division of the navy department, including correspondence about the annual reports of the fleet and squadron commanders, movements and sightings of the neutrality patrol, naval district craft and other naval forces, employment schedules, budget proposals, and fleet training exercises; records ( - ) of the preliminary design branch including captured japanese ship plans and case files of suits brought against the navy for infringement of ship design pat- ents; and security-classified correspon- dence ( - ) of the commander scout- ing force, pertaining primarily to fleet training exercises, war plans, and material inspection. under agreement with the national broadcasting company, the national archives, on july , , began to make off-the-air tapes of nbc nightly news, and sunday news. the agreement also allows the national archives to record network broadcasts of presidential press conferen- ces, congressional hearings, and political conventions. the archives branch of the atlanta fed- eral archives and records center has ac- cessioned the general administrative cor- respondence and miscellaneous records ( - ) of thedeputy u.s. marshall for key west, florida. also accessioned were varied records ( - ) of the following u.s. district courts: southern district of mississippi, biloxi, hattiesburg, jackson, meridian, and vicksburg divisions; northern district of mississippi, aber- deen, clarksdale, and oxford divisions. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october presidential libraries accessions and openings. additional details are pub- lished in prologue: the journal of the national archives; nars also suggests that prospective users of these and other records in the presidential libraries make further inquiry of the particular library concerned. the harry s. truman library has ac- cessioned the papers of eben a. ayers, as- sistant press secretary to the president ( - ) and special assistant to the presi- dent ( - ); the papers of reginald s. dean, assistant director of the u.s. bureau of mines ( - ); the papers of harry c. trelogan relating to his service as an offi- cial in the department of agriculture ( - ); the papers of max w. ball, dep- uty petroleum administrator for war ( - ) and director of the oil division of the department of interior ( - ). also recently accessioned were oral his- tory interviews with richard d. weigle, executive officer of the office of far east- ern affairs of the department of state ( - ); russell l. riley, assistant administrator, international information administration, department of state ( - ); roman l. home, deputy secre- tary ( - ) and secretary ( - ), international monetary fund; r. bun smith, economist, department of state ( - ), and commercial attache, ameri- can embassy, bangkok, thailand ( - ); carleton kent, washington corre- spondent, chicago daily times and chicago sun times ( - ); henry reiff, legal specialist in international or- ganizations, department of state ( - ); james a. riddleberger, director, bureau of german affairs, department of state ( - ); gordon gray, secretary of the army ( - ); clifford c. matlock, political officer, department of state ( - ); philleo nash, special assistant to the president ( - ), administrative assis- tant to the president ( - ), lieutenant governor of wisconsin ( - ), and u.s. commissioner of indian affairs ( - ); theodore c. achilles, director, office of western european affairs, department of state ( ) and minister, american embassy, paris ( ); and winthrop g. brown, director, office of international materials policy, department of state ( - ), and deputy to the minister for economic affairs, american embassy, lon- don ( - ). the dwight d. eisenhower library has recently received the following materials: the papers ( - ) of hatfield chilson, consisting of addresses and statements made by secretary of the interior fred a. seaton and aides; the papers ( - ) of wilton b. persons, which consist of memo- randums on the transition between the eisenhower and kennedy administrations; papers ( - ) of robert c. davie. davie headed the finance unit that accompanied the allies ashore during the normandy invasion. materials recently accessioned by the john f. kennedy library include: a collec- tion, that belonged to john kennedy, of autographed manuscripts of early massa- chusetts governors; letters ( - ) from kennedy to his parents; kennedy's diary ( ) from his first european trip; his notes for profiles in courage; and letters from kennedy to lemoyne billings written during kennedy's harvard years. also ac- cessioned were the papers of francis kep- pel, former commissioner of education, and the papers of former congressman allard lowenstein. the lyndon b. johnson library recently accessioned the voluminous pa- pers of long-time texas congressman wright patman. also accessioned were the papers of alfred h. corbett from his ser- vice in the office of economic opportun- ity and the community services adminis- tration; manuscripts and notes of the norman c. thomas book, education in national politics; and records of the presi- dent's advisory committee on supersonic transport. the national historical publications and records commission has recently con- tacted , institutions and organiza- tions as the first step toward the produc- tion of a directory of repositories of historical sources. the directory will be an expansion and updating of philip hamer's guide to archives and manuscripts in the united states (new haven, ). automa- tion and computer-generated printing will permit periodic revision and will also allow the production of separate directo- ries for individual states or regions. institu- tions that have not received a repository information form are invited to contact the commission, and those institutions which have not returned their forms are urged to do so. for further information, write: d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes guide staff, national historical publica- tions and records commission, national archives and records service, washing- ton, d.c. . the commission also announces the competition for the - fellowships in documentary editing. recipients of these fellowships spend one year in training with a commission-approved, specially selected documentary editing project in american history, and they receive stipends of $ , . a candidate should hold a doc- toral degree in american history or civiliza- tion or have completed all requirements for that degree except the dissertation. the commission and the university of south carolina will again sponsor a two- week institute for the editing of historical documents. the curriculum provides theoretical and practical training in all aspects of historical editing. candidates must hold a master's degree in american history or civilization or have the equival- ent in experience or training. for applica- tion forms and information about either of the above programs write to the executive director, national historical publications and records commission, national archives and records service, washing- ton, d.c. . the application deadline for both programs is march , . among recent accessions of the new hampshire historical society are the rec- ords ( - ) of the cornish, new hampshire, grange no. ; the records ( - ) of the newcastle congrega- tional church; and the records ( - ) of william f. head c sons, brick and lumber company, including some political correspondence of william head's father, governor natt head ( - ). the national endowment for the humanities has awarded the new jersey historical commission a grant of $ , for the preparation of a guide to new jersey historical manuscript collections. recent accessions at the north carolina division of archives and history include records from the offices of governors robert w. scott and james e. holshouser, the prison director's subject file ( - ), and records of the division of archives and history. the local records branch trans- ferred original records from the salisbury district superior court and from bun- combe, craven, hyde, montgomery, and rowan counties as well as security micro- films of records from randolph, person, and wayne counties. new private collec- tions were the caswell and fonville account book, the richard benbury creecy papers, the jesse franklin collec- tion, the ben owen collection, a collection of recipe books ( - ), and the charles thacker papers; and additions were made to the william gaston papers, the albert timothy outlaw papers, the the siamese twins collection. among other acces- sions were newspapers on microfilm from bayboro, henderson, and moravian falls; additions to the local history collections from wake, davidson, and surry counties; cemetery records from richmond and stanly counties; an addition to the slavery papers; and records of the u.s. coast g u a r d life saving s t a t i o n at chicamacomico. beginning this fall, the institute of ap- plied history, a consortium of the north carolina division of archives and history and twenty-six universities and colleges in the state, will offer courses ranging from archaeology, historical site interpretation, and museology, to archives and records management and oral history. in addition, the division of archives and history will offer nonacademic workshops in historical editing, local history, and preservation, as its portion of the institute. the institute is an attempt to reduce the dual problems of the restricted job market for historians and the frequent lack of adequate academic training for personnel in public historical agencies. the department of archives and manu- scripts of old dominion university has ac- cessioned the papers of robert m. hughes ( - ), norfolk, virginia, attorney, author, and member of the board of the college of william and mary ( - ). the hughes collection contains also mate- rial related to the life of hughes's uncle, confederate general joseph e. johnston, and to other members of the hughes and johnston families. in addition, the depart- ment has received the papers of benjamin a. banks ( - ), norfolk attorney and member of the city board of aldermen ( - ) and the virginia general assem- bly ( - ). recent accessions at the oregon state archives include city of eugene, fair rent committee case files ( ); control board d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october records ( - ); defense council rec- ords relating to world war i, historian index cards, and general files ( - ); military department, oregon air national guard encampment public relations release ( ); legislature th session, house task force on foster care minutes ( ) and senate economic task force exhibits ( - ); and security microfilm of the following records: lane county records and elections department, records and elections, environmental management and sheriff's offices, and transportation department records ( - ); motor vehicles division, vehicle title records ( - ); and public employees retirement system, salary records and sta- tistical data ( - ). the krannert library of the krannert graduate school of management, purdue university, has undertaken a one-year pilot project designed to outline and coordinate the establishment of a business archives. during the year, the staff will determine a collecting policy as well as appropriate standards for the administration, arrange- ment and description, conservation, and reference use of business and business- related records and manuscripts. it is antic- ipated that in addition to the planning, some notable accessions may result. the rockefeller foundation has given radcliffe college a grant, to be adminis- tered by the college's schlesinger library, to support an oral history project about the lives of black women. during the course of the project, graduate students at various institutions, supervised by an advisory committee, will conduct interviews with women educators, businesswomen, enter- tainers, writers, artists, social workers, community organizers, religious leaders, and women in politics, government, and the health professions. interviewed will be older black women, most of whom began their involvement in civic and professional activities prior to the s. the interviews will be transcribed at the schlesinger library where the manuscripts and other supporting documentation will be housed for research use. copies of the transcripts will be deposited also at selected black col- leges and universities throughout the country. the final selection of women to be interviewed will be made by the advisory committee, which welcomes suggestions for possible interviewees as well as infor- mation on other oral history projects in similar fields. the james p. adams library of rhode island college has recently accessioned the inactive records of the international insti- tute of rhode island (ca. - ). records of this major immigrant settlement agency in rhode island include correspondence, case files, financial papers, and reports. the national historical publications and records commission has granted the library $ , to preserve, arrange, and de- scribe the family papers of nathaniel t. bacon ( - ). this prominent rhode island engineer and industrialist helped to introduce the solvay soda manufacturing process to the united states and was presi- dent of the narragansett pier railroad. included are also papers of bacon's son, leonard bacon ( - ), poet, reviewer, and winner of the pulitzer prize in poetry; and papers of caroline hazard ( - ), writer and philanthropist. the rockefeller university will make grants ranging from $ to $ , to grad- uate students or advanced scholars engaged in projects based substantially on the hold- ings of the rockefeller archive center. applications for grants during should be made before december , , and should include a research proposal, a per- sonal resume, and at least two letters of rec- ommendation. inquiries should be addressed to: director, rockefeller archive center, hillcrest, pocantico hills, north tarrytown, new york . norman holcombe has been appointed director of the records management divi- sion, department of finance and adminis- tration, state of tennessee. the marriott library of the university of utah has accessioned the records of the american association of university women, utah state division, including: minute books ( - ), branch reports and rosters of officers and committee chair- persons ( - ), correspondence with branch presidents, and publications. the manuscripts department of the university of virginia library has opened the papers of the late louis a. johnson, secretary of defense under president harry s. truman. under the terms of johnson's will, the papers were to be restricted for ten years after his death. the tenth anniversary of johnson's death was april , , and accordingly the papers were processed and a guide to them prepared. a microfilm d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes copy of the guide is available through interlibrary loan. a major recent accession is the papers of commodore samuel barron ( - ) of essex county, virginia, confederate com- mander of naval defenses in virginia and north carolina, and later of naval forces in europe. the collection (ca. - ) consists of official and personal correspon- dence of barron (and his daughter imogen) documenting his wartime service as well as his earlier career in the united states navy, including chiefly his service as flag captain of the steam frigate wabash. other accessions include: a thomas jef- ferson letter of july , , to william pelham; papers (ca. - ) of the gor- don and rosser families and especially those of general thomas lafayette rosser, c.s.a.; papers ( - ) of the dinwid- die family, including civil war letters about the campaigns in the shenandoah valley; the walter c. hartridge collection ( - ) including letters of the ameri- can expatriate author julien green and his sister anne green; a -page unpub- lished volume ( - ), "reminiscences of the civil war," by john levering, an officer of the second brigade, indiana volunteer militia, and a -page note- book containing copies of levering's cor- respondence ( ) concerning the battle of cheat mountain in west virgin- ia; letters ( - ) of john randolph of roanoke to richard e. meade of amelia county, virginia; and papers (ca. - ) of william noland berkeley, jr., concern- ing his military service. also accessioned were the waring-baylor family papers (ca. - ); the wilson-tyler-gilmer fam- ily papers ( - ); and the papers ( - ) of the vaamonde family of fajardo, puerto rico. recently acces- sioned records include: records ( - ) of the american civil liberties union of vir- ginia, chiefly prisoner case files; records ( - ) of the state water control board, consisting of seven looseleaf and sof tbound volumes of the correspondence of norman m. coles, jr., relating to his activities as chairman; and records ( - ) of the twin oaks community, including visitors records, conference papers, and financial receipts. the archives of labor and urban affairs of wayne state university has ac- cessioned the executive board minutes ( - , - , and - ) of the congress of industrial organizations; rec- ords ( - ) of united auto workers, local ; records ( - ) of the interna- tional printing pressmen and assistants union, local , including some early min- utes ( - ) of the detroit printing trades council; and the papers of rosa parks of the montgomery, alabama, bus boycott of and the civil rights move- ment in the s. for its west virginia collection, the west virginia university library has ac- cessioned: records ( - ) of the united toy workers union local , which is at the louis marx toy factory in glen dale, west virginia; records of the west virgin- ia glass workers protective league ( - ), including correspondence, minute books, convention proceedings, programs, photographs, and other papers; and west virginia midland railway company and holly river and addison railway com- pany records, with engineer's ledgers, blue- prints, maps and structural drawings. being microfilmed are historical materials (ca. - ) collected by the greenbrier county historical society, including let- ters, ledgers, unpublished family and church histories, historical sketches, pam- phlets, newspaper clippings, and photo- graphs. t h e western reserve historical society is establishing a cleveland jewish archives. the archives will locate and pre- serve papers, records, and other sources bearing on the development and impact of the jewish community in the greater cleve- land area. the state historical society of wisconsin will participate in a microfilm- ing project conducted by the genealogical society of utah, which will film state, county, local, and private records for its holdings. the historical society will help to plan and coordinate the project and will receive duplicate negatives of the reels pro- duced. the national endowment for the humanities recently approved a $ , grant to the historical society for a project to process collections from the mass communications history center. the three-year grant will provide for two full- time archivists. recent accessions at the society include town and school records ( - ) from the adams county town of dell prairie; records ( - ) of the insane asylum and poor house in dane county; school d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october records ( - ) from the city of algoma in kewaunee county; school rec- ords ( - ) of the sauk county towns of sumpter, merrimac, prairie du sac, and kingston; municipal and justice court dockets ( - ) from the wood county city of marshfield; sandborn- perris records, department of transporta- tion, which are maps of twenty major wis- consin cities ( - ); records ( - ) of the governor's committee on migratory labor; records ( - ) of the madison office of the selective service commission; records ( - ) of the wisconsin child center in sparta; papers ( - ) of edward t. fairchild, state senator, guber- natorial candidate, and chief justice of the wisconsin supreme court; papers of jerry clark mcneely, television writer, educator, and dramatist; records ( - ) of mtm enterprises, the television company which produces the mary tyler moore show; records ( - ) of the poor people's cor- poration, which helped establish sewing and leather-work cooperatives in missis- sippi; records of the wisconsin dairymen's association; records ( - ) of the amer- ican association of university women, wisconsin division; and records ( - ) of the reedsburg woolen mill. religious archives baptist. the alabama baptist historical commission fostered histories of local con- gregations. the oklahoma baptist gen- eral convention published baptist heroes in oklahoma, by j. m. gaskin and louise haddock; erected two historical markers at the site of the first oklahoma baptist church organization ( ) and at the loca- tion of origin of baptist women's work ( ); and prepared a special edition of the state's semiannual historical journal, oklahoma baptist chronicle. the history and archives committee of the american baptist association produced and pres- ented a twenty-minute bicentennial pro- gram at the annual session of the aba last june in houston, entitled "pioneering faith." r. p. baker, chairman, history and archives committee, american baptist association, has authored two historical papers: "a bicentennial bibliography of baptist history in america with special emphasis upon landmark baptists" and "pioneering faith: a bicentennial salute to the people and the churches of the american baptist association." the alabama baptist historical commission has received the manuscript minutes of seven albama baptist churches for microfilming, and has completed a computer-manager index for the and volumes of the alabama baptist newspaper through the birs procedures, sponsored by the southern baptist histori- cal commission. the original deed of designating the grant of land by the city of shawnee, oklahoma, for the campus of oklahoma baptist university has been received by the baptist collection at the university. the new director of history for the state conven- tion and research director of the baptist collection is j. m. gaskin. he reports that during the oklahoma baptist collec- tion will move into the facilities provided in the newly constructed mabee learning center. the north carolina baptist historical collection has received the computer- generated index to the biblical recorder. the collection is soon to obtain a printout of earlier issues, - , and also the entries. catholic. the archdiocese of washing- ton issued a bicentennial brochure welcoming visitors to the nation's capital and listing points and personages of histor- ical importance. the historian's office, under the direction of rev. robert o. mcmain, has published a series of weekly articles along bicentennial lines, in the catholic standard. the franciscan province of santa barbara, with well over , pages of documents (both original and copies) in its archives-library, continues to receive cop- ies of most of the california registers of baptisms, marriages, and deaths. recently, rev. francis guest, ofm, ph.d., became assistant archivist. the province issued a book entitled as the padres saw them (about indians); prepared an article for the daughters of the american revolution magazine on "the far west in with emphasis on california"; and prepared a welcoming talk at goleta for the february reenactment of the anze expedition in . the archdiocese of los angeles reports three books of bicentennial interest: the religious heritage of southern california, saint vibiana's cathedral, and some cali- fornia catholic reminiscences for the united states bicentennial. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes episcopal. the episcopal archivist, v. nelle bellamy, was a consultant for the church's committee on the observance of the bicentennial and was responsible for preparing an exhibit at the general con- vention of . the diocese of missouri conducted a workshop on the bicentennial and parish history at the diocesan conven- tion last february. the registrar of the diocese of long island, new york, has prepared a separate file for each church and mission in the dio- cese for the collecting of historical data, parish journals, and photographs of out- standing events. the journals of the dio- cese, the records of the diocesan conven- tion, and all other important diocesan records have been indexed and filed. these and other historical materials are housed in a new x x foot fireproof vault. ken- neth w. miller reports that a history of the diocese, - , has just been pub- lished. a new working document is "records retention for churches." v. nelle bellamy reports that processing has moved forward on the general papers of the domestic and foreign missionary society, those of japan and hawaii, and those of the executive/national council. recent major acquisitions listed in the latest triennial report of the archives include general convention papers, rec- ords of organizations and dioceses (includ- ing volumes of the living church), and the private papers of some twenty clergymen and missionaries. a records management program has been in opera- tion for nearly three years to insure the ret- ention of valuable records, provide guide- lines for destruction of unimportant materials, and facilitate the processing of records before they are sent from the rec- ords center at the church center to the archives. during recent years the renova- tion of the second floor of the library build- ing of the seminary of the southwest, and the purchase of additional shelving, has provided much needed and adequate space for current needs. the staff was enlarged by the addition of a full-time assistant to the archivist and a part-time librarian. the archives of the diocese of missouri has received the papers of rt. rev. george l. cadigan, bishop of missouri, - , along with records of commissions, com- mittees, and agencies of the cadigan years. two newly redecorated and furnished rooms have been made available to the diocesan archives, now under the direction of charles f. rehkopf. he is completing a history of the diocese. lutheran. church anniversary booklets covering spans of , , , and years have been added to the archives of the northern illinois district of the lutheran church, missouri synod. the finnish-american historical archives, suomi college, hancock, michi- gan, participated in finn f'est as a bicentennial event. mennonite. robert kreider is now director of the mennonite historical library at north newton, kansas. men- nonite life, the quarterly illustrated journal formerly published by bethel col- lege, has been returned to bethel college and is being edited by dr. kreider. the archives of the conference of mennonites in canada has received dupli- cate copies of several church registers ( - ?) kept by the bergthal colony in russia. the registers record the vital statis- tics of mennonite families, and occa- sionally contain information about emi- gration from russia. the original records are in the custody of the archives of the chortitzer mennonite church of the east- ern reserve, in manitoba; and others in the series are in the custody of henry schellen- berg, a bishop of the chortitzer mennonite church at steinbach, manitoba. methodist. c. edwin murphy has replaced mrs. ethel kueck as curator of the united methodist archives and history of nebraska, located in lincoln at nebraska wesleyan university. the commission on archives and history of the wisconsin conference has acquired eight albums of photographs of methodist church buildings up to , and also the minutes of the wisconsin annual conference, methodist episcopal church, for , , , , and . david v. harsh reports that the archi- val materials of the conference are in the process of being arranged and described. the archives of the northwest texas conference has been permanently located in the jay-rollins library of mcmurry college, abilene, with joe specht as archi- vist. recent acquisitions include the quar- terly conference records of two older cir- cuits, lytle and buffalo gap, and the records of the board of education, - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—october the conference's commission on archives and history promoted bicentennial cele- brations in local churches, helped prepare and circulate new editions of local church histories, and updated the conference history. the development of the college archives at north central college, naperville, illi- nois, has been under the direction of clar- ence n. roberts, college archivist. recently, the library's archives room was designated the clarence n. roberts archives room. special displays of archi- val and historical materials have been exhi- bited, illustrating the development of the college. in the kansas west conference, the archives director sponsored an extensive united methodist historical display at the annual conference, and prepared a united methodist heritage travel guide of kansas. and in virginia, in the holston confer- ence, several church histories were pre- pared with the assistance of the library staff of emory and henry college. archival organizations among workshops presented during the spring meeting of the long island archives conference held april in the library of the state university of new york, stony brook, were sessions on aviation archives, oral history, and maps and genea- logical research. other well-attended workshops were one on arrangement and description of archives and manuscripts, and another entitled long island rail road: archival tracks and ties. the steering committee of the mid atlantic regional archives conference held a business meeting on february , in the belknap room of the research build- ing at winterthur museum in delaware. in addition to other business and planning, the committee discussed the marac scholarship program. marac will offer to its members scholarships of $ for further education in archival manage- ment and related subjects. the fourth annual meeting of the society of southwest archivists met in may and elected executive board members and officers. among other speeches heard by the members at the meeting was an address by ann morgan campbell on the status of the nixon presidential papers. members of the society come from libraries, govern- ment archives, private collections, and from universities and colleges in arkansas, louisiana, new mexico, oklahoma, and texas. each annual meeting of the society consists of discussion groups and work- shops on the preservation and use of rec- ords and manuscripts. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril volume the american archivist published quarterly by the society of american archivists d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril contents of volume articles one man's hopes for his society, his profession, his country james b. rhoads hannah lay fc company: sampling the records of a century of lumbering larry steck and francis blouin a method of verso description j o h n woodrow presley record selection gustaw kalenski, edited by meyer h. fishbein t h e international scene: report of the second caribbean archives confer- ence oliver wendell holmes document restoration by digital image processing w. h . spuck, r. j. blackwell, and j. m. soha current lamination policies of the library of congress frazer g. poole t h e barrow two-bath deacidification method w. j. barrow restoration shop, inc. a visible file catalog for photographic materials hilda bohem cataloging motion picture film harriet w. aveney t h e empty shrine: t h e transfer of the declaration of independence and the constitution to the national archives milton o. gustafson toward an international archives program and council, - oliver w. holmes t h e international council on'archives: its first quarter century morris rieger united nations—the written record ofra d. core saving the past for the future—tales of international search and coopera- tion t e d f . p o w e l l documenting the great migrations and a century of ethnicity in america robert m. warner and francis x. blouin, j r . international progress in microfilming: t h e background and work of the ica committee albert h. leisinger, j r . natis, an international information system: impossible dream or attain- able reality? michael e. carroll d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the ica and technical assistance to developing countries w. i. smith t h e archivist as collector lester j. cappon two experiments in automated indexing: t h e presidential papers and the paper of the continental congress marion m. torchia cooperation as a strategy for archival institutions john a. fleckner student records: t h e harvard experience harley p. holden t h e use of archives in the study of immigration and ethnicity richard n. juliani oral history and the archives ronald l. filippelli nars: t h e politics of placement walter robertson, jr. microfilming continuous tone materials marc r. d'alleyrand departments annual bibliography reviews , , , professional reading technical notes , , t h e international scene: news and abstracts , , , news notes , , , the president's page the society of american archivists , , t h e forum , , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril document now with added alkaline buffers. iac d free a stronger alkaline buffer has been added to our document cases. this provides the same high ph for archival longevity, but more protection against atmospheric pol- lutants and migrating acids from stored documents. full " storage width: (above) # letter size ( %h x a" x ") # legal size ( %h x a" x ") # oversize legal ( / " x / " x ") v " storage width: (left) # letter size ( / " x ( m " x vz") # legal size ( / " x k m " x / ") the hollinger corporation write today for prices and complete catalog for permanent durable acid free storage materials p.o. box -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril saa application formembership or subscription individual membership insitutional membership subscription only regular • $ enclosed • $ enclosed d $ enclosed d $ enclosed • $ enclosed contributing • $ enclosed student • $ enclosed" regular • $ enclosed sustaining • $ enclosed d $ usa, canada, mexico d $ all others n a m l institution- street_ . city_ . s t a t l zip_ signature of faculty m e m b e r institution dues individual regular cross annual salary $ - $ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , $ , -$ , contributing regular dues, as above, plus student institutional regular sustaining dues , ..$ . . .$ . . . $ . . . $ . . . $ . . . $ . . . $ . . . $ $ individual and institutional members of the society receive the american archivist, the bimonthly saa news- letter, and the annual meeting program. members are eligible for special discounts on professional publications, and may utilize the society's placement service. subscriptions to the american archivist without membership in the saa are available only to institutions. applications for membership or subscrip- tion should be addressed t o : society of american archivists university of illinois, chicago circle library, r o o m chicago, illinois sustaining membership includes two copies of all society publications during year of membership d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril member price $ . . retail price $ . . saa publication service offers reduced prices on archives books archives in the ancient world, ernst posner in pursuit of american history: research and training in the united states, walter rundell, jr. the modern manuscript library, ruth b. bordin and robert m. warner norton on archives: the writings of margaret cross norton on archival and records management, thorn ton mitchell, ed. oral history program manual, william w. moss shop talk: papers on historical and commercial records of new england, james lawton, ed. all saa individual and institutional members are eligible for the reduced prices; payment must accompany order. nonmembers (and members who wish to be billed) may obtain these publi- cations from saa at retail prices. society of american archivists university of illinois at chicago circle library box chicago, illinois . . . . . . . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril information for contributors editorial policy . members of the .society of american archivists, and others with professional interests in the aims of the society, are invited to submit manuscripts for consideration and to suggest areas of interest or sub- jects which they feel should he included in forthcoming issues of the american archivist. . manuscripts received from contributors are submitted to readers who the editor feels can give an objective appraisal. readers are asked to appraise manuscripts in terms of appropriateness, pertinence, innovativeness, scholarly worth, and clarity of writing. . only manuscripts not previously published in english will be accepted, and authors must agree not to publish elsewhere, without explicit written permission, a paper submitted to and accepted by the american archivist. the editor will consider publication of articles previously published in foreign lan- guages; but usually these will be abstracted and included in a section of the american archivist intended for this purpose. . one set of galley proofs will be sent lo authors for correction of any omissions or errors in the edited copy of the original manuscript. . ten reprints of each paper will be provided to the author without charge. additional reprints may be ordered from the printer, and an order form for this purpose will be sent to the author with his galley proofs. . lelters-to-the-editor which include pertinent and constructive comments or criticism of articles or reviews recently published in the american archivist are welcome. ordinarily, such letters should not exceed words. . brief contributions for the three special sections of the american archivist—news notes, interna- tional scene, and technical notes—may be addressed to the several editors of those sections or sent directly to the editor of the american archivist. manuscript requirements . manuscripts should be submitted in english, in double-spaced typescript throughout—including footnotes at the end of the text—on white bond paper 'jx o r x ' inches in size. margins should be about ' inches all around. all pages should be numbered, including the title page. the author's name and address should appear only on the title page, which should be separate from the main text of the manuscript. . each manuscript should be submitted in two copies, the original typescript and one carbon copy or durable photocopy. . the title of the paper should be concise and distinctive rather than descriptive. . an abstract of approximately words, brief, concise, and complete in itself without reference to the body of the paper, describing purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions where applicable, should be submitted with each manuscript. . illustrations, photographic or drawn, are welcome. photographs should be x inch glossy prints; other illustrations should be professionally drawn to a scale about twice the size of the final copy to be printed. . references and footnotes should conform to accepted scholarly standards. ordinarily, the american archivist uses footnote format illustrated in the university of chicago manual of style, th edition. . the american archivist uses the university of chicago manual of style, th edition, and webster's new international dictionary of the english language, d edition (g. & c. merriam co.), as its stan- dards for style, spelling, and punctuation. variations from these standards are permitted but should be minimal and purposeful. . usage of terms which have special meanings for archivists, manuscript curators, and records manag- ers should conform to the definitions in "a basic glossary for archivists, manuscript curators, and records managers," american archivist, vol. , no. (july ). copies of this glossary are available for $ each from the executive director. saa, university of illinois at chicago circle, box . chi- cago, . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril annual meeting d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .d rm v vlx by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril to cite this article please include all of the following details: janzen, melanie ( ). breathing life into the territorial acknowledgment. transnational curriculum inquiry ( ) p. - https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> breathing life into the territorial acknowledgement melanie janzen university of manitoba, canada we are all severely damaged goods: on the one hand, canadians are damaged by their history of plunder, the constant rationalization of their preponderant super-sized entitlement over space, and their control of time; on the other hand, indigenous people are damaged by the absence of entitlement, so damaged that sorting this out will be a nightmare. but do it we must. (maracle, , p. ) it was one of those enchanting mornings; the illuminated cerulean prairie sky, the mud- bottomed ribbon of the red river silently slipping along without a ripple, and the air already warm, clear, and full of promise for a hot summer day. i was cruising the river trail on my bike, heading towards the canadian museum for human rights (cmhr) where i was co-teaching a summer course. as i followed the trail along the scrubby bank, the path gently veered to the left and entered a clearing where my view was captured by the immense museum building in the distance. the glass tower of hope, issuing from the museum nd piercing the unclouded sky, was illuminated by the sun, while the grassy riverbank lay before me at my feet. i stopped to take a photo, thinking i could add it to my slides before class began. i work on a university campus surrounded on three sides by the snaking red river. the campus is situated on treaty one territory, original lands of the anishinabe, cree, oji-cree, dakota, dene peoples and homeland of the métis nation. according to aimée craft ( ), indigenous lawyer and scholar (anishinaabe-métis), treaty one is significant in the history of relations between the canadian government and indigenous peoples, as it was the first of the numbered treaties and was “the hinge on which western agricultural expansion, and the national railway, were resting” (p. ). historically significant given the shared colonial history of this place, treaty one remains important as canadians work to understand this country’s colonial history, as well as the present- day colonial structures and their implications. our campus, like many institutions across canada, has developed a territorial acknowledgement that is intended to pay respect to the land and the original peoples of the land, the treaties, the damaging effects of colonization, and our collective responsibility in an era of truth and reconciliation. however, this is not without problems. how, as a settler, researcher and teacher, do i offer a territorial acknowledgment that is meaningful, when i am so clearly situated on—and benefit from—stolen land? traditional territorial acknowledgement the university of manitoba campuses are located on original lands of anishinaabeg,cree, oji-cree, dakota, and dene peoples, and on the homeland of the métis nation. we respect the treaties that were made on these territories, we acknowledge the harms and mistakes of the past, and we dedicate ourselves to move janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> forward in partnership with indigenous communities in a spirit of reconciliation and collaboration. (university of manitoba, traditional territorial acknowledgement) many elders and indigenous colleagues advise that in order to make a territorial acknowledgement meaningful, the one providing the acknowledgement should create a personal link to the acknowledgement. in other words, the one giving the acknowledgement should consider what the acknowledgement means to them personally. as a white settler who grew up near the red river in this city, i feel as though i have historic, geographic and social connections to this place. the photo i took that morning seemed like a pleasant image reflecting the river and the city and my personal connections growing up here. however, when i looked at the photo again, i was surprised to see the ways the camera had captured some of the complex layers of this city’s colonial past and present. the photo provided me with a text that was richer than i had first imagined— but, as i will explore, could only bring me so far. figure . photograph for territorial acknowledgement about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> my (insufficient and incomplete) territorial acknowledgement i would like to acknowledge that we are on treaty one territory, home of the cree, oji-cree, dakota and dene peoples and homeland to the métis nation. i use the photograph that you see projected here to visually represent our shared colonial history and the complexities of the relationships of those who reside here. i like to use this photograph to remind myself of my place on treaty one territory and the work that is required of me as a settler of this place. you can see how in this two-dimensional photo, the image appears layered into horizontal striations. in the layer second from the bottom, we see the muddy river (for which the cree word is “winnipeg”; “win” meaning muddy and “nippee” for water.) the river slices across the page, flowing from the forks where indigenous peoples have been gathering for millennia. the river represents the robust trade and travel systems of the first peoples and the vigorous fur trade facilitated, in part, by the voyageur. in the layer directly above the river, we see the rusty bridge of the rail line like a razor cutting across the image and through the land of this country, and representing the arrival, spread, and physical colonization of this place. in the layer above that and dominating the eye, we see the canadian museum of human rights and its now-famous imagery of the glass tower of hope spouting from its immense tyndal stone base. the museum was and is a contentious project, built on the banks of the forks (an indigenous sacred site) and directly on top of the greatest archeological find of indigenous artefacts in canada. aiming to be a beacon for our city and nation, the museum simultaneously acts as a lightning rod to both controversy and thoughtful critique. finally, in the foreground (at the bottom of the photo) and easily overlooked, we see a non- descript riverbank, grassy and flat, with the decrepit alexander dock on its edge… in winnipeg, it is enough to say that this is the alexander dock—everyone here knows the recent history and horror of that site. however, if i was welcoming people to this place who do not know the significance of these docks, i might also remind them that: the alexander dock is a significant landmark in our city, as this is the place where -year old tina fontaine’s body, wrapped in a garbage bag, was pulled from the river. finding her tiny body ignited outrage in our city and it spread across the country, ultimately sparking the initiation of the missing and murdered women and girls inquiry.… but i don’t usually say that—people who live here know this. describing the photo as part of my territorial acknowledgement felt more meaningful and i was satisfied with it—for a time. in creating this territorial acknowledgment, using the image and its layers of visual and historic text along with the commentary, i thought it was an attempt to “breathe life into what are essentially relationship documents” (craft, , p. ). craft explains that the treaties were agreements that were greater than the actual treaty document and that they are premised on relationships: “relationships between and among ourselves, relationships with other animate beings” (p. ). the image provided context and a personal connection to the about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> place, but … who was in relation here? and, with whom? territorial acknowledgements: “pretty but empty words” recently (and perhaps for much longer), indigenous peoples, academics, and community leaders have been questioning the value of land and territorial acknowledgements altogether. for example, audrey siegl of the musqueam stated that territorial acknowledgements are “just tokenism, pretty but empty words, spoken so we will be pacified for at least a little bit longer” (as cited in hergesheimer, ). similarly, indigenous professor, laara fitznor, who generally supports the intention of land acknowledgements, cautions that we need to be remind ourselves that these acknowledgments are “just words” (as cited in brass, ). this made me wonder, what and whose narratives are being upheld in these acknowledgements? i am reminded of dwayne donald’s ( ) metaphor of the fort and how this became a symbol that reified the divide between indigenous and setter peoples. i think it could be argued that territorial acknowledgements act in similar ways; as examples of a colonial frontier logic (donald, ) that works to maintain divides between settlers and indigenous peoples. in other words, are they becoming another example of an institutionalized practice that assumes and maintains the “assumption that the experiences and perspectives of aboriginal peoples in canada are their own separate cultural preoccupations” (p. )? as laara fitznor points out, although she appreciates that the university has a land acknowledgment, it does not reflect her perspective as a cree person and indigenous faculty member. fitznor said, “when i read it, i said ‘this is not me’ because they’re saying ‘i’m sorry’ to you, and i’m reading it — do i say ‘i’m sorry’ to myself?” (as quoted in brass, ). it seems that the acknowledgement reiterates settler colonial logics, reinforcing colonial dominance as “a kind of cultural ditch—separating aboriginal from canadian” (donald, , p. ). is it possible for treaty acknowledgements to be more than just empty words, moves of colonial logics? donald ( ) suggests that one must “contest the colonial frontier logics by instead emphasizing the relationality and connectivity that comes from living together in a particular place for a long time” (p. ). back to the beginning sometimes to go forward, we need to go to the beginning (maracle, , p. ). after the signing of treaty one in , the canadian government began to facilitate settlement of the prairies by offering large parcels of land to europeans. in the late s, mennonites from southern russia arrived in the ‘newly created’ province of manitoba. my great grandparents—both maternal and fraternal—arrived in canada as immigrants seeking refuge from persecution due to their religious beliefs as conscientious objectors. according to manitoba government documents, the government sought to “entice” these “industrious farmers” to the prairies by providing them with exemptions from military service, religious freedom, and land for settlement (ledohowski, ). thus, the mennonites received reserves or “large tracts of land for their exclusive settlement,” and subsequently developed the “east reserve” ( ) and the “west reserve” ( ) on respective sides of the red river (klassen, ). enlisting colonial discourses of terra nullius, and reinforced by narratives of the making of canada, the land was considered uninhabited and free for the taking. this “logic of elimination” (tuck & gaztambide-fernandez, ) is an event of settler colonialism “in which the colonizer comes to stay, making himself the sovereign, and the arbiter of citizenship, civility, and about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> knowing” (p. ). the reserve land granted to the mennonites allowed for the establishment of mennonite villages and accompanying farmland for which they paid nothing, and which is now some of the most productive and lucrative farmland on the prairies. it is no coincidence that the government’s promises of land for european immigrants coincided with the development of residential schools, which actively removed children from their homes and land, and coincided as well as with the indian act ( ), which was put in place to control indigenous peoples and their movement. generally speaking, canadians are beginning to understand that these colonial stories of discovery and nation-making were narratives established and perpetuated by the colonizing state in an effort to control and colonize the land and its first peoples. however, these were not the stories we were told growing up, nor do we—at least in our family history—articulate these in regards to our personal implication. the stories we were told reinforced heroic settler narratives of canada. for example, as conscientious objectors, mennonites were forced to flee their homeland for fear of persecution and upon arrival in canada, carved out a life through their hard labour and innovations of farming. the sod house, temporary structures built before materials were secured for more permanent dwellings, makes an interesting metaphor for the prairie settlers, for industriousness, perseverance in extremely difficult conditions, but also for illustrating how embedded in the land these immigrants were—literally burrowing themselves into the landscape to survive the winter. these narratives were reinforced in family stories, school curriculum, and multicultural ideologies that painted canada as a great frontier, bravely settled and improved through industriousness and hard work. extolling mennonite values of pacifism and heroic tales of immigration, our family’s history was legitimated a “creation story” used to “conceal the teleology of violence and domination that characterize settlement” (tuck & gaztambide-fernandez, , p. ). in the mennonite creation story of righteousness and brave struggle, stories of the first peoples of this land were absent. i cannot recall a single family story that involved my family’s relations with indigenous people. it was if these people—whose land we occupied—simply did not exist. it is this logic of elimination that seeks not only to dominate a group of people, but is primarily motivated by the acquisition of land (tuck & gaztambide-fernandez, ). importantly, in this historic and contemporary move, in which the “violence of invasion is not contained to first contact or the unfortunate birthpangs of a new nation, but is reasserted each day of occupation” (tuck & gaztambide-fernandez, , p. ), the mennonites are still there and farms have often been passed down through generations. in seeking information about what has been eliminated in our family’s creation story, i found a news story posted online by cbc about the exploitation of indigenous peoples who were recruited by mennonite farmers to harvest the sugar beets in the s to s. the farmers would enlist indigenous people from the reserves, promising pay and accommodations. what the labourers received instead, it was reported, was grueling work, minimal pay, and no food or even water. when i shared this story with my mother who was born and raised in the mennonite reserve lands, she mused aloud, “i wonder what other little secrets exist.” she proceeded to tell me of memories of her grandmother giving bread to the ‘indians’ who showed up on their doorstep begging for food. it would have been important to mennonites to uphold savior narratives, reified by constructing indigenous peoples ‘as less than or not-quite civilized’ and in doing so allowed the colonizers to feel—and reassert—dominance by ‘helping’ the ‘poor.’ such creation stories “cover the tracks” of the settler colonizer masking the violence of domination and erasure (tuck & gaztambide-fernandez, ). about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> my mother was wise to these and other hypocrisies that emerged throughout her upbringing, leaving her community the day she completed her final grade exam. she could not reconcile the teachings of the faith with the ways in which she saw life being played out for people around her. for example, her father, who had enlisted in world war ii as a means to provide for his family, was actively shunned by the community upon his return, refused employment and access to the church because of his violation of their religion’s pacifist beliefs. risking his life to put food on the table was not a forgivable offense. donald ( ) explains that “imagining decolonizing aboriginal-canadian relations begins with carefully tracing the colonial nature of those relations—in the past and today—and acknowledging that colonial frontier logics continues to have a tremendous influence on how the relationship is conceptualized” (p. ). unearthing stories that reveal the relationships between the mennonite settlers and the indigenous peoples helps to reveal underlying power structures, inequities, racism, and failures of ethical relationality. yet, these stories are scarce. my mother’s question, “i wonder what other little secrets exist,” indicates the efforts made by settler communities to hide their inconvenient and unethical truths and the dominant narratives at play in hiding these secrets. yet, it is through ongoing efforts to reveal the dirty little secrets that a “shared condition wherein colonizers and colonized come to know each other” (donald, , p. ) can be fostered. my great grandparents and grandparents were quite poor; they never did own any farmland—they did, however, benefit from the work that settlement on the land allowed. eventually, my parents moved individually from their mennonite communities in southern manitoba to winnipeg, seeking work and, perhaps, also freedom from the religious communities that they often found oppressive. after marrying and renting in the north end of the city, my parents purchased a small house near the red river, on treaty one territory—although they would not have known that. treaties were not acknowledged in the s. the mortgage was an immense financial burden. yet, my parents managed to carve out a working-class life for our family due to their industriousness and hard work, as well as their white privilege. although my dad had dropped out of school at grade nine to work, he was trained and employed in a unionized trade. as a family, we benefited greatly from his job, which provided a good salary and benefits. it meant my sister and i could go to university—the first of our dozens of cousins to be able to do so. like most settler canadian children of that time, my sister and i were schooled in rosy narratives of the history of canada reflecting ideals of multiculturalism. ‘natives’ were portrayed in our books as historical figures benefiting from colonization. we ‘acknowledged’ this history by making sugar cube igloos and reading a poem by pauline johnson—ignoring entirely the first nations and métis peoples of the past and of the present on whose land this education was occurring. except for the story of louis riel— who back then was still considered a traitor and deserved the punishment of being hanged. these minor curricular events (in that they took up hardly any time or space) are stark illustrations of the ways in which curriculum was—and is—a hegemonic structure. our curriculum reflected (and still reflects) “idealized and mythologized” (donald, , p. ) versions of history, which “morph into hegemonic expressions of existing value structures and worldviews of the dominant group in society” (donald, , p. ). the curriculum circulated stories of courageous settlers of manitoba—from mennonites to icelanders—all pioneers of the frontier and makers of this nation, erasing any real existence and influence of indigenous peoples in the past and ignoring their continued existence in the present. about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> lowering the fire …the fire is lowered, until the next time we meet. we have not finished our work. our work is never done. things change, we change. we will discuss this again. (elder elmer courchene, in craft, , p. ) i have attempted to consider my family’s presence and complicity in the shared colonial past of this country, seeking to reconsider the mennonite myths of victimhood and heroism, and narratives of settlement and survival, in order to recognize the multiple truths that exist in our creation—and more importantly, the stories that were absent. this helps to illuminate both the gifts we were given and the debt that we owe. this is an exercise that “seeks to understand more deeply how our different histories and experiences position us in relation to each other”, unearthing our “relationality and connectivity that comes from living in a particular place for a long time” (donald, , p. ). yet, it is unfinished and remains inadequate. of course, this reflection risks critique of navel-gazing, of re-circulating the settler narrative, and of re-centering whiteness and my own privilege. and so, as lee maracle ( ) reminds us in this paper’s opening quote, sorting this out risks being a nightmare, “but do it we must” (p. ). at best, this effort might be seen as an attempt to unveil the dirty little secrets of our past in order to inform a more truthful creation story. hopefully, it may be seen as a provocation of a conversation about our shared colonial past and how it operates in the present; a consideration of what a territorial acknowledgment might mean—to me, to my family, to all of us in relation on this place, then, now and in the future. as i continue on this journey of truth and reconciliation (and not unproblematically), my territorial acknowledgement continues to evolve. currently, it ends with: what i appreciate about this photo—and why i share it with you—is that it visually represents a shared colonial history and our complex present of residing on this place. it reminds me, as i ride past on my bike, of my privilege as a descendent of the mennonite settlers who were given land, of the debt that i owe, and of the responsibility that i have to live here in a good way, together in relation with others, and in particular with those to whom this land belongs. notes melanie.janzen@umanitoba.ca references brass, t. ( , october ). speaker raises issue with traditional territories acknowledgement in lecture. http://www.themanitoban.com/ / /indigenous- prof-critical-of-u-of-m-land-acknowledgement/ / carreiro, d. ( , june ). “you had no choice”: indigenous manitobans shed light on exploitative farm labour program that ran for decades. cbc manitoba. retrievable from: https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/indigenous-forced-labour-sugar- beet-farms- . craft, a. ( ). breathing life into the stone fort treaty: an anishinabe understanding of treaty one. saskatoon, sk: purich publishing. about:blank about:blank about:blank about:blank about:blank janzen. breathing life transnational curriculum inquiry, ( ) https://ojs.library.ubc.ca/index.php/tci/index <access date> donald, d. ( ). forts, colonial frontier logics, and aboriginal-canadian relations: imagining decolonizing educational philosophies in canadian contexts. . in a. a. abdi (ed.), decolonizing philosophies of education (pp. - ). rotterdam: sensepublishers. hergesheimer, j. ( , march ). unceded territory: meaningfully acknowledging coast salish peoples. retrieved from: http://www.megaphonemagazine.com/unceded_territory klassen, j. ( , august ). mennonites, métis and first nations. steinbach village news blog. retrieved from: https://www.mysteinbach.ca/blogs/ /mennonites- metis-and-first-nations-people/ ledohowski, e. ( ). the heritage landscape of the crow wing study region of southeastern manitoba. manitoba: manitoba culture, heritage and tourism. retrieved from: https://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/hrb/internal_reports/crow_wing_study.html maracle, l. ( ). memory serves: oratories (s. kamboureli, ed.). edmonton: ab.: newest press. tuck, e., & gaztambide-fernández, r. a. ( ). curriculum, replacement, and settler futurity. jct (online), ( ), . tuck, e., & yang, k. w. ( ). unbecoming claims: pedagogies of refusal in qualitative research. qualitative inquiry, ( ), - . university of manitoba. traditional territorial acknowledgement. retrieved from: http://umanitoba.ca/admin/indigenous_connect/ .html submitted: november, th, . approved: december, rd, . about:blank about:blank about:blank about:blank about:blank about:blank manly militants, cohesive communities, and defiant domestics: writing about immigrants in canadian historical scholarship franca lacovetta n o t since the manifestos issued two decades ago by women's historians and proponents of the new labour history have canadian social historians been seriously challenged. post-structuralism and discourse analysis has raised ques- tions — intriguing to some, dismissed as extreme relativism, or politically danger- ous by others— about our ability to really know the p a s t the history of sexuality has opened the curtain on homosexuality and also begun the important work of 'for example, alison prentice and susan mann trofimenkoff, eds., the neglected majority: essays in canadian women "s history (volumes and ) (toronto ; ); veronica strong-boag, the parliament of women: the national council of women in canada, t o n * i a ^ a /r\a* \ m £ \ n - - - i - _ ¥ » . . » t - ¥» . » v m ^ _ i _ _ ! _ _ » i — r* j * - _ i\**^-l**,s y w m h « a*l\m/t l#v%* u v u m i swmmrll j u w i i | l a h u h l u u i u u m m u u m u m u women's history," journal of women's history, , (fall ), - ; her "experience, difference, dominance and voice in the writing of canadian women's history,'' in karen offen, ruth roach pierson, and jane rendall, eds., writing women's history: international perspectives (london ). a recent summary of these developments is craig heron, towards synthesis in canadian worlring-class history: reflections on bryan palmer's rethinking," left history, ( ), - . international works include joan scott, gender and the politics of history (new york ); mary poovey, uneven developments: the ideological work of gender in mid-vic- torian england (chicago ). differing canadian perspectives include bryan d. palmer, descent into discourse (philadelphia ); joy parr, "introduction,'' labouring children (toronto , ); mariana val verde. the age oflight, soap and water (lotvoto ). franca lacovetta, "manly militants, cohesive communities, and defiant domestics: writ- ing about immigrants in canadian historical scholarship," labour/le travail, (fall ). - . labour/le travail problematicizing heterosexuality. my main concern here, however, is the chal- lenge raised by scholars who consider race-ethnicity a critical category of analysis. such an approach demands that we all, and not just the specialists of racial-ethnic minorities, integrate the histories of minorities fully into our analyses of the past no longer is it adequate to confine the study of racial-ethnic identities to those women and men who stood outside the dominant english- or french-canadian majority. we are also being challenged to develop better tools for uncovering the ways in which the processes of racialization and ethnicization have influenced historical phenomena. in response, a growing number of scholars are embracing what has become a favoured approach of social historians and others in the s — one that takes into account the intersections among class, gender, and race/eth- nicity and considers the ways in which experiences and identities and political and social phenomena can be shaped by a multiplicity of overlapping and even contradictory influences. given the current popularity of the class-gender-race/ethnicity analytical framework (not to mention an already emerging backlash), it seems an appropriate time to offer an assessment of the treatment of immigrants in canadian historical writing. it seems especially appropriate since social historians operating within this three-pronged paradigm generally seem least informed about immigration. sophis- ticated understandings of class and gender, of the varied histories of canadian workers and women, are not always matched by an equally strong grasp of the complex histories of canada's immigrants, the varied contexts in which immigrant history has been written, or of the valuable insights offered by immigration specialists that might have broader applicability. by the same token, immigration specialists appear relatively untouched by recent theoretical and methodological developments that have affected sister fields, such as postmodern gender analysis and its emphasis on deconstructing language and multiple systems of meanings. the paper maps general trends in the field of immigrant history, then turns to a detailed discussion of works produced in the last years. the assessments reflect my own efforts to grapple with the intellectual possibilities that the class-gender- race/ethnicity paradigm raises for writing not only immigrant history in canada canadian gay/lesbian history is under-developed, but consult steven maynard, "'in search of sodom north': the writing of lesbian and gay history in english canada, - ," canadian review of comparative literature, ( ), - ; bccki ross, the house that jill built: lesbian nation in formation (toronto ). ^ternational works include david r. roediger, the wages of whiteness: race and the making of the american working-class (london ); vron ware, beyond the pale: white women, racism and history (london ); evelyn brooks higginbotham, "african- american women's history and the metalanguage of race," signs, ( ), s - . canadian contributions include pierson, "experience, difference"; vic satzewich, racism and the incorporation of foreign labour: farm labour migration to canada since (routledge ); dionne brand, no burden to carry: narratives of black working women in ontario s to s (toronto ). manly militants but canadian history more broadly. far from advocating one particular vision of immigrant history die paper calls for greater experimentation with diverse and challenging approaches and topics. rather than privileging entirely one method of historical enquiry over another—my own bias is in favour of a materialist approach mat is also mindful of the importance of language, culture, discursive codes, and narratives in influencing male and female experiences, identities and under- standings — the paper borrows loosely from various approaches in an effort to complicate matters, to encourage new ways of thinking and writing about immi- grants in the canadian past a bit of context the historical literature on canada's immigrants is a highly fragmented body of work, and its practitioners are a diverse collection of historians and others trained in different disciplinary traditions and methodologies and occupying divergent political positions. this paper focuses on historical works on immigrants, but it is worth noting that immigrant and ethnic (or racial-ethnic) history are not coter- minus. recent works on immigrants of colour, such as west indians, for instance, have been written within a race-studies framework, although they are also impor- tant contributions to immigrant history. ethnic history is not confined to the immigrant generation and, of course, minority history encompasses people of colour, such as first nations, who are not immigrants. generally speaking, how- ever, since the s the scholars whose work has contributed most significantly to the historical scholarship on immigrants have been situated within one or more of the three sub-fields of social history that are related to each other by similar if not identical research agendas: the new labour history (or working-class history), women's history, and ethnic history. despite significant differences, these histori- ans have shared a basic commitment to uncovering the lives of people whom conventional histories had dubbed powerless and/or sufficiently voiceless as to be written out of the historical record. labour historians, including women's historians of labour, were initially drawn to immigrant history because of an interest in militancy and radicalism, and to a lesser degree, class formation. notwithstanding some critical differences among them —particularly with respect to the analytic power of gender and the place of women within the left — they shared a similar socialist political and intellectual agenda, one that gave primacy to the recovery of traditions of resistance and protest 'useful overviews of immigration history include howard palmer, "canadian immigration and ethnic history in the s and s," journal of canadian studies, ( ). - ; roberto perin, "clio as an ethnic: the third force in canadian historiography," canadian historical review, ( ), - . on postmodern gender analysis and women's and labour history, see, for example, joanne meyerowitz, "american women's history: the fall of women's culture," canadian review of american studies, ( ), - ; ava baron, éd., work engendered: toward a new history of american labor (ithaca ). labour/le travail by contrast, canada's immigration specialists have comprised a larger and more diverse group of historians. they represent a racially heterogeneous commu- nity and their perspectives range across the political spectrum. we find here the presence of conservatives, liberals, and leftists, as well as feminists and anti-femi- nists. although rarely discussed in public, historians working within heavily polarized ethnic communities have found it difficult to study left-right or jewish- gentile splits without drawing criticism or a studied neglect from colleagues on the other side of the divide. the field has also attracted writers uninformed by or disinterested in recent developments in social history. such tensions are not unique to ethnic history, of course, but they are certainly evident in this field. during the past two decades, canadian immigrant history has also revealed many us influences. canadian specialists of european immigrants, for example, have imported the critique of oscar handlin developed by our us colleagues. handlin, of course, was the prominent harvard professor whose s epic tales of european immigrant uprootedness, alienation, but eventual assimilation into the supposed american melting pot underwent a massive critique in the s and s. led by scholars like rudolph vecoli, this critique was invaluable and laid the basis for a revamped north american immigration history. canada never had the equivalent of a handlin, yet we have assumed, rather than documented or refuted, that a handlin model dominated our historiography. having cautioned against our falling uncritically in step with a us-defined historical agenda, i would also stress that canadian scholars were drawn to the vs revisionist literature on immigration precisely because it offered a way of recon- ceptualizing immigrant lives so as to acknowledge agency, choice, adaptation, and resistance without ignoring racism and exploitation. canadian scholars have also culled from an international and multi-disciplinary literature dealing both with old world and new world contexts. it ranges from the work of family and community specialists, ethnographers, anthropologists, and folklorists, to studies of interna- tional labour movements and transatlantic economies. some colleagues might see in this internationalization of immigrant history another indication of the 'sunder- ing' of canada's national history into so many specialties, but practitioners in the field consider it a source of enrichment. others have caustically dismissed the oscar handlin, the uprooted (boston ); rudolph vecoli, "contadini in chicago: a critique of the uprooted," journal of american history, ( ), - ; john bodnar's synthesis of the revisionist works, the transplanted: a history of immigrants in urban america (bloomington ). relevant canadian texts include robert harney, éd., gath- ering place: peoples and neighbourhoods of toronto - (toronto ); varpu lindstrom, defiant sisters: a social history of finnish immigrant women in canada (toronto ); franca iacovetta, such hardworking people: italians in postwar toronto (montreal ). michael bliss, "privatizing the mind: the sundering of canadian history, the sundering of canada," donald creighton lecture, university of toronto, october ; reprinted in journal of canadian studies, ( ), - . manly militants whole enterprise of social history as a study of the anecdotal and inconsequential. j.l granatstein's pointed quip, "really wbo cares about the housemaid's knee in belleville," readily comes to mind. in response, i would note that the new immigration history as it developed and gained an audience in canada in the s and s was, and remains, precisely the unashamed history of housemaids, not to mention the maladies, like housemaid's knee, that afflict people. some general trends, past and present predictably, given canada's historic role as a receiving society, writing about immigrants has long been a feature of our historical scholarship. over die decades, however, the priorities and perspectives of scholars interested in the subject have changed considerably. new approaches to familiar topics also have emerged. an appropriate place to begin is the "nation-building" school of canadian history, that school of nationalist historiography popular in the s, s and s (and now undergoing something of a resurgence). here, immigration was acknowledged as a key ingredient in transcontinental nation-making but the immigrants were largely ignored or relegated to cameo appearances. donald creighton, for instance, portrayed favourably john a. macdonald's aim to settle the canadian west by (mostly) white americans and europeans but comparatively little effort went into determining just who were those thousands of bukovynians, roumanians, doukhobors and others who eventually carved homes out of the canadian frontier and supplied canadian employers with workers and railways with patrons. if we consider the eclectic collection of works produced between the s and s on immigrants in various regional and temporal settings in canada, it is clear that the subject has also attracted specialists of various types. such writers largely accented die nation-buildins framework, hut they filled in important hetaiu regarding the timing and pattern of settlement and to some extent the motives and backgrounds of the immigrants themselves. much of mis work deals with the english, scots, and irish immigrants of the th-century's great migration era. ultimately, however, it tells us far more about policy and settlement patterns than the day-to-day world of newcomers. while containing positive evaluations of certain non-british groups, namely north-western europeans, a racial bias in favour of the british 'stock' and anglo-celtic mores pervades this literature. 'quoted in christoper moore, "the organized man," the beaver, (april/may ), . donald creighton, john a. macdonald: the old chieftain (toronto ); canada's first century - (toronto ). see also carl berger, the writing of canadian history {toronto ). for example, w.a. carrothers, emigration from the british isles (london ); helen cowan, british immigration to british north america (toronto ); norman macdonald, canada: immigration and colonization - (toronto ). labour/le travail the significant presence of continental europeans and asians in canada by the early th century also prompted various canadian and 'ethnic' writers to map the histories of specific non-british groups. this literature ranges widely, from the ominous warnings of 'race suicide' and 'mongrel' populations voiced by bigots like h. glynn ward, to the more sympathetic but patronizing and pro-canadiani- zation views of social reformers such as j.s. woodsworth, and to more sophisti- cated sociological studies of group settlement and adaptation. despite some differences in intent and emphasis, a pro-canadianization and elitist impulse similarly informed the works of the so-called 'ethnic' writers of die s and s, whose usually whiggish histories of 'their own people' had a decidedly celebratory or filiopietistic bent. it was expressed in several ways, including romanticized histories of the culture and homelands from which the members came, culturally determinist characterizations of the people under study that emphasized their proud, intelligent, and stoic qualities as well as their genius for 'success' (variously defined), and an understandable but misplaced concern to claim cana- dian authenticity for the group by documenting the presence of early and/or famous forbearers. in contrast to the literature on white immigrants from non-british backgrounds, where attention has long been paid to the people themselves, until relatively recently, the scholarship on immigrants of colour, especially african americans and asians, have dealt largely with the reception they received at the hands of white canadians. that black history is particularly acquiring more h. glynn-ward, the writing on the wall (vancouver ); f. leighton thomas, japan: the octopus of the east and its menace to canada (vancouver ). j.s. woodsworth, strangers within our gates (toronto ); his my neighbour (toronto , ). see also robert england, the central european immigrant in canada (toronto ); john murray gibbon, canadian mosaic: the making of a modern nation (toronto ); charles young, the ukrainian canadians: a study in assimilation (toronto ); and on propaganda and "ethnic canadians," watson kirkconnel, canadians all: a primer of canadian national unity (ottawa ). t'or example, c.a. dawson, group settlement: ethnic communities in western canada (toronto ); lloyd reynolds, the british immigrant (toronto ). see also marlene shore, the science of social redemption: mcgill, the chicago school and the origins of social research in canada (toronto ). , for example, john kosa, land of choice: the hungarians in canada (toronto ); vladimir kaye, early ukrainian settlements in western canada, - (toronto ); p. gaida, lithuanians in canada (toronto ); a. v. spada, the italians in canada (montréal ); standford reid, the scottish tradition in canada (toronto ). see also roberto perin, "national histories and ethnic history in canada," cahiers de recherche sociologique, ( ), - . see, for example, the literature on mid-nineteenth century african americans, including, jason silverman, unwelcome guests: canada west's response to american fugitive slaves, - (millwood ); william h. pease and jane h. pease, black utopia: negro communal experiments in america (madison ); fred landon's essays, includ- ing "the negro migration to canada after the passing of the fugitive slave act," journal manly militants visibility in the canadian academy and among the general public reflects in part the demands of students in a multi-racial country to know mis history and the growing efforts of educators to diversify the canadian "story." as owen thomas recently observed, this trend also reflects the growmg commercial cache of blacks in our cultural tourism industry, a situation bound to encourage more history but of a yet unknown type and quality. another aspect of writing about immigrants is an amateur tradition of gene- alogists and history buffs tracing the family tree or reconstructing the local clan or kin networks of a village or town. such activity has been undertaken with particular enthusiasm by those who, by virtue of their membership in canada's anglo-celtic majority, feel a sense of entitlement in this regard a penchant for genealogy, for instance, has been much in evidence among the ancestors of the white united empire loyalists, who have felt confident in declaring their ancestors' position among canada's founding races and, by extension, their own legitimacy as "true" canadians. this work is valuable because of the often meticulous record-keeping involved but problematic because of the myth-making and elitism that underscores that activity. by contrast, scholarly work on the loyalists, including studies of first nations and black loyalists, has helped redress a popular bias in favour of elite white men and their families. recent works also examine the escape and settlement experiences of the ordinary women and men who figured prominently in these migration streams." a fourth trend concerns efforts to document the reception mat newcomers have received at the hands of the canadian majority (english or french) and the usually hostile responses that each successive wave of immigrants has evoked. whether evaluating canada's popular image as a "haven" to fleeing minorities or dealing primarily with the adjustment patterns of specific groups, the rhetoric of social reformers, the public and private pronouncements of public figures, or deportation procedures, mese studies represent an impressive body of work. they also amount of negro history, ( ), - ; his the anti-slavery society of canada,'' ontario history, ( ), - ; peter c. ripley, éd.. the black abolitionist papers vol ii canada (chapel hih ). recent social histories include peggy bristov/,etal,edi.,we're rooted here they can't pull us up: essays in african canadian women's history (toronto ). on asian immigration see note . owen thomas, "african canadian history and commemorative plaques in ontario," conference on spectacle, monument and memory in history, york university, april . lson propaganda and the loyalist heritage, see carl berger, »* sense of power: studies in the ideas of canadian imperialism, - (toronto ). scholarly works include cm. johnston, éd.. the valley of the six nations (toronto ); neil macldnnon, this unfriendly soil: the loyalist experience in nova scotia - (montreal ); james st o. walker, the black loyalists: the search for a promised land in nova scotia and sierra leone, - (new york ); phyllis r. blakely and john n. grant, eds., eleven exiles: accounts of loyalists of the american revolution (toronto ); janice potter macldnnon, while the women only wept: loyalist refugee women in eastern ontario (montreal ). labour/le travail to a scathing indictment of canadians' treatment of racial and ethnic minorities. canada has yet to produce cross-national and sweeping overviews of racism and anti-immigrant sentiment comparable, for example, to john higham's pioneering work for the united states. with the exception of howard palmer's analysis of "patterns of prejudice" in alberta, itself influenced by higham, canadian spe- cialists have focused instead on hostility directed at a particular group. among die best studies of racism are recent additions to die literature on and-semitism, including irving abella and harold troper's none is too many, and kay anderson's vancouver's chinatown, which is the most sophisticated work to date on anti-asian racism and racialized discourses. the list of intellectual and political histories of anti-asian racism is impressive but the social history of asians remains slim. much of the work on nativism and racism, furthermore, has not i this literature is vast: see, for example, a.r. allen, éd.. the social gospel in canada (ottawa, ); valverde, age of light, soap and water; harold troper, only farmers need apply (toronto ); donald avery, 'dangerous foreigners': european immigrant workers and labour radicalism in canada - (toronto ); barbara roberts, whence they came: deportation from canada - (ottawa ); satzewich, racism; and references in note . ^john higham, strangers in the land: patterns of american nativism (new brunswick ) has undergone many «printings. howard palmer, patterns of prejudice: a history of nativism in alberta (toronto ). irving abella and harold troper, none is too many: canada and the jews of europe - (toronto ); ester deslile, the traitor and the jew: anti-semitism and the delirium of extreme right-wing nationalism in french canada from - (mon- tréal/toronto ). kay anderson, vancouver's chinatown: racial discourses in canada, - (mon- tréal ); w. peter ward, white canada forever: popular attitudes and public policy towards orientals in british columbia (montréal ); patricia roy, "the oriental 'menace' in british columbia," in j. frieson and h.k. ralston, eds., historical essays on british columbia (toronto ); also see her a white man's province: british columbia politicians and chinese and japanese immigration, - (vancouver ); peter li, the chinese in canada (toronto ); forrest e. la violette, the canadian japanese and world war two (toronto ); a.g. sunahara, ur politics of racism: the uprooting of the japanese canadians during the second world war (toronto ); hugh johnston, the voyage of the komagata maru: the sikh challenge to canada's colour bar (delhi ). ^ b r example, anthony chan, gold mountain: the chinese in the new world (vancouver ); edgar wickberg, et al., china to canada: a history of the chinese communities in canada (toronto ); hugh johnston, t h e development of the punjabi community in vancouver since ," canadian ethnic studies, ( ); tamara adilman, "a prelimi- nary sketch of chinese women's work in british columbia," in b. latham and r. j. pazdro, eds.. not just pin money (victoria ); women's committee, chinese canadian national council, jin guo: voices of chinese canadian women (toronto ). manly militants fully considered the gendered dimensions of anti-immigrant/minority discourses. gendering the construct, "foreigner,'' would no doubt add to a fuller understanding of die contradictory strains mat usually inform racist and ethnic stereotypes. transforming the field: new immigration history s- s notwithstanding the persistence of certain trends in the field, the character and aims of canadian immigration history since die s have undergone pro- found changes. as with working-class and women's history, the new immigration history surfaced as a branch of what has long been called the new social history, with its emphases on doing history "from die bottom up" and on "agency." just as us and british labour and women's historians significantly affected developments in canada in these respective fields, canadian immigration history was heavily influenced by the pioneering works of us immigration specialists who in the late s began producing new social histories of immigrants. primarily specialists of volunteer, european rural immigrants who entered die united states during die industrial years from die mid- th century to die s, these historians under- mined die handlin model of uprootedness and offered several intriguing findings and conclusions. in place of handlin's abruptly dislocated rural villagers, they discovered artisans, peasants, and labourers responding rationally to die direats diat spreading industrial capitalism in die european countryside posed to their custom- ary ways of work and life. handlin had depicted european emigrants as pre-modern peoples whose encounter with die industrial and urban world remade them into modern americans. the revisionists punctured diis modernization model, showing that europe's sending towns had not been isolated from 'modern' (ie., capitalist) change, and that newcomers, radier dian abandoning conventional modes of behaviour used diem to adapt to urban, industrial life. to die very limited extent that handlin considered gender differences, his immigrants were men robbed of their manly dignity and women prone to sexual assault in an era before feminist historians' exposure of family violence led us, comedy, to question benign depictions of die patriarchal but corporatist family, die revisionists were primarily concerned to rescue immigrant men and women from racial-ethnic stereotypes and modernization theories that damned diem as uneducated, uncoutii, undignified, and ill-equipped to improve their lives. a ^ e c o l i , "contadini in chicago"; timothy smith,"new approaches to die history of immigrants in twentieth century america," american historical review, ( - ), - ; john bodnar, "immigration and modernization: the case of slavic peasants in america," journal of social history, ( ), - ; john bodnar, et al.. lives of their own: blacks, italians, and poles in pittsburgh - (urbana ); victor greene, the slavic community on strike (notre dame ); virginia yans-mclaughlin, family and community: italian immigrants in buffalo, - (ithaca ); kathleen neils conzen, "immigrants, immigrant neighborhoods and ethnic identity: historical issues," journal of american history, ( ). - ; her immigrant milwaukee - . labour/le travail family-strategies approach, and a materialist framework mat acknowledged the sexual division of labour within pre- and post-migration households, also con- firmed the centrality of work in ordinary peoples' lives and recognized their efforts at self-empowerment while us scholars took die lead in reshaping immigrant history, canadian historians soon became critical contributors to the field and mere has been consid- erable dialogue between scholars from bom nations. moreover, immigrant history continues to evolve in response to new research, of which die most challenging has been feminist-inspired studies of women, family, and community. focusing on canada, several approaches came to characterize historical treat- ments of immigrants during the s and early s. first, as historians increas- ingly sought to present the immigrant perspective—that is, to privilege the vantage point of the immigrants — there was a noticeable shift away from studying policy, policy-makers, and the views or stereotypes of host-society observers and towards documenting the immigrants' motives, strategies, and experiences. scholars un- dertook to write internal histories of specific groups. this task involved efforts at reconstructing the material, emotional and social worlds of immigrants in die old society and new. historians documented the internal dynamics of the ethnic community, and charted the development of ethnic organizations and the rise of ethnic group identities. the written records generated by immigrants and their associations and institutions, such as personal letters and diaries, the minutes of mutual benefit societies and union locals, foreign-language newspapers, and die audit books of remittance offices, became indispensable tools in a collective project aimed at giving voice to canadian history's marginalized majority. for those historians in a position to record living subjects, oral history was also embraced as a device that offered access to die stories of those traditionally silenced and provided a way of moving beyond the 'biased' accounts of 'outsiders.' researchers hoped to enter the private and public arenas of immigrants from die perspective of the 'insider,' and to critically examine die customs, beliefs, behav- iour, and even patriarchal structures of households and communities in ways mat fbr example, see hasia diner, erin's daughters in america (baltimore ); donna gabaccia, "immigrant women: nowhere at home?," journal of american ethnic history, (summer ), - ; micaela di leonardo, the varieties of ethnic experience: kinship, class, and gender among california italian-canadians (ithaca ); elizabeth ewen, immigrant women in the land of dollars: life and culture on the lower east side (new york ); evelyn nakano glen, issei, nisei, warbride: three generations of japanese american women in domestic service (philadelphia ); also see the forum on immigrant women's history in journal of american ethnic history, ( ); miriam cohen, workshop to office: two generations of italian women in new york city, - (ithaca ); franca iacovetta, "writing women into immigration history: the italian canadian case," altreitalie, ( ), - ; ruth frager, sweatshop strife: class, ethnicity and gender in the jewish labour movement of toronto - (toronto ). manly militants did not 'exoticize' the 'foreigner.' specialists deploying retrospective interviews have contributed enormously to our understanding of immigrants as historical actors, uncovering hitherto hidden or obscured aspects of immigrant lives and writing an ethnic history that is respectful of its subjects. as with other enthusiastic advocates of this methodology, immigration histo- rians have not always been sufficiently attuned to its attendant problems, including the thorny question: whose stories do we actually 'tell' when we reconstruct an informant's narrative? the presupposition mat we can actually 'get at' the subjec- tive experiences of our subjects has come under much criticism. so has the naive assumption that oral testimonies are an unmediatcd text, an authentic voice. critical points regarding the complex role that memory, self-interest, and self-pres- ervation play in shaping retrospective testimonies and die interventionist role the researcher plays in creating die testimonial have been especially forcefully made in feminist works on the rape and torture narratives of women in wartime and in refugee camps. as marlene epp has observed, a pattern common to such recollec- tions concerns die storyteller, who recounts the torture in a third person narrative, providing details that only a victim could know or describing a situation she could not possibly have escaped but all the while denying mat it had happened to her. ethnic historians are not immune from such epistemological and political chal- lenges simply because they may interview those who belong to their own racial- ethnic group and gender. but recognizing the limits of oral history hardly justifies dismissing it, any more man the fragmentary and biased character of preserved written records should prompt us to abandon the archives. a second and related approach shared by new immigration historians concerns a commitment to documenting the agency of immigrants, especially those men and ^robert harney, oral testimony and ethnic studies (toronto ); marlene epp, the memory of violence: mennonite refugees and rape in world war ," paper presented to the canadian historical association calgary, ; virginia yans-mclaughlin, "metaphors of self in history: subjectivity, oral narratives and immigration studies," in her éd., immigration reconsidered: history, sociology and politics (new york ); and, more generally, ronald j. greek, éd.. envelopes of sound (chicago ); raphael samuel and paul thompson, eds., the myths we live by (london ). anne oakery, "interviewing women: a contradiction in terms," in helen roberts, éd., doing feminist research (london ); greele éd., envelopes; michael frisch, "the memory of history," radical history review, ( ); susan gerger, "what's so feminist about doing women's oral history," journal of women's history, , (spring ); paul thompson, our common history (new york ); pierson, "experience, dominance"; shema gluck and daphne patai, eds., women's words (new york ). epp, "memory of violence"; the essays by patricia k. robin herbst and amy friedman in ellen cole, et al, eds., refugee women and their mental health: shattered societies, shattered lives (binghamton ); annemarie troeger, "german women's memories of world war n," in margaret randolph higonnet, et al., eds., behind the lines: gender and the two world wars (new haven ). labour/le travail women denied access to the centres of power and wealth, and to making the daily stuff of their lives — the household, neighbourhood, kin networks, ethnic hall, radical reading group, religious celebration, and nationalist organization — the chief subject far from simply providing justification for the study of private matters and inconsequential lives, this approach insists that agency in society is not exclusively the domain of the powerful and privileged. subordinated and disad- vantaged groups can also exercise choice, mount resistance (or alternatively, orchestrate their accommodation with the dominant ethos), and wield some influ- ence. as roberto perin has argued, immigrants need to be understood as protago- nists in the transformative processes in which they were involved. and that includes the exploitative contexts they had to negotiate, whether that meant escaping worsening economic conditions or class tensions in their homeland, greasing the palms of recruiting agents and shipping captains profiting from the overseas traffic in humans, and joining kin and co-nationals in low-paid occupa- tional clusters in the new economy. this perspective reflects, of course, a rejection of an immigrant-as-victim approach to the subject. it also reveals a dissatisfaction with causal models that offered either a shopping list of push-pull factors or reductionist economic explanations of the phenomenon: namely, that immigration equals the flow of labour to capital. exploring the particular contexts involved and the specific motives and resources that led certain individuals and groups, but not others, to migrate became important to new immigration historians. for example, the phenomenon of male sojourning was not simply the product of a given economic configuration, that is, reduced job opportunities at home and the presence of work opportunities elsewhere. it was contingent upon the willingness of men and their relations to chose that strategy over others and to take the risks and pay the costs (including separation and potential economic failure) that such a strategy entailed. case studies of immigrants undertaken during the past two decades have demonstrated not only that immigrants can orchestrate their migration and trans- plant coping strategies fine-tuned in the villages and towns of their homeland, but introduction in r. perin and f. sturino, eds., arrangiarsi: the italian immigration experience in canada (montréal ). for example, philip taylor, distant magnet: european emigration to the usa (london ). robert f. harney, "men without women: italian migrants in canada, - ," in b.b. caroli, l.f. tomasi, r.f. harney, eds., the italian immigrant woman in north america (toronto ); "boarding and belonging: thoughts on sojourner institutions," urban history review, ( ), - ; bruno ramirez, "brief encounters: italian immigrant workers and the cpr, - ," labour/le travail, ( ), - ; anthony chan, "'orientalism and image making: the sojourner in canadian history," journal of ethnic studies, (fall ); and his gold mountain. manly militants they actively recreate cherished features of their culture and community in die new context new immigration historians have also contributed persuasive arguments for redefining the meaning of immigrant adaptation and adjustment their basis for doing so contrasts sharply both with earlier whiggish interpretations that evaluated immigrant success in terms of the rapidity and thoroughness with which newcomers became canadianized and with social-scientific models designed to measure economic and other indicators of 'intégration* into die receiving society. taking die notion of the immigrant perspective to its logical conclusion, revisionist historians have assessed immigrant lives not so much by externally-generated and class-biased standards of success, such as educational levels or entry into profes- sional occupations, but, rather, by the immigrants' own standards of achievement such objectives might range from a desire for comparatively higher incomes, modest workplace improvements, family re-unification, to political freedom and exile, homeownership, or even some vague but heartfelt notion of 'a better future' for one's children. these desires were articulated with the recognition that success, however defined, does not come without considerable costs relating to class exploitation, racism, or fears about losing one's children to the new culture. new fields of scholarship are often identified with key individuals who provided intellectual leadership at a critical juncture. just as canadian working- class history owes much to gregory kealey and bryan palmer and women's history to veronica strong-boag, alison prentice, ruth pierson, and others, so does the new immigration history have its important players. a thorough review of donald akenson's prodigious output would have to consider his versatile academiocareer, which includes a high-profile stint posing as feminist expert on cross-dressing women, but here he deserves credit for renewing scholarly interest in the th-cen- for example, howard palmer and tamara palmer, eds., peoples of alberta: portraits of cultural diversity (saskatoon ); ross mccormack, "cloth caps and jobs: british immigrant workers - ,' in j. dahlie and t. fernando, eds., ethnicity, power and politics in canada (toronto ); john zucchi, italians in toronto: development of a national identity, - (montréal ); bruno ramirez, les premiers italiens de montréal (montréal ); donald akenson, m- irish in ontario (montréal ); his being had: historians, evidence and the irish in north america (port credit ); cecil j. houston and william smythe, irish emigration and canadian settlement (toronto ); bruce elliot, irish migrants in the canadas: a new approach (montréal ); franc sturino, forging the chain: italian migration to north america (toronto ); marianne mclean, the peopling of glengarry county (montréal ); gerald tukhinsky, taking root: the origins of the canadian jewish community (toronto ); orest t. mar- tynowch, ukrainians in canada: the formative period - (edmonton ); milda danys, dp: lithuanian immigration to canada after the second world war (toronto ); iacovetta, such hardworking people; carmela patrias, patriots and proletarians: the politicization of hungarian immigrants in canada (montréal ); the generation series. labour/le travail tury and rural irish. bruno ramirez' capacity for operating within french-and english-canadian communities remains impressive. the single most important figure to emerge in canadian ethnic history, however, was the late robert f. harney, a us-born and harvard-trained historian of italy at the university of toronto who turned to canadian immigration and became closely associated with us revisionists like vecoli. from dte late s onward, harney's influence in canadian immigrant history was critical not only because he produced a rich body of work, in his case mostly on italians, but because he developed sophisticated and innovative approaches for the field as a whole. particularly important was his work on labour agents, the commerce of migration, and sojourning. scholars were also attracted to harney's contagious enthusiasm for immigrant studies, his shrewd negotiating skills when reaching out to racial-ethnic communities, and his success in accessing state funds to establish a research institute and publishing house, the multicultural history society of ontario (mhso). harney's efforts prompted many graduate students, his own and other's, and established scholars to take up the histories of immigrant groups. those from non-english speaking backgrounds were encouraged to use their language skills to retrieve the histories of their group. even while harney, the american expatriate, felt himself an outsider to the canadian historical community, he played a pivotal role in establishing a schol- arly legitimacy and sound intellectual base for doing immigrant history in canada. any system of categorization is artificial, but i would suggest that recent historical writing about immigrants falls roughly into the three general areas indicated by my paper's title. by 'manly militants,' i refer to studies of immigrant men's involvement in workplace conflicts and radical politics. whereas both labour and ethnic historians have uncovered manly militants, the immigration specialists have most closely examined the communities and everyday life of newcomers, usually by means of the single group or community study approach. as my term b a r n e y ' s work on italians includes: "the commerce of migration," canadian ethnic studies, ( ), - ; "boarding and belonging"; "men without women": "ambiente and social gass in north american little italies," canadian review of studies in nation- alism, ( ), - ; "montreal's king of italian labour a case study of padronism," labour/le travail, ( ), - ; harney and scarpaci, eds., little italies in north america; caroli, harney, and tomasi, eds., italian immigrant woman in north america. see also his "'so great a heritage as ours': immigration and the survival of the canadian polity," daedalus, , (fall ), - ; his introductions to numerous polyphony issues; and george pozzetta and bruno ramirez, eds., the italian diaspora: migration across the globe, essays in honour of robert f. harney (toronto ). on akenson's foray into women's history see his at face value: the life and times of eliza mccor- mack/john white (montréal ); bronwyn drainie, "an academic imp among the feminists," globe and mail (toronto) june e ; on the irish, note . see his "ethnic studies: handmaiden of multiculturalisme paper presented to the cana- dian historical association (june ). manly militants 'cohesive communities' suggests, such studies have highlighted the stability and self-sufficiency of ethnic colonies. i have invoked the label 'defiant domestics' to discuss the work on immigrant women because relevant studies reveal a preoccu- pation with paid work, especially domestic service, and with labour activists. manly militants although often interested in similar subjects, canadian immigration and labour historians generally have operated in relative isolation from one other. animated debates over the primacy of class vs ethnicity sometimes dissolved into hopelessly dichotomized views of history. tensions were reinforced by a mutual distrust between the marxist-inspired historians who dominated the new labour history and conservative scholars present among the ranks of ethnic historians. segregation was reinforced by the rise of parallel but separate infrastructures, namely, journals, research centres, and conferences. yet, it was precisely this commitment to recovering working-class lives and the alternative cultures of the oppressed that provided opportunities for collaboration between immigrant and labour history. such collaboration has produced an impressive scholarship on the immigrant working classes and the ethnic left in canada. this literature spans most british and european groups and asians and it considers individual leaders, formal organizations, and rank-and-file workers. it examines single racial-ethnic groups and mixed-racial/ethnic working-class communities. the influences of internation- ally renowned labour historians such as e.p. thompson and herbert gutman are evident gutman's work on the proletarianization of us farmers and european peasants and artisans in early industrial america, and the patterns of conflict and resistance that accompanied that process, has particularly informed studies of former old world peasants, artisans, agricultural labourers, and pedlars who became industrial workers in canada. a closer look at developments within canadian working-class history should illuminate my general observations. the early writings by new labour historians produced rich social histories of the first generations of the canadian working class in the th- and early- th centuries. these works stressed the capacity of largely british and english-canadian artisans and skilled workers to resist the industrial regime, to struggle for workshop control, and to provide leadership for an emergent labour movement during an era of industrial transformation. that this work on an ^runo ramirez, "ethnic studies and working-class history," labour/u travail, ( ), - ; rudolph vecoli, "class and ethnicity: italian immigrants and working-class movements in the united states: a personal odyssey," journal of the canadian historical association, n.s. ( ), - ; dirk hoerder, ed, 'struggle a hard battle': essays on working-class immigrants (new york ). "herbert gutman, work, culture and society in industrializing america: essays in ameri- can working-class and social history (new york ); lindstrom, defiant sisters; iacovetta, such hardworking people; frager, sweatshop strife. labour/le travail anglo-celtic labour aristocracy still attracts serious attention attests to its signifi- cance. * by noting that it was rooted in an analysis ofclass, culture, and to a lesser extent, gender, yet did not problematize race/ethnicity, i am not interested in merely exposing absences. rather, i want to ask how we might apply the insights of immigrant history and race studies, including work on the construction of whiteness in britain and america, to explore whether the construction of the canadian craftsman was a racialized as well as a gendered and class-delineated process. since many of the skills and traditions that informed the craftsman's masculinity and (vulnerable) privilege among canada's working classes were transplanted from britain, we might explore how such men negotiated the resettle- ment process, the role played by wives and children, and whether the tradesmen's skills and traditions arrived intact or underwent modification. what difference might it make to our portraits of these men if we took into account their englishness or scottishness? how does irishness complicate the picture? was their class perspective informed by notions of british manhood, the british race, imperialism, jingoism? we know that british and anglo-canadian artisans drew on imperialist metaphors and contrasting images of free (manly) versus slave labour, but we could probe further the racialized context of these and other constructs critical to the early labour movements. little attention has been paid to artisans from non-anglo-celtic backgrounds, though an exception is joy parr's analysis of the interplay between masculinity, skill, and 'germanness' among furniture makers in hanover, on- tario. bryan d. palmer, a culture in conflict: skilled workers and industrial capitalism in hamilton, ontario, - (kingston ); gregory s. kealey, toronto workers respond to industrial capitalism, - (toronto ); several essays in craig heron and robert storey, eds., on the job: confronting the labour process in canada (toronto ); sally zerker, the rise and fall of the toronto typographical union - : a case study in foreign domination (toronto ); ian mackay, "capital and labour in the halifax baking and confectionary industry during the last half of the nineteenth century," labour/le travailleur, ( ), - ; john battye, t h e nine hours pioneers: the genesis of the canadian labour movement," labour/le travailleur ( ) - ; craig heron, "the crisis of the craftsman: hamilton's metal workers in the early twentieth century," labour/le travail, ( ), - ; and his "towards synthesis in canadian working-class history." recent gender histories include christina burr, '"that coming curse—the incompetent compositress' : class and gender relations in the toronto typographical union during the late nineteenth century," canadian historical review, , (september ), - . the gender of breadwinners: women, men and change in two industrial towns, - (toronto ). on the neglect of québec see joanne burgess, "exploring the limited identities of canadian labour recent trends in english-canada and in quebec," international journal of canadian studies, - ( ). manly militants from the start, the new labour history included a greater diversity of topics and approaches man is suggested by its early association with artisans. the th-century irish working-classes particularly attracted attention. influenced by clare pentland's pioneering discussion of irish workers as canada's first industrial proletariat, new labour historians documented the work lives, class conflict, vio- lence, and resistance cultures of irish (male) workers. recent work, including peter way's fine study of canal workers, suggests the real possibilities of applying a race and gender analysis to irish working-classes in norm america. beginning in the late s, ethnic and labour historians also began uncover- ing a rich history of non-british immigrant militancy and radicalism, particularly for tbe intensely studied s- s era. earlier, conventional stereotypes of 'foreign' workers as *unorganizable'—as suffering from false class-consciousness on account of their commitment to ethnic loyalties, or easily duped by employers and conservative elites — were superseded by more complex portraits of ethnic workers who at times engaged in dramatic confrontations at the workplace. by this time, a debate had emerged among north american scholars over the relationship between class-consciousness and ethnic identity. on one side were those, such as the us radical historian gabriel kolko, who stressed the fragmentation of the early- th-century working class that derived from sojourning (that is, successive waves of temporary workers) and ethnic cleavages. in response, various ethnic and labour scholars documented the contribution of european radicalism brought by immigrants to the north american labour scene and particular moments when groups of racially and ethnically diverse workers came together in common struggle. these studies do not undermine a fundamental tenet of the kolko structuralist thesis — namely, that male sojourning and racial-ethnic conflicts hampered labour solidarity — but they showed how immigrants could simultane- ously display class consciousness and a deep commitment to ethnic identity. they brought to light the hitherto unexplored world of immigrant radicals and their historic role in building workers' movements in north america. for a summary of these themes see heron, towards synthesis"; bcttina bradbury, "women's history and working-class history" labour/u travail, ( ), - . h.c. pentland, the lactone strike of ," canadian historical review, ( ); labour and capital in canada, - (toronto ); michael cross, the shiners' wan social violence in the ottawa valley in the s," canadian historical review, ( ), - ; ruth bleasedale, "class conflict on the canals of upper canada in the s," in michael s. cross and gregory s, kealey, eds., pre-lndustrial canada - (toronto ); gregory s. kealey, "the orange order in toronto: religious riot and the working class," in gregory s. kealey and peter warrian, eds.. essays in working class history (toronto ); peter way, common labour: workers and the digging of north american canals - (cambridge ). gabriel kolko, main currents in american history (new york ); edwin fenton, immigrants and unions (new york ). contributions to the debate included greene, labour/le travail in tackling this theme, some historians focused on a particular group that dominated protest and unionism within an industry. representative canadian studies include ian radforuys work on finns in ontario's th-century logging industry and ruth frager's study of jewish needle trades workers in interwar toronto. as with other ethnic groups that contained a radical constituency, only a minority of finns or jews had already been radicalized at home; upon arrival, they established an array of cultural and political organizations. many of the apolitical immigrants were radicalized in the new contexts primarily as a result of a growing sense of grievance over their class exploitation and the influence of a lively oppositional world that was dominated by an effective leftist leadership. the interplay between politicized newcomers and rank-and-file workers also emerges in studies of multi-ethnic industries and locales that saw immigrant and canadian workers overcome 'difference' and launch effective class action. donald avery's dangerous foreigners was an important pioneering work on the subject more recent studies, including allen seager's work on alberta's multi-ethnic mining districts of the crow's nest pass and patrias' study of a depression-era strike launched by an ethnically diverse and largely working-class, industrial community of crowland (welland), ontario, particularly graphically illustrate how effective cross-ethnic class solidarities were forged. in accounting for the remarkable degree of unity among immigrant, ethnic and anglo-canadians, both authors stress the common experience of workplace exploitation, a rich tapestry of ethnic working- class and radical networks, and a core of militants who negotiated effective alliances. the most intriguing recent contribution to this topic is gillian creese's work on asian workers. as is well known, the modem canadian labour movement generally pursued a strategy of excluding asian workers, and in british columbia, where asians were concentrated, white-dominated unions and workers' organiza- tions commonly adopted racist positions. they supported campaigns to boycott chinese businesses, to replace asian labour with white labour, and to disallow the slavic community on strike; craig heron, working in steel (toronto ); frager, sweatshop strife. "lui radforth, bushworkers and bosses: logging in northern ontario, - (toronto ); frager, sweatshop strife; avery, 'dangerous foreigners'; allan seager, "class, ethnicity, and politics in the alberta coalfields" in hoerder, éd., 'struggle a hard battle'; "socialists and workers: the western canadian coal miners, - ,"labour/le travail, ( ), - ; carmela patrias, relief strike: immigrant workers and the great depression in crowland, ontario - (toronto ). for other contributions see, for example, the special issue on ethnic radicals, canadian ethnic studies, ( ); p. krawchuck, the ukrainian socialist movement in canada, - (toronto ); john potestio and antonio pucci, eds.. the italian immigrant experience (thunder bay ). the canadian literature on cross-ethnic solidarities among women is thin; see ester reiter, "first gass workers don't want second class wages: the lanark strike in dunnville, ontario," in joy parr, éd., a diversity of women: ontario - (toronto ). manly militants employment of white women alongside asian men. familiar explanations of this action have focused on economic factors, namely the fierce labour competition between higher-waged whites and low-waged asians, and die tears that white unionists had of asians prepared to tolerate sub-standard wages and conditions. creese has modified the story by uncovering instances of asian workers' militancy and of cross-racial solidarity between asian and white workers in vancouver. the labour movement, she shows, adopted a strategy of racial solidarity during two brief periods of heightened labour radicalism in canada: die world war i era ( - ) and die depression. during die first era, chinese, japanese, and east indian workers, usually in combination with whites, participated in a wave of strikes in die greater vancouver area, mostly in die lumber and fishing industries. such collaboration was even more pronounced during die depression, when asian workers were actively recruited as comrades, and dieir issues (equal pay, eliminat- ing die 'oriental* contract system) were placed on die labourmovement'sagenda. given the radical research sympathies that had drawn historians to die study of immigrant workers during die s and s, it is not surprising diat they focused on die 'exceptional' militants. workers who did not engage in strike action, or indeed, acted as strikebreakers, were largely ignored, except in a few instances. craig heron's studies of steelworkers, and ramirez' consideration of italian migrants in resource and railway jobs, bodi offered sound structural and cultural explanations for die apparent disinterest of europeans, especially sojourners, in die mainstream canadian labour movement. their studies suggest diat migrant work- ers were not entirely docile, but their limited commitment to workers' struggles was influenced by die brevity of their encounter with canadian workplaces and workers and dieir relative absence (vis-à-vis canadian workers) from die better skilled and more protected jobs. as sojourners bent on returning home with a nest egg, and as highly dispensable workers operating in a constantly replenished labour market, one effective way to protest exploitative conditions was to escape diem. as canadian working-class history's focus on craftsmen in die industrializing era widened to include later-arriving immigrants from europe who entered die new mass industries like steel-making as well as logging and mining, scholars demon- strated diat workers deemed by outsiders to be unskilled developed critical if more specialized skills. such workers could also derive considerable manly pride from ^for example, a. ross mccormack, reformers, rebels, and revolutionaries: the western canadian radical movement - (toronto ); ward, white canada forever. ^gillian creese, "solidarity or exclusion?': vancouver workers confront the "oriental problem,'' bc studies, ( ), - . see also her "organizing against racism in the workplace: chinese workers in vancouver before the second world war," canadian ethnic studies, ( ), - ; "class, ethnicity and conflict the case of chinese and japanese immigrants - ," in r. warburton and d. coburn, eds., workers, capital and the state in british columbia — selected papers (vancouver ). ramirez, "brief encounters"; heron, working in steel. labour/le travail that fact, suggesting dut 'manliness' among working men was not die exclusive property of the highly skilled. * if die earlier work on artisanal 'manliness' did not consider 'britishness,' neither did these newer studies of immigrant workers explore the links between masculinity and ethnicity. there is little effort to understand minority male workers' gender identities with respect to workplace or labour process issues, or in terms of old world cultural and patriarchal values, pre-migration traditions of male sojourning and male breadwinning, and how such patterns were negotiated in die new context whether die subject was finnish communists, ukrainian miners, or italian freight-handlers, the analysis of manli- ness if it appeared was cast in terms of class considerations, but not their intersec- tion with racial-ethnic ones. an exception is harney's now -year old essay on italian sojourners in remote railway, lumber, and mining camps between and ; it explores how such men struggled to meet die requirements of heterosexual manhood as they understood diem amid the brutalizing conditions of the canadian frontier and while separated from the wives, children, and hometown people to whom they felt an allegiance. by contrast, anthony chan's study of chinese workers in british columbia provides fascinating descriptions of the bachelor cultures of lone men — crowded boarding houses, opium parlours, and gambling establishments — but leaves the issue of masculinity unexamined. his work also suggests die need for rigorous analyses of how chinese men's association witii 'female jobs' (the houseboy, the laundry worker) shaped their self-identity as men. new gender histories of immigrant workers and their households and communities have begun to explore such interconnections, but much of this work is still unpublished. cohesive communities in recent years, scholars have quite rightly urged that more attention be paid to the links between workers and families, households, and neighbourhoods, and to ^for example. heron, working in steel; heron and storey, eds.. on the job; radforth, bushworkers and bosses; seager, "alberta coalfields"; his "finnish canadians and the ontario miners' movement," polyphony, ( ), - ; issue on ethnic radicals, cana- dian ethnic studies; martynowych, ukrainians in canada; patrias, relief strike; and other references in fn. . hamey, "men without women"; chan, gold mountain. on chinese men and "female" jobs, see ronald takaki, iron cages: race and culture in nineteenth century america (new york ). " i t includes nancy fbresteu, "all that glitters is not gold: the gendered dimensions of work, family and community life in the northern ontario goldmining town of timmins, - ," phd thesis, oise/toronto, ; robert ventresca, "cowering women, com- batative men? femininity, masculinity and ethnicity on strike in two southern ontario towns, - " paper presented to canadian studies annual meeting, montréal, june ; constance backhouse, t h e white woman labour laws in western canada," (mss. ; my thanks to the author for sending it to me). manly militants documenting the daily activities and struggles of workers and members of work- ing-class families to achieve a modicum of security in a patriarchal, capitalist society. immigration historians have not addressed sufficiently the gendered nature of work and family life, but their community studies have contributed enormously to our growing knowledge of immigrant workers' lives outside the workplace, especially those non-militant workers rarely given a face in labour histories. specialized studies of ukrainians, italians, poles, mennonites, hungari- ans, and other communities in a variety of canadian locales have explored to varying degrees the private and social arenas that workers inhabited off the job — households, neighbourhoods, social and political clubs, places of worship, lan- guage classes, and theatre. much of mis work has appeared in the form of detailed case studies of a single racial-ethnic group in which the overall emphasis is on the gradual but successful adaptation to the new society and on the institutional completeness of ethnic communities. while recent works on the th-century irish and on the homesteaders of turn-of-the-century western canada have dealt with rural contexts, th-century works highlight urban locales, especially montréal and toronto. the racial-ethnic community approach was and remains popular among im- migration historians precisely because it offers a valuable framework for demon- strating the richness and diversity of immigrant life. what earlier observers dubbed ethnic ghettoes or marginal communities were shown instead to have been dynamic colonies of settlement characterized by a vibrant association^ life, complex internal class and political divisions, and a decided 'ambience.' scholars have emphasized the innovative ways in which immigrants recreated valued pre-migra- tion rituals and organizations but also initiated new ones. these studies tend to highlight the movers and shakers, or ethnic elites, of the immigrant world, be they the shopkeepers and other 'ethnic' small businessmen applauded for building institutional infrastructures; the steamship agents and other 'middle men' who though possibly despised were critical links in the commerce of migration; and middle-class intellectuals and religious figures of various political persuasions who supplied leadership to the community's association^ life. but they are also sensi- tive to the subtle differences of rank and power evident in a community comprised predominantly of working-class and lower middle-class members, where the smallest gradations of wealth, education, and status take on enormous significance. whether dealing exclusively with the immigrant generation or considering multi- generational patterns, such studies also deploy a similar analysis of immigrant adjustment. in reacting to the new challenges of their adopted society, it is usually an fine example is bettina bradbury, working families: age, gender, and daily survival in industrializing montreal (toronto ). see also rayna rapp, ellen ross, renate bridenthal, "examining family history," feminist studies, ( ), - ; louise tilly and mirian cohen, "does the family have a history?: a review of theory and practise in family history," social science history, ( ), - . labour/le travail argued, the newcomers were neither completely untouched nor completely remade into canadians. rather, an unique synthesis emerged in the form of the distinct racial-ethnic community being scrutinized. but while the community study has done much to give face and voice to immigrants, it has led to some excesses and distortions of its own. not least of these difficulties was a tendency, more evident earlier on than recently, towards rushed and superficial histories of specific racial-ethnic groups. the most graphic illustra- tions of this problem can be found in the generation series, that uneven series of volumes on canada's ethnic groups launched in the s with monies from the then secretary of state for multiculturalism. as perin has observed, with some exceptions (for example, the volumes on hungarians and portuguese), the mono- graphs in this series have little to offer social historians. intended as books of synthesis, most authors were unable to draw on a firm base of historical research. the weakest volumes are ahistorical in approach, and the analyses deploy rigid and static concepts of family, culture, community activism, and ethnic persistence. at best, women receive superficial attention. the series has all the characteristics of a project prematurely mounted. even confining ourselves to relatively sophisticated works, some worrying tendencies emerge. in seeking to rescue immigrants from their traditional status as history's downtrodden masses, new immigration historians have revealed an overly zealous desire to celebrate agency, resiliency, and immigrant success. this tendency has resulted in a steady stream of case studies of immigrant groups and communities that downplay or ignore the ways in which the state, class position, racism, patriarchy, and other structural and cultural barriers can seriously curb choice or create insurmountable barriers. in presenting respectable portraits of immigrants, comparatively little attention is paid either to the tragic casualties of the migration process — the deserted wives of the old village who spent their remaining lives 'waiting' for their men in 'america' to return home or call them over, the men dead or permanently disfigured from unsafe jobs, the women and perin, "clio as an ethnic"; the books in the generation series include: karl aun, the political refugees: a history of estonians in canada (toronto ); baha abu-luban, an olive branch on the family tree: the arabs in canada (toronto ); peter chimbos, the canadian odyssey: the greek experience in canada (toronto ); gulbrand loken, from fiord to frontier: a history of norwegians in canada (toronto ); n.f. dreisz- iger, et al. struggle and hope: the hungarian-canadian experience (toronto ); manoly lupul, éd., a heritage in transition: essays in the history of ukrainians in canada (toronto ); henry radecki and benedykt hcydcnkom, a member of a distinguished family: the polish group in canada (toronto ); anthony rasporich, for a better life: a history of the croatians in canada (toronto ); edgar wickberg, et ai, from china to canada (toronto ). s several such examples may be found in the references contained in notes , , and (and, for the us, ). manly militants children living in tenor of an abusive husband, boarder, or employer — or to the psychological scars the migration experience engendered even for die more suc- cessful immigrants. a 'rags-to-riches' storyline, as harney once observed, is also dangerous in that it creates the raise notion mat immigrants who genuinely exploit opportunities inevitably achieve success. the immigrant experience is really many diverse experiences and responses; it is a social phenomenon shot through with such a multiplicity of meanings that cannot adequately be captured by the dichot- omy: immigrant versus victim. frameworks that move us beyond a simple dualism, that challenge us to probe dialectical tensions, dut encourage us to capture rather than conveniently explain away or downplay 'uneven developments,' to use mary poovey's phrase, should be explored and debated. the transitional contexts in which immigrants constantly negotiated their class, gender and racial-ethnic iden- tities particularly requires more careful scrutiny. another worrying trend concerns the whiggish and linear analysis evident in immigrant community studies, where, with time, cohesive societies and an ethnic group identity inevitably develop out of clusterings of newcomers. it has also led to studies that seriously downplay political, class, gender, and other differences within such collectivities even while they are identified. many community-based studies refer to class and political tensions, for example, but few carefully examine the nature and repercussions of such conflicts, although two important exceptions include orest martynowych's ukrainians in canada, the best study yet to appear recently in ukrainian-canadian studies, and patrias' exploration of the left versus right camps within canada's hungarian communities. this tendency towards homogenizing immigrant experiences has also taken the form of analyses that, implicitly or explicitly, assume that male elites — die ethnic community's public figures, institution-builders, and spokespeople (self- proclaimed or odierwise) — genuinely represent the community and that their actions reflect expressions of ethnic-group identity. this insistence upon identify- ing an ethnic identity with the rhetoric and actions of ethnic elites, for example, shapes many of the generation series monographs. but this thread also runs through sophisticated histories, including john zucchi's pioneering monograph on toronto's pre-world war ii italians. zucchi carefully identifies the various con- stituencies that made up the city's early italian communities — for example, workers, clerics, small businessmen, pro- and anti-fascists—and offers fascinating material on the great class and cultural divide that separated newly-arrived immi- grants from 'their' clerics, but his main intention is evident from the book's subtitle, 'development of a national identity.' it sits uncomfortably atop his own evidence of the continuing regional, class, political, and other differences that shaped relations within the group. ^aary poovey, uneven developments: the ideological work of gender in mid-victorian england (chicago ); harney, "ethnic studies." ^lartynowych, ukrainians in canada; patrias, patriots and proletarians. zucchi, italians in toronto. labour/le travail in seeking to rescue immigrant communities from marginal status, the revi- sionists have in some cases also produced insular portraits of these communities, portraits that ignore the 'others' in their neighbourhood, including other newcom- ers, or the 'outsiders' whom the immigrants inevitably encountered within and outside their neighbourhood. we know that immigrant communities are not com- posed entirely of the members of one racial-ethnic group, that immigrants inevita- bly come into contact with 'others,' and that plenty of immigrants have lived outside the mainstream ethnic community, either by choice or circumstance. but few studies devote much space to these patterns. few canadian studies, moreover, explore the relations between racial-ethnic groups even though we know that mutual suspicion or outright animosity among immigrants of different racial-ethnic background is a recurring a theme in canada's history. harold troper and morton wienfeld's examination of jewish-ukrainian relations in the context of nazi war criminal investigations is a notable exception. similarly, few immigrant commu- nity studies consider carefully the many encounters that occurred between immi- grants and those members of the host society who also affected immigrant life: medical officials, social workers, factory managers, school teachers, family-court lawyers and judges, and neighbours. immigrant life is rendered more rich when the range of relevant phenomena and interplay of forces are considered. these encoun- ters are complex phenomena and exploring them carefully may move us towards a better comprehension of the connections and intersections between public insti- tutions and private lives. schooling patterns exhibited by immigrant children, for example, could reflect as much the intrusion of the state into family life as the strategies of immigrant parents. recent work on the impact of the welfare state in women's and workers' lives, including linda gordon's impressive study of family violence and child protection agencies in boston, points to the profoundly gen- dered, racialized, and class-based character of these encounters. where canadian immigrant community studies have been especially weak is in detailing the lives of women and probing gender relations. this literature generally has assumed heterosexual male behaviour and male-dominated public activity to define the immigrant experience. such neglect of women and gender relations is particularly ironic given that the new immigration history has especially highlighted the role of family and household members and kin networks in the emigration and resettlement process. like non-feminist family historians who eschew a gendered perspective, some ethnic historians have obscured women's lives even while they applaud struggling families. women are subsumed under the harold troper and morton weinfield, old wounds: jews, ukrainians, and the hunt for nazi war criminals in canada (markham ). linda gordon, heroes of their own lives: the politics and history of family violence (new york ); gordon, éd., women, the state and welfare (madison ). the schooling example is from miriam cohen, from workshop to office: two generations of italian women in new york city, - (ithaca ). manly militants rubric of 'the family' and are thereby rendered invisible. the family itself becomes reified; it is presented as a disentangled unit rather man a collection of people (with differing interests and influence) and is credited with ensuring die greatest (and equal) good for all its members. hence, immigration historians talk of the family decision to emigrate, the family's work ethos, and the familialist values of immi- grants without really exploring how members wititin families negotiated such decisions and values. they talk of the flexible family capable of withstanding capitalist and other pressures, but feminist insights regarding gender and power dynamics within families and households are entirely ignored. few immigration historians, for example, have treated the family as an arena of multiple relations, usually between members with unequal power. the argument that ethnic families were characterized by a corporatist work ethos that bound die members of the household together does not mean that die family was necessarily an egalitarian institution. we know otherwise: family life was a contested terrain. it could be simultaneously a site of support and oppression, particularly for women. donna gabaccia has observed, for instance, that in die us few immigrant community studies treat women's lives seriously. those that do integrate women's experiences tend to focus on those forms of public behaviour that most closely correspond to male activity, especially wage-earning patterns, workplace employ- ment, and labour activism. these observations apply equally to canadian ethnic community studies: neglected or ignored are precisely those phenomena, such as childbearing and rearing, housework and other forms of reproductive work, sexu- ality, and marital relations, that are specific to women's lives. in part, this absence, as gabaccia suggests, reflects the assumption that such behaviour had little direct impact on immigrant community life, as defined by public activities and institu- tion-building. rectifying this bias will require, of course, more than simply adding in aspects of women's so-called private lives; it will entail efforts to examine die interplay between 'private' and 'public' behaviour for both men and women. this is a strength of royden loewen's work on mennonite communities in manitoba and nebraska: he integrates women's reproductive lives, farm roles, religious worldview, and their encounters with urban and secular forces, into his central analyses concerning die patterns of change and continuity that characterized mennonite life over several generations. indeed, i would urge redefining our working notions of community life so as to give credence to die 'unofficial' but equally important forms of social life at which women excelled: as die friends and confidants of die other women of their neighbourhood, as the social covenors of dieir extended circle of kin, and as die behind-the-scenes organizers of many public events. such a view of community life would get us beyond conventional institu- gabaccia, immigrant women: nowhere at home?"; iacovetta, 'writing women into immigration history." ^royden loewen, family, church and market: a mennonite community in the old and new worlds - (toronto ). labour/le travail tional histories mat relegate women to the brief section on the ladies' auxiliaries. it would make their networks and the very stuff of their everyday lives a primary concern. gendering community life will surely produce more nuanced and multi- layered portaits of immigrant communities. defiant domestics the historical literature on canada's immigrant women has been dominated by two major themes, both of them related to work and working-class issues and both concerning women who were in important respects exceptional: domestic servants and labour activists. in the case of some groups, such as the interwar finns whose histories varpu lindstrom has particularly brought to our attention, some of the women were bom domestics and defiant. other themes have also emerged in this scholarship, including the homesteading activities of pioneer women in the canadian west and the volunteer activities of women within their respective racial-ethnic colonies. ' but immigrant maids and ethnic activists have received disproportionate attention. the subject of domestic service, especially its exploitative features, has long interested marxist, labour, and women's historians and historical social scientists in canada. by the s scholars were paying closer attention to the critical role that immigrants played in shaping this history. taken together, this literature reveals several shifts in focus and approach. it has undergone, for instance, a general shift from an earlier preoccupation with recruitment and domestic training works on homesteading include linda rasmussen, et al., eds., a harvest yet to reap: a history of prairie women (toronto ); eliane lcslau silverman, the last best west: women on the alberta frontier - (montréal ); on community activities see note . a valuable overview of this literature, much of it in article form, is marilyn barber, immigrant domestic servants in canada (ottawa ). the list includes genevieve leslie, "domestic service in ontario," in janice acton, éd.. women at work: ontario - (toronto ); barbara roberts, ""a work of empire': canadian reformers and british female immigration," in linda kealey, éd., a not unreasonable claim: women and reform in canada s- s (toronto ); varpu lindstrom, "'i won't be a slave!' - finnish domestics in canada, - ," in jean burnet, éd., looking in my sister's eyes: an exploration in women's history (toronto ); her defiant sisters; isabel kaprelian, "women and work: the case of furnish domestics and armenian boarding house opera- tors," resources for feminist research, ( / ), - ; marlene epp, t h e mennonite girls' home of winnipeg: a home away from home," journal of mennonite studies, ( ), - ; franca iacovetta, "primitive villagers and uneducated girls: canada recruits domestics from italy," canadian woman studies, ( ), - ; milda danys, dp; makeda silvera, silenced (toronto ); frances henry, t h e west indian domestic scheme in canada," social and economic studies, ( ), - ; agnes calliste, "canada's immigration policy and domestics from the caribbean: the second domestic scheme," in vont, éd., race, class and gender. manly militants schemes and with die predicaments of middle-class canadian mistresses keen to find a maid, to the class experiences and perspectives of die immigrant domestics themselves. writing about domestic servants thus parallels developments in immi- gration history, particularly as regards the shift from outsider to insider perspective. whereas the voluminous official records and correspondence generated by succes- sive government- and company-sponsored domestic recruitment schemes have enabled scholars to examine the biases and implementation of immigration policy, the sources that have proven especially valuable to women's history, namely diaries, letters, and, where applicable, oral testimonies, have helped scholars unpack the immigrant's perspective. studies that have drawn upon bom 'insider' and 'outsider' records, including marilyn barber's instalments on british maids, and parr's work on juvenile domestics, have revealed the complex interplay between those on the scheming and those on the receiving end of immigration schemes. a second and related shift concerns the recognition of the changing racial-eth- nic composition of canada's immigrant female domestic workers from the th century to the present. thus, a literature once dominated by historical work on british women who arrived during the late- th and early- di centuries now includes studies of european domestics who came during the era of world war i and the interwar period, especially finns, as well as historical and sociological examinations of the post- recruits from among die displaced persons camps of war-torn europe and, later, from die so-called non-western sources such as die west indies and south east asia. li undertaking their respective case studies, scholars explored die ways in which immigrant domestics have encountered discrimination and exploitation, how they found ways of adapting to and challeng- ing their conditions, and, how, especially in die case of recent caribbean and other domestics of colour recruited as temporary guest workers, they tried to overcome die harsh official barriers to their permanent settlement in canada. yet, die work on immigrant domestic workers remain slim in several respects. first, die labour history of domestic workers' efforts to organize themselves into ^iariryn barber's works include "the women ontario welcomed: immigrant domestics for ontario homes, - ," ontario history, ( ), - ; "below stairs: the domestic servant," material history bulletin, ( ), - ; "help for farm homes: the campaign to end housework drudgery in rural saskatchewan in the s," scientia canadensis, ( ); "sunny ontario for british girls, - ," in burnet, éd.. looking into my sister's eyes. b a r b e r , "the woman ontario welcomed"; "sunny ontario for british girls, - ," in burnet, éd.. looking into my sister's eyes; parr, labouring children. "calliste, "domestics from the caribbean"; silvers, silenced; roxanna ng, the politics of community services: immigrant, class and state (toronto ); essays in canadian woman studies, ( ) and ( ); essays in resources for feminist research, ( ). labour/le travail unions deserves more careful attention, even if it is mainly a history of set-backs. also, die (changing?) character of die mistress-servant relationship, and indeed die relations between die domestic and all die odier members of die household or institution she served, needs to be held up to more historical scrutiny. to date, scholars have tended to focus on die perceptions of die 'mistress' toward her 'servant', or, more commonly, die domestic's (usually grim) depiction of working conditions. these studies have done much to expose to our view 'hidden' class, race, and sexual exploitation, but further examinations of die daily encounters between 'foreign' maids and their 'clients' would produce rich histories of every- day life. we also need more comparative studies of immigrant maids, as well as comparative studies of foreign-born and canadian-born maids. i would have diought, too, diat more debate might have occurred over die contrasting, even conflicting, portraits of domestic service offered in die literature, which range from unmitigated drudgery to desirable jobs. these contrasting images reflect not so much differing political or theoretical positions, for many of die scholars writing this history share a pro-feminist, pro-labour and anti-racist politics, but, radier differing disciplinary concerns. social scientists have been primarily concerned with delineating die exploitative features of domestic work, while historians have highlighted die (admittedly limited) agency of immigrant women as they negoti- ated die demands and constraints of die job. in addition, odier female migration movements, including prostitution rings, have received less careful study, though an exception is parr's work on die english hosiery workers recruited for ontario cotton mills, a group of women workers who by virtue of their highly-valued industrial skills and capacity as breadwinners were even more exceptional than domestics. the odier immigrant women who have captured serious scholarly attention in canada, namely those involved in radical and labour politics, were also excep- tional. their chroniclers have been largely socialist-feminist labour and immigra- tion historians and historical sociologists who, since die s, have uncovered a vibrant past of immigrant women involved in strikes, unions, and left-wing political organizations particularly during die periods before s . most of these scholars incorporated die political views and activities of ethnic women into their general or national histories of canadian radical women. a minority of diem, including frager and lindstrom, mined die foreign-language sources of a non-anglo-celtic on contemporary efforts, toronto organization of domestic workers, intercede reports; sedef arat-koc and tely villasin, "report: ontario "; i would also like to thank kathryn scarfe for her excellent observations regarding this topic. fbr example, lindstrom, "'i won't be a slave"; barber, "sunny ontario"; silvera, silenced. see also gabaccia's comment on the us literature in her "immigrant women." «parr, "the skilled emigrant and her kin: gender, culture and labour recruitment," canadian historical review, , (december ), - ; and her. the gender of breadwinners. manly militants group to uncover the ideological underpinnings of the 'woman question* as it was framed by male and female comrades and to document the female presence on the ethnic left frances swyripa's multi-generational study of ukrainian-canadian women's organizations and the differing gender politics within conservative and radical camps, stands alone in its efforts to examine both left-wing and right-wing ethnic women. if the sympathetic histories of radical immigrant women are confined to the extraordinary minority, it is equally true that the recovery of strong, assertive, and defiant women who dared challenge the capitalist patriarchal order, and their male comrades, helps undermine popular and erroneous stereotypes of immigrant women as necessarily more submissive than north american women. in addition to offering portraits of intriguing women these historians inserted themselves into an international debate concerning the relationship between socialism and femi- nism. most of the canadian contributions have supported one side of the debate, arguing mat the socialist (or communist) critique of class relations offered within it the possibility of a feminist critique of women's subordination and a platform for women's rights. insisting that the very process of women's political mobilization within the left facilitated, indeed required, the breaking down of 'traditional' female roles, these studies document the discourses and actions of those women, especially among the intelligentsia, who developed elements of a feminist critique and advanced women's rights issues such as birth control, day care, and equal pay. like her colleagues, frager also details the various campaigns and activities of left-wing women, in this instance, toronto's east european jews. but her evidence, which includes oral histories and particularly sheds light on rank-and-file women, leads frager to support the opposing side of the debate: that the socialist preoccu- "see, for example, linda kealey, "canadian socialism and the woman question, - ," labour/u travail, ( ), - ; hct"sophc," new maritimes, ( ), - ; the essays by frager, swyripa, kealey and sangster in linda kealey and joan sangster, eds., beyond the vote: canadian women and politics (toronto ); joan sangster, dreams of equality: canadian women on the left (toronto ); ruth frager, sweatshop strife; and her "class, ethnicity and gender in the eaton's strikes of and ," in iacovetta and valverde, eds.. gender conflicts; lindstrom, defiant sisters; "the socialist party of canada and the finnish connection, - ," in dahlie and fernando, ethnicity, power and polticr, janice newton, "women and cotton's weekly. a study of women and socialism in canada, ," resources for feminist research, (fall ). - ; her "the alchemy of politkizadon: socialist women and the early canadian left," in iacovetta and valverde, eds.. gender conflicts; her the feminist challenge to the canadian left - (montréal ); frances swyripa, wedded to the cause: ukrainian-canadian women and ethnic identity - (toronto ). frager sums up the debate in sweatshop strike. on the international debate, see, for example, barbara taylor, eve and the new jerusalem: socialism and feminism in the nineteenth century (new york ); mary jo buhle, women and american socialism - (chicago ). labour/le travail pation with class oppression and class struggle was so pervasive that it precluded a rigorous analysis of women's oppression as women, and relegated women's rights issues to a secondary status. the women's own acceptance of a jewish, male-dominated, and left-defined worldview that privileged class and ethnicity over gender, frager concludes, thwarted the articulation of a feminist challenge to the movement, even while the women took pride in their own assertiveness and their actions necessarily challenged traditional gender roles for jewish women. even readers who feel frager downplays the defiance of radical jewish women should nevertheless heed her cautionary words regarding the problematic treatment in historical writing of the terms feminist and proto-feminist. she suggests that a concept of gender role-elasticity — the stretching of traditional gender roles — might be more useful for understanding women's lives than an approach that searches for feminist foremothers. the desire to track socialist-feminist pioneers ought not lead scholars to deploy, however unintentionally, an ethnocentric yard- stick by which north american women activists appear more confrontational, more critical of their culture and men, and thus somehow more 'feminist' that their counterparts among, say, ukrainian, hungarian, polish, and other 'foreign' locals. the specific racial and ethno-cultural context in which foreign-born women in canada joined and critiqued the left must be understood. nor do culturally determinist generalizations about the 'natural' propensity of highly radical ethnic groups like the finns for socialism and feminism get us very far. we need to develop frameworks that deliberately place at centre-stage the multiplicity of influences and challenges, multi-layered meanings, and even seemingly contradic- tory behaviour engendered by the reality of being a leftist immigrant women within a male-dominated movement in a hostile foreign country. in contrast to the well-developed literature on domestics and leftists, the historical work on the vast majority of "unexceptional" immigrant women, most of whom entered canada under various family classification categories and settled in family units, consists of a smattering of articles and collections of essays on individual groups, and some recent oral histories. while some authors concentrate on the domestic worlds inhabited by immigrant housewives, others have docu- mented the pronounced social activities of women determined to ensure the 'ethnic cohesion' of their community. immigration specialists influenced by women's history have been most active in the latter case, producing valuable studies of, for instance, armenian women's cultural and educational work within communities that established themselves in canada in the aftermath of the genocide, jewish women's long-standing association with charitable and human rights work within their respective communities, and the church-related activities of mennonite, macedonian, african-canadian, greek, and other minority women. historians as for example, the essays in burnet, éd.. looking into my sister's eyes; polyphony, ( ); canadian woman studies, ( s); brand, no burden to carry, martha bohachevsky- chomiak, feminists despite themselves: women in ukrainian community life, - (edmonton ); the generation series. manly militants well as social scientists have concentrated on dw paid labours of immigrant women, especially married women, in the post- canadian labour force, focusing on macro-analyses of labour force participation, workplace experiences, or women's contributions to family economies. more than simply reflecting different research interests, however, die literature devoted to 'ordinary' immigrant women (like that on domestic servants) has been written by specialists deploying different analytical approaches. the most signifi- cant difference exists between historians and social scientists in die field. heavily influenced by die family strategies and community focus of die new immigration history, die treatment of women by immigration historians of women has been characterized by an emphasis on the varied contributions tiiat women made to resetdement and die cultural adjustments of families and to die connective life of die edinic community. thus, while women receive separate treatment, the primary concern is to elaborate on family and community cohesion. that concern saflects die project of new immigration historians to revamp earlier, padiological depictions of immigrant families and community and also to insist tiiat women were resource- ful players in bom contexts. but it can have die unfortunate consequence of rendering immigrant women as simply so much connective tissue. much is thus made of their identification with family and dieir capacity to hold togedier family, kin and edinic community, but their daily predicaments and desires remain insuf- ficiently explored. by contrast, the historical social scientists who have written about immigrant women (usually dwugh not exclusively for die post- era) have drawn on die more explicitly feminist and class- and race-based theories developed particularly within sociology and women's studies; hence, die focus on domestic violence, illiteracy, and lack of access to industrial training programs, ghettoization in low paying, dead-end female jobs, and racism. as in die united states, where similar patterns prevail, the best illustration of diis greater emphasis on victimization in die sociological literature is die triple-oppression model that highlights die work on immigrant and minority women. attempts to discern die ways in which minority women have been oppressed, as immigrants, women, and workers, offer a way of examining die structural determinants of immigrant women's oppression and die racial and gender inequities of die labour force of advanced industrial economies. by alerting us to die structural, racial-cultural, gender, and ideological barriers to immigrant and minority women's integration and self-empowerment, this literature ^most works in the sociology of contemporary immigrant women are not included here, but interested readers can consult rosemarie schade, the development of materials towards the creation of an inclusive curriculum: bibliography for canadian history - (montreal ); sheila arnopolous, problems of immigrant women in the canadian labour force (ottawa ); laura johnson, the seam allowance (toronto ); ng, politics of community services (toronto ). gabaccia, "immigrant women"; references include those contained in notes and . labour/le travail and feminist theory in general serve as a valuable check on die unbridled agency and naive depictions of co-operative family units in ethnic history. yet, the almost exclusive emphasis on victimization will leave many social historians, and students of women's history in particular, unsatisfied. such portraits of immigrant women fail to consider whether the women themselves perceived of their lives in entirely bleak terms and preclude any discussion of agency. the resolution to mis victim- versus-agency conundrum will not be easily achieved, but one place to start is with more rigorous and closely textured analyses of the dialectical interplay between agency and oppression that has shaped minority women's lives. arguments about the centrality of family to immigrant women's lives, for example, need not descend into simplistic conclusions about such women's truncated self-identities or their incapacity for self-emancipation. nor should it lead us to ignore the complex power dynamics inequities and multiple relationships that helped shape family life and women's lives in particular. whatever the perspective employed, it also remains the case that historical works on canada's immigrant women have focused on their paid and unpaid labours and their (complicated) relationship to family and the family economy. other aspects of these women's lives have been ignored. we have written about immigrant women, for example, as though they do not have a sexuality. in contrast to the united states, where recent work has explored the leisure and popular culture of immigrant women, canadian scholars have remained largely silent on these topics. studies of working-class immigrant women have only awkwardly incor- porated anecdotal bits about the role that visionary dreams, premonitions, folk remedies, and even gossip played in cultivating immigrant women's culture. the neglect of second-generation ethnic women who grew up in canada has also meant there has been little historical exploration of how young women (and, for that matter, young men ) negotiated their identity while living simultaneously within different cultural worlds that could prescribe conflicting rules about sex, marriage, manhood, womanhood, and family. gay histories of racial-ethnic men and women are also sure to break new ground. not only is it time to expand the scope of immigrant women's history in canada, but also to rescue it from its second-class status within the larger field of canadian women's history. to be sure, canadian women's historians have been especially sympathetic to the field, and feminist immigration historians like myself have found them critical allies. such support is crucial for feminists working in sub-fields other than women's history (ones that remain male-dominated), espe- kathy piess, cheap amusements: working women and leisure in turn-of-the-century new york (philadelphia ); ewen, women in the land in dollars; and cohen's critique in workshop to office. new work in canadian consumer history has begun to address to these themes: see cynthia wright, "spectacle to shopper eaton's and the making of the immigrant consumer market in toronto,'' paper presented to the canadian historical association, annual meeting, calgary, june . manly militants daily when we challenge the comfortable parameters of mat field. this point was brought forcefully home to me by a reviewer's hostile assessment of a since-pub- lished article that karen dubinsky and i submitted in which we detailed the horrific situation that drove an immigrant mother of four children to kill her abusive husband: feminist bunk/bad history. fears that studies of immigrant male vio- lence might encourage age-old racist views about immigrant men is under- standable. after all, ethnic historians have spent two decades debunking erroneous myths that have unfairly branded foreign-born and minority men as more prone to violence and sexual assault than their anglo-celtic, north american counterparts. the answer, however, hardly lies in silencing the history of domestic violence within immigrant households or the lives of abused immigrant women. support among historians of canadian women for scholarly work in immigrant women's history, however, has not yet translated into a full integration of the two fields of inquiry. on the one hand, immigrant histories of women remain largely specialized works on particular groups of women undertaken as projects of histori- cal recovery. as such, they contribute much to our growing knowledge about certain immigrant women and groups but shed little light on the relationship of racial-ethnic women to larger historical processes, events and patterns. also, as ruth pierson observed, works on immigrant and minority women, like those of lesbians, "have been marginalized through publication in separate anthologies and through insufficient integration into the mainstream of canadian women's his- tory." on the other hand, critical debates that for two decades have preoccupied canadian feminist historians — debates regarding gender formation, women's bodies and sexuality, life-cycle approaches, politics, working women, etc. — generally have not been directly informed by the vantage points and experiences of minority women who stood outside the mainstream of english- or french-ca- nadian society. however, recent work in the field, itself characterized by an increasing interest in 'difference' between and among women from varied backgrounds, along with the early output of a new generation of gender historians, holds real promise for a more integrative women's history in this country. immigrant women who inhabited arenas beyond the workplace and left circles, for example, are now commanding more attention, as women's historians are beginning to integrate immigrant and minority women as well as debate issues of race-ethnicity in their research on postwar suburbia, consumerism and department stores, mining and other working- class communities, hospitals and asylums, social workers, and the administration anonymous review; karen dubinsky and franca iacovetta, "murder, womanly virtue and motherhood: the case of angelina napolitano," canadian historical review ( ), - . interestingly, this piece later won the prize for best article published in the chr for . pierson, "colonization and canadian woman's history." labour/le travail of mothers' allowances and worker's compensation. some recent documentary collections, anthologies, and surveys in canadian women's history have made diversity a central organizing framework. ' feminist history that draws on legal records to date has offered some of the most sophisticated considerations of race-ethnicity as a historical category of analysis in women's history. in constance backhouse's petticoats and prejudice, the varied legal predicaments of black, metis, french canadian, and english-canadian women who came before the law in th-century canada are interwoven into the author's gendered analysis of th-century property arrangements, infanticide, and other legal matters. dubin- sky's impressive study of heterosexual conflict in rural and small-town ontario is similarly informed by a sensitivity to class and racial-ethnic differences, while carolyn strange expertly deploys the class/race/gender paradigm in her analysis of urban wage-earning women in a turn-of-the-century industrial city. conclusion historical writing about canada's immigrants has had a long and rich history, but there remains a considerable list of individuals, groups, and events that deserve their historians. not only do we need more specialized studies of less-known immigrants and immigrant communities, but we need comparative analyses of immigrants and rigorously gendered analyses of ethnic politics and activism, marital relations, households and family life, workplaces, and communities. the central theme running through the twists and turns that this article has taken is a vision (however hazy) of a more inclusive and synthetic approach to treatments of immigrants and minorities and the category of race-ethnicity in canadian history. it is a call for a more integrative approach to the study of immigrants, one in which the interconnections of class, gender, and race-ethnicity are considered not as fixed and immutable entities but as processes — processes that in some contexts might ^for example, veronica strong-boag, "their side of the story: women and suburbia," in parr, diversity of women; forestall, "all that glitters"; margaret little, "'no car, no radio, no liquor permit' : the moral regulation of single mothers in ontario, - ," phd thesis, york university, ; lykke de la cour, "women and mental illness: the cobourg asylum," phd thesis. university of toronto, in progress; wright, "spectacle to shopper.". tor example, beth light and ruth roach pierson, eds.. no easy road: women in canada s to s (toronto ); alison prentice, et ai., canadian women: a history (toronto ); gillian creese and veronica strong-boag, eds., british columbia recon- sidered: essays on women (vancouver ); ruth roach pierson, et al, canadian women's issues: strong voices (toronto ). constance backhouse, petticoats and prejudice: women and law in nineteenth century canada (toronto ); karen dubinslcy, improper advances: rape and heterosexual conflict in ontario - (chicago ); carolyn strange, toronto's girl problem: perils and pleasure of the city - (toronto ). manly militants act in concert, mutually reinforcing each other, but at other times impose contra- dictory influences on women's and men's and girls and boys lives. as nancy hewitt has observed, the racial-ethnic identities of immigrants, like their class and gender identities, did not arrive fully blown upon their arrival in the new world, but were regularly negotiated amid changing and changed circumstances. recent work in die us on what scholars have called die "inbetween" racial status of white immigrants from eastern and southern europe — mat is, meir position of racial inferiority vis-a-vis white americans and racial superiority vis-a-vis african americans — offers a fascinating and concrete illustration of how theoretical insights about the construction of 'whiteness' can illuminate our understanding of white immigrants as well as immigrants of colour. drawing on an impressive array of songs, immigrant stories, and public discourses, james barret and david roediger, for example, show how the 'new immigrant' southern and east europe- ans who dominated migration to the us between and , and who remade the american working class, actually underwent a process of becoming white. a more integrative approach to immigrants will require considerable work and certainly far more exchange between various historical sub-fields and different disciplines mat have tackled die subject of immigrants and minorities. if, for example, my paper calls for die gendering of immigrant life so, too, does it advocate that historians of workers, women, and die family take seriously die diversity of canada's peoples. if it calls for more rigorous analyses of racialized discourses and die immigration reception activities of canadian reformers, so, too, does it advocate that our studies of racism/nativism take serious account of die hostile relations among and between immigrants and minorities. as james barrett observes, histo- rians have paid little attention to how successive waves of immigrants and 'ethnics' have interacted with each other to produce particular class and cultural configura- tions and to act as assimilating forces on each other. we need to continue to enlarge die parameters of what constitutes immigrant history, to push and pull at die boundaries which in the last twenty-five years have defined die field — die well-adjusted families, manly militants, hardworking ethnics, defiant domestics, and cohesive communities — and begin to include die very people, events, and processes that do not fit comfortably into die current frameworks but nevertheless belong in any synthetic history of immigrants and minorities: die criminals and die mentally anguished, die victims of crime and ^ a n c y hewitt, commentary, wayne state labour conference, detroit, october ; james barret and david roediger, "in between peoples: race, nationality and the new immigrant working class," paper presented to the commonwealth conference on american exceptionalism, university of london, winter . (my thanks to greg kealey for this reference.) james barrett, "assimilation from the bottom up: immigration and the remaking of the working cass in the united states, - ," journal of american history, ( ), - . labour/le travail violence, and inter-ethnic racism. finally, and most difficult of all to articulate, we need to explore ways of writing the history of immigrants and minorities in canada that do not affirm immigrant status as othered. in an immigrant nation like canada, whose very foundations as a white settler society were forged in racism and die subjugation of native peoples and whose multi-ethnic and multi-racial reality has long been a critical factor influencing economic, social, intellectual, cultural and political developments, all canadian historians need to ask serious questions not only about the particular experiences of certain immigrants and minorities but also about how we can fully integrate race and ethnicity, majority and minority lives, into all of our analysis of the canadian past. / have benefitted enormously from the feedback of many clever people: bettina bradbury, karen dubinsky, marient epp, donna gabaccia, allan greer, craig heron, gregory kealey, kathryn mcpherson, carmela patrias, roberto perin, ruth pierson, ian radforth, and my graduate students. my thanks to all of them. canadiens en guyane, - (review) canadiens en guyane, - (review) lawrence c. jennings histoire sociale/social history, volume , number , mai-may , pp. - (review) published by les publications histoire sociale / social history inc. doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /his. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /his. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ demands for half the delegates in any white/black coalition and their dictate that sds abandon all other issues to focus on racism within the white community. this essay seems outside the editors’ goal of avoiding viewing the panthers as either “heroes” or “thugs.” the final section offers new tools of inquiry to understand the panthers. davarian baldwin notes the references to the panthers in rap and hip-hop music and suggests the techniques of cultural studies as a useful tool in assessing their continued appeal. the panthers’ image and style were as important as their ideas and actions, as they created “an imagined community of blackness . . . that could speak to the everyday experiences of the urbanized globally oppressed.” tim lake compares the panthers to the post-world war i avant-garde dada and surrealist movements that claimed “art was political and the political was art.” their guns, berets, and jackets were a form of performance art for revolution. edward morgan concludes with a study of media coverage of the panthers that finds, not surprisingly, that both traditional and “new” journalists of the s and s focused on the most violent and sensationalist aspects of the group and ignored their social programmes and ideology. he notes, somewhat ironically, that media coverage of the conference that led to the book dismissed the idea of devoting a scholarly meeting to “criminals and thugs.” the book shows the continued public and historical interest in the panthers’ ideas, actions, and image and will force both those who idolize and those who dismiss the group to re-consider their positions. were the black panthers true revolutionaries who mobilized the powerless and challenged the basic assump- tions of american culture, or were they shrewd opportunistic thugs who bullied both blacks and whites? the answer is yes. the vision of martin luther king in a suit and tie quoting gandhi and jesus remains more comfortable to whites (and many blacks) than black revolutionaries in leather jackets invoking mao and lenin. these two books remind us that both images are important in understanding the racial struggle in america. thomas j. noer carthage college, wisconsin larin, robert — canadiens en guyane, – , sillery (québec), éditions du septentrion, , p. thanks to the work of scholars such as bernard cherubini, historians are now aware of the thousand or so acadians who were transported after the british con- quest of new france to french guiana as part of the disastrous kourou expedition of – launched by louis xv’s minister choiseul. as robert larin cor- rectly points out, however, the presence of french canadians — distinguished from acadians — among the immigrants to guiana during and after the seven years war has been almost totally ignored. larin, who has been working for some time on a comprehensive assessment of forced or voluntary comptes rendus / book reviews histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) french-canadian migration at the time of the conquest, proposes in his present work to set the record straight. in canadiens en guyane the author resolves to write a social history that delineates and explains this displacement of canadiens — whom he defines as born in, married in, or having had children in the area corresponding to present-day quebec — to french guiana as part of the overall exodus of the period. a thorough examination of canadian archival sources permits larin to come to his preliminary conclusion that french canadians probably touched guianese soil between and , while nine others followed after . he admits, though, that these figures remain somewhat tentative and require confirmation in his subsequent research, because immi- grants cannot be proven to be canadiens. nevertheless, larin argues quite persua- sively that a possible narrowing of his sample does not affect his overall findings and the conclusions he draws from them. these findings continue quite naturally along the lines of his previous research. he argues that commoners, and not members of the elite (nobles, officers, officials), dominated in both the overall exodus of , canadiens during the conquest period, and in the small contingent that ventured to french guiana. among the latter, of the were commoners. larin then proceeds to examine in detail the migratory process that occurred, first out of canada, and then from france (or st. pierre and miquelon) to guiana. the author delineates the social status of each immigrant, traces their individual itineraries, and provides a genealogical statement for each possible participant, before drawing up a proso- pography for the entire group. he concludes that french canadians, unlike acadians, pursued individual rather than imposed or group itineraries and had various motivations for their peregrinations. some canadiens had been expelled by the british, but others clearly opted to start their lives anew in a french environment rather than remain under british tutelage. after arriving in french ports by way of various routes, some canadiens were led by differing circum- stances to join the choiseul expedition to guiana and convinced others to merge into the acadian contingent; meanwhile, still others travelled directly from st. pierre and miquelon to guiana. throughout this somewhat repetitive, nearly -page volume, larin successfully traces the individual lives of the french-canadian migrants at the same time as he analyses their joint ventures. the result is at times a fascinating account of the often tragic wanderings of a handful of eighteenth-century french canadians. it not only brings to light a hitherto neglected episode of canadian history, but also helps explain the social dynamic and internal structure of this transatlantic migration. while there is little doubt about larin’s contribution in this book to the history of the conquest, his treatment of french guianese issues is much less thorough and convincing. to be sure, the author forewarns us (p. ) that his primary focus is on the migratory process, rather than on canadiens in french guiana, but this does not prevent him from occasionally making sweeping presumptions about guianese developments based upon rather limited evidence. one of his concluding points is that the french-canadian commoners who remained in guiana after left their mark upon guianese history by integrating into the histoire sociale / social history histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) creole society of the colony, especially in the areas of sinnamary and kourou, where the few french-canadian survivors of the choiseul expedition took refuge, merging into the larger acadian community. here, he argues, the canadiens became involved in small-scale agriculture and especially cattle- raising—though he gives no concrete examples — and contributed to the develop- ment of a creolized petit blanc agricultural sector ignored by guianese historians because it remained apart from the dominant slave-based plantation economy. again, without offering examples, the author claims that some of these canadiens lived in “une certaine prospérité” (p. ) and that their survival is evi- denced by the persistence of french-canadian surnames into the nineteenth century. larin even suggests that guiana did not prove to be the white man’s grave, while conceding nevertheless that nearly half of the french-canadian immigrants perished shortly after their arrival, and that another third was saved only by rapid repatriation to france. in the end, larin avows that only four members of the french-canadian elite remained permanently in guiana after and that only eight commoners stayed. without further evidence as to what impact these eight commoners, morphed into creolized petits blancs, had on guianese society, one is tempted to accept the official french accounts of the s to s that depicted the few white settlers remaining at that time in sinnamary or kourou as surviving miserably on subsistence farming or wood- cutting. in sum, one might say that there is really so little information provided on french canadians once they arrived in guiana that the title canadiens en guyane is a misnomer. indeed, it would have been more appropriate to have entitled this book canadiens vers la guyane, for it is almost entirely a history of a migratory movement. it is in this sense that larin has made his mark. the canadian historical world can only hope that robert larin will soon conclude his larger study of the exodus of all french canadians during and after the conquest, of which this current book appears to be a preview. lawrence c. jennings emeritus, university of ottawa loewen, royden — diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture. toronto: university of toronto press, . pp. . in diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture, royden loewen traces the fracturing and dispersion of kleine gemeinde descendant mennonite colonies in the period from to . by the s, these descendants of the migration from russia had established themselves in mennonite communities from manitoba to belize, varying greatly in their responses to the economic, environmental, and cultural stresses of the middle years of the twentieth century. while most historians tend comptes rendus / book reviews histoire sociale – social history, vol. xli, no (mai-may ) wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ cardiovascular and renal progression factors in chronic kidney disease: a colloquium in honor of john h. dirks isn world congress of nephrology singapore, june , kidney international, vol. ( ), pp. – a tribute to comgan cardiovascular and renal progression factors in chronic kidney disease: a colloquium in honor of john h. dirks isn world congress of nephrology singapore, june , introduction this colloquium is being held in honor of dr. john herbert dirks. table summarizes john’s illustrious ed- c© by the international society of nephrology ucational and academic career but i will leave the de- tails to dr. robert schrier, who will introduce john again as the recipient of the first international soci- ety of nephrology (isn) roscoe r. robinson award. instead, i will briefly focus on some of the primary elements that characterize the life of this gifted and brenner: cardiovascular and renal progression factors in chronic kidney disease table . john herbert dirks, m.d. born, winnipeg, manitoba, canada graduated, university of manitoba m.d. university of manitoba – medical residency, internal medicine, montreal – fellow, laboratory of kidney and electrolyte metabolism, national institutes of health, bethesda, md – assistant professor, associate professor, and professor of medicine and physiology, mcgill university, montreal; director, renal and electrolyte division, royal victoria hospital, montreal – chair, department of medicine, university of british columbia, vancouver – dean, faculty of medicine, university of toronto – chair, national council of canada for bioethics in human research – rector, the aga khan university, karachi, pakistan –present chair, international society of nephrology (isn) commission for the global advancement of nephrology (comgan) –present president, the gairdner foundation most giving canadian physician, scientist, scholar, and humanitarian. born and raised in modesty in the true mennonite tra- dition, which he has steadfastly maintained throughout his life, john’s career has been marked by genuine and consistent curiosity, bookishness, commitment to excel- lence, and a grand vision of worldly scope. after training in internal medicine in montreal, he spent productive years in renal physiology research at national institutes of health (nih) where he made key discoveries on fluid volume regulation. when he returned to montreal to lead the renal program at royal victoria hospital, he and his team made major contributions to our understanding of the mechanism of action of diuretics and the role of the re- nal tubule in calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium home- ostasis. john then was invited to the chair in medicine at the university of british columbia where, over the next years, he built a superb department with distinctions in teaching and research. his leadership skills led to his elevation to the deanship of the university of toronto where he again served with great distinction, before em- barking on a new career in international health, initially in toronto and then at aga khan university in pakistan. he similarly raised the standards, energy level, and inter- national reputation of the once rather sleepy gairdner foundation to a position of preeminence since assuming its presidency more than a decade ago. indeed, under his leadership, it is now the case that a person selected for the gairdner award is virtually certain to be awarded the nobel prize. likewise, his superb leadership of the global outreach effort of the isn through its commission for the global advancement of nephrology (comgan) has made it a truly path-breaking vehicle for promoting educational and practical training experiences for tens of thousands of renal and related health care professionals in virtually every corner of the globe. among many other initiatives forged by comgan under his guidance, his efforts have made clear to in- ternational health agencies that we are now experienc- ing a sea-change in the world’s disease burden, namely, no longer primarily from infectious diseases but rather from chronic, progressive, and debilitating disorders such as heart failure and chronic renal failure. for his hu- mane and selfless acts, john has received the highest recognition and praise from his professional colleagues and deserves no less from this society to which he has given so much. in all the spheres cited above, progress and forward momentum would never have been possi- ble without his unbridled enthusiasm, diligence, and self- sacrifice—qualities of citizenship and devotion to fulfill- ing humankind’s greatest needs that set him apart as a national and international treasure deserving of the high- est forms of recognition. john, more than anyone i know, embodies ralph waldo emerson’s admonition, “do not go where the path may lead. go instead where there is no path and leave a trail.” one such modest recognition is the convening of today’s scientific session in his honor. the theme se- lected, “cardiovascular and renal progression factors in chronic kidney disease,” reflects john’s keen interest in global disease prevention, particularly the global dis- eases such as cardiovascular and renal disease that now account for much of the world’s morbidity and mortality and for which beneficial intervention strategies are ur- gently needed. to address these issues we have assembled an outstanding roster of speakers, whose contributions and expertise are forging the primary and secondary pre- vention initiatives that are rapidly setting standards for care around the world. in the papers that follow, these ini- tiatives will be highlighted. let me also take this occasion to recognize the generous and unrestricted educational grant from amgen, inc., that makes this colloquium and publication possible. barry m. brenner samuel a. levine professor of medicine, harvard medical school, boston, massachusetts; and director emeritus, renal division, brigham and women’s hospital, boston, massachusetts reprint requests to barry m. brenner, m.d., renal division, brigham and women’s hospital, francis st., boston, ma . e-mail: bbrenner@partners.org correspondence re: the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field to the editor: as a physician who was trained and is licensed in the united states and is also licensed in el salvador and has practiced in mission medicine in rural el salvador for years, i enjoyed dr. ventres’s per- spective on primary care in central america. i concur with that author’s observation that el salvador does a fine job of providing community-level primary health care. community health care promoters are providing outstanding care related to universal vaccinations, prena- tal health care, environmental interventions for out- breaks of dengue fever, and hospital referrals for emer- gencies. being personally acquainted with some of these promoters, i also see the unfortunate side of the efforts to improve health care outcomes: these promoters, them- selves generally from impoverished communities, are fre- quently threatened and sometimes penalized for negative outcomes beyond their control. these rural promoters perceive themselves as being virtually voiceless and pow- erless in a system where the lowest tier of workforce may be easily replaced by others eager for work. however, for the many impoverished people who will die of acute and chronic disease if they are only vacci- nated and given prenatal care, el salvador is providing inadequate health care. our clinic is barraged with pa- tients who left the (free) public health care system be- cause there is no metformin available for diabetes, who continue suffering from a wheezy cough despite having (inappropriately) received amoxicillin, and whose cancers are misdiagnosed and undertreated until treatment is no longer an option. dr. ventres teaches in san salvador; i understand why he doesn’t experience this daily aspect of the grave limitations of the health care system. at the time when el salvador’s care of acute/chronic diseases matches the wisdom and thoroughness of their preven- tion of diseases, we will have a model for the world. jana l. nisly, md amish mennonite aid, santa ana, el salvador erclinicjn@gmail.com reference . ventres wb. the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field. j am board fam med ; : – . doi: . /jabfm. . . response: re: the emergence of primary care in latin america: reflections from the field dr. nisly expresses frustrations about her daily work as a mission physician in el salvador and notes several examples of how the health care sys- tem is failing there. she is absolutely correct in noting that the reality of health care in el salvador is far from perfect. i suspect that pretty much the same could be said currently about any system in any place around the world. that such frustrations and realities exist, how- ever, should not blind us to the hope of building more rational systems of health care delivery. efforts to develop community-based, locally ac- cessible primary care services are worthy of sup- port. four years after the first peaceful demo- cratic transfer of power in el salvador’s history, the current ministry of health is slowly making progress on its platform of reform. i applaud it for even trying. more to the point for readers of the journal of the american board of family medicine, every sys- tem of health care around the globe has weak- nesses and strengths. our greatest challenge as practitioners in the global community is to learn both from failures as well as successes— be they “theirs” or “ours”—and to acknowledge them honestly with measures of humility and respect. above all else, that is the take home point from my article and this response. william ventres, md, ma institute for studies in history, anthropology and archeology, university of el salvador san salvador, el salvador wventres@gmail.com doi: . /jabfm. . . re: journal of the american board of family medicine issue on communities of solution to the editor:we appreciated the journal of the american board of family medicine issue (may/june ) dedicated to communities of solution (coss) and believe that this topic enhances meaningful conversation around the role of health care institutions in improving individual and population health. griswold et al highlighted key themes of coss, such as crossing “jurisdictional bound- aries” and community-based initiatives. the rest of the dedicated issue focused on specific examples of coss related to these themes, including ferrer et al’s “ad- vanced” multidisciplinary primary care and garney et al’s health resource centers. these examples are salient, jabfm september–october vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ but as clinicians we found that the articles failed to present a roadmap for describing how providers can break down barriers to intersectoral collaboration from within the health care setting to build coss that address social determinants of health. we identify major chal- lenges to creating such a roadmap: ( ) rigorous research and evaluation; ( ) concrete strategies for dissemination and implementation of coss; and ( ) recommendations for sustainable funding. there is a concerning lack of research about the most effective ways for health care institutions to ad- dress social determinants of health. linkage programs such as those described by ferrer et al and garney et al have for the most part failed to be accompanied by rigorous evaluation to demonstrate health status or utilization outcomes. there is also a lack of evidence about how to build effective coss across sectoral boundaries and a paucity of data about related popu- lation-level outcomes. furthermore, how can practitioners work to develop mod- els that can be implemented, scaled, and disseminated? the health resource centers described by garney et al link the delivery of health care and social services. this intervention reaches individual patients, geographic clinical catchment ar- eas, and public health networks, but it offers insight into only one regional example rather than providing a tool kit that can be used by other regions. garney et al conclude that solutions built and sustained within a cos are most effective. we would emphasize instead that interventions designed in external set- tings are not inauthentic but rather allow each community to base their efforts on an established framework. in fact, we believe that there should be networks in place to bridge learning and improve efficiency across different coss, although there remain questions about what kinds of networks can be used and how recruitment, training, and data platforms can be shared across settings. finally, funding for innovative cos approaches that address social determinants of health in clinical settings is at best insufficient, although new demonstrations of payment reform are being explored in some state medicaid pro- grams. while there are studies suggesting that models for service linkage decrease ultimate health care costs, costs of implementation and concerns about ensuring subsequent reimbursement are major barriers. these barriers are great, but so are the potential benefits of helping providers participate in coss. novel approaches to intersectoral collaboration are currently underway in programs around the country, some of which are described in the may/june issue of the journal. electronic health records and regional information networks provide additional opportunities to facilitate linkages across health and nonhealth set- tings. important next steps include proving that these approaches make a difference in health outcomes for individuals and populations, articulating dissemination plans, and creating sustainable funding strategies. such an approach will help to scale evidence-based cos models to regional and national forums. abby burns, mdc, mswc school of medicine and center for health and community university of california, san francisco management and planning, school of social welfare university of california, berkeley abby.burns@ucsf.edu laura m. gottlieb, md, mph center for health and community department of family and community medicine university of california, san francisco references . griswold k. s, lesko se, westfall jm. communities of solution: partnerships for population health. j am board fam med ; : – . . ferrer rl, gonzalez schlenker c, lozano romero r, et al. advanced primary care in san antonio: linking practice and community strategies to improve health. j am board fam med ; : – . . garney wr, drake k, wendel ml, mcleroy k, clary hr, ryder b. increasing access to care for brazos valley, texas: a rural community of solution. j am board fam med ; : – . doi: . /jabfm. . . response: re: journal of the american board of family medicine issue on communities of solution we appreciate the thoughtful comments of burns and gottlieb and agree with many of their points. throughout our work examining the folsom re- port, we have noted many of the same pitfalls re- garding current fledgling communities of solution (coss): the lack of rigorous research, outcomes data, and nationwide or regional networks. burns and got- tlieb’s cogent suggestions to further the rigor of coss and assess outcomes are critical next steps. health care providers are crucial members in a cos. while some barriers to provider inclusion do exist, providers often choose not to participate be- cause of other pressing work or lack of payment for community-focused work. alternatively, providers do not necessarily have to lead a cos but can join instead as partners. groups may more willingly add providers to their invite lists if the providers are merely one of the stakeholders. the concept of any particular local cos is not always scalable; it may not provide evidence for the same solution in another cos. however, there is a need for a lattice that can connect coss for ideas, support, funding, research. health insurers and hospitals also play an important role in concordance with their mandates for community benefits. funding agencies and foundations could con- sider supporting a national research network to inform the coalition of public health and primary care across correspondence o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ postcolonial reflection on the christian mission: the case of north korean refugees in china and south korea $ € £ ¥ social sciences article postcolonial reflection on the christian mission: the case of north korean refugees in china and south korea shin ji kang department of early, elementary & reading education, james madison university, harrisonburg, va , usa; kangsj@jmu.edu academic editor: martin j. bull received: august ; accepted: october ; published: october abstract: the purpose of this paper is to challenge the dominant narrative of christian service providers working for north korean refugees’ welfare, and to articulate the perspectives of non-christian aid recipients, especially north korean refugees in china and south korea. drawing upon postcolonialism, i will unpack dysfunctions of christian missions and ministries while relating them to anthropological insights and ethnographic research data. as a christian scholar, i attempt to invite christian leaders and field workers to engage in critical reflections on their goals, dispositions, and strategies in relating to the culturally, politically, and economically marginalized. this paper is aimed to offer opportunities for christian missionaries to critique their colonial models and to reclaim their missions that decolonize both missionaries and the missionized. keywords: postcolonialism; refugee; north korea; missionary; christianity; humanitarian aid; china; south korea; justice . introduction christian missions and ministries have engaged in serving communities and people in need worldwide. such motives have been manifested in providing charity to the poor, medical services to the sick, hospitality to the disliked, and places of refuge to the persecuted [ ]. these humanitarian responses are well grounded in the christian mission for justice, as scripture reflects: for i was hungry and you gave me something to eat, i was thirsty and you gave me something to drink, i was a stranger and you invited me in, i needed clothes and you clothed me, i was sick and you looked after me, i was in prison, and you came to visit me...i tell you the truth, whatever you did for one of the least of these brothers of mine you did for me (matthew : – ). in the context of christian humanitarian activities worldwide, justice is practiced by “the haves” (the powerful) giving their resources to “the have-nots” (the marginalized). such activities are regarded as well-meaning deeds since they are non-profit and humanitarian, and thus tend not to be challenged or questioned. in fact, ferris [ ] raised concerns regarding the pressure created by christian organizations’ relief activities conducted in the tsunami-affected muslim community in indonesia: the local community felt intimidated and offended by the humanitarian workers who promoted religious conversion. ferris’ research called for improvement in the ethics of the benefactor. as a christian scholar and educator, i have collaborated with many passionate south korean christians committed to peace and justice for north korean refugees. through my fieldwork with north korean refugee youths, i have noticed a problematic paradigm in south korean missions to north korean refugees. i have encountered stories that have been seldom reflected in the grand soc. sci. , , ; doi: . /socsci www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci http://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/journal/socsci soc. sci. , , of narratives of today’s south korean missionary enterprise: the testimonials of victory and triumph of missionaries in the wasteland. the voices missed in the christian mission narrative are those of the people to be missionized—stories of oppression, exploitation, and coercion brought by the christian workers in china and south korea. north korean refugees have their critical and legitimate perspectives, which warrant major attention in the missional discussions. they tend to be marginalized because of their vulnerability as refugees. south korean christians could learn from the margins, as jesus and his disciples actually came from the margins and challenged the dominant religious leaders. a common nigerian proverb is “don’t let the lion tell the giraffe’s story,” which may apply to today’s christian missionaries. by listening to the giraffe’s story—north korean refugees’ story—christian missionaries could keep themselves in check and engage in genuine learning from those targeted in their mission. the purpose of this paper is to challenge the dominant narrative of christian service providers working for north korean refugees’ welfare, and to articulate the perspectives of non-christian aid recipients, especially north korean refugees in china and south korea. drawing upon postcolonial theory, i will unpack some dysfunctions relevant to south korean christian missions and ministries, which will be supported by anthropological insights and ethnographic research data of other field researchers and myself. the purpose of the paper is not just to condemn the colonial attitude of missions, but to invite christian leaders and field workers to engage in critical reflections on goals, dispositions, and strategies in relating to the culturally, politically, and economically marginalized. this paper may enable many christian missionaries and ministers to find the blind spots that have been hidden in the stories told only by the christians. . postcolonial theoretical perspective the history of colonialism has brought with it many difficulties. colonialism not only assumes military, economic, and political superiority over an existing societal structure, it carries with it implicit judgments about all other areas of social construction: gender, class, and intellect, as well as norms regarding etiquette, hygiene, work vs. leisure, clothing, sexuality, food, and, of course, religion. as defined by geertz [ ], religion is an entire cultural system, and it orients an entire worldview—it is a wholly organizing orientation to all of reality, with accompanying ethics that appear uniquely realistic to adherents. thus, especially in spreading religious frameworks, colonial powers not only authorize sovereignty over the physical dimensions of colonized peoples, they also exert control over the social, religious, intellectual, and emotional dimensions. this insight has led postcolonial theorists such as john and jean comaroff [ ] to discuss the phenomenon in terms of “colonization of consciousness,” which can lead to erasure of self-identity and agency (i.e., the dehumanization of colonized peoples), by setting the conversation in terms of central symbols, expectations, and concepts framed by the colonizers [ ]. “civilizing” the native by saving his/her soul has resulted in irreversible changes to societies, heritages, and consciousness in colonized areas. as just one example of many, the london missionary society (lms) and the wesleyan methodist missionary society (wmms) presented to colonized peoples such as the tswana of black southern africa in the s. they presented not only religion, but entire constructs of “civilization” through commerce and other social norms, thoroughly changing the whole social system [ ]. due to the explicit and implicit power imbalances between the colonized and colonizer, these far-reaching effects can result in brutalization that continues even when the official colonialism has ended. only five countries (i.e., ethiopia, china, japan, thailand, & afghanistan) have never been colonized in the medieval and modern periods [ ], and since all of these countries have arguably been colonized by globalization to varying extents [ ], the specter of postcolonial frameworks and the “colonization of consciousness” has been vast and devastating. avoiding repetition of the same patterns of power imbalance requires critical understandings of how christian missions have been shaped by colonial histories and how they still unintentionally share the marks of neocolonialism [ , , ]. christian missionaries, despite some having good intentions, clearly perpetrated these devastating colonial and neocolonial frameworks throughout much of the soc. sci. , , of globe. the evidence of the power and authority of the colonial power structures went hand in hand with the evident superiority that christian people supposedly possess over non-christians. rieger [ ] criticized this strongly, asserting that christian missionaries committed cultural genocide, referring to the destruction of the cultural heritage of the colonized. the colonial genocide could be extended to spiritual, intellectual, and psychological domains to maintain de facto colonial power over the missionized even after the official decolonization [ ]. examples multiply of children who have suffered from unintentional erasure of their heritage, identity, familial ties, religion, language, psychological safety, and social norms in the name of christian missionary/colonial aid, from the “lost generation” of australian aborigines to native american children forcibly relocated to boarding schools. as rieger [ ] explains, western missionaries’ influence lingers in the colonies’ educational systems where western and/or christian values (e.g., definition of happiness), manners (e.g., western style dress code), subjects (e.g., english) and disciplines (e.g., western medicine) serve as proof of civilization that enable upward mobility in the society. rieger framed it within neocolonialism: “those in power shape the lives of those without power” ([ ], p. ). colonialism is not only a topic in a history class but has actually shaped our minds, cultures, and systems that need to be decolonized [ ]. understanding potential harms of colonialism suggests an important implication for today’s missions and christian engagement with non-christian. it is essential to raise awareness about christians themselves in terms of how they relate to the others. smith, lalitha, & hawk [ ] summarize the usefulness of the postcolonial perspective in missions as follows: ( ) postcolonialism is a response to a colonial framework as residue of past colonialisms and present neocolonialisms. ( ) postcolonialism concerns marginalization of the powerless and attempts to disrupt domination by the powerful. ( ) postcolonialism invites mutual learning and growth through interactions and opposes rigid authority and homogeneity. ( ) postcolonialism is an act of critiquing power that dominates the metanarratives. ( ) postcolonialism seeks decolonization and facilitates alternatives. since “the cultural imposition of the missionaries continues today, even among the more sensitive and liberal-minded missionaries of our own time” ([ ], p. ), postcolonial perspectives must be considered critically and extensively in order to prevent many christian missionaries from practicing the same abuses of the past. geertz’s [ ] definition reminds us that our religious frameworks are “uniquely realistic” to us, meaning that our acceptance of the superiority of our own religion, whatever it may be, is our very blind spot. avoiding “colonization of the mind” [ ] thus proves to be extremely difficult, particularly in a missionizing context in which the missionized are suffering physically and emotionally. gene green, professor at wheaton college, acknowledged that the “civilization” of native americans was in fact colonization to which the church contributed: i was the colonist; i am the colonist. the land where i live was taken under an ill-signed treaty in , and the people who lived here, the potawatomi, were gathered and forcibly removed from this area under the indian removal act of . when black hawk resisted this ethnic cleansing, president andrew jackson sent general winfield scott through this area to suppress the rebellion. afterward immigration to the west of chicago spiked and new communities were founded such as the one where i now live and teach. we are established on this land because of colonialism. we are the colonists ([ ], p. ). although green did not participate in colonizing the native people directly, he recognized the violence and oppression his christian predecessors brought to the native americans and the systemic benefits the descendants have been enjoying. facing the colonial history is not easy since it may cause a soc. sci. , , of sense of guilt. green also warned that some conservative evangelicals might “react against the critique of christian mission, a centerpiece of evangelical life and theology” ([ ], p. ). christians will need to examine themselves concerning their own privileges and power and to develop awareness for what god does rather than celebrating too soon what they do. . sources of data . . missing voices of north korean refugees in christian missions since china and south korea established diplomatic relations in , south korea has exercised great influence over the korean-chinese community in yanbian korean autonomous prefecture in northeast china. the influx of south korean industrial capital to this area allowed growth in the economy as well as church, university, and hospital development in korean-chinese communities. south korean mega churches often served as financial, intellectual, and spiritual resource providers in the development, and thus shaped a powerful image among korean-chinese communities that the south korean christian identity is culturally and economically superior [ ]. this set a perfect stage for missions and relief activities for north korean border-crossers, where korean-chinese christians act as local agents who are bilingual and familiar with the socialist system, and the south korean church functions largely as a sponsor to drive the mission directions. in this section, representative mission strategies—safe houses and alternative schools—will be described from the north korean beneficiaries’ viewpoint. i will make the north korean border-crossers’ positions visible by highlighting the power imbalance in safe houses and alternative schools as evidence of the colonial mission. the data is drawn from ethnographic research published by other scholars and my original research. i conducted a needs assessment in with the south korean teachers of an alternative school that served north korean refugee students only. i also interviewed the north korean refugee graduates of the same south korean alternative school in . interviews were conducted in the korean language, which were transcribed in korean and then translated later in english. pseudonyms are used for the research participants throughout the paper to protect their identities. . . . safe house in northeast china christians in northeast china have been passionate and diligent in ministering to north korean border-crossers who left their country to escape starvation since the great famine in the s. most north koreans in china have been undocumented, having no official status or rights, and thus have been exposed to the risk of exploitation or deportation [ ]. in response to their needs, safe houses or secret shelters have emerged as a way to minister to north koreans and spaces where north korean residents, south korean sponsors, and korean-chinese caregivers engage each other. as the political tension around north korean refugees created a hostile environment in this region, safe houses began as a type of temporary and secret residence for those attempting to seek asylum in south korea [ , – ]. one of my interviewees, kate, recalled her distress associated with the security risk in china: i was not willing to go to south korea at first because of an arduous process of entry, and most importantly, i had to risk my life. i hated the constant fear of getting caught by the chinese authorities, who were notorious for their human rights violations toward north korean refugees and sending them back to north korea. the fear of being sent back to north korea was very excruciating for me, since i had been repatriated back to north korea after getting caught in china in . because of such experiences, whenever i heard the sound of a police siren, i assumed that the chinese police were hunting me down and i just ran for my life. if i saw the police ahead, i used to make long detours [ ]. safe houses are mainly middle-class, residential apartments with three to five bedrooms in urban or rural areas and are usually hosted by a mother- or grandmother-like caregiver. safe houses soc. sci. , , of accommodate mostly youths who crossed the border unaccompanied. the residents are confined, silenced, and cannot be allowed to go out freely due to security reasons. they are expected to follow a fixed daily schedule to participate in prayers, hymns, and bible studies. if they do not comply, harsh penalties and corporal punishment may follow as consequences [ , ]. young north korean residents may stay in safe houses for months until they have their opportunity to seek asylum through the christian underground support network. some caregivers would even tell the residents that opportunities to seek asylum might be given first to the “good christians” who are diligent in bible reading and prayer [ ]. thus, the residents are in competition to prove their conversion through religious performances to earn a faster chance at asylum. the hegemonic realities of colonialism are deeply embedded in the attitudes and policies of safe house missions. han [ , ] provided comprehensive description of a safe house in northeast china where she conducted an ethnographic study on missionary custody. north korean children in that safe house, because of their undocumented status, could not have access to public education. instead, they did household chores and studied the bible without making noise or trouble. unequal power relations between the christian care providers and the north korean residents generated an oppressive and controlled environment in the safe house. the safe house residents’ narratives contextualize how christian missionaries in the field dominated the course of lives and beliefs under their protection or counsel. the following interview summaries with three north korean residents accompanied by the christian caregiver highlight the nature of their relationships: seventeen-year-old grace was coerced to return to north korea as a missionary not by her will but by “god’s will,” as her christian caregiver framed it. when the researcher asked grace about her future plan, the custodian volunteered to explain grace’s dream on her behalf: “[grace’s] destiny is to return to north korea as a missionary so she can build a church in her hometown, she has had a vision from god, who showed her a church painted in white with a cross on top, near the place where she grew up” ([ ], p. ). before coming to this safe house, grace had been repatriated to north korea, where she was beaten and imprisoned because she had been previously exposed to christianity. her safety depended on the christian caregiver in china, and her dream appeared to be taken over completely by the caregiver. it is remarkable how little grace was allowed to speak about her future. grace does not have any power to shape her own life. the next interviewee was sarah, a woman who left her husband and children behind in north korea. she crossed the border simply to find food. as soon as she crossed the border, sarah was tricked and sold to a poor chinese farmer as his bride. sarah pleaded with south korean missionaries in the farm village for help, but they counseled her not to run away. and sarah was advised to accept the reality and be obedient to her chinese husband. she was told by the missionaries that “the bible says that divorce is bad...[s]tay married and try to be happy” ([ ], p. ). later, sarah ran away to the safe house managed by the same missionaries, who defended the rationale of their “godly” counsel: “there was no reason for [sarah] to risk everything to leave that marriage! god had other plans for her. god planned for her to come to china, marry that han chinese man, and survive, so that she could later go back to north korea and spread the gospel there.” ([ ], p. ). the south korean missionaries’ authority over sarah’s life was inextricable from the theological authority by claiming that it is god’s will for sarah to become a missionary to north korea. christian missionaries attempted to colonize the non-christian north korean resident’s mind by implying that their ideas were legitimized by god and by not allowing her voice at all. the last interviewee, a -year-old girl named esther, shared mixed stories regarding her experiences with multiple christians during her transnational journey. while esther had several “good samaritans” on the way, she also met a christian missionary who was a human trafficker. the safe house caregiver purchased esther and her brother, in fact, from that christian missionary dealer. esther questioned whether “she was being sold or rescued” ([ ], p. ). han confirmed that missionary rescue networks were intimately tied with marriage, migration, and trafficking brokers. the north korean migrants were treated as commercial goods with price tags while being expected to soc. sci. , , of give absolute submission: “[the christian caregiver] scolded a misbehaving north korean preteen boy in front of the entire household, reminding him that she could have bought a new television set for the price of his rescue” ([ ], p. ). this raises a concern of the moral ambiguity of colonialism. christian mission for north koreans was well intended but it easily becomes problematic when the missionaries get involved in human trafficking. there was a lack of transparency in the process of what the custodian claimed as “rescue,” which in turn led the north korean residents to be confused and suspicious. there was no clear negotiation or communication between the christian seller/buyer and the north korean resident. it is an obvious example of dehumanization and violence under the name of what the colonizers would frame as “rescue.” jung’s study also reveals the politics of christian missions in the border area. jung criticized safe houses as “an ambiguous or often contradictory space as the caring system tended to put absurd restrictions upon the refugees as prerequisites for being saved from hunger and the potential danger of being arrested by law enforcement” ([ ], p. ). jung observed a particularly problematic safe house noting that the north korean residents’ vulnerability put them in a position not to question or refuse the conversion to christianity. this power imbalance between the north korean refugees and christian workers manifested in strict rules and discipline applied to the residents of the safe house with minimal freedom of mobility. in the safe house, bible study was enforced in a rote memorization style as a process of “purifying” their mindsets “completely contaminated by kimilsungism,” ([ ], p. ) which is a casual name for the political ideology formed by the former north korean leader kim il sung. north korean residents were being treated as objects of christian missions and humanitarian aid without being able to exercise their free will at all. they were under another form of indoctrination: this time, by christianity. north koreans were not understood or acknowledged as equal human beings having their own knowledge, wills, skills, and dreams but only as pitiful victims to be rescued and changed into “better” beings. pilkington’s [ ] interview adds another account of the arbitrary power of christian workers shaping a north korean’s journey and identity. joseph, originally called kwang jin, later confessed that he was hesitant about adopting a religion in exchange for food and shelter but had no alternative, although he definitely had internal pressure. kwang jin recalled, “if i didn’t believe in god, would [christian missionaries] still be helping me?” ([ ], para. ). joseph, his new name, was in fact given by a christian missionary against his will. joseph said, “it was a mixture of anger plus sadness. i literally gave up everything i had to survive. i gave up my personality. i gave up the pride of being human. i had nothing to tie me to my parents and my past life. the only thing that identified me was my name—and now i was being told to give that up too” ([ ], para. ). conversion of his religion and identity did not happen voluntarily but was a cost that joseph had to pay for survival. this missionary might have done it hoping for kwang jin to live a new life as joseph, the biblical figure, who was once abandoned by his brothers but became a prime minister and later reconciled with them. however, the missionary turned joseph against his own heritage, and imposed an alien identity on him resulting in a sense of low self-worth. ngugi’s remarks illuminate this problem: the biggest weapon wielded and actually daily unleashed by imperialism...is the cultural bomb. the effect of a cultural bomb is to annihilate a people’s belief in their names, in their languages, in their environment, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and ultimately in themselves. it makes them see their past as one wasteland of non-achievement and it makes them want to distance themselves from that wasteland. it makes them want to identity with that which is furthest removed from themselves; for instance, with other people’s languages rather than their own ([ ], p. ). joseph’s account suggests that he felt a moral dilemma at the moment of conversion, which parallels with ferris’ findings on christian organizations’ relief activities that brought pressure to the tsunami-affected muslim community in indonesia [ ]. humanitarian aid cannot be paid by the beneficiaries’ souls. people are not just passively indoctrinated into another religion; instead, they critically evaluate the significance and effects involved in conversion. being aware of the exchange soc. sci. , , of that some christian missionaries want, people could even perform the christian faith in a way that entails inauthentic and distrustful relationships. in addition, safe house residency may add another layer of trauma to the north korean refugees. being confined during a prolonged period of time under a strict atmosphere while doing something they did not choose and were not familiar with (e.g., bible study) can be traumatic [ ]. living in such a condition overwhelms the usual capacities of human coping. ironically, safe houses are psychologically unsafe and socially and politically unjust from the residents’ perspectives. . . . alternative schools for north korean refugee youths in south korea as of , % of all north korean refugees settled in south korea were school-age children. typically, these children were culturally and academically disadvantaged. many were from poor border districts of north korea, where most schools collapsed during the famine between and . in that time, teachers and students left their classes and communities to search for food and money. because of their interrupted schooling, many young north korean refugees fell behind academically in south korean public schools. some of them dropped out of south korean public schools not only because of failing grades but also because of a hostile and unwelcoming atmosphere for the newcomers. for instance, a north korean young adult seeking a part-time job in a well-known mega church’s bookstore was denied a position because of his north korean accent [ ]. after they have suffered hostility and discrimination by the south koreans, including christians, certain north korean refugees decide to seek refuge in western countries. in the early s, some christian churches began alternative schooling in order to provide special educational and boarding services. alternative schools for north korean refugees are not government sanctioned in most cases, and thus operations and outcomes are not held accountable. these schools rely on private funding and volunteers mostly through church sponsors and are staffed by passionate south korean christian teachers, who feel called to serve in this field. however, good intentions do not always unfold as originally intended. when school operations are not transparent, it causes distrust and possibly corruption. kate, the interviewee mentioned earlier, commented on the ethical concerns for the alternative school she went to: evangelical organizations that pursue north korean missions sponsor alternative schools that serve only the north korean refugees. these organizations sponsor schools because they believe north korean refugee youths should be educated to become the leaders of korean reunification and christianization. however, reality is a little different. when i was in school, i thought teachers and staff loved and cared for students so much. later, after graduation, i became aware of a different reality in a horrible way. these alternative schools were once featured on tv as generous benefactors, which was very different than i experienced as student. outwardly, they talked as if they had so many things to pour into students, which invited my resistance and suspicion. i am not sure what schools have done with the donated goods. sponsored goods are for students not for the teachers. of course, i understand money is needed to operate the school. but, donated goods were intercepted and not given to the students. in their school home pages, they advertise themselves as caring mothers and fathers accepting us unconditionally, healing wounds and trauma, and giving everything away to the students. activities and field trips are updated promptly in their home pages. i am not saying that they are all lies, but i know that some donations disappear. for example, a company donated shoes to the school, but the students never saw or heard of these shoes at all. something like that...you know, there are really dedicated people with good hearts, but some of them become corrupted. running alternative schools for north korean children is now becoming a business for profit, a really good business both for reputation and money. so upsetting! children are utilized as instruments! [ ]. soc. sci. , , of another current situation among the christian social services for north korean refugees, including alternative schools, is that they compete with each other over available funding. instead of collaborating and learning from one another, christian workers fight over students and beneficiaries in order to keep their status quo. this confirms kate’s statement above regarding christian missions as for-profit businesses that utilize north koreans as instrument. . . damage to the christian missionaries and ministers a large number of mission-minded service providers in north korean refugee missions are devout and passionate christians. although it is a demanding and high-risk endeavor, they serve north korean refugees with minimal support or wages. for example, china has been an unsafe and threatening place not only for the north korean migrants but also for the foreign christian fieldworkers with some cases of harsh prison sentences involved [ ]. running private schools with boarding services in south korea is never easy with inadequate funding, staff without appropriate training, and a student body with special backgrounds and needs. in , i conducted a needs assessment at an alternative school for north korean refugee youths. the study indicated that the teachers found it difficult to work with the students who have psychological and behavioral challenges. they felt tension when managing a wide array of roles beyond being teachers: being parents, counselors, fund raiser/managers, nurses, social workers, and friends. because of the students’ special needs, the teachers also had to push the students as hard as they could to prepare them for high-stakes testing for ged certification and college admission. the school curriculum operates quickly without breaks and not even a minute can be wasted to raise students’ academic skills to the level equivalent to their south korean peers. teachers and students in the alternative school stayed in the school building from : a.m. to almost : p.m. to help the students succeed in south korean society. while their responsibilities were great, teachers were not provided with necessary resources and opportunities for professional development. as a result, their teaching efficacy and sense of well-being were at risk. many teachers indicated that they had little or no training in working with this special group of students, and readily available in-service trainings were often irrelevant. some of these alternative school teachers, like stephanie, quickly burned out. she stated, “this isn’t what i expected. i feel that i am growing restless and just plain unhappy working for something that has no clear end. i’m pouring in my %, but it never seems to be enough” [ ]. the teachers were expected to carry unimaginable burdens and responsibilities. passion and devotion are not enough to continue serving in such conditions. in fact, some teachers felt blamed and judged when they discussed their needs and struggles. administrators judged teachers by the strength of their faith and believed that complaints about challenges were because the teachers’ spiritual faith had weakened or failed. they were expected to cope individually by praying more and to persevere with their services. their faith, once the source of energy and motivation, was becoming the source of guilt and burden. the christian service providers suffer from colonial mentality. christians operating the alternative school assumed great responsibility to “save” the refugees as if they were the messiah. rieger criticized such colonial missionaries by saying, “the proof of the power of the colonialist nations was ultimately seen as stronger than the reference to the authority of the miracles of christ” ([ ], p. ). christians must allow room for god to minister both themselves and the service beneficiaries. this could happen when christians become conscious of the colonial system they have supported and are willing to learn from those they have attempted to colonize. . implications of the christian mission during the course on diversity and justice issues in education for the pre-service teachers, my students and i spent a great amount of time working to understand who we are: who am i as a member of society? how do i identify myself in terms of race, culture, language, social class, gender, and religion? how does my social membership give me power and privilege? how does this power soc. sci. , , of and privilege impact my engagement with others? everyone is unique and has a complex upbringing and experiences that shape one’s own worldviews, values, and stereotypes, which ultimately drive one’s decisions and actions. and often, we get to understand ourselves better by listening to others since it could expose our own positions and assumptions. christian leaders and fieldworkers can have benefit from this critical self-examination: who am i as a christian? what are my missional purposes? how does my christian identity overpower my christian action? in order to obtain meaningful answers, missionaries or anyone hoping to do good in the world need to be willing to be challenged by hearing and learning from others. as wheatley insists, “we have to be willing to admit that we are not capable of figuring things out alone. if our solutions don’t work as well as we want them to, if our explanations of why something happened don’t feel sufficient, it’s time to begin asking others about what they see and think”([ ], p. ). listening to the accounts introduced in the paper is painful, which should not be the final destination. there must be opportunities for christian missionaries to critique their colonial models and to reclaim their missions that decolonize both missionaries and the missionized. critical self-interrogation could bring powerful and authentic growth for those who are willing to engage in such a process. byler’s [ ] reflection on the history of mennonite mission offers three lessons for christian engagement with non-christians in the world. byler currently serves as the executive director of the center for justice and peace-building at eastern mennonite university. his work can provide a useful way to reflect upon the north korean refugee mission. first, he suggests that the spirit of christian engagement must be humility. byler humbly acknowledges the mennonite christians’ passive acceptance of anti-semitism during the holocaust. u.s. attacks on predominantly muslim countries are hurtful episodes in history. plenty has been done abroad in the name of religion without considering the counterparts’ perspectives. christian missionaries may “assume [they] are coming with the best intentions, but that may not be what [their] hosts perceive” ([ ], p. ). christians will need to recognize themselves in relation to god and accept their own shortcomings. when humility is practiced consistently and genuinely by acknowledging past error and “thinking of others as better than yourself” (philippians : ), reconciliation will be brought. south korean missionaries should maintain respectful manner and be willing to learn from north korean refugees in order to create peace and justice together and decolonize the old missional models. failures to admit colonial heritage may lead to the same fault in today’s missions. second, the basis of christian engagement is common humanity. byler [ ] appeals that christians should first learn to see each other as human beings equally beloved by god regardless of religion, race, class, or culture. christian humanitarian workers especially must remember that they have a duty to respond based on human need, not on whether or not they like the beneficiaries. horstmann [ ] emphasizes the same attitude in his study of faith-based humanitarian organizations in the karen refugee crisis: humanitarian aid should not privilege christians against other ethnic groups including the buddhist shan, buddhist burmese, or indian muslims, nor should they imply any direct or indirect pressure for conversion. likewise, south korean missionaries must be sensitive to the vulnerability of north korean refugees and stop exploiting their human needs in missions. third, the purpose of christian engagement is greater faithfulness and mutual transformation. an anecdote of an iraqi muslim speaker and a former u.s. marine demonstrates an example of mutual transformation [ ]: the iraqi speaker’s story of fleeing his native country due to the war made the former u.s. soldier feel sorry and regretful, and the speaker came to recognize the cost that the war had not only for his family but also for the u.s. soldiers. this time, the speaker extended forgiveness to the former soldier who was christian. allowing others’ stories to challenge one’s own current faith, knowledge, and understanding is a critical disposition to cultivate in order to reclaim a renewed self in god. the south korean christians’ engagement with north korean refugees has mainly followed the colonial model concerning conversion of non-christians. the paradigm shift to postcolonial missions is necessary: south korean christians now should remember that their missions should allow growth soc. sci. , , of both for the missionaries and the missionized. meaningful transformation could be undertaken by both parties when each approaches a common ground with respect, humility, and willingness to learn. privilege and power could easily lead us to be oppressors or colonizers. we make mistakes sometimes by abusing privilege and power. scripture describes that “[jesus] set aside the privilege of deity and took on the status of a slave, became human...he didn’t claim special privileges. instead he lived a selfless, obedient life and then died a selfless, obedient death” (philippians : - ). if south korean missionaries “think of [themselves] the way christ jesus thought of himself” (philippians : ), they will be able to figure out ways of decolonizing the established colonial remnants south korean christians planted through safe houses, alternative schooling, and other social and religious services. acknowledgments: i thank frances flannery for her knowledge and insights contributed to the section of postcolonial theoretical perspectives. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. references . ferris, elizabeth. “faith-based and secular humanitarian organizations.” international review of the red cross ( ): – . [crossref] . geertz, clifford. the interpretation of cultures. philadelphia: basic books, . . comaroff, john l., and jean comaroff. “the colonization of consciousness.” in ethnography and the historical imagination. edited by john l. comaroff and jean comaroff. boulder: westview press, , pp. – . . smith, kay h., jayachitra lalitha, and l. daniel hawk. evangelical postcolonial conversations: global awakenings in theology and praxis. downers grove: ivp academics, . . central intelligence agency. the cia world fact book; new york: skyhorse publishing, . . chidester, david. “doing cross-cultural religious business: globalization, americanization, cocacolonization, mcdonalization, disneyization, tupperization, and other local dilemmas of global signification in the study of religion.” in religion, and global culture: new terrain the study of religion and work of charles h. long. edited by jennifer i. m. reid. lanham: lexington press, , pp. – . . ingleby, jonathan. beyond empire: postcolonialism and mission in a global context. central milton keynes: authorhouse, . . rieger, jeorg. “theology and mission between neocolonialism and postcolonialism.” mission studies ( ): – . [crossref] . heaney, robert. “prospects and problems for evangelical postcolonialisms.” in evangelical postcolonial conversations: global awakenings in theology and praxis. edited by kay h. smith, jayachitra lalitha and l. daniel hawk. downers grove: ivp academics, , pp. – . . green, gene l. “a response to the postcolonial roundtable: promises, problems and prospects.” in evangelical postcolonial conversations: global awakenings in theology and praxis. edited by kay h. smith, jayachitra lalitha and l. daniel hawk. downers grove: ivp academics, , pp. – . . tinker, george. missionary conquest: the gospel and native american genocide. minneapolis: fortress press, . . jung, jin-heon. “underground railroads of christian conversion: north korean migrants and evangelical missionary networks in northeast asia.” encounters ( ): – . . mcphee, shaun. “kotjebi: north korean children in china.” asian affairs ( ): – . [crossref] . chung, byung-ho. “living dangerously in two worlds: the risk and tactics of north korean refugee children in china.” korea journal ( ): – . . han, ju hui j. “beyond safe haven: a critique of christian custody of north korean migrants in china.” critical asian studies ( ): – . [crossref] . pilkington, ed. “christianity was the only way out, says north korean defector.” the guardian, october . available online: http://www.theguardian.com/world/ /oct/ /christianity-defectors-escape-route- north-korea (accessed on march ). . whang, kate (seoul, south korea). interview, . . yang, tim (seoul, south korea). personal communication, . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://www.theguardian.com/world/ /oct/ /christianity-defectors-escape-route-north-korea http://www.theguardian.com/world/ /oct/ /christianity-defectors-escape-route-north-korea soc. sci. , , of . han, ju hui j. “contemporary korean/american evangelical missions: politics of space, gender, and difference.” ph.d. dissertation, university of california, berkeley, ca, usa, fall . . jung, jin-heon. “north korean refugees and the politics of evangelical mission in the sino-korean border area.” journal of korean religions ( ): – . [crossref] . ngugi, wa thiong’o. decolonizing the mind: the politics of language in african literature. portsmouth: heinemann, . . yoder, carolyn. the little book of trauma healing: when violence strikes and community security is threatened. intercourse: good books, . . callahan, timothy. “border crackdown: government seeks to stamp out north korean refugee problem.” christianity today ( ): – . . zang, stephanie (seoul, south korea). personal communication, . . wheatley, margaret. turning to one another: simple conversations to restore hope for the future. san francisco: berrett-koshler publishers, . . byler, daryl. “mennonite mission network & virginia mennonite mission devotional reflection.” unpublished manuscript, march , microsoft word file. . horstmann, alexander. “ethical dilemmas and identifications of faith-based humanitarian organizations in the karen refugee crisis.” journal of refugee studies ( ): – . [crossref] © by the author; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc-by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /jkr. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jrs/fer http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	postcolonial theoretical perspective 	sources of data 	missing voices of north korean refugees in christian missions 	safe house in northeast china 	alternative schools for north korean refugee youths in south korea 	damage to the christian missionaries and ministers 	implications of the christian mission my life and my theological reflection: two central themes gordon d. kaufman i am not a religious man but i cannot help seeing every problem from a religious point of view. -ludwig wittgenstein in these remarks i take up two central themes with which i have been preoccupied throughout my life, and which are expressed in the development of my theological reflection from a very early age on: the problem of god - the questionableness of all our thinking and talking about god (probably going back to before my high school days); and my life-long concern that human relations should be pervaded, above all, by loving, caring, responsible attitudes and activities (going back at least to the seventh grade). the more visible of these two themes in my writing has been my attempt to get clear, and to make new proposals respecting, the problematics of god-talk today; but underlying and deeply shaping my thinking about god have been my moral commitments, my convictions about how we humans should live. i. i have no memory of a specific moment when the question of the intelligibility and plausibility of the central symbol of our western religious traditions, god, became an issue for me. but perplexity about what has been taken by christians and many others to be the fundamental reality with which we humans have to do - a reality strongly affirmed in my home and community - has been with me as far back as i can remember, sometimes becoming quite strong, sometimes receding, but always there. the "god is dead" theological movement of the s sharply focused this question for me, and from that point on i felt gordon d. kaufman is edward mallinckrodt, jr., professor of divinity, emeritus, at harvard divinity school, cambridge, massachusetts. this article was originally published in american journal of theology and philosophy (january ) and appears here with permission. my life and theological reflection increasingly driven to address it directly. the so-called neo-orthodox theology which had been dominant in the united states among protestants for several decades, and which i had more or less accepted in graduate school as the proper basis for my theological work, simply dodged the major issue of how god's reality was to be understood. it was necessary, therefore, to re-think from the ground up how theology was to be done. i thus began what was to become a fairly long period of reflection on questions of theological method: what is going on in theological work? with what sorts of themes does it deal? what kinds of claims can theologians properly make? what alternative methods and procedures are available to theologians? this culminated in the development of a conception of theology that i call imaginative construction; and in consequence i have been led to re-think the whole christian theological enterprise from this standpoint. a central feature of this reconception is my proposal that the traditional metaphors of creator, lord, and father- on the basis of which the western image/concept of god has been largely constructed - be replaced by the metaphor of serendipitous creativity, as we seek to construct a conception of god more appropriate to today's understandings of the world and of our existence in it. i grew up in a mennonite home and community; my second life-long concern, that human relations should always be loving ones - even with those whom we take to be "enemies" - was a central mennonite conviction. going the second mile, turning the other cheek (matt. : - ), was strongly emphasized by my parents, and particularly well exemplified by my mother's demeanor and activities both at home and beyond; she was a much-loved person by all who knew her. it was a conviction also strongly emphasized in the community in which we lived, the campus of bethel college in north newton, kansas, a mennonite institution of which my father was president for many years. during my teens, in the late s and early ' s when america was preparing for and then became a participant in world war ii, this community was a sanctuary for me and my pacifist convictions when patriotic fervor became strong in nearby newton, particularly in newton high school. from an early age, i had been convinced of the correctness of this mennonite pacifist emphasis on how life should be lived. i remember well an episode in the seventh grade when i directly challenged my highly respected math teacher, mr. bilger, who refused to believe that jesus ever instructed his disciples to the conrad grebel review love their enemies. (why this issue came up in math class, i have no idea.) i knew that in the sermon on the mount, jesus had commanded his disciples to do precisely that (matt. : ), and i did not hesitate to embarrass mr. bilger, who taught a sunday school class at the local methodist church, on this important point. during that same period i was trying to inform myself about those whom our american society then regarded as its principal enemies by reading adolf hitler's mein kampf (in english translation), and then reporting on what i was learning to my literature class - to the distress of the teacher, miss sinclair. i was not, of course, advocating nazi beliefs about hating and destroying their enemies; that would have gone directly counter to my mennonite convictions. i was simply trying to understand why anyone would advocate such a horrible view of life, hoping this would help me think more clearly about how we should respond to the nazis. this fundamental mennonite criterion respecting how human life was to be lived, epitomized in such teachings of jesus as "love your neighbor as yourself (mark : ) and "love your enemies," and by his dramatic, nonresistant death on the cross at the hands of his enemies, has remained with me. it underlies my attempts in recent years to sketch a christian ethic in connection with my notion of humans as biohistorical beings, and to address theologically such knotty issues as the enormous religious and cultural pluralism of human existence, an issue with which we must come to terms in a new way. in , when i was eighteen and about to be drafted, my concerns about the problematic character of our talk and thinking about god, and about how human life should be conducted, came together fairly strongly in my consciousness. it was the second of the two that was dominant in my decision to become a conscientious objector, not the first. i had no uncertainty about the wrongness of all killing or about the injunction to love our enemies as well as our neighbors, but i had a great deal of uncertainty about who or what god was, or whether i believed in god. this was a serious matter for me because - as mennonites had stressed from the period of the reformation on when they were denounced as "anabaptists" (re-baptizers) - religious faith was a matter of thoughtful personal conviction and of mature decision and commitment about how one's life was to be led. it was not something to be taken for granted as part of the general socializing process through which we my life and theological reflection all go from infancy to adulthood. moreover, the selective service act specified that only religious objectors - not those whose refusal to serve in the military was based on political or moral convictions alone - could be allowed to substitute civilian public service for military service when drafted. however, since i was a mennonite in good standing, and the mennonite churches publicly took a pacifist position, i was given conscientious objector status with few questions asked. my worries about god never became an issue with the draft board. these relative certainties/uncertainties - deep convictions about the fundamental moral issue of how life should be lived, considerable uncertainty about all our thinking and talk of god - have dominated my entire life. they have driven my attempts to work through the question of how important are christian (or other) convictions about god. how important are they for human existence generally? how important should such convictions be in my own life? it is with these particular nuances that the central mennonite theme - about the interconnection of a radical ethic of love with radical faith in god - has been at the center of my intellectual development, indeed, at the center of much of my life. my father, an ordained mennonite minister and former missionary to china, was president of bethel college during my formative years. he had completed a ph.d. at the divinity school of the university of chicago in , and had in his personal library many books by shailer mathews, shirley jackson case, henry nelson wieman, harry emerson fosdick, and other liberal religious thinkers. i read a good many of these works in my high school years and later. references to god, prayers to god, bible reading, hymn singing, and the like, were all frequent in our home and in the mennonite community roundabout. so god was a quite familiar, if somewhat puzzling, figure to me. in the summer of when i was twelve years old, i became excited in reading a recently published book on evolution, man the unknown by the french writer alexis carrel, a volume available on the coffee table in our home. the conflicts between carrel's evolutionary account and the biblical stories found in genesis were clear to me, and this modern scientific view seemed much more plausible than the bible's story - an exciting and important discovery. my father encouraged free discussion of all such issues, both in our the conrcud grebel review home and at the college, where there were religious liberals on the faculty (who took evolution for granted) as well as more conservative biblicists. largely because of increasing hostility toward mennonite pacifists during my junior year in high school, especially after the u.s. entered the war in december , i decided to skip the senior year and to enter college, at bethel, in the fall of . (by the end of my junior year i had already completed of the credits required for high school graduation, so this was not difficult to arrange.) this made life somewhat easier, of course, with respect to my pacifist convictions, but it only deepened further my perplexities about god. two of my teachers, both historians, were of the more religiously conservative wing of the faculty. one of them, melvin gingerich, taught a year-long introductory course in the history of western civilization; the other, cornelius krahn, a course in church history. in neither case did these teachers want students to get the impression that human affairs unfolded somehow on their own, quite apart from god's governing activity; god was, after all (as the bible taught), the lord of history, and the course of history must have unfolded along the lines that god had laid down for it, however much it might also be filled with human evil, sin, rebellion. so some of the books that we read, and all the lectures we heard, presented this religious view of the history of the world and the church; but other textbooks presented the basically secular picture of historical developments that has been favored by most modern academic historians. i found the secular picture, and the evidence and arguments on which it was based, totally convincing, while the religious interpretations and claims of my teachers seemed to be largely special pleading and not persuasive. along with these courses in history, i was also taking work in the social sciences and the hard sciences, especially chemistry and physics. for both of the latter and also for mathematics i had strong aptitudes, and i found these studies fascinating and their modes of argument quite convincing. in all of this, so much the worse for god, and for a life based on faith in god! i was drafted in october of , four months after i had turned eighteen, and was sent to civilian public service camp # in colorado springs, one of the camps administered by the mennonite central committee. the men at this camp were working in a variety of agricultural programs under supervision of the soil conservation service of the u.s. department of agriculture. my year at c.p.s. provided a new and interesting experience, as i interacted with mennonite and other conscientious objectors, many of a my life and theological reflection very religiously conservative stripe, but some quite liberal, including some radical utopians and anarchists. my many arguments with the conservative conscientious objectors only increased my skepticism about god. but my pacifist convictions were deepened by my encounter with radicals who advocated, for example, ceasing all cooperation with the u.s. conscription program by walking out of camp, even though this action would probably lead to a prison term. this raised a question i was to debate with myself during my stay in c.p.s., as well as in later years when conscription was reinstated in connection with the korean war. i was in c.p.s. for nearly three years. after a year in colorado springs, i was transferred to the ypsilanti michigan state hospital for the mentally ill, where i worked on the wards for fifteen months; after that i was transferred to a camp in gulfport, mississippi, to help build privies (under the supervision of the u.s. department of public health) for poor people who had no sanitary toilets. throughout this period i read widely on theological, moral, and philosophical issues, attempting to further my interrupted college education. for example, during my year in colorado springs i read for the first time (with very little understanding) a book i would read many times over: kant's critique of pure reason, this and others of kant's writings have deeply influenced my overall thinking on philosophical and theological issues; in particular, kant has helped me to understand the bearing of the symbol "god" on the moral dimensions of human existence, and vice versa. i was also exploring this problematic in other less intellectual ways. i looked into studies of mysticism during these years and into writings by mystics. but, although mysticism has continued to interest me, it has always been from a distance, so to speak. i seem to be "tone deaf with respect to so-called religious experience. when others speak of their "experience of god" or of "god's presence," or the profound experience of "the holy" or of "sacredness," i simply do not know what they are talking about. perhaps this is one reason why the problem of god has been, throughout my life, so baffling and difficult. i have long since concluded that talk about experience of god involves what philosophers call a "category mistake" and should not, therefore, be engaged in. (my gradually developing understanding of the symbol "god" as a human imaginative construction [see sections iv and v below] explains how and why i came to this conclusion.) the conrad grebel review in the latter part of my freshman year at bethel college i had begun dating a very vivacious and intelligent young woman, and this relationship developed into serious courtship during my years in c.p.s. we were married after the war ended, and for the next fifty-and-a-half years - which ended with dorothy's death in january - our lives were bound together. we had four children, and they have all married and have given us the joy of being grandparents several times over. there is much that i could (and perhaps should) say about this side of my life, but space will not permit that. ii. after world war ii, with my return to college, my earlier interest in the hard sciences was giving way to deep concerns about the meaning of human life and its proper ordering. my academic work became increasingly concentrated in the social sciences and philosophy. at the time of my graduation from college in november , my intention was to enter a doctoral program in philosophy; but before i did that i wanted, as i said to myself, to give the christian faith "a last chance to say something to me" that i could take seriously. so i applied to yale divinity school for admission to the b.d. program (for what we now call an m.div. degree), though i had no intention of going into the ministry. the several months before beginning that program were spent working toward a master's degree in sociology at northwestern university, studies that were to have a permanent impact on me. three important developments should be mentioned. i became acquainted with the writings of george herbert mead and worked carefully through his posthumously published book, mind, self and society. his claim that human selfhood and mentality were created in and developed to high levels through the evolution of language - and thus were thoroughly social in character - totally reversed the commonsense belief that language is the creation of mind with the contention that our human minds are themselves a product of increasingly complex linguisticality. this insight enabled mead to give a convincing evolutionary account of the appearance of human mind on planet earth, and also by implication an evolutionary account of human spirituality, including religion and morality. i found these ideas fascinating and persuasive. they expanded and deepened my life and theological reflection my early interest in evolutionary theory, and furthered my developing naturalistic understanding of everything human. second, sometime during these months at northwestern, i became acquainted with ludwig feuerbach's mid-nineteenth century book, the essence of christianity, which argued that what had hitherto been thought of as theology was really disguised anthropology (human studies). feuerbach showed that all the major doctrines of christian faith, including especially the doctrine of god, could be understood as expressions of an unconscious projection of human characteristics and qualities onto a non-existent external cosmic reality. so, specifically theological claims should also be understood naturalistically. ' third, during one term at northwestern i was permitted to join a special graduate seminar, conducted jointly by the chairpersons of the departments of sociology, psychology, and anthropology. we took up exciting interdisciplinary problems, and i presented a paper posing questions about the psychological, social, and cultural relativism that everyone in the seminar (including me) seemed to take for granted. my interest in this problem had perhaps begun with my experience as a conscientious objector, when i tried to understand why the mennonite "cognitive minority" of which i was a member, and the much larger majority of american christians, disagreed so completely about the lightness and wrongness of participation in the killing of war- each side being thoroughly convinced it knew what was truly right. these questions deepened at ypsilanti state hospital when i encountered delusional patients who obviously took themselves to be living in entirely different worlds from the one that i, and most others roundabout, took for granted. how could this drastic difference in our most basic judgments of reality, truth, and right be understood? is everyone living in his or her own private delusional world, from which there is no possible escape? are all human judgments relative to the psychological, social, and cultural contexts within which they are made? wouldn't such a conclusion undermine the possibility of making any truly valid judgments about anything? those were the issues i presented to the seminar, finishing up with one last question: if we take the concept of psychological, social, and cultural relativism seriously, must we not conclude that this very concept, which all of us in the seminar took for granted, is itself in question? imagine my surprise and disappointment, then, when no one agreed with me on the importance of this problem. in this seminar, i was told, we were dealing with psychological, the conrad grebel review social, and cultural facts - not with confusing philosophical questions and theories. if i wished to pursue these obscure and probably insoluble issues, i would have to go to some other department of the university. i received my m. a. in sociology from northwestern at the end of the summer, and by now it was clear that to deal with the questions in which i was most interested, i would have to go to "some other department." i was ready to take my concerns and problems to divinity school. the yale divinity school that i entered in- at age twenty-three was dominated by a basically neo-orthodox theology with a strong social ethics component, and was thus equipped nicely to assist me in thinking through the two central themes in which i was particularly interested. professor h. richard niebuhr was working out a way of reconciling a thoroughgoing conception of human historicity (including historical relativism) with christian faith and its claims about divine revelation. moreover, in doing so he drew upon and amplified g.h. mead's social theory of human selfhood and mind, and in some of his seminars and lectures took up figures like feuerbach and showed how they too could be fitted into - indeed, could make a significant contribution to - his sociohistorical conception of human life and christian faith. all of this was quite appealing to me. niebuhr argued that humans were to be understood as strongly shaped by the historical and communal context within which they emerged and were gradually formed into responsible selves. for most of their lives people inevitably live and work largely in terms of such communally-shaped values and meanings. this explained well my own experience and self-understanding. it fitted into mennonite emphases on the importance of mennonite community meanings and values, and it helped me understand why others, growing up within and informed by quite different communal values and meanings, disagreed so decisively with us mennonites. moreover, with this understanding it was possible to think of god not so much as an extremely problematic and uncertain mysterious something-or-other - the reality and significance of which had to be established before faith could be possible - but rather as a central meaning and value orienting christian faith and life. "god" is the principal focusing symbol in the christian way of understanding life and the world. the question of god was thus to be addressed in terms of whether one wanted to live a christian life, not in terms of some abstract notion of truth. my life and theological reflection in this way my two life-long themes were beginning to come together and reinforce each other. life is oriented with reference to god, if it is ordered in christian terms. what is morally required in human living, not some supposedly autonomous epistemological norms, is the pertinent issue here. one's moral stance - including the set of meanings and values, symbols and rituals, in terms of which one's life is oriented and formed - is the basic ground for faith in god. (this was obviously a strongly kantian move in niebuhr, and also increasingly in me.) although my convictions about the validity of a radical mennonite christian ethic were somewhat threatened by the essentially calvinist social ethics of niebuhr, liston pope, and others at yale divinity school, they were not destroyed. rather, they became better nuanced through these reflections, and thus (especially in the context of conversations with some of the other pacifists, of whom there were very few in the student body) they were in fact deepened. these developments led me to consider taking a doctorate in theology instead of philosophy. i discovered that if i entered yale's doctoral program in philosophy, i would not be permitted to continue theological studies to the extent i wished; but if i enrolled in the divinity school's program in philosophical theology, i could take as many philosophy courses as i liked. i decided to stay in the divinity school. (i had already been taking numerous courses in philosophy during my b.d. studies, and i continued that when i entered the doctoral program in theology.) my growing convictions about the interconnections of theology and ethics also led me - when i left yale in to take a position in the department of religion at pomona college (claremont, california) - to seek ordination as a mennonite minister. though i did not intend to become a church pastor, my mennonite connections and stance were important to me, and i wanted to speak and write as an authorized interpreter of a mennonite understanding of christian faith and life. so, as dorothy and our young son and i traveled through kansas on our way to our new home in california, i was ordained in my home church on the bethel campus. at pomona college my teaching was lodged substantially in two large introductory courses in bible, one in old testament and the other in new testament. i also taught courses in philosophy of religion and ethics. any courses in theology proper, however, were ruled out by my departmental chairman as probably unacceptable to the rest of the faculty and certainly the conrad grebel review impolitic to propose. at this time i became increasingly interested in the writings of karl barth, including his commentary on paul's letter to the romans, which seemed to illuminate in a striking way my own faith situation. barth presented a highly dialectical conception of faith: as our principal human connection with god, faith must be seen - following paul, augustine, luther, and others - as god's gift. humans can in no way bring themselves into a stance of faith by their own efforts, however sincere and persistent. thus, the more we try to believe in god, and the more we believe that such efforts are warranted, the farther we are from true faith. and contrariwise, paradoxically, the more we recognize our unfaith, our doubts, our disobedience - and thus freely acknowledge our alienation from god, our sinfulness - the more we actually stand before god in faith. so, could my deep, troubling doubts and disbelief, with which i had been preoccupied for years, be seen as actual marks of faith in god? very puzzling and very paradoxical, but that seemed to be the conclusion to be drawn from barth's highly dialectical and rhetorically powerful analysis. this is what the protestant doctrine of justification by grace through faith was all about. with the help of h.r. niebuhr and karl barth - and also paul tillich, a figure taken up in my dissertation, who had developed a notion of "justification by doubf - was finding my way into a theological stance within which i could live productively and fruitfully. this dialectical approach helped develop further my thinking on the problem of relativism, since it left me completely free theologically to work out a thoroughly this-worldly, and thus naturalistic and historicist, understanding of the relativities of human life and the human pursuit of truth. my doctoral dissertation was on "the problem of relativism and the possibility of metaphysics." with the help of writings by paul tillich, r.g. collingwood, and wilhelm dilthey, i worked through an extensive study of the literature on relativism and historicity, and developed a constructive position of my own on these matters. the dissertation proposed an understanding of human existence and knowledge as always actively responding to demands of the living existential present, a present inexorably shaped by a particular historical past but ineluctably moving forward in anticipation of a relatively open and unknown future. so we live and work and think, as best we can, in the present in which we find ourselves - never escaping the relativities of that present - as we seek to resolve the problems that confront us in our movement into the future. the dissertation was completed in the spring of , and a revised version was my life and theological reflection published in under the title of relativism, knowledge, and faith, my first book. in it are seeds of much of my later thinking about epistemological, anthropological, and theological issues. iii. i left pomona college in to join the faculty of vanderbilt divinity school as associate professor of theology. there, for the first time, i had to put together a year-long set of lectures on systematic theology. so i worked out conceptions of creation, the fall, and sin; the doctrine of the trinity and christology; evil and eschatology; christian ethics and the moral life; theological method; and so on. (i was beginning to discover the extent to which christian theology must be understood as basically human imaginative construction^ in was invited to give the menno simons lectures at bethel college, and i took that opportunity to sketch in five lectures the overall theological position i was developing. it was a theology grounded essentially on the moral necessities of human life, presenting the central christian claims about god and christ, humanity and the world, as a kind of picture of human existence and its context that served well and made intelligible our moral responsibilities and decision-making. these lectures, revised and somewhat enlarged, were the basis of a small book published in as the context of decision.™ the systematic theology that i was working out at vanderbilt was thoroughly historicist in character. following h.r. niebuhr, i argued that we humans always live out of the symbol-system that we have inherited, and that christians therefore need make no apologies for, nor attempt to justify, their attention to and concern about the central symbols that give form to their faith, their living, and their thinking (this latter assumption i would soon put sharply into question). the problematic dimensions of christian god-talk were handled simply by saying (confessionally): this is the world-picture with which we christians live and work; this is the way we organize our lives and thinking; we recognize that there are many other symbolic pictures by means of which humans orient their lives, and this is ours. my experience as a conscientious objector in world war ii had taught me that even though we may regard our way of living and thinking as right and true, we must be willing to live with and in the midst of other quite different ways of ordering life, as we seek to love our neighbors (christians and others) as ourselves - even though we believe the conrad grebel review these others are completely wrong in many of their ideas and attitudes. here my moral concerns about how we ought to live were beginning to outrank and to reshape my thinking about human truth-claims, so often regarded as absolute and not to be compromised. it was a kind of chrìstian pluralism toward which i was working (though that word was not available to me at that time); and this later served as the model for my reflection on problems of religious and cultural pluralism generally, and for my development of the notion of pluralistic or dialogical truth as a way of moving beyond the impasse created by the diverse truth-claims emphasized in different religious traditions. but none of this was clearly visible at that time. my ethical convictions (basically still mennonite) were for me more important and more certain than any others, and this meant i already had a standpoint that implied we should deal tolerantly with the variety of human faith-stances, not only among christians but in the wider world as well. humanly more important, and thus more fundamental, than any truth questions - about which there would always be doubts and other problems, never certainty - is the moral question of how we are to live together in the world in which we find ourselves. in my theology lectures at vanderbilt, in my menno simons lectures, and in some other writings for mennonite publications, i worked out my earliest formulations of these issues. when i finally published my systematic theology: a historicist perspective in , all these matters, and many others, had been pulled together into a systematic statement of what i took to be the major christian contentions and concepts, inherited from nearly years of history, that were still plausible. to make such a contemporary, comprehensive, fresh reinterpretation of the received christian symbol-system, in all its finely-wrought details, was what i at that time understood systematic theology to be about. though i was taking up the essentially confessional neo-orthodox stance that i had acquired at yale divinity school, there were some harbingers of things to come. here are some examples: in the preface, the book was characterized as "a work of the theological imagination" (xv), not simply as a new interpretation of tradition, an idea i was later to develop into a full-blown revisionary conception of theological method; the entirety of chapter , deliberately avoiding the tendency of many theologians to tip-toe around sensitive issues, was devoted to a thorough discussion of jesus' alleged my life and theological reflection resurrection, reaching the conclusion that it is not plausible today to hold that the historical jesus had come back to life again after his crucifixion and this implied, moreover, that christian hope should no longer be understood as involving life after death.for us mortals; in chapter , a theological outline of "the history of the world," contemporary astrophysical, biological, and historical thinking was employed in a sketch of cosmic and human development from the origins of the universe (as then understood) to the present. all of this was laid out in the largely confessional terms that i had appropriated from h.r. niebuhr and karl barth. in the end, however, this approach to theology - though it reconciled in certain respects the two basic themes that had been driving my intellectual activities - proved unsatisfactory. partly because of my growing sense of the artificiality of barth's dialectical interpretation of faith, which had enabled me to put aside doubts and unbelief for a while; and partly due to the impact of the so-called death of god discussions among theologians in the early ' s, in which i was participating, i began to move away from this neo-orthodox confessionalism. in my last years at vanderbilt and my early years at harvard (where i moved in ), i increasingly came to see that god was the principal theme - and also a major problem - with which christian theology had to come to terms, and the largely confessional approach i had been following simply ignored its problematic dimensions. iv. i sought to formulate and address the issues i was beginning to discern in a number of essays, some of them initially published before my systematic theology came into print. during our family's sabbatical leave in - at oxford, it became obvious that i was now moving to a quite different standpoint. this new way of thinking began to show itself especially in a lecture entitled "god as symbol," which i wrote in england and presented there several times, and an expanded version of which was published in as chapter of my next book, god the problem}* in that book, in addition to the contention that we order our lives largely in terms of certain fundamental symbols, and that it is the business of theology to examine, analyze, and assess these symbols and symbol-systems, it was stated forthrightly that the only possible test of our central symbols is pragmatic: the conrad grebel review there is no way to establish the "truth" of the notion of god by ordinary rational or philosophical argument: that is in principle impossible. the only relevant question of t r u t h . . . here concerns that ordering of life and the world which faith imposes: is such an ordering of the world appropriate to the world as we experience it and to the nature of our human existence, or does it involve misapprehensions of our situation and result in a stunting of human life and its ultimate breakdown? is some other fundamental paradigm or "root metaphor" more apposite or adequate for grasping the world so as to enhance and deepen human life, or does the theistic imagery and pattern most effectively perform this function? note that in this passage a major criterion for assessing theological truth- claims - a pragmatic criterion - is the way the symbol "god" enables us to live in the world. as i was writing that lecture and essay, i realized i was now working within a quite different way of thinking about the theological enterprise: theology was to be understood as through and through a human imaginative construction of a world-picture which could orient human life. a theological picture was distinguished from other similar imaginative constructions not by its grounding in divine revelation, as the neo-orthodox and much of the theological tradition as a whole had held, but rather in its utilization of the master-symbol godio bring all dimensions of its world-picture into focus. all claims about divine revelation were part of our god-talk, and were thus derivative from what was implied by the symbol "god." since the notion of revelation itself thus presupposed, and indeed employed, the symbol "god," it could not properly be regarded as the principal ground justifying our human use of this idea. this meant that some new questions needed to be addressed by theologians, questions of this sort: how and why did this particular symbol ("god") come to be deployed by (some) humans in their world pictures? out of what materials has the human imagination constructed this symbol? how is it held before the mind - in prayer and worship? in contemplation? in day-to- day life? in theological reflection? does it perform certain unique functions for humans? are there some distinctive dangers to human life and well-being to which the employment of this symbol may give rise, or which it may aggravate? my life and theological reflection and so on. in the last days of our stay in oxford, i hastily wrote a paper (largely for myself) entitled "theology as construction," in which i attempted to sketch the conception of theology now beginning to come into view. this paper was the first draft of the central chapter in my next small book, an essay on theological method} theology is there acknowledged as through and through human work, a constructive activity of the imagination, as feuerbach had argued. if we are to engage in this work self-consciously and deliberately, along what lines should our constructive activity proceed? what objectives should we set? in terms of what norms should we judge our work? how can we do this work of imaginative construction most effectively? what is directly implied in this understanding is that theology is no longer to be thought of as basically a hermeneutical task, simply interpreting god's revelation in the bible and tradition for a new day. so methodological issues now became a high priority on my theological agenda. the essay on theological method ( ) was my first attempt to address these issues in print and, in its latest revised edition ( ), it remains my clearest and most compact statement on them (along with a short piece most recently revised and republished under the title "theology: critical, constructive, and contextualized"). there is no space to summarize the argument of the essay here, but i shall note briefly what is taken up in its three main chapters. chapter one argues that god is the central theme which distinguishes theology from all other intellectual endeavors, and this theme is highly problematic. a brief sketch shows how the word "god" is used in english-language discourse, and lays out some of the peculiarities of this word and its usage. (the influence of ludwig wittgenstein and other "ordinary language" philosophers makes itself evident here.) the second chapter argues that all speaking and thinking of god, even of the most simple and unsophisticated sort - our prayers to god, our worship of god, our reflection on god - presupposes constructive imaginative activity and would be impossible without it. the task of formal theology thus now becomes one of developing norms for judging the effectiveness and validity with which this imaginative work has been carried out in the past, and of proposing criteria to help us assess our own attempts to carry through this work today. the third chapter brings the book to a conclusion by arguing that there are three indispensable constituents of all adequate the conrad grebel review theological thinking: ( ) "the explicit development of a conception of the overall context within which [our human] experience falls, a concept of the world"; ( ) construction of a "concept of god, ofthat further reality which relativizes and limits the world and all that is in it," including us humans; ( ) reformulation of the concept of world so that it "fits" intelligibly with "the god thought to be its ultimate ground and limit." the third constituent involves careful adjustment of "each of these [two] concepts to the other" so that "a theistic interpretation or understanding of the world . . . [is] developed" along with a viable conception of god. it is claimed that if these several tasks are not all carried through carefully, theological work will be faulty and inadequately presented and argued. the essay is only a methodological sketch. it was first published just a year before dorothy and our youngest child and i were to go to bangalore, india, where i would teach in the united theological college for two terms, testing out some of my ideas for the first time in a non-western setting. this was an important year for all of us, enabling us to get some distance on the western culture and forms of life which we heretofore had taken largely for granted. in my essay on theological method i had been careful to note from time to time that what i was proposing was all expressed in terms of western theological and philosophical concepts, methods, languages, and traditions, and that i could not, therefore, make universalistic claims for it. it was very gratifying, however, to discover rather quickly that this way of thinking freed my indian students to do their theologizing in terms directly pertinent to their own religious and cultural context, instead of confining themselves to repeating the rigid propositions of the euro-american theology handed down to them and regarded as universally normative by missionaries and their disciples - a relativizing of theological truth-claims in light of what was morally demanded for ongoing human living in the indian sociohistorical context. my experience in india brought me into direct contact with many different religions and cultures, and i began to see that all these fascinating forms of symbolization, ritual, and morality - these exceedingly diverse ways of thinking about the world and human existence in it, and of attempting to live fruitfully within the order and orientation provided by these various inherited symbol-systems - were also to be understood as products of human imaginative creativity adapting itself in diverse locations to a wide range of historical and geographical settings and circumstances. my life and theological reflection my indian experience encouraged me to attempt to construct a christian theology open to and appreciative of the many different cultures and religions around the world, and while in india i began to sketch outlines and notes for developing such a theology. but it would take fifteen years and more to give it satisfactory form. in those intervening years dorothy and i would make a number of visits to japan, visits to south africa, israel, and china, another visit to india, and several to england. i also became regularly engaged in buddhist-christian dialogue both in japan and the u.s., and more briefly in jewish-muslim-christian dialogue in the near east and in the u. s. i attempted to take into account these broadening and deepening experiences as i gradually worked away in class lectures and in essays on what would finally be published in as in face of mystery: a constructive theology ?q during this period i found myself gradually giving up the personalistic side of the traditional christian conception of god - which until then had been at the center of my theological reflection - as i attempted to appropriate new cosmological and ecological thinking. an adequate contemporary constructive theology (it seemed to me) must take into account what we have learned about the evolutionary character of our world and ourselves in the modern astrophysical, geological, biological, ecological, social, and historical sciences. in the essay of i had already suggested that an "existentialist" constructive theology (as i labeled it at that time), though it has some plausibility and seeming advantages over the "cosmological" approach i was pursuing, was not really adequate today. the first clear sign that i was getting seriously concerned about the basic anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism of traditional christian thinking about god had appeared before the essay on theological method was written: it is in a paper on "the concept of nature: a problem for theology," prepared for the american theological society meeting in the spring of . in it i argued that there is a fundamental tension - a conceptual and logical incompatibility - between, on the one hand, the traditional personalistic understanding of god and of god's intimate relation to humanity, and, on the other hand, our growing awareness that human existence is essentially constituted by, and could not exist apart from, the complex ecological ordering of life that has evolved on planet earth over many millennia. at that time, however, i could see no way of overcoming this incompatibility of naturalistic and theistic ways of thinking. it was only in consequence of my new the conrad grebel review methodological approach, and further reflection on these questions over the next twenty years, that with in face of mystery i finally found my way through this impasse. my explicit movement away from traditional christian thinking of god as a personal being first appeared publicly (i think) in my presidential address on "nuclear eschatology and the study of religion" to the american academy of religion in . i argued there that the notion of god's providential care was getting in the way of our taking seriously our full human responsibility for the nuclear crisis in the midst of which we were living. christian theologians and ordinary christian believers alike . . . dare no longer simply assume that we know from authoritative tradition or past revelation the correct values and standards, i.e., the correct faith-orientation, in terms of which life is to be understood and decisions and actions are to be formulated. . . . [we] must be prepared to enter into the most radical kind of deconstruction and reconstruction of the traditions [we] have inherited, including especially the most central and precious symbols of these traditions, god and jesus christ in the little book, theology for a nuclear age, based on my ferguson lectures at the university of manchester and soon to follow this address, i suggested the kind of reconstruction of the image/concept of god that i had in mind: we should replace the anthropomorphic notion of god, as a kind of cosmic person/ agent, with the much vaguer idea of the "hidden creativity at work in the historico-cultural process [and i n ] . . . the complex of physical, biological and historico-cultural conditions which have made human existence possible, which continue to sustain it, and which draw it out to a fuller humanity and humaneness" (emphasis added). these ideas were worked out in some detail in the constructive theology later published as in face of mystery. v. i cannot summarize that large book here, but i will sketch three key concepts developed in it: first, the understanding of humans as "biohistorical" beings; second, my attempt to develop a viable conception of god by employing the metaphor of "serendipitous creativity" which manifests itself; third, in what i my life and theological reflection call "directional movements" or "trajectories" that emerge spontaneously in the course of evolutionary and historical developments. what is at stake in the notion of humans as biohistoricalbeings? most of my readers probably take it for granted that human history and historicity emerged within, and are in a significant sense completely dependent upon, the evolutionary/ecological web of life on planet earth. but we may not have thought much about the extent to which this emergence of our historicity has affected the character of human existence: it has even transformed significantly the biological base of human life. the gradually growing network of human sociocultural and especially linguistic practices (remember g.h. mead's ideas) appears to have put demands on the emerging human brain that account at least in part, as brain scientist terrence deacon has argued, for its growth into an organ of such great size, complexity, adeptness, proficiency, and creativity. this developing co-evolution of language and the brain has opened up enormously the possibilities of human life, and has facilitated decisive transformations in the character and quality of human existence in general. consider the effects of the growth over many generations of what we call knowledge. in the course of history human knowledge has become increasingly comprehensive, detailed, and technologized, providing us with considerable control over the physical and biological (as well as sociocultural and psychological) conditions of our existence. indeed, we human beings and the further course of our history are no longer completely at the disposal of the natural order and natural powers that brought us into being in the way we were, say, ten millennia ago. through our various symbolisms and knowledges, skills and technologies, we have gained some measure of transcendence over the nature of which we are part. and, in consequence (for good or ill) we have utterly transformed the face of the earth and are beginning to push on into outer space, and we are becoming capable of altering the actual genetic make- up of future generations. it has been qua our development into beings shaped in many respects by historico-cultural processes - that is, humanly created, not merely natural biological, processes - that we have gained these increasing measures of control over the natural order as well as over the onward movement of history. in significant respects, thus, our historicity - our being shaped decisively by an evolution and history that have given humans themselves power to shape future history (and even future evolution) in significant ways - the conrad grehel review is the most distinctive mark of our humanness. we are, all the way down to the deepest layers of our characteristically human existence, not simply biological beings, animals; we are biohistoricalbeings. despite the great powers that our knowledges and technologies have given us, our transcendence of the natural orders within which we have emerged is far from adequate to insure our ongoing human existence. indeed, the ecological crisis of our time has shown that precisely through the exercise of our growing power on planet earth we have been destroying the very conditions that make life possible. paradoxically, then, our understanding of ourselves and of the world in which we live, and our growing power over many of the circumstances on planet earth that have seemed to us undesirable, may in the end lead to our self-destruction. in orienting our lives we need to take much fuller account of the environment in which we live than we have in the past. thinking of the world around us as constituted by (a) cosmic serendipitous creativity, which manifests itself (b) through evolutionary and historical trajectories of various sorts, working themselves out in longer and shorter stretches of time, will facilitate this. there are many cosmic trajectories moving in diverse directions and overlapping each other in very complex ways, and on planet earth there have been many quite diverse evolutionary trajectories producing billions of species of life in complex interaction with each other. but we can consider here only that one trajectory which eventuated in the spread and development of human life over all the earth, the trajectory that issued in the creation of beings with historicity. our human existence - its purposiveness, its greatly varied complexes of social/moral/cultural/religious values and meanings, its virtually unlimited imaginative powers and glorious creativity, its horrible failures and gross evils, its historicity - all this has come into being on this trajectory, this particular manifestation of the serendipitous creativity in the cosmos. we do not know in what direction this evolutionary-historical trajectory will move in the future - perhaps toward the opening of ever new possibilities for human beings, as we increasingly take responsibility for our lives and our future; perhaps going beyond humanity and historicity altogether, however difficult it is to imagine how that should be understood; perhaps coming to an end in the total destruction of human existence. my life and theological reflection keeping this outline of our present situation in mind, let us return to the question of god. the biblical stories present a picture of god as an ultimate personal power behind all things, the ultimate origin of things. in my view we cannot continue to think along these lines. what could we possibly be imagining when we attempt to think of god as an all-powerful personal reality, existing somehow before and independent of what we today call "the universe"? as far as we know, personal agential beings did not exist, and could not have existed, before billions of years of cosmic evolution of a very specific sort, and then further billions of years of biological evolution and growing historical development, also of very specific sorts, had transpired. how then can we today think of a person-like creator-god as existing before and apart from any such evolutionary developments? what possible content can such a more or less traditional idea of god have for those who think of the universe in our modern evolutionary-historical way, according to which no life or consciousness can be imagined apart from the development of these very specific and quite extraordinary conditions? in contrast with the traditional notion of a creator, however, the idea of creativity - the idea of the coming into being through time of the previously non-existent, the new, the novel - has considerable plausibility today. indeed, it is bound up with the very belief that our cosmos is an evolutionary one in which new orders of reality come into being in the course of increasingly complex temporal developments. i suggest that we can and should, therefore, in our theological thinking, continue to utilize the idea of creativity (a descendant of the biblical idea of creation), but that we no longer think of this creativity as lodged in a creator-agent (a concept no longer intelligible). it was, i believe, my reading many years ago of h.n. wieman's book (in my father's library) the source of human good that planted the seed of this proposal. we should not think of creativity as a sort of force at work in the cosmos, bringing the new into being, a way of thinking that simply substitutes the notion of some kind of impersonai power for the idea of god-the-creator. to make a move of that sort presupposes that we know more about the coming into being of the new and the novel than we do. creativity is itself profoundly mysterious, as the ancient phrase creatio ex nihilo emphasized. we can see this most vividly, perhaps, when we consider the old unanswerable question, why is there something, not nothing? creativity happens: new and the conrad grebel review novel realities come into being in the course of temporal developments. this is an utterly amazing mystery. as nicolas berdyaev put it (in a book i first read while at yale divinity school): "creation is the greatest mystery of life, the mystery of the appearance of something new that had never existed before and is not deduced from, or generated by, anything." if we think of god in terms of the metaphor of creativity, we are thus drawn into a deeper sensitivity to god-as-mystery than was true of our religious traditions with their talk of god as the creator; for this latter concept suggested that we knew god was really a person-like, agent-like being, one who "decided" to do things, who set purposes and then brought about the realization of those purposes. it was this human-like model that was drawn upon by the biblical writers and their successors in their thinking about creativity. but with darwin we have learned that significant creativity can be thought of in other ways as well. indeed, according to the evolutionary theory agential creativity, of the sort exercised by humans, itself came into being ("was created") only as cosmic processes, in course of long stretches of time, brought into being certain very complex forms of life. for us today, therefore, the truly foundational sort of creativity appears to be that exemplified in the evolution of life rather than that portrayed in human purposive activity. i am suggesting that the metaphor of creativity is appropriate for naming god because ( ) it preserves and indeed emphasizes the ultimacy of the mystery that god is, even while ( ) it connects god directly with the coming into being - in time - of the new and the novel. i highlight the importance of these points by calling attention to the "serendipitous" aspect of the creativity manifest in our world - its unexpectedness, its being utterly inexplicable, and its great significance and value from our human point of view. apart from certain particular creative developments in the evolution of life, we humans would not exist at all. we can hardly fail, therefore, to regard the continuous coming into being of the new in our cosmos as "serendipitous," as a highly beneficial (for us) - though quite surprising and chancy - sequence of events. the picture i am sketching here can help us discern our place within the evolutionary-ecological world that is our home. let us note five points in this connection. first, this picture provides a way of thinking within which we can characterize quite accurately, and can unify into an overall vision, what i seems actually to have happened in the course of cosmic evolution and human my life and theological reflection history. second, this approach gives a significant, but not dominant, place and meaning to the distinctive biohistorical character of human life and of the human niche within the cosmic process. awareness of this enables us, third, to understand better the actual context of our lives and the import of the events through which we are living, thus facilitating our taking up more responsible roles in the world. (note once again the extent to which this activity of imaginative construction is driven by the moral necessity of living rightly in the world.) fourth, because this picture highlights the linkage of cosmic creativity with our humanness and the humane values so important to us, it can support hope (but not certainty) about the future of our human world, hope for truly creative movement toward ecologically and morally responsible human existence. finally, fifth, a hope of this sort, grounded on the mystery of creativity in the world, can help motivate today's women and men to devote their lives to bringing about this more humane and ecologically rightly-ordered world to which we aspire. vi. our modern/postmodern world-picture, taken together with the conception of god as serendipitous creativity, evokes a significantly different sort of faith and hope and piety than that associated with the christian symbol-system as traditionally understood. the child-like trust and assurance and consolation, characteristic of the conviction that throughout our lives we are cared for lovingly by a heavenly father, is no longer available. in exchange, we humans become aware of ourselves as a unique species deeply embedded in the magnificent intricate web of life on planet earth, with distinctive obligations and responsibilities to that web and the creativity manifest in it. thinking of god in this way undercuts the arrogant stance of much traditional christianity vis-à-vis the natural world as a whole, as well as with respect to other religious and secular traditions. moreover, understanding god - the ultimate mystery of things - in this way facilitates (more effectively than the traditional anthropomorphic creator/ lord/father imagery did) maintaining a decisive qualitative distinction, though not an ontological separation, between god and the created order. this distinction, perhaps the most important contribution of the monotheistic religions to human self-understanding, provides the basis for regarding god (creativity) the conrad grebel review as the sole appropriate focus for human devotion and worship, that which alone can properly orient human life. all other realities, being finite, transitory, and corruptible - created goods which come into being and pass away - become, when worshipped and made the central focus of human orientation, dangerous idols that bring disaster into human affairs. this important distinction between god (the ultimate mystery of things) and the idols is strongly emphasized in the symbolic picture i am sketching here. similarly, conceiving humans as biohistorical beings who have emerged on one of the countless creative trajectories moving through the cosmos - instead of as the climax of all creation, distinguished from all other creatures as the very "image of god" (gen. : - ) - makes it clear that we are indissolubly a part of the created order, and not in any way to be confused with the serendipitous creativity manifest throughout the cosmos. in this picture, the too easy human-centeredness of traditional christian thinking is thoroughly undercut. we can exist only (as far as we are aware) within the boundaries and conditions of life found on the particular trajectory within the created order in which we have appeared. these contentions have very important implications for the way we think about ethics. the christian ethic that we have inherited was focused almost entirely on our attitudes toward, and interactions with, other persons or personal beings. but if god is understood as the creativity manifest throughout the cosmos, and if humans are understood as deeply embedded in, and basically sustained by, the web of life on planet earth, then our attitudes and activities are to be ordered in terms of what fits properly into this web of living creativity, all members of which are neighbors that we should love; and what is in response to, and further contributes to, the ongoing creative development of our trajectory (the activity of god) within this web. thus, the two central themes of my life and my theological reflection - the problematic of faith in god and the deep conviction about the significance of radical christian ethics - meld into a unified naturalistic/historicistic conception of human existence in a world pervaded by serendipitous creativity. there will be those who say that in this theology god has really disappeared in the mists of mystery, and that true faith in god is thus also gone. to that i reply, true faith in god is not living with a conviction that everything is going to be okay in the end because we know that our heavenly my life and theological reflection father is taking care of us. it is, rather, acknowledging and accepting the ultimate mystery of things, and precisely in face ofthat mystery going out like abraham (as hebrews : puts it), not really knowing where we are going, but nevertheless moving forward creatively and with confidence: confidence in the serendipitous creativity that has brought our trajectory and us into being, has continued to sustain the human project within the web of life that surrounds and nurtures us, and has given us a measure of hope for that project here on planet earth. though strikingly different from certain traditional christian emphases, this understanding of god and of the human is clearly a form of radical monotheism (to use h.r. niebuhr's term). moreover, this conception can be developed into a full-orbed christian interpretation of human faith and life, if the creativity that is god is brought into significant connection with the poignancy and power of the story and character of jesus and the radical ethic which he lived and inspired in others. since we now see that we are to love and give ourselves and our lives not only to our human neighbors and enemies, but also to the wider orders of life, this perspective deepens and widens the radicality of the christian ethic. i have recently come to reflect again on nietzsche's cry that "god is dead," and to reassess it from the standpoint of my proposal that we think of god as creativity - keeping in mind that nietzsche (as much as i) strongly emphasizes creativity. and i now can see, more clearly than earlier in my life, that for me, as for nietzsche, the traditional anthropomorphic god has long since died; it was precisely the authority and authoritarianism ofthat god with which i was struggling for much of my life, and which for a long time i found difficult to repudiate. but with my realization that theology is, and always has been, essentially an activity of human imaginative construction, i came to see this development as the death of a particular human symbolic formation - a symbolism doubtless very important in western religions and thus in western history (and in my own life), but no longer pertinent to or nourishing of our human condition today. theologians should not, however, give up their vocation to think through the problematics of our god-talk and our faith in god. that would be to throw out the baby with the bath. they are called, rather, to seek to re-imagine, reconceive, reconstruct the symbol "god" with metaphors drawn from the ways in which we now understand ourselves and our world. the conrad grebel review for traditional mennonite understandings of christian faith, what was most important was not the creeds that we confess but how we live our lives in the midst of our neighbors and our enemies: we should be concerned about all our fellow humans, and seek to live among them in love and in service to their needs. in continuing to hold this conviction (now in an ecologically expanded form) i remain very distant from nietzsche, who focused his life and hopes on the glorious creativity of the Übermensch, showing little concern for all those "little men" whom he scorned. in my view it is only as we give our lives in service (as matt. : puts it) to "the least of these" little men and women on earth, and to the processes that sustain all of earth's creatures, that we gain true human dignity and fulfillment. not because an authoritarian divine king has so ordered things, but because (and this is one of the mysterious serendipities of history) the supposed divine authority ofthat king and of a man thought to be his "only begotten son" led to the formation of historical traditions that emphasized the radical ethic of agape-love, of forgiveness and reconciliation, as the right way to live humanly and humanely - even, perhaps especially as we today can see, in an ecologically-ordered cosmos pervaded by glorious creativity. originally presented as the intellectual autobiography lecture to the highlands institute for american religious and philosophical thought conference at highlands, north carolina in june . notes quoted in norman malcolm, wittgenstein: a religious point of view? (ithaca: cornell university press, ), . what i mean by this remark is probably quite different from what wittgenstein meant by it. i hope my meaning will come clear in the course of this paper. for a general statement about the background of my theological work, see "some reflections on a theological pilgrimage," religious studies review , no. ( ): - ; for those who want to know more about how my mennonite background has influenced my thinking, see "apologia pro vita sua," in why i am a mennonite: essays on mennonite identity, ed. harry loewen (scottdale pa: herald press, ), - , and another called "the mennonite roots of my theological perspective," in mennonite theology in face of modernity: essays in honor of gordon d. kaufman, ed. alain epp weaver (north newton, ks: bethel college, my life and theological reflection ), � . short pieces on specific themes in my work include "the influence of feminist theory on my theological work,' 'journal of feminist studies in religion Ί, ( ): � . in two early articles (among others), i explored some aspects of this central mennonite conviction: "some theological emphases of the early swiss anabaptists," mennonite quarterly review . ( ): � ; and "nonresistance and responsibility," in concern: a pamphlet series for questions of christian renewal, no. ( ): � (reprinted, with changes, in my book nonresistance and responsibility, and other mennonite essays [newton, ks: faith and life press, ], � ); see also the context of decision (new york: abingdon press, ). some more recent articles bearing on this theme: "jesus as absolute norm? some questions," in the limits of perfection: a conversation with j. lawrence burkholder, ed. r.j. sawatsky and scott holland (waterloo, on: institute of anabaptist�mennonite studies, ), � ; "mennonite peace theology in a religiously plural world," conrad grebel review . ( ), � ; and "the mennonite roots of my theological perspective," op.cit. a more explicit and detailed analysis of this matter can be found in gordon d. kaufman, an essay on theological method (atlanta: scholars press, ), chs. � . g.h. mead, mind, self and society (chicago: university of chicago press, ). ludwig feuerbach, the essence of christianity, trans. george eliot (new york: harper & bros., ). found h. richard niebuhr's, the meaning of revelation (new york: macmillan, ) particularly helpful. karl barth, the epistle to the romans, trans. edwyn c. hoskyns (london: oxford university press, ). gordon d. kaufman, relativism, knowledge, and faith (chicago: university of chicago press, ). gordon d. kaufman, the context of decision (nashville: abingdon press, ). a brief sketch of this way of thinking about religious truth�claims is found in my last book, god � mystery � diversity: christian theology in a pluralistic world (minneapolis: fortress press, ) chs. � . the earliest steps in this direction are found in my essay on "nonresistance and responsibility," op.cit. gordon d. kaufman, systematic theology: a historicist perspective (new york: scribners, ). ibid., � . gordon d. kaufman, god the problem (cambridge: harvard university press, ). also translated into french. the citation here is from page . the phrase "imaginative construction" was probably derived from my dissertation work on r.g. collingwood, who used it to characterize the historian's act of putting together historical materials into a coherent account; see especially the idea of history (london: oxford university press, ), � . used the term frequently in my ph.d. dissertation and in my first book based on it, relativism, knowledge, and faith; see, e.g., f, , . gordon d. kaufman, an essay on theological method (atlanta: scholars press, , , ; now published by oxford university press). also translated into japanese and korean. all page references are to the third edition. this book and its title were inspired in part by r.g. collingwood's an essay on philosophical method (oxford: clarendon press, ). the conrad grebel review ch. of god - mystery - diversity. kaufman, essay, , , and , respectively. many of these latter have been collected and published in books: nonresistance and responsibility, and other mennonite essays (newton, ks: faith and life press, ); the theological imagination: constructing the concept of god (philadelphia: westminster press, ); and theology for a nuclear age (manchester, england: university of manchester press, and philadelphia: westminster press, ). this last book has been translated into german, italian, japanese, and korean. gordon d. kaufman, in face of mystery: a constructive theology (cambridge: harvard university press, ). see ch. , endnotes and . first published in the harvard theological review ( ): - . later reprinted (with some alterations) under the title, "theology and the concept of nature" in the theological imagination, ch. . first published in the journal of the american academy of religion (march ): - ; and later, with some revisions, becoming the first chapter of theology for a nuclear age ( ). the citation here is from this revised version, . ibid., - . just a couple of years later i presented a paper entitled "god and emptiness" to the buddhist-christian dialogue group of which i am a member. in this "experimental" piece i explored respects in which our understanding of god would be revolutionized if we dropped our (almost universal) presupposition - taken over from greek metaphysical reflection - that god must be thought of in terms of the concept ofbeing (either as "a being" or as "being itself), substituting instead the buddhist notion of emptiness (sunyatd) as our most fundamental metaphysical concept. such a change would lead to radical reconception of what we mean by god, a reconception that would thoroughly undermine western thinking of god so largely in reified notions ofpower (omnipotence), and would open theologians to much more radically christomorphic ideas of god's "weakness" and "nonresistance" - a mennonite-grounded proposal that i had earlier made in my systematic theology (see ff., ff.). these sorts of reflection, i think, helped prepare me to give up the substantival thinking of most traditional conceptions of god as i worked out the notion of god as "serendipitous creativity". this paper was first published in buddhist-christian studies ( ): - under the title, "god and emptiness: an experimental essay," with a slightly different version in the religious philosophy ofnishitani keiji, ed. taitetsu unno (berkeley: asian humanities press, ), - . it has been republished (with some additions) in god - mystery - diversity, - . a briefer presentation of the position worked out in in face of mystery, together with specific discussion of the bearing ofthat position on the problems posed for theology by human religious and cultural diversity, was published three years later in god-mystery - diversity. see terrence deacon, the symbolic species: the co-evolution of language and the brain (new york: norton, ). for further elaboration of this problem and of the paragraphs immediately following, see my article, "on thinking of god as serendipitous creativity"journal ofthe american academy of religion (june ): - . h.n. wieman, the source of human good (chicago: university of chicago press, ). my life and theological reflection nicolas berdyaev, the destiny of man (london: geoffrey bles, ), . see h. richard niebuhr, radical monotheism and western culture (new york: harper & bros., ). in these reflections i suggest that, after giving it a trial for some years, i gave up as inadequate for today's world the more or less traditional confessional stance in theology that i acquired at yale divinity school. that claim should, perhaps, be further nuanced. two points should be mentioned. first, although the understanding of god that i ultimately construct - featuring the metaphor of serendipitous creativity - does seem more appropriate to modern evolutionary/ ecological thinking than traditional anthropomorphic conceptions, it can hardly be regarded as rationally coercive. it will become effective in human life, therefore, only if and as it is affirmed and implemented through "acts of faith," including faith in modem cosmological, biological, and social scientific ways of understanding the world and our human place within it. thus, a kind of confessional move is still involved, though it is one that claims a significantly greater degree of "appropriateness" to today's world than the confessionalism i acquired at yale. second, with respect to the other theme of this paper - my (mennonite) emphasis on a radical christian ethic of love - may seem to remain on more arbitrary confessional ground. many others (including most christians) do not find this kind of stance convincing. is my ecological/ethical position, built on a transformed christian pacifism, just as arbitrary as the confessionalism of the traditional god-talk that i have found so deeply unsatisfactory? or is there justification for holding (as i do with reference to my reconstructed god-talk) that - considering the state of the world today - a radical ethic of self-giving love has a certain "appropriateness" that should be taken seriously? two observations are worth considering in this connection: ( ) given that we humans are rapidly destroying the natural environment that sustains us (along with much other life), it is imperative that as many of us men and women as possible - especially those living in the high-consumption industrial world - sacrifice our own desires for comfort and ease (a "high standard of living") in the hope of reversing continuing damage to the ecological order. ( ) given the sorry state of human affairs in the world, it is imperative that as many of us as possible act in self-sacrificial ways to promote reconciliation, peace, and justice (instead of continuing power struggles and warfare). in short, an ethic grounded in christian self-giving love, though indeed involving a confessional stance that many may not want to adopt, has significant pragmatic justification. in my view, in the position to which i have finally come, the two basic themes (god-talk and jesus' radical ethic of love) are not treated in substantially different ways. my overall stance is not an arbitrary confessional one, but one that can be regarded as fitting in this time and place in human history on planet earth. ^ s copyright and use: as an atlas user, you may print, download, or send articles for individual use according to fair use as defined by u.s. and international copyright law and as otherwise authorized under your respective atlas subscriber agreement. no content may be copied or emailed to multiple sites or publicly posted without the copyright holder(s)' express written permission. any use, decompiling, reproduction, or distribution of this journal in excess of fair use provisions may be a violation of copyright law. this journal is made available to you through the atlas collection with permission from the copyright holder(s). the copyright holder for an entire issue of a journal typically is the journal owner, who also may own the copyright in each article. however, for certain articles, the author of the article may maintain the copyright in the article. please contact the copyright holder(s) to request permission to use an article or specific work for any use not covered by the fair use provisions of the copyright laws or covered by your respective atlas subscriber agreement. for information regarding the copyright holder(s), please refer to the copyright information in the journal, if available, or contact atla to request contact information for the copyright holder(s). about atlas: the atla serials (atlas®) collection contains electronic versions of previously published religion and theology journals reproduced with permission. the atlas collection is owned and managed by the american theological library association (atla) and received initial funding from lilly endowment inc. the design and final form of this electronic document is the property of the american theological library association. the international scene: news and abstracts ronald j. plavchan,£^for international council on archives. at the invitation of guy cangah, di- rector of the national archives of the ivory coast, the ica committee on automation held a seminar on automation for archivists in africa and the near east at abidjan, ivory coast, on november - , . archivists from eight african and middle east countries attended and heard lectures presented by members of the ica committee from belgium, france, german federal repub- lic, israel, italy, and the united states. sessions dealt with a wide range of topics: history of automated data processing (adp) and its early impact on govern- mental administration, documentation centers, libraries, and archives; disposi- tion of machine-readable records in the custody of administrative agencies; transfer and maintenance of permanently valuable machine-readable records to archival institutions; analysis of adp hardware, software, and flowcharting; adp techniques for archival control and information retrieval; problems in adp terminology and documentation; and methods of planning automated systems. participants also received a demonstration of an automated system, the project jorci, which the government of the ivory coast is using to index its gazette (a combination of the american federal register and statutes-at-large). since the ivory coast republic is the only african state to have automated its archives, it is expected that participants who plan automation projects in their own countries will look to this west african country for guidance. u.s.-panama project. the organization of american states, through its de- partment of cultural affairs, is sponsoring a comprehensive study of available historical sources concerning diplomatic relations between the united states and panama since , including background material on the construction of the isthmian canal. the purpose of this project is ( ) to gather all information per- taining to the canal located in archives, libraries, and other institutions not only in panama and the united states but also in colombia, france, great britain, and spain; and ( ) to publish a guide to all available records. celso rodriguez is directing the search for source materials in the united states, and the search has focused primarily on the holdings of the national archives and records service. in addition to the diplomatic and military records at the national archives, nars has the records ( - ) of the french compagnie universelle du canal interoceanique and the compagnie nouvelle du canal de panama which attempted to build a waterway across the isthmus in the late nineteenth century, and records ( - ) relating to the excavation, construction, and maintenance of the panama canal by the united states. completion of the project is scheduled in . [celso rodriguez, organization of american states] materials for this department should be sent to ronald j. plavchan, presidential materials staff, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . the american archivist vol. , no. january d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january world council on jewish archives. at the initiative of the israel archives association (iaa) and the council of archives and research libraries in jewish studies (carl), which represents thirty-one american and canadian institu- tions, and in cooperation with the world union of jewish studies, the world council on jewish archives was established at the seventh world congress for jewish studies, held in jerusalem on august - , . goals of this new international archival organization, as set forth in the establishing resolution, are to: ( ) promote the exchange of information on the existence of archival sources for the history of the jewish people . . . and gather data on these subjects in order to put them at the disposal of interested institutions and scholars; ( ) encourage proper records management by the preparation of guidelines for the accessioning, processing, description, utilization, and safeguarding of the rec- ords kept by jewish communities, institutions, and organizations; and ( ) take steps to insure the permanent preservation of source materials originating in the activities of, or relating to, jewish institutions and individuals, and to encourage reproduction of records of special research value. an eight-member temporary executive board has already been formed to initiate the steps necessary to meet the stated objectives and to establish a permanent structure. the world council on jewish archives will convene at each world congress of jewish studies. at the inaugural meeting of the board, held on august , , in jerusalem, michael heymann, iaa chairman, and herbert zafren, carl president, were elected to alternate as chairman and vice-chairman for the next two years. mem- bership is open to individuals from the two sponsoring groups as well as to those whose institutional interests relate to the purposes of the new international ar- chival organization. although jerusalem is to be the location of the world coun- cil headquarters, an american office will be set up at the national foundation for jewish culture, in new york city. inquiries regarding the world council should be forwarded to the national foundation for jewish culture, east nd street, new york, new york . [abraham atik, national foundation for jewish culture and council of archives and research libraries] australia. the australian society of archivists (asa) held its first bien- nial conference at burgmann college, australian national university, canberra, on mayl - , . papers presented at this general meeting dealt with a wide range of archival topics: copyright and the archivist, "right to know" versus restrictions, scoring archival goals, establishment of an archives, and problems in the use of archival sources for publication. participants at this conference also expressed support of a proposal for the possible formation of a south pacific branch of the international council on archives. both asa and aranz will pursue this matter further by investigating the possibility of holding a meeting of interested countries in . canada. with the final transfer of the mackenzie king papers to the public archives of canada (pac) on july , , the personal correspondence up to of the late prime minister william lyon mackenzie king is now available to the public. as provided under the terms of access, his diaries, memorandums, and public and personal correspondence for the year were opened to researchers at the archives building in ottawa on january , . the diaries for , contained in five binders, describe in detail king's public and private life. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene the national photography collections of the public archives of canada has entered into the second phase of work on the guide to canadian photographic archives. descriptive entries are being produced from the information received from more than repositories. the first volume of the guide is planned for . an important addition to the comprehensive pac collection on canada's military effort in russia at the end of world war i is a series of seventy-five views of the activities of the canadian expeditionary force that was sent to vladivostok in the spring of to help the white russian forces against the bolsheviks. in may the division will sponsor, in association with heritage canada, a na- tional conference on photography and history under the theme "eyes of time." more than a hundred photographers, custodians, and users of historical photo- graphs are expected to attend this conference on canada's photographic heri- tage. persons interested in participating in the conference should contact richard huyda, chief of the national photography collection. the national map collection has recently acquired a pair of globes (celestial, dated ; terrestrial, dated ) by james wilson, the first maker of globes in america, and the seven-volume facsimile, mbnumenta cartographica, edited by f. c. wieder and published between and . also acquired was a manu- script plan of the transatlantic cable to be laid between st. john's, new- foundland, and valentia bay, ireland. the maps of northern areas collected by trevor lloyd, formerly director of the mcgill centre for northern research and studies, were recently donated to the archives. a large and important collection of canal plans was received from the cornwall regional office of parks canada. these plans, dating from , document construction and reno- vation of almost all canals located in the provinces of ontario and quebec. the sound archives section of the national film archives has acquired archi- val quality reference copies of of the "program exchange" tapes assem- bled by the canadian association of broadcasters. these tapes were selected to represent a wide range of recent, private, radio programming in canada, and the tapes so far acquired are available for research. the section has also acquired the collection of over discs containing various programs and broadcasts from to the late s, which were recorded and retained by toronto radio station cfrb. the recordings cover canadian public and social life over a twenty-year period. since a group at concordia university in montreal has been working on a bibliography of the radio drama programs produced by the cbc since . the work, known as the concordia university radio drama project, involves the storage on computer records of all information gathered concerning these radio plays. to date, the university has compiled information on about , pro- grams broadcast on the english-language network of the cbc. in a related undertaking, the sound archives section began last summer to receive recordings of the radio plays from the cbc archives in toronto for re-recording the material for preservation. cbc will receive a duplicate copy of each radio play from pac. also, the sound archives section has completed an agreement with concordia university for an exchange of information. pac has thus received copies of the computer data which concordia has prepared. this will provide adequate references to the text, and it complements pac technical data on the recordings. concordia, in return, will receive copies of all the mate- rial assembled by the sound archives section. the exchange will take about two d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january years to complete, and the result will be the compilation of the most complete bibliography possible on these radio drama recordings. a new association, called the association for the study of canadian radio and television, has been formed. it will be oriented specifically toward the preserva- tion and accessibility of canadian radio and television material. those interested in receiving further information about this new association should write to membership secretary ernest j. dick, in care of the sound archives. in association with the research centre in the religious history of canada, saint paul university, the manuscript division has embarked upon a major project to catalog documents of canadian interest which are in the archives of the sacred congregation of the propaganda fide, in rome. the work, which was begun in october , is under the supervision of luca codignola, a specialist in the vatican archives, and will cover the period from the beginning of missionary activity in canada until . an agreement in principle has been reached with the hudson's bay company for the acquisition of the negative microfilm copy of the post- records of the company. filming of the material is already underway and is expected to amount to about reels a year. a mm. copy of the index to british military and naval records, commonly known as the "c" series, is now available. the "c" series is already available on microfilm and the addition of the card index (consisting of , cards) will prove very useful to researchers who live outside the national capital region. the division recently acquired a number of interesting collections: records of the association of consulting engineers of canada, additions to the stanley knowles papers and the maxwell cohen papers, additional records of the cana- dian library association, and records of the canadian association of physicists. the public records division has received the records ( - ) of the royal commission on grain handling and transportation. this commission, under emmett m. hall, was charged with the inquiry into the capacity and efficiency of canada's western grain transportation and handling system. these records con- sist of tapes and transcripts of hearings, briefs, and submissions by interested individuals and groups, as well as studies, research material, and the final report prepared by the commission staff. in the discussion of this vital aspect of the prairie economy, the testimony to the commission provides invaluable insights into the past, present, and future of rural and small town life on the prairie as perceived by the people living in these communities. the division has also accessioned the records of the historical section, de- partment of industry, trade, and commerce. most of this material was com- piled by o. m. hill in her preparation of the departmental history, canada's salesman to the world, the department of trade and commerce, - . con- tained in the accession are a variety of early departmental records, subject files, historical sketches, and a number of research reports on diverse topics. the private manuscripts section of the archives of ontario reports several accessions: a two-volume diary ( - ) of john harris of youghal, county cork, ireland; books, maps, and manuscripts of e. j. lennox, a prominent toronto architect; early records (ca. - ) of the quakers yonge street monthly meetings; records ( - ) of the gillies brothers lumber company of braeside; diaries, sermons, notes regarding indians, and other material ( - ) of rev. egerton ryerson young, an author and missionary of the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene canadian northwest; records ( - ) of the industrial school association of toronto; papers of the mcquesten family of hamilton, ontario, who were prominent in the hamilton steel industry in the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury; a diary and scrapbook kept by william coutts keppel (lord bury), earl of albemarle, who was briefly ( ) superintendent of indian affairs in canada; photocopies of two letter books ( - ) kept by william mctavish of the hudson's bay company, together with copies of miscellaneous documents con- cerning the fur trade; and the irving earle robertson-mackenzie collection ( - ). recent acquisitions by the provincial archives of alberta include: records ( - ) of the brazeau collieries; office files (ca. - ) of former provin- cial premiers ernest charles manning and harry edwin strom; records (ca. - ) of the lutheran church in america, western canada synod; sermons, correspondence, and essays (ca. - ) of rev. j. c. bowen, former lieutenant-governor of alberta, and his father-in-law rev. g. l. oliver; records ( - ) of the alberta society of artists, calgary branch; records (ca. - ) of the consolidated mining and smelting co. of canada ltd., regarding the potential development of the athabasca tar sands; records ( - ) of the edmonton hebrew association; and coal inspectors reports (ca. - ) of the former alberta coal department. city of toronto archives. the ontario archives recently transferred to the city archives the city council papers ( - ) which had been deposited in the provincial archives in . a detailed inventory of the collection accompanied the records in the transfer. similar inventories have been completed for the holdings of the toronto bureau of municipal research as well as for the citizens research institute of canada. compilation of an administrative history of the toronto city government has begun. the first segment is a history of the city engineer's-public works department, - . recent acquisitions include the papers of former alderman michael goldrick; and the records ( - ) of the federation of settlements, toronto inter- settlement house committee, toronto association of neighborhood services. the papers of william dennison relating to his mayoralty ( - ) are now available to researchers. the ottawa city archives is still engaged in identifying records at city hall and elsewhere, as well as in arranging for their transfer to the archives. in the meantime, the archives building is undergoing structural alterations to make it suitable for its new role. among some of the non-city records recently received by the archives are the complete records of the protestant children's orphan- age and part of the records of the royal ottawa hospital. on august , , the city council transferred custody of the billings estate to the city archives with a mandate to administer it as a heritage property. the estate includes two houses, one of which is probably the oldest dwelling in ot- tawa, several other structures, and a private burial ground. the site, until the city purchased it in , had been continuously occupied by the billings family since at least . prior to transfer to city ownership, the property was the subject of considerable controversy when the estate was scheduled for demolition and re- development as a highrise, but it required two additional years to agree upon a plan for its ultimate use. fifteen boxes of archives, dating from , were discovered on the property, as well as a complete library and numerous artifacts. it is hoped that the estate will be opened to the public early in . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january among the recent accessions of mcgill university archives are the papers of john c. l. andreassen, who retired in august after nine years as university archivist. marcel caya from the public records division of pac is the new university archivist. other recent accessions include varying quantities of the papers of harold hibbert (chemistry, - ), kenneth meek (music, - ), maxwell cohen (law, - ), and susan cameron vaughan (royal victoria college, - ). also received were the papers (ca. - ) of the prospector rueben d'aigle and additions to the geological papers of sir william dawson. many papers reflecting student life at the university have also been deposited. a sub- stantial installment of records (ca. - ) of the royal victoria hospital as well as records (ca. - ) of the school of graduate nurses (mcgill) and morgan's department store have been received by the university archives. also deposited are microfilmed records ( - ) of the st. gabriel street presby- terian church, montreal. canadian jewish congress central region archives. recent accessions in- clude: editions ( - ) of the yiddis her zhurnal {daily hebrew journal); papers ( - ) of edward e. gelber, a communal and zionist leader; records ( - ) of b'nai b'rith youth organization, toronto; minutes and scientific papers ( - ) of the mount sinai clinical society, toronto; minutes ( - ) of the toronto jewish medical association; liturgical compositions of cantor b. charloff; minutes ( - ) of b'nai b'rith lodge , timmins; board of education accounts ( - ), correspondence ( - ), and minutes ( — ) of the hebrew congregation of kirkland lake; minute book ( - ) of the cobalt jewish community; and record book ( ) of the peterborough jewish community. the mennonite brethren churches of canada last july acted to establish a center for mennonite brethren studies as well as a mennonite brethren histor- ical society. the functions of the center include the management of an already existing archives, encouragement of research, and intiation of specific projects focussing on the history, cultural development, and religious thought of men- nonite brethren groups in canada. the primary responsibility of the society will be to publicize the various activities of the center and to promote financial support. a larger project, scheduled for completion in , is the microfilming of all mennonite brethren congregational records. address of the center is henderson highway, winnipeg, manitoba r l ill on august , , the conference of mennonites in canada broke ground for a new mennonite heritage center on the campus of canadian mennonite bible college (cmbc) in winnipeg. funds for the construction of the center was donated by the p. w. enns family foundation. the new facilities will include an expanded archives preservation and service area, a public meeting and heritage display area, and a library section for cmbc. completion is planned for the fall of . the archives is presently housed in the lower level of the conference office area which is located on the campus. [jay atherton, public archives of canada] great britain. the collection of documents housed in the public record office (pro), which represents the largest continuous historical archives in the world, has long been regarded by british scholars as a priceless national asset. on d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene april , , lord teviot, a member of the national advisory council on public records, instigated a short debate in the house of lords by raising con- cern about the current state of public records and their preservation. the scope of the issue was widened when lord denning, master of the rolls and chairman of the lord chancellor's advisory council, alleged the possible destruction of public records. while wondering whether government departments transfer all appropriate materials to the pro for examination and release, he made it clear that departments had their own methods to avoid unwanted public disclosure: "it is a difficult question because if departments do not want to disclose their records, they may overlook them, miss them or even destroy them. the public record office can do nothing about it." according to an article in the times of london (april , ), historians have suspected that important documents are being destroyed or "weeded out" by well-meaning individuals on departmental review teams who are ill-suited to make necessary historical judgments. mistakes in judgment are irreversible. under the public records acts the departments are responsible for the long- term preservation of records, whereas the pro plays merely a loose coordinating role. each department appoints its own departmental record of- ficer (dro) who has a small staff. the rationale for this was that a dro should have long experience in his department and be able to follow the records throughout the -year period. a pro inspecting officer periodically advises the dro, but there are only officials in this pro inspectorate to deal with departments and nationalized industries. furthermore, departments can with- hold documents from release beyond the -year period prescribed by the act for administrative purposes or "any other special reason." the advisory council may thus ask to see a retained document, but the retaining ministry can refuse the request. during the debates several suggestions to improve the situation were pre- sented: increase the size of the pro inspectorate; strengthen the powers of the advisory council to enable it to act as an independent check on overcautious ministries; instruct the ad hoc cabinet committee which is dealing with the whole question of open government to add public records to its agenda; create a new royal commission or another grigg-type committee to investigate various aspects of archives management; and establish a government archives service, modelled on the government economic and accountancy services, to raise the prestige and status of those who deal with public records. the lord chancellor, elwyn-jones, rejected on economic grounds pleas for a grigg-type inquiry of record procedures, but he regarded the idea of an archives service as attractive when the economic situation of the government improves. the times, however, refused to accept the lord chancellor's reasoning and urged him to reconsider. it pointed out that an inquiry would take up to two years to complete, at which time the government would probably be receiving ample income from the north sea oil fields to finance any recommendation. such a committee could, furthermore, define procedures and establish guidelines for the "weeding" of departmental records prior to the actual opera- tion. the foundation of an archives service, consisting of career officials experi- enced in departmental policies, and of professional archivists trained in proper records retention practices, could be planned now and then implemented when funds become available. the times even suggested to the government that an d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january archives service might be one means to alleviate the pressures of an overabun- dance of unemployed ph.d's. in an attempt to influence the government to take steps to preserve the british archives, the times warned: "any nation that loses a vital interest in its past is a sorry, rootless thing." the bulletin of the modern records centre, university of warwick, coven- try, for october , describes early findings from the initial processing work on the international transport workers federation (itf) collection. it is clear that the collection offers a wide range of research possibilities for scholars in many fields. the volume of materials and the range of countries and languages represented in the itf collection, however, make a comprehensive description impossible at this stage, but the centre will try to respond to specific inquiries. the role of the itf in the struggle against fascism in the s, especially in germany and spain, is one of the observations centre personnel have noted in their work on the collection. the bulletin also reports that publication of the guide to the centre began on september , and copies are now available directly from the centre. to keep the guide as updated as possible, the centre plans to issue a supplement in / . the fourth annual report, covering major centre activities during the fiscal year, has been issued and is now available. it includes also a summary list of new accessions and additions to existing accessions between october , , and september , . new zealand. the new address of the national archives is n ac aircentre building, - vivan street, wellington. for researchers wishing to contact the archives via mail, the new postal address is po box , te aro, wel- lington. a cumulative list of holdings , which lists archival holdings of the national archives at the end of march , has been published and is available free of charge. anyone desiring a copy is instructed to write direct to the archives. according to a recent issue of archifacts (n.s., no. , june ), bulletin of the archives and records association of new zealand (aranz), wilfred i. smith of the public archives of canada has accepted an invitation from aranz to make a report on the state of archives in new zealand. he is scheduled to begin a six-week fact-finding mission in february . the outcome of smith's visit will be the issuance of a so-called smith report which will encompass the whole range of new zealand archives: governmental, local, university, business, and religious; and the recommendations contained in the report will relate to the development of all archives in the country. in response to a "historico-cartographic crisis" in new zealand, the aranz council has set up a special seven-member committee to investigate the current state of cartographic archives in the country, draw up possible guidelines for future development, and provide a useful forum for discussion. at its inaugural meeting in dunedin in february , however, the committee decided to ex- pand its original aims to include the promotion of regularly improved standards of map collections and their care, as well as to heighten public awareness of the value of maps and plans as historical evidence. consequently, the committee has sought to promote its aims via two avenues, members will ( ) try to enlist support and disseminate information in their home areas, and ( ) collectively undertake on an annual basis the sponsorship of several major publicity projects. during d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene calendar year , committee action took the form of a comprehensive report on the current state of cartographic archives in new zealand and a special seminar on the interpretation and use of maps in historical research at the annual meeting of aranz (october ) in wellington. singapore. in an attempt to alleviate an acute shortage of repository, of- fice, and work space, the national archives and records centre, in late renovated an adjacent building (no. lewin terrace) to accommodate addi- tional office space as well as the conservation and bindery section. other im- provements at the archives during the year include the completion of an au- tomatic fire detection system and installation of a steel fumigation chamber designed and manufactured by the local vocational institute. as indicated in the annual report, there was a notable increase in national archives holdings during the year. the bulk of this increase is the result of accessions of building plans and records of two architectural firms, kwan yow luen and swan & maclaren. these two collections will provide valu- able source material concerning historically prominent buildings in singapore. the archives has also continued to microfilm public and private records, of which the latter include records pertaining to churches, private cemeteries, and chinese associations. from the lee foundation, the archives has received a $ , donation to purchase newsreel films on singapore dating back as early as , from the british firm of visnews. this project, to be accomplished over the next five years, will be a unique addition to the archives, which has lacked audiovisual and other materials relating to the pre- and world war ii period. abstracts brazil. [laura v. monti, university of florida-gainesville] mensdrio do ar- quivo nacional, vol. , no. (september ). regina alves vieira, head of the servigo de documentacao escrita of the brazilian national archives, presents (pp. - ) a report prepared for the director-general regarding the latin american seminar, held in mexico city, june - , . the topic of this regional meeting was current archives. in the report, vieira comments on the participation by brazilian representatives and their views of the current situation in-brazil. the following subjects emerged from the discussions with brazilian archivists: a government attempt to preserve the cultural and historical pat- rimony, efforts to fulfill the compromisso de brazilia, training for archivists, establishment of a national system for archives, protection of the archival pat- rimony against irretrievable loss, and creation of intermediate record centers for short-term records storage. mensdrio do arquivo nacional, vol. , no. (october ). this issue contains a summary (pp. - ) of a national meeting on cultural affairs, held at sal- vador, bahia, october - , . participants at this meeting included carlos santana, secretary of education and culture in bahia, members of the federal council on culture, representatives of the state council of culture, and direc- tors of various national and regional cultural organizations. at this meeting a number of subjects were discussed: implementation of the natis program, the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january serious hardships facing brazilian archives, justification for the establishment of a national system of archives, and archival participation by the various states. the article also includes a listing of public archives in the various brazilian states, containing such information as address, hours of service, date of foundation, and a brief description of holdings. mensdrio do arquivo national, vol. , no. (november ). in this issue nicolau abrante writes (pp. - ) on the importance of archives in regard to brazilian progress, and the contribution of the national archives toward the formation of human resources. in reference to the recommendations made by henry boullier de branche, director of the archives departementales de la sarthe (le mans, france), in his report concerning the activities of the national archives, abrante comments on the situation in brazil and the trans- formations which have taken place since . in , the new classification plan transformed the functions of the documentalist and archivist to that of librarian, without taking into consideration differences between these two func- tions. despite the paradox, the national archives has obtained excellent results due partly to the fact that it controls the training of its middle and upper level personnel through the curso permanente de arquivos and various assorted courses. as a result of this success, there is a move to incorporate the curso permanente de arquivos into the school of archives science. abrante foresees a good job market for the skills of professionally trained archivists. the basis of his optimism rests on improving socio-economic cultural factors and the govern- ment's interest in archives. moreover, the national archives, with its skilled personnel, is helping to improve the archives situation by disseminating knowl- edge through its various technical and historical publications, bibliographical aids, slides, and microfilm programs. mensdrio do arquivo national, vol. , no. (january ). this issue includes (pp. — ) a summary of the topics debated by participants at the third brazil- ian congress of archivists, held at the universidade federal do rio de janeiro, october - , . some of the topics discussed were: establishment of natis, creation of a national system for archives, medical archives and data banks, use of primary sources in private and public archives, greater use of human resources, preservation and restoration of documents, automation, mi- crofilm projects, and the establishment of record centers. also included in the summary are the five motions and twenty recommendations approved by the assembled archivists. the fifth motion calls for the preparation of a guide to preliminary historical sources, a survey and registration of collections in private and public archives, and creation of an archives training manual. france. [paul v. guite, national archives and records service] note d'infor- mation, no. ( ). this issue of the french serial publication on automated data processing (adp) contains a description of the application of the "leonore" data processing package to two series of legion of honor dossiers deposited by the administration of the legion of honor in the archives nationales. the dossiers of legionnaires concern those deceased prior to and those de- ceased between and , each arranged alphabetically. these records have long been of great historical and sociological interest to researchers and genealogists. the absence of a general alphabetical index, as well as a rapid growth in the documentation to nearly , dossiers, were the two prime d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene factors which prompted the archives nationales to explore the possibilities of data processing to facilitate access. before information processing could be applied to this body of records, it was necessary to number each box of records and then each dossier following the order in which these dossiers were located within the boxes. these boxes are numbered consecutively, each containing between and dossiers. the dossiers themselves are also numbered consecutively within each carton. these numbers correspond to a classification system of the archives nationales, and are recorded on magnetic tape for print-outs. the formulation of initial proce- dures and final implementation with modifications was given to the data proces- sing firm, societe de service, typ-service, which has since become the com- pagnie europeenne de l'informatique. german federal republic. [john mendelsohn, national archives and rec- ords service] protokoll der dritten sitzung des ausschusses der edv-referenten und- sachbearbeiter der archivverwaltungen des bundes und der lander am . oktober im bundesarchiv koblenz ( ). the third session of the committee on electronic data processing (edp) examines the suitability of real estate rolls and records in the federal republic for automation and microfilming, as suggested by a conference of federal and lander justice ministers. a discussion of edp training for archivists and trainees in federal and lander archives concern mainly the institution of a general edp course at the archives school in marburg. bernwart heifer reports on a pilot project of the hessian hauptstaatsarchiv wiesbaden which is designed to describe in machine-readable form patient and administra- tive records of the state sanitorium eberbach/eichberg. heinz boberach from the bundesarchiv presents a summary of a session of the annual meeting of german historians in braunschweig, dealing with the evaluation of archival sources by means of edp. he also reports on a questionnaire which is scheduled to be sent to historians who use quantitative methods of research. wolf buchmann of the bundesarchiv comments on a multinational unesco semi- nar on edp for archives, the seminar organized by the public record office and held at the university of sussex. attached to the session minutes are appendixes which include samples of the computer print-outs from the patient records of the sanitorium eberbach and a copy of the proposed questionnaire. romania. [§tefan nimara, romanian state archives] revista arhivelor, vol. , no. ( ). in this issue the director general of the state archives, ionel gal, discusses (pp. - ) the effort toward uniform work principles in the archives and the issuance in of "technical norms." these norms establish the conditions and principles which are the basis of fulfilling all tasks of the state archives. in another article, elena moisuc and iosif i. adam present (pp. - ) a preliminary report on their research at the austrian archives in vienna. the two romanian archivists describe in detail the subject matter of the records they located in the austrian archives which relate to romania, and which were subsequently microfilmed or photocopied for future use by romanian scholars. these records, dating from the late medieval period to the mid-twentieth cen- tury, comprise diverse types of documentation pertaining to romanian geog- raphy, history, politics, economics, and foreign policy under hapsburg rule. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january this issue also includes descriptions of documents accessioned by the state ar- chives during , bibliographical notes, a book review section, and several articles dealing with historical themes. revista arhivelor, vol. , no. ( ). articles in this issue pertain to three major events which occurred during the past year: the eighth international congress on archives, held in washington in september ; the thirteenth international congress of genealogy and heraldry, held in london in august- september ; and the fiftieth anniversary of the establishment of the museum of the state archives of romania. about the first, valeria §indelaru writes (pp. - ) on the archival revolution as discussed by the delegates at the various ica sessions, while ionel gal briefly reports (pp. - ) on the technological aspects of the archival revolution. maria dogaru presents (pp. - ) a summary of the romanian participation at the london meeting of international specialists in genealogy, sigillography, and heraldry. this issue also contains (pp. - ) several articles by romanian archivists, writers, museum curators, and other officials commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the state archives museum, in bucharest. other articles deal with such themes as the archives of romanian radio-television by victor craciun (pp. - ); the work session of the scientific committee on archival problems, held at the state archives on september , , by mioara tudorica (pp. - ); the xvaqfs and the historically valuable archives of these muslim religi- ous and charitable foundations in dobogea, when the region was under the rule of the ottoman empire, - , by tudor mateescu (pp. - ); and a series of reports (pp. - ) by romanian archivists concerning their searches for related romanian records in the national archives of belgium, czechoslova- kia, france, east and west germany, great britain, italy, poland, turkey, and yugoslavia. venezuela. [celso rodriguez, organization of american states] boletin his- torico, no. (september ). this issue contains (pp. - ) the annual report of the activities of fundacion john boulton, which also publishes the boletin. this year's report marks the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of the philanthropic institution by h. l. boulton & co., s.a., and casas boulton de venezuela, two long-established venezuelan businesses. during the past two and a half decades the foundation has sought to: ( ) encourage the development of the social sciences, especially history; ( ) provide financial grants to individu- als and institutions for research and documentation; ( ) acquire, through pur- chase, original documents and archival collections; and ( ) microfilm foreign files of interest to venezuelan scholars. major holdings of the historical archives include: the venezuelan section of the archives of gran colombia ( - ), containing , documents microfilmed at the national archives of colom- bia; the historical archives of the casas boulton de venezuela which dates from and relates to economic matters; the papers of sir robert ker porter who was the british consul-representative in venezuela between and ; the family archives of gen. antonio guzman blanco whose dictatorial rule ( - ) brought order and solid economic achievements to a chaotic period in ven- ezuelan history, but with it servility; and the bolivarian documentary section, containing over documents of simon bolivar. the foundation also main- tains a photographic archives which comprises more than , photographs of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene venezuelan personalities as well as a collection of stereotype plates for printing purposes. in addition to these activities, the foundation supports a museum at la guaira and cooperates with other archives in the preservation of important historical documents. through its departamento de custodia de documentos, the foundation preserves and makes available to researchers rec- ords of national historical importance which are owned by third parties. for people who know all about records storage paige boxes are for professionals, experienced people who have learned all about the equipment available for handling, transporting, and storage of records, microfilm, data processing material, and computer printouts. those people know that paige files are durable equipment at lowest possible cost. available acid free. prices at wholesale level. no sales people. no distributors. no stores. write for brochure, prices, case histories. the paige company park avenue south new york, n.y. • or - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril sociology and anthropology ( ): - , http://www.hrpub.org doi: . /sa. . religious change among the kore: politics and christianity in southwestern ethiopia awoke amzaye assoma department of anthropology, washington state university, usa copyright© by authors, all rights reserved. authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the creative commons attribution license . international license abstract although the introduction of christianity to the kore, southwestern ethiopia, dates to the th and th centuries, it remained marginal until charismatic-pentecost al christianity expanded and transformed the religious landscape of the kore in the th century. this paper explores the historical and political factors behind this surge and its effects on kore culture and belief. based on literature review and my field observations, i argue that the religious change in kore reflects historically varying counter-hegemonic reactions to north ethiopian domination. contemporary religious change, the paper will show, needs to be understood as counter-hegemonic reaction capable of reorganizing the kore culture and belief in particular and the communities of southwestern ethiopia in general. keywords kore, ethiopia, charismatic-pentecostal christianity, counter-hegemonic reaction . introduction this paper explores a rapid religious transformation, within less than half a century, among the kore community, southwestern ethiopia. the kore are an omotic speaking people with a population of , in [ ]. the kore are primarily semi-subsistent agriculturalists who rely heavily upon enset (ensete ventricosum). before the end of the nineteenth century, kore was an independent omotic kingdom. the ethiopian empire annexed and incorporated the kore kingdom in [ ]. the divine kore king, king amole, was conquered, imprisoned, and later died in prison. the conquerors demolished traditional sacred places and shrines; imprisoned and humiliated diviners and shamans. they forced the kore to quit their traditional religion and accept orthodox christianity. nevertheless, the kore would not accept the religion that came with and preached by the conquerors; so, attempts to convert the kore to ethiopian orthodox christianity had little success. therefore, the kore maintained their traditional beliefs until the s. this paper is an ethnographic and historical exploration of the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity among the kore people of southwestern ethiopia and its effects on kore culture and belief. i seek to answer two questions about the expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity in kore. ( ) what historical situations enabled the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity in kore? ( ) what are the impacts of this rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity on the kore culture and how does this relate to other african charismatic-pentecostal movements? anthropological writings on christianity emphasize the ‘utilitarian’ and ‘intellectualist’ approaches to explain why people are attracted to one or another form of religion [ , ]. in addition to these, i argue, religious change reflects historically varying reactions to domination. by exemplifying the kore case, this paper will show that contemporary religious change among the kore in particular and southwestern ethiopian in general needs to be understood as a counter-hegemonic reaction capable of reorganizing the cultures and belief systems of these societies. by illuminating politico-historical reasons for rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity among the kore, this paper aims to furthering our understanding of the relations between religion, history, and politics in contemporary ethiopian society. . review of literature the kore is one of the least studied ethiopian groups. cerulli [ ], haberland [ ], huntingford [ ], levin [ ], bender [ ], and fleming [ ] give passing remarks mainly on linguistic categorization of kore language. although not particularly on the kore, donham and james [ ] and donham [ ] made valuable investigation on the history, political economy, and the expansion of imperial ethiopia to the peripheral and marginalized peoples of southwestern ethiopia. in this regard, sato [ ] shows how this expansion according to keller [ : p. ] ‘the ‘utilitarian’ approach, emphasizes the expectation of worldly advantages through conversion, and the ‘intellectualist’ approach, emphasizes ‘converts’ search for meaning in a changing world’. religious change among the kore: politics and christianity in southwestern ethiopia helped the people of majangir to organize themselves and struggle to reclaim land they lost to the ethiopian government. christianity plays a crucial role in the politics of ethiopia [ , ] because, as abbink [ : p. ] reports, ‘religious identities are becoming more dominant as people’s primary public identity’ in ethiopia. the expansion of protestant and charismatic-pentecostals has been used to challenge the hegemony of ethiopian orthodox christianity. thus, although the ethiopian orthodox church used to be a dominant influence in the ethiopian government, the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity has forced the ethiopian orthodox church to reform itself to sustain, if not to increase, its current position in the religious landscape of ethiopia [ ]. generally, besides these anthropological-historical works, there are some works mainly concerned with success stories of various missionary groups [ - ]. these writings also have important sections on political and historical developments in southwestern ethiopia. these literatures [ , , - ] emphasize three general historical and political developments. the first is the incorporation of the peoples of southwestern ethiopia into the ethiopian empire state in the th century. the second is the ethiopian revolution that resulted in the ousting of emperor haile selassie i and the establishment of a military communist regime called the derg [ ]. the third development is the overthrow of the military regime by two groups of guerrilla fighters, the eritrean people liberation front (eplf) and the tigrian people liberation front (tplf), in . . methods this ethnographic and historical paper draws primarily on anthropological and non-anthropological literature, government/non-government census reports and my personal field observation among the kore people. in , i undertook research among the kore and wrote my undergraduate thesis on the history of the kore; since then i remained in touch with the area. meantime, in may - , , i attended the kore culture and language symposium. the symposium focused on assessing alternative options that could revitalize and strengthen kore language (including how to expand and strengthen kore language education in schools) and culture. during this visit to kore, i was able to observe the number of churches in and around kele town (the capital of amaro district), their location, and community church services. this initiated my research on kore christianity. much of my research relied on participant observation and interviews. i interviewed eighty people including church leaders, pastors, new and old converts to charismatic-pentecostal churches; my interview focused on history of christianity among the kore, theology and organizational structures, experiences of converts (‘testimony’ narrative interviews), and how and why kore language (koorete) is one subject in all schools of korso from grade - since the last or so years. charismatic-pentecostal christianity got so many adherents in such a short period. i supplemented the interview by personal participant observations during my three months (one month each year) visit to kele in july/august , , and . i participated in different public meetings, bible study programs, prayer groups, and church and house worship programs. generally, my previous experience and knowledge of the kore people and kore language (koorete) enabled me to understand the conversations. i also consulted published and unpublished written resources. . christianity among the kore . . the imperial era many researchers [ , - ] report that there were traces of orthodox christianity in southern ethiopia before the sixteenth century. according to kore oral tradition, the kore emigrated from manz in shawa (central ethiopia) via kafa, dawuro and gamo gofa between the end of the fourteenth century and the beginning of the fifteenth century. these emigrants, who carried tabots (replicas of the arc of the covenant) with them, founded some orthodox churches including yero medhane alem, icha giorgis, and derba michael churches in amaro. however, an islamic holy warrior named ahmed gragn, a sultan from harar, eastern ethiopia [ ], invaded highland christian abyssinia in the th century and burned all the churches and persecuted christians; the persecution forced the remaining few kore christians and priests to flee to birbir mariam, in gamo, and other places. eventually, the kore relapsed to their traditional beliefs and remained so until orthodox christianity was reintroduced in the th century; i.e., until the ethiopian empire annexed and incorporated the kore in [ , ]. the annexation reduced the kore to subalternity [ ]. there was widespread feeling that conversion to orthodox christianity would only confirm this status. as one informant recalls, if a kore was not orthodox christian, he was considered as unbeliever and backward. the qawe who did not understand what we kores speak named our language bird’s language, not intelligible. of course, even in the s, when i went to kele [district town] elementary school, speaking kore language in schools was forbidden. on the other hand, the kore were not willing to change to orthodox christianity because the kore perceived orthodox christianity and the ethiopian oppressive system as two sides of the same coin (awoke. personal comm. with informant . july ). qawe is a kore word for the ruling ‘amhara’ ethnic group. of course, qawe is a generic word for the ruling elite who came from outside of amaro. this ruling elite could come from amhara, tigray, oromo, and even kore ethnic groups. informant names not mentioned for safety reasons. sociology and anthropology ( ): - , generally, the ethiopian orthodox church was coercive and forced people to covert. moreover, the ethiopian orthodox church was often associated with habesha’s (amhara and tigray ethnic groups from northern ethiopia) hegemony and orthodox christianity was seen as a tool to enhance this hegemony and the serf (gebar) system [ ]. orthodox influence, therefore, remained minimal until protestant christianity entered to amaro in the 's. meantime, eager to modernize his country, emperor haile selassie i allowed protestant missions to enter and operate into southwestern ethiopia in s and s. as a result, three main groups of protestant missionaries became influential in the th century. the lutheran mission (which later developed into ethiopian mekane yesus (place of jesus) church, the baptist mission (formerly called sudan interior mission (sim) but later changed to ethiopian kale hiwot-word of life) church, and the mennonite mission, which latter developed into two independent churches: meserete kirstos (christ is the foundation) church and mulu wengel (full gospel) church. the mennonite mission entered to ethiopia as aid agency after world war ii. the baptist/sim, kale hiwot (word of life) started active operation in southwestern ethiopia in the s followed by the lutheran mission (mekane yesus) at the end of the s [ ]. generally, the first local charismatic-pentecostals made their appearance mostly in addis ababa in the s and s; however, they rapidly spread to southwestern ethiopia [ , , ]. missionaries entered to the kore country from two directions: in the north to a place called derba manana from wolayta and in the south through gambo/burji (the vicinity of kore in the south). the first group of missionaries to arrive amaro (through the northern direction) were kore and wolayta missionaries. a person named gorgiso tijammo was the first kore convert. gorgiso lived in a place called dudane, gamo country west of amaro. after attending in a preaching program by ohmans (an american missionary) in november , gorgiso went to derba menena, northern amaro, to preach the gospel [ ]. the second group of foreign missionaries to arrive to burji, south of kore, were glen cain and albert brant, members of baptist (sim). sim got permit from the ethiopian ministry of education to establish a school at gambo (burji) in april and went to burji in november . in april , , the sim missionaries reached gambo with construction materials. nevertheless, there was no missionizing activity until two wolayta preachers appeared in january [ ]. in march , the wolayta preachers increased to four and to eight in . these preachers also crossed to nearby kore villages to preach the new religion. the first twelve kore and burji converts (amańoch, literally, believers) were officiated in the baptism at gambo. during this first baptism two wolayta elders and one kore elder (ato giorgiso, who lived in mirab abaya, gamo) traveled to gambo to officiate the converts. the presence of ato giorgiso was a big attraction for the kore. the first bible school opened at gambo and twenty burji and kore young people enrolled in march . the first mass baptism in kore took place in november ; at this time fifteen people baptized officially. this baptism officially established the first mission church in kore. generally, in , there were still only a few mission churches and few coverts [ ]. however, although most of the first converts were juniors, the poor, and artisans, religious transformation was already taking place. the new churches prohibited polygamy, consumption of alcoholic drinks (including local beer called borde and locally distilled strong alcohol called areke) and eating raw meat. more important, however, was the formation of new associations and networks of converts. named amane mabara (meaning association of converts), these networks and associations reached out all over kore territory. these associations also started to change the social organization and power structures in kore; eventually, this new power structures limited the authority of clan heads, kashaches. to strengthen and sustain the proselytization, the amane mabara conducted meetings every two months. contrary to orthodox christianity where priests generally have leadership, elected elders were responsible to lead these newly formed churches. moreover, women and artisans for the first time started to participate in public affairs equally with others. one former tanner and potter (mana ), told me his situation as follows: before the amaane [missionaries] came, we did not eat with shawo [ritually ‘clean’ people]. even our cattle and the cattle of shawo did not graze together. we did not share a seat. when in road, if a shawo person came across, i had to stop to let him go; otherwise he would insult or even beat me. the maana did not have land; the derg gave us land. it was after the amaane and the derg that we started to work with the shawo. after i became amaane, i became equal with the shawo although still there are minor discriminations. now we are equal before jesus. (awoke. personal comm. with informant. july ). . . the derg in , the ethiopians revolted against the ethiopian feudal system and emperor haile selassie i. nevertheless, the military (the derg) took power and stayed on power until two guerrilla groups drove away it in may . the derg mercilessly suppressed traditional beliefs as ‘backward’ cultures and ‘harmful traditional practices’; it also labelled the orthodox christianity as ‘false consciousnesses’ and suppressed it. the situation was even worse for the protestants and charismatic-pentecostals. when the revolution broke out, most protestant and charismatic-pentecostal churches had mixed feelings about the kore call tanners and potters by the same name, mana. derg means ‘committee’ or ‘council’ in an old ethiopic language (geez). formed after the revolution, its official name was the coordinating committee of the armed forces, police, and territorial army. later they renamed it provisional military administrative council. it officially embraced the communist ideology in and remained so until its ousting in . religious change among the kore: politics and christianity in southwestern ethiopia the revolution. initially the revolution attracted the evangelical christians in the peripheral regions of southwestern ethiopia because they had ‘deep socio-economic, political, and religious grievances’ [ : p. ]. though the initial years of the revolution seemed to favor the protestant and charismatic-pentecostal christians, this optimism did not last long. soon the derg labelled all charismatic-pentecostals as meťe , meaning ‘new comer’ or ‘alien’; the derg publically persecuted and condemned charismatic-pentecostal as agents of imperialism. the derg nationalized some charismatic-pentecostal churches, their properties, and church schools in . it also prohibited most denominations from undertaking any kind of religious activity in public and imprisoned ministers. although the churches did not coordinate to respond to this suppression systematically, they did not withdraw from the field. instead of directly confronting the military regime, they concealed themselves and made unprovocative resistance. on the other hand, they expanded aggressively by directing their activity through clandestine networks of home cells that reached and connected many people [ ]. of course, the derg and charismatic-pentecostals were ideological foes; however, they also shared a common interest: that of suppressing traditional cultures and beliefs. in , the derg instituted a campaign called development through cooperation campaign. the program (actually a campaign) that started in december mobilized high school and college students and teachers to go to the countryside to spread basic literacy, to reorganize district and village administrative structures and to establish cooperatives throughout the country. moreover, the campaign students destroyed traditional belief centers, shrines, clan deities, sacred forests and sites in campaign ruthlessly [ ]. the suppression of ‘backward’ cultures and ‘harmful’ traditional beliefs caused rapid degeneration of traditional beliefs, values, norms, and institutions in kore and elsewhere in southwestern ethiopia. this caused vacuum of values, norms and beliefs; charismatic-pentecostals used this opportunity to fill in the vacuum and aggressively expand into southwestern ethiopia. moreover, derg’s ‘one nation’ policy stifled political, civil, religious, and economic rights; this engendered many problems that threatened the viability of the ethiopian state. generally, although the revolution brought some relief for the peoples of southwestern ethiopia, the old oppression and subjugation continued under the derg in a similar way. thus, besides leading to formation of many armed ethnic guerrilla groups, the political oppression also pushed some charismatic-pentecostal groups to support the liberation movements [ ]. in two of these guerrilla groups, the in general day to day amharic conversation, ‘mete’ means alien or ‘new comer’; this word could be employed for a new fashion, a new way of hair style, language, talking, etc. however, in the context of the ethiopian revolution, it used to denote newly introduced or expanding pentecostal-charismatic christianity (or movement) - this usage contrasts with the old and previously known or socially accepted orthodox, catholic, and protestant christianity. officially called, idiget behibret yewuketna yesira zemacha in amharic, the campaign was development through cooperation campaign. tigrian people liberation front (tplf) and the eritrean people liberation front (eplf), toppled the military regime. as a result eritrea seceded from ethiopia and became a new independent african state; on the other hand, ethiopia formed a new ethnic-based federal state. . . post the impact of the government change was multifaceted. the first major change was the new government’s lift of restriction on religious activities. this enabled charismatic-pentecostals to widen their international interaction and networks and strengthen their position. due to this, about additional charismatic-pentecostal oriented churches came to ethiopia [ ]. in and , the total number of charismatic pentecostals amounted to % of (about , ) and % ethiopia population respectively. this number grew to % in and % (about million) in . this tremendous ‘change was symbolized by the appointment of a lutheran, ngasu gedada as president’ of ethiopia [ : p. ]. according to the ethiopian central statistical authority, the four dominant religions in southern ethiopia in were ethiopian orthodox, protestant, islam, and traditional beliefs with . %, . %, . %, and . % respectively [ ]. this picture dramatically changes within fifteen years. by orthodox, protestant, catholic, islam and traditional belief followers were . %, . %, . %, . %, and . % respectively [ ]. as the above statistics shows, while followers of the other religions, especially the followers of traditional beliefs are diminishing, the number of the charismatic-pentecostals is increasing. although currently charismatic-pentecostal christianity is the major social force that shapes the religious as well as political ecology of the kore, the influence of these missionaries remained minimal until . this was partly due to limited activity of the missionaries (as explained earlier the persecution of the derg was stifling) and partly due to conservatism of the traditional culture. in protestant, ethiopian orthodox, catholic, islam, and traditional belief followers accounted for . %, . %, . %, . % and . % of the kore population respectively [ ]. charismatic-pentecostal growth was so rapid that the regional mekane yesus church split into different synods. accordingly, amaro district formed its own mekane yesus synod in with followers that amounted to (if what mekane yesus claims is true) , ( . % of the kore which is , ) [ ]. as i observed from my visit in kele, the kore are now largely charismatic pentecostal christians. the other major change brought by the new government was reorganization of the country along ethnic lines. the ethnic reorganization of the country had many impacts on the kore in particular and the people of ethiopia in general. before the government change, many ethiopians could protestant in these official statistics included all protestants, charismatic and pentecostals followers. sociology and anthropology ( ): - , work and hold government position across the country. however, the ethnic reorganization of the country forced many people, especially civil servants, to return to ‘their ethnic homes’. because of this, kore teachers and civil servants that lived and worked in different parts of the country, especially in the neighboring wolayta and gamo provinces returned to their homeland, to amaro. the wolayta and gamo communities are/were predominantly charismatic-pentecostals; therefore, these kore returnees were mostly charismatic-pentecostals. some of the returnees were preachers and pastors. the entrance of these ‘new’ kore immigrants (educated middle class with educational and financial resources by ethiopian standards) into amaro gave an élan to the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity in kore. robins [ ] reported a similar development from the pacific where educated middle class, who also had financial resources formulate their projects and pursue their visions, took leadership of the charismatic-pentecostal movements. on the other hand, the new government officially demobilized the defeated ‘derg army’ in may [ ]. due to this, a large number of the ex-soldiers became homeless and beggars in urban areas. during this miserable time, many ex-soldiers turned to churches for help and support. one demobilized soldier described his conversion story as follows: before i went to the army, all my family members were followers of kore traditional religion. when i returned, my mother was amaane [protestant christian]. therefore, she insisted me to go to church and take jesus. this was a miserable time; sometimes i thought whether god created me like other people. before i went to the army, i knew kore god, which was powerful and strong. now the kore god is weak to support me and heal my broken heart. in this desperate situation, i accepted my mother’s advice and became amaane. on the other hand, the church gave me support; it gave me kg of wheat per month for three months. this was a big support during those miserable times. it also gave me hope. many demobilized soldiers converted to amaane during these miserable days. had it not been for these churches, my life would have been hopeless. before the government gave me one oxen and food aid, the churches saved my life. i thank my god; i took yesus and was reborn. praise be to god (wontose galata); currently i lead a happy life with my family. many of my friends died before they were reborn (awoke. personal comm. with an ex-soldier. august ). generally, this feeling is shared by five other demobilized soldiers to whom i talked. the situation was similar to the nigerian civil war of - [ ], which also provoked the charismatic-pentecostal conversion in nigeria. as one nigerian pentecostal pastor explains, after the civil war there was “fear and lack of confidence in the future are becoming the common currency of the day … we no longer trust anything or anyone . . .no jobs, no money, no food, no clothing, no personal dignity.” [ : p. ] then, there was also structural adjustment programs (saps), which played indirect role for the spread of charismatic-pentecostal christianity. the structural adjustments programs started in the s. these programs were in many ways devastating to many sub-saharan african countries. many people lost their jobs when the government privatized and sold public institutions. governments cut social spending and reduced welfare. due to these events, real incomes of many people in sub-saharan africa dropped as much as % [ ]. according to freeman, ‘the worsening conditions brought about by these austerity measures led to protests and ‘imf food riots’ in many african countries...it was at this time and in this context that the phenomenal growth of ngos and pentecostal churches came about.’ [ : p. ) in ethiopia, the number of ngos increased from less than in to in . world vision was one of these ngos whose ‘holistic approach was said to include a hidden agenda to encourage evangelical penetration... world vision was one of the few ngos working directly for change of religious affiliation, using % of its budget for evangelism.’ [ : p. ] generally, besides politico-historical factors explained earlier, material gains promised by the charismatic-pentecostals and the need for meaning in a changing world are causes for conversion [ ]. a prosperity discourse is an appealing feature used by the charismatic-pentecostals to attract new people [ , , ]. prosperity gospel promises economic deliverance from poverty; prosperity gospel advocate the forthcoming abundance of wealth by praying to jesus, hardworking, and engaging in business. generally, the sermons of prosperity gospel are often blatantly materialistic [ ]. moreover, as freeman [ ] reports in gamo, in order to potentiate their gain most charismatic-pentecostal churches provide entrepreneurial skills training needed to be employed in public or private organizations or to stimulate people to start private businesses. most churches also have schools and health centers, all of which attract people. the charismatic-pentecostal use of the media is very important to spread evangelism and to display its ‘emblematic ownership of this key symbol of technological modernity’ [ : p. ]. recorded preaching, church services, and testimonials of individuals are replayed loudly in market and mourning places or other similar public gathering places (including schools). horns and powerful amplifiers loudly transmit sunday services and prayers to outside churches. generally, all these are attractive, especially to people of the rural areas who generally take this as a sign of modernity. generally, irrespective of local contexts, some notable features characterize these new churches. they categorically reject any form of traditional belief, ancestral worship and rituals related to these as ‘devilish’. they emphasize the bible and tend to be more ecstatic, emphasizing speaking in the tongues or ‘glossolalia’, which is accompanied by some of my informants told me that there is similarity between spirit possession (tsoze) and ecstatic speaking in the tongue of the religious change among the kore: politics and christianity in southwestern ethiopia dramatic exorcism of demons from people’s bodies [ , ]. their emphasis is on moralism and ecstatic prayer. moreover, the doctrine known as ‘full gospel’ theology has four core elements: jesus offers salvation, jesus heals, jesus is coming again, and jesus baptizes with the holy spirit [ ]. they advocate ‘complete break with the past’, which, according to the advocates, leads to a new ‘reborn’ personality. this concept of transformation has a deep symbolic meaning. it is a transformation that shows victory over ‘traditionalism’, over ‘backwardness’, over evil and ‘satan’. as freeman argues, ‘the key element in this transformation of subjectivity, however, is a shift from seeing oneself as a victim to seeing oneself as a victor.’ [ : p. ] this new quality dissociates itself from the local and associates itself with the global ‘imagined’ charismatic-pentecostal community. this delocalization “materializes in widely available (cassette and video) sermons, music, and literature that circulate in global pentecostal networks and entice the constitution of a new public of born again believers with a strong global outlook.” [ : p. ] the ‘make a complete break with the past’ and the ‘rapture’ [ ] of charismatic-pentecostal christianity takes many forms, such as ignoring kore traditional work parties such as kelle, hayle, urre, etc., wonoba as ‘backward’ cultural practices. thus, because of misinterpretation and misunderstanding of cultural practices, these important traditional institutions are either ignored or left to disintegrate without replacement. in general, there is a tendency in many african countries of equating protestantism with modernism, economic progress, and deepening of political culture. charismatic-pentecostalism uses a temporalizing rhetoric and strategy; it represents traditions as ‘a matter of the past’ although peoples’ present and past are intertwined and dynamic [ ]. if converted people pray for their ancestors or spirits, charismatic-pentecostals say that these people have relapsed to the past because satan has corrupted them. however, life as the local people live is not temporally divided as past and present. the impacts of the expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity are inevitable, but ‘complete break with the past’ is not fully viable. for example, kinship structures still decide marriage arrangements and inheritance, especially inheritance of land. although the impact of charismatic-pentecostal christianity is tremendous in enhancing people’s personal choice and changing traditional practices such as polygamy, many other practices and traditional values that oppose the teachings of charismatic-pentecostals; many individuals who speak in tongues used to have possession spirits or there was possession spirits in their family. may be there is structural similarity between the two and this might have facilitated the rapid spread of charismatic-pentecostal christianity that emphasize ecstatic speaking in the tongue. kele is exchange of labor without food. hayle is labor exchange accompanied by food and drink service; it is mostly practiced during plowing and harvest season. urre is continuous labor service for big house construction; at the end of the house construction, the owner makes a feast by killing from three to six big oxen for the people who constructed the house. wonoba is exchange labor service, especially during sowing season, without food; it is mostly practiced in the highlands. christianity are still there. for example, while every christian kore believes, at least in principle, god created all men equally in his image still there is no marriage between the artisans and the non-artisan (farmers). . conclusions this paper set out to investigate the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity in kore as a counter-hegemonic reaction capable of reorganizing the kore culture and belief. politico-historical reasons had been at the base of the introduction and expansion of protestant missions and charismatic-pentecostal christianity in kore and southwestern ethiopia. the entrance of missionaries to southwestern ethiopia was a political decision by emperor haile selassie i who invited the missionaries to ‘modernize’ his country. in northern ethiopia, political legitimacy came from the central government and the orthodox church [ ]. this was incompatible with the kore social system (and the social systems of the peoples’ southwestern ethiopia) where religious dignitaries, who themselves represented clan or tribal deities, entrusted legitimacy to political leaders. because the traditional power structure, the cultural, and belief system of the kore and the people of southwestern ethiopia were generally against the unifying motive of the emperor, it was necessary to destroy these and undermine the political legitimacy and power of local chiefs. on the other hand, the ethiopian orthodox church did not have the necessary infrastructure, personnel, and logistics to rapidly convert the kore into orthodox christianity. nevertheless, even if the ethiopian orthodox church had the capacity, personnel, and infrastructure to do this, there was a politico-historical problem: the kore and the peoples of southwestern ethiopia were not willing to accept the teachings of ethiopian orthodox christianity because they saw ethiopian orthodox christianity as extension of the ethiopian state that subjugated and oppressed them. therefore, the emperor’s decision in inviting european missionaries and supporting them to convert the peoples of southwestern ethiopia to protestant christianity was a wise political move. although technological, education, and other socio-economic conditions played significant roles for mass conversion of the kore (and the peoples of southwestern ethiopia) to charismatic-pentecostal christianity, the major reason behind mass conversion is a rejection and counter-hegemonic reaction to the oppressive ethiopian state and the ethiopian orthodox christianity. in other words, mass conversion to charismatic-pentecostal christianity is not only about spiritual or economic advantages; it is also about personal and ethnic dignity, a dignity suppressed by the ethiopian state and orthodox christianity. on the other hand, the rapid expansion of charismatic-pentecostal christianity also represents ‘a paradigm case of a global cultural flow that starts historically sociology and anthropology ( ): - , in the west and expands to cover the globe’ [ : p. ]. generally, due to this global cultural flow, the kore and the people of southwestern ethiopia are becoming part of ‘imagined’ global community of charismatic-pentecostal christians yet keeping their local identity. eventually, this religious transformation is restructuring the religious landscape of ethiopia in a new form; threesome religious landscape seems to be forming in ethiopia: consolidation of and continued dominance of ethiopian orthodox christianity in central-northern ethiopia, dominance of charismatic-pentecostal christianity in southwestern ethiopia, and dominance of islam in northeastern, eastern, and parts of western ethiopia. these developments beget one crucial question: is the religious reorganization of the national religious space in ethiopia creating another fault-line for political conflict/rivalry between southwestern, eastern, and northern ethiopia? may or may not be; this calls for further investigation. references [ ] central statistical authority (csa). summary and statistical report of the population and housing census: population size by age and sex. addis ababa: federal democratic republic of ethiopia; . [ ] awoke amzaye assoma. the kore of amaro: a historical survey. ba thesis. addis ababa: addis ababa university; [ ] keller, e. the road to clarity seventh day adventistism in madagascar. new york: palgrave macmillan; . [ ] robbins, j. the globalization of pentecostal and charismatic christianity. annual rev of anth. ; - . [ ] cerulli e. peoples of southwestern ethiopia and its borderland. london: international african institute; [ ] haberland, e. the influence of christian empire on southern ethiopia’. j of semitic studies. ; ( ). [ ] huntingford, g. w. b. the galla of ethiopia: the kingdoms of kafa and janjero. london: international african institute; . [ ] levine, donald n. ethiopia: the evolution of a multi-ethnic society. london: the university of chicago press; . [ ] bender, marvin lionel, ed. the non-semitic languages of ethiopia. vol. . african studies center. east lansing: michigan state university; . [ ] fleming, harold c., and marvin l. bender (eds). non-semitic languages. in: bender, marvin lionel, j. donald bowen, robert l. cooper, and charles a. ferguson (eds), languages in ethiopia. london: oxford university press; . [ ] donham, donald l., and wendy james (eds). the southern marches of imperial ethiopia: essays in history and social anthropology. cambridge: cambridge university press; . [ ] donham, donald l. marxist modern: an ethnographic history of the ethiopian revolution. berkley, ca/oxford: university of california press/james currey; . [ ] sato, r. evangelical christianity and ethnic consciousness in majangir. in: donald l. donham, e. kurimoto, and a. triulzi (eds), remapping ethiopia: socialism and after. oxford: james curry ltd; . [ ] kaplan, s. dominance and diversity: kingship, ethnicity, and christianity in orthodox ethiopia’. chrc. ; ( - ): - - . [ ] bønne, f. christianity in the dynamics of south ethiopian societies and cultures: kambbaata-hadiiyya’. ices: internat. conf. of eth studies. ; : - . [ ] abbink, j. religion in public spaces: emerging muslim–christian polemics in ethiopia. african affairs. ; ( ): - . [ ] persoon, j. new perspectives on ethiopian and african christianity: communalities and contrasts in the twentieth century religious experience. exchange. ; ( ): - . [ ] getatchew haile, lande aasulv, and samuel rubenson. the missionary factor in ethiopia. peter lang: frankfurt; . [ ] eide, Øyvind m. political dynamics in the wake of missionary efforts within the realm of human rights: the case of ethiopia’. smt swedish missiological themes. svennsk: missiolnstidskrift. ; ( ). [ ] balisky, e. p. walitata evangelists: a study of religious innovation in southern ethiopia, - . american society of missiology monograph series, number . eugene, oregon: pickwick publications; . [ ] tibebe eshete. the sudan interior mission (sim) in ethiopia ( - )’. ne afr studies ; ( ): - . [ ] tibebe eshete. evangelical christians and indirect resistance to religious persecution in ethiopia. the rev of faith & internat affairs. ; ( ): - . [ ] donham, donald l. the promise of : reshaping the future and the past: introduction. in: wendy james, donald l. donham, eisei kurimoto, and alessandro triulzi (eds), remapping ethiopia: socialism and after. oxford: james currey. ; - . [ ] freeman, d. the pentecostal ethic and the spirit of development. in: dena freeman (ed), pentecostalism and development: churches, ngos and social change in africa. london: palgrave macmillan; . [ ] girma, ma. clash of ideologies and survival of evangelical movement in ethiopia. j for the study of religions and ideologies. ; ( ): - . [ ] data dea. christianity and spirit mediums: experiencing post-socialist religious freedom in southern ethiopia. max planck institute for social anthropology working paper, no. . sale: max planck institute; . [ ] pankhurst, r. the ethiopian borderlands: essays in regional history from ancient times to the end of the th century. the red sea press; . [ ] erlich, h. islam and christianity in the horn of africa: somalia, ethiopia, sudan. lynne: rienner publishers; . religious change among the kore: politics and christianity in southwestern ethiopia [ ] awoke amzaye assoma. profile of mosaic cultures and peoples of southern nations, nationalities and peoples' regional state. awassa: bureau of information and culture; . [ ] aalen, l. the politics of ethnicity in ethiopia: actors, power and mobilization under ethnic federalism. leiden: kninklijke brill; . [ ] central statistical authority (csa). the population and housing census of ethiopia: results for southern nations, nationalities, and peoples’ region, volume ii analytical report. addis ababa: federal democratic republic of ethiopia; . [ ] negeri, w. i. mekane yesus international mission society (myims): an overview of the mission work of the eecmy. the ethiopia network annual conference. pittsburg; april . [ ] dercon, s. and daniel a. ‘where have all the soldiers gone: demobilization and reintegration in ethiopia’. world development. ; ( ): - . [ ] falola, t (ed.) ( ) christianity and social change in africa: essays in honor of j. d. y. peel. durham: carolina academic press. [ ] meyer, b. christianity in africa: from african independent to pentecostal-charismatic churches. annual review of anthropology. ; - . [ ] lewiston, e. pentecostal power and the holy spirit of capitalism: re-territorialization in the charismatic cosmology. the graduate student journal of the department for the study of religion at the university of toronto. ; vol. . [ ] meyer, b. ‘make a complete break with the past': memory and post-colonial modernity in ghanaian pentecostalist discourse’. journal of religion in africa. ; ( ): - . [ ] shack, william a. some aspects of ecology and social structure in the ensete complex in south-west ethiopia. journal of the royal anthropological institute of great britain and ireland. ; : - . 	 . introduction 	 . review of literature 	 . methods 	 . christianity among the kore 	 . conclusions 	references pteridines € eur - euro £ gbp - pound $ usd - dollar en english deutsch × your purchase has been completed. your documents are now available to view. × changing the currency will empty your shopping cart. confirm cancel pteridines official journal of the international society of pteridinology issn: - first published: april , editor-in-chief: dietmar fuchs impact factor: . 	overview 	latest issue 	issues 	ranking 	submit 	editorial about this journal objective pteridines is an open acess international quarterly journal dealing with all aspects of pteridine research. pteridines are heterocyclic fused ring compounds involved in a wide range of biological functions from the color on butterfly wings to cofactors in enzyme catalysis to essential vitamins. of the pteridines, , , , -tetrahydrobiopterin is the necessary cofactor of several aromatic amino acid monoxygenases, the nitric oxide synthases and glyceryl ether monoxygenase (gemo). neopterin plays an essential role in the immune system and is an important biomarker in laboratory medicine for diseases such as hiv, cardiovascular disease, malignant tumors, among others. topics 	neopterin, dihydroneopterin, monapterin 	biopterin, tetrahydrobiopterin 	folates, antifolates, riboflavin 	phenylalanine, tyrosine, phenylketonuria, serotonin, adrenalin, noradrenalin, l-dopa, dopamine, related biogenic amines 	phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, tryptophan hydroxylase, nitric oxide synthases (inos), alkylglycerol monooxygenase (agmo), dihydropterin reductase, sepiapterin reductase 	homocysteine, mediators of inflammation, redox systems, iron article formats original articles, reviews, mini reviews, commentaries, opinions on controversial subjects > information on submission process your benefits your benefits: 	unique interdisciplinary forum devoted to conjugated and unconjugated pteridines 	basic and clinical approach to the topic combining the fields of chemistry, biochemistry, clinical chemistry, and laboratory medicine 	international, authoritative editors and reviewers boosting the prestige of published papers 	free language-correction services for authors from non-english speaking regions 	worldwide dissemination and unrestricted access to all published articles 	promotion of each published article 	secure archiving by de gruyter and the independent archiving service portico 	no submission charges pteridines is the official journal of the international society of pteridinology (isp). history pteridines was founded in and has been continued at de gruyter since . abstracting and indexing pteridines is covered by the following services: 	baidu scholar 	biobase 	cabells journalytics 	case 	chemical abstracts service (cas) - caplus 	chemical abstracts service (cas) - scifinder 	chronos hub 	cnki scholar (china national knowledge infrastructure) 	cnpiec - cnplinker 	dimensions 	doaj (directory of open access journals) 	ebsco (relevant databases) 	ebsco discovery service 	embase 	genamics journalseek 	gooa 	google scholar 	index copernicus 	j-gate 	journal citation reports/science edition 	journalguide 	journaltocs 	kesli-ndsl (korean national discovery for science leaders) 	meta 	microsoft academic 	mysciencework 	naver academic 	naviga (softweco) 	primo central (exlibris) 	proquest (relevant databases) 	publons 	qoam (quality open access market) 	readcube 	reaxys 	scimago (sjr) 	scopus 	semantic scholar 	sherpa/romeo 	summon (proquest) 	tdnet 	text mining 	ulrich's periodicals directory/ulrichsweb 	wanfang data 	web of science - science citation index expanded 	worldcat (oclc) 	yewno discover supplementary materials 	 author''s ethical statements 	 editorial policy 	 data sharing policy 	 article processing charges 	 instruction for authors 	 privacy statement 	 guidelines for reviewers 	 open access license 	 publication ethics statement topics 	biochemistry 	human biology 	life sciences 	molecular biology external links 	journal archive 	open access statement 	crosscheck plagiarism screening 	online submission of manuscripts 	open access statement 	crosscheck plagiarism screening 	privacy statement volume issue january unable to retrieve citations for this document × retrieving citations for document... laboratory diagnostic value of neopterin measurements in patients with covid- infection dietmar fuchs, magnus gisslen january , page range: - more cite open access pdf pdf abstract the new coronavirus sars-cov- was identified to be responsible for the covid- pandemic. there are striking differences in the response to infection, some people develop no or mild symptoms, while other outcomes are severe of even fatal. for those covid- patients who require hospitalization, prognostic markers could help clinicians to identify patients with a poor outcome early. the serum levels of the immune activation marker neopterin have already been shown to be of prognostic value in patients with sars-cov- and a similar pattern can be observed for sars-cov- . this comment discusses the biochemical circuits that support the clinical value of neopterin measurements in covid- patients. unable to retrieve citations for this document × retrieving citations for document... norepinephrine was superior in death risk reducing and hemodynamics compared to dopamine in treatment of patients with septic shock xudong lu, xianghua xu, yueying wu february , page range: - more cite open access pdf pdf abstract background to investigate the clinical effects of norepinephrine versus dopamine in treatment of septic shock by pooling the data form open published clinical trials. material and methods the clinical trials relevant to norepinephrine versus dopamine in treatment of septic shock were electronically searched in the databases of pubmed, embase, the cochrane library, web of science, google scholar and cnki. the original data related to the treatment effects such as death risk, oxygen metabolism and hemodynamics index were extracted from the included original studies. the death risk was pooled by the effect size of relative risk (rr), the oxygen metabolism and hemodynamics index were pooled by standard mean difference (smd) and the corresponding % confidence interval ( %ci). the publication bias was evaluated by begg's funnel plot and egger's line regression test. results thirteen clinical trials were included in the meta-analysis. the pooled results demonstrated the death risk was significantly decreased (rr= . , %ci: . to . , p= . ) in septic shock patients who received norepinephrine compared to those receiving dopamine. the hr (smd=− . , %ci: − . to − . , p< . ) and cardiac index (smd=− . , %ci: − . to − . , p< . ) were lower in norepinephrine group compared to dopamine group. the systemic vascular resistance index (smd= . , %ci: . to . , p< . ) in norepinephrine group was higher than those of dopamine group with statistical difference. the begg's funnel plot and egger's line regression test (t=− . , p= . ) showed no publication bias. conclusions based on the present evidence, norepinephrine was superior to dopamine in the aspects of death risk reducing and hemodynamics. unable to retrieve citations for this document × retrieving citations for document... clinical significance of serum homocysteine as a biomarker for early diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy in type diabetes mellitus patients bin ye, xiangying zhu, zhifu zeng, xiaozhen ji, meixia ji march , page range: - more cite open access pdf pdf abstract objective the aim of this study was to investigate the clinical significance of serum homocysteine (hcy) as a biomarker for early diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy (dn) in type diabetes mellitus (t dm) patients. methods fifty-five t dm patients with dn and t dm patients without dn were prospectively recruited from january to may in our hospital. the serum hcy was tested by electrochemiluminescence assay in dn and t dm groups and compared. the diagnostic efficacy of serum hcy as a biomarker for early diagnosis of dn was evaluated by calculating the diagnostic sensitivity, specificity and area under the roc curve (auc). results the serum levels of hcy were . ± . and . ± .  μmol/l for dn and t dm patients, respectively, with statistical difference ( t = . , p < . ). in the dn group, the serum hcy levels for patients with hyperfiltration, intermittent proteinuria, microalbuminuria, macroalbuminuria and uremic were . ± . , . ± . , . ± . , . ± . and . ± .  μmol/l, respectively, which indicated that serum hcy levels in dn were higher than those of t dm patients and correlated with patient’s renal damage. using the serum hcy level as the reference, the diagnostic sensitivity, specificity and auc were . ( . – . )%, . ( . – . )% and . ( . – . )%, respectively, with the cutoff value of . between dn and t dm. the serum hcy also had relatively good differential diagnostic efficacy between different dn stages with high sensitivity, specificity and auc. conclusion serum hcy was obviously elevated in dn compared to t md and correlated with the renal damage severity, which can be applied as a potential serological marker for early diagnosis of dn. unable to retrieve citations for this document × retrieving citations for document... the urinary biopterin in autism spectrum disorder aleksandra waligóra, aleksandra damasiewicz-bodzek, piotr gorczyca, sławomir waligóra, krystyna tyrpień-golder march , page range: - more cite open access pdf pdf abstract objective the aim of the study was to determine whether biopterin is present in significantly lower quantities in urine samples of patients with autism spectrum disorder (asd) compared to healthy individuals. methods the concentration of biopterin in urine samples was measured by elisa using commercially available kit. the study involved children aged – years with asd and healthy children aged – years. results significantly lower biopterin concentration was observed in autistic patients compared to the control group. however, no significant difference was observed between mild, moderate, and severe asd. conclusion one of the potential causes of decrease in urinary biopterin levels may be tetrahydrobiopterin (bh ) deficiency, which has extensive and serious health consequences for the nervous system. the results of measuring biopterin as a fully oxidized form of bh may suggest that biosynthesis or regeneration of bh may be decreased in children with asd. on the other hand, decreased urinary biopterin levels in children with asd may be due to bh overuse, a good regeneration process, and decreased urinary excretion; and abnormalities in bh metabolism appear to be related to the aetiology of asd or may be due to asd. volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue - 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue - 	 issue - volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue - 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue - 	 issue 	 issue special issue: th international symposium on pteridines and folates, antalya, turkey, may – , volume ( ) 	 issue - 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue - volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue volume ( ) 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 issue 	 -year impact factor	 . 	cite score	 . 	index copernicus value	 . 	impact factor	 . 	scimago journal rank	 . 	source normalized impact per paper	 . submit manuscripts translational neuroscience encourages the submission of both substantial full-length bodies of work and shorter manuscripts that report novel findings. there are no specific length restrictions for the overall manuscript or individual sections; however, we urge the authors to present and discuss their findings in a concise and accessible manner. all submissions must be made via online submission system editorial manager. in case of problems, please contact the managing editor of this journal (jedrzej.daszkiewicz@degruyter.com). for detailed information, please see instruction for authors. editorial policy unpublished material: submission of a manuscript implies that the work described is not copyrighted, published or submitted elsewhere, except in abstract form. the corresponding author should ensure that all authors approve the manuscript before its submission. ethical conduct of research: the authors must describe and confirm safeguards to meet ethical standards when applicable. see editorial policy for details. conflict of interest: when authors submit a manuscript, they are responsible for recognizing and disclosing financial and/or other conflicts of interest that might bias their work and/or could inappropriately influence his/her judgment. if no specified acknowledgement is given, the editors assume that no conflict of interest exists. authors are encouraged to fill in the icmje conflicts of interest form (available here) and send it in the electronic format to the managing editor. copyright: all authors retain copyright, unless – due to their local circumstances – their work is not copyrighted. the copyrights are governed by the creative-commons attribution only license (cc-by) which is compliant with plan-s. we may also publish a paper under cc-by-nc-nd license on author's request. the corresponding author grants the journal the license to use of the article, by signing the license to publish. scanned copy of license should be sent to the journal, as soon as possible. authorship: authorship should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception, design, execution, or interpretation of the reported study. all those who have made significant contributions should be listed as co-authors. where there are others who have participated in certain substantive aspects of the research project, they should be named in an acknowledgement section. the corresponding author should ensure that all appropriate co-authors (according to the above definition) and no inappropriate co-authors are included in the author list of the manuscript, and that all co-authors have seen and approved the final version of the paper and have agreed to its submission for publication. peer review process: our standard policy requires each paper to be reviewed by at least two referees and the peer-review process is single-blind. the editors reserve the right to decline the submitted manuscript without review, if the studies reported are not sufficiently novel or important to merit publication in the journal. manuscripts deemed unsuitable (insufficient originality or of limited interest to the target audience) are returned to the author(s) without review. the editor seeks advice from experts in the appropriate field. research articles and communications are refereed by a minimum of two reviewers, review papers by at least three. authors are requested to suggest persons competent to review their manuscript. however, please note that this will be treated only as a suggestion, and the final selection of reviewers is exclusively the editor's decision. the final decision of acceptance in made by managing editor or, in case of conflict, by the editor-in-chief. scientific misconduct: this journal publishes only original manuscripts that are not also published or going to be published elsewhere. multiple submissions/publications, or redundant publications (re-packaging in different words of data already published by the same authors) will be rejected. if they are detected only after publication, the journal reserves the right to publish a retraction note. in each particular case editors will follow cope’s core practices and implement the advices. editorial editor-in-chief prof. dr. dietmar fuchs (division of biological chemistry, innsbruck medical university, innsbruck, austria) editorial board prof. dr. terken baydar (department of toxicology, hacettepe university, ankara, turkey) prof. dr. nenad blau (department of general pediatrics, university children's hospital, heidelberg, germany) prof. dr. keith channon (john radcliffe hospital, university of oxford, oxford, uk) prof. dr. basak engin (department of toxicology, gazi university, ankara, turkey) prof. dr. steven p. gieseg (free radical biochemistry laboratory, university of canterbury, christchurch, new zealand) dr. viola groehn (api synthesis & development, schaffhausen, switzerland) prof. dr. steven s. gross (joan and sanford i. weill medical school, cornell university, new york, usa) prof. dr. hiroshi ichinose (tokyo institute of technology, fujita health university school of medicine, yokohama, japan) prof. dr. greg kapatos (wayne state university school of medicine, detroit, usa) dr. piotr koslinski (department of toxicology, nicolaus copernicus university, torun, poland) dr. katharina kurz (department of internal medicine, innsbruck medical university, innsbruck, austria) prof. dr. aurora martinez (department of biomedicine, university of bergen, bergen, norway) prof. dr. bohuslav melichar (department of oncology, palacký university medical school, olomouc, czech republic) dr. vojtech parrak (nsp sv cyrila a metoda, petrzalka, bratislava, slovakia) prof. dr. godefridus peters (vu university hospital, amsterdam, the netherlands) prof. dr. gilbert reibnegger (institute of physiological chemistry, graz medical university, graz, austria) prof. dr. haruro shintaku (department of pediatrics, osaka city medical school, osaka, japan) prof. dr. knut teigen (department of biochemistry and molecular biology, university of bergen, bergen, norway) prof. dr. anders h. thomas (department of chemistry, universidad nacional de la plata, la plata, argentina) prof. dr. aristidis michael tsatsakis (department of forensic sciences and toxicology, university of crete medical school, heraklion, greece) prof. dr. guenter weiss (department of internal medicine, innsbruck medical university, innsbruck, austria) prof. dr. ernst r. werner (division of biological chemistry, innsbruck medical university, innsbruck, austria) prof. dr. jeongbin yim (department of microbiology, seoul national university, seoul, south korea) language editors eileen ablondi, harvard medical school, usa dr kate grayson (university of bristol, uk) dr laura mcveigh (university of new south wales, australia) dr morgan milton (rti international, usa) zandile nare (university of edinburgh, uk) associate editor qian (kevin) liu m.d. (tianjin lung cancer institute, tianjin medical university general hospital, tianjin, china) editorial office publisher de gruyter poland bogumiła zuga a str. - warsaw, poland t: + editorial contact jędrzej daszkiewicz, managing editor jedrzej.daszkiewicz@degruyter.com​ open access details 	online issn: - 	 type: journal 	 language: english 	 publisher: de gruyter 	 first published: april , 	 publication frequency: issue per year 	 audience: researchers in the fields of chemistry, biochemistry, clinical biochemistry, metabolic disorders, clinical chemistry, clinical immunology, immunology, laboratory medicine, biology, molecular biology, molecular medicine, nutrition, phytomedicine 	contact us 	customer service 	human resources 	press 	contacts for authors 	career 	how to join us 	current vacancies 	working at de gruyter 	open access 	articles 	books 	funding & support 	for authors 	publish your book 	publish your journal article 	abstracting & indexing 	for libraries & trade partners 	electronic journals 	ebooks 	databases & online reference 	metadata 	our partner publishers 	rights & permissons 	repository policy 	free access policy 	about de gruyter 	de gruyter foundation 	our locations 	help/faq 	privacy policy 	terms & conditions 	legal notice © walter de gruyter gmbh browse hide footeraboutfeaturestoolsblogambassadorscontactfaqprivacy policycookie policyt&csaccessibility statementdisclaimersitemap figshare. credit for all your research. int j pediatr, vol. , n. , serial no. , jul. case report (pages: - ) http:// ijp.mums.ac.ir maple syrup urine disease induced grand mal seizures: a case report *gautam satheesh , suja johnson , balraj guhan , niyas ahammed department of pharmacy practice, national college of pharmacy, calicut, kerala, india. department of paediatrics, kmct woman and child hospital, calicut, kerala, india. abstract background maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a rare autosomal recessive metabolic error, characterized by branched chain α-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (bckdc) deficiency. mutations in genes can lead to abnormal metabolism and accumulation of leucine, isoleucine, valine and corresponding keto-acids. msud affects in , infants globally. seizure is a common presentation among neonates. however, in intermediate msud, seizures have a delayed and insidious onset, along with developmental case report we report a case of grand mal seizures in a patient with intermediate msud, presenting with multiple episodes of seizure, dystonia, spastic quadriplegia, involuntary micturition and oculogyric crisis. seizures were managed successfully with intravenous lorazepam and other supportive measures. the patient was advised to strictly adhere to branched chain amino acid restricted diet. conclusion this case report emphasizes on the importance of medication adherence and dietary restrictions to prevent permanent psychomotor damage or death. key words: gtcs, genetic, msud, seizures, quadriplegia. *please cite this article as: satheesh g, johnson s, guhan b, ahammed n. maple syrup urine disease induced grand mal seizures: a case report. int j pediatr ; ( ): - . doi: . /ijp. . . *corresponding author: gautam satheesh, department of pharmacy practice, national college of pharmacy, calicut, kerala, india. postal code: . email: gautamsatheesh@gmail.com received date: feb. , ; accepted date: mar. , gtcs maple syrup urine disease int j pediatr, vol. , n. , serial no. , jul. - introduction maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a rare autosomal recessive error in metabolism of amino acids caused by the deficiency of branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex enzyme system (bckdc). this enzyme deficiency leads to the abnormal metabolism of branched chain amino acids and subsequent accumulation of leucine, isoleucine and valine as well as their corresponding keto acids in the blood and urine, resulting in the characteristic fruity odour ( ). this deficiency can be caused by mutations in three genes which encode the catalytic components of the bckdc (e α, e β, e , and e ); namely bckdha, bckdhb and dbt genes (table. ). mutation in e component (dld gene) on chromosome q causes a severe condition termed as msud , the symptoms of which vary from severe neonatal lactic acidosis to liver disorder, and generally subside with age. these homozygous or heterozygous mutations lead to defective oxidative decarboxylation of the branched chain amino acids ( ). msud is rare in most populations, with incidence estimates of in , live births globally ( , ). five phenotypes of msud have been recognized so far; classic, intermediate, intermittent thiamine responsive and msud . classic phenotype is the most common and most severe phenotype. while seizure is a common presentation in the neonatal stage in classic msud, development of seizures is often delayed and insidious in intermediate msud. seizures are mostly generalized or focal; however status epilepticus may develop, requiring immediate intervention ( ). table- : genetic description of msud. note that mutations in e and e components may result in any of the phenotypes except msud which is specific to e component. gene involved chromosome comments most commonly associated phenotype bckdha q . -q . in mennonite population, asparagine commonly replaced tyrosine at position severe classic msud bckdhb q . in ashkenazi population, proline commonly replaced asparagine at position severe classic msud dbt p . > mutations identified, frequent in mild variants of the disease (delayed onset of symptoms) intermediate and intermittent msud dld q mutation in e component i.e. dld deficiency results in severe neonatal disorder. msud msud: maple syrup urine disease; bckdc: branched chain α-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex; dld: dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase. - case report a fourteen year old female patient, previously diagnosed with intermediate msud, was admitted to a teaching hospital in kerala, india, with multiple episodes of grand mal and rigidity of upper and lower limbs. each episode was associated with oculogyric crisis and involuntary micturition. the patient has a history of dystonia of both limbs and spastic quadriplegia. the patient has been undergoing oral levetiracetam therapy since the age of after the first episode of seizure. the patient is the fifth child of a third degree consanguineous marriage. two of the patient’s elder siblings, a male and a female, died at the ages of months satheesh et al. int j pediatr, vol. , n. , serial no. , jul. and years, respectively; of which the female sibling was diagnosed with classic msud on post-natal day . neurological examinations revealed dynamic contractures and brisk knee jerks. routine laboratory investigations were well within normal limits. developmental evaluation revealed regression of milestones and global developmental delay. the patient was found to have a grade iii stunt. anthropometric measurement of head circumference revealed microcephaly. the fruity odour characteristic of msud was easily observable within the close proximity of the patient. estimation of plasma proteins showed elevated leucine ( μmol/l), isoleucine ( μmol/l), and valine ( μmol/l). seizures were managed with anticonvulsants and other supportive measures. initially, lorazepam was administered intravenously followed by fosphenytoin infusion (loading dose of mg in ml normal saline every minutes and then maintained at mg). the patient continued to receive fosphenytoin therapy along with oral levetiracetam for the entire hospitalization period of days. supportive measures included normal saline and oxygen administration with nebulization. the patient was advised to strictly adhere to low protein and bcaa restricted diet. further reviews suggested that the patient’s condition has significantly improved without any seizure recurrence following discharge. - discussion classic msud is the most commonly observed (> % of cases) and the most severe phenotype, presenting with emesis, seizures and encephalopathy. classic form develops early (by second week of life). however, in intermediate msud, typical signs i.e. developmental delay and seizures develop later. subjecting an individual with intermediate msud to catabolic stress can cause severe leucinosis and even death. other characteristic findings include ketoacidosis and dystonia ( ). age of onset is a key factor of phenotype determination. the deficiency of bckdc is responsible for the accumulation of bcaa and their toxic metabolites in blood and urine. among the catalytic components of bckdc (e α, e β, e , and e ), e catalytic component serves pyruvate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase. the underlying mechanism of seizures in msud can be explained by accumulation and neurotoxicity of leucine and its transamination product -ketoisocaproate. conversely, accumulation of leucine primarily causes all the neurological manifestations. elevated plasma levels of isoleucine causes the characteristic odour of msud. interestingly, valine seems to play a very insignificant role in the pathogenesis ( ). proper compliance, appropriate management and strict dietary restrictions are the most important tools to prevent severe complications i.e. status epilepticus, psychomotor retardation and potentially fatal metabolic abnormalities, especially under stressful conditions ( ). immediate treatment focuses on maintenance of adequate hydration, management of seizures and rapid elimination of bcaa. peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis is reserved for critical cases. permanent damage can be prevented with timely management of manifestations and prevention of extensive ischemia. prolonged elevation of amino acid levels in the brain during early developmental stages lead to permanent neurological dysfunction. mental retardation and behavioural abnormalities are common in individuals older than twelve years, warranting use of neuroleptics ( ). the patient is obliged to follow the dietary restrictions for the entire lifetime. the diet is essential in normalizing the levels of bcaa in the body, thus preventing developmental or intellectual impairment. gtcs maple syrup urine disease int j pediatr, vol. , n. , serial no. , jul. various synthetic formulas practically devoid of bcaas have been developed. avoidance of bcaa rich foods i.e. beef, soy, lentils and diary is beneficial. the risk of development of msud is % when both the parents are carriers of mutated gene. this risk is significantly higher in consanguineously married individuals. incidentally, msud is more prevalent in countries like saudi arabia, india and lebanon where consanguineous marriage is common [ ] . the carrier frequency is in in ashkenazi jewish populations. a study conducted in philippines reported that / rd of msud cases were attributable to consanguinity ( ). - conclusion seizures are highly unpredictable in intermediate msud. failure to receive adequate intervention, often lead to permanent retardation, coma and death. therefore, adherence to antiepileptic therapy as well as a low protein and bcaa restricted diet is crucial to prevent severe complications. it is also highly essential that the individuals, who are married consanguineously, receive appropriate education about the possible risks of genetic defects they may carry. - abbreviations  msud: maple syrup urine disease.  bckdc: branched chain α-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex.  dld: dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase.  bcaa: branched chain amino acids. - conflict of interest: none. - references . chuang dt, shih ve. maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in: scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d,editors. the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. new york: mcgraw-hill. ; pp. – . . nellis mm, kasinski a, carlson m, allen r, schaefer am, schwartz em, danner dj. relationship of causative genetic mutations in maple syrup urine disease with their clinical expression. mol genet metab. ; : – . . lee wt. disorders of amino acid metabolism associated with epilepsy. brain and development ; ( ): – . . morton dh, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, kelley ri. diagnosis and treatment of maple syrup disease: a study of patients. pediatrics ; : – . . simon e, flaschker n, schadewaldt p, langenbeck u, wendel u. variant maple syrup urine disease (msud) – the entire spectrum. j inherit metab dis ; : – . . ramesh. maple syrup urine disease- a case report. university journal of medicine and medical sciences. ; ( ): issn - . . yunus zm, kamaludin da, mamat m, choy ys, ngu l. clinical and biochemical profiles of maple syrup urine disease in malaysian children. jimd reports. ; : - . religion, state & society, vol. , no. , fear of proselytism: the russian orthodox church sets itself against catholicism gerd stricker since the eastern bloc opened up in the late s the orthodox have increasingly complained that western churches are proselytising at their expense. to proselytise is to lure away members of other churches or confessions and to win them over to one's own church. it is a serious allegation for a church to make, and proselytism is fiercely condemned by most churches. the moscow patriarchate's denunciations of protestants are directed predominantly at 'american sects', which have conducted mass mission on a grand scale with 'millions of dollars' and to some extent continue to do so. however, russian criticism of the catholic church is even more harsh. this paper will attempt to cast some light on the background behind russian orthodox accusations of proselytism by rome. the author is a lutheran. some quotations clearly demonstrate the contemporary tensions between the russian orthodox church and the roman catholic church. numerous attempts to split the church are being made today. the catholic church is expanding rapidly. this expansion began in the western regions of ukraine, then spread to eastern ukraine and russia. even in siberia and the far east the catholic church has invested huge capital in this activity: under the noble pretext of humanitarian aid orthodox are being drawn to alien faiths. we have to resist this. here is an extract from the declaration of the mixed commission for theological dialogue between the orthodox churches and the catholic church: ' ... any attempt to attract believers of one church into another, that is, proselytism, must be ruled out as an aim of pastoral activity ... catholic kostely are being resurrected in siberia [from polish kosci f: the concepts "catholic" and "polish" are intimately linked - g.s.]. although the catholic communities here are very small the catholic church is investing significant energy ... i suspect that we will soon be faced with increased catholic expansion, and incidents of proselytism among the orthodox population.' patriarch aleksi on may in novosibirsk, zhurnal moskovskoi patriarkhii, no. , , p. for example, the lutheran church in germany ... , the greek church in cyprus, the coptic church in egypt, the anglican church - we have - / / - © keston institute gerd stricker excellent relations with all these churches. they do not proselytise in our country. unfortunately the same cannot be said of the greek catholic (uniate) church, which is literally destroying our orthodox dioceses in western ukraine and reviving uniatism ... we have agreed that the roman catholic church must inform the moscow patriarchate without fail if it establishes new structures on our canonical territory. unfortunately, however, this agreement exists only on paper. we declare with all serious- ness that we are ready for further dialogue on condition that this agree- ment is put into practice. patriarch aleksi on may in an interview with moscow tv channel in the 'russky dom' series the conflict with the roman catholic church is far from over. we are continuing dialogue. however, the catholic church has strayed far from the resolutions of the second vatican council, which, among other things, contained clear rejections of proselytism - the poaching of believers ... the catholic church is conducting aggressive mission on the canonical territory of the russian orthodox church, the area of the cis. the catholic church likes to stress that the orthodox churches are sister churches. however, the way in which the roman catholic church is behaving in the cis states today is far from sisterly. patriarch aleksi on june at a press conference during a visit to switzerland many western contemporaries may have wondered why the new freedom which appeared after the collapse of the soviet empire brought with it not only notorious economic, social and psychological problems but also civil war, and in the ecclesi- astical sphere the failure of the ecumenical idea. among the many inter- and intra- church conflicts on the territory of the former soviet union the tensions between the moscow patriarchate and the catholic church pose a particularly difficult problem. indicative of this strained relationship is the fact that orthodox priests who resist the pull towards anti-catholicism and call for constructive dialogue with the roman catholic church are branded 'the fifth column of the vatican' by the moscow patriarchate. priests who are first in the firing line include some in the church leader- ship, such as igumen ioann (ekonomtsev), others who write in catholic journals (for example stina i zhizn ') such as georgi chistyakov and ioann sviridov, and the 'reformist priests' georgi kochetkov and aleksandr borisov. in common with almost all developments which we regard as unwelcome following the political changes in eastern europe, the orthodox-catholic conflict on russian soil today is not the consequence of a current problem but has roots in profound historical experiences, psychoses and complexes. without examining the past not even a partially accurate assessment of events is possible. catholicism and russia throughout almost a thousand years since the schism of relations between orthodox and catholics have been complex and almost always strained. however, although religious and cultural differences at the interface between the byzantine east and latin west attained political significance there were exceptions: the fear of proselytism ottoman occupation, or 'turkish yoke', endured by the balkans for almost years produced front lines between islam and christianity which seemingly superseded the east-west, orthodox-latin opposition. there was a similar outcome in completely different circumstances in the soviet union, where phases of savage religious persecution produced a quite different opposition - that of believers of all faiths against the soviet state. one area where orthodox and catholic peoples faced each other with balanced forces was the border between russia and poland-lithuania. over six to seven centuries along this frequently fluctuating line the differences between cultures, confessions and mentalities deepened to a fundamental opposition which can barely be understood in the west. on a national level this opposition was the result of the profound mistrust which had built up over centuries between orthodox russia and catholic poland. the russian orthodox church elevated distressing historical experiences to a religious and ideological level so that it became rooted in the subconsciousness of the russian people. over the centuries concepts such as 'poland', 'west' and 'catholic' merged into a complex, which gave rise to a perma- nent feeling of insecurity, fear and mistrust of poles among russians, not unlike a psychosis, which has played a role in shaping russian identity. the kievan state was drawn into the eastern church and the byzantine cultural sphere by the baptism of st vladimir and the people of kiev in . the initially insignificant princes of moscow in the north of the kievan state succeeded in securing a prominent position among the other east slav russian princes as a result of intrigues and a shrewd policy of appeasement towards the tatar khanates. the poles, together with the lithuanians (personal union , full union ), became an increasing threat to the rise of moscow from the fourteenth century onwards, and intermittently posed a real threat to the muscovite grand princes until the seventeenth century. the domination of east central europe by the polish-lithuanian common- wealth was above all a check on the western expansion of the muscovites: from the end of the thirteenth century the lithuanians took the central kievan territories from the tatars piece by piece, including the ancient capital kiev itself, which became part of the polish-lithuanian state. the recovery of these orthodox regions was regarded in moscow as sacred historical mission. however, the longer and more stubbornly poland-lithuania held on to these territories, even posing a threat to moscow, the deeper anti-polish and anti-catholic resentment became there. the last great polish threat to muscovy followed the extinction of the rurik dynasty. during the time of troubles ( - ) the polish king sigismund iii ( - ) attempted to annex the 'moscow tsardom' and installed a polish puppet, the 'false dimitri', on the moscow throne. for two years polish troops occupied moscow and catholic masses were celebrated in the kremlin ( - ). it was only with the election of the first romanov tsar (mikhail fedorovich, - ) that stability returned, and russian expansion to the west soon followed. meanwhile the union of brest ( - ), which is a strain on orthodox-catholic relations to this day, had deepened the gulf between orthodox russians and catholic poles. over the course of time the orthodox population on the territory of the former kievan state (that is, large parts of modern-day ukraine and belarus') dropped to the level of a peasant underclass. the catholic church restricted orthodox church life so effectively that orthodoxy dwindled almost to a superstition, and the orthodox bishops - enticed by the prospect of privileges from king sigismund iii and the catholic hierarchy - saw subordination to rome as the only escape for orthodoxy. in return they were granted permission to continue conducting the byzantine rite in gerd stricker church slavonic and observing orthodox traditions. however, some bishops and their parishes converted back to orthodoxy after a few decades because the catholic side did not fulfil its promises. since there has thus been a third church in poland-lithuania alongside the roman catholic and orthodox churches - the greek catholic or 'uniate' church. the orthodox view this church as 'an apostate which must be brought back to the bosom of the orthodox mother church'. on the other hand the vatican did not regard the greek catholics as full catholics until very recently, and sees them as posing a major ecumenical problem. the depth of russian resentment of catholics was evident as early as the mid- s, when for example only protestant foreign miners, foundrymen, craftsmen and other specialists were invited in large numbers to work in russia. they were allowed to build a lutheran church in the german quarter of moscow in . other lutheran and reformed churches followed. peter the great requested thousands of foreigners to come to russia to realise his extensive plans, but only individual catholics were permitted by special invitation. the immigration controls for catholics were finally lifted when the enlightenment empress catherine ( - ) allowed catholic colonists to come to russia among the , germans who were settled on the volga between and . once the partitions of poland ( - and ) had given russia per cent of polish territory the greek catholic church was incorporated illegally into the russian orthodox church ( - ). thereafter russian rulers tried to separate the roman catholic church in russia from rome and integrate it into the russian state as a state church. the bloody uprisings of and , in which the poles tried to shake off russian domination, demonstrated the anger and desire for self-determina- tion on the part of the humiliated poles, and further intensified the hostility between the two sides. russian thinkers such as petr chaadayev ( - ) and vladimir solov'yev ( - ), who were trying to bring orthodoxy and catholicism closer together, were unable to weaken prejudices; their ideas were decisively rejected. the bolsheviks adopted the anti-polish resentment of prerevolutionary russia. during the s and s persecution of catholics in western parts of the soviet union was possibly more intense than that of the orthodox. this was because the head of the catholic church in rome, unlike the orthodox patriarch in moscow, was out of reach of the soviet authorities and therefore impossible to manipulate. the catholic church's worldwide denunciation of the criminal nature of soviet communism was harmful to the international reputation of the bolsheviks. conse- quently in soviet propaganda the catholic church was always given the most negative epithets, such as 'imperialist', 'capitalist' or 'anti soviet' . after the second world war the most substantial resistance against soviet power within the ussr developed in catholic lithuania and greek catholic western ukraine, and this inten- sified the anti-catholicism of the soviet authorities. this attitude spread to the orthodox 'cadres' within the moscow patriarchate; to a considerable extent these same people are still in place today. just as russian anti-catholicism survived the revolution and dominated soviet religious policy, so it continued after the collapse of the soviet regime. one event in particular gave the old hostility to the catholic church in orthodox circles a decisive new impetus: on december mikhail gorbachev issued a decree recognising the greek catholic church in galicia, which stalin had forcibly dissolved in after the annexation of that area, pushing it either underground or 'back into the bosom of the russian orthodox mother church'. a fierce church conflict began in l'viv, ivano-frankivs'k and ternopi ' in , as a result of which fear of proselytism orthodoxy was pushed out of gaiicia, which had been almost entirely greek catholic until . the moscow patriarchate thus lost one of its richest areas - richest both financially and in the number of churches - and attempts to resolve the conflict over the disputed area with rome have met with little success. on the one hand, any solution is unsatisfactory and painful for the moscow patriarchate in comparison with the situation between and , while on the other hand the greek catholics, having endured years of repression from which the orthodox patriarchate profited, have proceeded impatiently and often violently against the orthodox and generally ignored the vatican's calls for restraint. the shock which this turnaround caused in the moscow patriarchate led to deep resentment of the vatican. frustration and disappointment over the loss as well as the bitter church conflict in galicia may be the reason why anything connected with the catholic church - even matters which have nothing to do with events in galicia - provokes an irritated, almost allergic reaction from the moscow patriarchate, and frequently results in an exaggerated anti-catholic polemic in the unofficial church press. it seemed in the s that the russian orthodox church had overcome its latent anti-catholicism, thanks to the tireless personal commitment of metropolitan nikodim of leningrad (rotov, born ), who, symbolically, died in the arms of pope john paul i in . however, moscow's traditional scepticism towards rome returned after his death. canonical territory of the russian orthodox church anyone who follows the orthodox press in russia will soon discover that the term 'proselytism' is used differently there from the way it is used in the latin or protestant west. we were all completely at a loss when arbitrary accusations of proselytism were directed against western churches by the russian orthodox church at the beginning of the s. in the west we proceeded from the fact that between and per cent of all former believers and their descendants were alienated from the christian faith during the years of the soviet period. we believed it to be the concern of all christendom to revive christian life in this spiritually barren country, and that confessional egoism had no place in this task. from the outset the churches which were ecumenically linked with the russian orthodox church were clear that the rights of the orthodox church would not be violated. however, in both protestant and catholic camps there are those who do not always view the idea of re- evangelising russia in ecumenical terms, for example, evangelical groups on the protestant side and fatima groups on the catholic side; but these groups are not much in evidence in russia statistically. on the other hand, various american churches, fringe protestant religious groups and american-backed free churches with great missionary impulses and sometimes apparently inexhaustible millions of dollars have chosen the countries of the former soviet union as their mission field. american concepts of religious pluralism and absolute religious equality mean that ecumenical considerations are usually alien to them. however, they too strongly refute accusations that they intend to convert members of the russian orthodox church: they stress that only russians who are uninterested in religion or 'atheists' or members of other nationalities are their target group. the vehement protest expressed by the moscow patriarchate when the 'religious invasion' began to roll towards russia cannot be put down solely to rejection of religious pluralism. the claim of the russian orthodox church that it has shaped russian history and all spheres of russian culture is justified. communism in russia gerd stricker all but destroyed a cultural landscape that had evolved over centuries. basic recon- struction of the country should include not only the material but also the spiritual and cultural spheres. the reestablishment of the russian orthodox church as a national church has to be part of the renaissance of russian culture and tradition. religious pluralism, which would secure for western and free churches an unbridled presence in russia, would make the renewal of prerevolutionary russian culture and the russian traditions of the 'good old days' more difficult, if not impossible. attempts by the moscow patriarchate to replace the liberal religious law of with a new law corresponding more closely to the interests of the russian orthodox church, and its support of the religious law of september , which we regard as questionable, should be understood in this context. it would be terrible if the end result of liberation from soviet tyranny were a confessional 'reversal of polarity' in russia, in the sense of religious westernisation. in order to prevent this happening the russian church has constructed an ideology on the basis of which it can reject the ambitions of western churches towards the east with a certain moral justification and condemn them as unfair, aggressive and unchristian. this argument runs as follows. before almost all the 'russian' population of the russian empire was orthodox. 'russian' is understood as meaning 'east slav' and thus includes the belarusians and ukrainians. as a result of the anti- religious terror of soviet leaders from lenin to brezhnev most orthodox have had to turn away from the church of their fathers in order to survive - not voluntarily, but under violent coercion. as this secularisation was brought about by terror, only the russian church has the right to lead people back to christianity; that is, to the orthodox faith of their forefathers. in view of the historical and religious catastrophe which took place on russian soil between and , 'sister churches' in the west should respect the claims of the moscow patriarch ate and refrain from mission efforts on the territory of the former soviet union. this is the basis for the thesis of the 'canonical territory of the moscow patriarchate', identical to the territory of the former ussr: all areas where russians, ukrainians and belarusians live today, from vladivostok to the polish border, from the arctic ocean to the chinese border and from the baltic (including the baltic states) to the romanian border. while one can sympathise with the russian orthodox church's wish to achieve a revival of russian orthodox culture through religious homogenity, the way in which the ideology of the 'canonical territory of the russian orthodox church' is translated into practice is often open to question. 'canonical territory' is often understood purely as a security measure; it is reduced to the idea of a russian orthodox protection zone in which other churches are generally unwelcome. the moscow patriarchate sometimes tries to justify theologically-unfounded 'canonical territory' claims with national legends which do not always correspond to historical truth: during the dispute between constantinople and moscow over the orthodox church in estonia in , for example, it was claimed that estonia and latvia belonged to the heartlands of russian orthodoxy. in the light of this ideology of 'canonical territory' the moscow patriarchate holds that every other religious community active in its area is disregarding the patriarchate's claim to be the only legitimate repre- sentative religious organisation, and that these religious communities are therefore guilty of a particularly subtle form of proselytism. the russian church has too few missionaries, priests, catechists and financial resources to defy western missionaries and bring back to the fold the hundred million people uprooted from the church of their forefathers. the moscow patriarchate did set up an educational institution for fear of proselytism lay missionaries near kursk in . however, patriarch aleksi has lamented the fact that many priests feel it beneath them to 'go to the people' - they usually expect the people to come to them. catholic proselytism? the case of former soviet asia when reading the orthodox church press one gets the impression that catholic proselytism is even more rife on russian 'canonical territory' than the invasion of protestant sects. this reproach is one of the most powerful weapons the russian church brings to bear against the vatican. as a rule, however, the accusations are couched in general terms, so that it is impossible to gauge the precise extent of this 'proselytism'. one of the few concrete claims concerns former soviet asia: siberia, kazakhstan and central asia. before only catholic parishes were registered there. today, however, there are almost in siberia alone, with a further in kazakhstan and central asia. the statistics are convincing. however, if one examines the situation more closely a different picture emerges. from the outset the catholic church has claimed, correctly, that the parishes in question are not com- munities of ethnic russians, so that the accusation of proselytism does not apply - even allowing for the current russian understanding of the term. catholic com- munities in the asian part of the former soviet union are almost exclusively made up of poles, lithuanians, russo-germans, ukrainians and latvians who were deported beyond the urals from their european homelands in , and in phases after , and their descendants. in and thousands of poles were exiled to siberia and kazakhstan, where they founded catholic parishes. these deported catholics attempted to preserve their religious traditions by forming prayer circles in conditions of utmost secrecy - as did the protestants, who were much greater in number. a comparison of the church situation of protestants and catholics in former soviet asia reveals some interesting statistics. there were registered catholic parishes in , as against registered german lutheran parishes and at least registered german mennonite and baptist communities. however, this ratio of german protestant parishes to mixed-nationality catholic parishes in no way reflects the actual statistics of population and denomination. in approximately . million russo-germans of protestant origin lived in soviet asia. there were estimated to be between , and , people of catholic background in the same area - of whom around , were russo-germans, a few hundred thousand were poles and some tens of thousands were lithuanians, latvians and ukrainians. thus while the ratio of people of catholic background to those of protestant background in soviet asia in was approximately : , the ratio of their registered parishes was : . this striking discrepancy is the result of a clear soviet strategy: discrimination against catholics. although there were hundreds of catholic communities in soviet asia the authorities usually rejected their applications for 'registration' (state recog- nition). they could hope for 'registration' only if they were able to prove that they had a fully-ordained parish priest. this was practically impossible because there was only one catholic seminary, in riga, which was permitted to send priests to the diaspora, and only rarely even then. without registration, however, a parish could not acquire a prayer house, but had to meet illegally and conduct its spiritual life secretly. the fact that for the lutherans, mennonites and baptists registration was never made dependent on their having an ordained pastor demonstrates that the requirement that catholics must have an ordained priest when applying for registration was anti- gerd stricker catholic discrimination. it was only after the liberalisation of soviet religious policy with the religious law of that the many catholic communities which had been forced underground were able to gather openly and attain state recognition. viewed in this context the russian orthodox criticism of growing numbers of catholic parishes in siberia, kazakhstan and central asia appears extremely cynical. catholic russians? in the wake of the religious liberalisation after it was not uncommon for young russian intellectuals to seek a spiritual home in catholic communities. they would explain that they had initially turned to orthodox priests in the hope of receiving spiritual advice and answers to their questions on philosophy and their view of the world, but that the orthodox clergy had been unable to offer them spiritual help, and had been distrustful and negative towards the young intellectuals. most of these priests had of course never received a full education. at that time some previously underground catholic parishes had just been regis- tered. many of these had active priests, as highly educated priests from the west were often dispatched to former soviet asia in the early s in order to help build up normal parish life. frustrated russian intellectuals finally turned to these catholic priests, who accepted them with open arms, nationalism at that time not being the issue that it is today. these priests then became conversation partners for the young russians, and eventually their spiritual mentors. finally, some of these russian intellectuals were baptised by the priests. as a result, within some mixed-nationality catholic communities in large cities such as novosibirsk these russian intellectuals formed small circles which were particularly close to the priests. however, the intellectual groups they formed were alien to the traditional catholic communities, which even today are often characterised by a conservative piety and inwardness. the russians were also rejected by poles, germans and lithuanians because it was their fathers who had deported them to asia: russians were generally unwelcome in deportee communities. the apostolic administrator for siberia, russo-german bishop joseph werth s.j., reports that these russian intellectual circles no longer exist in catholic parishes: russian nationalism and the widespread anti western mood have caused them to withdraw from catholic communities and seek to join orthodox parishes. they had been finding that the differences between the russian and the german or polish mentality were an increasing problem as far as their own developing sense of national identity was concerned. the existence of russian circles in the catholic parishes of siberia is thus an episode which belongs to the past. and even here, despite what the orthodox say, there was never any question of 'proselytism': rather, young russians who were disappointed by orthodox priests flocked of their own accord around educated catholic priests. european russia the situation regarding parishes in the european part of russia is quite different from that in the former deportation areas beyond the urals. until a few years ago there were almost no catholic communities in european russia other than in cities such as moscow and st petersburg: they were liquidated in the stalinist purges of the s. catholic church buildings, scattered but intact in many russian cities, recall once flourishing parishes. the catholic parishes which exist in european russia fear of proselytism today have grown from nothing in the years following religious liberalisation. sometimes individual catholics gathered together. more often than not they were russified poles and germans whose ancestors had been catholics but who them- selves had barely any understanding of the faith of their fathers. in this period of upheaval and in view of the return to cultural and religious traditions, as well as their lack of orientation after the collapse of soviet ideology, they wished to resume their discontinued tradition once again, to live by the catholic faith once more. they seized on any literature which looked as if it might help them find their way. discussion groups sprang up. only some of their members came from the catholic tradition. most of them did not have catholic roots at all, but were above all seeking spiritual orientation and human warmth. they included a relatively high percentage of spiritually uprooted russians. after a period of consolidation some of these groups decided they wanted to contact catholic priests who would introduce them to the catholic faith and eventually baptise them. in this way in many cities in european russia there arose catholic communities with a very mixed national composition but with a consider- able portion of ethnic russians. a catholic priest who sees new parishes coming into being after a historical experience like that of the soviet union is in no position to expel the russians, and would surely be loath to do so for pastoral reasons. never- theless, the considerable number of russians in these new parishes in european russia gives further grounds for orthodox accusations of proselytism. this is not surprising, given the doctrine of 'canonical territory'. what is surprising, however, is that exactly the same thing happens in lutheran parishes - even more so than in catholic parishes - but the orthodox rarely accuse lutherans of proselytism. new lutheran parishes are being formed in exactly the same way as catholic ones in almost all cities in european russia and ukraine; and in lutheran parishes in european russia the russian element even predominates. are the orthodox applying double standards? tactlessness representatives of the moscow patriarchate complain that rome has covered their 'canonical territory' - the area of the former ussr - with a church structure without having discussed this delicate problem with them. the former apostolic nuncio in moscow, archbishop colasuonno, rejects such criticism, saying that the vatican 'informed' moscow. whatever that might mean, moscow was not content with being 'informed'. the creation of the apostolic administrations (european russia with polish archbishop tadeusz kondrusiewicz in moscow; siberia with russo-german bishop joseph werth in novosibirsk; kazakhstan with polish bishop jan lenga in karaganda) was taken by the orthodox to be a catholic attack on russian orthodoxy, and has caused deep resentment. the installation of a catholic arch- bishop in 'holy moscow', the spiritual centre of russian orthodoxy, is deeply offen- sive to orthodox consciousness. perhaps the catholic church does sometimes lack the necessary gentle touch on the 'canonical territory of the russian church'. knowing the extent of the allergic reaction to anything polish in large sections of the moscow patriarchate, one might have expected rome to call for restraint in this area. apparently, however, this has not happened; or at least not to the required extent. while german bishop joseph werth in siberia is seriously concerned about main- taining a good relationship with orthodox bishops in his area (and seems to be making gradual progress), and his priests and parishes show respect for the russian gerd stricker national church, polish bishop jan lenga of karaganda annoys his orthodox fellow- bishops by carrying out massive polonisation of the entire catholic church in kazakhstan, where many parishes are regarded as a piece of 'little poland' (although a large proportion, if not the majority, of parishioners are of german origin). these parishes operate in a nationalist climate and proselytising russians is not on their agenda. however, this kind of catholicism - zealous, largely fundamentalist and preconciliar, tinged with polish nationalism - is highly provocative to neighbouring russians in the tense situation of today. on the other hand, archbishop tadeusz kondrusiewicz cannot be blamed when he occasionally expresses his anger over the skulduggery of the authorities and the moscow patriarchate. when, for example, the catholic seminary was moved from moscow to st petersburg in , the real reason was not the chicanery of the various state or city authorities regarding premises, board and lodging for students and so on. rather it was the aggressively anti-catholic atmosphere in moscow which finally persuaded the seminary directors to move it to more tolerant st petersburg. in order to resolve a hopelessly confused situation the vatican tried to explain to its orthodox partners that catholic structures were not aimed against orthodoxy, but were set up only in order to build up ministry to catholic christians of polish, german, lithuanian and other nationalities which had inhabited the russian empire for centuries and which had been forced underground in the soviet period. so that there would be no misunderstandings about these parishes and orthodox clergy would not feel under pressure from catholic priests the vatican issued the following clear code of conduct to catholic priests working in russia, kazakhstan and central asia (i june ; adopted in the encyclical ut unum sint of may ): they must proceed with utmost caution in the area where they are installed; they must not provoke orthodox clergy but must involve them in as many decision-making processes as possible; they must always avoid giving the impression of proselytising when dealing with russians. catholic priests now complain that this encyclical restricts their room for manoeuvre in the cis states and makes them vulnerable to the wiles of orthodox clergy. the vatican code of conduct is criticised as the expression of an excessive belief in the need for harmony. these clear directions from rome and the fact that parish members tend to reject russians have led catholic priests to react very nervously now if russians 'knock on their door'. they send them on to the orthodox church and do their best to stop russians setting foot in catholic parishes. in siberia and kazakhstan catholic priests refuse to baptise russians on principle: they do not wish either to worsen the already tense relationship with their orthodox colleagues or to annoy their own parishioners. outlook the moscow patriarchate's fears that the opening-up of the former soviet union would turn the country into a playing field for competing religious groups have been realised in many areas of russia and the cis states, as well as in other states of the former eastern bloc. however, massive problems - of a financial nature, for example - have dogged the longed-for renaissance in the russian orthodox church. the dispute with western religious denominations which are active on the territory of the former soviet union has largely been a consequence of this opening-up to the west. it is not only western commentators who believe that the orthodox polemic against the roman catholic church on russian soil is out of proportion: so do clergy of the russian orthodox church itself (those who are not part of the anti-catholic league, fear of proselytism of course). two huge stumbling-blocks to ecumenism could be removed. on the one hand, priests and spokesmen of the catholic church in russia ought to abandon their polish nationalist stance and thus cease provoking the feeling among their orthodox neighbours that catholic parishes are forming a miniature poland with an anti- russian orientation. on the other hand, the russian orthodox church ought to be more objective, less blindly emotional, in its dealings with the catholic church and stop using obviously exaggerated accusations of proselytism as an ecumenical cattle prod with the aim of enlisting western churches as allies in its campaign against the vatican. the clear acknowledgment of ecumenical errors would provide an oppor- tunity to put them right; blanket condemnation poisons the ecumenical climate. (translated from the german by geraldine fagan) efficacy of a composite biological age score to predict ten-year survival among kansas and nebraska mennonites meredith uttley ' and michael h. crawford abstract in and mennonite descendants of a group of russian immigrants participated in a multidisciplinary study of bi- ological aging. the mennonites live in goessel, kansas, and hen- derson, nebraska. in the survival status of the participants was documented by each church secretary. data are available for individuals, of whom are now deceased. they ranged from to years in age when the data were collected. biological ages were computed using a stepwise multiple regression procedure based on variables previously identified as being related to survival, with chronological age as the dependent variable. standardized re- siduals place participants in either a predicted-younger or a predicted- older group. the independence of the variables biological age and survival status is tested with the chi-square statistic. the signifi- cance of biological age differences between surviving and deceased mennonites is determined by t test values. the two statistics provide consistent results. predicted age group classification and survival status are related. the group of deceased participants is generally predicted to be older than the group of surviving participants, al- though neither statistic is significant for all subgroups of menno- nites. in most cases, however, individuals in the predicted-older groups are at a relatively higher risk of dying compared with those in the predicted-younger groups, although the increased risk is not always significant. barring disease and accidents, people age and, when old, die. yet some people are perceived as old at age ; others are perceived as young at age . thus chronology, the elapsed time since birth, is not an effective measure of functional age. instead, a measure of aging is needed that illuminates individual differences based on how well an organism func- tions compared with others of the same chronological age. people who function poorly are thought to be biologically older than their chrono- logical peers. conversely, people who function well might be deemed 'division of behavioral sciences, lander university, greenwood, sc . laboratory of biological anthropology, department of anthropology, university of kan- sas, lawrence, ks . human biology, february , v. , no. , pp. - . copyright © wayne state university press, detroit, michigan / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d biologically younger. ideally, a measure of functional-biological age would indicate a stage of aging free from chronological variability. inherent in the concept of functional-biological age is the assumption that among a group of chronological peers those with greater biological age will be the first to die because they have reached a more advanced stage of aging sooner. if this is true, individuals who have higher functional age scores than their contemporaries should be overrepresented among the deceased in the future. our purpose here is to test the ability of functional-biological age computed using multiple regression to predict -year survival. predic- tive ability is tested with three research questions. first, is the mean standardized residual, indicating biological age, higher for the group of deceased compared with surviving mennonites? second, are more bio- logically older individuals deceased than would be expected based on probability? third, is the risk of being deceased higher for the function- ally older? the null hypothesis is that predicted biological age is unre- lated to -year survival. measuring functional-biological age the concept of biological age has been considered for nearly three decades, but agreement regarding method of measurement or evaluation of results has not been forthcoming. various researchers have attempted to measure biological age using a variety of psychological or physiolog- ical tests. for example, benjamin ( ) estimated biological age through a medical examination and life history questionnaire. starting with a per- son's chronological age, years of equivalent age are added for hereditary and health risk conditions. this method is substantially subjective be- cause most conditions can add a range of years, depending on their clinician-perceived seriousness. in contrast, bell ( ) recommended estimating biological age according to a multiple regression formula. this formula provides an estimated age for each subject; the difference be- tween the predicted and the actual age (residual) is then used as an in- dicator of biological age. this has been the most commonly applied method in physiology studies [e.g., durbina et al. ( ), furukawa et al. ( ), ries and pothig ( ), voitenko and tokar ( ), and webster and logie ( )]. borkan ( ) developed a univariate residual technique for study- ing interindividual variation in aging. this method requires that each variable be regressed separately against chronological age. the stan- dardized residuals of all the regressed variables are computed for each subject and are retained for further analysis. thus each subject has a biological age profile (bap), which consists of a residual score for each prediction of survival among mennonites / variable included in the profile. based on each residual score, a subject is viewed as being either biologically older or younger than others of the same chronological age with regard to each variable. each subject has a number of biological ages, which is equal to the number of variables in the profile. both the univariate and the multivariate methods provide measures of age status or function relative to one's chronological peers. beyond that, however, the methods are quite different. with stepwise multiple regression, variables enter the equation based on their correlation with the dependent variable and the remaining independent variables. thus, if several independent variables are highly correlated, only one is ex- pected to enter the equation, even if the variables measure different ele- ments of a single physiological component. only with multivariate anal- yses are the interactions within a group of independent variables considered. these interactions, however, can complicate the interpretation of the re- sults. although variable interactions are omitted from univariate anal- yses, more than one element of a single component may be significant. for example, the significance of different but related measures of lung function would highlight the importance of the whole physiological com- ponent. uttley ( ) demonstrated that multivariate and univariate anal- yses focusing on variables related to survival provide similar results. a common problem exists with either the univariate or the multivariate ap- proach. in both methods chronological age is used as the dependent vari- able, but it is chronological age that researchers hope to replace. tests of biological age. four groups of researchers have compared predicted ages for healthy groups to the predicted ages for unhealthy groups to test the relevance of the concept of biological age. from an original sample of apparently well females, webster and logie ( ) selected nonsmokers ( %) who were judged to be healthiest. pre- dicted ages for this group of women were significantly less ( . years) than actual ages ( p < . ). for the women of this group who also rated their health as being good, the mean predicted age was . years less than actual age ( p < . ). predicted ages for the women who, regardless of the observer's evaluations, considered their health to be poor, were higher than actual ages; however, the discrepancy was not significant. furukawa et al. ( ) compared normotensive individuals with hypertensive individuals ( females, males) and found that pre- dicted ages for the hypertensive group were significantly higher than ac- tual ages (p not given). borkan ( ) compared the mean biological age profiles for sev- eral health-based subgroups of participants. smokers compared with nonsmokers exhibited reduced lung function (equivalent to being bio- / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d logically older), but the difference was not significant. the % of in- dividuals with high cornell medical index scores ( ^ ) (least healthy) compared with the % of those with low index scores (healthiest) ex- hibited significantly "older" lung function, plasma glucose, and neuro- muscular performance. individuals diagnosed as having cardiovascular disease compared with those free of the disease were significantly older with respect to systolic blood pressure, plasma glucose, and neuromus- cular performance. among subjects studied by facchini et al. ( ), smokers also exhibited significantly reduced lung function (biologically older) and wine drinkers compared with nondrinkers exhibited "older" levels of plasma glucose and cholesterol, but these differences were not significant. it is encouraging that the predicted ages are, in fact, higher for persons from unhealthy groups. one would expect unhealthy individuals to demonstrate decreased function, but biological age is intended to in- dicate different stages of aging, not just to correlate with diminished function. thus these health comparisons do not go far enough. if pre- dicted biological ages are accurate, those judged to be older than their chronological peers would die sooner than those peers. whether or not computed functional-biological age scores are predictive of mortality, however, has rarely been considered. tests of survival. borkan ( ) compared the mean biological age profile for survivors with that for deceased using student's t tests. before they died, the deceased exhibited significantly poorer lung function, higher systolic blood pressure, reduced neuromuscular performance, and lower levels of serum albumin and globulin ( p < . ). uttley ( ) followed borkan's method of univariate analysis to compare surviving and deceased mennonites. before they died, deceased women showed markedly higher serum levels of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine and lower levels of albumin and total iron. they also exhibited higher diastolic blood pressure, poorer lung function, and diminished neuromuscular performance and trunk flexibility and rated their health as being poorer. before they died, deceased men showed markedly higher serum levels of blood urea nitrogen (bun) and uric acid, and an elevated bun/creatinine ratio but lower levels of albumin. they exhibited higher diastolic blood pressure and diminished neuromuscular performance and trunk flexibility and rated their health as being poorer. botwinick et al. ( ) identified a battery of eight tests, including cognitive, psychomotor, personality, and health-related measures, that correctly classifies % of subjects with respect to their survival status (alive or deceased) in the succeeding five years. for all psychological tests the relationship between performance and survival is small (bo- twinick ). tests of verbal skills worked best for predicting survival prediction of survival among mennonites / within a five-year time span (botwinick ; jarvik and falek ). steuer et al. ( ) found that survival predictive ability was best for subjects under age . with a -year follow-up of subjects, palmore ( ) found that such nonverbal tests as self-rated health, subjective physical function rating, and work or health satisfaction were the best predictors of survival. jarvik and falek ( ) were among the first to report on the theory of terminal drop or decline, which holds that cog- nitive functional decline is more closely related to death than to chro- nological age. nothing comparable to terminal drop has been identified in physiology studies. this would require longitudinal research. three groups of researchers have found self-rated health status to be correlated with survival. larue et al. ( ) divided subjects into two age groups: - years and - years. for the younger group only, both self-rated and objective health were correlated significantly with five-year survival (p < . ). kaplan et al. ( ) found a strong inverse relationship between personal health rating and five-year sur- vival. idler and angel ( ), in a -year follow-up to the national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes- ), also found that mortality risks were negatively correlated with self-rated health status. in particular, for men who initially rated their health as poor, only % survived through the follow-up period. yet among women who rated their health as poor nearly % survived the years. materials and methods study population. the data reported here were collected during re- search conducted more than a decade ago ( - ) when mennonite residents of goessel, kansas, and henderson, nebraska, participated in a multidisciplinary project conducted by researchers from the university of kansas and sponsored by the national institute on aging (crawford and rogers ). community members are descendants of a group that immigrated to the united states from the ukraine in . mennonites have generally preserved their separate genetic and sociocultural identity and thus constitute an identifiable population for study. for the conve- nience of participants, data collection clinics were held at each church. clinic attendees represented approximately % of the community adults (devor and crawford ; devor et al. ). although participants ranged in age from to years, the individuals aged and above ( women and men) are the focus of this research. eighty-six women and men have subsequently died (as of ). among these individuals, the earliest death from natural causes occurred at age . six individuals whose deaths were accidental have been excluded from analysis. tobacco is not used and wine is used rarely. thus our data are / uttley and c r a w f o r d figure . - - o - + age groups men women size of age groups as a percentage of the midwest mennonite study population. not confounded by these covariates. figure shows the age structure of the midwest mennonite study population. among both women and men, approximately % were in their fifties and % were in their seventies. about % of women and % of men were in their sixties. about % of women and % of men were in their eighties. one-way analyses of variance demonstrate significant sex differ- ences for most variables. consequently, the women and men were ana- lyzed separately in this study. lifestyles remain similar among residents of goessel and henderson, but the original settlement pattern suggests the presence of some founder effect (uttley ). uttley ( ) iden- tified variables that predict survival for at least one subsample of men- nonites. five physiological components (serum protein, lipids, electro- lytes, metabolic wastes, and body morphology) were represented. the predictive variables within a component, however, were specific to either females or males. besides variables from the five components, total iron, hand steadiness, and reaction time were used as predictors for women. glucose, diastolic and systolic blood pressure, movement time, and self- rated health were used as predictors for men. in the current research the variables were combined in multivariate analyses to generate a composite biological age score for each subject. available data. data collected among the mennonites included vari- ables used in other studies of biological age, body morphology, and blood prediction of survival among mennonites / chemicals typically used to assess clinical dysfunction and disease. par- ticipants completed health history forms and were examined by a phy- sician. blood pressure, anthropometric, and blood chemistry data were collected in both communities. in addition, in goessel, lung function, neuromuscular performance, trunk flexibility, and grip strength were measured. in henderson self-rated health was added to the original data set. thus two sets of predictive variables were available for each subgroup of mennonites. one set includes only those variables collected in both goessel and henderson clinics (referred to as common community vari- ables). the second set includes the first set and adds the variables col- lected in either goessel or henderson to the appropriate community subgroups (referred to as community-specific variables). analyses of the pooled goessel and henderson (midwest mennonite) samples are limited to the common community variables. the variables used in this research were selected from the original set because of their association with survival demonstrated by uttley ( ). in that research uttley regressed individual variables against chronolog- ical age. for individuals aged and older, the variables showed linear relationships with age, although for some variables the change across the age span was slight. our selection of variables follows brown and forbes's ( ) call for an index of biological age that reflects the association of mortality and chronological age and costa and mccrae's ( ) call for variables that have been documented to have a linear relationship with chronological age. the variables available for the current analyses and the direction of their linear relationship with chronological are shown in table . for variables the linear relationship with chronological age is different for women and men. most of those variables assess serum lipids and electrolytes or body morphology. these sex differences will be examined in depth in future research. analytical methods. using stepwise multiple regression analyses, we predicted an age for each clinic participant. because the predicted age is based on each person's functional status relative to other individuals of the same chronological age, the predicted age is used to represent functional-biological age. the difference (error) between the chronolog- ical age and the predicted age (residual) is standardized and retained for analyses. standardized residuals represent a normally distributed data sample from a population. persons with negative residuals (less than ) are predicted to be younger than their chronological ages whereas per- sons with positive residuals (greater than ) are predicted to be older. individuals are divided into four groups based on predicted functional age (younger, older) and survival status (alive, deceased). our research questions were tested using a variety of statistical techniques. testing the difference between the mean predicted ages / u t t l e y and c r a w f o r d table . variables available for testing the relationship of functional-biological age and survival among mennonite participants from kansas and nebraska relationship with agea variable females males kansasb nebraskab body mass index j + + triceps j, t + + sum of skinfolds i t + + glucose f t + + hemoglobin i i + + albumin i i + + globulin t t + + t t + + total protein j i + + albumin/globulin ratio [ + + uric acid t t + + blood urea nitrogen (bun) f t + + creatinine ] t + + bun/creatinine ratio f t + + triglycerides f t + + cholesterol f + + high-density lipoprotein (hdl) j, t + + low-density lipoprotein f i + + cholesterol/hdl ratio f i + + calcium j, + + potassium i t + + sodium i t + + chloride i + + phosphorus i + + alkaline phosphatase f t + + ast (sgot)c j + + total iron i i + + systolic blood pressure j, i + + diastolic blood pressure f t + + forced expiration volume j, i + - vital capacity | i + - reaction time f t + — movement time f t + — grip strength i i + - hand/eye coordination j + - hand steadiness j | + — trunk flexibility | i + — self-rated health \ ! + a. an arrow pointing downward indicates that the variable decreases with increasing chro- nological age. an arrow pointing upward indicates that the variable increases with increas- ing chronological age. b. a plus sign indicates that the data were collected; a minus sign indicates that data were not collected. c. ast, asparate aminotransferase; sgot, oxaloacetic transaminase. prediction of survival among mennonites / (functional residuals) for survivors and deceased constitutes a model two-sample analysis of variance. a t test is the traditional method of solving such a comparison of two means. with infinite degrees of free- dom, a t test value is equivalent to the square root of f. the t distri- bution, however, allows for the small numbers in the groups of deceased. from the null hypothesis, we expect that xalive - xdeceased = . it is the deviation of the difference from that is being tested by the t statistic (sokal and rohlf ). the chi-square statistic ( \ ) is used to test the independence of functional age scores and -year survival. in a contingency table each cell has an expected n based on a priori knowledge or on normal probability determined from the row and column marginal totals. for this research each expected cell n is computed as (row total x column total)/table total. if the row and column variables are independent, nobs = nekpccted. the chi-square statistic tests the deviation of the observed cell frequen- cies from the expected cell frequencies. it is computed as where o is the observed frequency and e is the expected frequency. for the x tables used in this research, chi-square significance is based on degree of freedom (sokal and rohlf ). the risk ratio is used to test whether subjects who are functionally older than their contemporaries are more likely to have died. as with the chi-square statistical analyses, clinic participants are divided into groups based on their functional age score and their survival status. if the two variables are independent, the deceased would be equally divided be- tween those who are functionally younger and those who are functionally older. a perfect correspondence between the two variables would find all the deceased among the functionally older group. a risk ratio is a comparison of the proportion of the deceased who are in each functional group. the ratio is computed as number of older deceased number of younger deceased a result greater than indicates that subjects with functional ages older than those of their chronological peers experience a higher risk of dying (mausner and kramer ). given the accuracy of the assertion that for a middle-aged person advancing age statistically increases the probability of death (waring ), two logical expectations follow. first, the linear relationship (regression) between any given variable and chronological age will be consistent with ( ) number biologically older number biologically younger = risk ratio. ( ) / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d the regression based on the subset of participants who are now deceased. thus functional ages, based on standardized residuals, are expected to be higher for deceased participants and lower for survivors. second, those individuals who are estimated to be biologically or functionally older than their calendar years are expected to be at greater risk of dying than their chronological peers. results regression analyses. using variables collected in both mennonite communities in stepwise multiple regression analyses, we predicted functional ages for clinic participants. table lists the variables included in the regression equations for the pooled samples of women and men. for both women and men, the variables relate to blood pressure, serum proteins, lipids, and metabolic wastes. metabolic wastes are more im- portant for women than for men. lipids are more important for men. in addition, body morphology enters the equation for women and electro- lytes enter the equation for men. by using the same variables but ana- lyzing each town separately, we found that blood pressure and metabolic wastes enter all equations for both sexes. body morphology measures enter the equations for henderson participants and goessel women; lipid measures enter the equations for goessel participants, and electrolytes enter the equation for goessel men. the relative importance of the vari- ables differ by group, however. table lists the common community variables included in the regression equations when the women and men from each town are examined separately. in goessel variables measuring neuromuscular performance, lung function, strength, and trunk flexibility were collected in addition to the basic set of common community variables. table lists the community- specific variables included in the regression equations for goessel par- ticipants. for both sexes grip strength is the first variable to enter the regression equation; forced expiratory volume and trunk flexibility also enter, and the importance of metabolic wastes is reduced. among women movement time (rt-cns) enters the equation; among men reaction time enters the equation. for both sexes the entrance of community-specific variables alters the importance of other types of variables. among women the importance of serum proteins increases and the importance of body morphology and lipids decreases. among men the importance of serum proteins and blood pressure decreases and the importance of body mor- phology and lipids increases. for both sexes, adding neuromuscular per- formance, lung function, strength, and trunk flexibility increases the r values and the number of variables included in the regression equation. for both groups the increase in the number of variables leads to a de- / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d the regression based on the subset of participants who are now deceased. thus functional ages, based on standardized residuals, are expected to be higher for deceased participants and lower for survivors. second, those individuals who are estimated to be biologically or functionally older than their calendar years are expected to be at greater risk of dying than their chronological peers. results regression analyses. using variables collected in both mennonite communities in stepwise multiple regression analyses, we predicted functional ages for clinic participants. table lists the variables included in the regression equations for the pooled samples of women and men. for both women and men, the variables relate to blood pressure, serum proteins, lipids, and metabolic wastes. metabolic wastes are more im- portant for women than for men. lipids are more important for men. in addition, body morphology enters the equation for women and electro- lytes enter the equation for men. by using the same variables but ana- lyzing each town separately, we found that blood pressure and metabolic wastes enter all equations for both sexes. body morphology measures enter the equations for henderson participants and goessel women; lipid measures enter the equations for goessel participants, and electrolytes enter the equation for goessel men. the relative importance of the vari- ables differ by group, however. table lists the common community variables included in the regression equations when the women and men from each town are examined separately. in goessel variables measuring neuromuscular performance, lung function, strength, and trunk flexibility were collected in addition to the basic set of common community variables. table lists the community- specific variables included in the regression equations for goessel par- ticipants. for both sexes grip strength is the first variable to enter the regression equation; forced expiratory volume and trunk flexibility also enter, and the importance of metabolic wastes is reduced. among women movement time (rt-cns) enters the equation; among men reaction time enters the equation. for both sexes the entrance of community-specific variables alters the importance of other types of variables. among women the importance of serum proteins increases and the importance of body morphology and lipids decreases. among men the importance of serum proteins and blood pressure decreases and the importance of body mor- phology and lipids increases. for both sexes, adding neuromuscular per- formance, lung function, strength, and trunk flexibility increases the r values and the number of variables included in the regression equation. for both groups the increase in the number of variables leads to a de- t a b l e . c o m m o n c o m m u n i t y v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d in the s t e p w i s e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n c o m p u t a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l a g e f o r m e n n o n i t e m e n a n d w o m e n " se of variable entered b b j n rms r ba/ca goessel women, age and older blood urea nitrogen (bun) . . . albumin - . . - . diastolic blood pressure . . . hemoglobin . . . low-density lipoprotein . . . calcium . . . systolic blood pressure - . . - . skinfold sum - . . - . triglycerides . . . uric acid . . . t - . . - . cholesterol - . . - . potassium . . . phosphorus - . . - . henderson women, age and older diastolic blood pressure . . . systolic blood pressure - . . - . phosphorus - . . - . total iron - . . - . bun/creatinine ratio . . . uric acid . . . skinfold sum - . . - . body mass index . . . ast (sgot)b . . . calcium - . . - . goessel men, aged and older diastolic blood pressure . . . albumin - . . - . blood urea nitrogen . . . systolic blood pressure - . . - . chloride - . . - . potassium . . . phosphorus - . . - . cholesterol - . . - . uric acid . . . glucose . . . albumin/globulin ratio - . . - . henderson men, age and older systolic blood pressure - . . - . diastolic blood pressure . . . creatinine . . . potassium . . . triceps . . . alkaline phosphatase . . . glucose . . . ast (sgot)b - . . - . body mass index - . . - . . . . . . . . . a. n is the number of participants on which the regression equation is computed. rms is the root mean square, which is the best estimate of the pooled standard error. ba is biological age; ca is chronological age. variables listed in the order in which they were entered into the equation. ast, asparate aminotransferase; sgot, oxaloacetic transaminase. prediction of survival among mennonites / t a b l e . g o e s s e l c o m m u n i t y v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d in the s t e p w i s e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s - sion c o m p u t a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l a g e f o r k a n s a s m e n n o n i t e s a se of variable entered b b \ n rms r ba /ca women, age and older grip strength - . . - . . . blood urea nitrogen . . . phosphorus - . . - . systolic blood pressure - . . - . diastolic blood pressure . . . hemoglobin . . . low-density lipoprotein . . . globulin . . . movement time . . . albumin - . . - . skinfold sum - . . - . trunk flexibility - . . - . potassium . . . albumin/globulin ratio . . . t - . . - . calcium . . . forced expiratory volume - . . - . cholesterol - . . - . uric acid . . . men, age and older grip strength - . . - . . . forced expiratory volume - . - . - . reaction time . . . t . . . glucose . . . uric acid . . . skinfold sum - . . - . diastolic blood pressure . . . albumin - . . - . trunk flexibility - . . - . total iron . . . chloride - . . - . cholesterol - . . - . cholesterol/hdl ratio . . . potassium . . . body mass index . . . alkaline phosphatase - . . - . hand steadiness - . . - . ast (sgot)b . . . creatinine . . . triglycerides - . . - . sodium . . . a. n is the number of participants on which the regression equation is computed. rms is the root mean square, which is the best estimate of the pooled standard error. ba is biological age; ca is chronological age. variables listed in the order in which they were entered into the equation. b. ast, asparate aminotransferase; sgot, oxaloacetic transaminase. / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d t a b l e . h e n d e r s o n c o m m u n i t y v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d in the s t e p w i s e multiple r e g r e s s i o n c o m p u t a t i o n of biological a g e f o r n e b r a s k a m e n n o n i t e s a se of variable entered b b p n rms rba/ca women, age and older diastolic blood pressure . . . . . systolic blood pressure - . . - . phosphorus - . . - . albumin - . . - . total iron . . - . bun/creatinine ratio . . . uric acid . . . skinfold sum - . . - . body mass index . . . men, age and older rated health - . . - . . . diastolic blood pressure . . . systolic blood pressure - . . - . triceps . . . potassium . . . creatinine . . . hemoglobin - . . - . phosphorus - . . - . ast (sgot)b - . . - . alkaline phosphatase . . . a. n is the number of participants on which the regression equation is computed. rms is the root mean square, which is the best estimate of the pooled standard error. ba is biological age; ca is chronological age. variables listed in the order in which they were entered into the equation. b. ast, asparate aminotransferase; sgot, oxaloacetic transaminase. able to enter the regression equation. with its addition, the importance of body morphology decreases, but the rest of the variables change only slightly. the r value increases substantially. of the mennonites who attended church clinics, the participants who subsequently died were, on average, older than the survivors. one- way analyses of variance demonstrate that mean functional residuals in- crease with increasing age for participants; however, the variances as- sociated with the residuals do not differ significantly between age groups. figure shows the range of the functional residuals by sex, community, and age group. the residuals range from - . to . for - -year- olds, from - . to . for - -year-olds, from - . to . for - -year-olds, and from to . for - -year-olds. for both sexes the distributions of residuals for survivors and de- ceased overlap, although the means of the distributions for the deceased are shifted upward slightly. the distribution for women ranges from - . prediction of survival among mennonites / - — age groups - - - . - . o.o . . . residual range goessel wmwtmmm mm—mm goessel henderson — . — . w o m e n m e n . . . . . . . henderson figure . ranges for functional age residual scores for midwest mennonites using variables collected in both goessel, kansas, and henderson, nebraska. to . for survivors and from — . to . for deceased. the distribution for men ranges from — . to . for survivors and from — . to . for deceased. figure shows the distribution of functional residual scores, by sex, for surviving and deceased mennonites. t test analyses. do data collected a decade ago indicate that sub- sequently deceased individuals were functionally older than their surviv- ing counterparts? with one exception, mean predicted ages for groups of deceased are higher than those for groups of survivors. by using vari- ables common to both towns, we found that differences between mean predicted ages are significant for henderson women, goessel and hen- derson men, and pooled women and men. with variables specific to each town, differences are significant only for henderson participants. mean functional age residuals are listed by variable set, town, sex, and survival status in table . with the inclusion of goessel-specific variables, higher r values are generated from the multiple regression analyses; however, these higher r values do not result in more significant differences between survivors and deceased. for surviving women the mean predicted age residual and standard deviation increase slightly. for deceased women, however, the mean predicted age decreases substantially and the standard deviation increases slightly. the deceased have a lower mean predicted age. these / uttley and c r a w f o r d — . - . - . — . + . + . + . + . + . functional age residual scores alive h h i dead t : : : :l alive h h dead women men figure . standardized functional age residuals for surviving and deceased midwest men- nonites. variables included in the computation were collected in both henderson and goessel. changes make the two groups less alike, but in a direction opposite to that expected. the increased dissimilarity leads to a greater significance for the relationship between the two groups. among goessel men the mean predicted age for survivors increases slightly and the standard de- viation decreases slightly. for the deceased the mean predicted age de- creases, but the standard deviation increases substantially. as a result, the relationship between the two groups becomes less significant. for henderson women, adding the variable self-rated health leaves the r value and the significance level basically unchanged. for survi- vors the mean predicted age increases slightly and the standard deviation decreases. among the deceased both the mean predicted age residual and the standard deviation decrease. for both groups of henderson men the mean predicted age and the standard deviation decrease. the significance level also decreases, although the r value increases. chi-square analyses. are functionally older individuals overrepre- sented among the subsequently deceased? participants were assigned to cells of a contingency table based on their relative age residual (younger, older) and their survival status (alive, dead). the null hypothesis (h ) prediction of survival among mennonites / t a b l e . t t e s t c o m p a r i s o n of s t a n d a r d i z e d a g e r e s i d u a l s f o r s u r v i v i n g a n d d e - c r e a s e d m e n n o n i t e s variables common to both towns variables specific to each town residual residual group n mean ± sd significance n mean ± sd significance goessel women alive - . . . - . ± . . deceased - . ± . - . . men alive - . ± . . - . . . deceased . + . . ± . henderson women alive - . . . - . . . deceased . . . . men alive - . + . . - . ± . . deceased . ± . . . pooled women alive - . + . . deceased . ± . men alive - . ± . . deceased . ± . that predicted functional age is unrelated to -year survival was tested using the chi-square statistic. table shows the relative age classifica- tions, survival status, and chi-square value for each population subgroup. both variable sets are included. based on variables collected in both communities, h can be rejected for men from both goessel and hen- derson, for the pooled male sample, and for women from henderson. by adding community-specific variables to the computation, we found that h can be rejected for henderson women and men but not for goes- sel participants. thus an older relative age does not always separate sur- vivors from deceased. risk analyses. for goessel women, using community-specific vari- ables, those who are functionally older experience a lower risk of mor- tality than those who are functionally younger. for all other subgroups, however, biologically older individuals are at greater risk of dying than are biologically younger individuals, although the risk ratio is not always significant. table lists the risk ratio and significance for each popu- lation subgroup. both variable sets are included. / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d t a b l e . c h i - s q u a r e statistic f o r t e s t i n g the i n d e p e n d e n c e of p r e d i c t e d age and survival status a m o n g m e n n o n i t e s common variablesa specific variablesb group alive dead x alive dead x~ goessel women younger . . older men younger . . older henderson women younger . . older men younger . . older pooled samples women younger . older men younger . older a. variables collected in both the goessel and the henderson clinics. b. variables collected in either the goessel or the henderson clinic. discussion our decision to include only those individuals who were at least years old when they attended the church clinics is based on a review of the pertinent literature. borkan et al. ( ) and strehler ( ) dis- cuss aging as primarily occurring in the postreproductive period. handler ( ) stresses the deterioration of a mature organism resulting from time- dependent, essentially irreversible changes. waring ( ) focuses on midlife as his point of orientation, because the probability of death in- creases at that point. botwinick ( ) believes that the more groups we divide research samples into, the more we will learn about the aging process. he suggests using -year cohorts beginning at age . kohn ( ) states that research should begin at maturity, when aging is con- tinuous and irreversible. analyses of those participants who were at least years old focuses on those ages when death becomes increasingly likely. among the midwest mennonites, this age limit omitted only two of the deceased individuals from the study cohort. prediction of survival among mennonites / t a b l e . o l d e r / y o u n g e r risk of d e a t h r a t i o a m o n g m i d w e s t m e n n o n i t e s group common variables' specific variables goessel women . (ns) . (ns) men . d . (ns) henderson women . c . c men . c . c pooled women . (ns) men . d a. variables collected in both the goessel and the henderson clinics. b. variables collected in either the goessel or the henderson clinic. c. p < . . d. p < . . ns: p > . . it is apparent that no consistent relationship between predicted functional age and -year survival has been demonstrated for subgroups of kansas and nebraska mennonites using a stepwise multiple regression technique. several possible reasons should be considered. first, the regression technique uses chronological age as the dependent variable. thus the stepwise procedure maximizes the fit between predicted func- tional age and chronological age to obtain the highest possible r values. researchers of biological age desire to uncover a set of universal stages in aging that allows for the evident variability in the chronological timing of each stage. the use of chronological age as the reference point, how- ever, may inhibit the realization of this goal. it can be seen in figure that for all subgroups of mennonites the age residual ranges parallel the increase in chronological age. thus the effect of chronological age has not been fully removed. in fact, the higher the correlation between the regression equation and the chronological age, the greater the remaining effect of chronology. the confounding effect of chronological age with regression analyses has been a concern since it was discussed by costa and mccrae ( ). this confounding of chronology remains, even when the independent variables in the regression are chosen, as in this re- search, because of their ability to predict mortality. second, it is likely that some variables related to chronological age or functional ability are not related to survival. with the addition of strength, neuromuscular performance, and lung function, the variables found most consistently in other studies of biological age, the goessel variable set explains a greater proportion of the variance associated with chronological age. the ability of the variable set to segregate survivors / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d from deceased does not improve, however. voitenko and tokar ( ) suggested that with variables correlated with chronological age the re- sulting predictive functions may actually be unrelated to survival. hear- ing threshold was their most informative variable, yet it is largely insig- nificant with respect to age-dependent mortality. the goessel equations are also consistent with brown and forbes's ( ) finding that lipo- fuscin concentration, which increases with age, does not appear to lead to a higher risk of death for groups with higher concentrations. the work of clarkson ( ), spirduso ( ), and spirduso and clifford ( ) suggests that reaction time variables may be more highly correlated with regular activity level than with chronological age. clarkson, spirduso, and clifford did not follow their participants to test the relationship be- tween reaction time and survival. third, many of the oldest goessel women were unable to partici- pate in the neuromuscular, strength, and lung function tests. it is likely that those subsequently deceased participants who could complete these tests were highly fit and that the younger predicted age among these goessel women reflected their select nature. the one subject, born in the s, who participated in neuromuscular tests had a faster reaction time than the average for women years her junior. researchers have previously suggested that successively older groups of individuals are increasingly more select and thus less representative of their birth co- horts. clement ( ) hypothesized that the select nature of older in- dividuals may cause an underestimate of age differences with respect to physical performance tests. this cannot be tested cross-sectionally, how- ever (botwinick ). using longitudinal data, it can be documented that poor performers drop out (baltes et al. ; jarvik and falek ; riegel et al. ). these researchers anticipated the concept now called frailty, which states this phenomenon in reverse: that the frailest mem- bers of a birth cohort die first (vaupel et al. ). regardless of the terminology, the mennonite results support this circumstance. forty-one percent of the mennonite clinic participants who have subsequently died were less than years old at the time of death. they would not have been included if the research had been conducted years later. it can be argued legitimately that the % of participants who died by age died prematurely. we plan to examine the differences between those who died prematurely and those who died at advanced ages in future research. to summarize, our midwest mennonite research sample, consists of participants from two communities. these mennonites provide a unique data set because ( ) both women and men are included, ( ) the partic- ipants do not smoke, and ( ) the participants consume only small amounts of wine. this lifestyle eliminates two leading negative health influences. available data include one set of variables collected in both communities plus additional variables collected in only one community. women and prediction of survival among mennonites / men are always analyzed separately, but for some analyses the com- munities are pooled. the analyses by sex, community, and variable set yield eight comparisons; the pooled samples yield two more. based on their functional age residuals, individuals are divided into four groups based on functional age (younger, older) and survival status (alive, dead). computing functional-biological age based on stepwise multiple regression is not fully satisfactory for predicting -year survival, even when the independent variables are associated with mortality. although the multiple regression method has been criticized by some researchers, it has not been previously tested against prediction of survival. the ranges of functional age residuals parallel increases in chronological age among research participants, demonstrating that the effect of chronology is not fully removed by the regression procedure. the variances associated with age-group residuals, however, are not significantly different. in some cases the relationships of independent variables with chronological age differ by sex. in general, these variables are related to body morphology or serum lipids and electrolytes. in the regression equations metabolic wastes and body morphology are more important for women than for men. lipids and electrolytes are more important for men. the relative importance of specific variables differs by community and sex, however. when the equations are based on community-specific variables, strength and reaction time variables enter the equations for goessel residents; self- rated health enters the equation for henderson men. in six of our ten comparisons, chi-square statistics indicate that functional status does successfully predict future survival ( p < . ). for the same six comparisons, t tests indicate that the mean functional ages for the younger and older groups are significantly different (p < . ). also, for the same six comparisons risk ratios indicate that those who are functionally older are at significantly greater risk of dying than their functionally younger counterparts. in three other comparisons the risk ratio results are consistent but not significant. in most cases, when community-specific variables are added to the regression model, the r values increase, but this does not enhance the prediction of future survival. in conclusion, this research is unique in its effort to test a measure of relative functional-biological age against future survival. our results support the concern surrounding the use of chronological age as the de- pendent variable in the multiple regression method expressed by costa and mccrae ( ). it is clear that the method cannot fully remove the effect of chronology. we agree that variables related to chronological age or function but not to mortality can complicate an understanding of the relationship of relative function and survival, as suggested by brown and forbes ( ) and voitenko and tokar ( ). this research sup- ports the evidence provided by baltes et al. ( ), jarvik and falek ( ), and riegel et al. ( ) and suggestions expressed by botwinick / uttley a n d c r a w f o r d ( ) and clement ( ) that older participants are the select survivors from their birth cohorts. the % of mennonite participants who died by age sustains the hypothesis of vaupel et al. ( ) that the frailest members of a birth cohort die first. in our opinion the observed sex differences in the relationships between independent variables and chro- nological age and in the relative importance of different variables, by sex, argue that women and men should not be pooled for analysis re- gardless of the significance of the sex differences. on the basis of dif- ferences in the relative importance of specific independent variables and the differential success in predicting survival by community, we strongly recommend that researchers use caution when trying to apply the results from one population to another. it seems logical to expect that a better understanding of aging will be found in the commonalities of results between communities and populations but that these can easily be masked by community-specific conditions. acknowledgments t h i s r e s e a r c h w a s s u p p o r t e d in part b y t h e n a t i o n a l in- s t i t u t e s of h e a l t h u n d e r g r a n t a g o - . w e a r e g r a t e f u l t o t h e g o e s s e l a n d h e n d e r s o n m e n n o n i t e s , w i t h o u t w h o s e support and participation this study w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e . w e a l s o w a n t t o t h a n k t h e r e v i e w e r s , w h o g a v e t h e i r t i m e to m a k e s o m e e x c e l l e n t s u g g e s t i o n s f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a d d i t i o n s to t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . received august ; revision received march . literature cited baltes, p . b . , k . w . schaie, and a . h . nardi. . age and experimental mortality in a seven-year longitudinal study of cognitive behavior. dev. psychol. : - . bell, b. . significance of functional age for interdisciplinary and longitudinal re- search in aging. aging hum. dev. : - . benjamin, h. . biologic versus chronologic age. j. gerontol. : - . borkan, g . a . . the assessment of biological age during adulthood. p h . d . disser- tation, university of michigan, ann arbor. borkan, g . a . , d . e . hults, and p.j. mayer. . physical anthropological approaches to aging. yrbk. phys. anthropol. : - . botwinick, j. . aging and behavior. new york: springer. botwinick, j. . we are aging. new york: springer. botwinick, j. . aging and behavior, d ed. new york: springer. botwinick, j . , r. west, and m. storandt. . predicting death f r o m behavioral test performance. j. gerontol. : - . brown, k . s . , and w . f . forbes. . concerning the estimation of biological age. gerontology : - . prediction of survival among mennonites / clarkson, p. . t h e relationship of age and level of physical activity with the frac- tionated c o m p o n e n t s of patellar reflex t i m e . j. gerontol. : - . clement, f. . longitudinal and cross-sectional assessments of age changes in phys- ical strength as related to sex, social class, and mental ability. j. gerontol. : - . costa, p . t . , j r . , and r . r . mccrae. . functional age: a conceptual and empirical critique. paper presented at the conference epidemiology of a g i n g , bethesda, m d , march - , . c r a w f o r d , m . h . , and l. rogers. . population genetic models in the study of aging and longevity in a mennonite c o m m u n i t y . soc. sci. med. : - . devor, e . j . , and m . h . c r a w f o r d . . family resemblance for normal pulmonary f u n c - tion. ann. hum. biol. : - . devor, e . j . , m . h . c r a w f o r d , and w . osness. . neuromuscular p e r f o r m a n c e in a kansas mennonite c o m m u n i t y : age and sex effects in performance. hum. biol. : - . devor, e . j . , m . m c g u e , m . h . c r a w f o r d et al. . transmissible and nontransmis- sible components of anthropometric variation in the alexanderwohl mennonites. i. description and familial correlations. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . durbina, t . l . , a . y . a . mints, and e . v . zhuk. . biological age and its estimation. iii. introduction of a correction to the multiple regression model of biological age and assessment of biological age in cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. exp. gerontol. : - . facchini, f . , p. gueresi, and d. pettener. . biological age in italian adults: influ- ence of social and behavioral factors. ann. hum. biol. : - . furukawa, t . , m . inoue, f. kajiya et al. . assessment of biological age by multiple regression analysis. j. gerontol. : — . handler, p . , ed. . biology and the future of man. n e w york: o x f o r d university press. idler, e . l . , and r . j . angel. . self-rated health and mortality in the n h a n e s - ep- idemiologic follow-up study. am. j. public health : - . jarvik, l . f . , and a . falek. . intellectual stability and survival in the aged. j. ger- ontol. : - . kaplan, g . , v. barell, and a . lusky. . subjective state of health and survival in elderly adults. j. gerontol. : s - s . k o h n , r . r . . principles of mammalian aging. englewood c l i f f s , nj: prentice hall. larue, a . , l. bank, l. jarvik et al. . health in old age: h o w do physicians' ratings and self-ratings c o m p a r e ? j. gerontol. : - . mausner, j . s . , and s. kramer. . epidemiology: an introductory text. philadelphia, pa: w . b . saunders. palmore, e . b . . predictors of the longevity difference: a -year follow-up. ger- ontologist : - . riegel, k . f . , r . m . riegel, and g . meyer. . a study of the dropout rates in lon- gitudinal research on aging and the prediction of death. j. personality soc. psy- chol. : - . ries, w . , and d. pothig. . chronological and biological age. exp. gerontol. : - . sokal, r . r . , and j. rohlf. . biometry, d ed. san francisco, ca: w . h . freeman. spirduso, w . . reaction time and movement time as a function of age and physical activity level. j. gerontol. : - . spirduso, w . , and p. c l i f f o r d . . replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction and m o v e m e n t time. j. gerontol. : - . steuer, j . , a . larue, j . e . blum et al. . "critical loss" in the eighth and ninth decades. j. gerontol. : - . / u t t l e y a n d c r a w f o r d strehler, b . l . . time. cells, and aging. new york: a c a d e m i c press. uttley, m . . the relationship of measures of biological age to survivorship among mennonites. p h . d . dissertation. university of k a n s a s , lawrence. ann arbor, mi: university microfilms. vaupel, j . w . , k . g . manton, and e. stallard. . t h e impact of heterogeneity in individual frailty on the dynamics of mortality. demography : - . voitenko, v . p . , and a . v . t o k a r . . t h e assessment of biological age and sex dif- ferences of human aging. exp. aging res. : - . w a r i n g , j. . the middle years: a multidisciplinary view. new york: academy for educational development. w e b s t e r , i . w . , and a . r . logic. . a relationship between age and health status in female subjects. j. gerontol. : - . alternative service a n d alternative g e n d e r roles conscientious objectors in b.c. during world war ii marlene epp i n june , clayton burkholder, a young mennonite from southern ontario, saw the mountains of british columbia for the first time. as a conscientious objector — or wco" — to war, clayton had been assigned to alternative service work with the british columbia forestry service (bcfs) in lieu of training for mili- tary service. having served already for close to a year in northern ontario working at road construction, clayton was disheartened at the prospect of being so far from his family and girlfriend for the duration of the war. at christmas , during his second leave from camp, clayton and his girlfriend of three years, helen erb, were married just four days after his arrival at home. not willing to endure another full year apart, they decided that helen would return with clayton to b.c., which she did in january . clayton returned to camp near langford on vancouver island and helen found employ- ment doing housework in victoria. while clayton earned the co wage of fifty cents a day, helen became the primary breadwinner, earning fifty cents an hour. in economic terms, this couple experienced a shift in gender roles which characterized the world war ii era. yet the adaptation in their understanding of their respective roles was slightly different than for the majority of canadians. for men from historic peace churches which rejected military service, conscientious objection not only represented a political nonconformist stance, but also meant a devia- tion from a gender construction which equated masculinity with militarism and which saw men bravely take up their weapons to protect their nation and their homes. the female relatives of cos, on the story of helen and clayton burkholder is mainly drawn from an interview by the author with helen burkholder, july . an interview with clayton burkholder can be found in the oral history collection of alternative service in world war ii, conrad grebel college archives (hereafter cgca), waterloo, ontario. bc studies, nos. i o - i , spring/summer ijç bc studies the other hand, had to step outside traditional gender roles for a short time, yet without the kind of propagandistic or material support lent to other canadian women who were actively supporting the war effort. even while assuming alternative gender roles d u r i n g - t h e exigencies of war and conscientious objection, both m e n and women were structuring their experience so as to be able to reclaim their proper gender space. this paper will explore the ways in which individuals found themselves in foreign territory, both physically and as far as their understanding of who they were as men and women was concerned, and their efforts to restore gender "normalcy." although alternative service placements existed across the country, the b.c. experience was unique in that it saw both m e n and w o m e n travel far from home to a completely different geographic and social setting than that to which they were accustomed. as well, the nature of the work assigned to cos by the bcfs, and the urban j o b opportunities available to women in b.c.'s two major cities, offered a context in which gender roles were stretched perhaps more than for c o families elsewhere. historians of women and gender during world w a r ii have, for the most part, viewed the s as a critical point for women, and there are numerous studies that examine women's altered wartime roles in industry, in the armed services, in volunteer labour, and in the home. m o s t notable for the canadian context is the work of ruth roach pierson, who emphasizes the ambivalence which existed for those women entering non-traditional employment while wartime ideology stressed their femininity. although scholars such as cynthia enloe and betty reardon have made important contributions to an under- standing of militarization as a "gendered process" and established the links between war and patriarchy, the specifically gendered nature of mens roles in the military has not been adequately examined. studies see ruth roach pierson, "they're still women after all": the second world war and canadian womanhood (toronto: mcclelland e stewart, ). other canadian studies include jean bruce, back the attack! canadian women during the second world war — at home and abroad (toronto: macmillan of canada, ). notable american studies specific to world war ii include karen anderson, wartime women: sex roles, family relations, and the status of women during world war ii (westport, ct: greenwood press, ); susan m. hartmann, the home front and beyond: american women in the Ç s (boston: twayne publishers, ); d'ann campbell, women at war with america: private lives in a patriotic era (cambridge: harvard university press, ); ruth milkman, gender at work: the dynamics of job segregation by sex during world war ii (chicago: university of illinois press, ). see cynthia enloe, "bananas, bases, and patriarchy," in jean bethke elshtain and sheila tobias, eds., women, militarism, and war: essays in history, politics, and social theory (savage, md: rowman & littlefield, ), also "beyond 'rambo': women and the varieties of alternative service and alternative gender roles of gender and the peace movement have also tended to focus on women. there has been little study, however, of gender and either peace or war in the context of societies with an historic peace stance. included here would be such religious groups as the society of friends (quakers), mennonites, hutterites, doukhobors, amish, brethren in christ, and jehovah's witnesses. that pacifist groups may experience an opposing structure of gender to that of the mainstream is suggested by jean bethke elshtain, who observes, "pacifist constructions rein- force and reaffirm dominant cultural images of women . . . but challenge masculine representations, calling into question male iden- tity as fighters, warriors, protectors." for co couples in british columbia, the immediate rules were different vis-à-vis non-pacifist canadians, but the overall pattern whereby the "deconstruction and reconstruction of gender was another battlefront" in the war was very much the same. an impor- tant distinction is that both men and women, and perhaps men even more than women, found themselves taking a stance which placed them outside of the norm. in order to gain a fuller understanding of the transformations in gender during wartime, it is important to militarized masculinity," in eva isaksson, éd., women and the military system (hertfordshire: harvester-wheatsheaf, ), - ; and, betty a. reardon, sexism and the war system (new york: teachers college press, ). judith h. stiehm also describes the military as a "male- defining institution." referred to in isaksson, "introduction," women and the military system, . an important contribution to the study of war and gender is margaret r. higonnet, et al., behind the lines: gender and the two world wars (new haven: yale university press, ). the collected essays in this study emphasize the dynamism in gender systems, whereby the cultural perception of gender identity alters in response to social phenomena such as war and is subsequendy restructured in response to new conditions prevailing in peacetime. for studies of women and peace which include a canadian perspective, see, for instance, ruth roach pierson, éd., women and peace: theoretical^ historical and practical perspectives (london: croom helm, ); janice williamson and deborah gorham, eds., up and doing: canadian women and peace (toronto: the women's press, ). although there have been numerous studies of conscientious objectors in world war ii in both the united states and canada, none have dealt with the issue of masculinity per se. a small collection of work exists which examines the wartime roles of women in pacifist churches. for the u.s., see heather t. frazer and john o'sullivan, "forgotten women of world war ii: wives of conscientious objectors in civilian public service," peace and change, : (fall ), - ; rachel warmer goossen, "conscientious objection and gender: women in civilian public service during the second world war" (phd thesis, university of kansas, ), and her article, "the 'second sex' and the 'second milers': mennonite women and civilian public service," mennonite quarterly review, (october ), - . for canada, see lorraine roth, "conscientious objection: the experiences of some canadian mennonite women during world war ii," mennonite quarterly review, (october ), - ; and marlene epp, *"united we stand, divided we fall': canadian mennonite women as cos in world war ii," mennonite life, : (september ), - . jean bethke elshtain, women and war, . margaret randolph higonnet et al., behind the lines: gender and the two world wars (new haven: yale university press, ), . bc studies explore the experiences of those men and women who represented an ideological aberration from the norms of society. this paper will attempt to address a gap which exists in the historiography of gender and war. in the summer of , following the passage of the national resources mobilization act, which authorized conscription for cana- dian home defence, leaders of historic peace churches in canada began to lobby the federal government for an alternative service (as) program for those young men who claimed conscientious objector status. arrangements for a program that would put cos to work on non-military projects of "national importance" were implemented in june . cos in western canada were initially sent to national parks at banff, jasper, prince albert, and riding mountain, where they cleared forests of dead timber, built trails and roads, planted trees, and dug ditches. most ontario men were sent to a camp at montreal river north of sault ste. marie where they cleared rock and bush for road-building. initially, the assignments were to last four months, a time equal to the training period required of military recruits. in the spring of , an agreement was struck between the cana- dian government and the british columbia forestry service whereby up to , cos would perform their alternative service in forestry work on the west coast and vancouver island. the attack on pearl harbor had created a perceived threat of bombing raids on the north american west coast, and thus an auxiliary force of fire-fighters was needed to deal with such a possibility as well as with the regular outbreaks during the summer fire season. in addition to fire-fighting, cos were put to work "snag-falling" (removing the trees or "snags" left generally speaking, scholarly studies of the canadian co experience have focused on the organizational developments and ingroup wrangling that characterized the negotiations lead- ing to alternative service, more than the experience of cos in camps. the following studies provide detailed discussions of negotiating the alternative service program: hildegard mar- tens, "accommodation and withdrawal: the response of the mennonites in canada to world war ii," social history/histoire sociale (november ), - ; david w. fransen, "canadian mennonites and conscientious objection in world war if (ma thesis, univer- sity of waterloo, ), and fransen, "as far as conscience will allow': mennonites in canada during the second world war," in norman hillmer, et al., eds., on guard for thee: war, ethnicity and the canadian state, iÇjÇ-iÇjj (ottawa: canadian committee for the history of the second world war, ), - ; william janzen, limits on liberty: the experience of mennonite, hutterite, and doukhobor communities in canada (toronto: univer- sity of toronto press, ), esp. chap. . studies which focus more directly on alternative service camps include lawrence klippenstein, that there be peace: mennonites in canada and world war ii (winnipeg: manitoba co reunion committee, ); e. morris sider, "life and labor in the alternate service work camps in canada during world war ii," mennonite quarterly review : (october ), - . a good study which deals with all pacifist groups involved in alternative service is thomas p. socknat, witness against war: pacifism in canada içoo-iç^ (toronto: university of toronto press, ), chap. . alternative service and alternative gender roles in the aftermath of a fire), in road construction and park improve- ment, and supplying firewood for general consumption. at the peak of the program in july , there were nineteen alternative service camps in b.c., of which fourteen were on vancouver island and five were on the mainland. at that point, close to men had been assigned to duties with the bcfs. during the course of the war, approximately , men received exemption from military service, almost all of whom were cos as the result of their membership in certain religious groups. of these, about , ( per cent) were mennonites, an ethno-religious group with a doctrinal tradition of non-participation in war. most of the specific examples in this paper are drawn from the mennonite experience. during world war i most mennonites received automatic exemption from military service on the basis of agreements made with the federal government when they immigrated to canada. this time, however, the national war services regulations demanded that cos make a formal application and plead their case for exemption before the mobilization board in their district. if their claim was accepted, the co then was compelled to perform some form of alternative service. for men just entering alternative service, or those nearing the end of four-month terms, the news that they would be sent to british columbia came on the heels of an announcement that cos were obliged to serve for the duration of the war. this came as a shock to cos and their families, especially those from conservative and rural mennonite communities in ontario. while young, unmarried cos came to view their term of service far from home as an adventure, those who were newly married and with youjig children felt the double burden of loneliness and financial worry. defying the enforced separation from their husbands, a number of women from ontario and the prairies moved temporarily to british columbia and found housing and employment near the alternative service camps. some brought small children with them and others gave birth to their first child while on the west coast. most remained in b.c. until a shift in the alternative service program in mid- saw their husbands transferred to assignments in agriculture and industry back home. in practice, the process of making a claim of conscientious objection differed from one district to another and between groups as well. the varying status held by different migrations of mennonites caused substantial friction during the initial phase of negotiating alternative service. for a detailed discussion, see for instance fransen, "canadian mennonites and conscientious objection,'' and janzen, the limits of liberty. i have not established exact numbers of cos working for the bcfs who were married. thomas socknat, in his book witness to war (p. ), has statistics on the marital status of alternative service workers in national parks but not for those with the bcfs. bc studies the experience of c o men in forestry camps in b.c. reveals a struggle with gender identity in a number of ways. having rejected the patriotic duty of going to war for their country, cos felt a strong need to be performing work of national importance. a certain crisis of identity occurred when they perceived their labour to be less than important. the sense of uselessness about their work first arose among cos working at road-building in northern ontario. t h e following mans summation was echoed by others: we didn't do anything up there in sault ste. marie. we didn't build that road; we were just put up there to get out of the sight of the people. . . . what was done by all of us guys, one bulldozer couldve done that. . . . i always had the feeling that we were being swept under a rug, so that we would be out of sight. this same man was sent to vancouver island for his second term of service and, although he granted that firefighting was more worth- while, when winter arrived and he found himself digging snow out of ditches, he said "enough of that" and enlisted in the air force. another man stationed at seymour mountain north of vancouver protested publicly in the c o newsletter: "there are times when we are at a loss to explain to our own satisfaction just where the construction of a park, during what we are told is an acute labour shortage, would rate a very high rating in priorities for man power." other cos expressed the longing to perform work "which . . . would result in greater service to humanity" and to demonstrate their love for their country. their diminished sense of self-worth over the nature of their work was accentuated by the cos' awareness of how they were perceived by the canadian public. in the media, the term "conchie" had become a gerry thiessen's story is found in marcus shantz, looking for peace: three mennonites remember wwii (kitchener, ont.: mennonite central committee ontario, ). "seymour park mountain," the beacon, : (jan. ), . the beacon was published approx- imately monthly from october to october and was "owned, operated and controlled by asw men in the b.c. forestry service." its predecessor was the northern beacon, published by alternative service workers in northern ontario beginning in january and ceasing in july when the montreal river camp was closed. see elizabeth suderman klassen, "alternative service work as reflected in the beacon, october -september ," men- nonite life, : (sept. ), - . the first statement is from harold schmidt (seymour mountain park, dollarton, bc) to j. b. martin (waterloo, on), may . conrad grebel college archives (cgca) xv-n. . , conference of historic peace churches (chpc) collection, military problems committee, chairman's correspondence. the latter sentiments are expressed by gerry thiessen in "the different path: mennonite conscientious objectors in world war ii," (video produced by rogers community tv and mennonite central committee ontario, ). alternative service and alternative gender roles derisive label for conscientious objectors who were frequently por- trayed as cowards or "yellow-bellies." the b.c. alternative service camp newsletter, the beacon, admitted that the common conception of the c o was "one who is weakminded, cowardly, lacking a sane understanding, without principle," qualities which all served to emasculate those who were targets of such criticism. that c o s them- selves may have internalized some of this derision is suggested by one as worker who bitterly complained about fellow workers who "want to go home and live like they formerly did. they forget about the millions that say goodbye expecting never to see home again. . . . too many of them are just a bunch of yellow-jackets." although such strong expressions of frustration were not the norm, many c o s expressed discomfort knowing that other young men were losing their lives overseas. one man had a "troubled spirit" realizing there were "those who had lost their lives" while he "was able to go through this period without really much danger to [him] personally." another felt "resentment" from families who had lost sons in the war. some men believed they would be more justified in their pacifist stance if they were subject to "the same dangers as the soldiers." even stronger than the concern by the public and the cos them- selves that they were not doing their part to protect the country were the feelings of helplessness on the part of cos that they were unable to protect their families economically. for cos who were providers for their families, the obligations of alternative service may have incurred a crisis in masculine identity. the small remuneration received by conscientious objectors — fifty cents a day — created hardship for some families, particularly after march , when alter- native service terms were extended for the duration of the war. although many married women became wage-earners at this time, some households had difficulty staying afloat without the support of a father, son, or husband. one young man in camp in british columbia wrote the following to the minister of his home church in waterloo, ontario in august : by this time you have perhaps looked over the enclosed letter addressed to mother from the government. . . . it appears as though "seymour park mountain," the beacon^ : (jan. ), . "john" (lake cowichan, bc) to "dear father," feb. . cgca, mennonites in canada files ( -wwii-alternative service). these sentiments are expressed by wilson hunsburger and gerry thiessen in the video, "a different path., . ." "my task," the canadian co. : (oct. ), . bc studies she has already become quite discouraged and seemingly has taken rather drastic steps toward obtaining what she thinks her justice. what i would appreciate is that either you or some member of the [church] welfare board would visit her sometime in the near future to see what suggestion could be offered toward getting the required help on the farm before she writes any more of these desperate letters. another man wrote to the same minister in a desperate tone, asking "what happened to the promises that were made to us before we left as far as support for our wives goes or that they would be looked after." in september , the chairman of the military problems c o m m i t - tee of the conference of historic peace churches that advocated on behalf of cos, wrote to one of the alternative service officials, requesting the release of about fifty men from camps in b . c . and asking that they be placed on farms in order to support their families better. in each case, a woman's need to support herself was stressed as a negative consequence of her husband's service obligations. regard- less of whether her income was from gifts, charity, or self-support, the woman's dependency was stressed over against his inability to provide for her. t h e chagrin of some cos over their own relative comfort in camp versus the hardships faced by their families was expressed by one man whose wife remained at home: my wife of four months had to manage the farm while expecting our first child. she carried a great load by being alone and having farm responsibilities — although hired help did the work, while we were with friends and could engage in fellowship and sight-seeing. t h e extra financial burden carried by married cos was noted in one issue of the beacon which congratulated three fathers of "handsome baby boy[s]." t h e writer wondered "how these fellows are able to keep so cheerful, realizing they are confronted by a financial difficulty greater than our own." h. s. to j. b. martin, aug. . cgca, j. b. martin collection, hist. mss. . . . . . b. s. to j. b. martin, mar. . cgca, j. b. martin collection, histmss. . . . . . the following examples are representative of this correspondence: "mr. stere has been in camp in b.c. since june . his wife and child are dependent on her earnings for support. she is in b.c. at present." "mr. burkhardt has been in camp since june . he has one child. his wife keeps a few boarders to earn a little money. she also is dependent upon gifts and charities from the church and friends." j. b. martin, chairman, military problems commit- tee, chpc, to j. f. mackinnon, regional alternate service officer, sept. . cgca xv-n. . , chpc collection, military problems committee, chairman's correspondence. quoted in klippenstein, that there be peace, . "home lake 'high' spots," the beacon : (feb. ), . alternative service and alternative gender roles j t h e c o who looked in vain to his home congregation to help look after his family was not alone in feeling that more could be done by the church to minimize the economic disadvantages of its pacifist stance. a young minister from alberta who visited camps in b . c . wrote very pointedly about the church s economic neglect of the c o , and addressed one of the social problems that challenged the mas- culinity of the c o : why, when the conscientious objector, to a greater extent than will ever be known and appreciated, stood for all that the church proclaimed, did not the church in turn stand for him? this would in comparison have been very easy. there was the conscientious objector's little farm, his newly started business, and with it in most cases his hopes and plans for future happiness and success all going on the rocks, when with little effort on the part of the church, it could easily have been preserved. did not everyone else make such provisions for those fighting for or representing them? long before he returned, provisions were made for the soldier's rehabilitation. his wife and family were adequately cared for. . . . and that smarting social letdown! his chum of yesterday marched down the street with measured tread and the young lady only too often preferred to hang felicitiously on the handsome soldierboy's arm. and the conscientious objector could just go his own way as far as she was concerned. some m e n n o n i t e churches did in fact establish funds for cos with dependents. in most cases, however, these were not monies divided equitably but were more akin to welfare funds which put the onus on individual families to prove their own need. furthermore, it is difficult to determine the extent to which these funds were at all active. t h e canadian friends service committee (quakers) was also "instrumen- tal in assisting the dependents of conscientious objectors." m o r e effective than church intervention to address economic need were several changes to the alternative service program itself. i n april , in response to pressure from the historic peace churches and to a growing national labour shortage, new legislation was passed j. w. nickel, "the canadian conscientious objector," mennonite lifey january , . a study based on questionnaires completed by cos also noted that "if the boys from the camps and boys from the active forces were home at the same time, the girls would pay more attention to the boys in uniform than the others." from jake p. krause, "their experience and opinion," (unpublished research paper, ), cgca, mennonites in canada files ( -conscientious objection), . socknat, witness to wary . bc studies which diverted service away from camps and towards placements in agriculture and industry. following this change, the majority of cos who received call-ups were placed on farms, while those already in camps were gradually re-assigned. m e n who were assigned to farm labour were paid at the prevailing wage rate, of which they received twenty-five dollars per m o n t h as well as room and board while the remainder went to the canadian red cross, cos who were placed in non-agricultural employment received an additional monthly allow- ance to cover living expenses. w h i l e this was an improvement over the meagre fifty cents a day received by men in the camps, and for married cos eliminated the loneliness of separation, it was only a partial solution to the dilemma of providing for their families. in july , recognizing that a problem of support existed, the canadian government passed legislation which established allowances for dependents of cos. these allowances were increased a year later, after the war had already ended. w h i l e these government measures were an important step towards reducing the glaring contrast between cos and servicemen, for cos w h o had been in alternative service since mid- the new arrangements came too late to undo the problems they may have experienced at the outset. some cos, rather than waiting for either the church or the govern- ment to step in and make things better, took matters into their own hands and rejected alternative service. reacting to a sense of the uselessness of their labour in camps as well as their concern about families struggling at home, a few cos went awol (absent without leave), causing "embarrassment" to their churches and "irritation to the government officials." a more common response was to enlist in the military. o n e historic peace group, the mennonites, saw a large portion of their young men join the armed forces without even declaring themselves as cos at the outset. t h e most recent of various estimates concludes that approximately , canadian mennonites enlisted in the armed forces, compared with , w h o chose alterna- for a detailed discussion of these legislative changes, see fransen, "canadian mennonites and conscientious objection in world war ii," - ; socknat, witness against wary - . the exact amount of these allowances varied according to individual circumstances and was subject to the discretionary power of the alternative service officer in a specific locale. the average dependent allowance was five to ten dollars per month for a married man, with an additional five dollars for each child. see j. a. toews, alternative service in canada during world war ii (winnipeg: canadian conference of the mennonite brethren church, n.d), . in june , red cross payments were reduced for those in agriculture and industry, while all married cos over the age of thirty were exempted entirely from such payments. socknat, witness against wary - , endnote . fransen, "canadian mennonites and conscientious objection. . .," - . alternative service and alternative gender roles c tive service. this study of mennonite soldiers by t. d. regehr argues that the dominant reason for mennonite young men enlisting in the military was "because they wanted to respond patriotically when their country called on them in its hour of need." the high rate of enlistment also points to the fact that commitment to pacifist principles had waned in some communities. that there was also a direct linkage between the desire for more useful and better-paying labour and the decision to enlist is suggested by the fact that men- nonite enlistments declined in the spring of , following the diver- sification of the alternative service program. for some men, the decision to enlist was also based on images of themselves and images of life in the military. some canadians likely shared the sentiments of an american co who joined the military in order to prove to himself and others "that he was not a coward." one man who volunteered for the air force did so "because flying was considered pretty glam- orous: it was well-paid and promotions were pretty good." a number of cos were able to fulfil their desire for service to country and also experience the glamour and danger of military service by entering noncombatant service in the medical and dental corps of the cana- dian army. although the historiography of the canadian co experience does not address the issue of pay to any great extent, it is probable that the substantially higher remuneration did draw men from pacifist groups into military service. sheldon martin of ontario was called up in june , and, in accordance with his own beliefs and that of the pentecos- tal church of which he was a member, declared himself a conscientious objector and began alternative service in b.c. on the mainland. mary ann, his wife of six weeks, followed sheldon to b.c. and found work in a shoe factory in vancouver. after about nine months, mary ann developed health problems which required costly treatment by a specialist. in order to pay for his wife's health care, sheldon joined the army, where he received $ . a day to start, almost triple his co wage. he said that had it not been for their immediate financial need, he t. d. regehr summarizes the historiography behind his estimate. see "lost sons: the canadian mennonite soldiers of world war ii," mennonite quarterly review^ : (oct. ), - . regehr, "lost sons," . the same conclusion is reached by mark epp in his paper, "mennonites in military service during world war ii" (unpublished research paper, men- nonite heritage centre, winnipeg, ), . olive stucky, quoted in keith l. sprunger and john d. thiesen, "mennonite military service in world war ii: an oral history approach," mennonite quarterly reviewy : (oct. ), . mark epp, "mennonites in military service. . .," . iso bc studies would have remained in the alternative service camp. while the number of men who left alternative sendee camps and enlisted in the military is not high — mennonites had taken this course of action by october — the feelings and dilemmas that prompted their more drastic choice were fairly widespread. although few men spoke directly about their self-identity as males, a masculine construction that included patriotism, service, bravery, and support of family did indeed shape their action as gendered beings. men who chose to remain in alternative service camps in b.c. were not acting out their wartime gender dilemma as outwardly as were those who chose to reject their go status. however, men in the camps also found ways of structuring and imaging their experience to make it fit societal and personal expectations of who they should be as men. in order to narrow the gap in experience between the co and the fighting soldier, the media and cos themselves used descriptive language and metaphor which likened alternative service to the military. the observation by jean bethke elshtain that the co often saw himself in "mimetic terms as the militant analogue of the violent warrior" seems especially apt when applied to the situation of cos in b.c. perhaps in order to lessen public perception that cos were having an easy time of it, one newspaper story about cos working for the bcfs observed: "at camp the men are subjected to army routine, and from all appearances like it." the task of fighting forest fires in particular lent itself to images parallel to those associated with the combatant soldier, cos were described as "combatting" fires and "standing on guard" on the west coast. a photo caption of co fire-fighters read: "return journey, after several days of battling the blaze. these heroes feel a war weariness of their own." the fact that cos were initially stationed as fire-fighters on the coast because of a perceived military threat did in fact make them part of the military effort from a defensive perspec- tive. it did not really matter that no bomb attack ever occurred. the military image went beyond fire-fighting, however, to include other aspects of forestry work. in an almost amusing comparison, alterna- interview by the author with sheldon and mary ann martin, may . historian rachel waltner goossen, who has studied gender and the american co experience, also found that some cos left civilian public service (the american equivalent of alternative service) and opted for combatant service to better support their families. see waltner goossen, "the 'second sex'. . .," . jean bethke elshtain, women and war (new york: basic books, inc., ), - . "mennonites doing a fine job," vancouver daily province, no date. article found in cgca, mennonites in canada files ( -conscientious objection). from klippenstein, that there be peace, . alternative service and alternative gender roles tive service workers, embarking on a project of lifting tree seedlings on the mainland for reforestation on the island, were likened to soldiers entering battle: last week this camp was a seething cauldron of excitement. a rumor had been spread that the first week of february would see us in action. however, beyond the wildest dreams and expectations of the most hopeful, orders were issued that today the zero hour had come. everyone rushed to their posts and at the close of the first half day, no less than , trees were pulled, tied and heeled in, before the murderous onslaught. due to the imminent danger of the attack being blunted, reinforcements were summoned from the seymour camp, hastily assembled and with a minimum of training, rushed into the fray at the side of their comrades. the field was carried by storm. tabulations on the last day of january show one million trees torn from their moorings, calmly awaiting shipment to the island. similarly, the dramatic account of one m a n s accomplishment felling a snag which measured fifteen feet in diameter at its widest point was thought to be a good story in later years when his children would ask, "daddy, what did you do in the war?" fighting fires and felling trees were not the only activities in which cos could exhibit their manly qualities of strength and courage. for some cos, sin was an enemy as threatening as the nazis. some as camps had strongly evangelical factions which regularly sang hymns such as "onward, christian soldiers" or "soldiers for christ," and which proselytized in nearby towns. o n e article in the beacon responded to critical editorials which had appeared in b.c. news- papers attacking the cowardliness of cos. t h e c o writer said, "we all wish as young men to be numbered among the brave and strong," and challenged cos to be like the biblical samson, who had to kill a lion bare-handed before he could proceed with his life plans. rather than killing lions (or germans for that matter), the writer called on cos to attack the sin in their lives. "camp gt-i news," the beacon, : (feb./march ), . "gt- news," the beacon, : (oct./nov. ), . "editorial," the beacon, : (april ), . critical press coverage of the cos was especially strong in the fraser valley where there was also a growing population of mennonites. criticism was directed at the as workers but also at what was perceived as a mennonite "land-grab" in the valley. articles included: "valley boards of trade urge ban on mennonite land grab," vancouver daily province, june ; "mennonites protest criticism — organize to buy loan bonds," chilliwack progress, may . ip bc studies there were many other small and subtle examples which demon- strate what elshtain has suggested are "ironic similarities" between the co and the soldier. these included a comparison of the close friend- ships formed among soldiers on battlefields with those established among men in the forest service, as well as the simple "song for conchies" composed by alternative service workers and sung to the tune of "it's a long way to tipperary." other ironies included the occasional interaction between cos and regular army personnel sta- tioned on vancouver island. sometimes they worked side by side on road or forest projects and sometimes co camps would challenge army camps in sports. there was no hiding the tone of triumph when the cos won over the soldiers in games of softball and volleyball. sports activities were important for alleviating boredom and were also a means for the co to emphasize his virility. apparently boxing and wrestling were popular past-times and may have been so because they were especially masculine sports which demonstrated aggression and fighting ability. according to one chronicler, "in one instance a man spent several weeks recuperating from cracked ribs received in boxing, and in another case the floor of a cabin needed to be replaced because of the vigor of the wrestling matches." life in as camps may well have resembled the "masculine culture" characteristic of logging camps described by historian ian radforth. to emphasize further their masculinity and, perhaps, look more like soldiers, some cos grew moustaches in camp, a practice which would have been taboo in their home communities. one young man antagonized his parents by growing a moustache, which "makes me look more officious, and that's what a fellow needs in camp here." he obliged them and shaved it off, saying, "i'm sorry my little moustache hurt you so. . . . i can't see that there is anything unchristian about it." thus, even while standing ideologically outside of society's wartime image of the militarized male, cos consciously and sub- consciously found ways of redefining their own experience which allowed them also to be wartime heroes. elshtain notes that historic accounts of pacifism in wartime have tended to ignore these similarities. see women and war, . "q; chips," the beacon, : (may ), . sider, "life and labor in the alternate service work camps. . .," . radforth makes several references to the machismo which was part of the logging industry. see busbworkers and bosses: logging in northern ontario, iÇoo-iÇ o (toronto: university of toronto press, ). "john" (lake cowichan, bc) to "dear father" feb. , and "dear father and mother" feb. , and "dear mother" feb. . in cgca, mennonites in canada fdes ( -wwii-alternative service). alternative service and alternative gender roles j£j for the women married to cos, the outbreak of war and their husbands* departure for alternative service also meant a disruption in their activities and self-understanding as wives. unlike their menfolk, however, women from historic peace groups experienced a shift in gender roles that more closely parallelled the experience of their mainstream counterparts. since their pacifist stance posed no direct problem for them as far as military conscription went, co women found themselves supporting the "peace effort" in much the same way that other canadian women were supporting the "war effort." like other women, co women collected clothes for war sufferers, knit bandages for the red cross, and learned to manage their house- holds in light of wartime rationing. many married co women also entered the workforce, both part-time and full-time, to bring income into the household. in many cases, women stepped out of their traditional domestic roles and stepped into the vacant shoes of their brothers and husbands. in a style which echoed much of the propa- ganda surrounding women's wartime roles, a article in a toronto newspaper featured a mennonite-owned farm north of the city where the wideman sisters were helping to run the farm in the absence of male hands. entitled "girls man the farm front," the article described how anna alone plowed acres while her sister ella "did a mans job daily." the profile of one co in the beacon also noted that "his wife now operates his large farm" in saskatchewan. (ironically, it is still his farm.) other women took in boarders, did laundry and sewing in their homes, or moved in with family members to make ends meet. the experience of clara (lebold) roth is fairly typical for young wives of cos. clara was pregnant with her first child and only two weeks short of her due date when her husband ken was sent into alternative service in b.c. although her sister had been boarding with them, without her husbands income as a truck driver, clara could not afford the rent on their apartment and so moved in with her parents. it would seem that life with a new baby in her parental home was not entirely satisfactory and so after seven months, clara moved out on her own, supporting herself and her infant son by sewing lingerie at home for a nearby clothing factory. loneliness overcame her, however, and after a short time she returned to live with her parents. before long clara took a "big step" and travelled to b.c. to be near her husband, despite opposition from her mother-in-law and even though "girls man the farm front," the star weekly, aug. . "who's who," the beacon, : (may ), . i$ bc studies her church "wasn't much for it either." once in b.c., clara easily found work as a housekeeper, and she and her husband shared a cabin in deep cove with another co couple. housekeeping was a common occupation for co women in b.c. and positions were plentiful in both vancouver and victoria. wages were good as well. in oral accounts, one woman reported earning as much as twenty dollars a week in vancouver, while others commonly juxtaposed their hourly wage of fifty cents against their husbands' token allowance of fifty cents a day. women also worked as sales- clerks, picked hops, and worked in factories. annie martin from ontario stumbled somewhat unintentionally into what would become a lifetime vocation during her two-year sojourn in b.c. while work- ing as a housekeeper for a family in victoria, she was unexpectedly left with the permanent care of two young children when her employers (their parents) abruptly separated and the children were left with the local children's aid society. over the next months, she took in five more foster children, a task which she resumed after returning to ontario and continued well past the age of retirement. the stipend annie received for the children's care as well as money earned provid- ing room and board for several sailors stationed in the city created a good income for her and her co husband, sylvester. he, incidentally, was earning the "enviable" wage of seventy-five cents a day because of added responsibility as a co clerk and truck driver. for co wives, the decision to accompany their husbands was not made lighdy, especially for young women who had hardly been out- side their home communities, much less several thousand miles from church and family. some experienced opposition from their families and in-laws over their decision. one woman, who was shunned by her church and family for marrying out of the highly conservative old order mennonite community, chose to accompany her husband west because there was no support for her at home and, in her words, "it was easier to be among strangers." the brief sojourn in b.c. was also an adventure for these women; in recalling the war era, many remem- bered their western experience as a high point in their lives. helen burkholder, in fact, viewed her relatively short four-month stay on vancouver island as a honeymoon! oral history accounts told some interview by the author with clara roth, july . annie martin's story is told by lorraine roth in "conscientious objection: the experiences of some canadian mennonite women. . .," . interview by the author with annie and sylvester martin, may . interview by lorraine roth with a. m., may . ms. roth kindly shared her interview notes with me. interview by the author with h. b., july . ; alternative service and alternative gender roles itf fifty years after the war present a positive and nostalgic, even rose- coloured, look at what was for most of the women a relatively short experience. it is important to remember, however, that at the time cos were assigned to alternative service terms for the duration of the war, the prospect represented a frightening unknown for their families. one woman provided a glimpse of emotions which were likely shared by others when she said, "at the time i didn't, think anything would be the same again." the distant separation from home also allowed women temporary freedom from some of the rigid constraints which characterized the culture and belief of their sectarian communities. these freedoms included relatively simple cultural experiences such as hearing a sym- phony in stanley park or spending a night at the luxurious empress hotel in victoria. for women from those mennonite sub-groups that maintained dress prescriptions which were discomfiting for women and set them apart, the distance from home may have afforded them the opportunity to discard the head coverings and outdated bonnets which were part of their church's "uniform." one woman from a conservative branch of the mennonite church who, when interviewed in was still wearing her net head covering and cape-style dress, said that she had not worn her head covering while living in victoria, where such a uniform would have been unfamiliar to the general public. another woman wore her bonnet but dressed it up so as to make it more fashionable. deviating from the dress code was one way to avoid being an ethnic curiosity. there may have been another, less conscious, motive to defy dress regulations. to the extent that dress, particularly the head covering prescribed for women, was understood to be reflective of a god-ordained gender role of submis- sion, women who chose to discard or modify the dress code were also challenging that role. the memories women express about their wartime employment and income-earning are mostly positive and with little emphasis on the hardships they may have experienced. this would suggest that for them, the episode in b.c. was a time in which they summoned and found inner qualities of courage, resourcefulness, and independence, all of which boosted their self-esteem. the concern that women were interview by the author with clara roth, july . interview by the author with a. m., may . interview by the author with h. b., july . for an historical study of dress and gender among the mennonites, see my article, "carrying the banner of nonconformity: ontario mennonite women and the dress question," conrad grebel review^ : (fall ), - . iso bc studies unfortunately stepping outside of appropriate gender roles was expressed, however, by some cos and their churches. one co raised the question as follows: "according to past teachings in our churches on home life is it right that mothers should have to find some one to take care of the baby and they have to work in the shop etc. for a living?" the feeling that they were reneging on their responsibilities as providers and that this would reflect poorly on them was a concern raised by some cos. for instance, one minister visiting cos in the as camps reported that the question had been raised, "if our dependents accept financial help will that embarrass us in later years?" a men- nonite minister from kitchener, ontario expressed the church's own ambiguous position with respect to the problem of support for fam- ilies of cos. stating that the most preferable and "normal" option for co wives would be to "return to their own parents," he nevertheless recognized that some women had taken on work "in a shop, office, or factory." although he advocated financial assistance for co families, the minister expressed the fear that support for younger women (those under sixty) could cause them to become "idle, busybodies, tattlers, and wanderers from house to house." rather than recognize the significant economic contribution that women were making, which in fact enabled cos to maintain their ideological stance, this particular minister was fixed in traditional thinking about gender which empha- sized women's dependency. if recognition of women s breadwinning role was subverted by think- ing about what their proper role should be, other aspects of their support fit a feminine image more easily. women who travelled to b.c. to be near their husbands in alternative service camps were viewed above all as morale boosters. brief news notes in the beacon repeatedly mentioned the arrival of women near camps, making "things more pleasant" for their husbands. another typical entry was the following: since we were transferred from q , most of the men have their wives in the vicinity. pete m., pete l., waldemar h., george b., ben r., and henry j. are the lucky fellows. whenever possible, these men are among the missing during week-ends, and can probably be found comforting, and getting comfort, from their better halves. j. b. martin and e. j. swalm, "report of alternate service workers in b.c. and alberta," no date, cgca, j.b. martin collection. ibid. c. f. derstine, "canadian conscientious objectors in camp," gospel herald> aug. , - . "green timbers manning depot," the beacon^ : (june ), . "gt~ news roundup," the beacon> : (july ), . alternative service and alternative gender roles i$j one co had a "real break" when his mother, sister, girlfriend, and younger brother all set up housekeeping in a small cabin near the as camp in vancouver island. the co with his sister and girlfriend delighted the other men with their singing trio while "mrs. t. is just like a mother to us." the "mothering" role that many co wives performed for as workers frequently took the form of providing home-cooked meals. helen burkholder arrived in b.c. with a steamer trunk full of home canning which nourished the stomachs, and also the spirits, of her co guests for several months. care packages sent from home to as camps usually included food — in one case a fiilly-cooked pork roast and in another a jar of fresh strawberries, which unfortunately arrived spoiled, having been en route for over a week. while holding down full-time jobs, co women, some of them with young children in tow, also provided a home-away-from-home for their menfolk, thus fulfilling a domestic role even while far away from their own homes. a full discussion of the lives of co families following the war is beyond the scope of this paper. it is important to point out, however, that of the co couples studied, all resumed a "normal" ordering of gender roles after their wartime experience in b.c. some men were able to return to their former places of employment, while others continued working, with full wages, at the service placements in agriculture and industry assigned to them after their stints in the camps. women, for the most part, left the paid workforce and stayed at home fully engaged in childrearing and housekeeping. in canadas postwar economy of prosperity, jobs for men were plentiful and a second income provided by women's labour was usually not needed to maintain the family. the "gender-stratified household" containing the "production-oriented husband and the domestic-centered wife" which characterized one mennonite community in the postwar era probably held true for other similar communities. the skills learned by both sexes during the alternative service experience, however, continued to influence the activities of co coup- les in varying degrees. as mentioned above, annie martin cared for ibid. see royden loewen, "rurality, ethnicity, and gender patterns of cultural continuity during the 'great disjuncture' in the r. m. of hanover, - ," journal of 'the canadian historical association ( ), - . the southern manitoba community of hanover was predominantly mennonite. in research i have done on mennonite women in the postwar era, i found that the "gendered division of labour" described by veronica strong-boag of canadian suburban communities also held true for mennonites, especially those in urban areas. strong-boag, "home dreams: women and the suburban experiment in canada, - ," canadian historical review yi (december ), - . jj bc studies foster children for many years after her first experience doing so in victoria. helen burkholder continued to work as a housekeeper until her first child was born, co men were often able to use skills with tools and machinery that they had gained working for the bcfs in their later job choices. despite the ambivalence which some men felt about their alternative service labour during the war, many looked back proudly at their work, pointing in particular to the large numbers of trees they had planted on the island. the term ephemeral has been used by some historians to describe wartime transformations in gender roles that occurred especially for women and this is how co couples also viewed their experience. although the long-term effect of alternative roles on things like self- perception and gender consciousness are more intangible than the actual roles themselves, and thus are difficult to measure, it is clear that both men and women viewed their altered tasks as temporary wartime exigencies. for these couples, the dynamics of gender roles represented continuity and change that were not mutually exclusive. in conclusion, the experiences of co men and women in b.c. during world war ii reveal both difference from and sameness to the gender deconstruction and reconstruction occurring in other cana- dian families. while men were becoming militant pacifists, women were simultaneously breadwinners and dependents. to what extent either sex was conscious of the gender re-definition underway is difficult to ascertain. in any case, it is clear that both men and women were carving out new gender space which altered their self-definition, even as they and their communities simultaneously held onto proper, or normative, notions of their roles as husbands and wives. in , cos who had worked for the bcfs held a reunion on vancouver island. today, some view their wartime labour of tree-planting as a contribution to the environmental movement. viktor ullmann (review) viktor ullmann (review) sharon krebs seminar: a journal of germanic studies, volume , number , february , pp. - (review) published by university of toronto press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /smr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /smr. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ ob von einer freundschaft im exil, wie der titel suggeriert, wirklich die rede sein kann, ist fragwürdig. zu unterschiedlich war die situation der beiden autoren: als sie sich in princeton trafen, logierte thomas mann in einer villa mit zehn räumen und fünf badezimmern, während broch in einer winzigen kammer hausen musste. es entsteht eher das bild einer durch das schicksal bewirkten verbundenheit, die sich schließlich auch in gemeinsamen aktionen gegen den nationalsozialismus manifestierte, wobei mann besondere achtung vor broch dem psychologen des massenwahns zeigte, auch wenn er in brochs theoretischen schriften die aktuelle verwertbarkeit vermisste. es entsteht das bild von gegenseitigem respekt und von anteilnahme an den arbeiten des anderen. immerhin gehörte broch in den princetoner jahren ( – ) zum engeren bekanntenkreis der familie mann und übernahm sogar die rolle des trauzeugen bei der heirat der jüngsten mann-tochter elisabeth. auch stand broch immer auf der besucherliste, wenn thomas mann später von seinem kalifornischen domizil an die ostküste reiste. doch waren die beiden schriftsteller nicht nur in hinsicht auf alter und bekanntheit, sondern auch in ihrem naturell zu verschieden, um sich wirklich ganz nahe zu kommen. “bei aller hochachtung, die sie einander bewahrten,” so das einleuchtende resümee lützelers, “bei allem generellen respekt blieb im literarischen wie im politischen bereich immer das bewusstsein einer differenz” ( ). für broch war thomas mann letztlich zu sehr dichterfürst und selbsternannter repräsentant der deutschen nation, er sah um den nobelpreisträger den “zaubermantel der ungemütlichkeit” ( ) wehen. dennoch – und dies ist ein weiterer spannender aspekt, der durch lützelers band zutage tritt – zeigte sich broch loyal, als thomas mann in der nachkriegszeit von frank thiess im zuge des streites zwischen schriftstellern des exils und der inneren emigration heftig angegriffen wurde. da broch sich sowohl mann als auch thiess (der ihm bei der schlafwandler-trilogie mit vielen praktischen hinweisen geholfen hatte) verpflichtet fühlte, erforderte seine haltung in diesem konflikt, wie lützeler schreibt, “viel diplomatisches geschick” ( ), was broch denn auch mit viel noblesse bewies. die von ihm sicher begehrte aufnahme in die deutsche akademie für sprache und dichtung, wo thiess als vizepräsident amtierte, scheiterte, weil broch dem berühmteren kollegen den vorzug lassen wollte. paul michael lützelers vorbildlich zusammengestellter band verschafft dem leser nicht nur ein komplexes und facettenreiches bild über das verhältnis der beiden so verschiedenen autoren, er bietet auch einen guten einblick in diskussionen und aktionen der deutschsprachigen schriftsteller im us-amerikanischen exil. wer sich mit einem der beiden autoren oder mit forschungen zum exil befasst, sollte dieses buch in seinem regal stehen haben. jÜrgen heizmann université de montréal mitsuko shirai, voice. viktor ullmann. with hartmut höll, piano, and elisabeth verhoeven, readings. cappriccio (# ), . euro . (compact disc) asin b qhve. the lieder recordings of mitsuko shirai and hartmut höll are always thoughtfully selected collections, performed with intelligence and insight. the present cd, on which they are joined by elisabeth verhoeven, is yet another in a long line of memorable re- reviews mary botto muse cordings. the three artists have produced a poignant testament to the outstanding talent of the jewish composer viktor ullmann ( – ), who perished in auschwitz on october , two days after having been sent there from theresienstadt. the cd opens with a group of five songs composed in prague in , with texts from the liebesgedichte of ricarda huch. settings of huch’s poetry are not numerous; aside from ullmann, hans pfitzner has set seven poems, five of which are also from huch’s liebesgedichte. although some might not find ullmann’s music accessible at first hearing, it beautifully captures the almost fanatical rapture of huch’s love poetry. shirai and höll give a gripping performance, which, like ullmann’s music, amply repays multiple listenings. the remainder of the cd is devoted to works composed in theresienstadt, where ullmann had been incarcerated since the autumn of . many authors have commented on the ironic twist of fate by which many of ullmann’s theresienstadt compositions have survived, while most of his earlier work has been lost. in , ullmann commenced the composition of a hölderlin-liederbuch, beginning with the next two songs on this re- cording: “sonnenuntergang” and “der frühling.” it is not certain why ullmann abandoned his hölderlin project, but he crossed the suffix “-buch” out. several months later he set his last hölderlin poem, “abendphantasie,” leaving the world only three hölderlin-lieder. as one listens to these compositions, considered to be among ullmann’s masterpieces, it is fascinating to contemplate the choice of texts, the interaction of music and text, and the circumstances under which this music came into being. the interpretations on this recording are very moving, in particular “abendphantasie,” the last of the group. the final vocal piece on the cd is the “little cakewalk,” apparently the only surviving song of a group of chansons des enfants francaises. shirai’s performance achieves such a completely different vocal colour from that of the earlier lieder that one could almost be convinced that another singer is performing. the piece is just over two minutes long, although ullmann’s performance instructions request “répétition avec humeur jusqu’à fin de siècle.” light and carefree on the surface and having a children’s counting rhyme as a text, the piece has been described as a deliberate reaction against the horrors of life in a concentration camp. shirai’s and höll’s rendition of the “little cakewalk,” while not lacking in lightness and playfulness, gives us glimpses of these darker undercurrents. the cd concludes with a longer work, over half an hour in duration. rilke wrote die weise von liebe und tod des cornets christoph rilke in , reworked it in before its publication in prague, and then reworked it again for the german publication of . ullmann chose to set rilke’s prosadichtung as a melodram, a genre in which the text is recited – not sung – to a musical (in this case, piano) accompaniment, resulting in what one might term a “heightened” recitation. the incredible expressive power of the human voice is supplemented by an equally expressive piano part. and when, as on this recording, the melodram is performed by two superb artists, the result is thrilling. ullmann chose not to use rilke’s entire text, cutting the length almost exactly in half. for the most part, he selected or left out complete segments of the work. however, if a chosen segment contained a reference to an earlier omitted segment, ullmann deleted that reference. the entire story of the marquis was cut, for example, and any later mention of the rose petal that the marquis bestowed upon the cornet at their farewell was also removed. ullmann’s work is thus a distilled version of the original rilke text. seminar this recording is potentially useful in a number of different areas of the discipline of german studies. in ricarda huch studies, for example, a discussion of the statement in the cd booklet that ullmann “strengthened the prevailing mood of the poetry, and added new components to it” ( ) could be very fruitful. in addition, ullmann’s editing of rilke’s text and its effect on the work promises a fascinating project, while ullmann’s entire biography offers a particularly compelling instance of an artist’s confrontation with national socialism and the holocaust. given an academic climate that actively promotes interdisciplinarity, it is wonderful to find a recording that brings music and germanistik together in so many ways. sharon krebs independent scholar, victoria, british columbia heinz antor, sylvia brown, john considine, klaus stierstorfer, eds. refractions of germany in canadian literature and culture. berlin: de gruyter, . pp. euro (hardcover). isbn - - - . germany and germans figure in canada’s literary consciousness in complex ways. canadian and german literary critics explore some of these “refractions” in this important collection. the seventeen essays, originating as presentations at a conference in banff, alberta, in , are carefully edited and, essentially, of evenly high quality. they are grouped in three sections: “diaspora and settledness,” “jewish experience and the holo- caust,” and “literature and cultural exchange.” these themes are “refracted” rather than merely summarized in john considine’s introduction and in an essay/poem by robert kroetsch. in the first two essays of section one, sylvia brown and anna wittmann claim german immigrants’ oral histories about flight, displacement, and eventual settlement in canada during and after wwii as canadian literature. brown examines her father’s and other prussian-germans’ stories and silences about the loss of heimat. juxtaposing fiction and oral history, wittmann investigates east european germans’ continually shifting identities in times of war and migration. while it is unclear how the life stories are shaped by the canadian experience, it is clear that their marginalization has shaped the two authors. thus both articles are expressions of second generation german-canadians finding their voice in canadian society. peter webb echoes this political motivation in his carefully crafted rehabilitation of martin blecher, a german-american living part-time in ontario, who until recently has been suspected by germanophobic anglo-canadians of murdering canadian painter tom thomson in . the next three essays pick up the idea of constructing a german-canadian cultural memory. considine analyzes jack thiessen’s mennonite dictionaries as an archive of language and thus as a (or the) heimat for mennonites. others felt that “home” could or even should be religious rather than ethnic, as is evident in thomas mengel’s descriptive analysis of “der deutsche katholik in kanada ( – ).” that identity and heimat are socially contested concepts is evidenced by heinz antor’s useful examination not only of the impact of rudy wiebe’s mennonite heritage on his writings but also of his writings about mennonites on canadian society. wiebe writes against truisms held about and by mennonites. reviews lessons from a child © joule inc. or its licensors cmaj | july , | volume | issue e e ight and a half years old. forty-nine admissions to hospital, emer-gency department visits and outpatient hospital visits, for a total of days in hospital. at least broken central venous catheters (cvcs) that required repair or replacement, new cvcs and peripherally inserted central catheters. nineteen episodes of septicemia and seven of fungemia, all of which were life threatening. this was my friend sheyanne. i first met sheyanne when she was one month old. she was born in a com- munity hospital, into a rural and strongly faith-based mennonite family. shortly after birth, it was noted she had prob- lems and she was transferred to chil- dren’s hospital in london, where choanal atresia and imperforate anus were diag- nosed. these were repaired, but every time feeds were started, she developed explosive diarrhea. as a hospital-based pediatrician who cared for many of the inpatient children with serious bowel problems, i assumed her care. for the next eight-plus years, i was her primary physician caregiver. at the age of three months, she was given a diag- nosis of congenital sodium secretory diar- rhea and was committed to a lifetime of total parenteral nutrition (tpn) via cvcs. her dietitian and i, along with the nursing staff, became her treatment team. having cared for pediatric liver and bowel trans- plant patients for more than years, i was used to talking with patients and their fami- lies about life, death and treatment options, and i had been to many funerals for the patients who either had not received the organs they needed or who had developed complications following transplantation. those patients were unwell, but transplan- tation gave them a chance to live. sheyanne didn’t have the option of transplantation. she was a patient unlike any other. along her journey, sheyanne taught her medical and family caregivers a great deal about tpn and medicine, about the fixing and replacing of venous catheters in a very young and active child, and about the various presentations of seri- ous infection. more importantly, she taught many of us a lot about zest for life. for the first months of her life, she lived in hospital; from the very beginning, she was a strong-willed child, exhibiting a toughness that i believe kept her alive on many occasions. her dietitian and i worked with shey- anne’s mother and the family’s support network to get her home with tpn. although it was an enormous challenge for the family, with three other lively children, they were committed to her care and became proficient at feeding her through tpn. over the next several years, i grew accustomed to receiving pages from shey- anne’s mother, saying that her daughter’s line was damaged or an infection was brewing. i would arrange for a bed for sheyanne’s next admission and her par- ents would make the two-hour drive to children’s hospital. despite the numerous hospital visits, admissions and episodes of life-threatening infections, sheyanne remained full of spunk and laughter. i used to be dr. paul, but by the time she was six years old, i was just paul. a bright, curious, exploring child, she eventually figured out how to page me her- self, calling me from inside the hospital when she was admitted. she came to believe that time with dr. paul meant she humanities | encounters lessons from a child n cite as: cmaj july ; :e - . doi: . /cmaj. cmaj podcasts: audio reading at https://soundcloud.com/cmajpodcasts/ -enc to m ek d /i st oc k h u m a n it ie s e cmaj | july , | volume | issue would start to feel re-energized, as once her infections were treated, she would bounce back to her delightful self. we, her medical caregivers, could not help but grow to care deeply for sheyanne and also to expect that we would be treat- ing her for the rest of our careers. her stays in hospital were often prolonged but, pro- vided she was not bedridden with sepsis, she would be out touring the corridors of her hospital floor, eager to jump out and surprise us or show us her crafts. other hospital staff embraced sheyanne’s outgo- ing personality; one day this past year, child life specialists took her to customer support, where she received an id badge as a helper. she was so proud of it, inviting the health care team members to notice her working as she helped push some of the other children around the halls in their strollers or wheelchairs. the nurses delighted in her and there was always a hint of sadness whenever she was finally able to go home to be with her family. as at other children’s hospitals, “make a wish” experiences are made available to our very ill patients. just three weeks before she died, sheyanne went to toronto for a make a wish trip with her sisters and mom — and they did about as much as you could do in a week in the big city. sheyanne was excited to capture these memories on her new ipad — a gift she had received shortly before the trip — and with glee shared all the pictures with the staff after she was admitted to hospital. this would be sheyanne’s last hospital visit — the last of many. earlier in her life, i had talked with the family about intestinal transplantation and we all agreed this would be an unreasonable course for sheyanne and her family — after all, when sheyanne was not at “death’s door,” she was a happy and vivacious child. so we continued to treat her recurrent infections, but after a while, the cost of treating these infections — on sheyanne, on her parents, and on the family as a whole — became enormous. sheyanne was still vibrant and mostly happy, but her suffering had out- paced her healing. eventually, no more alternative sites for new cvcs were available, and sheyanne would have faced death by starvation and/ or dehydration. confronted with this choice, we once again introduced the option of not treating the infections. by this point, sheyanne’s parents saw that her quality of life was deteriorating and, know- ing what she would have to deal with, in consultation with me and others on her team, they decided that it was time to let god, rather than science, decide her fate. sheyanne’s journey has deepened my understanding about quality of life. although i have walked the path with patients and their families of coming to the decision to withhold treatment for a termi- nally ill patient, this ending was different. the life and optimism sheyanne exuded when she was well made this especially difficult for all of us involved in her care. but by her last hospital admission, even those who did not initially agree with the decision had come to accept that a tipping point had finally been reached: it was time to compassionately let her go. as we partnered with sheyanne and her family during this journey — we pro- vided palliative care and kept her comfort- able with medication during her last infec- tion, which we did not treat — it gave me a deepened appreciation for the challenges involved in withholding medical interven- tion when it will not enhance quality of life. and i will continue to treasure the many lessons sheyanne taught me and my colleagues about finding balance between the benefits and intrusiveness of medical care, quality of life, living in the moment, caring deeply — and letting go. paul atkison md children’s hospital, london health sciences centre, london, ont. this article has been peer reviewed. this is a true story. the author has received consent for this story to be told. background and purpose expandable stents have broadened the spectrum of endovascular treatment of intracranial aneur- ysms. the neuroform atlas, a nitinol self-expanding, hybrid/open-cell stent, is the evolution of the neuroform ez supposing to ease the navigability of the system into intra-cra- nial arteries, through a low-profile . inch delivery cathe- ter. we present herein our initial experience in the treatment of intracranial aneurysms with this novel stent. materials and methods we compiled data from consecutive patients of our institution from july to avril who underwent stent-assisted coiling with the neuroform atlas. clinical and angiographic results were analyzed retrospectively. results twenty-seven intracranial saccular aneurysms ( mca, acoa, ica bifurcation, basilar tip, vertebral-pica) in patients ( women, men, mean age years) were consecu- tively treated. the stent was used in previously untreated aneurysms, and in cases of recanalization. one single stent was used in aneurysms while aneurysms were treated with stents in a “y” configuration. the immediate post-treatment angiography showed a complete occlusion in cases ( . %), a residual neck in cases ( . %) and a residual aneurysmal con- trast filling in cases ( . %). two complications occurred ( . %), the first due to an associated aneurysm perforation (mrs ), and the second due to parent vessel perforation (mrs ). both of them occurred after the stent implantation. conclusion the neuroform atlas delivery system is an effective device for treatment of complex intracranial aneur- ysms, allowing good conformability and stability with a high level of navigability. disclosures g. ciccio: none. s. smajda: none. t. robert: none. h. redjem: none. r. blanc: none. c. ruiz guerrero: none. j. desilles: none. h. takezawa: none. p. sasannejad: none. m. piotin: none. electronic poster abstracts e- comparison of clinical outcomes in patients with anterior circulation acute ischemic strokes treated with mechanical thrombectomy using the adapt technique only versus adapt with solumbra salvage j delgado almandoz, y kayan, m young, j fease, j scholz, a milner, p roohani, t hehr, m mulder, r tarrel. neurointerventional radiology, abbott northwestern hospital, minneapolis, mn; vascular neurology, abbott northwestern hospital, minneapolis, mn; critical care medicine, abbott northwestern hospital, minneapolis, mn . /neurintsurg- - . purpose to compare procedural and clinical outcomes in patients with anterior circulation acute ischemic strokes treated with mechanical thrombectomy using adapt technique only or adapt with solumbra salvage. materials and methods we restrospectively reviewed a consecu- tive cohort of patients with anterior circulation acute ischemic strokes treated with mechanical thrombectomy using adapt technique only or adapt with solumbra salvage at our insti- tution between march th, and december st, . baseline clinical and radiological characteristics and procedural variables were recorded. clinical outcomes at days were recorded using the modified rankin scale (mrs). results fifty-nine patients were included, male ( %). mean age . years, mean admission nihss . . forty-six patients were treated with adapt only ( %) and with adapt with solumbra salvage ( %). table summarizes baseline clinical and radiological characteristics. there was a trend towards a higher proportion of patients with ica termi- nus thrombi in the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( . %, p-value . ). table summarizes the procedural variables. there was a significantly-lower mean time from puncture to reperfusion in the adapt only group ( . minutes) compared to the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( . minutes, p-value < . ). there was a signifi- cantly-higher number of mean thrombectomy device passes in the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( . ) compared to the adapt only group ( . , p-value . ). there are a sig- nificantly-higher rate of iatrogenic cervical vascular dissection in the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( %) compared to the adapt only group ( , p-value . ). table summa- rizes the clinical outcomes. there was a significantly-higher rate of unfavorable clinical outcome (mrs – ) and death at days in the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( . % and . %, respectively) compared to the adapt only group abstract e- table baseline clinical and radiological characteristics all patients (n = ) adapt only (n = ) adapt with solumbra salvage (n = ) p- value mean age, years . . . . admission nihss . . . iv-tpa % % % . atrial fibrillation % % % . male sex % % % mean ncct aspects . . . . m thrombus % % % . ica terminus thrombus % % % . severe tortuosity (� degrees) % % % . abstract e- table procedural variables all patients (n = ) adapt only (n = ) adapt with solumbra salvage (n = ) p- value number of devices passes . . . . max ace use % % % . ace use % % % . tici b/ reperfusion % % % . carotid stent deployment % % % embolus to new territory % % % iatrogenic cervical dissection % % . puncture to reperfusion, minutes . . . . last known well to reperfusion, minutes . electronic poster abstracts a jnis ; ( ):a –a ( . % and . %, p-value . and . , respectively). there was a trend towards a higher rate of favorable clinical outcomes (mrs – ) at days in the adapt only group ( %) compared to the adapt with solumbra salvage group ( %, p-value . ). conclusion among patients treated with mechanical thrombec- tomy using an adapt-first approach, those requiring solum- bra salvage had significantly-higher rates of unfavorable clinical outcome and death at days. abstract e- table clinical outcomes all patients (n = ) adapt only (n = ) adapt with solumbra salvage (n = ) p- value symptomatic intraparenchymal hemorrhage . % . % symptomatic subarachnoid h . % . % . neuro-icu length of stay, days . . . . hospital length of stay, days . . . discharge to home: % % % . in-hospital mortality / discharge to hospice % % % . day mortality % % % . day mrs – % % % . day mrs – % % % . disclosures j. delgado almandoz: ; c; medtronic neurovas- cular, penumbra, inc. y. kayan: ; c; medtronic neurovascu- lar, penumbra, inc. m. young: none. j. fease: none. j. scholz: none. a. milner: none. p. roohani: none. t. hehr: none. m. mulder: none. r. tarrel: none. e- prolongation of polymethylmethacrylate cement working time during percutaneous kyphoplasty with ice bath cooling b kim. texas stroke institute, plano, tx . /neurintsurg- - . aim to study the effect of cooling of polymethylmethacrylate dough in an ice bath to prolong working time of cement dur- ing percutaneous kyphoplasty. materials and methods polymethylmethacrylate dough filled cement cartridges were placed in a saline ice bath for varying lengths of time to study the effect of cooling cartridges on working time of cement during percutaneous kyphoplasty using the kyphon® (medtronic spine, sunnyvale, ca, usa) balloon kyphoplasty system. results cement dough was easily injectable through the bone filler with the injection gun immediately after removal from an ice bath at , , and minutes of storage. consistency of the mixture was ideally doughy at all time points. after minutes at room temperature, the mixture continued to be injectable with slightly more resistance at these time points. the mixture was more firm yet maintained a doughy consis- tency. cement dough could not be injected after minutes of storage, either immediately after removal or after minutes at room temperature. conclusion we demonstrate the prolongation of working time of polymethylmethacrylate cement in percutaneous kyphoplasty using ice bath cooling of dough filled cement cartridges. cement dough was injectable after storage in an ice bath for up to minutes. in the clinical setting, intraprocedual cool- ing using this simple, low cost technique may extend the working time of polymethylmethacrylate for the operator and may improve the utility of a single balloon kyphoplasty kit when treating multiple vertebral compression fractures. disclosures b. kim: none. e- evaluation of strategies to reduce time to revascularization in acute ischemic stroke a doerr, s jenkins, j davis. northwestern medicine, chicago, il; mennonite college of nursing, illinois state university, normal, il; central dupage hospital, winfield, il . /neurintsurg- - . background stroke is significant cause of morbidity, disability and mortality in the united states today. there is growing support for the need for process improvement, specifically, reducing time to reperfusion in endovascular stroke therapy (evt) to improve functional outcomes. it is suggested that every minutes delay in revascularization of acute ischemic stroke leads to a . % decrease in the potential for a good functional outcome (khatri et al., ). purpose to identify the impact on specific hospital based proc- ess improvement strategies in the acute ischemic stroke patient population undergoing endovascular therapy with specific intent to decrease median arrival to revascularization time, thus increasing the potential for good functional outcome. we abstract e- figure electronic poster abstracts jnis ; ( ):a –a a maple syrup urine disease (msud) is an inherited disorder of branched-chain amino acid (bcaa) metabolism that manifests in early infancy. while there is ample description of imaging features of neonates in the medical literature, the neuroimaging findings in adults have not been as well described; the disorder only rarely presents in adulthood, and children that survive beyond infancy are usually maintained on strict dietary control to prevent metabolic decompensation. we present a case of an adult with msud exacerbation to highlight the apparent discrepancy between imaging findings in adults with this disorder and the typical imaging appearance in younger patients. case a -year-old male patient presented to our emergency department with a five day history of decreased oral intake, memory disturbance, impaired balance, nausea and urinary retention. the symptoms were likely triggered by a one-week history of the patient inadvertently drinking an incorrect metabolic formula, providing him with an excess of dietary leucine. the patient had a past medical history of classical msud diagnosed in infancy, with multiple hospitalizations in childhood for disease control. additionally, he suffered from osteoporosis, with a prior hip fracture in . on neurological examination, he was confused, with moderate worsening of his baseline symptoms of cerebellar dysfunction including bilateral dysdiadochokinesis, mild right sided dysmetria, difficulty with tandem gait, and abnormal gait with circumduction. laboratory studies revealed significantly elevated bcaa levels; specifically - leucine: umol/l (reference range (rr): - umol/l); isoleucine: umol/l (rr: - umol/l); and valine: umol/l (rr: - umol/l). baseline bcaa levels over the last three years had been within the ranges of: leucine: - umol/l; isoleucine: - umol/l; valine: - umol/l. a magnetic resonance imaging (mri) study was subsequently performed on a tesla siemens scanner, including a sagittal spin-echo t sequence (echo train (et): , echo time (te): . milliseconds (ms), repetition time (tr): . ms, display field-of-view (dfov): . x . centimeters (cm), matrix: x , slice thickness (st): . millimeters (mm)), axial fast recovery fast spin echo t sequence (et: , te: . ms, tr: . ms, dfov: . x . cm, matrix: x , st: . mm), axial fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (flair) sequence (et: , te: . ms, tr: . ms, ti: . ms, dfov: . x . cm, matrix: x , st: . mm), axial diffusion weighted imaging (dwi) sequence (et: , te: . ms, tr: . ms, dfov: . x . cm, matrix: x , st: . mm, b values: and s/mm ), and axial the canadian journal of neurological sciences mri findings of adult maple syrup urine disease exacerbation sapna rawal, hanna faghfoury, timo krings can j neurol sci. ; : - brief communications from the department of medical imaging (sr), university health network (tk, hf), mount sinai hospital (hf), university of toronto, toronto, ontario, canada. received august , . final revisions submitted october , . correspondence to: sapna rawal, department of medical imaging, university of toronto, fitzgerald building, room , college street, toronto ontario, m s e , canada. email: sapna.rawal@hotmail.com. figure : selected images from mri study including flair (a), dwi (b) and adc (c) images at corresponding levels demonstrating increased flair signal, increased dwi signal, and low adc signal involving the cortex diffusely, compatible with restricted diffusion (cytotoxic edema). note that the increased flair signal adjacent to the occipital horns of the lateral ventricles is artifactual in nature. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core susceptibility weighted imaging (swi) sequence (et: , te: . ms, tr: . ms, dfov: . x . cm, matrix: x , st: . mm). the mri findings are summarized in figures and . cortical thickening with subtle increased flair signal was identified involving the gray matter diffusely; this was most prominent at the superior frontal cortical regions bilaterally. comparison with selected flair images in a healthy adult patient is demonstrated in figure , in order to highlight the abnormalities identified in our patient. the regions of cortical flair hyperintensity in our patient demonstrated associated restricted diffusion (decreased apparent diffusion coefficient (adc) values), consistent with cytotoxic edema. conversely, increased flair signal was identified involving the pons and white matter tracts of the brachium pontis extending into the cerebellar white matter, in the absence of restricted diffusion (normal adc values), suggestive of sequelae of prior exacerbations of maple syrup urine disease. there was no flair signal abnormality identified involving the subcortical white matter, nor the basal ganglia. upon admission, the patient was assessed by the clinical and metabolic genetics team, and diagnosed with an acute msud exacerbation on the basis of clinical presentation and laboratory workup. he was managed with a high carbohydrate infusion, maintenance of a leucine-free formula and strict dietary protein control. he was discharged five days later, when neurological symptoms and plasma leucine levels improved to near baseline. discussion maple syrup urine disease is an autosomal recessive disorder of amino acid metabolism. reports of incidence vary, with estimates ranging from : to : , depending on geographic location. additionally, certain populations demonstrate a higher incidence of the disease, thought to be on the basis of founder effects, with the highest reported rates within the pennsylvanian mennonite population (approximately : live births) - . the deficiency of branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase (bckd) leads to the accumulation of branched- the canadian journal of neurological sciences figure : flair (a), dwi (b) and adc (c) images obtained at the level of the posterior fossa demonstrate increased flair/dwi signal involving the dorsal brainstem, middle cerebellar peduncles, and deep cerebellar white matter, in the absence of low adc signal, suggestive of chronic sequelae from remote msud exacerbations figure : selected flair images from a normal, healthy adult patient (a) obtained under identical mri parameters are compared with those of our patient (b), in order to highlight the subtle cortical flair abnormalities identified. https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core chain amino acids, with the specific build-up of the amino acid leucine contributing to significant neurotoxicity. the classic form of the disease affects % of patients, and manifests in infancy, where untreated neonates may demonstrate irritability, poor feeding, and stereotyped movements as early as a few days of life, rapidly progressing to encephalopathy, intermittent apneic episodes, coma and ultimately death by age seven to ten days . prior literature has concentrated on the mri findings of neonates and children affected by msud. in acute neonatal exacerbations, the classic form demonstrates t hyperintensity with diffusion restriction predominantly involving the cerebellar white matter, the dorsal brainstem, the posterior limb of the internal capsule, the globus pallidus, and thalamus (figure ) - areas which are thought to correspond to early myelinated regions within the infant brain . this classic pattern of predominantly reversible cytotoxic edema, thought to represent intramyelinic edema, is referred to as the “msud edema” pattern. the imaging findings in msud may be understood as a direct consequence of the pathophysiologic mechanisms by which msud produces metabolic encephalopathy. impaired leucine degradation results in brain accumulation of breakdown products, specifically α-ketoisocaproate (kic), which inhibits the normal progress of the krebs cycle. as a result of diminished adenosine triphosphate (atp) synthesis, the function of the na/k pump is compromised, causing cytotoxic edema . little discussion exists on the mri appearance of acute metabolic decompensation in adult patients. a single case report by sutter et al. describes an episode of acute exacerbation related to dietary noncompliance in a -year-old patient with classical msud presenting with visual symptoms; specifically, decreased visual acuity, horizontal diplopia and bilateral papilledema . the corresponding mri findings were that of bilateral protrusion of the optic nerve heads and regional edema involving the brainstem, basal ganglia and thalami; there is, however, no discussion of the dwi findings in this case. however, within the literature, evidence exists to support alteration in mri findings in older patients with msud exacerbation versus those in younger patients. a series by jan et al described the mri findings in six patients with acute decompensation of msud, with age ranges from days to years . in all patients, restricted diffusion was demonstrated in the typical areas of neonatal “msud edema” - namely, the medulla, pons, midbrain and globus pallidus - with the majority of cases also demonstrating restricted diffusion within the cerebellar white matter and thalamus. interestingly, however, only in the two older patients (ages and years) was restricted diffusion identified involving the cerebral cortex. the hypothesis for le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – march figure : selected mri images from a child presenting with msud exacerbation, including dwi (a) and adc (b) images at corresponding levels, demonstrating the classic pattern of childhood msud edema with restricted diffusion involving the dorsal brainstem, middle cerebellar peduncles, deep cerebellar white matter, thalami, and posterior limbs of internal capsule (images courtesy of dr. juan pablo cruz, university of toronto) https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core cortical involvement provided by the authors relates to the known neurotoxic effects of leucine and its metabolites (kic) on disruption of normal energy metabolism with resulting cytotoxic edema; however, the presence of this finding in older patients alone remains unexplained. the mri findings in our patient support a hypothesis of shifting neurotoxic effects, such that the pathologic mechanisms that preferentially affect myelinated regions in younger patients, may, with age, progressively involve the cortical grey matter. in contrast, myelinated regions may perhaps develop a relative tolerance to further neurotoxicity. it is therefore important to note that the radiologic differential diagnosis for the adult msud exacerbation is considerably different from that in childhood. given the salient finding of cortical cytotoxic edema, the differential diagnosis that must be considered would include ischemic processes, such as acute cortical infarction, or hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy; infectious processes, including cerebritis, or creutzfeld-jakob disease; or other metabolic encephalopathies, such as hyperammonemic encephalopathy, hypoglycemia, or mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke- like episodes (melas). status epilepticus with excitotoxic cortical injury could also give this imaging appearance. in conclusion, neuroimaging findings in msud have been extensively described in neonates and children; however, a paucity of reported literature exists as to the adult findings in acute exacerbation of this disease. nevertheless, there is adequate evidence to suggest a discrepancy between the mri manifestations of acute disease decompensation in adults versus those in younger patients. the pathophysiologic mechanisms that underlie this difference remain uncertain; however, an awareness of the expected mri findings in adults is essential to support the diagnosis and prompt treatment of an acute exacerbation in these patients. references . chuang d, shih v. maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in: scriver c, beaudet a, sly w, valle d, editors. the metabolic & molecular bases of inherited disease. th ed. new york: mcgraw-hill; . p. . . naylor e. newborn screening in maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in: augustin av, bickel h, guthrie r, hammersen g, editors. neonatal screening for inborn errors of metabolism. new york: springer-verlag; . p. . . quental s, vilarinho l, martins e, et al. incidence of maple syrup urine disease in portugal. mol genet metab. aug; ( ): - . epub apr . . carleton sm, peck ds, grasela j, dietiker kl, phillips cl. dna carrier testing and newborn screening for maple syrup urine disease in old order mennonite communities. genet test mol biomarkers. apr; ( ): - . . parmar h, sitoh yy, ho l. maple syrup urine disease: diffusion- weighted and diffusion-tensor magnetic resonance imaging findings. j comput assist tomogr. jan-feb; ( ): - . . zinnanti wj, lazovic j, griffin k, et al. dual mechanism of brain injury and novel treatment strategy in maple syrup urine disease. brain. apr; (pt ): - . . sutter r, killer he, bilz s, et al. cerebral edema and intracranial hypertension in an adult with maple syrup urine disease. eur j neurol. mar; ( ):e - . . jan w, zimmerman ra, wang zj, berry gt, kaplan pb, kaye em. mr diffusion imaging and mr spectroscopy of maple syrup urine disease during acute metabolic decompensation. neuroradiology. jun; ( ): - . the canadian journal of neurological sciences https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents copyright ©, jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gerritts, viktoria ivanova this document is protected by copyright law. use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ this article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the université de montréal, université laval, and the université du québec à montréal. its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ document generated on / / : p.m. first peoples child & family review an interdisciplinary journal honouring the voices, perspectives, and knowledges of first peoples through research, critical analyses, stories, standpoints and media reviews spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gerritts and viktoria ivanova volume , number , uri: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi: https://doi.org/ . / ar see table of contents publisher(s) first nations child and family caring society of canada issn - x (print) - (digital) explore this journal cite this article brown, j., mehta, n., skrodzki, d., gerritts, j. & ivanova, v. ( ). spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents. first peoples child & family review, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar article abstract aboriginal children are overrepresented in foster care and more aboriginal foster parents are needed. a randomized group of licensed first nations, métis and inuit foster parents in a canadian jurisdiction were asked about their spiritual needs to foster. in response to the question “what do you need spiritually to foster?” there were unique responses that were grouped by participants into five concepts including: religion, practice, integration, sharing and contentment. these results were compared and contrasted with the existing fostering literature. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/fpcfr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/fpcfr/ -v -n -fpcfr / https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/fpcfr/ first peoples child & family review an interdisciplinary journal honoring the voices, perspectives and knowledges of first peoples through research, critical analyses, stories, standpoints and media reviews volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents jason browna, nisha mehtab, donna skrodzkic, julie gerrittsd and viktoria ivanovae a phd, professor, university of western ontario b m. ed., university of western ontario c m. ed., university of western ontario d m. ed., university of western ontario e m. ed., university of western ontario abstract aboriginal children are overrepresented in foster care and more aboriginal foster parents are needed. a randomized group of licensed first nations, métis and inuit foster parents in a canadian jurisdiction were asked about their spiritual needs to foster. in response to the question “what do you need spiritually to foster?” there were unique responses that were grouped by participants into five concepts including: religion, practice, integration, sharing and contentment. these results were compared and contrasted with the existing fostering literature. keywords: aboriginal; foster care; canada; spirituality introduction aboriginal peoples are a young, growing and mobile population who face greater challenges than the non-aboriginal population in canada. the aboriginal population is an average of years younger than the non-aboriginal population, has a growth rate nearly x greater (statistics canada, a) with significantly more frequent residential mobility (statistics canada, b). however, life expectancy is at least three years lower and gaps in employment rates and labor force participation between aboriginal and non-aboriginal peoples are increasing (usalcas, ). the average income for aboriginal peoples is about / of the average for non-aboriginal people (statistics canada, c). in addition, housing quality is dramatically different between reserve and non-reserve communities in canada, with rates of dwellings in need of major repairs over x greater (statistics canada, d). aboriginal peoples, who are also referred to as first peoples, include first nations, métis and inuit peoples. each has a different history, contemporary understanding and approach to spirituality. aboriginal spirituality includes a range of views of the world and ways of making meaning of the unknown or unknowable that corresponding author: jason brown, faculty of education, university of western ontario, western road, london, on, canada, n g g , ( ) - , ext. , jbrow @uwo.ca first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents acknowledgement: the authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of this research through a grant from the social sciences and humanities research council of canada. we would like to thank brian ridd, claudia ash-ponce, candace seymour and cathy wiebe for their expertise as well as anonymous reviewers of this article for their helpful feedback and suggestions. stem from both indigenous and indigenous-european ancestries. a description of “traditions, customs, ceremonies, rituals, and everyday life” (king & trimble, , p. ) between nations and communities is a deep and complex undertaking when one considers the range of sizes, political structures, income and social conditions between as well as within groups, reserves and settlements in different urban and rural geographies throughout canada (voyageur & calliou, ). to illustrate this diversity with the example of language, there are presently language groups representing different languages (statistics canada, e). european settlers’ arrival on turtle island radically changed ways of life for first peoples. efforts to assimilate through forced relocations and confinement to reserves changed relationships with one another and the land. the banning of traditional spiritual practices such as ceremonies, feasts and (non-christian) prayer drove them underground. as a result, cultural knowledge, beliefs and practices were either hidden or lost. christian influence was strong and missionaries led many efforts including the first residential schools. initial “child welfare” efforts on reserve were mass apprehensions of aboriginal children who were adopted by non-aboriginal families during the “ ’s scoop” (fournier & crey, ). aboriginal child welfare agencies first began in the ’s. however, contemporary child welfare for aboriginal families is largely delivered by mainstream agencies, followed by delegated models that have specific mandates and functions as well as some self-government models (national collaborating centre for aboriginal health, ). there remain significant challenges due to differences between child welfare funding on and off reserve because of jurisdictional disputes between federal and provincial governments (canadian broadcasting corporation, ) that have left children’s lives hanging in the balance (first nations child and family caring society, ) and continue to result in apprehensions from the impoverished communities, termed the “millennium scoop” (beaucage, ). aboriginal child welfare has a significant literature base (e.g. harris-short, ). decentralized and culturally based services for aboriginal children, families and communities are emerging and becoming more prominent. there is also a revitalization of spiritual practices that have been suppressed (e.g. indigenous healing in communities to address contemporary physical and mental as well as spiritual illnesses) (robbins & dewar, ). however, aboriginal children remain highly overrepresented in child protection caseloads and aboriginal foster parents underrepresented. there is a need for aboriginal foster parents and little research on their experiences. although there are different reasons why one would foster, the purpose of the present study was to explore, from the perspectives of aboriginal foster parents, their spiritual needs to foster. literature review while there is some research on religion and spirituality in the fostering literature, there is very little on aboriginal foster parents and none, that we could locate, on spirituality among aboriginal foster parents. the literature on fostering, spirituality and religion was reviewed. first peoples child & family review, volume , number , © jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gierrits and viktoria ivanova issues reported in this literature include clarity, comfort, communication and coping. recent literature utilizing concept mapping is also reviewed. clarity religious or spiritual beliefs provided clarity to foster parents regarding their roles in the lives of foster children as well as the roles of agencies in the lives of birth and foster families. in the immediate foster family, these beliefs helped them put into perspective the challenges faced (berney, ) as well as encouraging them to put efforts into the spiritual lives of foster children (cole, ). their beliefs also provided those who shared them, a common understanding of their role (frazer & selwyn, ) as well as confidence in their purpose to be caregivers to children (jackson et al., ). while there was attention to the importance of faith-based organizations, both child welfare (garland & chamiec-case, ) and non-child welfare (singleton & roseman, ), in the lives of foster families, differences in their interactions with faith-based and non faith-based agencies concerned not the types of services, but rather philosophy and approach to service delivery (reilly & platz, ). comfort there were references to research on spirituality or faith associated with greater certainty and comfort among foster parents. greater emphasis on personal faith was related to lower stress and better health (belanger, copeland, & cheung, ) including wellness practices found in western medicine as well as other approaches (dell, vaughan, & kratochvil, ). foster parents with a commitment to spiritual beliefs and practices (cox, buehler, & orme, ) were also likely to foster children who embraced spirituality (haight, finet, bamba, & helton, ). communication spirituality was researched as a way of making meaning within the foster family as well as with workers, staff and birth families. foster children’s spiritual beliefs (gillum & o’brien, ) helped them make meaning when faced with difficult issues, such as loss (coholic, ). foster parents used the created meaning to talk with foster children and workers (furman, benson, grimwood, & canda, ) in a way that was similar to how they might talk about it with their birth families (duvdevany, azaiza, & rbach, ). coping spirituality as coping was also described. it was noted that spiritual support through services from spiritual leaders or knowledge holders (daining & depanfilis, ) was helpful. this support was found to promote resilience in foster children (seyfried, birgen, & mann, ). in addition, it assisted foster youth (edmond, auslander, elze, & bowland, ) during adolescence in particular, when risk taking became more likely and potentially harmful (ryan, testa, & zhai, ), for example, in relation to substance use (scott, munson, mcmillen, & ollie, ). the spiritual support was also especially helpful for working through grief (rogers, ). first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents concept mapping concept mapping is a quantitative approach to the analysis of qualitative data. although initially developed for program development and evaluation (meagher-stewart et al., ), concept mapping has been applied in human services research on a variety of topics and with a range of participants for different purposes. a recent review of concept mapping studies noted found evidence in support of the reliability and validity of the approach (rosas & kane, ), which includes participation of multiple stakeholders in the analysis of qualitative data (leyshon & shaw, ). participants are asked to respond in phrases that may, because of length, minimize the amount of context that can be included. however, this context is constructed collectively, through the process of grouping responses by participants. concept mapping has been used for substance abuse treatment program development with counselors (trudeau, ainscough, & charity, ), with patients and health professionals to identify desirable parkinson’s treatment outcomes (hammarlund, nilsson, & hagell, ), as well as children and adolescents’ perceptions of self-regulation (crăciun, tăut, & băban, ). concept maps have been used to describe women’s educational needs (trudeau, ainscough, trant, starker, & cousineau, ), women’s experiences seeking help from community resources after intimate partner violence (simmons, farrar, frazer, & thompson, ), as well as south asian immigrant women regarding medical testing (ahmad, mahmood, pietkiewicz, mcdonald, & ginsburg, ) and alternative school students’ perceptions of needs for success (streeter, franklin, kim, & tripod, ). in addition, the concept mapping method has been used to identify factors associated with the return to work after absence due to depression (de vries, koeter, nabitz, hees, & schene, ). methodology the data collection and analysis followed trochim’s ( ) procedure including the generation of responses, organization of responses, analysis of response groupings by participants and representation of response groupings across participants. in the generation of responses, participants were asked the focal question for this study. in the organization of responses, researchers reviewed all responses and organized for clarity and to remove redundancies. in the analysis of response groupings participants were asked to individually group together all responses made by participants and these groupings were analyzed. the representation of the groupings by participants was done through the construction of a concept map. generation of responses foster homes licensed to provide care in a central canadian province (n= ) were contacted in random order by researchers. potential participants were provided with a description of the study and what their involvement would include, in accordance with the research protocol that was approved by the university ethics board. each was asked if she or he identified as an aboriginal person and if so was asked to respond to a series of questions, which included the question “what do you need spiritually to be a good foster parent?” at the conclusion of the interview each was asked if she or he would be willing to participate in the second phase of the study that was to group all responses together. a list of those who were interested was kept. the participants included métis ( ), first nation ( ) and inuit ( ) foster parents who together cared for foster children at the time of interview. over three quarters ( ) were first peoples child & family review, volume , number , © jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gierrits and viktoria ivanova female and were male. they ranged in age from to years with an average age of and had been fostering for an average of years. organization of responses each response was reviewed independently by three different authors to identify those that were redundant or unclear. if two authors identified a particular response as redundant or unclear it was discussed by all three authors and a decision was made for removal (in the case of redundant responses) or editing (in the case of unclear responses). fifty five unique responses remained for the analysis. analysis of response groupings participants who had expressed interest in participating in the second phase of the study at the time of interview were contacted in random order by telephone and invited to participate. twelve participants agreed to group responses and packages of information including instructions to group all responses into as many groups as desired and in whatever way made sense to them. to make the task easier, each response was printed on a separate slip of paper so they could be spread out and moved around into groups by participants. nine participants returned their groupings to the researchers for analysis. these groupings were analyzed by the concept system ( ) software that applied multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to the data. multidimensional scaling used the groupings provided by participants to organize responses on a two-dimensional space with distances between them indicating the frequencies with which they were grouped together by participants. responses further from one another were grouped together less frequently by participants than responses close to one another. a bridging index value, based on the multidimensional scaling analysis and ranging between . and . , indicated the frequency with which participants grouped a particular response with only those near to it or both those near to it and far from it. the largest bridging index values (greater than . ) were found among responses that were grouped with other responses nearby as well as those farthest away. smallest bridging index values (less than . ) were found among responses that were grouped only with other responses nearby. cluster analysis used the multidimensional scaling results to organize the responses into clusters. the analysis started with each response as its own cluster and at each step combined two clusters until all responses were together in one cluster. representation of groupings researchers reviewed results of the cluster analysis for , , , , , and cluster solutions to identify the most appropriate number of clusters for the final concept map. the smallest number of clusters reviewed – and – appeared to overgeneralize the results and the largest cluster results – , and – appeared to make distinctions that were difficult to explain. the most interpretable was the -cluster solution. labels for the concepts in the final map were applied by the researchers using the most central (i.e. lowest individual bridging indices) responses within each cluster and suggestions by participants for guidance. first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents results the concept map and responses with bridging indices are listed in figure and table respectively. numbered responses on the map are described on the corresponding table. figure : concept map contenment integration practice sharing religion what do you need spiritually to be a good foster parent? discussion the existing foster parent literature was compared and contrasted with the responses of aboriginal foster parents in the present study. integration responses in this concept referred to integration of beliefs and practice that together embodied a way of living their spirituality. foster parents noted that it was important to have “a belief system” that recognized a “higher power” and being “open minded about your spiritual beliefs”. they described the need to “be cultural” through “medicine wheel” teachings, combined with “faith in the creator”, “prayer”, “cleansing” and “meditation” in their lives. they also referred to the need for “bravery” to “walk the red road” and seek the guidance of “spiritual advisors”. there was some consistency between existing fostering literature and the experiences of aboriginal foster parents in this concept. both sources referred to the importance of cultural beliefs and practices to give a basis for communicating about challenging life events (gillum & o’brien, ; coholic, ; furman, benson, grimwood, & canda, ; duvdevany, azaiza, & rbach, ). however, the participants in the present study were more specific about the culturally based spirituality they practiced, including reference to medicine wheel teachings, which are based on holistic worldview of interconnected parts (e.g. spiritual, mental, physical, emotional wellness) within which balance is sought (dapice, ). in addition, participants specifically spoke to the importance of walking the red road, or an aboriginal path through life (thin elk, ). first peoples child & family review, volume , number , © jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gierrits and viktoria ivanova cluster and response bridging index cluster # - integration . . a belief system . . prayer . . open minded about your spiritual beliefs . . faith in the creator . . medicine wheel . . bravery . . be cultural . . higher power . . cleansing . . meditation . . walk the red road . . spiritual advisors . cluster # - practice . . attend pow-wows . . sage . . sun dance . . ceremonies . . elders . . sweetgrass . . aboriginal teachings . . children involved in their culture . . cedar . . tradition . . places were they can jib . cluster # - religion . . god at the centre of your family . . church . . sunday school . . christianity . cluster and response bridging index . mennonite schools . . make our mark while we were here . cluster # - contentment . . balance . . trust . . being positive . . forgiveness . . respect . . love . . acceptance . . see everyday as a fresh day . . caring . . grounded . . stability . . have it in your heart . . live by your values . . your own peace . . connection . . be at peace . . being positive . . see the good in things . . be good within yourself . cluster # - sharing . . desire to give back . . guidance . . yourself . . help out . . do the right thing . . grateful to have the opportunity to help . . recognition that everything has life . table : cluster items and bridging values practice participants described a range of ways of practicing their spirituality. they spoke about the need to have “children involved in their culture” and practiced in “aboriginal teachings” based on “tradition”. they described the importance of traditional medicines, including “sage”, “sweetgrass” and “cedar”, as well as “ceremonies” such as the “sun dance”. in addition, participants described the importance of “elders” in their spiritual practice, and opportunities to “attend pow-wows” as well as “places where they can jig”. the experiences described by aboriginal foster parents in this concept were not apparent in the fostering literature. participants identified several important parts of their spiritual practice, including the place of ceremonies and medicines, as well as the role of elders as leaders and teachers (waldram, herring, & young, ). there was also reference to a métis dance, known as the red river jig, a blend of european and aboriginal influence, with its own style and history (lukens, ). first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents religion in addition to traditional aboriginal spirituality, there were responses concerning the role of european-introduced religion. participants described the place of “christianity”, and having “god at the centre of your family”. the importance of attending “sunday school” at “church”, as well as faith-based schools, such as “mennonite schools” were also stressed. participants described the need to have an influence on foster children and “make our mark while we were here” in their lives. references in the fostering literature concerning religion and faith-based services for families were very similar to the responses in this concept. both foster parents in the present study and existing literature referred to christian institutions and agencies (garland & chamiec-case, ; singleton & roseman, ; reilly & platz, ). there was also an emphasis on teaching the foster children their beliefs (haight, finet, bamba, & helton, ) and having expectations in line with religious understandings held by foster parents (cox, buehler, & orme, ) in order to have an impact on the children who would otherwise be at risk for significant problems (seyfried, birgen, & mann, ; edmond, auslander, elze, & bowland, ; ryan, testa, & zhai, ; scott, munson, mcmillen, & ollie, ; rogers, ). contentment responses centered on spiritual values and beliefs around “being positive” and to “be at peace”. foster parents described the importance to “have it in your heart”, the characteristics of “trust” and “stability”, “respect” and “caring” as well as “love” and “forgiveness”. it was important to “see the good in things” and to “be good within yourself ” to allow one to “live by your values” and “see everyday as a fresh day”. they referred to the benefit of being “grounded” and having “your own peace”. this was achieved through “connection” and “balance” as well as “acceptance”. there was some similarity between this concept and the existing literature. previous fostering research noted reduced stress, improved happiness and health associated with spiritual clarity and practice (belanger, copeland, & cheung, ; dell, vaughan, & kratochvil, ). however, aboriginal foster parents described these as central (i.e. to have it in your heart) and integrated (i.e. having your own peace) than previous research which has tended to compartmentalize these features as personality characteristics. sharing participants identified, through responses in this concept, the need to share “yourself ” with other families. foster parents noted that they were “grateful to have the opportunity to help” and “do the right thing”. they were motivated to “help out” by a “desire to give back” through “guidance” to children and families. the importance of sharing was extended beyond other children, to families and communities through a spiritual “recognition that everything has life”. there were similarities between the concept of sharing and results from previous studies with foster parents. there is considerable evidence in the literature about the faith-based motives of foster parents to help others (cole, ; frazer & selwyn, ; jackson et al., ) and to use that knowledge to keep perspective when challenges arise in the care of children in their home (berney, ). however, aboriginal foster parents in the present study did it not just as a moral first peoples child & family review, volume , number , © jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gierrits and viktoria ivanova imperative, but more deeply, based out of a recognition of the interconnectedness of all things and people and the necessity to care for one another for all to benefit. conclusion there were many similarities between the experiences of participants in this study and the available literature. the results suggest that the ways spirituality have been described in the fostering research overlap with experiences of aboriginal foster parents in several important ways. the role of cultural practices – including beliefs, values and ways of communicating about them and living them daily – are needed by foster parents to care for foster children, and to foster parents themselves, for their personal health and wellness as well as success in fostering. focusing more specifically on the role of religion, previous studies of foster parents who identified with a christian worldview and practices shared the desire to have those embodied in institutions and churches as well as codified into practices that agencies and foster parents would employ with foster children. a significant goal for teaching children these practices was to prevent them from experiencing anticipated challenges in life. in addition, these christian religious beliefs and practices were seen to provide foster children with a better life if they adopted those ways. foster parents were motivated to share their religion with the children they fostered. where there was a significant departure from the existing fostering literature by the foster parents in the current study resulting from the absense of culturally specific aboriginal or native american or indigenous “spiritual” needs in the literature. foster parents in the present study described more specific ways their spirituality was understood and lived, based on traditional indigenous ways of being. these traditional ways included participation in ceremonies and working closely with elders who had aboriginal cultural knowledge. participants also described the centrality of spirituality as fundamental to all life, and that the red road could be difficult to follow when they experiencd pressure to follow a non-indigenous path. underneath the traditional ways expressed by aboriginal foster parents, there was a depth of respect for all life and all lives and understanding that their place was to give of themselves because that was how it is supposed to be. while it seems that spirituality is important to fostering, not only from the perspectives of foster parents in the existing literature but from the aboriginal foster parents in the present study, the ways it is understood and expressed may range considerably. given the colonial history with the importation of christianity and ties to residential schooling and suppression of traditional indigenous practices, there would be reason for it to be rejected, as is has been among many aboriginal peoples in canada. however, there is also evidence from the present study of a diversity of experience and understanding of spirituality that includes christian religion, knowledge and practices. there is support from the findings herein to suggest that both traditional indigenous and western christian ways are understood and practiced among aboriginal foster parents. it would seem important to understand the ways these worldviews are distinct and blended in the lives of aboriginal communities, foster parents and foster children so that appropriate policy and practices can take place. limitations although the sample was random, imperfect response rate for participation in the interviews and again at the sorting task make it difficult to generalize these spiritual needs to first nations, first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents métis and inuit peoples. we have however, attempted to clarify spiritual practices more commonly held by first nations, métis and inuit as much as possible throughout. references ahmad, f., mahmood, s., pietkiewicz, i., mcdonald, l., & ginsburg, o. ( ). concept mapping with south asian immigrant women: barriers to mammography and solutions. journal of immigrant and minority health, ( ), - . beaucage, j. ( ). children first: the aboriginal advisor’s report on the status of aboriginal child welfare in ontario. toronto: ministry of children and youth services. belanger, k., copeland, s., & cheung, m. ( ). the role of faith in adoption: achieving positive adoption outcomes for african american children. child welfare: journal of policy, practice, and program, ( ), - . berney, t. ( ). management of emotional and behavioural problems. in c. burns (ed.), disabled children living away from home in foster care and residential settings (pp. - ). london nw rn, england: mac keith press, london nw rn. canadian broadcasting corporation ( ). court victory for first nations child welfare. retrieved august , from: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/ / / /pol-first-nations-court-welfare.html coholic, d. ( ). exploring how young people living in foster care discuss spiritually sensitive themes in a holistic arts-based group program. journal of religion & spirituality in social work: social thought, ( ), - . cole, s. a. ( ). foster caregiver motivation and infant attachment: how do reasons for fostering affect relationships? child & adolescent social work journal, ( - ), - . cox, m. e., buehler, c., & orme, j. g. ( ). recruitment and foster family service. journal of sociology and social welfare, ( ), - . crăciun, c., tăut, d., & băban, a. ( ). self-regulatory strategies for eating behaviour in children and adolescents: a concept mapping approach. cognition, brain, behavior: an interdisciplinary journal, ( ), - . daining, c., & depanfilis, d. ( ). resilience of youth in transition from out-of-home care to adulthood. children and youth services review, ( ), - . dapice, a. ( ). the medicine wheel. journal of transcultural nursing, , - . de vries, g., koeter, m. w. j., nabitz, u., hees, h. l., & schene, a. h. ( ). return to work after sick leave due to depression; a conceptual analysis based on perspectives of patients, supervisors and occupational physicians. journal of affective disorders, ( ), - . dell, m. l., vaughan, b. s., & kratochvil, c. j. ( ). ethics and the prescription pad. child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of north america, ( ), - . duvdevany, i., azaiza, f., & rbach, m. ( ). arab parents’ attitudes toward out-of-home placement of their adult children with psychiatric disability. illness, crisis, & loss, ( ), - . edmond, t., auslander, w., elze, d., & bowland, s. ( ). signs of resilience in sexually abused adolescent girls in the foster care system. journal of child sexual abuse: research, treatment, & program innovations for victims, survivors, & offenders, ( ), - . fournier, s. & crey, e. ( ). stolen from our embrace: the abduction of first nations children and the restoration of aboriginal communities. vancouver: douglas & mcintyre. frazer, l., & selwyn, j. ( ). why are we waiting? the demography of adoption for children of black, asian and black mixed parentage in england. child & family social work, ( ), - . first peoples child & family review, volume , number , © jason brown, nisha mehta, donna skrodzki, julie gierrits and viktoria ivanova first nations child and family caring society ( ). joint declaration of support for jordan’s principle. retreieved august , from: http://www.fncaringsociety.com/jordans-principle/ furman, l. d., benson, p. w., grimwood, c., & canda, e. ( ). religion and spirituality in social work education and direct practice at the millennium: a survey of uk social workers. british journal of social work, ( ), - . garland, d. r., & chamiec-case, r. ( ). before--and after--the political rhetoric: faith-based child and family welfare services. social work & christianity, ( ), - . gillum, n., & o’brien, m. ( ). adoption satisfaction of black adopted children. children and youth services review, ( ), - . haight, w., finet, d., bamba, s., & helton, j. ( ). the beliefs of resilient african-american adolescent mothers transitioning from foster care to independent living: a case-based analysis. children and youth services review, ( ), - . hammarlund, c. s., nilsson, m. h., & hagell, p. ( ). measuring outcomes in parkinson’s disease: a multi- perspective concept mapping study. quality of life research: an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment, care & rehabilitation, ( ), - . harris-short, s. ( ). aboriginal child welfare, self-government and the rights of indigenous children. surrey, uk: ashgate. jackson, l. j., white, c. r., o’brien, k., dilorenzo, p., cathcart, e., wolf, m., . . . cabrera, j. ( ). exploring spirituality among youth in foster care: findings from the casey field office mental health study. child & family social work, ( ), - . king, j. & trimble, j. e ( ). the spiritual and sacred among north american indians and alaska natives: synchronicity, wholeness, and connectedness in a relational world. in apa handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (vol ): context, theory, and research, by king, jeff, trimble, joseph e. (pp. - ). washington, dc: american psychological association. leyshon, r., & shaw, l. ( ). using multiple stakeholders to define a successful return to work: a concept mapping approach. work: journal of prevention, assessment & rehabilitation, ( ), - . lukens, m. ( ). mourning dove and mixed blood: cultural and historical pressures on aesthetic choice and authorial identity. american indian quarterly, , - . meagher-stewart, d., solberg, s. m., warner, g., macdonald, j.-a., mcpherson, c., & seaman, p. ( ). understanding the role of communities of practice in evidence-informed decision making in public health. qualitative health research, ( ), - . reilly, t., & platz, l. ( ). post-adoption service needs of families with special needs children: use, helpfulness, and unmet needs. journal of social service research, ( ), - . robbins, j. a. , dewar, j. ( ). traditional indigenous approaches to healing and the modern welfare of traditional knowledge, spirituality and lands: a critical reflection on practices and policies taken from the canadian indigenous example. the international indigenous policy journal, ( ) . retrieved from: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/iipj/ vol /iss / rogers, b. ( ). review of loss and grief: a guide for human services practitioners. journal of family studies, ( ), - . rosas, s. r., & kane, m. ( ). quality and rigor of the concept mapping methodology: a pooled study analysis. evaluation and program planning, ( ), - . ryan, j. p., testa, m. f., & zhai, f. ( ). african american males in foster care and the risk of delinquency: the value of social bonds and permanence. child welfare: journal of policy, practice, and program, ( ), - . first peoples child & family review, volume , number , , pp. - spiritual needs of first nations, métis and inuit foster parents scott, l. d., munson, m. r., mcmillen, j. c., & ollie, m. t. ( ). religious involvement and its association to risk behaviors among older youth in foster care. american journal of community psychology, ( - ), - . seyfried, s. f., birgen, j., & mann, k. a. ( ). educational resilience among african-american college students who have experienced long-term foster care. in l. a. see (ed.), human behavior in the social environment from an african-american perspective ( nd ed.), (pp. - ). new york, ny, us: haworth press, new york, ny. simmons, c. a., farrar, m., frazer, k., & thompson, m. j. ( ). from the voices of women: facilitating survivor access to ipv services. violence against women, ( ), - . singleton, s. m., & roseman, f. ( ). ministers’ perceptions of foster care, adoptions, and the role of the black church. adoption quarterly, ( ), - . statistics canada ( a). aboriginal statistics: population growth. retrieved august , from: http://www.statcan. gc.ca/pub/ - -x/ /c-g/c-g -eng.htm statistics canada ( b). aboriginal statistics mobility. retrieved august , from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/ - -x/ /mobility-mobilite-eng.htm statistics canada ( c). aboriginal statistics: income. retreieved august , from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/ - -x/ /income-revenu-eng.htm statistics canada ( d). aboriginal statistics: housing conditions. retreieved august , from: http://www.statcan. gc.ca/pub/ - -x/ /housing-logement-eng.htm statistics canada ( e). select language characteristics. retrieved august , from: http://www .statcan.ca/ census-recensement/ / streeter, c. l., franklin, c., kim, j. s., & tripod, s. j. ( ). concept mapping: an approach for evaluating a public alternative school program. children & schools, ( ), - . thin elk, g. ( ). walking in balance on the red road. journal of emotional and behavioral problems, , - . trudeau, k. j., ainscough, j. l., trant, m., starker, j., & cousineau, t. m. ( ). identifying the educational needs of menopausal women: a feasibility study. women’s health issues, ( ), - . trudeau, k. j., ainscough, j., & charity, s. ( ). technology in treatment: are adolescents and counselors interested in online relapse prevention? child & youth care forum, ( ), - . usalcas, j. ( ). aboriginal peoples and the labour market: estimates from the labour force survey. ottawa, on: statistics canada. voyageur, c. & calliou, b. ( ). various shades of red: diversity within canada’s indigenous community. journal of canadian studies, , - . waldram, j., herring, d., & young, t. ( ). aboriginal health in canada ( nd ed.). toronto, on: u of t press. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ religious involvement and cigarette smoking in young adults: the cardia study religious involvement and cigarette smoking in young adults the cardia study mary a. whooley, md; alisa l. boyd, mph; julius m. gardin, md; david r. williams, phd, mph background: results of previous studies have sug- gested that involvement in religious activities may be as- sociated with lower rates of smoking. we sought to de- termine whether frequent attendance at religious services is associated with less smoking among young adults. methods: this prospective cohort study of adults aged to years included approximately equal num- bers of blacks and whites and men and women from cities in the united states who attended the / examination of the coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. frequency of atten- dance at religious services and denominational affilia- tion were determined by self-report questionnaire in / . cigarette smoking was determined by interview at this time and again years later. results: of participants who completed the to- bacco questionnaire in / , % ( / ) who attended religious services less than once per month or never and % ( / ) who attended religious ser- vices at least once per month reported current smoking (odds ratio [or], . ; % confidence interval [ci], . - . ; p�. ). this association between less frequent at- tendance at religious services and current smoking was found in most denominations and remained significant after adjusting for potential confounding variables (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). during -year follow- up, nonsmokers who reported little or no religious in- volvement had an increased risk of smoking initiation (adjusted or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). conclusions: young adults who attend religious ser- vices have lower rates of current and subsequent ciga- rette smoking. the potential health benefits associated with religious involvement deserve further study. arch intern med. ; : - c igarette smoking ranks as the primary cause of premature death in in- dustrialized countries throughout the world. , despite an ongoing decline in smoking among older adults, , the recent increase in smoking among youths (from % in to % in ) is alarming. because the negative health effects of cigarette smok- ing are cumulative, the risk of developing a smoking-attributable disease increases the earlier that smoking begins. previous studies , - have suggested that involvement in religious activities may affect smoking behavior. however, most studies were cross-sectional, limiting in- ferences about cause and effect , - , - , ; many did not examine whether employ- ment, education, or social network might confound the association between smok- ing and religion , , , ; and the results of oth- ers may not be generalizable. , , we analyze the association between re- ligious involvement and cigarette smoking and describe the distribution of religious af- filiation among young men and women and black and white participants enrolled in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. we exam- ined whether frequent attendance at reli- gious services was associated with smok- ing prevalence and whether it predicted subsequent smoking years later. results characteristics of participants table lists the distribution of partici- pants by religious denomination. almost half of the participants were either bap- tist or roman catholic. most baptists were black, and most roman catholics were white. of the participants, ( %) reported attending religious ser- vices at least once per month in / (table ). compared with those who attended religious services at least original investigation from the department of veterans affairs medical center, san francisco, calif (dr whooley and ms boyd); the departments of medicine, epidemiology, and biostatistics, university of california, san francisco (dr whooley); the division of cardiology, st john hospital and medical center, detroit, mich (dr gardin); and the survey research center, institute for social research, university of michigan, ann arbor (dr williams). (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / participants and methods participants the cardia study is a multicenter prospective cohort study designed to describe the evolution of coronary heart dis- ease risk factors in young adults and to identify associated habits, behaviors, and lifestyles. the study design and base- line characteristics of the participants have been de- scribed previously. between march and june , we recruited participants, aged to years, in- cluding approximately equal numbers of black and white participants and men and women, from american cities (birmingham, ala; chicago, ill; minneapolis, minn; and oakland, calif). participants were recruited primarily through telephone contact, except in oakland, where a health plan membership roster was used. the appropriate institutional review boards approved the study, and all par- ticipants provided written informed consent. measurements from may to july , participants com- pleted the following self-report question: “how often do you attend religious services such as those at a church or synagogue?” the response categories were every day, more than once a week, once a week, or times a month, once a month, less than once a month, and never. we defined high-frequency attendees as those attending religious services at least once per week; moderate-fre- quency attendees as attending , , or times per month; and low-frequency attendees as attending less than once per month or never. we also asked participants: “what is your religion? please specify a religious denomination.” we coded de- nominations using categories: baptist, roman catho- lic, methodist, lutheran, pentecostal, presbyterian, jew- ish, episcopal, christian church or church of christ, seventh day adventist, congregational or united church of christ, orthodox, reformed, muslim, mormon, bud- dhist, christian scientist, quaker, mennonite, hindu, mora- vian, atheist, agnostic, other, or none/don’t know/unable to code. for this study, we collapsed participants into denominational groups, including for each of the groups with at least participants, for other, and for agnos- tic, atheist, or none/don’t know/unable to code. smoking status was determined in / and in / based on responses to interview-administered questions: . have you ever used any tobacco product, such as cigarettes, cigars, tobacco pipe, chewing tobacco, snuff, or nicotine chewing gum? . if yes to number , have you ever smoked ciga- rettes regularly for at least months? by “regularly,” we mean at least cigarettes per week, almost every week. . if yes to number , do you still smoke cigarettes regularly? participants were defined as current smokers if they responded “yes” to all questions. all other participants were considered nonsmokers. in / , we asked cur- rent smokers the following yes/no question: “have you tried to stop smoking cigarettes in the past years?” we also ascertained the number of cigarettes smoked by asking, “how many cigarettes do you smoke per day on the aver- age?” in / , we determined age, sex, ethnicity, mari- tal status, years of education, employment status, family history of myocardial infarction (mi), presence of hyper- tension, presence of diabetes mellitus, body mass index, alcohol use, level of physical activity, social network, and whether participants belonged to any organizations or clubs. the physical activity score was defined as the sum of the total number of months (weighted by frequency and in- tensity) during which each of activities was performed during the previous year. , social network adequacy was measured using a -item scale (how often do you [ ] feel lonely, [ ] find yourself wishing someone would comfort you, [ ] feel that other people really care for you [reverse scored], and [ ] wish that you had more close friends?). each question had response categories ( indicates frequently; , occa- sionally; , rarely; and , never), with higher scores indi- cating a better social network. for participants who com- pleted only or of the items (n = ), we assigned the mean value of nonmissing responses to the other items. participants who answered fewer than of the questions did not receive a score. as an additional measure of social activity, we asked participants the following yes/no ques- tion: “do you belong to any organizations or clubs (such as political groups, athletic teams, or regular groups you play sports with)?” statistical analysis for the primary analysis, we decided a priori to compare ciga- rette smoking in participants who reported attending reli- gious services at least once per month (high- or moderate- frequency attendees) with those who reported attending religious services less than once per month or never (low- frequency attendees). differences in characteristics be- tween groups were compared using � tests for dichoto- mous variables and -tailed t tests for continuous variables. we used backwards elimination logistic regression for a cross- sectional analysis examining the risk of current smoking in participants who were less frequent attendees of religious ser- vices compared with those who attended religious services more frequently. we added any variables that were associ- ated with smoking (at p�. ) to multivariate models that included frequency of attendance at religious services. tests of p for trend were calculated using the � test for trend in proportions. we examined the association between frequency of at- tendance at religious services in / and subse- quent smoking in / using analyses stratified by initial smoking status. among participants who were not smoking in / , we examined the association be- tween frequency of attendance at religious services in / and starting to smoke by / . among partici- pants who reported current smoking in / , we examined the association between frequency of atten- dance at religious services in / and smoking ces- sation by / . for these analyses, we reported odds ratios (ors) and % confidence intervals (cis). analyses were performed using statistical software (sas version . ; sas institute inc, cary, nc). (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / once per month, participants attending less than once per month or never were slightly older; were more likely to be male, white, and unmarried; and reported greater al- cohol consumption (table ). less frequent attendees were also more physically active, were more likely to be- long to an organization or club, and had a lower body mass index. however, these participants had poorer so- cial network scores than those who attended religious ser- vices more frequently. geographic location was strongly associated with attending religious services, but there were no differences in education, employment, family his- tory of mi, presence of diabetes mellitus, or presence of hypertension by frequency of attendance. current smoking greater frequency of attendance at religious services was associated with less current smoking. high-frequency attendees (� /wk) had the lowest prevalence ( %) (figure ). of the participants who completed the tobacco questionnaire in / , % ( / ) who attended religious services less than once per month or never reported current smoking compared with % ( / ) who attended religious services at least once per month (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). this asso- ciation was diminished but still significant after adjust- ing for potential confounding variables (or, . ; % ci, table . distribution of participants by religious denomination and proportion who reported current smoking in / denomination black participants white participants total % current smokersmen women men women baptist roman catholic methodist lutheran pentecostal presbyterian jewish episcopal christian church/church of christ other* agnostic/atheist/none/don’t know/unable to code missing total *seventh day adventist, congregational/united church of christ, orthodox, reformed, muslim, mormon, buddhist, christian scientist, quaker, mennonite, hindu, or moravian. table . characteristics of participants by religious service attendance characteristic � /mo or never (n = ) � /mo (n = ) p value age, mean ± sd, y . ± . . ± . . female, % . ethnicity black . white married, % . education, mean ± sd, y . ± . . ± . . employment, % full- or part-time . not working current drinks per week, mean ± sd, no. . ± . . ± . �. family history of myocardial infarction, % . diabetes mellitus, % . hypertension, % . body mass index,* mean ± sd . ± . . ± . �. physical activity score, mean ± sd ± ± �. social network score, mean ± sd . ± . . ± . �. belong to organization or club, % . geographic location, % birmingham, ala chicago, ill . minneapolis, minn oakland, calif *calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters. (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / . - . ; p�. ) (table ). among smokers (n = ), less frequent attendees reported smoking a greater mean number of cigarettes per day than more frequent attend- ees ( ± vs ± ; p�. ). in subgroup analyses, less frequent attendance at religious services was associated with current smoking in all race-sex subgroups except black men (table ). among participants who attended religious ser- vices to times per month (moderate-frequency at- tendees), % ( / ) reported current smoking com- pared with % ( / ) of those who attended religious services once per week or more (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). this association remained signifi- cant after adjusting for age, ethnicity, marital status, edu- cation, employment status, alcohol use, belonging to an organization, and geographic location (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). religious denomination the prevalence of smoking ranged from % among jew- ish participants to % among baptists (table ). over- all, baptists and pentecostals who attended religious ser- vices less than once a month or never had the greatest prevalence of smoking (table ). jewish and presby- terian participants had the lowest prevalence of smok- ing, regardless of how frequently they attended reli- gious services. participants in the “other” category who reported attending religious services at least once per month also had a low prevalence of smoking. less frequent attendees of religious services had a greater prevalence of smoking than did more frequent attendees across all denomination categories, with the ex- ception of presbyterians, who had a relatively low preva- lence of smoking regardless of frequency of attendance at religious services (table ). however, in multivariate analyses, these associations were statistically significant at the p�. level in the baptist, pentecostal, and “other” denominational categories only. smoking incidence of the study participants, ( %) had fol- low-up smoking data in / . of these, ( %) attended religious services at least once per month in / compared with ( %) of the participants who were lost to follow-up (p = . ). a total of of participants ( %) who were nonsmokers in / completed the follow-up to- bacco questionnaire in / . greater frequency of attendance at religious services was associated with less low (n = ) high (n = ) moderate (n = ) frequency of attendance at religious services cu rr en t s m ok er s, % p value for trend <. figure . participants reporting current smoking by frequency of attendance at religious services. low indicates less than once per month or never; moderate, , , or times per month; and high, at least once per week. table . univariate and multivariate predictors of current smoking (among all participants) and smoking initiation (among nonsmokers)* predictor (in / ) current smoking smoking initiation during -year follow-up unadjusted or ( % ci) (n = ) adjusted or ( % ci)† (n = ) unadjusted or ( % ci) (n = ) adjusted or ( % ci)† (n = ) attending religious services � /mo or never . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) age (per -y increase) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . female . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . black . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) married . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . education (per -y increase) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) employed . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . current drinks per week (per -drink increase) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) family history of myocardial infarction . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . diabetes mellitus . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . hypertension . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . body mass index‡ (per . increase) . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . physical activity score (per -point increase) . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . social network score (per -point increase) . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . belong to organization or club . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . geographic location birmingham, ala . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . chicago, ill . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . . . minneapolis, minn . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) oakland, calif . ( . - . ) . . . . ( . - . ) . . . *or indicates odds ratio; ci, confidence interval; and ellipses, variables that were not included in the model. †based on a backward elimination logistic regression model including all variables in table . variables associated with smoking (at p�. ) were retained in the adjusted models. ‡calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters. (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / smoking initiation, with high-frequency attendees (� / wk) having the lowest incidence ( %) (figure ). a total of % ( / ) of nonsmokers who attended reli- gious services less than once per month or never started smoking cigarettes during -year follow-up compared with % ( / ) of those attending religious services at least once per month (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ). in multivariate analyses, participants attending re- ligious services less frequently in / had a % increased risk of starting to smoke during -year fol- low-up compared with participants attending religious services at least once per month (adjusted or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p�. ) (table ). the independent asso- ciation between less frequent attendance at religious ser- vices and starting to smoke seemed to be present in all race-sex subgroups except black men (table ). among nonsmokers who attended religious services to times per month (moderate-frequency attendees), % ( / ) started to smoke during -year follow-up com- pared with % ( / ) of those who attended services once per week or more (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p = . ). this association remained present but not statistically signifi- cant after adjusting for ethnicity, education, alcohol use, and geographic location (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p = . ). smoking cessation in / , % of the smokers who attended re- ligious services less than once per month or never re- ported efforts to quit in the previous years compared with % of the smokers who attended religious services at least once per month (adjusted or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p=. ). however, of the participants ( %) who were smokers in / and who completed the fol- low-up tobacco questionnaire in / , only % ( / ) of the less frequent attendees reported that they were no longer smoking compared with % ( / ) of those attending religious services at least once per month (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p = . ). multivariate analysis that ad- justed for potential confounding variables produced simi- lar results (or, . ; % ci, . - . ; p = . ). comment compared with participants who attended religious ser- vices frequently, less frequent attendees were more likely to report current smoking and to start smoking during -year follow-up. this association was particularly evi- dent for the baptist, pentecostal, and “other” (seventh day adventist, congregational/united church of christ, orthodox, reformed, muslim, mormon, buddhist, chris- tian scientist, quaker, mennonite, hindu, or moravian) denominations and was present in all race-sex sub- groups except black men. other independent predic- tors of current smoking included age; being black, un- married, less educated, or unemployed; consuming more alcohol; and belonging to a club or organization. other independent predictors of smoking initiation included being black or less educated and consuming more alco- hol. living in minneapolis was associated with current and incident smoking. as with any observational study, we cannot elimi- nate the possibility of confounding because the charac- table . adjusted risk of current and incident smoking associated with attending religious services less than once per month or never by race-sex subgroups* adjusted odds ratio ( % ci)† p value current smoking among all participants white men (n = ) . ( . - . ) . white women (n = ) . ( . - . ) . black men (n = ) . ( . - . ) . black women (n = ) . ( . - . ) �. smoking initiation during -year follow-up among participants who were nonsmokers at the outset white men (n = ) . ( . - . ) . white women (n = ) . ( . - . ) . black men (n = ) . ( . - . ) . black women (n = ) . ( . - . ) . *ci indicates confidence interval. †based on a backward elimination logistic regression model including all variables in table . variables associated with smoking (at p�. ) were retained in the models. table . risk of current smoking associated with attending religious services less than once a month or never vs once or more per month by religious denomination denomination � /mo or never � /mo odds ratio ( % ci)* total no. % smokers total no. % smokers unadjusted adjusted† baptist . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) roman catholic . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) methodist . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) lutheran . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) pentecostal . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) presbyterian . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) jewish . . . . . . episcopal . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) christian church/church of christ . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) other‡ . ( . - . ) . ( . - . ) *ci indicates confidence interval. †adjusted for age, ethnicity, marital status, education, employment status, alcohol use, belonging to an organization, and geographic location. ‡seventh day adventist, congregational/united church of christ, orthodox, reformed, muslim, mormon, buddhist, christian scientist, quaker, mennonite, hindu, or moravian. (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / ter traits leading to religious involvement may also re- sult in avoidance of smoking. likewise, we cannot exclude the possibility that smokers may have chosen not to at- tend religious services owing to concerns about social pressures against smoking. however, given the low prob- ability values, it is unlikely that the strength of the ob- served association between religious involvement and smoking is due to chance. it is also unlikely that biased ascertainment of smoking (eg, underreporting by those who attend religious services) is responsible for this find- ing given the high validity of self-reported smoking in cardia study participants. if attending religious services does affect cigarette smoking, what are the potential reasons for this associa- tion? although some denominations, such as mor- mon, prohibit substance use, most do not have ex- plicit proscriptions against smoking. religious beliefs may provide coping mechanisms that reduce the impact of stressful circumstances that would otherwise precipi- tate cigarette smoking. faith-based coping strategies have been related to improved well-being, and religious be- haviors are useful in managing stressful life changes. women seem to derive particular support from reli- gious activities and are more likely than men to use re- ligion as a coping mechanism for stress. this could ex- plain the stronger association between attendance at religious services and less frequent smoking initiation among women in our study. another causal possibility is that frequent atten- dance at religious services may provide an educational and supportive social environment. religious involvement of- fers a sense of belonging to a group with shared values, and this environment may promote healthy behaviors. religious adherents may be more likely to adopt healthy practices because many religions emphasize respect for the body and discourage risk-taking behavior. two other cohort studies have examined the asso- ciation between religious involvement and cigarette smok- ing, but we are unaware of any studies demonstrating an association between attending religious services and not starting to smoke. one study found that participation in private religious activity predicted less subsequent smok- ing in the elderly, but attendance at religious services was not associated with subsequent smoking. another study of adults aged to years found that attendance at re- ligious services was associated with smoking cessation, but its effects on smoking prevalence or incidence were not examined. other studies - , - of religious involvement and smoking have used only cross-sectional analyses or lacked appropriate multivariate adjustments. it is unclear why we observed an association be- tween religious attendance and cigarette smoking in all race-sex groups except black men. this apparent inter- action likely is not due to chance because it was present for both current and incident smoking. it is possible that black men attend religious services for different reasons than do women or white men. perhaps black men are more likely to attend services to accommodate other family members, less likely to adopt coping strategies associ- ated with religious involvement, or less likely to derive support from the social and educational environment of a church because of more stressful life circumstances. although our categories of religious denomination may not have captured the considerable variation within distinct denominational subgroups, , they reveal some interesting findings. we observed substantial differ- ences in the distribution of participants across religious denominations. black participants were more likely than white participants to be baptist or pentecostal and less likely to be roman catholic, lutheran, presbyterian, jew- ish, or episcopal. we also observed a wide range of smok- ing prevalences across denominational categories. jew- ish and presbyterian participants were less likely to smoke than were members of any other denomination, regard- less of their frequency of attendance at religious ser- vices. baptist and pentecostal participants who at- tended religious services fewer than time per month or never had a greater prevalence of smoking than mem- bers of any other denomination. although differences in ethnicity and socioeconomic status may account for some of these discrepancies, it is possible that some religions but not others espouse themes that promote healthier be- haviors and lifestyle. our study has major limitations. first, although frequency of attendance at religious services is a com- monly used measure, it does not represent all aspects of religious involvement. , second, the health effects of involvement in religious activities may not differ from those associated with participation in other community organizations. however, even after adjusting for the cardia study’s measure of social network and for be- longing to organizations or clubs, the association between attendance at religious services and smoking be- havior was unchanged. in summary, frequent attendance at religious ser- vices is associated with a decreased risk of current smok- ing and smoking initiation in white men, white women, and black women, but not in black men. whether less smok- ing may explain part of the association between religious involvement and decreased mortality , is unknown. fur- ther studies are needed to clarify the role that religious in- volvement may play in disease prevention through its effect on cigarette smoking and other behaviors. accepted for publication november , . this study was supported by a research career de- velopment award from the department of veterans affairs low (n = ) high (n = ) sm ok in g in iti at io n, % moderate (n = ) frequency of attendance at religious services p value for trend <. figure . nonsmokers reporting smoking initiation at -year follow-up by frequency of attendance at religious services. low indicates less than once per month; moderate, , , or times per month; and high, at least once per week. (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / health services research and development service (dr whooley); the robert wood johnson generalist physician faculty scholars program (dr whooley); and contracts no - hc- , n -hc- , n -hc- , and n -hc- from the national heart, lung, and blood institute, national institutes of health, bethesda, md (the cardia study). we thank stephen hulley, md, mph, for his com- ments on the manuscript and li-yung lily lui, ma, ms, and michael shino, ba, for their assistance with data analysis. corresponding author and reprints: mary a. whooley, md, department of veterans affairs medical center ( a ), clement st, san francisco, ca (e-mail: whooley @itsa.ucsf.edu). references . bergen aw, caporaso n. cigarette smoking. j natl cancer inst. ; : - . . koenig hg, george lk, cohen hj, hays jc, larson db, blazer dg. the relation- ship between religious activities and cigarette smoking in older adults. j geron- tol a biol sci med sci. ; :m -m . . centers for disease control. health objectives for the nation: cigarette smoking among adults—united states, . mmwr morb mortal wkly rep. ; : - . . centers for disease control. tobacco use among high school students—united states, . mmwr morb mortal wkly rep. ; : - . . adelekan ml, abiodun oa, imouokhome-obayan ao, oni ga, ogunremi oo. psy- chosocial correlates of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis use: findings from a ni- gerian university. drug alcohol depend. ; : - . . ahmed f, brown dr, gary le, saadatmand f. religious predictors of cigarette smoking: findings for african american women of childbearing age. behav med. ; : - . . brown dr, gary le. religious involvement and health status among african- american males. j natl med assoc. ; : - . . friedlander y, kark jd, kaufmann na, stein y. coronary heart disease risk fac- tors among religious groupings in a jewish population sample in jerusalem. am j clin nutr. ; : - . . kandel db, adler i, sudit m. the epidemiology of adolescent drug use in france and israel. am j public health. ; : - . . kendler ks, neale mc, sullivan p, corey la, gardner co, prescott ca. a population- based twin study in women of smoking initiation and nicotine dependence. psy- chol med. ; : - . . khavari ka, harmon tm. the relationship between the degree of professed re- ligious belief and use of drugs. int j addict. ; : - . . ndom rj, adelekan ml. psychosocial correlates of substance use among un- dergraduates in ilorin university, nigeria. east afr med j. ; : - . . spangler jg, bell ra, dignan mb, michielutte r. prevalence and predictors of tobacco use among lumbee indian women in robeson county, north carolina. j community health. ; : - . . spangler jg, bell ra, knick s, michielutte r, dignan mb, summerson jh. church- related correlates of tobacco use among lumbee indians in north carolina. ethn dis. ; : - . . strawbridge wj, cohen rd, shema sj, kaplan ga. frequent attendance at reli- gious services and mortality over years. am j public health. ; : - . . wallace jm jr, forman ta. religion’s role in promoting health and reducing risk among american youth. health educ behav. ; : - . . friedman gd, cutter gr, donahue rp, et al. cardia: study design, recruit- ment, and some characteristics of the examined subjects. j clin epidemiol. ; : - . . sidney s, jacobs dr jr, haskell wl, et al. comparison of two methods of as- sessing physical activity in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (cardia) study. am j epidemiol. ; : - . . jacobs dr, hahn l, haskell wl, et al. validity and reliability of a short physical activity history: cardia and the minnesota heart health program. j cardio- pulm rehabil. ; : - . . wagenknecht le, burke gl, perkins ll, haley nj, friedman gd. misclassifica- tion of smoking status in the cardia study: a comparison of self-report with serum cotinine levels. am j public health. ; : - . . cochran j, beeghley l, bock e. religiosity and alcohol behavior: an exploration of reference group theory. soc forum. ; : - . . williams dr, larson db, buckler re, heckmann rc, pyle cm. religion and psy- chological distress in a community sample. soc sci med. ; : - . . pargament ki, ensing ds, falgout k, et al. god help me (i): religious coping ef- forts as predictors of the outcomes to significant negative life events. am j com- munity psychol. ; : - . . koenig hg, george lk, siegler ic. the use of religion and other emotion-regulating coping strategies among older adults. gerontologist. ; : - . . mcginnis jm, foege wh. actual causes of death in the united states. jama. ; : - . . ellison cg. religion, the life stress paradigm, and the study of depression. in: levin js, ed. religion in aging and health. thousand oaks, calif: sage publica- tions; : - . . mechanic d. promoting health. society. ; : - . . williams dr. the measurement of religion in epidemiologic studies. in: levin js, ed. religion in aging and health: theoretical foundations and methodologi- cal frontiers. thousand oaks, calif: sage publications; : - . . ellison c. religious preference. in: multidimensional measurement of religious- ness/spirituality for use in health research: a report of the fetzer institute/ national institute on aging working group. kalamazoo, mich: fetzer institute; : - . . koenig hg, hays jc, larson db, et al. does religious attendance prolong sur- vival? a six-year follow-up study of older adults. j gerontol a biol sci med sci. ; :m -m . (reprinted) arch intern med/ vol , july , www.archinternmed.com © american medical association. all rights reserved. downloaded from: https://jamanetwork.com/ by a carnegie mellon university user on / / franz beranek and his activities in slovakia tomáš kubisa phdr. tomáš kubisa slovak academy of sciences institute of ethnology and social anthropology klemensova bratislava slovakia e-mail: tomas.kubisa@savba.sk muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, , : : - doi: . /mkd. . . . franz beranek and his activities in slovakia this paper deals with the research of prof franz josef beranek focused on the so called “habans”, a social religious group that settled in western slovakia. this research is reconstructed according to the so called german archive, which forms a part of the scientific collections of the institute of ethnology and social anthropology of the slovak academy of sciences. the first part is focused on the life of franz beranek and his research on the haban community, including the history, the linguistic situation, and comparisons to other anabaptist groups. the second part deals with the procedure of cataloguing the archive and its history, structure, and issues. keywords: habans, franz josef beranek, anabaptists, the german archive, mennonites, hutterites, third reich, dialect although franz josef beranek is not one of the leading names in the world of academia and is not very well known at the other end of the moral spectrum, as a nazi academic, his work has gained a permanent place in german linguistics and, as i will point out in this article, also in slovak ethnology. franz j. beranek was born in in today’s břeclav. he attended (from first to fourth year) the german people’s school, which he later considered to be the key event in the forming of his own sense of national belonging. he graduated from the german grammar school in . he entered the german technical university in brno, but later moved to german and slavonic studies in vienna ( ) and in he switched to the german university in prague. after defending his doctoral thesis, he graduated as a doctor of philosophy in . until the s he worked as a secondary school teacher. in his academic interest, beranek focused on researching german dialects (where he also included the yiddish language) in the environment of german minorities abroad, but was also interested in ethnographic topics. from to he lived in břeclav and, under the influence of growing german nationalism, devoted himself to public education and journalism. despite his “germanhood”, he was tied to his home in south this article was supported by the project folklore, folkloristics and ideology, vega / / ( – ). die deutsche mundardt von südmähren (vocalism) (german dialects of south moravia [vocalism]). panczovÁ, zuzana. pôsobenie franza j. beranka na slovensku v .a . rokoch . storočia: výskum „huncokarov“a instituat für heimatforschung. in: ethnologia europae centralis. trnava: , p. . moravia, and much work is devoted to this area. it was during this period that he visited the german enclaves in various parts of czechoslovakia, including the huncokars. german ethnographers working at the german university in prague considered the studying of german enclaves an important part of german ethnography in czechoslovakia. most of his research trips in slovakia (to visit huncokars ) took place in . in his works from this period he drew attention to the disappearing german settlements and called for protection against assimilation into the slovak majority. his most important work of this period is “die deutsche besiedlung der westslowakei” (german settlement of western slovakia; beranek ). in beranek was installed as a lecturer for the german homeland association in slovakia. the material from the research carried out in slovakia became part of the archive fund of the institut für heimatforschung in kežmarok (ihf). its operation was inaugurated on march . the ihf’s aim was academic as well as educational activities for the benefit of the german minority along the lines of the third reich’s cultural institutions, towards the unification of the german population throughout southeastern europe. beranek was initially active as a scientific adviser, and later as the head of the language research department. this department dealt with the documentation and creation of a card register of german terms in the slovak language, german settlements in slovakia, and german historical documents and dialects. in its report, the institute für heimatforschung mentions research on the huncokar and haban communities, drawing attention to the collaboration of beranek with his wife, hertha wolf-beranek, in the study of already defunct german settlements. the plans of this department reveal works on the dialect of the bratislava area, the dialect of huncokar settlements, the dialect of the haban community, and a detailed description of german surnames. a detailed list of the german names of all slovak municipalities was in the process of preparation, and was intended for the needs of the deutsche partei. since the beginning of its activities, it had been clearly defined that the scientific data collected and archived by the association would be used not only for academic but also for practical purposes. at the turn of the years and , the beranek’s activities in the ihf in kežmarok came to an end after a conflict with johann lipták (leader of the ihf) and the couple returned to the protectorate, to the town of děčín. an interesting link between the activities of the beranek family and slovak ethnology is the fact that hertha-wolf, in collaboration with her husband, drafted an opinion on the work of rudolf bednárik, lozoviuk, p. (ed).etnicita a nacionalismus v diskursu . století. brno: . lumberjacks of german and austrian descent living in the small carpathians. hutton, ch. linguistics and the third reich: mother tongue fascism, race and the science of language. london: , p. . schvarc, michal. „kulturraub“ alebo záchrana kultúrneho dedičstva? evakuácia archívov a kultúrnych pamiatok nemeckými orgánmi zo slovenska koncom . svetovej vojny. in: muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, vol. , , no. , p. . panczovÁ, pôsobenie franza j. beranka... p. . leading slovak ethnologist, considered one of the “founding fathers” of slovak ethnology. in his research and publishing activities he devoted himself to folk architecture and housing, folk art, folk customs, and employment, as well as slovaks abroad. his work constitutes a special proof of an important stage in the development and forma- tion of slovak ethnology. he has published monographs, eg. spiritual and material culture of the slovak people (in: slovenská vlastiveda, ), folk tombstones in slovakia ( ), painted fireplaces in the small carpathians ( ), slovaks in yugoslavia ( ), folk architecture in kysuce ( ), slovakia ( ), and over expert studies and articles. he participated in the education of a whole generation of slovak ethnologists. bednárik, rudolf [on- line]. encyclopaedia beliana, isbn - - - - . [cit. - - ]. available on the internet: https://beliana. sav.sk/heslo/bednarik-rudolf tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia slovakische volkskultur (slovak folk culture), in which she reproaches the author for not taking into account the influence of “germanhood” on slavic and slovak culture. towards the end of the war, beranek fled back to germany, but during this escape, most of his work (and probably part of the archive mentioned here) was lost. he reconstructed it with limited success. after his death, his wife hertha wolf-beranek was to continue this project. after the war, he went through a denazification process and started to work at the university again. however, his position was complicated, some of his colleagues considering him a “nazi scientist” despite denazification and refusing any cooperation, but for good reason. he joined the nsdap only in (later defending himself by stating that it was due to professional pressure), but was also a member of the paramilitary sa (sturmebteilung), and his wife hertha wolf-beranek was a member of ahnenerbe and ss organisations. he profited from the nazi regime. he worked his way up from secondary school teacher to associate professor at charles university in prague in . in his defence, it may be noted that max weinreich does not mention him in his publication hitler’s professors, which can only suggest that he did not consider him a sufficiently important “academic-criminal”. beranek also tried to make contacts with jewish scholars in his post-war career through his interest in yiddish. all of this would indicate that beranek was more opportunist than a convinced nazi. franz beranek and the “anabaptist question” the name “habans” in slovakia refers to members of the social-religious movement of anabaptist groups (neo-baptists). in the following lines i will briefly discuss the prevalent views on the origins and ethnicity of the habans. the emergence of neo-christian movements was a direct consequence of the reformation. more precisely, the anabaptists were among those of the radical reformist wing, which criticised the reformist movement. in , supporters of this wing met at a meeting in the city of zurich and asked the authorities for an open dispute with the preachers of the city, where they wanted to act as a new church in public. they proclaimed the need for baptism in adulthood and the implementation of bible-based social principles in life, bringing them closer to the first christian communities and achieving a higher degree of moral and religious excellence. in , this public dispute ended with the defeat of the anabaptists and the declaration by the city council for the obligatory baptism of children. opponents of this order could leave the city and the country with their families and property. the gradual migration of anabaptists led them through neighbouring countries, especially the territory of the german states, tyrol, and italy. anabaptists came to moravia under the leadership of baltahazar hubmeier, who settled in mikulov and founded a printing house through which he spread his teachings and ideas of anabaptism. on the direct order of the imperial court in vienna he was arrested and executed by burning as a heretic. the consolidation of anabaptism as a social movement in moravia was largely due to jakub huter, who enforced common ownership, and a radical condemnation of private ownership as the greatest sin against god. some anabaptists disagreed with this radicalisation, and two opposing groups were formed. followers of huter began to be nicknamed the huterites. the panczovÁ, pôsobenie franza j. beranka..., pp – . kalman, weiser: “one of hitler’s professors”: max weinreich and solomon birnbaum confront franz bera- nek. in: jewish quarterly review , , pp. – . kalesnÝ, františek and szabÓ, tibor. habáni na slovensku. bratislava: tatran, , pp. – . muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / contradictions deepened and repressions by the state and catholic church intensified. huter was burnt in . the moravian aristocracy, however, used the knowledge and diligence of the anabaptists despite the reluctance of the royal court. however, the pressure intensified and, on the direct order of the emperor (through cardinal dietrichstein), the anabaptists of moravia were expelled under pain of death. the core of the anabaptist movement thus shifted to the kingdom of hungary, to the territory of present western slovakia. the next fate of the habans was grim: the thirty years’ war and the ottoman-habsburg wars left great damage on brothers’ courts. over time, the habans switched to a private farming system and were re-catholicised and merged with the native population. some of these groups emigrated to transylvania, from there to the territory of czarist russia, and later to the american continent. in spite of the unity of this group at first glance, it cannot be stated that it was a homogeneous group or a group of common origin. the establishment of groups in slovakia was continuous. anabaptists of tyrolean descent made up the the core of the haban communities, but the chronicles also mention those of bavarian, swabian, swiss, silesian, hessen, rhine, and even italian, moravian and slovak origins. the social status of the habans (not being vassals of the king and having a higher standard of living) also ensured the supply of members from the ranks of the domestic population. in view of the fact that the research interests of franz beranek were mainly linguistic, it is appropriate to look at some etymological theories about the word “haban”, as the neo-baptists were referred to by the majority of the slovak population. the etymology of the word “haban” is unclear, but there are several theories. the most commonly mentioned theory is the so-called german origin theory, predominantly citing derivation from the word “haushaben”. other opinions claim that this is a garbled version of the word “hannoveraner” (hanoverian). the habans, however, did not use this name, and considered it disrespectful at best, and offensive at worst. however, this word has already penetrated literature and has also become a toponym. in , alojz medňanský formulated the theory that the anabaptists had also brought a distinct dialect— “plattdeutsch” (a group of north german dialects, a mixture of dialects spoken in their homeland). this theory has been repeated several times. in the s oto haban, a descendant of haban immigrants, explored the dialect area and found it bounded by the confluence of the rivers moravia and myjava. on the left bank of river myjava this name is used very little, suggesting that it was not a widespread word for this group, and that it became generally known later. other opinions derive the name from the word “hofan”, i.e., a resident of the court or an anabaptist (anabtan). it can, however, be stated that the word haban is purely slovak, because the first written record in slovakia is from . the most probable seems to be the theory of bratislava city archivist ovídius faust, according to which the word habán comes from the word “habať” kalesnÝ and szabÓ, habáni..., pp. – . kalesnÝ and szabÓ, habáni..., pp. – . kalesnÝ and szabÓ, habáni..., p. . ČernohorskÝ karel. počátky habánskych fajansí. opava, , s. . kalesnÝ and szabÓ, habáni..., pp. – . tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia or “zhabať” (meaning to confiscate) and it refers to people who have had their property confiscated, which often happened to anabatist groups. there is also a relatively exotic theory of etymological interpretation by gustav weiss, who derived this name from the hebrew “ha-banim”, meaning the true children of god, who the anabaptists thought themselves to be, but as i mentioned, the term haban was perceived as offensive. at the present time, this word is generally accepted and has no negative meaning. this brief linguistic and historical excursion was necessary in order to understand what led prof. beranek to be interested in the habans. in the following lines i will analyse the structure of the haban part of the scientific collection known as the “german archive” and try to reconstruct the course of the research of this socio-religious group. when we look at the existing digital catalogue, we find that the documents can be divided into the following six categories: .) questionnaires for dialect research (mundartlicher fragebogen)—mainly focused on terms from botany, zoology, architecture, agriculture, and family terminology. the questionnaires have a uniform structure, each box containing the word in standard german and dialectological examples. in case it was necessary to find out several names of individual parts of the object, the questionnaires also contain a picture of the object. questionnaires are filled only to a small extent. .) correspondence—mostly answers to franz beranek’s letters from various researchers in the field of anabaptist groups. .) excerpts—bibliographic data on literature related to habans and anabaptists in the world. both domestic (slovak and czech) and foreign publications are present. .) dialectological notes—this is the most extensive part of the haban part of the archive, unfortunately scientifically almost worthless because of the lack of data on the location of dating and etymology of the term. .) library cards—books mostly from the then slovak university in bratislava, whose lender was franz beranek. .) topographical names (ortsnamen)—contains topographical names mostly from the záhorie region. the vast majority of toponyms are in german with marked pronunciation, but slovak names of municipalities are also present. i will now analyse the correspondence in detail, which is the most content-relevant. franz beranek’s interest in the habans was primarily linguistic, trying to record the dialects spoken by these groups of the population. a cross-section of the archives proves the preparation for and the start of such research, but it is unclear whether beranek also underwent field research and visited the sites mentioned in his archive. however, this is not excluded because, demonstrably, he underwent an expedition to the huncokars in the little carpathian mountains and the haban settlement was not so far away. beranek contacted other researchers in the field of anabaptism, in particular the austrian philosopher and historian, robert friedmann ( – ), with whom he continued a lively correspondence (from to ). beranek was particularly interested in the anabaptist faust ovidius. zo starých zápisníc mesta bratislavy. bratislava: universum, p. . kalesnÝ and szabÓ, habáni..., p. . muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / communities on the american continent, especially the hutterites in canada. friedmann wrote to him: i don’t think any profits will come from correspondence with the huterite brothers in canada. the brothers do not communicate with foreigners very much and their answers are usually short and unpleasant. they are against pure science (and in your case they are very suspicious). they only allow historical research to illuminate their past. but you can try your luck and write. friedmann gave valuable advice to beranek about the resources, advising him who to contact or which institutions to visit for research. beranek also asked about the situation regarding anabaptists in transylvania (siebenbürgen), but he received an answer that the communities were there, but that they had probably already assimilated. he wrote that he knew nothing about the situation in ukraine, but that it was possible that there were remains of these settlers. however, he also provided him with knowledge from his own research and study trips. he also describes his visit to veľké leváre: during my visit, i spoke to an older woman who spoke an old “habanian dialect”, which is almost lost, and i noticed the word “erchtag” or “iritag” for tuesday (dienstag). this is really a word from the old germanic collection. in beranek’s texts, published in the s and s, he explores romantic ideas of language and nation and expresses a strong need to draw attention to the protection of the disappearing german settlements against assimilation into the ethnic majority. obviously, beranek tried to get samples of all the dialects that these anabaptist groups could speak. there is no direct correspondence between beranek and the anabaptist communities (anywhere) in this archive collection, suggesting that they refused cooperation. friedmann assisted him both in this research, sending him publications about the anabaptists in the usa and canada, and in the correspondence he himself led with these communities (again with warning that the “profit” from them would be low). however, friedmann strongly reminds him not to forget to return them, as he archives all letters. studying the old hutterite manuscripts could bring him greater benefits. apparently, beranek urged for contact to be made with the anabaptist communities, because in the next letter of the following answer is given: addressing the brothers in canada would make no sense, because i know that brothers are very secretive unless they feel special religious interests or historical research. they have less understanding for linguists. of course, the brothers are very closely related to the mennonites, they are actually part of them, namely the communist part, and they are in direct contact with the relatively strong mennonite church. german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , vienna, robert friedmann, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , vienna, robert friedmann, document no. . panczovÁ, pôsobenie franza j. beranka..., p. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , vienna, robert friedmann, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , vienna, robert friedmann, document no. . tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia friedmann also advises him to contact official institutions such as the mennonite historical society in goshen, indiana, usa. however, this correspondence is missing from the archive, so either it did not happen at all, or the institution did not respond to the letter. concerning the hutterite linguistic research, he suggests contacting dr eberhard arnold, the leader of the hutterite brotherhood in germany. other researchers friedmann recommends contacting are: berta w. clark, who had lived for four weeks between brothers in canada; and dr macourek and dr novotný, both of whom had published in the věstník učené společnosti (bulletin of the scholarly society; ). interesting also is the development of the relationship between beranek and friedmann. in early letters beranek is addressed “dear (honoured) professor” (hochverehrter herr professor), then in the next few letters “dear colleague” (sehr geehrter herr kollege) and then in later letters friedmann addressees him “dear friend” (lieber freund ). friedmann also sent beranek the words he discovered to aid him in building his expertise, and almost every letter concludes with a wish for research success and adds how he looks forward to publishing the results. in the following letter from there is also an interest in ethnographic topics: i also must thank you for the beautiful photographs that once again reminded me of the dear houses, their cleanliness and internal order. they are indeed symbols of the population, at least from the past. the fact that there are still remnants of the habans in levars, also remnants of their former community life, is remarkable. when i was there in , i met only a few “remains” which is a great pity. photos of haban ceramics are also mentioned, but again these are missing from the archive collection. the letter also mentions the name of a family who emigrated from sobotište to canada. friedmann complains in his letter that his work is stagnant and that his publishing options are limited. on the issue of anabaptism in south-eastern and eastern europe, beranek made less effort to obtain data. there are only two letters in the archive concerning this. the first is from prof viktor schirminsky, who describes the colony of huttertall in ukraine near the town of melitopol. at the same time, however, he adds that its inhabitants moved to canada and that today there are only the remains of a former colony. for more information, he recommends studying literature, namely alexander klaus—our colony of odessa (unsere kolonien odessa, )—or contact the german foreign institute—deutsches ausland institut stuttgart. beranek did so and received a brief reply: it is still a functioning institution, founded in . it is dedicated to promoting mennonite/anabaptist history and the everyday life of this community. source: https://mennonitehistoricalsociety.org/about/ accessed sep- tember . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , vienna, robert friedmann, document no. . the letter is dated june . in january of that year, adolf hitler became the chancellor of germany, and it is likely that it alludes to a change of circumstances. the situation was complicated because friedmann was of jewish origin. german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, viktor schirminski, document no. . muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / we inform you that the communist sect of the hutterites lived in romania until and in southern russia between and . then they emigrated to the usa (south dakota and montana) and to the prairie provinces of canada. so you will not find hutterites to have been in romania since and since not even in southern russia. the followers of the hutterites, called habans, enjoyed special religious privileges and still live in sobotište and the veľké leváre, but they are now members of the roman catholic church. whether they have retained their hutterite identity, is beyond our knowledge. in , a fraternal communist settlement was established in germany near the town of fulda under the leadership of dr eberhard arnold and in they formally joined the hutterite sect. it is likely that sometimes beranek received contradictory information, as was made possible by the fact that most of the data was based on theoretical research, real usable material being scarce. beranek tried to fill this gap by contacting every researcher who had merely mentioned the word haban somewhere. the proof is listed in a letter from the czech art historian václav vilém Štech, where he explains that he did not deal with the habans and their faith and that the article beranek had taken interest in “was improvised on the request of the editorial board, not supported by scientific studies” and was “pure journalism, without scientific ambition.” the only real field research report comes from johann winter, who visited sobotište and sent a report to beranek briefly describing the functioning of the haban court: i won’t tell you anything new; once a year, a week after the festival of the three kings, they have a meeting, all members of the fraternity are the owners of the haban courts, board members select the head of the board and two senior officials. the following festivities will be held on january at the brotherhood’s guest house. in addition to the social order, he also briefly comments on the haban dialect: the inhabitants of sobotište know almost nothing, they speak only a little german, almost no “haban”at all. only one older man had the courage and said “gackerle” instead of an egg (eier), and that is the only haban word i have heard here. the letter also mentions that he had also sent a copy of the sixteenth century haban chronicle, that the original had allegedly been stolen with a copy made by the local priest, that the mayor might have had interesting information, but that he didn’t want to show anything. regarding veľké leváre, it is mentioned here that: german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, heinz kloss, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, václav vilém Štech, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, johann winter, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, johann winter, document no. . tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia the veľké leváre are interesting; until recently there were german schools. i recorded some haban words: – tuesday (dienstag) – “erchtig”, friday (freitag) – “pfingstig, apron (schürze) – “huter”, shirt (hemd) – “pfad”, chimney sweep (kaminfäger) – kemetschore, ich werde gehen – ick wer kai. beranek received another piece of serious scientific material from bertha w. clark, explaining in detail the differences between german and the dialect of the hutterites. although they came from switzerland, their dialect was different from swiss german: “hearing the two hutterite brothers talking reminds her as if someone wanted to talk with a hot potato in his mouth”. clark states that the dialect of the hutterites copied their migration route, using words of french origin, and many russian words (especially the older generation, the younger almost not understanding them). another impact was the integration of mennonites into the hutterite community during their stay in russia, but their migration lines were different, across the netherlands, denmark, and prussia. they brought many “platt-deutsch”: “one of the preachers told me that he has to control himself during sermons, otherwise he would talk in platt-deutsch”. the communities in sobotište and leváre are also briefly mentioned: “i know that the catholic descendants of the hutterites live in sobotište and leváre. i know that one of the community houses built in the eighteenth century still stands. have you established contact with these groups?” the letter contains more comprehensive interpretation of the dialectological specifics; a complete quotation is beyond the scope of this article, but clark admits that she cannot name the differences between the groups because they will not be great, if they exist. she recalls that there are currently groups and colonies on the american continent. there are more significant differences in social culture (e.g., in choosing a spouse) or in clothing (using buttons or hooks on shirts). the last letters of the correspondence consists of two letters which are, however, substantially later in date ( ). the first is from associate professor herbert grau, who sends a brief dictionary of habanic terms from the great levars to beranek and explains their origin. the very last letter is just a brief report about the occurrence of two haban courts in the town of pezinok. origins and characteristics of the scientific collection the “german archive” because the material analysed is only a part of a much larger collection known as the “german archive”, it is appropriate to briefly describe it. the collection is part of the scientific collections of the institute of ethnology and social anthropology of the slovak academy of sciences, which was established in , the archives being built as a necessary part of the workplace, containing text, pictorial, and multimedia documents. the origin of the fund, called the german archive, has not been sufficiently clarified. most of it comes from the work german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, johann winter, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, bertha w. clark, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, bertha w. clark, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, bertha w. clark, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, bertha w. clark, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, herbert grau, document no. . german archive iesa sas, v – habanerisch – , sudak, johann weinzierhl, document no. . muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / of the beranek family in slovakia in the so-called institute for homeland research (institut für heimatforschung) in kežmarok, and partially probably also from collections of the german carpathian institute in kežmarok (karpatendeutsches institut in käsmark). the carpathian institute in kežmarok was founded in and its ambition was to develop ethnographic research among the carpathian germans, as well as cultural and ideological work with this minority. with the changing situation on the front, to the detriment of the third reich, the activities of this institute ceased. efforts to move and destroy archival records have led to part of the fund being lost or destroyed. how this fund got into the scientific collections of the institute of ethnology and social anthropology is subject to debate and unverified rumours. a former academic of the ethnographic institute at that time, associate professor emília horváthová (employed – ) stated that these materials were found in the hangar at piešťany airport after the second world war. apart from the occasional research interest of the employees of the then ethnographic institute and the museum of the carpathian germans, this archive collection was intact. there were several reasons why nobody tried to process it for so long: unclear origin, the (apparent) absence of any inventory or index, and the difficulty of composition and completeness. last but not least, many documents were very difficult to read, being written in gothic german script, archaic manuscript, or damaged. the first attempt was made in , when a researcher at the institute of ethnology and social anthropology of the slovak academy of sciences, mgr. zuzana panczová, phd, in her research on an ethnic group of german lumberjacks in the little carpathians called huncokari by the majority, processed thirty archival units from the section slowakische volkserzählungen (slovak folk tales), dated – . it emerged that these sources were directly linked to the research of german enclaves, which german ethnographers had been actively interested in, and this research had later been subordinated to the political objectives of the third reich. in , employees of the institute of ethnology and social anthropology of the slovak academy of sciences proceeded to catalogue the archive and discovered a report written by svetozár Švehlák and milan leščák in , stating that the state of the archive did not correspond to that of and that it was most likely a private archive only supplemented by ihf research. most of the collection is composed of dialectological and folkloristic material classified by topic and questionnaires, marked with roman numerals. however, there are also fragments of research of folk medicine, architecture, viticulture and, of course, exclusively private material—personal correspondence. the haban part of the fund is marked “v”. in the report it is briefly characterised as follows: “another part of the materials consists of linguistic (dialectological) collections, which are mostly untranscribed and unsorted, e.g., from the haban research.” this characteristic, as the authors themselves, admit, is considerably superficial, because only the haban part contains other materials in addition to direct research questionnaires and notes. since there is no other catalogue of this archival collection apart from the cursory list of file folders marked by roman numerals, employees of the institute of ethnology proceeded to catalogue it within an academic project: “history of ethnology in slovakia in the th century: ethnological research of the german minority”. however, as i pointed out, many are damaged, lozoviuk, etnicita..., p . panczovÁ, pôsobenie franza j. beranka..., p. . panczovÁ, pôsobenie franza j. beranka..., p. . tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia unlabelled or mislabelled, or absent. in short, when the fund came into the possession of the institute of ethnology, it was incomplete and in a catastrophic state, which was undoubtedly due to its movements in turbulent times. the aim of processing therefore remains to explore the fund and create a catalogue that will allow its further scientific processing. as the collection is thematically and genre diverse, it was necessary to develop a registration system that would allow the cataloguing of documents that have no name or have a supporting character (notes, excerpt cards). an electronic catalogue is currently being built, where the following items are recorded for each document: . signature of the file—the original signatures that are listed in the report from by svetozár Švehlák and milan leščák. in cases where the file does not have a number, this signature is assigned chronologically after consultation with other project solvers (to avoid double numbering and subsequent confusion in cataloguing). the haban file is marked with a roman numeral “v”. . title of the file—listed if it exists, in this case with the name “habans”. . author of the document—first surname and then name. . serial number of the document within the file—assigned by the worker who catalogues the document in chronological order. . original signature of the document—to be indicated if the document has such signature. this information is used for later accurate identification of the document if it is linked to another document in another file. part of the files are broken (or incomplete) due to the difficult circumstances of the acquisition of the fund, and this signature is intended to assist in their identification (and possible completion). . document title in the original language—only stated if the document has a title. . dialect—with regard to the scientific focus of professor beranek, it is also necessary to indicate the dialect in which the document is written. this information is provided only if the dialect can be identified with certainty. . title of the document and translation—if the document has a title, it shall be stated in the slovak language; if not, the researcher may assign a concise title according to its content at their discretion. . document genre—this entry is only included in cataloguing if the genre is unambiguous, e.g. “fairy tale”. . document dating—stated only if the document is dated or can be dated from another related document. . regesta—the researcher briefly describes what the document is about or what it discusses. in cases where the researcher has assigned the title of the document because it did not exist, the description may be identical to that title. . municipality—the historical name of the municipality from which the document originates is stated in the german language. . municipality, present name—the current slovak name of the municipality from which the document originates or to which it refers. . country—current state in which is the municipality from which the document originates or concerns. this information is provided in the slovak language. . district—the current district, or territory that includes the municipality mentioned in the documents. in the case of foreign municipalities, the district may be replaced by another muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / geographical specification (county, republic, region, etc.), but this must be specified. this is an additional indication that specifies the localisation in the event that there are municipalities with the same name. . note—this will include any other relevant information concerning the document, e.g. discrepancies, illegible passages, or reference to related documents. . interesting fact (optional)—it is possible to mention or emphasise any particularity or interesting fact of an individual document which could be of interest to other researchers (e.g. the signature or stamp of an important person, the order for a significant historical event, etc.) so far, this is an electronic cataloguing scheme that can be changed (or supplemented) with continued cataloguing, as it is not yet fully known what the fund contains. conclusion the original inspiration to write this contribution to the study of habans was the fact that at least in slovakia this chapter is closed. the habans either emigrated or merged with the majority and all that still catches the attention of scholars is haban ceramics, whether in terms of art, museology, or ethnography. if we look at the efforts of franz beranek to collect and create a dialectological atlas of german enclaves and if we understand this as an experiment, i must say that it failed. the reason for this was that what he was trying to prove simply did not exist. the bearers of the language died out and it is therefore impossible to say that the habans in slovakia used a single dialect. it is much more likely that it was a set of different but related dialects. the theory of original, pure german has also proved to be misleading, which beranek himself reflects in his work: caution should be exercised when assigning the names of the haban immigrants who came to our territory in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. there are many forms of place names found in the books of this sect or in the dialects of the remaining habans in the veľké leváre and in moravský svätý ján, apparently taken directly from the mouth at a given time, though often only as used by a minority of the existing medieval german population” in addition, their script contains many young or new, many times only superficially germanised names of slovak and hungarian towns, which were hardly the common property of all speaking in the haban dialect, because in most cases they can no longer be proved. for the sake of completeness, these forms of names, if the city is listed for other reasons, are listed together. in addition, we are given in writing some nice german-sounding, at first glance truly antique-like names of cities, which, although perhaps only in connection with a foreign form, were discovered by the habans: freischütz (sobotischt; probably based on the hungarian szabad “frei”), neusorg (unclear whether katow, holitsch/holíč, popudin/pobedím or brodsko). this was a quite common result of scientific projects and expeditions in the third reich due to their subordinati- on to political goals. beranek, franz. die deutsche besiedlung des preßburger großgaus. munchen, , pp. – . tomáš kubisa: franz beranek and his activities in slovakia the main asset of beranek’s research remains at least a brief documentation of the linguistic and ethnographic remnants of the habans in slovakia and their comparison with similar communities abroad. however, it is still an open question and cataloguing of this archive is still ongoing and it is possible that further processing will bring new knowledge in this area. references archival scources: german archive of the institute of ethnology and social anthropology of the slovak academy of sciences, haban part – no. v literature beranek, franz ( ). die deutsche besiedlung des preßburger großgaus. munchen. ČernohorskÝ, karel ( ). počátky habánskych fajansí. opava. faust, ovidius ( ). zo starých zápisníc mesta bratislavy. bratislava: universum. kalesnÝ, františek and szabÓ, tibor ( ). habáni na slovensku. bratislava: tatran. irŠa, rudolf and prochÁzkovÁ, mária ( ). habáni vo veľkých levároch. sprievodca dejinami habánov a habánskeho dvora vo veľkých levároch. skalica: záhorské múzeum. kalman, weiser ( ). “one of hitler’s professors”: max weinreich and solomon birnbaum confront franz beranek. in: jewish quarterly review , pp. – . lozoviuk, p. (ed.) ( ). etnicita a nacionalismus v diskursu . století. brno. panczovÁ, zuzana ( ). pôsobenie franza j. beranka na slovensku v .a . rokoch . storočia: výskum „huncokarov“a institut für heimatforschung. in: ethnologia europae centralis. trnava. schvarc, michal ( ). „kulturraub“ alebo záchrana kultúrneho dedičstva? evakuácia archívov a kultúrnych pamiatok nemeckými orgánmi zo slovenska koncom . svetovej vojny. in: muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, vol. , , is. , pp. – . issn - internet sources: https://mennonitehistoricalsociety.org/about/ accessed september . gloal anabaptist memnonite encyclopedia online (gameo: https://gameo.org/index. php?title=friedmann,_robert_( – ) accessed september .encyklopedia beliana. bednárik, rudolf [online]. encyclopaedia beliana, isbn - - - - . [cit. - - ]. dostupné na internete: https://beliana.sav.sk/heslo/bednarik-rudolf muzeológia a kultúrne dedičstvo, / med genet ; : - syndrome of the month the dystonias paul r jarman, thomas t warner dystonia is a syndrome of abnormal involun- tary movements characterised by sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twist- ing and repetitive movements, or abnormal postures.' dystonia may be classified according to aetiology, as primary torsion dystonia (also known as idiopathic torsion dystonia, itd) when dystonia is the only abnormality, or as secondary dystonia when occurring in the set- ting of another disease. primary torsion dysto- nia (ptd) is predominantly genetic in aetiol- ogy and may now be increasingly subdivided according to genetic locus, as the understand- ing of the molecular genetic basis of dystonia evolves. ( med genet ; : - ) keywords: dystonia; genetics estimates ofthe prevalence ofgeneralised ptd vary from . per in the north of england to . per in minnesota ; this figure may be as much as five times higher in the ashkenazi jewish population. focal dys- tonia, affecting only one part of the body, is the commonest form of dystonia, with an esti- mated prevalence of - per . the dystonias are a clinically and genetically diverse group of disorders. recent advances in genetics may be expected to lead to improved understanding of the pathophysiology and ulti- mately to the development of more effective treatment for dystonia. department of clinical neurology, institute of neurology, queen square, london wcln bg, uk p r jarman department of clinical neurosciences, royal free hospital school ofmedicine, london, uk t t warner correspondence to: dr jarman. clinical features dystonia may involve almost any muscle group with a correspondingly wide range of clinical manifestations, encompassing equinovarus posturing of the foot with toe walking, hyperpronation of the arm, lordosis, scoliosis, and torticollis. writer's cramp, spasmodic dys- phonia, blepharospasm, and oromandibular dystonia (the latter two occurring together as meige's syndrome) all fall within the rubric of dystonia. dystonic spasms are often intermit- tent initially, appearing or intensifying with voluntary movement (which may lead to an erroneous diagnosis of hysteria), but dystonic table classification of dystonia by distribution focal dystonia single body part affected, eg neck (torticollis) segmental dystonia two or more contiguous body parts affected, eg one leg and trunk (segmental crural dystonia) generalised dystonia segmental crural plus any other body part multifocal dystonia two or more non-contiguous areas affected hemidystonia ipsilateral leg and arm affected postures may eventually become fixed. electro- physiologically, dystonia is characterised by co-contraction of antagonist muscles and over- flow of activity into extraneous muscles. primary torsion dystonia (ptd) ptd is clinically heterogeneous and may be classified according to age at onset, body part first affected, and distribution (table ). sever- ity is largely determined by age at onset. the age at onset distribution of dystonia is bimodal with peaks at and years. there are clear clinical differences between patients with early (< years) and late onset (> years) ptd. early onset ptd usually begins in a limb, par- ticularly the leg, and frequently progresses to generalised dystonia. muscles of the head and neck are frequently spared. in contrast, late onset ptd typically begins in the neck or head, for example with torticollis, and tends to remain focal in distribution. segmental dysto- nia is of intermediate severity and may arise at any age. early, limb onset ptd is particularly preva- lent among the ashkenazi jewish population where inheritance is autosomal dominant with approximately % penetrance. in the uk, generalised, multifocal, and segmental dystonia are estimated to be dominantly inherited in % of cases, with approximately % penetrance. the remaining % of cases are thought to be non-genetic phenocopies. the genetic contribution to adult onset focal dystonia is not yet clear. most cases are appar- ently sporadic, but careful family studies suggest the existence of one or more autosomal dominant genes with low penetrance. a small number of large families exist in which focal dystonia is inherited as a dominant trait with relatively high penetrance. l it seems likely, however, that non-genetic causes account for a proportion of cases. dopa responsive dystonia (drd) drd occupies a unique place among the dys- tonias as the condition may be very effectively treated and its molecular pathogenesis is better understood than that of any other dystonia. patients may be clinically indistinguishable from early onset ptd,' typically presenting in childhood with dystonia involving the lower limb which progresses to become generalised unless treated. drd may be distinguished from ptd, however, by the dramatic and sus- tained therapeutic response to low doses of l-dopa.' diurnal variation of symptoms with o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ the dystonias table selected genetic causes ofsecondary dystonia disease additional clinicalfeatures inheritance genellocalisationlmetabolic defect wilson's disease psychiatric, hepatic, ocular manifestations. parkinsonism, ar copper transporting atpase gene bg lucencies on ct huntington's disease dementia, chorea ad hd gene (cag expansion) hallervorden-spatz disease progressive dystonia. parkinsonism, cognitive impairment, ar pl . -p ' retinopathy and optic atrophy may occur neuroacanthocytosis chorea, neuropathy, acanthocytosis ar q (chorea-acanthocytosis) triglyceride transfer protein gene (abetalipoproteinaemia)' machado-joseph disease cerebellar ataxia ad sca gene (cag expansion) niemann-pick disease, type c supranuclear gaze palsy, ataxia, dementia, ar npc gene hepatosplenomegaly, foamy cells in marrow, sea blue histiocytes on skin biopsy ataxia telangiectasia telangiectasia, ataxia, oculomotor apraxia, neuropathy, ar atm gene ' malignancies juvenile onset neuronal ceroid seizures, dementia, psychiatric manifestations, retinopathy, ar cln gene lipofuscinosis ataxia leigh's syndrome vomiting, subacute brain stem syndrome, encephalopathy, ar pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency lactic acidosis, bg lucencies on ct x linked pyruvate carboxylase deficiency maternal mitochondrial dna mutations juvenile/adult metachromatic dementia, psychiatric disorder, siezures, white matter ar arylsulphatase a deficiency leucodystrophy dystrophy late onset gm, and gm dementia, ataxia, amyotrophy ar i galactosidase deficiency gangliosidoses hexosaminidase deficiency lesch-nyhan syndrome mental retardation, spasticity, self-mutilation x linked hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase deficiency organic acidaemias acidosis, episodic ataxia and encephalopathy, ar propionyl coa carboxylase, methylmalonyl coa neutropenia/thrombocytopenia, bg lucencies on ct mutase, glutaryl coa dehydrogenase deficiencies mohr-tranebjaerg syndrome deafness, cortical blindness, mental retardation x linked ddp gene (deafness/dystonia peptide) leber's hereditary optic atrophy - subacute visual loss, bg lucencies on ct maternal mitochondrial dna mutations dystonia bg: basal ganglia. improvement of dystonia after sleep is a characteristic feature of drd. it is now recog- nised that the drd phenotype may encompass a number of atypical presentations including parkinsonism, spastic paraplegia, and a presen- tation mimicking athetoid cerebral palsy."" most cases are inherited as an autosomal dominant trait with reduced penetrance and females oumumber males by approximately three to one. secondary dystonias dystonia may occur as a symptom of numer- ous diseases affecting the central nervous system, accounting for about one in three cases of dystonia. this is a highly heterogeneous group of disorders, many of which are genetic (table ). structural lesions of the basal ganglia, athetoid cerebral palsy, neuroleptic drug exposure, and numerous metabolic, toxic, and infective disorders may all cause dystonia.e in most cases the clinical presentation is not dominated by dystonia; other neurological fea- tures such as cognitive impairment, seizures, visual impairment, or pyramidal lesions are present. occasionally, however, dystonia may be the sole clinical manifestation, although there are often clinical clues indicating another underlying disease. hemidystonia is almost always the result of a lesion of the contralateral basal ganglia or its connections; a rapid progression of symptoms, onset with dystonia at rest, and the presence of other neurological features should alert the clinician to the presence of a secondary dystonia. paroxysmal dystonlas these are an unusual group of hyperkinetic movement disorders in which dystonia, chorea, and ballism occur together in episodic attacks. clear consciousness is preserved throughout and patients are normal between attacks. three forms are recognised, distinguished by the duration of attacks and precipitating factors. paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis (pkc) is the commonest form, characterised by frequent attacks (up to per day), lasting only seconds and precipi- tated by sudden movement or startle. . . the condition responds well to treatment with anti- convulsant drugs. inheritance appears to be autosomal dominant with reduced penetrance in about two thirds of cases. paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis (pdc) causes less frequent but more prolonged attacks, lasting from minutes to hours, which may be precipitated by a variety of stimuli, including emotion, stress, caffeine, and alcohol. pdc is usually dominantly inherited with high ( %) penetrance. a more poorly defined exercise induced form exists in which attacks are of intermediate duration. the paroxysmal dystonias are frequently misdiagnosed as epi- lepsy or hysteria. differential diagnosis and investigation imaging and laboratory investigations are nor- mal in ptd. the main objective of investiga- tion of dystonia is to identify secondary dysto- nias, particularly those that are amenable to treatment, such as wilson's disease. investiga- tions should include copper and ceruloplasmin measurement, as well as slit lamp examination of the eyes to exclude wilson's disease in patients below the age of . ct or mri scan, lysosomal enzymes, and examination of a blood smear for acanthocytes may be indi- cated. a careful drug history should be taken to exclude drug induced dystonia. identification of patients with drd by means of a therapeutic trial of l-dopa ( mg three times a day for three months) is essential o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ jarman, warner table genetic loci for the primary dystonias symbol disease inheritance genellinkage dyt ptd, usually early, limb onset with progression. ad ( - % penetrance) torsina, bp deletion commoner in jewish patients. dyt autosomal recessive ptd (spanish gypsies) ar dyt philippino dystonia-parkinsonism x linked xql . dyt ptd with laryngeal involvement (one family) ad drd (dyt ) l-dopa responsive dystonia ad gch ar th dyt mixed phenotype ptd (mennonites) ad p -q dyt late onset, focal ptd ad p pdc pure pdc ad q -q complicated pdc ad lp ptd: primary torsion dystonia. ar: autosomal recessive. ad: autosomal dominant. gch : gtp cyclohydrolase gene. th: tyro- sine hydroxylase gene. pdc: paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis. in all cases of dystonia with onset in childhood or early adult life (< years). the molecular genetic basis of dystonia over the last decade there have been consider- able advances in understanding of the genetics of dystonia. these have been driven by the need to take a positional cloning approach to understanding pathophysiology, as anatomical and neurochemical studies in ptd are gener- ally unrevealing. a molecular genetic classification of the dystonias is now evolving, which complements the more traditional clini- cal classification, and allows phenotype- genotype correlations to be made (table ). each of the dystonia loci is associated with a characteristic, but sometimes overlapping spectrum of phenotypic manifestations. some loci are of considerable clinical importance (such as dytl and drd), while the contribu- tion of others has not yet been fully evaluated. dyti linkage studies in jewish and non-jewish families with ptd led to the identification of the dyt locus on chromosome q . ' strong linkage disequilibrium has been shown between dyt and a q haplotype in both familial and sporadic jewish cases, indicating a founder mutation estimated to have occurred among the ashkenazim of eastern europe about years ago. "' the dyt gene is enriched in this population as a result of genetic drift, with a gene frequency estimated to be as high as / . very recently the dyt gene was cloned and a unique bp deletion identified in all chromosome q linked families, regardless of ethnic back- ground and surrounding haplotype. the deletion results in loss of one of a pair of glutamic acid residues in a novel protein named torsina. torsina is an atp binding protein with some similarity to the family of heat shock proteins; its function in the nervous system and role in the pathogenesis of dystonia are not yet understood. the common bp deletion appears to have arisen independently in different ethnic groups and, to date, no other mutations have been identified in the gene, suggesting that only a single variation in the protein can give rise to the dystonia phenotype. however, a small proportion of patients with the typical dyt phenotype do not carry the deletion. it is not yet clear if these patients have novel mutations in torsina, or whether other genes underlie dystonia in such cases. although detailed phenotype-genotype stud- ies are still awaited, it is already clear that the dyt mutation produces a relatively homoge- neous clinical phenotype in jews and non-jews, with early limb onset and spread to at least one other limb, but rarely involving muscles above the neck. patients with the jewish chromo- some q haplotype (dytlaj ) have a mean age at onset of . years and % eventually develop generalised or multifocal dystonia. however, a small proportion of patients with dyt a have a less severe phenotype, with late onset (never after the age of ) and little or no progression of symptoms after long follow up. in europe, dyt mutations are estimated to account for approximately % of families with generalised or segmental dystonia. mutation analysis of dyt in these patients is now under way. it has been suggested that dyti mutations may also be a common cause of late onset focal dystonia. however, there is now mounting evi- dence that early and late onset ptd are genetically as well as clinically distinct.") in the study of ozelius et al, no patients with focal or segmental dystonia affecting muscles of the head or neck were found to have the bp deletion in torsina. dyt autosomal recessive inheritance of ptd has been proposed in a small number of consan- guineous spanish gypsy kindreds. there is no clear evidence supporting autosomal reces- sive inheritance of ptd outside this popula- tion, however. dyt the syndrome of dystonia-parkinsonism (lubag) is an x linked, neurodegenerative dis- order confined to the philippines. allelic association with markers at xq . indicates the existence of a founder mutation in this population.' dyt dystonia with prominent laryngeal involve- ment has been reported in a large australian family. ' ' a genomic search has not yet identi- fied a locus in this family. drd (formerly dyt ) assignment of the drd locus to chromosome q led to the identification of heterozygous mutations within the gtp cyclohydrolase i o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ the dystonias gene (gch ), reducing enzyme activity to - % of normal in patients with drd. . gch catalyses the initial and rate limiting step of tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis. tetrahy- drobiopterin is an essential cofactor for tyro- sine hydroxylase, the rate limiting enzyme in the dopamine synthesis pathway. partial defi- ciency of gch is believed to result in impaired cns dopamine synthesis and thus dystonia or parkinsonism. inheritance is usu- ally autosomal dominant; complete gch deficiency resulting from recessively transmit- ted homozygous mutations causes a severe infantile neurological syndrome characterised by hyperphenylalaninaemia, severely retarded development, abnormal muscle tone, and convulsions. ' autosomal recessive inheritance of drd is rare, but has been described in a family with homozygous mutations of the gene for tyrosine hydroxylase. " dyt a locus for a mixed dystonia phenotype has recently been mapped to a cm interval, spanning the pericentromeric region of chro- mosome , in two german-american men- nonite families. although some family mem- bers have a phenotype similar to the dyt phenotype, the wide age at onset distribution, and overall tendency to involve limb and cranio- cervical muscles equally, are distinguishing features of the dyt phenotype. this locus may be unique to the genetically isolated men- nonite population. dyt only one locus for late onset, purely focal dys- tonia has been identified. a gene causing torti- collis and spasmodic dysphonia in a large ger- man family with a mean age at onset of years has been assigned to a cm interval on chro- mosome p." similarly affected, apparently sporadic cases of focal dystonia in northern germany were found to share a common hap- lotype over a cm region of p, " suggesting that dominant inheritance at low penetrance of a founder mutation in the dyt gene may be an important cause of focal ptd in the german population. the contribution of this locus to focal dystonia in other populations remains to be determined. exclusion of the dyt , dyt , and dyt loci in five large families with dominantly inherited dystonia' indicates the exist- ence of one or more as yet unmapped genes for ptd (unpublished data, p jarman). paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis (pdc) to date, three large families with classical pdc have been shown to be linked to a cm locus at chromosome q -q . a second locus for a complicated form of pdc associ- ated with constant spastic paraplegia has been localised to chromosome lp in a single kindred. a chloride/bicarbonate anion ex- changer gene, slc a , known to map to the pdc locus on chromosome q is a candidate gene for pdc." genetic counselling in the uk, the recurrence risk to offspring and sibs of patients with generalised, segmental or multifocal, familial ptd is estimated to be %. for single cases, the risk to children and sibs falls to % and % respectively. these figures may be reduced by %, %, and % by the ages of , , and , respectively, for clinically unaffected relatives. prenatal and predictive testing have been performed in jew- ish patients using the dyt a'j disease associ- ated haplotype. the identification of a common mutation in the dyti gene, detect- able by restriction digest, will simplify genetic testing, extending it to many non-jewish fami- lies and allowing diagnostic testing to be performed. however, the low penetrance and variable expression of the dyt gene mean that predictive testing cannot predict pheno- type. genetic testing for non-dyti dystonias will remain confined to families large enough for linkage analysis. fahn s, marsden cd, caln db. classification and investi- gation of dystonia. in: marsden cd, fahn s, eds. movement disorders . london: butterworths, : - . duffey p, butler ag, barnes m. the epidemiology of the primary dystonias in the north of england. mov disord ; : a. nutt jg, muenter md, aronson a, kurland lt, melton lj. epidemiology of focal and generalized dystonia in roches- ter, minnesota. mov disord ; : - . marsden cd, harrison mjg. idiopathic torsion dystonia (dystonia musculorum deformans). a review of patients. brain ; : - . greene p, kang uj, fahn s. spread of symptoms in idiopathic torsion dystonia. mov disord ; : - . bressman sb, de leon d, brin mf, et al. idiopathic dysto- nia among ashkenazi jews: evidence for autosomal dominant inheritance. ann neurol ; : - . fletcher na, harding ae, marsden cd. a genetic study of idiopathic torsion dystonia in the united kingdom. brain ; : - . waddy hm, fletcher na, harding ae, marsden cd. a genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias. ann neurol ; : - . uitti rj, maraganore dm. adult onset familial cervical dystonia: report of a family including monozygotic twins. mov disord ; : - . bressman sb, warner tt, almasy l, et al. exclusion of the dyt locus in familial torticollis. ann neurol ; : - . leube b, rudnicki d, ratzlaff t, kessler kr, benecke r, auburger g. idiopathic torsion dystonia: assignment of a gene to chromosome p in a german family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. hum mol genet ; : - . jarman pr, bandmann , marsden cd, wood nw. gtp cyclohydrolase i mutations in patients with dystonia responsive to anticholinergic drugs.j neurol neurosurg psy- chiatry ; : - . nygaard tg, marsden cd, fahn s. dopa-responsive dystonia: long-term treatment response and prognosis. neurology ; : - . nygaard tg, trugman jm, de yebenes jg, fahn s. dopa- responsive dystonia: the spectrum of clinical manifestations in a large north american family. neurology ; : - . nygaard tg, waran sp, levine ra, naini ab, chutorian am. dopa-responsive dystonia simulating cerebral palsy. pediatr neurol ; : - . nygaard tg, marsden cd, duvoisin rc. dopa-responsive dystonia. adv neurol ; : - . taylor td, litt m, kramer p, et al. homozygosity mapping of hallervorden-spatz syndrome to chromosome pl . - p . nat genet ; : - . rubio jp, danek a, stone c, et al. chorea-acanthocytosis: genetic linkage to chromosome q . am j hum genet ; : - . narcisi tme, shoulders cc, chester sa, et al. mutations of the microsomal triglyceride-transfer-protein gene in abetalipoproteinaemia. am j hum genet ; : - . carstea ed, morris ja, coleman kg, et al. niemann-pick c disease: homology to mediators of cholesterol homeos- tasis. science ; : - . savitsky k, bar-shira a, gilad s, et al. a single ataxia telangiectasia gene with a product similar to pi- kinase. science ; : - . the international batten disease consortium. isolation of a novel gene underlying batten disease, cln . cell ; : - . dimauro s, de vivo dc. genetic heterogeneity in leigh syndrome. ann neurol ; : - . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ jarman, warner jin h, may m, tranebjaerg l, et al. a novel x-linked gene, ddp, shows mutations in families with deafness (dfn- ), dystonia, mental deficiency and blindness. nat genet ; : - . fahn s. the paroxysmal dyskinesias. in: marsden cd, fahn s, eds. movement disorders. oxford: butterworth- heinemann, : - . lance jw. familial paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis and its differentiation from related syndromes. ann neurol ; : - . kertesz a. paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis. an entity within the paroxysmal choreoathetosis syndrome. description of cases including autopsied. neurology ; : - . demirkiran m, jankovic j. paroxysmal dyskinesias: clinical features and classification. ann neurol ; : - . mount la, reback s. familial paroxysmal choreoathetosis. arch neurol psychiatry ; : - . jarman pr, davis mb, hodgson sv, marsden cd, wood nw. paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis: genetic linkage studies in a british family. brain (in press). ozelius l, kramer pl, moskowitz cb, et al. human gene for torsion dystonia located on chromosome q -q . neuron ; : - . kramer pl, de leon d, ozelius l, et al. dystonia gene in ashkenazi jewish population is located on chromosome q - . ann neurol ; : - . ozelius lj, kramer pl, de leon d, et al. strong allelic association between the torsion dystonia gene (dyti) and loci on chromosome q in ashkenazi jews. am hum genet ; : - . risch n, de leon d, ozelius l, et al. genetic analysis of idio- pathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews and their recent descent from a small founder population. nat genet ; : - . ozelius lj, hewett jw, page ce, et al. the early-onset tor- sion dystonia gene (dyti) encodes an atp-binding protein. nat genet ; : - . bressman sb, de leon d, kramer pl, et al. dystonia in ashkenazi jews: clinical characterization of a founder mutation. ann neurol ; : - . warner tt, fletcher na, davis mb, et al. linkage analysis in british and french families with idiopathic torsion dys- tonia. brain ; : - . gasser t, bove cm, ozelius lj, et al. haplotype analysis at the dytl locus in ashkenazi jewish patients with occupa- tional hand dystonia. mov disord ; : - . holmgren g, ozelius l, forsgren l, et al. adult onset idiopathic torsion dystonia is excluded from the dyt region ( q ) in a swedish family. neurol neurosurg psy- chiatry ; : - . bressman sb, heiman ga, nygaard tg, et al. a study of idiopathic torsion dystonia in a non-jewish family: evidence for genetic heterogeneity. neurology ; : - . ahmad f, davis mb, waddy hm, oley ca, marsden cd, harding ae. evidence for locus heterogeneity in autosomal dominant torsion dystonia. genomics , : - . gimenez-roldan s, delgado g, marin m, villanueva ja, mateo d. hereditary torsion dystonia in gypsies. in: fahn s, marsden cd, calne db, eds. dystonia . new york: raven press, : - . fletcher na. the genetics of idiopathic torsion dystonia. _ med genet ; : - . haberhausen g, schmitt i, kohler a, et al. assignment of the dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome locus, dyt , to a small region within a . -mb yac contig of xql . . am _ hum genet ; : - . muller u, haberhausen g, wagner t, fairweather nd, chelly j, monaco ap. dxs and dxs flank the x-linked dystonia-parkinsonism syndrome locus (dyt ). genomics ; : - . parker n. hereditary whispering dysphonia. neurol neuro- surg psychiatry ; : - . jarman pr, warner i-i, williams ld, harding ae. genetic linkage studies in autosomal dominant torsion dystonia. . neurol ; : a. nygaard tg, wilhelmsen kc, risch nj, et al. linkage mapping of dopa-responsive dystonia (drd) to chromo- some q. nat genet ; : - . ichinose h, ohye t, takahashi e, et al. hereditary progres- sive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the gtp cyclohydrolase i gene. nat genet ; : - . furukawa y, shimadzu m, rajput ah, et al. gtp- cyclohydrolase i gene mutations in hereditary progressive and dopa-responsive dystonia. ann neurol ; : - . ichinose h, ohye t, matsuda y, et al. characterization of mouse and human gtp cyclohydrolase i genes. mutations in patients with gtp cyclohydrolase i deficiency. _ biol chem ; : - . knappskog pm, flatmark t, mallet j, ludecke b, bartholome k. recessively inherited l-dopa-responsive dystonia caused by a point mutation (q k) in the tyro- sine hydroxylase gene. hum mol genet ; : - . almasy l, bressman sb, raymond d, et al. idiopathic tor- sion dystonia linked to chromosome in two mennonite families. ann neurol (in press). leube b, hendgen t, kessler kr, knapp m, benecke r, auburger g. sporadic focal dystonia in northwest germany: molecular basis on chromosome p. ann neu- rol (in press). auburger g, leube b, hendgen t, goecke t, kessler k, benecke r. focal adult onset idiopathic torsion dystonia is frequently caused by chromosome p (dyt ) mutations. t neurol ; :s a. bentivoglio ar, del grosso n, albanese a, cassetta e, tonali p, frontali m. non-dyti dystonia in a large italian family. _ neurol neurosurg psychiatry ; : - . fouad gt, servidei s, durcan s, bertini e, pticek lj. a gene for familial paroxysmal dyskinesia (fpd ) maps to chromosome q. am hum genet ; : - . fink jk, rainier s, wilkowski j, et al. paroxysmal dystonic choreoathetosis: tight linkage to chromosome q. am hum genet ; : - . auburger g, ratzlaff t, lunkes a, et al. a gene for autosomal dominant paroxysmal choreoathetosis/spasticity (cse) maps to the vicinity of a potassium channel gene cluster on chromosome ip, probably within cm between d s and d . genomics ; : - . de leon d, naini a, brown s, fahn s, bressman sb, wil- helmsen k. dna testing for idiopathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews based on allelic association. am _ hum genet ; :a . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a p ril . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - www.nature.com/scientificreports a population-specific reference panel empowers genetic studies of anabaptist populations liping hou , rachel l. kember , jared c. roach , jeffrey r. o’connell , david w. craig , maja bucan , william k. scott , margaret pericak-vance , jonathan l. haines , michael h. crawford , alan r. shuldiner & francis j. mcmahon genotype imputation is a powerful strategy for achieving the large sample sizes required for identification of variants underlying complex phenotypes, but imputation of rare variants remains problematic. genetically isolated populations offer one solution, however population-specific reference panels are needed to assure optimal imputation accuracy and allele frequency estimation. here we report the anabaptist genome reference panel (agrp), the first whole-genome catalogue of variants and phased haplotypes in people of amish and mennonite ancestry. based on high-depth whole- genome sequence (wgs) from individuals, the agrp contains > m high-confidence single nucleotide variants and short indels, of which ~ . % are novel. these anabaptist-specific variants were more deleterious than variants with comparable frequencies observed in the genomes panel. about , variants showed enriched allele frequencies in agrp, consistent with drift. when combined with the genomes project reference panel, the agrp substantially improved imputation, especially for rarer variants. the agrp is freely available to researchers through an imputation server. genetically isolated populations are subgroups that have remained reproductively separated from the surround- ing population over many generations. genetic isolates are often descended from a limited number of founding individuals and may suffer an increased burden of inherited disease. however, genetic isolates also offer many advantages for genetic studies , so have long been of interest to geneticists – . compared with outbred popula- tions, population isolates generally have reduced genetic diversity due to founder effects , . individuals from isolated populations may also share more uniform environments, decreasing the non-genetic sources of variance contributing to complex traits. some population isolates also have well-maintained genealogical records, which can facilitate family ascertainment and estimation of population parameters. previous studies in population iso- lates have successfully identified genes and variants associated with mendelian and complex traits , . anabaptists represent a genetic isolate comprising several groups, including amish and mennonites, whose european ancestors settled in the americas starting in the th century . owing to religious conviction, cul- tural differences, and rural living, most anabaptists have remained genetically distinct, despite rapid popu- lation expansion in recent decades , . a number of otherwise rare mendelian disorders have been identified among anabaptists, with distinctive spectra of observed mutations characteristic of strong founder effects , . high-throughput sequencing has renewed interest in the study of anabaptist groups as a means of identifying genes underlying common, complex traits , . since whole genome sequencing (wgs) is still expensive in large samples, many study designs rely on geno- type imputation of unsequenced individuals. several existing methods can use a framework of common variants human genetics branch, national institute of mental health intramural research program, bethesda, md, , usa. department of genetics, perelman school of medicine, university of pennsylvania, philadelphia, pa, , usa. institute for systems biology, seattle, wa, , usa. division of endocrinology, diabetes and nutrition, department of medicine, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, md, , usa. neurogenomics division, translational genomics research institute, phoenix, az, , usa. john p. hussman institute for human genomics, miller school of medicine, university of miami, miami, fl, , usa. institute for computational biology, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, , usa. department of anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, ks, , usa. correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to l.h. (email: liping.hou@nih.gov) or f.j.m. (email: mcmahonf@mail.nih.gov) received: january accepted: may published online: july open correction: author correction http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - x mailto:liping.hou@nih.gov mailto:mcmahonf@mail.nih.gov https://doi.org/ . /s - - - www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - (obtained, e.g., from a snp array) to infer genotypes from local haplotypes represented within a reference panel of sequenced individuals . common alleles can be imputed with high accuracy, but imputation of rarer alleles can be challenging . in isolated populations, imputation of rarer alleles can be improved by population specific reference panels that better represent founder alleles and haplotypes , . here we present phase of the anabaptist genome reference panel (agrp), the first whole-genome, population-specific imputation reference panel drawn from people of anabaptist ancestry. the agrp is built upon high-depth wgs data obtained from individuals of amish or mennonite ancestry. we describe the population structure and allele frequency spectra represented by the agrp and estimate the impact of this refer- ence panel on the imputation accuracy of variants across the full range of allele frequencies. results sequencing and variant yield. within each sequenced individual, we identified an average of . million autosomal variants, including , non-synonymous snvs, indels, and putative loss of function (lof) variants. in total, we identified ~ . million variants across all anabaptist individuals, including , indels and , putative lof variants (table  ). about . % of the identified variants were novel (including ~ . % of snvs and ~ . % of indels), defined here as variants not present in kaviar , dbsnp (v ) or exac (v . ) . of all identified variants, , ( . %) overlapped with protein-coding sequences; , ( . %) of these were non-synonymous variants. overall, ~ . % of the identified variants were rare (maf < . %). however, a higher proportion of the non-synonymous variants (~ . %), and an even higher proportion of the lof variants (~ . %) were also rare. this is consistent with negative selection. genotype calls were highly consistent between duplicate samples and across genotype platforms. genotype concordance rates calculated based on two pairs of duplicate samples were . % for snvs and . % for indels and substitutions. snv concordance rate was . % within a subset of individuals whose dna was also geno- typed with the illumina omniexpress exome snp array (no indels or substitutions are represented on this array). using the same snp array data, we also estimated the sensitivity of the wgs platform to detect snvs. of the , high quality snv sites identified by the array, , ( . %) sites were also identified within our wgs data. the snv detection sensitivity was similar across a range of maf values (figure s ). many anabaptist populations suffer from high rates of otherwise rare mendelian diseases . thus we investi- gated whether variants seen only in the agrp were more deleterious, as estimated by the combined annotation dependent depletion (cadd) score , than variants of comparable frequencies that were also identified in the genomes project sample. indeed, both coding and non-coding variants seen only in the agrp were signif- icantly more deleterious (p < . ; fig.  ). the agrp contains some individuals with psychiatric or metabolic disorders, so we repeated this analysis in only the healthy individuals. the results were similar (data not shown). imputation. one of the main goals of this project was to provide a population-specific reference panel for genotype imputation in individuals of anabaptist ancestry. here we evaluated the accuracy with which variants of various maf could be imputed. in order to illustrate the specific contribution of the agrp to imputation accuracy, we reserved individuals from the agrp as a test subset and evaluated the results in four different reference panel configurations: ( ) the agrp alone; ( ) the g panel alone; ( ) a merged panel comprising both and ; and ( ) the haplotype reference consortium (hrc) reference panel. the merged agrp and g reference panel provided the highest imputation accuracy across all allele frequency bins (fig.  a). the greatest advantage was observed for rarer alleles. for example, alleles with a g maf < . % were imputed at an aggregate r of . with the merged agrp/ g panel, compared to . with the hrc panel, . with the agrp alone, and . with the g panel alone. the agrp also enabled imputation of a large number of variants apparently unique to anabaptists. overall, ~ . % of variants identified in the agrp were not present in the g and ~ . % were not present in the genome snv indels lofsynonymous non- synonymous total variants number of variants . million , , , , novelty ratea . % . % . % . % . % total variation by frequencyb common (maf > %) . % . % . % . % . % low frequency (maf . – %) . % . % . % . % . % rare (maf < . %) . % . % . % . % . % variants per individual th percentile , , , , , average , , , , , th percentile , , , , , table . discovered autosomal variants. aversus kaviar, dbsnp , and exac. ballele frequencies estimated in agrp. http://s www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - hrc panel. although some ( . %) of these anabaptist-specific variants were very rare and thus un-imputable, the remaining variants could be imputed well, with aggregate r values in the . – . range (fig.  b). genetic differentiation. principal components analysis (pca) showed that individuals in the agrp clustered with ceu participants from the hapmap project (fig.  ), as expected. in agreement with the pca results, the overall correlation of maf values in the agrp and the european-ancestry subset of g was high (r = . , figure s ). for uncommon variants, however, the correlation was much lower. variants with g maf < % were only weakly correlated with maf estimated in agrp (r = . ). consistent with this result, , variants were rare or absent in g (maf < . %) but reached frequencies > % in agrp (table s ). it is widely believed that founder effects (i.e., population bottlenecks and genetic drift) influence the structure of anabaptist populations , , but the magnitude of these influences is largely unknown. since founder effects lead to depletion of variants that are rare in the ancestral population , we sought to estimate the footprint of founder effects in today’s anabaptists by assessing depletion of rare variants in agrp. the numbers of variants detected figure . variants seen only in agrp are more deleterious. mean combined annotation dependent depletion (cadd) scores for agrp-specific variants (red) and those shared with the g sample (blue), annotated as non-coding (solid lines) or coding (dotted lines), and binned by minor allele frequency. figure . imputation of shared and agrp-specific variants. (a) imputation accuracy (aggregate squared pearson correlation coefficient, r ), across various reference panel configurations. the x-axis (log scale) shows the g eur (non-refernce) allele frequency of the variants being imputed. (b) the stacked bars show proportions of variants found in agrp (left y-axis) that were also shared by various reference panels across a range of (non-reference) allele frequency bins in the agrp. the embedded black line shows the imputation accuracy of agrp-specific variants (right y-axis) when the merged agrp/ g reference panel was used. http://s http://s www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - in unrelated individuals in agrp (defined as less than third-degree relatives by king ) were compared to those detected in european-ancestry subsets of the g panel that were matched to agrp on sample size. a total of ~ . m rare variants (maf ≤ . %) are reported among the unrelated european-ancestry samples in the g panel. the subsets of unrelated europeans sampled from g carried a mean of , k ± k of these rare variants. among the unrelated anabaptists in agrp, however, only k rare variants were identified (fig.  ). this suggests a substantial depletion of rare variants in anabaptists compared to outbred europeans. the agrp also contained significantly fewer variants with maf between . % and %, but the depletion compared to g was modest. the number of common variants (maf > %) was similar in both groups (fig.  ). the improved imputation accuracy conferred by the agrp could be attributed, at least in part, to increased distant relatedness and reduced genetic diversity, both thought to characterize people of anabaptist ancestry , . to investigate distant relatedness, we compared the proportion of the genome shared identical by descent (ibd) among individuals within the agrp to that shared between agrp and ancestral europeans in the g. ibd sharing was substantially greater within the agrp than within g (fig.  ): % of agrp pairs shared at least % of the genome ibd, while > % of g pairs shared almost none of the genome ibd (< . %). furthermore, very little ibd sharing (< . %) was detected between individuals in agrp and individuals in g, demonstrating that the agrp provides a sample of the ancestral european genome that is largely dis- tinct from that represented by the g. to investigate one measure of genetic diversity, we compared the total length of the genome shared homozy- gous by descent (hbd) among individuals within the agrp to that shared between agrp and europeans in the g. total hbd length was significantly greater in agrp than in g (p < . ; fig.  ). total hbd figure . plots of the first two principal components derived from the agrp samples. (a) agrp samples (black dots) are plotted along with european (ceu, red dots), asian (chb + jpt, violet dots), and african (yri, green dots) samples taken from hapmap phase . (b) mennonite (grey dots), midwestern amish (blue dots), and lancaster county amish (orange dots) within the agrp, and ceu (red dots) from hapmap phase . figure . variant counts by maf group. the error bars for eur (europeans) were estimated based on sub- samples of randomly-selected europeans in the g sample. www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - length varied among the anabaptist groups represented in the agrp. the longest hbd regions were observed among amish living in lancaster county, pennsylvania, followed by amish living in the midwestern united states. mennonites in agrp carried hbd regions that were only slightly longer on average than those observed in g. discussion imputation of snp-array genotypes against a suitable reference panel represents an efficient and cost-effective strategy for investigating genetic variants not directly represented on inexpensive snp arrays. however, cur- rent reference panels do not always perform well for rare variants and do not capture all of the rare variation present in human populations . our findings demonstrate the value of a population-specific reference panel for studies of anabaptist founder populations. the agrp effectively boosted imputation accuracy, especially for variants that are relatively rare. the increased imputability of rare variants seems to be explained by several key factors: ) increased frequency of some otherwise rare alleles, presumably due to drift; ) distant relatedness and decreased genetic diversity among anabaptists, so that each rare allele is more likely to be represented on a figure . increased distant relatedness among anabaptists. the distribution, over all pairs of individuals, of the fraction of the genome shared ibd (segment lengths ≥ cm) either within agrp (anabaptist, blue), within europeans (eur, grey), or between anabaptists and eur (orange). figure . reduced genetic diversity within anabaptists. total length of the genome homozygous by descent (hbd) within europeans from the g project (eur) and within various anabaptist groups represented in the phase i agrp. www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - single founder haplotype; ) increased phasing accuracy due to family-relationship aware phasing methods and increased homozygosity by descent, which also increases the length of imputable haplotypes. the agrp performed best when merged with an existing large reference panel from the g project. similar results have been observed in studies of other population-specific reference panels . increasing sample size will likely continue to improve imputation performance, consistent with what has been found by the g project and the haplotype reference consortium . most important for studies of anabaptist populations, the agrp enables imputation of a large number of variants apparently unique to anabaptists. we have shown that such variants tend to be more deleterious than variants of similar maf that are also seen outside anabaptist populations. footprints of the unique histories of anabaptist populations are evident within the whole genome sequences represented by the agrp. common variants showed comparable allele frequencies in the agrp and g european panel, consistent with previous findings . for rare variants, however, the allele frequencies were often quite different. many variants rare or absent in the g panel reached appreciable frequencies in the agrp. on the other hand, many rare variants found in the g panel were not detected in the agrp, suggesting that these variants did not survive the population bottlenecks that occurred early in the anabaptist population history or were lost due to random drift. the substantial reduction of rare variants we observed in the agrp is consistent with previous studies of other founder populations , , but has not, to our knowledge, been previously demonstrated within anabaptists. since we did not sequence a comparable group of outbred europeans in the present study, some of the differences we observed in the abundance of rare variants may be attributable to the sequencing platform and data analysis pipeline we used. however, it is unlikely that methodological differences alone can account for the substantial depletion of rare variants observed within the agrp, since we detected no substantial difference in the sensitivity of variant calls across a broad range of minor allele frequencies (figure s ). principal components analysis (pca) analysis showed that the anabaptist sample we studied was closely clustered with the northern and western european ancestry samples from hapmap. this is not surprising in light of the known recent european ancestry of anabaptist groups. however, a finer scale pca analysis was able to dis- tinguish several different sub-populations within the agrp, which corresponded roughly to known geographic and religious distinctions that have influenced anabaptist mating patterns for most of the last centuries . similar differences were also seen in the hbd analysis. these results suggest that the agrp may perform better when used with studies of the amish, but should still have value in other anabaptist populations. the agrp thus com- plements ongoing projects, such as topmed (g.r. abecasis et al., ashg, abstract) that include individuals drawn from the amish communities in lancaster, pa and surrounding areas. this study has several limitations. first, the sample size is relatively small. this reduces representation of rare alleles and haplotypes. however, this only leads to underestimation of the value of the agrp for imputation of rare alleles. the sample size also limits precision of allele frequency estimates, especially for alleles that are rare in anabaptists. while important, this does not vitiate the agrp for filtering variants that have drifted to high frequencies in anabaptist populations and are thus unlikely to be highly deleterious. second, allele frequen- cies should ideally be estimated separately for each subpopulation identified by the pca analysis, but this will require a much larger sample size, especially for rare variants. third, this phase i of the agrp mainly represents individuals of amish ancestry. mennonites, brethren, hutterites, and other anabaptist groups are not well rep- resented. phase ii of the agrp is underway and will include a better representation of mennonites, including those of dutch-german ancestry (so-called “russian mennonites”.) fourth, the agrp is not a randomly selected sample of anabaptists, but was based on sequences collected in the course of various common disease studies. while an epidemiological sample ascertained without regard to phenotype has advantages, inclusion of cases may actually increase the value of the agrp for future studies focused on the same (or related) diseases, since any disease-associated alleles will presumably be better represented. intuitively, inclusion of people with diseases caused by alleles of large effect could affect imputation of nearby alleles, but this is unlikely to be an important factor for the common, complex diseases represented within the agrp. indeed, a previous study concluded “no loss of imputation quality was observed using a panel built from phenotypic extremes” . we hope that the agrp will facilitate a broad range of genomic studies in anabaptist communities. the agrp is available through an imputation server at https://www.nimh.nih.gov/labs-at-nimh/research-areas/ clinics-and-labs/hgb/data-downloads.shtml. methods sample selection. wgs data were submitted by each of the collaborating groups, including: individuals of amish or mennonite ancestry collected by the human genetics branch, nimh irp and submitted by fjm, lh, and isb ( of whom suffered from a mood disorder), individuals of amish or mennonite ancestry col- lected through the university of maryland’s amish research clinic in lancaster, pa and submitted by ars & jro ( of whom suffered from hypertension or a metabolic disorder); and individuals of amish ancestry collected by janice egeland and colleagues and submitted by mb & rlk ( of whom suffered from bipolar disorder). all participants provided informed consent that explicitly allowed their coded genome sequencing data to be shared with other investigators. the final data set comprised wgs data from individuals, including two pairs of duplicate samples that were used to evaluate sequencing and genotype accuracy. sequencing and data generation. dna derived from whole blood or from lymphoblastoid cell lines was obtained from the rutgers university cell and dna repository (rutgers, nj), the corriell institute (camden, nj), or the university of maryland amish research program. wgs was performed to > × coverage by complete genomics, inc. (cgi) using cgi’s combinatorial probe–anchor ligation (cpal) method . snvs, http://s https://www.nimh.nih.gov/labs-at-nimh/research-areas/clinics-and-labs/hgb/data-downloads.shtml https://www.nimh.nih.gov/labs-at-nimh/research-areas/clinics-and-labs/hgb/data-downloads.shtml www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - insertions, and deletions were called with the cgi analysis pipeline version . , . or . (described in refs , ), relative to the human reference genome, grch . the cga tools mkvcf command was used by each group to generate vcf files, which include all sites where at least one subject carried a non-reference allele. to confirm that the vcf files included the same types of variants and the genotype data had the same format, the same parameters (–source-names mastervar–field-names gt, ft, gq, gl, dp, ad) were used by each group. the “–source-names mastervar” parameter asks the cga tools to extract variants only from the mastervar files, so that only snvs and short indels are included in the vcf files, while cnvs, svs, and mobile element insertions (meis) are excluded. the “–field-names gt, ft, gq, gl, dp, ad” parameter asks cga tools to extract more information for each genotype call. particularly, for non-reference genotype calls, cga tools extracts gt (genotype), ft (genotype filters), gq (genotype quality), gl (genotype likelihood), dp (total read depth), and ad (allelic depths) from the raw data. previous studies have shown that false positive rates are higher for cnvs, svs and meis than for snvs in cgi data , so these classes of variation were excluded from the reference panel. quality control and variant annotation. all multi-allelic variants and variants located on non-autosomal chromosomes were removed from all three vcf files. all low-quality (marked by mkvcf as low quality; genotype quality < ; allele balance ratio < . or > . (applies to heterozygotes only); read depth < ) and half-called genotypes were set to ‘missing’. to make sure all variants were consistently represented in each vcf file, we normalized all vcf files using the vt variant tool set . we then merged all vcf files and back-filled missing genotypes based on individual mastervar files. all mendelian-inconsistent genotypes were set to missing. after qc, some variant sites no longer showed non-reference alleles; these were excluded. as the final qc step, vari- ants with a missing rate > %, mendelian error rate > % (based on trios), or hardy-weinberg equilibrium p < . × − were also excluded. we assessed the accuracy of the sequencing data by: ) comparing the genotype concordance rate within two pairs of duplicate samples; and ) comparing the genotype concordance rate across sequenced samples that were also genotyped with the illumina omniexpress exome snp array. we also used the same snp array data to estimate the power of the sequencing pipeline to detect snvs. particularly, we calculated the fraction of high-quality variant calls (minor allele count > , missing rate < %, hwe p > . ) detected by snp array that were also identified in the cgi data. all variants called in the agrp were annotated with combined annotation dependent depletion (cadd) raw scores , ensembl gene annotation, and g (aug ) allele frequencies, using annovar . variants were split into either ‘coding’ or ‘non-coding’ according to the ensembl gene model, and categorized as “shared” if they were also identified in the g. otherwise variants were categorized as “agrp-specific.” the wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to test variants for association between sharing status and raw cadd scores. since cadd scores are highly correlated with functional annotation and allele frequency , separate comparisons were carried out for coding and non-coding variants within each of agrp allele frequency bins. reference panel construction. to build the agrp, we first phased the genomes with shapeit . all known relationships were provided for phasing and the–duohmm option was enabled to make shapeit incor- porate pedigree information into the haplotype estimates, which has been shown to greatly improve the phasing accuracy . in order to keep as many as haplotypes as possible but remove duplicate haplotypes for the final reference panel, we used king to extract individuals who were unrelated at the first-degree level. thus phased genomes were extracted to build the reference panel. imputation. to assess imputation accuracy, we randomly selected a “test set” of individuals from the agrp. in the test set, autosomal genotypes were masked at all variable sites not represented on the illumina human omniexpress snp array. we chose this array since it represents an inexpensive and widely used array with over k snps common among people of european ancestry (http://www.illumina.com/products/human_ omni_express_beadchip_kits.html). masked sites were then imputed by impute against: ) the remaining agrp, ) the latest (phase ) genomes project ( g) reference panel alone, and ) a merged panel comprising both the agrp and the g reference panel. we also uploaded the phased vcf file of the test set to the sanger imputation service (https://imputa- tion.sanger.ac.uk/) and imputed the masked sites with the pbwt pipeline against the haplotype reference consortium (r . ) reference panel . variant sites were divided into bins, based on maf in the g panel. imputation accuracy was measured within each maf bin as the aggregate squared pearson correlation coefficient (r ) between imputed and actual allele dosages at the masked sites. to ensure comparability across the various reference panel configurations, only variants present in all panels were included in this comparison. allele frequencies estimation and population structure. the best linear unbiased estimator (blue) , designed to estimate allele frequencies for complex pedigrees, was used to estimate the allele frequencies for all variants identified in the anabaptists. to infer population structure, principal-component analysis (pca) was performed using ~ k ld-pruned snps. since the sample included related individuals, we used a method called principal components analysis in related samples (pc-air) , which identifies principal components that accurately capture population structure, rather than family structure. we ran pc-air twice: once with hapmap phase data (from yri, ceu, and chb + jpt) and once with the ceu subset only. we did this to illustrate how agrp individuals compare to the hapmap reference groups and to explore population structure within agrp. founder effects may lead to depletion of rare variants . to explore this phenomenon in the agrp, we first extracted a list of unrelated individuals from the full set of anabaptists using king . we kept only one http://www.illumina.com/products/human_omni_express_beadchip_kits.html http://www.illumina.com/products/human_omni_express_beadchip_kits.html https://imputation.sanger.ac.uk/ https://imputation.sanger.ac.uk/ www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - individual from each cluster of those with inferred relationships up to the rd degree, leaving unrelated anabaptists for this analysis. using the same method, we also extracted all unrelated individuals from the european genomes in the final release of the g project, then randomly selected of these for compari- son. we compared the counts of variants in these g individuals with counts in the anabaptists, across various allele-frequency bins. we performed this comparison times by randomly selecting (with replacement) individuals from the unrelated europeans in g. by this procedure, we hoped to distinguish a true depletion of rare variants – which should be confined to variants with lower allele frequencies – from differences attributable to sequencing platform or variant calling pipeline, which should affect a broad range of allele frequen- cies, or differences due simply to sample size. we used only snvs in this analysis, since other variant classes are called less accurately and are more sensitive to differences in sequencing platforms and pipelines. identity-by-descent (ibd) and homozygosity-by-descent (hbd). population isolates such as the anabaptists often show increased ibd and hbd, owing to founder effects, inbreeding, and other population forces . such increases may increase imputation accuracy by improved phasing . to assess these phenomena in the agrp, we identified ibd and hbd regions with ibdseq , a method designed specifically to identify such regions in wgs data. to compare the ibd sharing among anabaptists, among other europeans, and between anabaptists and other europeans, we merged wgs data from the agrp with wgs data from the other europeans in the g project and used only the overlapping variants. we also compared the total length of hbd regions in both groups. references . peltonen, l., palotie, a. & lange, k. use of population isolates for mapping complex traits. nature reviews genetics , – ( ). . arcos-burgos, m. & muenke, m. genetics of population isolates. clinical genetics , – ( ). . hatzikotoulas, k., gilly, a. & zeggini, e. using population isolates in genetic association studies. briefings in functional genomics , – ( ). . kristiansson, k., naukkarinen, j. & peltonen, l. isolated populations and complex disease gene identification. genome biology , ( ). . peltonen, l., jalanko, a. & varilo, t. molecular genetics of the finnish disease heritage. human molecular genetics , – ( ). . sidore, c. et al. genome sequencing elucidates sardinian genetic architecture and augments association analyses for lipid and blood inflammatory markers. nature genetics , – ( ). . nolt,, s. m. a history of the amish: third edition good books ( ). . strauss, k. a. & puffenberger, e. g. genetics, medicine, and the plain people. annual review of genomics and human genetics , – ( ). . hou, l. et al. amish revisited: next-generation sequencing studies of psychiatric disorders among the plain people. trends in genetics: tig , – ( ). . mckusick, v. a., egeland, j. a., eldridge, r. & krusen, d. e. dwarfism in the amish i. the ellis-van creveld syndrome. bulletin of the johns hopkins hospital , – ( ). . puffenberger, e. g. genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. american journal of medical genetics part c, seminars in medical genetics c, – ( ). . georgi, b. et al. genomic view of bipolar disorder revealed by whole genome sequencing in a genetic isolate. plos genetics , e ( ). . marchini, j. & howie, b. genotype imputation for genome-wide association studies. nature reviews genetics , – ( ). . carmi, s. et al. sequencing an ashkenazi reference panel supports population-targeted personal genomics and illuminates jewish and european origins. nature communications , ( ). . glusman, g., caballero, j., mauldin, d. e., hood, l. & roach, j. c. kaviar: an accessible system for testing snv novelty. bioinformatics , – ( ). . lek, m. et al. analysis of protein-coding genetic variation in , humans. nature , – ( ). . kircher, m. et al. a general framework for estimating the relative pathogenicity of human genetic variants. nature genetics , – ( ). . crawford, m. h., dykes, d. d. & polesky, h. f. genetic structure of mennonite populations of kansas and nebraska. human biology , – ( ). . chheda, h. et al. whole genome view of the consequences of a population bottleneck using genome sequences from finland and united kingdom. biorxiv ( ). . manichaikul, a. et al. robust relationship inference in genome-wide association studies. bioinformatics , – ( ). . khoury, m. j., cohen, b. h., diamond, e. l., chase, g. a. & mckusick, v. a. inbreeding and prereproductive mortality in the old order amish. i. genealogic epidemiology of inbreeding. american journal of epidemiology , – ( ). . pistis, g. et al. rare variant genotype imputation with thousands of study-specific whole-genome sequences: implications for cost- effective study designs. european journal of human genetics: ejhg , – ( ). . genome of the netherlands c. whole-genome sequence variation, population structure and demographic history of the dutch population. nature genetics , – ( ). . genomes project, c. et al. a global reference for human genetic variation. nature , – ( ). . mccarthy, s. et al. a reference panel of , haplotypes for genotype imputation. biorxiv ( ). . van hout, c. v. et al. extent and distribution of linkage disequilibrium in the old order amish. genetic epidemiology , – ( ). . lim, e. t. et al. distribution and medical impact of loss-of-function variants in the finnish founder population. plos genetics , e ( ). . duan, q. et al. imputation of coding variants in african americans: better performance using data from the exome sequencing project. bioinformatics , – ( ). . drmanac, r. et al. human genome sequencing using unchained base reads on self-assembling dna nanoarrays. science , – ( ). . carnevali, p. et al. computational techniques for human genome resequencing using mated gapped reads. journal of computational biology: a journal of computational molecular cell biology , – ( ). . tan, a., abecasis, g. r. & kang, h. m. unified representation of genetic variants. bioinformatics , – ( ). . wang, k., li, m. & hakonarson, h. annovar: functional annotation of genetic variants from high-throughput sequencing data. nucleic acids research , e ( ). www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /s - - - . delaneau, o., zagury, j. f. & marchini, j. improved whole-chromosome phasing for disease and population genetic studies. nature methods , – ( ). . o’connell, j. et al. a general approach for haplotype phasing across the full spectrum of relatedness. plos genetics , e ( ). . durbin, r. efficient haplotype matching and storage using the positional burrows-wheeler transform (pbwt). bioinformatics , – ( ). . mccarthy, s. et al. a reference panel of , haplotypes for genotype imputation. nature genetics , – ( ). . mcpeek, m. s., wu, x. & ober, c. best linear unbiased allele-frequency estimation in complex pedigrees. biometrics , – ( ). . conomos, m. p., miller, m. b. & thornton, t. a. robust inference of population structure for ancestry prediction and correction of stratification in the presence of relatedness. genetic epidemiology , – ( ). . kong, a. et al. detection of sharing by descent, long-range phasing and haplotype imputation. nature genetics , – ( ). . browning, b. l. & browning, s. r. detecting identity by descent and estimating genotype error rates in sequence data. american journal of human genetics , – ( ). acknowledgements this research was funded by the national institute of mental health (nimh) intramural research program (zia-mh ; nct ). nih: miami and cwru samples in phase ii were collected with support from r ag (jlh), r ag (wks) and r ey (mpv). this work utilized the computational resources of the nih hpc biowulf cluster (http://hpc.nih.gov). author contributions f.j.m. supervised and coordinated the anabaptist genome reference panel project. r.l.k., j.c.r., j.r.o., m.b., w.k.s., m.p.-v., j.l.h., m.h.c., a.r.s., and f.j.m. provided whole genome sequence data. l.h. and r.l.k. performed in-depth data analyses. l.h. and f.j.m. wrote and revised the manuscript. r.l.k., j.c.r., j.r.o., d.w.c., m.b., w.k.s., m.p.-v., j.l.h., m.h.c., a.r.s. provided critical amendments and edited the manuscript. additional information supplementary information accompanies this paper at doi: . /s - - - competing interests: alan r. shuldiner is an employee of regeneron genetics center, regeneron pharmaceuticals, inc. the other authors declare no competing financial interests. publisher's note: springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the cre- ative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article’s creative commons license and your intended use is not per- mitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. © the author(s) http://hpc.nih.gov http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	a population-specific reference panel empowers genetic studies of anabaptist populations
 	results
 	sequencing and variant yield. 	imputation. 	genetic differentiation. 	discussion
 	methods
 	sample selection. 	sequencing and data generation. 	quality control and variant annotation. 	reference panel construction. 	imputation. 	allele frequencies estimation and population structure. 	identity-by-descent (ibd) and homozygosity-by-descent (hbd). 	acknowledgements
 	figure variants seen only in agrp are more deleterious. 	figure imputation of shared and agrp-specific variants. 	figure plots of the first two principal components derived from the agrp samples. 	figure variant counts by maf group. 	figure increased distant relatedness among anabaptists. 	figure reduced genetic diversity within anabaptists. 	table discovered autosomal variants. untitled molecular and biochemical basis of intermediate maple syrup urine disease occurrence of homozygous g r and f c mutations at the ela locus of hispanic-mexican patients jacinta l. chuang,* james r. davie,* jeffrey m. chinsky,* r. max wynn,* rody p. cox,* and david t. chuang * *departments of biochemistry and internal medicine, university of texas southwestern medical center, dallas, texas ; and tdivision of human genetics, department of pediatrics, university of maryland school of medicine, baltimore, maryland abstract introduction maple syrup urine disease (msud) is caused by a deficiency of the mitochondrial branched-chain a-keto acid dehydro- genase (bckad) complex. the multienzyme complex com- prises five enzyme components, including the el decar- boxylase with a heterotetrameric (a ) structure. four unrelated hispanic-mexican msud patients with the inter- mediate clinical phenotype were diagnosed to mo after birth during evaluation for developmental delay. three of the four patients were found homozygous for g to a transi- tion at base (exon ) of the ela locus, which changes gly- to arg (g r) in that subunit. the remaining patient was homozygous for t to g transversion at base , in the ela gene, which converts phe- to cys (f c) in the gene product. transfection studies in ela- deficient lymphoblasts indicate that both g r and f c mutant ela subunits were unable to significantly reconsti- tute bckad activity. western blotting showed that both mutant ela subunits in transfected cells failed to efficiently rescue the normal e l through assembly. the putative as- sembly defect was confirmed by pulse-chase labeling of el subunits in a chaperone-augmented bacterial overex- pression system. the kinetics of initial assembly of the g r ela subunit with the normal e , was shown to be slower than the normal ela. no detectable assembly of the f c ela subunit with normal e was observed during the h chase. small amounts of recombinant mutant el proteins were produced after h induction with isopropyl thiogalactoside and exhibited very low or no el activity. our study establishes that g r and f c mutations in the elta subunit disrupt both the el heterotetrameric assembly and function of the bckad complex. moreover, the results suggest that the g r mutant elta allele may be important in the hispanic-mexican population. (j. clin. invest. . : - .) key words: branched-chain a- keto acid dehydrogenase complex * el dysfunction * pulse- chase labeling , defective heterotetrameric assembly * mo- lecular chaperones address correspondence to david t. chuang, ph.d., department of biochemistry, university of texas southwestern medical center, harry hines blvd., dallas, tx - . phone: - - ; fax: - - ; e-mail: cox @utsw.swmed.edu. received for publication july and in revised form no- vember . maple syrup urine disease (msud)' or branched-chain a-keto- nuria is an autosomal recessively inherited deficiency in the mitochondrial branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase (bckad) complex. the biochemical basis of this disease is the inability to metabolize branched-chain a-keto acids (bckas) derived from the essential branched-chained amino acids (bcaas) leucine, isoleucine, and valine. the elevated bcaas and bckas may have severe clinical consequences including ketoacidosis, mental retardation, and neurological impairment. variations in clinical presentations have led to the classification of msud into five clinical phenotypes, i.e., classic, intermedi- ate, intermittent, thiamine-responsive, and e -deficient ( , ). the classic form, which comprises % of msud patients, is manifested within the first wk of life with poor feeding, leth- argy, seizures, coma, and death if untreated. intermediate msud is associated with elevated bcaas and bckas, with progressive mental retardation and developmental delay without a history of catastrophic illness. the diagnosis is usually delayed for many months. an intermittent form of msud may have normal levels of bcaas, normal intelligence and development until a stress, e.g., infection, precipitates decompensation with ketoacidosis and neurologic symptoms, which are usually re- versed with dietary treatment. thiamine-responsive msud is similar to the intermediate phenotype but responds to pharmaco- logic doses of thiamine with normalization of bcaas. the e - deficient msud is caused by defects in the dehydrogenase (e ) component of the bckad complex that is common to the pyruvate and a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes. pa- tients with e deficiency have dysfunction of all three enzyme complexes, and patients usually die in infancy with severe lactic acidosis ( ). the mammalian bckad complex is a mitochondrial multi- enzyme complex, which catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of the three bckas derived from bcaas ( , ). the enzyme complex is organized around a cubic core comprising identi- cal dihydrolipoyl transacylase (e ) subunits. the other enzyme components attached to the e core include a branched-chain a-keto acid decarboxylase (el), a dihydrolipoamide dehydro- genase (e ), a specific kinase and a specific phosphatase. the latter two enzyme components are responsible for the regulation of bckad complex by phosphorylation (inactivation)/de- . abbreviations used in this paper: bcaa, branched-chain amino acid; bcka, branched-chain a-keto acid; bckad, branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase; el, branched-chain a-keto acid decarboxylase; e , dihydrolipoyl transacylase; e , dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase; hsp, heat- shock protein; iptg, isopropyl thiogalactoside; msud, maple syrup urine disease; sscp, single-stranded conformational polymorphism; tev, tobacco etch virus; tpp, thiamine pyrophosphate. chuang et al. j. clin. invest. © the american society for clinical investigation, inc. - / / / / $ . volume , march , - table l clinical presentations of intermediate msud patients plasma leucine dietary leucine* tolerance developmental status (assessed patient age at diagnosis presenting symptoms am mg/kg per day age/chronological age) a. g. mo developmental delay, seizure disorder - . yr/ . yr j. b. mo developmental delay, seizure disorder - . - . yr/ yr p. r. mo developmental delay t mo/ mo b. s. mo developmental delay, seizure disorder - mo/ yr * total dietary leucine tolerated to maintain plasma leucine concentrations of - mm (normal range - mm). tlevel obtained on partially restricted protein intake ( gfkg/day). a. g., j. b., p. r., and b. s. are intermediate msud patients. phosphorylation (activation) ( ). the el component is a heter- otetramer consisting of two ela ( , mr) and two el/i ( , mr) subunits. the e component, a flavoprotein, is a homodimer. both kinase and phosphatase are products of single genes. multiple copies of the six distinct subunits of the bckad complex are synthesized in the cytosol and imported into the mitochondria ( ). in the matrix space of this organelle, mature subunits are assembled into a multienzyme complex of - x daltons. msud is genetically heterogeneous, and mutations in ela, el ,, e and e loci have been identified ( ). some of these mutations have been characterized at the molecular and bio- chemical level. for example, the y n substitution in ela, which is present in mennonite patients with classic msud, was shown to impede el assembly resulting in the preferential degradation of e l/ ( , ). however, these studies were con- fined to classic msud patients, and little is known about the variant forms of msud. in the present report, we describe the clinical and molecular characterization of four msud patients with an intermediate phenotype. these patients, all of hispanic- mexican origin, were identified many months after birth during evaluation for developmental delay, without acute neurologic symptoms. molecular studies show that three of the four unre- lated patients are homozygous for a missense mutation in the ela locus. the remaining patient is homozygous for a second mutation also in the ela gene. both mutations produce inactive or slightly active bckad complex when the mutant peptide was transiently expressed in ela-deficient lymphoblasts. more- over, by pulse-chase labeling of el subunits synthesized in escherichia coli, we show that these mutations in ela alter the kinetics of assembly with el/. methods case reports. a.g., a male mexican infant, appeared normal during the first few months of life except for mild feeding problems. although development seemed normal during the first - mo of age, he was unable to sit without support until mo of age. during infancy, he sustained several -s tonic seizures associated with fever. he presented at mo of age for evaluation of his developmental delay and possible seizure disorder. physical exam was significant for relative microcephaly ( oth percentile compared with length and weight, th and th percen- tiles, respectively), mild hypotonia with cerebellar ataxia. msud was diagnosed on the basis of elevated serum bcaas and alloisoleucine (table i). after initiation of bcaa-restricted diet, neurologic evalua- tion showed normal tone, reflexes, and cerebellar function. j.b. was a -lb male born to mexican parents of small stature (< th percentile). during infancy, he had formula intolerance and exhibited significant developmental delay, manifested by inability to sit, stand, or crawl by mo old. he had two brief tonic/clonic seizures at mo, which were easily controlled with phenobarbital. at mo, examination was significant for developmental delay; head circumfer- ence, length, and weight at the third percentile; and generalized hypoto- nia. analysis of serum amino acids demonstrated elevated bcaas and alloisoleucine, suggesting msud. improved development occurred dur- ing dietary treatment, but hyperkinesis and psychomotor delay persisted. p.r., a mexican female, demonstrated excessive irritability, poorly tolerated her formula, and showed developmental delay with poor head control, inability to roll over and poor social interactions during the first - mo of life. qualitative analysis of serum amino acids showed elevated amino acids including bcaas. she was placed on g protein/ kg per day diet with improvement in her reactions to auditory and visual stimuli, decreased ataxia and a weight gain. at mo, physical examination revealed length th, weight th, and head circumference th percentiles with generalized hypotonia and developmental delay. quantitative serum amino acids revealed elevated bcaas and alloiso- leucine. strict dietary treatment resulted in further improvement in her development (table i). b.s. was a lb oz female born to a yr-old-mexican primi- gravida. although irritable as an infant she had a good appetite and tolerated standard formula. during her first year of life she was hospital- ized four times with pneumonia. at mo, developmental delay was noted and an eeg was normal. between and mo, three uncompli- cated tonic/clonic seizures occurred and were controlled with phenobar- bital. at mo, she was readmitted to the hospital with an infection and evaluated for her developmental abnormalities, being unable to stand or control head movements. physical examination showed length th, weight th, and head circumference th percentiles with diffuse hypotonia, brisk reflexes, and poor motor control. psychomotor func- tioning was at a - -mo level. an eeg showed a disorganized pattern with paroxysmal spikes, and a ct scan revealed increased white matter lucency consistent with deficient myelinization. a diagnosis of msud was made by metabolic studies (elevated serum bcaas and alloisoleu- cine), however, compliance with therapy was poor, and her most ad- vanced milestones are independent walking with a broad-based gait, and a few words (c ) were learned. during periods of appropriate bcaa restriction, her motor and developmental skills demonstrated marked improvement. cell cultures and other cell lines. fibroblast cultures were derived from skin biopsies and grown in monolayer culture as previously de- scribed ( ). intermediate msud patients a.g., j.b., p.r., and b.s. and classic msud patient p.v. were provided by drs. arthur beaudet and edward mccabe (baylor college of medicine, houston, tx). gm- was purchased from the human genetic mutant cell repository (camden, nj). b.f. was a classic msud patient of african-american descent provided by dr. david valle (john f. kennedy institute, balti- more). k.u. is a classic caucasian msud patient provided by dr. selma snyderman (new york university medical center, new york). l.c. is a classic msud patient obtained from the cell repository at mcgill medical center (montreal, canada). h.h. is a classic mennonite msud patient provided by dr. marc yudkoff (childrens hospital of intermediate maple syrup urine disease philadelphia, pa). s.b. is a classic msud patient provided by dr. lisa dahl (university of minnesota medical center, minneapolis, mn). classic msud fetal fibroblasts, a- , were obtained from dr. rivka carmi (saroka medical center, beer sheva, israel). lymphoblasts were grown in rpmi- medium containing % heat-inactivated fetal calf serum as described previously ( ). single-stranded conformational polymorphism (sscp) analysis. all exons of the human ela gene were amplified by pcr using primers for the flanking intronic sequences ( ). the pcr reaction was carried out in tris-hcl ph . ( mm), mgcl ( mm), kcl ( mm), . % triton x- , dntps ( . glm each), taq dna polymerase ( . u) and pm of each sense and antisense primer. to the reaction mixture, ,uci of p-dctp and ng of genomic dna as template was added, and the reaction cycled times at °c for s, °c for s, and °c for min. . d of p-labeled pcr product were diluted with .l of a solution containing % formamide, mm edta, . % bromophenol blue, . % xylene cyanol ff and mm methyl mercury hydroxide. samples were then heated at °c for min and chilled on ice. electrophoresis with .d per lane of each sample applied was carried out on a . x mdet gel (j. t. baker inc., phillipsburg, nj) at constant watts for - h in lx tbe buffer. the gels were dried on filter paper and exposed to kodak x-omat film. expression and site-directed mutagenesis of ela cdna. the con- struction of the ebo vector for normal human ela and methods for transient expression and selection of transfected cells have been pre- viously described ( ). the ebo-plpp parental plasmid ( ) contains orip as the origin of replication. the plasmid also harbors the ebna- sequence encoding epstein-barr virus nuclear antigen and the hygro- mycin phosphotransferase sequence that confers antibiotic resistance. the presence of orip and ebna- sequences allows efficient episomal replication of the plasmid in epstein-barr virus transformed lymphoblas- toid cells. nucleotide changes were carried out using the altered site" in vitro mutagenesis system from promega (madison, wi). the chim- eric bh ela cdna containing the bovine mitochondrial targeting and the mature human sequences ( ) was cloned into palter- vector, which contained a mutation in the ampicillin-resistant gene rendering the trans- formed cell susceptible to the antibiotic. single strand dna was pre- pared from the palter-bh ela plasmid. mutagenic oligonucleotides con- taining the mutation and the repair oligonucleotide for the ampicillin- resistant gene were annealed simultaneously to the single stranded dna. t dna polymerase and ligase were added to synthesize an ampicillin- resistant mutant strand. after two rounds of ampicillin selection, first in the repair minus strain of e. coli (bmh - mut s) then in jm- cells, colonies were picked for plasmid dna preparation. dna sequencing was performed to confirm the mutation. dna fragment containing the mutation were excised from palter vector by restriction enzyme digestion and ligated into the ebo expression vector ( ). construction of phist-el prokaryotic expression vector. the ' portion of the mature human ela cdna sequence was amplified from the pmal-c -hela expression vector ( ) using an internal -mer antisense primer with sequence '-gtaacagatgtcgaccctgtt- ', and a -mer sense primer with sequence '-ggctctagactc- gagaatctttattttcaatcatctctggatgacaagc- ' to yield a -bp product. the sense primer adds exogenous sequence (shown in upper case) to the ' terminus of the mature e ca open-reading frame (shown in lower case). this exogenous sequence includes an xbal restriction site (shown in bold) followed by sequence encoding the first six amino acids specific for the tobacco etch virus (tev) protease cleavage (shown underlined). the seventh required amino acid for the tev protease cleavage is supplied by the amino-terminal serine of the mature ela sequence. to generate the phist-ela expression vector, the -bp amplifica- tion product was cut with xbai and narl to yield a -bp fragment encoding the tev cleavage site and the ' portion of the ela open- reading frame. the pebo-hbela expression vector ( ) was cleaved with nari and xhoi to yield a -bp fragment that encodes the ' portion of the mature e a open-reading frame. both fragments were ligated into the ptrchisb expression vector (invitrogen) digested with nhei and xhoi to yield the phist-ela expression vector. to generate the phist-e expression vector, a bamhi-scai fragment ( , bp) comprising the trc promoter and the mature human el/i open-reading frame was isolated from expression vector pkk-hel,b ( ) and ligated into the corresponding sites in the host phist-ela expression vector, yielding the phist-el expression vector. mutant ela variants of the phist-hel expression vector were constructed identically, except for the substitution of -bp nari-xhoi fragments isolated from variant pebo-hbela plasmids harboring the desired ela mutation. pulse-chase labeling for kinetics of ela and ej, assembly. e. coli strain cg- and the plasmid pgroesl (for overexpression of chaperonins groel and groes) ( ) were received as kind gifts from dr. anthony gatenby of dupont experimental station (wilmington, de). cg- cells containing the pgroesl plasmid were transformed with phist-hel expression vectors carrying the normal mature el/ cdna and either normal or mutant his-tagged mature ela cdna se- quences ( ). cells were grown at °c to an o.d. of . in c- broth minimal media ( ) supplemented with ,um tpp, hg/ml carbenicillin, and jig/ml chloramphenicol. cells were pelleted and resuspended in one-fifth original volume of the same media without antibiotics, and allowed to recover with shaking for min at °c. cells were subsequently induced with mm isopropyl thiogalactoside (iptg) for min, pulsed with pci/ml of s-cys/ s-met (icn radiochemi- cals, costa mesa, ca) for min, and chased with three volumes of the same media (without antibiotics) supplemented with mg/mi each of nonradioactive l-cysteine and l-methionine. at specified time points following the chase, cell samples ( . ml) were taken and quickly frozen in liquid n . thawed samples were lysed by sonication, and supernatants after microcentrifugation were treated batchwise with an excess ( ail) of ni +-nta (nitrilotriacetic acid) resin from qiagen (chatsworth, ca). the resin was washed batchwise three times (total volume: . ml) with mm imidazole in mm potassium phosphate (ph . ) containing mm mgcl , . mm edta, . mm egta, . mm tpp and mm mercaptoethanol. bound (his) -tagged ela and assembled untagged el, polypeptides were eluted with .l of laemmli sds- sample buffer ( ) containing mm edta. eluted labeled polypep- tides were analyzed by sds-page and fluorography. other procedures. the amplification of genomic dna, the flanking intronic primers, the methods for subcloning and sequencing techniques used in this study were previously described ( , ). northern and western blotting were performed as described elsewhere ( , , ). assays of decarboxylation rates using a-keto [ -i c]isovalerate were performed on intact fibroblasts and untransfected and transfected lymphoblasts as previously described ( ). the activity of recombinant el was assayed radiochemically using a-keto[ -' c]isovalerate as a substrate and , -dichlorophenolindophenol as an artificial electron ac- ceptor ( ). results clinical phenotype of intermediate msud. as described in methods, the patients studied in the present report are all of hispanic-mexican origin. their clinical phenotype conforms to that accepted as intermediate msud. the patients presented - mo after birth for evaluation of developmental delay and a mild seizure disorder (table i). the developmental status of the patients showed significant retardation when their achieve- ment level was compared to their age, (table i, right column). msud was not suspected until a metabolic screen revealed marked elevation of the bcaas and bckas and the presence of alloisoleucine. plasma leucine in the four patients ranged from , - , mm as also shown in table i. dietary restric- tion of bcaas ameliorates further neurological impairment, and allowed developmental progress to occur (see methods). to confirm that the above intermediate msud patients are deficient in the decarboxylation of the a-keto acids, intact cell chuang et al. table i. rate of decarboxylation of a-keto acids by intact normal and msud fibroblasts decarboxylation rate percent normal cell line pyruvate kiv activity with kiv normal . . classic msud . a. g. . . . j. b. . . . p. r. . . . b. s. . intact cells from fibroblast cultures were assayed in triplicate at mm for pyruvate and a-ketoisovalerate (kiv). specific radioactivities were , and cpm/nmol for [ -' c]pyruvate and a-keto[ -_ c]- isovalerate, respectively. for each assay, x cells ( . mg of protein) were incubated at °c for min with labeled pyruvate and min with a-ketoisovalerate. a. g., j. b., p. r., and b. s. are intermediate msud patients. ela _ _ figure . northern blot analysis of poly a+-en- riched rna from normal and msud fibroblasts. the . -kb human ela and the murine e ,f cdna's were radiola- beled with [a- p] using the megaprime dna-la- beling system (amers- ham corp., arlington heights, il) ( ). each lane contained ig poly(a)+ rna except lane , where . ,ug was applied. lane , normal subject; lane , a- . (classic msud of israeli origin); lane , b.s.; lane , p.r.; lane , a.g.; and lane , j.b. assays with cultured fibroblasts were carried out. table ii shows that three of the intermediate patients (a.g., j.b., and p.r.) had to . % of residual activity compared to normal. these activities are in the range reported for other intermediate msud patients ( , ). the fourth patient, b.s., had no detectable activ- ity similar to classic msud. the decarboxylation rate with pyruvate was normal in all patients and served as a control for cell viability (table ii). the intact cell results establish that the metabolic block in the intermediate msud patients is at the decarboxylation of bckas. western and northern blot analysis of normal and mutant cells. since the bckad complex is a heteromultimeric protein, it was necessary to identify which subunit was affected in these individuals with msud. westem blotting was carried out using lysates prepared from normal and msud fibroblasts. fig. bb to v#t§o+stt§+ * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........... wtlf a * * * * * , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ......... .. .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... .'",,'" .....:: :.............. :- ..;.': - e -*- ela figure . western blotting of lysates prepared from normal and msud fibroblasts. all lysates were applied to a % sds polyacrylamide gel at tg protein per lane. separated proteins were electrotransferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes. the filters were probed with either e (upper panel) or elra (lower panel) antibodies radiolabeled by coupling with i-protein a. msud patients b.s., a.g., j.b. and p.r. were of the intermediate phenotype. patients s.b., l.c., h.h., and b.f. exhibited classic msud. (lower panel) shows that the elia subunit is markedly reduced in cells from three intermediate patients a.g., j.b., and p.r. compared with normal. the ela subunit is barely detectable in the fourth intermediate patient b.s. and a classic patient l.c. in contrast, the ela subunit is present in normal amounts in another classic msud patient s.b. the e subunit (fig. , upperpanel ) is present in normal amounts in all msud patients except s.b. the results establish that s.b. is affected at the e locus. on the other hand, the decreased abundance of ela subunit in the five msud patients studied (a.g., j.b., p.r., b.s., l.c., h.h. and b.f.) only indicate that either ela or e , locus is affected. it has been previously shown by westem blotting that reduced level of either of the two subunits of el (ela or e , ) caused by a mutation reduces the level of the other normal subunit ( - ). northem blotting was performed using poly(a)+ rna pre- pared from normal, a classic msud patient from israel (a- ) and the four intermediate msud subjects (b.s., p.r., a.g. and j.b.) from mexico. the ela mrna is present in normal amounts in the four intermediate msud patients (lanes - , fig. , upper panel), and is absent in the classic msud patient (lane ). the e / mrna is present in all msud patients (fig. , lower panel). the reduced signal of el/ mrna in normal (lane , lower panel) was due to the lower amount of poly (a) + rna applied ( . jug) compared with the other lanes ( .tg). the results show that the mutation of the ela or e , locus did not affect transcription and stability of either mrna in the intermediate msud, and that reduction in the immunoreactive ela subunit is a posttranscriptional event. identification of mutations in intermediate msud. pre- viously we identified an -bp deletion in exon of the ela gene of an msud patient gm- , which abolishes a smai restriction site ( ). this change in restriction pattem was used to screen other msud patients. exon was amplified from genomic dna of known msud subjects and digested with smai. the digested samples were analyzed on % agarose gels as shown in fig. . undigested amplified exon from a normal subject was -bp in size (lane ). digestion of the normal amplified genomic dna with smai produced two smaller - and -bp fragments (lane ). digestion of the amplified exon from gm- , who is heterozygous for -bp deletion, resulted intermediate maple syrup urine disease a.g. ac g t a c g t a c g t bp bp - bp figure . restriction enzyme analysis of amplified genomic dna from normal subject and msud patients. exon of the ela gene was ampli- fied by pcr and digested with smai restriction enzyme. the digest was separated on % agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide. lane , -bp ladder markers; lane , undigested dna; lane , normal digested dna; lane , gm- , who is heterozygous for an -bp dele- tion that abolishes the smai site in one allele; lanes , , and are msud patients a.g., j.b., and p.r., respectively, who are affected at the smai site; lanes and are msud patients s.b. (intermediate) and p.b. (classic), respectively, who are not affected at the smai site. in three fragments (lane ). an uncut -bp fragment is caused by the absence of the smai site secondary to the -bp deletion. the other two smaller species are contributed by the other allele, which contains a normal smai site in exon . interestingly, amplified dna from exon of three of the mexican patients with intermediate msud (a.g., j.b. and p.r.) was not cut by smai (lanes - ). two other msud patients of mexican ori- gin, b.s. (intermediate) and p.v. (classic), shows a normal restriction pattemn of -and -bp fragments (lanes and ), which was also observed in other msud patients (data not shown). the absence of the smai site in exon in these intermediate patients, a.g., j.b., and p.r., led us to initially speculate that these patients were homozygous for the -bp deletion at the ela locus. to confirm this, amplified exon from these patients was subcloned into bluescript plasmid and sequenced. to our surprise, a homozygous g to a transition at base of the ela gene ( ), instead of an -bp deletion, was found at the smai site (fig. ). the g to a conversion accounts for the abolishment of the smai site, and a gly- to arg substitution (g r) in the ela subunit. since intermediate patient b.s. showed a normal smai di- gestion pattemn, the mutation in this patient does not involve this restriction site. to determine the mutation in b.s., all nine exons of the ela gene were amplified using flanking intronic primers. each amplified exon was subjected to analysis by sin- gle-stranded conformational polymorphism (sscp) ( ). as shown in fig. (the upper bands), amplified exon from b.s. (lane ) has a distinct shift in mobility, compared to a normal (lane ) and two other classic msud patients b.f. (lane ) and h.h. (lane ) that also had normal mobility. lanes and are two patients (k.u. and b.a.), who are heterozygous for the y n mutation in exon , which resulted in a doublet in the upper band as indicated by the arrows. the results of sscp indicated that intermediate patient b.s. is homozygous for a mutation in exon . direct sequencing of amplified exon using p-end labeled primers was carried out with a normal and three msud patients (b.s., b.f., and k.u.). to facilitate detection of the mutation, the sequencing samples xc) figure . nucleotide sequencing showing the g to a mutation in exon of the ela gene of intermediate msud patients a.g., j.b., and p.r. pcr amplified exon from the three patients were subcloned into pbs plasmid vector (stratagene, la jolla, ca) and sequenced with the anti- sense primer '-gtcagtgctgtggggatgct- '. the boxed nucle- otide depicts the homozygous g to a transition in the three intermediate msud patients. the base change (underlined) abolishes the smai site by altering the recognition sequence from cccggg to cccagg. were applied to a polyacrylamide gel according to the four nucleotide groups a, c, g and t (fig. ). intermediate patient b.s. shows a distinct homozygous t to g transversion at base of the ela gene ( ) (see column g and t). the mutation results in a phe- to cys substitution (f c) in the ela subunit. characterization of the g r and f c mutations. the _. -._. figure . sscp analysis of amplified exon of the ela gene. genomic dna's were prepared from normal and msud fibroblasts. the region encompassing the entire coding region of exon of the ela gene was am- plified using p-dctp as a labeled nucleotide. the primers used were: '- tagcctgcccac- tgccccatgt- ' (in- tron ) (sense) and '- tctcggggta- cctgaggatgg- ' (bases - ) (antisense). sscp anal- ysis was carried as de- scribed under methods. lane , normal; lane , b.s. (intermediate msud patient); lanes and , b.f. and h.h., respectively, who are classic patients; lanes and , k.u. and b.a., respectively, who are heterozygous for the y n mutation in exon . the arrows indicate the doublet in lanes and . chuang et al. j.b. p.r. a c g t f -m cz i_- ~t to g c *.= _. w t........ :.* ..... ; *: :. }:. ... ...... :: . .. -d,"i- .... . .i . . ' ;. .. ::.. . .. *r figure . direct sequencing of amplified exon dna fragment. se- quencing samples of normal and msud patients were applied in groups according to the nucleotides a, c, g, and t. under each nucleotide, lane , normal; lane , intermediate patient b.s.; lanes and , classic msud patients b.f. and k.u., respectively. the t to g transversion in b.s. is indicated by an arrow. g r and f c mutations were introduced into the normal ela cdna by site-directed mutagenesis, and the mutations were confirmed by dna sequencing. the entire ela cdna containing either mutation was inserted into the ebo expression vector for transient expression studies. the plasmids carrying the normal and the mutant ela cdnas were transfected into ela deficient lymphoblasts from a mennonite classic msud patient (lmk). lmk cells are homozygous for the y n substitution in the ela subunit ( ). intact untransfected and transfected lymphoblasts were used to measure the rate of decar- boxylation of a-keto [ - ' c] isovalerate. fig. shows that un- transfected normal lymphoblasts have substantial ( %) en- zyme activity, (lane ), and that lmk cells transfected with the ebo vector without insert (lane ) exhibited trace or no decarboxylase activity. transfection of lmk cells with vector containing the normal ela cdna (lane ) restored decarboxyl- ation activity to % of normal. lmk cells transfected with vector containing the g r mutation in ela cdna produced a slight but reproducible ( %) decarboxylation of the a-keto acid. transfection of lmk cells with vector containing the ela cdna with the f c substitution was unable to decarboxylate a-ketoisovalerate. the results establish that the g r and f c alterations produce defective ela polypeptides, and are the cause of the intermediate msud phenotype. lysates prepared from untransfected normal lymphoblasts and from transfected lmk lymphoblasts were analyzed by westem blotting (fig. ). specific antibodies against either ela or e lf subunits were used as probes. lmk cells un- transfected or transfected with ebo vectors without inserts showed reduced levels of the ela subunit, compared to normal figure . decarboxylation of a-keto [ - c ] isovalerate by untransfected normal lymphoblasts and transfected ela-deficient lymphoblasts (lmk). the ebo vector without insert (lane ) or carrying nonnal (lane ), g r (lane ) or f c (lane ) ela cdnas was transfected into lmk cells as described previously ( ). untransfected normal and hygromycin-selected transfected lmk cells were analyzed for decarboxylation activity by the intact cell assay using a-keto [ - c] isovalerate as substrate ( ). the results are expressed as percent of activity in normal untransfected cells ( % or . nmol c / min/mg protein) (lane ). each bar represents mean+sem (n = ). untransfected cells (fig. , upper panel). lmk cells transfected with vector harboring normal ela cdna increased the elb subunit to a level similar to normal, but with the appearance of a smaller proteolytic fragment (ela*). (fig. , upper panel). a similar increase in el a subunit was observed in lmk cells transfected with the five mutant elb cdnas (fig. , upper panel). g r and f c in ela are the subjects of the current study. n s and r w in ela encoded by exon are muta- tions in the putative tpp-binding pocket. t r in ela en- coded by exon is a mutation in the putative subunit interaction region (chuang, j. l., d. t. chuang, and r. p. cox, unpublished results). the lmk cells transfected with vector having a nor- mal, n s or r w ela cdnas restored the e f subunit to approximately half the normal level (fig. , lower panel). the results indicates that mutant ela subunits containing the n s or r w mutation are able to assemble with endoge- nous e / , similar to normal ela. the mutant el proteins con- taining these mutations have markedly reduced el enzymatic activity (data not shown). lmk cells untransfected or transfected with the ebo vector without inserts showed trace amounts of the e , subunit (fig. , lower panel). transfection of lmk cells with vector containing the g r ela cdna restored elf to - - % of that transfected with normal ela cdna. in lmk cells transfected with the f c and t r cdna, the el/ subunit remained in trace amounts, indicating the absence of assembly between the mutant ela and normal e , (fig. , lower panel). altered kinetics of el assembly caused by g r and f c mutations. the reduced ability of transfected g r intermediate maple syrup urine disease . im.. lig-ii'll ......bkokl.-i -. . . no "'m"ioiiiiii: transfection host: y n a os v on #x{s¢+ ks wek ,b ci. t -r| -__e clc normal e' "_ _wvw-w -.o l( "%- -w -e {x -, - _elfa g r __-el_t --e [ .. _*i figure . western blotting of lysates from normal and transfected ela deficient lmk lymphoblasts. lmk cells were transfected with ebo vector without insert or carrying normal, n s, r w, g r, t r, or f c mutant ela cdnas (see text for these mutations). the lysates were prepared from untransfected normal and transfected cell and were subjected to sds-page, with each lane containing ,ig protein. proteins were electrotransferred to polyvinylidene difluoride membranes. the filters were probed with either ela (upper panel) or el ,. (lower panel) antibodies radiolabeled by coupling with ' i-pro- tein a. ela* represents proteolytic products. and f c ela to restore el,li in lmk cells compared with normal ela, strongly suggests that, in addition to causing en- zyme dysfunction, these mutations impair el assembly. to in- vestigate the kinetics of ela and e / assembly, we have devel- oped a method for pulse-chase labeling of el subunits in an e. coli host. es ts e. coli cells were doubly transformed with a his- tagged el expression vector carrying either normal or mutant his-tagged ela cdna and normal untagged elp cdna, as well as a second vector pgroesl that over-expresses bacterial chaperonin proteins groel and groes. the cells were heat- shocked at °c for h, followed by induction at °c with iptg for min. the cells were pulsed with [ s]cysteine/ [ s]methionine for min and chased with the corresponding nonradioactive amino acids. samples were taken at different intervals from min to min, and lysates purified by ni +- nta affinity chromatography. the eluted radioactive peptides were analyzed by sds-page and autoradiograms obtained by fluorography. since el/ is untagged, its copurification with his-tagged ela is an indication of assembly of the two polypep- tides. fig. a shows that the assembly of radioactively labeled e with labeled normal ela occurs as early as min after the chase, approaching a plateau in min. the level of the normal labeled his-tagged ela remains relatively constant dur- ing the h chase. the assembly of normal elp with the labeled g r ela appears to be slower than normal ela. the level of associated e is clearly much lower than that observed in the normal ela, and reached a plateau at min after the chase (fig. b). in contrast, there was no significant assembly of .-n "n o _m - el (x -el ,b time, min figure . pulse-chase labeling autoradiogram showing the kinetics of assembly of normal and mutant his-tagged ela with untagged el,b. the bacterial expression system containing overexpressed groel and groes and the pulse-chase of el subunits are described under methods. cell lysates containing s-labeled polypeptides were bound to ni +- nta resin, washed and eluted with an sds sample buffer ( ). the eluted labeled polypeptides were analyzed by sds-page followed by fluorography. assembly at different time points ( - min) of the untagged el/i with the his-tagged normal or mutant ela resulted in the copurification of both subunits as shown in the autoradiograms. (a) normal his-tagged ela; (b) g r his-tagged ela; (c) f c his- tagged elia. labeled e l with his-tagged mutant f c ela during the h chase. this was indicated by the absence of the copurified el/i?, while the signal of his-tagged ela remained relatively constant (fig. c). these results indicate that both g r and f c mutations reduce the rate of assembly of mutant ela with normal el,b. reduced or undetectable activity of mutant el proteins. prolonged growth of e. coli with iptg induction at °c for h resulted in the production of reduced but significant amounts of assembled mutant his-tagged el proteins carrying g r or f c mutations in ela, compared with normal. both normal and mutant his-tagged el proteins were purified by ni " nta affinity column and eluted with a to mm imidazole gradient (ph . ). the final yield was mg/l cul- ture for normal el protein, mg/l culture for g r mutant el and mg/l culture for f c mutant el. activity of normal and mutant el proteins was assayed by a radiochemical method using a-keto [ -i c] isovalerate as a substrate and , -dichloro- chuang et al. c f c phenolindolphenol as an artificial electron acceptor. recombi- nant normal el protein showed specific activity of . ± . nmol c /min/mg protein (n = ) and g r mutant el pro- tein exhibited specific activity of . ± . nmol c /min/ mg protein (n = ). f c mutant el protein had no measur- able activity. the specific activity of g r mutant el protein was . % of normal. discussion this is the first detailed molecular and biochemical characteriza- tion of intermediate msud. previous studies were predomi- nantly of the classic form of the disease because of its preva- lence among msud patients and the severity of its presentation. on the other hand, intermediate msud is milder and often later in presentation, and as a result is understudied. it is of interest that bckad activity of intermediate patient b.s. is at the level of classic msud, but her phenotype is distinctly of the interme- diate type. other studies have also noted a poor correlation of residual bckad complex activity with the clinical phenotype ( ). these findings suggest that the individual's genotype may modulate the severity of disease. alternatively, the enzyme ac- tivity in a patient's hepatocytes may not be accurately reflected in fibroblast or lymphoblast cultures. the bckad complex is - % dephosphorylated or active in fibroblasts ( , ), whereas it is nearly % dephosphorylated or active in the liver ( ). in addition, activities of the totally dephosphorylated bckad complex in several tissues (liver, kidney, and heart) are higher than in fibroblasts ( ). the presence of residual activity in various tissues of intermediate msud patients may be sufficient under certain physiological conditions to amelio- rate clinical manifestations. for example, in response to changes in dietary protein or increased catabolism (e.g., starvation), levels of hepatic bckad subunits increase a few fold (chin- sky, j. m., unpublished results) ( ). unfortunately, tissues other than fibroblasts and lymphoblasts from these intermediate patients were unavailable for testing. it should be pointed out that patient b.s. had the most severe neurological damage and the highest plasma leucine levels of the four intermediate msud patients described. however, she was also diagnosed later than the other three intermediate patients. the results un- derscore the importance of newborn screening and early dietary therapy for intermediate msud. it is noteworthy that all of the three intermediate msud patients that are homozygous for the g r mutation are of hispanic-mexican origin. homozygosity in msud is relatively rare except for the y n mennonite mutation where the founder effect is responsible ( ). analysis of non-mexican patients showed that these subjects did not have the g r mutation. although relatedness and consanguinity were denied by their families, two of the intermediate patients, who are homozygous for the g r mutation, were from the monterey area of mexico and the third was from southern mexico. it is possible that the three apparently unrelated families inherited this mutation from a common ancestor. more intermediate msud families of hispanic origin need to be studied to deter- mine the prevalence of the g r allele in the mexican popula- tion. there is a high frequency of msud in spain ( / , to / , ) ( ) compared with the estimated worldwide prevalence of / , ( ). the increased incidence of msud in spain suggests a possible ethnic source for these mutations. the fourth mexican patient is homozygous for the f c mutation. she is the progeny of a -yr-old primigravida, so the significance of this homozygosity is uncertain. functional analysis of msud mutations cannot be carried out by overexpression of the affected subunit in a normal host, where multiple copies of all six distinct polypeptides are pres- ent. in the present study, we used an ela-deficient lymphoblasts host from a mennonite patient homozygous for the y n mutation in the ela subunit ( ). transfection with a replica- tion-competent ebo vector carrying the full-length normal ebia cdna resulted in overexpression of the ela subunit. however, only a near normal range of decarboxylation activity is restored in the host cells (fig. ). the data suggest that the assembly of recombinant normal ela with endogenous normal e , sub- units is limiting as will be discussed later. a partial ( %) resto- ration of decarboxylation activity was observed, when the g r ela cdna was transfected into lmk cells. this rate is similar to the residual ( . - . %) activity in cultured fibro- blasts from the intermediate msud patients, who are homozy- gous for this mutation. the lack of restoration of decarboxyl- ation activity by transfection with f c ebia cdna also agrees with the absence of decarboxylation measured with cultured fibroblasts from the homozygous patient b.s. the concordance between the transfection results and assays of patient's cultured fibroblasts indicates the fidelity of the ebo expression system. the lmk host cells used in transfection studies contain reduced levels of the y n mutant ela subunit and trace amounts of the normal e / subunit ( ). the homozygous y n ela mutation was shown to impede assembly of that subunit with normal e / subunits. unassembled ela and in particular el, subunits are not stable and are degraded in cells ( , ). it is perplexing that transfection of lmk cells with normal ela cdna restores the el/ subunit to only % of normal level (fig. .). since the ebo vector overexpresses normal ela subunits, one would expect that the el/ level is restored to normal through assembly with recombinant ela. competition between the endogenous y n and the trans- fected normal eia subunits for assembly with e p is unlikely because the host mutant ela subunit is assembly-incompetent. a plausible explanation is that only a portion of the transfected normal ela subunit in the lmk cell is properly folded, and capable of assembly with ei/ . recent studies have firmly estab- lished that molecular chaperones, most of them heat-shock pro- teins (hsp), play an essential role in the biogenesis of mito- chondrial proteins ( ). in mitochondria of transfected lmk cells, chaperone proteins hsp o and hsplo may be limiting, resulting in reduced levels of assembly-competent recombinant ela subunits. the current model for chaperone-mediated mito- chondrial import is that the nascent polypeptides, while still associated with the ribosome, bind to the cytosolic hsp o to maintain the unfolded and import-competent state. once im- ported into the mitochondrial matrix, the unfolded mature poly- peptide initially interacts with mitochondrial hsp o, and is then transferred to the hsp o/hsplo complex of this organelle. the latter complex provides a scaffold for proper folding of the mature polypeptide to occur through multiple cycles of atp hydrolysis-dependent reactions ( , ). the pulse-chase labeling studies in e. coli represents a novel approach to measure the initial rates of ela and e , subunit assembly. development of this method is based on the thesis that the bacterial cells are analogous to the mitochondrial matrix in the folding and assembly of mature mitochondrial polypep- tides. the molecular chaperones that participate in the biogene- intermediate maple syrup urine disease sis of mitochondrial proteins are conserved in e. coli ( ). we have shown previously that overexpression of the bacterial chaperones groel and groes, which are homologues of hsp o and hsplo, respectively, in ests e. coli (cg- ) increased the specific activity of el by -fold ( ). expression and assembly of el in wild-type e. coli is very low in the absence of overexpressed chaperones ( ). the overproduction of groel and groes was achieved through cotransformation with the pgroesl plasmid. the latter plasmid encodes these chaperones under the regulation of a heat-shock sensitive element and an iptg-inducible promoter. the double-transformation overex- pression is adapted in the pulse-chase labeling studies with the phist-hel plasmid that encodes both his-tagged ela and untagged e as the second vector. the bacterial overex- pression system may not completely duplicate the situation in mammalian cells. nonetheless, it offers a useful method to dis- sect, under efficient ex vivo conditions, the effect of certain natural human mutations on chaperone-mediated folding and assembly of mammalian proteins. isolation of the his-tagged ela/untagged e , subunit com- plex by nickel affinity column chromatography represents the association of the pulse-labeled nascent chains (fig. ). no attempt was made to distinguish assembly intermediates from the final a / heterotetramers. using this optimal overex- pression system in e. coli, we were able to demonstrate altered kinetics of el assembly in intermediate msud. the slower than normal kinetics observed with the g r mutation confirm the partial assembly defect deduced from the transfection stud- ies. the absence of significant assembly of the his-tagged mu- tant f c ela subunit with the normal e , subunit during the h chase supports the severe assembly incompetence associated with this mutation. the crystal structure of el has not been determined, but the conserved gly- is in the putative subunit interaction region based on sequence alignment of ela subunits ( ). chou-fasman prediction ( ) indicates that gly- in the ela subunit occurs at a turn preceding a pro at position . the g r substitution may alter the conformation of the turn, thereby adversely affecting the binding of the ela to e / subunit. phe- is situated in the carboxy-terminal region encoded by exon of the ela gene. this segment is also highly conserved between e ca subunits of different a-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes, however, no function has been as- signed to this carboxy-terminal region. we have shown that, in addition to f c, two other known mutations y n ( , ) and y c ( ) encoded by exon were also defective in el assembly. these findings strongly suggest that the exon en- coded carboxy-terminal residues are critical for ela and e l subunit interaction. finally, sustained growth ( h) of transformed e. coli with iptg induction results in production of reduced but significant amounts of g r and f c mutant el proteins compared with normal. the data indicate that the individual mutant ela and normal e , subunits are stable in e. coli cotransformed with chaperonins groel and groes, and eventually assemble into mutant heterotetramers. the low or undetectable activity of recombinant g r and f c mutant el proteins provides direct evidence that both mutations in ela disrupt the catalytic function of the assembled heterotetramers, in addition to the slow rates of assembly. the impaired el activity is consistent with the reduced or absent decarboxylation of bcka observed in patients' fibroblasts (table ii) and in the transfection studies (fig. ). moreover, the deficiency of el activity is apparently responsible for dysfunction of the bckad complex in the intermediate msud patients. acknowledaments this work was supported by grants dk- and dk- from the national institutes of health, grant - from the march of dimes birth defects foundation, and a grant from the life and health insur- ance medical research fund. j. r. d. is a medical scientist trainee supported by grant -p gm- from the national institutes of health and by the perot family foundation. references . chuang, d. t., and v. e. shih. . disorders of branched chain amino acid and keto acid metabolism. in the metabolic and molecular basis of inherited disease, th edition. c. r. scriver, a. l. beaudet, w. s. sly, and d. valle, editors. mcgraw-hill inc., new york. - . . danner, d. j., and l. j. elsas. . disorders of branched-chain amino acid and ketoacid metabolism. in the metabolic basis of inherited disease, th edition. c. r. scriver, a. l. beaudet, w. s. sly, and d. valle, editors. mcgraw- hill inc., new york. - . . taylor, j., b. h. robinson, and w. g. sherwood. . a defect in branched-chain amino acid metabolism in a patient with congenital lactic acidosis due to dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase deficiency. pediatr. res. : - . . pettit, f. h., s. j. yeaman, and l. j. reed. . purification and character- ization of branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex of bovine kidney. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : - . . yeaman, s. j. . the -oxo acid dehydrogenase complexes: recent advances. biochem. j. : - . . harris, r. a., r. paxton, s. m. powell, g. w. goodwin, m. j. kuntz, and a. c. han. . regulation of branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase com- plex by covalent modification. adv. enzyme regul. : - . . lindsay, j. g. . targeting of -oxo acid dehydrogenase complexes to the mitochondrion. ann. n.y. acad. sci. : - . . fisher, c. r., j. l. chuang, r. p. cox, c. w. fisher, r. a. star, and d. t. chuang. . maple syrup urine disease in mennonites. evidence that the y n mutation in ela impedes assembly of the el component of branched-chain a- keto acid dehydrogenase complex. j. clin. invest. : - . . davie, j. r., r. m. wynn, r. p. cox, and d. t. chuang. . expression and assembly of a functional el component (a ,/ ) of mammalian branched- chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in escherichia coli. j. biol. chem. : - . . chuang, d. t., and r. p. cox. . enzyme assays with mutant cell lines of maple syrup urine disease. methods enzymol. : - . . margolskee, r. f., p. kavathas, and p. berg. . epstein-barr virus shuttle vector for stable episomal replication of cdna expression libraries in human cells. mol. cell. biol. : - . . chuang, j. l., r. p. cox, and d. t. chuang. . characterization of the promoter-regulatory region and structural organization of the ela gene (bckdha) of human branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. j. biol. chem. : - . . wynn, r. m., j. l. chuang, j. r. davie, c. w. fisher, m. a. hale, r. p. cox and d. t. chuang. . cloning and expression in escherichia coli of mature e l# subunit of bovine mitochondrial branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. mapping of the el/i-binding region on e . j. biol. chem. : - . . goloubinoff, p., a. a. gatenby, and g. h. lorimer. . groe heat- shock proteins promote assembly of foreign prokaryotic ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oligomers in escherichia coli. nature (lond.). : - . . wynn, r. m., j. r. davie, r. p. cox, and d. t. chuang. . chaperonins groel and groes promote assembly of heterotetramers (az ) of mammalian mitochondrial branched-chain a-keto acid decarboxylase in escherichia coli. j. biol. chem. : - . . guzman-verduzco, l.-m., and y. m. kupersztoch. . fusion of esche- richia coli heat-stable enterotoxin and heat-labile enterotoxin ,/ subunit. j. bacte- riol. : - . . laemmli, u. k. . cleavage of structural proteins during the assembly of the head of bacteriophage t . nature (lond.). : - . . chuang, j. l., c. r. fisher, r. p. cox, and d. t. chuang. . molecular basis of maple syrup urine disease: novel mutations at the ela locus that impairs el (a / ) assembly or decrease steady-state ela mrna levels of branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. am. j. hum. genet. : - . . chinsky, j. m., and p. a. costeas. . molecular cloning and analysis of the expression of the e /i subunit of branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase in mice. biochem. biophys. acta. : - . chuang et al. . fisher, c. w., j. l. chuang, t. a. griffin, k. s. lau, r. p. cox, and d. t. chuang. . molecular phenotypes in cultured maple syrup urine disease cells: complete ela cdna sequence and mrna and subunit contents of the human branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex. j. biol. chem. : - . . zhang, b., h. j. edenberg, d. w. crabb, and r. a. harris. . evidence for both a regulatory mutation and a structural mutation in a family with maple syrup urine disease. j. clin. invest. : - . . nobukuni, y., h. mitsubuchi, i. akaboshi, y. indo, f. indo, a. yoshioka, and i. matsuda. . maple syrup urine disease. complete defect of the e f subunit of the branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex due to a deletion of an l -bp repeat sequence which encodes a mitochondrial targeting leader peptide in a family with the disease. j. clin. invest. : - . . orita, m., l. h. iwahana, h. kanazawa, k. hayashi, and t. seikiya. . detection of polymorphisms of human dna by gel electrophoresis as single- strand conformation polymorphisms. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa. : - . . fisher, c. r., c. w. fisher, d. t. chuang, and r. p. cox. . occurrence of a tyr -asn (y n) mutation in the ela gene of the branched-chain a- keto acid dehydrogenase complex in maple syrup urine disease patients from a mennonite population. am. j. hum. genet. : - . . gonzales-rios, m. c., d. t. chuang, r. p. cox, k. schmidt, k. knopf, and s. a. packman. . a distinct variant of intermediate maple syrup urine disease. clin. genet. : - . . tashima, k., y. kuroda, i. yokota, e. naito, m. ito, t. watanabe, e. takeda, and m. miyao. . activation of branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydroge- nase complex by a-chloroisocaproate in normal and enzyme-deficient fibroblasts. clin. chim. acta. : - . . gillim, s. e., r. paxton, g. a. cook, and r. a. harris. . activity state of the branched chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex in heart, liver and kidney of normal, fasted, diabetic and protein-starved rats. biochem. biophys. res. commun. : - . . harper, a. e., r. h. miller, and k. p. block. . branched-chain amino acid metabolism. ann. rev. nutr. : - . . zhao, y., k. m. popov, y. shimomura, n. y. kedishvili, j. jaskiewicz, m. j. kuntz, j. kain, b. zhang, and r. a. harris. . effect of dietary protein on the liver content and subunit composition of the branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase complex. arch. biochem. biophys. : - . . marshall, l., and a. digeorge. . maple syrup urine disease in the old order mennonites. am. j. hum. genet. suppl. : a. . fraga, j. m.. and j. r. alonso-femandez. . neonatal screening pro- grammes in spain: - . in advances in neonatal screening. b. l. therrell, editor. elsevier science publishers, amsterdam. - . . naylor, e. w. . newbom screening for maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in neonatal screening for inbom errors of metab- olism. h. bickel, r. guthrie, and g. hamersen, editors. springer-verlag, berlin. - . . hartl, f. u., and j. martin. . protein folding in the cell: the role of molecular chaperones hsp o and hsp o. annu. rev. biophys. biomol. struct. : - . . martin, j., m. mayhew, t. langer, and f. u. hartl. . the reaction cycle of groel and groes in chaperonin-assisted protein folding. nature (lond.). : - . . wexler, i. d., s. g. hemalatha, and m. s. patel. . sequence conserva- tion in the a and , subunits of pyruvate dehydrogenase and its similarity to branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase. febs (fed. eor. biochem. soc.) lett. : - . . chou, p. y., and g. d. fasman. . prediction of the secondary structure of proteins from their amino acid sequence. adv. enzvmol. : - . intermediate maple syrup urine disease mennonites in unexpected places: an authentic tradition and a burdensome past by benjamin nobbs-thiessen a thesis submitted tn partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in the faculty of graduate studies (history) the university of british columbia (vancouver) april © benjamin nobbs-thiessen, ii abstract this paper explores a post-second world war environment in which north american mennonite scholars expressed increasing interest, sympathy and concern for mennonite colonists in latin america. it also speaks to broader attempts that complicate the relationship between tradition and modernity and addresses the nature of diasporic affiliation amongst a transnational religious community. in particular, i focus on joseph winfield fretz’s writings on paraguayan mennonites living in the gran chaco as well as articles published in the periodical mennonite life. these works came at a time of social, cultural and religious change for north american mennonite communities when issues of secularization, urbanization and evangelicalism were of increasing import. faced with these challenges, mennonite colonies in latin america provided academics with an “outside space” for critical reflection as well as a nostalgic return to an authentic agrarian lifestyle lacking in north american life. sociologists such as fretz were uniquely positioned to act as cultural brokers, imparting these vital experiences to north american audiences through periodicals like mennonite life. however, their romantic appraisals of colony life occasionally ran aground against the profound differences between themselves and colonists. this revealed the degree to which they were invested in, and even committed to, the changes underway in north american society. scholars attempted to mediate these differences by insisting upon historical continuity and focusing on external difference but when these attempts failed their tone turned condescending. this was particularly apparent in discussions of religion during a time in which the north american churches were increasingly embracing evangelicalism. it was then the position of colonists and not north americans that was defined in terms of lack. the ambivalent nature of this identification is what this paper seeks to capture, a relationship that was equally intimate and distant and in which colonists appeared as both pilgrims and strangers. table of contents abstract ii table of contents iii dedication iv body of thesis bibliography y r . al harold s. bender began his foreword to joseph winfield fretz’s pamphlet mennonite colonization in mexico, with a disclaimer. “the writer was well aware that the mennonites of mexico would not welcome publicity and had fully intended to respect their unspoken wishes. however, the information gathered was so impressive, and the interest of the members of the mennonite central committee in the study was so great, that it was nevertheless decided to proceed with a brief publication. it is hoped that the mennonites of mexico will understand and appreciate the interest which their mennonite neighbours in the united states and canada have in their experience and will not object to the publication.” his tentative justification hinted at underlying tensions. it suggested that, for mexican mennonite communities, a dialogue with their north american “neighbors” was neither natural nor especially desirable. bender embraced the paradoxical nature of the situation. if they had truly known and wished to respect the “unspoken wishes” of the community, why had fretz been sent to mexico in the first place? having violated these “wishes” he asked not simply for tolerance but understanding and even appreciation on the part of the aggrieved party. given these contradictions, out of what circumstances had this desire for knowledge, and a genuine interest in the fate of fellow brethren, originated? what was it about colonization attempts that was capable of generating such intense inter denominational concern, a concern that trumped a community’s desire for anonymity? in concluding, bender imagined a future in which “mutual concern and mutual aid across the boundary lines of nations and church organizations will find expression.” though this integration might prove elusive he expressed certainty that once aroused, the curiosity of his readership, who currently “have known very little of their brethren across the southern border,” would only increase. harold s. bender. in a foreword to mennonite colonization in mexico by w. fretz, (akron: mcc, ) ibid. six years later fretz was in paraguay, preparing a similar but more extensive report on another colonization effort. at the time of his visit, the future of the mennonites living in the chaco was still far from certain with many, particularly those displaced persons who had arrived in the post-war period, emigrating to reunite with relatives in north america. as both a co-religionist and an outside observer, he was sent to paraguay by the mennonite central committee(hereafter mcc) during what was seen as a critical juncture for the long-term survival of the colonies. the publication of his findings in a full-length book, pilgrims in paraguay, together with the numerous articles others had written on mennonite settlements in the late s and early s for the periodical mennonite life, offers evidence that bender’s prophetic vision for an inter- mennonite dialogue was increasingly being realized. the thousands of mennonites on the move in the wake of the second world war provided a practical reason for the flowering of literature on latin american colonies, as many settlements became temporary or permanent homes for these refugees. however, these sources betray a significance beyond mere philanthropy that also sheds light on broad changes in north american mennonite lives already well underway at mid-century. to sift through these different layers of meaning requires an exploration of the conditions in which these writings were produced, the authors who produced them, the forums in which they were presented to a larger mennonite public and an analysis of the writings themselves with attention to their common narrative strategies. the authors’ perceptions j.w. fretz pilgrims in paraguay: the story of mennonite settlement in south america. (pennsylvania: herald press, ) the periodical mennonite life was itself a product of this post-war boom, first published in . along with articles in mennonite life anne marie krause, also from the university of chicago produced her dissertation on mennonite settlements in paraguay in , annemarie elizabeth krause “mennonite settlement in the paraguayan chaco.” ph.d diss. in geography research papers: - . (chicago: university of chicago, ) as well as george fadenrecht “mennonite migrations to paraguay” (m.a. thesis, university of kansas, ) reflected their own experiences of social and religious change within the context of the “maelstrom of secularization” they saw in north america. as mennonites debated the survival of isolated agrarian communities and the nature of a re-defined, urban identity, the examples of those who had opted for an anti-modernity seemed increasingly productive realms of research. the emerging discipline of sociology offered some academics a vehicle for navigating this challenging terrain. latin american colonists, increasingly represented as outsiders and holdouts embarked on an anti-modern pilgrimage, generated both admiration and condescension on the part of north american mennonites who had supposedly compromised their faith by accepting many of the trappings of modernity. if the diversity of experience among post-war urban mennonites resisted a singular “malaise of modernity” that fretz imagined in the loss of the idyllic rural community, this did not diminish its potency as an organizing concept in debates over the future of the mennonite church. as a discursive space seemingly detached from the structural changes and everyday conflict of north american society, the colonies bore witness to a regenerative migration that other mennonites could symbolically enact through the pages of mennonite periodicals. the significant inter-denominational differences that had provided the impetus for much of this colonization were rarely stated directly, yet the recommendations and implicit understandings that were naturalized in these accounts cornelius krahn “the mennonite way of life” mennonite life no. (april ): the concept of “modernity,” and its implications for the church, was central to debates within mennonite communities in the th century. an early polemical example would be john horsch the mennonite church and modern isin. (scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, ). laura beattie and david ley. “the german immigrant church in vancouver: service provision and identity formation.” from research on immigration and integration in the metropolis. (vancouver: vancouver centre for excellence, ) beattie and ley discuss how for many mennonite refugees in post-war vancouver the urban environment proved only more conducive to forms of mutual aid, and community solidarity. the term is from charles taylor the malaise of modern itv. (concord, ont.: anasi, ) reflect competing interpretations of mennonite life. although divided along lines of social and religious practice, north americans and latin american colonists appear united in their wary relationship with outsiders, ideas about appropriate land use, and placement in a larger collective memory of migration. these divergent but interlocking themes coexisted in the narratives that north american mennonites constructed about their southern brethren, narratives that claim intimacy even as they create distance. contradictions were most apparent when the discussion moved from symbolic affiliations to practical assessments and recommendations. mennonite scholars did their best to mediate these tensions, employing both spatial and temporal devices, yet never entirely resolved them. the contested nature of an inter-mennonite discussion challenged bonds of solidarity and legitimate claims to representation, calling even its status as a dialogue increasingly into question. betraying some of these tensions best through omission, mennonite historiography on colonization has operated most comfortably from a regional standpoint, a tendency that can be seen in the works of walter sawatsky and peter p. klassen on the mennonite colonies in mexico and paraguay. in these studies, north america serves as a staging ground, illustrating the conditions that led to migration, before it disappears from the narrative entirely or is reduced to a description of the financial contributions of the mcc. this is a problem common to nation-based histories in which the act of migration implies a “dropping out” of one national narrative with the onus on the peter p. klassen. the mennonites in paraguay. vol. : kingdom of god and kingdom of this world. trans. gunther schmitt (steinbach: mennonitische post, ), rodney sawatsky. they sought a count,y: mennonite colonization in mexico (berkeley: university of california, ) david m. quiring the mennonite old colony vision: under siege in mexico and the canadian connection (crossway publications: steinbach, man. ) is a recent work that foregrounds the tense relations and conflicting interests of mennonites in canada and mexico. receiving country to take up the story on the other end. north american mennonite history, influenced by narratives of secularization, assimilation and urbanization, has provided several mediations on the state of mennonite identity amid ongoing change in which migrants’ histories also end at point of departure. these studies have examined the roles of fretz, bender and others in re-defining mennonite community in a changing context but have under-emphasized the importance of colonization efforts to this process. this is in spite of the fact that some of the more profound connections between mennonites in the post-war period appear to transcend the local and the national. two recent books point to an alternative conception of the intertwined subjectivities of colonists and north american mennonites. in diaspora in the countryside, royden loewen discusses migration to mexico by focusing on the “competing cosmologies” of those who left and those who remained behind. “each constructed a mental picture of an historical trajectory and social space that placed it in opposition to the other” seeing their “counterparts as being inherently different and antithetical.” °loewen points to the importance of this oppositional self-definition in the intensification of group identity. however, the negative dialectic he creates between canadian and mexican mennonites — the former derided as “lapsed” in their faith, while the latter were seen as obstinately “blinded” to a changing reality — obscures some of the adam mckeown “conceptualizing chinese diasporas, - .” journal of asian studies , no. (may ): leo dreidger. mennonite identity in conflict. (new york: edwin mellen press, ), calvin w. redekop ed. mennonite identity: historical and conteniporaiy perspectives (new york: university press of america, ) tensions were also apparent within the broader field of north american mennonite history. canadian mennonite historian frank h. epp, “vigorously argued that the time was right for mennonite history in a national framework. the americans should do the same, epp advised, and not pretend to write an international history while in fact playing out one more chapter in the long history of american domination of canadians.” “good history,” epp said, “has well-defined borders.” james juhnke “mennonite history and self-understanding: north american mennonitism as a bipolar mosaic.” in mennonite identity: historical and contempora rv perspectives, royden loewen. diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid-twentieth century rural disjuncture. (toronto: university of toronto press, ), more positive, unified imaginings that colonization produced. at times this could take the form of a shared historical trajectory. difference might then be re-conceptualized to represent a distinct point on a broad continuum rather than a diametrically opposing worldview. this was an option most readily available to those like fretz, whose scholarly mobility removed them from the personal animosities affecting the divided community. in the amish in the american imagination, david weaver-zercher explores the power of nostalgic identification that could exist side-by-side with the type of mutual condescension described by loewen. looking at lancaster, pennsylvania, weaver-zercher identifies the politics of representation at play in the paternalistic claim of herald press - the same publishing house that produced pilgrims in paraguay - that they alone could provide an authentic portrayal of their amish “cousins.” loewen and weaver-zercher both offer a starting point for thinking beyond the material relationships between north american mennonites and colonists to how these are played out in a discursive space that transcends national boundaries. describing such relationships as those of “intimacy and distance” seems to come close to the “ambivalent sliding” or oscillating perspectives that characterized the attempts of mennonite scholars to forge connections while mediating difference. their language could shift accordingly, from laudatory to condemnatory within the scope of an article. this tactic cut across the diverse thematic concerns that mennonites had in colonization, linking assessments of modernization with responses to evangelical changes within the church. in discussions from the social through to the spiritual, each positive david weaver-zercher. the aniish in the american imagination. (baltimore: john hopkins university press, ), initially part of the same anabaptist church, the amish and the mennonites officially split in . edward said orientalism (new york: vintage books, ) ‘ homi bhabha the location of culture. (london: routledge, ) pronouncement seemed to have its negative corollary. in indians in unexpected places, the book from which i borrow my title, philip deloria makes a similar point about the representation of indigenous people in relationship to the new technology of the automobile in the early twentieth century. he shares with latin american historians of indigen ismo the contradictory understanding that “indians were among the most potent symbols used to critique the modern,” while it was often ardent modernizers who were most active in championing this movement. mennonite scholars found themselves in disturbingly similar positions. they were products of the very transitions to which they turned to colonists as the antidote. deloria reminds us that the passage of modernity, despite its vociferous rejection of tradition, also required “reassurance.” that modernism and antimodernism, rejection and identification, are not opposing tactics but intimately and inextricably linked through their relationship to nostalgia and tradition can clearly be seen in fretz’s work. an identification with indigenous culture was not further marginalized by the adoption of the automobile but made all the more pressingly relevant by the anxiety that this new technology produced. mennonite colonists, like the indigenous subjects of deloria’s book, helped scholars mediate a difficult period of technological and social transition to the public through the technology of mass media. they offered this public a reconciling vision, of the present redeemed by “a nostalgic past more authentic and often more desirable than the anxious present.” ‘ philip j. deloria indians in unexpected places. (lawrence: university press of kansas, ) , indigenismo advocates, peruvian intellectuals like haya de ia torre, championed the glorious pre colombian past of the aztecs and the incas in the attempt to forge a distinctly non-european identity while often ignoring the present-day state of indigenous communities. for the latest in a series of works dealing with the relationship between indigenismo and modernism, see the forthcoming title, jorge coronado the andes imagined: indigenismo, society, and modernity (pittsburgh: university of pittsburgh press, ) deloria. ibid. spatial mediations were equally important to this process. though traditional old order mennonite communities were still present in north america at the time, descriptions of colonists were more comfortably removed “across the southern border.” gaston gordillo, in a study of the toba of the argentinean chaco, also points to the ways that narrative and memory are constructed spatially as well as temporally. the investment of meaning whereby the ambiguity of space is transformed into a coherent and bounded place is an ongoing process in which” ‘over here’ and ‘over there’ are part of the same, tense spatial embrace.” for gordillo, place-making is not merely an exercise of colonial power but an everyday activity that is employed by all groups in their attempts to forge an identity and mediate cultural change. the perspectives of these authors contribute to my understanding of the profound implications for fretz’ s work that lay behind bender’s innocuous expressions of “interest” “sympathy” and “concern.” they also reveal why a certain understanding of north american mennonite identity relied on a corresponding image of “our brethren down south.” when mennonite academics like mennonite life editor cornelius krahn situated themselves as authorities “amid the maelstrom of secularization” they spoke with a sense of novelty and immediacy, hope and fear. yet several authors have shown that mennonite communities have continually faced challenges over land, state interference, religious practice and generational conflict, re-defining aspects of their identity along the way.’ to locate the writing of pilgrims in paraguay within a critical stage in north gaston gordillo, landscapes of devils: tensions of place and memory in the argenrinean chaco (durham: duke university press, ): in particular, john d. staples. cross-cultural encounters on the ukrainia,i steppe: settling the molochna basin, - (toronto, university of toronto press, ), fred kniss disquiet in the american history can too readily embrace the modernist understanding of history-as- rupture that terms like the “great disjuncture” imply. it simultaneously constitutes a hazy before, a period of permanence and stability that was suddenly brought to an end. if we instead view these descriptions as performative, giving shape to a process that appears contradictory, drawn-out and difficult to delineate, the more provocative route might be to question the means and devices by which this change was rendered intelligible by mennonites like krahn and fretz. even a cautious approach to change can’t avoid the recognition that the early and middle decades of the twentieth century witnessed significant shifts for both mennonites and other rural communities. while the great depression had exacerbated the process by which impoverished families were forced to move off farms into small towns and urban centers, the second world war increased this trend with growing industrial employment in the cities. successful farming in the post-war period involved the commercialization of operations with the introduction of greater mechanization and scientific innovations in fertilizer, modified seeds and livestock. ’ automation and consolidation only further decreased the rural population necessary to support this agricultural production. mennonites responded in a multiplicity of ways, some occupying vanguard positions in these new forms of agriculture while others, who had left the land, re-articulated a land: cultural conflict in american mennonite communities. (new brunswick: rutgers university press, ) and james urry, mennonites, politics and peoplehood. europe, russia, canada, - . (winnipeg: university of manitoba press. ) kniss, loewen and staples all argue for a dynamic relationship between sectarian communities and the external world as well as within such presumably homogenous groups. as such, cultural change is ongoing and negotiated rather than imposed or outright resisted. the term is from j. shover. first majority, last minority: the transforming of rural life in america (dekaib: illinois, ) critically discussed by royden loewen, diaspora in the countryside these trends are identified in j.w. fretz. ‘the renaissance of a rural community” mennonite life , no. (jan ) loewen, diaspora in the countryside, - “symbolic ethnicity”, creating “virtual communities” in small towns and urban centers. an irony of this increasing urbanization was the importance that city dwellers placed on maintaining or re-establishing connections to the “rural hinterland.” however faced with a rural environment that may no longer have resembled the one that urban mennonites had so recently left, the colonies in mexico and paraguay offered a return to an authentic agrarian lifestyle to which publications like mennonite life were instrumental. j.w. fretz’s childhood experiences with the “great disjuncture” provide an individual perspective on the urbanizing trends of mennonite communities. the ninth of eleven children, fretz was brought up in the progressive general conference church of his father, which accepted the use of automobiles in contrast to the more traditional old mennonite church in which his mother had been raised. his childhood was spent on a farm in a rural area outside of philadelphia. his parents’ attempts to modernize the family farm both through the installation of domestic amenities and the purchase of desirable new breeds of livestock led to bankruptcy in . the family moved to the nearby industrial town of lansdale and pursued independent wage labour work. in the s, fretz eventually attended bluffton college before he was pulled into the orbit of the university of chicago. ibid., leo dreidger, mennonite identity in conflict. leland harder, “the personal and scholarly pilgrimage of j. winfield fretz.” mennonite life , no. , (june ): - . for a young fretz the distinction that automobility provided was impressively apparent on sunday mornings, “when they came to church in their buggies, and we came in our cars, we literally left them in our dust.” ibid., - royden loewen and paul toews see the urban experiences of fretz in chicago as essential to his ideas about community stability. according to toews, fretz felt that mennonites in the city had lost substantial connection to their roots both individually and institutionally. loewen presents a similar opinion of fretz’s thought at the time, that where mennonites have entered cities “solidarity has been shattered and identity time spent at the university of chicago offered fretz an analytical tradition to aid in understanding the effects that these cultural changes might have on mennonite identity. he spent from to in the city, earning an m.a. and phd in sociology, publishing theses that dealt with urban mennonite transitions in chicago, institutional creation and mutual aid. the sociology department, under richard park, played a foundational role in the development of north american sociological theory through its attempts to define and theorize processes of assimilation and urbanization. park and other sociologists from the university of chicago frequently encouraged the work of academics like fretz who appeared to have both privileged, insider relationships, along with a scholarly distance, from the communities they studied. as “marginal men” they seemed uniquely positioned to uncover “local knowledge” while maintaining their “transcendent” and “disembodied” critical perspective. for many of the mennonite academics migrating from rural environments to the city, chicago was a formative experience. they would later go on to staff mennonite-led academic institutions across the country, especially bethel, bluffton and goshen colleges. ° the small town backgrounds and rural imaginations of these scholars revealed themselves in the way they approached social phenomena in the urban has been lost.” paul toews. “j. winfield fretz and the early history of mennonite sociology.” mennonite life , no. (june ) , loewen diaspora in the countryside, these were “christian mutual aid societies among mennonites” (m.a. ); “a study of mennonite religious instructions in chicago” (b.d., ); and “mennonite mutual aid: a contribution toward the establishment of a christian community” (ph.d. ) toews, barbara schmitterheisler, “the sociology of immigration” in migration theory: talking across disciplines. ed. caroline brettel and james hollitield. (new york: routledge, ) henry yu, thinking orientals: migration, contact, and exoticism in modern america. (oxford university press: new york, ) fretz worked at bethel for years before leaving to serve as president for the newly created conrad grabel college in waterloo, ontario. harder, “the personal and scholarly pilgrimage”, - environment as outsiders. ’ city life carried with it an implicit lack or loss in these writings with the average city dweller oft maligned as the “highly individuated stranger.” binary distinctions between rural community and urban alienation can be seen in fretz’s own work in the contrast between mutual aid as defining characteristic of mennonite community and his phd dissertation on the collapse of mennonite identity in urban chicago. such understandings of the city were not always negative (these academics had after all decided to leave the idyllic rural community). yet even when the rural/urban divide was positively redefined as between repression and liberation, the incommensurability of the categories was maintained limiting the range of possibilities available to urban mennonites. the demands of a rural/urban shift stressed the role of the sociologist as mediator between interacting groups as well as between individuals and society. examining this position, henry yu raises an important question in his own study of chicago sociologists. “how did these theories provide a language for self-understanding, a means of translating the past into a sensible present, a foreseeable future?” for mennonites attempting to rewrite their history as a “useable past” compatible with a modern, urban future, the type of understanding offered by “charismatic brokers” like fretz and bender was indispensable. in a foreword to fretz’s the waterloo mennonites kenneth westheus, a ‘ yu, thinking orientals , , yu describes how this rural background, like that of john winfield fretz, was betrayed by the “three word mantras” of their names. the presumed link between knowledge and emancipation is stated best by everett c. hughes, foreword to calvin w. redekop, the old colony mennonites: dileniinas of ethnic minority life. (baltimore: john hopkins press, ) v. “in the years following [the publication of the science of sociologvl, a number of theses on sects were presented at the university of chicago. they were generally written by a member of the sect, but emancipated enough to look with some detachment at the very group in which he had been bred.” yu, ‘ dreidger, mennonite identity in conflict. . toews, colleague at conrad grabel college, describes precisely such a capacity and its relevance in an undergraduate trip to an old order community guided by fretz. in westheus’s description, the visit succeeded in conveying to his class the “gentleness, simplicity, and intimidating strength” of the community. yet what westheus remembers most clearly is telling, it was not the individuals encountered but fretz himself. “information and detail flowed from him, and in their midst not just fascination but reverence for a people whose life is a witness that the best of the twentieth century is not good enough [emphasis added].” in this encounter, westheus understood “fretz’s gift” to be the ability to render this essentially foreign way of life, and its importance to outsiders, both intelligible and accessible, a talent that leaves the visitors “spellbound.” as a mennonite from a far more liberal denomination, fretz’s position in relation to the waterloo old order community, as with the old colony mennonites he had encountered in mexico, was an ambivalent one. westheus saw the mennonites as a community occupying a marginal space that provided them with something of interest to the outsider, what he calls “an extra vantage point, one defined by centuries of separate, nomadic, persecuted history.” °fretz’s marginality from this community allowed him to kenneth westheus, foreword to the waterloo mennonites: a community in paradox, by j.w fretz (waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, ) old order mennonites or “horse and buggy” mennonites are similar to the amish, rejecting the use of some forms of technology (automobiles, electricity) and enforcing plain dress and endogarny among members. for a description see john c. wenger, “old order mennonites,” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. ( ) http ://www. aineo.org!encyclopedia/contents!o html (accessed april ) westheus, foreword, the waterloo mennonites, xiii ibid., xiii liberalism refers in this case to the focus on mission-work, interdenominational cooperation and individual autonomy of the general conference mennonite church. “old colony,” was a name applied to the first ukrainian settlement of mennonites at chortitza as well as their descendents. like the old order mennonites, the old colony group also rejected the use of automobiles, electricity and other modern amenities. see j.w. fretz, mennonite colonization in mexico or quiring, the mennonite old colony vision westheus, the waterloo mennonites. xiv act as a bridge, transmitting this vital but parochial experience to the larger world. he could also occupy this external “vantage point” in order to criticize what he saw as lacking in north american mennonite society. an insider relationship suggested bonds of solidarity but the sociological gaze also implied a crucial, critical distance, an ability to “survey the problem.. . from a vantage point outside of themselves.” ’if fretz had been sympathetic enough to understand the “unspoken wishes” of the mennonites in mexico in , he was also obliged by the “impressive” nature of the information collected to follow through with its publication. the onus rested on the sociologist to decide where the parameters of this dual perspective would be drawn, knowing when or where to mark the difference between oneself and the object of study. chicago sociologists were interested in mennonites for other reasons as well. in their introduction to the science of sociology, robert park and ernest burgess took up the example of mormons to make larger claims about the future of sectarian groups in a turnerian “post-frontier” america. park and burgess’ sect-assimilation cycle was in some respects largely positive. they shared with weber the belief that a vigorous work ethic, along with the creativity and hardiness engendered by frontier life, would mesh well with the demands of a market economy.” such sects would, from a condition of marginality, come to occupy a powerful position in encroaching urban society. yet the cycle was unidirectional, allowing for no alternatives, and parks and burgess were ‘ yu, yu, ‘ as an address give to the american historical association at the chicago world’s fair in , turner’s “frontier thesis” argued that american identity, in particular its individualism and creativity, was shaped in a productive struggle between civilization and barbarism along the western ti-ontier. see frederick jackson turner, the significance of the frontier in american histoi-v (chicago: university of chicago press, ) robert e. park and ernest w. burgess, introduction to the science of sociology. rd ed. (chicago: university of chicago press, ) - , described in hughes, foreword, v max weber, the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. trans. talcott parsons (london: routledge ) confident that, along the way to prosperity, much of the initial distinctiveness of the sect would vanish. what the sect-assimilation cycle neglected were groups like the old order mennonites in canada who, at the very time of its formulation, were choosing independence over prosperity in migrations to paraguay and mexico. frederick jackson turner had argued that with the “end of the frontier” americans would redefine themselves from a pioneer nationalism at home to an imperial imagining abroad. yet the decline of the frontier as either a threatening or an empowering conscious presence also resulted in an intensification of its representation in books, film and advertising. as america ceased to become a frontier landscape in the late th century, new anxieties made it all the more imperative to capture, market and distribute “the frontier spirit” to future generations. historically, a struggle against intractable frontiers formed a central aspect of mennonite self-definition as a people with an authentic, separate identity. fretz confronted this historical legacy along with the assimilative bias he encountered in chicago, but found a window into an alternate vision, presented by the anomalous presence of mennonite communities in latin america. his eagerness to transmit these experiences to receptive audiences in the north found realization in the pages of mennonite periodicals. * * * beginning in , the periodical mennonite life, published by bethel college in kansas, offered “the best in the religious, social and economic phases of mennonite hughes, foreword, vi deloria. indians in unexpected places, ° ibid., culture.” mennonite life was more than a simple vehicle for mennonite scholarship. it claimed to provide a unique space in which a number of voices generational, denominational, geographical, academic and popular could converge. unlike the highfalutin tone of the mennonite quarterly review, its goshen college counterpart, issues of mennonite life juxtaposed scholarly articles on mennonite history with human- interest stories on the plight of refugees and works of poetry and short fiction. readership also indicated their appreciation of the high-quality photography that made up a significant portion of each issue. within this accessible format, mennonite academics like cornelius krahn (editor), fretz (assistant editor), bender (contributor) and others could broach their concerns with a larger audience, strengthening the bonds between the urban collegial world of bethel college and the rural hinterland in which these academics had been raised. ° the singular appeal of mennonite life extended to numerous mennonite communities with distinct practices and histories that were dispersed across europe and the americas. mennonites were divided between two significant ethnic streams, dutch and swiss-german, and into over denominational church groupings reflecting a range of practice from the traditional dress and lifestyle of old order mennonites to the the journal’s tagline from - “published in the interest of the best in the religious, social and economic phases of mennonite culture.” mentioned in letters from john fretz in “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ), , j. a. duerksen and f.e. mallot, “from contributing readers” mennonite life . no. (april ), )o mennonite life ceased publication in the fall of , announcing to readers that “over the decades of its existence. mennonite life has mostly focused on a particular niche for its readership. we have attempted to reach a literate, well-informed audience, but not a narrowly specialist one.” it regretted that the consensus between popular and academic readership it had straddled in the s and s appears “no longer viable in the mennonite world.” mennonite life : (fal ) http://www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/ fall/ (accessed april ) progressive ecumenically minded general conference. mennonite life readily took part in the emergent interdenominational activity of organizations like the mcc. the refugee crisis of the post-war era provided fertile ground for this rhetoric and numerous issues of the journal urged readers to raise funds to support the resettlement of their brethren in paraguay and elsewhere. like the obligation of colonists towards uplift in paraguay, need was conceived of in spiritual as well as economic terms. a issue asked readers, “do you know how much foreign mennonites long for fellowship with those in north america?,” while requesting donations towards subscriptions to the journal for paraguayan mennonites. this simple way to ensure “a long overdue spiritual fellowship,” portrayed the journal not merely as an advocate, but a locus for inter denominational dialogue. in a formulation that belied the profound internal conflicts that were dividing north american communities, the bulletin emphasized a common attempt at seeing the world unburdened and concluded that there was “no precise and final formula for the practice of the simple life.” fretz saw north and south american cooperation as “a heart-warming demonstration of christian love and mutual aid,” pointedly leaving space to give thanks to the contributions that north americans had such a description speaks of mennonites as an ethnic group. presently more than half of world-wide mennonites are not of swiss-german or dutch-german descent. significant communities of mennonites can be found across africa and asia, especially in the congo, india and indonesia. this growth in worldwide membership was particularly pronounced in the latter half of the twentieth century. see “mennonite membership statistics: - ” mennonite church usa historical committee and archives. ( ) http://www.mcusa-archives.org/resources/membership.htrnl#ww or “world mennonite church membership” mennonite historical society of canada. ( ) http://www.mhsc.calindex.asp? content=http:/!www mhsc.calmennos/ wdid_you_know.html (accessed april ) “to our readers” mennonite life , no. (april ): ibid., edward yoder, “christian simplicity” mennonite life (april ): made to the paraguayan cause. inter-denominational cooperation in, and over, paraguay was an example that north american churches should attempt to emulate. in addition to this interdenominational impetus, mennonite life also offered readers a new transnational understanding of a shared mennonite community. if sectarian groups in paraguay and mexico appeared to outsiders as intimately wedded to locality, the journal presented an alternative de-territorialized space in which south american, north american and european mennonite lives were placed into dialogue with one another. a novel, inclusive form of mennonite community, one no longer bound by place or practice, was in the process of being imagined. before they were omitted in favour of more advertizing space, letters-to-the-editor pointed to this potential through the diversity of the journal’s readership. in january , letters appeared from north dakota, ontario, pennsylvania, holland, saskatchewan and new york city. a subsequent issue saw letters written from ohio, hannover, the hutterite colony in paraguay, iowa, chicago, cincinnati, and philadelphia while in another, letters arrived from aberdeen (idaho), steinbach and winnipeg (manitoba), pasadena (california), and karlsruhe (germany). readers from such diverse locales as java, texas, oklahoma, and brazil also voiced their concerns. these letters highlight the dispersed nature of mennonite communities in the wake of the refugee crisis of the second world war. on the pages of mennonite life, stories of anabaptist forefathers, historical and contemporary colonization efforts, farming tips, production of new livestock, and urban mennonites performed a fretz, pilgrims, “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (apr ): , “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (july ): “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): contradictory function. if they showed that the “religious, social and economic phases of mennonite life” were characterized by an overwhelming diversity, the disunity of the “mennonite experience” found coherence through this shared space and in the interpretive work of its authors. these bonds were both lateral-spatial, connecting rural, urban and regional environs, as well as historical, with founder menno simmons standing, side by side, with “modern mennonite cattlemen.” ° the conscious acceptance and even active support for this journal indicated that academics like fretz were not alone in their awareness of the need for “a long overdue spiritual fellowship.” pointing to a nascent internationalism, readers congratulated mennonite life as it “furnishes the bridge to our mennonite brethren the world over.” a writer from ontario claimed, “such a publication in the interest of all will go far in binding our different mennonite branches closer together in one large body in future years.” the journal also offered readers a chance to maintain their link with the “rich heritage” of the past. this opportunity was particularly important for youth tempted by the urban, secular environment in which mennonites increasingly found themselves immersed. according to one reader, mennonite life was capable of making “young benedict anderson, imagined communities: reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism (london: verso, ) and timothy mitchell, “the stage of modernity” in questions of modernity, ed. timothy mitchell, (minneapolis: university of minnesota press, ), - , have pointed to the importance of print culture in allowing a dispersed populace to imagine a common past, present and future. mitchell stresses that, “the ‘now’ of modernity, its culture of contemporaneity, the particular sense of simultaneity that is taken as modernity’s experience, depends upon the representation of an homogenous space. the inhabitants of this space, almost all of whom never meet one another, can be conceived as living the same empty moment, as occupying the same time-space.. historical time: history is the story of a civilization, culture, or people whose diverse lives are imagined to share a singular epoch and to progress as a unit from one contemporaneous moment to the next.”, waldo harder, “mennonite cattlemen.” mennonite life , no. (april ), o richard nickel in, “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (april ): wj yake in, “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): letter in “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (july ): people interested in their own history and culture [again].” the professional presentation of the journal also meant for another reader that, “we no longer need to be ashamed of our cultural level.” in a more striking contrast, a pennsylvania reader celebrated this academic opening, happy to see “young children getting what we never had, a chance to learn and feel.” as with the academics whose writing filled the journal, mennonite life raised interesting questions about the transmission of knowledge, culture and history. it responded to a clearly-voiced and anxious need, expressed both by readership and contributors, for a “bridge” reconciling past and present, “brethren the world over”, academics and the public, and the generational gaps separating elders and youth. central to this process were the presence of mennonite communities in latin america. mennonites had arrived in the chaco, the semi-arid low-lying region of western paraguay, in three principal waves. the first group left canada, along with mexico- bound mennonites, in the late s, in response to a “one language law” that placed growing restrictions on mennonite schools. they were joined by a second wave of russian mennonites who fled the ukraine in the early s during stalin’s collectivization program. many of those who remained in russia arrived in a third wave in the immediate post-war period as refugees and “ethnic germans” that had evacuated the ukraine with the retreating german army and were avoiding forced repatriation to the letter in “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (july ): p.j. kiassen in “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): , this issue about validation and professionalization is an important one. in mennonite identity in conflict, the common agreement over the conflicting legacy of harold s. bender was over his ability to promote the academic merit of mennonite history, “based on sound scholarship. supervised by renowned historians.” dreidger, mennonite identity in conflict, john fretz, in “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): soviet union. in mexico, mennonites had settled predominantly in the northern states of chihuahua and durango though over time groups had spread into zacatecas and the yucatan. other mennonite communities formed in the post-war period in brazil, uruguay, argentina, bolivia and belize. the common thread among these varied settlements was their location in relatively isolated areas at the margins of state control, regions that in the language of modernization were seen as antithetically marginal, barren, uncultivated, and empty in spite of the presence of significant indigenous populations. the repeated migrations of mennonite communities since the t century placed the colonists in paraguay within an important historical trajectory in which migration played a crucial role in the “maintenance and perpetuation of mennonite identity.” this common understanding meant that the paraguayan experience was often emplotted as an epic reaffirmation of larger mennonite and biblical narratives of migration. while some referred to the wartime flight from russia as a “mennonite exodus”, fretz began his dedication of pilgrims in paraguay by linking the colonists to “abraham of old who went out not knowing whither he went and looked for a city which hath foundations whose builder and maker is god.” for north american mennonites living in an age of increasing comfort and material prosperity, paraguayan colonization allowed them to retain a symbolic attachment to a history of “persecution for righteousness sake” where dawn s. bowen, “die auswanderung: religion, culture and migration among old colony mennonites.” the canadian geographer , no. ( ): fretz. pilgrims, “one of the great colonization epics of all time.” fretz. dedication to, pilgrims in paraguay, similar biblical allusions are made by edgar stoesz, and muriel thiessen stackley, gardeii in the wilderness: mennonite communities in the paraguavan chaco, - . (winnipeg: cmbc publications, ) authenticity was related to the forced migrations of a “suffering church.” ° fretz argued that without this persecution, believers tended to quickly forget god’s intervention and the importance of “intercessory prayer.” though mennonites as a whole have not always been persecuted, he argued, particular branches in each generation had, serving to, “keep the rest of the worldwide brotherhood conscious of its own former days of hardship and suffering and has driven them to a sense of dependence in almighty god.” ’ in a surprisingly frank gesture, fretz conceded that material contributions to the paraguayan cause had only been made out of excess and that, not knowing the deprivations and dangers directly, such identification could only be vicarious. vicariously or otherwise, the humbling presence of these historic remnants served as a strong reminder that the mennonite church had been, and continued to be for some, a church of martyrs for the faith. authors writing about paraguay continually spoke with a sense of optimism, which they justified through reference to a historic migration narrative. such hope-in- continuity is clearly expressed by fretz in another article on the chaco in which he attributes future success to the “blueprints” of mennonite colonization, “exact replicas” transplanted from russia to canada, paraguay and mexico. pilgrims in paraguay concludes a detailed and specific analysis of mennonite social, religious, and economic practices in the chaco with a verdict based not in this material reality but upon the unstoppable inertia of mennonite history, a force by which, “the prairies of america’s bender stresses the importance of a “suffering church” in harold s. bender, “the anahaptist vision” mennonite quarterly review ( ): - “ fretz, pilgrims, he further cites the importance of surviving hardship for faith’s sake , - ibid. this vicarious identification could draw from an established tradition centered on the reading of martyr’s mirror a catalogue of anabaptist “martyr’s for the faith” first published in . loewen, diaspora in the countryside, fretz, “factors contributing to success and failure in mennonite colonization.” mqr (april ): middle west were converted, like the steppes of russia, from treeless ranges of cattle, buffalo, and indians to fertile farming lands, and established communities.. .that which seemed dismal and hopeless at the beginning came in the course of time to take on beauty, order, and hopefulness.” for those north americans who may have had difficulty in imagining life in the paraguayan chaco, images of previous pioneering efforts on the vistula delta or the ukrainian steppe were interchangeable, just as fretz could treat the construction of the trans-chaco highway in paraguay as analogous to the creation of the canadian trans-continental railway. such transference allows for sympathetic understandings whereby the continuity of community placed all new lands within the scope of collective memory. when walter schmiedehaus came to chihuahua on a mennonite life assignment in the “commonplace gray reality of mexico” was altered upon arrival in the colonies which appeared, “a distant, singularly strange, and yet, for us, an intimate and homey land.” as an embodiment of mennonite history and representative of an old order that was under threat in the north, the paraguayan and mexican colonies were sometimes treated as cultural museums separated by temporal as well as spatial divides from their more progressively minded brethren. in a report on old colony mennonites in mexico, cornelius krahn hints at both the unresolved tensions behind such a viewpoint and its likely implications, when he cautions readers to “be patient, tolerant and mindful that they may serve us as a mirror in which we view our own past.” fretz also points in a more lighthearted way to the courtship customs of paraguayan mennonites as “those of fretz, pilgrims fretz, “trans-chaco highway” mennonite life , no. (jan ): walter schrniedehaus, “mennonite life in mexico” mennonite life , no. (april ): krahn, “the mennonite way of life”, our grandparents.” the contrast is between the “highly mechanized and comfortably furnished homes” of a presumed readership and those of colonists which are not described in terms of poverty or intentional austerity but to the curious viewer, “as if he were suddenly projected into an eighteenth century colonial home.” this narrative passage into a different temporality is reproduced nearly verbatim by schmiedehaus in mexico, to whom it seemed, “as if the world-clock has been set back a few hundred years.” ° the transfer of cultural continuity into tradition leads him to describe mexican mennonite life in a kind of stasis. a captioned photo displaying a colony street scene illustrates this attitude of interchangeability. the specificity of both history and locality disappear as the reader is challenged to distinguish between “a typical mennonite village street russia, canada, mexico.” ’ the work of krahn, fretz, and schmiedehaus reconciled the difference they encountered by pushing alternative practices into an imagined past where they were safely removed from denominational politics. this past returned urban mennonites to a village life in which “face-to-face contact didn’t need to be imagined,” where the atomized family of modern social life was replaced by one of “sanctity, unity and permanence,” and where the “highly individuated stranger” that so distressed chicago sociologists, was willingly subject to “neighborly responsibility.” whether such valued conditions may have existed in colony life anymore than their negative counterparts actually existed in the city did not take away from their potency as rhetorical poles in this fretz, pilgrims , such temporal disconnects abound, “almost a medieval pattern of handcraft”, “reminiscent of the days of the circuit riding preacher on the north american frontier” schmiedehaus, “mennonite life in mexico,” the temporal lag of mennonites runs parallel to the condition of paraguay more generally. for fretz, paraguay existed in a state of arrested economic development, functioning as a i h century mercantilist state and not a twentieth century capitalist one. fretz, pilgrims, loewen, diaspora, fretz, pilgrims, , dialogue. krahn felt that these communities offered a “lesson” for turbulent north american life akin to the “extra vantage point” that westheus attributed to the waterloo mennonites. yet a distinction was maintained. a reminder of the past was not to be confused with a model for the future, and while paraguayan and mexican mennonites could offer a critical “outside” space for the reflections of the historian and the sociologist, it would become increasingly apparent that what they were not permitted to offer, was a viable alternative. *** by managing difference, mennonite life hoped to discover and speak to something beyond religious practice that could bind mennonites together. in a climate of internal dispute over the future direction of the mennonite church, the treatment that fretz and other scholars gave to colonization attempted to structure a common mennonite identity through external difference. the authors emphasized their commonality with colonists through the creative foils of a harsh environment and the foreignness of latin americans and indigenous groups. in descriptions of paraguay, this appeared in the colonists’ relationship to the harshness of the chaco and the general “backwardness and isolation” of the country. the role of the environment was dual; it served as a potentially threatening influence of degradation and a foe whose eventual triumph over would stand as a testament to mennonite hardiness and ingenuity. what is amazing for fretz is that mennonites had entered a region “where it was thought impossible for civilized men to live” and succeeded in introducing a “highly developed and flourishing krahn, fretz, pilgrims in paraguay, culture into a completely barren wilderness.” in january of , an anonymous article, “pioneering in paraguay” expressed similar ideas of the chaco. it championed the colonists for “conquering” the “isolated wastes”, their task explicitly likened to that of their brethren who “make the wasteland here in canada productive.” these, and other more implicit references, situated the colonists’ attempts in a larger mennonite struggle against hostile environments and justified their presence as essential to processes of modernization. the relationship between the mennonites and their new environment also structured the encounter with their paraguayan neighbors, one that appeared in constant danger of abstracting itself from the particulars of contact towards a generalized description of incommensurable ways of life. mennonite achievements were contrasted with the “low cultural attainments” of paraguayans, not merely in the primitive conditions of the chaco but also in the capital of asunción where there was only “evidences of past glory” among crumbling buildings, started but never finished. this incompleteness was seen as indicative of the nation’s unfinished modernization project, and a paraguayan inability to match mennonite achievements over a longer time span and with equivalent means. fretz partly cites the catholic church’s detrimental influence in education and other matters but the reasons for him are more broadly cultural. ° the distinction is best illustrated in his comparison of mennonite and paraguayan homes. the houses of the former are characterized by “their large size, their better-kept condition and their generally neat appearance” which reflects both “pride in ownership s ibid. “pioneering in paraguay” mennonite life , no. (january ): , , fretz. pilgrims . he describes this role as complimentary to the points program of u.s. aid. “pioneering in paraguay” ° fretz pilgrims and responsible stewardship.” in contrast, “the typical rural paraguayan house is seldom fenced in-it seems to rise naturally out of the environment.” while the mennonites manipulate the landscape to reflect their value system and carefully define social and domestic space, the paraguayans accommodate their behaviour to the environment, to which they are likened, allowing divisions of space to break down, as when “children and animals freely intermingle.” these specific descriptions of land use are elevated as the defining characteristics of each group as fretz deftly moves to contrast “mennonite love of order, the ideal of absolute honesty, and the inclination toward frankness and directness as over against the politeness and diplomacy of the spanish.” if his account polarizes the personalities of paraguayans(defined as latin) and mennonites, this binary understanding of cultural difference is even more stridently manifested in regards to the chaco’s indigenous populations of lengua, chulupi, guarani and ayoreo. mennonites settled in a region of the central chaco that was home to the northern lengua. in the years following the disastrous chaco war ( - ), the chulupi, guarani and eventually the ayoreo also settled in and around the colonies where many worked on mennonite farms. despite their active presence in the colonies, these groups ‘ ibid, ibid. fretz does clarify that mennonites were forced to modify certain housing styles and behaviours in relation to the environment. ibid., peter p. klassen, the mennonites in paraguay vol. : encounter with indians and paraguayans trans. gunther h. schmitt. (kitchener, ont.: pandora press, ), - indigenous-mennonite labour relations have been the subject of several works. an early critical perspective was taken by jacob a. loewen and leon cadogan, the anatomy of an unfinished crisis in chulupi culture change (asuncion: centro de estudios antropológicos de ia revista del ateneo paraguayo, ) are marked by their notable absence from many of the written accounts. when visiting mennonites acknowledged their presence, their tone could vacillate between the threatening and the benign neither of which recognized the possibility of any competing territorial claim or even desire for landownership. facing similar legacies of indigenous displacement, mennonite communities in the north could hardly afford to be critical on this issue, expressing instead a silent solidarity with colonists. in , mennonite life described the chaco as, “a country shunned even by indians of some ambition and where they[mennonites] are neighbours to the most primitive tribes imaginable.” mennonite colonization in an area with few paraguayans but several prominent indigenous groups offered ripe opportunities for contrast between the mennonites’ settled, agrarian ways and the nomadic lifestyle of their neighbours. fretz’s descriptions emphasized the haphazard dependency that he took for the indigenous social system, “these indians are very loosely organized and have low cultural attainments. they hunt with bows and arrows, unless here and there, a few are fortunate enough to secure guns. most of them live from wild plant products and such game as they are able to find in their wilderness wanderings or beg from ranchers and civilized settlers. in more recent years it has become the practice for indians to work for wages on the edges of civilization.” like the environment and other paraguayans, the indigenous presence was an ambivalent one for the mennonites who visited the colonists, somewhere between the chulupi, “quite tame and in no way a danger,” and the, “wild, savage, bush inhabiting moros [ayoreo].”°° hiebert and snyder caution of the same potential threat for colonists in klassen, the mennonites in paraguay vol. notes that this was even the case with colony records of meetings and assemblies held at the time. for a discussion of the link between indigenous displacement and mennonite migrations see, calvin redekop, “mennonite displacement of indigenous peoples: an historical and sociological analysis” canadian ethnic studies/etudes ethniques au canada , no. ( ): - “pioneering in paraguay” fretz, pilgrims . °° ibid chihuahua who live currently unmolested but “surrounded by a temperamental latinized indian who is fickle in his attitudes and not always to be trusted.”° in shifting constantly between themes of mennonite-driven progress and their fundamental alterity from their surroundings, both human and natural, descriptions like fretz’s performed two important functions. the first was a strong justification for the mennonite presence and for the importance of colonization more generally. the second was an oppositional self-definition that made difference between mennonite communities appear paltry by comparison. in addition to maintaining cultural survival, mennonites had a duty to their host countries and neighbours. if fretz was careful never to directly invoke the “black legend” of spanish colonialism in the americas to explain the “backwardness” of paraguay and its inhabitants, it was likely because this would have been redundant. he could tactfully accomplish as much simply by conjuring up its inverted counter-narrative. “what a blessing to paraguay as a nation, if the mennonites in years to come could do for her what the new england puritans and pilgrims did for america by way of enriching her national heritage of democratic government and propagating the christian religion with its vigorous ethics and its national cleansing power.”° in a country whose own tumultuous political leadership was for fretz, no more than, “a lot of adolescent pranks carried on by politically ambitious individuals who seek power,” mennonites could emerge as models of sobriety, steadfastness and separation from worldly avarice. p. c. hiebert and william t. snyder. “are the doors of mexico open to mennonite immigrants” mennonite life. , no. (april ): fretz, pilgrims, j.w. fretz, “paraguay — an informal history” mennonite life , no. (jan ): . fretz goes on to make an interesting comparison in which the paraguayan landscape and urban chicago come together. the insight into the political intrigue and the background of the endless number of revolutions and counter revolutions reminds one of gang warfare in modern cities. paraguayans seem to take these revolutions in the second fraternal function was equally important for a climate in which “everywhere among mennonites there are evidences of accommodation and assimilation with national cultures.”° while fretz did not hold paraguay as an exception to this trend, the interactions between mennonites, paraguayans and indigenous groups in the chaco only served to highlight what fretz himself recognizes. if “it is only by comparing our own culture with other cultures that differences become apparent,” then this “cross- cultural encounter” highlighted, through the production of meaningful difference, the exceptionalism and internal coherence of mennonite identity.’° this juxtaposition offered north americans a comparatively easy identification with colonists. as the spatial distance between these spiritual “neighbours” collapsed, difference was reinscribed to create an impregnable barrier that separated colonists from their proximate indigenous and paraguayan neighbours in the chaco. *** if the description of the colonists’ interactions with the environment and their participation in a historical process of migration served to forge links between north american mennonites and themselves, other tensions, latent in the earlier descriptions, came to manifest themselves in fretz’s recommendations for education and his understanding of religion. a reassuring sense of cultural and religious continuity existed simultaneously with a fear of economic and spiritual stagnation that only drastic change and the introduction of modern techniques could append. the chaco as frontier oscillated somewhere between the understandings of frederick jackson turner and stride much like chicagoans take the announcements of blazing newspaper headlines about another gang warfare.” ‘° fretz, pilgrims, ‘° lbid domingo sarmiento.’° if it was in a struggle against hostile climes that mennonites as a people truly came into being, the isolation of new colonies, the very attribute so desired by many colonists, nevertheless posed its own threats. fretz clearly understood the environment to function dually as creative antagonist and withering force. richard park’s influence also stood tall where fretz feared that this cultural barrier could collapse with latin american mennonites shifting from their position as model minorities to become victims of cultural assimilation within host countries. for the mennonite colonists isolated from their brethren by the chaco and, with paraguayans and indigenous groups as guides, there was “always the danger of an entire group becoming so accustomed to lower standards they will in time accept them as normal.”° returning to the idea of paraguay as a potentially debilitating force, fretz emphasized how the “burden of keeping the mennonites in contact with the remainder of civilized society rests on the school system.”° the colonies were a “cultural island” which desperately needed to maintain contact with the outside world.’° the ever-present threat of degeneration contrasts with his positive pronouncements about the future of the colonies. the withering effects of the environment can be seen in a “regression to illiteracy on the part of ex-students” for want of opportunity to utilize their knowledge. ° fretz most directly attacked the more conservative menno colony, less concerned with sarmiento in contrast to turner, saw the isolation of the frontier as a degenerative force that distorted the civilizing influence of europe as it moved further inland from the urban centre of buenos aires. both authors agreed that frontier life had produced something distinct from europe yet came to opposing conclusions about the desirability of this transition. for a breakdown of these respective frontier theses and a discussion of latin american frontier history see david weber and jane rausch eds.., where cultures meet: frontiers in latin american history. (delaware: scholarly resource inc., ) fretz pilgrims, ‘° lbid ibid. “°ibid. educational standards than others, but held the rise of ignorance as a danger for all colonists. the vision of latin american colonists, particularly those who arrived in mexico and paraguay in the s, had been to stop the gradual erosion of community independence and cultural self-determination caused by the national vision of the canadian state. this placed them at odds with an entrenched progressivist understanding of maintenance and restoration as inherently reactionary aims.’ though church elders had led many of the migrations to latin america, fretz felt that it was increased education and the provision of future “doctors, ministers, teachers and businessmen” that should be a primary marker of the success or failure of colonization. a shift in church leadership from farmer-bishops to educated teacher-pastors can be seen as the specific product of urban changes and professionalization taking place in north american society. this transition coincided with fretz’s career as a sociologist. the larger question was over the type of knowledge to be validated. was knowledge produced externally or embedded within the community? fretz’s perspective privileged a form of individual detachment and scholarly distancing that he learned in chicago.” from tradition as the root of mennonite success, fretz articulated an opposing vision of conservative mennonite elders “clinging tenaciously to the past” with the need for external guidance to improve the the problem, extending beyond material deprivation and poverty, was the fundamental resistance to change among community members whose “limited described by leo dreidger, mennonite identity in conflict. as an overemphasis on “structures and boundaried traditions.” loewen mitchell, “the stage of modernity” describes the demands of such a position. “freed in this way from the traditional constraints of habit or belief and transcending their localism [emphasis added], it was said, modern subjects could discover a universal faculty of reason and employ it to represent to themselves the experiences and feelings of others and to submit their own interior life to its pedagogy.” fretz, pilgrims, vision and training. . . often prevent the development of such potential leadership and latent talent as do exist.” in paternalistic language, mennonite aid to paraguay became the task of “pioneering among the pioneers”, those who fretz described as “courageous” but also “bewildered”.” while older colonists were obstacles to progress, the newly-arrived displaced persons of neuland, whose migrations were not carefully planned responses to gradual change but desperate acts of self-preservation, presented other dangers)’ marlene epp has examined the gender-specific experiences of mennonite refugees in the second world war of which a disproportionate amount were women and children due to the arrests and conscriptions of adult men in the s and s.” the idea that these refugees were both victims in need of protection and threats of moral contamination is discussed by epp and rendered explicit by fretz. “left to women, children and old infirmed men, they were victims of thieves and robbers.. .in their weakened state.. .many fell easy prey to illnesses; some of a permanent nature.” the experiences of “war, famine and revolution” along with “years of wandering” threatened the breakdown of moral order and have “naturally introduced some unconventional ideas and practices,” calling for guidance and direction on the part of other mennonites.’ °while images of colonists apart from the world and as bearers of tradition positioned them as “heroes of the faith,” other conceptions of society as demanding a constant reformulation produced a condescending view of the colonists, as weak, confused, damaged and in need of ‘‘ ibid., “ lbid., , ‘ neuland was a colony created to house the displaced persons arriving in , others founded volendam in eastern paraguay. marlene epp, women without men: mennonite refugees of the second world war. (university of toronto press: toronto, ) fretz, pilgrims, fretz leadership from north americans. with this rhetorical shift, mennonite scholars defined colony life rather than north american society in terms of lack. in doing so, they revealed their own investment, critical or otherwise, in the changes taking place in the latter. *** it is unlikely that fretz ever stated his hope for agrarian mennonite life more clearly than in a january article entitled “the renaissance of a rural community.” he begins with a bleak scene. endemic rural depopulation meant that everywhere across north america, “urban communities have been growing and rural communities dying.” ’ yet his experiences in chicago had made him skeptical of those who uncritically embraced the “century of the city.” for fretz it was obvious that “the future of society must have its hope in the rural community” because such communities were “seed-beds of our country’s population; they are the areas in which christian ideals, moral values, and standards of conduct and behaviour of the highest type will be produced and maintained. it is here that democracy at its best and in its purest form can thrive.” the rural frontier in short was the embryo from which arose much of the best of american culture but was distressingly being left alone to “stagnate and die.” here a distinction emerged that can account for some of the conflicting representations of colonists in latin american. fretz and others occasionally leveled an anthropological gaze at the quaint customs of their brethren down south, treating alternative practices not as conscious and viable responses to change but instead as curious remnants of a bygone era. however, “salvage ethnography” was not fretz’s j.w. fretz, “the renaissance of a rural community”, ibid. ibid. goal.’ his aim, he declared, was “not that the rural community of yesterday be restored after the fashion of a museum display, but rather that the rural community be enriched and modified in the light of new inventions and improved methods of living.” “revitalization” was not a task suited to the “pessimists, the fatalists and the fearful” as he described the refugees and elders he would encounter in paraguay. instead it was a new, younger generation, “the courageous, the far-sighted and the hopeful” that should take centre-stage, promoting innovation, integration and education.’ the creation of cooperatives was central to this, institutions that “have their roots in the long-time expression of mennonite mutual aid.” again however fretz distinguished between tradition and its present-day manifestation. modern cooperatives were not a straightforward example of cultural continuity but “indeed the stream-lined expression of mutual aid in that it is more highly systematized than much of the mutual aid in the past which was often quite spontaneous and sporadic.” the language in which fretz framed these concerns shifted from metaphors of death, darkness and dying, described as stagnation, isolation, and “looking-backwards” towards those of light, life, birth and rebirth seen as revitalization, systematization, enrichment and modification. the developmentalist logic of the post-war period is evident through which increased transport, trade and industrialization would belatedly usher the region out of a lingering colonial mentality and into a modern world of prosperity. with this aim in mind, fretz would go on to become a strong advocate for a critical reference to anthropologists of the late thi and early th centuries, particularly franz boas and his students, that sought to capture and preserve the social and cultural practices of “disappearing” races. see jacob a. gruber, “ethnographic salvage and the shaping of anthropology” american anthropologist, new series, , no. (dec ): - fretz, “the renaissance of a rural community,” ibid. ‘ ibid., ibid. u.s. aid to paraguay through the four points program in the s that provided funds to support many similar initiatives. however, his language is equally that of evangelical conversion in a shift from stagnation to rebirth with fretz concluding that, “in short, altona[manitoba] is demonstrating that a rural community can be reborn.” material and spiritual progress appear as different aspects of a single struggle with both standing in the same relationship to a past that has become untenable. fretz tended to privilege the former in his accounts, yet in other discussions in mennonite life, spirituality and spiritual change took on a primary importance. to understand this shift in rhetoric it is helpful to return to the religious context within north american churches at the time of fretz’s writings. *** though fretz made clear the centrality of religion to community, that “a mennonite community that loses its religious character soon loses its identity as a mennonite community,” faith emerged as a highly contested category. ° unsurprisingly, it was in discussions of religion that differences between north americans and colonists were most apparent and attempts at a transnational understanding confronted seemingly insurmountable barriers. broad changes in the north american churches, including the growth of evangelicalism and a critical engagement with religion — counterparts to the socio-economic and agricultural changes that characterized the middle decades of the th century — heightened these discrepancies. harold bender’s dilemma over the mennonites in mexico, weighing the merits of community integrity against a desire for greater inter denominational dialogue, and his privileging of the latter, points towards this changing ‘ ibid.. fretz, spiritual alignment. fred kniss identifies the period from to as one of movement towards a new cultural consensus in american mennonite communities. while the previous period had also been characterized by religious ferment, traditionalist groups were able to maintain sectarian divides and other regulatory customs such as conservative dress. two primary institutions, the emergent mennonite central committee(mcc) and goshen college, with bender at the forefront, served as loci of change. these institutions were increasingly advocates of an “outward-looking vision” both towards external society and other denominations within the church, seeing the “community as moral project” rather than a means of preserving tradition.’ these novel perspectives broadened a bounded notion of what might constitute an authentic mennonite identity and hence placed the authenticity of the colonies into question. as dean of goshen college in this period, bender was well situated to guide an emerging generation of scholars in a creative re-imagining of their radical th century roots into a “useable past.” this culminated in his seminal essay “the anabaptist vision,” in which he argued for active discipleship over faith alone, the community as a voluntary association of mutual aid and a principled pacifism.’ while these tenets were drawn from existing mennonite beliefs, the emphasis on an external form of “christian witness” and a critical engagement with the faith were radical for the time.’ urban mennonites were not simply dissenters from community life, as lapsed or failed members, but linked even closer to the unadulterated spirit of founding fathers like fred kniss, disquiet in the land: cultural conflict in american mennonite communities kniss, loewen, . toews, . kniss. toews, toews, , argues that fretz’s sociological approach, while employing different methods and focusing on the “village society” as the canier of mennonite tradition, was conducted in a similar spirit. this community of scholarship was reinfirced institutionally by the annual “conference on mennonite educational and cultural problems” in which fretz and bender participated. hardçr, menno simmons. as with other revisionist historians, bender returned to the “roots” in order to make an argument about where the radical gesture of anabaptism had faltered. isolation as achieved through closed agrarian communities was a pragmatic response to religious persecution. it hastened the unfortunate transition of mennonites from “religious group to ethnic group” by enshrining separation from society as a tenet of the mennonite faith.’ the core value of pacifism, could also be re-defined not as a stoical submission before god’s will and a detachment from “woridy affairs,” but, borrowing from the prominent examples of thoreau, gandhi and the burgeoning civil rights movement, as a form of activism and civil disobedience. outside of academia, the mcc provided young mennonites with an outlet for the inspirational effects of bender’s vision. led by the charismatic one . miller for much of this period, the mcc had already been active in the first world war but received great impetus from its settlement of mennonite refugees from russia in the s and s. along with supporting the work of academics like bender and fretz, the organization played a key role during the refugee crisis of the second world war. employing young committed volunteers from mennonite denominations across the continent, the mcc appealed for funding from all mennonite churches using a language of communalist mutual aid and evangelical christian mission. the sectarian boundaries that divided mennonite congregations, for some no more than “denominational bigotry,” were the from the title of e.k. francis “the russian mennonites: from religious group to ethnic group” the american journal of sociology . no. (sept ): - . redekop, “the sociology of mennonite history: a second opinion” in mennonite identity embraces this narrative of “enclavement” as “the gradual change from being at the center of the general protest and utopian reform to the periphery through rejection. migration, and isolation” at which point the ideology of mennonites as the “quiet in the land” came into being. - t.d. regehr, mennonites in c’anada, - : a people transformed (toronto: university of toronto press, ) war-time service with the mcc “was a wonderful opportunity to free themselves of denominational bigotry,” greatest impediments to this sort of pan-mennonite work and thus came under direct attack by progressives.’ the growing influence of evangelicalism also brought mennonite communities into closer contact with other liberal-minded protestant denominations. unlike sectarian groups who were more inclined to see community dissolution as the inevitable consequence of urbanization, evangelicals emphasized the new opportunities for mission work and christian witnessing that this increasing contact facilitated. the indigenous presence in the chaco spoke to a philanthropic impulse among mennonites to act as “witnesses” for their non-conformist christian lifestyle. along with their duty to render productive these “isolated wastes,” fretz and others saw a corresponding obligation to spiritual and moral uplift. h.a. fast captured this sentiment. though “in the lengua or chulupi indians were wandering around in their free manner as children of the forest.. .[they now possessed] school, intelligence, aptitude and eagerness to learn.” for fretz, the processes of practical education, missionary work and overall development of society were inextricably linked through “the power of christ to change the life of man from darkness to light, from uselessness to usefulness, [which] is impressively illustrated in the lives of these chaco indian converts.” even in the isolation of the chaco, sectarian mennonite groups would not be entirely free from their evangelical obligations. kniss, for a dramatic account of mcc activities during and after ww see peter and elfrieda dyck up from the rubble. (waterloo: herald press, ) which is also critical of the sectarian divides between general conference and mennonite brethren. h.a. fast, “mennonites in paraguay” mennonite life , no. (jan ): ‘° fretz, pilgrims, loewen, diaspora in the countryside, makes a similar point about quellen kolonie in mexico, despite being a product of an evangelical/sectarian split, it was seen by canadian mennonites as an excellent base for mission-work. it would be misleading, however, to see this period as a mere consolidation of progressive control in the church. denominations responded in various ways, accepting, mediating and rejecting the evangelical pull.’ this tension was clearly apparent in many of the ways that periodicals like mennonite life, whose cross-denominational distribution carried an implicit support for these trends, represented those, like the mexican mennonites in chihuahua, that had explicitly rejected evangelicalism. visitors were often struck by the skewed dynamic between individual and community they observed in these communities. fretz’s own ideals for the mennonite faith are clearly illustrated in his critical treatment of the affiliated, but non-mennonite, hutterite group in east paraguay. observing the “confines of hutterian life,” fretz was surprised by the rigid controls that the community imposed on its members, which “seems like the way of personal frustration and a crushing of individual initiative and personal creativeness[emphasis added].” for fretz and bender, the mennonite community was a “voluntary association” that implied a degree of informed choice and individual critical engagement. this created a predicament in which the community was the obvious means of religious survival while its hegemony in colony life, where there was “seldom any other choice”, precluded necessary alternatives. fretz criticized menno colony for denying land ownership to non-church members. referring to church control as theocratic, he argued that the colony’s organization effectively, “invalidates the concept and the fact of a believer’s church and the separation of church and state” where membership became a pragmatic consequence ‘ ibid.. - describes the mennonite migration to mexico in as a specific rejection of the growing evangelical bias in the canadian churches. ‘ ibid.. ‘‘ fretz, pilgrims, ‘ ibid., of “group custom and personal convenience” instead of genuine belief) these comments are particularly damning in light of the enshrinement of non-interference of government in church affairs as a core of mennonite belief, which for menno colony, was one of the primary reasons for their initial decision to immigrate to paraguay. schmiedehaus is no less critical of mexican colonists who have replaced adherence to the bible with a moribund tradition. in a bleak description of church practice he finds, “[no]spark of light or comfort, of edification, or exaltation. the only subject is repentance and submission which is repeated year after year, as a religious inheritance from generation to generation, placing a dull burden on the shoulders of the growing youth which to outsiders seems too hard and too heavy. . . [producing].. . faithful members of the church with no thought of changing even one iota of its tradition, even though in some cases a change could not do any harm, as, for example, certain things regarding the school system.” the juxtaposition of a long-standing and central mennonite belief in gelassenheit, interpreted as a “relinquishing of the self” through submission, humility, modesty or passivity before god, with the dynamism and metaphor-laden terrain of the evangelical conversion narrative with its focus on light, grace and joy is striking.’ yet, the condescending tone of such comments receives only cursory deferral, by fretz and schmiedehaus, with an outsider’s insistence on non-judgment and tolerance of other practices. it is a sharp departure from the sympathetic treatment that characterized other accounts of colonization stressing historical continuity and an authentic tradition. ibid., bender’s description of mennonitism stated, “voluntary church membership based upon true conversion and involving a commitment to holy living and discipleship was the absolutely essential heart of this concept. this vision stands in sharp contrast to the church concept of the reformers who retained the medieval idea of a mass church with membership of the entire population from birth to the grave.” harold bender, “the anabaptist vision”, schrniedehaus, “mennonite life in mexico”, robert friedmann, “gelassenheit” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online ( ) <http://www.gameo.org/ encyclopedialcontents/g .html> (accessed april ) two competing visions for religious practice emerge in these accounts in which the community focus on tradition, continuity and isolation is negatively contrasted with a dynamic form of individual spirituality that needs to be continually challenged and reaffirmed in opposition to the “tendency of religious and social customs to crystallize into formality.” in this spirit, fretz critiques the lack of ongoing adult religious education in the colonies and argues more generally for the “spiritually healthful effects” of migration and persecution in challenging those “at ease in zion” while removing the “spiritually weak.” ° fretz argues for such critical exposure through “the reading of religious periodicals, books and church papers,” pinpointing a role for mennonite life to aid in forestalling this religious stagnation.’ ’ within the evangelical impulse outlined by these authors, mennonites were redeemed through their active discipleship to the surrounding society and a critical participation in inter-mennonite discussions. rather than possessing an inherent ethnic value as “chosen people,” mennonites in latin america needed to demonstrate their commitment to this novel interpretation of faith. the results were disappointing to some north americans. in “from russia to mexico” peter reimer portrays religious progressivism in a similar light. he champions the transition of the mennonite kleine gemeinde church from “absolute conservatism” to “a spiritually-minded, mission- minded, progressive church.” however, he similarly fears the effects of the permissive legislation of the mexican government on spiritual growth. the same could easily be fretz. pilgrims, ibid.. , ‘ fretz, pilgrims, peter reimer, “from russia to mexico: the story of the kleine gemeinde” mennonite life , no. (oct ): applied to the generous privilegium granted to paraguayan colonists.’ the implication here is that true mennonite life is threatened not by encroaching modernity and state interference but by its absence. “will they continue to progress educationally and religiously in mexico, where nobody is doing any pushing, where the government is leaving all those things to them. . . or will they, too, slip into a materialistic rut like the other mennonites in mexico?” reimer’s prescriptions foreshadow a transition in the coverage of mennonite life, apparent in the following decades, with accounts of missionary work in africa and asia far surpassing the number of articles published on the colonies.’ the treatment that paraguay did receive tended to focus not on the colonists but on the mission work being conducted with indigenous groups in the chaco, and was of an increasingly critical nature. cultural survival was less of a priority and actually came to represent a form of escapism. * * * tradition served a dual purpose in the work of fretz and the other mennonite scholars published in mennonite life. when defined as an “authentic” connection to a mennonite past, it allowed these authors to champion the position of the colonists in paraguay and mexico, placing them within a narrative tradition as “witnesses” to the historic migration of a “suffering church.” while relating the experiences of everyday life in paraguay or mexico, these representations offered a means for readership to participate, albeit voyeuristically, in this more authentic form of mennonite community. see appendix in fretz, pilgrims, - for a copy of the privilegium reimer, “from russia to mexico,” b the online version of mennonite life contains an index organizing articles published by subject heading and year in which this trend is apparent. see “mennonite life cumulative index - ” retrieved april , <www.bethelks.edu/mennonitelife/indexes/> donald n. larson, “training missionaries for todays world” mennonite life , no. (jan ), - jacob a. loewen “reciprocity in identification” mennonite life , no. (jan ), - , fretz, “paraguayan indians” mennonite life , no. (april ) for north american mennonites experiencing the ongoing rural/urban shift in canada and the u.s. and articulating new ideas about religion and interdenominational cooperation, questions of tradition, collective identity, and a “useable past” took on an added importance. the sociologist and the historian, products of this transition, emerged as its principal mediators, able to comprehend the significance of colonization efforts while placing them in dialogue with the ongoing changes in north american life. these academics mediated the profound contradictions in practice and lifestyle between mennonites in the north and the south by means of a temporal gap, which filtered difference through a historical rather than doctrinal lens, yet these tensions were never entirely suppressed. when they redefined tradition as a form of cultural and spiritual stagnation it became, not a marker of authenticity and stability, but a crippling burden for the colonists, inhibiting the necessary progression of both individual and community. though these conflicting representations would appear to be mutually exclusive, they existed simultaneously in the writings on colonization. the interdenominational aims of mennonite life and the mcc had provided the impetus to insist upon a dialogue with these mennonite “pilgrims,” yet the products of this interaction, an estrangement over the meaning of religion and the role of community, revealed that very desire to be profoundly ideological. through this process, the productive yet contradictory position of the colonists in the eyes of their north american brethren was revealed. it was one that encompassed both expressions of intimacy and statements of difference, an authentic tradition and a burdensome past. bibliography primary sources bender, harold s. “the anabaptist vision” mennonite quarterly review ( ): - fadenrecht, george. “mennonite migrations to paraguay” m.a. thesis, university of kansas, . fast, h.a. “mennonites in paraguay, in , in ” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - . francis, e.k. “the russian mennonites: from religious group to ethnic group” the american journal of sociology , no. (sept ): - . fretz, j.w. “factors contributing to success and failure in mennonite colonization.” mennonite quarterly review (april ): - . mennonite colonization in mexico. akron: mcc, . “paraguayan indians” mennonite life , no. (april ): . “paraguay— an informal history” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - . pilgrims in paraguay: the story of mennonite settlement in south america. pennsylvania: herald press, . “the renaissance of a rural community” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - , . “trans-chaco highway” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - . “a visit to the mennonites in bolivia” : mennonite life (jan’ ): - . “from contributing readers” mennonite life , no. (jan ): . mennonite life , no. (april ): . mennonite life , no. (july ): . mennonite life , no. (jan ): . harder, waldo. “mennonite cattlemen.” mennonite life , no. (april ), . hiebert, p.c. and william t. snyder. “are the doors of mexico open to mennonite immigrants” mennonite life. , no. (april ): - . krahn, cornelius. “the mennonite way of life” mennonite life no. (april ): . krause, annemarie elizabeth “mennonite settlement in the paraguayan chaco.” ph.d diss. in geography research papers: - . chicago: university of chicago, . larson, donald n. “training missionaries for today’s world” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - . loewen, jacob a. “reciprocity in identification” mennonite life , no. (jan ): - . “pioneering in paraguay” mennonite life , no. (january ): - reimer, peter. “from russia to mexico: the story of the kleine gemeinde” mennonite life , no. (oct ): - . schmiedehaus, walter. “mennonite life in mexico” mennonite life , no. (april ): - . schmiedehaus, walter. “new mennonite settlements in mexico” mennonite life , no. (oct ): - . “to our readers” mennonite life , no. (april ): . yoder, edward. “christian simplicity” mennonite life (april ): . secondary sources anderson, benedict. imagined communities: reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism. london: verso, . beattie, laura and david ley. “the german immigrant church in vancouver: service provision and identity formation.” from research on immigration and integration in the metropolis. vancouver: vancouver centre for excellence, . bhabha, homi. the location of culture. london: routledge, . bowen, dawn s. “die auswanderung: religion, culture and migration among old colony mennonites.” the canadian geographer , no. ( ): - . coronado, jorge. the andes imagined: indigen ismo, society, and modernity. pittsburgh: university of pittsburgh press, . deloria, philip j. indians in unexpected places. lawrence: university press of kansas, . dreidger, leo. mennonite identity in conflict. new york: edwin mellen press, . dyck, peter and elfrieda. up from the rubble. waterloo: herald press, . epp, marlene. women without men: meimonite refugees of the second world war. university of toronto press: toronto, . fretz, j.w. the waterloo mennonites: a community in paradox. waterloo: wilfred laurier university press, . friedmann, robert. “gelassenheit” global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online ( ) http://www.gameo.org/ encyclopedialcontents/g .html gordillo, gaston. landscapes of devils: tensions of place and memory in the argentinean chaco. durham: duke university press, . gruber, jacob a. “ethnographic salvage and the shaping of anthropology” american anthropologist, new series, , no. (dec ): - . harder, leland. “the personal and scholarly pilgrimage of j. winfield fretz.” mennonite life , no. , (june ): - . horsch, john. the mennonite church and modernism. scottdale, pa: mennonite publishing house, . juhnke, james. “mennonite history and self-understanding: north american mennonitism as a bipolar mosaic.” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectiies. new york: university press of america, . klassen, peter p. the mennonites in paraguay. vol.]: kingdom of god and kingdom of this world. trans. gunther schmitt. steinbach: mennonitische post, . the mennonites in paraguay, vol. : encounter with indians and paraguayans trans. gunther h. schmitt. kitchener, ont.: pandora press, . kniss, fred. disquiet in the land: cultural conflict in american mennonite communities. new brunswick: rutgers university press, . loewen, jacob a. and leon cadogan. the anatomy of an unfinished crisis in chulupi culture change. asunción: centro de estudios antropologicos de la revista del ateneo paraguayo, . loewen, royden. diaspora in the countryside: two mennonite communities and mid- twentieth century rural disjuncture. toronto: university of toronto press, . mckeown, adam. “conceptualizing chinese diasporas, - .” journal of asian studies , no. (may ). mennonite life : (fa ) http://www.bethelks.edu/ mennonitelife/ fa / “mennonite life cumulative index - ” http://www.bethelks.edu/ mennonitelife/indexes/ “mennonite membership statistics: - ” mennonite church usa historical committee and archives. ( ) http://www .mcusa-archives.org/resources/ membership.html#ww mitchell, timothy. “the stage of modernity” in questions of modernity. ed. timothy mitchell, minneapolis: university of minnesota press, , - . park, robert e. and ernest w. burgess, introduction to the science of sociology. ed. chicago: university of chicago press, . quiring, david m. the mennonite old colony vision: under siege in mexico and the canadian connection. crossway publications: steinbach, man. . redekop, calvin w, ed. mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives new york: university press of america, . “mennonite displacement of indigenous peoples: an historical and sociological analysis” canadian ethnic studies/etudes ethniques au canada , no. ( ): - the old colony mennonites: dilemmas of ethnic minority life. baltimore: john hopkins press, . “the sociology of mennonite history: a second opinion” in mennonite identity: historical and contemporary perspectives. regehr, t.d. mennonites in canada, - : a people transformed. toronto: university of toronto press, . said, edward. orientalism. new york: vintage books, . sawatsky, rodney. they sought a country: mennonite colonization in mexico. berkeley: university of california, . schmitter-heisler, barbara. “the sociology of immigration” in migration theory: talking across disciplines. ed. caroline brettel and james hollifield. new york: routledge, . shover, j. first majority, last minority: the transforming of rural lfe in america dekaib: illinois, . staples, john d. cross-cultural encounters on the ukrainian steppe: settling the molochna basin, - . toronto, university of toronto press, . stoesz, edgar and muriel thiessen stackley. garden in the wilderness: mennonite communities in the paraguayan chaco, - . winnipeg: cmbc publications, . taylor, charles. the malaise of modernity. concord, ont.: anasi, . toews, paul “j. winfield fretz and the early history of mennonite sociology” mennonite life , no. (june ): - . turner, frederick jackson. the significance of the frontier in american history chicago: university of chicago press, . urry, james. mennonites, politics and peoplehood: europe, russia, canada, - . winnipeg: university of manitoba press, . weaver-zercher, david. the amish in the american imagination. baltimore: john hopkins university press, . weber, david and jane rausch eds. where cultures meet: frontiers in latin american history. delaware: scholarly resource inc., . weber, max. the protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. trans. talcott parsons london: routledge . wenger, john c. “old order mennonites.’ global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. ( ) http://www.gameo.org/encyclopediajcontents/o .html “world mennonite church membership” mennonite historical society of canada. ( ) http://www.mhsc.calindex.asp?content=http://www mhsc.calmennos/ wdid_you_know.html yu, henry. thinking orientals: migration, contact, and exoticism in modern america. oxford university press: new york, . arp_ _ _ _ - .indd © the authors ���  | doi � .�� /� ���-�� � � archive for the psychology of religion (� � ) - � brill.com/arp this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-non commercial-noderivatives . license (cc-by-nc-nd). https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / a web-based database for drawings of gods when the digitals go multicultural zhargalma dandarova robert a, k, grégory dessart b, k, olga serbaeva c, k, camelia puzdriac d, mohammad khodayarifard e, saeed akbari zardkhaneh f, saeid zandi g, elena petanova h, kevin l. ladd i and pierre-yves brandt j, k a) phd, researcher zhargalma.dandarova@unil.ch b) phd, student gregory.dessart@unil.ch c) phd, research collaborator olga.serbaeva@unil.ch d) phd, phd associate professor, faculty of psychology, batiment d, “al.i.cuza”, university, , iasi, romania puzdriac@yahoo.com e) phd, professor, faculty of psychology and education, university of tehran, jalale ale-ahmad ave. chamran highway, tehran, iran khodayar@ut.ac.ir f) phd, assistant professor, faculty of psychology and education, shahid beheshti university, evin, tehran, iran akbari ir@yahoo.com g) m. a., research assistant, faculty of psychology and education, university of tehran, jalale ale-ahmad ave. chamran highway, tehran, iran english.zandi@gmail.com h) phd, assistant professor, faculty of psychology, saint-petersburg state university, makarova emb, , saint-petersburg , russia petanovaelena@rambler.ru i) phd, professor, department of psychology, indiana university south bend, south bend, indiana, usa kladd@iusb.edu j) phd, professor; corresponding author pierre-yves.brandt@unil.ch k) ftsr , issrc, quartier unil-dorigny, batiment anthropole, university of lausanne, ch- lausanne, switzerland robert et al. archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - summary this original web-based database was developed at the university of lausanne (switzerland) as part of the international research project “drawings of gods”, which explores children’s representations of supernatural agents. its primary purpose is to store and organize data and metadata to be easily accessible to all affiliated researchers. however, anyone interested in the matter can view the drawings, as they were made publicly available. at present, our corpus is composed of over ’ drawings collected in different parts of the world (i.e., japan, russia, switzerland, romania, usa and iran) and yet constantly developing. keywords drawing – representation – supernatural agent – children – database – multicultural drawings and the study of representations of god recent theoretical contributions to research on the image/concept of god have revealed growing awareness of the complexity and multi-dimensional nature of this construct, as well as a need for multiple measures (boyatzis, ; gibson, ; hill, ; hoffman, knight, boscoe-huffman, & stewart, ). in this regard, the use of qualitative measures such as drawings and nar- ratives can have a great value to the exploration of this complex issue. the use of drawing has the potential to go beyond some of the limitations of survey- based quantitative methods. for instance, it allows the respondents to express and convey their ideas in their own way (gibson, ). the drawing technique is particularly appropriate for young children or others who lack the verbal skills to express their ideas and thoughts; the applicability of the technique extends to those for whom the experience of god is important, but linguis- tically ineffable. finally, the use of such a method may help fill in the gaps observed in research on cultural and interfaith variations of children’s repre- sentations of supernatural agents. as with any method, there are some drawbacks and caveats to consider. one of the most important is contextual sensitivity of the drawing process (streib, ). drawings can be influenced by perceived or real drawings abilities,   considering the multicultural and multireligious framework of our project we use the generic term « god » with a lowercase ‘g’. the capital letter for the word « god » is retained when we are referring to the work of other authors who have specifically used this spelling. a web -based database for drawings of gods archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - mood swings, time and place constraints and, in a group context, by peers. in view of this and other constraints, drawings are not considered as direct repro- ductions of inner worlds but representations of thoughts, imagination and ideas about the complex cultural object of god or other supernatural agents. a web-based database for “drawings of gods.” corpus of the database the “drawings of gods” web-based database was developed in as part of the research project “drawings of gods: a multicultural and interdisciplinary approach of children’s representations of supernatural agents” by professor pierre-yves brandt at the university of lausanne (switzerland). the main focus of this project is twofold. first, it comprises cross-cultural comparisons and cognitive development as they could shed light on how children acquire religious concepts both in religious and non-religious environments. a second central point may be for the role of images and visual culture in the convey- ance of religious traditions to be more deeply understood. the database began to take shape with children’s drawings collected in - by yuko kagata in japan in public and buddhist schools (tokyo, fukushima, chiba, and kyoto). then, some drawings from different regions of french-speaking switzerland were added to the corpus between and . these range from public schools to catholic and protestant churches, with subsets such as mennonite respondents. during the university of lausanne doors open days (see mystères de l’unil http://wp.unil.ch/ mysteres/), in addition to the pictures drawn by children, we also collected pic- tures of god as drawn by the parents of the children. between and , drawings were collected in two regions of russia: buryatia (eastern siberia) and saint petersburg. children from two different ethnicities participated in our study: buryat children—who come mostly from buddhist family—and russian slavic children. the majority of the latter comes from orthodox christian families. moreover, longitudinal data (up to three drawings collected over or years) are available for this subset: children participated twice, and children drew on a third occa- sion. in saint petersburg, drawings were collected in public schools and russian orthodox churches. some preliminary results analysing drawings from buryatia (dandarova, ) and japan (brandt, kagata spitteler, & gilliéron paléoloque, ) are already available. camelia puzdriac and colleagues gathered over drawings in two regions of romania: moldavia (iași) and transylvania (brașov) ( - ). more recently, a large sample of drawings from iran (n = ; year ) were robert et al. archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - collected under the supervision of mohammad khodayarifard and uploaded to the database. these important additions to the project collection come from public schools of six cities from various regions of iran, including tehran. the database was also enriched with drawings from the united states (kevin ladd, et al., ). these drawings were mostly done by the children at various religious (christian) institutions. as part of the ongoing development of the database, drawings collected by researchers from brazil and the netherlands will soon be included in the data- base. as for future contributions, researchers from greece and france as well as swiss colleagues working in nepal are expected to take part in this project. online interface and the access to the database the interface of the database is structured in both french and english (http:// ddd.unil.ch). besides drawings, it includes picture descriptions provided by participants, their comments given verbally (if available) and questionnaires completed by them. the interface allows searching the images by country and region, age, sex, type of school, and the precise wordings of the given task. the results can be sorted by the date of upload, alphabetically by image codes, etc. the full functions of the interface are described in the article “webpage drawings of gods” “how to do” (http://ddd.unil.ch/index.php?articles). the database has three types of access for researchers. the first level of access does not require any identification; however, at this level, only drawings and picture descriptions provided by subjects are available. the second type of access is for members of the university of lausanne and identified users, that is users who have requested access. besides drawings and descriptions, they have access to questionnaires. finally, scholars who contribute data to the research project have access to different functions such as upload, annotation, and various options of download. homogeneity of data and standardization of the task in order to ensure reliable observations when comparing samples of drawings produced in various environments, future conditions of data collection have to be strictly similar. thus, using a standardized task wording remains a central issue, and can be quite challenging when cultural and linguistic differences are involved. moreover, the word “god” can present itself under various forms within the same language, tapping into very different concepts. for example, a web -based database for drawings of gods archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - both “burkhan” and “bog” mean “god” in russian, although the former belongs to a buddhist tradition (in buryatia) and the latter refers to a more general concept. another point of consideration deals with avoiding the use of gender- specific pronouns in order not to prompt certain types of representations. furthermore, caution must be used regarding the precise task even with children sharing a similar language and cultural background, as the use of slightly different instructions can lead to contrasting outcomes. as a case in point, we will focus on french-speaking switzerland, where two different methods of analysis permitted us to evaluate the differential influence of two types of task wording. the first type reads as follows: “have you ever heard of the word ‘god’? could you draw, please? you can draw anything that comes up to your mind when you think of the word ‘god’.” the second type of wording reads as follows: “have you ever heard of the word ‘god’? now close your eyes and try to imagine, then draw. do not look over to your colleagues’ drawings, because i would like to know how you imagine or think. draw as you like and as you imagine.” as for the implements provided, those were similar for all par- ticipants: a sheet of drawing paper a format, a gray crayon, a ten-colour set of wax pastels and an eraser. first, a set of drawings (n = ) using the first type of task wording was collected in , and another set (n = ) using the second type of instruc- tions was obtained from - . both samples were similar with regard to age ( - years), gender ( % female and % male participants in the former; % female and % male participants in the latter) and collection context ( . % in public schools and . % in sunday schools in the former; % in public schools and % in sunday schools in the latter). a binomial logistic regression showed no significant difference between samples, wald’s x ( ) = . , p = . . all drawings were coded with regard to the number of god representations and their nature (anthropomorphic or other). the number of cases concerned with the absence of representation of god was recorded: cases ( %) in the sample, and cases ( . %) in the - sam- ple. the difference between samples was significant, x ( ) = . , p < . . however, when a figure of god was actually represented, a similar pattern was followed in both samples as concerns the use of anthropomorphic, non- anthropomorphic and mixed representations: respectively, . % in the sample, and . % in the - sample; . % ( ) and % ( - ); . % ( ) and . % ( - ). the second method of comparing the two versions of instructions relies on automated drawing analysis. more specifically, konyushkova et al. (in prepa- ration)—at the images and visual representation lab (epfl)—carried out gravity mass and colour intensity comparisons on the two aforementioned robert et al. archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - datasets. besides a difference in the shape of the gravity vectors, there was a significant difference in the absolute proportion of the foreground: . % and . % in the and - datasets, respectively. then colour intensity analysis revealed that green and yellow tended to congregate towards the cen- tre in the - sample, with green inclined to the bottom and yellow to the top. on the contrary, those colours were more generally spread over the drawing in the sample. to conclude, the two methods that were used revealed differences between samples, reflecting incongruity in the nature of data elicited by two slightly dif- ferent types of instruction. these results indicate the necessity of considering the task carefully. indeed, while the - sample was specifically asked to draw god, the sample’s instructions seem much more open and wide- ranging, possibly generating unintended and loose associations. development of drawing annotation interface the necessity of assessing thousands of drawings led us to consider automated data processing. while algorithms and software tools for automated image analysis of photographic pictures are expanding, the less refined nature of children’s drawings makes analysis and object detection significantly more challenging. thus, in order to tackle this issue, we decided that these complex objects should receive consistent but fast manual annotations. these would serve as a basis for further automated computational approaches (e.g., object extraction, pattern recognition). consequently, a tool (i.e., gauntlet; web- site: http://d d.vital-it.ch) that would grant us accurate as well as time-saving drawing annotations was developed through the common work of psycholo- gists and bioinformatics specialists. besides the aforementioned purposes, this annotation tool presents other important benefits. first, it provides research- ers with common semantics from a set of predefined features displayed along a hierarchical tree on an online interface. second, it allows the extraction of geometric information (i.e., location, surface) on any annotated aspect of a drawing. finally, the tool remains flexible and features not yet coded may later be included, depending on new data encountered. future direction the database is expanding with the addition of drawings done by children from still more countries and cultures. the breadth of representations included thus a web -based database for drawings of gods archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - far offers researchers the opportunity to formulate and explore novel ques- tions. we invite and encourage scholars to collaborate in the further develop- ment of the database as well as to make use of its various possibilities in their own research projects. to summarize, we assume that as long as appropriate tools and methods are employed, the combined utilization of drawings and narratives as research material may lead to some deeper insight into the multiplicity of children’s representations of supernatural agents. multicultural and multireligious data will promote the further refinement of this issue and we hope that the present effort will contribute significantly toward that goal. acknowledgements this project is supported by snsf grant nr cr | _ and the faculty of theology and sciences of religions, university of lausanne. we gratefully acknowledge the contribution of all participating children, the helpful efforts of schools, students and colleagues who participated in the data collection. in particular, our special thanks are due to claude-alexandre fournier, yuko kagata, vladimir vaschenko, and olga vorontsova-wenger. we are also grateful for the technical support of yannick meyer and niels alkema from unimedia and centre informatique of university of lausanne, developer yannick fuchs and prof. dominique vinck, director of ladhul (digital humanities laboratory of the university of lausanne). for further information or if you would like to participate in this research, please contact the project director professor pierre-yves brandt: pierre-yves .brandt@unil.ch. references boyatzis, c. j. ( ). religious and spiritual development in childhood. in r. f. paloutzian, & c. l. park (eds.), handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. - ). new york, ny: the guilford press. brandt, p.-y., kagata spitteler, y., & gillièron paléologue, c. ( ). la représentation de dieu: comment les enfants japonais dessinent dieu. archives de psychologie, ( - ), - . dandarova, z. ( ). le dieu des enfants: entre l’universel et le contextuel. in p.-y. brandt, & j. m. day (eds.), psychologie du développement religieux: questions clas- siques et perspectives contemporaines (pp. - ). genève: labor et fides. robert et al. archive for the psychology of religion ( ) - gibson, n. j. s. ( ). measurement issues in god image research and practice in god image research and practice. journal of spirituality in mental health, ( - ), - . hill, p. c. ( ). measurement in the psychology of religion and spirituality: current status and evaluation. in r. f. paloutzian, & c. l. park (eds.), handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. - ). new york, ny: the guilford press. hoffman l., knight s., boscoe-huffman s. & stewart s. ( ). diversity issues and the god image. journal of spirituality in mental health, ( - ), - . konyushkova, k., arvanitopoulos, n., dandarova robert, z., brandt, p.-y., & süsstrunk, s. (in preparation). god(s) know(s): developmental and cross-cultural patterns in children drawings. ladd, k. l., mcintosh, d., & spilka, b. ( ). children’s god concepts: influences of denomination, age, and gender. international journal for the psychology of religion, , - . streib, h. ( ). gottesbilder fallen nicht vom himmel: kindliche malprozesse als gestaltung von religion. in d. fischer, & a. schöll (eds.), religiöse vorstellungen bilden: erkundungen zur religion von kindern über bilder (pp. - ). münster: comenius institut. rudy wiebe and the historicity of the word by penelope van toorn b.a. hons., u n i v e r s i t y o f sydney, m.a. hons., u n i v e r s i t y of sydney, a thesis. submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy i n the faculty of graduate studies (department o f e n g l i s h ) we a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as c o n f o r m i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d the university of british columbia a p r i l © p e n e l o p e van toorn, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. department of g> g^u-l s - the university of british columbia vancouver, canada date ' i de- ( / ) abstract "rudy wiebe and t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e word" a n a l y z e s wiebe's s i x major n o v e l s p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e : peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many ( ) , f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e ( ) , the b l u e mountains of c h i n a ( ) , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear ), the scorched-wood p e o p l e ( ), and my l o v e l y enemy ( ). t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l terms and c o n c e p t s p r o v e i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o wiebe's work because t h e y i m p l i c i t l y r e i n s t a t e t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p o s t u l a t e s wiebe c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n . t h i s s t u d y t h e r e f o r e employs t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework d e v e l o p e d by m i k h a i l b a k h t i n and v. n. v o l o i i n o v . the i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s a s y n o p t i c v i e w o f t h e s i x n o v e l s , r e l a t e s wiebe's a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s and p r a c t i c e s t o h i s c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s background, s u r v e y s r e l e v a n t c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of wiebe's work, and d e f i n e s t h e c e n t r a l t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v . c h a p t e r s and d i s c u s s peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many and f i r s t and v i t a l candle r e s p e c t i v e l y , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t a l t h o u g h wiebe shows c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n "the d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e " a t a t h e m a t i c l e v e l , h i s o v e r t r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t i o n s p r e v e n t him from r e a l i z i n g t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n h i s w r i t i n g . c h a p t e r s and examine wiebe's use o f p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e forms i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a and the temptations o f b i g bear. a n a l y s i s of t h e i n t e r - and i n t r a - t e x t u a l p o l i t i c s o f t h e s e two n o v e l s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t o v e r t l y d i a l o g i c n a r r a t i v e forms may r e m a i n f u n c t i o n a l l y m o n o l o g i c . c h a p t e r c o n s i d e r s the scorched-wood p e o p l e and wiebe's s t r a t e g y o f embedding v o i c e s w i t h i n o t h e r v o i c e s , a p r a c t i c e w h i c h compounds t h e " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n " o f t h e p r o s e . c h a p t e r d i s c u s s e s my l o v e l y enemy as a c h a l l e n g e t o v a r i o u s forms o f a n t i - i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , and t o p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n s o f a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y . c h a p t e r f o c u s s e s on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e provenance o f " v o i c e " and c o n c l u d e s t h a t a l t h o u g h wiebe's n o v e l s e x p l o i t t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e w o r d — i n d e e d , o f a l l w o r d s — t h e y a l s o bear t h e l e g a c y o f a m o n o l o g i c c h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t model o f language. an a p p e n d i x e n t i t l e d "the e a r l y h i s t o r y and d o c t r i n e s o f t h e mennonite church" d e s c r i b e s wiebe's d i a l o g u e w i t h menno simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e word. table of contents a b s t r a c t l i s t o f t a b l e s l i s t of a b b r e v i a t i o n s chapter : i n t r o d u c t i o n notes t o chapter chapter : peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many notes t o chapter chapter : f i r s t and v i t a l candle notes t o chapter chapter : the b l u e mountains of c h i n a notes t o chapter chapter : the temptations o f b i g bear notes t o chapter chapter : the scorched-wood p e o p l e notes t o chapter chapter : my l o v e l y enemy notes t o chapter c h a p t e r : c o n c l u s i o n notes t o chapter appendix notes t o appendix b i b l i o g r a p h y : l i s t of works c i t e d a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s v list of tables t a b l e i : b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system - . list of abbreviations ppm peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many fvc f i r s t and v i t a l candle bmc the b l u e mountains of c h i n a tbb the temptations o f b i g bear wvcf where i s the v o i c e coming from? swp the scorched-wood p e o p l e ac a l b e r t a : a c e l e b r a t i o n mle my l o v e l y enemy rwp the rudy wiebe papers mbh the mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d vl a v o i c e i n t h e land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . introduction i t h i s s t u d y examines t h e s i x major n o v e l s o f t h e canadian mennonite w r i t e r , rudy wiebe, i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e o r e t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from m i k h a i l b a k h t i n and v. n. v o l o s i n o v . i n each o f t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d — p e a c e s h a l l d e s t r o y many ( ), f i r s t and v i t a l candle ( ), the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a ( ) , the temptations o f b i g bear ( ) , the scorched-wood p e o p l e ( ) and mv l o v e l y enemy ( ) — w i e b e e x p l o r e s e x p e r i e n c e s o f h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s i t i o n on a t h r e s h o l d between c u l t u r e s where i n d i v i d u a l s a r e exposed t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f competing v e r b a l and i d e o l o g i c a l i n f l u e n c e s . many v o i c e s , s o c i a l d i a l e c t s and n a t i o n a l languages i n t e r s e c t i n t h e minds o f a l l wiebe's c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r s . more i m p o r t a n t , a p l u r a l i t y o f v o i c e s , d i a l e c t s and languages engage c o m b a t i v e l y w i t h one a n o t h e r i n t h e a r e n a o f t h e t e x t . v e r i s i m i l i t u d e r e q u i r e s t h a t wiebe's t e x t s be l i n g u i s t i c a l l y mixed. however, m i m e t i c t h e o r y o f f e r s o n l y l i m i t e d i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e complex f u n c t i o n s o f , and r e l a t i o n s between, t h e languages wiebe employs. b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v o f f e r a framework o f i d e a s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s a n a l y s i s o f t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s o f wiebe's n o v e l s and i l l u m i n a t e s t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between wiebe's a u t h o r i a l s t r a t e g i e s and h i s r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l v a l u e s . p r i n c i p l e s f o r m u l a t e d by b a k h t i n and volo§inov make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t a l t h o u g h wiebe r e c o r d s h i s t o r y from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f s o c i e t i e s s u b j u g a t e d by v a r i o u s forms o f i m p e r i a l i s m , he adopts t h e s t r a t e g i e s o f an i m p e r i a l i s t i c power when i t comes t o u s i n g l a n g u a g e . wiebe c o n s c i o u s l y p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e he d e p i c t s . he a p p r o p r i a t e s t h e a u t h o r i t y and s e m a n t i c w e a l t h d i s c o u r s e s " p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( b a k h t i n , ), and endeavours t o s u b o r d i n a t e them t o h i s own m o r a l , s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i v e s . ii wiebe's a r t i s t i c development i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by d r a m a t i c s h i f t s o f n a r r a t i v e f o c u s , and by e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h a v a r i e t y o f s t y l e s and i n n o v a t i v e n a r r a t i v e forms. at t h e same t i m e , however, wiebe's t h e m a t i c i n t e r e s t s , h i s c h a r a c t e r - t y p e s and h i s u n d e r l y i n g p l o t - s t r u c t u r e s a l t e r v e r y l i t t l e . when wiebe r e f l e c t s i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many on t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f thorn wiens' b a s i c b e l i e f s , he might w e l l be d e s c r i b i n g h i m s e l f and h i s own o e u v r e ; even i f t h e answer grew more c o m p l i c a t e d , . . . i t c o u l d never b a s i c a l l y change, f o r t h e b a s i c answers were known.... d e s p i t e t h e v a r y i n g p a t h s he c h o s e , he always a r r i v e d a t t h e same u l t i m a t e p o i n t . ( , ) b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " m o n o g l o s s i c " and " p o l y g l o s s i c " ( o r " h e t e r o g l o s s i c " ) s o c i e t i e s makes i t p o s s i b l e t o v i e w t h e p l o t s o f wiebe's n o v e l s as v a r i a n t s o f a s i n g l e paradigm. b a k h t i n d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between c l o s e d , s i n g l e - t o n g u e d s o c i e t i e s , w h i c h p e r c e i v e t h e i r own language as t h e o n l y one c a p a b l e o f r e a l i z i n g " a l l t h e r e i s t o know about t h e w o r l d " ( b a k h t i n , ) ; and open, many-tongued s o c i e t i e s w h i c h presume n e i t h e r t h a t t h e i r language i s i n t e r n a l l y u n i f i e d nor t h a t i t o f f e r s t h e o n l y v a l i d means of v e r b a l l y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w o r l d . a l t h o u g h the. s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r c o n t e n t o f wiebe's s t o r i e s d i f f e r s g r e a t l y a t a s u p e r f i c i a l l e v e l , b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b r i n g s i n t o f o c u s t h e s i n g l e , u n d e r l y i n g p a t t e r n t o w h i c h wiebe's p l o t s i n v a r i a b l y conform. whether w r i t i n g about mennonites o r m e t i s , i n n u i t o r n a t i v e i n d i a n s , wiebe i s i n t r i g u e d by t h a t c r u c i a l moment when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a c l o s e d community d i s a p p e a r , and a m o n o g l o s s i c s o c i e t y f i n d s i t s e l f s u d d e n l y exposed t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e " o t h e r " v o i c e s w h i c h v i e f o r dominance i n t h e w i d e r s o c i a l w o r l d . wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s t h e paradigm i n c h a p t e r one of peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, as t h e canadian w a r - p l a n e s p e n e t r a t e t h e narrow h o r i z o n o f w a p i t i . in f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , t h e i n n u i t o f t y r e l bay, and t h e ojibw a o f f r o z e n lake (whose s p i r i t u a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n r e f l e c t s t h a t o f abe ross, who has f l e d from h i s a u t h o r i t a r i a n f a t h e r ) a r e a l s o v i s i t e d by t h e c a n a d i a n a i r - f o r c e , as w e l l as by o t h e r w h i t e canadian . c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as s c h o o l s , banks, and m i s s i o n s . f o r jakob f r i e s e n v i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , t h e communist r e v o l u t i o n o b l i t e r a t e s a l l m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s f o r m u l a e imposed by h i s p a r e n t s , w h i l e i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and the scorched-wood p e o p l e , numerous m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e "white grandmother's" v o i c e i n v a d e t h e l i v e s o f t h e n a t i v e i n d i a n s and m e t i s o f t h e c a n a d i a n west. in my l o v e l y enemy. wiebe's s o c i a l p u r v i e w n a r r o w s , b u t t h e pattern-''remains f u n d a m e n t a l l y i n t a c t : when g i l l i a n o v e r t o n i n v a d e s t h e body-space o f t h e monogamous james dyck, t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y d i s a p p e a r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e myth o f any " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " (mle ) i n l a n g u a g e . the b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e c l o s e d m o n o g l o s s i c s o c i e t y d i s a p p e a r i n wiebe's s t o r i e s as a r e s u l t o f v a r i o u s forms o f c o l o n i z a t i o n . because wiebe v i e w s language as "an a c t u a l way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d " (neuman ), he draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e p l a y e d by language i n a l l p r o c e s s e s o f i d e o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l c o l o n i z a t i o n . images o f s i g n s — v e r b a l and non- v e r b a l — c r o w d a l l o f wiebe's t e x t s . language f u n c t i o n s not o n l y as a medium b u t a l s o as an o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . in each o f t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d , wiebe d r a m a t i s e s i m p e r i a l i s m as a wave o f a l i e n v o i c e s and languages p e n e t r a t i n g g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r r i t o r i e s and human minds, e r a d i c a t i n g o r a p p r o p r i a t i n g whatever d i s c o u r s e s have h i t h e r t o e n j o y e d dominance. the i n v a d i n g s o c i e t y announces i t s a r r i v a l by making " d r e a d f u l sounds w h i c h no one has e v e r heard b e f o r e " (mle ), and by i n s c r i b i n g c o n s p i c u o u s s i g n s o f i t s p r e s e n c e everywhere on t h e p h y s i c a l l a n d s c a p e . a t c r u c i a l , h i g h l y s y m b o l i c i m p e r i a l moments i n wiebe's n a r r a t i v e s , a l o u d , f o r e i g n v o i c e o r sound drowns out a f a m i l i a r l o c a l sound, o r an a l i e n form o f w r i t i n g e f f a c e s a s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n a l t o a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e . the r o a r o f f i g h t e r p l a n e s b l o c k s out t h e sound o f thorn wiens' p l o u g h s c r a p i n g t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h ; t h e m e t a l l i c c l a n g i n g and s c r e e c h i n g o f t h e cpr drowns out t h e v o i c e s o f b i g bear's a n c e s t o r s a t o l d wives lake; canadian a i r f o r c e j e t s l a y vapour t r a i l s on t h e c l e a r s k y above f r o z e n l a k e ; and government s u r v e y o r s c a r v e i m a g i n a r y g r i d l i n e s a c r o s s m e t i s houses and gardens a t red r i v e r . through c o n c r e t e a u r a l and v i s u a l images such as t h e s e , wiebe r e i f i e s an o n g o i n g , u n d e c l a r e d , " o t h e r w a r " — a b a t t l e of v o i c e a g a i n s t v o i c e , t r u t h a g a i n s t t r u t h — w h i c h o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s s t r a t e g i c a l l y g l o s s o v e r o r i g n o r e . w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s r e l i v e an a r c h e t y p a l moment o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , o r ( t o s w i t c h t o a b i b l i c a l metaphor) e x p u l s i o n from t h e m o n o l o g i c " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y [ o f ] eden" (mle ). wiebe does not n e c e s s a r i l y d r a m a t i s e t h i s moment a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f each t e x t . nor does h e . e j e c t e v e r y c h a r a c t e r from eden. wiebe's j u v e n i l e c h a r a c t e r s o f t e n c o n t i n u e t o i n h a b i t t h e m o n o l o g i c p a r a d i s e t h e a d u l t s have l o s t . wiebe's d e p i c t i o n s o f h a l wiens, l i e s e l d r i e d i g e r , and h o r s e c h i l d , show how c h i l d r e n p l a y , q u a r r e l , e a t and s l e e p , t o t a l l y a b s o r b e d i n t h e i m m e d i a c i e s o f a d v e n t u r e and p h y s i c a l s e n s a t i o n , w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e — a n d hence w i t h o u t f e a r — o f t h e dangerous n a t i o n a l - a n d w o r l d - h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s s w i r l i n g around them. the c h i l d r e n have l i t t l e o r no knowledge of any b r o a d e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , and hence no knowledge o f a p o s s i b l e l a r g e r meaning o f t h e i n c i d e n t s t h e y w i t n e s s . wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s e n j o y no such b l i s s f u l o b l i v i o n . f o r them, h i s t o r i c a l change i n s t i g a t e s r a d i c a l p s y c h i c change. the second phase of a l l wiebe's p l o t s d r a m a t i s e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f p e o p l e f o r c e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f many v o i c e s and languages r a t h e r t h a n one. thorn wiens, abe ross, t h e jakob f r i e s e n s i v and v , b i g b e a r , r i e l , dumont, and james dyck must a l l endure phases o f c o n f u s i o n and s p i r i t u a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , as a r e s u l t o f t h e p l u r a l i t y o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s which p e n e t r a t e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p s y c h e s . m a r g i n a l i s e d s u d d e n l y w i t h i n a l a r g e r s o c i a l s p h e r e , t h e y s t r u g g l e t o a v o i d becoming t r a p p e d i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s " t r u e " s t o r i e s about them. d i s c o u r s e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h o u g h t t o be i n v i o l a b l e become l o s t i n a cacophony o f a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , w h i c h d e v a l u e t h e c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e ' s most s a c r e d b e l i e f s , a x i o m a t i c v a l u e s , and time-honoured customs. t h i s phase o f cacophony and p a l i m p s e s t s i s f o l l o w e d by a t h i r d phase: t h e phase o f r e - o r i e n t a t i o n . near t h e end o f each n o v e l , wiebe d r a m a t i z e s a second b r e a c h i n g o f a s o c i a l boundary. t h i s t i m e , an a u t h o r i t a t i v e , d i v i n e word o r non- v e r b a l s i g n i n v a d e s t h e p o l y g l o s s i c / h e t e r o g l o s s i c w o r l d i n h a b i t e d by a l l humanity. i n h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , wiebe h a n d l e s t h i s moment o f r e v e l a t i o n somewhat awkwardly: tom wiens d i s c o v e r s " t r u t h " (ppm ) i n t h e image o f "the b r i g h t e s t s t a r i n t h e heavens" (ppm ); abe ross h e a r s "a v o i c e " w h i c h seems t o come from nowhere (fvc ) . in subsequent works, wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e - o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h g r e a t e r d e x t e r i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . the p e n u l t i m a t e c h a p t e r o f the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a ("the v i e t n a m c a l l o f samuel u. reimer") n a r r a t e s a h a l f - p a r o d i c , h a l f - s e r i o u s s t o r y o f a l a p s e d mennonite who h e a r s god's c a l l i n t h e n i g h t . a t t h e end o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r , b i g bear f e e l s t h e "warm w e i g h t " o f c h i e f ' s son's hand a g a i n s t h i s s o u l (tbb ); and i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , l o u i s r i e l d i e s w h i l e r e c i t i n g t h e l o r d ' s p r a y e r (swp ). james dyck's s p i r i t u a l r e o r i e n t a t i o n o c c u r s i n my l o v e l y enemy a t a moment o f d i a l o g i c c o n t a c t between one o f donne's h o l y sonnets and a passage from t h e new testament (mle - ) . whether t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e s i g n appears i n v e r b a l o r n o n - v e r b a l form, whether i t c r y s t a l l i s e s as a d i r e c t q u o t a t i o n from t h e s c r i p t u r e s , o r sounds as a f l e e t i n g b i b l i c a l echo o r a l l u s i o n , i t p e r f o r m s a p i v o t a l r o l e i n t h e l i v e s o f a l l wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s . the d i v i n e word o r s i g n q u e l l s t h e t u m u l t o f v o i c e s and languages i n t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , by o f f e r i n g an u l t i m a t e c r i t e r i o n a g a i n s t w h i c h t o gauge t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f a l l u t t e r a n c e s . i n t h e minds o f wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s , t h e w o r l d ' s many human v o i c e s and languages c o h e r e i n t o a s i n g l e h i e r a r c h y , a new, e f f e c t i v e l y m o n o g l o s s i c l i n g u i s t i c o r d e r , r u l e d by t h e d i v i n e word o r s i g n . wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s d i s c o v e r ( o r , i n some c a s e s , r e d i s c o v e r ) t h a t t h e d i v i n e word o r s i g n , not any s i n g l e human u t t e r a n c e , c o m p r i s e s t h e s o l e , f u l l y adequate t o o l f o r " r e a l i z i n g a l l t h e r e i s t o know about t h e w o r l d " ( b a k h t i n , ) . because wiebe's p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r s a l l l i v e t h r o u g h v a r i a n t s o f t h e same s t o r y , o t h e r members o f t h e d r a m a t i s personae a r e c o n f i n e d t o a l i m i t e d number o f r o l e s . . f o r example, t h e v i l l a i n y o f wiebe's v i l l a i n s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y c o n s i s t s i n t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e p r o t a g o n i s t and t h e d i v i n e word o r s i g n . wiebe's " i n t e r v e n i n g - f i g u r e s " i n c l u d e deacon b l o c k i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many; adam ross i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e ; t h e m i n i s t e r of samuel reimer's l o c a l c h u r c h i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s of c h i n a ; g o v e r n o r m o r r i s who b l o c k s out t h e sun i n the temptations o f b i g b e a r ; t h e p r i e s t s and r i e l h i m s e l f i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e ; aaron dyck and o l d h i l d e b r a n d t i n my l o v e l y enemy. the v o i c e s o f t h e s e i n t e r v e n i n g c h a r a c t e r s may dominate t h e c l o s e d monologic community, o r t h e y may sound amongst t h e p l u r a l i t y of e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s w h i c h i n v a d e t h e awareness o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t . in e i t h e r c a s e , t h e y b l o c k t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d i r e c t a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e d i v i n e word o r s i g n . each n o v e l a l s o c o n t a i n s a m y s t i c a l , o t h e r - w o r l d l y " t e a c h e r - f i g u r e , " f o r example, joseph dueck, j o s h b i s h o p and s a l l y h o w e l l , john reimer, b i g bear, l o u i s r i e l ( a t t i m e s ) , j e s u s , and t h e m o r t i c i a n who p r e s i d e s a t ruth dyck's f u n e r a l . the d i v i n e word o r s i g n o f t e n e n t e r s t h e t e x t i n t h e mouth o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s . " r e a d e r - f i g u r e s " a l s o p e r f o r m a v i t a l f u n c t i o n i n wiebe's n o v e l s , g u i d i n g t h e r e a d e r of t h e t e x t t o w a r d s e m a n t i c g o a l s p r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a u t h o r . the r e a d e r - f i g u r e combines w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t i n thorn wiens, abe ross, l o u i s r i e l , and james dyck, w h i l e k i t t y maclean, wiebe's most famous r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e , remains a r e l a t i v e l y minor p l a y e r i n t h e d r a m a t i c h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s d e p i c t e d i n t h e n o v e l . as w e l l as o b s e r v i n g c e r t a i n s e t p a t t e r n s i n h i s p l o t t i n g and c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , wiebe's n o v e l s a l l , i n v a r i o u s ways, c o u n t e r p o s e two models of t i m e : one l i n e a r and t i e d t o h i s t o r y , t h e o t h e r c i r c u l a r o r c y c l i c . dates and r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e n a t u r e of events c o n s t r u c t t i m e i n t h e l i n e a r manner c o n v e n t i o n a l l y employed i n h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e . the c i r c u l a r model m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f most c l e a r l y i n wiebe's r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e c y c l e o f t h e s e a s o n s , and t o t h e a n n u a l l y r e c u r r i n g f e s t i v a l s o f t h e c h r i s t i a n c a l e n d a r . the r e g u l a r rhythm of t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t some t h i n g s n e v e r change, d e s p i t e s u p e r f i c i a l appearances t o t h e c o n t r a r y . as w e l l as p o i n t i n g t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n permanent, e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h s and v a l u e s , wiebe's n o v e l s a l l p o s i t an e n d - p o i n t o f human h i s t o r y , a moment beyond w h i c h t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of d i s c o v e r i n g t r u t h does not c o n t i n u e . the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s e p i p h a n i c e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e super-human word o r s i g n works as a c l o s i n g d e v i c e i n each o f t h e s i x n a r r a t i v e s examined i n t h i s s t u d y . by r e s o r t i n g r e p e a t e d l y t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c l o s i n g s t r a t e g y , wiebe i m p a r t s an a p o c a l y p t i c q u a l i t y t o t h e f i n a l pages of h i s n o v e l s . each e n d i n g i m p l i c i t l y p r e f i g u r e s t h e f i n a l r e v e l a t i o n p r e d i c t e d i n t h e b i b l e . i i i does t h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y c o n s i s t e n c y o f v i s i o n 'and method i n d i c a t e t h a t rudy wiebe remains c o m p l a c e n t l y ensconced i n a c l o s e d m o n o g l o s s i c c h r i s t i a n community? i s he l o c k e d , as i t were, i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f one o f h i s own p l o t s ? from s t a t e m e n t s wiebe has made i n many i n t e r v i e w s and e s s a y s , and from t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t he w r i t e s and p u b l i s h e s n o v e l s , i t would c e r t a i n l y appear t h a t h i s i n t e n t i o n i s p r e c i s e l y not t o r e m a i n a l o o f from t h e w i d e r s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . wiebe engages w i t h t h a t w i d e r w o r l d not by l e t t i n g i t " i n t o " h i s l i f e b u t by v e n t u r i n g "out" from t h e mennonite b r e t h r e n community. wiebe vehemently and c o n s i s t e n t l y , opposes t h a t p a r t o f t h e mennonite c h u r c h which a t t e m p t s t o s e p a r a t e i t s e l f from s e c u l a r ' s o c i e t y o r from o t h e r c h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s : a r e you g o i n g t o c u t o f f any p o s s i b l e e f f e c t you c o u l d have on o t h e r p e o p l e , i n an a t t e m p t t o p r e s e r v e y o u r own i n t e g r i t y ? when you do t h a t , do worse t h i n g s s t a r t happening t o you? they p r o b a b l y d o — i t h i n k t h e y do- so i m y s e l f want t o l i v e i n t h e w o r l d t h a t i s now, because t h a t ' s where everybody e l s e i t ' s h u r t i n g i s l i v i n g . (cameron ). mennonites who-attempt t o b a r r i c a d e t h e non-mennonite w o r l d o u t t h r e a t e n t o b a r r i c a d e t h e v o i c e o f j e s u s i n , a p r a c t i c e c o n t r a r y t o j e s u s ' command, "go ye i n t o a l l t h e w o r l d , and p r e a c h t h e g o s p e l t o e v e r y c r e a t u r e " (mark : ), and t o menno simons' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e word as "a u n i v e r s a l / c a t h o l i c / e c u m e n i c a l f o r c e , not a p a r o c h i a l o r p r o v i n c i a l s p i r i t " ( l i t t e l l ) . when c o n s e r v a t i v e mennonite groups e r e c t p h y s i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c b a r r i e r s between t h e m s e l v e s and t h e . o u t s i d e w o r l d , t h e y e n c l o s e t h e word i n a s t a t i c , u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d . f i x e d customs and c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s c a r r y t h e b i b l e down t h r o u g h time i n a cocoon, i t s a u t h o r i t y and s e m a n t i c s t a b i l i t y s h i e l d e d b o t h from t h e v i c i s s i t u d e s o f h i s t o r y and from u n p r e d i c t a b l e a l i e n c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s . by s e c u r i n g a s i n g l e , f i x e d c o n t e x t f o r t h e word, t h e y a t t e m p t t o p r o t e c t i t s a u t h o r i t y from t h e a s s a u l t o f a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , and t o l i m i t i t s p o t e n t i a l s e m a n t i c d i v e r s i t y . in an e d i t o r i a l p u b l i s h e d i n the mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d on j a n u a r y , , e n t i t l e d "church p r o s p e c t : w r i t i n g , " wiebe s t a t e s t h a t "the w r i t t e n word i s s t i l l t h e most e f f e c t i v e means o f s p r e a d i n g t h e g o s p e l " ( ) . he makes t h i s p o i n t • i n t h e c o n t e x t of a b r o a d e r argument f o r more a c t i v e p r o s e l y t i z i n g i n t h e e n g l i s h language on t h e p a r t o f t h e mennonite b r e t h r e n church. r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' message must compete w i t h "thousands o f v o i c e s c l a m o u r i n g f o r a t t e n t i o n " (wiebe , ) and w i t h r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n and o t h e r . f o r m s o f modern e n t e r t a i n m e n t , wiebe sees a p a r t i c u l a r need t o implement e v a n g e l i c a l " o u t r e a c h " (wiebe , ) u s i n g d i s c u r s i v e forms w h i c h do not bore o r r e p e l t h e u n c o n v e r t e d . w i t h o u t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t wiebe's a r t i s t i c m o t i v e s stem e x c l u s i v e l y from a d e s i r e t o p r o s e l y t i z e , i t remains v a l i d t o say t h a t wiebe's n o v e l s and s h o r t s t o r i e s f u n c t i o n as v e h i c l e s c a r r y i n g j e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s i n t o t h e l i v e s o f h i s r e a d e r s . u n l i k e a sermon o r r e l i g i o u s t r e a t i s e , t h e n o v e l does not p r e a c h o n l y t o t h e c o n v e r t e d o r a d d r e s s a s p e c i a l i s e d r e a d e r s h i p o f t h e o l o g i a n s . i t s u t i l i t y l i e s i n i t s c a p a c i t y t o s c a t t e r t h e word i n t o t h e t e r r i t o r y o f " o t h e r s , " t h e "average canadians" (wiebe , ) not a d d r e s s e d by more t r a d i t i o n a l forms o f r e l i g i o u s l i t e r a t u r e . wiebe's n o v e l s t r a n s m i t t h e word i n t o an u n f o r e s e e a b l e v a r i e t y o f d i s c u r s i v e and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , where i t s meaning and a u t h o r i t y become open t o n e g o t i a t i o n . the u s u a l b o u n d a r i e s i n s u l a t i n g t h e word from " o t h e r " words d i s a p p e a r s . by t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e , as w e l l as through t h e s t o r i e s t h e y t e l l , wiebe's n o v e l s l i b e r a t e t h e b i b l e from "the dungeon of a s i n g l e c o n t e x t " ( b a k h t i n , ). however, wiebe s t i p u l a t e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t t h e n o v e l i s t ' s c h r i s t i a n w i t n e s s must be i n d i r e c t : the more c o n s c i o u s l y and d i r e c t l y t h e n o v e l i s t t r i e s i n h i s n o v e l t o p r e a c h a c e r t a i n t r u t h he h o l d s t o be v a l i d , t h e l e s s i t w i l l a r i s e out of t h e s t u f f o f t h e n o v e l i t s e l f , t h e p o o r e r t h e n o v e l w i l l be, and t h e l e s s l i k e l y he i s t o c o n v i n c e anyone.... t h i s i s a fundamental p r i n c i p l e o f a l l a r t , t h a t some o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s we as human b e i n g s must u n d e r s t a n d cannot be g o t t e n a t d i r e c t l y . they can be seen and shown o n l y by t h e i n d i r e c t i o n o f a r t — b y metaphor; by symbol, i f you l i k e . that i s why f i c t i o n i s so i m p o r t a n t . (vl , ) in " g i a n t f i c t i o n s and l a r g e meanings," sam s o l e c k i draws a t t e n t i o n t o wiebe's i n d i r e c t p r o s e l y t i z i n g as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n " c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s . . . form and c o n t e n t " ( ) : he has sought c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s t o communicate, o r even t o g e t a h e a r i n g f o r h i s b a s i c a l l y c h r i s t i a n v i s i o n . . . . we can speak o f wiebe's v i s i o n as s e a r c h i n g , n o v e l by n o v e l , f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e c u m e n i c a l mode (and t h i s i s a m a t t e r o f b o t h form and c o n t e n t ) w i t h i n w h i c h i t w i l l be g i v e n a s y m p a t h e t i c . h e a r i n g by an a u d i e n c e w i d e r t h a n t h e one a l r e a d y r e c e p t i v e t o an e x p l i c i t l y and d o g m a t i c a l l y c h r i s t i a n f i c t i o n . ( ) s o l e c k i ' s p o i n t can be e x t e n d e d : wiebe s e a r c h e s a l s o f o r a language c a p a b l e o f commanding t h e a t t e n t i o n o f non- c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s , a language t h e y w i l l f i n d p a l a t a b l e , non- a l i e n and y e t a u t h o r i t a t i v e . wiebe can and does speak d i r e c t l y t o f e l l o w members o f h i s c h u r c h . the t o n e and s t y l e o f h i s e d i t o r i a l s i n t h e mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d , o r o f a r t i c l e s he has p u b l i s h e d i n o t h e r c h r i s t i a n j o u r n a l s , d i f f e r s m a r k e d l y from h i s manner o f h a n d l i n g language i n h i s n o v e l s and s h o r t s t o r i e s . but wiebe c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e s t h a t he cannot p r o s e l e t y z e d i r e c t l y t o t h o s e who r e a d h i s n o v e l s : the most i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s he [ t h e n o v e l i s t ] would say s i m p l y d i s a p p e a r i f he a t t a c k s them head on and b l u r t s them o u t . they can be s a i d o n l y by i n d i r e c t i o n . (vl ) b a k h t i n , l i k e wiebe, r e c o g n i z e s t h a t i n c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e n o v e l i s t must t r a n s m i t t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e word i n d i r e c t l y : by no means a l l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s p e r m i t t h e u l t i m a t e s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c r e a t o r [ a r t i s t i c o r d i v i n e ] t o be e x p r e s s e d w i t h o u t m e d i a t i o n i n d i r e c t , u n r e f r a c t e d , u n c o n d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . when t h e r e i s no a c c e s s t o one's own p e r s o n a l " u l t i m a t e " word, t h e n e v e r y t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g , e x p e r i e n c e must be r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h t h e medium.of someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e , someone e l s e ' s s t y l e , someone e l s e ' e manner, w i t h w h i c h i t cannot i m m e d i a t e l y be merged w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n , w i t h o u t d i s t a n c e , w i t h o u t r e f r a c t i o n . . . . the d i r e c t , u n c o n d i t i o n a l , u n r e f r a c t e d word appears b a r b a r i c , raw, w i l d . c u l t u r e d d i s c o u r s e i s d i s c o u r s e r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h an a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s t a b l i z e d medium. ( , - ) in wiebe's c a s e , new c r i t i c a l a e s t h e t i c s c o l l u d e w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n o f r e s p e c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e , t o condemn c o e r c i v e c h r i s t i a n p r o s e l y t i z i n g i n t h e n o v e l . a c r o s s t h e c o u r s e o f h i s c a r e e r as a n o v e l i s t , wiebe d e v i s e s new, i n d i r e c t v o i c i n g s o f , and f a v o u r a b l e c o n t e x t s f o r t h e s c r i p t u r a l word. in h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , and i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r of the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , wiebe does not e n t i r e l y r e s i s t t h e t e m p t a t i o n t o a s s e r t "the d i r e c t , u n c o n d i t i o n a l , u n r e f r a c t e d word" ( b a k h t i n , ). a c r o s s t i m e , however, he d e v i s e s more e l a b o r a t e and more s u b t l e ways o f s p e a k i n g i n d i r e c t l y , and o f r e f r a c t i n g h i s r h e t o r i c a l message t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o f " o t h e r s . " in the temptations o f b i g bear and t h e f i r s t t w e l v e c h a p t e r s o f the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , wiebe h a r n e s s e s t h e documented u t t e r a n c e s and t h e s o c i a l d i a l e c t s o f numerous " o t h e r s , " t o c r e a t e a u t h o r i t a t i v e v e h i c l e s and f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t s f o r t h e word. in the scorched-wood p e o p l e and my l o v e l y enemy. wiebe's i n d i r e c t i o n becomes so complex and obscure that the word' breaks into fragments whose meaning and r e l a t i v e authority depend greatly on the reader's e x i s t i n g v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i l e c t i o n s . throughout his writing career, wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l purpose remains the same: he never loses sight of his i n i t i a l assumption that "the written word i s s t i l l the most e f f e c t i v e means of spreading the gospel" (wiebe , ). however, his manner of accomplishing t h i s objective s t e a d i l y evolves over time. he begins i n peace shall destroy many by addressing his readers much i n the same way as a teacher speaks to a p u p i l , but as his understanding of the socio- p o l i t i c a l dynamics of verbal communication develops, he begins to eschew the role of a u t h o r i t a t i v e possessor of the absolute truth, and to i n v i t e his readers to j o i n him i n a d i a l o g i c search for that t r u t h . more and more, wiebe's rhetoric i m p l i c i t l y concedes to volosinov's view that i t i s not a mute, wordless creature that receives such an utterance, but a human being f u l l of inner words. a l l his e x p e r i e n c e s — h i s s o - c a l l e d apperceptive background—exist encoded i n his inner speech, and only to that extent do they come into contact with speech received from outside. word comes into contact with word. the context of t h i s inner speech i s the locale i n which another's utterance i s received, comprehended and evaluated; i t i s where the speaker's active orientation takes place. (volosinov ) from f i r s t and v i t a l candle onwards, wiebe attempts to hypothesize the non-christian reader's inner speech, but u n t i l the blue mountains of china, he does not succeed i n stimulating his audience into active dialogue with his t e x t s . to t h e e x t e n t t h a t he a c h i e v e s t h i s o b j e c t i v e i n h i s m i d d l e and l a t e r n o v e l s , he e n s u r e s t h a t any a s s e n t h i s r e a d e r s may g i v e t o h i s message a r i s e s v o l u n t a r i l y . such a s s e n t would be as much a p r o d u c t o f t h e r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s e x i s t i n g i n n e r speech as o f wiebe's t e x t , which i n v a d e s t h e p s y c h e from w i t h o u t . as wiebe h y p o t h e s i z e s t h e r e s p o n s e s o f h i s r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r s , he must e n v i s a g e t h e word from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of an " o t h e r . " the p r o c e s s o f w r i t i n g t h u s a c t i v a t e s a p r o c e s s of t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e word a g a i n s t c e r t a i n p o w e r f u l hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s w h i c h sound i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , and w h i c h dominate t h e p o s i t e d r e a d e r - i n t e r l o c u t o r ' s awareness. to t h e e x t e n t t h a t wiebe i d e n t i f i e s i m a g i n a t i v e l y w i t h h i s s o c i a l l y - a l i e n i n t e r l o c u t o r s , he does not remain c o n f i n e d i n a c l o s e d , m o n o l o g i c , narrow c h u r c h s o c i e t y . i n s t e a d of l o c k i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f one of h i s own p l o t s , he o s c i l l a t e s back and f o r t h between s t a g e s two and t h r e e , r e p e a t e d l y t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and r e n o v a t i n g t h e meaning o f t h e word. iv the e v o l u t i o n o f rudy wiebe's s t y l e may be d e s c r i b e d as a s e a r c h f o r s u i t a b l e v o i c e s and languages t h r o u g h w h i c h t o r e f r a c t and r e f l e c t upon t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e word. to a n a l y s e more p r e c i s e l y t h e i n d i r e c t means by w h i c h wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e a l i z e h i s e v a n g e l i c a l a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e l a b o r a t e f u r t h e r on t h e r e l e v a n t t h e o r e t i c a l paradigms. b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v have each d e v i s e d a system of terms and c o n c e p t s w h i c h can u s e f u l l y be a p p l i e d t o t h e s i x t e x t s c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y . i t would be cumbersome t o d e f i n e e v e r y t h e o r e t i c a l t e r m i n t h e a b s t r a c t i n advance, p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e meanings emerge most c l e a r l y w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f c o n c r e t e d i s c u s s i o n s of s p e c i f i c t e x t s . however, b e f o r e such d i s c u s s i o n s can be e n t e r e d i n t o w i t h any degree o f r i g o u r , t h e main c o n c e p t u a l and t e r m i n o l o g i c a l framework o f t h e l a r g e r t h e o r e t i c a l system s h o u l d be s u r v e y e d , n o t i n g t h e p o i n t s where i t c o n n e c t s w i t h wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s . b a k h t i n grounds h i s t h e o r y o f t h e n o v e l on an o r a l paradigm o f language. he m a i n t a i n s t h a t language i s r e a l i z e d i n t h e form o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e s ( o r a l and w r i t t e n ) . . . . each s e p a r a t e u t t e r a n c e i s i n d i v i d u a l , o f c o u r s e , b u t each sphere i n w h i c h language i s used d e v e l o p s i t s own r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e t y p e s o f t h e s e u t t e r a n c e s . these we may c a l l speech g e n r e s . ( b a k h t i n , ) f o r b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v , words e x i s t o n l y i n t h e form o f c o n c r e t e s a y i n g s o r v o i c i n g s , i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h human b e i n g s engage i n d i a l o g u e w i t h one a n o t h e r . b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v b o t h oppose s a u s s u r e ' s t h e o r y of language w h i c h t h e y c l a i m d i v o r c e s language from "the h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f becoming" (volo§inov ). in c o n t r a s t t o s a u s s u r e , whose s y n c h r o n i c approach t o language p r i v i l e g e s l a langue o v e r p a r o l e , b a k h t i n ' s and v o l o s i n o v ' s t h e o r i e s o f t h e u t t e r a n c e g i v e p r e c e d e n c e t o p a r o l e f and hence t o t h e d i a c h r o n i c i t y o f language. v o l o s i n o v argues vehemently t h a t t h e v e r y essence o f language i s r e v e a l e d i n i t s • h i s t o r y ; t h e l o g i c o f language i s not a t a l l a m a t t e r o f r e p r o d u c i n g a n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l form b u t o f c o n t i n u o u s r e n o v a t i o n and i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f t h a t form v i a t h e . . . u t t e r a n c e . the r e a l i t y o f language i s , i n f a c t , i t s g e n e r a t i o n . ( ) b a k h t i n and v o l o i i n o v b o t h p l a c e tremendous emphasis on t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i m p l i c i t i n t h i s o n g o i n g s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s of r e n o v a t i n g and i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g language. b a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s p r o c e s s t a c i t l y i n v o k e s a metaphor o f t h e u t t e r a n c e as a m i c r o - c o s m i c p o l i t i c a l empire: the word does not e x i s t i n a n e u t r a l i m p e r s o n a l language ( i t i s , n o t , a f t e r a l l , out o f a d i c t i o n a r y t h a t t h e s p e a k e r g e t s h i s w o r d s ! ) , b u t r a t h e r i t e x i s t s i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s mouths, i n o t h e r p e o p l e ' s c o n t e x t s , s e r v i n g o t h e r p e o p l e ' s i n t e n t i o n s : i t i s from t h e r e t h a t one must t a k e t h e word and make i t one's own.... language i s not a n e u t r a l medium t h a t p a s s e s f r e e l y and e a s i l y i n t o t h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ; i t i s p o p u l a t e d — o v e r p o p u l a t e d — w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s . e x p r o p r i a t i n g i t , f o r c i n g i t t o submit t o one's own i n t e n t i o n s and a c c e n t s , i s a d i f f i c u l t and c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e s s . ( , ) t h i s " d i f f i c u l t and c o m p l i c a t e d p r o c e s s " m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f most c l e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l . b a k h t i n d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e n o v e l from a l l o t h e r l i t e r a r y genres on t h e b a s i s o f i t s openness t o h i s t o r i c a l change. m u t a b l e , c a p a c i o u s , s t y l i s t i c a l l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s , "the n o v e l i s t h e s o l e genre t h a t . c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p , t h a t i s as y e t uncompleted" ( b a k h t i n , ) . b a k h t i n argues t h a t w h i l e o t h e r genres r e s i s t h i s t o r i c a l change by o s s i f y i n g i n t o f i x e d c a n o n i c a l forms, t h e n o v e l c e l e b r a t e s i t s own h i s t o r i c i t y — i t s o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g — b y p e r p e t u a l l y r e i n v e n t i n g i t s e l f . b a k h t i n c a l l s t h e n o v e l a "secondary (complex) speech genre" ( , ) , because i t r e n o v a t e s i t s e l f by a b s o r b i n g o r a p p r o p r i a t i n g o t h e r v a r i e t i e s o f u t t e r a n c e : d u r i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , t h e y [ n o v e l s ] a b s o r b and d i g e s t v a r i o u s p r i m a r y ( s i m p l e ) genres t h a t have t a k e n form i n unmediated speech communion. these p r i m a r y genres a r e a l t e r e d and assume a s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r when t h e y e n t e r i n t o complex ones. they l o s e t h e i r immediate r e l a t i o n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y and t o t h e r e a l u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s . . . . they e n t e r i n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y o n l y v i a t h e n o v e l as a whole. ( b a k h t i n , ) the n o v e l can e x t e n d i t s b o u n d a r i e s "outward" by a b s o r b i n g o t h e r speech g e n r e s , much i n t h e same way as i m p e r i a l n a t i o n s e x t e n d t h e i r sphere o f i n f l u e n c e i n t o a l i e n t e r r i t o r i e s . but t e x t u a l e m p i r e s , l i k e p o l i t i c a l ones, become i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a d m i n i s t e r as t h e y grow l a r g e r and more complex. u n l e s s t h e n o v e l i s t t a k e s measures t o c o n t r o l t h e r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d g e n r e s , t h i n g s f a l l a p a r t , t h e c e n t r e cannot h o l d , and s e m a n t i c a n a r c h y i s l o o s e d upon t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c . p r i m a r y speech genres may s t r i v e t o address r e a d e r s d i r e c t l y , b y - p a s s i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e of t h e a u t h o r . thus, t h e n o v e l ' s e x p a n s i o n a r y , d e c e n t r i n g , outward- g r a s p i n g c o l o n i s a t i o n o f o t h e r genres c r e a t e s an e q u a l and o p p o s i t e need t o c o n s o l i d a t e power c e n t r i p e t a l l y and c o n t r o l meaning from a s i n g l e a u t h o r i a l c e n t r e . as b a k h t i n e x p l a i n s , the language o f t h e n o v e l i s a system o f languages t h a t m u t u a l l y and i d e o l o g i c a l l y i n t e r a n i m a t e each o t h e r . i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e and a n a l y z e i t as a s i n g l e u n i t a r y l a n g u a g e . . . . but a t t h e same t i m e t h e r e does e x i s t a c e n t r e o f language (a v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l c e n t r e ) f o r t h e n o v e l . the a u t h o r (as c r e a t o r o f t h e n o v e l i s t i c whole) cannot be found i n any one o f t h e n o v e l ' s language l e v e l s : he i s t o be found a t t h e c e n t r e o f o r g a n i s a t i o n where a l l l e v e l s i n t e r s e c t . the d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s a r e t o v a r y i n g degrees d i s t a n t from t h i s a u t h o r i a l c e n t r e . ( , , - ) two opposed t e n d e n c i e s t h u s c o l l i d e i n t h e n o v e l : c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s (which promote s t r u c t u r a l c o h e r e n c e , s t y l i s t i c homogeneity and s e m a n t i c u n i t y ) and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s (which f o s t e r f r a g m e n t a t i o n , s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y , and s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y ) . a l l c o n c r e t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f language p a r t i c i p a t e i n , and may a l s o r e - e n a c t , t h i s " c o n t r a d i c t i o n - r i d d e n , t e n s i o n - f i l l e d u n i t y o f two e m b a t t l e d t e n d e n c i e s " ( b a k h t i n , ). in t h e n o v e l i t t a k e s t h e form of a s t r u g g l e between t h e "monologic" p r i n c i p l e ( a c t i v a t e d by a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h s u p p r e s s s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y by a s s e r t i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f one u n i t a r y language and i t s c o n c o m i t a n t u n i t a r y b e l i e f - s y s t e m ) , and t h e " d i a l o g i c " p r i n c i p l e ( a c t i v a t e d by a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s w h i c h r e l e a s e " h e t e r o g l o s s i a , " t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s and semantic p l u r a l i t y l a t e n t i n a l l c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e s ) . a b r i e f c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u r v e y o f wiebe's s i x major n o v e l s r e v e a l s t h a t from peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many i n t o my l o v e l y enemy i n t h e "two e m b a t t l e d t e n d e n c i e s " s t r u g g l e more and more v i o l e n t l y . i n i t i a l l y , t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e d o m i n a t e s , b u t never e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e s s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y o r s e m a n t i c d i v e r s i t y from t h e t e x t . e x c e p t f o r i t s f o u r p r e l u d e s , wiebe's f i r s t n o v e l , peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, appears l a r g e l y d e v o i d o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y c e l e b r a t e d by b a k h t i n . the o r t h o d o x t y p o g r a p h i c a l format o f t h e t e x t , i t s u n r e m a r k a b l e l a y o u t i n p a r a g r a p h s o f n a r r a t i o n i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h d i a l o g u e , g i v e s peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many t h e appearance of a m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e i n t h e a u t h o r ' s own v o i c e . any f i s s u r e s i n t h e language o f t h e t e x t s e r v e wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s and .are t h u s s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l m o n o l o g i c t h r u s t o f t h e n o v e l . in h i s second n o v e l , f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , wiebe extends h i s s o c i a l and i d e o l o g i c a l p u r v i e w beyond t h e bounds o f t h e t i g h t - k n i t mennonite community s c r u t i n i z e d i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. the language o f f i r s t and v i t a l candle r e f l e c t s t h i s expanded h o r i z o n : wiebe t a k e s s e v e r a l hegemonic speech genres of t h e c o l d war e r a i n t o h i s a u t h o r i a l c u s t o d y , where he s u b j e c t s them t o r i g o r o u s m o r a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n . wiebe c l e a r l y h i e r a r c h i z e s t h e v o i c e s and languages d i s c e r n i b l e i n t h e t e x t . none escapes t h e o v e r t c o n t r o l of h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l . a t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n h i s c a r e e r , wiebe does not e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e speech d i v e r s i t y from h i s w r i t i n g , b u t he never a l l o w s i t s e r i o u s l y t o j e o p a r d i z e t h e r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s m o n o l o g i c r e l i g i o u s and m o r a l v i s i o n . in t h e two n o v e l s w h i c h f o l l o w , however, wiebe s h i f t s i n t o a m u l t i - v o i c e d n a r r a t i v e mode, and t h e t e n s i o n between c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s i n t e n s i f i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y . w i t h the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , wiebe makes a v e r y o b v i o u s b r e a k away from a n y t h i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s a u n i t a r y s t y l e . the m i x i n g o f languages i n t h e t e x t r e f l e c t s t h e t u r m o i l s e x p e r i e n c e d by c h a r a c t e r s l o c a t e d on many p o l i t i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l t h r e s h o l d s : r e v o l u t i o n , war, c a p t i v i t y , m i g r a t i o n , t h e p h y s i c a l h a r d s h i p s o f p i o n e e r l i f e , and t h e s p i r i t u a l c r i s e s o f r e l i g i o u s s e n s i b i l i t i e s i n s e c u l a r s o c i a l c o n t e x t s . s e v e r a l n a r r a t o r s o f d i f f e r e n t ages, b e l i e f s and c u l t u r a l a f f i l i a t i o n s a r t i c u l a t e t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' s p l i n t e r e d e x p e r i e n c e o f h i s t o r y r a n g i n g o v e r f o u r c o n t i n e n t s and a p p r o x i m a t e l y a hundred y e a r s o f t i m e . i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f t h e n o v e l , however, wiebe a b r u p t l y r e a s s e r t s h i s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l by d e f i n i n g a s i n g l e m o r a l c r i t e r i o n f o r e v a l u a t i n g a l l speech and a c t i o n i n t h e t e x t . in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear , wiebe c r e a t e s h i s most i n t r i c a t e mosaic o f v o i c e z o n e s . l i n g u i s t i c d e c e n t r i n g o f t h e n a r r a t i v e r e a c h e s i t s apogee i n t h i s t e x t , where any semblance o f s t y l i s t i c u n i f o r m i t y i s t o t a l l y o b l i t e r a t e d . wiebe s h a t t e r s u n i t i e s o f n a r r a t i v e , c h a r a c t e r , t o n e , p o i n t of v i e w a n d — m o s t i m p o r t a n t — l a n g u a g e , t o p l a c e h i s r e a d e r s i n t h e m i d s t o f a v i o l e n t s t r u g g l e between c o n t e n d i n g e n c o d i n g s o f t r u t h . the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear works as a t e x t u a l microcosm o f t h e t u m u l t u o u s , c u l t u r a l l y p l u r a l canadian west between and . wiebe extends h i s a u t h o r i a l d o m i n a t i o n o v e r v a s t e r , more d i v e r s e and m i n u t e l y d i s c r i m i n a t e d l i n g u i s t i c domains t h a n i n any p r e c e d i n g o r subsequent work. but a g a i n , t h e f i n a l t h r u s t o f t h e n o v e l remains m o n o l o g i c because wiebe o f f e r s a s i n g l e c r i t e r i o n f o r h i e r a r c h i z i n g t h e v o i c e s o f t h e t e x t . wiebe c o u n t e r s e v e r y a d d i t i o n a l d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e he i n t r o d u c e s w i t h an e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e means o f r e p r e s s i n g d i a l o g u e . a l t h o u g h the scorched-wood p e o p l e and my l o v e l y enemy mark wiebe's r e t u r n t o m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e forms, b o t h t e x t s c o n t a i n many embedded v o i c e s . they a l s o a l l o w more t h a n one c r i t e r i o n f o r g a u g i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s . in the scorched-wood p e o p l e , wiebe appears t o i n d u l g e i n a s t r i d e n t r h e t o r i c a l d e f e n c e o f l o u i s r i e l , y e t c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e manner i n w h i c h wiebe r e f r a c t s , h i s a u t h o r i a l v o i c e t h r o u g h a l a b y r i n t h o f o t h e r v o i c e s r e v e a l s a p r o f o u n d a m b i v a l e n c e w h i c h d i s r u p t s t h e s e m a n t i c c o h e r e n c e o f t h e t e x t . wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e s t o r e s e m a n t i c o r d e r a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , b u t t h e s u c c e s s o f t h i s endeavour remains open t o q u e s t i o n . semantic coherence a l s o b r e a k s down p e r i o d i c a l l y i n my l o v e l y enemy, as wiebe t e m p o r a r i l y a b d i c a t e s h i s p o s i t i o n a t t h e . c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . in s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t , wiebe r e l e a s e s h e t e r o g l o s s i a by p l a c i n g t h e onus on r e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g i t s meaning. wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e n o t i o n t h a t meaning i s s u e s from t h e d i a l o g i c engagement o f t h e words on t h e page w i t h t h e v a r i o u s , e v e r - c h a n g i n g c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h r e a d e r s i n t e r p r e t t h o s e words. meaning t h e r e f o r e r e t a i n s "a c e r t a i n openendedness, a l i v i n g c o n t a c t w i t h u n f i n i s h e d , s t i l l - e v o l v i n g contemporary r e a l i t y ( t h e openended p r e s e n t " ( b a k h t i n , ) . however, wiebe c o u n t e r s t h e p o t e n t i a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e t e x t o f my l o v e l y enemy f i r s t , by i n t r o d u c i n g an o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i n t h e l a t t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e n o v e l ; second, by b r i n g i n g i n an a u t h o r i t a t i v e t e a c h e r - f i g u r e ; and t h i r d , by i n v o k i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e b i b l e t o e f f e c t s e m a n t i c c l o s u r e . by d i f f e r e n t means (and perhaps n o t e n t i r e l y d e l i b e r a t e l y ) wiebe may p e r i o d i c a l l y r e l i n q u i s h semantic c o n t r o l t o t h e many and v a r i o u s " o t h e r s " who speak i n , and engage w i t h , h i s t e x t s . but w i t h o u t f a i l , he a l s o r e c o i l s v i o l e n t l y and a b r u p t l y a t c e r t a i n key p o i n t s i n each n o v e l from t h e l o g i c a l consequences o f s u r r e n d e r i n g a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . in a l l o f wiebe's n o v e l s , h i s d e s i r e f o r d e m o c r a t i c freedom and open-minded d i a l o g u e c o n f l i c t s w i t h h i s y e a r n i n g f o r t h e m o n o l o g i c c e r t a i n t i e s of a u n i t a r y m o r a l , m e t a p h y s i c a l , and l i n g u i s t i c o r d e r . t h i s c o n f l i c t between d i a l o g i c and m o n o l o g i c i m p u l s e s not o n l y i n t e n s i f i e s o v e r t i m e , b u t a l s o m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n a w i d e r and w i d e r v a r i e t y o f ways. the c o n t e s t e r u p t s on an i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e number o f p l a n e s o r b a t t l e f i e l d s i n t h e t e x t , and t h e outcome i s not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e same on each one. wiebe's t e x t s become i n c r e a s i n g l y d e s t a b i l i s e d by t h e f l u c t u a t i n g c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s wiebe a c t i v a t e s ; a t any g i v e n moment, one o r t h e o t h e r might, p r e v a i l . s h i f t i n g t o a c l a s s i c a l metaphor, one may say t h a t from h i s f i r s t n o v e l t o h i s s i x t h , wiebe n a v i g a t e s an i n c r e a s i n g l y t r e a c h e r o u s c o u r s e between s c y l l a , t h e many- headed, many-voiced monster o f u n b r i d l e d d i a l o g i s m ; and c h a r y b d i s , t h e i n w a r d - p u l l i n g w h i r l p o o l o f monologue. c r i t i c s have a l r e a d y t o u c h e d on t h i s t e n s i o n between c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l t e n d e n c i e s i n wiebe's work, b u t no one has y e t a t t e m p t e d t o use i t as a b a s i s f o r a s y s t e m a t i c , d e t a i l e d s t u d y . sam s o l e c k i and r o b e r t k r o e t s c h have b o t h n o t i c e d wiebe's " c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h word/word" ( k r o e t s c h , ) , but have not e x p l o r e d t h i s a s p e c t o f wiebe's w r i t i n g o t h e r t h a n i n a b r i e f , r a t h e r c u r s o r y way. ina f e r r i s ' a r t i c l e , " r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n and f i c t i o n a l form: rudy wiebe's the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , " makes a shrewd and r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n f l i c t between wiebe's urge t o a r t i c u l a t e h i s " t r a n s c e n d e n t , t i m e l e s s v i s i o n " and h i s a r t i s t i c commitment t o "mundane r e a l i t y i n a l l i t s c o n c r e t e n e s s , c o n f u s i o n and c o m p l e x i t y " ( f e r r i s ) . f e r r i s c e r t a i n l y r e g i s t e r s t h e t e n s i o n between m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c v i s i o n i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a . she condemns wiebe's heavy-handed a t t e m p t t o bestow supreme a u t h o r i t y on t h e language o f john reimer i n c h a p t e r , a r g u i n g t h a t "the a u t h e n t i c v o i c e o f t h e c h a p t e r b e l o n g s t o a f u g i t i v e from a n o t h e r m o d e — t o o l d jakob f r i e s e n " ( ) . a l t h o u g h she does not use b a k h t i n ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , f e r r i s ' s " o t h e r mode" c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e d i a l o g i c mode. d a v i d l . j e f f r e y p l a c e s a p o s i t i v e v a l u e p r e c i s e l y on t h e f e a t u r e f e r r i s most v e h e m e n t l y condemns: wiebe's a b r u p t s h i f t from d i a l o g i c t o m o n o l o g i c language. in "a search f o r peace: p r o p h e c y and p a r a b l e i n t h e f i c t i o n o f rudy wiebe," j e f f r e y comes t o g r i p s w i t h s e v e r a l o f t h e same q u e s t i o n s as t h i s s t u d y a d d r e s s e s , and he c e r t a i n l y makes many i l l u m i n a t i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s . however, j e f f r e y does not i n v o k e b a k h t i n i a n t h e o r y beyond p o i n t i n g t o t h e fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n between m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c d i s c o u r s e . h i s a r t i c l e a t t e m p t s no r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s o f t h e complex i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s o f wiebe's t e x t s . s i m i l a r l y , p i e r r e s p r i e t ' s a r t i c l e , "rudy wiebe's the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a : t h e polyphony of a p e o p l e o r t h e l o n e l y v o i c e o f t h e f r i n g e ? , " u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e a m b i g u i t y and m u t a b i l i t y o f wiebe's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . s p r i e t r e a d s the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a as "the s t o r y o f t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f a t r i b e " ( ) . he emphasises t h e c e n t r i f u g a l r a t h e r t h a n t h e c e n t r i p e t a l a s p e c t s o f b o t h t h e s t o r y and t h e language o f t h e t e x t . s p r i e t i n v o k e s b a k h t i n i a n terms such as " d i a l o g i c " and "polyphony" w i t h o u t r e a l i z i n g t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h h i s o t h e r , more t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l p o s t u l a t e s . a l t h o u g h aware, f o r example, o f t h e " d i a l o g i c " i n t e r s p e r s a l o f n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t ( ) , s p r i e t f o l l o w s d o r r i t cohn i n p o s i t i n g a h a r d and f a s t d i v i d i n g l i n e between f r i e d a ' s f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e and t h e t h i r d - p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n employed i n t h e o t h e r c h a p t e r s . s p r i e t can t h u s make t h e a s t o n i s h i n g c l a i m t h a t wiebe "makes no comment o f any k i n d " ( ) i n f r i e d a ' s s t o r y , b u t " c l e a r l y f e e l s w i t h t h e [ o t h e r ] p r o t a g o n i s t s and does not even t r y t o h i d e h i s sympathy" ( ) . a l t h o u g h he uses some o f b a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , s p r i e t grounds h i s c a s e on m o n o l o g i c models o f d i s c o u r s e and s o c i e t y . the p r e s e n t s t u d y endeavours t o r e f i n e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of wiebe's l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s by making e x t e n s i v e use o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system d e v e l o p e d by b a k h t i n i n problems o f dostoevsky's p o e t i c s . b a k h t i n d i v i d e s d i s c o u r s e i n t o t h r e e main s p e c i e s . each o f w h i c h may be s u b d i v i d e d i n t o t y p e s , w h i c h i n t u r n submit t o f u r t h e r d i v i s i o n i n t o v a r i e t i e s , because wiebe's t e x t s w i l l be a n a l y z e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system, i t i s r e p r o d u c e d i n s y n o p t i c form t a b l e . table i ; b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system i . d i r e c t , unmediated d i s c o u r s e d i r e c t e d e x c l u s i v e l y toward i t s r e f e r e n t i a l o b j e c t , as an e x p r e s s i o n of t h e s p e a k e r ' s u l t i m a t e s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y . i i . o b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e ( d i s c o u r s e o f a r e p r e s e n t e d person) . w i t h a predominance o f s o c i o - t y p i c a l " ^ v a r i o u s d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s /degrees . w i t h a predominance o f i n d i v i d u a l l y v o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r s j o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i i i . d i s c o u r s e w i t h an o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e ( d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e ) : . u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e : when o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i s r e d u c e d , t h e s e t e n d toward a f u s i o n o f v o i c e d , i . e . , t o w a r d d i s c o u r s e o f t h e f i r s t t y p e . a. s t y l i z a t i o n ; b. n a r r a t o r ' s n a r r a t i o n ; c. u n o b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ; d. i c h - e r z a h l u n g . . v a r i - d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e : when o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n i s r e d u c e d and t h e o t h e r ' s i d e a i s a c t i v a t e d , t h e s e become i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d and t e n d t o d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o two d i s c o u r s e s (two v o i c e s ) o f t h e f i r s t t y p e . a. p a r o d y w i t h a l l i t s nuances; b. p a r o d i s t i c i c h - e r z a h l u n g ; c. d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who i s p a r o d i c a l l y . r e p r e s e n t e d ; d. any t r a n s m i s s i o n o f someone e l s e ' s words w i t h a s h i f t i n a c c e n t . . the a c t i v e t y p e ( r e f l e c t e d d i s c o u r s e o f a n o t h e r ) : t h e o t h e r d i s c o u r s e e x e r t s i n f l u e n c e from w i t h o u t ; d i v e r s e forms o f i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r ' s d i s c o u r s e , as w e l l as v a r i o u s d e g r e e s o f d e f o r m i n g i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by one d i s c o u r s e on t h e o t h e r . a. hidden i n t e r n a l p o l e m i c ; b. p o l e m i c a l l y c o l o u r e d a u t o b i o g r a p h y and c o n f e s s i o n ; c. any d i s c o u r s e w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t someone e l s e ' s word; d. a r e j o i n d e r o f a d i a l o g u e ; e. hidden d i a l o g u e . w h i l e b a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s i i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y , t h e o t h e r two s p e c i e s r e q u i r e f u r t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n . s p e c i e s i i c o r r e s p o n d s t o what c o n v e n t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m c a l l s " d i a l o g u e " o r "the d i r e c t speech o f c h a r a c t e r s . " from t i m e t o t i m e , b a k h t i n a l s o r e f e r s t o s p e c i e s i i as " c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , " t o i n d i c a t e t h a t p u n c t u a t i o n and o t h e r t y p o g r a p h i c a l markers d e l i n e a t e t h e words o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s from t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r o r t h e n a r r a t o r . b a k h t i n v i e w s t h e d i r e c t speech o f c h a r a c t e r s as o b j e c t i f i e d "bounded o b j e c t s " w h i c h e x i s t i n s i d e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f a u t h o r ' s u t t e r a n c e , i n a s t a t e o f s u b j e c t i o n t o t h e a u t h o r ' s " h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y " ( b a k h t i n , ) . a c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n a l l wiebe's n o v e l s , and d e s e r v e s t o be a n a l y s e d i n some d e t a i l . i n h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s , such d i a l o g u e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t , b e i n g h i s p r i n c i p a l means o f o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e language o f o t h e r s . from the blue mountains of china onwards, wiebe explores more and more rigorously the a r t i s t i c and r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n t i a l of the types and v a r i e t i e s of double- voiced discourse belonging to species i i i . to understand the appropriative strategies wiebe employs i n his middle and l a t e r phases, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to grasp the concept of "hybridity" or " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y , " which bakhtin describes a b s t r a c t l y as follows: what we are c a l l i n g a hybrid construction i s an utterance that belongs, by i t s grammatical (syntactic) and compositional markers, to a single speaker/ but that a c t u a l l y contains mixed within i t two utterances, two speech genres, two s t y l e s , two "languages," two semantic and a x i o l o g i c a l b e l i e f systems.... there i s no formal—compositional and syntactic—boundary between these utterances, s t y l e s , languages, b e l i e f systems; the d i v i s i o n of voices and languages takes place within the l i m i t s of a single syntactic whole, often within the l i m i t s of a simple sentence. it frequently happens that the same word w i l l belong simultaneously to two languages, two b e l i e f systems that i n t e r s e c t i n a hybrid construction—and, consequently, the word has two contradictory meanings, two accents. ( , - ) bakhtin d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l " and " v a r i - d i r e c t i o n a l " double-voiced discourses (types and within species iii) on the basis of what he c a l l s the "dialogic angle" (bakhtin , ). the d i a l o g i c angle defines the degree to which the author's intentions d i f f e r from those of the other who speaks i n the utterance i n question. in type ( s t y l i z a t i o n ) , there i s an intention on the part of the author to make use of someone else's discourse i n the d i r e c t i o n of i t s own p a r t i c u l a r a s p i r a t i o n s . s t y l i z a t i o n s t y l i z e s another's s t y l e i n the d i r e c t i o n of that s t y l e ' s own p a r t i c u l a r tasks. it merely renders those tasks conventional. (bakhtin , ) in type ( p a r o d y ) , t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e widens, as i t were: the a u t h o r a g a i n speaks i n someone e l s e ' s d i s c o u r s e , b u t i n c o n t r a s t t o s t y l i z a t i o n , p a r o d y i n t r o d u c e s i n t o t h a t d i s c o u r s e a s e m a n t i c i n t e n t i o n t h a t i s d i r e c t l y opposed t o t h e o r i g i n a l one. the second v o i c e , once h a v i n g made i t s home i n t h e o t h e r ' s d i s c o u r s e , c l a s h e s h o s t i l e l y w i t h i t s p r i m o r d i a l h o s t and f o r c e s him t o s e r v e d i r e c t l y o p p o s i n g aims. d i s c o u r s e becomes an a r e n a o f b a t t l e between two v o i c e s . ( b a k h t i n , ) b a k h t i n ' s c o n c e p t s o f s t y l i z a t i o n , p a r o d y and t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e prove i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o a n a l y s i s o f wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, the scorched-wood p e o p l e , and my l o v e l y enemy. in a l l p a r o d y and s t y l i z a t i o n , t h e a u t h o r " r e f r a c t s " h i s o r her i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e words o f an o t h e r . b a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f " r e f r a c t i o n " c l a r i f i e s t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e " d i a l o g i c a n g l e , " w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e i m p e r i a l i s m i m p l i c i t i n a l l s t y l i z a t i o n and parody: the a u t h o r does not speak i n a g i v e n language ( f r o m which he d i s t a n c e s h i m s e l f t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r - d e g r e e ) , b u t he s p e a k s , as i t were, t h r o u g h language, a language t h a t has somehow more o r l e s s m a t e r i a l i z e d , become o b j e c t i v i z e d , t h a t he m e r e l y v e n t r i l o q u a t e s . the p r o s e w r i t e r as a n o v e l i s t does not s t r i p away t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s from t h e ' h e t e r o g l o t language o f h i s works... r a t h e r he welcomes them i n t o h i s work. the p r o s e w r i t e r makes use o f words t h a t a r e a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s and compels them t o s e r v e h i s own new i n t e n t i o n s , t o s e r v e a second m a s t e r . t h e r e f o r e t h e i n t e n t i o n s of t h e p r o s e w r i t e r a r e r e f r a c t e d , and r e f r a c t e d a t d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . d e p e n d i n g on t h e degree t o w h i c h t h e r e f r a c t e d , h e t e r o g l o t l a n g u a g e s he d e a l s w i t h a r e s o c i o - i d e o l o g i c a l l y a l i e n . . . . ( , - ) v o l o s i n o v ' s t h e o r y o f t h e u t t e r a n c e as "an a r e n a o f t h e c l a s s s t r u g g l e " ( ) i m p l i e s t h a t e l e m e n t s o f s t y l i z a t i o n and parody c h a r a c t e r i s e a l l language use. in marxism and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f language. v o l o s i n o v d e s c r i b e s t h e u t t e r a n c e as a space o r f i e l d where r i v a l a c c e n t u a l systems c l a s h , as s p e a k e r s a p p r o p r i a t e words " a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( b a k h t i n , ). i f one s o c i a l group s e i z e s a monopoly o v e r language, so t h a t one s e t o f s t a n d a r d s o r norms e n t i r e l y p r e v a i l s , t h e v e r b a l s i g n system o s s i f i e s . i t becomes " u n i a c c e n t u a l " ( v o l o s i n o v ) , and " i n e v i t a b l y l o s e s f o r c e " ( v o l o s i n o v ) . but as l o n g as s o c i a l s t r u g g l e c o n t i n u e s w i t h i n t h e a r e n a of t h e v e r b a l s i g n , language " m a i n t a i n s i t s v i t a l i t y and dynamism and t h e c a p a c i t y f o r f u r t h e r development" ( v o l o s i n o v ) . i n t h e p r o c e s s o f r e - w r i t i n g h i s t o r y and r e c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g p a s s a g e s from t h e s c r i p t u r e s i n h i s n o v e l s , wiebe c o n s t r u c t s v e r b a l and n o n - v e r b a l s i g n s as s i t e s where r i v a l s o c i a l f a c t i o n s c o n t e n d t o a s s e r t r i v a l meanings. he redeems from s e m a n t i c d e a t h t h e c l i c h e d word o r p h r a s e , t h e s t o c k d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n , t h e t o o - f a m i l i a r h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t . by p u l l i n g t h e s e e x h a u s t e d , o s s i f i e d s i g n i f i e r s back i n t o t h e a r e n a o f p u b l i c d e b a t e , wiebe r e s u s c i t a t e s them and r e s t o r e s t h e i r power t o t r o u b l e t h e mind. wiebe t h u s e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f w o r d s — b u t o n l y up t o a p o i n t ! a t a c e r t a i n moment n e a r t h e end o f each n o v e l , he makes an a b r u p t t u r n - a r o u n d , a t t e m p t s t o q u e l l s o c i a l s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f t h e u t t e r a n c e , and endeavours t o s u b j u g a t e a l l v e r b a l s i g n s t o t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e s c r i p t u r a l word. wiebe's a t t e m p t s t o r e a s s e r t a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l do not always succeed, e i t h e r r h e t o r i c a l l y o r a e s t h e t i c a l l y . a u t h o r s might s u c c e e d i n . r e f r a c t i n g t h e i r a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s and languages o f o t h e r s , b u t as m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t p o i n t s o u t , t h e r e a r e o t h e r r e f r a c t i n g media as w e l l , i n c l u d i n g t h a t mass o f a l i e n w o r d s ' p r e s e n t not i n t h e o b j e c t b u t i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e l i s t e n e r . ( , ) the meaning o f a t e x t can n e v e r remain e n t i r e l y i n t h e a u t h o r ' s c o n t r o l , as wiebe found out when t h e mennonite community e r u p t e d i n t o a f u r o r e a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. none o f wiebe's n o v e l s l a c k s d e v i c e s f o r l i m i t i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i a : such d e v i c e s a r e arrows i n t h e q u i v e r o f a l l r h e t o r i c i a n s . o n l y i n my l o v e l y enemy does wiebe's r h e t o r i c s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y b e g i n t o d e l e g a t e a u t h o r - i t y t o r e a d e r s , and encourage them t o a c t as co- c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings " i n " t h e t e x t . even s o , my l o v e l y enemy i s a r g u a b l y marred by t h e measures wiebe t a k e s t o r e p r e s s h e t e r o g l o s s i a a t t h e end. wiebe cannot y e t f u l l y a l l o w t h e p r i m a c y o f c o n t e x t o v e r t e x t [which e n s u r e s t h a t ] a t any g i v e n t i m e , i n any g i v e n p l a c e , t h e r e w i l l be a s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s — s o c i a l , h i s t o r i c a l , m e t e o r o l o g i c a l , p h y s i o l o g i c a l — t h a t w i l l ensure t h a t a word u t t e r e d i n t h a t p l a c e and i n t h a t t i m e w i l l have a meaning d i f f e r e n t t h a n i t w o u l d have under any o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s ; a l l u t t e r a n c e s a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f a m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o u p , and t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s o l v e . ( h o l q u i s t , ) d e s p i t e wiebe's i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i n t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , h i s r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s f o r c e him t o r e p r e s s t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s own t e x t s . nor has wiebe y e t w r i t t e n a " p o l y p h o n i c " n o v e l . b a k h t i n d e f i n e s "polyphony" as "a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . he uses t h e t e r m t o d e s c r i b e t h e a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e o f g i v i n g v o i c e t o "a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y - v a l i d c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s , each w i t h i t s own w o r l d " ( , ) . b a k h t i n h a i l s d o s t o e v s k y as "the c r e a t o r o f t h e p o l y p h o n i c n o v e l " ( , ) , a d i s t i n c t v a r i e t y o f s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e w h i c h n e i t h e r h i e r a c h i z e s t h e h e t e r o g l o t v o i c e s i t c o n t a i n s , nor s u b o r d i n a t e s any o f t h e s e v o i c e s t o t h a t o f t h e a u t h o r : a c h a r a c t e r ' s word about h i m s e l f and h i s w o r l d i s j u s t as f u l l y w e i g h t e d as t h e a u t h o r ' s word u s u a l l y i s ; i t i s not s u b o r d i n a t e d t o t h e c h a r a c t e r ' s o b j e c t i f i e d image as m e r e l y one o f h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , nor does i t s e r v e as a m o u t h p i e c e f o r t h e a u t h o r ' s v o i c e . i t p o s s e s s e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y independence i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e work; i t sounds, as i t were, a l o n g s i d e t h e a u t h o r ' s word and i n a s p e c i a l way combines b o t h w i t h i t and w i t h t h e f u l l and e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . ( b a k h t i n , ) a l t h o u g h wiebe uses p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e forms i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a and the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear , n e i t h e r n o v e l f u n c t i o n s p o l y p h o n i c a l l y . i t must be emphasised t h a t wiebe and b a k h t i n a t t a c h e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s t o p o l y p h o n y . f o r b a k h t i n , t h e p o l y p h o n i c n o v e l i s a m i c r o - c o s m i c democracy, a t e x t u a l model o f a p o l i t i c a l u t o p i a . polyphony b r i n g s l i b e r a t i o n from t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f c l o s e d , n a i v e m o n o l o g i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s . i n wiebe's n o v e l s , however, p o l y p h o n y c a r r i e s n e g a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n s . i t evokes a n a r c h y , chaos, i n s a n i t y , n i h i l i s m , a t e r r i f y i n g d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f meaning. f o r wiebe, polyphony g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e " v o i d o f s p l i n t e r e d dogmas" (ppm ). in a d d i t i o n , a l t h o u g h b a k h t i n a p p l i e s t h e term "polyphony" o n l y t o d i s c o u r s e , i t p r o v e s u s e f u l a l s o f o r d e s c r i b i n g o t h e r f i e l d s i n w h i c h "a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s " can be h e a r d . p o l y p h o n y may m a n i f e s t i t s e l f not o n l y i n t h e space o f a t e x t , b u t a l s o i n t h e psyche o f a c h a r a c t e r ( p o l y p h o n i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) , o r i n a g e o g r a p h i c a l space o c c u p i e d by a c u l t u r a l l y and l i n g u i s t i c a l l y heterogeneous s o c i e t y . wiebe's d i s t i n c t i v e v i s i o n and method w a r r a n t e x t e n d i n g b a k h t i n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f "polyphony," and r e v e r s i n g t h e p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s he a t t a c h e s t o t h e word. s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e not t o i m p a r t new s e m a n t i c nuances and v a l u e s t o words i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n s e r t i n g them i n t o new c o n t e x t s . however, i n a s t u d y o f t h i s k i n d , w h i c h must conform t o p r e d e t e r m i n e d s t a n d a r d s o f c l a r i t y and c o n c e p t u a l p r e c i s i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h o l d d i a l o g i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s i n check by d e f i n i n g and s t a b i l i z i n g t e r m i n o l o g y . by n o t i n g a l l d e p a r t u r e s f r o m b a k h t i n i a n usage, t h i s s t u d y seeks not t o exempt i t s e l f f r o m , but r a t h e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y i n t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f r e n o v a t i n g and i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g words " a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( b a k h t i n , ). notes to chapter : introduction . in the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , b a k h t i n i n d i c a t e s t h a t " p o l y g l o s s i a " denotes more t h a n one n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e , w h i l e " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " r e f e r s t o t h e " i n t e r n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f any n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e " ( ) . b a k h t i n a p p l i e s t h e s e terms b o t h t o t h e a c t u a l s t a t e of language ( i t s homogeneity o r d i v e r s i t y ) t h a t p e r t a i n s i n a s o c i e t y , and t o t h e myths t h a t s o c i e t y h o l d s about i t s language. . in f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , f o r example, wiebe p o s t p o n e s h i s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s moment u n t i l c h a p t e r . . t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s i n t o f o u r main groups d i f f e r s from, b u t i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h , george h i l d e b r a n d ' s g r o u p i n g s i n "rudy wiebe: t h e a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n and t h e u s a b l e p a s t " ( ). h i l d e b r a n d d i v i d e s wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s i n t o t h o s e who l i v e " i n a s t a t e o f n a t u r e , " t h o s e who l i v e " i n a s t a t e o f s i n , " t h e " s e a r c h i n g p i l g r i m [ s ] , " and "the redeemed" ( - ) . these f o u r groups c o r r e s p o n d r e s p e c t i v e l y w i t h t h o s e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y as "the n a i v e , m o n o l o g i c u n f a l l e n ( c h i l d r e n ) , " "the i n t e r v e n i n g c h a r a c t e r s , " "the t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s , " and "the r e a d e r - f i g u r e s . " .in f a r as t h e eye can see (edmonton: newest p r e s s , ) - , wiebe p a r o d i e s t h e use o f t h e deus ex machina d e v i c e , b u t a t t h e same t i m e q u e s t i o n s i t s a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t t o t a l n a r r a t i v e c l o s u r e . p r e m i e r p e t e r lougheed, "the p e r f e c t deus ex machina" "( ), descends o n t o t h e s t a g e i n an immense c o a l scoop, t o t h e sound o f c r e a k i n g machinery. h i s speech seems a t f i r s t t o p u t an end t o t h e s t r u g g l e between t h e f a r m e r s s e e k i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r l a n d and c a l g a r y power who want t o s t r i p - m i n e i t f o r c o a l : " t h i s p r o j e c t w o u l d d i s t u r b t o o much p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . t h e r e f o r e , a t t h i s t i m e my government w i l l not g i v e a p p r o v a l t o dodds-round h i l l development" ( ) . the f a r m e r s t h i n k t h e y have won. wiebe appears t o have c l o s e d t h e s t o r y . however, john siemens r e - opens t h e n a r r a t i v e by r e a c c e n t i n g lougheed's s p e e c h , and d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l o o p h o l e i t c o n t a i n s : "can't you see? he's g i v e n you t h r e e y e a r s , a t most" ( ) . lougheed's s t r e s s on "not" d e f l e c t s a t t e n t i o n from h i s q u a l i f i e r "at t h i s t i m e " ( ) . the s t r u g g l e has not by any means ended. . as wiebe p o i n t s out i n h i s p r e f a c e t o peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t h e e a r l y mennonites were " r e s t r a i n e d from open p r o s e l y t i s i n g " ( ) . e . k . f r a n c i s d e s c r i b e s how a t r a d i t i o n o f w i t h d r a w a l grew out o f — b u t o u t l a s t e d — t h e l e g a l and p h y s i c a l r e s t r a i n t s t o w h i c h wiebe r e f e r s ; see i n s e a r c h o f u t o p i a : t h e mennonites i n m a n i t o b a ( a l t o n a , m a n i t o b a : d. w. f r i e s e n , ). . the term " c a t h o l i c " i n t h i s i n s t a n c e does n o t r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e roman c a t h o l i c church, b u t d e n o t e s broadness, u n i v e r s a l i t y . . in " u n e a r t h i n g language," wiebe remarks on t h e i s o l a t i o n of t h e paraguayan mennonite s e t t l e m e n t s , and t h e i r a t t e m p t t o l i v e i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f t h e o l d r u s s i a n m e n n o n i t e v i l l a g e s s t i l l : t h e y ' r e e x a c t l y t h e same and t h e v i l l a g e s a r e named t h e s a m e . . . — t h e y t r y t o r e c r e a t e as much as t h e y can i n t h e south a m e r i c a n d e s e r t t h e l i f e o f r u s s i a and i t s s o c i a l p a t t e r n s . i suppose coming t o them was f o r me r e a l l y l i k e b e i n g a b l e t o go back t o t h e r u s s i a t h a t my p a r e n t s had l o s t f o r e v e r , and j u s t t a l k w i t h t h e p e o p l e t h e way t h e y t a l k e d t h e n . (neuman - ). . see a l s o george h i l d e b r a n d : wiebe "seeks c u l t u r a l l y more r e c o g n i z a b l e means by w h i c h t o speak t o an a u d i e n c e beyond t h e h e r m e t i c w o r l d o f e v a n g e l i c a l p r o t e s t a n t i s m " ( , ) . . in "the a r t i s t as a c r i t i c and a w i t n e s s , " wiebe adheres t o t h e new c r i t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a work o f a r t s h o u l d not mean but be, and t h a t because form and c o n t e n t a r e i n s e p a r a b l e , a l i t e r a r y work cannot be p a r a p h r a s e d : "a work o f a r t i s . : i t i s s i m p l y t o o complex t o p a r a p h r a s e and e x p l a i n f u l l y , s a t i s f a c t o r i l y " (vl ) . . t h i s p r o g r e s s i v e s h i f t i n wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y can be e x p l a i n e d i n p a r t by t h e e v o l u t i o n of h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how humankind m i g h t engage w i t h t h e s c r i p t u r e s . between and , when he t a u g h t a t t h e mennonite c o l l e g e a t goshen, i n d i a n a , wiebe e x p e r i e n c e d t h e word f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n a c r e a t i v e , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y adventurous c o n t e x t — a c o n t e x t w h i c h might be d e s c r i b e d as a u t h e n t i c a l l y d i a l o g i c . r e f l e c t i n g on t h i s c r u c i a l p e r i o d some f i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r , i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h s h i r l e y neuman and r o b e r t k r o e t s c h , wiebe's language evokes t h e e x c i t e m e n t o f t h i s f i r s t g l i m p s e o f t h e d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e word; [when i p u b l i s h e d my f i r s t n o v e l ] my p a t t e r n o f t h i n k i n g was s t i l l p r e t t y . . . f u n d a m e n t a l i s t o r c h r i s t i a n i n t h e sense t h a t my major s t o r i e s came f r o m a c e r t a i n k i n d o f f a i r l y narrow u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what t h e b i b l e was t a l k i n g about, w h i c h i s how i grew up. in.some ways, i've s i m p l y never f o u n d a b e t t e r way o f t h i n k i n g about the world. i think part of what you see i n the blue mountains of china, shirley, i s a wider way of understanding the world-views the bible presents to us. that i s d u e — i wouldn't want to underestimate i t — t o the time i was i n the united states teaching at a small mennonite college. there, for the f i r s t time and over an extended period, i encountered men and women of r e a l perception who had thought through a l o t of these things, r e a l l y l i t e r a t e christians who saw themselves as jesus' followers and at the same time were acquainted with the thoughts of others and had brought that kind of understanding to bear on what i t means to be a c h r i s t i a n . the best thing that ever happened to me was the meetings we had every two or three weeks i n one home or another—seven or eight of us, a p s y c h i a t r i s t , a couple of theologians, a couple of l i t e r a r y people. (neuman - ) . the term "dialogue" embraces a f a r greater range of interlocutory s i t u a t i o n s than two people speaking to one another face to face. for bakhtin, the term "dialogue" includes a l l forms of verbal i n t e r a c t i o n , aided or unaided by technology. . synchronic studies concern themselves with the l i n g u i s t i c system as i t s stands at a p a r t i c u l a r point i n time; diachronic studies examine the evolution of language across time. "la langue i s the system of a language, the language as a system of forms, whereas parole i s actual speech, the speech acts which are made possible by the language" (culler ). c u l l e r argues that saussure never "deceived himself i n t o thinking that language exists as a series of t o t a l l y homogenous synchronic states" ( ), but rather recognized f u l l y that "because i t i s a r b i t r a r y the sign i s t o t a l l y subject to history, and the combination at a p a r t i c u l a r moment of a given s i g n i f i e r and s i g n i f i e d i s a contingent r e s u l t of the h i s t o r i c a l process" ( ). in reaction to t h i s recognition, saussure adopted the synchronic model as "a methodological f i c t i o n " (culler ). . see "epic and the novel," the d i a l o g i c imagination, - . . the "polyphonic novel" i s an exception to t h i s rule, being a form of secondary utterance whose i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s are democratic. see bakhtin , - , f o r d e f i n i t i o n s and analysis of the polyphonic novel. wiebe's p a r t i c u l a r manner of dramatizing and evaluating polyphony i s discussed l a t e r i n the present chapter, and i n chapter . . f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s , see m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t , i n t r o d u c t i o n t o the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , x v i i i , and h o l q u i s t ' s g l o s s a r y i n t h e same work, . . see the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , pp. - , f o r e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h e t e r m " b e l i e f system." . i n c a r y l emerson and m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t ' s e n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e term " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " t a k e s on d i f f e r e n t meanings i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s ( t h u s i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e ) . i t a p p e a r s t w i c e i n t h e g l o s s a r y and many t i m e s i n t h e body o f b a k h t i n ' s t e x t . emerson and h o l q u i s t t r a n s l a t e " r a z n o r e c i e , " " r a z n o r e c i v o s t , " and " r a z n o j a z y f i i e " as " h e t e r o g l o s s i a . " " r a z n o r e c i e " appears i n t h e g l o s s a r y under t h e h e a d i n g " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " and r e f e r s t o t h e p o t e n t i a l l y i n f i n i t e s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y o f any a g i v e n s e t o f words, w h i c h e x i s t s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n f i n i t e a r r a y o f c o n t e x t s i n t o w h i c h i t m i g h t be i n c o r p o r a t e d : ( " h e t e r o g l o s s i a : the base c o n d i t i o n g o v e r n i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f meaning i n any u t t e r a n c e . . . . a l l u t t e r a n c e s a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o r e s o l v e " [ ] ) . " r a z n o r e c i v o s t " a l s o appears under t h e h e a d i n g " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " i n t h e g l o s s a r y , but i s d e f i n e d e l s e w h e r e by b a k h t i n as a "mix o f v a r i e d and o p p o s i n g v o i c e s " ( ) . " r a z n o j a z y g i e " appears i n t h e g l o s s a r y under t h e h e a d i n g "language [ i a z y k ] " and denotes "many l a n g u a g e s , " o r , i n lotman's terms, many "communication s y s t e m [ s ] e m p l o y i n g s i g n s t h a t a r e o r d e r e d i n a p a r t i c u l a r manner" ( h o l q u i s t ) . " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " may t h e r e f o r e v a l i d l y be used t o d e n o t e many v o i c e s , many l a n g u a g e s , o r many meanings ( v o i c i n g s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ) o f a g i v e n u t t e r a n c e . b a k h t i n ' s c l e a r e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e d i f f e r e n t senses o f t h e word " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " o c c u r s i n the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , p. - . to a v o i d p o s s i b l e c o n f u s i o n , t h e word " h e t e r o g l o s s i a " r e f e r s i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y t o s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y ( " r a z n o r e c i e " ) ; and terms such as " m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s , " "speech d i v e r s i t y , " o r " s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y " w i l l d e n o t e t h e m i x i n g o f v o i c e s and l a n g u a g e s m a n i f e s t i n t h e t e x t ( " r a z n o r e c i v o s t , " " r a z n o i a z y c i e " ) . . "a zone i s a l o c u s f o r h e a r i n g a v o i c e , " ( b a k h t i n , ) . v o i c e zones a r e d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l i n r e l a t i o n t o f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e i n c h a p t e r . . numerous c r i t i c s have p o i n t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f e i t h e r c e n t r i p e t a l o r c e n t r i f u g a l t e n d e n c i e s , b u t v e r y few have d i s c u s s e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two. most r e v i e w e r s and c r i t i c s mention t h e d i d a c t i c i s m o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many and f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , and t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a and the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear. . see r o b e r t k r o e t s c h , " m i r r o r , m i r r o r , show us a l l , " rev. o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e , books i n canada / ( j a n . ), ; and k r o e t s c h ' s remarks on wiebe's b e l i e f i n t h e " ' c a p i t a l - w ' word" (neuman ). see a l s o sam s o l e c k i , " g i a n t f i c t i o n s and l a r g e meanings: t h e n o v e l s o f rudy wiebe," canadian forum (march ), - , . . j e f f r e y and s p r i e t a r e t h e o n l y two c r i t i c s who have a p p l i e d b a k h t i n i a n t h e o r y i n a more t h a n p a s s i n g way t o wiebe's w r i t i n g . o t h e r c r i t i c s have a d d r e s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f wiebe's d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s u s i n g t h e o r e t i c a l models o t h e r t h a n b a k h t i n ' s . see s h e r r i l l e. grace, " s t r u c t u r i n g v i o l e n c e : 'the e t h i c s o f l i n g u i s t i c s ' i n 'the temptations o f b i g bear'," canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ), - ; george h i l d e b r a n d "the a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n o f rudy wiebe: a study i n t h e o l o g i c a l a l l e g o r e s i s , " d i s s . m c g i l l u n i v e r s i t y , . . see b a k h t i n , - , f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e s p e c i e s , t y p e s and v a r i e t i e s . . taken from b a k h t i n , . . f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o t h e r ' s speech as a bounded o b j e c t , see b a k h t i n , - ; b a k h t i n , - . . see a l s o b a k h t i n , . . see a l s o b a k h t i n , . . a l t h o u g h volo§inov d i v i d e s t h e s o c i a l w o r l d on t h e b a s i s o f c l a s s , one may v a l i d l y v i e w t h e v e r b a l s i g n as an arena o f s t r u g g l e between s o c i a l groups d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o o t h e r c r i t e r i a . . see wiebe's remarks t o t h e p u b l i c r e s p o n s e t o peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, i n "the s k u l l i n t h e swamp," j o u r n a l o f mennonite s t u d i e s ( ) , - . chapter : peace shall destroy many b r e a k i n g open t h e c a p s u l e i rudy wiebe opens c h a p t e r one o f h i s f i r s t n o v e l , peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, w i t h a s y m b o l i c b r e a c h i n g o f t h e narrow h o r i z o n o f a c l o s e d , m o n o l o g i c w o r l d . in t h e s p r i n g o f , thorn wiens p l o u g h s h i s w h e a t f i e l d i n t h e i s o l a t e d mennonite f a r m i n g community o f w a p i t i i n n o r t h e r n saskatchewan. suddenly, a group o f c a n a d i a n f i g h t e r p l a n e s comes r o a r i n g out o f t h e s o u t h . they pass o v e r h e a d , t e r r i f y i n g t h e p l o u g h h o r s e s and e n g u l f i n g thorn's w o r l d i n . t h e i r n o i s e . the p l a n e s a r e engaged i n a t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e . they pose no p h y s i c a l t h r e a t t o thorn. what t h e y s i g n i f y , however, i s t h a t world war i i has a r r i v e d . thorn can no l o n g e r d i s m i s s t h e war as j u s t a n o t h e r s t o r y on t h e r a d i o , a far-away t u r m o i l f o u g h t by o t h e r p e o p l e somewhere e l s e . the p l a n e s a r e t a n g i b l e , i r r e f u t a b l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e w a r — w o r l d h i s t o r y - - i s h e r e , f o r e v e r y o n e , now. no one escapes i t ! "the b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e community d i s a p p e a r " f o r thorn, and w i t h them, t h e myth o f i t s m o n o v o c a l i t y . h i s mind opens t o o t h e r v o i c e s and l a n g u a g e s , o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l ' a n d m o r a l u n i v e r s e t h a n t h a t u n i t a r y t r u t h imposed by t h e t y r a n n i c a l v o i c e of deacon p e t e r b l o c k , who a t t e m p t s t o r e p r o d u c e i n w a p i t i t h e a l l e g e d l y s i m p l e , m o n o l o g i c , e d e n i c w o r l d l e f t b e h i n d i n r u s s i a . as b l o c k ' s h o l d o v e r thorn's mind d i m i n i s h e s , he f i n d s h i m s e l f s p i r i t u a l l y l i b e r a t e d b u t m o r a l l y d i s o r i e n t e d , u n s u r e o f how he s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o canada's " c a l l " t o ' j o i n t h e armed f o r c e s . wiebe t e l l s t h e s t o r y p r i m a r i l y , b u t not e x c l u s i v e l y , from thorn wiens' p o i n t o f v i e w . thorn's c o n s c i o u s n e s s s e r v e s as a f i e l d where r i v a l v o i c e s and c o n f l i c t i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s s t r u g g l e f o r dominance. wiebe b r i n g s two main c o n t e s t a n t s o n t o " l i f e ' s r e a l b a t t l e - f i e l d : t h e s o u l o f man" (ppm - ) : deacon b l o c k , who a d v o c a t e s a r i g i d adherence t o c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n and a t o t a l s e p a r a t i o n from t h e s e c u l a r w o r l d ; and j o s e p h dueck, wiebe's mouthpiece, who advances t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r a c t i s i n g c h r i s t i a n i t y w i t h o u t d e n y i n g h i s t o r i c a l change o r c u t t i n g o n e s e l f o f f from t h e b r o a d e r s o c i a l w o r l d . these two f i g u r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y p e r s o n i f y t h e m o n o l o g i c and d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e s . i i as h i s name s u g g e s t s , b l o c k cements t h e s e p a r a t e mennonite f a m i l i e s and i n d i v i d u a l s o f w a p i t i i n t o a m o n o l i t h i c community. he i n s i s t s t h a t t h e y always " p r e s e n t an u n b l e m i s h e d f r o n t t o t h e w o r l d " ( ) . denying, s p e a k i n g o v e r o r p h y s i c a l l y removing any v o i c e w h i c h d a r e s not say "amen", t o h i s own, deacon b l o c k so dominates t h e p e o p l e o f w a p i t i t h a t i t comes c l o s e t o b e i n g a monovocal community. church p o l i c y " o r i g i n a t e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h b l o c k " ( ) , h i s " b i g v o i c e c o v e r i n g " ( ) a l l . i n a t a n t r u m worthy o f j o v e , deacon b l o c k s h o u t s down a l l d i s s e n t a t a c h u r c h m e e t i n g : "the deacon's v o i c e overwhelmed a l l , s t e e l eyes f l a m i n g . j o s e p h ' s v o i c e was s n u f f e d ; t h e sound and t h e l o o k a b o l t t o b l a s t e v e r y o n e " ( ) . a g a i n s t deacon b l o c k ' s i d e a l o f a monovocal c h u r c h w i t h h i m s e l f as t h e s o l e spokesman, wiebe's i d e a l c h u r c h community p e r m i t s m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s . when b l o c k c h a l l e n g e s joseph's dueck's r i g h t t o v o i c e d i s a g r e e m e n t on t h e grounds t h a t he has o n l y been i n w a p i t i n i n e months, "thorn s u r g e d t o h i s f e e t . 'he i s a member o f t h i s c h u r c h and can speak!'" ( ) . i t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t thorn's words do not n e c e s s a r i l y condemn m o n o v o c a l i t y p e r se. wiebe d i s c r i m i n a t e s between two k i n d s o f m o n o v o c a l i t y , d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s under w h i c h t h e y come about. i f one t y r a n n i c a l v o i c e drowns out a l l o t h e r v o i c e s , t h e n t h e community becomes a m i c r o c o s m i c t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e . but i f m o n o v o c a l i t y a r i s e s o u t o f a genuine consensus between a l l i n d i v i d u a l s s p e a k i n g f r e e l y , i t s i g n i f i e s group s o l i d a r i t y , s o c i a l harmony and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y . t h i s i d e a l comes c l o s e s t t o b e i n g r e a l i s e d when t h e members o f t h e c h u r c h s i n g t o g e t h e r : thorn " f e l t t h a t everyone i n ' t h e b u i l d i n g s t o o d s e p a r a t e y e t u n i t e d , one body c r y i n g w i t h one v o i c e t o t h e g r e a t known w o r t h y o f w o r s h i p " ( ) . wiebe here o f f e r s an image o f agreement w h i c h r e t a i n s i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r . deacon b l o c k m a i n t a i n s h i s power o v e r t h e p e o p l e o f w a p i t i not o n l y by s h o u t i n g l o u d e s t , b u t a l s o by i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i r d i a l o g u e w i t h god. b l o c k assumes t h e r o l e o f s o l e m e d i a t o r between t h e s c r i p t u r e s and t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n : he shows us how t o l i v e t h e b i b l e . . . . on e v e r y s u b j e c t he must p l a c e t h e o n l y word i n e v e r y man's mouth and t h e y go home and re-chew i t f o r t h e i r f a m i l y . ( ) b l o c k a l s o c o n t r o l s w a p i t i ' s d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . he i s i n v a r i a b l y e l e c t e d as a d e l e g a t e t o t h e a n n u a l mennonite g e n e r a l c o n g r e s s , and as one o f t h e few s e n i o r men who speak e n g l i s h f l u e n t l y , t r a v e l f a r a f i e l d o r own a r a d i o , he c l a i m s a s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t t h e l a r g e r w o r l d t o w a p i t i . as a r e s u l t , the men a g r e e d on a l l m a t t e r s , t h e i r o p i n i o n s on any o c c u r r e n c e o u t s i d e t h e i r own community b e i n g formed by g e n e r a l s u r v e y s o f one mennonite german w e e k l y and by what deacon b l o c k t o l d them. ( ) . deacon b l o c k w i s h e s t o keep i n p l a c e t h e language b a r r i e r w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e german-speaking m e n n o n i t e s from t h e w i d e r , m a i n l y e n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g canadian s o c i e t y , and from t h e c r e e - , f r e n c h - , and r u s s i a n - s p e a k i n g i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e w a p i t i a r e a . by s t a u n c h l y r e s i s t i n g t h e encroachment o f e n g l i s h , b l o c k r e p r e s s e s l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y i n t h e mennonite community, t h i n k i n g t o p r o t e c t h i s p e o p l e from t h e hegemony o f t h e " o t h e r ' s " l a n g u a g e . b l o c k t h u n d e r s a g a i n s t joseph dueck f o r a d d r e s s i n g an e t h n i c a l l y mixed a u d i e n c e o f young p e o p l e i n t h e e n g l i s h language i n s t e a d o f i n t h e h i g h german language t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s . dueck's c h o i c e o f e n g l i s h s i g n i f i e s t h e v a l u e he p l a c e s on e v a n g e l i s m . by a d d r e s s i n g h i s a u d i e n c e i n e n g l i s h , he a t t e m p t s t o r e a c h o u t s i d e t h e narrow c i r c u m f e r e n c e o f t h e german-speaking community. f o r b l o c k , however, t h e c h u r c h community cannot exceed t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e t h n i c community. he p l a c e s more w e i g h t on r e i t e r a t i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s from " o t h e r s " t h a n on d i s s e m i n a t i n g j e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s t o f e l l o w human b e i n g s . by c h o o s i n g t o speak one n a t i o n a l language i n s t e a d o f a n o t h e r , a s p e a k e r s i g n i f i e s h i s o r her membership--or d e s i r e d m e m b e r s h i p — i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l group. to deacon b l o c k , t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' use o f e n g l i s h s i g n i f i e s t h e i r b l e n d i n g i n t o a n g l o - c a n a d i a n c u l t u r e . yet t h r o u g h j o s e p h dueck, wiebe i n s e r t s t h e s i g n i f i e r " e n g l i s h language" i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f meaning, where i t p o i n t s t o t h e s p e a k e r ' s e v a n g e l i s t i c v a l u e s . i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, wiebe argues t h a t by s p r e a d i n g t h e g o s p e l t o o t h e r s , one i m i t a t e s j e s u s ' a p o s t l e s f a r more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n by s e g r e g a t i n g o n e s e l f l i n g u i s t i c a l l y from p r o s p e c t i v e c o n v e r t s . s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f , not a s p e c i a l l a n g u a g e , forms t h e b a s i s o f mennonite s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . wiebe e n v i s a g e s t h e e n g l i s h language as a form o f common ground, a s h a r e d l i n g u i s t i c space where t h e d i v e r s e e t h n i c groups m i g h t meet and e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e . one o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l s t o r i e s t h e n o v e l d r a m a t i s e s — a n d , most i m p o r t a n t , p a r t i c i p a t e s i n — i s t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e e n g l i s h language f o r t h e i r own e v a n g e l i c a l p u r p o s e s . wiebe h i m s e l f spoke o n l y german u n t i l he e n t e r e d s c h o o l a t t h e age o f s i x . a h i s c h o i c e t o use e n g l i s h i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many i m p l i c i t l y r e p u d i a t e s deacon's b l o c k ' s p o l i c y o f l i n g u i s t i c a p a r t h e i d , and s i g n i f i e s wiebe's d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e a c h as wide an a u d i e n c e as p o s s i b l e . b l o c k ' s r e p r e s s i o n o f d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e s and h i s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e e n g l i s h language form p a r t o f h i s campaign t o promote m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and language i n t h e mennonite community. as b l o c k ' s v i s i o n o f t h e w a p i t i mennonites as "a p e o p l e a p a r t " c o l l a p s e s , so'does h i s myth o f mennonite s o l i d a r i t y . whether t h e y s t a y a t home o r l e a v e t o f i g h t abroad, members o f w a p i t i ' s mennonite p o p u l a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e t h e world war as a cause of b i t t e r d i v i s i o n i n t h e i r own community. some d i s c o v e r t h e i r main l o y a l t i e s l i e w i t h t h e n a t i o n of canada, w h i l e o t h e r s l i k e b l o c k become more e n t r e n c h e d i n t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t t h e m e n n o n i t e community i s — o r s h o u l d b e — s e p a r a t e . i r o n i c a l l y , b l o c k ' s s t a u n c h a v o i d a n c e o f t h e war a b r o a d i n v o l v e s him i n a war a t home on two f r o n t s , a g a i n s t t h e c a n a d i a n laws c o n c e r n i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , and a g a i n s t t h e more l i b e r a l mennonite f a c t i o n s which no l o n g e r a u t o m a t i c a l l y o b j e c t t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war. d e s p i t e b l o c k ' s e f f o r t s t o r e p r e s s d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n , w a p i t i e x p e r i e n c e s a group i d e n t i t y c r i s i s , a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e c r i t e r i a o f t h e i r s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . c o n c e a l e d i n t r a - g r o u p c o n f l i c t s emerge i n t o v i e w , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e v i o l e n c e w h i c h e r u p t s i n t h e b a r n on t h e n i g h t of t h e c h i l d r e n ' s c h r i s t m a s p l a y . as w e l l as r e p r e s s i n g t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r s o c i a l groups, b l o c k a l s o upholds t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e on t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . by r i g i d l y u p h o l d i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e f a t h e r s , b l o c k d i s a l l o w s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t v o i c e s i n t h e p r e s e n t m i g h t have a r i g h t t o r e - e v a l u a t e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l code. b l o c k e l e v a t e s c u l t u r a l ^ t r a d i t i o n s t o t h e s t a t u s o f a b s o l u t e m o r a l l a w s . he b l u n t l y d e n i e s t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own m o r a l a b s o l u t e s : the g r e a t m a t t e r s o f m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l d i s c i p l i n e have been l a i d down once and f o r a l l i n t h e b i b l e and our f a t h e r s have t o l d us how we s h o u l d a c t a c c o r d i n g t o them. they cannot change.... most do not c a r e i f t h e y b r e a k t h e t r a d i t i o n because t o them i t i s not an a b s o l u t e s t a n d a r d o f r i g h t and wrong. i n rome, t h e y s h e e p i s h l y f o l l o w t h e romans. but our f a t h e r s found t h e c o r r e c t way o f a c t i n g . through t h e y e a r s , t h i s a c t i o n has d e v e l o p e d i n t o our c u l t u r e . i f we do n o t f o l l o w them i n t h e i r way, t h e n we s t a n d i n g r a v e danger o f l o s i n g our e t e r n a l s a l v a t i o n . that i s why we a r e so r i g i d about c e r t a i n m a t t e r s i n t h e c h u r c h . the r u s s i a n s around o u r v i l l a g e s i n r u s s i a had t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f a c t i n g t o o , b u t when t h e y came t o canada and once knew about a c t i n g d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e y l e t t h e o l d way s l i d e because t h e new way s u i t e d them b e t t e r h e r e . but we h o l d t h a t our a c t i o n s a r e e t e r n a l l y i m p o r t a n t ; our f a t h e r s found t h e r i g h t m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l a c t i o n . ( - ) wiebe o f f e r s g l i m p s e s o f t h i s m y t h i c a l w o r l d o f "the f a t h e r s " t o show t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e m o r a l s t a n d a r d b l o c k i n v o k e s . furthermore., joseph dueck g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t even i f t h e "the f a t h e r s " i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r u s s i a had f o u n d a m o r a l l y c o r r e c t mode o f l i v i n g , t h e i r code o f b e h a v i o u r was r i g h t and good o n l y i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t . under d i f f e r e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n o t h e r h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s , t h e same a c t i o n s m i g h t not be r i g h t a t a l l . the second world war poses a s e e m i n g l y u n p r e c e d e n t e d m o r a l dilemma f o r t h e mennonite community. s t r i c t p a c i f i s t s , mennonites t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v o i d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war a t a l l c o s t s . in t h e p a s t , i n t h e r u s s i a n mennonite f a r m i n g v i l l a g e s , " r i g h t was r i g h t and wrong was wrong. any s i t u a t i o n c o u l d b e . q u i c k l y p l a c e d i n t o one o r t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r y " ( ) . but i n canada i n , "the c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e more i n v o l v e d " ( ) , b o t h i n a l e g a l and a m o r a l s e n s e . canadian law r e q u i r e s each a d u l t male o f m i l i t a r y age i n w a p i t i t o make a p e r s o n a l m o r a l c h o i c e whether t o t a k e up arms a g a i n s t canada's enemies, p r j o i n t h e r e s t r i c t e d m e d i c a l corps, o r a v o i d any form o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n by p r o c l a i m i n g t h e i r c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t i o n . deacon b l o c k and h i s son, p e t e , i n v o k e t h e ways o f t h e f a t h e r s , b u t abuse t h e mennonite i d e a l o f p a c i f i s m , by u s i n g i t as a c o n v e n i e n t excuse t o s t a y s a f e l y a t home on t h e farm t o reap (as i f i n c i d e n t a l l y ) t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e f i n a n c i a l rewards o f g r o w i n g f o o d under f a v o u r a b l e wartime market c o n d i t i o n s . the b l o c k s r e f u s e t o concede t o t h e e f f e c t o f c o n t e x t on t h e meaning o f a g i v e n a c t i o n ; t h a t i s , t h e y r e f u s e t o concede t o t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o r t h e d i a l o g i c i t y o f s i g n s . t h e i r m e c h a n i c a l adherence t o t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l r e s p o n s e t o war d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y that' a g i v e n a c t i o n , whether v e r b a l o r p h y s i c a l , s i g n i f i e s d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . deacon b l o c k ' s manner o f s p e a k i n g c o n f i r m s h i s adherence t o t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e . in p r i v a t e d i a l o g u e as w e l l as on p u b l i c o c c a s i o n s , b l o c k makes l o n g , f o r m a l , d i d a c t i c speeches, i n w h i c h a r c h a i c d i c t i o n and sonorous rhythms i n v o k e t h e d i g n i t y and i r r e f u t a b l e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p a s t . i n d i a l o g u e , b l o c k i n t e r r u p t s and speaks o v e r h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r s , m o n o p o l i z i n g t h e f l o o r t o such an e x t e n t t h a t d i a l o g u e becomes monologue. b l o c k ' s name, f o r t h e most p a r t , a p t l y d e s c r i b e s h i s speech: u n i f o r m i n s t y l e , and w i t h a t e x t u r e f r e e o f t h e d i s j u n c t i o n s w h i c h commonly b e t r a y h e s i t a t i o n , d e c e i t o r u n c e r t a i n t y , b l o c k ' s u t t e r a n c e s have a w e i g h t y , m o n o l i t h i c q u a l i t y . however, near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , wiebe opens a gap between b l o c k ' s i n n e r and o u t e r speech, and shows a t t h e same t i m e t h a t b l o c k r e p r e s s e s t h e v o i c e o f t h e " o t h e r " i n h i m s e l f . b l o c k ' s monologue b e g i n s t o b r e a k a p a r t when he speaks t o thorn o f h i s own p a s t i n c h a p t e r . dashes i n t e r r u p t t h e smooth f l o w o f h i s s y n t a x , and a l o n g s i l e n c e c o n c e a l s t h e " t e r r i b l e t h i n g " ( ) t h a t happened l o n g i n h i s p a s t . when wiebe i n c o r p o r a t e s deacon b l o c k ' s i n n e r speech i n t o t h e t e x t , i t becomes f i s s u r e d by q u e s t i o n s , d o u b t s , a c c u s a t i o n s , e v a s i o n s and c o n f e s s i o n s . the s t y l e o f b l o c k ' s i n n e r monologue, w h i c h may more a c c u r a t e l y be d e s c r i b e d as a d i a l o g u e w i t h h i m s e l f , c o n t r a s t s m a r k e d l y w i t h t h e s u r e , s e r e n e e q u a n i m i t y o f h i s m o n o l o g i c o u t e r speech: o n l y when he [ b l o c k ] was t h r o u g h t h e b u r s t o f h i s emotions d i d h i s f a l s i t y s t r i k e home. had he p r o t e c t e d e l i z a b e t h ? — f r o m a bad m a r r i a g e b u t not a shameful d e a t h . . . . as he t h r e w a f o r k f u l o f hay on t h e l o a d , he was p r a y i n g , f a t h e r g i v e me g r a c e t o keep q u i e t — t h a t i do not l i e o u t w a r d l y more t h a n i s n e c e s s a r y — f o r t h e sake o f p e o p l e such as t h i s . s i n k i n g l y , he knew he need say n o t h i n g , e v e r , and y e t h i s whole l i f e would be one long-drawn p e r j u r y . but h i s a c t i o n had been r i g h t ! e l i z a b e t h had weakened, m i s e r a b l y ; what good c o u l d now come o f e x p o s i n g h e r s i n ? ( ) wiebe s i g n i f i e s t h e c o l l a p s e o f b l o c k ' s a u t h o r i t y by l e t t i n g h i s o u t e r speech d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o i n c o h e r e n t fragments: b l o c k s t a r e d l i f e l e s s , h i s mouth f o r m i n g , i n a n e l y , t h e words, " e l i z a b e t h — l o u i s — w h a t do you know—" .... he s a i d h o a r s e l y , "god f o r g i v e h e r — a n d y o u — " and me, he added, i n t h e c l a m o u r i n g s i l e n c e o f h i s h e a r t . ( ) in a number o f r e s p e c t s , wiebe's h a n d l i n g of language i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many c r e a t e s a d i s t a n c e between h i s own n a r r a t i v e v o i c e and t h e m o n o l o g i c v o i c e o f deacon b l o c k . as wiebe t e l l s o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d b r e a k i n g i n t o w a p i t i , h i s language l o s e s i t s m o n o l o g i c q u a l i t y : the whole y a r d b u r s t i n t o a chaos o f s q u e a l i n g p i g s , f l y i n g , squawking c h i c k e n s , c a r l o b a r k i n g , h a l s c r e a m i n g "bang! bang!" and t h e c a t t l e stampeding, m i l k j e t t i n g from s w i n g i n g u d d e r s , towards t h e s a f e t y o f t h e b a r n t o c r a s h a g a i n s t i t s c l o s e d d o o r i n a c o n v u l s i o n o f b o d i e s . . . . from where thorn s t o o d , one cow l o o k e d v e r y bad.... her c a l f would be dead a f t e r t h a t . ( ) the d i s c o u r s e o f war i n v a d e s t h e n o r m a l l y t r a n q u i l d i s c o u r s e o f t h e p a s t o r a l : " b u r s t , " "chaos," " s c r e a m i n g , " " s a f e t y , " " j e t t i n g , " " c r a s h , " " c o n v u l s i o n , " " b o d i e s , " and "dead" a r e s c a t t e r e d amongst " y a r d , " " p i g s , " " c h i c k e n s , " " c a t t l e , " " m i l k , " "udders," " b a r n , " "cow," and " c a l f " ( ) . wiebe's s y n t a x , t o o , r e f l e c t s a c o l l i s i o n o f two s t y l e s . a f t e r a s i m p l e , unadorned o p e n i n g p r i n c i p a l c l a u s e , t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e fragments s y n t a c t i c a l l y , as e i g h t i r r e g u l a r l y - spaced p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s s h a t t e r t h e u n i f i e d p a s t o r a l t a b l e a u o f "the whole y a r d " i n t o i t s d i v e r s e c o n s t i t u e n t images. through wiebe's m i x i n g of d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s and d i s c o u r s e s , t h e t e x t o f t h e n o v e l r e - e n a c t s t h e o p e n i n g p r o c e s s i t d e p i c t s . d i v e r s e l i n g u i s t i c elements i n v a d e t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l j u s t as t h e f i g h t e r p l a n e s v i o l a t e t h e s e c l u s i o n o f w a p i t i . p e t e b l o c k s a y s , " i t ' d be n i c e t o j u s t s t a y i n t h e b u s h — n e v e r go out" ( ) . w a p i t i i s b e h i n d a bush, o r r a t h e r , an immense expanse o f bush and s p a r s e l y - p o p u l a t e d d i s t a n c e . but p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s cannot s h i e l d w a p i t i from t h e knowledge of t h e war. the r a d i o b r i n g s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e war i n t o p r i v a t e homes, e f f e c t i v e l y a n n e x i n g w a p i t i i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f w o r l d h i s t o r y : i t seemed beyond comprehension t o s i t a t supper i n a l o g farmhouse i n canada and l i s t e n w h i l e men, a t t h a t v e r y moment, t o r e each o t h e r f o r r e a s o n s none r e a l l y knew: t o l i s t e n w h i l e a l a n d i n g c r a f t e x p l o d e d , and t h e v o i c e o f t h e announcer choked, " — o u t o f t h e s k y — p a r t s o f b o d i e s f a l l i n g - - m a s s e s o f w a t e r . . . " ...a whole w o r l d l i s t e n i n g t o men k i l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s s a v a g e l y . ( - ) a g a i n , wiebe's t e x t r e - e n a c t s t h e p r o c e s s e s o f p e n e t r a t i o n and f r a g m e n t a t i o n i t d e s c r i b e s . here, and a g a i n i n c h a p t e r , t h e cbc r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n s e r t s i t s e l f i n t r u s i v e l y i n t o t h e n a r r a t i v e . i t i n v a d e s t h e t e x t o f wiebe's n o v e l , i n t h e same way as t h e r a d i o r e p e a t e d l y b r e a k s t h r o u g h t h e b a r r i e r s b l o c k e r e c t s around w a p i t i . peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many i s wiebe's most s t y l i s t i c a l l y u n i f o r m n o v e l , y e t i t s homogeneity i s not as c o m p l e t e as i t might seem. even a t t h i s e a r l y s t a g e i n h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r , wiebe i n c o r p o r a t e s what b a k h t i n c a l l s " e x t r a - l i t e r a r y g e n r e s " ( , ) i n t o h i s t e x t . the d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s and languages w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many i m p l i c i t l y s i g n i f y wiebe's r e j e c t i o n o f t h e m o n o v o c a l i t y urged by b l o c k . i l l as b l o c k ' s name c o n n o t e s t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , joseph dueck's evokes t h e d i a l o g i c . by u r g i n g t h e mennonite community t o contend w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t i m e s have changed, and t h a t t h e y no l o n g e r have e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e meaning o f t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l code o f b e h a v i o u r , dueck draws a t t e n t i o n t o d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s on b o t h t h e s y n c h r o n i c and t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e s . dueck causes thorn and o t h e r young p e o p l e i n t h e community o f w a p i t i t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t even t h e most s i n c e r e c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e war i n v o l u n t a r i l y . the o p t i o n o f not p a r t i c i p a t i n g no l o n g e r e x i s t s , as annaraarie lepp e x p l a i n s : i t was f i n e t o say, "we can have n o t h i n g t o do w i t h war" when...wars were s k i r m i s h e s on t h e n e x t q u a r t e r and t h e k i n g who l e d h i s t r o o p s t o a day's v i c t o r y won. then i t was p o s s i b l e — [ n o t t o j o i n i n . but] t h e whole w o r l d i s now i n i t . we c a n ' t a v o i d i t . f a t h e r r a i s e s p i g s because t h e p r i c e i s h i g h : some men c h a r g e d up t h e normandy beaches l a s t tuesday w i t h our bacon i n t h e i r stomachs. ( ) joseph dueck pushes annamarie's argument t o i t s m o r a l c o n c l u s i o n : g i v e n a war s i t u a t i o n , we mennonites can p r a c t i s e our b e l i e f i n canada o n l y because o t h e r canadians a r e k i n d enough t o f i g h t f o r our r i g h t t o our b e l i e f . the g o d l e s s man t h e n d i e s f o r t h e b e l i e f o f t h e c h r i s t i a n ! ( ) an u n p r e c e d e n t e d h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n — t h e second world war —makes a m b i v a l e n t t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l r e f u s a l t o f i g h t , w h i c h p r e v i o u s l y had been o n l y r i g h t . the a c t i o n i t s e l f does not change, b u t i t s meaning becomes s u b j e c t t o r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n each new h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . as thorn v a c i l l a t e s o v e r whether he s h o u l d t a k e t h e measures n e c e s s a r y t o g a i n l e g a l exemption from t h e canadian war e f f o r t , wiebe e x p l o r e s what b a k h t i n might c a l l d i a c h r o n i c d i a l o g i c i t y , t h e o n g o i n g s o c i a l p r o c e s s o f r e i n t e r p r e t i n g any known event o r t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . dueck a l s o argues t h a t no s o c i e t y i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y can l i v e i t s h i s t o r y e n t i r e l y a l o n e . d e s p i t e b e i n g i n s u l a t e d from t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d by v a s t t r a c t s o f u n i n h a b i t e d b u s h l a n d , w a p i t i ' s h i s t o r y i s not autonomous, but bound i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e canadian n a t i o n and t h e w o r l d . under joseph's i n f l u e n c e , t h e mennonites o f w a p i t i b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e y must contend not o n l y w i t h "the shock o f t h e new,"- new b u t a l s o w i t h t h e shock o f s o c i a l l y a l i e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . the second world war b r i n g s a p o w e r f u l , i n v a s i v e " o t h e r , " i n t o t h e i r l i v e s , an " o t h e r " who c l a i m s an e q u a l , i f not s u p e r i o r r i g h t t o c o n f e r meaning on t h e i r a c t i o n s . the l e g a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e comes i n t o d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e m o r a l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e b i b l e , t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e a c t o f n o n - p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t o a n o n - v e r b a l pun. "non- p a r t i c i p a t i o n " f i t s i n t o two c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e systems o f meaning, each r e c o g n i z e d as supremely a u t h o r i t a t i v e by t h e s o c i e t y w h i c h propounds i t . dueck draws a t t e n t i o n a l s o t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f l i n g u i s t i c s i g n systems w h i c h o p e r a t e i n a l l s o c i e t i e s . h i s l e t t e r t o thorn h i g h l i g h t s t h e many languages spoken i n w a p i t i : "dear thomas: "you a s k e d me why i w r o t e 'thomas' t o you when i never spoke so f o r m a l l y . w e l l , t o t e l l you t h e t r u t h i r e a l l y d i d not know how t o w r i t e y o u r name, s i n c e i n w a p i t i i t ' s spoken 'tom' i n e n g l i s h and 'thorn' i n low german and 'thomas' i n h i g h german. you can assume t h e r e f o r e t h a t i am w r i t i n g i n none o f t h e s e languages b u t t h e c o r r e c t b i b l i c a l form o f t h e name as g i v e n i n t h e k i n g james v e r s i o n : t h e name o f t h e man whose eyes were open b u t c o u l d not see." ( ) i t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t a l t h o u g h dueck draws a t t e n t i o n t o w a p i t i ' s l i n g u i s t i c p l u r a l i t y , he does not g r a n t t h e languages e q u a l s t a t u s , b u t p r i v i l e g e s an e n g l i s h v e r s i o n o f t h e new testament as most a u t h o r i t a t i v e and p a r a d i g m a t i c . a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n emerges w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o r m a l p r o p e r t i e s o f dueck's u t t e r a n c e s . h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l t a l k t o t h e y o u t h m e e t i n g t a k e s a d i a l o g i c , q u e s t i o n - a n d - a n s w e r form: " i o u t l i n e d my i d e a s i n t h e form o f q u e s t i o n s . . f i r s t : what i s t h e b a s i c f o r c e o f t h e c h r i s t i a n ' s l i f e ? u s i n g s c r i p t u r e , t t r i e d t o g i v e t h e answer as love..." ( ) joseph engages i n d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e s c r i p t u r e s . the c h r i s t i a n f o r m u l a t e s t h e q u e s t i o n s ; t h e b i b l e answers them. however, dueck's d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s a u d i e n c e — a n d wiebe's d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s r e a d e r s - - r e m a i n s s t r i c t l y p e d a g o g i c a l : "someone who knows, and p o s s e s s e s t h e t r u t h i n s t r u c t s someone who i s i g n o r a n t o f i t and i n e r r o r ; . . . i t i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a t e a c h e r and a p u p i l " ( b a k h t i n , ) . a l t h o u g h j o s e p h dueck f u n c t i o n s as wiebe's main proponent o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , wiebe never e n t i r e l y r e a l i z e s t h a t p r i n c i p l e ' i n dueck's u t t e r a n c e s . dueck's l e t t e r t o thorn i n c h a p t e r p r o v i d e s t h e c l e a r e s t example o f t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n . the l e t t e r opens by s i t u a t i n g i t s e l f i n a d i a l o g i c c o n t e x t : "you a s k e d me why i w r o t e . . . " ( ) . dueck o b v i o u s l y answers a q u e s t i o n posed e a r l i e r by thorn. the l e t t e r i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f as a r e j o i n d e r , an u t t e r a n c e i n an o n g o i n g i n t e r l o c u t o r y exchange. dueck's l e t t e r a l s o p e r f o r m s t h e v i t a l work o f d i a l o g i z i n g t h e word "peace," b u t such d i a l o g i z a t i o n has t h e u l t i m a t e aim not o f a b o l i s h i n g t h e s e m a n t i c / l i n g u i s t i c h i e r a r c h y , b u t o f r e p l a c i n g one p r i v i l e g e d meaning/language w i t h a n o t h e r . the dominant i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f "peace" i n canada i n opposes "peace" t o p h y s i c a l w a r f a r e between n a t i o n s . wiebe d i a l o g i z e s "peace" by s e t t i n g a g a i n s t t h i s dominant s e c u l a r d e f i n i t i o n , a number o f common c h r i s t i a n a l t e r n a t i v e s : matthew's " b l e s s e d a r e t h e peacemakers" ( ) ; t h e e x p r e s s i o n "to h o l d one's peace" ( ) ; t h e peace o f s o c i a l harmony; t h e " s t a t e o f s a f e t y and b l e s s e d n e s s " p r o m i s e d by god t o i s r a e l i n t h e o l d testament ( ) ; and t h e " h o r r i b l e j o k e " o f t h e a n g e l s ' "peace on e a r t h " w h i c h was f o l l o w e d by t h e s l a u g h t e r of t h e babes of bethlehem ( ) . the word "peace" r e s e m b l e s an o b j e c t p u l l e d between s e v e r a l g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d s . in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , i n d i f f e r e n t speech genres o r d i s c o u r s e s , t h e meaning o f t h e word changes. however, wiebe does not l e t "peace" f l o a t between d i s c o u r s e s i n a s t a t e o f s e m a n t i c n o n - f i x i t y . he c l o s e s t h e d i a l o g u e between t h e d i f f e r i n g v o i c i n g s o f "peace" by i n s e r t i n g t h e word i n t o t h e c o n t e x t o f j e s u s ' s t e a c h i n g s : " a c c o r d i n g t o c h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g , peace i s not a c i r c u m s t a n c e b u t a s t a t e o f b e i n g . the c h r i s t - f o l l o w e r has t h e peace o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h god and t h e r e f o r e t h e peace of c o n s c i o u s f e l l o w s h i p w i t h god t h r o u g h god i n c h r i s t . peace i s not a t h i n g s t a t i c and unchanging: r a t h e r a m i g h t y i n n e r r i v e r ( r e a d i s a i a h : ) t h a t c a r r i e s a l l outward c i r c u m s t a n c e s b e f o r e i t as i f t h e y were d r i f t w o o d . t h i s was t h e peace c h r i s t b r o u g h t ; he never compromised w i t h a sham s l o t h f u l peace, as we want t o . he s a i d , 'do not t h i n k t h a t i have come t o b r i n g peace on e a r t h ; i have not come t o b r i n g peace, b u t a sword.' he b r o u g h t no outward q u i e t and c o m f o r t such as we a r e e v e r p r a y i n g f o r . r a t h e r , he b r o u g h t i n w a r d peace t h a t i s i n no way a f f e c t e d by outward w a r . . . . but i must s t o p p r e a c h i n g ! " ( - ) as t h e k i n g james v e r s i o n of t h e b i b l e p r o v i d e s "the c o r r e c t b i b l i c a l form" o f thorn's name, t h e t e a c h i n g s o f j e s u s , s u p p o r t e d by i s i a h , p r o v i d e s t h e p r i v i l e g e d d e f i n i t i o n o f "peace." o n l y w i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n can t h e paradox i m p l i c i t i n t h e t i t l e of t h e n o v e l be r e s o l v e d . the s t y l e o f dueck's l e t t e r , and many o f h i s o t h e r extended u t t e r a n c e s , has a m o n o l o g i c , s e r m o n - l i k e q u a l i t y . d e s p i t e p r o c l a i m i n g t h e m s e l v e s r e j o i n d e r s i n d i a l o g u e , o r t a k i n g t h e form o f a s e r i e s o f q u e s t i o n s and answers, dueck's u t t e r a n c e b e a r a l l t h e marks o f a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , a v a r i e t y o f m o n o l o g i c language w h i c h b a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s as f o l l o w s : a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e . . . remains s h a r p l y demarcated, compact and i n e r t : i t demands, so t o speak, not o n l y q u o t a t i o n marks b u t a d e m a r c a t i o n even more m a g i s t e r i a l . . . . i t s s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e i s s t a t i c and dead, f o r i t i s f u l l y complete, i t has b u t a s i n g l e meaning, t h e l e t t e r i s f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e sense and c a l c i f i e s i t . ( , ) wiebe p r e s e n t s h i s c e n t r a l message i n t h e form o f dueck's l e t t e r , t h u s s e t t i n g i t o f f from t h e " o r d i n a r y language" o f t h e r e s t o f t h e t e x t . t h i s s p e c i a l d e m a r c a t i o n h e l p s i m p a r t a m o n o l o g i c , a u t h o r i t a t i v e q u a l i t y t o dueck's d i s c o u r s e . the l e t t e r ceases t o f u n c t i o n as a r e j o i n d e r i n a d i a l o g u e between two c h a r a c t e r s , and t a k e s on t h e q u a l i t i e s o f e x p l i c i t m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e r e a d e r . in b a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , dueck's l e t t e r sounds as d i r e c t , unmediated a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . perhaps dueck's "but i must s t o p p r e a c h i n g ! " ( ) b e t r a y s wiebe's own awareness t h a t h i s p r o s e l y t i z i n g has become t o o o v e r t a t t h i s p o i n t i n the t e x t . iv the m o n o l o g i c a s p e c t s o f joseph dueck's speech r e f l e c t wiebe's i n a b i l i t y t o embrace a l l t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , d e s p i t e h i s m i s g i v i n g s about m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and l a n g u a g e . as wiebe's hero s e a r c h e s f o r "the p a t h of god's r e v e l a t i o n " ( ) , he f i n d s t h e p o l y p h o n i c " v o i d o f s p l i n t e r e d dogmas" ( ) no l e s s repugnant t h a n "one man's m i s g u i d e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n " ( ) . thorn f e a r s t h a t by d e v i a t i n g from t h e ways o f t h e f a t h e r s a d v o c a t e d by deacon b l o c k , he w i l l i n e v i t a b l y f a l l , l i k e hank and herb unger, i n t o m o r a l n i h i l i s m . hank b o a s t s of s h o o t i n g down " n a z i p i g s " s t r i c t l y f o r f u n ; herb i s l a z y , b i t t e r , u n c o - o p e r a t i v e and o p e n l y contemptuous o f h i s n e i g h b o u r s . i n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e p e r t i n e n t q u a l i t y o f herb unger's speech i s i t s e l u s i v e a m b i g u i t y and s e m a n t i c openness. through d o u b l e - e n t e n d r e and n e u t r a l i n t o n a t i o n , . herb r e f u s e s t o commit h i m s e l f t o any s i n g l e meaning, and thus evades thorn's e f f o r t s t o d e f e a t him i n d e b a t e : "he spoke i n t h a t p e c u l i a r l y e x p r e s s i o n l e s s v o i c e t h a t he c o u l d employ o f such o c c a s i o n s ; t o each of them h i s words meant something q u i t e d i f f e r e n t " ( ) . i f b l o c k ' s v o i c e e p i t o m i s e s t h e o p p r e s s i v e e f f e c t s o f m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n , herb unger's u t t e r a n c e s p o i n t t o t h e danger which l i e s a t t h e o p p o s i t e extreme. the p l u r a l i t y o f a c c e n t s l a t e n t i n herb's u n a c c e n t e d d i s c o u r s e h i n t s a t t h e consequences o f a p p l y i n g t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e t o t h e b i b l e . what happens t o t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s i f one concedes t o t h e m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y , t h e h i s t o r i c i t y and c u l t u r a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f a l l v e r b a l s i g n s ? i n t h e o r y , god's word c o u l d d i s s o l v e i n t o a cacophony o f c o n f l i c t i n g r e l a t i v e t r u t h s and m o r a l l a w s . p a s t o r lepp c o n v i n c e s thorn t h a t "the t e a c h i n g s o f c h r i s t , r i g h t l y a p p l i e d " ( ) o f f e r t h e s o l u t i o n t o a l l m o r a l problems; t h e b i b l e c a r r i e s t h e s e " t e a c h i n g s " down t h r o u g h h i s t o r y . but i f t h e b i b l e can be r e - i n t e r p r e t e d i n each c o n t e x t o f r e - r e a d i n g - - b y r e i n f l e c t i n g i t s words, r a n k i n g i t s p a r t s i n t o new h i e r a r c h i e s , and a n n e x i n g i t i n t o new h i s t o r i c a l and v e r b a l c o n t e x t — h o w may thorn know whether o r not he a p p l i e s j e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s " r i g h t l y " ? the d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , t a k e n t o i t s f u r t h e s t extreme, c o n t e n d s t h a t a l l r e a d i n g s a r e e q u a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s e m a n t i c a l l y " r i g h t . " wiebe g l i m p s e s , b u t does not r i g o r o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. he r e t r e a t s from a v i s i o n o f a p o l y p h o n i c b i b l e v i a t h e n o t i o n o f t h e " l i t e r a l " r e a d i n g . i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, a l i t e r a l r e a d i n g of t h e b i b l e r e l e a s e s w h i c h e v e r meaning appears most " n a t u r a l " i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . f o r example, thorn argues t h a t "the b i b l e t e a c h e s 'love your n e i g h b o u r as y o u r s e l f . ' that means, i f y o u ' r e concerned about y o u r own s a l v a t i o n , be c o n c e r n e d about h i s t o o " ( ). thorn i n t e r p r e t s "neighbour" not i n t h e metonymical sense o f " h u m a n i t y - i n - g e n e r a l . " he r e f u s e s t o be f o r c e d , as was h i s o l d e r b r o t h e r , d a v i d , t o go t o f a r away p l a c e s such as i n d i a i n o r d e r t o l o v e h i s n e i g h b o u r . i n thorn's mind " n e i g h b o u r " denotes t h e p a r t i c u l a r n e i g h b o u r s he f i n d s about him i n h i s own h i s t o r i c and c u l t u r a l l y s p e c i f i c c o n t e x t : namely t h e moosomins and t h e m a c k e n z i e s and t h e l a b r e t s . by i n t r o d u c i n g t h e b i b l e t o n e i g h b o u r s whose h i s t o r y and c u l t u r e d i f f e r r a d i c a l l y from h i s own, thorn p l a c e s t h e b i b l e i n a new c o n t e x t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . thorn c o n d u c t s t h e b i b l e c l a s s e s on h i s n e i g h b o u r s ' "home ground," r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e c h u r c h o r s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s w h i c h , i n t h e i r minds, s i g n i f y " f o r e i g n t e r r i t o r y . " i n t h e i r own homes, t h e m e t i s c h i l d r e n annex t h e s t o r i e s i n t o t h e i r own c u l t u r a l l y - and h i s t o r i c a l l y - d e t e r m i n e d systems o f meaning, r e l e a s i n g i n t h e p r o c e s s , h i t h e r t o s u p p r e s s e d meanings o f t h e t e x t : as he [thorn] was d r a w i n g n e a r t h e c l o s e , n e a r l y d i s c o u r a g e d , some s t r a n g e b i b l i c a l d e t a i l caught a t s m a l l judy m a c k e n z i e and she, tongue l o o s e n e d a p p a r e n t l y by t h e home s u r r o u n d i n g s , f o r she had n e v e r b e f o r e spoken even when q u e s t i o n e d d i r e c t l y , a s k e d w i t h wide eyes, "mr wiens, you e v e r e a t g r a s s h o p p e r s ? " " w h y — n o — i — " n o n p l u s s e d p r o u d l y , " i d i d one, l a s t summer. phooey! they're t e r r i b l e s a l t y ! " . . . . b u t s t r a n g e l y , when t h e l a u g h t e r eased and he e x p l a i n e d t h a t p a l e s t i n i a n l o c u s t s were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m canadian g r a s s h o p p e r s and t h a t t h e d i e t o f " l o c u s t s and honey" meant t h a t john, l i v i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s , a t e o n l y such f o o d as t h e r e g i o n n a t u r a l l y p r o v i d e d , j a c k i e l a b r e t a s k e d q u i e t l y , "did he l i v e l i k e us when we go h u n t i n ' i n summer — b e r r i e s and f i s h and s t u f f ? " the u n e x p e c t e d p a r a l l e l amazed thorn. "why y e s , j a c k i e . john t h e b a p t i s t l i v e d l i k e t h a t , s i m p l y , e a t i n g what god p r o v i d e d . he was t o o busy d o i n g h i s j o b t o be c o n c e r n e d w i t h n i c e l y cooked meals as he spoke, thorn sensed a new element o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n w h i c h he had not b r u s h e d b e f o r e . he c o u l d e x p l a i n john's g r e a t urgency as he w a i t e d and t a u g h t i n t h e j o r d a n i a n w i l d e r n e s s , p r e p a r i n g a way f o r t h e redeemer, and t h e c h i l d r e n found a k e r n e l o f t r u t h i n h i s s t o r y . thorn c o u l d but m a r v e l a t t h e a t t e n t i o n on t h e f a c e s b e f o r e him, and t h e s t r a n g e p a t h by w h i c h i t had a r r i v e d t h e r e . ( ) the m e t i s c h i l d r e n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have v a l u e p r i m a r i l y because t h e y p r o v i d e thorn w i t h an o p e n i n g t o e x p l a i n t h e m o n o l o g i c " r i g h t r e a d i n g " o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . the i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e i n "a k e r n e l o f t r u t h " i m p l i c i t l y concedes t h a t a s t o r y might h o l d more t h a n one v a l i d meaning. and y e t , by i n v o k i n g t h e n o t i o n o f " a r r i v a l , " wiebe i m p l i e s t h a t u n t i l t h e c h i l d r e n f i n d t h e same k e r n e l o f t r u t h as thorn a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e s , t h e i r c h r i s t i a n i t y must remain not q u i t e a u t h e n t i c . a l t h o u g h wiebe cannot t o l e r a t e t h e monologism o f b l o c k ' s b i b l e , w h i c h remains s e m a n t i c a l l y l o c k e d i n t h e dungeon of a s i n g l e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , n e i t h e r can he f u l l y a l l o w t h e b i b l e ' s h e t e r o g l o s s i a . i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y manyr o n l y p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e t a k e s p l a c e between d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l groups on t h e s y n c h r o n i c p l a n e . nor, as t h e n o v e l ' s d u a l t i m e scheme d e m o n s t r a t e s , does wiebe g i v e f r e e r e i n t o t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e on t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . the n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many e s t a b l i s h e s two models of t i m e : one l i n e a r , t h e o t h e r c i r c u l a r o r c y c l i c a l . the main n a r r a t i v e t a k e s p l a c e i n h i s t o r i c a l t i m e , between s p r i n g and c h r i s t m a s , . each day, t h e r a d i o b r i n g s news o f t h e l a t e s t d i s a s t e r s and v i c t o r i e s on t h e european f r o n t . no-one can f o r e s e e p r e c i s e l y what w i l l happen n e x t ; h i s t o r y o f f e r s no p r e c e d e n t o f a war f o u g h t on so huge a s c a l e . the d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e f e e d s on a l i n e a r model o f h i s t o r y such as t h e main n a r r a t i v e o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many p r e s e n t s . each u n p r e c e d e n t e d moment o f f e r s a new c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e meaning o f e v e n t s and words. however, wiebe s t r u c t u r e s h i s n a r r a t i v e i n a manner w h i c h c r e a t e s a c o u n t e r p o i n t between t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y and c i r c u l a r i t y . the c i r c u l a r model does not deny t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e but i t does r e p r e s s h e t e r o g l o s s i a ( o r r e a l i z e d d i a l o g i c i t y ) by d i m i n i s h i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d elements i n c o n t e x t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . the f o u r p r e l u d e s , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o u r seasons o f t h e y e a r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a n n u a l l y r e c u r r i n g c h r i s t i a n f e s t i v a l s such as c h r i s t m a s and e a s t e r , e n v i s a g e h i s t o r y as a s e r i e s o f c i r c l e s , a s e r i e s o f r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e same p a r a d i g m a t i c e v e n t s . t h i s c i r c u l a r model, by e m p h a s i s i n g t h e r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h h i s t o r y r e p e a t s i t s e l f , c r e a t e s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a t i o n s w i l l a r r i v e a t t h e same f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e same p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h , v a l u e , m o r a l i t y and meaning. a g a i n , wiebe acknowledges t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t many v o i c e s may i n d e p e n d e n t l y a r r i v e a t t h e same u n i t a r y t r u t h , and t h a t "agreement [may] r e t a i n i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r " ( b a k h t i n , ) . by c o n s t r u c t i n g t i m e as b o t h l i n e a r and c i r c u l a r , wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e e t e r n a l t r u t h s and v a l u e s o f c h r i s t i a n i t y . and a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , wiebe r e a f f i r m s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t i m e l e s s t r u t h - w i t h - a - c a p i t a l - t . as t h e f i g h t e r p l a n e s b r e a c h e d thorn's narrow s o c i a l h o r i z o n i n t h e n o v e l ' s o p e n i n g scene, t h e c o n c e p t o f e t e r n a l , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h b r e a k s i n t o thorn's f i e l d o f v i s i o n , i n t h e form o f t h e s t a r w h i c h , i n t h e c h i l d r e n ' s c h r i s t m a s p l a y , appears i n t h e n i g h t sky. wiebe b r e a k s t h e c a p s u l e o f l i m i t e d v i s i o n t w i c e , i n o t h e r words: once when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e w a p i t i c h u r c h community a r e b r o k e n open, and a second t i m e when t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d s e c u l a r h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d s u d d e n l y v a n i s h — " t h e c u r t a i n was o p e n i n g " ( ) — t o r e v e a l a t r a n s c e n d e n t , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , i n w h i c h u l t i m a t e , m o n o l o g i c t r u t h , v a l u e and meaning come i n t o b e i n g . a s i m i l a r r e c o i l from t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e o c c u r s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e word. d r i v i n g home from t h e p l a y , and from t h e v i o l e n t t r a v e s t y o f t h e p l a y which e r u p t s a f t e r w a r d s i n t h e b a r n , thorn y e a r n s t o undo l i n e a r h i s t o r y , go back t o t h e d i s t a n t p a s t , and r e c o v e r t h e l o s t o r i g i n a l meaning of t h e word: c h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s s t o o d c l e a r i n t h e s c r i p t u r e s ; c o u l d he but s c r a p e them b a r e o f a l l t h e i r a c q u i r e d meanings and see them as t h o s e f i r s t d i s c i p l e s has done, t h e i r f e e t i n t h e d u s t o f g a l i l e e . ( ) wiebe e n v i s a g e s t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f r e n e w i n g t h e word d i a l o g i c a l l y as an e t e r n a l approach t o t h i s p o s t u l a t e d o r i g i n a l a u t h o r i t a t i v e word. t h i s p r o v i s o t h a t d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s e s of d i s c o v e r y must always have a p o s t u l a t e d anchor o r g o a l s i g n i f i e s wiebe's r e l u c t a n c e t o r e l i n q u i s h m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n . v a l t h o u g h wiebe b e g i n s t o e x p l o r e t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e a t a t h e m a t i c l e v e l i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, he shows l i t t l e i n t e r e s t a t t h i s s t a g e i n d e v i s i n g e f f e c t i v e means o f a c t i v a t i n g i t i n h i s t e x t . wiebe does not as y e t heed h i s own a d v i c e about s p e a k i n g i n d i r e c t l y : on many o c c a s i o n s i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n c r e t e s t o r y o f f e r s t o o t h i n a camouflage f o r wiebe's m o n o l o g i c m o r a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r h e t o r i c . a l m o s t a l l t h e d i a l o g u e m a n i f e s t i n t h e n o v e l t a k e s t h e form o f " c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , " and wiebe a l l o w s l i t t l e o r no doubt as t o where he s t a n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o each o f t h e v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many c o n t a i n s no " ' g r e a t d i a l o g u e ' i n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s and a u t h o r p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h e g u a l r i g h t s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . wiebe endeavours t o dominate t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t no l e s s t h a n deacon b l o c k endeavours t o r u l e w a p i t i . and as b l o c k t r i e s t o mediate between w a p i t i and t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , wiebe a t t e m p t s t o m e d i a t e between t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s and h i s r e a d e r s . any d i a l o g i c elements w h i c h e n t e r peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many do so not t h r o u g h wiebe's d e l i b e r a t e a u t h o r i z a t i o n , b u t as a r e s u l t o f t h e m o r a l , i d e o l o g i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f h i s r e a d e r s . notes to chapter : peace shall destroy many . wiebe uses t h i s e x p r e s s i o n when d e s c r i b i n g h i s own e x p e r i e n c e o f s u d d e n l y expanded h o r i z o n s i n neuman . . u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l page numbers a p p e a r i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n c h a p t e r r e f e r t o peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ). . b a k h t i n d i s c u s s e s d o s t o e v s k y ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f "agreement w h i c h r e t a i n s i t s d i a l o g i c c h a r a c t e r " i n problems o f d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s , . . j . m. k e r t z e r , " b i o c r i t i c a l e s s a y , " the rudy wiebe p a p e r s f i r s t a c c e s s i o n : an i n v e n t o r y o f t h e a r c h i v e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y l i b r a r i e s , ed. j e a n f. tener and a p p o l l o n i a s t e e l e ( c a l g a r y : u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y p r e s s , ) i x . . c f . w. j . k e i t h ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f wiebe's sense o f a u d i e n c e i n "where i s t h e v o i c e g o i n g to? wiebe and h i s readers," paper d e l i v e r e d a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e on "mennonite/s w r i t i n g i n canada," may . . herman paektau's i l l e g i t i m a c y , and deacon b l o c k ' s l a c k o f g u i d a n c e d u r i n g c h i l d h o o d show t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f b l o c k ' s myth'of t h e wisdom o f t h e f a t h e r s . . i n t h e f i r s t w o r l d war, a l l mennonites l i v i n g i n canada were a u t o m a t i c a l l y exempted from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e under t h e terms o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' o r i g i n a l i m m i g r a t i o n agreement w i t h t h e dominion government. but t h o s e who e n t e r e d canada between and , i n t h e second g r e a t m i g r a t i o n from r u s s i a , were a d m i t t e d on t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e y were l e g a l l y o b l i g e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e l i k e any o t h e r canadian c i t i z e n s i n t h e d e f e n c e o f t h e i r c o u n t r y . wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t t h e mennonites o f w a p i t i came t o canada i n t h e second wave o f m i g r a t i o n . f o r a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e r u s s l a n d e r s ' l e g a l and m o r a l p o s i t i o n , see e . k . f r a n c i s , in s e a r c h o f u t o p i a : t h e mennonites i n m a n i t o b a ( g l e n c o e : the f r e e p r e s s , ) - . . t h i s t e r m was c o i n e d by t h e a r t c r i t i c , r o b e r t hughes, whose book and t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s on m o d e r n i s t p a i n t i n g were e n t i t l e d the shock o f t h e new. . s p e c i e s i i n b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y scheme. . wiebe c r e a t e s a s i m i l a r t e n s i o n between sameness and d i f f e r e n c e by g i v i n g b i b l i c a l names t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s . as joseph dueck p o i n t s out i n h i s l e t t e r t o thorn, t h e i n d i v i d u a l s concerned may i n some r e s p e c t s be s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h e i r b i b l i c a l namesakes, but be s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i n o t h e r r e s p e c t s . . s p e c i e s i i i n b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y system. chapter : first and vital candle how s h a l l we speak about h i s t o r y ? i f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e c o n t a i n s a l l t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f a p o p u l a r a d v e n t u r e romance: a s t r o n g , s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t p r o t a g o n i s t , a d i a b o l i c a l a n t a g o n i s t , p r i s t i n e n o r t h e r n - w i l d e r n e s s s c e n e r y , c o l o u r f u l ' d e p i c t i o n s o f n a t i v e p e o p l e s and t h e i r customs, a s u s p e n s e f u l p l o t p u n c t u a t e d by scenes of v i o l e n c e , and a l o v e a f f a i r w h i c h ends w i t h t h e d e a t h o f t h e main f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i n a s p e c t a c u l a r n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r . wiebe s e a r c h e s f o r c h a r a c t e r s and s t o r i e s w h i c h might command t h e a t t e n t i o n o f a w i d e r , more d i v e r s e r e a d e r s h i p , an a u d i e n c e not ( c o n s c i o u s l y ) i n t e r e s t e d i n m o r a l o r s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t , abe ross, p r o f e s s e s not t o be i n t e r e s t e d i n such m a t t e r s . compared w i t h thorn wiens, a devout mennonite, abe ross i s a c h a r a c t e r w i t h whom a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f r e a d e r s m i g h t i m a g i n a t i v e l y i d e n t i f y . f i r s t and v i t a l candle t r a c e s abe's g r a d u a l d i s c o v e r y o f h i s deep need f o r l o v e and a f i x e d s p i r i t u a l o r i e n t a t i o n a m i d s t t h e f e a r , g r e e d and a l i e n a t i o n o f n o r t h american c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y d u r i n g t h e c o l d war e r a . by f o c u s s i n g on a "modern everyman" ( k e i t h a, ) , wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e r e l e v a n c e o f j e s u s ' message o f l o v e and peace i n such a way t h a t "the p e r s o n who i s n o n - r e l i g i o u s . . . can say, yes, t h a t i s a p o s s i b l e e x p e r i e n c e " (cameron, ). in h i s c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n o f abe ross, wiebe demonstrates what b a k h t i n c a l l s "an a c u t e awareness o f t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r , t h e a d d r e s s e e t o whom i t i s d i r e c t e d " ( b a k h t i n , ). l i k e a l l r h e t o r i c i a n s , wiebe " t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o t h e r ' s p o s s i b l e r e a c t i o n s , t h e o t h e r ' s p o s s i b l e r e p l y " ( b a k h t i n , ). i n f a c t , on one l e v e l , f i r s t and v i t a l candle i s p r e c i s e l y about t h e r e a c t i o n s o f an i n t e r l o c u t o r . i n s t e a d of i g n o r i n g o r d e n y i n g t h e f a c t t h a t many r e a d e r s f e e l i n t i m i d a t e d by any d i s c o u r s e t h a t resembles a sermon, wiebe f o c u s e s d i r e c t l y on t h i s p r o b l e m . he pre-empts, p a r r i e s , and e x p l a i n s t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r ' s p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i o n s t o c h r i s t i a n r h e t o r i c , i n d e e d t o a n y t h i n g t h a t r e s e m b l e s an o v e r t message i n a work o f a r t . n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s see r e f l e c t e d i n abe t h e i r own h o s t i l i t y o r i n d i f f e r e n c e towards t h e word o f god. however, as wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e r e a s o n s b e h i n d such h o s t i l i t y , he i n t i m a t e s t h a t i t c o n c e a l s a deeper a m b i v a l e n c e . ^ through abe, wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e c o n f l i c t i n g needs o f a l l who s e a r c h f o r meaning, whether t h e y s e a r c h i n t h e w o r l d o f v e r b a l o r n o n - v e r b a l s i g n s . abe's s i t u a t i o n i s analogous t o t h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f r e a d e r s , as t h e y attempt t o o r i e n t themselves a m i d s t t h e p o s s i b l e systems o f meaning t h a t p e r t a i n i n t h e t e x t . abe runs from t h e t y r a n n i c a l m o n o l o g i c v o i c e of t h e p r e a c h e r , y e t he cannot t o l e r a t e t h e d i s s i p a t i o n o f meaning which p o l y p h o n y , u n h i e r a r c h i s e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a , u l t i m a t e l y i m p l i e s . he r e s i s t s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f any s i n g l e p e r m a n e n t l y s o v e r e i g n v o i c e , y e t y e a r n s t o f i n d some s o r t o f l i n g u i s t i c c e n t r e , o r some s t a b l e h i e r a r c h y o f l a n g u a g e s f o r c o n f e r r i n g meaning on t h e w o r l d . s i m i l a r l y , wiebe's h y p o t h e t i c a l n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r r e c o i l s from any work, o f a r t t h a t parades i t s message t o o o v e r t l y , y e t cannot q u i t e s u p p r e s s t h e l i n g e r i n g hope o f f i n d i n g some s p i r i t u a l l y s u s t a i n i n g k e r n e l of meaning i n t h e t e x t . l i k e peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e p r e s e n t s a t h e s i s , b u t i t does so f a r more s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y t h a n t h e e a r l i e r n o v e l . in f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , wiebe d r a m a t i s e s t h e many p i t f a l l s w h i c h f a c e e v a n g e l i s t i c c h r i s t i a n s such as h i m s e l f . in s e c u l a r genres such as t h e n o v e l , t h e word o f god e n j o y s no i n s u l a t i o n from o r d i n a r y human words. o u t s i d e t h e p r o t e c t i v e cocoons o f r i t u a l and s a c r e d space, t h e n o v e l t r a n s m i t s t h e word o f god t o an u n f o r e s e e a b l e v a r i e t y of s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s where i t must s t a n d up a g a i n s t , o r be v a n q u i s h e d by, t h e f u l l f o r c e o f t h e w i d e r w o r l d ' s s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e s . an emblematic image i n f i r s t and v i t a l candle i s t h e s i g n "jesus saves," squeezed between " b i g a u c t i o n e v e r y day. pm new and used c l o t h i n g " and " s c h n i t z l e r good sausages and meats" (fvc ). how might wiebe make "jesus saves" s t a n d out from a l l o t h e r t r u t h s which a s s a u l t h i s r e a d e r s ' awareness, w i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o t h e s t r i d e n t , t y r a n n i c a l r h e t o r i c o f adam ross, who " t h u n d e r [ s ] what...the l o r d had stomped i n t o him" ( )? h a v i n g a r t i c u l a t e d h i s commitment t o t h e i d e a l o f non- a g g r e s s i o n i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, how might wiebe b e g i n t o implement t h a t i d e a l i n h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h o s e who r e a d h i s n o v e l s ? in f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , wiebe endeavours t o s o l v e t h i s dilemma by r e - a t t u n i n g t h e ear o f t h e r e a d e r . i n s t e a d o f s p e a k i n g more s t r i d e n t l y and d i r e c t l y , t u r n i n g up t h e volume as i t were, he a t t e m p t s t o r e - s e n s i t i z e h i s r e a d e r s ' r e c e i v i n g a p p a r a t u s . wiebe " p o s i t i o n s " r e a d e r s c a r e f u l l y i n t h e hope t h a t t h e y might hear an o l d message from a new a n g l e . he b r e a k s t h e e n g l i s h language i n t o i t s component speech g e n r e s , w h i c h he s o r t s and e v a l u a t e s a g a i n s t t h e m o r a l c r i t e r i a a r t i c u l a t e d i n j e s u s ' u t t e r a n c e s . a l t h o u g h f i r s t and v i t a l candle l a c k s t h e c o n s p i c u o u s i n t e r n a l b o r d e r l i n e s w h i c h g i v e the b l u e mountains of c h i n a and the temptations o f b i g bear t h e i r c o l l a g e - l i k e appearance, i t c o n t a i n s a network o f i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s , some t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y marked, o t h e r s h a l f - h i d d e n o r c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e u t t e r a n c e . e x t e n d e d passages o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e appear a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s i n t h e t e x t , and wiebe's i n t e r e s t i n i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d words c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p . in f i f t e e n o f t h e n o v e l ' s e i g h t e e n c h a p t e r s , t h e v o i c e o f abe ross b l e n d s and i n t e r w e a v e s w i t h t h e v o i c e o f an o m n i s c i e n t t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a t o r ; abe's v o i c e a l o n e n a r r a t e s t h e t h r e e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s . f i r s t and v i t a l candle m a n i f e s t s a g r e a t e r degree o f speech d i v e r s i t y t h a n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. however t h a t d i v e r s i t y c o n t i n u e s t o s e r v e r h e t o r i c a l r a t h e r t h a n e x p l o r a t o r y p u r p o s e s . i i the s t o r y o f abe ross conforms t o t h e b i b l i c a l a r c h e t y p e o f t h e p r o d i g a l son. both sons w a l k a c i r c u l a r p a t h o f e x i l e and r e t u r n , l o s s and r e d i s c o v e r y . abe a l s o t r a v e l s a c i r c u l a r p a t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e word of god. a t t h e age o f s e v e n t e e n , he l e a v e s b e h i n d h i s f a t h e r ' s v o i c i n g o f god's words; a t f o r t y , abe r e d i s c o v e r s t h e word of god r e a c c e n t u a t e d i n t h e mouths o f s a l l y h o w e l l and j o s h b i s h o p . i n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , abe wanders i n a w i l d e r n e s s o f v o i c e s , l o n e l y , s p i r i t u a l l y empty and d e s p a i r i n g a t l i f e ' s m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s and f u t i l i t y . wiebe's t e x t t a k e s up abe's s t o r y i n medias r e s . i n t h e c h a p t e r s , , and , i n which abe " r e s t s " i n w i n n i p e g , wiebe uses abe's f i e l d o f awareness as a d e v i c e t o r e g i s t e r t h e c o n f u s i n g m u l t i t u d e o f speech genres w h i c h crowd i n t o , f r a c t u r e , and f i n a l l y numb c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c i t y e n v i r o n m e n t s . the winnipeg s e c t i o n o f f i r s t and v i t a l candle d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h wiebe d i f f e r s from b a k h t i n i n h i s a t t i t u d e towards a l l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f p o l y p h o n y . through abe, f r e s h from t h e v e r b a l s p a r s e n e s s o f t h e a r c t i c , wiebe d e - n a t u r a l i s e s t h e c i t y d w e l l e r s ' "normal a d j u s t m e n t " ( ) t o t h e i r p o l y p h o n i c e n v i r o n m e n t . he d r a m a t i s e s t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t of t h a t environment on t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g , and s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f . wiebe does not employ polyphony i n t h e e x u b e r a n t c e l e b r a t o r y mode o f p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s such as robert k r o e t s c h o r george b o w e r i n g . on t h e c o n t r a r y , he suggests t h a t a p l u r a l i t y o f f u l l y v a l i d v o i c e s t h r e a t e n s c o h e r e n t t h o u g h t , p a r a l y s e s e m o t i o n , and undermines s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f . wiebe s t y l i z e s p o l y p h o n y most c o n c r e t e l y i n c h a p t e r s and o f f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , i n t h e scenes o f t h e k i n c o n n e l l s ' p a r t y and t h e red v i n e c l u b . by p l a c i n g abe i n crowded, n o i s y , c l a u s t r o p h o b i c rooms, where v o i c e s become e n s n a r l e d and b r o k e n and no s i n g l e t h r e a d o f d i s c o u r s e can be f o l l o w e d t o i t s end, wiebe g u i d e s h i s r e a d e r s toward an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c m i l i e u and i t s e f f e c t s on t h e p s y c h e . in b o t h of t h e s e scenes o f cacophony, abe cannot t o l e r a t e t h e n o i s e . to s h i e l d h i m s e l f f r o m t h e " i n c r e d i b l e c l a c k i n g r a c k e t " ( ) i n t h e k i n c o n n e l l s ' basement, he f i r s t " d e l i b e r a t e l y s h u t [ s ] out h i s h e a r i n g " ( ) and t h e n d r i n k s h i m s e l f i n t o o b l i v i o n . a t t h e red v i n e c l u b , h i s b e h a v i o u r f o l l o w s a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n : ...as he now s a t , b e a t e n by clamour, w a i l s , s h o u t s , b a r k s , f o o t - s t o m p i n g , and t h e l o w - t o n e d w h i s p e r s from t h e a d j a c e n t t a b l e s a l l r a n t o g e t h e r i n one g r i n d i n g cacophony h a l l e l u j a h amen when my baby s m i l e s a t me...o j e s u s j e s u s j e s u s how i l o v e you j e s u s s a f e i n your arms o d a r l i n g s a f e on y o u r g e n t l e b r e a s t t h e r e by your l o v e i g o t j u s t what i wanted i g o t j u s t what i needed as i f dropped i n t o a v o i d , s u d d e n l y a l l was gone. a f t e r a moment abe r e a l i z e d he was slumped down on a r e d - l e a t h e r s e a t , head i n h i s arms as i f t o s h i e l d s o m e t h i n g v i t a l from a n n i h i l a t i o n . he s a t up t h e n , l o o k e d a c r o s s t h e room and w i t h o u t a b r e a k o f movement r o s e and went t o t h e t a b l e where j i m was l e a n i n g back, p i c k i n g up t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h t h e t h r e e g i r l s . "jim, i'm s o r r y t o i n t e r r u p t , b u t i t ' s l a t e and i'm g o i n g . " ( ) f a r f r o m f e e l i n g e n r i c h e d o r l i b e r a t e d by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s o f p o l y p h o n y , abe's o v e r l o a d e d awareness b l a c k s o u t . swamped by r e l e n t l e s s waves o f p r e s e n t and remembered p a s t v e r b a l d i n , c o n s c i o u s n e s s does not r i s e t o new p i n n a c l e s o f freedom and e n l i g h t e n m e n t ; i t s i n k s i n t o o b l i v i o n . d u r i n g h i s t i m e i n w i n n i p e g , abe s t r a i n s t o hear some s i n g l e v o i c e he can f o l l o w . f l e e t i n g l y , a m i d s t the cacophony, he h e a r s words w h i c h seem t o speak t o him i n a s p e c i a l way. but t h e y a r e a u d i b l e o n l y i n f r a g m e n t s , i n s n a t c h e s o f memory, s c r a p s o f g r a f f i t i , moments o f h e i g h t e n e d awareness l i s t e n i n g t o bach. b e f o r e abe can even name h i s f l i c k e r i n g i n t i m a t i o n s , o t h e r languages and v o i c e s b e s i e g e h i s f i e l d o f awareness, c l a s h i n g v i o l e n t l y and b r e a k i n g a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r . abe's e x p e r i e n c e s d r a m a t i s e t h e unanchored mind's f u t i l e and e x h a u s t i n g s e a r c h f o r meaning i n p o l y p h o n i c space. they a l s o a l l o w wiebe t o d r a m a t i s e s h i s own p r o b l e m a t i c p o s i t i o n as an e v a n g e l i c a l c h r i s t i a n w r i t e r i n a complex, cacophonous, h e t e r o g l o t w o r l d , where p e o p l e h a b i t u a l l y b l o c k out a l l u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h do not i m m e d i a t e l y s a t i s f y t h e i r most p r e s s i n g needs. f i r s t and v i t a l .candle t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t i t s own " d i a l o g i z i n g background" ( b a k h t i n , ) , t h e m a n i f o l d e x i s t i n g u t t e r a n c e s t o w h i c h i t r e p l i e s and a g a i n s t w h i c h i t must d e f i n e i t s e l f i n t h e p u b l i c domain. a number o f c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e n o v e l e x e m p l i f y t h e way wiebe does n o t want t o sound. the o v e r - e m p h a t i c u t t e r a n c e s o f s h e r r i s k i n c o n n e l l r e i f y speech a d a p t e d t o t h a t most dense o f p o l y p h o n i c m i l i e u x , t h e crowded p a r t y . wiebe's i t a l i c s i n d i c a t e s h e r r i s ' s e x a g g e r a t e d i n t o n a t i o n : "he was so unhappy b u t he had t o c a t c h a p l a n e t o n i g h t " ( ) . an i n f l a t e d v e r b a l c u r r e n c y , her words c a r r y l i t t l e s i n c e r i t y o r s e m a n t i c v a l u e . her over-abundant a d j e c t i v e s s t r a i n upwards i n t o t h e r e a l m of s u p e r l a t i v e s and empty h y p e r b o l e : " a b s o l u t e l y d e l i g h t f u l " ( ) , " c o m p l e t e l y i n t r i g u e d " ( ) , "so d r e a d f u l l y narrow" ( ) , " a b s o l u t e l y y e a r s " ( ) , "so happy you came!" ( ) , " a b s o l u t e l y p r o s t r a t e " ( ) . the speech of t h e s o c i e t y h o s t e s s b e a r s t h e s c a r s o f her c o n s t a n t b a t t l e t o command a t t e n t i o n a m i d s t a crowd o f competing v o i c e s . s i m i l a r l y , t h e " s t r i d e n t v o i c e o f t h e p r e a c h e r " ( ) and t h e " r o c k - c r u s h e r t o n e s o f t h e g i r l s i n g i n g [above] h e r e l e c t r i c g u i t a r " ( - ) i l l u s t r a t e how t h e word o f god becomes d i s t o r t e d and u n r e c o g n i s a b l e as e v a n g e l i s t s t r y more and more d e s p e r a t e l y t o a m p l i f y i t above t h e c o m p e t i n g d i n . the t e x t o f f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e m a n i f e s t s p o l y p h o n y o n l y t o r e i f y and denounce i t . p o l y p h o n y becomes a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e t e x t , an u n p l e a s a n t b u t n e c e s s a r y s t a g e i n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l and s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n t o r e s t o r e t h e l o s t o r u n r e c o g n i s e d a u t h o r i t y o f god's v o i c e . f o r wiebe, p o l y p h o n y f u n c t i o n s as a means t o a m o n o l o g i c end, not as an end i n i t s e l f . he c o n d u c t s abe t h r o u g h o r beyond an e x p e r i e n c e o f p o l y p h o n y towards a n o t h e r g o a l . because wiebe h a r n e s s e s h i s r e a d e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s t o t h o s e of abe ross, t h e r e a d e r , t o o , must endure a c o n f u s i n g p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d v o i c e s , b e f o r e moving beyond t h a t e x p e r i e n c e t o r e a c h a new p e r c e p t i o n o f o r d e r and c o h e r e n t meaning. l i k e t h e p r o d i g a l son, who had t o g e t l o s t b e f o r e he c o u l d be found,. wiebe's r e a d e r s e x p e r i e n c e c y c l e s o f o r i e n t a t i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n and r e o r i e n t a t i o n as t h e y n e g o t i a t e a p a t h t h r o u g h a t e x t w h i c h moves r e p e a t e d l y from monologue i n t o p o l y p h o n y and on towards a new h i e r a r c h y o f v o i c e s . in t h e o p e n i n g p a r a g r a p h s , as abe wanders t h e crowded n i g h t - t i m e s t r e e t s o f winnipeg, wiebe d r a m a t i s e s a mind " l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y " ( ) but s e e i n g n o t h i n g , a mind t r y i n g t o c a t c h h o l d o f something, y e t open t o t o o many i m p r e s s i o n s t o h o l d f a s t t o any one o f them. abe cannot o r d e r o r rank h i s p e r c e p t i o n s . h i s w o r l d r e s e m b l e s a m e a n i n g l e s s t e x t i n w h i c h e v e r y element c a r r i e s an e q u a l a c c e n t . wiebe's grammar, p u n c t u a t i o n and s y n t a x f o r c e r e a d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n abe's d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , by s u b v e r t i n g t h e p r o c e s s o f " v o i c i n g , " o r a c c o r d i n g r e l a t i v e w e i g h t t o t h e words and s y l l a b l e s o f t h e t e x t : he had been w a l k i n g a l o n g p o r t a g e avenue f o r more t h a n an hour, g l a n c e s e a r c h i n g out f i r s t a s t o r e window, t h e n a c a r g l i d i n g by under t h r o t t l e d power, l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y though come t h e e v e n i n g ' s end and d r o p p i n g i n t o bed he would remember not one d e t a i l o f t h e mass, c o u p l e s c h a t t i n g as t h e y p a s s e d o b l i v i o u s , when l o o k i n g down i n t o a r e s t a u r a n t below s t r e e t l e v e l abe ross saw t h e g i r l s e a t e d a l o n e a t t h e t a b l e . ...he was by, t h e w h i t e image o f t h e g i r l d r i f t i n g p a s t h i s memory l i k e any m y r i a d o f shapes p a s s e d and f o r g o t t e n i n who c o u l d r e c o l l e c t how may towns and t e n t s and c i t i e s and farmhouses, and he s t o p p e d . ( ) the d i s o r i e n t i n g e f f e c t o f t h i s passage a r i s e s not because wiebe p r o b l e m a t i z e t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t , but t h r o u g h wiebe's momentary p l u r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a c c e n t s o f t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . each s e n t e n c e e s t a b l i s h e s a p a r t i c u l a r s y n t a c t i c d i r e c t i o n o r n a r r a t i v e l i n e i n i t s i n i t i a l c l a u s e , l o s e s i t s way i n a t a n g l e o f r i g h t - b r a n c h i n g s u b o r d i n a t e p h r a s e s and c l a u s e s , and t h e n r e c o v e r s i t s o r i g i n a l p a t h i n a second main c l a u s e w h i c h t e r m i n a t e s t h e s e n t e n c e . b o t h s e n t e n c e s become s u b t l y m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i n t h e i r m i d d l e s e c t i o n s , where t h e more t h a n one p o s s i b l e . s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e can be d i s c e r n e d . how, f o r example, s h o u l d r e a d e r s v o i c e t h e embedded q u e s t i o n i n t h e second s e n t e n c e ? s h o u l d "who c o u l d r e c o l l e c t how many towns and t e n t s and c i t i e s and farmhouses" be spoken w i t h a r i s i n g i n t e r r o g a t i v e p i t c h ? or w i t h t h e f a l l i n g p i t c h o f a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n ? or w i t h t h e l e v e l p i t c h i n d i c a t e d by t h e v e r y s u b o r d i n a t e g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h i s c l a u s e i n l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f t h e s e n t e n c e ? wiebe's t e x t p e r m i t s t h e mind's e a r t o hear s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e r e a d i n g s o r " v o i c i n g s " o f t h e s e words. i n c o n s i s t e n t p u n c t u a t i o n a l s o confounds t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . by o m i t t i n g a comma between "when" and " l o o k i n g " and between " l e v e l " and "abe" i n t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e , wiebe c o n f r o n t s r e a d e r s w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g s i g n a l s f o r p a u s i n g and s t r e s s . on o c c a s i o n s , s y n t a x and p u n c t u a t i o n i s s u e c o n t r a d i c t o r y commands. t h e ' s y n t a x of t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e t e l l s t h e v o i c e t o pause between "passed" and " o b l i v i o u s , " b u t t h e absence o f a comma i m p l i e s t h a t " o b l i v i o u s " i s t h e o b j e c t o f "passed,". and t h a t no pause s h o u l d s e p a r a t e t h e s e two words. unorthodox p u n c t u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y when c o u p l e d w i t h c o n v o l u t e d s y n t a x , c r e a t e s g r a m m a t i c a l and semantic a m b i g u i t i e s w h i c h f u r t h e r b a f f l e t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e . f o r example, "a c a r g l i d i n g by under t h r o t t l e d power, l o o k i n g i n t e n s e l y , " and " d r o p p i n g i n t o bed he would remember" m i g h t each be a r t i c u l a t e d e i t h e r as i n s t a n c e s o f e l l i p s i s , o r as examples o f m i s p l a c e d m o d i f i e r s . a t t h e same t i m e , p a s t and p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s such as " t h r o t t l e d , " " l o o k i n g , " " d r o p p i n g , " " c h a t t i n g , " " s e a t e d , " " p a s t , " and " f o r g o t t e n " c o n f u s e t h e r e a d e r ' s sense o f t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y , and b l u r t h e v o c a l d i s t i n c t i o n s between a d j e c t i v e s and v e r b s . how s h o u l d t h e r e a d i n g v o i c e r e s o l v e t h e s e a m b i g u i t i e s ? the p o i n t t o be s t r e s s e d , however, i s t h a t t h e m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s i s temporary and i l l u s o r y . wiebe's g r a m m a t i c a l a m b i g u i t i e s , h i s unorthodox p u n c t u a t i o n and h i s s y n t a c t i c c o n v o l u t i o n s postpone but do not p r e v e n t t h e r e a d e r ' s d i s c o v e r y o f a p o s i t i o n from which t h e meaning o f t h e s e n t e n c e can be known. w i t h i n t h e space o f each o f t h e s e s e n t e n c e s , r e a d e r s undergo a p r o c e s s of d i s o r i e n t a t i o n as wiebe c r e a t e s an a r r a y o f e q u a l l y v i a b l e o p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e manner i n which t h e words and p h r a s e s s h o u l d be h e a r d . but t h i s d i s o r i e n t a t i o n i s f o l l o w e d by a sudden r e - o r i e n t a t i o n , as t h e s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e p a t t e r n s o f a c c e n t u a t i o n , pace, p i t c h and p a u s i n g r e s o l v e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a s i n g l e " r i g h t " v o c a l i s a t i o n . wiebe s u b j e c t s r e a d e r s t o a s i m i l a r c y c l e o f d i s o r i e n t a t i o n f o l l o w e d by r e o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e space o f c e r t a i n p a r a g r a p h s i n t h e t e x t . l i k e t h e b e a u t i f u l f e m a l e s t r a n g e r whom abe f o l l o w s i n c h a p t e r , t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t r e p e a t e d l y g e t s l o s t i n a crowd o f o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s , o n l y t o re-emerge f u r t h e r on: [ ] a t a x i e a s e d p a s t , t h e d r i v e r t r y i n g t o c a t c h h i s eyef [ ] she m i g h t have t a k e n one. you c o u l d w a l k f o r a week i n w i n n i p e g and i f — [ ] why was i so s t u p i d ? — [ ] he paused a t t h e [ ]"don't walk," [ ] t h e c u r b b a l a n c i n g h i s f e e t . a s c a t t e r o f p e o p l e w a i t e d a c r o s s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n . [ ] b u s - s t o p . [ ] the l i g h t f l i c k e d and he c r o s s e d knowing a l r e a d y she was not among them. he s t r o d e t h r o u g h o b l i v i o u s and j u s t beyond t h e r e s t a u r a n t a t t h e c o r n e r t h r o u g h t h e d o u b l e g l a s s o f a s t o r e t h e edge o f h i s g l a n c e snagged a g a i n s t [ t h e ] b l u e [ o f her c l o a k ] . ( ) the o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e b e g i n s t h i s passage ( s e c t i o n ) , breaks t h r o u g h i n t e r m i t t e n t l y i n t h e m i d d l e s e c t i o n s ( and ) , and r e c o v e r s i t s former dominance i n s e c t i o n . t h i s v o i c e merges w i t h abe's i n n e r monologue i n s e c t i o n s and ; i t quotes t h e "don't walk" s i g n i n s e c t i o n ; w h i l e i n s e c t i o n abe's, v o i c e b r i e f l y b r e a k s t h r o u g h by i t s e l f . a g a i n , a c y c l i c movement becomes a p p a r e n t . in s e c t i o n s t o i n c l u s i v e , wiebe sometimes b l e n d s , sometimes i n t e r l a c e s t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e w i t h abe's v o i c e and w i t h what might be c a l l e d "the v o i c e s o f t h e c i t y . " y e t i n s e c t i o n , he r e s t o r e s t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i v e v o i c e t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n o f dominance i n t h e p a r a g r a p h . a c o n g r u e n t c y c l e o f monologue l o s t and r e s t o r e d can be d i s c e r n e d on a l a r g e r s c a l e w i t h i n t h e n o v e l as a whole. no sooner have r e a d e r s o r i e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s and found t h e i r way onto t h e main n a r r a t i v e f r e e w a y t h a n wiebe d i v e r t s them i n t o t h e o b s c u r e , bumpy byways o f f l a s h b a c k , a l l e g o r y , and numerous as y e t i l l - d e f i n e d i n s e r t e d u t t e r a n c e s and n a r r a t i v e modes: s i g n s , p l a q u e s , g r a f f i t i , songs, fragments o f remembered speech, p r i c e t a g s , a b u s i n e s s c a r d , abe's b r i e f i n t e r j e c t o r y f i r s t p e r s o n e x c l a m a t i o n s and q u e s t i o n s , t o u r i s t g u i d e p a t t e r , a newspaper a d v e r t i s e m e n t , s n a t c h e s o f t h e b i b l e , s c r a p s o f p a r t y - t a l k , t h e i n t i m a t e s e c u l a r c o n f e s s i o n s between c l o s e f r i e n d s , t h e s u s t a i n e d f l a s h b a c k o f chapter , and abe's a r c t i c a d v e n t u r e s t o r y cum p a r a b l e i n chapter . amongst t h e d i v e r s e u t t e r a n c e s and speech genres w h i c h p e n e t r a t e t h e w o r l d c r e a t e d by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f r e a l i s m , r e a d e r s l o s e s i g h t o f t h e landmarks w h i c h i n i t i a l l y gave them t h e i r b e a r i n g s i n t h e w o r l d o f t h e n o v e l . where, one wonders, i s t h i s s t o r y g o i n g ? from a v a n t a g e p o i n t a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , wiebe's s t r a t e g y becomes c l e a r : wiebe s u b j e c t s t h e d i s c o u r s e of t h e t e x t t o c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r o r g a n i s i n g i t around a new c e n t r e . i n i t i a l l y , wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s a dominant n a r r a t i v e v o i c e i n t h e t e x t , a v o i c e i n w h i c h abe and an anonymous o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r speak i n u n i s o n . wiebe t h e n f r a c t u r e s t h e d i s c o u r s e i n c h a p t e r s t o , as a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o h i s subsequent r e a s s e m b l y o f t h e b r o k e n p i e c e s i n t o a new h i e r a r c h y . from c h a p t e r onwards, t h e d i s o r i e n t e d r e a d e r g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e s a new o r i e n t a t i o n within the f i e l d of the text. across the course of the novel as a whole, the reader's d i s o r i e n t a t i o n diminishes f o r two main reasons. f i r s t , the texture of the language changes when the action s h i f t s from one verbal milieu to another. when abe moves from winnipeg to frozen lake, and begins to define and h i e r a r c h i z e the voices and languages he hears i n the world, these voices and languages o s s i f y and f a l l into ranks within the f i e l d of the text. wiebe begins to group the l i n g u i s t i c scraps together, d i s t r i b u t i n g them consistently between the utterances of d i f f e r e n t characters. he gradually builds the chopped and vaguely-defined fragments of part into the s o l i d , substantial, i n t e r n a l l y consistent blocks of speech which duel against one another i n the extended dialogues of parts , and . characters such as john marsden, amos quequeish, s a l l y howell and josh bishop speak as ideologues, as mouthpieces f o r d i s t i n c t v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s . the s o c i a l struggle i m p l i c i t i n the i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y of the early chapters emerges more and more into the open, i n the compositionally marked dialogues which occur i n the l a t e r portions of the text. there, the characters engage i n debate expressly about the virtues and l i m i t a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t ways of t a l k i n g about the world. the second reason d i s o r i e n t a t i o n diminishes i s that the r e a d e r l e a r n s p r o g r e s s i v e l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s i n t h e jumble of speech g e n r e s embedded i n t h e t e x t . r e o r i e n t a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e t e m p o r a l as w e l l as t h e s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n . i n s t e a d o f h e a r i n g a cacophony, r e a d e r s b e g i n t o hear ranked c h o r u s e s o r f a m i l i e s o f v o i c e s which e v e n t u a l l y converge i n t o a s i n g l e h i e r a r c h y n e a r t h e end o f t h e t e x t . wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e s between t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c e r t a i n speech g e n r e s . he t r a i n s t h e r e a d e r t o hear s i m i l a r i t y and d i f f e r e n c e a c c o r d i n g t o new c r i t e r i a . r e - r e a d i n g t h e w i n n i p e g s e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t , t h e p r o d i g a l r e a d e r , e a r a t t u n e d anew, r e c o g n i z e s t h e broken shreds o f d i s c o u r s e embedded i n c h a p t e r s t o as t h e t a t t e r e d o u t e r l i m i t s o f c e r t a i n speech genres o r p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r s ' v o i c e z o n e s . i l l i t i s not by chance t h a t wiebe p l a c e s abe i n w i n n i p e g i n t h e e a r l y c h a p t e r s o f f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e : winnipeg c a r r i e s h i s t o r i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l t o h i s theme o f s p i r i t u a l (and l i n g u i s t i c ) e x i l e and r e t u r n . w h i l e w a n d e r i n g a i m l e s s l y around w i n n i p e g , abe comes a c r o s s t h e grave o f l o u i s r i e l , t h e grave a l s o o f r i e l ' s dream o f a r e l i g i o u s n a t i o n . o n l y r i e l ' s tomb and t h e s t . b o n i f a c e b a s i l i c a remain as m a t e r i a l t r a c e s o f t h a t dream. w i n n i p e g was once a c h r i s t i a n s t r o n g h o l d , b u t by t h e time abe a r r i v e s , t h e s e c u l a r i s a t i o n o f canada i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e . r i e l ' s dream has f l e d ( t o j o s h b i s h o p ' s mind a t f r o z e n l a k e ) . god's words h o l d s o v e r e i g n t y o n l y on t i n y i s l a n d s o f space and time i n t h e m i d s t o f a n o n - r e l i g i o u s way of l i f e . w o r s h i p o c c u r s a t s e t t i m e s on s e t d a y s . a s e x t o n l o c k s t h e c h u r c h e s a f t e r b u s i n e s s h o u r s . g r a s s grows o v e r r i e l ' s s e l d o m - v i s i t e d g r a v e , and t o u r i s t s outnumber w o r s h i p p e r s i n s t . b o n i f a c e b a s i l i c a . in t h e w i n n i p e g s c e n e s , t h e t e x t u r e o f wiebe's p r o s e r e n d e r s t h e famed " d e c l i n e of c h r i s t i a n i t y " a u d i b l e . l i k e a modern-day b a b e l , w i n n i p e g i s a p l a c e o f cacophony i n w h i c h t h e v o i c e o f god s t r u g g l e s v a i n l y t o be h e a r d above t h e r e s t . p r o f a n e d i s c o u r s e s appear t o have o v e r r u n t h e c i t y , m o n o p o l i z i n g i t s p r e s e n t meaning and r e - w r i t i n g t h e meaning o f i t s p a s t . t a l l b u i l d i n g s , monuments t o t h e power of money, dominate t h e s k y l i n e . the church door i s "now i n shadow under t h e department s t o r e " ( ) . b r i g h t l y l i t s t o r e window d i s p l a y s r e a f f i r m j i m maclaren's c l a i m t h a t "without money i n t h i s c o u n t r y you've got n o t h i n g . you c a n ' t do n o t h i n g . you a r e n o t h i n g " ( ) . words c o n c e r n i n g god r e s i d e i n t h e down-and-out p a r t o f town. i n s t e a d o f s h i n i n g out i n up-town neon b r i l l i a n c e , t h e y a r e s c r a w l e d o b s c u r e l y on w a l l s , o r j o s t l e d amongst t h e grimy b i l l b o a r d s and p l a c a r d s o f t h e s t r e e t . in abe's psyche and t h e contemporary w e s t e r n i s e d w o r l d i n g e n e r a l , t h e s t r u g g l e between s e c u l a r and r e l i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e s appears t o have f i n i s h e d , and s e c u l a r d i s c o u r s e s seem t o h o l d a l l t h e power. the word o f god, r o u t e d , has a l m o s t abandoned t h e f i e l d . but wiebe's n o v e l a l s o o c c u p i e s t h a t f i e l d . because wiebe has not abandoned f a i t h i n t h e word of god, t h e word has not abandoned t h e t e x t o f t h e n o v e l . nor has i t e n t i r e l y - d e s e r t e d t h e psyche o f wiebe's a l l e g e d l y " n o n - c h r i s t i a n " p r o t a g o n i s t . in t h e language of t h e t e x t , which r e f l e c t s abe's awareness, wiebe b r i n g s t h e s t r u g g l e back t o l i f e a g a i n : [ ] "would you l i k e t o t o u r t h e b a s i l i c a ? " [ ] and e x p l a i n t h e p r e c i s e c o s t o f t h e new b a p t i s t e r y a t t h e door and a n c i e n t g o l d - i n l a i d a l t a r p i e c e and t h e p u l p i t and t h e r e p l a c e m e n t v a l u e of [ ] t h e whole cavernous mound [ ] w h i l e as i n c i d e n t a l l y p o i n t i n g out t h e s t a t i o n where j e s u s f e l l f o r t h e t h i r d t i m e . [ ] f a c t s a t l e a s t t h e boy c o u l d h a n d l e ; [ ] w i t h h a r d i r o n y he t h o u g h t , [ ] i have saved t h e w o r l d from one more sum a d d i c t . [ ] dreams were f o r men, not c h i l d r e n : l i k e t h e dream b u r i e d between t h e b a s i l i c a and t h e r i v e r , under t h e a l r e a d y b r o w n i s h g r a s s b e s i d e t h e i n e v i t a b l e b r o n z e p l a q u e : [ ] tomb of louis riel, president of the provisional government of - . [ ] governments t o o p r e f e r r e d f a c t s t o dreams, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e dreamer was so f o o l i s h as t o t r y t o r e a l i z e them.( ) a l t h o u g h o n l y s e c t i o n i s t y p o g r a p h i c a l l y demarcated from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t e x t , t h e whole passage i s s h o t t h r o u g h w i t h i n t e r n a l p o l e m i c as wiebe f a n s t h e a p p a r e n t l y dead embers o f winnipeg's r e l i g i o u s h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e back i n t o l i f e . in s e c t i o n s and , where abe p a r o d i c a l l y p a r a p h r a s e s t h e t o u r i s t g u i d e ' s s p i e l , two opposed i n t e n t i o n s s t r u g g l e i n t h e s i n g l e u t t e r a n c e . the language o f t h e t e x t r e - e n a c t s abe's i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e . c h r i s t i a n and n o n - c h r i s t i a n components o f t h e s e l f c o n t e n d a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r . s e c t i o n a r g u e s t h a t abe has l e f t h i s c h r i s t i a n f a i t h e n t i r e l y b e h i n d ; however, i n s e c t i o n s , , , , and , abe i n t e r p r e t s t h e b a s i l i c a and r i e l s ' g r a v e from a c h r i s t i a n p e r s p e c t i v e . by r e f u s i n g t h e t o u r i s t g u i d e ' s o f f e r , abe s y m b o l i c a l l y r e s i s t s t h e f a c t - m o n g e r s who endeavour t o s e i z e c o n t r o l o f t h e meaning o f t h e b a s i l i c a and r i e l ' s g r a v e . abe's i n t e r n a l monologue i s r e a l l y an i n t e r n a l d i a l o g u e : t h e word o f god has not abandoned t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n psyche a f t e r a l l . in f a c t , i n t h i s passage, abe's c h r i s t i a n v o i c e has emerged from "some f a r o f f unabandoned c o r n e r o f h i m s e l f " ( ) and assumed a p o s i t i o n o f dominance o v e r h i s - s c e p t i c a l v o i c e . wiebe's management o f t h e v o i c e s i n t h i s passage s u g g e s t s t h a t abe's (and n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s ' ) p r o f e s s i o n s o f n o n - b e l i e f s h o u l d not be a c c e p t e d a t f a c e v a l u e , and t h a t t h e s e p r o f e s s i o n s perhaps h i d e a d e e p e r , unacknowledged a m b i v a l e n c e towards god w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l psyche and t h e community as a whole. wiebe asks r e a d e r s t o l i s t e n t o t h e o b s c u r e , m i n o r i t y v o i c e s w h i c h i n h a b i t t h e c i t y and t h e psyche. the h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f wiebe's language f u n c t i o n s r h e t o r i c a l l y i n t h a t i t r a i s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a remnant of c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f remains i n "some f a r o f f unabandoned c o r n e r " o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s who c o n s i d e r themselves members o f s e c u l a r s o c i e t y . such i s c e r t a i n l y t h e case f o r abe ross. the paradox of abe's s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t he has l e f t h i s f a i t h b e h i n d because he honours t h e a u t h o r i t y o f words from t h e b i b l e . abe cannot f o r g e t h i s c h r i s t i a n p a s t e n t i r e l y . v o i c e s from t h e p a s t c o n t i n u e t o i n h a b i t h i s psyche. even a f t e r t w e n t y t h r e e y e a r s away from h i s f a t h e r , abe cannot f o r c e i n t o o b l i v i o n "the t h u n d e r e d ' t h o u - s h a l t s ' and ' t h o u - s h a l t - n o t s ' o f damnation t h a t f o r e v e r r u l e d " ( ) . moreover, even as abe d i s c l a i m s h i s c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f , h i s f i g u r e s o f speech p e r p e t u a t e a c h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e cosmos, and h i s c u r s e s i n v o k e t h e power o f a god i n whom he no l o n g e r b e l i e v e s : o n c e — t h a t d e v i l o f a t i m e j u s t a f t e r t h e w a r — a s a g - f a c e d man l e a n e d o v e r h i s c o t t h e r e when he c o u l d comprehend a g a i n and t o l d him he had c r i e d and begged f o r g i v e n e s s — o f a l l t h e damned r e l i g i o u s c o n f i d e n c e t r i c k s t o t r y on a hangover!( ) [emphasis added] in t h i s passage, abe and wiebe e n t e r i n t o u n e q u a l d i a l o g i c c o m p e t i t i o n . abe i n t e n d s t o p r o c l a i m h i s n o n - b e l i e f , b u t wiebe sabotages abe's i n t e n t i o n by p u t t i n g c h r i s t i a n f i g u r e s o f speech i n t o abe's mouth. two a u t h o r i a l w i l l s s t r u g g l e w i t h i n a h y b r i d i s e d u t t e r a n c e , s i t u a t i n g t h a t u t t e r a n c e i n a space o f o v e r l a p between c h r i s t i a n and s e c u l a r frames o f r e f e r e n c e . but one frame o f r e f e r e n c e s u r r o u n d s and subsumes t h e o t h e r . abe's f i c t i o n a l n o n - c h r i s t i a n p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e , e x i s t s o n l y as a bounded o b j e c t w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e o f a d e v o u t l y c h r i s t i a n a u t h o r . wiebe m e d i a t e s between t h e c h a r a c t e r s and t h e r e a d e r s , t r a n s l a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s by h a v i n g annexed them i n t o t h e l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f h i s t e x t . wiebe's c h r i s t i a n i n t e n t i o n i n f i l t r a t e s a l l t h e o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t , p u l l i n g them i n t o a d i f f e r e n t speech g e n r e : t h e n o v e l as a form o f c h r i s t i a n t e s t i m o n y . the u t t e r a n c e s o f wiebe's c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ( s u c h as s a l l y h o w e l l and j o s h b i s h o p ) seem i n e r t and r a t h e r l i f e l e s s because t h e y l a c k t h e i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n between c o m p e t i n g w i l l s . by c o n t r a s t , t h e speech o f h i s non-and pseudo- c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s c o n s t i t u t e s an a r e n a i n w h i c h wiebe engages i n s o c i a l s t r u g g l e . unknowingly, many c h a r a c t e r s i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e speak i n puns. wiebe h y b r i d i z e s t h e non- and p s e u d o - c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' speech, p e r m i t t i n g r e a d e r s t o p e r c e i v e more meanings i n t h e i r words t h a n t h e y t h e m s e l v e s apprehend. l i k e abe ross who, t o t h e g r e a t amusement o f t h e o j i b w a , sometimes knows not what he says i n t h e i r language, t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s u n w i t t i n g l y a c t i v a t e a c h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l i n t h e i r speech. wiebe i n v i t e s h i s r e a d e r s t o hear what seems a t f i r s t t o be t h e s u b o r d i n a t e v o i c e i n h i s i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d p r o s e . f o r example, when t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s c a s u a l l y blaspheme and c u r s e , t h e y do not mean t o i n v o k e t h e power o f god. they do not i n t e n d t o c o n s i g n t h e i r enemy o r t h e i r dog o r t h e i r t r u c k t o e t e r n a l damnation. y e t t h r o u g h t h e s t o r i e s o f b j o r n e s e n ' s c u r s i n g o f h a r r y s t u r g e o n and o f adam ross's c u r s i n g o f h i s son, wiebe r e a f f i r m s t h e f o r g o t t e n c o n n e c t i o n between c a s u a l c u s s i n g and s e r i o u s r i t u a l c u r s i n g . as a r e s u l t , a l l c u s s i n g i n t h e n o v e l becomes i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d . wiebe's t e x t p e r p e t u a t e s b o t h t h e c h r i s t i a n and t h e p r o f a n e meaning o f t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s ' words, i n a manner w h i c h p r i v i l e g e s t h e f o r m e r over t h e l a t t e r . unbeknown t o h i s c h a r a c t e r s , o v e r and above t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , wiebe i n v o k e s t h e c h r i s t i a n meaning o f words. he r e f u s e s t o r e l i n q u i s h c o n t r o l o f t h e w o r l d o f v e r b a l s i g n s t o h i s s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c opponents, t h o s e who t h i n k t h e y now m o n o p o l i z e t h e r i g h t t o c o n f e r meaning on words and t h e w o r l d . i n s t e a d , he c a p t u r e s t h e speech o f t h o s e who have c a p t u r e d t h e key terms i n h i s c h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n , and he s u b j e c t s t h e i r speech t o h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l i n t h e t e x t . iv i n c h a p t e r , wiebe c o n d u c t s h i s r e a d e r s beyond t h e cacophony o f t h e c i t y t o t h e r e l a t i v e peace and q u i e t o f f r o z e n lake. i n comparison w i t h winnipeg, f r o z e n lake i s " v i r g i n t e r r i t o r y " t o t h e e n g l i s h language. wiebe's w i l d e r n e s s s e t t i n g s add a r o m a n t i c d i m e n s i o n t o t h e a c t i o n , but more i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e y p r o v i d e wiebe w i t h a b a r e s t a g e upon which t o d r a m a t i s e t h e p r o c e s s o f i n i t i a l c o l o n i z a t i o n o f n a t i v e p e o p l e s ' psyches by a g r o w i n g number o f competing white hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s . because o n l y a s m a l l number o f e n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e speech genres has p e n e t r a t e d f r o z e n lake, each one can be h e a r d i n i s o l a t i o n from t h e o t h e r s , can be e x p l o r e d and e v a l u a t e d as a d i s c r e t e v e r b a l code b o t h by abe and by wiebe's r e a d e r s . by s h i f t i n g t h e a c t i o n from winnipeg t o f r o z e n lake, wiebe c r e a t e s a space s u i t a b l e f o r e x p l o r i n g t h e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f d i s c o u r s e . only an o u t e r t h r e s h o l d of -the e n g l i s h language p r o v i d e s s u f f i c i e n t m e n t a l and t e x t u a l space i n w h i c h t o u n t a n g l e t h e knot of speech genres which confounds urban c o n s c i o u s n e s s and c o n v o l u t e s t h e language o f t h e w i n n i p e g s e c t i o n o f t h e t e x t . f r o z e n lake, l i k e w a p i t i i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t y p i f i e s a p o l y g l o s s i c s p a c e . government p o l i c i e s , i n s t i t u t e d m a i n l y t h r o u g h t h e s c h o o l system, s y s t e m a t i c a l l y promote t h e e n g l i s h language o v e r t h e o j i b w a language o f t h e n a t i v e i n d i a n i n h a b i t a n t s . wiebe mentions b u t does not e l a b o r a t e upon t h e d i f f e r e n c e between " p o l y s y n t h e t i c " ojibwa language and " a n a l y t i c " e n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . he r e f e r s t o t h e p o l y s y n t h e t i c n a t u r e o f o b j i w a on two o c c a s i o n s i n p a r t o f t h e n o v e l ( , ), b u t p a s s e s up an o p p o r t u n i t y t o d r a m a t i s e d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e p o l y s y n t h e t i c o j i b w a psyche by t h e a n a l y t i c e n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . the e n g l i s h language as such does not d i s r u p t t h e o j i b w a psyche. wiebe l o c a t e s t h e ojibwa's v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l problem more p r e c i s e l y . the ojibwa do n o t e n c o u n t e r t h e e n g l i s h language as a s i n g l e s y s t e m , b u t as a c o m p o s i t e made up o f s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t speech g e n r e s . i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . abe e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n c e r n t h a t t h e s t a t e s c h o o l system has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o promote t h e l e a s t w o r t h w h i l e speech genres and i g n o r e t h o s e w h i c h c o d i f y s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l v a l u e s . in c h a p t e r , abe r e f l e c t s upon t h e f a c t t h a t t h e ojibwa c h i l d r e n a r e becoming t h e most d i s t i n c t l y , most f o r c e d l y non- i n d i a n . .. s a l l y c o u l d n ' t l e t them speak a word of e n g l i s h not o n l y because i t was government r e g u l a t i o n b u t because o t h e r w i s e t h e y would never l e a r n t o speak p r o p e r e n g l i s h — s o wash your f a c e and r e a d about d i c k and jane whoever t h e y a r e and open d o o r s f o r s i l l y g i r l s and no wonder p e t e r pan i s l e f t b e h i n d when even f o r a c h i l d i t ' s i m p o s s i b l e — . ( ) through abe, wiebe p o i n t s t o t h e c u l t u r a l i m p e r i a l i s m s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r a c t i c e d t h r o u g h t h e government s c h o o l system. as t h e ojibwa c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e t h e e n g l i s h language, t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i t s e l f works l i k e a l o n g i n i t i a t i o n ceremony, e d u c a t i n g t h e c h i l d r e n i n t o p a r t i a l membership i n t h e b r o a d e r a n g l o - c a n a d i a n community. p o t e n t i a l l y , such e d u c a t i o n c u t s t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n o f f from t h e i r own c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e , and l e a d s t o t h e i r a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t o mainstream a n g l o - c a n a d i a n c u l t u r e . s a l l y h o w e l l and j o s h b i s h o p attempt an a l t e r n a t i v e , b e n i g n form o f i m p e r i a l i s m , one w h i c h b u i l d s on t h e e x i s t i n g remnants o f t h e ojibwa c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s h e r i t a g e . i n s t e a d o f s t a m p i n g out t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n ' s t r a d i t i o n a l knowledge, s a l l y a t t e m p t s t o h y b r i d i z e i t w i t h h e r c h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l . f o r example, she t e a c h e s her p u p i l s "canada's f i r s t c h r i s t m a s c a r o l w r i t t e n by t h e c a t h o l i c b r e b e u f f o r h i s huron c o n v e r t s " ( ) . t h i s c a r o l i n t e g r a t e s t h e n a t i v i t y s t o r y i n t o a n o r t h a m e r i c a n i n d i a n p h y s i c a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t , w i t h h u n t e r s r e p l a c i n g shepherds, a " l o d g e o f b r o k e n b a r k " ( ) i n s t e a d o f a s t a b l e , "a ragged robe o f r a b b i t - s k i n " ( ) r a t h e r t h a n s w a d d l i n g bands, and " c h i e f s . . . w i t h g i f t s o f f o x and b e a v e r - p e l t " ( ) i n p l a c e o f t h e t h r e e w i s e men b e a r i n g g o l d , f r a n k i n c e n s e and myrrh. s a l l y ' s n o n - v i o l e n t e v a n g e l i s m does not impose t h e word o f god d i c t a t o r i a l l y and m o n o l o g i c a l l y , b u t a l l o w s i t t o e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l ojibwa c o n s t r u c t i o n o f r e a l i t y . s a l l y and j o s h p e r m i t t h e ojibwa v o i c e t o sound i n t h e n a t i v i t y song, a l b e i t i n a s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n . j o s h b i s h o p a l s o v e n t u r e s out from h i s own c u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e h i s god t o t h e p e o p l e o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r e . d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e u s u a l m i s s i o n a r y p r a c t i c e o f u s i n g t h e cree s y l l a b i c b i b l e , and i m p a t i e n t a t t h e s l o w p r o g r e s s o f t h e w y c l i f f e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o o j i b w a , j o s h u n d e r t a k e s t o t r a n s l a t e t h e b i b l e h i m s e l f . j o s h b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e o j i b w a w i l l not l i s t e n t o god u n l e s s he speaks t o them, and can be spoken t o . i n t h e i r own language. u n l i k e more o r t h o d o x m i s s i o n a r i e s , j o s h does not d e s t r o y , but i n s t e a d b u i l d s on, t h e d i s c o u r s e s a l r e a d y i n p l a c e . in r e p l y t o abe's q u e s t i o n , "what do you do, you j u s t t a k e t h e i r word f o r god...and t a l k about him, o r what?", j o s h says . "they b e l i e v e t h e r e a r e many s p i r i t s , and t h e g r e a t s p i r i t , t h e k i s c h e manido, i s so g r e a t and s o v e r e i g n he w o u l d never have a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . he's above t h a t . . . . what i've been t r y i n g t o do i s show them t h a t t h e k i s c h e manido i s not so c a r e l e s s about them, t h a t t h e i d e a o f g r e a t n e s s t h e y have i s r i g h t b u t t h a t he has come t o man t h r o u g h j e s u s c h r i s t and t h a t we can know a g r e a t d e a l about him." "you l e a v e as much o f t h e i r i d e a i n and j u s t g i v e i t a c h r i s t i a n t w i s t ? " "you s t a r t where t h e y b e l i e v e , y e s . s a i n t p a u l d i d , when he t a l k e d t o t h e greek s e n a t o r s i n a t h e n s . " ( - ) j o s h p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a g r e a t e r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l gap e x i s t s between a r e l i g i o u s and a non- r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k t h a n between t h e o u t l o o k s o f p e o p l e who h o l d t o d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o n s . c e r t a i n v a l u e s t r a n s c e n d t h e boundary between c h r i s t i a n i t y and o t h e r r e l i g i o n s . m o r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i t makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e whether one i n v o k e s t h e power o f god o r k i s c h e manido. a more i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n i s whether one i n v o k e s t h i s power t o c u r s e d r t o b l e s s . curses and b l e s s i n g s can b o t h be bestowed i n e i t h e r e n g l i s h o r ojibwa. c e r t a i n speech genres t r a n s c e n d b o u n d a r i e s between n a t i o n a l languages. from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i d e s o f t h e b o r d e r s e p a r a t i n g heathen from c h r i s t i a n , kekekose and b i s h o p t o g e t h e r oppose t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f f o r c e and v i o l e n c e , t h e s e c u l a r and p s e u d o - r e l i g i o u s speech genres w h i c h dominate a n g l o - c a n a d i a n c u l t u r a l l i f e , and w h i c h t o an i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t shape a c t i o n , t h o u g h t and b e l i e f i n t h e ojibwa community a t f r o z e n lake. the e n g l i s h language and t h e ojibwa language do not c o n f r o n t each o t h e r l i k e two m o n o l i t h s ; wiebe's t e x t u n c o v e r s i n t r a - l i n g u i s t i c axes which c u t a c r o s s t h e t h r e s h o l d between t h e two n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s . on t h e t h r e s h o l d between e n g l i s h and o j i b w a , d i f f e r e n t speech genres w i t h i n t h e e n g l i s h language s t r u g g l e t o e x e r t t h e i r hegemony o v e r t h e minds o f t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e . amos quequeish has r e t u r n e d from p r i s o n s p o r t i n g a l a r g e v o c a b u l a r y o f e n g l i s h o b s c e n i t i e s and c u r s e s . t r a d e r s b r i n g t h e language o f commerce t o t h e r e g i o n . john marsden i n t r o d u c e s a d i s c o u r s e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i s m , and an a b s t r a c t , s c i e n t i f i c , s t a t e - e n d o r s e d v e r s i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e . the s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m exposes t h e c h i l d r e n t o e n g l i s h as a v e r b a l code b r i n g i n g new and a l i e n o r d e r s o f knowledge, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e s c i e n t i f i c v i e w o f t h e w o r l d o f f i c i a l l y endorsed by t h e s t a t e . but s a l l y h o w e l l and t h e b i s h o p s i n t r o d u c e e n g l i s h t o t h e o j i b w a a l s o as a r e l i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e . b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e ojibwa " c a n ' t a v o i d [ t h e w h i t e w o r l d ] even i f t h e y t r y " ( ) , s a l l y and j o s h g i v e v o i c e t o speech genres w h i c h oppose t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d , s t e r i l e and p r o f a n e e n g l i s h e s i n v a d i n g t h e minds o f t h e f r o z e n lake community. a t f r o z e n lake, wiebe's main l i n g u i s t i c b a t t l e - f r o n t emerges c l e a r l y i n t o v i e w . v the d i a l o g u e s i n c h a p t e r i n v o l v i n g john marsden p r o v i d e a s u i t a b l e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x p l o r i n g wiebe's fundamental m o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n between d i s c o u r s e s . i n an exchange between s a l l y h o w e l l and john marsden, wiebe j u x t a p o s e s two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t ways o f t a l k i n g about i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . marsden opens w i t h "do you t h i n k t h e t h e o r y of canadian m i l i t a r y d e f e n c e would make sense t o them [ t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n ] ? " "no," she s a i d . "they have t r o u b l e enough l e a r n i n g about t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h e w o r l d r i g h t now l e a v e a l o n e l e a r n i n g which t h e y s h o u l d h a t e . " "now j u s t a — m i n u t e , " marsden s t u m b l e d o v e r a . word. she s t o o d m o t i o n l e s s . "yes?" " i was t a l k i n g about d e f e n c e , not h a t e — " "but," she i n t e r r u p t e d and abe t o o s t a r e d a t her i n amazement, " t h o s e c h i l d r e n a r e v e r y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . i t would make no sense t o them a t a l l p r e p a r i n g t o shoot down someone who might come o v e r t o k i l l you, and not h a t e them. anyone you p l a n t o k i l l b e f o r e he k i l l s you you j u s t n a t u r a l l y h a t e . r i g h t ? " "you don't t a l k about i t l i k e t h a t . i f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a g g r e s s i o n e x i s t s a government has t o make p l a n s t o d e t e r i t , t h a t ' s a l l . " ( - ) wiebe uses t h e ojibwa c h i l d r e n ' s minds as an a r e n a i n which marsden's language s t a n d s t r i a l . through s a l l y ' s a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f marsden's t a l k , wiebe d e n a t u r a l i z e s a language w h i c h e n j o y s wide a c c e p t a n c e i n n o r t h a m e r i c a n and o t h e r w e s t e r n i z e d s o c i e t i e s . marsden's manner o f s p e a k i n g i m p r e s s e s l i s t e n e r s as h i g h l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e because i t i s s u e s from t h e mouth of a p r o f e s s i o n a l , an " e x p e r t . " but i f r e a d e r s p a r t i c i p a t e i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n s ' mode o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t h e y occupy a space o u t s i d e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f " e x p e r t s ' " d i s c o u r s e . a l i e n a t e d from t h e v e r b a l m i l i e u w h i c h o r d i n a r i l y shapes t h e i r own norms and v a l u e s , r e a d e r s can a s s e s s i t s e f f e c t s on i d e o l o g y and b e h a v i o u r . l i k e t h e c r e a t o r s o f "newspeak" i n george o r w e l l ' s n i n e t e e n e i g h t y - f o u r , marsden employs language as an i d e o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s : i f "you don't t a l k about i t l i k e t h a t , " t h e l o g i c r u n s , y o u ' l l soon l e a r n not t o t h i n k o f k i l l i n g as k i l l i n g , nor see "the t h e o r y o f canadian m i l i t a r y d e f e n c e " as "planned r a c i a l and r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l s a v a g e r y " (wiebe , ) . a b s t r a c t euphemisms such as " a g g r e s s i o n , " " d e t e r , " and "defence" push t h e b l o o d and g u t s o f k i l l i n g i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d and out o f s i g h t . i n marsden's speech, language becomes a t o o l f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g k i l l i n g . i t works i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same way as modern weapons t e c h n o l o g y w h i c h e n a b l e s one p e r s o n t o k i l l a n o t h e r from a d i s t a n c e by p r e s s i n g a b u t t o n and w a t c h i n g a b l i p on a m o n i t o r s c r e e n . by r o o t i n g out t h e words " k i l l " and "hate" from h i s v o c a b u l a r y , marsden s t r i p s war o f i t s p e r s o n a l and m o r a l d i m e n s i o n s . as a r e s u l t , k i n d , p o l i t e , c h u r c h - g o i n g , n o v e l - r e a d i n g c i t i z e n s c o n s e n t t o m u r d e r i n g o t h e r s l i k e t h e m s e l v e s , q u i t e w i l l i n g l y and e f f i c i e n t l y , i n a mood o f c o o l detachment, a l o o f from any p a s s i o n a t e p e r s o n a l h a t r e d o r p e r s o n a l g u i l t . marsden's speech employs d e - h u m a n i s i n g l a b e l s and euphemisms t o deaden c o n s c i e n c e and r e n d e r k i l l i n g n a t u r a l and a b s t r a c t . by c o n t r a s t , anton schwafe i n s i s t s i n c h a p t e r t h a t he s t r a n g l e d "a human b e i n g " ( ) not "a communist" ( ) o r one o f "the r e d s " ( ) . j o s h b i s h o p speaks o f t h e germans not as enemies, b u t as "mothers" ( ) , "sons" ( ) , " f a t h e r s and husbands" ( ) , and " p e o p l e " ( ) . through s a l l y , j o s h , and schwafe, wiebe i n t r o d u c e s a c o u n t e r - d i s c o u r s e , a manner o f s p e a k i n g which r e s t o r e s t h e p e r s o n a l and m o r a l d i m e n s i o n o f war and o f t h e "planned s a v a g e r y " o f c o l d war. through t h e language o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , wiebe e f f e c t i v e l y d e c o n s t r u c t s s t a t e - e n d o r s e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s s e p a r a t i n g "us" from "them," and a f f i r m s i n s t e a d t h e s a c r e d n e s s o f a l l god's c r e a t i o n . wiebe f i r s t i n t r o d u c e s john marsden i n c h a p t e r a t t h e k i n c o n n e l l s ' p a r t y . i n t h i s e a r l y scene, marsden's language might seem l e s s o f f e n s i v e and b a r b a r i c t h a n h a r o l d granger's c r a s s d i a t r i b e s a g a i n s t heathens, communists, and p a c i f i s t s . but wiebe shows t h a t marsden's language i s no l e s s h o s t i l e t o human l i f e . marsden a t f i r s t d i s s o c i a t e s h i m s e l f (and canada) from granger's ( t h e u.s.a.'s) a g g r e s s i v e s t a n c e towards t o "the reds" ( ) . when someone a t t h e p a r t y p u t s marsden foward as an example o f canada's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e f i g h t a g a i n s t communism, marsden q u i c k l y demurs: "no, no. i'm w i t h norad and we're s t r i c t l y d e f e n s i v e . w e ' l l n e v e r — w e c o u l d n ' t — t o u c h a n y t h i n g o v e r s e a s . that's sac's b u s i n e s s . " ( ) i r o n i c a l l y , even as he a t t e m p t s t o d i s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f from granger's a g g r e s s i v e p o s i t i o n , marsden speaks t h e same language as granger. nobody e l s e a t t h e p a r t y uses t h e terms "norad" o r "sac". these words form p a r t o f t h e v o c a b u l a r y o n l y o f t h e two d e f e n c e e x p e r t s . in chapter , marsden uses tame, e u p h e m i s t i c words such as "touch," " a t t a c k , " " h i t back," and " a n y t h i n g o v e r s e a s . " i n chapter , however, i n h i s d i a l o g u e s w i t h j o s h b i s h o p and s a l l y h o w e l l , t h e v e r b a l mask c o n c e a l i n g marsden's h a t r e d g r a d u a l l y f a l l s away, e x p o s i n g h i s p e r s o n a l m o r a l c o m p l i c i t y i n t h e a c t o f k i l l i n g . j o s h f o r c e s marsden t o t r a n s l a t e h i s j o b d e s c r i p t i o n i n t o a language w h i c h cannot s k i r t around god's commandment not t o k i l l . he f o r c e s marsden t o own t h e word " k i l l , " and t o f a c e t h e f a c t t h a t h i s t a r g e t s a r e f e l l o w human b e i n g s : ..."you spend t h e b i g g e s t p a r t o f y o u r l i f e , a l l your employed w a k i n g h o u r s , w o r k i n g how t o k i l l p e o p l e more e f f i c i e n t l y . why?" marsden s a i d h e a v i l y i don't e x a c t l y see my j o b as a s t u d y i n e f f i c i e n t k i l l i n g — " "no, i'm s u r e you d o n ' t . but i n t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s , when t h e bomber comes o v e r and you see i t on y o u r s c r e e n and o r d e r t h e i n t e r c e p t o r r o c k e t f i r e d , y o u r o n l y i n t e r e s t i s t h e ' k i l l ' r i g h t ? " "that's my j o b : s t o p t h e p l a n e from g e t t i n g t h r o u g h t o p e o p l e l i k e y o u — " j o s h went on i m p e r v i o u s l y , "and you gun f o r t h e k i l l whether i t ' s a r o c k e t o r t e n men i n a bomber-- makes no d i f f e r e n c e . " " i don't t h i n k about men a t a l l . i'd p r o b a b l y go c r a z y i f i d i d — f a m i l i e s , a l l t h a t s t u f f . i don't t h i n k a t a l l ; a l l my j o b i s , r i g h t now, s t o p t h a t bomber g e t t i n g t h r o u g h t o you." ( ) i t i s c r u c i a l t o n o t i c e t h a t as j o s h b i s h o p goads marsden i n t o anger, marsden's language converges more and more w i t h t h a t o f h a r o l d granger. when j o s h e x p r e s s e s h i s l a c k o f f a i t h i n guns, marsden r e t a l i a t e s w i t h "okay p r e a c h e r ! and what e l s e w i l l t h e goddam commies l i s t e n t o ? " ( ) . marsden's b e l l i g e r e n c e and use o f p r o f a n i t y a r e p r e c i s e l y what one would e x p e c t from h a r o l d granger. h a r o l d g r a n g e r ' s " s p e e c h encodes v a l u e s d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s i t e t o wiebe's mennonite i d e a l s . a l t h o u g h granger appears o n l y b r i e f l y i n t h e n o v e l , h i s u t t e r a n c e s p r o v i d e an e s s e n t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t i n t h e t e x t , a l i n g u i s t i c c e n t r e around w h i c h wiebe assembles t h e speech s t y l e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . marsden i s not a l o n e i n j o i n i n g g r a n g e r ' s l i n g u i s t i c community. amos quequeish b e l o n g s by v i r t u e o f h i s c o n s t a n t s w e a r i n g and c u r s i n g . john k i n c o n n e l l a l s o b e l o n g s w i t h h a r o l d g r a n g e r , because h i s language i m p l i c i t l y c e l e b r a t e s t h e p r e d a t o r y dog-eat-dog ethos b e h i n d t h e c a p i t a l i s t i d e a l o f c o m p e t i t i o n : he once e x p l a i n e d e v e r y major t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o b l e m f r o b i s h e r has had up n o r t h i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s ! and a l s o how h i s p r o p o s e d network would k i l l e v e r y one of them, f o r e v e r . you know t h e way he t a l k s — n o t ' d i s p o s e o f o r ' s o l v e ' — k i l l ! n e v e r t o be r e s u r r e c t e d . ( ) adam ross and s i g u r d b j o r n e s e n , t o o , u n l e a s h v i o l e n c e and h a t r e d i n t h e i r language. in t h e same way as b j o r n e s e n "used a l l t h e o j i b w a c u r s e f o r m u l a s " ( ) a g a i n s t h a r r y s t u r g e o n , adam ross uses god's word as a weapon t o p u n i s h h i s son: ...he s n a t c h e d t h e b i b l e down from t h e s h e l f above t h e t a b l e and h o l d i n g i t b e f o r e him l i k e a h i g h and m i g h t y weapon, i n t o n i n g h i s v o i c e so h a r d i c o u l d not b a t t e r mine a g a i n s t i t , beyond m y s e l f though i was, " i f ye w i l l not h e a r , and i t ye w i l l not l a y i t t o h e a r t , s a i t h jehovah t h e god o f h o s t s , t h e n w i l l i send t h e c u r s e upon you, y e a , i have c u r s e d you a l r e a d y : c u r s e d be he t h a t d i s h o n o u r e t h h i s f a t h e r . c u r s e d . c u r s e d . " ( ) granger, marsden, quequeish, k i n c o n n e l l , s i g u r d b j o r n e s e n and adam r o s s — s i x men o f d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s and v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t w a l k s o f l i f e . yet wiebe g a t h e r s them a l l i n t o t h e same m o r a l l y - d e f i n e d l i n g u i s t i c community. wiebe's t e x t a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o t h e m o r a l a f f i n i t i e s between t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s ' d i f f e r e n t speech s t y l e s , and t o t h e v i o l e n c e i m p l i c i t i n , o r l e g i t i m i z e d by, t h e i r o r d i n a r y , a p p a r e n t l y innocuous f i g u r e s o f speech. wiebe r e - d e f i n e s t h e b o u n d a r i e s between s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c g r o u p s . he d i v i d e s a l l d i s c o u r s e i n t o two m o r a l c a t e g o r i e s : t h a t w h i c h encodes h i s mennonite i d e a l o f l o v e f o r a l l human b e i n g s , and t h a t w h i c h v a l o r i z e s anger, v i o l e n c e , and h a t r e d . vi as i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n f i r s t and v i t a l candle speak l e s s as unique i n d i v i d u a l s t h a n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c groups. w i t h i n t h e space o f t h e t e x t o f f i r s t and v i t a l candle wiebe works out h i s own map o f t h e s o c i a l and v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l w o r l d . he p r o j e c t s t h a t w o r l d from t h e m o r a l p o s i t i o n a r t i c u l a t e d by jesus i n t h e sermon on t h e mount, t o expose t h e m o r a l l y - d e f i n e d l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s which t r a n s e c t t r a d i t i o n a l l y a c c e p t e d axes between n a t i o n a l languages and between c e r t a i n speech g e n r e s . wiebe i n v i t e s h i s a u d i e n c e t o t a k e a second r e a d i n g o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s u s i n g p r e v i o u s l y o v e r l o o k e d l i n g u i s t i c c o - o r d i n a t e s . when r e a d e r s ( s p e a k e r s ) come t o l o c a t e t h e m s e l v e s on t h e map wiebe p r o v i d e s , t h e y may f i n d t h e m s e l v e s s i t u a t e d i n u n e x p e c t e d p l a c e s , on t h e "wrong s i d e " o f some s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c , m o r a l o r r e l i g i o u s l i n e . mainstream c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s might f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e same language community as "the enemy." e n l i g h t e n e d e c l e c t i c s , who r e s p e c t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a l l d i s c o u r s e s e q u a l l y , see t h e i r l i b e r a l t o l e r a n c e d i s s o l v i n g i n t o n i h i l i s m . n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s r e a l i s e , l i k e abe, t h a t t h e y a r e n e i t h e r beyond t h e range o f , nor i n d i f f e r e n t t o , t h e v o i c e o f god. wiebe d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e way i n w h i c h each speech genre a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n s h r i n e s o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s a p a r t i c u l a r m o r a l s t a n c e , as i f s o - c a l l e d " f r e e " l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e s were v e r y l i t t l e removed from " r e c i t i n g a damned s c r i p t " ( ) . i t i s customary, f o r example, f o r a "defence s p e c i a l i s t " (and i n d e e d f o r most s c i e n t i s t s and s c h o l a r s ) t o encode t h e v a l u e s o f pragmatism and s c i e n t i f i c detachment by expunging p e r s o n a l and m o r a l terms from t h e u t t e r a n c e s t h e y make i n a p r o f e s s i o n a l c a p a c i t y . the c o n v e n t i o n s o f each speech genre c r e a t e i n advance a moral p o s i t i o n f o r t h e s p e a k e r and t h e l i s t e n e r t o occupy. h i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e s a f f o r d one of t h e c l e a r e s t examples o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e . the h i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e i s t e r s e . the p h y s i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h i s speech genre l e g i t i m i s e c e n s o r s h i p . space l i m i t a t i o n s n e c e s s i t a t e c o u n t l e s s s i n s o f o m i s s i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n , c o n v e n i e n t l y v e i l i n g t h e u g l y , b r u t a l s i d e o f t h e dominant p a r t i e s ' g l o r i o u s t a l e s of v i c t o r y . i n c h a p t e r , wiebe l i f t s t h e v e i l c u s t o m a r i l y h e l d i n p l a c e by t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f t h e genre: near this site stood the following forts: fort rouge under la verendrye, , fort gibraltar under the northwest company, , then came fort garry in , replaced by upper fort garry and extended into the 's when this gateway was erected. demolished in . f i v e g e n e r a t i o n s , f o u r f o r t s g l o s s e d i n f i f t y words on a p l a q u e o f g r e e n i s h b r o n z e . and o f a l l t h e poor f o o l s t h a t had mixed t h e mud o r p u l l e d i t a p a r t , n o t h i n g . . . . riel: novembre: s t a r i n g a t t h e s t o n e he [abe] had a l m o s t seen h-a-n-g- e-d. but t h e r e a r e some f a c t s tombstones do not f a c e — nor f o r t y i s h men... ( - , ) h i s t o r i c a l p l a q u e s i l l u s t r a t e e x t r e m e l y c l e a r l y t h e unspoken c e n s o r s h i p laws t h a t i n f o r m a l l speech g e n r e s , as t h e y each c o n s t r u c t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r " r e a l m o f t h e t r u e , " and push f o r e i g n f a c t s beyond t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r h o r i z o n . by h a v i n g abe c o n s i d e r t h e c a r n a g e not mentioned on t h e p l a q u e s , wiebe p u l l s t h e m o r a l f a c t s back i n t o t h e p i c t u r e . i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , wiebe a c c e n t s t h e s i l e n c e s , t h e h i d d e n m o r a l , i d e o l o g i c a l , and p o l i t i c a l b i a s e s and b l i n d - s p o t s i n a number o f hegemonic speech genres w h i c h s t r u c t u r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . w i t h i n t h e p e r i m e t e r s o f t h e t e x t , wiebe r e i f i e s t h e languages o f commerce, a n t h r o p o l o g y , f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s , "psych j a r g o n " ( ) , h i s t o r y , and c e r t a i n k i n d s o f c h r i s t i a n i t y he c o n s i d e r s s p u r i o u s . o n l y by b r e a k i n g decorum o r t r a d i t i o n , o r by t r a n s l a t i n g an u t t e r a n c e from one speech genre i n t o a n o t h e r , might one o r b o t h i n t e r l o c u t o r s b r e a k out o f t h e m o r a l e n c l o s u r e w h i c h t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f any speech genre e r e c t around them. wiebe i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o u n d e r t a k e p r e c i s e l y such a t r a n s l a t i o n . he r e f o r m u l a t e s many o f t h e k i n d s o f u t t e r a n c e s h e a r d f r e q u e n t l y i n d a y - t o - d a y l i f e , t r a n s l a t i n g them i n t o a manner o f speech w h i c h encodes t h e m o r a l v a l u e s a r t i c u l a t e d by j e s u s i n t h e sermon on t h e mount. a t t i m e s , wiebe's t r a n s l a t i o n s i n v o l v e s u b s t i t u t i n g c e r t a i n words f o r o t h e r words, such as when j o s h b i s h o p t r a n s l a t e s " d e t e r " i n t o " k i l l , " o r " t a r g e t " i n t o "men." a more s u b t l e v a r i e t y o f t r a n s l a t i o n o c c u r s when t h e words t h e m s e l v e s remain unchanged, b u t a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n t o a new c o n t e x t o r c a p t u r e d by a r i v a l s o c i o - l i n g u i s t i c group. annexed i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n , t h e word ( o r u t t e r a n c e ) may t a k e on an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t meaning. r e f l e c t i n g l i g h t - h e a r t e d l y on t h i s phenomenon, abe and h i s o l d s c h o o l f r i e n d , j i m maclaren r e c a l l t h e way o l g a , t h e g i r l who p l a y e d lady macbeth i n t h e s c h o o l t h e a t r i c a l s , made "out, o u t , damned s p o t s o u n d . . . l i k e b e l l o w i n g a t some f l e a - b i t t e n b l a c k and w h i t e b i t c h t o g e t out from under t h e t a b l e ! " ( ) . on a more s e r i o u s n o t e , wiebe e x p l o r e s t h e f o r g o t t e n " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " o f c e r t a i n key words. he reopens a l l e g e d l y c l o s e d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e meaning o f a number of v e r b a l s i g n s , s i g n s whose meaning a m a j o r i t y o f r e a d e r s would p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r f i x e d , c e r t a i n and immune from f u r t h e r change. wiebe's t e x t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e s o c i a l s t r u g g l e t o c o n f e r meaning on s i g n s i s by no means o v e r y e t , d e s p i t e t h e arguments o f r i v a l f a c t i o n s t o t h e c o n t r a r y . f o r wiebe, words such as " j e s u s , " "god," and "damn" a r e not m e a n i n g l e s s a n a c h r o n i s m s , mere f o s s i l i s e d v e s t i g e s o f o b s o l e t e modes o f b e l i e f . as f a r as he i s concerned, t h e s e s o - c a l l e d " f o s s i l i s e d " terms have never d i e d ; t h e y l i v e and b r e a t h e and i n f a c t dominate t h e psyche o f c h r i s t i a n s l i k e h i m s e l f . f o r such c h r i s t i a n s , t h e problem i s not so much t h a t t h e key terms i n t h e i r v o c a b u l a r y ("god," " c h r i s t , " "damned," and " h e l l , " f o r example) have d i s a p p e a r e d o r p a s s e d out o f c i r c u l a t i o n ; worse, t h e s e terms appear t o have been c a p t u r e d and e n s l a v e d by non- and p s e u d o - c h r i s t i a n groups i n s o c i e t y , who p u t t h e most s a c r e d words i n t h e c h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n t o work i n p r o f a n e speech genres where t h e y f u n c t i o n as c u r s e s and m e a n i n g l e s s e x p l e t i v e s . i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . wiebe t r a n s f o r m s t h e s e a p p a r e n t l y dead and m e a n i n g l e s s s i g n s i n t o b a t t l e zones once more, s i t e s where competing views o f t h e w o r l d c o n t e n d . the b i b l i c a l speech genres i n t h e t e x t c o n s t i t u t e an a l t e r n a t i v e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d . p r a y e r s , b i b l e r e a d i n g s , josh's sermons, and s a l l y ' s c h r i s t i a n t e s t i m o n i e s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n p u l l terms such as " c h r i s t , " "god," and " j e s u s " i n t o a s i g n i f y i n g system w h i c h encodes wiebe's mennonite c h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r e a l . the c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s say " j e s u s " o r "god" under d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s and i n d i f f e r e n t t o n e s o f v o i c e from t h o s e a d o p t e d by non- and p s e u d o - c h r i s t i a n c h a r a c t e r s . j o s h ' s and s a l l y ' s " c h r i s t , " "god," and " j e s u s " l o o k i d e n t i c a l on t h e page t o " t h e same" words spoken by marsden o r amos quequeish, b u t t h e y i n f a c t c a r r y e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t s e m a n t i c v a l u e s . the manner and c i r c u m s t a n c e s under w h i c h wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s speak o f god p r o v i d e s r e a d e r s w i t h an i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e t o t h e i r r e l i g i o u s and m o r a l a t t i t u d e s . wiebe exposes t h e s p u r i o u s n a t u r e o f h a r o l d granger's p r o f e s s e d c h r i s t i a n i t y , by h a v i n g him say " c h r i s t a l m i g h t y you're a communist!" ( ) . marsden, t o o , uses t h e name o f god i n v a i n . i n t h e company o f p r a c t i s i n g c h r i s t i a n s such as j o s h and s a l l y , marsden p o l i t e l y t r i e s t o s u p p r e s s h i s h a b i t u a l s w e a r i n g , b u t wiebe m e t i c u l o u s l y r e g i s t e r s i n t h e t e x t each v e r b a l t r i p - u p , each pause o r q u i c k s u b s t i t u t i o n : "'now j u s t a — m i n u t e , ' marsden s t u m b l e d o v e r a word" ( ) . why mention t h a t a c h a r a c t e r stumbles o v e r a word? because h i s s i l e n c e s c a r r y as heavy a burden o f meaning as h i s a u d i b l e speech. by m e n t i o n i n g marsden's s t u m b l e , wiebe a c c e n t u a t e s t h e pause, so t h a t a b r i e f s i l e n c e (an absence) becomes a u d i b l e (a p r e s e n c e ) . wiebe's dash i n d i c a t e s t h e d e l e t e d e x p l e t i v e "goddam." as marsden becomes more h e a t e d , he s l i p s i n t o h i s h a b i t u a l mode o f s p e a k i n g , f o r g e t t i n g t o make h i s u s u a l t a c t f u l d e l e t i o n s : "god h e l p us when t h e y g e t t h e h-bomb!" ( ) ; "what e l s e w i l l t h e goddam commies l i s t e n t o ? " ( ) ; "god man, you c o n t r o l t h e a l l o w a n c e s ! " ( ). c o r n e r e d and a n g r y , marsden b e g i n s t o swear and c u r s e , "as i f j o s h ' s p a s s i o n had r e l e a s e d him from r e s t r a i n t " ( ) . throughout most o f t h e n o v e l , abe c o n s i d e r s h i s c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f t o t a l l y dead, and h i s u n s t i n t i n g use o f c u r s e s and p r o f a n i t i e s would seem t o b e a r h i s o p i n i o n o u t : " h i s mind c o u l d o n l y c u r s e " ( ) ; "god a l m i g h t y s i x weeks out" ( ) ; "damn t h a t boy damn t h a t g i r l . . . d a m n i t a l l " ( ) ; "you god damn s t i n g y s l a v e d r i v e r ! working us a l l t o d e a t h t o buy y o u r god damn s t i n k i n g s o u l i n t o heaven!" ( ) . yet t h r o u g h abe's language, wiebe h i n t s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f abe's r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f remains open. c e r t a i n key terms i n t h e c h r i s t i a n l e x i c o n , words such as " c h r i s t , " "god," " j e s u s , " "damn," " g r a c e , " and " l o v e , " a r e p u l l e d i n two d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s w i t h i n abe's psyche, d r a m a t i s i n g h i s unacknowledged s p i r i t u a l v a c i l l a t i o n . f o r example, abe r e c a l l s "an o l d v e r s e . . . ' c h r i s t , t h a t my l o v e were i n my arms/and i i n my bed a g a i n ' " ( ) . when he sang t h i s " o l d v e r s e " w i t h h i s war-time b u d d i e s , t h e word " c h r i s t " f u n c t i o n e d as a m e a n i n g l e s s e x p l e t i v e . i n such a r e a d i n g o f t h e v e r s e , " c h r i s t " c o n v e n i e n t l y f i l l s an empty m e t r i c space, l e a v i n g t h e main a c c e n t o f t h e s e n t e n c e t o f a l l on t h e e r o t i c image o f l y i n g i n bed i n t h e arms o f one's l o v e . but as abe approaches t h e t h r e s h o l d o f c h r i s t i a n f a i t h , t h e word " c h r i s t " b e g i n s t o t a k e on a d i f f e r e n t meaning. under s a l l y ' s i n f l u e n c e , abe r e c o n s i d e r s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e word " c h r i s t " might a l s o a d d r e s s a l i v i n g e n t i t y . as soon as abe g r a n t s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y , t h e e n t i r e u t t e r a n c e c r o s s e s t h e b o r d e r i n t o a n o t h e r speech genre: "he would more n e a r l y have c a l l e d i t a p r a y e r " ( ) . the word " g r a c e " undergoes a s i m i l a r r e - a c c e n t u a t i o n , a s i m i l a r s t r a d d l i n g and subsequent c r o s s i n g o f t h e t h r e s h o l d from s e c u l a r t o c h r i s t i a n speech g e n r e s . i n c h a p t e r , abe employs "grace" t o r e f e r t o t h e b e a u t y and e l e g a n c e o f t h e woman he f o l l o w s t h r o u g h w i n n i p e g : "a t r a n s p a r e n t s c a r f added a g r a c e n o t e t o h e r c o i f f u r e " ( ) ; "she g r a c e s t h e couch" ( ) . but s a l l y h o w e l l i n t r o d u c e s abe t o a n o t h e r meaning o f t h e word, a c h r i s t i a n meaning w h i c h s u r r o u n d s and i l l subsumes t h e s e c u l a r meaning: " i n t h e c h r i s t i a n ' s v o c a b u l a r y god's ' g r a c e ' i s t h e v e r b 'to b e . ' . . . p e r i p h e r a l l y i t means god's f a v o u r t o man, who's done e v e r y t h i n g not t o d e s e r v e t h a t ; and i n c l u d e d i n i t i s t h e power t o make a man p l e a s i n g i n god's s i g h t . . . " ( ) when abe b e g i n s t o p r a y a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , he employs t h e word "grace" i n i t s c h r i s t i a n sense: "by y o u r g r a c e have mercy" ( ). the word " g r a c e " has c r o s s e d i n t o a c h r i s t i a n speech genre: t h e p r a y e r . p r a y e r has a v i t a l p l a c e i n wiebe's r a d i c a l p r o t e s t a n t v i s i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between god and humankind. t o g e t h e r , p r a y e r and b i b l e - r e a d i n g c o n s t i t u t e a d i a l o g u e . u n l i k e t h e o j i b w a ' s k i s c h e manido and adam ross's " a b s o l u t e - l a w - g i v i n g " god, wiebe's god o f g r a c e e n t e r s d i r e c t l y i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h each o f h i s f o l l o w e r s . a l t h o u g h t h e d i v i n e word o f god remains s o v e r e i g n , a l l human v o i c e s have p e r m i s s i o n t o a d d r e s s god a t w i l l . a l l e n j o y t h e same p o l i t i c a l p r i v i l e g e t o e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h i s d i v i n e o t h e r . d i a l o g u e i s p r e c i s e l y what abe's f a t h e r f o r b i d s , as wiebe's h a n d l i n g o f t h e c u r s i n g scene makes c l e a r . adam ross c o n s i g n s h i s son t o e t e r n a l e x i l e from t h e s o c i e t y o f god and f a m i l y as punishment f o r t h e i n t e r l o c u t o r y s i n s o f r e f u s i n g t o l i s t e n and i n s i s t i n g on a n s w e r i n g back: t h e f a c e hunched t o g e t h e r now i n m i l d s u r p r i s e a t my s p e a k i n g a f t e r he had spoken and t h e r e was, a c c o r d i n g t o a l l t h a t had e v e r happened i n our f a m i l y , n o t h i n g f u r t h e r t o be mentioned.... so he d i d not b o t h e r t o answer; j u s t t u r n e d t o go o u t and as he d i d s o m e t h i n g went o v e r me l i k e a spasm and i n a moment we were s h o u t i n g both...and he b e l l o w i n g a t l a s t would i t a k e back what i s a i d and r e c e i v e t h e b e a t i n g i d e s e r v e d and i l o n g p a s t c a r i n g , h a v i n g h u r l e d a l l t o t h e w i n d t h e i n s t a n t i v e n t u r e d t h e f i r s t words.... and t h e n he had s n a t c h e d t h e b i b l e down from t h e s h e l f above t h e t a b l e and h o l d i n g i t b e f o r e him l i k e a h i g h and m i g h t y weapon, i n t o n i n g , h i s v o i c e so h a r d i c o u l d not b a t t e r mine a g a i n s t i t , beyond m y s e l f though i was, " i f ye w i l l not h e a r , and i f ye w i l l not l a y i t t o h e a r t , s a i t h jehovah t h e god o f h o s t s , t h e n w i l l i send t h e c u r s e upon you, y e a , i have c u r s e d you a l r e a d y : c u r s e d be he t h a t d i s h o n o u r e t h h i s f a t h e r . c u r s e d . c u r s e d . " ( ) i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . wiebe opposes not o n l y non- c h r i s t i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e w o r l d , but a l s o t h e dominant c h r i s t i a n f a c t i o n s w h i c h have a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e v o i c e o f god and used i t f o r t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s . a w a l l o f " o t h e r , a l i e n words about t h e same o b j e c t , t h e same theme," ( b a k h t i n , ) o b s c u r e s t h e n o n - c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f wiebe's god. j e s u s ' e x h o r t a t i o n t o " l o v e t h y n e i g h b o u r " f o r example, must c o n t e n d a g a i n s t t h e words and a c t i o n s o f a l l t h e c h r i s t i a n s i n h i s t o r y who have s t a r t e d wars i n t h e name o f t h e one t r u e god. wiebe's most dangerous opponents a r e " c h r i s t i a n s " l i k e h a r o l d granger, who r e l i s h t h e p r o s p e c t o f "pounding t h e h o l y h" ( ) out o f t h e communists, o r t h e o n t a r i o orangemen who q u e l l e d t h e r i e l r e b e l l i o n by " s h o o t i n g as s i n c e r e l y as t h e y s a i d t h e i r p r a y e r s e v e r y n i g h t " ( ) . wiebe's t e x t a f f i r m s t h a t a l l c h r i s t i a n s do not s h a r e t h e same v a l u e s . they hear god d i f f e r e n t l y and speak r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t languages. a v a s t g u l f s e p a r a t e s t h e g e n t l e , s o f t - s p o k e n sermons o f j o s h b i s h o p from adam ross's f i r e - a n d - b r i m s t o n e v e r s i o n s o f "the same" speech g e n r e . as w e l l as making a u d i b l e t h e c o v e r t a l l i a n c e s o r s u b t l e harmonies between speech genres which n o r m a l l y sound r a d i c a l l y opposed t o one a n o t h e r , wiebe a l s o a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o t h e deep but seldom acknowledged r i f t s i n what might u s u a l l y be t h o u g h t o f as "the c h r i s t i a n v o i c e . " abe cannot hear t h e v o i c e o f god i n t h e complex, cacophonous urban v e r b a l m i l i e u not o n l y because o t h e r v o i c e s drown i t out b u t a l s o because god's v o i c e d i s s o l v e s i n t o a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f human v o i c e s w h i c h a t t e m p t t o mediate between i n d i v i d u a l b e l i e v e r s and god. abe t r i e s " l u t h e r a n , a n g l i c a n , m e n n o n i t e , b a p t i s t , u n i t e d , [and] roman c a t h o l i c " c h u r c h e s , b u t he can n e v e r d i s c e r n god's unmediated v o i c e i n a l l t h e g i b b e r i s h from p r e c i s e l y a c t e d r i t u a l t o s h a p e l e s s h a l l e l u j a h - a m e n - i s m , from i d i o t i c a p p e a l s t o emotion t o as i d i o t i c a p p e a l s o f p h i l o s o p h y , from t i m e - m a r k i n g s i l e n c e t o banshee screams, w i t h a l l t h e i n n u m e r a b l e g r a d i e n t s o f e m o t i o n a l and m e n t a l a t r o p h y and massage between, f a r from not f i n d i n g need s a t i s f i e d , he had not even been a b l e t o u n e a r t h t h a t , h i s v e r y need, t o r e c o g n i z e i t . he s i m p l y knew e m p t i n e s s , a v a c a n c y w i t h him so l o n g now i t had a c q u i r e d a k i n d o f p a i n f u l f u l l n e s s , l i k e s w a l l o w i n g a i r a f t e r a seven-day hunger. o n l y t h i s was no seven days. ( - ) wiebe's complex p l o t t i n g ( w h i c h emerges i n t o c l e a r f o c u s o n l y a t t h e end o f t h e n o v e l ) has t h e e f f e c t o f d i v i d i n g t h e s e many c h r i s t i a n v o i c e s i n t o two camps: t h o s e who w o r s h i p t h e god o f t h u n d e r , and t h o s e who w o r s h i p wiebe's god o f g r a c e . i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r , abe's c i r c u l a r j o u r n e y away from and back towards t h e v o i c e o f god appears i n p a r t s , , , , , and . however, wiebe b e g i n s abe's s t o r y i n medias r e s , f o l d i n g t h e c i r c l e i n h a l f as i t were, and p l o t t i n g two p a t h s , l e a d i n g towards two a l t e r n a t i v e images o f t h e god's v o i c e . w h i l e t h e main s t o r y - l i n e moves f o r w a r d i n t i m e t h r o u g h p a r t s , , and towards t h e b e g i n n i n g o f abe's d i a l o g u e w i t h j e s u s , a second n a r r a t i v e moves c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y backwards t h r o u g h p a r t s , and t o t h e moment when abe a t t e m p t s t o move out o f e a r s h o t from adam ross's m o n o l o g i c . " a b s o l u t e - l a w - g i v i n g k i n d " ( ) o f god. i n p a r t s and , wiebe j u x t a p o s e s two r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t v o i c e s o f god. a g a i n s t t h e t y r a n n i c a l , unanswerable, t h u n d e r i n g v o i c e o f god from w h i c h abe r u n s i n h i s y o u t h , wiebe s e t s t h e g e n t l e v o i c e o f t h e god o f g r a c e , who f o r c e s no one t o l i s t e n and who h e a r s t h e p r a y e r s o f b e l i e v e r s . through j o s h b i s h o p and s a l l y h o w e l l , t h e v o i c e o f wiebe's god o f g r a c e dominates t h e f i n a l two c h a p t e r s o f t h e n o v e l . a t t h e end o f t h e s t o r y , as abe g r i e v e s a t s a l l y ' s g r a v e s i d e , wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h god: and i n t h a t l o n g d r y c r y i n g , d i d he hear a v o i c e l i k e an echo o f a l l t h e p a s s e d r o a d s and r i v e r s o f h i s l i f e : "you have r u n and h i d d e n f a r , and you a r e t i r e d . turn t o me now, come now"? i n h i s n o t h i n g n e s s he c o u l d not know; o n l y l a t e r : but he f o u n d w i t h i n h i m s e l f t h a t he c o u l d v o i c e a t l a s t : " i am a m i s e r a b l e s i n n e r . by y o u r g r a c e have mercy, have mercy." ( ) i n t e r e s t i n g l y , wiebe p r e s e n t s t h e image o f god's u t t e r a n c e i n an i n t e r r o g a t i v e s e n t e n c e , a s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h makes sense o n l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a d i a l o g u e . by t h i s s t r a t e g y , wiebe a t t e m p t s t o engage h i s r e a d e r s i n d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t . however, t h e f i n a l e f f e c t o f wiebe's q u e s t i o n remains r h e t o r i c a l ; t h e d i a l o g i c s e n t e n c e - f o r m does not change t h e m o n o l o g i c f u n c t i o n o f t h e passage because wiebe answers h i s own q u e s t i o n f o r t h e r e a d e r . a t t h i s p o i n t i n h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r , wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l purpose p r e c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n t e r i n g i n t o e q u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h h i s r e a d - e r s . as an e v a n g e l i c a l m e n n o n i t e , wiebe endeavours t o p l a c e j e s u s ' message o f l o v e and peace i n a p o s i t i o n o f s o v e r e i g n - t y i n human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . t h i s s i n g l e i n t e n t i o n c o v e r t l y h y b r i d i s e s t h e many v o i c e s and languages c o n t a i n e d i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , h a r n e s s i n g them a l l i n t o t h e s e r v i c e o f h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l . the v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e n o v e l do not e n j o y e q u a l s t a t u s o r e q u a l power. wiebe has " d e c i d e d i n advance" ( b a k h t i n , ) w h i c h s i n g l e v o i c e w i l l p r e - v a i l . the t e x t not o n l y r e s e m b l e s , b u t a l s o s t r i v e s towards r e a l i z i n g i n h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y , a mennonite u t o p i a i n w h i c h j e s u s ' v o i c e has s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r a l l human v o i c e s . wiebe p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t speech c o n s t i t u t e s a form o f a c t i o n , and t h a t f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e p a r t i c i p a t e s i n h i s t o r y by b r i n g i n g t h e v o i c e o f j e s u s i n t o t h e s t r u g g l e t o c o n s t i t u t e f a c t s and c o n f e r meaning on them. w h i l e h o l d i n g h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n w i t h a s t o r y o f l o v e and v i o l e n c e i n t h e n o r t h e r n - w i l d e r n e s s , wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h e hegemony of s e c u l a r s c i e n t i f i c , n a t i o n a l i s t i c , and main- stream ( s t a t e - e n d o r s i n g ) c h r i s t i a n d i s c o u r s e , and exposes t h e n i h i l i s t i c r e s u l t s o f a c c o r d i n g a l l s i g n i f y i n g systems e q u a l v a l i d i t y . i f f i r s t and v i t a l candle a c h i e v e s i t s d e s i r e d r h e t o r i c a l e f f e c t , r e a d e r s s h o u l d a c q u i r e a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r own a c t i v e " s p e a k i n g p a r t " i n h i s - t o r y . notes to chapter : first and vital candle . u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , p a r e n t h e t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g i n c h a p t e r r e f e r t o f i r s t and v i t a l candle ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ). . see h o l q u i s t , , and v o l o s i n o v , f o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f " r e a c c e n t u a t i o n " and " r e a c c e n t i n g . " a c c o r d i n g t o h o l q u i s t , "every language o r d i s c o u r s e system a c c e n t s — h i g h l i g h t s and e v a l u a t e s — i t s m a t e r i a l i n i t s own way, and t h i s changes t h r o u g h t i m e . the p a r a l l e l w i t h a language's s t r e s s system i s not a c c i d e n t a l " ( ) . a l t h o u g h t h e y do not a f f i l i a t e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h any c h u r c h , s a l l y h o w e l l and j o s h b i s h o p " a c c e n t " t h e b i b l e i n a d i s t i n c t l y mennonite way. they p r i v i l e g e t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f j e s u s above o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e b i b l e , and s e t j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount (matthew : - : ) above a l l e l s e . . see e s p e c i a l l y pp. - , and p. . . i n t h a t wiebe employs t h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n w h i c h r e f l e c t s abe's p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e t e x t m a n i f e s t t h e p r e s e n c e o f two n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s a t t h i s p o i n t . w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n , t h e o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r ' s v o i c e a l m o s t m o n o p o l i s e s t h i s passage, g i v i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e a pronounced m o n o l o g i c q u a l i t y . . i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i t e r a t e t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t , t h e m u l t i p l e a c c e n t s do not d e r i v e from m u l t i p l e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s , and do not i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e t e x t i s i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d . a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e term " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " d e s c r i b e s t h e p l u r a l i t y o f p o s s i b l e ways a s i n g l e r e a d e r might choose t o " v o i c e " t h e words on t h e page. . i n t h e . d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , b a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s t h a t "the s p e a k i n g p e r s o n i n t h e n o v e l i s a l w a y s , t o one degree o r a n o t h e r , an i d e o l o g u e , and h i s words a r e always i d e o l o g e m e s . a p a r t i c u l a r language i n a n o v e l i s always a p a r t i c u l a r way o f v i e w i n g t h e w o r l d , one t h a t s t r i v e s f o r a s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e " ( ). . a c c o r d i n g t o m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t , a zone i s a l o c u s f o r h e a r i n g a v o i c e : i t i s b r o u g h t about by. t h e v o i c e . . . . zones a r e b o t h a t e r r i t o r y and a sphere o f i n f l u e n c e . . . . a c h a r a c t e r ' s zone need not b e g i n w i t h h i s d i r e c t l y q u o t e d speech but can b e g i n f a r back i n t h e t e x t ; t h e a u t h o r can p r e p a r e t h e way f o r an autonomous v o i c e by m a n i p u l a t i n g words o s t e n s i b l y b e l o n g i n g t o " n e u t r a l " a u t h o r i a l speech. ( , ). . in a p o l y g l o s s i c space, two o r more n a t i o n a l languages c o - e x i s t . . i n an a n a l y t i c language, " a u x i l i a r y words a r e t h e c h i e f o r s o l e means o f e x p r e s s i n g g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f words, t o t h e t o t a l o r p a r t i a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f i n f l e c t i o n " ( p e i and gaynor, ) . a p o l y s y n t h e t i c language i s one " i n w h i c h v a r i o u s words a r e combined ( u s u a l l y merged i n t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a v e r b ) , w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g c o m p o s i t e word r e p r e s e n t i n g an e n t i r e s e n t e n c e , statement o r i d e a " ( p e i and gaynor, ). . a c c o r d i n g t o b a k h t i n , l i n g u i s t s who t a k e as t h e i r o b j e c t o f s t u d y t h e s i n g l e language system (an a b s t r a c t system o f n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l forms) cannot come t o g r i p s w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n language use i n r e a l s i t u a t i o n s . b a k h t i n argues t h a t saussure's "langue" has never e x i s t e d i n h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y and t h a t s a u s s u r e ' s model o f language d e n i e s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y ( d i a c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n ) o f l i n g u i s t i c p r a c t i c e . see b a k h t i n , - , and v o l o s i n o v , - f o r b a k h t i n ' s arguments a g a i n s t saussure's b i n a r y o p p o s i t i o n between "langue" and " p a r o l e , " and a g a i n s t h i s p r i v i l e g i n g o f t h e s y n c h r o n i c d i m e n s i o n o f language o v e r t h e d i a c h r o n i c . b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v agree w i t h s a u s s u r e , however, on one fundamental p o i n t : t h a t t h e l i n k between t h e s i g n i f i e r and i t s s i g n i f i e d ( s ) i s a r b i t r a r y and s o c i a l l y n e g o t i a t e d . b a k h t i n ' s and v o l o s i n o v ' s v i s i o n o f t h e s i g n as an a r e n a o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e depends on t h i s a s s u m p t i o n . . see b a k h t i n , - . b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e " and " i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e " d i s c o u r s e o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s a l l y h o w e l l ' s and j o s h b i s h o p ' s methods. . see i n p a r t i c u l a r george o r w e l l ' s appendix t o n i n e t e e n e i a h t y - f o u r . . wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s c o n t i n u i n g c o n c e r n w i t h t h e i s s u e o f "planned s a v a g e r y " i n contemporary i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s i n p l a y i n g dead. - . . r e s e a r c h i n g f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , wiebe g a t h e r e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e body o f documents on t h e s u b j e c t o f american and canadian d e f e n c e p o l i c y . wiebe notes t h a t norad s t a n d s f o r "north american a i r defence," and sac f o r " s t r a t e g i c a i r command." w h i l e t h e f o r m e r i s an e a r l y w a r n i n g "defence o n l y " system, t h e l a t t e r i s a n u c l e a r s t r i k i n g f o r c e w i t h a g l o b a l range. through norad, w h i c h i s o r g a n i s e d j o i n t l y between canada and t h e u.s.a, canada i m p l i c a t e s i t s e l f i n t h e a g g r e s s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s o f t h e u.s.a., h e l p i n g " t o e n a b l e t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s t o use i t s maximum power t o d e s t r o y t h e enemy s h o u l d he d e c i d e t o a t t a c k t h e n o r t h american c o n t i n e n t . " wiebe's h a n d w r i t t e n notes mention t h a t t h e term "the enemy" i s used, i n d e e d t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d , by t h e e x p e r t s . see the rudy wiebe p a p e r s , f i l e . . . . " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l i t y " r e f e r s t o "the c l a s h o f l i v e s o c i a l a c c e n t s " ( v o l o s i n o v ) w i t h i n t h e v e r b a l s i g n , t h e p o t e n t i a l v o i c i n g s o f t h e word. chapter : the blue mountains of china h i s t o r y as i n a d v e r t e n t c o n f e s s i o n i in the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a ( ) , rudy wiebe r e c o u n t s t h e h i s t o r y not o f an i n d i v i d u a l b u t o f a group, "a p a r t i c u l a r p e o p l e from v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s bound t o g e t h e r by a f a i t h . " four, f a m i l i e s — t h e f r i e s e n s , t h e epps, t h e reimers and t h e d r i e d i g e r s — r e p r e s e n t a community o f r u s s i a n mennonites who, i n t h e c o u r s e o f a hundred y e a r s , s p l i t i n t o s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t s o c i e t i e s , d i v i d e d by d i s t a n c e , language, c u l t u r e , and h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . t h e i r d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h i n t h e space o f wiebe's t e x t t o a r t i c u l a t e mennonite "knowledge o f our o r i g i n s . " the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a c o n t i n u e s wiebe's movement away from d i r e c t , unmediated a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e c o n t i n u e s t o p e r f o r m t h e v i t a l r o l e i t p l a y e d i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many and f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , b u t i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n becomes more complex and p e r v a s i v e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . moreover, wiebe s h i f t s i n t o a d i a l o g i c form i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l d e s i g n o f h i s f i r s t two n o v e l s . a s i d e from f r i e d a f r i e s e n ' s s e c t i o n s ( c h a p t e r s , , , and ) , wiebe no l o n g e r o r g a n i s e s h i s e x p o s i t i o n of t h e m a t i c m a t e r i a l as a c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e r i e s o f s t a g e s i n t h e l i f e o f an i n d i v i d u a l . i n s t e a d , he moves t o w a r d f o r m a l " s y n c r i s i s " — t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f v a r i o u s v o i c e s r e f l e c t i n g d i v e r s e p o i n t s o f v i e w . each c h a p t e r o f t h e t e x t i s dominated by t h e v o i c e o f a s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r , who a r t i c u l a t e s a d i s t i n c t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n mennonite s o c i e t y and r e c o r d s e v e n t s from h i s o r her p a r t i c u l a r p e r s p e c t i v e . together t h e y form a f r a g m e n t e d , m u l t i - v o i c e d , h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e w h i c h encodes t h e p l u r a l i t y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a s t . however, a t e x t may assume a d i a l o g i c form w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l i n q u i s h i n g m o n o l o g i c l i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s and c o n c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h ; t h e s e depend on t h e a u t h o r ' s p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e n o v e l . the d i f f i c u l t y posed i n i t i a l l y by t h e t e x t o f the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a i s t h a t wiebe's p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h o s e v o i c e s i s d e c e p t i v e . f o r t h e most p a r t , he o b s c u r e s h i s own dominance o v e r t h e v a r i o u s n a r r a t i n g v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t , so t h a t t h e y seem a t f i r s t t o e n j o y t h e s t a t u s o f autonomous c e n t r e s o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , c o - s u b j e c t s i n t h e " ' g r e a t d i a l o g u e ' i n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s and a u t h o r might p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h e q u a l r i g h t s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . wiebe's s e l f - e f f a c e m e n t f o r c e s r e a d e r s t o g r a p p l e w i t h t h e concept o f d i a l o g i c t r u t h and w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f human u n d e r s t a n d i n g , problems a r t i c u l a t e d most e x p l i c i t l y i n t h e n o v e l by f r a n z epp and jakob f r i e s e n iv. as each new s p e a k e r e n t e r s t h e a r e n a o f t h e t e x t , he o r she c a s t s a new l i g h t , a new system o f a c c e n t s , on t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e o t h e r s , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s e m a n t i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s c o n t i n u o u s l y m u l t i p l y and u n f o l d . each s p e a k e r seems "honed i n on h i m s e l f " ( ) , o r i e n t e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o h i s o r her own p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n s , l e a v i n g r e a d e r s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e t e x t w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f any c o n s i s t e n t c r i t e r i o n o f r e l e v a n c e , w i t h o u t a p r e d e t e r m i n e d b a s i s f o r s i f t i n g , w e i g h i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g what i s s a i d , and t h u s w i t h no s u r e i d e a o f t h e o f f i c i a l s i t e on w h i c h t h e v o i c e s d i a l o g i c a l l y i n t e r s e c t . wiebe i n i t i a l l y d i s o r i e n t s r e a d e r s by p l a c i n g them i n a s i m i l a r p r e d i c a m e n t t o jakob f r i e s e n iv who hears a s t r a n g e r speak b u t cannot a r r i v e a t a s t a b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e words, because he "was n e v e r s u r e t o what q u e s t i o n t h e man gave h i s answer" ( ) . o n l y i n r e t r o s p e c t , from a p o i n t near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , does wiebe u n v e i l t h e q u e s t i o n t o w h i c h a l l t h e s p e a k e r s i n t h e t e x t have g i v e n an answer. i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , john reimer g i v e s v o i c e t o "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n o f . . . s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " ( ) , t h e m o r a l charge t o w h i c h a l l t h e v o i c e s have a l r e a d y u n w i t t i n g l y c o n f e s s e d o r a c q u i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s . john reimer's announcement o f t h e q u e s t i o n pushes t h e n o v e l a c r o s s a b o r d e r between speech g e n r e s : i t t r a n s l a t e s a p o l y p h o n i c h i s t o r y i n t o a m o n o l o g i c t r i a l . by u n v e i l i n g "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n , " wiebe r e a c c e n t s t h e e n t i r e t e x t r e t r o a c t i v e l y . c a s u a l i n c i d e n t s and remarks, i n t e r s t i t i a l p h r a s e s , t r i v i a l c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l s caught o n l y i n t h e s p e a k e r ' s p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n s u d d e n l y d i s p l a y t h e i r t r u e t h e m a t i c r e l e v a n c e ; c o n v e r s e l y , words and e v e n t s w h i c h a t f i r s t seemed c r u c i a l f a d e i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e . in t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , wiebe e f f e c t s a sudden r e v e l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a sudden " r e v e r s a l o f method and p e r c e p t i o n " ( f e r r i s ) . he unmasks h i s own v o i c e — o r h i s " v o i c i n g " o f t h e words o f j e s u s — a n d r e v e a l s i t s r e l a t i o n t o a l l t h e o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t . the v o i c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s work u l t i m a t e l y as o b j e c t s r a t h e r t h a n s u b j e c t s o f c o g n i t i o n , t h e a c c e n t s i m p a r t e d by t h e i r own v o l i t i o n o v e r r i d d e n by wiebe's s o v e r e i g n a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . wiebe's c o n c e a l e d purpose t h r o u g h o u t i s t o r e f r a c t h i s own v o i c e t h r o u g h — r a t h e r t h a n speak t o - - h i s s e e m i n g l y autonomous n a r r a t o r s . c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t r e v e a l s t h a t a l t h o u g h wiebe s h i f t s i n t o a d i a l o g i c form i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , t h e n o v e l remains f u n c t i o n a l l y m o n o l o g i c , an e l a b o r a t e system o f "dialogue [ s j r h e t o r i c a l l y performed" ( b a k h t i n , ) . i i the f i r s t v o i c e w h i c h speaks i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a i s t h a t o f f r i e d a f r i e s e n , wiebe's f i r s t a t t e m p t a t a p o l y g l o s s i c speech: i have l i v e d l o n g . so l o n g , i t t a k e s me days t o remember even p a r t s o f i t , and some i c a n ' t remember a t a l l u n t i l i've been t h i n k i n g o v e r i t a l i t t l e now and t h e n f o r weeks, and l i t t l e johann o r f r i e d l ask, " u r g r o s s m u t t c h i , what i s t h a t , so c o l d i n canada t h e ground i s s t i f f ? " then i have t o be c a r e f u l o r i ' l l s t a r t making i t up, t h e y l i k e t o hear so much. what i t e l l i remember o n l y t h r o u g h god's g r a c e . ( ) f r i e d a ' s u n u s u a l rhythms, d i c t i o n , and s y n t a x g i v e her e n g l i s h a d i s t i n c t l y f o r e i g n a c c e n t , an a c c e n t i d e n t i f i e d as german w i t h t h e appearance o f t h e names " u r g r o s s m u t t c h i , " "johann," and " f r i e d l " ( ) . in an i l l u m i n a t i n g a r t i c l e on t h e n a t u r e and s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f r i e d a ' s language, magdalene f a l k redekop d e s c r i b e s i t s e f f e c t as * something l i k e t h a t o f a d o u b l e e x p o s u r e o r s t e r e o s c o p i c v i s i o n . . . . ' her s y n t a x and v o c a b u l a r y evoke t h e sound o f low german w h i c h can be h e a r d , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , as one r e a d s t h e e n g l i s h . (redekop, ) redekop c a l l s wiebe's t e c h n i q u e " d i r e c t o v e r s e t t i n g " ( ) and she l i k e n s i t t o a v e r y l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n d e s i g n e d t o a c c e n t u a t e r a t h e r t h a n negate t h e d i s p a r i t y between two s o c i a l / i d e o l o g i c a l w o r l d s . f r i e d a ' s v o i c e o c c u p i e s a t h r e s h o l d between t h e c l o s e d , t r a d i t i o n a l w o r l d o f t h e k a n a d i e r mennonites o f paraguay, and t h e more open, p r e s e n t - c e n t r e d e n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g w o r l d i n h a b i t e d by wiebe's r e a d e r s . d e s p i t e i t s h y b r i d i t y , f r i e d a ' s language remains s t y l i s t i c a l l y c o n s i s t e n t and m o n o l o g i c a l l y compact o v e r t h e e n t i r e d u r a t i o n o f h e r s t o r y . the q u a l i t y o f a d d r e s s i v i t y — t h e awareness o f an i n t e r l o c u t o r t o whom t h e d i s c o u r s e i s d i r e c t e d — e m e r g e s o n l y s u b t l y , b u t i s v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t , i n f r i e d a ' s monologue. she t w i c e mentions t h a t h e r g r a n d c h i l d r e n , johann and f r i e d l , want t o know about canada ( , ) , and t h a t " o l d e r ones not from paraguay" ( ) wonder about l i f e on t h e chaco, b u t i n no sense does f r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e g e t i t s main impetus from t h e s e v a g u e l y s k e t c h e d l i s t e n e r s . the young ones' q u e s t i o n s might s e t her memory i n m o t i o n , b u t once a c t i v a t e d , i t r u n s " o n l y t h r o u g h god's g r a c e " ( ) . no human a u d i e n c e d e t e r m i n e s t h e shape o f f r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e . she speaks c o n s c i o u s l y as one who s t a n d s on t h e t h r e s h o l d o f t h e end o f h e r l i f e , and she t e l l s h e r s t o r y a f t e r r e t u r n i n g t o paraguay, t h e p l a c e she r e f e r s t o as "the end o f t h e w o r l d " ( ) . i f f r i e d a does not a d d r e s s her s t o r y d i r e c t l y and o p e n l y t o god, she a t l e a s t senses t h a t " h i s e a r h e a r s each word f a l l " ( ) . u n l i k e most o f t h e o t h e r major c h a r a c t e r s , f r i e d a n e v e r f o r g e t s her m o r a l a c c o u n t a b i l i t y t o god; her speech m a n i f e s t s h e r c o n s t a n t awareness o f god's j u d g i n g p r e s e n c e . w i t h i n f r i e d a ' s monologue, a s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d number o f human v o i c e s g a i n a h e a r i n g . f r i e d a remains d e l i b e r a t e l y deaf t o a l l b u t a few a u t h o r i t a t i v e mennonite v o i c e s , and t h e s e she t h o r o u g h l y a s s i m i l a t e s i n t o her own. i n f a c t , f r i e d a e x p l i c i t l y acknowledges t h e p r o c e s s o f making " o t h e r s ' " words her own. as a woman i n a t r a d i t i o n a l mennonite s o c i e t y , f r i e d a has no v o i c e i n f o r m a l d e c i s i o n - making p r o c e s s e s . b e f o r e m a r r i a g e , she l i v e s under t h e a u t h o r i t y o f her f a t h e r ' s v o i c e ; a f t e r m a r r i a g e , s u b j e c t t o her husbands's. but f r i e d a makes a v o i c e f o r h e r s e l f by t a k i n g o v e r t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s . f o r example, i n t h e f i r s t o f s e v e r a l r e n d i t i o n s o f her f a t h e r ' s motto, she c l e a r l y a c c e p t s t h e wisdom o f what he says b u t l e a v e s no doubt t h a t t h e words b e l o n g t o him: e v e r y t h i n g seemed t o come so bunchy i n o u r f a m i l y and i t was enough t o make you t h i n k sometimes, my f a t h e r s a i d . "but t h i n k always l i k e t h i s , " he s a i d , " i t does come a l l from god, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y . " ( ) l a t e r , d u r i n g a phase o f doubt and t e m p t a t i o n w i t h o u t f a t h e r o r husband nearby t o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t , f r i e d a a d o p t s her f a t h e r ' s words as her own: then i knew what my f a t h e r s a i d each one o f us has t o t a k e and know f o r h i m s e l f : i t a l l comes f r o m god, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y . ( ) no q u o t a t i o n marks s e p a r a t e f r i e d a ' s words from h e r f a t h e r ' s . from t h i s p o i n t onwards, f r i e d a t a k e s p o s s e s s i o n of her f a t h e r ' s motto. . f r i e d a remains f i r m l y committed t o her own v e r s i o n o f t h e s a y i n g . l i k e h e r f a t h e r , she a c c e n t s "want" and " s i c k n e s s , " c a u s i n g t h e motto t o work as a s o u r c e o f s o l a c e i n t i m e s o f s e v e r e t r o u b l e . by c o n t r a s t , dennis w i l l i a m s ( w i l l m s ) p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e words " s t r e n g t h " and " p l e n t y , " t o j u s t i f y h i s r a p a c i t y i n b u s i n e s s and t o e x p l a i n t h e a c c i d e n t s o f b i r t h t h a t gave him h i s s t a r t i n g c a p i t a l : e s t h e r ' s man, dennis w i l l m s s o l d c h e v r o l e t s , and a l l k i n d s o f o t h e r t h i n g s now t o o . he w r o t e h i s name " w i l l i a m s , " b u t even had some farms. he had t a k e n o v e r t o r u n them w h i l e t h e y had t h e war and now t h e y were h i s ; h i r e d p e o p l e r a n t h e f a r m s . . . "na m u t t c h i , " he s a i d , "you always s a i d l i k e grandpa, ' i t a l l comes from god.' so okay, b u t i t ' s not always j u s t s i c k n e s s and want, eh?" "not a l w a y s , " i s a i d . "no." ( ) the u t t e r a n c e " i t a l l comes from god, s t r e n g t h and s i c k n e s s , want and p l e n t y " becomes a s i t e o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e i n t h e t e x t . f r i e d a a g r e e s p o l i t e l y w i t h her s o n - i n - l a w , as her s t r i c t sense o f s o c i a l decorum d i c t a t e s she must. but her a c t i o n s , s p e a k i n g l o u d e r t h a n her words, d e c i s i v e l y r e p u d i a t e d e n n i s ' r e a c c e n t u a t i o n o f h e r f a t h e r ' s motto. she r e j e c t s t h e w i l l m s ' o f f e r t o j o i n them i n t h e i r l i f e of " s t r e n g t h " and " p l e n t y , " and r e t u r n s i n s t e a d t o t h e h a r d s h i p s o f l i f e i n paraguay. i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o n o t i c e t h a t f r i e d a m e n t i o n s as i f i n p a s s i n g how dennis w i l l i a m s m u l t i p l i e d h i s w e a l t h . her s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , " w h i l e t h e y had t h e war," a l l u d e s t o a l a r g e r s t o r y w h i c h wiebe assumes h i s r e a d e r s a l r e a d y know: as a kanadier, dennis would have gained automatic exemption from m i l i t a r y service on r e l i g i o u s grounds and been able to take advantage of a war s i t u a t i o n which brought death, g r i e f and f i n a n c i a l r u i n to others. despite t h e i r minor syntactic importance, the words "while they had the war" carry enormous thematic s i g n i f i c a n c e within the text as a whole, f o r they allude obliquely to the f a c t that dennis has attained his wealth by feeding p a r a s i t i c a l l y on the s u f f e r i n g of others. within the clause "while they had the war," wiebe counterposes two systems of accentuation: frieda's (her choice to place the clause i n a subordinate syntactic p o s i t i o n within the unity of her utterance) and his own (which weights her a l l u s i o n according to i t s thematic s i g n i f i c a n c e within the larger utterance of his text as a whole). despite t h i s d i s p a r i t y between the stress patterns created by the character and the author, frieda's speech sounds as " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l double-voiced discourse... s t y l i s e d ich-erzahlung" (bakhtin , ). in bakhtin's terms, frieda's monologue functions as "a compositional substitute for the author's word....as a p o s i t i o n indispensable to him for carrying on the story" (bakhtin , ). frieda's story, with i t s c a r e f u l notation of dates, and i t s numerous cross-references to other stands of family history, provides readers with a r e l a t i v e l y synoptic view. wiebe's p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e f o u r p a r t s o f f r i e d a ' s n a r r a t i v e i n t h e n o v e l means t h a t r e a d e r s r e t u r n t o i t r e p e a t e d l y as t o "a c o n s t a n t p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e " ( k e i t h a, ) . moreover, her f r a n k n e s s and s i m p l i c i t y d e f i n e a n o r m a t i v e m o r a l p o s i t i o n " a g a i n s t w h i c h o t h e r s may be measured" ( k e i t h a, ) . i l l how do o t h e r v o i c e s i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a compare w i t h f r i e d a f r i e s e n ' s ? w h i l e f r i e d a remains c l o s e d t o a l l b u t a few mennonite v o i c e s , whose words she e i t h e r d e c i s i v e l y r e j e c t s o r a s s i m i l a t e s t h o r o u g h l y i n t o h e r own speech, l i e s e l d r i e d i g e r i s f a r more open t o t h e v o i c e s and languages o f o t h e r s , and can n e v e r q u i t e subdue c e r t a i n t r o u b l e s o m e a l i e n a c c e n t s t h a t pervade "her own" speech. w h i l e f r i e d a ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s remains f i r m l y r o o t e d i n t h e low german l a n g u a g e , l i e s e l abandons t h i s tongue a t t h e v e r y f i r s t o p p o r t u n i t y . a t t h e age o f n i n e , d u r i n g t h e sea passage -from germany t o paraguay, l i e s e l f l e e s from t h e v e r y sound o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' s u f f e r i n g , t h e e n d l e s s d i n of c r y i n g c h i l d r e n , " s c o l d i n g v o i c e s , murmurs, c o m p l a i n t s , shushes" ( ) t h a t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h r o b o f t h e e n g i n e s , f i l l t h e s t a g n a n t a i r i n t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' o v e r c r o w d e d q u a r t e r s i n s t e e r a g e . to e s c a p e , l i e s e l sneaks, w i t h as much d i g n i t y as she can m u s t e r , up t h e s t a i r s p a s t c deck and b deck, t h e a r e a s r e s e r v e d f o r c a b i n and t o u r i s t c l a s s , t o t h e h e a v e n l y r e a l m of a deck, where t h e f i r s t c l a s s p a s s e n g e r s l a u g h and dance under s p a r k l i n g c h a n d e l i e r s . i n t h i s e x a l t e d r e a l m l i e s e l h e a r s many u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , but t o h e r , b r i l l i a n t l a n g u a g e s , " s p a n i s h o r e n g l i s h o r even f r e n c h " ( ) and r e f i n e d h i g h german. compared t o t h e s e , her own p e o p l e ' s low german sounds l i k e "heavy f e l t b o o t s some men s t i l l wore, so s t i n k i n g when t h e y s c h l u f f e d by" ( ) . l i e s e l s u f f e r s from l i n g u i s t i c as w e l l as s o c i a l c l a u s t r o p h o b i a . she f e e l s t r a p p e d i n a language she c o n s i d e r s i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n f e r i o r , w i t h p e o p l e she b e l i e v e s a r e c u l t u r a l l y beneath h e r . w h i l e l i e s e l ' s f a t h e r i s h i g h l y e d u c a t e d , and t e a c h e s a t t h e l e n i n g r a d u n i v e r s i t y , most o f t h e o t h e r men on t h e s h i p a r e "such f a r m e r s " ( ) . yet c i r c u m s t a n c e s compel l i e s e l t o speak t h e same n a t i o n a l language as t h e s e ( t o her) d e t e s t a b l y i g n o r a n t p e o p l e . l i e s e l t h e r e f o r e d e v i s e s l i n g u i s t i c s t r a t e g i e s t o mark h e r s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e — a n d w i t h o u t knowing i t , her i m m a t u r i t y and her w i l l e d i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . she r e f u s e s t o comply w i t h t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' p r e v a i l i n g a c c e n t u a l system. d u r i n g f u n e r a l s e r v i c e s , f o r example, i n s t e a d o f bowing her head and i m m e r s i n g h e r mind i n t h e words o f t h e "heavy songs" ( ) , and b l e n d i n g h e r v o i c e i n t o t h e " v o i c e s g r o a n i n g i n harmony" ( ) , l i e s e l adopts a d e t a c h e d , p l a y f u l a e s t h e t i c a t t i t u d e t o e v e n t s . for h e r , f u n e r a l s a r e f e s t i v a l s o f music and t h e a t r e : not t h a t l i e s e l minded f u n e r a l s . she had found t h e r e c o u l d be enjoyment t h e r e ; and, sometimes, i n c h u r c h s e r v i c e s . . . on t h i s sad e a r t h i am a p i l g r i m . and my j o u r n e y , o my j o u r n e y i s not l o n g . t h e n she would f e e l j u s t i m p o s s i b l y , a l m o s t t o o b e a u t i f u l l y , sad and even b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e f i r s t v e r s e she w o u l d remember t h a t t h e r e were o n l y t h r e e more and t h a t t h e y were not l o n g and she would be even sadder. but t h e n o f t e n b r o t h e r h o p p i t y p r e a c h e d . he was t h e o n l y p r e a c h e r who danced about b e h i n d t h e t a b l e o r ' whatever m a k e s h i f t p u l p i t t h e y had managed. h i s hands and t h e changes on h i s f a c e — a n d when she was c l o s e enough t o see h i s f e e t i t was b e s t by f a r . . . . h i s announcements about f u n e r a l s were a l s o u n s u r p a s s e d . she always watched him t h e n , e n t r a n c e d : w i l l he manage j u s t c h o k i n g a l i t t l e ; w i l l he be f o r c e d t o l o o k down and everyone w a i t i n g , w a i t i n g ; o r w i l l he s u d d e n l y b u r s t r i g h t out i n t o t e a r s ? b r o t h e r h o p p i t y . . . had a c t u a l l y c r i e d o n l y once, a t t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e p i d e m i c s when s i x c h i l d r e n had d i e d i n one n i g h t . . . . she had had no a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a n y t h i n g and so m i s s e d s a v o u r i n g a l t o g e t h e r what would happen u n t i l i t was p a s t . ( - ) conspicuous i n t h i s passage i s t h e marked d i s p a r i t y between l i e s e l ' s c h i r p y t o n e and t h e s e r i o u s n a t u r e o f t h e t o p i c a t h a n d — d e a t h . wiebe o f f s e t ' s two c o m p e t i n g p a t t e r n s o f a c c e n t s : one i m p a r t e d by t h e s y n t a c t i c c h o i c e s o f l i e s e l - t h e - d r a m a - c r i t i c , and t h e o t h e r a r i s i n g from t h e tremendous pathos i n h e r e n t i n t h e v e r y i d e a o f c h i l d r e n s u f f e r i n g and d y i n g . l i e s e l m e n t i o n s t h e deaths o f s i x c h i l d r e n o n l y i n a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e . f o r h e r , t h e i n c i d e n t has s i g n i f i c a n c e o n l y i n so f a r as i t makes p o s s i b l e t h e main e v e n t , b r o t h e r h o p p i t y ' s t e a r s . but wiebe a l l o w s h i s a u d i e n c e t o r e a d a g a i n s t l i e s e l ' s a c c e n t : l i e s e l ' s language e x e m p l i f i e s v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . the d i f f e r e n c e between t h a t and f r i e d a ' s u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e measures t h e d i s t a n c e between parody and s t y l i z a t i o n . l e i s e l h e r s e l f t r i e s u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o parody t h e speech o f o t h e r s . she mimics t h e v o i c e o f "some o l d g r a c k l e l i k e s t i f f e r k l i e w e r " ( ) who, i n a manner " p r e c i s e l y i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e s p o i l - s p o r t ways of o l d p e o p l e " ( ) urges t h a t "a s i l l y o l d f u n e r a l " ( ) s h o u l d postpone t h e p a r t y : " i t i s o f c o u r s e now c l e a r , " he would say and say, " t h a t i t was not t o be. that i t s h o u l d not be. even i f we f o r g e t — a n d who c a n ? — w h a t has j u s t happened, l e t us remember what we have been t h r o u g h , and what i s s t i l l b e f o r e us. yes, some c o u l d be happy, some, b u t as i s a i d b e f o r e , when t h i s m a t t e r f i r s t was l a i d b e f o r e us, f o r how many would t h e h a p p i n e s s — o h , some would be h a p p y ! — n o t mean o n l y a g r e a t e r s o r r o w because o f t h o s e , e s p e c i a l l y a l l t h o s e b e l o v e d l i t t l e ones, who a r e not here, whom t h e i r l o v e d ones w i l l not see, o r h o l d , a g a i n ? " and now t h e r e ' d e a s i l y be enough water t o c a r r y t h e day. of c o u r s e . ( ) l i e s e l c a r i c a t u r e s t h e speech o f t h e " o l d g r a c k l e , " t h e i t a l i c i s e d words e x a g g e r a t i n g h i s a c c e n t s , and t h e b r e a k s and r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s lampooning h i s a t t e m p t s t o engage t h e sympathies o f h i s l i s t e n e r s . yet l i e s e l cannot e n t i r e l y s u b o r d i n a t e t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " system o f a c c e n t s ; h i s words c o u n t e r - a t t a c k her a t t e m p t s t o n e u t r a l i s e t h e i r meaning and t h e i r power. the " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " speech s u c c e s s f u l l y defends i t s own a c c e n t u a l system because, as b a k h t i n w r i t e s o f n o v e l i s t i c p a t h o s , i t " c o n t i n u a l l y senses t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d by a l i e n d i s c o u r s e s , a l i e n p o i n t s o f v i e w " ( , ). wiebe f i l l s t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " speech w i t h " s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s " w h i c h pre-empt and d e f u s e i n advance a l l p o s s i b l e o b j e c t i o n s t o h i s argument: "even i f we f o r g e t — a n d who can?--what has j u s t happened.... yes, some c o u l d be happy, some, b u t . . . " ( ) . h i s s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s c a p t u r e l i e s e l ' s v o i c e and s u b j e c t i t t o h i s own i n t e n t i o n s . in a d d i t i o n t o s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s , t h e " o l d g r a c k l e " h a r n e s s e s t h e power o f p a t h o s - - " a l l t h o s e b e l o v e d l i t t l e ones, who a r e not h e r e , whom t h e i r l o v e d ones w i l l not see, o r h o l d , a g a i n " ( ) . even though t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " words appear c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y bound w i t h i n l i e s e l ' s u t t e r a n c e , t h e i r p a t h o s g e n e r a t e s "a c o u n t e r f o r c e " ( b a k h t i n , ) a g a i n s t l i e s e l ' s i n t e n t i o n s . they break out o f l i e s e l ' s c o n t r o l and speak t o t h e r e a d e r d i r e c t l y by d i s c l o s i n g c e r t a i n f a c t s which f u r t h e r t h e s t o r y , ( l i k e f r i e d a ' s w o r d s ) . through a v o i c e c a p t u r e d by a n o t h e r v o i c e , wiebe t e l l s h i s r e a d e r s t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e i l l and d y i n g and t h a t t h e i r f a m i l i e s a r e s u f f e r i n g i n t e n s e g r i e f and p r o f o u n d f e e l i n g s o f l o s s . t h i s s t o r y r e f l e c t s upon l i e s e l ' s c a l l o u s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e o t h e r m e n n o n i t e s : i t i m p l i c i t l y t r a n s f o r m s l i e s e l ' s contemptuous remark, "and now t h e r e ' d be e a s i l y enough w a t e r t o c a r r y t h e day" ( - ) i n t o a bounded o b j e c t . wiebe t h u s i n t e n s i f i e s h i s p a r o d y o f l i e s e l t h e p a r o d i s t . he l i b e r a t e s v o i c e s c a p t u r e d w i t h i n h e r v o i c e , and a l l o w s them t o i m p r i s o n t h e i r c a p t u r e r . and as t h e " o l d g r a c k l e ' s " v o i c e s e i z e s c o n t r o l , t h e f o c u s s h i f t s away from l i e s e l ' s hopes and d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s and c e n t r e s on t h e m o r a l f a c t t h a t she would p u r c h a s e enjoyment knowing i t must i n t e n s i f y t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . a l t h o u g h l i e s e l c a l l s her opponent " o l d g r a c k l e , " her b e h a v i o u r r e s e m b l e s t h a t o f t h e numerous p r e d a t o r y b l a c k b i r d s i n t h e n o v e l . by f i l t e r i n g h i s s t o r y o f s u f f e r i n g and d e a t h t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s o f h o p p i t y h i e b e r t and t h e " o l d g r a c k l e , " w h i c h must i n t u r n pass t h r o u g h t h e f i l t e r o f l i e s e l ' s de- p a t h e t i c i s i n g mind and words, wiebe h o l d s t h e p a t h o s o f h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r a t arm's l e n g t h , two s t e p s removed from h i s own d i r e c t , unmediated d i s c o u r s e . the v o i c e s o f h i e b e r t and t h e " g r a c k l e " a r e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e i n t h a t t h e y a r e doubly-bounded i n t h e t e x t . y e t t h e y f u n c t i o n as s u r r o g a t e s f o r wiebe's a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between p o e t i c and n o v e l i s e d pathos e x p l a i n s why wiebe r e s o r t s t o t h i s s t r a t e g y o f compounded i n d i r e c t i o n . in the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , b a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s p o e t i c p a t h o s as f u l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o i t s e l f and t o i t s o b j e c t . indeed, t h e s p e a k e r c o m p l e t e l y immerses h i m s e l f i n such a d i s c o u r s e , t h e r e i s no d i s t a n c e , t h e r e a r e no r e s e r v a t i o n s . a d i s c o u r s e o f p a t h o s has t h e appearance o f d i r e c t l y i n t e n t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e . ( ) a f t e r t h e e x c e s s e s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f i c t i o n and melodrama, t h i s d i r e c t , m o n o l o g i c , p o e t i c p a t h o s i s no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e as a l i t e r a r y s t r a t e g y f o r " s e r i o u s " w r i t e r s i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . wiebe knows t h a t " d i s c e r n i n g " a u d i e n c e s would be l i k e l y t o r e c o i l from any t o o - o v e r t t u g g i n g a t t h e i r h e a r t - s t r i n g s . yet h i s m o r a l case a g a i n s t l i e s e l depends p r e c i s e l y on t h e s u c c e s s w i t h w h i c h he can c a l l f o r t h h i s r e a d e r s ' sadness and compassion. w i t h o u t such a r e s p o n s e , where would one f i n d a m o r a l o r e m o t i o n a l norm a g a i n s t w h i c h t o a s s e s s l i e s e l ' s g l i b d i s m i s s a l o f o t h e r s ' p a i n ? because " l u c i d i t y t o d a y i s s t r i c t l y f o r morons" ( ) a c c o r d i n g t o l i e s e l - t h e - l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c , wiebe must r e s o r t t o d i a l o g i c o r " n o v e l i s e d " ( b a k h t i n , ) p a t h o s , w h i c h , i n b a k h t i n ' s words, does not have d i s c o u r s e s t h a t b e l o n g t o i t a l o n e — i t must borrow t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f o t h e r s . . . . [ i t ] always works i n t h e n o v e l t o r e s t o r e some o t h e r g e n r e , genres t h a t , i n t h e i r own unmediated pure form, have l o s t t h e i r own base i n r e a l i t y . i n t h e n o v e l a d i s c o u r s e o f pathos i s a l m o s t always a s u r r o g a t e f o r some o t h e r genre t h a t i s no l o n g e r a v a i l a b l e t o a g i v e n t i m e o r a g i v e n s o c i a l f o r c e — s u c h p a t h o s i s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f a p r e a c h e r who has l o s t h i s p u l p i t . . . . everywhere, t h e d i s c o u r s e o f p a t h o s i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h o r i e n t a t i o n s and p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e a u t h o r as a u t h e n t i c e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e s e r i o u s n e s s and d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h i s p u r p o s e , but w h i c h he must, a l l . t h e same, c o n d i t i o n a l l y r e p r o d u c e by u s i n g h i s own d i s c o u r s e . ( , - ) to see t h e d i f f e r e n c e between n o v e l i s e d and p o e t i c p a t h o s , one has o n l y t o compare wiebe's complex system o f r e f r a c t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e k i n d o f n a i v e p a t h o s a r t i c u l a t e d i n c h a r l e s d i c k e n s ' r e n d i t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f l i t t l e n e l l . when d i s p l a c e d from i t s o r i g i n a l e m o t i o n a l and t e x t u a l c o n t e x t , d i c k e n s ' passage becomes l a u g h a b l y m a u d l i n . wiebe guards a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s own t e x t may be p a r o d i e d by s i m i l a r a c t s o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n and d i s p l a c e m e n t by w r a p p i n g h i s a u t h o r i a l v o i c e i n l a y e r s o f o t h e r v o i c e s t o c r e a t e an i m p e n e t r a b l e p r o t e c t i v e cocoon around h i s own words. anyone a t t e m p t i n g t o a p p r o p r i a t e wiebe's words and " r e - v o i c e " them p a r o d i c a l l y f i n d s t h e i r own v o i c e a l r e a d y o b j e c t i f i e d and judged. wiebe c r e a t e s a l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t w h i c h s h i e l d s h i s own v o i c e from t h e k i n d s o f d e c r o w n i n g r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n s t o w h i c h d i c k e n s ' famous t e a r - j e r k e r has been s u b j e c t e d . wiebe's use o f s i d e w a r d g l a n c e s and p a t h o s i n c h a p t e r w a r r a n t s c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n , f o r i t s u p p l i e s an i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e t o h i s p o s i t i o n , not o n l y i n r e l a t i o n t o l i e s e l ' s v o i c e b u t a l s o i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e v o i c e o f a p o w e r f u l f a c t i o n w i t h i n h i s own r e a d e r s h i p . w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e n o v e l as a whole, l i e s e l ' s d i s c o u r s e f u n c t i o n s as one l o n g s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f r e a d e r . in l i e s e l ' s v o i c e , wiebe pre-empts and denounces i n advance t h e v o i c e s o f t h o s e who would argue t h a t m o r a l i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y bad. l i e s e l f u n c t i o n s as a s u r r o g a t e f o r t h e "wrong r e a d e r , " t h e r e a d e r who judges t h e t e x t e n t i r e l y i n a e s t h e t i c t e r m s , i n a s t a t e a "suspended s e n s i t i v i t y " ( ) t o w a r d m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . wiebe does not e x c l u d e r e a d e r s and w r i t e r s from t h e n e c e s s i t y t o make m o r a l c h o i c e s . through l i e s e l ' s a e s t h e t i c d e l i g h t i n f u n e r a l s , and i r e n e f r i e s e n ' s enjoyment o f bob d y l a n , wiebe p r e s e n t s images o f a u d i e n c e s who t a k e an v o y e u r i s t i c d e l i g h t i n o t h e r s ' p a i n — " s a d can be f u n " ( ) p r o v i d e d one i s " c u r l e d i n a c h a i r w i t h a f u l l b e l l y " ( ). l i k e abe ross i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , l i e s e l b e l i e v e s she b e l i e v e s n o t h i n g , and i m a g i n e s she has made a c l e a n escape from a n y t h i n g t o do w i t h her e a r l y r e l i g i o u s u p b r i n g i n g . yet she r e t a i n s i n some h i d d e n c o r n e r o f h e r psyche t h e memory o f a l o s t f a i t h and a l o s t language, and a s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f o t h e r s . h e a r i n g jakob f r i e s e n speak, l i e s e l l e a r n s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e gaps, s i l e n c e s and o m i s s i o n s i n h i s speech: " i t sounded so h e r o i c , so p a t h e t i c a l l y h e r o i c i n what he d i d not m e n t i o n t h a t e l i z a b e t h f e l t s o m e t h i n g move i n her beyond t e a r s " ( ) . m o m e n t a r i l y , l i e s e l becomes wiebe's " r i g h t r e a d e r , " r e a d i n g a g a i n s t t h e a c c e n t s u p p l i e d by a s p e a k e r . her e a r becomes a t t u n e d t o d i m e n s i o n s o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t jakob f r i e s e n , l i k e wiebe, cannot d i r e c t l y a r t i c u l a t e t o h i s a u d i e n c e : she wanted t o g r o a n i n p a i n f o r what she u n d e r s t o o d o f him, o f h e r s e l f , and a t t h e same t i m e r a g e f l a r e d i n h e r a t t h e g u i l t and agony and r e g r e t c o v e r i n g , soaked t h r o u g h and t h r o u g h p e o p l e w h i l e t h e " g r e a t " p o e t s and n o v e l i s t s o f t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d mucked around wading and p a r a d i n g t h e i r own m i g h t y organs and v i s c e r a , p o s t u r i n g l i k e p u p p e t s , s h o o t i n g t h e m s e l v e s o f f a t t h e moon and i n f l a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t h e m a g n i f i c e n t modern c r u s a d e r s o f humanity, s e e r s and p r o p h e t s o f t h e s i x t i e s , because t h e y " d i s c o v e r e d " dachau, " d i s c o v e r e d " v i e t n a m . dachaus a r e everywhere; who c o u l d number t h e v i e t n a m s . in p e o p l e who b e l i e v e t h e y b e l i e v e n o t h i n g . ( - ) wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s h i m s e l f from t h o s e " ' g r e a t ' p o e t s and n o v e l i s t s " ( - ) who e x p l o i t t h e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s f o r t h e i r own g a i n by u s i n g t h a t s u f f e r i n g as g r i s t f o r t h e i r a e s t h e t i c m i l l . u n l i k e c h a r l e s d i c k e n s , wiebe wants t o move h i s a u d i e n c e "beyond t e a r s " ( ) . and u n l i k e t h e leonard cohens o f t h e l i t e r a r y w o r l d , wiebe has no i n t e r e s t i n r o m a n t i c i s i n g t h e b l a c k s i d e s o f human n a t u r e . r a t h e r t h a n e v o k i n g t r a n s i t o r y a e s t h e t i c e p i p h a n i e s , wiebe endeavours t o provoke a permanent change i n m o r a l t h i n k i n g — " t h i n k i n g d i f f e r e n t " ( ) — w h i c h would l e a d t o h i s r e a d e r s ' a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n "a r e v o l u t i o n f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e " ( ). iv f o r wiebe, m o r a l g u e s t i o n s a r e always i n s e p a r a b l y bound up w i t h l i n g u i s t i c g u e s t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e g u e s t i o n o f how j e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o mutate s e m a n t i c a l l y when t h e y c r o s s t h e b o r d e r between one c o n t e x t and a n o t h e r . sam reimer d e s i r e s t o l i v e by j e s u s ' words, "do good t o them t h a t hate you t h a t you may be c h i l d r e n of y o u r f a t h e r w h i c h i s i n heaven" ( ) , but wonders "what d i d t h a t mean when you weren't h a t e d , r a t h e r someone a c r o s s an ocean and you knew about i t ? ( ) . " how might j e s u s ' words "do unto o t h e r s , as you would have them do unto you," t r a n s l a t e i n t o c o n c r e t e a c t i o n i n c o n t e x t s where t h e p l u r a l i t y o f s o c i a l i d e n t i t y r e n d e r s t h e terms " s e l f " and " o t h e r " ambiguous? who p r e c i s e l y i s t h i s " o t h e r " t o whom one i s m o r a l l y o b l i g e d ? in the b l u e mountains of c h i n a . wiebe p o s i t i o n s each major c h a r a c t e r i n a c r i s i s where he o r she must make a m o r a l c h o i c e : t o a c t i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e l f o r i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o t h e r p e o p l e ? to h e i g h t e n t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e n s i t y o f t h i s a g e - b i d m o r a l dilemma, wiebe s i t u a t e s h i s c h a r a c t e r s i n c o n t e x t s where t h e b o r d e r between " s e l f " and " o t h e r " i s p r o b l e m a t i c . c h a p t e r , "sons and h e i r s " e x p l o r e s t h e menippean theme o f t h e d i a l o g i z a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , t o s u g g e s t t h a t o p p r e s s i o n o f an o t h e r i n v o l v e s a s u p p r e s s i o n o f p a r t o f t h e s e l f . "sons and h e i r s , " encodes t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f jakob f r i e s e n v ( j a s c h a ) . in c o n t r a s t t o f r i e d a ' s l a n g u a g e , w h i c h draws t h e words o f o t h e r s i n t o i t s e l f t o a s s i m i l a t e them c o m p l e t e l y i n t o her own l a n g u a g e , jakob's language b r e a k s a p a r t and e x p l o d e s o u t w a r d s , l e a v i n g no c o r e l a n g u a g e - o f - t h e - s e l f b e h i n d a t a l l . under t h e impact of r a d i c a l changes i n r u s s i a ' s n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y , . jakob's psyche s p l i t s open, j u s t as h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s body was s p l i t open by t h e sword o f a r u s s i a n b a n d i t . the r u s s i a n s e c r e t p o l i c e s e i z e n i n e t e e n - y e a r - o l d jakob i n l i e u o f h i s t e m p o r a r i l y absent f a t h e r . they throw him i n t o p r i s o n , and. s u b j e c t him t o i n t e r r o g a t i o n under t o r t u r e , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h p e r i o d s o f t o t a l s o l i t u d e d u r i n g which he must c o n t e n d w i t h s e v e r e c o l d , hunger and cramp. a f t e r s i x weeks, t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e l e a s e jakob as u n e x p e c t e d l y as t h e y j a i l e d him. weak and m e n t a l l y u n b a l a n c e d , he makes h i s way home t o h i s f a t h e r ' s farm i n karatow c o l o n y , t o f i n d t h a t h i s f a m i l y has f l e d t o moscow and h i s f a m i l i a r , c h a n g e l e s s w o r l d has t u r n e d u p s i d e down. f r e e of h i s f a t h e r ' s a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , r e l e a s e d from t h e s e v e r e c o n s t r a i n t o f t h e c o u n t l e s s "thou s h a l t n o t s " d i c t a t i n g h i s b e h a v i o u r and h o l d i n g h i s p e r s o n a l i t y i n i t s s i n g l e f i x e d shape, jakob d i s c o v e r s what b a k h t i n has r e f e r r e d t o as t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n and a n o t h e r l i f e . . . he l o s e s h i s f i n a l i z e d q u a l i t y and ceases t o mean o n l y one t h i n g ; he c e a s e s t o c o - i n c i d e w i t h h i m s e l f . ( , - ) d u r i n g jakob's absence from karatow, t h e gpu has implemented t h e communist p o l i c y o f s o c i a l and economic e q u a l i t y . r u s s i a has c r o s s e d t h e t h r e s h o l d i n t o "the new age" ( ) and jakob's w o r l d has been p e r m a n e n t l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n i g h t m a r i s h q u a s i - h o l i d a y w o r l d o f " l o o s e n e s s " and " u n - n e c e s s i t y " ( ) . t h i s w o r l d conforms c l o s e l y t o b a k h t i n ' s model o f t h e c a r n i v a l w o r l d , where t h e l a w s , p r o h i b i t i o n s , and r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r u c t u r e and o r d e r o f t h e o r d i n a r y . . . a r e suspended.... what i s suspended f i r s t o f a l l i s h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e and a l l t h e forms o f t e r r o r , r e v e r e n c e , p i e t y , and e t i q u e t t e c o n n e c t e d w i t h i t - - t h a t i s , e v e r y t h i n g r e s u l t i n g from s o c i o - h i e r a r c h i c a l i n e q u a l i t y o r any o t h e r form o f i n e q u a l i t y among p e o p l e . . . a l l d i s t a n c e between p e o p l e i s suspended, and a s p e c i a l c a r n i v a l c a t e g o r y goes i n t o e f f e c t : f r e e and f a m i l i a r c o n t a c t among p e o p l e . . . . a l l t h i n g s t h a t were once s e l f - e n c l o s e d , d i s u n i f i e d , d i s t a n c e d from one a n o t h e r by a n o n c a r n i v a l i s t i c w o r l d v i e w a r e drawn i n t o c a r n i v a l i s t i c c o n t a c t s and c o m b i n a t i o n s . ( , - ) jakob r e t u r n s from p r i s o n t o f i n d t h a t escha, t h e r u s s i a n farmhand, now s l e e p s i n jakob's bedroom i n t h e main h o f , a p l a c e h i t h e r t o r e s e r v e d f o r t h e "son and h e i r . " under t h e new regime, e v e r y b o d y i s e q u a l . e s c h a no l o n g e r c o n f i n e s h i m s e l f t o h i s " p r o p e r p l a c e " i n . t h e b a r n w i t h t h e " o t h e r a n i m a l s , " b u t has t h e f r e e r u n o f t h e e n t i r e f r i e s e n e s t a b l i s h m e n t . escha's e n t r y i n t o a l l t h e spaces from w h i c h he was f o r m e r l y b a r r e d a b o l i s h e s t h e d i s t a n c e s e p a r a t i n g him from jakob. the i d e a o f s o c i a l e q u a l i t y d e s t r o y s t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f jakob's i d e n t i t y . h i s p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n as "son and h e i r " ( " t h i s i s my hof t h i s i s mine i am t h e e l d e s t son t h i s i s mine" [ ]) i s u s u r p e d by a farmhand s t r u t t i n g around l i k e a c a r n i v a l k i n g . jakob and h i s f a m i l y have always dehumanised escha, t r e a t i n g him as a n o t h e r work a n i m a l t o be used f o r t h e i r b e n e f i t . jakob r e f e r s t o e s c h a as an ox ( ) , a h o r s e ( ) , a p i g ( ) . under o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , jakob t h i n k s of h i m s e l f as p r o f o u n d l y d i f f e r e n t from escha. h i s r e l i g i o u s t r a i n i n g has t a u g h t him t h a t "man i s not a c a r e f r e e b r u t e ; he i s a t h i n k i n g c r e a t i o n made i n t h e i m a g e . . . [ o f ] god" ( ) . jakob's f a m i l y has p l a c e d tremendous v a l u e on g e n e a l o g y , w i t h o u t a c c e p t i n g i t s c o n c o m i t a n t — s e x u a l i t y . such a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e body would t h r e a t e n t h e i r sense o f m o r a l s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r o t h e r s . but t o r t u r e and extreme p h y s i c a l d e p r i v a t i o n i n p r i s o n have g i v e n jakob an "overwhelming awareness" ( ) o f h i s own body, an awareness w h i c h , w i t h o u t h i s f a m i l y t o h e l p him s u p p r e s s i t , remains a c u t e a f t e r h i s r e t u r n home. and when e s c h a c r o s s e s t h e p h y s i c a l t h r e s h o l d i n t o jakob's own house, h i s p r e s e n c e a b o l i s h e s t h e d i s t a n c e between two a s p e c t s o f jakob's i d e n t i t y . escha p e r s o n i f i e s jakob's p h y s i c a l i t y , r e p r e s s e d by y e a r s o f r i g o r o u s r e l i g i o u s c o n d i t i o n i n g . w i t h mounting h o r r o r j a c o b sees h i s own a n i m a l i t y m i r r o r e d i n escha. jakob p e r c e i v e s escha as h i s p a r o d i c , d e c r o w n i n g d o u b l e . l o o k i n g g r o g g i l y i n t o t h e m i r r o r , jakob sees h i s own f a c e "double i n g r o t e s q u e e x t e n d e d r e p e t i t i o n . . . a n d he wheeled t o e s c h a " ( ) . he s t a r e s a t e s c h a , "eyes green i n each o t h e r ' s e y e s . nose t o nose, e x a c t l y t h e same h e i g h t " ( ) . jakob knocks e s c h a down, and sees him l y i n g " l i k e a m i r r o r image" ( ) f l a t on t h e ground. wiebe d e p i c t s t h e two as "one a n i m a l " ( ) w r e s t l i n g w i t h i t s e l f . jakob hears h i s own name as escha v o i c e s i t i n r u s s i a n — " j a s c h a . " j a s c h a and escha m i r r o r one a n o t h e r i n name as w e l l as i n body. the language o f wiebe's t e x t r e f l e c t s t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f j a k o b ' s i d e n t i t y i n o t h e r ways. l i k e jakob h i m s e l f , t h e t e x t o f "sons and h e i r s " does not " c o - i n c i d e w i t h i t s e l f " ; i t l o o k s chopped up i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h f r i e d a ' s monologue. wiebe b r e a k s up t h e p r i n t e d t e x t on t h e page by l e a v i n g empty s p a c e s , and by a l t e r n a t i n g between i t a l i c and roman t y p e - f a c e s . jakob's i n n e r speech ( t h e i t a l i c i s e d passages w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s i n t e r n a l l y fragmented) r e p e a t e d l y i n t e r r u p t s t h e main body o f t h e n a r r a t i v e i n w h i c h jakob's v o i c e b l e n d s w i t h t h a t o f a n a r r a t o r . wiebe s i g n a l s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e r e l e a s e o f jakob's " o t h e r s e l f " not o n l y t h r o u g h h i s r a s h , v i o l e n t a c t i o n s , b u t a l s o by t h e emergence o f h i s second v o i c e — t h e v o i c e o f b o d i l y i n s t i n c t s and p a s s i o n s . i n i t i a l l y , jakob's second v o i c e remains mixed w i t h t h e v o i c e of t h e n a r r a t o r , t o s i g n i f y perhaps t h a t jakob has not y e t g i v e n u t t e r a n c e , even i n t e r n a l l y , t o h i s own " o t h e r n e s s . " a t f i r s t , jakob s a n c t i o n s o n l y h i s c h r i s t i a n i n n e r v o i c e ( t h e i t a l i c i s e d w o r d s ) . yet wiebe s i t u a t e s t h e s e words i n t h e t e x t i n such a way t h a t r e a d e r s p e r c e i v e them as a r e p l y , a r e a c t i o n t o f e e l i n g s jakob has n o t y e t c o n f e s s e d , even t o h i m s e l f : the gpu f i e n d a t t h e desk whose f a c e o f q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n q u e s t i o n had c h i s e l l e d i t s e l f i n t o him u n t i l he w o u l d have t o know i t even c o n t o r t e d , s p i t t e d and f r y i n g f o r e v e r i n h e l l b l e s s e d s a v i o u r make me pure t h a t i n heaven i may d i d not b o t h e r t o r a i s e h i s head... ( ) not u n t i l t h e second i n s t a n c e of jakob's i n n e r speech does he g i v e h i s second v o i c e any k i n d o f a h e a r i n g . t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e w o r l d has come t o an end and t h a t h i s f a m i l y has gone t o heaven, he c o n f e s s e s h i s s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e : q u e s t i o n s and q u e s t i o n s s i x and s i x and where were you b o r n who i s y o u r f a t h e r where i s y o u r f a t h e r where were vou o c t o b e r ...do you go t o c h u r c h how many s i s t e r s do vou b e l i e v e t h e b i b l e . . . i e s u s has come a g a i n and t a k e n them and i am l e f t f o r h e l l . . . i never c o n f e s s e d when i saw...the r u s s i a n g i r l i n t h e water naked s q u a t t i n g and r i s i n g i never c o n f e s s e d t h a t i saw my s i s t e r when and wet p l a y i n g w i t h j e s u s has come a g a i n he w i l l come a g a i n w i l l you be r e a d y when t h e t r u m p e t sounds s i x t i m e s i was not r e a d y w i t h a l l my s i n s he has come o n l y s i n n e r s and t h e gpu where i s y o u r f a — ( - ) wiebe embeds jakob's s e x u a l c o n f e s s i o n i n a b r o k e n , h e t e r o g l o t i n n e r u t t e r a n c e . i t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t jakob has " l o s t g r i p on. d u r a t i o n , on sequence" ( ) . temporal as w e l l as s p a t i a l d i s t a n c e has d i s a p p e a r e d . v o i c e s from d i f f e r e n t t i m e s r i o t t o g e t h e r i n h i s memory, t u r n i n g h i s psyche i n t o a c a r n i v a l i z e d space. in t h i s , h i s second, i n n e r speech, memories o f t h e gpu i n t e r r o g a t i o n m i n g l e w i t h q u e s t i o n s p u t by t h e c a t e c h i s t , and w i t h h i s own c o n f e s s i o n s and f o r m u l a i c r i t u a l answers. the v o i c e o f t h e s e l f has l o s t any semblance o f m o n o l o g i c i n t e g r i t y . jakob's i n n e r speech now c o n s i s t s o f many b r o k e n , i n c o m p l e t e u t t e r a n c e s . remembered words spoken by v o i c e s s e p a r a t e d i n t i m e , space and s o c i a l rank now q u a r r e l c h a o t i c a l l y w i t h each o t h e r i n h i s psyche. wiebe even s u g g e s t s t h a t jakob's f i r s t v o i c e has never t r u l y been h i s own. when jakob t r i e s t o r e c o v e r h i m s e l f by p r a y i n g , he can o n l y make f e e b l e v e r b a l g e s t u r e s towards t h e t h i n g s he had always a u t o m a t i c a l l y p r a y e d f o r o god h e l p be w i t h b l e s s t a k e c a r e o f h e l p b l e s s t a k e c a r e ( ) jakob's f i r s t v o i c e c o n s i s t s o f n o t h i n g more t h a n u t t e r a n c e s l e a r n e d by r o t e from h i s p a r e n t s , u t t e r a n c e s now d e c a y i n g i n t o i n c o h e r e n t f r a g m e n t s i n jakob's overwrought mind. in t h e f i n a l s t a g e o f t h e d i a l o g i z a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , jakob's second v o i c e emerges c o m p l e t e l y i n t o t h e open, f u l l y embodied i n t h e f i g u r e o f e s c h a . as e s c h a s p e a k s , jakob hears " h i s own" words i n t h e mouth of an " o t h e r " whose a c c e n t s r e l e a s e t h e r e p r e s s e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s speech. escha g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e shadow-side o f jakob's words by r e p e a t i n g them r e a c c e n t e d : [jakob:] " i n our house--where"... [escha:] "yeah, our house, now" ( ) here escha t r a n s l a t e s jakob's words i n t o t h e language o f t h e "new age." i n p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y r u s s i a , "our" no l o n g e r means "the f r i e s e n s ' " ; i t means " b e l o n g i n g t o everybody." escha a l s o g i v e s v o i c e t o jakob's s e c r e t doubts about t h e s a c r e d n e s s o f j e s u s ' name: [jakob:] " a l l l e f t . . . what... j e s u s . . . . " [ e s c h a : ] "no j e s u s , t h e y j u s t r u n t o moscow." ( ) escha c o n v e r t s t h e name " j e s u s " i n t o a p a r o d i c d o u b l e o f i t s e l f , decrowned by t h e s h i f t from an u p p e r - c a s e t o a l o w e r - c a s e " j . " s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h i s i s not t h e - f i r s t t i m e t h e l o w e r - c a s e " j e s u s " has a p p e a r e d i n t h e t e x t . e s c h a m e r e l y r e p e a t s out l o u d what jakob has a l r e a d y s e c r e t l y u t t e r e d t w i c e d u r i n g h i s second i n n e r speech ("jesus has come a g a i n . . . i e s u s has come a g a i n " [ ] ) . escha's v o i c e r e l a y s jakob's i n n e r speech t o t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d . by t r u m p e t i n g a l o u d jakob's most s h a m e f u l , i n n e r l o n g i n g s and d o u b t s , escha t u r n s jakob's p s y c h e i n s i d e o u t . i n k i l l i n g escha, jakob k i l l s p a r t o f h i m s e l f . wiebe e x p r e s s e s a complex m o r a l a t t i t u d e t o t h e communist r e v o l u t i o n and t o t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n i t . he d e p i c t s p o s t - r e v o l u t i o n a r y r u s s i a as a t r a v e s t y o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e , an i n s t a n c e where a g r e a t i d e a l i s dragged down by t h e b r u t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h c a r r y i t i n t o e f f e c t . by u s i n g r e l i g i o u s terms and images t o d e s c r i b e t h e communist regime, wiebe h i g h l i g h t s t h e e r r o r o f p l a c i n g f a i t h i n a human p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n god. "the c h u r c h [ i s ] now c o n v e r t e d t o s o v i e t o f f i c e s " ( ) , and commissar s e r e b r o , l i k e a " s h i n i n g happy a n g e l " ( ) , h e l p s implement t h e communist dream o f a heaven on e a r t h . wiebe employs t h e v o i c e o f jakob f r i e s e n v t o a r t i c u l a t e many o f t h e n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n ; he views t h i s r a d i c a l change from.the p e r s p e c t i v e o f one who o n l y s t a n d s t o l o s e by i t . yet wiebe a l s o c o u n t e r p o i n t s jakob's e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a r i v a l v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s . w h i l e jakob p l a c e s t h e emphasis on h i s own l o s s o f r a n k and w e a l t h , and on escha's u n d e s e r v e d u s u r p a t i o n o f h i s p o s i t i o n , wiebe c o v e r t l y h i g h l i g h t s jakob's m o r a l c u l p a b i l i t y and escha's g e n e r o s i t y and w i l l i n g n e s s t o f o r g i v e . wiebe s i t u a t e s t h e c e n t r a l m o r a l f a c t s i n jakob's p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n . jakob c o n f e s s e s h i s c u l p a b i l i t y u n c o n s c i o u s l y , i n a d v e r t e n t l y , i n d i r e c t l y : [ ] we were u n b e l i e v a b l e f o o l s . [ ] to t h i n k s t a l i n would go on l e t t i n g them t a k e advantage o f t h o s e t e r r i f i e d by r e p o r t s and t h e s t u p i d l o c a l communists i n t o s e l l i n g and r u n n i n g o f f t o canada.... [ ] what a n a r c h y , d r o u g h t , f e a r l e f t c o u l d be had f o r t h e s p i t t i n g ; i n two y e a r s t h e y had c o n t r o l l e d t h e m i l l , owned f o u r f a r m s , e q u i p p e d , and managed t h e v i l l a g e s t u d f a r m where e i g h t c o s s a c k s worked, t h e b i g g e s t o p e r a t i o n i n karatow c o l o n y . . . . a f t e r h a r v e s t i n t h e whole f a m i l y even t o o k a h o l i d a y i n odessa, t r a v e l l i n g f i r s t c l a s s on t r a i n and s h i p . [ ] that must have been t h e f i r s t t h i n g s e r e b r o h e a r d when he came t o t a k e o v e r . . . . ( ) i n s e c t i o n , jakob c o n f e s s e s t o t h e e r r o r o f h i s ways, a d m i t t i n g f a u l t not f o r d o i n g wrong b u t f o r g e t t i n g caught. i r o n i c a l l y , as wiebe i n d i c a t e s i n s e c t i o n s and , t h e g o d l e s s communists' r e a d i n g t h e f r i e s e n ' s f a m i l y h i s t o r y c o i n c i d e s p r e c i s e l y w i t h a c h r i s t i a n r e a d i n g : b o t h r e g a r d t h e f r i e s e n s ' w e a l t h as a monument " b u i l t w i t h t h e b l o o d of t h e poor" ( ) . in s e c t i o n , jakob's words occupy a space of overlap between two opposed speech genres: celebratory family history and confession. at the same time as he boasts about the spectacular r i s e of his family, jakob inadvertently confesses to his family's ruthless perpetrations of s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e . not only do the friesens exploit economically-disadvantaged russians such as escha, they also p r o f i t from the fears, misfortunes and r e l i g i o u s convictions of t h e i r fellow mennonites. wiebe t r a n s l a t e s jakob's family h i s t o r y into a confession by invoking moral c r i t e r i a that l i e outside jakob's consciousness, c r i t e r i a which enter the text through a v a r i e t y of means. f i r s t , wiebe employs the voices of minor characters who engage i n dialogue with jakob. for example, one reads jakob's boast i n the l i g h t of serebro's explanation of his conversion from mennonitism to communism- - " [ i was] the younger son of a younger son l i v i n g i n the worker shacks while cousins l i v e d f a t " ( ). through serebro, wiebe indicates that jakob's fortune depends on other family members' misfortune. jakob's wealth has been gained not only by hard work and entrepreneurial s k i l l , but by taking advantage of the old, grossly unfair, russian laws which decreed that a family's wealth and property must pass e n t i r e l y to the eldest son. second, readers understand jakob's utterances i n the l i g h t o f i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d by o t h e r v o i c e s s p e a k i n g i n o t h e r c h a p t e r s , such as f r a n z epp's o b s e r v a t i o n i n c h a p t e r t h a t " f r i e s e n had t a k e n e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e r e v o l u t i o n and a n a r c h y and hunger c o u l d b r i n g " ( ) . these v o i c e s w h i c h speak w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f wiebe's t e x t i n v i t e wiebe's a u d i e n c e t o r e a d a g a i n s t jakob's a c c e n t s , o r t o hear beyond such a c c e n t s a r e p r e s s e d , condemnatory v o i c i n g o f jakob's words. a t h i r d way wiebe c o n t r a d i c t s jakob's v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s i s t h r o u g h a system o r "language" o f a n i m a l imagery. t h i s imagery p r o v i d e s an a u t h o r i t a t i v e key t o t h e m o r a l i d e n t i t y o f e v e r y c h a r a c t e r i n t h e n o v e l . when m u t t a c h i c a l l s f r i e d a ' s f a t h e r , i s a a k , a mouse f o r a c c e p t i n g h i s d i s i n h e r i t a n c e so meekly ( ) , she u n w i t t i n g l y uses a system o f s i g n s which wiebe e n t i r e l y c o n t r o l s . images o f mice, d e e r , p r a i r i e dogs and o t h e r t i m i d , d e f e n c e l e s s a n i m a l s s u r r o u n d c h a r a c t e r s who s u f f e r f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f o t h e r s (whether v o l u n t a r i l y o r o t h e r w i s e ) . t h e i r m o r a l o p p o s i t e , t h o s e who d e l i b e r a t e l y t a k e advantage o f t h e g r i e f and m i s f o r t u n e o f o t h e r s , wiebe s u r r o u n d s w i t h images o f b l o o d s u c k i n g , p a r a s i t i c a l , s c a v e n g i n g a n i m a l s : wolves ( ) ; t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e o f c h a p t e r ; b a l z e r "the b i g l e e c h " ( ) ; l i e s e l and/as t h e g r a c k l e ; l i c e ( , ); t h e b l o o d s u c k i n g c h i n e s e and mennonites ( ) ; m o s q u i t o e s s u c k i n g b l o o d from a dead a n t e l o p e ( ) ; e m i l y reimer i n h e r new t h u n d e r b i r d bought w i t h her husband's l i f e i n s u r a n c e money ( ) ; hawk t h e b i k i e ( ) ; and t h e many v a r i e t i e s o f s i n i s t e r b l a c k b i r d s — t h e crows and magpies o f canada, t h e g r i f f o n s o f c e n t r a l a s i a , and t h e v u l t u r e s s a i l i n g i n c i r c l e s above t h e paraguayan c h a c o — w h i c h e a t t h e b o d i e s o f t h e dead. i n r e p l y t o m u t t a c h i ' s contemptuous a c c u s a t i o n t h a t i s a a k f r i e s e n i s a mouse ( w h i c h , unbeknown t o h e r , f u n c t i o n s as a compliment w i t h i n wiebe's s i g n i f y i n g s y s t e m ) , wiebe uses jakob's p e r i p h e r a l , a p p a r e n t l y i n c i d e n t a l i m p r e s s i o n s of h i s grandmother t o d e p i c t m u t t a c h i as "hunched," ( ) , c l a d i n b l a c k , " f i n g e r s c r o o k e d " ( ) l i k e t a l o n s , h e r "nose a l m o s t i n f o l d e d t o a beak" ( ) . m u t t a c h i r e s e m b l e s a b l a c k s c a v e n g i n g b i r d squawking "mine...mine" ( ) . a f o u r t h a u t h o r i a l c o u n t e r - l a n g u a g e e n t e r s t h e t e x t i n t h e form o f a l l u s i o n s and images from t h e b i b l e . m u t t a c h i s i t s a t her s p i n n i n g w h e e l , engaged i n c e a s e l e s s , o b s e s s i v e t o i l , making and u n r a v e l l i n g , making and u n r a v e l l i n g her y a r n a g a i n and a g a i n : nobody e l s e i s g o i n g t o e n j o y t h e b e n e f i t s o f her work. when t h e communists a r r i v e t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e f r i e s e n s ' p o s s e s s i o n s amongst t h e p o p u l a c e , she hoards a l l t h e h o u s e h o l d l i n e n on her own l a p . wiebe does n o t r e v e a l t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m u t t a c h i ' s s p i n n i n g and h o l d i n g o n t o c l o t h u n t i l c h a p t e r , "the c l o i s t e r o f t h e l i l i e s , " where jakob f r i e s e n , coming u n e x p e c t e d l y upon a r e f u g e i n t h e m i d s t o f s e v e r e b l i z z a r d , and t h i n k i n g o f h i s own p a s t a v a r i c e , r e c a l l s p a r t o f j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount: "think o f t h e l i l i e s . . . o f t h e f i e l d . they t o i l not n e i t h e r do t h e y s p i n , y e t y o u r h e a v e n l y f a t h e r c a r . . . " ( ) , as m u t t a c h i merges i n t o t h e s i n i s t e r b l a c k n e s s which r e a p p e a r s i n e v e r y c h a p t e r o f t h e t e x t , " b r u t i s h " escha comes i n t o f o c u s as " f a i r e r t h a n e x p e c t e d " ( ) . the names jakob and escha a l l u d e t o t h e b i b l i c a l s t o r y o f j a c o b and esau. t h i s a l l u s i o n d i a l o g i z e s t h e t e x t i n t h a t i t t e s t s and a c t i v a t e s t h e r e a d e r ' s b i b l i c a l knowledge w h i c h i n t u r n o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e of e v e n t s i n t h e f r i e s e n ' s hof. in t h e b i b l i c a l s t o r y , esau and j a c o b a r e b r o t h e r s . esau, b e i n g t h e o l d e s t , i s t h e h e i r . but j a c o b b r i b e s esau out o f h i s b i r t h r i g h t a t a moment when esau i s weak w i t h extreme hunger, and he s u b s e q u e n t l y t r i c k s t h e i r f a t h e r i n t o b e s t o w i n g h i s b l e s s i n g on him and making him l o r d o v e r e s a u . a l t h o u g h a n g r y a t f i r s t , esau f o r g i v e s j a c o b and embraces him as a b r o t h e r . i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , escha i s o l d e r t h a n jakob, and wiebe h i n t s more t h a n once t h a t t h e y a r e b r o t h e r s , escha b e i n g jakob f r i e s e n i v s i l l e g i t i m a t e s o n . w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s l y making t h e c o n n e c t i o n between escha's c o l o u r i n g and t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f r i e s e n r e d - b l o n d l o o k s , jakob v d e s c r i b e s escha as " j u s t a b a s t a r d . . . h i s r e d d i s h - b l o n d h a i r g i v i n g some f l y - b y - n i g h t f a t h e r away" ( ) . s e r e b r o a l l b u t s u g g e s t s t h e two a r e b r o t h e r s : "you a r e v e r y a l i k e , b i g , y o u r f a c e s - - y o u c o u l d a l m o s t — s t r a n g e " ( ) . jakob f r i e s e n iv s u p p o s e d l y has o n l y one son and h e i r , y e t t h e t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , "sons and h e i r s , " r e f e r s t o more t h a n one. l i k e h i s b i b l i c a l namesake, escha h a r b o u r s no r a n c o u r towards j a k o b , a l t h o u g h he c l e a r l y remembers b e i n g t r i c k e d and e x p l o i t e d by t h e f r i e s e n s . he a s k s f o r o n l y h a l f o f t h e money jakob f r i e s e n iv l e f t b e h i n d f o r h i s "son and h e i r , " and he o f f e r s jakob t h e o n l y g i f t he has t o g i v e — t h e r u s s i a n g i r l . when jakob r e b u f f s t h i s o f f e r by s c r e a m i n g i n s u l t s , o b s c e n i t i e s and c u r s e s a t e s c h a , wiebe i n d i c a t e s t h e m i l d n e s s o f t h e l a t t e r ' s r e p l y : "shut up," e s c h a s a i d , s u d d e n l y q u i e t . " i t ' s easy. j u s t do what you want. what a r e you y e l l i n g f o r ? " ( ) . f o r a s i n g l e b r i e f moment, jakob g l i m p s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t e s c h a "ceases to,mean o n l y one t h i n g " ( b a k h t i n , ). in t h e h a y l o f t , jakob sees a n o t h e r escha, an e s c h a whose m a s c u l i n e p o t e n c y r e n d e r s him not b r u t i s h b u t a l m o s t g o d - l i k e : "immense naked man o f v a r i e d g i g a n t i c columns h a l f - g i l d e d , e r e c t i n t h e sun" ( ) . the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t e s c h a , t o o , has been c r e a t e d i n t h e image o f god i m p l i c i t l y c o m p l i c a t e s t h e m o r a l i t y o f t r a d i t i o n a l c h r i s t i a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e human body. "sons and h e i r s " may be r e a d as an a l l e g o r y o f c h r i s t i a n d i s - i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e s e l f , a p a r a b l e i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e dangers i m p l i c i t i n a l i e n a t i n g body from mind. jakob f r i e s e n v, a s p i r i n g t o t h e c h r i s t i a n i d e a l o f p u r e s p i r i t u a l i t y , c o n s t r u c t s h i s own body as " o t h e r , " a h o s t i l e enemy t o be f e a r e d , d e s p i s e d and i f n e c e s s a r y , d e s t r o y e d i n " s e l f " - d e f e n c e . the c o m p l e x i t y o f wiebe's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v o i c e s of h i s c h a r a c t e r s makes "sons and h e i r s " one o f t h e most c o m p l i c a t e d c h a p t e r s i n an e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d n o v e l . c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t b e a r s out b a k h t i n ' s p o i n t t h a t "a c o n c r e t e d i s c o u r s e may b e l o n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s and even t y p e s . . . [ a n d t h a t ] t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v o i c e s i n d i s c o u r s e may change d r a s t i c a l l y . . . " ( , ). in so f a r as wiebe employs jakob's v o i c e t o f u r t h e r t h e s t o r y , t h e language o f "sons and h e i r s " f u n c t i o n s as " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . . . u n o b j e c t i f i e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . i n so f a r as wiebe uses a n i m a l images and t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s t o c a r r y h i s own v o i c e i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h jakob's v o i c e , t h e t e x t e x e m p l i f i e s " v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e . . . t r a n s m i s s i o n o f someone e l s e ' s words w i t h a s h i f t i n a c c e n t " ( b a k h t i n , ) . wiebe's b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s c o n s t i t u t e y e t a t h i r d d i a l o g i z i n g mode, i n w h i c h "the o t h e r d i s c o u r s e e x e r t s i n f l u e n c e from w i t h o u t " ( b a k h t i n , ) . v in the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , wiebe's c h a r a c t e r s d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e communal s e l f and o t h e r by d r a w i n g l i n e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e on t h e b a s i s o f numerous c r i t e r i a : o c c u p a t i o n , age, gender, n a t i o n a l i t y , c h u r c h , c o l o n y , g e n e a l o g y , h i s t o r i c a l background, and language. wiebe a l l o w s d i s p a r a t e p r i n c i p l e s of k i n s h i p t o r e l a t i v i s e one a n o t h e r , t o show t h a t , l i k e t h e m a r v e l l o u s "red l i n e " s e p a r a t i n g t h e n o r t h e r n from t h e s o u t h e r n hemisphere, t h e e n t i r e network o f i n t e r s e c t i n g s o c i a l b o r d e r l i n e s a r e a l l j u s t "man-made" ( ) l i n e s , p r o d u c t s o f human f e a r , s e l f - i n t e r e s t , unexamined v a l u e s and a s s u m p t i o n s . f o r h i s v i s i o n o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d , wiebe t u r n s back t o e a r l y a n a b a p t i s t f a t h e r s whose t e a c h i n g s s t r e s s e d "a l i t e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f j e s u s ' c o n c e p t o f t h e b r o t h e r h o o d of man" ( t i e s s e n ) . t h i s v i s i o n o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n wiebe's m o r a l r h e t o r i c : wiebe s t a r t s w i t h t h e m o r a l axiom t h a t f a m i l y members c a r e f o r and h e l p each o t h e r ; he t h e n s t r e t c h e s t h e i d e a o f f a m i l y u n t i l i t i n c l u d e s t h e e n t i r e human r a c e . a number o f c h a r a c t e r s g u i d e wiebe's r e a d e r s toward t h i s v i s i o n o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p . f r i e d a , f o r example, l i v e s her e a r l y l i f e c o n f i n e d w i t h i n an e x t r e m e l y narrow s o c i a l c i r c l e , l i m i t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t o her p a r e n t s and her s i b l i n g s . but as she e n t e r s s c h o o l , matures, m a r r i e s , and b e a r s c h i l d r e n , who i n t u r n grow up and marry, her f a m i l y expands so g r e a t l y as t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n , who i s not k i n t o f r i e d a ? f r i e d a d i s c o v e r s r e l a t i o n s a l m o s t everywhere she goes. i l l n e s s f o r c e s h e r t o c r o s s man-made l i n e s o f s o c i a l d i f f e r e n c e , and t o p l a c e her t r u s t i n p e o p l e she t h i n k s o f as " o t h e r . " in f e r n l a n d z e n t r a l e — r u s s l a n d e r t e r r i t o r y — s h e f i n d s t h a t " r u s s l a n d e r s . . . w e r e n i c e , some j u s t l i k e k a n a d i e r " ( ) . f u r t h e r a f i e l d , i n buenos a i r e s , a r g e n t i n a , f r i e d a f i n d s p e o p l e t h e r e w i l l i n g t o b e f r i e n d h e r , and d o c t o r s w i l l i n g t o t r y t o c u r e h e r , even though she i s " f o r e i g n " t o them. these good s a m a r i t a n f i g u r e s — f r i e d a ' s s p a n i s h d o c t o r , l i s t o v t h e courageous r u s s i a n l a n d l o r d who h i d e s t h e mennonites from t h e gpu, and wong gordon t h e c h i n e s e g u i d e who h e l p s d a v i d epp back t o r u s s i a — p l a y a v i t a l r o l e i n t h e n o v e l by i l l u s t r a t i n g t h a t t h o s e on t h e " o t h e r " s i d e a r e not o g r e s b u t o n l y human b e i n g s , some w i l l i n g t o r i s k t h e i r p e r s o n a l s a f e t y t o h e l p o t h e r s . in c h a p t e r , samuel reimer d i s c o v e r s h i s oneness w i t h p e o p l e from an " o t h e r " r a c e and an " o t h e r " l a n d . but t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f h i s s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n o c c u r s f a r more s u d d e n l y and v i o l e n t l y t h a n does f r i e d a ' s . a f t e r a l i f e d e v o t e d " s e l f l e s s l y " t o h i s own f a m i l y ' s w e l f a r e and c o m f o r t , a l i f e d e l i b e r a t e l y c u t o f f from news o f t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d and i t s m i l l i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g " f o r e i g n e r s , " samuel h e a r s god's c a l l t o " p r o c l a i m peace i n vietnam" ( ) . from t h a t moment, h i s own f a m i l y become f o r e i g n e r s , and, as he l e a r n s more and more about t h e h o r r o r s o f t h e war, t h e d i s t a n c e between samuel and t h e v i e t n a m e s e " o t h e r " s t e a d i l y d i m i n i s h e s and e v e n t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r s . the s u f f e r i n g of t h e vietnamese becomes samuel's own s u f f e r i n g , as though t h e v e r y s k i n t h a t d e f i n e s t h e p h y s i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f h i s body, l i k e t h a t o f t h e napalmed c h i l d r e n , had been b u r n t away: he f e l t f l a y e d : s k i n n e d t o t h e agony o f t h e w o r l d b e f o r e t h e words [ o f t h e documents d e s c r i b i n g t h e w a r ] , t h e y e t more t e r r i b l e p i c t u r e s , b u t above a l l b e f o r e t h e humanness o f c h i l d r e n , women, men who must endure l i v i n g . and what c o u l d be thought when you saw l i t t l e ones b r o i l e d i n ' n a p a l m ? " ( ) the s t r u g g l e between competing p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s o c i a l w o r l d and t h e f i n a l l i f t i n g of t h e b a r r i e r between s e l f and o t h e r i s most c o m p e l l i n g l y d r a m a t i s e d i n t h e language o f t h e t e x t i n c h a p t e r , " d r i n k ye a l l of i t . " i n i t i a l l y , wiebe e s t a b l i s h e s a c o n t r a s t between t h e narrow v i s i o n o f e r n a epp, c o n c e r n e d s o l e l y f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f her baby, and d a v i d epp, t h e " s e l f l e s s " husband m a s t e r m i n d i n g t h e escape o f an e n t i r e mennonite v i l l a g e a c r o s s t h e f r o z e n amur r i v e r t o c h i n a . however, david's d i a l o g u e w i t h g r e t a suderman b r i n g s him f a c e t o f a c e w i t h t h e m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f d r a w i n g a r b i t r a r y l i n e s between the v i l l a g e s w h i c h make up t h e c o l o n y : g r e t a ' s b r o t h e r and s i s t e r , and t h e i r f a m i l i e s , l i v e i n v i l l a g e number four, a n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e l e f t b e h i n d t o b e a r t h e b r u n t o f t h e gpu r e t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e escape. g r e t a f o r c e s d a v i d t o c o n f e s s t h a t t h e y have b e t r a y e d t h o s e l e f t b e h i n d , t h a t i t i s n o t enough t o say "we cannot t h i n k o f number f o u r ; can we g e t o u t ? how can we t h i n k o f what happens t o them; can we g e t o u t ? " ( ) . f o r g r e t a , "we" i n c l u d e s t h o s e l e f t b e h i n d t o pay t h e p r i c e f o r t h e e s c a p e e s ' freedom. through t h e d i a l o g u e between g r e t a and d a v i d , wiebe i n d i c a t e s t h a t no s o c i a l group c o - i n c i d e s o n l y and e n t i r e l y w i t h i t s e l f . no p o s i t i o n on t h e s o c i a l map l a c k s a m b i g u i t y : " g r e t a , we a l l have p a i n . who i s w i t h o u t ? " . . . . " g r e t a , we a l l - - " b u t she tugged a s i d e a t h i s t o n e . " a l l r i g h t , " he s a i d , " a l l r i g h t . i ' l l say i t . to you. say t h a t a l l t h o s e l e f t i n t h e v i l l a g e s beyond t h e r i v e r , our b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s t h e r e , t h o s e we a l l sang w i t h 'now thank we a l l our god' i n c h u r c h f e s t i v a l s , once, we we l e f t them i n t h e l u r c h , back t h e r e , on t h e o t h e r s i d e . " . . . "and i n t h e v i l l a g e you," she s a i d , "we a l l a g r e e d . . . " " i know t h a t : we a l l agreed. o t h e r s f l e d b e f o r e i n f a m i l i e s , but we d i d as a v i l l a g e . t h a t ' s why we're a l l t o g e t h e r ; we a r e h e r e o n l y as we a l l a r e , h e r e . we a r e n ' t sudermans and epps and r o g a l s k i s and martens anymore, we a r e a l l one f a m i l y , and what we do i s f o r a l l . o t h e r w i s e what p o s s i b l e way can we l i v e w i t h o u r — " he s t o p p e d r i g h t t h e r e . say t h i n g s he had never y e t worked t o t h e end i n t h o u g h t , d e a r god. ( - ) [emphasis added] as t h e b r o a d e r i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s own words b e g i n t o dawn i n d a v i d epp's mind, wiebe's j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f pronouns i n the text warrants close attention. "others," "those," "them," "you," and p a r t i c u l a r l y "we" and " a l l " c o l l i d e and burst open i n the mind of david epp. and as t h e i r meanings begin to flow into one another, david discovers the l o g i c a l end-point of his argument: that "we are a l l one family, and what we do i s f o r a l l . " in "drink ye a l l of i t , " wiebe dramatises the oneness of humanity and the u n i v e r s a l i t y of g u i l t . he paints a world red i n tooth and claw, where every l i v i n g thing preys on every other, from the minute louse which drinks the blood of david's baby, through the animal and the human worlds, up to the huge "mountains [that] stood l i k e fangs along the horizon" ( ), "black and jagged...in the heartless cold" ( ). to escape from russia, the mennonites must run the gauntlet between bloodsuckers of a l l v a r i e t i e s , who s t r i p them of t h e i r few remaining possessions, and i n one case even demand a young mennonite g i r l as payment. nor does « wiebe exempt the mennonites themselves from the charge of preying on each other. some hide morsels of food f o r t h e i r own personal use instead of pooling i t . greta suderman inadvertently smothers her own baby out of t e r r o r that i t s "cry w i l l poke through any snow-piled wall" ( ) and betray the entire party as i t sneaks past the border guards. and erna epp, quick to spy a way to take advantage of greta's misfortune, covets greta's breastmilk for her own a i l i n g baby. in r e p l y t o d a v i d ' s h i n t t h a t g r e t a c o n s i d e r a c t i n g as a w e t - n u r s e , she r e d u c e s m e n n o n i t e s and c h i n e s e a l i k e t o b l o o d s u c k e r s and s c a v e n g i n g w o l v e s : "your l i t t l e d a v i d , y o u r p r e c i o u s l i t t l e l i v i n g d a v i d . . . . and my jonka i n t h a t s h a l l o w h o l e b e i n g clawed r i g h t now out o f t h a t s h a l l o w h o l e by m a n c h u r i a n w o l v e s , w o l v e s l i k e t h e s e b l o o d s u c k e r s here o f c h i n e s e , o f m e n n o n i t e s t h a t j u s t want t h e l a s t b i t o f whatever i t i s y o u — " ( ) l e s t r e a d e r s f e e l tempted t o d i s m i s s g r e t a ' s words as an o u t b u r s t o f h y s t e r i c a l g r i e f , wiebe endorses her judgement by an i n s i s t e n t use o f metaphor. f o u r t i m e s w i t h i n t h e space o f one page he employs t h e d i s t i n c t i v e image o f t h e mennonites s c r a m b l i n g a c r o s s "the elbow o f t h e g i a n t amur" ( - ), an image w h i c h s t r e s s e s t h e r e s e m b l a n c e between t h e mennonites and t h e l i c e w h i c h i n f e s t human b o d i e s : b o t h have no o p t i o n b u t t o s u s t a i n t h e i r own l i f e by s a p p i n g o t h e r l i v i n g t h i n g s . no-one, no m a t t e r how s c r u p u l o u s , i s g u i l t l e s s . * b i o l o g i c a l law t r a n s l a t e s t o t h e o l o g i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n t h r o u g h wiebe's b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n s . the t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , " d r i n k ye a l l of i t , " t a k e n from matthew's n a r r a t i v e o f t h e l a s t supper, i n t r o d u c e s t h e i d e a o f human r e d e m p t i o n t h r o u g h j e s u s ' v o l u n t a r y s e l f - s a c r i f i c e . wiebe a l s o i n s e r t s s e c t i o n s o f p a u l ' s f i r s t e p i s t l e t o t h e c o r i n t h i a n s . d a v i d epp's mind, s l i g h t l y d e l i r i o u s due t o f e v e r and l a c k o f f o o d , wanders back and f o r t h i n t i m e , from t h e impending sacrament o f t h e l o r d ' s supper ( t h e h o l y communion s e r v i c e ) , t o a boyhood memory o f h i s f a t h e r s a y i n g "supper i s w a i t i n g , mama w i l l have supper w a i t i n g " ( ) , t o t h e passage from p a u l ' s e p i s t l e r e c a l l i n g j e s u s ' a c t i o n s and words a t t h e l a s t supper, t o a number o f h i s own d i a l o g u e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p l a n n i n g and e x e c u t i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e r s ' escape a c r o s s t h e amur r i v e r . a l t h o u g h d a v i d remembers p a s t d i a l o g u e s i n an endeavour t o assuage h i s own g u i l t , h i s i n n e r speech keeps bumping up a g a i n s t t h e words o f p a u l ' s e p i s t l e : f o r i have r e c e i v e d from t h e l o r d t h a t w h i c h a l s o i d e l i v e r e d u n t o you t h a t t h e l o r d j e s u s t h e same n i g h t i n w h i c h he was b e t r a y e d t o o k ...but i t had t o be d o n e . . . s o . . . i n t h e f o r t y below when no g u a r d from number four c o u l d s t a n d o u t s i d e o r b e l i e v e a n y t h i n g c o u l d happen t h a t same n i g h t t h e y t o o k b r e a d and when he had g i v e n t h a n k s he b r a k e i t and s a i d t a k e e a t t h i s i s my body w h i c h i s b r o k e n f o r you t h i s do i n remembrance "but w e ' l l have t o e a t . . . " "the bergen s l e i g h b r o k e , we have t o — " y o u want t o b r e a k up and d r a g t h a t j u n k under t h e guns o f t h e gpu and a l l o v e r t h e w o r l d , d e a r god. ( - ) wiebe's a l t e r n a t i o n o f i t a l i c i s e d and roman t y p e - f a c e s s i g n i f i e s t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e communion s e r v i c e and d a v i d ' s i n n e r speech, between w h i c h d a v i d ' s a t t e n t i o n jumps back and f o r t h . a t c e r t a i n p o i n t s , t h e two streams o f words m o m e n t a r i l y b l e n d — i n "same n i g h t , " "took," " e a t , " and "break," f o r example. a t t h e s e s i t e s , where e v e r y d a y words i n t e r s e c t w i t h t h e word, d a v i d ' s i n n e r speech jumps t h e r a i l s , as i t were. he not o n l y r e c a l l s s n a t c h e s of h i s own d i a l o g u e s w i t h many d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , some h i s f e l l o w c o n s p i r a t o r s , some t h e v i c t i m s b e t r a y e d by h i s c o n s p i r a c y ; he a l s o h e a r s p a u l s ' e p i s t l e t o t h e c o r i n t h i a n s as i f i t were a d d r e s s e d d i r e c t l y t o him. and i t i s p a u l ' s v o i c e , r e l a y i n g j e s u s ' words and a c t i o n s , w h i c h f i n a l l y d e t e r m i n e s d a v i d ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i s p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n and p e r s u a d e s him t o f o l l o w j e s u s ' example o f "the way t o l i v e f o r o t h e r s " ( ) . i t i s not by chance t h a t wiebe q u o t e s p a u l ' s a c c o u n t o f t h e l a s t supper r a t h e r t h a n one o f t h e v e r s i o n s a p p e a r i n g i n t h e g o s p e l s . u n l i k e t h e h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e s o f t h e l a s t supper r e c o u n t e d i n matthew ( : - ), mark ( : - ) and luke ( : - ), p a u l ' s a c c o u n t f u n c t i o n s as m e t a h i s t o r y : i t p l a c e s t h e emphasis l e s s on what happened t h a n on how t h e l a s t supper s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d and commemorated. p a u l r e l a y s j e s u s ' a c t i o n s and words w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a w a r n i n g a g a i n s t a b u s i n g t h e sacrament o f t h e l o r d ' s supper: whosoever s h a l l e a t and d r i n k u n w o r t h i l y s h a l l be g u i l t y o f t h e body and b l o o d o f t h e l o r d but l e t a man examine h i m s e l f and so l e t him e a t o f t h a t b r e a d and d r i n k o f t h a t cup f o r he e a t s and d r i n k s u n w o r t h i l y e a t s and d r i n k s damnation unto h i m s e l f ( ) . by e m p l o y i n g paul's m e t a h i s t o r i c a l v o i c e , wiebe c r e a t e s a b r i d g e between t h e d i s p a r a t e h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h j e s u s ' v o i c e i s a u d i b l e . wiebe a l l o w s r e a d e r s t o compare t h e " f i r s t " l a s t supper, t h e c o r i n t h i a n s ' abuses o f t h e sacrament, t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t i n w h i c h d a v i d epp and h i s f e l l o w v i l l a g e r s commemorate j e s u s ' s a c r i f i c e , and t h e d i v e r s e c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h h i s r e a d e r s engage w i t h j e s u s ' words i n wiebe's t e x t . p a u l ' s v o i c e warns a g a i n s t e x p l o i t i n g j e s u s ' s e l f - s a c r i f i c e f o r one's own e a r t h l y g a i n . he reminds t h e c o r i n t h i a n s (as w e l l as d a v i d epp and r e a d e r s o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a ) t h a t t h e r i t e o f h o l y communion r i t u a l l y r e - e n a c t s j e s u s ' s a c r i f i c e f o r t h e s i n s o f a l l o f h u m a n i t y — " t h i s i s my body w h i c h i s b r o k e n f o r you" ( ) — and t h a t abuse of t h e sacrament c o n s t i t u t e s a h e i n o u s b e t r a y a l . j u s t as g r e e d and s e l f i s h n e s s make b l o o d s u c k e r s o f e r n s t b a l z e r , dennis w i l l m s , and t h e jakob f r i e s e n s , abuse o f t h e l o r d ' s supper makes a p e r s o n " g u i l t y o f t h e body and b l o o d o f t h e l o r d " ( ) . i n t e r e s t i n g l y , wiebe i n v o k e s more o f p a u l ' s e p i s t l e t h a n he q u o t e s i n t h e n o v e l . the m e n n o n i t e s ' c i r c u m s t a n c e s — t h e y a r e c l o s e t o s t a r v a t i o n and have j u s t b e t r a y e d and abandoned a s e c t i o n o f t h e i r own c o n g r e g a t i o n — a l l u d e t o v e r s e s w h i c h l i e j u s t o u t s i d e i c o r i n t h i a n s : - , t h e passage w h i c h comes t o t h e s u r f a c e of d a v i d epp's i n n e r speech. i n i c o r i n t h i a n s : - and : , p a u l warns a g a i n s t consuming t h e b r e a d and wine o f t h e e u c h a r i s t t o s a t i s f y b o d i l y hunger and t h i r s t ; and i n i c o r i n t h i a n s : and : , a g a i n s t e m p l o y i n g t h e r i t e as a mechanism of d i v i s i o n and e x c l u s i o n w i t h i n the' c o n g r e g a t i o n . d e s p i t e t h e i r o b v i o u s r e l e v a n c e t o d a v i d epp's s i t u a t i o n , wiebe r e f r a i n s from q u o t i n g t h e s e v e r s e s i n t h e n o v e l , h i s o m i s s i o n t e s t i n g and a c t i v a t i n g t h e b i b l i c a l knowledge o f h i s a u d i e n c e . as e l s e w h e r e , wiebe employs a l l u s i o n as a d i a l o g i z i n g s t r a t e g y . by c r e a t i n g an o p e n i n g w h i c h a l l o w s r e a d e r s t o supplement t h e b i b l i c a l q u o t a t i o n he s u p p l i e s , wiebe encourages h i s r e a d e r s t o engage i n d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h h i s t e x t . w i t h i n wiebe's l a r g e r m o r a l argument, d a v i d epp's a c t i o n has p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h a t i t h e l p s make c o n c r e t e a fundamental d i s t i n c t i o n between two k i n d s o f c h r i s t i a n s : t h o s e who v a l u e j e s u s ' s e l f - s a c r i f i c e as a k i n d of " f i r e escape" ( ) u s e f u l f o r e v a d i n g punishment i n h e l l f o r t h e i r s i n s , and t h o s e who v i e w j e s u s as a model o f how t o l i v e c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r s , a way of s a v i n g o t h e r p e o p l e from "the h e l l o f t h e i r b e i n g b o r n , l i v i n g and d y i n g " ( ) . not o n l y does d a v i d t u r n back i n a p h y s i c a l sense t o r u s s i a ; he a l s o t u r n s back t o t h e m o r a l paradigms o f f e r e d by j e s u s ' a c t i o n s . f u r t h e r m o r e , t h o s e who come a f t e r d a v i d epp, such as h i s son, d a v i d i i i , . samuel reimer and john reimer, t u r n back t o d a v i d epp's " f u t i l e " a c t i o n as a c o n c r e t e example o f how t o l i v e one's c h r i s t i a n c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r p e o p l e . i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s immediate r e s u l t , d a v i d ' s a c t i o n has l a s t i n g i n s p i r a t i o n a l v a l u e . i t t r a n s l a t e s t h e paradigm o f j e s u s ' a c t i o n s i n t o t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c o n t e x t s . vi the n a r r a t i v e i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a r e p e a t e d l y t u r n s back on i t s e l f , d e s p i t e t h e forward-moving c h r o n o l o g i c a l p r o g r e s s o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e . as i n a l l wiebe's n o v e l s , r e a d e r s can i n t e g r a t e t h e n a r r a t i v e fragments a c c o r d i n g t o two c o n t r a d i c t o r y s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s — o n e l i n e a r , t h e o t h e r c y c l i c . s h e r r i l l e. grace i d e n t i f i e s t h e same s t r u c t u r a l t e n s i o n i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, w h i c h she a n a l y s e s i n terms o f t z v e t a n todorov's d i s t i n c t i o n between " h o r i z o n t a l . . . n a r r a t i v e o f c o n t i g u i t y " and " v e r t i c a l . . . n a r r a t i v e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n s " (grace ) . todorov's model a l s o p r o v e s h i g h l y a p p l i c a b l e t o the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a because i t f a c i l i t a t e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n e x t r i c a b l e c o n n e c t i o n between wiebe's n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e , h i s d r a m a t i c r e - a c c e n t i n g o f t h e t e x t and h i s r a d i c a l c h r i s t i a n v i s i o n o f a l l h i s t o r y . todorov m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l t h o u g h b o t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l n a r r a t i v e t y p e s u s u a l l y o c c u r i n c o m b i n a t i o n , c e r t a i n genres a r e c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a predominance o f one s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e o v e r t h e o t h e r ; f o r example, a d v e n t u r e s t o r i e s come n e a r e s t t o an e n t i r e l y h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r e , w h i l e d e t e c t i v e o r m y s t e r y s t o r i e s o f f e r t h e p u r e s t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f v e r t i c a l l y i n t e g r a t e d n a r r a t i v e (grace ) . t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e , w i t h i t s p r o f o u n d c o n c e r n w i t h c h r o n o l o g i c a l sequence and l i n e a r c a u s a l i t y , c o n s t i t u t e s a n o t h e r v e r y pure form o f h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r i n g . wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l h o r i z o n t a l s t r u c t u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a because such a s t r u c t u r e i s s u e s l o g i c a l l y from a t h e o r y o f h i s t o r y p r o f o u n d l y i n i m i c a l t o h i s most fundamental m o r a l p o s t u l a t e : t h a t j e s u s ' t e a c h i n g s have a t r a n s - h i s t o r i c a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y . i f h i s t o r y e q u a l s u n r e m i t t i n g change, i f i t u n f o l d s as a sequence o f u n p r e c e d e n t e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e , u n r e p e a t a b l e e v e n t s , t h e n t h e passage o f t i m e pushes j e s u s f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r "away," as i t were, making h i s words and a c t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g l y tenuous and l i m i t e d i n t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o subsequent ages. wiebe's s u b v e r s i o n o f h o r i z o n t a l n a r r a t i v e d r a m a t i s e s t h a t i n t i m e as w e l l as i n s p a c e , moving "'away' i s not so s i m p l e " ( ) . everywhere, and a t a l l t i m e s , t h e m e n n o n i t e s a r e dogged by u n i v e r s a l human problems such as d e a t h and s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , and t h e " b e a u t i f u l mocking b l u e " ( ) o f u t o p i a n dreams. a l t h o u g h the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a d e a l s o s t e n s i b l y w i t h h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t h e n a r r a t i v e works a c c o r d i n g t o a f o r m u l a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d e t e c t i v e o r m y s t e r y s t o r y . the s a l i e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e d e t e c t i v e s t o r y i s t h a t t h e p r e c i s e r e l e v a n c e o f each i n c i d e n t , each word, each group o f words, does not become e n t i r e l y c l e a r u n t i l t h e denouement, a t w h i c h t i m e t h e b r i l l i a n t s l e u t h m a r s h a l s a l l t h e e v i d e n c e and r e v e a l s the t r u t h t o t h e c a s t o f c h a r a c t e r s assembled i n o r out o f c o u r t . the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a r e s e m b l e s a m y s t e r y s t o r y i n t h a t r e a d e r s hear t h e t e s t i m o n i e s o f t h e w i t n e s s e s b e f o r e t h e y know t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c r i m e . wiebe o f f e r s t h e f a c t s o p e n l y b u t not t h e u n i v e r s a l key t o t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e ; r e a d e r s hear t h e v o i c e s of w i t n e s s e s , w i t h o u t knowing t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e c r i m e . john reimer p e r f o r m s t h e same f u n c t i o n as t h e b r i l l i a n t d e t e c t i v e i n t h e m y s t e r y s t o r y : he d e f i n e s t h e c o r r e c t r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n , t h e o n l y p e r s p e c t i v e from w h i c h the t r u t h can be known, t h e " r i g h t way" t o a c c o r d w e i g h t and meaning t o t h e words o f t h e t e x t . a l t h o u g h john reimer a r t i c u l a t e s the t r u t h i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e w i t h p e o p l e g a t h e r e d around him a t t h e r o a d s i d e , t h e a u t h o r i t y o f h i s v o i c e so f a r exceeds t h a t o f h i s i n t e r l o c u t o r s t h a t the t r u t h does not emerge a t t h e p o i n t o f g e n u i n e d i a l o g i c c o n t a c t between v o i c e s . i n s t e a d , john reimer engages o n l y i n " p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . h i s announcement o f "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n o f . . . s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " ( ) demarcates t h e s i t e upon w h i c h a l l t h e p i e c e s o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l n a r r a t i v e " s t a c k up a l o n g a v e r t i c a l l i n e " (todorov, q t d . i n grace ) . suddenly, l i k e a r e v e l a t i o n , i t becomes c l e a r t h a t t h e n a r r a t i v e f i t s t o g e t h e r v e r t i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n h o r i z o n t a l l y . e v e r y c h a r a c t e r f a c e s t h e same m o r a l dilemma, e v e r y i n c i d e n t r e p r o d u c e s t h e same s e t o f p a r a d i g m a t i c elements,. and e v e r y v o i c e answers t h e same m o r a l q u e s t i o n : "the t e r r i b l e q u e s t i o n o f h i s [ j e s u s ' ] day as i t i s i n o u r s was and i s s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e " ( ) . the v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a i s a l o g i c a l a r t i s t i c c o r o l l a r y o f wiebe's b e l i e f t h a t t h e b i b l e o f f e r s a s e t o f u n i v e r s a l paradigms f o r a l l h i s t o r y , and t h a t j e s u s , because he had t o c o n t e n d w i t h t h e "permanent f a c t o r s i n h i s t o r y " , o f f e r s a p e r m a n e n t l y v a l i d model o f t h e r i g h t way t o l i v e . to d i s c o v e r "where we a r e i n t r u t h , " and what " i s and i s t o be," wiebe t u r n s back i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a t o "our o r i g i n s , " not m e r e l y t o t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' h i s t o r y o v e r t h e l a s t hundred y e a r s b u t t o t h e o r i g i n s o f c h r i s t i a n i t y when j e s u s showed "the way," t h e d i r e c t i o n , t h e p a t h , t o h i s f o l l o w e r s . the t i t l e o f t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , "on the way," not o n l y r e f e r s i n a l i t e r a l manner t o t h e highway a l o n g w h i c h john reimer w a l k s , i t a l s o a l l u d e s t o j e s u s ' words i n t h e g o s p e l o f s a i n t john: " i am t h e way" (john : ). wiebe, john reimer and s a i n t john f u n c t i o n as l i n k s i n a. c h a i n of v o i c e s r e l a y i n g t h e words o f j e s u s down t h r o u g h h i s t o r y t o wiebe's r e a d e r s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t s . l i k e john reimer, wiebe t a k e s t h e word o f god o u t o f t h e p h y s i c a l and s o c i a l confinement o f c h u r c h b u i l d i n g s and c l o s e d c h r i s t i a n communities i n t o an open space where i t i s f r e e l y a c c e s s i b l e t o whoever d e c i d e s t o s t o p and engage w i t h t h e t e x t . and reimer's d e c i s i o n t o w a l k n o r t h towards t h e i n d i a n r e s e r v e s , not west toward t h e s e r e n e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e b l u e rocky m o u n t a i n s , h i n t s a t " t h e way" wiebe w i l l l i v e h i s c o n c e r n f o r canada's o p p r e s s e d i n d i g e n o u s " o t h e r s " i n h i s next n o v e l . notes to chapter : the blue mountains of china . peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, . . john newlove, " b l a c k n i g h t window," e p i g r a p h t o the b l u e mountains of c h i n a . ( t o r o n t o and m o n t r e a l : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ). u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , page numbers a p p e a r i n g i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n c h a p t e r r e f e r t o t h i s e d i t i o n . . see m i k h a i l b a k h t i n , problems of d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s , . . b a k h t i n p o i n t s out t h a t "the mere p r e s e n c e o f s p e c i f i c language s t y l e s , s o c i a l d i a l e c t s and so f o r t h " ( , ) does not g u a r a n t e e t h a t a t e x t f u n c t i o n s d i a l o g i c a l l y . "what m a t t e r s , " he a r g u e s , " i s t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e a t w h i c h t h e s e s t y l e s and d i a l e c t s a r e j u x t a p o s e d o r c o u n t e r p o s e d i n t h e work" ( , ). . see f r a n z epp's a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e on p. , and jakob f r i e s e n i v s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s t r a n g e r ' s u t t e r a n c e on p. - . . c f . ina f e r r i s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f wiebe's s t r a t e g i e s f o r s u b j e c t i n g t h e r e a d e r t o "a p r o c e s s o f r e l e n t l e s s d i s o r i e n t a t i o n " i n " r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n and f i c t i o n a l form: rudy wiebe's the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , " i n w.j. k e i t h , a v o i c e i n t h e land (edmonton: newest p r e s s , ) . . t h i s q u a l i t y o f n o n - i n t e r s e c t i o n d e r i v e s i n p a r t from t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s o f the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a were w r i t t e n f o r s e p a r a t e p u b l i c a t i o n . see " b l a c k v u l t u r e , " the mennonite, , ( june ), - . r e p r i n t e d i n c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g . ( j u l y ), - , and mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d ( j u l y ), - . "over t h e red l i n e , " the mennonite, , ( j u l y ), - . r e p r i n t e d i n c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g . ( a u g u s t ), - , and mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d . (september ), - . "the w e l l , " the mennonite. , ( august ), - . r e p r i n t e d i n c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g . (september ) - , mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d ( o c t o b e r ), - , and p l u c k ( s p r i n g ). "the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a : my l i f e : t h a t ' s as i t was," m o s a i c . i i i / ( s p r i n g ), - . . " i f t r a n s l a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s an e f f o r t t o c o r r e l a t e two w o r l d s , t h e n l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n s d e l i b e r a t e l y d e f e a t t h i s purpose by d r a w i n g t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e absence o f s y n c h r o n y " (redekop ). . the word " o t h e r s ' " appears i n i n v e r t e d commas because wiebe has p r o b l e m a t i z e d t h e boundary between t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f s e l f and o t h e r . . see pp. , , . . he has a l r e a d y t o l d t h i s s t o r y i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. . see f r i e d a ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e cowboys: "he was l a u g h i n g and s w e a r i n g a t t h e o t h e r two. i t h i n k i t was s w e a r i n g b u t maybe i t was f r e n c h , o r r u s s i a n " ( ) ; and h e r c o n f e s s i o n t h a t even a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s i n paraguay she knows v e r y l i t t l e s p a n i s h ( ) . . the t e r m " o l d g r a c k l e " i s e n c l o s e d i n i n v e r t e d commas t o s i g n i f y t h a t i t i s l i e s e l ' s , n o t wiebe's, e p i t h e t . . b a k h t i n d e f i n e s "the word w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e " i n problems o f d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s , . . the " o l d g r a c k l e " speaks " d i s c o u r s e w i t h a s i d e w a r d g l a n c e a t someone e l s e ' s word," type i i i . . c i n b a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y ( , ). however t h i s d i s c o u r s e i s t r a n s m i t t e d w i t h i n l i e s e l ' s d i s c o u r s e , w h i c h f i t s i n t o type i i i . . a , p a r o d i c d i s c o u r s e . through t h e g r a c k l e ' s sideways g l a n c e s , wiebe p a r o d i e s l i e s e l t h e p a r o d i s t . . wiebe r e i n f o r c e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t l i e s e l r e s e m b l e s a b l a c k b i r d by h a v i n g her t i e a b l a c k shawl around h e r h i p s t o c r e a t e what she t h i n k s i s an e l e g a n t t r a i l i n g e f f e c t b e h i n d , l i k e t h e t a i l o f a b i r d ( , ) . see t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f wiebe's use o f a n i m a l imagery i n s e c t i o n iv o f t h i s c h a p t e r . . see the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r , p. f o r wiebe's d r a m a t i s a t i o n o f t h e extreme v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f d i c k e n s ' n a r r a t i o n o f t h e d e a t h o f l i t t l e n e l l t o p a r o d i c t r e a t m e n t . . wiebe h i n t s t h a t l i e s e l a d o p t s an a e s t h e t i c p e r s p e c t i v e t o escape from her own s u f f e r i n g , r e f r a c t e d i n t h e t e x t t h r o u g h t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e w e a l t h y f i r s t c l a s s p a s s e n g e r s who watch h e r b e i n g f i s h e d out o f t h e s h i p ' s i n d o o r swimming p o o l : " 'immigrants i n s t e e r a g e . . . s k i n and b o n e . . . w i t h o u t . . . p o o r . . . d r e a d f u l c o n d i t i o n ' " ( ) . . "are you s t i l l a m e n n o n i t e ? " "no. i — n o t any more." ( ) . leonard cohen's b e a u t i f u l l o s e r s , d i s c u s s e d by e l i z a b e t h cereno and h e r f r i e n d , r a c h e l , i s wiebe's prime example o f a r t t h a t e x p l o i t s s u f f e r i n g . see pp. - . . t h i s method o f b l e n d i n g t h e v o i c e s o f n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t , and a l l o w i n g t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s i n n e r speech t o b r e a k t h r o u g h a t s t r a t e g i c moments, d e v e l o p s out o f wiebe's n a r r a t i v e p r a c t i c e i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . c f . p i e r r e s p r i e t ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f f i r s t p e r s o n and t h i r d p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e i n "rudy wiebe's the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a : t h e polyphony o f a p e o p l e o r t h e l o n e l y v o i c e o f t h e f r i n g e ? , " m u l t i p l e v o i c e s : recent canadian f i c t i o n , p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e i v t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l symposium o f t h e b r u s s e l s c e n t r e f o r canadian s t u d i e s , november- december, , ed. jeanne d e l b a e r e (sydney: dangaroo p r e s s , ) - . . wiebe v o i c e s t h i s judgement most e x p l i c i t l y t h r o u g h d a v i d epp's i n n e r speech i n c h a p t e r : i t w i l l be good w i t h no r i c h o r p o o r . no hungry. no one f i g h t i n g any more, everyone l i v i n g f o r everyone e l s e , w o r k i n g i n peace and harmony on t h e common l a n d , t o g e t h e r t o t h e f i e l d s i n t h e morning, t o g e t h e r e a t i n g our b r e a d and l i v i n g i n q u i e t and s i n g i n g of our l a n d , w i t h a l w a y s enough t o e a t and work, everyone our f r i e n d s , everyone w o r k e r s . ( ) . i n a passage o f d i a l o g u e w h i c h sounds a t f i r s t l i k e an i n t e r l u d e between s e c t i o n s o f " s e r i o u s " d i a l o g u e , wiebe p r o v i d e s an e x p l i c i t key t o t h e a n i m a l imagery p e r v a d i n g t h e n o v e l . h a v i n g t r o d d e n on s o m e t h i n g i n t h e d a r k b e s i d e t h e r o a d , john reimer remarks t o jakob f r i e s e n iv t h a t "they" (presumably p r a i r i e dogs--wiebe c r e a t e s a l l e g o r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s by not s u p p l y i n g t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e pronoun) d i e i n l a r g e numbers "on t h e way" ( ) , because when one o f a p a i r i s a c c i d e n t a l l y k i l l e d by a c a r , t h e o t h e r r e f u s e s t o abandon i t , and t a r r i e s on t h e r o a d t r y i n g t o guard t h e o t h e r o r decoy f u r t h e r d a n g e r s ; when a c a r comes "the l i v e one f e e l s t h e shadow o v e r i t and s i t s up" ( ) . john reimer and jakob f r i e s e n iv pass on t o t h e t o p i c o f t h e s c a v e n g i n g b l a c k b i r d s who e a t t h e b o d i e s o f t h e dead a n i m a l s . t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n draws a c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between two c a t e g o r i e s o f a n i m a l s . . matthew : . the v e r s e b e g i n s w i t h t h e words "why t a k e ye t h o u g h t f o r r a i m e n t ? " . g e n e s i s : - . . g e n e s i s . . g e n e s i s : - . . z a i l i g p o l l o c k comes t o t h e same c o n c l u s i o n , "the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a : a s e l e c t i v e genealogy," e s s a y s i n canadian w r i t i n g (summer ) : , n. . . type i i i . l . c i n b a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y ( , ). . type i i i . . e i n b a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y ( , ). . type i i i . i n b a k h t i n ' s t y p o l o g y ( , ). . of a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e n o v e l , f r i e d a perhaps comes c l o s e s t t o a b l a m e l e s s l i f e . y e t f r i e d a ' s e a r l i e s t memory, t h e f i r s t e v e n t she r e c o u n t s a f t e r t h e s t o r y o f h e r own b i r t h , i s o f a newly-employed f i e l d - w o r k e r s t r u c k dead by a b o l t of l i g h t n i n g t h a t would o t h e r w i s e have k i l l e d her mother w o r k i n g nearby. f r i e d a remarks t h a t t h e man had " t h r e e l i t t l e ones, s m a l l e r t h a n me" ( ) , t o convey h e r vague c h i l d h o o d i n k l i n g t h a t her mother l i v e s because t h e o t h e r s ' f a t h e r d i e d . t h i s i s not t o say t h a t wiebe equates f r i e d a w i t h " e r n s t b a l z e r , " t h e b l a c k v u l t u r e . on. t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p a r a l l e l f o r t u n e s o f f r i e d a and b a l z e r s e r v e o n l y t o mark t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . f r i e d a f e e l s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n who have l o s t t h e i r f a t h e r ; b a l z e r o n l y r e j o i c e s not t o have l o s t h i s own s k i n . u n t i l . d a v i d epp s e n i o r reminds him t h a t "mrs f r i e s e n was p r a y i n g t o o " ( ) , b a l z e r s p a r e s no t h o u g h t f o r t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s c a p e g o a t t o whom he owes h i s s a f e t y , nor f o r t h e f a m i l y whom he has heard t h r o u g h t h e door " c r y i n g and p l e a d i n g , b e g g i n g l i k e c h i l d r e n " ( ) . . matthew : - : "and he t o o k t h e cup, and gave t h a n k s , and gave i t t o them, s a y i n g , d r i n k ye a l l o f i t ; f o r t h i s i s my b l o o d o f t h e new t e s t a m e n t , w h i c h i s shed f o r many f o r t h e r e m i s s i o n o f s i n s . " . a c c o r d i n g t o magdalene redekop, p a u l ' s words a r e not l i t u r g i c a l ( ) . however, p a u l ' s words c a r r y t h e words o f j e s u s , which a r e r e p e a t e d as p a r t o f t h e r i t e o f h o l y communion. . w h i l e t h e i t a l i c i s e d q u o t a t i o n s come from p a u l ' s e p i s t l e , t h e t i t l e o f t h e c h a p t e r , " d r i n k ye a l l of i t , " comes from matthew : . . see " s t r u c t u r i n g v i o l e n c e : 'the e t h i c s o f l i n g u i s t i c s ' i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear ." canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ) : - . grace draws on t z v e t a n todorov, "the quest o f n a r r a t i v e , " the p o e t i c s o f p r o s e , t r a n s . r i c h a r d howard ( i t h a c a , n.y.: c o r n e l l u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ). . as george h i l d e b r a n d d e m o n s t r a t e s , wiebe a l s o drawn on t h e t h e o r y and methodology o f b i b l i c a l t y p o l o g y , w h i c h reads t h e new testament as a t u r n i n g back t o t h e o l d testament, and views t h e e v e n t s o f t h e o l d testament as a s e r i e s o f p r e f i g u r a t i o n s o f e v e n t s r e c o u n t e d i n t h e new testament. see "the a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n o f rudy wiebe: a study i n t h e o l o g i c a l a l l e g o r e s i s , " d i s s . , m c g i l l u n i v e r s i t y , . . f r i e d a sees "the c y p r e s s h i l l s [which] l a y on t h e p r a i r i e l i k e b l u e d u s t , f a r away" ( ) ; dennis w i l l i a m s sees t h e canadian " r o c k i e s , t h e i r snow b u r n i n g b l u e a g a i n s t t h e e v e n i n g sky" ( ) ; d a v i d epp l o o k s back a c r o s s t h e amur t o t h e r u s s i a n v a l l e y from w h i c h he has j u s t e s c a p e d t o see t h e " f a i n t clumps o f smoke l i k e b l u e mounds on t h e r i g i d a i r " ( ). . b a k h t i n d e f i n e s " p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s " as f o l l o w s : "someone who knows and p o s s e s s e s t h e t r u t h i n s t r u c t s someone who i s i g n o r a n t o f i t and i n e r r o r , t h a t i s , i t i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a t e a c h e r and p u p i l " ( , ) . . in my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe d e f i n e s "mystery" as " t h a t which i s h i d d e n t o some and r e v e a l e d t o o t h e r s " ( ) . i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t r e a d e r s who share wiebe's t h o r o u g h knowledge and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b i b l e w o u l d d i s c e r n q u i t e e a r l y t h e v e r t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e n a r r a t i v e and t h e m o r a l dilemma common t o e v e r y e p i s o d e . . my i t a l i c s . . quoted by john h. yoder, e p i g r a p h t o the p o l i t i c s of j e s u s (grand r a p i d s , m i c h i g a n : eerdmans, ). chapter : the temptations of big bear redeeming canada's p a s t . . i in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, wiebe t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o western c a n a d i a n h i s t o r y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d when t h e dominion government was "opening t h e g r e a t west" t o w h i t e s e t t l e r s and e n c l o s i n g t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n on r e s e r v e s . wiebe's s t o r y c e n t r e s on t h e cree c h i e f b i g bear, branded a t r o u b l e m a k e r by o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n t s because he r e f u s e d f o r t h e l o n g e s t t i m e t o s i g n any t r e a t y o r s e t t l e on a r e s e r v e , and l a t e r c o n v i c t e d o f t r e a s o n - f e l o n y f o r h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h i n d i a n s who k i l l e d n i n e whites a t f r o g l a k e . in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r , wiebe o f f e r s an a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e . d u r i n g t h e t w e l v e y e a r s c o v e r e d i n t h e n o v e l ' s main n a r r a t i v e , from b i g bear's r e f u s a l t o s i g n t r e a t y number s i x i n , t o h i s d e a t h i n , b i g bear r e s i s t s t h e t e m p t a t i o n s o f p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e and f u l s o m e s u r r e n d e r , t h e o n l y o p t i o n s r e c o g n i s e d by t h e o t h e r g r e a t . c h i e f s . b i g bear a l o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e most c r u c i a l b a t t l e s t a k e p l a c e on t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l p l a n e r a t h e r t h a n t h e p h y s i c a l , and t h a t h i s p e o p l e ' s p o l i t i c a l s u r v i v a l depends on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . b i g bear urges t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s t o f o r g e t t h e i r , s u p e r f i c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s and band t o g e t h e r as a r e l i g i o u s community. only i f t h e y speak w i t h a s i n g l e m i g h t y v o i c e empowered by t h e "only one" can t h e y e n t e r i n t o e q u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h " t h a t one w h i t e s k i n t h a n whom t h e r e i s none h i g h e r " (tbb ) . a f i v e v a r i e t i e s o f d i a l o g u e w a r r a n t c l o s e a t t e n t i o n i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear: c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , f o r m a l s y n c r i s i s , t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " between a u t h o r and n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s t h r o u g h w h i c h wiebe engages i n d i a l o g u e i n t h e w i d e r c u l t u r a l a r e n a , and t h e d i a l o g u e between t h e t e x t and i t s r e a d e r s . these s e v e r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f d i a l o g u e i n and a r o u n d wiebe's f o u r t h n o v e l s u g g e s t t h a t he more and more concedes t h a t meaning comes i n t o b e i n g d i a l o g i c a l l y , t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n between v o i c e s s p e a k i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r i n t h e e v o l v i n g c o n t e x t o f human h i s t o r y . t h i s d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e o f f e r s wiebe a chance t o s u b v e r t dominant m o n o l o g i c systems o f s c i e n t i f i c , h i s t o r i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l and r e l i g i o u s t r u t h . i n the temptations o f b i g bear, he c o n t r a d i c t s o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y and t h e a n g l o - p r o t e s t a n t p o l i t i c a l e t h o s w h i c h s u p p o r t s i t . y e t wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h e s e m o n o l o g i c systems not t o o v e r t h r o w monologism as such, b u t as a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p t o p r o m o t i n g an a l t e r n a t i v e m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . wiebe " u n e a r t h s " b i g bear's l i f e from t h e "the g i a n t s l a g - h e a p l e f t by t h e h e r o i c w h i t e h i s t o r y " i n o r d e r t o i n t e g r a t e i t i n t o h i s own mennonite system o f v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . a w h o l e - h e a r t e d embrace o f t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w o u l d weaken t h e l o g i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f wiebe's c h r i s t i a n c o n v i c t i o n s . how can one remain committed t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t one's own r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s r e m a i n a b s o l u t e , permanent and u n i v e r s a l l y v a l i d , w h i l e a t t h e same a d m i t t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i t y o f a l l t r u t h ? what happens t o wiebe's c h r i s t i a n v i s i o n once he c o n f r o n t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s a b s o l u t e s a r e v u l n e r a b l e t o p a s t and f u t u r e m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n ? f o r wiebe, t h e d i a l o g i c u n i v e r s e h o l d s t h e p r o s p e c t o f e x i s t e n t i a l t e r r o r as w e l l as t h a t o f i d e o l o g i c a l freedom. wiebe's a m b i v a l e n c e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e t e x t o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r i n a t e n s i o n between d i a l o g i z i n g and m o n o l o g i z i n g mechanisms. on a l l f i v e i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e s on w h i c h d i a l o g u e o c c u r s , c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s c o n t e n d a g a i n s t c e n t r i p e t a l , as i f wiebe's w r i t i n g were s u b j e c t t o a law demanding t h a t e v e r y d i a l o g i z i n g a c t i o n has an e q u a l and o p p o s i t e m o n o l o g i z i n g r e - a c t i o n . i i c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e s "ceremony was a l l " ( ) , r e f l e c t s g o v e r n o r m o r r i s i n t h e o p e n i n g scene o f t h e n o v e l . much o f t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e r e s t i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear c e n t r e s on a s e r i e s o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g c e r e m o n i a l and r i t u a l o c c a s i o n s — t h e f a r e w e l l ceremony a t f o r t p i t t , b i g b e a r ' s t r e a t y - s i g n i n g ceremony a t f o r t walsh, b i g bear's t h i r s t dance, t h e b u f f a l o hunt, t h e c h u r c h s e r v i c e a t f r o g lake, t h e f o r m a l c o u n c i l s o f t h e i n d i a n s , and f i n a l l y b i g b e a r ' s t r i a l . i n t h e dominion government's " n o n - v i o l e n t " t a k e - o v e r o f t h e canadian west, ceremonies and r i t u a l s have as much h i s t o r i c a l i m p o r t a n c e as major m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e s and c o u n t e r - a t t a c k s . they a r e h i g h l y t h e a t r i c a l p u b l i c o c c a s i o n s when t h e r i v a l s o c i a l f a c t i o n s t r y t o i n a u g u r a t e o r d e f e n d t h e power o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e s , t o g a i n o r r e s i s t t h e hegemonic c o n t r o l o f o t h e r s . wiebe e x p r e s s e s a p r o f o u n d c o n c e r n w i t h v o i c e i n t h e s e scenes o f f o r m a l d i a l o g u e . he d r a m a t i s e s t h e d i s t i n c t k i n d s o f power a c t i v a t e d by v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e v o i c e — t h e m y s t e r i o u s c h a r i s m a o f an i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e , t h e p o l i t i c a l e f f i c a c y o f a communal v o i c e , t h e hegemony o f a group o f white c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s termed "the queen's v o i c e . " wiebe's c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked c e r e m o n i a l and r i t u a l d i a l o g u e s w a r r a n t d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n because t h e y encode manoeuvres i n an u n d e c l a r e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l ' w a r . d u r i n g ceremonies and r i t u a l s , r i g i d r u l e s , t a b o o s , and e t i q u e t t e come i n t o e f f e c t , p r o h i b i t i n g d i a l o g u e a l t o g e t h e r o r k e e p i n g i t w i t h i n p r e - d e t e r m i n e d l i m i t s . these r e s t r i c t i o n s a g a i n s t f r e e d i a l o g u e , most c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e l a b o r a t e p r o t o c o l s o f t h e c o u r t r o o m , c r e a t e a p r o t e c t i v e " f r a m i n g c o n t e x t " ( b a k h t i n , ) f o r a s a c r e d word, a b u f f e r zone s e p a r a t i n g an a u t h o r i t a t i v e language from t h e zone o f f a m i l i a r c o n t a c t w i t h r i v a l speech g e n r e s . thus, s p e c i a l o c c a s i o n s c r e a t e s a f e h a b i t a t s f o r s p e c i a l words. a t l e a s t , such i s t h e case i f t h e ceremony o r r i t u a l proceeds a c c o r d i n g t o p l a n — w h i c h i t a l m o s t n e v e r does i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear. b i g bear h i j a c k s governor m o r r i s ' s f a r e w e l l ceremony a t f o r t p i t t ; he l a u g h s out l o u d and speaks i n s i g n language o v e r t h e v o i c e o f t h e judge d u r i n g h i s t r i a l ; l e i f c r o z i e r p e n e t r a t e s b i g b e a r ' s f i e l d of v i s i o n d u r i n g t h e t h i r s t dance, and wandering s p i r i t b r e a k s i n t o t h e maundy thursday mass a t f r o g lake. wiebe makes c o n c r e t e t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l war f o u g h t i n t h e west by showing w h i t e s and i n d i a n s c a r n i v a l i z i n g one a n o t h e r ' s ceremonies and r i t u a l s i n an a t t e m p t t o decrown t h e o t h e r ' s a u t h o r i t a t i v e word. in scenes o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked r i t u a l and c e r e m o n i a l d i a l o g u e , wiebe d i s p l a y s an a c u t e s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r l o c u t o r y c o n d u c t . he pays m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r s s u r r o u n d i n g and p e r v a d i n g each v e r b a l exchange. wiebe's s t a g e d i r e c t i o n s — t h e t i m i n g and t o n e o f a speech, t h e p o s t u r e and d r e s s of t h e s p e a k e r , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' adherence t o o r f l o u t i n g o f decorum, and t h e i r c h o i c e o f an a d d r e s s e e — t h e s e c o n c r e t e d e t a i l s do not s e r v e a m e r e l y c o r r o b o r a t i v e o r d e c o r a t i v e f u n c t i o n . they a r e t h e v e r y s u b s t a n c e o f t h e a c t i o n i t s e l f . in t h e o p e n i n g scene a t f o r t p i t t , f o r example, b i g bear's mere p r e s e n c e bumps t h e c l o s i n g ceremony o f f i t s a n t i c i p a t e d c o u r s e . h i s a t t e n d a n c e , a f t e r y e a r s o f r e f u s i n g t o t a l k a t a l l w i t h t h e government's c o m m i s s i o n e r s , causes governor m o r r i s t o b r e a k decorum d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l o p e n i n g moments o f t h e ceremony. m o r r i s ' s f i r s t words a d d r e s s b i g bear, when c e r e m o n i a l p r o p r i e t y d i c t a t e s t h a t he s h o u l d a t t h a t p o i n t make h i s f o r m a l r e p l y t o sweetgrass's warm and f l a t t e r i n g words o f welcome. b i g bear s e i z e s c o n t r o l o f t h e d i a l o g u e by not r e s p o n d i n g t o governor m o r r i s . a t t h e moment when m o r r i s v e r y o b v i o u s l y e x p e c t s him t o r e p l y , b i g bear c r e a t e s "a s i l e n c e so d e l i b e r a t e " ( ) t h a t m o r r i s ' s d i g n i t y and composure b e g i n t o c r u m b l e : "every s t r e t c h i n g second d r a i n e d him s t a n d i n g a t a t t e n t i o n f a r t h e r i n t o i n s i g n i f i c a n c e " ( ) . i n a l i t e r a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f james mckay's e a r l i e r remark, "wait t i l l you hear his v o i c e " ( ) , governor m o r r i s w a i t s . b i g bear f o r c e s him t o w a i t . and, as m o r r i s knows, t o w a i t upon someone s i g n i f i e s one's d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r w i l l and one's acknowledgement o f t h e i r power. when b i g bear speaks f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , h i s words emerge out o f a d i s c o n c e r t i n g s i l e n c e o f h i s own making, not i n o b e d i e n c e t o governor m o r r i s ' s cue. u n l i k e sweetgrass and t h e o t h e r c h i e f s , who c o l l a b o r a t e w i t h m o r r i s ' s e f f o r t s t o s t e e r t h e d i a l o g u e i n t o " s a f e " a r e a s , b i g bear f o l l o w s no- one e l s e ' s p r e d e t e r m i n e d s c r i p t . b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " p a s s i v e " and " a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g " p r o v e s u s e f u l f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f b i g b e a r ' s i n t e r l o c u t o r y s t r a t e g i e s , and f o r d e s c r i b i n g b i g bear's f u n c t i o n as a d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e i n t h e t e x t . b a k h t i n d e s c r i b e s p a s s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g as p u r e l y r e c e p t i v e , c o n t r i b u t [ i n g ] n o t h i n g new t o t h e word under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , o n l y m i r r o r i n g i t , s e e k i n g , a t i t s most a m b i t i o u s , m e r e l y t h e f u l l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h a t w h i c h i s a l r e a d y g i v e n i n t h e word. ( , ) an a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , by c o n t r a s t , a s s i m i l a t e s t h e word under c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t o a new c o n c e p t u a l system, t h a t o f t h e one s t r i v i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d , e s t a b l i s h e s a s e r i e s o f complex i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s , consonances and d i s s o n a n c e s w i t h t h e word and e n r i c h e s i t w i t h new e l e m e n t s . ( , ) some o f s w e e t g r a s s ' s remarks a t f o r t p i t t e x e m p l i f y p a s s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . sweetgrass p a r r o t s t h e recommendations o f t h e government c o m m i s s i o n e r s — " i want t o d i g up a s m a l l p i e c e o f l a n d and grow f o o d . we s h o u l d a l l do t h a t " ( ) . the extreme b a l d n e s s of s w e e t g r a s s ' s e x p r e s s i o n warns t h a t he has no a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l i f e , l e t a l o n e o f t h e immense s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l a d j u s t m e n t s i t w i l l i n v o l v e . he m e r e l y r e p e a t s t h e words o f an " o t h e r , " i n t h e language o f t h e " o t h e r , " w i t h o u t a t t e m p t i n g t o t r a n s l a t e t h e words i n t o h i s own t r a d i t i o n a l framework o f v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . i n s t e a d o f t e s t i n g t h e a u t h o r i t y and v e r a c i t y o f t h e words, he t r u s t i n g l y a c c e p t s them a t f a c e v a l u e , seeming a l m o s t t o i m a g i n e t h a t t h e d i g g i n g of a h o l e w i l l prompt f o o d t o s p r i n g i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y out o f t h e ground. sweetgrass f o l l o w s a k i n d o f u n w r i t t e n s c r i p t d e v i s e d l a r g e l y by t h e g o v e r n o r , not a s c r i p t g e n e r a t e d by any p r o c e s s o f e q u a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n between t h e two i n t e r l o c u t o r y p a r t i e s . he t h u s engages o n l y i n a f o r m a l i z e d p s e u d o - d i a l o g u e , where he u n d e r s t a n d s t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' words and t h e terms o f t h e t r e a t y o n l y i n a p a s s i v e manner, a manner w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o b a k h t i n , " i s no u n d e r s t a n d i n g a t a l l " ( , ). l i k e s w e e t g r a s s , b i g bear r e p e a t s words spoken by t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , b u t h i s r e v o i c i n g s t r i v e s towards an a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o t h e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s . b i g bear annexes t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s i n t o (what p a s s e s f o r ) t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i a n d i s c o u r s e s , q u o t i n g v e r b a t i m t h e words and p h r a s e s o f t h e c u l t u r a l " o t h e r , " b u t t e s t i n g t h e i r meaning a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e y f i t — o r do not f i t — i n t o h i s own c u l t u r e ' s r e l i g i o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . governor m o r r i s f o r e s e e s t h e r e s e r v e i n d i a n s " l i v i n g as t h e y have always l i v e d , b u t w i t h t h e queen's g i f t i n a d d i t i o n " ( ) . b i g bear responds w i t h : "the governor says we w i l l l i v e as we have always l i v e d . i have a l w a y s l i v e d on t h e e a r t h w i t h my p e o p l e , i have always moved as f a r as i w i s h e d t o see. we t a k e what t h e e a r t h g i v e s us when we need a n y t h i n g , and we l e a v e t h e r e s t f o r t h o s e who f o l l o w u s . what can i t mean, t h a t i and my f a m i l y w i l l have a ' r e s e r v e o f one square m i l e ' ? what i s t h a t ? " ( ) james mckay t e l l s b i g bear t h a t he must "choose t h e p l a c e s where you w i s h t o l i v e . they w i l l be r e s e r v e d f o r you f o r e v e r " ( ) . b i g b e a r ' s r e p l y r e n d e r s mckay's s t a t e m e n t a b s u r d : "no one can choose f o r o n l y h i m s e l f a p i e c e o f t h e mother e a r t h . she i s . and she i s f o r a l l t h a t l i v e , a l i k e " ( ) . by r e c o n t e x t u a l i z i n g and r e a c c e n t i n g t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f mckay and m o r r i s , b i g bear p e n e t r a t e s t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e i n d i a n s ' p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m . through b i g b e a r , wiebe shows t h a t a l l q u e s t i o n s o f l a n d r i g h t s depend on a p r i o r q u e s t i o n : w h i c h s o c i e t y c o n t r o l s t h e s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s whereby t r u t h comes i n t o b e i n g ? to q u i b b l e , as have t h e o t h e r c h i e f s , o v e r t h e s i z e o f t h e r e s e r v e o r t h e amount o f money t o be p a i d , i s t o s i g n a l a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i d e o l o g i c a l p o s t u l a t e s u n d e r l y i n g t h e t r e a t y and t h u s t o s u r r e n d e r t o white hegemonic c o n t r o l . b i g bear argues not a g a i n s t t h e number o f a c r e s , b u t a g a i n s t t h e c o n c e p t o f l a n d as a c r e a g e , a p r i v a t e l y ownable, c o m m e r c i a l l y e x p l o i t a b l e , m a t e r i a l commodity. he a t t a c k s not t h e number o f d o l l a r s t o be p a i d i n compensation f o r t h e l a n d , b u t t h e monstrous i d e a o f r e d u c i n g t h e g r e a t s p i r i t ' s s a c r e d g i f t t o a d o l l a r v a l u e . s t a u n c h l y r e j e c t i n g t h e p r e m i s e s on w h i c h t h e terms o f t h e t r e a t y a r e based, b i g bear s u r r e n d e r s n e i t h e r p h y s i c a l t e r r i t o r y nor i d e o l o g i c a l ground. as w e l l as b e i n g a h i s t o r i c f i g u r e , b i g bear f u n c t i o n s as a r h e t o r i c a l d e v i c e whereby wiebe exposes t h e a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f c e r t a i n axioms w h i c h dominate t h i n k i n g about t h e l a n d and t h e s o c i a l o r d e r i n t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y canada. l i k e t h e o j i b w a c h i l d r e n i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , b i g bear o f f e r s wiebe a means o f a r t i c u l a t i n g a p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h l i e s o u t s i d e t h e v i e w c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a d o p t e d by a m a j o r i t y o f wiebe's f e l l o w c a n a d i a n s . b i g bear r e s e m b l e s t h e r o g u e s , clowns and f o o l s d e s c r i b e d by b a k h t i n , who e s t r a n g e a u d i e n c e s from t h e i r h a b i t u a l a s s u m p t i o n s about t h e n a t u r a l and t h e s o c i a l w o r l d s . b i g b e a r ' s q u e s t i o n s , " m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s " and j o k e s p e r s i s t e n t l y d e - n a t u r a i i z e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f o r d e r and common-sense w h i c h m o r r i s i n a u g u r a t e s a t f o r t p i t t , and w h i c h a m a j o r i t y o f wiebe's r e a d e r s , a c e n t u r y l a t e r , would p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r a x i o m a t i c . by d r a m a t i s i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y and t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i d e o l o g y t h a t p r e v a i l s i n h i s own t i m e , wiebe opens t h e w a y . f o r f u t u r e i d e o l o g i c a l change. but wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e s t o r e b i g bear's a u t h e n t i c v o i c e o n l y i n so f a r as b i g bear a g r e e s w i t h wiebe's mennonite v a l u e s and b e l i e f s . in t h e above speeches, b i g bear c l e a r l y a r t i c u l a t e s a mennonite v i s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e l a n d , humanity and t h e d e i t y . such a r e a d i n g o f b i g b e a r ' s major speeches g a i n s s u p p o r t from wiebe's own o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i n d i a n and mennonite c h r i s t i a n o u t l o o k s : the concept o f r e c e i v i n g t h e l a n d b o g g l e d t h e i n d i a n mind. t h i s i s a l s o a b a s i c c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f — t h a t t h e l a n d and what i t p r o d u c e s you don't m a k e — t h e seed, t h e r a i n , t h e sun. you a r e t h a n k f u l f o r what i t does. you don't push i t around. you work w i t h i t . (vl ) the b i b l i c a l p r o p h e t s and b i g bear had a g r e a t d e a l i n common, t h e sense of a h e r i t a g e t h a t has been s o l d o u t , t h a t t h r o u g h i g n o r a n c e o r n e g l e c t has s i m p l y been l e f t : and t h e v o i c e v e r y c l e a r l y says t h a t you cannot n e g l e c t your i n h e r i t a n c e l i k e t h i s , t h e g i f t s o f — t h e cree c a l l i t "the main one," t h e jews "jehovah"; you cannot do t h a t and e x p e c t t o g e t away w i t h i t " (vl ) . as w e l l . a s a r t i c u l a t i n g a mennonite v i s i o n t h a t p a s s e s f o r an a u t h e n t i c a l l y " o t h e r " i n d i a n one, b i g b e a r ' s " a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g " r e l e a s e s two k i n d s o f " o t h e r v o i c e d n e s s " i n white t a l k . f i r s t , wiebe uses b i g bear t o unmask t h e r a c i s m and d e c e i t h i d d e n b e n e a t h t h e d i g n i f i e d t o n e s o f t h e governor's c e r e m o n i a l v o i c e . when b i g bear's l a u g h t e r b r e a k s c e r e m o n i a l decorum, m o r r i s f o r g e t s t h a t a l l i n d i a n s must be r e f e r r e d t o p o l i t e l y as " b r o t h e r s " and c a l l s b i g bear a "big-mouth savage" ( ) . second, wiebe uses b i g bear as a h y b r i d i z i n g d e v i c e , a means o f r e l e a s i n g t h e i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f m o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e s : governor m o r r i s : ..."when you h e a r my v o i c e you a r e l i s t e n i n g t o y o u r g r e a t mother t h e queen".... b i g bear: "the queen speaks t o u s ? " governor m o r r i s : yes. you have h e a r d her v o i c e , whom god b l e s s and p r e s e r v e l o n g t o r e i g n o v e r us." there was a momentary s i l e n c e . b i g bear: "the queen i s — a woman." [the i n d i a n s e r u p t i n t o ] . . . i m m e n s e l a u g h t e r . . . . but t h e g o v e r n o r , t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , t h e p o l i c e s t o o d r i g i d w i t h d a r k e n e d f a c e s . the g o v e r n o r swung around t o erasmus, h i s v o i c e s h i v e r i n g , " t e l l t h a t — t h a t — i d i d n ' t come h e r e t o have my s o v e r e i g n queen i n s u l t e d by some big-mouth savage." ( - ) as i n t h e p r e v i o u s examples o f r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n , b i g bear a s s e r t s h i s r i g h t t o g o v e r n t h e meaning o f t h e "governor's" words. he annexes t h e s i g n i f i e r "queen-as-woman" i n t o an i n d i a n s e m i o t i c system i n w h i c h "woman" c o n n o t e s p h y s i c a l weakness, i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y , and v o i c e l e s s n e s s i n f o r m a l c o u n c i l s e s s i o n s . from t h e i n d i a n s ' p o i n t o f v i e w , g o v e r n o r m o r r i s i n a d v e r t e n t l y s u b v e r t s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f h i s v o i c e i n t h e v e r y a c t o f p r o c l a i m i n g t h a t a u t h o r i t y . as b i g b e a r ' s i n t e n t i o n s ( e x p r e s s i n g wiebe's e v a n g e l i c a l c h r i s t i a n i n t e n t i o n s ) i n v a d e m o r r i s ' s words, t h o s e words become c o n t e s t e d t e r r i t o r y , l i k e t h e l a n d . b i g bear f a c e s a f o r m i d a b l e opponent i n a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s , v e t e r a n o f many a d i p l o m a t i c coup, and h e r o i c m a s t e r o f t r e a t y s i g n i n g c e r e m o n i e s . m o r r i s c e r t a i n l y u n d e r s t a n d s t h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f ceremony i n t h e p r o c e s s o f s e c u r i n g economic, l e g a l , and hegemonic c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i n d i a n s . i n r e p l y t o t h e k i n d o f w i l d west h i s t o r i c a l romances w h i c h would v i e w m o r r i s ' s d i p l o m a t i c s k i l l s as a t r a v e s t y o f h e r o i s m , wiebe s t r e s s e s t h a t m o r r i s has p l a y e d a l e s s glamorous b u t no l e s s v i t a l r o l e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f h i s c o u n t r y t h a n have t h e g u n s l i n g i n g heroes o f a m e r i c a ' s i n d i a n wars: i n j u s t f o u r y e a r s , he has " p e r s o n a l l y n e g o t i a t e d t h r e e t r e a t i e s t h a t gave h i s c o u n t r y more l a n d s t h a n any one n e g o t i a t o r i n h i s t o r y , anywhere on e a r t h , b l o o d l e s s l y " ( ) . wiebe c h a r a c t e r i s e s m o r r i s as an a c c o m p l i s h e d p a r o d i s t . h i s c e r e m o n i a l v o i c e rewards c l o s e a n a l y s i s . "we have a g r e e d on e v e r y t h i n g , " i n s i s t s m o r r i s , the cree a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l t r i b e o f p l a i n s i n d i a n s ; t h i s has been t h e f o u r t h t i m e t h a t i have met my cree b r o t h e r s w i t h a t r e a t y i n my hand. and s t a n d i n g here on t h i s - - u h , s i t t i n g — o n t h i s ground i c a s t my eyes t o where t h e sun r i s e s , down t o t h e g r e a t l a k e s and i see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e red r i v e r , i see i t s t r e t c h i n g on t o f o r t e l l i c e , i see i t b r a n c h i n g t h e r e . . . . a b r o a d r o a d , and a l l a l o n g i t i see t h e g o v e r n o r and t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s o f t h e queen t a k i n g t h e i n d i a n by t h e hand, s a y i n g , we a r e b r o t h e r s , we w i l l l i f t you up, we w i l l t e a c h you t h e c u n n i n g o f t h e w h i t e man. a l l a l o n g t h e r o a d i see i n d i a n s g a t h e r i n g , i see gardens g r o w i n g and houses b u i l d i n g . i see them r e c e i v i n g money from t h e queen's c o m m i s s i o n e r s , i see them e n j o y i n g t h e i r h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g as b e f o r e . . . " . ( - ) m o r r i s ' s language d e f l e c t s a t t e n t i o n away from d i s c r e p a n c i e s between i n d i a n and white r e l i g i o n , a t a c t i c w h i c h a l l o w s him t o v a l o r i z e h i s own words by p r e t e n d i n g t h e y come from t h e i n d i a n s ' supreme d e i t y . m o r r i s p l a c e s emphasis on t h e number f o u r , f o r example, t o i m p l y t h a t he s h a r e s t h e cree p e o p l e ' s sense o f t h e s p e c i a l r e l i g i o u s s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h a t number. i n t h e o f t - r e p e a t e d " i see" c o n s t r u c t i o n , he dons t h e v e r b a l g u i s e o f t h e shamanic v i s i o n a r y i n an a t t e m p t t o i n s e r t h i m s e l f i n t o t h e r o l e o f s o l e o f f i c i a l m e d i a t o r between t h e cree p e o p l e and t h e i r g r e a t s p i r i t . m o r r i s couches h i s n a r r a t i v e o f p a s t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s , and h i s a c c o u n t of t h e government's w i s h e s c o n c e r n i n g f u t u r e h i s t o r y , i n t h e form o f a d i v i n e l y i n s p i r e d p r o p h e c y . m o r r i s e x p l o i t s t h e i n t e n s e l y r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k of h i s a u d i e n c e . by m i m i c k i n g p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e , he enhances t h e r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n c y o f h i s words and t h u s i n v e s t s them w i t h t h e power n o t j u s t t o p r e d i c t b u t t o c o n t r o l t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y . i r o n i c a l l y , m o r r i s ' s pseudo- d i v i n e p r o p h e c i e s become s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g i n t h a t t h e y h e l p b r i n g about white d o m i n a t i o n i n t h e west. m o r r i s adopts a number o f m i m i c k i n g s t r a t e g i e s d e s i g n e d t o b l i n d t h e i n d i a n s t o t h e v a s t g u l f w h i c h s e p a r a t e s t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d from t h a t dominant i n white s o c i e t y . the o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s between e n g l i s h and cree remind everyone p r e s e n t a t t h e ceremony t h a t t h e two n e g o t i a t i n g p a r t i e s a r e c u l t u r a l l y a l i e n t o one another.. to d i s g u i s e h i s f o r e i g n n e s s , and more e a s i l y w i n t h e i n d i a n s ' t r u s t , governor m o r r i s uses " p i c t u r e language": red and white hands c l a s p e d i n f r i e n d s h i p , h i s t o r i c a l p r o g r e s s i n t h e form o f a r o a d , t h e white man l i f t i n g t h e i n d i a n up i n t o c i v i l i s a t i o n . wiebe's s o u r c e f o r a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s ' s speech i s m o r r i s ' s own p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d o f t h e t r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s , e n t i t l e d the t r e a t i e s o f canada w i t h t h e i n d i a n s o f m a n i t o b a and t h e north-west t e r r i t o r i e s . comparison of m o r r i s ' s o r i g i n a l w i t h wiebe's a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e speech r e v e a l s some twenty changes o f v a r i o u s l e n g t h s and l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . one s e t o f changes c o n f i r m s t h a t wiebe c h a r a c t e r i s e s m o r r i s as a p a r o d i s t . wiebe " i n d i a n i s e s " m o r r i s ' s speech f u r t h e r t h a n i n t h e o r i g i n a l by removing a b s t r a c t and l a t i n a t e d i c t i o n and s u b s t i t u t i n g more c o n c r e t e e x p r e s s i o n s d e r i v i n g from t h e i n d i a n s ' d a i l y e x p e r i e n c e . f o r example, wiebe r e p l a c e s t h e word " e a s t " ( m o r r i s ) w i t h "where t h e sun r i s e s " ( ) ; and he a l t e r s " r e t a i n i n g t h e i r o l d mode o f l i v i n g " ( m o r r i s ) , t o " l i v i n g as t h e y have always l i v e d " ( ) . i n t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , by d e p a r t i n g from a v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n o f h i s s o u r c e , wiebe h e i g h t e n s t h e q u a l i t y o f m i m i c r y i n t h e g o v e r n o r ' s language. i n t h e d i a l o g u e between b i g bear and "govenor" m o r r i s , two p a r o d i s t s f a c e each o t h e r i n a d u e l . they b o t h succeed i n d e t h r o n i n g one a n o t h e r ' s s a c r e d d i s c o u r s e s by c a p t u r i n g t h e language o f t h e o t h e r as a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e i r own u t t e r a n c e s , and s u b j e c t i n g t h e o t h e r ' s language t o a new a u t h o r i a l w i l l . however, because wiebe l e a v e s no doubt as t o which s p e a k e r he s u p p o r t s , t h e t e x t c o n t i n u e s t o f u n c t i o n as m o n o l o g i c d i s c o u r s e . gary s a u l morson's d i s c u s s i o n o f parody and meta-parody o f f e r s a u s e f u l c r i t e r i o n f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between p o l y p h o n i c and m o n o l o g i c parody. morson r e s e r v e s t h e t e r m "parody" f o r t e x t s t h a t f u n c t i o n m o n o l o g i c a l l y , t h o s e d o u b l e - v o i c e d t e x t s o r u t t e r a n c e s t h a t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e w h i c h o f t h e i r c o n f l i c t i n g v o i c e s i s t o be r e g a r d e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . the a u d i e n c e o f p a r o d y — t h a t i s , t h e r e a d e r s who i d e n t i f y t h e t e x t as a p a r o d y — k n o w f o r s u r e w i t h w h i c h v o i c e t h e y a r e e x p e c t e d t o a g r e e . (morson ) in "meta-parody," by c o n t r a s t , t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n s p o l y p h o n i c a l l y : each v o i c e may be t a k e n t o be p a r o d i c o f t h e o t h e r ; r e a d e r s a r e i n v i t e d t o e n t e r t a i n each o f t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n t r a d i c t o r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n p o t e n t i a l l y e n d l e s s s u c c e s s i o n . i n t h i s s e n s e , such t e x t s r e m a i n f u n d a m e n t a l l y open, and i f r e a d e r s s h o u l d choose e i t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as d e f i n i t i v e , t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o d i s c o v e r t h a t t h i s c h o i c e has been a n t i c i p a t e d and i s i t s e l f t h e t a r g e t o f parody. (morson ) i f b i g bear and m o r r i s each p a r o d y t h e o t h e r , why i s i t t h a t r e a d e r s a r e not caught i n an e n d l e s s o s c i l l a t i o n between two " c o n t r a d i c t o r y h e r m e n e u t i c d i r e c t i v e s " (morson, ) as would be t h e case i f t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n e d p o l y p h o n i c a l l y as meta- parody? the answer i s t h a t . wiebe i n t r o d u c e s an e x t e r n a l a d j u d i c a t o r : t h e b i b l e . he a p p o r t i o n s a u t h o r i t y t o t h e v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t by m e a s u r i n g them a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e s o f j e s u s and t h e a p o s t l e s . the e p i g r a p h from a c t s , t o g e t h e r w i t h v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount, f u n c t i o n as t h e deus ex machina w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e outcome o f t h e s t r u g g l e between v o i c e s and languages i n t h e t e x t . wiebe c o n s i s t e n t l y , i n v o k e s t h e b i b l e t o v a l o r i z e b i g bear's speech and t o decrown m o r r i s ' s p a r o d i c l a n g u a g e . f o r example, m o r r i s a p p r o p r i a t e s ' t h e f a m i l y k i n s h i p terms used by t r i b a l s o c i e t i e s t o d e f i n e s o c i a l i d e n t i t y and s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s : terms such as " b r o t h e r s , " "the grandmother," "the g r e a t mother," and her "red c h i l d r e n " f e a t u r e p r o m i n e n t l y i n h i s speech. w i t h i n m o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e , t h e s e terms f u n c t i o n p a r o d i c a l l y : m o r r i s uses t h e language o f a n o t h e r t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s own p u r p o s e s . but when wiebe, i n t u r n , a p p r o p r i a t e s m o r r i s ' s u t t e r a n c e , he c o n s t i t u t e s m o r r i s ' s parody as a bounded o b j e c t , a t r a v e s t y o f t h e s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s i d e a l s o f f e r e d i n a c t s . the i n d i a n terms o f k i n s h i p e n t e r an a l l i a n c e w i t h a p a t r o n t e x t , wiebe's e p i l o g u e from a c t s . wiebe t h u s causes t h e d i s c o u r s e p a r o d i e d by m o r r i s t o e x e r t "a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e a u t h o r ' s [ m o r r i s ' s ] i n t e n t i o n s " ( , ). wiebe f u r t h e r s u b v e r t s m o r r i s ' s speech by a d d i n g one c r u c i a l b i b l i c a l a l l u s i o n t o t h e p s e u d o - p r o p h e t i c " i see" speech (quoted e a r l i e r ) . whereas the t r e a t i e s o f canada r e c o r d s m o r r i s as s a y i n g " i see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e red r i v e r . . . i t i s wide and p l a i n t r a i l " ( m o r r i s ), wiebe s u b s t i t u t e s " i see a b r o a d r o a d l e a d i n g from t h e r e t o t h e red r i v e r . . . a b r o a d r o a d " ( ) . wiebe's a l t e r a t i o n b r i n g s t o b e a r a s e c t i o n o f j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount w h i c h warns s p e c i f i c a l l y about m o r a l pragmatism and f a l s e p r o p h e t s : e n t e r ye a t t h e s t r a i g h t g a t e : f o r wide i s t h e g a t e and b r o a d i s t h e way, t h a t l e a d e t h t o d e s t r u c t i o n , and many t h e r e be w h i c h go i n t h e r e a t : because s t r a i g h t i s t h e g a t e , and narrow i s t h e way, w h i c h l e a d e t h unto l i f e , and few t h e r e be t h a t f i n d i t . beware o f f a l s e p r o p h e t s , w h i c h come t o you i n sheep's c l o t h i n g , b u t i n w a r d l y t h e y a r e r a v e n i n g w o l v e s . (matthew : - ) in t h e a c t of commending h i m s e l f and t h e immense b e n e f i t s o f h i s c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e i n d i a n s , m o r r i s u n w i t t i n g l y q u o t e s t h e words o f j e s u s . m o r r i s a c c i d e n t a l l y d o u b l e s t h e meaning of h i s own u t t e r a n c e , t u r n i n g i t i n t o an i n a d v e r t e n t c o n f e s s i o n of m o r a l c u l p a b i l i t y . b i g bear, t o o , u n w i t t i n g l y echoes, p a r a p h r a s e s , and a l l u d e s t o s e c t i o n s o f t h e b i b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o n t e x t s i n f u s e d w i t h g r e a t p a t h o s . r e a d i n g b i g b e a r ' s speeches, e l i mandel hears "not so much i n d i a n speech...but b i b l i c a l speech. i hear t h e cadences o f t h e b i b l e , and a p r o p h e t i c v o i c e " ( - ) . each t i m e b i g bear c a l l s f o r peace, u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p , and p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y between a l l i n d i v i d u a l s under t h e unmediated a u t h o r i t y o f t h e supreme d e i t y , h i s v o i c e i s v a l o r i z e d by wiebe's e p i l o g u e from a c t s . b i g b e a r ' s moving a d d r e s s t o t h e c o u r t a f t e r h i s t r i a l , when i t can make no l e g a l d i f f e r e n c e , c a r r i e s t h e v o i c e o f j e s u s i n t o t h e f i e l d o f t h e t e x t . b i g bear's " f o r g i v e them, t h e y a r e hungry and t e r r i f i e d , f o r g i v e them! have you no c h i l d r e n ? ( ) echoes j e s u s ' " f a t h e r , f o r g i v e them; f o r t h e y know not what t h e y do" (luke : ). w h i l e t h e b i b l e o n l y u n d e r c u t s m o r r i s ' s m o r a l a u t h o r i t y , i t c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n f o r c e s b i g b e a r ' s . i l l s y n c r i s i s wiebe's c o n c e r n w i t h v o i c e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f f o r m a l l y as w e l l as t h e m a t i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l : t h e war i n t h e west t a k e s t h e form o f a war between v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t . as i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , t h e t e x t s e r v e s as a f i e l d where u t t e r a n c e s made a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and i n d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s can e n t e r i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h each o t h e r . more i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e c o r d s o f t h o s e u t t e r a n c e s come t o g e t h e r i n t h e space o f t h e t e x t . wiebe g a t h e r s documentary m a t e r i a l s from a r c h i v a l i n s t i t u t i o n s s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s canada and as f a r a f i e l d as new y o r k , and p u t s them t o g e t h e r between t h e c o v e r s of a s i n g l e t e x t i n o r d e r t o p r o p a g a t e new meanings. the number and v a r i e t y o f v o i c e s and languages exceeds t h a t i n any o t h e r o f wiebe's n o v e l s , as wiebe e x p l o r e s f u r t h e r t h e a r t i s t i c and r h e t o r i c a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e f o r m a l s y n c r i s i s f i r s t used i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a . whereas the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a c o n s i s t s o f t h i r t e e n s e c t i o n s , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear c o n s i s t s o f t h i r t y . each o f i t s s i x c h a p t e r s d i v i d e s i n t o f o u r , f i v e , o r s i x p a r t s , some o f w h i c h c o n t a i n a number o f s u b s e c t i o n s , each dominated by a p a r t i c u l a r v o i c e s p e a k i n g a d i s t i n c t s o c i a l d i a l e c t . the whole r e s e m b l e s a mosaic o f " v o i c e - z o n e s " ( b a k h t i n , ), "a c o n g l o m e r a t i o n o f heterogeneous l i n g u i s t i c and s t y l i s t i c f o r m s " ( , ) i n w h i c h western canada speaks " i n a l l i t s v o i c e s , i n a l l t h e languages and s t y l e s o f t h e e r a " ( , ) . a but a t t h e same t i m e as wiebe adopts t h i s d i a l o g i c form, he c o u n t e r v a i l s i t s p o s s i b l e e f f e c t and c o n s o l i d a t e s power a t t h e c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . d e s p i t e t h e s p e c t a c u l a r d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e , wiebe d e v i s e s measures t o guard a g a i n s t any p o s s i b l e l o s s of s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e n o v e l . a l t h o u g h more v o i c e s speak i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear t h a n i n any o t h e r o f wiebe's n o v e l s , wiebe r a n k s t h e s e v o i c e s more c l e a r l y and l e s s awkwardly t h a n p r e v i o u s l y , g u a r d i n g a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h i s r e a d e r s may become m o r a l l y d i s o r i e n t e d a m i d s t t h e w e l t e r o f v o i c e s and languages a u d i b l e i n t h e t e x t . l i k e a l l wiebe's n o v e l s , the temptations o f b i g bear c o n t a i n s two p a r a d i g m a t i c c h a r a c t e r s : a p r o p h e t i c t e a c h e r - f i g u r e who c o n d u c t s t h e word o f god i n t o t h e t e x t , and a p r o t a g o n i s t who s t r u g g l e s t o a c t u a l i z e t h e word i n h i s own c o n c r e t e a c t i o n s and u t t e r a n c e s . c r i t i c s f i n d f a u l t w i t h wiebe's f i r s t t h r e e n o v e l s f o r h i s f a i l u r e t o f l e s h out h i s t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s and h i s r e l u c t a n c e t o s u b j e c t t h e i r s p i r i t u a l and m o r a l d o c t r i n e s t o any r i g o r o u s t e s t i n g . i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, however, wiebe f i n a l l y appeases t h e c r i t i c s on t h i s m a t t e r : t e a c h e r and p r o t a g o n i s t combine i n t h e f i g u r e o f b i g bear, who, as t h e t i t l e o f t h e n o v e l s u g g e s t s , must endure a s e r i e s o f g r u e l l i n g s p i r i t u a l , m o r a l , and p h y s i c a l t e s t s . and t h e s o v e r e i g n word, i n s t e a d o f e n t e r i n g t h e t e x t o n l y v i a t h e speech o f a c h a r a c t e r , s t a n d s s e n t i n e l a t t h e p o r t a l o f t h e t e x t i n t h e form o f an e p i g r a p h . as c o r a l ann h o w e l l s p o i n t s o u t , "the e p i g r a p h from a c t s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f e r s us t h e key t o t h e whole s y s t e m o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n i n t h e n o v e l " ( , ). wiebe keeps t h e e x c e r p t from a c t s o u t s i d e t h e main body o f t h e n o v e l . he t a k e s f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t s p r e s e n c e . moreover, he p r o t e c t s h i s s o v e r e i g n d i s c o u r s e from any dangerous d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s w h i c h might l u r k i n t h e shadowy r e c e s s e s o f h i s t e x t . l i k e a l l a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e , wiebe's e p i g r a p h "remains s h a r p l y demarcated, compact and i n e r t " ( b a k h t i n , ). wiebe " p e r m i t s no p l a y w i t h t h e c o n t e x t f r a m i n g i t , no p l a y w i t h i t s b o r d e r s , no g r a d u a l and f l e x i b l e t r a n s i t i o n s , no s p o n t a n e o u s l y c r e a t i v e s t y l i z i n g v a r i a n t s o f i t " ( b a k h t i n , ). by p o s i t i o n i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n word o u t s i d e t h e main body of t h e t e x t , wiebe h o l d s c a r n i v a l i z i n g f o r c e s f i r m l y a t bay. in c a n a d i a n c u l t u r a l l i f e i n t h e l a s t t h i r d o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear c e r e m o n i a l l y re-opens a d e b a t e c e r e m o n i a l l y c l o s e d a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . from t h e government's p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e ceremony a t f o r t p i t t marks t h e c l o s u r e o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e g u a l d i a l o g u e between t h e ottawa government and t h e i n d i a n s . the t r e a t y c o n t a i n s t h e queen's " l a s t words" ( ) . wiebe, however, c o n t r a d i c t s t h e o f f i c i a l meaning o f t h e " c l o s i n g " ceremony a t f o r t p i t t by u s i n g i t t o "open" t h e a c t i o n of an a l t e r n a t i v e v o i c i n g o f h i s t o r y . l i k e b i g b e a r , who r e p e a t e d l y s t y m i e s governor m o r r i s ' a t t e m p t s t o c l o s e t h e c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e e d i n g s , wiebe f l o u t s t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ' measures t o r e p r e s s d i a l o g u e . h i s t o r y does not f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o s e p a r a t e epochs, a l t h o u g h c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f s o c i e t y have a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n p r o m o t i n g t h e myth t h a t i t does. i t i s a p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y t o p r o c l a i m t h a t any s t r u g g l e — w h e t h e r p h y s i c a l o r v e r b a l — i s o v e r , o r , by t h e same t o k e n , t o i n s i s t t h a t i t c o n t i n u e s . wiebe's p u b l i c a t i o n o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear i n t e s t i f i e s t h a t t h e c o n t e s t between r i v a l a u t h o r i t a t i v e v o i c e s and hegemonic languages c o n t i n u e s a hundred y e a r s a f t e r t h e d a t e o f t h e i r o f f i c i a l c l o s u r e . iv g r e a t d i a l o g u e a h i g h l y mutable and a t t i m e s c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between t h e a u t h o r and t h e n a r r a t o r s i n the temptations o f b i g bear, because wiebe speaks i n a d u a l v o i c e as " h a l f - b r o t h e r and h a l f - c a p t o r " ( ) o f t h e o t h e r v o i c e s which speak i n t h e t e x t . b a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f p u s h k i n ' s onegin o f f e r s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e d o u b l e d " d i a l o g i c a n g l e " o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e : the a u t h o r not o n l y r e p r e s e n t s t h i s language b u t i s a l s o i n f a c t s p e a k i n g i n i t . . . . a l l t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , w i t h a l l t h e i r d i r e c t e x p r e s s i v e means a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l , t h e m s e l v e s become t h e o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . . . . but a t t h e same t i m e t h e s e r e p r e s e n t e d languages t h e m s e l v e s do t h e work o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t o a s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e . ( b a k h t i n , - ) two degrees o f l i n g u i s t i c o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n may c o - e x i s t w i t h i n a s i n g l e t e x t . l i k e p u s h k i n , wiebe d i r e c t s h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n t o two d i s t i n c t p l a n e s o f r e f e r e n t i a l i t y t h e w o r l d o f n o n - v e r b a l f a c t s and t h e w o r l d o f l i n g u i s t i c f a c t s . on t h e one hand, the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r f u n c t i o n s as a p o l y p h o n i c h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e whose l i n g u i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y r e f l e c t s t h e d i v e r s i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e on a t h r e s h o l d between c u l t u r e s d u r i n g a t i m e o f r a d i c a l h i s t o r i c a l t r a n s i t i o n . on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e t e x t f u n c t i o n s as a m o n o l o g i c empire i n w h i c h s e m a n t i c a u t h o r i t y r e s i d e s w i t h a s i n g l e s p e a k e r . wiebe t e l l s b i g b e a r ' s s t o r y assuming t h a t few o f h i s r e a d e r s know much about t h e h i s t o r y o f western canada. he d e s c r i b e s b i g bear as "almost t o t a l l y unknown" ( v i i ). t h e r e f o r e , as wiebe s t a t e s i n an o u t l i n e o f t h e n o v e l , one o f h i s a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s must be t o "make c e r t a i n t h a t t h e n e c e s s a r y h i s t o r i c f a c t s a r e c l e a r " (rwp . . ). one o f two main means by w h i c h wiebe a c c o m p l i s h e s t h i s end i s by t r a n s c r i b i n g (and p r e t e n d i n g t o t r a n s c r i b e ) words spoken o r w r i t t e n by "a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w h i t e [who] h e l p s us t o see from h i s o r her a n g l e " (rwp . . ) . i n such i n s t a n c e s , wiebe must a l l o w r e a d e r s t o l o o k t h r o u g h t h e language o f t h e n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s , as t h r o u g h a pane o f t r a n s p a r e n t g l a s s , a t a w o r l d o f h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s h i t h e r t o unknown. thus, i n so f a r as wiebe h a r n e s s e s t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r s as an e x p o s i t o r y d e v i c e , he speaks r a t h e r t h a n o b j e c t i f i e s t h e i r language. the c h a r a c t e r ' s n a r r a t i o n f u n c t i o n s as " t r a n s p a r e n t " s t y l i z a t i o n , o r i n b a k h t i n ' s t e r m s , a " u n i d i r e c t i o n a l d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , u n o b j e c t i f l e d d i s c o u r s e o f a c h a r a c t e r who c a r r i e s o u t ( i n p a r t ) t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . when wiebe q u o t e s ( o r p r e t e n d s t o q u o t e ) p r e - e x i s t i n g u t t e r a n c e s f o r p u r p o s e s o f e x p o s i t i o n , he a d o p t s an a t t i t u d e o f p o l i t i c a l p a s s i v i t y . he eschews t h e r o l e o f a c t i v e c r e a t o r o f t h e t e x t i n o r d e r m e r e l y t o t r a n s c r i b e o t h e r p e o p l e ' s s t o r i e s . wiebe a l l o w s h i s n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s so g r e a t a degree o f autonomy t h a t i f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear p u r p o r t e d t o be a s c h o l a r l y h i s t o r i c a l t e x t , r e v i e w e r s would say t h a t t h e a u t h o r had not a s s i m i l a t e d h i s s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s s u f f i c i e n t l y . "why s h o u l d i r e w r i t e t h o s e documents, t h o s e d i a r y e n t r i e s ? , " he a s k s , " i don't need t o r e i n v e n t them.... he [ t h e p r e v i o u s s p e a k e r ] has, once and f o r a l l , s a i d i t " (neuman ). but as r o b e r t k r o e t s c h o b s e r v e s i n " u n e a r t h i n g language," wiebe does r e w r i t e t h e documents (neuman ). the p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s wiebe employs p l a y more t h a n a s i n g l e r o l e i n t h e t e x t . on t h e n o n - v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e , o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s f u n c t i o n as a medium o f e x p o s i t i o n (a s i g n i f i e r ) ; on t h e v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e t h e y f u n c t i o n as t h e o b j e c t of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (a s i g n i f i e d ) . wiebe g i v e s v o i c e t o two a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r : one v o i c e d e l e g a t e s o t h e r s t o t e l l a s t o r y , a second v o i c e makes a judgement on t h e s p e a k e r s . wiebe's d u a l o r i e n t a t i o n d o u b l e s t h e " d i a l o g i c a n g l e " w h i c h d e f i n e s t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s and t h e o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s . h e . s u b j e c t s o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s t o an ambiguous o r r a p i d l y a l t e r i n g degree o f o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n . p o r t i o n s o f t h e t e x t s t r a d d l e o r o s c i l l a t e r a p i d l y back and f o r t h a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r l i n e between p a r o d y and s t y l i z a t i o n as wiebe r e a l i z e s two d i s t i n c t a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s , one p u l l i n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n , a n o t h e r p u l l i n g a g a i n s t i t . from t h e f o r e g o i n g a n a l y s i s o f a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s ' s " i see" speech, i t i s c l e a r t h a t wiebe i n t e n d s r e a d e r s t o v i e w h i s language as a bounded o b j e c t . however, a c o m p a r i s o n o f wiebe's v e r s i o n o f t h e speech w i t h t h e v e r s i o n r e c o r d e d i n the t r e a t i e s o f canada c o n f i r m s t h a t on a n o t h e r l e v e l , wiebe uses m o r r i s t o t r a n s m i t a body o f b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l d a t a t o h i s r e a d e r s . wiebe l i t e r a l l y speaks m o r r i s ' s language, by a d d i n g d e t a i l s w h i c h make m o r r i s ' s summary o f h i s t o r i c a l events c l e a r e r , more c o n c i s e and more comprehensive. f o r example, wiebe changes " i met t h e crees a t c a r l t o n " ( m o r r i s ) , t o " i met t h e s a l t e a u x a t t h e n o r t h - w e s t a n g l e , t h e cree a t q u ' a p p e l l e , a t e l l i c e , a t c a r l t o n " ( ) . m o r r i s ' s "road" goes s i m p l y "by p e l l y t o c a r l t o n " ( m o r r i s ); wiebe changes h i s s o u r c e by a d d i n g "and on t o h e r e , f o r t p i t t , and t o w h i t e f i s h lake and on i n t o t h e f a r l a n d o f t h e chipewyans" ( ) . these d e t a i l s argue t h a t wiebe not o n l y o b j e c t i f i e s m o r r i s ' s p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e b u t a l s o h a r n e s s e s i t as an e x p o s i t o r y d e v i c e . the c a n a d i a n v o l u n t e e r s e r v e s as a second example o f t h e way wiebe b o t h o b j e c t i f i e s and speaks t h e language of a n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r . in t h i s i n s t a n c e , a c o m p l i c a t i o n a r i s e s because t h e v o l u n t e e r , a l t h o u g h a t t i m e s p a r o d i e d by wiebe, does much o f wiebe's work as a p a r o d i s t o f o t h e r speech g e n r e s . the v o l u n t e e r lampoons newspaper r e p o r t s , g e n e r a l m i d d l e t o n ' s m i l i t a r y t e x t book, fenimore cooper's f r o n t i e r romances, and t h e o f f i c i a l h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d o f e v e n t s : as t h e i n d i a n h e l d t h e p o s i t i o n w h i l e t h e g e n e r a l r e t i r e d , t h e c r e e k and v a l l e y were p r o m p t l y named "stand up c o u l e e . " i have seen t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t as i have seen t h e p l a c e and i d a r e s a y g e n e r a l s t r a n g e d e f e a t e d b i g b e a r — t h e enemy i s always l i c k e d - — b u t why t h e n d i d t h e g e n e r a l r e t i r e e i g h t e e n m i l e s t o f o r t . p i t t ? ( ) near t h e end o f t h e v o l u n t e e r ' s s e c t i o n , however, wiebe " p u l l s r a n k , " as i t were, on t h e v o l u n t e e r and c o n s t i t u t e s t h i s n a r r a t o r ' s speech as a c o n c r e t e bounded o b j e c t , a s i g n i f i e d o f a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e . the v o l u n t e e r r e l a t e s w i t h r e l i s h t h e h u n t i n g and t o r t u r i n g o f t h e m e t i s , p i e r r e b l o n d i n . t h i s anecdote f i n i s h e d , he sums up t h e e n t i r e campaign i n language w h i c h shocks r e a d e r s i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t ( i n c o n t r a s t t o wiebe), t h e v o l u n t e e r f i n d s t h e f a l s i t y o f t h e r e c o r d s l e s s l a m e n t a b l e t h a n l i f e ' s r e f u s a l t o l i v e up t o them: as a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i n t h r e e months o f war i don't t h i n k t h e m i l i t a r y a l l t o l d a c t u a l l y f i n i s h e d more t h a n t h i r t y maybe t h i r t y - f i v e o f t h e b a s t a r d s , b r e e d s and i n d i a n s p u t t o g e t h e r . the o f f i c i a l r e p o r t says e i g h t y - f o u r , b u t you know what you can do w i t h t h a t . ( ) a t h i r d example o f t h e s p e a k e r s ' d u a l r o l e s p o i n t s t o the importance of r e p e t i t i o n i n the temptations of big bear. edgar dewdney's analysis of big bear and the o v e r a l l h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n guides readers towards an understanding of the story as a whole. in f a c t , c r i t i c s have r e l i e d heavily on dewdney's u n o f f i c i a l l e t t e r , because he brings the i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t into focus. he offers many valuable insights into the issues at stake, the strategies and interests of the various p a r t i e s involved, big bear's character, and his h i s t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . dewdney's l e t t e r affords a c l e a r , synoptic view, which comes as rather a r e l i e f a f t e r several chapters where one f e e l s one cannot see the f o r e s t f o r the trees. however, dewdney unwittingly repeats some facts which readers already know, for example, that the indians are starving because the buffalo are dying out. at t h i s point, dewdney's language, hitherto a near-transparent medium, suddenly arrests attention and becomes wiebe's main r e f e r e n t i a l object. no longer oriented e x c l u s i v e l y towards facts which l i e outside the world of language, dewdney's discourse enters into combative dialogue both with big bear and with wiebe. their voices struggle against one another to confer meaning on the indians' starvation. wiebe r e g i s t e r s that big bear "began to hear children crying...he heard many children i n the north crying" ( ) with hunger. when dewdney speaks on the same t o p i c , what claims the reader's f i r s t attention i s not the f a c t of starvation i t s e l f , but the manner i n which dewdney d e s c r i b e s i t : our p o l i c e and agents have worked v e r y h a r d on t h e s t a r v a t i o n and d e v e l o p e d a w o r k a b l e system whereby t h e y g i v e out r a t i o n s f o r one day o n l y on a l t e r n a t e d a y s , b u t you w i l l n o t e t h a t t h e t o t a l c o s t i s s t i l l v e r y h i g h e s p e c i a l l y when you buy from l o c a l s u p p l i e r s . i n d i a n s a r e accustomed t o an a l m o s t p u r e f r e s h meat d i e t and i t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e how d e b i l i t a t i n g f l o u r and s a l t bacon a r e u n t i l you o b s e r v e l i f e i n a b e g g i n g camp. d e b i l i t a t i o n i s not o f c o u r s e a l l bad; f o r i t checks t h e i r d e s i r e f o r f i g h t i n g , but, you might n o t e t h e s c r o f u l a and d e a t h s t a t i s t i c s . ( i l l ) t h i s q u o t a t i o n from dewdney's u n o f f i c i a l r e p o r t i l l u s t r a t e s how v i t a l a r o l e r e p e t i t i o n p l a y s i n t h e dynamic o f wiebe's t e x t . whenever t h e n a r r a t i v e c i r c l e s back on i t s e l f t o r e p e a t a f a c t o f f e r e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h a t f a c t becomes a s i t e o f d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e between t h e i n d i v i d u a l s who g i v e i t v o i c e . r e p e t i t i o n , a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h e x p o s i t i o n o f "new" f a c t s causes t h e t e x t ( a t f i r s t r e a d i n g ) t o o s c i l l a t e between a m o n o l o g i c and a p o l y p h o n i c mode, as i t s h i f t s t h e r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n c o n s t a n t l y back and f o r t h between two p l a n e s o f r e f e r e n t i a l i t y , one i n t h e w o r l d o f n o n - v e r b a l f a c t s , t h e o t h e r i n t h e w o r l d o f language. the same p r i n c i p l e comes i n t o p l a y whenever a n a r r a t i n g v o i c e r e - a r t i c u l a t e s some p o r t i o n of> t h e knowledge t h e r e a d e r b r i n g s t o t h e t e x t from o u t s i d e . t h e r e f o r e , on t h e second and subsequent r e a d i n g s o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, when t h e r e a d e r a l r e a d y knows a l l t h e b a s i c h i s t o r i c a l d a t a , t h e e n t i r e n a r r a t i v e works i n t h e manner o f dewdney's r e p e t i t i o n . wiebe e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e r e a d e r ' s p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . he r e c o g n i z e s t h a t p e o p l e " l i v e i n t o " ( ) an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f words and t h e w o r l d . repeated r e a d i n g s o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r s h i f t a t t e n t i o n more and more t o w a r d s t h a t p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e where language i t s e l f i s t h e o b j e c t o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . l i v i n g i n t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear i n v o l v e s h e a r i n g wiebe's j u d g i n g v o i c e g r o w i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y - more dominant u n t i l i t a l l b u t drowns out t h e s t o r y - t e l l e r ' s v o i c e . the n o n - v e r b a l p l a n e o f r e f e r e n c e f a d e s i n t o t h e background. i t comes t o s e r v e as a s t a g e upon w h i c h t h e v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e t a k e s p l a c e . wiebe v i e w s h i s t o r y as a b a t t l e f i e l d where v o i c e s c l a s h and v i e t o c o n f e r meaning on t h e p a s t . r e p e t i t i o n a l s o t r a n s f o r m s c e r t a i n u t t e r a n c e s i n t o s i t e s o f d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e . one o f wiebe's f a v o u r i t e s t r a t e g i e s i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear i s t o r e p e a t a word o r a p h r a s e i n s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s t o r i n g a number o f changes on i t s meaning. f o r example, he r e p e a t s t h e t e r m "the good i n d i a n " s e v e r a l t i m e s , p a s s i n g i t from mouth t o mouth. "the good i n d i a n " f i r s t a p p e a r s i n governor m o r r i s ' s r e p l y t o b i g b e a r ' s f o r e b o d i n g o f h a n g i n g : "the good i n d i a n needed t o f e a r no i n d i a n law: t h e good i n d i a n now needs t o f e a r no queen's law" ( ) . i n c a s e r e a d e r s have not a l r e a d y h e a r d t h e common s a y i n g "the o n l y good i n d i a n i s a dead i n d i a n , " t h e c a n a d i a n v o l u n t e e r b r i n g s t h a t s a y i n g t o t h e i r a t t e n t i o n . coming a c r o s s t h e c o r p s e o f an i n d i a n w a r r i o r , t h e canadian v o l u n t e e r s a r d o n i c a l l y remarks "he i s a good i n d i a n now" ( ) . the v o l u n t e e r ' s u t t e r a n c e r e t r o a c t i v e l y d i a l o g i z e s m o r r i s ' s : i f "the o n l y good i n d i a n i s a dead i n d i a n , " m o r r i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e argument he i n t e n d s t o r e f u t e , f o r i f o n l y dead i n d i a n s a r e good, i t f o l l o w s t h a t o n l y dead i n d i a n s need not f e a r t h e queen's law: b i g bear i s t h e r e f o r e c o r r e c t i n t h i n k i n g t h a t a l l l i v e i n d i a n s do need t o f e a r t h e queen's law. a t h i r d v o i c e i m p a r t s a n o t h e r change t o t h e meaning o f "the good i n d i a n . " w i l l i a m mclean t e s t i f i e s a t b i g bear's t r i a l : " w e l l , some say t h a t t h e dead i n d i a n s a r e t h e o n l y good ones, b u t i n h i s l i f e i c o n s i d e r e d him [ b i g b e a r ] a good i n d i a n " ( ) . mclean c o n f e r s a m o r a l meaning on t h e t e r m "good," and i n t h e p r o c e s s he c a p t u r e s t h e v o l u n t e e r ' s u t t e r a n c e as a bounded o b j e c t . whereas m o r r i s equated "good" w i t h " t r a c t a b l e " and "law a b i d i n g , " and t h e c a n a d i a n v o l u n t e e r equated "good" w i t h "dead," mclean employs t h e word "good" t o r e f e r t o b i g b e a r ' s i n t e l l i g e n c e , h i s f a i r - m i n d e d n e s s , and h i s a t t e m p t s t o a v e r t v i o l e n c e a t f o r t p i t t and f r o g lake. a f t e r mclean's s t a t e m e n t i n c o u r t , t h e t e x t p e r m i t s no f u r t h e r changes t o t h e meaning o f t h e t e r m . as w i t h t h e word "peace" i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, and w i t h " g r a c e , " "god," and " c h r i s t " i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . wiebe redeems words w h i c h have f a l l e n i n t o p r o f a n e c o l l o q u i a l speech g e n r e s . a f t e r l e t t i n g "the good i n d i a n " l i v e a c o n t i n g e n t and s e m a n t i c a l l y p r o t e a n l i f e i n t h e t e x t , wiebe f i n a l l y shepherds t h e t e r m i n t o an a u t h e n t i c a l l y c h r i s t i a n speech genre, and p l a c e s "the good i n d i a n " under s e m a n t i c a r r e s t . the f a t e o f "the good i n d i a n " a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t s wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r i o r i t i e s . u n l i k e h i s p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , who use r e p e a t e d r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n t o c e l e b r a t e t h e i n f i n i t e s e m a n t i c openness and d i a l o g i c i t y o f words, wiebe's r e p e t i t i o n s work c o n s i s t e n t l y i n one p a r t i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n , towards r e c o v e r i n g o r redeeming a s u p p r e s s e d c h r i s t i a n v o i c e and meaning. that t a s k a c c o m p l i s h e d , wiebe c l o s e s o f f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r f u t u r e change. in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, as i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a , wiebe e x p l o i t s t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of words o n l y t o a r r e s t t h e i r s e m a n t i c e v o l u t i o n a t a n o t h e r p o i n t ; he a c t i v a t e s p o l y p h o n y w i t h an u l t i m a t e aim o f r e a l i z i n g a m o n o l o g i c r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t . as an e v a n g e l i c a l c h r i s t i a n , wiebe a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h an empire o f god's word. b a k h t i n ' s e s s a y , "the problem o f speech genres," o f f e r s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r e x a m i n i n g wiebe's i m p e r i a l i s t i c endeavour. b a k h t i n ' s t h e o r y o f p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y speech genres c r e a t e s an i m p l i c i t a n a l o g y between n o v e l s and p o l i t i c a l e m p i r e s : as i m p e r i a l i s t i c n a t i o n s s e i z e c o n t r o l o f h i t h e r t o i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l s t a t e s , n o v e l i s t s t a k e p o s s e s s i o n o f o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s , and i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e i r t e x t s . as a consequence, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s l o s e t h e i r - immediate r e l a t i o n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y and t o t h e r e a l u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s . . . they e n t e r i n t o a c t u a l r e a l i t y o n l y v i a t h e n o v e l as a whole. ( b a k h t i n , ) . wiebe embeds e x i s t i n g p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s o f r e a l p e o p l e i n h i s t e x t , q u o t i n g newspaper r e p o r t s , l e t t e r s , f r a n c i s d i c k e n s ' d i a r y , and b i g b e a r ' s t r e a t y document i n t h e s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e o f h i s n o v e l . as w e l l as o p e n l y q u o t i n g , wiebe s i l e n t l y i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s i n t o t h e t e x t o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear . he q u o t e s s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s not acknowledged i n t h e t e x t as " o t h e r , " f o r example, a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d a t a from d a v i d mendelbaum's the p l a i n s cree. in a d d i t i o n , wiebe a t t r i b u t e s c e r t a i n u t t e r a n c e s t o o t h e r s w h i c h he has a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n h i m s e l f f o r example, k i t t y maclean's " j o u r n a l . " whether q u o t e d o v e r t l y , o r t a c i t l y , o r f i c t i t i o u s l y , t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s become s u b j e c t t o wiebe's a u t h o r i a l w i l l as soon as he annexes them i n t o t h e empire of h i s n o v e l . wiebe d e s c r i b e s t h e aims o f h i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h s h i r l e y neuman and r o b e r t k r o e t s c h : interviewer: so t h i s d i s t r u s t [ o f o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y ] was p a r t o f t h e d e c i s i o n t o d r o p l i t e r a l , u n a l t e r e d documents i n t o the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and scorched-wood p e o p l e ? wiebe: yeah, i t h i n k once you have t a k e n t h i s a n g l e , t h i s a t t i t u d e o f t e l l i n g t h e m i n o r i t y s t o r y , t h e n you drop i n t h e m a j o r i t y documents and see how s t u p i d t h e y sound o r what k i n d s o f i r o n i c changes you can r i n g on them. i t ' s , amazing how i r o n i c i t sometimes becomes. e s p e c i a l l y when you know why i n s p e c t o r d i c k e n s was so l a c o n i c , f o r example. i mean, i f he s a i d t h r e e words more, he'd g i v e h i m s e l f away. h i s t o t a l incompetence, r i g h t ? he has t o be l a c o n i c . "bad w e a t h e r , t r a v e l l e d . " i t was l i k e he was g o i n g on a t r i p t o london.... i have a sense o f t r y i n g t o get a t t h e t r u t h o f t h i n g s - - i t h i n k t h e t r u t h s o f t h i n g s can be g o t t e n a t s t i l l — by s e t t i n g t h e diamond o f t h e document i n t h e a r t i f i c i a l s e t o f t h e f i c t i v e s i t u a t i o n . the diamond s h i n e s so much more c l e a r l y , i t shows i t s t r u e n a t u r e . (neuman , ) viewed i n t h e s e t e r m s , t h e "found" p o r t i o n s o f wiebe's n o v e l f a l l i n t o an o v e r t l y i m p e r i a l i s t i c c a t e g o r y o f d i s c o u r s e — p a r o d y . wiebe's a u t h o r i a l w i l l c o l o n i z e s t h e r e a l o r f i c t i o n a l p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e , a n n e x i n g i t i n t o t h e empire o f h i s n o v e l . t h i s r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n r e l e a s e s meanings r e p r e s s e d by t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r and by t h e f o r m e r c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e u t t e r a n c e was h e a r d . o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s f u n c t i o n as r e f r a c t i n g media f o r wiebe's m o r a l judgements. as t h e n a r r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r s t e l l t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s t o r i e s , t h e r e a d e r ( h a v i n g been o f f e r e d a m o r a l t o u c h s t o n e i n t h e e p i g r a p h ) can see t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s u n w i t t i n g l y condemn o r redeem t h e m s e l v e s , p r e c i s e l y as t h e y do on a second r e a d i n g o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a . wiebe o b j e c t i f i e s t h e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e o f o t h e r s , c o n s t i t u t e s them as bounded o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f h i s s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e , t h e n o v e l . wiebe's p a r o d i c s t r a t e g i e s e f f e c t i v e l y s u b v e r t t h e h i e r a r c h y o f v o i c e s whose g e n e s i s he r e c o u n t s . the temptations o f b i g bear d e p i c t s t h e r i s e t o dominance o f "white t a l k " i n t h e c a n a d i a n west. m e t o n y m i c a l l y , b i g bear's demise makes c o n c r e t e t h e i n s i d i o u s p r o c e s s whereby a p r o v e r b i a l l y " s i l e n t " p e o p l e a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y s i l e n c e d by t h e a l i e n white r a c e , who s i l e n c e a s p e c t s o f t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e p r o c e s s . i n , b i g bear's p r o p h e t i c v o i c e i s a tremendous c r y e c h o i n g o v e r t h e v a l l e y , and a g a i n w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ; as i f a g a i n and a g a i n i n any language t h e words o f t h e m s e l v e s would r e f u s e t o s t o p s o u n d i n g . ( ) nine y e a r s l a t e r , i n , b i g bear s i t s s i l e n t i n a s m a l l room packed t i g h t w i t h t h e words o f p r o t e s t a n t (orange) anglo-canada: t h e r e was n o t h i n g b u t t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f t h i s f r i g h t f u l orangeness t i g h t e n i n g , down on them, s q u e e z i n g him w i t h them i n t o one i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , t i n y squashed cube. ( ) l i k e t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t h e cree, t h e b l a c k f e e t , t h e s i o u x , and o t h e r t r i b e s a l l f i n d t h e m s e l v e s s u d d e n l y swept i n t o t h e a r e n a o f b r i t i s h i m p e r i a l and u n i t e d s t a t e s h i s t o r y . i n t h i s new c o n t e x t , t h e y f e e l t r a p p e d and m a r g i n a l i z e d i n t h a t l a r g e r s t o r y o f t h e white grandmother and t h e white f a t h e r , "those two who have d i v i d e d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i s between them" ( ) . time- h a l l o w e d a c t i o n s such as h o r s e - s t e a l i n g and s c a l p i n g one's enemies, a c t i o n s w h i c h f o r m e r l y s i g n i f i e d h e r o i s m and manhood, become c r i m e s p u n i s h a b l e by d e a t h . w i t h o u t t h e m s e l v e s c h a n g i n g , t h e i n d i a n s ' a c t i o n s and u t t e r a n c e s become f i r s t s e m a n t i c a l l y ambiguous and t h e n e n t i r e l y t r a n s l a t e d , as t h e a l i e n s o c i e t y p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n f o r c e s i t s i n t e r p r e t i o n s . "the queen's v o i c e " t r a n s l a t e s "good" i n d i a n s i n t o "bad." "what has become o f t h e f i r s t p e o p l e ? " ( ) b i g bear asks h i s f e l l o w c h i e f s a t c a r l t o n . the d r a m a t i c l a p s e i n t o s t a t i s t i c s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g b i g b e a r ' s g r e a t c r y answers t h e q u e s t i o n : t h e f i r s t p e o p l e and t h e i r g r e a t words have been c a p t u r e d and t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o mute o b j e c t s o f white knowledge. i f t h e y s u r v i v e a t a l l , t h e y s u r v i v e as p o l i t i c a l p r i s o n e r s i n t h e empire o f "the queen's v o i c e " and o f o t h e r forms o f p o w e r f u l "white t a l k . " d e s p i t e t h e i r c h a r i s m a t i c power, b i g b e a r ' s words remain p o l i t i c a l l y i m p o t e n t because whites c o n t r o l t h e r u l e s o f o f f i c i a l d i a l o g u e . whites d e c i d e on "the p r o p e r manner" ( ) o f p r e s e n t i n g " j u s t c l a i m s " ( ) ; whites d e c i d e whether e v i d e n c e q u a l i f i e s as a d m i s s i b l e o r i n a d m i s s i b l e i n c o u r t ; whites d e c i d e t h a t b i g bear cannot speak i n h i s own d e f e n c e u n t i l a f t e r t h e j u r y has r e a c h e d i t s v e r d i c t and t h e judge pronounced t h e s e n t e n c e . w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f communications t e c h n o l o g y and a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , h i g h l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l h i e r a r c h y , t h e i n d i a n s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s "under o r g a n i z e d a t t a c k and i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c d e f e n c e " ( ) i n a war o f words. but a c e n t u r y l a t e r , wiebe e n l i s t s t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f p r i n t t o p r a c t i s e t h e same a p p r o p r i a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s as t h e agents o f white i m p e r i a l i s m he d e p i c t s , a n n e x i n g o t h e r s ' words i n t o t h e domain o f h i s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l . " "the queen's v o i c e " f i n d s i t s e l f s u d d e n l y a b s o r b e d i n t o a m i c r o c o s m i c i m p e r i a l domain r u l e d by t h e word o f god, w h i c h r e l e a s e s b i g bear's words and a c t i o n s from t h e i r imprisonment i n v a r i o u s n o n - c h r i s t i a n and p s e u d o - c h r i s t i a n forms o f "white t a l k . " a l t h o u g h wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e h i e r a r c h y i n a u g u r a t e d by a n g l o - canada, he does not r e s t o r e t h e u s u r p e d n a t i v e h i e r a r c h y o f d i s c o u r s e s . in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear t h e a u t h o r i t y and meaning o f b i g bear's words depends no l o n g e r on t h e d i s c o u r s e s o f white law, a n t h r o p o l o g y , l i n g u i s t i c s , h i s t o r y o r commerce, and p r o b a b l y even l e s s on " a u t h e n t i c " i n d i a n r e l i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e . d e - c o l o n i z i n g o n l y so t h a t he may r e - c o l o n i z e , wiebe i n t e r p r e t s t h e meaning o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e and words i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e v a l u e s a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h o s e p o r t i o n s o f t h e b i b l e w h i c h a r e c e n t r a l t o h i s own mennonite b e l i e f . i n t h r e e s h o r t s e m i - f i c t i o n a l frame s t o r i e s , "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?," "bear s p i r i t i n a s t r a n g e l a n d , " and "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g b e a r , " wiebe r e v e a l s t h a t t h e enemy w i t h i n t h e t e x t s t a n d s f o r t h e enemy o u t s i d e t h e t e x t . wiebe s t r e s s e s t h a t h i s t o r i a n s , and i n d e e d a l l who speak and p e r f o r m i n t e r p r e t i v e a c t s o f any k i n d , occupy what b a k h t i n would c a l l t h e " c h r o n o t o p e " o f h i s t o r y . b i g bear and wiebe l i v e i n t h e same s t o r y i n w h i c h " u n e a r t h i n g " f o l l o w s i n h i s t o r i c a l sequence a f t e r " b u r i a l . " i n a l l t h r e e s t o r i e s , wiebe emphasises t h a t no i n t e r p r e t e r i s a m e r e l y p a s s i v e s p e c t a t o r o f h i s t o r y ; a l l l i v e i n a w o r l d shaped by. h i s t o r y , and must a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i r a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n h i s t o r y . i f b i g bear and h i s p e o p l e seem v o i c e l e s s i n canada's n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , t h e i r s i l e n c e does not r e s u l t from some s i n g l e , f i n i s h e d , i r r e v e r s i b l e a c t o f s u p p r e s s i o n c o n f i n e d t o a p a s t t i m e , b u t from s u s t a i n e d , i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d s i l e n c i n g mechanisms o p e r a t i n g i n wiebe's own h i s t o r i c a l present.. to l i b e r a t e the. " l a r g e r meaning" o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e from "beneath t h e g i a n t s l a g l e f t by t h e h e r o i c w h i t e h i s t o r y " (vl ), wiebe must do b a t t l e w i t h t h e same i n s t i t u t i o n a l and i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s as b i g bear f o u g h t a g a i n s t a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?," "bear s p i r i t i n a s t r a n g e land," and "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g b e a r , " document i n s e m i - f i c t i o n a l form wiebe's d u e l s w i t h t h e o f f i c i a l t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y c u s t o d i a n s of t h e p a s t . as w e l l as s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e " l a r g e r meaning" o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e i n t h e s u p p r e s s e d o t h e r - v o i c e d n e s s o f h i s t o r i c a l documents, wiebe a l s o seeks t h a t meaning i n o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s . f o r example, i n "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g b e a r " , wiebe l i s t s l e o n a r d b l o o m f i e l d , t h e l i n g u i s t , as one o f h i s s o u r c e s (vl ). b l o o m f i e l d ' s two major p u b l i c a t i o n s on t h e cree language, s a c r e d s t o r i e s o f t h e sweetgrass cree ( ) and p l a i n s cree t e x t s ( ), p r e s e r v e cree s t o r i e s not as s a c r e d t h e o l o g i c a l t r u t h s nor as a u t h o r i t a t i v e h i s t o r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t as a body o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l and l i n g u i s t i c d a t a . b l o o m f i e l d p r e s e r v e s t h e cree words t h e m s e l v e s v e r y c a r e f u l l y , b u t i n d o i n g s o , he a n n u l s t h e i r hegemonic power, changes r a d i c a l l y t h e i r s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s , and s u b j e c t s t h e i r meanings t o an a l i e n c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . from t h e i n d i a n s ' p o i n t o f view, t h e s t o r i e s d i e on t h e i r j o u r n e y a c r o s s t h e b o r d e r i n t o white c u l t u r e . b l o o m f i e l d k i l l s them i n t h e v e r y a c t o f r e s c u i n g them from e x t i n c t i o n . when wiebe • . - r e a p p r o p r i a t e s b l o o m f i e l d ' s d e s a c r a l i s e d " s a c r e d s t o r i e s , " however, he does not t r y t o r e c o v e r t h e i r o l d " a u t h e n t i c " s i g n i f i c a n c e . r a t h e r , he t r a n s l a t e s t h e " t r u t h " about b i g bear out o f one e u r o c e n t r i c v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l system i n t o a n o t h e r . wiebe s c r a p e s t h e s t o r i e s b a r e o f b l o o m f i e l d ' s i n f l u e n c e o n l y i n o r d e r t o i n c o r p o r a t e them i n t o t h e a n o t h e r i m p e r i a l i s t i c form o f "white t a l k . " in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, no l e s s t h a n i n b l o o m f i e l d ' s p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e cree s a c r e d s t o r i e s r e m a i n i m p r i s o n e d . wiebe a c c o r d s them s i g n i f i c a n c e o n l y i n so f a r as he can h a r n e s s t h e i r power t o a c c o m p l i s h h i s own d i s t i n c t i v e l y mennonite a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s . a s i m i l a r p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s i n t h e case o f b i g bear's s a c r e d b u n d l e , c h i e f ' s son's hand, t h e t a n n e d b e a r ' s paw wrapped i n many l a y e r s o f c l o t h w h i c h b i g bear c o n s u l t s whenever he needs d i v i n e g u i d a n c e . in "bear s p i r i t i n a s t r a n g e land," wiebe r e c o u n t s h i s arduous j o u r n e y i n s e a r c h of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s a c r e d o b j e c t , w h i c h he f i n d s housed, " n a t u r a l l y , " i n new york c i t y , i n t h e american museum o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . wiebe d e s c r i b e s t h e museum as a p r i s o n , r e p l e t e w i t h u n i f o r m e d g u a r d s , b a r r i e r p o i n t s , w i n d o w l e s s rooms, a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t i n g and bad v e n t i l a t i o n . s e c u r i t y i s t i g h t . v i s i t i n g hours a r e l i m i t e d . l i k e inmates o f a j a i l , t h e o b j e c t s a r e i d e n t i f i e d by s e r i a l numbers i n s t e a d o f names. the o b j e c t s a r e c a l l e d whatever t h e museum says t h e y a r e c a l l e d . they now mean w h a t e v e r t h e museum s a y s t h e y mean. t he museum has t r a n s l a t e d " c h i e f ' s son's hand" i n t o " . - a-m"; b i g b e a r ' s " s p i r i t g i f t " i n t o "the mendelbaum s m a l l e r s t u f f " (vl ). and t h e museum n a t u r a l i s e s t h e meanings i t imposes by r i t u a l i s i n g t h e v i s i t o r ' s approach t o t h e o b j e c t s , c o n t r o l l i n g p e r c e p t i o n and e n f o r c i n g " p r o p e r " p r o t o c o l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . the museum c o n s t r u c t s a s u b j e c t - p o s i t i o n f o r t h e v i s i t o r t o occupy. i t d e c l a r e s j o u r n e y s i n t o o t h e r n e s s s t r i c t l y t a b o o . white and cree r i t u a l s c o l l i d e f o r a moment i n wiebe's mind, s p l i t t i n g . h i s v o i c e and d r a m a t i s i n g t h e a m b i g u i t y o f h i s r e l a t i o n t o b o t h b i g b e a r and mendelbaum ( t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t who " r a n s a c k e d [ t h e s e ] r i c h e s o f p r a i r i e p e o p l e " (vl ) ) . wiebe speaks s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y as b i g bear's " h a l f - b r o t h e r and h a l f - c a p t o r " (tbb ). h i s v o i c e s p l i t s i n two: one v o i c e s h a r i n g b i g b e a r ' s b e l i e f i n a g r e a t s p i r i t — ( " t h e g r e a t s p i r i t who b i g b e a r , and i a l s o , b e l i e v e shaped t h e u n i v e r s e " (vl ) ) — w h i l e a n o t h e r v o i c e a d m i t s , " w e l l , i'm no p r i m i t i v e ; i c a n ' t d e f y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n " (vl ). p o l y p h o n y r e s o l v e s i n t o h i e r a r c h y , however, as t h e s t o r y n e a r s i t s end. wiebe i n t e r p r e t s b i g b e a r ' s l i f e , and can empathise i m a g i n a t i v e l y w i t h him, o n l y from w i t h i n a m e n n o n i t e b e l i e f system w h i c h p l a c e s supreme v a l u e on each i n d i v i d u a l ' s d i r e c t p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w i t h god. wiebe d w e l l s on t h e image o f c h i e f ' s son's hand p r e s s i n g on t h e back o f b i g b e a r ' s neck because i t makes c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a t h a t god " i s n o t f a r from any o f us" ( a c t s ) . u n l i k e more t r a d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n w h i c h m e r e l y adds a human i n t e r e s t element t o dominant contemporary h i s t o r i c a l m y t h o l o g y ( o r , as muecke would p u t i t , " c e l e b r a t e s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e p o w e r f u l i n t h e language o f t h e p o w e r f u l " [ b e n t e r r a k e t . a l . ] ) , wiebe's h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n c o n t r a d i c t s a number o f h i s t o r i c a l and o t h e r " t r u t h s " w h i c h u n d e r p i n s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e i n h i s own h i s t o r i c a l p r e s e n t . through p a r o d y and "hidden p o l e m i c , , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear r e p l i e s t o t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h i s t o r i a n s , l i n g u i s t s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , and e d u c a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r e s e r v i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i n g — o r as t h e case may be, r e p r e s s i n g — t h e p a s t o f what wiebe can c a l l "my p l a c e " (vl ). v h e t e r o g l o s s i a by p u b l i s h i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h e documented p a s t i n the temptations o f b i g bear , wiebe l i b e r a t e s t h e p r i m a r y e v i d e n c e from t h e dungeon o f a s i n g l e c o n t e x t . he removes t h e r e c o r d s from t h e c o n f i n e s o f r e s e a r c h l i b r a r i e s , museums, and a r c h i v e s .wjiere t h e y have been c l o i s t e r e d f o r many y e a r s , s a f e from t h e r a v a g e s o f t i m e and t o o much p u b l i c h a n d l i n g . i n i t s thousands o f c o p i e s , wiebe's n o v e l d i s s e m i n a t e s t h e documented p a s t i n t o a w i d e r p u b l i c domain, i n t o b o o k s t o r e s , l e n d i n g l i b r a r i e s and c l a s s r o o m s , where i t may r e a c h a more c u l t u r a l l y d i v e r s e a u d i e n c e t h a n t h e s m a l l band o f s c h o l a r s who u s u a l l y a c t as o f f i c i a l c u s t o d i a n s o f t h e p a s t . the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear d i a l o g i z e s h i s t o r y i n t h a t i t a b o l i s h e s " e p i c d i s t a n c e " ( b a k h t i n , ) by b r i n g i n g t h e p a s t i n t o t h e zone o f c o n t a c t w i t h t h e u n f i n i s h e d , open-ended p r e s e n t , where i t s meaning remains open t o n e g o t i a t i o n . i n "the a r t i s t as a c r i t i c and a w i t n e s s , " wiebe r e c o g n i s e s t h a t meaning comes i n t o b e i n g t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between a t e x t and i t s r e a d e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n cases where an a u t h o r s t i m u l a t e s " a c t i v e " u n d e r s t a n d i n g . p o t e n t i a l l y , meaning can m u l t i p l y i n d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e d i v e r s i t y o f c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h a t e x t i s i n t e r p r e t e d : there i s p r o b a b l y no such t h i n g as one a b s o l u t e , c o r r e c t meaning t o a work o f a r t . . . . i t s meaning depends on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e work o f a r t and t h e b e h o l d e r . t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n may be v e r y a l i v e o r a l m o s t n i l , d e p e n d i n g on such w i d e l y v a r y i n g f a c t o r s as t h e b e h o l d e r ' s knowledge o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n s used i n t h a t a r t . . . . a r t ' s e f f e c t on you depends a good d e a l on y o u r k n o w l e d g e — o r even on y o u r d i g e s t i o n . . . . among p e o p l e o f r e a s o n a b l y s i m i l a r background and e m o t i o n a l o u t l o o k i t w i l l a f f e c t them t h e same way. (vl ) the f u r o r e w h i c h e r u p t e d i n t h e mennonite community o v e r peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many t a u g h t wiebe how l i t t l e an a u t h o r can c o n t r o l h i s r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s , even when t h o s e r e a d e r s b e l o n g t o h i s own. r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous m i n o r i t y community. wiebe t e l l s donald cameron how v e r y q u i c k l y he came t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t e x t s t a k e on a l i f e o f t h e i r own once t h e y l e a v e t h e p r e s s e s and go o u t i n t o t h e w i d e r s o c i a l w o r l d : t h i s book has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h you any more, man. a guy s i t t i n g and r e a d i n g i t i n h i s own p r i v a t e l i v i n g room, t h a t book and h i m — t h a t o p e r a t e s by i t s e l f . (cameron ) p o t e n t i a l l y , t h e r e c o u l d be as many i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear as t h e r e a r e r e a d e r s o f t h e t e x t , because, as, m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t p u t s i t , " a l l u t t e r a n c e s r a r e h e t e r o g l o t i n t h a t t h e y a r e f u n c t i o n s o f a m a t r i x o f f o r c e s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o recoup" ( b a k h t i n , ). meaning comes i n t o b e i n g p a r t l y t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f " a n a c r i s i s , " t h e d i a l o g i c engagement between v o i c e s i n s i d e w i t h v o i c e s o u t s i d e t h e t e x t , b o t h o f w h i c h meet i n t h e psyche o f t h e r e a d e r . wiebe t h e r e f o r e f a c e s a c o n f l i c t o f a u t h o r i a l i n t e r e s t s . he wants t o l i b e r a t e t h e meaning o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e from t h e m o n o l o g i c a n g l o - c a n a d i a n h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , t h a t i s , from t h e meaning imposed on i t by- o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y . yet because t h i s d i a l o g i z a t i o n s e r v e s o n l y as a s t a g e i n a p r o c e s s whereby wiebe r e - i n t e g r a t e s b i g bear's l i f e i n t o an a l t e r n a t i v e m o n o l o g i c o r d e r , wiebe must d e a l w i t h t h e g u e s t i o n o f m i s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o r w r o n g - r e a d i n g o f h i s own t e x t . wiebe p u t s new e v i d e n c e about b i g bear's l i f e b e f o r e a j u r y made up o f a l l who r e a d t h e n o v e l . he does not want t h e meaning o f t h a t e v i d e n c e t o s p l i n t e r i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d c o n t e x t u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d r e a d i n g s . the i n t e r n a l h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f t h e t e x t e x a c e r b a t e s t h e danger of m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . when wiebe a p p r o p r i a t e s o t h e r s ' u t t e r a n c e s , he n e i t h e r e x t i n g u i s h e s t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n a l a u t h o r nor s u r r e n d e r s e n t i r e l y t o them. ( i n f a c t , wiebe's purpose i s p r e c i s e l y t o expose t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h o s e o t h e r s . ) so i t i s o n l y by m a i n t a i n i n g a p l u r a l i t y o f i n - t e n s i o n s . a h y b r i d i z a t i o n o r d o u b l e - v o i c e d n e s s i n words, t h a t wiebe can "compel them t o s e r v e h i s own new i n t e n t i o n s , t o s e r v e a second master" ( b a k h t i n , ). but i f t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s remain a c t i v e i n t h e languages o f t h e t e x t , t h e s e languages r e t a i n t h e p o t e n t i a l t o r e s i s t wiebe's a u t h o r i a l d o m i n a t i o n . wiebe's a p p r o p r i a t e d v o i c e s and languages do not submit p a s s i v e l y t o h i s c o n t r o l , f o r t h e y a r e a l r e a d y " p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( b a k h t i n , ). i n t h e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s i n which t h e y m i g h t n o r m a l l y sound, t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s and speech g e n r e s may e n j o y tremendous hegemonic p o t e n c y ; t h e y may embody an enormous i n v e s t m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l energy on t h e p a r t o f a p o w e r f u l f a c t i o n i n s o c i e t y w h i c h encodes i t s i d e o l o g y i n t h a t l a n g u a g e . t h i s power i s p r e c i s e l y what makes t h e s e languages so u s e f u l t o wiebe, and p r e c i s e l y what makes them so r e c a l c i t r a n t , so c a p a b l e o f r e s i s t i n g h i s p a r o d i s t i c i n t e n t . i f wiebe's p a r o d i e d languages a l r e a d y occupy a dominant p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e r e a d e r ' s p s y c h e , t h e y may s t r i v e t o bypass wiebe and speak d i r e c t l y t o t h e r e a d e r , e a r n i n g a p p r o v a l i r r e s p e c t i v e o f wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s . p r i m a r y genres want t o r e v e r t t o t h e i r p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s , and r e s i s t t h e m e d i a t i o n s t h a t r e s u l t from t h e i r h a v i n g been c a p t u r e d by t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i c s e c o n d a r y genre o f t h e n o v e l . to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e s e p r i m a r y u t t e r a n c e s do b r e a k f r e e from t h e c e n t r e o f a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a d d r e s s t h e r e a d e r d i r e c t l y , and c a s t o f f t h e i r secondary r o l e s , u n i t a r y s e m a n t i c o r d e r b r e a k s down i n t h e t e x t , and meaning s c a t t e r s c h a o t i c a l l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . the b r e a k i n g p o i n t , t h e p o i n t a t w h i c h wiebe's a u t h o r i a l "empire" d i s i n t e g r a t e s , depends i n p a r t on t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g l i n g u i s t i c o r i e n t a t i o n o f h i s r e a d e r s . meaning " i n " t e x t s does not l i e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n . w i e b e ' s c o n t r o l , b u t i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e way i n w h i c h r e a d e r s "hear" and a c c o r d w e i g h t t o t h e v a r i o u s languages o f t h e t e x t . to c u r t a i l t h e p o t e n t i a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f h i s t e x t , wiebe a t t e m p t s t o n e u t r a l i s e c o n t e x t u a l d i v e r s i t y by c o n s t r u c t i n g a f i c t i o n a l s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n f o r a l l r e a d e r s t o occupy. wiebe w r i t e s i n t o t h e n o v e l a s c r i p t f o r h i s r e a d e r s t o f o l l o w i n t h e i r d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e t e x t . to t h e e x t e n t t h a t wiebe d i c t a t e s h i s r e a d e r s ' d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t , he t r a n s f o r m s t h a t d i a l o g u e e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o a monologue, a p r o d u c t o f a s i n g l e a u t h o r i a l w i l l . wiebe "grooms" h i s a u d i e n c e , t e a c h e s them how t o p l a y t h e i r p r o p e r p a r t , by o f f e r i n g r o l e - m o d e l s i n t h e form o f k i t t y mclean, governor m o r r i s , and edgar dewdney. these c h a r a c t e r s , p e r f o r m a v i t a l f u n c t i o n as r e a d e r - and l i s t e n e r - s u r r o g a t e s . o n l y "the r i g h t l i s t e n e r " ( ) h e a r s t h e s o f t l a u g h t e r o f b i g b e a r ' s a n c e s t o r s a t o l d w i v e s lake. only t h o s e f l u e n t i n s i g n language u n d e r s t a n d b i g b e a r ' s " f i n g e r s w h i r l i n g under t h e j u r y ' s nose" ( ) . o n l y t h e r i g h t r e a d e r w i l l r e t u r n t h e d e s i r e d v e r d i c t o f " i n n o c e n t " a t b i g bear's posthumous t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y r e - t r i a l . k i t t y mclean a l e r t s wiebe's a u d i e n c e t o t h e m u l t i p l e l a y e r s o f v o i c e s , a c c e n t s and meanings i n t h e t e x t . s i t t i n g i n t h e r e g i n a courtroom a t b i g b e a r ' s t r i a l , h e a r i n g t h e d i s t a n t c r a n e s as i f t h r o u g h a c u r t a i n o f c l o s e r sounds, and t r y i n g t o see b i g bear t h r o u g h s e v e r a l l a y e r s o f superimposed o b s t a c l e s , k i t t y ' s c o n f u s i o n r a i s e s t h e i s s u e s of v i s u a l f o c u s and a u d i t o r y attunement: k i t t y c o u l d hear c r a n e s f l y i n g s o u t h , though she c o u l d not a c t u a l l y see them.... she c o u l d h e a r them p e r f e c t l y ; t h e i r squawky boom c r o s s i n g between t h e gaps o f words.... she f o u n d h e r s e l f t r y i n g a g a i n and a g a i n t o f o c u s b i g bear t h r o u g h t h e o u t s i d e edge o f t h e judge's egg-shaped g l a s s e s . . . . a g a i n and a g a i n she" pondered t h e p r o b l e m : what c o u l d anyone, even a j u d g e , see l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h a t . . . . she h e a r d a b s o l u t e l y e v e r y t h i n g anyone s a i d and t h e c r a n e s t o o , f o r a f t e r h i s t h u n d e r i n g l a u g h he t a l k e d t o h e r . s i l e n t l y , h i s hands moving... ( - ) l i k e sam reimer i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , k i t t y h e a r s beyond t h e dominant f o r e g r o u n d sounds i n her immediate m i l i e u . k i t t y ' s a t t e n t i o n jumps from one l a y e r o f sound t o a n o t h e r , showing wiebe's a u d i e n c e how t o hear t h e " o t h e r v o i c e d n e s s " o f t h e t e x t and r e a d a g a i n s t t h e dominant p a t t e r n of a c c e n t s i n t h e language. as w e l l as a c t i n g as a d e v i c e f o r s t a n d a r d i s i n g a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e , k i t t y mclean, t o g e t h e r w i t h a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s and edgar dewdney, a l e r t s r e a d e r s t o a p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s common t o a l l languages a t a l l t i m e s i n a l l c u l t u r e s . s h e r r i l l e. grace has a n a l y s e d wiebe's p r o s e i n terms of j u l i a k r i s t e v a ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between " s y m b o l i c " and " s e m i o t i c " l i n g u i s t i c f u n c t i o n s , t h e f o r m e r a s y s t e m a t i c code ("language as n o m i n a t i o n , s i g n and s y n t a x " [ q t d . i n grace ] ) , t h e l a t t e r a mode of communication i n t r i n s i c t o t h e phenomenon o f l a n g u a g e , o p e r a t i n g t h r o u g h " i n s t i n c t u a l and p r e - v e r b a l d r i v e s m a n i f e s t i n rhythm and i n t o n a t i o n , and ' a n t e r i o r t o naming'" ( q t d . i n grace ) . i f i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o deduce f r o m t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t t h e s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n i s c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c w h i l e t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n approaches u n i v e r s a l i t y , t h e n wiebe's main r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s , mesmerized by t h e phenomenon o f b i g bear's v o i c e , f u n c t i o n as d e v i c e s d i r e c t i n g a t t e n t i o n t o a u n i v e r s a l " s e m i o t i c " s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s , w h i c h u n i t e s c r e e - and e n g l i s h - s p e a k e r s , and runs as a common t h r e a d t h r o u g h a l l t h e d i v e r s e v a r i e t i e s o f e n g l i s h i n t h e n o v e l . i n scenes where t r a n s l a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , wiebe i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o t h i n k o f language as two s e p a r a t e modes o f communication, one c u l t u r e - s p e c i f i c , t h e o t h e r common t o a l l . the t r a n s l a t i o n p r o c e s s b i f u r c a t e s language, d o u b l e s i t s v o i c e as i t were, a l l o c a t i n g "sense" ( t h e i n f o r m a t i o n conveyed by t h e s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n ) t o one s p e a k e r , and "sound" ( t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n ) t o a n o t h e r . a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s c u s t o m a r i l y l i s t e n s t o i n d i a n s by f i l t e r i n g out t h e c r e e - s p e a k i n g v o i c e a l t o g e t h e r , so as t o hear t h e "sense" coded i n e n g l i s h , (which i s perhaps why " e v e r y cree had sounded t h e same t o t h e governor" ( ) : t h e y a l l sound l i k e p e t e r erasmus s p e a k i n g e n g l i s h ! ) but when b i g bear speaks, m o r r i s ' s o r i e n t a t i o n s h i f t s . he f i n d s h i m s e l f m y s t e r i o u s l y c o m p e l l e d t o l i s t e n t o t h e sound o f b i g b e a r ' s " u n i n t e l l i g i b l e " c r e e - s p e a k i n g v o i c e . the voice-phenomenon s u d d e n l y assumes more i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e coded i n f o r m a t i o n t h e t r a n s l a t o r ' s v o i c e t r a n s m i t s : m o r r i s "found h i s head t u r n i n g i n t o b l a c k n e s s , s l o w l y down t h e enormous s t r a n g e depths o f t h a t i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e v o i c e " ( ) . grace d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t wiebe s u b v e r t s t h e s y m b o l i c p r o c e s s and enhances t h e s e m i o t i c i n t h e t h i r s t dance and b u f f a l o hunt p a s s a g e s . in passages such as t h e s e , t h e r i g h t r e a d e r , l i k e a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s , e n c o u n t e r s a language a t once f o r e i g n and i n t e l l i g i b l e . k i t t y , t o o , f i n d s h e r s e l f a t t u n e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e s e m i o t i c l e v e l : where d i d t h o s e cree sounds come from, i had never heard...were t h e y words, t h e y were, sounds...as i f t h e h i g h o r a t i o n had m e l t e d i n t o c h a n t , o r d i r g e . . . t h e o l d man s t o o d w i t h a wide b l a c k h o l e i n t h e m i d d l e o f h i s f a c e and t h e sound coming out o f t h e r e . "what's he s a y i n g ? " papa's elbow prodded my knee. "what's t h a t ? k i t t y ! " but t h e r e was o n l y t h a t sound t u r n i n g i n my head. t r a n s l a t e what? ( - ) k i t t y c a n n o t t r a n s l a t e b i g bear's words because t h e y cease t o f u n c t i o n as words. b i g bear's v o i c e a c t i v a t e s a s i g n i f y i n g p r o c e s s whose u n i v e r s a l i t y r e n d e r s t r a n s l a t i o n e n t i r e l y r e d u n d a n t . a l t h o u g h b i g bear speaks a f o r e i g n language i n one sense, he a l s o speaks a language wiebe i m p l i e s i s common t o a l l humanity. b i g b e a r ' s language seems a t once a l i e n and c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . whenever t r a n s l a t i o n becomes u n n e c e s s a r y , i m p o s s i b l e o r i r r e l e v a n t , wiebe s u b t l y d i r e c t s t h e " r i g h t l i s t e n e r " t o an a r e a o f common l i n g u i s t i c ground s h a r e d by a l l humanity. wiebe s t r e s s e s r e p e a t e d l y t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e i s no need f o r t r a n s l a t i o n . everybody a l r e a d y speaks t h e same language: what he demanded was c l e a r enough from h i s g e s t u r e s " ( ) ; "papa u n d e r s t o o d g u i t e enough w i t h o u t t r a n s l a t i o n " ( ) ; " i t wasn't n e c e s s a r y t o t r y and say words, h i s tone t o l d me e v e r y t h i n g " ( ) ; "they were each s p e a k i n g i n t h e i r own language...though each knew t h e o t h e r c o u l d r e c o g n i s e o n l y an i s o l a t e d word, and f a c e t o f a c e . . . t h e y u n d e r s t o o d each o t h e r ' s meanings v e r y c l e a r l y i n d e e d " ( ) . a l t h o u g h t h e most c o n s p i c u o u s f e a t u r e o f t h e t e x t o f the t e m p t a t i o n s of b i g b e a r i s i t s s p e c t a c u l a r d i v e r s i t y o f l a n g u a g e s , wiebe uses r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s such as k i t t y , dewdney and m o r r i s t o p o i n t t o a l e v e l o f communication where a l l v o i c e s speak t h e same language. a g a i n s t d i v e r s i t y , wiebe weighs t h e i d e a t h a t a l l humanity s h a r e s a t l e a s t one common language, which t r a n s c e n d s t r a d i t i o n a l us/them l i n g u i s t i c b o u n d a r i e s and t h e r e f o r e needs no t r a n s l a t i o n . wiebe's e p i l o g u e from a c t s emphasises t h e k i n s h i p o f a l l humanity, and t h e s o u n d - q u a l i t y o f b i g b e a r ' s v o i c e , b r e a k i n g t h r o u g h r a c i a l and l i n g u i s t i c and b o u n d a r i e s , c o n f i r m s t h a t v i s i o n o f a u n i t e d s o c i a l w o r l d . the " r i g h t r e a d e r " h e a r s i n b i g b e a r ' s v o i c e t h e s i g n o f b i g bear's' humanity. the urgency o f t h a t v o i c e "would l e a p t h e e n t i r e man out a t them s t r i p p e d " ( ) . the s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n , f u r n i s h i n g p r o o f o f u n i v e r s a l human k i n s h i p , compels r e a d e r s t o a t t e n d t o t h e i r common bond w i t h — a n d t h u s t h e i r m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s - - t h e s p e a k i n g " o t h e r . " " wiebe's r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e s work as a p o w e r f u l m o n o l o g i z i n g t o o l w h i c h works b o t h i n s i d e and o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e x t . by d r a w i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e m i o t i c p r o c e s s common t o a l l t h e languages c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e t e x t , t h e y c o u n t e r v a i l i t s i n t e r n a l s t y l i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y ; and by h e l p i n g t o s t a n d a r d i z e a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e , t h e y l i m i t t h e e x t e r n a l h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e t e x t i n t h e s o c i a l w o r l d . vi a l t h o u g h the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear focuses, o s t e n s i b l y on a p e o p l e f a r removed from t h e m e n n o n i t e s , t h e i s s u e s wiebe r a i s e s , t h e c o n c e p t s he a p p l i e s , and t h e m o r a l c r i t e r i a he b r i n g s t o b e a r a l l d e r i v e d i r e c t l y from h i s mennonite w o r l d - v i e w . when wiebe goes back t o t h e p r i m a r y r e c o r d s he f i n d s b i g bear d i a l o g i z e d , and h i s a c t i o n s i n t e r p r e t e d by many c o n f l i c t i n g v o i c e s . but i n s t e a d o f t r a n s f e r r i n g t h i s d i a l o g i z e d b i g bear i n t a c t i n t o t h e n o v e l , wiebe o r d e r s t h e v o i c e s i n such a way as t o r a n k t h e p o s s i b l e meanings o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e i n t o a h i e r a r c h y , p r e s i d e d o v e r by t h e word o f god. the s t o r y o f t h e i n d i a n s ' f a i l u r e t o f u s e t h e i r polyphony i n t o m o n o v o c a l i t y can be r e a d as an a l l e g o r i c a l r e s t a t e m e n t o f wiebe's w a r n i n g i n "for t h e m e n n o n i t e churches: a l a s t chance" : l i k e t h e m e n n o n i t e s , t h e v a r i o u s t r i b e s r e f u s e t o r e c o g n i s e s h a r e d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f as t h e o n l y t r u e f o u n d a t i o n f o r s o c i a l u n i t y . they cannot put a s i d e o l d q u a r r e l s and d i f f e r e n c e s and see t h e m s e l v e s as "a p a r t i c u l a r p e o p l e from v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l i t i e s bound . t o g e t h e r by a f a i t h " (ppm ) . b i g bear a t t r a c t s wiebe's i n t e r e s t because h i s a c t i o n s a t f r o g lake r e a l i z e wiebe's mennonite i d e a l o f p a c i f i s m . in an o u t l i n e o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear d a t e d march , , wiebe e x p l i c i t l y d e f i n e s b i g b e a r ' s h e r o i s m i n terms of t h a t i d e a l : in c o n t r a s t t o s i t t i n g b u l l and c r o w f o o t , he [ b i g bear] c a r r i e d on a much more r e a l i s t i c campaign t o p r o t e c t h i s p e o p l e from t h e w h i t e s t h a n f i g h t i n g ; t h a n f u l s o m e s u r r e n d e r . h i s s t r a t e g y o f p a s s i v e r e s i s t a n c e has, i n t h e t h c. a t l e a s t , p r o v e d t h e o n l y t r u l y v i a b l e one t o b r i n g about change i n a democracy.frwp . . ] l i k e a l l wiebe's mennonite p r o t a g o n i s t s , b i g bear must choose whether t o l i s t e n t o t h e v o i c e s o f o t h e r men o r t o t h e v o i c e o f h i s god. when b i g bear r e f u s e s e a r l y i n t h e n o v e l t o be t o u c h e d by t h e h o l y w a t e r o f e i t h e r c a t h o l i c o r m e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r i e s , and a c c e p t s o n l y t h e r a i n t h a t comes d i r e c t l y from t h e o n l y one, he a r t i c u l a t e s t h e mennonite i d e a l o f d i r e c t p e r s o n a l communication w i t h god, u n h i n d e r e d by any i n t e r v e n i n g s o c i a l h i e r a r c h y . the a g e n t s o f a n g l o - c a n a d i a n i m p e r i a l i s m i n the temptations o f b i g bear i n t e r v e n e between t h e i n d i a n s and t h e i r god. p r i o r t o t h e coming o f t h e government, t h e i n d i a n s r e a d s i g n s o f the g r e a t s p i r i t ' s p r e s e n c e everywhere on t h e l a n d s c a p e . l i k e a s a c r e d t e x t , r e a d a b l e t h r o u g h t h e " q u i n t u p l e t s e n s e s " (vl ), t h e l a n d t e l l s t h e i n d i a n s " e v e r y t h i n g t h e y needed t o know" (tbb ) . r a i n , sun, r i v e r s , w i n d s , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e b l a c k b u f f a l o a g a i n s t t h e snow-covered p r a i r i e , s t a n d l i k e t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e o n l y one on a g i a n t page. but t h i s s a c r e d t e x t e x i s t s i n a s i n g l e , f r a g i l e copy. w h i t e s w r i t e o v e r t h e g r e a t s p i r i t ' s s i g n s w i t h t h e i r houses, r o a d s , f e n c e s , and s u r v e y o r s ' s t a k e s . the r i g i d s t e e l r a i l s o f t h e c a n a d i a n p a c i f i c r a i l r o a d c u t a c r o s s t h e p r a i r i e l a n d s c a p e l i k e a b r u t a l s l a s h a c r o s s a c a r e f u l l y w r i t t e n page. by w r i t i n g o v e r t h e i n d i a n s ' f r a g i l e s a c r e d t e x t , whites i n t e r v e n e between t h e i n d i a n s and t h e i r god. wiebe r e i t e r a t e s t h e i d e a o f white i n t e r v e n t i o n by h a v i n g governor m o r r i s " c u t o f f t h e sun" ( ) w h i c h s h i n e s d i r e c t l y on s w e e t g r a s s ' s f a c e . john m c d o u g a l l , on t o p o f a h i l l , s t a n d s between t h e body o f a dead w a r r i o r and t h e sky ( ) . l e o n a r d b l o o m f i e l d t r a p s t h e c r e e s ' " s a c r e d s t o r i e s " i n l i n g u i s t i c and a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e . d a v i d mendelbaum i m p r i s o n s b i g b e a r ' s s a c r e d bundle i n t h e american museum o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y . the hangman's rope chokes t h e s p i r i t u a l l i f e o f t h e i n d i a n s , who b e l i e v e d t h e s o u l r e s i d e s a l o n g t h e nape o f t h e neck. a l l t h e s e images have i n common t h e element o f white i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e i n d i a n s and t h e i r g r e a t s p i r i t . f u r t h e r m o r e , george and john m c d o u g a l l , a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s , and a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s who promote white i m p e r i a l i s m i n god's name, behave i n a manner i n i m i c a l t o t h e mennonite i d e a l o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n between c h u r c h and s t a t e . near t h e end o f t h e n o v e l , wiebe uses b i g b e a r ' s b a p t i s m , a c c e p t e d i n a s t a t e o f d e l i r i u m , t o s t r i k e an a n a b a p t i s t blow a g a i n s t t h e c a t h o l i c d o c t r i n e o f s a l v a t i o n by t h e sacrament o f b a p t i s m . menno simons h e l d t h a t " b a p t i s m on c o n f e s s i o n o f f a i t h a l o n e was s c r i p t u r a l " (bender ) ; t h e r i t u a l i t s e l f does not e n s u r e r e d e m p t i o n , because i t i s o n l y t h e outward symbol o f t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f s a l v a t i o n . l i k e t h e b a p t i s m o f i n f a n t s , b i g bear's b a p t i s m r e p r e s e n t s an empty t r a v e s t y o f t r u e b a p t i s m . i t does not s i g n i f y an i n f o r m e d , v o l u n t a r y , r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n t o a c c e p t r e d e m p t i o n from s i n t h r o u g h j e s u s ' s u f f e r i n g . c r i t i c s and r e v i e w e r s have i n g e n e r a l o v e r l o o k e d t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y mennonite elements i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear. d a v i d l. j e f f r e y a r t i c u l a t e s t h e p r e v a i l i n g v i e w when he says t h a t by s h i f t i n g h i s f o c u s from m e n n o n i t e s t o n a t i v e i n d i a n s , wiebe " p r o g r e s s e s from t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f one s u b c u l t u r e i n t h e mosaic t o a n o t h e r , as though by c h a p t e r s t o w a r d one l a r g e a n t h o l o g i c canadian n o v e l " ( ) . j e f f r e y speaks as though wiebe's " a n t h o l o g i c canadian n o v e l , " would embody a p o l y p h o n i c v i s i o n o f n a t i o n h o o d , as though wiebe's oeuvre g r a n t e d e q u a l v a l i d i t y t o a l l canadian v o i c e s . but as b a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s , o v e r t p o l y v o c a l i t y o f f e r s no g u a r a n t e e t h a t an a u t h o r r e p u d i a t e s a m o n o l o g i c c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l o r d e r o r m e t a p h y s i c a l t r u t h . c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e many v a r i e t i e s o f u t t e r a n c e c o n t a i n e d i n the t e m p t a t i o n s of b i g bear shows wiebe r a n k i n g canada's v o i c e s a c c o r d i n g t o a s i n g l e , e n t i r e l y c o n s i s t e n t s e t o f mennonite c r i t e r i a . wiebe views t h e c a n a d i a n mosaic from a f i x e d p e r s p e c t i v e , as i t were. moreover, he never l o s e s s i g h t o f t h e common g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c u s and t h e common humanity o f canada's heterogeneous s o c i e t y . when wiebe s h i f t s h i s f o c u s from one s u b - c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r , he s e a r c h e s a l w a y s f o r unacknowledged common languages and s h a r e d b e l i e f s w h i c h might form t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a common s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . even as wiebe's a t t e n t i o n s h i f t s from one s o c i a l group t o a n o t h e r , even as h i s n o v e l s r e g i s t e r an i n c r e a s i n g l y a c u t e awareness o f speech d i v e r s i t y , wiebe c o n t i n u e s t o a r t i c u l a t e m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n o f t h e w o r l d . notes to chapter : the temptations of big bear . one of wiebe's s o u r c e s i s john m c d o u g a l l ' s opening t h e g r e a t west ( c a l g a r y : g l e n b o w - a l b e r t a i n s t i t u t e , ). . in "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g bear," wiebe n o t e s t h a t "to'"'" commissioner i r v i n e o f t h e mounted p o l i c e he i s s i m p l y a t r o u b l e m a k e r , always demanding and never a g r e e i n g " (vl ). . see c o r a l ann h o w e l l s , " h i s t o r y from a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e : n a r r a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s i n the temptations o f b i g bear, j o u r n a l of commonwealth l i t e r a t u r e ( ): - , f o r an i l l u m i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f wiebe's c o u n t e r p o i n t i n g o f l i n e a r c h r o n o l o g y and e x p e r i e n t i a l t i m e . b i g b e a r ' s memories and p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n s i n p a r t i c u l a r e x t e n d t h e t e m p o r a l scope o f t h e n a r r a t i v e o u t s i d e t h e t w e l v e y e a r s between and . . u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , p a r e n t h e t i c a l page r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g i n c h a p t e r r e f e r t o the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear ( t o r o n t o : m c c e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ). . wiebe uses t h e s e words t o d e s c r i b e h i s s t r u g g l e t o f i n d b i g bear amongst t h e documentary r e c o r d s . see "on t h e t a i l of b i g bear," a v o i c e i n t h e land, ed. w . j . k e i t h (edmonton: newest p r e s s , ) . . ceremonies d i f f e r from r i t u a l s i n t h a t t h e y mark o f f one s t a t e o f h i s t o r i c a l a f f a i r s from a n o t h e r . r i t u a l s i m p l i c i t l y deny l i n e a r change by r e - e n a c t i n g a l i t t l e s l i c e o f h i s t o r y over and o v e r a g a i n . because o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f t i m e , t h e whites i n the temptations o f b i g bear m o s t l y h o l d c e r e m o n i e s , w h i l e t h e i n d i a n s conduct r i t u a l s . . cf. r . p . b i l a n ' s c l a i m t h a t n o t h i n g much happens i n t h e o p e n i n g scene o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r , i n h i s r e v i e w of the scorched-wood p e o p l e , . . see the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n , pp. - f o r b a k h t i n ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e rogue, t h e c l o w n , and t h e f o o l . . note wiebe's use o f t h e term "the v o i c e , " and h i s f u s i o n o f t h e i n d i a n s ' g r e a t s p i r i t w i t h jehovah. . at t h e same t i m e , however, few r e a d e r s would f i n d i t easy t o i g n o r e t h e g l a r i n g gap between m o r r i s ' s i d y l l i c v i s i o n and t h e h a r s h h i s t o r i c a l r e a l i t i e s o f l i f e under t h e white regime. as wiebe p r e s e n t s them, m o r r i s ' s words provoke r e a d e r s i n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g " a c t i v e l y " r a t h e r t h a n " p a s s i v e l y , " j u d g i n g t h e t r u t h - v a l u e o f m o r r i s ' s v i s i o n by t e s t i n g i t a g a i n s t t h e i r own knowledge o f subsequent h i s t o r i c a l developments. . the l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t changes f u n c t i o n o n l y t o add c o n c i s e n e s s ( f o r example, wiebe s u b s t i t u t e s "on t h i s ground" ( ) f o r m o r r i s ' s "on t h i s b r i g h t day w i t h t h e sun above us" ( ) ) ; and t o make t h e speech c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e new d a t e and f u n c t i o n which he a s s i g n s t o i t . a c c o r d i n g t o m o r r i s ' s r e c o r d i n the t r e a t i e s o f canada, t h e speech forms p a r t o f h i s o p e n i n g address t o t h e assembled i n d i a n t r i b e s a t f o r t p i t t o f september , . wiebe s h i f t s t h e speech t o a d a t e s i x days l a t e r . in the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear i t c o m p r i s e s p a r t o f t h e c l o s i n g ceremony o f september , a f t e r a l l t h e c h i e f s b u t b i g bear have s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y . . see. examples on pages , , , , - , , , and . . s i n c e m o r r i s a l s o speaks i n t h e name o f god, wiebe has i n e f f e c t d i a l o g i z e d t h e b i b l e and c o u n t e r e d m o r r i s ' s b i b l i c a l canon w i t h h i s own mennonite h i e r a r c h y o f b i b l i c a l p a s s a g e s . wiebe d i a l o g i z e s t h e b i b l e i n a second sense by a l l o w i n g c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s t o hear i t r e - v o i c e d i n t h e words o f b i g bear's d e f e n c e - s p e e c h . . b a k h t i n uses t h e s e words t o d e s c r i b e p u s h k i n ' s oneoin. . see "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g bear," where wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s anger o v e r t h e o m i s s i o n o f r e g i o n a l h i s t o r y from t h e s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m (vl ). . the o t h e r means i s t o o f f e r f a c t - a n d - f i g u r e summaries couched i n d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , as i n c h a p t e r s . , . and . . i n b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f y i n g system type i i i . l . c ( b a k h t i n , ). . see s h e r r i l l e. g r a c e , " s t r u c t u r i n g v i o l e n c e : the. ' e t h i c s o f l i n g u i s t i c s ' i n 'the temptations o f b i g bear," canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - , w h i c h d i s c u s s e s t h e same phenomenon from t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s . . see, f o r example, my own o p e n i n g s y n o p s i s i n t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r ; a l s o r o b e r t l e c k e r ' s emphasis on t h e l i n e and c i r c l e images t h a t p e r v a d e t h e t e x t , i n " t r u s t i n g t h e q u i n t u p l e t senses: time and form i n the temptations o f b i g bear," e n g l i s h s t u d i e s i n canada, (sept ) : - . . see a l s o s h e r r i l l e. grace's d i s c u s s i o n o f " n a r r a t i v e o f c o n t i g u i t y " and " n a r r a t i v e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n s " i n " s t r u c t u r i n g v i o l e n c e , " pp. , . . wiebe's remark t o r o b e r t k r o e t s c h i n " u n e a r t h i n g language," r e v e a l s h i s a t t i t u d e t o p o s t - m o d e r n i s t p l a y f u l n e s s : "bob, y o u ' r e always h o r s i n g around w i t h language! you t e n d t o use i t i n ways i n w h i c h i t i s not n o r m a l l y used. which i s a l l r i g h t , b u t a t a c e r t a i n p o i n t one g e t s c o n f u s e d and language i s no l o n g e r u s e f u l i n l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d " (neuman ). . e l s e w h e r e , b a k h t i n pushes h i s t h e o r y of s e c o n d a r y u t t e r a n c e s f u r t h e r towards i t s l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n , a r g u i n g t h a t a l l language a c q u i s i t i o n and use i n v o l v e s a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f o t h e r p e o p l e ' s words. e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l comes t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n a w o r l d a l r e a d y aswarm w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e ' s words, "words t h a t a r e a l r e a d y p o p u l a t e d w i t h t h e s o c i a l i n t e n t i o n s o f o t h e r s " ( b a k h t i n , ). to speak a t a l l , one must t h e r e f o r e s e i z e t h e s e a l i e n words and make them one's own. s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , each v o i c e a t t e m p t s t o i m p e r i a l i s e o v e r t h e p u b l i c language, t o c r e a t e a l i t t l e empire w i t h e v e r y u t t e r a n c e . . what wiebe c a l l s " i r o n y , " b a k h t i n would c a l l " h y b r i d i z a t i o n " o r " i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n . " i n t e r e s t i n g l y , wiebe's term "the m i n o r i t y s t o r y , " evades t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h m i n o r i t y s t o r y he i s t e l l i n g i n the temptations o f b i g bear. wiebe l i b e r a t e s b i g b e a r ' s s t o r y o n l y i n so f a r as i t p e r m i t s him t o a r t i c u l a t e h i s mennonite p o i n t o f v i e w . a second n o t e w o r t h y d e t a i l i n t h i s speech i s wiebe's s u b t l e s h i f t from " t r u t h " t o " t r u t h s , " w h i c h may be r e a d as a p a r r y o f an a n t i c i p a t e d a t t a c k by k r o e t s c h on h i s m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n . . i n c h a p t e r . , where john delaney makes l o v e t o s i t s green on t h e e a r t h , wiebe d r a m a t i s e s a b u r s t i n g out o f t h e o t h e r s u p p r e s s e d i n t h e white a n g l o - c a n a d i a n p r o t e s t a n t s e l f : " s a y i n g a n y t h i n g , e v e r y t h i n g , l e t t i n g pour o u t t h e words he r e f u s e d t o know c o i l e d and squirmed deep i n s i d e him...which he had not even r e c o g n i s e d a l l t h e t h r e e y e a r s t h e y were ramming up i n h i s t h r o a t b e f o r e anyone who would have u n d e r s t o o d them, p l u g g e d much o f him s p e e c h l e s s " ( - ) . . in rudy wiebe, where i s t h e . v o i c e coming from? ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ), - . a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n f o u r t e e n s t o r i e s h i g h , eds. d a v i d h e l w i g and tom m a r s h a l l (ottawa: oberon, ); the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e , ed. john m e t c a l f ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ); p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n s . ed. m i c h a e l o n d a a t j e ( t o r o n t o : o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ); h o r i z o n : w r i t i n g s o f t h e canadian p r a i r i e s , ed. ken m i t c h e l l ( t o r o n t o : o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ); modern s t o r i e s i n e n g l i s h , eds. w. h. new and h. j . rosengarten (new york: c r o w e l l , ); f i c t i o n o f contemporary canada, ed. george b o w e r i n g ( t o r o n t o : coach house p r e s s , ). . vl - ; a l s o p u b l i s h e d as " a l l that's l e f t o f b i g bear," maclean's (september ). . vl - ; a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n . , ( ) : - . . b a k h t i n d e f i n e s "chronotope" as "time space" ( , ) . . cf. m a r i a c a m p b e l l , who h y p o t h e s i s e s t h a t wiebe d i d not w r i t e b i g b e a r ' s g r e a t speeches h i m s e l f , but t h a t t h e s p i r i t o f b i g bear p o s s e s s e d wiebe and w r o t e them f o r him. see mandel, . . t h i s argument does not deny t h a t s i m i l a r i t i e s may e x i s t between wiebe's r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k and t h e c r e e s ' . wiebe's comments t o d o n a l d cameron ( q u o t e d i n p a r t i i o f t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r ) h i g h l i g h t h i s sense o f t h e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s , as does wiebe's image o f " i n t e r l a c i n g suns" ( ) i n the temptations o f b i g bear. wiebe a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e homophonic i d e n t i t y o f t h e "sun" and t h e "son," t o suggest t h a t on c e r t a i n p o i n t s t h e c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f - s y s t e m o v e r l a p s t h a t o f t h e cree; . wiebe a t t i m e s quotes mendelbaum a l m o s t word f o r word: "the s o u l e n t e r e d t h e body a t b i r t h and l e f t a t d e a t h . i t r e s i d e d a l o n g t h e nape, o f t h e neck" (mendelbaum ) c f . "the cree b e l i e v e t h a t a p e r s o n ' s s o u l comes t o him a t b i r t h and r e s i d e s a l o n g t h e back o f t h e neck" (vl ). . see b a k h t i n , - f o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f "hidden p o l e m i c . " . in w . j . k e i t h , a v o i c e i n t h e land. - . . b a k h t i n , - . . a r g u a b l y , t h i s i s what a c t u a l l y happened t o the temptations o f b i g bear, when r e a d e r s m i s s e d t h e mennonite p o i n t o f t h e s t o r y a l t o g e t h e r . h a v i n g been p u b l i s h e d a t a t i m e when n o r t h american s o c i e t y was engaged i n a massive e n t e r p r i s e t o r e c o u p t h e v o i c e s o f i t s s i l e n t m i n o r i t i e s , the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear was r e a d as an e f f o r t t o r e c o v e r t h e a u t h e n t i c cree meaning o f b i g bear's l i f e . such a r e a d i n g bypasses t h e e p i g r a p h from a c t s , w h i c h f i l t e r s t h e meaning o f b i g b e a r ' s l i f e t h r o u g h a b i b l i c a l system o f s i g n i f i c a n c e s . . bmc . . see grace - . . edgar dewdney a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e m i o t i c f u n c t i o n i n h i s l e t t e r t o s i r john a. macdonald: " b i g bear's v o i c e would be u n b e l i e v a b l e i n p a r l i a m e n t . the deep r i c h t i m b r e of i t a l o n e , f o r g e t a l l sense (so r a r e l y needed anyway) would d e v a s t a t e any o p p o s i t i o n " ( ). . wiebe s t r e s s e s t h e common humanity of whites and i n d i a n s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h donald cameron: cameron: how do you w r i t e from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f p e o p l e whose whole v i e w o f t h e w o r l d i s so d i f f e r e n t ? . . . wiebe: i t poses a l o t o f f o r m a l problems, b u t t h e r e a r e some human problems t h a t i t d o e s n ' t pose. we're so aware now o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r problems o f t h e i n d i a n s and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t w o r l d v i e w t h a t we f o r g e t t h a t t h e y ' r e human b e i n g s . i n e v e r y way t h a t ' s i m p o r t a n t t h e y a r e e x a c t l y t h e same as you and me" (cameron ). . see t h e many c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f b i g bear l i s t e d by wiebe i n "on t h e t r a i l o f b i g bear," vl . . p u b l i s h e d i n vl - ; a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g / (june ), - ; the mennonite ( j u l y ), - ; r e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d as " l a s t chance f o r m e n n o n i t e s ? : we must leave o u r m i d d l e c l a s s c u l t u r a l p a r a d i s e and s t r i v e f o r our s p i r i t u a l h e r i t a g e , " i n canadian mennonite / ( j a n . ), . ( e a r l i e r v e r s i o n p r i n t e d i n vl.) . page . . the f r o n t and back endpapers i n t h e h a r d c o v e r e d i t i o n o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear c o n t a i n maps o f t h e west i n and r e s p e c t i v e l y . the f i r s t map c o n t a i n s m a i n l y n a t u r a l , i r r e g u l a r l y - s h a p e d f e a t u r e s — r i v e r , h i l l s , l a k e s — a s p a r s e s c a t t e r i n g o f place-names, and o n l y one s t r a i g h t l i n e : t h e b o r d e r between canada and t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s . conspicuous on t h e second map a r e t h e b l a c k , s q u a r i s h p a t c h e s o f t h e i n d i a n r e s e r v e s , a g r e a t e r number o f p l a c e - names and s t r a i g h t - l i n e b o r d e r s , and t h e u g l y , s u t u r e - l i k e p a t h of t h e i r o n r o a d . but i n b i g bear's f i n a l v i s i o n o f t h e f u t u r e , "the f o r k s he r e c o g n i z e d unchanged" ( ) . the l a n d , l i k e a g i a n t p a l i m p s e s t , s t i l l c o n t a i n s i n t e l l i g i b l e s i g n s o f t h e g r e a t s p i r i t f o r wiebe t o r e a d . . wiebe a l t e r s h i s s o u r c e t o add t h i s i d e a o f w h i t e i n t e r v e n t i o n between t h e cree and t h e i r god. i n opening t h e g r e a t west, from w h i c h wiebe t a k e s t h i s scene, j o h n m c d o u g a l l mentions o n l y " s t a n d i n g b e s i d e t h e dead w a r r i o r " ( ) . wiebe has m c d o u g a l l " s t a n d w i t h one f o o t on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e dead w a r r i o r " ( ) . . wiebe l e a v e s no room f o r doubt t h a t b i g b e a r r e t a i n s h i s t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . moments b e f o r e b i g bear l i e s down t o d i e ("to f i n i s h t h e l o n g p r a y e r t o the o n l y one t h a t was h i s l i f e " [ ] ) , h o r s e c h i l d hangs c h i e f ' s son's hand around h i s f a t h e r ' s neck, and b i g bear " f e l t a warm w e i g h t a g a i n s t h i s s o u l . . . . such h a p p i n e s s broke up i n him" ( ) . . b a k h t i n , . chapter : the scorched-wood people f r e e d i n t o c e r t a i n bondage i i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , wiebe t e l l s t h e s t o r y o f t h e m e t i s l e a d e r l o u i s r i e l and t h e s o - c a l l e d r e b e l l i o n s a t red r i v e r i n - and on t h e saskatchewan i n . wiebe's r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s well-known c h a p t e r i n western canadian h i s t o r y i s p r e d i c a t e d on h i s b e l i e f t h a t "the fundamental freedom o f any p e o p l e i s n e i t h e r p o l i t i c a l nor economic, i t i s s p i r i t u a l " (vl ). the m e t i s ' s t r u g g l e b e g i n s as a f i g h t f o r p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , economic autonomy, and l a n d r i g h t s , b u t i t ends as a c r i s i s o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . r i e l b e g i n s as a man o f peace, a word-man r a t h e r t h a n a b u l l e t - m a n : "people have words; t h e y don't have t o k i l l each o t h e r ! " (swp ) . but t h e l i e s and t r i c k e r y o f s i r john a. macdonald, and t h e p r i e s t s ' r e f u s a l t o i n t e r v e n e i n p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s , cause r i e l t o d e s p a i r i n t h e power o f words t o overcome t h e f o r c e s o f o p p r e s s i o n t h a t b e s i e g e h i s p e o p l e . "to t h o s e who w i l l not l i s t e n t o words," r i e l d e c l a i m s , "guns must speak" ( ) . but as r i e l ' s p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f t h e p e a c e f u l , e d e n i c new n a t i o n c r y s t a l l i s e s more and more c l e a r l y , wiebe shows t h a t r i e l ' s "war o f e x t e r m i n a t i o n " ( ) c o n t r a v e n e s t h e i d e a l s o f peace and l o v e he s t r u g g l e s t o r e a l i z e . nor does t h e c a n a d i a n government escape wiebe's vehement condemnation. a l t h o u g h p u r p o r t i n g t o c o n d u c t i t s a f f a i r s under t h e motto "god and my r i g h t " ( ) , t h e j u d i c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s show a f l a g r a n t d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e j u r y ' s r e g u e s t t h a t r i e l r e c e i v e t h e mercy o f t h e crown. wiebe's m a n u s c r i p t n o t e s show t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d many a l t e r n a t i v e t i t l e s f o r t h i s n o v e l . t h e one he s e l e c t e d d e r i v e s from t h e f r e n c h t e r m " b o i s - b r u l e s , " t h e name t h e m e t i s f i r s t chose t o i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as a d i s t i n c t community. a memorandum amongst wiebe's m a n u s c r i p t s s t a t e s t h a t " ' b o i s b r f l l e ' i s b e s t t r a n s l a t e d as ' s c o r c h e d wood' a s , f o r example, t h e wood l e f t s t a n d i n g a f t e r a f o r e s t f i r e . " as w e l l as r e s t o r i n g t h e m e t i s ' former name, t h e t i t l e o f t h e n o v e l c a r r i e s b r o a d e r c o n n o t a t i o n s o f s u r v i v a l and p o s s i b l e r e g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r a p p a r e n t a n n i h i l a t i o n . a l t h o u g h t h e l o s t " r e b e l l i o n s " l e a v e t h e m e t i s p e o p l e " c r u s h e d " ( ) e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y , wiebe's s t o r y o f f e r s a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r r e b u i l d i n g communal s e l f h o o d and s p i r i t u a l l i f e . the i d e a o f r e n e w a l a p p l i e s a l s o t o t h e p r o c e s s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p a s t . r i e l was f o u n d g u i l t y o f h i g h t r e a s o n and e x e c u t e d i n , b u t t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r i n g t h e meaning o f " h i s body on t h e end o f t h a t rope" ( ) s t i l l c o n t i n u e s . the scorched-wood p e o p l e . wiebe's most e x p l i c i t l y p o l e m i c a l n o v e l , p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y . l i k e the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear . the scorched-wood p e o p l e re-opens a c o u r t case c l o s e d o f f i c i a l l y many y e a r s ago. wiebe e n l i s t s r e a d e r s t o p e r f o r m j u r y d u t y , and i n s t r u c t s them t o judge r i e l ' s and t h e government's a c t i o n s and words i n t h e l i g h t o f mennonite m o r a l i t y , not canadian law. wiebe d e p a r t s i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e from t h e p o l y p h o n i c n a r r a t i v e modes d e v e l o p e d i n h i s two p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , and a d o p t s a form c o n v e n t i o n a l l y known as " d r a m a t i c monologue." the e p i g r a p h t o t h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f t h e n o v e l , "and who has made t h i s song?/ who e l s e b u t good p i e r r e f a l c o n . " i n v i t e s r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e t h e y hear t h e e n t i r e s t o r y from t h e mouth o f a h i s t o r i c a l l y a u t h e n t i c m e t i s b a r d , p i e r r e f a l c o n . but w h i l e t h e e p i l o g u e f o r m a l l y c l a s s i f i e s the scorched-wood p e o p l e as d r a m a t i c monologue, wiebe a c t i v a t e s d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s i n t h e t e x t . c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e mutable, ambiguous r e l a t i o n s between t h e v o i c e s o f t h e a u t h o r , t h e n a r r a t o r , t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s and t h e r e a d e r s y i e l d s ample e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t b a k h t i n ' s c l a i m t h a t " c o m p o s i t i o n a l forms i n and o f t h e m s e l v e s do not y e t r e s o l v e t h e q u e s t i o n o f d i s c o u r s e t y p e " ( , ). the d r a m a t i c monologue form does n o t i n i t s e l f e l i m i n a t e l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y from t h e n o v e l . a l t h o u g h wiebe's manner o f m a r k i n g t h e b o r d e r l i n e between v o i c e zones d i f f e r s from t h a t used i n h i s two p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , t h e t e x t o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e s e r v e s n o n e t h e l e s s as a m e e t i n g p l a c e f o r many v o i c e s . wiebe o r g a n i s e s t h e v o i c e s i n t o a new c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , a c c o r d i n g t o a. p r i n c i p l e o f embedding r a t h e r t h a n one o f j u x t a p o s i t i o n o r s y n c r i s i s as used i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a and the temptations o f b i g b e a r . the t e x t o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e r e s e m b l e s a c h i n e s e box o f v o i c e s w i t h i n v o i c e s w i t h i n v o i c e s . as a r e s u l t o f t h i s p r a c t i c e o f embedding, i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n becomes more p e r v a s i v e and more complex t h a n i n any o f wiebe's o t h e r n o v e l s . the i n t e n t i o n s o f two, t h r e e , f o u r o f f i v e a u t h o r s may come t o g e t h e r w i t h i n t h e a r e n a o f an u t t e r a n c e . the u t t e r a n c e i t s e l f t h u s becomes " m e t i s , " m u l t i - a c c e n t u a l , a s i t e o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , as s e v e r a l a u t h o r i a l w i l l s compete t o c o n t r o l i t s meaning. w i t h i n t h e space o f t h e v e r b a l s i g n , as i n t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n o f t h e north-west, d i s p a r a t e v o i c e s c o - e x i s t i n a f l u c t u a t i n g s t a t e o f harmony, f o r g i n g and b r e a k i n g a l l i a n c e s w i t h one a n o t h e r , c l a s h i n g and t h e n making peace, p r e c i s e l y as do t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f r i e l ' s " s t r a n g e e m p i r e . " t h i s v i e w o f t h e t e x t does not deny t h a t t h e f i n a l t h r u s t o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e i s r h e t o r i c a l and m o n o l o g i c . i t does, however, c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e p r e v a i l i n g c r i t i c a l v i e w t h a t wiebe uses f a l c o n and r i e l s i m p l y and i n v a r i a b l y as spokesmen f o r h i s own o p i n i o n s . w. j . k e i t h s u g g e s t s t h e r e i s a " c o a l e s c i n g o f t h e v i e w p o i n t s o f a u t h o r , n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t " ( a, ). to a d e g r e e , t h i s c l a i m has v a l i d i t y . on some q u e s t i o n s , t h e a u t h o r , t h e n a r r a t o r and t h e p r o t a g o n i s t do speak i n u n i s o n a g a i n s t common f o e s . as sam s o l e c k i a r g u e s , wiebe a l i g n s h i m s e l f w i t h f a l c o n and r i e l w i t h t h e aim o f engaging i n b a t t l e on two " c o n t e s t a t i o n a l f r o n t s " ( ) . the a u t h o r , n a r r a t o r and p r o t a g o n i s t speak t o g e t h e r as n a t i v e s o f western canada and as c h r i s t i a n s , t o v o i c e a c o n c e r t e d c h a l l e n g e t o t h e o f f i c i a l , o n t a r i o - c e n t r e d , s e c u l a r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e " r i e l r e b e l l i o n s . " however, such a r e a d i n g u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e degree and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e ; i t f a i l s t o t a k e f u l l a c c o u n t o f wiebe's r e f r a c t i v e , o f t e n c i r c u i t o u s manner o f a d d r e s s . wiebe, f a l c o n and r i e l do not r e a c h a consensus on e v e r y i s s u e . on some q u e s t i o n s t h e i r v o i c e s b r e a k a p a r t and e n t e r i n t o c o n f l i c t . monologism b r e a k s down f u r t h e r because r i e l ' s v o i c e , w h i c h dominates t h e t e x t , s p l i t s i n t o two: a t h u n d e r i n g "old testament v o i c e " and a g e n t l e r , more r e s i g n e d "new testament v o i c e . " moreover, numerous v o i c e s , a s i d e from r i e l ' s , c l a i m a t t e n t i o n i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , and t h e r o l e o f t h e s e "minor" v o i c e s s h o u l d not be u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . on t h e q u e s t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e embedded u t t e r a n c e s o f minor c h a r a c t e r s , a l l u d i n g t o passages from t h e new testament, e x e r t d i a l o g i c r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t r i e l ' s "old testament v o i c e . " c l e a r l y , a l t h o u g h the scorched-wood p e o p l e e f f e c t s a s h i f t from a p o l y p h o n i c t o a m o n o l o g i c n a r r a t i v e form, wiebe e l i m i n a t e s n e i t h e r speech d i v e r s i t y nor d i a l o g u e from t h e t e x t . the d i a l o g i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e n o v e l r e w a r d d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n not because t h e y r e v e r s e t h e o v e r a l l monologism o f t h e t e x t , b u t because l e a v i n g them out o f a c c o u n t l e a d s t o a s e r i o u s m i s c a l c u l a t i o n o f where wiebe's a u t h o r i a l v o i c e comes from. i i two a c c e n t u a l systems c o - e x i s t i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , sometimes r e i n f o r c i n g each o t h e r , a t o t h e r t i m e s c o n f l i c t i n g . wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding each s p e a k e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s w i t h i n u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r s p e a k e r s a u t o m a t i c a l l y r a n k s t h e v o i c e s i n t o what m i g h t be c a l l e d a c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . a t t h e same t i m e , wiebe i n v o k e s a second c r i t e r i o n f o r r a n k i n g t h e v o i c e s i n t h e t e x t : t h o s e passages from j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount w h i c h encode t h e c e n t r a l t e n e t s o f mennonite m o r a l i t y . wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding d e s e r v e s d e t a i l e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n , f o r i t a c t i v a t e s t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e two a c c e n t u a l systems. the scorched-wood p e o p l e c o n s i s t s o f wiebe's a u t h o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , w h i c h a l l e g e d l y c o n s i s t s o f f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t i o n , w h i c h i n t u r n c o n t a i n s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s i n c l u d i n g r i e l , whose v o i c e dominates t h e t e x t and c o n t a i n s t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f numerous o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s . by u s i n g p i e r r e f a l c o n as n a r r a t o r , and a l l o w i n g r i e l ' s v o i c e t o t r a n s m i t t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , wiebe adds e x t r a t i e r s t o t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " ( b a k h t i n , ) between t h e a u t h o r and t h e c h a r a c t e r s . on each o f t h e s e l e v e l s , t h e f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e forms a c o n t e x t f o r t h e framed u t t e r a n c e . i t m e d i a t e s between t h e framed u t t e r a n c e and t h e r e a d e r , d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e a d e r ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e words r e p o r t e d . the f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e s u b o r d i n a t e s t h e framed u t t e r a n c e by e x h i b i t i n g i t as a r e i f i e d , bounded o b j e c t . i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e v o i c e s l o w e s t on t h e h i e r a r c h y e n j o y t h e l e a s t p o l i t i c a l autonomy, because t h e i r words a r e c o l o n i z e d s e v e r a l t i m e s o v e r by a l l t h e s p e a k e r s who r e p o r t t h e i r words. t h e r e f o r e , t h e f u r t h e r removed a c h a r a c t e r s t a n d s from t h e a u t h o r on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , t h e more compounded t h e h y b r i d i z a t i o n o f h i s o r h e r d i s c o u r s e . not two, b u t t h r e e o r more a u t h o r s might e x p r e s s t h e i r s e p a r a t e i n t e n t i o n s i n t h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y s u b o r d i n a t e u t t e r a n c e s . a t t h e t o p o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e , " t h i s h i e r a r c h i c a l power s t r u c t u r e i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n wiebe's p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h f a l c o n . b o t h l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y s p e a k i n g , wiebe d i c t a t e s f a l c o n ' s monologue t o make i t s e r v e wiebe's own r h e t o r i c a l and p o l e m i c a l p u r p o s e s . wiebe p o s t u l a t e s an a u d i e n c e w h i c h c u s t o m a r i l y sees m e t i s s o c i e t y from a d i s t a n c e d , e x t e r n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t p r e c l u d e s an e m p a t h e t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s . he t h e r e f o r e e n l i s t s p i e r r e f a l c o n , a member o f t h e m e t i s community, t o b u i l d a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e r e a d e r ' s empathy. f a l c o n l e n d s t h e s t o r y an "immediacy and c r e d i b i l i t y t h a t o n l y an i n d i v i d u a l — a n d , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , a m e t i s — w i t n e s s c o u l d p r o v i d e ( k e i t h a, ) . he l e a d s wiebe's p o s i t e d a u d i e n c e a c r o s s t h e " u n t o u c h a b l e d i v i d e o f w i l d e r n e s s and b l o o d " ( ) , t o immerse them i m a g i n a t i v e l y i n t h e m e t i s ' w o r l d . wiebe cannot p r o v i d e r i e l and t h e m e t i s w i t h a j u r y o f t h e i r p e e r s , b u t he can compel r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e how t h e y t h e m s e l v e s might r e a c t i f c o n f r o n t e d , l i k e t h e m e t i s , w i t h t h e d u p l i c i t y o f s i r john a. macdonald, t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y laws and p o l i c i e s o f t h e dominion government, and t h e f a n a t i c a l i n t e r - r a c i a l h a t r e d and v i o l e n c e o f o n t a r i o ' s orangemen. w i t h f a l c o n ' s a i d , wiebe a l l o w s t h e j u r y o f r e a d e r s not o n l y t o know about "the c o n d i t i o n s . . . t h a t n e c e s s i t a t e d our a c t i o n s " ( ) , b u t a l s o t o f e e l w i t h r i e l and t h e m e t i s . wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s dominate f a l c o n ' s d i s c o u r s e t o so g r e a t an e x t e n t t h a t d r a m a t i c monologue l a p s e s i n t o d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l monologue. when, as k e i t h o b s e r v e s , " f a l c o n ' s i n d i v i d u a l p r e s e n c e f a d e s f o r pages a t a t i m e " ( a, ) , t h e a u t h o r t a k e s o v e r t h e n a r r a t o r i a l f u n c t i o n . t r a n s l a t i n g k e i t h ' s o b s e r v a t i o n i n t o t h e language o f b a k h t i n , one may say t h a t wiebe r e f r a i n s from o b j e c t i f y i n g t h e v o i c e o f h i s n a r r a t o r . b a k h t i n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f turgenev's skaz p r o v e s e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o wiebe's m i n i m a l o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f f a l c o n ' s v o i c e i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e : both t h e n a r r a t e d s t o r y and even pure skaz may l o s e a l l t r a c e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y and become d i r e c t a u t h o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , e x p r e s s i n g w i t h o u t m e d i a t i o n t h e a u t h o r ' s i n t e n t i o n . . . . when i n t r o d u c i n g a n a r r a t o r , - turgenev i n most i n s t a n c e s makes no a t t e m p t t o s t y l i z e a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s d i s t i n c t l y i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l manner o f s t o r y t e l l i n g . the s t o r y . . . i s n a r r a t e d by an i n t e l l i g e n t and l i t e r a r y man o f turgenev's own c i r c l e . thus would turgenev h i m s e l f have spoken, and spoken o f t h e most s e r i o u s m a t t e r s i n . h i s own l i f e . there i s no o r i e n t a t i o n here towards a s o c i a l l y f o r e i g n skaz t o n e , nor t o w a r d s a s o c i a l l y f o r e i g n manner o f s e e i n g and c o n v e y i n g what i s seen. there i s a l s o no o r i e n t a t i o n towards any i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c manner. turgenev's skaz s i g n i f i e s autonomously; t h e r e i s one v o i c e i n i t and t h i s v o i c e d i r e c t l y e x p r e s s e s t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r . ( , ) c u s t o m a r i l y , d r a m a t i c monologue c r e a t e s o n l y t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t a s i n g l e v o i c e s p e a k s ; i n wiebe's hands t h e i l l u s i o n comes c l o s e t o b e i n g a r e a l i t y . in the s c o r c h e d - wood p e o p l e . wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s so dominate p i e r r e f a l c o n ' s d i s c o u r s e t h a t t h e n a r r a t o r has v e r y l i t t l e language o f h i s own. wiebe i d e n t i f i e s f a l c o n as s o c i a l l y a l i e n i n o n l y one r e s p e c t . e x p l e t i v e s such as "god be p r a i s e d " ( ) , "by my s a i n t e d f a t h e r " ( ) , and "god g r a n t i t " ( ) remind r e a d e r s o f f a l c o n ' s roman c a t h o l i c i s m . e x c e p t f o r t h e s e e x p l e t i v e s , f a l c o n speaks a s o c i a l d i a l e c t w h i c h does not d i f f e r m a r k e d l y from wiebe's own. a comparison o f f a l c o n ' s v o i c e w i t h t h a t o f f r i e d a f r i e s e n shows how l i t t l e wiebe a t t e m p t s t o r e i f y e i t h e r t h e s o c i a l o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l f e a t u r e s o f f a l c o n ' s v o i c e . f a l c o n ' s e n g l i s h does not echo m e t i s f r e n c h as f r i e d a ' s echoes low german; n o r , e x c e p t v e r y s p o r a d i c a l l y , does wiebe i m p a r t t o f a l c o n ' s s t o r y t h e " v o i c e d " g u a l i t y o f s k a z . f o r t h e most p a r t , wiebe u s h e r s h i s n a r r a t o r o n t o t h e s t a g e not by f a s h i o n i n g a p a r t i c u l a r n a r r a t i v e v o i c e w i t h a d i s t i n c t i v e manner o f s p e a k i n g , b u t t h r o u g h o v e r t n a r r a t o r i a l s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l i t y : t h e use o f f i r s t - p e r s o n pronouns i n n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , f a l c o n ' s p r o f f e r e d t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , and h i s d i r e c t n a r r a t o r i a l a d d r e s s e s t o r e a d e r s . as wiebe's i n t e n t i o n s shape f a l c o n ' s u t t e r a n c e , f a l c o n , i n t u r n , g u i d e s r e a d e r s t o w a r d an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f r i e l and o f a l l t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s whose speech he ( f a l c o n ) r e p o r t s . to t a k e f u l l s t o c k o f t h e o t h e r v o i c e s and languages f a l c o n t r a n s m i t s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t wiebe does not always m a i n t a i n a s h a r p b o r d e r l i n e between n a r r a t o r i a l and r e p o r t e d speech. i n d i r e c t speech, o r c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e , wiebe uses c l e a r t y p o g r a p h i c a l markers ( i n v e r t e d commas, i t a l i c s , p a r a g r a p h b r e a k s , i n d e n t a t i o n ) t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e spoken o r w r i t t e n words i n q u e s t i o n s h o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o someone o t h e r t h a n f a l c o n . i n d i r e c t speech, by c o n t r a s t , a l w a y s e n t a i l s some i n t e r w e a v i n g and b l e n d i n g o f t h e f r a m i n g u t t e r a n c e w i t h t h e r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e . i n d i r e c t speech may wander between l o o s e p a r a p h r a s e and n e a r - v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n , and t h u s l e a v e room f o r doubt as t o w h i c h words b e l o n g t o whom. moving f u r t h e r away a g a i n from d i r e c t speech, wiebe uses a v a r i e t y o f " c o n c e a l e d " ( b a k h t i n , ) forms o f q u o t a t i o n , p a r a p h r a s e , and m i m i c r y . in t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , p e r c e p t i o n o f speech d i v e r s i t y depends not on s t a n d a r d t y p o g r a p h i c a l and s y n t a c t i c markers b u t r a t h e r on t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of r e a d e r s t o s t y l i s t i c i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s . i f t h e c o n c e a l e d languages of o t h e r s c o a g u l a t e i n t o compact, s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t b l o c k s , t h e b o r d e r l i n e between n a r r a t o r i a l and embedded u t t e r a n c e s remains r e l a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t . the b o r d e r l i n e becomes b l u r r y and u n c e r t a i n , however, whenever wiebe s c a t t e r s t h e words o f o t h e r s d i f f u s e l y t h r o u g h f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e — a word h e r e , a p h r a s e t h e r e , e l s e w h e r e a h i n t e d a l l u s i o n . wiebe a l s o makes d e l i b e r a t e p l a y w i t h t h e b a r r i e r s between r e p o r t i n g and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e by h a v i n g p i e r r e f a l c o n a b r u p t l y d i s s o c i a t e h i m s e l f from words o f f e r e d i n i t i a l l y as h i s own. f a l c o n ' s monologue, by f r a m i n g and a t t i m e s w e a v i n g i t s e l f i n t o t h e u t t e r a n c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , can d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards them. f a l c o n ' s m e d i a t i o n s s e p a r a t e t h e "good-guys" from t h e "bad-guys" i n t h e s t o r y , a c c o r d i n g t o whether t h e y s e r v e o r t h w a r t r i e l and t h e m e t i s ' p o l i t i c a l c a u s e . f o r example, f a l c o n condemns t h e s o - c a l l e d p o e t c h a r l e s m a i r — a n y o n e who t r i e d t o s i n g h i s v e r s e s w h i l e r i d i n g a h o r s e would f a l l o f f i n b r o k e n rhythm—who w e e k l y s e n t l o n g l e t t e r s about how easy i t was t o make a f o r t u n e o f f t h e p o o r dunces a t red r i v e r t o h i s o n t a r i o b r o t h e r s , who as r e g u l a r l y p u b l i s h e d them i n t h e t o r o n t o g l o b e . ( ) amongst t h e "good guys," f a l c o n ' s most e x p l i c i t and w h o l e h e a r t e d endorsement goes t o dr. augustus j u k e s , who defends r i e l a g a i n s t t h e charge o f i n s a n i t y . f a l c o n ' s m e d i a t i o n s c r e a t e a f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t f o r j u k e s ' words, h e i g h t e n i n g t h e i r a i r o f wisdom and t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l f o r c e : poor f o o l ; i t was immoral t o hang him; c l e a r l y he was mad. the n e c e s s i t y o f hanging him was s i m p l y , c l e a r l y s i r john a.'s c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c s . you b e l i e v e t h a t ? many c a n a d i a n s , even many m e t i s b e l i e v e and w i l l b e l i e v e i t ; b u t i cannot. i agree w i t h w h i t e - h a i r e d dr. augustus j u k e s , s e n i o r surgeon o f t h e n o r t h - west mounted p o l i c e , t h a t we a r e t o o l i k e l y t o c a l l men whose u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e goes c o u n t e r t o o u r u s u a l o p i n i o n , i n s a n e . s a n i t y becomes t h e n a mere m a t t e r o f m a j o r i t y o p i n i o n , not a t e s t of t h e wisdom o f what i s spoken. ( ) one o f f a l c o n ' s most i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s i n t h e t e x t i s t o " s t a g e d i r e c t , " o r c r e a t e t h e c o n c r e t e p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g s i n w h i c h r i e l makes h i s major speeches. h i s n a r r a t o r i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g r i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e s a f f e c t t h e r e a d e r ' s e v a l u a t i o n of them. f a l c o n f r e q u e n t l y draws a t t e n t i o n t o r i e l ' s c h a r i s m a t i c s p i r i t u a l i t y , and d e c l a r e s h i s own f a i t h i n r i e l ' s v i s i o n a r y powers. he u r g e s r e a d e r s not t o d i s m i s s r i e l ' s p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e s as t h e r a n t i n g s o f a madman o r t h e v i t u p e r a t i o n s o f a p o l i t i c a l megalomaniac: l e t me t e l l you i m m e d i a t e l y , l o u i s r i e l was a g i a n t . i f god had w i l l e d i t , he c o u l d have r u l e d t h e w o r l d . no, no, hear me o u t , and you w i l l b e l i e v e i t t o o . ( ) in s t a t e m e n t s such as t h i s one, f a l c o n c r e a t e s a f a v o u r a b l e f r a m i n g c o n t e x t f o r r i e l ' s speech. at t i m e s , however, he opposes t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , and so frames r i e l ' s words i n an l e s s t h a n f l a t t e r i n g way. f o r example, f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l i n t e r j e c t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g passage p l a c e s r i e l i n t h e same c a t e g o r y as deacon b l o c k i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many and adam ross i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . the n a r r a t o r i a l i n t e r j e c t i o n warns r e a d e r s a g a i n s t s u r r e n d e r i n g t o r i e l ' s i m p a s s i o n e d , h a t e - f i l l e d r h e t o r i c : [ r i e l : ] " god my god, make me h o l y t h a t i have t h e courage f o r g l o r y , and f o r a g o n y . . . f o r d e c i s i o n . " he was a l m o s t e r e c t on h i s knees now, t h e p r a y e r book h e l d l i k e a t a l i s m a n o r a sword, h i g h i n b o t h hands b e f o r e h i s eyes, h i s v o i c e l i k e t h u n d e r : • "remember l o r d t h e c h i l d r e n o f b a b y l o n i n t h e day o f j e r u s a l e m ; who c r i e d , raze i t , r a z e i t t o t h e ground! d a u g h t e r o f b a b y l o n , who w i l l be d e s t r o y e d ; happy she be he who rewards you as you have s e r v e d us. happy! happy s h a l l be he who t a k e s y o u r l i t t l e ones and dashes them a g a i n s t t h e s t o n e s ! " ( ) through t h e v a r y i n g m e d i a t i o n s o f t h e n a r r a t o r , t h e a u t h o r e x p r e s s e s h i s a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e toward t h e p r o t a g o n i s t , d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between t h e m o r a l l y commendable and t h e m o r a l l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e a s p e c t s o f r i e l ' s b e h a v i o u r . a t one s t e p f u r t h e r removed from t h e a u t h o r , t h e c h a i n of command remains i n t a c t i n so f a r as r i e l ' s i n t e n t i o n s can c o l o n i z e t h e words o f o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s and i n f l u e n c e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards them. in t h e f o l l o w i n g passage, f o r example, r i e l a p p r o p r i a t e s bannatyne's word and f o r c e s i t t o s e r v e h i s a u t h o r i a l w i l l ; bannatyne t h u s speaks from a p o s i t i o n a t t h e v e r y bottom o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y : " i t r a d e w i t h a l l who t r a d e h o n e s t l y w i t h me," s a i d bannatyne. [ r i e l : ] "how 'honest' do t h e y have t o be t o t r a d e . . . f r o m t h a t b i g powder magazine i n y o u r s t o r e ? " ( ) as t h i s b r i e f s u r v e y o f each t i e r o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " d e m o n s t r a t e s , t h e same p a t t e r n o f dominance and s u b o r d i n a t i o n r e p r o d u c e s i t s e l f a t e v e r y l e v e l i n t h e t e x t of the scorched-wood p e o p l e . wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s d e c i d e how r e a d e r s hear f a l c o n ' s v o i c e ; f a l c o n ' s i n t e n t i o n s , i n t u r n , h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e r e a d e r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n towards t h e words u t t e r e d by r i e l and t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ; and because r i e l , t o o , i n c o r p o r a t e s o t h e r s ' words i n t o h i s own speech, h i s i n t e n t i o n s a f f e c t how r e a d e r s i n t e r p r e t and e v a l u a t e them. wiebe's p r a c t i c e o f embedding r a n k s t h e v o i c e s i n t o a c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , w i t h each v o i c e s u b j e c t t o t h e a u t h o r i a l w i l l o f t h e s p e a k e r s i t u a t e d i m m e d i a t e l y above. as i n an army, a c h a i n o f command extends between t h e many v o i c e s which speak i n wiebe's t e x t . i l l however, t h i s " c h a i n o f command" does not a l w a y s w i t h s t a n d t h e d i a l o g i z i n g f o r c e s wiebe u n l e a s h e s . i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n compounds i t s e l f i n t h e t e x t o f the s c o r c h e d - wood p e o p l e . on each t i e r o f t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e , " competing a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s s t r u g g l e not o n l y w i t h i n r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e , b u t a l s o w i t h i n t h e words o f t h e r e p o r t e r . wiebe f r e q u e n t l y p a r o d i e s t h e p a r o d i s t , and c o l o n i z e s t h e c o l o n i z e r . he may r e l e a s e an embedded u t t e r a n c e from i t s imprisonment w i t h i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f a r e p o r t e r who t r i e s t o make i t s e r v e a new p u r p o s e . wiebe t h e r e b y a l l o w s v o i c e s w h i c h p l a y a minor c o m p o s i t i o n a l r o l e i n t h e t e x t r i s e above t h e i r o f f i c i a l s t a t i o n , and a d d r e s s r e a d e r s more d i r e c t l y , b y - p a s s i n g t h e m e d i a t i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t i v e v o i c e w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y c o n t a i n s i t . no l o n g e r do r e a d e r s e n c o u n t e r embedded u t t e r a n c e s o n l y as bounded o b j e c t s i n a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r ' s speech. d e s p i t e t h e i r l o w l y p l a c e on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , wiebe sometimes empowers t h e "minor" v o i c e s t o demand an e q u a l h e a r i n g . i n s h o r t , t h e t e x t r e - e n a c t s t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e i t d e p i c t s : r e b e l l i o n e r u p t s on t h e page as i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l north-west. v o l o s i n o v o f f e r s t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f how p a r o d i e d d i s c o u r s e may e x e r t a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e w h i c h a t t e m p t s t o a p p r o p r i a t e i t s power: the v e r b a l dominant may s h i f t t o t h e r e p o r t e d speech, w h i c h i n t h a t c a s e becomes moire f o r c e f u l and more a c t i v e t h a n t h e a u t h o r i a l c o n t e x t f r a m i n g i t . t h i s t i m e , t h e r e p o r t e d speech b e g i n s t o r e s o l v e , as i t were, t h e r e p o r t i n g c o n t e x t , i n s t e a d o f t h e o t h e r way around. the a u t h o r i a l c o n t e x t l o s e s t h e g r e a t e r o b j e c t i v i t y i t n o r m a l l y commands i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h r e p o r t e d speech. i t b e g i n s t o p e r c e i v e i t s e l f — a n d even r e c o g n i z e s i t s e l f — a s s u b j e c t i v e , " o t h e r p e r s o n ' s " speech. ( ) s u r v e y i n g t h e t e x t o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e f o r examples o f c o u n t e r - a p p r o p r i a t i o n s o f t h e k i n d d e s c r i b e d by v o l o i i n o v , t h e f i r s t p o i n t t o n o t i c e i s t h a t f a l c o n never s e r i o u s l y c h a l l e n g e s wiebe's a u t h o r i a l omnipotence, because wiebe a l l o w s h i s n a r r a t o r v i r t u a l l y no language o f h i s own w i t h w h i c h t o a r t i c u l a t e such a c h a l l e n g e . however, t h e h i e r a r c h y does b e g i n t o crumble on t h e l o w e r t i e r s o f t h e g r e a t d i a l o g u e . f a l c o n i s crowded out o f t h e t e x t as much by r i e l ' s v o i c e p u s h i n g up from "below" as by wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s i m p i n g i n g from "above." d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t r i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l d i s c o u r s e , r i e l f r e q u e n t l y u p s t a g e s f a l c o n . wiebe endorses r i e l , f o r example, on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r i e s t s ' m o r a l o b l i g a t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e p o l i t i c a l cause o f t h e m e t i s p e o p l e . on t h i s i s s u e , a u t h o r and p r o t a g o n i s t band t o g e t h e r a g a i n s t n a r r a t o r . f a l c o n , d e s p i t e h i s d o u b t s , c o n t i n u e s t o r e s p e c t t h e c h u r c h and t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e p r i e s t s . a wiebe t h e r e f o r e empowers r i e l ' s v o i c e t o e x e r t a " c o u n t e r f o r c e , " t o r i s e above i t s o f f i c i a l r a n k i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y , and p l a y t h e dominant r o l e i n i t s d i a l o g u e w i t h f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l v o i c e : i n a moment he [ r i e l ] f a c e d andre a g a i n , h i s eyes h a r d as diamonds s h i n i n g w h i l e t h e wind r a t t l e d t h e house i n l o n g , s h u d d e r i n g g u s t s . r a i n dashed o v e r t h e r o o f a g a i n and a g a i n . "...we a r e i n g r e a t need now, much g r e a t e r need t h a n when a h e r d o v e r t h e next r i d g e c o u l d save us. i f you have n o t h i n g t o do o r say now b u t 'obedience, q u i e t o b e d i e n c e ' , " he shrugged s u d d e n l y . "what good i s t h e pope, v i c a r o f god, i f he doesn't know we e x i s t ? " ( ) the n a r r a t o r i a l frame, w h i c h mentions t h e h a r d n e s s i n r i e l ' s eyes and t h e r a i n and w i n d d a s h i n g on t h e r o o f , h i n t s o f something s i n i s t e r i n what r i e l i s about t o say. however, r i e l ' s v o i c e h a r n e s s e s t h e c o n c e r t e d powers o f p a t h o s , l o g i c and r h e t o r i c a l i n t e r r o g a t i o n t o compel r e a d e r s t o g r a n t t h e v a l i d i t y o f h i s argument. f a l c o n ' s s u b t l e , u n d e r s t a t e d w a r n i n g c a r r i e s f a r l e s s d r a m a t i c f o r c e t h a n r i e l ' s words. wiebe's p a t r o n a g e o f r i e l may be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t r i e l ' s i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n c o r r e s p o n d s c l o s e l y i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s w i t h wiebe's mennonite b r e t h r e n b e l i e f s and v a l u e s . l i k e wiebe, r i e l d i s a p p r o v e s o f a l c o h o l . he r e p e a t e d l y a d v o c a t e s peace and a t t e m p t s t o show l o v e towards h i s enemies: "help us f i n d a way t o be good t o our enemies" ( ) . l i k e john reimer i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , r i e l endeavours t o c r e a t e a r e v o l u t i o n f o r s o c i a l j u s t i c e . he s t r i v e s ( l i k e t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n ) a g a i n s t an o s s i f i e d , o v e r - i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d c h u r c h : "what good i s t h e pope, v i c a r o f god, i f he d o e s n ' t know we e x i s t ? " ( ) . r i e l a l s o g i v e s v o i c e t o wiebe's mennonite b e l i e f i n t h e c o n t i n u a l r e n e w a l o f god's word t h r o u g h d i r e c t d i a l o g u e between each i n d i v i d u a l and god: "only p r i e s t s can speak f o r god," he [ r i e l ] s a i d b i t t e r l y . "and t h e y always say what has always been s a i d . . . t h e y a l l say e x a c t l y t h e same o l d t h i n g . do you t h i n k god has had n o t h i n g new t o say t o anyone i n two thousand y e a r s ? " ( ) the p r i e s t s ' comprehension o f god was bound by t h e church, by t h e n e c e s s i t y o f f o r m u l a , b u t t h e r e v e l a t i o n of t h o s e who d a r e d b e l i e y e t o o k t h e b e l i e v e r f a r beyond t h a t . ( ) in an i n t e r v i e w w i t h b r i a n bergman, wiebe h i g h l i g h t s h i s agreement w i t h r i e l on t h e q u e s t i o n s o f s o c i a l j u s t i c e and t h e c h u r c h ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s towards t h e p o o r . responding t o bergman's o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t r i e l t u r n s a g a i n s t t h e c a t h o l i c c h u r c h , wiebe s a y s , yes, and one o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g t h i n g s i s t h a t he h i t s t h e c a t h o l i c c h u r c h on e x a c t l y t h e same p o i n t t h a t t h e a n a b a p t i s t s d i d : t h a t i s , t h e c h u r c h p u t t i n g form and s t r u c t u r e o v e r and above j u s t i c e t o t h e p o o r — t h e k i n d o f human j u s t i c e t h a t everyone s h o u l d e x p e c t . so on t h e saskatchewan i n t h e p r i e s t s a r e s a y i n g , i n e f f e c t : t o t h e hudson's bay company, l i s t e n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t — t h e y know what's good f o r you. and r i e l s a y s : how can we l i s t e n , how can we go and w o r s h i p i n y o u r church when our p e o p l e a r e s t a r v i n g a t home and our c h i l d r e n a r e c o l d ; how can we do t h a t ? on t h e saskatchewan i n t h e church j u s t t o t a l l y a b d i c a t e s t h a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r j u s t i c e which i s p a r t o f t h e whole j e s u s message. p a r t o f j e s u s ' message was t h a t when he came t o t h i s e a r t h he would p r o c l a i m freedom and j u s t i c e f o r t h e poor o f t h e w o r l d — t h a t f i t s i n w e l l w i t h what t h e a n a b a p t i s t s were s a y i n g and i f i n d t h a t v e r y i n t r i g u i n g . " (bergman ) i t i s v i t a l t o n o t i c e t h a t r i e l ' s v o i c e may b r e a k out of i t s bondage w i t h i n f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l u t t e r a n c e , b u t i n d o i n g so i t o n l y r e i t e r a t e s i t s s u b j e c t i o n t o wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s . l i k e g a b r i e l dumont, who f i n d s h i m s e l f " f r e e d . . . c o m p l e t e l y i n t o h i s most c e r t a i n bondage" ( - ) , r i e l ' s v o i c e shakes o f f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i t s immediate s u p e r i o r i'n t h e t e x t , o n l y t o a c t i n c l o s e r a c c o r d w i t h t h e w i l l o f a h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y . but t h i s h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y has a m a r k e d l y a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e towards r i e l . wiebe s u p p o r t s r i e l ' s cause b u t cannot condone h i s l a p s e s i n t o p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . wiebe t h e r e f o r e p u t s two d i s t i n c t languages i n t o t h e mouth o f h i s p r o t a g o n i s t : a language o f peace and l o v e w h i c h e n j o y s wiebe's f u l l a u t h o r i a l endorsement, and a language o f h a t r e d and v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t w h i c h wiebe l e v e l s h i s condemnation. r i e l can s w i t c h , f o r example, f r o m " most h o l y l o r d j e s u s , s t r e n g t h e n my f a i t h . h e l p me t o l o v e my p e o p l e a c c o r d i n g t o y o u r mercy, w h i c h i s b e a u t i f u l beyond measure. amen." ( ) t o " . . . g i v e us h e a r t s o f s t e e l , t h a t our k n i v e s may f i n d t h e i r bones; when t h e y w o u l d t e a r our d a u g h t e r s from u s , t e a r out t h e i r h e a r t s , r o t them i n t h e sun o f y o u r w r a t h , l e t b e a s t s swarm i n t h e s t r i n g s o f t h e i r i n t e s t i n e s . . . e x e c u t e vengeance on t h e h e a t h e n , s t e e l us i n h a t r e d , your d i v i n e and p e r f e c t h a t r e d . . . . " ( ) the d u a l i t y o f r i e l ' s v o i c e means t h a t wiebe's d i a l o g i c a n g l e t o i t cannot r e m a i n c o n s t a n t o r unambiguous. i n t h e two passages quoted above, r i e l ' s two languages s e p a r a t e i n t o s t y l i s t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t b l o c k s , but oh many o c c a s i o n s t h e two b l e n d and i n t e r w e a v e so c l o s e l y t h a t wiebe's d i a l o g i c a n g l e t o r i e l ' s v o i c e must i t s e l f become d o u b l e d . wiebe s t y l i z e s r i e l ' s "new testament v o i c e , " b u t p a r o d i e s r i e l ' s "old testament v o i c e . " wiebe g r a n t s r i e l ' s g e n t l e "new testament v o i c e " s u f f i c i e n t o p p o r t u n i t y t o speak i n s e l f - d e f e n c e ; but i n f r e e i n g r i e l ' s t h u n d e r o u s , v e n g e f u l "old testament v o i c e , " wiebe f o l l o w s t h e l e a d o f judge b l a c k , chairman o f t h e m e t i s n a t i o n a l committee, who "had d e c i d e d t o a l l o w r i e l t o hang h i m s e l f as e f f e c t i v e l y as h i s u n c o n t r o l l a b l e temper c o u l d manage" ( ) . wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s i n v a d e r i e l ' s speech from f o u r d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . f i r s t , wiebe works t h r o u g h t h e n a r r a t o r i a l m e d i a t i o n s o f p i e r r e f a l c o n c o n c e a l e d "above" r i e l on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . second, wiebe r e f r a c t s h i s i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e v o i c e s of o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s whose speech f a l c o n t r a n s m i t s , c h a r a c t e r s who occupy t h e same l e v e l as r i e l on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . t h i r d , wiebe e n l i s t s t h e minor v o i c e s o f t h e t e x t i n a s u r p r i s e a t t a c k from "below": t h e v o i c e s r i e l a p p r o p r i a t e s , no l e s s t h a n r i e l ' s v o i c e , can r i s e above t h e i r l o w l y s t a t i o n , and command a degree o f a t t e n t i o n out of a l l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e i r o f f i c i a l rank on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y . and f o u r t h , wiebe uses s t r a t e g i e s o f a n a c r i s i s i n t h e hope o f r e f r a c t i n g h i s a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e r e a d e r ' s e x i s t i n g i n n e r speech.. many v o i c e s o t h e r t h a n r i e l ' s f i n d a p l a c e w i t h i n p i e r r e f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t i o n . the c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y r a n k s t h e s e v o i c e s as r i e l ' s p e e r s , b u t d e s p i t e t h e i r e q u a l s t a t u s , t h e y r e m a i n u n o b t r u s i v e i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s v o i c e w h i c h d o m i n a t e s — i n d e e d a t t i m e s m o n o p o l i s e s — t h e t e x t . a p a r a l l e l t h u s e x i s t s between t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f r i e l ' s v o i c e o v e r i t s p o t e n t i a l r i v a l s i n t h e t e x t , and r i e l ' s t e n d e n c y t o domineer o v e r a l l o t h e r v o i c e s i n t h e north-west. r i e l p r o c l a i m s t h a t "the p r o v i s i o n a l government must r e p r e s e n t a l l t h e p e o p l e o f red r i v e r " ( ) , y e t a t y r a n n i c a l element i n h i s p e r s o n a l i t y compels him t o shout down d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e s . r i e l can say, on t h e one hand, "we p e o p l e o f t h e north-west demand, a l l o f us t o g e t h e r , our j u s t r i g h t s ! " ( ) ; b u t on t h e o t h e r hand, he cannot t o l e r a t e t h o s e who do not t o v o t e i n f a v o u r o f h i s p r o p o s a l s : "you can a l l go t o t h e d e v i l , we s h a l l have a p r o v i n c e ! no m a t t e r how you t r a i t o r s v o t e ! " ( ) . i n h i s p a s s i o n a t e d e s i r e t o r e a l i z e h i s p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n o f an e d e n i c new n a t i o n , r i e l v i o l a t e s t h e m o r a l and s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s he s t r u g g l e s t o a t t a i n . i n p a r t i c u l a r , he c o n t r a v e n e s t h e r i g h t o f a l l i n d i v i d u a l s t o a c t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e . not s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e t h e f r e e e x e r c i s e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e forms one o f t h e c o r n e r s t o n e s o f t h e mennonite b r e t h r e n church, wiebe p r o c l a i m s h i s o p p o s i t i o n t o r i e l on t h i s p o i n t : c h a r l e s n o l i n r i s e s t o h i s f e e t and s h o u t s , " i was not s e n t here t o v o t e a t y o u r d i r e c t i o n ! i v o t e a c c o r d i n g t o my c o n s c i e n c e " ( ) . wiebe here r e f r a c t s h i s v o i c e t h r o u g h t h a t o f one o f r i e l ' s most dangerous a d v e r s a r i e s , a "bad-guy" whose words t h e r e a d e r might i n i t i a l l y be i n c l i n e d t o d i s m i s s . the e x e c u t i o n o f tom s c o t t d r a m a t i s e s most e x p l i c i t l y r i e l ' s t y r a n n i c a l i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e word o f god on t h e p e o p l e of t h e north-west. wiebe f o r e g r o u n d s t h e o f f e n s i v e q u a l i t i e s o f tom s c o t t ' s speech: "you c a l l t h a t a t r i a l ? . . . a j u r y o f n o t h i n g b u t pope a s s - l i c k e r s , h o l y j e s - u g h ! " ( ) ; "jesus c h r i s t rev...i j u s t .escaped l i k e any f u c k i n g p r i s o n e r w i l l " ( ) ; "that f a r t wouldn't d a r e s h o o t an orangeman!" ( ) . but he a l s o t a k e s c a r e t o r e g i s t e r t h a t i n t h e moments b e f o r e b e i n g s h o t , as tom s c o t t ' s "mouth found t h o s e s o l i d words" ( ) o f t h e l o r d ' s p r a y e r , u g l y blasphemy t r a n s f o r m s i t s e l f i n t o s i n c e r e , d e s p e r a t e w o r s h i p . but r i e l has a l r e a d y g i v e n t h e o r d e r t o e x t e r m i n a t e s c o t t ' s d i s s e n t i n g v o i c e . s c o t t ' s e x e c u t i o n f o r b l a s p h e m y — t h e o f f i c i a l charge i s " i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n " ( )--prompts a c h o r u s o f p r e d i c t a b l e condemnatory remarks from r i e l ' s p o l i t i c a l a d v e r s a r i e s . donald smith argues t h a t "to k — s h o o t him i s t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l b l u n d e r " ( ) . s i r john a. macdonald says w i t h wry s a t i s f a c t i o n "now he's gone and shot a man" ( ) . dr. john c h r i s t i a n s c h u l t z r o u s e s t h e w r a t h o f orange o n t a r i o w i t h "tommy s c o t t was most f o u l l y and u n n a t u r a l l y murdered! murdered!" ( ) . a l t h o u g h t h e s e t h r e e v o i c e s condemn s c o t t ' s e x e c u t i o n f o r t h e i r own r e p r e h e n s i b l e r e a s o n s , t h e i r c l a i m s r e s i s t easy d i s m i s s a l because t h e y a l l u d e t o tom s c o t t ' s humanity and ( a l b e i t i n a d v e r t e n t l y ) t o god's commandment "thou s h a l t not k i l l . " wiebe r e f r a c t s h i s most t e l l i n g condemnation o f r i e l and h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e m e t i s " b u l l e t - m e n " t h r o u g h a drunken anonymous v o i c e s l u r r i n g t a l l s t o r i e s — "rumours" f a l c o n c a l l s t h e m — i n t h e s a l o o n : i f r i e l was such a f u c k i n g c h r i s t i a n l i k e he i s always y e l l i n g , so k i n d and u n i t i n g everybody, a l w a y s p r a y i n g i n t h e c a t h e d r a l over t h e r e w i t h t h o s e nuns...why not l e t [reverend] young have i t [ s c o t t ' s body] t o send t o o n t a r i o so h i s mother c o u l d b u r y i t p r o p e r ? why n o t ? . . . . they'd never l e t anybody see what t h e y done t o him b e f o r e t h e y f i n a l l y g o t t h e poor bugger k i — e l z e a r g o u l e t and g a b r i e l dumont were a t t h e doorway, coming i n , and t h e e v e n i n g d a r k n e s s b e h i n d them pushed them up perhaps a l i t t l e l a r g e r t h a n t h e y r e a l l y were, a l t h o u g h t h e y b o t h were l a r g e enough even i n o r d i n a r y l i g h t . the whole room was f l o a t i n g w i t h s i l e n c e ; as i f a b i g hand had w i p e d o v e r a l l t h e men and not one c o u l d remember t h e word j u s t t a k e n out o f h i s mouth. ( ) through a s o c i a l d i a l e c t f a r removed from h i s own (and t h u s c o n s t i t u t e d as a bounded o b j e c t i n t h e t e x t ) wiebe g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e m o r a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i m p l i c i t i n r i e l ' s p r a c t i c e o f k i l l i n g h i s way towards a p e a c e f u l , c h r i s t i a n u t o p i a . falcon's discourse then takes over to point out that the metis giants, goulet and dumont, intimidate the non-metis community into not applying the word " k i l l " to r i e l ' s execution of tom scott. at the same time as he dramatizes the metis' repression of the word " k i l l , " wiebe gives t h i s word a special resonance i n the text. goulet and dumont refuse to allow the word " k i l l " to sound within t h e i r hearing, but wiebe's intention i s p r e c i s e l y the opposite. he wants his readers to hear " k i l l " loud and clear. by repeatedly c u r t a i l i n g the word " k i l l , " wiebe places the accent squarely upon i t . moreover, curtailment i s a strategy of a n a c r i s i s . the reader must add the c r u c i a l missing phoneme to " k i — " before the sense of the passage becomes at a l l clear. instead of condemning r i e l ' s "execution" of tom scott d i r e c t l y and e x p l i c i t l y , wiebe e n l i s t s the voice of the reader to do i t for him. wiebe also opposes r i e l by e n l i s t i n g the a i d of voices r i e l has captured p a r o d i c a l l y i n his utterances. these lowly voices, appropriated several times over, occupy the most subordinate p o s i t i o n on the compositional hierarchy. theoretically, t h e i r words bear the stamp of several authorial w i l l s : the speaker's, r i e l ' s , falcon's and wiebe's. despite the v e r t i c a l distance which separates them from t h e h i g h e s t s e a t of a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l , wiebe can empower t h e s e l o w l y v o i c e s t o b r e a k out o f t h e ' i r imprisonment w i t h i n r i e l ' s "old testament v o i c e . " l i k e r i e l ' s v o i c e i n r e l a t i o n t o f a l c o n ' s , t h e s e s u b o r d i n a t e v o i c e s can e x e r t a c o u n t e r f o r c e a g a i n s t t h e v o i c e s which attempt t o a p p r o p r i a t e them. wiebe can a c c o m p l i s h such a r e l e a s e because t h e l o w l y v o i c e s b r i n g a n o t h e r v o i c e i n t o t h e t e x t , t h e v o i c e o f t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y , k n o w n t o wiebe: [ l ] " a n d t h e church o f c o u r s e must c o n t r o l e v e r y t h i n g , " [ ] s a i d r i e l . i t was e a r l y a f t e r n o o n b u t t h e l i g h t i n t h e s m a l l c h u r c h was t u r n i n g g r e y , a l m o s t s i n i s t e r . [ ] "dear c h i l d r e n , be o b e d i e n t . be s i m p l e and c o n t e n t w i t h a n y t h i n g on e a r t h , because god w i l l g i v e you p e r f e c t h a p p i n e s s i n heaven. i f t h e company pays you t e n c e n t s f o r a r a t s k i n and l a t e r s e l l s i t f o r a d o l l a r , d o n ' t c o m p l a i n . you reward i s i n heaven. when s p e c u l a t o r s g e t you drunk and t a k e y o u r l a n d s c r i p f o r t e n d o l l a r s , don't b e a t them up when y o u ' r e s o b e r . vengeance i s mine, i w i l l r e p a y says t h e l o r d , perhaps on e a r t h b u t more l i k e l y i n h e l l , t h a t ' s where i ' l l r e a l l y r e p a y t h o s e w i t h t h e i r b e l l i e s so t i g h t f u l l on e a r t h e v e r y day. [ ] i've h e a r d i t a l l t h a t f a t h e r , and i h a t e i t . " ( ) r i e l ' s v o i c e speaks " a l o n e " i n s e c t i o n , w h i l e i n s e c t i o n s and , he p a r o d i c a l l y r e v o i c e s t h e words o f t h e p r i e s t s . wiebe empowers r i e l t o parody t h e p r i e s t s ' words i n s e c t i o n , b u t i n s e c t i o n , t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e v o i c e s becomes e x t r e m e l y c o m p l i c a t e d and ambiguous. r i e l r e v o i c e s t h e p r i e s t s ' words w h i c h i n t u r n r e v o i c e t h e words o f a n o t h e r : j e s u s . the p r i e s t s draw t h e i r argument from j e s u s ' sermon on t h e mount. ( s e c t i o n ranges between l o o s e p a r a p h r a s e and d i r e c t v e r b a t i m q u o t a t i o n o f matthew : - ). but t h e p r i e s t s i n v o k e t h e power of j e s u s ' words f o r an i l l e g i t i m a t e r e a s o n , t o d e f e n d t h e i r own h o l d o v e r t h e p e o p l e . wiebe endorses r i e l ' s p a r o d y o f t h e p r i e s t s ' p a r o d y o f j e s u s ' words, because he a g r e e s w i t h r i e l ' s b e l i e f t h a t t h e c h u r c h s h o u l d show more c o n c e r n f o r t h e poor t h a n f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f i t s own power. however, wiebe does not e n t i r e l y r e j e c t t h e p r i e s t s ' argument. he s u p p o r t s t h e p r i e s t s i n so f a r as t h e y r e s i s t any v i o l e n t a c t i o n . f a l c o n warns i n s e c t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g amiss i n r i e l ' s s p e e c h , and as r i e l speaks i n s e c t i o n , h i s v o i c e becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y more b i t t e r and a n g r y , c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e pure h a t r e d o f s e c t i o n . an element o f p a r o d y c r e e p s i n t o wiebe's h a n d l i n g o f r i e l ' s u t t e r a n c e . s i n c e wiebe i n t e n s i f i e s t h i s p a r o d i c e f f e c t i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e dominance o f r i e l ' s "old testament v o i c e , " wiebe does not a l l o w r i e l t o s u c c e e d e n t i r e l y i n v a n g u i s h i n g t h e p r i e s t s ' words. i n t h i s p a s s a g e , wiebe g i v e s h i s w h o l e h e a r t e d s u p p o r t n e i t h e r t o r i e l nor t o t h e p r i e s t s , b u t o n l y t o t h e words o f j e s u s s u b o r d i n a t e d i n t h e i r u t t e r a n c e s . l i k e thorn wiens i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, who wants t o s c r a p e j e s u s ' words bare o f t h e i r " a c q u i r e d meanings" (ppm ) , wiebe s e a r c h e s t h r o u g h t h e l a y e r s o f h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d human v o i c e s , t o f i n d . "god's r e v e l a t i o n " (ppm ) c o n c e a l e d p e r m a n e n t l y a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e words. by b r i n g i n g j e s u s ' words i n t o t h e f r a y , wiebe r e f e r s t h e m o r a l i s s u e s i n q u e s t i o n t o t h e h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y he r e c o g n i s e s as a m e n n o n i t e . by t h i s c a p i t u l a t i o n , wiebe t u r n s t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y o f t h e t e x t u p s i d e down. he a l l o w s j e s u s ' v o i c e , t h e l o w l i e s t v o i c e , t o i n h e r i t t h e t e x t as i t were, t o d e c i d e t h e meaning and a u t h o r i t y o f a l l t h e u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h , i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l terms, dominate t h e t e x t . iv the u n w i e l d i n e s s o f any t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s o f r e l a t i o n s between t h e v o i c e s w h i c h speak i n t h e t e x t p r o v i d e s an i n d e x o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f wiebe's n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e . c l o s e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e x t r e v e a l s a degree o f i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n u n p a r a l l e l e d i n any o f wiebe's o t h e r works, a s h i f t i n g , l a b y r i n t h i n e p a t t e r n o f r e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r i a l v o i c e . the p r e v a i l i n g n o t i o n t h a t r i e l f u n c t i o n s c o n s i s t e n t l y and e x c l u s i v e l y as a mouthpiece f o r t h e a u t h o r l e a v e s t h e s e c o m p l e x i t i e s e n t i r e l y out o f a c c o u n t . wiebe a r t i c u l a t e s a h i g h l y a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e towards r i e l , and t o w a r d t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s who p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o p o s s e s s t h e north-west. wiebe c a l l s i n t o g u e s t i o n t h e c l e a r b o r d e r l i n e s e p a r a t i n g a l l i e s from enemies i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e . the m e t i s e x p e r i e n c e o f a m b i v a l e n c e , d i v i d e d l o y a l t i e s and r a c i a l p l u r a l i t y functions metonymically to dramatize a universal p l i g h t . no-one i n the text, no matter what, his or her r a c i a l heritage, has a unitary s o c i a l i d e n t i t y . john c h r i s t i a n schultz, inflamer of orange ontario, i s a roman catholic, l i k e r i e l . s i r john a. macdonald, l i k e r i e l , i s a conservative. r i e l ' s quebec l i b e r a l "friends" threaten to d i s c r e d i t his prophetic witness altogether. wiebe dramatizes the continuous m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n of walls and party l i n e s as allegiances s h i f t and evolve over time. having modelled a world where b a t t l e f r o n t s multiply and intersect, and where friends cannot wholly be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from foes, i t i s hardly s u r p r i s i n g to f i n d wiebe a r t i c u l a t i n g an ambivalent a t t i t u d e towards his protagonist and a l l the other members of the dramatis personae. wiebe's cautious, c a r e f u l , discriminatory approach to r i e l brings to mind a remark he made to donald cameron: the ones that one would think c l o s e s t . . . are the ones most to be mistrusted...because they w i l l most e a s i l y lead you astray, you know—on important points, always. ( - ) wiebe t r e a t s r i e l with extreme caution because he shares so many of r i e l ' s values and b e l i e f s . he e n l i s t s r i e l ' s support to f i g h t opponents on the two "contestational fronts" ( ) i d e n t i f i e d by solecki, but on a t h i r d front wiebe struggles against his protagonist. whenever r i e l s t r i v e s to gain s o c i a l j u s t i c e , wiebe endorses his p o l i t i c a l cause; but. when r i e l succumbs to the temptation" of violence, wiebe t r e a t s him as an a d v e r s a r y . i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s e x i s t between t h e north-west r e b e l l i o n and t h e h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b i r t h o f t h e mennonite church. d u r i n g t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , t h e e a r l y mennonite church d e f i n e d i t s e l f e x p r e s s l y a g a i n s t t h e o s s i f i e d , h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e roman c a t h o l i c c h u r c h , a g a i n s t l u t h e r ' s m i l i t a r i s t i c a l l i a n c e o f c h u r c h and s t a t e , and most p a r t i c u l a r l y a g a i n s t t h e v i o l e n t methods espoused by c e r t a i n r a d i c a l f a c t i o n s w i t h i n t h e a n a b a p t i s t movement. r i e l ' s " f i g h t f o r t h e l o v e o f god" ( ) b e a r s a r e m a r k a b l e resemblance t o t h e b l o o d y campaigns o r g a n i s e d by t h e c h a r i s m a t i c a n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r s o f t h e m u e n s t e r i t e and t h e d a v i d i a n s e c t s . these men of v i s i o n t r i e d , l i k e r i e l , t o e s t a b l i s h t h e kingdom o f god on e a r t h , b u t were d e f e a t e d by m i l i t a r y f o r c e s m a r s h a l l e d by t h e s t a t e . the scorched-wood p e o p l e may be r e a d as a p a r a b l e a g a i n s t v i o l e n c e . wiebe p r o v i d e s many images o f v i o l e n c e t u r n i n g a g a i n s t i t ' s p e r p e t r a t o r s . i n t h e o p e n i n g c h a p t e r , m c d o u g a l l ' s d r i v e r r e a c h e s f o r a r i f l e c o n c e a l e d amongst f u r s , b u t i n a d v e r t e n t l y aims t h e weapon a t h i m s e l f : "he had come up a t t h e wrong end! he was c l u t c h i n g t h e b a r r e l " ( ) . a t duck lake, c r o z i e r ' s men a c c i d e n t a l l y l o a d t h e b a l l b e f o r e t h e powder, c a u s i n g t h e cannon t o b a c k f i r e ( ) . these images c o r r o b o r a t e kenneth hoeppner's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t wiebe d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e i d e a t h a t t h e m e t i s n a t i o n f a i l e d i n i t s s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e c a n a d i a n government because r i e l ' s m i s s i o n i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e i r a d o p t i n g t h e b e s t m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g y . the m e t i s f a i l e d t o become a permanent new n a t i o n because t h e y became m i l i t a r i l y engaged w i t h macdonald's government. ( ) the v i g n e t t e o f a n n i e dumont and her two s u i t o r s , p a t r i c e tourond and n a p o l e o n n a u l t , i n d i c a t e s how t h e c o n t e n d e r s f o r t h e north-west might o t h e r w i s e have behaved. on t h e eve o f t h e b a t t l e o f batoche, as t h e " s o n [ s ] o f o n t a r i o " ( ) and t h e sons o f t h e north-west p r e p a r e t o k i l l each o t h e r ( u n m i n d f u l t h a t t h e y a r e a l s o sons o f a god who l o v e s them a l l ) a n n i e l i e s between her two s u i t o r s and t e l l s them, " i l o v e you b o t h and you've been so good, b o t h o f you, always c o n s i d e r a t e and g e n t l e and not f i g h t i n g " ( ) . the p a t i e n c e and r e s t r a i n t o f p a t r i c e and napoleon p r o v i d e a m o r a l s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t w h i c h t o measure t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h o s e who contend f o r c o n t r o l over t h e north-west. t h i s v i g n e t t e a l s o o f f e r s an s u g g e s t i v e image o f d i a l o g i z e d u t t e r a n c e : a n n i e , c o n c e a l e d i n d a r k n e s s , speaks t o "each o f them and t o g e t h e r as i f t h e y were o n l y two p e o p l e a l o n e i n t h e w o r l d " ( ). a n n i e dumont speaks t o her two l o v e r s as wiebe i m a g i n e s god speaks t o humankind. her words become d i a l o g i z e d as soon as t h e y l e a v e her mouth and l o d g e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e s e p a r a t e psyches o f her a d d r e s s e e s . the c o n t e s t a n t s i n t h e north-west r e b e l l i o n a l l c l a i m t h e y f i g h t i n d e f e n c e o f t h e word o f god, y e t each group h e a r s t h e word v e r y d i f f e r e n t l y . more o f t e n t h a n n o t , t h e y a p p r o p r i a t e god's word t o l e g i t i m i s e greed and o p p r e s s i o n . wiebe denounces t h e i n t o l e r a n c e and h y p o c r i s y o f a n a t i o n w h i c h c a l l s i t s e l f c h r i s t i a n y e t equates p r o p h e t i c communication w i t h i n s a n i t y : when j u k e s was a s k e d d u r i n g t h e t r i a l , " i f i t c o u l d be p r o v e d t h a t a man i s l a b o u r i n g under an i n s a n e d e l u s i o n t h a t he i s i n d i r e c t communication w i t h t h e h o l y ghost ( i would a s k , why s h o u l d t h a t be an i n s a n e d e l u s i o n ? cannot 'the h o l y ghost communicate, d i r e c t l y , t o whomsoever h e — i t — w i s h e s ? ) , would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h a t a c t ? " , he r e p l i e d , "men have h e l d v e r y s t r a n g e , r e m a r k a b l e v i e w s on r e l i g i o n a and have been d e c l a r e d i n s a n e u n t i l t h e y g a t h e r e d g r e a t numbers o f f o l l o w e r s and became l e a d e r s of a new s e c t and t h e n , s u d d e n l y , t h e y were g r e a t p r o p h e t s and g r e a t men. take muhammed, f o r i n s t a n c e . few b e l i e v e d him, most t h o u g h t him mad, b u t he c a r r i e d out h i s b e l i e f a t t h e p o i n t o f t h e sword and so c o n v i n c e d h a l f t h e w o r l d o f t h a t w h i c h , i f he had f a i l e d , w o u l d have been c o n s i d e r e d s i m p l y a d e l u s i o n of t h e mind. i s t h i s d i r e c t f r a u d , honest d e l u s i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l power, o r t r u l y g u i d a n c e f r o m t h e d i v i n e ? i would not be g u a l i f i e d t o say." ( ) j u k e s ' words have r a m i f i c a t i o n s which e x t e n d f a r beyond t h e q u e s t i o n o f l o u i s r i e l ' s s a n i t y . they b r i n g i n t o f o c u s a q u e s t i o n c e n t r a l t o wiebe's e n t i r e oeuvre: do r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e s g a i n ascendancy as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r a b s o l u t e , i n n a t e t r u t h - v a l u e o r because t y r a n n i c a l , i m p e r i a l i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l s and groups s e i z e c o n t r o l o f t h e c o u r s e o f h i s t o r y and impose t h e i r b e l i e f s v i o l e n t l y upon o t h e r s ? augustus j u k e s ' words i m p l i c i t l y concede t o t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a l l human p e r c e p t i o n s o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h . t h i s c o n c e s s i o n does not n e c e s s a r i l y deny t h a t a b s o l u t e , m o n o l o g i c t r u t h e x i s t s ; b u t i t does say t h a t humankind can o n l y g a i n a c c e s s t o such t r u t h d i a l o g i c a l l y , t h a t i s , as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t , m u l t i - v o i c e d w o r l d o f h i s t o r i c a l a c t u a l i t y . j u k e s ' p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h o f f e r s a p o s s i b l e key t o one o f t h e most p u z z l i n g a s p e c t s o f wiebe's n a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e . wiebe s h i f t s h i s n a r r a t o r up and down from g r o u n d - l e v e l t o an e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n o f p o s t - h i s t o r i c a l o m n i s c i e n c e , even t o t h e e x t e n t o f p e r m i t t i n g him t o speak posthumously. as f a l c o n s h i f t s between t h e s e two p o s i t i o n s , one a c o r r e l a t i v e o f d i a l o g i c v i s i o n , t h e o t h e r o f monologism, wiebe h o l d s t h e two i n a t e n s e b a l a n c e , as i f a t once a c c e p t i n g and d e n y i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of a l l human p e r c e p t i o n s o f t r u t h . f a l c o n ' s immersion i n t h e m e t i s l i f e - w o r l d acknowledges t h e c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l r e l a t i v i t y o f a l l human t r u t h s . when f a l c o n speaks from g r o u n d - l e v e l , wiebe i m p l i c i t l y concedes t h a t human c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f meaning a r e always p r o v i s i o n a l , p r o d u c t s o f o n g o i n g h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e and communal d i s c o v e r y . through t h e posthumous, e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l v o i c e o f f a l c o n , wiebe can i m a g i n a t i v e l y t r a n s c e n d t h e p e r c e p t u a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f a l l who remain bound w i t h i n t h e c o n t i n g e n t h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d , where t r u t h can o n l y be d i s c o v e r e d d i a l o g i c a l l y . f a l c o n ' s p o s t - h i s t o r i c a l o m n i s c i e n c e , h i s v i e w from "beyond t h e g r a v e " ( ) works r h e t o r i c a l l y t o de- h i s t o r i c i z e , and hence a u t h o r i z e , t r u t h s w h i c h wiebe b e l i e v e s t o be t h e a b s o l u t e . f a l c o n ' s d u a l n a r r a t o r i a l p o s i t i o n i m p l i e s t h a t a b s o l u t e t r u t h e x i s t s , b u t u n t i l t h e moment o f d e a t h and r e v e l a t i o n , human p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h a t t r u t h must r e m a i n p r o v i s i o n a l and c o n t i n g e n t on h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e . wiebe a l r e a d y p e r c e i v e s t h e gap between t r u t h and human knowledge w h i c h he w i l l i n v e s t i g a t e f u r t h e r i n my l o v e l y enemy. notes to chapter : the scorched-wood people . wayne a. t e f s , i n "rudy wiebe: m y s t e r y and r e a l i t y , " m o s a i c x i / : - , o b j e c t s t o wiebe's c h r i s t i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n o f n a t i v e i n d i a n and m e t i s h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . he a r g u e s t h a t i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e , wiebe s u p p l i e s a r e l i g i o u s answer t o what i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n : " c a s t i n g t h e i r p l i g h t i n s p i r i t u a l germs [ s i c ] b l u r s t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e i r dilemmas" ( ) . t e f s ' argument o v e r l o o k s o r perhaps r e j e c t s one o f t h e main p o i n t s wiebe t r i e s t o make i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e : t h a t god i s t h e u l t i m a t e a u t h o r o f h i s t o r y and a l l t h e q u e s t i o n s and dilemmas, p o l i t i c a l o r o t h e r w i s e , w h i c h c o n f r o n t humankind. t e f s comes p e r i l o u s l y c l o s e t o a d o p t i n g t h e same p o s i t i o n as f a t h e r andre who c l a i m s "you cannot mix r e l i g i o n and p o l i t i c s " ( ) . r i e l ' s r e p l y t o andre p a r r i e s t e f s ' c r i t i c a l o b j e c t i o n i n advance: " i f we a r e whole p e o p l e , we mix e v e r y t h i n g we a r e " ( ) . in the scorched-wood p e o p l e , as i n a l l h i s o t h e r n o v e l s , wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e h y p o c r i s y w h i c h a r i s e s when p e o p l e c o n f i n e s p i r i t u a l l i f e t o a s e p a r a t e compartment w i t h i n t h e p s y c h e , i s o l a t e d from and i r r e l e v a n t t o a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s o f human e x p e r i e n c e . . u n l e s s o t h e r w i s e i n d i c a t e d , a l l f u r t h e r page r e f e r e n c e s a p p e a r i n g p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n c h a p t e r r e f e r the s c o r c h e d - wood p e o p l e ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ). . thomas f l a n a g a n , one o f wiebe's major s o u r c e s f o r the scorched-wood p e o p l e , o f f e r s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e word "prophet" w h i c h a p p e a r s t o have i n f l u e n c e d wiebe's t r e a t m e n t o f r i e l : today, i n common p a r l a n c e , p r o p h e c y has become confounded w i t h p r o g n o s t i c a t i o n ; b u t i n o r i g i n t h e two a r e d i s t i n c t . a p r o p h e t i s p r i m a r i l y one who speaks from t h e l i v i n g i n s p i r a t i o n o f god.... now t h e p r o p h e t may i n c i d e n t a l l y t e l l t h e f u t u r e , b u t h i s main c o n c e r n i s t o r e v e a l god's w i l l t o mankind. the p r o p h e t . . . s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d fom t h e p r i e s t . a p r i e s t i s an o f f i c i a l , a f u n c t i o n a r y , who owes h i s p o s i t i o n t o t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n w h i c h he s e r v e s . a p r o p h e t i s e x t r a - i n s t i t u t i o n a l ; he has t h e a u t h o r i t y o f d i v i n e c h a r i s m a m a n i f e s t e d i n h i s h o l y l i f e , h i s v i s i o n s and r e v e l a t i o n s , h i s a b i l i t y t o work m i r a c l e s . " l o u i s r i e l : i n s a n i t y and prophecy," t s . rwp . d, p. . . wiebe l i s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b l e t i t l e s f o r t h e n o v e l : a l i e n s , the s i x t e e n y e a r s war, founder o f m a n i t o b a , r i e l and g a b r i e l , t r o u b l e s on t h e saskatchewan, a world d e s t r o y e d , n a t i o n o f b u r n t wood, the b u r n t wood p e o p l e o f t h e p l a i n s , b u r n t wood n a t i o n . s c o r c h e d wood, p e o p l e t o b u r n , s i n g e d wood p e o p l e , p r e s i d e n t o f m a n i t o b a , second coming, and g a b r i e l ' s army. rwp . , . , . . . rwp . . . t h i s e p i g r a p h was o m i t t e d from t h e new c a n a d i a n l i b r a r y e d i t i o n o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e . . see v o l o g i n o v f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f " m u l t i a c c e n t u a l i t y " i n t h e u t t e r a n c e . . one of wiebe's s o u r c e s . f o r the scorched-wood p e o p l e i s joseph k i n s e y howard's s t r a n g e empire: n a r r a t i v e o f t h e north-west (new york: morrow, ). . reviewers and c r i t i c s o f t h e n o v e l u s u a l l y assume wiebe and r i e l speak as one; see sam s o l e c k i , review o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e , i n vl - ; " g i a n t f i c t i o n s and large meanings: the n o v e l s o f rudy wiebe," c a n a d i a n forum, (march ), - , ; and w. j . k e i t h a, - . . s o l e c k i e x p l a i n s t h a t t o w r i t e s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y about r i e l and t h e m t i s i s , i n e f f e c t , t o c h a l l e n g e d i r e c t l y t h e i n n i s - c r e i g h t o n t h e s i s w i t h i t s f a v o u r a b l e v i e w o f t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y of t h e e a s t e r n ( o n t a r i o - q u e b e c ) economic and c u l t u r a l i m p e r a t i v e i n t h e west. i n t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f canadian h i s t o r y macdonald's p o l i c i e s , i n c l u d i n g h i s v i s i o n o f t h e cpr as t h e n e c e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n o f t h e s t . lawrence, a r e seen p o s i t i v e l y as c r e a t i n g a p h y s i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y and l e g a l l y u n i f i e d canada. from t h i s more o r l e s s o f f i c i a l v i e w p o i n t , t o be f o r r i e l and t h e m e t i s i s t o be not o n l y a g a i n s t macdonald b u t a l s o a g a i n s t t h a t v i s i o n o f a f e d e r a l l y u n i f i e d canada which he was i n s t r u m e n t a l i n i m p l e m e n t i n g and w h i c h i s s t i l l i d e o l o g i c a l l y dominant t o d a y . (vl ) . see g e r a r d g e n e t t e , n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e : an e s s a y i n method, t r a n s . jane e. lewin ( i t h a c a , new y o r k : c o r n e l l u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ), c h a p t e r , f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e system o f terms f o r d e s c r i b i n g embedded u t t e r a n c e s . . in her p r e f a c e t o problems o f d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s , c a r y l emerson s t a t e s t h a t " [ b a k h t i n ] u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e frame i s a l w a y s i n t h e power o f t h e f r a m e r , and t h a t t h e r e i s an o u t r a g e o u s p r i v i l e g e i n t h e power t o c i t e o t h e r s " ( x x x v i i ) . . s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l and p o l e m i c a l s t r a t e g i e s form p a r t o f one a u t h o r i a l endeavour, because t h e t a r g e t s o f wiebe's p o l e m i c m a n i f e s t t h e i r hegemony o n l y i n so f a r as t h e y c o m p r i s e p a r t o f t h e " i n n e r speech" o f wiebe's p o s i t e d r e a d e r . i n o t h e r words, wiebe a t t a c k s n o t t h e dominant h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i t s e l f , b u t t h e r e a d e r ' s b e l i e f i n i t s t r u t h - v a l u e . see v. n. v o l o s i n o v , marxism and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f language. c h a p t e r , f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f " i n n e r speech." . f a l c o n ' s d r a m a t i c monologue c o r r e s p o n d s t o type i l l . l . b i n b a k h t i n ' s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y s y s t e m , b u t l a p s e s i n t o type . . b a k h t i n m i g h t argue t h a t t h e t e r m " d r a m a t i c monologue" i s d e c e p t i v e , f o r t h i s "monologue" i s always d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , u n i d i r e c t i o n a l o r v a r i d i r e c t i o n a l , s t y l i s i n g o r parodic> d e p e n d i n g on whether o r not t h e a u t h o r ' s o b j e c t i v e s r e i n f o r c e o r oppose t h o s e o f t h e n a r r a t o r . . see b a k h t i n , f o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f " s k a z . " . the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n e x e m p l i f i e s i n d i r e c t speech and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r b l u r r i n g o r s h a r p e n i n g b o r d e r s between n a r r a t o r i a l and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e : [ ] the h a l l r a n g w i t h c l a p p i n g , and g a b r i e l had t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f g e t t i n g a hand on r i c h a r d deacon who s u d d e n l y s t o o d up i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e crowd, w a v i n g h i s f i s t and y e l l i n g t h a t [ ] r i e l was n o t h i n g b u t a k i l l e r , t h a t he p e r s o n a l l y had marched t o red r i v e r i n ' w i t h w o l s e l e y t o — [ ] and h e a v i n g him b o d i l y out t h e d o o r . ( ) f a l c o n speaks i n s e c t i o n s [ ] and [ ] , w h i l e deacon's v o i c e o c c u p i e s s e c t i o n [ ] b l e n d e d w i t h l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s w h i c h r e f l e c t f a l c o n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w . . f o r example, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g g u o t a t i o n f a l c o n ' s n a r r a t o r i a l d i s c o u r s e f l o w s s m o o t h l y i n t o an i m i t a t i o n o r unmarked q u o t a t i o n o f t h e language o f w o l s e l e y ' s men: toward e v e n i n g t h e y [ w o l s e l e y ' s s o l d i e r s ] t r i e d b u r n i n g an e f f i g y a g a i n b u t t h e r e was no a n t i c i p a t i o n i n i t ; t h e f l a m e s a t i t s sodden t r o u s e r s f r i z z l e d i n t o smoke. they'd g o t t h e j o b done and what a s h i t o f a j o b o f b u l l work w a l k i n g and w a l k i n g i t had been. was t h e r e n o t h i n g t o d r i n k , no f u c k i n g women? ( ) . f o r example, f a l c o n p e r s i s t s i n u s i n g t h e t e r m " r e b e l l i o n " i n h i s own speech, w i t h o u t m a r k i n g i t as a n o t h e r ' s word, even though he draws e x p l i c i t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f l a w e d l o g i c b e h i n d t h e c h a r g e s l a i d a g a i n s t r i e l : so t h e blame f o r t h e r e b e l l i o n c o u l d be p l a c e d on r i e l he must be t o t a l l y t o blame, f o r e v e r y t h i n g ; f o r purposes of h i s t r i a l t h e s h o o t i n g was b l a t a n t , open r e b e l l i o n . . . . the l o s t r e b e l l i o n o f c o u r s e q u i t e d e s t r o y e d our p e o p l e . ( , ) does f a l c o n here quote a n o t h e r ' s word i n a c o n s c i o u s l y p a r o d i c manner? or does he speak t h e word h i m s e l f and hence c l a i m i t i n some measure as h i s own? or does he use t h e word t o r e f e r t o a r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t god r a t h e r t h a n a g a i n s t t h e canadian government? . twice i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e , f o r example, wiebe makes a b a r r i e r between f a l c o n ' s words and t h o s e o f a n o t h e r , where no w a l l i n i t i a l l y d i v i d e d t h e two: the way o f t h e c r o s s was h u m i l i a t i o n ; t h e p r o p h e t must d i e t o r e v e a l h i s u l t i m a t e v i s i o n , and t h i s c o n v i c t i o n t r a n s f i g u r e d r i e l ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i m s e l f . . . poor f o o l ; i t was immoral t o hang him; c l e a r l y he was mad. t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h a n g i n g him was s i m p l y , c l e a r l y s i r john a's c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c s . you b e l i e v e t h a t ? many c a n a d i a n s , and even many m e t i s b e l i e v e and w i l l b e l i e v e i t ; b u t i c a n n o t . ( ) . wiebe draws j u k e s ' d i a g n o s i s from thomas f l a n a g a n , " l o u i s r i e l : i n s a n i t y and p r o p h e c y " : "madness i s . . . a term used t o d e s c r i b e i n d i v i d u a l s who d e p a r t from t h e s o c i a l consensus about what i s r e a s o n a b l e . . . . madness i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g network o f a s s u m p t i o n s about r e a l i t y w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e s a s p e c i f i c s o c i e t y a t a c e r t a i n t i m e . madness i s a s o c i a l f a c t . . n o t a n e u t r a l term. i t i s used w i t h t h e purpose o f c o n t r o l l i n g o t h e r humans.... s i n c e t h e i m p u t a t i o n o f madness i s a means o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l , i t f o l l o w s t h a t i t cannot be d i s c u s s e d a p a r t from q u e s t i o n s such as who i s c a l l e d mad and who does t h e c a l l i n g , who g a i n s and who l o s e s " rwp . d, p . - ) . see a l s o hoeppner , , n. , f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on wiebe's use o f f l a n a g a n ' s m a t e r i a l s . . to i l l u s t r a t e more c l e a r l y t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e p o r t i n g and r e p o r t e d u t t e r a n c e , t h i s s t a t e m e n t assumes f o r t h e p r e s e n t t h a t wiebe and f a l c o n s h a r e t h e same a t t i t u d e towards r i e l . the p o s s i b l i t y t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s d i f f e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . . c f . w . j . k e i t h : "by t h e end o f t h e n o v e l . . . f a l c o n has p e r s u a d e d ( o r come c l o s e t o p e r s u a d i n g ) t h e r e a d e r and, one i s tempted t o add, t h e a u t h o r [ t h a t r i e l c o u l d have r u l e d t h e w o r l d ] . . . . when f a l c o n speaks 'from beyond t h e g r a v e ' ( ) as an a u t h o r i t a t i v e , o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t o r , he has t a k e n over t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l i s t " ( a, ). . see p. f o r f a l c o n ' s t e s t i m o n y o f h i s c o n t i n u e d f a i t h i n t h e c h u r c h . . see appendix. . note a l s o t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e b r o a d , a l l embracing scope o f r i e l ' s "we" on page , and t h e narrowness o f "we" on page , when r i e l l o s e s h i s temper a t t h e c o u n c i l meeting. . l i e s e l d r i e d i g e r ' s u n s u c c e s s f u l p a r o d y o f t h e o l d g r a c k l e ' s v o i c e i n c h a p t e r o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a p r o v i d e s a p r e c e d e n t f o r t h e r e b e l l i o n o f t h e minor v o i c e s which t a k e s p l a c e i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e . . i t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t even when r i e l speaks " a l o n e , " h i s words r e m a i n i n t e r n a l l y d i a l o g i z e d because s u b j e c t t o wiebe's a u t h o r i a l i n t e n t i o n s . . t h i s s u b v e r s i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y depends of c o u r s e on t h e r e a d e r b e i n g aware o f wiebe's a l l u s i o n . by c o n c e a l i n g j e s u s ' v o i c e , wiebe l e a v e s room f o r d i v e r s i t y o f response and i n t e r p r e t a t a t i o n . a n a c r i s i s opens t h e way f o r h e t e r o g l o s s i a . k l o o s s t o u c h e s on t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e n o v e l ' s r e a l i z e d h e t e r o g l o s s i a . he m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e n o v e l has "caused s e r i o u s c o n f u s i o n " and " c o n t r o v e r s y " among r e v i e w e r s and c r i t i c s ( ) . k l o o s s e x p l a i n s t h e " c o n f l i c t i n g r e v i e w s " and t h e " a m b i v a l e n t r e c e p t i o n " ( ) by s a y i n g t h a t i t d e r i v e s from t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f wiebe's n a r r a t i v e mode, and from t h e " d i v e r g i n g p o l i t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l v i e w p o i n t s " o f t h e a u d i e n c e ( ) . . see wiebe's a c c o u n t o f t h e church's i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e i n t e r v i e w w i t h b r i a n bergman quoted e a r l i e r . . in "a b r i e f b i o g r a p h y o f menno simons," h a r o l d s t a u f f e r bender o f f e r s an a c c o u n t o f t h e m u e n s t e r i t e u p r i s i n g w h i c h may w e l l have i n f l u e n c e d wiebe's t h i n k i n g about r i e l and t h e m e t i s a t batoche: "the [ m u e n s t e r i t e ] group...had d e c i d e d t o s e t up i t s own c i t y o f r e f u g e and b e g i n i t s own campaign f o r t h e kingdom o f god.... i n march, , a l a r g e company o f t h r e e hundred has s e i z e d t h e o l d monastery... and e n t r e n c h e d i t s e l f t h e r e i n . they were u n a b l e t o h o l d o u t l o n g a g a i n s t t h e s e i g e o f t h e f o r c e s o f t h e government and a f t e r one hundred and t h i r t y had been s l a i n , t h e r e s t were c a p t u r e d and e x e c u t e d on a p r i l . the s i g h t o f t h e s e 'poor m i s g u i d e d sheep,' as menno c a l l e d them, g i v i n g t h e i r b l o o d and t h e i r l i v e s f o r t h e i r f a i t h , even though i t was a f a l s e f a i t h , made an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i m p r e s s i o n upon menno" (bender ). bender's d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f a n a t i c a l a n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r , d a v i d j o r i s , may a l s o have a b e a r i n g on wiebe's c h a r a c t e r i s a t o n o f r i e l : "the t e a c h i n g s o f j o r i s were a s t r a n g e m i x t u r e o f t h e o l o g i c a l f a n a t i c i s m and a n t i n o m i a n i s m . he c l a i m e d t o have a d i v i n e c a l l t o be a p r o p h e t and t o e s t a b l i s h t h e k i n g d o n o f god on e a r t h o v e r w h i c h he was t o r e i g n as t h e t h i r d d a v i d . he went as f a r as t o t e a c h t h a t t h e work and t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f c h r i s t were not adequate and t h a t t h e holy s c r i p t u r e s were t o be s u p e r s e d e d by h i s own l i t e r a l l y i n s p i r e d w r i t i n g s which c o n t a i n e d t h e f i n a l r e v e l a t i o n of god" (bender ) . wiebe would a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y have been f a m i l i a r w i t h bender's b i o g r a p h y , w h i c h appears i n the complete w r i t i n g s o f menno simons, t r . l e o n a r d v e r d u i n , ed. john c h r i s t i a n wenger ( s c o t t d a l e , p e n n s y l v a n i a , ). i n h i s " b i o c r i t i c a l e s s a y , " j . m . k e r t z e r s t a t e s t h a t wiebe c o m p l e t e d h i s b a c h e l o r o f theology degree a t t h e mennonite b r e t h r e n b i b l e c o l l e g e i n ( k e r t z e r x v ) , s i x y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f wenger's a u t h o r i t a t i v e and s e m i n a l e d i t i o n o f the complete w r i t i n g s . wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between t h e m e n n o n i t e s and t h e v i o l e n t a n a b a p t i s t s e c t s i n " u n e a r t h i n g language": "the o n l y t h i n g s [about anabaptism] r e c o r d e d i n t h e " o f f i c i a l " h i s t o r i e s concerned t h e s o - c a l l e d a n a b a p t i s t s john o f l e i d e n and j a n m a t t h i e s , and t h e i r i d e a o f t h e kingdom o f god coming down t o e a r t h and t h e i r h a v i n g t o b u t c h e r everyone i n muenster because o f t h e k i n d o f a t r o c i t i e s t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s committed. coming from t h e o t h e r t r a d i t i o n , and knowing t h a t , i n t h e t r a d i t i o n of t h e t r u e a n a b a p t i s t s , t h e m u e n s t e r i t e s were as h e r e t i c a l as any roman c a t h o l i c p r i e s t s e l l i n g pardons on a s t r e e t c o r n e r , i doubt t h e o f f i c i a l g i v e n h i s t o r y " (neuman ) . chapter : my lovely enemy the b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new i i n my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe t u r n s away from h i s t o r y as i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e b r o a d p u b l i c domain, t o e x p l o r e h i s t o r y as a phenomenon i n p r i v a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . the main n a r r a t i v e f o c u s e s on james dyck, a h a p p i l y m a r r i e d , m i d d l e - aged h i s t o r y p r o f e s s o r who, much t o h i s own s u r p r i s e , " f a l l s " i n t o a p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e a f f a i r w i t h a b e a u t i f u l young r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t , g i l l i a n o v e r t o n . trapped between two e q u a l l y d e s i r a b l e b u t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s — " t h e b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new" (mle i ) -james b e g i n s a p r o c e s s o f e m o t i o n a l , m o r a l and s p i r i t u a l r e - e v a l u a t i o n . i n james's mind, and i n wiebe's t e x t , p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e t a k e s on f i g u r a t i v e meanings: i t s e r v e s p r i m a r i l y as a metaphor w h i c h p e r m i t s i m a g i n a t i o n t o g r a s p f u l l y f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e t o o - f a m i l i a r c h r i s t i a n a b s t r a c t i o n o f god's r e d e m p t i v e l o v e f o r humanity. my l o v e l y enemy i s p r o f o u n d l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e - t h i n k i n g , r e t u r n i n g , r e c a l l i n g , r e n e w i n g , and r e - i n t e r p r e t i n g , t h a t i s , w i t h v a r i e t i e s o f c r e a t i v e r e p e t i t i o n w h i c h i s s u e from c o u p l i n g s o f i n n o v a t i o n w i t h t r a d i t i o n , s t r a n g e n e s s w i t h f a m i l i a r i t y , d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i d e n t i t y . i t i s t h e r e f o r e not s u r p r i s i n g t h a t wiebe r e a r r a n g e s and r e c r e a t e s p r e v i o u s l y employed s t r u c t u r a l , c o m p o s i t i o n a l and t h e m a t i c e l e m e n t s , a d a p t i n g them t o s u i t h i s e v o l v i n g a r t i s t i c - r h e t o r i c a l p u r p o s e s . t h i s s y n t h e s i s o f s t r a n g e and f a m i l i a r elements a t once a l i e n a t e s r e a d e r s f r o m t h e t e x t and s t i m u l a t e s a d e s i r e t o know i t more i n t i m a t e l y : i n e f f e c t , t h e t e x t becomes t h e r e a d e r ' s " l o v e l y enemy." a n a t o m i s i n g t h e body o f t h i s l o v e l y enemy, one d i s c o v e r s new v a r i e t i e s o f d i s c o u r s e c o u p l e d w i t h c o m p o s i t i o n a l forms d e v e l o p e d i n wiebe's e a r l i e r works. elements o f t h e d r a m a t i c monologue form o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e and "my l i f e : t h a t ' s as i t was" c o - e x i s t w i t h t h e s y n c r i t i c form o f the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a and the temptations o f b i g b e a r , and w i t h t h e t h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n used i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many and f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . the f o u r "may" c h a p t e r s i n my l o v e l y enemy combine a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e and s t r e a m - o f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s monologue. t h i r d p e r s o n o m n i s c i e n t n a r r a t i o n p r e v a i l s i n t h e two "september" c h a p t e r s and i n t h e i n t e r l u d e e n t i t l e d "the b l a c k b r i d g e , " w h i l e i n t e r p o l a t e d s t o r i e s n a r r a t e d by u n i d e n t i f i e d v o i c e s c o m p r i s e t h e i t a l i c i s e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t . throughout t h e e n t i r e n o v e l , extended passages o f c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y a p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t t h e m a t i c and s t r u c t u r a l r o l e . james and g i l l i a n engage i n v e r b a l as w e l l as s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e . through d i a l o g u e , t h e y c o l l a b o r a t e i n a s e a r c h f o r t h e meaning o f t h e i r c l i c h e d , y e t p e r s o n a l l y u n p r e c e d e n t e d , e m o t i o n a l and m o r a l dilemma. much o f t h e drama i n my l o v e l y enemy i s s u e s from a t e n s i o n between james's p r i v a t e i n n e r speech and t h e words he u t t e r s a l o u d t o o t h e r p e o p l e . many o f t h e n o v e l ' s most c r u c i a l i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n a space o f d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between james's l i n g u i s t i c a l l y - s t r u c t u r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s and t h e complex v e r b a l m i l i e u w h i c h p h y s i c a l l y s u r r o u n d s him, but w h i c h he s t r u g g l e s t o encompass and subsume. my l o v e l y enemy works complex i n n o v a t i o n s i n t o t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e l a s t employed i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . wiebe a g a i n b e g i n s t h e s t o r y i n medias r e s , i n h i s p r o t a g o n i s t ' s m i d d l e age, from w h i c h p o i n t t h e n a r r a t i v e moves c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y f o r w a r d w h i l e g l a n c i n g i n t e r m i t t e n t l y backwards i n t i m e t o t h e p r o t a g o n i s t ' s t r o u b l e d y o u t h , as w e l l as t o e a r l i e r i n c i d e n t s i n r e g i o n a l and f a m i l y h i s t o r y . a s i g n o f wiebe's i n c r e a s e d a r t i s t i c c o n t r o l i s h i s a b i l i t y t o move s m o o t h l y back and f o r t h between e x p e r i e n t i a l and c h r o n o l o g i c a l t i m e . by a l l o w i n g p r e s e n t , p a s t and f u t u r e t o v i e c a r n i v a l i s t i c a l l y i n james's s t e a d i l y e v o l v i n g p s y c h e , wiebe s u b v e r t s t e m p o r a l l i n e a r i t y , w i t h o u t e n t i r e l y r e j e c t i n g i t as an o r g a n i s i n g p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e n a r r a t i v e . wiebe's a u t h o r i a l p r a c t i c e s b o t h endorse and v i o l a t e t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l manner o f h a n d l i n g t i m e i n r e a l i s t n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e . my l o v e l y enemy c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h themes w h i c h might seem new, b u t w h i c h wiebe has been d i s c u s s i n g i n p r i n t as f a r back as - i n h i s w e e k l y e d i t o r i a l s i n the mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d . the n o v e l a l s o f u r t h e r s wiebe's o n g o i n g f i c t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f c u l t u r a l and p o l i t i c a l i m p e r i a l i s m , t h e p l u r a l i t y o f i d e n t i t y , t h e problems o f w r i t i n g h i s t o r y and t h e hegemony o f language. two themes s t a n d out i n p a r t i c u l a r as new i n t h e n o v e l . f i r s t , t h e p a t h o f wiebe's e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e ranges o f l o v e t a k e s an u n e x p e c t e d t u r n i n t o t h e r e a l m o f s e x u a l i t y , a s u b j e c t c o n s i d e r e d b r i e f l y i n p r e v i o u s work, b u t never s c r u t i n i z e d a t such c l o s e g u a r t e r s o r i n such e x p l i c i t p h y s i c a l d e t a i l . second, mv l o v e l y enemy i s wiebe's most s e l f - r e f l e x i v e n o v e l t o d a t e . i t may be r e a d ' a s an a l l e g o r i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l dynamics i m p l i c i t i n a l l w r i t i n g and r e a d i n g p r o c e s s e s . the r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e , a p e r i p h e r a l f i g u r e i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r , assumes a p o s i t i o n o f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e i n my l o v e l y enemy, and h i s s t r u g g l e t o u n d e r s t a n d cannot be d i v o r c e d from h i s s t r u g g l e t o v e r b a l i z e . wiebe c e r t a i n l y makes h i s r e a d e r s s t r u g g l e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e x t , and t o v e r b a l i z e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f r e a d i n g i t . as p i e r r e s p r i e t p o i n t s o u t , wiebe d e l i b e r a t e l y p r o b l e m a t i z e s t h e p r o c e s s of r e a d i n g : " t h e r e a r e few pages which p r e s e n t no o b s c u r i t y by t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s " ( , ) . v e r y o f t e n , t h e d i a l o g i c a n g l e between h i s v o i c e and t h a t of h i s p r o t a g o n i s t cannot be a s c e r t a i n e d . gaps o c c u r i n t h e n a r r a t i v e , and.at c r u c i a l p o i n t s i n s e n t e n c e s . d i f f e r e n t t i m e s and p l a n e s o f r e a l i t y i n t e r s e c t : t h e f a n t a s t i c a l and t h e h i s t o r i c a l , t h e o t h e r - w o r l d l y and t h e mundane c o - e x i s t i n a t e n s e b a l a n c e i n my l o v e l y enemy. of t h e d i a l o g i z i n g d e v i c e s w h i c h a l l o w m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s t o e n t e r t h e t e x t , some remain c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n v e n t i o n s o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e , w h i l e o t h e r s f l a u n t t h e f i c t i o n a l i t y o f t h e t e x t . many v o i c e s speak i n james' monologue, f o r example, because he i s " a f f l i c t e d " (as he p u t s i t ) w i t h t o t a l r e c a l l o f l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f spoken and w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e . however, i n t h e i t a l i c i s e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t , wiebe i n t r o d u c e s o t h e r , u n i d e n t i f i e d n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n o r a p o l o g y . by p e r m i t t i n g t h e codes o f f o r m a l r e a l i s m t o o v e r l a p w i t h a n t i - r e a l i s t c o n v e n t i o n s , wiebe s i t u a t e s r e a d e r s on a " b l a c k b r i d g e " between c o n t r a d i c t o r y modes of p e r c e p t i o n . these and o t h e r p r o b l e m a t i c f e a t u r e s p l a c e t h e onus on r e a d e r s t o engage i n a c t i v e d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t . wiebe c e r t a i n l y s t i m u l a t e s a n a c r i s i s and a c t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g on t h e p a r t of h i s r e a d e r s . i n t h e p r o c e s s , he r e l i n q u i s h e s a degree o f s e m a n t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e t e x t . more o v e r t l y t h a n i n any o f h i s p r e v i o u s works, wiebe a s k s r e a d e r s t o a c t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s l y as c o - c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings t h e y " d i s c o v e r " i n t h e t e x t . and y e t , wiebe a l s o compromises h i s r e a d e r ' s freedom t o engage i n e g u a l d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e t e x t by w r i t i n g t h e i r p a r t f o r them, as i t were. through james dyck, t h e r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e who a r r i v e s f i n a l l y a t t h e r i g h t - r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n , wiebe r e a s s e r t s a u t h o r i a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e n o v e l , and a t t e m p t s t o s e t l i m i t s on i t s s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y . to an even g r e a t e r degree t h a n i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear . wiebe c r e a t e s a t e n s i o n i n my l o v e l y enemy between d e v i c e s w h i c h r e l e a s e h e t e r o g l o s s i a and d e v i c e s w h i c h r e p r e s s i t . w h i l e a n a c r i s i s a c t i v a t e s numerous d i f f e r e n t r e a d i n g s o r v o i c i n g s o f t h e t e x t , t h e r e a d e r - s u r r o g a t e f u n c t i o n s t o s t a n d a r d i z e t h e r e a d e r s ' r e s p o n s e s . my l o v e l y enemy t h u s p r e s e n t s a c h a l l e n g e t o t r a d i t i o n a l m o n o l o g i c forms o f c r i t i c a l e x p o s i t i o n . c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e w h i c h adopts a f i x e d , u n i t a r y r e a d i n g p o s i t i o n cannot hope t o hear what t h e t e x t says t o and about i t s c o u n t l e s s p o s s i b l e i n t e r l o c u t o r s . the d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e r e f o r e a d o p t s a m u l t i - f o c a l a p p r o a c h . i t m i r r o r s t h e t e x t from t h r e e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s . i i wiebe engages i n p o l e m i c a g a i n s t t h r e e forms o f a n t i - i m a g i n a t i v e d i s c o u r s e i n my l o v e l y enemy: dominant c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f l o v e and s e x u a l i t y , t h e r e l e n t l e s s l y i m p e r i a l i s t d i s c o u r s e s o f r a t i o n a l c o g n i t i o n , and n a i v e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h e o l o g y and m o r a l law. the n o v e l r e p l i e s t o p r o p o n e n t s of p o p u l a r l i t e r a r y and c i n e m a t i c t r e a t m e n t s o f s e x u a l l o v e w h i c h , by p r o m o t i n g s e x i s m , v o y e u r i s m , and cheap, m e l o d r a m a t i c e m o t i o n a l i s m , t r i v i a l i z e a p o t e n t i a l l y p r o f o u n d s u b j e c t . wiebe makes f r e q u e n t use o f g i l l i a n ' s v o i c e i n c o m p o s i t i o n a l d i a l o g u e t o parody i n v a l i d ways o f t a l k i n g about "the a c t " ( ) . a t t h e p a l l i s e r h o t e l , f o r example, as james and g i l l i a n ( a l o n e a t l a s t ) manoeuvre towards t h e bed, g i l l i a n ' s l a u g h t e r s h a t t e r s james's c l i c h e d e x p e c t a t i o n s : "we're supposed t o b e . . . a t a-most c r u c i a l moment, l a u g h t e r seems l i k e , i dunno, s l i g h t l y i n n a . . . i n a p p r o p r i a t e ? " " v i o l i n s . . . t h e a u d i e n c e l e a n s f o r w a r d , t e n s e , 'how much w i l l we see? what?' not ' c r u c i a l ' moment, i t ' s t h e most s a c r e d moment i n t h e g r e a t e s t voyeur a r t e v e r i n v e n t e d , t h e n o r t h a m e r i c a n movie, what, what e x a c t l y w i l l i s e e ? " "not as s a c r e d as t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l when t h e man t e l l s h i s w i f e , 'i'm r e a l l y s o r r y d e a r , b u t i l o v e h e r . " "that's i t , t h e w i f e e x p l o d e s ! " ( ) through t h i s and o t h e r uses o f p a r o d i c l a n g u a g e — ( " y o u r f u c k i n g f i n g e r s a r e up my f u c k i n g w i f e ' s c u n t ! " [ ] ) — wiebe d i s t a n c e s my l o v e l y enemy e x p r e s s l y f r o m t h e s t e r e o t y p e s w h i c h dominate a l l b u t a few c o n t e m p o r a r y s t o r i e s about l o v e and s e x u a l i t y . wiebe endeavours t o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t h e e r o t i c , and g i v e i t " l a r g e r meanings" by s i t u a t i n g s e x u a l p a s s i o n i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a b r o a d e r m e t a p h y s i c a l i n q u i r y / g i l l i a n ' s d e s i r e t o know james " t h r o u g h t h e f l e s h " ( ) c o n f e r s an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e on t h e s e x u a l a c t . i t s t a n d s m e t o n y m i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l f o r n o n - r a t i o n a l , n o n - v e r b a l ways o f knowing, w h i c h open c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o new forms o f s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e : "when t h e s p i r i t o f t h a t p l a c e g a t h e r e d , wrapped us up i n t o one w i t h i t s e l f , what d i d you t h i n k we were d o i n g , eh? f u c k i n g ? " i have d e t e s t e d t h a t word a l l my l i f e ; i t has n e v e r sounded so r e p u l s i v e l y u g l y . her f a c e i s so c l o s e i have t o l i f t my g l a s s e s . "no...no...," i can m u t t e r a t l a s t , " l o v i n g . " "yes, d e a r e s t god i was s t r u n g by e v e r y nerve i have from a l l t h e s t a r s and p l a n e t s . " ( ) wiebe u r g e s r e a d e r s t o v i e w james' and g i l l i a n ' s s e x u a l u n i o n as more t h a n mere " c o u p l i n g . " as g i l l i a n d e s c r i b e s i t , t h e moment o f orgasm i n v o l v e s more t h a n two human e n t i t i e s j o i n i n g p h y s i c a l l y ; a l a r g e r power a b s o r b s them, t o g e t h e r w i t h a l l t h e r e s t o f humanity, i n t o i t s e l f , m o m e n t a r i l y s a t i s f y i n g a u n i v e r s a l b u t seldom acknowledged human y e a r n i n g f o r u n i t y w i t h one a n o t h e r and w i t h god. c o m p o s i t i o n a l l y marked d i a l o g u e p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n mv l o v e l y enemy. d u r i n g t h e i r c l a n d e s t i n e m e e t i n g s , g i l l i a n and james h e l p each o t h e r t o a t t a i n — a n d a l s o t o v e r b a l i z e — t h e f l e e t i n g j o y o f complete s p i r i t u a l f u l f i l m e n t : "at t h a t moment [ o f orgasm] i f e e l . . . t o t a l l y and c o m p l e t e l y m y s e l f and c o m p l e t e l y w i t h you, i n a way i'm wiped c l e a n o f e v e r y t h i n g and i n a n o t h e r way i've never l i v e d so a b s o l u t e l y i n a l l my mind and body. l i k e i was e l e c t r i f i e d . . . . " " s i n g i n g ? " "yes, s i n g i n g b u t n o t j u s t one v o i c e , a whole o r c h e s t r a , b e i n g y o u r s e l f and a whole o r c h e s t r a , t o g e t h e r , you u n d e r s t a n d ? " ( ) in d i a l o g i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n , james and g i l l i a n d i s c o v e r t h e image o f her body as a s i t e where many v o i c e s s i n g i n p e r f e c t u n i s o n . as i n h i s p r e v i o u s n o v e l s , wiebe employs t h i s image o f many-voiced m o n o g l o s s i a t o s i g n i f y p e r f e c t s o c i a l harmony i n t h e human w o r l d and p e r f e c t harmony between humanity and god. and y e t , as james and g i l l i a n a r e p a i n f u l l y aware, t h e i r a f f a i r p u t s them e n t i r e l y a t odds w i t h s o c i e t y , and i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n o f a l l c o n v e n t i o n a l v e r s i o n s o f god's m o r a l law. james' and g i l l i a n ' s p h y s i c a l u n i o n a t once i n t e g r a t e s them i n t o and a l i e n a t e s them from human s o c i e t y and t h e s o c i e t y o f god. w h i l e many c h r i s t i a n w r i t e r s equate " l u s t " w i t h l a s c i v i o u s s i n f u l p a s s i o n , wiebe emphasises t h a t " ' l u s t ' i n german means h a p p i n e s s , j o y " ( ) . i n s t e a d o f making h i s r e a d e r s f e e l ashamed o r g u i l t y about t h e i r s e x u a l i t y , wiebe p l a c e s t h e a c c e n t on t h e e x q u i s i t e j o y o f sex, and uses t h a t j o y as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n h i s own, s t i l l d i s t i n c t l y c h r i s t i a n , r h e t o r i c a l scheme. the m o r t i c i a n p r e s i d i n g a t ruth dyck's f u n e r a l a r t i c u l a t e s wiebe's r h e t o r i c a l s t r a t e g y : " s t a r t [ i m a g i n i n g god's i n f i n i t e l o v e ] w i t h t h e most p e r f e c t e x p e r i e n c e o f l o v e you've e v e r had" ( ) . the c o r n y i d e a o f god b e i n g "head o v e r h e e l s i n l o v e " ( ) w i t h humanity draws r h e t o r i c a l v a l i d i t y from wiebe's b e l i e f t h a t " i t ' s always good t o t e l l p e o p l e what you know t h e y a l r e a d y know' a l r e a d y " ( ) . wiebe d r a m a t i s e s god's a l l - c o n s u m i n g d i v i n e l o v e i n terms o f s e x u a l p a s s i o n , a m y s t e r i o u s , p o w e r f u l , u n i v e r s a l l y - k n o w n human e x p e r i e n c e . one o f wiebe's c r e a t i v e c o n n e c t i o n s between human and d i v i n e l o v e h i n g e s on t h e m u l t i p l e meanings o f t h e word " p a s s i o n " : [ j e s u s : ] "...but i l i k e y o u r p a s s i o n . " [james:] " p a s s i o n ' s a meaning t h a t goes two ways." [ j e s u s : ] "don't i know i t . " ( ) as does "peace" i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, and "the good i n d i a n " i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear, " p a s s i o n " c r o s s e s b o r d e r s between speech genres i n t h e t e x t of my l o v e l y enemy b e f o r e wiebe i n s e r t s i t i n t o a c h r i s t i a n system o f meaning. j e s u s i n i t i a l l y employs " p a s s i o n " t o r e f e r t o james's m o r a l e a r n e s t n e s s . james's r e j o i n d e r adds a s e x u a l meaning t o t h e term. but j e s u s ' s a r d o n i c a l l u s i o n t o h i s own s u f f e r i n g on t h e c r o s s d i c t a t e s t h e o v e r a l l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l ' s d i a l o g i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e word. the i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f t h e word " p a s s i o n " e p i t o m i s e s t h e "double-speak" and d o u b l e - v i s i o n wiebe g e n e r a t e s t h r o u g h o u t my l o v e l y enemy. r e a l i s t i c and a l l e g o r i c a l codes, each w i t h i t s r e s p e c t i v e system o f a c c e n t s , v i e f o r dominance t h r o u g h o u t . wiebe g r a d u a l l y r e v e r s e s t h e i n i t i a l b a l a n c e o f power between t h e two. what seem a t f i r s t t o be i n s i g n i f i c a n t c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l s w i t h i n t h e f o r m a l r e a l i s t code assume g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e s y m b o l i c a l l y and a l l e g o r i c a l l y . c o n v e r s e l y , james' and g i l l i a n ' s l o v e a f f a i r , w h i c h dominates t h e f o r e g r o u n d of t h e "may" s e c t i o n o f t h e n o v e l , r e c e d e s i n t o t h e background as t h e scope o f wiebe's i n q u i r y i n t o "the e n e r g i e s o f l o v e " broadens. "love," m a n i f e s t i n i t i a l l y as james' and g i l l i a n ' s " b o d i e s p e n e t r a t i n g each o t h e r " ( ) , s e r v e s u l t i m a t e l y t o f o c u s i m a g i n a t i o n on t h e r e d e m p t i v e power o f god's d i v i n e l o v e , "the i n e x p r e s s i b l e and t h e s o - f a r u n i m a g i n a b l e f o r w h i c h you have always l o n g e d " ( ) . by t h e end o f my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe no l o n g e r c o n c e a l s t h e f a c t t h a t he l o o k s t h r o u g h t h e p h y s i c a l - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d a t h i g h e r t h i n g s . whether he succeeds i n s h i f t i n g h i s r e a d e r s ' a t t e n t i o n remains t o be seen, however. the n o v e l " c o n s o r t s w i t h t h e enemy" i n t h a t i t employs p r o f a n e language and images t o l u r e a t t e n t i o n t o w a r d s t h e r e a l m o f s a c r e d r e a l i t i e s . w i e b e r i s k s l e a v i n g h i s r e a d e r s b e h i n d by p o s i n g q u e s t i o n s on one p l a n e o f a c t i o n and a n s w e r i n g them on a n o t h e r . in t h e p r o c e s s o f d e - t r i v i a l i s i n g s e x u a l i t y , wiebe l a y s h i m s e l f open t o t h e charge o f a v o i d i n g t h e d i s t u r b i n g m o r a l and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d i n t h e e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s o f t h e n o v e l . wiebe g i v e s t h e l a s t word on t h e meaning o f james' and g i l l i a n ' s l o v e a f f a i r not t o e i t h e r o f t h e p e o p l e who have l i v e d t h r o u g h t h e e x p e r i e n c e b u t t o t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e o t h e r - w o r l d l y t e a c h e r - f i g u r e , t h e v e n e r a b l e m o r t i c i a n who p r e s i d e s o v e r ruth dyck's r e s u r r e c t i o n : "one f o r one m a r r i a g e i s f o r e a r t h , now. messy as i t i s , i t ' s s t i l l b e t t e r t h a n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c a s u a l m a t i n g , though human n a t u r e seems t o p u l l t h a t way.... i t ' s not t h a t you a r e n ' t m a r r i e d t o any one t h e r e [ i n heaven]; you a r e m a r r i e d t o everyone." ( ) [emphasis added] i f t h i s pronouncement i s a c l o s i n g s t r a t e g y , i t seems s t r a i n e d and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y because i t depends on a sudden r e v e r s a l , a r e - t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e l o v e r s ' i n t e n s e p a s s i o n i n t o an a n i m a l i s t i c , s p i r i t u a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s a c t i o n . " i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c a s u a l m a t i n g " sounds s u s p i c i o u s l y l i k e a p o l i t e euphemism f o r " f u c k i n g . " the m o r t i c i a n ' s term t w i s t s t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e n o v e l back upon i t s e l f , as i f i n sudden r e c o i l from t h e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s d i s c o v e r e d t h r o u g h wiebe's i m a g i n a t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h h i s c h a r a c t e r s . a l t h o u g h t h e m o r t i c i a n has t h e l a s t word on t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a f f a i r , t h a t word has a l r e a d y been pre-empted and p a r r i e d i n advance by g i l l i a n ' s "what d i d you t h i n k we were d o i n g , eh? f u c k i n g ? " ( ) . to t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s q u e s t i o n r e s o n a t e s and e n t e r s i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s m a g i s t e r i a l f i n a l pronouncement, wiebe a r t i c u l a t e s two c o n t r a d i c t o r y paradigms o f t r u t h and m o r a l v a l u e i n t h e t e x t — o n e d i a l o g i c a l l y d i s c o v e r e d i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h h i s two main c h a r a c t e r s , t h e o t h e r m o n b l o g i c a l l y imposed by h i s t e a c h e r - f i g u r e . james i s a d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f c h r i s t i a n from joseph dueck i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, o r j o s h b i s h o p i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e , o r john reimer i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a , a l l o f whom p e r f o r m e d t h e r o l e o f t h e c h r i s t i a n t e a c h e r - f i g u r e . a l t h o u g h james i s a t e a c h e r by p r o f e s s i o n - - a " p r o f e s s - o r " ( ) as he p u t s i t — h e does not by any means know a l l t h e answers t o t h e m o r a l and t h e o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s wiebe r a i s e s i n my l o v e l y enemy. wiebe's e a r l i e r t e a c h e r - f i g u r e s e x h i b i t e d a t e n d e n c y t o engage i n p e d a g o g i c a l d i a l o g u e s , b u t wiebe s a t i r i z e s james whenever he r e s o r t s t o such measures. james i s no a u t h o r i t a t i v e c u s t o d i a n and d i s s e m i n a t o r o f a f i x e d , m o n o l o g i c code o f a b s o l u t e t r u t h s and m o r a l l a w s , but r a t h e r a " r e a d e r - f i g u r e , " a f a l l i b l e i n d i v i d u a l i n v o l v e d i n an o n g o i n g s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f s e a r c h i n g f o r and d i s c o v e r i n g god. james' g r o p i n g d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e s towards s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s u g g e s t t h a t wiebe v i e w s r e l i g i o u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g as a p r o c e s s r a t h e r than a p r o d u c t . but wiebe's p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h james undergoes a s u b t l e change a t t h e p o i n t where t h e m o r t i c i a n b e g i n s t o speak i n t h e n a r r a t i v e . wiebe demotes james from t h e r o l e o f f r e e and e q u a l co- a u t h o r i n t h e " g r e a t d i a l o g u e " between w r i t e r and c h a r a c t e r s , t o a p o s i t i o n o f s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o wiebe's monologic a u t h o r i a l w i l l . a l t h o u g h james's p o i n t o f view s t i l l dominates t h e "september" s e c t i o n , an o m n i s c i e n t , t h i r d p e r s o n p a s t t e n s e n a r r a t i v e t a k e s t h e p l a c e o f james's f i r s t - p e r s o n , p r e s e n t - t e n s e d i s c o u r s e w h i c h c o m p r i z e d t h e "may" s e c t i o n . moreover, i n t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r o f t h e n o v e l , t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s v o i c e becomes a b s o l u t e l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e . t h i s l a s t - m i n u t e appearance o f a deus ex machina i n t h e o t h e r w i s e h i g h l y d i a l o g i z e d t e x t s u g g e s t s t h a t , as i n h i s o t h e r n o v e l s , wiebe cannot e n t i r e l y s u p p r e s s h i s own l i n g e r i n g n o s t a l g i a f o r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t v i s i o n o f a m o n o l o g i c god. i l l a t b o t h a t h e m a t i c and a s t y l i s t i c l e v e l , my l o v e l y enemy c o n t e s t s t h e hegemony o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . the m u l t i - n a t i o n a l computer c o r p o r a t i o n , ibs, s t a n d s m e t o n y m i c a l l y i n t h e n o v e l f o r a l l t h e b u s i n e s s , s c i e n t i f i c and government a g e n c i e s whose i n t e r e s t s l i e i n e x p a n d i n g and c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e empire o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e , t h e r e b y p r o m o t i n g m e c h a n i s t i c t h o u g h t and s u p p r e s s i n g t h e powers o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . james's d y s t o p i a n f a n t a s y o f f u t u r e r e s e a r c h e x t r a p o l a t e s from t r e n d s a p p a r e n t t o wiebe a t t h e t i m e o f w r i t i n g t h e n o v e l . he e n v i s a g e s a g i a n t , v o r a c i o u s , computer, a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e w o r l d ' s s i g n systems i n t o a s i n g l e , a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g m a s t e r - code: " e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e i s a l r e a d y known and programmed f o r , a l l p l a c e s s c r e e n a b l e , a l l m y s t e r y and d i s c o v e r y and v i s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e v a n i s h e d , e v e r y word e v e r w r i t t e n o r p i c t u r e p a i n t e d o r d i a g r a m drawn o r t h o u g h t now l o o k i n g as i f i t had been made by an ibs t y p e w r i t e r . . . . " "a machine t r a n s f o r m i n g a l l words i n t o m a g n e t i c p a r t i c l e s , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e human s t a n d i n g by?" "not j u s t words, p i c t u r e s t o o , a n y t h i n g , t h e v e r y shapes o f a r t e f a c t s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o l l a t e d , t h e anatomic p a r t i c l e s o f paper o r c l o t h , do you know how many p o s s i b l e f a c t s t h e w o r l d c o n t a i n s ? . . . . the machine t r a c k i n g t h r o u g h s t a c k s and e l e c t r o n i c a l l y i n g e s t i n g e v e r y fragment and d u s t b l o t and h o m o g e n i z i n g i t a l l i n t o one—•" ( - ) james a r t i c u l a t e s an a m b i v a l e n t a t t i t u d e t o t h e p r o s p e c t o f a s t a b l e , u n i v e r s a l code such as t h e omnivorous computer p r o m u l g a t e s i n h i s f a n t a s y . on t h e one hand, james c o n f e s s e s t h a t he "always e n j o y e d t h e c o l d p r e c i s i o n o f mathematics, t h e a b s o l u t e i m p e r s o n a l l o g i c o f i t " ( ) ; " r e p e a t a b l e l o g i c , c l e a r b a l a n c e , a g r a s p a b l e s e n s i b l e u n i t y and c o m p l e t e n e s s " ( ) t a k e t h e p l a c e o f t h e s o l i d , permanent m e t a p h y s i c a l c e r t a i n t i e s o f h i s e a r l y f u n d a m e n t a l i s t c h r i s t i a n i t y . r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e o f f e r s p a r t i a l compensation f o r t h e l o s t " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " ( ) o f james's eden. on t h e o t h e r hand, james a l s o r e c o g n i z e s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h a s i n g l e , u n i v e r s a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l system, i f always used " c o r r e c t l y , " must e v e n t u a l l y i m p r i s o n human c o n s c i o u s n e s s . h i s a l l u s i o n t o george o r w e l l ' s n i n e t e e n e i a h t y - f o u r b r i n g s t o mind t h e r o l e o f newspeak i n b i g b r o t h e r ' s program f o r i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l : i t s l e x i c o n f i x e s t h e l i m i t s o f awareness and p r e - d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a t e g o r i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e mind can a s s i m i l a t e r e a l i t y , w h i l e t h e grammar o f t h e system d i r e c t s a l l c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s i n t o p r e - d e t e r m i n e d p a t t e r n s . an e x a m i n a t i o n o f james's language r e v e a l s an o b v i o u s d u a l i t y w h i c h e x p r e s s e s h i s a m b i v a l e n c e towards r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . whenever james wants t o g l o s s o v e r c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , o r when he f i n d s h i m s e l f i n awkward s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , o r wants t o ward o f f s p i r i t u a l a g o r a p h o b i a o r postpone some impending p e r s o n a l " j o u r n e y i n t o i n n e r d a r k n e s s " ( ) , h i s speech g r a v i t a t e s towards t h e s a f e , s o l i d ground o f l a b e l s , f a c t s and f i g u r e s . yet he a l s o s t r u g g l e s t o " t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , " t o f r e e h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s from t h e c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by t h e norms o f "the n e c e s s a r y language" ( ) . on t h e s e o c c a s i o n s , h i s language v i o l a t e s p r i n c i p l e s o f l i t e r a l usage, g r a m m a t i c a l c o r r e c t n e s s , and i o g i c a l c o n s i s t e n c y . i t becomes " t w i s t e d , " f i g u r a t i v e , fragmented, ambiguous, c r y p t i c , and a b s u r d , t h e v e r y a n t i t h e s i s o f t h e i d e a l s embodied i n r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . to " t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , " james must d e f y t h e c e n t r i p e t a l f o r c e s which s t a n d a r d i z e and u n i f y l a n g u a g e . he must b r e a k t h e g r a m m a t i c a l r u l e s w h i c h , by d i c t a t i n g word' o r d e r and form, l i m i t t h e f r e e i n t e r b r e e d i n g o f words. i n h i s own language, he e f f e c t s a " t r u l y c r e a t i v e e x p l o s i o n " such as he w i s h e s would o c c u r i n t h e c i r c u i t r y o f t h e computer: somewhere, someday t h a t m a s s i v e s p i n n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d j u s t p o s s i b l y r e a s s e m b l e i t s e l f beyond t h e c o n t r o l o f any programmer and a l l t h a t complex d a t a would r e c o n s t i t u t e i t s e l f i n a t r u l y i n v e n t i v e e x p l o s i o n and mother f o r t h a t r e a s u r e no one had d a r e d i m a g i n e b e f o r e . . . . but f o r a computer, such an e x p l o s i o n o f f a n t a s t i c new w o r l d would o f c o u r s e not be a d i s c o v e r y ; i t w o u l d be a m i s t a k e , and t h e whole purpose o f computers, as f o r a l l t e c h n o l o g y , i s t o e l i m i n a t e m i s t a k e . that i s how t o c o n t r o l t h e w o r l d : t o make t h e u n e x p e c t e d i m p o s s i b l e . bah. ( ) to t h i n k d i f f e r e n t , james must a l s o a r t i c u l a t e t h e spaces between n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s , between speech g e n r e s , and between t h e words o f any u t t e r a n c e . k e e p i n g t h e s e spaces open p r e v e n t s language from o p e r a t i n g i n t h e manner o f a m o n o l o g i c s i g n a l system: i f he c o u l d name, he would know. hast du d i v i e l i e f t ? h i s mother says t o him, naming i t i n low german. not, have you f a l l e n i n l o v e , b u t have you y o u r s e l f i n - l o v e d ? . .. . e n l o v e d , 'en: a p r e f i x meaning p r i m a r i l y " i n " o r " i n t o " . . . w i t h t h e o l d c o n c r e t e f o r c e o f b r i n g i n g t h e o b j e c t i n t o a s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n , as " s h r i n e , " " e n s h r i n e . ' " e n l o v e ? i f he c o u l d o n l y g a t h e r t h e words t o speak. ( ) as p i e r r e s p r i e t has shown i n h i s i l l u m i n a t i n g a r t i c l e , " s t r u c t u r e and meaning i n rudy wiebe's my l o v e l y enemy." t h e u n o r t h o d o x and c o n t r a d i c t o r y elements p e r v a d i n g james's speech form p a r t o f t h e n o v e l ' s l a r g e r " . s t r u c t u r e o f i n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s " ( ) . s p r i e t i d e n t i f i e s a v a r i e t y o f means by which wiebe c r e a t e s e f f e c t s o f d i s s o n a n c e and i n c o h e r e n c e i n my l o v e l y enemy: t h e d e l i b e r a t e c o n f u s i o n o f t i m e s , p l a c e s and i d e n t i t i e s , t h e magic r e a l i s t f u s i o n o f v e r i s i m i l i t u d e and f a n t a s y , t h e i n c o n s i s t e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f c h a r a c t e r i s a t i o n , t h e f u s i o n of mimesis and myth, t h e asymmetry o f t h e may and september s e c t i o n s , and t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t y p o g r a p h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e and s y n t a c t i c a l c o n t i n u i t y w h i c h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s e p a r a t e s and j o i n s t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d passages t o t h e main body o f t h e t e x t — t h r o u g h a l l t h e s e means, "coherence i s not j u s t a v o i d e d ; i n c o h e r e n c e i s now a s s e r t e d as t h e new o r d e r " ( , ) . s p r i e t argues c o n v i n c i n g l y t h a t wiebe's r e f u s a l s o f r a t i o n a l coherence push c o g n i t i o n beyond i t s customary bounds, and t h a t wiebe's e l a b o r a t e s t r u c t u r e o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s e f f e c t s a " s y s t e m a t i c d e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o g i c a l language" ( , ) . however, s p r i e t d e v e l o p s t h i s p o i n t i n t o t h e b r o a d e r c l a i m t h a t my l o v e l y enemy s i g n i f i e s t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f words and p o i n t s t o a r e a l i t y w h i c h cannot be p u t i n t o words and w h i c h i s s y m b o l i z e d i n t h e t e x t by 'the p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words.' ( , ) james might a t t r i b u t e h i s l i m i t e d v i s i o n t o what s p r i e t c a l l s t h e i n a d e q u a c y o f words: "perhaps i c o u l d l i v e beyond t h e m i r r o r t h a t w a l l s me i n , " he s p e c u l a t e s , "and e v e r y e x i s t e n c e i t s e l f would metamorphose from t h e a b s u r d i n t o . . . w h a t ? m y s t e r y " ( ) . but as f a r as wiebe i s c o n c e r n e d , s p r i e t ' s t e r m , "the i n a d e q u a c y o f words," w a r r a n t s c l o s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o ask whose words e x h i b i t t h i s "inadequacy?" i n my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe r e t u r n s a g a i n and a g a i n t o t h e n o t i o n of god c r e a t i n g t h e w o r l d ex n i h i l o , "by t a l k i n g " ( ) . wiebe does not adopt t h e p o s t - m o d e r n i s t c r e e d t h a t " r e a l i t y . . . cannot be p u t i n t o words"; i n s t e a d , he p o s i t s a r e a l i t y w h i c h has not y e t been d i s c o v e r e d by human words. from wiebe's c h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f view, t h e r e i s no r e a l i t y t h a t has not a l r e a d y been p u t i n t o words once and f o r a l l t i m e by god's a c t o f s p e a k i n g t h e u n i v e r s e i n t o b e i n g . wiebe p o s i t s a t r a n s c e n d e n t , t i m e l e s s r e a l i t y c r e a t e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y by god's a l l - i n c l u s i v e , p r i m o r d i a l u t t e r a n c e . t h i s d i v i n e , u n i v e r s e - c r e a t i n g u t t e r a n c e , c o n t a i n s b u t exceeds t h e sum o f a l l human u t t e r a n c e s . the " p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words" r e f e r s t o t h a t p o r t i o n o f r e a l i t y w h i c h remains as y e t beyond human words. wiebe b e l i e v e s i n , b u t cannot f u l l y a r t i c u l a t e t h e a b s o l u t e , c o m p l e t e , m o n o l o g i c t r u t h beyond human words. r a t h e r , he p a r t i c i p a t e s i n humankind's d i a l o g i c s t r u g g l e t o d i s c o v e r t h a t t r u t h . a r g u a b l y , wiebe l o c a t e s t h e problem o f l i m i t e d human p e r c e p t i o n not i n any i n t r i n s i c i n a d e q u a c y o f w o r d s - i n - g e n e r a l , b u t i n p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s of s i g n i f y i n g systems, and p a r t i c u l a r modes o f c o n c e p t u a l i s i n g , m a n i p u l a t i n g and a s s i m i l a t i n g language w h i c h i n h i b i t t h e d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r i n g t r u t h . my l o v e l y enemy c o n t e s t s t h e f o r c e s w h i c h push l i n g u i s t i c s i g n s towards t h e r i g i d monologism o f what v o l o s i n o v c a l l s s i g n a l s , t h e f o r c e s w h i c h h y p o s t a t i z e language as an i n e r t "system o f n o r m a t i v e l y i d e n t i c a l f o r m s " ( v o l o s i n o v ) immune from t h e i n f l u e n c e o f human c r e a t i v i t y and from a l l h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s of becoming. s i g n a l systems attempt t o s u p p r e s s a l l c o n t e x t u a l i n f l u e n c e s ; t h e y a b o l i s h "theme" from t h e s i g n i f i e d , and acknowledge o n l y "meaning." u n d e r s t a n d i n g becomes a m a t t e r o f " r e c o g n i z i n g t h e l i n g u i s t i c form used by t h e speaker as t h e f a m i l i a r , ' t h a t v e r y same form'" ( v o l o i i n o v ), not d i s c o v e r i n g i t s n o v e l "theme" i n t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d c o n t e x t o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n c r e t e u t t e r a n c e . hayden white's d e s c r i p t i o n o f " f o r m a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l systems" p r o v e s a p p l i c a b l e t o v o l o s i n o v ' s " s i g n a l s y s t e m s " : t h e y " e n v i s a g e ... t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f f i g u r a t i v e usage a l t o g e t h e r [so t h a t ] . . . n o t h i n g 'unexpected' appears i n t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t s o f s t u d y " (white ) . wiebe does not d e c o n s t r u c t l a n g u a g e - i n - g e n e r a l , b u t " a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t " models o f language ( v o l o s i n o v ) , w h i c h s u p p r e s s t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y and t h e d i a c h r o n i c i t y o f language. wiebe d e c o n s t r u c t s t h e " a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t " model o f language by d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l languages and d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l d i a l e c t s . a t t h e same t i m e , he i m p l i c i t l y c e l e b r a t e s t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s w h i c h m a i n t a i n t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y and d i a c h r o n i c m u t a b i l i t y o f language. wiebe's t e x t "opens" t h e a b s t r a c t o b j e c t i v i s t model i n o r d e r t o engender new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r language t o o b j e c t i f y , e v a l u a t e and r e - i n v e n t i t s e l f o v e r t i m e . wiebe's v e r b a l a r t e f a c t t h u s i d e n t i f i e s , and t o some e x t e n t c i r c u m v e n t s , some o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s s p r i e t assumes t o be i n t r i n s i c t o t h e v e r b a l medium i n g e n e r a l . as w e l l as l a m e n t i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f human language i n mv l o v e l y enemy. wiebe a l s o c e l e b r a t e s i t s powers. were i t not f o r words, " t h e p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words" would remain f o r e v e r o u t s i d e t h e r e a l m o f human awareness. wiebe p o i n t s t o — a n d e x p l o i t s — t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e c a p a c i t i e s o f language. he s t r e s s e s t h a t god made humankind i n h i s own image, as a t a l k i n g b e i n g . he a l s o n o t e s t h a t adam d i s c o v e r s , o n l y t h r o u g h t h e a c t o f naming, t h a t he has no " h e l p meet" ( ) i n eden. james's m e n t a l b r e a k t h r o u g h a t a l b e r t and a r d y t h ' s p a r t y r e s u l t s from h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o " f o l l o w words b l i n d one a f t e r t h e o t h e r as t h e y made t h e p a t h i was w a l k i n g " ( ) . a l t h o u g h he cannot l e a v e t h e m e n t a l p a t h c r e a t e d by h i s e x p l o r a t o r y words, w i t h o u t t h o s e words he c o u l d n o t even imagine t h e t e r r i t o r y t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e word-path l e a d s . when wiebe o b s e r v e s i n h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h r o b e r t k r o e t s c h and s h i r l e y neuman t h a t "language i s an a c t u a l way o f l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r l d ; i f we d i d n ' t have language, we wouldn't see t h e w o r l d t h e way we see i t now" (neuman ), he r e f e r s t o t h e p o t e n c y as w e l l as t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f words. i f language i s a m i r r o r , wiebe does not smash i t . i n s t e a d , he f i n d s i t s u n r e c o g n i z e d c r a c k s , and t h e n a r r a n g e s t h e p i e c e s a t j u d i c i o u s l y chosen a n g l e s so t h a t t h e m i r r o r might b e g i n t o r e f l e c t i t s own w o r k i n g s . as wiebe's s t y l e c e l e b r a t e s t h e p l u r a l i t y o f l a n g u a g e , i t s c a p a c i t y t o o b j e c t i f y i t s e l f , and i t s a b i l i t y t o d e v i a t e c r e a t i v e l y from o f f i c i a l norms, i t a l s o j o l t s r e a d e r s i n t o " t h i n k i n g d i f f e r e n t , " l i b e r a t i n g t h e i r awareness from t h e u s u a l hegemony o f l a n g u a g e . wiebe t r a n s g r e s s e s t h e r u l e s o f " c o r r e c t " s t a n d a r d e n g l i s h i n my l o v e l y enemy. e l l i p s e s and u n f i n i s h e d s e n t e n c e s c a t a p u l t t h o u g h t toward "the p e r f e c t w h i t e between t h e words," w h i l e puns, a n t e c e d e n t l e s s pronouns, and o t h e r forms o f g r a m m a t i c a l a m b i g u i t y p l a c e r e a d e r s "between t h e words" i n a n o t h e r way, i n spaces where c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o p o s i t i o n s and/or i n c o m p a t i b l e l i n g u i s t i c codes o v e r l a p . the n a r r a t i v e a l s o s i g n i f i e s i t s freedom from c o n s t r a i n t by v i o l a t i n g a r i s t o t l e ' s u n i t i e s o f t i m e , p l a c e and a c t i o n , and by f l a g r a n t l y d e f y i n g c l a s s i c a l norms o f g e n e r i c p u r i t y . wiebe pushes language away from t h e p o l e o f r a t i o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e , y e t he a l s o t a k e s c a r e t o a v o i d t h e o p p o s i t e extreme. r a d i c a l forms o f e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e language s u b v e r t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n - f a c t o r a l t o g e t h e r , a l l o w i n g "theme" t o m o n o p o l i z e t h e s i g n i f i e d e n t i r e l y , t h e r e b y s h a t t e r i n g t h e s h a r e d code i n t o u n r e c o g n i z a b l e f r a g m e n t s : j o y c e becomes l e s s and l e s s h u m a n — t o me, anyway. he becomes a l m o s t t o t a l b r a i n t o t h e p o i n t o f j u s t i n v e n t i n g h i s own language so t h a t nobody knows what he i s even w r i t i n g about. (neuman ) wiebe does not speak " h i s own language" i n my l o v e l y enemy: he speaks as a member o f s e v e r a l language communities. a l t h o u g h h i s meaning might remain o b s c u r e a t t i m e s , t h e forms o f t h e words and s e n t e n c e s r e m a i n c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z a b l e as v a r i a n t s o f s t a n d a r d e n g l i s h . u n l i k e j o y c e , who " d i s a p p e a r s i n t o t h e d e s e r t " (neuman ) o f c r e a t i v e m y s t i c i s m , wiebe remains s t r o n g l y committed t o t h e i d e a o f t h e human community, and t h u s t o t h e c o n c e p t o f s h a r e d , e v o l v i n g norms and c o n v e n t i o n s i n language. my l o v e l y enemy s e a r c h e s f o r a b a l a n c e between t h e s t a t i c monologism o f t h e . s i g n a l and t h e d i f f u s e p o l y p h o n y o f t h e r a d i c a l e x p l o r a t o r y - c r e a t i v e s i g n . i n t h e l i g h t o f volo§inov's d i s t i n c t i o n between "theme" and "meaning" i n u t t e r a n c e s , my l o v e l y enemy can be r e a d as an a l l e g o r i c a l m e d i t a t i o n on t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f language. g i l l i a n s t a n d s a l l e g o r i c a l l y f o r t h e "theme" o f any word o r u t t e r a n c e , f o r a l l i t s u n p r e c e d e n t e d , c o n t e x t u a l l y - d e t e r m i n e d s i g n i f i c a n c e s , a l l t h e new t w i s t s a c c o m p l i s h e d on e v e r y o c c a s i o n o f i t s use; l i v s t a n d s f o r t h e "meaning," t h a t i s , f o r a l l t h a t remains r e c o g n i z a b l y t h e same i n a g i v e n word o r u t t e r a n c e d e s p i t e i t s passage from one h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t t o a n o t h e r : " a l l t h o s e a s p e c t s o f t h e u t t e r a n c e t h a t a r e r e p r o d u c i b l e and s e l f - i d e n t i c a l i n a l l i n s t a n c e s o f r e p e t i t i o n " (volo§inov ), t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t "remain t h e same i n a l l i n s t a n c e s o f i t s e n u n c i a t i o n " ( v o l o s i n o v ). v o l o s i n o v ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y o f theme and meaning i m p l i e s t h a t a l l u s e r s o f language f a c e a v e r s i o n o f james' dilemma: there i s no theme w i t h o u t meaning and no meaning w i t h o u t theme. moreover, i t i s even i m p o s s i b l e t o convey t h e meaning o f a p a r t i c u l a r w o r d . . . w i t h o u t h a v i n g made i t an element o f t h e s e , i . e . w i t h o u t h a v i n g c o n s t r u c t e d an "example" u t t e r a n c e . on t h e o t h e r hand, a theme must base i t s e l f on some k i n d o f f i x i t y o f meaning; o t h e r w i s e i t l o s e s i t s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h what came b e f o r e and what comes a f t e r — i . e . i t a l t o g e t h e r l o s e s i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e . ( ) u n l i k e t h e computer, wiebe does not use language p u r e l y as a s i g n a l system, w h i c h would e l i m i n a t e "theme" a l t o g e t h e r by d e n y i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o n t e x t . nor does wiebe i m i t a t e james j o y c e , who r e p u d i a t e s "meaning" a l t o g e t h e r : w i t h o u t elements w h i c h t r i g g e r p r o c e s s e s o f r e c o g n i t i o n , v e r b a l s i g n systems d i s i n t e g r a t e e n t i r e l y . i n s t e a d o f c h o o s i n g e i t h e r one o f t h e s e l i n g u i s t i c modes, wiebe s e a r c h e s f o r a p p r o p r i a t e ways t o accommodate b o t h . he a t t e m p t s t o d i r e c t t h e h i s t o r i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f language w i t h o u t e i t h e r d i v o r c i n g h i m s e l f from o t h e r p e o p l e o r c r e a t i n g r a d i c a l d i s j u n c t i o n s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f language. as james w i s h e s t o r e l i n q u i s h n e i t h e r g i l l i a n nor l i v , wiebe a b o l i s h e s n e i t h e r "theme" nor "meaning" from h i s d i s c o u r s e . he t h u s embraces b o t h "the b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new" i n language. iv in my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe engages p o l e m i c a l l y w i t h proponents o f n a i v e c h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s m such as can be found i n c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s o f t h e mennonite c h u r c h . f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a s s u m p t i o n s do t o t h e b i b l e what american movies do t o t h e i d e a o f l o v e , and what computers do t o t h e " p i e d beauty" o f language: t h e y reduce t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y t o a s t a n d a r d i z e d code, a s i g n i f y i n g system so r i g i d , e x p l i c i t , and s e l f - c o m p l e t e as t o r e n d e r i m a g i n a t i v e a c t i v i t y s u p e r f l u o u s . m e n n o n i t e s , l i k e o t h e r a n a b a p t i s t g r o u p s , r e l y on t h e b i b l e as t h e i r " s o l e s o u r c e o f s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y " ( s m i t h ) . as wiebe p o i n t s o u t i n h i s foreword t o peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, t h e y base t h e i r f a i t h on " t h e l i t e r a l meaning o f t h e b i b l e " ( ) . i n my l o v e l y enemy, o l d h i l d e b r a n d t , t h e m i n i s t e r o f t h e v u l c a n mennonite church, g i v e s v o i c e t o f u n d a m e n t a l i s t l i t e r a l i s m : he "dominated two hundred f a m i l i e s w i t h a f o r m u l a i c s i m p l i c i t y o f u l t i m a t e s a l v a t i o n " ( ). james's f a t h e r , aaron dyck, r e g a r d s h i l d e b r a n d t as t h e " f i n a l u l t i m a t e and immovable a u t h o r i t y " ( ) . o l d h i l d e b r a n d t and aaron dyck " f i t t e d t o g e t h e r l i k e a f i s t and an eye" ( ) , an image w h i c h , w i t h superb economy, connotes b l i n d n e s s and p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e . ruth dyck g i v e s v o i c e t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n ' s n a i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f h i l d e b r a n d t ' s god. she q u e s t i o n s n e i t h e r h i s a u t h o r i t y nor h i s r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n i n g p r o c e s s : he was a v e r y good man... he always knew r i g h t from wrong. i t ' s l i k e a w h i t e s h i r t , he s a i d , i s i t c l e a n o r not? i f you have t o a s k , i t ' s d i r t y . ( ) to young james, r a i s e d i n t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f l i t e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , h i l d e b r a n d t "seemed so a n c i e n t and p o w e r f u l i m i s t o o k him f o r god, a n c i e n t o f days" ( ) . o l d h i l d e b r a n d t ' s t y r a n n y matches t h a t o f deacon b l o c k i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many o r adam ross i n f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e : he r e d u c e s t h e word t o a f i x e d code o f l a w s , and god t o "the one s u r e hand o f punishment" ( ) . h i l d e b r a n d t p e r s o n i f i e s a l l t h a t wiebe a t t e m p t s t o a v o i d i n h i s manner o f a d d r e s s : dogmatism, v i o l e n c e , and f e a r o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . l i k e "a b l a s t o f t h u n d e r s t o r m " ( ) , h i l d e b r a n d t ' s sermons p h y s i c a l l y a s s a u l t t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n : "you d i d n ' t know what h i t you b u t you were s h a k i n g " ( ) . by c o n t r a s t , wiebe's n o v e l a t t e m p t s t o p r o p o s i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n v e r b a l l y rape i t s a u d i e n c e , t o a c t i v a t e i m a g i n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n " i n v a s i o n t e r r o r " ( ) . in b a k h t i n i a n t e r m s , h i l d e b r a n d t e n f o r c e s a m o n o l o g i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . h i s r i g i d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m d e n i e s t h e r e a d e r ' s a c t i v e r o l e as c o - c r e a t o r o f meanings i n t h e b i b l e . as w e l l as f a i l i n g t o acknowledge t h e h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l and p e r s o n a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s w h i c h shape h i s own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e b i b l e , h i l d e b r a n d t r e p r e s s e s any tendency i n o t h e r s t o e x p l o r e t h e d i a l o g i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e word. the s t o r y o f t h e cree c h i e f , maskepetoon r e f l e c t s o b l i q u e l y on t h e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g f u n d a m e n t a l i s t h e r m e n e u t i c s . u n t i l h i s m i d d l e y e a r s , maskepetoon's " c o n s c i o u s n e s s seems u n t e x t u r e d by any c o m p l e x i t y , e i t h e r e x t e n d e d t h o u g h t , doubt, o r even h e s i t a t i o n " ( ) . he l i v e s i n t h e c a p s u l e o f a c l o s e d c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c a l m i l i e u , as do t h e members o f h i l d e b r a n d t ' s c o n g r e g a t i o n . d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f e a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h white c u l t u r e , maskepetoon's p e o p l e r e g a r d w r i t i n g and p r i n t w i t h p r o f o u n d awe, much i n t h e same way as mennonites r e v e r e t h e p r i n t e d words o f t h e b i b l e . r e a d i n g george simpson's o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e i n d i a n s ' a t t i t u d e s t o t h e w r i t t e n word, james s u d d e n l y r e a l i z e s t h e i r p e r t i n e n c e t o f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h i n k i n g , and t o h i s own c i v i l i z e d , " s c i e n t i f i c " h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h methods: though not one o f h i s [maskepetoon's] countrymen would u n d e r s t a n d a word o f what was w r i t t e n , y e t t h e most s c e p t i c a l among them would not d a r e t o q u e s t i o n t h e t r u t h o f a s t o r y w h i c h had a document i n i t s f a v o u r . a savage s t a n d s n e a r l y as much i n awe o f p a p e r , pen and i n k as o f steam i t s e l f ; and i f he once p u t s h i s c r o s s t o any w r i t i n g , he has r a r e l y been known t o v i o l a t e t h e agreement w h i c h such w r i t i n g i s supposed t o embody o r s a n c t i o n . to him t h e v e r y l o o k o f b l a c k and w h i t e i s a p o w e r f u l ' m e d i c i n e ' . the power o f words w r i t t e n down t h e a b s o l u t e word made v i s i b l e . and me wrapped i n t h i s enormous c o n d e s c e n s i o n r e g a r d i n g savage ' m e d i c i n e , ' i n q u o t e s , who i n d e e d was p a r t i a l l y c i v i l i z e d once he has c l o s e d h i s hand t o make such words. the h i s t o r i a n s ' f a c t beyond f a c t coming t o me l i k e a coup d ' e t a t . ( ) a l t h o u g h james has l o n g ago escaped p h y s i c a l l y from t h e c h u r c h and f a m i l y a u t h o r i t i e s who so s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d t h e scope of h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t h e p a s t , he remains e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y i m p r i s o n e d w i t h i n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t assumptions c o n c e r n i n g t h e dynamics o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . the image of james s i t t i n g i n t h e narrow cone o f l i g h t shed by t h e s i n g l e b u l b o f t h e m i c r o - r e a d e r , w h i l e e v e r y t h i n g a r o u n d remains l o s t i n g r e y o b s c u r i t y , makes v i v i d l y c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a t h a t even i n a d u l t h o o d james remains t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e narrow c o n f i n e s o f m o n o l o g i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s . g i l l i a n i n i t i a t e s james i n t o a d i a l o g i c v i e w o f t h e g e n e s i s o f t r u t h and meaning: "hey o l d man, hey, when w i l l you be, come an h i s t o r , i a n y o u ' r e a f a c t , mongerer, f a c t - m o n g e r e r , h i s t o r y i s n ' t f a c t s , i t s p e r s o n a l i t y y t h e whole w o r l d , t h e u n i v e r s e , i s p e r s o n a l i t y , when w i l l you, e v e r y t h i n g i s , p e r s o n a l i . . . . t h e w o r l d i s under, c o n s t r u c t i o n , do you f e e l t h a t ? always e v e r y w o r l d , i s b e i n g made i s c o n s c i o u s , ness not o n l y f a a a a a a c t s ! do you f e e l t h a t ! " [ s i c ] ( ) james l e a r n s t h a t , whether t h e y acknowledge i t o r n o t , h i s t o r i a n s , l i k e a l l r e a d e r s ( i n c l u d i n g f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b i b l e - r e a d e r s ) , p l a y an a c t i v e r o l e as c o - c r e a t o r s o f t h e meanings t h e y " f i n d " i n t e x t s . the " w o r l d " o f w h i c h g i l l i a n speaks i n c l u d e s t h e w o r l d o f language. words, t o o , remain "under c o n s t r u c t i o n " ( ) , as each new c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n g i v e s t h e i r meaning a new " t w i s t . " james s h i f t s from a p a s s i v e a c c e p t a n c e o f " r e c e i v e d h i s t o r y " t o a c o n s c i o u s l y a c t i v e , c r e a t i v e , d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e documented f a c t s o f t h e p a s t . a t the mine r e s t a u r a n t , he r e j e c t s r i c k i ' s n a i v e c l a i m t h a t h i s t o r y i s "what happened" ( ) and u p h o l d s o a k e s h o t t ' s v i e w t h a t h i s t o r y " ' i s t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e ' " ( ) . l i k e t h e h i s t o r i a n i n wiebe's s h o r t s t o r y , "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?", james l e a r n s t o a b o l i s h t h e " e p i c d i s t a n c e " w h i c h s e p a r a t e s p a s t f r o m p r e s e n t . in t h e i t a l i c i z e d s e c t i o n s o f maskepetoon's s t o r y , james i d e n t i f i e s w i t h a young member o f maskepetoon's band, and r e c o u n t s e v e n t s as i f he were a p a r t i c i p a n t and e y e - w i t n e s s , t h e r e b y b r e a k i n g out o f t h e c l o s e d c a p s u l e o f t h e p r e s e n t i n t o a d i r e c t , i m a g i n a t i v e a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e p a s t . t h i s i n t e r p o l a t e d s t o r y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e g e n e r i c h y b r i d i t y o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e : because t h e i m a g i n a t i o n supplements, w i t h o u t c o n t r a v e n i n g , t h e f a c t s s u p p l i e d i n t h e t e x t u a l r e c o r d s , t h e s t o r y mixes documented f a c t w i t h f i c t i o n . even t h e most r i g o r o u s l y " s c i e n t i f i c " h i s t o r i c a l d i s c o u r s e i s s u e s from a d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e h i s t o r i a n ' s i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e documented f a c t s , and o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h o s e f a c t s . the term " p r o f e s s i o n a l blasphemy" ( ) c r e a t e s a nexus i n t h e n o v e l between t h e s c i e n t i f i c v i e w o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h as a " s e a r c h f o r whatsoever t h i n g s a r e t r u e " ( ) , and t h e c h r i s t i a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s t c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e y have f o u n d t h e one " t r u e , " l i t e r a l meaning o f god's word. on an a l l e g o r i c a l l e v e l , james's " f a l l " from monogamy may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a l o s s o f t h e i n n o c e n c e o f m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n and u n i t a r y l a n g u a g e . g i l l i a n ' s f i r s t words t o james a l e r t him t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a space between human knowledge and a b s o l u t e t r u t h : "for y o u r p r a y e r t o be answered, would you have t o know he [ r i e l ] was not hanged?" ( ) . in d i a l o g u e w i t h g i l l i a n , james l e v e r s h i m s e l f i n t o a space between p r o f a n e and s a c r e d speech g e n r e s , where e r o t i c language b l e n d s w i t h t h e r i t u a l language o f t h e h o l y communion: she has pushed me, perhaps i have f a l l e n i n t o t h a t p e r f e c t w h i t e between what few words i have found i n t o a n o t h e r w o r l d — d r i n k me, e a t me, a l l you have t o do i s t a s t e me, come, d r i n k ye a l l o f i t . . . ( ) james l e a v e s t h e " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " ( ) o f eden, and e n t e r s a c o n f u s i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i c r e a l m r u l e d by p r i n c i p l e s o f d o u b l e n e s s , c o n t r a d i c t i o n , a m b i g u i t y , p a r a d o x , h y b r i d i t y . james remarks r e p e a t e d l y on g i l l i a n ' s " c o n t r a d i c t o r y tongue" ( ) ; p h y s i c a l l y , she embodies p a r a d o x i c a l q u a l i t i e s such as " s l e n d e r s o f t n e s s " ( ) and " v e l v e t s t e e l " ( ) . s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e becomes a metaphor f o r d i a l o g i c v e r b a l i n t e r c o u r s e , out o f w h i c h may i s s u e h i t h e r t o u n t h i n k a b l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , new c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f r e a l i t y , and u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e a d i n g s o f c a n o n i c a l books o f t h e b i b l e . the f u n d a m e n t a l i s t n o t i o n o f l i t e r a l s p e e c h and r e a d i n g presupposes a " n a t u r a l " r e a l i t y and an e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l y n e u t r a l " o r d i n a r y " l a n g u a g e . i n my l o v e l y enemy. wiebe r e p l i e s t o t h e s e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s w h i c h u n d e r l i e f u n d a m e n t a l i s m by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s i n p a r t d e t e r m i n e c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e " o r d i n a r y , " and t h a t such c o n c e p t i o n s d i f f e r r a d i c a l l y from c u l t u r e t o c u l t u r e , from p l a c e t o p l a c e and f r o m one h i s t o r i c a l epoch t o t h e n e x t . r e a l i t i e s such as t h e p a d d l e - s t e a m e r and t h e w r i t t e n word, w h i c h n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y n o r t h a m e r i c a n w h i t e s a c c e p t as e n t i r e l y o r d i n a r y , seem t o o p r e p o s t e r o u s t o be b e l i e v e d by maskepetoon's p e o p l e . wiebe r e g i s t e r s t h e l i m i t a t i o n s and b i a s e s o f s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l l a n g u a g e s , such as low german ("which has no a b s t r a c t v o c a b u l a r y beyond ' s i n ' and 'decent' [ ] ) , e n g l i s h ( w i t h i t s b i - p o l a r s e p a r a t i o n o f t h i n g s from a c t i o n s [ ] ) , nootka (a " m o n i s t i c " language [ ] ) , h o p i ( w h i c h makes no d i s t i n c t i o n between p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e [ ] ) , greek (which "cannot say ' f o r e v e r ' [ ]) and german (which "has no word and so no c o n c e p t f o r 'goodbye'" [ ] ) . wiebe a l s o draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p l u r a l i t y o f speech g e n r e s w h i c h o p e r a t e w i t h i n any g i v e n n a t i o n a l language by c o n s t a n t l y " t w i s t i n g " o r r e - t r a n s l a t i n g key words i n t h e t e x t . puns, w o r d - p l a y , r a p i d s h i f t s between speech g e n r e s , and s h i f t s o f g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n pervade t h e t e x t o f my l o v e l y enemy. wiebe's a r t i s t i c p r a c t i c e t h u s c o r r o b o r a t e s g i l l i a n ' s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "there i s no u n i v e r s a l n a t u r a l l o g i c f u n d a m e n t a l t o language w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e w o r l d t o everyone i n e x a c t l y t h e same way. e v e r y language i s i t s own p e r s o n a l l o g i c . our language makes us t h i n k i n one p e r s o n a l way, and we cannot see a n o t h e r . " ( ) the l i n g u i s t i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y and s e m a n t i c p l u r a l i t y o f t h e t e x t embodies a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t p o s t u l a t e s c o n c e r n i n g o r d i n a r y r e a l i t y , u n i t a r y language and l i t e r a l , c o r r e c t meaning. f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h i n k i n g c o n f u s e s f i g u r a t i v e w i t h l i t e r a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n , p r o p o s i n g a n a t u r a l , u n c h a n g i n g , one- to-one e q u a t i o n between s i g n i f i e r and s i g n i f i e d . in h i s d i a l o g u e w i t h james i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y , j e s u s s u g g e s t s t h a t a l l language use i n v o l v e s some degree o f f i g u r a t i o n : " a l l words a r e image, s p e a k i n g i s t h e o n l y way human b e i n g s can h a n d l e l a r g e r e a l i t y . but t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e image and t h e r e a l i t y has t o be c l e a r . " ( ) no l i v i n g human language has a t t a i n e d t h e s t a t e o f a f o r m a l t e r m i n o l o g i c a l system w h i c h e l i m i n a t e s f i g u r a t i v e usages e n t i r e l y . j e s u s i n t i m a t e s t o james t h a t human b e i n g s have no o t h e r way o f d e s c r i b i n g god t h a n by making i m p l i c i t a n a l o g i e s between "him" and t h e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e i r known m i l i e u . not even t h e a p o s t l e s e n j o y exemption from t h i s human l i m i t a t i o n : c o n v e n t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g a t . t h e t i m e t h e y wrote t h e g o s p e l s caused them t o remain s i l e n t on t h e m a t t e r of j e s u s ' s e x u a l i t y , and on o t h e r " p r i v a t e " b o d i l y m a t t e r s such as e x c r e t i o n . a t t h e p a l l i s e r , wiebe's j e s u s t e l l s james, "'you l i m i t god's b r e a t h t o o much, t o one custom's way o f d o i n g and t h i n k i n g ' " ( ) . james's d i a l o g u e s w i t h j e s u s draws p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i c a l , c u l t u r a l and i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l f o r c e s s h a p i n g a l l v e r b a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f god, a b s o l u t e t r u t h and m o r a l law. j e s u s s u g g e s t s , f o r example, t h e "awesome g u l f between s p i r i t and m a t t e r " ( ) r e s u l t e d from t h e i n f l u e n c e o f n e o - p l a t o n i s m on c h r i s t i a n t h e o l o g y . god's maleness, t o o , d e r i v e s from t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and v a l u e s p r e v a i l i n g i n " m i d d l e - e a s t e r n p a t r i a r c h a l " ( ) s o c i e t y i n which t h e image o f a f a t h e r connoted r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and c o n c e r n f o r "the whole c l a n , a l l r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r t h r o u g h him" ( ) . i n t e r e s t i n g l y , wiebe's own i m p l i c a t i o n i n t h e p r o c e s s he w r i t e s about i s c l e a r l y a p p a r e n t t h r o u g h o u t my l o v e l y enemy. some o f t h e same s o c i a l v a l u e s as p r e v a i l e d i n " m i d d l e - e a s t e r n p a t r i a r c h a l " s o c i e t y a r e p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h e w r i t i n g o f a t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y mennonite canadian m a l e . f o r example, one o f t h e s e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s wiebe's j e s u s o f f e r s f o r god's m a s c u l i n e gender not o n l y has a d i s t i n c t male b i a s b u t i s a l s o couched i n o v e r t l y and c o v e r t l y s e x i s t language: "when man speaks o f 'god as mother' her a c t s u s u a l l y become so c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h n a t u r e . . . t h a t he f o r g e t s t h e image-ness and b e g i n s t o t h i n k t h e words as p h y s i c a l a c t u a l i t y . . . [ a n d ] s t a r t s a c t i n g out c o p u l a t i o n and b i r t h i n g and b e g i n s t o t h i n k he's god w h i l e he's d o i n g i t . . . . they b e g i n t o w o r s h i p n a t u r e . . . . and t h a t ' s i d o l a t r y , w o r s h i p p i n g t h e t h i n g made r a t h e r t h a n t h e maker o f i t . but god subsumes and i s f a r beyond b o t h n a t u r e and image. so i t i s b e t t e r t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e c o n c e p t o f god the father.... you a r e t h e n f o r c e d t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d not as t h e a c t o f p h y s i c a l b i r t h out o f god's womb, b u t r a t h e r as t h e a c t o f b e i n g spoken i n t o e x i s t e n c e by words coming out o f god's mouth." ( - ) b e s i d e s e m p l o y i n g "man" r a t h e r t h a n "human," and u s i n g "nature" t o evade t h e b i o l o g i c a l f a c t t h a t o n l y females a r e as y e t c a p a b l e o f g i v i n g b i r t h , wiebe grounds t h e l o g i c o f j e s u s ' argument on an u n s t a t e d a s s u m p t i o n t h a t o n l y males a r e c a p a b l e o f s p e e c h ! wiebe does not deny t h a t h i s — i n d e e d e v e r y p e r s o n ' s — a t t e m p t s t o d e c o l o n i z e t h e word i n e v i t a b l y c o l o n i z e i t anew. my l o v e l y enemy r e p l i e s , i n a sense, t o menno simons, who urged h i s f o l l o w e r s t o obey t h e word o f god r a t h e r t h a n t h e words o f humankind. wiebe c h a l l e n g e s t h i s c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between human and d i v i n e words by p o i n t i n g out t h a t t h e s c r i p t u r e s — t h e r e v e a l e d word o f g o d — have been refracted, sometimes many times over, through the voices of human beings. god's word, as humankind has access to i t i n the scriptures, i s i n e v i t a b l y "adulterated" or c r e a t i v e l y "corrupted" by i t s human mediators. by drawing attention to t h i s i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i z a t i o n i n the word, and by accentuating the gaps, evasions, ambiguities, contradictions, and the wealth of unexplored semantic p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n the bible, wiebe warns against unthinking, passive acceptance of the received, l i t e r a l version of the god's word. only through a process of constant reappropriation and semantic renewal does the word avoid o s s i f i c a t i o n , and r e t a i n i t s potency as the " l i v i n g word." the novel i d e n t i f i e s three stages i n the evolution of james's view of the word. during his childhood, james must learn large portions of the bible verbatim. church and family require him to know the scriptures by rote, or "by heart," but i t remains a language "understood but never t r u l y spoken" ( ), and therefore a contravention of the anabaptist i d e a l of free, responsible choice to accept c h r i s t i a n i t y . james moves into a second phase when he reacts against t h i s oppressive imposition of the word. having been a f f l i c t e d with t o t a l r e c a l l , james cannot expunge the bible from his memory, but he can express his contempt for the a u t h o r i t i e s who imposed i t upon him by r e c i t i n g i t i n a parodic manner. throughout the novel, whenever james quotes fragments from t h e b i b l e o r from hymns, he a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y g i v e s them a s h a r p i r o n i c t w i s t . however, he comes t o see h i s i r o n y as a manner o f c o n s o r t i n g w i t h "the enemy": t h e p a r o d i c i m p u l s e i m p l i c i t l y r e c o g n i s e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e v o i c e a g a i n s t w h i c h i t r e a c t s : i r o n y i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a t t i t u d e o f s l a v e s ; o f t h o s e who r e a c t t o t h e i r w o r l d b u t who a r e not s t r o n g enough t o d e t e r m i n e o r c r e a t e f o r t h e m s e l v e s . they l i v e t h e m o l l u s c ' s l i f e o f w a i t i n g and r e a c t i o n , t h e o n l y s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n a s u p p o s e d l y s u p e r i o r s n e e r — w h o s a i d t h a t ? perhaps i t h o u g h t i t m y s e l f . ( ) j e s u s u r g e s james t o " f o r g e t t h e q u o t a t i o n marks" ( ) around t h e word " l o v e , " t o renounce t h e i r o n y w h i c h p r o c l a i m s t h e s c r i p t u r e s as " o t h e r . " p a r a d o x i c a l l y , james can f r e e h i m s e l f from t h e human a u t h o r i t i e s who o p p r e s s e d him i n t h e p a s t o n l y by e m b r a c i n g "the enemy" word as h i s own. he t h e r e b y e n t e r s a t h i r d phase, t h a t o f a c t i v e , d i a l o g i c , p e r s o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e word. b a k h t i n ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e word and t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between james's i n i t i a l and f i n a l a t t i t u d e s o f a c c e p t a n c e . e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e language i s a s s i m i l a t e d by " r e c i t i n g i t by h e a r t " ( b a k h t i n , ). i t s a u t h o r i t y i s imposed from w i t h o u t r a t h e r t h a n g r a n t e d w i l l i n g l y from w i t h i n . the e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e word e n t i r e l y s u b j u g a t e s t h e v o i c e o f t h e p e r s o n a s s i m i l a t i n g i t . by c o n t r a s t , i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e d i s c o u r s e amounts t o a " r e t e l l i n g i n one's own words" ( b a k h t i n , ). the l i s t e n e r g r a n t s i t a u t h o r i t y v o l u n t a r i l y because t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word p r o v i d e s d i a l o g i c c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g t h e l i s t e n e r a l r e a d y a c c e p t s as t r u e . " t i g h t l y i n t e r w o v e n w i t h 'one's own word,'... t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word i s h a l f - o u r s and half-someone e l s e ' s " ( b a k h t i n , ). whereas e x t e r n a l l y a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i s c o u r s e s e g r e g a t e s i t s e l f from o t h e r d i s c o u r s e w h i c h might undermine o r c h a l l e n g e i t s a u t h o r i t y ( b a k h t i n , ), t h e i n t e r n a l l y p e r s u a s i v e word " e n t e r s i n t o i n t e r a n i m a t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h new c o n t e x t s " ( b a k h t i n , - ). james b e g i n s t o r e l a x h i s r i g i d l y i r o n i c a t t i t u d e by f i r s t e n g a g i n g w i t h t h e h o l y sonnets o f john donne: "'death be not p r o u d , ' " he s a i d o v e r them [ l i v and becca] i n t o t h e d a r k n e s s . "'though some have c a l l e d t h e e / m i g h t y and d r e a d f u l , f o r thou a r t n o t s o ; / f o r t h o s e whom t h o u t h i n k ' s t t h o u d o s t o v e r t h r o w / d i e n o t , poor d e a t h , nor y e t c a n s t t h o u k i l l me.'" "don't say t h a t u n l e s s you mean i t , " l i v a m o t i o n l e s s l e n g t h s u d d e n l y . "he means i t , " b e c c a s a i d . " i do," he s a i d . "yes." " i t h e l p s i n t h a t language, eh?" l i v s a i d , not i r o n i c a l l y . " k i n g james." ( ) donne's sonnet o f f e r s a c r e a t i v e , d i a l o g i c r e v o i c i n g o f i c o r i n t h i a n s : , - , w h i c h young a a r o n , james's nephew, r e a d s o v e r ruth dyck's c o f f i n a t h e r f u n e r a l : "'for as i n adam a l l d i e , even so i n c h r i s t s h a l l a l l be made a l i v e . f o r he must r e i g n t i l l he h a t h p u t a l l enemies under h i s f e e t . and t h e l a s t enemy t h a t s h a l l be d e s t r o y e d i s d e a t h . ' " ( ) james's a d u l t b a p t i s m — t h e r a i n which f a l l s on h i s f a c e o u t ' o f t h e c l e a r b l u e sky--comes a t a moment o f d i a l o g i c i n t e r a c t i o n between t h r e e e l e m e n t s : aaron's r e a d i n g o f t h e passage from c o r i n t h i a n s , donne's sonnet r e v e r b e r a t i n g i n james's i n n e r speech, and a n o n - v e r b a l s i g n o f l o v e i n t h e m o r t i c i a n ' s l o o k of " p r o f o u n d t e n d e r n e s s " ( ) towards o l e n a , w h i c h i t s e l f becomes a v a r i e t y o f w r i t i n g ( t h e t h o u g h t m a t e r i a l i z e d i n h i s [james's] head as i f t h e l o o k had w r i t t e n i t : o n l y l o v e can so d e s t r o y " [ ] ) . a t t h e moment o f baptism,, words " m a t e r i a l i s i n g " w i t h i n james's psyche r e a c h a d i a l o g i c "consensus f i d e l i u m " ( l i t t e l l ) w i t h t h e word e n t e r i n g james's psyche from w i t h o u t . james's p h y s i c a l l o v e f o r g i l l i a n s t a r t s him on "a t r a i l f a r beyond words" ( ) . but a t t h e end o f t h a t t r a i l , he r e t u r n s t o t h e word, " l i k e a r e d i s c o v e r y o f a known l a n d " ( ) . v i s i o n , i m a g i n a t i o n a l o n e i s not enough. nor, by i t s e l f , i s t h e word. the two must combine d i a l o g i c a l l y t o engender what wiebe r e g a r d s as genuine b e l i e f . james' and maskepetoon's s t o r i e s b o t h i l l u s t r a t e t h i s d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e . james l e a r n s t h e word by r o t e as a c h i l d , b u t cannot b e g i n t o u n d e r s t a n d what t h e b i b l e says about t h e power and m y s t e r y o f god's l o v e u n t i l he e x p e r i e n c e s t h e i n t e n s i t y o f p a s s i o n a t e s e x u a l l o v e w i t h g i l l i a n . maskepetoon t r a v e l s t o t h e same s p i r i t u a l p l a c e from t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . he r e c e i v e s h i s v i s i o n o f p e a c e — h i s arm, s w o l l e n t o g i g a n t i c s i z e , s i t t i n g l i k e a w a l l between h i s p e o p l e and t h e i r e n e m i e s — b u t he does not know what t h a t v i s i o n means, u n t i l t h e m e t h o d i s t m i s s i o n a r y , rundle, g i v e s him a cree s y l l a b i c b i b l e and t e a c h e s him t o r e a d . maskepetoon can r e a d i l y embrace c h r i s t i a n i t y o n l y because "rundle's t e a c h i n g seems l a r g e l y t o c o r r o b o r a t e what maskepetoon h i m s e l f has a l r e a d y come t o u n d e r s t a n d about l i f e " ( ). james r e t u r n s t o t h e word, where he s t a r t e d , t o f i n d he knows i t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . no l o n g e r t h e r i g i d m o n o l o g i c code of laws w h i c h h i l d e b r a n d t propounded, t h e b i b l e i s composed of "words you have t o keep l e a r n i n g t h e meaning o f a g a i n and a g a i n " ( ) . a t each r e - r e a d i n g one d i s c o v e r s "theme" and "meaning," t h e b e l o v e d f a m i l i a r and t h e b e l o v e d new. wiebe's d e s c r i p t i o n o f young aaron's b i b l e i n t h e f i n a l scene of t h e n o v e l p o i n t s t o t h e p e r t i n e n t q u a l i t i e s o f t h e d i a l o g i z e d word w h i c h y e t forms a common o r i e n t a t i o n p o i n t f o r c h r i s t i a n s : "the b l a c k book u n f o l d e d l i m p o v e r h i s hand as f i n e used l e a t h e r " ( ) . f l e x i b l e r a t h e r t h a n s t i f f , b e a r i n g s i g n s o f f r e q u e n t use r a t h e r t h a n s e q u e s t r a t i o n from t h e wear and t e a r o f d a i l y l i f e , t h i s book makes c o n c r e t e t h e i d e a o f t h e l i v i n g word. wiebe i m p l i e s i n my l o v e l y enemy t h a t t h e l o c u s o f t h e r e a l i z e d word i s not i n t h e p h y s i c a l pages of t h e p r i n t e d t e x t , nor i n t h e mouth o f any s i n g l e human a u t h o r i t y on b i b l i c a l e x e g e s i s , b u t i n "the space between" b e l i e v e r s who s t r i v e t o d i s c o v e r i t s meaning d i a l o g i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y . the b i b l e p r o v i d e s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e c h u r c h , a s i t e where many d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s o f c h r i s t i a n b e l i e f i n t e r s e c t . god emerges i n t o v i e w not o n l y i n e x t r a - v e r b a l space ( t h r o u g h v i s i o n o r r e v e l a t i o n ) , b u t i n i n t e r l o c u t o r y space i n t h e n o v e l . on b o t h o c c a s i o n s on which j e s u s appears t o james, he s t a n d s i n i n t e r s t i t i a l s p a c e s . a t t h e p a l l i s e r h o t e l , j e s u s " s t a n d s between t h e bed and t h e w a l l , t h e w a l l a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e bed i s t i g h t " ( ) . i n t h e r e l i g i o u s s t u d i e s s e c t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y , j e s u s s t a n d s "between books" ( ) w h i c h c o n t a i n "the g r o p i n g wisdom o f man m o i l e d from ages" ( ) . as w e l l as r e t u r n i n g t o t h e word, james a l s o r e t u r n s t o t h e c h u r c h . james's i m a g i n a t i o n has no monopoly o v e r god, whose p o s s i b i l i t i e s , wiebe i m p l i e s , exceed t h e sum o f a l l human i m a g i n i n g s . u n l i k e e m i l y d i c k i n s o n , who " c o u l d w r i t e w i t h complete c o n f i d e n c e , 'the s o u l s e l e c t s her own s o c i e t y [ g o d ] — / t h e n — s h u t s t h e door'" ( ) , james cannot e n t e r i n t o s o c i e t y w i t h god w i t h o u t a l s o r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g d i a l o g u e w i t h o t h e r b e l i e v e r s . he does n o t e n t e r t h e same k i n d o f c h u r c h he knew as a c h i l d w i t h a l l i t s i n t i m i d a t i n g m o r a l c o n t r o l s , b u t a f r e e s o c i e t y o f t h e f a i t h f u l made up o f e q u a l i n t e r l o c u t o r s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o r e a c h a "consensus f i d e l i u m . " the f i n a l p a r a g r a p h o f t h e n o v e l p r e s e n t s an image o f james l i s t e n i n g and s p e a k i n g , an image o f harmonious d i a l o g u e w i t h humanity and w i t h god: he wanted t o l i s t e n h i s l o v e d ones i n t o l i f e , now, even t h e ones who were no l o n g e r h e r e . . . . and he p r a y e d t o see them a l l a t once and know them a l l , not d i s t i n c t l y and s e p a r a t e , even h i m s e l f , b u t a l l one. f o r he u n d e r s t o o d t h e y a l l t o g e t h e r had t o speak o r he c o u l d never say what was r e a d y t o be i f o n l y i t would be spoken. so he opened h i s mouth t o make t h a t . and much more. ( - ) v as f a r back as peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many, wiebe e x p r e s s e s h i s awareness o f t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s . by t h e t i m e he p u b l i s h e s my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe has i n t e l l e c t u a l l y r e j e c t e d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l o r s o c i e t y , no m a t t e r how s t r o n g t h e i r f a i t h , can be c e r t a i n o f p o s s e s s i n g t h e one and o n l y v a l i d , d e f i n i t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . because t h e s c r i p t u r e s cannot be d i v o r c e d from t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e i r own becoming, t h e y t h r e a t e n t o d i s s o l v e i n t o an p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d , c o n t e x t u a l l y - c o n d i t i o n e d r e a d i n g s . from t h i s p r e m i s e , i t f o l l o w s t h a t wiebe's word c a n n o t c l a i m more v a l i d i t y t h a n any o t h e r r e a d i n g o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . no r e a d i n g , i n c l u d i n g h i s own, can exempt i t s e l f from t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s e s whereby meaning comes i n t o b e i n g . to p r e v e n t h i s r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s c o l l a p s i n g under t h e w e i g h t o f h i s own l o g i c , wiebe must a p p e a l t o an e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l a u t h o r i t y . hence, i n my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe opens up a gap between t r u t h and human knowledge. i n so d o i n g , he e f f e c t i v e l y d o u b l e s t h e word. wiebe d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between god's a b s o l u t e , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l , m o n o l o g i c word w h i c h e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f humankind's c a p a c i t y t o p e r c e i v e i t , and t h e d i a l o g i z e d w o r d - u n d e r - c o n s t r u c t i o n , as human b e i n g s can know i t . a l t h o u g h wiebe may have r e j e c t e d f u n d a m e n t a l i s m a t an i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l , t h e f a c t t h a t he needs t o d o u b l e t h e word, and s e t one p a r t on h i g h e r , e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l ground, a t t e s t s t o h i s l i n g e r i n g n o s t a l g i a o r y e a r n i n g f o r t h e " s i n g l e s i m p l i c i t y " ( ) o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t o u t l o o k . wiebe's t h e o l o g y o f t h e d o u b l e d word poses an i m p l i c i t c h a l l e n g e b o t h t o m e n n o n i t e and t o romantic a s s u m p t i o n s about a r t i s t i c c r e a t i v i t y . i n her r e v i e w o f my l o v e l y enemy i n t h e conrad g r e b e l review, magdalene redekop r e f l e c t s t h a t i t i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t we [ m e n n o n i t e s ] have many h i s t o r i a n s i n our m i d s t . our i n h i b i t i o n s about sex a r e as n o t h i n g compared t o our h o s t i l i t y t o t h e power o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , b u t b o t h d e r i v e from a common p u r i t a n s o u r c e . sex, a f t e r a l l , produces c h i l d r e n b u t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n p r o d u c e s what my f a t h e r used t o c a l l "uetaedochte g e s c h i c h t e " (thought-up s t o r i e s ) . l i k e p l a t o , we have f i g u r a t i v e l y b a n i s h e d p o e t s from our c o m m o n w e a l t h — e x c e p t , o f c o u r s e , i n s o f a r as f i c t i o n and imagery a c t as d e c o r a t i o n on a d i d a c t i c message. ( ) i n mv l o v e l y enemy. wiebe d i s p u t e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l mennonite v i e w t h a t human c r e a t i v i t y tampers h u b r i s t i c a l l y w i t h god's p r i m o r d i a l c r e a t i o n . a number o f h i s t o r i c a l and l i t e r a r y a l l u s i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t "thought-up s t o r i e s " a r e n o t , i n f a c t , "new," b u t a r e r e t r i e v e d by t h e w r i t e r from t h e v a s t domain o f god's c r e a t i o n t h a t e x i s t s o u t s i d e t h e sphere o f e x i s t i n g human awareness. wiebe l i k e n s t h e " f a n t a s t i c new w o r l d " ( ) c r e a t e d by a computer's " t r u l y i n v e n t i v e e x p l o s i o n " ( ) t o c h r i s t o p h e r columbus' d i s c o v e r y o f t h e bahamas. (the bahamas were not new; t h e l i m i t e d knowledge o f europeans made them seem so.) s i m i l a r l y , wiebe's a l l u s i o n t o t h e j o r g e l u i s b o r g e s ' s t o r y o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e i m a g i n a r y p l a n e t t l o n removes any a x i o m a t i c d i v i d i n g l i n e between f a n t a s y and f a c t , i n v e n t i o n and d i s c o v e r y : "whatever p l a c e t h o s e b r i l l i a n t men t h o u g h t t h e y were d i s c o v e r i n g a c t u a l l y a l r e a d y e x i s t e d " ( ) . and maskepetoon's t r a v e l s , w h i c h b r i n g him i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h a w o r l d as y e t undreamed o f i n h i s c u l t u r e , s u g g e s t s t h a t c a t e g o r i e s such as " f a n t a s y " and " r e a l i t y , " upon w h i c h t h e n o t i o n o f i m a g i n a t i v e " c r e a t i o n " depends, have no autonomous e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l e x i s t e n c e , b u t r e m a i n c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e s t a t e o f human knowledge i n any g i v e n t i m e and p l a c e . by p o s i t i n g a w o r l d new t o humanity b u t a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r t o god, wiebe n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e s t h e m e n n o n i t e s ' t r a d i t i o n a l " h o s t i l i t y t o t h e power o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n , " he a l s o d i s p u t e s t h e r o m a n t i c myth t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r t i s t i c i m a g i n a t i o n c r e a t e s from n o t h i n g . wiebe s u g g e s t s i n my l o v e l y enemy t h a t o n l y god can c r e a t e ex n i h i l o ; a n y t h i n g humanity can " c r e a t e , " i m a g i n e o r i n v e n t a l r e a d y e x i s t s , because i t has a l r e a d y been pre-empted by god. i f god has a l r e a d y "thought o f e v e r y t h i n g , f i n a l l y and f o r e v e r and from t h e b e g i n n i n g and a l l t i m e " ( ) , s h o u l d not t h e s o - c a l l e d " c r e a t i o n s " o f t h e human i m a g i n a t i o n be more a c c u r a t e l y be d e s c r i b e d as " d i s c o v e r i e s " ? and i f i m a g i n a t i v e " c r e a t i o n " i n v o l v e s d i s c o v e r i n g r e a l i t i e s w h i c h god has a l r e a d y c r e a t e d by t a l k i n g , does i t not f o l l o w t h a t human " c r e a t i v e " d i s c o u r s e s must i n e v i t a b l y c o n t a i n an element o f t h e p r o p h e t i c ? my l o v e l y enemy g i v e s a new t w i s t t o wiebe's f a m i l i a r q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming f r o m ? " . notes to chapter : my lovely enemy . unless otherwise indicated, page numbers appearing p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n chapter r e f e r my lovely enemy (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ). . robert kroetsch describes wiebe's manner of handling language as e r o t i c i n the l i g h t of roland barthes' notion of " b l i s s . " see "mirror, mirror, show us a l l , " rev. of the scorched-wood people, books i n canada, / (jan. ), . . pierre spriet discusses other ways i n which wiebe v i o l a t e s while at the same time endorsing the discourse of realism. see "structure and meaning i n rudy wiebe's my lovely enemy," i n robert kroetsch and reingard m. nischik, eds. gaining ground: european c r i t i c s on canadian l i t e r a t u r e (edmonton: newest press, ), - . . wiebe edited the mennonite brethren herald from i t s f i r s t issue on january , u n t i l june , . my lovely enemy contains themes and motifs included i n the following issues: the d i s t i n c t i o n between the laws and the s p i r i t of c h r i s t i a n i t y (may , ); g i v i n g the bride away at weddings (june , ); knowing the bible by heart without accepting i t s truth personally (june , ); the necessity of constant re-evaluation of b e l i e f (july , ); people who turn the world upside down (august , ); the necessity of renewing t r u t h (october , ). . "the black bridge" i s the t i t l e of the short section between "may" and "september" i n my lovely enemy. . pierre spriet o f f e r s a comprehensive analysis of the obstacles to coherent reading i n "structure and meaning i n rudy wiebe's my lovely enemy," i n robert kroetsch and reingard m. nischik, eds. gaining ground: european c r i t i c s on canadian l i t e r a t u r e (edmonton: newest press, ), - . . mv lovely enemy, of course, p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the c u l t u r a l construction of t h i s a l l e g e d l y "universal" human experience of sexual desire and g r a t i f i c a t i o n . see n. below, for a b r i e f discussion of sexism i m p l i c i t i n wiebe's s i g n i f y i n g practices. . see hildebrand ( ) for a thoroughgoing discussion of the i n t e r p l a y between r e a l i s t and a l l e g o r i c a l codes i n wiebe's e a r l i e r writing. . from a feminist point of view, wiebe also "consorts with the enemy." although wiebe challenges the notion of love which prevails i n male-dominated s o c i e t i e s , and dramatizes the appropriation of the female body and mind by p a t r i a r c h a l discourses, his aim i s not to release any repressed voice of feminine s u b j e c t i v i t y but to i n s e r t the term "woman" into an alternative p a t r i a r c h a l system of s i g n i f i c a t i o n . a feminist reading of my lovely enemy would f i n d ample evidence supporting the argument that wiebe decolonizes the female body only to colonize i t anew. the women i n my lovely enemy remain objects of male perception. mother, s i s t e r , wife, daughter, mistress, friend—wiebe i d e n t i f i e s a l l the female characters i n r e l a t i o n to james dyck. the women seem to stand i n a c i r c l e around james dyck, illuminated s o l e l y by the l i g h t of his desires. p o l i t i c a l l y speaking, i t makes l i t t l e difference whether the women are products of james's or wiebe's projected desires. my lovely enemy parodies but also reinforces p a t r i a r c h a l encodings of the r e a l . in the love-scenes, wiebe's writing straddles the borderline between parody and approbatory i m i t a t i o n of the harlequin romance. even when wiebe unambiguously s a t i r i z e s james for his automatic, unconscious reversion to sexist attitudes, wiebe's text consorts with i t s enemy by reaffirming "the maleness of the gaze" (hutcheon , ). ostensibly, wiebe repudiates binary thought, and r e j e c t s p a t r i a r c h a l practices which turn women into a commodity (for example, g i v i n g away the bride, or f e e l i n g g u i l t y about entering into a sexual r e l a t i o n s h i p with another man's wife). yet james and wiebe both assert semiotic control over the female body, thus r e i n s c r i b i n g the p a t r i a r c h a l power structure they contest. like volosinov's sign, the female body becomes a s i t e of struggle i n my lovely enemy. wiebe wrests the power to decide i t s meaning from other men, only to subordinate i t to his own r h e t o r i c a l purposes. the textual p o l i t i c s at work i n my lovely enemy thus p a r a l l e l those i m p l i c i t i n the temptations of big bear. the description of a s p e c i f i c a l l y male god speaking the universe into being ( - ) must also a t t r a c t what might be c a l l e d "the feminist gaze." this passage ostensibly parodies phallocentrism, and yet i t i s d i f f i c u l t to dismiss the p o s s i b i l i t y that i t functions also as a disguised form of d i r e c t authorial discourse. wiebe gives contradictory signals as to the d i a l o g i c angle between his own voice and that of his narrator. he also leaves open the question of whether james dreams or hears jesus' voice. by these means, wiebe conceals his own p o s i t i o n very e f f e c t i v e l y : he makes i t impossible to decide the status i n the text of jesus' description of god-as-author-of-all. if one interprets the passage as a parody of phallocentrism, wiebe s t i l l consorts with the enemy by hypostatizing the transcendent, monologic, e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l word ( d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n v o f t h i s c h a p t e r ) . a t many p o i n t s i n my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe r a i s e s i s s u e s c e n t r a l t o f e m i n i s t l i t e r a r y t h e o r y and c r i t i c i s m , however, h i s own a t t i t u d e s r e m a i n open t o q u e s t i o n . when a w r i t e r w o r k i n g i n an academic environment i n t h e s names h i s p r o t a g o n i s t james dyck, and p o s i t i o n s t h a t p r o t a g o n i s t between a f a i r g o d d e s s - f i g u r e ( l i v ) and a d a r k s e d u c t r e s s ( g i l l i a n ) , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o imagine he w r i t e s u n s e l f c o n s c i o u s l y and w i t h o u t i r o n y . the g u e s t i o n i s , who i s t h e t a r g e t o f t h i s i r o n y ? does wiebe parody p h a l l o c e n t r i c n a r r a t i v e ? or does he p a r o d y a c e r t a i n s c h o o l o f f e m i n i s t l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e ? see a l s o hutcheon ( ) f o r wiebe's comments on s p e a k i n g f o r someone o f a d i f f e r e n t \ gender o r r a c e . . wiebe does not p u r s u e t h e q u e s t i o n o f a c o l l u s i o n between " p a t r i a r c h y and p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e " ( ) , f o r example. . wiebe names b u s i n e s s , s c i e n c e and government as "the enemy" on page . . wiebe a l l u d e s t o n i n e t e e n e i g h t y - f o u r on page ; c e d r i c w h i t l i n g - h o l m e s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g r u e l l i n g work o f s h o v e l l i n g c o a l i s t a k e n from o r w e l l ' s e s s a y "down t h e mine . my l o v e l y enemy a l s o r e p l i e s t o a n g l o - c e n t r i c i t y i n t h a t james s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t e n f o r c e r s o f b r i t i s h c u l t u r a l a u t h o r i t y such as t h e o x f o r d e n g l i s h d i c t i o n a r y , t h e tweedy o x f o r d g r a d u a t e h a r o l d lemming, and t h e e n g l i s h a c c e n t o f c e d r i c w h i t l i n g - h o l m e s . . "the n o v e l t e n d s t o p e r t u r b and c o n f u s e t h e r e a d e r and a t t h e same t i m e t o s p u r him i n t o s e e k i n g a h i g h e r l e v e l o f awareness" ( s p r i e t , ) . . see v. n. v o l o s i n o v , marxism and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f language, - f o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f " s i g n a l , " "theme," and "meaning." v o l o s i n o v ' s terms "theme" and "meaning" w i l l be p l a c e d between i n v e r t e d commas i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h them from t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s i n t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e . . t h i s image would seem t o owe something t o t h e s h o r t poem w h i c h opens m a r g a r e t atwood's power p o l i t i c s : "you f i t i n t o me/ l i k e a hook i n t o an eye/ a f i s h hook/ an open eye." . the r e c i p i e n t o f a p r o p o s i t i o n does not i n d e e d make t h e i n i t i a l movement towards s e x u a l u n i o n , b u t u n l i k e t h e r a p e v i c t i m , she/he does have t h e r i g h t o f v e t o . w i t h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n , d e s i r e must be b i l a t e r a l b e f o r e s e x u a l u n i o n can t a k e p l a c e . . wiebe w r i t e s i n my l o v e l y enemy as i f always b e a r i n g i n mind r o b e r t l o u i s s t e v e n s ' remark t h a t " t o make o u r i d e a o f m o r a l i t y c e n t r e on f o r b i d d e n s t a t e m e n t s i s t o d e f i l e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . . . a n d t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o our judgements o f our f e l l o w - m e n a s e c r e t element o f g u s t o " ( ) . . wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e w h i t e s ' e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e i n d i a n s ' n a i v e a t t i t u d e t o t h e w r i t t e n word i n the temptations o f b i g b e a r . . on b o t h o c c a s i o n s j e s u s appears i n t h e my l o v e l y enemy. james must t w i s t t o see him. . "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?," f o u r t e e n s t o r i e s h i g h , eds. d a v i d h e l w i g and tom m a r s h a l l (ottawa: oberon, ) - ; s u b s e q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d i n the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e , ed. john m e t c a l f ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ) ; where i s t h e v o i c e coming from? ( t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , ); p e r s o n a l f i c t i o n s , ed. m i c h a e l o n d a a t j e ( t o r o n t o : o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ); h o r i z o n : w r i t i n g s o f t h e canadian p r a i r i e s . ed. ken m i t c h e l l ( t o r o n t o : o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , ); modern s t o r i e s i n e n g l i s h , eds. w. h. new and h. j . r o s e n g a r t e n (new york: c r o w e l l , ); f i c t i o n o f contemporary canada, ed. george b o w e r i n g ( t o r o n t o : coach house p r e s s , ). . g i l l i a n ' s husband, t h e p e d a n t i c , s t a l e , tweedy h a r o l d lemming, "the a r c h e t y p e o f r a t i o n a l man" ( s p r i e t ) , l i v e s up t o s c i e n t i f i c p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c f a r more " s u c c e s s f u l l y " t h a n does james. . wiebe s u r r o u n d s james' and g i l l i a n ' s f i r s t moments o f p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h a l l u s i o n s t o t h e f a l l o f adam and eve. james's f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n o f g i l l i a n a l l u d e s t o t h e nakedness o f eve, "between heads and s h o u l d e r s i saw a g i r l w i t h l o n g h a i r so d a r k i t a p p e a r e d b l a c k , so l o n g i t seemed m o m e n t a r i l y she was w e a r i n g n o t h i n g e l s e " ( ) . more t h a n once he r e f e r s t o "the f a l l " o f her l o n g h a i r ( , ) . t h e i r k i s s i n g i s d e s c r i b e d as " t a s t i n g f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e " ( ) , and h a v i n g t a s t e d , t h e y f e e l " i n s t i n c t i v e l y s e c r e t i v e " ( ) . . m e t a p h o r i c a l e q u a t i o n s between words and t h e f e m a l e body s u p p o r t such a r e a d i n g : "he h e l d b o t h g i l l i a n and l i v t r a n s l i t e r a t e d i n t o each o t h e r " ( ) ; " h i s hand r e s t e d on h e r back, c u r v e d l i k e a sensuous l e t t e r " ( ). . t h i s argument assumes wiebe, r a t h e r t h a n james, s h o u l d be h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r j e s u s ' words. however, because wiebe's d i a l o g i c a n g l e t o j e s u s words remains u n c l e a r , i t i s a l s o l o g i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o argue t h a t j e s u s i s a f i g m e n t o f james's i m a g i n a t i o n , and t h a t j e s u s ' s e x i s t arguments and language d e r i v e from james' r a t h e r t h a n wiebe's i d e o l o g y . . see n. . . see n. . . in h i s d e b a t e w i t h w. p. k i n s e l l a , wiebe a d o p t s t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t some c o l o n i z a t i o n s ( o f i n d i a n e x p e r i e n c e , i n t h i s case) r e m a i n s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r s , b o t h m o r a l l y and w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h - v a l u e . see rudy wiebe, "proud cree n a t i o n d e s e r v e s much more than 'funny' s t o r i e s , " globe and m a i l . s a t u r d a y , feb. , . . wiebe emphasizes james's " t o t a l r e c a l l " o f t h e b i b l e on pages - . . the words w h i c h f o l l o w t h i s q u o t a t i o n i n t h e t e x t emphasize t h a t james r u n s from t h e word i n h i g h german, b u t r e t u r n s t o i t i n e n g l i s h . . aaron goes on t o quote donne u n w i t t i n g l y as he r e i t e r a t e s t h e meaning o f t h e passage from c o r i n t h i a n s i n h i s own words: "death s h a l l be no more" ( ) . . the image o f t h e b i b l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d o u b l e a c c e n t o f wiebe's d i s c o u r s e . the b i b l e f u n c t i o n s as a t r i v i a l c i r c u m s t a n t i a l d e t a i l i n t h e r e a l i s t code, b u t c a r r i e s g r e a t w e i g h t i n t h e a l l e g o r i c a l code. . wiebe a g a i n r e f e r s t o t h e " l i m p book" on page . . see a p p e n d i x i , " e a r l y h i s t o r y and d o c t r i n e s o f t h e mennonite church." . t h i s p r i n c i p l e w o u l d a l s o a p p l y t o t h e meanings c r e a t e d by r e a d e r s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e t e x t . . c f . redekop's r e v i e w o f my l o v e l y enemy, t h e conrad g r e b e l review ( f a l l ), p. . chapter : conclusion where i s your v o i c e coming from, rudy wiebe? the q u e s t i o n , "where i s t h e t h e v o i c e coming from?" haunts a l l o f wiebe's work. i r o n i c a l l y — a n d y e t p r e d i c t a b l y , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f a l l w o r d s — t h i s i n t r i g u i n g q u e s t i o n does not o r i g i n a t e w i t h wiebe as i s commonly t h o u g h t . george h i l d e b r a n d i d e n t i f i e s i t s s o u r c e i n denis de rougemont's e s s a y " r e l i g i o n and t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e a r t i s t " : what p a u l v a l e r y c a l l s "the gods"...would be f o r c e r t a i n o t h e r p e o p l e t h e h o l y s p i r i t , and f o r o t h e r s s t i l l a message from t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . sometimes, we i m a g i n e t h a t t h i s i n s t a n t a n e o u s v i s i o n has r e v e a l e d i n a l i g h t n i n g f l a s h t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s e c r e t way, w h i c h i t remains o n l y t o f o l l o w ; and sometimes we have t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t we i n v e n t t h e way w h i l e a d v a n c i n g upon i t . t h i s p r o b l e m . . . t o r m e n t s . . . t h e a r t i s t . . . . do i i n v e n t . . . o r i s i t r a t h e r t h a t i d i s c o v e r a r e a l i t y ? do i p r o j e c t i n t o t h e cosmos t h e forms o f my s p i r i t , o r i s i t r a t h e r t h a t i espouse by t h e s p i r i t some o f t h e o b j e c t i v e forms o f t h e r e a l ? . . . . where does t h e v o i c e come from? who speaks? m y s e l f , o r t h e o t h e r ? such i s t h e p r e d i c a m e n t w h i c h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e h o l y s p i r i t c r e a t e s i n a man." ( g t d . i n h i l d e b r a n d , ) wiebe e x p l o r e s a s p e c t s o f . t h i s "predicament" t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f h i s w r i t i n g c a r e e r . the mennonites o f w a p i t i m i s t a k e deacon b l o c k ' s v o i c e f o r god's i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. b i g bear e x p e r i e n c e s c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e g r e a t s p i r i t ' s , t h e queen's, and t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s ' v o i c e s . james dyck cannot d i s t i n g u i s h between h i s own words and o t h e r p e o p l e ' s u t t e r a n c e s l o d g e d i n h i s memory: " f o r god i s not t h e god o f t h e dead b u t o f t h e l i v i n g . who s a i d t h a t ? " ( ) . wiebe's r e a d e r s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s c o n f r o n t e d by p r e c i s e l y t h e same q u e s t i o n : "who s a i d t h a t ? " as t h e i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c i t y o f wiebe's t e x t s becomes more complex and p e r v a s i v e , t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f v o i c e becomes more p r o b l e m a t i c f o r t h e r e a d e r . from the b l u e m o u n t a i n s of c h i n a onwards, i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n wiebe's r e l a t i o n t o t h e v o i c e s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s / n a r r a t o r s , and i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o one a n o t h e r . i n "the v i e t n a m c a l l o f samuel u. reimer," wiebe does not e n t i r e l y s e t t l e t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether sam dreams o r h e a r s god's c a l l . wiebe a l s o b l u r s t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e between r i e l ' s g e n u i n e l y p r o p h e t i c u t t e r a n c e s , and t h o s e provoked by h i s a l l t o o human emotions and a s p i r a t i o n s . s i m i l a r l y , t h e "unending w o r d l e s s c r y " o f the a l m i g h t y v o i c e i n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" might i s s u e from t h e c r e a t i v e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e h i s t o r i a n - n a r r a t o r , o r t h e n a r r a t o r may m o m e n t a r i l y have escaped t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f l i n e a r t i m e , t o apprehend d i r e c t l y t h e sound- phenomenon o f the a l m i g h t y v o i c e as h e / i t once e x i s t e d i n o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y i n . i n my l o v e l y enemy, r e a d e r s f r e q u e n t l y cannot a s c e r t a i n "who s p e a k s " : does james dream j e s u s ' u t t e r a n c e s , f o r example, o r do t h e y form p a r t o f wiebe's m a g i c - r e a l i s t d i s c o u r s e ? wiebe c a s t s f u r t h e r doubt on t h e provenance o f v o i c e by u s i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f a n a c r i s i s — " e l i c i t i n g and p r o v o k i n g t h e words o f one's [ r e a d e r ] i n t e r l o c u t o r " ( b a k h t i n , ). as wiebe r e s o r t s more and more t o a n a c r i s i s , i t becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e r e a d e r ' s v o i c e and wiebe's: n e i t h e r m o n o p o l i z e s t h e r o l e o f "the a u t h o r . " in my l o v e l y enemy, wiebe d r a m a t i z e s james dyck's d i s c o v e r y o f t h e d i a l o g i c r e l a t i o n between h i m s e l f and t h e b i b l e . a t t h e same t i m e , wiebe p l a c e s h i s r e a d e r s i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same p r e d i c a m e n t as james. wiebe's w r i t i n g becomes so c r y p t i c , so r i d d l e d w i t h gaps, d i s j u n c t i o n s and a m b i g u i t i e s , t h a t a t c e r t a i n moments, one cannot d e c i d e who i s " w r i t i n g " t h e t e x t . wiebe b l u r s any c l e a r d i v i d i n g l i n e between f i n d i n g meaning i n t h e t e x t , and i m p o s i n g meaning on i t . l i k e james, one becomes c o n s c i o u s t h a t each a c t o f r e a d i n g r e - w r i t e s o r r e - v o i c e s t h e t e x t . "wiebe's t e x t " e f f e c t i v e l y s h a t t e r s * i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f t e x t s " w r i t t e n " o r " v o i c e d " by a m u l t i t u d e o f r e a d e r - a u t h o r s . where, now, i s "the v o i c e " coming from? does i t come from wiebe? from h i s r e a d e r s ? which r e a d e r s ? which o f t h e many v o i c e s w h i c h i n h a b i t t h e psyche o f any g i v e n r e a d e r ? by many d i f f e r e n t p a t h s , t h e n , wiebe g u i d e s h i s r e a d e r s a g a i n and a g a i n t o t h i s c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" from wiebe's e v a n g e l i c a l c h r i s t i a n p o i n t o f v i e w , i t i s a h i g h l y r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n , an a n a c r i t i c d e v i c e d e s i g n e d t o make t h e r e a d e r c o n t e m p l a t e t h e u l t i m a t e provenance o f v o i c e . i f f r i e d a f r i e s e n a r t i c u l a t e s wiebe's sense o f where t h e v o i c e comes, wiebe i s t e l l i n g h i s r e a d e r s t h a t " i t a l l comes from god." f r i e d a q u i t e l i t e r a l l y r e g a r d s god as t h e a u t h o r o f a l l . of h e r own story,, she says "what i t e l l i remember o n l y t h r o u g h god's g r a c e " (bmc ) . the c o r o l l a r y o f such a b e l i e f i s t h a t wiebe's own w r i t i n g — i n d e e d a l l human u t t e r a n c e — i s a form o f d o u b l e - v o i c e d d i s c o u r s e , as much a p r o d u c t o f "god's g r a c e " as o f c o n s c i o u s and s u b c o n s c i o u s human v o l i t i o n . d a v i d l. j e f f r e y m a i n t a i n s t h a t " w i t h i n t h e s e l f [ o f rudy wiebe] a r e many v o i c e s , c o n t e s t i n g f o r t h e pen as f o r t h e h e a r t " ( ) . wiebe c e r t a i n l y e l u d e s easy c a t e g o r i z a t i o n by p e r m i t t i n g so many l a b e l s t o be a p p l i e d l e g i t i m a t e l y t o him: mennonite (by b i r t h and by c h o i c e ) , r u s s l a n d e r , a n a b a p t i s t , p r o t e s t a n t , c h r i s t i a n , member o f an i m m i g r a n t f a m i l y , n a t i v e o f western canada, white man, male, s p e a k e r o f low german, high german and e n g l i s h , member o f f a m i l y , l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s , as w e l l as o f academic, l i t e r a r y and c h u r c h c o m m u n i t i e s . wiebe's n o v e l s d e a l p r e c i s e l y w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f o r d e r i n g the many voices of the s e l f , and they a l l assert the same hierarchizing p r i n c i p l e . but "where, i n the many-voiced s e l f , i s wiebe's voice coming from?" this question can be answered by asking another question: "to whom does wiebe think he i s speaking?" wiebe's novels, a r t i c l e s , and e d i t o r i a l s i d e n t i f y several groups i n canadian society who might l e g i t i m a t e l y be considered wiebe's addressees. however, one may also argue that, l i k e frieda friesen, wiebe remains, aware of a non-human i n t e r l o c u t o r . if wiebe expresses his own view through the voice of david epp iii i n the blue mountains of china, he asserts that "[god's] ear hears each word f a l l " ( ). the many voices of the s e l f assume an order which centres on t h i s postulated divine addressee, t h i s other who asks, as g i l l i a n overton puts i t , "the question we're a l l answering, whether we know i t or not" (mlg ). bakhtin argues that dostoevsky envisaged god as an interlocutor, a remark which would also seem highly pertinent to wiebe: dostoevsky seeks the highest and most authoritative orientation, and he perceives i t not as his own true thought, but as another authentic human being and his discourse. the image of the i d e a l human being or the image of christ represents for him the resolution of i d e o l o g i c a l quests. the image of t h i s highest voice must crown the world of voices, must organize and subdue i t . p r e c i s e l y the image of a human being and his voice, a voice not the author's own, was the ultimate a r t i s t i c c r i t e r i o n for dostoevsky: not f i d e l i t y to his own convictions themselves taken abstractly, but p r e c i s e l y a f i d e l i t y to the a u t h o r i t i v e image of a human b e i n g . . . . a q u e s t i o n i s p u t t o t h e i d e a l image (how w o u l d c h r i s t have a c t e d ? ) , t h a t i s , t h e r e i s an i n t e r n a l d i a l o g i c o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o i t , not a f u s i o n w i t h i t b u t a f o l l o w i n g o f i t . ( , - ) b a k h t i n m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l t h o u g h d o s t o e v s k y n e v e r l o s e s s i g h t o f "the t r u e word" ( , ) , he does not l e t i t " c o l o u r t h e work w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l i d e o l o g i c a l t o n e o f t h e a u t h o r " ( , ) . wiebe d i f f e r s from d o s t o e v s k y i n t h i s r e s p e c t , f o r h i s r h e t o r i c a l i n t e n t i o n s p u l l a l l h i s n o v e l s back from t h e b r i n k o f f u l l p o l y p h o n y . as t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s o f t h i s s t u d y have endeavoured t o d e m o n s t r a t e , wiebe i n t r o d u c e s speech d i v e r s i t y i n t o h i s t e x t s o n l y t o i n s e r t t h e many v o i c e s c o n c e r n e d i n t o a new m o n o l o g i c o r d e r , c e n t r e d on t h e v o i c e o f j e s u s , wiebe's s o v e r e i g n o t h e r . i n d o s t o e v s k y ' s n o v e l s , "the c o g n i z a n t j u d g i n g ' i , ' and t h e w o r l d as i t s o b j e c t , a r e p r e s e n t not i n t h e s i n g u l a r b u t i n t h e p l u r a l " ( b a k h t i n , ) . i n wiebe's work, by c o n t r a s t , t h i s p l u r a l i t y o f ' i ' s , and t h e p l u r a l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t w o r l d s t h e y b r i n g i n t o b e i n g , a l l r e m a i n s u b j e c t t o wiebe's d i v i n e o t h e r , and t o t h e u l t i m a t e r e a l i t y encoded i n t h e s c r i p t u r e s . each o f wiebe's t e x t s t h u s becomes a m i c r o c o s m i c utopia, i n w h i c h "the image o f t h i s h i g h e s t v o i c e must crown t h e w o r l d o f v o i c e s , must o r g a n i z e and subdue i t " ( b a k h t i n , ) . as w e l l as o r g a n i z i n g and s u b d u i n g t h e many v o i c e s which speak i n wiebe's t e x t s , wiebe i n v o k e s t h e a u t h o r i t y o f "the h i g h e s t v o i c e " i n an a t t e m p t t o subdue t h e many autonomous v o i c e s o f h i s r e a d e r s . wiebe a l l o w s " t h e v o i c e o f t h e t e x t " t o d i s s o l v e i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f v o i c i n g s o r r e a d i n g s , o n l y t o r e a s s e r t m o n o l o g i c a u t h o r i t y and u n i t a r y meaning w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e d i v i n e word o r s i g n as deus ex machina. a t l e a s t , such i s wiebe's i n t e n t i o n . i n p r a c t i c e , w h i l e c h r i s t i a n r e a d e r s may a c c e p t wiebe's c l a i m t o be c a p i t u l a t i n g t o g o d - t h e - a u t h o r - o f - a l l , n o n - b e l i e v e r s might s t i l l say t h a t wiebe i s t h e a u t h o r o f god. wiebe does not succeed i n d i s p e l l i n g a l l doubt about where t h e v o i c e comes from. doubt a l s o remains as t o where wiebe's v o i c e comes from on what i s commonly c a l l e d "the canadian m o s a i c . " many p o s i t i o n s have been l e g i t i m a t e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o wiebe by c r i t i c s i n v o l v e d i n t h e o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f mapping t h e many d i v i s i o n s and subdivisions of l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e . dennis d u f f y views wiebe as a h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l i s t , a descendant o f s i r w a l t e r s c o t t . he groups wiebe w i t h w r i t e r s such as w i l l i a m k i r b y , g i l b e r t p a r k e r , s a r a j e a n n e t t e duncan, hugh maclennan, howard o'hagan, p e t e r such, and timothy f i n d l e y . l e s l i e monkman and t e r r y g o l d i e p r e s e n t wiebe as a member o f a white i m p e r i a l i s t i c c u l t u r e which a s c r i b e s s e m a n t i c v a l u e t o — a n d a s s e r t s " s e m i o t i c c o n t r o l " o v e r — n a t i v e p e o p l e . l i n d a hutcheon w r i t e s o f wiebe as a m e t a f i c t i o n i s t , and a p o s t - m o d e r n i s t , w h i l e ken mclean sees him as a w r i t e r o f e v a n g e l i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l f i c t i o n . d a v i d l . j e f f r e y ' s "post-war c a n a d i a n f i c t i o n , " c a t e g o r i z e s wiebe a c c o r d i n g t o a c h r o n o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i o n , whereas c r i t i c s such as j . t h i e s s e n , m a r g a r e t redekop, e l m e r f. suderman, and h i l d e g a r d e. t i e s s e n p l a c e t h e emphasis on wiebe's mennonite c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e and b e l i e f s . george h i l d e b r a n d argues t h a t wiebe s h o u l d be v i e w e d not as a mennonite b u t as a c h r i s t i a n a l l e g o r i s t . george woodcock, l a u r e n c e r i c o u , and b r i a n bergman group wiebe w i t h o t h e r canadian p r a i r i e w r i t e r s such as f r e d e r i c k p h i l i p g r o v e , m a r g a r e t l a u r e n c e , w. . m i t c h e l l and s i n c l a i r ross. a s h c r o f t , g r i f f i t h s and t i f f i n l o o k a t t h e p o s t - c o l o n i a l a s p e c t s o f wiebe's work, as does john thieme's d i s c u s s i o n o f wiebe's r e - v i s i o n a r y h i s t o r y . w. j . k e i t h p l a c e s wiebe i n t h e same c a t e g o r y and t o l s t o y and o t h e r w r i t e r s o f " e p i c f i c t i o n , " w h i l e p a t r i c i a m o r l e y r e g a r d s him as a comedian. t h i s l i s t , a l t h o u g h by no means e x h a u s t i v e , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i v e r s e t a x o n o m i c a l p r i n c i p l e s c r i t i c s have a p p l i e d t o l i t e r a r y d i s c o u r s e . the l i s t b e a r s some resemblance t o t h e a b s u r d taxonomy w h i c h i n t r i g u e s m i c h e l f o u c a u l t i n j o r g e l u i s b o r g e s ' c h i n e s e e n c y c l o p a e d i a , t h e taxonomy w h i c h " d i s t u r b [ s ] and t h r e a t e n [ s ] w i t h c o l l a p s e our a g e - o l d d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e same and t h e o t h e r " ( f o u c a u l t x v ) . wiebe's w r i t i n g , t o o , c a l l s i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e dominant c r i t e r i a f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g s e l f from o t h e r , t h e c r i t e r i a commonly employed t o d e f i n e and o r d e r t h e component p i e c e s o f "the canadian m o s a i c . " wiebe b r e a k s up "the v e r y s i t e " ( f o u c a u l t x v i ) upon w h i c h t h e p r o p i n q u i t y of t h e m o s a i c ' s p i e c e s u s u a l l y becomes p o s s i b l e . and by t h u s d e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p o s i t e d u n i t a r y p l a n e on w h i c h t h e p i e c e s o f t h e "canadian mosaic" meet, wiebe asks "whose v e r s i o n o f t h e mosaic i s the c a n a d i a n m o s a i c " ? wiebe w r i t i n g a s s e r t s t h a t "the canadian mosaic" r e m a i n s "under c o n t r u c t i o n , " as g i l l i a n o v e r t o n would p u t i t . as t h e f o r e g o i n g c h a p t e r s a t t e m p t t o show, wiebe's n o v e l s draw t h e i r own m o r a l , s p i r i t u a l and l i n g u i s t i c maps o f canadian s o c i e t y , e x p l o i t i n g t h e f a c t t h a t "the mosaic" cannot, f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g a t l e a s t , be d i v o r c e d from t h e h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s o f i t s own becoming. the n o t i o n o f canada as a u n i t a r y c u l t u r a l m o s a i c , l i k e wiebe's q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?," b e a r s out wiebe's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "the t r u e d i f f i c u l t y w i t h problems i s e x p r e s s i n g them" (mle ). both i n v o k e a s p a t i a l metaphor, a s y n c h r o n i c p e r s p e c t i v e i n i m i c a l t o t h e purpose o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g wiebe's a c u t e awareness o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f i d e o l o g y , c u l t u r e and language. i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i t e r a t e not o n l y wiebe's sense o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of t h e m o s a i c , b u t a l s o h i s p e r s i s t e n t t e n d e n c y t o s u b j e c t language t o a form o f p h i l o l o g i c a l e n q u i r y . i n an a l l e g e d l y p o s t - c h r i s t i a n s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t , wiebe's t e x t s attempt t o r e l e a s e s u p p r e s s e d s c r i p t u r a l meanings o f words such as "peace," "grace," "jesus," "god," "christ," "damn," "good," and "love," words heard i n the everyday speech of "average canadians" (wiebe , ). by re- accenting and re-valuing these words, wiebe intervenes s e l f - consciously i n the unfinished history of human ideology and language. his evangelism involves an attempt to redeem the "'captial-w' word i n the beginning was" (neuman ) from what might be c a l l e d i t s " f a l l e n " state i n the socio- h i s t o r i c a l world. wiebe thus at once e x p l o i t s , and yet yearns to reverse, or terminate, or transcend "the h i s t o r i c a l process of becoming" (volo§inov ) i n language. wiebe's novels i m p l i c i t l y de-naturalize a number of assumptions and "methodological f i c t i o n s " commonly employed i n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c a l discourse. by suggesting that the a r t i s t "unhides the hidden," "unearths" intangible r e a l i t i e s that god has already created, wiebe challenges the romantic myth that the a r t i s t ' s "creative" imagination makes new worlds e n t i r e l y independently and ex n i h i l o . wiebe's v i s i o n and his methods also contest t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l notions of "the author," "the reader," "the text," "the meaning," "the s t y l e , " "the language," and "the word." but again, i t i t e s s e n t i a l to r e i t e r a t e that wiebe campaigns not to denounce monologic v i s i o n per se, but only monologic v i s i o n a r i s i n g out of human constructions of the true (other t h a n h i s own). wiebe a c t i v a t e s t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h t h e immediate aim o f d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i t y and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f s e c u l a r and o t h e r - c h r i s t i a n hegemonic d i s c o u r s e s . y e t beyond t h a t immediate aim l i e s a n o t h e r , u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e : t o d i s c o v e r t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t monologism o f an e x t r a - h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h spoken by god and r e c o r d e d ( i n p a r t ) i n t h e s c r i p t u r e s . f o r wiebe, god i s u l t i m a t e l y b o t h "the a u t h o r " and "the reader"; t h e b i b l e i s "the t e x t , " t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c a u t h o r i t a t i v e "word"; and "the meaning" can o n l y be known t o humankind a t t h e t i m e o f t h e f i n a l r e v e l a t i o n . l i k e wiebe, b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v r e s i s t t r a d i t i o n a l l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l usages o f c e r t a i n key terms, b u t t h e i r r e a s o n s and t h e p r e c i s e n a t u r e o f t h e i r o b j e c t i o n s d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y from wiebe's. b a k h t i n and v o l o i i n o v oppose not t h e l o w e r - c a s e d e s i g n a t i o n s employed i n common l i t e r a r y - c r i t i c a l usage, b u t t h e m o n o l o g i c o u t l o o k e n s h r i n e d i n t h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e and t h e s i n g u l a r form o f t h e noun: t h e y oppose "the a u t h o r , " "the r e a d e r , " "the t e x t , " "the meaning," "the s t y l e , " "the language," and "the word," a l l o f w h i c h i n s i d i o u s l y r e i n s t a t e t h e m o n o l o g i c a s s u m p t i o n s t h e y a t t e m p t t o o v e r t h r o w . wiebe, by c o n t r a s t , would o b j e c t t o t h e s e terms on t h e grounds t h a t i n c o n v e n t i o n a l usage, t h e y p e r p e t u a t e t h e dominance o f " g o d - a l i e n a t e d language" (wiebe , ) i n w e s t e r n s o c i e t y . t h i s c o n t r a s t i s a b s o l u t e l y c r u c i a l because i t r e f l e c t s t h e r a d i c a l d i s c r e p a n c y w h i c h u n d e r l i e s t h e s u p e r f i c i a l s i m i l a r i t y between t h e w o r l d - v i e w s a r t i c u l a t e d by wiebe on t h e one hand, and by b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v on t h e o t h e r . a l l t h r e e men e n v i s a g e t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d as a c e a s e l e s s c o n t e s t between c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s . indeed, i t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s s h a r e d model o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e w h i c h makes t h e t h e o r i e s o f b a k h t i n and volo§inov so a p p r o p r i a t e a t o o l f o r a n a l y z i n g wiebe's w r i t i n g . y e t wiebe's r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k r e m a i n s f u n d a m e n t a l l y a t odds w i t h t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y - g r o u n d e d w o r l d - v i e w a r t i c u l a t e d by b a k h t i n and volo§inov. wiebe acknowledges t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t r u t h as human b e i n g s can know i t , b u t he a l s o p o s i t s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an a b s o l u t e , a u t h o r i t a t i v e t r u t h w h i c h e x i s t s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e s t a t e o f human knowledge. wiebe i n v o k e s t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s t o t h o s e b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v have i n mind. b a k h t i n and volo§inov oppose a l l forms o f c e n t r a l i z e d v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e b e n i g n m o t i v e s o f i t s p e r p e t r a t o r s , whereas wiebe, i n s t e a d o f condemning m o n o l o g i c v i s i o n p e r s e , w r i t e s a g a i n s t t h o s e s e c u l a r and p s e u d o - c h r i s t i a n a g e n c i e s o f i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l w h i c h i n t e r p o s e between god and human i n d i v i d u a l s . nor does wiebe v i e w v e r b a l - i d e o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y as an end i n i t s e l f . for him, i t i s a n e c e s s a r y s t a g e i n a l a r g e r movement t o w a r d the i d e o l o g i c a l and s p i r i t u a l u n i f i c a t i o n o f humankind. w h i l e b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v espouse t h e d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l o f a f r e e , i d e o l o g i c a l l y - d i v e r s e , p o l y p h o n i c s o c i e t y , wiebe s t r u g g l e s t o l i b e r a t e p e o p l e from what he sees as a s p u r i o u s , s p i r i t u a l l y d i s o r i e n t i n g form of freedom i n t o t h e " c e r t a i n bondage" of god's d i v i n e a u t h o r i t y . the w o r l d - v i e w s o f wiebe and o f b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v are each c a p a b l e of subsuming t h e o t h e r . from wiebe's p o i n t of v i e w , b a k h t i n and volo§inov r e m a i n b l i n d t o t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l r e a l i t i e s t h a t e x i s t beyond t h e h o r i z o n o f t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . c o n v e r s e l y , b a k h t i n and volo§inov would p r o b a b l y number wiebe amongst many p e o p l e who, t h r o u g h o u t human h i s t o r y , have i n v o k e d t h e power o f an i m a g i n a r y super-human b e i n g t o implement t h e i r own v a l u e s and o b j e c t i v e s . i f wiebe c o u l d e n t e r i n t o d i r e c t d i a l o g u e w i t h b a k h t i n and v o l o i i n o v , he might ask "where do t h e a l l e g e d l y ' f r e e ' v o i c e s i n d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t i e s come from?" and b a k h t i n and v o l o s i n o v w o u l d r e p l y by a s k i n g "where does your v o i c e come from, rudy wiebe?" notes to chapter : conclusion . cf. wayne t e f s , "where i s your v o i c e coming from rudy wiebe?," canadian dimension / ( ) - . . in " d i a l o g u e a t an e x h i b i t i o n , " p r a i r i e f i r e / (summer ) - , wiebe's magic r e a l i s t mode c r e a t e s t h e same c o n f u s i o n . does t h e n a r r a t o r imagine o r hear a l o u d t h e v o i c e of t h e shaman's dance garment? . indeed, t h e s p a t i a l metaphor and p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e i n t h e q u e s t i o n "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" e x p r e s s e s wiebe's y e a r n i n g t o t r a n s c e n d d i a c h r o n i c i t y . . see r o b e r t k r o e t s c h , " u n h i d i n g t h e hidden," j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n / ( ) - . the p r e s e n t argument d i f f e r s s u b s t a n t i a l l y from k r o e t s c h ' s a l t h o u g h i t a p p r o p r i a t e s k r o e t s c h ' s t e r m . f o r k r o e t s c h , " t h e h i d d e n " r e f e r s t o "a c o n c e a l e d o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e , sometimes b r i t i s h , sometimes a m e r i c a n " ( ) c o n c e a l e d i n t h e c a n a d i a n word. f o r wiebe, i t i s t h e u n d i s c o v e r e d p a r t of god's c r e a t i o n t h a t i s "hidden." . see wiebe's r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s t o r y o f m i c h a e l a n g e l o ' s r e l e a s e ( r a t h e r t h a n c r e a t i o n ) o f t h e f i g u r e c a p t u r e d i n t h e m a r b l e , vl . . wiebe acknowledges t h e h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l c o n t i n g e n c y o f h i s own t r u t h , y e t a t t h e end o f each n o v e l he a f f i r m s i t anyway. . t h i s s h a r e d v i s i o n perhaps has i t s s o u r c e i n s t a l i n i s t r u s s i a . the t h e o r i e s o f b a k h t i n and volo§inov c o v e r t l y oppose t h e same t o t a l i t a r i a n p o l i c i e s as c a u s e d wiebe's p a r e n t s t o f l e e from r u s s i a t o canada i n . l i k e thousands o f o t h e r s , wiebe's p a r e n t s escaped b u t d i d not f o r g e t s t a l i n ' s o p p r e s s i v e r u l e . a l t h o u g h b o r n f o u r y e a r s a f t e r h i s p a r e n t s ' a r r i v a l i n canada, wiebe knew l i f e i n a t o t a l i t a r i a n r u s s i a i n d i r e c t l y , t h r o u g h s t o r i e s t o l d by h i s p a r e n t s , and o t h e r m e n n o n i t e s o f t h e i r g e n e r a t i o n . i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e s t o r i e s o f l i f e i n r u s s i a might have had a p r o f o u n d and l a s t i n g i n f l u e n c e on wiebe's paradigms o f t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l w o r l d . appendix e a r l y h i s t o r y and d o c t r i n e s of t h e m e n n o n i t e church the b e a r i n g o f wiebe's t h e o l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g on h i s w r i t i n g has been a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o v e r l o o k e d i n c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s of h i s work. y e t wiebe's paradigms o f language, and hence h i s a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s and s t r a t e g i e s , emerge more c l e a r l y i n t h e l i g h t o f i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e h i s t o r y , p o l i t i c s and d o c t r i n e s o f t h e mennonite c h u r c h . w i t h t h e a i d o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t becomes p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y one o f wiebe's most i m p o r t a n t y e t l e a s t acknowledged a u t h o r i a l o b j e c t i v e s : t o t e s t menno simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e s c r i p t u r a l word. menno's d o c t r i n e s e v o l v e d i n r e s p o n s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d l e a d i n g up t o t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , t h e roman c a t h o l i c church had s e i z e d m o n o p o l i s t i c c o n t r o l o v e r t h e b i b l e . the church a p p r o p r i a t e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e word by assuming t h e r o l e o f s o l e m e d i a t o r between god and t h e p o p u l a c e , h a v i n g e r e c t e d and p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e i n f o r c e d a number o f b a r r i e r s between t h e s c r i p t u r e s and t h e p o p u l a c e . a l l c h u r c h s e r v i c e s were c o n d u c t e d i n l a t i n , and t h e v u l g a t e ( t h e l a t i n v e r s i o n of t h e b i b l e ) was c o n f i r m e d by t h e church a t t h e c o u n c i l o f t r e n t ( ) t o be t h e s o l e o f f i c i a l v e r s i o n . to c o n s o l i d a t e i t s a u t h o r i t y f u r t h e r , t h e church s t r o n g l y opposed p r i n t i n g , f o r i f c o p i e s o f t h e b i b l e p r o l i f e r a t e d amongst t h e l a y community, t h e p r i e s t s w o u l d be r e n d e r e d redundant ( e i s e n s t e i n ). because so few o u t s i d e t h e c l e r g y knew how t o r e a d , t h e s c r i p t u r e s were f u r t h e r l o c k e d away from g e n e r a l v i e w . b e l i e v e r s had no o p t i o n b u t t o t r u s t i n t h e c l e r g y , who i n t u r n were s u b j e c t t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e pope, t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e roman c a t h o l i c church b e i n g s t r i c t l y h i e r a r c h i c a l , w i t h t h e pope a t t h e head, and a r i g i d c h a i n o f command e x t e n d i n g downwards t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n . because t h e pope was b e l i e v e d t o be god's supremely a u t h o r i t a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on e a r t h , m o n o v o c a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e a b s o l u t e word. the r e f o r m a t i o n l i b e r a t e d t h e b i b l e from t h e s e m u l t i p l e c o n s t r a i n t s . t h i s enormously complex and v i o l e n t u p h e a v a l w h i c h gave b i r t h t o t h e p r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s — i n c l u d i n g t h e a n a b a p t i s t s , among whom t h e mennonites were n u m b e r e d — i n v o l v e d an a t t e m p t t o o v e r t h r o w church-dominated c h r i s t i a n i t y , and r e p l a c e i t w i t h book-dominated c h r i s t i a n i t y . the h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r l y m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h , and o f t h e p r o t e s t a n t i s m i n g e n e r a l , cannot be d i v o r c e d from t h e h i s t o r y o f p r i n t t e c h n o l o g y , t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y , and t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e b i b l e i n t o t h e v e r n a c u l a r l a n g u a g e s . these t r e n d s had p r o f o u n d and f a r - r e a c h i n g s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l e f f e c t s : f o r one t h i n g , t h e y gave t h e l a i t y d i r e c t a c c e s s t o t h e s c r i p t u r e s . the r e s u l t s were c a t a c l y s m i c . europe e x p l o d e d i n t o b i t t e r s e c t a r i a n c o n f l i c t ; t h e word s h a t t e r e d i n t o f r a g m e n t s . gone were t h e days when god had o n l y one v o i c e . the many f a c t i o n s o f p r o t e s t a n t i s m waged war not o n l y a g a i n s t t h e c a t h o l i c church b u t a l s o a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r , each group s t r u g g l i n g t o a s s e r t t h e a b s o l u t e a u t h o r i t y o f i t s own r e a d i n g o f s c r i p t u r e s . the r e f o r m a t i o n movement wrenched t h e word back i n t o t h e f i e l d o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , r e l e a s i n g t h e m u l t i - v o i c e d n e s s r e p r e s s e d f o r so l o n g by t h e roman c a t h o l i c church. so t i g h t was t h e s e c u r i t y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e b i b l e p r i o r t o t h e r e f o r m a t i o n t h a t even t h e lower r a n k s o f t h e c l e r g y were f o r b i d d e n t o r e a d t h e t e x t . when menno simons was o r d a i n e d i n t o t h e c a t h o l i c p r i e s t h o o d i n , he had never once been a l l o w e d t o open t h e b i b l e o r r e a d t h e t e a c h i n g s o f j e s u s f o r h i m s e l f . two y e a r s a f t e r simons' o r d i n a t i o n i n t o t h e roman c a t h o l i c p r i e s t h o o d , d o u b t i n g t h e c a t h o l i c dogma o f t r a n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n , he " v e n t u r e d w i t h g r e a t t r e p i d a t i o n t o open t h e c o v e r s o f t h i s f o r b i d d e n book" (bender ) t o d i s c o v e r t h a t i t c o n t a i n e d n o t h i n g o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g o f t h e church on t h e mass. by t h a t d i s c o v e r y h i s i n n e r c o n f l i c t was b r o u g h t t o a c l i m a x , f o r he was now c o m p e l l e d t o d e c i d e w h i c h o f t h e two a u t h o r i t i e s was t o be supreme i n h i s l i f e , t h e c h u r c h o r t h e h o l y s c r i p t u r e s . (bender ) t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f menno simons' f i r s t l o o k i n t o t h e b i b l e p r o v i d e s a p a r a d i g m a t i c image o f t h e dilemma f a c i n g each one of wiebe's p r o t a g o n i s t s : t h e y must a l l choose between t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e d i v i n e word and t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e words of human b e i n g s . wiebe d r a m a t i z e s t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h e s e two k i n d s o f a u t h o r i t y : god's word i s a c c e s s i b l e t o human awareness o n l y as human v o i c e s speak i t and h e a r i t i n c o n c r e t e l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s . amongst t h e v a r i o u s branches o f t h e p r o t e s t a n t movement, t h e a n a b a p t i s t groups c a r r i e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f b i b l i c i s m ( b i b l e - c e n t r e d n e s s ) t o i t s f u r t h e s t extreme. i n a d d i t i o n , t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e f r e e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e c r e a t e d t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l f o r r e l e a s i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . by r e a d i n g t h e b i b l e , a l l l i t e r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , no m a t t e r what t h e i r s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , c o u l d "hear" god s p e a k i n g t o them p e r s o n a l l y : w h i l e l u t h e r a n s and reformed c l a i m e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f g o v e r n i n g c o u n c i l s and u n i v e r s i t y f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , and c a t h o l i c s o f a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d h i e r a r c h y and t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s , t h e a n a b a p t i s t s i n s i s t e d t h a t each i n d i v i d u a l must d e c i d e t h e b i b l e message f o r h i m s e l f . the g r e a t e s t degree o f l i b e r t y must be g r a n t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e i n s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . a n a b a p t i s m was t h e essence o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m . ( s m i t h ) the problem was t h a t god s a i d d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e , and who c o u l d a r b i t r a t e as t o w h i c h message was t h e most a u t h e n t i c and a u t h o r i t a t i v e ? a l l wiebe's n o v e l s d r a m a t i z e a s p e c t s o f t h i s q u e s t i o n . wiebe f o l l o w s menno simons i n t h a t he r e c o g n i z e s t h e p o t e n t i a l dangers i m p l i c i t i n t h e more extreme a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e a n a b a p t i s t e t h o s o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m : what would s t o p t h e v o i c e o f god from d i s i n t e g r a t i n g i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f e q u a l l y v a l i d human v o i c e s ? t h e o r e t i c a l l y , any c h a r i s m a t i c i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a w o r k i n g knowledge o f t h e b i b l e c o u l d s e t up shop as an a u t h o r i t y on r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , and c o u l d l e a d unwary f o l l o w e r s i n t o h e r e s y and b l o o d s h e d . any i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e a d i n g o r v o i c i n g o f t h e b i b l e m i g h t be promoted by f o r c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r arms as the d e f i n i t i v e meaning o f t h e word. f a n a t i c a l , c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r s such as jan m a t t h y s , j a n o f l e i d e n and d a v i d j o r i s a t t e m p t e d p r e c i s e l y t h a t (as d i d l o u i s r i e l , as wiebe p r e s e n t s him, i n the scorched-wood p e o p l e ) . the massacre o f t h e m i i e n s t e r i t e s a t t h e oude k l o s t e r i n march and a p r i l (bender ), and d a v i d j o r i s ' s a t t e m p t t o s u p p l a n t t h e s c r i p t u r e s w i t h h i s own i n s p i r e d w r i t i n g s (bender ) , c o n f i r m e d menno simons' b e l i e f t h a t communal c o n t r o l s must check t h e power o f each i n d i v i d u a l member o f t h e c h u r c h . (wiebe's r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r i e l ' s v i o l e n t a t t e m p t t o f o u n d a new n a t i o n i n t h e c a n a d i a n north-west c o r r o b o r a t e s menno simons on t h i s p o i n t . ) a l t h o u g h menno and h i s f o l l o w e r s b e l i e v e d i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e , t h e y f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o s e t • - l i m i t s on t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e w o r d . u n r e s t r a i n e d , i t t h r e a t e n e d t o u n l e a s h r e l i g i o u s a n a r c h y . f r o m menno s i m o n ' s p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e e a r l y h i s t o r y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h showed t h a t t h e e x t r e m e d e c e n t r i n g o f t h e word w h i c h p e r m i t t e d t h e r i s e o f f a n a t i c a l , c h a r i s m a t i c a n a b a p t i s t l e a d e r s was no l e s s d a n g e r o u s t h a n t h e e x t r e m e c e n t r i n g o f t h e word e n f o r c e d b y c a t h o l i c c h u r c h . menno simons a t t e m p t e d t o a v o i d b o t h e x t r e m e s t o w h i c h g o d ' s word c o u l d be p u s h e d , a n d w i e b e f o l l o w s h i m i n t h a t h i s w r i t i n g s e a r c h e s f o r a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m o n o l o g i c a n d t h e d i a l o g i c p r i n c i p l e s . h o w e v e r , w i e b e ' s f i c t i o n s u b j e c t s m e n n o ' s d o c t r i n e s o f t h e word t o r i g o r o u s t e s t i n g i n d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n s . menno f o r m u l a t e d t h r e e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s f o r o f f s e t t i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a r e l e a s e d b y t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e . f i r s t , he e l i m i n a t e d c o u n t l e s s h e r m e n e u t i c o p t i o n s b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t o n l y l i t e r a l r e a d i n g s o f c h r i s t ' s t e a c h i n g s w e r e v a l i d . s e c o n d , he s t r e s s e d t h e d a n g e r s o f t a k i n g s h o r t s e c t i o n s o f t h e t e x t o u t o f t h e i r c o n t e x t a n d " d i s t o r t i n g " t h e i r m e a n i n g t h r o u g h r e c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n . e i t h e r o v e r t l y a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e m e , o r t a c i t l y a t a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l e v e l , w i e b e ' s n o v e l s ( a n d some s h o r t s t o r i e s ) i n t e r r o g a t e t h e s e d o c t r i n e s . simons' t h i r d measure t o r e s t r a i n h e t e r o g l o s s i a c o n s i s t e d i n p r o m o t i n g r e g u l a r c h r i s t i a n f e l l o w s h i p : members o f t h e church were r e q u i r e d t o engage i n d i a l o g u e , t o a i r t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h an u l t i m a t e v i e w t o r e c o n c i l i n g them. a l t h o u g h menno simons c o u l d not a c c e p t t h e dogmatism and c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e c a t h o l i c c h u r c h , he d i d not oppose t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f c h u r c h p e r se. menno b e l i e v e d t h a t "the d o c t r i n e o f t h e c h u r c h and i t s c o r r e c t o r g a n i s a t i o n and d i s c i p l i n e was one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t d o c t r i n e s o f c h r i s t i a n i t y " (bender ) . he promoted l i t e r a c y amongst t h e common p e o p l e not i n o r d e r t o r e n d e r t h e c h u r c h redundant b u t "because o n l y a membership a b l e t o r e a d and d i s c u s s t h e b i b l e c o u l d s e r v e i n t h e c h u r c h " ( l i t t e l l ) . by s u p p l e m e n t i n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f p r i v a t e b i b l e r e a d i n g w i t h communal b i b l e s t u d y and group d i s c u s s i o n , menno e f f e c t i v e l y s e t up a dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p e c u l i a r p r i v a t e c o n t e x t s and t h e s h a r e d p u b l i c c o n t e x t i n , w h i c h t h e s c r i p t u r e s c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d . in b a k h t i n ' s terms i t may be s a i d t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t t h e m o n o l o g i c p r i n c i p l e , and p r e v e n t s t h e b i b l e from d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n t o "a new t a b l e o f t h e law, a new w e i g h t l i k e a cement b l o c k " ( l i t t e l l ) . f e l l o w s h i p , by c o n t r a s t , aims t o k n i t t h e m a n y - v o i c i n g s o f god's word i n t o a c o h e r e n t u n i t y , t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g i t from d i s s o l v i n g i n t o a p l u r a l i t y o f d i s p a r a t e b u t e q u a l l y v a l i d human v o i c e s . menno's p o l i c i e s i m p l y t h a t t h e word " l i v e s " t h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y i n t h e mouths o f p e o p l e t a l k i n g t o each o t h e r , e n d l e s s l y r e a p p r a i s i n g t h e meaning o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s . t h i s i s not t o say t h a t t h e mennonite. church eschews t h e o l o g i c a l d o c t r i n e s , b u t r a t h e r t h a t i t g e n e r a t e s and r e g e n e r a t e s such d o c t r i n e s d i a l o g i c a l l y , as l i t t e l l s u g g e s t s : the a n a b a p t i s t s o u r c e s . . . p r e s u p p o s e a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e way t r u t h i s d i s c o v e r e d and a r t i c u l a t e d from t h a t o f t h e c a t h o l i c o r r e f o r m e r s ' p a r t i e s . f o r them t r u t h was g i v e n by t h e h o l y s p i r i t , t h e g o v e r n o r o f t h e p e o p l e o f god. the s e t t i n g f o r i t s a r t i c u l a t i o n was b r o t h e r l y d i s c u s s i o n . t r u t h was n o t d e f i n e d by an e c c l e s i a s t i c a l monarch o r s e c u l a r p r i n c e . n e i t h e r was i t l a i d o u t by p r o f e s s i o n a l s c r i b e s r e a d i n g and i n t e r p r e t i n g a book. i t was d i s c o v e r e d by t h e whole body o f t h e f a i t h f u l and r e p r e s e n t e d a consensus f i d e l i u m when s t a t e d . ( ) a l l wiebe's n o v e l s c o n t a i n an image o f consensus f i d e l i u m . an image o f i n d i v i d u a l v o i c e s j o i n i n g i n song, o r s p e a k i n g f r e e l y as one. l i k e menno simons, wiebe grounds h i s p r a c t i c e s on a b e l i e f t h e word must c o n t i n u a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t e i n t o a v a r i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l r e a d i n g s and a t t h e same t i m e c o n t i n u a l l y r e c o n s t i t u t e i t s e l f anew t h r o u g h d i a l o g u e between c h u r c h members, (under t h e g u i d a n c e o f t h e h o l y s p i r i t ) . the meaning o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s i s t h e r e b y c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g r e n e g o t i a t e d i n a space where c e n t r i p e t a l and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s c o - e x i s t . through t h e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e s e two o p p o s i n g f o r c e s , t h e s c r i p t u r e s r e t a i n a degree o f s e m a n t i c i n t e g r i t y w i t h o u t o s s i f y i n g i n t o dogma, and r e t a i n t h e i r s a c r e d s t a t u s and a b s o l u t e t r u t h - v a l u e , w i t h o u t c e a s i n g t o f u n c t i o n as "a s o c i a l phenomenon t h a t i s becoming i n h i s t o r y " ( b a k h t i n , ). wiebe c e r t a i n l y p r o c e e d s on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e " l i v i n g word" must r e m a i n i n t h e arena o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e — o r d i e . i n h i s a r t i c l e s and i n h i s f i c t i o n , he i n s i s t s t h a t t h e w o r l d mennonite community must be f r e e t o " l i v e i n t o " an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e word because, as l i t t e l l p u t s i t , "the [ b i b l i c a l ] canon i s c l o s e d , b u t t h e h i s t o r y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e b i b l e , t h e p r o v i d e n t i a l works o f god, a r e by no means f i n i s h e d " ( ) . wiebe contends i n "for t h e mennonite churches: a l a s t chance," t h a t s c r i p t u r e s must n o t be a l l o w e d t o o s s i f y i n t o a f i x e d , m o n o l o g i c code o f l a w s : f o r t h e a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n t o s u r v i v e a t a l l , i t must be r e i n t e r p r e t e d by p e o p l e who w i l l not f e a r t o l e a v e b e h i n d t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t d e s e r v e t o be l e f t t h e r e . . . . the main t h r u s t o f t h e c h u r c h e s as such must be t o r e a p p l y t h e b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e a n a b a p t i s t s — a n d t h e b i b l i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w h i c h we can now see t h e y l a c k e d — t o our t i m e . as t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y i s d i f f e r e n t from t h e s i x t e e n t h , so w i l l o u r e x p r e s s i o n t a k e d i f f e r e n t forms from t h o s e of t h e o r i g i n a l a n a b a p t i s t s . . . . (vl , ) i n t h e same a r t i c l e , wiebe makes a case f o r r e l e a s i n g h e t e r o g l o s s i a on t h e s y n c h r o n i c as w e l l as t h e d i a c h r o n i c p l a n e . he a c c e p t s t h a t s i n c e mennonites a r e s c a t t e r e d i n p o c k e t s a c r o s s t h r e e c o n t i n e n t s , i n w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g s o c i a l and n a t u r a l c o n t e x t s , s u b j e c t t o d i s s i m i l a r laws and d i v e r s e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s , t h e w o r l d mennonite community's r e a d i n g o f t h e s c r i p t u r e s i s s u b j e c t t o an u n r e l e n t i n g a s s a u l t by d i v i s i v e f o r c e s . wiebe urges fellow-members not t o p r a c t i c e e t h n o c e n t r i c c h r i s t i a n i t y , b u t t o t r u s t i n t h e power o f t h e h o l y s p i r i t t o p r e s e r v e t h e s e m a n t i c i n t e g r i t y o f t h e word: in a f r i c a , c e n t r a l a m e r i c a , japan, i n d o n e s i a , and i n d i a , t h e work o f m i s s i o n a r i e s from v a r i o u s mennonite churches has shown t h a t c h r i s t i n a c h f o l a e [ f o l l o w i n g c h r i s t ] depends on no way whatever upon b l o o d s t r a i n o r t y p e o f c l o t h e s ( i f a n y ) . in n o r t h a m e r i c a t o o , t h e r e a r e c o n g r e g a t i o n s o f a l l major mennonite c h u r c h e s w h i c h have negroes, i n d i a n s , and mexicans as members, but t h e s e a r e not t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t h a t have much say a t c o n f e r e n c e l e v e l . (vl - ) wiebe's n o v e l s a r t i c u l a t e t h e paradox o f "a u n i f i e d t r u t h t h a t r e q u i r e s a p l u r a l i t y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s " ( b a k h t i n , ) . the w o r d — i n d e e d a l l w o r d s — m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e s i n wiebe's n o v e l s i n t h e p r o c e s s of t h e i r c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r i c a l "becoming" i n t h e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l w o r l d . and y e t wiebe c o n c e i v e s o f s u c h "becoming" as humanity's communal, d i a l o g i c s e a r c h f o r "a l a r g e r meaning o f l i f e , a l a r g e r meaning o f t h e u n i v e r s e , w h i c h a l l t h e u n i v e r s e i s g o i n g towards" (neuman ) . i n " u n e a r t h i n g language," robert k r o e t s c h t e a s e s wiebe f o r h i s n a i v e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t b e l i e f i n " t h a t ' c a p i t a l - w ' word i n t h e b e g i n n i n g was" (neuman ). but as sam s o l e c k i p o i n t s o u t , "wiebe i n s i s t s t h a t t h e word be i n c a r n a t e d i n h i s t o r y , t h a t h i s h e r o e s t r a n s l a t e i t i n t o p r a x i s " ("giant f i c t i o n s , " ) . by t h e i r v e r y e x i s t e n c e as w e l l as t h r o u g h t h e s t o r i e s t h e y t e l l , wiebe's n o v e l s s i t u a t e t h e word i n t h e m i d s t o f v a r i o u s f i e l d s o f s o c i a l s t r u g g l e , so t h a t i t never o s s i f i e s i n t o m o n o l i t h i c dogma, b u t i n s t e a d c o n t i n u o u s l y e v o l v e s and renews i t s power t o mean i n response t o t e s t i n g h i s t o r i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s and unprecedented l i n g u i s t i c c o n t e x t s . wiebe's n o v e l s t h u s e x p r e s s a p r o f o u n d sense o f t h e h i s t o r i c i t y o f t h e d i v i n e word, i t s i n v o l v e m e n t i n an o n g o i n g d i a l o g i c p r o c e s s o f becoming. a t t h e same t i m e , k r o e t s c h i s r i g h t t o p o i n t t o t h e l e g a c y o f — o r n o s t a l g i a f o r — t h e u n i t a r y c e r t a i n t i e s o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t t h o u g h t and language w h i c h l i n g e r even i n wiebe's most a r t i s t i c a l l y i n n o v a t i v e w r i t i n g . a paradox t h u s u n d e r l i e s a l l wiebe's n o v e l s : t h e word frames h i s t o r y i n t h a t t h e b i b l e d e f i n e s f o r wiebe t h e u l t i m a t e o r " l a r g e r meaning" o f e v e n t s ; and y e t , h i s t o r y a l s o frames t h e w o r d — human b e i n g s have a c c e s s t o t h e " c a p i t a l - w word" o n l y i n t h e form o f h i s t o r i c a l l y c o n t i n g e n t , "small-w" human u t t e r a n c e s w h i c h p e o p l e apprehend i n s p e c i f i c s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t s . notes to appendix . wiebe i n d i c a t e s h i s awareness o f t h e s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p e r i o d i m m e d i a t e l y p r i o r t o t h e r e f o r m a t i o n i n my l o v e l y enemyf where i t c o n s t i t u t e s h a r o l d lemming's s p e c i a l a r e a o f i n t e r e s t . . b a k h t i n ' s r e f e r e n c e s t o p a r o d i c v e r s i o n s o f b i b l i c a l and o t h e r c h r i s t i a n d i s c o u r s e s ( , f f . ) s u g g e s t t h a t rome was not c o m p l e t e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n s u p p r e s s i n g t h e h e t e r o g l o s s i a o f t h e word. . f o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e growth o f p r o t e s t a n t i s m and t h e s p r e a d o f p r i n t i n g and l i t e r a c y , see e i s e n s t e i n - . . the f o l l o w i n g b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l on menno simons i s t a k e n from bender - . . smith a s s e r t s t h a t "the a n a b a p t i s t s r e l i e d more e x c l u s i v e l y and more d e v o t e d l y upon t h e b i b l e t h a n t h e o t h e r s as a g u i d e i n t h e i r s e a r c h a f t e r god... the b i b l e t o t h e s e p r o p h e t s o f a new w o r l d - o r d e r was t h e s o l e s o u r c e o f s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y " ( ) . . see smith - . . see l i t t e l l - on menno simons' d o c t r i n e s o f t h e word. . f o r example, " m i l l s t o n e f o r t h e sun's day." . i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h i s t h i r d p o l i c y , menno u r g e d t h a t any i n d i v i d u a l who r e f u s e d r e p e a t e d l y t o r e c o n c i l e h i s o r her p o s i t i o n w i t h t h a t o f t h e m a j o r i t y s h o u l d be banned o r excommunicated from t h e c h u r c h . "they soon a c c u m u l a t e d a w e l l - d e f i n e d body o f b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s a g r e e d upon by c o n g r e g a t i o n s and c o n f e r e n c e s t o w h i c h t h e y i n s i s t e d a l l members o f t h e group must s u b s c r i b e , o r remove t h e m s e l v e s from t h e f e l l o w s h i p o f t h e body" ( s m i t h ) . . wiebe i n v o k e s t h e c o n c e p t o f " l i v i n g i n t o " an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f something i n the temptations o f b i g bear, where edgar dewdney says t h a t " b i g bear has l i v e d i n t o h i s own u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h a t l a n d " ( ) . . the " c o n f e r e n c e s " might be v i e w e d as t h e d e m o c r a t i c p a r l i a m e n t a r y s e s s i o n s o f t h e mennonite c h u r c h . a t t h e s e y e a r l y m e e t i n g s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ( e l e c t e d d e m o c r a t i c a l l y by t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g ) d i s c u s s and v o t e on d o c t r i n a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s . . c f . d a v i d l. j e f f r e y , who argues t h a t i n wiebe's n o v e l s " r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n s a r e always t e s t e d i n t h e c r u c i b l e o f p e r s o n a l c r i s i s " ( , ). bibliography works cited a s h c r o f t , b i l l , g a r e t h g r i f f i t h s and h e l e n t i f f i n . the empire w r i t e s back: theory and p r a c t i c e i n p o s t - c o l o n i a l l i t e r a t u r e s . london and new york: r o u t l e d g e , . b a k h t i n , m i k h a i l . the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n . ed. m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . t r a n s . c a r y l emerson and m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . ed. m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . a u s t i n : u n i v e r s i t y of texas p r e s s , . . problems o f d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s . ed. and t r a n s . c a r y l emerson. m i n n e a p o l i s : u n i v e r s i t y o f m i n n e s o t a p r e s s , . . "the problem o f speech genres." speech genres and o t h e r l a t e e s s a y s . t r a n s . v e r n w. mcgee. ed. c a r y l emerson and m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . a u s t i n : u n i v e r s i t y o f texas p r e s s , . - . bender, h a r o l d s. "a b r i e f b i o g r a p h y o f menno simons." the complete w r i t i n g s o f menno simons c. - . t r a n s . l e o n a r d v e r d u i n . ed. john c h r i s t i a n wenger. s c o t t d a l e , penn.: h e r a l d p r e s s , . bergman, b r i a n . "rudy wiebe: storymaker of t h e p r a i r i e s . " a v o i c e i n t h e land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . b e n t e r r a k , k r i m , stephen muecke and paddy roe. r e a d i n g t h e c o u n t r y : an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o nomadology. f r e m a n t l e : f r e m a n t l e a r t s c e n t r e p r e s s , . b i l a n , r. p. u n t i t l e d review o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e . a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . b l o o m f i e l d , l e o n a r d . p l a i n s cree t e x t s . v o l . x v i , p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e american e t h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y . ed. f r a n z boas. new york: g. e. s t e c h e r t and co., . . sacred s t o r i e s o f t h e sweet grass cree. b u l l e t i n no. . n a t i o n a l museum o f canada. ottawa, . cameron, donald. "rudy wiebe: the moving stream i s p e r f e c t l y a t r e s t . " c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h canadian n o v e l i s t s , p a r t two. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . - . c u l l e r , j o n a t h a n . s a u s s u r e . london: f o n t a n a , . de rougemont, d e n i s . " r e l i g i o n and t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e a r t i s t . " the new orpheus: essays toward a c h r i s t i a n p o e t i c . ed. nathan a. s c o t t . new york: sheed and ward, . - . d u f f y , dennis. sounding t h e i c e b e r g : an e s s a y on canadian h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l s . t o r o n t o : ecw p r e s s , . e i s e n s t e i n , e l i z a b e t h . the p r i n t i n g r e v o l u t i o n i n e a r l y modern europe. new york: cambridge u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s . emerson, c a r y l . p r e f a c e . problems o f d o s t o e v s k y ' s p o e t i c s . by m i k h a i l b a k h t i n . ed. and t r a n s . c a r y l emerson. m i n n e a p o l i s : u n i v e r s i t y o f m i n n e s o t a p r e s s , . x x i x - x l i i i . f e r r i s , i n a . " r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n and f i c t i o n a l form: rudy wiebe's the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a . " a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . f l a n a g a n , thomas. " l o u i s r i e l : i n s a n i t y and prophecy." ts. rwp . d. f o u c a u l t , m i c h e l . the order o f t h i n g s : an a r c h a e o l o g y o f t h e human s c i e n c e s . new y o r k : v i n t a g e , . f r a n c i s . e. k. i n s e a r c h o f u t o p i a : the m e n n o n i t e s i n m a n i t o b a . g l e n c o e , i l l i n o i s : the f r e e p r e s s , . g e n e t t e , g e r a r d . n a r r a t i v e d i s c o u r s e : an e s s a y i n method. t r a n s . jane e. lewin. i t h a c a , new york: c o r n e l l u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . g o l d i e , t e r r y . f e a r and t e m p t a t i o n : t h e image o f t h e i n d i g e n e i n c a n a d i a n , a u s t r a l i a n and new z e a l a n d l i t e r a t u r e s . t o r o n t o : u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s , . grace, s h e r r i l l e. " s t r u c t u r i n g v i o l e n c e : 'the e t h i c s o f l i n g u i s t i c s ' i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear." c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . h i l d e b r a n d , george. "rudy wiebe: t h e a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n , and t h e u s a b l e p a s t . " u n p u b l i s h e d e s s a y , . . "the a n a b a p t i s t v i s i o n o f rudy wiebe: a study i n t h e o l o g i c a l a l l e g o r e s i s . " d i s s . m c g i l l u n i v e r s i t y , . hoeppner, kenneth. " p o l i t i c s and r e l i g i o n i n rudy wiebe's the scorched-wood p e o p l e . " e n g l i s h s t u d i e s i n canada (december ) : - . h o l q u i s t , m i c h a e l . g l o s s a r y . the d i a l o g i c i m a g i n a t i o n . by m i k h a i l b a k h t i n . t r a n s . c a r y l emerson and m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . ed. m i c h a e l h o l q u i s t . a u s t i n : u n i v e r s i t y o f texas p r e s s , . - . howard, joseph k i n s e y . s t r a n g e empire: a n a r r a t i v e o f t h e north-west. new york: morrow, . h o w e l l s , c o r a l ann. " h i s t o r y from a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e : n a r r a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear." j o u r n a l o f commonwealth l i t e r a t u r e ( ): - . hutcheon, l i n d a . "canadian h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c m e t a f i c t i o n . " e s s a y s on canadian w r i t i n g ( w i n t e r - ): - . . the p o l i t i c s o f postmodernism. london and new york: r o u t l e d g e , . . i n t e r v i e w w i t h rudy wiebe. o t h e r s o l i t u d e s . t o r o n t o : o x f o r d u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . - . j e f f r e y , d a v i d l. "a s e a r c h f o r peace: prophecy and p a r a b l e i n t h e f i c t i o n o f rudy wiebe." a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . "post-war c a n a d i a n f i c t i o n . " m o s a i c : a j o u r n a l f o r t h e c o m p a r a t i v e study o f l i t e r a t u r e and ideas xi/ ( s p r i n g ): - . k e i t h w. j . e p i c f i c t i o n : t h e a r t o f rudy wiebe. edmonton: u n i v e r s i t y o f a l b e r t a p r e s s , [ a ] . . a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. edmonton: newest p r e s s , [ b ] . . "where i s your v o i c e g o i n g to? wiebe and h i s reader." paper d e l i v e r e d a t a c o n f e r e n c e on "mennonite/s w r i t i n g i n canada." u n i v e r s i t y o f w a t e r l o o , may . k e r t z e r , j . m. " b i o c r i t i c a l e s s a y . " the rudy wiebe papers f i r s t a c c e s s i o n : an i n v e n t o r y o f t h e a r c h i v e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y l i b r a r i e s . ed. jean f. tener and a p p o l l o n i a s t e e l e . c a l g a r y : u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y p r e s s , . i x - x x v i . k l o o s , wolfgang. " n a r r a t i v e modes and forms o f l i t e r a r y p e r c e p t i o n i n rudy wiebe's the s c o r c h e d - wood p e o p l e . " g a i n i n g ground: european c r i t i c s on canadian l i t e r a t u r e . ed. r o b e r t k r o e t s c h and r e i n g a r d m. n i s c h i k . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . k r o e t s c h , r o b e r t . " u n h i d i n g t h e hidden: recent canadian f i c t i o n . " j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n / ( ): - . . " m i r r o r , m i r r o r , show us a l l . " rev. o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e . books i n canada / ( j a n . ): . l e c k e r , r o b e r t . " t r u s t i n g t h e q u i n t u p l e t senses: time and form i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear." e n g l i s h s t u d i e s i n canada ( s e p t ) : - . mclean, ken. " e v a n g e l i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l f i c t i o n . " j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n ( - ) : - . mandel, e l i and rudy wiebe. "where t h e v o i c e comes from." a v o i c e i n t h e land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . m c d o u g a l l , john. opening t h e g r e a t west: e x p e r i e n c e s o f a m i s s i o n a r y i n - . c a l g a r y : glenbow- a l b e r t a i n s t i t u t e , . mendelbaum, d a v i d g. the p l a i n s cree: an e t h n o g r a p h i c . h i s t o r i c a l , and comparative study. r e g i n a : canadian p l a i n s r e s e a r c h c e n t r e , . monkman, l e s l i e . a n a t i v e h e r i t a g e : images o f t h e i n d i a n i n e n g l i s h c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e . t o r o n t o : u n i v e r s i t y of t o r o n t o p r e s s , . m o r l e y , p a t r i c i a . the comedians: hugh hood and rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : c l a r k e i r w i n , . m o r r i s , a l e x a n d e r . t r e a t i e s o f canada w i t h t h e i n d i a n s o f m a n i t o b a and t h e north-west t e r r i t o r i e s . t o r o n t o : b e l f o r d s , c l a r k e and co., . - , - . morson, gary s a u l . "parody, h i s t o r y and metaparody." r e t h i n k i n g b a k h t i n : e x t e n s i o n s and c h a l l e n g e s . ed. gary s a u l morson and c a r y l emerson. e v a n s t o n , i l l i n o i s : n o r t h w e s t e r n u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . - . neuman, s h i r l e y . " u n e a r t h i n g language: an i n t e r v i e w w i t h rudy wiebe and r o b e r t k r o e t s c h . " a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . o r w e l l , george. n i n e t e e n e i g h t y - f o u r . . harmondsworth: p e n g u i n , . p e i , m a r i o a. and f r a n k gaynor. a d i c t i o n a r y o f l i n g u i s t i c s . totowa: l i t t l e f i e l d , adams and co., . p o l l o c k , z a i l i g . "the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a : a s e l e c t i v e genealogy." e s s a y s i n c a n a d i a n w r i t i n g (summer ) : - . redekop, magdalene f a l k . " t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e p a s t : language i n the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a . " a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s bv and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . review o f my l o v e l y enemy. conrad g r e b e l review ( f a l l ): - . r i c o u , l a u r e n c e . v e r t i c a l m a n / h o r i z o n t a l w o r l d : man and landscape i n c a n d i a n p r a i r i e f i c t i o n . vancouver: ubc p r e s s , ) . smith, c. henry. the s t o r y o f t h e m e n n o n i t e s . t h ed. r e v i s e d and e n l a r g e d by c o r n e l i u s krahn. newton, kansas: m e n n o n i t e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f f i c e , . s o l e c k i , sam. " g i a n t f i c t i o n s and l a r g e meanings: the n o v e l s o f rudy wiebe." canadian forum (march ): - , . — - . review o f the scorched-wood p e o p l e . a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . s p r i e t , p i e r r e . " s t r u c t u r e and meaning i n rudy wiebe's my l o v e l y enemy." g a i n i n g ground: european c r i t i c s on canadian l i t e r a t u r e . ed. r o b e r t k r o e t s c h and r e i n g a r d m. n i s c h i k . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . "rudy wiebe's the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a : t h e p o l y p h o n y of a p e o p l e o r t h e l o n e l y v o i c e o f t h e f r i n g e ? " m u l t i p l e v o i c e s : recent c a n a d i a n f i c t i o n . p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e i v t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l symposium o f t h e b r u s s e l s c e n t r e f o r canadian s t u d i e s . november- december, . ed. jeanne d e l b a e r e . sydney: dangaroo p r e s s , . - . suderman, elmer f. " u n i v e r s a l v a l u e s i n rudy wiebe's peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many." a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - t e f s , wayne a. "rudy wiebe: m y s t e r y and r e a l i t y . " m o s a i c x i / : - . . "where i s your v o i c e coming from rudy wiebe?" c a n a d i a n dimension / ( ): - . thieme, john. "scheherazade as h i s t o r i a n : rudy wiebe's 'where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?'" j o u r n a l o f commonwealth l i t e r a t u r e ( ) : - . t h i e s s e n , j . "canadian mennonite l i t e r a t u r e . " canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( ): - . t i e s s e n , h i l d e g a r d e. "a m i g h t y i n n e r r i v e r : 'peace' i n t h e f i c t i o n o f rudy wiebe." j o u r n a l o f c a n a d i a n f i c t i o n ( f a l l ): - . volo§inov, v. n. marxism and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f language. t r a n s . l a d i s l a v m a t e j k a and"i.-r. t i t u n i k . new york: seminar p r e s s , . wenger, john c h r i s t i a n , ed. the complete w r i t i n g s o f menno simons. t r a n s . l e o n a r d v e r d u i n . s c o t t d a l e , p e n n s y l v a n i a , . white, hayden. m e t a h i s t o r y : the h i s t o r i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n i n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y europe. b a l t i m o r e and london: johns hopkins u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . wiebe, rudy. peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . " a c c i d e n t . " e d i t o r i a l . the mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d . j u l y , . . . "church p r o s p e c t : w r i t i n g . " e d i t o r i a l . the m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n h e r a l d . j a n u a r y , . . . f i r s t and v i t a l c a n d l e . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . the b l u e mountains o f c h i n a . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . where i s the v o i c e coming from?. t o r o n t o m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?." where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . - . . " m i l l s t o n e f o r t h e sun's day." where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . - . —.-. the scorched-wood p e o p l e . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . , and t h e a t r e passe m u r a i l l e . f a r as the eye can see. edmonton: newest p r e s s , . . the mad t r a p p e r . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . "the a r t i s t as a c r i t i c and a w i t n e s s . " a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j , k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . "for t h e mennonite churches: a l a s t chance." a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . on t h e t r a i l o f b i g bear." a v o i c e i n t h e land: e s s a y s by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j , k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . "bear s p i r i t i n a s t r a n g e land." a v o i c e i n t h e land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. w. j . k e i t h . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . - . . my l o v e l y enemy. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . . "the s k u l l i n t h e swamp." j o u r n a l o f mennonite s t u d i e s ( ): - . . p l a y i n g dead: a c o n t e m p l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e a r c t i c . edmonton: newest p r e s s , . . " d i a l o g u e a t an e x h i b i t i o n . " p r a i r i e f i r e / (summer ): - . woodcock, george. " p r a i r i e w r i t e r s and t h e m e t i s : rudy wiebe and m a r g a r e t l a u r e n c e . " c a n a d i a n e t h n i c s t u d i e s / ( ) : - . additional references books by wiebe wiebe, rudy. h a r r y savage and tom r a d f o r d . a l b e r t a / a c e l e b r a t i o n . edmonton: h u r t i g , . books edited by wiebe wiebe, rudy. the s t o r y - m a k e r s . t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . . s t o r i e s from western canada. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . , and andreas s c h r o e d e r . s t o r i e s from p a c i f i c and a r c t i c canada. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . . double v i s i o n : an a n t h o l o g y o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s t o r i e s i n e n g l i s h . t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . . g e t t i n g there: s t o r i e s s e l e c t e d by rudy wiebe. edmonton: newest p r e s s , . , and a r i t h a van herk. more s t o r i e s from western canada. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . , and bob b e a l . war i n t h e west: v o i c e s o f t h e r e b e l l i o n . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . fiction by wiebe in books and periodicals wiebe, rudy. "the m i d n i g h t r i d e o f an a l b e r t a boy." l i b e r t y (september, ): , , . r e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d as "scrapbook" i n wvcf. . "the power." new v o i c e s : canadian u n i v e r s i t y w r i t i n g o f . ed. e a r l e b i r n e y e t a l . t o r o n t o : dent, . - . . "tudor k i n g . " c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g (december, ): - , - . repr. i n wvcf. " i n c i d e n t from a n o v e l i n p r o g r e s s . " f o o l s c a p [goshen c o l l e g e , i n d i a n a ] ( s p r i n g ). i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o fvc. " o o l u l i k . " i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o fvc. r e p r i n t e d i n the s t o r y - m a k e r s . ed. rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . repr. wvcf. "my l i f e : t h a t ' s as i t was." c a n a d i a n mennonite / - ( i n s t a l m e n t s : june- august, ). i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o bmc. " b l a c k v u l t u r e . " the mennonite / ( june ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o bmc. " m i l l s t o n e f o r t h e sun's day." tamarack review (summer ): - . repr. wvcf. "over t h e red l i n e . " the mennonite / ( j u l y ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o bmc. "the w e l l . " the mennonite / ( august ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o bmc. " a l l on t h e i r knees." the m e n n o n i t e / ( december ): - . r e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d i n wvcf. " d i d j e s u s e v e r laugh?" f i d d l e h e a d (march- a p r i l ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n s t o r i e s from western canada. ed. rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . repr. wvcf. "where i s the v o i c e coming from?" f o u r t e e n s t o r i e s h i g h . ed. d a v i d h e l w i g and tom m a r s h a l l . ottawa: oberon, . - . wvcf - . " b l u e c o a t s on t h e s a c r e d h i l l o f t h e w i l d peas." the s t a r spangled b e a v e r . ed. john h. redekop. t o r o n t o : p e t e r m a r t i n , . - . r e p r i n t e d wvcf. "the f i s h caught i n t h e b a t t l e r i v e r . " white p e l i c a n / ( f a l l ): - . repr. i n wvcf. "the grand p u r s u i t o f b i g b e a r . " f i d d l e h e a d ( f a l l ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o tbb. "along t h e red deer and t h e south saskatchewan." p r i s m i n t e r n a t i o n a l / ( s p r i n g ): - . repr. i n wvcf. " b u f f a l o run." j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n ( s p r i n g ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o tbb. "how t h e p e o p l e used t o make t r e a t i e s . " white p e l i c a n / ( s p r i n g ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o tbb. "the naming o f a l b e r t johnson." queen's q u a r t e r l y (autumn ): - . repr. i n s t o r i e s from p a c i f i c and a r c t i c canada. ed. andreas s c h r o e d e r and rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . repr. wvcf. "at t h e sand h i l l s . " n a t i v e p e o p l e i n c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e . ed. w i l l i a m and c h r i s t i n e mowat. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . - . p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n tbb. "the l a s t b u f f a l o . " n a t i v e p e o p l e i n c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e . ed. w i l l i a m and c h r i s t i n e mowat. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d i n tbb. "games f o r queen v i c t o r i a . " s a t u r d a y n i g h t (march ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n more s t o r i e s from western canada. ed. rudy wiebe and a r i t h a van herk. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . "home f o r n i g h t . " newest review ( a p r i l ): - , . " h u n t i n g m c d o u g a l l . " f i d d l e h e a d ( w i n t e r ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o swp. "batoche. may , ." d i v i d e d we s t a n d . ed. gary geddes. t o r o n t o : p e t e r m a r t i n , . - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o swp. "the year we gave away t h e land." week-end magazine [ t o r o n t o g l o b e and m a i n ( j u l y ): , . r e p r i n t e d i n ac. " i n t h e beaver h i l l s . " a u r o r a : new canadian w r i t i n g . ed. m o r r i s w o l f e . t o r o n t o : doubleday, . - . " a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s o f m a r r i a g e . " canadian forum (oct.-nov. ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n ac. "chinook c h r i s t m a s . " newest review (december ), - , . r e p r i n t e d i n ac. . "the good maker," mbh ( f e b r u a r y ): - . . "the o i l c a p i t a l s o f canada." ac. . "lake i s l e o f i n n i s f r e e . " ac. . "they j u s t won't b e l i e v e . " ac. . "the house-smashers." ac. . "a h i s t o r y o f t h e new world." ac. . "growing up i n rosebud." ac. . "the funny money o f ." ac. . "the a n g e l o f t h e tar sands." ac. . "the darkness i n s i d e t h e mountain." ac. . "bears, a l l t h e time b e a r s . " ac. . "from m o n t r e a l , ." ac. . "an i n d i c a t i o n o f b u r n i n g . " canadian f i c t i o n magazine / ( - ): - . . "the broken arm." c a n a d i a n forum (march ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o mle. . " p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a y e r . " newest review / (summer ): - . i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o mle. . " s e e i n g i s b e l i e v i n g . " k u n a p i p i / ( ) : - . . " s a i l i n g t o d a n z i g . " the m a l a h a t review ( s e p t , ): - . . "the s h e l l s o f t h e ocean." the m a l a h a t review (march ): - . . "except god who a l r e a d y knows." the new q u a r t e r l y x / l - (spring-summer ): - . articles, essays, reviews. addresses, and poems by rudy wiebe wiebe, rudy. "new y e a r ' s eve i n t h e r o c k i e s . " (feb, ): - . [poem] . "claude g a l l i n g e r and h i s k i l l e a r n s h o r t h o r n s . " ts. g l e n b o w - a l b e r t a i n s t i t u t e , c a l g a r y . . " m u f f l e d r e t u r n . " f o o l s c a p ( s p r i n g ): . [poem] . " f a l l sunday i n hyde p a r k . " f o o l s c a p ( s p r i n g ): . [poem] . " v o i c e s . " f o o l s c a p ( s p r i n g ): - . [poem] . "an a u t h o r speaks about h i s n o v e l . " c a n a d i a n mennonite ( a p r i l ): . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . "for t h e mennonite churches: a l a s t chance." c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g (june ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . "tombstone community." mennonite l i f e ( o c t o b e r ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . "the a r t i s t as a c r i t i c and a w i t n e s s . " c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g / (march ): - , . rev. and r e p r . as "the a r t i s t as w i t n e s s t o and c r i t i c o f s o c i e t y . " j o u r n a l o f church and s o c i e t y . ( f a l l ): - . repr. i n vl. . "moros and mennonites i n t h e chaco o f paraguay." canadian mennonite / ( november ): , . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . "the p e t e r n e u d o r f s o f f i l a d e l f i a , paraguay." c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g / (may ): - . . "the meaning o f b e i n g mennonite b r e t h r e n . " mbh / ( a p r i l ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . i n t r o d u c t i o n . the s t o r y - m a k e r s . ed. rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . i x - x x x . "the g h e t t o , t h e launch pad, t h e d e s e r t . " paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e study c o n f e r e n c e on t h e m i n i s t r y , march - , . mbh / ( j a n . ): - . "passage by land." canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . rev. and r e p r . i n the n a r r a t i v e v o i c e . ed. john m e t c a l f . t o r o n t o : mcgraw h i l l r y e r s o n , . - . "pushed back t o t h e r i d g e . " review o f the humback by mort f o r e r . canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . "western canadian f i c t i o n : p a s t and f u t u r e . " western american l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . "a c l u t c h o f books about i n d i a n s . " review o f red o r white by m a r t y dunn, there i s my p e o p l e s l e e p i n g by s a r a i n stump, and the t r e a t i e s o f canada w i t h t h e i n d i a n s o f m a n i t o b a and t h e north-west t e r r i t o r i e s by a l e x a n d e r m o r r i s . white p e l i c a n / ( f a l l ): - . "guys who s t a y out i n t h e c o l d . " review o f seasons o f t h e eskimo by f r e d bruemmer, and nunaaa: my land. my c o u n t r y by duncan p r y d e . books i n canada (december ): - . "songs o f t h e canadian eskimo." canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . "womb w i t h a view." a d d r e s s g i v e n a t the l e a r n e d s o c i e t i e s c o n f e r e n c e , m c g i l l u n i v e r s i t y , . i n t r o d u c t i o n . s t o r i e s from western canada. ed. rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . i x - x i v . "a l i t e r a r y mismatch." review o f the s t y l e o f innocence by f r a s e r s u t h e r l a n d . books i n canada / ( j a n u a r y - f e b r u a r y ): - . "more s t o r y t e l l e r s a r e needed." mennonite r e p o r t e r / ( f e b r u a r y ): . "wise and w i t t y testaments." review o f v o i c e s o f t h e p l a i n s cree by edward ahenakew. edmonton j o u r n a l ( november ). "on the t r a i l o f b i g bear." j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n / ( ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. "the year o f t h e i n d i a n . " review o f a c r o s s t h e m e d i c i n e l i n e by c. f r a n k t u r n e r , w i l d e r n e s s man by l o v a t d i c k s o n , and gone i n d i a n by r o b e r t k r o e t s c h . d a l h o u s i e review ( s p r i n g ): - . i n t r o d u c t i o n . s t o r i e s from p a c i f i c and a r c t i c canada. ed. andreas s c h r o e d e r and rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . - . " r i e l : a p o s s i b l e f i l m treatment." newest review / (june ): . repr. i n vl. " a l l that's l e f t o f b i g bear." maclean's (september ): - . rev. and r e p r . i n vl. under t h e o r i g i n a l t i t l e "bear s p i r i t i n a s t r a n g e land." i n t r o d u c t i o n . double v i s i o n : an a n t h o l o g y o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s t o r i e s i n e n g l i s h . ed. rudy wiebe. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . i x - x i . " i n t h e west, s i r john a. i s a b a s t a r d and r i e l a s a i n t . e v e r ask why?." toronto globe and m a i l ( march ): . repr. i n vl. "a n o v e l i s t ' s p e r s o n a l notes on f r e d e r i c k p h i l i p grove." u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o q u a r t e r l y ( s p r i n g ): - . repr. i n vl. review o f f o l k l o r e o f canada by e d i t h fowke. u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o q u a r t e r l y (summer ): - . "the death and l i f e o f a l b e r t johnson: c o l l e c t e d notes toward a p o s s i b l e legend." f i g u r e s i n a ground: c a n a d i a n e s s a y s on moden l i t e r a t u r e c o l l e c t e d i n honour o f s h e i l a watson. ed. diane b e s s a i and d a v i d j a c k e l . s a s k a t o o n : western p r o d u c e r p r a i r i e books, . - . "new land, a n c i e n t land." the new land: s t u d i e s i n a l i t e r a r y theme. ed. r i c h a r d chadbourne and h a l l v a r d d a h l i e . w a t e r l o o : w i l f r i d l a u r i e r u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . - . "one s t r i n g e d l u t e s . " j o u r n a l o f commonwealth l i t e r a t u r e ( ) : - . . "the s k u l l i n t h e swamp." j o u r n a l o f mennonite s t u d i e s ( ) : - . . "the words o f s i l e n c e : p a s t and p r e s e n t . " s i l e n c e , t h e word and t h e s a c r e d . ed. e. d. b l o d g e t t and h. g. coward. w a t e r l o o , ont.: w i l f r i d l a u r i e r u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . - . . "proud cree n a t i o n deserves much more t h a n funny s t o r i e s . " t o r o n t o globe and m a i l ( feb. ). criticism a d a c h i , ken. "unusual a u t h o r l i v e s a l i f e o f canadian example." t o r o n t o s t a r ( november ). . "wiebe a t t a c k s a r c t i c t r a p p e r movie." t o r o n t o sunday s t a r ( september ). b a i l e y , nancy. " i m a g i n a t i v e and h i s t o r i c a l t r u t h i n wiebe's the mad t r a p p e r . " j o u r n a l o f c a n a d i a n s t u d i e s / (summer ): - . b a r b o u r , d o u g l a s . " o r i g i n a l p e o p l e . " rev. o f tbb. canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( ): - . . " b i g bear speak w i t h awesome tongue." rev. o f tbb. edmonton j o u r n a l . ( september ). . rev. o f swp. p a c i f i c northwest review o f books (may ): . b a r k e r , edna. rev. o f swp. canadian book review a n n u a l . . t o r o n t o : p e t e r m a r t i n , . . bergman, b r i a n . "an i n t e r v i e w w i t h rudy wiebe: s t o r y - m a k e r o f t h e p r a i r i e s . " gateway [ u n i v e r - s i t y o f a l b e r t a ] ( november ): , . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. . "canadian c o n t r a d i c t i o n — t h e scorched-wood p e o p l e . " gateway ( nov., ): . b e s s a i , d i a n e . "canadian docu-drama." c a n a d i a n t h e a t r e review ( f a l l ): - . bevan, a l l a n . i n t r o d u c t i o n . the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . new canadian l i b r a r y e d i t i o n , i x - x v . . rev. o f tbb. d a l h o u s i e review ( ): - . b i l a n , r. p. "wiebe and r e l i g i o u s s t r u g g l e . " c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e (summer ): - . . " f i c t i o n . " review o f swp. u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o q u a r t e r l y (summer ): - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. b l o d g e t t , e. d. " f i c t i o n s o f e t h n i c i t y i n p r a i r i e w r i t i n g . " c o n f i g u r a t i o n : e s s a y s i n t h e canadian l i t e r a t u r e s . t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . bowden, deborah. " s q u a r i n g t h e c i r c l e : t h e problem o f t r a n s l a t i o n i n the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear." c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e (summer ): - . b o w s f i e l d , h a r t w e l l . review o f swp. canadian e t h n i c s t u d i e s ( ) : - . b u c k l e y , m a r j o r i e . review o f ppm. a l b e r t a h i s t o r i c a l review ( ) : - . brydon, p i a n a . "troppo a g i t a t o : w r i t i n g and r e a d i n g c u l t u r e s . " a r i e l / ( j a n u a r y ): - . cameron, p o n a l d . "quick, name new canadian w r i t e r s . " maclean's / ( j u l y , ): . . "rudy wiebe: the moving stream i s p e r f e c t l y a t r e s t . " c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h canadian n o v e l i s t s . p a r t two. t o r o n t o : m a c m i l l a n , . - . c a r l s e n , john. "canadian p r a i r i e f i c t i o n : towards a new p a s t : m a r g a r e t l a u r e n c e , r o b e r t k r o e t s c h , rudy wiebe." a sense o f p l a c e : e s s a y s i n p o s t - c o l o n i a l l i t e r a t u r e s . ' p r o c . o f gotenburg u n i v e r - s i t y congress o f commonwealth language and l i t e r a t u r e . september . ed. b r i t t a o l i n d a . g o t e n b u r g , department o f e n g l i s h . - . c a r p e n t e r , dave. review o f tbb. u n i v e r s i t y o f m a n i t o b a a l u m n i j o u r n a l ( f a l l ). . " p r i m i t i v e p r e s e n t . " rev. o f the mad t r a p p e r . c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e ( ) : - . c h a t e l i n , ray. " t r a g i c s t o r y o f b i g bear." rev. o f tbb. vancouver p r o v i n c e ( december ). c h r i s t y , j i m . "a p e r s o n a l c h r i s t i a n i t y . " rev. o f bmc. s a t u r d a y n i a h t ( a p r i l ): , . cohen, joy-ann. "author rudy wiebe t r y i n g movies as a way t o ' r e a c h ' mass a u d i e n c e . " c a l g a r y h e r a l d ( o c t o b e r ) . c o l s o n , t. rev. o f s t o r i e s from western canada. f i d d l e h e a d ( ) : - . compston, c. n. rev. o f tbb. canadian a u t h o r and bookman / ( w i n t e r ): . c o n k i n , jamie. "rudy wiebe: e x p l o r i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f love." rev. o f mle. q u i l l and q u i r e (may ): . dagg, m e l v i n h a r o l d . "beyond t h e g a r r i s o n : a study o f t h e image o f t h e i n d i a n i n canadian l i t e r a t u r e . " dai ( ) september : a. davey, f r a n k . "rudy wiebe." from there t o here. e r i n : p r e s s p o r c e p i c , . - . d a v i d s o n , a r n o l d e. "the provenance o f s t o r y i n rudy wiebe's "where i s t h e v o i c e coming from?" s t u d i e s i n s h o r t f i c t i o n / ( s p r i n g ): - . dawe, a l a n . "untaped i n t e r v i e w s . " event ( ) : - . de f e h r , w i l l i a m , e t , a l . h a r v e s t a n t h o l o g y o f mennonite w r i t i n g i n canada. c e n t e n n i a l committee o f t h e m e n n o n i t e h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y o f m a n i t o b a , . de v i s s e r , john. rev. o f ac. beaver ( w i n t e r ): . de vos, karen r. "of peace and v i o l e n c e : a d i s c u s s i o n o f rudy wiebe's n o v e l s . " the banner ( a p r i l ): - . d i l l , v i c k y s c h r e i b e r . "the idea o f w i l d e r n e s s i n t h e mennonite n o v e l s o f rudy wiebe." d i s s . , u n i v e r s i t y o f n o t r e dame, . d i x o n , m i c h a e l . " b i g b e a r ' s v i s i o n s . " rev. o f tbb. canadian forum ( n o v . - d e c , ): . doerksen, d [ a n i e l ] w. " l o o k i n g f o r a p l a c e t o c a l l t h e i r own." review o f bmc. mbh / ( j a n u a r y ): - . . rev. o f bmc. f i d d l e h e a d ( w i n t e r ): - . . rev. o f tbb. f i d d l e h e a d ( s p r i n g ): - . doerksen, v i c t o r g. "the s t y l e o f peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many." a i o n (may ): - . . "the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f b i g bear: a n o t h e r rudy wiebe n o v e l . " mennonite r e p o r t e r ( nov., ): a . '•. "from j u n g - s t i l l u n g t o rudy wiebe: ' c h r i s t i a n f i c t i o n ' and t h e mennonite i m a g i n a t i o n . " mennonite images. ed. h a r r y loewen. w i n n i p e g : h y p e r i o n p r e s s , . dueck, a l l a n . "a sense o f t h e p a s t . " rev. o f tbb. j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n ( f a l l ): - . . "rudy wiebe as s t o r y t e l l e r : v i s i o n and a r t i n wiebe's f i c t i o n . " u n p u b l i s h e d m.a. t h e s i s : u n i v e r s i t y o f a l b e r t a , . — - . "rudy wiebe's approach t o h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n : . a study o f the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and the scorched-wood p e o p l e . " the canadian n o v e l : here and now. ed. john moss. t o r o n t o : nc p r e s s , . - . duerksen, d a v i d . " t h e o l o g i c a l straw o r immemorial stone?" a i o n (may ): - . d u f f y , d e n n i s . rev. o f swp. queen's q u a r t e r l y ( ): - . e n g e l , m a r i a n . rev. o f swp. the canadian reader / (dec. ): - . e r b , marsha. "an a u t h o r ' s v i e w o f h i s homeland." s a s k a t o o n s t a r p h o e n i x ( november ). esche, sandra. rev. o f wvcf. tamarack review ( ): . f r i e s e n , james. " f i c t i o n and t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t r u t h . " a i o n (may ): - . g a r e b i a n , k e i t h . "the saga o f r i e l . " rev. o f swp. the m o n t r e a l s t a r ( j a n , ): e . g i e s b r e c h t h e r b e r t . "' l i f e , how naked and how hard when known a comprehensive review o f a c o n t r o v e r s i a l n o v e l t h a t d e s t r o y e d t h e peace o f many." the canadian mennonite ( march, ) : , - . repr. vl. g o l d i e , t e r r y . "contemporary views o f an a b o r i g i n a l p a s t : rudy wiebe and p a t r i c k white." w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n i n e n g l i s h : - . grady, wayne. "an overwhelming s t i l l n e s s . " rev. o f p l a y i n g dead. books i n canada (aug.- s e p t . , ): - . g u p t a r a , prabhu. " ' c l u t c h i n g a f e a t h e r i n a m a e l s t r o m ' : rudy wiebe's c r i t i q u e o f t h e contemporary west." j o u r n a l o f commonwealth l i t e r a t u r e / ( ): - . hancock, maxine. "wiebe: a v o i c e c r y i n g i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s . " c h r i s t i a n i t y today ( f e b r u a r y ): - . harder, b e r n i e . " l e t my p e o p l e go: rudy wiebe's the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a . " canadian mennonite ( dec., ): . h a r r i s o n , d i c k . "the b e g i n n i n g s o f p r a i r i e f i c t i o n . " j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n / ( ) : - . . unnamed c o u n t r y : t h e s t r u g g l e f o r a canadian p r a i r i e f i c t i o n . edmonton: u n i v e r s i t y o f a l b e r t a p r e s s , . h e a l y , j . j . " l i t e r a t u r e , power and t h e r e f u s a l s o f b i g b e a r : r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e treatment o f t h e i n d i a n and t h e a b o r i g i n e . " a u s t r a l i a n / c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e s i n e n g l i s h : a c o m p a r a t i v e p e r s p e c - t i v e . ed. r u s s e l l m c d o u g a l l and g i l l i a n w h i t l o c k . n o r t h ryde: methuen a u s t r a l i a , . - . h i l t s , dan. "the heavy b r i g a d e . " rev. o f ac. books i n canada (nov. ): - . hoeppner, kenneth. "the p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l i t e r a t u r e : contemporary t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s and t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n t o some n o v e l s by atwood, k r o e t s c h and wiebe." d i s s . , u n i v e r s i t y o f c a l g a r y , . h o w e l l s , c o r a l ann. " s i l e n c e i n rudy wiebe's mad trapper." w o r l d l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n i n e n g l i s h / (autumn ): - . . " ' i f i had a r e l i a b l e i n t e r p r e t e r who would make a r e l i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' : language, screams and s i l e n c e i n rudy wiebe's "where i s the v o i c e coming from?" recherches a n a l a i s e s e t a m e r i c a i n e s . ( ) : - . . "rudy wiebe's the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and salman r u s h d i e ' s m i d n i g h t ' s c h i l d r e n . " the l i t e r a r y c r i t e r i o n [mysore, i n d i a ] / ( ): - . . " r e - v i s i o n s o f p r a i r i e i n d i a n h i s t o r y i n rudy wiebe's the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and my l o v e l y enemy." r e - v i s i o n s o f canadian l i t e r a t u r e . ed. s h i r l e y chew. leeds: u n i v e r s i t y o f leeds, . - . j e f f r e y , d a v i d l. " b i b l i c a l hermeneutic and f a m i l y h i s t o r y i n contemporary canadian f i c t i o n : wiebe and l a u r e n c e . " m o s a i c xi/ ( s p r i n g ): - . j e n n i n g s , john. "the mad t r a p p e r i n l i t e r a t u r e and f i l m . " j o u r n a l o f canadian s t u d i e s / : - . j e s c h k e , m a r l i n . rev. o f ppm. mennonite q u a r t e r l y review ( o c t . , ): - . k e i t h , w.j. "from pocument t o a r t : wiebe's h i s t o r i c a l s h o r t s t o r i e s and t h e i r s o u r c e s . " s t u d i e s i n c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e (summer ): - . , "sex and t h e pead." rev. o f mle. canadian forum (may ): - . k i n g , c a r l y l e . rev. o f ppm. saskatchewan h i s t o r y ( ): - . k l a s s e n , p e t e r . "peace! and there i s no peace." rev. o f ppm. mennonite b r e t h r e n h e r a l d ( october ). k o s t a s h , myrna. "a white man's view o f b i g bear." s a t u r d a y n i g h t (feb. ): - . . rev. o f ac. q u i l l and q u i r e / ( j a n . ): . l e c k e r , r o b e r t . "wiebe and r i e l . " e s s a y s on canadian w r i t i n g ( s p r i n g ): - . letkeman, j a k e . "a n o v e l by an mennonite a u t h o r . " canadian mennonite ( oct. ): . macsween, r. j . rev. o f tbb. a n t i g o n i s h review ( ): . m a n s b r i d g e , f r a n c i s . "wiebe's sense o f community." canadian l i t e r a t u r e (summer ): - . m a r t i n , roger. " m e t a f i c t i o n and t h e n o v e l s o f rudy wiebe." u n p u b l i s h e d m.a. t h e s i s , queen's u n i v e r s i t y , k i n g s t o n , . m a r t i n s o n , f. g. "meet rudy wiebe." canadian review ( a p r i l ): . m a t t i s o n , d a v i d . rev. o f ac. c a n a d i a n book review a n n u a l , . t o r o n t o : p e t e r m a r t i n , . - . mccourt, edward. the canadian west i n f i c t i o n . r e v i s e d ed. t o r o n t o : r y e r s o n , . - . m c m u l l i n , s t a n . "wiebe, h i s t o r y and f i c t i o n . " j o u r n a l o f canadian f i c t i o n - ( ): - . m e e t e r , g l e n n . "rudy wiebe: s p a t i a l form and c h r i s t i a n i t y i n the b l u e m o u n t a i n s o f c h i n a and the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g b e a r . " e s s a y s i n canadian w r i t i n g (summer ): - . melnyk, george. "the western c a n a d i a n i m a g i n a t i o n : an i n t e r v i e w w i t h rudy wiebe." canadian f i c t i o n magazine ( w i n t e r ), - . repr. i n vl. . "rudy wiebe and o t h e r r e b e l s . " review o f swp q u i l l and q u i r e (november, ): . morash, gordon. "happy b i r t h d a y to-do." rev. o f ac. maclean's ( march ): - . moss, john. p a t t e r n s o f i s o l a t i o n i n e n g l i s h canadian f i c t i o n . ' t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . , "genocide: the w h i t e man's burden." sex and v i o l e n c e i n t h e canadian n o v e l : t h e a n c e s t r a l p r e s e n t . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . - . muggeridge, john. "the l a s t o f t h e new mohicans i s a r a d i c a l i n b u c k s k i n . " rev. o f tbb. the toronto s t a r ( nov. ): f . new. w. h. "rudy wiebe." contemporary n o v e l i s t s . ed. james v i n s o n . don m i l l s : c o l l i e r - m a c m i l l a n , . n i c k e l , james w. "a c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h rudy wiebe." the s c e p t i c ( s p r i n g ): - . noonan, g e r a l d . rev. o f swp. u n i v e r s i t y o f windsor review ( ): - . peetoom, a d r i a n . "the e f f e c t s o f rudy wiebe." vanguard (august-september ): - . p e r c y , h. r. rev. o f ppm. canadian a u t h o r and bookman / ( w i n t e r ): - . pomer, b. rev. o f fvc. canadian forum ( j a n . ): - . read, s. e. "the storms o f change." rev. o f ppm. canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( ): - . . "maverick n o v e l i s t . " rev. o f fvc. canadian l i t e r a t u r e ( w i n t e r ): - . redekop, magdalene. "rudy wiebe." p r o f i l e s i n canadian l i t e r a t u r e . t o r o n t o : pundurn p r e s s , . reimer, a l . "the r u s s i a n mennonite e x p e r i e n c e i n f i c t i o n . " m e n n o n i t e images. ed. h a r r y loewen. winnipeg: h y p e r i o n p r e s s , . - . reimer, e. e. "rudy wiebe's s t e e l l i n e s o f f i c t i o n ' : the p r o g r e s s o f a mennonite n o v e l i s t . " mennonite m i r r o r (september ): , - . / reimer, m a r g a r e t , and sue s t e i n e r . " t r a n s l a t i n g l i f e i n t o a r t : a c o v e r s a t i o n w i t h rudy wiebe." mennonite r e p o r t e r ( november ): a/ - . r e p r i n t e d i n vl. r i c k e t t s , a l a n . "packaged s t r u g g l e . " review o f f a r as t h e eye can see. essays on c a n a d i a n w r i t i n g ( ) : - . r o b e r t s o n , h e a t h e r . "western m y s t i c . " c a n a d i a n magazine [ t o r o n t o s t a r ] ( december ): , . r o b i n s o n , j . m. i n t r o d u c t i o n . ppm. t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . - . saunders, tom. "the c a u s e r i e . " review o f ppm. w i n n i p e g f r e e p r e s s ( a p r i l ). . "the c a u s e r i e . " w i n n i p e g f r e e p r e s s ( june ). . "growing p a i n s — a n d growth." review o f fvc. w i n n i p e g f r e e p r e s s ( j u l y ). s c h a f f e r , j u r g e n . "a f a r e w e l l t o europe: rudy wiebe's t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear and r o b e r t k r o e t s c h ' s gone i n d i a n . " g a i n i n g ground: european c r i t i c s on canadian l i t e r a t u r e . ed. r o b e r t k r o e t s c h and r e i n g a r d m. n i s c h i k . edmon- t o n : newest p r e s s , . s c o b i e , stephen. "for goodness' sake." books i n canada ( f e b r u a r y ): - . . "a wise i n d i a n ' s r e s e r v a t i o n s . " rev. o f tbb. maclean's (nov, ) : . s p e t t i g u e , p o u g l a s . rev. o f fvc. queen's q u a r t e r l y ( ) : - . s p r i e t , p i e r r e . "les formes du r e f u s dans l e s n o u v e l l e s de rudy wiebe." recherches a n g l a i s e s e t a m e r i c a i n e s ( ): - . stephens, donald. "a w o r l d s e q u e s t e r e d . " review o f wvcf. c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e ( w i n t e r ): - . s t r u t h e r s , j . r. ( t i m ) . "reader engaged i n d i a l o g u e w i t h d a r k n e s s . " review o f wvcf. london f r e e p r e s s ( f e b r u a r y ). suderman, elmer f. " u n i v e r s a l v a l u e s i n peace s h a l l d e s t r o y many." mennonite l i f e ( o c t o b e r ): - . repr. vl. t a y l o r , l a u r a l y n . "the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear: a f i l m i c n o v e l ? . " e s s a y s on canadian w r i t i n g ( w i n t e r - ): - . t i e s s e n , p a u l . "the naming o f rudy wiebe." s h o r t f i c t i o n i n t h e new l i t e r a t u r e s i n e n g l i s h . ed. j . b a r d o l p h . n i c e : f a c u l t e des l e t t r e s e t s c i e n c e s humaines, . - . twigg, a l a n . "of m o r a l f i c t i o n . " newest review ( j a n u a r y ): - , . r e p r i n t e d as " p u b l i c eye" i n h i s f o r openers: c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h canadian w r i t e r s . m a d e i r a p a r k , b.c.: harbour p u b l i s h i n g , . - . van herk, a r i t h a . " s t r a n d e d b e s t r i d e i n canada." world l i t e r a t u r e w r i t t e n i n e n g l i s h / (summer ): - . v a u t i e r , m a r i e . " f i c t i o n , h i s t o r i o g r a p h y and myth: jacques godbout's les t e t e s a papineau and rudy wiebe's scorched-wood p e o p l e . " canadian l i t e r a - t u r e ( f a l l ): - . v i s s e r , c a r l a . " h i s t o r i c i t y and h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n : b u r n i n g water and the temptations o f b i g bear." s t u d i e s i n c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e / ( ) : - . wiebe, a r m i n . rev. o f p l a y i n g dead. p r a i r i e f i r e / (summer ): - . wiebe, k a t i e . "the t e m p t a t i o n s o f b i g bear: a review o f wiebe's new n o v e l . " the mennonite / ( march ): - . . rev. o f mle. the conrad g r e b e l review ( w i n t e r ): - . whaley, susan. " n a r r a t i v e v o i c e s i n the tempta- t i o n s o f b i g bear." e s s a y s i n canadian w r i t i n g ( w i n t e r - ): - . w i l l i a m s , d a v i d . "the i n d i a n our a n c e s t o r : three modes o f v i s i o n i n recent canadian f i c t i o n . " d a l h o u s i e review (summer ): - . . rev. o f tbb. queen's q u a r t e r l y ( ) : - . w i l l i a m s o n , r. g. " p o e t i c b r e a t h o f t h e n o r t h . " rev. o f p l a y i n g dead. newest review / (june- j u l y ) : - . woodcock, george. " r i e l & dumont." review o f swp. canadian l i t e r a t u r e (summer ): - . young, s c o t t . "ghosts, green s t o c k i n g s and t h e mad t r a p p e r . " canadian forum ( j a n u a r y ). z i l m , g l e n n i s . review o f bmc. a p p e a r i n g under v a r y i n g t i t l e s i n numeous l o c a l newspapers i n c l u d i n g m e d i c i n e hat news ( a p r i l ), s t . c a t h e r i n e s s t a n d a r d ( f e b r u a r y ), and p e t e r b o r o u g h examiner ( march ). zwarun, suzanne. " l o n e l y a r e t h e grave." maclean's ( september ): - . background studies a l l e n , r. s. " b i g bear." saskatchewan h i s t o r y ( ): - . b o w s f i e l d , h [ a r t w e l l ] , ed. l o u i s r i e l : r e b e l o f t h e western f r o n t i e r o f v i c t i m o f p o l i t i c s and p r e j u d i c e ? t o r o n t o : copp c l a r k , . b r o d i e , n e i l . twelve days w i t h t h e i n d i a n s . may - may . : b e i n g h i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n poundmaker's camp d u r i n g t h e r e b e l l i o n o f . b a t t l e f o r d : saskatchewan h e r a l d , . cameron, w i l l i a m b l e a s d e l l . the war t r a i l o f b i g bear . b o s t o n , mass.: s m a l l maynard and company, . r e v i s e d and r e p r i n t e d under t h e t i t l e b l o o d red t h e sun. . edmonton: h u r t i g , . c a m p b e l l , m a r i a . "she who knows t h e t r u t h about b i g bear." maclean's (september ): - . c o u l t e r , john. r i e l . t o r o n t o : ryerson, . . the t r i a l o f l o u i s r i e l . ottawa: oberon, . e l i a d e , m i r c e a . the s a c r e d and t h e p r o f a n e : t h e nature o f r e l i g i o n . t r . w i l l a r d r. t r a s k . new york and london: h a r c o u r t b r a c e j o v a n o v i c h , . epp, frank h. mennonite exodus. a l t o n a , m a n i t o b a : d. w. f r i e s e n , . f l a n a g a n , thomas. l o u i s 'david' r i e l : p r o p h e t o f t h e new w o r l d . t o r o n t o : u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s , . , ed. the d i a r i e s o f l o u i s r i e l . edmonton: h u r t i g , . f r a s e r , w i l l i a m b. " b i g bear, i n d i a n p a t r i o t . c a l g a r y : h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y o f a l b e r t a , . h u g h e s , s t u a r t , ed. the f r o g lake 'massacre'.: p e r s o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e s on e t h n i c c o n f l i c t . t o r o n t o : m c c l e l l a n d and s t e w a r t , . l u k a c s , georg. the h i s t o r i c a l novel." t r a n s . hannah and s t a n l e y m i t c h e l l . . harmondsworth: penguin books, . morton, desmond. the l a s t war drum. t o r o n t o : h a k k e r t , . , ed. the queen v. l o u i s r i e l . t o r o n t o : u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s , : ong, w a l t e r , j . o r a l i t y and l i t e r a c y : the t e c h n o l o g i z i n g o f t h e word. london and new york: methuen, . p r y d e , duncan. nunaga: my land, my c o u n t r y . edmonton: h u r t i g , . slemon, stephen. "magic r e a l i s m as p o s t - c o l o n i a l d i s c o u r s e . " c a n a d i a n l i t e r a t u r e ( s p r i n g ): - . s t a n l e y , george f. g. the b i r t h o f western canada [ ]. t o r o n t o : u n i v e r s i t y o f t o r o n t o p r e s s , . . l o u i s r i e l . t o r o n t o : ryerson p r e s s , . yoder, john howard. the p o l i t i c s o f j e s u s . grand r a p i d s , m i c h i g a n : eerdmans, . exercise, cancer death, case cohort study, asian, health check-up public health research , ( ): - doi: . /j.phr. . physical exercise protects against risk of cancer death: a case-cohort study in a health check-up population of , taiwanese men hui-ming chung , ,*, ming-dar woon , department of medical research, mennonite christian hospital, taiwan, r.o.c department of urology, mennonite christian hospital, taiwan, r.o.c department of radiation therapy, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan, r.o.c abstract the effect of physical exercise level (pel) on risk of cancer death has not been fully elucidated, especially in non-western populations. the authors prospectively assessed whether increased pel (ascertained from self-report questionnaire) was inversely associated with risk of cancer death in a case-cohort study, using data from the taiwan mei-jao cohort study with , men aged years or above and cancer-free at baseline ( - ). their mortality status was ascertained via the taiwan death registry through . with up to years of follow-up, , cases of cancer deaths were identified. a subcohort of , members was randomly selected. compared to men with low pel (physical exercise less than hour/week), men with increased pel had a significantly decreased risk of cancer death in a graded pattern, using multiple cox regression analysis. adjusting for age, body mass index, smoking, ethanol consumption, and betel chewing, hazard ratios for men with pel - hours/week and > hours/week were . ( % c.i: . - . ) and . ( % c.i: . - . ), respectively (p for trend < . ). the decreased risk was more significant in men less than years of age than men at or above years of age at baseline (p for interaction = . ). the association remained materially unchanged when excluding the first two years of follow-up. by system, decreased risk of death was observed for cancers of gastrointestinal tract and genitourinary tract, lung cancer, and all other cancers, except for blood cancer. by site, significantly decreased risks of death were observed for cancers of the liver and kidney. increased pel appeared to protect against risk of cancer death in this taiwanese male health check-up population. keywords exercise, cancer death, case cohort study, asian, health check-up . introduction previous studies showed that higher level of physical activity appeared to be associated with a lower risk of certain types of cancer [ , ] and overall cancer [ - ], though the results were not universally consistent [ - ]. after extensive literature review, the second world cancer research fund / american institute for cancer research expert report estimated that one third of cancers in western high-income societies are attributable to factors related to food, nutrition, and physical activity. the report suggested that all forms of physical activity may prevent some types of cancer, including colon cancer, endometrial cancer, and postmenopausal breast cancer and made a specific recommendation that being daily physically active may prevent cancer [ , ]. * corresponding author: chung@jhsph.edu (hui-ming chung) published online at http://journal.sapub.org/phr copyright © scientific & academic publishing. all rights reserved however, most of the studies were carried out among western populations. data from non-western populations are extremely limited. a cohort study among a japanese population suggested increased daily total physical activity was associated with lower risk of total cancer incidence in men and women, though physical exercise did not appear to have similarly strong protective effects [ ]. in a cohort study among chinese women, the authors observed overall physical activity (all forms) was associated with lower risk of all-cause death, including cancer death [ ]. a population-based case-control study in hong kong found leisure-time physical activity was inversely associated with risk of cancer death in men and women, but the study was subjected to recall bias using proxy information [ ]. a small-scale hospital-based case control study in taiwan showed leisure-time physical activity was protective against colon cancer risk among men, but not among women [ ]. therefore, though it has been generally accepted that being physical active may prevent cancer in western societies, the effects of physical activity on cancer risk remain unclear in non-western populations. to further hui-ming chung et al.: physical exercise protects against risk of cancer death: a case-cohort study in a health check-up population of , taiwanese men delineate how physical exercise alter risk of cancer death in asian populations, we carried out this case-cohort study using data from the taiwan mei-jao (mj) cohort study. . subjects and methods . . subjects and case-cohort design, and mortality data ascertainment baseline data were collected from the four nationwide mj health screening centers in taiwan. details of the mj centers were described elsewhere [ ]. in short, the centers provide a multidisciplinary team approach for their members, with the annual health assessment performed by registered health practitioners. all subject data were recorded using standardized data sheets and entered into a database. it has been shown that the population structure of the taiwanese adults that attended the health centers were similar to national data on adults published by our government [ , ]. the taiwan mj cohort study was established through the following procedures. we recruited , men who were aged - years when taking the first health screen examination in - . men with missing data on body mass index (bmi), fasting plasma glucose, blood pressure, serum triglycerides, or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (hdl-c), and with a history of cancer at baseline were excluded. as a result, we got , men for linkage to the taiwan death registry (tdr) database using national id numbers to ascertain their vital status in - . every cause of death was certified by a registered physician and recorded by a staff at the local health bureau. the causes of death were coded according to the ninth revision of the international classification of diseases (icd- ) [ ]. among the , men, there were , men died in - , including , men died of overall cancer (icd- code - ). we initially took a random sample of , men as the subcohort for comparison. after exclusion of men with missing data on physical exercise ( cases of cancer death and subcohort members), we had , cases of overall cancer death and a random sample of , men as the subcohort (with cases of overall cancer death included in the subcohort). . . date of entry and censoring the date the patient received the baseline health exam in the mj centers defined the date of entry into the study. we used a case-cohort approach for data processing and analysis. for calculation of rates of cancer death, the number of cancer death cases in the entire cohort was used as the numerator, while person-months at risk (denominator), which was calculated as the duration from the date of entry until the end of the year for those who were alive or to the date of death for those who died, were estimated using the subcohort of , men. . . baseline data collection data on lifestyle factors, history of co-morbid conditions, current use of medication, and family history of cancer for each subject were self-reported and ascertained from a standardized questionnaire. the major exposure of interest in this study is physical exercise level (pel). the participants were asked about the average amount of time they spend on physical exercise per week. their pel was classified into three categories: < hour per week, - hours per week, and > hours per week. the anthropometrics indices were measured and described elsewhere [ ]. in short, height (measured to the nearest . cm) and weight (measured to the nearest . kg) was measured by an auto-anthropometer, nakamura kn- a (nakamura, tokyo, japan). bmi was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height squared (m ). blood pressure was measured twice, at a -minute interval, in the right arm using an auto-mercury-sphygmomanometer, with the participant in a sitting position after five minutes of rest. the mean of the two readings was used in this analysis. a venous blood sample was taken after hours of fasting for measuring glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol using an hitachi [ ]. ethics approval for patient recruitment, data linkage and analysis was obtained from the institutional review boards of mennonite christian hospital in taiwan, the tdr, the mj health screen center, and johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health. . . statistical analysis the mean values of anthropometric indices and proportions of potential confounders between cases and subcohort members were compared. hazard ratios (hr) and corresponding percent confidence intervals (ci) for cancer death were estimated using the cox proportional hazards models processed with the stata statistical software (intercooled stata . ; stata corporation, college station, texas), after testing of the proportional hazards assumption using scaled schoenfeld residuals [ ]. the main determinant of interest (pel) did not violate the assumption. standard errors were estimated using the robust huber-white sandwich estimator to account for additional variance introduced by sampling from the cohort [ ]. we evaluated modification of the pel and cancer death association by entering a cross-product term of categorical pel (≥ hour vs. < i hour per week) and the possible modifier into a multivariable model, the coefficient for which was evaluated with the wald test, and with stratified analyses of pel by the corresponding categories. the potential effect modifiers we evaluated included age (≥ vs. < years), obesity (bmi ≥ vs. < kg/m ), smoking (none vs. ever), alcohol (none/rare vs. often), and betel chewing (none vs. ever). on the basis of significance in the age-adjusted analysis or significance in previous studies, risk factors selected for public health research , ( ): - evaluation in the multivariable models included age at baseline (continuous), smoking (none, former, current, categorical), alcohol consumption (none/rare, often, categorical), and betel chewing (never, ever, categorical). for the main analysis, the risk of deaths from overall cancer and site-specific cancer associated with baseline pel ≥ hour was compared to men with pel < hour. tests for trends in risk of cancer death were assessed by fitting ordinal exposure variables as continuous terms. all hypotheses tests were two-sided with p < . deemed statistically significant. . results the median follow-up was . months (ranged from . to . months) for the subcohort members and months (ranged from . months to . months) for the cancer death cases in the subcohort. mean fasting blood glucose was higher, while mean body mass index, and total cholesterol at baseline were lower for cases than for subcohort members. the cases tended to be older, had a family history of cancer and/or a history of co-morbid conditions including diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, or cerebral vascular diseases. compared to the subcohort members, the cases were more likely to be physically inactive and less well-educated; they were also more likely to be consumers of tobacco, alcohol, and betel nut (table ). with univariate analysis, age was a strong risk factor for cancer mortality. smoking significantly increased risk of cancer death. consumption of alcohol and/or betel nut was also associated with a significantly higher risk of cancer death. obesity and hyperglycemia were not related to risk of cancer death. men with higher pel had a significantly lower risk of cancer death in a graded pattern (p-trend < . ). compared to men with pel < hour/week, the age-adjusted hazard ratio of cancer death for men with pel - hour/week and > hour/week was . ( % confidence interval (ci), . - . ) and . ( % ci, . - . ) (table ). the inverse association between pel and risk of cancer death appeared to be more significant among men below years of age than among older men (p-interaction = . ). we observed no statistically significant difference in the association between pel and cancer death following stratification by the other factors (table ). compared to men with low pel (< hour/week), men with higher pel (≥ hour/week) at baseline were significantly less likely to die from overall cancer with a hr of . ( percent ci: . , . ), adjusting for age, obesity, smoking, use of alcohol and betel chewing. by system, there was no association between pel and risk of death from blood cancer. the decreased risk associated with higher pel was marginally significant for death from cancers of genitourinary (gu) tract and statistically significant for cancers of gastrointestinal (gi) system, lung cancer, and all other cancers combined. in site-specific analyses, there was a significant inverse association between high pel and death from liver cancer and renal cancer, as well as a non-significant inverse association for death from cancer of the esophagus, stomach, gall bladder, pancreas, colon, rectum, and prostate (figure ). additional adjustment for the presence of hepatitis b virus did not change the inverse pel-liver cancer death association. excluding men who died within the first two years of follow-up did not materially change the results (data not shown). after adjusting for age, obesity, smoking, use of alcohol and betel chewing, an inversely graded response pattern was still observed between pel and risk of death from overall cancer (p-trend < . ), gi cancer (p-trend < . ), lung cancer (p-trend = . ), gu cancer (p-trend . ), and all other cancers combined (p-trend= . ), but not for blood cancer (p-trend . ) (table ). table . characteristics of men who died of cancer and subcohort members at baseline, taiwan mj cohort study, - cases (n= , ) subcohort (n= , ) mean (sd) % mean (sd) % p-value age (years) . ( . ) . ( . ) < . body mass index (kg/m ) . ( . ) . ( . ) < . fasting plasma glucose (mg/dl) . ( . ) . ( . ) . total cholesterol (mg/dl) . ( . ) . ( . ) < . family history of cancer* . . physical inactivity** . . < . education (less than high school) . . < . alcohol consumption (ever) . . < . betel nut usage (ever) . . . tobacco smoking (ever) . . < . diabetes history . . < . hypertension history . . < . cardiovascular disease history . . . cerebral-vascular disease history . . . abbreviation: sd, standard deviation; hscrp, high sensitivity c-reactive protein. * including cancer of nasopharynx, stomach, liver, colorectum, or prostate. ** physical inactivity, exercises less than one hour per week. hui-ming chung et al.: physical exercise protects against risk of cancer death: a case-cohort study in a health check-up population of , taiwanese men table . hazard ratios and % confidence intervals for cancer death by selected characteristics, taiwan mj cohort study, - variables no. of cases person-months in subcohort age-adjusted hr % ci age - y , . referent - y , . * . , . >= y , . * . , . p-trend < . obesity no , . referent yes , . . , . smoking never , . referent past , . * . , . current , . * . , . p-trend < . alcohol none , . referent past/occasional , . * . , . frequent , . * . , . p-trend < . betel nut none , . referent past/occasional , . * . , . frequent , . * . , . p-trend < . exercise < hr/week , . referent - hr/week , . * . , . > hr/week , . * . , . p-trend < . abbreviation: hr, hazard ratio; ci, confidence interval. * p < . . table . hazard ratios and % confidence intervals of cancer death for a higher physical exercise level (> = hour/week vs. < hour/week) modified by selected variables, taiwan mj cohort study, - variables age-adjusted hr % ci p-interaction age < year . . , . . >= year . . , . obesity* no . . , . . yes . . , . smoking none . . , . . ever . . , . alcohol none/rare . . , . . often . . , . betel nut none . . , . . ever . . , . abbreviation: hr, hazard ratio; ci, confidence interval. * obesity, body mass index >= kg/m . public health research , ( ): - . . . . . . . . . overall cancer overall gi cancer overall gu cancer overall blood cancer overall lung cancer all other cancers esophageal cancer stomach cancer gallbladder cancer liver cancer pancreatic cancer colorectal cancer renal cancer bladder cancer prostate cancer non-hodgkin's lymphoma leukemia multiple myeloma abbr.: gi, gastrointestinal; gu, genitourinary. adjusting for age, obesity, smoking, use of alcohol and betel nut. . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) hazard ratio ( % ci) hazard ratios c an ce r ty pe figure . multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios of physical exercise level (>= hour/week v.s < hour/week) for cancer death table . multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios and % confidence intervals for death due to all cancers and various cancers by physical exercise level, taiwan mj cohort study, - all participants physical exercise < hour/week physical exercise - hour/week physical exercise > hour/week p trend types of cancer person-months in subcohort , , , overall cancer no. cases hr┼ ref. . * . * < . * gi cancer no. cases hr┼ ref. . * . * < . * gu cancer no. cases hr┼ ref. . . . blood cancer no. cases hr┼ ref. . . . lung cancer no. cases hr┼ ref. . * . * . * all other cancers no. cases hr┼ ref. . * . . abbreviation: hr, hazard ratio; gi, gastrointestinal; gu, genitourinary; ref, reference. * p < . . ┼ hr adjusted for age (continuously), bmi (< , - , - , > kg/m , categorical), smoking (none, former, current, categorical), alcohol consumption (none/occasional, often, categorical), and betel chewing (never/ever, categorical). hui-ming chung et al.: physical exercise protects against risk of cancer death: a case-cohort study in a health check-up population of , taiwanese men . discussion in this population-based prospective study of taiwanese men, we observed a significant inverse association between pel and risk of cancer death in a graded pattern. compared to the counterpart, higher pel was independently associated with % lower risk of cancer death during the up to -year follow-up period after accounting for a set of commonly accepted risk factors for cancer. the inverse association between pel and risk of death was present not only for overall cancer, but also for most other types of cancers except for blood cancer. by sites, the inverse association between pel and cancer death was strongest for renal cancer and liver cancer in our study. we excluded men with a history of any cancer at baseline to reduce the possibility of spurious associations from reverse causation. the results were robust even after excluding the first two years of follow-up. though the beneficial effects of physical activity on risk of certain types of cancer have been reported by some researchers [ , , , - ], data on risk of overall cancer associated with physical activity are limited [ ]. five prospective mortality studies in western populations found physical activity protected against risk of all-cause death including cancer death [ , , , , ]. however, one other research group observed physical activity protected against cardiovascular death, but not cancer death [ ]; and one report suggested physical activity protected against cancer death in men, but not in women [ ]. physical activity was inversely associated with risk of cancer incidence in two western cohort studies [ , ]. there are very few reports on this important issue from asian countries. in a cohort study conducted in japan, inoue et al. reported daily total physical activity was inversely associated with incident cancer risk, especially in women, the elderly, and those who regularly engaged in regular physical exercise [ ]. in a large-scale cohort study among , chinese women, the authors found that although overall physical activity protected against all-cause death (n= , ), the effects on cancer death (n= ) were not significant. with subgroup analysis, they showed non-exercise physical activity and cycling appeared to have non-significant protective effects on cancer death, however [ ]. in a case-control study in hong-kong, the authors reported an inverse association between physical activity and risk of deaths from all-cause, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. yet the results might be subjected to recall bias because they had used proxy information on pel [ ]. the results of our prospective study are generally in line with the observations from western populations and that from china and japan. age, obesity [ , ], smoking [ , ], alcohol consumption [ , ], and betel chewing ( ) have been generally accepted as risk factors for some types of cancer or overall cancer. in our study, the protective effects of physical exercise appeared to be similar across categories stratified by the aforementioned factors except for age. the inverse association appeared to be slightly stronger among the younger men than among the elderly (p-interaction = . ). in contrast, inoue et al. found physical activity decreased more cancer risk among the elderly than among the younger. orsini et al. in a cohort study showed a higher level of physical activity did not compensate the excess cancer mortality rate associated with overweight or obesity. adjusting for all those risk factors did not materially change the inverse association between pel and risk of cancer death in our study, however. therefore, uncontrolled or residual confounding is unlikely to explain our findings. our observations also indicate that physical exercise reduces cancer risk not only through improvement in obesity and other related factors, if any, but also through other mechanisms. some biological mechanisms through which physical exercise may decrease cancer risk have been proposed, though none is conclusive. hyperinsulinemia is associated with a higher level of insulin-like growth factor- (igf- ), which might play a vital role in promoting carcinogenesis, and a lower level of igf-binding proteins (igfbp). exercise is associated with increased igfbp- that binds free igf and hinders their insulin-like action [ ]. exercise may improve insulin sensitivity and decrease fasting levels of insulin [ ], as well as improve adiponectin levels [ , ], all of which are associated with decreased cancer risk. immune modulation may contribute to the protective value of exercise through changes in the activity of macrophages, natural killer cells, lymphokine activated killer cells, and regulating cytokines [ , ]. oxygen free radicals (ofr), which may play an important role in the expansion of tumor clones and the acquisition of malignant properties, is regarded as an important class of carcinogenesis. exercise may slow or stop the loss of antioxidants that might counteract oxidative damage from orf [ - ]. there were several strengths in this report. the study was conducted among a community-based asian population that was free of cancer diagnosis. the prospective study design reduced potential bias caused by recall bias, reverse causation or survival bias. the sample size was large, enabling us to observe a graded inverse relation between pel and cancer death. the standardized measurement of the baseline data minimized the possibility of information bias. and the results were robust after adjusting for common potential confounders and excluding the first two years of follow-up. the use of the relatively comprehensive tdr database to ascertain the death outcomes greatly reduced potential bias caused by losses of follow-up. some limitations of this study deserved attention. misclassification of pel may have been inevitable, because it was self-reported. however, since the data were collected before diagnosis of cancer, any misclassification was likely to result in underestimation of the association. moreover, some men might have undiagnosed cancer at baseline that might have caused a lower pel. therefore, the possibility of spurious associations cannot be excluded. we had used only the baseline information for the pel. changes in pel over time may have also biased the risk estimate toward the public health research , ( ): - null. furthermore, though we have had adjusted for several potential risk factors for cancer, residual confounding is still possible due to unmeasured or imprecisely measured confounders. in addition, we conducted the study only among a male population. some authors suggested that the exercise-cancer association might be sex-dependent [ , ]. our results may not be generalizable to female or other populations with a different general lifestyle or socio-economic level. finally, we had no information on incident cancers. however, since cancer mortality is a function of cancer incidence and prognosis, we believe the decreased risk of cancer death associated with high pel also indirectly indicated exercise might be inversely associated with risk of incident cancers and/or a more advanced form of cancers. . conclusions we concluded that in this community-based male population that was cancer-free at baseline, physical exercise was protective against cancer death, even after adjusting for a set of potential risk factors for cancer. we suggest that exercise programs deserve attention in cancer prevention. acknowledgements the financial support for this project was from the doctoral thesis research fund of the department of epidemiology, johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health, and the mennonite christian hospital in taiwan, grant no.d . the authors thank miss yi-hua hsu for data management support, and the taiwan death registry for providing the mortality data. references [ ] friedenreich cm, cust ae. physical activity and breast cancer risk: impact of timing, type and dose of activity and population subgroup effects. br j sports med ; ( ): - . [ ] simons cc, hughes la, van engeland m, goldbohm ra, van den brandt pa, weijenberg mp. physical activity, occupational sitting time, and colorectal cancer risk in the netherlands cohort study. am j epidemiol. ; ; ( ): - . [ ] orsini n, mantzoros cs, wolk a. association of physical activity with cancer incidence, mortality, and survival: a population-based study of men. br j cancer ; ( ): - . [ ] arem h, moore sc, park y, ballard-barbash r, hollenbeck a, leitzmann m, et al. physical activity and cancer-specific mortality in the nih-aarp diet and health study cohort. int j cancer. dec . [ ] hu g, tuomilehto j, silventoinen k, barengo nc, peltonen m, jousilahti p. the effects of physical activity and body mass index on cardiovascular, cancer and all-cause mortality among middle-aged finnish men and women. int j obes (lond) ; ( ): - [ ] leitzmann mf, park y, blair a, ballard-barbash r, mouw t, hollenbeck ar et al. physical activity recommendations and decreased risk of mortality. arch intern med ; ( ): - . [ ] kruk j, czerniak u. physical activity and its relation to cancer risk: updating the evidence. asian pac j cancer prev. ; ( ): - . [ ] kampert jb, blair sn, barlow ce, kohl hw, iii. physical activity, physical fitness, and all-cause and cancer mortality: a prospective study of men and women. ann epidemiol ; ( ): - . [ ] borch kb, lund e, braaten t, weiderpass e. physical activity and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer - the norwegian women and cancer study. j negat results biomed. ; ( ): . [ ] hassler s, sjolander p, gronberg h, johansson r, damber l. cancer in the sami population of sweden in relation to lifestyle and genetic factors. eur j epidemiol ; ( ): - . [ ] birmann bm, giovannucci e, rosner b, anderson kc, colditz ga. body mass index, physical activity, and risk of multiple myeloma. cancer epidemiol biomarkers prev ; ( ): - . [ ] wiseman m. the second world cancer research fund/american institute for cancer research expert report. food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. proc nutr soc ; ( ): - . [ ] thomson ca, mccullough ml, wertheim bc, chlebowski rt, martinez me, stefanick ml, et al. nutrition and physical activity cancer prevention guidelines, cancer risk, and mortality in the women's health initiative. cancer prev res (phila). jan; ( ): - . [ ] inoue m, yamamoto s, kurahashi n, iwasaki m, sasazuki s, tsugane s. daily total physical activity level and total cancer risk in men and women: results from a large-scale population-based cohort study in japan. am j epidemiol ; ( ): - . [ ] matthews ce, jurj al, shu xo, li hl, yang g, li q et al. influence of exercise, walking, cycling, and overall nonexercise physical activity on mortality in chinese women. am j epidemiol ; ( ): - . [ ] lam th, ho sy, hedley aj, mak kh, leung gm. leisure time physical activity and mortality in hong kong: case-control study of all adult deaths in . ann epidemiol ; ( ): - . [ ] tang r, wang jy, lo sk, hsieh ll. physical activity, water intake and risk of colorectal cancer in taiwan: a hospital-based case-control study. int j cancer ; ( ): - . [ ] shen yh, yang ws, lee th, lee lt, chen cy, huang kc. bright liver and alanine aminotransferase are associated with metabolic syndrome in adults. obes res ; hui-ming chung et al.: physical exercise protects against risk of cancer death: a case-cohort study in a health check-up population of , taiwanese men ( ): - . [ ] department of health. taiwan public health report . . taipei, taiwan., department of health. ref type: report [ ] wu dm, pai l, chu nf, sung pk, lee ms, tsai jt et al. prevalence and clustering of cardiovascular risk factors among healthy adults in a chinese population: the mj health screening center study in taiwan. int j obes relat metab disord ; ( ): - . [ ] huang kc, lin wy, lee lt, chen cy, lo h, hsia hh et al. four anthropometric indices and cardiovascular risk factors in taiwan. int j obes relat metab disord ; ( ): - . schoenfeld d. partial residuals for the proportional hazards regression model. biometrika ; : - . [ ] schoenfeld d. partial residuals for the proportional hazards regression model. biometrika ; : - . [ ] schoenfeld d. partial residuals for the proportional hazards regression model. biometrika ; : - . [ ] singh s, varayil je, devanna s, murad mh, iyer pg. physical activity is associated with reduced risk of gastric cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. cancer prev res (phila). ; ( ): - . [ ] pan sy, desmeules m, morrison h, wen sw. obesity, high energy intake, lack of physical activity, and the risk of kidney cancer. cancer epidemiol biomarkers prev ; ( ): - . [ ] chiu bc, gapstur sm, chow wh, kirby ka, lynch cf, cantor kp. body mass index, physical activity, and risk of renal cell carcinoma. int j obes (lond) ; ( ): - . [ ] behrens g, leitzmann mf. the association between physical activity and renal cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. br j cancer. mar ; ( ): - . [ ] sprague bl, trentham-dietz a, klein be, klein r, cruickshanks kj, lee ke et al. physical activity, white blood cell count, and lung cancer risk in a prospective cohort study. cancer epidemiol biomarkers prev ; ( ): - . [ ] buffart lm, singh as, van loon ec, vermeulen hi, brug j, chinapaw mj. physical activity and the risk of developing lung cancer among smokers: a meta-analysis. j sci med sport. jan; ( ): - . [ ] schnohr p, lange p, scharling h, jensen js. long-term physical activity in leisure time and mortality from coronary heart disease, stroke, respiratory diseases, and cancer. the copenhagen city heart study. eur j cardiovasc prev rehabil ; ( ): - . [ ] lindsted kd, tonstad s, kuzma jw. self-report of physical activity and patterns of mortality in seventh-day adventist men. j clin epidemiol ; ( - ): - . [ ] arem h, moore sc, park y, ballard-barbash r, hollenbeck a, leitzmann m, et al. physical activity and cancer-specific mortality in the nih-aarp diet and health study cohort. int j cancer. dec . [ ] pischon t, nothlings u, boeing h. obesity and cancer. proc nutr soc ; ( ): - . [ ] renehan ag, tyson m, egger m, heller rf, zwahlen m. body-mass index and incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. lancet ; ( ): - . [ ] phillips aj. the relationship between smoking and health--a review of the evidence. . can j public health ; ( ): . [ ] anand p, kunnumakkara ab, sundaram c, harikumar kb, tharakan st, lai os et al. cancer is a preventable disease that requires major lifestyle changes. pharm res ; ( ): - . [ ] homann n. [alcohol and cancer]. ther umsch ; ( ): - . [ ] pelucchi c, gallus s, garavello w, bosetti c, la vc. alcohol and tobacco use, and cancer risk for upper aerodigestive tract and liver. eur j cancer prev ; ( ): - . [ ] reichart pa, nguyen xh. betel quid chewing, oral cancer and other oral mucosal diseases in vietnam: a review. j oral pathol med ; ( ): - . [ ] nguyen un, mougin f, simon-rigaud ml, rouillon jd, marguet p, regnard j. influence of exercise duration on serum insulin-like growth factor and its binding proteins in athletes. eur j appl physiol occup physiol ; ( ): - . [ ] regensteiner jg, mayer ej, shetterly sm, eckel rh, haskell wl, marshall ja et al. relationship between habitual physical activity and insulin levels among nondiabetic men and women. san luis valley diabetes study. diabetes care ; ( ): - . [ ] kelesidis i, kelesidis t, mantzoros cs. adiponectin and cancer: a systematic review. br j cancer ; ( ): - . [ ] bluher m, brennan am, kelesidis t, kratzsch j, fasshauer m, kralisch s et al. total and high-molecular weight adiponectin in relation to metabolic variables at baseline and in response to an exercise treatment program: comparative evaluation of three assays. diabetes care ; ( ): - . [ ] shephard rj, rhind s, shek pn. the impact of exercise on the immune system: nk cells, interleukins and , and related responses. exerc sport sci rev ; : - . [ ] shephard rj, shek pn. cancer, immune function, and physical activity. can j appl physiol ; ( ): - . [ ] ji ll. antioxidants and oxidative stress in exercise. proc soc exp biol med ; ( ): - . [ ] dreher d, junod af. role of oxygen free radicals in cancer development. eur j cancer ; a( ): - . [ ] luo j, iwasaki m, inoue m, sasazuki s, otani t, ye w et al. body mass index, physical activity and the risk of pancreatic cancer in relation to smoking status and history of diabetes: a large-scale population-based cohort study in japan--the jphc study. cancer causes control ; ( ): - . citizenship studies, vol. , no. , human rights and citizenship: the case of mexican migrants in canada t.basokcentre for studies social justiceuniversity of windsor sunset avenuewindsor, ontarion b p canadabasok@uwindsor.catanya basok in the past few decades, migrants residing in many european and north american countries have benefited from nation-states’ extension of legal rights to non-citizens. this development has prompted many scholars to reflect on the shift from a state-based to a more individual-based universal conception of rights and to suggest that national citizenship has been replaced by post-na- tional citizenship. however, in practice migrants are often deprived of some rights. the article suggests that the ability to claim rights denied to some groups of people depends on their knowledge of the legal framework, communications skills, and support from others. some groups of migrants are deprived of the knowledge, skills, and support required to negotiate their rights effectively because of their social exclusion from local communities of citizens. the article draws attention to the contradiction in two citizenship principles—one linked to legal rights prescribed by international conventions and inscribed through international agreements and national laws and policies, and the other to membership in a community. commitment to the second set of principles may negate any achievements made with respect to the first. the article uses mexican migrants working in canada as an illustration, arguing that even though certain legal rights have been granted to them, until recently they had been unable to claim them because they were denied social membership in local and national communities. recent initiatives among local residents and union and human rights activists to include mexican workers in their communities of citizens in leamington, ontario, canada, are likely to enhance the mexican workers’ ability to claim their rights. in the last decade discussions on international human rights regimes and ‘post-national citizenship’ (sassen, , p. ) have been gaining popularity. the emergence of supra-national human rights institutions, such as the united nations and the european court of justice and such documents as the universal declaration of human rights and other international covenants and conventions, including the un international convention on the protection of the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families, are cited as examples of this trend. several authors, including turner ( b), soysal ( ), jacobson tanya basok, centre for studies social justice, university of windsor, sunset avenue, windsor, ontario n b p , canada; e-mail: basok@uwindsor.ca issn - print; - online/ / -  taylor & francis ltd doi: . / tanya basok ( ), yuval-davis ( ) and cohen ( ), view these developments as indicative of a shift from a state-based to a more individual-based universal conception of rights, or from national citizenship to post-national citizenship. while limitations of the ‘post-national citizenship’ thesis have been pointed out by various researchers (schuck, ; bhabha, ; castles and davidson, ; glenn, ; schuster and solomos, ), it remains true that migrants in many european countries and in north america have gained certain legal rights which coincide with the moral principals prescribed by the international conventions. however, as has been pointed out by several researchers, the existence of legal frameworks defining rights do not guarantee that these rights will be exercised (hall and held, ; turner, a; winer, ). migrants, similar to other groups of people, suffer human rights violations despite the existence of laws to protect them. it is therefore important, as some researchers (stasiulis and bakan, ; isin, ) have suggested, to analyse citizenship not as a status but as a process which involves negotiation over access to and the exercise of rights. the ability to claim rights requires knowledge of the appropriate laws, agreements, policy statements, and other legal documents, communication skills, and/or support from others. some groups of migrants lack the necessary knowledge, skills, or support to be able to claim their rights. the degree to which members of the host community make this knowledge available to the newcomers, train them to acquire the necessary communication skills, and/or extend support to them, depends on whether migrants are viewed as members of the local communities of citizens. the article draws attention to the contradiction that exists in two principles of citizenship. the first one advocates principles of inclusion in an international community that shares a commitment to legal principles. the second advocates exclusion from national and/or local communities. commitment to the second set of principles may negate any achievements made with respect to the first. in this article, based on research on mexican migrant workers in canada, i argue that even though legal access to some economic rights may be extended to non-citizens residing on the national territory of sovereign nation-states, the exercise of these rights may be precluded by the denial of social membership in the national community to these non-citizens which hamper the migrants’ ability to negotiate respect for their legal rights and adherence to legal principles governing their employment and residence in the host society. post-national citizenship: from citizenship rights to human rights in her seminal work on migrants in europe, soysal develops an argument that national citizenship is losing ground to a more universal model of membership rooted in universal notions of human rights. she suggests that rights that used to be granted solely to nationals are now extended to the foreign population and that we are witnessing a transition from national to post-national citizenship. the thesis that human rights discourses have displaced discourses of rights based on the sovereignty of nation-states is supported by a number of authors. jean cohen ( ) contends that ‘human rights discourses are now a pervasive feature of global public culture. their effectiveness goes well beyond moralistic exhor- human rights and citizenship tation: they constitute an international symbolic order, a political-cultural frame- work, and an institutional set of norms and rules for the global system that orients and constrains states’ (p. ). yuval-davis ( ) acknowledges that no international agency has the right to interfere in the internal affairs of states. yet she insists that even this accepted rule is crumbling (p. ). focusing on the rights of foreign residents, various authors (for example, layton-henry, ; jacobson, ; sassen, ; bloemraad, ) have maintained that there is no longer a sharp distinction between the rights enjoyed by citizens and those of non-citizens (or denizens, as permanent foreign residents in europe have been coined). sassen ( ), for instance, points out that immigrants have accumu- lated social, civic, and even some political rights in countries of residence and that legal citizenship status is of minor importance with respect to entitlements to such social services as education, health insurance, welfare, and unemploy- ment benefits in the united states and western europe (pp. – ). some countries have extended voting rights to resident non-citizens (layton-henry, ; sassen, ). legal resident immigrants are guaranteed full civil rights either constitutionally or by statute (sassen, , p. ). brubaker ( ), although critical of the ‘post-national citizenship’ thesis, acknowledges that ‘the marginal advantages conferred by citizenship over and above those conferred by the status of long-term foreign resident are of modest import. from the point of view of the immigrants concerned, citizenship status as such does not decisively shape life chances’ (brubaker, , p. ). thus, according to the supporters of the ‘post-national citizenship’ thesis, what matters most is residence and not the legal immigration status. legal citizenship versus citizenship as practice researchers associated with the ‘post-national citizenship’ thesis have been criticized for minimizing the nation-state’s control over citizenship and citizen- ship rights and for their failure to acknowledge that not all citizenship rights are equally applied to all migrant workers. in addition, various authors have pointed out temporal and geographic variations with respect to the rights enjoyed by migrants. drawing on the experience of resident aliens in the united states, schuck ( ) identifies different policies towards resident aliens through time. he notes that between the late s and early s the treatment of aliens in the united states was brought in line with the treatment of citizens in many respects, yet in the s alien residents’ access to public benefits was ques- tioned. the welfare reforms, for instance, have significantly limited the eligibility of alien residents to virtually all federal cash assistance programs. violations of the civil rights of some groups of immigrants in the post-septem- ber climate is another illustration of the deterioration of the rights of some foreign residents in the united states. stasiulis and bakan ( ) point out that by focusing on european guest workers, soysal ignores less permanent forms of migration and the fact that people participating in them are often denied human rights. based on an analysis of transnationalized female labour—migrant dom- estic workers—they insist that national, territorially-based sovereignty continue to restrict rights to individuals originating from outside a nation-state’s border tanya basok (p. ). the fact remains that many migrant workers have benefited from the legal extension of rights previously reserved for the national population. there- fore, from a legal perspective, migrant workers have become ‘post-national citizens’. when citizenship, however, is viewed not merely in relation to legal rights but as a ‘set of practices that lead to the establishment of rights, access, and belonging’ (winer, , p. ) that ‘shape the flow of resources to persons and social groups’ (turner, a, p. ), the picture becomes considerably different. hall and held observe that ‘rights can be mere paper claims unless they can be practically enacted and realised, through actual participation in the community’ (hall and held, , p. ). as winer points out, the exercise of legal rights may be denied because ‘the means to use citizenship rights, including adequate education, means of communication, and access to transportation may not be sufficiently established’ (winer, , p. ). under neo-liberal policies, many people throughout the world have experi- enced deteriorating social rights, even though these rights continue to exist in law (falk, ; white, ). women, racial minorities, immigrants, people with disabilities, the elderly, gays and lesbians, and other disadvantaged groups continue to face marginalization and the denial of equal treatment despite the presence of such international instruments as the universal declaration of human rights and its national counterparts, such as the canadian charter of rights and freedoms. it is therefore important to see citizenship not only in relation to a set of legal entitlements but as ‘practices through which individuals and groups formulate and claim new rights or struggle to expand or maintain existing rights’ (isin and wood, , p. ; also see stasiulis and bakan, ; wiener, , p. ; isin, , p. ). to claim new or extant rights individuals and groups require the knowledge of oppression (mclaren and lankshear, ) and effective com- munication skills. to formulate claims individuals and groups need to under- stand that they are denied legal rights and that extant legal or human rights frameworks make it possible for them to seek redress. these individuals and groups also require communication skills to translate their understanding of the oppression into demands for justice using the language that is understood and accepted by those who deny them equal treatment. yet, at times, having the knowledge of oppression and skills to communicate the demands is not sufficient if the costs of political participation are too high for members of a disadvantaged group to bear. in this case, support by the sympathizers who can effectively present the claims for equality to those in power on behalf of the disadvantaged group can be just as crucial. some groups of migrants, by virtue of their exclusion from the host society, may lack linguistic skills, knowledge of their legal entitlements, mechanisms required to access benefits, or support from sympathizers, to be able to claim their rights. international migrants are often caught in the contradiction between two citizenship principles. the first principle refers to access to rights and the second to membership in a community or identity (kratochwil, ). soysal ( , ) contends that there is a clash between two elements of modern citizenship: rights and identities. she observes: ‘in the postwar era, these two elements of human rights and citizenship citizenship are decoupled. rights increasingly assume universality, legal unifor- mity, and abstractness, and are defined at the global level. identities, in contrast, still express particularity, and are conceived of as being territorially bounded. as an identity, national citizenship—as it is promoted, reinvented, and reified by states and other societal actors—still prevails’ (soysal, , p. ). as brubaker ( ) observes, ‘the politics of citizenship today is first and foremost a politics of nationhood. as such it is a politics of identity, not a politics of interest (in the restricted, materialist sense)’ (p. ). in other words, foreign residents may be simultaneously offered membership in an international com- munity of citizens when defined in terms of legal rights and denied citizenship in the national and/or local community when defined in terms of belonging and identity. these two aspects of citizenship are not distinct (as soysal and others seem to portray them); they are interconnected. the central argument of this article is that the denial of social membership in a community of citizens to some categories of migrants deprives these migrants of the opportunities to acquire knowledge, learn skills, or secure support to claim the legal rights to which they are entitled. the article traces changes in leamington from a virtual exclusion of mexican workers from the local community to recent attempts on the part of the canadian labour movement and some sectors of the leamington community to include them and discusses the implications of this change for the ability of mexican migrant workers to claim their rights. leamington: a rural community leamington is a rural community in essex county located some km southeast of windsor, in southwestern ontario. its climate and soils are ideally suited to agriculture. located in close proximity to the great lakes and at the most southerly latitude within canada, essex county enjoys early springs, warm summers and the longest growing season in eastern canada. in addition, the region is known for its variety of productive soils. this combination of favourable climate and rich soils permits essex growers to produce a wider range of crops than elsewhere in canada. the leading crops produced in essex county are corn, soybeans, fall wheat, canning crops, fruits and vegetables, including early potatoes and greenhouse crops. but it is tomato production that has occupied a central place in the leamington economy in the twentieth century. the growth of the tomato industry received a major boost from the establishment of the heinz food-processing plant in . the greenhouse industry has been growing since the s (snell, , p. ). it has supplied domestic and us markets not only with tomatoes but with other vegetables, such as cucumbers and peppers. the greenhouse industry has undergone significant growth in the last years. in the leamington greenhouse industry was bigger than the entire us greenhouse industry. with its acres under production it had the largest concentration of greenhouse vegetable production in north america (whitfield and papadopoulos, ). the leamington greenhouse industry has benefited from the establishment of the experimental station at harrow (located between windsor and leamington). researchers working at the harrow station have developed improved technolo- tanya basok gies which have considerably reduced production costs for greenhouse growers. a shift from glasshouses to double polyethylene houses has permitted growers to reduce their heating costs and advances in plant pathology and entomology have resulted in pesticide reduction (whitfield and papadopoulos, ). perhaps more than technological improvements the availability of foreign seasonal workers from mexico and the caribbean has contributed to the rapid growth of the industry. mexican workers are employed in field crops and in greenhouses. but it is the leamington greenhouse industry which has grown particularly dependent on mexican labour. extremely hot temperatures discourage many local farm work- ers from working in greenhouses in the summer months, although these workers are more willing to work there once the summer heat subsides. mexican seasonal workers constitute some % of the workforce in the greenhouse industry. many leamington greenhouse growers consider the contribution of mexican seasonal workers vital to their industry and claim that without them the industry would collapse. at the same time, the expansion of the greenhouse industry has made it possible for more mexican workers to be employed in this region. the study my qualitative research on the exercise of rights by mexican migrant workers grew out of a research project on the impact of canada-bound seasonal migration on migrants’ households. for the original research project i conducted interviews with officials at the mexican consulate in toronto, the mexican ministry of labour and social planning, the foreign agricultural management services (farms), and last, but not least, with mexican seasonal workers. i used an interview schedule to survey mexican migrants employed in the leamington area. although this survey focused mainly on economic aspects of the migratory experience, the interview schedule included some open-ended questions on the ‘cultural capital’ transfers from canada to rural mexico. participants of the survey were asked to reflect on the new ways of thinking and behaving they might have acquired in canada and how these changes might have affected their interaction with their household members and other villagers in their home communities. most workers claimed that they had not changed and explained their answers by the isolation they experienced within canadian rural societies and the lack of interaction between themselves and the host society members. soon after this research project began, mexican workers surrounded my research assistant, nicole noel, and me at the soccer field (where many interviews were conducted on sunday afternoons), bombarded us with questions about their rights, and told us stories about abuses they had experienced on canadian farms. the following sunday we held an information session on migrant workers’ rights in canada in the basement of a catholic church. about workers attended this session. the following week i invited representatives of the occupational health clinics for ontario workers to present information to the mexican migrants on pesticides and health and safety issues. both information sessions were followed by numerous complaints by the workers human rights and citizenship about their working conditions in canada, work-related accidents they had suffered without compensation provided either by the growers or the canadian government, and other problems. in the months that followed, other workers volunteered this type of information to us, in some cases, expecting our assistance. when possible, we assisted the workers to access information and fill out application forms for their workers compensation claims. we also gave a few english lessons to the workers, obtained english as a second language tapes and books for them (or at times, provided information on where they could purchase them), took some mexican workers shopping, attended sunday masses with them, and participated in their festivities. the data presented in this article were collected in part through these informal discussions with mexican workers and participant observation. at the second stage of this research project, we travelled to mexico where we conducted interviews with mexican participants of the canadian seasonal agricultural workers program in san cristóbal, a mexican village in the state of guanajuato. many research participants from this village had worked in leamington. the revised interview schedule used at this stage included ques- tions on the migrants’ living and working conditions (including questions on work-related accidents and ailments). finally, i gathered much valuable information used in this article when in and i became a volunteer with the global justice care van project and a chair of the migrant workers committee, a coalition of community agencies and activists. i helped to gather information on living and working conditions among mexican workers, accompanied an injured worker to a hospital, and provided information and assistance to the workers at the migrant workers support centre in leamington. i regularly receive information on migrant workers in canada circulated by a grassroots organization, called justicia for migrant workers, through the listserve (‘justicia’ � justicia@justicia migrantworkers.org � ) or posted on their website (http:// www.justicia migrantworkers.org). mexican migrant workers mexican seasonal workers have been a part of leamington for several decades. starting in they have been employed to work in the leamington horticul- ture industry through a government-regulated program. the seasonal agricul- tural workers program (known commonly as the ‘offshore program’) was launched in but until it had applied only to workers from common- wealth caribbean countries. the program was introduced to ease the severe labour shortage problems that many ontario growers experienced. the seasonal migration from the caribbean did not entirely solve the labour shortages and in the canadian government extended this program to include mexico. since the number of mexican workers employed in canada through the ‘offshore program’ has been climbing steadily. whereas at the beginning some mexican men were recruited to participate in it, today well over mexicans are admitted. tanya basok the mexican ministry of labour and social planning (secretarı́a de trabajo and provisión social) selects mexican workers for the canadian seasonal agricultural workers program. the vast majority of the participants are men, although the number of female participants has been slowly rising to comprise about – % of the total labour force (farms, ). committed to assisting the most needy mexican workers, the secretarı́a prefers participants who support large families, have low levels of education, and are landless and underem- ployed. since canadian growers wish to recruit experienced agricultural work- ers, the secretarı́a gives strong preference to applicants from rural communities. ninety percent of the program participants work in ontario and the leaming- ton area alone receives close to mexican workers annually. since the program permits growers to nominate their workers and many growers prefer receiving the workers who have already proven to be efficient, loyal, and obedient, many program participants are return migrants. some workers em- ployed in the leamington area today have been coming to this region for some years. workers leave their families behind and are expected to return home at the end of the season. they are sent to work on farms in rural areas where there are very few, if any, spanish-speaking immigrants. although canada has not signed the un convention on migrant workers, it adheres in part to the spirit of this international document. the canadian state has extended certain rights to migrant workers—a right to a minimum wage (or prevailing wage), workers’ compensation, access to medicare, and some provi- sions of the employment standards act. the agreement for the employment in canada of seasonal agricultural workers from mexico stipulates that the workers are to receive weekly wages calculated as the greatest of: • the minimum wage for workers provided by provincial legislation; • the rate determined annually by human resources development centre to be the prevailing wage rate for the type of agricultural work being carried out; and • the rate being paid by the employer to his canadian workers performing the same type of agricultural work. mexican workers employed in ontario are covered by the provincial employ- ment standards act. as harvesters, these workers are entitled to vacation pay and public holiday pay if they have been employed for at least weeks. vacation pay is to be calculated at the rate of % of total gross earnings (farms, , p. ). employers are required by law to carry workers’ compensation and workers make contributions to unemployment insurance and the canada pension plan through regular deductions from the salary. therefore, mexican workers are entitled to receive benefits deriving from these plans and coverages. however, in practice mexican workers do not exercise several of these rights. at times they are unaware of their entitlement. even when they know their rights, they find it extremely difficult to navigate within the canadian social protection system because they are deprived of the knowledge necessary to access the benefits. until recently mexican workers had very little contact with the host society. due to this limited interaction with the host society, mexican human rights and citizenship workers were limited in their knowledge of the english language or ways of operating in a new society and thus were virtually denied the knowledge they needed to claim their rights. social exclusion mexican workers stay in canada for up to eight months each year. they are housed by the employer, usually on the premises. it is not unusual for the workers to live in a house or a trailer next to the grower’s house. the grower is responsible for providing furniture, dishes, utensils, and appliances to the workers. the workers cook their own meals but the grower is obligated to take them shopping for food (or pay the taxi fare to the store and back) once a week. the grower is also expected to take an ailing worker to a physician. in ontario seasonal workers are covered by the ontario health insurance plan. in many respects mexican workers play an important role in the economic life of this rural community. they shop in local stores, buy food from fast food places, use taxi services, consume in bars, conduct financial transactions in local banks, and buy second-hand merchandise at garage sales, and in some communi- ties, such as leamington, they constitute a significant part of the labour force. but while mexican seasonal workers participate in the community life as producers and consumers, until recently they had been insulated from the rest of the community. in leamington, which receives close to workers, mexican workers are highly visible yet even now (despite the changes discussed below) very few people take an interest in them. due to the language barrier, mexican workers do not attend regular church services. instead, a spanish-speaking priest offers them a separate sunday service at a local roman catholic church. their cultural celebrations (such as the mexican independence day celebration or fathers’ day) draw very few local residents. workers find it extremely difficult to attend public english as a second language classes because they work long hours during the harvest season. furthermore, in order to enrol in public english classes one needs to pass a tuberculosis test. for most mexican workers this requirement poses a problem since their employers are not required to take them to a physician for any reason other than illness or injury. without their employers’ help, mexican migrant workers find it extremely difficult to communicate with the physicians. further- more, the workers are reluctant to take time off work to take this test. therefore, until recently, only a handful of mexican workers took english classes in the basement of the catholic church. some migrant workers told us that they experienced social rejection in leamington. as one worker commented: ‘there are many people who look down on us, don’t think we are worth anything. some of them don’t want us to work here’. an older worker, who had been coming to work in leamington for years, reflected: even though they used to be nicer before, people in leamington never really liked the mexicans. they think we are all thieves. perhaps, some of us are. and in mexico even our president is a tanya basok thief. but you know how it is in small towns. people trust each other. and in ranchos [rural communities] even more so. here we go to zeller’s [‘and canadian tire’, adds his roommate] and they stare at us to make sure we won’t steal. the same when we go to yard sales. because i speak some english, i chat with them sometimes. but they all stare at others with fear. there are some pubs where we are not allowed. because i like dancing i used to go to pubs when i first came over but women don’t even want to dance with you. and they are rude. i understand it when a guy is drunk and he does not take ‘no’ for an answer. but when you approach a girl and ask her to dance with you politely there is no reason for her to be rude. one woman even punched a mexican guy in his nose when he asked her to dance with him. his nose bled. to a certain degree mexican workers interact with some spanish-speaking immigrants in leamington: they play soccer with some of them and purchase food from others. according to the census, there were only latin american immigrants in the leamington area. most of them were new immi- grants who were hardly in the position to extend assistance to the mexican seasonal workers. since the s leamington has been a home for mexican mennonite immigrants. mexican mennonite men can speak spanish, but because of the cultural differences separating them from mexican seasonal migrants there is very little interaction between them. following their migration to mexico from canada in , mennonites formed isolated farming communities in chi- huahua, a northern mexican state (sawatzky, ). these social boundaries between spanish-speaking catholic mexicans and mostly low-german-speaking adherents of the anabaptist faith from mexico are reproduced to a large degree in leamington. living apart from the rest of the community, mexican migrants limit their social interaction mainly to others within the mexican community, although, as discussed below, this pattern has started changing. they visit each other in the evenings or on sunday and congregate outside a grocery store. mexican migrants attend the same bars and the same catholic church (except for those who have converted to protestantism) and play soccer with each other (and with a few salvadoreans). similarly, until recently the canadian labour community had not expressed much interest in the working and living conditions of migrant workers. the ontario federation of labour (ofl) played a vital role in the establishment of the mexican seasonal workers program. in the ofl lobbied the federal government to expand the already existing caribbean seasonal workers program to include mexico, fearing that without a federally administered program, growers would continue to employ undocumented workers whose deplorable working and living conditions had been exposed by the special task force established by the department of manpower and immigration in a report that came out in (sanderson, ). between and , however, the human rights and citizenship labour community showed little concern for the conditions under which caribbean and mexican workers were employed. until a few years ago, mexican seasonal workers employed in leamington were viewed by leamington residents and the broader canadian society as sojourners whose temporary stay in the country did not necessitate investment in their language training and/or cultural orientation. while mexican migrants played an integral role in the leamington economy, in social and cultural terms most were not viewed as citizens of the leamington community which had grown to depend heavily on their economic contribution. their interaction with the local population was extremely limited. mexican workers knew very few people who could serve as cultural interpreters for them. existing on the social margins of canadian society, mexican migrants were often unaware of their rights. but even when they were aware of their entitlements, they were unable to follow the procedures to receive the benefits to which they were entitled because their language skills were insufficient and hardly anyone wished to assist them. the inability to claim rights every mexican worker is entitled to receive the canadian pension upon reaching the age of . until recently, however, most mexican workers in leamington were unaware of the procedures they needed to follow in order to claim it. similarly, a lack of knowledge of entitlements and procedures prevented migrant workers from receiving compensation for the prescription drugs purchased in canada even though all were required to contribute to a drug plan. while all migrant workers in canada are covered by provincial health plans, workers tended to underutilize health services because of the language barriers they encountered in rural hospitals which lacked trained spanish-language practi- tioners. a worker interviewed by zwarenstein ( ) commented, ‘the patron doesn’t send us to the hospital. or if they do, they don’t send anyone to translate for the worker’ (p. ). even though all mexican migrant workers are entitled to receive workers compensation from the workplace safety and insurance board (formerly known as the workers’ compensation board) if injured at work, in practice very few claim it. among the farm workers we interviewed in san cristóbal had suffered accidents at work. yet only one of them had received compensation (although on a previous occasion, involving a cut, he continued working). among the rest, three were compensated by their employers for the missed days, seven who had suffered lacerations or allergic reactions to pesticides continued working, four took unpaid days off, and five were sent back to mexico because they were no longer fit to work in canada. even though physicians treating injured workers are required by law to report their accidents to the workers safety and insurance board, in practice, because of the language barriers, english-speaking physicians often fail to understand the cause and location of the accident. and even when compensation forms are filed by the physician and the workplace safety and insurance board sends out the forms to the injured tanya basok workers, the workers find it difficult to fill them out because of their ignorance of the two canadian languages. seasonal migrant workers experience other violations of their rights as workers including the failure by the growers to offer their workers days of rest, vacation and public holiday pay, and decent living conditions, as well as exposure of the workers’ to occupational hazards. even if the workers could speak english they would still find it virtually impossible to claim their rights. the seasonal agricultural workers program grants an enormous degree of power to the employers over their workers. at the end of the season growers fill out evaluation forms for their workers. workers are required to report to the mexican ministry of labour and social planning upon their return to mexico and to hand in the evaluation forms in sealed envelopes. to a large degree, the decision taken by the ministry of labour on whether to re-admit the worker into the program in the following years hinges on these evaluations. therefore mexican workers are afraid that if they speak out they will lose the opportunity to return to work in canada. while migrant worker themselves are afraid to challenge these violations, until recently neither labour nor community human rights organizations have raised objections to any of the conditions under which migrant workers tolled and lived. by excluding migrant workers from their communities of citizens, labour and community organizations failed to represent these workers’ concerns to the policy makers. towards inclusion in the community of citizens: the leamington story the relationship between mexican workers and the leamington community described above started to change in . it took a series of articles published by a windsor labour journalist, mary agnes welch, to make some community residents recognize the social barriers that the community had erected. conse- quently, the migrant worker coalition was formed. the coalition organized an orientation meeting in february at which workers were introduced to local banks, police, transportation routes, and leamington recreational activities. the coalition has representatives from the business community, growers, the mexi- can consulate, and the town hall. with funding obtained from the united way, the coalition launched a ‘bridges for bicycles’ project to assist mexican workers in fixing their bicycles, the major mode of transportation among mexican workers. in addition, the coalition set up an office at the south essex community centre. the centre made interpreters available—working for pay or as volunteers—to accompany sick workers to local hospitals or to provide them with translation over the phone. local growers employing mexican workers also occasionally use the coalition interpreters. in order to avoid conflict with the growers on the committee, the coalition denied membership to organized labour representatives. because of this lopsided composition, the coalition stays away from any discussion of migrant workers’ rights. by contrast, workers’ rights are of central concern for the migrant workers support centre, established in the summer of . the history of the migrant workers support centre dates back to april , when the united farm workers of america–canadian office was contacted with regard to the case of human rights and citizenship some migrant farm workers in leamington facing repatriation to mexico. this action was precipitated by a walk-out of some mexican workers protesting against their working conditions. having visited leamington several times, ufwa–canadian office launched a project, called the global justice care van project. funded by the canadian labour congress, united steel workers of america, united food and commercial workers and canadian auto workers union, the project aimed to document working and living conditions of the seasonal guest workers in ontario and to formulate policy recommendations to the canadian government (zwarenstein, ). the findings and the recom- mendations of the global justice care van project were presented in a docu- ment, entitled ‘national report: status of migrant farm workers in canada’ (united food and commercial workers, ). on the basis of the findings of the global justice care van project, canadian labour organizations decided to open an information and assistance centre in leamington. the centre was inaugurated on june . originally committed to funding the centre as a pilot project, in august the united food and commercial workers and the canadian labour congress reaffirmed its commitment to funding the centre. working together with such community agencies as the occupational health clinics for ontario workers and the bilingual legal aid clinic, the centre provides information to the workers on workers’ compensation and the canada pension plan. the centre’s paid staff and volunteers assist injured workers in following the necessary procedures to receive compensation. if compensation is denied to the workers or if the compensation is viewed by them as inadequate, workers are directed to the bilingual legal aid clinic. in addition, the centre provides information on occupational hazards to the workers. in spanish-language manuals on health and safety issues were produced and distributed not only in leamington but in other communities in ontario as well. the manual, prepared by occupational health clinics for ontario workers (ohcow), discussed occupational hazards such as heat stroke, back injuries, respiratory diseases, pesticide poisoning, and others. ohcow nurses offer assessment to ailing workers who suspect that their illnesses are linked to their working conditions. if ohcow specialists (argonomists or hygienists) can prove the connection between working conditions and the workers’ illness, workers are invited to submit a workers’ compensation claim. in addition, volunteers from the support centre accompany workers to the local hospitals. the migrant workers support centre in leamington has also provided placement opportunities to frontier college volunteers who offer evening english classes to migrant workers and provide other types of assistance at the centre. most frontier college labourer–teacher volunteers are placed to work side-by-side with migrant workers on farms and processing plants throughout ontario. employed during the day as temporary help, in the evening frontier college volunteers teach their co-workers english and share with them their knowledge of canadian society. finally, workers’ rights are of central concern for a grassroots organization, justicia for migrant workers (j mw), formed in the summer of by some volunteers who had been initially associated with the global justice care van tanya basok project. comprised of students, labour and human rights activists, and re- searchers, this organization is committed to advancing the rights of migrant workers and building ties between all agricultural workers. j mw activists engage in community outreach in migrant communities in rural ontario, raise awareness of the plight of migrant workers, document workers’ complaints about their working and living conditions, and educate workers about their rights and try to solve their employment and housing problems. they also lobby the government to improve the workers’ conditions. all these initiatives play an important role in educating the workers about their rights, providing some language and cultural training to the workers, and establishing an infrastructure which includes translation services, referrals, and assistance in application procedures for workers’ compensation, pension, and other benefits. yet as important as it is for the migrant workers to know their rights, knowledge alone may not be sufficient for them to confront the employers who deny workers their rightful breaks, days of rest, paid holidays, or decent housing. growers wield an enormous amount of power over their workers. while the workers themselves are unlikely to challenge their employers whose approval is instrumental to their continued participation in this program, labour and human rights groups have recently voiced their concerns to the canadian government and have demanded the establishment of mechanisms to monitor the compliance of the growers with the rules and regulations governing this employment program. while these initiatives promise to significantly improve the exercise of rights by the migrant workers, it is important not to be overly optimistic. union and human rights activists still confront serious challenges in the face of the reluctance of most canadian provincial governments to provide coverage to agricultural workers under the health and safety acts and the denial to these workers of the right to bargain collectively. it is also important to recognize that the leamington situation is uncommon. two other ontario regions receive large numbers of migrant workers from mexico and the caribbean—the bradford/newmarket and the simcoe areas. to service these workers ufcw opened two additional support centres in ontario— in bradford on may and in simcoe on june . however, for many migrant workers employed in remote communities located far away from these centres these initiatives are of little use. they continue to experience social isolation which prevents them from claiming some of their basic rights. multiple layers of citizenship as yuval-davis ( ) observes, ‘citizenship needs to be understood as a multi-layered construct, in which one’s citizenship in collectivities in the different layers—local, ethnic, national, state, cross or trans-state and supra- state—is affected and often at least partly constructed by the relationships and positionings of each layer in specific historical context’ (p. ). it is important to realize, however, that these layers may be interconnected and that the exercise of rights associated with citizenship at one scale may be precluded by limitations on citizenship at another scale. human rights and citizenship as global citizens mexican workers are entitled to the rights spelled out by international conventions and recognized by the canadian state. yet they do not exercise some of these legal rights because of their lack of knowledge or skills to claim them. being denied membership in local communities, mexican migrants are also deprived of opportunities to learn the language and skills or gain support from members of the local community that would make it possible for them to exercise these rights. until recently, hardly any efforts had been made to include mexican workers in the social and political life of the local residential communities which received the workers. living on the social margins of the local communities, mexican migrants remained ignorant of their rights and/or of the ways they could exercise them. the recent initiatives on the part of leamington residents, labour, and other community agencies for the ‘offshore’ workers in their communities of citizens may transform the ability of the migrant workers to exercise the rights to which they have been entitled. many migrant workers have benefited from language training, workshops on workers’ compensation, health and safety protection, the canada pension plan, translation services, and other forms of support. these initiatives furnish the necessary knowledge and skills to the workers to enable them to access the benefits to which they are entitled and challenge those who deny them their rights. the link between the ability to claim some rights and inclusion in the local community of citizens can be illustrated in the case of female domestic workers. the participation of women in international migration is rapidly expanding (hayzer et al., ; sassen, ; sharpe, ). the pacific rim region in particular has experienced a rise in female migration over the past few decades (lindio-mcgovern, ). female migrant domestic workers are recruited either by private agencies (heyzer et al., ; lindio-mcgovern, , ) or through government-regulated programs, such as the canadian live-in caregiver program (cohen, ; daenzer, ; bakan and stasiulis, ). abuses suffered by these workers are widely documented (cohen, ; daenzer, ; giles and arat-koc, ; bakan and stasiulis, ; lindio-mcgovern, ). many domestic workers throughout the world find it difficult to challenge the abuse (chin, ; andall, ). some of these female workers have adopted individual coping mechanisms to counteract the abuse they experience (cohen, ; chin, ). yet others have pursued legal challenges (stasiulis and bakan, ), and/or have engaged in organized protest (alcid, ; barber, ). at least two features distinguish government-recruited female domestic workers in canada from seasonal mexican migrant workers. first, because of the job requirements, domestic workers speak english and therefore they are able to seek information and support from feminist organizations and other human rights organizations that make it possible for them to claim their rights in the host society. second, destined mainly for urban households, domestic workers, many of whom are from the philippines, often find themselves in ethnically diverse communities where they establish ties and seek support for their cause from their compatriots both individually and through ngos with links in their home country. the comparison between the seasonal agricultural and domestic work- ers in their ability to claim their legal rights needs to be further explored. tanya basok notes . brubaker ( ) contends, ‘viewed against the backdrop of the loss of sovereign control over admission to the territory and access to civil and socioeconomic rights, state’s continued sovereign control over admission to citizenship stands out’ (p. ). canefe ( ) recognizes the importance of the international convention on the protection of the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families as a significant human rights instrument with some international dictate. he acknowledges that the un and ilo support the rights of migrant workers in terms of the provision of fair wages in conditions of equal pay for equal work, decent living and working conditions, equal opportunity in the work place, and availability of rest, leisure and periodic holidays. yet he points out that these provisions are primarily recommenda- tions for the states hosting migrant workers and they do not possess an obligatory nature. castles and davidson ( , p. ) seem to be even more sceptical of the impact that the un convention on the rights of migrant workers and members of their families can make on international migrants since it has been signed only by a handful of emigration countries. . schuster and solomos ( ) point out that national citizenship ‘remains the single most important means of protecting migrants and minorities within europe from being excluded or expelled from a european state’ (p. ). brubaker ( ) remarks that citizenship would add complete protection against expulsion, access to public sector employment, and eligibility for those few social services and benefits that are limited to citizens (p. ). . in , for instance, out of the mexican workers selected to participate in the canadian program had been requested by their employers (farms, ). . according to the census, carried out by statistics canada, there were only spanish-speaking immigrants residing in leamington. . the ‘agreement for the employment in canada of seasonal agricultural workers from mexico’, signed by the employer and the employee, stipulates that ‘for each six consecutive days of work, the worker will be entitled to one day of rest’, although it does make it possible for employers to request ‘the worker’s consent to postpone that day until a mutually agreeable date’. in practice, during the peak season, many mexican farm workers are asked to work seven days a week (including half a day on sunday) and they feel compelled to comply with the request. . no mexican worker interviewed in the leamington area has been offered a paid holiday by the employer and the payment of the vacation pay has been subject to the employer’s whims. the application of the employment standards act is complicated by the distinction it makes between ‘harvest’ and ‘farm’ workers. only harvest workers are entitled to paid public holiday and vacation benefits and only if they have been employed for weeks as harvesters. most mexicans work in canada for more than weeks but during the term of their employment they perform numerous tasks, some related to harvesting and others to preparation of the soil, packaging, and some post-harvest activities. it requires accurate book-keeping on the part of the growers to establish whether the workers have been employed as ‘harvesters’ for the specified period. most growers in leamington chose not to bother making the required calculations. they deny paid public holidays to all mexican workers and the amount of vacation pay varies from one grower to the next. some growers also use vacation pay as a reward and therefore some workers receive the full vacation pay; some workers claim to receive only % and some none at all. . growers are required to have the migrants’ living quarters examined by provincial ministries of health prior to receiving an approval to hire migrant workers. some workers, however, complain of deplorable working conditions, including overcrowding, extreme heat or cold, substandard sanitation, and a shortage of appliances. . a small number of placements are also available in quebec and manitoba. . in most canadian provinces agricultural workers are denied the right to organize. in the early s the ontario new democratic party government of bob rae granted agricultural workers the legal right to organize under the agriculture labour relations act. in bill was repealed by the conservative party. the united food and commercial workers union, which had started unionizing workers in a mushroom plant near leamington, launched a lawsuit. in december the supreme court of canada found that the denial of the right to organize to agricultural workers was unconstitutional. the supreme court requested that the ontario government change the law (hill, ; schmitz, ). the law that came out in fall gave agricultural workers the right to form and maintain associations but not to strike or bargain collectively (hill, ). the bill also denied the right to organize to migrant workers who, according to the provincial legal experts, fell under federal rules (windsor star, october , p. a ). human rights and citizenship references alcid, m.l. ( ) ‘legal and organizational support mechanisms for foreign domestic workers’, in: n. hayzer, g. lycklama à nijeholt and n. weerakoon (eds), the trade in domestic workers: causes, mechanisms and consequences of international migration (london, zed books), pp. – . andall, j. ( ) ‘organizing domestic workers in italy: the challenge of gender, class and ethnicity’, in: f. anthias and g. lazardis (eds), gender and migration in southern europe (new york, oxford), pp. – . bakan, a.b. and stasiulis, d. ( ) ‘foreign domestic worker policy in canada and the social boundaries of modern citizenship’, science and society, ( ), pp. – . bakan, a.b. and stasiulis, d. ( ) ‘working the labyrinth: legal strategies and extra-legal empowerment of foreign domestic workers’, in: r. jhappan (ed.), women’s legal strategies (toronto, university of toronto press). barber, p.g. ( ) ‘agency in philippine women’s labour migration and provisional diaspora’, women’s studies international forum, ( ), pp. – . bhabha, j. ( ) ‘enforcing the human rights of citizens and non-citizens in the era of maastricht: some reflections on the importance of states’, in: b. meyer and p. geschiere (eds), globalization and identity: dialectics of flow and closure (oxford, blackwell). bloemraad, i. ( ) ‘citizenship and immigration: a current review’, journal of international migration and integration, ( ), pp. – . brubaker, r. ( ) citizenship and nationhood in france and germany (cambridge, ma, harvard university press). canefe, n. ( ) ‘citizens versus permanent guests: cultural memory and citizenship laws in a reunified germany’, citizenship studies, ( ), pp. – . castles, s. and davidson, a. ( ) citizenship and migration: globalization and the politics of belonging (houndmills, macmillan). chin, c.b.n. ( ) in service and servitude: foreign female domestic workers and the malaysian ‘modernity’ project (new york, colombian university press). cohen, j. ( ) ‘changing paradigms of citizenship and the exclusiveness of the demos’, international sociology, ( ), pp. – . cohen, r. ( ) ‘women of color in white households: coping strategies of live-in domestic workers’, qualitative sociology, ( ), pp. – . daenzer, p. ( ) regulating class privilige: immigrant servants in canada, s– s (toronto, canadian scholars’ press). falk, r. ( ) ‘the decline of citizenship in an era of globalization’, citizenship studies, ( ), pp. – . foreign agricultural resource management services (farms) ( ) employer information package (missisauga, ontario, farms). foreign agricultural resource management services (farms) ( ) employer information package (missisauga, ontario, farms). giles, w. and arat-koc, s. (eds) ( ) maid in the market: women’s paid domestic labour (halifax, fernwood press). glenn, e. ( ) ‘creating a caring society’, contemporary sociology, ( ), pp. – . hall, s. and held, d. ( ) ‘citizen and citizenship’, in: s. hall and m. jacques (eds), new times: the changing face of politics in the s (london and new york, verso), pp. – . hayzer, n., lycklama à nijeholt, g. and weerakoon, n. (eds) ( ) the trade in domestic workers: causes, mechanisms and consequences of international migration (london, zed books). hill, s. ( ) ‘union vows to fight law: proposed legislation won’t allow workers right to strike, bargain collectively’, the windsor star, september, p. a . hutchinson, j. ( ) ‘ethnicity and modern nations’, ethnic and racial studies, ( ), pp. – . isin, e. ( ) ‘introduction: democracy, citizenship and the city’, in: e. isin (ed.), democracy, citizenship and the global city, innis centenary series (london, routledge). isin, e. and wood, p.k. ( ) citizenship and identity (london, sage). jacobson, d. ( ) rights across borders: immigration and the decline of citizenship (baltimore, john hopkins university press). kratochwil, f. ( ) ‘citizenship: on the border of order’, alternatives, , pp. – . layton-henry, z. ( ) ‘citizenship and denizenship for migrant workers?’, in z. layton-henry (ed.), the political rights of migrant workers in western europe (london, sage), pp. – . tanya basok lindio-mcgovern, l. ( ) ‘the global political economy of domestic service work: the experience of filipino migrant caregivers in chicago’, in: r. hudson (ed.), globalization of work: research in the sociology of work series, (greenwich, ct, jai press), pp. – . lindio-mcgovern, l. ( ) ‘labor export in the context of globalization: the experience of filipino domestic workers in rome’, international sociology, ( ), pp. – . mclaren, p. and lankshear, c. (eds) ( ) politics of liberation: paths from freire (london, routledge). sanderson, g. ( ). ‘the sweatshop legacy: still with us in ’, labour gazette, , pp. – . sassen, s. ( ) losing control? sovereignty in an age of globalization (new york, columbia university press). sassen, s. ( ) globalization and its discontents (new york, the new press). sawatzky, h.l. ( ) they sought a country: mennonite colonization in mexico (london, university of california press). schmitz, c. ( ) ‘supreme court breathes life into charter’s section (d)’, the lawyers weekly, ( ), pp. , . schuck, p. ( ) citizens, strangers, and in-betweens: essays on immigration and citizenship (boulder, westview press). schuster, l. and solomos, j. ( ) ‘rights and wrongs across european border: migrants, minorities and citizenship’, citizenship studies, ( ), pp. – . sharpe, p. ( ) ‘introduction: gender and the experience of migration’, in: p. sharpe (ed.), women, gender and labour migration: historical and global perspectives (london, routledge), pp. – . snell, f. ( ) leamington’s heritage – (leamington, town of leamington). soysal, y.n. ( ) limits of citizenship: migrants and postnational membership in europe (chicago, university of chicago press). soysal, y.n. ( ) ‘citizenship and identity: living in diasporas in post-war europe?’, ethnic and racial studies, ( ), pp. – . stasiulis, d. and bakan, a.b. ( ) ‘negotiating citizenship: the case of foreign domestic workers in canada’, feminist review, , pp. – . stasiulis, d. and bakan, a.b. ( ) ‘negotiating the citizenship divide: foreign domestic worker policy and legal jurisprudence’, in: r. jhappan (ed.), women’s legal strategies in canada (toronto, university of toronto press), pp. – . turner, b.s. ( a) ‘contemporary problems in the theory of citizenship’, in: b.s. turner (ed.), citizenship in social theory (london, sage), pp. – . turner, b.s. ( b) ‘outline of a theory of human rights’, in: b.s. turner (ed.), citizenship in social theory (london, sage), pp. – . united food and commercial workers union ( ) ‘national report: status of migrant farm workers in canada’, mimeograph. white, d. ( ) ‘social policy and solidarity, orphans of the new model of social cohesion’, canadian journal of sociology, ( ), pp. – . whitfield, g. and papadopoulos, a.p. ( ) ‘introduction to the greenhouse vegetable industry’, available online at: � http://res.agr.ca/harrow/hrcghar.htm � (accessed december ). winer, a. ( ) ‘making sense of the new geography of citizenship: fragmented citizenship in the european union’, theory and society, , pp. – . yuval-davis ? ( ) ‘the “multi-layered citizen”: citizenship in the age of “glocalization” ’, international feminist journal of politics, ( ), pp. – . zwarenstein, c. ( ) ‘small town, big issues: migrant workers organize’, our times, ( ), pp. – . author query sheet query no. query details no queries © histoire sociale / social history, vol. xlviii, no (mai / may ) eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks marlene epp* the cookbook has recently been analysed as a source for historical understanding beyond instruction for preparing a particular culinary dish. this essay surveys culturally thematic cookbooks in canada as documents for understanding canadian immigration history through the foodways of ethnic groups. in reading cookbooks for their social, cultural, and political meaning, we can learn how ethnicity is performed, imitated, or practised as individuals of the past and present eat across borders. ethnic cookbooks examined in this study enabled newcomers to learn how to “eat canadian” while they also taught canadians how to “eat ethnic.” i argue that the cookbook is a significant source by which ethnic groups maintain a public connection with homeland culture, reinforce ethnic identity, integrate into a new culture, and form new hybrid identities. le livre de recettes a récemment été analysé comme source pour comprendre l’histoire par-delà les instructions relatives à la préparation de tel ou tel plat culinaire. dans le présent article, l’auteure étudie des livres de recettes reflétant des particularités culturelles en usage au canada comme documents pour comprendre l’histoire de l’immigration au pays par le biais des habitudes alimentaires des groupes ethniques. l’examen de livres de recettes sous l’angle de leur signification sociale, culturelle et politique renseigne sur la façon dont se manifeste l’ethnicité ou dont elle est imitée au moment des repas, de part et d’autre des frontières, aujourd’hui comme hier. les livres de recettes des communautés culturelles examinés dans cette étude permettent aux nouveaux venus d’apprendre comment manger « à la canadienne », mais ils enseignent aussi aux canadiens comment manger des mets étrangers. selon l’auteure, le livre de recettes est une source importante par laquelle les groupes ethniques maintiennent un lien public avec la culture de leur pays d’origine, renforcent leur identité culturelle, s’intègrent à une nouvelle culture et façonnent de nouvelles identités hybrides. habeeb salloum was a small child when his family immigrated to canada from syria in the early s—his father in and his mother with two children a year later. they were among a very small number of arabs who settled in southern *	 marlene	epp	is	professor	of	history	and	peace	and	conflict	studies	at	conrad	grebel	university	college,	 university	of	waterloo.	the	author	is	grateful	to	the	editors	of	this	special	issue,	lisa	chilton	and	royden	 loewen,	and	also	to	the	two	anonymous	reviewers	of	her	article. histoire sociale / social history saskatchewan	at	this	time.	salloum	recalls	that,	as	these	early	arab	settlers	worked	 to integrate themselves in canadian society during a time that was not hospitable to	non-western	newcomers,	much	of	their	culture	disappeared,	except	for	their	 collections	of	“family	recipes.”	during	the	hardship	of	the	depression,	his	family	 subsisted	through	his	parents’	ingenuity,	inherited	from	“thousands	of	years	of	 civilization,”	that	led	them	to	plant	large	gardens	and	improvise	the	preparation	of	 traditional dishes. 	in	fact,	their	experience	with	growing	chickpeas	and	lentils	in	 dry,	desert-like	climates	meant	that	they	may	have	survived	better	than	other	folk	 during the many years when rain did not come to southern saskatchewan. 	 in	the	days	well	before	official	multiculturalism,	early	arab	settlers	in	canada	 tended	to	conceal	their	foodways—burghul,	chickpeas,	lentils,	yogurt—because	 they	considered	them	inferior	to	european	foods.	consequently,	they	made	little	 effort to pass their food traditions to other canadians. not until years later when salloum published a cookbook—arab cooking on a saskatchewan homestead— did his family’s food traditions and thus their immigrant story came to light. in this compilation are recipes for dishes like the familiar taboula (burghul and parsley salad) and the less familiar shawrabat hindba wa ’adas (dandelion-lentil soup).	salloum’s	cookbook,	along	with	many	others	that	are	culturally	specific,	 reveals much more than how to follow instructions to prepare a certain dish. in fact,	in	salloum’s	volume	one	can	see	the	cookbook	“as	inheritance.	as	memoir.	 as resistance. as life force. as testimony.” the cookbook is salloum’s chronicle about	the	immigrant	experience	in	canada,	as	he	remembers	his	family’s	arrival	 and	 settlement,	 their	 struggle	 to	 overcome	 environmental	 obstacles	 and	 also	 discrimination	from	the	host	society,	and	his	own	effort	to	offer	resistance	to	those	 obstacles	by	publishing	inherited	arab	recipes.	it	is	an	excellent	entrée	into	this	 study,	which	explores	the	cookbook	as	a	historical	document	for	understanding	 canadian immigration history. immigration, ethnicity, and foodways the	manner	in	which	immigrants	uproot,	transplant,	adapt,	acculturate,	assimilate,	 integrate,	or	are	othered	and	excluded	has	long	been	a	question	of	inquiry	for	 migration	 scholars.	 only	 recently,	 however,	 has	 this	 question	 been	 explored	 through	the	lens	of	foodways.	in	the	united	states,	donna	gabaccia’s	 we are what we eat: ethnic foodways and the making of americans led the way in linking eating practices to the identity-making of immigrants. 	hasia	diner,	in	 hungering for america,	uses	food	as	a	lens	to	consider	the	migration	experiences	 of	 italian,	 irish,	 and	 jewish	 newcomers	 in	 the	 early	 twentieth	 century. well- habeeb	 salloum,	 arab cooking on a saskatchewan homestead: recipes and recollections (regina: canadian	plains	research	centre,	 ),	p.	vii. ibid.,	p.	 . rona	kaufman,	quoted	in	eric	mason,	“cooking	the	books:	jewish	cuisine	and	the	commodification	of	 difference”	in	kathleen	lebesco	and	peter	naccarato,	eds.,	edible ideologies: representing food and meaning	(albany,	ny:	state	university	of	new	york	press,	 ),	p.	 . donna	gabaccia,	we are what we eat: ethnic food and the making of americans (cambridge: harvard university	press,	 ). hasia	r.	diner,	 hungering for america: italian, irish, and jewish foodways in the age of migration (cambridge:	harvard	university	press,	 ). known	american	food	theorist	sherrie	a.	inness	has	explored	the	intersection	 of ethnic food and gender. 	in	canada,	comparable	work	but	encyclopaedic	in	 style	is	thelma	barer-stein,	you eat what you are: people, culture and food traditions. 	analytical	literature	in	the	canadian	context	is	gradually	emerging:	 for	instance,	franca	iacovetta’s	chapter	in	her	gatekeepers: reshaping immigrant lives in cold war canada and her contribution in edible histories, cultural politics: towards a canadian food history	are	examples	of	how	food	was	at	the	 centre of immigrant reception and self-perception in the mid-twentieth century. several other chapters in edible histories	similarly	explore	food,	immigration,	 and ethnicity from varying vantage points: sonia cancian on gender and food preparation across generations in italian-canadian families; s. holyck hunchuk on ukrainian food sculptures on the prairies; stacey zembrzycki on memories of ukrainian	foodways	during	the	depression;	julie	mehta	on	the	hybridity	of	south	 asian cuisine; and two ethnic cookbook studies that i will address later. new published work is on the horizon as scholars from various disciplines are drawn to research linkages between ethnic identity and foodways. while not explicitly	about	immigration	or	ethnicity,	other	food	studies	publications	offer	 theoretical frameworks and case studies that help us think about the role of food and	eating	in	past	lives	and	that	illustrate	the	significance	of	the	cookbook	as	 historical source. 	 one	 of	 my	favourites,	which	has	 fed	my	 thinking	for	 this	 article,	is	folklorist	diane	tye’s	baking as biography in which she “reads” her mother’s life through the recipes and food practices that shaped her middle-class life as the wife of a united church minister in the maritimes. 	 following	in	the	tradition	of	gabaccia,	much	of	the	new	food	studies	literature	 is	 exploring	 the	 centrality	 of	 foodstuffs	 and	 foodways	 to	 ethnic	 and	 cultural	 identity. it has become almost a truism to say that one’s cultural identity is reflected	in	and	reinforced	by	the	act	of	eating.	in	the	context	of	a	many-cultured	 nation	such	as	canada,	those	linkages	are	even	more	obvious,	if	under-analysed.	 among	her	other	writings,	see	sherrie	a.	inness,	ed.,	pilaf, pozole, and pad thai: american women and ethnic food	(amherst:	university	of	massachusetts,	 ). thelma	barer-stein,	you eat what you are: people, culture and food traditions,	 nd	ed.	(willowdale,	on:	 firefly	books,	 ). franca	iacovetta,	gatekeepers: reshaping immigrant lives in cold war canada (toronto: between the lines,	 );	see	noted	chapters	in	franca	iacovetta,	valerie	j.	korinek,	and	marlene	epp,	eds.,	edible histories, cultural politics: towards a canadian food history	(toronto:	university	of	toronto	press,	 ).	see	also	alison	r.	marshall,	 the way of the bachelor: early chinese settlement in manitoba (vancouver:	university	of	british	columbia	press,	 );	lily	cho,	eating chinese: culture on the menu in small town canada	(toronto:	university	of	toronto	press,	 ). a	few	examples	include	laurie	bertram	on	icelanders,	jennifer	evans	on	ethnic	diversity	in	the	ontario	 north,	nadia	jones-gailani	on	iraqi	refugee	women,	and	emily	weiskopf-ball	on	french-canadian	foods	 in northern ontario. nathalie	cooke,	ed.,	what’s to eat? entrées in canadian food history	(montreal	and	kingston:	mcgill- queen’s	university	press,	 );	steve	penfold,	the donut: a canadian history (toronto: university of toronto	press,	 );	cho,	eating chinese;	ian	mosby,	food will win the war: the politics, culture and science of food during canada’s second world war	(vancouver:	university	of	british	columbia	press,	 ). see also the numerous good articles in the journal cuizine: the journal of canadian food cultures and ian mosby’s bibliography on canadian food history at http://www.ianmosby.ca. diane	 tye,	 baking as biography: a life story in recipes	 (montreal	 and	 kingston:	 mcgill-queen’s	 university	press,	 ),	p.	 . eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history habeeb	salloum,	a	canadian	food	writer	whose	cookbook	story	began	this	essay,	 remarked	that	the	presence	of	“foods	of	the	world,”	especially	in	larger	cities,	 contributed to the “making of the modern canadian.” 	 foodstuffs	and	foodways	have	often	functioned	as	important	identity	markers	 for	 immigrant,	 ethnic,	 religious,	 and	 otherwise	 culturally	 specific	 groups.	 a	 community’s food customs are frequently enhanced through the process of migration,	as	individuals	and	families	cling	to	familiar	patterns	in	the	midst	of	 environments	that,	in	their	unfamiliarity,	challenge	those	patterns.	the	persistence	 of traditional and historic foodways in new national settings is common among immigrants.	for	the	first	generation	of	immigrants	in	canada,	regardless	of	the	 historic	era	in	which	they	arrived,	foodways	were	often	the	site	at	which	the	old	and	 new worlds met. the preparation of ethnic foods was one means for newcomers to “survive psychologically” 	as	they	made	other	difficult	transitions	in	climate,	 language,	and	host	society	environments.	this	was	true	for	the	family	of	habeeb	 salloum,	even	while	they	were	“othered”	by	established	canadians	because	of	 their “strange” foods. 	 indeed,	sometimes	so-called	traditional	foodways	experienced	a	renaissance	 in new world settings as producers and consumers of those foods sought “authenticity”	in	a	context	where	the	survival	of	ethnicity	appeared	under	siege.	an	 example	is	icelandic	vinarterta	(a	torte-like	cake),	which,	while	no	longer	eaten	 in	iceland,	is	an	icon	of	icelandic	ethnic	identity	in	north	america,	according	to	 historian laurie bertram. another can be seen in the efforts of various toronto south	asian	restaurants	to	make	“authentic”	rotis,	as	described	by	julie	mehta. a review of the compilation ethnic cookbooks and food marketplace observes	that	“people	who	once	took	their	foods	for	granted,	find	that	when	forced	 to	leave	their	homeland,	those	foods	and	traditions	become	much	more	valued,	 and	the	result	is	a	renewed	interest,	revitalized	business	and	services.” equally likely,	however,	 is	 the	 transformation	of	 immigrant	 foodways	as	 they	 interact	 with multiple food cultures in settings where diverse ethnic groups are together creating a new society. this intercultural engagement creates hybridity in eating behaviour for people moving across borders. borrowing from historian barbara lorenzkowski’s framework regarding “sounds	of	ethnicity”	and	emerging	work	on	sensory	history,	i	propose	that	new	 perspectives	on	the	immigrant	experience	might	be	gleaned	from	the	“tastes	of	 habeeb	salloum,	“do	nations	express	themselves	in	their	foods?”	 contemporary review,	vol.	 ,	 no.	 	(february	 ),	pp.	 - 	(accessed	through	literature online,	may	 ,	 ). anne	harder,	the vauxhall mennonite church	(calgary:	mennonite	historical	society	of	alberta,	 ),	 p. . see	chapter	 	from	laurie	k.	bertram,	“new	icelandic	ethnoscapes:	material,	visual,	and	oral	terrains	 of	cultural	expression	in	icelandic-canadian	history,	 -present”	(doctoral	dissertation,	department	of	 history,	university	of	toronto,	 ).	see	also	matt	kwong,	“don’t	ask	icelanders	how	to	make	their	 traditional	christmas	cake,”	maclean’s,	december	 ,	 ,	http://www.macleans.ca	(accessed	july	 ,	 ). julie	mehta,	“toronto’s	multicultured	tongues:	stories	of	south	asian	cuisines”	in	iacovetta	et al.,	eds.,	 edible histories,	pp.	 - . review in choice	by	b.	c.	swain	of	hamo	b.	vassilian,	ed.,	ethnic cookbooks and food marketplace: a complete bibliographic guide & directory to armenian, iranian, afghan, middle eastern, north african, and greek foods in the u.s.a. & canada,	 nd	ed.	(armenian	reference	books,	 ). ethnicity.” 	in	her	study	of	german	immigrants	in	nineteenth-century	ontario	and	 new	york	state,	lorenzkowski	analyses	the	language	usage	and	music	traditions	 of these communities to describe a performative ethnicity based on sound rather than	words.	one	could	extend	this	analysis	to	the	sense	of	taste.	the	tastes	of	 ethnicity	are	not	just	about	an	ethnic	group	preserving,	promoting,	or	performing	 traditional	 foodways.	 the	 concept	 also	 extends	 to	 many	 others—in	 this	 case	 resident canadians—participating in that ethnicity by tasting and eating. by eating across	 borders,	 individuals	 perform,	 imitate,	 or	 practise	 ethnicity.	 in	 fact,	 the	 hybridity,	so-called	fusion,	and	cultural	exchange	that	is	central	to	understanding	 the evolution of ethnicity and foodways makes borders and boundaries transitory and	ephemeral.	of	course,	tasting	“the	other”	also	has	dimensions	of	“cultural	 colonialism,”	as	lisa	heldke	points	out	in	her	critique	of	the	common	phrase	to	 “eat ethnic.” 	tasting	ethnicity	occurs	in	the	very	act	of	eating,	but	sometimes	 this does not occur without an instructional medium—which brings me to the document at the centre of this essay. 	 there	are	many	food-related	sources	through	which	one	might	explore	the	 immigrant	experience	in	canadian	history.	food	stores,	household	and	community	 gardens,	restaurants,	and	food	availability	in	a	given	locale	all	might	reveal	the	 evolution of immigrant populations in a particular community over time. the site at which foodways—and thus identity—were simultaneously maintained and	transformed	can	be	understood	through	the	medium	of	cookbooks,	which	 offer a literary window into the preservation of foodways within a community. as already	noted,	“foodways	serve	as	...	powerful	metaphors	of	group	identity,” and cookbooks	have	a	pivotal	role	to	play	in	explicitly	shaping	that	identity.	cookbooks,	 associated	with	the	mundane,	with	the	material,	and	with	women’s	work,	have	not	 always been regarded “as having any serious historical value.” 	nevertheless,	the	 study of cookbooks as a genre of writing and their usage as historical source is increasing.	barbara	wheaton	defines	them	as	“cultural	artifacts”	and	proposes	that	 they	are	“peculiar	documents”	because	they	“are	the	exceptional	written	records	 of what is largely an oral tradition.” the writing down of recipes is a relatively modern	phenomenon	as,	prior	to	the	nineteenth	century,	even	professional	cooks	 may not have had the literacy to document cooking instructions. 	carol	gold,	in	 her	study	of	danish	cookbooks	over	three	centuries,	says:	“cookbooks	tell	stories,	 as	do	all	books.	perhaps	the	stories	are	not	linear;	they	do	not	have	a	beginning,	a	 barbara	lorenzkowski,	sounds of ethnicity: listening to german north america, - (winnipeg: university	of	manitoba	press,	 ).	on	sensory	history,	see,	for	instance,	mark	m.	smith,	sensing the past: seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching in history (berkeley: university of california press,	 ). lisa	heldke,	“let’s	cook	thai:	recipes	for	colonialism,”	in	inness,	ed.,	pilaf, pozole, and pad thai,	 pp. - . linda	keller	brown	and	kay	mussell,	“introduction”	in	linda	keller	brown	and	kay	mussell,	eds.,	ethnic and regional foodways in the united states	(knoxville:	university	of	tennessee	press,	 ),	p.	 . matthew	bailey-dick,	“the	kitchenhood	of	all	believers:	a	journey	into	the	discourse	of	mennonite	 cookbooks,”	mennonite quarterly review,	vol.	 	(april	 ),	p.	 . barbara	wheaton,	“finding	real	life	in	cookbooks:	the	adventures	of	a	culinary	historian”	in	leslie	 howsam,	ed.,	food, cookery and culture,	working	papers	in	the	humanities,	no.	 	(windsor:	university	 of	windsor,	 ),	p.	 . eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history middle,	and	an	end,	but	they	are	stories	nonetheless.	reading	...	cookbooks,	one	 can	learn	about	changes	in	the	economy,	in	the	social	makeup	of	the	society,	in	 women’s	roles,	and	in	what	it	means	to	be	a	nation	state	and	to	be	a	member	of	that	 nation state.” 	similarly,	nathalie	cooke,	in	her	longitudinal	study	of	canadian	 food	patterns	as	recorded	in	and	shaped	by	published	cookbooks,	proposes	that	 cookbooks “tell us the diverse stories of the lived history of a people.” elizabeth driver is even more comprehensive in assessing the meaning of cookbooks when she	proposes,	“no	other	category	of	book	evokes	such	an	emotional	response	 across generations and genders and is freighted with so much cultural and historical meaning.” 	 cookbook	theorist	janet	theophano	suggests,	“there	is	much	to	be	learned	 from	reading	a	cookbook	besides	how	to	prepare	food....	the	cookbook,	like	the	 diary	and	journal,	evokes	a	universe	inhabited	by	women	both	in	harmony	and	 in	tension	with	their	families,	their	communities,	and	the	larger	social	world.” cookbooks,	as	a	literary	exhibit	of	women’s	culinary	labour	in	particular,	provide	 a	glimpse	into	the	relationships	among	gender,	foodways	and	community	identity.	 analysts	of	community-based	cookbooks	suggest	that,	in	such	volumes,	women	 tell of their “lives and beliefs” and “present their values.” 	as	“culinary	writing,”	 published	cookbooks	were	a	means	for	women	to	“define	themselves	and	their	 cultural	groups,	to	preserve	the	past,	and	to	shape	the	future.” the same may be	true	for	immigrants	or	others	within	distinctive	cultures.	women,	especially	 in	ethnically	distinct	communities,	were	often	viewed	as	cultural	carriers,	with	 responsibility	 for	 maintaining	 traditions,	 customs,	 language,	 and	 other	 group	 practices across generations. thus one can view cookbooks as a feminine culinary genealogy	of	sorts;	as	diane	tye	proposes,	“recipes	remain	one	means	by	which	 women can commune with earlier female kin.” 	 cookbooks	also,	as	theophanos	remarks,	“served	as	a	place	for	readers	to	 remember	a	way	of	life	no	longer	in	existence	or	to	enter	a	nostalgic	recreation	of	 a past culture that persists mostly in memory.” such may have been especially the case for migrant groups who left their homelands abruptly and involuntarily and	with	a	sense	of	loss	and	displacement.	for	people	who	were	wrenched	from	 places	 in	 which	 rich	 cultural	 traditions	 and	 memories	 had	 been	 formed,	 the	 collection of recipes representative of those traditions are described by carol carol	gold,	 danish cookbooks: domesticity and national identity, - (seattle: university of washington	press,	 ),	p.	 . nathalie	cooke,	“canada’s	food	history	through	cookbooks”	in	mustafa	koç,	jennifer	sumner,	and	 anthony	winson,	eds.,	critical perspectives in food studies (don	mills,	on:	oxford	university	press,	 ),	p.	 . elizabeth	driver,	 culinary landmarks: a bibliography of canadian cookbooks, - (toronto: university	of	toronto	press,	 ),	p.	xvii. janet	theophano, eat my words: reading women’s lives through the cookbooks they wrote	(new	york:	 palgrave,	 ),	p.	 . anne	l.	bower,	“bound	together:	recipes,	lives,	stories,	and	readings”	in	anne	l.	bower,	ed.,	recipes for reading: community cookbooks, stories, histories	(amherst,	ma:	university	of	massachusetts	press,	 ),	p.	 . theophano,	eat my words,	p.	 . tye,	baking as biography,	p.	 . theophano,	eat my words,	p.	 . bardenstein as “nostalgia cookbooks” or “collective memory cookbooks.” by “reading”	the	recipes	for	meaning	beyond	culinary	instruction,	and	by	analysing	 the	intent	and	presentation	of	the	volume	itself,	i	argue	that	the	cookbook	is	a	 significant	 source	 by	 which	 ethnic	 groups	 maintain	 a	 public	 connection	 with	 homeland	culture,	reinforce	ethnic	identity,	integrate	into	a	new	culture,	and	form	 new hybrid identities. 	 as	 both	 a	 text-based	 source	 and,	 one	 could	 argue,	 material	 artifact,	 the	 cookbook	 provides	 glimpses	 into	 the	 experience	 of	 ethnicity-formation	 for	 immigrant	groups	in	canadian	history.	they	are	primarily	text-based,	yet	lead	 the	reader,	if	he	or	she	chooses	to	follow	the	instructions,	to	taste	ethnicity.	in	this	 essay,	i	offer	a	selective	survey	of	immigrant	cookbooks	and	what	they	reveal	 about	that	experience	in	various	eras	and	contexts.	after	embarking	on	a	quest	to	 find	canadian-based,	non-anglo	and	non-french	cookbooks	with	an	immigrant/ ethnic	focus—other	than	the	many	glossy	books	one	can	find	at	contemporary	 bookstores on thai cooking for instance—i found that sources did not appear as readily	as	i	had	expected.	this	study	therefore	represents	an	ongoing	exploration.	 among	many	ethnic	groups,	recipes	were	rarely	written	down	until	a	process	of	 institutional formality or professionalization had developed. elizabeth driver’s amazing	 	 bibliography	 of	 canadian	 cookbooks,	 which	 covers	 	 to	 ,	contains	about	 , 	entries,	but	my	search	revealed	very	few	that	were	 obviously non-anglo “immigrant” cookbooks: most of the few in this category were	ukrainian,	jewish,	or	german. 	not	a	critique	of	driver’s	work,	this	finding	 suggests	that	very	few	existed	in	print	prior	to	 . 	 in	 the	 discussion	 that	 follows,	 i	 explore	 immigrant	 cookbooks	 on	 these	 themes: how written cookbooks offered messages that encouraged and instructed immigrants to adapt their recipes and eating customs to become “canadian” even while those culinary instructions were also adapted to encourage “canadians” to “eat ethnic”; how ethnic cookbooks enabled newcomer groups to practise and reinforce	their	own	cultural	identity,	especially	when	the	survival	of	distinctiveness	 may have been in decline; how cookbooks helped to create a non-threatening and	 benign,	 if	 somewhat	 simplistic,	 multiculturalism	 in	 the	 latter	 decades	 of	 the twentieth century; how immigrant narratives themselves found a voice in cookbooks	nationally	and	locally;	and	how	cookbooks	both	reflect	and	reinforce	 food and thus ethnic hybridity in canadian diets. while these related themes are utilized	to	frame	my	analysis,	most	of	the	books	described	could	easily	be	situated	 in multiple categories. cookbooks are thus not just instructional manuals for food preparation; they are valuable historical sources that provide insight into the immigrant	experience	in	canada. carol	 bardenstein,	 “transmissions	 interrupted:	 reconfiguring	 food,	 memory,	 and	 gender	 in	 the	 cookbook-memoirs	of	middle	eastern	exiles,”	signs: journal of women in culture and society,	vol.	 ,	 no.	 	( ),	p.	 . elizabeth	driver,	 culinary landmarks: a bibliography of canadian cookbooks, - (toronto: university	of	toronto	press,	 ). eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history cooking to become canadian among	the	earliest	immigrant	cookbooks,	though	not	often	defined	as	such,	is	 catherine parr traill’s well-known the female emigrant’s guide and hints on canadian housekeeping,	 which	 first	 appeared	 in	 / 	 and	 is	 also	 known as the canadian settler’s guide. the recipes in this unique source demonstrate how newcomers to canada had to adapt old country recipes for the “backwoods” environment. elizabeth driver points out that traill’s guidebook represents	the	first	english-language	cookbook	that	is	clearly	written	from	within	 and	for	a	canadian	context. in her chapter in the collection edible histories,	 alison norman demonstrates how crucial traill’s writings were in helping early	british	immigrants	adapt	to	the	north	american	environment.	in	part,	this	 meant substituting or incorporating indigenous foods into their habitual diets; for settlers	important	new	foods	included	maize,	maple	sugar,	wild	rice,	teas,	fish,	 and venison. not only does traill’s guidebook provide detailed instructions on how	to	prepare	unfamiliar	foodstuffs,	but	this	source,	as	norman	argues,	reveals	 a	process	of	cultural	exchange	between	newcomers	and	indigenous	peoples	that	 created hybrid diets for both peoples. 	 another	early	and	rare	example	of	a	guidebook	to	becoming	canadian,	cited	in	 driver’s	bibliography,	is	shiro	watanabe’s	an english-japanese conversational guide and cookbook,	first	published	in	 .	one	copy,	which	is	housed	in	the	 japanese	canadian	national	museum,	was	owned	by	yotaro	kosaka,	who	settled	 in	vancouver	in	 .	according	to	his	children,	kosaka’s	wife	kisa	made	use	 of the guidebook’s recipes for “western style meals”; each sunday she prepared a	meal	of	roast	beef,	potatoes,	and	apple	pie. in the book is a complete menu for	a	week’s	worth	of	breakfast,	lunch,	and	dinner	entrees,	as	well	as	so-called	 “western”	 recipes	 that	 include	 strawberry	 shortcake,	 veal	 croquettes,	 and	 scrambled	eggs.	while	the	instructions	are	in	japanese,	the	recipe	titles	are	in	 english. 	this	format	is	an	important	contrast	to	cookbooks,	which	i	will	discuss	 later,	that	aim	to	preserve	ethnic	eating	and	have	instructions	in	english	but	titles	 in a different language. the cookbook therefore also serves as a tool for language instruction	for	newcomers	to	canada.	interestingly,	kosaka	hand-wrote	his	own	 recipes	into	the	book	for	dandelion	wine,	root	beer,	and	japanese	sweet	bean	jelly;	 a hybrid diet thus evolved through the written dialogue between the guidebook’s author and its owner. while these guidebooks were written from within an ethnic group to help immigrants	adapt	to	a	new	cultural	environment,	other	cookbooks	were	published	 by so-called “gatekeepers” to impose an identity through food. helen macmurchy’s booklet how we cook in canada is	one	example. 	macmurchy,	whose	 catherine	parr	strickland	traill,	the canadian settler’s guide	(toronto:	mcclelland	&	stewart,	 ). driver,	culinary landmarks,	p.	 . alison	norman,	“‘fit	for	the	table	of	the	most	fastidious	epicure’:	culinary	colonialism	in	the	upper	 canadian contact zone” in iacovetta et al.,	eds.,	edible histories,	pp.	 - . sakuya	nishimura	and	susan	michi	sirovyak,	“a	guidebook	to	living	in	canada— 	style!”	nikkei: japanese canadian national museum newsletter,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	(summer	 ),	pp.	 - . driver,	culinary landmarks,	p.	 . helen macmurchy, how we cook in canada	(ottawa:	department	of	health,	 ). promotion	of	eugenics	has	been	widely	documented,	offers	straightforward	advice	 on	canadian	methods	of	cooking,	with—probably	useful—lengthy	descriptions	 on	stove	types.	in	a	sense,	her	advice	was	practical	in	its	generality:	she	writes,	 “if	you	can	bake	bread,	make	porridge,	cook	eggs,	fish,	meat	and	vegetables	and	 make	good	soup,	tea	and	coffee,	you	are	‘off	to	a	good	start’.”	yet	she	imposes	 her	anglo	normativity	by	emphasizing	the	importance	of	pie,	since	“pies	please	 people—especially apple pies.” 	 the	theme	of	adaptation	and	modification	of	entire	diets	exists	within	early	 settlers’	guides,	but	certainly	the	modification	of	individual	recipes	is	present	in	 many more recent ethnic cookbooks. such changes serve to make the ingredients easier to procure and the recipes less challenging for “canadians” to prepare. in a	sense,	these	transnational	recipes—if	they	can	be	called	that—are	saying	we	 will	change,	but	not	too	much.	a	good	example	is	lannie	king	yee	and	shirley	 b.	p.	yee’s	 	publication	let’s cook the chinese way: the abc’s of chinese cooking.	in	their	introduction	to	the	cookbook,	the	yees	proposed	that,	by	not	 referring	to	“chinese	cooking,”	but	instead	“cooking	like	the	chinese	do,”	their	 traditional asian foodways would be less “mysterious” to north americans. interestingly,	 they	noted	that	 the	main	purpose	for	writing	the	book	was	their	 belief that many of the stresses and illnesses current in north america resulted from	improper	eating.	chinese	foodways	were	better	for	people,	 they	said,	as	 recipes	 included	 lots	of	mushrooms,	more	vegetables	and	 less	meat	 than	was	 typical in a canadian diet. 	 on	 the	 one	 hand	 this	 cookbook	 contains	 many	 complexities	 about	 the	 techniques,	 ingredients,	 and	 traditions	 surrounding	 chinese	 cooking—even	 discussing the cold versus hot air effect of foods and menus—but it is also simplified	and	explained	for	a	north	american	audience.	in	their	eagerness	to	 see	 canadians	 learning	 to	 cook	 as	 chinese	 do,	 the	 authors	 offer	 suggestions	 for	substituting	ingredients,	because	of	availability	but	also	preference.	“many	 authentic	chinese	dishes	are	not	readily	acceptable	to	western	tastes,”	they	say,	 suggesting	that	celery	might	be	substituted	for	water	chestnuts,	finely	cut	cabbage	 for	bean	sprouts,	and	parsnips	for	bamboo	shoots.	as	well,	instead	of	rice	flour,	the	 cook	could	combine	cornstarch	and	all-purpose	flour,	and	even	soy	sauce	could	 be	replaced	with	a	mixture	of	salt	plus	“accent	in	beer.” a centre section of the	cookbook	provides	hand-drawn	illustrations	of	common	chinese	ingredients,	 with	descriptions	of	colour	and	dimensions,	so	that	canadian	cooks	would	know	 exactly	what	to	look	for	when	shopping.	there	are	also	diagrams	and	explanations	 for	how	to	read	prices	on	foods	in	chinatown	in	vancouver.	this	cookbook	crosses	 borders of understanding without apologizing for what some might view as a loss of	authenticity.	on	the	one	hand,	the	yees’	book	“canadianizes”	traditional	asian	 quoted	in	driver,	culinary landmarks,	p.	 . lannie	king	yee	and	shirley	b.	p.	yee,	 let’s cook the chinese way: the abc’s of chinese cooking (saanichton,	bc:	shirlann	industrial	co.	c ),	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history cooking,	but	it	also	serves	as	a	guidebook	for	non-chinese	to	explore	their	world	 and taste their ethnicity. cooking to practise ethnicity community	cookbooks,	which	arise	from	an	organization	or	locale,	as	opposed	to	 an	individual	or	a	business,	can	be	read,	again	to	quote	driver,	as	a	“small-scale	 manifestation of the larger subject.” the inspiration might come from women asserting	themselves	professionally	in	the	activities	of	a	community,	however	that	 is	defined,	or	an	associational	group	pursuing	specific	self-defined	goals.	many	 community-based cookbooks have the important purpose of reinforcing—perhaps reintroducing—culturally-specific	foodways	within	an	ethnic	group	itself.	my	own	 work on mennonite cookbooks has demonstrated the ongoing importance—one might argue resurgence—to group and gender identity of foodways as presented in published cookbooks. witness the huge response to the publication of mennonite girls can cook,	a	glossy	cookbook	by	ten	middle-aged	“girls”	that	 combines the nostalgia associated with traditional mennonite ethnic dishes such as borscht	 (cabbage	 soup),	 wareniki	 (cottage	 cheese	 pockets),	 and	 rollkuchen (fried bread) with contemporary cooking trends that include gluten-free recipes. this	 cookbook	 has	 sold	 , 	 copies,	 and	 a	 sequel	 was	 published	 in	 .	 numerous mennonite community cookbooks include a section on “mennonite dishes” alongside more generic cooking. alberta-based anne harder’s short collection simply titled mennonite ethnic cooking was	compiled	explicitly	 to	 “preserve	a	record,”	to	“maintain	an	identity,”	and	to	“honour	the	ingenuity	of	 mennonite women of past decades.” 	these	two	books	are	examples	of	how	a	 certain celebratory ethnicity—some have said symbolic —is put forward even while “assimilation” is otherwise almost complete. while these two are twenty- first-century	examples,	cookbooks	with	a	distinctive	“mennonite	foods”	section	 emerged already in the s and s. this trend was similar for other ethnic groups whose main immigration era was also	half	a	century	earlier.	in	her	 	edition	(the	first)	of	traditional ukrainian cookery,	 savella	 stechishin	 points	 out	 that	 the	 “enthusiasm	 [of	 ukrainian	 canadians] for their own native dishes never wanes.” the book was a project of the ukrainian women’s association of canada to mark years of settlement in this	“fair	and	free	land	of	their	choice.”	as	justification	for	her	 -page	book	full	 of	pencil	drawings	of	life	in	the	old	country,	stechishin	says:	“with	the	rapid	 process	of	assimilation	and	integration	of	recent	years,	it	has	become	necessary	to	 make a compilation of these treasured native recipes in the english language and to make them readily accessible to those who have lost their mother tongue.” the driver,	culinary landmarks,	p.	xxix. lovella	schellenberg,	mennonite girls can cook	(waterloo,	on;	harrisonburg,	va:	herald	press,	 ). anne	harder,	mennonite ethnic cooking	(alberta,	by	the	author,	 ). the	idea	of	symbolic	ethnicity	was	put	forward	by	herbert	j.	gans	and	taken	up	by	other	scholars	of	 immigration	 and	 ethnicity.	 see	 “symbolic	 ethnicity:	 the	 future	 of	 ethnic	 groups	 and	 cultures	 in	 america,”	ethnic and racial studies,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	( ),	pp.	 - . see	 my	 chapter	 “more	 than	 ‘just’	 recipes:	 mennonite	 cookbooks	 in	 mid-twentieth	 century	 north	 america” in iacovetta et al.,	eds.,	edible histories,	pp.	 - . author was clearly motivated by her desire to “preserve for posterity” ukrainian food	traditions	and	thus	identity.	at	the	same	time,	she	acknowledges	that	old	 world recipes for dishes like holubtsi (stuffed cabbage) and kolach (braided circle	bread)	had	to	be	adapted	and	“modernized,”	which	proved	to	be	a	“laborious	 task.” 	 even	while	recognizing	the	need	to	canadianize	recipes,	the	author	presents	 some thinly veiled critiques of canadian ways within the book. in her discussion of lokshyna,	noodles	that	are	“rich	in	eggs	and	of	a	delicate	yellow	color,”	she	 notes that the ukrainian canadian homemaker seldom relies on commercial egg noodles	but	prefers	to	make	her	own,	even	though	in	canada	“short	cuts	in	food	 preparation are favored.” 	as	well,	she	implies	that	the	many	recipes	for	tortes	 will	not	be	as	popular	since,	while	they	are	“truly	gastronomical	delights	and	 masterpieces	in	themselves	…	unfortunately,	they	are	far	too	rich	for	a	canadian	 generation of bathroom-scale watchers.” 	shortly	after	her	death	in	 ,	it	was	 noted	 that	 stechishin’s	 cookbook	 had	 been	 reprinted	 	 times,	 had	 sold	 over	 , 	 copies,	 and,	 interestingly,	 was	 being	 “discovered”	 in	 ukraine	 where	 younger generations were said to be interested in their heritage. 	in	this	case,	the	 homeland sought ethnic food authenticity in the diaspora. 	 it	 is	 perhaps	 because,	 as	 frances	 swyripa	 has	 observed,	 “food	 formed	 a	 particularly	significant	bond	and	aspect	of	ukrainianness” that there are so many ukrainian	cookbooks	published	in	canada.	in	the	roughly	 , 	volumes	in	the	 substantial	canadian	cookbook	collection	at	the	university	of	guelph,	the	largest	 non-anglo	“ethnic”	representation,	as	far	as	i	can	determine,	is	ukrainian;	 	entries	 include	ukrainian	as	a	keyword.	what	some	of	these	reveal,	while	reinforcing	 ethnic	food	practices,	is	an	“institutional	completeness” or professionalization that	helps	to	solidify	their	place	in	canadian	middle-class	society.	for	example,	a	 	publication	of	a	ukrainian	women’s	group,	simply	titled	a book of recipes,	 focuses on traditional christmas and easter recipes; yet many of the pages are devoted	to	lists	of	donors,	greetings	and	acknowledgements	from	associations,	 and	advertisements	for	businesses	(not	all	obviously	ukrainian)	in	vancouver	and	 elsewhere in british columbia. 	 jewish	cookbooks	serve	a	similar	function—as	a	philanthropic	tool	for	women,	 as	a	way	to	display	the	jewish	community’s	place	in	canadian	society,	but	also	as	 instructional	manuals	to	reinforce	jewish	identity	and	cohesion.	in	the	collection edible histories,	andrea	eidinger	combines	textual	and	social	historical	analysis	 in	her	essay	about	a	popular	jewish	 cookbook,	 a treasure for my daughter: savella	stechishin,	traditional ukrainian cookery,	 st	ed.	(winnipeg:	trident	press,	 ),	pp.	 - . ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . “savella	stechishin,	 - ,”	the new pathway ukrainian weekly	( ),	http://www.infoukes.com/ newpathway/page _ .htm. frances	 swyripa,	 wedded to the cause: ukrainian-canadian women and ethnic identity, - (toronto:	university	of	toronto	press,	 ),	p.	 . raymond	 breton,	 “institutional	 completeness	 of	 ethnic	 communities	 and	 the	 personal	 relations	 of	 immigrants,”	american journal of sociology,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	(september	 ),	pp.	 - . a book of recipes to mark the th anniversary of the “lesia ukrainka” branch of the ukrainian women’s association of canada, - 	(vancouver,	 ). eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history a reference book of jewish festivals with menus and recipes. originally published	in	the	 s	in	montreal,	it	holds	a	place	of	honour	in	the	home	of	many	 canadian	jewish	women.	eidinger’s	essay	provides	a	valuable	analysis	of	how	 cookbooks,	far	from	simply	being	“just	recipes,”	provide	a	critical	entry	point	 into how group efforts to create tools for shaping a community ethnic identity target	women,	in	this	case	jewish	women.	it	demonstrates	how,	by	promoting	 food	customs	through	their	cookbook,	women	were	actively	involved	in	shaping	 the ethno-religious identity of their community and were doing so by targeting their	daughters.	the	text	itself	also	goes	well	beyond	the	culinary;	the	carefully	 constructed	conversational	exchanges	and	reflections	by	a	mother	and	daughter	 reveal much about prescribed gender roles as well. 	 other	jewish	cookbooks	have	a	similar	tone	and	purpose.	the	 	toronto b’nai b’rith women cookbook appears to serve philanthropic and celebratory purposes;	it	lauds	the	charitable	work	of	jewish	women	on	behalf	of	such	projects	 as a home for “maladjusted children” in israel and education programmes against anti-semitism	in	canada,	as	well	as	their	roles,	as	homemakers,	to	preserve	the	 “myriad of tasteful nostalgic and meaningful dishes that have been handed down to us through the centuries.” 	similar	to	other	 s	ethnic	cookbooks,	this	b’nai	 b’rith	example	exhibits	a	curious	mix	of	the	traditional	and	the	modern,	with	its	 front	cover	illustration	of	a	jewish	menorah	and	back	cover	advertisement	for	t.	 eaton’s	co.	the	recipes	themselves	also	suggest	this	transitional	space,	with	many	 yiddish-language	recipes	alongside	quintessential	 s	items	like	“carrot	and	 pineapple	mould”	and	“cornflake	macaroons.” this blend is common to a few mid-twentieth-century mennonite cookbooks i	have	analysed,	as	well	as	the	 	tried and true: favorite recipes published by the dorcas society of the gimli lutheran church, gimli, manitoba,	which	 presents icelandic recipes—like the classic vinarterta—together with odd things like	peanut	butter	and	bacon	canapés,	vegetable	pie	with	peanut	butter	crust,	and	 strawberry marshmallow whip. 	a	similar	mix	occurs	in	what	appears	to	be	the	 oldest	ukrainian	cookbook	in	the	university	of	guelph	collection.	tested recipes,	 as	it	is	called,	was	likely	published	during	or	shortly	after	the	second	world	war,	 given the interesting section on war time recipes. there are old world glimpses in this book—an advertisement by an edmonton tailor for “buffalo furcoats made to	order”	for	instance—alongside	recipes	for	checkerboard	sandwiches,	produced	 through a laborious construction of layering and cutting white and brown store- bought bread. these “nostalgia cookbooks” were directed both inwards and outwards. they reinforced—actually “instructed”—ethnicity for women within the cultural group or	who	were	descendants,	but	 they	were	also	declarations	of	ethnic	pride	and	 andrea	eidinger,	“gefilte	fish	and	roast	duck	with	orange	slices:	a treasure for my daughter and the creation	of	a	jewish	cultural	orthodoxy	in	postwar	montreal”	in	iacovetta	et al.,	eds.,	edible histories,	 pp. - . toronto b’nai b’rith women cookbook	(toronto:	toronto	chapter	of	b’nai	b’rith,	 ). tried and true: favorite recipes published by the dorcas society of the gimli lutheran church, gimli, manitoba	(gimli:	dorcas	society,	gimli	lutheran	church,	ca	 ). st.	josaphat’s	ladies	auxiliary,	tested recipes	(edmonton:	st.	josaphat’s	ladies	auxiliary,	n.d.). success	 to	 the	canadian	public.	 in	 that	sense,	 they	fit	well	 into	 the	uncritical	 celebrations	of	pluralism	that	emerged	with,	indeed	prompted,	the	adoption	of	 official	multiculturalism	in	 .	the	growing	number	of	ethnic	cookbooks	in	the	 s	and	 s	may	well	have	provided	impetus	to	the	development	of	that	policy,	 as the varied ethnic cuisines being “tasted” across the nation helped to challenge canada’s	bicultural	identity.	a	genre	that	became	especially	prominent	in	this	era,	 and	an	important	dimension	to	the	national	immigrant	narrative,	consists	of	what	 one	might	call	“fusion”	cookbooks	that	reflect	the	cultural	plurality	of	canada	as	 a	nation	of	immigrants.	half	a	century	ago,	as	franca	iacovetta	has	demonstrated,	 such cookbooks were introduced to emphasize immigrant “gifts” that brought an exotic	flavour	to,	but	did	not	threaten,	anglo	superiority.	the	 	multi-ethnic	 christmas cookbook that she analyses served to “mainstream” and celebrate the food	traditions	of	postwar	newcomers,	even	while	maintaining	assumptions	of	 anglo normativity. 	in	subsequent	years,	immigrant	voices	themselves	emerged	 in such writings. reinforcing a benign multiculturalism two community cookbooks that could be described as products of this benign multiculturalism are ethnic cuisine for everyday cooking ( ) and the polish touch: creative cooking	 ( ).	 i	use	 the	word	benign	 in	 juxtaposition	with	 contemporary critiques that portray multiculturalism as a less than benevolent integration of residents and newcomers. as scholars of multiculturalism in canada have	noted,	the	policy	and	practice	of	this	seemingly	inclusive	pluralism	frequently	 veiled (and continues to do so) a “vertical mosaic” characterized by racism and unequal opportunity among canada’s ethnic groups. cookbooks are one source that	illustrates	what	some	decry	as	multiculturalism’s	emphasis	on	“dining,	dance,	 and	dress”—a	celebration	of	non-anglo	cultural	customs	that	masks	exclusion.	 yet,	given	a	generalized	interest	and	openness	to	“tasting”	the	ethnicity	of	the	other,	 one	could	argue	that	food	and	recipe	exchange	may	sometimes	(if	not	always)	be	 a	site	for	positive,	non-threatening	encounters.	kristine	kowalchuk,	in	her	study	 of	community	cookbooks	in	the	prairies,	describes	the	recipe	exchanges	among	 multiple ethnicities as “a kind of intercultural prairie cuisine” that resulted from the	need	to	share	and	adapt	food	traditions	in	a	difficult	growing	environment. 	 the	first	example	is	a	pluralist	cookbook	that	includes	many	ethnicities,	while	 the	second	is	specific	to	one	culture.	the	former	is	a	collection	of	 	recipes	from	 	national	groups,	compiled	by	the	st.	martin’s	catholic	women’s	league	in	 regina,	saskatchewan.	the	brief	foreword	says:	“canada	is	‘the	melting	pot’	of	 the	world.	saskatchewan’s	population	is	comprised	of	people	from	many	lands,	and	 franca	 iacovetta,	 “food	acts	 and	 cultural	 politics:	women	 and	 the	 gendered	 dialectics	of	 culinary	 pluralism	at	the	international	institute	of	toronto,	 s- s”	in	iacovetta	et al.,	eds.,	edible histories,	 pp. - . see,	 for	 instance,	 the	 collection	 by	 may	 chazen	 et al.,	 eds,	 for home and native land: unsettling multiculturalism in canada	(toronto:	between	the	lines	press,	 ). kristine	kowalchuk,	“community	cookbooks	in	the	prairies,”	cuizine: the journal of canadian food cultures / cuizine: revue des cultures culinaires au canada,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	( ),	http://www.erudit.org/ revue/cuizine/ /v /n / ar.html. eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history regina is particularly cosmopolitan.... this book is dedicated to the pioneer cooks of	this	province	who,	without	the	help	of	micro-wave	ovens,	frost-free	refrigerators	 and	 electric	 mixers,	 kept	 body	 and	 soul	 together	 in	 a	 pleasantly	 gastronomic	 way.” 	the	cookbook	was	funded	by	the	carling	community	arts	foundation,	 established	in	 	to	contribute	to	“the	preservation	and	expression	of	canada’s	 multi-cultural	traditions”;	 , 	applications	were	received	in	the	first	year.	the	 recipes	are	preceded	by	photos,	 insignia,	and	folksy,	congratulatory	messages	 from	five	dignitaries,	including	prime	minister	pierre	trudeau,	saskatchewan’s	 lieutenant	governor	stephen	worobetz,	and	premier	allan	blakeney.	blakeney	 is	the	most	thoughtful	of	the	group,	acknowledging,	“cookbooks	tell	us	a	lot	more	 about a society than its eating habits. … they serve as a common bond to bring us	together,	while	at	the	same	time	emphasizing	the	unique	differences	in	our	 cultures	which	are	worth	preserving	and	keeping	distinct.”	here,	perhaps,	was	the	 essence	of	multicultural	policy.	the	mayor	of	regina,	h.	h.	p.	baker,	was	more	 focused,	saying	he	was	sure	the	cookbook	would	be	“of	great	value	to	the	ladies	 in the preparation of meals for their husbands and families.” the rationale behind the organization of the recipes in ethnic cuisine is not clear.	nine	ethnic	groups	have	separate	sections,	each	preceded	by	a	title	page	with	 caricatured	drawings	of	ethnic	images:	the	german	with	large	loaves	of	bread	and	 tankards of beer; the ukrainian with the recognizable pysanka (decorated egg); the	french	with	multiple	glasses	of	wine	and	a	picture	of	the	arc	de	triomphe.	 brief introductions to each section include stereotypical descriptions of ethnic traditions	and	characteristics.	for	instance,	“german	people	...	enjoy	good	food	in	 large	quantities	[and]	love	their	sausage.” 	yet	there	is	also	an	attempt	to	provide	 accurate	information	about	saskatchewan’s	immigrant	past.	the	text	documents	 the number of italians from southern italy who settled in regina in the previous years;	explains	the	french-canadian	presence	as	resulting	from	a	return	migration	 of	québécois	who	had	been	employed	 in	factories	 in	 the	northeastern	united	 states; and nuances the regional dimensions of chinese cooking. the portrayals of	ethnicity	both	recall	j.	s.	woodworth’s	benevolent	racism	in	strangers within our gates	( )	and	revise	ideas	about	ethnic	inclusion	in	the	context	of	a	more	 embracive era. 	 the	 last	 section,	 entitled	 “the	 melting	 pot,”	 includes	 recipes	 from	 the	 	 remaining	groups.	no	explanation	is	given	as	to	why	these	groups	are	given	lesser	 prominence,	but	i	can	only	surmise	that	it	represents	lower	levels	of	immigration	 or	 fewer	 recipes.	 most	 curious	 and	 problematic	 is	 that	 “indians”—that	 is,	 canada’s indigenous peoples—are included in the melting pot. in the two pages are	recipes	for	such	foods	as	pemmican,	rabbit	soup,	and	bannock.	while	the	five- line	introductory	statement	does	not	claim	indians	to	be	immigrants,	it	says	that	 “they”—the indians—“were here to meet them”—the europeans; ostensibly the “foreword,”	ethnic cuisine for everyday cooking	(regina:	st.	martin’s	catholic	women’s	league,	 ). ibid.,	pp.	 - . ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	pp.	 ,	 ,	 . ibid.,	pp.	 - . indigenous peoples’ purpose was to wait and serve as greeters to newcomers from the	old	world.	in	multiculturalism’s	worst-case	scenario,	they	are	cast	as	just	one	 of	canada’s	diverse	ethnicities,	with	curious	cultural	traditions	and	foodways. in a similar vein of celebrating canadian pluralism is the polish touch,	 published in by the ontario-based marie curie sklodowska association to mark its th anniversary. like the mennonite and ukrainian cookbooks discussed earlier,	 this	 project	 saw	 as	 its	 goal	 to	 preserve	 polish	 foodways	 for	 future	 generations,	but	the	compilers	also	hoped	that	“other	canadians	will	benefit	by	this	 book	which	is	but	a	small	reflection	of	the	rich	polish	heritage	dating	back	over	 one thousand years.” this book too acknowledged the need to adapt traditional recipes	for	the	current	time	and	place.	for	example,	the	project	coordinator	said,	 “tedious	 methods	 practiced	 by	 the	 efficient	 and	 hardworking	 polish	 women	 have	been	modified	with	modern	conveniences	such	as	mixers	and	blenders,”	 the	inference	being,	of	course,	that	canadian	women	were	neither	efficient	nor	 hardworking!	it	does,	however,	suggest	a	certain	superiority	of	traditional	food	 customs	over	modernized	ones.	like	other	multicultural	cookbooks,	the polish touch	is	celebratory	of	polish	culture	while	taking	care	to	explain	in	simple	terms	 the	feasts	and	festivals	in	which	food	plays	a	central	part,	such	as	barszcz z uszkami (beet soup with mushroom dumplings) at christmas or paski (egg bread) at easter. the book has clear instructional agenda beyond the culinary. some of the rituals are plainly “canadianized” such as descriptions for a “polish-canadian bridal shower”	adapted	for	an	immigrant	context,	when	“many	of	the	young	brides	were	 without	means	or	family,”	or	the	“polish-canadian	wedding,”	also	“adapted	to	the	 canadian lifestyle.” 	 another	brief	example	of	“tasting	ethnicity”	in	the	context	of	a	non-threatening	 multiculturalism is a small -page typescript booklet titled only by the table of contents,	which	begins,	“delicious	canadian	west	indian	treats	for	everyone.”	 the	title	page	says:	“a	dedication	to	canadian	unity,	understanding	 and	multiculturalism	from	the	canadian	west	indian	community	of	 kingston and district.” the pages with recipes for trinidad rum punch and montego	bay	rum	punch	were	the	only	pages	that	had	any	“spatters”	on	them,	 which looked like drops of liquid. were these the recipes used most by the owner of	the	cookbook?	a	sensory	historian	might	imagine	what	this	touch	and	sight	 evidence	means.	these	are	only	a	few	examples	of	a	spectrum	of	cookbooks	 published	in	the	 s	and	 s	that	reflect	and	present	an	uncritical	and	perhaps	 simplistic multiculturalism. 	 in	the	case	of	the	book	published	by	the	catholic	women’s	league,	the	tone	 reflects	 franca	 iacovetta’s	 description	 of	 postwar	 efforts	 by	 the	 international	 institute	 of	 toronto,	 whereby	 ethnic	 food	 practices	 were	 part	 of	 a	 “mosaic	 discourse in which canada emerged as benevolent brewer of enriching cultures.” marie	 curie	 sklodowska	association,	 the polish touch: creative cooking	 (toronto:	 imperial	 press,	 ). ibid.,	pp.	 - . caribbean recipes	(kingston,	on:	canadian-west	indian	association,	 ). iacovetta,	“food	acts	and	cultural	politics,”	p.	 . eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history indeed,	one	could	argue	that	a	focus	on	ethnic	foodways	masks	the	persistent	 “vertical	mosaic”	that	existed	in	canada.	critics	might	suggest	that	foodways	only	 reinforce	caricatures	of	official	multiculturalism	as	dining,	dress,	and	dance,	as	well	 as perpetuate the “othering” of non-anglo immigrants when we talk about “eating ethnic.”	they	might	also	“commodify	difference”	by	presenting	an	“excessive	 celebration”	of	that	difference,	which	is	void	of	representation	on	a	group’s	own	 terms. 	yet	one	could	argue	that,	for	some	immigrants,	the	preservation	of	distinct	 foodways	and	their	public	presentation	in	cookbooks	and	food	festivals	was,	and	 is,	a	meaningful,	if	non-threatening,	way	to	put	forward	ethnic	identity	in	the	midst	 of	assimilation	or	even	exclusion.	again	to	reference	iacovetta,	in	the	postwar	 era,	foodways	became	a	“safe	site”	at	which	to	acknowledge	canada’s	growing	 ethnic	diversity, a scenario that became even more prominent in the s and onwards. creating national and local newcomer narratives the	 multi-ethnic	 and	 single	 ethnic	 cookbooks	 of	 the	 twenty-first	 century	 are	 documents that offer yet another manifestation of the immigrant narrative. habeeb salloum’s arab cooking on a saskatchewan homestead,	on	the	one	hand,	 contributes to a mainstreaming of arab cuisine in order to preserve it. on the other hand,	coming	from	the	“immigrant	voice”	itself,	it	uses	food	stories	to	unsettle	the	 past. the narrative that accompanies the recipes in this cookbook clearly depicts the	“othering”	that	salloum	and	his	family	experienced	as	non-white	immigrants	 on	the	prairies	in	the	early	twentieth	century.	in	this	case,	recipes	demonstrate	the	 process	of	and	assumed	need	for	integration,	whereby	recipes	are	adapted	based	 on	new	climatic	and	cultural	environments.	salloum	also	notes,	however,	that,	 while early syrian settlers became “almost totally assimilated” and “melted into the	canadian	mainstream”	in	response	to	exclusionary	attitudes,	their	attachment	 to the old country lies mainly in their memories of arab food. the production of the cookbook itself and the presentation of the recipes in serve as a kind of redemption and vindication of the past for arab homesteaders of a century ago. 	 in	a	similar	but	multi-ethnic	tone,	a	 	cookbook	entitled	tasting diversity: a celebration of immigrant women and their cooking is reminiscent of ethnic cuisine,	but	written	for	a	new	era.	with	a	foreword	by	british	columbia	politician	 rosemary	 brown,	 the	 compilation	 contains	 recipes	 from	 	 contributors,	 all	 women	from	diverse	cultural	backgrounds,	some	who	are	well-known	canadians— olivia	chow,	joy	kogawa,	and	isabel	bayrakdarian,	for	example—while	others	 are	collectives	from	community	centres.	brown’s	introductory	words	reflect	the	 core of transnational identities in canada as she talks about the shared pleasures of eating	“no	matter	what	the	circumstances	of	our	journey	to	this	land,	or	our	reasons	 for	coming	here”	and	expresses	the	tension	between	love	of	adopted	homeland	 mason,	“cooking	the	books,”	pp.	 - . iacovetta,	“food	acts	and	cultural	politics,”	p.	 . salloum,	arab cooking on a saskatchewan homestead,	p.	 . and the knowledge that the “tastes of our childhood linger in our memories and remain a part of the magic that we cling to.” 	 the	narrative	here	is	not	unlike	that	of	habeeb	salloum,	in	which	food	holds	a	 central place at the table in creative new national cuisines and thereby identities. like	salloum’s	cookbook,	tasting diversity recognizes “culinary heritage as the keeper of memory” 	and	thus	presents	personal	histories	of	hardship,	isolation,	 discrimination,	 and	 exclusion	 that	 are	 core	 to	 understanding	 the	 immigrant	 experience	in	canada.	one	contributor,	an	immigrant	from	africa,	wanted	to	reach	 out to her new neighbours in keeping with her tradition by offering cups of tea.	however,	in	her	toronto	apartment	building	she	received	only	one	visitor—a	 police	officer	responding	to	a	complaint. another personal history records the “shocking”	experience	of	city	of	toronto	bureaucrat	shirley	hoy	whose	family	 arrived from hong kong in north bay in . hoy’s family was supported by	a	french-canadian	family	who,	ironically,	helped	them	pick	out	“english”	 names	in	order	to	fit	in. 	such	stories	are	made	more	palatable,	one	could	argue,	 because	they	are	in	a	cookbook	rather	than	the	exposé	of	a	journalist	or	academic,	 yet perhaps they were also more widely read. the common denominator that is “love	of	food”	also	created	a	context—one	might	say	“safe	space”—for	women	 to	tell	their	gender-specific	stories.	such	cookbooks	may	also	offer	a	way	to	be	 “anticolonialist”	in	our	eating,	to	quote	lisa	heldke,	in	a	manner	different	from	 that presented by the benign multicultural cookbooks discussed earlier. one could thus approach cookbook analysis as documents of a national newcomer narrative. 	 it	 is	 also	 intriguing	 to	 explore	 what	 cookbooks	 can	 document	 regarding	 immigrant history at a local level. in my own local community—the region of waterloo,	encompassing	the	cities	of	waterloo,	kitchener,	and	cambridge—one	 can	find	all	the	food	representations	and	cookbook	genres	that	i	have	addressed	 thus	far.	for	instance,	the	 	berlin cook book	reflects	the	largely	germanic	 population in the cities of berlin (which became kitchener in ) and waterloo at	the	time.	indeed,	the	german	ethnicity	in	the	cities	was	so	normative	that	the	 recipes	are	only	implicitly	german,	yet	the	contributors’	names	are	predominantly	 germanic. 	conversely,	just	across	the	 	highway	in	present-day	cambridge,	 ontario,	the	scottish	immigrant	presence	comes	through	in	recipes	for	scotch	 potato soup and highland scones in the new galt cookbook of . edna staebler’s various iterations of food that really schmecks celebrates and stereotypes	the	area’s	pennsylvania	german	mennonite	heritage, while numerous working	women	community	centre,	 tasting diversity: a celebration of immigrant women and their cooking	(vancouver:	whitecap	books,	 ),	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	p.	 . heldke,	“let’s	cook	thai,”	p.	 . the berlin cook book	(berlin,	on:	news	record	print	shop,	 ). margaret	taylor	and	frances	mcnaught,	the new galt cook book: a book of tried and tested recipes (toronto:	george	j.	mcleod	ltd.,	 ). edna	staebler	produced	a	lengthy	line	of	cookbooks	on	the	theme	of	food	that	“schmecks,”	beginning	with	 food that really schmecks	(toronto:	ryerson,	 ). eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history mennonite community cookbooks display that identity in different ways. these particular cookbooks document the immigrant presence in a localized space up to the s or so. the multi-ethnic community cookbook—a regional version of the tasting diversity project above—called focus on cooking: recipes from around the world—was	produced	in	the	early	 s	by	a	local	organization,	focus	for	ethnic	 women,	the	goal	of	which	is	“to	enhance	participation	of	immigrant	and	visible	 minority women in canadian society.” 	there	is	little	narrative	in	this	project,	but	 the book includes recipes from national cultures; most recipes are attributed to	 individual	 names,	 suggesting	 they	 were	 created	 or	 used	 locally.	 indicative	 of the high percentage of immigrants from south asia in waterloo region by the	 late	 twentieth	 century	 is	 bharti	vibhakar’s	 book	 spice of india.	vibhakar	 immigrated	 from	 what	 was	 then	 called	 bombay,	 india,	 in	 .	 she	 quickly	 became	a	downtown	icon	in	kitchener,	where	she	opened	an	indian	food	store	 called	spice	of	india,	held	vegetarian	cooking	classes,	and	in	 	produced	her	 own	cookbook	of	indian	dishes.	vibhakar	was	born	in	yemen,	though	her	family	 was	from	gujarat	in	the	west	of	india,	where	the	“food	is	fragrantly	spiced	rather	 than searingly hot.” in a delightful reversal of helen macmurchy’s much earlier advice on “how to	cook	canadian,”	vibhakar’s	book	begins	with	explanation	for	“eating	food	 the	indian	way,”	in	which	she	understatedly	argues	for	the	“fun”	and	“authentic”	 manner	of	eating	with	one’s	fingers:	“it	adds	human	feeling	to	the	food,	and	is	far	 more sensual and emotionally satisfying than using a cold metal or plastic utensil. try it.” 	at	the	end	of	the	book,	she	provides	a	brief	glossary	of	indian	food	 terms,	a	short	list	of	remedies	for	common	ailments,	and	a	half-apologetic	short	 discussion	on	indian	“practical	philosophies”	such	as	the	science	of	ayurveda,	 vegetarianism,	hygiene,	and	respect	for	cows. 	the	intent	in	vibhakar’s	book	 is	 not	 only	 to	 teach	 canadians	 to	 “eat	 indian,”	 but	 also	 to	 help	 them	 gain	 understanding—and hopefully inclusion—of south asian culture more broadly. food hybridity in cookbooks—a mennonite example one population group that is increasingly visible and growing in number in the waterloo and surrounding area are mennonites who are migrating to canada mainly	from	mexico	but	also	from	elsewhere	in	latin	america.	primarily	referred	 to	as	low	german-speaking	mennonites	because	of	a	distinct	language	dialect	 assumed	in	eighteenth-century	prussia,	they	are	often	described	as	“returning”	 to canada rather than immigrating because their ancestors left the prairies for mexico	 in	 the	 s,	 after	 immigrating	 to	 north	america	 from	 the	 russian	 empire in the s. their food traditions and cookbooks are an especially good example	of	food	hybridity	that	results	from	eating	across	borders.	food	businesses	 rachelle	allin,	ed.,	focus on cooking: a collection of recipes from around the world	(waterloo:	focus	 for	ethnic	women,	n.d.). bharti	vibhakar,	spice of india	(kitchener,	on,	by	the	author,	 ). ibid.,	p.	 . ibid.,	pp.	 - . in southwestern ontario display the transnational identities of these mennonites well,	but	they	are	also	exhibited	in	an	increasing	number	of	cookbooks,	some	 published	in	mexico,	others	in	canada,	that	are	multilingual	and	multi-culinary.	 mennonites	from	mexico	have	a	sense	of	multiple	homelands—russia,	canada,	 mexico—all	imagined	initially	as	utopias	yet	none	of	which	met	those	promises.	 for	this	group,	diaspora	is	a	present	reality,	as	families	migrate	north	or	south,	 depending	 on	 their	 leanings,	 or	 develop	 transnational	 identities	 as	 temporary	 migrants. the evolution of food cultures is ongoing. 	 the	mexican	government	 itself,	 in	a	series	of	cookbooks	about	 the	ethnic	 culinary	styles	in	the	country,	published	a	spanish-language	mennonite	cookbook	 in —recetario menonita de chihauhau. most of the recipes derive from the	 “russian	 mennonite”	 tradition,	 so	 that	 paska—a decorative easter bread of ukrainian origin—becomes pan de pascua. recipe books produced by mennonites themselves include mamas kochbuch,	 published	 in	 	 in	 chihauhau,	mexico,	a	fundraising	project	on	a	school’s	 th anniversary. though the	informal	compilation	is	entirely	in	high	german—official	written	german	 as	opposed	to	the	mennonites’	spoken	low	german—many	of	the	recipes	are	 for	mexican	foods. 	a	 	recipe	collection,	called	farmer’s kochbuch,	also	 printed	in	mexico,	was	produced	by	the	women	of	el	valle	colony	(mexico)	to	 raise	money	for	their	missions	projects,	such	as	“helping	the	poor	and	so	on.” this particular book is the epitome of cookbook hybridity with its combination of	english,	spanish,	and	german	languages	and	recipes,	ranging	from	a	variety	 of	hispanic	salsa	recipes,	to	traditional	german	rollkuchen	(deep-fried	fritters),	 to	a	recipe	for	“kentucky	fried	chicken”	(perhaps	these	women	solved	the	secret	 spice	mystery!). while these cookbooks deviate from my search criterion of publication in canada,	 they	 are	 used	 in	 canada	 by	 low	 german-speaking	 mennonites	 and	 perhaps	others.	one	canadian	publication	is	by	helen	funk,	a	manitoba-based	 radio personality who published a collection of her radio recipes aimed at low german-speaking	mennonites	in	canada	and	latin	america.	according	to	funk,	 it	is	the	only	low	german-language	cookbook	in	the	world —this language being historically	oral,	not	written.	i	purchased	it	at	a	social	service	office	in	aylmer,	 ontario,	 where	 i	 was	 told	 that	 one	 purpose	 of	 the	 cookbook	 was	 to	 enhance	 literacy	among	low	german-speaking	women.	with	numerous	photos	of	funk	 cooking	with	her	grandchildren,	the	cookbook	was	also	meant	to	strengthen	the	 bonds between mothers and daughters. 	 an	even	more	direct	example	of	food	hybridity	in	cookbooks	eliminates	the	 english	language	altogether,	but,	like	the	examples	above,	it	is	used	in	canadian	 for	 a	 history	 of	 this	 migratory	 group,	 see	 royden	 loewen,	 village among nations: “canadian” mennonites in a transnational world, - 	(toronto:	university	of	toronto	press,	 ). katherine	esther	emilia	renpenning	semadeni,	recetario menonita de chihauhau	(conaculta,	 ). mamas kochbuch	(chihauhau,	mexico:	escuela	ceta,	 ). farmer’s kochbuch	(mexico,	 ). angeline	schellenberg,	“cooking	up	a	low	german	blessing,”	mennonite weekly review,	june	 ,	 ,	 http://www.mennoworld.org/ / / /cooking-low-german-blessing. ibid. eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks histoire sociale / social history kitchens.	 in	 ,	 an	 entirely	 bilingual—german	 and	 spanish—cookbook	 was	printed	in	mexico	that	again	included	a	mix	of	mexican,	mennonite,	and	 miscellaneous	foods.	the	german	title	is	translated	as	come eat: with mennonite women from durango, mexico,	while	the	spanish	is	enjoy delicious mennonite recipes among others. the shift to a full spanish translation may indicate the increased acceptability and absorption of hispanic culture into the historically separatist mennonite communities. while the early mennonite settlements in mexico	were	isolated,	and	members	were	discouraged	from	interaction	with	the	 mexican	people,	language,	and	culture,	close	to	a	century	later	that	has	changed.	 it may in fact be at the culinary table where such evolution and adaptation occurs most	benignly,	even	while	tradition	endures	in	other	areas	of	daily	life.	the	co- existence,	especially	within	a	cookbook,	of	foodways	representative	of	cultures	 that in other respects remain very distant is indicative of the transformative role of food	in	bridging	cultural	divides.	like	the	leamington,	ontario,	family kitchen restaurant,	which	features	mennonite,	mexican,	and	canadian	food	on	its	menu	 and	invites	people	to	“feel	at	home,” the maintenance and merging of multiple food traditions within cookbooks allows this group always to feel at home in their foodways,	even	while	home	represents	multiple	real	and	imagined	places.	as	a	 medium	that	codifies	cultural	traditions,	cookbooks	produced	by	low	german- speaking mennonites reify ethno-cultural depictions of foodways and thus reinforce mennonite self-identity as a transnational people. an evolving cultural hybridity,	which	might	otherwise	be	masked	or	even	denied,	is	allowed	to	flourish	 in	the	context	of	the	cookbook. conclusion the	examples	used	in	the	above	analysis	do	not	of	course	represent	all	of	canada’s	 many	immigrant	and	ethnic	groups.	my	quest	 to	find	more	varied	cookbooks	 and any compiled by more recent immigrants was often met with blank stares. a woman from pakistan indicated that her young adult children who do want to learn to cook “traditional” foods go to the internet for information or are still at the immigrant stage where they can learn directly from their mother or grandmother. my neighbour from iran said her children are not interested in “cooking iranian” and her husband is not interested in “eating iranian.” others suggest that their recipes	 are	 passed	 along	 orally	 or	 by	 example,	 which	 would	 also	 have	 been	 true	of	my	first-generation	canadian	grandmother	who	immigrated	in	 .	so	 perhaps my other neighbours—constantly mobile transnational palestinians from the united arab emirates via lebanon—will produce cookbooks only when oral tradition is in decline or will simply “google” baklava.	in	fact,	this	research	should	 probably begin to include online blogs. a further limitation to my study is that i looked	only	at	cookbooks	in	english	(except	for	the	german	and	german-spanish	 mennonite	examples);	however,	thus	far	i	have	found	few	references	to	canadian- kommt essen: mit den mennonitischen frauen von durango, mexiko / disfruiten: las deliciosas recetasmenonitas entre otras	(durango,	mexico:	mennonitische	frauen	von	durango,	mexiko,	 ). the phrase “feel at home” is from the restaurant’s menu. published	ethnic	cookbooks	in	languages	other	than	french,	which	i	have	not	 included here. 	 there	are,	of	course,	limitations	to	the	cookbook	as	an	historical	source	for	 immigration	 history.	 as	 my	 examples	 reveal,	 cookbooks	 are	 very	 uneven	 in	 purpose,	format,	content,	and	outcome,	and	direct	comparison	across	immigrant	 groups and time periods is therefore tentative. the actual genre of writing that the cookbook represents may well emerge from a dominant ethnicity that does not	reflect	food-related	knowledge	sources	in	minority	or	marginalized	groups— witness	the	hundreds	of	anglo	cookbooks	in	canada.	yet,	as	one	of	the	most	 prolific	genres	of	formal	or	informal	published	writing,	they	do	merit	scrutiny	from	 a range of angles. cookbook analysis has added enormously to our understanding of women’s past lives; perhaps it can do the same for immigrant lives. 	 on	the	one	hand,	cookbooks	reveal	everyday	life,	the	mundane,	and	hence	 were embraced by social historians and historians of women because they offered glimpses	into	the	private	and	domestic	sphere.	yet,	at	another	level,	they	might	be	 thought	of	as	very	public	documents,	created	with	the	explicit	intention	of	bringing	 to	public	view	the	contributions	and	cultures	of	immigrants	to	canada.	just	as	 cookbook production served to professionalize women’s perceived intrinsic roles in	the	kitchen,	for	immigrants	to	canada,	the	public	dissemination	of	recipes— especially	when	deliberately	adapted	to	new	contexts—can	perhaps	be	interpreted	 as	confident,	if	also	defensive,	signs	of	a	group’s	permanent	place	in	the	canadian	 polity.	within	a	particular	cultural	fold,	in	which	many	practices	and	signposts	of	 ethnicity	had	passed	into	history,	cookbooks	served	to	preserve	and	instruct	the	 tastes of ethnic identity. when those cookbooks were written for and utilized by “other”	ethnicities,	they	prompted	a	pattern	of	eating	across	borders	that	created	 the hybrid canadian diet that is now commonplace. early	french-canadian	and	later	québécois	cookbooks	are	a	category	i	have	yet	to	address. eating across borders: reading immigrant cookbooks wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ british journal of industrial medicine ; - dust exposure and mortality in an american factory using chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite in mainly textile manufacture a d mcdonald,' j s fry,' a j woolley, and j c mcdonald from the department ofepidemiology, ' st mary's hospital medical school, and the tuc centenary institute ofoccupational health, london school ofhygiene and tropical medicine, london, uk abstracr this report describes the second in a series of three parallel cohort studies of asbestos factories in south carolina, pennsylvania, and connecticut to assess the effects of mineral fibre type and industrial process on mortality from malignant mesothelioma, respiratory cancer, and asbes- tosis. in the present plant (in pennsylvania) mainly chrysotile, with some amosite and a small amount of crocidolite, were used primarily in textile manufacture. of a cohort of men comprising all those employed - for at least a month, % were traced. by the end of , ( %) had died, from asbestosis and from lung cancer. mesothelioma was mentioned on the certificate in deaths mostly coded to other causes. all these deaths occurred after , and there were indications that additional cases of mesothelioma may have gone unrecognised, especially before that date. the exposure for each man was estimated in terms of duration and dust concentration in millions of dust particles per cubic foot (mpcf) from available measurements. analyses were made both by life table and case referent methods. the standar- dised mortality ratio for respiratory cancer for the whole cohort was * , but the risk rose linearly from . for men with less than mpcf.y to . for those with mpcf.y or more. lines fitted to relative risks derived from smrs in this and the textile plant studied in south carolina were almost identical in slope. this was confirmed by case referent analysis. these findings support the conclusion from the south carolina study that the risk of lung cancer in textile processing is very much greater than in chrysotile production and probably than-in the friction products industry. the much greater risk of mesothelioma from exposure to processes in which even quite small quantities of amphiboles were used was also confirmed. cohort mortality studies were conducted simultane- ously in three american plants to clarify the effect of mineral type of asbestos and of processing, as dis- tinct from production, on mortality from malignant mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis. prelimi- nary reports describing results by duration of emp- loyment in all three plants' and detailed exposure- response findings in one of them-a textile plant that used only chrysotile -have been published. this report concerns a second plant which manufac- tured mainly textiles but also friction products and packings, many of which were made from the textile products. in addition to chrysotile, some amphibole asbestos (amosite and crocidolite) was also used. in received february accepted march . the third plant friction materials and packings were made from chrysotile only and no textiles were manufactured. the plant dealt with in the present report has been the subject of two previous studies ; in both, excess mortality was reported from chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, and malignant mesothelioma. in neither study was exposure estimated other than by duration of employment. in the present study the cohort was much larger, and individual dust exposures were estimated from environmental measurements made in the work place. materials and methods the workforce at the plant averaged men and women between the late s and ; before then it was rather smaller. social security numbers o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ dust exposure and mortality in an american factory using chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite were allocated in . details of all those em- ployed before january for at least one calen- dar month, with a recorded social security number, were submitted to the united states social security administration. those whose numbers and names were consistent with the administration's records comprised the cohort. the cohort therefore fell into two groups: (a) all those first employed after and (b) those first employed before that date. because the latter group was selected in that it excluded employees who had left before , the two groups were analysed separately. in fact, the findings were similar for those two groups and are reported together in this paper. in all, men and women met the cohort criteria. we ascertained survival status as of december through local inquiries and from information on deaths provided by social security administration. all but men ( %) and women ( %) were traced; of those traced, men ( %) and women ( %) had died. copies of death certificates were obtained from state departments of vital statistics or from the country where death had occurred for ( %) of the men and ( %) of the women. in two male deaths without certificate the cause was ascertained from other sources. causes of death were coded according to the seventh revision of the interna- tional classification of disease (icd) by a single qualified nosologist. this paper deals only with the male deaths, shown by age and cause in table . eight deaths are omitted from this table because of insufficient information on age. female mortality in this and the other two plants will be reported separately. the process the plant was opened in a rural area of central pennsylvania in the early s. from the beginning it has manufactured a variety of products, almost all containing asbestos. the factory had a large asbestos textile division of traditional type. crude fibre was cleaned, opened, carded on modified wool carding machines, spun using mule and later ring-type frames, and wound and woven into cloth or plyed to form tape. much of the cloth or tape was treated with resin, dried, and then finished into brake lin- ings, clutch facings, and transmission strips. since the early days the plant has also manufactured fric- tion materials by blending raw asbestos with resin- binding ingredients followed by extrusion, rolling, or bricketting. chrysotile, obtained mostly from canada and rhodesia, was the main type of asbestos processed, with some to tons of varying quality used annually. crocidolite and amosite were used from onwards for making insulation blankets for locomotives and turbines and equipment for chemi- cal factories, and paper mills. amosite insulation blankets were produced in large quantities during - to meet us naval specifications. crocidolite packings were also produced, as were crocidolite and amosite filter materials. much of the crocidolite was imported as yarn and only about three to five tons of raw fibre were used annually whereas, in , the use of amosite reached a peak of tons. from to manufacture of insulation mat- tresses and filter cloth was transferred to a disused opera house in the town. the mattresses were packed with crocidolite or amosite, the crocidolite yarn being imported from england. after , the opera house was used as a warehouse and the manu- table male deaths by age and certified cause cause of death (icd code) age at death total < - ¢ all causes malignant neoplasms: lung* ( - ) oesophagus and stomach ( - ) colon and rectum ( - ) other abdominal* ( - ) larynx ( ) other* ( - , , - ) heart disease ( - ) respiratory tuberculosis ( - ) other respiratory ( - , - ) pneumoconiosis ( - ) cerebrovascular ( - ) accidents ( - ) other known causes* cause not known *in cases in these categories, mesothelioma was given as the cause of death; in one death ascribed to asbestosis, mesothelioma was also mentioned. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ mcdonald, fry, woolley, mcdonald table estimated average prevailing dust concentrations (mpcf) in main departments - textile: preparation - * - carding - * - spinning . twisting * winding - aoth weaving - tape weaving . felted tape - rope friction: woven brakes extruded brakes dry mix brakes autch brake finishing sanding and finishing finishing and shipping packings, gaskets maintenance, etc * - - * - * - * - * - * * - * * - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . - - - * - o - * * - * - * . * * - * - - * - - - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - * - - *asterisks shown against textile processes indicate approximate date of improvements usually associated with technical change. figures for friction and other departments are estimates for each decade. table age at start, duration ofemployment, and dust exposure (male only) length ofgross service < , < , < ¢' total no * average age at start (years) . - - - - gross servce (years) - - - - - net service (years) . - - - - average dust concentration (mpcf) - - - - - *excluding two whose employment histories were incomplete. facture of cloth and mattresses was returned to the main site. exposure conditions are reported to have been very dusty in the and s, although oil spraying intro- duced to facilitate handling probably had some damping effect. the first steps to reduce exposure were taken in ; these included wetting, improved handling methods, and ventilation hoods. by about exhaust ventilation had been instal- led in the textile mill with substantial reduction in dust levels; thereafter improvement was gradual. reports of surveys made by the metropolitan life insurance company in the period - were available, as were surveys by the united states public health service made in and in . measurements were made routinely by the company from onwards. until , all measurements were made by impinger and recorded in millions of particles per cubic foot (mpcf). dust level estimates for each department were made by the hygienist of our group (ajw) and are summarised in table . these estimates do not take into account certain additional exposures which may have been quite short but which were certainly very heavy. these were associated with daily "blowing down" and "whipping the burlap" in the dust house. at weekends waste asbestos thus recovered in the dust house was swept up and bagged for recycling. a new dust collection system introduced in the early s virtually removed this hazard. the data available on exposure are summarised in table , grouped by duration of employment. the average age at start of work and the average dust concentration differed little in the four duration groups. statistical methods mortality in the cohort was analysed (a) by the man-years life table method of hill, using pennsyl- vania death rates for reference, and (b) by the log rank procedure of mantel and heanszel,' exactly as in the south carolina study. results the standardised mortality ratio (smr) for all - - o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ dust exposure and mortality in an american factory using chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite table male deaths years after first employment, by cause, in relation to length ofservice cause of death * length ofgross service years < , < , < a complete cohort smr smr smr smr smr all causes - - - - - malignant neoplasms: respiratory . . - - - abdominal - . - - - other - - - - - heart disease - - - - - respiratory tuberculosis - - - - - other respiratory: - - - - - pneumoconiosis ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - cerebrovascular - - - - - accidents - - - - - other known - - - - - not known *as in table except that icd codes - are here grouped under "respiratory" malignnt neoplasms and the "other respiratory" category includes only bronchitis, pneumonia, and pneumoconiosis (icd - , - ). table male deaths years after frst employment, by cause, in reladon to dust exposure (mpcf.y) accumulated to years before death cause of death * dust exposure (mpcf.y) (see table ) < < < < smr smr smr smr smr all causes . - - - malignant neoplasms: respiratory - . - - - abdominal - - - - other - - - . - heart disease - - * - - respiratory tuberculosis - - - - - - other respiratory: - . . - - pneumoconiosis ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - ( ) - cerebrovascular - - - - - accidents - - - - other known . - - - - not known table dust exposure in male deaths from selected causes and controls (mantel-haenszel analysis ) dust exposure (mpcfy) accumulated up chi square to io years before death ofcase difference linearity < < < < ; pneumoconiosis (icd ): deaths - - expected - - . - - relative risk . - - - lung cancer (icd - ) deaths - - expected - - - - relative risk - - - - abdominal cancer (icd - ): deaths - - expected - - - - - relative risk - . - - all causes deaths - - expected - - - - - relative risk - - - - o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ causes of death was - . those employed for under one year had an smr of * , and those who had worked or more years, . (table ). malignant neoplasms, heart disease, and "other respiratory" disease were mainly responsible for the higher smr in these long term workers. the other respiratory category included bronchitis and pneumonia (icd - ) and pneumonoconiosis (icd - ) and was chosen for study because expected figures for pneumoconiosis alone were not available. table shows smrs by cause and by accumulated dust exposure. the smr for all causes rose steadily from for men with an exposure at under mpcf.y to * in the highest category (- mpcf.y). respiratory, abdominal, and other malignant disease and the non-malignant other respiratory group all contributed to this rising trend. on death certificates a diagnosis of mesothelioma was specified: were pleural tumours and four peritoneal. these deaths occurred in the period - . one (in ) was years after first employment; the remaining occurred - years after first employment. two of the deaths from mesothelioma had been given the icd code (malignant neoplasms of other and unspecified sites); another deaths more years after first employment were given the code . seventeen of these deaths occurred before , the year after which most of the deaths from mesothelioma occur- red. the diagnosis given in many of these cases was consistent with an unrecognised peritoneal mesothelioma. the mantel-haenszel (log rank) analysis (table ) bore out the exposure-response relationships observed in table . there is a small shortfall ( % overall) between the numbers of cases used in this analysis and in the man-years analyses presented in tables and . the deficiency is explained by failure to find matching controls for every selected case. mcdonald, fry, woolley, mcdonald discussion the present cohort in the pennsylvania plant was constituted in exactly the same way as that in the south carolina chrysotile textile plant described elsewhere. compared with the south carolina em- ployees (see table ), those in pennsylvania had worked for similar periods but were on average some four years older when they started work ( . years compared with * years). the pennsylvania cohort was exposed to a somewhat higher average dust concentration: - mpcf com- pared with . mpcf in south carolina. the mortal- ity pattern in pennsylvania resembled that in south carolina in showing a rising smr with increasing dust exposure for all causes of death, for respiratory cancer, and for pneumoconiosis. for respiratory cancer, however, the smr for the lowest exposure group (less than mpcf.y) was - in south carolina but only - in pennsylvania. by contrast with south carolina, where the smrs tended to be above for causes unrelated to asbestos, and for all causes in very short term employees, the oppo- site was true in pennsylvania. it seems likely that in both cohorts lack of comparability with the relevant state populations may be the explanation. having regard for this possibility, the use of relative risks is perhaps more appropriate than smrs for comparing the respiratory cancer mortality of the two cohorts. table shows that the relative risks of death from all causes, respiratory cancer, and pneumoconiosis in the two plants were extraordinarily similar. in both cohorts the relationships of respiratory cancer to exposure were essentially linear (figure) with slopes that were nearly identical (south carolina, rr = + - mpcf.y; pennsylvania, rr = + * mpcf.y). a conceivable explanation for depression of the smrs in the pennsylvania plant was that the em- table relative risks based on smrs by cumulative exposure in two plants mpcf.y < < < < all causes: south carolina plant - - - - - pennsylvania plant . - - - - respiratory cancer south carolina plant . - - - - ( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ( ) pensylvania plant - - - - - ( - ) ( - ) ( - ) ( . ) ( . ) bronchitis, pneumonia, and pneumoconiosis: outh carolina plant . - - - - pennsylvania plant . - - - - figures in italics are relative risks calculated from smrs at zero exposure derived from fitted line. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ dust exposure and mortality in an american factory using chrysotile, amosite, and crocidolite rr - * south carolina / g _ pennsylvania " - - /," -- - npcf y relative risk ofrespiratory cancer and accumulated dust exposure in two mainly textile plants. (lines fitted by fi)k liddell using the methods ofhanley and liddell.) ployees had smoked fewer cigarettes than the general population of the state,,perhaps because of the high proportion of mennonites in the local community. we ascertained, however, that in fact very few men- nonites were employed in the plant. smoking his- tories had been recorded in a standard manner for all those at work in or later in the two plants and also in the plant in connecticut where the third cohort was studied. of men born in (who would have been included in the three cohorts) the proportions who had never smoked were: % (of ) in pennsylvania, % (of ) in south carolina, and % (of ) in connecticut. thus the propor- tion of non-smokers ( %), though somewhat higher than in the other two cohorts, is based on very small numbers and no firm conclusion can be drawn. similar proportions of all deaths in the two cohorts were from malignant disease ( % in south carolina and % in pennsylvania) but the types of malignancy differed. in south carolina respiratory cancer accounted for %, abdominal %, and other types % whereas in the pennsylvania plant the corresponding proportions were reversed, %, %, and %. moreover, in south carolina no systemic relationship with exposure was seen for abdominal or other types of malignant disease whereas in pennsylvania there was evidence of such a relationship. the increased risk of mesothelioma in the penn- sylvania plant ( cases in male deaths ( %) compared with one case in ( . %) in south carolina) raises the question of whether the abdom- inal and more particularly other types of cancer included undiagnosed cases of mesothelioma. there is some support for this idea in the substantial number coded to icd (malignant disease of other and unspecified sites) and the fact that of these deaths occurred before when malignant mesothelioma started to become more generally recognised. once again we find evidence in this study of the special risk of mesothelioma associated with exposure to even quite small proportions of amphibole, in this case predominantly amosite. the very similar exposure-response relationships for respiratory cancer and asbestosis observed in this and the south carolina plant support our previous conclusion that the risks of these diseases in chrysotile production (mining and milling) and in textile manufacture are quite different. in the third plant studied, a friction materials plant in connec- ticut, there was little or no excess risk of respiratory cancer or asbestosis. this was also true in a friction materials plant in the united kingdom. possible reasons for the striking epidemiological differences-fibre size distributions in particular- have been discussed elsewhere. many people and organisations helped in most aspects of this research. we thank especially sheryl nixon for data processing and roslyn macnish for coding causes of death. a grant toward the cost of the study was made to st mary's hospital medical school by the institute of occupational and environmental health of the quebec asbestos min- ing association. facilities for completing the study were given to dr a d mcdonald by the institut de recherche en sante et en sdcuritd du quebec. requests for reprints to: dr j c mcdonald, school of occupational health mcgill university, pine avenue west, montreal, canada h a a . references ' mcdonald ad, fry js. mesothelioma and fibre type in three american asbestos factories. preliminary report. scand j work environ health ; supple: - . mcdonald ad, fry js, woolley aj, mcdonald jc. dust expos- ure and mortality in an american chrysotile textile plant. br j ind med ; : - . mcdonald ad, fry js, woolley aj, mcdonald jc. dust exposure and mortality in an american chrysotile friction products plant. br j ind med (in press). mancuso tf, et attar aa. mortality pattern in a cohort of asbestos workers. jom ; : - . robinson c, lemen r, wagoner j. mortality patterns o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ - among workers employed in an asbestos textile friction and packing products manufacturing facility. in: lemen r, dement jm, eds. dusts and diseases. park forest south, illinois: pathotox publishers, inc, : - . hili id. computing man years at risk. br j prev soc med ; : - . mantel n, haenszel w. statistical aspects of the analysis of data from retrospective studies of disease. j natl cancer inst ; : - . mcdonald, fry, woolley, mcdonald * peto r, pike mc. conservation of the approximation e ( - e) /e in the log rank test for survival data or tumor incidence data. biometrics ; : - . 'newhouse ml, berry g, skidmore jw. a mortality study of workers manufacturing friction materials with chrysotile asbes- tos. ann occup hyg ; : - . ' mcdonald jc. aspects of the asbestos standard. in: gee jbl, morgan kc, brooks sm, eds. occupational lung disease. new york: raven press, . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://o e m .b m j.co m / b r j in d m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /o e m . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://oem.bmj.com/ book reviews <un> feike dietz, adam morton, lien roggen, els stronks and marc van vaeck, eds, illustrated religious texts in the north of europe, – . farnham; burlington: ashgate, . pp. . hb, $ . . this book offers a well-balanced and inspiring collection of essays for scholars interested in the interaction between image and word in early modern culture. it draws upon recent historiography revising the old clichés of catholics monopolizing the “image” and protestants destroying it in order to safeguard the “word.” instead, this collection demonstrates that—in varying degrees according to place and time—both catholics and protestants were deeply concerned with visual programs, and that more often than not, images could cross confessional and geographical boundaries. while the book is divided by the editors in two sections, with the first part covering broader crosscurrents in the use and production of religious illustrated texts, and the second part deal- ing with specific case studies, this review regroups the essays along historio- graphical, geographical, and thematic lines. both the introduction and the two contributions of alexandra walsham and lee palmer wandel give an excellent state-of-the-art, while identifying conceptual challenges for further research. walsham provides a critical over- view of assumptions regarding confessional groups and the use and produc- tion of religious images in the early modern age. offering an impressive review of recent, mainly anglo-saxon historiography, she stresses the enduring poten- tial for cross-confessional circulation of images, the continuity and persistence of late medieval iconography, and the contingency of change over time. walsham equally discusses images crossing different media and audiences, placing the “reformation of the eye” against the backdrop of the shift from aristotelian to mechanical theories of seeing. palmer wandel continues with a discussion of the function of catechisms across confessions, giving particular attention to the catechisms of the jesuit (and later saint) peter canisius. drawing on these insights, she compares the catechisms of canisius and calvin to conclude that for both, the “book” and the “codex” were inscribed in the process of teaching believers how their church defined revelation. hence, the first three chapters convincingly argue for a cross-confessional and interdisci- plinary study of illustrated religious texts. geographically, the “north of europe” is discussed through the examples of the dutch republic, the habsburg netherlands, the holy roman empire, and england. in particular, clichés about the tolerant print market of the dutch republic are deconstructed throughout the edition. as in earlier work, editor els stronks underlines that printing religious images was a restricted phenom- enon in the dutch republic, despite the many “spaces” for cross-confessional downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access book reviews <un> journal of jesuit studies ( ) - encounters, dialogue, and strife there. feike dietz adds to these findings, by showing how by the end of the seventeenth century, the market of “religious love emblems” could only grow through “foreign” stimuli. the case discussed is a “newly discovered” edition of levendige herts-theologie ( ), published by christoffel luyken in amsterdam, adapting a german template from christian hoburg, which imitated the jesuit-inspired cor jesu amanti sacrum by wierix. the contributions by dirk imhof and walter melion show how the habsburg low countries proved fertile ground for the production and worldwide circu- lation of illustrated religious prints, demonstrating once again the provinces’ function as a transregional and international hub. in a stimulating contribu- tion, david j. davis unravels the challenges of portraying god visually in the english reformation, stressing that there was a longer continuity and persis- tence of pre-reformation themes than has been hitherto accepted. while the geographic scope is thus well-defined, it is a pity that some of the authors omit references to rome and the mediterranean world, which will leave readers interested in broader baroque visual culture puzzled. four chapters discuss specific images or prints, but with different purposes. erin lambert analyzes the visual culture of the bi-confessional hymnal, a mar- ket town in the holy roman empire near the borders of poland and bohemia, starting with a woodcut printed by hans wolrab. at first sight, it depicts catholics and protestants in one single church service, but as the author unrav- els, the iconographic program hinted that heaven would be reserved for catholics only. as such, confessional boundaries were pragmatically fluid in daily life, but theologically clear in printed images. also adam morton studies the imprints of the common weales canker worms (c. ), a protestant estates satire in the wake of the “spanish match,” mocking the complots of the spanish count of gondomar and the jesuits. he argues that this was a generic visual proverb illustrating anti-catholicism, not a specific political pamphlet reflect- ing upon concrete events. still, walter melion warns for making too sharp boundaries between confessions, by analyzing karel van mander’s the nativity broadcast by prophets of the incarnations ( ) to show that its christological program accommodated expectations and teachings from catholics, calvinists, and mennonites alike. equally amanda herrin takes the example of the amsterdam print maker claes jansz. visscher’s theatrum biblicum ( ) to discuss the hermeneutical fluidity of religious prints in early modern bibles. she shows how visscher did more than reprinting the older thesaurus sacrarum historiarum of gerard de jode (antwerp, , reprinted ), by aiming to revise and emulate it, and crossing the confessional boundaries between catholicism, lutheranism, and calvinism. downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access book reviews <un> journal of jesuit studies ( ) - scholars interested in jesuit history will particularly be pleased by the contribu- tions by mia mochizuki and dirk imhof. mia mochizuki recalls, in an entertaining way, how in alessandro valignano, s.j., decided to ship a complete printing press to nagasaki. landing first in goa and macau, the press arrived on japanese soil on july , but was returned to macao by . due to limited resources, prints from the japanese press imitated existing iconography and local titles, but eventually the society’s acculturation policies failed in making the printing press viable. on the base of surviving correspondence and archival evidence, dirk imhof discusses the delicate relationship between thomas sailly, s.j., the head almoner (chief of the so-called missio castrensis) of the spanish troops in the southern habsburg netherlands, and the plantin press in antwerp. sailly took great care in designing and writing prayer books for soldiers, but at each stage of the production process, he was forced to downsize his plans. the chapter by feike dietz, discussing emblem books on religious love in the dutch republic shows how these publications draw heavily on late sixteenth-century jesuit traditions and iconography in the low countries, instantiating the calvinist appropriation of catholic models, while the aforementioned chapter by lee palmer wandel develops the jesuit contribution to the making of early modern catechisms. one can sense from the pages that all the contributors aim to revise old stereotypes about visual culture in the early modern confessional strife between catholics and protestants. while all the chapters help to deconstruct these tropes, a new interpretational equilibrium seems somehow missing. even if it is important to stress the cross-confessional and transregional nature of religious images in the early modern age, one can only hope that these scholars now will map the intensity, the quantity, and the directions of these exchanges in early modern europe—and (who knows) beyond. violet soen ku leuven violet.soen@arts.kuleuven.be doi . / - - downloaded from brill.com / / : : am via free access microsoft word - september-prri-rns-topline-questionnaire-and-survey-methodology-.docx september	
   ,	
   	
   	
   	
  massachusetts	
  ave,	
   rd	
  floor,	
  washington,	
  dc	
   	
  	
  •	
   -­‐ -­‐ 	
  	
  •	
  	
  www.publicreligion.org	
   	
   	
   prri/rns	
  september	
   	
  survey	
   september	
   	
  –	
   ,	
   	
   n	
  =	
   , 	
   	
   q. 	
   which	
  comes	
  closer	
  to	
  your	
  view?	
   	
   	
   humans	
  and	
  other	
  living	
  things	
  have	
  evolved	
  over	
  time	
  [or]	
   	
   humans	
  and	
  other	
  living	
  things	
  have	
  existed	
  in	
  their	
  present	
  form	
  since	
  creation	
   	
   other	
  (vol.)	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   	
   if	
  believe	
  in	
  evolution	
  (q = ),	
  ask	
  [n= ]:	
   q. a	
   and	
  do	
  you	
  think	
  that…	
  	
   	
   	
   humans	
  and	
  other	
  living	
  things	
  have	
  evolved	
  due	
  to	
  natural	
  processes	
  such	
  as	
   natural	
  selection	
  [or]	
   	
   a	
  supreme	
  being	
  guided	
  the	
  evolution	
  of	
  living	
  things	
  for	
  the	
  purpose	
  of	
   creating	
  humans	
  and	
  other	
  life	
  in	
  the	
  form	
  it	
  exists	
  today	
   	
   other	
  (vol.)	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   if	
  do	
  not	
  believe	
  in	
  evolution	
  (q = ),	
  ask	
  [n= ]:	
   q. b	
   and	
  do	
  you	
  think	
  that	
  humans	
  and	
  other	
  living	
  things	
  were	
  created	
  within	
  the	
   last	
   , 	
  years,	
  or	
  do	
  you	
  not	
  believe	
  this?	
   	
   	
   yes,	
  believe	
   	
   no,	
  do	
  not	
  believe	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   	
   public	
  religion	
  research	
  institute	
   	
   	
   	
  massachusetts	
  ave	
  nw,	
   rd	
  floor,	
  washington,	
  dc	
   	
  •	
   -­‐ -­‐ 	
  •	
  www.publicreligion.org ask	
  all:	
   q. 	
   from	
  what	
  you’ve	
  heard	
  or	
  read,	
  do	
  scientists	
  generally	
  agree	
  that	
  humans	
   evolved	
  over	
  time,	
  are	
  scientists	
  divided,	
  or	
  do	
  scientists	
  generally	
  disagree	
  that	
   humans	
  evolved	
  over	
  time?	
   	
   	
   agree	
  humans	
  evolved	
   	
   divided	
   	
   disagree	
  humans	
  evolved	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   q. 	
   from	
  what	
  you’ve	
  read	
  and	
  heard,	
  do	
  you	
  believe	
  there	
  is	
  solid	
  evidence	
  that	
  the	
   average	
  temperature	
  on	
  earth	
  has	
  been	
  getting	
  warmer	
  over	
  the	
  past	
  few	
   decades,	
  or	
  not?	
   	
   	
   yes	
   	
   no	
   	
   mixed/some	
  evidence	
  (vol.)	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   if	
  “yes	
  or	
  mixed”	
  (q = , )	
  ask	
  [n= ]:	
   q. 	
   which	
  statement	
  comes	
  closest	
  to	
  your	
  view	
  about	
  the	
  causes	
  of	
  climate	
   change…[read	
  and	
  rotate]?	
   	
   	
   climate	
  change	
  is	
  caused	
  mostly	
  by	
  human	
  activity	
  such	
  as	
  burning	
  fossil	
  fuels	
   	
   climate	
  change	
  is	
  caused	
  mostly	
  by	
  natural	
  patterns	
  in	
  the	
  earth’s	
  environment	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   ask	
  all:	
   q. 	
   from	
  what	
  you’ve	
  heard	
  or	
  read,	
  do	
  scientists	
  generally	
  agree	
  that	
  the	
  earth	
  is	
   getting	
  warmer	
  because	
  of	
  human	
  activity,	
  are	
  scientists	
  divided,	
  or	
  do	
  scientists	
   generally	
  disagree	
  that	
  the	
  earth	
  is	
  getting	
  warmer	
  because	
  of	
  human	
  activity?	
   	
   	
   agree	
  human	
  activity	
   	
   divided	
   	
   disagree	
  human	
  activity	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   public	
  religion	
  research	
  institute	
   	
   	
   	
  massachusetts	
  ave	
  nw,	
   rd	
  floor,	
  washington,	
  dc	
   	
  •	
   -­‐ -­‐ 	
  •	
  www.publicreligion.org q. 	
   now	
  i	
  am	
  going	
  to	
  read	
  you	
  some	
  pairs	
  of	
  statements.	
  as	
  i	
  read	
  each	
  pair,	
  tell	
  me	
   whether	
  the	
  first	
  statement	
  or	
  the	
  second	
  statement	
  comes	
  closer	
  to	
  your	
   own	
  views,	
  even	
  if	
  neither	
  is	
  exactly	
  right.	
  [read;	
  rotate	
  options]	
   	
  	
   a.	
  	
   	
   	
  –	
  god	
  gave	
  human	
  beings	
  the	
  right	
  to	
  use	
  animals,	
  plants,	
  and	
  all	
  the	
   resources	
  of	
  the	
  planet	
  for	
  human	
  benefit	
   	
   	
  –	
  god	
  gave	
  human	
  beings	
  the	
  task	
  of	
  living	
  responsibly	
  with	
  the	
  animals,	
   plants,	
  and	
  the	
  resources	
  of	
  the	
  planet,	
  which	
  are	
  not	
  just	
  for	
  human	
  benefit	
  	
   	
   both/neither	
  (vol.)	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   b.	
  	
   	
   	
  –	
  given	
  our	
  current	
  economic	
  problems,	
  we	
  cannot	
  afford	
  to	
  deal	
  with	
   climate	
  change	
  right	
  now.	
   	
   	
  –	
  dealing	
  with	
  climate	
  change	
  now	
  will	
  create	
  new	
  jobs	
  and	
  help	
  avoid	
  more	
   serious	
  economic	
  problems	
  in	
  the	
  future	
   	
   both/neither	
  (vol.)	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   q. 	
   thinking	
  about	
  candidates	
  for	
  president,	
  please	
  tell	
  me	
  whether	
  their	
  views	
  on	
   the	
  following	
  issues	
  would	
  make	
  you	
  more	
  likely	
  to	
  vote	
  for	
  them,	
  less	
  likely	
  to	
   vote	
  for	
  them	
  or	
  whether	
  it	
  would	
  not	
  make	
  a	
  difference	
  to	
  your	
  vote.	
  first,	
  if	
  a	
   candidate	
  for	
  president	
  [insert;	
  randomize].	
  would	
  this	
  make	
  you	
  more	
   likely	
  to	
  vote	
  for	
  them,	
  less	
  likely	
  to	
  vote	
  for	
  them,	
  or	
  would	
  it	
  not	
  make	
  a	
   difference?	
  what	
  about	
  if	
  a	
  candidate	
  [insert	
  next]?	
   	
   a.	
  does	
  not	
  believe	
  climate	
  change	
  is	
  caused	
  by	
  human	
  activity	
   	
   	
   more	
  likely	
   	
   less	
  likely	
   	
   would	
  not	
  make	
  a	
  difference	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   	
   	
   public	
  religion	
  research	
  institute	
   	
   	
   	
  massachusetts	
  ave	
  nw,	
   rd	
  floor,	
  washington,	
  dc	
   	
  •	
   -­‐ -­‐ 	
  •	
  www.publicreligion.org b.	
  does	
  not	
  believe	
  in	
  evolution	
   	
   	
   more	
  likely	
   	
   less	
  likely	
   	
   would	
  not	
  make	
  a	
  difference	
   	
   don’t	
  know/refused	
  (vol.)	
   	
   total	
   	
   note:	
  numbers	
  may	
  not	
  add	
  to	
   %	
  due	
  to	
  rounding	
   	
   	
   public	
  religion	
  research	
  institute	
   	
   	
   	
  massachusetts	
  ave	
  nw,	
   rd	
  floor,	
  washington,	
  dc	
   	
  •	
   -­‐ -­‐ 	
  •	
  www.publicreligion.org 	
   methodology	
   	
   the	
  survey	
  was	
  designed	
  and	
  conducted	
  by	
  public	
  religion	
  research	
  institute.	
   results	
  of	
  the	
  survey	
  were	
  based	
  on	
  bilingual	
  (spanish	
  and	
  english)	
  rdd	
  telephone	
   interviews	
  conducted	
  between	
  september	
   ,	
   	
  and	
  september	
   ,	
   	
  by	
   professional	
  interviewers	
  under	
  the	
  direction	
  of	
  social	
  science	
  research	
  solutions	
   (ssrs).	
  interviews	
  were	
  conducted	
  among	
  a	
  random	
  sample	
  of	
   , 	
  adults	
   	
  years	
  of	
   age	
  or	
  older	
  in	
  the	
  continental	
  united	
  states	
  ( 	
  respondents	
  were	
  interviewed	
  on	
  a	
   cell	
  phone).	
   	
   the	
  final	
  sample	
  was	
  weighted	
  to	
  five	
  different	
  parameters—age,	
  sex,	
  geographic	
   region,	
  education	
  and	
  telephone	
  usage —to	
  ensure	
  reliable	
  and	
  accurate	
   representation	
  of	
  the	
  total	
  adult	
  population.	
  	
   	
   the	
  margin	
  of	
  error	
  for	
  the	
  survey	
  is	
  +/-­‐	
   . 	
  percentage	
  points	
  at	
  the	
   %	
  level	
  of	
   confidence.	
  in	
  addition	
  to	
  sampling	
  error,	
  surveys	
  may	
  also	
  be	
  subject	
  to	
  error	
  or	
  bias	
   due	
  to	
  question	
  wording,	
  context	
  and	
  order	
  effects.	
   	
   	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
   	
  telephone	
  usage	
  refers	
  to	
  whether	
  respondents	
  have	
  only	
  a	
  landline	
  telephone,	
  only	
  a	
  cell	
  phone	
  or	
   both	
  types	
  and	
  the	
  frequency	
  with	
  which	
  they	
  use	
  each	
  type.	
   social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize — vrije universiteit amsterdam 	 skip to main navigation 	 skip to search 	 skip to main content 	 help & faq 	 home 	 profiles 	 research units 	 research output 	 datasets 	 activities 	 prizes 	 press / media search by expertise, name or affiliation social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize c.h. roessingh, k.c.m. smits research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review downloads (pure) 	 overview 	original language	english 	pages (from-to)	 - 	number of pages	 	journal	international journal of innovation and regional development 	volume	 	issue number	 / 	dois		https://doi.org/ . /ijird. . 	publication status	published - access to document 	 . /ijird. . 	ijird roessmitsfinal published version, kb cite this 	 apa 	 author 	 bibtex 	 harvard 	 standard 	 ris 	 vancouver roessingh, c. h., & smits, k. c. m. ( ). social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize. international journal of innovation and regional development, ( / ), - . https://doi.org/ . /ijird. . roessingh, c.h. ; smits, k.c.m. / social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize. in: international journal of innovation and regional development. ; vol. , no. / . pp. - . @article{ d ed b d f be f dc , title = "social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize", author = "c.h. roessingh and k.c.m. smits", year = " ", doi = " . /ijird. . ", language = "english", volume = " ", pages = " -- ", journal = "international journal of innovation and regional development", issn = " - ", publisher = "inderscience", number = " / ", } roessingh, ch & smits, kcm , 'social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize', international journal of innovation and regional development, vol. , no. / , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /ijird. . social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize. / roessingh, c.h.; smits, k.c.m. in: international journal of innovation and regional development, vol. , no. / , , p. - .research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review ty - jour t - social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize au - roessingh, c.h. au - smits, k.c.m. py - y - u - . /ijird. . do - . /ijird. . m - article vl - sp - ep - jo - international journal of innovation and regional development jf - international journal of innovation and regional development sn - - is - / er - roessingh ch, smits kcm. social capital and mennonite entrepreneurship: the case of circle r. in blue creek, northern belize. international journal of innovation and regional development. ; ( / ): - . https://doi.org/ . /ijird. . 	 	 	 	 	 powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure vrije universiteit amsterdam data protection policy about web accessibility doi: . / am. j. hum. genet. : – , report maple syrup urine disease: identification and carrier-frequency determination of a novel founder mutation in the ashkenazi jewish population lisa edelmann, melissa p. wasserstein, , ruth kornreich, claude sansaricq, , selma e. snyderman, , and george a. diaz , departments of human genetics and pediatrics, mount sinai school of medicine, new york maple syrup urine disease (msud) is a rare, autosomal recessive disorder of branched-chain amino acid metabolism. we noted that a large proportion ( of ) of families with msud that were followed in our clinic were of ashkenazi jewish (aj) descent, leading us to search for a common mutation within this group. on the basis of genotyping data suggestive of a conserved haplotype at tightly linked markers on chromosome q , the bckdhb gene encoding the e b subunit was sequenced. three novel mutations were identified in seven unrelated aj patients with msud. the locations of the affected residues in the crystal structure of the e b subunit suggested possible mechanisms for the deleterious effects of these mutations. large-scale population screening of aj individuals for r p, the mutation present in six of seven patients, revealed that the carrier frequency of the mutant allele was ∼ / ; the patient not carrying r p had a previously described homozygous mutation in the gene encoding the e subunit. these findings suggested that a limited number of mutations might underlie msud in the aj population, potentially facilitating prenatal diagnosis and carrier detection of msud in this group. originally described by menkes in , as a rapidly fatal neurodegenerative disease (menkes et al. ), maple syrup urine disease (msud) (types ia [mim ], ib [mim ]), and ii [mim ]), is an inborn error of metabolism, resulting from the de- fective activity of branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrog- enase (bckad) (chuang and shih ). the enzymatic defect, transmitted in an autosomal recessive manner, results in an inability to catabolize leucine, isoleucine, and valine. bckad exists as a multienzyme complex composed of a multimeric core of dihydrolipoyl acyl- transferase (e ), to which are bound multiple bckad decarboxylase (e ) and dihydrolipoamide dehydroge- nase (e ) subunits (pettit et al. ). two regulatory subunits, bckad kinase and bckad phosphatase, are also associated with the e core (damuni et al. ; reed et al. ). the e subunit exists as a heterotetra- received july , ; accepted for publication august , ; electronically published august , . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. george a. diaz, de- partment of human genetics, mount sinai school of medicine, new york, ny . e-mail: george.diaz@mssm.edu � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . mer composed of two e a and two e b subunits. be- cause the e subunit is shared with the pyruvate and a- ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complexes, decreased activity of this component results in deficiencies of all three enzymes. five clinical msud phenotypes have been described, which differ in their presentation and severity. classic msud, the most common clinical presentation, mani- fests during the newborn period and can result in severe neurological complications and death. the less-common forms are the later-onset intermediate type, an episodic intermittent type, an intermediate-like thiamin-respon- sive type, and e deficiency with lactic acidosis. mu- tations in any of the e or e components can result in classic, intermediate, or intermittent msud, although they are more frequent in e a and e b than in e (nellis and danner ). patients with msud can be effec- tively managed with dietary restriction of the branched- chain amino acids and maintenance of strict biochemical control (snyderman et al. ). however, a significant proportion of treated individuals have impaired intel- lectual development or neurological complications, par- ticularly as a result of delayed diagnosis (kaplan et al. ), emphasizing the importance of newborn-screen- am. j. hum. genet. : – , table primers for exon-specific pcr amplifications. gene and exon primer ( ′r ′) length (bp)forward reverse e b: tccagttccgattggtctgt agctgggatgcaaggattg ccacaattcaggcacatatcag gcataatatctttctttgtaccttga tccatacaatggggatatgaca tgatcgagatctatggtccattt tctcatttgccacattaaccttt gggtagcggcaatacttgaa ccccgtctttctttctgacc tgaatcaaaatggaaacatcaaa agcccttcttagcagcgagt ttctacaaggaaaatataaatcaacca tgcacaagtgtcacctcaga gcttccaagcacaacgtagg tttttgaggctagaacctttgt gccaaaggtttcagggaaat catcaggtttttcttttctctttca tcttctggaattggcatgtg ttgaagttaagcatcctgactctg cgttaatgtcaggggcacat e : ttgtgttcgctattttc cagcagttgttttcagga ing programs. despite early diagnosis and adequate care, episodes of life-threatening metabolic decompensation occur during periods of stress or infection and are as- sociated with significant morbidity and mortality (ri- viello et al. ; levin et al. ; chuang and shih ). msud has been described in all ethnic groups and has an estimated worldwide frequency of / , (naylor ). however, a founder effect in the penn- sylvania mennonite population has led to an increased incidence ( / ) in this population (marshall and digeorge ). in our clinic, we noted that a dispro- portionate percentage (∼ %) of families with msud were of ashkenazi jewish (aj) heritage. here we report the carrier frequency of a common aj mutation, r p, and the identification of two novel mutations. six unrelated aj patients with classic msud (individ- uals – and ), one patient with intermediate msud (individual ), and the parents of one classic patient (in- dividuals and ) participated in this study. the protocol was approved by the mount sinai school of medicine institutional review board, and voluntary informed con- sent was obtained from all participants. dna was ex- tracted either from peripheral blood (puregene; gentra) or from buccal-swab samples (masteramp buccal kit; epicentre technologies). our initial focus was on e dat, a -bp deletion in the second exon of the e gene, described by fisher et al. ( ), in individual . this mutation destroys an afliii site in the exon, allowing rapid screening of our aj patients by amplification of the exon from genomic dna (table ), followed by restriction-enzyme digestion. the results of the assay demonstrated that the mutation was found only in individual (not shown). we there- fore identified polymorphic short tandem-repeat (str) markers flanking the genetic loci encoding e a, e b, and e , to determine whether a conserved haplotype consistent with a common mutation was present in our other patients. it is noteworthy that, in order to assess the bckdhb locus, we first identified candidate str markers that were linkage-mapped to p -p , the published cytogenetic localization given in the omim gene map (zneimer et al. ). alignments of gene (see the genbank overview web site ) and marker se- quences with the genomic sequence data, by use of the human genome project working draft at ucsc, in- dicated that bckdhb maps to cytogenetic location q . radiation-hybrid mapping data from gene- map’ supported the localization of bckdhb to q , so markers from this region were used in the analysis. strs tightly linked to the relevant genes were ob- tained from resgen. radiolabeling, amplification, and electrophoresis were performed by standard methods. allele assignments were standardized across gels by use of ceph reference individual - . the genotyping results were consistent with a disproportionately rep- resented allele at each of the markers flanking the e b locus (fig. ). in particular, the allele of marker d s was highly overrepresented, being present in all individ- uals except for individual and accounting for of total alleles. typing of control aj chromosomes gave an estimated allele frequency of ∼ %, confirming the striking allele-frequency distortion in the patients with msud. markers flanking the genes encoding e a and e did not display a pattern consistent with seg- regation of common alleles (not shown). on the basis of these suggestive results, mutation analysis of the e b exons was performed in individual , a homozygote for the putative three-marker haplotype - - at markers d s , d s , and d s , respectively. pcr primers were designed to amplify all exons and reports figure genomic organization of polymorphic markers tightly linked to the genes encoding e a, e b, and e and genotype data for markers flanking e b. a, organization of str markers used in anal- ysis of the bckdhb locus, and their relative spacing, in both physical and genetic distance. bckdhb spans ∼ kb, and the ′ end lies ∼ mb upstream of d s . b, results of genotyping analysis of patients with intermediate (boxed) or classic (underlined) msud. the parents of individual are denoted by circles. individual is a patient with a known mutation (i.e., e dat). proximal intronic sequences (table ). amplicons were column purified by use of the qiagen pcr purification kit and were sequenced bidirectionally on an abi prism automated sequencer (applied biosystems). traces were processed by the factura and autoassembler soft- ware packages (applied biosystems). a homozygous missense mutation corresponding to grc in the cdna sequence was detected in exon (fig. a). over- lapping mspi and nlaiv sites in the amplicon were de- stroyed by the base change, allowing the remaining pa- tients to be screened with the same primer set as was used for sequencing (fig. b). the mutation was detected in of chromosomes screened and segregated with the allele of marker d s , unambiguously in eight instances and presumptively in two instances (fig. b). the grc mutation causes an argrpro substi- tution in e b, at residue in the mature peptide (r p). r is conserved between e b and the ho- mologous pseudomonas putida bacterial enzyme and is located in a b-sheet that contributes to a k� ion-binding pocket close to the interface of the e a and e b subunits (Ævarsson et al. ). hydrogen-bond interactions made by this residue in the e crystal structure were visualized by use of a swisspdb-viewer (fig. a) (guex and peitsch ). three parallel b-sheets (d, e, and g) form extensive interactions in this region of the protein. sheet e is central to sheets d and g, and r makes main-chain and side-chain hydrogen-bond interactions with residues on both adjacent sheets, notably e and e , residues that were also conserved between mam- malian and bacterial subunits (fig. a). structural changes introduced by a pro substitution would thus be expected to interfere with a conserved structural motif, by altering the conformation of the central b-strand and by disrupting the hydrogen-bond interactions apparently essential for proper folding of the ion-binding pocket and/or for subunit interaction. these predictions are supported by functional data recently described by wynn et al. ( ), which demonstrate that the r p mutation renders the e b subunit thermolabile at phys- iological temperatures. their studies indicate that the mutation confers a temperature-dependent folding de- fect on the e b subunit, disrupting its ability to complex with the e a subunit. mutation analysis of compound-heterozygous indi- viduals and revealed that they contained two ad- ditional novel mutations, gra and grt, re- spectively (fig. c and d). the latter mutation, found in exon , introduced a nonsense codon (e x) trun- cating the terminal amino acids. the importance that the c-terminal has for e -e –subunit association was pointed out by Ævarsson et al. ( ), who reported that addition of a his tail onto e b did not affect e heterotetramer assembly but did interfere with the sub- sequent e -association step. this observation raises the possibility that the truncation mutant might interfere with subunit association, although deletion of such a large region might interfere more generally with protein folding. the missense gra mutation in exon re- sulted in the substitution g s. this residue was also conserved between mammalian and bacterial e homo- logues, and it is situated at a hairpin turn between b- sheet j and a-helix (fig. b). the adjacent residue on helix , w , forms a hydrogen-bond interaction with e in a hydrophobic pocket important in e b-e b′ interactions (Ævarsson et al. ). the g s mutant might therefore destabilize e b-subunit interactions dur- ing heterotetramer assembly. the severity of these mu- tations corresponds well with the observed clinical phe- notypes, since g s is associated with the intermediate phenotype and e x is associated with the classic phenotype. on the basis of the mutation-analysis results, we screened for the r p mutation in dna samples from , aj individuals from the new york metropolitan area that were obtained with informed consent. all per- sonal identifiers were removed, and the samples were tested anonymously. pcr amplification was performed with genomic dna in a volume of ml containing pmol of exon –specific primers (table ), with mm am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure results of mutation analysis of aj patients with msud. a, c, and d, changes (arrows) from expected wild-type sequence, which is shown below the traces. the affected codon is boxed, and the predicted amino acid change is indicated below the codon. the different sequence traces correspond to exon in individual (a), to exon in individual (c), and to exon in individual (d). b, representative digestion of exon amplimers with nlaiv (new england biolabs). the sizes of -bp-ladder marker fragments (lane m) are indicated to the left of the gel. the samples shown were amplified from the genomic dna of individuals (lane ), (lane ), (lane ), (lane ), and (lane ). undigested amplimers are bp in length, whereas digested products are predicted to be bp and bp in length. of each dntp (roche molecular biochemicals), u taq dna polymerase (roche), mm tris-hcl, mm kcl, . % triton x- , and . mm mgcl . aliquots ( ml) of the pcr products were blotted onto replicate # -cm hybond-n� membranes (amersham phar- macia biotech), by a biomek automated pipetting workstation (beckman coulter), for hybridization with allele-specific oligonucleotides (asos) for the r p mutation ( ′-tcactatcccgtcccctt- ′) and the wild-type sequence ( ′-tcactatccggtcccctt- ′). mutation detection was performed by radioactive meth- ods as described elsewhere (fodor et al. ). for ra- dioactive detection, the membranes were hybridized for h at �c, with ∼ cpm [ p]-atp end-labeled probe/ ml and -fold molar excess of the mutant or wild-type competitor oligonucleotide. the membranes were then washed sequentially in # ssc for min at room temperature and in # ssc for min at �c, followed by a wash in . # ssc/ . % sds for min at �c, and then were exposed to autoradiography. nine carriers were identified, which corresponded to a carrier fre- quency of ∼ / . samples giving a positive signal with the mutant aso were reamplified, and carrier status confirmed by the nlaiv pcr-rflp assay. the aj r p allele, which accounts for of mutant e b alleles in our limited series, was present at a frequency significantly higher than the estimated msud-carrier frequency (∼ / ) in the general pop- ulation (peinemann et al. ; danner and doering ; chuang and shih ) this finding is consistent with our observation of a disproportionate number of aj cases of msud. the expected disease incidence for r p homozygotes is / , . additional compound- heterozygous cases are expected, but the degree of allelic heterogeneity in the population remains to be elucidated. a rough estimate of the number of aj individuals born after the initiation (in ) of new york state newborn screening for msud was derived on the basis of infor- mation from the most recent (i.e., ) available united jewish appeal federation population estimates and the u.s. census (u.s. census bureau, american fact finder). assuming that the proportion of aj individuals ! years of age is the same as that in the general pop- ulation and that the percentage of aj families has re- mained constant, we estimated that ∼ , aj indi- viduals were born after the initiation of screening. the expected total of approximately nine homozygous cases is somewhat greater than our clinical observations but within reason, considering the crudeness of the estimate. the high prevalence of r p in our patients sug- reports figure ribbon representations of portions of e b crystal struc- ture, showing positions of mutated residues. the e crystal-structure data were obtained from the ncbi structure (molecular modeling database). swissprot-pdb viewer was used to generate models and image files. a, ribbon diagram of b-sheets d, e, and g, with the side chains of e , r , and e , respectively, which are shown in white. the mutated residue, r , is indicated by the arrow, side- chain hydrogen-bond interactions are indicated by dashed lines, and the coordinated k� ion is labeled directly. for clarity of presentation, main-chain hydrogen interactions have been omitted. b, overview of entire molecule, except for structures overlying the sheet containing r . the residues altered by missense mutations, r and g , are indicated by bent and dashed arrows, respectively, and their side chains are shown in white. the a-carbon backbone of residues trun- cated by the nonsense mutation e x are shown in white. gests that the identification of this mutation will facilitate prenatal diagnosis of affected families and may permit carrier screening after the identification of additional common mutations in the aj population. population screening is currently being offered for other diseases with similar allele frequencies as r p, including bloom syndrome ( / ) (li et al. ), mucolipidosis type iv ( / ) (bargal et al. ), niemann-pick type a (∼ / ) (schuchman and miranda ), and fanconi anemia group c ( / ) (verlander et al. ; auerbach ). effective carrier detection may decrease the in- cidence and/or the morbidity associated with delayed diagnosis of this disorder in the aj population. acknowledgments the authors would like to express their appreciation to all of the families who agreed to participate in the study and to shihong zhang for excellent technical assistance. g.a.d. was supported in part by mount sinai child health research cen- ter grant p hd . electronic-database information accession numbers and urls for data in this article are as follows: genbank overview, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ genbankoverview.html (for human branched-chain a-keto dehydrogenase e b-subunit mrna [accession u ]) genemap’ , http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genemap / human genome project working draft at ucsc, http:// genome.ucsc.edu ncbi structure (molecular modeling database), http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/structure/mmdb/mmdb.shtml (for human bckad [accession number dtw]) online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www .ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim (for msud types ia [mim ], ib [mim ]), and ii [mim ]) u.s. census bureau, american fact finder, http://factfinder .census.gov/servlet/basicfactsservlet references Ævarsson a, chuang jl, wynn rm, turley s, chuang dt, hol wg ( ) crystal structure of human branched-chain a-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the molecular basis of mul- tienzyme complex deficiency in maple syrup urine disease. structure fold des : – auerbach ad ( ) fanconi anemia: genetic testing in ash- kenazi jews. genet test : – bargal r, avidan n, olender t, ben asher e, zeigler m, raas- rothschild a, frumkin a, ben-yoseph o, friedlender y, lancet d, bach g ( ) mucolipidosis type iv: novel mcoln mutations in jewish and non-jewish patients and the frequency of the disease in the ashkenazi jewish pop- ulation. hum mutat : – chuang dt, shih ve ( ) disorders of branched chain amino acid and keto acid metabolism. in: scriver cr, beau- det a, sly wl, valle d (eds) the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease, th ed. mcgraw-hill, new york, pp – damuni z, merryfield ml, humphreys js, reed lj ( ) purification and properties of branched-chain alpha-keto am. j. hum. genet. : – , acid dehydrogenase phosphatase from bovine kidney. proc natl acad sci usa : – danner dj, doering cb ( ) human mutations affecting branched chain alpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase. front biosci :d –d fisher cw, fisher cr, chuang jl, lau ks, chuang dt, cox rp ( ) occurrence of a -bp (at) deletion allele and nonsense (g-to-t) mutant allele at the e (dbt) locus of six patients with maple syrup urine disease: multiple-exon skipping as a secondary effect of the mutations. am j hum genet : – fodor fh, weston a, bleiweiss ij, mccurdy ld, walsh mm, tartter pi, brower st, eng cm ( ) frequency and carrier risk associated with common brca and brca mutations in ashkenazi jewish breast cancer patients. am j hum genet : – guex n, peitsch mc ( ) swiss-model and the swiss- pdbviewer: an environment for comparative protein mod- eling. electrophoresis : – kaplan p, mazur a, field m, berlin ja, berry gt, heidenreich r, yudkoff m, segal s ( ) intellectual outcome in chil- dren with maple syrup urine disease. j pediatr : – levin ml, scheimann a, lewis ra, beaudet al ( ) ce- rebral edema in maple syrup urine disease. j pediatr : – li l, eng c, desnick rj, german j, ellis na ( ) carrier frequency of the bloom syndrome blmash mutation in the ashkenazi jewish population. mol genet metab : – marshall l, digeorge a ( ) maple syrup urine disease in the old order mennonites. am j hum genet suppl : a menkes j, hurst p, craig jm ( ) a new syndrome: pro- gressive familial infantile cerebral dysfunction associated with an unusual urinary substance. pediatrics : – naylor ew ( ) newborn screening for maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria) in: bickel h, guthrie r, hammersen g (eds) neonatal screening for inborn errors of metabolism. springer-verlag, berlin, pp – nellis mm, danner dj ( ) gene preference in maple syrup urine disease. am j hum genet : – peinemann f, wendel u, danner dj ( ) molecular genetic characterization of maple syrup urine disease in european families. biochem med metab biol : – pettit fh, yeaman sj, reed lj ( ) purification and char- acterization of branched chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex of bovine kidney. proc natl acad sci usa : – reed lj, damuni z, merryfield ml ( ) regulation of mammalian pyruvate and branched-chain a-keto acid de- hydrogenase complexes by phosphorylation-dephosphory- lation. curr top cell regul : – riviello jj jr, rezvani i, digeorge am, foley cm ( ) ce- rebral edema causing death in children with maple syrup urine disease. j pediatr : – schuchman eh, miranda sr ( ) niemann-pick disease: mutation update, genotype/phenotype correlations and prospects for genetic testing. genet test : – snyderman se, norton pm, roitman e, holt le jr ( ) maple syrup urine disease with particular reference to dieto- therapy. pediatrics : verlander pc, kaporis a, liu q, zhang q, seligsohn u, auer- bach ad ( ) carrier frequency of the ivs � art mutation of the fanconi anemia gene fac in the ashkenazi jewish population. blood : – wynn rm, chuang jl, sansaricq c, mandel h, chuang dt ( ) biochemical basis of type b (e b) mutations in ma- ple syrup urine disease: a prevalent allele in patients from the druze kindred in israel. j biol chem (in press) zneimer sm, lau ks, eddy rl, shows tb, chuang jl, chuang dt, cox rp ( ) regional assignment of two genes of the human branched-chain a-keto acid dehydrog- enase complex: the e b gene (bckdhb) to chromosome p - and the e gene (dbt) to chromosome p . ge- nomics : – 	maple syrup urine disease: identification and carrier-frequency determination of a novel founder mutation in the ashkenazi jewish population 	acknowledgments 	references instruments of science and citizenship: science education for dutch orphans during the late eighteenth century lissa l. roberts published online: june � the author(s) . this article is published with open access at springerlink.com abstract one of the two most extensive instrument collections in the netherlands during the second half of the eighteenth century—rivaling the much better known collection at the university of leiden—belonged to an orphanage in the hague that was specially estab- lished to mold hand-picked orphans into productive citizens. (the other was housed at the mennonite seminary in amsterdam, for use in the education of its students.) the educa- tional program at this orphanage, one of three established by the fundatie van renswoude, grew out of a marriage between the socially-oriented generosity of the wealthy baroness van renswoude and the pedagogical vision of the institute’s director and head teacher—a vision that fit with the larger movement of oeconomic patriotism. oeconomic patriotism, similar to ‘improvement’ and oeconomic movements in other european countries and their colonies, sought to tie the investigation of nature to an improvement of society’s material and moral well-being. indeed, it was argued that these two facets of society should be viewed as inseparable from each other, distinguishing the movement from more modern conceptions of economics. while a number of the key figures in this dutch movement also became prominent patriots during the revolutionary period at the end of the century, fighting against the house of orange, they did not have a monopoly on oeconomic ideas of societal improvement. this is demonstrated by the fact that an explicitly pro-orangist society, mathesis scientiarum genitrix, was organized in to teach science and mathematics to poor boys and orphans for very similar reasons: to turn them into pro- ductive and useful citizens. as was the case with the fundatie van renswoude, a collection of instruments was assembled to help make this possible. this story is of interest because it discusses a hitherto under-examined use to which science education was put during this period, by revealing the link between such programs and the highly charged question of citizenry. l. l. roberts (&) department of science, technology and policy studies, university of twente, pob , ae enschede, the netherlands e-mail: l.l.roberts@utwente.nl sci & educ ( ) : – doi . /s - - - introduction at the core of this essay are the stories of two institutions established in the netherlands during the late eighteenth century to educate poor and orphaned boys. the first, made possible by the large bequest left by a wealthy noblewoman, was the fundatie van rens- woude, which operated three orphanages in the hague, utrecht and delft for specially chosen boys who demonstrated promise. second was the privately organized leiden society mathesis scientiarum genitrix (msg). the political orientations of these two institutions differed starkly during the highly charged decades which ended one century and began the next. while members of msg demonstrated their allegiance to the house of orange by asking the future king willem i to be their official patron in , a number of the fundatie’s leading teachers and administrators agitated for the kinds of reform which were championed by the anti-orange regime of the batavian republic. nonetheless, they worked toward strikingly similar goals. both placed practical mathematics and science at the centre of their programs’ curriculum. and both did so with the express purpose of educating their charges to serve the public good. placing the contextualized stories of the fundatie van renswoude and msg next to each other thus offers a unique opportunity to explore how science education was appreciated across political lines in the netherlands during a time which witnessed a full cycle from reform and revolution to war and restoration, not only in terms of stimulating knowledge production or material production for their own sakes, but also as a vehicle of socio-cultural renewal. to set the stage, this introduction will be followed by sections that discuss the context in which these stories should be placed. in a recently published report, a european commission committee argued for the urgency of reforming science education in the face of declining student interest. the report articulates three closely related reasons for the need to alter this trend. first, according to the report, the ‘‘[a]vailability of highly qualified science and technology professionals is a key factor for the establishment, import and success of high-tech industry in the european union.’’ more generally, it continues, citizens must possess increasing scientific literacy in order to understand and respond to the complex environmental, medical, economic and moral challenges that increasingly face society on both a local and global scale. finally, the report presents science education as the key to europe’s cultural coherence. ‘‘… by giving … [citizens] the opportunity to develop critical thinking and scientific reasoning… science education helps fighting [sic] misjudgments and reinforcing [sic] our common culture based on rational thinking.’’ (science education now , pp. – ) two closely related characteristics of this document make it of special interest in relation to this essay. the first is that it broadly ties science education to concern for issues ranging from economic growth and environmental sustainability to social stability, moral rectitude and cultural cohesion. second is that its rhetoric characterizes science with the twin terms of rationality and instrumentality, and projects an image of european culture as innately rational and progress oriented. what holds the report together, in other words, is a vision of science as the cornerstone of modern western culture which served and must continue to serve as the motor of both material and moral progress. it is not my purpose here to subject this portrayal to critique. rather, i want to draw attention to the fact that this claim which links scientific education to socio-cultural concerns beyond economic and intellectual growth is strongly rooted in enlightenment ideology. from this perspective, that the coupling of scientific, social and moral progress was an outstanding theme during the enlight- enment, including by those who offered doubts, hardly needs a footnote. diderot and d’alembert’s en- cyclopédie stands out as perhaps its greatest monument. l. l. roberts then, focusing on scientific education only for its own sake or in relation to economic growth is just half the story. this is not only a question of omission, however. by forgetting the moral concerns that lay at the heart of many science education programs and discussions during the eighteenth century and since, some historians have been led to misread the past. this is particularly so in the case of historians who seek to explain the netherlands’ belated process of indus- trialization, relative to great britain and belgium, as rooted in dutch society’s declining interest and involvement in science and science education during the second half of the eighteenth century. a number of (especially economic) historians have accepted the view that modern technological and economic development are rooted in the spread and application of newtonian mechanics, as most elegantly expressed in the work of margaret jacob. (jacob , pp. – ) this trend has led to both a narrow definition of ‘science’ and ‘the culture of science’, as well as to an equally narrow vision of the historical relation between material production and knowledge production. (roberts et al. ) for while it is certainly the case that dutch universities ceased to be the leading international centers for the study of experimental philosophy and medicine during the second half of the century, the investigation of nature continued to be valued in the netherlands throughout the century, for reasons that went beyond the growth of scientific knowledge for its own sake, the goals of ‘polite’ amateur learning, and narrowly construed interests in material productivity and economic growth. indeed, a good deal of concern for the teaching of science, and education more gen- erally in the netherlands during the second half of the eighteenth century, was linked to what the dutch called ‘oeconomische patriotisme’, akin to what one might find in oeco- nomic and ‘improvement’ societies throughout europe. the word oeconomie did not actually find its way into dutch dictionaries until the eighteenth century. but its appearance should not be seen as signalling the birth of modern economic thinking. rather, it drew on its etymological origins, linking market activities to a vision of society as a (domestic) household. in such a situation, material productivity could not be considered as an for a critical variation, see davids ( , pp. – ), in which he argues that the problem was not inattention to science, but insufficient interplay between ‘science’ and ‘technology’. there exists as yet no overarching study of this important enlightenment movement, whose variegations were colored by local socio-political characteristics. hence, for example, german variants developed within the context of government-sponsored cameralism, while swiss and dutch oeconomic societies were more engaged with the ideals and actualities of their local republican contexts and english ‘improvers’ operated in a context colored at least partially by the ways in which market-driven entrepreneurialism bridged the traditional gap between rural and urban forms of productivity (see, for example, lowood ; wakefield ; kapossy ; roberts ; mijnhardt ). no study of this phenomenon would be complete without mentioning its global reach, both in terms of the ways in which global exchanges were taken up by european oeconomists and in terms of the establishment of oeconomic societies and activities outside europe. on the first, see for example, koerner ( ). etymologically, the original greek oikos and its latin equivalent refer either to household management or ecclesiastical dispensation, explaining the initial dutch translation as huishoudkunde. while the word oeconomie had acquired a broader meaning by the seventeenth century, referring to the orderly management of a larger community’s resources (hence the dutch staathuishoudkunde), it continued to carry with it a sense of the moral responsibility entailed in the organization and management of familial resources (see shannot , p. ; arsy ; sewel , vol. i, p. and vol. ii, p. ). the introduction, definition and applied use of the term oeconomie in dutch during the eighteenth century helps explain why the amorality of adam smith’s economic views in wealth of nations originally found little fertile ground in the netherlands, as opposed to his theory of moral sentiments (see kloek and mijnhardt , p. ). science education for dutch orphans autonomous goal; for the benefit of society, it had always to be accompanied by the goals of virtuous behavior and a sense of moral responsibility. this helps to explain why, across europe and beyond, the eighteenth century is full of examples in which improvements in agriculture and manufacture alike were spurred by individuals and organizations who were not solely motivated by self-enrichment in the financial sense. more specific to this essay, it helps us understand why two of the largest scientific instrument and model collections in the netherlands during the eighteenth cen- tury belonged to institutions which were not primarily interested in the advancement of science for its own sake and whose aims were other than (economically understood) profit maximization. the mennonite seminary in amsterdam, which housed an enviable col- lection, included experimental philosophy in its curriculum so as to prepare mennonite preachers for the task of linking an understanding of this world with concern for the world to come. the other institution in question was an orphanage established in the hague with an educational programme intended to nurture promising orphans whose talents would otherwise be lost to society. along with fraternal institutions in delft and utrecht, this orphanage was funded by the fundatie van renswoude, which was capitalized by the bequest of a wealthy aristocratic widow, and staffed by a group of dedicated and socially engaged teachers. what brings these two institutions together, beyond the fact that they invested in science education, is that they did so for reasons that help reveal how interest in and involvement with science were undergirded by a wide range of meanings attached to the concept of utility, recognized as a central tenet of the dutch enlightenment (roberts ; mijnhardt ; mijnhardt ; mijnhardt and kloek ). for some, studying nature was useful for what it taught about the creative greatness and goodness of god. for others, it was a necessary first step toward being able to control nature for material or social benefit. for some, an understanding of natural laws buttressed a drive to understand and reform the laws of society. others sought to weave science education into a program that somehow tied meritocratic ideals to conservative political allegiance. in other words, thanks to the variegated understanding of and support for utility, the dutch found it possible to disagree about politics while agreeing about the desirability and meritocratic goals of science education. this can perhaps best be seen by setting the fundatie van renswoude’s program alongside that of a contemporary organization established in leiden, the amateur society mathesis scientiarum genitrix (msg), which also aimed to improve the lives of select orphans through the medium of science education. as mentioned at the beginning of this essay, these two organizations manifested rather different politics, but never wavered from their commitment to enrich society by educating its orphans. this study allows us, then, to go beyond the rhetoric of political opposition voiced during the turbulent years of contrast this view with the otherwise informative work of the social and economic historian h. van den eerenbeemt, who develops a claim that the dutch enlightenment was marked by a ‘‘marriage’’ between philanthropy and economics. reference to marriage rather than (perceived) unity is to read a modern, liberal conception of ‘economics’ back into an inappropriate context (see e.g. van den eerenbeemt , ). on the mennonite instrument cabinet, see zuidervaart ( ). for the most recent and complete study of the fundatie, see gaemers ( ). in this regard, the concept ‘utility’ can be considered as a boundary object. see star and griesemer ( ): ‘‘boundary objects are objects which are both plastic enough to adapt to local needs and the constraints of the several parties employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common identity across sites…they have different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation’’ p. . see also daston ( ). l. l. roberts revolution and war at the close of the eighteenth century, to examine a practical current of cultural continuity. whether orangist or patriot, broad sectors of dutch society could be counted on to support the goals of moral citizenship. for individuals such as the members of msg and those involved with the fundatie van renswoude this entailed organizing and supporting educational opportunities for underprivileged children. these two institutions, examined in the penultimate sections of this essay, reveal further how science and technology were harnessed to develop the talents of promising dutch orphans for public benefit, thereby informing us about the place given science and tech- nology in dutch culture more generally. based on a formula that tied meritocracy to social benefit through the medium of scientific and technological instruction, select orphans were taught mathematics, physics, architecture, instrument-making, the surgeon’s art and vari- ous permutations of what we now broadly call engineering, both to realize their individual potential and to tap their talents for the good of the nation. while, as stated, oeconomic and improvement movements were widespread in europe during the second half of the eighteenth century, the specifically dutch history of having to contend with threats posed by the natural habitat left its mark on the movement’s contours in the netherlands. dutch survival historically depended, that is to say, on shaping the physical environment and making the most of limited resources. (lambert ) if this meant centuries of innovative water management and land reclamation projects, it also required social and cultural cooperation, even when political agreement was not possible. some argued that it further required nourishing talent, wherever it might be found, for the sake of national moral and material progress. hopeful that promising young minds could be productively cultivated through the application of science and technology, just as the netherlands’ originally savage landscape had been, these reformers tied science and technology to the meritocratic enhancement of dutch culture and society. . moral citizenship and education in the netherlands when dutch reform advocates spoke of reinvigorating their ‘fatherland’ during the second half of the eighteenth century, they generally took this paternal metaphor to include a vision of the ‘natural’ social order and what was needed to maintain its health and stability in materially difficult times. the lower classes had a right to gainful employment, they argued, but also a duty to adhere to what many current-day politicians continue to refer to as ‘dutch norms and values’. this meant first that the potential productivity of the poor—especially in urban areas that were suffering from growing overseas competition during the eighteenth century—should be tapped. if this was often expressed in positive terms as the key to alleviating poverty and re-establishing the netherlands as an interna- tional centre of manufacture and trade, hendrik herman van den heuvel—founder of the important reforming society oeconomische tak (the ‘‘oeconomic branch,’’ established in as an offshoot of the hollandsche maatschappij der wetenschappen [dutch society of science] to encourage material and moral recovery) and editor of the spectatorial journal ‘‘few countries exist where the hand of man has exerted a greater formative influence in the shaping of the landscape’’. lambert ( ), preface. for a general introduction to this topic, see los ( ), especially chap. . cornelis ris, founder of the vaderlandsche maatschappij van reederij en koophandel (fatherlandic shipping and commerce company) in the town of hoorn, for example, repeatedly described characteristics such as decency, humility, thrift, honesty and sincerity as traditional dutch qualities. see, for example, ris ( , pp. , ). science education for dutch orphans de borger—was more blunt. he strongly advised matching education to a child’s social station, lest the poor come to think that they were too good to work with their hands. too much education, he warned, was a threat to social stability (de borger, (october ): – ). in this, his views were consonant with those voiced by a number of ‘enlightened’ contemporaries throughout europe. as discussed by daniel mornet in his classic study on the intellectual origins of the french revolution, the french philosophes’ ideal of popular education was predominantly to ‘‘make more useful men, not more thoughtful ones’’. hence could a well-trained workforce augment the nation’s prosperity without ‘‘inverting the order of things’’. utility dictated for van den heuvel that the poor imbibe the values of hard work and civic virtue so as to render them materially productive and socio-politically passive. this can be seen, for example, in proposals that were floated within the oeconomische tak to train poor youth for service at sea. traditionally a maritime nation, the netherlands was losing ground to england militarily and commercially during the second half of the eighteenth century, partly due to lack of naval manpower. some society members thought the answer was to organize an institute for maritime training, as english counterparts had done in , but the society’s central committee decided it was more efficient simply to offer monetary awards to boys who signed up for on-the-job training. (titsingh ) when such a school was nonetheless founded in amsterdam by private subscription in , the society did offer limited financial support. (bierens de haan , pp. – ) the emphasis remained fixed, however, on immediately perceived social benefit rather than popular enlightenment. other initiatives, set in motion by various municipalities and private parties during this period, tended to couple the establishment of workhouses for textile manufacture, as well as for products ranging from wallpaper to porcelain, with various incentives (either positive or punitive) to convert the ‘idle’ poor into productive workers (van den eer- enbeemt ). if domestic (a term that reminds us of the oeconomic equation of the nation with a familial household) output could thus be increased, reformers believed, dutch society would once again flourish in terms of widespread material wealth and the kind of happiness found in moral rectitude; simply put, a return to the republic’s ‘golden age’. for the poor, however, the future looked somewhat less golden. workdays in such institutions were long and often structured to include training programs for the young, who learned manual skills such as spinning and embroidery, along with basic reading, writing, arith- metic and the fundamentals of moral religion. the general goal was to train an army of citizens, through the propagation of industriousness, to accept their place in the social order while contributing to the moral and material good of the nation as a whole. this makes the educational and professional opportunities afforded orphans by the fundatie van renswoude and msg, as will be discussed later in this essay, seem all the more striking. but, explaining the presence of these two institutions is not simply a matter hake labels oeconomic patriots such as van den heuvel and ris as ‘conservative’ for this stance, which leads him to argue more generally that oeconomic patriotism was a conservative faction within the more general patriot movement. hake ( , p. ). but, as stated below, ris became so active in the patriot movement that he had to flee his home town in when pro-orangist forces gained political control of the area. first quotation from mornet ( , p. ). second quotation from françois philippe gourdin, ‘‘de l‘éducation physique et morale considerée relativement à la place que doivent occuper les enfans dans l’ordre de la société’’ (lyon ) cited in chisick ( , p. ). reformers such as cornelis ris explicitly used the term ‘citizen’ to refer to the entire dutch population. see ibid., passim. l. l. roberts of contrasting proclaimed opposites such as enlightenment thinking and revolutionary ideology (both organizations were established too early, in any event, for this to be the case) or orangist conservatism and patriot progressivism. ultimately, we can best understand them as manifesting a small but telling facet of the netherland’s complexly hewn culture of utility—one that tied science and technology to the narrowly applied ideals of meritocracy. even before turning to the fundatie and msg, however, we can see just how complex this culture was by recognizing the role played by the house of orange in supporting efforts to revive dutch productivity during the late eighteenth century, as well as after its establishment as the netherlands’ royal house after the fall of napoleon. when the reforming society oeconomische tak, original home of dutch oeconomic patriotism, was established in to stimulate a fusion of material and moral progress in the netherlands, it did so with stadholder willem v as its official patron. not only did he announce his intention henceforth to prefer domestic products over imports, a basic tenet of the society, he and his family put their money where their mouths were by supporting various ventures intended to produce and bring domestic goods to market. they became major stockholders, for example, in cornelis ris’ vaderlandsche maatschappij van reederij en koophandel (fatherlands shipping and commerce company), which oversaw a network of production centers that specialized in products ranging from whaling ships to stockings and painted wallpaper as well as administering a school in which poor children were taught religious and moral responsibility, reading, writing, arithmetic and the sorts of basic manual skills with which they could be put to work. ris was pleased to have such highly-placed backing, but this didn’t stop him from becoming active in the local patriotic society of hoorn—so active, in fact, that he had to flee the city in following an orangist victory there (kooijmans , p. ). the stadholder’s family similarly bought shares in the porcelain factory and school set up in by the pastor johannes de mol in the small town of loosdrecht. further, willem v made a point of paying official visits to sites that promised oeconomic progress, whether a semi-mechanized cloth factory in amersfoort in , a newly erected steam engine near rotterdam in or a workhouse in groningen in (roberts ; van den eer- enbeemt , pp. , , – ). when we combine this with the fact that orangist financiers, such as the hope family (owners of one of europe’s largest private banking organizations), organized and under- wrote portions of the financing for such ventures, two things become apparent. first, no easy contrast or opposition between (oeconomic) patriots and orangists is possible in the realm of supporting oeconomic reform—an important vehicle for furthering the drive toward moral citizenship in the netherlands. second, the ability to share such socio- cultural goals across an apparent political divide and even cooperate in seeking their attainment did not end with the onset of revolution. traces of this shared urge toward oeconomic reform could still be found in the netherlands long after batavians and bon- apartists alike were replaced by the establishment of a kingdom under willem i (son of stadholder willem v). consider, for example, the king’s supportive stance regarding post- revolutionary dutch industry and commerce, which can be seen as a partial outgrowth of the examples given by his father and ‘oeconomic patriots’ alike, as well as a partial continuation of policies previously enacted by king louis napoleon. not only did king willem i serve as official patron of msg from its inception in (before he became king, that is), a position he resumed upon his return to the netherlands in and continued to hold until his death in . he was also a major stockholder in the nederlandsche handel maatschappij (dutch trading company—established to stimulate science education for dutch orphans dutch commerce, employment and overseas trade) and supported initiatives such as the series of weaving schools set up by thomas ainsworth in the early s to provide employment and stimulate textile production in the netherlands following separation with belgium (coeverden ). clearly the historical circumstances—including economic (as opposed to oeconomic) policies and practices—were different by this time, but it makes more sense in this context to speak of the dutch culture of utility having undergone a complex process of evolution than to refer to the revolutionary period as constituting a watershed. an alternative view as we have now seen, a number of prominent voices and initiatives in the netherlands thus sought to mediate the challenges of progress and social control through programs that trained the poor to be materially productive, morally upright and socio-politically passive. if this was a fairly typical manifestation of enlightenment thinking at the time, the phy- sician and amateur historian simon stijl ( – ) offered a different perspective on the way in which educating the poor should serve the common good. in he published his widely read work, de opkomst en bloei van de republiek der vereenigde nederlanden (the rise and flourishing of the united dutch republic), in which he offered a different view of the relationship between public education and social utility. like many dutch contemporaries, stijl placed the broadly perceived problem of national decline in a moral context and argued that the source of his compatriots’ woes was that they had been seduced by decadent french mores. traditional values and industriousness had given way to materialism and idle sophistication (stijl , especially p. ). according to stijl, the key to national recovery was education…but of a certain kind. he advocated establishing a society to educate poor children, especially orphans. to indicate what he had in mind, stijl asked, ‘‘why is mathematics, which is so useful for guiding human understanding, never counted among the characteristics of a good upbringing?’’ unlike his french counterparts, stijl declared, he was not afraid of teaching children to think, no matter how unfortunate their circumstances. it was in society’s best interest, he asserted, to help all its youth acquire the combined virtues of modesty, reflection and productivity. an upstanding cadre of lawyers, doctors, mathematicians, artists and craftsmen could thus be formed, who would bring credit to their fatherland as they helped to improve its material and moral conditions. rather than destabilize the for biographical background and a discussion of stijl’s ‘‘enlightenment’’ style of history writing, see smitkamp ( ). while the explanation of dutch moral decline through ‘‘frenchification’’ was fairly common, it is interesting to note a variation on the theme offered by stijl’s conservative contemporary elie luzac. in addition to his more general social criticisms, luzac claimed that dutch natural philosophy was suffering from the rage for ‘‘french science’’ by which he meant the ‘‘superficiality’’ of the encyclopédistes and the kind of physique amusante practiced by the abbé nollet. see, for example, various remarks in luzac ( , vol. iii), passim. ‘‘waarom wordt de wiskunst, die so nuttig is om aan het verstand eene geregelde leiding te geeven, nooit onder de punten van een fraaie opvoeding geteld?’’ (stijl , p. ). for trends in society membership and the distinction between dilettante and reforming societies, see mijnhardt ( ). for dutch spectatorial literature, see johannes ( ). contrast stijl’s plan with more usual programs for the ‘‘education’’ of orphans, which often amounted to no more than exploiting their labour (groenveld et al. ; hoker ). l. l. roberts social order, orphans gifted enough to achieve these goals would strengthen the society in which they lived. . educating orphans before we finally turn to the special educational programs organized for orphans by the fundatie van renswoude and msg, providing a sketch of the kind of life and learning experienced by most dutch orphans is in order. the heilige geest orphanage in leiden, from which students were recruited for msg, provides a good example with which to begin. in nearby leiden university’s physics professor jean nicolas sebastian allamand had four model steam engines from the university’s instrument collection put on display in the orphanage’s courtyard for student lectures and public demonstrations. despite the display’s highly innovative character, no one at the orphanage recorded their reaction. were orphans present at demonstrations? how did they react to university stu- dents in their midst? were they also ‘on display’ when visitors came to see the orphanage and its advertised engines? meeting university students and tourists might have held up a sort of cultural mirror in which orphans could see their images reflected against the perception of those who observed them and their surroundings. but no recorded testimony exists to tell us how orphans perceived this complicated set of cultural relations. we do, however, know how orphans were educated at the heilige geest orphanage and in the netherlands generally. first, like all dutch orphans, they were required to wear uniforms which were coloured to match the coat of arms of the city that housed their institution. heilige geest orphans thus dressed in red with blue, black and white acces- sories, and a patch on the left sleeve to represent leiden’s municipal shield (mieris , vol. iii, p. ). whether inside or outside the orphanage, then, the status of dutch orphans was clearly marked. daily life and future prospects were similarly regimented, making their place and expectations equally clear. indeed, regimentation was a key pedagogical tool. consider this primary rule of con- duct: ‘‘that during the day and evening school time, no one may leave his place without the teacher’s consent, nor is anyone allowed to ask questions or recite their lessons out loud, but rather to be so quiet that nothing can be heard’’. this disciplined atmosphere coupled with an overriding emphasis on religion (all the books in the orphanage library, for example, dealt with religious subjects) were meant to prepare orphans for a life of docile acceptance. the first thing they had to accept was a fixed schedule. younger children had lessons every weekday from nine until twelve and two until five; lessons on saturdays went from nine until eleven. the time was spent reading and writing, mostly in relation to catechism, and basic arithmetic. three afternoons a week were deemed enough for older children who worked doing laundry, sewing and the like. classes for older boys apprenticed in crafts as textile manufacturing, plumbing, smithing, painting and glass making, were held in their we should remember here both that an article about the placement of one of the machines in the courtyard appeared on the front page of the leidse courant, june and that visits to institutions such as orphanages and asylums were common forms of entertainment (see roberts ). for a good introductory overview, see groenveld et al. ( ), especially pp. – . ‘‘dat geduurende de dag en avondschooltijd, niemand van zijn plaats mag opstaan zonder consent van de meester, als ook dat niemand vermag iets ‘t zij vragens of lessen verstaanbaar te leeren, maar so stil dat er niets van gehoord kan worden’’. archief heilige geest weeshuis, leiden municipal archives, # . the catalogue of library books is found in # . not everyone internalized this lesson, of course. the records of the orphanage contain numerous accounts of runaways and other disciplinary problems. science education for dutch orphans workshops. and for a final group of older girls whose work kept them busy all day, school was held at night from seven to nine. lessons in penmanship, number recognition, and christian morality remained an organized and organizing part of every orphan’s life as long as they lived under the orphanage’s care. mathesis scientiarum genitrix if anything, such a disciplined environment seems more conducive to deadening imagi- nation and curiosity than to fostering them. but in , potential salvation came for a small number of orphans at the heilige geest orphanage. a local society dedicated to teaching working class children mathematics offered to educate the orphanage’s most promising (male) students on a yearly basis at its own expense. though its founders neither belonged to the oeconomische tak nor cited simon stijl, their society’s history straddled what the one practiced and the other preached. the genootschap der beschou- wende en werkdadige wiskunde, onder de zinspreuk: ‘‘mathesis scientiarum genitrix’’ (society for theoretical and practical mathematics, under the motto ‘‘mathematics gives birth to science/knowledge’’) was established in leiden in , thanks especially to the efforts of pieter van campen, surveyor, mathematics teacher, wine gauger, captain in the lydsche oranje schutterij (leiden orangist militia), and author of books ranging in subject from algebra and mechanics to the construction of self-powered water mills and (bad) poetry. many of the society’s members shared his orangist sympathies, leading them to seek (successfully) the patronage of the prince who ultimately became king willem i. under his official protection, they set out to serve their fatherland by instructing ‘‘de kinderen des volks’’ in mathematics and its practical applications. in , they decided to include a small number of orphans in the society’s student population. originally, the society offered a mixed program. students from leiden university and the city’s middle class were trained to help teach fortification design, the mathematical analysis of projectiles, and navigational techniques to working class boys in the hopes of making them fit for military service or life at sea. if this seems in line with the oeco- nomische tak’s orientation, the curriculum offered to orphans promised more. instead of being channelled toward a career in the army or at sea, orphans were introduced more broadly to the principles of mathematics, architecture, experimental physics, and drawing. too little remains in the archives to indicate whether the primary goal of this program was to train skilled craftsmen or expand the orphans’ horizons. a class schedule from which does still exist includes courses in arithmetic, seamanship, mechanical engineering (werktuigkunde), drawing, geography, architecture, experimental physics and algebra. we know further that society members sought to maintain the program’s educational level by organizing a subsidiary society in which they practiced operating scientific instruments and built machine models that could then be shared with the children. finally, courses were ibid., # and # . the only exception to these requirements was for orphans who were placed in service, either military, naval or with the west or east indies companies. see # and # . for more general discussion of mathematical education at this time, see beckers ( ). for biographical information on pieter van campen, see nieuw nederlandsch biografisch woordenboek, , vol. , columns – . other founders included arnoldus van gennep, law student at university of leiden, j. reinier, theology student, pieter rijk, bricklayer and teacher, a. de bruine de neve, medical student, and betholomeus van den broek, sculptor and teacher. van den broek taught drawing and draughting for the society for some years before retiring. the quoted phrase is from bemmelen ( , p. ). for the agreement between the society and the orphanage, see archief heilige geest weeshuis, # . l. l. roberts held for a time in the same room as that which housed the artist frans van mieris’ maatschappij van schilder- en teekenkunde (society for the arts of painting and draw- ing). one can only imagine the impact of such encounters and surroundings. in the orphans’ curriculum was adopted for everyone and university and middle class students were no longer trained to teach their lower-class piers (dijk , p. ). msg’s orangist members might have been less inclined to train sailors and soldiers for the batavian republic, but local politics undoubtedly also had something to do with this newly chosen direction. as early as allamand’s successor at leiden university, c.h. damen, complained about the society’s program and pretensions. threatening action to protect his own academic turf and clientele, damen also criticized society members for thinking they could effectively teach military and navigational arts without having expe- rience themselves and without including a practicum in their lessons. no war was ever won or sea ever crossed by reading a book, he averred (p. ). damen was less damning of the courses offered by the society to a select group of orphans. it never hurt anyone to learn how things work and it might actually happen that an orphan would thereby be led to rise above his circumstances. but even here damen remained less than optimistic. he argued that few orphans had the attitude and aptitude needed to succeed as an architect or millwright. as if to echo his words, the only surviving letters from the society’s teachers to the orphanage from this period are filled with dis- paraging remarks about orphans’ lack of ability and commitment. this did not keep the society from carrying on with its self-appointed mission, however, nor from attaining both a good reputation and social standing for its work. public exam- inations, for example, advertised students’ ability to calculate complicated sums in their heads. students learned from both published textbooks and handbooks written specially by society members. they studied experimental physics and mechanical engineering (wer- ktuigkunde) through experimental demonstrations with the society’s collection of instru- ments and mechanical models, as well as by building their own model machines. as the nineteenth century progressed, msg carried on, firmly anchored by its dual allegiance to monarchy and meritocracy. the fundatie van renswoude the evidence that damen drew on for his somber picture of orphans’ educational achievements came from his (however biased) familiarity with the fundatie van rens- woude. in , maria duyst van voorhout, vrijvrouwe (baroness) van renswoude died, leaving two legacies. the first was a sum of , guilders to provide advanced education for select orphans from the municipal orphanage of the hague, the reformed orphanage of delft, and the stadsambachtskinderhuis of utrecht. the second is the for the class schedule see peeperkorn ( , p. ). the sub-society mentioned was originally named the wis- en werktuigkundig genootschap onder de spreuk: kunst word door oefening aangekweekt. it continued to exist until as the physisch genootschap. for mention of the msg’s relation with frans van mieris, see ibid., p. . for more details, see archief koninklijk genootschap ‘mathesis scientiarum genitrix’, leiden municipal archives. archief heilige geest weeshuis, # . see peeperkorn ( ) for nineteenth and twentieth century. for biographical information, see booy and engel ( , pp. – ). science education for dutch orphans historical presence of a dutch noblewoman who collaborated with natural philosophers and practiced a kind of philanthropy usually associated with late eighteenth-century reforming societies. together these legacies point to how complicated the socio-political map of eighteenth- century dutch culture was. simon stijl’s patriotism led him in the late eighteenth century to combine his call for popular education with a montesquieuian program of mixed government in which stadholder, regents and ‘‘the people’’ formed a productively balanced whole (smitkamp , p. ). members of mathesis scientiarum genitrix, on the other hand, linked orangist sympathies with enlightenment ideals even during revolutionary times. decades earlier, the vrijvrouwe van renswoude shared the disdain of a number of her fellow regent-aristocrats for the house of orange while she showed her intellectual and economic independence by endowing a unique set of educational institutions for orphans rather than leaving the whole of her fortune to relatives (langenbach ). van voorhout was explicit about the sort of education she wanted specially chosen orphans to receive. they were to be trained in ‘‘mathematics and physics, drawing or painting, sculpting or carving, building strong dikes to protect our land from heavy inundations of water, and similar liberal arts.’’ in practice this meant that the educational program was divided in two. internally, fundatie pupils followed a curriculum which included mathematics instruction (mathesis), drawing and catechism lessons. pupils further studied foreign languages, penmanship, current events and geography. outside the foun- dation, pupils received individualized training, in keeping with the career for which they were being prepared. in sum, their education was intended to prepare them for useful lives as watchmakers, instrument makers, surveyors, engineers, architects, surgeons, artists, teachers and military officers. a series of portraits made of the foundation’s first students in utrecht, captured the promise this education bestowed on the boys by portraying them with the instruments of their chosen trade in hand. so was jan weteling, who specialized in navigation and surveying and who, after spending time in service of the dutch east indies company, became a school master in later life, pictured holding an astrolabe (pp. – ). jan wormerus raven, whose study in surveying and engineering ultimately led to his appointment as inspector general of water management (inspecteur-generaal van waterstaat) and mayor of the zeeland town of sas van gent, posed with a holland circle in his hands (pp. – ). and hendrik groenendaal, whose training as an instrument maker included a temporary apprenticeship in paris and who later worked making instruments for martinus van marum and teylers museum, chose to be portrayed with a microscope he had made (pp. – ). the foundation was also interested in raising its students’ social and cultural horizons. foundation orphans wore a specially designed uniform to distinguish them from those who remained in the institutions from which they came. beside academic courses, they learned dancing, the niceties of polite conversation and table manners. and students were the vrijvrouwe van renswoude apparently met antonie van leeuwenhoek while growing up in delft and retained a friendship with him in later years, though the only letters still extent to evidence a relationship are those written by van leeuwenhoek to her husband. these letters contain details of microscopic observations made in her home. see alle de brieven van antonie van leeuwenhoek ( , vol. , p. ). see also wall ( , p. ). ‘‘…mathesis, teekenen of schilderkonst, beeldhouwen of beeldsnijden, oeffeningen in sware dijkagien tot behoudinge van ons landt tegens sware overstromingen van ‘t water, of dergelijke libere konsten’’. this portion of her testament is quoted in langenbach ( , p. ). i leave the questions of artistic and surgical training largely aside (which do not alter my argument) because of space limitations. ibid. this book is based on an exhibition held in january at the centraal museum, utrecht. l. l. roberts encouraged to learn about the creative arts and to read as extensively as possible. the idea was that they should they not only serve society, but that they should politely fit into it as well. these were boys who would never have attended university on their own, yet they were exposed to many of the same authors and instruments as university students. an inventory of the delft library from , for example, lists the titles of some study books. students were further supported to purchase their own books. books in dutch, latin, french, and german on subjects including natural history, mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, military arts, fortification building, geography, architecture, shipbuilding, machine building, navigation, and surveying appeared in the library and student collec- tions, indicating that students had a broad range of interests and working knowledge of more than one language. the physics cabinets of the three foundations were well enough equipped to rival, if not surpass, that of leiden university. in , for example, the delft foundation bought a large portion of leiden professor allamand’s private instrument collection when he died. an inventory taken immediately after the purchase lists some instruments spread over eight categories: mechanical and machine models; hydrostatic and hydraulic instruments; instruments for experimenting with air, fire and magnetism, light, and electricity; instru- ments for astronomy and navigation as well as sundials; and, finally, measuring devices and artillery instruments. in the hague, the situation was even more lavish. an inventory of its collection from fills seventy-five pages and includes separate entries, some of which were items purchased from well known london instrument makers and others crafted by foundation students (florijn ). one of the entries, for example, described what must have been an impressive copper and ivory orrery made by the london instrument maker e. wright, but powered by a mechanism made by one of the orphans, johannes anthonie van baarda (p. ). others included a wide range of measuring devices, globes made by the surveyor and geographer to queen anne, john senex, an octant from john hadley’s hand, several balances and devices for demonstrating physical principles which were discussed by ‘s gravesande, nollet, desaguliers and musschenbroek (relevant page numbers are given in the inventory). so too were detailed working models of various machines, mills and constructions such as bridges and building elements part of the collection as were a number of apparatus for use in the study of water management. both english and domestically made air pumps were present, along with various items for studying air(s), sound and heat. of special interest in this last category were two items discussed by ‘s gravesande—an aeolipile and a steam-driven wagon—both of which demonstrated the basic principles and power of controlled steam. optical instruments also abounded as did devices for demon- strating static electricity and gravity, making this a highly exemplary collection both in terms of its size and breadth of coverage. foundation students were indeed a lucky lot. the institution’s governors initially budgeted , guilders annually (and more, as needed) for the purchase of instruments. the amount tapered off as the instrument col- lection grew, but results remained impressive. to compare, leiden university spent some , guilders on instruments for the university physics cabinet for the period – , leaving it with items. during the same period, about , guilders were spent on the see booy and engel ( , appendix ; pp. – ) for a complete list of titles. ibid., appendix (pp. – ) lists the entire inventory of the delft collection. for the hague, see florijn ( , p. ). the texts cited were gravesande ( ), nollet ( ), desaguliers ( ) and musschenbroek ( ). science education for dutch orphans teylers museum collection in haarlem, where martinus van marum sought to turn the museum into an international center for natural philosophical research. given these figures, the swedish astronomer and diarist bengt ferrner had cause to predict that, within a few years of his visit in , the foundation in the hague would house the best instrument collection in the netherlands. the precise details of how van voorhout’s instructions were to be carried out were left to local committees. hence, the institutions in delft, utrecht and the hague differed from each other in a variety of ways that at least partially reflected the differences among the three orphanages from which van renswoude charges came. but they shared a basis in mathematics and experimental physics, a special emphasis on fields that related to water and land management along with the making of precision instruments, and an appren- ticeship system that placed students in the best possible place to learn their chosen trade. these facts are revealing in a number of ways. they tell us what the governing regents considered necessary to prepare talented boys for a life combining personal development and public service. we see also their commitment to bolstering the dutch tradition of seeking security and prosperity through engineering—whether of the land- or waterscape. thanks to the enlightened largesse of their benefactress, then, fundatie van renswoude students were exposed to the latest innovations in the arts and sciences. if they pursued this striking opportunity, they stood to realize the utilitarian and meritocratic ideal that authors such as stijl wrote about and so many others dreamed of. and, contrary to what damen reported in his disparaging letters to msg, a number of orphans did precisely this, obtaining university degrees in a few cases and rising through the ranks of organizations such as the dutch east indies company, private engineering firms and public water boards. teachers might have complained about some students’ lack of diligence and some students might not have completed the program, but many of those who did went onto enjoy productive careers. of the pupils admitted to the utrecht program between and , for example, are known to have finished their education and to have gone onto establish careers. in some cases, the contextual challenges of economic downturn and revolution proved too great, but there were enough success stories to make this a remarkable episode. as we will see, the pool from which the utrecht program drew its charges was the weakest of the three. not surprisingly, then, completion rates and career paths of students in delft and the hague evidence a higher degree of success. of the fifty orphans who for the hague, see kernkamp ( , pp. – ). it is worth quoting a sizeable excerpt: ‘‘twaalf van de vlugste jongelingen uit het burgerweeshuis worden hier opgenomen om te worden onderwezen in frans, tekenen, schermen en dansen, maar vooral in mathematica en fysica, in welke laatste vakken zij onderwezen worden door een zekere la faille, die, te oordelen naar het gesprek, dat ik met hem voerde, een geschikt en bekwaam man is voor dat doel. alle theorie wordt zoveel mogelijk bekrachtigd door experimenten, wa- arvoor allerlei soorten van instrumenten gekocht worden, zonder er op te letten, of zij duur zijn of niet. la faille heeft slechts te bestellen bij de beste instrumentmakers, die hij kent, en op voorwaarde, dat het instrument zo goed wordt, dat het volkomen beantwoordt aan zijn doel en de goedkeuring verwerft van de professoren musschenbroek en lulofs in leiden, mogen zij zoveel daarvoor bedingen, dat zij met voordeel hun tijd en hun opmerkzaamheid daaraan kunnen wijden en geen vrees behoeven te koesteren, dat men hun afdingt. jaarlijks is een som van , gulden bestemd voor het aankopen van instrumenten, zodat hier binnen weinig jaren de grootste verzameling bijeen zal zijn, die men ergens findt; bovendien is er meer geld beschikbaar voor instrumenten, wanneer in een of ander jaar meer dan , gulden nodig is. la faille deed in onze tegenwoordigheid enige proeven met de instrumenten, die hij had, welker aantal reeds zo groot is, dat het hier te wijdlopig zou worden om ze op te sommen, want er zijn er reeds voor een bedrag van meer dan , gulden. alle proeven gingen precies, zoals zij volgens de theorie moesten gaan’’. for instrumental purchases at leiden and haarlem, see clercq ( , p. ). for an overview of student successes, see langenbach ( ), for utrecht; booy and engel ( ), for delft, and hardenberg ( ), for the hague. l. l. roberts entered the delft foundation by the end of the eighteenth century, for example, only eight did not complete their education successfully—one because of premature death. and while a small number ( ) of delft’s graduates went onto work in various capacities on voc ships and foreign colonies, most managed to practice their occupations in the netherlands. these included carpenters and furniture makers, jewellers, surgeons, millwrights, teachers and surveyors (booy and engel , pp. – ). . orphan education and the urge to reform successful fundatie students owed much to their teachers, especially the mathesis (pure and applied mathematics and physics) instructors who served as unofficial directors of the three schools and who inspired their students both pedagogically and by example. from the start, these teachers worked to give substance to the meritocratic vision later articulated by stijl that coupled personal development with national rebirth. as evidenced by the inau- gural speech given in delft by the man who would go onto be head teacher there for thirty years, this vision provided the very context in which the foundation’s mission would be pursued. johannes van der wall used the occasion to make two points. he claimed first that physical labor alone could do little to advance society. only an education stressing the arts and sciences could spur useful inventions and social happiness. second, he praised the foundation’s decision to establish separate schools for the most promising orphans rather than trying to teach the same program to all. not every child is blessed with equal potential, he explained. those with greater abilities deserve to be nurtured for the good of society (wall , pp. – , – ). before coming to delft, van der wall taught structural engineering (bouwkunde) to military officers as he wrote a doctoral dissertation on navigation (ars navigandi) at leiden university. though tempted by offers to become professor at the universities of leiden and utrecht, van der wall stayed in delft until his death in . in addition to his work for the foundation, he examined captains and pilots for the east indies company, gave public lectures on mathematics and astronomy for the city of delft and served as the city’s inspector of public works. these tasks never eroded his dedication to his students, how- ever. when good textbooks were unavailable, for example, van der wall wrote his own, on subjects ranging from practical geometry, mill construction and navigation to physics, geography and human anatomy. further, he arranged the best apprenticeships possible for his students and followed their progress closely. in one case, he mentored the young man who would become his own successor, making sure that the foundation supported abraham van bemmelen until he completed his studies with allamand at leiden uni- versity (booy and engel , pp. – ) in another case, van der wall shepherded frederick willem conrad through an apprenticeship as surveyor, leading to his employ- ment by the agency responsible for overseeing the netherlands’ rivers (the predecessor of today’s department of water management (rijkswaterstaat)). conrad ultimately became the agency’s inspector general, following in the footsteps of leiden university’s physics professor johan lulofs (winter , p. ). it is striking to notice that van der wall repeatedly made use of metaphors drawn from water-man- agement to speak of the foundation’s mission. van der wall apparently custom-made handbooks for his students that fit with their lessons in ways that available published texts could not do. they were never themselves published, nor have examples survived. what we know of them comes from reports van der wall made to the orphanage’s board of regents. see especially ‘‘rapport van der wall’’ ( / / ), archief van de fundatie van renswoude # . science education for dutch orphans jacob baart de la faille showed similar dedication and ability in the hague. while foundation director, he also taught mathematics to the hague bureaucrats, showing his students by example how to combine theory with practice. baart de la faille fils, who taught by his father’s side before becoming professor of mathematics and physics at the university of groningen, paid homage to his father by posthumously publishing his book verhandeling over de rekenkunsten (lectures on mathematics) in and by teaching his own courses in groningen in a way that stressed practical application as much as theory (pp. – ; hardenberg , p. ). utrecht was a different situation; so is the story of its head teacher. the sta- dsambachtskinderhuis (municipal workers’ orphanage), from which utrecht foundation students came, was established to house children who had nowhere else to go. local catholic orphanages wouldn’t take them because they were born out of wedlock or were not fully catholic. the more prestigious burgerweeshuis (burger orphanage) would not accept them because their parents weren’t municipal citizens. these were children from whom little was expected and to whom little was traditionally given. unsurprisingly, none of them seemed appropriate candidates for the foundation when the first round of exam- inations was held. to solve this problem, a preparatory school was established to ready potential students for the foundation. its director had to work closely with the foundation’s head teacher to insure that things proceeded smoothly and effectively. in the case of the first director and head teacher, dirk de west and laurens praalder, the results were striking both within and beyond the foundation. in praalder used his spare time to help establish a society dedicated to applying the arts and sciences to social needs, the genootschap ‘besteedt den tijd met konst en vlijt’ (society ‘give time to art and industry’). de west became one of the society’s first members. not everyone was pleased with the society’s unorthodox and un-hierarchical organization, however. members seeking higher status for themselves and the society applied for and received a provincial patent that officially recognized them as the pro- vinciaals utrechtsch genootschap (provincial society of utrecht). not only was the society reorganized hierarchically, it redirected its purpose along more traditional lines. praalder’s vision of social improvement through public education was replaced by the desire for dilettantish gratification. he and de west left the group. they and their views soon found a new home however. this time it was de west who helped found the utrecht chapter of the maatschappij tot nut van ‘t algemeen (society for public welfare), a soon-to-be nationwide society dedicated to the same ideals that moti- vated him and praalder at the foundation and, previously, at the genootschap ‘besteedt den tijd met konst en vlijt’. initially a small society, het nut (as it was popularly called) developed into a network of local chapters where participants shared local interests and an increasingly national orientation that called for nationwide educational reform. the soci- ety’s success can be gauged in two ways. first, it had fifty-two chapters by the turn of the century. second, it provided the intellectual force behind a series of laws that organized langenbach ( , p. ), makes the important point that, while the students in utrecht overall seem to have achieved less than their fellows in delft and the hague, the success of the foundation in utrecht has to be measured against the initial circumstances in which these orphans found themselves. for a quotation from the society’s constitution, see singels ( , p. ). for details regarding goals and membership structure see mijnhardt ( , p. ). we can see this by contrasting the work that praalder and de west did at the foundation with the content of pedagogical guides written by another of the society’s prominent members. de perponcher (member of the utrecht nobility) directed both his books ( , ) exclusively to members of the upper classes. l. l. roberts elementary education on a national basis in the netherlands beginning in (lenders, , especially pp. – ). members of het nut were motivated by their commitment to creating a nation of moral citizens (mijnhardt, , pp. – ). we can recognize this retrospectively as a political goal in that it rested on a nationalist vision of the netherlands—a vision in which all citizens received equal treatment under the law. in order to achieve this end, though, the society (like many other late eighteenth-century dutch societies) declared itself officially apolitical. discussions of party politics and partisan religion were barred from its meetings, which opened its membership to otherwise outspoken patriots, loyal orangists and men who were pragmatic enough to ride the rough waves of contemporary politics in order to get things done. (p. ) and get things done they did. a number of popular books on topics ranging from arithmetic and child-rearing to physics and natural history were published thanks to society efforts. and by cultivating good relationships with government officials, nut members gained appointments as educational inspectors, overseeing a fledgling national school system based on their recommendations. the system’s structure was laid out in a gov- ernment commissioned report, written and published by het nut in . the report called for a two-tiered program. a general curriculum was proposed for the nation as a whole, while a more advanced course of study was to be offered to those with ‘‘special’’ capac- ities. (algemeene denkbeelden ) the society embraced equal treatment under the law, therefore, but did not advocate social homogenization. its proposal was explicitly merit- ocratic. only those showing promise would be nurtured beyond the minimum. all students would be taught basic literacy, numeracy and morality; only a few would study science and languages. (p. ) as van der wall had stated years before at the fundatie van rens- woude’s inauguration, society was moved by scientific enlightenment and not the brute force of physical labor. but only a few were capable of providing that intellectual power. the rest would serve the national good by internalizing the precepts of christian morality and following their superiors’ lead. if the netherlands remained a hierarchical society throughout the long eighteenth century by intellectual accord as well as practical circumstances, its educational programs and ideals helped give it form and direction. this should not be read, however, as an endorsement of the view that it was a society in which a growing gap separated the world of learning and culture from the practical concerns of work and technical development. dutch universities continued to serve a variety of purposes under the unifying banner of utility while private initiative supported various schemes for redressing what was broadly perceived as the twin plagues of material and moral decline. among these private initia- tives were the amateur society mathesis scientiarum genitrix and the fundatie van renswoude, both of whose programs reflected a facet of the dutch enlightenment’s util- itarian ideal of disciplining nature and society for the public good. by paying special attention to morals, experimental physics, mechanics, applied mathematics and engineer- ing, they prepared their orphans to serve a society of which they were made a part. to round out this picture, two important qualifications must be added. first, dutch faith in meritocracy seems less the outcome of a rise in individualism than the result of a commitment to the netherlands as a national community. in this context, science and technology provided a medium for putting dutch resources to profitable use, whether through engineering the landscape or educating orphans who showed promise. this form of ‘nationalism’ was not a product of revolution, but a longer-standing dutch tradition that compare davids ( ) with frijhoff ( , pp. – ). science education for dutch orphans had itself grown out of centuries of practical experience. it was, therefore, a sort of hybrid that mediated between an ideal and idealized national community on one hand and the realities of localism on the other. this helps to explain the co-existing pursuit of and commitment to reform, on one side, and resistance to the centralizing urges of programs put forth by both the batavian and napoleonic regimes. second, dutch culture in the second half of the eighteenth century nurtured the myth of apolitical sociability, whereby various groups—aristocrats and middle class, orangists and patriots—could participate in the achievement of the same or similar goals despite their overt political differences. if revolution and war had a major impact on such activities, it was primarily to create financial distress and instability. throughout it all, however, the concept of utility—liable to a range of overlapping meanings and applications—leant cultural continuity where social and political interests could not. . postscript both msg and the fundatie van renswoude continue to exist to this day, though in rather different forms than that met in this essay. in general this has to do with, on one hand, historical developments in the field of dutch education and, on the other hand, with the history of orphanages from which they drew their student-charges. as the nineteenth century progressed, secondary schools and institutions of higher education—including those that offered scientific technical courses in their curricula—increasingly appeared and became accessible to a broader range of young people. in conjunction with such broad developments in educational opportunities, programs run within orphanages ultimately became redundant. faced with this situation, the fundatie van renswoude’s three gov- erning boards decided to take joint action in . after establishing that they would not legally be held in violation of the foundation’s original purpose, as laid out in the vrijevrouw van renswoude’s will, they redirected the foundation’s money to providing scholarships for promising students (not only orphans) who wanted to attend university. those responsible for msg responded to the changing environment in a rather different way, both in terms of the kind of education offered and in terms of funding. as the nineteenth century progressed, surrounding technological and industrial developments increased the need for daytime training of boys to be augmented by courses in mathe- matics, physics and various sorts of engineering. to meet this demand, msg organized an evening educational program, increasingly encouraged by the support of leiden’s cultural and intellectual establishment. by the end of the century, a program in electrical engi- neering was established, under the personal guidance of leiden professor h. kamerlingh onnes. this longstanding link with the university both fed msg’s reputation and provided future opportunities for msg students. by , more than students attended its evening school. following the end of world war two a day school was also started to answer leiden’s ever-growing demand for technical studies. by almost , students were in attendance. quite understandably, such dynamic developments could not have been financed by private subscription alone. neither was it seen as desirable to maintain the schools as privately administered institutions, given the various government regulations to which they had to adhere. alongside the historical transition from a small program, overseen by a private society ( students received instruction in ) to a multi-tiered educational institution, it was almost inevitable that private funding would be replaced by see note above. l. l. roberts government financing. though it no longer sports its full latin name, the fully public msg technical high school continues to offer technical education to teenagers in leiden. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution noncom- mercial license which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. references archief heilige geest weeshuis, leiden municipal archives. archief koninklijk genootschap ‘mathesis scientiarum genitrix’, leiden municipal archive. archief van de fundatie van renswoude archive, delft municipal archive. arsy, j. l. d’. ( ). le grand dictionaire françois-flamende. j.j. schipper, amsterdam. beckers, d. ( ). het despotisme der mathesis: opkomst van de propaedeutische functie van de wiskunde in nederland – . hilversum: uitgeverij verloren. bierens de haan, j. ( ). van oeconomische tak tot nederlandsche maatschappij voor nijverheid en handel. haarlem: tjeenk willink and son. blok, p. j., & molhuysen, p. c. ( ). nieuw nederlandsch biografisch woordenboek, a.w. sijthoff’s uitgevers-maatschappij, leiden. brender brandis, g. ( ). algemeene denkbeelden over het nationaal onderwijs, ingeleverd in den jaare , van ween de vergadering van hoofdbestuurders der nederlandse maatschappij: tot nut van’t algemeen, amsterdam. chisick, h. ( ). the limits of reform in the enlightenment: attitudes toward the education of the lower classes in eighteenth-century france. princeton: princeton university press. daston, l. ( ). afterword: the ethos of enlightenment. in w. clark, j. golinski, & s. schaffer (eds.). the sciences in enlightened europe (pp. – ). chicago: university of chicago press. davids, c.a. ( ). universiteiten, illustre scholen en de verspreiden van technische kennis in neder- land, eind e–begin e eeuw. batavia academica viii: – . davids, c. a. ( ). shifts of technological leadership in early modern europe. in c. a. davids & j. lucassen (eds.). a miracle mirrored: the dutch republic in european perspective. cambridge: cambridge university press. de booy, e. p., & engel, j. ( ). van erfenis tot studiebeurs. de fundatie van de vrijvrouwe van renswoude te delft. opleiding van wezen tot de vrije kunsten in de de en de eeuw. de fun- datiehuizen. bursalen in deze eeuw. delft: fundatie van resnwoude. de clercq, p. ( ). in de schaduw van ‘s gravesande. het leids physisch kabinet in de tweede helft van de achttiende eeuw. tijdschrift voor de geschiedenis der geneeskunde, natuurwetenschappen, wiskunde en techniek, , – . de perponcher, w. e. ( ). instruction d’un père à son fils, utrecht. de perponcher, w. e. ( ). onderwijs voor kinderen, utrecht. desaguliers, j.t. ( ). de natuurkunde uit ondervindingen opgemaakt, amsterdam. de borger. florijn, j. ( ). naamlijst en korte beschrijving van alle de wis- en natuurkundige werktuigen, behoorende aan de stichting van wylen de hoog edele welgeboorene vrouwe, vryvrouwe van renswoude, in het haagsche burger weeshuis, the hague. frijhoff, w. ( ). la societé néerlandaise et ses gradués, – . amsterdam: rodopi. gaemers, c. ( ). nalatenschap als toekomst. de fundaties van de vrijvrouwe van renswoude – . zutphen: walberg press. gravesande, w. ‘s. ( ). elemens de physique, demontré et confirmé par des experiences, leiden. groenveld, s., dekker, j. j. h., & willemse, th. r. m. (eds.). ( ). wezen en boefjes. zes eeuwen zorg in wees- en kinderhuizen. hilversum: verloren. hake, b. ( ). between patriotism and nationalism: johan hendrik swildens and the ‘pedagogy of the patriotic virtues’ in the united dutch provinces during the s and s. history of education, , – . hardenberg, h. ( ). het burgerweeshuis voor nederlands hervormden te ‘s gravenhage – , zuid-hollandsche boek- en handelsdrukkerij, the hague. hoker, m. d’. ( ). arm onderwijs voor arme kinderen. bijdrage tot de studie van het lager beroepsonderwijs in de zuidelijke nederlanden tijdens de achttiende eeuw. werkgroep achttiende science education for dutch orphans eeuw, onderwijs en opvoeding in de achttiende eeuw: verslag van het symposium, doesburg , holland university press, amstedam, pp. – . jacob, m. ( ). scientific culture and the making of the industrial west. oxford: oxford university press. johannes, g. j. ( ). de barometer van de smaak: tijdschriften in nederland – . the hague: sdu publishers. kapossy, b. ( ). republican political economy. history of european ideas, , – . kernkamp, g.w. ( ). bengt ferrner’s dagboek van zijne reis door nederland in (bijdragen en mededeelingen van het historisch genootschap xxxi). kloek, j., & mijnhardt, w. ( ). : blauwdrukken voor een samenleving. the hague: sdu. koerner, l. ( ). linnaeus: nature and nation. cambridge: harvard university press. kooijmans, l. ( ). onder regenten: de elite in een hollandse stad, hoorn – . amsterdam: de bataafsche leeuw. lambert, a. ( ). the making of the dutch landscape. london: seminar press. langenbach, m. ( ). onbekend talent. leerlingen van de utrechtse fundatie van renswoude, – . zutphen: walburg press. langenbach, m. ( ). een eigenzinnige dame: maria duijst van voorhout, vrijevrouwe van renswoude. jaarboek oud-utrecht – . lenders, j. ( ). de burger en de volksschool: culturele en mentale achtergronden van een onderwijshervorming, nederland – . nijmegen: sun. los, w. ( ). opvoeding tot mens en burger: pedagogiek als cultuurkritiek in nederland in the achttiende eeuw. hilversum: verloren. lowood, h. ( ). patriotism, profit, and the promotion of science in the german enlightenment: the economic and scientific societies, – . london: garland. luzac, e. (ed.). ( ). nederlandsche letter-courant. mijnhardt, w. ( ). tot heil van ‘t menschdom. culturele genootschappen in nederland, – . amsterdam: rodopi. mijnhardt, w. ( ). the dutch republic as a town. eighteenth century studies, , – . mijnhardt, w., & kloek, j. ( ). : blauwdrukken voor een samenleving. the hague: sdu publishers. mornet, d. ( ). les origines intellectuelles de la révolution française. paris: a. colin. nollet, j.a. ( ). natuurkindige lessen, door proefneemingen bevestigd. palm, l. c. (ed.). ( ). alle de brieven van antonie van leeuwenhoek, vol. . lisse: swets & zeitlinger. peeperkorn, l. ( ). het genootschap mathesis scientiarum genitrix. leiden: private printing. ris, c. ( ). ontwerp ter proeve ter oprigtinge eener vaderlandsche maatschappy van reedery en koophandel, ter liefde van’t gemeenebest. amsterdam: de erve houttuin. roberts, l. ( ). going dutch: situating science in the dutch enlightenment. in w. clark, j. golinski, & s. schaffer (eds.). the sciences in enlightened europe (pp. – ). chicago: university of chicago press. roberts, l. ( ). the arcadian apparatus: the introduction of steam engines into the dutch landscape. technology and culture, , – . roberts, l. ( ). p.j. kasteleyn and the oeconomics of chemistry. ambix, , – . roberts, l. ( ). devices without borders: what an eighteenth-century display of steam engines can teach us about ‘public’ and ‘popular’ science. science & education, , – . roberts, l., schaffer, s., & dear, p. (eds.). ( ). the mindful hand: inquiry and invention from the late renaissance to early industrialisation. amsterdam: edita knaw. rocard, m. ( ). science education now: a renewed pedagogy for the future of europe. office for official publications of the european communities, luxembourg. sewel, w. ( ). volkomen woordenboek der nederduitsche en engelsche taalen. amsterdam: kornelis de veer. shannot, s. ( ). nieuw woordboek der nederlantsche en latynsche tale. dordrecht: joannes van braam. singels, n. j. ( ). uit de geschiedenis van het p. u. g. (provinciaals utrechtsch genootschap) – . utrecht: a. oosthoek. smitkamp, h. ( ). simon stijl als verlicht geschiedschrijver. bijdragen voor de geschiedenis der nederlanden, vi, – . star, s. l., & griesemer, j. r. ( ). institutional ecology, ‘translations’ and boundary objects: amateurs and professionals in berkeley’s museum of vertebrate zoology, – . social studies of science, , – . stijl, s. ( ). de opkomst en bloei van de republiek der vereenigde nederlanden, amsterdam. titsingh, g. ( ). bedenkingen over de schaarsheid van zeevaarend volk in het gemeen, en het verval onzer nationale zeevaart in het bizonder, amsterdam. l. l. roberts van bemmelen, j. m. ( ). ‘‘rede gehouden up de de algemeene vergadering, april ’’, jubileum: uitgave en programma der feesten ter gelegenheid van het jarig bestaan van het genootschap mathesis scientiarum genitrix te leiden. leiden: msg. van coeverden, f. w. w. h. ( ). goor en thomas ainsworth. uit de geschiedenis van twentsche texteilnijverseid. goor: commissie ainsworth-herdenking. van den eerenbeemt, h. f. j. m. ( ). het huwelijk tussen filantropie en economie: een patriotse en bataafse illusie. economisch- en social-historisch jaarboek, , – . van den eerenbeemt, h. f. j. m. ( ). armoede en arbeidsdwang: werkenrichtingen voor ‘onnutte’ nederlanders in de republiek – . the hague: martinus nijhoff. van der wall, j. ( ). redenvoering ter plegtige inwijinge van het kunst- en kweekschool, volgens de laatste wille van wylen de hoog welgeboorne vrouwe, maria duyst van voorhout, vryvrouwe van renswoude, delft. van dijk, j. a. ( ). toespraak: het eeuwfeest van het genootchap mathesis scientiarum genitrix te leiden, p.w.m. leiden: trap. van mieris, f. ( ). beschryving der stad leyden. amsterdam: leiden. van musschenbroek, p. ( ). introductio ad philosophiam naturalem, leiden. van winter, p. j. ( ). hoger beroepsonderwijs avant la lettre. bemoeiingen met de forming van landmeters en ingenieurs by de nederlandse universiteiten van de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw. amsterdam: noord-hollandsche uitgevers maatschappij. wakefield, a. ( ). the disordered police state: german cameralism as science and practice. chicago: university of chicago press. zuidervaart, h. ( ). ‘meest alle van best mahoniehout vervaardigd’. het natuurfilosofisch instru- mentenkabinet van de doopsgezinde kweekschool te amsterdam, – . gewina, , – . science education for dutch orphans 	instruments of science and citizenship: science education for dutch orphans during the late eighteenth century 	abstract 	introduction 	moral citizenship and education in the netherlands 	an alternative view 	educating orphans 	mathesis scientiarum genitrix 	the fundatie van renswoude 	orphan education and the urge to reform 	postscript 	open access 	references hölscher lucian. weltgericht oder revolution. protestantische und sozialistische zukunftvorstellungen im deutschen kaiserreich. [industrielle welt, band .] klett-cotta, stuttgart . pp. ill. maps. dm . . book reviews holscher, lucian. weltgericht oder revolution. protestantische und sozialistische zukunftvorstellungen im deutschen kaiserreich. [industri- elle welt, band .] klett-cotta, stuttgart . pp. . maps. dm . . all those who believe that the socialist labour movement can only be understood by recognizing its intellectual and especially its religious dimension will welcome as an achievement of the first order lucian holscher's study weltgericht oder revolution. protestantische und sozialistische zukunftvorstellungen im deutschen kaiserreich ("last judgement or revolution. protestant and socialist visions of the future during the german empire"). from the manifold issues raised in the context of this intellectual-religious dimen- sion holscher selects the central one, namely the assumptions and perspectives about the future which motivated german socialists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. visions of and blueprints for the future are not mere fantasy or idle speculation, but constitute the existential framework of human action. this is the case for individuals, and even more for collective movements. in summary, i would say that the key findings of the study are presented in chapters , and . ( ) the expectation of revolution lassalle held that capitalist society would eventually collapse, but he did not put a timescale on this prediction. the revolution would come, but at an unspecified time. this view did not survive his death, however. during the confrontation between the supporters of lassalle and the supporters of the eisenach programme both wings of the socialist labour movement wanted to be seen in the eyes of the proletariat as the more revolutionary, and their views on the timing of the revolution played a decisive role in their arguments. in the years leading up to the franco-german war of - , both wings shortened the timescale for impending revolution. in fact, the revolution seemed to be at hand with the proclamation of the paris commune, and even after it failed the commune remained a milestone on the now calculable road to socialism. typical of the new attitude was a report in the leipzig volksstaat: the second socialist tidal wave [after ] has broken on the walls of bourgeois society. but new waves, mightier than the previous ones, are surging forward. perhaps one more will be repelled, but no god and no man can ward off the collapse of this crumbling edifice. in the following years it was still widely believed that the revolution would take at least another generation. it was the passage of the anti-socialist law in which once again shortened the timescale in the eyes of many. but in counterbalance to this expectation of imminent revolution a new body of opinion gained ground within the social democratic party which cut right across the previous factions of lassal- leans and eisenachians. nor did it correspond to the opposition between reformists or moderates and marxists or radicals, as was shown by the disagreements on the issue between liebknecht and vollmar. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews after the repeal of the anti-socialist law in the revolutionary horizon once again receded, the expectation of an imminent upheaval faded. the writings of bernstein and kautsky on the one hand and autobiographical reminiscences of rank-and-file party members on the other provided the clearest evidence of this reassessment. however, there existed within this new horizon a wide range of views. on the shared basis of deferred expectation bernstein and kautsky nevertheless took up opposite poles in the revisionism debate, which holscher reinterprets in this context. there were also sharp differences in the testimonies of the rank and file: some described the phase of revolutionary optimism "wistfully as a bygone golden age", while others saw it "more as a now abandoned illusion of youth". ( ) socialist visions of the future holscher unfolds a great panorama of blueprints for a socialist future. (one rather wishes he would have been slightly less meticulous and left some outside the discussion.) they include: two anonymous articles in the volksstaat ( ); die forderungen des sozialismus an zukunft und gegenwart by bruno geiser ( ); die losung der sozialen frage by johann most ( ); der isolierte sozialistische staat by georg von vollmar ( ); die zukunft der sozialdemokratie by joseph dietzgen ( ); die frau und der sozialismus by august bebel ( ); and several works by karl kautsky. recognizing its significance and impact, holscher dwells at particular length on die frau und der sozialismus. he shows, among other things, that bebel in this work in effect disregarded marx's prohibition on the formulation of utopias. holscher carefully traces the changes in the succeeding drafts and editions of the work, and thus reveals the related conceptual changes it underwent. as far as vollmar's work is concerned, it is notable that he rejected marx's assumption of a simultaneous revolution in all advanced industrial countries, and that he discussed the constellation of the international labour movement as it in fact emerged after the russian revolution of . in addition to the studies mentioned above, holscher also discusses edward bellamy's looking backward, - , published in . it provides an excep- tion to the rule in two ways: the author is american, and the work is a science-fiction novel. even so, holscher is right to include it in the list, for it had an appeal that went far beyond bebel's die frau und der sozialismus. this was all the more astonishing because bellamy presented the socialists as opponents of the social reform he advocated and considered them in the pay of reactionary monopoly capital. but this stance did not detract from the novel's popularity, no doubt primarily because of the overriding strong desire among many people for a flesh- and-blood representation of the ideal future and the fascination with the time travel to the "magical" year . looking backward also prompted opponents of social- ism like the liberal politician eugen richter to use the same literary form of the science-fiction novel to depict the socialist state of the future as a nightmare vision. ( ) the methodology of socialist futurology having analyzed the contents of the visions of the future, holscher goes on to examine them from a methodological angle. how were these predictions formulat- ed? in part the authors relied on "common sense", in part they described their blueprints as provisional contributions to an internal party process towards collec- cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews tive self-understanding, at the end of which there would emerge a consensual vision of the future socialist state. a number of writers dodged the vexed problem of predicting developments leading up to the revolution by hypothesizing that the revolution had already happened and then only concerning themselves with what was to be done subsequently. kautsky in particular proceeded in this way time and again, and repeatedly rehearsed new variants of this mindgame. as far as the measures to be taken after the revolution are concerned, on the whole the writers made a distinction between basic principles guiding action, which were set out and explained, and specific measures, about which nothing could yet be said. let me note in passing that in another section of the chapter holscher deals firstly with the critique of utopian socialism by marx and engels, which was diametrically opposed to all these visions of the future; and secondly with the efforts by kautsky and bernstein to come to terms with the ambivalences and doubts in marx's and engels' futurology. holscher devotes chapters and to the real theme of his study, a comparison of socialism and protestantism in all its varieties. he carries out the comparison initially at two levels. at the first level the two movements' expectations and visions of the future are contrasted: "revolution" with "the end of the world", "the socialist state of the future" with "the kingdom of god". protestant expectations and visions of the future are elucidated using both texts of sermons and works of contemporary academic theology (divided into theological liberalism, an orthodoxy largely col- oured by pietism, and the "eschatological revolution" initiated by albert schweitz- er, which stressed the qualitative differences between the world and the kingdom of god). if one takes socialism as a social movement, then its protestant counterpart can be found in the form of the millenarian movements. this is the second level of the comparison. in the second half of the nineteenth century social groups threatened by uprootal and proletarianization were seized by eschatological fervour. some of them formed religious communities which remained within the established pro- testant churches; others formed sects and free churches (mennonites, baptists, methodists, irvingites, adventists), some of which were sharply opposed to the church establishment. holscher does not let matters rest with a mere comparison. he goes on to claim that millenarian sects and social democracy were closely interlinked. he sees in both "the linking of an attitude of social protest with an expectation of imminent catastrophe and the subsequent establishment of a paradise on earth" (p. ). holscher even claims that there existed "osmotic social relationships" between the two movements. he argues that both appealed to the same groups of people, and the ideological direction which social protest took depended "more on the coinci- dental presence of free, non-conformist or sectarian organizations than on the religious socialization of individuals" (p. ). this is a claim for which holscher fails to provide a single piece of evidence. he points out that leaving the established churches "became an increasingly popular means for proletarian and petty-bour- geois groups [. . .] to express their dissatisfaction with the state church", and that both the millenarian sects and social democracy profited from this development and even sought to encourage it (p. ). but all this proves is a certain correspondence, cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews not a "secret osmosis" (ibid.). the concluding phrase "differentiated exploitation of the same social and ideological mood of impending catastrophe" (p. ) is no more than an elegant formulation; it does not explain why people turned to the one movement or the other, after all a decision of considerable magnitude for each individual. in chapter holscher raises the question whether the socialist world view was a secularized religion. i will not discuss this further here because it goes beyond the scope of the study (expectations, visions and predictions of the future), but would like to note that it contains valuable insights. this section deals with several different complexes, and contains: a theoretical discussion of the concept of "secu- larization" introduced by ernst troeltsch and max weber; empirical studies on the relative decline of the churches in the nineteenth century, illustrated with tables and maps; an analysis of the ideological line of development from the "religious social- ism" that was widespread in the pre- period, via the combination of religion and political opposition among the protestant "friends of light" and the "german catholics", to the confrontation between religion and socialism that became the norm after ; and finally a discussion of "secularization" in its various aspects, including the religious metaphors employed by social democracy ("resurrection" and "salvation" of the proletariat, socialism as the "new gospel", and so on). the final chapter, chapter , is also heterogeneous. in it holscher describes, first, how the faith in the future socialist state reached its greatest intensity in the s and s, how it was propagated, and how it subsequently flagged and then became stereotypical; second, how the opponents of socialism fought against this faith (discussing the contents of writings and the means used to achieve aims); and third, how the protestant church and social democracy came into confrontation (dis- cussing both a critique of the socialist state of the future and the organizational means used to achieve aims, with specific reference to internal mission work). in this third section holscher once again departs from the main theme of the study. in addition the chapter also contains an appendix (not identified as such) on catholicism. holscher's study is a great achievement, the extent of which can only be hinted in very general terms in this review. and i should also say that enjoyment of the work is enhanced by its elegant and unpretentious style. nevertheless, the study has its flaws. i would like to mention three criticisms. ( ) the study frays at the edges. the introduction seems like a neverending runup. in it holscher develops, among other things, a typology of futurology; discusses the question whether predictions can be falsified; discusses the difference between utopia and prediction; outlines the connection between the modern con- ception of the future and industrialization. in a further section (chapter , part ) he describes the "discovery" of the future in the early modern age, its differentiation from the expectation of the day of judgement, and "futurum" as distinguished from "adventus christi in iudicium"; develops, following reinhart koselleck, the con- ceptual difference between "prevision" (voraussicht) and "providence" (vorse- hung); explains how the future is "conquered" scientifically and reflected in the philosophy of history. the final sections of the book degenerate into an increasingly insubstantial outlook, ending in a consideration of the concepts of industrialization, cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews democratization and modernization. all this no longer has anything to do with the subject matter: the study has lost its way. ( ) it is in my view misguided to try to draw conclusions about the intellectual climate of the german empire on the basis of a partial analysis of social democracy and protestantism. holscher's first effort in this direction mixes elements which do not belong together (such as an avowedly "general mood of decline", fin-de-siecle art, and the policies "aimed at preventing and avoiding the socialist revolution" that finally failed on november , see pp. f.). later on he declares that "the period of empire was, particularly after , one of ideological upheaval, of looking forward to the future". everything was dominated by the "consciousness of belonging to a new age, which had irretrievably left behind the ways of life and ways of thinking of the old world" (p. ). such statements cannot be justified on the basis of an analysis of social democracy and protestantism, only two elements contributing to the intellectual climate of the times. ( ) the theme is approached in a very academic fashion. holscher depicts the contents of conceptions of the future, shows how they differ from each other or overlap, and outlines the methodology of predicting the future, including its weak- nesses, contradictions and ambivalences. occasionally he also refers to the circum- stances surrounding the development of socialist futurology, noting, for instance, that not a few socialist visions of the future were written down in prison. but at no point does he address the fact that specific expectations, hopes and fears attached to the different visions, that they contained a determining ethical element, and that they spawned new forms of community organization. erhard lucas-busemann peled, yoav. class and ethnicity in the pale. the political economy of jewish workers' nationalism in late imperial russia. macmillan, basing- stoke, london . xii, pp. £ . . there is hardly a jewish labour leader who, at some stage, did not feel compelled to put down his life-experience in writing. and the loving care with which a party such as the bund nursed its archives, despite persecution and repression in several countries, is amazing. obviously, there is a typically jewish penchant for history at work here. all the jewish political organisations had at least one thing in common: they cherished their own history and felt that it was incumbent upon them to transmit the memory of things past to future generations. no wonder therefore that social historians find the jewish labour movement to be a goldmine of information. it ranks as something like a favourite among them. mr peled is the last in a long row to have delved this fertile soil. his purpose, though, is not to bring us a new outline of the history of the jewish labour movement but to use the history of jewish socialism as a demonstration for his theses on "ethno-class consciousness". in order to make his point, the author successively sketches the historical setting, describes the evolution of the bund's national programme, and analyzes the various interpretations which have been proposed to cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ a cross-national perspective of migration and cancer: incidence of five major cancer types among resettlers from the former soviet union in germany and ethnic germans in russia research article open access a cross-national perspective of migration and cancer: incidence of five major cancer types among resettlers from the former soviet union in germany and ethnic germans in russia philipp jaehn , simone kaucher , lidia v. pikalova , sofia mazeina , hiltraud kajüter , heiko becher , , mikhail valkov and volker winkler * abstract background: few studies compared cancer incidence among migrants both to their host countries and to their population of origin. we aimed to compare cancer incidence of ethnic germans who migrated from the former soviet union to germany (resettlers) to those living in russia as well as to the german and the russian general populations. methods: the cancer registry of north rhine-westphalia identified incident cases of stomach, colorectal, lung, breast and prostate cancer in resettlers and the general population of the administrative district of münster (germany) between and . the tomsk cancer registry collected the same data in ethnic germans and the general population of the tomsk region (russia). we used standardised incidence rate ratios (sirs) to compare rates of resettlers and ethnic germans with the respective general populations. results: the total number of person-years under risk was , for ethnic germans, , , for the population of tomsk, , for resettlers, and , , for the population of münster. incidence of the five investigated cancer types among ethnic germans did not differ from incidence of the general population of tomsk. compared to the general population of tomsk, incidence among resettlers was higher for colorectal cancer in both sexes (females: sir . [ % ci . – . ], males: sir . [ % ci . – . ]), breast cancer in females (sir . [ % ci . – . ]), and prostate cancer (sir . [ % ci . – . ]). incidence rates of these cancer types among resettlers were more similar to rates of the general population of münster. incidence of stomach and lung cancer did not differ between resettlers and the general population of tomsk. conclusions: after an average stay of years, we observed that incidence of colorectal, breast and prostate cancer among resettlers converged to levels of the general population of münster. resettler’s incidence of stomach and lung cancer, however, was comparable to incidence in their population of origin. causes must be investigated in subsequent analytical studies. keywords: migrants, germany, russia, cancer, epidemiology, health transition © the author(s). open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the creative commons public domain dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. * correspondence: volker.winkler@uni-heidelberg.de university hospital heidelberg, institute of global health, im neuenheimer feld , heidelberg, germany full list of author information is available at the end of the article jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf http://orcid.org/ - - - http://orcid.org/ - - - http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / mailto:volker.winkler@uni-heidelberg.de background after guest workers who immigrated to germany mainly from italy and turkey, ethnic german resettlers were the second largest migrant group in germany in with around . million people [ ]. their majority immi- grated in the early s from countries of the former soviet union with very few formal restrictions [ ]. with subsequent introduction of legal restrictions, numbers of immigrants decreased rapidly from onwards [ , ]. in , immigration numbers of resettlers in germany increased for the first time since with a total of new registrations [ ]. to date, about , people considering themselves as ethnic germans still live in russia according to the census of the russian federation [ ]. it had been hypothesised that resettlers imported a high burden of cardiovascular diseases and cancer due to a high exposure to risk factors and low socioeconomic status in countries of the former soviet union [ ]. regarding cancer, this hypothesis was not con- firmed, when studies found that overall cancer mortality among male resettlers was similar compared to the gen- eral german population, and lower among female reset- tlers. however, mortality ratios showed site-specific cancer differences [ ]. focusing on cancer incidence in comparison to the respective regional populations in germany, female resettlers had lowered overall, colorectal, lung and breast cancer incidence, while male resettlers showed lowered overall and prostate cancer incidence, but elevated stomach cancer incidence [ , ]. furthermore, overall cancer incidence converged since reaching levels of the general german population in [ ]. fi- nally, higher odds of having an advanced tumour stage at diagnosis among resettlers compared to the general popu- lation are in line with findings of lower health care utilisa- tion of this minority group [ , – ]. of all cancer types, incidence rates in russia in were highest for breast cancer among females and lung cancer among males, while in germany breast cancer showed the highest incidence among females and prostate cancer among males [ ]. for all cancer types combined, age-adjusted incidence increased globally between and , however, more rapidly in germany compared to russia [ ]. in both russia and germany in , mor- tality rates were highest for lung cancer among males and breast cancer among females [ ]. the observation of cancer incidence trends among mi- grant populations is a unique opportunity to add evidence to our understanding of cancer aetiology [ ]. although reasons of changes in cancer incidence rates among migrant populations are poorly understood, past analyses have highlighted the importance of the changing physical and social environment on cancer risk [ ]. a summary of cancer incidence among non-western migrants in europe demonstrated that most migrant populations show lower overall cancer incidence, higher incidence of cervical and stomach cancer and lower incidence of colorectal, breast and prostate cancer compared to general populations of their host countries [ ]. several hypotheses have been proposed to explain mi- grant’s overall favourable health, which has been exten- sively documented using mortality data [ ]. the widely cited healthy migrant effect assumes that only healthy people migrate and, hence, the migration process de- scribes a form of selection phenomenon. others have argued that migrants might return to their countries of origin when they fall ill (salmon effect), that living in seg- regated communities protects from health deterioration (ethnic enclave hypothesis), or that migrants profit from immediate effects of a better healthcare system in the destination country (health transition hypothesis) [ ]. convergence theory states that interaction of migrants with the host population leads to an adoption of health-re- lated behaviours and consequently migrant’s health profile converges to that of the host population [ ]. it is evident that the majority of studies on migration and health have put findings in context with the new host population. comparisons to countries of origin or to the specific populations of origin are scarce. a frame- work of migrant’s health, which has been derived from the sociological literature suggests intensifying cross-na- tional research in public health in order to understand the health of migrant populations as a result of health in both sending and receiving countries [ ]. to our knowledge, there is no study investigating any health outcome among ethnic germans in russia, or comparing health outcomes cross-nationally between ethnic germans that remained in russia, resettlers in germany and the corresponding majority populations of both countries. methods the aim of this study was to apply a cross-national framework to compare cancer incidence of five major cancer sites among resettlers living in the administrative district (ad) of münster in germany to ethnic germans living in the region of tomsk (tomsk oblast) in russia and to both regional general populations. cancer cases and population data of resettlers and the general population of the ad münster cancer incidence of resettlers in germany was deter- mined in a historical registry-based cohort called the amin-study [ ]. the amin-cohort of , resettlers from countries of the former soviet union who immi- grated to the ad münster between and was set up by identifying resettlers in historical immigration records of the registry offices in local municipalities. the sample can be considered representative of all resettlers jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of in the ad münster including . % of resettlers who were originally registered in this region. incident cancer cases of the amin-study were identified by the federal cancer registry of north rhine-westphalia (nrw) based on a pseudonymised record linkage [ , ]. encrypted personal identifiers of each cohort member were used to identify incident cases of resettlers [ ]. person time at risk of resettlers was approximated using date of immigration and date of diagnosis or the st of december as end of follow-up while esti- mating mortality and out-migration from a previous cohort study [ ]. the nrw cancer registry also provided cancer cases and yearly midyear population figures of the general population of the ad münster, therefore, cancer inci- dence rates of the general population of münster could be estimated. cancer cases and population data of ethnic germans and the general population of the tomsk oblast to date, about , ethnic germans reside in the tomsk oblast, russia [ ]. the tomsk cancer registry collects information on self-reported nationality for each cancer diagnosis. the variable self-reported nationality contained no missing data. based on this information all cancer diag- noses of ethnic germans were extracted from the registry. to estimate person time at risk of ethnic germans, we used population figures of the russian population cen- sus, which reported german ethnicity based on the self- reported categories “german”, “german mennonite”, and “other german”, where “mennonite” refers to german members of a protestant free church [ ]. age group- and sex-specific population figures of ethnic germans in tomsk were available for the years and [ , ]. midyear population counts for the years to were derived by assuming a linear sex- and age group-specific change from to , which was then extrapolated to . because we have no data that supports the assumption of a linear trend, three scenarios of population development among ethnic germans in tomsk were applied in a sensi- tivity analysis to examine robustness of results to different assumptions about the population development. the three scenarios considered were a constant mean population, two periods with constant population, and a linear change until followed by a constant population after . age group- and sex-specific incident cancer cases for the general population of the tomsk oblast were pro- vided by the tomsk cancer registry. they also provided the annual age group- and sex-specific midyear population counts. processing of cancer registry data we analysed cancer incidence between and for the following sites: stomach (c . – ), colorectum (c . – . ), bronchus and lung (c . – ), female breast (c . – ) and prostate (c ). these are the most common cancer types among resettlers [ ]. information on date of diagnosis, icd-o- m code, sex, and age was provided. we selected only cases with primary malignant behaviour (icd-o- m code, th digit: ), multiple primaries were determined according to rules of the international agency for research on cancer (iarc) (following recommendation : “cancers which occur in any th character subcategory of colon (c ) and skin (c ) should be registered as multiple primary cancers.”) [ ]. cases registered on the basis of death certificate only (dco) were included into analysis. the datasets of the münster and tomsk cancer registry were checked for data validity using the iarc/iacr crg tool [ ]. the tool indicates cases of missing data, un- likely diagnoses, unlikely combinations of tumour charac- teristics and multiple primary cancers. two records were removed from the tomsk dataset; one due to a missing id and one due to missing age. there were no implausible diagnoses in the data of the münster cancer registry. statistical methods all statistical analyses except the calculation of directly age-standardised rates were restricted to ages over . age-standardised rates were not restricted to ages over to enable comparisons with routinely reported age-stan- dardised rates. age group-specific rates were displayed for each cancer site in each population. we calculated age-standardised rates (asrs) per , person-years for the period – and – among the general populations of tomsk and münster. rates were standardised against the old world standard (segi, modified by doll) [ ]. standardised incidence rate ratios (sirs) were calculated for ethnic germans in tomsk and resettlers in germany compared to both standard populations namely the general popula- tions of the ad münster and of the tomsk oblast. to calculate sirs, age was categorised in year age groups, starting from the age of until the age of . ages over were grouped together, because this age group was only available in aggregated format for ethnic germans. the expected number of cases was calculated multiplying the sex-, age group- and calendar year-specific person- years (resettlers) or the midyear populations (ethnic germans, tomsk) with the respective rates of the standard population. additionally, the general population of tomsk was standardised to the münster general population. exact % confidence intervals (cis) of sirs and asrs were cal- culated [ , ]. analysis was done using r version . . . results during the study period from to , annual per- son-years were on average among ethnic germans, jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of , among the general population of tomsk, , among resettlers and , , among the general popu- lation of münster. numbers of cases and person-years stratified by sex and time period are displayed in table . age-specific rates of lung cancer among female eth- nic germans and female resettlers were similar to the female population of tomsk (fig. ). breast cancer rates among ethnic germans were similar to rates of the general population of tomsk, however, among resettlers, they were similar to rates of the general population of münster. male resettlers’ age-specific rates of prostate cancer was in between rates of the general populations of tomsk and münster, while those of ethnic german’s were similar to rates in the general population of tomsk. asrs in females and males of the general population of tomsk and münster in the periods of – and – are displayed in table . asrs of stomach cancer were . per , ( % ci . – . ) among males in tomsk and . per , ( % ci . – . ) among males in münster in the period – . asrs of female lung cancer were . per , ( % ci . – . ) in tomsk and . per , ( % ci . – . ) in münster in the same period. finally, the asr of female breast cancer was . per , ( % ci . – . ) in tomsk and . per , ( % ci . – . ) in münster between and . there was some evidence that the incidence of colo- rectal, breast and prostate cancer among resettlers was higher compared to the general population of tomsk (table ). incidence among ethnic germans did not table number of cases and person-years among ethnic germans, resettlers and the background populations (from age ) tomsk population ethnic germans resettlers münster population n % n % n % n % cancer cases stomach cancer female . . . . male . . . . – . . . . – . . . . total . . . . colorectal cancer female . . . , . male . . . , . – . . . , . – . . . , . total . . . , . lung cancer female . . . . male . . . , . – . . . . – . . . , . total . . . , . breast cancer female . . . , . – . . . , . – . . . , . total . . . , . prostate cancer male . . . , . – . . . , . – . . . , . total . . . , . person-years female , , . , . , . , , . male , , . , . , . , , . – , , . , . , . , , . – , , . , . , . , , . total , , . , . , . , , . jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of differ from incidence in the general population of tomsk, all % cis included one. compared to the male population of münster, stomach cancer incidence was elevated among male ethnic germans from tomsk, cis did not include one (table ). on the other hand, there was some evidence that incidence of colorectal cancer among both sexes, female lung cancer, breast and prostate cancer among ethnic germans from tomsk were lower compared to the general population of münster. male resettlers showed evidence for higher fig. age group-specific rates among ethnic germans, resettlers and the respective background populations (from age ) table age-standardised incidence rates of the populations of tomsk and münster (from age ) tomsk population münster population – – – – asr ( % ci) asr ( % ci) asr ( % ci) asr ( % ci) cancer sex stomach cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) colorectal cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) lung cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) breast cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) prostate cancer male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of incidence of stomach and lung cancer compared to the male population of münster. furthermore, incidence of female lung, female breast and prostate cancer was lower among resettlers compared to the münster gen- eral population and cis did not include one. sirs did not change considerably when applying the alternative three scenarios of population development among eth- nic germans in tomsk (see additional file ). in all three scenarios, stomach cancer incidence among male ethnic germans from tomsk was elevated compared to the male population of münster. finally, colorectal can- cer among both sexes, female lung cancer, breast and prostate cancer incidence were lower compared to the general population of münster. all other rates did not differ from the general population of münster in any scenario. discussion ethnic germans in tomsk showed similar age-standardised incidence of all studied cancer types in comparison to the general population of tomsk. approximately years after the migration of ethnic german resettlers from the former soviet union to germany, a transition of cancer incidence was observed [ ]. among resettlers, incidence of colorectal, breast and prostate cancer was more similar to levels of the general population of münster and differed from incidence among ethnic germans in tomsk. their incidence rates of stomach and lung cancer were comparable to levels found among a population of ethnic germans in russia. the five investigated cancer types comprise a consider- able share of cancer burden in both countries. the esti- mated proportions of incident stomach, colorectal, lung, breast and prostate cancer cases compared to all cancer cases was % in russia and % in germany [ ]. findings of cancer incidence among resettlers in the münster cohort have reproduced earlier findings among resettlers in the saarland [ , ]. cancer incidence among resettlers furthermore mirrors incidence patterns of cancers of the respiratory system, breast and prostate among turkish immigrants in germany and generally non-western migrants in europe [ , ]. spallek and colleagues investigated cancer mortality among turkish immigrants in europe from a cross-national point of view [ ]. they found that breast and stomach cancer mortality was in between levels of the host countries and turkey [ ]. causes of mortality rates among turkish immigrants may, however, differ from resettlers, as for example dietary patterns among adolescent russian germans differed from adolescent immigrants from turkey [ ]. data of the tomsk cancer registry was recently used in the concord- study [ ]. hence, we consider the data quality of the tomsk cancer registry to be accept- able. completeness of cancer registration in the ad of münster is considered to be high since and further improved since then. in addition, cancer registration became mandatory by law in [ ]. a limitation of this study was the lack of an individual follow-up of ethnic germans in tomsk. therefore, cen- sus data were used to approximate rate denominators. results assuming three alternative scenarios of popula- tion development using these census data did not lead to different conclusions. furthermore, statistical power to detect differences between ethnic germans and the general populations of tomsk or münster was low for rare cancers like stomach cancer and moderate for more frequent types. information bias could have occurred, because data on ethnicity was self-reported in the russian census and the tomsk cancer registry data. on the other hand, self-re- ported ethnicity might be an adequate indicator as people strongly identifying themselves as german might table standardised incidence rate ratios of ethnic germans and resettlers compared to the background populations (from age ) compared to the tomsk population compared to the münster population ethnic germans resettlers tomsk population ethnic germans resettlers sir ( % ci) sir ( % ci) sir ( % ci) sir ( % ci) sir ( % ci) cancer cases sex stomach cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) colorectal cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) lung cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) breast cancer female . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) prostate cancer male . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) sir: standardised incidence rate ratio of age groups over years % ci: % confidence interval jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of be more likely to report a german ethnicity. finally, incident cancer cases among ethnic germans in tomsk might have been under registered because calculated sirs in comparison to the general population of tomsk were below for most cancer types. considering resettlers in the ad münster, our estima- tion method of person time is based on out-migration rates, which are supposed to be higher among younger age groups. thus, the procedure described in [ ] as- sumes higher loss-to-follow up among young resettlers (< years of age) compared to older ones. as resettlers mostly immigrated in younger ages (mean age: . years of age), the estimation procedure may have led to an underestimation of person-years of the amin-study and therefore, incidence of resettlers might have been over- estimated. however, sensitivity analyses showed only slightly deviating results [ ]. finally, incidence rates of breast cancer among reset- tlers and the general population in the ad münster are driven by the introduction of the mammography screen- ing programme (msp) in [ ]. in , an inci- dence peak was described before rates stabilised again in [ ]. this might have exaggerated differences of breast cancer incidence between populations in germany and russia during the study period. having these considerations in mind, differences of in- cidence between resettlers and ethnic germans in russia might have been overestimated. however, as differences of sirs of colorectal and prostate cancer between ethnic germans in russia and resettlers in germany are large, we consider our findings to be robust. differences of breast cancer incidence, however, might have been driven by the introduction of the msp in germany. the population of origin of resettlers in germany are ethnic germans from former soviet union countries. we approximated this population by ethnic germans living in the tomsk oblast, russia. resettlers living in germany come mostly from kazakhstan and russia [ ]. therefore, the location of tomsk close to the kazakh border might be a good approximation of the population of origin of most resettlers. ethnic germans in russia, furthermore, share the same ancestors who emigrated to the russian empire in the th and th century. the german minor- ity lived there until around world war one in relatively closed and privileged communities. thereafter they faced increasing discrimination and were deported to kazakhstan and siberia during the s [ ]. after the second world war until , ethnic germans have been oppressed by the soviet regime [ ]. the migration process observed in this study has some unique features. first, it is a “back-migration” of a popula- tion after about – years. second, major restrictions during the migration process were absent. in fact, when most resettlers migrated to germany during the early s, they were invited to germany [ ]. therefore, the migration process is different from for example work mi- gration, where one would expect a selection towards young and healthy individuals [ ]. early detection programmes for colorectal, breast and prostate cancer, but not for stomach and lung cancer are covered by the statutory health insurance in germany [ ]. in conclusion, we hypothesise that differences in incidence of colorectal, breast and prostate cancer be- tween resettlers and their population of origin might be due to early detection and screening measures which were accessible to resettlers in germany. resettlers ob- tained the german citizenship immediately after immi- gration [ ]. furthermore, self-rated language proficiency among resettlers was higher compared to other migrant groups in germany [ ]. it is important to stress, how- ever, that our results do not conflict with earlier studies indicating less preferable health seeking behaviour and advanced stage at diagnosis among resettlers compared to the general german population [ , ]. our results support the hypothesis that direct ex- posure to the health care system of the host country might have had immediate effects on cancer incidence of resettlers [ ]. an acculturation of behavioural risk factors has been described for smoking among reset- tlers in germany [ ]. however, we have observed that lung cancer incidence among both female and male resettlers was similar compared to rates in their country of origin. hence, we hypothesise that changes in lifestyle do not yet impact on cancer incidence rates of resettlers. applying a cross-national perspective, our findings support the hypothesis that both the environment in the country of origin and in the country of destination shape the health of migrants [ , ]. it would be worthwhile to study whether contacts of ethnic germans in tomsk to resettlers in germany influence health of both popu- lations like suggested by the cross-national framework of migration and health [ ]. conclusion in conclusion, results of our study suggest that inci- dence rates of cancer types for which measures of early detection were available converged to rates among the general german population. we repro- duced the finding that cancer incidence among mi- grant populations often mirrors states in between the population of origin and the new host popula- tion. future research should determine risk factors of cancer incidence among migrant populations in order to create more solid evidence. finally, more evidence on cross-national ties of migrant popula- tions is needed in order to investigate international bounds and their effects on health. jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of additional file additional file : sensitivity analysis of standardised incidence rate ratios of ethnic germans living in tomsk assuming three different scenarios of underlying population figures. (docx kb) abbreviations ad: administrative district; asr: age-standardised rate; ci: confidence interval; iarc: international agency for research on cancer; icd-o m: international classification of diseases for oncology, morphology code; msp: mammography screening programme; nrw: north rhine-westphalia; sir: standardised incidence rate ratio acknowledgements we would like to thank the reviewers of this manuscript. furthermore, we would like to thank jamila nabieva of the heidelberg institute of global health for her support with translations and nikolai loginow, deputy director of the german community in tomsk, for the support of this study. the german cancer aid (grant number ) funded this study. furthermore, we acknowledge financial support by deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft within the funding programme open access publishing, by the baden- württemberg ministry of science, research and the arts and by ruprecht- karls-universität heidelberg. authors’ contributions pj conceptualised the research question, analysed and interpreted the data and drafted the manuscript. sk and vw were involved in data interpretation and manuscript preparation. the amin study was designed by vw and hb and conducted by sk, hk, vw and hb. lvp and sm provided cancer registry data of tomsk and hk provided cancer registry data of münster. mv initiated the cooperation, coordinated partners in germany and russia and contributed to the conceptualisation of the study. all authors finalised and approved the manuscript. funding the german cancer aid (grant number ) funded this study. open access publishing was supported by the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft within the funding programme open access publishing. the funding bodies were not involved in in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript. availability of data and materials the datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from v. winkler subject to collaboration agreement. ethics approval and consent to participate individual consent for this study was waivered because exclusively routinely collected and pseudonymised data was used to conduct secondary data analyses. the project has been approved by the institutional review board of the medical faculty of heidelberg university, germany (ref. s- / ) and by the institutional review board of the tomsk regional oncological hospital, russia (reg. no. / ). we declare that research has been conducted in accordance with the helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. consent for publication not applicable competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. author details brandenburg medical school theodor fontane, institute of social medicine and epidemiology, hochstraße , brandenburg an der havel , germany. university hospital heidelberg, institute of global health, im neuenheimer feld , heidelberg, germany. tomsk regional oncological hospital, tomsk regional cancer registry, lenin str. , tomsk, russian federation. federal cancer registry of north rhine-westphalia, gesundheitscampus , bochum, germany. institute of medical biometry and epidemiology, university medical center hamburg-eppendorf, building w , martinistraße , hamburg, germany. department of radiology, radiotherapy and oncology, northern state medical university, trotsky av. , arkhangelsk, russia. received: april accepted: august references . statistisches bundesamt. bevölkerung und erwerbstätigkeit. bevölkerung mit migrationshintergrund - ergebnisse des mikrozensus . wiesbaden: statistisches bundesamt; . . worbs s, bund e, kohls m. babka von gostomski c. (spät-)aussiedler in deutschland, eine analyse aktueller daten und forschungsergebnisse. nürnberg: bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge; . . kaucher s, deckert a, becher h, winkler v. migration pattern and mortality of ethnic german migrants from the former soviet union: a cohort study in germany. bmj open. ; ( ):e . . bundesamt für migration und flüchtlinge. migrationsbericht / : zentrale ergebnisse. nürnberg; . available from: http:// www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/ migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht- - -zentrale-ergebnisse. html . accessed feb . . russian federal service of state statistics (rosstat). Том . Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство. . НАСЕЛЕНИЕ НАИБОЛЕЕ МНОГОЧИСЛЕННЫХ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОСТЕЙ ПО ВОЗРАСТНЫМ ГРУППАМ И ПОЛУ ПО СУБЪЕКТАМ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ; . available from: http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/perepis_itogi . htm . accessed dec . . becher h, razum o, kyobutungi c, laki j, ronellenfitsch u, winkler v. mortality of immigrants from the former soviet union: results of a cohort study. deutsches Ärzteblatt. ; ( ): – . . kaucher s, leier v, deckert a, holleczek b, meisinger c, winkler v, et al. time trends of cause-specific mortality among resettlers in germany, through . eur j epidemiol. ; ( ): – . . kaucher s, kajuter h, becher h, winkler v. cancer incidence and mortality among ethnic german migrants from the former soviet union. front oncol. ; : . . winkler v, holleczek b, stegmaier c, becher h. cancer incidence in ethnic german migrants from the former soviet union in comparison to the host population. cancer epidemiol. ; ( ): – . . cho ab, jaehn p, holleczek b, becher h, winkler v. stage of cancer diagnoses among migrants from the former soviet union in comparison to the german population - are diagnoses among migrants delayed? bmc public health. ; ( ): . . aparicio ml, doring a, mielck a, holle r. differences between eastern european immigrants of german origin and the rest of the german population in health status, health care use and health behaviour: a comparative study using data from the kora-survey . sozial- und praventivmedizin. ; ( ): – . . wittig u, merbach m, siefen rg, brahler e. complaints and health care system utilisation of ethnic german migrants from the former soviet union to germany and their families. gesundheitswesen. ; ( ): – . . ferlay j, colombet m, soerjomataram i, siegel r, torre l, jemal a. global and regional estimates of the incidence and mortality for cancers: globocan . lyon: international agency for research on cancer/world health organization; . . fitzmaurice c, allen c, barber rm, barregard l, bhutta za, brenner h, et al. global, regional, and national cancer incidence, mortality, years of life lost, years lived with disability, and disability-adjusted life-years for cancer groups, to : a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study. jama oncology. ; ( ): – . . bray f, ferlay j, soerjomataram i, siegel rl, torre la, jemal a. global cancer statistics : globocan estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for cancers in countries. ca cancer j clin. ; ( ): – . . parkin dm, khlat m. studies of cancer in migrants: rationale and methodology. eur j cancer. ; a( ): – . . maskarinec g, noh jj. the effect of migration on cancer incidence among japanese in hawaii. ethn dis. ; ( ): – . . arnold m, razum o, coebergh jw. cancer risk diversity in non- western migrants to europe: an overview of the literature. eur j cancer. ; ( ): – . jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of https://doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht- - -zentrale-ergebnisse.html http://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht- - -zentrale-ergebnisse.html http://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht- - -zentrale-ergebnisse.html http://www.bamf.de/shareddocs/anlagen/de/publikationen/migrationsberichte/migrationsbericht- - -zentrale-ergebnisse.html http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/perepis_itogi .htm http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/perepis_itogi .htm . ruiz jm, steffen p, smith tb. hispanic mortality paradox: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the longitudinal literature. am j public health. ; ( ):e – . . namer y, razum o. convergence theory and the salmon effect in migrant health. in: oxford research encyclopedia of global public health. oxford: oxford university press; . . acevedo-garcia d, sanchez-vaznaugh ev, viruell-fuentes ea, almeida j. integrating social epidemiology into immigrant health research: a cross- national framework. soc sci med. ; ( ): – . . kajuter h, batzler wu, krieg v, heidinger o, hense hw. linkage of secondary data with cancer registry data on the basis of encrypted personal identifiers - results from a pilot study in north rhine-westphalia. gesundheitswesen. ; ( – ):e – . . krieg v, hense hw, lehnert m, mattauch v. record linkage with cryptographic identification data in a population-based cancer registry. development, implementation and error rates. gesundheitswesen. ; ( ): – . . becher h, winkler v. estimating the standardized incidence ratio (sir) with incomplete follow-up data. bmc med res methodol. ; ( ): . . russian federal service of state statistics (rosstat). МЕТОДОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ ПОЯСНЕНИЯ; . available from: www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/documents/vol /metod .pdf. [accessed dec ]. . russian federal service of state statistics (rosstat). Том - "Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство". . НАСЕЛЕНИЕ ОТДЕЛЬНЫХ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОСТЕЙ ПО ВОЗРАСТНЫМ ГРУППАМ И ПОЛУ ПО СУБЪЕКТАМ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ; . available from: http:// www.perepis .ru/index.html . accessed dec . . iarc/iacr, who, encr. international rules for multiple primary cancers (icd-o rd edition). lyon: iarc; . available from: http://www.iacr.com. fr/images/doc/mprules_july .pdf . accessed dec . . iarc/iacr. iarccrgtools package. lyon: iarc; . available from: http:// www.iacr.com.fr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= : updated-iarc-iacr-crgtools&catid= &itemid= . accessed dec . . bray f, ferlay j. cancer incidence in countries. vol. : chapter : age standardization. lyon: iarc; . available from: http://ci .iarc.fr/ci -xi/ pages/chapter .aspx . accessed dec . . fay mp, feuer ej. confidence intervals for directly standardized rates: a method based on the gamma distribution. stat med. ; ( ): – . . anderson r, rosenberg h. age standardization of death rates: implementation of the year standard. hyattsville: national center for health statistics; . . ferlay j, soerjomataram i, ervik m, dikshit r, eser s, mathers c, et al. cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: iarc cancerbase no. . lyon: international agency for research on cancer; . available from: http://globocan.iarc.fr . . winkler v, ott jj, holleczek b, stegmaier c, becher h. cancer profile of migrants from the former soviet union in germany: incidence and mortality. cancer causes control. ; ( ): – . . spallek j, arnold m, hentschel s, razum o. cancer incidence rate ratios of turkish immigrants in hamburg, germany: a registry based study. cancer epidemiol. ; ( ): – . . spallek j, arnold m, razum o, juel k, rey g, deboosere p, et al. cancer mortality patterns among turkish immigrants in four european countries and in turkey. eur j epidemiol. ; ( ): – . . kleiser c, mensink gb, neuhauser h, schenk l, kurth bm. food intake of young people with a migration background living in germany. public health nutr. ; ( ): – . . allemani c, matsuda t, di carlo v, harewood r, matz m, nikšić m, et al. global surveillance of trends in cancer survival – (concord- ): analysis of individual records for patients diagnosed with one of cancers from population-based registries in countries. lancet. ; ( ): – . . bertram h, hense h, krieg v, lehnert m, mattauch v, weihrauch b. epidemiologische krebsregistrierung in nordrhein-westfalen. erfahrungen, ergebnisse, perspektiven münster: epidemiologisches krebsregister nrw; . available from: http://www.krebsregister.nrw.de/fileadmin/user_ upload/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/ _abschlussbericht - krebsregister-muenster.pdf . accessed jan . . simbrich a, wellmann i, heidrich j, heidinger o, hense hw. trends in advanced breast cancer incidence rates after implementation of a mammography screening program in a german population. cancer epidemiol. ; : – . . eisfeld a. vom stolperstein zur brücke – die deutschen in russland. in: bergner c, weber m, editors. aussiedler- und minderheitenpolitik in deutschland bilanz und perspektiven. oldenburg: bundesinstitut für kultur und geschichte der deutschen im östlichen europa; . p. . . gemeinsamer bundesausschuss. richtlinie über die früherkennung von krebserkrankungen; . available from: http://www.g-ba.de/ downloads/ - - /kfe-rl_ - - _ik- - - .pdf . accessed feb . . reiss k, schunck r, razum o. effect of length of stay on smoking among turkish and eastern european immigrants in germany--interpretation in the light of the smoking epidemic model and the acculturation theory. int j environ res public health. ; ( ): – . publisher’s note springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. jaehn et al. bmc cancer ( ) : page of http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/documents/vol /metod .pdf http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis /croc/documents/vol /metod .pdf http://www.perepis .ru/index.html http://www.perepis .ru/index.html http://www.iacr.com.fr/images/doc/mprules_july .pdf http://www.iacr.com.fr/images/doc/mprules_july .pdf http://www.iacr.com.fr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= :updated-iarc-iacr-crgtools&catid= &itemid= http://www.iacr.com.fr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= :updated-iarc-iacr-crgtools&catid= &itemid= http://www.iacr.com.fr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= :updated-iarc-iacr-crgtools&catid= &itemid= http://ci .iarc.fr/ci -xi/pages/chapter .aspx http://ci .iarc.fr/ci -xi/pages/chapter .aspx http://globocan.iarc.fr http://www.krebsregister.nrw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/ _abschlussbericht -krebsregister-muenster.pdf http://www.krebsregister.nrw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/ _abschlussbericht -krebsregister-muenster.pdf http://www.krebsregister.nrw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/dokumente/veroeffentlichungen/ _abschlussbericht -krebsregister-muenster.pdf http://www.g-ba.de/downloads/ - - /kfe-rl_ - - _ik- - - .pdf http://www.g-ba.de/downloads/ - - /kfe-rl_ - - _ik- - - .pdf 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusions 	background 	methods 	cancer cases and population data of resettlers and the general population of the ad münster 	cancer cases and population data of ethnic germans and the general population of the tomsk oblast 	processing of cancer registry data 	statistical methods 	results 	discussion 	conclusion 	additional file 	abbreviations 	acknowledgements 	authors’ contributions 	funding 	availability of data and materials 	ethics approval and consent to participate 	consent for publication 	competing interests 	author details 	references 	publisher’s note uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi / the journal of international social research cilt: sayı: haziran www.sosyalarastirmalar.com volume: issue: june issn: - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /jisr. . . yÜzyil osmanli trajedİsİ ve bÜyÜk kaÇgunluĞun yÖnÜ the seventeeth century- ottoman tragedy and the direction of the big kacgunluk sefa derekÖy* Öz . yüzyılın başında, osmanlı devleti’nin sınırları doğu’da azerbaycan’dan batı’da cezayir’e kadar uzanmaktaydı. ancak bu küresel devlet yalnızca bir yüzyıl içinde belirgin güç ve toprak kayıplarını takiben karlofça anlaşması’nı imzalamıştır. bir yüzyılda yaşanan osmanlı trajedisi’nin altında yatan nedenleri bazı iç ve dış gelişmelerin birlikte ve bütüncül analiziyle anlamak mümkün olabilir. bu yüzyıl içinde avrupa’da otuz yıl savaşları sürerken, osmanlı lehistan seferi ile protestanlara bir destek vermek istemiştir. ii. osman’ın bu sefer sonrasında yüzünü doğu’ya dönmesi ile birlikte yeniçeri ve üst düzey devlet yönetiminde bir kopma olmuş tur. aynı anda anadolu’da belirginleşen ekonomik ve siyasi karışıklıklar türk nüfusu yeni bir ufuk arayışına sürüklemiş olabilir. tarihte büyük kaçgunluk olarak adlandırılan süreçte anadolu’dan büyük bir nüfus hareketinin varlığı iyi bilinmektedir. bu çalışmada göçün akdeniz ve atlantik’te gelişen uluslararası ticarete katılım şeklinde olabileceğine yönelik güçlü kanıtlar sunulmaktadır. bu küresel katkı aynı zamanda türkler için bir nizam-ı alem davası demekti. anahtar kelimeler: . yüzyıl-osmanlı trajedisi, otuz yıl savaşları, osmanlı-avrupa dostlukları, büyük kaçgunluk, lehistan seferi. abstract the borders of ottoman state in the early seventeeth century, extended from azerbaijen in east to algeria in west. however, just in one century, this global state signed karlowitz treaty after prominent lost of power and land. to understand the underlying causes of the ottoman tragedy lived in a century can be possible with comprehensive analysis of some developments in and outside of the country altogether. in that century, ottoman wanted to support protestants by poland campaign, while in europe thirty years’ war continued. a rupture occured in janissaires and top level state managers after osman ii turned face to ea st following pol campaign. at the same period, growing economical and political derangements in anatolia could have leaded turkish population to search of a new horizon. in history, entity of a big population movement from anatolia in a course named as big kacgunluk is well known. in this study, strong evidences are presented for the occurence of the migration toward participation to growing international trade in mediterranean and atlantic. at the same time this global contribution meant universe matter for turks. keywords: seventeeth-century-ottoman tragedy, thirty years’ war, ottoman-europe alliences, big kacgunluk, pol campaign. i. giriş osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun sınırları . yüzyılın başında cezayir’den azerbaycan’a, azak denizi’nden kızıldeniz’e, budin’den basra’ya uzanmaktaydı (kunt, , ). Öyle ki yılında, padişah i. sultan ahmed döneminde ( - ), devlet kuzeyde ukrayna stepleri ile güney rusya’dan güneyde İran körfezi ve yemen’e komşu olmuştu (groot, , ). en batı’da cezayir’e kadar uzanan devletin sınırları avrupa’nın batısı’nda viyana’ya km. uzaklıktaki macaristan’da estergon’dan doğu’da İran-irak topraklarına kadar dayanmıştı. ancak imparatorluğun ’lü yılların başında sahip olduğu bu devasa topraklar, yalnızca bir yüzyıl içinde kayba uğramaya başlamıştır. ’de mora’yı venedik’e ve bir bölüm macar toprağı habsburg’a ve azak kalesi rusya’ya terkedilmek zorunda kalınmıştır. ’da imzalanan karlofça barışı, balkanlar’da ve ukrayna’da geniş çaptaki bu toprak kaybını belgelemiştir (kunt, , ). halbuki ’den ’e kadar süren yıl savaşları, başta almanya toprakları olmak üzere İspanya’dan polonya’ya kadar tüm batı güçlerini içine almış ve osmanlı’ya karşı gelen avrupa devletlerini birbirine düşürmüştür. avrupa’da yaşanan bu iç karışıklıktan yararlanamayan osmanlı devleti’nin . yüzyılın sonundaki toprak kayıplarını ve başarısız seferlerini açıklamak çok güçtür. tezcan ’de hotin’de yaşanan başarısızlığı, padişah ii. osman’ın azline ve katline yol açan olayların başlangıç noktası görmektedir (tezcan, , ). yazar hotin seferi sonrası, osmanlı’nın ikinci imparatorluğu olarak nitelendirdiği dönemin başladığını bildirmektedir. böylece . yüzyılın içindeki osmanlı’nın bu yeni gidişinin sorumlusu olarak da hotin’deki bozgununa işaret etmektedir. * prof. dr., Çanakkale onsekiz mart Üniversitesi tıp fakültesi deontoloji ve tıp tarihi ad, sefaderekoy@gmail.com uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - kuban bu dönemdeki bilinmezleri açıklarken prof. dr. halil İnalcık’ın gıyabında şu cümleleri kullanır: “ ’den sonrası için bir başka tarih yazmadın, iyi çalışan bir makine gibi olan osmanlı imparatorluğu nasıl bozuldu? diye soramadım. habsburg, romanof, hohenzollern gibi sülalelerin sonlarının nasıl geldiği iyi biliniyor. osmanlı’nın yok oluş nedenleri belli olsa da türkler onu daha yazmadılar. birden devlet kadrolarının yarısı, asker ve sivil boşalıyor. Çağdaş tarihte bunun eşi yok. acaba bunun türk tarihinde bir yanıtı yok mu? yoksa İnalcık hocanın söylemekten kaçındığı bir şey var mıydı?”(kuban, , ). kuban’ın sorguladığı gibi . yüzyılda osmanlı’yı durduran ve sonunda gerileten nedenlerin araştırılması büyük önem arz etmektedir. devletin bu yüzyıldaki duraklama nedenlerinin ortaya konabilmesi için bu yüzyılının tarihi analizlerinin yanı sıra sosyolojik araştırmalarının da yapılması gerekmektedir. metzger tarihi iyi anlayabilmek ve anlatabilmek için geçmişte ortaya çıkan büyük gelişmelerin öncesindeki olayları ve birbirleriyle olan ilişkilerini iyice araştırmak gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır (metzger, , - ). gerçekçi bir tarih analizinin ancak o günlerin kronolojisinin, bağlamlarının, nedenler zincirinin ve tesadüflerinin (beklenmedik olayların) değerlendirilmesiyle yapılabileceğini savunmaktadır. tarih yazımında kronolojinin ve söz konusu olgunun yakın çevresinde gerçekleşen olayların bağlantılanmasının önemini vurgulamaktadır. tarihi sonuçların arkasında, bir etkiler zincirinin yer aldığı muhakkaktır. bu nedenle olguyla aynı tarihte gerçekleşen sosyal, ekonomik, politik ve askeri şartlar mutlaka göz önüne alınmalıdır. . yüzyılın içinde batı’da gerçekleşen olaylar gözden geçirildiğinde, karşımıza atlantik’te katolik İspanyol-habsburg imparatorluğu ile protestan avrupalıların siyasi ve ekonomik mücadelesi ile bu mücadelenin avrupa kıtası topraklarına yansıyan biçimi olan yıl savaşları, İspanya’daki morişkolar’ın ülkelerinden sürgünü, İspanya ve habsburg’a karşı çıkan avrupalılarla osmanlı’nın dostlukları, hollanda’nın bağımsızlık öyküsü, akdeniz ve atlantik’te ticareti üstlenen levant company ve dutch east/west company (dec/dwc) (hollanda doğu/batı hindistan Şirketi) gibi büyük şirketlerin kurulması ile kuzey amerika’da başlayan kolonizasyon süreci çıkar. anadolu’da ise küçük buzul Çağı, ekonomik ve siyasi istikrarsızlığa yol açan celali ayaklanmaları, nüfus azalması ile büyük kaçgunluk ve lehistan seferi göze çarpmaktadır. bu çalışmada osmanlı’nın bir yüzyıl içinde gelişen başarısız gidişinin kökeninin araştırılması amaçlanmıştır. bu maksatla ’lü yılların içinde gerçekleşen olaylar, metzger’in analiz yönteminin kullanılmasıyla incelenecektir. . yüzyıl içinde batı’da ve anadolu’da gelişen olaylar ve birbirleriyle olan ilgileri ele alınacaktır. böylece bu yüzyılda yaşanan osmanlı trajedisi’nin altında yatan nedenlerle büyük kaçgunluğun yönü hakkında da yeni bir bakış açısı ortaya koymak mümkün olabilecektir. ii. . yüzyılda anadolu’nun durumu anadolu’nun kendi iç dinamiklerinde etkili olan bazı faktörler bir yüzyıl içinde bu büyük devletin gerilemesine yol açmış olabilir. lu ’lerde başlayan küçük buzul Çağı’nın tüm dünyayı olduğu kadar osmanlı topraklarını da etkilediğini; anadolu’da yokluk, aşırı fiyat artışı, kıtlık ve veba gibi olumsuzluklar yaşandığını bildirmiştir (lu, , - ). yazara göre . yüzyılda stuart hanedanı’nın ve Çin’deki ming hanedanı’nın çöküşleri, İngiltere’deki devrim, rusya’daki kentli ayaklanmaları, meksika’daki ayaklanma ile osmanlı’daki ayaklanmalar ve . yüzyıldaki kriz (osmanlı tradejisi) bu dönemlere isabet etmiştir. aynı makalede veya yıllarında şiddetli kış şartları nedeniyle İstanbul boğazı ve haliç’in donduğu da dile getirilmiştir. uzun süren kıtlık gibi zor hayat şartları neticesinde anadolu’da topraksız ve işsiz bir sınıf ortaya çıkmıştır. İmparatorluğun doğusunda ve batısında devam eden savaşlar sonucu anadolu’da emniyet zaafiyeti de başlayınca, topraklarını terk eden kaçaklar ayaklanmış ve eşkıya gruplarına katılmışlardır. bunun sonucunda da osmanlı İmparatorluğu, . yüzyılın sonundan . yüzyılın başlarına kadar süren celâlî İsyanları olarak adlandırılan büyük bir ayaklanma hareketiyle karşılaşmıştır. celaliler geçtikleri köy ve kasabaların mallarına ve ürettikleri mahsullere el koymuşlardır (afyoncu, , ). - yılları arasında meydana gelen ve celali fetreti diye adlandırılan bu dönemde anadolu baştan başa harabe olmuştur. on binlerce insan ailece evlerini terkederek başka diyarlara gitti. binlerce köy boşalırken devlete vergi veren nüfus azaldı. aşırı soğuklar, salgın hastalıklar, kuraklık ve kıtlıklar nedeniyle insanlar bulundukları bölgeleri terketmişti. bu olaya türk tarihinde “büyük kaçgunluk” adı verilir. . yüzyılın ortalarına kadar bazı bölgelerde hane sayısı % ’e kadar düşmüştür. tahrir defterleri’ne göre ’lar ve ’lar arasında amasya, samsun ve bozok’taki vergi ödeyen nüfus % oranında azalmıştır. İngiliz elçisi sir thomas roe’nun ifadesine göre, ’de anadolu nüfusunda beklenmeyen bir azalma gözlenmiş ve osmanlı köylerinin sayısı . ’den . ’e düşmüştür (griswold, , - ). osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun nüfusundaki azalmayı sam white şöyle açıklar: “İnsanlar soğuktan ve soğukla bağlantılı hastalıklardan ölmüş olabilir, ayrıca kıtlık yüz binlerce, hatta milyonlarca kişinin ölümüne yol açmış olabilir” (white, , - ). aynı yazara göre; bu dönemde osmanlı uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - topraklarında ortaya çıkan hastalıkların patogenezinde (ortaya çıkış mekanizmasında), . yüzyılda etkileri başlayan küçük buz Çağı (little ice age), anadolu’daki nüfus hareketleri, nüfus çoğalmaları ve eksilmelerinin göz önünde bulundurulmalıdır. kunt bu dönemini değerlendirirken katip Çelebi’nin teşhisini ve yazdığı “bozuklukların düzeltilmesi için rehber” adlı risalesini dile getirmiştir (kunt, , ). katip Çelebi bu rehberinde, insan vücudu ve toplumun sağlığı ile siyasal ve toplumsal bozuklukların birbirine benzediğine; insanın yaşlandığı gibi devletin de yaşlandığına dikkati çekiyordu. ona göre sorunların kökenine inilmeden geçici çare aramak faydasızdı. bu literatürlerin ışığında, ’lerde soğuyan iklim ve celali ayaklanmaları ile güçleşen yaşam şartlarının anadolu’da büyük nüfus hareketlerinin gerçekleşmesine yol açtığı anlaşılmaktadır. Öyle ki . yüzyıl ortasına gelindiğinde tersanede özel vasıflar gerektiren işlerin çoğunu rum zanaatkarlar yapıyor; dolayısıyla da daha yüksek ücretler alıyorlardı (faroqhi, , .) oysa aynı yazara göre . yüzyıl başlarındaki kalifiye işçilerin çoğu müslüman’dı ve bu değişikliğin nasıl meydana geldiğine ilişkin hiçbir şey bilinmemektedir. bu durumda türk ve müslüman nüfusun teknik vasıflı işlerden çekildiği ve hatta anadolu’daki nüfuslarının azaldığı varsayılabilir. sonuç olarak iklimde meydana gelen bazı değişiklikler, celali ayaklanmaları sonucu emniyet zaafiyeti, göçler, nüfus sayısındaki değişimler, ekonomik güçlükler anadolu’da ortaya çıkan hastalıkların ve devletteki duraklamanın altında yatan nedenler olarak sayılabilir. osmanlı devleti düzenindeki bozulmanın başlangıcı ile anadolu’daki türk nüfusunun azalmasının eş zamanlı olarak ortaya çıktığı da ileri sürülebilir. iii. . yüzyılda İspanya’ya karşı osmanlı, garp ocakları ve İngiliz dostluğu emmer ’teki antwerp’in kaybedilmesinden sonra kuzey hollanda’nın, katolik İspanya güçleriyle asya’da, güney/kuzey amerika ve karayipler’de büyük bir savaş yürüttüğünü ve bunun dünyayı saran ilk küresel savaş olduğunu ileri sürmüştür (emmer, , - ). benzer biçimde parker, bu yıllarda kuzeybatı avrupa’da binlerce göçmen ile başlayan isyanın, sonuçta milyonlarca insanı etkilediğini ve dünyanın gördüğü en büyük imparatorluk olan İspanya’nın çöküşüne neden olduğunu vurgulamıştır (parker, , - ). yazar bu şekliyle ’larda seylan’da, japonya’da, endonezya’da, hint, pasifik ve atlantik okyanusu’nda büyük bir mücadele sürdüğünü ve esas i. dünya savaşı’nın o zaman yaşandığını belirtmiştir. sözü geçen bu dönemde atlantik’te İspanya’ya karşı savaşanların ittifakıyla yeni kimlikler ortaya çıkarken, taraflar arasındaki ekonomik ve siyasal mücadele zirveye ulaşmıştır. böyle bir küresel savaştaki büyük mücadelenin, değişim ve yeniliklerin; çağının en güçlü ekonomik ve askeri gücü olan osmanlı devleti’nde karşılık bulamaması mümkün değildir. bulut yabancı yazarların da referansıyla . ve . yüzyıllarda osmanlı’nın bir “dünya İmparatorluğu” ve bir “dünya ekonomisi” olarak görüldüğüne dikkat çekmektedir (bulut, , - ). atlantik’te gelişen yeni dünya düzeninden pek ala haberdar olan bu dünya İmparatorluğu, aslında o dönemde İspanya’ya karşı yürütülen küresel stratejinin asıl belirleyicisi sayılmalıdır. osmanlı’nın ve garp ocakları’nın bu dönemde İspanya’ya karşı avrupalılarla geliştirdiği dostlukların incelenmesi, bu stratejinin anlaşılmasında yardımcı olacaktır. protestan reformu’nun da içinde yer alan osmanlı İspanya’ya karşı önce fransa, sonra da İngiltere ve hollanda ile ekonomik ve siyasi işbirliklerine gitmiştir. batı avrupa ülkeleriyle gelişen ilk dostluk örneğinde kanuni sultan süleyman ve fransuva döneminde osmanlı ile fransa arasında siyasi, askeri ve ekonomik işbirliği yaşanmıştı. bu dönemden hemen sonra İngilizler’le, osmanlı ve garp ocakları’nın İspanyollara karşı birlik haline gelmesi söz konusudur. bu birlik yalnızca siyasi değil ekonomik alanda da kendini göstermeye başlamıştı. daha önceleri fransızlar’a sağlanan ticari kapitülasyonlardan sonra, osmanlı devleti mayıs ’den itibaren İngiliz ulusuna tam bir ticari imtiyaz sağlamıştır (halil İnalcık, , ). eylül ’de ise kraliçe i. elizabeth’in imtiyaz beratıyla türkiye kumpanyası kurulmuştur. ocak ’de de venedik kumpanyası ve türkiye kumpanyası adı altında faaliyet gösteren tüccarlar levant kumpanyası’nda birleştiler. böylece venedik toprakları dahil, doğu akdeniz’deki tüm İngiliz ticareti, levant kumpanyası’nın tekelinde gerçekleşecekti. rodger İngiliz donanma mitinin i. elizabeth yönetimindeki bu dönemde inşa edildiğini bildirmektedir (rodger, , - ). - yıllarında fransız huguenotları, kalvinist denizciler, hollandalılar hatta İskoçlar ve korsanlar fransız din savaşları sırasındaki deniz savaşlarında katoliklere karşı uluslararası bir ittifak yapmışlardı. yazara göre - yılları arasındaki İspanyol savaşlarındaki mücadelede, kraliçe’nin gemileri toplam gücün yalnızca bir bölümünü oluşturmaktaydı. din, özgürlük ve para odaklı bu mücadele sonunda yılında, İspanyol armadası yalnızca batılılar’dan oluşmayan özel bir koalisyonun yardımıyla İngilizler tarafından büyük bir hezimete uğratılmıştı. bu deniz savaşında İngiliz donanma komutanı sir francis drake’in en büyük yardımcısının türk donanması olduğu bildirilmiştir (ezard, , ). parker modern İngiltere’nin erken dönemi olarak kabul ettiği - yıllarında, berber sahilleri (garp ocakları) ile olan münasebetlerin değerlendirilmesinde ve özellikle İbero-afrika tarihinde bir uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - yanlış okuma ve amnezinin (unutkanlık) hakim olduğunu ileri sürmektedir (parker, , - ). yazara göre bu tarihlerde londra ve marakeş (fas) arasındaki stratejik ortaklık çerçevesinde, türkler, İngilizler ve morişkolar ortak kara ve deniz operasyonları gerçekleştirmişlerdir. o dönem latin katolikliğin kalesi durumundaki İspanyolların yaşam biçimi ve hatıraları başta olmak üzere o kültüre ait olan her şeyin yok edilmesi bu ittifakın ortak aklı olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. parker bu tarihlerde çok sayıda korsanın denizlerde faaliyet gösterdiğine dikkat çekmektedir. bu korsanlardan en iyi bilineni İngiliz john ward, tunus dayısı ve yeniçerilerin başı kara osman’ın himayesinde görev yapmaktaydı. ward’un türklüğe (müslümanlığa) döndüğü, yusuf reis ismini aldığı ve ’de londra’da sahneye konan İngiliz yazar robert daborne’un “a christian turn’d turke” adlı tiyatro eserine konu edildiği bilinmektedir. shakespeare ve marlowe gibi yazarların dönemi - arası İngilteresi’nde türk ve morişkolar hakkında düzinelerce tiyatro oyununun yazıldığı bildirilmiştir (matar, , - ). Öyle ki bu dönemde binlerce türk ve morişko’nun İngiliz ve İrlanda limanlarını ziyaret ettiği ve onlarla ticaret yaptığı bilinmektedir. ’lere doğru türk, morişko, İngiliz ve hollandalılardan oluşan mavi gözlü sarı saçlı berberiler, İngiliz limanları ile hollandalı tüccarların yardımlarıyla kuzey denizi’nde korsanlık yapmışlardır (braudel, , ). günümüzde fas sınırları içinde yer alan sale, İslam’a dönmüş batı avrupalı renegad korsanların ganimetleri için güvenilir bir liman ve atlantik’e açılan bir kapı olmuştur (clarck, , - ). kraliçe i. elizabeth döneminde korsan faaliyetleri İzlanda ve hollanda sahillerine kadar uzanmıştır. cezayirliler’in cape verde adasında kurdukları üslerinden atlantik’teki gemi ulaşımına karşı operasyonlar başlamıştır. aynı yazara göre, garp ocaklı korsanlar ’de madeira’yı yağmalamışlar, ’de county cork’daki baltimore küçük limanındaki tüm halkı toplamışlardır. ’de sale’den korsanlar kuzey amerika sahillerinde ve newfoundland kıyılarında görünmüşlerdir. uzunçarşılı da bu dönemlerde garp ocakları olarak bilinen cezayir, tunus ve trablus’un ayrı ayrı donanmaları olduğunu ve bunların ecnebi devletlerle (fransa, İngiltere, felemenk) anlaşmalar yaparak mektuplaştıklarını ifade etmiştir (uzunçarşılı, , ). bunlar içinde en güçlü donanmaya sahip olan cezayir donanma ve korsanlarının faaliyeti akdeniz’den cebelitarık boğazını aşmış ve kanarya adaları, İngiltere, İrlanda, felemenk, danimarka ve hatta İzlanda adasına kadar uzanmıştır. fransa, İngiltere ve felemenk osmanlı ile birlikte cezayir dayısı ile de anlaşma yapmışlardır. yazara göre de britanya adası civarında ve baltık denizi’nde polonya’daki vistül nehri ağzındaki lundy adası ele geçirilmiş ve uzun bir süre kullandıktan sonra adayı İngiliz korsanlarına satmışlardır. cezayir beylerbeyi ramazan paşa’nın yardımıyla başa geçen ve İstanbul’la yakın ilişki kuran fas kralı mulay ahmed el-mansur, ege denizi’nden atlantik’e uzayan deniz savaşlarında osmanlılarla birlikte yer almıştır (matar, , - ). yazara göre mansur ’deki hicri milenyum’un arefesinde, belki de bir mehdi olarak katolik İspanya’yı yok etmek amacındaydı. atlantik ötesi bir İslam İmparatorluğu kurmayı hedefleyen mansur, İngilizlerle birlikte İspanya’nın amerika’daki topraklarına saldırmayı planlıyordu. matar aynı makalede mansur’un mayıs ’de yazdığı bir mektupta, İngilizlere amerika’da yeni bir koloni kuruluşunu önerdiğini yazmıştır. böylece İslam amerika’da galebe çalacak ve mansur atlantiğin iki yanında tanınan mehdi olacaktı. yine matar İngilizlerin amerika’ya koloni kurucusu olarak gittiklerinde İslam’ın temsilcisi olarak gittiklerini vurgulamaktadır (matar, , ). hatta yazara göre kolonileri kuranlar İngilizler değil, türklerdi. Öyle ki hıristiyanlar bu işte hizmetkarlık yapıyordu. Örneğin kuzey amerika’da kurulan ilk kolonilerinden virginia’nın merkezi jamestown’ı kuran kaptan john smith’in daha önce osmanlılarla birlikte çalıştığı bildirilmiştir (lloyd, , - ). aynı yazar kaptan smith’in türk gibi giyindiğini ve türklüğe (müslümanlığa) döndüğünü vurgulamıştır. ancak kraliçe i. elizabeth sonrası İngiltere’de dış siyasetin tamamen değişimi söz konusu olmuştur. kral i. james ( - ) döneminde İspanya’ya karşı oluşan bu ittifak dağılmaya başlamıştır. kralın ’de yazdığı “daemonologie” kitabı, kendisinin cadılık ve büyücülük konularından çok etkilendiğinin bir göstergesiydi (calhoun, , - ). protestanlığa mesafeli olan İngiliz kral i. james ’de İspanyol habsburg’una karşı yürütülen savaşa ülkesinin girmesini engelllemek için parlamentoyu dağıtmıştır (pursell, , - ). kral james, elizabeth döneminin tam tersine, isyan halindeki hollanda’ya karşı yürütülecek bir İspanyol-İngiliz ittifakı kurmak peşindeydi. bu dönemde atlantik’e açılan cezayirli ve tunuslu korsanlar, İngiliz gemi nakliyatına zarar vermeye başlamıştı. korsanların giderek artan tehditkar talanlarıyla mücadele için İngiliz kralı i. james tüccarların finanse ettiği bir donanma kurmak gayretine de girmiştir (rainey, , - ). iv. . yüzyılda İspanya’ya karşı osmanlı, garp ocakları ve hollanda dostluğu lale osmanlı’dan hollanda’ya giden ilk eşya olarak değerlendirilir. avrupa’da tulipa olarak adlandırılan lalenin ismi tülbent’ten geliyor ve arapça’da allah lafzını andırdığı için ayrı bir anlam ifade ediyordu. . yüzyılda viyana imparatorluk bahçelerinde görevli hollanda’lı botanikçi ve aynı zamanda uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - leiden’de profesör olan carolus clusius’a ilk lale demetleri ’te ulaşmıştır. avusturya’nın İstanbul büyükelçisi busbecq viyana’ya dönerken lale soğanını yanında taşımıştır (henke, , - ). karaçay kitabında osmanlı ile hollanda arasında gelişen ilk temasların yılında bab-ı ali ile hollanda’nın kurucusu ve atası sayılan willem van orange ( - ) arasındaki ilişkilerle başladığını yazmaktadır (karaçay, , , ). yılında low countries (düşük Ülkeler) adı verilen belçika, hollanda ve lüksemburg’daki İspanyol güçlerine küçük saldırılar başlatan willem van orange yılında yardımcısını gizli bir görevle İstanbul’a göndermiştir. bu dönemde İspanya yönetimi, batı avrupa topraklarında yaşayanlar üzerinde dini, ekonomik ve sosyal açıdan büyük bir baskı ve zulüm sürdürmekteydi. yılında çok uluslu korsanlardan oluşan deniz dilencileri’nin, den briell kasabasını İspanyollar’dan kurtarması, hollandalıların İspanya’ya karşı direnişinde dönüm noktası olmuştur (güleç , - ). ’te orange İspanya’ya karşı osmanlı sultanı’ndan yardım talebinde bulunmuştur (parker, , - ). aynı yıl İspanyollar’ın ünlü engizisyon zulmünden leiden’i kurtaran türk bayrağı çekilmiş gemilerdeki deniz dilencileri’nin “katolik olmaktansa türk olmak daha iyidir” sloganları ve boyunlarında hilal figürü asılı kolyeleri hollanda bağımsızlık ülküsünün sembolü olmuştur (thompson, , - ). - yılları arasında osmanlı-İngiltere-hollanda arasında İspanya’dan morişkoların da yer aldığı çok sayıda diplomatik temas gerçekleşmiştir (groot, , ). hess yılı civarında osmanlı sultanı ii. selim’in hollanda’daki protestan isyanı ile İspanya’daki endülüslü morişkoların alpujar isyanını birleştirdiğini yazmıştır (hess, , - ). - yılları arasında sokollu mehmed paşa’nın temsilcilerinin defalarca İstanbul’dan antwerp’e gittikleri bilinir. waite’ye göre o dönemde berber sahillerinde hollandalı korsanlarla türk korsanlar arasında önemli anlaşmalar vardı (waite, , - ). simon danser, süleyman reis (du.’de veenboer), murad reis (jan jansz van harlem) ve sefer reis gibi pek çok hollandalı korsan garp ocakları ile birlikte çalışmışlardır (groot, , - ). o dönemdeki İspanyol devleti’nin katolik sistemine karşı osmanlı ve hollanda çok güçlü bir siyasi ittifak geliştirmişlerdir. yılında cebelitarık’ta hollanda deniz gücünün İspanya’yı yenilgiye uğratması İspanyolları barış için zorlamıştır (güleç, , ). ile yılları arasında endülüs’te kalan son morişkolar İspanya’dan çıkarılarak sürgüne gönderilmişlerdir. İspanya’dan kovulan bu sürgünlerin bazılarının kuzey afrika’daki korsanlara katıldıkları ve bir bölümünün batı avrupa ve İtalya’ya göç ettikleri bilinir (melammed, , - ). yeniçeri ağalığı sırasında canbulat ali paşa ve kalenderoğlu isyanları gibi anadolu’da pek çok asi hareketini bastırmakla görevlendirilmiş olan halil paşa, hollanda ile ilişkilerde önemli roller almıştır. aslında halil paşa’nın kaptan paşalığa atandıktan sonra yılından itibaren fas, tunus, cezayir ve hollanda’nın İspanya’ya karşı ortak mücadelesine büyük emek vermiştir (groote, , , ). . acıpınar da yılında ikinci kez kaptan-ı derya olan halil paşa’nın osmanlı-hollanda-fas ittifakı için çalışmalar yaptığını yazmaktadır (acıpınar, , - ). halil paşa, garp ocakları’nda türklüğe dönmüş İngiliz ve hollandalı korsanlarla temas halindeydi. uzunçarşılı, halil paşa’nın ’de İstanbul’a gelen ilk felemenk elçisi cornelius haga’yı himaye ettiğini ifade etmiştir (uzunçarşılı, , - ). bu tarihten itibaren hollanda elçisi haga ile halil paşa birlikte yakın temaslar kurarak hollanda-osmanlı ittifakının avrupa politikalarını belirler hale gelmişlerdir. o kadar ki haga, dönemin padişahı i. sultan ahmed de dahil olmak üzere osmanlı’nın en büyük manevi lideri sayılan aziz mahmud hüdayi efendi ile de tanışıp bir araya gelmişti (groote, , ). bir bilim insanı olarak devlet için bir tür danışmanlık görevi de yürüten hüdayi, hollanda ile ittifak sürecinin tüm safhalarından haberdardır. bu yönüyle de aslında kendisinin o ünlü “denizde boğulmasınlar” dileyişinin, tam o dönemde deniz aşırı ve atlantiğe kadar uzanan küresel politikalarla da ilişkilendirilebileceği kanaatindeyim. emmer “hollanda nasıl dünyanın merkezi oldu?” sorusuna bir açıklama getirmeye çalışır (emmer, , - ). yazara göre İngiltere o dönemde daha fazla arazi sahibiydi ve iki kat nüfusa sahipti; fransa ise altı kat büyüktü. yazara göre hollanda’nın bu gelişiminin başarısında ticaretin büyük payı vardır ve bu siyasi ittifakın odak noktasını oluşturan ticaret akdeniz’de başlamıştır. hollanda ticaret ağı içinde levant küçük bir rol oynadı; halep’i de İzmir’i de ziyareti eden hollandalı tüccarların ipek, pamuk, tahıl ve mazı ticaretindeki payları küçüktü. osmanlı-hollanda diplomatik ilişkileri İspanya ile hollanda arasındaki on İki yıllık ateşkes ( - ) denilen dönemde güçlendi. ’ya gelindiğinde avrupa sularında hollanda’ya ait geminin varlığı elde edilen başarının en iyi kanıtıydı. bulut da hollandalıların doğu akdeniz’deki deniz ticaretinde ’lar kadar erken dönemde yer aldıklarını yazmaktadır (bulut, , - ). zamanla osmanlı-hollanda ticaret ilişkileri giderek artmış ve bu sayede tekstil ithalatının önemli bir merkezi olan leiden’de pek çok hollandalı tüccar zengin olmuştur. ’lü yılların başında kurulmuş olan dutch east/west india company şirketleri gibi büyük ticaret ağlarının sayesinde bir hollanda atlantik sistemi gelişmiştir (emmer, , - ). bu ticareti oluşturan kültürün demografik yapısı incelendiğinde afrikalı, amerikan yerlisi, avrupalı kısacası İspanya’ya karşı olan her kesimden insanın katkı verdiği uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - anlaşılmaktadır. kuzey amerika’da yeni hollanda adı verilen bölgeye göç ederek yerleşenler, bu batı hindistan Şirketi hesabına çalışan eski asker, eski denizci, memur ve diğer işçilerden ibaretti. yazara göre bu yeni koloniciler, kuzey amerika’ya hollanda kültürünü götürenler olmuştur. lucassen ise yılından itibaren ticarete başlayan dec’nin dünya üzerinde görülmüş en büyük çok-uluslu şirket olduğunu bildirmiştir (lucassen, , - ). aynı yazar, bu tarihi süreçte bu devasa şirkette müslümanların da görev aldığını ve toplamda yaklaşık . - milyon çalışanın içinde osmanlı vatandaşları ile morişkoların da var olduğunu ifade etmiştir. haziran ’de dutch west india company, latin amerika’daki ticaret ve savaşın desteklenmesi için kurulmuştu (parker, , - ). başlangıçta korsanlık faaliyetleri dwc’nin payandalarından biriydi (heijer. , ). Şirket karayiplere, brezilya’ya ve batı afrika’ya içinde korsan gemilerin de yer aldığı ticari filolar gönderiyordu. bu şirketin deniz gücüyle İspanyol ve portekizlilere ait ticari gemilere el konuyor ve İspanyol yerleşim yerlerine saldırılıyordu. waite reforme ve katolik çağdaşlarının korku ve ön yargılarının pek çoğunu taşıyan hollandalı mennonit topluluğunun, . yüzyılda osmanlı idaresi altındaki dini özgürlüğü avrupa’daki katolik ve protestan yöneticilerinin baskısına tercih ettiklerini bildirmiştir (waite, , - ). Öyle ki türk ve İslam öğretilerine yönelik bu ilgi nihayet amsterdam doopsgezinden (baptist-minded) grubunun ’de kuran’ın felemenkçe’ye çevirisini yapması ile sonuçlanmıştır. mennonit pastörler’inden pieter twisck, kendi yazımlarında müslüman elçilerin hollanda’ya geldiklerinden, fas elçisinin aralığında hollanda’da anlaşma imzaladığından söz etmiştir. ’da osmanlı elçisi ile yine bir ticari anlaşma imzalandığından bahsetmiş ve hollanda elçisi cornelius haga’nın yılında İstanbul’a diplomatik görev almasını övmüştür. İlginç olarak twisck ’de polonyalılar’ın türk sınırlarında soykırımlar yaptıklarından haberdar olduğunu belirtmiştir. hollanda çini atölyeleri . yüzyılın ilk yarısından itibaren türk atlılarını şaha kalkmış bir kompozisyonda işlemişlerdir (yılmaz, , - ). aynı yazara göre osmanlı ile ticaret yapan leidenli tüccar bartholemeus van panhuysen’in yılında yaptırdığı evinin cephe alınlığına yerleştirdiği çelenk içinde, kavuklu türk büstü ve altın yaldızlı türk yazısı, türklere karşı bir minnet hissinin ifadesi olmalıydı. . yüzyıl ortalarında avrupa’da yaygınlaşan ve ’lü yıllarda gelişen turquerie modası hollanda duvar çinilerinde kendini göstermişti. karaçay bu dönemde giyim dahil günlük yaşamda hollanda’da “turkomania” olarak adlandırılan bir modanın hakim olduğunu yazar (karaçay, , - ). osmanlı türk kültürünün mimari, çiçek, porselen, çini gibi konularda, hollanda’da baskın hale geldiği bilinir. hatta cami minaresi şeklinde kullanılan biçimler bazı kiliselerin süslemelerinde taklit edilmiştir. tarihte aydınlanma dönemi batı tıbbı’nda hollandalı tıp akademisyenlerinin rolü çok iyi bilinmektedir. tıpta hipofiz bezinin sfenoid kemikte yerleştiği anatomik bölgenin latince adı sella turcica’dır (türk eğeri) (tekiner, , - ). bu adı tıp tarihinde ’de ilk kez kullanan akademisyen hollandalı botanikçi hekim adrianus spigelius’dur. sonuçta hollanda’nın, atlantik’te ve denizaşırı bölgelerdeki dev büyümesini, osmanlı ile yaptığı ittifak sonrasında yakaladığı ileri sürülebilir. faroqhi osmanlı’nın hollandalı tüccarlara tanıdığı kapitülasyonların ekonomik olmaktan çok siyasi gerekçelerle verilmiş olduğunu hatırlatmaktadır (faroqh, , ). bu gerçek göz önüne alındığında hollanda adına atlantik’te yapılan icraatların bir yandan da osmanlı hanesine yazılması gerektiği ihtimal dahilindedir. v. otuz yıl savaşları ve ii. osman’ın lehistan (hotin) seferi yılı öncesinde İspanyol habsburgları, dini ayrılıkların zirveye vardığı avrupa’da merkezi gücün temsilcisiydi (gutmann, , - ). otuz yıl savaşları’nın sonlandığı yılı sonrasında ise fransa ve diğer milletler güçlenmiş, avrupa’nın merkezi doğu’ya kaymış ve rusya, prusya ve avusturya habsburg’u daha da kuvvet kazanmıştı. otuz yıl savaşları katolik habsburg İmparatoru ve onun bohemyalı vatandaşları arasında, avrupa’daki din ve emperyal güç eksenindeki çatışmalardan başlamıştır. ağustos ’de İspanya’nın viyana’daki elçisinin de yönlendirmesi ile avusturya askerleri bohemya’ya girdi. schiller bu savaşın bohemya içlerinden escaut irmağı ağzına ve po kıyılarından baltık kıyısına kadar ülkelerin halkını boşalttığını, ekinlerini çiğnediğini, şehirleri ve köyleri kül ettiğini yazmaktadır (schiller, , , , ). ona göre bunların hepsi sırf din uğruna ve din yüzünden girişilmiş değildi. eğer ortada özel menfaatler olmasa ve bunlar devlet menfaatleri ile uyuşmasa, din bilginlerinin sesini prensler bu kadar kolay duymazdı. sonuçta prenslerin menfaati halkın menfaatine uymuştu; çünkü papadan kurtuluşlarını bu tesadüfe borçluydular. bu dönemlerde osmanlı devleti’nin komşusu avusturya, habsburg hanedanının elinde olup başında hem almanya ve hem de bohemya ve macaristan’a hakim olan bir kral bulunuyordu. bu müfrit derecede katolik olarak yetişmiş hükümdarların zulmü altındaki protestanların müdafaası için, İsveç ve fransa devletleri alman imparatoruna karşı otuz yıl muharebesi’ni ( - ) açmışlardır. guttman’a göre uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - başlangıçtan sonra savaşın ilk sıçradığı yer hollanda olmuş ve İspanya ile yaptığı on iki-yıl barışı ( - ) bozulmuştur. ’lerde savaş kuzey almanya, danimarka ve İsveç’in katılımıyla baltık denizi’ne kadar yayıldı. baltık savaşları’nda rol alan ülkeler danimarka, İsveç, polonya ve rusya idi. baykal bu dönemi değerlendirirken İspanyol çemberi içinde sıkışıp kalan fransa’nın mezhep harpleri sırasında dağılacak derecede zayıfladığını, İngiltere’nin ise kraliçe elizabeth zamanında çok kuvvetlendiğini ancak sonrasında dış siyasetinin zayıfladığını ve iç kavgalara saplandığını vurgulamıştır (baykal, , , - ). yazara göre danimarka, norveç ve İsveç karşılıklı rekabetlerle birbirlerini hırpalamakta idiler. lehistan ise İspanya’nın müttefiki habsburg siyasetinin sadık bir parçasıydı. habsburgların almanya’da takip ettikleri dünya siyasetinin mukavemetle karşılaşmasının bir ifadesi olan otuz yıl savaşı, habsburg hanedanının idaresindeki bohemya’da patlak vermişti. bohemya’da protestan olan Çek soylularının bir çok imtiyazları vardı. protestanlar İmparator ii. rudolph ( - ) zamanında hak ve imtiyazlarını korumak yolunda oldukça önemli başarılar elde etmişlerdi. temmuz ’da ii. rudolph her iki mezhep mensuplarının hür ve serbestçe ayin yapma hakkı ile kilise kurma hakkı vermişti. ’de dil kanununun çıkması ile başlayan Çek milliyetçiliği giderek yükselmekteydi. yılında katolik papaz ve belediye başkanlarının yoğunlaşan etkisiyle imparatorun temsilciler heyeti bu kiliselerin yıkılmalarına karar almıştı. protestanlar ile imparator temsilcileri arasında büyüyen gerilim, mayıs ’deki prag’daki ünlü “pencere’den atma” olayına kadar gelmiş ve bu isyan otuz yıl harplerinin başlangıcını teşkil etmişti. İsyancılar bir hükümet kurmuş ve temmuz ’de cizvitleri bohemya’dan kovmuştur. aynı isyancılar osmanlı padişahından yardım sağlamak amacı ile İstanbul’a bir elçilik heyeti göndermişlerdi. uzunçarşılı, protestan mezhebinden olan betlen gabor’un, bu dönemde yine protestan olan yukarı macar beyleri ile anlaşarak onları osmanlı himayesine soktuğunu bildirmektedir (uzunçarşılı, , - ). yılında fransa, İsveç ve brandenburg ile ittifak yapan betlen gabor, yukarı macaristan’daki savaşlarda mühim rol oynamıştır. ’de ii. osman’ın lehlilerle muharebe etmek üzere hareketi sırasında, betlen gabor nemçe İmparatorunun lehlilere gönderdiği yardım kuvvetini mağlup etmiş ve bratislava’yı işgal etmiştir. yılında alman imparatoruna karşı harekete geçen İsveç, hollanda ve danimarka devletleri osmanlı devleti ile dostluk kurmak istediklerini betlen gabor’a bildirmişlerdir (uzunçarşılı , , - ). İsveç kralı ii. güstav adolf ( - ) bu savaşlar sırasında lehistan’a savaş açarak bazı topraklar almıştır. bethlen gabor’un osmanlı ittifakıyla birlikte yürüttüğü mücadelenin yalnızca kendisi bile, osmanlı’nın otuz yıl Şavaşları içinde aktif olduğuna dair bir kanıttır. avrupa kıtasını ve atlantiği baştan başa saran böyle bir savaş döneminde, kazalak ve ark.’nın ileri sürdüğü gibi osmanlı savaşlar tarihi içinde hotin seferi önemsiz bir yere mi sahiptir? (kazalak, , - .). aynı yazarlara göre hotin seferi, padişahın prestijini artırmak gayesi ile ve lehlilerin kazakların osmanlı sahil kentlerine saldırmasına göz yummasına karşılık düzenlenmiştir. tezcan ise bu seferin gerçek hedefinin bilinemeyeceğini ileri sürmektedir (tezcan, , ). Çalışmamızın başından beri verilen bilgilerin ışığında, ii. osman’ın lehistan seferi’ne tesadüfen çıkması mümkün gözükmemektedir. lehistan seferi, o dönemde avrupa ve aklantik’te devam eden küresel savaşla ilgilidir. aralık ’da ii. osman’ın büyük vezirlik’e atadığı amiral ali paşa’nın babası garp ocakları’nda korsanlıktan tunus valiliğine kadar yükselmiş bir şahsiyettir (tezcan , - ). garp ocakları’nda ve denizlerde edindiği tecrübeyle ali paşa’nın avrupa ve atlantik’te olup bitenleri padişaha nakletmesi imkan dahilindedir. uzunçarşılı, vezir-i azam ali paşa’nın ii. osman’ı lehistan seferi için teşvik ettiğini bildirmiştir (uzunçarşılı, , - ). türkiye’ye peşpeşe büyükelçi gelen baron de sglinac, baron achille de mole ve comte harlay de cely’nin ruznamelerine ve raporlarına dayanarak genç osman tarihi’ni yazan madame de gomez, sultan ii. osman’ın baltık denizi’ne çıkarak burada kudretli bir donanma inşa etmek istediğini yazmaktadır (sevinç, , - ). böylece polonya alınıp baltık’taki deniz filosu ile cezayir beylerbeyliği’nin atlas okyanusundaki kudretli donanması birleştirilecek ve otuz yıl savaşları içindeki avrupa’ya hakimiyet sağlanacaktı. efe de aynı tezi savunmuş ve bu seferde osmanlı sultanı’nın lehistan’ı yarıp baltık denizi’ne çıkmak ve orada bir donanma kurarak atlas okyanusunda hakimiyet kazanmak arzusunda olduğunu vurgulamıştır (efe, , ). aksun, aynı şekilde madam de gomez’in iddiasını dile getirmekte ve mayıs ’de çıkılan lehistan seferi’nin asıl maksadını şöyle ifade etmektedir: sultan ii. osman lehistan’ı tamamen işgal edip baltık denizi’ne çıkacak ve burada oluşturacağı büyük bir donanmayla din savaşlarından da yararlanarak tüm kıta avrupası’na hakim olacaktı. padişah bu işle ilgili olarak macar kralı erdel voyvodası bethlen gabor’u görevlendirmişti (aksun, , , , ). aynı şekilde baykal da ii. osman’ın lehistan seferi’nin nedenini aynı amaca bağlamıştır (baykal, , - ). baltık denizi’nde hakimiyet mücadelesi veren İsveç krallığına destek vermek ve rusya’ya karşı İsveç ile ittifak yapılması da ihtimal dahilindedir. yılında yaşında İsveç’te başa geçen gustav adolf döneminde İsveç, finlandiya ve baltık eyaletleri bir buçuk milyon uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - nüfusa sahip fakir bir memleketti. gustav adolf yönetimini, ordusunu ve ülke refahını güçlendirecek tedbirler almaya başlamıştı. göteburg limanını kurmuş ve hollanda ile ticaret anlaşmaları yapmıştı. yılından itibaren lehistan ile İsveç arasında savaş başladı. habsburg müttefiklerinin baltık denizi’ne egemen olmaları halinde, birleşik eyaletler (felemenk cumhuriyeti) ile İsveç ve danimarka’nın geleceği tehlikeye düşecekti. protestanların kurtarıcısı olarak görülen İsveç kralı adolf gustav ii ( - ) ’de rusya’nın baltık denizi ile bağlantısını bütünüyle keserek bu ülkenin i. petro dönemine kadar güçlü bir avrupa devleti olmasını engellemiştir. osmanlı’nın yılındaki lehistan seferi döneminde, gustav ii de protestanların katolik karşı-reform hareketine karşı bir mücadele amacıyla lehistan’a saldırmıştı. uzunçarşılı sultan ii. osman’ın lehistan seferi’nden sonra hacca gitmeye teşvik edildiğini ve mekke emiri’ne haber verildiğini bildirmiştir (uzunçarşılı, , - ). vezir-i azam dilaver paşa ve devletin üst kademesi, padişahın hacca gitmesinin aleyhindeydi. sultan ii. osman da hacca gitmesini istemeyenlerin çokluğunu görünce tereddüte düşmüş; hatta gördüğü bir rüyadan da etkilenmişti. kayınpederi Şeyhülislam esad efendi padişaha bir fetva göndererek; “padişahların hacca gitmesine lüzum yoktur; yerinde oturup adalet etmesi kafidir; bir fitne çıkması ihtimali vardır” demiştir. hatta padişahın manevi rehberi olarak bilinen aziz mahmud hüdai efendi de sultanı fikrinden vaz geçirmeye çalışmıştır. olayların nihayetinde ’de yeniçerilerin de dahil olduğu geniş katılımlı isyanla, genç osman tahtından indirilmiş ve şehit edilmiştir. bu isyan gibi pek çok olayda yer almakla suçlanan yeniçeriler, gerçekten o dönemlerde zorbalık ve eşkıyalık ruhuyla mı hareket ediyorlardı? günümüz türkiyesi’nde, yeniçerilerin her bir-iki yılda isyan ettikleri yolunda böyle bir kanaat kafalara yerleşmiş haldedir (sakin, , ). oysa ocaklıların kuruluşundan yıkılışına kadar geçen yıllık sürede yeniçerilerin karıştığı önemli isyan ve olaylar on beş dolayındadır. yeniçerilerin özellikle . ve . yüzyılda devlet merkezi ile görüş farklılıkları yaşamaya başladığı düşünülebilir. pargalı İbrahim paşa’nın ( ), Şehzade mustafa’nın ( ) ve piri reis’in ( ) katli gibi örnekler ile kanuni’den sonra giderek bozulan kriter ve liyakat mekanizması, bu görüş farklılıklarını beslemiş olabilir. yeniçerilerin ii. osman’a karşı gelişen isyanda, yavuz sultan selim ve kanuni’yi örnek göstererek “padişahın hacca gitmesine asla rızamız yoktur” dedikleri bildirilmiştir (koçu, , - ). yazara göre, yeniçerilerle kapıkulu sipahilerinin müşterek kanaati şuydu: “nizam-ı alem için padişahlar haccı terk ede gelmişken sultan osman’nın hacca gitmesi mücerret bizden nefretinden ötürüdür; başka sebep yoktur”. bu görüşe göre, padişahın batı’ya seferden vazgeçerek doğu’ya ve hacca yönelişi, yeniçerilerin isyanına ve padişahı “nizam-ı alem” ya da “cihan davası” ülküsüne davetlerine yol açmıştır. yeniçeriler ve bir bölüm devlet yöneticisi, avrupa kıtasında ve atlantik’te devam eden küresel savaştan çekilmeyi hoş görmemiş olabilirler. garp ocakları ve batılı dostlarla temasları sonrasında, devletin üst kadroları ile yeniçerilerin uluslararası vizyonları ve giriştikleri seferlerde edindikleri yeni tecrübeleri, merkez iktidarla asimetrik bir düşünce farkı geliştirmiş olabilir mi? böylece zamanla nizam-ı alem veya cihan davası hislerinin yeniçerilerde ve üst kadrolarda daha güçlü taraftar bulduğu söylenebilir mi? bu durumda yeniçerilerin nizam-ı alem veya kızıl elma ülkülerini daha güçlü hissederek hareket ettikleri de varsayılabilir. büyük kaçgunluk dönemi de dahil olmak üzere, yeniçeriler ve devletin bir bölüm üst kadrolarındakilere destek veren türkler, anadolu’dan göçe karar vermiş olabilir mi? sevinç ii. osman’ın türkçü fikirlerinden dolayı devşirmeler tarafından katledildiğini ileri sürmüş ve imparatorluğun türk kesimlerinde milliyetçi başkaldırı hareketlerinin yeniden başlamasına neden olduğunu vurgulamıştır (sevinç, , - ). hatta yazara göre ilk tepki antep’ten gelmiştir. antep kadısı abdülbaki efendi antep çevresindeki yeniçerileri öldürtmüştür. maraş ve erzurum’da benzer olayların meydana geldiği bilinir. efe’ye göre ise ii. osman, bozulan ve her geçen gün devletin başına bela haline gelmeye başlayan yeniçeri ve sipahi ocaklarını ortadan kaldırarak bunların yerine anadolu, suriye ve mısır türklerinden oluşmuş milli bir ordu kurmak istiyordu (efe, , ). afyoncu ise genç osman’ın döneminde yazılmış tarih kitaplarında, onun yapmak istediği iddia edilen ve maddeler halinde sıralanan reform hareketlerinin çoğunun zikredilmediğini bildirmiştir (afyoncu, , ). ancak başkentin İstanbul’dan kahire’ye taşıma niyeti o devir kaynaklarında zikredilmiştir. ii. osman’ın cihan davası’nı bilinçli olarak göz ardı edip batı’ya seferi iptali ve hacca niyet etmesi; hatta Şeyhülislam ve devlet erkanının sözünü dinlememesi, bazı başka bilinmeyen parametrelerin varlığını akla getirmektedir. garp ocakları’na ismini veren ocak deyimi, bu eyaletlerde giderek güçlenen ve yönetimlerinde etkili olan yeniçeri ocaklarından gelmektedir. uzunçarşılı osmanlı devleti’nin İran ve avusturya seferleriyle, anadolu’daki celalilerle uğraşısı nedeniyle uzak eyaletlere bakamadığından dolayı . yüzyılın ilk yarısında bütün idarenin yeniçeri ocağının eline geçtiğini bildirmektedir (uzunçarşılı, , , , - ). garp ocakları’nın insan kaynağı, anadolu’ya gönderdikleri memurlar vasıtasıyla ege sahil şehir, kasaba ve köylerindeki halkın içinden seçilenlerle karşılanırdı. Özellikle İzmir, foça, karaburun, aydın, manisa, muğla havalisinden halktan tedarik edilip ocaklara gönderilmekteydi. büyük kaçgunluk ile uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - anadolu’da yer değiştiren türk halkının ekonomik ve siyasi gerekçelerle bu illerden garp ocakları’na, levant kumpanyası’na ve hatta dec/dwc’ye katılmaları mümkün görülmektedir. böylece bu şirketler ve garp ocakları aracılığıyla atlantik’te devam eden küresel savaşa veya cihan davası’na katılmaları da mümkün olmuştur. vi. sonuç sonuç olarak . yüzyılda anadolu’dan türk ve müslüman nüfus kaybının gerçekleştiği anlaşılmaktadır. bu nüfus kaybı ve göç hareketi, zaten tarihte büyük kaçgunluk olarak bilinmektedir. o halde büyük kaçgunluğun yönü tartışılabilir. orta asya’dan gelip anadolu’da fars, arap ve İslam isimleri alabilen türkler, bu kez . yüzyıldaki osmanlı trajedisi’nin etkisi altında batı’ya veya doğu’ya göç etmiş olabilir mi? batı’ya gidenler tıpkı endülüs’ten göç eden morişkoların yaptığı gibi fransız, İngiliz ya da hollandalı isimleri almış olamaz mı? . yüzyılın sonlarında new york şehrinin fulton ulusal bankası’nın başkanı robert bayles, ailesinin tarihi kayıt ve eşyalarını incelerken bakır bir çay fincanı ve bir kur’an bulur (ghaneabassiri, , - ). bu çay fincanı ile kur’an’ın, fas’ın sale kentinden antony jansen van salee/van vaes ya da diğer ismiyle “türk anthony’e” ait olduğu ortaya çıkar. başkan bayles’in dedelerinden olan antony, amerika’ya gelince çiftçilik ve emlak komisyonculuğu yapmıştır. anthony jansen van salee, ’larda dwc için çalışan hollandalı korsan jan jansz van haarlem’in oğluydu. akdeniz ve atlantik’te korsanlık yapan jan jansz van haarlem ’lerde türklüğe dönmüştü. bu korsanın fas sale’den mulay zeydan’ın donanmasına bağlı olarak çalışan amiral murat reis olduğu yazımızın ilk bölümlerinde belirtilmişti. gross’un ifadesiyle “reform döneminde almanya ve/veya hollanda’dan kaynaklanan yeni bir ırk türemiştir. . ve . yüzyıllarda müslümanlar, yahudiler ve kalvinistler çileleri ortak olan arkadaştılar. bu yüzyıllardaki dostlukları dikkate alındığında aralarında pek çok akrabalık ve evlilik ortaya çıkmıştır” (gross, , - ). Çalışmamızda ileri sürdüğümüz tezin öngördüğü ve katip Çelebi ve pek çok osmanlı entellektüelinin de tespit ettiği gibi; anadolu’da yaşanan . yüzyıl trajedisinin altında yatan neden bu nüfus kaybı olabilir. kanaatimizce anadolu’dan batı’ya göçenler, . yüzyılda ortaya çıkan atlantik kimliğine katkı vermiş ve gittikleri yerlerde tecrübe ve enerjilerini paylaşmışlardır. yani o güzel insanlar atlara değil, gemilere binip gitmişlerdi. bunun sonucunda da anadolu’da geride kalan nüfus ve yaşadığı trajedi ile osmanlı, yalnızca bir yüzyıl içinde kan ve kalite kaybederek karlofça anlaşmasına imza koymuştu. kaynakÇa acıpınar, m. ( ). osmanlı kronikleri işığında kaptan-ı derya halil paşa’nın akdeniz seferleri ( - ). tarih İncelemeleri dergisi, xxviii / i, s. - . afyoncu, e. ( ). celali İsyanları. sorularla osmanlı İmparatorluğu, İstanbul: yeditepe yayınevi. aksun, zn. ( ). osmanlı tarihi. (c.ii), İstanbul: Ötüken neşriyat. baykal, bs. ( ). yeni zamanda avrupa tarihi, otuz yıl savaş devri. (c. i) ( . basım), ankara: türk tarih kurumu basımevi. braudel, f. ( ). akdeniz: tarih, mekan, İnsanlar ve miras. ( . basım), Çev.necati erkurt, aykut derman, İstansul: metis yayınları, yaylacık matbaacılık. bulut m. ( ). the role of the ottomans and dutch in the commercial integration between the levant and atlantic in the seventeeth century. journal of the economic and social history of the orient, ( ), s. - . calhoun, hv. ( ). james i and the witch scenes in macbeth. the shakespeare association bulletin, ( ), s. - . clarck, gn. ( ). the barbary corsairs in seventeenth century. cambridge historical journal, ( ), s. - . efe, a. ( ). osmanlı tarihi ansiklopedisi. ( . basım), ankara: akçağ yayınları. emmer, p.c. & klooster, w. ( ). the dutch atlantic, - expansion without empire. itinerario, ( ), s. - . emmer, p.c. ( ). the first global war: the dutch versus iberia in asia, africa and the new world, - . e-journal of portuguese history, ( ), s. - . ezard, j. ( ). why we must thank the turks, not drake, for defeating the armada. the guardian, june, s. . faroqhi, s. ( ). krizler ve değişim. osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ekonomik ve siyasi tarihi. (c. ), İnalcık h & quataert d (eds), İstanbul: eren yayıncılık. ghaneabassiri, k. ( ). a history of islam in america. new york: cambridge university press. griswold, w.j. ( ). climate change: a possible factor in the social unrest of seventeenth century anatolia. humanist and scholar. essays in honor of andreas tietze, lowry hw & quataert d (eds), istanbul: the isis press. groot, a.h. ( ). the ottoman empire and the dutch republic: a history of the earliest diplomatic relations. leiden: nederlands instituut voor het nabije oosten: leiden. gross, a. ( ). of portuguese origin: litigating identity and citizenship among the “little races” in nineteenth-century america. law and history review, ( ), s. - . güleç, m. ( ). the twelve years truce ( - ) during the independence war of the netherlands against spain and its impact on the ottoman empire. international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turke, ( ), s. - . heijer, h. ( ). the dutch west india company, - . riches from atlantic commerce, johannes postma & victor enthoven (eds.), leiden: koninklijke brill henke, e. ( ). hollanda and tulips: a distinction without a difference. flower and garden, ( ), s. - . hess, ac. ( ). the moriscos: an ottoman fifth column in sixteenth-century spain. the american historical review, ( ), s. - . İnalcık, h. ( ). ticaret, osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ekonomik ve sosyal tarih. c. i. halil İnalcık, donald quataert (eds.), Çev. halil berktay, İstanbul: eren yayıncılık. uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi cilt: sayı: haziran the journal of international social research volume: issue: june - - karaçay İ. ( ). türkiye-hollanda arasında yıllık resmi İlişkiler ve hollanda’ya türk göçü’nün . yılı. İstanbul: stiching dunya. kazalak, k. & gündüz, t. ( ). ii. osman’ın hotin seferi ( ). osmanlı tarihi araştırma ve uygulama merkezi dergisi otam, ( ), s. - . koçu, r.e. ( ). yeniçeriler. ( . basım), İstanbul: doğan kitap. kuban, d. ( ). halil İnalcık ve ona soramadığım sorular. herkese bilim teknoloji dergisi, ( ağustos ), s. . kunt, m. ( ). siyasal tarih ( - ). türkiye tarihi, osmanlı devleti: - , (c. ), metin kunt, suraiya faroqihi, hüseyin g yurdaydın, ayla Ödekan, sina akşin (eds.). İstanbul: cem yayınevi. lloyd, c. ( ). captain john ward: a pirate. history today, , s. - . lu, v.a. ( ). xiv. ve xvii. yüzyıllarda İklimsel ve doğal Şartların osmanlı İmparatorluğuna etkisi. pesa uluslararası sosyal araştırmalar dergisi, ( ), s. - . lucassen, j. ( ). a multinational and its labor force: the dutch east india company, - . international labor and working-class history, , s. - . matar n. ( ). turks, moors and englishmen in the age of discovery. new york: colombia university press. matar n. ( ). queen elizabeth i through moroccan eyes. journal of early modern history, , s. - . melammed, r.l. ( ). judeo-conversos and moriscos in sixteenth-century spain: a study of parallels. jewish history, , s. - . metzger, s.a. ( ). magna carta: teaching medieval topics for historical significance. the history teacher, ( ), s. - . parker, g. ( ). why did the dutch revolt last eighty years. transactions of the royal historical society, , s. - . parker, k. ( ). reading ‘barbary’ in early modern england, - . the seventeeth century, ( ), s. - . pursell. b.c. ( ). james i, gondomar and the dissolution of the parliament of . history, ( ), s. - . rainey, t.b. ( ). sir thomas roe and the barbary pirates, - . the historian, ( ), s. - . rodger, n.a.m. ( ). queen elizabeth and the myth of sea-power in english history. transactions of the royal historical society, , s. - . sakin, o. ( ). yeniçeri ocağı, tarihi ve yasaları. İstanbul: doğu kütüphanesi. schiller, f. ( ). otuz yıl savaşları. Çev. hamdi dilevurgun. İstanbul: milli eğitim basımevi. sevinç, n. ( ). osmanlı’nın yükselişi ve Çöküşü. İstanbul: burak yayınevi. tezcan, b. ( ). khotin , or how the poles changed the course of ottoman history. acta orientalia, ( ): s. - . thompson, jda. ( ). the beggars’ badges and the dutch revolt. the numismastic chronicle ( -), , s. - . uzunçarşılı, İ.h. ( ). osmanlı tarihi, (c. iii, k. i). ankara: türk tarih kurumu basımevi. uzunçarşılı, İ.h. ( ). osmanlı tarihi, (c. iii, k. ii).ankara: türk tarih kurumu basımevi. waite, g.k. ( ). menno and muhammed: anabaptists and mennonites reconsider islam, - . the sixteenth century journal ( ), s. - . waite, g.k. ( ). seventeenth-century dutch reformed, mennonites, and spiritualists on one another, jews, and muslims. toronto journal of theology, (supplement ), s. - . white s. ( ). rethinking disease in ottoman history. international journal of middle east studies, ( ), s. - . login 	 		skip to main content 		skip to main navigation menu 		skip to site footer 	 	 				 			 				 																 																								journals@uic 																	 									 								 								 				 							 				 					register 				 							 	 				 					login 				 							 				 			 		 						 			 	 		 			 				home 			 			/ 		 	 			 									login 							 		 		 	 		 		 		 		 			 				 					 						username 						* 						 							required 						 					 					 				 			 			 				 					 						password 						* 						 							required 						 					 					 					 						forgot your password? 					 				 			 			 				 					 					 						keep me logged in 					 				 			 			 				 					login 				 														 						register 					 							 		 	 	 									 				 	 		about journals@uic 	 	 		journals@uic policies 	 			 			 	 					 				 			 		 		 			 				 			 		 	 allele frequency distributions in pooled dna samples: applications to mapping complex disease genes sarah h. shaw, , minerva m. carrasquillo, carl kashuk, erik g. puffenberger, and aravinda chakravarti , department of genetics and center for human genetics, case western reserve university school of medicine and university hospitals of cleveland, cleveland, ohio usa genetic studies of complex hereditary disorders require for their mapping the determination of genotypes at several hundred polymorphic loci in several hundred families. because only a minority of markers are expected to show linkage and association in family data, a simple screen of genetic markers to identify those showing linkage in pooled dna samples can greatly facilitate gene identification. all studies involving pooled dna samples require the comparison of allele frequencies in appropriate family samples and subsamples. we have tested the accuracy of allele frequency estimates, in various dna samples, by pooling dna from multiple individuals prior to pcr amplification. we have used the abi automated dna sequencer and genescan software for quantifying total amplification using a fluorescently labeled forward pcr primer and relative peak heights to estimate allele frequencies in pooled dna samples. in these studies, we have genotyped microsatellite markers in two separate dna pools, and an additional four markers in a third dna pool, and compared the estimated allele frequencies with those determined by direct genotyping. in addition, we have evaluated whether pooled dna samples can be used to accurately assess allele frequencies on transmitted and untransmitted chromosomes, in a collection of families for fine-structure gene mapping using allelic association. our studies show that accurate, quantitative data on allele frequencies, suitable for identifying markers for complex disorders, can be identified from pooled dna samples. this approach, being independent of the number of samples comprising a pool, promises to drastically reduce the labor and cost of genotyping in the initial identification of disease loci. additional applications of dna pooling are discussed. these developments suggest that new statistical methods for analyzing pooled dna data are required. the availability of meiotic maps of highly polymor- phic markers in the human has clearly been a boon to the mapping of mendelian diseases, complex dis- orders, and quantitative phenotypes. this success has relied not only on the availability of high- resolution linkage maps and developments in rapid genotyping (dib et al. ), but also on the devel- opment of statistical methods for interpreting data on the sharing of genotypes, and thus genomes, within and between families (for review, see lander and schork ). complex genetic disorders and phenotypes likely arise from the allelic contribu- tions of multiple genes possibly interacting with en- vironmental and stochastic factors. the first chal- lenge in the genetic dissection of a complex pheno- type is in the identification of the candidate map locations of the genes underlying susceptibility/ protective alleles via genetic markers; this is met by conducting a genome screen and identifying the rel- evant loci by recognition of excess/deficiency of al- lele sharing within families, as compared with that expected from segregation of unlinked genes. the second challenge is the fine-structure localization of any component gene to physical segments small enough to facilitate positional cloning or recogni- tion of candidate genes; this is accomplished by saturating a target genomic segment with polymor- phic markers and recognizing allelic associations in families. because the genetic contribution of any specific gene in a multigenic trait may be small, both highly polymorphic markers and large num- bers of families are necessary to detect allelic effects. all of these exercises require the individual geno- typing of several hundred polymorphic loci in sev- present address: sequana therapeutics, la jolla, california usa. corresponding author. e-mail axc @po.cwru.edu; fax ( ) - . research : – © by cold spring harbor laboratory press issn - / $ . ; www.genome.org genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com eral hundred families, a task that is still labor and cost intensive, and likely to remain so in the near future. because, even for a complex phenotype, only a minority of all markers studied will show linkage as a result of association, a simple screening procedure that identifies the relevant marker loci from a larger set would be of great value. the studies described in this paper show that accurate, quanti- tative data on allele frequency in pools of dna samples can be obtained under specified conditions. we suggest that pooling specific classes (par- ents, offspring) of relatives in a collection of families and estimating allele frequencies within such pools can be used to rapidly screen the genome for linked markers by virtue of marker associations with phe- notypes. once identified, direct genotyping of a re- duced marker set is necessary to enable statistical analysis of the genotype data. finally, develop- ments of new statistical methods to analyze pooled dna data are necessary to identify the relevant markers with high accuracy, that is, low false posi- tive and false negative rates. we show the utility of these methods for the identification of one hir- schsprung disease (hscr) susceptibility locus (hscr ) in the old order mennonites of lancaster county, pennsylvania (puffenberger et al. a,b). the idea of using pooled dna samples to reduce the burden of genotyping is not new and, to our knowledge, was first suggested by arnheim et al. ( ) in the context of case-control studies. these authors argued that alleles in linkage disequilibrium with a disease would be enriched (or deficient) in a pooled sample of affected individuals in compari- son with a pooled control sample, and thus, beyond testing association for specific alleles, this principle could be used to search for associated alleles at spe- cific genes, as they successfully did for hla class ii dr and dq alleles in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (iddm) (arnheim et al. ). similar ideas have been prevalent in the plant genetics commu- nity where the search for linked markers in pools of progeny classified by phenotype, within a segregat- ing cross, has been termed bulked segregant analysis (michelmore et al. ). in these studies, the in- tensity of dna hybridization (southern blot) of a labeled probe, in two contrasting (presence vs. ab- sense of some phenotype) pooled dna samples, is used to recognize a linked (michelmore et al. ) or associated marker (arnheim et al. ). quanti- tation of signals in blot hybridization experiments is possible but requires multiple controls and is dif- ficult to standardize; however, qualitative compari- sons, when signal intensities are very different, as arising from large allelic effects, are easier to detect. these experiments are feasible in experimental crosses in which no more than four different alleles can segregate within a cross, but can lead to consid- erable difficulty in outbred families, such as in hu- mans, where many more marker alleles can segre- gate in a family collection. not surprisingly, initial applications of this method in the human have been in genetic studies in isolated populations where allelic diversity is reduced (puffenberger et al. a,b; sheffield et al. ; carmi et al. ; nystuen et al. ; scott et al. ). the develop- ment of the pcr and the identification of microsat- ellite repeats as a common source of polymorphism led pacek et al. ( ) to demonstrate that allele- specific signals could be quantitated in dna pools. pacek et al. ( ) showed that allele frequencies at loci with length polymorphisms could be estimated by quantitative analysis of the pcr products from pooled dna samples. in particular, these authors demonstrated the accuracy of these estimates in pools of up to samples, by comparing their results with published estimates of allele frequen- cies. the availability of high-resolution genetic maps of microsatellite markers in mice and humans led several investigators to suggest that dna pooling could be used for genetic mapping. in particular, pools of dna samples from ‘‘affecteds’’ and ‘‘unaf- fecteds’’ can be screened for genetic markers span- ning a genome to identify loci with a marker allele that has a differential distribution (association) in the two pools. although linkage does not lead to any permanent population association per se, link- age does lead to marker associations within a segre- gating cross or a large kindred or in isolated popu- lations. in the mouse, both mendelian (asada et al. ; taylor et al. ) and multigenic (collin et al. ; taylor and phillips ) traits have been mapped by scanning the genome with pooled samples. in humans, sheffield and colleagues have been prominent in applications of genome scan- ning in isolated populations by microsatellite marker analyses in dna pools: in particular, the genes for bardet–biedl syndrome (sheffield et al. ; carmi et al. ), cerebellar ataxia (nystuen et al. ), and autosomal recessive nonsyndromic hearing loss (scott et al. ) have been mapped in this manner. the human studies on mendelian re- cessive traits were carried out in genetically isolated populations with the expectation that affected in- dividuals would be homozygous for a single marker allele at a closely linked locus. thus, anonymous markers near the disease gene could be identified by visual inspection of either silver-stained or radioac- shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com tively labeled microsatellite markers, and quantita- tion was not necessary. for complex phenotypes, however, quantitation is crucial because no single allele at any locus is necessary or sufficient for the disease phenotype. additionally, for many popula- tion genetic and evolutionary studies the entire dis- tribution of alleles is required. we used the abi automated dna sequencer and genescan software for quantifying allele am- plification at polymorphic microsatellite markers using fluorescently labeled forward pcr primers; allele frequencies were estimated from the relative values of the peak heights corresponding to each allele detected in the pooled sample. we have quan- titatively tested the accuracy of allele frequencies estimated in this manner in comparison with that estimated by direct genotyping. we tested mic- rosatellite markers in two separate dna pools and an additional four markers in a third dna pool, using parents from the ceph reference pedigrees. in addition, we extended this method to estimate the distribution of polymorphic alleles on transmitted and untransmitted chromosomes in parent- offspring trios in a large inbred mennonite kindred segregating hscr (puffenberger et al. a,b), as an approach to gene mapping using linkage disequi- librium. thereby, we show how allele quantification can lead to direct statistical tests of linkage and as- sociation in pooled dna samples. results we used a total of polymorphic microsatellite markers in dna pooling experiments with charac- teristics as provided in table . our first aim was to determine the fidelity of pcr for estimation of allele frequencies in pooled samples. although pacek et al. ( ) had shown that frequencies of alleles that differ even by one repeat motif (e.g., ca) could be accurately estimated, when compared with direct genotyping, the total variation expected in the pcr is unknown. moreover, it is not unexpected that smaller-sized alleles would show preferential ampli- fication. although these investigators compared their results from pooling with some data obtained by direct genotyping, the same samples were not tested, and the standard comparison used published allele frequencies. thus, we used the tetranucleotide marker vwf, within the von willebrand factor gene, and assayed a dna pool constructed from unrelated samples ( alleles) from the ceph ref- erence pedigrees. table shows estimates of each of the seven alleles at the vwf locus in replicate pcr experiments on a single dna pool, and the mean of the replicates, obtained by quantitation on an abi automated sequencer, in comparison with that determined by direct genotyping of each individual in the dna pool. these results show that there is little variation between replicate pcr ex- periments on the same pool because the standard deviation of the replicate measures ( . – . ) is, on average, one order of magnitude smaller than the sampling standard deviation of the allele fre- quency estimates ( . – . ) (table ). thus, not only can the allele frequencies estimated from dna pools be quantitative and accurate, but the results are reproducible in that replicate-to-replicate varia- tion is small. to assess the accuracy of the pooled estimates with the true values, we compared the root-mean-square-error (rmse) between each repli- cate estimate and the direct counts. these values ranged between . (pool ) and . (pool ); the average values of the replicates had a rmse of . , that is, any allele frequency x is in the range x . %. thus, although multiple replicates can be helpful in adding confidence to the estimates, they do not substantially increase the accuracy expected on averaging. the results from marker vwf appear to gener- alize only to marker loci that amplify in a clean table . polymorphic markers used for genotyping locus repeat motif dye label no. of alleles hetero- zygositya d s tetra hex . d s di tet . d s tetra fam, hex, tet . d s di hex . d s tetra hex . d s tetra fam . d s tetra tet n.d. gata g tetra tet . d s tetra fam . d s di hex . d s tetra fam . d s tetra hex . d s tetra fam . vwf tetra fam . shown are each polymorphic marker locus used, its repeat motif, the fluorescent dye used for labeling the forward primer, and the number of alleles and heterozygosity as ob- tained from the genome data base. a(n.d.) no independent estimate available. allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com manner, that is, without considerable pcr stutter. to assess the behavior of various marker loci, we studied two tetranucleotide (vwf, d s ) and three dinucleotide (d s , d s , d s ) polymorphisms in a pool of ( alleles) menno- nite parents (see methods). in figure , we present comparisons of allele frequencies at each of the five loci estimated from dna pools and from direct genotyping. the values plotted for each pool are an average of replicate pcr experiments. the pooled and direct estimates of allele frequencies are all highly correlated (r = . , . , . , . , and . for vwf, d s , d s , d s , and d s , respectively). the dinucleotide marker allele frequencies studied, however, show considerable variation around the expected value (rmse = . , . , and . for d s , d s , and d s , respectively), both for low and high allele frequencies; moreover, the variation is quite marker locus dependent. the tetranucleo- tide markers provide data of greater accuracy be- cause the correspondence between pooled and di- rect estimates are higher (rmse = . and . for vwf and d s , respectively). among the di- nucleotide polymorphisms studied, d s gave the most accurate allele frequency estimates, reflect- ing the fact that it has only four alleles and shows little pcr stuttering. in contrast, allele frequencies for d s were remarkably inaccurate, reflecting its complex pattern and extreme stuttering on gel electrophoresis. in general, tetranucleotide markers appear to perform better in dna pools, although pilot tests with a genome-wide set of microsatellite markers will be necessary to choose optimal loci. currently available automated dna sequencers can detect signals on the basis of the fluorescence of multiple dye labels. we tested the three dyes fam, hex, and tet to determine whether a particular dye label provided more accurate allele frequency esti- mates. the data in figure show allele frequencies at d s for both the transmitted (t) and un- transmitted (u) chromosomes in mennonite hscr trios. allele frequencies from each t and u dna pool of chromosomes were estimated by use of three different dye-labeled forward pcr prim- ers and compared with direct counts, as shown; pooled estimates arose from five replicates. al- though each dye can estimate allele frequencies ac- curately (r = . , . , and . for tet, fam, and hex, respectively), the fam dye appears to y i e l d s o m e w h a t m o r e a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s (rmse = . , . , and . for tet, fam, and hex, respectively). we have no simple explanation for this finding, which requires confirmation from other markers. statistically, the results from the three dyes are not significantly different from one table . accuracy of allele estimates from dna pooling allele (bp) pool average (s.d.) direct estimate . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) . . . . . . . . . . . ( . ) . ( . ) a tetranucleotide polymorphism within the vwf gene ( p . – p . ) was studied in replicates of a single dna pool con- structed from unrelated samples of ceph parents. quantitation of allele frequencies from relative fluorescence peak heights in each replicate, the average of these replicates, and the corresponding estimate from direct genotyping are shown. also shown in the last two columns are the estimated standard deviations from the replicates and the direct counts, respectively. shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com another. thus, for dna pooling experiments all dyes behave satisfactorily. we wished to test whether dna pooling could be used as a preliminary screen to identify marker loci that were associated with a phenotype. specifi- cally, we wished to recapitulate the haplotype rela- tive risk (hrr; falk and rubinstein ) test on parent–offspring trios. consequently, we tested the accuracy of allele frequency estimates at marker loci in a pool of parental dna samples and a pool of their affected offspring. the samples were trios in which each offspring (proband) had hscr. these trios were ascertained from a large, inbred kindred segregating hscr in the old order menno- nites of lancaster county, pennsylvania (puffen- berger et al. a). we tested the markers d s , d s , d s , d s , g a t a g , d s , and d s known to map on human chromosome q and in a region that contains ednrb, a hscr susceptibility gene (hscr ). we also included four control markers, the vwf gene ( p . – p . ), d s , d s , and d s , which are not known to be associated with hscr in the mennonites. for each marker we estimated the allele frequency distribution on t and u chromosomes as outlined in methods. a chromosome radiation hybrid (rh) map containing ednrb and flanking markers was con- structed to test the maximal distance from ednrb at which linkage disequilibrium could be detected. in addition, the map was also used to compare the sensitivity of direct genotyping versus dna pooling for determining linkage disequilibrium. the result- ing rh map is shown in figure . the initial map was constructed by use of the microsatellite markers only; physical mapping data described in puffen- berger et al. ( b) shows that ednrb is located on the same yac ( a : . mb) as d s . the marker d s could not be placed on the rh map with high odds but is located in the interval be- tween d s and d s . all remaining mark- ers are supported with at least : odds, except for d s , which is times more likely to be in its most proximal position. in this rh panel, cr is equivalent to ∼ kb (shaw et al. ), so that ednrb is estimated to be located in an interval no more than ∼ cr ( . mb/ kb/cr) on either side of d s . figure accuracy of allele frequencies estimated from dna pools. allele frequencies were estimated from relative peak heights from the abi fluorescence chromatograms (frequency in dna pools: y-axis values are averages of replicates) and compared with allele frequencies estimated from genotyping individual samples (frequency from allele counts: x-axis). these data, from two tetranucleotide repeat markers, vwf (blue diamonds) and d s (red squares) (left), and three dinucleotide repeat markers, d s (red squares), d s (green diamonds), and d s (blue circles) (right), were obtained by studying unrelated samples (parents) in ceph. allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com allele frequencies on t versus u chromosomes for each marker are shown in figure for the asso- ciated polymorphisms and in figure for the con- trol markers. we show both the pool estimates and the direct count frequencies. this analysis was re- stricted to polymorphisms caused by tetranucleo- tide markers only. visual inspection of the dna pool data show clearly that the -bp allele at d s , -bp allele at d s , -bp allele at d s , -bp allele at d s , -bp allele at gata g , -bp allele at d s , and the - bp allele at d s are transmitted in excess to the hscr affected offspring as compared with the con- trol (u) data. this is confirmed by estimating the probability of each allele as being ancestral (terwil- liger ); the above listed alleles have probabili- ties exceeding % of being the ancestral alleles. the direct counts of t and u alleles were compared by use of a x test as outlined in puffenberger et al. ( a). the associated allele for each marker, the respective x value, and corrected p-value are shown in table . concordant with our previous mapping of hscr in the mennonites (puffenberger et al. b), all markers show statistically significant dif- ferences between t and u chromosomes. the marker gata g , located ∼ cr distal to ednrb, does not show statistically significant linkage disequilibrium for al- lele bp because the true associated allele has high fre- quency ( %) on control chromosomes. in compari- son, even the most distal marker, d s , shows a sta- tistically significant linkage disequilibrium because the control allele frequency is much lower ( %). in a simi- lar manner, we compared the t and u allele frequencies es- timated from pooled dna samples using the binomial proportions test with the nor- mal deviate for assessing sig- nificance, because absolute counts cannot be obtained from dna pools. the associ- ated allele for each marker, the normal deviate statistic, and corrected p value are also shown in table . the results are remarkably similar to those obtained from direct counts except the two most distal markers, gata g and d s , which did not show statistical significance. in par- ticular, for the marker gata g , the pool esti- mates were slightly more divergent (t vs. u is . vs. . ) than the direct counts (t vs. u is . vs. . ), but were still not significant. on the other hand, for the marker d s , the pool estimates were less divergent (t vs. u is . vs. . ) than the direct counts (t vs. u is . vs. . ) and therefore did not lead to a significant difference. thus, small allele frequency differences, affected by additional variation from pooling, may not be detectable in small samples. importantly, none of the control markers, d s , d s , d s , and vwf, showed statistically significant differences between t and u chromosomes in either the allele counts from direct genotyping or those estimated from dna pools. the results presented above show dna pooling to give allele frequencies that are highly correlated with direct counts, and accurate as judged by rmse values. to assess the statistical (numerical) relation- ship between pooled estimates ( y) and direct counts figure the effect of dye label on dna pooling. allele frequencies at d s were estimated from dna pools and compared with direct counts (red bars) as indicated in fig. . this marker locus was examined in mennonite parents and their offspring. d s t and u parental allele frequencies were estimated from amplification of a dna pool by use of three different dye-labeled forward pcr primers [fam (purple bars), hex (gold bars), tet (green bars)], each the average of five replicate pcr experiments. shown are allele frequencies for each allele in the sample and for t and u chromosomes separately. shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com (x), we performed linear regression analysis on all alleles genotyped on both t and u chromo- somes at the tetranucleotide markers. the results are shown in figure . the linear regression is highly significant (f = . , and df, p = . ) with a correlation coefficient of . . the fitted regression is shown by the solid line in figure . this regression has an intercept of . ( % ci: . – . ), which is not significantly different from zero; the slope has an estimate of . ( % ci: . – . ) and shows a small, yet significant, departure from unity. if, however, the slope is assumed to be unity, then the errors (residu- als) arising from pooling, that is, the values of y x, are normally distributed with mean ∼ and a stan- dard deviation of . (x = . , df, p = . ). this alternative fit is shown by the broken line in figure . thus, for all practical purposes, the errors induced by dna pooling are random and small. whether these errors are acceptable or not depends on the particular application under consideration. discussion the results of this study show that quantitative data on allele frequencies can be obtained from a pool of dna samples. because allele frequencies are ob- tained from relative fluorescence peak heights, the procedure is statistical and thus introduces some er- ror. as we have shown, this error is on average zero but subject to random variation that is small and may be simply assessed from the rmse value. it ap- pears that, to obtain accurate estimates, it may be necessary to utilize polymorphic markers that have a limited number of alleles (∼ – ) and that can be amplified with little pcr artifacts. as expected, the tetranucleotide markers, on average but not indi- vidually, satisfy these requirements better than di- nucleotide markers, although some dinucleotide markers perform equally well. for the markers used in this study, the rmse values ranged between . and . . thus, it may be necessary to per- form pilot experiments on a large number of mic- rosatellite polymorphisms and use the rmse values to identify those markers that can be reliably used in dna pooling experiments. of course, the specific application desired determines the rmse that can be tolerated. dna pooling can be an efficient genetic tool because it is sample size independent, that is, inde- pendent of the number of samples comprising the pool. the results presented here, and those of pacek et al. ( ), show that one may obtain allele fre- quencies in pools of – dna samples. the crucial aspect is to maintain and increase the accu- racy of the frequency estimates. it is well known that pcr may be biased towards greater efficiency of amplification of shorter rather than longer dna templates, thus biasing estimates from dna pools. our data, however, do not show any large trend of frequencies from smaller alleles being overestimated and frequencies of larger alleles being underesti- mated (fig. ). these effects, if they exist, are minor and do not appear to significantly affect allele fre- quency estimation. we have also shown that all three fluorescent dyes commonly used with the au- tomated sequencers can be used for accurate quan- titation of peak heights. additionally, better statis- tical tools are needed to estimate allele frequencies from dna pools. although we have used peak height as a natural statistic, one may use the area under the peak as well or use the total fluorescent trace for estimation. these aspects require a full in- vestigation. all dna pooling experiments are exercises in estimating the allele frequency distribution of a figure rh map of segment q – q on hu- man chromosome . the map shows the location of all chromosome q markers used in dna pooling for localizing a hscr susceptibility gene. all uniquely placed markers are supported with odds of at least : , except for d s (supported with : odds); d s maps to the interval between d s and d s . the hscr gene ednrb is located within . mb of d s as determined from yac physical map- ping (puffenberger et al. b). in this chromosome rh panel, cr is ∼ kb of dna (shaw et al. ). allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com sample; consequently, for gene mapping, we have to rely on frequency differences in alleles in family subsamples. thus, the most direct applications of dna pooling are in association studies in which cases and controls are compared (arnheim et al. ). on the other hand, linkage mapping in a set of small independent families, such as affected sib- ling pairs, cannot benefit from dna pooling be- cause there is no expected association of alleles across families. the exception, and a major one, is the study of individuals in a large, segregating cross. the latter is clearly possible in any experimental cross in which pools can be constructed on the basis of the segregating phenotype in large human kin- dreds and in isolated populations. this exception arises because common descent within a cross, kin- dred or within an isolated population, leads to as- sociation of phenotypes at linked marker loci so that allele frequencies are expected to be different in pools of affected versus unaffected pools. it is this principle that allows us to use dna pooling to map genes that are associated with linked markers either in pedigrees or in parent–offspring trios. our results clearly show the utility of this method, as evidenced by our success in mapping a hscr susceptibility gene. figure dna pooling of hscr-associated genetic markers. t and u parental allele frequencies estimated from direct genotyping and from two dna pools ( hscr affected offspring and their parents) for markers on human chromosome q flanking the hscr susceptibility gene ednrb. for visual clarity, white and shaded stripes have been used to separate t and u frequencies on adjacent alleles. the legend follows that in fig. . shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com our results on hscr show that disease suscep- tibility/protective loci can be identified by genome screening in trios sampled from an isolated popula- tion. even in samples from outbred populations, genes may be mapped by association studies across the genome, provided there are associations be- tween a phenotype and genetic markers in its vicin- ity. this is not wholly unexpected in humans, where large population expansions in the past sev- eral hundred generations and the young age of the species can lead to such associations. consequently, mapping phenotypes by associations in parent– offspring trios by screening the human genome with a very dense set of markers has been proposed (risch and merikangas ). although the tdt (transmission disequilibrium test) of spielman et al. ( ) has been proposed for this purpose, the pre- viously mentioned hrr test (falk and rubinstein ), which we used for the hscr analysis, is also useful. the only impediment to this approach is the table . detection of allelic association from dna pools locus associated allele (bp) direct counts pool estimates t u x p valuea t u z p valuea d s . < . . . . . d s . < . . . . < . d s . < . . . . < . d s . < . . . . < . d s . . . . . < . gata g . n.s. . . . n.s. d s . . . . . n.s. seven q genetic markers near the hscr susceptibility locus were used to assess linkage disequilibrium by direct genotyping and from quantitation in dna pools. the statistical significance (p value) of differences in allele counts/frequencies on transmitted (t) vs. untransmitted (u) chromosomes in mennonites segregating hscr were assessed either by a x or a normal deviate test. a(n.s.) not significant. figure dna pooling of hscr control genetic markers. t and u parental allele frequencies determined from direct genotyping, estimated from two dna pools ( hscr affected offspring and their parents) for control markers not linked to the hscr susceptibility gene. for visual clarity, white and shaded stripes have been used to separate t and u frequencies on adjacent alleles. the legend follows that in fig. . allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com identification of a sufficient number of polymor- phic markers. genome screening by association in trios is now feasible for some isolated populations, as we have recently shown for the mennonites us- ing ∼ microsatellite markers (e.g. puffenberger, a. lynn, c. kashuk, and a. chakravarti, unpubl.). the advent of biallelic markers that can be rapidly genotyped with a dna chip (chee et al. ) sug- gests that genome screening by association may be feasible for outbred populations as well. in fact, be- cause allele-specific fluorescence can be quantitated very accurately on a dna chip (chee et al. ), dna pooling may become a desired method for ge- nome-wide genetic studies, as a very large number of markers can be evaluated. in the example provided by this study, linkage disequilibrium could be detected from estimated transmitted and untransmitted parental allele fre- quencies. individuals affected with hscr in the mennonite population are estimated to be to generations removed from a single ancestral couple. the disequilibrium could be detected in markers as far away as cr from the ednrb gene. the marker d s , located cr distal from the ednrb gene was sig- nificant when the direct genotype al- lele counts were used, but was not sig- nificant when estimated allele fre- quencies from dna pools were used. therefore, it appears that the dna pooling strategy is not as sensitive as direct genotyping for detecting link- age disequilibrium for markers fur- ther away, however, at markers within cr (∼ mb) in this population, the sensitivity is very consistent between the two methods. thus, in general, dna pooling can be very useful for identifying possibly associated alleles that may require confirmation by direct genotyping. the limitations of detecting linked loci from t versus u comparisons arise from the statistical test used or the sample size surveyed, and not from dna pooling per se. in fact, be- cause dna pooling is sample size in- dependent, this method can lead to increased statistical power. there has been much recent dis- cussion on the relative statistical va- lidity of the tdt (spielman et al. ) versus the hrr (falk and rubi- nstein ; knapp et al. ) tests for gene mapping. the dna pooling method uses the hrr test and cannot utilize the tdt test because the latter uses heterozygous parents only. spielman and ewens ( ) have reviewed this area to con- clude that the hrr test is not statistically valid (i.e., leads to a higher false positive rate than that set by the x distribution) when singleton affected families are studied in a population with substructure (sub- division or recent admixture). of course, the mag- nitude of the error introduced depends on the mag- nitude of human population substructure. clearly, then, dna pooling may not be useful for gene map- ping when it is the only method used and in cases where the hrr test is invalid. for segregating crosses, large kindreds, and isolated populations, however, this problem cannot occur and our pro- posed methods are valid. we would argue that dna pooling can and should be used in all situations followed by individual genotyping to sort out false from true positive results. this prescription is a prac- tical matter and does not depend on the intrinsic validity of a particular statistical test. in this paper we have concentrated largely on figure the relationship between pooled and direct allele frequen- cies. the y-axis shows the allele frequency estimate from a dna pool, and the x-axis that from direct genotyping. the data are alleles from all t and u chromosomes compared at the tetranucleotide markers in the mennonites. the solid and the broken lines show the fitted linear regres- sion and the line expected from perfect agreement, respectively. shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com genetic mapping and association applications of dna pooling. the primary aim of this method, however, is to obtain accurate and quantitative es- timates of allele frequencies. we envision that dna pooling can play a significant role in evolutionary studies of genetic distance and population affinities (for diverse applications, see nei ), in which allele frequency distributions can be estimated at hundreds of loci in multiple populations with rela- tive ease. additionally, this method will also be use- ful for monitoring the genetic changes throughout a genome in experimental studies geared at elucidat- ing the mechanisms of evolution (buri ). methods patient and control samples for controls, we used dna samples from unrelated parents within the ceph reference pedigrees; they were purchased from the coriell cell repository (camden, nj). twenty-seven individuals (probands) affected with hscr and their respec- tive parents were ascertained from a large, inbred kindred from the old order mennonite community in lancaster county, pennsylvania. derivative families who had migrated to other states within the usa were also ascertained. the iden- tification of this kindred and ascertainment of individuals have been described previously in puffenberger et al. ( a). all dna samples were collected under informed consent and processed as described previously (puffenberger et al. a). dna pools constructed the concentration of each dna sample was read on both a beckman du (schaumburg, il) uv spectrophotometer and a hoefer tko (san francisco, ca) fluorometer. each sample was diluted to a concentration of µg/ml and reread to confirm the dna concentration. equal amounts of dna from each sample constituting a pool were manually com- bined prior to pcr amplification. we constructed three dna pools. the first dna pool consisted of individuals affected with hscr. previously, we have mapped and identified the major hscr susceptibility locus in mennonites (hscr ) to human chromosome q and showed a missense mutation in residue (w c) in the gene encoding endothelin re- ceptor b (ednrb) (puffenberger et al. a,b); the genotypes of the probands in the pooled sample were w c/ w c homozygotes, w c/+ heterozygotes, and +/+ homozygotes, in which + denotes the wild-type allele. the second dna pool consisted of all parents of these pro- bands; the genotypes of these individuals were w /w homozygotes, w /+ heterozygotes, and +/+ homo- zygotes. a third dna pool consisted of unrelated ceph individuals (parents). polymorphic markers the two mennonite dna pools and the ceph dna pool were initially genotyped at three dinucleotide repeat polymor- phisms (d s , d s , and d s ) and two tetra- nucleotide repeat polymorphisms (vwf and d s ). sub- sequently, the two mennonite dna pools were genotyped at six additional tetranucleotide repeat polymorphisms all map- ping to the ednrb (hscr ) region on chromosome q . four polymorphisms (vwf, d s , d s , and d s ) that are not linked to the ednrb mutation in mennonites were genotyped as control markers. table lists the genetic markers we used in this study, the fluorescent dye label used for each marker, and the observed number of alleles and heterozygosity of each marker as published in the ge- nome data base (baltimore, md). pcr amplification and quantitation each sample was amplified with ng of pooled dna in a -µl reaction volume containing . mm mgcl , mm tris, mm kcl, µm of each dntp, pmoles of each primer (one primer -labeled with either fam, tet, or hex fluores- cent dye), and . units of taq dna polymerase (fisher, pitts- burgh, pa); pcr amplification was performed for cycles in a mj research model ptc (watertown, ma) thermocy- cler. amplification of each pooled dna sample, for a specific marker, was replicated – times as indicated. pcr products were diluted : to : prior to loading onto . % poly- acrylamide gels and were run for hr at v on an abi model dna sequencer and analyzed by use of genescan software (applied biosystems, inc., foster city, ca). direct genotyping was carried out either on an abi model se- quencer by the method described above with ng of ge- nomic dna from each individual, or with a p-labeled pcr primer and manual genotyping methods as described in puffenberger et al. ( a,b). estimation of allele frequencies following electrophoresis, the genescan output was used to estimate peak height for each allele. allele frequencies were estimated from the relative proportion of the peak height for each allele versus the sum of peak heights for all alleles. be- tween and replicate pcr reactions were carried out per marker; allele frequencies presented as arithmetic averages were computed from these replicate runs. test for linkage disequilibrium for tests of allelic association (linkage disequilibrium), we compared the distribution of alleles on parental chromo- somes transmitted versus those untransmitted to probands in parent–offspring trios. this hrr (falk and rubinstein ) test on direct genotypes in the mennonite trios was per- formed as described previously in puffenberger et al. ( a). in particular, for assessing allele frequency differences, a contingency x test ( df) was performed. a separate analysis was performed for each allele at every microsatellite marker with a bonferroni correction to account for multiple tests (on the basis of the number of alleles at each locus). to estimate allele frequencies on t and u chromosomes from dna pools, note that all of the alleles in the proband pool represent the t class of alleles whereas all of the alleles in the parent pool represent the same t class of alleles in the offspring as well as an equal number of u class alleles. thus, allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com if t and u represent the allele frequency distributions of the transmitted and untransmitted alleles among the trios, then the pool of parental alleles is the compound distribution (t + u)/ . thus, the proband distribution was estimated as the t distribution whereas the u distribution was estimated as twice the parental distribution [i.e., (t + u)/ ] minus the pro- band distribution. the allele frequency differences were tested, under the null hypothesis that the transmitted and untransmitted frequencies were equal, by use of a two sample test for binomial proportions with the unit normal distribu- tion for assessing significance. as with the x test for the direct genotypes, a bonferroni correction was used to account for multiple testing. rh mapping of chromosome markers the chromosome markers used in the study, in addition to a sequence-tagged site (sts) developed from ednrb (puffen- berger et al. b), were genotyped in a panel of chromo- some rhs we had constructed previously, along with a positive control, a monochromosomal hybrid (gm ), and a negative hamster control ( - ) (methods used as de- scribed in shaw et al. ). the genotype data were analyzed by use of multipoint maximum likelihood analysis and the computer program multimap version . (matise et al. ) extended to rh mapping. distances between markers were estimated in units of centirays at rads; in this panel, ∼ cr = kb (shaw et al. ). tests of accuracy of allele frequencies in dna pools to quantitate the difference between the estimated allele fre- quencies from dna pools (denoted yi for the ith allele at any locus) to that obtained by direct allele counts (denoted xi for the ith allele at the same locus), we calculated both the stan- dard product moment correlation (rxy or r) and the rmse de- fined as rmse =Î( i= k ~yi − xi! /k where k is the number of alleles at the marker locus. although r can be used to judge the linear relationship between y and x, the rmse is a better descriptor of the similarity of estimated to direct count frequencies. additionally, the rmse is an esti- mate of the average difference in the two frequencies per al- lele. to study the relationship between y and x values, we also performed standard univariate linear regression analysis using the model y = ax + b + e, where e is random error. we specifi- cally tested the null hypothesis that a = and b = , that is, y and x values differ only by random measurement error. we tested this latter model by fitting a normal distribution to the deviations from true values (e = y x) using a x test. acknowledgments we acknowledge the many contributions and discussions with members of the chakravarti laboratory while this work was in progress. we also thank drs. myriam fornage, norman arnheim, joe nadeau, and lon cardon for comments on the manuscript. this research was partially supported by funds from national institutes of health (nih) grants hl and hd to a.c. s.h.s. was partly supported by funds from a national alliance for research on schizophrenia and de- pression fellowship, and m.m.c. by an nih training grant (t gm ) to the department of genetics, case western reserve university. the publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by payment of page charges. this article must therefore be hereby marked ‘‘advertisement’’ in accordance with usc section solely to indicate this fact. references arnheim, n., c. strange, and h. erlich. . use of pooled dna samples to detect linkage disequilibrium of polymorphic restriction fragments and human disease: studies of hla class ii loci. proc. natl. acad. sci. : – . asada, y., d.s. varnum, w.n. frankel, and j.n. nadeau. . a mutation in the ter gene causing increased susceptibility to testicular teratomas maps to mouse chromosome . nature genet. : – . buri, p. . gene frequency in small populations of mutant drosophila. evolution : – . carmi, r., t. rokhlina, a.e. kwitek-black, k. elbedour, d. nishimura, e.m. stone, and v.c. sheffield. . use of a dna pooling strategy to identify a human obesity syndrome locus on chromosome . hum. mol. genet. : – . chee, m., r. yang, e. hubbell, a. berno, x.c. huang, d. stern, j. winkler, d.j. lockhart, m.s. morris, and s.p.a. fodor. . accessing genetic information with high-density dna arrays. science : – . collin, g.b., y. asada, d.s. varnum, and j.n. nadeau. . dna pooling as a quick method for finding candidate linkages in multigenic trait analysis: an example involving susceptibility to germ cell tumors. mamm. genome : – . dib, c., s. faure, c. fizames, s. marc, a. vignal, r. heilig, m. lathrop, j. morrissette, g. gyapay, and j. weissenbach. . a comprehensive genetic map of the human genome based on , microsatellites. nature : – . falk, c.t. and p. rubinstein. . haplotype relative risks: an easy reliable way to construct a proper control sample for risk calculations. ann. hum. genet. : – . knapp, m., s.a. seuchter, and m.p. baur. . the haplotype-relative-risk (hrr) method for analysis of association in nuclear families. am. j. hum. genet. : – . lander, e.s. and n.j. schork. . genetic dissection of complex traits. science : – . matise, t.c., m. perlin, and a. chakravarti. . automated construction of genetic linkage maps using an shaw et al. genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com expert system (multimap): a human genome linkage map. nature genet. : – . michelmore, r.w., i. paran, and r.v. kesseli. . identification of markers linked to disease-resistance genes by bulked segregant analysis: a rapid method to detect markers in specific genomic regions by using segregating populations. proc. natl. acad. sci. : – . nei, m. . molecular evolutionary genetics. columbia university press, new york, ny. nystuen, a., p.j. benke, j. merren, e. stone, and v.c. sheffield. . a cerebellar ataxia locus identified by dna pooling to search for linkage disequilibrium in an isolated population from the cayman islands. hum. mol. genet. : – . pacek, p., a. sajantila, and a.-c. syvanen. . determination of allele frequencies at loci with length polymorphism by quantitative analysis of dna amplified from pooled samples. pcr methods & applic. : – . puffenberger, e.g., e.r. kauffman, s. bolk, t.c. matise, s.s. washington, m.a. angrist, j. weissenbach, k.l. garver, m. mascari, r. ladda et al. a. identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum. mol. genet. : – . puffenberger, e.g., k. hosoda, s.s. washington, k. nakao, d. dewit, m. yanagisawa, and a. chakravarti. b. a missense mutation on the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell : – . risch, n. and k. merikangas. . the future of genetic studies of complex human diseases. science : – . scott, d.a., r. carmi, k. elbedour, s. yosefsberg, e.m. stone, and v.c. sheffield. . an autosomal recessive nonsyndromic-hearing loss locus identified by dna pooling using two inbred bedouin kindreds. am. j. hum. genet. : – . shaw, s.h., j.e. farr, b.a. thiel, t.c. matise, j. weissenbach, a. chakravarti, and c.w. richard iii. . a radiation hybrid map of stss spanning human chromosome q. genomics : – . sheffield, v.c., r. carmi, a. kwitek-black, t. rokhlina, d. nishimura, g.m. duyk, k. elbedour, s.l. sunden, and e.m. stone. . identification of a bardet-biedl syndrome locus on chromosome and evaluation of an efficient approach to homozygosity mapping. hum. mol. genet. : – . spielman, r.s. and w.j. ewens. . the tdt and other family-based tests for linkage disequilibrium and association. am. j. hum. genet. : – . spielman, r.s., r.e. mcginnis, and w.j. ewens. . transmission test for linkage disequilibrium: the insulin gene region and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (iddm). am. j. hum. genet. : – . taylor, b.a. and s.j. phillips. . detection of obesity qtls on mouse chromosomes and by selective dna pooling. genomics : – . taylor, b.a., a. navin, and s.j. phillips. . pcr-amplification of simple sequence repeat variants from pooled dna samples for rapidly mapping new mutations of the mouse. genomics : – . terwilliger, j.d. . a powerful likelihood method for the analysis of linkage disequilibrium between trait loci and one or more polymorphic marker loci. am. j. hum. genet. : – . received august , ; accepted in revised form january , . allele frequency in pooled dna samples genome research cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com . /gr. . . access the most recent version at doi: : - genome res. sarah h. shaw, minerva m. carrasquillo, carl kashuk, et al. genes applications to mapping complex disease allele frequency distributions in pooled dna samples: references http://genome.cshlp.org/content/ / / .full.html#ref-list- this article cites articles, of which can be accessed free at: license service email alerting click here.top right corner of the article or receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article - sign up in the box at the https://genome.cshlp.org/subscriptions go to: genome research to subscribe to cold spring harbor laboratory press cold spring harbor laboratory press on april , - published by genome.cshlp.orgdownloaded from http://genome.cshlp.org/lookup/doi/ . /gr. . . http://genome.cshlp.org/content/ / / .full.html#ref-list- http://genome.cshlp.org/cgi/alerts/ctalert?alerttype=citedby&addalert=cited_by&savealert=no&cited_by_criteria_resid=protocols; . /gr. . . &return_type=article&return_url=http://genome.cshlp.org/content/ . /gr. . . .full.pdf https://genome.cshlp.org/subscriptions http://genome.cshlp.org/ http://www.cshlpress.com microsoft word - völlm _tocrij.doc the open criminology journal, , , - - / bentham open open access circles of support and accountability: an innovative approach to manage high-risk sex offenders in the community chris wilson , andrew bates and birgit völlm* , circles uk, reading, uk; thames valley probation service, bicester, uk; section of forensic psychiatry, division of psychiatry, university of nottingham, uk abstract: sex offenders cause particular concern upon release and are often received with apprehension or hostility by the community. this in turn may increase their feelings of loneliness and poor self-esteem hindering re-integration and potentially increasing re-offending. circles of support and accountability (cosas) were first developed in canada in and introduced in the uk in . a “circle” consists of a group of four to six volunteers with the offender as the “core member”. appropriately trained volunteers support and hold to account the core member, who has to volunteer to be part of the scheme, by providing them with social contact and practical support while at the same time maintaining links to statutory agencies alerting them of any risk issues. following completion of initial pilots the scheme is currently rolled out across the uk. this systematic review will describe the circles model and its history and summarise the empirical literature particularly with regards to outcomes. keywords: sex offender, circles, community, reintegration. introduction a circle of support and accountability (a circle) is a group of trained volunteers who meet on a regular basis both as a group and as individuals with a high risk sex offender (core member) living in their community. they hold him or her accountable for past offending behaviour through a rela- tionship of care and support. this relationship seeks to en- hance any treatment plan the core member may have pre- pared and helps to formulate personal goals which will hope- fully result in the attainment of a more satisfying and fulfill- ing life. the circle is supervised by a professionally quali- fied (e.g. probation officer, social worker, etc.) coordinator who also acts as a conduit for all relevant communication and information between the circle and those statutory agen- cies responsible for the core member’s risk management. development of circles in canada circles of support and accountability (circles) devel- oped in canada as a positive response to a specific incident of public fear and outrage (hamilton, ontario ) at the release from prison of a high-profile child sex offender into their community. the mennonite faith community, worried by the demonising of this particular individual and the moral panic he engendered, responded with a restorative-justice based concept and established the first circle of support and accountability. in the same year, a similar situation occurred in toronto and another circle was formed for a released high-risk sex offender. in the mennonite central committee in ontario produced a manual for the delivery of circles and entered *address correspondence to this author at the section of forensic psychia- try, division of psychiatry, university of nottingham, uk; tel: ; fax: ; e-mail: birgit.vollm@nottingham.ac.uk into a contract with correctional services canada who saw this as an opportunity for communities to play a positive role in enhancing public protection. likewise, those police offi- cers who had experience of circles also began to realise that circles could be seen as a part-solution to the scarce re- sources available to them and enhance their ability to effec- tively manage high risk sex offenders. sex offender treat- ment providers were also accepting that circles of support and accountability were not in any way at odds with the work of community-based treatment programmes, but were likely to enhance them. since its initial inception, circles have been established at different sites, supporting sex offenders in the community, in canada. in november the canadian government had agreed to further funding of $ . million over years for circles of support and accountability thereby demonstrating their ongoing commitment to the scheme. establishment of circles in the uk since the mennonite church established their first circle in , circles of support and accountability has become one of the best known ‘restorative based reintegrative schemes for sex offenders’ (mcalinden, ). circles in canada were initially conceived as a community reintegra- tion project based on restorative principles. this was a con- cept that the mennonites had been championing since the early s. quakers are another faith group with a long history of engaging in work in prison and crime prevention using humane and innovative approaches. the crime and community justice committee of the quakers in britain became aware of circles projects in the uk and approached the home office dangerous offenders unit which agreed to set up a workshop to explore the scheme and subsequently circles the open criminology journal, , volume invited two probation areas to consider setting up circles projects. these initial pilot projects received government funding and were managed by quaker peace and social wit- ness, a central quaker body in the uk. it is of significance that one of the pilots was located in thames valley police, a probation area which already had an excellent record in re- storative practice, and both agencies were active partners in the project’s development and sustainability. such was the success of this project that it launched as an independent charity known as htv circles in and its theoretical frame work for the delivery of circles has been used in the development of subsequent projects across the united king- dom, belgium and holland. this theoretical framework gave circles the ability to develop within a context of risk man- agement irrespective of differing faiths and beliefs. thames valley circles of support and accountability was established in , along with two other pilot projects. the hampshire project lasted two years before it combined with the thames valley pilot in while a child protec- tion charity, the lucy faithfull foundation, provided the third pilot site. the foundation provided the only residential sex offender treatment programme in the country and had successfully set up a circle prior to government funding. they continued with a national remit, initially creating cir- cles for ex-residents who had completed treatment and were relocated across the country. it was a brave decision by the british government to fund three pilot circle projects for a period of three years, particu- larly against a backdrop of public hysteria and moral panic over child sex offenders. although, to some, circles was and remains a politically contentious project, its underlying phi- losophy of community responsibility sits firmly within the government’s criminal justice and civil renewal agendas as exampled by the ‘volunteers can. a volunteering strategy to reduce re-offending’; may , http://www.noms.homeoffice.gov.uk/news-publications- events/publications/consultations/consultation_volunteers_ can/). it must also be remembered that circles were initially funded by the government at a time when both the policy and practice framework for the management of sex offenders living in the community was under reorganisation with the then newly created national offender management service (noms; http://www.justice.gov.uk/about/noms.htm). this was to be a reorganisation that brought together the prison and probation service into one organisation and devolved budgets into regional areas. the restorative aim of circles to achieve accountability through a relationship of support and inclusion was wholly consistent with the core values of noms. this model of offender management was based upon a personal relationship rather than a bureaucratic one, and that this relationship was to be one in which the offender takes an active part. one of the core values of noms is ‘in- volvement of local community in offender management through improving communication with local people, foster- ing greater organisational awareness of public concerns and encouraging active participation of the community in local projects’ it is not unreasonable to believe that these values could result in circles becoming an integral part of offender management specific to those sexual offenders who would benefit from circles. the theoretical framework the development of circles in the uk required a specific theoretical framework that would address both the differing legal and cultural context between canada and britain. it would have been naive not to recognise the contextual dif- ferences. for example, in canada circles were needed spe- cifically for those offenders assessed as high-risk based on standard risk assessment tools. such an assessment results in the offender serving the whole of their sentence and being released without parole or supervision in the canadian sys- tem. in england and wales there had been over a decade of legislation related to sexual offending, designed not only to enhance the effective management of high-risk sex offenders but also to assuage public anxiety. canadian circles were truly organic in their development. originally rooted within the mennonite faith community, they responded in a positive and inclusive manner to a wider community fear. while this philosophy was shared by those seeking to establish circles in britain, the systems of managing sex offenders released from prison in britain was very different from that of can- ada; therefore the way in which circles were implemented in england was the antithesis of that in canada. circles in can- ada grew out of the community in a spontaneous and organic manner, while in britain circles developed systemically, funded and therefore, to a degree, controlled by government. having acknowledged the differences it is important to rec- ognise that it is their similarities, the principles of inclusion and restoration through positive human relationships, which have been the hallmark of their growth both in canada and britain. the theoretical framework that was to underpin the proc- ess of all circles work in britain was based on three key principles; support, monitor and maintenance (saunders & wilson, ) with the intention to address those issues that were significant to the recidivism of sexually aggressive behaviour. each principle contains within it a number of key issues relating to the desistance of sexual offending and thereby the enhancement of public protection. the principle of support begins with the acknowledgment that research had evidenced isolation and emotional loneliness as signifi- cant factors in recidivist behaviour (hanson & morton- bourgon, ). it is also accepted that deficits in offenders perceptions of intimacy and the failings in attachments dem- onstrate the need for appropriate adult modelling. such mod- elling is a central feature of the volunteer’s role. however, real change can only be attained through a relationship of mutual respect and regard. the catalyst for change, within a context of sex offender treatment, has been identified as de- pendent upon the collaboration between therapist and of- fender in the development of treatment objectives and goals. this collaboration results in a stronger therapeutic alliance (wilson, picheca & prinzo, a). the continued support offered by a circle in helping the core members pursuit of an offence free life must also be offered within a context of mutual regard. any relationship is only meaningful if it is based on honesty and trust. the circle needs to continue modelling those alliances and work to develop the offender’s strategies to avoid re-offending previously identified through treatment. it is in this way that the core member can acquire the mechanisms needed to achieve a positive life. the core member is only likely to accept the duality of support with the open criminology journal, , volume wilson et al. accountability if it is delivered within a context of humanity and care. the second principle of monitoring is built upon the abil- ity of circles to place themselves within the existing struc- ture of inter-agency cooperation. never more so is the dual- ity of support and accountability exemplified as in its role within the multi agency public protection arrangements (mappa). this is the statutory structure that has a strategic responsibility for the oversight of agencies responsible for the management of sexual and violent offenders living in the community. mappa bring these agencies together on a regular basis to review, discuss, and formulate action plans. by definition mappa’s process and actions tend to be reac- tive methods of control such as registration, sex offender prevention orders and community notification. circles afford this process the ability to gain intelligence, for the purposes of public protection, through a creative and community based initiative. this model of communication does not seem to inhibit the relationship between the core member and his or her volunteers; particularly if volunteers are clear in articulating the need to keep all concerned stakeholders informed. there is growing evidence accrued from practice that core members continue to share problematic behaviours with their circle volunteers, knowing that any information relating to child or public protection will be communicated through the mappa process. the fact that they are prepared to disclose information to the volunteers is evidence as to the viability of positive community involvement relating to pub- lic protection. as such, monitoring becomes a positive and community based activity. the third key principle, maintenance, is specifically linked to the relationship between sex offender treatment and circles and their combined role in the prevention of re- offending. many high risk sexual offenders are socially iso- lated and without a support network other than those key professionals, paid to be in their lives. the better lives/new life plan (formally know as a relapse prevention plan), detail- ing re-offending prevention strategies, needs to be shared with significant others. the purpose of a circle, in its purest form, is to provide the core member with a support network so that the offender’s attempts to sustain a balanced, self- determined lifestyle become meaningful as defined by the good lives model (ward & gannon, ). in this way the circle can help to hold the core member accountable, main- taining treatment objectives as well as the expectations of the community. circles are provided on a voluntary basis to offenders; therefore they will, e.g., not be part of the release conditions. other interventions may be provided alongside circles and participation or otherwise of offenders in circles does not affect access to these. how does a circle work in practice? those offenders wishing to be part of a circle do so out of a desire to desist from re-offending. after a referral to a project has been made either by the offender themselves or by their offenders manager, their motivation and the reasons that belie that motivation is explored by a circles coordina- tor during a process of assessment relating to their suitability for inclusion. the motivation for an offender to be included in a circle can span a continuum ranging from a realisation and acceptance of harm caused by their previous offending to a straight forward desire not to return to prison. given that a circle relies on volunteers to operate, resources are finite and therefore a waiting system for allocation is crucial. it is also important to remember that circles of support and ac- countability were set up to work with offenders who pose a significant risk of future sexual harm to the public. in a re- cent, as yet unpublished, study of hampshire and thames valley circles out of a total cms receiving the interven- tion % were identified as at very high risk of sexual reconviction using risk matrix , % were high risk and % medium risk. these scores do not take into ac- count risk of harm estimates from prison and probation oasys assessments. all circles volunteers and core mem- bers sign a circles agreement that defines the boundaries of confidentiality and what information is shared and when. circles coordinators and volunteers operate within a frame- work defined by the circles policy and procedures document distributed by the circles umbrella organization, circles uk. once a volunteer has been successfully screened (inter- views, references and enhanced criminal records check) and trained they will meet their fellow circle volunteers and un- dertake a further month training in their circle before meet- ing the core member. when the core member joins his/her circle, the circle will then meet on a regular weekly basis where the core member will share the work he or she has undertaken in treatment. the specific purpose of this is so that the volunteers will not only learn to recognise when the core member is falling into old patterns of behaviour but will be aware of the core member’s coping strategies. when the circle and the circle coordinator feel all are ready, weekly individual contact with the core member will take place, engaging in safe activities that will hopefully enhance the core member’s life. this allows the circle to facilitate the better life/new life/relapse prevention plan to become truly dynamic, whereby the core member’s coping strategies to avoid re-offending can be supported by others. the first to months of a circle will be structured and monitored through its regular weekly business meetings and individual volunteer contact with the core member all of which is re- corded and when necessary fed back to the relevant agencies. this period of a circle’s life is known as phase one. phase two is when formal supervision by the coordinator comes to an end and volunteers continue to support the core member on a more informal basis, i.e. the circle may only meet as a whole for specific or special occasions but individual contact continues with volunteers reporting any significant changes in a core member’s lifestyle that may influence contextual risk. it is the development of phase two that has proved to be of a major benefit to the police. the police are funding five of the ten operational circles projects across england and wales. phase two circles provide the police with intelli- gence and information on registered sex offenders long after licence conditions have ended and other statutory agencies have ceased to be involved. while the objective of a circle is to help facilitate the core member’s successful reintegration back into the community and not to make the core member circle dependent, many of the volunteers will continue an appropriate supportive relationship with their core member long after the circle formally closed. as previously stated the three key principles provide foundations through which volunteers, acting as representa- circles the open criminology journal, , volume tives of their community, can effectively hold an offender accountable through a relationship of support. volunteers are the essential ingredients to the success of any circles project. it is therefore vital that volunteers too are supported, moni- tored, and held accountable for the work they are undertak- ing. this supervision needs to be undertaken by a coordina- tor who not only understands the issues related to risk man- agement, but who also understands the needs of the volun- teers. the circles coordinator provides this guidance and advice both formally and informally. the personal well be- ing of volunteers is paramount and, as such, they are invited to attend quarterly reviews in which they can explore their experience of circles work. as in the original canadian model, the experience of volunteers working in circles in britain is built upon a foun- dation of training. volunteering for circles can be far more demanding than other types of volunteer work. after an ini- tial interview, designed to elicit motivation, attitudes and beliefs, the prospective volunteers are invited to an introduc- tory training programme lasting hours. they are screened and assessed for suitability. after further training within the circle prior to meeting their core member, it is hoped that volunteers will be familiar with the model and the expecta- tions placed upon them to be able to function as effective volunteers. the aim is to ensure that each circle has a bal- ance of gender, age, experience and skills, reflecting a true representation of community. this ensures both a healthy robustness to the circle and that the needs of the core mem- ber can be addressed and managed by the volunteers. a se- ries of further training events is made available to the volun- teers throughout the year, which include housing and em- ployment issues, substance misuse, questioning styles, and listening skills. circles uk the growth of circles in england and wales since has been so significant, with ten operational projects, and more in development, that the government recognised the need to support and fund a new charitable organisation known as circles uk. this was to be an umbrella organisa- tion to ensure that the best practice developed during the pilot period was disseminated and adhered to. circles uk was launched in . with six key tasks, the organisation has been charged to: ensure the development and delivery of circles of support and accountability, ensure the quality and consistency of practices through training and assessment processes, coordinate a national perspective for the evaluation and research of circles, promote an awareness and provide consistent, accurate information about circles, maintain the profile of circles activity with strategic partners at national and regional level, and ensure the sustainability of local circles project and to support their expansion into mainstream activity by adopting a coordinated and high level approach to funding negotiations. while fulfilling the tasks listed above, circles uk has also entered into a partnership of consultation, training and research has been developed between circles uk, the dutch university of applied sciences avans hogeschool and the dutch and belgium probation departments which has now secured european funding (daphe ) for research into the effectiveness of circles in reducing further sexual offending. circles uk has during its first year of operation developed a code of practice both for the governance of circles projects and to ensure a standard of best practice regarding the operational delivery of circles. a structure has been created that will monitor and evaluate the future service delivery of projects measured against the code of practice. circles uk has built upon and ensured consistency in the delivery of both the initial volunteer training and subsequent on-going volunteer training. it has developed and delivers a national coordinators training programme as well as facilitating regular forums for coordinators to share practice, etc. it has commissioned a fund raising protocol so that projects are not all chasing the same pot of money from those charities and trust willing to support the work of circles. literature review of empirical studies this review aims to systematically and critically evaluate the empirical literature relevant to circles focusing on studies on the impact of this concept on outcomes for sex offenders, volunteers, professionals and the wider community. method we identified studies investigating the effect of circles on outcomes in sex offenders or their impact on volunteers or other stakeholders using searches up to october . we included the databases medline, embase, psychinfo, assia, ibss, sociological abstracts and lexislibrary. reference lists of identified papers were checked. in addition, a google search was conducted for any grey literature. search terms included “circle(s)” and “sex offender” or “sex offence”. results studies identified papers with a primary focus on circles were identified. the majority described the concept or the development of circles while only four papers reported on empirical studies. these contributions are summarised in table . we also identified some grey literature, namely two relevant evaluation reports reporting empirical data which are also listed in table . core members’ views on circles three of the studies identified reported on the views of core members (cms) on circles (cesaroni, ; hasle- wood-pócsik, smith & spencer, ; wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a). the main motivation for cms to join a circle was to receive emotional and practical support following release from prison. interestingly, even though circles operate on a voluntary basis, a high proportion (up to % in canadian circles) felt under pressure to agree to become a cm and feared negative consequences from the statutory agencies if they didn’t. canadian cms reported the open criminology journal, , volume wilson et al. table . empirical studies on circles of support and accountability author, year type of study setting groups studied methods and outcomes findings cesaroni, survey of cms, volunteers, circles professionals and other professionals mennonite circles, canada core members (cms; out of approached): in active circles, in informal (later stages) circles volunteers (out of potential ) in person (cm) or phone (volunteers) interviews core members: • motivation: self-protection, isolation, “last resort”, perceived pressure • half felt they would have re-offended with- out the circle, one quarter that they would have returned to drugs and criminal lifestyle • other benefits: practical matters, emotional support, learning to socialise volunteers: • motivation: empathy, personal experience with abuse, relevant skills, perceived bene- fits to community, reintegration of offender • perceived benefits: practical and emotional help with reintegration wilson et al., (subsequently published in wilson et al., a) survey of cm, volunteers, circles professionals, members of community canadian circles core members (out of ) volunteers (out of ) circles professionals (out of ) members of community (out of ) questionnaires, completed in writing core members: • motivation: social support, reintegration, negative community response, pressure to become involved • benefits: reintegration, practical issues, opportunity to socialise, support and accep- tance • majority felt circles had helped them adjust and prevented them from re-offending volunteers: • motivation: wanting to give something back, personal experience with sexual of- fending, excitement • experience: increased confidence, friend- ship, making a difference, sense of commu- nity, somewhat more critical comments over time • majority felt cm would have offended without circle and that community felt safer professionals: • felt volunteers needed more support, posi- tive impact on cm: responsibility, account- ability, support, increased sense of safety for community, concerned about lack of structure/boundaries community members: • % positive about project, only few angry about support for offenders, increased sense of safety wilson et al., (subsequently published in wilson et al., b) controlled trial with matched control group, not randomised canadian circles core members, high risk controls matched on risk, time in community and treatment history charged for new sexual or non-sexual offence including breaches circles cm: any recidivism . %, sexual %, violent % non-circles offenders: any recidivism . %, sexual . %, violent % in circles group new offence less severe than previous offending. circles the open criminology journal, , volume table . contd…. author, year type of study setting groups studied methods and outcomes findings bates et al., naturalistic follow-up study pilot circles project, uk core members interviews with circles staff and file reviews • no sexual reconvictions • one breach of sex offence prevention order • cms recalled for breaches • cms recidivist behaviour haslewood et al., qualitative evaluation of local project circles project in manchester, uk, which also provided advice on self- employment core members who had offended against children (two intra-familial), high risk of reoffending (matrix ), had undergone sex offender treatment, in transition from hostel to independent living volunteers professionals working in circles other professionals in-depth qualitative interviews with core members ( ), volunteers ( ), professionals working in circles project ( ), other professionals ( ) participatory observation core members: • motivation: have someone to talk to, help with practical issues and social life • fears: being judged, confidentiality, might not work volunteers: • motivation: career progression, innovative approach, make a difference, prevent future victimisation • fears: impact of offence, being groomed, not getting on with other volunteers, reac- tion of others • emphasis on support rather than control • personal benefits: confidence, experience, prospects, reward project staff: • significant benefits for monitoring behav- iour other professionals: • focus on risk management, concerns about concept potential benefits for cms: • overcoming loneliness, improve social life • improve coping with stress • pro-social modelling • practical support • reduce risk of re-offending through chal- lenge and commitment wilson et al., controlled trial with matched control group, not randomised canadian circles core members, high risk controls matched on risk, time in community, location and treatment history charged for or convicted of new sexual and non- sexual offence circles cm: any recidivism . %, sexual . %, violent . % non-circles offenders: any recidivism . %, sexual . %, violent . % more fear about the communities’ reaction towards them compared to their british counterparts and hoped the circle would protect them. although prevention of re-offending did not appear to be a specific motivation for offenders to join a circle in the studies reviewed, a large majority of cm identified such an effect and felt they had re-offended were they not part of a circle. only findings relevant to outcomes of offenders, impact on volunteers or stakeholders are reported here; not reported are findings regarding the setting up of circles and their operation. volunteers’ perspectives we identified three studies interviewing volunteers on their motivation to become involved in a circles project and on their perceived benefit of the circle to stakeholders (ce- saroni, ; haslewood-pócsik, smith & spencer, ; wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a). volunteers appear to be mainly motivated by wanting to help a sex offender to reintegrate into the community; increased community safety was another common theme. while sex offenders seem the open criminology journal, , volume wilson et al. unlikely recipients of benevolent acts by ordinary community members, it is of note that the studies reviewed found that a large proportion of volunteers had worked with offenders before and a significant minority had personal experience with victimisation in their own families. volunteers reported positive effects of their involvement on their own lives beyond the satisfaction derived from successfully supporting a sex offender, e.g. regarding their professional development, confidence and social interactions. sadly, nevertheless volunteers often reported not being able to disclose their involvement with circles to their friends or even family. similarly to cms, volunteers felt circles had made a difference to the safety of communities in that it prevented re-offending even though more experienced volunteers were somewhat less optimistic about the impact of circles (wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a). other stakeholders’ perspectives two of the studies looking at the experience of cms and volunteers also identified the views of professionals, both those directly involved in circles and those more removed from their operation (haslewood-pócsik, smith & spencer, ; wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a). as might be expected, professionals more closely involved in circles projects expressed more positive views about circles and their potential impact on outcomes in sex offenders. other professionals were more reserved and emphasized the role of circles for surveillance purposes over their supportive role. a minority of stakeholders in one study (wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a) felt there were potential issues regarding boundaries and a lack of structure in circles and that more training for volunteers would be desirable. hazlewood et al. (haslewood-pócsik, smith & spencer, ) also reported that project staff had expressed concerns over the exchange of phone numbers between the cm and volunteers in one circle. however, most professionals appreciated this additional resource of support and the positive effects for re- integration of sex offenders. only one study investigated perceptions of members of the community-at-large (wilson, picheca, & prinzo, a). the authors reported a mainly positive view on circles by community members with only a small proportion expressing resentment about the offenders receiving help. nearly three quarters of members of the community felt that circles would make their communities safer. effectiveness of circles the earliest canadian practice of circles was evaluated in research that compared a group of sex offenders involved with circles with a comparison group who were not (wilson, picheca & prinzo, ). the groups were matched on actu- arial risk assessment ratings (static- ), time in commu- nity and prior exposure to treatment interventions. they were followed up for an average of . years. sexual, violent and general reconviction rates for the men involved with circles were lower than for the comparison group – most notably in the sexual reconviction category where individu- als in the circles group were reconvicted at half the rate of the comparison group ( . % as opposed to . %) despite a slightly (not statistically significant) higher average risk as- sessment rating on static- (average . , sd . , as opposed to . , sd ) and significantly higher scores on the rrasor (average . , sd . versus . , sd . ). the rate of sexual reconviction was just over a quarter of the cal- culated expected rate ( . % rather than . % expected) as opposed to the comparison group where it was well over half the expected rate ( . % rather than . %). this outcome showed that, while no complete panacea, the impact of cir- cles reduced the sexual reconviction rate of high-risk offend- ers to a statistically significant degree (p< . ). in this case, ‘high risk’ was indicated in both experimental and control groups because all cases had been detained until their war- rant expiry date (wed), which is only recommended in cases where re-offense is likely to occur prior to wed (mcalinden, ). subsequent canadian research (wilson, cortoni, meunier & vermani, ; wilson, cortoni & mcwhinnie, ). replicated these findings. this research identified reconviction rates of circles participants from across canada once the model had been more extensively implemented. forty-four cases in each category (circles and a matched control group) were followed up for, on average, a little un- der three years. in this study circles core members had slightly higher scores on the static- but not on other risk assessment tools employed. sexual recidivism was only . % in the circles group but . % in the control group. violent reconviction rates were also much lower for the cir- cles group ( . % as opposed to . %). the total number of convictions and charges of any kind (arguably a more mean- ingful figure given the complications inherent in securing a sexual conviction) was far lower in the circles sample – rather than in the control group, again a highly statisti- cally significant difference (p< . ). although a shorter fol- low-up period than wilson et al.’s research this latter evidence again shows a very positive finding for the activi- ties of cosa in rehabilitating high-risk sex offenders and thereby making communities safer. research in the uk (bates, saunders & wilson, ) until now has focused on a more qualitative approach. a group of core members involved with what was then the thames valley circles were followed up for an average of . years. no control group was available for analysis al- though the research followed-up each of the cases in de- tail, noting not only further convictions but any other ‘re- cidivist’ behaviours (e.g. other problematic behaviours which fall short of illegality and reconviction). this gave a wider perspective on the functioning of the core members and the ways in which circles impacted upon their lives. in this study there were no sexual reconvictions. the study sought to establish in more detail how this positive overall outcome came about. it incorporated ‘soft data’ which were available on a cm’s behaviour from circles records. any instance of pro-offending, offence-paralleling or otherwise problematic behaviour was recorded routinely in the cm’s file. regarding the findings of this study one cm was con- victed for breach of a sex offence prevention order (a civil order imposed upon him by a court as a result of his evi- denced and ongoing high level of risk of reconviction). four further cms were recalled to prison on licence and in these cases the high level of risk presented by this group may be born out by the incidences of their recidivistic behaviours circles the open criminology journal, , volume which gave rise to sufficient concern that they were recalled to prison. however, it should be noted that due to such eva- sive action, which in many cases was prompted specifically by the input of circles, sexual reconvictions and the creation of further victims were avoided. for example, in the case of one cm the circle received information that he had secretly purchased a car, which had been part of his modus operandi for his previous sexual offence of abduction of a child. the offender had used the car to travel to visit a previous associ- ate involved with him in grooming of children. circle volun- teers reported this to the police public protection officer and subsequently a circle coordinator and volunteers visited the cm when children and two girls aged and were found in his flat. this resulted in the cm being prosecuted for breach of his sopo (sexual offences prevention order), although he remained in the circle subsequently. in another case a cm informed a circles volunteer that he had met with female child and drunk alcohol with her. the volunteer in- formed the police and probation of this matter but supported cm through this process, which led to recall. such activity by circles volunteers illustrates the ‘accountability’ aspect of the circles process which at times, might be viewed as sitting uneasily alongside the ‘support’ element. however, in the htv study (ward & gannon, ) the fact that four cms that were subject to breach proceedings (of sopo or licence) then returned to the circle for ongoing support and accountability demonstrates how it is possible for these two key aspects of circles practice to co-exist discussion qualitative research on circles there is a limited but growing qualitative research literature identifying mainly positive experiences with circles across a range of stakeholders. while this literature has identified some initial reservations and concerns by professionals in the criminal justice system, this might be due to the relatively recent introduction of circles and associated uncertainties regarding best practice. there was no support in the literature reviewed here for major concerns regarding the motivations and quality of volunteers recruited to circles project. some concerns were expressed by some professionals regarding potential boundary violations although there was no evidence to suggest that this had caused any problems in practice. it was of note that one study (cesaroni, ) reported own experience with abuse as one of the reasons for volunteers to become involved. although this is not further discussed in their study, projects need to be aware of this group of volunteers as they might be particularly vulnerable to experience distress during their involvement, e.g. through post-traumatic memories. projects need to be aware of this possibility and provide adequate support for volunteers affected by their experience in the circle. the evidence available suggests that volunteers are predominantly mature professionals, motivated by a desire to help, but without being naive about risks and possible achievements. it was particularly striking to note the mainly positive response from individuals from the general public in one study (wilson, picheca & prinzo, a) which ap- peared surprising given the very negative response sex of- fenders receive when released into the community. it is pos- sible that education contributes to change people’s views from largely negative and rejecting to a more measured ap- proach. this proposition is supported by the observation by wilson (wilson, picheca & prinzo, ) who reported that nearly half of the members of the general public they inter- viewed were aware of circles and what it offers to offenders through publicity prior to setting up new projects. while such qualitative research can ultimately not prove that cir- cles ‘work’ it may in the future help to identify the factors that might be useful in the success or otherwise of circles and can thereby inform best practice. quantitative research on circles whereas core members, circles professionals and other stakeholders, including members of the community, all ex- pressed the view that circles had helped to reintegrate of- fenders into the community, reduce their re-offending and make communities safer, such ‘soft data’ has to be supported by scientific evidence, ideally in controlled studies. so far, only three studies, two in canada and one in the uk, have evaluated the impact of circles on outcomes for high risk sex offenders; two of these studies included a control group. these studies reported encouraging findings in reasonably sized carefully matched samples of high risk offenders al- though interventions were not randomly allocated. unfortu- nately the authors did not describe eligibility criteria for cir- cles and therefore one cannot rule out some bias on the basis of motivation to participate in a circle. such concerns could ultimately only be addressed in a randomized controlled trial which would pose significant ethical concerns as outlined below. directions for future research at the time of writing there have been no further pub- lished evaluations of circles in the uk following bates et al. (bates, saunders & wilson, ). this is a high priority for future research, given the expansion of the initiative, in order to demonstrate value-for-money for government and charita- ble funders. studies evaluating follow-up behaviour of cms are important, preferably with matched control groups and yet retaining a wider perspective than simply looking at reconviction rates. these are now widely regarded in the field of forensic research as something of a ‘blunt instru- ment’ in establishing if and how offenders are successfully rehabilitated into society (friendship, thornton, erikson & beech, ) given low rates of reporting, prosecution and conviction of sex offences. a variety of evaluative approaches are being considered under the auspices of a research and evaluation group es- tablished by circles uk. this group consists of academics and practitioners with backgrounds in law, criminology and forensic psychology and psychiatry. charitable funding has been accessed to pay for a full-time doctoral researcher to carry out an evaluation of circles in the uk. the options for evaluation are varied and all have advantages and disadvan- tages attached to them. reconviction studies such studies use statistics available from the police na- tional computer and other sources to identify the future re- convictions of sex offenders. over the longer term circles will need to identify if reconviction rates for core members differ from a matched sample of sex offenders who have not received a circles intervention. ideally this would involve the open criminology journal, , volume wilson et al. identifying a control group which includes sex offenders as closely matched as possible (in particular in terms of risk assessment) with the circles group. the simplest way to cre- ate such a group is to allocate half of all sex offenders found suitable for a circle to the active intervention and half to ‘treatment as usual’. however, there are significant ethical issues here because offenders would be denied a service which might prevent them from committing further offences which will cause harm and distress not only to them but cru- cially to potential victims who are inherently unidentifiable and cannot consent to this practice. however, there is a precedent here in the evaluation of a restorative justice ini- tiative run by the justice research consortium across three sites in the uk from (shapland, atkinson, atkinson, dignan, edwards, et al., ). this used an experimental model in which cases were randomly allocated to either a restorative justice conference or a control group after victim and offender consent for the intervention had been obtained and thereby the evaluation was able to control for the crucial factor of motivation to engage in the intervention. it may be that there will come a time for circles projects that there are too many applicants for circles for them all to receive the intervention, in which case the control group would create itself naturally by consisting of those offenders who simply did not receive an intervention due to shortage of resources. however, in the largest and most widely operating circles uk project (in thames valley and hampshire - htv) this eventuality has yet to come about because, in order to ensure they provide as wide a service as possible to maintain con- tinued support from public agency funders, htv circles have sought to diversify the interventions they provide (for example, offering a counselling and monitoring service alongside actual circles). in practice this means that almost all sex offenders identified as suitable for some kind of cir- cles intervention have received it. this may change when the numbers of referrals increase still further and the role and scope of the project becomes defined more clearly, perhaps by the provision of longer-term funding which will allow the project to focus on its particular designated interventions rather than shifting its practice for reasons described above. the alternatives for control groups are more complicated to arrange although can include a retrospective control group drawn from a sample of sex offenders identified from proba- tion records who received a sex offender treatment pro- gramme but not circles. they would need to be matched as closely as possible for risk assessment but this would still not control for motivation e.g. any more positive outcome for core members might just relate to their higher level of moti- vation for volunteering and being found suitable for circles in the first place. in undertaking any follow-up study it will be crucial to define precisely what a ‘negative outcome’ for a cm is, as failing to do so could give misleading results. in the cana- dian research, for instance, a breach of parole licence and return to prison was deemed a failed outcome (wilson, picheca, & prinzo, b). in the existing htv circles re- search (bates, saunders, & wilson, ) the sample were breached at a rate of %. there was no comparison data here for a non-circles control group but it may well be that the breach rate would not be this high in those sex offenders who received treatment alone as they would be less moni- tored and controlled than the circles sample. the research identified how the circles activity had actually contributed towards the breach action (under the accountability aspect of its function). it could be argued that only reconviction (or strong recidivism evidence) of a further sexual offence should count as a failed outcome. psychometric evaluation psychometric tests are used in an evaluative capacity in many offending-behaviour interventions run in the prison and probation services in the uk. they can provide evidence of attitudinal change in offenders who have undertaken treatment programmes which may then translate to behav- ioural change in the longer term although the evidence for their use in sex offender populations, particularly as a meas- ure of change, is limited. nevertheless, psychometric testing could be considered as an evaluation approach within circles although identifying which psychometric tests might best measure the attitudes and personality characteristics which are being targeted by circles interventions is challenging. one suggestion (barker, ) has been to use psychometric questionnaires to measure the capacity to achieve psycho- logical ‘goods’ which are a feature of the good lives model (ward & gannon, ). this theory essentially suggests that sex offenders offend in order to meet primary human needs and if these needs could be met in legal, non-abusive ways then this would reduce their desire to offend. circles fits into the good lives model in that circles provide aspects of human communication, support and advice which can be interpreted as ‘goods’ in the good lives model. dynamic risk factors review another relevant area for developing evaluation methods applied to circles would be to focus on the dynamic, i.e. changeable, risk factors identified in the sex offender litera- ture (losel & schmucker, ) through the course of a cir- cle and beyond. to this end, practitioners and researchers working within circles uk have designed a document to be completed by a circle at regular intervals which specifically identifies dynamic risk factors identified in the sex offender treatment literature and how they might relate to the cm during their involvement in a circle. the document is in- tended to be brief and user-friendly so that it may be utilised requiring the minimum amount of volunteers’ time while still providing vital information over time in a consistent manner across different circles. it allows for detailed, ongo- ing monitoring of the cm based upon factors identified as relevant to their risks of reoffending. circles uk have made provisions to systematically collate and feedback informa- tion recorded in this way to local projects in order to provide evidence of progress or, conversely, identify risk issues relat- ing to each cm. conclusions this paper provides a summary of the cosa initiative thus far, from its origins in canada through developments in uk policy and practice at a local and national level. cosa represents a community-based response to a community problem which gives a practical alternative to the often unhelpful demonising approach to sexual abuse prevalent in much of the media. existing evaluative studies of cosa practice in canada and the uk have been outlined but further research is required in order to more thoroughly circles the open criminology journal, , volume examine the impact of cosa in the management of sex offenders in the community, and in particular the factor contributing to positive or negative outcome. in addition to this, research would be useful regarding how and why members of the public volunteer for cosa and what benefits (both personal and professional) they may gain from this process. also, it would be useful to examine how the activities of cosa might be demonstrated to impact more generally on community awareness and safety when considering the risk of serious harm to children and vulnerable adults which sexual abuse represents. conflict of interest cw is national development officer for circles uk. ab is a forensic psychologist employed by thames val- ley probation service, and seconded to htv circles and circles uk for days a year. bv is a trustee of circles uk. references barker, j. ( ). the application of the good lives model to cosa. unpublished forensic psychology msc dissertation. leicester university. bates, a., saunders, r., wilson, c. ( ). doing something about it: a follow-up study of sex offenders participating in thames valley circles of support and accountability. british journal of community justice , - . cesaroni c. ( ). releasing sex offenders into the community through “circles of support” – a means of reintegrating the “worst of the worst”. journal of offender rehabilitation , - . friendship, c., thornton, d., erikson, m., beech, a. ( ). reconviction: a critique and comparison of two main data sources in england and wales. legal and criminological psychology , - . hanson, r.k. & morton-bourgon, k. ( ). predictors of sexual recidivism: an updated meta-analysis. ottawa, canada: corrections research, public safety and emergency preparedness. haslewood-pócsik, i., smith, e., spencer, j. ( ). impact circles: balancing risk management with support. manchester: criminal justice unit, university of manchester. losel, f. & schmucker, m. ( ). the effectiveness of treatment for sexual offenders: a comprehensive meta-analysis. journal of experimental criminology , - . mann, r. & shingler, j. ( ). collaboration in clinical work with sex offenders: treatment and risk assessment. in marshall, w.l., fer- nandez, y.m., marshall, l.e., serran, g.a. (eds). sexual offender treatment: controversial issues. chichester, uk: john wiley and sons. mcalinden, a. ( ). the shaming of sexual offenders: risk, retribution and reintegration. oxford, uk: hart publishing. saunders, r. & wilson, c. ( ). three key principles: a theoretical framework. circles of support and accountability in the thames valley: an interim report. london, uk: quaker peace and social witness. shapland, j., atkinson, a., atkinson, h., dignan, j., edwards, l. et al. ( ). does restorative justice affect reconviction? the fourth report from the evaluation of three schemes. ministry of justice research series / . london: ministry of justice. ward, t., gannon, t.a. ( ). rehabilitation, etiology and self-regulation: the comprehensive good lives model of treatment for sexual offenders. aggression and violent behaviour , - . wilson, r.j., picheca, j., prinzo, m. ( ). circles of support & accountability: an evaluation of the pilot project in south-central ontario. ottawa, canada: correctional service of canada. wilson, r., cortoni, f., meunier, r., vermani, m. ( ). support and accountability: a national replication of outcome findings. atsa conference presentation. wilson, r., picheca, j., prinzo, m. ( a). evaluating the effectiveness of professionally-facilitated volunteerism in the community based management of high risk sexual offenders: part one – effects on participants and stakeholders. the howard journal , - . wilson, r.j., picheca, j., prinzo, m. ( b). evaluating the effectiveness of professionally-facilitated volunteerism in the community based management of high risk sexual offenders: part two – a comparison of recidivism rates. the howard journal , - . wilson, r.j., cortoni, f., mcwhinnie, a.j. ( ). circles of support & accountability: a canadian national replication of outcome findings. sexual abuse: a journal of research and treatment , - . received: august , revised: october , accepted: october , © wilson et al.; licensee bentham open. this is an open access article licensed under the terms of the creative commons attribution non-commercial license (http://creativecommons.org/- licenses/by-nc/ . /) which permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ bibliography of british columbia prepared by gail edwards, mls, p h d b o o k s a b k h a z i , peggy, k a t h e r i n e g o r d o n . a curious cage: life in a japanese internment camp, - , d éd., ed. s.w. jackson. victoria: sono nis press, . . p. a d a m s , john d . ghosts and legends of bastion square. victoria: discover the p a s t , . . p . a i r transport research society. airport benchmarking report global standard forairport excellence. vancouver: centre for transportation studies, university of british columbia, . vols. (set). a m o r , n o r m a n l. and others. guide to titles filmed in the historical theses & graduating essays microfilming project: university of british columbia theses and graduating essays on british columbia history and related subjects, including regional studies in science and industry, -. . ed. vancouver: university of british columbia. preservation office, . pp. a r d e n , roy. roy arden: selected works, - . oakville, ont.: oakville galleries, . . p. atkins, judy. green legacies: a donor's guide for b.c. stewardship series. victoria: stewardship centre for british columbia, . . p. bacon, cam. gem trails of british columbia. surrey: hancock house, . p. . p. barman, jean. constance lindsay skinner: writing on the frontier. toronto: university of toronto press, . . p. bauder, harald and emilie cameron. cultural barriers to labour market integration: immigrants from south asia and the former yugoslavia. working paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p. bay-hansen, c d . and charles a. rondeau. future fish : the north pacific fisheries tackle asian markets, the can-am salmon treaty, and micronesian seas ( j- ). victoria: trafford, . (pbk). p. bc studies belshaw, j o h n d o u g l a s . colonization and community: the vancouver island coalfield and the making of the british columbian working class. m c g i l l - q u e e n ' s s t u d i e s i n e t h n i c h i s t o r y . m o n t r e a l : m c g i l l - q u e e n ' s u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s , . ( b o u n d ) ; ( p b k ) . p . b e l y k , r o b e r t c . ghosts: true tales of eerie encounters. rev. e d . v i c t o r i a : h o r s d a l a n d s c h u b a r t p u b l i s h e r s , . . p . b e r g e r , t h o m a s r. one mans justice: a life in the law. v a n c o u v e r : d o u g l a s & m c l n t y r e , . . p . blnkert,june. some dunbar houses in their settings: walking tours. v a n c o u v e r : d u n b a r s a l m o n b e r r y d a y s , - . ( p a m p h l e t s ) p . boas, f r a n z . indian myths and legends from the north pacific coast of america: a translation of franz boas' i çs edition oflndianische sagen von der nord- pacifischen kuste amerikas. e d . a n d a n n o t a t e d b y r a n d y b o u c h a r d a n d d o r o t h y k e n n e d y . v a n c o u v e r : t a l o n b o o k s , . . p . boudreau, j a c k . mountains, campfires and memories. p r i n c e g e o r g e : c a i t l i n p r e s s , . . p . bowen, l y n n e . boss whistle: the coal miners of vancouver island remember. rev. ed. n a n a i m o : n a n a i m o a n d d i s t r i c t m u s u e m s o c i e t y a n d r o c k y p o i n t b o o k s , . ( p b k ) . p . c a c c h i o n i , s a n d r a . community mobilizing history: duncan and chemainus; evaluation report on the duncan and chemainus mobilization. f i r s t c a l l s p o t l i g h t o n c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h c a m p a i g n . v a n c o u v e r : f i r s t c a l l , . . p . cadwaladr, m a r g a r e t . in veronica's garden: a social history of the milner gardens and woodland. q u a l i c u m : m a d r o n a , . . p . caledon i n s t i t u t e o n s o c i a l policy. new era in british columbia: a profile of budget cuts across social programs. o t t a w a : t h e i n s t i t u t e , . . p . cameron, n e i l . the essential guide to fly fishing british columbia. c a l g a r y : b l u e r i b b o n b o o k s , . . p . cannings, r o b e r t a . introducing the dragonflies of british columbia and the yukon. v i c t o r i a : r o y a l b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a m u s e u m , . . p . cassels, a l a n . paying for what works: bc's experience with the reference drug program as a model for rational policy making. v a n c o u v e r : c a n a d i a n c e n t r e for p o l i c y a l t e r n a t i v e s , b c office, . . p . chilton, m c k e n z i e . community mobilizing history: abbotsford; evaluation report on the abbotsford mobilization. f i r s t c a l l s p o t l i g h t o n c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h c a m p a i g n . v a n c o u v e r : f i r s t c a l l , . . p . c o u s i n s , j e a n . easy cycling around vancouver. v a n c o u v e r : g r e y s t o n e b o o k s , . . p . criscuolo, s a n t o . ski and snowboard america. pacific northwest and british columbia: the complete guide to downhill skiing, snowboarding, heli-skiing, cat-skiing, and the greatest winter sports throughout british columbia and the pacific northwest. g u i l f o r d , c o n n . : t h e g l o b e p e q u o t p r e s s , . . p . bibliography dldukh, galina. immigrants and the demand for shelter. working paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p. douglas, robb. skookum tugs: british columbia's working tugboats. madeira park, b c : harbour publishing, . . p. dyck, isabel j., and arlene tigar mclaren. becoming canadian?: girls, home and school and renegotiating feminine identity. w o r k i n g paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p. failing, lee, michael margolick, and graham long. a tool kit for community energy planning in british columbia. rev. ed. richmond: b c energy aware committee, . vols. v. (pbk); v. ;^. . flsher, robin. what's wrong?: explicit graphic interpretations against censorship. vancouver: arsenal pulp press, . . p. flanagan, tom, and christopher alcantara. individual property rights on canadian indian reserves. public policy sources, . vancouver: fraser institute, . p. f r a s e r n o r t h c o u n c i l f o r c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h m o b i l i z a t i o n committee. community mobilizing history: fraser north; evaluation report on the fraser north mobilization. first call spotlight on children and youth campaign. vancouver: first call, . . p. fuller, sylvia. cost shift: how british columbians are paying for their tax cut. vancouver: canadian centre for policy alternatives, b c office, . . p. gallaher, bill. the journey: the qverlanders' quest for gold. victoria: touchwood editions, . (pbk). p. gasher, mike. hollywood north: the feature film industry in british columbia. vancouver: ubc press, . x. p. gayton, d o n , and h e n r y michel. linking indigenous peoples' knowledge and western science in natural resource management: conference proceedings. s i f e r p series, print, . kamloops: southern interior forest extension and research partnership, . . g e i g e r , brian j. clothing demand for canadian-born and foreign-born households. working paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p . glles, wayne, and barbara robertson, eds. canoeing and kayaking in bc's central interior: a guide book. d ed. prince george: n o r t h west brigade canoe club group co-operative, . (pbk). p. gllmour, marian, and gail buente. heritage hall, biography of a building. vancouver: heritage hall preservation society, . x. p. goldberg, michael. protecting volunteers and non-profit organizations: a study on risk management and liability insurance of voluntary organizations in british columbia. vancouver: social planning and research council of b c , . . p . bc studies gozalie, h a n d y . immigrants' earnings and assimilation in canada's labour market: the case ofoverachievers. w o r k i n g p a p e r s e r i e s . r e s e a r c h o n i m m i - g r a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e m e t r o p o l i s , n o . - . v a n c o u v e r : v a n c o u v e r c e n t r e o f e x c e l l e n c e , . p . grant, p e t e r . wish you were here: an album of historical vancouver island postcards. v i c t o r i a : t o u c h w o o d e d i t i o n s , . x. p . g r i y n , b e t t y . their own history: women s contribution to the labour movement of british columbia. n o r t h v a n c o u v e r : u n i t e d f i s h e r m e n a n d a l l i e d w o r k e r s u n i o n s e n i o r s c l u b , . . p . g u r n e y , m i c h e l l e , a n d k a t h y h o w e . hiking yoho, kootenay, glacier, and mt. revelstoke national parks. g u i l f o r d , c o n n . : f a l c o n , . . p . hawker, r o n a l d w i l l i a m . tales of ghosts: first nations art in british columbia, Ç - . v a n c o u v e r : ubc p r e s s , . x. p . h a y e s , d e r e k . historical atlas of canada: canada's history illustrated with original maps. v a n c o u v e r : d o u g l a s & m c i n t y r e , . . p . hlebert, d a n . canadian immigration and the selection-settlement trade-off: exploring immigrant economic participation in british columbia. w o r k i n g p a p e r s e r i e s . v a n c o u v e r c e n t r e o f e x c e l l e n c e : w o r k i n g p a p e r s e r i e s ( v a n c o u v e r c e n t r e o f e x c e l l e n c e . r e s e a r c h o n i m m i g r a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e m e t r o p o l i s ) , n o . - . v a n c o u v e r : v a n c o u v e r c e n t r e o f e x c e l l e n c e , . p . holllhan, t o n y . gold rushes. t h e l e g e n d s s e r i e s . e d m o n t o n , a l t a : f o l k l o r e b o o k s , . ( p b k . ) . p . h o p e , j i m , a n d d o n a l d b a i n . memories of canadian pacific steam power in british columbia. vol. . c a l g a r y : b r i t i s h r a i l w a y m o d e l l e r s o f n o r t h a m e r i c a , [ ] . . p . jacknis, i r a . the storage box of tradition: kwakiutl art, museums, and anthropologists, - . w a s h i n g t o n , d c : s m i t h s o n i a n i n s t i t u t i o n p r e s s , . (alk. p a p e r ) . p . jackson, s t e w a r t m . radiation as a cure for cancer: the history of radiation treatment in british columbia. v a n c o u v e r : b c c a n c e r a g e n c y , . . p . jamieson, p a t r i c k . in the avant garde: the prophetic catholicism of re mi de roo (andpolitics within the catholic church). v i c t o r i a , b c : e k s t a s i s e d i t i o n s , . . p . johnson, p e t e r w i l t o n . voyages of hope: the saga of the bride-ships. v i c t o r i a , b c : t o u c h w o o d e d i t i o n s , . ( p b k ) . p . kalmakov, j o n a t h a n j. census of independent doukhobors: manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta and british columbia. r e g i n a : t h e a u t h o r , . . p . klyooka, roy. all amazed: for roy kiyooka. v a n c o u v e r : a r s e n a l p u l p p r e s s , . . p . k o p a s , cliff. bella coola: a romantic history. r p t . s u r r e y : h e r i t a g e h o u s e , . x ( p b k ) . p . kibiiograptoy koretchuk, patricia. chasing the comet: david caldow's scottish-canadian adventure, a true story; anecdotes, opinions and memories recalled by david caldow. waterloo: wilfrid laurier university press, . . p. langfordjtom, and wayne norton. a world apart: the crowsnest communities of alberta and british columbia. kamloops: plateau press, . . (pbk). p. l e d u c , janet. community mobilizing history: kamloops; evaluation report on the kamloops mobilization. first call spotlight on children and youth campaign. vancouver: first call, . levez, emma. people of the white city: stories from the powell river mill. powell river: norskecanada, powell river division, . . p. lowes, m a r k douglas. indy dreams and urban nightmares: speed merchants, spectacle, and the struggle over public space in the world-class city. toronto: university of toronto press, . (bound); (pbk). p . m a c k i e , richard. the wilderness profound: victorian life on the gulf of georgia. victoria: sono nis press, . . p. m c d o n a l d , l . e . winter fine particulate air quality in cranbrook, british columbia, içyj to iççç. cranbrook : british columbia ministry of water, land and air protection, pollution prevention, kootenay region, . . leaves. m c l a r e n , arlene tigar. "idon't feel quite competent here": immigrant mothers' involvement with schooling. working paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p. m c m a h o n , fred. making health spending work. public policy sources. fraser institute occasional paper, no. . vancouver: fraser institute, . p. m i l l e r , naomi. fort steele: gold rush to boom town. surrey: heritage house, . (pbk). p. murphy, mary ann. british columbia politics and government, Ç - . current issues, no. - . victoria: british columbia legislative library, [ ]. p. neufeld, leonard n . , ed. before we were the land's: yarrow, british columbia: mennonite promise. victoria: touchwood editions, . (pbk). p. neylan, susan. the heavens are changing: nineteenth-century protestant missions and tsimshian christianity. mcgill-queen's native and northern series, . montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen's university press, . . p. papineau, danielle. communities taking action for children and youth. first call spotlight on children and youth campaign. vancouver: first call, . x. p . pratt, géraldine j. between homes: displacement and belonging for second generation filipino-canadian youths. working paper series. research on immigration and integration in the metropolis, no. - . vancouver: vancouver centre of excellence, . p. bc studies ri gaud, thérèse. translating haida poetry: an interview with robert bringhurst. vancouver: douglas & mclntyre, . p. rosenau, marvin l., and m a r k angelo. the role of public groups in protecting and restoring freshwater habitats in british columbia, with a special emphasis on urban streams. vancouver: pacific fisheries resource conservation council, . leaves. rutherdale, myra. women and the white mans god: gender and race in the canadian mission field. vancouver: ubc press, . . p. shadbolt, doris. seven journeys: the sketchbooks of emily carr. vancouver: douglas and mclntyre, . . p. shuswap c h i l d and y o u t h p l a n n i n g advisory. community mobilizing history: salmon arm; evaluation report on the salmon arm mobilization. first call spotlight on children and youth campaign. vancouver: first call, . . p . slebert, m y r t l e . from fjord to floathouse: one family's journey from the farmlands of norway to the coast of british columbia. victoria: trafford, . . p. s m i t h e r s a f f o r d a b l e r e c r e a t i o n c o m m i t t e e . community mobilizing history: smithers; evaluation report on the smithers mobilization. first call spotlight on children and youth campaign. vancouver: first call, . . p. steele, d . history of the union bank of canada and the royal bank of canada in northern british columbia, particularly in prince rupert, port essington, terrace. west vancouver: t h e author, . . p. verma, archana b. the making of little punjab in canada. new delhi: sage publications, . . p. w i l l i a m s lake spotlight on c h i l d r e n and y o u t h c o m m i t t e e . community mobilizing history: williams lake; evaluation report on the williams lake mobilization. first call s p o t l i g h t on c h i l d r e n and youth c a m p a i g n . vancouver: first call, . . p. w o o d , patricia katharine. nationalism from the margins: italians in alberta and british columbia. montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen's university press, . . p. j o u r n a l s a i l l e s , jennifer. "adapting the bard: a virtual guide." canadian theatre review^ no. i n ( ): - . [includes the victoria shakespeare festival and bard on the beach in vancouver]. andreev, monica, and vanessa w i d r i g . "five m o u n t a i n towns." ski canada , no. ( ): - . [includes fernie, nelson and invermere]. a n g u s , charlie. "george wallace in lotus land." high grader magazine , n o . ( ) : . bagshaw, roberta l. "remaking traditions in colonial british columbia: bishop george hills and the society for the propagation of the gospel in bibliography foreign parts, - ." journal of the canadian church historical society , n o . ( ) : - . baker, james, j o h n d . greenough, and leanne m . m a l l o r y - g r e e n o u g h . "preliminary geochemical fingerprinting of dacite lithic artifacts from the british columbia interior plateau." canadian journal of archaeology ( ) : - . "bc presbytery joins anglican and united church leaders in protest over referendum." presbyterian record , no. ( ): . b e n n e t t , jennifer, cindy e. prescott, and ben andrew. "vertical fine root distributions of western red cedar, western hemlock, and salal in o l d - growth c e d a r - h e m l o c k forests on northern vancouver island." canadian journalof* forest research ( ): - . b e n o i t , cecilia, d e n a carroll and alison millar. "but is it good for n o n - urban women's health?: regionalizing maternity care services in british columbia. canadian review of sociology and anthropology ( ): - . bhagat, radhika, joy johnson, sukhdev grewal, preet pandher, elizabeth quong, and kathy triolet. "mobilizing the c o m m u n i t y to address the prenatal health needs of immigrant punjabi women." public health nursing ( ) : - . blnelll, brianne. "reducing roadkills." canadian wildlife , no. ( ): . b i t t l e , steven. " w h e n protection is punishment: neo-liberalism and secure care approaches to youth prostitution." canadian journal of criminology ( ): - . [includes discussion of british columbia]. blacklaws, rick. "fraser river: valley to estuary." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . blier, richard k. "northern sayward forest." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . blomley, nicholas. "mud for the land." public culture ( ): - . [the development of cordova street, vancouver]. branches, fred. "celebrating education: a miserable, cold, and draughty school.'" british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . burn, donald h . , and juraj m . cunderlik. "local and regional trends in m o n t h l y maximum flows in southern british columbia." canadian water resources journal j ( ): - . bycraft, suzanne, wendy m a h , and tara simpson. "caring for the victims of terror: t h e city of richmond's response to september ." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - . campbell, forbes. "community service." muse , no. ( ): - . cariou, kimball. "b.c.'s fight back." canadian dimension , no. ( ): - . chandler, a n n . "trading talk." the beaver , no. ( ): - . [chinook]. chevallier, geneviève. "l'emprinte du chamane: la quête spirituelle dans l'art contemporain des première nations." etudes canadiennes/canadian studies, n o . ( ): - . "church coalition condemns b c referendum." canadian mennonite , no. ( ) : . bc studies " c o a l h a r b o u r c o m m u n i t y c e n t r e a n d p a r k . " parks and recreation canada , n o . ( ): - . croy, o w e n . " g e t m e s s y ! " parks and recreation canada , n o . ( ) : - . [ s a p p e r t o n l a n d i n g r e g i o n a l p a r t i n n e w w e s t m i n s t e r , b c ] currle, c h r i s t i n e d . " w h e n t h e f l o w e r s t a l k e d . " british columbia historical news , n o . ( ) : - . [ a n e a r l y s p r i n g m o r n i n g c h a t , b y e d i t h l o u i s a h e l m c k e n h i g g i n s ] . c u r r y , j o h n . " f o r e s t r e n e w a l b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a : a n e x p e r i m e n t i n t h e r e c y c l i n g o f r e v e n u e - r a i s i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l t a x a t i o n . " journal of environmental planning and management ( ) : - . d a c k s , g u r s t o n . " b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a a f t e r t h e d e l g a m u u k w d e c i s i o n : l a n d c l a i m s a n d o t h e r p r o c e s s e s . " canadian public policy ( ) : - . d a v i e s , m e g a n j. " r e n o v a t i n g t h e c a n a d i a n o l d a g e h o m e : t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r e s i d e n t i a l c a r e f a c i l i t i e s i n b . c . , - ." journal of the canadian historical association, n . s . ( ): - . d o n a l d s o n , s v e n . " a r o u n d t h e b r o u g h t o n s . " pacific yachting , n o . ( ) : - . . " h i g h e r g r o u n d . " pacific yachting , n o . ( ) : . . "a n a u t i c a l l o v e - i n . " pacific yachting , n o . ( ) : . [ t a l l s h i p s f e s t i v a l ] . d u r n i n g , t o m . " i n n o v a t i v e h o u s i n g p r o j e c t b r i n g s g r o u p s t o g e t h e r . " canadian housing , n o . ( ) : . d y s o n , l e s l i e . " c a n a d a ' s c o m m i s s i o n a i r e s : p r o u d of o u r p a s t , p r o t e c t i n g o u r f u t u r e . " esprit de corps , n o . ( ) : - . edwards, r a c h e l . " u n r a v e l l i n g t h e p a s t . " british columbia historical news , n o . ( ) : - . [ a h i s t o r y o f t h e c h u r c h l i n e n s o f s t . j o h n t h e d i v i n e , yale, a n d t h e e m b r o i d e r e r s o f a l l h a l l o w s s c h o o l ] . e f r o n , s a r a h . " b a t h o t e l s . " canadian geographic , n o . ( ) : . . " i v a n e . c o y o t e : w r i t e r a n d m u s i c i a n , v a n c o u v e r , b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . " shift , n o . ( ) : . elchler, l e a h . " a r s e n a l p u l p l o o k s t o u s . " publishers weekly , n o . ( ) : . flcken, r o b e r t e . " t h e f r a s e r r i v e r h u m b u g : a m e r i c a n s a n d g o l d i n t h e b r i t i s h pacific n o r t h w e s t . " western historical quarterly ( ) : - . fleguth, d e b r a . " m e m o r i e s a n d h o p e . " indian life , n o . ( ) : . flndlay, a n d r e w . " g r i z z l y bear h u n t . " wildlife conservation , n o . ( ): . f l i c k , s t e v e n , a n d e r i c h a r r i s . "pacific w r e c k s . " canadian geographic , n o . ( ) : - . f o u r n e l , t h o m a s . " n o u v e a u x m o d è l e s r é s i d e n t i e l s et c u l t u r e l s des i m m i g r a n t s e n a m é r i q u e d u n o r d : l ' e x e m p l e d e s h o n g k o n g a i s à v a n c o u v e r . " etudes canadiennes / canadian studies, n o . ( ): - . f u n k , j o h a n n , a n d r u t h k a m p e n . " u r b a n b y d e f a u l t : m e n n o n i t e s in t h e l o w e r m a i n l a n d o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . " journal of 'mennonite studies ( ) : - . bibliography geary, vanessa. "cuts to housing will h u r t residents of british columbia." canadian housing , no. ( ): . gibson, gordon. "a short history of ec's native land claims." fraser forum (june ): - . g l e g g , alastair. "schools in the city: t h e effects of increasing urbanisation on education in victoria, british columbia, - ." journal of 'educational administration and history , no. ( ): - . goldberg, kim. "electoral reform gains ground in bc." canadian dimension , no. ( ): . . "media democracy day." canadian dimension , no. ( ): . grady, wayne. "requiem for a rare bird." explore', no. ( ): - . [vancouver's crested mynahs]. g r e e n e , nancy, and doug sack. "should whistler w a n t the olympics?: nancy greene raine vs. j. douglas sack." ski canada , no. ( ): - . gregory, robin, and lee failing. "using decision analysis to encourage sound deliberation: water use planning in british columbia, canada." journal of policy analysis and management ( ): - . guardado, m a r t i n . "loss and maintenance of first language skills: case studies of hispanic families in vancouver. " canadian modern language review ( ): - . gustafson, paula. "west coast sculpture." espace, no. ( ): . h a r b o r d , heather. "in the wake of espinosa and cevallos." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . hawkshaw, heather. " o t i s s : okanagan t h o m p s o n international sculpture symposium." espace, no. ( ): - . hawthorn, tom. "overloading lotus land." canadian geographic , no. ( ): . [georgia basin-puget sound ecosystem indicators report] h e r n a n d e z - g a r d u n o , e d u a r d o , d e n n i s k u n i m o t o , lei w a n g , m a b e l rodrigues, r. kevin elwood, william black, sunny mak, and j. m a r k fitzgerald. "predictors of clustering of tuberculosis in greater vancouver: a molecular epidemiologic study." cmaj: canadian medical association journal' , no. ( ): - . h e w e t t , shirley. "celebration of sails." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . [tall ships festival in richmond]. . "rose of sharon and the secret of boat harbour." pacific yachting , no. ( ): insert - . hlckln, e. j., and c. l. wooldridge. "step-pool and cascade morphology, mosquito creek, british columbia: a test of four analytic techniques." canadian journal of earth sciences^ ( ): - . hlggs, matthew. "steven shearer."artforum international , no. ( ): - - h o n g , john j. "gold m o u n t a i n guest: a director's diary." canadian theatre review, no. n o ( ): - . i o bc studies hortopan, karen. "seal : nurturing harbour seals back to health takes lots of love, bathtubs, travel miles and tons of frozen herring." wild , no. ( ): - . hrynyshyn, james. "city of dreams. "new scientist , no. ( ): - . [measures to control motor vehicle use in vancouver]. huebert, joy. "bridging the digital divide in public libraries." féliciter ( ): . [castlegar district public library]. ikonomou, michael g., marc p. fernandez, wayne knapp, and paula sather. "pcbs in dungeness crab reflect distinct source fingerprints a m o n g harbor/industrial sites in british columbia." environmental science and technology ( ): - . ingles, ernie, and heather ganshom. "alert bay public library and museum." féliciter ( ): - . i n g s , simon. "kayak to the stars." new scientist , no. ( ): - . iredale, jennifer. "beauty, spirituality, and practicality." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . [women and art in colonial british columbia] jessup, lynda. "moving pictures and costume songs at the 'exhibition of canadian west coast art, native and modern.'" canadian journal of film studies , no. ( ): - " k a i r o s calls on b c g o v e r n m e n t to a b a n d o n referendum decision." presbyterian record , no. ( ): . kavanagh, rosemary. "the erosion of equitable library services for print- disabled canadians." féliciter ( ): - . k e e l i n g , a r n . " a dynamic, n o t a static conception': t h e conservation t h o u g h t of roderick haig-brown." pacific historical review ( ): - . kldd, gerry. "yachts, cats and proper luxury." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . k i n g , david. "issues of the night t i m e . " canadian theatre review, no. ( ): - . kinley, trevor a., clayton d . a p p s , and n a n c y j. n e w h o u s e . " h a b i t a t associations of american badgers in southeastern british columbia." canadian journal of zoology ( ): - . klshchuk, barbara e . , and r o b e r t p. brockley. "sulfur availability on lodgepole pine sites in british columbia." soil science society of america journal ( ): - . klinka, k., h . y. chen, x. l. wang, and l. d e montigny. "root structure of western hemlock and western redcedar in single- and mixed-species stands." canadian journal of forest research ( ): - . k o n g , sook c. "creating community." herizons , no. ( ): - . laverty, w . h . , m . j. miket, and i. w . kelly. "examination of residuals to vancouver crisis call data by using h i d d e n markov models." perceptual and motor skills ( ): - . bibliography l e e , phillip. "the economic and social justification for publicly financed stadia: t h e case of vancouver's bc place stadium." european planning studies ( ): - . l e n e r t , m i c h a e l . "calibrated radiocarbon d a t e s and culture c h a n g e : implications for socio-complexity in the m i d - f r a s e r region, british columbia." northwest anthropological research notes ( ): - . leonov, cyril e . "'silver king m i k e ' of the west kootenay, british columbia, - ." western states jewish history ( ): - . . "vancouver, canada and its outlying jewish communities, - , part ." western states jewish history ( ): - . l e p i n e , ayla. "the st. ann's academy art studio." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . louden, christine. "mixed-media adventure." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . l o w e r y , t i n a . " t h e needle a r t of kathleen o'reilly." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . makaske, bart, derald g. smith, and h e n k j. a. berendsen. "avulsions, channel evolution and floodplain sedimentation rates of the anastomosing upper columbia river, british columbia, canada." sedimentology ( ): - . m a n e s s , t h o m a s c , and scott e . n o r t o n . "multiple period c o m b i n e d o p t i m i z a t i o n a p p r o a c h to forest production planning." scandinavian journal of forest research ( ): - . marchand, hélène. "culture nord-americanie et parcs nationaux: l'exemple de la réserve de parc national de gwaii haanas (colombie-britainnique, canada). etudes canadiennes/ canadian studies, no. ( ): - . m a r s h a l l , amanda l. "culturally modified trees of the nechako plateau." the midden , no. ( ): - . matheson, cathy. "playcard: a loyalty reward program designed for the leisure industry." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - . [north vancouver recreation commission program], [also in french as "la carte tlaycard'" on page of the same publication]. mccallum, jim. "historic otter valley." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . m c c l i n t o c k , jack. "developer of a practical hydrogen fuel cell." discover , no. ( ): - . [geoffrey ballard]. m c g e a c h i e , pixie. "restoration of interurban car on track." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . m e n z i e s , charles r., and caroline f. butler. "working in the woods: tsimshian resource workers and the forest industry of british columbia." american indian quarterly ( ): - . m i l l e r , t h e r o n a. "using video surveys to access dispersed backcountry visitors' norms." leisure sciences ( ): - . "mission creek greenway." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): . [mission creek in kelowna]. i Ô bc s t u d i e s m m e , wayne, and j o h n greschner. "alcohol's role in the deaths of b c children and youth." canadian journal of public health , no. ( ): - . m o n t g o m e r y , charles. "storm coast." canadian geographic , no. ( ): - m o o r e , christopher. "revisiting bennett's british columbia." the beaver , n o . ( ) : m o r r i s , philip, and gail fondahl. "negotiating the production of space in tl'azt'en territory, northern british columbia." canadian geographer , n o . ( ) : - . morriss, margaret. " 'no short cuts': t h e evolution of t h e double hook." canadian literature, no, ( ): - . "museum of anthropology gets $ . m grant for first nations project." muse , no. ( ): . naylor, charlie, and anne c. schaefer. "teacher workload and stress: a british columbia perspective." education quarterly review , no. ( ): - . n e l s o n , ron. "new kid in the kootenay." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . nichols, wendy. "pretty in pink." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . [goodie mckenzie's ballgown] n o r w i c h , m a r n i . "a thousand cuts and still kicking." herizons , no. ( ) : - . o ' n e i l , barbara. "bc treaty referendum asks voters to extinguish first nations rights." outlook , no. ( ): - . o b e e , b r u c e . " p a i n e d k i l l e r s : i n c r e a s i n g b o a t traffic and c h e m i c a l contaminants are wreaking havoc on canada's pacific orca populations." canadian wildlife , no. ( ): - . o s b o r n e , s t e p h e n . " v o l u n t a r y and n o n - p r o f i t o r g a n i s a t i o n s and t h e development of public services for local communities in canada: a n exploratory case study." british journalof'canadian studies , no. ( ): - . [british columbia case study] p i k e , kevin, and josie chuback. "beyond boundaries: w i t h i n limits." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - . [west vancouver m o u n t a i n risks and safety program]. pontier, bernard. "la controverse de nootka ou le triomphe de la g r a n d e - bretagne." etudes canadiennes/ canadian studies, no. ( ): - . priest, alicia. "nursing in rural and remote bc." nursing bc , no. ( ): - . pringle, heather. "out of the ice: w h o was the ancient traveller discovered in an alpine glacier?" canadian geographic , no. ( ): - . [kwaday d a n ts'inchi, st elias mountains] prokop, carol. "art a m o n g o u r shelves." artichoke; writings about the visual arts , no. ( ): - . p u n t e r , j o h n . "urban d e s i g n as public policy: e v a l u a t i n g t h e d e s i g n dimension of vancouver's planning system." international planning studies ( ) : - . bibliography r a m o s , peter. "peter ramos: t h e west coast." artichoke: writings about the visual arts , no. ( ): - . "referendum stirs b c passions." united church observer , no. ( ): . r e i d , barry. "garnet fire in penticton: t h e role of parks and recreation in dealing w i t h emergencies." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - - remick, jerry. "bathtub race on nanaimo token." canadian coin news , no. ( ): . . "prince george, b c , issues wooden token." canadian coin news , no. ( ): . rhyms, deena. "but the shadow of h e r story: narrative unsettlement, self- inscription, and translation in pauline johnson's legends of vancouver." studies in american indian literatures , no. ( ): - . r o b e r t s - m o o r e , judith. "establishing recognition of past injustices: uses of archival records in documenting the experience of japanese canadians d u r i n g the second world war." archivaria, no. ( ): - . [national archives of canada held records relating to the internment of japanese canadians]. robertson, ian. "famous fishing boat retires: vessel t h a t graced our $ is now a museum exhibit." canadian coin news , no. ( ): , . [bc packers ]. robinson, m a t t , paul j. umhoefer, and paul schiarizza. "relay m o u n t a i n group, tyaughton-methow basin, southwest british columbia: a major middle jurassic to early cretaceous terrane overlap assemblage." canadian journal of earth sciences ( ): - . ross, g. m., p. s. simony, and l. f. reid. "dextral strike-slip faulting in the cariboo m o u n t a i n s , british columbia: a n a t u r a l example of w r e n c h tectonics in relation to cordillerantechtonics." canadian journal of earth sciences ( ): - . r o t h , c h r i s t o p h e r f. " w i t h o u t treaty, w i t h o u t c o n q u e s t : i n d i g e n o u s sovereignty in post-delgamuukw british columbia." wicazo sa review ( ): - . r o y - s o l e , monique. "fruits of labour." canadian geographic , no. ( ): . [indian immigrants working on blueberry farm in pitt meadows]. salazar, debra j., and donald k. alper. "reconciling environmentalism and the left: perspectives on democracy and social justice in british columbia's environmental movement." canadian journal of political science ( ): - . salton, jeff. "goldeneyes." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . scheel, david. "characteristics of habitats used by enteroctopus dofleini in prince william sound and cook inlet, alaska." marine ecology , no. ( ): - . scott, marianne. "a g r a n d cruise to malaspina strait." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . iÔ bc studies . "explorer of the h o t , dark sea." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . [verenatunnicliffe, marine scientist]. shea, tusa. "beyond recollection: t h e early art education of emily carr." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . sllk, natasha. "yale's ecclesiastical textiles." british columbia historical news , no. (fall ): - . solomon, christopher. "baldface lodge, b c . " skiing , no. ( ): . sorenson, jean. "cutting bc's legal aid system in h a l f " canadian lawyer , no. ( ): - . spurgeon, terry. "a critical look at the history, ethnography, and linguistics of wapato." the midden , no. ( ): - . stacey, m . w . , r. pieters, and s. pond. " t h e simulation of deep water exchange in a fjord: indian arm, british columbia, canada." journal of physical oceanography ( ): - . stajduhar, kelli i., elizabeth lindsey, and liza mcguinness. " a qualitative evaluation of an hiv/aids respite care service in victoria, canada." evaluation and the health professions ( ): - . stein, a. "the b c government's 'referendum on treaty principles.'" outlook , no ( ): . stevenson, m a r i a . " e d i t h helmcken's h a n d - p a i n t e d ceramics." british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - n . "surrey sport and leisure complex, surrey, british columbia. " parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - . taylor, rikki. "chinook paradise." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . [rivers inlet]. t h o m s o n , gerald e. "'not an attempt to coddle children': dr. charles hegler g u n d r y and the mental hygiene division of the vancouver school board, - ." historical studies in education ( ): - . tindall, david. "social networks, identification and participation in an environmental movement: low-medium cost activism w i t h i n the british columbia wilderness preservation movement. canadian review of sociology andanthropology ( ): - . v a n evra, jennifer. "scratching the surface: t h e east kootenay badger." canadian wildlife , no. ( ): - . veenstra, gerry. "income inequality and health: coastal communities in british columbia, canada." canadian journal of public health ( ): - . vipond, anne. "clam bay, kuper island." pacific yachting , no. ( ): . . "collison bay, south moresby." pacific yachting , no. ( ): . . "cormorant channel." pacific yachting , no. ( ): . . "kent island, walker group." pacific yachting , no. ( ): . . "north beach, calvert island." pacific yachting , no. ( ): . vipond, anne, and william kelly. "bc's inside passage, a storied coastline, part : t h e prehistoric coast." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . jj tut tuy f uufjy j. yj > . "bc's inside passage, a storied coastline, part : t h e discovered coast. "pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . . "bc's inside passage, a storied coastline, part : t h e working coast:" pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . . "bc's inside passage, a storied coastline, part : t h e recreational coast." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . walton, liberty. "how shall i frame myself?" british columbia historical news , no. ( ): - . [photographs of charlotte kathleen o'reilly] watts, allan. "directing red mango: a blues conversation with john cooper." canadian theatre review, no. ( ): - . w e i , david y. "southwest experience." bc outdoors , no. ( ): - . wickwire, wendy. " t h e grizzly gave t h e m the song: james teit and franz boas interpret twin ritual in aboriginal british columbia, - ." american indian quarterly ( ): - . wlederlck, wendy. "you've come a l o n g way baby." parks and recreation canada , no. ( ): - . [coquitlam's gender equity special program]. [also in french as "des changements pour le meilleur" on pages - of the same publication] w o i t , leslie. "fernie's journey." ski canada , no. ( ): - . w o n g , lloyd l., and michèle ng. "the emergence of small transnational enterprise in vancouver: t h e case of chinese entrepreneur immigrants." international journal of urban and regional research ( ): - . w o o d , david, george astrakianakis, barbara lang, le n h u , and joel bert. "development of an agricultural job-exposure matrix for british columbia, canada."journal ofoccupationaland environmentalmedicine ( ): - - y e a d o n - j o n e s , anne, and laurence yeadon-jones. "steveston village." pacific yachting , no. ( ): - . z e g l e n , stefan. " w h i t e b a r k pine and w h i t e pine blister rust in british columbia, canada." canadian journal of'forest research ( ): - . z e n a i t i s , michael g., and sheldon j. b. duff. "ozone for removal of acute toxicity from logyard run-off." ozone: science and engineering , no. ( ) : - . z e p p e l , heather. "cultural tourism at the cowichan native village, british columbia." journal of travel research , no. ( ): - . zeyher, allen. "bc looks to tolls for olympic and o t h e r road funding." roads and bridges , no. ( ): - . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the optimal level of strictness and congregational growth religions , , – ; doi: . /rel religions issn - www.mdpi.com/journal/religions article the optimal level of strictness and congregational growth todd w. ferguson department of sociology, baylor university, one bear place # , waco, tx - , usa; e-mail: todd_ferguson@baylor.edu; tel.: + - - - received: june ; in revised form: july / accepted: july / published: august abstract: beginning with kelley’s and iannaccone’s foundational studies, scholars have examined how strictness impacts congregational outcomes. this paper seeks to further develop the strict church thesis by examining iannaccone’s concept of “optimal level of strictness”, an idea that there are limits to strictness. using stark and finke’s theoretical framework of religious niches and data from the baylor religion survey and the faith communities today survey, i find that only prohibitions that are in line with a congregation’s religious niche have an impact on growth. to be beneficial, prohibitions must match the pool of potential members’ preferences. keywords: strict church thesis; congregational growth; niches; religious organizations; protestant christianity; quantitative methodology . introduction in the s and early s liberal and moderate protestants were struggling to find a reason why their churches were declining in numbers. for much of the history of the united states, presbyterians, methodists, episcopalians, and congregationalists were at the center of american religious life. yet, in the mid-twentieth century, these denominations found their churches losing members and losing prominence. at the same time, churches in conservative denominations, such as the church of the nazarene, the southern baptist convention, and the assemblies of god, were growing both in number and in their percentages of the total population. to help understand this change, dean kelley, a researcher with the national council of churches, proposed the strict church thesis. going against the predominant assumption that modern individuals would gravitate toward an open-minded and tolerant religion, kelley put forward the opposite. strict congregations—those with more rules and more open access religions , exclusive claims—are stronger because they are better than the more lenient churches at offering meaning for their members [ ]. laurence iannaccone [ ] furthered kelley’s theory by incorporating economic mechanisms to kelley’s cultural argument. he defines strictness as “the degree to which a group limits and thereby increases the cost of nongroup activities” ([ ], p. , emphasis in original). religious groups vary in the ways they create strictness, and this diversity can be seen in how seventh day adventists avoid eating meat, orthodox jews wear side curls and yarmulkes, and jehovah’s witnesses reject blood transfusions. iannaccone suggested the reason why strict congregations are strong is because they reduce the problem of free-riders. religion can be viewed as a commodity that is produced with others in community. the satisfaction an individual derives from religious practice depends on the quality that others produce. free-riders are those who do not add anything to the collective religious product but nevertheless reap its benefits. free-riders, therefore, lower the benefits-per-individual in the congregation. strict congregations reduce free-riders because they raise the cost of participation. these churches “penalize or prohibit alternative activities that compete for members’ resources” ([ ], p. , emphasis in original). these prohibitions serve as entry fees for participation and screen out members who might not fully add to the collective religious product. consequently, strict congregations have fewer free-riders, have higher benefits-per-individual, and experience more congregational strength. although kelley’s [ ] original book was titled “why conservative churches are growing”, neither kelley nor iannaccone [ ] focused on congregational growth. growth was only a by-product of strength. yet further research has shown that strictness and congregational growth are indeed linked. iannaccone, olson, and stark [ ] use the theoretical framework of resource mobilization to understand the connection between strictness and growth. religious congregations can grow only if they have a surplus of resources, specifically time and money. strict congregations are better able to have surpluses of time because they restrict their members from engaging in alternative activities [ ]. these members are more likely to focus on congregational activities because they have few other options. similarly, these congregations often limit where members can spend money, and so there is more likely to be a surplus of financial resources. strict congregations are better able to accumulate surpluses of time and money and therefore are more likely to grow. thomas and olson [ ] confirm this finding that, even when accounting for fertility, congregational strictness significantly and positively affects growth. yet are there circumstances where strictness and congregational outcomes are not linked together? kelley proposed that there are no limits to strictness; he states, “strong organizations are strict…the stricter the stronger” ([ ], p. ). yet iannaccone disagrees. strictness “displays diminishing returns” ([ ], p. ). there is a point in which an increased level of strictness will not see an accompanying level of either strength or growth. this is the “optimal level of strictness”, which is based upon the characteristics of the congregants ([ ], p. ). going beyond the optimal level of strictness means that religious groups may build strictness around behaviors or attitudes that do not match the congregants’ preferences. congregants perceive these prohibitions as excessive, which inhibits growth. therefore, strictness must be at its optimal level in order to affect congregational growth. this paper seeks to further the strict church research by examining the optimal level of strictness for congregations. i use the theoretical framework of niches to understand when the diminishing returns of strictness occur. religions , . religious niches the optimal level of strictness corresponds to the preferences of the individuals within congregations. individual members are the most important resource for religious organizations [ – ], and they vary in their demand for religious goods and services, or their preferences [ , ]. some prefer very strict religious organizations, while others lean toward more liberal congregations. thus, individuals may be grouped into theoretical categories, or religious niches, based on their preferences for strictness. a religious niche is the “market segment of potential adherents sharing particular religious preferences (needs, tastes, and expectations)” ([ ], p. ). figure shows stark and finke’s [ ] conceptualization of religious niches based on individual preferences for strictness. a major assumption is that these niches are stable over time because the demand for various levels of religious strictness is constant within the population ([ ], p. ). as shown in figure , this assumed distribution of preferences may be thought of as a normal curve, with most of the population desiring some level of strictness that is neither too lenient nor too severe. this does not imply that individual preferences are nonmalleable. individual preferences are culturally shaped and therefore, changeable. however, at the aggregate, preferences are assumed to follow a normal distribution. congregations and their denominations form around these niche categories to serve the religious demand [ ]. thus, they compete for resources, i.e., members [ , , , ]. it would seem to follow that if a congregation’s level of strictness does not match the individuals’ preferences within a given niche, the congregation would necessarily recruit members from another niche. yet the nature of congregations complicates this view. congregations are more nuanced than aggregations of individuals that compete for potential resources [ ]. they are “instantiations of larger institutions” ([ ], p. ). they are carriers of denominational culture, which shapes a congregation’s level of strictness. denominations are associated with certain levels of strictness, even though they exhibit considerable amount of internal diversity within themselves [ , , ]. these denominational assumptions of strictness are, in turn, ascribed to the congregations. even non-denominational congregations that do not formally connect with a group are still subject to prevailing expectations associated with larger religious traditions, most notably conservative protestantism. thus, congregations are not entirely free to respond to the religious marketplace’s demands from individuals. many are constrained by their denominational culture and its assumed level of strictness. religious traditions are a useful way to represent niches within the american landscape. these are broader groupings of denominations that have similar beliefs, practices, and histories [ – ]. their constituents have similar preferences in matters of strictness [ ]. though the division is contested, i follow roof and mckinney [ ] to categorize religious groups into eight religious traditions in the united states: catholics, jews, conservative protestants, moderate protestants, liberal protestants, individual members are the constituent resource for religious organizations because they not only are the suppliers of time and money that influence congregational growth [ ], but they also impact ritual density, an important factor in sustaining religious communities [ , ]. this is a slightly different understanding of niche than popielarz and neal ([ ], p. ), which they say is “the set of environmental states in which [a species] needs to survive.” in this present study, niches are built around individual preferences, following stark and finke [ ]. the definitions are most similar at the organizational level, since members, which are organized around preferences, are considered the resources necessary for congregational survival. religions , black protestants, other religious groups, and “nones” (those without religious affiliation) but see [ , ]. while religious traditions are not entirely coterminous with niches in the american landscape, this categorization of religious groups as representing niches is useful and easily accessible. figure . religious niches. source: stark and finke [ ]. © by the regents of the university of california. obtained by permission. the first two traditions are eponymous, as these groups consist of all catholic and jewish groups. protestants fall into four groups. the conservative protestant tradition is comprised of groups that are more sect-like, which emphasize biblical authority, missionary activity, and individual conversion [ , , ]. the liberal protestant tradition focuses more on “an accommodating stance toward modernity, a proactive view on issues of social and economic justice, and pluralism in their tolerance of varied individual beliefs” ([ ], pp. – ). moderate protestants fall in between these two, as these denominations have congregations that lean toward both of these categories [ ]. black protestants are the groups that have been shaped by the african-american experience [ ]. “other religious groups” consist of jehovah’s witnesses, latter-day saints (mormons), buddhists, hindus, and muslims. religious “nones” are a growing category which scholars see as an emerging, distinct group [ – ]. . religious niches and congregational growth in order for a congregation to grow, it must gain new members. potential members are most likely to come from within the congregation’s religious niche and not from another niche. this is because people are less likely to move out of their current religious tradition and join a congregation in another [ ]. most people join religious congregations that are very similar to their previous one or match their desired level of preference [ ]. there is a “homophily of preferences”, and so individuals retain as much religious capital as they can by choosing a new congregation ([ ], p. ). a move to religions , another religious niche would cost too much religious capital, and so individuals usually stay within congregations that are similar in strictness. as a result, the pool from which congregations draw potential members is most likely the congregation’s very own religious niche. therefore, it is possible that a congregation’s level of strictness could be suboptimal if it is disconnected from its own religious niche. that is, there could be a mismatch between potential members’ preferences for strictness and the congregation’s own practices. when a congregation’s level of strictness is outside the preferences of potential members, then growth is less likely to occur because the congregation is less likely to be attractive within its religious niche. based on this, i offer the following hypothesis: strictness increases the likelihood of congregational growth when it is in line with the preferences of the individuals within the congregation’s niche. . testing the hypothesis the relationship between strictness and congregational growth is contingent upon the preferences of those within a religious niche. in order to test this hypothesis, i follow a two-step process. first, i ascertain how people within religious traditions vary in their preferences on an issue of strictness. in essence, i am mapping the contours of religious niches for a specific issue of strictness. second, i test to see if these preferences affect the relationship between strictness and congregational growth. for this present study, i examine three religious traditions within american protestantism (conservative, moderate, and liberal protestants) and their preferences regarding two historically important issues: alcohol and premarital sex. protestants do not hold a single view on these two subjects. their preferences vary, which create distinct religious niches indicating different levels of desired strictness. this offers a useful basis to test the relationship between religious niches and strictness. . religious niches for alcohol and premarital sex following the end of the civil war, many protestants, especially methodists and baptists, turned their attentions to reforming the misuse of alcohol [ ]. they created temperance movements across the country and succeeded in pushing for the eighteenth amendment to the constitution which prohibited alcohol in the united states. although the twenty-first amendment overturned the eighteenth, the trajectory initiated by the temperance movement still remains in much of american protestant life. protestant religious beliefs about alcohol are changing, but there continues to be a wide variation within these beliefs. some protestants consider all alcohol use to be wrong, although others do not think drinking alcohol is an issue [ ]. in order to examine strictness preferences within religious niches, i use the baylor religion survey (brs), which is a useful data set to determine how individuals view alcohol. this survey is a national random sample of individuals in the contiguous united states which the gallup organization administered using a mixed-mode method in october and november . bader, mencken, and froese [ ] outline the full methodological information. others have used this survey successfully to understand how various religious groups differ in their views of moral issues [ ]. for this study, i examine whether individuals within a religious tradition have significantly different preferences about an issue when compared with those without a religious tradition. this allows me to religions , estimate the boundaries of the religious niche in terms of a single issue of strictness. others have used a similar method with national surveys of individuals to outline religious niches [ ]. figure shows how americans in three protestant traditions—liberal, moderate, and conservative —compare with americans with no religious affiliation when answering the following question on the brs: “how do you feel about the consumption of alcohol?” individuals could respond ( ) always wrong, ( ) almost always wrong, ( ) only wrong sometimes, and ( ) not wrong at all. following conventional niche measurements, the mean responses plus or minus . standard deviation are displayed [ , ]. although the responses for each religious tradition show both diversity within and niche overlap between traditions, a post-hoc analysis of an anova test using scheffé’s method reveals that conservative and moderate protestants hold significantly different views than individuals without religious affiliation on alcohol consumption, thus indicating different religious niches. stated differently, the potential members for conservative and moderate protestant churches are located within religious niches that desire some level of strictness surrounding alcohol. liberal protestants, however, are not significantly different than those without religious affiliation, indicating that those within this religious tradition do not prefer strictness on this issue. they are located within a religious niche for which alcohol is not an issue. premarital sex is also another relevant issue for american protestants. traditional christian teaching has placed sexual activity within the confines of heterosexual marriage. however these boundaries have been challenged beginning in the late s with the sexual revolution. figure shows how individuals without religious affiliation and protestants from liberal, moderate, and conservative denominations answered the following question from the baylor religion survey: “how do you feel about sexual relations before marriage?” figure shows the ordering of the groups’ beliefs about premarital sex is the same as alcohol. the average responses for people without religious affiliation and liberal protestants are lower than moderate protestants, who in turn, are lower than conservative protestants. the difference between beliefs about alcohol and premarital sex, however, is that all three religious groups—liberal, moderate, and conservative protestants—are significantly more likely to classify premarital sex as wrong, than those without religious affiliation. therefore, each tradition is within a religious niche that prefers some strictness surrounding the issue of premarital sex. to summarize the first step for testing the hypothesis, individuals within all three protestant traditions have preferences for strictness surrounding premarital sex when compared to those without a religious affiliation. they are within religious niches that prefer strictness for premarital sex. on the other hand, only moderate and conservative protestants have distinct preferences for strictness i created religious tradition categories to match the religious traditions in the faith communities today (fact) survey, which will be used in the analysis below [ ]. for brs data, liberal protestants (n = ) are congregational, episcopal/anglican, presbyterian, unitarian universalists, and united church of christ. moderate protestants (n = ) are: american baptists, disciples of christ, evangelical lutheran church of america, mennonite, united methodist, and reformed church of america/dutch reformed. conservative protestants (n = ) are assemblies of god, southern baptist, christian reformed, church of christ, church of the nazarene, seventh-day adventist, and non-denominational christian. there are respondents without religious affiliation. i had to omit black protestants from analysis because fact data did not contain the necessary variables for this religious tradition. religions , surrounding the issue of alcohol. thus, those within the religious niche for liberal protestants do not desire strictness for this issue. figure . individual views on the consumption of alcohol (means of responses ± . standard deviation). all differences are significant at the . level except no affiliation— liberal protestants and liberal protestants—moderate protestants. source: baylor religion survey, . figure . individual views on premarital sex (means of responses ± . standard deviation). all differences are significant at the . level. source: baylor religion survey, . no affiliation liberal protestants moderate protestants conservative protestants n o t w ro n g a t a ll a lw ay s w ro n g no affiliation liberal protestants moderate protestants conservative protestants n o t w ro n g a t a ll a lw ay s w ro n g religions , . testing optimal strictness the next step in testing my hypothesis is to see if there is an optimal level of strictness for congregations and growth. in other words, my goal is to see if the relationship between strictness and growth continues in circumstances when the religious preferences of a congregation’s potential members (its religious niche) do not line up with congregational practices. to do this, i use the faith communities today (fact) survey from , which i obtained from the association of religion data archives [ ]. coordinated by the hartford institute for religion research, this survey is the largest study ever conducted on congregations in the united states [ ]. fact data represent denominations and faith groups. each faith group’s survey included core questions on six areas of congregational life and structure: worship, location, programs, leadership, participants, and finances. an informed respondent, usually the senior clergy person, filled out the survey. the survey response rate for the denominations averaged just over percent. a total of , congregations completed surveys. fact divides religious congregations into six categories similar to roof and mckinney’s [ ] categories: liberal protestant, moderate protestant, conservative protestant, historically black, catholic/orthodox and other. because of the limited nature of the congregational discourses used to create measures of strictness (discussed below), i remove the catholic/orthodox and other categories from the sample. furthermore, the survey instrument for historically black protestant congregations unfortunately did not contain many of this study’s variables. therefore, i restrict my analysis to liberal, moderate, and conservative protestants. liberal protestants are episcopal church usa, presbyterian church usa, unitarian-universalist, and the united church of christ. there are liberal protestant responses. moderate protestants are american baptist churches, disciples of christ, evangelical lutheran church in american, mennonite, reformed church in america, and the united methodist church. there are moderate protestant congregations in the study. conservative protestants are assemblies of god, christian reformed church, church of the nazarene, churches of christ, independent christian churches (instrumental), mega-churches, nondenominational protestant, seventh-day adventist, and the southern baptist convention. there are conservative protestant responses. the fact public data file from the association of data religion archives did not include a denomination variable. therefore, i am forced to use categories described above. fact data are useful to test my hypothesis. first, these data are from a very broad sample. while not all faith groups in the u.s. participated, most of the largest denominations are included. because of this breadth, fact represents % of all u.s. congregations [ ]. second, fact is a survey of some depth. each congregation reported on church growth, how much they address social issues, how active they are at outreach, and the demographics of the congregants. in addition to the congregational questions, fact includes united states census data at the zip code level for , , and . this allows me to control for the surrounding ecological influences for each congregation that might influence growth, such as a growing community population. third, this analysis requires a high number of responses from liberal protestant congregations who have either anti-alcohol or anti-sex discourses, which is not possible with the other national congregational surveys, such as the national congregations study and the u.s. congregational life survey. religions , . . dependent variable: congregational growth to measure congregational growth, fact asked each congregation, “since , has the number of regularly participating adults: decreased % or more; decreased % to %; stayed about the same (plus or minus %); increased % to %; increased % or more?” i create a binary church growth variable for ( ) congregational growth of % or more and ( ) congregational stability or decline. the appendix shows the descriptive statistics for each variable. . . independent variable: congregational discourse on alcohol use and premarital sex congregational strictness is measured by the level of discourse surrounding alcohol use and premarital sex within a church. the fact survey asked, “how much does your congregation, in its worship and education, emphasize the following home and personal practices?” practices included personal prayer, family devotions, fasting, observing a special diet, abstaining from alcohol, observing a weekly holy day, displaying icons, and abstaining from premarital sex. i focus on abstaining from alcohol and premarital sex because of their relevance to american protestants. each congregation could respond “not at all”, “a little”, “some”, quite a bit”, or “a great deal”. tables and show how congregations in each protestant tradition responded. the distributions of anti-alcohol and premarital sex discourses within congregations mirror the individual responses to these prohibitions. conservative protestant churches are the most likely to actively emphasize anti-alcohol and premarital sex messages. liberal protestant churches are the least likely. table . congregational discourse on abstaining from alcohol. amount % n % n % n not at all or a little . . . some . . . quite a bit or a great deal . . . total liberal protestant moderate protestant conservative protestant source: faith communities today ( ). totals do not equal exactly % due to rounding. table . congregational discourse on abstaining from premarital sex. amount % n % n % n not at all or a little . . . some . . . quite a bit or a great deal . . . total liberal protestant moderate protestant conservative protestant source: faith communities today ( ). totals do not equal exactly % due to rounding. religions , in the analysis that follows, i create binary, prohibition discourse variables for anti-alcohol and anti-premarital sex to measure congregational emphases on these two behavior issues. coding is ( ) congregations that emphasize the topic “quite a bit” or “a great deal” and ( ) congregations that emphasize the topic at the other levels. . . congregational control variables i control for other congregational factors that might contribute to church growth. the age of a church is held constant by using the year founded. congregation size is measured by the natural logarithm of the number of adults ( years and older) who regularly participate in religious life at the congregation, whether or not they are members. i also control for the demographics of a church by holding constant the percentage of younger adults (under ), older adults (over ), and females participating in church life. these three variables range from to with the responses being ( ) none %, ( ) hardly any %– %, ( ) few %– %, ( ) some %– %, ( ) many %– %, ( ) most %– %, and ( ) all or nearly all %– %. because the responses through are not meaningful as a numeric scale, i use the midpoints of each response ( , , , , , , and ) to create interval variables. i also control for congregational outreach activities. the fact survey asked: “in addition to the outreach activities of your denomination, did your congregation do any of the following during the past months to reach out to new or inactive participants, or to make your congregation better known in your community?” i control for three types of marketing approaches: newspaper ads, radio and television ads, and direct mail promotions. each of these is a binary variable: ( ) yes, done in the last months and ( ) no. . . community control variables in addition to the internal factors within a congregation, i also control for a congregation’s surrounding community. i control for zip-code population in (natural logarithmic transformed) and the percentage change in zip-code population from to . this variable is a discrete, percent interval measure of the percentage change (e.g., − % or %). the upper and lower ranges are capped off at “− % or lower” and “ % or higher” (coded as − and , respectively). finally, region of the country is held constant by a series of binary variables, with south as the comparison group. . method binary logistic regression is the most appropriate method because the dependent variable of church growth is dichotomous. because of the high correlation between anti-alcohol and anti-premarital sex discourses (r = . ), i separate these independent variables in the models. i estimate six models, separating the three protestant traditions by how anti-alcohol or anti-premarital sex discourses affect church growth. i expect significant positive estimates for the relationship between growth and a congregation’s strictness on an issue for religious traditions whose pool of potential members have i also estimated the models using an ols regression. i used . , . , . , − . , and − . for the measurement of congregational growth. the results were the same as the binary logistic regression. the tables are available upon request. religions , distinct strictness preferences (e.g., the issue of alcohol for conservative protestants or premarital sex for liberal protestants). on the other hand, i expect non-significant estimates for the relationship between congregational growth and an issue of strictness when a religious tradition’s potential members do not have preferences of strictness that are distinct from the unaffiliated. . results table shows the results from six binary logistic regressions predicting a congregation growing % or more. as hypothesized, only the congregational discourses about strictness that match its niche’s preferences are the ones that are associated with increased odds of being a growing congregation, while the one that does not match does not affect the likelihood of growth. models , , and show anti-alcohol discourse affects the probability of congregational growth in both moderate and conservative protestant churches, but not in liberal protestants congregations. liberal churches that actively emphasize anti-alcohol messages are no more likely to grow than those who do not maintain this prohibition. by comparison, conservative churches with high levels of anti-alcohol discourse are % more likely to grow, and moderates with the same level are % more likely. other congregational characteristics also affect church growth. churches founded more recently and larger congregations (i.e., those with more regularly participating adults) are more likely to grow. churches from all traditions with higher percentages of older adults have lower odds of growth, as do liberal and moderate protestant congregations with more females. advertising through radio, television, and mail outs only affects growth for conservative congregations. liberal and conservative churches in areas with greater zip populations have lower odds of growth, but a growing zip code population increases the odds for all three traditions. liberal and conservative churches in the midwest are less likely to grow compared to southern liberals and conservatives. unlike anti-alcohol discourse, which did not affect congregational growth in all traditions, anti-premarital sex discourse does. models , , and in table show liberal, moderate, and conservative protestant congregations that have high levels of anti-premarital sex discourse are %, %, and % more likely to grow, respectively. like the other models, newer churches and larger churches are more likely to be growing, while the percentage of older adults lowers the odds of growth for all three traditions. the percentage female only lowers the odds of growth in liberal protestant congregations. the gender ratio has no effect in moderate and conservative churches in these models. advertising through radio, television, and the mail increases the odds of growth in conservative congregations, but has no effect for moderates and liberals. community variables also affect the odds of congregational growth. liberal and conservative protestant churches in zip codes with large populations have lower odds of growth. zip code population does not make a difference for moderate congregations. however, the growth in congregational zip codes does affect the odds for all three traditions. for each percentage increase in zip code population change, the odds that a church is growing increase by either % or %. finally, congregations in all traditions are less likely to grow if they are located in the midwest as compared to the south. religions , table . binary logistic regressions predicting congregations growing % or more (odds ratios shown). variables model model model model model model prohibition discourse anti-alcohol . - . *** - . *** - anti-premarital sex - . ** - . *** - . *** congregational variables year organized . ** . ** . ** . ** . *** . *** # regular adults (log) . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** % young adults . . . . . . % older adults . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** % female . *** . *** . * . . . newspaper ads . . . . . . radio/tv ads . . . . . * . ** mailout ads . . . . . * . ** community variables zip population (log) . *** . *** . . . *** . ** % zip population change . *** . *** . *** . *** . *** . ** region south reference reference reference reference reference reference north . . . . . . midwest . *** . *** . . * . * . ** west . . . . . . n - log likelihood . . . . . . max-rescaled r . . . . . . liberal protestant moderate protestant conservative protestant note: * p < . ; ** p < . ; *** p < . . source: faith communities today ( ). religions , . discussion and conclusions this study seeks to better understand the relationship between congregational strictness and growth. i have done so by showing evidence for the idea that strictness must be in line with the congregation’s religious niche, its source of potential members. as others have found before, strictness still matters [ , , , ]. the boundaries that churches create by establishing rules raise the costs of being a member. these increased costs allow the church to generate higher levels of resources, which in turn increase the chances for growth [ ]. moreover, strictness is not a factor for only conservative protestants; it is important across all three protestant traditions. more importantly, this study modifies the classic strict church thesis. it helps shed light on what iannaccone [ ] meant by an optimal level of strictness. strictness is not always associated with congregational growth. that is, a congregation cannot prohibit any behavior and expect this increase in strictness to increase the likelihood of growth. instead, growth via strictness is contingent upon potential members’ preferences for strictness on an issue. this is why the liberal protestant congregations that have high levels of anti-alcohol discourse are not more likely to grow. these churches, by definition, are stricter churches than their fellow liberal congregations, but this strictness does not affect growth. those in their religious niche, the greatest source of potential members, do not want a church with rules about drinking. thus, the costs incurred by prohibiting alcohol are too high for liberal protestants. potential members are unwilling to pay this price of membership because they do not prefer a level of strictness on this issue. the prohibition of alcohol does affect growth for moderate and conservative congregations, though, because the costs incurred are much lower. in fact, this restriction might actually be a benefit because it lines up with the preferences of their religious niches. therefore, the prohibition of alcohol in these congregations may be viewed as both a cost and a benefit. it is a cost that restricts alternative behavior and frees up other resources conducive for growth, but it also creates a favorable cost-benefit ratio for its potential members by lining up with their niche preferences. these findings also support the idea that there is a “spiritual marketplace” in american protestant christianity [ , ]. religious niches are essentially constructed around consumer preferences, and congregations market and supply the religious goods to these niches. if a congregation is out of step with its niche (i.e., its practices and discourses used to construct its level of strictness do not match the demands of the religious marketplace), then it will not attract new members from the niche. for this reason, liberal protestant churches who emphasized not drinking alcohol were not likely to be growing congregations. this study has some limitations. fact is not a random sample of congregations throughout the united states. instead, it is a very broad survey of participating faith groups. positively, this means that the number of congregations and denominations in this study is quite high [ ]. negatively, it means that, while strongly suggestive of how strictness works within congregations, these findings are not nationally representative of all american protestant churches. the main drawback of the fact survey is its limited scope. the survey asked about only two prohibitive discourses that are salient for protestant christians in the united states: alcohol and premarital sex. these are by no means the only relevant issues for protestants, and protestantism is by no means the only religious tradition. this study could be strengthened by examining congregations in religions , other countries and looking at other issues, such as theological beliefs, economics, race, gender, or sexuality. it could also be strengthened to see where the line for optimal strictness is in other congregationally-based religious traditions, such as catholicism, islam, and judaism. furthermore, these findings open up the possibilities to examine how optimal strictness, as delineated by religious niches, impacts congregational strength, the main focus of kelley [ ] and iannaccone [ ]. future research in the sociology of religion needs to account for the idea that strictness is a multifaceted concept. it does not uniformly affect other congregational outcomes. an organization’s niche matters, and the population from which the congregation draws new members responds differently to numerous issues used to create congregational strictness. scholars continuing to explore the strict church thesis must take this into account when they explore how a religious organization’s rules and regulations impact congregational life. this study advances the classic strict church thesis within the sociology of religion by illuminating what optimal strictness is for congregational growth. congregational prohibitions do not automatically increase the likelihood of growth. effective prohibitions are contingent and defined by the congregation’s religious niche (i.e., its potential members). by lining up its congregational practices with its religious niche’s preferred level of strictness, a congregation increases its chances for growth. acknowledgments the author would like to thank kevin dougherty, paul froese, charles north, and christopher pieper for their valuable assistance. conflicts of interest the author declares no conflict of interest. religions , appendix descriptive statistics for variables. variables n mean std dev range n mean std dev range n mean std dev range dependent variable growing church . – . – . – independent variables anti-alcohol . – . – . – anti-premarital sex . – . – . – congregational variables year organized . – . – . – # regular adults (log) . . − . – . . . − . – . . . − . – . % young adults . . – . . – . . – % older adults . . – . . – . . – % female . . – . . – . . – newspaper ads . – . – . – radio/tv ads . – . – . – mailout ads . – . – . – community variables zip population (log) . . . – . . . . – . . . . – . % zip population change ( – ) . . − – . . − – . . − – north . – . – . – midwest . – . – . – west . – . – . – south . – . – . – liberal protestants moderate protestants conservative protestants source: faith communities today ( ). religions , references . kelley, dean m. why conservative churches are growing; a study in sociology of religion. new york: harper & row, . . iannaccone, laurence r. “why strict churches are strong.” american journal of sociology ( ): . . iannaccone, laurence r., daniel v.a. olson, and rodney stark. “religious resources and church growth.” social forces ( ): – . . thomas, jeremy n., and daniel v.a. olson. “testing the strictness thesis and competing theories of congregational growth.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . chaves, mark. congregations in america. cambridge: harvard university press, . . mcpherson, miller. “an ecology of affiliation.” american sociological review ( ): – . . scheitle, christopher p., and kevin d. dougherty. “the sociology of religious organizations.” sociology compass ( ): – . . scheitle, christopher p. “organizational niches and religious markets: uniting two literatures.” interdisciplinary journal of research on religion ( ): – . . draper, scott. “effervescence and solidarity in religious organizations.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . collins, randall. interaction ritual chains. princeton: princeton university press, . . sherkat, darren e., and john wilson. “preferences, constraints, and choices in religious markets: an examination of religious switching and apostasy.” social forces ( ): – . . stark, rodney, and roger finke. acts of faith: explaining the human side of religion. berkeley: university of california press, . . popielarz, pamela a., and zachary p. neal. “the niche as a theoretical tool.” annual review of sociology ( ): – . . becker, gary s. the economic approach to human behavior. chicago: university of chicago press, . . reimer, sam. “orthodoxy niches: diversity in congregational orthodoxy among three protestant denominations in the united states.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . goldstein, adam, and heather a. haveman. “press and pulpit: competition, co-operation and the growth of religious magazines in antebellum america.” american sociological review ( ): – . . olson, daniel v.a., and paul perl. “variations in strictness and religious commitment within and among five denominations.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . smith, tom w. “classifying protestant denominations.” review of religious research ( ): – . . steensland, brian, jerry z. park, mark d. regnerus, lynn d. robinson, w. bradford wilcox, and robert d. woodberry. “the measure of american religion: toward improving the state of the art.” social forces ( ): – . . wellman, james k. evangelical vs. liberal: the clash of christian cultures in the pacific northwest. new york: oxford university press, . religions , . roof, wade clark, and william mckinney. american mainline religion: its changing shape and future. new brunswick: rutgers university press, . . hunter, james davison. evangelicalism: the coming generation. chicago: university of chicago press, . . smith, christian. american evangelicalism: embattled and thriving. chicago: university of chicago press, . . lincoln, c. eric, and lawrence h. mamiya. the black church in the african american experience. durham: duke university press, . . baker, joseph o'brian, and buster smith. “none too simple: examining issues of religious nonbelief and nonbelonging in the united states.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . baker, joseph o., and buster g. smith. “the nones: social characteristics of the religiously unaffiliated.” social forces ( ): – . . funk, cary, and greg smith. “nones” on the rise: one-in-five adults have no religious affiliation. religion & public life. washington: pew research center, , p. . . kosmin, barry a., ariela keysar, ryan cragun, and juhem navarro-rivera. american nones: the profile of the no religion populations. hartford: trinity college, , p. . . butler, jon, grant wacker, and randall balmer. religion in american life: a short history. new york: oxford university press, . . vox, lisa. “religion, influences on use of alcohol and drugs.” in alcohol and drugs in north america : a historical encyclopedia. edited by david fahey and jon s. miller. santa barbara: abc-clio, , pp. – . . bader, christopher d., f. carson mencken, and paul froese. “american piety : content and methods of the baylor religion survey.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . . froese, paul, and christopher d. bader. america’s four gods : what we say about god-- & what that says about us. new york: oxford university press, . . dudley, carl s., and david a. roozen. faith communities today : a report on religion in the united states today. hartford: hartford institute for religion research, hartford seminary, . . “faith communities today.” available online: http://www.thearda.com/archive/fct.asp (accessed on july ). . roof, wade clark. spiritual marketplace: baby boomers and the remaking of american religion. princeton: princeton university press, . . berger, peter l. the sacred canopy: elements of a sociological theory of religion. new york: anchor, . . iannaccone, laurence r. “reassessing church growth: statistical pitfalls and their consequences.” journal for the scientific study of religion ( ): – . © by the author; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations comment memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations kat hill abstract with the recent -year jubilee of the lutheran reformation, reformation anniversaries have become big business and the subject of much scholarly debate. this paper considers the question of anniversaries in relation to suppo- sedly marginal religious groups in the era of the reformation. what do they choose to commemorate? how did they fit into our accounts of religious change? and what does memory from the margins tells us? the paper argues that con- sidering memories and anniversaries amongst these communities allows us to reassess our categories of mainstream and marginal in relation to religious change in the early modern world and beyond, and to reconsider some of our narratives about the legacies of religious change. https://doi.org/ . /s - - - open birkbeck college, university of london, london, uk. correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to k.h. (email: katherine.hill@bbk.ac.uk) palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms () :,; mailto:katherine.hill@bbk.ac.uk www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms introduction was ‘luther year’, the -year anniversary of the posting of the ninety-five theses and the start of the reformation. ten years of preparation from the lutheran church and german authorities culminated in celebrations all over the world. from poetry slams to movies, panorama installations to conferences, heritage tours to a wave of publications, luther sparked intense intellectual and academic analysis about the meaning of religious change in early modern europe. (marshall, ; roth, , pp. – ). anniversaries and moments of memory activation invite us to consider what narratives are being shaped about the past and what narratives we as historians and scholars want to tell. remembrance inevitably sparks renewed debates about origins and outcomes, and we can learn much about a movement, nation or community at times of commemorative celebration. the first big -year reformation jubilee, that of luther’s birth, initiated a battle for ownership of his memory in a fractured germany in the dying days of the gdr (hoffmann, ; scott, ). from – , visitors might have experienced the nuanced differ- ences of nationally inflected exhibitions commemorating the anniversary of world war one in, for example, belgium, france, england, and germany. the -year anniversary of women’s right to vote and the suffragettes has struck chords with the contemporary #metoo movement. the luther anniversary was, it seemed to many, a chance to embrace a more ecumenical luther, though there have also been concerns about the way in which commemorations renewed a hero image of the reformer (evangelical church in germany, ; roth, ). but what if we did not focus on luther’s story? the years and will mark the anniversary of a different part of the reformation. these are the dates that the mennonite world conference (mwc) has picked to commemorate the origins of anabaptism. recalls the moment at which conrad grebel baptized george blaurock in zurich ‘to ignite a brand-new anabaptist movement which countered the movements of luther, zwingli and catholicism’. coincides with years since the appearance of the schleitheim articles, a statement of ana- baptism’s separation from the world, and the martyrs’ synod, a meeting which established a principle of mission. (it earned its name because many of its principle participants died soon after). the significance of these dates is clear, but any such immediate connection is sidestepped on the front page of the mwc’s website for the anniversary which focuses on the message of what has been titled ‘renewal ’. renewal was launched in the same year as the -year anniversary of the lutheran refor- mation and is presented as a chance for ecumenical discussion within and beyond the mennonite church, with ten years of events designed to invigorate anabaptist faith globally. these events are not likely to be on most people’s radar and will not spark the same rash of publishing as luther’s . nor are the events uncontroversial amongst mennonites some of whom question whether these anniversaries are an appropriate or rele- vant celebration of mennonite identity (goossen, b). for mennonite communities and mennonite scholars the question of anniversaries has stoked intense debate about the historical nar- ratives that surround these public rituals of commemoration. (roth, , pp. – ; osborne, ). considering the anni- versary celebrations and controversies of the lesser known part of the reformation story, however, is also a chance for reformation scholars to revisit some of our accounts of religious change and its legacies. what if we switched our perspective to those who were supposed to be on the edges of the story? what do the debates within the mennonite community reveal about these memories and anniversaries more broadly? what new questions or old problems might we consider by examining remembrance from the edges of the reformations? memory on the margins makes us reconsider the centre. the mennonite church, which is coordinating the -year anniversary, has its roots in anabaptism. this reforming move- ment of the sixteenth century rejected infant baptism along with many of the conventional structures of society, such as swearing oaths and serving in the military (stayer, ; goertz, ). anabaptism is not well integrated into reformation histories. histories of the radical or ‘left-wing’ of the reformation remain understudied and marginalized from the mainstream historio- graphical scholarship on the reformation, and despite a spate of histories produced in the s and s on early modern ana- baptism, anabaptist studies have not seen the same energy since. new waves of scholarship have started to redress this problem, recognizing the fundamentally problematic label of the ‘radical reformation’ and a group of new researchers are spearheading moves to bring anabaptist histories into the digital age with the open access website, anabaptist historians. scholarship in the last fifteen years has seen a handful of important monographs on anabaptist and mennonite histories (driedger, ; räisänen- schröder, ; monge, ; hill, ; goossen, a). but the scholarly imbalances and the division between mainstream and radical persist, especially for the pre-modern era. not everyone agrees that anabaptist studies are an endangered enclave (dipple, ; p. ). anabaptism does have a rich historiography, and there are mennonite presses and journals, notably the mennonite quarterly review and journal of menno- nite studies, which are energetic and stimulating fora. however, the specialist focus of this publishing can also reiterate the boundaries separating scholarship. research is often produced in confessional contexts, and though confessional history in itself is not inherently problematic, i would agree with academics who stress that there has been a return to confessionalised scholarship in reformation studies. the anniversary sharpened this in many cases, despite its claims to ecumenism, and has reinforced a sense of separatism. even sources may be divided. a special series exists for documents on the anabaptist reform movement (with the tactical name change from the pejorative ‘wiedertäufer’ to ‘täufer’ in the late s). so, while students of the european reformation may have a week on radical anabaptists in the sixteenth century, few courses touch on much beyond this or examine the longer-term traditions that evolved from non- conformist impulses. the distorting nature of this scholarship has broader impli- cations. it matters that anabaptists have been on the edges of historiography since it is partly a symptom and consequence of on one of the biggest, most problematic debates in reformation historiography: confessionalisation (brady, ). reformation scholars have for some time sought ways to write histories which go beyond the confessionalisation thesis which ties long-term narratives of religious change into accounts of state, discipline, and institutions. confessionalization neglects alternatives to the model of institutional faith, faiths often related to national identity and larger historical narratives of the rise of nationalism, and thus it omits a fundamental and long-lasting element of confessional change (lotz-heumann, ). moments of mem- ory and celebration, therefore, are a chance for academics to address these questions. anniversaries bring to the fore big debates about origins and futures, as well as the place of com- munities in the contemporary world, and so often implicate national and international institutions. though there are ques- tions about its success, a major emphasis of the luther commemoration, for example, was to attempt to move away from national and confessionalised narratives and embrace a more ecumenical vision for lutheranism’s future in the modern comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms world (lwf and pcpcu, ). the run of reformation anniversaries can stimulate conversations which re-invigorate scholarship. anabaptists memories there are over million anabaptists in the world, and the mwc -year celebrations for many are a remembrance of those things that characterize the collective memory of their commu- nities—an emphasis on the separation between church and state, a history of persecution and martyrdom, freedom of religion, liberty of conscience, and elective entry into the church. it is also seen as a chance to assess and reinvigorate mennonite identity in the contemporary world (roth, ). clearly memory matters to mennonites (and their close cousins the amish and hutterites). for numerous mennonites, there exists a deep sense of connec- tion to their early modern past, its martyrs and heroes. but whilst the / centenary will be a celebration coordinated by the mwc, the reality is of course that cultures of memory amongst anabaptist descendants go far beyond the official celebration and central structures. the attitudes which form the global backdrop to the planned commemorations are rooted not in national churches and state institutions, but family, communal and personal memories which have preserved the sense of the past and collective remembrance. mennonites, amish and hutterites all migrated great distances from the sixteenth century onwards. this was not always the result of persecution and exile, as a traditional anabaptist narrative might suggest, but anabaptists undeniably traveled far. communities moved from northern and central europe to russia and ukraine, migrated to the americas, or undertook confessional work in india, south east asia, and africa. as people move, memories travel with them. indeed, for mennonites, amish and hutterites, memory was a critical tool for bridging the gap between communities dispersed across wide areas and separated from society in a variety of ways. memory is central to diasporic identity (agnew, ; baronian, et al., , pp. – ). anabaptist memories existed in the records kept by their own churches, family possessions or per- sonal recollections which bound the community together. men- nonites in contemporary manitoba or kansas, for example, have objects, documents and shared narratives which trace cross- generational diasporic histories in europe, russia and beyond. we can only follow these histories and memories if we look beyond conventional institutional and geographical boundaries, since the very core of mennonite, hutterite and amish identity is in the communities of dispersion which stretched across regions. memory in these diasporic communities could not tell the same story as institutional churches. lutheran memories had an inclusive message in which looked to a global lutheran culture but also reasserted the dominance of wittenberg. calvi- nist memories are focused on geneva. anabaptist memories have been of a more disparate nature, though the mwc’s focus on and the swiss origins of the movement has caused con- troversy by centring anabaptist histories on one location deter- mined by a central committee. but why does it matter to think about this type of memory? is it not just one more anniversary, one more strand of the legacy of the reformation era? first, it reveals issues concerning con- temporary mennonite identity in relation to an early modern past and a diasporic identity. debates arose whether the date for a mennonite anniversary should be or , or indeed whether should have been the date for celebration. the result is ten years of renewal announced in , culminating in but with a celebration of in switzerland along the way. deeper unease amongst some members of the community has focused on the way in which any anniversary of this kind reinforces a monogenetic heritage which excludes the global church and diversity, and even alludes to a form of european ethnic purity (goossen, b). the monogenesis versus poly- genesis debate about anabaptist origins is long-standing but seems not to have died (stayer et al., ). an official celebration which gives one line of interpretation and reinforces one nor- mative view of anabaptist and mennonite heritage, rather than recognize all the alternatives and global perspectives, is proble- matic. it is possibly in dialogue with these concerns that africa is a suggested location for the th mennonite world conference assembly (roth, , p. ). some counterpoint views to the and dates also argue that the anabaptist church did not originate in the sixteenth century since it was a continuation and successor to the apostolic church of christ (roth, , pp. – ; goossen, b). this was the line taken by the two most famous anabaptist historical works, the seventeenth-century martyrs mirror and the hutterite great chronicle. such a view, however, can be equally proble- matic and elide the constant and shifting creative power of memory formation and the way in which recollections have been reinvented across the centuries. there are, too, always political questions at stake in commemorations (goossen, b). men- nonites, not the amish or hutterite, are driving the -year anniversary, but it is presented as celebration for all anabaptists. what does it tell us that this celebration matters most for the better integrated and politically active part of the anabaptist legacy, and that this is intertwined with institutional and con- fessional narratives? anniversaries after all always serve some purpose, and also coincides with the -year anniversary of the foundation of the mennonite central committee, so some would argue that this has more to do with institutional and political positioning than organic commemoration (goossen, b). we should remember that the official celebrations are only one part of memory; we have to look beyond to broader memory cultures, to individuals and local communities. memory is the aggregation of these narratives, as much as central cele- brations. the intense debate amongst different anabaptist tra- ditions is a stark reminder of the power and importance of diasporic memory, but also the need to recover alternatives to centralized commemorations. scholarship should consider how memory cultures themselves are created and recreated, why and when, and in what contexts. centenaries and anniversaries of origins, celebrated centrally, are a relatively modern phenomenon. marked the first major mennonite anniversary when the new mennonite world con- ference convened in basel and there do not seem to have been parallel events in or before. earlier celebrations and asso- ciated controversies existed. in various mennonite com- munities celebrated the death of menno simons and a call was issued in by august heinrich neufeld, pastor of the iber- sheim mennonite congregation in rhine-hesse, for ‘every men- nonite congregation in the old world and the new’ to plan for the date. the proposed celebrations sparked considerable con- troversy which revealed the fault lines in nineteenth-century mennonite society (roth, ; urry, ). thus, historians should be sensitive to the way in which memories are chosen, contested, and narrated, how they vary and shift, and how they exist at different levels. for specific communities, individuals, and families, it might be personal or local commemorations which held the most weight, and memory cultures had local inflections. mennonites in chortitza (zaporizhia oblast, ukraine) erected monuments in the late nineteenth century to figures of their past, to johann bartsch and jakob höppner, the men who had nego- tiated the details of the settlement for mennonite migration from prussia at the end of the eighteenth century (urry, ). research needs to understand the way in which memory has been palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - comment palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms constructed at local, regional and familial levels, as well as focusing on global and international commemorations. second, i would argue that by interrogating anabaptist memories as this anniversary approaches, we can uncover novel trajectories for the long-lasting legacies of the reformation throughout the world and in so doing address some of the fun- damental debates of the reformation era. it opens up new per- spectives on both our histories of non-conformist groups in the early modern world, and the implications for how religious change has shaped global culture. the debates over anniversaries have sharpened questions of the interaction between the refor- mation legacies of anabaptism and lutheranism (and other tra- ditions) and brought to the fore the continued global power of these anabaptists networks of memory. such trends undermine the sense of marginality and separateness that has shaped ana- baptist historiography, but also call into question broader reli- gious narratives which still seem to rest on notions of confessionalisation. the nature of the relationship between these different religious communities and the -year celebrations matters, and any student of the reformation needs to understand those labeled both marginal and mainstream. it is only from the margin though that we can rewrite the centre. until we question the narratives of the marginal, we will be forever locked into the modes of persecuted and persecutor. anniversaries do not always help in this reassessment since they have in some ways reasserted confessional narratives and nor- mative divisions. in , as preparations for were getting under way, the lutheran world fellowship offered an official apology to anabaptists for past persecutions. the divided mem- ory cultures sought rapprochement but also in many ways reit- erated division (roth, , – ). such an event reinforces normative mennonite self-definitions of the confession as a per- secuted minority without asking how this cultural narrative evolved, or what happened when communities or individuals chose not to follow this path. looking from the edges, we can see that anabaptists were not always a persecuted minority, they were not marginal to histories, and they did not always search for the peaceful, quiet way (urry, ). and looking from the centre, we have neglected the impor- tance of supposedly marginal groups in our long histories of the reformation. anabaptist descendants are a visible presence across much of america. nearly every north american, it seems, has a mennonite, hutterite or amish story. they have seen the buggies, been to the farms, or visited the churches. yet these communities still seem a curiosity. amish communities in pennsylvania, for example, are a tourist attraction more than a subject of scholarly discussion. amish, hutterites and more conservative mennonites of the old order tradition do not necessarily sit easily in our narratives of historical development and modernity. for those from outside the tradition, they seem an outdated relic of an older time, but their existence problematizes our notions of reforma- tion legacies. it becomes difficult to argue, for example, that the unintended effect of the reformation was secularization (gregory, ). in a series of six essays, gregory proposed that the protestant refor- mation questioned authority in ways which led to a multiplicity of competing claims to truth and this resulted ultimately in the privatization of faith, the power of the state over church, and secularization. but there are problems with this account. if we are to write narratives which escape the pitfalls of a return to con- fessionalisation but also appreciate reformation legacies on their own terms we have to be able to understand the dynamics of the communities of pennsylvanian amish or old order mennonites in belize. and we also have to be able to contain accounts of mennonites who are integrated into modern canada, hutterites who reject televisions and much modern media but embrace the best farming technologies, or amish communities who live separate lives but actively engage in a form of tourism which plays on their traditionalism. such solutions do not represent secular- ization necessarily but alternative models for recreating faith and adapting. for gregory, division has shattered a more universal sense of faith but for mennonites, for example, the broken body of the church can also be a symbol of the quest for faithfulness and of following the right path which diverts from the main- stream (roth, , p. ). splintering may have led to diversity, but it can also provide energy. furthermore, a sense of secular- izing decline can also be seen as a particularly western-centric narrative, and reformation legacies must be able to appreciate the explosion of christianity in the global south. mennonite memory brings into sharper focus other issues about reformation memory and the need to look beyond the official celebrations. focusing on luther in a way which reinforces the norms of the mainstream and the marginal absents a major and important part of the reformation legacies in eur- opean, eurasian and north american history, and beyond into africa, japan, india, and korea. deeply rooted identity and multifaceted memories have shaped anabaptist communities and cultures across the world: from prussia militarism to tsarist expansion, from the american west to the world wars, from south american colonies of mennonites to the power of contemporary protestant churches in the global south, even to questions of how mennonites should respond to trump. understanding the geo- graphical spread of anabaptist groups and the way in which their communities evolved across the diaspora opens up other archives, resources and memory cultures. new archives, new sources and new regions all offer promising concrete areas for research on reformation legacies. first, scholarship can look to understudied or neglected archives and records which provide alternative histories to accounts of confessional change. whilst mennonite archives in north america, for example, are an important resource for scholars of mennonite history and communities themselves, they remain little studied by reformation historians more generally. yet, there is a wealth of material in the church and family fonds which continues to come into these repositories. there are sur- prising finds in archives across europe and beyond, such as the histories of mennonite communities in regional polish archives or the church books of mennonites, quakers and other groups that have made their way into german state archives. a com- prehensive understanding of the complex archival traces would allow a much richer account of the long legacies of the reformation. second, we must think about the diverse way in which memory was enacted and histories recorded. this might be by paying closer attention to the way in archives themselves and their construction shape memory. the contents, materials and orga- nization of archives reflect power relations (stoler, ) and scholars have started to write the social history of archives (ketelaar, ). unpicking these archival histories, such as the reasons why mennonites have come to create their own archives, will in turn shed light on the history of confessional memory and memory making. furthermore, focusing on the transmission and function of memory could lead us to think about the very dif- ferent memory cultures amongst all those included amongst anabaptists. the memory practices of mennonites who have created extensive records differ from the old order amish who eschew formal archiving but rely on family and oral histories. the implications of different practices of recalling pasts and the power relations between different memory cultures is essential to the construction of more dynamic narratives of religious cultures. third, we might think about the way in which memory and confessional legacies were enacted across different media. comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms discussions of reformation anniversaries have tended to focus on written narratives, documents and recorded history. but memory and connections to the past exist in other ways. how did objects function as embodiments of tangible connections with a past? how did the landscape and environment tell stories of connection? mennonites draw on memories of the great chortitza oak which grew in ukraine where mennonites settled in the late eighteenth century but whose acorns have traveled across the atlantic. considering material and environmental sources, as well as written documents will help us understand legacies in diachronic and global perspective or the ways in which communities negotiate their interaction with the contemporary world. finally, scholarship can think about memory, community and identity in areas which have not been part of more conventional narratives of reformation legacies. this means uncovering new trajectories for communities who are not part of the traditional accounts of survival, such as mennonite who migrated down to the black sea from russia and ukraine rather than crossing the atlantic. more broadly, it means focusing on global histories of mennonites and protestantism in general, particularly in the global south, exploring questions of community, race and place in a post-colonial era. these new avenues for research will help reveal religious communities which existed beyond institutional and national structures and the problematic way in which big anniversaries reinforce grand narratives. paying more attention to the local and the individual has the effect conversely of broadening memories across seas and generations. the contentious / cele- bration not only provokes questions about anabaptist history but demands we find more nuanced ways of thinking about memory, the ways it is embedded in language, landscape, and people, and the traces it leaves. conclusions i would like to finish with one example of this power of memory at the level of the individual and the family which also touches on the way in which it expands our global and cross-period histories of religious change. in the mennonite archives in bethel college in north newton, kansas there are boxes which contain family papers donated to the archive for safe-keeping. papers inside have not been categorized into type and are often an eclectic mix of items preserved and curated by the family over generations. opening these folders, i was given a snapshot into the way in which histories, church, and communities are built on individual and family memories but also the importance of placing these in the context of globally connected communities. these collections are not the usual stuff of institutional or national memory. however, precisely because they are personal and have been kept by groups and families on the move, they embody the connected communities of dispersion which are at the core of mennonite identity. one folder has a tiny notebook, meticulously translating and transcribing the daily record kept by their forebears who traveled from russia, russian passports, a handwritten book of early nineteenth century remedies for colic and much spider bites. the jacob f. and marie banman fond contains beautiful eighteenth century fraktur examples, modern hand-written genealogies and family record and copy books. like their owners, these objects had migrated across land and sea, and the juxtaposition of documents which record lives lived across centuries and borders encapsulates the connections, memories and emotions that sustained mennonite communities. these collections of memories go far beyond the -year anniversary and remind us of the power of the local and the glocal (the term coined to express the interplay between the global and the local) in communities bound together by remembrance (freist, , p. ). whether or not mennonites celebrate the -year centenary in or , their debates reveal the global and diachronic power of anabaptist memories, and these memoryscapes offer not only ways of thinking about mennonite identity but broader memory cultures of early modernity and reformation history. memories of the reformations and their global legacies must be understood in cross-confessional contexts. scholarship can use these comparative histories of memories and legacies as a way out of the debates of marginal versus mainstream and con- fessionalisation to consider questions of global protestantisms, long term legacies, and concepts of diaspora and exile. anniver- saries always offer us a chance to rethink histories. in analyzing the various reformation anniversaries, it is not a question of ‘memory wars’—whose anniversary we should be celebrating, whose reformation was better, or which had more positive or long-lasting effects. rather scholars can take the opportunity of these discussions over commemorations to diversify our concepts of the reformation and its legacies. received: january accepted: july notes for information on the variety of celebrations see the official luther website. https://www.luther .de/en/ /reformation-anniversary/. german plans to spend relatively little on centenary events compared to the uk and france were criticized. see https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ / germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary. an example of a more subtle and low-key exhibition was that at the neues museum weimar, ‘krieg der geister: weimar als symbolort deutscher kultur vor und nach ’. http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th- anniversary-is- -not- /. see also https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to- celebrate- -years/. https://mwc-cmm.org/renewal . https://anabaptisthistorians.org/. this is the series quellen zur geschichte der täufer. see for example the joint statement by the lutheran world federation and the vatican. https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html. a booklet was produced to recognize this by the lwf and the pontifical council for promoting christian unity, from conflict to communion: lutheran-catholic common commemoration of the reformation in ( ). the latest triennial census conducted by the mwc counted , , members as of november . this includes various groups such as the mennonites, the amish, and hutterites. this was the first known anabaptist confession written by michael sattler. references agnew v ( ) diaspora, memory and identity: a search for home. university of toronto press, toronto baronian m-a, besser s, jansen y ( ) diaspora and memory: figures of dis- placement in contemporary literature, arts and politics. rodopi, amsterdam and new york brady jr. ta ( ) confessionalizaiton—the career of a concept. in: headley jm, hillerband hj (eds) confessionalization in europe, – : essays in honor and memory of bodo nischan. ashgate, aldershot dipple g ( ) the radical reformation will not be televised. sixt century journal ( ): – driedger md ( ) obedient heretics: mennonite identities in lutheran hamburg and altona in the confessional age. ashgate, aldershot evangelical church in germany (ekd) perspectives : writings on the reformation ( ). evangelische kirche in deutschland, hanover freist d ( ) lost in time and space? glocal memoryscapes in the early modern world. in: kuijpers e, pollmann j, müller j, van der steen j (eds) memory before modernity: practices of memory in early modern europe. brill, leiden, p. – goossen b ( a) chosen nation: mennonites and germany in a global era. princeton university press, princeton goossen b ( b) why years?: a critique of anabaptism’s upcoming anni- versary celebration. mennonite life palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - comment palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms https://www.luther .de/en/ /reformation-anniversary/ https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ /germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ /germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th-anniversary-is- -not- / http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th-anniversary-is- -not- / https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to-celebrate- -years/ https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to-celebrate- -years/ https://mwc-cmm.org/renewal https://anabaptisthistorians.org/ https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms goertz h-j ( ) the anabaptists, trans. trevor johnson. routledge, london and new york gregory b ( ) the unintended reformation: how a religious revolution secu- larized society. belknap press of harvard university press, cambridge, mass and london hill k ( ) baptism, brotherhood, and belief in reformation germany: ana- baptism and lutheranism, – . oxford university press, oxford hoffmann sp ( ) the gdr, luther and the german question. rev polit ( ): – ketelaar e ( ) prolegomena to a social history of dutch archives. in: blok a, lucassen j, sanders h (eds) a usable collection: essays in honour of jaap kloosterman on collecting social history. amsterdam university press, amsterdam lotz-heumann u ( ) the concept of “confessionalization”: a historiographical paradigm in dispute. mem y civón : – lwf (the lutheran world federation and pcpcu (the pontifical council for promoting christian unity)) ( ) from conflict to communion: lutheran- catholic common commemoration of the reformation in . evangelische verlagsanstalt: leipzig and bonifatius marshall p ( ) : martin luther and the invention of the reformation. oxford university press, oxford monge m ( ) des communauteś mouvantes: les societ́eś des frer̀es chret́iens en rheńanie du nord: juliers, berg, cologne vers – . libraire droz, geneva osborne t ( ) “golden age” or “global age”: commemorating anabaptists past, present and future. mennonite life räisänen-schröder p ( ) ketzer im dorf: visitationsverfahren, täuferbe- kämpfung und lokale handlungsmuster im frühneuzeitlichen württemberg. universitatsverlag konstanz, konstanz roth jd ( ) how to commemorate a division? reflections on the th anniversary of the lutheran reformation and its relevance for the global anabaptist mennonite church today. mennon q rev : – scott t ( ) the luther quincentenary in the gdr. ger hist ( ): – stayer jm ( ) anabaptists and the sword. new edition of edition. wipf and stock, eugene stayer jm, depperman k, packull wo ( ) from monogenesis to polygenesis: the historical discussion of anabaptist origins. mennon q rev : – stoler al ( ) along the archival grain: epistemic anxieties and colonial com- mon sense. princeton university press, princeton and oxford urry j ( ) mennonites, politics, and peoplehood: europe-russia-canada, to . university of manitoba press, winnipeg urry j ( ) memory: monuments and the marking of pasts. conrad grebel rev ( ) acknowledgements thanks to proofreaders in the early modern work in progress group and james urry for references and discussions on mennonites. additional information competing interests: the author declares no competing interests. reprints and permission information is available online at http://www.nature.com/ reprints publisher’s note: springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article’s creative commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/ . /. © the author(s) comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms http://www.nature.com/reprints http://www.nature.com/reprints http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / www.nature.com/palcomms 	memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations 	introduction 	anabaptists memories 	conclusions 	references 	references 	acknowledgements 	competing interests 	acknowledgements alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / research open access seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in huicholes in mexico cosme alvarado-esquivel *, sandy janet pacheco-vega , jesús hernández-tinoco , luis francisco sánchez-anguiano , luis omar berumen-segovia , francisco javier imard rodríguez-acevedo , isabel beristain-garcía , elizabeth rábago-sánchez , oliver liesenfeld , , federico campillo-ruiz and oscar alberto güereca-garcía abstract background: very little is known about the seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in ethnic groups in mexico. huicholes are an indigenous ethnic group living in a remote mountainous region in mexico. we sought to determine the prevalence of anti-toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies in huicholes; and to determine the association of toxoplasma seropositivity with socio-demographic, behavioral, and clinical characteristics of huicholes. methods: we performed a cross sectional survey in huicholes from september to january . a convenience sampling method was used. we investigated the prevalence of anti-toxoplasma igg and igm antibodies in huicholes using enzyme-linked immunoassays. a standardized questionnaire was used to obtain the characteristics of the huicholes. bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to assess the association of toxoplasma exposure and huicholes’ characteristics. results: of the huicholes studied (mean age: . ± . years), ( . %) were positive for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies and ( . %) of them were also positive for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection did not vary with age, sex, or occupation. however, seroprevalence of anti-t. gondii igm antibodies was significantly higher in female than in male huicholes. multivariate analysis of socio-demographic and behavioral characteristics showed that t. gondii exposure was associated with consumption of turkey meat (or = . ; % ci: . - . ; p = . ). in addition, seroprevalence of t. gondii infection was significantly higher in huicholes suffering from dizziness and memory impairment than those without such clinical characteristics. conclusions: our results demonstrate serological evidence of t. gondii exposure among huicholes which may be impacting their health. results of this first study of t. gondii infection in huicholes may be useful for the design of optimal preventive measures against infection with t. gondii. keywords: toxoplasma gondii, seroprevalence, huicholes, cross-sectional study background infections with the parasite toxoplasma gondii (t. gondii) occur worldwide [ ] and affect about one third of humanity [ ]. although most infections with t. gondii are asymptom- atic, some infected individuals may suffer from symptom- atic pathological changes in the lymph nodes, eyes, and central nervous system [ ]. in addition, pregnant women * correspondence: alvaradocosme@yahoo.com biomedical research laboratory, faculty of medicine and nutrition, juárez university of durango state, avenida universidad s/n, durango, dgo, mexico full list of author information is available at the end of the article © alvarado-esquivel et al.; licensee biom creative commons attribution license (http:/ distribution, and reproduction in any medium domain dedication waiver (http://creativecom article, unless otherwise stated. with primary infection with t. gondii may transmit the in- fection to the fetus leading to congenital disease [ ]. im- munocompromised individuals infected with t. gondii may develop a life-threatening disease [ ]. ingestion of food or water contaminated with oocysts shed by cats [ , ] and eat- ing undercooked or raw meat containing tissue cysts [ , , ] are important routes of t. gondii transmission. very little is known about the epidemiology of t. gondii infection in ethnic groups in mexico. we have previously studied the seroepidemiology of t. gondii infection in mennonites [ ] and tepehuanos [ ] in durango, mexico. to the best of our knowledge, there is not any report ed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the /creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, , provided the original work is properly credited. the creative commons public mons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . /) applies to the data made available in this mailto:alvaradocosme@yahoo.com http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/ . / alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / about the epidemiology of t. gondii infection in huicholes (an indigenous ethnic group living in a remote mountain- ous region (sierra madre occidental) in the western central mexican states of nayarit, durango, jalisco and zacatecas. life style in huicholes differs from that in other rural popu- lation groups in durango; they live in marked poverty with very poor housing and sanitary conditions. they have lim- ited access to health care services, and hospitals in their re- gion do not have a number of laboratory tests for diagnosis of infectious diseases i.e., infection with t. gondii. it is im- portant to study the epidemiology of t. gondii infection in huicholes because they live in a climatic scenario that may favor t. gondii infection. huicholes live in a warmer and more humid area than other population groups in the re- gion. environmental factors may contribute to a higher seroprevalence of t. gondii infection [ , ]. in general, the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection is higher in humid cli- mates than in dry climates; and this is the case in humans [ - ] and animals [ - ]. furthermore, huicholes eat meat from wild animals that may be infected with t. gondii. therefore, we sought to determine the seroprevalence of t. gondii exposure in huicholes and the association of toxoplasma seropositivity with socio-demographic, behav- ioral, and clinical characteristics of huicholes. methods study design and study population we performed a cross sectional survey in huicholes in mexico from september to january . huicholes were sampled in the locality of huazamota in the mu- nicipality of el mezquital in durango state, mexico. huazamota ( ° ´n ° ´w) has an altitude of meters above sea level, a warm-sub-humid climate, and a mean annual temperature of . °c. the south region of el mezquital municipality has a mean annual rainfall varying from to mm. other ethnic groups live in the mountainous region including mexicaneros and tepehuanos. inclusion criteria for the study subjects were: ) huichol ethnicity (people who speak the huichol lan- guage and identify themselves as huicholes); ) aged years and older; and ) that voluntarily accepted to participate. sample size and sampling method for calculation of the sample size, we used a reference seroprevalence of . % [ ] as expected frequency of the factor under study, , as the size of population from which the sample was selected, . % as the least accept- able result, and a confidence level of %. the result of the calculation was subjects. a convenience sampling method was used. specifically, the authors approached huicholes leaders for permission and support; each leader communicated and invited all people under his command; those who accepted the invitation gathered in a specific area to provide socio-demographic data and blood sample; people who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled. socio-demographic, clinical, and behavioral data we used a standardized questionnaire to obtain the socio- demographic, clinical and behavioral characteristics of the huicholes. socio-demographic items were age, sex, birth place, residence, educational level, occupation, and socio- economic status. clinical data included the presence of underlying diseases, presence or history of lymphadenop- athy, frequent presence of headache, dizziness, impairments of memory, reflexes, hearing, and vision, and a history of surgery, blood transfusion or transplants. clinical data in- cluding impairments was self-reported. huicholes were con- sidered “ill” when they suffered from any disease either acute or chronic affecting any organ or system i.e. digestive, respira- tory, circulatory, endocrine, or nervous, and included any psychiatric, rheumatic, hematological or nutritional disorder and any type of morbidity. in huichol women, obstetric data were also obtained. behavioral items included animal con- tacts, contact with cat excrement, foreign travel, meat con- sumption (pork, beef, goat, lamb, boar, chicken, turkey, pigeon, duck, rabbit, venison, squirrel, horse, opossum, or other), frequency of meat consumption, consumption of raw or undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, dried or processed meat (ham, sausages or chorizo), consumption of unwashed raw vegetables, fruits, or untreated water, frequency of eating away from home (in restaurants or fast food outlets), contact with soil (gardening or agriculture), and type of flooring at home from all participants were obtained. serological examination for t. gondii antibodies serum samples were obtained from about ml of whole blood. sera were kept frozen at − °c until analyzed. all sera were analyzed by qualitative and quantitative methods for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies with a commercially avail- able enzyme immunoassay “toxoplasma igg” (diagnostic automation inc., calabasas, ca, usa). anti-t. gondii igg antibody levels were expressed as international units (iu)/ ml, and a cut-off of ≥ iu/ml was used for seropositivity. in addition, sera positive for t. gondii igg were further ana- lyzed for anti-t. gondii igm antibodies by a commercially available enzyme immunoassay “toxoplasma igm” kit (diagnostic automation inc., calabasas, ca, usa). the cut-off for igm seropositivity for each assay was obtained by multiplying the mean cut-off calibrator optical density by a correction factor (f = . - . ) printed on the label of calibrator. all assays were performed following the in- structions of the manufacturer and included positive and negative controls in each run. a positive igg test and a negative igm test in a participant was interpreted as a la- tent infection. a positive igg test and a positive igm test in a participant was interpreted as probability of a recent or acute infection. table socio-demographic characteristics of huicholes and seroprevalence of t. gondii infection characteristic no. of subjects tested prevalence of t. gondii infection p value no. % age groups (years) or less . . - . > . sex male . . female . birth place durango state . . other mexican state . residence durango state . . other mexican state or abroad . educational level no education . . - years . > years . occupation labourera . . non-labourerb . socio-economic level low . . medium . alabourer: agriculture, construction, business, livestock raising, factory worker, other. bnon-labourer: student, housekeeping or none occupation. alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / statistical analysis we used the epi info version . . and spss version . software for the statistical analysis. the pearson’s chi- square test and the fisher exact test (when values were less than ) were used for initial comparison of the fre- quencies among groups. multivariate analysis was used to assess the association between the characteristics of the huicholes and the seropositivity to t. gondii. variables were included in the multivariate analysis if they had a p value equal to or less than . in the bivariate analysis. odds ratio (or) and % confidence interval (ci) were calculated by multivariate analysis using the enter method. the hosmer-lemeshow goodness of fit test was used to assess the fitness of the regression model. a p value < . was considered statistically significant. ethical aspects the purpose and procedures of the survey were ex- plained to all huicholes. this study was approved by the ethical committee of the general hospital of the secre- tary of health in durango city, mexico. participation in the study was voluntary and a written informed consent was obtained from all participants and from the next of kin of minor participants. all huicholes were proficient in spanish and understood explanations about the pur- pose and procedure of the survey as well as the in- formed consent provided by the interviewers. results of the laboratory tests were sent to the huicholes’ nearest hospital (huazamota) where health care providers could inform participants about their results and provide them with medical care if needed. results in total, we enrolled huicholes in the study includ- ing ( . %) males and ( . %) females. most huicholes were born in durango; their mean age was . ± . years (range – years). general socio- demographic characteristics of the huicholes stud- ied are shown in table . of the huicholes studied, ( . %) were positive for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies and ( . %) of them had anti-t. gondii igm antibodies. of the anti-t. gon- dii igg positive participants, ( . %) had igg levels higher than iu/ml, ( . %) between to iu/ ml, and ( . %) between to iu/ml. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection did not vary signifi- cantly with age, sex, birthplace, residence, occupation or socioeconomic level of huicholes (table ). in contrast, seroprevalence varied significantly with educational level; huicholes with no education had the highest seropreva- lence of t. gondii exposure ( . %). in the huicholes seropositive for anti-t. gondii igg antibodies, the preva- lence of anti-t. gondii igm antibodies was significantly higher in female ( / : . %) than in male ( / : . %), huicholes (p = . ). prevalence of high (> iu/ ml) igg antibody levels was similar in female ( / : . %) and male ( / : . %), huicholes (p = . ). concerning clinical characteristics, seroprevalence of anti-t. gondii igg was significantly higher in huicholes suf- fering from dizziness and memory impairment than those without such clinical characteristics (table ). the fre- quency of t. gondii exposure in subjects with dizziness and memory impairment did not vary with age (p = . and p = . , respectively). the frequencies of other clinical characteristics including the presence of underlying dis- eases; suffering from frequent headaches; presence or his- tory of lymphadenopathy; reflexes, hearing and visual impairments; histories of surgery, blood transfusion, and transplant were similar among t. gondii positive and t. gondii negative individuals. histories of miscar- riage and stillbirth in women were not associated with t. gondii seropositivity. table bivariate analysis of clinical data and infection with t. gondii in huicholes characteristic subjects tested* no. prevalence of t. gondii infection p value no. % clinical status healthy . . ill . lymphadenopathy ever yes . . no . headache frequently yes . no . memory impairment yes . no . dizziness yes . . no . reflexes impairment yes . . no . hearing impairment yes . . no . visual impairment yes . . no . surgery ever yes . . no . transplantation yes - no . blood transfusion yes . no pregnancies none . one to three . four to six . more than six . deliveries zero . . table bivariate analysis of clinical data and infection with t. gondii in huicholes (continued) one to three . four to six . seven to nine . nine to twelve . cesarean sections no . . yes . miscarriages no . yes stillbirths no . . yes . *subjects with available data. alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / with respect to behavioral characteristics, a number of variables showed p values lower than . in the bivariate analysis including presence of dogs at home (p = . ), consumption of raw dried meat (p = . ), and consump- tion of meat from goat (p = . ), turkey (p = . ), and pigeon (p = . ). a selection of behavioral characteristics and their correlation with t. gondii exposure are shown in table . other behavioral characteristics of huicholes in- cluding contact with cats, cleaning cat excrement, raising animals, traveling, consumption of meat other than goat, turkey and pigeon meat, frequency of meat consumption, degree of meat cooking, consumption of unpasteurized milk, processed meat, unwashed raw vegetables or fruits, untreated water, frequency of eating out of home, soil con- tact, and soil flooring at home showed p values higher than . in the bivariate analysis. further analysis by using logistic regression showed that t. gondii exposure was only associated with consumption of turkey meat (or = . ; % ci: . - . ; p = . ) (table ). a p = . was obtained in the hosmer-lemeshow test indicat- ing an acceptable fit of our regression model. in the huicholes with anti-t. gondii igg antibodies, seroprevalence of anti-t. gondii igm antibodies was higher (p = . ) in huicholes who raised animals ( / ; . %) than in those without such practice ( / : . %), and in huicholes with consumption of raw dried meat ( / ; . %) than in those without such eating habit ( / : . %) (p = . ). discussion the present study was performed to investigate the seroe- pidemiology of t. gondii infection in huicholes in mexico. results indicate that huicholes have one of the highest seroprevalences of t. gondii infection reported in the re- gion. the seroprevalence found in huicholes ( . %) is table bivariate analysis of selected putative risk factors for infection with t. gondii in huicholes characteristic subjects tested* no. prevalence of t. gondii infection p value no. % cats at home yes . . no . dogs at home yes . . no . goat meat consumption yes . . no chicken meat consumption yes . no turkey meat consumption yes . . no . pigeon meat consumption yes . . no . venison consumption yes . no . squirrel meat consumption yes . . no . raw dried meat yes . . no . floor at home ceramic or wood . concrete . soil . *subjects with available data. table multivariate analysis of selected characteristics of huicholes and their association with t. gondii infection characteristic odds ratio % confidence interval p value age (years) or less . - . . - . . > . . - . . educational level no education . . - . . - years . . - . . > years . contact with dogs . . - . . consumption of: goat meat . . - . . turkey meat . . - . . pigeon meat . . - . . raw dried meat . . - . . alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / higher than the mean ( . %) seroprevalence of t. gondii infection reported in the general population in rural areas in durango state [ ]. in addition, the seroprevalence in huicholes is higher than the . % seroprevalence of t. gondii infection reported in urban general population in the capital durango city [ ]. with respect to other ethnic groups in the region, the seroprevalence found in huicholes is comparable with the . % seroprevalence of t. gondii infection reported in mennonites [ ] but is higher than the . % seroprevalence reported in tepehuanos [ ]. huicholes and tepehuanos live in the same mountains (sierra madre occidental), however, huicholes live in more remote places deeper into the mountainous region than tepehuanos. it is known that the seroprevalence of t. gondii infection varies depending on the climate conditions in the communities, i.e., a low sero- prevalence in dry and hot climate [ ], and high seropreva- lence in humid regions [ ]. huicholes communities are located in a lower region on the mountains with warmer and more humid climate than the one of the tepehuanos settlements. however, difference in the seroprevalences among huicholes and tepehuanos should be interpreted with care because of an age limitation of the comparison: the mean age in tepehuanos ( . ± . years old) was lower than the one ( . ± . years old) in huicholes. toxoplasma exposure has been linked to low socioeco- nomic status [ , ], and such characteristics might have contributed to the increased seroprevalence of t. gondii in- fection in huicholes. the seroprevalence of t. gondii infec- tion in huicholes with low socioeconomic status ( . %) was higher than in those with medium socioeconomic sta- tus ( . %). however, such increase was not statistically sig- nificant because of the limited number (n = ) of subjects with medium socioeconomic status in the comparison. in the present study women outnumber men. the higher number of women than men in the study may be due to a number of factors including refusal of some men to partici- pate, and more migration and violent deaths in men than in women in the study region. however, the imbalance in sexes in this study is unlikely to affect the seroprevalence rate since seroprevalence of t. gondii infection has been found similar in men and in women of general populations in rural [ ] and urban [ ] durango, mexico. alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / multivariate analysis of the socio-demographic and be- havioral characteristics of the huicholes allowed us to identify that consumption of turkey meat was positively associated with t. gondii exposure in huicholes. in a pre- vious study in the general population in rural durango, consumption of turkey meat was also associated with t. gondii exposure [ ]. in addition, in a study in pregnant women in the urban capital durango city, consumption of turkey meat was associated with t. gondii infection too [ ]. turkey meat is a potential source for infection with t. gondii [ ]. experimental t. gondii oocyst infections in turkeys have shown the parasite spreading over the whole organism as determined by polymerase chain reaction [ ]. in a previous study in birds in durango, no serological evi- dence of t. gondii infection in turkeys (meleagris gallo- pavo) was found [ ]. however, the number of studied turkeys was too small to exclude t. gondii infections in tur- keys in durango. turkey meat is frequently cooked in big pieces; therefore, it is likely that this meat remains under- cooked in some deep areas. seroprevalence of t. gondii infection usually increases with age in our region [ , , ]. in the present survey, seroprevalence tended to increase with age; however, such increase did not reach statistical significance (p = . ). it is likely that the small sample size of the oldest huicholes subgroup prevented us obtaining a statisti- cally significant difference. remarkably, in the present study we found an associ- ation of t. gondii exposure with the presence of dizziness and memory impairment in huicholes. this finding may indicate a causal association of infection with t. gondii and central nervous system illness in huicholes. the asso- ciation of t. gondii exposure with dizziness and memory impairment was also found in a recent study in migrant agricultural workers in durango [ ]. the association of memory impairment and t. gondii exposure was also assessed in other ethnic groups in durango including mennonites [ ] and tepehuanos [ ]; however, no asso- ciation was found. the association of dizziness and t. gondii exposure was not assessed in mennonites [ ] and tepehuanos [ ]. we are not aware of further reports on the association of dizziness with t. gondii infection. on the other hand, the association of memory impair- ment with t. gondii infection found in the present study agrees with previous reports [ , ]. in a previous study in gardeners in durango city, t. gondii seropositivity was associated with memory impairment [ ]. in a recent study in seniors in germany, researchers found that t. gondii seropositivity was associated with a reduction of about % in working memory, a lower performance in verbal memory, and a decreased quality of life [ ]. a number of reports indicate that t. gondii infection may lead to neurological and behavioral changes. experiments in adult mice have shown that infections with t. gondii cause neurological and behavioral abnormalities secondary to inflammation and loss of brain parenchyma [ ]. in addition, chronic infections with t. gondii in mice can damage the spatial learning and memory capability [ ]. the behavioral alterations associated with t. gondii infec- tion in humans and animals were recently reviewed by flegr [ ] and webster et al., [ ]. intriguingly, latent t. gondii infection was associated with improvements in cognitive control processes in young healthy humans [ ]. however, this effect might perhaps not be found or even reversed in old age. beste et al. [ ] found that latent t. gondii infection leads to deficits in goal-directed behav- ior in otherwise healthy elderly individuals. anti-t. gondii igm antibodies were present in a high number of anti-t. gondii igg positive huicholes. such high frequency of igm positive results was unexpected and should be interpreted with care since igm elisa kits have a high rate of false positive results [ ]. there- fore, discrimination between recent and latent t. gondii infections is not accurately obtained by elisa. other methods such as igg avidity [ , ] may aid in such discrimination. the present study has some limitations, including the sampling method and the small sample size of eld- erly huicholes. we were unable to perform random sam- pling because participation of huicholes in the study depended to a large extent on the permission of the hui- choles leaders. huicholes leaders asked their people to participate and only huicholes who attended the invitation were sampled. a small number of elders attended the invitation. conclusion our results demonstrate serological evidence of t. gon- dii exposure in huicholes and toxoplasma may be impacting their health. this is the first report of t. gon- dii infection in huicholes, and results should be useful for the optimal design of preventive measures against t. gondii infection. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interest. authors’ contributions cae conceived and designed the study protocol, participated in the coordination and management of the study, performed the laboratory tests and the data analysis and wrote the manuscript. sjpv, lobs, fjira, oagg and fcr obtained blood samples, submitted the questionnaires and performed the data analysis. jht, ibg, ol, lfsa and ers performed the data analysis, and wrote the manuscript. all authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. author details biomedical research laboratory, faculty of medicine and nutrition, juárez university of durango state, avenida universidad s/n, durango, dgo, mexico. institute for scientific research “dr. roberto rivera-damm”, juárez university of durango state, avenida universidad s/n, durango, mexico. servicios de salud de durango, cuauhtémoc norte, durango, mexico. facultad de enfermería y obstetricia, juárez university of alvarado-esquivel et al. parasites & vectors , : page of http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/ / / durango state, cuauhtémoc norte, durango, mexico. institute for microbiology and hygiene, campus benjamin franklin, charité medical school, hindenburgdamm , d- berlin, germany. present address: roche molecular diagnostics, pleasanton, ca, usa. received: march accepted: june published: july references . dubey jp: toxoplasmosis of animals and humans. nd edition. boca raton, florida: crc press; . . hill de, chirukandoth s, dubey jp: biology and epidemiology of toxoplasma gondii in man and animals. anim health res rev , : – . . montoya jg, liesenfeld o: toxoplasmosis. lancet , : – . . weiss lm, dubey jp: toxoplasmosis: a history of clinical observations. int j parasitol , : – . . munoz m, liesenfeld o, heimesaat mm: immunology of toxoplasma gondii. immunol rev , : – . . lilly el, wortham cd: high prevalence of toxoplasma gondii oocyst shedding in stray and pet cats (felis catus) in virginia, united states. parasit vectors , : . doi: . / - - - . . alvarado-esquivel c, torres-castorena a, liesenfeld o, estrada-martínez s, urbina-Álvarez jd: high seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in a subset of mexican patients with work accidents and low socioeconomic status. parasit vectors , : . doi: . / - - - . . walle f, kebede n, tsegaye a, kassa t: seroprevalence and risk factors for toxoplasmosis in hiv infected and non-infected individuals in bahir dar, northwest ethiopia. parasit vectors , : . doi: . / - - - . . alvarado-esquivel c, rojas-rivera a, estrada-martínez s, sifuentes-Álvarez a, liesenfeld o, garcía-lópez cr, dubey jp: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in a mennonite community in durango state, mexico. j parasitol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, estrada-martínez s, garcía-lópez cr, rojas-rivera a, sifuentes-Álvarez a, liesenfeld o: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in tepehuanos in durango, mexico. vector borne zoonotic dis , : – . . meerburg bg, kijlstra a: changing climate-changing pathogens: toxoplasma gondii in north-western europe. parasitol res , : – . doi: . /s - - - . . julvez j, magnaval jf, meynard d, perie c, baixench mt: seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in niamey, niger. med trop (mars) , : – . . assmar m, amirkhani a, piazak n, hovanesian a, kooloobandi a, etessami r: toxoplasmosis in iran. results of a seroepidemiological study. bull soc pathol exot , : – . . markovich mp, shohat t, riklis i, avni r, yujelevski-rozenblit d, bassal r, cohen d, rorman e: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in the israeli population. epidemiol infect , : – . doi: . /s . . almería s, calvete c, pagés a, gauss c, dubey jp: factors affecting the seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in wild rabbits (oryctolagus cuniculus) from spain. vet parasitol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, silva-aguilar d, villena i, dubey jp: seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy goats in michoacán state, mexico. j parasitol , : – . doi: . / - . . . alvarado-esquivel c, romero-salas d, garcía-vázquez z, crivelli-diaz m, barrientos-morales m, lopez-de-buen l, dubey jp: seroprevalence and correlates of toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic pigs in veracruz state, mexico. trop anim health prod , : – . doi: . /s - - - . . alvarado-esquivel c, cruz-magallanes hm, esquivel-cruz r, estrada-martínez s, rivas-gonzález m, liesenfeld o, martínez-garcía sa, ramírez e, torres-castorena a, castañeda a, dubey jp: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in human adults from three rural communities in durango state, mexico. j parasitol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, estrada-martínez s, pizarro-villalobos h, arce-quiñones m, liesenfeld o, dubey jp: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in general population in a northern mexican city. j parasitol , : – . . yahaya n: review of toxoplasmosis in malaysia. southeast asian j trop med public health , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, campillo-ruiz f, liesenfeld o: seroepidemiology of infection with toxoplasma gondii in migrant agricultural workers living in poverty in durango, mexico. parasit vectors , : . . alvarado-esquivel c, sifuentes-alvarez a, narro-duarte sg, estrada-martínez s, díaz-garcía jh, liesenfeld o, martínez-garcía sa, canales-molina a: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in pregnant women in a public hospital in northern mexico. bmc infect dis , : . . koethe m, pott s, ludewig m, bangoura b, zöller b, daugschies a, tenter am, spekker k, bittame a, mercier c, fehlhaber k, straubinger rk: prevalence of specific igg-antibodies against toxoplasma gondii in domestic turkeys determined by kinetic elisa based on recombinant gra and gra . vet parasitol , : – . . bangoura b, zöller b, koethe m, ludewig m, pott s, fehlhaber k, straubinger rk, daugschies a: experimental toxoplasma gondii oocyst infections in turkeys (meleagris gallopavo). vet parasitol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, rajendran c, ferreira lr, kwok oc, choudhary s, alvarado-esquivel d, rodríguez-peña s, villena i, dubey jp: prevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection in wild birds in durango, mexico. j parasitol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, liesenfeld o, burciaga-lópez bd, ramos-nevárez a, estrada-martínez s, cerrillo-soto sm, carrete-ramírez fa, lópez-centeno mde l, ruiz-martínez mm: seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in elderly people in a northern mexican city. vector borne zoonotic dis , : – . doi: . /vbz. . . . alvarado-esquivel c, liesenfeld o, márquez-conde ja, estrada-martínez s, dubey jp: seroepidemiology of infection with toxoplasma gondii in workers occupationally exposed to water, sewage, and soil in durango, mexico. j parasitol , : – . . gajewski pd, falkenstein m, hengstler jg, golka k: toxoplasma gondii impairs memory in infected seniors. brain behav immun , : – . . hermes g, ajioka jw, kelly ka, mui e, roberts f, kasza k, mayr t, kirisits mj, wollmann r, ferguson dj, roberts cw, hwang jh, trendler t, kennan rp, suzuki y, reardon c, hickey wf, chen l, mcleod r: neurological and behavioral abnormalities, ventricular dilatation, altered cellular functions, inflammation, and neuronal injury in brains of mice due to common, persistent, parasitic infection. j neuroinflammation , : . . wang hl, bao ay, wang gh, jiang ms, liu zc, dong hf, guo y: effect of chronic toxoplasma infection on the spatial learning and memory capability in mice. zhongguo ji sheng chong xue yu ji sheng chong bing za zhi , : – . . flegr j: influence of latent toxoplasma infection on human personality, physiology and morphology: pros and cons of the toxoplasma-human model in studying the manipulation hypothesis. j exp biol , : – . doi: . /jeb. . . webster jp, kaushik m, bristow gc, mcconkey ga: toxoplasma gondii infection, from predation to schizophrenia: can animal behaviour help us understand human behaviour? j exp biol , : – . doi: . /jeb. . . stock ak, heintschel von heinegg e, köhling hl, beste c: latent toxoplasma gondii infection leads to improved action control. brain behav immun , : – . doi: . /j.bbi. . . . . beste c, getzmann s, gajewski pd, golka k, falkenstein m: latent toxoplasma gondii infection leads to deficits in goal-directed behavior in healthy elderly. neurobiol aging , : – . doi: . /j. neurobiolaging. . . . . liesenfeld o, press c, montoya jg, gill r, isaac-renton jl, hedman k, remington js: false-positive results in immunoglobulin m (igm) toxoplasma antibody tests and importance of confirmatory testing: the platelia toxo igm test. j clin microbiol , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, sethi s, janitschke k, hahn h, liesenfeld o: comparison of two commercially available avidity tests for toxoplasma-specific igg antibodies. arch med res , : – . . alvarado-esquivel c, niewiadomski a, schweickert b, liesenfeld o: antiparasitic treatment suppresses production and avidity of toxoplasma gondii-specific antibodies in a murine model of acute infection. eur j microbiol immunol (bp) , : – . doi: . /eujmi. . . . . doi: . / - - - cite this article as: alvarado-esquivel et al.: seroprevalence of toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in huicholes in mexico. parasites & vectors : . 	abstract 	background 	methods 	results 	conclusions 	background 	methods 	study design and study population 	sample size and sampling method 	socio-demographic, clinical, and behavioral data 	serological examination for t. gondii antibodies 	statistical analysis 	ethical aspects 	results 	discussion 	conclusion 	competing interests 	authors’ contributions 	author details 	references genetic structure of mennonite populations of kansas and nebraska m.h. crawford, d.d. dykes, and h.f. polesky abstract we describe the gene frequency distributions for different blood group, serum, a n d erythrocytic proteins for three m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s f r o m kansas a n d nebraska and c o m p a r e their gene frequencies with those of amish, hutterite, a n d m e n n o n i t e p o p u l a t i o n s using the topological m e t h o d of h a r p e n d i n g a n d jenkins ( ). subdivision of these c o m m u n i t i e s into congregations reveals that the "fission-fusion" m o d e l best characterizes the relationship between the genetic patterns a n d historical events. these m e n n o n i t e populations, although reproductively isolated at the t u r n of this century, are presently entering the m a i n s t r e a m of us rural culture. d u r i n g the s a n d s geneticists, anthropologists, a n d physicians o f t e n focused o n the genetics of h u m a n isolates. small, geographically or socially defined p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t were reproductively isolated a n d highly inbred were being studied t h r o u g h o u t the world ( g o l d s c h m i d t ). t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e s of those investigations were to d o c u m e n t t h e ef- fect of genetic d r i f t a n d to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m o d e of t r a n s m i s s i o n of r a r e genetic diseases. t h i s interest gave i m p e t u s to the study of such h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s as t h e h a b b a n i t e jews, t h e samaritans, tristan da c u n h a , p a r m a valley, a n d st. bartholemew. d u r i n g this t i m e the genetics of various a n a b a p t i s t groups, such as t h e amish, dunkers, a n d hutterites, was investigated. t h e s e early genetic isolate studies yielded a b o u n t y of i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e genetics of rare m u t a n t genes, for example, t h e ellis-van creveld s y n d r o m e , limb-girdle m u s c u l a r dystrophy, h e m o p h i l i a b, a n d congenital d e a f n e s s (mckusick et al. ). t h e d o c u m e n t a t i o n of genetic drift was less d r a m a t i c , even t h o u g h d . f . r o b e r t s ' s study of tristan da c u n h a succeeded in d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e effects of u n i q u e department of anthropology, university of kansas, lawrence, kansas . war memorial blood bank, minneapolis, minnesota . human biology, august , vol. , no. , pp. - © wayne state university press, key words: mennonites, population genetics, blood groups / crawford et al. historical events and stochastic processes on small p o p u l a t i o n s (roberts ). although the amish and hutterites were intensively studied, the m e n n o n i t e s were by a n d large ignored by the early geneticists and anthro- pologists. w i t h the exception of allen and r e d e k o p ' s ( ) prospectus for f u t u r e research a m o n g the o l d colony m e n n o n i t e s of mexico and a publication of gene frequencies for m e n n o n i t e s encountered by brown et al. ( ) in the g r a n chaco region of paraguay, little is known about the genetics of the mennonites. t h e genetic structure of the m e n n o n i t e p o p u l a t i o n s of kansas a n d nebraska is one p o r t i o n of a long-term research program initiated by the university of kansas during the mid- s on the genetics of differential biological aging. to date, these p o p u l a t i o n s have been described demographically (stevenson et al. ; lin a n d crawford ), anthropometrically (devor et al. a,b; sirijaraya a n d crawford ), physiologically (devor a n d crawford a,b; koertvelyessy et al. ), and genetically (crawford a n d rogers ; rogers ). t h e primary purposes of this article are ( ) t o describe the gene frequency distributions for various blood m a r k e r s in t h e mennonite populations of kansas and nebraska, ( ) t o e x a m i n e the genetic structure of these populations and its relationship to the e t h n o h i s t o r y of the anabaptists, and ( ) to d e t e r m i n e how systematic pressures, such as migration, affect the genetic structure of the m e n n o n i t e s . populations t h e m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s of k a n s a s a n d nebraska trace their origins to sixteenth-century europe. these diverse groups, constituting the anabaptist or left wing of the protestant r e f o r m a t i o n , hold in c o m m o n beliefs in the separation of church a n d state, adult baptism, and pacifism. different anabaptist d e n o m i n a t i o n s c a m e to b e identified in europe by their p r o m i n e n t local leaders. for example, t h e followers of jacob hutter are known as hutterites, the followers of jacob a m a n n became the amish, a n d the followers of m e n n o n s i m o n s call themselves the mennonites. persecution of the anabaptists in western europe, particularly in the netherlands and austria, forced t h e m to settle in t h e underdeveloped agricultural regions of eastern europe. in fifteen m e n n o n i t e refugee couples settled in the swampy lowlands south of danzig in west prus- sia and thus founded the przechowka church. t h e congregation increased genetic structure of mennonites / in n u m b e r a n d m a i n t a i n e d m e t i c u l o u s records. in all but seven families of this congregation emigrated to russia a n d settled in the u k r a i n e near t h e molotschna river. t h i s congregation a d o p t e d the n a m e alexanderwohl, in h o n o r of the r u s s i a n czar. e c o n o m i c conditions, changes in russian governmental policies, a n d possibly internal strife i n d u c e d the alexanderwohl m e n n o n i t e s t o emigrate to the u n i t e d states in . virtually the entire congregation emigrated, followed by m a n y of their relatives and descendants, w h o continued the e x o d u s until the soviet revolution e n d e d m o s t of this flow. o n their arrival in the u n i t e d states, c o m p e t i t i o n between railroad agents for l a n d sales a n d additional strife within the group resulted in t h e original alexanderwohl c o m m u n i t y splitting into three m a j o r divisions. o n e group settled west of lincoln, nebraska, in t o d a y ' s h e n d e r s o n . t h e other two groups settled in kansas, miles n o r t h of wichita. as these congregations prospered a n d grew in size, offshoots or subdivisions f o r m e d . today there are ten congregations derived f r o m or related to the original przechowka church. in the k a n s a s g r o u p was subdivided into two c o m m u n i t i e s , hoffnungsau a n d alexander- wohl. shortly after the t u r n of this century ( ), t a b o r split off the alexanderwohl congregation. in the goessel church separated f r o m the alexanderwohl congregation. in a d d i t i o n , t h e nebraska m e n n o n - ite bethesda congregation also underwent a fission f r o m t h e evangelical m e n n o n i t e s . for p u r p o s e s of c o m p a r i s o n , we include a m o r e conservative m e n - nonite group f r o m m e r i d i a n , kansas, in this study. t h i s c o m m u n i t y , k n o w n locally as the h o l d e m a n s of the church of g o d in christ m e n n o , is a heterogeneous p o p u l a t i o n f o u n d e d by j o h n h o l d e m a n in in ohio. t h e m e m b e r s h i p is largely pennsylvania g e r m a n a n d d u t c h (ostroger m e n n o n i t e s w h o migrated in f r o m volhynia in central poland) mixed with the kleine g e m e i n d e m e n n o n i t e s , w h o migrated to m a n i t o b a f r o m southern russia in . methods we collected b l o o d specimens f r o m three c o m m u n i t i e s of k a n s a s a n d nebraska (table ), packed them in ice, a n d shipped t h e m by air to the m i n n e a p o l i s war m e m o r i a l blood bank for analysis. although the sample size for m e r i d i a n appears to be small, it represents % of the total c o m m u n i t y a n d almost the entire adult population. t h e goessel sample represents % of the entire alexanderwohl church m e m b e r s h i p . t h e h e n d e r s o n sample includes m o r e than % of the town residents. / crawford et al. table . size of sample used for blood analyses population sample size (n) goessel meridian henderson total we performed red cell typings for the following systems: abo (anti- a, ai, b), rhesus (anti-c, c, d, e, e), m n s (anti-m, n , s, s), kell (anti- k, k), ( k p a , k p b ) , kidd (anti-jk a , j k b ) , duffy ( a n t i - f y a , f y b ) , p (anti- pi), vel (anti-v+), lutheran (anti-lu a , l u b ) , a n d several low-frequency antigens, including m t a , f r , and b u a . we p e r f o r m e d the red cell typings on microtiter (u) plates using % suspensions of washed erythrocytes and a modification of the m e t h o d of crawford et al. ( ). we diluted antisera to obtain optimal reactivity a n d incubated typings for hr at r o o m temperature ( ° c). before reading, we spun the typing plates for min at rpm. we also carried out tests t h a t required an antiglobulin phase. for these tests we used microtiter plates, washing t h e m three times with saline and rinsing in a c o o m b s rinser; we spun the plates before recording the results. we phenotyped serum proteins either electrophoretically or through isoelectric focusing (ief). transferrin (tf), haptoglobin (hp), a n d ceru- loplasmin (cp) phenotypes were identified f r o m acrylamide slabs with a m i d o black stain (polesky et al. ). t h e group-specific component (gc) and the properdin factor (bf) systems were simultaneously pheno- typed using the agarose electrophoretic m e t h o d described by dykes and polesky ( ). we employed the isoelectric focusing m e t h o d of dykes et al. ( ) for phenotyping gel. we obtained stroma-free hemolysates for d e t e r m i n i n g erythrocytic enzyme phenotypes by washing cells three times in saline, diluting : in distilled water, and centrifuging at high speed. specimens were stored at - ° c until tested. we phenotyped eight red cell protein markers. adenylate ki- nase (ak), -phosphogluconate dehydrogenase ( -pgd), a n d acid phos- phatase (acp) were simultaneously electrophoresed on a single horizontal starch gel (dykes a n d polesky ). t h e esterase d (esd), isocitrate de- hydrogenase (icd), and malate dehydrogenase ( m d h ) phenotypes were identified on a starch gel using a citrate-phosphate buffer system, p h = . , of karp and sutton ( ). locus of the enzyme phosphogluco- mutase (pgm) was phenotyped using the original technique of spencer genetic structure of mennonites / et al. ( ). in a d d i t i o n , glyoxalase (glo) was phenotyped using the m e t h o d s of h a r r i s a n d h o p k i n s o n ( ). allelic frequencies for the b l o o d group systems are m a x i m u m likelihood estimates c o m p u t e d by a modified maxlik program of reed a n d schull ( ). t h e s e gene frequencies are not corrected for the biological relationships t h a t are observed a m o n g the individuals included in t h e sample. analytical methods p o p u l a t i o n structure of the anabaptist groups is represented by the m e t h o d described by h a r p e n d i n g a n d jenkins ( ). sample allelic frequencies are converted to a relationship matrix r of dimension (l x l), where l is the n u m b e r of sample groups. t h e ijlh element of r is where k is t h e n u m b e r of alleles. t h e diagonal elements of /?, rir describe the overall d e v i a t i o n of the allelic frequencies of the array ( h a r p e n d i n g a n d j e n k i n s ; w o r k m a n et al. ). t h e weighted mean of the diagonal of t h e relationship matrix (rst), that is, the mean genetic heterogeneity of all p o p u l a t i o n s , is equivalent to wright's fst- relative genetic relationships a m o n g the anabaptist groups are graphically represented by a least-squares approximation of the r matrix. reduced-space eigenvectorial representations provide two-dimensional "genetic m a p s " of allelic frequency distributions. t h e eigenvector axes of the m a p s are scaled by the root of the corresponding eigenvalues and thus equalize t h e scale of projection (lalouel ). t h e relative c o n t r i b u t i o n s of systematic versus nonsystematic pres- sures on the microdifferentiation of subdivided populations are explored through the m e t h o d of h a r p e n d i n g and ward ( ). t h i s m e t h o d is based on the a s s u m p t i o n that u n d e r u n i f o r m systematic pressure het- erozygosity should decrease in p r o p o r t i o n to the increasing genetic dis- tance f r o m t h e centroid of the array. thus a u n i f o r m negative slope should result f r o m the regression of heterozygosity on a relative ge- netic distance. t h i s relationship is represented by a two-dimensional plot whose o r d i n a t e is genetic distance ( r / ) and whose abscissa is the mean per locus heterozygosity (ho)' (pl - pl)(pj - p l ) pl{\-pl) ( ) ( ) / crawford et al. where pt is the frequency of the zth allele and / is the n u m b e r of loci. to c o m p a r e the genetic relationship of the various mennonite congregations with a historically derived d e n d o g r a m , we p e r f o r m e d a cluster analysis on the gene frequency data. we used a b m d p m c o m p u t e r program (dixon ), which is based on the euclidean distance between two p o p u l a t i o n s (j and k) a n d is defined as / where xtj is the value of the ith variable in the jxh p o p u l a t i o n . t h e algorithm employed by this cluster program uses the distance between centroid clusters as a criterion for a m a l g a m a t i n g clusters. eight blood group systems and alleles were utilized in this cluster analysis. results tables and s u m m a r i z e the phenotypic counts a n d gene frequen- cies for blood groups, s e r u m proteins, and erythrocytic proteins in three m e n n o n i t e communities. of the b l o o d systems tested by the m i n n e a p o l i s blood bank ( systems reported in this publication), loci exhibit variant f o r m s at an incidence of % or m o r e . we call these " p o l y m o r p h i c " (table ). we tested a n u m b e r of rare familial variants, such as froese (fr ), scianna (bu a ), lw, gregory, wright, and miltenberger, for variation in these m e n n o n i t e populations. although these antigens are rare in the general u s population, the presence of some of t h e m , namely f r a n d b u a , has been reported in m e n n o n i t e groups (lewis et al. ). we did not detect any f r * individuals in this study, although out of individuals of o b l o o d group were b u a positive. although the l u t h e r a n b l o o d group system is usually p o l y m o r p h i c in northern europe, l u a ranges f r o m % to %; it is m o n o m o r p h i c in the three m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s . o n the basis of the b l o o d group frequencies, the goessel a n d hen- derson populations show genetic similarity a n d b o t h groups differ slightly f r o m the meridian population. these gene frequency patterns reflect the ethnohistory of these communities, with goessel and h e n d e r s o n hav- ing separated reproductively in . the meridian m e n n o n i t e s are a recent mixture of pennsylvania g e r m a n s , swiss, and dutch. because of the small size of the founding population, the gene frequencies consis- tently fall outside the ranges observed in germany, switzerland, and the netherlands. for example, in the m n s system b o t h goessel a n d merid- ian mennonites differ f r o m the gene frequencies observed in western genetic structure of mennonites / table . phenotypes and gene frequencies for blood group antigens system and goessel meridian henderson phenotypes counts gene frequency counts gene frequency counts gene frequency abo a, a, = . a! = . a, = . a a = . a = . a = . b b = . b = . b = . a , b o = . o = . o = . a b mnss ms mss mss ms = . ms = . ms = . mns ms = . ms = . ms = . mnss n s = . ns = . ns = . mns n s = . ns = . ns = . ns nss ns rhesus cde ccdee cde = . cde = . cde = . ccde cde = . cde = . cde = . cde cde = . cde = . cde = . cdee cde = . cde = . cde = . cde cde = . cde = . cde = . cede cde = . cde = . cde = . cdee cde duffy fy a + b - fy a = . fy a = . fy a = . a + b + f y b = . f y b = . f y b = . a - b + kidd j k a + b - jk a = . jk a = . jka = . a + b + j k b = . j k b = . jk b = . a - b + p i + p, = . pj = . p! = . - p = . p = . p = . kell kk k = . k = . k = . kk k = . k = . k = . kk k p a + b - k p a = . k p a = . k p a = . a + b + k p b = . k p b = . k p b = . a - b + / crawford et al. (table cont.) system and goessel meridian henderson phenotypes counts gene frequency counts gene frequency counts gene frequency lewis le a + b - l e ( a + b - ) = . l e ( a + b - ) = . l e ( a + b - ) = . a + b + l e ( a - b + ) = . l e ( a - b + ) = . l e ( a - b + ) = . a - b + l e ( a - b - ) = . l e ( a - b - ) = . l e ( a - b - ) = . a - b - europe, whereas henderson m e n n o n i t e s c o n f o r m m o r e closely to the ob- served european pattern ( m o u r a n t et al. ). these d a t a suggest that the founding mennonites do not represent a r a n d o m sample of either g e r m a n y or the netherlands but constitute a u n i q u e genetic amalgam. there is little comparative i n f o r m a t i o n on the b l o o d genetics of mennonite populations. brown et al. ( ) described t h e blood group frequencies of m e n n o n i t e settlers w h o were encountered by the researchers in the g r a n chaco region of paraguay. t h i s c h a c o colony emigrated f r o m canada in . t h e r e is considerable genetic difference between this small paraguayan sample a n d the m e n n o n i t e s of kansas and nebraska. specifically, the chaco m e n n o n i t e s exhibit high frequencies of o blood group ( %), m s ( %), and c d e ( %) a n d low frequencies of b ( ), ms ( %), and cde ( %). t h e differences between these m e n n o n i t e groups are probably a result of a c o m b i n a t i o n of factors, namely, the genetic composition of t h e f o u n d e r s a n d the small size of the sample f r o m paraguay. most of the serum protein gene frequencies observed in m e n n o n i t e populations fall within or j u s t outside t h e published e u r o p e a n gene frequency ranges. for example, in europe a n p o p u l a t i o n s the group- specific c o m p o n e n t (also t e r m e d the v i t a m i n d b i n d i n g c o m p o n e n t or dbp) varies for the g c allele between % a n d % (constans et al. ). t h e frequency of this allele in the three m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s is slightly elevated and beyond the published e u r o p e a n ranges. although the g c i s allele has a frequency of - % in europe, t h e m e n n o n i t e populations range between % a n d %. a sample of m e n n o n i t e s (combined goessel a n d meridian c o m m u n i t i e s ) has been described for gc a n d p g m isoelectric focusing subtypes (dykes et al. ). as expected, these reported frequencies are intermediate between values for each of the two communities. one interesting finding in one of the m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s is the presence of the g c a gene. t h i s gene is rarely observed in european populations unless there is a history of african or australian aborigine admixture. although g c a was first detected in australian aborigines and was initially n a m e d g c a b , its highest incidence is in central africa genetic structure of mennonites / table . phenotypes and gene frequencies for serum and red blood cell proteins systems and goessel meridian henderson phenotypes counts gene frequency counts gene frequency counts gene frequency haptoglobin hp - hp = . hp = . hp = . - h p = . h p = . h p = . - h p c a r l = . h p c a r , = . h p c a r l = . -carl ceruloplasmin cpab c p a = . c p a = c p a = . bb c p b = . c p b = . c p b = . bc c p c = . c p c = . c p c = . bf f fs f = . f = . f = . s s = . s = . s = . ff so. = . so. = . so. = . fso. f, = . f, = . fj = . f,s sso. so. s . f gc - g c = . g c = . gc = . - g c = . g c = . g c = . - g c a b = . g c a b = . g c a b = . - a b gc: (isoelectric focus) is is f is = . is = . is = . s if = . if = . if = . if = . = . = . if a = . a = . a = . l a l ( a b ) ada - a d a = . a d a = . a d a = . - a d a = . a d a = . a d a . - adenylate kinase a k = . ak - a k = . a k = . a k = . - a k = . a k = . a k = . / crawford et al. (table cont.) systems and phenotypes goessel meridian henderson counts gene frequency counts gene frequency counts gene frequency -pgd aa p d a = . p d a = . p d a = . ac p d c = . p d c = . p d b = . ab p d c = . acp a ab a c p a = . a c p a = . a = . b a c p b = . a c p b = . b = . bc a c p = . a c p = . c = . ac c esterase d - esd = . e s d = . esd = . - e s d = . e s d = . e s d = . - pgm j - pgm j = . p g m , = . p g m = . - p g m , = . p g m , = . p g m = . - p g m r = . p g m r = . p g m r = . -r pgmj + - + = . l + = . + = . - - = . " = . ~ = . + + + = . + = . + = . + - ~ = . " = . " = . - + it = . lr = . - - + + - lr glo - glo = . n t g l o = . - g l o = . g l o = . - icd - icd = . n t i c d = . - i c d = . i c d = . m d h - m d h = . n t m d h = . genetic structure of mennonites / table . summary of polymorphic and monomorphic loci among at least one of three populations reported in this study polymorphic loci monomorphic loci abo lutheran rhesus ceruloplasmin mns -phosphogluconate dehydrogenase kidd isocitrate dehydrogenase duffy malate dehydrogenase p gregory kell froese (fr ) lewis scianna (bu a ) gm* lw glyoxalase i vel km* wright haptoglobin miltenberger properdin factor group specific component adenosine deaminase adenylate kinase acid phosphatase esterase d phosphoglucomutase * reported in another publication. ( c o n s t a n s et al. ). considering t h e presence of an african marker pgm'j gene in t h e s a m e person with the g c a , it is highly likely that b o t h these genes were introduced through american black gene flow into the p o p u l a t i o n . t h e f r e q u e n c y of the h p allele in the three m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i - ties is lower t h a n its incidence in germany, switzerland, or the nether- lands. in particular, h p occurs in meridian at . % versus the - % in those regions of e u r o p e f r o m which the mennonites originated. a rare haptoglobin variant, carlberg, was detected in two of the m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s . h p carlberg ( h p ca) was originally described by galatius-jensen ( ). t h i s phenotype resembles a mixture of h p - a n d h p - in variable proportions, p r o m p t i n g sutton ( ) to suggest that this variant may be the result of genetic mosaicism. more recently, the h p ca p h e n o t y p e has been explained on the basis of a possible m u t a t i o n of t h e h p a chain followed by a decrease in the synthesis of the p o l y p e p t i d e (bowman a n d kurosky ). / crawford et al. s - l e u t n ( ) l - l e u t i n d i a n a p a r a g u a y ^ ^ ^ © ® ( z ) m e r i d i a n west e u r o p e ( ) ® © g o e s s e l © h e n d e r s o n figure . least-squares reduction genetic map of the eight anabaptist populations based on allelic frequencies for ten alleles and three loci. three kansas and nebraska mennonite communities are represented by meridian, goessel, and hender- son. gene frequencies for the other anabaptist groups were obtained from juberg et al. ( ), brown et al. ( ), and steinberg et al. ( ). population structure figure shows the population structure in the reduced-space ge- netic m a p of the three kansas and nebraska m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s compared to other anabaptist groups a n d western europe (represented by mean gene frequencies f r o m the regions of origin of t h e m e n n o n - ites). this plot is based on ten alleles and three loci. t h e n u m b e r of loci used in this analysis was necessitated by the availability of data on other anabaptist groups. samples are arrayed along the first two scaled eigenvectors, which together account for % of the total variation in the sample (eigenvector , %; eigenvector , %). t h e addition of the third eigenvector in a pseudo-three-dimensional representation accounts for % of the total variation. t h e genetic m a p in figure indicates little genetic divergence a m o n g the various anabaptist groups, with the cluster populations in close proximity to the centroid of the distribution. of the three mennonite c o m m u n i t i e s studied in kansas a n d nebraska, the meridian population differs f r o m the other two groups. t h i s genetic difference is a result of their ethnohistory and genetic f o u n d a t i o n , with goessel and henderson being a single c o m m u n i t y until . meridian had few founders. goessel and h e n d e r s o n individuals, w h o are general conference mennonites (the most m a i n s t r e a m of the mennonites), have the closest genetic affinity to the composite western e u r o p e popul a t i on. the paraguay mennonites differ f r o m the other groups probably because of their small sample size (n = ) and may represent a fission of the larger canadian gene pool along familial lines. genetic structure of mennonites / figure . plot of mean per locus heterozygosity h ( / / is used interchangeably) against distance from the centroid rh of the relationship matrix for eight anabaptist communities. the r matrix is based on ten blood group alleles and three loci. figure indicates t h e relationship between mean per locus het- erozygosity ( / / ) a n d the relative distance f r o m the centroid of the allelic d i s t r i b u t i o n ( r / z ) for the seven anabaptist groups and a composite west- ern e u r o p e g r o u p . t h i s c o m p a r i s o n reflects the ethnohistory and origins of the a n a b a p t i s t groups. t h e paraguayan mennonites exhibit low het- erozygosity a n d high rih suggesting that this population is experiencing the action of n o n s y s t e m a t i c pressures because of its geographic repro- ductive isolation a n d small size. by contrast, the indiana amish have high heterozygosity a n d high ru and, like the paraguay mennonites, are located far f r o m expectation, as d e m o n s t r a t e d by their distance f r o m the theoretical regression line. t h i s unusually high level of ru and h a m o n g the a m i s h is probably t h e result of a highly heterogeneous f o u n d i n g pop- ulation acted on by n o n s y s t e m a t i c pressures. however, the goessel and h e n d e r s o n p o p u l a t i o n s exhibit relatively high levels of heterozygosity and low rih suggesting elevated migration rates and exogamy. / crawford et al. wright's fst statistics have been widely used to measure the ge- netic microdifferentiation of subdivided populations. in c o m p a r i s o n with other studies of fst, the anabaptist p o p u l a t i o n s exhibit a low fst level of . . t h i s value indicates t h a t these anabaptist groups can be consid- ered genetically homogeneous (based on alleles) and have experienced little genetic differentiation. in contrast, subdivided c i r c u m p o l a r popu- lations attain fst values of . , a n d the m a j o r geographic entities of homo sapiens exhibit values u p to . (crawford and enciso ). figure contains a least-squares reduction genetic m a p of the three m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s subdivided by congregations. we reduced alleles a n d genetic loci into eigenvectors. t h e first two scaled eigenvectors account for almost % of the gene frequency variance in the array. t h e first eigenvector (e\) has almost twice the discriminating power and accounts for . % of the variance, versus . % for e . the first scaled eigenvector separates k a n s a n f r o m nebraskan mennonites. t h e goessel c o m m u n i t y is subdivided into three congregations, namely, the alexanderwohl, tabor, and goessel churches. goessel a n d tabor split f r o m the alexanderwohl church in a n d , respectively. in figure the alexanderwohl church is the m o s t proximal to t h e centroid of the array, whereas the goessel and tabor churches have b e e n separated f r o m their parental groups by the frequencies of the p~ and esterase d alleles. t h e bases for the distribution of the groups along the second axis ( e ^ ) shown in figure is less obvious. t h e reduced-space representation of the alleles used to c o m p u t e the genetic m a p shows that g c f and cde separate the populations along the second axis. figure is a plot of the m e a n per locus heterozygosity and ru for the various congregations. t h i s m e a n of h a n d ru is based on alleles instead of the shown in figure . alexanderwohl, meridian, a n d , to a lesser extent, goessel a n d tabor r e m a i n closest to the theoretical regression line (the predicted relationship between the two variables). t h e henderson mennonite congregation exhibits t h e highest heterozygosity level, whereas the bethesda a n d the evangelical congregations have the lowest h . in this plot the heterozygosity levels of the congregations are reduced to some extent because of the a d d i t i o n of a large n u m b e r of diallelic loci. m a j o r differences are observed in a c o m p a r i s o n of two m e n n o n i t e congregation dendograms, one a historical reconstruction of p o p u l a t i o n fission and fusion (figure ) and the other based on the cluster analysis of gene frequencies (figure ). genetically, the tabor p o p u l a t i o n is sep- arate from the other m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s , even t h o u g h historically it split off only two generations ago. t h e evangelical church in h e n d e r - genetic structure of mennonites / bethesda evangelical e x / goessel tabor meridan alexanderwohl henderson m.b. figure . least-squares reduction genetic map ot the three mennonite communities subdivided into seven congregations. frequencies from alleles and genetic loci were used to construct the r matrix. ) o < o a , a c p b k cde b f f b m cde f y b a c p c gc g c , s s j k a cde ada b i f ' ak b f hp b f s acp* cde \ i *= o) _q j- ~ c ® > ° ( © ) <j) co uj o i - < i a c p b s m \ e > l / cde hp bff« / b f b f f b k gc i cde e s d ' a] ada acpa j k a a c p c g c ^ j figure . dispersion of the seven mennonite congregations and alleles along eigenvectors associated with the two largest eigenvectors of r and a matrices. / crawford et al. . . henderson meridan h . . . evangelical . . . . . . . . . . figure . plot of mean per locus heterozygosity ( h ) against distance from the centroid r / of the r matrix for seven mennonite congregations. frequencies from alleles and loci were used. son, nebraska, and the goessel congregation c a m e off the genetic tree next, even though historically their origins m u s t be traced to russia. these findings support the hypothesis t h a t the fission of the m e n n o n i t e gene pools occurred along familial lines a n d does n o t represent a ran- d o m subset of the p o p u l a t i o n . t h e bethesda a n d alexanderwohl com- munities, both r e m n a n t s of the original division of the alexanderwohl congregation in , cluster together genetically. yet, despite their het- erogeneous european origins, b o t h meridian a n d the h e n d e r s o n men- nonite congregations show closer genetic affinities t h a n d o the offshoot congregations. discussion t h e population history of the m e n n o n i t e s can be characterized in t e r m s of a fission-fusion model, which is schematically represented in figure . the founders of the various m e n n o n i t e groups c a m e f r o m the netherlands, switzerland, n o r t h e r n germany, moravia, alsace, and tirol. t h e earliest groups were f o u n d e d by a small n u m b e r of individuals coming from different regions of europe. t h e przechowka church in west prussia, which eventually gave rise to the alexanderwohl congregation, was f o u n d e d by refugee couples f r o m the netherlands a n d switzerland. t h i s congregation, through high m genetic structure of mennonites / w e s t e r n e u r o p e r u s s i a u n i t e d s t a t e s tabor alexanderwohl a l e x a n d e r w o h l a l e x a n d e r w o h l (kansas) g o e s s e l a l e x a n d e r w o h l n e t h e r l a n d s evangelical b e t h e s d a g a l l i c i a n s (nebraska) bethesda w e s t p r u s s i a n s church of g o d in christ church of g o d in christ meridian o s t o r o g e r s mennonites mennonite brethern henderson m b figure . the ethnohistory of the seven mennonite congregations summarized by a dendogram. the dotted lines indicate that various combinations of dutch and german populations contributed to the formation of the nebraskan and kansan mennonites. this dendogram is based on an unpublished flow diagram constructed by john janzen. fertility a n d t h e a d d i t i o n of other migrants f r o m prussia a n d moravia, in- creased in n u m b e r a n d in relocated in the ukraine. the community was r e n a m e d alexanderwohl, a n d when the russian government revoked the military e x e m p t i o n s for mennonites, the entire c o m m u n i t y emigrated t o the u n i t e d states in . o n arrival, alexanderwohl underwent the first fission, with one g r o u p settling in nebraska a n d founding the town of h e n d e r s o n a n d the second group settling in kansas. t h i s kansas sub- division of the alexanderwohl c o m m u n i t y settled in two communities, h o f f n u n g s a u a n d goessel. shortly after the t u r n of the twentieth century, in , t a b o r split f r o m the alexanderwohl congregation (located in the town of goessel) a n d established the goessel church in . in addi- tion, the nebraska m e n n o n i t e bethesda congregation also underwent a fission, with t h e separation of the evangelical mennonites. a similar fission a n d fusion of p o p u l a t i o n s has been described by olsen ( ) for t h e h u t t e r i t e s of n o r t h america. olsen characterized the f o r m a t i o n of h u t t e r i t e colonies on the basis of historic a n d demographic / crawford et al. cd cd amalg. s r- distance ct> co c d co ^t r - ct) c d cd f ^ nt w c\l co co co co hv! meridian h e n d e r s o n mb b e t h e s d a alexanderwohl goessel evangelical t a b o r figure . a dendogram based on the cluster analysis of the frequencies of blood group systems and alleles. this clustering method is based on the distance between centroids as a criterion for amalgamation. evidence for - and likened their structure in m a n y respects to the y a n o m a m o of venezuela. although the m e n n o n i t e s d o not explicitly follow a policy of splitting off daughter colonies because of high fertility, this population subdivision does occur de facto. most of the general conference m e n n o n i t e splits appear to be d u e t o personality conflicts, doctrinal disagreements, or both. although e c o n o m i c considerations are not voiced, they should n o t be ignored as one of the mot i va t i n g factors for population fission. this fission-fusion process is reflected in the genetic structure of the mennonites. for example, the c o n t e m p o r a r y alexanderwohl congre- gation remains proximal to the center of the allelic array, whereas its offshoots, tabor and goessel, show marked genetic difference. given the short time since the fission of these p o p u l a t i o n s ( - generations), it is unlikely that the tabor a n d goessel m e n n o n i t e s would experience this magnitude of genetic microdifferentiation. t h e two m o r e likely explana- tions for this genetic uniqueness are p o p u l a t i o n sampling a n d subdivi- sion by families. sampling may play a m a j o r role, because the t a b o r and genetic structure of mennonites / goessel s a m p l e s are the smallest of all the congregations studied. it is also likely t h a t the fission process involving tabor, goessel, a n d alexan- derwohl t o o k place along familial lines, producing a n o n r a n d o m division of the gene pool. in s u p p o r t of this, rogers ( ) d e m o n s t r a t e d through the use of s u r n a m e analysis t h a t the initial fissioning of the m e n n o n i t e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p was n o n r a n d o m . t h e r e were surnames a m o n g the families t h a t i m m i g r a t e d ; however, only of these s u r n a m e s ( %) are f o u n d in all three settlements. t h e m e r i d i a n c o m m u n i t y (church of g o d in christ m e n n o ) is a heterogeneous p o p u l a t i o n f o u n d e d in . although this group is small a n d highly conservative with regard to endogamy, it has experienced a low level of inbreeding (sirijaraya ). as a result of the genetic heterogeneity of its f o u n d e r s , the m e r i d i a n congregation r e m a i n s close to the regression line in the ru versus h c o m p a r i s o n . meridian displays a relatively high heterozygosity b u t a low distance f r o m the centroid of the allelic f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n (see figure ). t h e k a n s a s m e n n o n i t e p o p u l a t i o n s also experienced various de- grees of r e p r o d u c t i v e isolation a n d inbreeding t h ro u g h o u t their history. according to rogers ( ), their inbreeding coefficient ( f ) varied f r o m % in - to . % in - . at present, the general confer- ence m e n n o n i t e c o m m u n i t i e s of k a n s a s a n d nebraska cannot be char- acterized as genetic isolates because a high p r o p o r t i o n of marriages are with n o n - m e n n o n i t e s . d u r i n g the last - years, approximately % of all the marraiges in hoffnungsau, kansas, were contracted with non- m e n n o n i t e s (kay ). however, f r o m - the c o m m u n i t y was % e n d o g a m o u s . since world war i the reproductive isolation has rapidly b r o k e n d o w n with the congregation m e m b e r s becoming m o r e integrated into m a i n s t r e a m american life. before m o r e than % of the marriages were m e n n o n i t e e n d o g a m o u s . marital partners were m e n n o n i t e b u t f r o m a different village or town. by m e n n o n i t e en- d o g a m y o c c u r r e d in . % of the marriages a n d . % were exogamous (kay ). t h e b l o o d genetics s u p p o r t the conclusion that the general con- ference m e n n o n i t e s described in this study are n o longer m e m b e r s of genetic isolates a n d are culturally approaching the m a i n s t r e a m farming c o m m u n i t i e s . t h e high levels of heterozygosity reflect considerable sys- t e m a t i c pressure in the f o r m of migration. t h e m e a n per locus heterozy- gosity varies f r o m % to %, based on b l o o d systems. in addition, the presence of several african m a r k e r genes suggests gene flow f r o m the american black gene p o o l into the m e n n o n i t e groups. c o n t e m p o r a r y k a n s a s a n d nebraska general conference m e n n o n - ite genetic s t r u c t u r e can best be explained on the basis of episodes of / crawford et al. fission and fusion, followed by a rapid breakdown of reproductive isola- tion. thus these mennonite populations can n o longer be characterized as highly inbred genetic isolates. acknowledgments this research was supported in part by the national institute of aging under grant ago and the university of kansas under faculty research award - . crawford received support through a public health service research career development award (k de - ). we would like to thank the mennonite communities of goessel, henderson, and meridian for their patience and good will in this project. special words of thanks go to john janzen, whose reconstruction of the ethnohistory was used in this publication, and to laurine rogers, who helped organize and administer this research program. revision received june . literature cited allen, g. random genetic drift inferred from surnames in old colony mennonites. hum. biol. ( ): - . allen, g., and c. redekop individual differences in survival and reproduction in survival and reproduction among old colony mennonites in mexico: progress to october . eugen. quart. : - . allen, g., and c.w. redekop old colony mennonites in mexico: migration and inbreeding. soc. biol. : - . bowman, b.h., and a. kurosky haptoglobin: the evolutionary product of duplication, unequal crossing over, and point mutation. in advances in human genetics, h. harris and k. hirschorn, eds. new york: plenum press, vol. , - . brown, s.m., d.c. gajdusek, w.c. leyshon, a.g. steinberg, k.s. brown, and c.c. curtain genetic studies in paraguay: blood group, red cell, and serum genetic patterns of the guayaki and ayore indians, mennonite settlers, and seven other indian tribes of the paraguayan chaco. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . constans, j., s. hazout, r.m. garruto, d.d. gajdusek, and e.k. spees population distribution of the human vitamin d binding protein: anthropological considerations. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . crawford, m.h., and v.b. enciso population structure of circumpolar groups of siberia, alaska, canada, and greenland. in current developments in anthropo- logical genetics, vol. , ecology and population structure, m.h. crawford and j.h. mielke, eds. new york: plenum press, - . crawford, m.h., and l. rogers population genetic models in the study of aging and longevity in a mennonite community. soc. sci. med. : - . crawford, m . h . , f.e. g o t t m a n , and a.c. g o t t m a n m i c r o p l a t e s y s t e m for routine use in blood bank laboratories. transfusion : - . devor, e.j., and m.h. crawford a a commingling analyses of quantitative neuromuscular performance in a kansas mennonite congregation. am. j. phys. anthropol. (l): - . genetic structure of mennonites / devor, e.j., and m.h. crawford b family resemblance for neuromuscular per- formance in a kansas mennonite congregation. am. j. phys. anthropol. ( ): - . devor, e.j., m. mcgue, m.h. crawford, and p.m. lin a transmissible and nontransmissible components of anthropometric variation in the alexanderwohl mennonites. i. description and familial correlation. am. j. phys. anthropol. ( ): — . devor, e.j., m. mcgue, m.h. crawford, and p.m. lin b transmissible and nontransmissible components of anthropometric variation in the alexanderwohl mennonites. ii. resolution by path analysis. am. j. phys. anthropol. (l): - . dixon, w.j. b m d p statistical software. berkeley, cal.: university of california press. dykes, d.d., and h.f. polesky the usefulness of serum protein and erythrocyte enzyme polymorphisms in paternity testing. am. j. clin. pathol. : - . dykes, d.d., and h.f. polesky properdin factor b (bo as an exclusion determi- nate in parental testing. hum. genet. : - . dykes, d.d., m.h. crawford, and h.f. polesky population distribution in north and central america of pgm, and gc subtypes as determined by isoelectric focusing (ief). am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . dykes, d.d., h.f. polesky, and e. cox isoelectric focusing of gc (vitamin d-binding globulin) in parentage testing. hum. genet. : - . galatius-jensen, f. rare phenotypes in the hp system. acta genet. : . goldschmidt, e. the genetics of migrant and isolate populations. new york: williams and wilkins. harpending, h.c., and t. jenkins genetic distance among southern african populations. in methods and theories of anthropological genetics, m.h. crawford and p.l. workman, eds. albuquerque, n.m.: university of new mexico press, — . harpending, h., and r. ward chemical systematics and human populations. in biochemical aspects of evolutionary biology, m. nitecki, ed. chicago, .: university of chicago press, - . h a r r i s , h . , and d.a. hopkinson handbook of enzyme electrophoresis in human genetics. amsterdam: north-holland. — juberg, r.c., w.j. schull, h. gershowitz, and l.m. davis blood group gene frequencies in an amish deme of northern indiana: comparison with other amish demes. hum. biol. : - . karp, g.w., and h.e. sutton some new phenotypes of human red cell and phosphatases. am. j. hum. genet. : - . kay, b. demography of hoffnungsau. unpublished. koertvelyessy, t.a., m.h. crawford, and j. hutchinson ptc taste thresh- old distributions and age in mennonite populations. hum. biol. : - . lalouel, j.m. the topology of population structure. in genetic structure of populations, n. morton, ed. honolulu, hawaii; university press of hawaii, - . lewis, m., h. karta, p.j. mcalpine, j. fletcher, and j.j. moulds a "new" blood group antigen fr : incidence, inheritance, and genetic linkage analysis. vox sang. : - . lin, p.m., and m.h. crawford a comparison of mortality patterns in human populations residing under diverse ecological conditions: a time analysis. hum. biol. : - . / crawford et al. mccombs, m.l., and b.h. bowman demonstration of inherited ceruloplasmin variants in human serum by acrylamide electrophoresis. tex. rep. biol. med. : - . mckusick, v.a., j.a. hostetler, j.a. egeland, and r. eldridge the distri- bution of certain genes in the old order amish. cold spring harbor symp. quant. biol. : . m o u r a n t , a . e . , a . c . k o p l c , a n d k . domaniewska-sobazak t h e distribution of the human blood groups and other polymorphisms (oxford monographs on medical genetics), d ed. oxford: oxford university press. olsen, c.l. the demography of colony fission from - among the hut- terites of north america. am. anthropol. : - . polesky, h.f., d. rokala, and t. hoff serum proteins in paternity testing. in paternity testing, h.f. polesky, ed. chicago, .: american society of clinical pathologists, division of educational media services, - . reed, t.e., and w.j. schull a general maximum likelihood estimation program. am. j. hum. genet. : - . — roberts, d.f. genetic effects of population size reduction. nature : - . — rogers, l.a. phylogenetic identification of a religious isolate and the measurement of inbreeding. ph.d. dissertation, university of kansas, lawrence. rogers, l.a. concordance in isonymy and pedigree measures o f inbreeding: the effects of sample composition. hum. biol. : - . slrijaraya, s. inbreeding in the meridian mennonites of kansas. masters thesis, university of kansas, lawrence. slrijaraya, s., and m.h. crawford the effects of aging and the secular trend on the body morphology of the mennonites. unpublished. spencer, n . , d . a . hopkjnson, a n d h . h a r r i s p h o s p h o g l u c o m u t a s e p o l y m o r - phism in man. nature : - . steinberg, a . g . , h . k . bleibtreu, t . w . k u r c z y n s k i , a . o . m a r t i n , a n d e . m . kurczynski genetic studies on an inbred human isolate. in proceedings of the third international congress of human genetics, j.f. crow and j.v. neel, eds. baltimore, md.: johns hopkins university press, - . stevenson, j.c., p.m. everson, and m . h . c r a w f o r d m e n n o n i t e fertility in three midwest communities: changes in completed family size and reproductive span. hum. biol. : - . sutton, h.e. biochemical genetics and man: accomplishments and problems. science : . w o r k m a n , p.l., j.h. mielke, and h . r . nevanlina t h e g e n e t i c structure o f finland. am. j. phys. anthropol. : - . e’lpa�heia (empatheia) and caritas: the role of religion in fair trade consumption caroline josephine doran samuel michael natale abstract. there is much still to learn about the nature of fair trade consumers. in light of the pope’s encyclical caritas in veritate, this article sought to advance the current understanding by investigating the role of religion in fair trade consumption. in this study, fair trade consumers and non-consumers across many religions as well as the non- religious described their consumption of fair trade products as well as the use of their religious beliefs in their purchase behavior. it appears that the non-religious are slightly more inclined toward buying fair trade products. of the religious observers studied, buddhists have a greater propensity to buy fair trade. the relationship between religion and fair trade consumption is complex in that religious affiliation – group membership – alone is not enough to encourage members to buy fair trade; rather, it is the use of religious beliefs as a criterion in consumption behavior that linked religion to fair trade consumption. key words: ethical consumption, fair trade, religion, religious beliefs, papal encyclicals, consumerism, values introduction there is…a growing conviction that business man- agement cannot concern itself only with the interests of the proprietors, but must also assume responsibility for all the other stakeholders who contribute to the life of the business: the workers, the clients, the suppliers of various elements of production, the community of reference.’ (no ). the latest encyclical of pope benedict xvi, caritas in veritate, has sharply refocused and extended the church’s teaching on social responsibility broadly conceived. it is in the tradition of rerum novarum, quadragesimo anno, populorum progessio, solicitude rei socialis, and other less formal pronouncements. how- ever, with the intensified global business network and the financial collapse clearly linked to ethical failures of those charged with vigilance, the document fills a deeply needed void in the current argument by expanding the church’s application to the current situation. the pope’s argument states clearly that the goals of business may be profit but it must be profit, economic and humane. in short, the goals must always be tied to ‘‘achieving human and social ends’’ (no ). one of the areas in which this mandate can be carried out without damaging either the profit motive or the social component of community is with fair trade. this model of business allows for compo- nents such as charity and empathy to be entered into the ledger of business practices as elements that enhance not only the human society in general, but also increases the wealth of the world. nor is the pope naı̈ve as he comments, ‘‘the world’s wealth is grow- ing in absolute terms, but inequalities are on the increase.’’ the gauntlet is clearly thrown down: how can one approach business in a socially responsible, charitable, and empathic manner? the church has been considerably ahead of the wave in terms of social concern and the dignity of the person. the notion that management was failing to fulfil its social responsibilities was argued by kotler ( ) three decades ago yet management continues to remain focused on profits at the expense of all else. management still argues that its moral imperative is to provide a return to those who invest in businesses and not other stakeholders. they are emboldened by friedman’s ( ) argument that management’s only responsibility is its fiduciary responsibility to investors and should managers feel obliged to be socially responsible then they should do so with their own money and not that of the business. this is not a sentiment that has dissipated over the last years. however, now more than ever, businesses have the journal of business ethics ( ) : – � springer doi . /s - - -y opportunity to take an ethical stance without hurting investors simply by choosing to market products with an ethical attribute. these products appeal to a growing interest among consumers in purchasing goods that reflect their personal ethical beliefs. the concept of ethical consumption has been garnering increased attention in recent years from academia (bezencon and blili, ) but despite this, still not enough is known about what low and davenport ( ) describe as the ‘‘stubbornly elu- sive’’ ethical consumer (p. ). this article seeks to further the current understanding through its investigation of the role of religion in the decision to buy ethical products; specifically, fair trade products. why religion? social scientists argue that religious values and institutions are formidable forces in contemporary society from both a social and political perspective (gay and ellison, ). approximately % of americans are absolutely certain god exists; another % are fairly sure. a total of % of americans report that religion is either very important or somewhat important in their lives (the pew forum, ). therefore, this facet of life is worth investigation to determine if it can highlight aspects of the fair trade consumption that are hith- erto unknown. this study seeks to advance the understanding of the antecedents of fair trade con- sumption by investigating the affect of religious membership on the propensity to buy fair trade. there a number of ways that the religious con- struct might be operationalized and this study looks at the role of affiliation. the religious affiliation dimension is defined as a person’s current denomi- nation or sect. different religions exhibit different patterns of consumption; products are viewed and prized differently by different religions thus shopping and purchasing behavior of their members differ (essoo and dibb, ). hence, it is not a stretch to assume that this also applies to shopping for and buying fair trade products. the remainder of this article discusses ethical consumption, fair trade, religion and fair trade, methodology, results, and discussion. ethical consumption consumer interest in ethical products is not new; in its contemporary form, it is a phenomenon hundreds of years in the making. since british abolitionists began to protest the use of slave labor on sugar plantations people have been concerned with how goods are produced (jaffee et al., ). however, ethical consumption as we know it today has its genesis with the emergence of the green movement (freestone and mcgoldrick, ; nicholls, ). ethical consumption nowadays is more broadly defined in that a consumer can choose a range of products each supporting beliefs regarding people, the environment, or both. people have become increasingly committed to social issues (freestone and mcgoldrick, ) and they are looking inward to find solutions to social and environmental prob- lems though their consumption behavior. the consumption of ethical products is aimed at tackling the consequences of trade in terms of its social and environmental effects (uusitalo and oksanen, ). therefore, to consume products with an ethical component is to consume a product that negatively affects neither man nor the natural world. the ethical consumerism movement is comprised of three types of consumer behavior (tallontire et al., ). consumer action involves such behavior as lobbying or direct action, negative ethical purchase behavior involves not buying unethical goods (boycotting), and positive ethical purchase behavior involves the consumption of goods with an ethical attribute. buying fair trade is an example of positive ethical purchase behavior. fair trade injustice arises from an inequitable distribution of resources and power and social justice efforts seek to exact change where there is an inequity among groups in that one is privileged and the other is treated unjustly (choules, ). the fair trade movement addresses these injustices because it cre- ates equal opportunities for both parties in an eco- nomic exchange (strong, ). fair trade allows those associated with production and their families higher incomes, better working conditions, and sustained financial stability in the long term (gould, ). there are three types of fair trade consumers. activists buy fair trade products but also actively disseminate the fair trade message. ethicals are reg- ular consumers of fair trade and finally, semi-ethicals caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale buy fair trade infrequently and are more sensitive to what they must forgo in order to consume fair trade (tallontire et al., ). fair trade production systems exist in countries benefiting million farmers, workers, and family members (fair trade foundation, ). by , global fair trade certified sales had reached $ . billion (fair trade foundation, , ). con- sumers have the opportunity to buy fair trade in two major ways; either by buying products from alter- native trade organizations (ato) or buying fair trade certified products in regular stores. alternative trade organizations religious groups have had a tremendous role in the growth of the fair trade movement; specifically, they have had a significant influence on the emergence and evolution of atos (reynolds, ). the fair trade movement in its early form was comprised only of atos that eradicated the need for intermediaries by bringing products directly from producers to consumers, which allowed for a better financial return to disadvantaged producers (equal exchange, a). beginning approximately or so years ago, fair trade operated as a complement to the activities of charities in developing countries. churches sold the products of the marginalized individuals whom they were helping in retail outlets back in the developed world. this allowed disadvantaged producers access to formerly inaccessible markets, where they received higher prices for their products (bacon, ). it is commonly accepted that edna byler, a mennonite, was responsible for bringing fair trade to the u.s. byler, who was working with the mennonite central committee (mcc) in puerto rico, began bringing lace back home to sell. her efforts resulted in the opening of ten thousand villages (fair trade federation, ). ten thousand villages and serrv were the first to begin trading fair trade products in the u.s. in s (european fair trade association, ) and the first ato opened in the netherlands in (tallontire, ). atos exist so that the producers can afford to live under acceptable con- ditions (erffmeyer et al., ) and they work directly with producers and artisans providing help with product design, quality control, management, and shipping issues (littrell and dickson, ). some of the products sold by atos are certified fair trade by independent labeling initiatives and other products are sourced directly from fair trade pro- ducers. nowadays, it is very common for an ato to be a certified fair trade organization (fto). to become a certified fto, the organization must prove that the producers and artisans with whom they work have been fairly paid, they have had advance payments and loans made available to them, and they have received advice on sustainable prac- tices and financial management (ftf, n.d.). atos and ftos sell fairly traded products such as crafts, textiles, clothing, tea, and coffee and they raise awareness through exhibitions, campaigns, plays, petitions, fair trade breakfasts, and so on (world- shops, n.d.). fair trade labeling initiatives whereas atos are part of the economic exchange, fair trade labeling initiatives are not; rather, they determine if fair trade products meet the required standards for fair trade certification (tallontire, ). fair trade code of conduct contracts are established to regulate producers: among the workers’ representatives, a person must be nominated who can be consulted and who can address health and safety issues with the organization…. all employees must work under fair conditions of employment. the producer organization must pay wages in line with or exceeding national laws and agreements on minimum wages…. workers and employers shall have the right to establish and to join organizations of their own choosing, and to draw up their constitutions and rules, to elect their represen- tatives and to formulate their programmes…. forced or bonded labour must not occur…. children may only work if their education is not jeopardised. if children work, they must not execute tasks, which are especially hazardous for them due to their age. (flo-certification, n.d., pp. – ) when a fair trade certifying body verifies that the requirements in the contract have been met it awards a fair trade label. max havelaar was the first fair trade certification body and was founded by francisco vanderhoff boersma, a catholic priest, nico roozen, and the the role of religion dutch development agency solidaridad in . max havelaar certification gave distribution opportunities to business that were not atos, which in turn made fair trade products available to the masses. in , approximately labels were brought together under the umbrella organization of the fairtrade labelling organizations international (flo-i) (renard, ). there is a long list of certified fair trade products now available: coffee, cocoa, dried fruits and vegetables, fresh flowers and plants, fresh fruit, fresh vegetables, fruit juices, honey, nuts, olives and olive oil, quinoa, seed cot- ton, soy and pulses, spices and herbs, sports balls, and sugar (fair trade foundation, n.d.). religion and fair trade there is a glut of information in extant literature examining how religion influences many facets of life: values (delener, ; fam et al., ), self- identity (cosgel and minkler, ), lifestyle choices (fam et al., ; vieten et al., ), group membership (bearden and etzel, ), relationships (reynolds, ), concern for the ‘‘other’’ (arnould et al., ; cornwell et al., ; delener, ; martin et al., ), and culture (delener, ) to name but a few. determining the connection between religion and economic exchanges is not new either (peifer, ). however, of particular concern to this article is economic exchange with a focus on the other as well as the self; buying prod- ucts with an empathic and/or charitable attribute that emphasize benefits to producers as well as consumers. why would religious individuals be concerned enough or more so than the non-religious to buy fair trade to improve the well-being of strangers in dis- tant corners of the world. the religious may be more apt to perspective taking because perceptive taking is facilitated by experiencing a similar situa- tion, via instruction, or by a feeling of attachment (batson and shaw, b); religion providing the instructional link between the two. however, it may also provide the attachment link through the ability to an increased ability to empathize with others. empathy is defined as ‘‘an other-focused vicarious emotional response congruent with the perceived welfare of others’’ (batson and shaw, a, p. ). empathy has also been described as the capacity to establish a worldview that encompasses the world of others (natale, ). there is much in the extant literature to support the argument that empathy motivates people to help others. it has also been suggested that helping behavior is self-serving, however, batson et al. ( ) suggest that this is not the case, that indeed the motivation to help others is altruistic – helping the other regardless of return for the self. empathic concern evokes feelings of sym- pathy, compassion, and tenderness about others in need. it causes a person to become distressed or sad for the person in need and these feelings encourage helping behavior (batson and shaw, a). therefore, empathy influences helping behavior indirectly via altruism. much like values act as a motivation for behavior so too does empathy; empathy having a pro-social outcome. smith ( ) found religious individuals to be more altruistic than non-religious people. the religious were also found to be more empathic than the non-religious. fur- thermore, the higher the religious involvement the more empathic and altruistic one is. hence, it might be argued then that to be religious is to be empathic and to be empathic is to behave congruent with the needs of others; the feeling toward the other goes beyond the affect state and results in associated behavior. in this case, perhaps helping behavior in the form of buying fair trade out of concern for the disadvantaged producer. religious affiliation can be divisive and has undoubtedly been used as a reason for discrimination and hatred. however, beyond religious strife, be it historic or contemporary, there is a common belief shared by all religious followers that there is an interconnectedness to humankind (arnould et al., ). within the islamic tradition, for example, helping the poor is a manifestation of followers’ moral principles of compassion and justice (martin et al., ). in christian and other western spiritual traditions, the greek word agape (or in latin, caritas) refers to human beings manifesting god’s pure love, or an intentional and unconditional love for others, including ene- mies… in sikh and hindu derived traditions, the sanskrit seva refers to being of selfless service to the needs of others…in buddhist traditions metta in pali or maitri in sanskrit is used to refer to both a quality and a caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale practice of unconditional and unattached loving kindness, or the strong intention for the happiness of all beings…the tibetan buddhist practice of tonglen refers to the practice of taking in suffering and giving out love or blessings. (vieten et al., ) more evidence of religious orientation toward the oneness of people is that the golden rule exists in all of the major religions (kung, ). scarboro missions (n.d.) provides the following examples: buddhism: ‘‘treat not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful,’’ the buddha, udana- varga . . christianity: ‘‘in everything, do to others as you would have them do to you; for this is the law and the prophets,’’ jesus, matthew : . confucianism: ‘‘one word which sums up the basis of all good conduct… loving-kindness. do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself,’’ confucius, analects . . hinduism: ‘‘this is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you,’’ mahabharata : . islam: ‘‘not one of you truly believes until you wish for others what you wish for yourself,’’ the prophet muhammad, hadith. judaism: ‘‘what is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbour. this is the whole torah; all the rest is commentary. go and learn it,’’ hillel, talmud, shabbat a. furthermore, the worlds big religions are more successful in encouraging ethical behavior than other ethical influences because they provide their mem- bers with what kung calls the ‘‘why and what for’’ ( , p. ). kung also argues that only religion can provide a real basis for objection to the unjustness in the world. reactions to issues of justice or injustice are more pronounced for religious followers because religion is a manifestation of a longing for the ‘‘wholly other’’ that is pervasive and sustained (p. ). in line with this, pro fair trade behavior among the religious is not just a matter of empathy, charity, life style, group influence, etc.; there are theological imperatives for engaging in behavior in support of fair trade: jewish tradition pays great attention to ethics in busi- ness and economic life. indeed, one story relates that the first question one is asked when one arrives in the world to come is, ‘‘did you deal fairly in business?’’ in the context of international trade, jewish tradition offers several guidelines. first, we must practice fairness and honesty in all business dealings. this principle is enshrined in leviticus: when you sell property to your neighbor, or buy any from your neighbor, you shall not wrong one another. leviticus : – . we are obliged to deal with each other fairly, to use honest weights and measures, and not to take advantage of one another in business. second, as consumers, we bear responsibility for the entire chain of economic activity that brings goods and services to us. not only are we prohibited from dishonest business practices, we are barred from benefiting from others’ unethical business practices. we can infer this principle from rumba’s rule about the purchase of stolen goods: one may not buy from a thief the goods he has stolen, and to do so is a great transgression because it strengthens the hands of those who violate the law and causes the thief to continue to steal, for if the thief would find no buyer he would not steal, as it says, ‘‘he who shares with a thief is his own enemy’’ (proverbs : ). (on foot: jewish, n.d.) global interconnectedness has led to the emergence of a new political power, that of consumers and their associations. this is a phenomenon that needs to be further explored, as it contains positive elements to be encouraged as well as excesses to be avoided. it is good for people to realize that purchasing is always a moral – and not simply economic – act. hence the consumer has a specific social responsibility, which goes hand-in-hand with the social responsibility of the enterprise. con- sumers should be continually educated [ ] regarding their daily role, which can be exercised with respect for moral principles without diminishing the intrinsic economic rationality of the act of purchasing. in the retail industry, particularly at times like the present when purchasing power has diminished and people must live more frugally, it is necessary to explore other paths: for example, forms of cooperative purchasing like the consumer cooperatives that have been in operation since the nineteenth century, partly through the initiative of catholics. in addition, it can be helpful to promote new ways of marketing products from deprived areas of the world, so as to guarantee their producers a decent return. (pope benedict xvi, ) … the principles of islam are not silent on issues of fair trade and trade justice. indeed, there is a rich heri- tage in islam of high moral standards, ethics, values and norms of behaviour, which govern personal, the role of religion professional and business life. in the area of business and commerce islam obliges buyers, sellers and consumers to act honestly, fairly and with integrity in their daily business practices – for business is not something that can be treated separately from all other aspects of social life. islam also obliges workers to be treated fairly, and with dignity and respect. since the fair trade movement is primarily concerned with fairness, equity and justice, it seems that the principles of fair trade and the teach- ings of islam are entirely congruent. with references from the qur’an and ahadith this analysis demonstrates that, from an islamic perspective, there are indeed strong and clear faith-based reasons for supporting fair trade initiatives. (khan and thaut, ) there are many examples from contemporary religious life where faith-based organizations have begun incorporating fair trade into their social and ceremonial activities. for example, approximately congregations used fair-trade palm fronds in their palm sunday ceremonies (reed, , april ); american jewish world service, the church of the brethren, the disciples of christ, islamic relief usa, lutheran world relief, the mennonite central committee, the presbyterian church, the united church of christ, the united methodist committee, unitarian universalists, and catholic relief services have partnered with equal exchange to promote the issue of fair trade and make fair trade products available for sale to their members (equal exchange, b); volunteers at the parliament of the world’s religions, hosted in melbourne , wore tee shirts fashioned from fair trade cotton and produced in an indian co-operative (council for a parliament, ); and catholic relief services has trained and dispatched fair trade ambassadors to promote fair trade in parishes and schools across the u.s. (catholic relief services, ). methodology the notional connection between articulated reli- gious adherence/belief and explicit behaviors regarding commitment and action directed toward fair trade concerns have been described above. james : argues directly that ‘‘faith without works is dead.’’ it would seem that religious exhortation of any denomination reminds people of their com- mitment to act carefully in specific matters, so the question then becomes are the religious more likely than the non-religious to buy fair trade, and are there differences between religious groups as to the inclination to support fair trade; these are the research questions guiding this study. data was collected online from the customers of four fair trade retailers who purchased fair trade tea, coffee, chocolate, jewelry, clothing, and crafts as well as university graduate students. the response rate was approximately % returning over completed surveys. over surveys were elimi- nated for the purposes of this study because the respondents provided conflicting responses such as they frequently bought fair trade but they reported elsewhere in the survey that their average annual spend was zero. in addition, when respondents identified themselves as being both a green and a fair trade consumer – and not just a fair trade con- sumer – their responses were not included lest they result in spurious findings (fair trade products are often produced using environmentally friendly methods of production and cultivation). fair trade consumption was measured in terms of commitment to buying fair trade products. com- mitment was measured on a scale of – : never buying fair trade was assigned a rating of and the choice to always buy the fair trade product alterna- tive was assigned a rating of . this construct appears in the tables, the results, and the discussion as commitment or commitment to fair trade. to measure the role of religious beliefs – and not just religious group membership – in buying fair trade, respondents were asked to rate on a scale of – if their religious beliefs affected their purchase behavior; indicated that religious beliefs never influenced pur- chase decisions and indicated that they always influenced purchase decisions. this variable appears in the tables, results, and discussion as religious consumption or religious based consumption. religious group membership was determined by asking respondents to choose from a list the religion they most identified with: islam, judaism, hinduism, buddhism, christianity (catholic, protestant, christian-other), or other. this variable is referred to as affiliation or religious affiliation in the tables, results, and discussion. the control group was comprised of people who described themselves as agnostic, atheist, non-religious, or secularist. religiosity is a belief in god accompanied by a commitment to follow principles believed to be set by caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale god (mcdaniel and burnett, ) and it is frequently used to determine the level of commitment to a reli- gious group and/or god. the values devout and a spiritual life were used in this study to measure intensity of religious beliefs; not religiosity. devout and a spiritual life were measured using the schwartz value survey (see schwartz, for further details). devout was described as holding to religious faith & belief and a spiritual life was described as emphasis on spiritual not material matters. these values were mea- sured on a scale of - to ; - represented opposed to my values and represented of supreme importance. data on devout and a spiritual life were used to control for the fact that people’s level of adherence to or intensity of feeling toward their religious group of reference might obscure information on the effect of simple group membership. demographics were also used in the study as covariates where relevant. the first approach taken in the statistical analysis was to use analysis of variance and analysis of covariance to discern if there were any significant interactions between the constructs under exami- nation. partial correlation and regression analysis were utilized to determine the more linear rela- tionships between the variables. results even though the values devout and a spiritual life were measured on a scale of - to these numbers do not appear in the tables, or analysis as one of the crucial factors in measuring values with the svs is the use of ratings centered around the respondents mean scores; the mrat. there were only two muslim responses in this study so this religion was not included in the analysis. the purpose of this study was not to examine the influence of other constructs such as demographics on fair trade con- sumption (this has been done many times else- where); consequently, information on demographics is not presented in the final analysis. anova results commitment and the effect of affiliation the result of the anova was significant, f( , ) = . , p = . . participants were more likely to buy fair trade if they belonged to the group buddhist (m = . ), than hindu (m = . ), than non-religious (m = . ), than other (m = . ), than christian-other (m = . ), than protestant (m = . ), than catholic (m = . ), or jewish (m = . ). significant post hoc comparisons indi- cated that catholic was significantly different from non-religious, - . , p = . . catholic differed from buddhist, - . , p = . . protestant dif- fered from non-religious, - . , p = . . protestant differed from buddhist, - . , p = . . the r was . (see table i). the r changed to . when devout, a spiritual life, and religious consumption were entered as covar- iates (see table ii). commitment and the effect of religious consumption the result of the anova was significant, f( , ) = . , p = . . participants were more likely to buy fair trade if they belonged to the group most definitely, religion influences how i consume (m = . ), than religion sometimes influences how i consume (m = . ), or religion does not influence how i consume (m = . ). significant post hoc comparisons indicated that religion never influences how i consume differed from most def- initely, religion influences how i consume - . , p = . . religion sometimes influences how i consume differed from most definitely, religion influences how i consume, - . , p = . (see table i). the r was . . the r changed to . when affiliation, devout, and a spiritual life were entered as covariates (see table ii). religious consumption and the effect of affiliation the result of the anova was significant, f( , ) = . , p = . . participants were more likely to say that religion influenced how they consumed and belong to the group hindu (m = . ), than buddhist (m = . ), than prot- estant (m = . ), than other (m = . ), than christian-other (m = . ), than jewish (m = . ), than catholic (m = . ), or non-religious (m = . ). significant post hoc comparisons indi- cated that catholic differed from non-religious, . , p = . ; other differed from non-reli- gious, . , p = . ; protestant differed from non-religious, . , p = . ; christian-other differed from non-religious, . , p = . ; the role of religion hindu differed from non-religious, . , p = . ; buddhist differed from non-religious, . , p = . . the r was . (see table i). the r changed to . when devout and a spiritual life were entered as covariates (see table ii). correlation analysis a partial correlation was conducted on all variables using demographics, a spiritual life, and devout as covariates. commitment correlated with the fol- lowing variables: religious consumption, . , p = . ; buddhist, . , p = . ; non-reli- gious, . , p = . ; religious, - . , p = . ; catholic, - . , p = . ; and protes- tant, - . , p = . . religious consumption correlated with the following affiliation group: buddhist . (see table iii). regression analysis the best predictor of the variable commitment was buddhist r = . ; buddhist/non-religious r = . ; buddhist/non-religious/religious consump- tion r = . ; buddhist/non-religious/religious consumption/other r = . (see table iv). the best predictor of the variable religious con- sumption was buddhist r = . ; buddhist/protes- tant r = . ; buddhist/protestant/christian-other r = . ; buddhist/protestant/christian-other/ other r = . ; buddhist/protestant/christian- other/other/hindu r = . ; buddhist/protes- tant/christian-other/other/hindu/catholic r = table i tests of between-subjects effects source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial g commitment and affiliation corrected model . a . . . intercept . . . . affiliation . . . . error . . total corrected total . commitment and religious consumption corrected model . b . . . intercept . . . . religious consumption . . . . error . . total corrected total . religious consumption and affiliation corrected model . c . . . intercept . . . . affiliation . . . . error . . total corrected total . a r = . (adjusted r = . ). b r = . (adjusted r = . ). c r = . (adjusted r = . ). caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale . ; buddhist/protestant/christian-other/other/ hindu/catholic/jewish r = . (see table v). discussion fair trade products appeal to those consumers who are concerned about the inequities in economic exchanges. to them, it is important that the exchange is fair to all parties, especially to disadvan- taged producers in developing countries. religious groups encourage their members to be concerned about the relationships in economic transactions (reynolds, ) therefore, it seemed apropos to determine if some religious groups were more con- cerned than others, so much so that they would have more of a propensity to buy fair trade. from the anovas, the buddhist, hindu, non- religious, and other groups had much higher mean scores; they were more committed than the other religions to buying fair trade. the anovas also indicated that commitment to buying fair trade was highest for the group, which claimed that they always used their religious beliefs as a criterion in table ii tests of between-subjects effects with covariates source type iii sum of squares df mean square f sig. partial g commitment and affiliation corrected model . a . . . intercept . . . . religious consumption . . . . devout groups . . . . . a spiritual life groups . . . . . affiliation . . . . error . . total corrected total . commitment and religious consumption corrected model . b . . . intercept . . . . affiliation . . . . a spiritual life groups . . . . devout groups . . . . religious consumption . . . . . error . . total corrected total . religious consumption and affiliation corrected model . c . . . intercept . . . a spiritual life groups . . . . . devout groups . . . . affiliation . . . . error . . total corrected total . a r = . (adjusted r = . ). b r = . (adjusted r = . ). c r = . (adjusted r = . ). the role of religion table iii correlation matrix commitment and catholic control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income spirituality devout relcons sig. - . . commitment and protestant control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. - . . commitment and christian-other control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. . . commitment and secnonreligious control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. . . commitment and jewish control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. - . . commitment and buddhist control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. . . commitment and jewish control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. - . . commitment and other control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. . . commitment and hindu control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout relcons sig. . . commitment and religious consumption control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income hindu other buddhist jewish christianother secnonreligious protes- tant catholic a spiritual life devout sig. . . religious consumption and catholic control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. - . . religious consumption and protestant control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. . . religious consumption and christian-other control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. - . . religious consumption and secnonreligious control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. - . . religious consumption and jewish control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. . . caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale table iii continued religious consumption and buddhist control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. . . religious consumption and other control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. . . religious consumption and hindu control variables: gender agem race married children urbanrural education income a spiritual life devout sig. . . commitment religious gender & agem & race & married & children & urbanrural & education & income & spirituality & devout & relcons sig.. - . . table iv regression analysis. commitment to fair trade model r r adjusted r se of the estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . model , predictors: (constant), buddhist. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, nonreligious. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, nonreligious, religious consumption. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, nonreligious, religious consumption, other. table v regression analysis. use of religious beliefs in consumption behavior model r r adjusted r se of the estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . model , predictors: (constant), buddhist. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant, christianother. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant, christianother, other. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant, christianother, other, hindu. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant, christianother, other, hindu, catholic. model , predictors: (constant), buddhist, protestant, christianother, other, hindu, catholic, jewish. the role of religion purchase decisions. from the correlation analysis, the religious were not as inclined as the non-religious to buy fair trade. looking at the individual religions, buddhism had a positive influence on the con- sumption of fair trade, whereas protestantism and catholicism did not. from the regression analysis, the best way to predict if people were going to buy fair trade was to know if they were buddhist, non- religious, or if they used religion as a criterion in their purchase behavior. it appears from the anovas that hindus and buddhists used their religious beliefs more com- monly as a criterion in consumption decisions than other religions. from the correlation analysis, the only religious group that had a positive relationship with the religious-based consumption construct was buddhism. buddhism was also the best predictor of whether a person used religion as a criterion in decision-making followed by protestant and chris- tian-other. in fact, all religions to one degree or another were useful in making this prediction. in summary, it seems that the non-religious may be more inclined to buy fair trade than the religious. buddhists appear to be the most likely of the reli- giously affiliated to buy fair trade and protestants and catholics are the least likely. that is not to say of course that protestants and catholics do not buy fair trade, because they clearly do. what has also emerged from the analysis is that most respondents in this study did not buy fair trade simply because of religious group membership – simply because they were catholic, protestant, or jewish, for example. the link between religion and fair trade is not pas- sive. simply belonging to a religion is not enough to encourage fair trade consumption; it is the religious beliefs people hold that are important. this is evi- dent from this study because to one degree or another all religions were positive predictors of the use of religious beliefs as a factor in consumption decisions, which is a factor that influences fair trade consumption, highlighting the indirect influence of religion on fair trade consumption. what is very clear from this study is that the link between religion and fair trade is very very weak, which begs the questions, why so and what can be done to affect change in correcting injustice and even the economic playing field when institutions as big as religions cannot? the link between belief and action is clearly weak and evanescent. what is needed is a method of concrete techniques that can be induced and implemented that will enable people to learn concrete ways and methods with which to act. no matter how eloquent the religious docu- ments are, no matter how theologically supported they remain, until education is implemented against a measurable behaviors, the link, though critical, will remain embryonic. recommendations it remains the role of value-based researchers to point out what they appear to have discovered and to provide real-world remedies that church leader- ship of any denomination may not be able to provide because of their multiple involvements. further, the churches have lost much of their power to influence. it has been replaced by the multi-national and transnational corporations, which are driven by the profit motive. hence, further research requires a movement forward into that profit-oriented world with a potential approach wherein profit can be married to virtue in a way that enhances all rather than enhance a few at the price of the greater world. there are many complex motivators and de-incentives that propel behavior as well as much that is preconscious and/or unconscious. however, when the behaviors arise to the current critical levels of impact, more than exhortation is required. per- haps ‘‘closer to the bone’’ is the following observa- tion by petru dumitriu: evil is working from ten to twelve hours a day; it is child labor, back-breaking work, the agonizing task, the workaholic obsession – all evil. unemployment at the same time as butter mountains – himalayas of butter kept in store and going bad to the tune of millions, everests of jam flushed down the drain, cattle killed off…and thrown into the common bone yard to keep prices up. the laws of free trade and the common market praised to high heaven (while millions die of starvation in the sahara, in bengal or the horn of africa) and extolled by people who keep our noses to the grind- stone so that we can pay our taxes – those taxes with which they finance the destruction of the fruits of our labors – yes, that is what evil is. evil is all that is stupid, and the joyful acceptance of stupidity by those who caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale profit by it, and by those who do not suffer because of it. (dumitriu, p. ) it may appear out of place for researchers and academics to comment on the ‘‘good’’ or ‘‘evil’’ of practices and whether behaviors are morally and/or ethically compelled rather than discretionary. however, given the state of the world’s economy as well as the planet itself, the exhortation of the encyclical is not enough to complete the circle of moral demands. of course, it is not the role of an encyclical to provide a template for behaviors but, rather, to suggest general observations and concerns within a theological and scriptural framework. however, implementation is critical unless these important documents are to be assigned to the ‘‘historically interesting’’ collections of many libraries. what is needed is a moral imperative and a template to assist ‘‘seekers’’ to implement and con- cretize their beliefs into behaviors. the authors are currently working on developing this universal and international template currently in research based at kellogg college, university of oxford. it is, in short, a time to speak of ‘‘the good’’ as well as evil, or the absence of the good. there seems little point in religious belief and observation that does not emerge into the day to day that the believers operate within. the template enables people to act in ways consistent with their articulated beliefs. further, the template can open new educa- tional methods to those of good intentions but lack any realistic method of implementation. references arnould, e. j., a. plastina and d. ball: , ‘does fair trade deliver on its core value proposition? effects on income, educational attainment, and health in three countries’, journal of public policy & marketing ( ), – . bacon, c.: , ‘confronting the coffee crisis: can fair trade, organic, and specialty coffees reduce small-scale farmer vulnerability in northern nica- ragua?’, world development ( ), – . retrieved may , , from sciencedirect database. batson, c. d. and l. l. shaw: a, ‘encouraging words concerning the evidence for altruism’, psy- chological inquiry ( ), – . batson, c. d. and l. l. shaw: b, ‘evidence for altruism: toward a pluralism of prosocial motives’, psychological inquiry ( ), – . batson, c. d., c. l. turk, l. l. shaw and t. r. klein: , ‘information function of empathic emotion: learning that we value the other’s welfare’, journal of personality and social psychology ( ), – . bearden, w. o. and m. j. etzel: , ‘reference group influence on product and brand purchase decisions’, journal of consumer research ( ), – . bezencon, v. and s. blili: , ‘fair trade managerial practices: strategy, organisation and engagement’, journal of business ethics , – . catholic relief services: , ‘crs fair trade ambas- sadors’, http://www.crsfairtrade.org/ambassadors/. retrieved february , . choules, k.: , ‘the shifting sands of social justice discourse: from situating the problem with ‘‘them’’, to situating it with ‘‘us’’’, review of edu- cation, pedagogy & cultural studies ( ), – . cornwell, b., c. c. cui, v. mitchell, b. schlegelmilch, a. dzulkiflee and j. chan: , ‘a cross-cultural study of the role of religion in consumers’ ethical positions’, international marketing review ( ), . cosgel, m. m. and l. minkler: , ‘religious identity and consumption’, review of social economy ( ), – . council for a parliament of the world’s religions: , ‘‘‘volunteers,’’ in all fairness’, http://www.parliamento freligions.org/news/index.php/ / /volunteers-in- all-fairness/. retrieved january , . delener, n.: , ‘religious contrasts in consumer decision behaviour patterns: their dimensions and marketing implications’, european journal of marketing ( ), . equal exchange: a, ‘fair trade’, http://www.equal exchange.coop/fair-trade. retrieved february , . equal exchange: b, ‘interfaith program’, http://www. equalexchange.coop/interfaith-program. retrieved feb- ruary , . erffmeyer, r. c., b. d. keillor and d. t. leclair: , ‘an empirical investigation of japanese consumer ethics’, journal of business ethics ( ), – . essoo, n. and s. dibb: , ‘religious influences on shopping behaviour: an exploratory study’, journal of marketing management ( / ), – . retrieved may , , from business source premier database. european fair trade association: , ‘sixty years of fair trade: a brief history of the fair trade move- ment’, http://www.european-fair-trade-association. org/efta/doc/history.pdf. retrieved march , . the role of religion http://www.crsfairtrade.org/ambassadors/ http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/news/index.php/ / /volunteers-in-all-fairness/ http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/news/index.php/ / /volunteers-in-all-fairness/ http://www.parliamentofreligions.org/news/index.php/ / /volunteers-in-all-fairness/ http://www.equalexchange.coop/fair-trade http://www.equalexchange.coop/fair-trade http://www.equalexchange.coop/interfaith-program http://www.equalexchange.coop/interfaith-program http://www.european-fair-trade-association.org/efta/doc/history.pdf http://www.european-fair-trade-association.org/efta/doc/history.pdf fair trade federation: , ‘about fair trade’, http:// www.fairtradefederation.org/ht/d/sp/i/ /pid/ . retrieved february , . fair trade foundation: , ‘global fairtrade sales increase by %’, http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_ office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_ /global_ fairtrade_sales_increase_by_ .aspx. retrieved january , . fair trade foundation: , ‘facts and figures on fairtrade’, http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fair trade/facts_and_figures.aspx. retrieved march , . fair trade foundation: n.d., ‘fairtrade standards’, http:// www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/fairtrade_certi fication_and_the_fairtrade_mark/fairtrade_standards.aspx. retrieved march , . fam, k. s., d. s. waller and b. z. erdogan: , ‘the influence of religion on attitudes towards the advertising of controversial products’, european jour- nal of marketing ( / ), . flo-certification: n.d., ‘generic fair trade standards for small farmers’ organizations’, http://www.fairtrade. net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/generic_fairtrade_ standard_sf_dec_ _en.pdf. retrieved august , . freestone, o. and p. mcgoldrick: , ‘motivations of the ethical consumer’, journal of business ethics, – . friedman, m.: , ‘the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits’, the new york times magazine. http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/ issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html. retrieved sep- tember , . ftf: n.d., ‘frequently asked questions (ftf faq)’, http:// www.fairtradefederation.com/faq.html. retrieved august . gay, d. a. and c. g. ellison: , ‘religious subcul- tures and political tolerance: do denominations still matter?’, review of religious research ( ), . gould, n. j.: , ‘fair trade and the consumer interest: a personal account’, international journal of consumer studies ( ), – . retrieved may , , from business source premier database. jaffee, d., j. r. kloppenburg and m. b. monroy: , ‘bringing the ‘‘moral charge’’ home: fair trade within the north and within the south’, rural soci- ology ( ), – . retrieved may , , from academic search premier database. khan, a. a. and l. thaut: , ‘islamic perspective on fair trade’, http://www.islamicrelief.com/indepth/ downloads/islam_and_fairtrade.pdf. retrieved feb- ruary , . kotler, p.: , ‘what consumerism means for mar- keters’, harvard business review, may–jun, pp. – . retrieved october , , from business source premier database. kung, h.: , ‘a global ethic in an age of global- ization’, business ethics quarterly ( ), – . kung, h.: , ‘basic trust as the foundation of a global ethic’, international review of psychiatry ( ), – . littrell, m. a. and m. a. dickson: , ‘alternative trading organizations: shifting paradigm in a culture of social responsibility’, human organization ( ), – . retrieved october , , from abi/ inform global database. low, w. and e. davenport: , ‘to boldly go exploring ethical spaces to re-politicise ethical consumption and fair trade’, journal of consumer behaviour ( ), – . martin, j. p., j. chau and s. patel: , ‘religions and international poverty alleviation: the pluses and minuses’, journal of international affairs ( ), – . mcdaniel, s. w. and j. j. burnett: , ‘consumer religiosity and retail store evaluative criteria’, academy of marketing science journal ( ), . natale, s. m.: , an experiment in empathy (national foundation for educational research in england and wales, london). nicholls, a. j.: , ‘strategic options in fair trade retailing’, international journal of retail & distribution management ( ), – . retrieved april , , from abi/inform global database. peifer, j.: , ‘serving god or mammon? a look at religious mutual funds’, conference papers – american sociological association. pope benedict xvi: , ‘encyclical letter: caritas in veritate’, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_ xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_ _ caritas-in-veritate_en.html. retrieved december , . reed, m.: , april , ‘palm sunday goes greener with fair-trade fronds’, http://www.usatoday.com/ news/religion/ - - -green-palm-sunday_n.htm. retrieved february , . renard, m.-c. ( ), ‘alternativeness of fair trade: risks and challenges’, in international perspectives on alternative agro-food networks: quality, embededness, bio-politics (university of california, santa cruz). http://www . ucsc.edu/globalinterns/cpapers/renard_paper.pdf# search=% % renard% % % alternativeness% *% fair% trade% % . retrieved september , . reynolds, a.: , ‘mapping the religious landscape: how religious organizations interact with the inter- national political economy’, conference papers – american sociological association. caroline josephine doran and samuel michael natale http://www.fairtradefederation.org/ht/d/sp/i/ /pid/ http://www.fairtradefederation.org/ht/d/sp/i/ /pid/ http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_ /global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_ .aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_ /global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_ .aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/press_office/press_releases_and_statements/jun_ /global_fairtrade_sales_increase_by_ .aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/facts_and_figures.aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/facts_and_figures.aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/fairtrade_certification_and_the_fairtrade_mark/fairtrade_standards.aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/fairtrade_certification_and_the_fairtrade_mark/fairtrade_standards.aspx http://www.fairtrade.org.uk/what_is_fairtrade/fairtrade_certification_and_the_fairtrade_mark/fairtrade_standards.aspx http://www.fairtrade.net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/generic_fairtrade_standard_sf_dec_ _en.pdf http://www.fairtrade.net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/generic_fairtrade_standard_sf_dec_ _en.pdf http://www.fairtrade.net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/generic_fairtrade_standard_sf_dec_ _en.pdf http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html http://www.colorado.edu/studentgroups/libertarians/issues/friedman-soc-resp-business.html http://www.fairtradefederation.com/faq.html http://www.fairtradefederation.com/faq.html http://www.islamicrelief.com/indepth/downloads/islam_and_fairtrade.pdf http://www.islamicrelief.com/indepth/downloads/islam_and_fairtrade.pdf http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_ _caritas-in-veritate_en.html http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_ _caritas-in-veritate_en.html http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_ _caritas-in-veritate_en.html http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/ - - -green-palm-sunday_n.htm http://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/ - - -green-palm-sunday_n.htm http://www .ucsc.edu/globalinterns/cpapers/renard_paper.pdf#search=% % renard% % % alternativeness% *% fair% trade% % http://www .ucsc.edu/globalinterns/cpapers/renard_paper.pdf#search=% % renard% % % alternativeness% *% fair% trade% % http://www .ucsc.edu/globalinterns/cpapers/renard_paper.pdf#search=% % renard% % % alternativeness% *% fair% trade% % http://www .ucsc.edu/globalinterns/cpapers/renard_paper.pdf#search=% % renard% % % alternativeness% *% fair% trade% % scarboro missions: n.d., ‘golden rule: thirteen sacred texts’, http://www.scarboromissions.ca/golden_rule/ sacred_texts.php. retrieved january , . schwartz, s. h.: , ‘are there universal aspects in the structure and content of human values?’, in m. zanna (ed.), advances in experimental social psychology, volume (academic press, orlando, fl). smith, t. w.: , ‘empathy, altruism, and religion’, conference papers – american sociological associa- tion, pp. – . strong, c.: , ‘the problems of translating fair trade principles into consumer purchase behaviour’, marketing intelligence & planning ( ), . abi/ inform global database, retrieved april , . tallontire, a.: , ‘partnerships in fair trade: reflections from a case study of cafedirect’, devel- opment in practice ( ), – . retrieved may , , from academic search premier database. tallontire, a., e. rentsendorj and m. blowfield: , ethical consumers and ethical trade: a review of current literature (university of greenwich, national resources institute, london). http://www.nri.org/publications/ policyseries/policyseriesno .pdf#search=% cafod % % attitudes% towards% ethical% shopp ing% . retrieved august , . the pew forum on religion & public life: , ‘the u.s. religious landscape survey’, http://religions. pewforum.org/comparisons#. retrieved february , . uusitalo, o. and r. oksanen: , ‘ethical consum- erism: a view from finland’, international journal of consumer studies ( ), – retrieved on april , , from business source premier database. vieten, c., t. amorok and m. m. schlitz: , ‘i to we: the role of consciousness transformation in compassion and altruism’, journal of religion & science ( ), – . worldshops: n.d., ‘worldshops’, http://www.worldshops. org/worldshops.html. retrieved august , . caroline josephine doran garden city, ny, u.s.a. e-mail: carolinedoran@aol.com samuel michael natale adelphi university, garden city, ny, u.s.a. e-mail: sammymn@aol.com the role of religion http://www.scarboromissions.ca/golden_rule/sacred_texts.php http://www.scarboromissions.ca/golden_rule/sacred_texts.php http://www.nri.org/publications/policyseries/policyseriesno .pdf#search=% cafod% % attitudes% towards% ethical% shopping% http://www.nri.org/publications/policyseries/policyseriesno .pdf#search=% cafod% % attitudes% towards% ethical% shopping% http://www.nri.org/publications/policyseries/policyseriesno .pdf#search=% cafod% % attitudes% towards% ethical% shopping% http://www.nri.org/publications/policyseries/policyseriesno .pdf#search=% cafod% % attitudes% towards% ethical% shopping% http://religions.pewforum.org/comparisons# http://religions.pewforum.org/comparisons# http://www.worldshops.org/worldshops.html http://www.worldshops.org/worldshops.html 	\bf \vskip \upvarepsilon’\upmu\uppi&!egr;&!mgr;&!pgr;\alpha\hskip- \acute\uptheta \upvarepsilon&!thgr;&!egr; iota alpha (empatheia) and caritas: the role of religion in fair trade consumption 	abstract 	introduction 	ethical consumption 	fair trade 	fair trade labeling initiatives 	religion and fair trade 	methodology 	results 	anova results 	commitment and the effect of affiliation 	commitment and the effect of religious consumption 	religious consumption and the effect of affiliation 	correlation analysis 	regression analysis 	discussion 	recommendations 	references << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (gray gamma . ) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (iso coated v % \ eci\ ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /perceptual /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /srgb /dothumbnails true /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts false /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /ara <feff a e f f f a b f a a a f c a c f a b a a d b a e f f f f e f a d f b e f e f a d f b e> /bgr <feff f e b d e a c a f e a c d c c a c b d e f e d e a e a d f f f d f e e e a e a d e a c d c e e f f f e b e> /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /cze <feff f e e ed f e a b e e ed f b d e f f c b e e a c e f ed f b c e ed b e f e e f b d e d f e e e f ed f d f f e e f b a ed e> /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /eti <feff b e e b c fc b c e d a f b f c b f d f b d e c f f d b e c f f d f b d e f d d f e e f e a d f f e e d a> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /gre <feff a c b c b bc bf c bf b ae c c b b c c ad c c b c c c b bc af c b b c b b b bd b b b bc b bf c c b ae c b c b ad b b c b c b f c bf c b af bd b b ba b c b be bf c ae bd ba b c ac bb bb b bb b b b b c c bf d b ba c c c c c b ba ad c b c b b c af b c c c b bb ae c c bf b cc c b c b c e a b ad b b c b c b c bf c ad c b c b b b bc b bf c c b ae c b b bc c bf c bf cd bd bd b b bd bf b c c bf cd bd bc b c bf f c c bf f e ba b b bc b c b b b bd ad c c b c b c b ba b cc c b b c e> /heb <feff d e ea de e d d d d d e d ea d dc d db d d dc d e d e de e de db d f d de d ea d de d dd dc d d e e ea e d dd d d e d e d d db d ea d ea e de e de db d e e d e e d e d ea e d dd dc e ea d d d d d de e e d ea f d d f e d d e e d d ea de ea e d de d ea d d ea e e d de d dd dc d f d c e d d e d d de d e d da dc de e ea de e e dc f e de e de db d e e d e e d e d ea e d dd dc e ea d d d d d de e e d ea f d d f e d d e e d d ea de ea e d de d ea d d ea e e> /hrv (za stvaranje adobe pdf dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke. stvoreni pdf dokumenti mogu se otvoriti acrobat i adobe reader . i kasnijim verzijama.) /hun <feff b e c f d e e e f d c b e a ed e f d e f a c e b e d c c f f b d e d f b a b b c e c c ed e f b b c b e a ed e c e f a f f b d e d f b a f e a f e c a f c b e a f b b c e f b d e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /lth <feff e f b f d e f d b f f b d e c b c b b f b f b e e d e d e b f b d e c b f d f f e c e d a f d e> /lvi <feff a d e f a f b a d c c f f f b d e c b b d f b c d e b e a f a f b d e c b f f e f e c b b f a e b d a d e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /pol <feff e f f a e f b d e f a a e a f e f b f f b a a b f b e f b d e d f c e f f d f f e e f a d e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /rum <feff c a e f d e f e c f e f d e c f f c f e f e c c f e> /rus <feff f e b c d d b d e a b f e d f e a c d e f c c a c b c d e f e e f b f b e a e a d d e e e f d e e b e e e d d b d e a c d b c e d e e a b c f e c e c e f f e e b f e d e> /sky <feff f e e f e e e e f b d e f f c b f e e a c f e b c e fa c d e f e e f b d e d f e e e f f f d f f f e e f ed e> /slv <feff e f a a e a f b d e f f c b f e a d e a a b b f f e f b e a f e b e a e f b d e a d f f d f a f e f e e e f a d e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /tur <feff fc b b b c c f e a d b e e c b f c c f c f d b e e c b c c e e e f c f c e c c f f e f e e b fc fc d c c e c c e> /ukr <feff a e e f c b f e d d f e a c d f c f a d a f e f c b f e a e f a d e e f a e e e a e e d e a c d c e d a f f e e f d e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) /deu <feff a f f f e f f c c e e d f c f f e c e e d e d c d d d c f e e f e c f a f f f c d f e e d d e f d f f f e f c f f f f c e d f e c f e c e f f c f f f f e c e f f c e f c f a f d f e e d> >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice natural philosophy and laws of nature, so as to combat scepticism and irreligiosity by proving the existence of god through demonstrations of the laws of the mind. two other essays focus on images of anatomy, and natural history and materia medica in late seventeenth- and eighteenth- century netherlands. rina knoeff comparatively analyses the conceptions and moral lessons of perfection in the anatomical atlases by the mennonite govard bidloo ( ) and the calvinist siegfried albinus ( ). benjamin schmidt focuses on the peculiarities of the ideological strategy (exoticism, universal knowledge, priority of pleasure and delight) followed by authors, illustrators and publishers of naturalistic works from the non-european world under dutch control (mostly the east indies). iberian enlightenments are targeted by two more essays. timothy walker emphasizes portuguese state-licensed medical practitioners’ conspicuous role as experts in the service of the inquisition, and the paradoxical convergence between their fight against popular healing culture and the catholic church’s struggle against magic and sorcery. while the essay by josé pardo-tomás and àlvar martı́nez-vidal discusses secular and regular clergymen’s moralist contributions to the spanish debates on birth care (including performing baptism on a dying infant), and their support for the professional legitimization of the emerging practice of male midwifery surgeons to the detriment of that of traditional midwives. the remaining essays are focused on case studies of miracles, exorcisms and sanctity that illustrate enlightenment interactions of new medicine and its practitioners with catholicism in the context of europe where religious division was still relevant. robert jütte revisits the french and german enlightenment debates on the medical miracle of the “golden tooth” that was allegedly grown by a silesian boy in . through the case of a franciscan friar who levitated during his ecstasies and was beatified by benedict xiv, catrien santing shows the limits of the modernizing and rationalizing agenda of an “enlightenment pope” who aimed to use new medical and natural philosophical scholarship for purifying and reinforcing the catholic church. claudia stein explores the peculiarities of bavarian catholic enlightenment by dealing with an apparently successful healing through exorcism ( ) performed on a daughter of johann anton von wolter—the favourite physician of maximilian iii joseph of bavaria—and the reactions of a variety of witnesses. and ole peter grell focuses on the spiritual journey from lutheranism to catholicism of the danish anatomists nicolaus steno and his grand-nephew jacob winsløw, by emphasizing the seminal role played in both conversions by jacques-bénigne bossuet in the fervent intellectual atmosphere of counter- reformation paris. in sum, this valuable volume underlines firstly, the persistence of the religious rationale in enlightenment europe and its relevance for medicine and medical practitioners; secondly, the plurality of meanings and registers of this cultural movement, from its radical version to the multiplicity of more moderate protestant and catholic enlightenments; and thirdly, a number of features (miracles and conversions, mostly) that fed religious polemic between both sides of the major early modern christian schism. jon arrizabalaga, csic-imf, barcelona marion maria ruisinger, patientenwege. die konsiliarkorrespondenz lorenz heisters ( – ) in der trew-sammlung erlangen, medizin, gesellschaft und geschichte, beiheft , stuttgart, franz steiner, , pp. , e . (paperback - - - - ). for more than twenty years medical history has been paying greater attention to the people for whom medical thought, action and effort is carried out—the patients. primary sources, book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core especially for the early modern period, have posed a comparatively difficult problem. over the course of time, more or less prominent representatives of academic medicine have left behind printed works that are easily located, yet those who consulted them have generally remained silent. gaining closeness to historical patients has proved challenging, sometimes happening only indirectly or by chance. the sources usually consulted thus far have revealed little about how patients felt and interpreted their physical circumstances and medical restrictions. it has been equally challenging to investigate how sick people perceived their own interaction with the providers of medical services. recently, the use in german medical history of a type of source that must be seen as a central means of communication in the eighteenth century for various social strata of european society has allowed for a qualitative leap—the private letter (michael stolberg, homo patiens, cologne, böhlau, ). not only did physicians and learned people interested in medicine and natural science carry on academic and professional correspondence, sick people also used their quills to write to medical experts far away. they wrote about their illnesses and asked for advice. if the person to whom the questions were addressed answered with an extensive letter interpreting the medically related problems, a “practice by post” could be established. marion maria ruisinger is the first medical historian to analyse an extensive german consultative correspondence from the eighteenth century. her habilitationsschrift, published in , deals with topics in internal medicine as well as the field of surgical treatment, carried out at that time in the german speaking territories almost exclusively by artisan-practitioners. at the centre of this written exchange is the medical professor from altdorf and later helmstedt, lorenz heister ( – ), who enjoyed a european reputation for pragmatic authority in both areas of medicine. lorenz heister carried on an extensive correspondence. the trew collection in the university library in erlangen contains , pieces of writing from the learned physician with correspondents, including relevant third parties. in addition, ruisinger has evaluated heister’s casuistic works as well as influential teaching manuals. she has succeeded in interpreting the rich correspondence in a highly convincing analysis that is well conceived and carried out. her study can almost be seen as a reference work on patient history that, in addition, retrospectively corrects the medical and scientific historical picture of surgery in the eighteenth century and lays it out in a more nuanced manner. ruisinger begins her close examination of the patient’s course of action before the person actually becomes a “patient”, at a time when he has perceived in his unspoken feeling a change in health and has construed it as part of his world view. (women made equal use of this type of treatment, for ease of reading, however, the masculine form has been used in this review.) the person first becomes “ill” after he has begun to see the sickness in himself. thereafter he can take refuge in medication or other therapeutic measures, receive medical aid in his private circle and finally enter the contemporary market of healers where he can act in a relatively self- determined manner. if he feels that the indications and suggestions for treatment are too confusing or contradictory or if an invasive surgical measure is being discussed, the person, perhaps having already been declared a “patient” by a local healer, finally calls on heister for his written external medical authority. at this point a “practice by post” can begin. ruisinger’s approach proves of value especially in the elaboration of the great variety of functions that such a consultative correspondence could have for the participants. by using the highly productive term “self- fashioning” (stephen greenblatt, the improvisation of power, chicago university press, ), the author succeeds in describing a broad spectrum of demands, instrumental- izations and self and third-party ascriptions made by the patient and the distant medical expert that are interdependent and overlapping. book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core in her analysis of the consultative correspondence of lorenz heister, ruisinger construes the continued “practice by post” as a win-win situation for the patient as well as the distant expert. for both protagonists, it represents an essential moment in the strengthening and preservation of both positions in the discourse on health in the eighteenth century. the patient plays a strong, self-determined role, even in the event that the distant medical authority and the patient actually meet and the patient is examined. the symmetry is not broken until the patient goes under the knife. this surgical measure, as shown most impressively in ruisinger’s study, is the last option in a therapeutic process that always started conservatively by applying internal measures of treatment. for a short time, during surgery, the patient and physician are on differing levels. yet the patient always agrees voluntarily and explicitly to the operation. informed consent is a reality in heister’s surgical practice. ruisinger’s study stands out on account of its rich array of sources and the exceptionally concise evaluation of these sources that are also interpreted on a gender basis wherever possible. the work’s analytical structure is well thought through and the style is a pleasure to read with its good dosage of original quotations from both patients and their physicians. this monograph opens the door for international comparative studies on the worlds of patients in the eighteenth century. thomas schnalke, berliner medizinhistorisches museum der charité sean m quinlan, the great nation in decline: sex, modernity and health crises in revolutionary france c. – , the history of medicine in context, aldershot, ashgate, , pp. xi, , £ . (hardback - - - - ). the central aim of this book—to rewrite, and to some extent redefine, the history of french hygiene between and —should be welcomed by all historians of french medicine. even william coleman, who acutely observed both the “bourgeois medical doctrine” of the s and the public health movement of the nineteenth century, never linked these two hygienic projects. quinlan, by contrast, makes an ambitious attempt to demonstrate the continuities in hygienic writings over this period: they were a forum for middling medical practitioners to critique both their social superiors and inferiors, and they increasingly addressed the effects of industrialization upon the urban poor, explaining away its adverse consequences by a variety of naturalizing strategies, culminating in theories of heredity. quinlan divides the period into three: an old regime phase which rested on meliorist models and portrayed nervous diseases as evidence of the decline of civilization; a revolutionary phase characterized by utopian programmes for achieving social and political harmony through hygiene; and, lastly, a more pessimistic phase, lasting from until the revolution, underpinned by an appeal to statistics and concerned to cure, cleanse and decriminalize the working class. methodologically speaking, quinlan asserts, “this study has moved beyond sociological explanations of medical power and the social constructionism associated with the new cultural history”. this claim is supported by a second assertion: to have shown that doctors exercised their public roles by means other than a blatantly “unified ideological front”, instead working in collaboration with a range of public authorities and “patients” to accomplish certain social, moral and political agendas (pp. – ). it is here that quinlan’s argument falls down, for me, since this dimension—the relationship of doctors to the formation of public authority over french bodies—is one of the least well-supported parts of the book. there is little attempt to show whether the books discussed actually had any outcomes in terms of changes in public policy, by whom they were read and book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core drafting the dutch: selection biases in dutch conscript records in the second half of the nineteenth century special issue article drafting the dutch: selection biases in dutch conscript records in the second half of the nineteenth century björn quanjer and jan kok radboud university email: b.quanjer@let.ru.nl abstract conscription records are considered to be the best sources for studying heights over cohorts. this article discusses the various steps and selection mechanisms involved in the conscription system of the netherlands, which was more or less similar to the systems found in other european countries. starting with a birth cohort of , boys, we run a series of regressions on the likelihood to be registered at all and to have one’s height recorded. we discuss the effects of cohort attrition through mortality and migration, and explore familial, social, and religious reasons for evading registration and (medical) examination. we find various kinds of selections, but their effects on the distribution and averages of heights are limited. thus, heights culled from conscripts records are indeed an excellent indicator of a cohort’s biological standard of living. however, researchers focusing on social variation in height need to be aware of the unequal opportunities to evade registration and measurement. introduction the great advantage of military conscription records for social analysis is that they are intended to be universal. the records of a volunteer army, in contrast, are less universal, and less representative of the population, because some people enlist while others do not. this concern is particularly serious in anthropometric research because subsets of the population with different propensity to enlist may have quite different average stature (bodenhorn et al. , , ). therefore, many researchers prefer the records of conscripts to identify the biological standard of living of a population (e.g., baten and blum ; drukker and tassenaar ; floud et al. : ; heyberger ). yet conscription records, notwithstanding their value, are not without problems and biases of their own. conscription in many contexts is intended by the ruling class to provide the state with an army. not surprisingly, the elite often created legal loopholes for itself through various © the author(s), . published by cambridge university press on behalf of the social science history association. this is an open access article, distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution licence (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. social science history ( ), , – doi: . /ssh. . h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . mailto:b.quanjer@let.ru.nl http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms possibilities to avoid service. more generally, it can be expected that some social groups were more motivated and more capable of evading the compulsory exami- nation and enlistment than others. this article will investigate the possible selection biases that historians encounter when working with heights of conscripts. although the article is only concerned with the netherlands in the second half of the nineteenth century, it is expected that our results are relevant for other (european) countries with conscription systems as well. estimating the extent and direction of selection biases in conscript records will allow us to improve the relevance and quality of recorded heights as an indicator of the biological standard or living. moreover, doing so will help us to better understand variation found in heights by social groups, religion, and family composition (e.g., kok et al. ; mazzoni et al. ; Öberg ). selection biases can have several different origins. first, conscripts were often measured around age or . this already implies they are survivors of—possibly socially differentiated—infant and child mortality. the first step, therefore, is to understand selection caused by the process of attrition arising from infant and child mortality. second, effective conscription presupposes a reasonably functioning bureaucratic apparatus. the population should be “legible” by the state (scott ). in the mid-nineteenth century, the “legibility” of the dutch population was strongly enhanced by the introduction of the population registers ( ). heads of households were obliged to declare all moves of (members of) their households, which were duly recorded in the registers. still, mobile people, especially youths, were regularly missing in the system (kok ). the inefficiency of dutch bureau- cracy may have led to some of them being overlooked by the draft. others may have been consciously evading the (compulsory and personal) registration. for instance, sons of notables may have counted on their father’s influence to bend the rules, or to buy them a replacement. pacifists—although no longer officially recognized—may still have done their utmost to avoid the system. third, after registration, boys were expected to partake in the lottery ceremony, followed by their height measurement. again, different groups of boys may have had motives and opportunities to avoid this, even though social pressure to partake was strong, as we will discuss later. fourth, we also find boys present at the lottery whose heights were not recorded. as they were not evading registration and examination, there must have been other reasons for not recording their heights, possibly reflecting other selection biases. finally, we must be aware of regional differences in the interpretation of subscription laws (komlos ; van roon : ). in our analysis, we will use data from several dutch provinces. we base our analysis on a complete life course reconstruction of (a sample of) dutch birth cohorts starting in called the historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). the dutch population registers made such a prospective approach possible. the registers recorded all moves within the netherlands, and the sampled research persons could thus be traced across the country. linking the database to militia records allows us to determine the likelihood that one’s height was recorded, depending on period, region, family characteristics (including ses), religion, and migration. first, we give an overview of the conscription system as it existed in the netherlands, and with some variations, in several european countries. then, we social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms formulate hypotheses regarding the possible selection biases occurring in each step of the conscription process. after the discussion of our data, we then discuss attrition due to mortality and migration. subsequently, we use logistic regression to determine the relative chances of being recorded at all, and of having one’s height registered. in the concluding section, we discuss to what extent selection biases complicate the use of (dutch) conscript records. conscription practices already in the eighteenth century, countries like the habsburg empire (komlos ) and france (osman ) had a conscription system. since the napoleonic wars, conscription spread all over the new nation-states of europe. often they modeled their conscription system after the french (e.g., alter et al. : ; grab : ). this implies that several countries shared the same basic principles and thus potentially the same types of selection biases. in the netherlands, conscription was introduced during the napoleonic period as well, and the young kingdom decided to keep the system afterward. the dutch draft was determined by a lottery system. all adolescent boys who reached conscription age were to be registered on an enrollment list in the munici- pality in which their parents resided in january in the year before they were subject to conscription (koerhuis and van mulken ; “wet op de nationale militie ,” national militia act , s ). this list was checked by the local authorities, put in alphabetical order, and put on display for all citizens to check (national militia act , s , ). boys and their parents were responsible for registering and those who failed to do so and were discovered were automatically selected for military service (ibid., s ). on the day of the lottery, all conscripts had to report and had to undergo an inspection (ibid., s ). the results were written down in the conscription records, which were a copy of the two lists mentioned previously, but now containing—next to occupation—the heights that are vital to anthropometric history. if the conscript was not able to make it on the day of the lottery, the parents or the mayor were permitted to stand in for the conscript and draw the lot for him (ibid., s ). absenteeism (with did not bring exemption) could have different causes. boys could be simply away for work. tassenaar ( ) found percent absent in rural drenthe (eastern netherlands), but some municipalities scored more than percent due to locally high numbers of bargemen. the dutch average was percent (van zanden et al. : ). these rates are in line with other european countries like france and italy (bassino and dormois ). absenteeism can cause biases because of height differences between sedentary and traveling workers, as well as between migrants and nonmigrants. french regions with more emigrants stood out with higher rates of absenteeism (a’hearn et al. ). in some studies, migrants have been known to be healthier (e.g., puschmann et al. ) as well as taller (e.g., spitzer and zimran ). another reason for being absent might be the option to hire a substitute. in most countries there was a system of paying for substitutes, such as in italy (a’hearn ), the kingdom of bavaria (baten ), france, and the netherlands (national militia act , s , ). this was an easy, yet expensive way to avoid service. de meere drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms ( : ) claimed that those who had themselves replaced were almost always absent at the examination and that—because of the large sum of money involved—this implies that elite were underrecorded. however, several studies have claimed that insurance made it possible for recruits from all layers of society to have themselves replaced (brinkman et al. ; van roon ). these claims are supported by the fact that when the replacement system was abolished in no effect on the mean height was visible. also, it made sense that boys who aimed at replacement still partook in the lottery, as they still had a (good) chance of drawing a high number, thus sparing their parents the costs of a substitute. conscripts could also be exempted for medical reasons, so recruits often pointed out their ailments to convince to doctors present that they should be send home. in the records we find “sore limbs” and “heavy headaches,” but also “smelly feet” and “baldness” given as reasons. there were regional differences in who was checked medically. in the province of noord-brabant everyone was checked, whereas in other provinces only those who claimed to be unfit were examined (van roon : ). remarkably, even the obviously unfit who would clearly be exempted showed up, which was not the case in sweden (Öberg ). however, the key question is whether their heights were recorded in the end. height was also used as a physical description in case of desertion or to refute claims of those who accused others of being incorrectly exempted because of their height. this was not needed for those exempted for medical reasons, so possibly registration of heights was omitted when, other than being too short, reasons for exemption were evident. in most countries, there was a minimum height requirement and often the heights of those who did not reach the minimum were not recorded (see e.g., jacobs et al. for the resulting truncation problem). in the netherlands all heights were registered, but we will explore if this was done consistently in case the reason for exemption was given as being too short. this investigation makes it also possible to test if height distributions were more left-skewed in the nineteenth century because of living conditions, or because of a selection biases (staub et al. ). this is important because skewedness of the distribution is often used to test for selection biases. in the netherlands, the minimum height was lowered in from to centimeters (national militia act , s ). this was done because the number of undersized conscripts rose from the s onward. conscripts were also measured a year later to make an extra year of growth possible (ibid., s ). in this article, we will not go into the bias caused by (differential) catch-up growth after conscription. to avoid problems by the aforementioned change in the law, we selected the birth year of as our starting point. in the conscription law of , conscripts who were the only son and on whom the family depended for their income were exempted. this exception was to make sure that conscription would not result in extreme poverty. this was also the case in italy and the habsburg empire. in , the law was changed, and all only sons were exempted (ibid., s ). besides that, brothers could be exempted (ibid., s – ), which was also the rule in belgium (alter et al. ). in the netherlands, there was a complex system to determine whether a brother had to serve. boys of an even birth order (second, fourth, etc.) were exempted from conscription. in case of an uneven total number of brothers, only the smaller half of the number of brothers had to serve, which resulted in the brother born last in line to be exempted as well. social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the system became even more complicated when the oldest brother was exempted. the second brother could not apply for the brother rule anymore, but the third brother could. therefore, the whole counting systems shifted from even to uneven birth order. when the second brother was exempted as well, the same rule applied and so on. this rule might pose an analytical problem because in studies of the impact of household composition on heights, sibship size, and birth order are often used as variables (hatton and martin ; Öberg ). boys born last in the line and probably from somewhat larger families might be missing more often. as these boys are sometimes found to have a smaller stature (due to resource dilution, e.g., hatton ; stradford et al. ) a bias toward taller sons may occur. however, the militia commissioner might be inclined to omit the heights of only sons because they were to be exempted anyway. in this complex conscription system, there were even more ways to avoid service. there were exemptions for those who were already serving in the army (national militia act , s ), those who were studying theology (only for one year, with possible extension [ibid., s ]), and those who were incarcerated (ibid., s ). in other countries as well, particular groups were exempt. in the habsburg empire, some professions requiring a great deal of skill were spared (komlos ). for the netherlands, it was found that most of those already serving as professionals in the military were not present during the examination (drukker et al. ). although they account for a small proportion, these groups all have their own characteristics that might influence the aggregated results. hypotheses the conscription system was constructed in such a way that we can expect some selection biases, although to some extent they may cancel each other out. to esti- mate the direction and impact of these biases we formulate a number of hypotheses, which can be found in figure . here we depict the selection process as it was described in the militia law of . before conscription there are already two hypothesized selection mechanisms at work. the first one is mortality. we expect that mortality was higher in the lower socioeconomic strata of society resulting in the poorest (and shortest) boys to die before they could be measured. the second mechanism is selective migration. understandably, farmers and their sons tended to remain in their locality and its vicinity. lower and unskilled workers, especially farm hands, tended to move frequently, but generally within a circumscribed area (kok , ). frequent moves might have led to bureaucratic problems in tracing their whereabouts. however, long-distance migrations were more likely to cause such an effect. skilled workers, white collar workers, and elite were more likely than others to move over large distances or to emigrate. our second hypothesis therefore states that conscripts from relatively high social classes tend to “escape” registration due to long-distance migration. in the enrollment process, we expect that nepotism (hypothesized selection mechanism in figure ) made it easier for elite sons to escape the records altogether because the system was controlled by social peers. evading conscription was not a joke at the government’s expense. if one boy was able to avoid service in the army, or was rejected for one reason or other, that meant that another one was designated. drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the examination commission was flooded with letters decrying the exemption of a particular boy and denouncing him as having misled the doctors (van roon : ). there are even reports of families migrating from areas with many (professional) exemptions to have a better chance in another municipality (ibid.: ). it is to be expected that the social control on the conscription procedure was more intense in smaller municipalities (hypothesis ). some groups may have been particularly motivated to avoid enlistment (hypothesis ). since , only sons no longer needed to prove that the family depended on them. but the temporary loss of child’s work or salary still remained a large problem, especially for widows, and the examination commission kept receiving letters from widows pleading for the exemption of a son (ibid.: ). we surmise that sons from widows or widowers were absent in the registration figure . factors potentially causing selection in each administrative step leading to a recorded height. social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms more often than others. jews, mennonites, and moravians had been exempted from military duties until , and the loss of this privilege, as well the pacifist persuasions of the latter two groups may still have incited them to avoid military service. the moravians were a very tiny group and are not represented in the hsn, but we can check whether jews and mennonites managed to avoid the registration and lottery. in the second half of the nineteenth century, especially from the s onward, neo-calvinists became increasingly vocal and seceded from the mainstream dutch reformed church in to form their own church. they also had their own political party, university, newspaper, youth organizations, and so on. in their efforts to protect their youths against sinful, “worldly” influences, they railed against army culture, especially the common usage of cursing and sexual innuendo in drilling practices (van ginneken ). during the dutch republic, roman catholics were not allowed to take up official positions. in the nineteenth century they still, to some extent, equated the army with the dominant protestants, although they had been “emancipated” in . thus, we expect that neo-calvinist and roman catholics tried to evade conscription more than others. on the day of the lottery, most conscripts wanted to draft their own number, apparently because of superstitious beliefs. because it was allowed to have one’s parents or the mayor to stand in, we expect (hypothesis ) a higher percentage absent among sailors (who tended to be short), migrants (presumably taller in the case of long-distance migrants), and those who had themselves replaced (probably also taller). we also suspect that heights were often not written down when a flagrant reason for exemption existed (hypothesis ). administrative practices regarding this, however, may differ across regions (hypothesis ). there may also have been regional variation in reasons to be exempted or the ease of avoiding conscription. our last hypothesis ( ) in figure again deals with migrants. those who skipped the lottery might have done that on purpose because they could be examined nearby if they requested that, which could have saved them a great deal of time. data and method this article is based on the release of reconstructed life courses of persons born between and from the hsn (mandemakers , release . ), based on the original sample of birth certificates in the netherlands. until it is a . percent sample and from until it is a . percent sample of births. a random selection of percent of research persons found in birth certificates was tracked in the population registers that were established in the entire netherlands in . these registers provide details of the household composition and all its changes over time, including out-migration (with destination) of the research persons. this makes it possible to reconstruct the life course of the research persons in the context of their families on a daily basis. the research persons were subsequently looked up in the conscription records that can be found in the provincial archives. we applied a set of criteria to make sure that we had the best data set to test our hypotheses. our steps are shown in table . to begin with, we only selected boys, for the simple reason that girls were not drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms subject to conscription. we narrowed our research period to the birth years through . this was done for several reasons: to make sure that we had register data, we did not encounter any problem with privacy regulations, we had complete conscription records, and our outcomes were not affected by world war i. then, we selected five provinces representing different parts of the netherlands. from the north we chose the province of friesland, which has a modern, market-oriented agricultural economy. from the west we have noord-holland, which is similar to friesland but includes the large city of amsterdam. from the east we have the province of overijssel, which was far more traditional in its agricultural econ- omy although some factories were established in the cities. in this area we also find a sizeable number of stem family households (bras et al. ). we selected the south- ern province of limburg, which had a traditional rural economy as well, but also a high percentage of roman catholics compared to other provinces that had a protestant majority. finally, we included the province of utrecht as a reference category. for this article we ended up with , research persons for whom we tried to find out if there was a selection bias in relation to the conscription records. first, we look for two obvious reasons explaining why the research person was not found in the records: early death and (parental) migration out of the region. did this attrition alter the distribution of heights in such a way that it cannot be taken to represent an entire birth cohort? to uncover systematic patterns, we conducted a logistic regres- sion, but this was only possible for those who died as there were few out-migrants. we extracted the occupational status from the father from the birth certificate and recoded that according to the hisclass scheme (van leeuwen and maas ). religion is recorded in the population registers and we apply the categorization of different dutch protestant denominations in liberal and orthodox, as proposed by kok ( ). table . selection of the data reason total exclude number rps born and in the hsn , born as girl , born as man , not born between and , born – , born in gr. dr. gld. zh. bra. zee , born in fr. ov. nh. utr. lim , start data for this paper , died , alive as conscript , parents migrated out of search area should be found in records , not found found , * no height recorded height recorded , exempted (reason . lottery ) , in national militia sources (linked): historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). data set life courses. release . . hsn certificates release . .beta.giants. giants heights hsn research persons release _ .beta. * records are not yet part of the release. social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms we applied logistic regression to see if the , research persons that should be in the conscription records are in fact found. from this group, we could not trace persons. out of the remaining , we found boys without recorded heights. for each regression we discuss in the following text, we only used that group that made it to the next step. thus, each subsequent iteration of the regression was conducted on a smaller data set. the number and characteristics of these data sets can be found in table . for those boys who lived until the age of conscription, we included the family size (number of siblings) and birth order of surviving brothers because that may have influenced the outcomes. we have to take into account that there might be an underestimation of the number of siblings in the hsn (van den berg et al. ). because the observation starts at birth of the research person and ends after he left his parental household, some siblings may go unnoticed. because we are only interested in brothers that survive at least years, we do not expect severe problems. moreover, we include whether the recruit indicated that he should be exempted because of brothers already serving. in this way, we are able to overcome a possible selection problem of the hsn. we also add variables considering if the recruit had a replacement and if he indicated any other reason to be exempted. on the basis of all these regressions we can determine possible selection biases along every step of the recruitment process. mortality and migration to be measured, boys first had to reach the age at which they were subject to con- scription. as we have seen in table , more than one third of the boys died, with infant mortality as the most important cause, as percent of the deaths occurred during the first year and another percent in the second year of life. to what extent does early death in this period lead to a selection bias? death seems to be equal for everyone, but infant mortality was somewhat higher in the lower social strata, espe- cially among unskilled and casual workers (van poppel et al. ). this pattern is also visible in our data (see table ), although with borderline significance. clearly, the province of friesland was an auspicious area in which to be born. an earlier study explained this from prolonged breastfeeding and relatively good sanitary conditions in this province (ibid.: ). in this period, growing up in cities was decidedly unhealthy. for religion we did not find any truly significant effect, apart from a suggestion of lower mortality amongst jews and orthodox protestants. as expected, toward the end of our period, mortality rates were decreasing. the findings in table show that we need to be careful, but do they point at a serious selection bias? death may take out the weakest, and therefore potentially the shortest, members of a cohort. but mortality levels also reflect general living conditions and the prevalence of diseases. therefore, it is not surprising that we find a negative correlation between mortality (between and ) and aggregate heights. an ols regression (results not shown in the table, but available on request) on yearly aggregate heights per year shows that a percent rise in mor- tality led to a centimeter decrease in average heights (p-value = . ). we also found that a drop in survival rates of percent increased the standard deviation drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . logistic regression of dying before the age of conscription, five dutch provinces, – variable b (se) odds ratio died lived hisclass father at birth elite – . ( . ) . middle class ref. ref. farmers – . ( . ) . skilled workers . ( . ) . unskilled workers . ( . ) ‘ . no/unknown . ( . ) * . province of birth friesland – . ( . ) *** . overijssel – . ( . ) . utrecht ref. ref. noord-holland – . ( . ) ‘ . limburg . ( . ) . religion liberal protestant ref. ref. , catholic . ( . ) . orthodox protestant – . ( . ) ‘ . jewish – . ( . ) . no/other – . ( . ) . illegitimate child no ref. ref. , , yes – . ( . ) . cohort – . ( . ) . – . ( . ) . – ref. ref. – – . ( . ) *** . , born in urban area yes . ( . ) *** . , no ref. ref. , constant – . ( . ) *** . n , , , sources (linked): historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). data set life courses. release . . hsn certificates release . .beta.giants. giants heights hsn research persons release _ .beta. = lived and = died. so a higher odds ratio means a higher risk of dying before conscription. significance levels: *** . ; ** . ; * . ; ’ . . social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms with millimeters (p-value = . ). although this might be the result of chance, it indicates that death did not affect everybody’s heights. when mortality went up, average height went down and the distribution shape stayed the same (we did not find a significant change in the difference between mean and median), so the higher standard deviation indicates a higher variation in heights. therefore, when average heights dropped this might indicate that some of the taller people remained tall resulting in a higher standard deviation. to investigate social-class differentials in mortality and their potential effects on the heights distribution more closely, we split the survival rate and aggregated mean heights for social class (by contrasting the first and last three groups in table ). we see that for the well-to-do, epidemic years around the time of birth mattered for heights (odds ratio = . p = . ). for this group, the percentage of survivors was the lowest in years with epidemic outbreaks ( – , , and , based on the newspaper database and n-gram viewer of the royal dutch library [koninklijke bibliotheek, delpher ; de goede et al. ]). we also explore the magnitude of the effect in a linear regression controlling for the average amount of available calories per person in the year of birth (knibbe ). we find that mortality was percent higher in epidemic years for this elite group (p = . ). however, when we conduct the same regression but now using aggregated heights as the dependent variable, we do not find such an effect of epidemic years for the elite (p = . ). this implies that epidemic years influenced the survival chances of the elite, but not their statures. apparently, wealthier people could, if they survived, recover from a crisis later on and still reach a large part of their potential heights. we test that assumption in a linear regression as well with heights as a dependent vari- able and mortality rates as an independent variable and find no relation (p = . ). the less fortunate did not have the possibly to recover later. their mortality rate (p = . ) and aggregated heights (p = . ) were both influenced by the available number of calories, which was not the case for the elite group. furthermore, epidemic years had an impact on the heights of the poor. we find that a percent rise in mortality rates leads to a centimeter decrease in average heights (p-value = . ) for this group. therefore, we conclude that the effect of epidemic years and the available amount of food resulted in different effects for survival and heights for different socioeconomic groups. when an epidemic crisis is studied, death might be somewhat more equal to everyone compared to heights (analysis not shown here, available upon request as well). as mentioned in the preceding text, out-migration was a potential problem with regard to absenteeism and the recording of heights. the law, however, was strict: even conscripts living abroad needed to report for service (national militia act , s – ), although it is unlikely that those who lived in farther-flung places like america returned for the occasion. emigration of families was quite rare— out of more than , observed rural household heads (age – ), only . per- cent emigrated (kok et al. : ). therefore, we will focus on those whose parents moved out of our research area as a proxy for long-distance migration. family migration over longer distances was often for career purposes and, therefore, socially selective (kok ). in our sample, there are only research persons whose parents settled in another region in the netherlands. because this number is too low to conduct a useful logistic regression, we only looked at those numbers drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms that stand out. on average only percent of parents migrated, but we found two groups with a higher number. within the elite group, percent migrated and within the illegitimate children group percent of the parents (probably single mothers) migrated. obviously, these numbers are too small to affect height outcomes. evading the conscript records although the conscription system was designed in such a way that all boys had to register, out of every boys was not found in the enrollment list or conscription records. many things can go wrong when searching for individuals in archives, but that would not necessarily result in a selection bias. we suspect that there are other reasons (see figure ) why these research persons were not traced. the results of our logistic regression on the likelihood of being recorded are displayed in table . although it should not be possible under a system of perfect population admin- istration, moving to another province—but still within the region in which we have used the archives—made it easier to avoid service. the dutch system worked in such a way that conscripts, or their parents, had to make sure that they were regis- tered for conscription. the list was checked by the local authorities and boys missing from the list were enlisted in the national militia right away. apparently, moving to another province made it harder for the municipalities to check if the lists were complete. in addition, we find strong differences in avoidance by social class, which is clearly not caused by selective long-distance migration, as we control for that. elite sons had lower odds than sons from middle-class fathers (the reference category) to end up in the records (also rutten : ), whereas farmers had a higher chance to be recorded. this was not caused by more intense social control in rural communities, as we found that living in an urban area increased the odds ratios of being registered (� percent). remarkably, boys not living with their parents were more likely to be recorded than boys who were (at least according to our recon- struction) still at home. again, this may point at a social gradient—boys of or not living at home were generally working as servants and farmhands, and predom- inantly came from the lower classes (kok ). contrary to our expectations, only sons and brothers from an even birth order (a sound reason for exemption) tended to be recorded more often. so, it is not true that they could avoid conscription more easily because they would be exempted anyway. however, sons of widowed parents did manage to avoid registration, even though they did not have a legal reason to be exempted. perhaps the authorities turned a blind eye in their cases. as for religious motives to avoid enlistment, the signs of mennonites, jews, roman catholics, and orthodox protestants (many of them neo-calvinists) are all in the expected direction, but hardly significant. it is unclear why nondenomina- tionals and “others” (e.g., anglicans) had a higher likelihood of being recorded—as having no religion was often indicative of socialist and antigovernment leanings. to ensure that our findings are “real” historical selection biases and not flaws in our database construction we need to look at province and cohort variables. three different search strategies were applied to find the research persons. for the prov- ince of overijssel, research persons were looked up by printing out a list with their social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . likelihood of being registered in the conscription records, in five dutch provinces, – variable b (se) odds ratio not in in hisclass father at birth elite – . ( . ) ** . middle class ref. ref. farmers . ( . ) ‘ . skilled workers . ( . ) . unskilled workers . ( . ) . no/unknown – . ( . ) . migration rp lived with parents in municipality of birth ref. ref. , rp lived with parents in another municipality – . ( . ) . rp lived with parents in another province – . ( . ) *** . rp left parents and lived in municipality of birth . ( . ) *** . rp left parents and lived in another municipality . ( . ) * . rp left parents and lived in another province – . ( . ) . only son yes . ( . ) ‘ . no ref. ref. , birth order amongst brothers uneven ref. ref. , even . ( . ) ** . province of birth friesland . ( . ) . overijssel – . ( . ) * . utrecht ref. ref. noord-holland . ( . ) . limburg – . ( . ) ‘ . religion liberal protestant ref. ref. , catholic – . ( . ) . orthodox protestant – . ( . ) ** . jewish . ( . ) . mennonite – . ( . ) . no/other . ( . ) * . (continued) drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms names, names of their parents, a birth date and location, and possible places to find the conscript and then they were searched in the conscription records by hand. in limburg the same procedure was followed although here all conscripts were already listed in an alphabetical catalogue making it easier to find them. the conscript records of friesland, utrecht, and noord-holland were indexed and digitized by a crowd sourcing project (“vele handen,” https://velehanden.nl). the hsn was linked to the index using a maximal levenshtein difference (levenshtein ) in first and last names. also, the date of birth had to match. as the regression shows, the computer did a better job than the humans in the archives. it is important to note that this has nothing to do with the preservation of the records, which was accounted for in the selection of our research period and area. in the end, we did not discover any regional differences in absenteeism as was found for, for exam- ple, france or the habsburg empire. we can only conclude that in friesland, utrecht, and noord-holland, based on the same search method, no significant dif- ferences were found between the records. table . (continued ) variable b (se) odds ratio not in in illegitimate child yes – . ( . ) . no ref. ref. , lives in urban area yes . ( . ) . no ref. ref. , father present yes ref. ref. , no – . ( . ) *** . mother present yes ref. ref. , no – . ( . ) *** . cohort – – . ( . ) * . – . ( . ) . – ref. ref. – . ( . ) . constant . ( . ) *** . n , sources (linked): historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). data set life courses. release . . hsn certificates release . .beta.giants. giants heights hsn research persons release _ .beta. = not in conscription records and = found in conscription records. so a higher odds ratio means a higher change of finding the conscript in the records. significance level: *** . ; ** . ; * . ; ’ . . social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://velehanden.nl https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the other variable to check is the effect of birth cohort. it is clear that boys born in – were underrecorded relative to younger cohorts. this is proba- bly related to the much more efficient organization of the population registers in the s. before the royal decree (november ) reorganizing the system, the population registers were maintained as part of the civil registry by officials also responsible for the registers of birth, marriage, and death. more importantly, the population was listed on a de jure basis, which means that people may have moved elsewhere, but were still recorded in their legal domicile. after , this changed to registering the de facto population. population registers fell directly under the responsibility of the municipalities, leading to the appointment of many new officials. last but not least, declaring changes to the household became compulsory for the population (vulsma : ). height recording in principle, dutch conscription records are very useful for anthropometric history, as all heights were recorded even of those clearly too short to be drafted. this has to do with the fact that the dutch conscription was based on a lottery. part of the conscripts were exempted because they drew a high number, but if any of the lower numbers was exempted because of his height, the conscript with the next number in line had to serve. to avoid complaints by disappointed draftees and their parents, heights of undersized boys were written down as well, and that is why the odds ratio in table points in that direction. the other reasons to be exempted increased the risk that no height was found in the records, but only three are statistically significant. those who had already volunteered for the army were exempted and also did not have their heights regis- tered. this reason has already been studied before (drukker et al. ) and it was estimated to have resulted in a maximum change of millimeters in mean heights. boys already serving were, of course, taller than the required minimum height, but they were not the tallest because they typically did not come from the elite or farmer classes, which are often found as the tallest social economic strata (e.g., alter and oris ; beekink and kok ). next to those already enlisted, boys who were of an even birth order and had their brothers of an uneven birth order serving as a conscript were exempted, as were those who were the only son. both reasons appear to cause nonregistration of heights. this is important when family composition is studied in relation to height because those last in the birth order are more often missing in the data. that a reason to be exempted had an effect on underregistration of stature is not so surprising, but socioeconomic class had such an effect as well. it is often mentioned that this has to do with the replacement system, but we did not find a relation. in the netherlands, there were insurance companies providing the fund- ing for a replacement (van roon ) and all social strata seemed to have made use of this option. still the elite might have approached the lottery (having a replace- ment at hand) differently because they probably would not be too short whereas for other social strata this could also be a reason for exemption. so, the elite did not have drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . likelihood of the height being registered in the conscription records, in five dutch provinces, – variable b (se) odds ratio no height height hisclass father at birth elite – . ( . ) * . middle class ref. ref. farmers . ( . ) *** . skilled workers . ( . ) * . unskilled workers . ( . ) * . no/unknown . ( . ) . migration rp lived with parents in municipality of birth ref. ref. , rp lived with parents in another municipality – . ( . ) . rp lived with parents in another province – . ( . ) . rp left parents and lived in municipality of birth – . ( . ) . rp left parents and lived in another municipality . ( . ) . rp left parents and lived in another province – . ( . ) *** . province of birth friesland . ( . ) . overijssel – . ( . ) . utrecht ref. ref. noord-holland . ( . ) ‘ . limburg . ( . ) . religion liberal protestant ref. ref. , catholic – . ( . ) . orthodox protestant . ( . ) . jewish – . ( . ) . mennonite – . ( . ) . no/other – . ( . ) . birth order amongst brothers uneven ref. ref. , even – . ( . ) . only son (continued) social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . (continued ) variable b (se) odds ratio no height height yes . ( . ) ‘ . no ref. ref. , illegitimate child yes – . ( . ) . no ref. ref. , lives in urban area yes – . ( . ) ** . no ref. ref. , replacement yes . ( . ) . no ref. ref. , reason exemption not exempted/exempted by lottery ref. ref. in the army – . ( . ) *** . brother serves – . ( . ) *** . medical reason – . ( . ) . only son – . ( . ) ** . too short . ( . ) . other reason – . ( . ) . sailor yes – . ( . ) *** . no ref. ref. , father present yes ref. ref. , no – . ( . ) . mother present yes ref. ref , no – . ( . ) . cohort – . ( . ) . – . ( . ) . (continued) drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms a strong incentive to be present, but when we tested for an interaction effect between social economic status and replacement we found no significant effect. thus, the most likely explanation is that the elite had the social capital to avoid service in this step as well and therefore have their heights missing. in other words, there was corruption in the conscription system, which caused a selection bias in heights. from the remaining elite group of conscripts, ( percent) avoided service because of a medical reason and ( percent) because of a serving brother. only seven ( percent) conscripts ended up serving in the national militia. if we look at those numbers for the unskilled workers, ( percent) claimed to be medically unfit and ( percent) had a serving brother. from this group, ( percent) were drafted in the end. it is unlikely that unskilled workers were healthier than the elite, it is more likely that friendly doctors (also in the elite group) were willing to file a reason for exemption. occasionally, doctors were sued for helping the conscripts (van roon : ). we also tried to test for this in a logistic regression with exempted and designated as dependent variable (results not in the table). the odds ratio was . for the elite but this was not significant, so we cannot statistically confirm this hypothesis. the combined probability of height recording in the previous analyses, we have conducted separate regressions for every step toward conscription, but it is the overall probability of having one´s height recorded that is interesting as well. therefore, we also conducted a logistic regression to study the likelihood of a height being recorded, using all our , research persons as the population at risk. the results can be found in table . we could not include all variables used in the models from table and because we had no such information for the research persons who died before they reached their conscription age. table shows that from the , births used in this study only , heights are recorded during conscription. it cannot be taken for granted that a height is found in conscription records just because a person was born. therefore, the major point that should be made when conscription data are used is that they do not contain all heights of a birth cohort. table . (continued ) variable b (se) odds ratio no height height – ref. ref. – . ( . ) . constant . ( . ) *** . n , sources (linked): historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). data set life courses. release . . hsn certificates release . .beta.giants. giants heights hsn research persons release _ .beta. = height not in conscription records and = height found in conscription records. so a higher odds ratio means a higher change of finding the height in the records. significance levels: *** . ; ** . ; * . ; ’ . . social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms table . logistic regression of the overall probability of the height being registered in the conscription records, in five dutch provinces, – variable b (se) odds ratio height no height % no height because of death hisclass father at birth elite – . ( . ) * . % middle class ref. ref. % farmers . ( . ) *** . % skilled workers . ( . ) ‘ . % unskilled workers . ( . ) ** . % no/unknown – . ( . ) ‘ . % province of birth friesland . ( . ) *** . % overijssel . ( . ) . % utrecht ref. ref. % noord-holland . ( . ) ** . % limburg . ( . ) * . % religion liberal protestant ref. ref. , , % catholic – . ( . ) . % orthodox protestant . ( . ) . % jewish . ( . ) . % no/other . ( . ) ‘ . % illegitimate child no ref. ref. , , % yes . ( . ) . % cohort – – . ( . ) . % – – . ( . ) ‘ . % – ref. ref. % – – . ( . ) ** . % born in urban area yes – . ( . ) *** . , % no ref. ref. , , % constant – . ( . ) *** . n , , % sources (linked): historical sample of the netherlands (hsn). data set life courses. release . . hsn certificates release . .beta.giants. giants heights hsn research persons release _ .beta. = no height and = height. so a higher odds ratio means a higher risk of the height of the research person being registered. significance levels: *** . ; ** . ; * . ; ’ . . drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the majority of missing heights result from death before conscription (died in table /no height in table * % = %). only in the elite group and for the orthodox protestants, death was not the major reason for a missing height. these numbers in table do not only reflect the mortality rates for each group but also the will to evade conscription. therefore, the results in tables , , and show us that these two groups combined low mortality with a strong will to escape conscription. the only difference is that the elite also did not have their heights recorded in table whereas the orthodox protestants did not report a significant effect. from the percentages and the effects in table , we can derive the conclusion that the socioeconomic background has an important role in the likelihood of height registration. compared to the other groups, the middle classes are missing relatively often and the elite to an even larger extent. farmers, however, have a higher prob- ability to have their heights recorded. from the share of research persons from which the stature is recorded, we know that these groups are relatively tall. therefore, the contrasting odds ratios might cancel each other out when it comes to height on an aggregated level. however, we cannot know if there are any unob- servable factors that bias the height of these particular groups in any direction. we can only establish that the mortality rates in table did not differ significantly between these groups. still the role mortality plays in the number of heights that were not found differs strongly. the province of friesland shows that a low number in the last column does not coincide with a higher likelihood of missing heights. mortality rates were low for this province, but there were still a great deal of boys who did not have their heights recorded. overall the result was still positive in comparison to utrecht (our refer- ence group), and friesland reported the highest likelihood to have the heights recorded. conscripts from friesland were relatively tall, but this effect might be averaged out: for instance, boys from limburg were relatively short in this period and were also registered more frequently than those from utrecht. overall, religion seems to have played a minor part in determining whether or not heights were registered. the share of boys who died early is completely different for the denominations, but overall these effects did not prove to be significant. illegitimacy also had no significant effect. there was no linear time trend in the cohorts, but the cohort used as reference ( – ) resulted in the most recorded heights. the urban effect was significantly negative. this is not only caused with higher mortality in the cities as the share of death was almost similar to that of the rural areas. the final question is whether the uncovered selection biases affected aggregate heights. although the odds and logit parameters of the different variables seem to be quite large, their effects on height at an aggregated level is ultimately quite small. in our current data set the difference between the mean height ( . centimeters) and the median height ( . centimeters) is only . millimeter. this indicates that the distribution is almost normal, although slightly skewed to the left. we can use the numbers from table to study the impact of socioeconomic status on heights at an aggregated level. for each group, we used the number of research persons we set out with to get the distribution at birth. based on these numbers, we calculated a weighted average height. we used the average heights per group under social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the assumption that there were no unobservable biases resulting in a higher of lower mean for the unrecorded group. this resulted in a mean height of . centi- meters and a median height of . centimeters. this reduced the gap to only . millimeter, with the median height remaining constant. still these numbers show that the effect of the selection biases on the aggregated data are very small. conclusion we have formulated a number of hypotheses on reasons for lacking registration and measurement in the dutch conscript system. we found that mortality was margin- ally higher for the lower socioeconomic classes when controlling for religion, province, cohort, and urban birth location. for migration this was the other way around, although the numbers were too low to have a real impact. when we look into our hypotheses on less obvious explanations for not being recorded and measured, we found that nepotism probably resulted in a lower share of elite in the final height data set. for other social groups, lack of social surveillance might have helped evading the system, but contrary to what we expected, more boys were “found” in urban areas. possibly, the community was not so hard on those who lost a parent because this unofficial reason resulted in a lower number of conscripts recorded. religious motives to avoid conscription did not have significant effects. absenteeism proved a problem as was expected with high absent rates for sailors and migrants. also, migrants had lower odds ratios as we anticipated. we did not find very large differences between the regions, certainly not in such a way that we think the law was interpreted differently resulting in a selection bias. our results show there is limited reason to question the quality of dutch conscript records. the little amount of skewedness in historical height distributions is mostly caused by historical living conditions causing selection in life, not in the records. studies looking for familial, social, and cultural variation in heights, however, need to take account of the differences between various social groups in being recorded and being measured. to conclude, we were able to show a number of selection biases present in the conscription records. historians should be aware of them when working with these records and they have to make sure that they know how the system worked. this is especially important when specific regions or social groups are studied. but as we showed, when the numbers are high enough the combined selection biases influence the distribution by only a couple of millimeters. because height is often studied to examine the change of the biological standard of living of cohorts over a long time such a small difference is not problematic. acknowledgments. funding received from the netherlands organisation for scientific research (nwo), giants of the modern world project, - - . references a’hearn, brian ( ) “anthropometric evidence on living standards in northern italy, – .” the journal of economic history ( ): – . a’hearn, brian, franco peracchi, and giovanni vecchi ( ) “height and the normal distribution: evidence from italian military data.” demography ( ): – . drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms alter, george, and michel oris ( ) “effects of inheritance and environment on the heights of brothers in nineteenth-century belgium.” human nature ( ): – . alter, george, muriel neven, and michel oris ( ) “height, wealth and longevity in xixth century east belgium.” annales de démographie historique ( ): – . bassino, jean-pascal, and jean-pierre dormois ( ) “comment tenir compte des erreurs de mesure dans l’estimation de la stature des conscrits français?” histoire, Économie & société ( ): – . baten, joerg ( ) “protein supply and nutritional status in nineteenth century bavaria, prussia and france.” economics & human biology ( ): – . baten, joerg, and matthias blum ( ) “growing tall but unequal: new findings and new background evidence on anthropometric welfare in countries, – .” economic history of developing regions (suppl. ): s –s . beekink, erik, and jan kok ( ) “temporary and lasting effects of childhood deprivation on male stat- ure: late adolescent stature and catch-up growth in woerden (the netherlands) in the first half of the nineteenth century.” the history of the family ( – ): – . bodenhorn, howard, timothy w. guinnane, and thomas a. mroz ( ) “problems of sample-selection bias in the historical heights literature: a theoretical and econometric analysis.” yale economics department working paper ( ). —— ( ) “caveat lector: sample selection in historical heights and the interpretation of early industrial- izing economies.” national bureau of economic research (w ). cambridge, ma: nber. —— ( ) “sample-selection biases and the industrialization puzzle.” the journal of economic history ( ): – . bras, hilde, jan kok, and kees mandemakers ( ) “sibship size and status attainment across contexts: evidence from the netherlands, – .” demographic research : – . brinkman, henk-jan, jan willem drukker, and brigitte slot ( ) “lichaamslengte en reëel inkomen. een nieuwe schattingsmethode voor historische inkomensreeksen.” economisch-en sociaal-historisch jaarboek ( ): – . de goede, b., j. van wees, and m. marx ( ) “political mashup ngramviewer.” http://ngramviewer. kbresearch.nl. de meere, jan m. m. ( ) economische ontwikkeling en levensstandaard in nederland gedurende de eerste helft van de negentiende eeuw: aspecten en trends. ‘s-gravenhage: m. nijhoff. drukker, jan willem, and vincent tassenaar ( ) “paradoxes of modernization and material well-being in the netherlands during the nineteenth century,” in richard h. steckel and roderick floud (eds.) health and welfare during industrialization. chicago: university of chicago press: – . drukker, jan willem, henk-jan brinkman, and m. a. van meerten ( ) “economische ontwikkeling en de lengte van lotelingen: afgekeurd voor alle diensten.” economisch- en sociaal-historisch jaarboek ( ): – . floud, roderick, robert w. fogel, bernard harris, and sok chul hong ( ) the changing body: health, nutrition, and human development in the western world since . cambridge: cambridge university press. grab, alexander ( ) “army, state, and society: conscription and desertion in napoleonic italy ( – ).” the journal of modern history ( ): – . hatton, timothy j. ( ) “stature and sibship: historical evidence.” the history of the family ( – ): – . hatton, timothy j., and richard m. martin ( ) “fertility decline and the heights of children in britain, – .” explorations in economic history ( ): – . heyberger, laurent ( ) “toward an anthropometric history of provincial france, – .” economics & human biology ( ): – . jacobs, jan, tomek katzur, and vincent tassenaar ( ) “on estimators for truncated height samples.” economics & human biology ( ): – . knibbe, merijn t. ( ) “de hoofdelijke beschikbaarheid van voedsel en de levensstandaard in nederland, – .” tijdschrift voor sociale en economische geschiedenis ( ): . koerhuis, b., and w. van mulken ( ) broncommentaren v. de militieregisters — . gravenhage: stichting archief publicaties. kok, jan ( ) “youth labor migration and its family setting, the netherlands – .” the history of the family ( ): – . social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . http://ngramviewer.kbresearch.nl http://ngramviewer.kbresearch.nl https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms —— ( ) “choices and constraints in the migration of families: the central netherlands, – .” the history of the family ( ): – . —— ( ) “church affiliation and life course transitions in the netherlands, – .” historical social research/historische sozialforschung ( ): – . kok, jan, erik beekink, and david bijsterbosch ( ) “environmental influences on young adult male height: a comparison of town and countryside in the netherlands, – .” historical life course studies ( ): – . kok, jan, kees mandemakers, and bastian mönkediek ( ) “flight from the land? migration flows of the rural population of the netherlands, – .” espace populations sociétés. space populations societies ( / ). komlos, john ( ) nutrition and economic development in the eighteenth-century habsburg monarchy: an anthropometric history. princeton, nj: princeton university press. koninklijke bibliotheek ( ) “royal dutch library,” delpher, www.delpher.nl/ (accessed july ). levenshtein, vladimir i. ( ) “binary codes capable of correcting deletions, insertions, and reversals.” soviet physics doklady ( ): – . mandemakers, kees ( ) “the netherlands: historical sample of the netherlands,” in p. kelly hall, r. mccaa, and g. thorvaldsen (eds.) handbook of international historical microdata for population research. minneapolis: university of minnesota population center: – . mazzoni, stanislao, marco breschi, matteo manfredini, lucia pozzi, and gabriele ruiu ( ) “the relationship between family characteristics and height in sardinia at the turn of the twentieth century.” the history of the family ( – ): – . Öberg, stefan ( ) “social bodies: family and community level influences on height and weight, southern sweden – .” phd diss., university of gothenburg. —— ( ) “too many is not enough: studying how children are affected by their number of siblings and resource dilution in families.” the history of the family ( – ): – . osman, julia. ( ) “the citizen army of old regime france.” phd diss., university of north carolina at chapel hill. puschmann, paul, robyn donrovich, and koen matthijs ( ) “salmon bias or red herring?” human nature ( ): – . rutten, willebrord j. m. j. ( ) “de levensstandaard in limburg van de franse tijd tot aan de eerste wereldoorlog. een analyse van de lichaamslengte van limburgse lotelingen.” studies over de sociaal-economische geschiedenis van limburg ( ): – . scott, james c. ( ) seeing like a state: how certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed. new haven, ct: yale university press. spitzer, yannay, and ariell zimran ( ) “migrant self-selection: anthropometric evidence from the mass migration of italians to the united states, – .” journal of development economics ( ): – . staub, kaspar, joël floris, ulrich woitek, and frank rühli ( ) “from left-skewness to symmetry: how body-height distribution among swiss conscripts has changed shape since the late th century.” annals of human biology ( ): – . stradford, laura, frans van poppel, and l. h. lumey ( ) “can resource dilution explain differences in height by birth order and family size? a study of , male recruits in twentieth-century netherlands.” the history of the family ( – ): – . tassenaar, vincent ( ) het verloren arcadia: de biologische levensstandaard in drenthe, – . capelle a/d ijssel: labyrinth publication. van den berg, niels, ingrid k. van dijk, rick j. mourits, p. e. slagboom, a. a. janssens, and k. mandemakers ( ) “families in comparison: an individual-level comparison of life-course and family reconstructions between population and vital event registers.” population studies, – . van ginneken, jacobus ( ) handboek der nederlandsche taal. vol. . den bosch: lcg malmberg. van leeuwen, marco h. d., and ineke maas ( ) hisclass: a historical international social class scheme. leuven: universitaire pers leuven. van poppel, frans, marianne jonker, and kees mandemakers ( ) “differential infant and child mortality in three dutch regions, – .” the economic history review ( ): – . van roon, eduard w. r. ( ) “de dienstplicht op de markt gebracht. het fenomeen dienstvervanging in de negentiende eeuw.” bmgn-low countries historical review ( ): – . drafting the dutch h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://www.delpher.nl/ https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms —— ( ) “lotgevallen: de beleving van de dienstplicht door de nederlandse bevolking in de negentiende eeuw.” phd diss., university of amsterdam. van zanden, jan luiten, and kees mandemakers ( ) “lengte van lotelingen en het nationaal inkomen: schijnrelaties en misvattingen.” economisch-en sociaal-historisch jaarboek ( ): – . vulsma, rudolf ferdinand ( ) burgerlijke stand en bevolkingsregister. den haag: centraal bureau voor genealogie. wet op de nationale militie ( ) staadsblad van het koninkrijk der nederlanden , nr. . https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=mmkb : : (accessed july ). cite this article: quanjer, björn and jan kok ( ) “drafting the dutch: selection biases in dutch conscript records in the second half of the nineteenth century,” social science history : – . doi: . /ssh. . social science history h ttp s://d o i.o rg / . /ssh . . d o w n lo ad ed fro m h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re . c arn eg ie m ello n u n iversity , o n a p r at : : , su b ject to th e c am b rid g e c o re term s o f u se, availab le at h ttp s://w w w .cam b rid g e.o rg /co re/term s . https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=mmkb : : https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=mmkb : : https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://doi.org/ . /ssh. . https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms 	drafting the dutch: selection biases in dutch conscript records in the second half of the nineteenth century 	introduction 	conscription practices 	hypotheses 	data and method 	mortality and migration 	evading the conscript records 	height recording 	the combined probability of height recording 	conclusion 	references << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /pagebypage /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice exploring cultural psychology: introduction to a book forum on towards cultural psychology of religion: principles, approaches, applications by jacob a. belzen exploring cultural psychology: introduction to a book forum on towards cultural psychology of religion: principles, approaches, applications by jacob a. belzen lewis r. rambo published online: march # springer science+business media new york abstract this article introduces a book forum on jacob a. belzen’s book towards cultural psychology of religion: principles, approaches, applications. the introduction discusses the relatively recent bturn to culture^ and how it has affected the field of psychology of religion and the variety of concerns examined by the journal pastoral psychology. keywords jacob belzen . culture . psychology of religion . cultural psychology of religion over the last two decades, we have experienced a bturn to culture^ due to our growing awareness of diversity around the world, the fast-paced changes brought on via rapid global- ization, the massive communications expansion, and the relocation of millions of immigrants and refugees. recognizing the often profound differences in cultures and understanding the importance of these differences and the impact of multiple cultural options, scholars and many others have sought to engage culture as a pervasive and powerful force in our world as well as within individuals and communities. i have participated in this growing awareness of diversity around the world because i have had the good fortune to spend extended periods of time in china, germany, israel, japan, and korea. my goal during most of these times spent living outside the united states was to do research on the nature of converting. my original work on conversion was rooted in the s approach to psychology of religion. without fully recognizing it at the time ( – ), however, at the university of chicago i was laying the foundation for an interdisciplinary and cultural approach to my future research. during my phd program at the university of chicago, i took courses with salvatore maddi (the psychology of meaning), victor lidz (sociology of religion), victor turner (anthropology), and talcott parsons (sociology of religion).working with don browning as my dissertation advisor, i studied william james in depth. a few years pastoral psychol ( ) : – doi . /s - - - * lewis r. rambo lewisrayrambo@yahoo.com san francisco theological seminary, san anselmo, ca, usa http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf later, when i began to focus my research on conversion, i quickly sought to go beyond psychology. i began to explore the disciplines of anthropology and sociology, and i found that scholars in these fields were blazing a trail to a new understanding the complex nature of religious transformations in many different contexts—many different cultures. during the s i spent sabbaticals in japan, korea, and israel. in these extraordinary places, i met all kinds of converts: jews who became christians, buddhists who became christians, christians who became jews. while teaching at san francisco theological seminary and the graduate theological union, berkeley, i was involved with the center for new religious movements (under the brilliant leadership of jacob needleman). i interviewed and conducted participant-observation research with members of groups such as the unification church (better known as the bmoonies^) and the international church of christ in san francisco. one of the most important influences on my work, especially my work on the cultural dimensions of religion and conversion, came about through my working with asian phd students at the graduate theological union. these brilliant and diligent students became immersed in the program in religion and psychological studies, and they challenged me to recognize the western bias in the field of psychology. when they delved into contemporary american psychology, they soon realized that american psychology was influenced by western values, methods, and theories. how, they would ask, can american psychology fully comprehend the nature of korean culture, personhood, relationships, etc.? i was at first very captivated by western psychology, but i gradually grasped that psychology in the united states (and perhaps the united kingdom, germany, etc.) was infused with western culture. my dissertation students helped me to reframe my confusion with the limitations of psychology in relation to understanding the fundamental importance of culture. i experienced a breakthrough (some might even call it an intellectual bconversion^). one of the most important dimensions of conversion that had largely been ignored by conversion scholars (especially psychologists) is the cultural matrix in which converting is nurtured and shaped. the religious converting process takes different forms in different contexts. from the s until now, more and more scholars of conversion have seriously considered the cultural aspects of transformative experiences and processes. i was fortunate to meet jacob belzen at a conference in seoul, korea, sponsored by the korean association for christian counseling and psychotherapy. one of the organizers was dr. soo-young kwon. the speakers included nalini arles (india), jacob belzen (the netherlands), archie smith, jr. (united states), aart van beek (united states and the netherlands), and myself, lewis rambo (united states). in the years since that conference, jacob belzen and i have corresponded frequently. he is a warm and compassionate friend. he continues to dazzle me with his wide and deep scholarship (which he shares with humility and generosity). it is an honor for this journal to publish this book forum. i am grateful for being challenged by the following brilliant phd students i have worked with over the years: kyu yun duk, bitna kim, hak soon im, soo-young kwon, hee cheol lee, peter sam nguyen, shinhwan pan, and chizuko saito. for those interested in the cultural dimensions of counseling and psychotherapy, see this journal’s book forum on cultural psychotherapy: working with culture in the clinical encounter by karen m. seeley ( , pastoral psychology, ( ), – . for a broad overview of the nature of cultural psychology, see the book forum on indigenous and cultural psychology: understanding people in context edited by uichol kim, kuo- shu yang, and kwang-kuo hwang ( , pastoral psychology, , – ). pastoral psychol ( ) : – now, to the content of the book that is the subject of the following book forum. there are several ways to read towards cultural psychology of religion. one can read the book as a marvelous and rich overview of the development of the field of psychology (especially in europe), the psychology of religion, and, more recently, the cultural psychology of religion. readers will be richly rewarded by belzen’s panoramic and detailed recounting and assessment of the work of german psychologists (especially wilhelm wundt) and of the development of these fields in the netherlands and the united states. another way to read the book is to savor it as if you were having a long conversation with a brilliant, articulate, and charming scholar who has invited you into his study. the conversations, of course, may take place over several days or weeks. the central question of the book is, what is culture? how does it influence persons, religions, and society? we use the term constantly, but we rarely step back and ask ourselves how we define and understand the meaning(s) of culture. culture is a complex, interconnected, and at times conflicting tapestry of proscriptions and prescriptions for behavior, attitudes, values, etc. culture includes language, art, music, customs, gender expectations, food, religion, politics, artifacts, symbols, ethics, and ethoses. joan laird ( ) provides a helpful and robust description of culture that focuses on the impact of cultural processes on all of us. according to laird, culture is dynamic, fluid, and emergent; it is performative and improvisational. she asserts that bwe ‘perform’ our cultural stories of gender, ethnicity, race, and so on as we move through the days in time and space. furthermore, each performance, each enacted storying, is both unique and at the same time located in and related to the larger social discourses of meaning from which we gather narrative threads, symbols, and ritual possibilities—a combi- nation of tradition and imagination^ (p. ). jacob belzen, professor at the university of amsterdam, is one of the most prolific, erudite, and creative psychologists of religion in the world. in his book towards cultural psychology of religion, belzen ( b) identifies the distinctiveness of cultural psychology as its empha- sis on the pervasive and powerful impact of culture on humans: bwhereas contemporary psychology generally recognizes that not only human interactions are influenced by culture, but that also individuals’ feelings, thinking, experiences and behavior are shaped by it: cultural psychology conceives of these as being inherently cultural—as being the result of human embeddedness in culture, which is therefore to be considered as a genuine element of all human functioning relevant for psychology^ (p. ). furthermore, belzen ( b) states that . . . cultural psychology does not search inside the human being to investigate belief, feeling, reasoning and behavior, but rather tries to understand how the specific form of life the person is embedded in, constitutes, and structures feelings, thoughts and conduct. cultural psychologists try to counterbalance the prevailing bias in psychology according to which psychological phenomena have their origin in the intra-individual processes. they stress that psychological phenomena—such as attitudes, emotions, motives, percep- tual outlook, forms of reasoning, memory and so on—are not just shaped by a surrounding culture, but are constituted by and rooted in particular cultural interactions. (pp. – ) for more information about professor belzen, see prof. dr. j. a. (jacob) van belzen, university of amsterdam, http://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/organisation/staff-members/item/j.a.van-belzen.html?page= &pagesize= . see also kelly bulkeley’s article on belzen’s international series in the psychology of religion (bulkeley ). pastoral psychol ( ) : – http://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/organisation/staff-members/item/j.a.van-belzen.html?page= &pagesize= http://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/organisation/staff-members/item/j.a.van-belzen.html?page= &pagesize= in towards cultural psychology of religion, belzen is modest in his goals; he does not see his book as a comprehensive textbook on cultural psychology of religion or as a finished product exemplifying an ideal vision of the emerging field. rather, he provides fascinating chapters in which he addresses profound issues regarding the foundations of psychology in general and of psychology of religion in particular. each chapter critically examines the history of the emergence of psychology and the vicissitudes of how psychology has explored the nature of religion in its many facets. each chapter also offers case studies of different approaches to the psychology of religion, especially history- and phenomenology-based projects. belzen’s book challenges us to plumb the depths of our own cultural influences and examine how these can both distort and deepen our understanding of other cultures, encour- aging us to candidly acknowledge our own cultural limitations and be open to learning very different approaches to the discipline of psychology and our understanding of the nature of various religions. genuine cultural engagement with bthe other^ can be fascinating but also disconcerting and disorienting. nevertheless, once we begin to comprehend the degree to which our own culture shapes our values, perceptions, and even feelings, we can gain a deeper appreciation of different cultural perspectives and honestly face the limitations and contradic- tions of our own culture. towards cultural psychology of religion provides us with questions, methods, and a guidebook for our own journey into the marvelous but at times complex waters of culture in all its variety and strangeness. belzen’s book towards cultural psychology of religion has stimulated intense interest and vigorous debate since it was published in . for this book forum, we are fortunate to have the following scholars join the discussion by addressing belzen’s provocative and informative book from diverse perspectives: aart van beek; michael carroll; co-authors al dueck, jeffrey ansloos, austin johnson, and christin fort; and edênio valle. aart van beek was born and raised in the netherlands. he earned a thd from the south asia graduate school of theology in singapore and a dmin degree from the claremont school of theology. he has also lived and worked in indonesia for many years, serving as a missionary and teaching pastoral counseling at various theological schools, including jakarta theological seminar in indonesia. he is currently the pastor of the parkview presbyterian church in sacramento, california. van beek has published widely. his book cross-cultural counseling (fortress press) is especially relevant to this book forum. michael p. carroll is a professor of sociology at wilfrid laurier university of waterloo, ontario, canada. his main research interest is the sociology of religion, and he has published several monographs on popular catholicism in different national contexts (including italy, ireland, and northern new mexico) over various historical periods. belzen does not offer his own definition of religion; he is probably wise to avoid this particular ongoing debate. psychologists of religion, however, would profit from definitional discussions about religions. one of the best books on this topic is religion scholar thomas a. tweed’s ( ) nuanced and insightful book crossing and dwelling: a theory of religion. martin riesebrodt’s ( ) the promise of salvation: a theory of religion provides a fascinating and compelling argument from the perspective of a sociologist of religion. see the special issue of the journal mental health, religion and culture— ( ), – , published in — which contains ten articles by a wide range of psychologists of religion. these papers provide a fascinating look at the predicament of contemporary psychology of religion through the lens of culture. others reject belzen’s emphasis on the importance of history, phenomenology, and the central place of culture in comprehending both religion and persons. belzen ( a) response paper, bto read and to be read—the problematic nature of communication: comment on comments,^ is both informative and illustrative of the conflicts and conundrums in the fields of psychology and the cultural psychology of religion. pastoral psychol ( ) : – edênio valle has been teaching psychology of religion since in the graduate program in religious studies of the pontifical catholic university of são paulo/brazil. he is now professor emeritus of the same university. after his theological studies at the theologische hochschule st. augustin (bonn, germany), he completed doctoral studies in psychology at the pontifical salesian university (rome, italy). he was the first president of the national association for religious studies. he is a member of the anppep (national association for research and postgraduate studies in psychology/division of psychology and religion). he is the founder of the psychotherapeutic institute for religious (ita) in são paulo, brazil. valle has published many books and articles in scientific journals. he translated belzen’s towards cultural psychology of religion into portuguese. al dueck is a canadian whose parents were german ukrainian mennonites. al and his wife were active members of the african american mennonite fellowship in boone, north carolina, while al completed his ma in counseling at appalachian state university and pastored churches in the fellowship. he completed his doctoral studies at stanford university in psychology. he is currently distinguished professor of cultural psychologies at the fuller school of psychology. dueck is the author of between jerusalem and athens: ethical perspectives on culture, religion, and psychotherapy and, with kevin reimer, a peaceable psychology: christian therapy in a world of many cultures. jeffrey ansloos is a graduate of the fuller school of psychology and is presently a faculty member in the department of child and youth welfare at the university of victoria, british columbia, canada. as a member of the fisher river cree nation, his research interest focus is on indigenous perspectives on nonviolence, human rights, mental health, peace-building, and restorative justice. austin johnson is a doctoral student in the clinical psychology program at the fuller school of psychology. he has completed a master’s degree in anthropology, and his dissertation research is focused on existentialism as an integrative lens for psychology, anthropology, and theology. he hails from texas, which he claims is a culture of its own. christin fort is a completing her clinical internship as a doctoral candidate in the fuller school of psychology. her research interests emerge from her african american heritage and are focused on the intersection of attachment theory, intersubjective systems theory, and divine passability. references belzen, j. a. ( a). to read and to be read—the problematic nature of communication: comment on comments. mental health, religion & culture, ( ), – . belzen, j. a. ( b). towards cultural psychology of religion: principles, approaches, applications. new york: springer. bulkeley, k. ( ). revival movement: jacob belzen’s international series in the psychology of religion. religious studies review, , – . kim, u., yang, k. s., & hwang, k. k. (eds.). ( ). indigenous and cultural psychology: understanding people in context. new york: springer. laird, j. ( ). theorizing culture: narrative ideas and practice principles. in m. mcgoldrick (ed.), re-visioning family therapy: race, culture, and gender in clinical practice (pp. – ). new york: guilford press. riesebrodt, m. ( ). the promise of salvation: a theory of religion (trans: rendall, s.). chicago: university of chicago press. seeley, k. m. ( ). cultural psychotherapy: working with culture in the clinical encounter. northvale: jason aronson. tweed, t. a. ( ). crossing and dwelling: a theory of religion. cambridge: harvard university press. pastoral psychol ( ) : – 	exploring... 	abstract 	references alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease wednesday, february , a -pos board b cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin- related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission natalia stepanyants, patrick macdonald, rajesh ramachandran. physiology and biophysics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa. cardiolipin (cl) is a unique, dimeric phospholipid essential for mitochondrial dynamics in eukaryotic cells. dynamin-related protein (drp ), a member of the dynamin superfamily of large gtpases, maintains the balance of mitochon- drial division and fusion by rapidly catalyzing mitochondrial fission. although recent studies have indicated a role for cl in stimulating drp self-assembly as well as gtpase activity on the mitochondrial surface, the exact mechanism by which cl functions in membrane fission remains unclear. here we use a variety of fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging approaches, together with model membranes, to demonstrate that drp and cl function cooperatively in effect- ing membrane fission in three distinct steps: (i) drp ’s preferential association with unconstrained, fluid-phase cl molecules located at a high spatial density in the membrane bilayer, (ii) cl’s reorganization in concert with drp self- assembly, and (iii) cl’s rapid phase transition from a lamellar, bilayer structure to an inverted hexagonal, non-bilayer configuration in the presence of drp and gtp, resulting in the creation of localized membrane constrictions that are primed for fission. we propose that drp thus catalyzes mitochondrial division. -pos board b vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin- sensitive channels oscar teijido hermida , adam j. kuszak , susan k. buchanan , sergey m. bezrukov , tatiana k. rostovtseva . program on physical biology, nichd, nichd, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, program on physical biology, nichd, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa. the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac) forms the major pathway for metabolites across the mitochondrial outer membrane (mom). mammalian mitochondria have three isoforms of this protein: vdac , vdac , and vdac which may play different roles in the regulation of mitochondrial func- tions. vdac is the most studied isoform, since it is the major protein of the mom in most cells, followed by vdac . both, vdac and vdac recon- stituted into planar membranes form voltage-dependent anion-selective chan- nels whose conductance is modulated by dimeric tubulin. as counterpart, the poor channel-forming ability of vdac together with its low proficiency in restoring normal growth in pore-less yeast led to hypothesize that this isoform does not form channels and could be just a modulator of the other two isoforms. we developed an improved protocol of purification and refolding of mouse re- combinant vdac that allowed us to fully characterize channels formed by vdac reconstituted in planar lipid membranes and to compare its channel properties with those of vdac and vdac . we observed the typical vdac channel behavior of vdac , such as high conductive open state ( . - . ns in m kcl) and multiple low conductive states at potentials r mv, selectivity for anions with pcl -/pk þ¼ . , and typical voltage- gating. this suggests a structural homology of vdac with the other two iso- forms. interestingly, the most distinct characteristic of vdac is its signifi- cantly lower sensitivity to the blockage by tubulin, which would lead to an increased permeability of this channel to atp and other metabolites. this might explain why the down-regulation of vdac expression among the three vdac isoforms in some cancer cells causes the most drastic decrease in their mitochondrial membrane potential, or why vdac is predominantly ex- pressed in the short-term high energy demanding cells, such as spermatozoa. -pos board b channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential victor v. lemeshko. escuela de fisica, universidad nacional de colombia, medellin, colombia. mitochondria are the main source of energy in eukaryotic non-proliferating aer- obic cells. in cancer cells, significant part of the energy metabolism is sup- ported by the aerobic glycolysis. oxidative phosphorylation metabolites cross the mitochondrial outer membrane through the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac). the possibility of the voltage-gating functioning of vdac under physiological conditions and proposed mechanisms of generation of the outer membrane potential (omp) require further study. in this work, we present a computational thermodynamic analysis of a possible generation of omp by the creatine kinase(ck)-vdac and vdac-hexokinase(hk) com- plexes, as well as by their intermembrane complexes with the adenine nucleo- tide translocator (ant). the ck-vdac and vdac-hk complexes function as direct steady-state voltage generators, using the free energy of kinase reac- tions, while the ant-ck-vdac and ant-vdac-hk complexes allow the application of a part of the sum of the corresponding ‘‘kinase voltage’’ and the inner membrane potential to the outer membrane. the developed computa- tional models demonstrate a high probability of generation of the metabolically-dependent omp with magnitudes high enough to close free vdacs. we suggest that in case of cardiac cells, the ck-vdac-mediated channeling of mitochondrial energy, earlier postulated by saks and wallimann, leads to the metabolically-dependent generation of a high omp during systole, thus causing electrical closure of free vdacs and essentially avoiding the mitochondrial atp usage by non-contraction system consumers. in case of cancer cells, that have a very high percentage of hexokinase attached to mito- chondria, the electrical closure of free vdacs by omp allows the preferential vdac-hk-mediated channeling of the mitochondrial atp to initiate the aer- obic glycolysis by an anti-turbo mode. (research grants # and # , colciencias). -pos board b alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease philip a. gurnev , , tatiana k. rostovtseva , david p. hoogerheide , , olga protchenko , thai leong yap , jennifer c. lee , sergey m. bezrukov . physics department, umass-amherst, amherst, ma, usa, section on molecular transport, ppb/nichd/nih, bethesda, md, usa, center for neutron research, nist, gaithersburg, md, usa, liver diseases branch, niddk/nih, bethesda, md, usa, laboratory of protein conformation and dynamics, nhlbi/nih, bethesda, md, usa. alpha-synuclein (a-syn), an intrinsically disordered neuronal protein, is impli- cated in the etiology of parkinson disease (pd) and a number of other neurode- generative dementias. though recent research demonstrates the involvement of a-syn in a variety of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration, the mo- lecular mechanism of a-syn toxicity and its effect on neuronal mitochondria remain vague. we demonstrate a functional interaction between a-syn and the voltage-dependent anion channel (vdac), the major conduit for atp and other bioenergetics metabolites in the mitochondrial outer membrane. we found that at nanomolar concentrations, the full-length a-syn, its amino acid c-terminal truncated mutant, as well as b- and a-synuclein isoforms induce reversible and highly voltage-dependent blockage of vdac reconsti- tuted into planar lipid bilayers. binding parameters varied with each isoform, revealing the key role of the negatively charged c-terminal of synucleins in blocking a positively charged pore of vdac. synuclein-blocked states of vdac differ in ionic selectivity, implying the existence of several conforma- tion states of synuclein molecules in the channel pore. we propose a model of a-syn interaction with vdac, in which the negatively charged c-terminus of a-syn enters the net-positive channel pore, providing a steric block for atp flux. experiments with a yeast strain deficient in vdac demonstrate that a-syn toxicity in yeast depends on vdac, revealing a-syn interaction with the channel in living cells. thus, our findings show the long-sought physiolog- ical and pathophysiological roles for monomeric a-syn, which reconcile previ- ous observations of various synuclein effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics. -pos board b mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter meagan mcmanus , martin picard , alessia angelin , prasanth potluri , jagat narula , douglas wallace . chop/upenn, philadelphia,, pa, usa, mt sinai, new york, ny, usa. cardiac conduction defects and cardiomyopathy are commonly reported in pa- tients with inborn errors of metabolism harboring pathogenic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear dna (mtdna and ndna, respectively). we hypothesized that the pathophysiology of inborn errors of metabolism varies due to synergistic heterozygosity between the two genomes. we examined a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy due a mutation in the adenine nucleotide translocator- (ant ). substantial variability in the progression of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and the severity of cardiomyopathy correlated with the mtdna haplogroups (strauss, et al ). to determine the causative nature of this correlation, we examined the influence of inherited mtdna mutations on ant - cardiomyopathy in the mouse. we introduced homoplasmic mtdna nd or coi missense mutations into the mouse female germ line, generating mice with complex i or iv deficiency, respectively, and analyzed ant -dependent cardiomyopathy on the different mtdna backgrounds. on wt mtdna back- ground, the ant -/- mice developed a distinctive concentric dilated cardiomy- opathy, characterized by substantial myocardial hypertrophy and ventricular dilation. both coi and nd mtdna mutations accelerated ant -/- age- dependent cardiomyopathy, as evidenced by ultrastructrural abnormalities, bio- energetic defects, mtros production, sensitized mitochondrial permeability transition, increased mtdna damage, and heart failure, which ultimately 	cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission 	vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels 	channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential 	alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease 	mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter ugyldig lenke til dokument i vitenarkiv | unit hopp til hovedinnhold direktoratet for ikt og fellestjenester i høyere utdanning og forskning 	 tjenester 	 handlingsplan for digitalisering 	 digitalisering 	 om unit søk meny 	 digitalisering 	 digitaliseringsstyret 	 handlingsplan for digitalisering 	 fagutvalgene 	 tjenesterådene 	 tjenester 	 utdanningstjenester 	 forskningstjenester 	 administrative tjenester 	 bibliotekstjenester 	 digitalt læringsmijø 	 generelle verktøy 	 vårt arbeid 	 prosjekter 	 prosjektrammeverk 	 styringsmodell for informasjonssikkerhet i høyere utdanning og forskning 	 open tilgang (open access) 	 klagenemnder 	 om unit 	 organisering 	 ansatte 	 jobb i unit 	 units vedtekter 	 offentlig journal 	 Årsrapportar og tildelingsbrev 	 personvern og informasjonskapsler 	 generelle tjeneste- og leveransebetingelser 	 dette er de vi er til for 	 aktuelt 	 aktuelt 	 arrangement 	 nyhetsbrev 	 kontakt oss 	 om unit 	 fakturainformasjon 	 presse 	english 	norsk ugyldig lenke til dokument i vitenarkiv brage - åpent vitenarkiv sist endret: . . del: share to linkedin share to facebook share by mail share to twitter du prøver å nå et dokument via en lenke som ikke er gyldig. hvis du vet hvilken institusjon som har publisert dokumentet, kan du finne det i institusjonens vitenarkiv. se liste over vitenarkiv her. you are trying to reach a document via a link that is not valid. if you know which institution has published the document, you can find it in the institution's open access repository. see list of open access repositories here. del: share to linkedin share to facebook share by mail share to twitter fant du det du lette etter? ja nei hva lette du etter? din tilbakemelding hjelper oss å forbedre nettstedet til toppen kontakt hovedkontor: abelsgate , teknobyen, trondheim avdeling oslo: fridtjof nansens vei , oslo telefon: +     e-post: postmottak@unit.no om unit 	 om unit 	 hiring (no) 	 ansatte 	 presse 	 offentlig journal 	 vedtekter 	 personvern og informasjonskapsler 	 tildelingsbrev våre tjenester 	 utdanningstjenester 	 forskningstjenester 	 administrative tjenester 	 digitalt læringsmijø 	 bibliotektjenester 	 generelle verktøy hold deg oppdatert linkedin facebook e-post twitter rss feed meld deg på vårt nyhetsbrev og hold deg oppdatert nyhetsbrev fra unit wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ chh volume issue cover and front matter church history studies in christianity & culture american society of church history d e c e m b e r core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge newgen https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history presidest ja\ shuts. professor emeritus, indiana university- purdue university. indianapolis president-elect john van em.i \ . university of notre danie execute e secretary kiwf.th p. minki \i \. yale university editors john corrican amanda pok i krhkld florida stale unkersitv members oe the col'scie class of m a r y kt ]>n< ( a y k > \ t h o m a s k s i i \ i a \ m \ i \ j. m a i m g a n r o n a l d k. r i t k ; f h . s pk'it.r j. tiiri-si-.n ('lass of k f . i i i i a. f r a n c i s r o b i n m \ i « , a r f i ( i n s i n b a r b a r a j . n'i-'um \ \ d a n a l . r o r i r i m i . r r y w i t s n i r h a n k s class of si"san mcarvkr a n n i t i u v i r el ainf s. cudbfck ll-.m.ll- (.a . ai an c o n s t a n x f f l r l y the society was founded in b\ philip schaff. was reorganized in (i. and was incorporated bv act of the legislature of the state ol new york in ( . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. december no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history , the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors john corrigan amanda porterfield senior assistant to the editors d. e. "gene" mills, jr. assistants to the editors karen heitzenrater joseph williams shawntel ensminger elizabeth a. clark thomas noble carlos eire hugh mcleod dana robert myung soo park enrique dussel florida state university associate editors duke university notre dame university yale university university of birmingham boston university seoul theological university universidad nacional autonoma de mexico church history (issn - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles philosophy as training for death: reading the ancient christian martyr acts as spiritual exercises nicole kelley the real presence of mary: eucharistic disbelief and the limits of orthodoxy in fourteenth-century france wendy love anderson the origins of southern evangelicalism: revivalism in south carolina, - thomas j. little textual healing: mainstream protestants and the therapeutic text, - pamela e. klassen pilgrimage, place, and people: a history of the locations of mennonite world conference assemblies, - nancy r. heisey b o o k review essay wyrick, jed, the ascension of authorship: attribution and canon formation in jewish, hellenistic and christian traditions, nasrallah, laura, an ecstasy of folly: prophecy and authority in early christianity, and krueger, derek, writing and holiness: the practice of authorship in the early christian east richard lim b o o k reviews and n o t e s goldenberg, david, the curse of ham: race and slavery in early judaism, christianity and islam reuven firestone hartney, aideen m., gruesome deaths and celibate lives: christian martyrs and ascetics caroline t. schroeder brakke, david, demons and the making of the monk: spiritual combat in early christianity teresa m. shaw bellitto, christopher m., and louis i. hamilton, eds., reforming the church before modernity: patterns, problems, and approaches francis oakley mackie, gillian, early christian chapels in the west: decoration, function, and patronage joseph d. alchermes wilson, susan e., the life and after-life of st john of beverley: the evolution of the cult of an anglo-saxon saint w. trent foley asbridge, thomas, the first crusade: a new history john kelsay core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core taylor, claire, heresy in medieval france: dualism in aquitaine and the agenais, - thomas renna berkhofer, robert f., ill, alan cooper, and adam j. kosto, eds., the experience of power in medieval europe, - john w. dahmus hunter, ian, john christian laursen, and cary j. nederman, eds., heresy in transition: transforming ideas of heresy in medieval and early modern europe jacques berlinerblau cholakian, patricia f., and rouben c. cholakian, marguerite de navarre: mother of the renaissance larissa juliet taylor diefendorf, barbara b., from penitence to charity: pious women and the catholic reformation in paris keith p. luria forster, marc r., and benjamin j. kaplan, eds., piety and family in early modern europe: essays in honour of steven ozment alexandra walsham selwyn, jennifer d., a paradise inhabited by devils: the jesuits' civilizing mission in early modern naples helen hills teter, magda, jews and heretics in catholic poland: a beleaguered church in the post-reformation era r. po-chia hsia marshall, peter, religious identities in henry viii's england matthew reynolds mcclain, lisa, eest we be damned: practical innovation and lived experience among catholics in protestant england, - w. clark gilpin reynolds, matthew, godly reformers and their opponents in early modern england: religion in norwich, c. - peter marshall hindmarsh, d. bruce, the evangelical conversion narrative: spiritual autobiography in early modern england richard p. heitzenrater ford, alan, and john mccafferty, eds., the origins of sectarianism in early modern ireland andrew r. holmes midelfort, h. c. erik, exorcism and enlightenment: johann joseph gassner and the demons of eighteenth-century germany brian p. levack matsumoto-best, saho, britain and the papacy in the age of revolution, - nadia m. lahutsky batalden, stephen, kathleen cann, and john dean, eds., solving the word: the cultural impact of the british and foreign bible society, - ....]. samuel escobar zhuk, sergei i., russia's lost reformation: peasants, millennialism, and radical sects in southern russia and ukraine, - alexander etkind wood, timothy l., agents of wrath, sowers of discord: authority and dissent in puritan massachusetts, - michael p. winship conforti, joseph a., saints and strangers: new england in british north america thomas s. kidd hessinger, rodney, seduced, abandoned, and reborn: visions of youth in middle-class america, - bret carroll verkruyse, peter a., prophet, pastor, and patriarch: the rhetorical leadership of alexander campbell kathleen flake bushman, richard lyman, joseph smith: rough stone rolling colleen mcdannell stark, rodney (reid l. neilson, ed.), the rise of mormonism richard j. mouw noll, mark a., the civil war as a theological crisis e. brooks holifield brooks, joanna, american lazarus: religion and the rise of african-american and native american literatures joel w. martin trevino, roberto r., the church in the barrio: mexican american ethno-catholicism in houston kristy nabhan-warren pinn, anthony b., the black church in the post-civil rights era sylvester johnson shea, william m., the lion and the lamb: evangelicals and catholics in america evelyn savidge sterne hendershot, heather, shaking the world for ]esus: media and conservative evangelical culture andrew rojecki fox, richard wightman, jesus in america, a history: personal savior, cultural hero, national obsession charles h. lippy core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core williams, peter s., america's religions: from their origins to the twenty-first century valerie ziegler brewer, carolyn, shamanism, catholicism and gender relations in colonial philippines, - lisa j. m. poirier bebbington, david w., the dominance of evangelicalism: the age of spurgeon and moody adam laats woolverton, john f., robert h. gardiner and the reunification of worldwide christianity in the progressive era susan curtis ruse, michael, the evolution-creation struggle anne c. rose bowden, john, ed., encyclopedia of christianity douglas a. sweeney society notices a profile of the membership of the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core chh volume issue back matter the jane dempsey douglass prize the douglass prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay on some aspect of the role of women in the history of christianity. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to richard l. greaves, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, c / o department of history, florida state university, tallahas- see, fl , by august each year, beginning in . no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. call for papers the spring meeting of the american society of church history will be held at colorado state university, fort collins, colorado, - april. the program committee welcomes propos- als for entire sessions, individual papers, or panels. the committee also encourages sessions representing both genders. papers on any period of church history are welcome, especially papers dealing with the papacy of gregory the great, which began in , and the religious history of the canadian and u.s. plains and mountain west. each proposal must include an abstract and a curriculum vitae. please send proposals to professor harry rosenberg, dept. of history, colorado state university, fort collins, colorado . the deadline for submission is october . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core a significant alternative reading of american history mennonite experience in america series land, piety, peoplehood: the establishment of mennonites in america, - richard k. macmaster analyzes the economic, social, political, and religious forces which drove mennonites to america. he paints a portrait of the early american mennonites: their wealth, migration patterns, social structures, family patterns, and changing attitudes toward education. he shows how they fit into the context of colonial and revolutionary america. volume . paper, $ . , in canada $ . peace, faith, nation: mennonites and amish in nineteenth-century america a major concern in this volume by theron f. schlabach is how these inheritors of the th-century radical reformation were developing as a religious community. was pietism still changing mennonite worship and practice? what about the mennonite emphasis on humility which contrasted with the general mood of the country and with the activism of revivalistic protestants? volume . paper, $ . , in canada $ . vision, doctrine, wan mennonite identity and organization in america author james c. juhnke comments, "the first world war was a crisis and turning point for mennonites and amish in america. it forced a reassessment of the costs of mennonite identity in a democratic and militaristic america. in the postwar era mennonites struggled toward a new equilibrium. mennonite anti-modernists campaigned for clearer prescribed doctrine. a conservative mood slowed the pace of social and religious change." volume . paper, $ . , in canada $ . herald press books are available through your local bookstore or write to herald press (include % for shipping). herald press dept. jch walnut avenue scortdale,pa - herald press dept. jch dutton drive waterloo, on n l h cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core princeton and the republic i - the search for a christian enlightenment in the era of samuel stanhope smith mark a. noll widely viewed during the revolutionary period as a champion of both republicanism and evangelical calvinism, the college of new jersey nonetheless experienced great inner turmoil as its leaders tried to support the stability of the new nation by integrating sound principles of science and faith. focusing on three presidencies—those of john witherspoon, samuel stanhope smith, and ashbel green— mark noll relates the dramatic institutional history of what is now princeton university, a history closely related to the intellectual development of the early republic. cloth: $ . isbn &ki - - at your bookstore or princeton university press w ujam st. . princeton. nj • ( ) - • orders -prs-bbn ( - ) cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history the outler prize was established to encourage the critical study of ecumenical church history, broadly conceived, and to facilitate the publication of such studies. "ecumenical" is to be construed as chiefly concerned with the problems of christian unity-and-disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) in any period of church history; or with interac- tions between christianity and other religious movements. works of a partisan nature are excluded. the following categories are eligible: a. studies, chiefly narrative and critical, of ecumenical church history dealing with historical controversies and divisions, or with notable instances of reconciliation and consensus. b. analyses of church councils, dialogues, and debates, or interactions between christianity and other religious tradi- tions. c. biographical studies of significant leaders, or of persons whose involvement in ecumenical dialogue and action was noteworthy. d. critical editions (preferably annotated) of significant ecumen- ical documents. e. bibliographical reviews and evaluations in major areas of ecumenical church history. f. pioneering studies that advance scholarly knowledge and ecumenical understanding. the prize consists of an award of $ to the author and a possible grant of up to $ for publication (or in exceptional cases, for necessary expenses in the preparation of a book-length manu- script accepted for publication). the prize will be awarded annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by june. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core prizes of the american society of church history the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize the brewer prize is a subsidy of $ to assist the author in publishing a booklength manuscript in church history. the winning manuscript shall be published in a manner acceptable to the society. manuscripts accepted for publication may be submitted for this award, but the winning manuscript must have printed on its title-page, "the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize essay of the american society of church history." if competing works are otherwise of equal quality, preference will be given to topics relating to the history of congrega- tionalism. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by november each year, with return postage included. the award will be announced at the spring meeting of the society. the philip schaff prize the schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ to be paid to the author of the best book originating in the north american scholarly community which presents original research in the history of christian- ity or any period thereof. books considered for the next award must have been published during the year or . any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration for the schaff prize. copies of books nominated do not have to be submitted. titles nominated for consideration must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, deland avenue, indialantic, fl , by march . the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december . the sidney e. mead prize the mead prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent recipient whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to richard l. greaves, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, c / o department of history, florida state university, tallahassee, fl , by july each year. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core microsoft word - shephard_obesity and pa_part june .docx health & fitness journal of canada copyright © the authors. journal compilation copyright © health & fitness society of bc volume june , number 	 narrative	review	 can	regular	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 :	empirical	cross- sectional	evidence	of	efficacy.		 roy	j.	shephard ,*	 	 	faculty	of	kinesiology	&	physical	education,	university	of	toronto,	on,	canada.		 *corresponding	author:	royjshep@shaw.ca		 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 	 	 	 abstract	 objective:	the	objective	of	this	narrative	review	is	to	examine	cross-sectional	empirical	data	suggesting	the	 efficacy	of	adequate	daily	physical	activity	in	the	prevention	of	obesity.	methods:	information	obtained	from	 ovid/medline	and	google	scholar	 through	 to	march	 	was	supplemented	by	a	 search	of	 the	author's	 extensive	personal	files.	results:	average	skin-fold	readings	are	often	as	low	as	 	mm,	in	male	elite	long- distance	 competitors	 who	 spend	 many	 hours	 per	 week	 in	 training,	 and	 values	 for	 female	 endurance	 competitors	are	also	often	only	a	half	of	those	found	in	the	general	female	population.	physical	education	(pe)	 students	(particularly	men)	are	somewhat	thinner	than	their	peers	in	other	faculties,	but	this	advantage	is	 attenuated	 in	averaged	data	because	a	proportion	of	pe	students	have	a	 lesser	commitment	 to	an	active	 lifestyle,	and	also	some	students	 in	other	 faculties	engage	 in	physically	demanding	 inter-collegiate	sports.	 early	 occupational	 studies	 showed	 low	 body	 fat	 levels	 in	 physically	 active	 occupations,	 and	 a	 similar	 difference	can	still	be	observed	in	elite	military	groups	where	high	daily	energy	expenditures	are	required.	 amish	and	old-order	mennonite	families	who	eschew	modern	mechanical	devices	have	very	high	levels	of	 daily	physical	activity,	and	this	is	reflected	in	their	correspondingly	low	levels	of	body	fat.	similar	findings	 have	been	reported	for	inuit	who	still	follow	a	hunter-gatherer	lifestyle.	studies	validating	questionnaires	and	 accelerometers	 in	 the	 general	 population	 have	 show	 correlations	 of	 up	 to	 - . 	 between	 scores	 on	 such	 instruments	 and	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 content.	 finally,	 cross-sectional	 comparisons	 within	 circumpolar	 communities	 have	 demonstrated	 higher	 levels	 of	 aerobic	 fitness	 in	 those	 populations	 with	 the	 least	 acculturation	to	a	sedentary	"white"	lifestyle,	and	this	sub-group	of	circumpolar	residents	also	has	a	low	body	 fat	 content.	conclusions:	 conclusions	about	 the	 impact	of	vigorous	daily	physical	 activity	upon	body	 fat	 content	are	limited	by	the	possible	self-selection	of	a	physically	active	lifestyle,	with	the	adoption	of	other	 favorable	 health	 behaviours	 by	 active	 individuals.	 nevertheless,	 all	 of	 numerous	 population	 comparisons	 show	lower	levels	of	body	fat	in	those	groups	who	maintain	an	adequate	level	of	habitual	physical	activity.	in	 some	 cases,	 the	 levels	 of	 physical	 activity	 adopted	 have	 been	 very	 high,	 but	 there	 are	 also	 examples	 of	 populations	 where	 a	 favourable	 body	 composition	 has	 been	 associated	 with	 the	 regular	 performance	 of	 volumes	of	physical	activity	that	are	appropriate	for	average	middle-aged	adults.	health	&	fitness	journal	of	 canada	 ; ( ): - .		 https://doi.org/ . /hfjc.v i . 		 	 keywords:	acculturation,	active	individuals,	amish,	heavy	workers,	inuit,	marathon	runners,	occupational	 fitness,	physical	activity,	physical	education	students		 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 introduction	 many	 nutritionists	 have	 argued	 over	 the	years	 that	regular	physical	activity	 is	 unlikely	 to	be	effective	 in	 the	prevention	 or	 the	 treatment	 of	 obesity	 (epstein	 &	 wing,	 ;	 jakicic,	 clark,	 &	 coleman,	 ;	 malhotra	 &	 noakes,	 ;	 shaw,	 gennat,	&	o'rourke,	 ).	such	authors	 have	pointed	to	the	large	total	volume	of	 energy	 expenditure	 needed	 to	 reduce	 body	 fat	 content	 significantly,	 the	 likely	 stimulation	 of	 appetite	 by	 vigorous	 exercise,	and	a	possible	reduction	of	both	 resting	 metabolic	 rate	 and	 spontaneous	 physical	 activity	 that	 counters	 the	 therapeutic	 response	 to	both	dieting	and	 vigorous	 exercise.	 a	 companion	 article	 (shephard,	 )	 has	 recently	 examined	 (and	 largely	dismissed)	 these	arguments.	 the	 present	 narrative	 review	 offers	 empirical	 cross-sectional	 evidence	 suggesting	 that	 an	 adequate	 level	 of	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 is	 consistently	 associated	with	low	levels	of	body	fat	in	a	 wide	 variety	 of	 populations.	 subsequent	 articles	 will	 substantiate	 this	 view	 with	 prospective	 data	 showing	 substantial	 favourable	changes	of	body	composition	in	 response	 to	 regular	 participation	 in	 an	 exercise	programme,	and	will	then	explore	 the	 role	 of	 exercise	 programmes	 in	 the	 more	 intractable	 problem	 of	 treating	 established	obesity.	 when	looking	at	reasons	behind	a	trim	 body	 figure,	 investigators	 inevitably	 face	 the	perennial	problem	of	disentangling	the	 closely	 intertwined	 influences	of	physical	 activity,	a	well-regulated	diet,	other	facets	 of	 a	 healthy	 lifestyle,	 and	 a	 genetic	 predisposition	 to	 a	 low	 body	 fat	 content	 among	 those	 who	 have	 achieved	 and	 maintain	 an	 appropriate	 body	 build	 (shephard,	 ).	 we	 will	 here	 look	 critically	at	evidence	derived	from	various	 cross-sectional	 studies	 that	 have	 related	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 to	 body	 fat	 content,	 including	 comparisons	 between	 the	 general	 population	 and	 supposedly	 active	groups	such	as	endurance	athletes,	 participants	 in	 other	 long-distance	 and	 ultra-long	 distance	 events	 (table	 ),	 physical	 education	 students,	 workers	 in	 physically	 demanding	 jobs,	 traditional	 amish	 farmers	 and	 unacculturated	 inuit.	 we	 will	 also	 look	 at	 cross-sectional	 associations	 between	 self-reported	 or	 objectively	 measured	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 and	 obesity	 levels	 in	 the	 general	 population,	 and	 will	 compare	 the	 body	 composition	of	 indigenous	populations	at	 various	 stages	 in	 their	 adoption	 of	 a	 sedentary	western	lifestyle.	 	 endurance	 athletes	 vs.	 the	 general	 population	 	 there	are	occasional	groups	of	athletes	 such	 as	 sumo	 wrestlers,	 where	 the	 accumulation	of	fat	apparently	gives	them	 a	competitive	advantage,	but	most	athletes	 body	fat	quickly	accumulates	if	training	is	 interrupted	 by	 injury,	 and	 some	 of	 the	 thinnest	athletes	are	those	such	as	ultra- marathoners	who	engage	in	many	hours	of	 endurance	training	each	day.		 an	 early	 analysis	 of	 	 studies	 of	 elite	 male	 distance	 runners	 showed	 body	 fat	 table	 :		weighted	average	of	body	fat	content	 (%	fat)	as	reported	for	elite	endurance	athletes	 (shephard	and	Åstrand,	 ).	 sport	 male	 competitors	 female	 competitors	 canoeing	 . 	 	 cycling	 . 	 . 	 cross	country	 skiing	 . 	 . 	 distance	 running	 . 	 . 	 rowing	 . 	 . 	 soccer	 . 	 . 	 swimming	 . 	 . 	 triathlon	 . 	 . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 values	ranging	from	- . %	to	 . %,	with	a	 weighted	average	of	only	 . %	(shephard		 &	 Âstrand,	 ;	 table	 ).	 this	 figure	 stands	 in	 considerable	 contrast	 with	 table	 :		estimated	body	fat	percentage	in	various	groups	of	distance	runners.	 	 authors	 sample	 measure	of	body	fat	 males	 females	 arrese	&	ostáriz	 ( )	 	m, 	f	elite	runners,	sum	of	 	 skin-folds,	 	km,	 	km,	and	 marathoners	 . ,	 . ,	 . 	mm		 . ,	 . ,	 . 	mm,		 arazi	et	al.	(	 )	 	phys	ed.,	 	other	male	 students	 . %	(pe)	 . %	(other)	 	 arazi	&	hoseini	 ( )	 	student	athletes,	 	other	 female	students	 	 bmi	 . 	vs.	 . 	 kg/m 	 bale	et	al.	( )	 	elite	male	 	km	runners	 . %	fat	 	 bartlett	et	al.	( )	 	collegiate-level	female	distance	 runners	 	 . %	fat	 coetzer	et	al.	( )		 	white,	 	black	runners	(?	male)	 over	distances	>	 km.	 average	skin-fold	 . 	 mm	vs.	 . 	mm	 	 conley	&	 krahenbuhl	( )	 	male	 	km	runners	 average	skin-fold	 . 	 mm	 	 costill	et	al.	( )	 	participants	in	 	us	 marathon	trial	 . %	by	 	skin-fold	 equations	( . %	in	 other	students)	 	 cureton	et	al.	( )	 	men,	 	women,	distance	runners		 . %	 . %	 de	garay	et	al.	 ( )		 	male	distance	runners	 - . %	 	 eksterowicz	et	al.	 ( )	 	kenyan	male	distance	&	marathon	 runners	 . %	 	 flack	( )	 	u.s.	marathon	runners	 . %	 	 graves	et	al.	( )	 	elite	and	 	good	female	 distance	runners	 		 . %	(elite)	 . %	(good)	 hirata	et	al.	( )	 	male	tokyo	olympic	 participants	 . %	 	 knechtle	et	al.	 ( )	 	female	recreational	half- marathon	runners	 	 . %	 kong	&	de	heer	 ( )	 	male	kenyan	distance	runners	 . %	 	 pollock	et	al.	( )	 	distance,	 	marathon	runners	 (male)	 . %	(distance)	 . %	 (marathon)	 	 rusko	et	al.	( )	 	top	distance	malerunners		 . %	 	 sprynarová	&	 parizková	( )	 	top	?	male	runners,	distance	not	 specified	 . %	 	 upton	et	al.	( )	 	female	middle-aged	 marathoners	vs.	 	sedentary	 controls	 	 . %	vs.	 . %	 vaccaro	et	al.	(	 )	 	female	distance	runners	 (masters)	 	 . %	 vernilio	et	al.	( )	 	top	male	kenyan	runners	 . %	 	 wilmore	et	al.	 ( )	 	 	female	world	class	distance	 runners	 	 . %	 wilmore		&	brown	 ( )		 	female	national	level	distance	 runners	 	 . %,	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 typical	 values	 for	 healthy	 young	 north	 american	 adults	 (~ - %	 in	 men,	 and	 ~ - %	in	women,	lohman,	 ).	 	 detailed	data	on	the	body	fat	content	of	 distance	runners	are	summarized	in	table	 .	in	addition	to	very	low	overall	values,	in	 general,	the	male/female	body	fat	ratio	is	 lower	 than	 in	 the	 general	 population,	 perhaps	 because	 a	 higher	 proportion	 of	 male	 competitors	 have	 a	 strong	 commitment	to	distance	running.	 looking	 at	 details	 of	 some	 of	 the	 individual	 studies,	 arrese	 &	 ostáriz	 ( )	 reported	 values	 for	 a	 group	 of	 highly	 trained	runners	 ( 	men	and	 	 women)	 who	 were	 competing	 over	 various	 distances.	 focusing	 on	 the	 distance	 competitors,	 data	 averaged	 across	 	skin-folds	showed	values	of	only	 - 	mm	in	the	men,	and	 - 	mm	in	the	 women,	 as	 compared	 with	 averages	 of	 	 and	 	 mm	 for	 young	 men	 and	 women	 from	 the	 general	 population	 in	 toronto	 (shephard,	 ).	in	both	sexes,	the	skin- fold	thickness	was	inversely	related	to	the	 athlete's	 competitive	 distance,	 and	 the	 lowest	 readings	 were	 seen	 in	 the	 marathoners.		 bale	et	al.	( )	examined	 	male	 	 km	 runners	 at	 various	 levels	 of	 proficiency.	 in	 the	 	 elite	 competitors,	 who	 presumably	 were	 the	 most	 heavily	 committed	 to	 training,	 the	 skin-fold	 predictions	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 averaged	 . %,	while	 the	 thickness	of	 	measured	 skin-folds	 averaging	 	 mm.	 however,	 in	 second	and	 third	rank	competitors,	body	 fat	 content	 was	 usually	 substantially	 greater,	with	average	values	of	 . %	and	 . %	respectively.		 bartlett	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 	 female	 collegiate-level	 distance	 runners	 with	 	university	gymnasts.	the	runners	 were	taller	than	the	gymnasts,	and	in	both	 groups	the	hydrostatic	estimates	of	body	 fat	 (averages	 of	 . %	 and	 . %,	 respectively)	 were	 much	 lower	 than	 among	 the	 general	 population	 of	 university	women.	 coetzer	et	al.	( )	compared	body	fat	 in	 	"black"	and	 	“white"	south	africans.	 both	 groups	 were	 committed	 athletes,	 competing	 over	 distances	 > 	 km,	 and	 engaging	 in	 - 	 km	 of	 training	 per	 week.	averages	of	skin-fold	readings	taken	 at	 	measurement	sites	for	these	subjects	 were	 . 	 and	 . 	 mm,	 respectively.	 	 the	 "black"	 runners	 were	 not	 only	 systematically	thinner	(p=	 . ),	but	also	 had	 had	 consistently	 higher	 speeds	 than	 their	"white"	competitors,	mainly	because	 they	 trained	 at	 a	 higher	 percentage	 of	 their	 maximal	 oxygen	 intakes,	 and	 thus	 had	 a	 lesser	 lactate	 accumulation	 during	 an	event.	 conley	&	krahenbuhl	( )	studied	 	 of	 the	 top	 male	 finishers	 in	 a	 nationally	 known	 	 km	 race.	 this	 highly	 trained	 group	 had	 an	 average	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake	 of	 . 	 ml/[kg.min].	 skin-folds	 measured	 at	 	 sites	 had	 an	 average	 thickness	of	only	 . 	mm.	inter-individual	 differences	 in	 performance	 among	 this	 group	seemed	due	mainly	to	differences	in	 running	economy.	 costill	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 all	 	 participants	 in	 the	 u.s.	 	 marathon	 trials	with	a	group	of	 	male	university	 students	 who	 were	 not	 participating	 in	 any	 organized	 physical	 training	 programme,	and	 	graduate	students	and	 faculty.	 using	 the	 average	 of	 	 different	 skin-fold	 predictions	 to	 determine	 body	 fat	content,	average	values	were	 . %	for	 the	 distance	 runners,	 compared	 with	 . %	for	the	non-athletic	undergraduates	 and	 . %	for	the	graduate	students	and	 faculty	 members.	 it	 was	 estimated	 that	 despite	 a	 relatively	 low	 total	 body	 mass,	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 the	 runners	 had	 energy	 expenditures	 as	 high	as	 mj/day.		 cureton	et	al.	( )	reported	data	for	 	 male	 and	 	 female	 distance	 runners;	 although	their	subjects	engaged	in	regular	 training,	 they	 were	 less	 fit	 than	 some	 of	 the	other	groups	discussed	in	this	section,	 with	 maximal	 oxygen	 intakes	 of	 ~ 	 ml/[kg.min]	 for	 the	 men,	 and	 ~ 	 ml/[kg.min]	for	the	women.		body	fat	was	 determined	by	underwater	weighing,	and	 the	 respective	 estimates	 of	 . %	 and	 . %	were	somewhat	 lower	than	in	the	 general	 population.	 cureton	 et	 al.	 noted	 that	 any	 experimental	 additions	 to	 body	 mass	 led	 to	 corresponding	 decreases	 in	 distance	running	performance.		 de	 garay	 et	 al.	 ( )	 based	 their	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 in	 olympic	 champions	 on	 somatotyping	 and	 a	 measurement	 of	 bone	 diameters.	 they	 obtained	 very	 low	 (and	 often	 puzzlingly	 low	 negative)	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 content	in	 	male	distance	and	marathon	 runners.	 hirata	 ( )	 used	 a	 similar	 methodology	 on	 	 male	 olympic	 champions	in	tokyo,	again	obtaining	very	 low	 values	 for	 the	 distance	 runners	 (an	 average	of	 . %	fat).	 eksterowicz	et	al.	( )	examined	the	 contribution	of	physical	characteristics	to	 the	outstanding	competitive	performances	 of	 	male	kenyan	distance	and	marathon	 runners.	a	skin-fold	estimate	of	body	 fat	 content	yielded	an	average	of	 . %,	with	 the	thickness	of	 	skin-folds	averaging	the	 very	low	figure	of	 . 	mm.	kong	&	de	heer	 ( )	had	similar	findings	for	a	group	of	 	 male	 kenyan	 distance	 runners,	 with	 a	 skin-fold	 estimate	 of	 . %	 body	 fat.		 vernilio	et	al.	( )	made	a	further	study	 of	 	 male	 kenyan	 runners,	 finding	 a	 somewhat	higher	(although	still	very	low)	 skin-fold	prediction	of	fat	( . %).	this	last	 study	is	the	most	recent,	and	it	is	possible	 that	 the	 nutrition	 of	 the	 top	 kenyan	 runners	 may	 have	 improved	 over	 the	 course	of	these	 	studies.		 	 flack	( )	used	both	hydrostatic	and	 anthropometric	 methods	 to	 estimate	 the	 body	fat	content	of	 	marathon	runners	 who	 were	 among	 	 elite	 u.s.	 male	 athletes	 attending	 the	 u.s.	 olympic	 training	center	 in	colorado	springs.	the	 average	 skin-fold	 prediction	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 for	 this	 sample	 was	 . %,	 although	 a	 higher	 value	 ( . %)	 was	 obtained	 by	 hydrostatic	 weighing.	 fleck	 noted	that	the	lowest	fat	values	were	seen	 in	 athletic	 disciplines	 where	 a	 high	 maximal	oxygen	intake	was	required.		 graves	 et	 al.	 ( )	 studied	 the	 body	 composition	 of	 	 elite	 (international	 or	 national	 level)	 and	 	 good	 (local	 level)	 female	 distance	 runners.	 the	 elite	 group	 had	 been	 running	 an	 average	 of	 	 km/week	 during	 the	 previous	 year,	 and	 the	 good	 runners	 had	 covered	 	 km/week	 during	 their	 training.	 the	 respective	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 by	 underwater	 weighing,	 at	 . %	 and	 . %,	 were	 low	 for	 women,	 and	 values	 for	the	"good"	group	were	not	significantly	 greater	 than	 those	 for	 the	 elite	 runners.	 skin-fold	 and	 bio-impedance	 predictions	 both	 tended	 to	 underestimate	 the	 hydrostatic	predictions	in	this	sample.		 the	 data	 of	 knechtle	 et	 al.	 ( )	 illustrate	 the	 importance	 of	 commitment	 to	 distance	 running.	 in	 a	 group	 of	 	 unselected	 female	 recreational	 half- marathoners	 (participants	 in	 the	 basel	 half-marathon),	 training	 distances	 were	 limited	to	an	average	of	 	km/week,	or	 . 	hours	of	running	per	week,	and	a	skin- fold	 prediction	 of	 body	 fat	 yielded	 the	 quite	 high	 average	 of	 . %.	 the	 percentage	 of	 body	 fat	 was	 quite	 closely	 correlated	with	race	times	(r	=	 . ),	and	 was	 also	 correlated	 negatively	 with	 the	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 weekly	training	distance	(r	=	 . 	to	- . 	 for	different	skin-folds).	 pollock	et	al.	( )	made	skin-fold	and	 hydrostatic	predictions	of	body	 fat	 in	 	 elite	(international	or	national	class)	long- distance	 and	 marathon	 runners,	 finding	 respective	 body	 fat	 levels	 of	 . %	 and	 . %,	with	figures	of	 . 	and	 . 	mm	for	 the	 average	 of	 	 skin-folds.	 in	 "good"	 rather	 than	 elite	 runners,	 the	 average	 predicted	body	fat	increased	to	 . %,	and	 in	 "average":	 young	 men	 they	 found	 a	 skin-fold	thickness	of	 . 	mm	 rusko	 et	 al.	 ( )	 studied	 athletes,	 about	a	half	of	whom	were	members	of	the	 finnish	 national	 team.	 skin-fold	 predictions	of	body	fat	in	 	male	distance	 runners	yielded	an	average	of	 . %	body	 fat.	they	compared	this	figure	to	average	 values	of	 . %	for	 	physical	education	 students,	and	 . %	for	 	male	controls.	 the	relative	training	status	of	the	 	groups	 can	 be	 inferred	 from	 their	 respective	 levels	 of	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake	 ( . ,	 . 	and	 ,	ml/[kg.min]).	 sprynarová	 &	 parizková	 ( )	 reported	 hydrostatic	 predictions	 of	 body	 fat	 in	 	 top	 (presumably	 male)	 representative	 czech	 runners	 (distance	 not	 specified;	 average	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake	 	 ml/[kg.min]);	 values	 averaged	 . %	fat.	 	 upton	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 	 middle-aged	 female	 marathoners	 (aged	 - 	years,	who	were	currently	training	 over	an	average	distance	of	 	km/week	 with	 	sedentary	women.	differences	 in	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake	 indicated	 their	 respective	 levels	 of	 physical	 condition	 ( . 	 and	 . 	 ml/[kg.min].	 hydrometric	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 were	 . %	 and	 . %.	vaccaro	et	al.	( )	also	studied	 older	women,	finding	an	average	body	fat	 of	 . %	 in	 	 female	 masters	 runners	 with	 an	 average	 age	 of	 	 years;	 their	 body	fat	was	still	only	some	 %	of	values	 found	in	controls	of	similar	age.	 wilmore	&	brown	( )	and	wilmore	 et	al.	( )	used	underwater	weighing	to	 determine	the	body	fat	in	two	samples	of	 top	(international	or	national	level)	female	 distance	runners,	finding	values	of	 . %	 and	 . %	respectively,	about	 %	of	the	 values	that	they	observed	in	their	control	 subjects.	 in	 	of	 the	best	 female	runners	 from	this	group,	the	body	fat	content	was	 less	than	 %.	the	maximal	oxygen	intake	 of	 the	 group	 averaged	 . 	 ml/[kg.min],	 but	 in	 the	 thinnest	 individual	 a	 value	 of	 . 	ml/[kg.min]	was	observed.	 in	 summary,	 various	 authors	 have	 consistently	demonstrated	very	low	skin- fold	readings	and	predictions	of	body	 fat	 content	in	athletes,	particularly	in	distance	 runners.	some	of	this	association	could	be	 explained	 by	 constitutional	 factors,	 with	 those	having	a	slim	body	build	gravitating	 to	 running	 as	 their	 preferred	 sport.	 however,	 long-distance	 runners	 also	 engage	in	very	large	volumes	of	endurance	 activity,	with	energy	expenditures	in	some	 cases	 as	 high	 as	 	 mj/day,	 and	 the	 contribution	of	this	physical	activity	to	low	 fat	levels	is	strongly	suggested	by	inverse	 relationships	to	several	measures	of	daily	 energy	 expenditure:	 the	 individual's	 preferred	 competitive	 distance,	 the	 level	 of	 competition,	 and	 the	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake.	 	 participants	 in	 other	 distance	 and	 ultra-long-distance	running	events	 in	 support	 of	 the	 evidence	 garnered	 from	top	endurance	athletes,	we	may	look	 also	at	body	fat	data	obtained	on	distance	 runners	 of	 less	 than	 international	 standard,	 and	 other	 individuals	 who,	 although	not	highly	selected	athletes	have	 engaged	in	exceptional	bouts	of	sustained	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 physical	activity,	such	as	running	coast-to- coast	across	canada.		 	 other	distance	runners.			 farrell	 et	 al.	 ( )	 studied	 	 experienced	 male	 distance	 runners	 aged	 	years	who	had	been	competing	for	 	to	 	years	and	had	a	maximal	oxygen	intake	 averaging	 . 	 ml/[kg.min].	 hydrostatic	 weighing	showed	an	average	of	 . %	body	 fat	in	this	group.		 lewis,	haskell,	klein,	halpern,	&	wood	 ( )	 collected	 hydrostatic	 data	 on	 	 physically	 active	 middle-aged	 men	 (average	 age	 	 years),	 most	 of	 whom	 were	engaged	in	jogging	programmes	and	 were	 running	 distances	 > 	 km/week;	 many	 supplemented	 their	 running	 with	 swimming,	 cycling	 and	 active	 games.	 treadmill	 times	 averaged	 	 minutes	 on	 the	 bruce	 protocol,	 demonstrating	 an	 excellent	 level	of	 fitness,	 and	hydrostatic	 data	showed	an	average	of	 . %	body	fat	 in	this	group.	 tudor-locke	et	al.	( )	examined	the	 nhanes	 data	 for	 a	 large	 sample	 of	 the	 general	 u.s.	 population,	 demonstrating	 differences	 of	 actigraph-measured	 step- counts	 collected	 for	 	 waking	 day	 or	 longer	between	those	with	a	normal	bmi	 ( 	 steps/day	 in	 men	 and	 	 steps/day	 in	 women),	 those	 who	 were	 overweight	( 	steps/day	in	men,	 	 steps/day	in	women)	and	those	who	were	 obese	(bmi	>	 	kg/m ,	 	steps/day	in	 men,	 	 steps/day	 in	 women).	 it	 is	 important	 to	 note	 that	 all	 individuals	 in	 this	 sample	 were	 relatively	 inactive,	 and	 that	 the	 step	 counts	 associated	 with	 maintenance	 of	 a	 normal	 bmi	 were	 well	 within	the	capacity	of	the	average	middle- aged	individual.	 	 	 	 ultra-long	distance	events.		 one	healthy	 -year-old	woman	ran	a	 total	of	 	km	across	canada	(mertens	 et	 al.,	 ),	 covering	 an	 average	 of	 	 km/day	for	 	days	at	a	typical	pace	of	 ~ . 	 km/h.	 during	 the	 course	 of	 this	 journey,	she	metabolized	 . 	kg	of	tissue,	 . %	 of	 which	 was	 fat.	 clearly,	 in	 her	 case,	 the	 regular	 daily	 physical	 activity	 was	 very	 effective	 in	 reducing	 her	 immediate	body	fat	content,	although	we	 have	no	information	on	how	well	this	fat	 loss	was	sustained	in	subsequent	years.	a	 young	man	completed	a	similar	 run,	and	 although	 he	 made	 strenuous	 efforts	 to	 maintain	his	nutrition	over	the	journey,	he	 also	lost	about	 	kg	of	weight,	mainly	fat	 (shephard	et	al.,	 ).		 schutz	et	al.	( )	described	a	trans- european	foot	race,	where	 	participants	 who	had	previously	engaged	in	an	average	 of	 	years	of	distance	running	covered	a	 , 	 km	 ultra-marathon.	 the	 bio- impedance	 estimate	 of	 body	 fat	 percentage,	averaged	across	 	men	and	 	 women,	 was	 . %	 at	 the	 outset	 of	 this	 event.	 several	 other	 authors	 have	 reported	 observations	on	ultra-distance	runners.	a	 -year-old	 quebec	 man	 ran	 	 km	 over	 a	 period	 of	 	 months	 (jobin,	 tremblay,	 and	 samson,	 ),	 reducing	 his	 body	 mass	 by	 . 	 kg	 (mostly	 fat).	 bioelectrical	 impedance	 analysis	 also	 showed	 a	 decrease	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 after	a	woman	ran	 	km	over	 	days,	 although	this	change	was	not	detectable	in	 skin-fold	 measurements	 (knechtle	 et	 al.,	 ).	knechtle	&	bircher	( )	had	an	 athlete	run	for	 	days,	finding	that	despite	 an	 increased	 intake	 of	 fat	 and	 protein	 during	 the	 run,	 there	 was	 a	 substantial	 loss	of	sub-cutaneous	fat.	finally,	a	 	km	 run	across	switzerland,	completed	over	 	 hours,	and	involving	a	 	m	increase	of	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 altitude,	led	to	a	 . 	kg	loss	of	lean	tissue	 and	 a	 . 	 kg	 decrease	 of	 fat	 mass	 (knechtle	&	knechtle,	 ).		 	 physical	 education	 students	 vs.	 other	 university	students	 comparisons	of	body	fat	content	among	 university	 students	 have	 been	 based	 on	 either	 the	 individual's	 choice	 of	 faculty	 (physical	education	vs.	other	disciplines),	 or	 on	 questionnaire	 or	 objective	 measurements	 of	 actual	 activity	 patterns	 in	the	selected	groups	of	students.	 	 choice	of	faculty		 during	 term-time,	 physical	 education	 (pe)	students	usually	devote	a	substantial	 part	of	each	week	to	learning	the	physical	 skills	 that	 will	 be	 needed	 in	 their	 profession.	 a	 typical	 programme	 may	 involve	participation	in	 	weekly	one-hour	 practice	 in	disciplines	such	as	basketball,	 soccer,	 squash	 and	 tennis,	 and	 many	 students	 supplement	 such	 curricular	 requirements	by	vigorous	training	for	one	 or	 more	 inter-collegiate	 sports	 teams.	 thus	 pe	 students	 might	 be	 thought	 to	 offer	 useful	 evidence	 on	 the	 impact	 of	 several	 years	 of	 sustained	 and	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 upon	 the	 body	 composition	 of	 a	 young	 adult.	 there	 is	 evidence	 of	 some	 selective	 recruitment,	 with	more	obese	 individuals	avoiding	pe	 as	a	career	choice.	nevertheless,	one	might	 anticipate	that	the	physical	characteristics	 of	 the	 average	 pe	 student	 would	 reflect	 the	 effects	 of	 regular	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	in	containing	the	accumulation	of	 body	 fat,	 despite	 the	 absence	 of	 any	 deliberate	 restrictions	 on	 the	 type	 and	 quantity	of	food	ingested.		 in	 general,	 the	 expectation	 of	 a	 low	 body	 fat	 content	 relative	 to	 students	 in	 other	faculties	is	met,	but	there	are	some	 exceptions.	 one	 factor	 complicating	 the	 analysis	 is	 a	 difference	 of	 entry	 grades	 between	 faculties.	 in	 prestigious	 universities,	 the	 minimum	 required	 high	 school	 academic	 grades	 tend	 to	 be	 less	 stringent	 for	 pe	 than	 for	 other	 faculties.	 thus,	 individuals	 who	 are	 less	 intellectually	 gifted	 may	 opt	 to	 seek	 a	 placement	 in	 pe	 not	 because	 they	 have	 any	 strong	 personal	 commitment	 to	 physical	activity,	but	rather	because	they	 view	 such	 a	 choice	 as	 an	 easy	 means	 of	 gaining	 access	 to	 a	 major	 university	 despite	less	than	stellar	high	school	marks.	 such	students	tend	to	select	physically	less	 demanding	 practica	 within	 a	 physical	 education	 programme	 (classes	 in	 golf,	 archery,	 ballroom	 dancing	 and	 yoga,	 for	 example),	and	even	in	these	activities	they	 may	 invest	 the	 minimum	 amount	 of	 interest	 and	 physical	 effort	 required	 to	 obtain	a	passing	grade.	 	 intensity	 of	 programme.	 stachoń	 &	 pietraszewska	 ( )	 obtained	 evidence	 on	 the	 importance	 of	 programme	 intensity.	 they	 classified	 	 male	 physical	 education	 students	 in	 terms	 of	 their	apparent	commitment	to	a	high	daily	 level	of	physical	activity.	those	members	 of	the	class	who	were	rated	as	vigorously	 active	 had	 a	 significantly	 lower	 bio- impedance	estimated	percentage	of	body	 fat	 ( . %)	 than	 those	 were	 classed	 as	 only	moderately	active	( . %).		 in	 addition	 to	 the	 student's	 personal	 commitment,	 a	 further	 potential	 issue	 affecting	the	intensity	of	daily	effort	is	that	 in	some	pe	programmes,	the	first	year	of	 instruction	 may	 focus	 on	 academic	 disciplines	 such	 as	 psychology	 and	 sociology.	 thus,	 the	 initial	 physical	 demands	on	the	student	may	be	quite	low,	 and	even	insufficient	to	maintain	the	level	 of	physical	condition	observed	at	entry	to	 university.	 for	 instance,	 meckel	 et	 al.	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 ( )	evaluated	 	male	and	 	 female	 israeli	 physical	 education	 students	 on	 entry	to	the	wingate	 institute	and	at	 the	 end	 of	 their	 freshman	 year.	 over	 this	 introductory	 year,	 both	 sexes	 showed	 some	evidence	of	a	loss	of	physical	fitness,	 with	small	 increases	 in	their	percentages	 of	body	fat,	and	a	parallel	slowing	in	their	 speeds	 over	 a	 	 km	 run.	 moreover,	 the	 deterioration	 of	 physical	 condition	 was	 most	marked	in	students	who	were	fittest	 on	admission	to	the	programme.		 	 empirical	 data.	 a	 large	 number	 of	 investigators	have	reported	empirical	data	 on	 the	 body	 fat	 content	 of	 physical	 education	 majors	 (table	 ).	 some	 investigations	 have	 shown	 relatively	 low	 levels	 of	 body	 fat,	 particularly	 in	 male	 students,	but	in	other	data	sets	the	values	 for	 pe	 students	 have	 differed	 little	 from	 those	 found	 in	 students	 from	 other	 faculties.	 a	 study	 of	 	 male	 and	 	 female	 students	 enrolled	 in	 a	 polish	 physical	 education	department	 (smolarczyk	et	al.,	 )	underlined	two	factors	limiting	the	 interpretation	 of	 such	 inter-faculty	 comparisons.	 there	 was	 a	 substantial	 element	 of	 programme	 self-selection,	 in	 that	students	who	entered	the	pe	classes	 were	 taller	 than	 their	 peers	 in	 other	 faculties.	 in	 general,	 the	 physical	 education	 students	 also	 had	 a	 greater	 mass	of	lean	tissue,	so	that	bmi	values	did	 not	provide	a	very	reliable	basis	for	rating	 obesity	 levels.	 however,	 the	 men	 in	 the	 polish	pe	programme	also	had	a	very	low	 average	body	fat	content	as	determined	by	 bio-impedance	measurements	(an	average	 of	 . %).	 the	 average	 body	 fat	 in	 the	 women	( . %)	was	not	particularly	high,	 although	a	third	of	the	female	pe	students	 in	this	study	had	more	than	 %	body	fat.	 in	 one	 of	 the	 earliest	 studies	 of	 a	 pe	 programme,	 shephard	 &	 pimm	 ( )	 evaluated	 a	 substantial	 sample	 of	 third- year	 students	 ( 	 men	 and	 	 women)	 who	 were	 attending	 the	 university	 of	 toronto.	 some	 of	 the	 students	 in	 this	 group	 were	 enthusiastic	 athletes,	 but	 other	 individuals	seemed	 to	have	chosen	 the	 faculty	of	pe	not	because	of	a	strong	 personal	 interest	 in	 fitness,	 but	 rather	 because	they	thought	that	it	offered	them	 a	 means	 of	 entering	 the	 teaching	 profession	 despite	 modest	 high	 school	 academic	grades.	perhaps	 for	 this	reason	 neither	average	bmi	values	( . 	kg/m 	in	 the	 men,	 . 	 kg/m 	 in	 women)	 nor	 average	 skin-fold	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 percentage	 ( . %	 in	men,	 . %	 in	 the	 women)	 were	 particularly	 remarkable	 relative	to	the	general	student	population.		 wasiluk	et	al.	( )	also	found	few	inter- faculty	 differences	 in	 body	 fat	 content	 among	 	 first-year	 polish	 university	 students	who	were	enrolled	in	courses	in	 physical	 education,	 physiotherapy,	 tourism	 and	 sport,	 and	 cosmetics.	 likewise,	bale	 ( )	reported	relatively	 high	 skin-fold	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 (average	 %)	 in	 	 english	 female	 physical	education	students.		 several	 reports	 made	 direct	 comparisons	of	body	fat	between	physical	 education	 students	 and	 their	 peers	 who	 had	enrolled	in	other	faculties.	four	such	 investigations	 found	 lower	 fat	 levels	 among	the	physical	education	students	of	 both	 sexes	 (arazi	 et	 al,	 ,	 ;	 lutoslawska	 et	 al.,	 ;	 reuter	 et	 al.,	 ),	and	another	found	low	fat	levels	in	 the	males	only	(neculães	&	lucaci,	 ).	 however,	one	report	that	considered	only	 female	students	found	no	lower	fat	levels	 in	 the	 physical	 education	 group	 than	 in	 students	 from	 other	 disciplines	 (wasiluk	 et	al.,	 ).		 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 table	 :	estimates	of	percentage	body	fat	for	physical	education	students	and	their	peers	in	other	 faculties.	 	 author	 sample	 body	fat	 comments	 male	 female	 arazi	et	al.	 ( )	 	female	"athletes"	 and	 	"non-athletes"	 	 bmi		 . 	vs.	 . 	kg/m 	 iran	 arazi	et	al.	 ( )	 	male	poe	students,	 	other	faculties	 bmi		 . 	vs.	 . kg/m 		 	 iran	 bale	(bale,	 )	 	female	phys.	ed.	 students	 	 . %	 	 kvintová	&	 sigmund	( )		 	active,	 	inactive	 female	university	 students	 	 . 	(active)	 . 	(inactive)	 "active"	criterion	 	 min/wk	at	 - 	mets	or	 	min/wk	at	 	mets	 lutoslawska	et	 al.	(	 )	 	m,	 	f	phys.	ed.	 (pe)	students,	 	m,	 	 f	from	other	faculties	 (o)	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(o)	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(o)	 poland;	pe	students	 physically	active	 - 	 h/week	 meckel	et	al.	 ( )		 	m,	 	f	physical	 education	students	at	 entry	(e)	and	end	of	 freshman	year	(f),		 . 	(e)	 . 	(f)	 . 	(e)	 . 	(f)	 israel.	increase	of	fat	 paralleled	by	slowing	of	 	 km	run;	loss	of	fitness	 most	marked	in	those	 initially	fittest	 morinaka	et	al.	 ( )	 	japanese,	 	thai	 university	students	 	 . 	(japanese)	 . 	(thai)	 	 neculães	&	 lucaci	( )	 pe,	kinesiotherapy,	 fitness,	sports	( 	f,	 	m	students)	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(k)	 . 	(f)	 . 	(s)	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(k)	 . 	(f)	 . 	(s)	 romania	 pribis	et	al.	 ( )	 	us	university	 students,	 	to	 	 . 	 . 	 body	fat	increased	 . %/yr	in	men	and	 . %/yr	in	women	 reuter	et	al.	 ( )	 phys.	ed.	( 	m,	 	f)	 and	med.	( 	m,	 	f)	 students	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(med)	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(med)	 brazil	 shephard	and	 pimm	( )	 non-smoking	physical	 education	students	( 	 m,	 	f)	 . 	 	 	 	 	 . 	 toronto	 smolarczyk	et	al.	 ( )	 	men,	 	women	 physical	education	 students	 . 	 . 		 poland;	body	fat	>	 %	 in	a	third	of	women	 students	 stachoń	&	 pietraszewska	 ( )	 	male	phys.	ed.	 students	 . 	(va)	 . 	(ma)	 	 students	classed	as	 vigorously	(va)	or	 moderately	(ma)	active	 tarnus	&	 bourdon	( )	 	 	 / 	male,	 / 	 female	"sportive"	 students		 . 	(sportive)	 . 	(non- sportive)	 . 	(sportive)	 . 	(non- sportive)	 	 wasiluk	et	al.	 ( )	 	first-yr	students	in	 pe,	physiotherapy	(pt),	 tourism	(t),	cosmetics	 (c).	 	 	 . 	(pe)	 . 	(pt)	 . 	(t)	 . 	(c)	 poland	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 arazi	et	al.	( )	compared	 	male	 pe	 majors	 with	 	 other	 male	 iranian	 students,	 finding	 respective	 body	 fat	 estimates	of	 . %	and	 . %;	there		 were	 parallel	 differences	 in	 body	 mass	 index	 (bmi)	 and	 waist-hip	 ratios.	 	 	 female	 "student	 athletes"	 attending	 the	 same	university	were	compared	with	 	 non-athletic	 females	 in	 terms	 of	 body	 mass	 indices	 (arazi	 &	 hoseini,	 );	 again	substantial	differences	favouring	the		 athletic	group	were	observed	(bmi	values	 of	 . 	 vs.	 . 	 kg/m ,	 with	 parallel	 differences	in	waist-hip	ratios).	 lutoslawska	et	al.	( )	compared	 	 male	 and	 	 female	 physical	 education	 students	 with	 	 males	 and	 	 females	 drawn	 from	 other	 faculties.	 they	 found	 somewhat	 lower	 skin-fold	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 in	 the	 pe	 students	 (many	 of	 whom	were	physically	active	for	as	much	 as	 - 	hours	per	week)	than	in	their	peers.	 further	 data	 on	 polish	 male	 physical	 education	 students	 (saczuk,	 wasiluk,	 &	 wilczewski,	 )	showed	a	small	secular	 trend	to	an	increase	of	bmi	over	 	years	 of	 observation:	 respective	 values	 were	 . 	kg/m 	 in	 ,	 . 	kg/m 	 in	 ,	 and	 . 	kg/m 	in	 .		 morinaka	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 findings	 in	 small	 groups	 of	 female	 japanese	 and	 thai	 students.	 body	 fat	 levels	 were	 unremarkable	 for	 students	 from	 faculties	 other	 than	 physical	 education.	 nevertheless,	 when	 accelerometer	 measures	 of	 daily	 activity	 were	 compared	 with	 bio-impedance	 measures	 of	 body	 fat,	 a	 substantial	 negative	correlation	(r	=	- . )	was	seen	 in	 the	 japanese	 students.	 however,	 this	 was	 not	 apparent	 in	 their	 thai	 peers,	 perhaps	because	most	of	the	latter	group	 engaged	 in	 very	 little	 physical	 activity	 overall.	 neculães	&	lucaci	( )	evaluated	the	 body	fat	levels	of	 	female	and	 	male	 romanian	students	who	were	enrolled	in	 	 different	 health	 science	 and	 fitness- oriented	 faculties.	 the	 body	 fat	 percentages	 were	 low,	 especially	 among	 the	 male	 students	 ( . %- . %),	 with	 bmi	 values	 for	 the	 first	 	 categories	 of	 student	 ranging	 from	 . - . 	kg/m 	 in	 the	 men,	 and	 . 	 to	 . 	 kg/m 	 in	 the	 women.		 pribis	et	al.	( )	reported	quite	 low	 skin-fold	estimates	of	body	fat	(an	average	 of	 . %)	in	a	sample	of	male	university	 students	 in	 michigan	 who	 were	 participating	 in	 physical	 activity	 classes,	 but	the	average	values	for	female	students	 were	 higher	 ( . %).	 pribis	 et	 al.	 commented	 on	 a	 significant	 trend	 to	 an	 increase	of	body	fat	over	the	 	years	of	 observation,	between	 	and	 ,	this	 had	averaged	 . %/year	in	the	men	and	 . %/year	 in	 the	 women,	 and	 it	 was	 associated	 with	 a	 secular	 decrease	 of	 maximal	 oxygen	 intake	 in	 both	 sexes	 (pribis	 et	 al.,	 ).	 the	 suggested	 explanation	 was	 a	 decrease	 in	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 of	 the	 michigan	 student	 population	 over	 the	 -year	 period.	 however,	 such	 large	changes	 in	body	 fat	 content	could	also	reflect	secular	changes	 in	the	diet	and	ethnic	composition	of	the	 student	samples,	as	well	as	artifacts	from	 changes	in	the	personnel	making	the	skin- fold	measurements.	 	 reuter	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 small	 samples	of	physical	education	and	medical	 school	 students	 who	 were	 attending	 a	 brazilian	university.	data	on	body	 fat,	as	 obtained	 by	 dual-energy	 x-ray	 examination,	showed	a	small	advantage	to	 the	 physical	 education	 students	 of	 both	 sexes	 ( . %	 and	 . %)	 relative	 to	 the	 medical	students	( . %	and	 . %).	 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 comparisons	 based	 on	 objective	 measurements	 of	 habitual	 physical	 activity.		 additional	 proof	 on	 the	 efficacy	 of	 regular	 physical	 activity	 as	 a	 means	 of	 preventing	 obesity	 among	 university	 students	 can	 be	 found	 in	 studies	 where	 individuals	 have	 been	 classified	 based	 upon	 their	 reported	 or	 objectively-measured	 level	 of	 habitual	 physical	activity	rather	than	on	the	faculty	 in	which	they	were	enrolled.		 thus,	 kvintová	 &	 sigmund	 ( )	 categorized	 	 female	 students	 on	 the	 basis	 of	 their	 reported	 physical	 activity;	 	 of	 the	 group	 were	 classed	 as	 physically	 active	 (individuals	 spending	 >	 	minutes/week	at	an	exercise	intensity	 of	 - 	 mets,	 or	 	 minutes/week	 at	 > 	 mets).	 this	 segment	 of	 the	 population	 had	a	substantially	lower	level	of	body	fat	 than	 their	 sedentary	 peers	 ( . %	 vs.	 . %),	with	parallel	differences	of	bmi.		 rutter	 ( )	 studied	 the	 activity	 patterns	of	 	female	university	students	 using	a	caltrac	personal	activity	computer.	 they	 reported	 correlations	 as	 high	 as	 - . 	 to	 - . 	 between	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 and	 bmi,	 although	 perhaps	 because	of	an	initial	reactionary	response	 to	 wearing	 of	 the	 accelerometer,	 significant	 relationships	 were	 not	 seen	 until	the	accelerometer	had	been	fitted	for	 - 	days.	 tarnus	&	bourdon	( )	examined	a	 small	sample	of	university	students	living	 on	 the	 island	 of	 la	 réunion.	 all	 of	 this	 group	 were	 rather	 fat	 relative	 to	 their	 peers	in	other	parts	of	the	world,	but	there	 were	 nevertheless	 significant	 differences	 of	 obesity	 between	 students	 classed	 as	 "sportive"	(those	practicing	exercise	for	 	 hour	 or	 more	 per	 week)	 and	 the	 "non- sportive;"	 respective	 levels	 of	 body	 fat	 were	 . %	 vs.	 . %	 in	 the	 men,	 and	 . 	vs.	 . %	in	the	women).		 	 zanovec	 et	 al.	 ( )	 used	 the	 international	 physical	 activity	 questionnaire	 to	 classify	 	 male	 and	 	 female	 baton	 rouge	 university	 students	into	quartiles	of	habitual	physical	 activity,	 expressed	 in	 met-hours	 of	 physical	 activity	 week.	 there	 was	 a	 substantial	 gradient	 of	 obesity	 between	 the	most	active	quartile	( . %	body	fat)	 and	the	least	active	( . %	body	fat),	and	 there	 was	 also	 a	 modest	 inverse	 correlation	 between	 the	 physical	 activity	 scores	 and	 an	 assessment	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 made	 by	 dual	 energy	 x-ray	 absorptiometry	(r	=	 - . ).	however,	 the	 findings	 in	 this	study	were	not	co-varied	 for	 sex,	 and	 a	 spurious	 association	 may	 have	 been	 created	 because	 of	 a	 combination	of	 the	 inherently	greater	 fat	 content	 of	 the	 women	 and	 their	 lower	 average	levels	of	physical	activity.	ruchan	 ( )	 also	 demonstrated	 a	 relationship	 between	 body	 fat	 levels	 and	 habitual	 physical	activity	as	assessed	by	responses	 to	 the	 international	 physical	 activity	 questionnaire.	 	 	 	 summary		 summarizing	the	reports	listed	in	table	 ,	all	except	 	of	the	male	studies	showed	 fairly	low	levels	of	body	fat,	the	exceptions	 being	 the	 studies	 of	 stachoń	 &	 pietraszweska	 ( )	 and	 tarnus	 &	 bourdon	( ).	in	contrast,	fat	levels	for	 a	number	of	the	female	samples	have	not	 been	 much	 lower	 than	 would	 be	 anticipated	 in	 the	 general	 population	 of	 university	 age.	 nevertheless,	 the	 data	 generally	 support	 the	 contention	 that	 university	students	who	are	involved	in	a	 physical	 education	 programme	 or	 some	 other	 form	 of	 regular	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 maintain	 a	 lower	 percentage	 of	 body	fat	than	those	who	are	content	with	a	 sedentary	lifestyle.	moreover,	this	benefit	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 is	 apparently	 obtained	 without	 any	 deliberate	 restriction	 of	 dietary	 intake,	 and	in	some	instances	has	been	seen	with	 participation	in	quite	a	modest	volume	of	 weekly	activity.	 	 physically	 demanding	 vs.	 sedentary	 occupations	 early	 occupational	 epidemiology	 was	 based	 upon	 comparisons	 of	 people	 who	 were	engaged	 in	heavy	versus	 sedentary	 work.	 automation	 and	 robotics	 has	 now	 eliminated	many	traditional	"heavy"	jobs,	 but	even	today	certain	occupations	such	as	 emergency	 workers	 and	 elite	 military	 units	 still	 find	 periodic	 demands	 for	 substantial	 occupational	 energy	 expenditure.	 where	 information	 is	 available,	 it	 is	 instructive	to	compare	the	 body	composition	of	workers	in	such	jobs	 with	data	for	those	who	are	employed	in	 more	 sedentary	 professions.	 it	 is	 also	 useful	 to	 look	at	 the	 impact	of	employee	 fitness	 programmes	 upon	 the	 body	 composition	of	participants.		 	 body	 fat	 levels	 seen	 in	 classical	 occupational	epidemiology		 morris	&	raffle	( )	made	one	of	the	 earliest	occupational	comparisons	of	body	 build,	 fitness	and	 life	expectancy,	 looking	 at	 differences	 between	 the	 drivers	 and	 conductors	 of	 london	 transport	 double- deck	 buses.	 during	 the	 early	 part	 of	 the	 th	 century,	 the	 conductors	 were	 required	to	run	up	to	the	top	deck	of	these	 vehicles	several	 times	every	kilometer	of	 the	bus	route	in	order	to	check	tickets	and	 collect	fares	from	the	passengers,	whereas	 the	drivers	spent	most	of	their	day	seated	 in	 the	 comfort	 of	 the	 driver's	 cab.	 the	 comparison	of	body	fat	content	seemed	a	 valid	 one,	 since	 both	 conductors	 and	 drivers	were	drawn	from	the	same	socio- economic	milieu,	ate	in	the	same	canteens,	 and	 had	 few	 differences	 in	 working	 conditions	other	than	their	daily	physical	 activity.		 a	 substantial	 difference	 of	 waist	 girth	 was	 seen	 in	 company	 records	 of	 trouser	 sizes,	 the	 respective	 percentages	 of	 drivers	 and	 conductors	 having	 a	 waist	 measurement	 greater	 than	 	 inches	 rising	from	 . %	and	 . %	when	recruited	 (at	ages	 - 	years)	to	 . %	and	 . %	 at	ages	 - 	years	and	 . %	an	 . %	 at	ages	 - 	years.	there	was	an	 initial	 difference	in	waist	circumference	of	about	 one	 inch	 when	 the	 men	 were	 first	 recruited	 to	 the	bus	system	(presumably	 reflecting	 some	 initial	 selection	 of	 sedentary	vs.	active	work),	but	by	the	time	 of	 retirement,	 this	 difference	 had	 increased	 to	 about	 	 inches.	 further	 studies	 of	 london	 busmen	 found	 a	 corresponding	 	mm	difference	of	average	 skinfold	 thicknesses	 between	 conductors	 and	 drivers	 ( 	 vs.	 	 mm)	 at	 recruitment	 (oliver,	 ).	 	 emergency	workers	 emergency	 workers	 may	 on	 occasion	 be	 asked	 to	 perform	 very	 hard	 physical	 work,	and	entry	standards	often	require	a	 high	 level	 of	 physical	 fitness,	 but	 personnel	 do	 not	 necessarily	 show	 low	 levels	 of	 body	 fat	 even	 on	 entry	 to	 such	 occupations;	 indeed,	 one	 u.s.	 study	 (tsismenakis	 et	 al.,	 )	 found	 that	 a	 third	 of	 recruits	 had	 an	 initial	 bmi	 >	 	 kg/m .	 after	 recruitment,	 body	 composition	may	worsen,	particularly	if	it	 is	 necessary	 for	 the	 worker	 to	 sit	 long	 periods	waiting	for	an	emergency	to	occur.	 this	problem	seems	particularly	prevalent	 in	firefighters.	in	a	sample	of	 	missouri	 firefighters	(poston	et	al.,	 ),	 	were	 rated	as	over-weight,	and	 	as	obese	( 	 with	class	ii	or	class	iii	obesity).	studies	of	 firefighters	 have	 also	 found	 body	 mass	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 increasing	by	 . 	kg	over	the	first	 	years	 of	 employment,	 with	 the	 prevalence	 of	 obesity	 increasing	 from	 . 	 to	 . %	 (soteriades	 et	 al.,	 ),	 and	 body	 mass	 increasing	 by	 as	 much	 as	 . 	 kg/year	 (elliot	et	al.,	 ).	 in	addition	 to	sitting	 for	 long	 periods	 in	 the	 fire-hall,	 firefighters	face	problems	of	adaptation	to	 shift	work,	with	disturbances	of	their	diet	 and	sleep	patterns.	 even	with	the	more	sustained	physical	 demands	 encountered	 in	 fighting	 forest	 fires,	 budd	 ( )	 found	 body	 fat	 percentages	 in	 australian	 fire-fighters	 ranging	 from	 %	 to	 %.	 the	 focus	 in	 many	 of	 the	 fitness	 tests	 used	 when	 recruiting	wild-land	 firefighters	has	been	 on	aerobic	 fitness	and	muscular	strength	 rather	than	body	fat	content,	although	the	 latter	does	have	a	marked	influence	upon	 their	 risk	 of	 injury	 and	 thus	 of	 absenteeism.	 	 employee	fitness	programmes		 a	 number	 of	 companies	 where	 most	 jobs	 involve	 little	 physical	 effort	 have	 introduced	worksite	 fitness	programmes;	 these	can	result	in	a	 - %	reduction	of	 skin-fold	 readings	 among	 participants	 (shephard,	 ).	 	 military	recruits.	 current	 evidence	 of	 an	 inverse	 relationship	 between	 the	 physical	 demands	of	occupational	activity	and	body	 fat	 content	 is	 most	 evident	 in	 studies	 of	 the	 armed	 forces,	 especially	 in	 reports	 concerning	elite	fighting	groups	(table	 ),	 where	 some	 extremely	 low	 values	 have	 been	observed.	 campos	 et	 al.	 ( )	 documented	 the	 effects	of	 	weeks	of	basic	training	upon	 the	 body	 composition	 of	 - -year-old	 male	 recruits	 to	 the	 regular	 brazilian	 military.	 over	 a	 period	 of	 preliminary	 conditioning,	 the	 average	 thickness	 of	 	 skin-folds	decreased	from	 . 	mm	to	 . 	 mm,	and	the	corresponding	prediction	of	 body	 fat	 dropped	 from	 . %	 to	 . %,	 with	 a	 parallel	 dramatic	 increase	 in	 maximal	oxygen	intake	(from	 . 	to	 . 	 ml/[kg.min]).	 farina	et	al.	 ( )	examined	a	group	 of	 	 male	 u.s.	 "special	 forces"	 who	 engaged	 in	 	 min	 of	 aerobic	 training	 and	 	 min	 of	 strength	 training	 every	 week.	a	skin-fold	based	determination	of	 body	 fat	showed	readings	of	 . %	both	 initially	 and	 after	 - 	 months	 of	 deployment.	 malavolti	 et	 al.	 ( )	 used	 	 techniques	 (skin-folds,	 air	 plethysmography	 and	 dual	 x-ray	 absorptiometry	to	determine	the	body	fat	 content	 in	 	 male	 naval	 recruits	 who	 successfully	 completed	 	 months	 of	 table	 :	levels	of	body	fat	observed	in	studies	of	military	groups.	 	 author	 group	 body	fat	 methodology	 campos	et	al.	( )	 	brasilian	military	 recruits,	 	wk	basic	training	 initial	 . %	 final	 . %	 skin-folds	 . ,	 . 	mm	 skin-fold	prediction	 farina	et	al.	( )	 	male	u.s.	special	forces	 . %	 skin-fold	prediction	 malavolti	et	al.	( )	 	male	naval	recru its	 undergoing	special	training	 initial	 . %,	 	months	=	 . %	 skin-folds	 . 	and	 . 	mm	 dxt	 nindl	et	al.	( )		 	male	participants,	u.s.	 army	 -wk	ranger	course	 . %	initial	 . %	final		 dxt	 paff	&	kometa	( )	 	polish	paratroopers,	 	 months	training	 . %	initial	 . %	final	 skin-fold	predictions	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 intensive	training.	on	average,	dual	x-ray	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 fell	 from	 . %	 to	 . %,	 while	 the	 average	 of	 	 skin-fold	 thicknesses	 decreased	 from	 . 	 mm	 to	 . 	 mm	 during	 the	 	 months	 of	 observation.	 nindl	et	al.	( )	also	used	dual	x-ray	 absorptiometry	to	demonstrate	that	an	 - week	 u.s.	 army	 ranger	 course	 with	 an	 energy	expenditure	of	 - 	mj/day,	and	 an	energy	deficit	of	~ 	mj/day	decreased	 body	fat	from	an	initial . %	to	 . %.	 paff	&	kometa	( )	noted	a	decrease	 of	 anthropometrically	 determined	 body	 fat	 in	 	 presumably	 male	 polish	 paratroopers	over	 	months	of	training,	 with	 values	 falling	 from	 . %	 at	 recruitment	to	 . %	after	 	months	of	 military	 service.	 anaerobic	 capacity	 and	 muscle	strength	also	increased,	but	there	 was	no	change	of	maximal	oxygen	intake.		 	 traditional	 amish	 and	 mennonite	 groups	vs.	sedentary	north	americans		 the	 amish	 people	 have	 their	 historic	 roots	 in	 swiss	 german	 anabaptist	 churches.	 they	 are	 a	 community	 known	 particularly	 for	 their	 plain	 dress	 and	 simple	 lifestyle.	 many	 of	 the	 old-order	 amish	 believers	 migrated	 to	 north	 america	 in	 the	 early	 s;	 currently,	 there	 are	 some	 , 	 living	 in	 the	 eastern	part	of	the	u.s.	and	around	 	 in	 southern	 ontario.	 old-order	 mennonites	are	a	related	sect,	originating	 in	 switzerland	 and	 southern	 germany;	 they	 also,	 have	 retained	 a	 plain	 lifestyle.	 the	 traditional	 amish	 and	 a	 segment	 of	 old-order	 mennonites	 use	 no	 modern	 power	 tools	or	modern	vehicles	on	 their	 farms,	 and	 in	 consequence	 their	 daily	 routine	 requires	 very	 high	 daily	 energy	 expenditures	 (table	 ).	 their	 children,	 likewise,	 are	 allowed	 no	 mechanical	 or	 electronic	 devices,	 they	 are	 expected	 to	 help	 around	 the	 farm,	 and	 they	 usually	 walk	 a	 substantial	 distance	 to	 school,	 so	 that	they	also	incur	very	high	daily	energy	 expenditures.	 	 adult	amish	and	old-order	mennonites	 the	 impact	 of	 the	 simple	 and	 traditional,	non-mechanized	lifestyle	upon	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 can	 be	 seen	 in	 daily	step	counts	 for	 the	amish	and	old- order	mennonite	populations.		 bassett	et	al.	 ( )	examined	 	u.s.	 amish	 adults	 aged	 - 	 years	 who	 still	 engaged	 in	 labour-intensive	 and	 non- mechanized	 farming,	 finding	 daily	 pedometer	 step	 counts	 averaging	 , 	 for	 the	 men	 and	 , 	 for	 the	 women.	 moreover,	 use	 of	 the	 international	 physical	activity	questionnaire	suggested	 that	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 was	 undertaken	for	 	h/week	by	the	men	and	 . 	 hours/week	 by	 the	 women.	 on	 the	 basis	of	bmi	(a	somewhat	fallacious	index	 in	 a	 group	 performing	 much	 heavy	 muscular	 work),	 only	 %	 of	 men	 and	 %	 of	 women	 were	 classed	 as	 overweight,	and	none	of	the	men	and	only	 %	of	the	women	were	classed	as	obese.	 bio-impedance	 data	 indicated	 body	 fat	 values	of	 . %	 in	 the	men	and	 . %	 in	 the	women.	 glick	et	al.	( )	compared	traditional	 old-order	 mennonites	 ( 	 men	 and	 	 women)	with	 the	general	u.s.	population	 as	both	groups	were	examined	in	the	 	 nhanes	survey.	the	mennonite	men	and	 women	both	had	a	somewhat	 lower	self- reported	bmi	than		 that	 seen	 in	 the	 general	 u.s.	 population,	 despite	 a	 larger	 food	 intake	 among	 the	 mennonites	( %	greater	in	the	men,	and	 %	 greater	 in	 the	 women).	 moreover,	 because	 the	 mennonites	 used	 their	 muscles	extensively	to	undertake	physical	 tasks,	 the	 difference	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 from	sedentary	 individuals	was	probably	 substantially	 greater	 than	 that	 inferred	 from	the	bmi	data.	 in	 contrast	 to	 the	 low	 body	 fat	 levels	 seen	 in	 these	 two	 reports,	 fuchs	 et	 al.	 ( )	 examined	 	 amish,	 many	 of	 whom	 had	 moved	 from	 their	 farms	 to	 small	 towns	 in	ohio.	comparing	 the	self- reported	 bmi	 of	 this	 group	 with	 that	 of	 	 controls,	 they	 found	 no	 inter-group	 difference	 in	 the	 prevalence	 of	 obesity	 among	 the	 men	 and	 higher	 levels	 of	 obesity	 in	 the	amish	women	 than	 in	 the	 controls.	 precise	 measurements	 of	 physical	activity	were	not	obtained	for	this	 population,	 but	 the	 data	 suggested	 that	 protection	 against	 the	 accumulation	 of	 body	 fat	 was	 not	 an	 inherited	 characteristic;	the	advantage	of	the	amish	 soon	 being	 lost	 when	 they	 ceased	 their	 involvement	in	the	heavy	physical	 labour	 of	 traditional	 agriculture.	 a	 third	 of	 the	 men	 studied	 by	 fuchs	 and	 associates	 worked	in	small	local	industries,	and	many	 of	 the	remainder	of	 their	sample	worked	 as	 labourers	 on	 non-amish	 farms,	 although	about	 two	 thirds	of	 the	women	 were	 still	 full-time	 home-makers.	 among	 factors	 contributing	 to	 the	 shift	 in	 body	 composition,	 fuchs	 et	 al.	 ( )	 noted	 table	 :	habitual	physical	activity	and	measures	of	obesity	in	traditional	amish	and	mennonite	 populations.	 	 author	 sample	 habitual	physical	 activity	 measure	of	obesity	 comments	 bassett	 et	al.	 ( )	 	amish	adults,	aged	 - 	yr	 daily	step	count	 , 	 (m),	 , 	(f)	 overweight	 %	(m),	 %	(f),	obese	 %	 (m),	 %	(f)	 impedance	fat	 . %	 (m),	 . %	(f)	 vigorous	pa		 	h/wk	(m),		 . 	h/wk	(f)		 bassett	 et	al.	 (\ )	 	amish	youth	aged	 - 	yr		 weekday	step	count	 , 	 only	 . %	 overweight,		 . %	obese	 	 esliger	et	 al.	 ( )	 	amish,	 	 mennonite,	 	rural	 &	 	urban	 contemporary	 children	aged	 - 	yr	 actigraph	data	show	less	 moderate	&	vigorous	 activity	in	contemporary	 children	than	in	amish	&	 mennonite	 bmi	 . 	vs.	 . 	vs.	 . ,	 . 	kg/m ;		 triceps	skin-fold	 . 	 vs.	 . ,	vs.	 . ,	 . 	 mm.		 	 fuchs	et	 al.	 ( )	 	amish	adults,	 	 controls	 	 no	difference	of	 obesity	in	men	 ( %),	amish	women	 more	obese	than	 controls	( %	vs.	 %)	 amish	no	longer	 pursuing	 traditional	 agriculture	 glick	et	 al.	 ( )	 	m,	 	f	old-order	 mennonite,	vs. , 	 m,	 , 	f	us	 nhanes	population	 	 bmi	 . ,	 . 	in	 mennonites,	vs.	 	 kg/m 	in	m	&	f	 nhanes	sample		 old-order	 mennonites	vs.	 	nhanes	 survey	 tremblay	 et	al.	 ( )	 	mennonite,	 	 contemporary	 children	aged	 - 	yr	 moderate	&	vigorous	 physical	activity:	 mennonite	 	(urban)	or	 	(rural)	more	min/day	 than	peers	 skin-fold	thicknesses	 greater	in	both	urban	 and	rural	 contemporary	 children	than	in	 mennonites	 mennonite	 children	also	had	 greater	aerobic	 fitness	and	 strength	than	their	 peers	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 that	food	was	usually	still	very	plentiful	in	 the	 urban	 amish	 households,	 and	 everything	tended	to	be	eaten	from	over- filled	 plates	 to	 avoid	 any	 sinful	 waste	 of	 food.	 most	amish	still	complete	only	a	limited	 amount	of	 formal	education	(nearly	 %	 of	 the	 fuchs	 sample	 had	 not	 even	 completed	 grade	 ),	 so	 there	 is	 still	 a	 dearth	 of	 amish	 professionals	 such	 as	 physicians,	 and	 the	 amish	 are	 often	 reluctant	to	seek	health	advice	from	those	 living	 outside	 of	 their	 religious	 community.	in	the	u.s.,	reluctance	to	visit	 a	 physician	 is	 reinforced	 by	 a	 low	 monetary	 income	 and	 a	 lack	 of	 health	 insurance.	 further,	 the	 amish	 seem	 less	 likely	 than	 their	 peers	 to	 engage	 in	 voluntary	leisure	activity	if	they	find	that	 they	 are	 gaining	 weight	 (levinson	 et	 al.,	 ).	some	 %	of	the	amish	studied	by	 fuchs	 et	 al.	 were	 following	 exercise	 programmes,	 as	 compared	 with	 %	 of	 their	 peers.	 the	 amish	 women	 also	 experienced	 a	 higher	 average	 number	 of	 pregnancies	 than	 their	 peers	 in	 the	 general	 ohio	 population.	 finally,	 since	 obesity	 was	 less	 stigmatized	 among	 the	 amish	than	in	the	rest	of	u.s.	society,	more	 of	 them	may	have	been	willing	 to	report	 high	body	weights	than	their	peers.	 	 children	 of	 traditional	 amish	 and	 mennonite	communities	 traditional	 amish	 and	 mennonite	 children	have	a	much	higher	level	of	daily	 physical	 activity	 than	 their	 north	 american	peers,	in	part	because	they	help	 with	chores	around	the	farm,	and	in	part	 because	 they	do	not	occupy	 their	 leisure	 time	 by	 playing	 sedentary	 electronic	 games.		 tremblay	et	al.	( ;	 )	compared	 	 amish	 and	 	 mennonite	 children	 (the	latter	drawn	from	a	group	that	used	 some	electrical	equipment	on	their	farms)	 with	 	contemporary	canadian	children	 aged	 - 	 years.	 the	 level	 of	 moderate	 and	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 was	 much	 higher	in	the	amish	and	mennonite	youth	 than	 in	 the	 other	 canadians.	 thus,	 the	 mennonite	 boys	 engaged	 in	 	 h/day	 of	 vigorous	 physical	 activity,	 and	 the	 mennonite	girls	were	vigorously	active	 	 h/day	 (tremblay	 et	 al.,	 ).	 the	 mennonite	 boys	 helped	 extensively	 with	 farm	 chores,	 while	 the	 mennonite	 girls	 spent	much	of	their	evenings	sewing	and	 cooking.	 the	 mennonite	 youth	 showed	 correspondingly	 lower	 skin-fold	 readings	 and	 higher	 levels	 of	 aerobic	 fitness	 and	 muscular	 strength	 than	 their	 contemporary	 peers.	 triceps	 skin-fold	 values,	 as	 estimated	 from	 the	 published	 graphs,	were	around	 . 	and	 . 	mm	for	 the	amish	boys	and	girls,	respectively,	 	 and	 	 mm	 for	 the	 mennonite	 boys	 and	 girls	 and	 	 and	 . 	 mm	 for	 male	 and	 female	controls.	 bassett	et	al.	( )	measured	the	step	 count	in	 	amish	youth	aged	 - 	years,	 finding	a	very	high	average	weekday	count	 ( , 	steps/day).	values	 for	weekends	 were	 with	 somewhat	 lower,	 in	 part	 because	of	time	spent	sitting	in	church	on	 sundays;	 the	 -day	 average	 was	 thus	 , 	 steps/day.	 skin-folds	 were	 not	 measured	 in	 this	 sample,	 but	 measured	 height	and	weight	data	indicated	that	only	 . %	 of	 this	 group	 would	 be	 classed	 as	 overweight	and	 . %	as	obese.	 esliger	 et	 al.	 ( )	 compared	 amish,	 mennonite	 (not	 strict	 old-order)	 and	 contemporary	 canadian	 children,	 the	 latter	 being	 drawn	 from	 both	 urban	 and	 rural	settings.	accelerometer	data	showed	 that	 the	 amish	 children	 (and	 to	 a	 lesser	 extent	the	mennonite	children)	engaged	in	 more	 moderate	 and	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 than	 their	 contemporary	 peers.	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 there	 were	 parallel	 differences	 in	 the	 average	bmi	for	the	 	groups	(amish	 . 	 kg/m ,	mennonites	 . 	kg/m ,	rural		 controls	 . 	 kg/m ,	 and	 urban	 controls	 . 	kg/m ,	with	much	larger	inter-group	 differences	in	triceps	skin-fold	thicknesses	 (respective	values	of	 . ,	 . ,	 . 	and	 . 	mm).			 	 unacculturated	inuit	 another	 group	 who	 had	 very	 high	 energy	expenditures	when	they	were	first	 studied	 (around	 the	 year	 )	 were	 unacculturated	 inuit	 living	 on	 canada's	 arctic	coast.	many	of	this	population	then	 followed	 a	 traditional	 hunter-gatherer	 lifestyle.	 measurements	 made	 by	 a	 combination	 of	 kofrany-michaelis	 respirometer	 and	 time-and-motion	 analyses	 suggested	 an	 average	 daily	 energy	 expenditure	 of	 . 	 mj	 during	 hunting	 trips	 (shephard	 &	 rode,	 ).	 this	 total	 was	 accumulated	 mainly	 through	 very	 prolonged	 bouts	 of	 moderately	heavy	endurance	exercise.	in		 the	summer	months,	if	the	weather	was	 favourable	 for	 hunting,	 physical	 activity	 would	 continue	 over	 much	 of	 a	 -hour	 period.	 those	 following	 this	 lifestyle	 showed	 correspondingly	 low	 indices	 of	 body	 fat	 content	(table	 ).	the	body	mass	indices	 were	not	remarkable,	in	part	because	the	 population	 was	 muscular,	 and	 also	 because	 of	 a	 short	 stature.	 however,	 the	 average	thickness	of	the	triceps	skin-folds	 was	 remarkably	 low,	 especially	 in	 the	 male	 members	 of	 the	 community.	 there	 also	seemed	evidence	for	the	development	 of	obesity	 in	 the	oldest	group	of	women,	 most	 of	 whom	 had	 undergone	 multiple	 pregnancies.	 comparisons	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 with	 the	 urban	 canadian	 population	 must	 however	 be	 made	 with	 care.	not	only	were	the	inuit	much	more	 active	 physically,	 but	 they	 were	 also	 obtaining	a	large	proportion	of	their	daily	 food	from	their	hunting	activities.		 percentages	 of	 body	 fat	 in	 the	 inuit	 sample	were	determined	not	only	by	skin- fold	 measurements,	 but	 also	 by	 the	 dilution	 of	 deuterated	 water	 (table	 ).	 the	 latter	 methodology	 requires	 making	 assumptions	 about	 tissue	 hydration,	 which	 may	 differ	 between	 the	 inuit	 and	 urban	canadians.	certainly,	 the	estimates	 of	body	fat	content	made	by	this	method	 (which	 reflects	 total,	 rather	 than	 superficial	 fat)	 were	 somewhat	 higher	 than	 those	 obtained	 from	 skin-fold	 predictions.	 possibly,	 the	 inuit	 store	 a	 greater	 than	 normal	 proportion	 of	 their	 body	 fat	 internally.	 nevertheless,	 a	 low	 total	body	 fat	 content	was	confirmed	 for	 the	males	at	all	ages.	values	for	the	women	 were	also	lower	than	would	be	expected	in	 sedentary	 urban	 city-dwellers,	 although	 table	 :	average	bmi	and	triceps	skin-fold	 thickness	of	inuit	residents	of	igloolik	in	 	(shephard	and	rode,	 ).	 	 age	 (yr)	 bmi	(kg/m )	 triceps	skin- fold(mm)	 men	 wome n	 men	 women	 - 	 . 	 . 	 t. 	 . 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 table	 :		percentage	of	body	fat	in	igloolik	 inuit	in	the	year	 ,	as	determined	by	the	 dilution	of	deuterated	water	(mertens	et	al.,	 ).	 	 age	group	 (yr)	 body	fat	(%)	 men	 women	 - 	 . 	 . 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 - 	 -	 . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 there	was	apparently	some	accumulation	 of	fat	as	the	inuit	women	became	older.		 low	 levels	 of	 skin-fold	 thickness	 are	 also	 apparent	 in	 data	 for	 indigenous	 circumpolar	 children	 from	 this	 era,	 whether	 measured	 at	 igloolik	 in	 the	 canadian	arctic,	or	on	ngnassan	children	 living	 in	 the	 russian	 arctic	 (shephard	 &	 rode,	 )	(table	 ).		 	 physically	 active	 vs.	 sedentary	 urban	 populations	 coefficients	 of	 correlation	 between	 estimates	of	body	fat	content	and	habitual	 physical	 activity	 have	 been	 examined	 frequently	 in	 modern	 urban	 populations,	 often	 in	 the	 context	 of	 evaluating	 the	 reliability	and	validity	of	physical	activity	 questionnaires.	 the	 findings	 are	 of	 particular	interest	in	the	context	of	public	 health,	 as	 (unlike	 groups	 such	 as	 marathoners	 and	 hunter-gatherers),	 the	 activities	involved	are	at	an	intensity	and	 volume	that	are	likely	to	prove	acceptable	 to	many	current	urban	populations.	only	a	 few	of	 the	many	available	studies	can	be	 discussed	 here.	 many	 of	 these	 investigations	are	based	on	questionnaire	 estimates	of	habitual	physical	activity,	but	 some	 have	 also	 focused	 on	 objective	 measurements	obtained	by	pedometer	or	 accelerometer.	 	 subjective	data	 in	 general,	 self-reported	 habitual	 physical	activity	and	body	fat	have	shown	 modest	negative	inter-correlations	(table	 ),	although	because	of	errors	inherent	in	 the	 questionnaire	 approach	 to	 the	 assessment	 of	 physical	 activity,	 associations	 have	 necessarily	 been	 attenuated	 relative	 to	 their	 true	 values.	 for	the	best	designs	of	questionnaire,	and	 in	samples	with	substantial	differences	of	 physical	activity	between	those	classed	as	 active	 and	 sedentary,	 correlations	 have	 been	as	high	as	- . ,	but	in	other	studies	 where	few	of	the	sample	have	engaged	in	 any	 significant	 physical	 activity,	 much	 lower	 correlation	 coefficients	 have	 been	 reported.	correlations	have	generally	been	 larger	for	reports	of	vigorous	activity	than	 for	 moderate	 or	 light	 physical	 activity,	 probably	because	engagement	in	vigorous	 activity	 is	 clearly	 perceived	 by	 the	 individual,	and	is	reported	more	precisely.	 differences	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 between	 the	most	active	and	the	least	active	groups	 of	 individuals	 have	 been	 in	 the	 range	 - %.	 ball	 et	 al.	 ( )	 studied	 	 australians	 aged	 - 	 years,	 looking	 at	 relationships	between	leisure	activity,	bmi	 and	an	estimate	of	body	fat	based	on	the	 average	 of	 	 skin-folds.	 they	 noted	 that	 the	 odds	 of	 finding	 a	 bmi	 within	 the	 normal	range	was	significantly	related	to	a	 high	reported	level	of	leisure	activity	(less	 so	 in	men	than	in	women,	the	respective	 odds	 ratios	 being	 . 	 in	 men,	 and	 . 	 in	 women,	p	=	 . ,	< . ).	after	controlling	 for	 age	 and	 differences	 of	 educational	 level,	 in	 the	 women,	 moderate	 or	 high	 intensity	 leisure	 activity	 was	 also	 table	 :	 average	 skin-fold	 thicknesses	 (mm)	 as	 measured	 in	 igloolik	 children	 ( / )	 and	 ngnassan	children	( )(shephard	and	rode,	 ).	 	 age	(yr)	 boys	 girls	 igloolik	 ngnassan	 igloolik	 ngnassan	 . - . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . - . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . - . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . - . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 associated	with	a	low	body	fat	content.		 however,	 the	 bmi	 and	 skin-fold	 readings	 were	 unrelated	 to	 estimates	 of	 occupational	or	domestic	physical	activity	 in	either	sex.	 table	 :	relationship	between	self-reported	habitual	physical	activity	and	body	fat	content.	 author	 sample	 fat	measure	 correlation	with	body	 fat	or	other	measure	 comments	 ball	et	al.	 ( )		 	m	&	f	 aged - 	yr	 bmi	and	 	skin- folds	 odds	of	normal	bmi	if	 high	leisure	activity	 . 	 (m),	 . 	(f)	(p	=	 . ,	 < . )	 adjusted	for	age	&	 education;	no	effect	of	 occupation	or	 domestic	physical	 activity	 bouchard	et	 al.	( )	 	children,	 	adults	 skin-fold	estimate	 of	body	fat	 - . 	to	-	 . 	 	 bradbury	et	 al.	( )	 , 	m,	 , 	f	 	 bmi,	bio- impedance	 estimate	of	body	fat	 body	fat	 . %	vs.	 . %	m,	 . %	vs.	 . %	f).	 most	active	(> 	 met-h/wk	vs.	least	 active	(< 	met-h/wk)	 ekelund	et	al.	 ( )	 -yr	old	 students	( 	 m,	 	f)	 air-displacement	 plethysmography	 - . 	(m)	 - . 	(f)	 all	activity	levels	low	 in	f	students	 folsom	et	al.	 ( )	 	minnesota	 adults	aged	 - 	years	 bmi	 - . 	(f)	to		 -	 . 	(m)	with	log	of	 reported	heavy	 activities	per	day	 activity	levels	 generally	low	in	this	 population	 godin	&	 shephard	 ( )	 	men	and	 	women	 skin-fold	estimate	 of	body	fat	 -	 . 	 significant	r	for	 strenuous	but	not	for	 moderate	or	light	 physical	activity	 jacobs	et	al.	 ( )	 	men	and	 women	aged	 - 	yr	 hydrostatic	 measures	of	body	 fat	 - . 	to	-	 . 	for	best	 questionnaires,	 . 	for	 accelerometer	 comparison	of	 	 questionnaires	 martinez	et	al.	 ( )	 , 	m	&	f	 aged	>	 	yr	 self-reported	bmi	 low	exercise	 participation	 (p< . ),	lack	of	 interest	in	pa,	sitting	at	 work	(p	=	 . )	all	 predictors	of	obesity	 	 richardson	et	 al.	( 	)	 	men	and	 women	aged	 - 	years	 hydrostatic	 estimate	of	body	fat	 %	 - . 	in	men,		 - . 	in	women	 correlation	seen	for	 sport	and	deliberate	 exercise,	less	apparent	 for	non-sport	light	 physical	activity	 wanner	et	al.	 ( )	 	m,	 	f	 bio-impedance	 estimate	of	body	 fat,	bmi,	waist	 measurements	 or	total	physical	 activity	 . 		 moderate	phys.	activity	 . 	vigorous	phys.	 activity	 . 	 sitting	 . 	 odds	ratio	for	> %	 fat,	high	vs.	low	level	of	 activity	 washburn	et	 al.	( )	 	m,	 	f,	 average	age	 . 	years	 boston	 population	 log	bmi	 - . 	(- . 	m;	-	 . 	f);	 overall	value	of	- . 	 after	co-variate	 adjustment	 bmi	for	most	active	 tertile	 . ,	least	 active	 . 	kg/m 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 bouchard	 et	 al.	 ( )	 used	 a	 -day	 diary	record	to	estimate	habitual	physical	 activity	in	a	group	of	 	children	and	 	 adults	 who	 were	 participating	 in	 the	 quebec	family	study.	they	noted	quite	low	 negative	 correlations	 between	 skin-fold	 assessments	 of	 body	 fat	 content	 and	 the	 diary	records	of	physical	activity	(- . 	to	 - . ).	 bradbury	et	al.	( )	stratified	a	very	 large	 sample	 of	 english	 adults	 ( , 	 men	and	 , 	women	participating	in	 the	u.k.	biobank	 - )	 in	 terms	of	 their	bio-impedance	estimates	of	body	fat	 content.	 the	 results	 showed	 that	 individuals	 reporting	 the	 most	 physical	 activity	on	the	international	physical		 activity	 questionnaire	 ( 	 met- h/week)	had	consistently	 lower	body	 fat	 content	than	the	 least	active	members	of	 the	 same	 sample	 (< 	 met-h/week)	 ( . %	vs.	 . %	in	men,	 . %	vs.	 . %	 in	 women).	 the	 measured	 bmi	 values	 were	also	lower	for	the	active	group	( . 	 vs.	 . 	 kg/m 	 in	 the	 men,	 . 	 vs.	 . 	 kg/m 	in	the	women).		 folsom	 et	 al.	 ( )	 examined	 a	 representative	 sample	 of	 minnesota	 residents	 aged	 - 	 years.	 levels	 of	 physical	 activity	 in	 this	 sample	 were	 generally	 low,	 but	 nevertheless	 small	 negative	 correlations	 were	 shown	 between	 the	 log	 of	 reported	 leisure-time	 physical	 activity	 (kcal/day)	 and	 body	 mass	 index,	 both	 in	 men	 (- . )	 and	 in	 women	 (- . ).	 leisure	 activity	 was	 associated	 with	 a	 good	 education	 and	 a	 type	a	personality,	but	the	authors	did	not	 adjust	 for	 these	 factors	by	a	multivariate	 analysis.	 godin	&	shephard	( )	sought	data	 to	 validate	 their	 simple	 physical	 activity	 questionnaire	tin	a	sample	of	 	men	and	 	women	recruited	from	the	university	 of	toronto	community.	correlations	with	a	 four	site	skin-fold	assessment	of	body	fat	 were	substantial	and	highly	significant	for	 reports	 of	 strenuous	 leisure	 physical	 activity	(activity	at	an	estimated	intensity	 of	 	mets,	 r	=	 -	 . ),	but	were	smaller	 and	not	statistically	significant	for	reports	 of	 moderate	 ( 	 mets)	 or	 light	 ( 	 mets)	 intensity	physical	activity.	 jacobs	 et	 al.	 ( )	 involved	 	 men	 and	 women	 aged	 - 	 years	 in	 a	 simultaneous	 assessment	 of	 	 different	 physical	 activity	 questionnaires,	 using	 accelerometer	 measurements	 as	 their	 criterion	 data.	 hydrostatic	 estimates	 of	 body	fat	showed	correlations	ranging	from	 - . 	 to	 - . 	with	what	were	 judged	as	 the	best	of	the	 	questionnaires,	and	 . 	 with	the	accelerometer	data.	 martinez	 et	 al.	 ( )	 examined	 the	 self-reported	 bmi	 of	 , 	 europeans	 aged	> 	years.	about	 %	of	 the	group	 was	 obese	 on	 this	 criterion,	 and	 the	 prevalence	of	overweight	was	 . %	and	 . %	in	men	and	women	respectively.	a	 low	 participation	 in	 various	 leisure-time	 physical	activities,	a	lack	of	interest	(a	lack	 of	pre-contemplation)	in	being	involved	in	 exercise/physical	 activity	 and	 an	 increasing	number	of	hours	sitting	down	 at	work	were	all	predictors	of	obesity.	 richardson	 et	 al.	 ( )	 used	 the	 baecke	 questionnaire	 and	 an	 accelerometer	 to	 assess	 physical	 activity	 patterns	in	 	adults	aged	 - 	years.	a	 hydrostatic	estimate	of	 the	percentage	of	 body	 fat	 showed	 a	 relatively	 strong	 negative	relationship	(r	=	- . 	in	men,	 - . 	in	women)	with	participation	in	sport	 and	 deliberate	 exercise,	 but	 less	 substantial	 relationships	 were	 found	 for	 other	forms	of	light	activity	(- . 	in	men,	 - . 	 in	 women).	 unfortunately,	 the	 associations	 between	 body	 fat	 and	 accelerometer	data	were	not	 reported	 in	 this	study.		 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 wanner	et	al.	( )	estimated	body	fat	 levels	 in	 a	 sample	 of	 swiss	 adults	 ( 	 males	 and	 	 females),	 using	 the	 bio- impedance	 technique.	 relationships	 with	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 as	 assessed	 by	 the	 international	 questionnaire	 of	 physical	activity	were	evaluated	in	terms	 of	the	odds	of	developing	> %	body	fat.	 on	 comparing	 the	 highest	 versus	 the	 lowest	 tertiles,	 the	 odds	 of	 accumulating	 > %	fat	were	reduced	by	 total	physical	 activity	 ( . ),	 moderate	 intensity	 physical	 activity	 ( . )	 and	 vigorous	 physical	 activity	 ( . ),	 and	 were	 increased	with	sitting	time	( . ).	similar	 relationships	 were	 shown	 for	 bmi,	 waist	 circumference,	 and	 the	 weight-to-height	 ratio.	 washburn	 et	 al.	 ( )	 sought	 to	 validate	 general	 use	 of	 the	 harvard	 alumni	 physical	 activity	 questionnaire.	 they	examined	 	men	and	 	women	 from	the	boston	area	with	an	average	age	 of	 . 	 years.	 activity	 levels	 were	 separated	 into	 	 categories,	 as	 proposed	 by	 paffenbarger	 (< mj/week,	 - 	 mj/week	 and	 > 	 mj/week).	 in	 the	 men,	 the	 sample	 was	 divided	 rather	 equally	 between	the	 	activity	categories,	but	 %	 of	 the	 women	 expended	 < 	 mj/week	 on	 physical	 activity.	 the	 study	 showed	 a	 modest	 unadjusted	 correlation	 between	 the	 questionnaire	 assessment	 of	 habitual	 physical	activity	and	the	log	of	bmi	(- . 	 in	 men,	 - . 	 in	 women),	 but	 the	 correlation	 coefficient	 for	 the	 entire	 sample	was	increased	to	- . 	when	data	 were	 adjusted	 for	 significant	 co-variates	 that	 included	 ethnic	 group,	 cigarette	 smoking	 and	 the	 mean	 monthly	 temperature	at	the	time	of	the	interview.		 ekelund	 et	 al.	 ( )	 examined	 correlations	 in	 a	 somewhat	 younger	 age	 group,	looking	at	the	relationship	between	 body	 composition	 as	 assessed	 by	 an	 air- displacement	 plethysmograph	 and	 a	 questionnaire	estimate	of	physical	activity	 in	 swedish	 children	 aged	 ~ 	 years.	 a	 significant	 negative	 relationship	 between	 the	 	variables	was	found	in	the	boys	(r	=	- . ),	but	not	in	the	girls	(r	=	- . ),	who	 in	most	cases	had	very	low	average	levels	 of	 habitual	 physical	 activity.	 the	 difference	 in	 exercise	 behaviour	 was	 reflected	in	the	average	body	fat	levels	for	 boys	and	girls	( . %	vs.	 . %).	 objectively	monitored	physical	activity	 estimates	 of	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 as	 determined	 by	 pedometer,	 accelerometer	 or	 sense-wear	 arm	 band	 are	 generally	 more	 accurate	 than	 those	 inferred	from	responses	to	questionnaires,	 although	 there	 remain	 some	 forms	 of	 physical	 activity	 such	 as	 climbing	 a	 hill,	 cycling	 and	 swimming	 that	 are	 still	 not	 assessed	 accurately	 by	 a	 pedometer	 or	 accelerometer.	 probably	 because	 of	 the	 greater	 precision	 of	 the	 objective	 measurements,	correlations	with	the	body	 mass	index	or	the	estimated	percentage	of	 body	 fat	 are	 usually	 greater	 for	 the	 objective	than	for	the	subjective	data,	with	 correlation	 coefficients	 sometimes	 reaching	 . 	 or	 higher	 (table	 ).	 however,	 the	 apparent	 magnitude	 of	 associations	 has	 unfortunately	 been	 exaggerated	in	some	studies,	because	the	 investigators	have	failed	to	separate	data	 for	male	and	female	subjects;	the	men		 have	 tended	 to	 be	 both	 more	 active	 and	 thinner	than	the	women.	 in	a	study	of	 	men	and	women	aged	 - 	years,	jacobs	et	al.	( )	found	an	 age	 and	 sex	 adjusted	 correlation	 of	 . 	 between	 body	 fat	 as	 determined	 by	 hydrostatic	 weighing	 and	 caltrac	 accelerometer	data	expressed	in	kcal/day,	 although	the	correlation	decreased	to	-	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 . 	if	the	caltrac	output	was	expressed	 as	met-min/day).	 mcclung	 et	 al.	 ( )	 examined	 	 patients	 who	 were	 undergoing	 surgical	 treatment	for	orthopedic	disorders.	in	this	 sample,	 there	 was	 only	 a	 very	 weak	 correlation	 between	 bmi	 and	 pedometer	 estimates	 of	 daily	 step	 count	 (r	 =	 . ).	 nevertheless,	the	patients	with	the	highest	 activity	 levels	 in	 this	 sample	 (> 	 steps/day)	 had	 an	 average	 bmi	 of	 . 	 kg/m ,	compared	with	 . 	kg/m 	for		 those	with	very	low	levels	of	daily	physical	 activity	(< 	steps/day).		 scheers	et	al.	( )	used	a	sense-wear	 arm-band	 to	 define	 physical	 activity	 patterns	 in	 	 middle-aged	 flemish	 adults.	abdominal	obesity,	as	indicated	by	 waist	 circumferences,	 showed	 a	 strong	 negative	 partial	 correlation	 ( . )	 with	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 as	 indicated	 by	 the	 arm-band	 output.	 the	 odds	 ratio	 of	 showing	 abdominal	 obesity	 in	 the	 most	 active	group	(active	>	 	min/day)	was	a	 dramatic	 . ,	relative	to	those	in	the	least	 active	group	(active	< 	min/day).	 tryon	et	al.	 ( )	related	body	mass	 index	 to	 a	 pedometer	 measurement	 (distance	 traveled	 per	 hour)	 in	 	 women	ranging	from	 %	underweight	to	 %	 overweight;	 they	 found	 a	 small	 negative	 correlation	 between	 the	 	 data	 sets	(r	=	- . ).		 tudor-locke	et	al.	( )	assessed	the	 relationship	 between	 pedometer	 step	 counts	and	body	fat	content	in	a	sample	of	 	older	men	and	women	(average	age	 	 years).	 the	 percentage	 body	 fat	 increased	from	 . %	in	the	most	active		 table	 :		relationships	seen	between	objectively	measured	habitual	physical	activity	and	body	 mass	index	or	body	fat	content.	 	 author	 sample	 fat	 measureme nt	 correlation	 comments	 jacobs	et	al.	 ( )	 	men	and	 women	aged	 - 	yr	 body	fat	by	 hydrostatic	 weighing	 - . 	(age	and	sex	 adjusted	kcal/d),	- . 	met-min/d)	 	 lohman	et	 al.	( )	 	eighth- grade	 schoolgirls	 skin-fold	 measures	of	 body	fat	 - . 	(mv)	 - . 	(v)	 correlations	for	moderately	 vigorous	(mv)	and	vigorous	(v)	 physical	activity	 mcclung	et	 al.	( )		 	orthopedic	 patients	 bmi	 -	 . 	 bmi	for	high	phys.	activity	( 	 steps/d)	 . 	kg/m ,	low	phys.	 activity	(< 	steps/d)	 . 	 kg/m 	 rowlands	et	 al.	( )	 	children	aged	 - 	yr	 skin-fold	 measures	of	 body	fat	 - . 	 	 scheers	et	al.	 ( )	 	middle- aged	adults	 waist	 circumferenc e	 - . 	partial	 correlation	 coefficient	 sense-wear	arm	band	data;	odds	 ratio	for	abdominal	obesity	in	 active	individuals	 . 	 tryon	et	al.	 ( )	 	women	 aged	 	to	 	 years	 bmi	 - . 	 	 tudor-locke	 et	al.	( )	 	men	&	 women,	average	 age	 	yr	 impedance	 estimate	of	 body	fat	 - . ;	similar	 correlation	with	 bmi	(- . )	 body	fat	 . %	most	active	tertile,	 . %	least	active	tertile	(but	not	 co-varied	for	sex)	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 tertile	 (> 	 steps/day)	 to	 . %	 in	 the	least	active	tertile	(<	 	step/day),	 although	this	comparison	was	somewhat		 confounded	 because	 there	 was	 a	 greater	percentage	of	women	in	the	least	 active	tertile.			 	 associations	between	habitual	physical	 activity	 and	 fatness	 have	 also	 been	 demonstrated	in	 children.	 lohman	 et	 al.	 ( )	related	skin-fold	estimates	of	body	 fatness	 to	 accelerometer	 measures	 of	 habitual	physical	activity	 in	 	eighth- grade	 u.s.	 schoolgirls,	 finding	 slightly	 stronger	 negative	 correlations	 for	 vigorous	 (- . )	 than	 for	 moderately	 vigorous	(- . )	physical	activity.	 rowlands	 et	 al.	 ( )	 also	 found	 negative	 correlations	 between	 skin-fold	 assessments	 of	 body	 fat	 and	 accelerometer	 data	 in	 - -year	 old	 children;	however,	correlations	as	high	as		 r	 =	 - . 	 must	 unfortunately	 be	 discounted,	 because	 data	 were	 not	 separated	 by	 sex,	 despite	 substantial	 differences	 in	 physical	 activity	 levels	 between	the	boys	and	the	girls.		 	 unacculturated	 vs.	 sedentary/inactive	 circumpolar	residents	 various	 cross-sectional	 comparisons	 can	 be	 drawn	 between	 circumpolar	 residents	 who	 have	 conserved	 a	 very	 active	hunter-gatherer	lifestyle,	and	those	 who	 have	 adopted	 a	 more	 sedentary,	 inactive,	and	westernized	pattern	of	living.	 although	higher	levels	of	body	fat	content	 can	be	linked	to	the	adoption	of	sedentary	 living,	 it	 is	 important	 to	 note	 that	 westernization	 has	 also	 brought	 changes	 in	 diet	 and	 other	 aspects	 of	 personal	 lifestyle	 to	 the	 more	 acculturated	 segments	of	the	circumpolar	populations.	 	 comparisons	 of	 body	 fat	 within	 the	 igloolik	population	 during	 the	 s,	 inuit	 living	 in	 the	 canadian	 arctic	 moved	 to	 small	 coastal	 settlements	 constructed	 by	 the	 canadian	 government	 around	 schools	 and	 nursing	 stations.	one	such	recently	built	but	 still	 isolated	hamlet	was	igloolik,	near	the	tip	 of	the	melville	peninsula.	 	at	this	time,	 it	 was	 possible	 to	 distinguish	 	 groups	 of	 men	 within	 the	 community	 -	 those	 who	 continued	 living	 off	 the	 land,	 pursuing	 their	 traditional	 hunter-gatherer	 economy,	 those	 who	 had	 become	 acculturated	 to	 a	 sedentary	 and	 inactive	 western	 lifestyle,	 and	 an	 intermediate	 group,	in	the	course	of	making	a	transition	 between	the	two	ways	of	 life	(table	 ).	 differences	 in	 habitual	 physical	 activity	 between	the	three	groups	can	be	inferred	 from	 the	 gradation	 of	 directly	 measured	 maximal	 oxygen	 intakes	 between	 the	 three	 groups.	 although	 the	 change	 in	 lifestyle	 was	 of	 fairly	 recent	 date,	 there	 were	already	differences	 in	the	thickness	 of	skin-folds,	both	during	the	summer	and	 the	winter	months.	during	the	darkest		 table	 :	average	aerobic	fitness	and	skin-fold	thickness	found	in	igloolik	men	in	 .	comparison	 of	traditional	hunters,	their	acculturated	peers,	and	an	intermediate	group	in	the	course	of	making	 transition	to	a	sedentary	lifestyle.	based	on	the	data	of	rode	and	shephard	( ).	 	 current	lifestyle	 maximal	oxygen	intake	 [ml/(kg.min)]	 average	skin-fold	thickness	(mm)	 summer	 winter	 summer	 winter	 traditional	hunters	(n	=	 )	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 transitional	(n	=	 )	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 acculturated	(n	=	 )	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 winter	 months,	 extreme	 cold	 restricted	 the	 physical	 activity	 of	 all	 three	 groups,	 with	 associated	 decreases	 of	 maximal	 aerobic	power	and	significant	increases	in	 body	fat	content.	 	 cross-sectional	 circumpolar	 comparisons	 igloolik	 first	 became	 a	 settled	 community	 around	 ,	 and	 it	 is	 thus	 possible	 to	 make	 cross-sectional	 comparisons	 between	 the	 inuit	 living	 in	 this	hamlet	and	other	circumpolar	groups	 where	 there	 has	 been	 a	 longer	 and	 stronger	 contact	 with	 western	 ways	 of	 living	and	an	urban	 lifestyle.	the	human	 adaptability	 project	 of	 the	 international	 biological	programme	undertook	such	an	 analysis,	 comparing	 skin-fold	 thicknesses	 between	 the	 igloolik	 inuit	 and	 more	 acculturated	 circumpolar	 populations,	 including	the	inuit	of	wainwright,	alaska,	 and	nomadic	lapps	(shephard,	 ).	the	 men	 of	 igloolik	 were	 found	 to	 be	 substantially	thinner	than	the	wainwright	 inuit	 or	 the	 nomadic	 lapps,	 but	 differences	were	less	apparent	among	the	 women,	 probably	 because	 they	 did	 not	 usually	participate	in	the	long	and	arduous	 expeditions	 of	 their	 traditional	 hunter- gatherer	partners.	 more	recently,	young	has	demonstrated	 similar	cross-sectional	gradients	of	fatness	 between	 different	 groups	 of	 north	 american	indians	and	meti,	related	to	the	 extent	 of	 their	 contacts	 with	 urban	 communities	(young,	 ).	 	 discussion	and	conclusions	 almost	all	of	the	various	cross-sectional	 comparisons	 considered	 in	 this	 article	 have	 pointed	 towards	 a	 strong	 and	 consistent	 association	 between	 regular	 physical	 activity	 and	 avoidance	 of	 the	 accumulation	 of	 an	 excessive	 amount	 of	 body	fat.		however,	one	must	be	cautious	 in	assuming	that	the	relationship	is	causal.	 physically	active	individuals	could	have	a	 specific	 genotype	 that	 limits	 their	 fat	 accumulation,	 and	 the	 active	 individuals	 may	 also	 have	 been	 more	 careful	 with	 their	 diet	 and	 other	 aspects	 of	 their	 personal	 lifestyle.	 moreover,	 in	 some	 of	 the	 cross-sectional	 comparisons,	 an	 excessive	 body	 fat	 content	 could	 have	 been	 the	 cause	 rather	 than	 the	 consequence	 of	 a	 low	 level	 of	 habitual	 physical	 activity.	 however,	 the	 rapid	 table	 :	comparison	of	average	skin-fold	thicknesses	between	the	igloolik	inuit	of	 ,	the	more	 acculturated	inuit	populations	of	wainwright,	alaska,	and	nomadic	lapps	(shephard,	 ).		 	 group	 age	(yr)	 triceps	(mm)	 subscapular	 (mm)	 suprailiac	 (mm)	 average	(mm)	 igloolik	men	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 lapps	(men)	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 wainwright	(men)	 - 	 . 	 . 	 	 . 	 igloolik	women		 - 		 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 lapps	(women)	 - 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 . 	 wainwright	(women)	 - 		 . 	 . 	 	 . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 accumulation	 of	 fat	 in	 previously	 thin	 populations	with	transition	to	a	sedentary	 lifestyle	 argues	 against	 a	 genetic	 explanation	 of	 the	 associations	 noted	 in	 this	 article,	 and	 in	 some	 of	 the	 comparisons	 (such	 as	 those	 between	 university	 faculties),	 there	 is	 also	 no	 strong	 reason	 to	 suppose	 dietary	 differences	 between	 thin	 and	 fatter	 individuals.	 the	 association	 between	 high	 energy	 expenditures	and	low	levels	of	body	fat	is	 particularly	obvious	in	endurance	athletes,	 but	 nevertheless	 there	 are	 examples	 of	 other	 less	 highly	 selected	 and	 only	 moderately	 fit	 individuals	 who	 have	 undertaken	 	 or	 more	 days	 of	 marathon-style	exercise,	thereby	reducing	 their	body	fat	content	by	 - 	kg	or	more.			 in	 the	 case	 of	 physical	 education	 students,	 the	 impact	 of	 their	 educational	 choice	 upon	 body	 fat	 content	 is	 more	 evident	in	male	than	in	female	students.	in	 some	 schools,	 complications	 of	 interpretation	 have	 arisen	 from	 terms	 assigned	to	academic	rather	than	physical	 education	 instruction,	 and	 not	 all	 pe	 students	have	had	a	strong	commitment	to	 their	 physical	 development.	 inferences	 would	be	clarified	by	further	studies	using	 objective	methods	to	measure	the	amount	 of	 weekly	 physical	 activity	 actually	 undertaken	 by	 individual	 students,	 and	 also	 by	 exploring	 the	 extent	 of	 involvement	of	supposed	control	students	 in	 physically	 demanding	 inter-collegiate	 sports	programmes.	 early	 occupational	 studies	 often	 focused	on	cardiac	risk	factors	other	than	 fat	 accumulation,	 but	 comparisons	 of	 waist	circumferences	between	conductors	 and	 bus	 drivers	 showed	 a	 significant	 advantage	 to	 the	 conductors,	 despite	 similarities	 in	 socio-economic	 status	 and	 lifestyle	 between	 the	 two	 classes	 of	 employee.	 today,	 there	 is	 only	 a	 limited	 possibility	of	making	further	occupational	 comparisons;	 bus	 drivers	 rather	 than	 conductors	 now	 collect	 fares	 from	 passengers,	 and	many	 jobs	 that	 formerly	 required	 hard	 physical	 work	 have	 been	 eliminated	 by	 automation	 and	 robotics.	 however,	heavy	physical	demands	are	still	 made	 on	 elite	 military	 groups,	 and	 available	 reports	 document	 that	 such	 troops	consistently	have	very	low	levels	of	 body	fat.	 the	 high	 levels	 of	 physical	 activity	 found	in	traditional	amish	and	old-order	 mennonite	 families	 are	 reflected	 in	 correspondingly	 low	 levels	 of	 body	 fat,	 and	 the	 changes	 of	 body	 composition	 in	 amish	 who	 have	 abandoned	 their	 traditional	 rural	 life	 to	 work	 at	 more	 sedentary	 jobs	 within	 ohio	 towns	 provides	 evidence	 that	 their	 traditional	 thinness	is	a	consequence	of	a	heavy	daily	 energy	expenditure	rather	than	a	genetic	 trait	or	some	other	facet	of	their	personal	 lifestyle.	 nevertheless,	 communal	 meals	 appear	 to	 play	 an	 important	 role	 in	 traditional	amish	families,	and	it	would	be	 useful	to	obtain	confirmatory	data	on	the	 nature	 and	 extent	 of	 their	 daily	 food	 intake.			 cross-sectional	 studies	 of	 the	 general	 population	 seeking	 to	 validate	 both	 physical	 activity	 questionnaires	 and	 accelerometers	 have	 shown	 correlation	 coefficients	as	high	as	- . 	with	estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 content.	 correlations	 have	 been	 largest	 for	 the	 best	 of	 the	 questionnaires,	and	have	also	been	greater	 for	reports	of	vigorous	than	for	moderate	 or	light	activity,		 inuit	 who	 have	 maintained	 a	 hunter- gatherer	 lifestyle	are	another	group	with	 very	 low	 levels	 of	 body	 fat.	 	 here,	 there	 remains	 scope	 for	 further	 study	 of	 fat	 distribution	between	superficial	and	deep	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 body	depots,	and	to	examine	whether	the	 tendency	 to	 internal	 fat	 storage	 is	 important	in	maintaining	thermal	balance	 when	undertaking	heavy	physical	work.	it	 also	remains	interesting	to	clarify	why	the	 oldest	 inuit	 females	 carry	 substantial	 amounts	 of	 fat;	 is	 this	 a	 consequence	 of	 multiple	 pregnancies,	 or	 are	 there	 substantial	 sex-based	 differences	 in	 activity	patterns	within	the	household?	 		although	 the	 various	 comparisons	 discussed	in	this	article	point	strongly	to	 the	efficacy	of	vigorous	physical	activity	in	 containing	the	accumulation	of	body	fat,	it	 may	 be	 asked	 whether	 the	 amounts	 of	 activity	 needed	 are	 realistic	 for	 the	 general	 middle-aged	 population.	 the	 average	 person	 is	 certainly	 not	 going	 to	 engage	in	a	cross-canada	run,	or	even	to	 run	in	a	marathon	event,	and	in	many	of	 the	 comparisons	 we	 have	 cited	 the	 physically	 active	 group	 is	 undertaking	 much	 more	 than	 the	 minimum	 public	 health	recommendation	for	daily	physical	 activity.	 however,	 the	 minimum	 volume	 needed	 to	prevent	obesity	 is	probably	 in	 the	range	of	 - 	minutes	of	moderate	 to	vigorous	aerobic	activity	per	week,	and	 this	target	seems	well	within	the	capacity	 of	 the	 average	 middle-aged	 adult.	 the	 challenge	to	the	public	health	professional	 is	 to	 maintain	 enthusiasm	 for	 this	 attainable	goal.	 		 acknowledgements	 the	 author	 acknowledges	 no	 funding	 relationships	or	other	conflicts	of	interest.		 	 author’s	qualifications	 the	 author's	 qualifications	 are	 as	 follows:	 roy	 j.	 shephard,	 c.m.,	 ph.d.,	 m.b.b.s.,	 m.d.	 [lond.],	 d.p.e.,	 ll.d.,	 d.sc.,	 facsm,	fcsep,	ffims,	faape.	 	 	 references	 arazi,	 h.,	 hoseini,	 r.,	 &	 behrozi,	 a.	 ( ).	 a	 comparison	of	body	fat	and	blood	pressure	 between	 physical	 education	 and	 non- physical	 education	 	 major	 male	 students.	 phys	 ed	 sport	 (iran),	 ( ),	 - .	 http://facta.junis.ni.ac.rs/pe/pe /p e - .pdf		 arazi,	h.,	&	hoseini,	r.	 ( ).	body	composition	 and	 blood	 pressure	 between	 athlete	 and	 non-athlete.	 biology	 exerc,	 ( )	 - .	 https://www.biologyofexercise.com/imag es/issues/ .pdf		 arrese,	 a.l.,	 &	 ostériz	 e.s.	 ( ).	 skinfold	 thicknesses	 associated	 with	 distance	 running	 	 performance	 in	 highly	 trained	 runners.	 j	 sports	 sci,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / 	 bale,	p.	 ( ).	the	relationship	of	physique	and	 body	composition	to	strength	in	a	group	of	 physical	 education	 students.	 br	 j	 sports	 med,	 ( ), - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bjsm. . . 	 bale,	 p.,	 bradbury,	 d.,	 &	 colley,	 e.	 ( ).	 anthropometric	 and	 training	 variables	 related	to	 	km	running	performance.	br	j	 sports	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bjsm. . . 	 ball,	k.,	owen,	n.,	salmon,	 j.,	bauman,	a.,	&	gore,	 c.j.	 ( ).	 associations	 of	 physical	 activity	with	body	weight	and	 fat	 in	men	 and	women.	int	j	obes	relat	metab	disord,		 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /sj.ijo. 	 bartlett,	h.l.,	mance,	m.j.,	&	buskirk,	e.r.	( 	).	 body	composition	and	expiratory	reserve	 volume	 in	 female	 gymnasts	 and	 runners.	 med	sci	sports	exerc,	 ( ),	 - 		 bassett,	 d.r.,	 schenider,	 p.l.,	 &	 huntington,	 g.e.	 ( ).	 physical	 activity	 in	 an	 old	 order	 amish	 community.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - 	 .https://doi.org/ . / .mss. . . 	 bassett,	 d.r.,	 tremblay,	 m.s.,	 esliger,	 d.w.,	 copeland,	 j.l.,	 barnes,	 j.d.,	 &	 huntington	 g.e	 ( 	 ).	 physical	 activity	 and	 body	 mass	 index	 of	 children	 in	 an	 old	 order	 amish	 community.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /mss. b e d aa 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 bouchard,	 c.,	 tremblay,	 a.,	 leblanc,	 c.,	 lortie,	 g.,	 savard,	 r.],	 &	 thériault,	 g	 .	 ( ).	 a	 method	 to	 assess	 energy	 expenditure	 in	 children	 and	 in	 adults.	 am	 j	 clin	 nutr,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /ajcn/ . . 	 bradbury,	 k.e.,	 guo,	 w.,	 &	 cairns,	 b.j.	 ( ).	 association	between	physical	activity	and	 body	 fat	 percentage,	 with	 adjustment	 for	 bmi:	a	large	cross-sectional	analysis	of	uk	 biobank.	 	 bmj	 open,	 :e .	 http://dx.doi.org/ . /bmjopen- - 		 budd,	 g.m.	 ( ).	 how	 do	 wildland	 firefighters	 cope?	 physiological	 and	 behavioural	 temperature	 regulation	 in	 men	 suppressing	australian	summer	bushfires	 with	hand	tools.	j	therm	biol,	 ( - ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - 	 campos,	l.c.b.,	campos,	f.a.d.,	bezerra,	t.a.r	 ,	&	 pellegrinotti,	 i.l..	 ( )	 effects	 of	 	 weeks	 of	 physical	 training	 on	 body	 composition	 and	 physical	 fitness	 in	 military	recruits.	int	j	exerc	sci,	 ( ,)	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 coetzer,	p.,	noakes,	t.d.,	sanders,	b.,	lambert,	m.i.,	 bosch,	 a.n..,	 wiggins,	 t.,	 &	 dennis,	 s.c.	 ( ).	superior	 fatigue	resitance	of	elite	 black	 distance	 runners.	 j	 appl	 physiol,	 ( ), - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jappl. . . . .		 conley,	d.l.,	&	krahenbuhl,	g.s.	 ( ).	economy	 and	 distance	 running	 performance	 of	 highly	 trained	 athletes.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 costill,	 d.l,	 bowers,	 r.,	 &	 kammer,	 w.f.	 ( ).	 skinfold	 estimates	 of	 body	 fat	 among	 marathon	 runners.	 med	 sci	 sports,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 cureton,	 k.j.,	 sparling,	 p.b.,	 evans,	 b.w.,	 johnson,	 s.m.,	 kong,	 u.d.,	 &	 purvis,	 j.w.	 ( ).	 effect	of	experimental	alterations	in	excess	 weight	 on	 aerobic	 capacity	 and	 distance	 running	 performance.	 med	 sci	 sports,	 ( ),	 - .		 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 de	 garay,	 a.l.,	 levine,	 l.,	 &	 carter,	 j.e.l.	 ( ).	 genetic	 and	 anthropometric	 studies	 of	 olympic	 champions.	 new	 york,	 ny,	 academic	press,	pp. - .			 ekelund,	 u.,	 neovius,	 m.,	 linné,	 y.,	 brage,	 s.,	 wareham,	 m.j.,	 &	 rӧssner,	 s.	 ( ).	 associations	between	physical	activity	and	 fat	 mass	 in	 adolescents:	 the	 stockholm	 weight	development	study.	am	j	clin	nutr,	 ( ),	 - .	 	https://doi.org/ . /ajcn. . . .	 eksterowicz,	j.,	napierala,	m.,	&	zukow,	w.	( ).	 how	the	kenyan	runner's	body	structure	 affects	 sports	 results.	 hum	 movement,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /humo- - 		 elliot,	 d.l.,	 goldberg,	 l.,	 kuehl,	 k.s.,	 moe,	 f.l.,	 berger,	 r.k.r.,	 &	 pickering,	 m.a.	 ( ).	 the	phlame	(promoting	healthy	lifestyles	 alternative	 models'	 effects)	 firefighter	 study:	 outcomes	 of	 two	 models	 of	 behavior	 change.	 j	 occup	 environ	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jom. b e a d	 epstein,	l.h.,	&	wing,	r.r.	( ).	aerobic	exercise	 and	 weight.	 addict	 behav,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - ( ) - 	 esliger,	d.w.,	tremblay,	m.s.,	copeland,	j.l.,	barnes,	 j.d.,	 huntington,	 g.e.,	 &	 bassett,	 d.r.	 ( ).	 physical	 activity	 profile	 of	 old	 order	 amish,	 mennonite	 and	 	contemporary	 children.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /mss. b e b afd 	 farina,	e.k.,	taylor,	j.c.,	means,	g.e.,	williams,	k.w.,	 murphy,	n.e.,	margolis,	l.m.,	 .	 .	 .	mcclung,	 j.p.	 ( ).	 effect	 of	 combat	 deployment	 on	 anthropmetrics	 and	 physiological	 status	 of	 u.s.	 army	 special	 operations	 forces	soldiers.	mil	med,	 ,	e -e .	 https://doi.org/ . /milmed-d- - 	 farrell,	p.a.,	wilmore,	j.h.,	coyle,	e.f.,	billing,	j.e.,	&	 costill,	 d.l.	 ( ).	 plasma	 lactate	 accumulation	 and	 distance	 running	 performance.	 med	 sci	 sports,	 ( ),	 - .	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 fleck,	 s.	 j.	 ( ).	 body	 composition	 of	 elite	 american	athletes.	am	j	sports	med,	 ( ,)	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / 	 folsom,	a.r.,	caspersen,	c.j.,	&	tasylor,	h.l.	( ).	 leisure	 time	 physical	 activity	 and	 its	 relationship	 to	 coronary	 risk	 factors	 in	 a	 population-based	 sample.	 am		 	epidemiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /oxfordjournals.aj e.a 	 fuchs,	 j.a.	 levinson,	 r.m.,	 stoddard,	 r.r.,	 mullet,	 m.e.,	 &	 jones,	 d.h.( ).	 health	 risk	 factors	 among	 the	 amish:	 results	 of	 a	 survey.	 health	 educ	 q,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / 	 glick,	 m.,	 michel,	 a.c.,	 dorn,	 j.,	 horowitz,	 m.,	 rosenthal,	 t.,	 &	 trevisan,	 m.	 ( ).	 dietary	 cardiovascular	 risk	 factors	 and	 serum	 cholestrol	 in	 an	 old	 order	 mennonite	 community.	 am	 j	 publ	 health,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /ajph. . . 	 godin,	g.,	&	shephard,	r.j.	( ).	a	simple	method	 to	 assess	 exercise	 behavior	 in	 the	 community.	can	j	appl	spt	sci,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 graves,	 j.e.,	pollock,	m.l.,	&	sparling,	p.b.	 ( ).	 body	composition	of	elite	female	distance	 runners.	br	 j	 sports	med,	 (suppl.	 ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 hirata,	 k.	 ( ).	 physique	 and	 age	 of	 tokyo	 olympic	 champions.	 j	 sports	 med	 phys	 fitness,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 jacobs,	d.r.,	ainsworth,	r.e.,	hartman,	t.j.,	&	leon,	 a.s.	 ( ).	a	simultaneous	evaluation	of	 	 commonly	 used	 physical	 activity	 questionnaires.	med	sci	sports	exerc,	 ( ) ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 jakicic,	 j.m.,	 clark,	 k.,	 coleman,	 e.,	 donnelly,	 j.e.,	 foreyt,	 j.,	 melanson,	 e.,	 	 .	 .	 .	 volpe,	 s.	 ( ).	 appropriate	 intervention	 strategies	 for	weight	 loss	and	prevention	 of	weight	regain	for	adults.	med	sci	sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .		 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 jobin,	j.,	tremblay,	a.,	&	samson,	p.	( ).	effect	 of	a	 -km	run	on	a	 -year	old	man.	 phys	 sportsmed	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / . . 	 knechtle,	b.,	&	bircher,	s.	( ).	veränderung	der	 körperzusammensetzung	 bei	 einem	 ultralauf.	 [changes	 in	 body	 composition	 during	 an	 extreme	 endurance	 run].	 	praxis,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - . . . 	 knechtle,	 b.,	 duff,	 b.,	 schulze,	 i.,	 &	 	 kohler,	 g.	 ( ).	 the	 effects	 of	 running	 , 	 km	 within	 	days	on	body	composition	 in	a	 female	 ultrarunner-deutschlandlauf	 	 .	 res	 sports	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 	https://doi.org/ . / 	 knechtle,	b.,	&	knechtle,	p.	( ).	in	einem	lauf	 vom	bodensee	an	den	genfersee	–	effekt	 auf	 fett-	 und	 muskelmasse	 (run	 across	 switzerland-	 effect	 on	 body	 fat	 and	 	muscle	 mass).	 praxis,	 ( ),	 - l	 https://doi.org/ . / - . . . 	 knechtle,	 b.,	 knechtle,	 p.,	 barandun,	 u.,	 &	 rosemann,	t.	( ).	anthropometric	and	 training	variables	related	to	half-marathon	 performance	 in	 recreational	 female	 runners.	 phys	 sportsmed,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /psm. . . 	 kong,	p.w.,	&	de	heer,	h.	( ).	anthropometric,	 gait	and	strength	characteristics	of	kenyan	 distance	 athletes.	 j	 sports	 sci	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 kvintová,	 j.,	 &	 sigmund,	 m.	 ( ).	 physical	 activity,	 body	 composition	 and	 health	 assessment	 in	 current	 female	 university	 students	with	active	and	inactive	lifestyles.	 j	phys	ed	sport,	 (suppl.	 ),	 - .		 levinson,	 r.m.,	 fuchs,	 j.a.,	 stoddard,	 r.r.,	 jones,	 d.h.,	&	mullet,	m.	 ( ).	behavioral	risk	 factors	in	an	amish	community.	am	j	prev	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 https://doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - 	 lewis,	 s.,	 haskell,	 w.l.,	 klein,	 h.,	 halpern,	 j.,	 &	 wood,	 p.d.	 ( ).	 prediction	 of	 body	 composition	 in	 habitually	 active	 middle- aged	 men.	 j	 appl	 physiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jappl. . . . 	 lohman,	t.g.	( ).	advances	in	body	composition	 assessment	champaign,	il,	human	kinetics,	 pp.	 - .		 lohman,	 t.,	 ring	 ,	 k.,	 pfeiffer,	 k.,	 camhi,	 s.,	 arredondo,	 e.,	 pratt,	 c.,	 .	 .	 .	 webber,	 l.s.	 ( ).	relationships	among	fitness,	body	 composition	and	physical	activity.	med	sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /mss. b e c b	 lutoslawska,	 g.,	 malara,	 m.,	 tomaszwski,	 p.,	 mazurek,	 k.,	 czajkowska,	 a.,	 kȩska,	 a.,	 &	 tkaczyk,	 j.	 	 ( ).	relationship	between	 the	percentage	of	body	 fat	and	surrogate	 indices	 of	 body	 fat	 in	 male	 and	 female	 polish	 active	 and	 sedentary	 students.	 j	 phys	 anthropol,	 : .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - - 	 malavolti,	m.,	battistini,	n.c.,	dugoni,	m.,	bagni,	b.,	 bagni,	i.,	&	pietrobelli,	a.	( ).	effect	of	 intense	 military	 training	 on	 body	 composition.	 j	 strength	 cond	 res,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jsc. b e f	 malhotra,	a.,	noakes,	t.,	&	phinney,	s.	( ).	it	is	 time	to	bust	the	myth	of	physical	inactivity	 and	obesity:	you	cannot	outrun	a	bad	diet.	 br	 j	 sports	 med,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bjsports- - 	 martinez,	j.a.,	kearney,	j.m.,	kafatos,	a.,	paquet,	s.,	 &	 martinez-gonzalez,	 m.a.	 ( ).	 variables	 independently	 associated	 with	 self-reported	 obesity	 in	 the	 european	 union.	publ	health	nutr,	 	 ( a),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 mcclung,	c.d.,	zahiri,	c.a.,	higa,	j.k.,	amstutz,	h.c.,	 &	 schalzried,	 t.s.	 ( ).	 relationship	 between	body	mass	 index	and	activity	 in	 hip	or	knee	arhtroplasty	patients.	j	orthop	 res,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jor. 	 meckel,	 y.,	 galily,	 y.,	 nemet,	 d.,	 &	 eliakim,	 a.	 ( ).	 changes	 in	 weight	 indexes	 and	 aerobic	 fitness	 of	 physical	 education	 students	over	three	years	of	college.	j	hum	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ), - .	 https://doi.org/ . /jhse. . . 	 mertens,	d.j.,	rhind,	s.,	berkhoff,	 s.,	dugmore,	d.,	 shek,	 p.n.,	 &	 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 nutirtional,	 immunologic	 and	 psychological	responses	to	a	 	m	run.	j	 sports	 med	 phys	 fitness,	 ( ),	 - .	 http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ 		 morinaka,	t.,	limtrakul,	p.,	makonkawkeyoon,	l,	&	 sone,	y.	( ).	comparison	of	variations	 between	 percentage	 of	 body	 fat,	 body	 mass,	 and	 daily	 physical	 activity	 among	 young	japanese	and	thai	female	students.	j	 physiol	 santhropol	 : .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - - 	 morris,	 j.n.,	 &	 raffle,	 p.a.b.	 ( ).	 physique	 of	 london	 busmen.	 the	 epidemiology	 of	 uniforms.	 	 lancet,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /s - 	 ( ) - 	 neculães,	m.,	&	lucaci,	p.	( ).	statistical	study	 on	 body	 weight	 and	 body	 fat	 among	 students	from	the	physical	education	and	 sport	 faculty	 in	 iaşi.	 timişoara	 phys	 ed	 rehab	 j,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /tperj- - 		 nindl,	 b.c.,	 barnes,	 b.r.,	 alemany,	 j.a.,	 frykman,	 p.n.,	 shippee,	 r.l.,	 &	 friedl,	 k.l.	 ( ).	 physiological	 consequences	 of	 u.s.	 army	 ranger	 training.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ), - .	 https://doi.org/ . /mss. b e e f 	 oliver,	r.m.	( ).	physique	and	serum	lipids	of	 young	 london	 busmen	 in	 relation	 to	 ischaemic	heart	disease.	br	j	 industr	med,	 ,	 - .	 http://dx.doi.org/ . /oem. . . 	 paff,	 j.,	 &	 korneta,	 k.	 ( ).	 changes	 in	 aerobic	 and	 anaerobic	 fitness	 in	 the	 polish	 army	 paratroopers	during	their	military	service.	 aviat	space	environ	med,	 ( ),	 - .	 http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ 		 pollock,	m.l.,	gettman,	l.r.,	 jackson,	a.,	ayres,	 j.	 ,	 ward,	 a.,	 &	 linnerud,	 a.c.	 ( ).	 body	 composition	of	elite	class	distance	runners.	 ann	 ny	 acad	 sci,	 ( ),	 - .	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 https://doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x	 poston,	 w.s.c.,	 jitnarin,	 n.,	 haddock,	 k.c.,	 jahnke,	 s.a.,	 &	 tuley,	 b.c.	 ( ).	 obesity	 and	 injury-related	 absenteeism	 in	 a	 population-based	 firefighter	 cohort.	 obesity,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /oby. . 	 pribis,	p.,	burtnack,	c.a.,	mckenzie,	s	.o.,	&	thayer,	 j.	 ( ).	 trends	 in	 body	 fat,	 body	 mass	 index	and	physical	fitness	among	male	and	 female	 college	 students.	 nutrients,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /nu 	 reuter,	c.,	stein,	c.e.,	&	vargas,	d.m.	( ).	bone	 mass	 and	 body	 composition	 in	 college	 students.	rev	assoc	med	bras,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 	 richardson,	m.t.,	ainsworth,	b.e.,	wu,	h.c.,	jacobs,	 d.r.,	 &	 leon,	 a.s.	 ( ).	 ability	 of	 the	 atherosclerosis	 risk	 in	 communities	 (aric)/baecke	 questionnaire	 to	 assess	 leisure-time	 physical	 activity.	 int	 j	 epidemiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /ije/ . . 	 rode,	 a.,	 &	 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 fitness	 of	 the	 canadian	eskimo:	the	influence	of	season.	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 rowlands,	 a.v.,	 eston,	 r.g.,	 &	 ingledew,	 d.k.	 ( ).	 relationship	 between	 activity	 levels,	aerobic	fitness	and	body	fat	in	 -	to	 -yr	 old	 children.	 j	 appl	 physiol,	 ( ),	 - 	 https://doi.org/ . /jappl. . . . 	 ruchan,	 i.	 	 ( ).	 an	 evaluation	 of	 the	 physical	 activity	 levels	 and	 body	 compositions	 of	 university	students.	anthropologist,	 ( ),	 - .		 	 https://doi.org/ . / . . 	 rusko,	h.,	havu,	m.,	&	karvinen,	e.	( ).	aerobic	 performance	capacity	in	athletes.		eur	 j	 appl	 physiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bf 	 rutter,	 s.	 ( ).	 comparison	 of	 energy	 expenditures	 in	 normal	 weight	 and	 overweight	 women	 using	 the	 calrac	 personal	 activity	 computer.	 int	 j	 eating	 disord,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - x( ) : < ::aid- eat > . .co; - 	 saczuk,	j.,	wasiluk,	a.,	wilczewski,	r.	&	wilczewski,	 a.	 ( ).	 differences	 in	 body	 build	 and	 physical	 fitness	 of	 pe	 students	 from	 the	 faculty	of	physical	education	and	sport	in	 biala	podlaska	in	the	years	 ,	 	and	 .	 pol	 j	 sport	 tourism,	 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /pjst- - 	 scheers,	 t.,	 philippaerts,	 r.,	 &	 lefevre,	 j.	 ( ).	 sense-wear	 determined	 physical	 activity	 and	 sedentary	 behavior	 and	 metabolic	 syndrome.	med	sci	sports	exerc	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 schutz,	 u.w.,	 schmidt-trucksüss,	 a.,	 knechtle,	 b.,	 machann,	j.,	weidelbach,	h.,	erhardt,	m.,	.	.	.	 bilich,	 c.	 ( ).	 the	 trans-europe	 footrace	 project:	 longitudinal	 data	 acquisition	 in	 a	 randomized	 mobile	 mri	 observational	 cohort	 study	 on	 	 endurance	runners	at	a	 	stage	 , 	km	 transcontinental	ultramarathon.	bmc	med,	 : .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - - 		 shaw,	k.a.,	gennat,	h.c.,	o'rourke,	p.,	&	del	mar,	c.,	 ( ).	exercise	for	overweight	or	obesity	 (review).	 cochrane	 database	 syst	 rev,	 	 ( )	 cd 	 https://doi.org/ . / .cd .pub 	 shephard,	 r.j.,	 &	 rode,	 a.	 ( ).	 the	 health	 consequences	 of	 'modernization.'	 evidence	 from	circumpolar	peoples	cambridge,	uk.:	 cambridge	 university	 press,	 pp.	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /cbo 	 	 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 endurance	 fitness,	 nd	 ed.	 toronto,	on,		university	of	toronto	press,		 pp.	 - .	 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 work	 physiology	 and	 activity	 patterns.	 in	 f.a.	 milan	 (ed.),	 the	 humnan	 biology	 of	 circumpolar	 populations.	 cambridge,	 uk,	 cambridge	 university	press,	pp.	 - .		 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 worksite	 fitness	 and	 exercise	 programs:	 a	 review	 of	 methodology	 and	 health	 impact.	 am	 j	 health	 promot,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - . . 	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 shephard,	 r.j.	 ( ).	 does	 it	 matter	 if	 i	 am	 overweight?	 .	 psycho-social	 consequences.	 health	 fitness	 j	 canada,	 ( ),	 - .		 https://doi.org/ . /hfjc.v i . 		 shephard,	r.j.	( ).	can	regular	physical	activity	 prevent	 obesity?	 .	 potential	 factors	 reducing	 the	 efficacy	 of	 physical	 activity.	 health	fitness	j	canada,	in	press.	 shephard,	r.j.,	&	Åstrand,	p.-o.	( ).	endurance	 in	 sport,	 nd	 ed.	 oxford,	 uk,	 blackwell	 scientific,	 pp.	 - 	 https://doi.org/ . / 	 shephard,	 r.j.,	 kavanagh,	 t.,	 conway,	 s.,	 thomas,	 m.,	 &	 anderson,	 g.h.	 ( ).	 nutritional	 demands	of	sub-maximum	work:	marathon	 and	 trans-canadian	 events.	 proceedings,	 iii.	international	symposium	on	sportsmen	 nutrition,	warsaw.	warsaw,	poland,	polish	 sports	federation.		 shephard,	r.j.,	&	pimm,	p.	( ).	physical	fitness	 of	 canadian	 physical	 education	 students,	 with	 a	 note	 on	 international	 differences.	 brit	 j	 sports	 med,	 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bjsm. . . 	 smolarczyk,	 m.,	 wiśniewski,	 a.,	 czajkowska,	 a.,	 kȩska,	 a.,	 tkaczyk,	 j.,	 milde,	 k.,	 .	 .	 .	 majchrzak,	 a.	 ( ).	 the	 physique	 and	 body	 composition	 of	 students	 studying	 physical	 education:	 a	 preliminary	 report.	 pediatr	endocrinol	diabet	metab,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 soteriades,	e.s.,	hauser,	r.,	kawachi,	i.,	liarokapis,	 d.,	 christiani,	 d.c.,	 &	 kales,	 s.n.	 ( ).	 obesity	 and	 cardiovascular	 disease	 risk	 factors	in	firefighters.	a	prospective	cohort	 study.	 obes	 res,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /oby. . 		 sprynarová,	 Ṥ.,	&	parizková,	 j.	 ( ).	functional	 capacity	 and	 body	 composition	 in	 top	 weight	 lifters,	 swimmers,	 runners	 and	 skiers.	int	z	angew	physiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /bf 		 stachoń,	 a.,	 &	 pietraszweska,	 j.	 ( ).	 body	 composition	 in	 male	 physical	 education	 university	 students	 in	 view	 of	 their	 physical	 activity	 level.	 hum	 movement,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /humo- - 		 tarnus,	e.,	&	bourdon,	e.	( ).	anthropometric	 evaluations	 of	 body	 composition	 of	 undergraduate	students	at		the	university	 of	 la	 réunion.	 adv	 physiol	 educ,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /advan. . 		 tremblay,	 m.s.,	 barnes,	 j.d.,	 copeland,	 j.l.,	 &	 esliger,	 d.w.	 ( ).	 conquering	 childhood	 inactivity.	 is	 the	answer	 in	 the	 past?	 med	 sci	 sports	 exerc,	 ( 	 ),	 - 	 https://doi.org/ . / .mss. . .a 	 tremblay,	m.s.,	esliger,	d.w.,	copeland,	j.l.,	barnes,	 j.d.,	 &	 bassett,	 d.r.	 	 ( ).	 moving	 forward	by	looking	back:	lessons	learned	 from	 long	 lost	 lifestyles.	 appl	 physiol	 nutr	 metab,	 ( ),	 - .		 https://doi.org/ . /h - 		 tryon,	 w.w.,	 goldberg,	 j.l.,	 &	 morrison,	 d.f.	 ( ).	 activity	 decreases	 as	 pmid: 	 tsismenakis,	 a.j.,	 chriatophi,	 c.a.,	 burress,	 j.w.,	 kinney,	 a.m.,	 kim,	 m.,	 &	 kales,	 s.n.	 ( ).	the	obesity	epidemic	and	future	 emergency	responders.	obesity	 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /oby. . 		 tudor-locke,	 c.,	 ainsworth,	 b.e.,	 whitt,	 m.c.,	 thompson,	r.w.,	addy,	c.l.,	&	jones,	d.a.	 ( ).	 the	 relationship	 between	 pedometer-dtermined	 ambulatory	 activity	and	body	composition	variables.	 int	 j	 obesity,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /sj.ijo. 	 tudor-locke,	c.,	brashear,	m.m.,	 johnson,	w.d.,	&	 katzmarzyk,	 p.t.	 ( ).	 accelerometer	 profiles	 of	 physical	 activity	 and		 inactivity	 in	 normal	 weight,	 overweight	 and	 obese	 u.s.men	 and	 women.	 int	 j	 behav	 nutr	 phys	 activ,	 : .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - - 		 upton,	s.j.,	hagan,	r.d.,	rosentswieg,	j.,	&		gettman,	 l.r.	 ( ).	 comparison	 of	 the	 physioogical	 profile	 of	 middle-aged	 women	 distance	 runners	 and	 sedentary	 women.	res	quart	exerc	sport,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / . . 	 vaccaro,	 p.,	 morris,	 a.f.,	 &	 clarke,	 d.h.	 ( ).	 physiologic	 characteristics	 of	 masters	 female	 distance	 runners.	 phys	 sportsmed,	 ( ),	 - .	 can	physical	activity	prevent	obesity?	part	 	 health	&	fitness	journal	of	canada,	issn	 - ,	vol.	 ,	no.	 	⋅	june	 ,	 	⋅	 	 https://doi.org/ . / . . 	 vernillo,	g.,	schena,	f.,	berardelli,	c.,	rosa,	g.,	lvani,	 c.,	 maggioni,	 m.,	 .	 .	 .	 la	 torre,	 a.	 ( ).	 anthropometric	 characteristics	 of	 top- class	 kenyan	 marathon	 runners.	 j	 sports	 med	 phys	 fitness,	 ,	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ 		 wanner,	m.,	martin,	b.w.,	autenrieth,	c.,	schaffner,	 e.,	 meier,	 f.,	 brombach,	 c.,	 .	 .	 .	 probst- hensch	 n.	 ( ).	 associations	 between	 domains	 of	 physical	 activity,	 sitting	 time	 and		 different	measures	of	overweight	 and	 obesity.	 prev	 med	 rep,	 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /j.pmedr. . . 	 washburn,	 r.a.,	 smith,	 k.w.,	 goldfield,	 s.r.w.,	 &	 mckinlay,	j.b.	( ).	reliability		 and	 physiological	 correlates	 of	 the	 harvard	 alumni	 acrivity	 survey	 in	 a	 general	 population.	j	clin	epidemiol,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - ( ) -o	 wasiluk,	a.,	saczuk,	 j.,	czeczelewski,	 j.,	eucolecka,	 b.,	 &	 	 czeczelewska,	 e.	 ( ).	 morphological	 characteristics	 of	 female	 students	 of	 physical	 education	 compared	 to	students	of	other	subjects	at	the	faculty	 of	 physical	 education	 and	 sport	 in	 biala	 podalska.	pol	j	sport	tourism,	 ,	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /pjst- - 	 wilmore,	j.h.,	&	brown,	c.h.	( ).	physiological	 profiles	 of	 women	 distance	 runners.	 med	 sci	 sports,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . / - - 	 wilmore,	 j.h.,	brown,	c.h.,	&	 	navis,	 j.a	 .	 ( ).	 body	 physique	 and	 composition	 of	 the	 female	distance	runner.	ann	ny	acad	sci,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x	 young,	 t.k.	 ( ).	 human	 obesity	 and	 arctic	 adaptation;	 epidemiological	 patterns,	 metabolic	 effects	 and	 evolutionary	 implications.	 d.phil.dissertation,	 oxford	 university,	oxford,	uk,	pp.	 - .				 zanovec,	m.,	lakkakula,	a.p.,	johnson,	l.g.,	&	turri,	 g.	( ).	physical	activity	is	associated	 with	 percent	 body	 fat	 and	 body	 composition	 but	 not	 body	 mass	 inexin	 white	 and	 black	 college	 students.	 int	 j	 exerc	 sci,	 ( ),	 - .	 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti cles/pmc /		 	 american journal of medical genetics part c (semin. med. genet.) c: – ( ) a r t i c l e pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania d. holmes morton,* caroline s. morton, kevin a. strauss, donna l. robinson, erik g. puffenberger, christine hendrickson, and richard i. kelley the clinic for special children in lancaster county, pennsylvania, is a community-supported, nonprofit pediatric medical practice for amish and mennonite children who have genetic disorders. over a -year period, – , we have encountered heritable disorders among the amish and among the mennonites. we emphasize early recognition and long-term medical care of children with genetic conditions. in the clinic laboratory we perform amino acid analyses by high-performance liquid chromatography (hplc), organic acid analyses by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (gc/ms), and molecular diagnoses and carrier tests by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) amplification and sequencing or restriction digestion. regional hospitals and midwives routinely send whole-blood filter paper neonatal screens for tandem mass spectrometry and other modern analytical methods to detect of the metabolic disorders found in these populations as part of the neogen inc. supplemental newborn screening program (pittsburgh, pa). medical care based on disease pathophysiology reduces morbidity, mortality, and costs for the majority of disorders. among our patients who are homozygous for the same mutation, differences in disease severity are not unusual. clinical problems typically arise from the interaction of the underlying genetic disorder with common infections, malnutrition, injuries, and immune dysfunction that act through classical pathophysiological disease mechanisms to influence the natural history of disease. � wiley-liss, inc. key words: genetic diseases; general pediatric medical care; metabolic diseases; genotype-phenotype correlation introduction features of the population the manuscript of john a. hostetler’s book amish society was reviewed in the early ’s for johns hopkins university press by victor mckusick [hostetler, ]. mckusick recognized the importance of the book as a socio- logical study and realized the potential of amish populations for the study of human genetics. mckusick’s review, and the subsequent publication of amish society in , marked the beginning of a collaboration between hostetler and mckusick that spanned several decades. in mckusick edited and johns hopkins press published medical gene- tic studies of the amish. [mckusick, ] table i lists genetic disorders that were described in this publication, which came from many different amish demes throughout pennsylvania and the midwest. puffenberger and francomano discuss the origins of genetic studies in the mennonite and amish populations in accompaning articles [francomano, ; puffenberger, ]. although these populations are unique in many ways, when compared to the general population of pennsylva- nia, the amish and mennonites are less distinct than is generally appreciated. in each of the or more generations since the early s, – % of the children have left the old order communities [hostetler, ]. lancaster county church cemeteries, public school rosters, and regional phone books include many amish and mennonite family names. therefore, many so-called amish alleles d. holmes morton, m.d., sc.d. (hon.), is co-founder and director of the clinic for special children. he is a pediatrician with an interest in the influence of early diagnosis and treatment upon the natural history and neurobiology of inherited metabolic disorders. caroline s. morton, ed. m., is co-founder and manager of the non-profit clinic and educational organization called the clinic for special children. kevin a. strauss, m.d., is a pediatrician doing post-graduate studies at the clinic focused upon the neurobiology of genetic disorders and the pathophysiology of metabolic injuries of the brain. donna l. robinson, r.n., c.n.p., is a pediatric intensive care nurse practitioner with special interest in developing nursing protocols for management of hospitalized patients with metabolic disorders. erik g. puffenberger, ph.d., is laboratory director at the clinic for special children, with special interest in molecular biology and population genetics. christine hendrickson, rn, is a pediatric nurse who recently joined the clinic staff to work with children with genetic disorders in the outpatient setting. richard i. kelley, m.d., ph.d., is associate professor, department of pediatrics, johns hopkins university, and member of the division of metabolism, kennedy-krieger institute, baltimore md. dr. kelley is consulting pediatrician and geneticist, and a founding board member, of the clinic for special children. *correspondence to: d. holmes morton, clinic for special children, bunker hill rd., strasburg, pa . doi . /ajmg.c. � wiley-liss, inc. or mennonite alleles have diffused out into the general population. the old order amish and mennonite popula- tions of pennsylvania are new compared to the time of origin of these gene muta- tions. all three of the mutations causing phenylketonuria (pku) in the old order amish and mennonites are found throughout europe. the so-called amish mutation for glutaric aciduria type (ga ) is one of the more common mutations found throughout europe and the united states [biery et al., ]. therefore, for most disorders found within the amish and menno- nites, the alleles are not unique, but these alleles are at different frequencies than in the general population. the gene muta- tions carried by the founders of the demes of pennsylvania are not distribut- ed evenly, either within or among the many subpopulations of the state. for of the disorders seen regularly at the clinic, the incidences are high, approxi- mately / to / births. although there is a wide variety of heritable disorders among the plain people (table i), the majority of founder dis- orders are clustered in a few families, and the overall disease prevalence among plain people is relatively low. examples table i. metabolic disorders and syndromes found in medical genetic studies of the amish [mckusick, ] inheritance omim deme b metabolic disorders a phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency ar in/pa propionyl-coa carboxylase deficiency ar oh/pa pyruvate kinase deficiency ar pa(b) syndromes albinism, oculocutaneous, tyrosinase deficient, type b ar in spastic paraplegia ad pa(l) arthrogryposis, dysmelination, craniosynostosis, and cleft palate ar ataxia-telangiectasia ar in brittle hair, intellectual impairment, and decreased fertility ar byler disease, progressive familiar intrahepatic cholestasis ar pa(lw) cardiomyopathy, asymmetric sepal hypertrophy ad in cardiomyopathy, nonobstructive ad oh cartilage-hair hypoplasia ar pa,oh,in charcot-marie-tooth syndrome ar coclear deafness, myopia, and intellectual impairment ar pa(l) jackson weiss syndrome ad in deafness, congenital ar ellis-van creveld dwarfism ar pa(l) epidermolysis bullosa letalis ar oh familial manic-depressive illness ad pa(l) hypothyroidism and muscular hypertrophy limb girdle dystrophy, type e in/pa mast syndrome ar oh(h) mckusick-kaufman syndrome ar oh/pa muscular dystrophy, limb-girdle type ar in/pa nanophthalmos, familial ar nr oculocerebral syndrome with hypopigmentation ar renal-retinal dysplasia ar troyer syndrome ar oh(h) weill-marchesani syndrome ar pa(l) a disorders in italics are also entered in tables ii and iii. b pa(b) is belleville, pa; pa(l) is lancaster county, pa; pa(lw) is lawrence county, pa, oh(h) is holmes county, oh. the gene mutations carried by the founders of the demes of pennsylvania are not distributed evenly, either within or among the many subpopulations of the state. american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article of lower-frequency founder disorders include pku and medium-chain acyl dehydrogenase deficiency (mcadd), which are probably less common in the plain populations of lancaster county than in the general caucasian popula- tion. some common genetic diseases were apparently excluded by founder sampling and/or genetic drift. for example, cystic fibrosis is not seen in the plain people of lancaster county but is found in some other western pennsylvanian demes. this uneven dis- tribution reflects different founders and a -year separation of the various subgroups prior to, and after, settlement in north america. in the plain people of pennsylvania, maple syrup urine disease (msud) is found only in those of mennonite descent and ga is found only in the amish populations. although eight disorders are found in both populations, only crigler-najjar disease and propionic acidemia are currently known to arise from the same mutations in both populations. mcadd, -methylcrotonylglycinuria [gibson et al., ], and at least two forms of osteogenesis imperfecta are found in both populations but are caused by different mutations in the amish and mennonites [puffenberger, ]. medical care and the clinic for special children the early genetic studies of the plain people indicated unique needs for the medical care of people who were geographically and culturally isolated. the clinic for special children was organized to integrate general medical care and modern genetics [hostetler, ; morton, ]. an initial goal of the clinic founders was to diagnose msud and ga in asymptomatic neo- nates and prevent the metabolic crises in order to prevent brain degeneration that characterized these conditions. because common childhood infections often provoke metabolic crisis in children with these disorders, we reasoned that med- ical care for affected children should be directly provided by individuals who were knowledgeable about the disor- ders, who had laboratory facilities to diagnose and monitor biochemical con- trol during infectious illnesses, and who were interested in general pediatric practice [morton et al., ; morton, ; morton et al., b]. because the early symptoms of these serious disor- ders are difficult to distinguish from common diseases, we often evaluate patients who turn out not to have a genetic disorder common to the plain people. infants who present with failure to thrive and irritability or who become unusually ill during otherwise common infections most often do not have under- lying genetic disorders. after the clinic opened in , it was apparent the practice would not be limited to patients with msud and ga . the first ill neonate sent to the clinic to rule out msud did have a family history of msud, but instead had hirschsprung disease with bowel obstruction and sepsis. one of the more recently identi- fied infants with msud also had a second rare recessive disorder, severe combined immune deficiency. two of our patients with msud have first cousins with mcadd. before , all amish children with ga were said to have cerebral palsy. many children with so-called amish cerebral palsy did have ga , but others did not, and their evaluations led to the descriptions of troponin t myopathy [johnston et al., ], amish lethal microcephaly [kelley et al., ; rosenberg et al., ; strauss et al., ], and an auto- somal recessive pelizaeus-merzbacher- like central dysmyelination syndrome [morton et al., unpublished results]. we recently evaluated a neonate with a sibling with ga who fortunately did not have ga , but unfortunately, as we learned from a neonatal screening test, his hypospadias was a sign of another recessive syndrome, -b hydroxyster- oid dehydrogenase deficiency. another family has three children with ga and a fourth with pku. over the years, failure to thrive workups have led to the diagnoses of byler disease, three new disorders of bile salt transport [morton et al., ], bartter syndrome, aldoster- one deficiency [mitsuuchi et al., ], and primary growth hormone defi- ciency [morton et al., a]. clearly, the burden of genetic disease is high and the need for specialized and compre- hensive care is essential to the health of the community. in the last years we clearly, the burden of genetic disease is high and the need for specialized and comprehensive care is essential to the health of the community. have cared for patients from the amish and mennonite populations with more than different single-gene disorders, as shown in tables ii and iii. these tables summarize a clinical experience with – patients since . tables ii and iii are not complete lists of genetic disorders found in the amish and mennonite populations of pennsylvania. however, we have seen patients from other settlements in central and north- western pennsylvania where different founder genes presumably explain the prevalence of different sets of genetic disorders. cultural and economic background of the clinic the clinic for special children was registered in pennsylvania as an inde- pendent nonprofit organization in . the original board of directors included three of the authors of this paper (d.h.m., c.s.m., r.i.k.) and the late dr. john a. hostetler, a descendant of amish parents and a sociologist of rural culture. in , several parents of children with genetic disorders from the amish and mennonite communities joined the board. both communities were aware of significant numbers of children with msud, ga , and other genetic disorders. the goal of these parents was for the clinic to provide comprehensive medical care for child- ren with complex and unstable disor- ders. the clinic was viewed as a way to article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) t a b l e ii . g e n e ti c d is o rd e rs o f p e n n sy lv a n ia a m is h il ln e ss d u ri n g in fa n c y h is to ry an d e x am n e o g e n o r p a sc re e n s e ru m am in o ac id an al y si s u ri n e o r (s e ru m ) o rg an ic ac id s b y g c / m s a m in o ac id s an d ac y l c ar n it in e s b y m s / m s d ia g n o se d b y m u ta ti o n d e te c ti o n a c li n ic al n o te s m e ta b o li c d is o rd e rs a d e n o si n e d e am in as e d e fi c ie n c y þ m il ro y a m is h . s e v e re c o m b in e d im m u n e d e fi c ie n c y. l e th al w / t b o n e m ar ro w tr an sp la n t a d re n al h y p e rp la si a ii ß -h y d ro x y st e ro id d e h y d ro g e n as e d e f. þ þ þ þ n e o n at al h y p o n at re m ia / h y p e rk al e m ia . m al e s h av e am b ig u o u s g e n it al ia b u t se v e ri ty v ar ia b le c o n g e n it al g ro w th h o rm o n e d e fi c ie n c y þ p o o r g ro w th in in fa n c y w it h an o re x ia an d lo w ig f - an d g h c o rt ic o st e ro n e m e th y l o x id as e ii d e f. a ld o st e ro n e d e f. þ þ þ p o o r g ro w th , h y p o n at re m ia / h y p e rk al e m ia , v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e c ri g le r- n aj ja r sy n d ro m e ty p e þ þ k e rn ic te ru s w / t n e o n at al d ia g n o si s an d p h o to th e ra p y. l e th al w / t li v e r tr an sp la n t g al ac to se m ia , d u ar te an d d u ar te / c la ss ic al v ar ia n ts þ þ þ þ c ar ri e rs o f c la ss ic al g e n e id e n ti fi e d b y n e o g e n . c o m m o n in m ar y la n d a m is h g lu ta ry l c o a d e h y d ro g e n as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ b as al g an g li al d e g e n e ra ti o n w it h c e re b ra l p al sy -l ik e d y st o n ia g m g an g li o si d o si s, b e ta -g al ac to si d as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ l e th al . f o u n d in m il ro y a m is h d e m e b u t n o t in l an c as te r c o u n ty m e d iu m c h ai n ac y l- c o a d e h y d ro g e n as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ r ar e . h ig h m o rb id it y an d m o rt al it y w / t n e o n at al sc re e n in g s. in fe c ti o n in d u c e d c ri si s -m e th y lc ro to n y l- c o a c ar b o x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ m il d p h e n o ty p e, se v e ra l as y m p to m at ic ad u lt s an d c h il d re n p h e n y la la n in e h y d ro x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ þ v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e, se v e re to m il d h y p e rp h e p ro p io n y l- c o a c ar b o x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e . b as al g an g li al in ju ry , c ar d io m y o p at h y p y ru v at e k in as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ c o m m o n in b e ll e v il le d e m e . e rt h ro b la st o si s, h e p at o p at h y an d h e m o ly si s s h o rt c h ai n ac y l d e h y d ro g e n as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ in fa n ts as y m p to m at ic . in c re as e d b u ty ry lc ar n it in e an d u ri n e e th y lm al o n at e s it o st e ro le m ia þ þ c o ro n ar y ar te ry d is e as e in c h il d h o o d . h ig h c h o le rs te ro l an d si to st e ro l s y n d ro m e s a rt e ri al v e n o u s m al fo rm at io n sy n d ro m e þ c o m m o n in l an c as te r a m is h . in tr ac e re b ra l h e m o rr h ag e s in al l ag e g ro u p s. d x b y m r a b la n k sy n d ro m e , fa m il ia r h y p e rc h o la n e m ia þ þ p o o r g ro w th , p ru ri ti s, v it am in k , an d d d e fi c ie n c ie s in in fa n c y b y le r d is e as e , fa m il ia r in tr ah e p at ic c h o le st as is þ þ p o o r g ro w th , p ru ri ti s, v it am in k , an d d d e fi c ie n c ie s in in fa n c y. l e th al w / t li v e r tr an sp la n t american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article c ar ti la g e -h ai r h y p o p la si a d w ar fi sm þ þ þ v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e fo r g ro w th , h ai r, im m u n e d e fi c ie n c y, an d h ir sc h sp ru n g s d is e as e c e re b e ll ar at ax ia w it h p re se rv e d re fl e x e s þ þ g ro ss m o to r an d la n g u ag e d e la y s. a ta x ia an d ab n o rm al g ai t v ar ia b le c o c k ay n e sy n d ro m e þ l e th al . t y p ic al p h e n o ty p e, in fa n ti le fo rm . s e e n in a m is h in b e ll e v il le ar e a l e th al m ic ro c e p h al ly w it h -k e to g lu ta ri c ac id u ri a þ þ þ c o m m o n in l an c as te r. l e th al w it h b ra in m al fo rm at io n s an d p ro g re ss iv e e n c e p h al o p at h y c o n g e n it al su p ra v e n tr ic u la r ar rh y th m ia s þ s e v e re ar rh y th m ia s. l if e -t h re at e n in g c ar d ia c e v e n ts in th e n e o n at e . d x b y e k g e c tr o d ac ty ly , o m p h al o c e le an d c ar d ia c m al fo rm at io n s þ þ r ar e , le th al sy n d ro m e. s o m e in fa n ts h av e e c to d ac ty ly o n ly e ll is -v an c re v e ld d w ar fi sm þ þ þ c o m m o n in l an c as te r. p u lm o n ar y h y p o p la si a, c ar d ia c d is e as e in – % f u c h s e n d o th e li al d y st ro p h y o f th e c o rn e a þ p re se n ts in y o u n g ad u lt s as e ar ly g la u c o m a an d c at ar ac ts m c k u si c k -k au ff m an sy n d ro m e þ þ þ f e m al e in fe rt il it y w it h o u t e ar ly d e te c ti o n an d re p ai r m o y am o y a d is e as e þ o n e c as e in b e ll e v il le a m is h . t h e c h il d al so h ad p y ru v at e k in as e d e fi c ie n c y m u sc u la r d y st ro p h y, li m b -g ir d le ty p e þ b e ta -s ar c o g ly c an g ly c o p ro te in d e fe c t n e u ro fi b ro m at o si s u n c o m m o n . t w o c as e s w it h : p e ri o b it al an d fa c ia l tu m o rs ; o b st ru c ti v e h y d ro c e p h al is o st e o g e n e si s im p e rf e c ta w it h o p al e sc e n t te e th , fr ac tu re s þ þ c o m m o n . d o m in an t v ar ia n t. f ra c tu re s la te r o n se t an d o st e o p o ro si s p o ly c y st ic k in d e y d is e as e , ad u lt ty p e o n se t re n al fa il u re ag e – y e ar s. n o li v e r d is e as e . r e n al tr an sp la n t r e tt sy n d ro m e þ þ t y p ic al p ro g re ss iv e m ic ro c e p h al y in fe m al e s. s p o ra ti c, fu ll d is ab il it y r ie h l sy n d ro m e, p e li za e u s- m e rz b ac h e r- li k e d y sm y li n at io n þ þ a u to so m al re c e ss iv e v ar ia n t. c o n g e n it al n y st ag m u s, m o to r d e la y s. d x b y m r i s w ar e y sy n d ro m e , fe ta l g o n ad al fa il u re , su d d e n in fa n t d e at h þ þ c o m m o n in b e ll e v il le ar e a. l e th al . n o t e n d o c ri n o p at h y o r k e n n e d y sy n d ro m e t ro p o n in ty p e m y o p at h y, in fa n ti le n e m al in m y o p at h y þ þ þ c o m m o n , le th al . t re m o rs in u te ro an d at b ir th . ‘‘ c h ic k e n b re as t d is e as e ’’ a g e n e an d m u ta ti o n id e n ti fi c at io n p u ff e n b e rg e r, . article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) t a b l e ii i. g e n e ti c d is o rd e r o f p e n n sy lv a n ia m e n n o n it e s il ln e ss d u ri n g in fa n c y h is to ry an d e x am n e o g e n o r p a sc re e n s e ru m o r (u ri n e ) am in o ac id an al y si s u ri n e o r (s e ru m ) o rg an ic ac id s b y g c / m s a m in o ac id s an d ac y l c ar n it in e s b y m s / m s d ia g n o se d b y m u ta ti o n d e te c ti o n a c li n ic al n o te s m e ta b o li c d is o rd e rs c ri g le r- n aj ja r sy n d ro m e ty p e þ þ þ k e rn ic te ru s w / t n e o n at al d ia g n o si s an d p h o to th e ra p y l e th al w / t li v e r tr an sp la n t c y st in u ri a þ (þ ) þ r e n al st o n e s in e ar ly c h il d h o o d w it h ri sk o f re n al d am ag e. c o m m o n . f o u r m u ta ti o n s g il b e rt sy n d ro m e þ c o m m o n in fa m il ie s w it h c ri g le r- n aj ja r d is e as e h o m o zy g o te s fo r t a t a b o x p o ly m o rp h is m s g ly c o g e n st o ra g e d is e as e , ty p e þ a b n o rm al li v e r e n zy m e s an d h ig h c h o le st e ro l ir ri ta b il it y an d h e p at o m e g al y af te r w e an in g im m u n e d e fi c ie n c y, s c id v ar ia n t þ þ a l c < / m m , n o th y m ic sh ad o w o r t -l y m p h . b o n e m ar ro w tr an sp la n t. ?i l re c e p t d e fe c t b ra n c h e d c h ai n -k e to ac id d e h y d ro g e n as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ þ c la ss ic al m s d . l iv e r tr an sp la n t w as e ff e c ti v e th e ra p y, b o n e m ar ro w tr an sp la n t w as n o t m e d iu m c h ai n ac y l- c o a d e h y d ro g e n as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ h ig h m o rb id it y an d m o rt al it y w it h o u t n e o n at al sc re e n in g s. in fe c ti o n in d u c e d c ri si s -m e th y lc ro to n y l- c o a c ar b o x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ m il d p h e n o ty p e, se v e ra l as y m p to m at ic ad u lt s an d c h il d re n m e v al o n at e k in as e d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ n e o n at al ja u n d ic e , e ry th o b la st o si s. c o m p o u n d h e te ro zy g o te p h e n y la la n in e h y d ro x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ þ v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e, m il d h y p e rp h e to se v e re p ro p io n y l- c o a c ar b o x y la se d e fi c ie n c y þ þ þ þ þ s am e m u ta ti o n as a m is h . v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e t y ro si n e m ia ty p e þ þ þ þ þ o n e c as e , n o c li n ic al d is e as e s y n d ro m e s d y st o n ia s d y t - þ þ c h il d h o o d o n se t, is ra e li m u ta ti o n , o n e c as e . d y t re p o rt e d in m id w e st e rn m e n n . g ro u p f am il ia l p e ri o d ic fe v e r (t r a p s ) þ þ þ / � t u m o r n e c ro si s fa c to r re c e p to r m u ta ti o n in fa m il y. t r a p s an d f m f g e n e s n l in an o th e r fa m il y f ra g il e x sy n d ro m e þ þ c o m m o n d is o rd e r. v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e m ak e s c li n ic al d ia g n o si s d if fi c u lt h e re d it ar y sp h e ro c y to si s þ h e m o ly si s, h y p e rb il ir u b in e m ia , ab n o rm al b lo o d sm e ar . r b c fr ag il it y te st d ia g n o st ic h ir sc h sp ru n g d is e as e þ þ þ / � n e o n at al b o w e l o b st ru c ti o n an d se p si s. p o ly g e n ic d is e as e . h ig h ly v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e n e p h ro ti c sy n d ro m e, c o n g e n it al þ þ e d e m a an d in fe c ti o n s. l e th al w / t re n al tr an sp la n t o st e o g e n e si s im p e rf e c ta , d e ta c h e d re ti n ae s þ þ c o n g e n it al d e ta c h m e n t o f re ti n ae s. f ra c tu re s, la te o n se t. u n k n o w n m u ta ti o n american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article allow the communities to care for their own. this desire was in response to the the goal of these parents was for the clinic to provide comprehensive medical care for children with complex and unstable disorders, as a way to allow the communities to care for their own. many difficulties encountered by the plain people in getting access to, and paying for, specialized medical care. the origins of community support and the economic and medical impacts of the clinic can be understood in relation to the history of msud in the mennonite people. the collection of essays and let- ters what is wrong with our baby?, com- piled and published by john and verna martin, parents of two msud children, is an interesting and sometimes sobering look at modern health care from a parent’s perspective [martin and martin, ]. the oldest surviving mennonite patient with msud was born in , but many undiagnosed or untreated in- fants died before she was born. she was in a hospital in philadelphia for months, did not regain her birth weight for months, and today has severe disability and retardation. her sister, in whom msud was recognized by days of age, became severely intoxicated, remained hospitalized for many weeks, and also has profound retardation. financial difficulties for plain people in traditional medical settings between and , mennonite children were born with msud. over these years, the management of the neonates improved and hospitalization times shortened. however, as funding for research in biochemical causes of mental retarda- tion waned, the direct costs of care paid by the mennonite community in- creased sharply. by , the initial care for a newly diagnosed neonate with msud in regional pediatric hos- pitals was $ , – $ , or more [morton et al., b]. amino acid analyses cost $ , and when coupled with physician charges and other testing charges, the total cost of an outpa- tient evaluation was typically $ , – $ , . these expenses were a major difficulty for the plain people, as they historically have not participated in medical insurance programs. approxi- mately half of the families contribute to a form of major medical insurance called amish aid or mennonite aid, which is administered by businessmen within the churches. prior to the open- ing of the clinic, benefit auctions were held to help pay hospital bills of $ , or higher. other church districts collect alms to help families with large medical bills. members of the old orders are not eligible for medicare or medicaid benefits because of an exemption from social security taxes. when young adults join the old order amish or mennonite churches, they sign an irs form , which indicates that they are ‘‘a member of a religious body that is conscientiously opposed to social secur- ity benefits but that makes reasonable provision for its own dependent mem- bers’’ [hostetler, ]. the exemption from the tax also means that those who sign irs form agree not to accept money from state or federal programs that are paid for by social security funds. this cultural practice is one of many issues community members face when obtaining care for their children. challenges in the medical management of these disorders earlier diagnosis and improved man- agement did, in many cases, allow normal growth and development, yet several otherwise healthy children with msud died unexpectedly from acute cerebral edema after the newborn period. of the children with msud o st e o g e n e si s im p e rf e c ta , a m is h v ar ia n t þ þ f ra c tu re s, la te r o n se t r e tt sy n d ro m e þ t y p ic al p ro g re ss iv e m ic ro c e p h al y in fe m al e s s p o ra ti c, fu ll d is ab il it y r e ti n it is p ig m e n to sa , ar e fl e x ia , se n so ry at ax ia þ þ c o m m o n sy n d ro m e. a x p c , m ap p e d to q - . n o m u ta ti o n in p le x in a . u n k n o w n m u ta ti o n w e rd n ig -h o ff m an d is e as e , in fa n ti le þ þ þ c o m m o n , le th al s m n e x o n d e le ti o n . a m il d e r c li n ic al v ar ia n t h as b e e n se e n in o n e fa m il y f am il ia l m an ic -d e p re ss iv e il ln e ss þ v ar ia b le p h e n o ty p e , c o m m o n . c h il d h o o d o n se t d o e s o c c u r. m u ta ti o n u n k n o w n a g e n e an d m u ta ti o n id e n ti fi c at io n p u ff e n b e rg e r, . article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) earlier diagnosis and improved management did, in many cases, allow normal growth and development, yet several otherwise healthy children with msud died unexpectedly from acute cerebral edema after the newborn period. born between and , ( %) died of cerebral edema before the age of years. the typical course of the children was that they became ill with a common infection, had poor appetite, vomiting, and irritability, which pro- gressed to lethargy, and then to coma. by the time arrangements were made to travel from lancaster to the regional hospital, the biochemical intoxication was severe. emergency efforts to reverse the intoxication by intravenous fluids, glucose, and dialysis failed, the cerebral edema worsened, and within hr after entering the hospital, the child died of brain stem herniation. physicians and parents knew that common infectious illnesses provoked serious metabolic in- toxication, but little was known about how to control the metabolic response to such illnesses in the outpatient set- ting. local services for children were limited. specialists and equipment that were needed to study the early stages of cerebral edema were in research labora- tories far from the patients. the available biochemical testing was of no utility for the rapid treatment necessary to avert cerebral edema because results took as long as weeks. routine outpatient visits to metabolic clinics in philadelphia could only be made on one afternoon each week, and outpatient services to assess acutely ill children were not avail- able. instead, ill children were referred to emergency rooms, and the medical staff of the er usually knew less about the management of msud than did the child’s parents. newborn screening for msud was started by pennsylvania in , but the state-administered pro- gram did not substantially improve mat- ters for these patients. until the guthrie method was replaced by the tandem mass spectrometry program in , false positive rates were unacceptably high [morton et al., b]. the state program made no provisions to test and provide immediate results for high-risk infants. the three mennonite infants who were found by the state program were and days old and already ill. more important, the state follow-up program made no provisions to pay for the care of ill neonates, had no plans for the assessment and care of acutely ill older children, did not address the problem of cerebral edema, and did not support care for patients over the age of years. the state program did offer to pay for several amino acid levels per year and offered formula to those who qualified for, and would accept, medicaid, but the program required that mennonite families obtain these services at the hospitals in distant re- gional centers. in , an amino acid analyzer was given to the clinic for special children by two mennonite churches. to date, the clinic has performed , amino acid analyses on this instrument. because of our nonprofit status and community support, we were able to reduce the patient test charge from $ to $ . we also decreased the analysis and reporting time for plasma branched-chain amino acids to min, and we routinely quantify plasma amino acids during an outpatient clinic visit. between and , we managed neonates with msud. twenty-one of these neonates were from high-risk couples recognized by family histories or carrier tests, and the infants were tested for msud and diagnosed before hr of age. with timely diagnosis, the neonates were never ill and could be managed without hospitalization. the diagnosis of msud was made in additional neonates diagnosed because of clinical illnesses; of these infants were found by the pennsylvania screening pro- gram. these ill infants were managed at lancaster general hospital by the clinic staff and had a typical stay of – days with a hospital cost of $ , – , per patient per day. over a - year period, developmental outcomes have been good [morton et al., ]. we currently follow more than patients with msud, most of whom are of mennonite descent. between and we had admissions to our hospital for acute msud in- toxication; however, the average an- nual rate of hospitalization for our msud patients is less than day per patient-year of follow-up. between and , there were, however, no deaths from cerebral edema. the current total annual formula cost for our msud patients is about $ , . again, most mennonite families do not accept formula or reimbursement for costs from the pennsylvania msud follow-up program. the clinic pays half of these costs for families who have limited resources, and the families pay the balance. the charge for an out- patient visit is $ , and medical care and laboratory testing are provided at the clinic regardless of a family’s ability to pay. in summary, a com- prehensive health care system was designed to provide sophisticated medical care of patients with msud within their community. by combining community support and other dona- tions with knowledgeable and sophisti- cated laboratory and clinical care, the morbidity, mortality, and costs have been reduced. care for patients with disorders other than msud we believe that the cost of operat- ing the clinic for special children could be fully justified if we cared for no other patients than mennonite children with msud. however, the medical and economic impacts of care for patients with ga , mcadd, crigler-najjar disease, the bile salt disorders, and many other disorders that affect amish and mennonite children provide equally compelling justification for the clinic. more than % of the disorders we see cause clinical problems during infancy. ten of the syndromes american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article can be recognized by history and physical examination, including the common disorders, amish lethal micro- cephaly [kelley et al., ; strauss et al., ], swarey syndrome [morton et al., unpublished results], a variant of cere- bellar ataxia [morton et al., unpublished results], and a newly described syndrome with infantile retinitis pigmentosa and sensory ataxia [higgins et al., ]. five disorders are primarily diagnosed by amino acid analysis, and eight disorders by organic acid analysis with gas chro- matography/mass spectrometry (gc/ ms). genomic dna mutation analysis is performed in the clinic [puffenberger and morton, ; puffenberger, ] and is now used to diagnose disorders, including byler disease and two other disorders that disrupt bile salt transport, crigler-najjar disease, fragile-x syn- drome, glycogen storage disease type vi [chang et al., ], amish osteogenesis imperfecta, infantile spinal muscular atrophy, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase deficiency [puffenberger and morton, ]. two common lethal dis- orders, troponin t myopathy [johnston et al., ] and infantile spinal muscular atrophy, can be difficult to diagnose in a newborn by examination, and we now routinely confirm these diagnoses by mutation analyses. neonatal metabolic screenings done by neo gen inc. identify using tandem mass spectrometry routinely identify of the disorders that we see. the preliminary biochemical diagnoses for most of these disorders is confirmed in our laboratory on the original specimen through polymerase chain reaction (pcr)-based mutation detection. the molecular basis of disorders seen at the clinic remains to be identified. seven of these disorders should yield to candidate gene sequenc- ing, including gm gangliosidosis, bartter disease, and polycystic kidney disease, whereas syndromes without candidate genes will require genome- wide studies, including the cerebral arteriovenous malformation syndrome, manic depressive illness, several conge- nital deafness syndromes, and a common seizure/mental retardation syndrome. the importance of presymptomatic care in our clinic, we have emphasized the importance of diagnosis of asympto- matic infants. for example, the diagnosis of ga after degeneration of the basal ganglia allows no opportunity for effec- tive treatment [morton et al., ; strauss and morton, a; strauss et al., b]. the prospective management of ga prevents basal ganglial degenera- tion in at least % of cases. the clinical importance of recognizing asympto- matic infants with mcadd, propionic acidemia, crigler-najjar disease, adrenal insufficiencies, bartter disease, the bile salt transport disorders, and galactosemia is readily apparent to a pediatrician who has cared for infants with these disorders who presented undiagnosed and severely ill. we have also found it helpful to be able to immediately diagnose lethal disorders in neonates. gm gangliosi- dosis can be diagnosed by physical exam and a single inexpensive test of urine for increased urine oligosaccharide excretion. infantile spinal muscular atro- phy and troponin t deficiency are both routinely diagnosed in neonates by molecular methods at a charge of less than $ [puffenberger and morton, ]. because of easy access to the clinic, prolonged hospitalizations invol- ving multiple invasive and expensive diagnostic tests for lethal disorders can usually be avoided. in the primary care setting, undiag- nosed genetic syndromes present differ- ently than in genetic clinics at referral centers. most often, the infants who are seen at the clinic are irritable, feed poorly, gain weight slowly, and in other less well defined ways seem to the parents to be ‘‘just not right.’’ many teenage patients and adults in these populations with underlying genetic syndromes had not been evaluated by modern diagnos- tic methods. the first mennonite girl found to have mcadd at the clinic was years old and had been hospitaliz- ed several times because of vomiting and ketotic hypoglycemia. her sibling died at age months with hypoglycemia and a fatty liver, which was diagnosed as reye syndrome in . here and elsewhere, some genetic disorders have been misdiagnosed as child abuse. approximately % of patients with ga whom we have seen were originally thought to be victims of child abuse. infants with ga may present with subdural hemorrhages after minor head trauma, because % of the infants have open subdural and subar- achnoid spaces that are crossed by bridg- ing veins [strauss and morton, a]. these intracranial hemorrhages are usually large, and retinal hemorrhages have developed spontaneously in asso- ciation with large intracranial hemor- rhages [hymel et al., ]. in the amish population of lancaster county, we follow children with three dif- ferent hepatic bile salt transport disor- ders. nine of these infants ( %) presented before months of age with bruising and bleeding secondary to vitamin k deficiency. one such infant presented in a coma with a full fontanel, retinal hemorrhages, and bruising on bony prominences. shaken baby syn- drome was the suspected diagnosis. the infant was subsequently found to have a vitamin k-responsive coagulopathy, high serum bile salts, a deep, intracer- ebral hemorrhage, and unilateral retinal hemorrhages, which were atypical of shaken baby syndrome. this infant and her sibling are now known to be homozygotes for a mutation in the tight junction protein gene [carlton et al., ]. fractures caused by relatively mild types of osteogenesis imperfecta found in the plain populations have also been mistaken for child abuse. the utility of a detailed understanding of the natural history of disease we have had a unique opportunity to observe the natural history of these more than % of the disorders we see cause clinical problems during infancy. article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) disorders in many patients. the men- nonite variant of msud arises from a stop codon in exon of the bckdha gene. thus far, all mennonite patients have been homozygous for this mutation and all have the classical form of the disorder. in spite of the mutational homogeneity, the phenotype ranges from patients who are profoundly dis- abled to those who are apparently normal. poor outcomes in patients with msud can usually be understood in terms of one or more of the following problems: delays in neonatal diagnosis and treatment, chronic essential amino acid deficiencies, ineffective manage- ment of metabolic intoxication during infectious illnesses, and acute vascular brain injuries caused by cerebral edema. neonates with msud who are diag- nosed before – hr of age are not ill, and progressive metabolic intoxication can be prevented by rational manage- ment [morton et al., b]. plasma amino acid quantification allows diag- nosis of the disorder as early as hr of age if high-performance liquid chroma- tography (hplc) or tandem mass spec- trometry is used. it is important to note that the guthrie bacterial inhibition assay is not sufficiently sensitive to be used for specimens collected before hr of age [morton et al., b]. all infants with classical msud identified by newborn screening programs will be very ill if screening results are not available before days of age. infants identified and treated between and days of age can have good neurological outcomes, but the cost of initial treat- ment is higher than those diagnosed within hr. neonatal screening pro- grams for msud wherein specimens are not collected until hr of age and results are not reported before days of age can expect high initial costs of treatment and high morbidity and mor- tality. after msud is diagnosed, the prognosis for the patients depends on several variables, including the time re- quired to lower the plasma and tissue leucine levels to normal, prevention of the vascular compression and ischemic injuries caused by critical brain edema, and prevention of prolonged or severe brain and systemic essential amino acid deficiencies. our impression is that prolonged deficiencies of valine in the brain during the critical period of rapid brain growth between birth and years of age may be a major factor in mental retardation seen in children with poorly treated msud [morton et al., b]. the mainstay of therapy for msud has been the dietary restriction of the branched-chain amino acids. unfortu- nately, in many follow-up programs, leucine levels are measured infrequently and isoleucine, valine, and the other essential amino acids are not monitored at all. it is not possible to understand the relationship of day-to-day metabolic control and neurological outcome when only a few plasma leucine levels are measured per year. intermittent changes in tolerance related to normal variation in growth velocity or illnesses will not be appreciated. deficiencies of branched- chain amino acids and the unbalanced transport of the other neutral amino acids that compete with leucine for entry into the brain cannot be assessed by isolated measurements of leucine. the effects of dietary therapy on intel- lectual outcome can only be understood by reference to the cumulative effects of amino acid metabolism throughout the critical period of brain growth and development. in recent years, we have monitored blood amino acid levels in rapidly growing infants twice weekly and gained an appreciation of how quickly amino acid concentrat- ions change, especially during otherwise minor infectious illnesses. over a -year period, we have admitted patients with msud to the hospital for management of metabolic crisis times. more than of these admissions were necessary because of catabolic intoxication caused by infec- tious illnesses such as gastroenteritis, otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, sinusitis, and pulmonary infections. appendicitis, cholecystitis, torsion and infarction of the ovary, and fractures also cause metabolic crises. in addition, we have – msud outpatient visits per year to manage infectious illnesses and other stressors. these illnesses cause significant metabolic changes in patients with msud and require one or more measurements of plasma amino acids and changes to a different treatment regimen to prevent prolonged or progressive metabolic intoxication. the ultimate impact of these illnesses on clinical out- come is influenced by the rapid avail- ability of outpatient and inpatient services, including amino acid analysis, msud hyperalimentation solution, and medical care by physicians and nurses who have experience with the manage- ment of the metabolic crisis and cerebral edema. medical care and the outcome of other genetic disorders eleven of the disorders that affect the amish and mennonites are lethal or invariably cause full disability. although these disorders are lethal, affected children may live months or years and require many human and medical ser- vices. the clinic routinely provides medical care for children who have lethal diseases. most of these children are cared for, and die, at home. much of the community support for the clinic comes from families who need and appreciate this care. the other meta- bolic disorders and syndromes present with a range of clinical problems that require timely diagnosis and ongoing medical care. our daily practice in- cludes management of episodic crises the ultimate impact of these illnesses on clinical outcome is influenced by the rapid availability of outpatient and inpatient services, including amino acid analysis, msud hyperalimentation solution, and medical care by physicians and nurses who have experience with the management of the metabolic crisis and cerebral edema. american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article in patients with the adrenal insufficiency syndromes, crigler-najjar syndrome, and various organic acidemias; and the chronic malnutrition and fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies of the bile salt disorders, as well as the cardiac and pulmonary problems of the patients with ellis-van creveld syndrome and the immune and gastrointestinal disorders in patients with cartilage-hair hypopla- sia. the early diagnosis of genetic syndromes and anticipation of predict- able problems is medically important and often limits the adverse effects of the disorder on the life of the patient, especially for metabolic disorders, but also for many other nonmetabolic syndromes. immune deficiency states are known to be associated with several of the disorders that affect the plain people. in infants with cartilage-hair hypoplasia, we have encountered severe varicella infections, pneumoncystis carinii pneumo- nia, hemophilus influenza meningitis in an immunized -month-old, and persis- tent parvovirus infection with a chronic inflammatory disease similar to juve- nile rheumatoid arthritis. our young patients with ellis-van creveld dwarfism who have cardiac lesions and pulmonary hypoplasia are particularly vulnerable to infections with respiratory syncytial virus. our first encounter with the amish-mennonite variant of pro- pionic acidemia was an undiagnosed -month-old who presented with a viral respiratory tract infection and developed acute striatal necrosis and a dilated cardiomyopathy with endo- cardial fibroelastosis. infants with the mennonite variant of nephrotic syn- drome [bolk et al., ] typically die from the immune deficiency state caused by the loss of immune globulins and complement rather than from the loss of albumin or renal failure. gram-negative sepsis must be anticipated in the ill neonate with galactosemia or hirsch- sprung disease. based on our experience in lancaster county, the practice of medical genetics cannot be separated from general pediatrics, and much of our work in general pediatrics is focused on the prevention and treatment of in- fectious illnesses. the disease course of many genetic disorders is directly deter- mined by how effectively the interaction of infectious disease and underlying genetic disorder is understood and managed. biology of genetic disorders our daily clinical work within a population with high incidences of genetic diseases provides a unique opportunity to study the biology of genetic disorders. because of the allelic homogeneity of many disorders among the plain people, we observe a consis- tent, or at least much more limited, spectrum of variation at the primary disease-causing locus than do most physicians. these observations have given us a different perspective on geno- type-phenotype correlation. msud exemplifies the complex relationship of phenotype and genotype and, in addi- tion, the manner in which health care delivery affects clinical outcome. the description of gene mutations is useful for the diagnosis of many disorders, but mutation analysis alone has seldom provided us with insight into the phe- notypic diversity that we encounter in our patients who share the same disease genotypes. our understanding of varia- tions in the natural history of genetic disorders is more often based on the concepts and language of cell biology, pathophysiology, and critical periods of brain development than on specific molecular lesions. msud provides a useful example of the complex relation- ship between gene and disease. descrip- tions of mutations in branched-chain keto-acid dehydrogenase as an under- lying cause of msud do not help us understand the multisystem regulators of protein anabolism or catabolism that cause marked changes in leucine toler- ance. these perturbations of anabolism and catabolism are more important influences on day-to-day metabolic control and illness than are the under- lying mutations. nor do the mutations explain leucine-induced encephalopa- thy, acute cerebral edema, or mental retardation. the biology of msud can only be understood in terms of the acute and chronic effects of high blood and tissue concentrations of leucine on protein turnover in muscle and liver, cell volume regulation, and brain amino acid homeostasis as it relates to neuro- transmitter function, and the devel- opment and maintenance of brain structure. msud arises from a complex derangement of interorgan amino acid transport. our impression is that scientists who work as physicians and care for several patients with the same genetic disorder over long periods of time will develop a different understanding of genetic disease than scientists who study disease mechanisms only in the labora- tory. laboratory scientists implicitly assume that a genetic disease can be adequately characterized by molecular, enzymatic, biochemical, and cellular experiments that are done at one point in time and are independent of experi- ence with an individual patient. our experience suggests that descriptions of disease mechanisms based on in vitro studies are necessarily incomplete and may lead to an oversimplification of models of genetic disorders. msud, ga , and the majority of the other disorders managed at the clinic can only be understood in terms of the patho- physiological mechanisms that unfold in individuals over significant periods of time and in relationship to many dif- ferent disease-causing factors, many of which are not genetic in origin. for ga , msud, and pku, the neurologi- cal syndromes caused by single-gene mutations arise from mechanisms of injury and dysfunction that are linked to critical periods of brain development. in patients with ga , episodes of metabolic illness that cause acute striatal necrosis in an infant are well tolerated in the -year-old or adult. unbalanced amino transport that leads to mental retardation in the infant with pku and msud causes attention deficit disorder, mood disorders in older patients, and presenile dementia in adults. the single- gene mutations of msud and pku give rise to diseases by disruptions of complex biological processes such as the meta- bolic adaptations to fasts and illnesses, cell volume regulation, brain amino acid article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) homeostasis, and postnatal organ growth and development. description of a disease process without reference to such biological processes and only by refer- ence to point mutations in genes or changes in enzyme activities seems to us, as clinicians, to be inadequate. assump- tions about the nature of genetic disease and the terms that are used to character- ize these disorders influence how phy- sician-scientists are trained and how, throughout their careers, these scientists ask and answer questions. a recent editorial in the journal of clinical investi- gation indicated that research support in the past years has overwhelmingly directed physician-scientists to the lab- oratory and away from patients, showing that % of physician-scientists who received the howard hughes clinical research awardees elected to do research that did not involve patients [goldstein and brown, ]. our experiences at the clinic over the past years suggest many important aspects of genetic dis- eases will only become apparent to physician-scientists who care for indivi- dual patients over long periods and who are interested in patients, pathophysiol- ogy, and biology in the most general sense. conclusions the clinic for special children was established to provide care for menno- nite and amish children in lancaster county who have msud and ga . however, the need for a similar ap- proach to care for patients with other disorders, in other places and popula- tions, is increasingly apparent. our mennonite patients with msud come from every region of pennsylvania, maryland, new york state, kentucky, michigan, wisconsin, indiana, and iowa. ga is found in all amish populations of pennsylvania and in northern new york state. the most recent cases of ga we have seen were recognized through the supplemental screening program but were not of amish descent. in the general population of the united states, ga is now known to be one of the more common inherited metabolic dis- orders [strauss and morton, ]. around the world, clusters of cases of ga caused by founder genes have been identified in ireland, spain, israel, saudi arabia, chile, and two native american populations. regardless of the under- lying mutation, diagnosis and treatment of msud and ga before the onset of cerebral edema are essential. the med- ical care of a patient with a genetic disorder is no different than the care of a patient with other problems that are medically complex, such as diabetes mellitus, manic depressive illness, leu- kemia, congenital heart disease, renal failure, rheumatoid arthritis, seizures, congenital and acquired immune defi- ciency syndromes, drug dependency, and many other chronic medical trou- bles. rare genetic disorders are like the majority of diseases treated by physi- cians: few curable diseases exist. none- theless, accessible and effective medical care can limit suffering, improve func- tion, reduce dependency, and otherwise limit the effect of disease, genetic and acquired, on the life of a patient. william osler said, ‘‘such is our work.’’ references baric i, zschocke j, christensen e, duran m, goodman si, leonard jv, muller e, morton dh, superti-furga a, hoffmann gf. . diagnosis and management of glutaric aciduria type i. j inherit metab dis : – . biery bj, stein de, morton dh, goodman si. . gene structure and mutations of glutaryl-coenzyme a dehydrogenase: im- paired association of enzyme subunits that is due to an a v substitution causes glutaric acidemia type i in the amish. am j hum genet : – . bolk s, puffenberger eg, hudson j, morton dh, chakravarti a. . elevated frequency and allelic heterogeneity of congenital nephrotic syndrome, finnish type, in the old order mennonites. am j hum genet : – . carlton veh, harris bz, puffenberger eg, batta ak, knisely as, robinson dl, strauss ka, shneider bl, lim wa, salen g, morton dh, bull ln. . complex inheritance of familiar hypercholanemia with associated mutations in tjp and baat. nature genet : – . chang s, rosenberg mj, morton dh, francomano ca, biesecker lg. . identification of a mutation in liver glyco- gen phosphorylase in glycogen storage disease type vi. hum mol genet : – . francomano ca, mckusick va, biesecker l. . medical genetic studies in the amish: historical perspective. am j med genet : – . gibson km, bennett mj, naylor ew, morton dh. . -methylcrotonyl- coenzyme a carboxylase deficiency in amish/mennonite adults identified by de- tection of increased acylcarnitines in blood spots of their children. j pediatr : – . goldstein jl, brown ms. . the clinical investigator: bewitched, bothered, and bewildered—but still beloved. j clin invest : – . higgins jj, morton dh, loveless jm. . posterior column ataxia with retinitis pig- mentosa (axpc ) maps to chromosome q -q . neurology : – . hostetler ja. . amish society. baltimore: johns hopkins press. p – . hymel kp, jenny c, block rw. . intracranial hemorrhage and rebleeding in suspected victims of abusive head trauma: addressing the forensic controversies. child maltreat : – . johnston jj, kelley ri, crawford to, morton dh, agarwala r, koch t, schäffer aa, francomano ca, biesecker lg. . a novel nemaline myopathy in the amish caused by a mutation in troponin t . am j hum genet : – . kelley ri, robinson d, puffenberger eg, strauss ka, morton dh. . amish lethal microcephaly: a new metabolic disorder with severe congenital microcephaly and -ketoglutaric aciduria. am j med genet : – . martin j, martin vm. . what is wrong with our baby? ephrata, pa: grace publishing. p – . mckusick va. . medical genetic studies of the amish. selected papers. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. p – . mitsuuchi y, kawamoto t, miyahara k, morton dh, naiki y, kuribayashi i, toda k, hara t, orii t, yasuda k, miura k, nakao k, imura h, ulick s, shizuta y. . congenitally defective aldosterone biosynthesis in humans: inactivation of the p- c gene (cyp b ) due to nucleo- tide deletion in cmo i deficient patients. biochem biophys res commun : – . morton dh. . through my window— remarks at the th year celebration of children’s hospital of boston. pediatrics : – . morton dh, bennett mj, seargeant le, nichter ca, kelley ri. . glutaric aciduria type i: a common cause of episodic encephalo- pathy and spastic paralysis in the amish of lancaster county, pennsylvania. am j med genet : – . morton dh, salen g, batta ak, shefer s, tint gs, belchis d, shneider b, puffenberger eg, bull l, knisely as. . abnormal hepatic sinusoidal bile acid transport in an amish kindred is not linked to fic and is improved by ursodiol. gastroenterology : – . morton dh, strauss ka, puffenberger eg, robinson dl, kelley ri. a. inherited disorders in the amish and mennonite demes of pennsylvania. am j hum genet :a . american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) article morton dh, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, kelley ri. b. diag- nosis and treatment of maple syrup disease: a study of patients. pediatrics : – . puffenberger eg. . genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. am j med genet (semin med genet) c: – . puffenberger eg, morton dh. . survey of molecular lesions causing genetic disease in the old order amish and conservative mennonites of lancaster county, pa. am j hum genet :a . rosenberg mj, agarwala r, bouffard g, davis j, fiermonte g, hilliard ms, koch t, kalikin lm, makalowska i, morton dh, petty em, weber jl, palmieri f, kelley ri, schäffer aa, biesecker lg. . mutation in the deoxynucleotide carrier dnc causes con- genital microcephaly. nature genet : – . strauss ka, pfannl r, morton dh. . the neuropathology of amish lethal microce- phaly. am j hum genet :a . strauss ka, morton dh. a. type glutaric aciduria, part : a model of acute striatal necrosis. am j med genet (semin med genet) c: – . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, robinson dl, morton dh. b. type i glutaric aciduria, part : natural history of patients. am j med genet (semin med genet) c: – . article american journal of medical genetics (semin. med. genet.) http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/ / / the online version of this article can be found at: doi: . / : j transcult nurs gina diddle and sharon a. denham spirituality and its relationships with the health and illness of appalachian people published by: http://www.sagepublications.com on behalf of: transcultural nursing society can be found at:journal of transcultural nursingadditional services and information for http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsemail alerts: http://tcn.sagepub.com/subscriptionssubscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.navreprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.navpermissions: http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.htmlcitations: what is this? - mar , version of record >> at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/ / / http://www.sagepublications.com http://www.tcns.org http://tcn.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://tcn.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.html http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/ / / .full.pdf http://online.sagepub.com/site/sphelp/vorhelp.xhtml http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing ( ) – © the author(s) reprints and permission: http://www .sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav doi: . / http://tcn.sagepub.com spirituality and its relationships with the health and illness of appalachian people gina diddle, msn, rn, pnp-bc, and sharon a. denham, dsn, rn abstract this article explores the ways spirituality intertwines with the health and culture of those living in the appalachian region. nursing has long considered the value of spirituality and faith, noting its complex connections with health and illness. literature pertaining to spirituality, health, and the culture of those residing in the appalachian region was reviewed. although the review suggests that connections between spirituality and health exist, empirical evidence is limited, somewhat dated, and lacks viable conclusions relative to the diverse needs of the appalachian population. focused research that addresses strongly linked operationally defined variables is needed to strengthen the evidence for clarity about distinct applications to practice. keywords appalachia, spiritual, health, religion, illness appalachia is a place, a people, an idea, a culture, and it exists as much in the mind and imagination as on the map. —richard straw ( ) spirituality health care has long been considered to have spiritual roots, and in recent years much research linking faith, spiritual- ity, and religion with health and illness have occurred (arcury, quandt, mcdonald, & bell, ; gesler, arcury, & koenig, ; jesse & reed, ; koenig, ). spiri- tuality is highly individualized and multidimensional; it is likely to have important personal interpretations and meanings (rodgers, ). spirituality shares some com- monalities with religion, but it can be ambiguous and may be difficult for some to describe without using religious terminology (mills, ; thoresen, ). differences between spirituality and religion are not always clearly delin- eated, and well-controlled research about spirituality seems to be lacking (thoresen & harris, ). however, spiritual- ity may surpass cultural and religious boundaries (delgado, ) and have special relevance when health or illness is considered. use of the family health model (denham, ) is a means to view spirituality as a contextual factor that saturates all aspects of an ecologically lived experience and suggests numerous attributes that influence individ- ual and family health behaviors. this model can help us understand that spirituality, faith, and religion are not merely isolated personal traits but that their influence springs from the larger societal exchanges across multiple systems over time. spirituality, nursing, and health dating back to florence nightingale, spirituality has held great value in nursing, for clients and practitioners (delgado, ; lowry & conco, ). definitions for spirituality have been widely discussed by numerous nursing scholars (burkhardt, ; delgado, ), and many nurse theorists (e.g., watson, parse, newman, neuman, patterson, and zderad) have presented spirituality as a central concept in their theoretical frameworks (martsolf & mickley, ). spirituality has been defined as “the unifying force that shapes and gives meaning to the pattern of one’s self-becom- ing,” a force expressed in one’s being, knowing, and doing and linked with self, others, nature, god, or a higher power (burkhardt, , p. ). spirituality has been described as “honoring a sense of presence that is higher or greater than the individual human being” (jesse & reed, , p. ). another definition of spirituality is an innate trait of all persons that concerns connected- ness to self, others, and a higher power; transcendence to places and energies beyond one’s own being; and an essence of meaningfulness. it often includes religion, faith systems, sacred principles, worship, symbolic meanings, and ritual practices. (denham, , p. ) charleston area medical center, charleston, wv, usa ohio university, athens, oh, usa corresponding author: sharon a. denham, school of nursing, ohio university, athens, oh , usa email: denham@ohio.edu at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing ( ) some would contend the tenuous qualities of spirituality are difficult to fully comprehend and challenging to mea- sure. thus, one must determine the reliability and valid- ity of standardized spirituality measurement for evaluation appalachian populations within the geographic region of interest. definitions of spirituality tend to rely on personal assump- tions as it is difficult to construct a definition that puts aside personal beliefs and values. other commonly included ideas are the coexistence of a supreme being and spirituality as an inherent human quality (delgado, ; friedemann, ). others suggest that one may enjoy vibrant spirituality without the confines of religion or religious practices (kendrick & robinson, ; mueller, plevak, & rummans, ). although spirituality might be studied scientifically, these scientific definitions of spirituality may not coincide with a believer’s perceptions (miller & thoresen, ). faith is another term often used interchangeably with religion and spirituality. a biblical definition of faith is “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (new international version, hebrews : ). for believers, the bible provides scriptures full of hope and comfort (diggins, ). in appalachia, this has been an enduring resource during times of trouble and hardship. many believe that acknowledging and encouraging client’s spirituality has potential to enhance nursing care (jesse, schoneboom, & blanchard, ). nurses with any set of religious beliefs can provide spiritual care as it transcends religious ritual and can be tailored to clients’ needs (ford, ). those with understandings about spirituality may even provide care recognized as superior (delgado, ). nurses that recognize spiritual distress can provide holistic care and assist clients to cope with, understand, and shape life meanings (burkhardt & nagai-jacobson, ). nurses who offer clients spiritual care may find mutually support- ive and enriched dynamic client relationships (kendrick & robinson, ). it is possible that nurses can use spiritual- ity to bridge gaps that might exist with usual nursing care and reduce clients’ stress, enhance their emotional strength, and help them cope with suffering or illness (narayanasamy & owens, ). health care has historically failed to provide integrated holistic care for mind, body, and spirit (treloar, ). on the other hand, spirituality has long been viewed as critical to a truly holistic integration of an individual’s spirit, mind, environment, and body (ruffing-rahal, ) and has been shown to positively affect attitudes of those with declining health (lowry & conco, ). some believe that spiritual needs may increase or become more important in the elderly, chronically ill, or those approaching death (delgado, ; denham, b; lowry & conco, ; mueller et al., ). patients have long identified the importance of spiri- tual care. for example, % of hospital inpatients in one study reported that physical and spiritual health was equally important (king & bushwick, ). also, spirituality is viewed as an important aspect with critical impact for many on overall family health (tanyi, ). appalachia in the vast territory along the eastern united states, bordering the northern, central, and southern appalachian mountain chain, is a , square-mile area recognized as appala- chia. the region includes counties, located in portions of states and the entire state of west virginia. in the mid- s, the appalachian region was identified by the appalachian regional commission (arc) as a geographic area that lagged behind the rest of the nation (arc, n.d.-a, n.d.-b, n.d.-c). however, the region has not benefited equally from arc funding and wide disparities still exist across some regional areas (simpson & king, ). although major portions of the appalachian region are rural (behringer & friedell, ), % of the million residents live in metropolitan counties, % live in counties bordering metropolitan counties, and the remainder inhabit rural areas (halverson, ma, & harner, ). however, a disproportionate population of disabled, retired, poor, unem- ployed, and underinsured or uninsured resides in appalachia (denham & rathbun, ). although many improvements have occurred, poverty continues to be a huge problem in appalachia, and many health disparities exist for its under- privileged population (behringer & friedell, ). this geographic setting provides a place for understanding the ecological factors that affect the spirituality of its residents (denham, ). the people of appalachia despite common stereotypical characteristics assigned to appalachia, many agree that the region is a virtual melting pot of cultural heterogeneity (brown & may, ; jackson, ; keefe, ; straw, ). according to the last u.s. census report, the population is primarily composed of non- hispanic whites, with african americans constituting the largest minority group; however, a significant increase in the number of hispanics is being seen in rural and urban areas (jackson, ; pollard, ). as early as the mid- s, early immigration of presbyterian scotch-irish into the region now recognized as appalachia began, they were largely drawn here because they were could purchase and own their land (raine, ). although differences in ideas about origin of original inhabitants vary, most describe the region by referring to the th-century scots-irish, welsh, german, and english settlers (keefe, ). however, keefe notes that the mining of coal brought new waves of immigrants to this nation from ireland, eastern europe, and italy. the region was widely settled by european immigrants who came to work in coal mines, railroads, and other industries, but they joined groups at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ diddle and denham already there (i.e., native americans, african american slaves) who long predated their arrival (jackson, ; straw, ). african americans have a rich history in appalachia as slaves or freemen accompanying early french and spanish explorers, slaves in the southern mountains, racial violence following the emancipation, and workers in industrial expan- sions that especially welcomed black coal miners (wagner & obermiller, ). also residing in the appalachian region are the melun- geons, a racially mixed group with several theories about their mixed-race ancestry origins (jackson, ), but many agree their descendents were likely from spain, portugal, and middle eastern origins and predate the european immigrants (winkler, ). tri-racial groups or win (white, indian, negro) continue to have links back to early appalachian settlement. amish and mennonite communities are located primarily in northern appalachia, with large populations in rural ohio and pennsylvania (jackson, ; meyers, ); however, migration into rural southeast ohio has been con- tinuous over several decades. many of these early immigrants originated from switzerland in the th century. the region is home to a rich blend of other immigrant populations, including a recent influx of thousands of immigrant workers from mexico and many of asian origin (barcus, ; jackson, ; straw, ). thus, stereotypical views of a monolithic ancestry continue to be clarified as less ambigu- ous understandings of the land and its people are uncovered (billings, norman, & ledford, ). whenever scholars refer to appalachian cultural aspects, both positive and negative associations surface (o’brien, ). as diverse settlers in the region became more integrated over time, cultures blended and new practices and belief systems were forged, adding regional or geographical uniqueness that must be considered with any cultural assessment (jackson, ; keefe, ). a distinctive pride exists with regard to cultural heritage and homeplace; however, many negative stereotypes also riddle perceptions of residents (keefe, ). geographical isolation has been a factor in the ways appalachian people have assimilated and acculturated common beliefs and values (denham & rathbun, ; williams, ). however, even in the past, it is likely a mistake to consider appalachian people as totally isolated, as they have always been connected to the outside world through industry, trains, newspapers, and workers that traversed the region (billings et al., ). many say that appalachians share a common distrust of out- siders (brown & may, ; lohri-posey, ; owens, richerson, murphy, jageleweski, & rossi, ), but once trust is established appalachian people tend to be viewed as friendly, polite, and welcoming. the family is a key element of appalachian rural society, and a high priority continues to be placed on family-centered activities (gross, ). things such as distinctive dialects, kinship, community ties, and the importance of place are other underlying factors for cultural behaviors (keefe, ). this fits with the family health model ideas about suggested relationships between individuals’ intrinsic valuing of spirituality, their identity, behaviors, and health (denham, ). appalachians, religion, and faith appalachians tend to place great value in faith, god, family, community, honesty, independence and self-reliance, and tra- ditions (coyne, demian-popescu, & friend, ; hayes, ), and although other religions abound, many are still linked with their protestant heritage (keefe, ). religious roots of early settlers in the region are also linked with those with calvinistic views, some quakers, mennonites, and moravian brethren, many of whom experienced persecution prior to relocating to america (raine, ). many early set- tlers wound up in areas where no pastor existed and often organized themselves into local congregations where one of them assumed responsibility for leading lessons and scripture discussions (campbell, ). the lack of availability for a classical education and beliefs that a ministerial vocation should be taken seriously limited the numbers of presbyterian ministers for the region (raine, ). thus, the way was paved for welcoming uneducated ministers that claimed a calling or anointment from god that empowered them to guide others in spiritual beliefs. over time and for many reasons, earlier settlers pulled away from organized religious ideas belonging to denomi- national organizational structures. instead, independent and separatist mountain churches were established where largely unguided religious freedom presided. raine ( ) suggested that “mountain people” were interested in the mysterious or magnificent, which lead to much attention to death, judgment, and the promises of heaven. raine described early religion in terms of a unique religious pageantry that allowed for infre- quent meetings, long-winded preachers, a homey or unplanned atmosphere, and a religion more personal than public. campbell ( ) saw the mountain church as an agency to promote spiritual growth among the people of rural places. the rural heritage aligned with the mountain church and its ways give roots to the faith of many that currently reside in appalachia. along with these rural places of worship are well-established denominational churches that adhere to beliefs and practices similar to much of mainstream america. regard- less of church attendance, religion and faith still permeate the lives of many appalachian people (mccauley, ) in the form of conservative moral codes derived from biblical interpretations (keefe & greene, ). additional values linked with regional residents that are likely associated with religious or faith are things such as egalitarianism, indepen- dence, individualism, personalism, familism, religious world view, neighborliness, love of the land, and conflict avoid- ance (caldwell, ; jackson, ; keefe, ). fatalism is a term often used to describe beliefs that what happens is largely outside their purview and may be the hand of god at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing ( ) (huttlinger & purnell, ). in fact, it is not uncommon to hear an expression such as, “hit must be god’s will, i reckon.” although there seems to be an underlying willing- ness to accept whatever comes without resistance, the term is often mistakenly used to describe appalachians’ dislikes of change and misunderstanding common beliefs that hasty decisions can carry negative consequences (denham, ; gross, ). nevertheless, for many in the appalachian region, faith transcends religious ideas, permeates many of their daily actions, and serves as a foundation for many of their societal values and perspectives. health and illness in appalachia appalachia has more than its share of illness and disease with differences in the incidence, prevalence, mortality, and types prevailing across population groups to be known as place- based disparities (behringer & friedell, ). an aging population, risky health behaviors, and poor health practices result in increased numbers of chronic health problems and numerous health disparities (lengerich et al., ; wewers, katz, fickle, & paskett, ). health disparities are substan- tiated by high mortality rates and hospitalizations that exist throughout appalachia for heart disease, certain types of cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, acci- dents, diabetes, suicide, and infant death (halverson, ma, & harner, ). diets high in fat content, cigarette smoking, poor genetics, low socioeconomic status, and drug and alco- hol addiction have increased some risks for those living in the region (caldwell, ). rural appalachian populations tend to have higher pov- erty incidence, health disparities, less education and literacy, less nutritional diets, and riskier health behaviors than their urban counterparts (brown & may, ; hartley, ; wewers et al., ). strong correlations between low health literacy and poor health have also been found (denham & rathbun, ; foulk, carroll, & wood, ). evidence suggests that higher disease and mortality rates are because of social, cultural, and economic influences (coyne, demian- popescu, & friend, ). in addition to common concerns faced by the majority of americans regarding health care, such as rising health care costs, appalachians share additional concerns. issues include accessibility to services, education of health care workers, and culturally sensitive health care services (blakeney, , ). blakeney suggests that these problems stem from chronic poverty, lack of insurance, lack of health care providers, and culturally incompetent health care professionals in the region. the majority of appalachia is located in an area known as the bible belt, and appalachians are largely of christian ideology with melded ideas about spirituality and religion (coyne et al., ; jesse & reed, ). although diverse, the largest religious groups in appalachia, in order, are baptist, catholic, and methodist (wagner, ). the diversity raises questions as to whether churches within the region are con- cerned with the individual soul or primarily concerned with social reform (wagner, ). scholars have labeled the appalachian culture as collective, and many believe that these attributes supersede any indications of individualism within the prevailing religions (wagner, ). one such appalachian collective attribute is social equality or egali- tarianism (beaver, ). spirituality is not merely defined by one’s religious beliefs but also by culture (keefe, ; lowry & conco, ). in the appalachian culture, patient’s religion has been found to have a profound influence in determining the course of deci- sions regarding health care actions (caldwell, ). one study found that the majority of appalachian elders believe that health is directly related to the will of god (simpson & king, ), but this would not be true of all elders or people in the region. use of prayer as an alternative to health care was cited by % of those identifying as appalachians, com- pared with % identifying as non-appalachians, in a study that examined and challenged appalachian stereotypes and preconceptions (keefe & parsons, ). when the meaning of spirituality was explored, four themes were identified: (a) god exists and participates in the lives of believers, (b) god summons believers to act on his direction, (c) stronger connec- tions to god occur in times of need, and (d) patients have an expectation for health care providers to meet spiritual needs (lowry & conco, ). scholars commonly question the evidence in other studies, and because spirituality is so closely related to religion, it becomes debatable. thus, skepticism is called for when findings from studies with mixed results occur. accordingly, a literature review about the positive effects of spirituality or religion on health identified a moderately strong and con- sistent relationship, but limited research methods and limited empirical evidence demand methodological pluralism, exper- imental research design, and more comprehensive assessments (thoresen, ). several findings from the review warrant skepticism and further investigation (table ). health perceptions in appalachia when conceptualizing health and its meaning, it is essential to consider the vast differences that might exist between objec- tive (client defined) and subjective (professionally assessed) health (hartley, ). studies about health in appalachian people have defined it as “an adaptive state that persons expe- rience as they seek opportunities and wrested with liabilities found within themselves and their families, households, and diverse contexts throughout the course of their lives” (denham, , p. ). in a different study about appalachians, health was defined as the absence of illness and the ability to meet their own basic needs (denham, a). when family health is the concern in the appalachian cul- ture, mothers are “the primary health care resource as well as at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ diddle and denham gatekeepers, stewards, sentinels and care tenders” (denham, d, p. ). even when family members dwell outside the household, extended kin relationships are affected by other member’s illnesses (denham, ). appalachian fam- ilies share in medical decision making, and women made most of the food choices within the household (coyne et al., ). often, within the region, family and church members are perceived in similar ways (gross, ), thus care provid- ers may extend to a church family. when dealing with health problems, appalachians tend to rely heavily on support from faith, family, and friends (denham, meyer, toborg, & mande, ; hunsucker, flannery, & frank, ). appalachians tend to view mental health negatively and are more likely to seek informal help outside the medical realm (hauenstein, ; keefe, ; mulder et al., ). when mental health is the problem, appalachians often present emotional problems as physical symptoms, seeking medical treatment as opposed to verbal therapy (keefe & greene, ). “in a society where personal worth and family are the basis for reputation, appalachian people are often reticent to talk about personal or family problems” (keefe & greene, , p. ). cultural taboos regarding mental health and treatment are pervasive in rural appalachia, and residents are reluctant to discuss problems or seek professional services (hauenstein, ). mothers play a larger role than fathers in meeting the emotional care needs of appalachian families; however, family cooperation was viewed as an important support tactic in mental and spiritual health (denham, c, ). mothers were also found to be primarily responsible for adherence to religious rituals. in a study of pregnant appalachian women, spirituality and religion were identified as the basis for a reduction in cigarette smoking, a decrease in risky health behaviors, and an increase in other positive health behaviors (jesse & reed, ). lowry and conco ( ) found a correlation between spirituality and higher levels of self-esteem and social support as those with lower levels of spirituality having poorer health behaviors and elevated stress levels. those participating in this study unanimously agreed that “god is a source of physi- cal healing.” spirituality and religion were viewed as positive influences on health and wellness, as well as a major coping strategy and source for a positive attitude. conclusions the literature supports a limited but encouraging relationship between spirituality or religion and health. several conclusions can be drawn regarding links between spirituality, health, and the appalachian culture; however, empirical evidence is lim- ited to fully support distinct ideas about relationships. many people in the appalachian region might believe that their illness or disease are direct results of god’s will (keefe & greene, ), and when these beliefs exist, they may hinder health care–seeking behaviors. perceptions about health are undoubtedly rooted in cultural values among some appa- lachians (hartley, ). appalachians are a proud people who value independence, taking care of self and family, and may delay getting care for medical problems until they are debilitating. this delay may occur as a result of distrust of medical professionals, lack of insurance, limited access to care, or simply waiting for god’s will or an answer to prayer. nurses that lack understandings about spiritual assessment or care may be challenged when caring for those long rooted to the appalachian region (lowry & conco, ). spiri- tual assessments must be comprehensive and include much more than religious preferences and affiliations (stuart & sundeen, ). koenig ( ) notes that religious patients use religious beliefs and practices to better cope with illness. he asserts that factors associated with religiosity including optimism, supportive friends, clear purpose and meaning in life, and healthier lifestyles correlate with mental and physical well- ness. some scholars resolutely believe that these components lead to less stress, lower blood pressure, better recovery rates, and higher immune systems (koenig et al., ; matthews, mccullough, larson, koenig, & swyers, ). thoresen ( ) discussed a rising interest in spirituality related to health because “people may feel more socially disconnected, more fragmented in their personal lives, with little sense of connectedness or community” (p. ). in the appalachian region, kinship and community are vital elements, and connectedness is a key factor of spirituality. a recent lit- erature review about links between physical health and spirituality or religion eliminated studies with confounding and bias factor and stringently reviewed studies to eliminate those where findings seemed inconclusive (powell, shahabi, & thoresen, ). nine categories were identified for the table . findings that warrant skepticism and further investigation • cognitive processes boost the immune system • social environment and culture influence health and disease • some religious groups experience less chronic disease and longer lives than nonreligious groups • some religious groups have healthier habits and stronger family support systems • religious factors are associated with reduced coronary heart disease, hypertension, stroke, cancer, and other indicators of health status • reduced morbidity and mortality in all causes • positive findings for the following races: hispanics, whites, and african americans • positive findings for the following cultures: european, american, and asian • higher life satisfaction and overall well-being • divorce rates lower and marital satisfaction higher • less drug and alcohol abuse source: adapted from thoresen ( ). at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing ( ) review, and new findings indicated that religion or spiritual- ity has a protective effect against mortality for those that are healthy (table ). the insufficient appalachian-specific studies regarding roles spirituality plays in health and illness make it difficult to deduct clear conclusions about the many variables that might be in play. qualitative studies may be helpful in clarifying the mutually subjective and objective perceptions of illness and wellness. sound experimental research using clearly opera- tionalized variables and tightly developed research designs are needed to provide empirical evidence. concise definitions of the concepts and constructs that comprise spirituality and religion are needed for testing with culturally distinct groups. valid instruments to measure spirituality and religion over time in groups such as appalachians who have a shared cul- tural ancestral heritage might be useful. unfortunately, this literature review has left more questions than answers. largely unknown are what types of specific spiritual or religious practices influence health, and which ones contribute positively or negatively? how does culture affect spirituality and health? are there better ways to measure depth of religiousness or spirituality? how do researchers factor in personal perceptions of health and wellness? means of adequate control for an endless array of variables must be considered. these factors are not fixed and require longitu- dinal studies to allow for changes such as beliefs, practices, and medications (thoresen, ). finally, care providers should not assume that relationships between spirituality and health are always positive (gesler, arcury, & koenig, ). those who believe that sin causes illness may not seek care. decades of high chronic illness rates throughout the appalachian region signal the importance of addressing those that harbor direct causational thinking between sin and illness and will likely need to resolve personal values before seeking care. thus, if people believe, “the lord will take care of things,” they may sense chastisement if they do not allow time to test their faith. clinicians are chal- lenged to not only be familiar with specific religious views and faith practices of those in the appalachian region but to also find ways to address primary prevention and health risks that too often result in long delays in seeking medical care. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this. funding the authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article. references appalachian regional commission. (n.d.-a). appalachian regional commission. retrieved november , , from http://www .epa.gov/reg hscd/bf-lr/fed_prog_guide/arc.htm appalachian regional commission. (n.d.-b). the appalachian region. retrieved october , , from http://www.arc.gov/ index.do?nodeid= appalachian regional commission. (n.d.-c). the arc distressed counties program. retrieved january , , from http:// www.arc.gov/index.do?nodeid= arcury, t. a., quandt, s. a., mcdonald, j. a., & bell, r. a. ( ). faith and health self-management of rural older adults. journal of cross-cultural gerontology, , - . barcus, h. r. ( ). the emergence of new hispanic settlement pat- terns in appalachia. the professional geographer, , - . beaver, p. d. ( ). rural community in the appalachian south. lexington: university press of kentucky. behringer, b., & friedell, g. h. ( ). appalachia: where place matters in health. retrieved september , , from http:// www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/ /oct/ _ .htm billings, d. b., norman, g., & ledford, k. ( ). back talk from appalachia: confronting stereotypes. lexington: university press of kentucky. blakeney, a. b. ( ). educating culturally sensitive health profes- sionals in appalachia. in s. e. keefe (ed.), appalachian cultural competency. (pp. - ) knoxville: university of tennessee press. blakeney, a. b. ( ). health care in appalachia. in g. t. edwards, j. a. asubury, & r. l. cox (eds.), a handbook to appalachia (pp. - ). knoxville: university of tennessee press. brown, j. w., & may, b. a. ( ). rural older appalachian wom- en’s formal patterns of care. southern online journal of nursing research. retrieved january , , from http://www.snrs.org/ publications/sojnr_articles/iss vol .pdf burkhardt, m. a. ( ). spirituality: an analysis of the concept. holistic nursing practice, , - . burkhardt, m. a. ( ). becoming and connecting: elements of spirituality for women. holistic nursing practice, , - . burkhardt, m. a., & nagai-jacobson, g. ( ). dealing with spiritual concerns of clients in the community. journal of com- munity health nursing, , - . caldwell, d. r. ( ). bloodroot: life stories of nurse practitio- ners in rural appalachia. journal of holistic nursing, , - . campbell, j. c. ( ). the southern highlander & his homeland. new york: russell sage foundation. coyne, c. a., demian-popescu, c., & friend, d. ( ). social and cultural factors influencing health in southern west virginia: a table . categories indicating religion/spirituality protects against mortality • church/service attendance protects against death. • religion or spirituality protects against cardiovascular disease. • religion or spirituality protects against cancer mortality. • deeply religious people are protected against death. • religion or spirituality protects against disability. • religion or spirituality slows the progression of cancer. • people who use religion to cope with difficulties live longer. • religion or spirituality improves recovery from acute illness. • being prayed for improves physical recovery from acute illness. source: adapted from powell et al. ( ). at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ diddle and denham qualitative study. retrieved october , , from http://www .pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid= delgado, c. ( ). a discussion of the concept of spirituality. nursing science quarterly, , - . delgado, c. ( ). sense of coherence, spirituality, stress and qual- ity of life in chronic illness. journal of nursing scholarship, , - . denham, s. a. ( ). family health in a rural appalachian ohio county. journal of appalachian studies, , - . denham, s. a. ( a). the definition and practice of family health. journal of family nursing, , - . denham, s. a. ( b). family health: during and after death of a family member. journal of family nursing, , - . denham, s. a. ( c). family health in an economically disad- vantaged population. journal of family nursing, , - . denham, s. a. ( d). epilogue: summary of three studies on fam- ily health with appalachian families. journal of family nursing, , - . denham, s. a. ( ). family health: a framework for nursing. philadelphia: f. a. davis. denham, s. a., meyer, m. g., toborg, m. a., & mande, m. j. ( ). providing health education to appalachia populations. holistic nursing practice, , - . denham, s. a., & rathbun, a. ( ). appalachia: an overview of health concerns and health literacy. retrieved october , , from http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/arhi/research.htm denham, s. a., & rathbun, a. ( ). evaluating health literacy and information seeking behaviors in appalachia. manuscript submitted for publication. diggins, k. ( ). generating hope. journal of christian nursing, , - . ford, g. s. ( ). hospitalized kids: spiritual care at their level. journal of christian nursing, , - . foulk, d., carrol, p., & wood, s. ( ). addressing health literacy: a description of the intersection of functional literacy and health- care. american journal of health studies. retrieved october , , from http://ajhs.tamu.edu/ - / .pdf friedemann, m. ( ). the framework of systemic organization: a conceptual approach to families and nursing. thousand oaks, ca: sage. gesler, w., arcury, t. a., & koenig, h. g. ( ). an introduction to three studies of rural elderly people: effects of religion and culture on health. journal of cross-cultural gerontology, , - . gross, c. ( ). to listen is to learn: the social worker in rural appalachia. in s. e. keefe (ed.), appalachian cultural compe- tency (pp. - ). knoxville: university of tennessee press. halverson, j. a., ma, l., & harner, e. j. ( ). an analysis of dis- parities in health status and access to health care in the appala- chian region. retrieved september , , from http://www .arc.gov/index.do?nodeid= &print=yes% * hartley, l. a. ( ). health perceptions and health status mea- surement among rural appalachian elders. journal of appala- chian studies, , - . hauenstein, e. j. ( ). no comfort in the rural south; women liv- ing depressed. archives of psychiatric nursing, , - . hayes, p. a. ( ). home is where their health is: rethinking perspectives of informal and formal care by older rural appa- lachian women who live alone. qualitative health research, , - . hunsucker, s., flannery, j., & frank, d. ( ). coping strategies of rural families of critically ill patients. journal of the ameri- can academy of nurse practitioners, , - . huttlinger, k., & purnell, l. ( ). people of appalachian heri- tage. in l. d. purnell & b. j. paulanka (eds.), transcultural health care (pp. - ). philadelphia: f. a. davis. jackson, s. r. ( ). peoples of appalachia: cultural diversity within the mountain region. in g. t. edwards, j. a. asubury, & r. l. cox (eds.), a handbook to appalachia (pp. - ). knox- ville: university of tennessee press. jesse, d. e., & reed, p. g. ( ). effects of spirituality and psy- chosocial well-being on health risk behaviors in appalachian pregnant women. journal of obstetric, gynecologic, & neonatal nursing, , - . jesse, d. e., schoneboom, c., & blanchard, a. ( ). the effect of faith or spirituality in pregnancy. journal of holistic nursing, , - . keefe, s. e. (ed.). ( ). appalachian mental health. lexington: university press of kentucky. keefe, s. e. (ed.). ( ). appalachian cultural competency: a guide for medical, mental health, and social service profession- als. knoxville: university of tennessee press. keefe, s. e., & greene, s. ( ). mental health therapy for appa- lachian clients. in s. e. keefe (ed.), appalachian cultural com- petency (pp. - ). knoxville: university of tennessee press. keefe, s. e., & parsons, p. ( ). health and lifestyle indicators in a rural appalachian county: implications for health care practice. in s. e. keefe (ed.), appalachian cultural competency (pp. - ). knoxville: university of tennessee press. kendrick, k. d., & robinson, s. ( ). spirituality: its relevance and purpose for clinical nursing in a new millennium. journal of clinical nursing, , - . king, d. e., & bushwick, b. ( ). beliefs and attitudes of hospi- tal inpatients about faith, healing, and prayer. journal of family practice, , - . koenig, h. g. ( ). religion, spirituality, and medicine: how are they related and what does it mean? mayo clinic proceedings, , - . koenig h. g., george l. k., hays j. c., larson d. b., cohen h. j., & blazer d. g. ( ). the relationship between religious activi- ties and blood pressure in older adults. international journal of psychiatry in medicine, , - . lengerich, e. j., bohland, j. r., brown, p. k., dignan, m. b., paskett, e. d., schoenberg, n. e., et al. ( ). images of appala- chia. retrieved october , , from http://www.pubmedcentral .nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid= lohri-posey, b. ( ). middle-aged appalachians living with diabetes mellitus. family & community health, , - . at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ journal of transcultural nursing ( ) lowry, l. w., & conco, d. ( ). exploring the meaning of spirituality with aging adults in appalachia. journal of holistic nursing, , - . martsolf, d. s., & mickley, j. r. ( ). the concept of spirituality in nursing theories: differing worldviews and extent of focus. journal of advanced nursing, , - . matthews, d. a., mccullough, m. e., larson, d. b., koenig, h. g., & swyers, j. p. ( ). religious commitment and health status. archives of family medicine, , - . mccauley, d. v. ( ). appalachian mountain religion: a history. urbana: university of illinois press. meyers, t. j. ( ). amish. global anabaptist mennonite ency- clopedia online. retrieved march , , from http://www. gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/a me.html miller, w. r., & thoresen, c. e. ( ). spirituality, religion, and health: an emerging research field. american psychologist, , - . mills, p. j. ( ). spirituality, religiousness, and health: from research to clinical practice. annals of behavioral medicine, , - . mulder, p. l., daugherty, a., teel, w., midkiff, j., murray, k., & smith, l. ( ). rural west virginia: a cross-cultural per- spective with implications for clinical intervention. the west virginia journal of psychological research and practice, , - . mueller, p. s., plevak, d. j., & rummans, t. a. ( ). religious involvement, spirituality, and medicine: implications for clini- cal practice. mayo clinic proceedings, , - . narayanasamy, a., & owens, j. ( ). a critical incident study of nurses’ responses to the spiritual needs of their patients. journal of advanced nursing, , - . o’brien, j. ( ). at home in the heart of appalachia. new york: alfred a. knopf. owens, j. s., richerson, l., murphy, c. e., jageleweski, a., & rossi, l. ( ). the parent perspective: informing the cultural sensitivity of parenting programs in rural communities. child and youth care forum, , - . pollard, k. m. ( ). a new diversity: race and ethnicity in the appalachian region. retrieved october , , from http:// www.arc.gov/images/reports/raceethnic/diversity.pdf powell, l. h., shahabi, l., & thoresen, c. ( ). religion and spirituality: linkages to physical health. american psycholo- gist, , - . raine, j. w. ( ). the land of saddle-bags: a study of the moun- tain people of appalachia. new york: council on women for home missions & missionary education movement. rodgers, b. l. ( ). concepts, analysis, and the development of nursing knowledge: the evolutionary cycle. journal of advanced nursing, , - . ruffing-rahal, m. a. ( ). the spiritual dimension of well-being: implications for the elderly. home healthcare nurse, , - . simpson, m. r., & king, m. g. ( ). “god brought all these churches together”: issues in developing religion-health part- nerships in an appalachian community. public health nursing, , - . straw, r. ( ). appalachian history. in g. t. edwards, j. a. asubury, & r. l. cox (eds.), a handbook to appalachia. knoxville: university of tennessee press. stuart, g., & sundeen, s. ( ). principals and practice of psychi- atric nursing. st. louis, mo: c. v. mosby. tanyi, r. a. ( ). spirituality and family nursing: spiritual assessment and interventions for families. journal of advanced nursing, , - . thoresen, c. e. ( ). spirituality and health: is there a relationship? journal of health psychology, , - . thoresen, c. e., & harris, a. h. s. ( ). spirituality and health: what’s the evidence and what’s needed? annals of behavioral medicine, , - . treloar, l. ( ). integration of spirituality into health care prac- tice by nurse practitioners. journal of the american academy of nurse practitioners, , - . wagner, m. b. ( ). religion in appalachia. in g. t. edwards, j. a. asbury, & r. l. cox (eds.), a handbook to appalachia. knoxville: university of tennessee press. wagner, t. e., & obermiller, p. j. ( ). african american miners and migrants: the eastern kentucky social club. urbana: uni- versity of illinois press. wewers, m. e., katz, m., fickle, d., & paskett, e. d. ( ). risky behaviors among ohio appalachian adults. retrieved october , , from http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender .fcgi?artid= &blobtype=pdf williams, j. a. ( ). appalachia: a history. chapel hill: univer- sity of north carolina press. winkler, w. ( ). a brief overview of the melungeons. retrieved march , , from http://www.melungeons.com/articles/ jan .htm at univ n carolina greensboro on october , tcn.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://tcn.sagepub.com/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ original article injury analyses in rural children: comparison of old-order anabaptists and non-anabaptists karen forward, md, melissa chan, md, tanya charyk stewart, msc, jason gilliland, phd, craig campbell, md, msc, frcpc, and douglas d. fraser, md, phd, frcpc background: southwestern ontario largely comprises rural farming districts and is home to numerous old-order anabaptist settlements. our objective was to describe the injuries sustained by rural children, both old-order anabaptist and non-anabaptist, to better target injury prevention programs. methods: we retrospectively examined injury data of rural children in southwestern ontario with injury severity scores � obtained from hospital and trauma databases ( – ). results: a total of rural children were included in this study: . % anabaptist (n � ) and . % non-anabaptist (n � ). the age of injured anabaptist children (median, years; interquartile range � ) was younger than non-anabaptist children (median, years; interquartile range � ; p � . ). anabaptist children were most frequently injured on their property ( . %; n � of ; p � . ). non-anabaptist children were mostly injured on roads ( . %; n � of ; p � . ) and by motor vehicle collisions (mvcs; . %; n � of ; p � . ). frequent causes of injury among anabaptist children were falls ( . %; n � of ; p � . ), animals ( . %; n � of ; p � . ), and buggies ( . %; n � of ). approximately half of both groups injured in mvcs did not use seat belts. there were no significant differences between cohorts in sex, injury severity scores, hospitalization days, rates of complications, interventions, comor- bidities, or mortality rates. conclusions: injuries to anabaptist children occur at a young age, primarily on their property, and exhibit a unique spectrum of mechanisms. in contrast, injuries to non-anabaptist children occur at an older age, primarily on roads, and in mvcs. the use of protective devices was low among all rural children. development of collaborative injury prevention programs targeted to distinct rural communities, including anabaptist and non-anabaptist, are needed for reducing injuries among rural children. key words: rural populations, trauma, injury prevention, adolescent, child. (j trauma. ; : – ) southwestern ontario primarily comprises rural farmingdistricts, with a relatively large concentration of old- order anabaptist settlements. anabaptist old-order menno- nites and amish migrated to north america from europe during the s to escape persecution and to preserve their culture, practices, and beliefs. anabaptist individuals pos- sess a strong sense of social obligation, assist one another in times of need, and oppose the need for conventional health insurance. in canada, anabaptists are eligible for medical insurance; however, they have negotiated with the govern- ment to gain exemption, and most choose to pay for medical services out of pocket. anabaptist individuals abstain from the use of modern technology, dress conservatively, and engage in traditional farming practices akin to those used in the s. farming can be a dangerous industry, particularly for children among whom agricultural injury has been recog- nized as an important public health concern. , common farming hazards for children include animals, farming equip- ment, and falls. , – head and musculoskeletal injuries are commonly reported. , , previous studies have shown that children and adults living in rural areas are at higher risk of injury requiring medical treatment, , perhaps because of limited access to definitive health care, longer travel dis- tances, different living environments, and different behav- ioral norms. for anabaptist families, the availability of health care may be further impaired by limited access to automobiles and telephones, the cost of care, and an uncon- ventional perception of illness severity. anabaptist individu- als frequently perceived themselves as “ill” only when they are unable to complete routine farming tasks. the objective of this study was to analyze the epi- demiology and spectrum of severe injuries occurring in rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist, resid- ing locally in the same rural region. injury analyses of distinct communities, such as the anabaptist population, are essential for the development of targeted injury pre- vention programs. patients and methods the university of western ontario ethics review board approved this study. the referral region of southwest- ern ontario consists of counties (gray, bruce, huron, perth, middlesex, elgin, oxford, essex, kent, and lambton) and has a geographical area of � , km , with a pediatric population of � , . the hospital databases and provin- submitted for publication august , . accepted for publication september , . copyright © by lippincott williams & wilkins from the departments of pediatrics (k.f., c.c., d.d.f.), surgery (t.c.s.), geography (j.g.), physiology and pharmacology (d.d.f.), and clinical neu- rological sciences (d.d.f.), university of western ontario, london, ontario, canada; department of pediatrics (m.c.), university of toronto, toronto, ontario, canada; trauma program (t.c.s., d.d.f.), london health sciences centre, london, ontario, canada; children’s health research institute (j.g., c.c., d.d.f.), london, ontario, canada; and centre for critical illness research (d.d.f.), london, ontario, canada. support by the children’s health foundation and the london health sciences centre trauma program. address for reprints: douglas d. fraser, md, phd, frcpc, pediatric critical care medicine, room c – , children’s hospital, london health sciences centre, commissioners road east, london, ontario, canada n c v ; email: fraserd@lhsc.on.ca. doi: . /ta. b e fa e the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november cial trauma registries of two southwestern ontario trauma centres (london health sciences centre, london, on, and hotel dieu grace hospital, windsor, on) were used to identify rural children (younger than years) who presented with an injury severity score (iss) � between and . anabaptists were recognized in the database through religious identification as “mennonite” or “amish” and through the absence of a provincial health insurance number. rural localization of subjects was determined by mapping their home addresses or postal codes or both within a geo- graphic information system (arcgis . ; environmental sys- tems research institute, redlands, ca) and comparing the locations against canadian census data (statistics can- ada). all data were checked for geographic accuracy. rural areas were defined as areas with a minimum population concentration of � , persons and a population density of � persons/km . the data collected in the provincial trauma registries comprise the comprehensive data set and is collected on all severely injured patients (iss � ). the comprehensive data set contains � data elements including patient demographics, prehospital care, hospital treatment, injury data, and patient outcomes. dedicated injury data specialists with training in injury scoring analyze and enter all data. data were verified upon entry and in subsequent data quality checks at each institution and provincially to ensure accuracy and completeness. information extracted from the trauma databases for this study included demographics, address, postal code, use and misuse of protective gear or devices (i.e., seat belt, car seat, and helmet), injury information (mecha- nism, time, date, severity, and injury profile), and hospital- ization data (i.e., length of stay, need for intensive care unit admission, and operative procedures). data on complications and outcomes were also recorded. the maximum abbrevi- ated injury scale score and iss were calculated by trained trauma data analysts. – the locations where injuries occurred were grouped into four categories: property (home or farm), road, recre- ation facility, and other locations (industry, public building, residential institution, and other unspecified locations). causes of injury included the following: falls, animals, ma- chinery, motor vehicle collisions (mvcs), pedestrian or bikes, buggy, other (including abuse, burns, drowning, as- sault, and sports), and recreational motorized vehicles (rmvs; including snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles [atvs], and dirt bikes). data were analyzed with excel . . (microsoft, red- mond, wa) and sigmastat . (systat software, richmond, ca). all data sets were prescreened for normality. data are presented as median values with an interquartile range (iqr), and direct comparisons were made with mann-whitney rank- sum tests. percentages were used to describe categorical outcomes, and distributions of categorical data were com- pared with either a pearson’s � test or a fisher’s exact test. p values � . were considered statistically significant. an institutional statistician reviewed all analyses for appropri- ateness of selected tests and accuracy. results a total of children injured during a -year period in rural southwestern ontario met the inclusion criteria for this study. demographic features of injured children are shown in table . anabaptist children comprised . % of this injured rural population. the ratio of males to females was similar between anabaptist and non-anabaptist cohorts, with more males in both groups. anabaptist children were signif- icantly younger at the time of injury (median, years; iqr � ) when compared with non-anabaptist children (median, years; iqr � ; p � . ). the most common injury location for anabaptist chil- dren was on their property ( . %; p � . ) when com- pared with non-anabaptist children who were more often injured on roads ( . %; p � . ; table ). in subgroup analysis of injury location stratified by age, anabaptist chil- dren aged years to years were more likely to be injured on farms than non-anabaptist children (p � . ). the peak months for injuries were june and august for all rural children. the peak times of injuries were similar at pm to pm for anabaptist children ( . %) and pm to pm for non-anabaptist children ( . %). no injuries occurred in the anabaptist group between midnight and am. injury mechanism data are shown in table . the most common causes of injury among anabaptist children were falls ( . %; p � . ). when stratified by age, more -year to -year-old anabaptist children were injured by falls than non-anabaptists children ( . % vs. . %; p � . ). other notable causes of injuries in anabaptist children included mvcs ( . %; p � . ), animals ( . %; p � . ), and buggies ( . %). no injuries in the anabaptist population were caused by abuse, suicide, or assault. among non- table . demographic characteristics of rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children (n � ) non-anabaptist children (n � ) p male:female ( . ): ( . ) ( . ): ( . ) . age (yr) – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) � . – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) . site of injury property ( . ) ( . ) � . road ( . ) ( . ) . other/unknown ( . ) ( . ) . recreation facility ( . ) ( . ) . season of injury summer ( . ) ( . ) . fall ( . ) ( . ) . winter ( . ) ( . ) . spring ( . ) ( . ) . data presented as n (%). the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins anabaptist children, the most common causes of injury were mvcs ( . %; p � . ). when stratified by age, mvc injuries among -year to -year olds were more prevalent among non-anabaptist youth (n � of , . %) than anabaptist youth (n � of ; . %; p � . ); however, the difference was not statistically significant. furthermore, the age-stratified analysis comparing the groups was limited by small sample size or did not reveal significant differences. the injury profiles and severity of injury to each body region, as represented by the median maximum abbreviated injury scale scores, are listed in table . compared with the anabaptist children, significantly more non-anabaptist children sustained injuries to the chest ( . %; p � . ) and abdomen ( . %; p � . ). significantly, more anabaptist sustained trauma to multi- ple systems (p � . ). no statistically significant dif- ferences were noted between cohorts in iss. a summary of protective device data are shown in table . injuries were classified as potentially preventable through the correct use of seat belts or bike helmets in . % of non-anabaptist children and in . % of anabaptist chil- dren. seat belts were unused or incorrectly used in . % of mvcs involving anabaptist children and . % of non- anabaptist children. seventy-four non-anabaptist children were injured using rmvs (i.e., atvs, snowmobiles, motor- cycles, and dirt bikes). of these, . % reported using a helmet, . % wore helmets that fell off, and % did not use a helmet. data were unavailable on two individuals. one anabaptist was injured using a rmv without a helmet. analyses of admission and hospitalization data are shown in table . deaths in the emergency trauma room occurred in six ( . %) non-anabaptist children and two ( %) anabaptist children. intensive care unit admissions and lengths of stay were comparable among anabaptist and non-anabaptist children. lengths of stay data were unavail- able for five non-anabaptist children and one anabaptist child. more non-anabaptist children ( . %) underwent sur- gical interventions than anabaptist children ( . %; p � . ). the proportions of complications, comorbidities, and mortalities did not differ statistically between anabaptist and non-anabaptist children. discussion in this study, we analyzed injury data for rural children in southwestern ontario in comparison with anabaptist and non-anabaptist populations. our data show that anabaptist children are more likely to suffer severe injuries at a young age, occurring primarily on their property, and exhibit a unique spectrum of injury mechanisms. given that injuries in this population generally occur at home or farm, injury table . mechanism of injury anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p falls ( . ) ( . ) . mvc ( . ) ( . ) . other ( . ) ( . ) . animals ( . ) ( . ) . buggy ( . ) ( ) na pedestrian/bike ( . ) ( . ) na machinery ( . ) ( . ) na rmv ( . ) ( . ) na na, not assayed. data presented as n (%). table . injury severity scores for rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children (n � ) non-anabaptist children (n � ) p iss median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais head/neck number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais face number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais chest number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais abdomen number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( . ) ( ) . mais extremity number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais external number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . � body area injured number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . mais, maximum abbreviated injury score. mais external includes burns, lacerations, abrasions, and contusions. table . analyses of protective devices used or misused by rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p mvc seatbelt used ( . ) ( . ) . no seatbelt used ( . ) ( . ) . incorrect car seat use ( ) ( . ) na unreported ( ) ( . ) na bicycle injury helmet ( ) ( . ) na no helmet ( ) ( . ) na unreported ( ) ( . ) na overall protective device use incidence—correct use ( . ) ( . ) . incidence—incorrect/not used ( . ) ( . ) . na, not assayed. data presented as n (%). forward et al. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november © lippincott williams & wilkins prevention at home should be emphasized. in contrast, non- anabaptists are more likely to suffer injuries in adolescence, primarily on roads and in mvcs. this study reveals impor- tant data for developing targeted injury prevention programs and supports the need for injury prevention in the rural population given the relatively low use, and correct use, of protective devices. previous studies relating injuries to developmental age identify younger children as being at high risk for injury with their tendency to fall, place objects in their mouth, and explore independently. among anabaptist children, there was a significantly younger median age at the time of injury compared with non-anabaptist children with one-third of injuries occurring in children younger than years. injuries in this age group are often preventable (i.e., burns, falls, and animal-related injuries), suggesting that future injury preven- tion strategies in the anabaptist population should emphasize safety to children in this age group, in addition to their parents and caregivers. adolescent injuries in the anabaptist population were remarkably low, with a significantly lower rate of mvc, the most common mechanism of injury in adolescence, and no intentional injuries caused by abuse, suicide, or assault. in pediatric populations, it is typically the late adoles- cent age group that accounts for the majority of severe injuries. indeed, youth aged years and older made up the majority of the non-anabaptist injured population ( . %), and older children were more likely to be injured in mvcs events largely associated with rapid deceleration and blunt trauma. this mechanism of injury could explain their signif- icantly higher rates of chest and abdominal trauma and significantly greater rates of operative procedures. common injury mechanisms noted in our anabaptist population were similar to mechanisms described in the literature. , , , unique to the anabaptist population, the horse and buggy is an important method of transportation, which contributed to . % of injuries in this study. motorized vehicles are important causes of buggy-related trauma, rein- forcing that slow-moving vehicle signs, reflective tape for buggies and horses, and construction of wider rural roads might reduce the risk of collision. in contrast, rmvs, such as atvs, snowmobiles, and two-wheeled dirt bikes, were a cause of significant morbidity among non-anabaptist chil- dren. atvs, in particular, have been recognized as significant causes of severe injury, , especially in the rural population where these vehicles are used for both recreation and service. in ontario, beyond legislation, which governs the use of atvs, many stakeholders including the canadian pediatrics society and the consumer product safety commission rec- ommend that children younger than years should not drive recreational vehicles because of the significant strength, co- ordination, and judgment required for their safe opera- tion. – a recent position article from the ontario medical association more conservatively states that children younger than years are not allowed to operate atvs. anabaptist children were more frequently injured on their property, either house or farm, than any other location. farms are known to be inherently dangerous because there are many opportunities for injury by machinery, animals, and through falls. , , the north american guidelines for chil- dren’s agricultural tasks have been developed to decrease childhood farming-related injuries by outlining appropriate farming tasks for a child’s developmental stage. – the guide- lines are developed for the population-at-large; however, it do not account for the cultural sensitivities of the anabaptist population, their involvement in farm work at a young age, and their wish to preserve a traditional way of life. farming injury prevention initiatives should be developed and intro- duced with the input of community elders. in farming families, parental supervision of children can sometimes be difficult while concurrently attending to farming tasks. however, previous research suggests that for young children, decreasing environmental risk may be more effective than increasing parental supervision. suggestions to minimize risk and reduce injury have included the intro- duction of passive barriers (i.e., fences) to contain play areas and separate children from potential hazards (i.e., hay stacks, water, barns, and animals). , the introduction of passive barriers may be an intervention that would not infringe on the anabaptist way of life while reducing children’s exposure to hazards. , , the use of protective devices is paramount for injury prevention in the entire rural population. mvcs were an important cause of trauma in both cohorts. seat belt use in motor vehicles is mandatory by ontario law. in a recent survey examining seat belt use in rural areas, seat belt usage rate in ontario was . %. despite these reported compli- ance rates, seat belts were not worn by approximately half of injured rural children in both cohorts, making unbelted chil- dren more likely to be severely injured when a crash occurs. there remains a need for further injury prevention programs targeting seat belt use among rural adolescents. table . analysis of hospitalization data and mortality for rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p hospital admission number admitted (%) ( . ) ( . ) . days: median (iqr)* ( . ) ( ) . intensive care unit admission number admitted ( . ) ( . ) . days: median (iqr)* ( . ) ( ) . operative procedures no. patients (%) ( . ) ( . ) . procedure: median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . complications number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . comorbidities number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . mortality no. deaths (%) ( . ) ( . ) . * individuals who died were not included in the length of hospitalization calculations. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins numerous studies support the efficacy of helmet use to reduce the severity of injuries; however, helmet use among cyclists in the rural population as a whole was low. in a recent cochrane systemic review, bicycle helmet use in children conferred an % and % risk reduction for head and facial injuries, respectively. a statistically significant protective effect of helmets for head, brain, facial, and fatal injury was recently quantified in a meta-analysis providing clear evi- dence on the benefits of helmets for cyclists. multidisci- plinary community campaigns may be effective in promoting bike helmet use and bike safety, particularly in those who resist helmet use. in the southwestern ontario, to our knowledge, there are no campaigns that focus directly on the anabaptist pop- ulation and take into consideration their unique culture and beliefs. designated play areas for children, animal or machin- ery training, and correct use of protective equipment such as seat belts or helmets may significantly reduce injuries to anabaptist children. , , future research is needed to analyze what anabaptist-specific safety measures (i.e., seat belts in buggies) may be effective in reducing injuries while being amenable to anabaptist community members. the develop- ment of successful injury prevention programs for anabaptist children requires collaboration with the anabaptist commu- nity and elders to ensure that all initiatives respect their culture and lifestyle. this study has potential limitations. first, it is possible that some children, despite the severity of their injuries (iss � ), were not brought to hospital out of concern of treat- ment cost, and we were unable to include these patients. second, the provincial coroner’s data do not identify religion, cultural affiliation, or provincial health insurance status in their database, and hence we could not identify anabaptist children that died before arrival to hospital. third, the small sample size in some subgroup analyses may have limited our power to detect a difference between our two cohorts. fourth, the non-anabaptist cohort is likely quite heterogeneous rel- ative to the anabaptist population; however, we were unable to reliably identify other culturally distinct groups in our rural area for comparison. fifth, the anabaptist population is culturally distinct from other rural populations; thus, conclu- sions drawn from the injury analyses of the anabaptist group cannot be applicable to rural populations at large. finally, we are unable to analyze the incidence of injuries within the anabaptist cohort as the provincial consensus data do not report total anabaptist population. these limitations high- light the need for methodological enhancements to adminis- trative health databases to facilitate the study of unique populations. despite these limitations, this study emphasizes the importance of understanding the injury epidemiology of distinct groups and is applicable to other old-order anabap- tist populations found in the united states (indiana, ohio, kansas, pennsylvania, and virginia). it also provides impor- tant injury analyses on the general rural population. conclusions our data suggest significant differences in injuries be- tween two rural cohorts that could help target injury prevention programs. injury prevention targeted to younger anabaptist children and adolescent non-anabaptist youth may help to reduce severe injuries in these populations. furthermore, the low use of protective devices among all rural children rein- forces the need for focused initiatives to increase their use among rural children. collaboration with the anabaptist com- munity is needed to best address injury prevention in this distinct community and create solutions that increase safety without infringing upon their culture and way of life. acknowledgments d.d.f. holds a career development award from the canadian child health clinician scientist program, a stra- tegic training program of the canadian institutes of health research. the authors thank the windsor’s hotel dieu grace hospital trauma program for sharing their regional trauma data. the authors thank mr. jamie a. seabrook for statistical review and drs. d. matsui and k. speechley for critical comments on the manuscript. references . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet a. ; a: – . . adams ce, leverland mb. the effects of religious beliefs on the health care practices of the amish. nurse pract. ; : , , . . jones pj, field we. farm safety issues in old order anabaptist communities: unique aspects and innovative intervention strategies. j agric saf health. ; : – . . conway ae, mcclune aj, nosel p. down on the farm: preventing farm accidents in children. pediatr nurs. ; : – . . doty b, marlenga b. north american guidelines for children’s agricul- tural tasks: five-year assessment and priorities for the future. am j ind med. ; : – . . jones mw. a study of trauma in an amish community. j trauma. ; : – . . fisher km, hupcey je, rhodes da. childhood farm injuries in old- order amish families. j pediatr nurs. ; : – . . smith ga, scherzer dj, buckley jw, et al. pediatric farm-related injuries: a series of hospitalized patients. clin pediatr (phila). ; : – . . pickett w, dostaler s, berg rl, haley kj, shields bj. pediatric fall injuries in agricultural settings: a new look at a common injury control problem. j occup environ med. ; : – . . meiers s, baerg j. farm accidents in children: eleven years of experi- ence. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . hubler cl, hupcey je. incidence and nature of farm-related injuries among pennsylvania amish children: implications for education. j emerg nurs. ; : – . . jiang x, li d, boyce w, pickett w. variations in injury among canadian adolescents by urban-rural geographic status. chronic dis can. ; : – . . chapital ad, harrigan rc, davis j, et al. traumatic brain injury: outcomes from rural and urban locations over a -year period (part ). hawaii med j. ; : – . . statistics canada. profile of urban and rural areas. ontario, canada: authority of the minister responsible for statistics canada; . . copes ws, champion hr, sacco wj, et al. progress in characterizing anatomic injury. j trauma. ; : – . . boyd cr, tolson ma, copes ws. evaluating trauma care: the triss method. trauma score and the injury severity score. j trauma. ; : – . . champion hr, sacco wj, copes ws, gann ds, gennarelli ta, flana- gan me. a revision of the trauma score. j trauma. ; : – . . association for the advancement of automotive medicine. the abbre- viated injury scale manual. ed. des plaines, il: aaam; . forward et al. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november © lippincott williams & wilkins . agran pf, anderson c, winn d, trent r, walton-haynes l, thayer s. rates of pediatric injuries by -month intervals for children to years of age. pediatrics. ; ( pt ):e – e . . charyk-stewart t, grant k, singh r, girotti m. pediatric trauma in southwestern ontario: linking data with injury prevention initiatives. j trauma. ; : – . . aaland mo, hlaing t. amish buggy injuries in the st century: a retrospective review from a rural level ii trauma center. am surg. ; : , ; discussion . . collins cl, smith ga, comstock rd. children plus all nonautomobile motorized vehicles (not just all-terrain vehicles) equals injuries. pediatrics. ; : – . . yanchar nl, kennedy r, russell c. atvs: motorized toys or vehicles for children? inj prev. ; : – . . brown rl, koepplinger me, mehlman ct, gittelman m, garcia vf. all-terrain vehicle and bicycle crashes in children: epidemiology and comparison of injury severity. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . mullins rj, brand d, lenfesty b, newgard cd, hedges jr, ham b. statewide assessment of injury and death rates among riders of off-road vehicles treated at trauma centers. j am coll surg. ; : – . . decou jm, fagerman le, ropele d, uitvlugt nd, schlatter mg, connors rh. snowmobile injuries and fatalities in children. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . canadian paediatric society, injury prevention committee. prevent- ing injuries from all-terrain vehicles. paediatr child health. ; : – . . ontario medical association. oma position paper: all-terrain vehi- cles (atvs) and children’s safety. ont med rev. ; – . . hartling l, brison rj, crumley et, klassen tp, pickett w. a systematic review of interventions to prevent childhood farm injuries. pediatrics. ; :e – e . . marlenga b, brison rj, berg rl, zentner j, linneman j, pickett w. evaluation of the north american guidelines for children’s agricul- tural tasks using a case series of injuries. inj prev. ; : – . . gadomski a, ackerman s, burdick p, jenkins p. efficacy of the north american guidelines for children’s agricultural tasks in reducing child- hood agricultural injuries. am j public health. ; : – . . pickett w, brison rj, berg rl, zentner j, linneman j, marlenga b. pediatric farm injuries involving non-working children injured by a farm work hazard: five priorities for primary prevention. inj prev. ; : – . . morrongiello ba, pickett w, berg rl, linneman jg, brison rj, marlenga b. adult supervision and pediatric injuries in the agricultural worksite. accid anal prev. ; : – . . dowswell t, towner em, simpson g, jarvis sn. preventing childhood unintentional injuries—what works? a literature review. inj prev. ; : – . . ministry of transportation. ontario road safety annual report [ontario ministry of transportation web site]. february , . available at: http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/english/safety/orsar/orsar / foreword_ .shtml. accessed may , . . thompson dc, rivara fp, thompson r. helmets for preventing head and facial injuries in bicyclists. cochrane database syst rev. ; :cd . . attewell rg, glase k, mcfadden m. bicycle helmet efficacy: a meta- analysis. accid anal prev. ; : – . . cushman r, down j, macmillan n, waclawik h. helmet promotion in the emergency room following a bicycle injury: a randomized trial. pediatrics. ; : – . errata elderly hip fracture patients admitted to the trauma service: does it impact patient outcome?: erratum in the article that appeared on pages – in volume , number , an author’s name was listed without a middleinitial. the author has requested his middle initial be added. the corrected list of authors is as follows: melvin e. stone jr., md, facs, casey barbaro, bs, castigliano m. bhamidipati, md, janet cucuzzo, rn, msn, and ronald simon, md, facs. reference stone jr. me, barbaro c, bhamidipati c, cucuzzo j, simon r. elderly hip fracture patients admitted to the trauma service: does it impact patient outcome? j trauma. ; : – . injury patterns and psychological traits of patients with self-inflicted wounds produced by punching glass: erratum in an article that appeared on pages – in volume , number , the authors’ names were listed in transposed order.the authors should have been listed as: ahmet sönmez, md, kaan kora, md, nurdan öztürk, md, burak ersoy, md, memduha aydın, md and ayhan numanoğlu, md. reference ahmet s, kaan k, nurdan ö, burak e, memduha a, ayhan n. injury patterns and psychological traits of patients with self-inflicted wounds produced by punching glass. j trauma. ; : – . the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the american archivist / vol. , no. / april the internationa] scene: news and abstracts ronald j. plavchan, editor inside the new kew repository the new public record office at kew, located about ten miles from central london, stands along the thames river on a crown site at the end of ruskin avenue in the london borough of richmond-upon-thames, surrey. the prime contractor for this new archives building was taylor woodrow construction lim- ited, which began work on the site in may . the basic requirements determining ultimately the external design at kew were the needs to provide: ( ) a secure repository with properly controlled tempera- ture and humidity conditions for the storage of about , linear feet of rec- ords, ( ) seating accommodations for up to researchers (readers), and ( ) accommodations and facilities for archival staff and technical services. an im- portant operational requirement considered in the planning was installation of a system by which documents could be transmitted as rapidly as possible from shelf to user. these requirements led to the concept of a five-story building of square design with a central distribution core linking the various floors. space for staff offices, technical services, and reading rooms are concentrated mostly on the ground and first floors, whereas the main storage areas are located on the second, third, and fourth floors where narrow horizontal window slits reduce the admis- sion of the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays to a minimum. the staffs of the establishment division, records administration division, and modern records department, principally, occupy space in an open area on the ground floor. senior staff members maintain individual offices around the per- imeter of this area. at one end of the area is a committee room and rooms for the keeper, deputy keeper, and their secretaries. additional staff office space is available on the first floor where there is also a conference room. the library, located likewise on the first floor, is equipped with shelving similar to that in the storage areas and with specially designed furniture. however, that part of the library relating to the records and to the work of the staff at chancery lane is not located at kew. the new building contains ample space for a full range of technical services with the most up-to-date equipment. a majority of the conservation department d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april • t pro, kew, exterior. uk crown copyright staff and a substantial part of the reprographic section staff remain at portugal street and chancery lane, respectively, to undertake work arising from the rec- ords at chancery lane. eventually chancery lane will contain the medieval and later legal records, the state papers, the census records, and some records more suited to storage in chancery lane than at kew. records of modern government departments, some of which extend back to the sixteenth century, will be kept at kew. the main entrance at the kew repository opens into a large reception hall and public lounge containing a registration desk, cloakrooms, and an entrance to a public restaurant. on the first floor there are two main reading rooms, the lang- dale and romilly rooms, each of which can accommodate readers at specially designed octagonal tables. these rooms have been named in honor of the first two masters of the rolls who were keepers of public records after enactment of the public record office act: baron langdale ( - ) and lord john romilly ( — ). in each reading room sixty-four seats are located in a partitioned area designed to permit researchers the use of typewriters. although every seat in both reading rooms has an electrical outlet suitable for microfilm reading equipment, eight seats are reserved for the use of microfilm readers. closed-circuit television cameras provide security, scanning the areas in which documents are available to the public. this has reduced the need for continuous surveillance by staff on duty in the reading rooms. photocopies of available doc- uments may be ordered at a counter directly accessible from each reading room. situated between the two main reading rooms is a separate reference room containing two complete sets of typescript lists of record classes kept at kew, find- ing aids, and standard reference works. readers may consult these to identify sources and the reference codes of the documents needed. some reference ma- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts terials now available to researchers on open shelves and in filing cabinets in the reference room were formerly unavailable except when requisitioned as records. this former situation, however, frequently caused needless delays. in this room researchers can consult also with search department staff on available sources for their research. also, there are three computer terminals located in the reference room, on which readers requisition documents. the reading room in which re- searchers can use maps and oversize documents is situated on the second floor. to facilitate the rapid handling of requests for records, a small computer sys- tem, based on a data general nova- mini-computer, has been installed at kew. this system controls access to the reading rooms via turnstiles operated by ma- chine-readable tickets. when a researcher's presence in the building has been recorded on these turnstiles, he/she can either use one of the three terminals with visual display units in the reference room to make his/her own records request, or he/she can ask a staff member to do so at a fourth terminal which is restricted for staff use only. a fifth terminal is located in the map room, with two other terminals restricted to staff use and situated outside the search department area. at each of these available computer terminals, the researcher uses a keyboard to communicate to the computer the following data: reader's ticket number, seat number, and the code reference to the desired documents. in turn, the computer verifies the data provided as well as the availability of the requested documents, and almost instantaneously informs the reader. a request for a particular availa- ble document is then transmitted instantly to the appropriate storage area, where the information is printed out on a special two-part form. this form is so de- signed that one part remains on the shelf in place of the removed document, and the other part accompanies the document to the reading room. at the distribution area in the reading room, this slip is properly filed, the document is placed in a pigeon hole marked with the researcher's seat number, and he/she is informed pro, kew, reading room uk crown copyright d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april of its arrival by means of an electronic paging system. the paging system operates in all public areas of the building, thereby freeing the researcher from having to wait in the reading rooms until the document's arrival. it takes about fifteen minutes to produce a document via the computer requisitioning system. when a user has finished with a document, it is placed on a conveyor belt lo- cated under the issue counter and carried to the distribution area where it is returned to the appropriate storage area floor via the "paternoster" conveyor. to facilitate the rapid return of the material to the proper floor, each document or its container bears a color-coded patch. upon arrival at its storage floor, that part of the special request form which had accompanied the document is removed and sent to be read automatically into the computer, cancelling the record from the reader's charge. when the document is ultimately reshelved, the other part of the form is sent to be read into the computer also, indicating that the document is once again available for use. in addition to these functions, the computer main- tains a constant record of all requests and produces periodic listings of records used or in use, and also provides daily and annual statistics. record storage at kew is confined to the upper three floors. each floor com- prises an area of approximately , square feet (or . acres), and is divided into three compartments. there are openings in the internal walls of these com- partments with fire-resistant doors held open on fusible links in such a way as to allow the whole floor area to be controlled as a single unit. within the storage areas, the environment is controlled to provide a temperature of °c.,± °, and a relative humidity of ,± , percent. all the shelving is steel, with uprights at- tached to both the floor and the ceiling, with cantilever shelves slotted into them, thus providing greater flexibility. two types of steel shelving are used at kew: standard shelving which can support pounds, and heavy-duty shelving which can support pounds. in order to accommodate the storage of rolled maps and oversized documents, some special shelving has also been installed. together with the storage capacity of the inner basement, a total of about sixty- nine miles of shelving has been installed in the new building, of which approxi- mately forty-five miles is already occupied. based on current estimates, kew's records storage capacity can accommodate the accrual of records for the next fifteen years. this estimate is based on the average records accrual rate of one mile per year. the shelving on each floor is arranged in four segments, each bisected by a continuous gangway running around the entire floor. the more popular classes of records are stored on the inner shelving between this gangway and the central core. electric trolleys have been installed to provide for the lateral movement of records on each floor. there is also an automatic "paternoster" conveyor and two heavy-duty elevators running through the center of each floor to provide vertical movement of the records between storage areas and reading rooms. also located near the conveyor and elevators is the machine which prints out the re- quisitions (records requests) on the special two-part forms. adjacent to a reading room on the second floor, there is a special storage area for maps, plans, and other cartographic material. this arrangement makes it eas- ier for the staff to furnish these materials to the requester. oversize documents which do not fit on the "paternoster" conveyor are also stored in the area next to the map room. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts news international federation for documentation (fid) directory. at its april meeting the fid council agreed that the fid yearbook should be published every two years and should be retitled the fid directory. the new fid directory will be issued after each biennial fid conference and congress so that it will reflect the latest changes of the federation. it is anticipated that the new directory for / will be available in early . unesco seminar on archives administration and records management. in san jose, costa rica, - december , a seminar was held on the unesco pilot project in archives administration and records management in costa rica. na- tional archivists from the neighboring countries of colombia, el salvador, gua- temala, honduras, and nicaragua, who assisted in the evaluation of the pilot proj- ect, attended the seminar. these archivists discussed problems in implementation of the various components of the project and considered ways in which to apply the costa rican experience to their own countries. underlying the conclusions and recommendations these archivists reached during the three-day meeting was the need for assistance from unesco in professional and technical training of their staff and in the development of modern records management programs in their region. [unisist newsletter, vol. , no. , ] evaluation guidelines. unesco has published guidelines for the evaluation of information systems and services ( ). the guidelines, prepared under contract by f. w. lancaster, pertain to a wide range of activities carried out by information centers and services. they are intended to suggest criteria and methods by which managers of a particular center or service might evaluate some or all of the activ- ities of the center or service. emphasis is on practical examples of evaluation. for further information write: division of the general information programme, unesco, place de fontenoy, paris, france. unisist newsletter title change. effective january , the unisist news- letter providing current information on activities in the fields of scientific and technological information, and on documentation, libraries, and archives relating to unesco's general information program, changed its title to general infor- mation programme unisist newsletter. the title change resulted from a recom- mendation of the bureau of the intergovernmental council for the general in- formation programme, at its first meeting on - january , calling upon the division of the general information programme to evaluate and reorganize the content of its periodicals. contents of the newsletter will, therefore, be ex- panded to include news from unesco's general information program, organ- izations of the un system, and non-governmental international organizations. in addition, some of the information previously appearing in bibliography, documen- tation and terminology, which ceased publication at the end of , will be in- cluded. [unisist newsletter, vol. , no. , ] d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april consultation on problems involved in the transfer of documents from ar- chives. as part of its continuing efforts to assist member states in resolving prob- lems involved in the transfer of documents from archives in the territory of cer- tain countries to the country of their origin, unesco held a consultation, - march , with a group of experts in paris. participants at the meeting included mohammed bedjaoui, algerian ambassador to france; charles kecske- meti, ica executive secretary and author of a preliminary study of this important question; christian gut, director of the archives de paris and author of a detailed study of archival claims presented at the seventeenth international round table on archives (cagliari, ); ivan borsa (hungary); a. w. mabbs (great britain); soemartini (indonesia); radomir bogdanovic (yugoslavia); and e. t. akyianu (ghana). the general conference at its eighteenth session had adopted a resolution which "invited member states to give favorable consideration to the possibility of transferring documents from archives constituted within the territory of other countries or relating to their history, within the framework of bilateral agree- ments." also, the director-general was urged to consider the possibility of a de- tailed study of such transfers and to report on his findings. a preliminary study was prepared and a progress report submitted to the nineteenth general confer- ence; the cagliari round table considered the detailed report. the experts con- sidered the conclusions and recommendations of both these reports and advised the secretariat on the nature of the report that the director-general would make to the twentieth general conference. [unisist newsletter, vol. , no. , ] - professional training proposals. unesco is developing its pro- grams in the field of professional training in archives and called a preliminary meeting of experts in may . there will also be a further and larger meeting of archives training specialists in paris in late . the purpose of this meeting will be to make recommendations on the harmonization of existing archival train- ing programs and to consider their relationship to education and training pro- grams in librarianship and information science. three papers have been commissioned in preparation for the meeting. they are: ( ) an assessment of current training by identifying manpower needs and trends, based on existing sources of information; ( ) a study of the types and levels of training needed with a comparative analysis of parallel library and doc- umentation training courses; and ( ) an analysis of existing training programs with careful attention to the harmonization and coordination of curriculum and facilities, and minimum standards for each level. the objectives of the meeting will be to take steps towards harmonizing the content, level, and methods of ex- isting training courses in all countries, and to bring them closer, wherever possi- ble, to the kind of training provided in other areas of information science. [michael cook, university of liverpool] canada cartographic archives seminar. from to april , the public ar- chives of canada (pac) held a highly successful seminar on cartographic archives, attended by provincial and territorial archivists responsible for cartographic rec- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts ords. anyone wishing further information about this seminar may obtain from pac a report prepared by the national map collection. among the pac's most interesting cartographic acquisitions is a domenico de rossi globe, an excel- lent example of seventeenth-century graphic decorative art, which is the earliest globe held by the collection; and a manuscript map of sir william edward parry's discoveries (ca. - ) in the canadian arctic. also acquired was a map known as the zeno map (from the venice edition of ptolemy's geographia), showing on a fourteenth-century manuscript map portions of north america supposedly visited prior to columbus by the zeno brothers, niccolo and antonio. pac picture division publications. after the initial publication of archives canada microfiches nos. - , the picture division has continued the series with five additional issues. the second set of archives canada microfiches (nos. - ), featuring documentary canadian art from pac collections, includes the work of alexander cavalie mercer (nova scotia and the maritimes, - ), william ogle carlile (quebec society and pastimes, ca. ), elizabeth simcoe (upper and lower canada, - ), thomas davies (mostly amherst's lake cham- plain and st. lawrence campaigns, - ), c. williams (from the illustrated london news, - ), george russell dartnell (london, ontario, - ), daniel lyons (montreal, ca. - ), and f. h. varley (eastern arctic patrol, ). a third set of five fiches, currently in preparation, is devoted to the work of george back (franklin's second overland expedition, - ; and back's overland expedition to the mouth of the great fish river, - ). publica- tion of a comprehensive artist-geographical-subject index is planned at the con- clusion of every ten microfiches. new slide sets in the archives canada series, also published by the picture division, include picturesque quebec, - : views by james pattison cockburn; to the oregon territory, - : with lieut. henry j. warre; two artists in the klondike, - : frederick gardiner, jr.—alfred e. boultbee, jr.; moose hunt on the st. maurice, : journal and sketches by henry james warre; and captain cook's last voyage, - : portraits and views from the northwest coast by john webber. another slide set, scheduled for publication in the near future, is to be entitled "with franklin to the top of the world, - : arctic journal and sketches by george back." mackenzie king papers. on january , pac opened the papers of the late prime minister william lyon mackenzie king, for . the diaries for , consisting of more than , pages, describe in detail king's public and personal life. the year marked the end of the mackenzie king era in canadian politics as louis st. laurent assumed the leadership of the liberal party ( august ) and the prime ministership ( november ). on the international level mackenzie king witnessed the acceleration of the cold war and the evolu- tion of the british commonwealth. the national photography collection and the national film archives will make available photographs, sound recordings, and films of mackenzie king's activities in to supplement examination of the diaries. microfilming project. the provincial archives of british columbia is currently microfilming the papers ( - ) of hugh wesley dobson, methodist min- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april ister and western field secretary of the evangelism and social service branch of the methodist church from to , and secretary for the board of evan- gelism and social service in the united church of canada. once the microfilming project is completed, the dobson papers will be deposited at the united church archives in vancouver. international conference on "data archiving." the canadian secretariat of the international association for social science information services and tech- nology (iassist) is sponsoring a conference in ottawa, scheduled for - may . i assist, formed in , is an international association of individuals who manage, operate, or utilize machine-readable data archives, data libraries, and program libraries concerning social sciences. it consists of several secretariats (asian, canadian, east and west european, south and central american, and united states) with an overall steering committee. iassist has established seven "action groups" to grapple with the problems related to acquisition, classifica- tion, distribution, preservation, processing, production, and utilization of ma- chine-readable data of interest to social scientists and other researchers. the theme of the ottawa conference is to be "data archiving: models for in- ternational cooperation." for further information concerning the conference, write to sue gavrel, chairman of the program committee, in care of the machine- readable archives division, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa, ontario k a on . [d. lee mcdonald, public archives of canada] film archives unearthed. on september the canadian film archives an- nounced a film find near the alaskan frontier. last summer a bulldozer operator, while razing an old hockey arena in dawson city, yukon territory, uncovered a large quantity of classic old silent movie film dating from to . the films in their original tin cans were located in the deep end of an abandoned swimming pool on the site. a preliminary examination of the film collection iden- tified such melodramas as "the perils of pauline," "wildfire" ( ) with lil- lian russell and lionel barrymore; two films, "princess virtue" and "polly of the circus," starring mae murray; and rare world war i newsreels. according to the testimony of old-time dawson residents, the city, which is lo- cated at the junction of the yukon and klondike rivers, was literally the end of the line for movies making the north america cinema circuit. after their dawson showing, american owners of the -minute one-reelers and the -reel feature films found the shipping costs too high to justify the return of the out-of-date film to storage. the owners thereupon turned the films over to the local library for safekeeping, but as time passed the film cans became a storage problem. around , when landfill was needed to fill an old swimming pool, the library seemed to have found the answer for the unwanted film cans and its storage space problems. for the next fifty years, therefore, the old film cans remained, partially preserved by the permafrost and nearly forgotten by all. like any pre- s motion picture film, these newsreels and melodramas are on deteriorating nitrate base film, which is highly inflammable, is chemically un- stable, and has a high deterioration rate. some of the unearthed films are dam- aged due to improper storage and neglect. while some films have been bleached white by dampness, others have been affected by rust on the metal reels. another d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts common problem facing archivists is that nitrate film can turn to jelly and dust and is easily ignitable. the film collection was transported to the public archives of canada in ottawa via tractor-trailer truck. both pac and the library of congress are currently engaged in restoration work on the film, transferring it to acetate safety base film. complete restoration and transferal to modern film will take years and could cost $ , . the national archives and records service (nars) has also become involved in the restoration work and has expressed interest in acquiring copies of the newsreels. new position in british columbia. the provincial archives of british colum- bia has created a position of archives advisor. the duties of this new position include visiting community archives, museums, and libraries to advise on the ar- rangement and preservation of archival material, organizing and conducting workshops, and promoting reproduction and diffusion programs between the provincial archives and local repositories. groundbreaking for nova scotia archives. on may , lieutenant-gov- ernor c. l. gosse turned the first spade of sod for a new archives building. com- pletion of the building is scheduled to coincide with planned celebrations marking international archives week, in november . the , square foot, five story, fire resistant, steel and concrete building will cost five million dollars. when completed, it will be the largest building in canada equipped with a solar heating system, which in this case will generate percent of the building's heating re- quirements. the new building will also be equipped with humidity and tempera- ture controls. all offices have glass walls looking into the reading rooms, and each floor has its own reading room. the new archives will include a fumigating unit, conservation laboratory, photographic laboratory, microfilm cameras, microfilm readers, and photoduplicating machines. broadcasting association formed. a new association, association for the study of canadian radio and television/association pour les etudes sur la radio et la television canadiennes, has been formed. it is concerned with studies in canadian broadcasting and will be specifically oriented toward the preservation and accessibility of canadian radio and television material. the fee schedule for membership is $ (individual), $ (student), and $ (institutional). persons wish- ing further information should write to ernest dick, membership secretary, sound archives, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa kl a on . guidelines for data collection. a working group of the social science feder- ation of canada (ssfc), under the chairmanship of david gagan of mcmaster university, has developed guidelines for the transcription of historical census mi- crodata. it is hoped the guidelines will promote a degree of uniformity in data collection methods in order to generate universally acceptable data sets with known characteristics and minimal errors. ssfc intends to make data sets, and the documentation and software related to their successful use, widely available to social scientists. for more information contact: ssfc, slater, room , ot- tawa, ontario kip h . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april new mennonite archival repository. after forty-five years of archives devel- opment, the conference of mennonites in canada (cmc) has moved into the new archival repository of the mennonite heritage centre on the campus of the ca- nadian mennonite bible college, winnipeg. the centre was officially opened to the public on november , which was also archives day throughout can- ada, sponsored by the association of canadian archivists to emphasize the im- portance of archives. an important new aspect to the cmc archives is the addition of mennonite genealogy, inc., material from steinbach, manitoba. this large collection of ge- nealogy and family study materials was originally started by a. a. vogt of stein- bach and has been extensively developed in recent years by the corporation. mar- garet kroeker, executive director of mennonite genealogy, inc., will continue to work with the materials at the new centre. federal republic of germany anniversary celebration at regensburg. this year, with a year-long celebra- tion, the historic city of regensburg, bavaria, marks the , th anniversary of its founding. the city, which has had more than seventy names during its history (including ratisbon, in robert browning's poem about its capture by napoleon), contains an old quarter comprising acres and claims to possess more than , buildings of historical interest. among the ancient monuments at regens- burg are the steinerne briicke (stone bridge) built in , the porta praetoria of the old roman fort, and the fifth-century basilica of st. emmeran. as part of the commemoration the municipal archives and the city museum are mounting spe- cial exhibits pertaining to the city's colorful past. german democratic republic second symposium of editors of documentation, library, and archives jour- nals. unesco, in cooperation with the national commission for the german democratic republic, held a symposium in east berlin, — september . fifty-two participants from twenty-two countries attended this second symposium to seek ways of improving the preparation and presentation of periodical litera- ture of the profession and to attain closer cooperation and coordination between editors of documentation, library, and archives journals. participants drafted sev- eral recommendations emphasizing: ( ) the promotion of the exchange of arti- cles, reports, and other information between primary periodicals, and the estab- lishment of guidelines for tables of content or abstracts in one of the major languages for forwarding to existing secondary services; ( ) the undertaking of a study of typographical presentation used in documentation, library, and archives journals to reach optimum standards; ( ) the promotion of bilateral or multilat- eral agreements to assist developing countries with equipment, printing, distri- bution of library journals, and both theoretical and practical training; and ( ) the need to study which of the major national and international primary periodicals provide abstracts in at least one widely used language to important articles. [unisist newsletter, vol. , nos. and , ] d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts great britain british archival celebration. british archivists will celebrate international ar- chives week during the week of - november . in an attempt to promote publicity and to coordinate local activities, the society of archivists has formed a working party and hopes all archival repositories and institutions will participate. regular news bulletins will be issued by the working party as a means of keeping society members informed of coming events. change of annual closing date at the british library. the british library announced on december a change of date from late spring to mid-fall for the annual closing of the library. effective in , the annual closing of the reading room and other public rooms of the department of printed books, for shelf checking, cleaning, and repairs, will be moved to the week following the last week in october ( october- november ). the dates of the annual clos- ing of the manuscript students' room ( - october ) and the oriental students' reading room ( - october ) remain unchanged. for further information, write to the british library, reference division, great russell street, london wcib dg, england. india nationwide celebrations of archives week. in response to a resolution of the national committee of archivists at its twenty-ninth meeting, in mysore ( feb- ruary ), india celebrated archives week throughout the land during the week of - august . the planned celebrations had a dual purpose: ( ) to arouse an archival consciousness in the average citizen, and ( ) to convey to the scholarly community the importance of archives and its role in preserving the cultural heritage of this vast country. both the national archives and various state repositories carried this message via special exhibitions, radio and television pro- grams, seminars, newspaper articles, brochures, and booklets. under special security precautions, the national archives opened its doors to the people of delhi to allow them to gain an insight into the various operations of the archives as well as to view the immense quantity of diverse records preserved in the archives building. archives personnel also conducted forty-five-min- ute tours for groups of twenty people. during the tour visitors saw specimens of the different types of records stored in the archives and samples of various pres- ervation techniques. a separate exhibit entitled "our heritage" used selected historical documents from official records, persian manuscripts, and private pa- pers to illustrate the richness of indian history. although the entire program was organized on a modest budget and without prior publicity, it proved a great suc- cess. officials are currently considering numerous suggestions to undertake more frequent exhibitions and to hold regular open-house programs in the future. similar celebrations occurred in the states but on a much smaller scale than at the national archives. assam: all india radio broadcast from the ganhati center a special program on the importance of archives in modern democracies, while the assam tribune ( august ) ran an article on "archives—its importance d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april in modern democracies." to acquaint the people of bihar with the importance of preserving records, the patna station of all india radio broadcast ( august ) a program on records management and modern conservation practices. in addition to the radio program, the bihar state archives distributed a pamphlet on the care and preservation of records at the state archives as a source for the study of modern indian history. english and hindi newspapers in patna carried articles on the history of the state archives, its holdings, publications, and services. in delhi, wall posters appeared in the city and villages of the union territory of delhi appealing to the people to realize the importance of archives. the press, radio, television, and cinema covered the celebrations. the exhibit of documents and photographs entitled "chandni chowk then and now" was so well done that the television division of the indian government prepared an international documentary. gujarat: the state archives prepared a pamphlet on developments at the archives, which appeared also in the biweekly magazine "gujarat." ah- medabad radio station arranged a radio talk show to give the state archives greater public exposure. haryana: under the auspices of the haryana state ar- chives, an exhibit of rare documents, nineteenth and twentieth-century maps, and photographs of the freedom movement in the state were organized at bhiwani, farida-bad, jind, and narnaul. in addition to the exhibit, all india radio rohtak issued news bulletins on archives week and presented a talk program with the deputy director of the state archives. the history departments of government colleges at bhiwani, faridabad, and narnaul sponsored a lecture series on post- graduate research facilities, the importance of reading history on the basis of ar- chival resources, and the preservation of old documents. maharashtra: the gov- ernment issued an appeal to the public to deposit old records in their custody to the state archives to insure their preservation. all india radio bombay inter- viewed b. g. kunte, director of archives, and scholar arun joshi. the bombay economic times published ( august ) a reporter's visit to the state archives. orissa: the orissa state archives distributed a free special bulletin on archives to the scholarly community. in tauril nadu, the english daily newspapers hindu, indian express, and madras mail provided coverage of the various archives pro- grams. an exhibit of selected historical documents, including a copy of a letter from mahatma gandhi to adolph hiker in which the indian leader appeals to the fuhrer "in the name of humanity to stop the war." [n. h. kulkarnee, swarbica and national archives of india] nigeria conference of african library, archives, and information studies schools. a meeting on the theme of african trends in professional education in library, archives, and information studies was held at the university of ibadan, - may . the meeting was the second in a series which had started in dakar, sene- gal, in , and was organized by the dean of the faculty of education and faculty members of the department of library studies at ibadan, with unesco assistance. representatives of schools from ghana, nigeria, senegal, uganda, and zambia attended this meeting. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts the agenda included discussion of common curricula for librarians, archivists, and information scientists, criteria for the evaluation of teaching programs, prob- lems of local relevance in professional education programs, importance of prac- tical work in the region's curriculum, and activities and professional programs in african schools. participants also adopted statutes for a standing conference of african library, archives, and information studies schools. since there have been notable developments in africa relating to library, archives, and information studies schools. six of these developments include: ( ) the spread of the tendency to concentrate all professional training at a single institution, ( ) tendency to have professional training attached to universities, ( ) rapid enrollment growth in most african schools, ( ) renewed quest for local relevance in instructional programs, ( ) reinforcement of academic status within the university communities with increased emphasis on research, and ( ) intro- duction and strengthening of programs at the post-graduate level. the group expects to meet again in in ghana. [unisist newsletter, vol. , no. , ] peru new journal. with the aim of "publicizing research based on documents in the archives, giving information on archival activities, and issuing significant lists and documents," the archivo del fuero agrario has published the first issue of its journal, tierra y sociedad (april ), under the editorship of historian manuel burga. the journal is divided into three sections: studies, activities in the ar- chives, and documents and documentary indexes. the archivo del fuero agrario is one of the most important latin american repositories for its type of documentation. established as a result of the agrarian reform law, the archives preserves sources for the study of agriculture and cattle raising in peru as well as related subjects. this material is particularly useful for a socio-economic approach to the history of peru. documentary exhibit in lima. the archivo historico riva-agiiero (pontifical catholic university of peru) organized, - november , a documentary exhibit entitled "riva-agiiero and his spanish correspondents," at the instituto riva-agiiero, lima. the exhibit centered on a display of letters sent to lima's eminent teacher and cipherer, jose de la riva-agiiero y osma ( - ), by some of spain's dis- tinguished personalities. the exhibit attempted to accomplish three objectives: ( ) to publicize a little known facet of jose de la riva-agiiero's life, that of an accomplished letter writer; ( ) to commemorate the work of lima's illustrious teacher, pedro benvenutto murrieta; and ( ) to stir among the general public an archival awareness of the contributions to peruvian and spanish-american cul- ture. [cesar gutierrez munoz, archivo historico riva-agiiero] vatican city opening of the archives of pope leo xiii. in a pre-christmas speech to an assembly of cardinals and officials of the roman curia, pope john paul ii an- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april nounced on december the opening of the archives ( - ) of pope leo xiii. the twenty-five year pontificate of this pope coincided with the great political, social, economic, and intellectual turmoils of the last part of the nine- teenth century. born gioacchino pecci, the former archbishop of perugia is per- haps best known for his encyclical rerum novarum, which sought to reconcile labor and capital. this encyclical is considered to be the basis of modern catholic social thought. as a patron of learning, leo xiii set a new intellectual tone in the roman catholic church with his insistence on a renewal of philosophical thought based on the works of st. thomas aquinas. also, in an effort to promote scholarly re- search, he was in the first pope to make the secret vatican archives acces- sible to scholars. the archives of the most recent popes, however, remain closed to scholars until a decision is made to open a new section for research. abstracts international council on archives. [meyer h. fishbein, national archives and records service] cad information cd a, no. (september ). this is the first issue of a bulletin, in english and french, published by the ica committee on archival development (cad) and distributed to ica members and sent free upon request to individuals and institutions interested in archival development throughout the world. under the editorship of bernard weilbrenner, assistant dominion archivist, public archives of canada, the cad bulletin will irregularly publish news about archival developments in the third world and articles of interest to its archivists. the lead article in the inaugural issue (pp. - ) is by cad chairman morris rieger who explains cad's objectives and activities. al- bert h. leisinger, secretary of the ica microfilm committee, discusses (pp. - ) the establishment of microfilm demonstration centers. news items in this issue relate to barbados, india, iran, malawi, sierra leone, sri lanka, and the south and west asian branch of ica. adpa: archives and automation i i nformatique, vol. , no. (august ). this issue of the bulletin published by the ica committee on automation contains three articles: an outline by lionel bell of the british library, and arie arad of the israeli state archives on the main elements for automated archival descrip- tion (pp. - ); an explication of plans for automating the federal register, by carol mahoney of the office of the federal register, national archives and rec- ords service (pp. - ); and an analysis of computer applications in the ar- chives of the smithsonian institution, by alan l. bain (pp. - ). the next volume of adpa (no publication date has been set) will be published in belgium under the editorship of jean pieyns, archives de l'etat. belgium. [paul v. and simone u. guite, washington, d.c.] archives et bib- liotheques de belgiquelarchief - en bibliotheekwezen in belgie, vol. , nos. - ( ). two articles in this issue pertain to judicial archives. j. th. de smidt, a professor at leiden-amsterdam, describes (pp. - ) the preservation of and access to judicial archives in the netherlands. according to de smidt, the situation in the netherlands resembles a judicial pyramid with the french judicial system im- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts posed by napoleon i on the bottom, the - dutch legislative decrees in the middle, and the laws at the top. the legislation directed the min- ister of justice to maintain the records in his custody in good order. article of the same law stipulates that records older than fifty years should be transferred to the archives of the kingdom. the legislation also requires that disposi- tion schedules be submitted to the council on archives, a ten-member body estab- lished in representing the archives, the universities, and the administration. the principal concern, according to the author, with regard to judicial archives is to locate and identify those series and registers which are permanently valuable. ph. godding of the catholic university of louvain discusses (pp. - ) the use of belgian judicial archives by historians. he points out that historians wishing to use judicial records face a number of major obstacles. among these obstacles are the chances of their preservation via the archival selection process, access difficulties resulting from control exercised by public attorneys, and the ignorance in which historians often find themselves concerning the types of data contained in these legal documents. godding also discusses at some length the legal and procedural questions governing access to judicial records. also in this issue, j. n. t. van albada, municipal archivist of tilburg, reviews (pp. - ) latest developments in municipal archives administration thinking in the netherlands. the author states that the primary purpose of archives administration should seek to uphold what he refers to as "legal order," main- taining the rights and obligations of both municipal authorities and citizens. to accomplish this task, van albada suggests the enactment of municipal archives bylaws as well as a well-trained staff, ample space, and sufficient funds. bulgaria. [g. koolemans beynen, ohio state university] izvestiia na dur- zhavnite arkhivi, vol. ( ). this issue contains a wide variety of subjects. boris popor reviews (pp. - ) the nature of document retrieval systems and the possibilities of automation for archives. he discusses the benefits and points out some of the problems with automated data processing. vasil serafimov discusses (pp. - ) the place and role of records management in contemporary adminis- tration, whereas petur totsev stresses (pp. - ) the importance of establishing a national or regional master plan in the preservation of permanently valuable documents. other articles included in this issue are as follows. elena doicheva provides (pp. - ) a survey of documents relating to the political, economic, and cultural relations between the province of burgas and russia ( - ). dimitur po- por briefly reviews (pp. - ) the holdings of the red cross archives of the town of vidin up to . mariana bluskova and ani kalinova describe (pp. - ) documents in the central state historical archives on the abortive april ( ) uprising against turkish rule; these pertain mostly to pension claims by some of the participants. nadezhda pruvcheva provides (pp. - ) a survey of records pertaining to vasil levski in the central state historical archives. two articles in this issue illustrate the use of bulgarian archives for anthropological research. on the basis of documents from various villages gatia simeonova dis- cusses (pp. - ) commerce, jobs, public health, village traditions, and village- town relations in the rusa region. stoian borisov presents (pp. - ) a general impression of life in dragoeva from to , utilizing source material from d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—april the archives of the communal administration in the village of dragoeva. other articles deal with various aspects of bulgarian history. france. [judith koucky, national archives and records service] la gazette des archives, n.s., no. ( ). helene prax and paule rene-bazin discuss (pp. - ) the system by which the archives nationales sends archivists to the var- ious ministries of the central government in order to process non-current minis- terial records. the authors state that the equivalent of eleven full-time archivists are presently assigned to fourteen ministries. some of these archivists maintain permanent offices at the ministries to which they have been appointed; others work only part of the time at their respective ministries. the authors explain that, although these archivists are expected to identify any permanently valuable min- isterial records and to prepare those records for deposit in the archives nation- ales, they have had to perform records management duties since the opening of the government records center at fontainebleau in . in effect, the archivists attached to the ministries are now handling the masses of non-current records which, because they still may be needed for the conduct of government business, are designated for storage in fontainebleau until their final disposition at a later time. the problem, according to the authors, is that non-current ministerial records are not uniformly treated prior to shipment to fontainebleau. the level of tech- nical competence of the staff assigned to assist the archivist and the amount of working space provided for records processing, vary greatly from ministry to ministry. those archivists with a staff trained in archival techniques and with an adequate working space can do much of the processing at the ministry itself. they can, for example, combine into a single body the records of a particular adminis- trative unit which have been retired to the ministry's non-current records area in small loads at different times, and tbey can retain in the ministry's storage rooms any non-current records which are soon to be destroyed. limitations of staff and working space, however, force other archivists to send ministerial records to fon- tainebleau that have been imperfectly processed or not processed at all. the authors propose two measures for resolving the problem. first, they urge a closer relationship between the staff at fontainebleau and the archivists at the ministries. the archivist of each ministry could, they suggest, be paired with a staff member at fontainebleau so that the two could collaborate in processing the records of that particular ministry. ultimately, the authors declare, all units con- cerned with the management of current records and the administration of con- temporary archives should be combined into a single organization. second, the authors recommend that the archivists assigned to the ministries be given an of- ficial position within the administrative structure of the ministries; that the rec- ords processing staffs include more personnel trained in archival techniques; and that adequate working space be allocated to enable the archivists and their staffs to process the ministerial records before sending them to fontainebleau. this issue also contains an article by michel duchein on the publications pro- gram of the essex county archives in england (pp. - ), and a review by ariane ducrot of the recently revised edition of the guide to the bundesarchiv of the federal republic of germany (pp. - ). in a technical note, m. meras d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts describes (pp. - ) the method used by the archives departemental du rhone to protect the seals attached to its ancient and medieval documents. [mary elizabeth ruwf.ll, national archives and records service] note d'information, no. ( ). this issue of the serial publication on automated data processing presents an inventory of the centralized minutes of parisian pub- lic notaries for . earlier issues (nos. and ) had made reference to the completion of the first phase of this project. a computerized index listing about , acts has been available to researchers for almost a year. this issue justifies the methodology for the continuing project, describes the development of a working vocabulary, and defines the terms used within the pro- gram. with the publication of the inventory for the records, present plans are to produce inventories of these records for every tenth year, that is inventories for , , , and so forth. peru. [cesar gutierrez munoz, archivo historico riva-agiiero] tierray so- ciedad (april ). in this inaugural issue of the journal of the archivo del fuerto agrario appear two articles based on material in the archives: "the ha- cienda in peru, - : facts and methods" by manuel burga and "the development of the cattle raising industry in the central andes, - " by gerardo renique. in reference to activities at the archives, there is a review of the first program of peruvian agrarian history; significant attempts to recover the documentary sources of the old landed estates of piura, lambayeque, caja- marca, la libertad, lima, lea, cuzco, and puno; a description of the papers of pomalca, udima, and algolan; and a summary of research projects at the ar- chives by peruvian and foreign researchers during - . also in this first issue there is a chronological list of the manuscripts of the hacienda san jacinto de ucupe (lambayeque), which don juan meji'a baca, literary connoisseur of lima, donated in part to the archives. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .r p xt by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril hindawi publishing corporation anemia volume , article id , pages doi: . / / editorial a molecular, genetic, and diagnostic spotlight on fanconi anemia laura e. hays, stefan meyer, and henri j. van de vrugt division of hematology & oncology, school of medicine, oregon health & science university, sw us veterans hospital road, r&d- , portland, or , usa stem cell and leukaemia proteomics laboratory and paediatric and adolescent oncology, university of manchester, royal manchester children’s hospital and the christie nhs foundation trust, manchester academic health science centre, manchester m bx, uk division of biological stress response, the netherlands cancer institute, plesmanlaan , cx amsterdam, the netherlands correspondence should be addressed to henri j. van de vrugt, henrivandevrugt@gmail.com received june ; accepted june copyright © laura e. hays et al. this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. eighty-five years ago dr. guido fanconi described a family with three brothers with microcephaly, hyperpigmentation of the skin, hypoplasia of the testes, and who developed a lethal anemia between the ages of and [ , ]. since , patients with this distinctive combination of clinical features have been classified as having fanconi anemia (fa). to date, diagnosis of this disease, which as we know can manifest with variable clinical presentation, is based on increased chromo- somal breakage in response to dna crosslinking agents. in addition to anemia, fa patients are highly predisposed to leukemia, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, and gynecological cancers [ ]. fa is caused by biallelic or x chromosome-linked mutations in one of different genes, eight of whose gene products (fanca, fancb, fancc, fance, fancf, fancg, fancl, and fancm) form a nuclear core complex that must be intact to ubiquitinate fancd and fanci. the ubiquinated fancd /fanci heterodimer then functionally interacts with down- stream fa proteins (fancd /brca , fancj/brip , fancn/palb , fanco/rad c, and fancp/slx ) to mediate dna damage responses [ ]. this special issue provides a wide range of scientific papers and reviews that examine in detail techniques for diagnosis of fa, molecular and genetic mechanisms of fa protein function, comprehensive details of the varied clinical manifestations, new model systems for study of this disease, and potential new therapeutics. three papers describe fa relevant aspects in fa diagnoses using chromo- somal breakage analysis and mutation detection by multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (mlpa) and pcr- based sanger sequencing, or next generation sequencing. the strategy to detect mutations and the genetic counseling of involved families should be adapted when there is evidence for a founder effect, which results in a high prevalence of a common mutation in a specific population. in this special issue, y. de vries et al. provide evidence that fa-c patients with the fancc c. delg mutation in the dutch and canadian manitoba mennonite populations originate from a common founder. one impediment to fa research has been the relative lack of a murine model that truly recapitulates the severity of fa hematopoietic defects. in the data reported by j. h. e. verhagen-oldenampsen et al., ercc -deficient mice were used as model for fa-like bone marrow failure. although no ercc mutations have been detected in fa patients, ercc interacts with fancp/slx and functions in interstrand crosslink repair [ ], the critical type of dna damage recognized and repaired by the fa/brca pathway [ ] (figure ). another group of papers in this issue provides detailed and thorough scientific reviews of the varied clinical and molecular aspects of this disease, new model systems, and potential future treatments. first, the review by m. d. milsom et al. details fa-associated defects in hematopoietic mailto:henrivandevrugt@gmail.com anemia hdr proteins incision complex tls ub ub id-complex id-complex icl fancm sensor complex fa-core complex e ligase replication stress and dna damage response kinases figure : schematic overview of the fa pathway. the fa pathway operates to maintain genomic stability in response to stalled replication forks, particularly in the context of interstrand dna crosslinks (icls) that covalently link the two strands of the dna helix. replication stalling is detected by the fancm sensor complex and triggers the activation of the rad -related protein kinase atr, resulting in the phosphorylation of several fa proteins. fancm becomes a docking platform for the other fa core complex proteins including the fancl e ubiquitin ligase. the core complex activates the two members of the id complex, fancd and fanci, by monoubiquitination (ub) to promote icl repair. the incision complex includes fancp/slx and ercc and is essential to resolve the crosslink. repair and replication fork restart is further accomplished using translesion synthesis (tls) and homology-directed repair (hdr) which involves brca /fancd , palb /fancn, and rad c/fanco. stem cell biology and resultant bone marrow failure. fa chromosomal aberrations associated with clonal evolution and leukemic transformation are the focus of the review by s. meyer et al. t. kaddar and m. carreau review aspects of fa protein function that have been placed in the shadow by the recent focus on the role of the fa pathway in dna repair. the paper by c. hodson and h. walden comprehensively reviews aspects of protein interactions and function in the fa core complex, while the review by m.r. jones and a.m. rose focuses on utilization of a relatively new model system for fa, the worm c. elegans. they examine the functions of dog , a functional ortholog of fancj, and fancd in interstrand crosslink repair. to conclude the special issue, jenkins et al. summarize the efforts that have been made to generate and utilize fa pathway inhibitors as novel anticancer therapies. the great progress in understanding fa on a molecular, cellular and clinical level illustrated in this special issue has made a big difference to people affected by fa, but also an enormous contribution to hematology, cancer, and developmental biology research. this has been achieved to a large extent through close interactions between scientists, clinicians and patients, which provide a resourceful platform for not only exchange and stimulation, but also a constant reminder of the goals of this research—aiming to understand biology in order to make the journey of families with fa a more hopeful one. fa patient support groups by bob dalgleish, fanconi hope, uk. fa patients, although relatively few in number in each country, are fortunate in having a number of strong family support groups that coordinate their activities on an international basis to ensure a coherent approach to supporting research. the longest established group, the united states-based fanconi anemia research fund (farf: http://www.fanconi.org.uk/) has been responsible for sponsoring a significant amount of research for over years. also in existence over a similar period, the ger- man group deutsche fanconi-anämie-hilfe e.v. (fanconi anemia aid association: http://www.fanconi.de/), has been actively involved on an international scale in long-term research programs. the more recently formed uk-based organization, fanconi hope (http://www.fanconi.org.uk/) has been supporting research through the auspices of the farf scientific advisory board, for uk research projects selected by farf. fanconi hope and farf also sponsor an international fa gene therapy working group, now in its third year, which aims to accelerate the transition from research to gene therapy trials for fa patients by coordinating activities on an international scale. fa patients, their families and friends are in large part responsible for raising the funds for this research. this is of great benefit to those affected as this allows them to believe they can make a difference, if not to the current generation of fa patients then at least as a legacy to the benefit of the next generation. laura e. hays stefan meyer henri j. van de vrugt http://www.fanconi.org.uk/ http://www.fanconi.de/ http://www.fanconi.org.uk/ anemia references [ ] s. lobitz and e. velleuer, “guido fanconi ( – ): a jack of all trades,” nature reviews cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] g. fanconi, “familiare, infantile, perniziosaartige anamie (pernizioses blutbild und konstitution). [familial infantile pernicious-like anemia (pernicious blood picture and consti- tution)],” jahrbuch fur kinderheilkunde, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] p. s. rosenberg, m. h. greene, and b. p. alter, “cancer inci- dence in persons with fanconi anemia,” blood, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] j. soulier, “fanconi anemia,” hematology/the education pro- gram of the american society of hematology. american society of hematology education program, vol. , pp. – , . [ ] s. fekairi, s. scaglione, c. chahwan et al., “human slx is a holliday junction resolvase subunit that binds multiple dna repair/recombination endonucleases,” cell, vol. , no. , pp. – , . [ ] a. j. deans and s. c. west, “dna interstrand crosslink repair and cancer,” nature reviews cancer, vol. , no. , pp. – , . 	fa patient support groups by bob dalgleish, fanconi hope, uk. 	references asmscience | membership toggle navigation toggle navigation more toggle navigation toggle navigation 	 personal account sign-in / register access provided by: carnegie mellon university (# ) asm member status join asm 	 sign-in as administrator 	 	 username: password: sign in need login help? 	 sign out 	 	 www.asm.org 	 membership 	 subscriptions 	 contact us 	 home 	 search/browse selected topics coming soon! concepts/taxonomy search content by concept advanced search advanced search and filter tools 	 journals/magazines open access journals microbiology resource announcements™ journal of microbiology & biology education® mbio® msphere® msystems® subscription journals antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy® applied and environmental microbiology® clinical microbiology reviews® clinical and vaccine immunology® eukaryotic cell® ecosal plus® infection and immunity® journal of bacteriology® journal of clinical microbiology® journal of virology® microbiology and molecular biology reviews® microbiology spectrum molecular and cellular biology® magazines microbe® magazine subscribe to asm journals journal packagesindividual asm journals 	 books 	 reports/guidelines american academy of microbiology colloquia reports faq series education resources laboratory protocols curriculum archive image gallery visual media briefs 	 webinars 	 this periodical all content periodicals books all content advanced search home / periodicals / microbe magazine / volume , issue / article microbe magazine 	 current issue 	 past issues 	 podcasts 	 connect 	 current issue 	 past issues 	 podcasts 	 connect 	 features 	 current topics 	 asm news 	 departments 	 forum january     cover imagecover: closeup of a piece of mimolette cheese. the affinage, or finishing, stage of cheese making involves a whole new set of microbes that determine its final character (see p. ). (photo © plainview/istockphoto.) /docserver/fulltext/microbe/ / /coverfig.gif /docserver/fulltext/microbe/ / /coverfig.gif microbe magazine, cover image cover imagecover: closeup of a piece of mimolette cheese. the affinage, or finishing, stage of cheese making involves a whole new set of microbes that determine its final character (see p. ). (photo © plainview/istockphoto.) full text loading... /deliver/fulltext/microbe/ / /znw .html?itemid=/content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . &mimetype=html&fmt=ahah related content /content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . pub_author -contenttype:journal -contenttype:contributor -contenttype:concept -contenttype:institution related content from pubmed joan w. bennett douglas eveleigh 	 personal account sign-in / register access provided by: carnegie mellon university (# ) asm member status join asm 	 sign-in as administrator 	 username: password: sign in need login help? 	 sign out 	 share tools 	 export citations 	 bibtex 	 endnote 	 zotero 	 plain text 	 refworks 	 mendeley 	 recommend to library these fields are mandatory: * librarian details name: * email: * your details name: * email: * department: * why are you recommending this title? select reason: i need to refer to this publication frequently this publication is an essential resource for my studies/research i'll refer my students to this publication 	 i'm an author/editor/contributor to this publication 	 i'm a member of the publication's editorial board 	 other:   eventtype:personalisation;jsessionid:fw u e ogqs qkrw wtk -d.asmlive- - - - ;itemid:http://asm.metastore.ingenta.com/content/journal/microbe/ . /microbe. . . ;timestamp: invalid site public key invalid site private key invalid request cookie incorrect. try again. unabled to verify parameters could not contact recaptcha for validation i am not a robot * recommend — recommend this title to your library thank you your recommendation has been sent to your librarian. 	 request permission/order reprints access key 	 free content 	 open access content 	 subscribed content back to top about us 	about asm 	contact us 	terms of use 	privacy policy 	copyright & licenses 	public access policy 	permission & reprints resources 	 for authors 	 for librarians 	 for advertisers 	 for instructors 	 for reviewers 	 for the press publications 	 individual member journal subscriptions 	 journal of microbiology & biology education® 	microbiology spectrum® 	ecosal plus® 	books 	colloquia reports 	faq series 	protocols 	curriculum archive american society for microbiology © this is a required field please enter a valid email address please check the format of the address you have entered. approval was a success invalid data an error occurred approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error big bone lick: the cradle of american paleontology (review) big bone lick: the cradle of american paleontology (review) james l. murphy ohio history, volume , , pp. - (review) published by the kent state university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /ohh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /ohh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ ohio history the fourth and most extensive section contains thirty-one interviews con- ducted between and . the bulk of these interviews represent a gen- eration of delawares who grew up without knowing many of their cultural traditions and language. for the most part their collective memories express a desire to learn more about their heritage and reconnect the songs, dances, clothing, and foods of their grandparents and great-grandparents. they also express a community effort not only to explore and restore their heritage but also a commitment to transmit that knowledge to the younger generation. for scholars this work is a tantalizing sampling of indian oral histories that continue to be underutilized. for the general reader the stories shared by the delaware people are lessons in the resilience and tenacity of a community. daw n m a r s h purdue university big bone lick: the cradle of american paleontology. by stanley hedeen. (lexington: university press of kentucky, . xviii, pp. cloth $ . , isbn - - - - .) kentucky’s first tourist attraction, big bone lick has long deserved a mod- ern account such as stanley hedeen provides. professor emeritus of biology at xavier university, hedeen does a fine job of interpreting the history and significance of the prehistoric and historic salt lick aptly termed “the cradle of american paleontology.” well-grounded in history, geology, and vertebrate paleontology, the au- thor for the most part ably deals with a historical problem compounded by a plethora of obscure and widely scattered references; but in some respects his study supplements rather than supplants the work of the same title by the indefatigable willard rouse jillson (published by the original big bone lick association). hedeen does clarify jillson’s mistaken date for charles de longueuil’s expedition and provides previously unknown nineteenth-century newspaper references. his account is more readable and benefits from more recent advances in our understanding of local geomorphology, paleoecology, and vertebrate taxonomy. he incorporates much unpublished or “underpublished” recent research. hedeen’s account is comprehensive but not quite complete, for both he and jillson omit two significant references to early visitors. in capt. william harrod, hastening to join col. john bowman’s expedition against the shawnee indians of ohio, encountered a group of men transporting a canoe-load of specimens from big bone lick to redstone old fort. some . “bowman’s expedition against chillicothe, may‒june, ,” ohio archaeological and historical publications ( ): ‒ . bo ok reviews of these men joined harrod and bowman on the unsuccessful ohio foray, and subsequently “capt. wm. harrod, with others, went up the ohio to red stone in the two keel boats &c. and took along several bones & tusks got at the big bone lick.” what became of these specimens remains unknown, but this was an important early effort at “mining” the deposits at big bone. similarly, neither jillson nor hedeen mentions thomas rodney’s well-doc- umented stop there on october , , less than a week after meriwether lewis’s collecting visit for thomas jefferson. rodney not only took measure- ments of several of the remaining fossil bones but speculated (incorrectly) that no animals larger than bison ever existed there, larger bones being “only fossil concretions.” rodney himself collected a mastodon tooth and a tusk fragment, but these were lost when his boat sank at natchez. curiously, hedeen merely reproduces without explanation a photograph of three paleo-indian points “collected” at big bone lick. elsewhere, he has written that these were discovered in the lowest level of the big bone de- posits during william clark’s excavations for thomas jefferson and are “now likely” housed at the cincinnati museum center. the significance of associated paleo-indian artifacts and megafauna at big bone lick should certainly be acknowledged but so too should the considerable debate exist- ing about the precise provenance and pedigree of these artifacts. such strictures aside, this book provides ample context for the present big bone lick state park museum and should remain a standard resource for many years. ja m e s l . m u r p h y the ohio state university mennonites, amish, and the american civil war. by james o. lehman and steven m. nolt. (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, . xiv, pp. cloth $ . , isbn - - - .) when war engulfed virginia in the summer of , mennonite christian good was conscripted into the state militia. after good experienced battle and failed to discharge his rifle, his perturbed captain asked him why he . henry hill, “bowman’s campaign— ,” ohio archaeological and historical publica- tions ( ): . . simon gratz, “thomas rodney,” pennsylvania magazine of history and biography . ( ): ‒ . . stanley hedeen, natural history of the cincinnati region. cincinnati museum center scientific contributions no. (cincinnati: the center, ), . in the same publication, these artifacts are captioned only as “most likely [discovered] during william clark’s expedition” (plate ). arq bras oftalmol. ; ( ): - artigo original | original article introduction the prevalence of refractive errors in school children worldwide varies considerably. for example, the prevalence of myopia is relati- vely low in the united states (u.s.)( - ) with a range of - % (depen- ding on age and ethnicity), but much higher in greece( ) at %, and highest of all in taiwan( , ) with a range of - %, depending on age. in latin america, a great variance has also been observed with a lower prevalence of myopia in brazil ( - %), a higher prevalence in chile ( - %), and a very high prevalence in mexico ( %)( - ). there are multifactorial reasons for these ranges. first, younger children are generally more hyperopic, while myopia prevalence in- creases as children age. emmetropia at an early age seems to carry a higher risk of developing myopia, and parental history may influence its development in offspring( , ). second, there is no universal agree- ment on the definition of myopia. the prevalence of myopia was calculated in singapore as . % or . %, depending on whether a spherical equivalent cut-off point of - . d or - . d was used( ). third, environmental conditions, such as being in a closed environment or increased work can have a profound impact. for example, the “epidemic” of myopia observed in asia in recent decades could be due to children spending more time in high rise apartments, more intensive school work, and other stress factors( - ). finally, ethnicity may also be associated with the genetic predisposition of myopia or refractive error( - , , ). in latin america, the role of ethnicity in refractive errors has been less explored. the goal of this study was to examine refractive errors visual acuity and refraction by age for children of three different ethnic groups in paraguay acuidade visual e refração por idade para crianças de três grupos étnicos diferentes no paraguai marissa janine carter , van charles lansingh , gisela schacht , miguel río del amo , miguel scalamogna , thomas douglas france submitted for publication: january , accepted for publication: january , study was carried out in fundación vision, asuncion, paraguay. strategic solutions, inc., cody, wy. international agency for the prevention of blindness/vision , buenos aires, argentina. fundación vision, asuncion, paraguay. department of ophthalmology and visual sciences, university of wisconsin, madison, wi. affiliation should be fundacion vision, asuncion, paraguay. funding: preparation of this manuscript was funded by fundacion vision, orbis, and the inter- national agency for the prevention of blindness (iapb). disclosure: m.j.carter, employed by strategic solutions and is a paid consultant to orbis and the iapb; v.c.lansingh, employed by the iapb; g.schcht, employed by fundacion vision; m.r. del amo, none; m.scalamogna, employed by fundacion vision; t.d.france, employed by the university of wisconsin. correspondence address: marissa carter. strategic solutions, inc. - salsbury ave - cody - wy - usa - e-mail: mcarter@strategic-solutions-inc.com abstract purpose: to characterize refractive errors in paraguayan children aged - years and investigate effect of age, gender, and ethnicity. methods: the study was conducted at schools that catered to mennonite, in digenous, and mixed race children. children were examined for presenting visual acuity, autorefraction with and without cycloplegia, and retinoscopy. data were analyzed for myopia and hyperopia (se ≤- d or - . d and ≥ d or ≥ d) and astigmatism (cylinder ≥ d). spherical equivalent (se) values were calculated from right eye cycloplegic autorefraction data and analyzed using general linear modelling. results: there were , , and children of mennonite, indigenous and mixed race ethnicity, respectively. se values between right/left eyes were nonsignificant. mean visual acuity ( va) without correction was better for mennonites compared to indigenous or mixed race children (right eyes: . , . , and . logmar units, respectively; p< . ). there were cases of myopia in the mennonite group ( . %) and cases in the mixed race group ( . %) (se ≤- . d). the prevalence of hyperopia (se ≥ d) was . %, . %, and . % for mennonite, indigenous and mixed race children. corresponding astigmatism rates were . %, . %, and . %. females were slightly more hyperopic than males, and the - years age group was the most hyperopic. mennonite and mixed race children were more hyperopic than indigenous children. conclusions: paraguayan children were remarkably hyperopic and relatively free of myopia. differences with regard to gender, age, and ethnicity were small. keywords: refractive error/ethnology; myopia; hyperopia; astigmatism; ethnicity and health; visual acuity; humans; child; adolescent; paraguay resumo objetivo: caracterizar os erros de refração em crianças paraguaias com idades entre e anos e investigar efeito da idade, gênero e etnia. métodos: o estudo foi realizado em três escolas que atendiam crianças de etnia menonita, indígena e mista. as crianças foram examinadas em relação à acuidade visual, autorrefração com e sem cicloplegia, e retinoscopia. os dados foram analisa- dos para correção de miopia e hipermetropia (ee ≤- d ou - , d e ≥ d ou ≥ d) e astigmatismo (cilindro ≥ d). valores equivalentes esféricos (ee) foram calculados a partir dos dados de autorrefração cicloplegiada do olho direito e analisados por meio de modelagem linear geral. resultados: foram avaliadas , e crianças de etnias menonita, indígena e mista, respectivamente. diferenças entre os valores de ee de olhos direitos e esquerdos não foram significantes. a acuidade visual (av ) sem correção foi melhor para meno- nitas em relação às crianças da etnia indígena ou mista (olho direito: , , , e , logmar, respectivamente; p< , ). houve casos de miopia no grupo me- nonita ( , %) e casos no grupo de etnia mista ( , %) (se ≤- , d). a prevalência de hipermetropia (se ≥ d) foi de , %, , % e , % para as etnias menonita, indígena e mista. as taxas correspondentes de astigmatismo foram de , %, , % e , %. as mulheres foram ligeiramente mais hipermétropes do que os homens, e o grupo de a anos de idade foi a mais hipermétrope. crianças da etnia menonita e mista se mostraram mais hipermétropes do que as crianças indígenas. conclusões: as crianças paraguaias são notavelmente hipermétropes e relativamente livres de miopia. diferenças com relação ao sexo, idade e etnia são pequenas. descritores: erros de refração/etnologia; miopia; hiperopia; astigmatismo; origem étnica e saúde; acuidade visual; humanos; criança; adolescente; paraguai carter mj, et al. arq bras oftalmol. ; ( ): - in paraguayan school children of ethnicities: mennonite ( white, of german extraction), indigenous (macca indians), and mixed race (of european and indigenous). this is first study looking at ethnicity and refractive error in paraguay. methods the study was conducted during april and may in a boar- ding school for indigenous children in asuncion, a rural mennonite community school (the only such school in the geographic area with children ultimately of white, germanic extraction), and a mixed race school in asuncion. in each school, the study was conducted until all the children present had been examined over approximately a -day period by third-year ophthalmology residents trained by an experienced ophthalmologist for a week ( % agreement between the residents and ophthalmologist). consent for the study was given by the parents of each child and the study was approved by the fundacion vision irb. patient anonymity was preserved. the study also adhered to the tenets of the declaration of helsinki in (as revised in tokyo ). each child was examined for presenting visual acuity ( va; with available correction), autorefraction with and without cycloplegia, and retinoscopy (with cycloplegia) by the residents. the autore- fractor (seiko gr- , hiroshima, japan) was calibrated to the manufacturer’s specifications prior to each use. the va examination employed a snellen chart for meters, followed by noncycloplegic refraction using the autorefractor. cycloplegia was induced by drops of cyclopentolate and after a - -minute waiting period, each child was re-examined using the autorefractor and then retinos- copy. the following data were collected for right and left eyes, and recorded in excel sheets (microsoft inc, redmond, wa): presenting visual acuity (snellen values), sphere, cylinder, and axis values (autore- fraction with and without cycloplegia; retinoscopy with cycloplegia). after a pilot study that analyzed the different methods, autorefraction with cycloplegia was chosen as the method to study differences. spherical equivalent (se) in d was calculated as sphere measure- ment + ( . x cylinder measurement). statistical analysis the results were analyzed using pasw (spss inc., chicago, il). se values were compared between right and left eyes using general linear modelling (essentially manova) with ethnicity as the factor to determine if they were equivalent for analytical purposes. vas were converted into the following snellen categories: / (or better) to / ; / to / ; / to / ; and worse than / . the vas for each ethnic group were compared using gamma and kendall’s tau b for right eyes. the number of cases of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism in any eye was first determined using the following definitions: myopia, se ≤- d; hyperopia, se ≥ d; and astigmatism, cylinder ≥ d( ). myo- pia and hyperopia cases were also determined using the following additional definitions: myopia, se ≤- . d; hyperopia, ≥ d. the num- ber of cases for each category of refractive error for the groups was analyzed by chi square. because right se data were non-normal, a logistic regression was conducted in which se data were divided into hyperopic (relaxed definition of ≥ d) using ethnicity, gender, and age (≤ years, - years, and ≥ years) as factors using all data. results demographics there were , , and children of mennonite (≤ years: ; - years: ; ≥ years: ), indigenous (≤ years: ; - years: ; ≥ years: ), and mixed race ethnicity (≤ years: ; - years: ; ≥ years: ). spherical equivalent: right versus left eyes although box’s m test showed significant violation of homoge- neity of variance (p< . ), levene’s test was non-significant for both independent variables (se for right and left eyes). because box’s m is very sensitive to small violations of homoscedasticity, we determined that selection of right eye data for further analysis was reasonable based on the nonsignificant differences between right and left eyes regarding se between ethnic groups. for the different ethnic groups, se means were slightly higher for left eyes in groups: mennonite: mean right eye se= . , mean left eye se= . ; indigenous: mean right eye se= . , mean left eye se= . ; mixed race: mean right eye se= . , mean left eye se= . ). visual acuity visual acuity without correction was similar between ethnic groups although the mennonites had a significantly higher propor- tion of right eyes in the / to / snellen va category ( . % vs. . % for indigenous and mixed race ethnicities), p= . (table ). the- re were no clear differences within age groups according to ethnicity. myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism there was case of myopia in the mennonite group ( . %) and cases in the mixed race group ( . %). relaxing the definition of myo- pia to se ≤- . d only added case to the mennonite group ( . %). ten cases of hyperopia were observed in each of the mennonite and mixed race groups ( . % and . %, respectively), but only cases in the indigenous group ( . %) for the definition se ≥ d (p= . ). using a definition of hyperopia of se ≥ d, increased the number of cases: mennonite: ( . %); indigenous: ( . %); and mixed race: ( . %); p= . . however, while there only cases of astigmatism identified in the mennonite group ( . %), there were and cases, respectively, in the mixed race and indigenous groups ( . % and . %, respectively) (p= . ). the distribution of astigmatism cases showed that two-thirds of mennonite children had unilateral astig- matism, while in indigenous and mixed race children, the proportion was lower ( % and %, respectively) ( table ). the proportion of eyes with more severe astigmatism (≥ . d) was slightly higher for mennonite children compared to the other groups. females had a higher prevalence of astigmatism than males ( . % versus . %), but this result was not significant. logistic regression in the final model, the - log likelihood was . and the na- gelkerke r was . . only age and gender were significant in the model ( table ). being younger, specifically ≤ years, increased the odds of being hyperopic (or: . ). being female also increased the odds (or: . ). ethnicity was not a significant variable in the model. discussion in this study of paraguayan children of different ethnicities, we noted some significant differences in refractive errors. overall, presenting va was slightly better for mennonite children compared to the indigenous and mixed race children, although the difference was small. for all the groups, the prevalence of myopia was very low using a definition of ≤- . d. even when the cut point was lowered to - . d, the overall prevalence of myopia was still only . %. hyperopia was more common - low at % using the se ≥ d definition - but much higher when using the less stringent moderate hyperopia definition of se ≥ d ( . %). most studies, including those done in brazil, chile, and mexico have found a much lower prevalence than our figure for moderate hyperopia( , - ). past studies of refractive errors in children in the u.s. have also looked at ethnicity( , ), but the most recent study, the colla- borative longitudinal evaluation of ethnicity and refractive error visual acuity and refraction by age for children of three different ethnic groups in paraguay arq bras oftalmol. ; ( ): - study, is considered the largest and most diverse study( ). new cases of myopia that developed in , school-aged children were obser- ved from through and occurred in . % of the children. by ethnicity, . % of asians developed new cases of myopia, . % of hispanics, . % of native americans, . % of african-americans, and % of caucasians( ). this suggests that in our paraguayan population, children are more hyperopic compared with other child populations, which ex - plains why myopia is relatively uncommon. authors of an investiga- tion of indigenous people aged to years in the northwestern amazon region of brazil determined that only . % of eyes had myopia of - . d or more( ). by comparison, brazilians from the small city in which the study was performed had higher rates of myopia ( . % of eyes), and younger, slightly educated brazilians had a myopia prevalence of . % in their eyes. although the authors of this study ascribed the myopic differences to illiteracy, which might be true in this instance, the children in our study were literate, which indicates that other factors are at work, such as genetics, low stress, non-intensive near work, and perhaps more exposure to the outside environment. while hyperopia appeared to be significantly different between the ethnic groups, logistic regression showed that this difference was primarily due to age. however, astigmatism was also significant lower in the mennonite children. the prevalence of astigmatism in indigenous children was . %, similar to the level of astigmatism in the indigenous amazon study ( . %)( ). there were some refractive error differences by gender with females being more hyperopic than males. females also had a higher prevalence of astigmatism, although it was nonsignificant. older children (≥ years) were also significantly less hyperopic compared to younger children, and although the trend was similar to that reported by maul et al in chilean children( ), whereas the shift we observed was about . d, in the chilean study it was approximately . d. within the latin american region, it is possible that child po- pulations differ when it comes to refractive errors, and some of this difference may be due to ethnicity. other potential factors that may influence can be the actual time spent at school, usually more in city settings when compared to their rural counterparts, and amount of time spent in outdoor activities. there are some limitations to this study. first, we observed a large but consistent difference in spherical equivalent between au torefraction conducted under cycloplegia and autorefraction conducted under non-cycloplegic conditions. although some re- searchers use non-cycloplegic autorefraction data, we preferred the use of cycloplegic data to avoid the effects of accommodation. in their study of australian school children, fotedar et al., noted that autorefraction without cycloplegia tended to substantially ove- restimate myopia and missed some cases of moderate hyperopia( ). the mean se difference between cycloplegia and non-cycloplegia in their study was . d, whereas it was larger in our study - about . d. in addition, we noted a small significant difference between se data obtained from cycloplegic autorefraction versus retinoscopy. while retinoscopy has in the past been the gold standard of refractive error measurement, based on our knowledge of administering both techniques to children, it was felt that autorefraction would provide more consistent data compared to retinoscopy. however, this choice may have led to some systemic error that might have influenced the analysis. second, there may have been some confounding effect in regard to location of the school (i.e., rural versus urban setting), although if this had been a large effect, we should have seen it in the mixed race group. third, our samples were relatively small, which influenced the accuracy of our analysis. finally, although the resi- dents were well trained, we did not assess the intraclass correlation coefficient to determine if the data obtained by one resident were different to the other. as a final note, it is worthy to mention that paraguay has a rather unclear concept of ethnicity regarding the demographics of its po- pulation. in the th century, it was widely accepted that up to % of the country was mixed race( ). the most recent census in only counted for the indigenous population, and found that up to . % is indigenous( ). a more recent study analyzed the paraguayan white population in the st century based on the trends of european im- migration in the last century and languages spoken at home, conclu- ding that up to % of the country is of european ( white) descent( ). this is relevant to the study discussion since it was understood, while conducting the study, that the mennonite population was the only white representation in paraguay. it would be also interesting to include non-mennonite white children, as well as asian children in a more comprehensive study, considering that asians make up . %( ) of the population (twice as much as the indigenous population). for now, this study is the first investigation of refractive error in pa- raguayan children that looks at ethnicity and further suggests that ethnicity might influence one’s risk of developing refractive error. acknowledgments the authors would like to thank the fundacion vision, orbis, and the international agency for the prevention of blindness for their fi- nancial support of this study and kristen eckert of strategic solutions for her assistance in editing the manuscript. references . chen pc, chang rj, lee da, wheeler nc. prevalence of ocular disorders among - and -year-olds in santa monica, california. j am optom assoc. ; ( ): - . . kleinstein rn, jones la, hullett s, kwon s, lee rj, friedman ne, manny re, mutti do, yu ja, zadnik k; collaborative longitudinal evaluation of ethnicity and refrac- tive error study group. refractive error and ethnicity in children. arch ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . giordano l, friedman ds, repka mx, katz j, ibironke j, hawes p, et al. prevalence of refractive error among preschool children in an urban population: the baltimore table . logistic regression showing odds ratios (or) of significant variables for hyperopia (dependent variable) variable or % ci* p† age (years) ‡ ≤ - . . . - . . - . . . . gender§ . . - . . *ci= confidence interval; †p= significance; ‡= ≥ years; §= male. table . distribution of visual acuity by ethnicity using right eye data. data in parenthesis represent percentages ethnicity / to / / to / / to / < / mennonite ( . ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) indigenous ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) mixed race ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) table . distribution of astigmatism by child (unilateral or bilateral) and spherical equivalent values (d) by eye ethnicity unilateral bilateral . . - . . - . ≥ . mennonite indigenous mixed race carter mj, et al. arq bras oftalmol. ; ( ): - pediatric eye disease study. ophthalmology. ; ( ): - . comment in: oph - thalmology. ; ( ): - . . kleinstein rn, sinnott lt, jones-jordan la, sims j, zadnik k; for the collaborative longitudinal evaluation of ethnicity and refractive error study group. new cases of myopia in children. arch ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . mavracanas ta, mandalos a, peios d, golias v, megalou k, gregoriadou a, et al. prevalence of myopia in a sample of greek students. acta ophthalmol scand. ; ( ): - . . lin ll, shih yf, tsai cb, chen cj, lee la, hung pt, et al. epidemiologic study of ocular refraction among schoolchildren in taiwan in . optom vis sci. ; ( ): - . . shih yf, chiang th, lin ll. lens thickness changes among schoolchildren in taiwan. invest ophthalmol vis sci. ; ( ): - . . salomão sr, cinoto rw, berezovsky a, mendieta l, nakanami cr, lipener c, et al. prevalence and causes of visual impairment in low-middle income school children in sao paulo, brazil. invest ophthalmol vis sci [internet]. [cited jun ]; ( ): - . available from: http://www.iovs.org/content/ / / .long . maul e, barroso s, munoz sr, sperduto rd, ellwein lb. refractive error study in chil- dren: results from la florida, chile. am j ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . castanon holguin am, congdon n, patel n, ratcliffe a, esteso p, toledo flores s, et al. factors associated with spectacle-wear compliance in school-aged mexican children. invest ophthalmol vis sci [internet]. [cited jul ]; : - . available from: http://www.iovs.org/content/ / / .long . morgan ig, rose ka, ellwein lb; refractive error study in children survey group. is emmetropia the natural endpoint for human refractive development? an analysis of population-based data from the refractive error study in children (resc). arch ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . jones-jordan la, sinnott lt, manny re, cotter sa, kleinstein rn, mutti do, twelker jd, zadnik k; collaborative longitudinal evaluation of ethnicity and refractive error (cleere) study group. early childhood refractive error and parental history of myopia as predictors of myopia. invest ophthalmol vis sci [internet]. [cited jun ]; ( ): - . available from: http://www.iovs.org/content/ / / .long . luo hd, gazzard g, liang y, shankar a, tan dt, saw sm. defining myopia using re- fractive error and uncorrected logmar visual acuity > . from singapore school children ages - years. br j ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . wu hm, seet b, yap ep, saw sm, lim th, chia ks. does education explain ethnic differences in myopia prevalence? a population-based study of young adult males in singapore. optom vis sci. ; ( ): - . . goldschmidt e, lam cs, opper s. the development of myopia in hong kong children. acta ophthalmol scand. ; ( ): - . . rose ka, morgan ig, smith w, mitchell p. high heritability of myopia does not pre- clude rapid changes in prevalence. clin experiment ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . saw sm. a synopsis of the prevalence rates and environmental risk factors for myopia. clin exp optom. ; ( ): - . . thorn f, cruz aa, machado aj, carvalho ra. refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern amazon region of brazil. optom vis sci. ; ( ): - . . vitale s, ellwein l, cotch mf, ferris fl rd, sperduto r. prevalence of refractive error in the united states, - . arch ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . fotedar r, rochtchina e, morgan i, wang jj, mitchell p. rose ka. necessity of cyclo- plegia for assessing refractive error in -year-old children: a population-based study. am j ophthalmol. ; ( ): - . . fernández fl. composición étnica de las tres areas culturales del continente ame- ricano al comienzo del siglo xxi. convergencia [internet]. [cited jun ]; : - . available from: http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev / pdf/lizcano. pdf . paraguay. dirección general de estadísticas, encuestas, y censos (dgec). ii censo nacional a de población y viviendas [internet]. paraguay: dgec; . [cied dec ]. available from: http://www.dgeec.gov.py/publicaciones/biblioteca/ censo_indigena/capitulo% .pdf wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ urinary concentrations of environmental phenols in pregnant women in a pilot study of the national children’s study mary e. mortensena,*, antonia m. calafata, xiaoyun yea, lee-yang wonga, david j. wrightb, james l. pirklea, lori s. merrillb, and john moyec anational center for environmental health, centers for disease control and prevention, atlanta, ga bwestat, inc. rockville, md cncs program office, eunice kennedy shriver national institute for child health and human development, national institutes for health, bethesda, md abstract environmental phenols are a group of chemicals with widespread uses in consumer and personal care products, food and beverage processing, and in pesticides. we assessed exposure to benzophenone- , bisphenol a (bpa), triclosan, methyl- and propyl parabens, and , - and , - dichlorophenol or their precursors in pregnant women enrolled in the national children’s study (ncs) vanguard study. we measured the urinary concentrations of the target phenols by using online solid-phase extraction-isotope dilution high performance liquid chromatography- tandem mass spectrometry. ncs women results were compared to those of similar-aged women in the national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes) – , and to pregnant women in nhanes – . in the ncs women, we found significant racial/ ethnic differences (p< . ) in regression adjusted mean concentrations of benzophenone- , triclosan, , - and , -dichlorophenol, but not of bpa. urinary , - and , -dichlorophenol concentrations were highly correlated (r= . , p< . ). except for bpa and triclosan, adjusted mean concentrations were significantly different across the study sites. education was marginally significant for benzophenone- , triclosan, propyl paraben, and , -dichlorophenol. urinary concentrations of target phenols in ncs pregnant women and u.s. women and pregnant women were similar. in ncs pregnant women, race/ethnicity and geographic location determined urinary concentrations of most phenols (except bpa), suggesting differential exposures. ncs main study protocols should collect urine biospecimens and information about exposures to environmental phenols. keywords environmental phenols; biomonitoring; national children’s study; national health and nutrition examination survey; pregnancy corresponding author: mary mortensen, md, division of laboratory sciences, ms f- , buford highway, atlanta ga, , phone: - - , fax: - - , mmortensen@cdc.gov. disclosure: the authors declare that no competing financial interest exists. hhs public access author manuscript environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . published in final edited form as: environ res. february ; : – . doi: . /j.envres. . . . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t . introduction humans are exposed to environmental phenols or their precursors through use of personal care and consumer products, consumption of processed food, and pesticide production or use. bisphenol a (bpa) is primarily used to manufacture polycarbonate plastic and epoxy resins as well as polyvinyl chloride plastics and thermal paper. , -dichlorophenol has been used in the production of pesticides and herbicides and for the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and antiseptics. , -dichlorophenol is used in manufacturing dyes, pharmaceutical and agricultural products, and it is also the major metabolite of , -dichlorobenzene used as a moth repellent and room deodorizer. both chlorophenols are by-products of chlorination of municipal drinking water and industrial waste water (ipcs, ). benzophenone- is a commonly used sunscreen agent found in many cosmetic products (gonzalez et al., ; rastogi, ). triclosan is a synthetic, broad spectrum antimicrobial agent used extensively in personal care and consumer products (adolfsson-erici et al., ; bhargava and leonard, ; jones et al., ). parabens such as methyl paraben (mp) and propyl paraben (pp) are widely used as antimicrobial preservatives in personal care products and pharmaceuticals, as well as in food and beverage processing (andersen, ). general population exposure to environmental phenols or their precursors is widespread and occurs via inhalation of ambient air, ingestion of food, beverages, and drinking water, and dermal contact with consumer products containing these chemicals. these compounds are rapidly eliminated in urine after being absorbed into the body, and exposure can be assessed by measuring each phenol in urine. urine concentrations reflect recent (hours to days) exposure and may fluctuate during the day and between days, depending on the nature of the exposure (teitelbaum et al., ; ye et al., ). data from the national health and nutrition examination survey (nhanes), conducted by the centers for disease control and prevention (cdc), showed that non-occupational exposure to several environmental phenols is widespread in the u.s. general population, with benzophenone- , bpa, mp, and pp detected in over % of the urine samples from nhanes – and – (calafat et al., a, b, c, ). although adverse effects of exposure are largely unknown in humans, several environmental phenols are considered as endocrine disruptors based on in vitro and animal studies. prenatal exposure to several environmental phenols or their precursors, assessed from urinary measurements of these compounds, has been examined in selected groups of pregnant women (braun et al., ; castorina et al., ; smith et al., ; wolff et al., ;woodruff et al., ;ye et al., ). urinary concentrations of some phenols have been associated with birth weight changes in boys (philippat et al., ; wolff et al., ), risk of prematurity (cantonwine et al., ), behavior in preschool aged children (braun et al., , ; perera et al., ) but not in infants (yolton et al., ), child wheeze (spanier et al., ), and increased risk of undescended testis (chevrier et al., ). aside from selected cohort studies and environmental exposure studies, limited biomonitoring data are available for pregnant women. we report environmental phenol exposures based on urine measurements in women in their third trimester of pregnancy who enrolled in the vanguard study of the national children’s study (ncs) during – mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t . the sample, diverse geographically and economically, is one of the largest sets of biomonitoring data in u.s. pregnant women. we compare results from this convenience sample of ncs pregnant women with results from similar aged u.s. women in – and pregnant women in the u.s. in – . we also show how these results compare with values reported in other published studies of pregnant women, expand the limited biomonitoring data available in pregnant women, and discuss how they may aid in planning the main study. . methods study populations the ncs is a federally funded longitudinal study to prospectively investigate the effects of the environment on the health and development of u.s. children, following a cohort from before birth until years of age. the environment is broadly defined to include such factors as air, water, diet, family dynamics, community and cultural influences, and genetics. the details of the history and activities of the study are described elsewhere (www.nationalchildrensstudy.gov; mortensen and hirschfeld, ). the original ncs vanguard study was a feasibility study, begun in to test the proposed recruitment, enrollment, and study visit assessment methodologies at seven sites. two-stage recruitment was conducted in geographically defined areas (one or more counties or a census tract, depending on population size). first was door-to-door determination of eligible women ages – years, followed by questionnaire screening of eligible women to determine if they were pregnant. second, pregnant women or those women trying to become pregnant were asked to participate. of approximately , eligible women, % ( , ) were screened, and % ( ) of pregnant or trying-to-become-pregnant women were enrolled. cdc proposed a collaborative pilot study with ncs in which the environmental health laboratory at the national center for environmental health would measure a number of environmental chemicals in biospecimens collected from a sample of vanguard study enrollees (pregnant women and infants). for phenols, we used a spot urine that was collected according to vanguard study protocol (identical at all sites), and shipped frozen to the ncs biorepository, where specimens were aliquotted and frozen at − °c, also according to ncs protocols (see supplemental material, available online) that were similar to nhanes urine collection protocols. the specimens were obtained at the third trimester visit from women who enrolled during – and consisted of a sample of about women from each vanguard center study site. specimens were stored at − °c until they were analyzed. available demographic information included age, race/ethnicity, annual household income (<$ , $ –$ , , $ , –$ , , $ , –$ , , $ , – $ , , $ , –$ , , $ , –$ , , $ , –$ , , $ , – , , and $ , or more), education (not high school graduate, high school graduate or some college, college graduate or higher), and study site. written informed consent was obtained from all participants and the study protocol was approved by the nichd institutional review board (irb) and the irbs at each vanguard study institution. the involvement of mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t the cdc laboratory was determined not to constitute engagement in human subjects research. nhanes has been conducted annually since , releases data in two year cycles, and provides an ongoing assessment of health, health-related behaviors, nutrition, and environmental chemical exposures in the u.s. population (cdc, ). using a stratified, multistage, probability cluster design, nhanes obtains a representative sample of the non- institutionalized u.s. population (additional detail is available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ nhanes.htm). each year, approximately randomly selected residents across the u.s. are asked to participate through an advance letter, providing information that the household address had been selected as part of the nhanes sample. a field interviewer conducts screening and enrollment, and completes the household interview at the home; subsequent interviews, physical examination, and biological specimen collections are conducted at the mobile examination center (mec). the average participation rate for data collected at the mec is approximately % (nchs, ). informed consent was obtained from all participants in the nhanes surveys prior to collecting any data or specimens, and the analysis presented here involved only de-identified data that were publicly available. urinary phenols were measured in a single spot urine sample obtained from a subsample of the nhanes participants and shipped on dry ice to cdc’s national center for environmental health, where samples were stored at or below − °c until analyzed by the environmental health laboratory. questionnaire response determined the month of pregnancy. we used nhanes – phenols results for women ages – years for comparison to the ncs sample because the urine samples were collected during similar times and age ranges were the same. we used nhanes – results for pregnant women, ages – years as a comparison sample of u.s. pregnant women and combined results from multiple nhanes survey periods to obtain the largest number of pregnant women. we completed a trend analysis using multiple regression, adjusting by log transformed urine creatinine, age, and race/ethnicity and using nhanes survey cycle as a continuous variable. we used log transformed urine phenol concentrations in the model because the distribution was skewed. the purpose of this analysis was to identify significant changes in urinary phenol concentrations that might limit our comparisons. urine analyses urinary phenols were measured by using online solid-phase extraction- high-performance liquid chromatography-isotope dilution-tandem mass spectrometry, as detailed by ye et al. ( , ). limits of detection (lod) were as follows: benzophenone- and bpa, . μg/l; triclosan . μg/l; mp . μg/l; pp, , -dichlorophenol and , -dichlorophenol, . μg/l. urine creatinine measurements employed the jaffé rate reaction performed on a beckman cx chemistry analyzer (beckman instruments inc., brea, ca, usa). data analysis ncs data were analyzed using statistical analysis system (sas, version . ; sas institute, inc., cary nc). nhanes data were analyzed using sas (version . . ; sas institute, inc., mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm cary nc) and sudaan (version ; research triangle institute, research triangle park, nc). sudaan calculates variance estimates after incorporating the sample population weights, nonresponse rates, and sample design effects. for each phenol, we calculated geometric mean and distribution percentiles both in μg/l and in μg/g creatinine. for concentrations below the lod, we used a value equal to the lod divided by the square root of (hornung and reed, ). both nhanes and ncs participants provided self-reported race/ethnicity, age, and pregnancy trimester (only applicable for pregnant women in nhanes). a composite racial/ ethnic variable was created to define three major groups: non-hispanic black, non-hispanic white, and hispanic, and remaining women were categorized as ‘other’. age in years at the time of the study visit (ncs) or at last birthday (nhanes) was used to stratify two groups: – and – years old. the groups were chosen to provide roughly equal age ranges. we examined ncs results for each phenol by multiple regression analysis, using as covariates age, race/ethnicity, education, income, study site, and log urinary creatinine. education (not a high school graduate, high school or some college, and college graduate or more) and income (<$ , or ≥$ , ) plus additional categories for missing education or income were included in the regression. spearman correlations were evaluated among the urine phenol concentrations and among the regression covariates. statistical significance was set at p< . . . results ncs demographic characteristics of the ncs sample and nhanes – and – women are shown in table . the vanguard study site locations resulted in a geographically diverse ncs sample, and the women resided in counties with population densities ranging from about persons per square mile to more than , persons per square mile (http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html). reported annual family incomes ranged from <$ , to ≥$ , . table also shows that the ncs sample had a greater proportion of women who were non-hispanic white, higher education (e.g., college graduate or higher), and higher income than the nhanes women. phenol detection rates among the women ranged from % for triclosan to % for benzophenone- and mp. the overall geometric mean urinary concentrations are shown in table , as are adjusted geometric means for race/ethnicity subgroups when race/ethnicity was statistically significant (p< . ) in the regression analysis. mean benzophenone- was highest in non-hispanic white ( . ; % ci: . , . ), followed by hispanic ( . ; . , . ) and non-hispanic black women ( . ; . , . ). mean , - and , -dichlorophenol were highest in non-hispanic black women, and were about and . times higher, respectively, than in non-hispanic white women. hispanic women had the highest mean urine triclosan ( . ; . , . ) compared to non-hispanic black ( . ; . , . ) or non- hispanic white women ( . ; . , . ). urinary , - and , -dichlorophenol concentrations were highly correlated (r= . , p< . ). mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/index.html age and income were not significant covariates in any of the regressions (table ). study site was significant; however, investigating geographical differences in urine phenols was beyond the scope of this analysis. education was significant for benzophenone- , triclosan, pp, and , -dichlorophenol. we evaluated interactions of study site with each of the following: income; education; and race/ethnicity as additional predictors in the urine phenol regressions, but noted no significant findings. nhanes – there were women ages – years with urinary concentrations of phenols and creatinine, and demographics are shown in table . detection frequencies were > % except for triclosan ( %). the supplemental table shows results for ncs women and same-aged women in nhanes – . in general, overall results appeared similar for the two groups. differences as much as two times or greater were observed; however, wide confidence intervals indicate considerable instability in many of the results. ncs women ages – years had mean benzophenone- urinary concentrations that were about twice that of same-aged nhanes women ( . vs. . μg/l, respectively). non-hispanic white ncs women had higher mean urinary benzophenone- concentrations than their nhanes counterparts ( . vs. . μg/l, respectively). compared to their nhanes counterparts, non-hispanic black ncs women had lower mean mp and pp urinary concentrations (mp, . vs. . μg/l; pp, . vs. . μg/l) and higher mean , - and , dichlorophenol urinary concentrations ( . vs. . μg/l; and . vs. . μg/l, respectively). results in μg/g creatinine were similar (data not shown). nhanes – there were pregnant women with urinary concentrations of phenols and creatinine, and the unweighted sample demographics are shown in table . the small sample size resulted in racial/ethnic groups that were too sparse for analysis, so only geometric means and medians for each overall group are shown in table . a slight but significant decline (p = . ) in triclosan urinary concentrations from – was noted in pregnant nhanes women (data not shown). geometric means for each urinary phenol appeared to be generally similar in the two groups of pregnant women (table ). mean benzophenone- urinary concentrations were higher in the ncs women relative to pregnant women in the u.s. ( . vs. . μg/l, respectively), whereas mean , -dichlorophenol urinary concentrations were lower in ncs women relative to pregnant women in the u.s. ( . vs. . μg/l, respectively). results in μg/g creatinine were similar (data not shown). comparison to other results obtained in pregnant women urinary concentrations of phenols have been measured in pregnant women (braun et al., ; cantonwine et al., ; casas et al., ; castorina et al., ; fujimaki et al., ; martina et al., ; perera et al., ; philippat et al., ; shirai et al., ; smith et al., ; wolff et al., ; ye et al., ) in the u.s. and abroad (table ). all mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t the pregnant women were of similar ages (largely – years old), with differences in the sample selection, race/ethnicity, demographics, and nationalities, to name a few. ncs and nhanes median bpa urinary concentrations ( . μg/l) for pregnant women were similar to other results in u.s. and mexican women (cantonwine et al., ) and lower compared to spanish and french women, . and . μg/l, respectively (casas et al., ; philippat et al., ). in contrast, a small number of u.s. old order mennonite women had the lowest mean urinary concentrations of bpa, . μg/l (martina et al., ). median urinary benzophenone- concentrations were approximately – times higher in the nhanes and ncs compared to the french and spanish women (casas et al., ; philippat et al., ), whereas these european women had higher median urinary , -dichlorophenol concentrations ( . and . μg/l, respectively) compared to the nhanes and ncs pregnant women ( . and . μg/l, respectively). the largely minority women in the salinas valley of california (castorina et al., ) and new york city (wolff et al., ) cohorts had the highest median urinary , -dichlorophenol concentrations: . and μg/l, respectively. this is consistent with our regression finding that hispanic and non-hispanic black women had higher , -dichlorophenol concentrations than non-hispanic white women (table ). these pregnant women also had median urinary , -dichlorophenol concentrations that were about two to three times higher than the nhanes and ncs pregnant women. however, these medians are relatively consistent with the regression race/ ethnicity adjusted geometric mean concentrations (table ). median urinary mp and pp concentrations appeared generally similar among the groups in which these compounds were measured. . discussion we measured urinary concentrations of several phenols in a sample of women in their third trimester of pregnancy enrolled in the ncs and found the results to be generally similar to those from pregnant women in nhanes – (table ), with the caveat that triclosan results demonstrated a slight but significant decline from to . the ncs results were also similar to those from u.s. women in nhanes – who provided urine specimens during the same time period as the ncs women and also were within the same age range (supplemental table), suggesting that exposure to these phenols occurred regardless of pregnancy status. the racial/ethnic differences in concentrations of specific phenols among the ncs women were similar to nhanes and other cohorts of pregnant women. although the ncs women included relatively small numbers of non- hispanic blacks, the sample otherwise may be more diverse compared to other u.s. cohorts of pregnant women in which environmental phenols have been measured, allowing us to examine differences in concentrations related to demographic factors and study location. unfortunately, limited statistical power precluded our ability to assess interactions between study location and demographic covariates of interest. in the ncs women, we found significant positive associations with race/ethnicity for certain phenols: benzophenone- (non-hispanic white); triclosan (hispanic); , - and , -dichlorophenol (non-hispanic blacks). that non-hispanic whites have higher exposures to benzophenone- has been noted before (calafat et al., a) and is likely the result of increased use of benzophenone- - containing sunscreen agents among this population group compared to others. median mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t urinary benzophenone- concentrations (table ) were considerably lower in the european pregnancy cohorts, possibly related to availability, preference, or both for non- benzophenone- containing sunscreen agents, or less widespread use of sunscreens (casas et al., ; philippat et al., ). explanations for international differences in exposure to phenols or their precursors require information about personal care and consumer product usage. adjusted urinary triclosan concentrations were higher in hispanic ncs women than in other women and were also associated with higher education. in the u.s. general population, urinary triclosan concentrations were associated with older age and higher socioeconomic status but not race/ethnicity (calafat et al., b). urinary triclosan concentrations in french pregnant women were not examined by demographic factors (philippat et al., ). adjusted urinary , - and , -dichlorophenol concentrations were higher in non-hispanic black ncs women. whether differences in these concentrations reflect racial/ethnic, income, geographic differences (e.g., exposure), or other unmeasured factors requires additional investigation. the ncs main study could collect information on use of products containing target phenols or their precursors so exposure sources, their relative importance, and demographic factors might be explored. , -dichlorobenzene is a minor contaminant of , -dichlorobenzene, commonly used as a moth repellent and room deodorizer. because , -dichlorophenol is a major metabolite of , -dichlorobenzene, urinary concentrations of both phenols may reflect exposure to , - dichlorobenzene-containing products, a possibility supported by the correlation between , - and , -dichlorophenol urinary concentrations that we and others have observed (philippat et al., ; wolff et al., ). this possibility also is supported by an earlier nhanes analysis that found higher concentrations of blood paradichlorobenzene in non-hispanic black adults (elliott et al, ). among pregnant women studied in the u.s. (table ), high urinary , - and , -dichlorophenol concentrations occurred in minority women, generally of lower income and living in highly urban (new york city, ny) or rural agricultural areas (salinas ca) (castorina et al., ; wolff et al., ). coincidentally, more than % of the non-hispanic black ncs women also came from the new york city area and a rural county, and they generally reported low annual incomes. we speculate that low income, minority status, or both may be associated with greater use of room deodorizers and moth repellents. in multi-family residences, vapors from these products may enter surrounding units via ventilation ducts, resulting in “passive” or “second-hand” exposure. in lower quality dwelling units, regardless of crowding, there may be greater use of deodorizers and pest repellents. if this is true, then urinary , - and , -dichlorophenol concentrations may be surrogates for quality of living conditions and lower socioeconomic status. further understanding of the determinants of exposure to these phenols or their precursors is needed, as well as exploration of whether these exposures contribute to adverse health effects or are surrogates for other determinants affecting health outcomes, such as lower birth weight and length that were noted by wolff et al. ( ). urine bpa concentrations in the ncs women were generally similar to those of the nhanes women and u.s. pregnancy cohorts (supplemental table, table ), and were about % lower than those reported in european pregnancy cohorts. the lowest urinary bpa concentrations among those in table were found in old order mennonite women who had limited exposure to plastics and canned foods. urinary triclosan concentrations in mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t the ncs women also were similar to those of nhanes women and the u.s. pregnancy cohort (supplemental table, table ). of note, triclosan concentrations in u.s. pregnant women in nhanes – demonstrated a slight but significant downward trend, thus limiting the comparison to ncs results. urinary mp and pp concentrations were similar overall as well as by racial/ethnic subgroup for the ncs sample and the nhanes groups. a previous analysis of nhanes data found significantly higher urinary mp and pp concentrations in non-hispanic blacks and was attributed to differences in use of personal care products containing these chemicals (calafat et al., ). the high detection frequency of the seven phenols in both nhanes and ncs (about % or greater) suggests that exposure to these phenols or their precursors among pregnant and non-pregnant women is prevalent. because these compounds are rapidly metabolized and eliminated in the urine, urinary concentrations reflect recent exposure, and concentrations may fluctuate over a short time period when exposure is intermittent (braun et al., , ; calafat et al., c; mahalingaiah et al., ; smith et al., ; ye et al., ). this limitation can be minimized by increasing sample size (e.g., nhanes) and varying the urine sampling times over the course of the day. we reduced the analytical variability across the ncs, nhanes, and u.s. cohorts of pregnant women (table ) by using the same urine sampling strategy, analytical methods, and laboratory for measuring environmental phenols. the nature of our sample—females within a limited age range—also reduces biological variability related to age and sex. we provide results on a large sample of third trimester women, more than are available in multiple nhanes survey periods, but our study is limited by the nature of the ncs sample and unavailability of exposure information. . conclusions the cdc collaboration with the ncs demonstrates that with careful planning, detailed protocols, and staff training, high quality biospecimens can be collected across study locations. an important limitation of the current data is lack of exposure information, which the main study can overcome. when biospecimens are collected, study visit protocols could gather contemporaneous exposure information (e.g., interviews, environmental sampling, and home observations) that would assist in identifying exposure sources. the main study biospecimen plan could obtain repeat biospecimens over time, thereby providing information about variability within individuals and perhaps improving exposure characterization for these and other chemicals that are non-persistent with a short residence time in the body. we believe that including these elements in the main study can support a robust analysis of environmental exposures and health outcomes. in the meantime, the vanguard study of the ncs can be a valuable source for biomonitoring data in pregnant women, a vulnerable population and currently understudied. supplementary material refer to web version on pubmed central for supplementary material. mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t acknowledgments this project has been funded from the national institutes of health, department of health and human services, administered by the eunice kennedy shriver national institute of child health and human development under contract nos. hhsn c, hhsn c, hhsn c, hhsn c, hhsn c, hhsn c, and hhsn c. funding for the biospecimen analyses was provided by the national center for environmental health, centers for disease control and prevention. the manuscript was developed by a writing team identified by the national children’s study publications committee for the purpose of timely sharing of centrally collected ncs data. we acknowledge the contributions of the following vanguard centers and principal investigators: children’s hospital of philadelphia, jennifer culhane; mt. sinai medical school, phil landrigan; south dakota state university, bonny specker; university of california at irvine, james swanson and dean baker; university of north carolina at chapel hill, barbara entwisle and nancy dole; university of utah school of medicine, ed clark; university of wisconsin, maureen durkin. we are grateful to the nhanes staff for the quality and completeness of their efforts conducting this complex survey and specimen collection. we appreciate the dedication and diligence of the nceh laboratory staff that performed the analyses. the findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the centers for disease control and prevention, the national institutes of health, or the u.s. department of health and human services. abbreviations ccceh columbia center for children’s environmental health cehs children’s environmental health study chamacos center for the health assessment of mothers and children of salinas eden etude des determinants pre et post natals du development et de la santé de l’enfant home health outcomes and measures of the environment inma infancia y medio ambiente pelagie perturbateurs endocriniens: Étude longitudinale sur les anomalies de la grossesse, l’infertilité et l’enfance references adolfsson-erici m, pettersson m, parkkonen j, sturve j. triclosan, a commonly used bactericide found in human milk and in the aquatic environment in sweden. chemosphere. ; : – . [pubmed: ] andersen fa. final amended report on the safety assessment of methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, isopropylparaben, butylparaben, isobutylparaben, and benzylparaben as used in cosmetic products. int j toxicol. ; (suppl ): – . bhargava hn, leonard pa. triclosan: applications and safety. am j infect control. ; : – . [pubmed: ] braun jm, kalkbrenner ae, calafat am, bernert jt, ye x, silva mj, et al. variability and predictors of urinary bisphenol a concentrations during pregnancy. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] braun jm, smith kw, williams pl, calafat am, berry k, ehrlich s, et al. variability of urinary phthalate metabolite and bisphenol a concentrations before and during pregnancy. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] braun jm, yolton k, dietrich kn, hornung r, ye x, calafat am, et al. prenatal bisphenol a exposure and early childhood behavior. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t calafat am, wong ly, ye x, reidy ja, needham ll. concentrations of the sunscreen agent benzophenone- in residents of the united states: national health and nutrition examination survey – . environ health perspect. a; : – . [pubmed: ] calafat am, ye x, wong ly, reidy ja, needham ll. urinary concentrations of triclosan in the us population: – . environ health perspect. b; : – . [pubmed: ] calafat am, ye xy, wong ly, bishop am, needham ll. urinary concentrations of four parabens in the us population: nhanes – . environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] calafat am, ye xy, wong l-y, reidy ja, needham ll. exposure of the us population to bisphenol a and -tertiary-octylphenol: – . environ health perspect. c; : – . [pubmed: ] cantonwine d, meeker jd, hu h, sánchez bn, lamadrid-figueroa h, mercado-garcía a, et al. bisphenol a exposure in mexico city and risk of prematurity: a pilot nested case control study. environ health. ; : . [pubmed: ] casas l, fernandez mf, llop s, guxens m, ballester f, olea n, et al. urinary concentrations of phthalates and phenols in a population of spanish pregnant women and children. environ int. ; : – . [pubmed: ] castorina r, bradman a, fenster l, barr db, bravo r, vedar mg, et al. comparison of current-use pesticide and other toxicant urinary metabolite levels among pregnant women in the chamacos cohort and nhanes. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] centers for disease control and prevention (cdc). [accessed june ] introduction to nhanes. national health and nutrition examination survey overview, – . . available: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_ _ /overviewbrochure_ .pdf chevrier c, petit c, philippat c, mortamais m, slama r, rouget f, et al. maternal urinary phthalates and phenols and male genital anomalies. epidemiology. ; : – . [pubmed: ] elliott l, longnecker mp, kissling ge, london sj. volatile organic compounds and pulmonary function in the third national health and nutrition examination survey, – . environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] fujimaki k, arakawa c, yoshinaga j, watanabe c, serizawa s, imai h, et al. estimation of intake level of bisphenol a in japanese pregnant women based on measurement of urinary excretion level of the metabolite. nihon eiseigaku zasshi. ; : – . [pubmed: ] gonzalez h, farbrot a, larko o, wennberg am. percutaneous absorption of the sunscreen benzophenone- after repeated whole-body applications, with and without ultraviolet irradiation. br j dermatol. ; : – . [pubmed: ] hornung rw, reed ld. estimation of average concentration in the presence of nondetectable values. appl occup environ hyg. ; : – . international programme on chemical safety (ipcs). [accessed june ] environmental health criteria . chlorophenols other than pentachlorophenol. . available: http:// www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc .htm jones rd, jampani hb, newman jl, lee as. triclosan: a review of effectiveness and safety in health care settings. am j infect control. ; : – . [pubmed: ] mahalingaiah s, meeker jd, pearson kr, calafat am, ye x, petrozza j, et al. temporal variability and predictors of urinary bisphenol a concentrations in men and women. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] martina ca, weiss b, swan sh. lifestyle behaviors associated with exposure to endocrine disruptors. neurotoxicol. ; : – . mortensen me, hirschfeld s. the national children’s study: an opportunity for medical toxicology. j med toxicol. ; : – . [pubmed: ] national center for health statistics (nchs). [accessed october ] national health and nutrition examination survey: plan and operations, – . vital and health statistics. aug. series , no. . available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_ /sr _ .pdf perera f, vishnevetsky j, herbstman jb, calafat am, xiong w, rauh v, et al. prenatal bisphenol a exposure and child behavior in an inner-city cohort. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_ _ /overviewbrochure_ .pdf http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc .htm http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc .htm http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_ /sr _ .pdf philippat c, mortamais m, chevier c, petit c, calafat am, ye x, et al. exposure to phthalates and phenols during pregnancy and offspring size at birth. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] rastogi sc. uv filters in sunscreen products - a survey. contact derm. ; : – . [pubmed: ] shirai s, suzuki y, yoshinaga j, shiraishi h, mizumoto y. urinary excretion of parabens in pregnant japanese women. reprod toxicol. ; : – . [pubmed: ] smith kw, braun jm, williams pl, ehrlich s, correia kf, calafat am, et al. predictors and variability of urinary paraben concentrations in men and women, including before and during pregnancy. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] spanier aj, kahn rs, kunselman ar, hornung r, xu y, calafat am, et al. prenatal exposure to bisphenol a and child wheeze from birth to years of age. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] teitelbaum sl, britton ja, calafat am, ye x, silva mj, reidy ja, et al. temporal variability in urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites, phytoestrogens and phenols among minority children in the united states. environ res. ; : – . [pubmed: ] wolff ms, engel sm, berkowitz gs, ye x, silva mj, zhu c, et al. prenatal phenol and phthalate exposures and birth outcomes. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] woodruff tj, zota ar, schwartz jm. environmental chemicals in pregnant women in the united states: nhanes – . environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] ye x, bishop am, reidy ja, needham ll, calafat am. parabens as urinary markers of exposure in humans. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] ye x, kuklenyik z, needham ll, calafat am. automated on-line column-switching hplc-ms/ms method with peak focusing for the determination of nine environmental phenols in urine. anal chem. ; : – . [pubmed: ] ye x, pierik fh, hauser r, duty s, angerer j, park mm, et al. urinary metabolite concentrations of organophosphorus pesticides, bisphenol a, and phthalates among pregnant women in rotterdam, the netherlands: the generation r study. environ res. ; : – . [pubmed: ] ye x, wong ly, bishop am, calafat am. variability of urinary concentrations of bisphenol a in spot samples, first morning voids, and -hour collections. environ health perspect. ; : – . [pubmed: ] yolton r, xu y, strauss d, altaye m, calafat am, khoury j. prenatal exposure to bisphenol a and phthalates and infant neurobehavior. neurotoxicol teratol. ; : – . [pubmed: ] appendix the supplemental information associated with this article can be found in the online version at: mortensen et al. page environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t mortensen et al. page table characteristics of ncs and a nhanes women characteristic ncs n (%) nhanes – n (%) nhanes – b n (%) sample size age (years) – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) race/ethnicity hispanic ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) non-hispanic white ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) non-hispanic black ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) other ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) education not high school graduate ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) high school or some college ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) college graduate or more ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) unknown ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) c household income (annual) < $ , ( . ) ≥ $ , ( . ) < $ , ( . ) ( ) ≥$ , ( . ) unknown ( . ) ( . ) pregnancy trimester not applicable first ( . ) second ( . ) third ( ) ( . ) unknown ( . ) a nhanes samples and percentages are unweighted. b nhanes – women include all females ages – years, regardless of pregnancy status. c household income categories were reported slightly differently for ncs and nhanes. environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t mortensen et al. page t a b le a dj us te d g eo m et ri c m ea n c on ce nt ra ti on s of e nv ir on m en ta l p he no ls i n n c s p re gn an t w om en a n al yt e (μ g/ l ) b p - b p a t c s m p p p , - d c p , - d c p c at eg or y n m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e m ea n ( % c i) p -v al u e a ll f em al es . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) s tu dy s it e . . . . . < . < . a ge ( yr s) . . . . . . . – – r ac e/ et hn ic it y . . . . . < . < . n on -h is pa ni c bl ac k . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) n on -h is pa ni c w hi te . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) h is pa ni c . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) o th er . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) . ( . , . ) e du ca ti on . . . . . . . in co m e . . . . . . . u ri ne c re at in in e < . < . < . < . < . < . < . o ve ra ll g eo m et ri c m ea ns a re p re se nt ed f or a ll f em al es . a dj us te d ge om et ri c m ea ns a re s ho w n fo r su bg ro up s w he n ra ce /e th ni ci ty w as s ig ni fi ca nt ( p< . ) in t he r eg re ss io n an al ys is , u si ng t he c ov ar ia te s st ud y si te , a ge , r ac e/ et hn ic it y, e du ca ti on , i nc om e, a nd l og u ri na ry c re at in in e. s tu dy s it e w as f re qu en tl y si gn if ic an t, b ut a ge w as n ot f or a ny o f th e ur in e ph en ol r es ul ts . d et ec ti on f re qu en ci es w er e be nz op he no ne - ( b p - ) % , b p a . % , t ri cl os an ( t c s ) % , m et hy l pa ra be n (m p ) % , p ro py l pa ra be n (p p ) . % , , -d ic hl or op he no l ( , -d c p ) . % , a nd , -d ic hl or op he no l ( , -d c p ) . % . environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t mortensen et al. page t a b le c on ce nt ra ti on s of u ri na ry p he no ls ( μg /l ) in n c s p re gn an t w om en a nd p re gn an t w om en i n th e u .s . ( n h a n e s – ) n c s p re gn an t w om en ( t ot al = ) p re gn an t w om en i n t h e u .s . ( t ot al = ) a n al yt e g eo m et ri c m ea n ( % c i) th p er ce n ti le ( % c i) g eo m et ri c m ea n ( % c i) th p er ce n ti le ( % c i) b is ph en ol a . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) b en zo ph en on e- . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) t ri cl os an . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) a . ( . – . ) m et hy l pa ra be n . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) p ro py l pa ra be n . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) , - d ic hl or op he no l . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) , - d ic hl or op he no l . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . ( . – . ) . . – . ) a r es ul ts f or t ri cl os an i n pr eg na nt w om en i n th e u .s . s ho w ed a s li gh t bu t si gn if ic an t de cl in e fr om n h a n e s – . environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t a u th o r m a n u scrip t mortensen et al. page t a b le m ed ia n u ri na ry c on ce nt ra ti on s of p he no ls i n p re gn an t w om en d es cr ip ti on a n d t im e of s am p le co ll ec ti on s am p le s iz e u ri n e co ll ec ti on ( tr im es te r) m ed ia n c on ce n tr at io n ( μ g/ l )a c h ar ac te ri st ic s of w om en o r co h or t b p - b p a t c s m p p p , - d c p , - d c p n c s – ( pr es en t st ud y) r d . . . . . . . c on ve ni en ce s am pl e of v an gu ar d c en te r en ro ll ee s n h a n e s – ( pr es en t st ud y) an y . . . . . . . u .s . g en er al p op ul at io n e d e n a nd p e l a g ie c oh or ts (p hi li pp at e t al , ) an y . . . . . . . n es te d ca se -c on tr ol s tu dy d ra w n fr om b ot h co ho rt s o ld o rd er m en no ni te w om en (m ar ti na e t al , ) n d– r d na . na na na na na d ie t is l ar ge ly f re sh d ai ry a nd p ro du ce ja pa ne se w om en ( s hi ra i et a l, ) an y na na na . . na na d el iv er ed a t on e t ok yo h os pi ta l in m a c oh or t (c as as e t al , ) r d . . . na na . . r es id e in o ne o f ci ti es i n s pa in c h a m a c o s c oh or t (c as to ri na et a l, ) , ea rl y n d, rd na na na na na . . . . r es id e in a gr ic ul tu ra l ar ea o f c al if or ni a; m aj or it y h is pa ni c; s am pl es p er w om an m ex ic o c it y co ho rt c an to nw in e et a l, ) r d na . na na na na na a tt en d im s s p re na ta l cl in ic w om en p la nn in g pr eg na nc y (s m it h et a l ) an y na na na . na na in fe rt il it y cl in ic a tt en de es ; – sa m pl es p er w om an ja pa ne se w om en ( f uj im ak i et a l ) an y na < l o d na na na na na d el iv er ed a t on e t ok yo h os pi ta l; l o d = . μg /l ; % > l o d c c c e h c oh or t (p er er a et a l, ) r d na . b na na na na na r es id e in n y c a nd a fr ic an -a m er ic an o r d om in ic an c e h s c oh or t (w ol ff e t al , ) r d . . na na . n ew y or k c it y re si de nt s; m aj or it y no n- w hi te (h is pa ni c or b la ck ) g en er at io n r c oh or t (y e et a l, ) r d na . na na na na na r es id e w it hi n st ud y ar ea i n r ot te rd am , t he n et he rl an ds h o m e c oh or t (b ra un e t al , ) ea rl y n d, e ar ly rd , b ir th na . . . na na na na na r es id e in c in ci nn at i, o h i n pr e- ho us in g; v is it s pe r w om an a bb re vi at io ns : b p - , b en zo ph en on e- ; b p a , b is ph en ol a ; t c s , t ri cl os an ; m p , m et hy l pa ra be n; p p , p ro py l pa ra be n; , -d c p , , -d ic hl or op he no l; , -d c p , , -d ic hl or op he no l. l o d = l im it o f de te ct io n; na = n ot a va il ab le . a l o d s fo r an al yt es w er e th e sa m e, w it h an al ys es p er fo rm ed b y th e sa m e la bo ra to ry , e xc ep t fo r y e, e t al . ( b p a = . μg /l ); s hi ra i et a l (m p = . a nd p p = . μ g/ l ); b m ea n co nc en tr at io n environ res. author manuscript; available in pmc august . wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the gerontologist the gerontologist © the author . published by oxford university press on behalf of the gerontological society of america. vol. , no. , – all rights reserved. for permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com. doi: . /geront/gnr advance access publication on march , purpose of the study: we conducted a qualita- tive study of mid-late life volunteers in intensive humanitarian service to ascertain the challenges, personal changes, and benefits they experienced from their volunteer activities. intensive volunteering was defined as service done on a -hr a day basis at a location away from home. design and methods: in-depth interviews were conducted by phone or in person with each participant. couples serving together were interviewed conjointly. data were analyzed using mccracken’s -step process for long interviews. results: participants described and resolved many challenges including adjustment to new situations and cultures, work-related chal- lenges, and readjustment to home. consistent with erikson’s descriptions of care, volunteers described benefits of expanded social networks, increased closeness to spouses, and increased compassion and empathy for others. in terms of wisdom, they described altered personal perspectives, with less- ened materialism and self-focus, greater apprecia- tion of cultural differences, and finding existential meaning in service. implications: because of population aging and social service organizational contraction, humanitarian service organizations may rely more on older volunteers to fulfill their goals. a deeper understanding of the challenges, ways in which they were met, and perceived benefits of later life intensive volunteering can inform organizational efforts to recruit older adults and support them in diverse settings. key words: volunteerism and civic engagement, productive aging, qualitative research methods, religion and spirituality volunteering has become increasingly impor- tant with the simultaneous occurrence of several trends. first, the recent recession has reduced fund- ing for service organizations, whereas the need for human services has grown (abbruzzese, ; stewart, ). second, the large baby boom’s impending retirement offers a largely untapped force of skilled individuals to volunteer. third, many adults live active lifestyles well into old age (manton, gu, & lamb, ), and there is a grow- ing desire among many of them to contribute to others’ welfare (hawley & bello, ; magee, ). thus, a growing need for volunteer help with human services coupled with increased avail- ability of healthy older adults suggests their poten- tial contributions to volunteer work. senior volunteerism aging adults’ sense of social responsibility increasingly has been channeled into volunteer ser- vice, and today, more than % of adults ages years and older are volunteering in some form. many older individuals participate in both employ- ment and volunteering, with volunteer activity increasing after retirement (zedlewski & schaner, ). for example, rossi ( ) found that challenges and psychosocial growth for older volunteers giving intensive humanitarian service kathleen w. piercy,*, cheryl cheek, and boyd teemant department of family, consumer, and human development, utah state university, logan. penn state mont alto, pennsylvania. *address correspondence to kathleen w. piercy, department of family, consumer, and human development, old main hill, logan, ut - . e-mail: kathy.piercy@usu.edu received august , ; accepted january , decision editor: nancy schoenberg, phd a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ vol. , no. , adults in their s and s, especially those of higher socioeconomic status, increased their par- ticipation in civic work and formal volunteering over time, maintaining high participation levels well into old age. likewise, a recent study of vol- unteerism, which examined participants in eco- tourism projects, found that % of their participants were older than years of age (cheung, michel, & miller, ). studies of older adult volunteers demonstrate that they reap benefits to their physical health (hinterlong, morrow-howell, & rozario, ), mental health (lum & lightfoot, ; morrow- howell, hinterlong, rozario, & tang, ; musick & wilson, ), and well-being, includ- ing more positive affect and a stronger sense of purpose in life (greenfield & marks, ). qual- itative or mixed-method studies of senior volun- teers for nonprofit organizations found motivations of contributing to others and learning (narushima, ), rewards of role satisfaction and better com- prehension of the medical system (dulka, yaffe, goldin, & rowe, ), increased satisfaction with life, and improved abilities to cope with personal trauma (newman, vasudev, & onawola, ). a sense of purpose in life is especially strong in those who give service in religious organizations (stockton-chilson, ). religious-sponsored volunteerism religious groups are one of the primary avenues through which people give service. there are over , congregations in the united states with long traditions of social service, with % report- ing that their members volunteer their services either year round or seasonally (spring & grimm, ). religious organizations attract the largest number of volunteers, with % of americans volunteering for them. religious organizations are also a source of older american’s service, incorpo- rating . % of all volunteers aged years and older (u.s. bureau of labor statistics, ). furthermore, persons who volunteer for religious organizations have exhibited greater attachment to volunteer activities and are more likely to continue volunteering than those who serve other types of organizations (j. wilson & musick, ). to date, studies of volunteering among religi ous organiza- tions have focused on volunteer’s motives (becker & dhingra, ), types of service (becker & dhingra, ; hoge, zech, mcnamara, & donahue, ), rates of volunteering (j. wilson & janoski, ), or predictors of volunteerism (hoge et al., ). no studies of religious-sponsored volun- teerism have examined either intensive service or service performed exclusively by older adults. we designed this study to investigate intensive volunteering among adults aged more than years, those in middle or later life. intensive volun- teering is defined as service done on a -hr a day basis at a location away from home. past studies of intensive volunteering indicate positive results for those who give it. for example, former peace corps volunteers reported benefits of overseas ser- vice, including increased confidence and coping abilities, improved understanding of varied world views, more empathy for those in other countries, and personal growth (cross, ; a. h. wilson, ). in our research, we worked with religious orga- nizations sponsoring intensive volunteering to dis- cover institutional attributes that facilitated senior volunteers’ abilities. we also examined the chal- lenges faced and psychosocial benefits these volun- teers attained when they left home to serve, which is the focus of this article. study rationale studies show that there are well-documented benefits of senior volunteerism, religious-based volunteerism, and intensive volunteerism. how- ever, no one has conducted research at the inter- section of these three types of volunteerism (i.e., senior, religious-based, intensive volunteerism). little is known about older persons who volunteer intensely for relatively long periods away from home. also scarce are volunteers’ own accounts of the challenges and benefits of this type of service. to date, benefits of senior volunteering have been identified primarily in relation to one’s physical or mental health through use of quantitative methods (hinterlong et al., ; lum & lightfoot, ; morrow-howell et al., ; musick & wilson, ). few researchers have sought volunteer’s own accounts of the ways in which they view ser- vice as challenging or beneficial to them (brown et al., ; dulka et al., ; narushima, ; newman et al., ). with increased risk of disasters worldwide (united nations, ), there will be a need to recruit more persons for humanitarian service. the large cohort of adults with high levels of education, skills, and professional experience nearing or newly a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ the gerontologist retired represent assets these organizations can tap to address humanitarian needs (national council on aging, respectability initiative report, ). to succeed in recruiting and retaining older volun- teers for intensive service, it is crucial to understand the challenges they face, how they respond to chal- lenges, and how they benefit from intensive service. theoretical perspective we used an inductive approach to data collec- tion and analysis for this study, grounding our find- ings in the data. however, because no research is devoid of theory, our study’s orienting framework was erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. e. h. erikson, erikson, & kivnick ( ) posited that continued development of self and attainment of wisdom in later life formed the basis for a resil- ient self. e. erikson ( ) described the last two psychosocial stages of development as generativity versus stagnation and ego integrity versus despair. generativity implies an outward-looking care for one’s family, for others, and for generations yet to come (erikson et al. ), with those who success- fully balance the opposites of generativity and stag- nation obtaining the virtue of care. these persons experience interpersonal connectedness, enjoying mutual relationships and participating in genera- tive activities with those for whom they truly care (e. h. erikson, & erikson ). the stage of ego integrity versus despair is one in which persons strive to make meaning of their lives, developing feelings that their lives fit together in meaningful ways (e. h. erikson, & erikson ; hall, ). in this process, a new understanding is gained of past virtues and from them a new one is formed, that of wisdom. e. erikson’s ( ) theory of psychosocial development guided our interpretation of findings. with its developmental perspective on potential psychosocial changes and processes in later life, erikson’s theory facilitated our understanding of the psychosocial development of the volunteers as they gave service, whereas studying their service gave us an opportunity to understand different ways that generativity and ego integrity can be car- ried out and thus offer new and expanded under- standing of these two stages. research questions this study specifically examined challenges, change, and benefits in a sample of adults aged more than years who gave intensive humanitar- ian service. our research questions were (a) what challenges did older adults in intense volunteer ser- vice describe and how were these challenges met? and (b) how did participants change and what did they gain as a result of their volunteer activities? methods we conducted semistructured interviews with americans ( males and females) aged more than years who served a minimum of two weeks away from home, giving service to others. inclusion criteria were (a) people aged more than years, (b) who left home to serve, and (c) who had been home less than two years. these criteria yielded a sample who served in varied circum- stances, with the majority serving overseas for more than a year. we chose to study religious-based volunteering because large numbers of people, particularly older adults, serve through religious organizations (spring & grimm, ; u.s. bureau of labor statistics, ). also, religious-based volunteers are more likely to continue volunteering than those who serve in other types of organizations and to volunteer multiple times (j. wilson & musick, ). we believed that religious organizations would provide ample opportunity to observe persons engaged in both sustained and intensive volunteering and therefore would enhance our ability to examine psychosocial devel- opment over time. sample the types of intensive service studied included disaster relief, which requires a quick response and lasts only a few weeks for individual volunteers, and humanitarian work that met long-term needs with prolonged interventions. both types of service were intensive either because of the hard physical work in the disaster setting or because of the long-term commitment to work in unfamiliar surroundings. three organizations provided access to individ- ual and couple volunteers. they were the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints (hereafter lds church, with its volunteers called “mormons”), mennonite central committee (hereafter mcc, with its volunteers called “mennonites”), and lutheran disaster response (hereafter ldr; their volunteers are called “lutherans”). a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ vol. , no. , the lds church has provided, since , nearly , humanitarian volunteers serving from months to years in countries (lds church, n.d.). these volunteers distribute wheel- chairs, train professionals in neonatal resuscita- tion and eyesight-enhancing procedures, and work with local entities to provide access to clean water). the mennonite church and other anabaptist churches sponsor the mcc, which coordinates mennonites and others with similar values in pro- viding services in over countries, including community development, peace building, disaster relief, and sustainable communities (mcc, n.d.). currently, there are mennonite volunteers throughout the world, serving between three months and five years at a time. ldr is a collaborative ministry of the evangeli- cal lutheran church in america and the lutheran church-missouri synod. ldr responds to disas- ters of all types and sizes in the united states, including helping with disaster preparation, pro- viding spiritual/emotional care, and cleanup/ rebuilding assistance in the wake of natural disas- ters (ldr, ). these organizations were contacted and asked to refer former volunteers who met the above cri- teria and who would be willing to be interviewed regarding their service. the lds church gave the names and contact information of eight couples, mcc referred five couples and five singles, and ldr referred three couples and two singles. all were interviewed except for one lutheran volun- teer who declined citing time constraints. these organizations were chosen because they use a sig- nificant number of senior volunteers and gave a good contrast in the type of services they pro- vide—medium-length administrative and welfare service ( – years, lds church), medium to very long administrative, teaching, and disaster response service ( – years, mcc), and very short to short disaster response service ( weeks to months, ldr). with the lds church and mcc, we also obtained an orientation session to better acquaint us with the work of the organizations, their criteria for senior volunteers, and the views these organizations’ administrators held of the rewards and challenges of utilizing senior volunteers. the volunteers had an average age of . years (sd = . ), with a range of – years. the wide age range was appropriate to the different types of volunteering studied in our research and was simi- lar to prior qualitative studies of senior volunteers (narushima, ; newman et al., ). the respondents’ monthly household income ranged from $ to $ , (m = $ , , sd = $ , ; see table ). regarding marital status, two were single ( . %), married ( . %), one widowed ( . %), and two divorced ( . %). the volunteers served an average of . weeks (sd = . ) or just over months. the range was wide from as little as two weeks to as much as six years. all but two of the mormon and mennonite volunteers served in countries that were different from their home country. also, all but three individuals had served more than once, with range of from one to nine periods of formal service (m = . , sd = . ). in addition, all the volunteers reported years of less-intensive organizational service, including volunteering in various capacities in their churches and commu- nities (i.e., boy scout leader, hospice volunteer, etc.). even though participants were married, not all of them served as couples. three people who were married served singly in disaster relief. vol- unteers provided assistance that ranged from disaster responses after the tsunami in the philip- pines and hurricane katrina to giving dental care, carrying out peace building and employment table . mean age, income, length of service, and previous episodes of volunteering demographic characteristic mean sd respondent age lds church . . mcc . . ldr . . all respondents . . monthly income lds church $ , . $ , . mcc $ , . $ , . ldr $ , . $ , . all respondents $ , . $ , . length of service (in weeks) lds church . . mcc . . ldr . . all respondents . . number of previous periods of service lds church . . mcc . . ldr . . all respondents . . note: ldr = lutheran disaster response; mcc = men- nonite central committee. a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ the gerontologist training, building houses, coordinating medical supplies, and teaching english. procedures respondents were interviewed either in their homes or over the phone by the first or second author. one couple was interviewed in a class- room on the campus at the second author’s uni- versity. the interviews lasted from to min, with an average length of min. interview ques- tions focused on challenges volunteers experi- enced and benefits they received. sample interview questions included: “what did you think volun- teering would be like before you went? did it turn out to be the way you thought it would be?” what did you gain from this experience? to what extent, if any, do you see yourself differently as a result of your volunteer experiences?” at the conclusion of the interviews, participants completed a brief demographic questionnaire. the study was approved by the institutional review boards of utah state and penn state universities. analysis began with the researchers discussing volunteer responses in the first five interviews. as a result of this analysis, several interview ques- tions were added for the remaining participants, and probes were added to other questions to obtain more contextual data. the interviews were transcribed and coded, using the five-stage pro- cess described by mccracken ( ) for analysis of long interviews. the first stage involved read- ing the material for general understanding and identification of concepts related to volunteer service, whereas the second involved forming preliminary categories (called codes). the third stage involved identifying patterns and connec- tions among the codes, thereby developing themes. the fourth stage consisted of refining the connections by comparing individual experiences, with the last stage being the synthesis of data from the preliminary themes, patterns, and rela- tionships among codes to determine the final themes. the first through third stages of this pro- cess are very similar to corbin and strauss’s ( ) process of open and axial coding, and both methods of analysis rely on memos to develop categories and themes. we made liberal use of memos during the analytic process. through- out the analysis, all coding was reviewed by the first and second authors to confirm the accuracy of the categorization process and the sensitivity of the coding to the transcript information. differences were discussed and resolved. data were coded and analyzed using qsr*nvivo . results the presentation of our results focuses on cog- nitive, social, and emotional challenges and how participants addressed them, thus providing insight into participants’ service-related growth and devel- opment. we describe challenges and how they were met first, followed by an examination of the perceived benefits and how they related to the respondents’ psychosocial development. challenges and coping strategies self doubt.—although many respondents looked forward to serving, some experienced feel- ings of self-doubt and fear. volunteers with all three organizations expressed concerns about their abilities to succeed in the circumstances they faced. one mormon couple who served in africa described it as, “fear of a place, the fear of the unknown . . . can i do what they’re asking me to do?” a lutheran volunteer with self-doubts described his team leader’s efforts to recruit him by building his confidence that he was qualified to oversee building of a tent city for volunteers serving vic- tims of hurricane katrina. he said: he hammered me for about, i’d say two weeks, before, i said, okay, okay, i’ll go . . . i just wasn’t sure of my capabilities . . . . and then, by him ask- ing me different questions on the camp, you know, and i’d bring up things that he would say, “well what do i need?” and i would tell him. what he was doing, was he was feeding me lines until he got me ashore. participants offered several solutions to the challenge of self-doubt. one spoke of taking “a step of faith and jump[ing] in.” a disaster relief volunteer stated, “[you] draw strength from god and your team members.” another recommended a stalwart focus on “doing; being there for others in need” as a way to subdue fear and doubt. all participants stated that once they got into volun- teering, this self-doubt subsided. adjusting to new locations.—despite training from their sponsoring organizations, participants found that adjusting to their service locations could be difficult, and support from others was essential. volunteers learned from others how to navigate a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ vol. , no. , their new lives—where to find doctors, buy grocer- ies, and how to use local transportation. one mor- mon couple with a career military husband noted, “you have to be a survivor. so, you have to figure out how am i going to get from point a to point b?” they relied on their military experience to “figure everything out . . . . then we shared those with all the other couples as they would come in.” cultural adjustment in other countries.—coping with the vast differences in lifestyles between north america and the country of service was mentioned by several participants. one mormon woman who served in asia said, “it’s just hard to prepare you for what you’re actually going to see.” the differ- ences in pace of life, getting things done, and reli- ability of transportation were challenging to many volunteers, along with living in indigenous condi- tions that could be considered spartan by u.s. stan- dards. another mormon couple found that their apartment needed an upgrade in order for them to be able to live in it. they pondered different alterna- tives and with the landlord’s approval decided to use some of their savings to purchase appliances, paint, and put in new curtains. because they would be living in that apartment for two years, they saw it as a worthwhile investment. another couple, serving in a disaster area, described learning to adjust to high temperatures with no air condition- ing, along with the lack of privacy that came with having many people living with them. most volunteers identified patience and flexibil- ity as qualities that got them through the rough patches. one mormon volunteer who served in africa noted, “their lifestyle is so different and on such a basic level that you had to go with the flow, so to speak.” another couple noted that they made many mistakes at first but felt they learned from them, stating, “and once you know those taboo things, don’t do them, you’re ok,” while a man who served in latin america said: you got to learn to adapt overseas. you’ve got to learn patience because things are not efficient over- seas at all. it’s just things take extra time and you get; you could get frustrated if you’re not alert to this . . . it goes with the territory and don’t let it get you down. just press on. work-related challenges.—challenges in the work itself came in many different forms. for some volunteers they were cultural, for others financial. difficulties also came in the form of unmet expectations and discouragement or fatigue. several mennonite volunteers felt challenged when collaborating in teams with persons from other cultures. one woman described it as: you have to learn all the different new people that you have to work with . . . you think, oh, i’m going out here as a volunteer so things will just be honky dory, right. and you realize pretty soon, that’s pretty naïve. the lack of necessary finances to complete work also was a challenge. in one disaster situation, vol- unteers did not receive money from pledged sources in a timely manner. one lutheran volun- teer responded by meeting with women from a neighboring state who went to their church, raised money, and gave him $ in gift cards that could be used for building supplies. a third area of challenge was that volunteers often did not find themselves in the situations they had anticipated. one lutheran went to a disaster area and noted, “i went down as a minister for evangelical lutheran church in america and as a clinical therapist, thinking that i would be work- ing with posttraumatic stress types of reactions and actually ended up being a carpenter.” some mennonite volunteers also arrived overseas expect- ing to do one kind of work, only to be assigned another. the responses to these challenges included hav- ing a flexible attitude, leaving personal agendas at home, and trusting in god that things will work. one lutheran said, “you never know what you are going to be called or asked to do, and you’ve got to be flexible.” volunteers often reframed their experiences in terms of personal growth, calling them “stretching” and “enjoyable.” one woman said: “i think all the negatives; discomfort some- times with the work, procedures and so forth . . . . i wouldn’t necessarily say these are negative. they were just the situation. we basically went prepared to rough it, whatever it took.” volunteers also needed emotional support, and they helped each other by talking with and listening to each other. one disaster relief volunteer said: some people just wanted you to walk with them— even though they needed to have their houses mucked out—not to counsel with them, just to be there . . . . [the volunteers] were working on a house that was particularly hard hit—this - year old child would just sit. one of the women . . . brought the child a stuffed animal. [the child] opened to the woman immediately. one of the men a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ the gerontologist took a rope and made her a swing . . . . those are the stories that were told after dinner [among the volunteers], and there were very few dry eyes. my point is that you have to maintain your emotional bank account by sharing stories. cultural adjustment when coming home.— after the volunteers had adjusted to their new locations, they often needed to mentally readjust after arriving home. six couples and two single volunteers identified difficult aspects of re-entry to their homes in north america. the challenges and coping strategies were different for each person or couple. one mormon woman described their return as feeling like, “you’ve been pushed off the back of a pickup, going down the freeway at mph. we worked (in service) until o’clock at night. then you come home and say, what am i doing with my life now?” she favored another mission if possible, noting how their age limited their callings in their home church. “we’re old; we’re has-beens to them, what do we do with our lives? you have been productive. you have been serving. it gets under your skin. then you come home and feel like you’re not doing any good.” an additional re-entry challenge was reconnect- ing with friends and family. one mennonite cou- ple described it as, when you come home a lot of people look at you as you’re a hero or something . . . but they don’t really want to know about it. they just look at you like some kind of freak that you’d want to go to third worlds. one mennonite couple used an effective strategy to deal with re-entry, traveling home from asia by ship. the husband described it as, “a chance to debrief, to unwind over a month’s time. and so that makes the coming home a softer landing.” others stayed in contact with friends and family during their service, which made the return transition easier. volunteers were able, in some cases for the first time, to see their home countries and cultures through the eyes of others, and some wanted to share what they had learned with persons at home. one mennonite volunteer said, “so now i feel like that’s part of my mission; to educate people a little more gently, about how the rest of the world sees us.” growth and benefits increased connection with other volunteers.— in drawing upon each others’ strengths, volunteers became close to one another. volunteers from all three agencies expanded their friendships and social contacts during their service. one person said, “that is one of the things that makes [ser- vice] so rewarding . . . the friendships, just hooking up with them, sharing stories, working together for a couple of hours a day.” another said, “you just have this close association with them, and we still get e-mail from some of them.” increased connection with spouses.—many volunteers found that serving together also increased their closeness to their spouses. half of the mormon couples felt that working as a team while serving had improved their marital relation- ships and that spending so much time together under challenging circumstances resulted in new appreciation of their spouses. the wife in one mormon couple said, “so you learn patience with one another. and i think you grow together closer.” another couple added: male: on a mission, it’s really / because you’re planning together, getting up in the morning and coordinating and getting off to class. female: you just learn-although you know the per- son, it’s just different being with them all the time. you have a new understanding, a new love for one another. service away from home changed individuals’ levels of concern for others. several respondents felt they had become more compassionate and authentic persons as a result of their service. the wife of a lutheran volunteer described her spouse’s changes: his feelings were very up front when he first returned. . . that shift in understanding and com- passion . . . i think it took us to a new level of authenticity and in compassion towards each other. increased connection with those they served.—participants also came to appreciate the people, cultures, and beliefs of their countries of service. one mormon man serving in africa described it as “after a week, not to recognize the difference in colors; you don’t make that distinc- tion.” another mormon man who served in a middle eastern country said, i feel like i’m much more tolerant of other people and their beliefs. i’ve come to understand that if that’s the way they want to live (then) that’s their a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ vol. , no. , right. their privilege is to worship how they want and have government the way they want. i wouldn’t dictate that to them. a third mormon male spoke of “appreciating the differences, not being afraid of them.” he noted his approval of this culture by saying, “peo- ple call it a poor country, but in so many ways it’s very rich.” some newly formed relationships were quite intimate and among the best memories of service. a mennonite couple said, we have three young ladies over there that call us mom and dad. i’m talking people in their s. we had a buddhist monk request us to be his godpar- ents. those relationships and the way we feel about them and they feel about us, it’s what we look most fondly upon at this point. finding existential meaning in service to others.—most of the participants felt changed in one or more ways as a direct result of serving away from home. in traveling to new locations and deal- ing with new challenges, they had the opportunity to examine their lives, their values, and their moti- vations. this examination happened many times during their service and when returning home. volunteers’ perceptions of what was important in life changed. they described themselves as less materialistic, more compassionate toward others, and more authentic persons. for many, the service itself was a life-changing experience. respondents noted how an increased focus on serving others brought new meaning to their lives, with comments like, “you will never find significance until what you do contributes to the welfare of another person. if i’m working for myself, there’s not a lot of joy in that, but when i’m helping others there’s a lot of joy,” or “your life will never be the same. you will not look at life the same again.” some of the changes reflected an alteration of self-focus. in several cases, partici- pants felt their preferred lifestyle was to serve oth- ers rather than focus on oneself. this finding was exemplified by a mormon woman who served in south america. she said: it makes me realize that i can’t be content living, just living here in utah and going about a life, a normal . . . i need to get back out on a mission is what i really feel like i need to be doing. another change was the increased awareness of global issues and human suffering, along with the experience of living simply in their service environ- ment, whether domestic or overseas. several vol- unteers were quite affected by the losses of life and the destruction they encountered in their service settings. one man serving victims of hurricane katrina described his reaction as, “i’m a little less materialistic. seeing people literally obliterated. it affects you in ways that you can’t image.” six participants identified spiritual growth result- ing from their service. one lutheran man said “it brought me closer and closer to christ every day.” a mormon woman who served in the pacific islands observed the piousness of her fellow church mem- bers there and related that, “spiritually, we realized that we need to put a little more priority on the spir- itual part.” a mennonite female noted that “spiri- tually, the exposure to other cultures and beliefs of muslim, hindu, buddhist and christians in another culture . . . helped my faith in humanity.” several volunteers spoke of gaining a greater understanding of their lives, their abilities and a greater acceptance of themselves. a lutheran vol- unteer said: you get satisfaction in volunteering later in life, not (of) the ego type. an event like that [disaster] pushes you to understanding who you are and what you are, and being comfortable with that. there are things that i can’t do and i am comfort- able with that, thanks be to god. summary of findings participants identified many challenges that they experienced while providing disaster relief or other humanitarian service. most challenges related to adjustment: to new situations, different cultural life- styles, service-related difficulties, and returning home. participants met these challenges with flexi- ble attitudes, social support, patience, and trust in god. change, growth, and benefit occurred in sev- eral ways. prominent among benefits were increased connection with other volunteers, with spouses, and with those they served. many participants found existential meaning in service to others, gaining compassion, authenticity, and a strengthened focus on others’ welfare. some reported shedding materi- alistic values they held before service, and others reported a deepened faith in god or humankind. discussion this qualitative study of intensive volunteering provided many examples of participants’ abilities a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ the gerontologist to grow from adversity. for example, the daily challenge of adjusting to new different cultures grew into an appreciation of those cultures. such experiences contributed to the psychosocial devel- opment of these volunteers. e. h. erikson and erikson ( ) saw conflicts and tensions as poten- tial sources of growth, strength and commitment, giving individuals more abilities to work through developmental crises, and over time, facilitating the development of wisdom (e. h. erikson et al., ). several themes from our data suggested the pos- sibility of expanding erikson’s description of gen- erativity and ego integrity. when erikson developed the last two stages of his psychosocial theory, life expectancy in the united states was years shorter than it is today. because many members of the baby boom and earlier generations married early and had children quickly, they now had ten additional years to spend in erikson’s final two developmental stages. many of today’s seniors have good health and the opportunity to serve away from home. the differing ways in which they use this time to serve others and the growth that they obtain from this service can expand the understanding of the ways in which they carry out erikson’s last two stages. themes related to generativity and ego integrity an important theme emerging from the data was that of increased connection with others. this con- nection was not only with other volunteers but also with spouses and those served. these connections were powerful, giving support and encouragement, along with feelings of intimacy and personal satis- faction. moreover, most respondents reported that some of the relationships continued to the present. both generativity and ego integrity involve interpersonal interaction. generativity involves interacting with others to care for them, whereas ego integrity involves interactions with others to gain meaning and understanding of one’s life. the interpersonal contact that the respondents experi- enced reflected both of these stages, with respon- dents not only giving help and support to others (generativity/caring) but also developing a new depth of understanding and acceptance of others (ego integrity/wisdom). having strong interper- sonal connections can hold off despair, which e. h. erikson and erikson ( ) posited as a con- tinuing form of stagnation. in addition, strong engagement in social networks has positive mental health benefits for older adults (glass, mendes de leon, bassuk, & berkman, ). thus, one way in which the mental health of senior volunteers may be maintained or improved is in the develop- ment of new relationships during their service experiences. problem solving skills were prevalent among our respondents. when faced with challenges, these volunteers were able to search their past experiences for similar situations (wisdom), then use those experiences, with existing resources, to address the problem (generativity). this skill was exemplified by the lutheran volunteer who worked with others to get gift cards for building supplies when organizational monies were lacking. cre- ative use of existing resources, guided by wisdom from past experience, was a common occurrence in our sample. themes related to ego integrity and wisdom although most of our participants had not reached late old age, their accounts suggested that they had acquired attributes through their service that they could adapt to maintain ego integrity in later life. three themes related to ego integrity emerged in this research: (a) finding existential meaning, (b) understanding the complexity of the world, and (c) emotional resiliency. the creation of meaning in life involves reflec- tion, reprocessing, and synthesizing of issues from all stages of life to create a view of life that is con- sistent and satisfying (e. h. erikson & erikson, ; hall, ). understanding the complexity of the world includes the capacity to interact socially with empathy and understanding, to accept differences, and to know oneself well enough to successfully balance the demands of society against one’s own needs and desires (e. erikson, ). emotional resiliencies enable indi- viduals to mentally step outside difficult situations and reflect, using their base of knowledge and experience, and then respond with knowledge of the best course to take (e. h. erikson et al., ; hall, ). it also allows individuals to “disat- tend” negative information while keeping their focus on meaningful images and goals (hall, , e. h. erikson et al., ). creating existential meaning.—our partici- pants exhibited ego integrity in their sense of wholeness in a life of service. the different settings in which they labored facilitated the examination a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ vol. , no. , of their values, their ways of life, and their beliefs. they were able to see themselves in a new light and synthesize this information into reconfigured sets of meanings. as a result of their service, many felt that they were less materialistic. they also gained a new appreciation for the value of service and for some, a new sense of spirituality. understanding complexity.—some volunteers described an increased ability to remain open to new ideas and experiences, along with an increased appreciation of those from other cultural and reli- gious backgrounds. these findings support those of cross ( ) and a. h. wilson’s ( ) peace corp volunteers, who also reported increased adaptive abilities, more empathy for those in other countries, and personal growth from the chal- lenges they faced. emotional resiliency.—being flexible in their responses to adverse conditions may reflect, in part, a developing wisdom that comes with solving many life course challenges. several persons were able to reframe quite distressing events or condi- tions into a mindset of “it’s just the way life goes.” as such, they exhibited resilience in the face of adversity. to some extent, the division of challenges, cop- ing strategies, and benefits of service into distinct stage-related categories is beneficial. however, it is also somewhat artificial. in many ways, the chal- lenges and benefits the volunteers experienced were intermingled in terms of the stages involved, with generative behaviors creating not only gener- ative benefits (e.g., caring) but also ego integrity- related benefits (e.g., increased wisdom) there were many examples of this. as respondents used experiences and abilities accumulated over a life- time to figure out how to do things (wisdom), they shared their knowledge with others (generativity). this service led in turn to stronger connections with others (generativity and ego integrity) and increased feelings of meaning in life (ego integrity). therefore, gains in one area often led to gains in another area. limitations of the study although generalizability to a broad population is not the purpose of qualitative research, we rec- ognize that a limited sample size with a plurality of highly educated and religious participants limits somewhat the applicability of these findings to other older volunteer samples. in addition, partici- pating agencies referred persons who had dealt with their service challenges successfully. we real- ize that not all older persons who leave home for service feel as positively about their experiences as did our participants. despite these limitations, we identified a group of senior volunteers who will be increasingly sought by religious and secular orga- nizations for service away from home. their accounts provided strong evidence that persons aged more than years have a great deal to con- tribute to these challenging endeavors. through a combination of commitment and creative problem solving, our participants found ways to persist, adjust to their limitations, and be effective in their assignments. they defied the conventional age- related narrative of decline (gullette, ) by being flexible in their thinking and acquiring new skills. implications for practice both religious and secular service organizations that provide intensive service can use the findings of this study for recruitment and retention pur- poses. many nearly or newly retired baby boomers seek challenging service opportunities that enhance their development, and our study findings indicate that working with people intensely can lead to beneficial growth and change in values, behavior, and spirituality. intensive volunteer training and field support services can be enhanced by the knowledge of challenges and strategies used by our participants to address them, so that increased numbers of future volunteers will be retained. conclusions erikson decried the relegation of older people to “the onlooker bleachers of our society,” feeling that in doing so, society classified them as unpro- ductive and inadequate. he advocated finding ways that elders could still contribute to society in a manner that is within their capabilities (e. h. erikson et al., ). as our respondents have shown, intensive humanitarian service given in later life offers unique opportunities for contribut- ing to the welfare of others as well as to continue one’s personal growth and development. funding penn state university. a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ the gerontologist acknowledgments we thank the associate dean of faculty, commonwealth campuses, penn state university for her generous funding of this study. references abbruzzese, k. ( , february ). work for america: nonprofits see applications rise. the associated press. retrieved from http://www. baltimoresun.com/business/bal-volunteer , , .story becker, p. e., & dhingra, p. h. ( ). religious involvement and volun- teering: implications for civil society. sociology of religion, , – . brown, j. w., chen, s., mefford, l., brown, a., callen, b., & mcarthur, p. ( ). becoming an older volunteer: a grounded theory study. nurs- ing research and practice. doi: . / / . cheung, s., michel, m., & miller, d. ( ). voluntourism: give a little gain a lot. (georgian college research analyst program). retrieved from the international ecotourism society website: http://www. planeterra.org corbin, j., & strauss, a. ( ). basics of qualitative research e. thousand oaks, ca: sage. cross, m. c. ( , april). self efficacy and cultural awareness: a study of returned peace corps teachers. paper presented at the annual meet- ing of the american educational research association, san diego, ca. retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/pdfs/ed .pdf dulka, i. m., yaffe, m. j., goldin, b., & rowe, w. s. ( ). the use of senior volunteers in the care of discharged geriatric patients. journal of sociology and social welfare, , – . erikson, e. ( ). childhood and society.. new york: w.w. norton. erikson, e. h. & erikson, j. m. ( ). the life cycle completed. extended version. new york: w.w. norton. erikson, e. h., erikson, j. m., & kivnick, h. q. ( ). vital involvement in old age. new york: w.w. norton & co. glass, t. a., mendes de leon, c. f., bassuk, s. s., & berkman, l. f. ( ). social engagement and depressive symptoms in late life. jour- nal of aging and health, , – . greenfield, e. & marks, n. ( ). formal volunteering as a protective factor for older adults’ psychological well-being. journal of gerontol- ogy social sciences, b, s –s . gullette, m. m. ( ). declining to decline.. charlottesville: university press of virginia. hall, s. s. ( , may ). the older-and-wiser hypothesis. new york times magazine, pp. – . hawley, c., & bello, m. ( , october ). peace corps mission endures: some say jfk’s bold idea, still using ’ model, needs update. usa today, pp. d– d. hinterlong, j. e., morrow-howell, n., & rozario, p. a. ( ). produc- tive engagement and late life physical and mental health: findings from a nationally representative panel study. research on aging, , – . hoge, d. r., zech, c., mcnamara, p., & donahue, m. j. ( ). the value of volunteers as resources for congregations. journal for the sci- entific study of religion, , – . lds church. (n.d.). statistical information—lds newsroom. retrieved from http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/eng/statistical-information lum, t. y., & lightfoot, e. ( ). the effects of volunteering on the phys- ical and mental health of older people. research on aging, , – . lutheran disaster response. ( , december). disaster . presentation at lutheran disaster response network meeting, chicago, il. power point retrieved from www.ldr.org/resources/ _conference/disaster .ppt magee, m. ( ). boomer corps: activating seniors for national service. progressive policy institute. retrieved from http://www.ppionline. org/documents/boomer_corps_ .pdf manton, k. g., gu, x., & lamb, v. l. ( ). change in chronic disabil- ity from to / as measured by long-term changes in function and health in the u.s. elderly population. proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa, , – . mccracken, g. ( ). the long interview. thousand oaks, ca: sage publications. mennonite central committee. (n.d.). what we do?author. retrieved from http://mcc.org/whatwedo morrow-howell, n., hinterlong, j., rozario, p. a., & tang, f. ( ). effects of volunteering on the well-being of older adults. journal of gerontology social sciences, , – . musick, m. a., & wilson, j. ( ). volunteering and depression: the role of psychological and social resources in different age groups. social science and medicine, , – . narushima, m. ( ). “payback time”: community volunteering among older adults as a transformative mechanism. ageing & society, , – . national council on aging, respectability initiative report ( ). the boomer solution: skilled talent to meet nonprofit needs. retrieved from http://www.ncoa.org newman, s., vasudev, j., & onawola, r. ( ). older volunteers’ per- ceptions of impacts of volunteering on their psychological well-being. journal of applied gerontology, , – . rossi, a. s. ( ). social responsibility to family and community. in o. g. brim, c. d. ryff, & r. c. kessler (eds.), how healthy are we?: a national study of well-being at midlife (pp. – ). chicago, il: university of chicago press. spring, k. a., & grimm, r. t., jr. ( ). volunteer management in america’s religious organizations. retrieved from the urban institute website: http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/ _vm_religious.pdf stewart, j. ( ). nonprofits vie for smaller grant pie: budget crunch forces city to cut available funds in half. mcclatchy—tribune business news. retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/ ?accountid= . stockton-chilson, k. e. ( ). a comparative study of giving and volunteer- ing patterns among adults with seventh-day adventist and other chris- tian religious identities. dissertation abstracts international: section b: the sciences and engineering, . retrieved from http://www.csa.com. ( - - ). united nations ( ). global assessment report on disaster risk reduc- tion. retrieved from http://www.preventionweb.net/gar u.s. bureau of labor statistics. ( ). volunteering in the united states, (usdl- – ). retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/news.r elease/volun.nr .htm wilson, a. h. ( ). returned peace corp volunteers who teach social studies. social studies, , – . wilson, j., & janoski, t. ( ). the contribution of religion to volunteer work. sociology of religion, , – . wilson, j., & musick, m. a. ( ). attachment to volunteering. sociological forum, , – . zedlewski, s. r., & schaner, s. g. ( ). older adults engaged as volunteers. retrieved from http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf / _older_volunteers.pdf a t n y u s ch o o l o f m e d icin e l ib ra ry o n s e p te m b e r , g e ro n to lo g ist.o xfo rd jo u rn a ls.o rg d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://gerontologist.oxfordjournals.org/ proc. nail. acad. sci. usa vol. , pp. - , december genetics plasminogen activator inhibitor type gene is located at region q . -q of chromosome and genetically linked with cystic fibrosis (protease inhibitor/serpin/gene mapping) k. w. klinger*t, r. winqvistt§, a. riccio¶, p. a. andreasenii, r. sartorio, l. s. nielsen , n. stuart*, p. stanislovitis*, p. watkins*, r. douglas*, k.-h. grzeschik**, k. alitalo§, f. blasi~tt, and k. dano** *integrated genetics, inc., new york avenue, framingham, ma ; tdepartment of clinical genetics, oulu university central hospital, kajaanintie , sf- , oulu, finland; §department of virology, university of helsinki, haartmaninkatu , sf- helsinki, finland; international institute of genetics and biophysics, consiglio nazionale delle richerche, via marconi, naples, italy; ilfinsen laboratory, rigshospitalet, strandboulevarden, copenhagen o., denmark; **institut fur humangenetik der universitat, vesaliusweg - , d- munster, federal republic of germany; and ttmikrobiologisk institut, university of copenhagen, a oster farimagsgade, copenhagen k., denmark communicated by lester . krampitz, august , (received for review february , ) abstract the regional chromosomal location of the human gene for plasminogen activator inhibitor type (paii) was determined by three independent methods of gene map- ping. paii was localized first to cen-q and then to q . -q by southern blot hybridization analysis of a panel of human and mouse somatic cell hybrids with a pail cdna probe and in situ hybridization, respectively. we identified a frequent hindiii restriction fragment length polymorphism (rflp) of the pail gene with an information content of . . in family studies using this polymorphism, genetic linkage was found between paii and the loci for erythropoietin (epo), paraoxonase (pon), the met protooncogene (met), and cystic fibrosis (cf), all previously assigned to the middle part of the long arm of chromosome . the linkage with epo was closest with an estimated genetic distance of centimorgans, whereas that to cf was centimorgans. a three-point genetic linkage analysis and data from previous studies showed that the most likely order of these loci is epo, pail, pon, (met, cf), with paii being located centromeric to cf. the paii rflp may prove to be valuable in ordering genetic markers in the cf-linkage group and may also be valuable in genetic analysis of plasminogen activation-related diseases, such as certain thromboembolic disorders and cancer. proteolysis caused by plasminogen activation is involved in many diverse biological processes ( - ). the two types of mammalian plasminogen activators, urokinase-type (u-pa) and tissue-type (t-pa), are both serine proteases with similar catalytic specificities but are products of different genes, located on chromosomes and , respectively ( - ). plasminogen activation is regulated at several levels-e.g., by hormonal regulation of the synthesis of the activators and by modulators of their enzyme activity. one such modulator is plasminogen activator inhibitor type (pa l), an - -kda glycoprotein produced by endothelial cells and several neoplastic cell lines and found in thrombocytes and blood plasma ( - ). pail inhibits u-pa and t-pa and belongs to the group of serpins, being an argserpin with an arginine residue at the reactive center ( - ). we have previously described the derivation of monoclo- nal antibodies to pail and their use for purification of the inhibitor ( ). these antibodies and amino acid sequence data have allowed the identification of pail cdna clones from two different sources ( , ). the paii gene was assigned to human chromosome by hybridization analysis of chro- mosomes sorted onto filters ( ). in the present study the results of cell hybrid and in situ hybridization analysis placed paii in the area q -q , close to the chromosomal location predicted for cystic fibrosis (cf) on the basis of genetic linkage between cf and a number of polymorphic loci ( - ). cf is a common autosomal recessive disease with a carrier frequency of : in caucasian populations. the basic biochemical defect in cf is as yet unknown and further genetic linkage studies are needed to identify the responsible genetic locus. we there- fore identified a restriction fragment length polymorphism (rflp) for pail and analyzed genetic linkage between the pail gene and cf as well as other genes located in this region. materials and methods dna probes. the construction and characterization of the pair cdna clone have been described elsewhere ( ). a . -kilobase (kb) bamhi insert of ppai -a plasmid con- taining the entire coding sequence for pail was used for polymorphism screening and linkage studies. p-labeled probes were synthesized by using the procedure of feinberg and vogelstein ( , ). other dna polymorphisms used for linkage analysis have been described already: metd and meth ( , ), epo ( ). the markers at the met locus were analyzed as a haplotype, assuming no recombination between the taq i sites and linkage equilibrium ( ). somatic cell hybrids. the somatic cell hybrids used in this study were produced by the fusion of a mouse cell line (rag or a ) with human cells, including cells containing translo- cation derivatives of chromosome . determination of the chromosomal complement of the hybrids was performed by analysis of g-banded chromosomes combined with testing of known biochemical markers on chromosome ( ), essen- tially as reported ( ). human gm and a and mouse rag cell lines were used as controls. dna analysis. dna from human, mouse, and mouse-hu- man cells was prepared using standard techniques. gene mapping using dna panels of hybrid cell lines and rflp analyses were carried out by using a modified form of abbreviations: u-pa, urokinase-type plasminogen activator; t-pa, tissue-type plasminogen activator; pai , plasminogen activator inhibitor type ; rflp, restriction fragment length polymorphism; cf, cystic fibrosis; pon, paraoxonase; lod, logarithm ofodds; epo, erythropoietin; cm, centimorgans. tto whom reprint requests should be addressed. the publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. this article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with u.s.c. § solely to indicate this fact. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) southern blotting ( ) and nylon membranes [genetrans (plasco) or hybond-n (amersham)]. the membranes were hybridized to p-labeled ppai -a dna. after hybridiza- tion the filters were washed in successive changes of de- creasing concentrations of nacl/sodium citrate to a final wash in mm naci/ . mm sodium citrate/ . % nadodso at c. autoradiography was at - c. paraoxonase (pon) analysis. six families were tested for the serum arylesterase pon, as described ( ). chromosomal in situ hybridization. hybridization in situ was performed on metaphase chromosomes essentially as described by harper and saunders ( ). pedigrees and families. probands in inbred populations were identified, and the pedigrees were constructed as described ( , ). two large extended kindreds with cf were studied, one amish mennonite family containing affected individuals and a hutterite family containing affected individuals. seventeen two-generation nuclear fam- ilies each with two ( families) or three ( families) affected children were also used in the linkage analysis. the estab- lishment in these families of linkage between the loci and markers colia , epo (erythropoietin), pon, d s , met, and cf has been reported ( , , ). linkage analysis. two-point analyses and multipoint anal- yses were performed using the mlink and linkmap programs, respectively, of the computer package linkage ( ). logarithm of odds (lod) scores z were calculated by assuming no sex difference in recombination. maximal like- lihood estimates of the lod score (i) and recombination fraction ( ) were calculated by using the computer program vaco ( ). the confidence interval for the maximal like- lihood estimate ofthe recombination fraction was determined by graphic interpolation ( ). the large amish mennonite pedigree was divided into three sections to include one inbreeding loop in each section, thus simplifying the analysis and preserving to a large extent the complex interrelation- ships and common ancestry of the members of this pedigree. results chromosomal localization of the paii gene. the chromo- somal localization of the human gene for paii was identified c , l kbp- - +- ho ., ia~~co., cb. fig. . sublocalization of the human pail gene on chromosome by using mouse-human somatic cell hybrids. human (gm , a ), mouse (rag, a ), and hybrid (as indicated in fig. ) cell dna was cleaved with hindili restriction endonuclease, resolved by electrophoresis, and blotted onto membranes hybridized with p-labeled plasmid containing a . -kbp insert of human pati cdna, and specific hybridization was detected by autoradiography. from the autoradiogram it can be seern that the probe detects fragments of kbp and/or kbp in the human gm and a cells and in the hybrids - -cilo, rag ru - , and a it - - . a faint hybridization signal of kbp was also detected for hybrid rag gm - on a longer exposure. this reflects that pail was present in -. % of the cells in this hybrid line. as shown in fig. , the only human chromosomal region these cells have in common is that located between the centromere and band of the long arm of chromosome ( cen-q ). by dna hybridization in mouse-human hybrid cell lines containing different human chromosomes. hybridization with the pail cdna probe to southern blots of hindiii- digested dna revealed two dna fragments of kilobase pairs (kbp) and kbp (see below and fig. ). the presence of one or both of these fragments segregated in a variety of cell lines specifically with the human chromosome , whereas discordance was found with all other human chromosomes (data not shown). to study the sublocalization of the pail gene, cell lines that contained specific regions of human chromosome (fig. ) were investigated. as it appears from fig. , a positive signal was only observed in those cell lines a x- - ( ) it a - - ( x) gm rag - ( x) mh rag - ( x) ru rag - ( x y) ru rag - (x) - -ciio (none) fig. . portion of human chromosome retained in mouse-human hybrid cell lines used for sublocalization of the pail gene by southern blotting analysis. in parentheses are indicated other human chromosomes (or derivatives) present in the respective cell lines. as illustrated in fig. , paii is found in cell lines it a - - , gm rag - , ru rag - , and - -cl . l it i genetics: klinger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) that had retained the region of the long arm of chromosome located between the centromere and band ( cen-q ). as an alternative approach, the localization of the pail gene was studied by in situ hybridization on metaphase preparations ot human lymphocytes with h-labeled pail cdna. as seen from fig. left, chromosome was the only chromosome that showed a grain number ( %) above background. the majority of the grains on chromosome were associated with bands q l. and q of the long arm ( % of all grains observed, fig. right), verifying and making more precise the localization obtained by the cell hybrid analysis. rflp. dna from four unrelated individuals was digested with a variety of different restriction endonucleases (apa i, bgl ii, msp i, ecorv, pvu ii, xmn i, sac i, bsteii, bcl i, taq i, ecori, bamhi, pst i, hindiii, and nci i) and analyzed by southern blotting with the pail cdna probe. digestion with hindiii revealed allelic fragments of kbp (al) and kbp (a ). a representative autoradiograph of the segregation of the rflp in a family is shown in fig. . the segregation pattern obtained in all of the nuclear families, and both pedigrees, was consistent with mendelian inheritance. the frequencies for al and a were . + . and . ± . , respectively, in a sample ofdna preparations accounting for unrelated chromosomes representative of a general north american population. because of the nearly optimal ratios of the major and minor allele, the polymorphism has a high polymorphism information content ( . ). an additional but much less frequent rflp was found after xmn i digestion. no polymorphisms were detected for the remaining restric- tion enzymes that were tested. linkage analysis. the hindiii polymorphism detected by the pail probe was used to test for linkage between paii and the cf locus and other markers previously mapped to this region of the long arm of chromosome . the segregation pattern of the hindill rflp was analyzed by southern blot analysis using dna prepared from each individual of the families described in materials and methods. lod score [ co z c: l l cc z: z s il i p q jpi q iiiqpjq ip q nsm *i a n r q p q tvl q lp qipjq pqlq x my chromosomes uo * - . i ai * a v . vw epai hindill fig. . inheritance of hindiii rflp. dna samples were di- gested with hindiii and analyzed by southern blotting with a . -kbp fragment of the paiu cdna probe. the family pedigree is shown above. the rflp assignment of each individual is indicated below the pedigree. epai, ppai -a probe. analysis of the cosegregation pattern of the cf disease phenotype and the rflp, or the rflp and additional markers assigned to chromosome q, was performed by using the linkage program (see materials and methods). the results of the two-point linkage analysis are shown in table . evidence was obtained for loose linkage between pail and the cf locus. the maximal likelihood estimate of the recombination distance ( ) between pair and cf was . [ % confidence interval, . - . ; with a maximal lod score (z) of . (odds ratio, : )]. this suggested that the pail locus was located within the established cf linkage group on the long arm of chromosome , albeit somewhat distant from the cf locus. we therefore examined the linkage relationship between paii and other markers within this group. these included the loci for the c-met protooncogene (met) ( ), the erythropoietin gene (epo) ( ), and the gene for the serum protein paraoxonase (pon) ( ). the results of these analyses (table ) demonstrated that paii is most @ * * fig. . localization of human paii gene by in situ hybridization analysis. (left) histogram show- ing the grain distribution in metaphases. abscissa: chromo- somes in their relative size propor- tions. ordinate: number of silver grains. overall, grains were observed, of which ( %) were on chromosome . background grains were found distributed evenly on all chromosomes. (right) sublocalization of pail to q . -q ( grains = % of all grains observed). genetics: klinger et al. i c d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. nati. acad. sci. usa ( ) table . linkage analysis of gene loci for pair vs. cf, epo, the c-met protooncogene (met), and paraoxonase (pon) number of informative lod (z) score at recombinant fraction ( ) loci families . . . . . . . . . o = . ; = . ; % confidence interval = . - . paii vs. cf - . . . . . . . . o = . ; z = . ; % confidence interval = . - . paii vs. epo . . . . . . . . o = . ; t = . ; % confidence interval = . - . pari vs. met - . . . . . . . . o = . ; i = . ; % confidence interval = . - . pail vs. pon - . - . . . . . . . closely linked to epo, with a maximal likelihood estimate for o of . and a maximal lod score of . (odds ratio, . x : ). for linkage ofpail with ponand met, the maximal likelihood estimates for and z were . and . vs. . and . , respectively. a three-locus test was performed to establish the position of pail relative to epo and pon. of the families that were informative for each marker tested for linkage to paii (table ), two families were jointly informative for paii, pon, and epo. results of the three-locus analysis using data obtained from these families are shown in fig. . in this analysis the distance between the epo and pon loci was held constant, and the relative probability of the paii locus was calculated at the indicated intervals. the data are consistent with the order pon, pail, epo with odds of : : over the alter- native orders pon, epo, paii or paii, pon, epo, respectively. discussion we assigned the gene for paii to cen- q based on the pattern obtained when a human pail cdna was hybridized to a panel of dnas isolated from mouse-human somatic cell hybrids, sublocalized to bands q . -q by in situ hybrid- ization. analysis ofthe segregation ofthe hindiii rflp in families previously typed for the loci cf, met, pon, colja , and epo showed that the pahl gene is part of this linkage group on the long arm of chromosome . the paii gene is closely o/o / o °'d i pon epo genetic location (cm) fig. . likelihood of the localization of the paii gene locus in relation to pon and epo. abscissa: genetic distance from pon. ordinate: odds ratio for localization ofpaii at the distance indicated vs. localization of paii at infinite distance from pon (i.e., no linkage). the distance between pon and epo is assumed to be centimorgans (cm). the relative odds for the orders pon, paii, epo: pon, epo, pail: pail, pon, epo are : : . linked to the epo locus (estimated genetic distance, cm), which recently was found to be tightly linked with the collagen locus colja , with no evidence of recombination ( = , z = . ) (p.w., n.s., p.s., and k.w.k., unpublished data). on this basis, the ( - tt)-cm recombination distance of pail from cf found in this study is in good agreement with those of ( - *) and ( - *) cm found for epo and colia , respectively (p.w., n.s., p.s., and k.w.k., unpublished data; ref. ). previous multipoint linkage analysis has established the order (epo, colia ), pon, (met, cf) (p.w., n.s., p.s., and k.w.k., unpub- lished data), with epo, col, and pon centromeric to cf. according to the results of the three-point analysis in the present study, the most probable location of paii is between epo and pon-i.e., (epo, colia ), paii, pon, (met, cf), with paii centromeric to cf (see above) and telomeric to epo. pail may prove to be an important genetic marker. the polymorphism information content of . is high for a diallelic system; thus, the majority of families will be infor- mative for gene mapping by linkage analysis. the paii rlfp may be valuable in genetic analysis of plasminogen activation-related diseases, such as cancer and certain thromboembolic disorders. in preliminary studies, no rearrangements of the pail sequences were found by south- ern blotting either in carcinoma samples or in additional cell lines (r.w. and k.a., unpublished data). these included colon carcinomas, breast carcinomas, and tumor cell lines with previously demonstrated oncogene rearrange- ments and amplifications ( ). however, these results must be interpreted with caution since small changes would have been missed due to the scale of the southern blotting method and since we do not yet know the genomic organization of the pail sequences. in relation to the role of plasminogen activation in the breakdown of matrix proteins in cancer, the close linkage between paii and the collagen locus colia is particularly noteworthy because plasmin is an activator of latent collagenases ( , ), and pail may therefore serve to protect collagen. some thrombotic disorders, including myocardial infarc- tion in young patients and recurrent deep vein thrombosis, are in some cases associated with increased plasma levels of pail ( - ), and familial occurrence of venous thrombosis with high level of pa l has been reported ( , ). the availability of the cloned gene sequence will allow molecular studies of the pathophysiology of these disorders, and the segregation of the rflp in families with thrombosis will allow us to determine whether there is a genetic component involving the pail locus. the excellent technical assistance of helle abildgaard, kirsten lund jakobsen, vivi kielberg, anna margrethe poulsen, aita haataja, and irma kurvinen is gratefully acknowledged. determi- nations of pon serum activity were generously provided by dr. b. # % confidence interval. genetics: klinger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , proc. natl. acad. sci. usa ( ) ladu (university of michigan). we thank drs. robert schwartz and richard doherty (rochester, ny) for their role in identification and collection of members of the inbred pedigrees. this work was supported financially by the danish canter society, the danish medical research council, pf ingegneria genetica e basi molecolari delle malattie ereditarie and pf oncologia, consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, italy, finnish cancer foundation, and national institutes of health grants hl and am . . astrup, t. ( ) prog. chem. fibrinolysis thrombolysis , - . . collen, d. ( ) thromb. haemostasis , - . . alitalo, k. & vaheri, a. ( ) adv. cancer res. , - . . dano, k., andreasen, p. a., grondahl-hansen, j., kristensen, p., nielsen, l. s. & skriver, l. ( ) adv. cancer res. , - . . blasi, f., vasalli, j.-d. & dano, k. ( ) j. cell biol. , - . . tripputi, p., blasi, f., verde, p., cannizzaro, l. a., emanuel, b. s. & croce, c. m. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . rajput, b., degan, s. f., reich, e., waller, e. k., axelrod, j., eppy, r. l. & shows, t. b. ( ) science , - . . verheijen, j. h., visse, r., wijnen, j. th., chang, g. t. g., kluft, c. & kahn, p. m. ( ) hum. genet. , - . . yang-feng, t. l., opdenakker, g., volkaert, g. & franke, u. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , - . . tripputi, p., blasi, f., ny, t., emanuel, b. s., letofsky, j. & croce, c. m. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , - . . philips, m., jaal, a. g. & thorsen, s. ( ) biochem. biophys. acta , - . . wiman, b., chmieleweka, j. & ranby, m. ( ) j. biol. chem. , - . . erickson, l. a., hekman, c. m. & loskutoff, d. j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . andreasen, p. a., nielsen, l. s., kristensen, p., grondahl- hansen, j., skriver, l. & dano, k. ( ) j. biol. chem. , - . . geiehrter, t. d., barouski-miller, p. a., coleman, p. l. & cwikel b. j. ( ) mol. cell. biochem. / , - . . pollanet, j., saksela, o., salonen, e.-m., andreasen, p., nielsen, l. s., dano, k. & vaheri, a. ( ) j. cell biol. , - . . andreasen, p. a., riccio, a., welinder, k. g., douglas, r., sartorio, r., nielsen, l. s., oppenheimer, c., blasi, f. & dano, k. ( ) febs lett. , - . . ginsburg, d., zeheb, r., yang, y., rafferty, u. m., andreasen, p. a;, nielsen, l., dano, k., lebo, r. v. & gelehrter, t. d. ( ) j. clin. invest. , - . . ny, t., sawdey, m., lawrence, d., millan, j. l. & loskutoff, d. j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . pannekoek, h., veerman, h., lambers, h., diergaarde, p., verweij, c. l., van zonneveld, a. j. & van mourik, j. a. ( ) embo j. , - . . nielsen, l. s., andreasen, p. a., grondahl-hansen, j., huang, j.-y., kristensen, p. & dano, k. ( ) thromb. haemostasis , - . . tsui, l. c., buchwald, m., barker, d., braman, j. c., knowlton, r., schumm, j. w., eiberg, h., mohr, j., ken- nedy, d., plavsic, n., zsiga, m., markiewicz, d., akots, g., brown, v., helms, c., gravius, t., parker, c., rediker, k. & donis-keller, h. ( ) science , - . . knowlton, r. g., cohen-haguennauer, o., nguyen, v. c., frezal, j., brown, v. a., barker, d., braman, j. c., schumm, j. w., tsui, l.-c., buchwald, m. & donis-keller, h. ( ) nature (london) , - . . beaudet, a., bowcock, a., buchwald, m., cavalli-sforza, l., farrall, m., king, m.-c., klinger, k., lalouel, j. m., lathrop, g., naylor, s., ott, j., tsui, l.-c., wainwright, b., watkins, p., white, r. & williamson, r. ( ) ant. j. hum. genet. , - . . white, r., woodward, s., leppert, m., o'connell, p., hoff, m., horbat, j., lalouel, j.-m., dean, m. & vande woude, g. ( ) nature (london) , - . . wainwright, b. j., scambler, p. j., schmidtke, j., watson, e. a., law, h.-y., farrall, m., cooke, h. j., eiberg, h. & williamson, r. ( ) nature (london) , - . . buchwald, m., zsiga, m., markiewicz, d., plavsic, n., ken- nedy, d., zengerling, s., willard, h. f.j tsipouras, p. k., schmiegelow, k., schwartz, m., eiberg, h., mohr, j., barker, d., donis-keller, h. & tsui, l.-c. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , - . . watkins, p. c., eddy, r., hoffman, n., stanislovitis, p., beck, a., klinger, k., galli, j., vellucci, v. & shows, t. b. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , suppl., a . . feinberg, a. p. & vogelstein, b. ( ) anal. biochem. , - . . feinberg, a. p. & vogelstein, b. ( ) anal. biochem. , - . . bartels, i., grzeschik, k.-h., cooper, d. n. & schmidtke, j. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , - . . winqvist, r., makela, t. p., seppanen, p., janne, . a., alhonen-hohgisto, l., janne, j., grzeschik, k.-h. & alitalo, k. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , - . . church, g. m. & gilbert, w. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . eiberg, h., mohr, j., schmiegelow, k., nielsen, l. s. & williamson, r. ( ) clin. genet. , - . . harper, m. e. & saunders, g. f. ( ) chromosoma , - . . klinger, k. w. ( ) hum. genet. , - . . watkins, p., schwartz, r., hoffman, n., stanislovits, p., doherty, r. & klinger, k. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , - . . klinger, k., stanislovitis, p., hoffman, n., watkins, p. c., schwartz, r., doherty, r., scadibler, p., farrall, m., william- son, r. & wainwright, b. ( ) nucleic acids res. , - . . lathrop, g. m., lalouel, j. m., julier, c. & ott, j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , - . . ott, j. ( ) analysis ofhuman genetic linkage (the johns hopkins univ. press, baltimore), pp. - . . conneally, p. m., edwards, j. h., kidd, k. k., lalouel, j. m., nortbn, n. e., ott, j. & white, r. ( ) cytogenet. cell genet. , - . . winqvist, r., alitalo, k. & schwab, m. ( ) adv. cancer res. , - . . vaes, g. & eeckhoutj y. ( ) in dynamics of connective tissue macromolecules, eds. burligh, p. m. c. & poole, a. r. (north-holland, amsterdam), p. . . liotta, l. a., goldfarb, r. h., brundale, r., siegal, g. p., terranova, v. & garbiza, s. ( ) cancer res. , - . . hamsten, a., wiman, b., de faire, u. & blomback, m. ( ) n. engl. j. med. , - . . nilsson, i. m., ljungner, h. & tengborn, l. ( ) br. med. j. , - . . wiman, b., ljungberg, b., chmielewska, j., urden, g., blomback, m. & johnsson, h. ( ) j. lab. clin. med. , - . . nilsson, i. m. & tengborn, l. ( ) haemostasis , (abstr.). . jorgensen, m. & bonnevie-nielsen, v. ( ) br. j. haematol. , - . genetics: klinger et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , chh volume issue back matter "lively and provocative/'* ambivalent churchmen & evangelical churchwomen the religion of the episcopal elite in north carolina, - by richard rankin "we learn as much about the state's gentility as we do about episcopalianism."—bertram wyatt-brown* "builds on ground-breaking work done by mathews, isaac, may, fox-genovese, boles, oakes, and wyatt-brown." —samuel s. hill pp., isbn - - - , $ . cloth available at bookstores or from ^ %m^ university of south carolina press u pickens street • columbia, sc south orders: - - - fax: - - - r> \x>(~\( txta include $ . shipping & handling forfirst book, . for each additional book. ^ ~ _ _ _ _ core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core sanctuaries of spanish new mexico marctreib drawings by dorothee imbert fore-word by j. b. jackson among the oldest buildings in the united states, the churches of spanish new mexico—made of earth, of stone, of wood—are the surprisingly fragile remind- ers of a unique amalgam of spanish archi- tectural ideas and native american pueblo culture. this book surveys the land and rivers, the people and ideas, that led to this compelling religious architecture; it is also a guide to visiting these churches today. r nrhn d ta/m $ . cloth, color & b / w illustrations gasparo contarini venice, rome, and reform elisabeth g. gleason gasparo contarini ( - ) was a major protagonist in the counter-refor- mation of the th century. in the first biography since , gleason greatly broadens our understanding of the man and his times. $ . cloth the creationists ronald l. numbers new in paper — "informative and reward- ing a chronicle derived from numbers's prodigious research and his goal of giving the creationists their full story. "•—science $ . paper, illustrated, albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church huttory venice's hidden enemies italian heretics in a renaissance city john martin "at last the religious nonconformists of reformation italy have been resurrected by a master historian. allowing them to speak in their own words, not just those of the theologians who inspired them or the inquisitors who interrogated them, martin nimbly recreates the social world of the italian evangelicals, anabaptists, and millenarians." — edward muir, louisiana state university studied on the hiftory of society and culture $ . cloth, illustrated at bookstores or order toll-free - - - . university of california press core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core restoring the faith the assemblies of god, pentecostalism, and american culture edith l. blumhofer a fresh look at both american anglo pente- costalism and an influential denomination. the sect's early miuenarian fervor gradually became muted in favor of flag-waving patri- otism. it is now an affluent worldwide move- ment "the cool precision of blumhofer's scholarship offers a model for doing denomi- national history in new and illuminating ways." — grant wacker, university of north carolina illus. cl $ . ; pb: $ . word and light seeing, hearing, and religious discourse david chidester word and light brings religious discourse back to its senses. in this provocative exami- nation of the importance of sight and sound to religious symbols, myths, rituals, and traditions, chidester analyzes the work of augustine as well as of philo, arius, athanasius, bonaventure, and melanchthon. "chidester's use of 'history of religions' categories opens some unexpected vistas." — rowland a. sherrill, indiana university at indianapolis. $ . solemn covenant the mormon polygamous passage b. carrnon hardy hardy analyzes church defenses of the prac- tice and the reasons for national opposition to i t he then examines how mormonism's manifesto evolved from a tactic intended to preserve polygamy into a revelation used to prohibit i t hardy also shows how officials of the post-manifesto church publicly con- demned plural marriage while quietly allow- ing many latter-day saints to marry additional wives. "an intellectual tour de force." — klaus j. hansen, author otmormonism and the american experience. illus. $ . family, church, and market a mennonite community in the old and the new worlds, - royden k. loewen in , nine hundred mennonites migrated from russia to north america, settling around steinbach, manitoba, and jansen, nebraska this social history shows how these agrarian, german-speaking, pacifist christian sectarians adapted to an increasingly urban- ized and industrialized world. loewen tells of three generations for whom the farm family was the primary social unit. "a clear and well developed micro-study." — herman ganzevoort, author of a bittersweet land: the dutch experience in canada, - . nius. cl $ . ; pb: $ . science, religion, and mormon cosmology erich robert paul paul explores the cosmological thinking of joseph smith, brigham young, orson pratt, b. h. roberts, james e. talmage, john a. widtsoe, and joseph fielding smith, among others. "deserves the highest marks as an exposition of the attitude of mormons toward science, the official and unofficial positions of the lds church on major scien- tific developments, and the impact of science on the church and its theology." — utah historical quarterly. illus. $ . order toll free / - u n i v e r s i t y of i l l i n o i s p r e s s • east gregory drive • champaign, il core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core "a richly textured biography"* |yv library of r t l . k . i o l s b r x i r a l ' h y william ewart gladstone faith & politics in v i c t o r i a n britain david w. bebbington isbn - - - paper, $ . "an absorbing study in faith and politics, in the relationship of personal conviction to public activity. . . . sympathetic but searching, comprehensive but succinct, bebbington's book con- sistently sustains interest, engages thought, and provokes reflection." —andrew f. walls "provides not only a remarkably crafted, empathetic yet critical, biography of the great nineteenth- century british politician but also a marvelous historical overview of victorian britain. . . . should be required reading for all those interested in the fascinating prob- lem of how a variety of intense christian beliefs actually impinged on nineteenth-century british politics." _ g . a rawlyk* "gracefully written, creatively structured, and carefully measured. both scholars and general readers will find this volume a starting point for considering the long career of the eminent prime minister." —thomas a askew other volumes in the library of religious biography series: billy sunday a n d the redemption of urban america lyle w. dorsett liberty of conscience: roger williams in america edwin s. gaustad the divine dramatist: george whitefield and the rise of modern evangelicalism harry s. stout paperback, $ . each at your bookstore, or call - - fax - - wm. b. ee rdm ans publishing co. jffff.rson ave. s.e. / grand rapids, michigan core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core prizes of the american society of church history the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize, offered annually, is a subvention fund of $ to assist a press in publishing a book-length manuscript in church history. the brewer prize is limited to first books. manuscripts already accepted for publication may be submitted for this award, but the publication must have printed on its title-page, "the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize essay of the american society of church history." the monetary grant will be authorized upon receipt in writing of a commitment from a publisher accepting the manuscript. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj , by november. manuscripts may not be submitted in more than one asch competition. the award will be announced at the spring meeting of the society. no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. winner for : diana hochstedt butler, "standing against the whirlwind: a study of the evangelical party in the protestant episcopal church." winner for : gregory hanlon, "confession and community in seventeenth- century france: catholics and protestants in acquitaine." winner for : amy nelson burnett, "the yoke of christ: penance and church discipline in the thought of martin bucer." the philip schaff prize the philip schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ to be paid to the author of the best book originating in the north american scholarly community which presents original research in the history of christianity or any period thereof. this award is given in odd-numbered years. books published during the two previous calendar years are eligible for the competition. any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration. copies of nominated books need not be submitted. titles of nominated books must be received by henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj by march in odd-numbered years. the prize will be announced at the annual winter meeting of the society. winner for : david d. hall, worlds of wonder, days of judgment: popular religious belief in early new england. winner for : carolyn bynum, holy feast and holy fast: the religious significance of food to medieval women. the sidney e. mead prize the sidney e. mead prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent recipient whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj , by july. the prize is offered annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. manuscripts may not be submitted in more than one asch competition. the winner will be announced at the annual winter meeting of the society. winner for : alison williams lewin, " 'cum status ecclesie noster sit . . .': florence and the council of pisa ( )." winner for : ernest freeburg, " 'an object of peculiar interest': the education of laura bridgman." core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history consists of an award of $ to the author of a book-length manuscript and a possible grant of up to $ for publication costs—or in exceptional cases, for necessary expenses in the preparation of a manuscript accepted for publication. the term "ecumenical" is to be construed as chiefly concerned with the problems of christian unity and disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) in any period of church history, or with interactions between christianity and other religious movements. works of a partisan nature are excluded. the winning manuscript must have printed on its title-page, "the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical history of the american society of church history." complete manuscripts in final form must be received by henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj , by june. the prize is offered annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. manuscripts may not be submitted in more than one asch competition. the winner will be announced at the annual winter meeting of the society. winner for : ronald l. numbers, the creationists. winner for : jon butler, awash in a sea of faith: christianizing the american people. the jane dempsey douglass prize the jane dempsey douglass prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay on some aspect of the role of women in the history of christianity. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including doubled-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj , by august each year. the prize is offered annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. manuscripts may not be submitted in more than one asch competition. the winner will be announced at the annual winter meeting of the society. winner for : joyce irwin, "pietism and women: a study in contrasts." core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core now available church history index, - (volume ) includes index of all articles by author, title, and subject and all book reviews by title, author index, and reviewer which were published in church history from - pages $ . (including postage) a limited number of previously published volumes of the church history index are still available at $ . each including postage: volume , - — pages requests for copies, with covering remittance, should be forwarded to: henry w. bowden american society of church history p.o. box red bank, nj core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core american society of church history membership information the american society of church history was founded in by philip schaff and a group of colleagues. it is affiliated with the american historical association. its purpose is to foster interest in the history of christianity, and its interrelationship with its cultural context by encouraging research, writ- ing, and teaching in this discipline. the membership of the society consists of scholars, men and women, the majority of whom serve on faculties of colleges, universities, and seminaries. others are archivists, clergy members, professional writers, and students, or simply those who have a serious interest in church history. the society is ecumenical in character, comprising members of various religious persua- sions. in addition to church history, a journal published quarterly, the society holds an annual meeting in conjunction with the american historical associ- ation and a spring meeting on the campus of a host institution. the meeting programs and the journal provide opportunities for exploring a wide variety of subjects and the exchange of thought. membership dues entitle one to receive the journal, with its informative articles and large book review section, and attend the meetings of the society. in order to interest younger scholars, particularly those of ethnic minori- ties, in the work of the society, the council has voted to offer a dues-free membership (up to two years) to all graduate students working in the area of church history at an accredited institution upon the approval of a professor who is also a member of the society. application for membership american society of church history name: address: present last street institutional first affiliation/last middle city degree earned—when and state where (title) zip signature professor's signature (if graduate student) annual dues are $ . , plus $ . foreign postage, including canada. graduate students working in the area of church history with the approval and verification of a professor who is also a member of the society may join without paying a fee. persons who have been members of the society for at least five years and are now retired from professional life may continue membership at $ . per year. membership in the society includes a subscription to church history. the council approves applications at its semiannual meetings. send to: henry w. bowden, p.o. box , red bank, nj . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core plan ahead spring meeting - march oberlin college, oberlin ohio proposals for papers, sessions, moderators, and respondents are wel- comed by the program committee. send all suggestions and offers to: professor grover a. zinn oak street oberlin, oh plan ahead winter meeting - january cincinnati, ohio proposals for papers, sessions, moderators, and respondents are wel- comed by the program committee. send all suggestions and offers to: professor stephen j. stein e. maxwell lane bloomington, in core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core durham research online deposited in dro: july version of attached �le: accepted version peer-review status of attached �le: peer-reviewed citation for published item: ryrie, alec ( ) �protestantism' as a historical category.', transactions of the royal historical society., . further information on publisher's website: http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayjournal?jid=rht publisher's copyright statement: c© copyright royal historical society . this paper has been accepted for publication by cambridge university press, in 'transactions of the royal historical society' http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayjournal?jid=rht additional information: use policy the full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-pro�t purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in dro • the full-text is not changed in any way the full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. please consult the full dro policy for further details. durham university library, stockton road, durham dh ly, united kingdom tel : + ( ) | fax : + ( ) http://dro.dur.ac.uk http://www.dur.ac.uk http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayjournal?jid=rht http://dro.dur.ac.uk/ / http://dro.dur.ac.uk/policies/usepolicy.pdf http://dro.dur.ac.uk ‘protestantism’ as a historical category by alec ryrie read february abstract the term ‘protestant’ itself is a historical accident, but the category of western christians who have separated from rome since remains a useful one. the confessionalisation thesis, which has dominated recent reformation historiography, instead posits the two major protestant confessions and tridentine catholicism as its categories, but this can produce a false parallelism in which the nature of relationship between the confessions is oversimplified. instead, this paper proposes we think of a protestant ecosystem consisting of self-consciously confessional lutheranism, a broad calvinism which imagined itself as normative, and a collection of radical currents much more intimately connected to the ‘magisterial’ confessions than any of the participants wished to acknowledge. the magisterial / radical division was maintained only with constant vigilance and exemplary violence, with calvinism in particular constantly threatening to bleed into radicalism. what gives this quarrelsome family of ‘protestants’ analytical coherence is neither simple genealogy nor, as has been suggested, mere adherence to the bible: since in practice both ‘radical’ and ‘magisterial’ protestants have been more flexible and ‘spiritual’ in their use of scripture than is generally allowed. it is, rather, the devotional experience underpinning that ‘spiritual’ use of the bible, of an unmediated encounter with grace. how should we speak about the christians in the latin tradition who have separated themselves from communion with rome over the past five centuries? on one level this is a trivial, semantic question, but there are deep and murky waters below it. religious labels are very often problematic, not only because they tend to originate either as terms of abuse or as contested claims which groups make about themselves, but also because they imply the coherence or even existence of a particular group when that may not be obvious. so it is with ‘protestantism’. when luther’s movement first erupted in germany in the years around , the labels first associated with it were immediate split into self-serving definitions such as gospel preachers or evangelicals, and hostile terms which implied heresy – either existing heretical labels such as hussite, or the neologism ‘lutheran’ which luther himself so disliked. as well as being terminologically unstable, this made defining who was in the movement and who was not very difficult. so when, in april , six german princes lodged a formal ‘protestation’ against the second diet of speyer’s reinstatement of the edict of worms, they set in train the creation not only of a well-defined anti-papal party, but of a genuinely useful label. protestant quickly became as much a political as a religious label, meaning, simply, a member of or sympathiser with the schmalkaldic league. as such, it might have been expected to disappear after the destruction of the league in , or at least after the peace of martin luther, luther’s works vol. : the christian in society ii, ed. walther i. brandt (philadelphia, ), . augsburg in rendered the protestation moot. and indeed, since the world of anti- papal latin christianity, for want of a better term, was by then becoming sharply divided between two mutually antagonistic factions of lutherans and a self-styled reformed christianity which was already being labelled calvinist, to say nothing of the small but high- profile radical communities whom those two main factions both anathematised, the term ‘protestant’ didn’t seem to be of that much use any more. it eventually became useful again for polemical reasons. first, catholic polemicists were keen to turn protestant from a political to a religious term, and to apply it more widely to the constellation of heresies they faced. as peter marshall has pointed out, it fitted with the core accusation that the luther and his fellow-travellers taught newfangled human inventions rather than the faith once revealed to the apostles. a name which implied that the movement only began in was grist to this mill. so the now-routine division of western christendom into ‘catholic’ and ‘protestant’ first emerged as a polemical gambit, in which the ancient, true and universal church was opposed to a quarrelling farrago of heretical innovators. naturally, this use did not carry with it any claim that ‘protestantism’ existed as any kind of coherent doctrine: the very opposite. the english jesuit lawrence anderton made the point succinctly enough with the title of his tract the non-entity of protestancy: or, a discourse, wherein is demonstrated, that protestancy is . . . a meere nothing. marshall has traced the process by which the word slowly insinuated itself at least into english usage by sheer utility, for want of any better umbrella term to describe non-papal christians. even so, for a long time it retained two negative connotations: first, for a generation or more it still seemed foreign, and second, its inclusiveness was derogatory. if members of england’s reformed establishment used it, they did so contemptuously, to refer to the widest possible group of their countrymen who had gone along with the reformation as a cultural phenomenon, many of them without having embraced the gospel in any way that a preacher would find acceptable. the adjective most readily attached to the noun ‘protestant’ was ‘carnal’. yet while this inclusivity was potentially embarrassing, it was also an opportunity. for those who wanted to deny catholics’ claim that their opponents were a sackful of ferrets, ‘protestant’ was a useful word, potentially allowing a united front to be formed against them – if, that is, enough common denominators could be found to prove that protestantism was not a nonentity. the most enduring, and slippery, attempt to do this was another english tract of the s, william chillingworth’s the religion of protestants a safe way to salvation, which famously declared that the bible alone was the religion of protestants, a banner behind which all could unite against rome. as that example implies, the use of the word ‘protestant’ as a self-description over the following centuries is usually an index of the ambition to build a broad anti-catholic coalition. in post-restoration england, a religiously plural society united by anti-catholic paranoia, ‘protestant’ became a sufficiently useful glue-word that it was written into the coronation oath in . in ireland ‘protestant’ became and remains a way of welding together anglicans, presbyterians and others against popery. in bismarck’s germany, following the forced mergers of lutheran and reformed churches earlier in the century, protestantism was opposed to catholicism as a hallmark of german identity. in the united states, even when confessional tensions were easing in the mid-twentieth century, the tripartite division of the country into three acceptable religions – protestants, catholics, jews – remained proverbial. peter marshall, ‘the naming of protestant england’, past and present ( ), – , esp. . william chillingworth, the religion of protestants a safe vvay to salvation (rstc . . oxford, ); “chillingworth, william ( – ),” warren chernaik in oxford dictionary of national biography, ed. h. c. g. matthew and brian harrison (oxford, ); online ed., ed. david cannadine, january , http://www.oxforddnb.com.oxfordbrookes.idm.oclc.org/view/article/ (accessed june , ). kevin m. shultz, tri-faith america (oxford, ). this is, then, an accidental word, drafted into service by polemicists on both sides who found an umbrella term of this sort indispensable. that process cut any real connection to the events of , so that the modern term ‘protestant’ is almost empty of intrinsic meaning. the chinese terms equivalent to ‘catholic’ and ‘protestant’ – respectively tianzhujiao, ‘the religion of the lord of heaven’, and jidujiao, ‘the religion of jesus’ – may have very different literal meanings, but they differentiate between the two groups at least as effectively as the western labels. this paper’s aim is not to parse the implications of the word ‘protestant’, or indeed jidujiao, but to argue that the category which both describe is a historically useful one: that the non-papal christianities which emerged from the reformation era retain enough common features that analysing them as a group is meaningful. it will also argue, however, that if we look at ‘protestantism’ (for want of a better word) historically rather than theologically, its definition becomes unstable. that is, if we look at what protestants have actually done, believed, experienced and felt, rather than at what their theologians and apologists have argued they ought to have believed, we end up somewhere different from where any of the polemicists would have sent us. after confessionalisation it needs to be said that this suggestion runs against the main current of (in particular) german reformation scholarship for the past generation. the so-called confessionalisation thesis developed by wolfgang reinhard and heinz schilling appears to render the term ‘protestant’ redundant for the study of the reformation era, by suggesting that the category of all non- papal western christians is simply not useful. reinhard and schilling have from the s onwards challenged us to see the catholic and protestant reformations as parallel rather than opposed forces, and in particular as instruments of state-building. religious reformations of all kinds allowed early modern states and princes to deepen their authority over their territories, using sharply and antagonistically defined religious identities as a means of social control. the work of definition was done at a formal level by confessions of faith which large sections of some populations were required to profess, and which were increasingly drafted, redrafted and refined with the aim of unambiguously excluding outsiders. on this view there are two sensible scales on which to examine the religion of the period: the scale of the individual confession, which means, predominantly, the trio of orthodox lutheranism, reformed calvinism and tridentine catholicism; or comparatively across all the confessions. a category such as protestant, which attempts to yoke together two of these groupings while excluding the third, courts the accusation not simply of arbitrariness but of special pleading. the confessionalisation thesis has been an enormously helpful tool of historical analysis. it has forced us to think, not only of the parallels between the confessions, but of the dynamics that tied them together, such as the arms races which forced very different entities to adopt parallel strategies in order to counter one another. the thesis’ explanatory power is that this competition itself becomes one of the engines driving modernity. the model has also jean-pierre charbonnier, christians in china: ad to , trans. m. n. l. couve de murville (san francisco, : cf. french edition ), . there is no common chinese equivalent to the generic term ‘christianity’. h. schilling, konfessionskonflict und staatsbildung (gütersloh, ); h. schilling, religion, political culture and the emergence of early modern society (leiden, ); w. reinhard, ‘reformation, counter- reformation and the early modern state: a reassessment’, catholic historical review, ( ), – ; w. reinhard and h. schilling (eds), die katholische konfessionalisieung (gütersloh and münster, ). the literature on the confessionalisation thesis is vast. amongst the most useful in english is j. m. headley, h. j. hillerbrand and a. j. papadas (eds), confessionalization in europe, – (aldershot and burlington, ) and ute lotz-heumann, ‘the concept of “confessionalization”: a historiographical paradigm in dispute’, memoria y civilización ( ), – . managed at least partly to outgrow its inbuilt limitations. although its focus is on state- building, it has been plausibly extended to to explore the way some populations without state backing in effect self-confessionalised, such as mennonites in denmark or, indeed, catholics in ireland. although it was designed for the german lands, where it closely reflects the legal status granted to the two or three confessions by the imperial treaties of and , there have been useful attempts to apply its insights beyond the empire. for all this explanatory power, however, the confessionalisation thesis was a child of its times, that is, the latter part of the cold war. in what could have been a model of s détente, it emerged from the collaboration of a catholic scholar, reinhard, trying to shake off the negativity of the term ‘counter-reformation’, and a protestant scholar, schilling, who had worked on both lutheran and calvinist confessional states. hence the self-consciously comparative nature of their work from the beginning, and the attempt to move away from the direct religious confrontations. this work was conceived during a period when most thinking people honestly expected the stalemate between eastern and western blocs to endure indefinitely, unless of course it ended in mutual annihilation. in those circumstances, it was both natural and analytically useful to think of opposing forces as mirror-images and even as unwilling collaborators, carving a continent up between them. what was not at all plain at the time was that the apparent similarity between those opposing forces was an illusion. that only became clear when the soviet bloc went from superpower to virtual collapse within six years, almost entirely due to its own internal dynamics. the decades since have given us a very different paradigm of conflict: asymmetric warfare, in which entities that are in no sense parallel to one another fight at cross-purposes, with weapons, tactics, strategies, logistics and motivations which may have virtually no contact with those of their opponents. the analogy should not be pushed too far. however, if the cold war revealed one face of early modern religious conflict to us, so the period since can help reveal another. the reformation period’s various religious groupings were not simply providing different answers to the same question. as thomas kaufmann and other critics of confessionalisation have emphasised, the thesis tends to flatten out the different confessions’ individuality, and efface the extent to which they did not share a common theological or devotional language. in interconfessional ‘debates’, the parties mostly talked past one another, and more regularly mocked or caricatured than seriously engaged each others’ views: they were living in different mental worlds, with different concerns, priorities, patterns of reasoning and emotional substructures. comparable asymmetries can be seen in the confessional conflicts themselves. in the struggle for europeans’ souls, the catholic establishments held enormous strategic advances: inertia, collective memory, loyalty, ceremonial richness, and not least, money. the protestant insurgencies had a very different set of advantages: no awkward track record to defend; a willingness to invite whole populations to participate in theological argument; and a much lighter material footprint, which not only made protestantism cheap but made the destruction of catholicism’s expensive material complexity such an effective ploy. these are not new critiques, and reinhard and schilling have given interestingly different responses to it. schilling’s liberal-protestant response is to integrate the differences between confessional actors into the thesis without fundamentally changing it. reinhard, by contrast, has argued that that examination of the confessions’ distinct cultures is another michael d. driedger, obedient heretics: mennonite identities in lutheran hamburg and altona during the confessional age (aldershot, ). see, for example, peter marshall, ‘confessionalization, confessionalism and confusion in the english reformation’ in reforming reformation, ed. thomas f. mayer, (farnham, ), – . thomas kaufmann, ‘die konfessionalisierung von kirche und gesellschaft’, theologische literaturzeitung ( ), – , – . subject and should be kept separate. my suggestion, likewise, is that confessionalisation’s attempt to slice post-reformation religion into parallels has done its work. the thesis has blurred distinctions which we need to understand. the thesis has broken reformation history’s long habit of crass partisanship, but we now risk falling into the opposite error, of treating all religious parties with scrupulous even-handedness. the risk is a kind of bbc impartiality, in which conscious balance leads us to conjure matching parties into existence when the reality may be much messier; and in which we feel unable, for example, to say something which could be construed as praise or criticism of one set of early modern religious actors without a nod to the other side too. we need to recognise that the confessions were not only different from each other, but different in different ways. the protestant ecosystem by arguing for the utility of ‘protestant’ as a category i am not, therefore, trying to downplay the differences between the different protestant confessions. on the contrary, i am arguing that the confessionalisation thesis has underplayed protestantism’s plurality and diversity in two key respects: first, in its treatment of the two magisterial confessions, lutheranism and calvinism, as parallel cases, and second, in its inadequate account of radicalism. anyone who has tried to teach the reformation to undergraduates knows how difficult it is to explain the distinction between lutheranism and reformed protestantism. we tend naturally to dwell on the litmus-test issues such as, above all, the eucharistic presence, but those issues are in the end simply symptoms of deeper, subtler differences of mood, flavour and intellectual tramlines. the manner in which the eucharistic arguments were conducted is as revealing than their substance. luther’s outrage at the intolerable blasphemy of zwingli’s doctrine, which not only robbed christians of the comfort of the sacrament but implicitly denied the incarnation itself, was badly mismatched by the condescension from zwingli and his successors, who saw their doctrine as self-evidently reasonable, and who believed that luther was still half-sodden in the dregs of popery and implied that he simply had not thought it through. while the canonical account of this dispute focuses on the marburg colloquy, the further rounds of the battle over the decades that follow are equally revealing. and in this context, it makes sense to use the somewhat anachronistic term calvinists for the reformed protestant party: since calvin was more directly responsible than anyone else for bringing and keeping together the disparate spectrum of magisterial reformers which stretched from bullinger to bucer, and forging them into something that could reasonably be called a single confession, above all in the zurich consensus of . calvin’s intention was that the consensus should be only a step on the way. a vital part of the purpose of his institutio, from its first, edition, was to unify the reformation, chiefly by persuading lutherans and zwinglians that in their sacramental argument both sides were missing the point. he never met either luther or zwingli, though he did treasure reports that luther had spoken kindly of him. he did meet philip melanchthon, several times, and maintained an intermittent correspondence with him which was almost equally frustrating to both men. what made it so was calvin’s conviction that he and melanchthon were essentially in agreement. repeatedly, he challenged melanchthon to admit that they shared similar doctrines of predestination, of adiaphora and above all of the eucharist. melanchthon, as bruce gordon, calvin (new haven, ), esp. – . timothy george, ‘john calvin and the agreement of zurich ( )’ in his john calvin and the church: a prism of reform (louisville, ky, ), timothy wengert has shown, usually responded to these appeals by falling silent: he reportedly tore up one of the these letters in frustration. calvin, and the reformed in general, found melanchthon’s reticence mystifying and infuriating. that itself shows the gulf that already separated calvinism from lutheranism. reformed protestantism understood itself as a broad, centrist reformism drawing on the best humanist and evangelical scholarship. it was, in its own eyes, self-evidently reasonable. its international reach, its lack of a single overweening theological voice, its self-consciously formidable learning: all of this contributed to a patrician sense of itself as the natural intellectual centre of gravity, and to a sense of its doctrines as the faith which has been believed everywhere, at all times and by all people. it was the theological consensus of the best minds of the age, excepting only those who were enslaved to the popish antichrist. or it would have been if only melanchthon and the lutherans would admit that in truth they belonged to it too. which is to say, calvin and the reformed in general failed to take lutheranism seriously. they may have been at least partly right about melanchthon and philippist lutheranism in general, and for that very reason it would have been politically lethal for melanchthon to admit to common ground with calvin. the so-called gnesio-lutheran party, however, looked at calvinism’s broad, complacent consensus, and saw themselves as the voice of a prophet crying in the wilderness. it was bomb-throwing idealism versus soothing pragmatism. flacius illyricus and his allies went beyond simply despising melanchthon’s compromises. they deeply distrusted the humanist, erasmian principles which so thoroughly infused calvinism, and which risked selling protestantism’s sola fide birthright for a mess of civic virtues and pragmatic ethics, and contaminating gospel purity with a brackish rationalism. the distinct attitudes to the two groupings’ respective confessions of faith are instructive. there was never a single reformed confession of faith. the heidelberg and the second helvetic confessions came close, but repeated attempts to produce a single, harmonised version failed. yet it did not seem to matter very much, and it certainly did not prevent the reformed family from recognising one another as brethren. their confessions were understood to be limited, provisional documents, subject to revision and improvement. no reformed protestant came close to claiming what georg spalatin claimed for lutheranism’s grounding document, the augsburg confession: that the presentation of the confession back in was ‘the most significant act which has ever taken place on earth’. spalatin was perhaps over-excited. johannes mathesius, more soberly, merely reckoned the confession as the most important event since the time of the apostles. it was certainly routine for lutherans to class it alongside the ancient creeds, and the book of concord explicitly did so. lutheranism in the age of orthodoxy was, then, precisely, a confession, with its spiritual parameters defined at augsburg in and its legal parameters at the same city in . as such, it confessed. it bore witness constantly to the truth once revealed, a truth it burnished lovingly, guarded jealously, and defended fiercely, a truth in which it trained its population and beyond whose doctrinal or geographical boundaries it showed little desire to venture. it was orthodox lutherans, not predestinarian calvinists, who taught that christ’s timothy wengert, ‘“we will feast together in heaven forever”: the epistolary friendship of john calvin and philip melanchthon’ in melanchthon in europe: his work and influence beyond wittenberg, ed. karin maag, (grand rapids, mi, ), – . robert kolb, ‘luther, augsburg, and the concept of authority in the late reformation: ursinus vs. the lutherans’ in controversy and conciliation: the reformation and the palatinate, – , ed. derk visser (allison park, pa, ), . kolb, ‘luther, augsburg, and the concept of authority’, , . command to make disciples of all nations had expired with the apostles’ own generation. this persisted until pietism seeped into the joints. calvinism was something completely different, except where the political pressures of the age of orthodoxy forced it into a lutheran-shaped mould. it was open-ended, discursive and profoundly unstable, yet convinced even as it argued with itself that the world revolved around it. the surest sign of that difference was that many calvinists continued to cherish an unrequited love for lutheranism, or at least for what they lutheranism imagined to be. they dreamed schemes for reunion, usually beginning with an intra-reformed agreement into which the lutherans could then be invited. these schemes are reminiscent of a child’s plan to dig a hole to the other side of the world: that is, very easy to begin. they always and quickly foundered on calvinists’ effortlessly generous assumption that everyone should be invited to join their loose, quarrelsome family of faith, and to do so strictly on their hosts’ terms. calvinism, then, should be seen not as a unified ‘confession’ in any strict sense, but as an ecumenical movement for protestant unity. yet it never properly understood the lutherans’ different world-view, and as such (and perhaps in any case inevitably) the project failed. the attempt had some significant consequences, however. the most notorious took place in geneva in . the execution of the anti-trinitarian michael servetus should not be overread: no territory in europe would have openly tolerated servetus’ ideas. yet calvin’s determination to pursue a trial and execution, as opposed to the easy option of banishment, must be understood in the context of his wider ecumenical project, which that autumn was at a critical stage. it was strategically vital for calvin to demonstrate his essential orthodoxy both to lutheran and to catholic europe, and therefore to draw a line against the wild excesses which servetus, perhaps more than anyone else then alive, embodied. what clearer way to draw a line than in someone else’s blood? in this sense, at least, we are compelled to recognise that servetus’ execution succeeded. it helped to inscribe a fundamental distinction to which most scholars still faithfully subscribe, between magisterial and radical reformers. hence my second quarrel with the confessionalisation thesis. by focusing on the relationships between religion and state power, it has perpetuated the magisterial reformers’ artificially sharp and ultimately self-serving distinction between themselves, the ‘mainstream’ of protestantism, and the anabaptists and other radicals whose status as protestant is sometimes denied altogether. recent research is making clear, however, quite how many reformers pitched their tents astride this supposed gulf. susan royal has demonstrated how no less mainstream and respectable a magisterial reformer than john foxe, the english martyrologist, had a distinct whiff of radicalism hanging around him, giving houseroom to some very radical-sounding views on issues like pacifism, the use of oaths and the validity of tithes. in this context, foxe’s well-known opposition to the use of the death penalty for religious crimes begins to look less like an isolated quirk. similarly, foxe’s mentor john bale, a man who was amongst other things surprisingly polite about the anabaptist balthasar hubmaier, did not actually prohibit juridical oaths like anabaptists did, but was sufficiently affected by the gospel warnings against swearing to classify oaths as morally equivalent to homicide, that is, james a. scherer, gospel, church and kingdom: comparative studies in world mission theology (minneapolis, ), – ; james tanis, ‘reformed pietism and protestant missions’, harvard theological review ( ), – . alec ryrie, ‘the afterlife of lutheran england’ in sister reformations: the reformation in germany and england, ed. dorothea wendebourg (tübingen, ), – ; w. b. patterson, james vi and i and the reunion of christendom (cambridge, ), – ; j. minton batten, john dury: advocate of christian reunion (chicago, ). susan royal, ‘john foxe’s “acts and monuments” and the lollard legacy in the long english reformation’, durham university phd thesis ( ). damnable unless explicitly required by a magistrate. a contemporary of bale’s, katharina schütz zell, the most distinguished female protestant theologian of the early reformation, put considerable effort in the early s into bringing caspar schwenkfeld, whom we conventionally class as a ‘radical’, into conversation with the lutheran johannes brenz and the zwinglian conrad pellican on the basis of a common adherence to scripture. those efforts were never going to succeed, not because of any unbridgeable theological gulf, but because, after the bloody disaster of the kingdom of münster in – , the label anabaptist was politically toxic. even so, the newly-drawn boundary between radical and magisterial reformers was still subject to cross-border raiding. before münster there had been some genuinely debatable land. some anabaptists had embarked on ventures that look decidedly magisterial, that is, territorial, comprehensive and coercive. as well as the münster kingdom itself, there is the tantalising example of balthasar hubmaier’s state anabaptism in nikolsburg in moravia in – , which hinged on the conversion of the town’s nobleman and its evangelical pastors. it only lasted three months before the habsburgs crushed it. however, hubmaier’s expressed intention to create ‘a christian government at whose side god hung the sword’ sounds very like a magisterial reformation. later anabaptists were embarrassed about it, but if they had had other opportunities to enact territorial reformations with the aid of princes, are we really to imagine that they would have forgone them? traffic went in the other direction, too. martin bucer had openly wondered whether infant baptism was scriptural in , back when such thoughts were still thinkable. he concluded that it was prudent and expedient to retain infant baptism, but not, apparently, necessary. indeed, bucer, with his commitment to congregational discipline and his willingness to separate that from magisterial oversight, continued to have a whiff of radicalism about him. separatism, indeed, would become a consistent feature of underground reformed congregations in france, england, scotland, the netherlands and elsewhere across the mid-sixteenth century, congregations which luther reviled as ‘the work of rats and sects’. indeed, in social terms, how different is a self-policing underground calvinist congregation from a mennonite one? reformed theologians might tell their people that catholic baptisms remained valid, but in practice many believers refused to submit their children to popish baptismal rites, even at the risk of their lives. in mid-seventeenth century england, the radical-magisterial distinction broke down altogether. english independents; new england congregationalists; the antinomian groups which emerged in both settings; particular baptists; general baptists – where can we confidently draw a line? in particular, as the servetus case itself reminds us, the repeated surfacing of anti- trinitarianism in reformed protestantism is no coincidence. even calvin had found himself in a tangle on this point in , when he rashly tried to defend the doctrine of the trinity without resorting to the precedents or terminology of the fourth- and fifth-century councils, john bale, yet a course at the romyshe foxe. a dysclosynge or openynge of the manne of synne (rstc . antwerp, ), fo. v; [john bale], a christen exhortacion vnto customable swearers (rstc . antwerp, ), fo. v. elsie anne mckee, ‘a lay voice in sixteenth-century “ecumenics”: katharina schütz zell in dioalogue with johannes brenz, conrad pellican, and caspar schwenckfeld’ in adaptions of calvinism in reformation europe, ed. mack p. holt (aldershot, ), – . james m. stayer, anabaptists and the sword (lawrence, ks, ), – . hughes oliphant old, the shaping of the reformed baptismal rite in the sixteenth century (grand rapids, mi, ), , – . see, for example, the works of john knox, ed. david laing, vols (edinburgh, – ), i. – ; alec ryrie, being protestant in reformation britain (oxford, ), . and even refused to sign the athanasian creed. that was simply brash overconfidence, but the same qualms that led him there took others further. it was among the reformed and the reformed-influenced, from the italian spirituali through to transylvania and poland, that serious anti-trinitarianism first began to appear, and to garner such markers of establishment respectability as, in the polish case, a university and a printing press. some of the dutch remonstrants were drawn by anti-trinitarianism, and some aligned themselves with the mennonite offshoot, the collegiants. william chillingworth was accused of it. it was a dutch reformation theologian, and suspected remonstrant sympathiser, gerardus vossius, who first proved that the athanasian creed was not actually written by athanasius. blurring the boundary between radical and magisterial protestants (and especially between radicalism and calvinism) does not change the fact that radicalism was numerically small during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. it does mean we cannot treat it as marginal to the story, as, especially, anglophone historians are too inclined to do. the contemporary panic about radicalism was not minor, any more than the panics about witches and atheists were minor. and perhaps this panic, at least, was rational. there may not have been many actual radicals, but the ideological boundary between magisterial and radical reformers was porous and to a degree arbitrary. the potential for radicalism was everywhere. only constant vigilance could keep it in check. with hindsight, servetus’ execution looks like an act of wanton brutality. in the early s, when the very stability of the still-fragile reformed protestant identity was still unclear and radicals were turning up like, as the witch- hunters would say, worms in a garden, it seemed like a stand had to be taken against a mortal threat. to allow the confessionalisation thesis to set the terms in which we describe post- reformation christianity is to risk assuming that a contingent set of politically-determined divisions had some deep religious logic underpinning them. there is a good case to be made that the long alliance between magisterial protestantism and the state masked, rather than revealed, protestantism’s nature. the best evidence for this is what happened when the alliance began to break down. spener’s pia desideria, the tract that launched lutheran pietism, now reads as a collection of bland platitudes. this was one of the reasons for its success: no revolutionary manifesto has ever been so reassuring. but it is also because one of the things which made it so shocking was an omission, a shuddering, gonging silence running through the book: in this call for renewal of the church, spener made no mention of the magistrate at all. pietism did have powerful princely sponsors, but it did not depend on them for its successes, and indeed it had much the most impact beyond their territories. it successes in reaching populations who had been left without any access to protestant ministry after the thirty years’ war was a striking embarrassment to the princely churches of protestant orthodoxy, which simply had no way of tackling such an enterprise. it is to some extent a matter of taste how we see the established protestant churches of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: as the result of a real alignment of interests between churches and princes; as a faustian pact; or as a simple power-grab by emerging states. examples to fit each case could be rehearsed. my point, however, is that the alliance with temporal power profoundly shaped magisterial protestantism, but did so in ways that often had nothing to do with its theology. the plainest example of this is how, when protestant state churches were set up was, large amounts of church property were seized by the state and secularised. the consequences of that act of asset-stripping resonated for centuries. amongst its many long-term consequences was the problem of overseas mission. it is well known that diarmaid macculloch, ‘calvin: fifth latin doctor of the church?’ in calvin and his influence, – , ed. irena backus and philip benedict (oxford, ), – . w. r. ward, the protestant evangelical awakening (cambridge, ); philip jacob spener, pia desideria, trans. and ed. theodore g. tappert (philadelphia, ). pre- th century protestants did very little missionary work. to be more precise, some individuals and some theologians did, but no institutions did. the problem was not essentially a theological one. although calvinist doctrines of predestination have sometimes been blamed for lack of missionary zeal, in fact calvinists showed more concern for mission than lutherans. the deeper problem seems to have been institutional. there were no protestant equivalents to the catholic religious orders, which could provide the continuity, the training, the logistics and above all the funds necessary to run a missionary enterprise. serious missionary work is expensive, and the money was gone. such protestant missionaries as there were moonlighting from jobs with trading companies. a handful of dutch ministers in sri lanka and taiwan were actually employed to minister to the local populations, but were pitifully under-resourced. generally, though, state- or commercially-controlled protestant establishments were reluctant to permit missionary work even if someone else was paying. it could stir up local trouble with either local or colonial populations, as would-be missionaries from sri lanka to new england discovered. it could also be politically risky: hence the fierce opposition of the orthodox establishments in the empire to any kind of cross-border missionary work. protestant missions only took root once they developed the institutions necessary to bypass the state. in the religious free-for-all of s england, there was a wave of donations to support missionary work in new england, providing a very respectable annuity to two missionaries to the native americans, and endowing an admittedly shortlived indian college at harvard. and it was the pietist university of halle which both undertook the initiative of and raised the money for sending missionaries to india in , the first lutheran overseas mission. the nature of protestantism instead of mapping protestantism in the confessional age as a pair of tidy confessional entities and a scattering radicals out beyond the pale, i am, therefore, suggesting we think of confessionalised lutheranism rubbing up against a broad, discursive and dangerously soft- edged calvinism, with the latter especially tending to leak into radicalism – especially when an active state was not on hand to keep piling up the sandbags. in which case, what is the rationale for treating this whole messy ecosystem as a single entity, which can usefully be described as protestant? there are several possible features that could be seen to unite protestantism. there is simple genealogy, common descent from the reformation moment – which is true, but not in itself very useful. another, more significant argument, a longstanding claim which has been central to influential recent interpretations of protestantism, is that it is bible-christianity: the religion of sola scriptura, which finds ultimate authority in the unmediated word of god. for alister mcgrath, that is protestantism’s underpinning genius. for brad gregory, that is what condemns protestantism to irresoluble chaos. but this is not so. protestantism is both less and more fluid than this approach suggests. less so, because in practice it is of course much less theologically open than sola scriptura implies. sola fide is logically and chronologically prior to sola scriptura. although the dating of luther’s theological insights is perennially disputed, it is at least clear that he arrived at something very like his mature doctrine of salvation before he accepted, in , alec ryrie, ‘mission and empire: an ethical puzzle in early modern protestantism’, in sister reformations ii: reformation and ethics in germany and in england, ed. dorothea wendebourg and alec ryrie (tübingen, ), – . alister mcgrath, christianity’s dangerous idea: the protestant revolution ( ); brad s. gregory, the unintended reformation: how a religious revolution secularized society (cambridge, ma, ). that an ecumenical council cannot authoritatively determine the interpretation of scripture. of course, he already had a high doctrine of scripture, and it was through his encounter with scripture that he arrived at the doctrine of sola fide: but that doctrine then became, for him, not only the key to scripture but its beating heart. he rejected ecclesiastical authority over the interpretation of the bible because that authority had contradicted the doctrine he had learned from the bible, and had therefore – in his eyes – proven itself to be false. if protestantism’s starting point had genuinely been a blank slate of sola scriptura, it could have gone in far more and more varied directions than it in fact has. as various syncretistic movements that emerged in various parts of the world in the twentieth century demonstrate, only a minority of a set of all possible bible-based religions are recognisable variants on historic christianity. protestantism’s plurality is both extensive and irreducible, but it is not infinite. as gregory has argued, it is characterised by proliferating doctrinal chaos, but the chaos is more fractal than random in nature; that is, the same patterns continuously recur, albeit in new configurations. or, to use a different image: we can talk meaningfully about protestantism not because of a shared genealogy, but because of shared genes. yet protestantism is also more fluid than the bible-christianity model suggests. plainly the bible has been crucial to protestants, but its authority has operated in many ways. luther’s idiosyncratic use of the bible is well-known. as well as notoriously dismissing the epistle of james as mere straw is often quoted, he also reportedly told a student that ‘i almost feel like throwing jimmy into the stove’. he could be equally robust with the rest of the canon. he reckoned that hebrews, jude and revelation, like james, were not of apostolic authorship, and sent all four to a relegation zone at the end of his new testament. he also wanted to expel the book of esther. he doubted whether moses wrote the pentateuch; he reckoned that the books of chronicles were less reliable than the books of kings; he thought that job was largely fiction, that the prophets had made mistakes, that the numbers in some old testament accounts were exaggerated. and he was favouritist about other books, notably john’s gospel and the epistle to the galatians. no other mainstream reformer was quite so brazen, but luther’s libertine intimacy here demonstrates that this is more than self-serving caprice. luther treated the bible this way because it fits with his understanding of what the bible was. in , he advised bible-readers to search out and deal with the core of our christian doctrine, wherever it may be found throughout the bible. and the core is this: that without any merit, as a gift of god’s pure grace in christ, we attain righteousness, life, and salvation. that was the message: the gospel. the reason he called the epistle of james straw was that, although it contained sound moral teaching, ‘it contains not a syllable about christ’. luther applied the doctrine of the incarnation not only to the eucharist, but to the word of god: ‘the holy scripture,’ he wrote, ‘is god’s word, written, and so to say “in-lettered”, just as christ is the eternal word of god incarnate in the garment of his humanity’; he even called martin luther, luther’s works vol. : career of the reformer iv, ed. lewis w. spitz (philadelphia, ), ; martin luther, luther’s works vol. : word and sacrament i, ed. e. theodore bachmann (philadelphia, ), – , ; martin luther, luther’s works vol. : table talk, ed. and trans. theodore g. tappert (philadephia, ), – , , , ; reinhold seeberg, textbook of the history of doctrines, trans. charles e. hay, vols (grand rapids, mi,, – ), ii: – . martin luther, luther’s works vol. : selected psalms iii, ed. jaroslav pelikan and daniel e. poellot (st. louis, ), . the bible ‘the swaddling cloths and the manger in which christ lies’. as such its incidental content is almost insignificant. calvin was more cautious, but he did not fundamentally disagree. he was happy to accept that the creation story in genesis did not fit the science even of his own day, and to explain that the account was written to fit what its original readers could understand. he was apparently untroubled by the textual glitches he found in scripture. when in schoolmasterly mode, he could not only chide st luke for mistaking the name of a high priest or st paul for writing an almost incomprehensible sentence, but also point out that the new testament writers were sometimes very sloppy in quoting the old testament. calvin’s comment on these regrettable lapses, which he clearly did not regard as very important, tells us a good deal about his own attitude to the bible: ‘with respect both to words and to other things which do not bear upon the matters in discussion, [the apostles] allow themselves wide freedom’. so for calvin, too, the authority of scripture was the authority of its core message, not its incidentals. hence his strange reluctance to argue that the bible is authoritative. all he will say is that, through ‘the secret testimony of the spirit … scripture is indeed self- authenticating. … we feel that the undoubted power of his divine majesty lives and breathes there, … a feeling that can be born only of heavenly revelation.’ likewise, as scott hendrix has suggested, ‘the authority of scripture for luther was not like a mathematical theorem which can be proven … by the use of self-evident axioms. ... rather … luther approached scripture as we would approach a great work of art.’ this is an authority which cannot be demonstrated by argument. either it is perceived, or it is not. such views have been seized upon by liberal protestants keen to look for historical justification for nonliteralist views of biblical authority, which is fair enough, although these are crumbs of liberal comfort gathered from beneath a vast table groaning with evidence that the early reformers used the bible as a proof-text with precise literalism. fortunately, historians can keep out of that fight. for our purposes, some more modest observations will suffice. the view that the bible’s authority derives from its message, and that, as luther put it, christ is king over scripture, is distinguished from the literalist view less by logic than by function. the former view is devotional and inspirational rather than polemical. it is also primary: it is how the reformers learned their theology, and how scripture first authenticated itself to them. however, it works much better for one believer’s spiritual crisis than for building an institutional church or for fighting a religious war. so, inevitably, as luther and his colleagues were pressed on their doctrine of authority, the polemical use of scripture came to the fore. yet this meaning too was, in origin, not strictly about textual literalism either. it was about exclusion: luther’s declaration that he rejected all authorities except scripture, and scripture as understood by his own conscience, a double negative echoed by lutheran and calvinist formularies throughout the sixteenth century. this doctrine of the sufficiency of scripture is a claim, not about the authority of the bible, but about the absence of authority outside the bible. sola scriptura began as a polemical tool for rejecting all authorities from which any contradiction might arise. jack b. rogers and donald k. mckim, the authority and interpretation of the bible: an historical approach (san francisco, ), ; brian a. gerrish, ‘the word of god and the words of scripture: luther and calvin on biblical authority’ in his the old protestantism and the new: essays on the reformation heritage (chicago, ), – at . john t. mcneill, ‘the significance of the word of god for calvin’, church history ( ), – , esp. – . john calvin, institutes of the christian religion, ed. john t. mcneill, trans. ford lewis battles (philadelphia, ), – . scott hendrix, tradition and authority in the reformation (aldershot, ), ii. . paul lehmann, ‘the reformers' use of the bible’, theology today ( ), – at ; gerrish, ‘word of god’, . cf. article vi of the anglican thirty-nine articles. for many protestants, it swiftly became much more than that. especially in the reformed tradition, whose humanism made it more textually conservative, increasingly strong (or rigid) doctrines of biblical authority emerged, which in the seventeenth century became close to what in modern times is called inerrantist. as peter harrison’s shrewd history of the scientific revolution suggests, the paring of away of allegorical and other ‘higher’ interpretations of scripture tended to change its value to a set of propositional statements. however, this tendency within protestantism has rarely been unchallenged: especially if, as we must, we allow that the radicals are genuinely a part of the protestant family. in the first generation, anabaptist polemicists were skewering lutheran and reformed theologians for defending infant baptism without biblical warrant (proof, if it were needed, that theology trumps prooftexting). yet they were of course doing the same thing: discerning scripture’s inner meaning and using that inner meaning to interpret and where necessary discard scripture. in , jörg haugk complained that ‘many accept the scriptures as if they were the essence of divine truth; but they are only a witness to divine truth which must be experienced in the inner being’. hans hut insisted that the bible could only be understood through the holy spirit; otherwise, he argued, the text bristled with contradictions, of which he provided a substantial list. the ‘magisterial’ reformers were of course scathing about this, and appealed to their learning, which gave them the right to be heard when they interpreted scripture. as protestant universities became established, that would become a regular refrain. equally regular, however, was the response from those who did not have access to a theological education, but who nevertheless would not accept theological disenfranchisement. for the self-taught nuremberg anabaptist hans hergot, luther and his allies were ‘scripture wizards’ whose hairsplitting subtleties blinded them to the simple truth. very similar language resurfaced in the english revolution, when the ranter prophet abiezer coppe dismissed the voice of his own inner textual nitpicker as the ‘holy scripturian whore’. other ranters supposedly distinguished between the history of scripture – its dead word – and the mystery of scripture – its living, hidden essence. the early quakers were scathing about the university-educated clergy whom they called ministers of the letter, as distinct from the word: ‘not the letter, nor the writing of the scripture, but the ingrafted word is able to save your soules’, george fox preached. a couple of centuries later again, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find a freed american slave and self-taught preacher named elizabeth condemning the kind of ‘great scripturian’ who comes to sermons to take notes and analyse doctrine rather than to meet god. all of these people took their bibles extremely seriously, but in a spiritualising and sometimes allegorising fashion which made them sources of inspiration rather than of hard theological argument. those who could not or would not wield the bible as a polemical weapon tended to fall back on its primary protestant use as a medium for god’s message. so we might accept chillingworth’s dictum that the bible is the religion of protestants: but neither in the polemical sense he meant, that the bible is the banner around which the anti-catholic cause might gather, nor in the polemical sense his victorian enthusiasts meant, that anyone who questions biblical literalism is not a real protestant. we peter harrison, the bible, protestantism and the rise of natural science (cambridge, ). walter klaassen, frank friesen and werner o. packull (eds), sources of south german/austrian anabaptism (kitchener, ontario, ), , – . klaassen et al., sources of south german/austrian anabaptism, – ; nigel smith (ed.), a collection of ranter writings from the th century ( ), ; a. l. morton, the world of the ranters: religious radicalism in the english revolution ( ), ; george fox, a declaration of the difference of the ministers of the word from the ministers of the world; who calls the writings, the word (wing f . ), . ‘memoir of old elizabeth, a colored woman’ in william l. andrews (ed.), six women’s slave narratives (new york, ), . might, more helpfully, say that protestantism is and has been a religion of the bible. better still, protestantism is a religion within which the bible appears to be self-authenticating. that is, it is a religion which hinges on the unmediated encounter with god’s grace. not all protestants have formulated their understanding of that grace in the same theological terms: luther’s sola fide was enduringly influential but has never had the field to itself. yet that sense of a direct meeting with grace through the individual believer’s faith is fundamental, in different ways, to lutheranism, calvinism, methodism, pentecostalism, mennonitism, quakerism, unitarianism, adventism and more. there are some religious traditions which are genealogically reformation-derived but which lack that central emphasis on unmediated grace – for example, anglo-catholicism or mormonism; and these, importantly, are the traditions hardest to describe as protestant. the remainder, for all their huge diversity, bear an unmistakable family resemblance. the best word we have for that family is ‘protestant’. movement disorders in adult surviving patients with maple syrup urine disease movement disorders in adult surviving patients with maple syrup urine disease miryam carecchio, md, , susanne a. schneider, md, phd, , heidi chan, bsc, robin lachmann, mrcp, phd, philip j. lee, md, frcp, elaine murphy, mrcp, frcpath, and kailash p. bhatia, md, frcp * sobell department of motor neuroscience and movement disorders, institute of neurology, ucl, london, united kingdom department of neurology, amedeo avogadro university, novara, italy schilling section of clinical and molecular neurogenetics at the department of neurology, university of luebeck, luebeck, germany charles dent metabolic unit, national hospital for neurology and neurosurgery, queen square, london, united kingdom abstract: maple syrup urine disease is a rare metabolic disorder caused by mutations in the branched- chain a-keto acid dehydrogenase complex gene. patients generally present early in life with a toxic encephalopathy because of the accumulation of the branched-chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine, and valine and the corre- sponding ketoacids. movement disorders in maple syrup urine disease have typically been described during decompensation episodes or at presentation in the con- text of a toxic encephalopathy, with complete resolution after appropriate dietary treatment. movement disorders in patients surviving childhood are not well documented. we assessed adult patients with maple syrup urine disease (mean age, . years) with a special focus on movement disorders. twelve ( . %) had a movement disorder on clinical examination, mainly tremor and dys- tonia or a combination of both. parkinsonism and simple motor tics were also observed. pyramidal signs were present in patients ( . %), and a spastic-dystonic gait was observed in patients ( . %). in summary, movement disorders are common in treated adult patients with maple syrup urine disease, and careful neu- rological examination is advisable to identify those who may benefit from specific therapy. vc movement dis- order society key words: maple syrup urine disease; metabolic; movement disorders; dystonia; parkinsonism maple syrup urine disease (msud, omim # ) is a rare inborn error of metabolism caused by a deficiency in the activity of the branched-chain a- keto acid dehydrogenase (bckd) complex. as a con- sequence, the degradation of the branched-chain amino acids (bcaas) leucine, isoleucine, and valine is blocked after the first catabolic step (transamination), resulting in accumulation of bcaas and the corre- sponding branched-chain a-keto acids (bckas) in bio- logical fluids. msud is inherited as an autosomal recessive disor- der, and its worldwide frequency is estimated as : , , although in the mennonite population of lancaster and lebanon counties in pennsylvania its frequency is higher, with a prevalence of approxi- mately in newborns. the human bckd complex is a multienzymatic macromolecule composed of catalytic subunits (e , with an a b structure, e , and e ) encoded by differ- ent genes located on chromosomes , , , and , respectively. mutations in each of these loci are re- sponsible for different molecular phenotypes indicated as type ia (e a), type ib (e b), type ii (e ), and type iii (e ). depending on the clinical presentation and the residual enzymatic activity of bckd, phenotypes are recognized: classic, intermediate, intermittent, thia- mine responsive, and e deficient. , classic msud is the most common form, and affected newborns ------------------------------------------------------------ additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article. *correspondence to: prof. kailash p. bhatia, sobell department of motor neuroscience and movement disorders, institute of neurology, ucl, london, united kingdom; k.bhatia@ion.ucl.ac.uk funding agencies: this work was undertaken at uclh/ucl, which received a proportion of funding from the department of health’s nihr biomedical research centres’ funding scheme. relevant conflicts of interest/financial disclosures: nothing to report. full financial disclosures and author roles may be found in the online version of this article. received: october ; revised: december ; accepted: december published online april in wiley online library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). doi: . /mds. r e s e a r c h a r t i c l e movement disorders, vol. , no. , present with lethargy, poor sucking, and rapidly pro- gressive encephalopathy in the first days of life, when the characteristic odor of burnt sugar may be noted. alterations of muscular tone and abnormal dystonic extensions of the arms can occur during this stage of disease. increased blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid bcaas (especially leucine) are found during acute metabolic decompensation, often provoked by intercurrent illness, fasting, injury, or surgery and con- tributed to by endogenous protein catabolism. patients with msud later on may develop neurolog- ical sequelae such as spasticity and quadriplegia as a consequence of the damage resulting from widespread cerebral edema at first clinical presentation or during decompensation episodes. movement disorders can be part of the manifesta- tions of various metabolic diseases, alone or in com- bination with other neurological findings. an increasing number of individuals with msud are sur- viving childhood thanks to a bcaa-restricted diet, but little information on the prevalence of movement dis- orders in these adults is available. we present the clin- ical neurological findings of adult patients with msud, with a particular emphasis on the spectrum of movement disorders. patients and methods seventeen patients ( women, men; mean age, . years) diagnosed with msud followed up at the charles dent metabolic unit, national hospital for neurology and neurosurgery, london, were reviewed. this is a tertiary adult referral centre with close links to the pediatric service where patients with msud are followed up until age after initial diagnosis. relevant details about patients’ medical history were obtained from their files and by direct questioning of ei- ther the patients themselves or their caregivers. all patients underwent a full neurological examination by a single neurologist, along with metabolic follow-up including determination of plasma bcaas. thirteen patients were diagnosed with classic, with intermittent, and with intermediate msud. disease duration at the time of examination ranged from to years (mean, years), and all but classic cases were diagnosed within the first weeks of life. the nonclassic cases were diagnosed between and years of age. in all patients, the diagnosis of msud was based on clinical suspicion and confirmed by measuring elevated bcaa levels in blood and urine. genetic anal- ysis was not routinely included in the diagnostic workup. one ashkenazi jewish patient was tested on a research basis and was found to carry a previously described homozygous mutation (c. g>c, p.arg pro) in exon of the bckdhb gene, encod- ing the e -b subunit of the bckd complex. patients with classic msud were all on a protein-re- stricted diet (mean protein intake, . g/day) and amino acid supplementation, whereas of the nonclassic cases were on an unrestricted diet, and followed a vegetarian diet. demographic data of the patients are shown in table . results twelve of patients ( . %) had a movement dis- order detectable on clinical examination. tremor was table . demographic features of msud patients patient number sex age movement disorder disease duration (y) diet daily protein intake (g) f y y m y y . m n y f n y f y y f y y f y y f n y m y y f y y m y y f y y m y y a f n n unrestricted a m y n unrestricted a f y n unrestricted a f n n vegetarian total f m . (mean) y n (mean) y n . (mean) anonclassic msud patients. m o v e m e n t d i s o r d e r s i n a d u l t m s u d p a t i e n t s movement disorders, vol. , no. , present in subjects ( . %), alone ( case) or in combination with other movement disorders: dystonia in ( . %), parkinsonism in ( . %; see video segment ), and simple motor tics in ( . %). among the patients with a movement disorder (n ¼ ), tremor and dystonia were the most common find- ings on examination, being detected in . % and . % of subjects, respectively. of these, patients ( . %) exhibited a tremor at rest (asymmetric in cases, symmetric in case), patients ( . %) a pos- tural tremor, and patients ( %) an intention tremor. among patients with dystonia, ( . %) had a dystonic posture affecting the hands and ( . %) the feet, presenting as bilateral plantar flexion and inversion in case and as part of a scissoring-dystonic gait in cases (see video segments and ), and cases ( %) displayed cervical dystonia. four of patients with dystonia also had a tremor in the affected part of the body, suggesting a dystonic tremor. all patients with parkinsonism presented bra- dykinesia on finger tapping (symmetric in patient, asymmetric in patients) with no rest tremor. one patient showed additional features including facial hypomimia and poverty of movements, loss of pos- tural reflexes, and bilateral reduction of arm swings, along with cogwheel rigidity in the left upper limb. in case simple motor tics were detected on exami- nation, manifesting as brief neck rotations to the left, which were partially suppressible with distraction, but we cannot exclude that this finding was incidental. in all patients the distribution of movement disorders was in the upper part of the body, with additional involvement of the lower limbs in cases. table summarizes the movement disorders found in the patients examined. in addition to movement disorders, pyramidal signs such as brisk reflexes and spasticity were frequent on examination, overall being present in patients ( . %). six showed a scissoring-dystonic gait and were significantly disabled. language impairment was present in of patients ( . %), including spastic dysarthria in and slurred speech in . four patients ( . %) had epilepsy that required pharmacological treatment. neuropsychiatric disturbances including depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder were present in subjects ( . %), whereas various degrees of learning difficulties with mental retardation were shown in of cases ( . %). discussion in this observational study, we describe the spectrum of movement disorders in adults with msud. msud is a rare metabolic disorder that generally presents with a toxic encephalopathy within the first days of life. long- term outcomes in treated adult patients have been diffi- cult to establish because of the rarity of the disorder and its severity on initial presentation, often leading to premature death. it is well recognized that various movement disorders can be present in metabolic condi- tions, often being secondary to early cerebral damage, but the spectrum of movement disorders in msud is unknown. although we have previously described neu- ropsychometric outcomes in some patients included in this study, no detailed studies have been published on long-term motor signs. in our series of patients, more than two thirds exhibited a movement disorder on clinical examina- tion, mainly tremor and dystonia or a combination of both. these were present in the upper limbs in all cases, with additional involvement of the neck in patients and of the lower limbs in patients. aside from movement disorders, the most common neuro- logical findings were pyramidal signs in the lower limbs and learning difficulties, observed in . % and . % of cases, respectively. the combination of dys- tonia and spasticity in the lower limbs was the most disabling clinical finding, significantly reducing patients’ ability to walk independently and thus inter- fering with their quality of life. to date, movement disorders in msud have only been described as part of the symptoms at onset in the context of a toxic encephalopathy, as recurrent parox- ysmal ataxia or paroxysmal dystonia in intermittent variant msud, and during episodes of decompensa- tion. , , in these cases, movement disorders tended to resolve after appropriate dietary treatment. in our series of adult patients, many had a persistent movement disorder, even when on a strict dietary regi- men in the absence of intercurrent metabolic decom- pensation. interestingly, we did not observe major cerebellar signs such as ataxia, as previously reported, at presentation or during decompensation episodes table . neurological findings in adult patients with msud clinical finding type number (percentage) movement disorders ( of patients) tremor ( . %) —at rest —postural —intention dystonia ( . %) —cervical —upper limbs —lower limbs parkinsonism ( . %) other movement disorders ( . %) other neurological findings ( of patients) pyramidal signs ( . %) scissoring-dystonic gait ( . %) language impairment ( . %) neuropsychiatric disturbances ( . %) cognitive impairment ( . %) epilepsy ( . %) c a r e c c h i o e t a l . movement disorders, vol. , no. , consistent with a typical severe cerebellar edema seen on neuroimgaing and with prominent neuropatho- logical alterations in the cerebellum. there is considerable interest in movement disorders due to metabolic diseases, as this can provide some answers with regard to pathophysiology, as recently exemplified by gaucher’s disease–related parkinson- ism. our clinical observations raise the question of the nature of the underlying pathophysiology of move- ment disorders seen in adult msud patients. with regard to the neuropathology, it is known that in msud considerable neuronal loss is present in the pontine nuclei and substantia nigra, and striatal damage has been demonstrated both in the animal model of msud and in affected children. moreover, leucine has a high affinity for the l -neu- tral amino acid transporter through which other amino acids are transported into the central nervous system; therefore, high leucine plasma concentrations reduce the uptake of some amino acids in the brain, including phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. this leads to the depletion of some neurotransmitters in the brain such as dopamine and serotonin, as dem- onstrated in the animal model of msud by zinnanti et al, who observed a reduction in dopamine levels in the brain of msud mice by more than % along with decreased gaba and glutamate levels. the depletion of neurotransmitters, especially dopamine, was concomitant with the initiation of limb dystonia and gait abnormalities in msud mice. although these findings were described during acute encephalopathy, it is possible that altered neurotrans- mitter levels, especially dopamine, are present as a long- term consequence in the brains of adult msud patients, being responsible for the development of dystonia, as seen in other diseases characterized by reduced dopa- mine availability (juvenile parkinson’s disease, dopa-re- sponsive dystonia). , interestingly, in a series of infants, dystonia was observed at onset in . % of patients, being associated with high serum leucine-to- tyrosine ratios and thus further suggesting that acute leucinosis with secondary tyrosine deficiency may con- tribute to the development of dystonia. finally, the development of movement disorders in msud mice has been further explained by a disrup- tion of the cerebral energy metabolism from the toxic effect of bcka in the central nervous system with reduced atp and phosphocreatine levels, which may affect the normal functioning of basal ganglia and other parts of the brain highly dependent on the mito- chondrial respiratory chain. in addition to these neurochemical changes that may at least be partly responsible for the movement disor- ders observed in our patients, the permanent damage resulting from early encephalopathy at onset is likely to play a role in the development of movement disor- ders. in this regard, of our patients with a move- ment disorder (parkinsonism; rest tremor; dystonia and spastic-dystonic gait) underwent a brain mri scan that did not show any abnormality of either the basal ganglia or the cerebellum. however, we cannot exclude that other patients included in our series might have a structural damage on neuroimaging. it may be that given the above-mentioned biochemi- cal alterations, the development of movement disor- ders in msud is associated with the number as well as the severity of decompensation episodes. however, in our series it was not possible to clearly define the total number of decompensation episodes throughout life, as not all resulted in hospital admission or were clearly documented. with regard to the treatment of movement disorders, symptomatic drugs such as local botulinum toxin injec- tions in patients with dystonia or dopaminergic drugs in those with parkinsonism should be considered as poten- tial treatments in the future. no cases of deep brain stimulation (dbs) in patients with msud and move- ment disorder have been reported so far, but dbs has been successfully used in a few cases of other inborn errors of metabolism also presenting with movement disorders such as lesh-nyhan syndrome. , conclusions movement disorders have been described in msud at onset or during decompensation episodes, mainly as paroxysmal dystonia or ataxia. in this study, we assessed adult patients with msud and observed a high prevalence of movement disorders, even in patients with a long disease duration following a pro- tein-restricted diet and under relatively stable meta- bolic control. dystonia in the upper limbs and tremor were the most frequent findings. we speculate that these symptoms may be secondary to cerebral damage from toxic encephalopathy at onset and during recur- rent acute decompensation and/or chronic reduced lev- els of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, as demonstrated in the animal model of msud. our findings suggest that a careful neurological assessment is advisable in adult patients with msud, and we recommend screening these patients for move- ment disorders such as dystonia and parkinsonism, as these symptoms are potentially treatable. further stud- ies are needed to clarify the pathophysiology of move- ment disorders in msud in order to offer patients specific treatments to improve their quality of life. legends to the video video segment . seventeen-year-old patient. dys- tonic posture of feet (inversion) with gait showing m o v e m e n t d i s o r d e r s i n a d u l t m s u d p a t i e n t s movement disorders, vol. , no. , mixed dystonia and spasticity. cervical dystonia (left torticollis, mild retrocollis, and left shoulder eleva- tion). mild dystonic posture of the right hand, with slowness in performing finger tapping bilaterally with- out evidence of clear decrement. video segment . thirty-one-year-old patient. dys- tonic posture of feet and toes and a gait with a mixture of dystonia and spasticity. a bilateral dystonic posture of both hands, more marked on the right side, is visible on walking and keeping arms outstretched. mild cervi- cal dystonia (right torticollis) is also detectable. video segment . thirty-year-old patient. slow gait with reduced arm swings bilaterally. hypomimia, poverty of movements, and left bradykinesia on finger tapping. references . chuang dt, shih ve. maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketoaciduria). in: scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d, eds. the metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. new york, mcgraw-hill; : – . . marshall l, di george a. maple syrup urine disease in the old order mennonites. am j hum gen. ; : a. . simon e, flaschker n, schadewaldt p, langenbeck u, wendel u. variant maple syrup urine disease (msud) - the entire spectrum. j inherit metab dis. ; : – . . morton dh, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, kelley ri. diagnosis and treatment of maple syrup disease: a study of patients. pediatrics. ; : – . . naughten er, jenkins j, francis de, leonard jv. outcome of maple syrup urine disease. arch dis child. ; : – . . gouider-khouja n, kraoua i, benrhouma h, fraj n, rouissi a. movement disorders in neuro-metabolic diseases. eur j paediatr neurol. ; : – . . le roux c, murphy e, hallam p, lilburn m, orlowska d, lee p. neuropsychometric outcome predictors for adults with maple syrup urine disease. j inherit metab dis. ; : – . . morris md, lewis bd, doolan pd, harper ha. clinical and biochemical observations on an apparently nonfatal variant of branched-chain ketoaciduria (maple syrup urine disease). pedia- trics. ; : – . . temudo t, martins e, poças f, cruz r, vilarinho l. maple syrup disease presenting as paroxysmal dystonia. ann neurol. ; : – . . steinlin m, blaser s, boltshauser e. cerebellar involvement in met- abolic disorders: a pattern-recognition approach. neuroradiology. ; : – . . kiil r, rokkones t. late manifesting variant of branched-chain ketoaciduria (maple syrup urine disease). acta paediatr. ; : – . . hauber w. involvement of basal ganglia transmitter systems in movement initiation. prog neurobiol. ; : – . . zinnanti wj, lazovic j, griffin k, et al. dual mechanism of brain injury and novel treatment strategy in maple syrup urine disease. brain. ; : – . . khan nl, graham e, critchley p, et al. parkin disease: a pheno- typic study of a large case series. brain. ; : – . . trender-gerhard i, sweeney mg, schwingenschuh p, et al. auto- somal-dominant gtpch -deficient drd: clinical characteristics and long-term outcome of patients. j neurol neurosurg psychi- atry. ; : – . . cif l, biolsi b, gavarini s, et al. antero-ventral internal pallidum stimulation improves behavioral disorders in lesch-nyhan disease. mov disord. ; : – . . taira t, kobayashi t, hori t. disappearance of self-mutilating behavior in a patient with lesch-nyhan syndrome after bilateral chronic stimulation of the globus pallidus internus. case report. j neurosurg. ; : – . c a r e c c h i o e t a l . movement disorders, vol. , no. , eur volume issue cover and back matter i m p r i m e r i e f . p a l l a r t a b b e v i l l e issn - le gdrant : j a c q u e s l a u t m a n printed in france core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core european journal of sociology numeros sphiaux < • s p e c i a l i s s u e s sondernummern i i industrial society and rep- resentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. ii i lc sabre et la loi. on the welfare state. iii - universitat im umbau : anpassung oder widerstand ? iv i in quest of political partici- pation. trois e'tudes sur la science. v i organisation der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. vi i simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. vii i alienation et structure or conscience and consciousness. on suicide. viii i paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien concepts. ix i weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'e'cole. zur problematik der modern- isierung or the concept of modernity. x i survivances et permanences or continuity and re-enactment. myths and mass media. xi i la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. xii i permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. xiii i permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? xiv i the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... xv i faith and power. citoyens armes, pre'toriens desarmes. xvi i observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. xvii i structure and interest. professions avec ou sans com- petence. might and rite.xviii xix xx whither the unwithered state ? le prix moral de l'e'galite'. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. xxi i capitalism and the rise of religion. racines aristocratique* de la democratic. xxii i michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extremes. xxiii i soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. watersheds. xxiv i overt . and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. xxv i auslese durch erziehung oder technik ? tending the roots: nationalism and populism. xxvi i ne'cessite de la vie politique. le mythe du mythe. les series completes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mcntionnlet page de la couverture. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies soditis civilisations revue bimestrielle fondie en par luden febvre at mare block publiee avee le concours du centre national de la recherche sctentifique et de i'ecoia des hautes £tudes en sciences sociales comite de direction: fernand braudel - charles moraze m m burguiere - marc ferro •• jacques le goff - emmanuel le roy ladurie • jacques revel secretaires de la redaction : lucetfe valensi, bernard lepetit * annee - n° novembre-decembre l'afrique : un autre espace historique presentation, marc augi=, jean-pierre chretien, claude-he'lene perrot le jeu des pouvoirs et des lignages marc auge, note sur ies rapports entre espace social et systemes symboliques claude tardits, l'espace, indicateur historique, re've'lateur structural : i'exemple bamoum (cameroun) controle du milieu et strategies du peuplement claude-helene perrot, l'appropriation de l'espace, un enjeu politique. pour une histoire du peuplement jan vansina, l'homme, ies forets et le passe en afrique espaces politiques et espaces mythiques jean-pierre chretien, l'empire des bacwezi. la construction d'un imagi- naire geopolitique jacques bureau, l'espace politique ethiopien david robinson, l'espace, ies metaphores et i'intensite de i'islam ouest- africain a traversl'afrique (comptes rendus) £conomie et soctete' contemporaines serge-christophe kolm, les explications de la crise d'inspiration marxiste iconomie et soctete contemporaines (comptes rendus) redaction : boulevard raspail, paris abonnements • france • stranger • le numero f <• ftudiants france : f f f - le numero special (double): f les abonnements dolvent etre souscrits a la libralrie armand colin, boulevard saint-michel, paris cedex (comptes cheques postaux: paris n ' - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue frangaise de sociologie publi e avec le concours de hnstitut de recherche sur les societes contemporaines centre national de la recherche scientifique octobre-decembre . xxvl- avocat: une nouvelle profession ? indices et comparisons de proportions l'interajcttion entre variables: probleme statistique ou sociologique ? a propos de i'indice de gini lucien karpik jean prevot dominique merllie jean-claude combessie et marc barbut notes critiques : analyses et reflexions sur le patronat l'etat, ('action collective et i'histoire les livres franpois gresle patrice mann direction, redaction : revue franchise de sociologie , rue cafdinet, paris - til: . . . ibonnements: l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser directement a . centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex — tel. . . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numeio de vanned en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numeros) france f etranger f vente an numito s les ventes au nume'ro et celles de collections sont assurers par les editions du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris — t£l.: . . . . ccp paris - editions du cnrs tarif • he numero „. f core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue frangaise de sociologie , rue cardinet, paris - tel. avril-juin , xxvii- la croyance et les parasciences croyances aux parasciences : dimensions sociales et culturelles parasciences et proced s de legitimation la croyance aux extraterrestres le rite et la croyance socio-style daniel boy et guy michelat gerard chevalier jean-bruno renard francois heran nicolas herpin composition demographique et cycle de vie l'ouvert et le ferm dans la pratique du questionnaire les associations d'anciens eleves d' co|es d'ingenieurs des origines a les livres yannick lemel et daniel verger salvador juan georges ribeill abonnements : l'ordre et ie paiement sont a adresser directement a : centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex - te~l. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numero de l'ann£e en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( nume>os) france f stranger f vtttte au numero : les ventes au numero et celles de collections sont assurers par les editions du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, parts — til : ( ) . . . . ccp paris - fiditions du cnrs tarif : le nume>o.. f core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contributions a la connaissance des elites africaines / tchad regards sur les elites ouaddaiennes issa hassan khayar • les elites tchadiennes, et plus particulierement ouaddaiennes, pendant les periodes precoloniale et coloniale et leur evolution : comment les systemes edu- catifs et les institutions politiques de ces epoques ont produit leurs elites et quelle etait leur capacite d'adaptation aux diverses evolutions et a leur peuple • changement et continuiti au tchad; termes de reference; methodes de i'etude • formation du tchad • /e ouaddai et ses elites • rapports des elites aux partis politiques x / p. / brochi cart. isbn - - - f quai anatole france. paris ccp paris - - tel. . . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core past and present a journal of historical studies "la plus grande revue d'histoire du monde anglo- phone": annales "no historical periodical has done more than past and present to influence the study and teaching of history in british universities . . . it has proved extremely fertile in new interpretations, ideas and controversies. . . what makes past and present so invigorating is that it encour- ages historians to extend their horizons and ask new questions": times higher educational supplement past and present began publication in . it now appears in february, may, august and november. it publishes a wide variety of scholarly and original historical articles primarily concerned with social, economic and cultural changes, and their causes and consequences, ranging in time from prehistory to the present day and world-wide in coverage. the journal is designed to reach an audience that includes both specialists and non-specialists; to communicate the results of historical research in readable and lively form; to provide a forum for debate in which historians and scholars in allied subjects take part; to reach beyond the bounds of conventional history into nearby disciplines such as anthro- pology, sociology, literature and study of the visual arts and architecture; and to encourage the examination of particular prob- lems and periods for the light they throw on wider issues of historical change. recent contributors to the journal have included john bossy, robert brenner, peter burke, david cannadine, samuel clark, stuart clark, linda colley, natalie zemon davis, mark elvin, john hatcher, douglas hay, christopher hill, r. h. hilton, e. j. hobsbawm, olwen hufton, martin ingram, mervyn james, henry kamen, fergus millar, theodore k. rabb, w. d. rubinstein, w. g. runciman, eugene schulkind, joan wallach scott, t. c. smout, lawrence stone, enrique tandeter, e. a. wrigley, eileen yeo. for free classified table of contents and for details of subscrip- tion rates write to: the business manager past and present banbury road oxford ox aw core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv - a r c h e r , margaret s. process without system, xxiv . a k j o u a n d , said amir. the shi'ite hierocracy and th« state in pre- modern iran : - , xxii i. a u g u s t i k s , georges. esquisse d'une comparaison des systemet de per- petuation des groupes domestiques dans let socie'te's paysannes europeennes, xxiii . b a b a d i a n , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquer des rites ? xxv . b a e c h l e r , jean. les origines de la democratic grecque, xxi . la nourriture des hommes. essai sur le n£oli- thique, xxiii . b e e t h a m , david. michels and his critics, xxii . b i i t i i o k , philippe. la dynamique revolutionnaire ou la logique du totalitarisme. a propos de l'interpretation de la revolution francaise par augustin cochin, xxii x. b e n - r a f a e l , eliezer and sasha whitman. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbuti xxv . c a h n m a n , werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h e r k a o u i , mohamed. cbangement social et anomie : essai de formali- sation de la theorie durkheimienne, xxii . c o s k r , lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . d r i e s s b h , henk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth- century andalusia, xxiv . e i s b n s t a d t , shmuel n. the axial age : the emergence of trancendental visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . e l s t e r , jon. negation active et negation passive. essai de sociologie ivanienne, xxi . far h e r , mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , renee c. is religion important in belgium ? xxiii . goodell, grace. from status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . gray, john n. lamb auctions on the borders, xxv . gre e n r e l d, liah. the role of the public in the success of artistic styles, xxv . g u r e v i c h , aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv . h a i l i d a y , terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv . h a l s e y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british post- war sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h e l l i n g , ingeborg. das erklgrungsmodell der situationslogik bei popper : eine logische rekonstruktion und kri- tik, xxiii . j a n i k , allan. schorske's vienna, xxii . k a h a n e , reuven. religious diffusion and modernization : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indonesia and its impact on social change, x x i . k a n t o w s k y , detlef. die rezeption der hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max webers in stidasicn: ein mipverstsnd- nis ? xxiii . k e d o u r i e , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, xxv . k e m e n y , jim. professional ideologies and organizational struc- ture : tanks and the military, xxiv . k m k i , margaret e. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek internal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatolii m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r n e , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'society des observa* teurs de l'homme', xxiii z. kumar, krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-century england : theoretical and comparative perspec- tives, xxiv . kufer, adam. the man in the study and the man in the field. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi . l i e b e r s o h n , harry. leopold von wiese and the ambivalence of func- tionalist sociology, xxiii . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i h d h o l u , charles. images of the fathan : the usefulness of colonial ethnography, xxi . m a c h b r e l , claude. don et reciprocity en europe, xxiv . m i l a u o u d , charles. semantique et rhetorlque dans la hierarchie hin- doue dcs buts de l'homme », xxiii . m a h h , michael. the autonomous power of the state, xxv . m i j e d i o r , jose guilherme. mort a l'homo ceconomicus ? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'laws of nature", xxii . mom ms en, wolfgang j. max weber and roberto michels. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii . m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o s i e l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t , sandra. blessed bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmetric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o c g i , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in the early social sciences, xxi . ray, laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum practice, xxii . r h o d e s , aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives in political machines, xxv . r o n i o e b , luis. modern patron-client relations and historical clientelism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv . rbset, jakob. the economy of an indian temple: landed endow- ment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociological explanation, xxv . r u x c i h a h , w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history ? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of france, xxiv . s a h t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e s h a h , e. m. zu problemen der sozialdkonomischen geschlch- te roms, xxi . s w a r t z, david. classes, educational systems and labor mar- kets, xxii . tapper, nancy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv . t r a u o o t t , mark. durkheim and social movements, xxv . u r r y , james. who arc the mennonites ? xxiv . van p a u i h , piilipoe. sociology as general economics, xxii . w e e d e , erich. ordnungspolitik und sicherheitspolitik als ele- " mente der sicherungspolitik, xxv . w e i n g r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, x x i i . w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv i . w e i t h a n , sasha and eliezer ben-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . w i n d o l p , paul. l'expansion de l'enseignement et la surquallfica- tion sur le march* du travail, xxv . w o o d , geoffrey. frazevs magic wand of anthropology : inter- preting the golden bough, xxiii . z a r s t , david. ideology and organization in puritantsm, xxi x issn - ) may c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb irp $ east th street, new york ny , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ latin america's fifth wave of protestant churches clayton l. berg, jr., and paul e. pretiz v isiting a church convention, we found that the christian mariachi band, silver buckles sparkling on black uni­ forms, was the high point of the afternoon. downstairs, huge sides of beef hung from the ceiling. on the fire were enormous pots of mole, the traditional hot sauce. the rhythms, the smells from the kitchen, the preaching style, and the happy confusion made the gathering unmistakably mexican. the churches represented here had developed entirely out of mexican soil, without any involvement of expatriate mission­ aries. not only in mexico but throughout latin america today, in tents, storefronts, former cinemas, factories, and homes, as well as church buildings, autochthonous congregations are bursting into life by spontaneous combustion. people are coming to know christ and are sharing the good news through the ministries of churches entirely independent of traditional mission influence.' in thegospel people of latinamerica we identified five waves of protestant advance, the fifth being the rise of autochthonous, or grassroots, churches.' while much missiological literature covers the african independent churches, little has been written describing the corresponding phenomenon in the americas. by "autochthonous" we mean churches that ( ) have devel­ oped spontaneously, without a history of missionary involve­ ment; or ( ) were planted by missionary efforts of other latin american autochthonous churches; or ( ) were formerly mission related but have broken foreign links and reflect the people's culture in the deepest sense. the two criteria are autonomy and contextualization. to determine whether churches in the category of "formerly mis- with their rate of growth, autochthonous churches may now represent over half of latin america's protestants. sion related" should be considered autochthonous is admittedly difficult because it involves an attempt to measure the degree of contextualization. many so-called indigenized churches follow the patterns of the parent mission society. but other groups, though formerly mission related, have become truly contextualized and can be considered autochthonous. a case in point is the methodist pentecostal church in chile. autonomous since , despite its early methodist background it is univer­ sally recognized as autochthonous because of its contextualization into chilean life and culture. clayton l. (mike) berg, [r.,andpaule.pretizareveteran missionaries with the latin america mission. both have served in a variety of ministries and responsibilities sincethe s, includingberg as lam's president and pretiz as vicepresident. theirmost recent joint workis spontaneous combustion: grass roots christianity, latin american style (pasadena, calif.: william carey library, ). estimating number of autochthonous churches in the world christian encyclopedia researcher david barrett identifies "nonwhite indigenous" churches as a separate stream of the world christian community.' though hardly a proper label for some middle-class latin american autochthonous churches with some very european-looking people, the churches he identifies as "nonwhite indigenous" in latin america are the autochthonous churches being addressed in this article. most of these churches are considered eoangelico (or protes­ tant) in latin america. on the basis of barrett's numbers, autoch­ thonous churches in constituted . percent of all protes­ tants in latin america. the proportions ranged from a meager . percent in honduras to . percent in chile. given their rate of growth, they may now represent over half of latin america's protestants. the accompanying table, based on more recent surveys, summarizes our own estimates of the number of churches and church members of such autochthonous groups. autochthonous churches and their members as a proportion of all protestant churches in latin america % of church % of churches members mexico city . . medellin, cali, cartagena, and barranquilla, colombia . . lima, peru . . rio de janeiro, brazil . sao paulo, brazil . . caracas, venezuela . buenos aires, argentina . . guatemala (as a whole) . . origins and variations we have spoken of this movement as a "fifth wave" because so many of the churches are of recent origin. however, some have a long history. perhaps the first autochthonous "churches" in latin america were the non-roman catholic religious societies that mexican president benito juarez promoted in the s. jean pierre bastian describes how the historic protestant denomina­ tions in mexico in many cases built upon the foundation of these autochthonous groups.' early in this century a ripple effect from the azusa street pentecostal revival in southern california gave birth to several movements in mexico, puerto rico, chile, and brazil. more recently there have been breakaway groups from historic protestant churches, notably the charismatic counterparts to each of the major protestant denominations in brazil. former roman catholic charismatic groups that have joined the evan­ gelical stream are also among latin america's autochthonous churches. and many have arisen spontaneously, such as the apure movement, founded by aristides diaz, a venezuelan cattle dealer who experienced a conversion after purchasing a bible from a colporteur. as ed rene kivitz, a baptist pastor in sao paulo, has ob- october served, older movements tend to be sectarian, isolating them­ selves from other protestants." they nlay sacralize their worship patterns or even their hymnals, not admitting any innovation. rigid rules may result in legalistic behavior. the congregacao crista of brazil is an example. newer movements may feature contemporary music (sometimes including christian rock), make heavy use of mass media, and be more permissive in what is expected of their followers' behavior. groups such as the brazil­ ian renacer em cristo are attracting many young people. they often have loose ties to similar groups elsewhere, sometimes adopting current trends such as "health and prosperity" con­ cepts. the ondas de amor y paz (waves of love and peace) movement in argentina is another example. there are other variants-for example, the apostolic church of faith in christ jesus (mexico), which follows the pentecostal oneness stream regarding the trinity; the israelites of the new covenant (peru), which observes old testament feasts and sacrifices; and the mitas (puerto rico), whose founder claimed to be the incarnation of the holy spirit. because of the pervasive influence of spiritism, many movements in brazil (e.g., the god is love church) emphasize exorcism. critics feel that this focus, by overshadowing other aspects of christian faith, weakens christian moral responsibility. everything evil is blamed on demons, and every solution is found in exorcism. the highly centralized authority of some groups permits them to concentrate their financial power to buy up tv and radio stations to proclaim their message, and to purchase cinemas where their congregations can meet. the igreja universal del reino de deus (universal church of the kingdom of god), in brazil, is a prime example. despite the aberrations of some groups, most latin ameri­ can autochthonous movements form a part of the eoangelico stream and relate well to other protestant denominations. the some autochthonous churches may be more attuned to latin american culture than traditional roman catholicism. largest autochthonous single congregation in latin america may be the brazil for christ church in sao paulo, with a hangerlike building seating more than , people. the founder, manoel de mello, broke with pentecostal tradition by relating to the world council of churches, promoting favored political candi­ dates, and displaying a social concern atypical of pentecostals of his time. his son, pastor paulo lutero de mello, is less involved ecumenically and politically, but he continues to mix a strong social concern with his evangelistic ministry. breaking the stereotypes latin american protestants traditionally have been accused of subverting latin america's unity by introducing religious forms that run counter to latin culture. traditional protestants may well stand accused of such foreignness. but the autochthonous churches-with their rhythms, charismatic leaders, passion, per­ sonal sacrifice, and openness to the miraculous-are not only highly contextualized but, according to some, may be more attuned to the region's culture than traditional roman catholi­ cism." another charge is that latin pentecostalism (most autoch­ thonous groups are pentecostal) serves merely as an escape from the harsh realities of life faced by latin america's poor. christian lalive's haven of the masses perceived these christians as being on "social strike," refusing to participate in community or politi­ cal efforts that might improve their lot and the lot of their neighbors.' but the title of a recent book by a group of dutch anthropologists signals a change in the perspectives of some observers. describing current latin american pentecostalism, they call it algo masque opio ("something more than an opiate")." in addition to the improvement in individuals' lives, the gospel as preached in these churches is becoming a force that is begin­ ning to affect society. not only are social scientists turning around in their judg­ ments. latin america's evangelicals themselves, especially those in autochthonous churches, are changing as they abandon the "politics is sinful" posture. although their political forays are sometimes naive, as their numbers grow and as latin american countries are generally recovering democratic systems of gov­ ernment, eoangelicos are increasingly forming their own evan­ gelical parties and supporting candidates that represent their views. a protestant "popular religion" in recent years catholic folk religion-religiosidad popular ("popu­ lar religiosity," as it is known in latin america)-has received much attention and analysis. far from lofty philosophical and theological heights of official catholicism, and equally far from the politically radical views of liberation theology, the down-to­ earth practice of latin america's masses revolves around tan­ gible practices and objects such as pilgrimages to shrines, religious fiestas, water from sacred springs, and objects with curative powers. some look with disdain upon this popular religion. others countenance religiosidad popular and hold in prospect the possibility of building upon it to lift the masses to a higher and more spiritual faith. it has not escaped the attention of many that latin america's autochthonous pentecostalism, with its emphasis on cures and material blessings, may be a protestant equivalent of catholic popular religiosity. observers share the same contrasting per­ spectives-disdain or appreciation. some see only the crude manifestations of protestant "popular religiosity"; others, thank­ ing god that the masses are being reached, anticipate a growing maturity in these movements. the charges that protestant autochthonous movements are susceptible to syncretistic influences is countered by some au­ tochthonous leaders who draw attention to syncretistic "romish" influences in the historic protestant churches. such leaders also point out that historic churches in latin america pay little attention to the demonic and may easily overlook the persistent superstitious or even occult practices of their members. autoch­ thonous groups, in contrast, recognize the existence of the spirit world and demand that new converts renounce all non-christian practices. a missiological challenge churches arising through "spontaneous combustion" pose ques­ tions regarding our missiological task. since an average of five new evangelical churches are founded each week in rio de international bulletin of missionary research janeiro, for example," many of them by groups unrelated to expatriate mission, is there a need for missionaries from the outside? in such cities missions obviously must realign their priorities. among other things, they can focus on planting churches that can be models of worship and outreach for social and ethnic groups that autochthonous churches may not yet be reaching. the best of the autochthonous movements are models for mission-related movements, and we can profit by studying their patterns of growth and their forms of contextualization. such studies should not be limited to superficial observations of their musical styles and worship forms. the real issue is whether mission-related churches can understand and adopt the best of a pre-enlightenment worldview that is common to the masses in latin america. this is a view that is open to the miraculous, to god's intervention in daily experience, to biblical confrontation with the demonic, and to a focus in worship that emphasizes reveling in god's presence rather than passive participation in a cerebrally oriented service. at the same time, traditional churches and missions can share their theological experience with autochthonous leaders. the lay pastor of the small autochthonous storefront church may be too busy because of his secular employment, or too embar­ rassed because of his lack of preparation, to enroll in a formal program of theological education. the leader of a large move­ ment may feel too self-sufficient to bother. but sharing of litera­ ture and tapes, developing personal friendships, conducting short workshops and courses, as well as offering more traditional academic programs at the appropriate time and place, are ways to overcome such barriers. the pentecostal bible institute of santiago, chile, is directed by a missionary sensitive to the situation of autochthonous church leaders, and the institute meets an evident need. the mennonites' experience working with african independent churches demonstrates that the mis­ sionary task should be more than just "planting more churches of our own kind."!' missions and missionary preparation should develop a concern to relate to other parts of the body of christ, especially the autochthonous movements, without creating de­ pendency and without de-indigenizing them. the cutting edge of the church is often at the social and religious periphery, notably so in these autochthonous move­ ments. but as many believers move upward socially and educa­ tionally, their spiritual needs often require the depth that more traditional churches offer. in one country pastors affirmed that much of the growth in the traditional churches was due to people whose initial contact with the gospel was in autochthonous churches, and who came to the traditional churches looking for other spiritual values. to prepare the pastors of autochthonous churches for the changing needs of their members is a task that could conceivably be assumed by the older churches-but in humility, since not many traditional churches have learned to cope with the pressures of modern society and secularism. autochthonous movements by nature are expansionist. bra­ zilian groups are sending missionaries to africa. those in span­ ish-speaking countries are opening churches in north america. issues arising out of folk religions may be central in missiology in the twenty­ first century. somehow we must learn to tap into the energy of these move­ ments as evangelistic efforts are contemplated, whether on a local or on a worldwide level. in some places organizers of citywide evangelistic movements discover that autochthonous churches, because they are not bound rigidly to a denomina­ tional program, make more enthusiastic participants than tradi­ tional churches. we should not ignore autochthonous church leaders in our plans for global evangelism or in our invitation lists for evangelistic or missiological congresses. we cannot ignore autochthonous churches as we look at the future world scene. given their growth, they are the wave that will become increasingly prominent.p indeed, as paul hiebert has stated, "there is a growing awareness among mission lead­ ers that these issues arising out of the folk religions may be central in missiology in the twenty-first century.r " notes----------------------------------------­ .	 adapted from clayton l. berg, [r., and paul pretiz, spontaneous combustion: grass rootschristianity, latin american style (pasadena, calif.: william carey library, ), p. . . clayton l. berg, jr., and paul pretiz, thegospel people of latinamerica (monrovia, calif.: marc/lam, ). the five waves are ( ) the protestant churches that entered with nineteenth-century immi­ grants; ( ) the entry of the conciliar or historic denominations; ( ) churches that are the fruit of "faith missions"; ( ) missions of newer denominations, mostly pentecostal; and ( ) the autochthonous churches. .	 david b. barrett, ed., world christian encyclopedia (new york: ox­ ford univ. press, ). . jean pierre bastian, losdisidentes: sociedades protestantes y revoluci n en mexico, - (mexico d.f.: el colegio de mexico, ). . ed rene kivitz, pastor of the agua branca baptist church, sao paulo, brazil, . . karl-wilhelm westmeier quotes two latin americans, samuel palma and hugo villela, who affirm that "official roman catholicism actually runs counter to the religious feeling of the latin american masses" ("themes of pentecostal expansion in latin america," international bulletin of missionary research [april ]: ). .	 christian lalive d'epinay, the haven of the masses (london: lutterworth press, ). . barbara boudewijnse, andre droogers, and frans kamsteeg, alga mas que apia (san jose, costa rica: editorial dei, ). . david martin, tongues of fire (oxford: basil blackwell, ). .	 rubem cesar fernandes, censo institutional evangelical cin (rio de janeiro: iser, ). .	 david a. shenk, ed., ministry of missions to african independent churches ( ) and ministry in partnership 'withafrican independent churches ( ), both published by the mennonite board of mis­ sions, elkhart, indiana. .	 david barrett's projection of the year places "nonwhite indig­ enous" at more than a third of all protestants and nonwhite indig­ enous christians combined (international bulletin of missionary re­ search [january ]: - ). .	 paul g. hiebert, "popular religions," in toward the twenty-first century in christian mission, ed. james m. phillips and robert t. coote (grand rapids, mich.: eerdmans, ), pp. ff. october 	 microsoft word - mib .doc mutation in brief human mutation mutation in brief # ( ) online © wiley-liss, inc. doi: . /humu. received january ; revised manuscript accepted april . mutations in the human atp-binding cassette transporters abcg and abcg in sitosterolemia susanne heimerl† , thomas langmann† , christoph moehle , richard mauerer , michael dean , , frank-ulrich beil , , klaus von bergmann , , and gerd schmitz * institute for clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine, university of regensburg, germany; human genetics section, laboratory of genomic diversity, the national cancer institute at frederick, md; biochemisches stoffwechsellabor, universitätsklinikum hamburg-eppendorf, germany; department of clinical pharmacology, university of bonn, germany. *correspondence to: prof. dr. med. gerd schmitz, universitätsklinikum regensburg, institut für klinische chemie und blutbank, franz-josef-strauß-allee , regensburg, germany; tel.:+ ; fax:+ ; e-mail:gerd.schmitz@klinik.uni-regensburg.de † these authors contributed equally to the paper contract grant sponsor: deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft; contract grant number: la / - communicated by johannes zschocke phytosterolemia or sitosterolemia is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by highly elevated plasma levels of plant sterols and cholesterol as a consequence of hyperabsorption and impaired biliary secretion of sterols. the disease is caused by mutations in two half size atp-binding cassette transporters, abcg and abcg . we have analyzed the genomic sequence of abcg and abcg in five well-characterized patients with sitosterolemia. in the first patient we found a heterozygous mutation in exon of the abcg gene leading to a premature termination of the protein (arg ter). this german patient is the first european showing a mutation of the abcg gene. in a second patient we found a novel heterozygous mutation in exon of abcg (c. t>a; leu gln). both patients were heterozygous for the identified mutation, but no mutation could be identified on the other chromosome. in three further analyzed patients we found mutations in exons , and of the abcg gene, respectively, of which two result in a premature termination signal for translation products. one of these patients was compound heterozygous (trp ter and arg ter), the other was homozygous for trp ter. the third patient was homozygous for an amino acid exchange (gly arg). in conclusion this report describes one novel mutation affecting a highly conserved amino acid and two previously identified mutations in the abcg gene. in addition, we identified for the first time a mutation in the abcg gene of a european sitosterolemia patient. © wiley-liss, inc. key words: atp-binding cassette transporters; abcg ; abcg ; beta-sitosterol; sitosterolemia; cholesterol introduction sitosterolemia (mim# ) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder, first described by bhattacharyya and connor in , characterized by hyperabsorption and retention of cholesterol and other sterols like plant (e.g. heimerl et al. beta-sitosterol) and shellfish sterols from the intestine and the inability to excrete these sterols into the bile. as a consequence, affected individuals show very high levels of these non-cholesterol sterols, whereas cholesterol levels can be normal or just moderately increased. the patients suffer from tendon and tuberous xanthomas and premature athersclerosis and coronary artery disease (bjorkhem and boberg, ; lee et al., a). the genetic defect in sitosterolemia was mapped to chromosome p (patel et al., ) and recent reports identified mutations in two newly described adjacent half-size atp-binding cassette transporters abcg (mim# ) and abcg (mim# ) (berge et al., ; lee et al., ). different mutations and polymorphisms have been published so far. we have analyzed the genomic dna sequence of both abc transporters of five sitosterolemia patients and could identify a novel mutation in the abcg gene and report the first abcg mutation identified in an european sitosterolemia patient. material and methods we studied five unrelated sitosterolemia patients and if blood samples were available, their family members. genomic dna was isolated from whole blood using the qiaamp® dna blood midi kit (qiagen, hilden, germany). primers used for genomic amplification and sequencing of abcg and abcg are listed in table . all exons of abcg and abcg , including all exon-intron boundaries as well as the promoter region, were amplified using the qiagen taq pcr core kit on a perkin elmer thermocycler under the following conditions: min °c, sec °c, sec °c and min °c for cycles, and min °c. amplification products were purified using amicon® microcon®-pcr centrifugal filter devices (millipore, usa). the purified dna fragments were sequenced on a abi prism genetic analyzer (pe biosystems, foster city, usa) according to the manufacturer. table : oligonucleotides used for genomic amplification and sequencing of abcg and abcg abcg exon forward primer reverse primer pcr product ggc agg tag gcc gag gtg tc ctg agg gaa gag aga aag gt bp cct atg ttc tca gca gct tc gaa ttt cct ggc tgt ccc tg bp ctc tga acc att cag ctc tc agg acc att ctg tat ccc ag bp gag cag tgg ctg aca gcc tg gca tgg aca ctg tag ctt ct bp ggt cac aat gtg tcc agc cc ctg gac aag gtc ttc acc ag bp gca gct cct gtg gaa ccc ag cat gtt ctt ccc cat cat tg bp + cac ctg tga gca ggt gcc ag aag ggc tta atg tga tat ac bp tat gga gac tgt gac att cc gaa cac agc ttg gag gtg gc bp gaa gca ctg tag att tat tc cat cgg tga ctt cac atg ac bp gca gtg aag gtg ctg gct tc cca gtc aca tga gtc cta ac bp + cat gag aat atg agg gac ac gag tgc agt tga agg gtc tg bp promoter cag ggc cag tgt ctt gct ctg gga gcc tct bp abcg exon forward primer reverse primer ccc aac tga agc cac tct g gtg aag aaa ggc agc aga gg bp gca cag gta gga tca atg ctg g caa tgt gga gtt taa ctc aag cc bp cac aga ggg tct cgg gaa gc ctc ggg cgt cag tgt agc c bp gct tct cct acg tcc tgc ag gaa gga atg ggc aag cgt acg bp cat gtc ctc ccc agc cca tg cca aag tat ctg cac aca cac bp tgg gct ctg cac tac ctt aga cct ggc cac tgg tac aaa bp aag tgc atc gct acc ctt gt ggt gtc atc cag gca gaa gt bp + cgt cag tgg ata ccc aaa gc tta cag ctg gag aag gga gg bp cta gcc ctc cct ttt tca gc gca gag aac ttc acc ctg ga bp att cac aga ggc aag tgc ag cca cta tca gtt ctc tgg tat tcc t bp + cct gtt gga aaa tat aag gat tgc c gct ttc act acc tgc taa tga g bp gac agc gct tgg taa ata ctt g gct ttc act acc tgc taa tga g bp sequencing was performed on both strands of dna using the amplification primers. the results were analyzed online with the husar software (www.genome.dkfz-heidelberg.de). genomic deletions were excluded by abcg and abcg mutations in sitosterolemia performing long expand genomic pcr reactions and agarose gel analysis of amplification products. to analyze the leu gln mutation in healthy, normolipidemic individuals we used a restriction enzyme assay. the wild type amplification product of exon of abcg contains four restriction sites for alu i, whereas the mutated form causes loss of an alu i site and thus displays only three alu i restriction sites. results table provides an overview over the plasma cholesterol and sitosterol levels, the found mutations and the ethnicity of the analyzed patients. table :serum lipoprotein levels and mutations in analyzed sitosterolemia patients patient total sterols (mg/dl) ldl- chol. (mg/dl) hdl- chol. (mg/dl) triglyc. (mg/dl) beta- sitost. (mg/dl) gene mutation allele mutation allele ethnicity . abcg arg x - caucasian / german . abcg leu gln - caucasian . abcg trp x arg x caucasian . abcg trp x trp x caucasian . abcg gly arg gly arg caucasian / swiss patient was a man who suffered from a myocardial infarction at the age of years. the nucleotide change (c. c>t) in exon produces a premature stop codon (arg x).this mutation was heterozygous, however, a second mutation could not be identified. in patient , we detected a heterozygous missense mutation in the abcg gene. the mutation t>a is located in exon at nt and causes an amino acid change, leu>gln, at position . it was not detected in normolipidemic individuals. no mutation was identified on the other chromosome. in the remaining three patients we found exclusively mutations in the abcg gene. in patient sequencing of the abcg gene revealed a compound heterozygous mutations in exon (c. g>a) and in exon (c. c>t). both mutations generate stop codons at amino acid position (trp x) and (arg x). the two sons of the patient were both heterozygous for each mutation, and showed normal plasma total sterol and beta- sitosterol levels, as expected for carriers. patient was homozygous for trp x in the abcg gene and her parents were both heterozygous for the same mutation. patient carried a homozygous mutation in exon (c. g>a) of the abcg gene resulting in an amino acid exchange at position (gly arg). discussion the molecular basis of sitosterolemia has been recently identified in mutations of two members of the subfamily g of atp-binding cassette transporters (berge et al., ; lee et al., b), abcg and abcg . both molecules are highly homologous abc transporters exclusively expressed in the liver and the small intestine and feeding of cholesterol-rich diet induces the expression of both genes (berge et al., ). the human abcg and abcg genes are located nearby on chromosome p in a head-to-head orientation separated only by bp. it is thus likely that both genes share a bidirectional promoter and are transcribed simultaneously. the encoded proteins sterolin- and sterolin- are half-size abc transporters consisting of a hydrophilic nucleotide binding domain and six transmembrane segments (fig. ). since a functional abc protein is composed of twelve transmembrane domains and two atp-binding cassettes, dimerization is a prerequisite for both half-size molecules. based on the finding that mutations in either abcg or abcg cause sitosterolemia and due to the selective expression pattern of the transporters, heterodimerization of sterolin- and sterolin- in order to function as gatekeepers for dietary sterol uptake and excretion is conceivable. however, abcg and abcg , two other members of this subfamily are also expressed in liver and intestine, and thus, heterodimerization of abcg and/or abcg with one of these transporters cannot be excluded (schmitz el al., ). in this report we expand the spectrum of abcg and abcg mutations identified in five european patients with sitosterolemia. the total number of mutations in these two abcg family members now comprises (fig. heimerl et al. ). as obvious from figure , mutations in sitosterolemia patients occur exclusively either in abcg or abcg , but never in both. also, abcg mutations are more commmon in affected patients than abcg mutations. in both genes hotspots with clustering of mutations occurs either in the atp-binding cassettes or in the transmembrane domains (fig. ). figure : putative topology of abcg and abcg with known sites of mutations causing sitosterolemia, including the mutations reported in this paper. a previously reported point mutation in abcg , arg x was identified in patient . the heterozygous transition in exon (c. c>t) introduces a premature termination between the first and the second transmembrane domain of sterolin- . if translated at all, the resulting truncated protein lacks the biggest part of the transmembrane domain and thus is unlikely to be functional. since mutations in the abcg gene are usually found in asian patients, with the exception of two cases with abcg mutations in white and african americans, this is the first mutation in abcg reported in a patient of european origin. four other unrelated patients with sitosterolemia all carried mutations in the abcg gene. a novel missense mutation producing a nonconservative amino acid change (leu gln) was identified in patient . this alteration results in the substitution of a basic amino acid (gln) for a hydrophobic amino acid (leucine). leucine at codon is highly conserved among all five human abcg transporters abcg , abcg , abcg , abcg and abcg (fig. ) and also in the corresponding mouse proteins (data not shown). this mutation is localized within the atp- binding cassette between the walker a motif and the signature motif, an evolutionary conserved critical region for proper abc transporter function. therefore, it is very likely that the leu gln substitution is the cause of sitosterolemia in our patient. the causative nature of this novel mutation is additionally supported by the fact that we could not detect it in any of the healthy, normolipidemic volunteers (i.e. normal control chromosomes). sequencing of all exons of abcg and abcg , as well as the bidirectional promoter region failed to detect mutations of the second allele of patient . in addition long-expand pcr did not identify large genomic deletions in both genes. this suggests that a subtle mutation in intronic regions involved in transcription or translation may be affected. c y stop r stop r stop q stop r h l q p t g r g e l p l r n abc b s aa r q e q r h r s w stop r stop w stop c r p r h r stop r h n k r s r stop n abcg abcg s b a ivs - a>g del c> stop l p l r _ deltcttt _ delttc del exon c - insa abcg and abcg mutations in sitosterolemia * signature abcg q..ekdeg.r remvkeilta l gllscantr tgs.... .ls ggqr krlaia abcg attmtnhe.k nerinrviee l gldkvadsk vgtqfir gvs gger krtsig abcg s..ekqev.k kelvteilta l glmscshtr tal.... .ls ggqr krlaia abcg r..rgnpgsf qkkveavmae l slshvadrl ignyslg gis tger rrvsia abcg prtfsqaq.r dkrvedviae l rlrqcadtr vgnmyvr gls gger rrvsig figure : alignment of the human abc transporters g , g , g , g and g . the amino acid change leu gln in abcg found in patient is located intracellularly between the walker a and the signature c-motif. this amino acid (*) is conserved among the human abcg transporters. we also have identified earlier described mutations on both alleles of the abcg gene in three patients. patient carried a compound heterozygous mutation resulting in a truncated protein (trp x and arg x), whereas patient and patient had homozygous mutations for trp x and gly arg, respectively. since so far only two amish-mennonite patients with the gly arg mutation have been described (lu et al., ), it is of special interest that the swiss patient, we have analyzed, is the first caucasian found carrying this mutation. references berge ke, tian h, graf ga, yu l, grishin nv, schultz j, kwiterovich p, shan b, barnes r, hobbs hh. . accumulation of dietary cholesterol in sitosterolemia caused by mutations in adjacent abc transporters. science : - . bjorkem k, boberg km. . inborn errors in bile acid biosynthesis and storage of sterols other than cholesterol. in:scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d, editors. the metabolic basis of inherited disease. new york: mcgraw-hill p - . lee mh, lu k, patel sb. a. genetic basis of sitosterolemia. curr opin lipidol : - . lee mh, lu k, hazard s, yu h, shulenin s, hidaka h, kojima h, allikmets r, sakuma n, pegoraro r, srivastava ak, salen g, dean m, patel sb. b. identification of a gene, abcg , important in the regulation of dietary cholesterol absorption. nature genet : - . lu k, lee mh, hazard s, brooks-wilson a, hidaka h, kojima h, ose l, stalenhoef af, mietinnen t, bjorkhem i, bruckert e, pandya a, brewer hb jr, salen g, dean m, srivastava a, patel sb. . two genes that map to the stsl locus cause sitosterolemia: genomic structure and spectrum of mutations involving sterolin- and sterolin- , encoded by abcg and abcg , respectively. am j hum genet ( ): - . patel sb, salen g, hidaka h, kwiterovich po, stalenhoef af, miettinen ta, grundy sm, lee mh, rubenstein js, polymeropoulus mh, brownstein mj. . mapping a gene involved in regulating dietary cholesterol absorption. the sitosterolemia locus is found in at chromosome p . j clin invest : - . schmitz g, langmann t, heimerl s. . role of abcg and other abcg family members in lipid metabolism. j lipid res : - . foods article multi-functional potential of presumptive lactic acid bacteria isolated from chihuahua cheese maría georgina venegas-ortega , adriana carolina flores-gallegos ,* , cristóbal noé aguilar , raúl rodríguez-herrera , josé luis martínez-hernández and guadalupe virginia nevárez-moorillón ,* research group of bioprocesses and bioproducts. department of food research, school of chemistry, universidad autónoma de coahuila, saltillo, coahuila, mexico; ginave @gmail.com (m.g.v.-o.); cristobal.aguilar@uadec.edu.mx (c.n.a.); raul.rodriguez@uadec.edu.mx (r.r.-h.); jose-martinez@uadec.edu.mx (j.l.m.-h.) facultad de ciencias químicas, universidad autónoma de chihuahua, circuito universitario s/n, campus universitario ii, chihuahua, mexico * correspondence: carolinaflores@uadec.edu.mx (a.c.f.g.); vnevare@uach.mx (g.v.n.-m.); tel.: + - - - - (a.c.f.g.); + - - (ext. ) (g.v.n.-m.) received: december ; accepted: march ; published: march ���������� ������� abstract: the multifunctional properties of autochthonous lactic acid bacteria can be of use for enhancing the sensorial properties of food, as well as in food preservation. an initial screening for antimicrobial, proteolytic, and lipolytic capacities was done in presumptive lactic acid bacteria isolates obtained from chihuahua cheese manufacturing and during a ripening period of nine months. the antimicrobial screening was done by spot-on-the-lawn tests, using listeria monocytogenes and escherichia coli as indicator microorganisms; proteolysis was tested in casein-peptone agar and lipolysis in mann–rogosa–sharpe (mrs)-tributyrin agar. more than % of the isolates hydrolyzed the casein, but only % hydrolyzed tributyrin; the inhibition of l. monocytogenes in the spot-on-the-lawn assay was used to select isolates that had a bigger inhibition zone (> . mm ± . ) than the control (nisin producer lactococcus lactis bs- chr hansen). the selected isolates were grown in mrs to obtain the neutralized cell-free supernatants and verify their antimicrobial activity by agar diffusion and the percentage of growth inhibition techniques. the selected isolates were also growth in casein peptone broth, and the cell-free supernatants were used for the determination of antioxidant activity by the radical scavenging of , -diphenyl- -picrylhydrazyl (dpph) and , -azinobis ( -ethylbenzothiazoline- -sulfonate) (abts) techniques. the results were analyzed to identify similarities by cluster analysis, based on their antimicrobial and antioxidant capacities. the isolates were arranged into six clusters; one cluster that included isolates demonstrated l. monocytogenes ( – mm /ml au by agar diffusion assay) and e. coli ( %– % growth inhibition) antimicrobial activity. the isolates clustered in these groups also showed competitive inhibition of both radicals ( %– % of dpph and %– % of abts). the isolates from cluster one were also identified by s rdna amplification and were identified as enterococcus faecium. traditional products such as chihuahua cheese can be a source or lactic acid bacteria with metabolic properties that can be used in food preparation and preservation. keywords: food pathogens; proteolytic; lipolytic; phenotypic characterization; lactic acid bacteria . introduction lactic acid bacteria (lab) are microorganisms widely dispersed in many environments that have shown desirable characteristics for the food, pharmacy, cosmetics, veterinary, and agricultural foods , , ; doi: . /foods www.mdpi.com/journal/foods http://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /foods http://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods https://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= foods , , of industries. lab have been used from ancient times owing to their fermentative properties, but they are also extensively studied lately for the multi-functional capacities, which include enzymatic and metabolite production, which are of importance in the food industry. for instance, lab-associated proteolysis and lipolysis are related to flavor and texture attributes in dairy products [ ]. lab with different enzymatic activities can have multiple applications; in the case of proteolytic lab strains, the generation of bioactive peptides from different protein matrices has gained considerable attention [ ]. the bioactivities of these peptides include antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, immunomodulation, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibition, as well as anti-thrombotic capacity [ ]. in vitro studies have shown that antioxidant peptides from lab fermentation can participate as radical scavengers, lipid peroxidation inhibitors, metal chelators, and maintain cell viability in oxidative stress conditions [ – ]. thus, bioactive peptides with antioxidant properties can be multi-functional as they can be used in food preservation and can also serve as therapeutic/preventive agents against cancer. on the other hand, lipase and esterase could be microbially produced, including lab, which are commercially significant not only in the food industry, but also in the cosmetic and pharmaceutic industries. most of the lab functional properties including enzymatic activities have been studied mainly in lactobacillus or lactococcus; however, less is known about proteolytic system of enterococcus strains, which also show higher lipolytic activities than other lab genera [ ]. lab can also produce antimicrobial metabolites used for their environmental survival. these compounds include organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl, biosurfactants, and bacteriocins, the latter being peptidic compounds produced in an auto-regulated genetic expression system that includes the structural, modifiers, translocation, regulation, and self-immunity genes (to give protection to the producer strain) [ ]. bacteriocins spectrum includes bacteria closely related to the producer strain and, in some particular cases, other types of bacteria and even fungi [ ]. despite the existence of many antimicrobial compounds in the market, bacteriocins participate as natural compounds that may be potentially accepted in gras (generally recognized as safe) status when they are produced by lab. the bacteriocins nisin and pediocin are already in this status [ ]. few investigations have proposed the use of lab as multi-functional, owing to their metabolic capacities. ramakrishnan et al. [ ] exploited the metabolic activities of enterococcus faecium and enterococcus durans by demonstrating the protease, lipase, and bacteriocin production from fish wastes. sharma and saharan [ ] simultaneously produced bacteriocin and biosurfactants from lactobacillus casei, to provide a potentially synergistic food preservation product. the challenge is to find the matrix that not only supports the production of bacteriocins, but also contains proteins that can serve as precursors of bioactive peptides. by producing extracellular antioxidant and antimicrobial peptides during lab growth, a potential additive can be obtained to be used in the food processing, pharmaceutical, veterinary, and cosmetics industries. therefore, this work was aimed at screening presumptive lab isolates from the chihuahua cheese manufacturing process to evaluate their enzymatic, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. . material and methods . . bacterial isolates and culture conditions a total of presumptive lab isolates were recovered from a bacterial collection conserved at − ◦c, which contained previously isolated bacterial cultures from three chihuahua cheese factories; samples were taken during three seasons within a year, from different parts of the manufacturing process as well as during the ripening period. isolates from the bacterial collection were obtained from plates of mann–rogosa–sharpe (mrs), m , and elliker agar (bioxon, mexico city, mexico), incubated under a reduced oxygen atmosphere (bd gas pack co , franklin lakes, nj, usa), as well as kanamycin esculin azide agar and bile esculin agar (difcotm, franklin lakes, nj, usa), from enumeration plates of samples taken at different chihuahua cheese manufacturing steps [ , ]. isolates were selected based on their colonial and microscopic morphology and catalase reaction. foods , , of lactococcus lactis bs- chr. hansen was used as a control strain because of its capacity for nisin production. listeria monocytogenes atcc and escherichia coli atcc were used as indicator strains for the antimicrobial assays. broth and agar medium of mrs and trypticase soy agar . % yeast extract (tsaye) (bioxon, mexico city, mexico) were used for recovery of presumptive lab and indicator strains, respectively, as well as for the antimicrobial screening and confirmation assays. temperatures for recovery incubation was ◦c for mesophilic lab and ◦c for thermophilic lab, e. coli, and l. monocytogenes. once recovered, all presumptive lab isolates were incubated in ◦c. . . screening for antimicrobial activity by spot-on-the-lawn (sotl) method the sotl method was done according to lewus and montville [ ] with some modifications. a µl aliquot from an overnight culture of the presumptive lab was spotted in mrs and tsaye agar plates. after h of incubation ( ◦c), the plates were overlaid with tsaye agar seeded with cells of each indicator strain in : relation liquid agar/inoculum. the tsaye was maintained at ◦c in a water bath until the inoculation. the overlaid plates were incubated at indicator strains conditions ( ◦c, h), and the inhibition (clear zone) was measured afterwards, using a digital vernier caliper. the presumptive lab isolates that presented a clear zone larger than the control strain ( . ± . mm) were selected for further studies. . . neutralized cell-free supernatants (ncfss) twenty-five milliliters of mrs broth in erlenmeyer flasks ( ml) was inoculated ( . % v/v) with an overnight culture of the selected presumptive lab isolates. flasks were incubated ( ◦c, h, rpm) and then transferred to conical tubes to be centrifuged ( , ×g, min, ◦c) (centrifuge eppendorf r, eppendorf, hamburg, germany). supernatants were obtained by recovering the decanted medium, and then it was neutralized (naoh m) until ph = . was reached. the neutralized supernatants were filtered ( . µm) to obtain the ncfss for antagonistic studies. . . antimicrobial activity by agar diffusion assay (ada) antimicrobial activity of ncfss was determined by ada, according to avaiyarasi et al. [ ] with some modifications. tsaye agar was seeded with cells of each indicator strain in : relation liquid agar/inoculum. the tsaye was maintained at ◦c in a water bath until inoculation. once the agar was solidified, mm holes were punched with a sterilized cork boarer; µl of each ncfss was added to each well. plates were incubated ( ◦c, h) and clear zones around the wells were measured to calculate the antimicrobial activity, which was expressed as arbitrary units (au) with the following equation. au = inhibition area ( mm ) − well area ( mm ) volume sample (ml) = mm /ml ( ) . . antimicrobial activity by microplate (mp) assay the antimicrobial activity of ncfss was determined by mp. microplates of wells were loaded using the following strategy. (a) culture with treatment (cwt): µl of tsaye broth, µl of ncfss, and µl of each indicator strain ( cells/ml). (b) culture without treatment (cwot): µl of tsaye broth, µl of mrs broth, and µl of each indicator strain ( cells/ml). (c) blank: µl of tsaye broth, µl of mrs broth, and µl of saline water ( . % w/v). foods , , of absorbance (abs) was measured ( nm) at h and h after incubation ( ◦c). antimicrobial activity was calculated and expressed as a percentage of inhibition (% inh) using the following equation. % inhibition = − ( abs cwt h − abs cwt h abs cwot h − abs cwot oh ∗ ) ( ) . . qualitative determination of proteolytic and lipolytic activity from an overnight culture of presumptive lab isolates, µl was spotted in petri plates containing g/l of casein peptone agar (bioxon, becton dickinson, cuautitlan-izcalli, mexico) supplemented with . % skimmed milk (nestle, mexico city, mexico). proteolysis was detected after incubation ( ◦c, h) by a clear zone around the colony. for lipolysis determination, a µl aliquot from an overnight presumptive lab culture was spotted in petri plates containing mrs agar supplemented with ml/l of tributyrin (sigma-aldrich, st. louis, mo, usa). lipolysis was detected after incubation ( ◦c, h) by a clear zone around the colony [ ]. . . cell-free supernatant hydrolyzes (cfsh) twenty-five milliliters of casein peptone broth ( g/l) supplemented with . % (sterilized) skimmed milk was placed in erlenmeyer flasks ( ml) and inoculated ( . % v/v) with an overnight culture of the selected presumptive lab isolates. flasks were incubated ( ◦c, h, rpm) and then transferred to conical tubes to be centrifuged ( ×g, min, ◦c (centrifuge eppendorf r). supernatants were freeze-dried (free zone triad freeze dryer, labconco, kansas city, mo, usa) before further analysis. . . scavenging of , -diphenyl- -picrylhydrazyl (dpph) free radical for the dpph radical scavenging activity, the method used is based on pownal et al. [ ] and nicklisch and waite [ ] with some modifications. freeze-dried samples were dissolved in . m phosphate buffer (ph . ) to a concentration of mg/ml, and µl of each solution was added to µl of µm dpph solution. the solution was prepared in % methanol at a concentration of mm and then dissolved ( : ) in a solution of . m citrate buffer supplemented with . % triton x- (probiotek, ontario, canada). the mixture was kept for min at room temperature, and then the absorbance was measured at nm (epoch microplate spectrophotometer, bio tek, winooski, vt, usa). a lower absorbance corresponds to a higher dpph radical-scavenging activity (% dpph). the scavenging effect was expressed, as shown in the following equation. % dpph = ( blank absorbance − sample absorbance blank absorbance ) ∗ ( ) trolox ( -hydroxy- , , , tetramethyl chroman- -carbocyclic acid) (sigma-aldrich, saint louis, mo usa) was used as control. . . scavenging of , -azinobis ( -ethylbenzothiazoline- -sulfonate) radical anion (abts-) the assay was conducted according to the method of re et al. [ ] with slight modifications. abts+ was generated by mixing abts stock solution ( mm) and potassium persulfate ( . mm) in distilled water, and the mixture was kept at room temperature in the dark for – h. the assay was done in a -well plate and the sample was used at mg/ml. the reaction was initiated by mixing µl of the sample solution or diluted trolox with µl of diluted abts+ (absorbance . at nm) (epoch microplate spectrophotometer, bio tek). the decrease in absorbance was measured foods , , of at nm after min of incubation. the scavenging effect was expressed as percentage of radical scavenging activity. % abts = ( blank absorbance − sample absorbance blank absorbance ) ∗ ( ) trolox ( -hydroxy- , , , tetramethyl chroman- -carbocyclic acid) (sigma-aldrich, saint louis, mo usa) was used as control. . . genomic dna extractions from presumptive lab cultures from overnight cultures of selected presumptive lab isolates, genomic dna was obtained by the enzymatic lysis assay [ , ]. dna was extracted from a ml bacterial cultured in mrs ( ◦c, h); cells were centrifuged ( min, , ×g); µl of lysozyme and µl of proteinase k were added to the pellet and were subjected to thermic shock treatment ( / ◦c for min each and repeats). the lysate was then resuspended in µl of x tris-edta ph = (tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) buffer (st. louis, mo, usa); µl of sds (sodium dodecyl sulfate) % (fluka, buchs, switzerland) was added to be then incubated ( h, ◦c) and vortexed. then, µl of nacl m and µl of ctab % were added to the suspension and incubated for min at ◦c and vortexed. the cell suspension was further treated by phenol-chloroform-isoamylic alcohol extraction and isopropanol precipitation. dna was resuspended with tris-edta buffer . x and genomic dna was analyzed in %-agarose electrophoresis to determine its quality, and the concentration was determined by the / nm ratio (take accessory of epoch microplate spectrophotometer, bio tek, winooski, vt, usa). . . . s rdna amplification and molecular identification genomic dna was subjected to s rdna amplification by pcr using f ( ´-agagtttgat cctggctcag- ´) and r ( ´-acggctaccttgttacgactt- ´) [ ]. the reaction mixture was done in a final volume of µl with µl of sterile milli q water, µl of x taq buffer, µl of each primer ( pmol/µl), µl of dntp mix, µl of taq polymerase, and µl of extracted genomic dna ( ng/µl). pcr amplification conditions were set with an initial denaturation step ( ◦c, min), amplification cycles of denaturation ( ◦c, min each), annealing ( ◦c, min each), elongation ( ◦c, : min each), and the final extension step ( ◦c, min). pcr products were purified and analyzed in agarose gel electrophoresis ( . %). pcr product sequence was done using the taq fs dye terminator cycle sequencing fluorescence-based sequencing method in an automated sequencer model xl (perkin elmer/applied biosystems; psomagen, rockville, md, usa). the homology of sequences was compared using the basic local alignment search tool (blast) using highly similar sequences algorithm with default search parameters of the ncbi database, optimizing for highly similar sequences (blast version , dbv ). sequences obtained were deposited in genbank, and accession numbers srx to srx were assigned to the isolates reported in this work. . . statistical analysis all the experiments were done in triplicate, and the results were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. cluster analysis was done based on eucledian distance and complete linkage using minitab software (minitab inc., state college, pa, usa), establishing % of similitude as a criterion to separate clusters. also, pearson correlation was determined (p < . ) to compare the results of each assay. foods , , of . results . . presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese. chihuahua cheese is a traditional dairy product that is manufactured by mennonite and non-mennonite communities in chihuahua, mexico, and until recently, they were using raw milk for its preparation. we reported the characterization of their manufacturing process and described the microbiological changes presented during the manufacturing process and nine-month ripening period [ , ]. chihuahua cheese is a semi-matured cheese that includes a cheddaring step after curd formation, and salt is added after cheddaring and before pressing. traditional production is done using raw milk, without the addition of starter cultures, but pasteurization and addition of a starter culture have been incorporated lately in most cheese factories. the presumptive lab isolates reported here were isolated from traditional manufacturers, which used raw milk as a starting material [ , ]. from the microbial count plates, pure cultures were maintained at − ◦c (cryopreserved in % glycerol solution), and from this collection, the isolates from three cheese factories were analyzed. table describes the number of isolates analyzed from each dairy, including the manufacturing step or the ripening period. the identification codes of the strains included the number of the isolate, followed by an identification of the dairy farm samples. for dairy a, the letter t was used; for dairy b, the abbreviation sa was used; and for dairy e, the abbreviation vl was used. dairy b is a traditional mennonite factory, dairy a is also from mennonite producers, but semi-industrialized and dairy e is of non-mennonite farmers. a total of isolates were analyzed from three dairy farms. table . presumptive lactic acid bacteria (lab) isolates from the chihuahua cheese manufacturing and ripening process, with identification of the number of isolates from each condition. manufacturing/ ripening dairy a b e milk curd cheddaring cheese cheese – days cheese – days total dairy identification a = t; b = sa; e = vl. dairy identification is the same as in [ , ]. . . enzymatic activities of presumptive lab isolates the hydrolytic capacities of presumptive lab isolates were semi-quantitatively tested using a high-protein media to determine proteolytic capacities, and a triglyceride-supplemented media to determine lipolytic capacity. a total of isolates hydrolyzed the casein-peptone medium supplemented with skimmed milk, as observed by the clear halo around the microbial growth. on the other hand, isolated exhibited tributyrin hydrolysis based on the clear zone around the microbial colony. frequencies of both enzymatic activities are observed in figure , where proteolysis was consistently higher than lipolysis from the isolates of each dairy and part of the process. contrary to proteolytic activity, lipolysis was observed after h of incubation. foods , , of foods , , of figure . frequencies of the qualitative enzymatic determinations of presumptive lactic acid bacteria (lab) isolates. (a) dairy a; (b) dairy b; (c) dairy e from sanchez-gamboa et al. [ ]. . . antimicrobial activity of presumptive lab isolates to identify antimicrobial capacity by spot-on-the-lawn (sotl), the inhibition observed between mrs and tsaye agar was compared. mrs media contains ten times more dextrose than tsaye and it is expected that the production of organic acids can cause inhibition in mrs, but only the strains that presented a zone of inhibition in both media were interpreted as positive [ ]. presumptive lab isolates tested for enzymatic activities were also tested for antimicrobial capacity against l. monocytogenes and e. coli using sotl. no inhibition against e. coli was observed by any presumptive lab isolate tested, but inhibited l. monocytogenes by sotl assay. from the anti-listeria isolates, showed an inhibition zone larger than the control strain ( . ± . mm). the antimicrobial isolates also presented proteolytic activity, and only were also lipolytic. the presumptive lab isolates were selected for confirmatory tests that included antimicrobial and antioxidant capacities of their cell-free supernatants; both properties can be associated with proteinic metabolites. the confirmatory methods used were agar diffusion assay (ada) and the percentage of growth inhibition was determined by microplate (mp). in the ada test, only l. monocytogenes presented a clear inhibition zone by isolates, but all isolates showed growth inhibition with both indicator strains. growth inhibition was in the range of % to % against l. monocytogenes and from % to % against e. coli. only the isolates that inhibited > % (bold case) bacterial growth in the microplate inhibition test showed clear zones in the ada (table ). figure . frequencies of the qualitative enzymatic determinations of presumptive lactic acid bacteria (lab) isolates. (a) dairy a; (b) dairy b; (c) dairy e from sanchez-gamboa et al. [ ]. . . antimicrobial activity of presumptive lab isolates to identify antimicrobial capacity by spot-on-the-lawn (sotl), the inhibition observed between mrs and tsaye agar was compared. mrs media contains ten times more dextrose than tsaye and it is expected that the production of organic acids can cause inhibition in mrs, but only the strains that presented a zone of inhibition in both media were interpreted as positive [ ]. presumptive lab isolates tested for enzymatic activities were also tested for antimicrobial capacity against l. monocytogenes and e. coli using sotl. no inhibition against e. coli was observed by any presumptive lab isolate tested, but inhibited l. monocytogenes by sotl assay. from the anti-listeria isolates, showed an inhibition zone larger than the control strain ( . ± . mm). the antimicrobial isolates also presented proteolytic activity, and only were also lipolytic. the presumptive lab isolates were selected for confirmatory tests that included antimicrobial and antioxidant capacities of their cell-free supernatants; both properties can be associated with proteinic metabolites. the confirmatory methods used were agar diffusion assay (ada) and the percentage of growth inhibition was determined by microplate (mp). in the ada test, only l. monocytogenes presented a clear inhibition zone by isolates, but all isolates showed growth inhibition with both indicator strains. growth inhibition was in the range of % to % against l. monocytogenes and from foods , , of % to % against e. coli. only the isolates that inhibited > % (bold case) bacterial growth in the microplate inhibition test showed clear zones in the ada (table ). the techniques used to measure antimicrobial capacity against l. monocytogenes presented a positive correlation between the sotl technique and ada (r = . , p ≤ . ), as well as compared with with the % inh (r = . , p = . ); a positive correlation was also observed between ada and % inh measurements against l. monocytogenes (r = . , p ≤ . ) and e. coli (r = . , p = . ). the % inh test also presented a correlation between the two indicator strains (r = . , p = . ). no isolates were inhibitory of e. coli in sotl or ada (data not shown). . . radical scavenging capacity of the casein hydrolysates from the strains that were tested for casein proteolysis, more than % showed proteolytic activity. the high percentage proteolytic isolates do not allow a selection screening based on this activity; therefore, the potentially anti-listeria isolates (that were also proteolytic) were considered to analyze the production of antioxidant compounds. the antioxidant metabolites can be by-products of the proteolytic activity of the presumptive lab isolates on different proteins and can act as radical scavengers. dpph and abts radicals were used to test for the antioxidant activity of cfsh. as the methods were done in min kinetics with readings every min, the maximum peak of inhibition ( min) was considered for the analysis (table ). inhibition of dpph radical was in the range of . % to . %, while abts radical values were from . % to . % of inhibition. there was a positive correlation between the dpph and abts methods tested (r = . , p = . ). table . antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of selected presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese. dpph, , -diphenyl- -picrylhydrazyl; abts, , -azinobis ( -ethylbenzothiazoline- -sulfonate). antimicrobial test antioxidant test bacterial isolate l. monocytogenes e. coli dpph (%) abts (%)mm au % inh % inh sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . vl . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . vl . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . vl . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . foods , , of table . cont. antimicrobial test antioxidant test bacterial isolate l. monocytogenes e. coli dpph (%) abts (%)mm au % inh % inh sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . l. lactis . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± − . ± . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . sa . ± . ± . ± . − . ± . . ± . . ± . t . ± . ± . ± . − ± . . ± . . ± . sotl, spot-on-the-lawn; ada, agar diffusion assay; au, arbitrary units; % inh, percentage of inhibition. . . selection of presumptive lab isolates with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties in order to determine similarities among the isolates and select the best candidates for the production of antioxidant and antimicrobial metabolites, the results presented in table were used for cluster analysis (figure ). six clusters were identified with % similarity. regarding the identification code for the presumptive lab isolates, the number is related to the number of isolates, and the letters are related to the dairy farm where the chihuahua cheese was manufactured (sa refers to dairy b, t to dairy a, and vl to dairy e). cluster (blue) grouped isolates showing l. monocytogenes growth inhibition from to mm clear halos and the neutralized cell-free supernatant presented values of – au against l. monocytogenes in ada, as well as %– % inhibition in the microplate growth inhibition test; additionally, e. coli was inhibited in the range of %– % e. coli strain by % inh. cluster one isolates also showed competitive inhibition of both radicals ( %– % of dpph and %– % of abts). seven of the isolates that were grouped in cluster one were also positive for lipolysis (isolates: vl, sa, sa, sa, sa, t, t, sa, sa, t, sa, and vl). for clusters – , different inhibition patterns were observed for the antimicrobial and antioxidant tests. cluster (red) grouped isolates that showed inhibition percentage of l. monocytogenes and e. coli (% inh), but not the strains showing inhibition of l. monocytogenes using ada. three isolates ( sa, t and sa) from cluster were lipolytic. cluster (gray) grouped three isolates with three isolates that showed competitive inhibition of l. monocytogenes, but non-competitive inhibition of e. coli. the same competitive anti-listeria isolates were lipolytic ( t and sa). cluster (yellow) includes only one strain that showed antimicrobial capabilities against both indicator microorganisms as in cluster , notwithstanding the inhibition of abts radical was the lowest percentage observed for all strains and almost half from measurements of cluster ; strain sa was not lipolytic. cluster (green) includes seven isolates and the control strain that were negative for antimicrobial confirmation by ada; microplate inhibition (% inh) of l. monocytogenes was almost half compared with cluster , as was also the inhibition of e. coli. three isolates ( sa, sa, and sa) from cluster showed lipolytic activity. cluster (purple) grouped six isolates that showed no inhibition of l. monocytogenes by ada assay, as well as no % inh of e. coli by the microplate inhibition test. this group also showed the lowest % inh of l. monocytogenes. only one ( sa) showed lipolytic activity. clusters and showed the lowest levels of microbial inhibition, but the highest level of radicals inhibition. foods , , of foods , , of figure . cluster analysis of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities from the selected presumptive lab isolates. . . molecular identification of selected presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese table shows the results for the molecular identification of the presumptive lab isolates from cluster . blastn analysis identified the sequences of the amplified rdna s from the isolates as enterococcus faecium. isolates were obtained from the chihuahua cheese manufacturing from three dairies (sa refers to dairy b, t to dairy a, and vl to dairy e). sa and sa where milk isolated; sa and sa were isolates obtained from the cheddaring sample; and the rest were cheese isolated from to days of ripening time with an exception of t, which was isolated from days of maturation. table . molecular identification of selected lab isolates. strain blast identification accession number sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx t enterococcus faecium srx figure . cluster analysis of the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities from the selected presumptive lab isolates. . . molecular identification of selected presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese table shows the results for the molecular identification of the presumptive lab isolates from cluster . blastn analysis identified the sequences of the amplified rdna s from the isolates as enterococcus faecium. isolates were obtained from the chihuahua cheese manufacturing from three dairies (sa refers to dairy b, t to dairy a, and vl to dairy e). sa and sa where milk isolated; sa and sa were isolates obtained from the cheddaring sample; and the rest were cheese isolated from to days of ripening time with an exception of t, which was isolated from days of maturation. table . molecular identification of selected lab isolates. strain blast identification accession number sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx t enterococcus faecium srx vl enterococcus faecium srx vl enterococcus faecium srx t enterococcus faecium srx sa enterococcus faecium srx foods , , of . discussion manufacturing of artisanal chihuahua cheese includes the use of unpasteurized milk, where autochthonous lab contributes to the transformation of milk components thanks to enzymatic processes [ ]. this transformation includes the generation of a particular flavor and texture. naturally found lab in artisanal products are worth studying as their multiple metabolic capabilities and antimicrobials production have been already demonstrated to improve food quality. the purpose of this study was to select presumptive lab isolated from the chihuahua cheese manufacturing and ripening process, with multi-functional potential, including enzymatic activity, as well as antimicrobial and antioxidant potentials. the selection was based on the antimicrobial capacity of the isolates against l. monocytogenes and e. coli, which have been linked to numerous foodborne outbreaks [ , ]. spot-on-the-lawn was the first test used for selection; this is a widely used assay to detect the production of antimicrobial compounds. however, the culture media can influence the detection of inhibition halos by the antimicrobial action of organic acids. in the present study, the comparison between mrs and tsaye clear zones was considered in order to determine if the inhibition halos were the result of organic acids (mrs) or other metabolites (tsaye). moraes et al. [ ] also assay anaerobic conditions in a modified mrs media and restrict the production of organic acids and hydrogen peroxide that can also produce antagonistic activity. some reports do not use sotl assays as the first test for screening antimicrobial capacity; instead, they use agar diffusion test with ncfss [ – ]; however, sotl was the easiest way to test numerous isolates. the positive correlation between sotl and ada confirms the feasibility of using them as a first test and a confirmation assay, respectively. our selecting criteria was based on the capacity of the presumptive lab isolates to produce a zone of inhibition larger than the control strain used; a commercial strain that is reported to produce nisin [ ]. our goal was to find not only new potential bacteriocin-producing strains, but also ones that could have a more significant potential than cells already reported. two kinds of cell free supernatant were obtained to determine the different metabolic capacities, for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. mrs media was used to confirm the antimicrobial activity as is the most used media for bacteriocin production and identification [ , ], because its composition meets lab exigent nutritional requirements. on the other hand, casein-milk supplemented media was used to study the production of antioxidant components because of the presence of casein and milk proteins, which are the most studied protein compounds for bioactive peptides’ production [ ]. growth inhibition assays were done as a confirmatory assay using ncfss, considering that bacteriocins are peptides secreted during microbial growth [ ]. the results of antimicrobial measurement could be negatively affected by agar-based tests, owing to the diffusion of hydrophobic and amphipathic compounds [ ]; some bacteriocins are considered highly hydrophobic peptides as nisin, but there are also bacteriocins with amphiphilic structures, which vary their amounts of hydrophobicity [ ]. differences observed between the antimicrobial assays could be attributed to the nature of the tested compounds for the agar-based tests; this was confirmed by the lack of inhibition halo from the nisin-producer control strain by ada; however, the control strain can inhibit both indicator strains by the microplate technique (% inh), which is not agar-based. this is also confirmed by the positive correlation among sotl and ada, the agar-based methods. the percentage of growth inhibition in the mp assay allowed the confirmation of the antimicrobial activity against both indicator strains; it was also observed that, only when growth inhibition was higher than %, the ada test was also positive. this could be related to the mechanism of action of the antimicrobial compounds; for example, if they are bactericidal or bacteriostatic compounds; however, this could be demonstrated using serial dilutions and kinetic inhibition studies [ ]. the identification of proteolytic and lipolytic activity was evaluated in an agar-based technique using a high protein supplemented media and a natural triglyceride added for each case, in order to test presumptive lab isolates qualitatively. it was expected to have a large number of proteolytic isolates, in agreement with the naturally protein-rich environment from where they were isolated. similar studies found that a high percentage of dairy isolated lab strains are proteolytic [ , ]. compared foods , , of with the proteolytic activities, fewer isolates showed lipolytic activity. even though only a qualitative study was developed in the present report, this provides a future perspective of isolates in which the characterization of lipase or/and esterase activity could be developed, as there are only a few reports of lipolytic lab isolates [ ]. the proteolytic action of lab strains can be used to obtain bioactive peptides that could participate as regulators in physiological processes [ – ]. although the antimicrobial, proteolytic, and lipolytic properties of lab have been extensively reported, the selection of strains that have more than one capacity can lead to the detection of multifunctional lab strains, as we reviewed previously [ ]. antioxidant activities were demonstrated by the inhibition of the abts+ and dpph+ radicals, using the supernatants obtained by presumptive lab fermentation of casein-peptone broth. casein-skimmed milk media has already been used to study the production of antioxidant peptides; however, each strain or even the breaking down method (e.g., enzymatic) could have different patterns of hydrolysis and release different peptides with different bioactivities [ ]. the molecular weight, the amino acid composition and sequence, as well as the secondary structure and stability of the bioactive peptides obtained by proteolytic activity of the isolates are important factors that affect antioxidant properties [ ]; thus, further studies are needed to explain differences in antioxidant activity. comparison of inhibition percentages between already published reports is complicated because the methods used and the concentration of the radicals used varied. in one report, bovine casein hydrolysates obtained by tryptic treatment showed % of dpph+ inhibition [ ] compared with the results presented in this study ( %– %). however, the authors used the radical in a higher concentration (six times higher) and used a method that where no implementation of changes (as in the present work) to avoid protein precipitation, which could affect the interpretation of the results. enterococcus isolates are commonly isolated from dairy products, especially from artisanal processes; there are, therefore, many reports regarding their functional properties, which have been associated to metabolic capacities that can play an important role in the technological improvement of food processing. simultaneous production of enzymes and antimicrobial compounds from enterococcus strains have been already reported [ ], but the results presented in this report are focused on the identification of multi-functional isolates of lab naturally present in the artisanal chihuahua cheese manufacturing process. the selected isolates can be used for the production of metabolites that can be added to food products for better quality. lab strains with proteolytic and antimicrobial activities can be used to generate a multi-functional cell-free product, by a one-strain/single process, avoiding the negative impact of adding enterococcus live strains to food products. further characterization is required to elucidate the nature of the compounds responsible for the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity, as well as their mechanism of action. . conclusions screening of autochthonous presumptive lab isolates obtained from chihuahua cheese by specific agar-based methods for enzymatic capacity and antimicrobial capacity by the spot-on-the-lawn method allowed the selection of isolates. on the basis of the antimicrobial and antioxidant capacity of their cell-free supernatants, isolates were further selected and identified by molecular-based methodology as enterococcus faecium. presumptive lab strains present more than one capacity, including antimicrobial and proteolysis or lipolysis, and are, therefore, candidates for further studies. multi-functional lab strains can be used to generate products derived from their fermentation activity, which can be used to improve the quality and safety of food products. author contributions: conceptualization, m.g.v.-o., a.c.f.-g., and g.v.n.-m.; data curation, m.g.v.-o.; formal analysis, c.n.a., r.r.-h., and g.v.n.-m.; funding acquisition, g.v.n.-m.; investigation, m.g.v.-o.; methodology, m.g.v.-o., a.c.f.-g., c.n.a., and j.l.m.-h.; resources, r.r.-h. and j.l.m.-h.; supervision, a.c.f.-g., can, r.r.-h., and j.l.m.-h.; writing—original draft m.g.v.-o.; writing—review and editing a.c.f.-g. and g.v.n.-m. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. foods , , of funding: this work had financial support provided by consejo nacional de ciencia y tecnología grant no. cb- - . m.g.v.-o. is a fellow from consejo nacional de ciencia y tecnología (no. ) for her ph.d. program. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . law, b.a.; kolstad, j. proteolytic systems in lactic acid bacteria. antonie van leeuwenhoek , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . meisel, h.; bockelmann, w. bioactive peptides encrypted in milk proteins: proteolytic activation and thropho-functional properties. antonie van leeuwenhoek , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . aluko, r. bioactive peptides. in functional foods and nutraceuticals; aluko, r., ed.; springer-verlag: new york, ny, usa, ; pp. – . . osuntoki, a.; korie, i. antioxidant activity of whey from milk fermented with lactobacillus species isolated from nigerian fermented foods. food technol. biotechnol. , , – . . stanisavljević, n.s.; vukotić, g.n.; pastor, f.t.; sužnjević, d.; jovanović, Ž.s.; strahinić, i.d.; fira, d.a.; radović, s.s. antioxidant activity of pea protein hydrolysates produced by batch fermentation with lactic acid bacteria. arch. biol. sci. , , – . [crossref] . rizzello, c.g.; lorusso, a.; russo, v.; pinto, d.; marzani, b.; gobbetti, m. improving the antioxidant properties of quinoa flour through fermentation with selected autochthonous lactic acid bacteria. int. j. food microbiol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . tsakalidou, e.; manolopoulou, e.; kabaraki, e.; zoidou, e.; pot, b.; kersters, k.; kalantzopoulos, g. the combined use of whole-cell protein extracts for the identification (sds-page) and enzyme activity screening of lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditional greek dairy products. syst. appl. microbiol. , , – . [crossref] . mierau, i.; kleerebezem, m. years of the nisin-controlled gene expression system (nice) in lactococcus lactis. appl. microbiol. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] . smaoui, s.; elleuch, l.; bejar, w.; karray-rebai, i.; ayadi, i.; jaouadi, b.; mathieu, f.; chouayekh, h.; mellouli, l. inhibition of fungi and gram-negative bacteria by bacteriocin bactn produced by lactobacillus plantarum sp. tn . appl. biochem. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] . arthur, t.d.; cavera, v.l.; chikindas, m.l. on bacteriocin delivery systems and potential applications. future microbiol. , , – . [crossref] . ramakrishnan, v.; balakrishnan, b.; rai, a.k.; narayan, b.; halami, p.m. concomitant production of lipase, protease and enterocin by enterococcus faecium ncim and enterococcus durans ncim isolated from fish processing waste. int. aquat. res. , , . [crossref] . sharma, d.; singh saharan, b. simultaneous production of biosurfactants and bacteriocins by probiotic lactobacillus casei mrtl . int. j. microbiol. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . sánchez-gamboa, c; hicks-pérez, l.; gutiérrez-méndez, n.; heredia, n.; garcía, s.; nevárez-moorillón, g. microbiological changes during ripening of chihuahua cheese manufactured with raw milk and its seasonal variations. foods , , . . sánchez-gamboa, c.; hicks-pérez, l.; gutiérrez-méndez, n.; heredia, n.; garcía, s.; nevárez-moorillón, g.v. seasonal influence on the microbial profile of chihuahua cheese manufactured from raw milk. int. j. dairy technol. , , – . [crossref] . lewus, c.b.; montville, t.j. detection of bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria. j. microbiol. methods , , – . [crossref] . avaiyarasi, n.d.; ravindran, a.d.; venkatesh, p.; arul, v. in vitro selection, characterization and cytotoxic effect of bacteriocin of lactobacillus sakei gm isolated from goat milk. food control , , – . [crossref] . carrazco-palafox, j.; rivera-chavira, b.e.; ramírez-baca, n.; manzanares-papayanopoulos, l.i.; nevárez-moorillón, g.v. improved method for qualitative screening of lipolytic bacterial strains. methodsx , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /a: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /abs s http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ijfoodmicro. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /fmb. . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / / http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) -h http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.foodcont. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.mex. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ foods , , of . pownall, t.l.; udenigwe, c.c.; aluko, r.e. amino acid composition and antioxidant properties of pea seed (pisum sativum l.) enzymatic protein hydrolysate fractions. j. agric. food chem. , , – . [crossref] . nicklisch, s.c.; waite, j.h. optimized dpph assay in a detergent-based buffer system for measuring antioxidant activity of proteins. methodsx , , – . [crossref] . re, r.; pellegrini, n.; proteggente, a.; pannala, a.; yang, m.; rice-evans, c. antioxidant activity applying an improved abts radical cation decolorization assay. free radic. biol. med. , , – . [crossref] . delgado-garcía, m.; contreras-ramos, s.m.; rodríguez, j.a.; mateos-díaz, j.c.; aguilar, c.n.; camacho-ruíz, r.m. isolation of halophilic bacteria associated with saline and alkaline-sodic soils by culture dependent approach. heliyon , , e . [crossref] . delgado-garcía, m.; flores-gallegos, a.c.; kirchmayr, m.; rodríguez, j.a.; mateos-díaz, j.c.; aguilar, c.n.; muller, m.; camacho-ruíz, r.m. bioprospection of proteases from halobacillus andaensis for bioactive peptide production from fish muscle protein. electron. j. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] . merzoug, m.; dalache, f.; karam, h.z.; karam, n.e. isolation and preliminary characterisation of bacteriocin produced by enterococcus faecium ghb isolated from algerian paste of dates “ghars”. ann. microbiol. , , – . [crossref] . nájera-domínguez, c.; gutiérrez-méndez, n.; nevárez-moorillon, g.; caro-canales, i. comparison of volatile compounds produced by wild lactococcus lactis in miniature chihuahua-type cheeses. dairy sci. technol. , , – . . cdc. outbreak of listeria infections. available online: https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/ monocytogenes- - /index.html (accessed on october ). . cdc. reports of e. coli outbreak investigations from . available online: https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/ - outbreaks.html (accessed on october ). . moraes, p.m.; perin, l.m.; ortolani, m.b.t.; yamazi, a.k.; viçosa, g.n.; nero, l.a. protocols for the isolation and detection of lactic acid bacteria with bacteriocinogenic potential. lwt-food sci. technol. , , – . [crossref] . yang, e.; fan, l.; jiang, y.; doucette, c.; fillmore, s. antimicrobial activity of bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria isolated from cheeses and yogurts. amb express , , . [crossref] . grosu-tudor, s.s.; stancu, m.m.; pelinescu, d.; zamfir, m. characterization of some bacteriocins produced by lactic acid bacteria isolated from fermented foods. world j. microbiol. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . hwanhlem, n.; chobert, j.m.; aran, h. bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria isolated from mangrove forests in southern thailand as potential bio-control agents in food: isolation, screening and optimization. food control , , – . [crossref] . punyauppa-path, s.; phumkhachorn, p.; rattanachaikunsopon, p. nisin: production and mechanism of antimicrobial action. int. j. curr. res. rev. , , . . pal, a.; ramana, k.v.; bawa, a.s. simplification and optimization of deman rogosa sharpe (mrs) medium for enhanced production of bacteriocin by weissella paramesenteroides dfr- . j. food sci. technol. , , – . [crossref] . gautam, n.; sharma, n.; ahlawat, o.p. purification and characterization of bacteriocin produced by lactobacillus brevis un isolated from dhulliachar: a traditional food product of north east india. indian j. microbiol. , , – . [crossref] . irshad, i.; kanekanian, a.; peters, a.; masud, t. antioxidant activity of bioactive peptides derived from bovine casein hydrolysate fractions. j. food sci. technol. , , – . [crossref] . kaur, r.; tiwari, s.k. membrane-acting bacteriocin purified from a soil isolate pediococcus pentosaceus lb shows broad host-range. biochem. biophys. res. commun. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . bonev, b.; hooper, j.; parisot, j. principles of assessing bacterial susceptibility to antibiotics using the agar diffusion method. j. antimicrob. chemother. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . rea, m.c.; ross, r.p.; cotter, p.d.; hill, c. classification of bacteriocins from gram-positive bacteria. in prokaryotic antimicrobial peptides; springer-verlag: new york, ny, usa, ; pp. – . . vijayakumar, p.; muriana, p. a microplate growth inhibition assay for screening bacteriocins against listeria monocytogenes to differentiate their mode-of-action. biomolecules , , – . [crossref] http://dx.doi.org/ . /jf r http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.mex. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.heliyon. .e http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ejbt. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/monocytogenes- - /index.html https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/outbreaks/monocytogenes- - /index.html https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/ -outbreaks.html https://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/ -outbreaks.html http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.lwt. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.foodcont. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.bbrc. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jac/dkn http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /biom foods , , of . el-ghaish, s.; dalgalarrondo, m.; choiset, y.; sitohy, m.; ivanova, i.; haertlé, t.; chobert, j.m. screening of strains of lactococci isolated from egyptian dairy products for their proteolytic activity. food chem. , , – . [crossref] . liu, m.; bayjanov, j.r.; renckens, b.; nauta, a.; siezen, r.j. the proteolytic system of lactic acid bacteria revisited: a genomic comparison. bmc genom. , , . [crossref] . akabanda, f.; owusu-kwarteng, j.; tano-debrah, k.; parkouda, c.; jespersen, l. the use of lactic acid bacteria starter culture in the production of nunu, a spontaneously fermented milk product in ghana. int. j. food sci. , , . [crossref] . venegas-ortega, m.g.; flores-gallegos, a.c.; martínez-hernández, j.l.; aguilar, c.n.; nevárez-moorillón, g.v. production of bioactive peptides from lactic acid bacteria: a sustainable approach for healthier foods. compr. rev. food sci. food saf. , , – . [crossref] . kliche, t.; li, b.; bockelmann, w.; habermann, d.; klempt, m.; de vrese, m.; wutkowski, a.; clawin-raedecker, i.; heller, k.j. screening for proteolytically active lactic acid bacteria and bioactivity of peptide hydrolysates obtained with selected strains. appl. microbiol. biotechnol. , , – . [crossref] . zou, t.b.; he, t.p.; li, h.b.; tang, h.w.; xia, e.q. the structure-activity relationship of the antioxidant peptides from natural proteins. molecules , , . [crossref] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.foodchem. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / / http://dx.doi.org/ . / - . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /molecules http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	material and methods 	bacterial isolates and culture conditions 	screening for antimicrobial activity by spot-on-the-lawn (sotl) method 	neutralized cell-free supernatants (ncfss) 	antimicrobial activity by agar diffusion assay (ada) 	antimicrobial activity by microplate (mp) assay 	qualitative determination of proteolytic and lipolytic activity 	cell-free supernatant hydrolyzes (cfsh) 	scavenging of , -diphenyl- -picrylhydrazyl (dpph) free radical 	scavenging of , -azinobis ( -ethylbenzothiazoline- -sulfonate) radical anion (abts-) 	genomic dna extractions from presumptive lab cultures 	 s rdna amplification and molecular identification 	statistical analysis 	results 	presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese. 	enzymatic activities of presumptive lab isolates 	antimicrobial activity of presumptive lab isolates 	radical scavenging capacity of the casein hydrolysates 	selection of presumptive lab isolates with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties 	molecular identification of selected presumptive lab isolates from chihuahua cheese 	discussion 	conclusions 	references chh volume issue back matter complete writings of major anabaptist theologian translated balthasar hubmaien theologian of anabaptism translated and edited by h. wayne pipkin and john h. yoder volume in the classics of the radical reformation series "hubmaier was, perhaps, the foremost theologian of th-century anabaptism. he was more educated than most and less pastoral than menno simons would later be, but amazingly clear in his teaching. he wrote by far the most helpful treatise on baptism as is also true of his treatises on the role of government, on free will, heresy, and the nature of the christian life. we are much in his debt for the careful explanation he gives us of the meaning of the lord's supper and the order of service he provided for it. as we struggle with the meaning of church membership, his clear answer to 'how much must i know to be baptized?' is alone enough to thank god for his life and witness."—c. j. dyck, institute of mennonite studies this is the critical english-language edition of the complete writings of balthasar hubmaier. it includes introductory prefaces, extensive indices, a bibliography, illustrations, and a large foldout map. hardcover, $ . , in canada $ . other titles in the classics of the radical reformation series the legacy of michael sattler—$ . , in canada $ . the writings of pilgrim marpeck—$ . , in canada $ . anabaptism in outline (paper)—$ . , in canada $ . the sources of swiss anabaptism—$ . , in canada $ . (all hardcover unless otherwise indicated) herald press books are available through your local bookstore or write to herald press (include % for shipping and handling). herald press herald press dept.jch dept.jch walnut avenue king street west scottdale, pa - kitchener, on n g m terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core prizes of the american society of church history the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize the brewer prize is a subsidy of $ to assist the author in publishing a booklength manuscript in church history. the winning manuscript shall be published in a manner acceptable to the society. manuscripts accepted for publication may be submitted for this award, but the winning manuscript must have printed on its title-page, "the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize essay of the american society of church history." if competing works are otherwise of equal quality, preference will be given to topics relating to the history of congrega- tionalism. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, east country club lane, wallingford, pa , by november each year, with return postage included. the award will be announced at the spring meeting of the society. the philip schaff prize the schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ to be paid to the author of the best book originating in the north american scholarly community which presents original research in the history of christian- ity or any period thereof. books considered for the next award must have been published during the year or . any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration for the schaff prize. copies of books nominated do not have to be submitted. titles nominated for consideration must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, east country club lane, wallingford, pa , by march . the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december . the sidney e. mead prize the mead prize is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent recipient whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted to richard l. greaves, chair, committee on research, american society of church history, c / o department of history, florida state university, tallahassee, fl , by july each year. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core exiles in a land of liberty mormons in america, - by kenneth h. winn "winn, by taking seriously the ideological claims of both mormons and their opponents, contributes significantly to our understanding of the origins of anti- mormonism."—r. laurence moore, cornell university "indispensable reading on early mormon history."- brigham young university approx. pp., $ . studies in religion -leonard j. arlington, christian pilgrimage in modern western europe by mary lee nolan and sidney nolan the authors analyze more than , active shrines and contempo- rary patterns of pilgrimage to them. "an irrefutable statement of the weight, the seriousness, and the permanence of the phenome- non of local religion in catholicism."—william a. christian, jr. pp., $ . / studies in religion available at bookstores or from the university of north carolina press post office box / chapel hill, north carolina - terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the transformation of theology, - positivism and protestant thought in britain and america charles d. cashdollar charles cashdollar reinterprets nineteenth-century british and ameri- can protestant thought by identifying positivism as the central intellectual issue of the era. positivism meant, at first, the ideas of the french thinker auguste comte; later in the century, the term indicated a more general opposition to supernatural religion. cashdollar shows that contemporary thinkers recognized positivism, at each of these stages, as the most funda- mental of the proliferating challenges to religious belief. he further re- veals how the encounter with positivism altered protestant orthodoxy— in both subtle and radical ways. cloth: $ . isbn - - - at your bookstore or li iii princeton university press ^ " ' william st. . princeton. nj . ( ) - . orders -prs-isbn ( - ) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core god in history shapes of freedom by peter c. hodgson asserting that god and history are in some sense correlative realities, hodgson offers a theology of history in light of the challenges of postmodernism. "very important, learned, and creative. . .a major addition." —langdon gilkey, the university of chicago "a splendid, important book."—robert morgan, oxford university $ . , cloth, pages, isbn - - - the formation of the christian biblical canon by lee martin mcdonald 'introduces into the discussion all of the issues raised by recent critical scholarly work and thus achieves a synthesis which is clearly superior to the older treatments of the history of the christian canon." —helmut koester, harvard divinity school $ . , paper, pages, isbn - - - christian thought revisited three types of theology by justo l. gonzalez this companion to the author's three-volume history of christian thought examines the three main types of theology that developed in early christian theology, and includes a survey of the history of christian thought following these three types of theology. $ . , paper, pages, isbn - - - order from your bookstore, which may call toll free - - - . individual customers call toll free - - - or write cokesbury service center / sixth ave, south nashville, tn terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the albert c. outler prize in ecumenical church history the outler prize was established to encourage the critical study of ecumenical church history, broadly conceived, and to facilitate the publication of such studies. "ecumenical" is to be construed as chiefly concerned with the problems of christian unity-and-disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) in any period of church history; or with interac- tions between christianity and other religious movements. works of a partisan nature are excluded. the following categories are eligible: a. studies, chiefly narrative and critical, of ecumenical church history dealing with historical controversies and divisions, or with notable instances of reconciliation and consensus. b. analyses of church councils, dialogues, and debates, or interactions between christianity and other religious tradi- tions. c. biographical studies of significant leaders, or of persons whose involvement in ecumenical dialogue and action was noteworthy. d. critical editions (preferably annotated) of significant ecumen- ical documents. e. bibliographical reviews and evaluations in major areas of ecumenical church history. f. pioneering studies that advance scholarly knowledge and ecumenical understanding. the prize consists of an award of $ to the author and a grant of up to $ in subvention of publication (or in exceptional cases, for necessary expenses in the preparation of a book-length manuscript accepted for publication). the prize will be awarded annually, though no award will be made in any year when none of the manuscripts is adjudged to be outstanding. complete manuscripts in final form must be received by william b. miller, secretary, american society of church history, east country club lane, wallingford, pa , by june. the prize will be announced at the annual meeting of the society in december. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core rai the churches and the third reich volume : the year of disillusionment: barmen and rome klaus scholder focusing on the critical year of scholder examines the rise of a legitimate church opposition in ger- many and the failure of the german christians to form a reich church incorporated into the state. he also provides a detailed analysis of the problems of the roman catholic church resulting from the concordat between pius xi and the nazi government. a rich assortment of photographs and illustrations enhance this authoritative and standard work. cloth $ . also available: the churches and the third reich volume : preliminary history and time of illusions, - (illustrated) cloth $ . morality after auschwitz the radical challenge of the nazi ethic peter j : haas the author accounts for how and why otherwise normal people could accept genocide as tolerable, or worse, routine. from the intellectual background of the nazi ethic to the reactions of dissenters, haas con- cludes that".. .the holocaust is not the incarnation of evil, but rather reflects the human power to reconceive good and evil and then to reshape society in the light of that conception." cloth $ . a life in pictures deitrich bonhoeffer edited by eberhard bethge, renate bethge and christian gremmels a fascinating and unique pictorial account of bonhoeffer's life in the germany in which he lived and died. more than photographs are included. "a fine tribute to a great theologian and exemplary pastor." terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core matters of belief the prince of darkness radical evil and the power of good in history by jeffrey burton russell. russell uncovers the origins of the concept of the devil in various early cultures and traces its evolution from the time of the ancient hebrews through the first centuries of the chris- tian era, the middle ages, and into our own era. $ . the german people and the reformation edited by r. po-chia hsia. the twelve essays commissioned for this collection address four major themes: cities and the reformation; the transmitting of the reformation in print, ritual, and song; women and the family; and the impact of the reforma- tion on education and other aspects of lay culture. $ . paper, $ . cloth sacred charity confraternities and social welfare in spain, - by maureen flynn. flynn examines the way in which religious values shaped the moral community and controlled relief for the poor before the creation of the modern welfare state. $ . mersenne and the learning of the schools by peter dear. this book makes an important and original contribution to the re-evaluation of the relations between science, theology, and philosophy in the years when scientific thinking underwent a revolutionary transformation. $ . the jesuit mind the mentality of an elite in early modern france by a. lynn martin. drawing upon the extensive correspondence between jesuits in france and the society of jesus' generals in rome, martin seeks to determine what was distinctive about the jesuit mentality in early modern france. $ . symphonia a critical edition of the "symphonia armonie celestiunt revelationum" by st. hildegard of bingen. edited and translated by barbara newman. with an essay on the music by marianne richert pfau. newman here provides both literal prose translations and sensitive verse translations of the songs in this recently rediscovered liturgical cycle. $ . paper, $ . cloth contracting colonialism translation and christian conversion in tagalog society under early spanish rule by vicente leuterio rafael. in this innovative contribution to the history of the philippines, rafael examines the role of language in the religious conversion of the tagalogs to catholicism and their subsequent colonization during the early period of spanish rule ( - ). $ . cornell university press roberts place • ithaca, ny o r terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core translated and edited by david lyle jeffrey the law of love english spirituality in theageofwydif "this substantial volume contains a remarkably rich anthology culled from the writings of fourteenth- century exponents of the spiritual life. . . . the translator and editor, professor david lyle jeffrey, mod- estly remarks that no anthology can do justice to the wealth of material from the period concerned, but his book goes far to doing just that." —john macquarrie oxford university "this most welcome collection of texts will prove an invaluable re- source both for those who come newly to the material and for scho- lars looking for a comprehensive handbook to a particularly rich period of english spiritual writing." —gillian r. evans cambridge university i also by david lyle jeffrey: a burning and a shining light english spirituality in the age of wesley "an anthology of texts from some of the most important spiritual writers of eighteenth-century england. . . . this work provides the general reader with an excellent introduction to the spiritual literature of the great evangelical revival." —religious studies review paper, $ . paper, $ . trices are u.s. dollar wi\l. b. eerdaians i publishing co. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the prevalence of ocular diseases in primary and junior high school students on orchid island lable at sciencedirect tzu chi medical journal ( ) e core metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk provided by elsevier - publisher connector contents lists avai tzu chi medical journal journal homepage: www.tzuchimedjnl.com original article the prevalence of ocular diseases in primary and junior high school students on orchid island fang-ling chang a, yi-ching lee a, nancy chen a, hsi-pao hsieh b, yi-hwei li c, ya-yun yang a, min-muh sheu a, d, e, * a department of ophthalmology, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, hualien, taiwan b ma program for psychological and physical disability and assistive technology, department of special education, national dong hwa university, hualien, taiwan c department of public health, tzu chi university, hualien, taiwan d department of ophthalmology and visual science, tzu chi university, hualien, taiwan e department of ophthalmology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan a r t i c l e i n f o article history: received april received in revised form may accepted august keywords: myopia orchid island refractive error student visual acuity conflicts of interest: none. * corresponding author. department of ophthalm hospital, , min-chuan road, hualien, taiwan. tel.: þ . e-mail address: minmuhsu@gmail.com (m.-m. she http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tcmj. . . - /copyright © , buddhist compassion r a b s t r a c t objective: to assess the prevalence of refractive error and ocular diseases in primary and junior high school students on orchid island. materials and methods: this is a cross-sectional study of all students in the primary and junior high schools on orchid island conducted within week in . each student received a visual acuity ex- amination without correction with the landolt-c chart. an experienced ophthalmologist performed associated assessments through retinoscopy, slit lamp, and fundoscopy. results: of the student residents, were primary school students ( boys and girls) and were junior high school students ( boys and girls). visual acuity in two eyes was < . , in eyes was between . and . , in eyes was between . and . , in eyes was between . and . , and in eyes was between . and . . myopia was found in students ( / , . %; primary school students and junior high school students). four students ( / , . %) had amblyopia, of whom two had anisometropia (unilateral high hyperopia), one had high astigmatism in both eyes, and the other had unilateral esotropia. lens dislocation was found in one student ( . %) with marfan syndrome. retinal vasculitis and optic atrophy were found in one student ( . %) with systemic lupus erythematosus. conclusion: because it is a small, isolated island, orchid island still has a unique traditional culture and life style. therefore the prevalence of myopia in primary school and junior high school students on orchid island is low, and % of all the students had uncorrected visual acuity above . . copyright © , buddhist compassion relief tzu chi foundation. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. . introduction orchid island is a small, isolated island that is remote from taiwan. most residents are pure blood members of the tao tribe, an ocean aboriginal group. because of its culture and geographic considerations, this area is not urbanized and the tao people have specific health conditions different from people on mainland ology, mennonite christian ; fax: þ u). elief tzu chi foundation. publishe taiwan. however, there are only a few reports describing ocular diseases in indigenous adults or elderly people in taiwan [ e ]. in this study we analyzed the ocular condition and refractive status in all students on orchid island aged e years in . the high prevalence and incidence of myopia among students is an epidemic health concern in asia, especially in the far east, including taiwan. current observations showed that environmental factors are possibly of more importance than genetic predisposi- tion. much near work and fewer outdoor activities do play a role in the increased prevalence and incidence of myopia in school- children. there is a significantly higher prevalence of myopia among schoolchildren in urban than in rural regions [ ]. one study published in [ ] revealed that mountain aboriginals in taiwan d by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. https://core.ac.uk/display/ ?utm_source=pdf&utm_medium=banner&utm_campaign=pdf-decoration-v mailto:minmuhsu@gmail.com http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.tcmj. . . &domain=pdf www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://www.tzuchimedjnl.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tcmj. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tcmj. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tcmj. . . table characteristics of students with amblyopia. case age (y)/sex involved eyes (n) causes of amblyopia /girl hyperopia/esotropia /boy hyperopia/anisometropia /boy hyperopia/anisometropia /boy hyperopic astigmatism f.-l. chang et al. / tzu chi medical journal ( ) e had good vision, and the myopia rate was low. however, investi- gation of the refractive status of mountain indigenous people decades later showed that more children had become myopic, which probably resulted from urbanization and changes in lifestyle [ ]. nowadays, myopia is increasing in all areas and in all pop- ulations; it would be valuable from an epigenetic point of view to know whether there is a tendency toward school myopia in this group of people. . methods and materials this is a cross-sectional study of all students in the primary and junior high schools on orchid island conducted within week in . there were four primary schools in four tribes and only one junior high school on the island. all students attending school were enrolled, except for those who were absent from school on the day of examination. we retrospectively reviewed their charts and analyzed the results. the study was approved by the human research ethics committee of tzu chi general hospital, hualien, taiwan (irb - ). the children underwent measurement of vi- sual acuity with the landolt-c chart (at a distance of m), mea- surement of manifest refractive status with retinoscopy, assessment of ocular motility, slit-lamp biomicroscopic examina- tion of the anterior segments of the eyes, and direct ophthalmos- copic examination of the fundi. one experienced ophthalmologist carried out all slit lamp examinations, retinoscopy, and fundoscopy. the mean spherical equivalent refractive error was used for calculation. myopia was defined as spherical equivalent � � . diopters (d). hyperopia was defined as a spherical equivalent � þ . d. anisometropia was defined as hyperopia or astigmatism anisometropia � d or myopia anisometropia � � d in one eye. amblyopia was defined as best-corrected visual acuity � . without ocular diseases. cochranemantelehaenszel tests were used to determine whether there were differences in the distributions of visual acuity between boys and girls while controlling for the children's age, and to test the association between visual acuity and age while con- trolling for sex. . results a total of students were included in this study. there were primary school students and junior high school students. age and sex distribution are shown in table . visual acuity in two eyes was < . , in eyes was between . and . , in eyes was between . and . , in eyes was be- tween . and . , and in eyes was between . and . . four students were found to have amblyopia of whom two had anisometropia (unilateral high hyperopia), one had high astigma- tism in both eyes, and the other had unilateral esotropia (table ). table age and sex distribution of the students enrolled in this study. age (y) no. boys n (%) girls n (%) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) total ( . ) ( . ) the prevalence of amblyopia among students aged e years was around . % ( / ). two of the students were found to have other ocular dis- eases. lens dislocation was noted in a -year-old boy with marfan syndrome. another -year-old boy was diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus-related retinal vasculitis and optic atrophy. those with uncorrected visual acuity between . and . had mild hyperopic astigmatism, mild hyperopia, or mild myopia (with spherical equivalence < � . d). the prevalence of myopia was . % among primary school- children (age e years) and . % among junior high school stu- dents (age e years). the prevalence of myopia for each year of age from years to years in this study were %, %, %, . %, . %, . %, %, . %, and % (table ). overall, more girls had myopia than boys (prevalence rate among girls was . % and among boys was . %), but the difference was not significant (p ¼ . ). table presents the distributions of visual acuity by sex and age group. the cochranemantelehaenszel test (chi-square ¼ . , with degrees of freedom ¼ , p ¼ . ) indicated that there were significant differences in the distributions of visual acuity between boys and girls while controlling for children's age. the visual acuity of boys tended to be better than that of girls. another cochranemantelehaenszel test (chi-square ¼ . , with degrees of freedom ¼ , p ¼ . ) indicated that the visual acuity increased significantly with children's age while controlling for sex. . discussion approximately . % ( , ) of the population of taiwan are indigenous people. recent research suggest that their ancestors may have been living on the islands for approximately years before the majority han chinese immigration began in the th century. indigenous people in taiwan are austronesian, with lin- guistic and cultural ties to other austronesian ethnic groups, such as those in the philippines, malaysia, indonesia, madagascar, pol- ynesia, and oceania [ ]. the bulk of contemporary taiwanese indigenous people live in the mountains and cities. taiwanese indigenous people have been known to have a much better ocular condition than han chinese people. informal studies done during the japanese colonial period even found that the tao people may have visual acuity > . . chen et al [ ] screened table prevalence of myopia among primary and secondary schoolchildren. age (y) no. boys n (%) girls n (%) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) total ( . ) ( . ) table distribution of vision acuity by sex and age group. age (y) visual acuity in boys visual acuity in girls < . . e . . e . . e . < . . e . . e . . e . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) total ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) data are presented as n (%); the percentages were calculated within the same age group for each sex respectively. f.-l. chang et al. / tzu chi medical journal ( ) e students at a primary school in a mountain area in hualien in and discovered that . % of the indigenous children there had a visual acuity � . , and . % had an acuity > . . their refractive status showed an incidence of myopia of only . % [ ]. interest- ingly, research done during the same period showed that the incidence of myopia in elementary school children in mainland taiwan was approximately from . % [ ] to . % [ ] in rural areas and from . % to . % in urban areas [ e ], much higher rates than in indigenous children. however, as assimilation and acculturation took place, indige- nous people and other ethnic groups in taiwan began to share a common lifestyle, which led to similar deterioration of visual acuity in the past decades. in , hsu et al [ ] reported that the crude prevalence of myopia was . % among indigenous schoolchildren (age e years) in mountain townships of southern taiwan. data gathered from other parts of taiwan showed a % myopia preva- lence rate in children aged years and % in those aged years in [ ]. moreover, the phenomenon has not only been observed in taiwan; indigenous schoolchildren in other parts of the world are also facing a myopic shift along with thriving industry and technology [ ]. however, we did not find the same tendency on orchid island, which is located in the western pacific ocean southeast of taiwan, and is miles from taitung, taiwan. unlike other indigenous tribes in taiwan, the tao people on orchid island have been isolated and prohibited from cultivation and intermarriage with people on the taiwan mainland since they landed and settled on this island about years ago. the isolation is caused by both the geographic situation and a policy of the japanese government when they occupied taiwan and tried to preserve this area for the study of indigenous societies. this isolated group was actually an ideal subject for the study of human genetics until , when the island was taken over by the chinese government, and the isolation gradually decreased. however, the tao people still live on the iso- lated island with very little communication and transportation with mainland taiwan. besides a low incidence of myopia, the tao have many distinct genetic characteristics due to a long period of endogamy. several informal studies have disclosed that this group of people has an abnormally high prevalence of several sex-linked diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa. however these studies could not be published because of an agreement made with the tribal council to protect their right of privacy. valuable data in showed a rate of color defects of . % among males [ ] on orchid island, which was much higher than that of other indigenous people in mainland taiwan ( . %) [ ]. myopia has been an increasing threat throughout the past few decades, especially in far eastern areas of the world. morgan and rose [ ] reported six locations with a high prevalence of myopia identified from the organisation for economic cooperation and development program in secondary assessment . these included shanghaiechina, hong kongechina, taiwan, singapore, japan, and south korea. by contrast, australia and finland were also in the top quartile of educational performance but did not have an elevated prevalence of myopia [ ]. questionnaires from studies investigating the cause of this worrisome trend have shown that children of east asian ethnicity have a higher incidence of myopia than children of european caucasian ethnicity, and they also spend less time outdoors. time spent outdoors, near work, and parental myopia were more strongly associated with the incidence of myopia than ethnicity alone [ ]. lin et al [ ] conducted an epidemiologic study of the preva- lence and severity of myopia in schoolchildren in taiwan in , and discovered that the rates of myopia soared from % at age years, to % at years, to % at years, and to % at e years. however, not all children exhibited the same change of refractive error. children in urban areas had a higher prevalence and more severe degree of myopia than children in rural areas [ , ]. indigenouschildren have even lower ratesof myopia.hsu etal [ ] analyzed the refractive status of mountain aborigine schoolchildren in southern taiwan and reported that the crude prevalence of myopia was . %. although the prevalence increased with age, the annual change in mean refractive status was slower in indigenous schoolchildren living in the mountains than han chinese children [ ]. the significant disparity in myopic incidence between our study and that of hsu et al [ ] in indigenous children might have resulted from differences in participation in after-school tutorials and time spent outdoors between different areas. children on orchid island may have low rates of myopia because of geographic isolation and their efforts at retaining a unique lifestyle and values. there is little research on the prevalence of myopia among different indigenous groups throughout the world. garner et al [ ] analyzed refractive error in melanesian schoolchildren in vanuatu, and found that only . % ( out of ) of melanesian children had myopia > . d. they also noted that although the low prevalence of ametropia was due mainly to genetic factors, the possibility of environmental factors could not be excluded. two further studies, one comparing ocular dimensions and refractive power in malay and melanesian children ( . e . % at e years and . e . % at e years) [ ], and another reporting the prevalence of myopia in sherpa and tibetan children in nepal ( . e . %) [ ] further proved this theory. both studies demonstrated that people with a common ethnicity but widely contrasting educational and envi- ronmental conditions do have different prevalence rates of myopia. the rural lifestyle with limited near work and increased outdoor time might have contributed to the low prevalence rate of myopia in schoolchildren on orchid island. f.-l. chang et al. / tzu chi medical journal ( ) e . conclusion the tao people on orchid island are relatively isolated from mainland taiwan and from modernization. we found that the inci- dence of myopia and major ocular genetic diseases was relatively low in children on orchid island compared with that in other parts of taiwan. ninety-four percentofall thestudentshaduncorrected visual acuity > . . whether educational and environmental conditions rather than ethnicity play a more important role in the development of myopia remains to be elucidated in future investigation. references [ ] chang jm, lin hl. survey of color defects in yami tribe in orchid island. acta soc ophthalmol sin ; : e . [ ] lin sf, tsai rk, chen ti, sheu mm. an epidemiologic study of pterygium in middle-aged and elderly indigenouspopulations of the tao tribe of orchid island in taiwan. tzu chi med j ; : e . [ ] huang tl, hsu sy, tsai rk, sheu mm. etiology of ocular diseases in elderly amis indigenous people in eastern taiwan (the amis eye study). jpn j oph- thalmol ; : e . [ ] morgan i, rose k. how genetic is school myopia? prog retin eye res ; : e . [ ] chen ny, chen cw, huang wl, lin cp, lee cc. the refraction screening among primary school children in mountain area of shiow-lin-hsiang, huea-lian- hsien. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] hsu sl, chang ch, lai yh, wen mh, cheng kc, ho ck. refractive status of mountain aborigine schoolchildren in southern taiwan. kaohsiung j med sci ; : e . [ ] loo jh, trejaut ja, yen jc, chen zs, lee cl, lin m. genetic affinities between the yami tribe people of orchid island and the philippine islanders of the batanes archipelago. bmc genet ; : . [ ] lin hh, chung cb, tsai rk, chen mt, wang hz, chen cw. survey of the refractive status of the elementary school students of liou kuei rural country of kaohsiung hsien. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] huang j, huang wl, lin cj, wu ky, chen cw. survey of the refractive status of the primary school students in peng-hu islands. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] liang ys, lai ic, loke ty, chen tt. preliminary report of ocular examination in school children. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] chen sc, lue cl, lee sj, chen yz. survey of the refractive status of the primary school and junior middle school students in tainan. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] wang yc, lee rf, wang mw, jeng st, lin sa. report of ocular examination of primary school children in south taiwan. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] lin ll, shih yf, hsiao ck, chen cj. prevalence of myopia in taiwanese schoolchildren: to . ann acad med singapore ; : e . [ ] taylor hr, robin ta, lansingh vc, weih lm, keeffe je. a myopic shift in australian aboriginals: e . trans am ophthalmol soc ; : e . discussion e . [ ] kao ly, see lc, lin sm, liang ys. the survey of color vision in an indigenousvillage-fu hsing. acta soc ophthalmolog sin ; : e . [ ] morgan ig, rose ka. myopia and international educational performance. ophthalmic physiol opt ; : e . [ ] french an, morgan ig, mitchell p, rose ka. risk factors for incident myopia in australian schoolchildren: the sydney adolescent vascular and eye study. ophthalmology ; : e . [ ] lin ll, shih yf, hsiao ck, chen cj, lee la, hung pt. epidemiologic study of the prevalence and severity of myopia among schoolchildren in taiwan in . j formos med assoc ; : e . [ ] shih yf, chiang th, hsiao ck, chen cj, hung pt, lin ll. comparing myopic progression of urban and rural taiwanese schoolchildren. jpn j ophthalmol ; : e . [ ] garner lf, kinnear rf, mckellar m, klinger j, hovander ms, grosvenor t. refraction and its components in melanesian schoolchildren in vanuatu. am j optom physiol opt ; : e . [ ] garner lf, meng ck, grosvenor tp, mohidin n. ocular dimensions and refractive power in malay and melanesian children. ophthalmic physiol opt ; : e . [ ] garner lf, owens h, kinnear rf, frith mj. prevalence of myopia in sherpa and tibetan children in nepal. optom vis sci ; : e . http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref http://refhub.elsevier.com/s - ( ) - /sref 	the prevalence of ocular diseases in primary and junior high school students on orchid island 	 . introduction 	 . methods and materials 	 . results 	 . discussion 	 . conclusion 	references chh volume issue cover and front matter church history studies in christianity & culture american society of church history june core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core t h e a m e r i c a n s o c i e t y o f c h u r c h h i s t o r y president h a n s j . h l l l e r b r a n d , d u k e university president-elect \ \ \ v n d a porterfield executpvtì secretary h e n r y w . b o w d e n , r u t g e r s university editors elizabeth a . < л \rk richard p . heitzenrater h a n s j . hillerbrand rl s s i - i k . r l c h e v ( . ; \ \ r wacker d u k e university members of the council class of p h i l i p krey am u m d a porterfield mark c. t o n si charles i. wallace class of r. s( < ) i t appleby d e n n i s c . dickerson nancy a . hardesti r. bruce m i l l i n class of e l l e n l o u i s e babinsky c u m - r i m a . b r i m s chari.es l . c o h e n l e i g h e r i c s c h m i d i lee palmer w a n d e l l t h e society was f o u n d e d in by p h i l i p schaff, was r e o r g a n i z e d in , a n d was i n c o r p o r a t e d by act of t h e l e g i s l a t u r e of t h e state of new york in . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. june no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history © , the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater hans j. hillerbrand russell e. richey grant wacker senior assistant to the editors caroline t. schroeder assistants to the editors christine shepardson edwin r. tait duke university associate editors william adler north carolina state university david aers duke university laurie f. maffly-kipp university of north carolina at chapel hill donald g. mathews university of north carolina at chapel hill david c. steinmetz duke university thomas a. tweed university of north carolina at chapel hill advisory editors jon butler yale university caroline walker bynum columbia university averil cameron keble college, oxford university robert e. frykenberg university of wisconsin-madison nathan o. hatch university of notre dame christine leigh heyrman university of delaware e. brooks holifield emory university hartmut lehmann max planck institute, university of gottingen patricia cox miller syracuse university heiko a. oberman university of arizona robert a. orsi indiana university andrew porter king's college, university of london john h. van engen university of notre dame merry wiesner-hanks university of wisconsin-milwaukee church history (issn - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles "the most important biblical discovery of our time": william henry green and the demise of ussher's chronology ronald l. numbers biblical interpretation and the construction of christian sexualities introduction elizabeth a. clark the virgin, the bride, and the church: reading psalm in ambrose, jerome, and augustine david g. hunter the virile bride of bernard of clairvaux shawn m. krahmer the song of songs in the history of sexuality stephen d. moore marriage in medieval culture: consent theory and the case of joseph and mary irven m. resnick two schools of desire: nature and marriage in seventeenth-century puritanism belden c. lane books book reviews and notes mcgowan, andrew, ascetic eucharists: food and drink in early christian ritual meals michael philip perm weitzman, m. p., the syriac version of the old testament: an introduction sebastian p. brock petruccione, john, ed., nova et vetera: patristic studies in honor of thomas patrick halton eugene teselle frankfurter, david, ed., pilgrimage and holy space in late antique egypt blake leyerle hanson, craig l., ed. and trans., iberian fathers, vol. , pacian of barcelona, orosius ofbraga laura holt frey, nancy louise, pilgrim stories on and off the road to santiago patrick foley core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core levy, kenneth, gregorian chant and the carolingians mary alberi mullett, margaret, theophylact ofochrid: reading the letters of a byzantine archbishop dorothy de f. abrahamse brodman, james william, charity and welfare: hospitals and the poor in medieval catalonia carlos m. n. eire friedman, john b. and jessica m. wegmann, medieval iconography: a research guide priscilla baumann nilson, ben, cathedral shrines of medieval england stanford lehmberg brown, catherine, contrary things: exegesis, dialectic, and the poetics of didacticism ian christopher levy elm, kaspar, umbilicus mundi: beitrage zur geschichte jerusalems, der kreuzzilge, des kapitels vom hlg. grab in jerusalem under der ritteroren noel q. king muessig, carolyn, ed., medieval monastic preaching siegfried wenzel emery jr., kent and joseph wawrykow, eds., christ among the medieval dominicans: representations of christ in the texts and images of the order of preachers roy hammerling menache, sophia, clement v paul w. knoll ryan, john j., the apostolic conciliarism of jean gerson gerald christianson kusukawa, sachiko, ed., and christine f. salazar, trans., philip melanchthon: orations on philosophy and education james m. estes wenz, gunther, theologie der bekenntnisschriften der evangelisch-lutherischen kirche: eine historische und systematische einfiihrung in das konkordienbuch timothy j. wengert bossy, john, peace in the post-reformation: the birkbeck lectures, j. steven o'malley rapley, robert, a case of witchcraft: the trial of urbain grandier william monter sorlin, per, "wicked arts": witchcraft and magic trials in southern sweden, - william monter mcmanners, john, church and society in eighteenth-century france raymond a. mentzer beaver, daniel c , parish communities and religious conflict in the vale of gloucester, - eric j. carlson mason, roger a., kingship and the commonweal: political thought in renaissance and reformation scotland dale walden johnson dobranski, stephen b. and john p. rumrich, eds., milton and heresy larry r. isitt larson, rebecca, daughters of light: quaker women preaching and prophesying in the colonies and abroad, — christine trevett hanson, charles p., necessary virtue: the pragmatic origins of religious liberty in new england edwin s. gaustad gutjahr, paul c , an american bible: a history of the good book in the united states, - leigh eric schmidt heyrman, christine leigh, southern cross: the beginnings of the bible belt johnwigger cornelius, janet duitsman, slave missions and the black church in the antebellum south john b. boles davis, hugh b., leonard bacon: new england reformer and antislavery moderate james h. moorhead redekop, calvin w., leaving anabaptism: from evangelical mennonite brethren to fellowship of evangelical bible churches dorothy o. pratt graham, stephen a., the totalitarian kingdom of god: the political philosophy of e. stanley jones david bundy kemeny, p. c , princeton in the nation's service: religious ideals and educational practice, - wintonu. solberg core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core blumhofer, edith l., russell p. spittler, and grant a. wacker, eds., pentecostal currents in american protestantism nancy a. hardesty livingstone, david n., d. g. hart, and mark noll, eds., evangelicals and science in historical perspective john stenhouse wells, ronald a., ed., history and the christian historian augustus cerillo jr. tweed, thomas a. and stephen prothero, eds., asian religions in america: a documentary history carl jackson lehtonen, risto, story of a storm: the ecumenical student movement in the turmoil of revolution, to andrew l. pratt robertson, c. alton, the moravians, the miskitu, and the sandinistas on nicaragua's atlantic coast, - david a. schattschneider society notes core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research http://jtr.sagepub.com/content/ / / the online version of this article can be found at: doi: . / : originally published online june journal of travel research deepak chhabra how they see us: perceived effects of tourist gaze on the old order amish published by: http://www.sagepublications.com on behalf of: travel and tourism research association can be found at:journal of travel researchadditional services and information for http://jtr.sagepub.com/cgi/alertsemail alerts: http://jtr.sagepub.com/subscriptionssubscriptions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.navreprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.navpermissions: http://jtr.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.htmlcitations: by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ http://jtr.sagepub.com/content/ / / http://www.sagepublications.com http://www.ttra.com http://jtr.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts http://jtr.sagepub.com/subscriptions http://www.sagepub.com/journalsreprints.nav http://www.sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav http://jtr.sagepub.com/content/ / / .refs.html http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) – © sage publications reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav doi: . / http://jtr.sagepub.com how they see us: perceived effects of tourist gaze on the old order amish deepak chhabra abstract although abundant literature focuses on tourism impact perspectives, folk communities’ perceptions of tourist gaze and its effects on the cultural fabric of host communities as a subject of inquiry has received scant attention. to shed new light on this discourse, this study investigates perceived impacts of tourist gazing within the framework of resistance theory. the old order amish (ooa) are positioned on a resistance scale, with an open-resistance stance at one end and a full-cooperation stance at the opposite end of the spectrum. this study gathers data from ooa families residing in the state of iowa, united states. the results show mixed reactions by the ooa and indicate a middle approach of resistance, termed as “negotiated reciprocity” on the resistance continuum. keywords tourist gaze; folk community; sociocultural impact perceptions; resistance theory; old order amish introduction influence of tourism on local communities has been exten- sively examined within the context of social and cultural impacts using the host community’s perspective. social and cultural impacts pertain to the manner in which tourism plays a role in changing resident value structures, individual conduct, family relations, shared lifestyles, safety zones, moral behavior, innovative expressions, conventional rituals, and community organizations (fox ). ap and crompton ( ) explained the tourism effect on local reserves as “pressure on local resources and facilities, local versus imported labor, local language and cultural effects, and life style changes” ( , p. ), and proceeded to provide a summary of impacts based on their review of the literature. positive social and cultural impacts were found to include enhanced quality of life (pizam ; perdue, long, and allen ), improved understanding and images of other cultures (liu, sheldon, and var ; milman and pizam ), facilitation of cultural exchange (belisle and hoy ), educational experience (liu, sheldon, and var ), preservation of cultural identity of the host population, and increased demand for historical and cultural exhibits (liu and var ). negative social and cultural impacts have included heightened stress, frantic community and personal life (rotham ), and creation of fake folk culture (brougham and butler ; cohen ). similar impacts were reinforced by recent studies. for instance, encouragement of cultural activities was reported by brunt and courtney ( ). according to andereck et al. ( ), residents perceive that tourism enhances their com- munity image and creates awareness of heritage. improved prospects for cultural exchange and revival of local tradi- tions and better quality of life were reported by besculides, lee, and mccormick ( ). with regard to externalities, tosun ( ) suggested social and cultural conflicts arising from sociocultural differences. cultural commercialization was confirmed by chhabra, healy, and sills ( ). gursoy and rutherford ( ) reported negative effects of tourism on the local culture in terms of intrusion. positive effects included cultural activities by local residents, cultural exchange between tourists and residents, and enhanced cul- tural identity. while the aforementioned impacts are useful in providing an overall assessment of benefits and costs (andereck et al. ; ham, brown, and jang ), they have limited value in their ability to unveil root issues or items of concern asso- ciated with host–guest contact at the micro level (nichols, giacopassi, and stitt ). it is no surprise then that the authors of many such studies have recommended a further dissection of identified issues such as impact on the cultural and social fabric of receiving regions within the context of cultural commodification. literature has increasingly recog- nized the significance and sacrifice of authenticity in cultural commodification. this view is heightened by the fact that authenticity is the key message in promotional materials that arizona state university by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) draw tourist attention. the authenticity notion however has multiple connotations. it has been conceptualized and recon- ceptualized during the past few decades. in fact, previous studies have used different meanings of authenticity from tourist and supplier perspectives to gain an insight of cultural and social impacts on host communities (littrell, anderson, and brown ; waitt ; chhabra, healy, and sills ). in sum, four schools of thought describe the authenticity debate: conventional–essentialist, negotiated, constructed–constructivist, and subjective–existentialist. the conventional concept supports museology and nonin- tervention within the natural phenomena. many heritage attractions, cultural heritage managers, and museums regard authenticity in the chutzpah of frozen or museumfied heri- tage (bruner ; yea ). this view has increasingly gained strength in the face of ongoing threat to cultural changes in the globe today. this view regards commodifica- tion as a threat to objective authenticity. next, the negotiated stance holds that commodification can serve a useful func- tion because it intends to accomplish a middle path between demand and supply (chhabra ). on the other hand, the constructed–constructivist paradigm of authenticity is pre- mised on the notion that all judgments are socially constructed and are affected by the contemporary market forces and environments. last, toward the end of the th century, the constructivist notion of authenticity shifted to a purely sub- jective position. this school of thought argues that subjective negotiation of meanings defines an authentic experience (uriely ). following this trail, another postmodern view argues that authenticity is insignificant and irrelevant. for instance, reisinger and steiner ( ) contended that the whole notion of authenticity is unstable. it is laden with con- flicting concepts because it lies in the eyes of the beholder, be it the tourist or the supplier. nevertheless, authenticity is a most recurrent topic of discussion in tourism impact literature. furthering this line of study, the complex nature of the host–guest or tourist–local contact (kim ; laxon ; moaz ; sutton ) calls for an in-depth and holistic discursive approach from an ethnic perspective to examine the “visualness” or “gazing” phenomena in tourism that has a profound effect on both hosts and guests. previous studies have reported local community perceptions in general while failing to provide an examination of perception dynamism within gazing or nongazing settings. that is, some percep- tions may be caused by noninteraction, visual or physical, with tourists; other perceptions can be the consequence of interactions within the context of gazing or exchange of words or buyer–seller setting. early studies have suggested that tourism creates a dis- tinct type of tourist gaze and locals struggle to deal with it when it lands on their turf. volkman ( , p. ) states that “indigenous peoples are caught up in complex relations with the ethnic tourism industry (and the appetite it stimulates), with tourists, and with major cultural, social, and political transformations at home.” many such communities have tried to reconstruct their culture in a way that it meshes with consumer demands (moaz ), while struggling to stay in harmony with their cultural and religious values. extant lit- erature holds that most indigenous communities commodify their culture or freeze selected remnants of their past as per the market need (beeton ; foster ; light ; mcgregor ). that said, several studies have also reported an active role of other sources such as suppliers (notzke ), the media (beeton ), and the govern- ment (yea ) in the commodification of host community cultures. however, it is also argued that not all local communities walk with tourism; some gaze back (moaz ) to curtail plagued impacts. impressions from the local gaze can cau- tion against unforeseen intrusions or suggest positive discourses if benefits are evident. moaz ( ) introduces the term local gaze when referring to reciprocity gestures of hosts to demonstrate knowingly or unknowingly the power of locals in developing countries. the power of locals over the tourists implies the hosts have the capability to exercise choice and control. against previous assertions that locals in developing countries refrain from gazing and passively hide from the tourist gaze, moaz questions the asymmetrical nature of the gaze power. in the words of this author, “the gaze is not necessarily ocular and is not concerned only with spectacle as some claim, but relies on mental perceptions. it is not ‘how we see them’ but ‘how they see us’” ( , p. ). local residents are often assumed to be mute or submis- sive. that is, it has often been assumed that locals do not gaze but passively hide from the tourist gaze and try to adapt to the expectations and requirements of tourists (haraalam- bopoulos and pizam ; mowforth and munt ; nash ). recent literature, however, has unpacked a more active role of locals. some of it has taken the shape of local gaze to discern and scrutinize tourist behavior so that appro- priate response can be crafted to cope with it. most local gazes are informed and may be based on ste- reotyped notions of the tourists (joseph and kavoori ). alternatively some gazes shape perceptions and consequent behavior toward the tourists. these help craft strategies to shield personal lives or construct staged authenticity by con- structing fake back and front stages. according to chhabra, healy, and sills ( ), front stages are contrived to stage authenticity and these are drawn from predetermined and presold images by those in authority. maccannell ( ) coined the term staged authenticity to explain how barriers are created to block intrusions. in the words of urry, “mac- cannell’s staged authenticity arises from the social relations built around the attempts by visitors visually to consume ‘authentic places’ and people and the resistances to this by mad locals” ( , p. ). in sum, the host community’s response to tourists has taken the form of open resistance, veiled resistance, mediated by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra resistance, retreatism into traditional norms pertaining to lan- guage and culture, deliberate boundary maintenance, and adaptation to the tourist culture or the revitalization of arts and crafts on a more positive note (dogan ). open resis- tance is used in the form of protest and agitation (westerhausen , p. ). veiled resistance constitutes staging and sell- ing of host images. this resistance has passive connotations in the form of “gossip, obstruction, burlesquing, sulking, and insults” (boissevain , p. ; bramwell , p. ). mediated resistance involves use of effective rhetoric allow- ing an outlet for airing grievances against visitors while deflecting hostile confrontations with tourists. retreatism is cutting oneself off from the outside environment. boundary maintenance, on the other hand, implies retiring of host com- munities behind self-imposed boundaries that afford protection from the tourist invasion (buck ). finally, cooperation approach is used when the host community fully adapts to tourist needs. response or the resistance level used by the host community in the face of the tourist gaze phe- nomena can thus be positioned on a scale punctuated by two extremes: open resistance to full adaptation and cooperation. this study refers to these strategies as cradled within the negotiation framework and argues that resistances are pre- mised on the perspectives and deliberations of locals while gazing back visibly or in a hidden manner. although abundant literature focuses on impact perspec- tives of tourists and tourists in general, a folk community’s perceptions of tourist gaze and its effects on the cultural fabric as a subject of inquiry has received scant attention in tourism literature. to shed new light on this discourse, this study examines perceived impacts of tourist gazing within the framework of resistance theory. the resistance theory holds that negotiation strategy of host communities is guided by singular or multiple resistances to tourist gazing. this argument is premised on the stance that the relationship between guests and hosts is multifaceted and complicated in that “it is mediated while it is being resisted rhetorically” and this mediated resistance functions “to transform an ambiva- lent and disempowered relationship into one that is culturally acceptable to the host community” (joseph and kavoori , p. ). the underpinnings of the negotiation framework while guided by the resistance theory draw inferences from the folk community model. the folk community (fc) model suggests that folk societies change slowly, are immobile, and place emphasis on face-to-face personal relationships. these can however be placed on an urban and nonurban (folk) con- tinuum. “the folk-urban continuum which results from these polar concepts provides a scale along which real societies may be ranged, their position determined by the relative pro- portion of folk or urban characteristics which they display” (redfield cited in foster , p. ). negotiation (adapta- tion toward increasing urbanness) is crafted as one moves toward the urban end of the continuum. the old order amish the folk community under discussion here is the old order amish in iowa, united states. according to cong, the amish have gained a folk “museum type of quality and antique status” ( , p. ). therefore, the ooa community’s per- spective in this study is regarded as the folk community perspective. the old order amish, a diffused group of ana- baptists, are descendents of the swiss radical reformation. they are a branch of the swiss group that originated from suffering and martyrdom in europe by standing firm for their traditions. their extensive migration to north america from europe was encouraged by the relative freedom of move- ment and the opportunities for economic security and ethnoreligious association (reschly ). these led to westward migrations and iowa became one of the preferred locations because of good and cheap land and a chance to create new settlements. even though thirty counties of iowa show records of amish and mennonite inhabitants, bigger settlements are found only in four counties: buchanan, johnson, washington, and wright. the amish–mennonite divisions occurred in the late th century, with mennonites leaning more toward worldliness and mingling with the mainstream culture and the old order amish (often referred to as “the plain people” and the first order amish) clinging to their ancestral traditions. the old order amish (ooa) are usually distinguished from the amish mennonites and the beachy amish by their strict conformity to the use of horses on the farm and as a means of transportation, their refusal to permit electricity or telephones inside their residence, and their more traditional code of dress that includes using hooks-and-eyes fasteners on some forms of clothing. according to reschly ( ), the ooa today are guided by approaches such as biological reproduction, cultural resistance, and a willingness to make compromises with the modern world while keeping the core values of gelassenheit intact. gelassenheit means submis- sion or yielding to the will of god and forms the cornerstone of ooa values. the amish community is religiously rooted in gelassenheit. the amish believe in redemptive living through ordnung and meidung. ordnung is the order and discipline of the community and by spelling out expected behavior, it shapes amish life and identity (kraybill ). meidung is the shunning of erring church members who deviate from the ordnung. it spells out punishment associ- ated with excommunication and social avoidance. the ooa are also referred to as a folk community because they are not in favor of social mobility and are slow to shift their economic and social positions. ooa folkness is thus described by its efforts to stay isolated as well as connected with the mainstream culture in an intellectual, creative, and artistic manner. the folk model lends itself to understanding the traditional character of the amish society (hostetler ). according to redfield, the underlying premise of the by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) folk society model is nonchange. redfield defines it as “a small, isolated, traditional, simple, homogeneous society in which oral communication and conventional ways are important factors in integrating the whole of life. in such an ideal-type society, shared practical knowledge is more important than science, custom is more valued than critical knowledge, and associations are personal and emotional rather than abstract and categorical” ( , pp. - ). because most tourism images are nucleated on the special character of the ooa reflected in their living styles, and reputation for integrity and quality of agricultural produce and domestic craft products (kraybill ), the impact of tourism and tourist gaze on this community in particular has been considered more profound. it is for this reason that the ooa are the subject of study and are examined using a mixed methods approach. mixed methods research requires both collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data (creswell and clark ). it makes use of close-ended as well as open-ended information. by mixing these types of data sets, it is possible to provide an enhanced understanding of the research problem than if either data set were used in isolation. for the purpose of this study, sequential data col- lection was used. the ooa were surveyed in the spring and summer of . information was elicited on amish percep- tions of tourist gaze and its impact on their community. in doing so, the extent and direction of negotiation along the open resistance–full adaptation scale is determined. in sum- mary, this study aims to answer the following research questions: what, according to the ooa, are the reasons of tourists’ gazing at them? what are the benefits and costs of tourist gazing on the ooa community? are certain tourist types preferred by the ooa? where are ooa positioned on the resistance continuum? based on the answers to the afore- mentioned questions, implications for the policy makers and brokers of amish tourism are presented. literature review evidently, many studies have referred to gaze as a singular tourist gazing notion. however, recent literature has also questioned the mundaneness or muteness of gazees. it argues that tourist gaze is reciprocal and not a one-way street because it is countered or returned by the host community (moaz ). gazing is thus not a one-way phenomenon and is a result of both visual spectacle and mental discernment. tourists gaze because they consider hosts inferior and want to exert their superiority or they are impressed with their “authenticness” and culture or are just being inquisitive (bruner ; notzke ). the hosts, on the other hand, gaze out of curiosity, to know the “other” to feel secure in dealing with them (moaz ), or when they consider them to be intruders and modern fools (dogan ). they might respond by resistance, retreating, segregating, and establish- ing demarcations, thereby blending their best to benefit themselves (moaz ). degree of cooperation or resis- tance is often suggested to stem from “social exchange,” which postulates that benefit levels generate positive atti- tudes and perceptions. this section describes local gaze and positions their response on the resistance continuum as pre- sented by previous studies. to begin with, moaz ( ), in his examination of the local gaze on israeli backpackers in the indian himalayas, argued against the asymmetrical nature of gazing in develop- ing countries. the author argued that gazing is mutual although its objective might differ among the guests and hosts. interestingly, he stated that tourist gazing is triggered by the local gaze. moaz’s study identified a range of responses by local indians from cooperation to open resistance to veiled resistance. he pointed out that tourist gaze generates fear as well as a sense of cooperation to ensure tourist demands are met. open resistance happens when “both gazes result in a tendency to didactism and in this case to educate the israelis and teach them to behave” (moaz , p. ). for instance, rules regarding party time and entertainment (not beyond : p.m.) were enforced by local restaurants and guest- houses. examples of veiled resistance included staging and selling of desired images. in this case, a passive role was adopted and hostility revealed in a subtle manner. conclud- ing arguments of the author were that such forms of resistance are often based on stereotyped images and prevent a genuine contact between guests and hosts. local gaze has also been equated with the term reverse gaze, analogous to a second gaze or a questioning gaze that redirects the tourist gaze to the self. the “reverse gaze” term was coined by gillespie ( ) within the context of interac- tion between tourist photo grapher and local photographee. gillespie’s study was conducted in ladakh, india, a popular backpacker destination for tourists. he illustrated how the “reverse gaze” of the ladakhis caused uncomfortable emo- tions and embarrassment among tourists. in line with this argument, based on ladakhi feedback, he concluded that the embarrassment was based on tourists’ self-perceptions, which failed to reflect the actual perspectives of the lada- khis. unpacking the ladakhi view, the author reports that they were generally supportive of tourists in touristic spaces such as the festivals, expected to be photographed, and saw tourists important for the overall economic development of their region. another reason for the ladakhi enthusiasm was related to the assumed significance of ladakhi culture and the impression that their culture was revered across the globe. within the context of resistance theory, gillespie described ladakhi stance as one of boundary maintenance. they acknowledged economic dependence on tourism, and their negotiated response was boundary maintenance. another study conducted by zhihong ( ) discovered local people in an eagerly “contriving act to play different cards in order to attract tourists,” including renovation and inventing traditions. his study focused on bai, china, and by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra examined how the local culture became touristified and the social landscape altered while responding to tourism devel- opment. he talked about how a local history was made and located. for instance, the culture exhibition center was a showcase that attempted to fix and define, locate, and regu- late fluid and malleable populations and local identities (tap , p. ). the author revealed that the local history, tradi- tions, the place, and the bai people had willingly embraced modifications to create “bainess” that could be sold to the tourists. the aim was to achieve their material ends so they readily exoticized and differentiated themselves. in sum, the author presented a mixed impact. according to the author, the tourist market provided a means for celebrating plural ethnicity with different expectations and interpretations from the guests’ and hosts’ perspectives. hosts were given both the opportunity and the freedom to express who they were and what they chose to represent. this is not to say that they were what they staged and sold but to point out that in this case, tourism served to nurture a sense of being ethnically distinctive and ensured the locals a bigger share of the tourist market. with regard to the resistance theory, the results indi- cated a leaning toward adaptation and full cooperation. evans-pritchard ( ) examined the southwest indian images of the tourist that orchestrate their actual interactions with the tourists when selling arts and crafts. the author speculated that the images held by indians guide their com- munication with tourists while at the same time help with boundary maintenance to ensure privacy and protection. holden ( ) found that most of the references to white visitors were not straightforward. instead they were drawn through “analogies, indirect allusions or traditional narrative figures.” the tourists “dehumanize the indian, patronizingly turn him into something ‘cute’ and see him as a fit object for consumption” (evans-pritchard ). in sum, indians had developed “a mental repertoire of stereotypes” that in turn informed them of multiple ways tourists could be treated when selling handicrafts. this case study projects the coex- istence of boundary maintenance and veiled resistance premised on the author’s argument that despite all negative images of tourists, indians benefit from them. the touristic space does not reduce the level of discomfort between the tourists and the indians but facilitates toleration for eco- nomic benefits. another study by joseph and kavoori ( ) examined the host community’s response to tourism in another asian pilgrimage town (pushkar). although tourism was regarded essential for the economic development of the pushkar town, the local people perceived it as a threat to tradition and reli- gion. the author used the term mediated resistance to explain the local community’s mixed reaction toward tourism. in line with moaz’s argument, the author questioned the asym- metrical relationship between guests and hosts in terms of gazing power. the message was that the locals should not be considered passive recipients. instead, they use many techniques such as reverse gaze (which triggers discomfort) and staged authenticity in contrived settings to protect their back regions. joseph and kavoori ( ) discussed three strategies of mediated resistance that guided the local response. accord- ing to him, three variations, exclusionary, religious, and political, constituted the most significant strategies of medi- ated resistance. exclusionary rhetoric divided the community into insider and outsider (including domestic indian tourists on the periphery) domains, and most problems stemming from tourism were blamed on the domestic outsiders. the religious rhetoric, however, blamed tourists for desacraliza- tion of the town. the political rhetoric on the other hand blamed the government for the negative impacts of tourism. public participation in these different rhetorics acted to serve as channels to vent anger and frustration, thus circumventing the need for further or formal action against the tourism industry. gazing at the amish community in the united states and its repercussions has received a preliminary impetus in the form of a small handful of studies. buck ( ) examined the probable impact of tourist enterprise powered by the tourism organizations in lancaster county, pennsylvania, on the old amish community integration. his study was based on the participant observation technique. according to him, in line with the fact that “the amish are reproduced and cari- catured in tourist promotion materials, area maps, and billboards,” there appears to be a high likelihood of “the amish life being ultimately engulfed and emulsified by the socioeconomic impact of tourist experience” (buck , p. ). however, in the face of the pervasive presence of tourists, the author is intrigued by the apparent success of this community in maintaining and continuing with their unique way of life. in regard to ooa perception of impacts, the main substance of the response was that tourists were considered a “needless nuisance,” who disturbed an other- wise quiet environment and made horse and buggy travel more difficult (buck , p. ). the author found the boundary maintenance approach the most appropriate response. overall, buck’s conclusion was that the ooa did not welcome tourism and viewed tourists as “empty pleasure seeking” people ( , p. ). that said, the author argued that this stance actually strengthened the amish self-identity and contributed to its “culture vigor and personal strength” ( , p. ). this resistance was also an added advantage for the tourism entrepreneurs who used it to discourage the free movement of tourists. in other words, the tourist enterprise sought to confine tourists within selected contact and view zones. this served a dual purpose. first, it prevented direct contact with the amish and made it less intrusive. second, it made the tourists dependent on the tourist enterprise. the entire scene and tour was orchestrated on imagery that “the ooa are out there and all around” even though none of them might actually be seen. by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) the boundary resistance approach was also noted by loomis and beegle ( ). the authors had found com- pelling arguments to justify this conjecture in the form of self-identity reinforcement of the ooa in lancaster county, pennsylvania. boundary maintenance was described as a form of resistance that “signifies activity to retain identity, value orientation, and interaction pattern of a social system. the process of boundary maintenance requires that the system actively resists forces which tend to destroy the iden- tity and interaction” (loomis and beegle , p. ). the authors also concluded that the boundary maintenance helped to sustain ooa integrity (in a shielded aggressive way) and core values despite being situated in a commercial environment. parallel inferences can be drawn from fagence’s ( ) work focusing on the ooa at st. jacobs in canada. she sug- gested boundary maintenance as a stance taken by the amish in face of intrusion. the author compared st. jacobs with lancaster county in the united states and considered the former as an extreme case of commercialization of amish themes. according to her, the tourism planners at lancaster county have crossed all limits to cater for and retain the interest of visitor groups. although not based on empirical findings, fagence ( ) restated buck’s conjecture and con- sidered “boundary maintenance” a useful shield for ooa. fagence maintained that tourism planning helped facilitate boundary maintenance by checking visitor intrusion. in sum, the aforementioned studies suggest mixed responses. while boundary maintenance is a recurrent response, other responses lie between subtle resistance and adaptation. none of the aforementioned studies reported open resistance. this study endeavors to locate amish com- munity local gaze and the resulting resistance to tourist gazing in a region (iowa state) with characteristics different from those found in canada and lancaster county, pennsyl- vania, in terms of life-cycle stage and visitor numbers. method the aim of this study was to bring to the fore local voices, particularly of those who have been silent receivers of tour- ism (buck ; cong ). attention was on a living culture, a unique set of amish residents: the ooa. this exclusive selection from the amish community was impor- tant because amish tourism heavily draws on the ooa. as reiterated by buck, “in choosing a peculiar way of life, ooa stand out in bold relief against modern society and are tour- istically defined as something worth seeing, a scarce human species” ( , p. ). this paper is not intended to repre- sent all ooa across united states; instead it is intended as an exploratory study that offers an empiricist investigation on a small scale using a mixed methods approach (see figure ). it is hoped that this study will offer a theoretically grounded framework for large-scale studies. the empirical discussion rests on three sets of data gath- ered in the spring and summer of (see figure ). a mixed approach of naturalistic (qualitative) and positivist (quantitative) inquiry was used. the data were collected in three phases to address the research questions. these phases helped to answer the first three research questions inquiring about the ooa perspectives of tourist gaze, its impact in terms of benefits and costs, and preference to certain kinds of tourists. the last research question was discursive and answered by way of inferences drawn from the findings. for the first data set, a total of preliminary interviews were carried out using a purposive sampling technique based on spatial dispersal of ooa families. this form of sampling follows the maximal variation sampling design. the maxi- mal variation design alludes to selection of individuals who can be differentiated according to gender, place of residence, level of schooling etc. (creswell and clark ). the cen- tral argument is that if respondents are “purposefully chosen to be different in the first place, then their views will reflect this difference and provide a good qualitative study (cre- swell and clark , p. ). in this study, county of residence was used as a differentiating point. an adult member of each ooa family was interviewed by two university students the bakery shops (frequented by the ooa) in johnson and buchanan counties. the selection was based on convenience and accessibility. prior to contact, permission was obtained from bakery shop owners. the respondent breakdown was as follows: five ooa families from johnson county and seven from buchanan county (care was taken to ensure an even representation of gender). these initial informant interviews consisted of a series of open-ended standard questions to obtain an understanding of ooa definition of authenticity, examine impressions from local gaze, and determine perceptions of tourist gaze and its impacts. questions included what is your definition of authenticity? why do you think the visitors/tourists seek connections with you or gaze at you? do you benefit from the visitors/tourists who seek to interact with you? while seeking answers, the interviewer was also given autonomy to seek interesting ideas or pursue issues that arose during the intercepts. the students received training prior to the imple- mentation of the first data collection phase. reflexivity (a critical approach for self-assessment) was used by the interviewers. the end result helped reduce personal bias and facilitated objectivity. the answers to open-ended questions were in qualitative format. they were analyzed using the data reduction method. this method helped reduce complex, iterative sets of words (miles and huberman ) and followed four steps: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verifica- tion. the first step (data reduction) referred to the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting, and transforming the data that appeared in field notes or transcriptions derived from recordings. data displayed provided a fresh way of by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra arrangement and reflection of textual answers. conclusions and verification required retrospection and reflection of the derived meanings and terms from the data. different themes for the open-ended questions emerged from this process. therefore, statements were formulated to represent them. the students accomplished the data reduction task, which resulted in several items for each research question. because multiple opinions resulted from preliminary interviews, they were listed as items to be ranked on a likert-type scale, with = strongly agree and = strongly disagree. this was deemed necessary to determine level of significance attributed by the ooa to each item. the second phase focused on the main questionnaire, which included close-ended questions. close-ended ques- tions included a list of items pertaining to reasons for tourist gazing and its impact in terms of benefits and costs. a sec- tion eliciting information on user profile was added. the ooa were surveyed in public places (such as bakery shops, roadside stands, and quilting shops) using a stratified sam- pling technique. attempt was made to obtain an equal number of responses from each county. although no pres- sure or incentives were placed on the respondents to facilitate participation, refusal rate was % from buchanan county and % from johnson county. during the survey, the objec- tives and the voluntary nature of the study were explained. the ooa were requested to write their answers on the ques- tionnaire. in some cases, the interviewers waited (a total of minutes were taken on an average to answer questions) and in other cases they returned to pick it up. overall, responses were gathered. the third phase of the study focused on posttesting. it consisted of follow-up questionnaires using the member- checking approach to test for credibility and interviewer bias. this process verifies that the meanings gleaned from a questionnaire accurately reflect the perceptions and views of survey participants. alternatively, it also helps to identify doubts and offers the respondents another chance for self- reflection. a sample of six ooa families (three from each county) who had responded to the main survey were selected and requested to answer the questionnaire again. their answers were used to match or test the final results. nonre- sponse bias was also tested by intercepting six additional families (not surveyed earlier) during the posttest stage. the end data resulted in a total of surveys. qualitatively equivalent measures of reliability, validity, and generalizability were applied to determine trustworthi- ness of data. for instance, member checking approach tested for reliability. content validity was confirmed by compari- son with previous studies and a group of experts on the subject, such as two academicians, a visitor center staff, and a member of the historic society located in one of the study counties. potential threat to sequential data was addressed by including same individuals for the second and third phases (creswell and clark ). figure . mixed methods approach (n = ) qualitative data collection & analysis posttest quantitative data collection & analysis quantitative data collection & analysis procedures ) one-on-one semistructured interviews (n = ) ) content analysis: coding & thematic development procedures ) questionnaire with likert scale items and demographic items (n = ) ) univariate analysis: frequencies & averages procedures ) questionnaire with likert scale items and demographic items (n = ) ) testing phase: univariate analysis answers matched product ) field notes ) open-ended respondent answers on paper ) transcripts product ) closed-ended answers: numerical item scores product ) closed-ended answers: numerical item scores phase iiphase i phase iii by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) findings the first step in analyzing the amish perceptions was to determine the reasons that caused the tourists to gaze at them. table describes amish perceptions of the reasons behind tourist gaze on a likert-type scale. it is evident that the amish perceived that it was their authenticness associ- ated with arts, crafts, woodwork, and food that transpires and inspires the gaze. according to the preliminary interviews, all ooa perceived of authenticity as centered in the primor- dial school of thought and of essentialist character, heavily drawn from past norms. in addition, equal significance was given to curiosity, fol- lowed by desire to learn about other cultures. this view is supported by the general tourist quest to seek the other, where maccannell ( ) argues that the central drive to postmodern tourism is to discover places that seem to exist outside of history. this view is confirmed by hawley ( ) and kreps et al. ( ). another important reason for tourist gaze was perceived to be entertainment. previous research- ers have noted that spectacle often forms the core of constructed or inspired tourist gaze. it is generally transpired by promotional images designed by interest groups (light ). in this case, these are more likely to be tourism orga- nizations such as the convention and visitor bureaus, chamber of commerce, and historic societies. the next significant factor was contemplation or nostal- gia for a simpler life. lowest significance was given to opportunities to be part of their lives and social interactions. it appears that the amish do not consider intimacy and socialization to be the core objective of gazers. it is likely that the gazers have a predetermined image of the amish that they want to seek or confirm without stepping out of their comfort zones (cong ). fleeting experiences and views are sought based on images that are controlled by those inter- ested solely in economic benefits or with a view to distance the ooa. this explanation is supported by buck ( ). it is possible that many tourists who gaze surrender themselves to the parameters of the gaze without questioning or drawing the object of gaze closer to their physical or personal space. similar views were presented by fagence ( ) and buck ( , ). buck noted that the tourists “deliver them- selves into the hands of tourist enterprise induced and reinforced boundaries” facilitated by staged authenticity and pseudo-participation ( , p. ). with regard to benefits, of all the ooa interviewed, % felt that they benefited from tourist gazing. table ranks items that represent positive impacts. with regard to the per- ceived benefits associated with the gazing phenomena, most among the majority felt that their culture and visibility pointed out the negative consequences of the materialistic culture. in other words, their way of life can make the specta- tors question the fast pace of their own lives and thus served an educational purpose of creating awareness of simple life- styles (hawley ). next two significant factors associated with benefits of tourist gaze received parallel ratings (see table ). these were networking and enhancement of amish knowledge to the innovations of the outside world. this view aligns with hostetler’s ( ) contention that amish are vigilant of their surroundings and are often willing to negotiate behind scenes to progressively accommodate contemporary changes in a way that complements their traditions and community. eco- nomic numerations ranked third in order of agreement even though the majority ( %) felt tourist gaze led to higher interest in and increased sale of their merchandize. the amish literature somewhat supports this subtle response. it is with reluctance and careful deliberations that the ooa have embraced microenterprises and deviated from farming as a result of economic hardships. the least beneficial item was “social interactions.” the amish will rather prefer the tourists stay away (buck ). boynton ( ) noted that table . reasons for tourist gazing strongly agree/ disagree/ strongly item disagree (%) neutral (%) agree (%) averagea opportunities to be a part of your life . . . . to have social interactions . . . . to escape from day-to-day complexities of modernity . . . . to explore their roots . . . . nostalgia for a simpler life . . . . to contemplate . . . . entertainment . . . . learn about another culture . . . . curiosity . . . . authentic food . . . . authentic arts, crafts, and woodwork . . . . a. likert-type scale of to , with = strongly agree and = strongly disagree. by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra the amish prefer physical isolation. preference for zero social interactions is premised on the need to maintain their way of life despite the “seemingly pervasive presence of tourists” (buck , p. ). of those who disagreed with the statement that the tourist gaze results in benefits for the ooa community, the majority felt that tourist gazing was intrusive and facilitated poor understanding of their culture (see table ). many also objected to pictures being taken by tourists during such fleet- ing visits. it appears that enough information of the ooa is not made available to tourists to guide their understanding of amish culture or sensitivity toward it. of the brochures and descriptions of the amish in tour mag- azines presented by the convention and visitor bureaus, none provide information about how to be sensitive and less intrusive to the ooa. instead, the media creates mythological pseudo images of a static culture waiting to be discovered. this image is facilitated by the tour guides and promotional brochures. similar findings were reported by buck ( ). for instance, the tour guide’s tour through the backyards of the amish settle- ment and description of the amish culture reiterated this view. when asked if permission was taken from the amish, the answer was nonaffirmative. throughout the touring experience and the rehearsed narratives, the tour guide gave the impression that an eager ooa community was waiting to unveil itself. on the question if the amish preferred certain tourist types to other, the majority of them stated yes, with prefer- ence for respectful, polite, sensitive, less bold, and not rough-looking tourists. a couple of them stated that they “rather not have them as it is dangerous at the farm and they can hurt themselves.” those in business preferred serious customers who through their purchasing can generate eco- nomic benefits. finally, in response to the question “what do you feel when you see the tourists?” most responses (in their own words) were as follows: we feel like welcoming them; we are comfortable we are also curious; we try to feel if they are happy or not; i do not give them a lot of attention. they are just passers by; uncomfortable; there are occasionally intrusive types wish they were not as many and they minded their own business; hope they will buy our products; we look at their car; we feel their language and sensitivity; i are curi- ous and wonder where they are from? i am interested and concerned about them; wish they stayed away and left us alone; do not know. discussion in regard to the first research question about amish percep- tions of why tourists gaze at them, authentic products and curiosity appear to be the main reason. the authentic demand table . positive impact of tourist gaze strongly agree/ disagree/ strongly item disagree (%) neutral (%) agree (%) averagea social interactions . . . . insight into another culture . . . . alternative income . . . . strengthens outside network . . . . learn new things and increase knowledge . . . . exposure to the negative impacts of modernity . . . a. likert-type scale of to , with = strongly agree and = strongly disagree. table . negative impact of tourist gaze strongly agree/ disagree/ strongly item disagree (%) neutral (%) agree (%) averagea show disrespect . . . . make our community uncomfortable . . . . increase in local crime . . . . stare at us and our children . . . . negative effect on our children . . . . tour buses and cars create crowding and pollution . . . . take pictures . . . . intrusion into our private lives . . . . lack of understanding of our culture . . . . a. likert-type scale of to , with = strongly agree and = strongly disagree. by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) view finds support in the reasons described for gazing. the ooa thus believe that demand exists for essentialist and pri- mordial products. cohen’s ( ) version of objective authenticity (defining authenticity as an unaltered genuine- ness) and chhabra’s ( ) stance on essentialist authenticity (measured by standards based on unadulterated and real things) resonate with this perspective. arguably, this view is disputed by the contemporary constructivist reflections on authenticity that suggest abandonment of authenticity (reis- inger and steiner ). constructivists hold that authenticity is fluid and is shaped by ongoing social or personal values. thus, despite recent indications by literature of the post- modern disregard and lack of need for object authenticity, rural, handcrafted, and traditional form of authenticity still prevails in special heritage settings. in this study, this need results from the supplier’s prerogative. in argument with maccannell’s ( ) contention that an object ceases to be authentic if labeled so, the findings show that constructed revisions of authentic forms strongly adhere to the museo- logic notion of preservation. this view is also confirmed by joseph and kavoori ( ). buck ( ) points out that the ooa, as custodians in authority, have tightened their grip on heritage in the wake of kaleidoscopic constructivist ideolo- gies associated with the postmodern era. this grip has trickled down and influenced or guided selected assimilation of contemporary economic environments into the daily amish life, thus helping craft an essentialist-driven negoti- ated stance in the form of microenterprises. in these efforts, the authentic ingredients are likely to remain omnipresent and preserved. this view is reiterated by the ooa them- selves and is also supported by fagence ( ). curiosity can be attributed to the notion that “amish products carry a mystique that enhances their marketability. they are viewed as handcrafted, high quality, and unique. public perception is very positive” (kraybill and nolt , p. ), curiosity for the other world or lifestyle is a draw for tourists seeking a break from their daily mundane life. according to fagence ( ), lack of reliance on technology (which is considered indispensable by the modern society) portrays the independent and self-sufficient characteristics of the ooa and this has heightened admiration and inquisi- tiveness of the tourists. moreover, split opinion was noted with regard to the notion that tourists had a genuine desire to be a part of their day-to-day lives. some tourists might have a genuine desire to learn about other cultures. this view is supported by light ( ), who maintains that heritage tourism is an alternative form of tourism that draws a significant number of educated tourists aiming to learn about other cultures. however, paral- lel to this view, another view exists that “tourists are only a nuisance.” this view in its extreme is supported by buck ( ), who notes that the amish have a low opinion of tour- ists in lancaster county because they were out there for cheap entertainment and no inclination to be ontologically a part of the ooa environment. on a positive note, this indi- cates less threat to the amish backstage. alternatively, this can also imply lack of seriousness on the part of tourists, who have no intention to understand deeply the object of their gaze. their act, in their desire to drive through the amish backyards and staring at funeral processions, can be physically intrusive and reflect disrespect for privacy. this view is supported by yoder’s ( ) argument that the amish are often considered unwilling objects of a flourishing tour- ism industry aimed to satisfy the cravings of visitors seeking a glimpse of a simpler and ideal world. the second research question explored benefits of tourist gaze for the ooa. as the findings reveal, the positive bene- fits of tourist gaze were mostly philanthropic. the amish felt that exposure to their way of living transmits a social mes- sage to those entangled in the web of postmodernity, blindly racing toward capitalist-driven materialistic environments. the ooa hoped that visitors, who travel to distance them- selves from their norms, get to reflect on their existing lifestyles from a different perspective. in other words, the agrarian way of ooa life might suggest the need to slow down, build communitas, and promote a simpler life nucle- ated in rural settings. this view is supported by kraybill and nolt ( , p. xii), who hold that “venturing across the fence that separates the two cultures allows us to glance back and see our own society from a different angle.” notzke ( ), in her study of the indigenous communities in the arctic, also demonstrated eagerness on the part of remote communi- ties to educate urbanists of the need to balance life with nature. furthermore, the results also indicate that benefits associ- ated with economic remunerations were considered important. this is evidenced by the number of microenter- prises that have emerged in amish settlements as an alternative to agriculture. the occupational departure from farming to microenterprises suggests that the amish have become directly tied to the economic structure of the main- stream society. economic exigencies have tempered with the isolated ideology of the ooa. that said, this carefully chosen alternative form of income is still viable because it complements togetherness by keeping family home and together, enabling them to retain cultural values. it is proba- ble that this source has made the ooa less isolated and more accessible and visible to the surrounding regions. according to hostetler, “if boundaries are respected, both sides can ben- efit from each other” ( , p. ). such encounters help the amish obtain an insight into human problems in the out- side world, which frequently makes them feel content with their self-imposed isolated path. however, the extent of amish entanglement with the mainstream society for eco- nomic reasons, in their signs “come in, we are open” (kraybill , p. ) also brings with it the risk of a “potential rift in the family structure where the occupational opportunities for all family members had been previously by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra prescribed by convention and tradition” (fagence , p. ). with regard to negative impacts, intrusion, lack of respect, and picture taking ranked high in terms of agree- ment. the majority of the amish highlighted these issues. moreover, the ooa preference for respectful and less-intru- sive tourist types supports such concerns. similar issues were presented by cong ( ) and buck ( ). last, based on the findings, contrary to previous asser- tions, the amish appear to take a more subtle form of response on the resistance continuum. they can be posi- tioned somewhere between boundary maintenance and full cooperation. this new conjecture is termed as negotiated reciprocity (see figure ). it is highly likely that a more posi- tive response rests on the fact that amish tourism in the study area is still in its development stage. this is in contrast to lancaster county and st. jacobs, where tourism develop- ment has reached a maturity level. hence, in those places negative impacts might have become more visible. alterna- tively, credit can also be given to the environmental factors that have affected both the ooa and the mainstream culture. with the overwhelming awareness on sustainability and the unfolding of postmodern externalities (such as pollution, crowding, financial issues, health problems, etc.), desire to be part of the diminishing rural environment and culture might prove to be real. with regard to the ooa, the financial problems and increasing acculturation of so many ooa fam- ilies into the mainstream culture might have made the remaining ooa more tolerant and eager to craft negotiations with the mainstream culture. in summary, the results indicate that although the ooa share european heritage with their american neighbors, they are not in favor of the progressive underpinnings of the larger culture and are carefully embracing selected elements of it for economic survival. this view is evidenced in hostetler’s ( ) assertion that “the amish people are neither relics of a bygone era nor a people misplaced in time.” even though the amish look old fashioned at first glance, they are up-to- date and selective in their choices of modernity embrace. they are neither frozen or history or a fossilized culture from a bygone era (kraybill ). they are thus not static but moving slowly within the self-defined framework of negoti- ation. over the years, they have negotiated with the ideologies that threaten their existence. contrary to the prediction by sociologists of gradual assimilation and acculturation of the amish into the mainstream culture, this has not happened because the ooa culture is a highly integrated culture and is more resistant to change. they have retained their symbolic and social alienation from the world through their dialect, unique dress, horse and buggy transportation, and lanterns (kraybill ). however, they are constantly changing to survive and their negotiation is driven by gelassenheit principles. over the years, several fragmentations have taken place within the amish communities along the urban and folk spectrum. by rejecting certain types of modernity and accepting others, some amish appear to the outside as con- tradicting themselves. they, in fact, see this strategy as the logic of negotiated selectivity as is indicated by the study results. today, the ooa have created a thriving enterprise of small shops. products made of tools rendered outdated in the larger american society that can no longer be bought in the mass market are still functional and made in amish shops (kraybill & nolt ). even though many outsiders may perceive the old order amish as a people misplaced in time or an ethnic community that will eventually be assimilated into the mainstream of american life, selective negotiation to safeguard cultural capital serves as a protective wall. the primary limitation of this study was the sample size. all ooa families in the study area could not be surveyed because of time constraints. that said, this study is rare in its focus on the perceptions of ooa based on the gazee concept and it makes a significant contribution in cultural and heri- tage tourism literature. it was undertaken in the hope that it would produce insights for those concerned with the preser- vation of this unique community. the results have significant implications for the tourists as well as the tourism organiza- tions, such as the visitor bureaus. to the tourists, information on how they are perceived by the old order amish can help generate awareness and understanding of silent communities that are reluctant to voice their opinions in public. to the tourism organizations, the results can serve as a guide to devise sensitive tours or promotional messages that are respectful, less intrusive, and able to provide economic benefits. references andereck, k., k. valentine, r. knopf, and c. vogt ( ). “resi- dents’ perceptions of community tourism impacts.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . ap, j., and j. crompton ( ). “developing and testing a tourism impact scale.” journal of travel research, ( ): - . beeton, s. ( ). rural tourism in australia—has the gaze altered? tracking rural images through film and tourism. international journal of tourism research, ( ): - . open resistance full cooperation veiled resistance mediated resistance retreatism boundary maintenance negotiated reciprocity seclusion assimilation • amish position figure . positioning the old order amish on the resistance continuum by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ journal of travel research ( ) belisle, f., and d. hoy ( ). “the perceived impact of tourism by residents: a case study in santa maria, columbia.” annals of tourism research, : - . besculides, a., m. lee, and p. mccormick ( ). “residents’ per- ceptions of the cultural benefits of tourism. annals of tourism research, ( ): - . boissevain, j. ( ). “tourism and development in malta.” development and change, : - . boynton, l. ( ). “the effect of tourism on amish quilting design.” annals of tourism research, : - . bramwell, b. ( ). “maltese responses to tourism.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . brougham, j., and r. butler ( ). “a segmentation analysis of resident attitudes to the social impact of tourism.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . bruner, e. ( ). “abraham lincoln as authentic reproduction: a critique of postmodernism.” american anthropologist, : - . brunt, p., and p. courtney ( ). host perceptions of socio-cul- tural impacts. annals of tourism research, ( ): - . buck, r. ( ). “the ubiquitous tourist brochure: exploration in its intended and unintended use.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . buck, r. ( ). boundary maintenance revisited: tourist experi- ence in an old order amish community. rural sociology, ( ): - . chhabra, d. ( ). “positioning museums on an authenticity continuum.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . chhabra, d., r. healy, and e. sills ( ). “staged authenticity and heritage tourism.” annals of tourism research, : - . cohen, e. ( ). “authenticity and commoditization in tourism.” annals of tourism research, : - . cohen, e. ( ). “authenticity in tourism studies: apres la lutte.” tourism recreation research, ( ): - . cong, d. ( ). “the roots of amish popularity in contemporary usa.” the journal of american culture, ( ): - . creswell, j., and v. clark ( ). designing and conducting mixed methods research. london: sage. dogan, h. ( ). “forms of adjustment: sociocultural impacts of tourism.” annals of tourism research, : - . evans-pritchard, d. ( ). “how `they see us’: native american images of tourists.” annals of tourism research, : - . fagence, m. ( ). tourism as a protective barrier. in hosts and guests revisited: tourism issues of the st century, edited by v. l. smith and m. brent. new york: cognizant communica- tions. foster, g. ( ). “what is folk culture?” american anthropolo- gist, ( ): - . fox, m. ( ). “the social impact of tourism. challenge to researchers and planners.” in a new kind of sugar: tourism in the pacific, edited by b. finney and a. watson. honolulu: center for south pacific studies, pp. - . gillespie, a. ( ). “tourist photography and the reverse gaze.” ethos, ( ): - . gursoy, d., and d. rutherford ( ). “host attitudes toward tourism. an improved structural model.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . ham, s., d. brown, and s. jang ( ). “proponents or opponents of casino gaming: a qualitative choice model approach.” journal of hospitality and tourism research, ( ): - . haraalambopoulos, n., and a. pizam ( ). “perceived impacts of tourism: the case of samos.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . hawley, j. ( ). “the commercialization of old order amish quilts: enduring and changing cultural meanings.” clothing and textiles research journal, ( ): - . holden, m. ( ). “making all the crooked ways straight. the satirical portrait of whites in coast salish folklore.” journal of american folklore, : - . hostetler, j. ( ). amish society. th ed. baltimore: johns hop- kins university press. joseph, c., and a. kavoori ( ). “mediated resistance: tour- ism and the host community.” annals of tourism research, : - . kim, s. ( ). “impact of korean tourists on korean residents in hawaii and queensland, australia.” in contemporary issues in tourism development, edited by d. pearce and r. butler. lon- don: routledge, pp. - . kraybill, d. ( ). riddle of the amish culture. baltimore: johns hopkins university press. kraybill, d., and s. nolt ( ). “amish enterprise: from plows to profits.” contemporary sociology, ( ): - . kreps, g., j. donnermeyer, c. hurst, r. blair, and m. kreps ( ). “the impact of tourism on the amish subculture: a case study.” community development journal, ( ): - . laxon, j. ( ). “how ‘we’ see ‘them’: tourism and native americans.” annals of tourism research, : - . light, d. ( ). “gazing on communism: heritage tourism and post-communist identities in germany, hungary, and roma- nia.” tourism geographies, ( ): - . littrell, m., l. anderson, and p. brown ( ). “what makes a craft souvenir authentic.” annals of tourism research, : - . liu, j., p. sheldon, and t. var ( ). “resident perceptions of the environmental impacts of tourism.” annals of tourism research, : - . liu, j., and t. var ( ). “resident attitudes toward tourism impacts in hawaii.” annals of tourism research, : - . loomis, c., and j. beegle ( ). rural sociology: the strategy of change. englewood cliffs, nj: prentice hall. maccannell, d. ( ). “staged authenticity: arrangements of social space in tourist settings.” american journal of sociol- ogy, : - . mcgregor, a. ( ). “dynamic texts and tourist gaze: death, bones and buffalo.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ chhabra sutton, w. ( ). “travel and understanding: notes on the social structure of touring.” international journal of comparative sociology, ( ): - . tap, n. ( ). “in defence of the archaic: a reconsideration of the s ethnic classification project in china.” asian ethnicity, ( ): - . tosun, c. ( ). “host perceptions of impacts: a comparative tourism study.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . uriely, n. ( ). “the tourist experience-conceptual develop- ments.” annals of tourism research, : - . urry, j. ( ). “the tourist gaze “revisited.” the american behavioral scientist, ( ): - . volkman t. ( ). “visions and revisions: toraja culture and the tourist gaze.” american ethnologist, ( ): - . waitt, g. ( ). “consuming heritage: perceived historical authenticity.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . westerhausen, k. ( ). beyond the beach: an ethnography of modern travellers in asia. bangkok: white lotus press. yea, s. ( ). “on and off the ethnic tourism map in southeast asia: the case of iban longhouse tourism, sarawak, malay- sia.” tourism geographies, ( ): - . yoder, p. ( ). tradition and transition: amish mennonites and old order amish - . eugene, or: wipf and stock. zhihong, b. ( ). “ethnic identities under the tourist gaze.” asian ethnicity, ( ): - . bio deepak chhabra is an assistant professor at arizona state univer- sity in the school of community resources and development. her research interests include socioeconomic impacts of tourism, with specialized focus on gaming tourism and heritage tourism. she also has expertise in marketing. her recent work has centered on sus- tainable marketing of culture and heritage. miles, m., and m. huberman ( ). qualitative data analysis. london: sage. milman, a. and a. pizam ( ). “social impacts of tourism on central florida.” annals of tourism research, : - . moaz, d. ( ). “the mutual gaze.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . mowforth, m., and i. munt ( ). tourism and sustainability: new tourism in the third world. london: routledge. nash, d. ( ). “tourism as a form of imperialism.” in hosts and guests: the anthropology of tourism, edited by v. smith. phila- delphia: university of pennsylvania press, pp. - . nichols, m., d. giacopassi, and g. stitt ( ). “casino gambling as a catalyst of economic development: perceptions of resi- dents in new casino jurisdictions.” tourism economics, ( ): - . notzke, c. ( ). “indigenous tourism: development in the arc- tic.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . perdue, r., p. long, and l. allen ( ). “resident support for tour- ism development.” annals of tourism research, ( ): - . pizam, a. ( ). “tourism impacts: the social costs to the des- tination community as perceived by its residents.” journal of travel research, ( ): - . redfield, r. ( ). the little community. chicago: university of chicago press. redfield, r. ( ). the primitive world and its transformations. ithaca, ny: cornell university of chicago press. reisinger, y., and c. steiner ( ). “reconceptualizing object authenticity.” annals of tourism research, : - . reschly, s. ( ). the amish on the iowa prairie, - . baltimore: johns hopkins university press. rotham, r. ( ). “residents and transients: community reac- tion to seasonal visitors.” journal of travel research, ( ): - . by hisham gabr on october , jtr.sagepub.comdownloaded from http://jtr.sagepub.com/ reasons, chuck, ed. stampede city: power and politics in the west. toronto: between the lines, . $ . (paper) all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine reasons, chuck, ed. stampede city: power and politics in the west. toronto: between the lines, . $ . (paper) michael mcmordie special issue on the history of canadian housing policy volume , numéro , june uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu mcmordie, m. ( ). compte rendu de [reasons, chuck, ed. stampede city: power and politics in the west. toronto: between the lines, . $ . (paper)]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine discussed. the authors place particular emphasis on the pricing of urban services, asserting that most urban services in canada are currently underpriced and outlining a num- ber of possible approaches to what they see as more appropriate user charges for various urban services. an entire chapter is devoted to the pricing of urban services. the final chapter, dealing specifically with the financial situation of canadian municipalities, concerns provincial-municipal transfers. it outlines very clearly the basic theoretical con- text within which our provincial-municipal transfer system operates, the importance of grants to canadian municipali- ties, and the possible impact of intergovernmental transfers on local fiscal behaviour. the only shortcoming of this chap- ter on intergovernmental transfers is that it is rather silent on the role of the federal government in local government finance. although the federal government is often a silent partner in the intergovernmental transfer system affecting municipalities, it is an important one. this lack of attention to the historic and current role of the federal government is rather surprising, given the authors' concluding argument. as already indicated, these sections of urban public finance in canada are very clearly written and represent a successful attempt by the authors to clarify the financial situation of urban governments in canada rather than engulf the reader in economic jargon. for this reason alone, the book is a useful primer. the book's main weaknesses emerge in the more theoret- ical sections. an early chapter deals with the urban public economy and sets out some basic theoretical concepts and arguments about urban public finance, such as the theory of urban public goods and the tiebout hypothesis. like the rest of the book, this chapter is very clearly written. but it pres- ents these important theoretical concepts in a rather off- hand manner and does not explore fully the possible impli- cations of their application to different types of urban municipality (for example a rapidly growing suburb versus a stable or declining centre city) or for different classes of people living in our urban centres. the final chapter is also theoretical in that it sets out the authors' own views concern- ing a needed "new approach" to urban finance in canada. in a sense, this chapter is the most disappointing of the entire book because, as the authors themselves admit, their pre- scriptions for the future are so general, focusing on a clarion call for a re-examination of the nation's total governmental system with analysis of urban finances as part of that exam- ination. this reader would have liked two urban economists of the calibre of bird and slack push their thinking beyond this level of generality. perhaps that will be the focus of their next volume on urban public finance in canada. in the meantime, this book does make a useful contribution. katherine a. graham school of public administration carleton university reasons, chuck, ed. stampede city: power and politics in the west. toronto: between the lines, . $ . (paper). these nine essays were written to document the social changes experienced through calgary's boom of the late s and to establish who benefitted from the apparent prosperity. "although politicians and businessmen repeat- edly told us how great the boom times were, we and many other calgarians were living through a decline in the quality of living in the city" (preface, p.l). as this suggests, this collection does not celebrate the great achievements of dar- ing and skillful entrepreneurs. perhaps those have received their due from peter newman or douglas house. instead, stampede city presents questionable successes and certified failures as the dominant theme of the boom years. prominent topics are dome petroleum's financial crisis, the city planners' failure to win political support, and the development industry's success at the same game. the role of calgary's newspapers, radio and tv as "corporate cheer- leaders," is described by michael shapcott, a calgary journalist through the boom. the stampede, and the winter olympics, are discussed in separate, similarly scept- ical, essays. colin campbell, on the stampede, and reasons, on the olympics, describe these as projects devised and managed by the rich and the powerful for their own benefit. manipulation of the political process appears to be the pre- ferred instrument. in extreme contrast, western separatism, as analysed by don ray, is shown to be a largely unsuccess- ful protest movement of small business, whether oil, agriculture or real estate, against big government, big busi- ness, quebec and ontario. all are seen by the separatist in conspiracy to dominate and expoit the west. the movement had its greatest triumphs, small though they were, when its targets could be personified by pierre trudeau. the final essay, "casualties of progress," (by reasons and emily drzymala) provides a concluding summary of the injured bystanders: foreclosed homeowners, victims of construction accidents (the alberta figures are appalling), discrimination against racial minorities, the unemployed, and the victims of stress and crime. on the positive side it notes also signs of organized resistance, by labour, inner city com- munities, and the calgary disarmament coalition. the chapter, and the book, close with a report of the miss universe pageant fiasco and a brief comment on the alberta heritage savings trust fund. in an effort to entice the pag- eant, organizers — the calgary tourist and convention bureau — committed the city to an $ , advance. the organizers failed, lost the money and left everyone involved, from the mayor down, the object of ridicule, this at a time when the boom had bust and the city was making sweeping cuts in staff and services. despite the stated intent of the authors, the result of their efforts is hardly a systematic and balanced analysis, nor does it deliver adequate documentation of rapid social change. book reviews/comptes rendus throughout they fail to estabish a sufficient context for comparison, to present the calgary experience in the light of development elsewhere. how sycophantic is journalism in other canadian cities, how are other civic exhibitions man- aged, which other cities have coped better with explosive urban growth? only the discussion of construction accidents shows just how bad the local record was compared with other provinces and against the earlier alberta figures. the other arguments presented are too often without a clear frame or solid foundation. the recital of instances of mismanagement, manipula- tion, and waste records some useful material for a future history of the boom years, and will win the reader's agree- ment that all this is deplorable, that somehow things should be better, but fails to suggest what improvement is likely, or how it might be achieved. the one contributor with experi- ence of political office, one-time alderman elaine husband, explains that she chose not to run again despite strong sup- port because she had no interest in playing "loyal opposition." organized community power was more important, she felt, in improving the balance of a political process dominated by business interests. her choice seems to confirm a disheart- ening message: representative government doesn't work, the representatives are either pawns or powerless; the best you can do is join the manipulators by establishing your own power block. urban evolution is reduced to social darwin- ism. stampede city was clearly not intended to address the larger questions of civic life and growth. nonetheless they are implicit in the experience presented and the perspective taken. what roles should and do power blocks, administra- tors, politicians and voters play in shaping the city, and the experience of its citizens. can and should everyone's imme- diate interests be equally powerful? what place is there for the vision of a burnham and the ambition of a drapeau? in the light of their efforts, calgary's ambitions, and its fail- ures, seem modest. this collection reminds us of both. michael mcmordie faculty of environmental design university of calgary canadian ethnic studies, special issue: ethnic art and architecture, xvi (fall ). calgary: canadian ethnic studies association, . pp. . illustrations. $ . . the canadian scholarly journal, canadian ethnic stud- ies, published three times a year, periodically devotes special issues to specific themes in ethnic studies. the recent fall issue of was one such volume, devoted to the topic of ethnic art and architecture in canada, some pages with nine major articles, one research note, a review article, sev- eral book reviews, and a special bibliography centred upon the theme of the issue. although the declared topic is ethnic art and architec- ture, the thrust of the issue is clearly towards ethnic architecture. of the major papers only two deal directly with ethnic art; the review article and the research note address the art component of the theme, but in general it appears that ethnic art receives short shrift. although it may be argued that architecture is an art form, it seems unfortunate that the editors did not separate out the two themes as dis- tinctive manifestations of ethnicity, and devote an issue to each theme, rather than attempting to integrate them in a single issue. architecture and ethnicity is covered here from a variety of standpoints. the approaches range from the analytical to descriptive and from the innovative to conventional. taken together they provide a good baromètre of the level of schol- arship in the field and provide a ready indication of those fields which are making significant contributions to this facet of ethnic studies in canada. the collection of articles opens with papers by trevor boddy and radoslav zuk, who address, respectively: "eth- nic identity and contemporary canadian architecture," and "architectural significance and culture." the following articles range across domestic and religious vernacular eth- nic architecture, from the structure and symbolism of a swiss-german mennonite farmstead of waterloo county, ontario; through doukhobor architecture; to ethnic reli- gious architecture as exemplified by three churches in sydney, nova scotia. in canada there is an unfortunate but common miscon- ception that ethnic contributions to the canadian architectural heritage are confined to the quaint or pictur- esque heritage of european folk architecture transferred to canada by those who pioneered the agricultural frontier- lands of the new world. in his opening article boddy refutes this as he argues that recent immigrants and canadians from ethnic and religious minorities have enjoyed considerable success as architects. of these, the edmonton métis, doug- las cardinal, the winnipeg franco-manitoban, etienne gaboury, and the toronto-based japanese-canadian, ray- mond moriyama, are perhaps the best known. through a review of their careers boddy attempts to isolate the one factor which has caused them to rise to the top of their profession. he argues that the role that their ethnicity has played was, and is, that of a "simulacrum which focuses and forges character within a far-too-homogenized culture" (p. ). more prosaic, but probably of equal significance was the position of all three outside the social elite of canada's two "founding nations" and their consequent exclusion from a social network through which contacts could be made and contracts awarded. pushed by circumstance to obtain work strictly upon their own demonstrated merits they made notes and news margaret wrong memorial fund bursary t h e margaret wrong bursary for has been awarded to mr. menbere wolde, of addis ababa, ethiopia, who is now at the african literature centre, kitwe, zambia. mr. wolde speaks and writes amharic and english and has been working with the literature society of the mennonite mission in ethiopia, editing a book in amharic on the life of abraham. before going to kitwe he translated a correspondence course from english into amharic and prepared a story for new literates on the life of david. reopening of the musee provincial du katanga t h e musee leopold ii at elisabethville, which was partly destroyed in , has now been reopened as the musee provincial du katanga. mr. a. schmits acted as curator during and managed to salvage about half the original ethnographic collection and some of the prehistoric items. in the authorities of the province of east katanga (commissariat a la jeunesse, aux sports et aux affaires culturelles) made a grant for the repair of the build- ings and the purchase of furniture and materials. the present curator is dr. r. r. de poerck, of the university of ghent, a specialist in archaeology and the history of primitive art, who is assisted by a staff of seven congolese. the ethnographic collections belonging to a private society (' les amis du musee') have been loaned to the province, and efforts are being made to build up the library of more than , books and periodicals which has been severely depleted. afro-asian books in english two monthly check-lists of books for asia and africa will be published regularly from april by k. k. roy (private) ltd., gariahat road, p.o. box iozio, calcutta- , india. the lists will cover all books published in english in most asian and african countries, excluding elementary textbooks and children's books, and will be available on subscription basis. library of congress bibliography for rhodesias and nyasaland t h e library of congress has published the tenth in its series of guides to the documents of african governments, the rhodesias and nyasaland: a guide to official publications. the new guide is compiled by audrey a. walker and contain , entries covering as comprehen- sively as possible the published records of administration in the former federation of rhodesia and nyasaland from to ; it includes selected british documents pertain- ing to the federation and its component territories, and major publications by the british south africa company. it may be obtained from the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office, washington, d.c. , at $ . a copy. anthropological bibliography of nigeria m r . n. o. ita, sub-librarian of the nnamdi azikwe library, university of nigeria, nsukka, has been working for two years on a bibliography which will include anthropo- logical, archaeological, linguistic, and relevant sociological studies bearing on the various peoples of nigeria. it will be limited to published materials (books, pamphlets, and articles available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core notes and news in periodicals) in any languages other than arabic, although relevant unpublished theses and dissertations will be included. it is planned to limit the work to between , and , titles, most of which will be supplied with indicative and informative annotations. the bibliography is expected to be ready for publication by the end of this year. cardan and centre of african studies, cambridge: bibliography cards l e centre d'analyse et de recherche documentaires pour l'afrique noire and the univer- sity of cambridge centre of african studies are publishing jointly bibliography cards on current literature on black africa in the field of the social sciences: books, theses, government documents, conference proceedings, cyclostyled material, and articles from about periodicals, in all european languages, and it is hoped soon to include material in chinese and japanese. subscribers will receive about , cards annually, a copy of the classification system used and a list of the periodicals indexed. cards will be dispatched four times a year in the form of sheets, ready to cut up, each containing eight "x " cards. these sheets come in two thicknesses: ordinary paper, for those who do not wish to cut up the entries; bristol paper, card weight, for those who intend to file. each card carries a cardan serial number and classification by subject and region. subscribers may cut up and file the cards as they please, but those who keep author, subject, and region files, will need several sets of cards. with the final mailing each year a cumulative subject index is sent out, also in the form of sheets for cutting into cards. this means that a subscriber need only cut up the cumulative subject index to have subject references to all the year's entries. the cards themselves fall into three categories: . cards with abstracts (a.c.) these contain bibliographical references to periodical articles, symposia, cyclostyled material, conference proceedings, etc. with short abstracts. . descriptive or simple index cards (d.c.) these contain bibliographical references to articles of interest to research workers, but which are too short, too specialized, or too ephemeral to be worth giving abstracts. . cards of books and other major works (b.c.) these appear as a separate publication and will complete the bibliographical references provided by the a.c. and d.c. these cards do not contain abstracts but provide notes of explanation where titles are not sufficiently self- explanatory, and subject and regional classification. the b.c. will be published once yearly (about may) and will contain references to all works published in the previous year. references to the b.c. will appear in the annual cumulative subject index sent with the a.c. and d.c. terms of subscription a.c. and d.c.—four numbers per year+ cumulative index, list of key-words and list of periodicals: bristol paper ordinary paper ordinary paper sent airmail b.c.—one number each year: bristol paper ordinary paper nf nf nf nf nf £ " £ £ £ £ $ $ $ $ $ available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ shortcommunicationrevista brasileira de ornitologia, ( ), - june black-legged (chunga burmeisteri) and red-legged (cariama cristata) seriemas represent the family cariamidae (remsen et al. ), which is somewhat poorly known. alvarenga ( ) indicated they are the closest living relatives of giant predatory cenozoic birds (i.e., brontornis and mesembriornis) similar to diatryma. despite their large size, loud vocalizations, and overall conspicuousness, relatively little has been published on this family, which is surprising considering how common they are in many areas of south america (redford and peters ). this is especially true for chunga, for which comparatively little is known relative to cariama (c.f., gonzaga ). most of the information published on this family in the last two decades has related to captive birds (e.g., de almeida ; collins ; hallager ; padget ). the objective of this note is to describe basic ecology of chunga and cariama, and determine whether habitat partitioning occurs between these taxa. such mechanisms of allocation reduce the possibility of competition among species filling similar niches (brooks et al. ). additionally anecdotal biological observations are reported from studying a baited family group of chunga. methods study region the main study site was estancia fortín toledo (hereafter ecological notes on seriema species in the paraguayan chaco, with observations on chunga biology daniel m. brooks houston museum of natural science, department of vertebrate zoology, hermann park drive, houston, texas - , usa – dbrooks@hmns.org received on august . accepted on october . abstract: i studied the ecology of black-legged (chunga burmeisteri) and red-legged (cariama cristata) seriemas in the central paraguayan chaco from september to august , including observations of a baited family group of chunga. both species are allotopic in habitat use, with chunga typically associated with drier forested areas and cariama inhabiting savanna and wetland periphery. interspecific territories were overlapping. wind velocity and temperature correlated significantly with activity of cariama and baited chunga, respectively. the average density of chunga was . /km . reptiles are an important prey item and i describe an interesting feeding behavior. the breeding season in chunga takes place during the paraguayan summer (november – march). bonding and courtship occurred around november and december, and the following weeks were used for nest building, incubation, hatching, and chick development. keywords: black-legged seriema; breeding cycle; chaco; habitat allotopy; paraguay; red-legged seriema; tool use toledo; ° 's; ° 'w), located in the center of the paraguayan chaco (department boquerón) km west of the mennonite town of filadelfia. this area has been extensively cleared for cattle production, like much of the central paraguayan chaco (benirschke et al. ). the region is primarily grassland pasture punctuated with man-made ponds (tajamares) and some small forest tracts. the primary forest type is quebracho woodland (short ) with thorny leguminous bushes (e.g., prosopis ruscifolia) and opuntia cactus (lopez et al. ) as the dominant plants, with scattered trees (e.g., aspidosperma quebracho, bulnesia sarmientii, and schinopsis sp.) up to m in height. isolated tracts of dense thorn forest are sometimes left remaining when land is cleared for agrarian purposes. spiny terrestrial plants such as bayonet bromeliads (bromelia serra) and star cactus (cleistocactus baumannii) comprise dominant understory plants (stabler ). mean annual temperature is co and annual rainfall is mm (brooks ). i also made observations on transects in the northern chaco, a north-south habitat transition from the middle to upper chaco was noted, with the latter characterized by increased forest stratification and higher canopy, less dense and thorny foliage, and an overall greater abundance of broadleaf species. i identified general habitat occupancy by overlapping a macrohabitat map (olson et al. ) with seriema range maps from natureserve ( ). revista brasileira de ornitologia, ( ), ecological notes on seriema species in the paraguayan chaco, with observations on chunga biology daniel m. brooks field methods field data were collected between september – august , during direct encounters while driving unpaved road transects. weekly surveys extended km from eastern toledo to filadelfia ( km round-trip), and monthly surveys extended . km through western toledo. other areas were randomly surveyed during various times of the year. additionally, approximately km were walked daily to collect data on habitat association. chunga density was determined using strip transects following balph et al. ( ). the road from toledo to filadelfla and back ( km round-trip) was driven weekly during daylight hours. all seriemas seen m from the center of the road were counted, and the resulting surveyed area comprised a . km plot. daily observations of a familial group of chunga lured to a baited site were made from a blind located m from the bait. study hours in the blind ranged from – h and averaged min/day. identification of individuals was possible using a combination of differences in size, feather arrangement, and plumage tint. temperature (co) was recorded using a standard thermometer; rainfall (mm) was recorded using a standard rain gauge; cloud cover (clear = , partly cloudy = , cloudy = , overcast = , or rainy = ); and relative wind velocity (stagnant = , occasional light breeze = , consistent light wind = , or windy = ) were recorded several times during daylight hours. monthly means were obtained for temperature, cloud cover, and relative wind velocity; a monthly total was obtained for mm of rainfall. the effects of these individual abiotic parameters on seriema activity (encounters) were measured using pearson product-moment correlations. results habitat allotopy both species of seriema were observed < . km from forest tracts at toledo. although chunga were frequently observed within these isolated tracts, cariama were not. moreover chunga were always observed in more xeric areas, whereas cariama were often associated with open, seasonally inundated conditions such as mesic savanna or wetland periphery. during a survey in the northern part of the chaco, which contains more forest and is less developed than the central chaco, chunga were seen on two separate occasions (group sizes = and ), with tracks at a third locale, and vocalizations just north of the bolivian border. cariama were not encountered during this survey of forested habitat, reinforcing that these two species are allotopic with regards to habitat selection. the geographic range of chunga is not entirely sympatric with cariama (fig. ), having a more westward distribution in argentina. overlapping the geographic ranges of both species (natureserve ) with associated habitats of biomes (olson et al. ) corroborates that chunga are restricted to drier forested areas, whereas cariama are adapted to more open often mesic environments. additional ecological factors in transitional patches between xeric forest and open habitats, seriemas were spatially sympatric. for example, an individual chunga was observed ca. m from a family of cariama (an adult pair and two juveniles), suggesting that exclusive territories overlap interspecifically and direct competition may not occur between the two species. four abiotic factors (temperature, wind, rainfall, and cloud cover) were each correlated with activity of cariama and baited and non-baited chunga to assess if these environmental parameters influenced seriema activity. the only significant correlation with cariama activity was wind (r = . , p < . , n = ), and no significant correlations were found with non-baited chunga. the only significant correlation with baited chunga was temperature (r = . , p < . , n = ), reflecting increased activity during warmer periods. both species would stand in tree shade on excessively hot days. chunga were relatively inactive at temperatures less than ° c, and none were encountered during surveys with temperatures < ° c. although rainfall was not significant, baited chunga left the feeding site during heavy, but not light, rain showers. chunga biology chunga density ranged - . /km monthly with an annual mean of . /km . mean densities for the austral spring = . /km , summer = . /km , fall = . /km , and winter = . /km . each chunga spent an average of min (n = separate visits) at the baited site, with a mode of < min (n = , % of all observations) in the general viewable area. non-bait food items consumed included a grass (appeared to be buffel grass cenchrus ciliaris), leguminous shoots from algarrobo trees (prosopis alba), large grasshoppers (acrididae), green ameiva lizards (ameiva ameiva), small snakes (liophis sp.), and small unidentified passerines. the presence of the baited group at the site diminished during periods of high rainfall likely reflects reduced dependence upon the bait site due to increased activity of reptiles, which appeared to make up the bulk of their natural diet. an interesting feeding behavior was observed that could be interpreted as a form of tool use. chunga used revista brasileira de ornitologia, ( ), ecological notes on seriema species in the paraguayan chaco, with observations on chunga biology daniel m. brooks ‘anvils’ (i.e., cracking bases) to crack open hard boiled eggs and galletas (hardened pastry). by seizing a food item in the bill and raising it high above the head (head and neck perpendicular to ground), the bird swung down and released the food, smashing it over the anvil. this behavior was observed > times and involved different types of anvils (i.e., salt lick rock, brick, lumber, or hard squash). the smaller pieces were consumed once a food item was broken. if an item was only cracked in two, the smaller piece would be smashed again or the larger piece would be held steady with the foot while the inner portions were consumed. usually the food item was cracked within the first few throws. accuracy of hitting the anvil diminished with number of throws. on one occasion a food item was thrown times on four different anvils (hard squash, brick, lumber, and salt rock) before the item was consumed. after a few unsuccessful throws a food item was usually exchanged for another. the breeding season in chunga is during the austral summer (december–february) when temperature and wind are fairly constant and high rainfall results in abundant food availability. sightings of non-baited chunga decreased slightly during this period (see above) due to established territories and nesting behavior commencing. although typically a single chick is raised, two juveniles were observed with their parents on one occasion. specific breeding dates and events were observed from the baited pair, as follows: november: pair arrives together at the feeding site for the first time december: pair observed unison calling december: courtship observed december– march: pair absent march: one of the adults returns to the feeding site with a juvenile. thus nest building, incubation, hatching, and growth is approximately weeks. discussion the results suggest chunga is associated with more xeric areas, whereas cariama is found in more open, often mesic habitats. this was observed at the main study site, as well as in other parts of the chaco, and was also confirmed by overlaying range to habitat maps. while these results essentially corroborate the findings of others (cf. gonzaga ), the findings of lack of interspecific territoriality, and the influence of various abiotic components are apparently novel to this study. specifically, a single chunga was observed near an adult pair of cariama with offspring with no territorial consequence. additionally wind velocity was significantly correlated with cariama activity, and temperature was correlated with baited chunga activity. many of the results for chunga biology are novel, including density (seasonal mean, annual mean, and range) and feeding habits (e.g., reptiles in the diet), and certain aspects of reproduction (cf. gonzaga ). the behavior involving utilizing an anvil to break food items is similar to that described in other species of birds, such as egyptian vultures (neophron percnopterus; van lawick-goodall and van lawick ). this could be considered a form of tool use because the anvil is an inanimate object serving as a functional extension of the animal (mcfarland ), and the behavior was observed on numerous occasions (n ≥ ) upon different anvils. more detailed autecological studies of habitat association, food habits, behavioral and reproductive ecology would be fertile areas for future research. in particular, the ability to quantify habitat with movements using telemetry equipment would be fruitful, as well as the ability to quantify preferred prey. acknowledgments i am grateful for the companionship of several individuals in paraguay, including eddie and sonja; jakob, maria, and dominik unger; chaco solar caballeros eduardo and carlo, and some of the local mennonites. several paraguayan government and non-government organizations supported research in more ways than one: ministerio de agricultura y ganaderia, servicio forestal nacional, inventario biológico nacional, centro de datos para la conservación, and fundación moises bertoni. financial support was provided by dr. kurt benirschke and the foundation for endangered animals. i appreciate the comments of rob clay, kini roesler, floyd hayes, and jack hailman on previous drafts of this manuscript. finally, thanks to luciano naka for encouragement to ‘blow the dust off’ this manuscript, and update it for inclusion in the juan mazar barnett memorial volume. the data herein were collected during a very early time in my career (i was )… hot water, electricity, air-conditioning, phones, television, and stereos were non-existent when i lived in the chaco, but the fauna was diverse and abundant and provided ample diversion during non-sleeping hours. references alvarenga, h. m. f. . uma gigantesca ave fossil do cenozoico brasileiro. anais academia brasileira de ciências, : - . balph, m.h.; stoddart, l.c. & balph, d.f. . a simple technique for analyzing bird transect counts, auk : - . benirschke, k.; byrd m.l. & low, r.j. . the chaco region of paraguay: peccaries and mennonites, interdisciplinary science reviews, : - . revista brasileira de ornitologia, ( ), ecological notes on seriema species in the paraguayan chaco, with observations on chunga biology daniel m. brooks brooks, d.m. . competition and coexistence in neotropical birds: a latitudinal comparison. ph.d. dissertation. college station: texas a&m university. brooks, d.m.; pando-v., l.; ocmin-p, a. & tejada-r, j. . resource separation in a napo-amazonian gamebird community, p. - . in: brooks, d.m. & gonzalez-f., f. (eds.). biology and conservation of cracids in the new millennium. houston: misc. publ. houston mus. nat. sci. no. . collins, s. . breeding the red-legged seriema. afa watchbird, : - . de almeida, a.c. . notas sobre a biologia reprodutiva da seriama cariama cristata (linnaeus, ) (gruiformes - cariamidae). revista nordestina de biologia, : - . gonzaga, l.p. . family cariamidae (seriemas), p. - . in: del hoyo, j.; elliott, a.; and sargatal, j. (eds.). handbook of the birds of the world, v. . barcelona: lynx edicions. hallager, s. . north american regional studbook for the red- legged seriema. smithsonian national zoological park. lopez, j.; little, jr., e. l.; rombold, j. s. & hahn, w. j. . arboles comunes del paraguay. washington, d.c.: peace corps. mcfarland, d. (ed.). . the oxford companion to animal behavior. oxford: oxford university press. natureserve. . animals and ecosystems of latin america database. http://www.natureserve.org/infonatura (access january ). olson, d. m., dinerstein, e.; wikramanayake, e. d.; burgess, n. d.; powell, g. v. n.; underwood e. c.; d'amico j. a.; itoua, i.; strand, h. e.; morrison, j. c.; loucks, c. j.; allnutt, t. f.; ricketts, t. h.; kura, y.; lamoreux, j. f.; wettengel, w. w.; hedao, p. & kassem, k. r. . terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on earth. bioscience, : - . padget, a. e. . structure and possible function of vocalizations of captive red-legged seriemas (cariama cristata). m.sc. thesis, knoxville: university of tennessee. redford, k. h. & peters, g. . notes on the biology and song of the red-legged seriema (cariama cristata). journal of field ornithology, : - . remsen, j. v., jr.; cadena, c. d.; jaramillo, a.; nores, m.; pacheco, j. f.; pérez-emán, j.; robbins, m. b.; stiles, f. g.; stotz, d. f. & zimmer, k. j. . a classification of the bird species of south america. american ornithologists' union. http://www.museum. lsu.edu/~remsen/saccbaseline.html (access january ). short, l. . a zoogeographic analysis of the south american chaco avifauna. bulletin of the american museum of natural history, : - . stabler, d. b. . pflanzen in paraguay. asuncion: zamphiropolos s. a. van lawick-goodall, j. & van lawick, j. . use of tools by egyptian vultures neophron percnopterus, nature : - . associate editor: luciano n. naka cariama cristata often negotiated care. if christine stevenson and adams present different views of hospital architecture, form and function, both reveal how hospital design and representation were informed by cultural concerns, while rawcliffe presents a rich account of how patronage and the pursuit of salvation were incorporated into the material fabric of medieval hospitals. inevitably, with any collection of essays, there are gaps and not all readers will be satisfied. as the editors make clear, the history of non-western hospitals is often neglected and this is true of this volume. nor is a much needed up-to-date assessment of the historiography provided. there are weaknesses in some chapters: for example, matthew sneider in describing the financial strategies adopted by sixteenth- and seventeenth-century hospitals in bologna is too closely focused on the institutional context, whilst onger’s search for the growth of a hospital network in the brescian region is built on the uncertain assumption that one should exist. however, if the collection does not have the same groundbreaking credentials as the hospital in history, it demonstrates that hospital history should no longer be considered institutional history alone; that the field has much to offer medical historians, and that hospitals, as rawcliffe explains, are “mirrors of society”. keir waddington, cardiff university ole peter grell and andrew cunningham (eds), medicine and religion in enlightenment europe, the history of medicine in context, aldershot, ashgate, , pp. ix, , illus, £ . (hardcover - - - - ). this collection is one of several volumes by the same editors on the relations between medicine and religion in early modern europe, including medicine and the reformation (london, routledge, ) and ‘religio medici’: medicine and religion in seventeenth- century england (aldershot, scolar press, ). through its presentation by andrew cunningham and thirteen chapters by fourteen other contributors, the volume provides the reader with a tapestry of topics and questions concerning the intersections between medical practice and knowledge and christianity, in different european countries on both sides of the religious divide between roman catholic and protestant (portugal, spain, naples, rome, france, bavaria and other german countries, the netherlands, denmark, england and scotland). yet, territorial borders in most chapters often fade as a result of a fluid circulation of the writings instrumental to the debates as much as of their agents’ mobility. the range of topics is wide. while jonathan i israel focuses on the impact of the dutch radical enlightenment—freethinking and atheist followers of descartes and spinoza—on medical thought in the netherlands and, by exportation, in london, germany and denmark, peter elmer emphasizes the amazingly limited influence that this philosophical radicalism had in post- restoration england on the religious views of nonconformist physicians who, although most had been trained in the netherlands, were even prepared to believe in witchcraft. a wide exploration of physicians’ library lists, both printed and manuscript, leads l w b brockliss to claim that a moderate catholic enlightenment prevailed in the french medical community in contrast to the frequent association of the enlightenment with religious scepticism and even atheism. some peculiarities of the enlightenment in naples and scotland are explored by maria conforti’s and john henry’s essays. while the former deals with the intermingling of religion, philosophy and history in the historico-medical narratives by seventeenth- and eighteenth-century neapolitan physicians, the latter focuses on the religious rationale behind the scottish common sense school of philosophy whose followers used their analysis of the nature of the mind and its operations to guarantee the certainties of the scientific approach in the path of newtonian book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core natural philosophy and laws of nature, so as to combat scepticism and irreligiosity by proving the existence of god through demonstrations of the laws of the mind. two other essays focus on images of anatomy, and natural history and materia medica in late seventeenth- and eighteenth- century netherlands. rina knoeff comparatively analyses the conceptions and moral lessons of perfection in the anatomical atlases by the mennonite govard bidloo ( ) and the calvinist siegfried albinus ( ). benjamin schmidt focuses on the peculiarities of the ideological strategy (exoticism, universal knowledge, priority of pleasure and delight) followed by authors, illustrators and publishers of naturalistic works from the non-european world under dutch control (mostly the east indies). iberian enlightenments are targeted by two more essays. timothy walker emphasizes portuguese state-licensed medical practitioners’ conspicuous role as experts in the service of the inquisition, and the paradoxical convergence between their fight against popular healing culture and the catholic church’s struggle against magic and sorcery. while the essay by josé pardo-tomás and àlvar martı́nez-vidal discusses secular and regular clergymen’s moralist contributions to the spanish debates on birth care (including performing baptism on a dying infant), and their support for the professional legitimization of the emerging practice of male midwifery surgeons to the detriment of that of traditional midwives. the remaining essays are focused on case studies of miracles, exorcisms and sanctity that illustrate enlightenment interactions of new medicine and its practitioners with catholicism in the context of europe where religious division was still relevant. robert jütte revisits the french and german enlightenment debates on the medical miracle of the “golden tooth” that was allegedly grown by a silesian boy in . through the case of a franciscan friar who levitated during his ecstasies and was beatified by benedict xiv, catrien santing shows the limits of the modernizing and rationalizing agenda of an “enlightenment pope” who aimed to use new medical and natural philosophical scholarship for purifying and reinforcing the catholic church. claudia stein explores the peculiarities of bavarian catholic enlightenment by dealing with an apparently successful healing through exorcism ( ) performed on a daughter of johann anton von wolter—the favourite physician of maximilian iii joseph of bavaria—and the reactions of a variety of witnesses. and ole peter grell focuses on the spiritual journey from lutheranism to catholicism of the danish anatomists nicolaus steno and his grand-nephew jacob winsløw, by emphasizing the seminal role played in both conversions by jacques-bénigne bossuet in the fervent intellectual atmosphere of counter- reformation paris. in sum, this valuable volume underlines firstly, the persistence of the religious rationale in enlightenment europe and its relevance for medicine and medical practitioners; secondly, the plurality of meanings and registers of this cultural movement, from its radical version to the multiplicity of more moderate protestant and catholic enlightenments; and thirdly, a number of features (miracles and conversions, mostly) that fed religious polemic between both sides of the major early modern christian schism. jon arrizabalaga, csic-imf, barcelona marion maria ruisinger, patientenwege. die konsiliarkorrespondenz lorenz heisters ( – ) in der trew-sammlung erlangen, medizin, gesellschaft und geschichte, beiheft , stuttgart, franz steiner, , pp. , e . (paperback - - - - ). for more than twenty years medical history has been paying greater attention to the people for whom medical thought, action and effort is carried out—the patients. primary sources, book reviews https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core university microfilms international please send additional information name institution street city state zip north zeeb road dept. p.r. ann arbor, mi. usa. - mortimer street dept. p.r. london win ra england terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the cross in the dark valley the canadian protestant missionary movement in the japanese empire, - a. ham is h ion cloth $ . • isbn - - -x ion sheds new light on the dramatic challenges faced by foreign missionaries and japanese christians alike in what was the watershed period in the religious history of twentieth-century east asia. §: * the cross in the dark vcrf eyj thecanadian protestanl missionary movement in the japanese empire, - also by a. hamish ion the cross and the rising sun: the canadian protestant missionary movement in the japanese empire, - cloth $ . • isbn - - - the cross and the rising sun: the british protestant missionary | movement in japan, korea and taiwan, - cloth $ . • isbn - - - locations of the sacred essays on religion, literature, and canadian culture william closson james cloth $ . • - - - in ten lively and wide-ranging essays, james presents a powerful argument for a new way of looking at the religious in contemporary canada - not in the traditional ways of being religious, but in activities and in locations previously thought to be "secular." he discloses that the most vigorous engage- ments with religion in canada at the end of the twentieth century are found outside the confines of formal religious life. wlufl wilfrid laurier university press waterloo. on n l press@ wlu ca • fax - - terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the religious dreamworld of apuleius' metamorphoses recovering a forgotten hermeneutic james gollnick paper $ . • isbn - - - editions sr series, volume the first book to stress the role of dreams as a way to understand apuleius' metamorphoses and to provide an in-depth consideration of the book's dreamlike atmosphere. god and the chip religion and the culture of technology william a. stahl paper $ . • isbn - - - editions sr series, volume "stahl['s]... discussion of 'redemptive technol- ogy' is one of the most rich, profound, and illuminating discussions of religion and tech- nology in recent years." - ronald cole-turner obedience, suspicion and the gospel of mark a mennonite-feminist exploration of biblical authority lydia neufeld harder paper $ . • isbn - - - studies in women and religion, volume are obedience and suspicion necessarily oppo- site ways to respond to the authority of the bible? can one criticize and be transformed at the same time? harder invites readers to reflect on some significant questions regarding theological assumptions and implications. wlutl wilfrid laurier university press terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core collected works of bernard lonergan volume : collection edited by frederick e. crowe a n d robert m. d o r a n 'lonergan is considered by many intellectuals to be the finest philosophic thinker of the twentieth century.' (time) the first volume to appear in a new series of bernard lonergan's collected works, collection deals with scientific, mathematical, theological, and philosophical questions, in- cluding discussions of such topics as the proper foundation of metaphysics, the form of inference, the nature of love and marriage, and the role of the university in the modern world. terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core spemjlng the truth \xwneoimt.. lttx.-rattt.nl, ami black thtt*toit\> jame*. h. t;««ie william j. la due the chair of saint peter a history of the papacy "la due has written an exceptional book, indeed a rare study, on the evolution of the papal office." —heiko overman pp. - - - he $ . b y r o n l. s h e r w i n a n d h a r o l d k a s i m o w editors john paul ii and interreligious dialogue faith meets faith series "a stirring testament to john paul ll's courage and the open- ness of other faiths to be active partners in dialogue." — ari i. goldman, author of, the search for god at harvard pp. - - - paper $ . r a y m o n d f. b u l m a n the lure of the millennium the year and beyond how the christian vision of millennial harmony serves to help humankind achieve peace. pp. - - - paper $ . james h . c o n e speaking the truth ecumenism, liberation, and black theology "this book is vintage cone—prophetic, passionate, pertinent, and provocative."— cornel west pp. - - - paper $ . justo f. gonzales christian thought revisited three types of theology offers basic models of theology to help students understand their validity and application. pp. - - - paper $ . o v e y n . m o h a m m e d , s.j. muslim-christian relations past, present, future introduces islam, reviews the political, cultural and economic obstacles to dialogue. pp. - - - paper $ . charles de foucauld writings selected with an introduction by robert ellsberg a poignant entry into the heart and writings of this modern mystic and martyr. pp. - - - paper $ . orbis books maryknoll, new york - o o - - depi sa through your bookseller or direct mc/visa (ups add'l) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core gustavo butler re a: omolm gustavo gutierrez the density of the present selected writings new essays cover catholic social teaching, the church's mis- sion of evangelization, the meaning of spirituality, and the task of theology. pp. - - -x paper $ . pierre teilhard de chardin writings selected with an introduction by ursula king the visionary writings of one of the most influential catholic thinkers of this century. pp. - - - paper $ . a n n e m . c l i f f o r d introducing feminist theology introduces the major forms and historical currents of feminist theology from the th century to the 's. pp. - - - paper $ . g a r y m a c y , e d i t o r theology and the new histories annual publication of the college theology society how christianity, as an historical religion, is responding to the challenge of multiple readings of history. - - - pp. paper $ . eileen e g a n peace be with you justified warfare or the way of nonviolence a preeminent peacemaker and a co-founder of pax christi usa, eileen egan revives the ancient gospel message of non- violence. pp. - - - paper $ . t h o m a s b a m a t & j e a n - p a u l w i e s t , eds. popular catholicism in a world church seven case studies in inculturation the maryknoll center for mission study and research reports on the faces and forms of popular catholicism. pp. - - - paper $ . p h i l i p sheldrake spirituality and theology christian living and the doctrine of god explores the work of rahner, von balthasar, gutierrez, and feminist theologians who have attempted a reintegration of the- ology and spirituality. pp. - - - paper $ . orbis books maryknoll, new york - o o - - dept. sa through your bookseller or direct mc/visa (ups add'l) terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core missional church '/:lt|uj a vision for the sending of the church in north america edited by darrell l. guder • ' ; | l j l l ( f l the gospel and our culture network series w' *i!r| "this work offers a theology and a program to equip churches, particularly:k»|il||||j|||ilj gregations, to fulfill their mission to north american society. i commend t t # j | j | j | | | | ( l j are concerned with this, the most vital missionary frontier of our time." ::s*i!|llhij — lesslie n m l i | j p j j j | isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . •silllm grounds for understanding • ' ^ ecumenical resources for responses to religious plurahi||t|j|lji| edited by s. mark heim ' lil^b p j t j j j j j "for anyone interested in how christians might help each other respond to rfji^^^^b — ̂ .iillp lenge of religious pluralism, this book provides a rich and fascinating resouf^li||llitl||i| s l l isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . . llb^b | | i ecumenical ventures in ethics ^ s l l ^ l |§jj protestants engage pope john paul ll's moral e n c y c l i < ^ * g l j j | | | l ^ h edited by reinhard hotter and theodor dieter i l l i l l h $ h j | contributors: theodor dieter, karl r donfried, jean bethke l l i | | j | | § j | j j j j ^•^sjff reinhard hiitter, james r keenan s.j., lois malcolm, gilbert m e i y ^ i | j l | | j | j j | v«|!p oliver o'donovan, risto saarinen, eberhard schockenhoff, and b * | | ^ | j j ( | | j j jill wannenwetsch " 'fshlli^b * ^ p isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . jlllj||| j | l § baptism and the unity of the church ••'•slllim edited by michael root and risto saarinen ^ "this study probes the real meaning of our common recognition of baptisttl ^ p i ^ i ^ i ^ s implications for the unity of the church. . . . a very important contribution, ^ l i i l l ^ b search for church unity." alan d pjs^m^^m^m isbn - - - - pages • paperback • $ . llill^h louvain theological and pastoral monographs /-"ctliil^b jews and christians: rivals or partners ^ for the kingdom of god? . ;;|il(|j in search of an alternative for the theology of substitution | i edited by didier pollefeyt ^jilll!! i " i ! ! c o n t r i b u t o r s : didier pollefeyt, bertold klappert, leon k l e n i c k l > : ^ | i ^ ^ i m i | | ^ | merrigan, and rik hoet cfesih^b f | isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . r'llll™ ^"eill . . _ ..': 'l:iiiiis %'wm at your bookstore, m b > . '' s i **piu u i l l or call - - - i | \ w m . r e e r d m a n s r ^ : i fax: - - ^ m b | | ^ y p u b l i s h i n g ^ | ocm*: e-mail: sales@eerdmans.com ieffersonave.s.e./grandrapids,ml«j?i terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core new jesus studies dale c. allison jr. jesus of nazareth milknarian prophet dale allison's clearly written jesus of nazareth will enable people who have followed recent discussions to vindicate and reclaim the central religious significance of the historical jesus. "allison's book is like a breath of fresh air in the cur- rent jesus debate." —john j. collins - - - pp paper $ . ($ . in canada> gerd theissen and annette merz the historical jesus a comprehensive guide in the bewildering array of competing theories about the his- torical figure of jesus, theissen and merz's major new vol- ume accurately presents the results of historical-jesus research in a comprehensive, intelligible, reliable format ".. .the most impressive jesus book yet a masterwork." —ben witherington iii - - - pp paper $ . ($ . in canada) - - - pp jacketed hardcover $ . ($ . in canada) john w. mrller jesus at thirty a psychological and historical portrait "adds a judicious application of psychological insight to the task of historical biblical scholarship." —wayne rollins - - - jacketed hardcover $ . ($ . in canada) richard q. ford the parables of jesus recovering the art of listening "with care, delicacy, and tenderness, richard ford listens to parable characters reacting to one another,.." —john dominic crossan - - - pp paper $ . ($ . in canada) k, c. hanson and douglas e. oakman palestine in the time of jesus social structures and social conflicts explains in a readable way the primary social structures and conflicts in ancient palestine and how they were reflected in the jesus movement. - - -x pp paper $ . ($ . in canada) at bookstores or can - - iw fortus priss terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core Іssn - . Вісник Дніпропетровського університету. Серія «Історія та археологія», . Випуск УДК :[ . . : . ]( ) « / » Б. О. Глущенко Дніпропетровський національний університет імені Олеся Гончара СТАНОВЛЕННЯ ОСВІТНІХ ТРАДИЦІЙ У МЕНОНІТСЬКИХ КОЛОНІЯХ НІДЕРЛАНДІВ У КІНЦІ Хvii – СЕРЕДИНІ ХІХ ст. © Глущенко Б. О., Запропоновано короткий нарис особливостей фор- мування освітніх традицій менонітів Нідерландів кін- ця Хvii – середини ХІХ ст. Ключові слова: меноніти, освіта, Менонітська Се- мінарія, Нідерланди, Амстердам. Глущенко Б. О. Становление образовательных традиций в меннонитских колониях Нидерландов в конце Хvii – середине ХІХ в. Предлагается краткий обзор особенностей форми- рования образовательных традиций меннонитов Ни- дерландов конца ХvІi – середины ХІХ в. Ключевые слова: меннониты, образование, Менно- нитская Семинария, Нидерланды, Амстердам. hlushchenko b. o. the formation of educational traditions in mennonite colonies of the netherlands at the end of ХvІi –the middle of ХІХ centuries. the article is devoted to the features of the educational traditions in the mennonite communities in the netherlands from the end of the seventeenth to the middle of the nineteenth century. the work considers the process of the formation and evolution of educational and training approaches in the dutch mennonite communities, their distinctive features. for the traditionally closed societies, which mennonite communities were, the education was a factor to preserve their traditions and social cohesion. in this regard, community management devoted great attention to education and upbringing regardless of the country and the conditions in which these congregations were located. but the study found that mennonites in netherlands have not lived in closed communities as their brethren have done in other countries. although they tried did not leave in oblivion their own customs and traditions in education. keywords: mennonites, education, the mennonite seminary, netherlands, amsterdam. У менонітській етноконфесійній спільноті навчання та релігія мають надзвичайно потужний зв’язок, оскільки освіта виступає як носій і тран- слятор національно-духовних особливостей, над- звичайно важливих для громади. Метою статті є визначення тих самобутніх рис в освіті менонітів Нідерландів, які суттєво відо- кремлюють їх традиції навчання від традицій ін- ших конгрегацій Європи. Особливий інтерес для сучасного дослідника ста- новлять праці Г. Бендера [ ], К. Веделя [ ], М. Гар- дера [ ; ], М. Джинджерича [ ], К. Дюка [ ], Д. Кас- села [ ], Р. Фрідмана [ ], І. Хорста [ ] та ін., які у своїх працях подали досить ґрунтовний матеріал відносно історії менонітських громад Європи, їх культури, звичаїв, традицій виховання та освіти дітей. Насамперед доречно згадати дослідження Д. Кассела «Історія менонітів», яке має комплек- сний характер й охоплює історію менонітських громад у найважливішому для автора хронологіч- ному обсязі [ ]. Особливо цінними є документи, які стосуються життєдіяльності конгрегацій, і які подані у книзі в повному вигляді. Незважаючи на місцями розрізненість історичних подій та схема- тичність роботи, все ж дане дослідження є одним із найперших узагальнень історії менонітів, у якій приділяється увага ролі релігійного аспекту в тра- диційному навчанні дітей менонітів. Праці Гарольда Бендера [ ] та Роберта Фрід- мана [ ], які надають нам можливість з’ясувати особливості та характер відношень між церквою менонітів та європейськими державами (зокрема, Нідерландами, Німеччиною, Російською імпері- єю), що у свою чергу дозволяє найбільш суттєво усвідомити взаємозв’язки та взаємовплив вище- зазначених інститутів. Зокрема, в дослідженні Г. Бендера «Церква та держава в історії менонітів» автором відзначається, що меноніти Російської імперії, отримавши від держави суттєві пільги та привілеї, натомість не змогли одержати пра- во активної участі в державному та суспільному житті країни. Подібна ізольованість менонітських громад перетворила їх на безпосередньо «спожи- вачів» тих реформ й політики, яка нав’язувалась менонітам Російською державою. Натомість ме- ноніти Нідерландів та Німеччини, як відзначає автор, у силу об’єктивних історичних обставин мали можливість активної участі в суспільно-по- літичному житті держав, що відповідно надавало їм більшу свободу дій та можливість самостійно- го визначення характеру тих чи інших змін у сво- їх громадах, зокрема, в культурно-освітній сфері. Іssn - . Вісник Дніпропетровського університету. Серія «Історія та археологія», . Випуск Роботи К. Дюка [ ], К. Веделя [ ] зорієнтова- ні на подання загального нарису історії меноніт- ських громад у таких країнах Європи як Німеч- чина, Нідерланди, Російська імперія. Зокрема, в дослідженні К. Дюка «Вступ в історію менонітів» зазначається, що досить вагомий вплив на куль- турне та освітнє життя менонітів у Нідерландах та Німеччині справили ідеї епохи Просвітництва, які мали двоїстий характер. З одного боку, вони виступали каталізатором багатьох суперечок у суспільно-культурному середовищі менонітів, але, з іншого, – стали якраз тим чинником, який в подальшому сприяв консолідації менонітів цих держав. Меноніти як протестантська течія з’явилися у Нідерландах у -х роках і протягом найближ- чих двох століть їхні конгрегації не були схильні до активного процесу інституціалізації освіти [ , p. ]. Це можна пояснити тим, що меноніти до- сить активно переслідувалися державою та цер- квою в низці європейських країн у xvi ст., у тому числі й Нідерландах [ , p. ]. Наприкінці xvi – середині xviІ ст. питання про вплив церкви на населення поставало дуже гостро, тому, як наслідок, будь-які прагнення ре- лігійних громад, зокрема менонітів, до релігійно- го сепаратизму сприймалося як явище неприй- нятне. Подібні обставини слугували причиною значного обмеження релігійних громад у своїх правах, велося їхнє активне «витискання» із се- редовища основного населення, тому міграція в інші країни все частіше ставала єдиним шансом для виживання. Зокрема, анабаптисти з Фландрії відправилися в північні частини Нідерландів [ , p. ]. Власне інтенсивність цього конфлікту за- лежала від двох чинників: по-перше, від непохит- ності менонітів у збереженні своєї віри та релігій- ної етики, які активно критикувалися офіційною церквою і, по-друге, від взаємовідносин менонітів власне з державою [ , p. ]. Держава вважала їх «небезпечними людьми» та «непатріотами» через відмову перших проходити військову службу та присягати на вірність державі, як це робила решта населення країни [ , p. ]. У силу цього менонітам не дозволялося брати участь в управлінні державою, займати державні посади, а їхні збори мали проводитись в окреміш- ніх місцях. До кінця xvii ст. менонітам не дозво- ляли будувати власні церкви, але пізніше дозвіл на місця для будування надавався за умови відо- собленості цих будівель від домівок місцевого на- селення [ , p. ]. У цей період достатнім рівнем знань вважали вміння читати, переписувати, тлумачити та по- яснювати Священне Писання (причому досить суб’єктивно). Решта навчально-пізнавальних ас- пектів менонітами ігнорувалися, що призводило до існування лише елементарного рівня освічено- сті серед членів громад [ , p. ]. Але такий стан освітнього процесу в голланд- ських конгрегаціях почав поступово змінюватися вже в кінці ХvІІ ст. Деякі найбільш прогресивні голландські меноніти почали заявляти, що «таке вузьке обмеження їхнього освітньо-пізнавального горизонту може призвести все братство до лиха» [ , p. ]. Почали з’являтися потреби у досвічених управлінцях та священнослужителях у громадах. З чим були пов’язані такі стрімкі зміни? Від кінця xvii ст. меноніти в Нідерландах не жили в замкнутих та ізольованих громадах, як це робили їхні братські конгрегації в інших країнах світу, таких як Російська імперія, Канада, США тощо [ , p. ]. Будучи в основному міськими людьми, зайнятими в бізнесі та різноманітних професіях, вони стали невід’ємною частиною загального національного життя Нідерландів. У країні функціонувало багато християнських шкіл (в основному кальвіністського напряму), які з точки зору менонітів були «нейтральними», тобто в них могли вчитися діти різних релігійних сві- тоглядів [ , p. ]. Подібне бажання отримати хорошу освіту за межами своєї громади було в першу чергу пов’язано з тим, що меноніти прожи- вали по всій території Нідерландів неоднорідно. Цей фактор робив неможливим створення достат- ньої кількості навчальних закладів саме меноніт- ського напряму [ , p. ]. Ще однією причиною відсутності бажання у менонітів Нідерландів створювати на початково- му етапі свого проживання в країні свою власну систему шкіл було переконання, що їхня держава занадто мала, а відмінності між різними релігій- ними конфесіями досить незначні, щоб організу- вати свої навчальні шкільні заклади [ , p. ]. Протягом перших ста років існування мено- нітства в Нідерландах священнослужителі та пастори обиралися на свої посади без урахування їхнього рівня богословської підготовки. До того ж ці люди сумлінно несли свою службу без фі- нансової винагороди. Однак, умови тогочасного розвитку менонітської конгрегації, а саме досить активне стирання межі між духовним меноніт- ським та світським державним, сприяли створен- ню навчального закладу для спеціальної підготов- ки майбутніх пасторів-менонітів [ , p. ]. У р. у Харлемі зустрілися представники тринадцятьох менонітських конгрегацій Нідер- ландів із метою вирішити низку важливих питань: створення освітніх закладів для підготовки май- бутніх священнослужителів, питання про оплату праці пастора, а також питання опіки над вдовами та сиротами в громадах [ , p. ]. Головне питання щодо освіти майбутніх пасторів повністю виріше- но не було, зокрема не було виділено навчальне Іssn - . Вісник Дніпропетровського університету. Серія «Історія та археологія», . Випуск приміщення та персонал закладу. Однак, у р. у Амстердамі меноніт за походженням Гален aб- рахам де Хаан створив невелику спеціалізовану бібліотеку та почав давати факультативні заняття для молодих менонітів, які хотіли пов’язати своє майбутнє з проповідуванням. І вперше голланд- ські меноніти починають отримувати свою влас- ну богословську освіту. Але цей освітній процес тривав лише до смерті Галена Абрахама в р., після чого він був призупинений. Упродовж трьох наступних десятиліть гро- мади знову існували без власних навчальних за- кладів. Їхні молоді студенти, майбутні пастори, були змушені отримувати богословську освіту в семінарії ремонстрантів. Згодом братання мено- нітів із ремонстрантами призвели до асиміляції їх догматів та богословських трактувань, що робило ідею створення окремої менонітської семінарії як ніколи актуальною [ , p. ]. Менонітська церква в Амстердамі знову взяла на себе ініціативу і запропонувала іншим кон- грегаціям співпрацювати у створенні навчально- го закладу богословської підготовки. Однак ідея щодо створення Семінарії першопочатково не на- була серйозної підтримки. Була зроблена спроба до об’єднання або створення союзу парафій, які були б відповідальні за нову семінарію, але інте- рес парафій був досить низьким через небажання духовних пасторів делегувати частину своїх по- вноважень новоствореному освітньому об’єднан- ню. Тому згодом тільки шість громад були пред- ставлені на засіданні щодо даного питання. На нараді було прийнято рішення про засну- вання Семінарії, яка відкрилася виключно на кош- ти самої громади. Було створено окремий фінансо- вий резерв для облаштування навчального закладу меблями та шкільним приладдям, а також для зарп- латні викладачам й стипендії для шести або восьми найкращим студентам. Тьєрк Нівенхейс був при- значений професором (власне головою) Семіна- рії ( – ) [ , p. ]. У р. на засіданні правління навчального закладу в Амстердамі було призначено другого професора (в нашому сучасно- му розумінні – проректора) для підготовки пропо- відників Петруса Шмідта, одного з активних релі- гійних діячів громади. З цього періоду ми бачимо чітко окреслену спеціалізацію даного навчального закладу, а саме: навчання та підготовка компетент- них студентів для подальшої кар’єри проповідни- ків у менонітських конгрегаціях [ , p. ]. Згодом професора Нівенхейса на посаді змінив Хьєр oстербан із по р., а потім Герріт Хесселінк із по рр. [ , p. ]. Семіна- рія в Амстердамі була відкрита й для представ- ників інших конфесій. Для того, щоб вступити до навчального закладу, майбутній студент мав скласти іспити та пройти співбесіду. Тільки після цього він зараховувався до лав семінаристів [ , p. ]. До занять допускалися учні й інших кон- фесій, які із семінаристами-менонітами прослухо- вували лекції з філософії, історії церкви, вивчали природничі науки, математику, фізику тощо. До того ж церковна рада надавала обладнання для лабораторних досліджень студентів. р. вва- жається тим роком, на який припав найбільший розквіт Семінарії, після якого почався повільний занепад даного освітнього закладу [ , p. ]. Під час головування в Семінарії професора Г. Хесселінка настала суттєва криза. Керівництво Семінарії вже не було спроможним самостійно матеріально підтримувати заклад, тому з’явилась актуальна потреба звернутися за допомогою до інших конгрегацій, що, власне, виявилося пер- шочерговим приводом до проведення у р. «Генеральної конференції» [ , p. ], результа- том якої стало створення «Генерального меноніт- ського товариства» («allgemeene doopsgezinde societeit»). Цю організацію дослідник Сміт нази- ває «найзначнішою подією в історії голландських менонітів у першій половині ХiХ ст., оскільки суспільство взяло на себе відповідальність і кон- троль над освітньою діяльністю менонітської Се- мінарії» [ , p. ]. Контроль за Семінарією було покладено на раду, яка складалася з п’яти членів, що обира- ються громадою. Навчальна діяльність Семінарії проходила на університетському рівні. Із р. до вступу до навчального закладу допускався студент, який добре володів французькою, ні- мецькою та англійською мовами, а також міг пе- рекладати з латинської та грецької мов. Для за- рахування до Семінарії молоді меноніти повинні були здати вступний іспит зі знання Біблії та пу- блічних виступів. Крім того, вони повинні пред- ставити медичну довідку та рекомендацію від пасторів своїх конгрегацій [ ]. Після отримання допуску до Семінарії студент мав три роки про- вчитися в університеті Амстердама, де вивчалися такі курси: Старий Заповіт в оригіналі на івриті, Новий Заповіт у грецькому оригіналі, філософія, церковна історія, історії догматики та історія не- християнських релігійних і філософської етики. Завершення трирічного університетського курсу є необхідною умовою для богословського курсу в менонітській Семінарії. Дворічне навчання в Се- мінарії включало в себе такі предмети, як хрис- тиянське вчення про віру і моральність, історія менонітів, а також низку практичних досліджень у галузі теології [ , p. ]. Після смерті Г. Хесселінка у план навчання було внесено ряд змін, що стосувалися більш строгого оцінювання роботи студентів [ , p. ]. Таким чином, у менонітських конгрегаціях Ні- дерландів була своя специфічна освітня традиція, Іssn - . Вісник Дніпропетровського університету. Серія «Історія та археологія», . Випуск яка полягала в майже повній відсутності навчаль- них закладів початкового та середнього рівня. Діти менонітів переважно відвідували державні «нейтральні» школи, де могли навчатися разом з християнами, іудеями, лютеранами, кальвініста- ми. Цей унікальний для середовища менонітів феномен пояснювався самими громадами тим, що відмінності між різними релігійними конфесіями досить незначні, щоб організувати свої окремі на- вчальні шкільні заклади. Амстердам був чи не єдиним місцем здобут- тя вищої богословської освіти для менонітів в Європі. Значення Семінарії менонітів полягало в тому, що саме в цьому закладі готували учнів на засадах релігійності, поваги до своєї громади та тих традицій, яких вона дотримується. Вищий навчальний заклад переважно надавав увагу бого- словській частині освіти, що сприяло зміцненню самої менонітської громади та збереження її са- мобутності серед іноземного суспільства. . bender, h. s., . church and state in mennonite history. the mennonite quarterly review, april, № , pp. - . . cassel, d. k., . history of the mennonites. philadelphia. [electronical resource] url: http://archive.org/ details/historymennonit cassgoog . dyck, c. j., . an introduction to mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptists and the mennonites. pennsylvania. . friedman, r., . spiritual changes in european mennonitism, - . the mennonite quarterly review, vol. , pp. - . . gingerich, m., – . elementary education. mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. hillsboro, kansas, vol. , pp. - . . harder, m. s., . the origin, philosophy and development of education among the mennonites. unpublished doctoral dissertation. los angeles, ca. [electronical resource]. – url: http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/ cdm/ref/ collection. /p coll /id/ . harder, m. s. & ens, a., – . education, mennonite. mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. hillsboro, kansas, vol. , pp. - . . horst, i. b., . the mennonites in amsterdam. mennonite life. july, pp. - . . ijntema, j., . the mennonites of the netherlands. the mennonite quarterly review. january, № , pp. - . . koolman, j., zijpp, n., van der, – . amsterdam mennonite theological seminary (kweekschool). the mennonite encyclopedia: in vols. – hillsboro, kansas, vol. , pp. - . . philips, d., . enchiridion or hand book of the chris- tian doctrine and religion, compiled (by the grace of god) from the holy scriptures for the benefit of all lovers of the truth. elkhart, ind. [electronical resource] url: https://sites.google.com/site/ loavesnfish /hand-book_diet rich-philips.htm?attredirects= . . verheyden, a. l., . an introduction to the history of the mennonites in flanders. the mennonite quarterly review, april, № , pp. - . . waltner, e., . the anabaptist conception of the church. the mennonite quarterly review, january, № , pp. - . . wedel, С. h., . sketches from church history for mennonite schools. newton, kansas. . wiebe, w., . the story of a church. mennonite life, january, pp. - . . zijpp, n., van der, - . business among the mennonites of the netherlands. mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. hillsboro, kansas: mennonite publication house, vol. , p. . . zijpp, n., van der., . the Сonfessions of faith of the dutch mennonites. the mennonite quarterly review. july, № , pp. - . . shatokhina-mordvintseva, g. a., . istoriya niderlandov [history of the netherlands]. – moscow (in russian). Надійшла до редколегії . . Бібліографічні посилання . bender h. s. church and state in mennonite history / h. s. bender // the mennonite quarterly review. – april, . – № . – Р. – . . cassel d. k. history of the mennonites / d. k. cassel. – philadelphia, [electronical resource] url: http://archive. org/details/historymennonit cassgoog . dyck c. j. an introduction to mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptists and the mennonites / c. j. dyck. – pennsylvania, . . friedman r. spiritual changes in european mennonitism, – / r. friedman // the mennonite quarterly review. – . –vol. . – Р. – . . gingerich m. elementary education / m. gingerich // mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. – hillsboro, kansas, – . – vol. . – p. – . . harder m. s. the origin, philosophy and development of education among the mennonites / m. s. harder; unpublished doctoral dissertation. – los angeles, ca, [electronical resource] url: http:// digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/ref/collection/p coll / id/ . harder m. s. education, mennonite / m. s. harder, a. ens // mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. – hillsboro, kansas, – . – vol. . – p. – . . horst i. b. the mennonites in amsterdam / i. b. horst // mennonite life. – july, . – Р. – . . ijntema j. the mennonites of the netherlands / j. ijntema // the mennonite quarterly review. – january, . – № . – Р. – . . koolman j. amsterdam mennonite theological seminary (kweekschool) / j. koolman, n. van der zijpp // the mennonite encyclopedia: in vols. – hillsboro, kansas, – . – vol. i. – p. – . . philips d. enchiridion or hand book of the christian doctrine and religion, compiled (by the grace of god) from the holy scriptures for the benefit of all lovers of the truth / d. philips / [translated by a. b. kolb]. – elkhart, ind., [electronical resource] url: https://sites.go ogle.com/site/ loavesnfish /hand-book_dietrich-philips.htm?attredirects= . verheyden a. l. an introduction to the history of the mennonites in flanders / a. l. verheyden. // the mennonite quarterly review. – april, . – № . – Р. – . . waltner e. the anabaptist conception of the church / e. waltner // the mennonite quarterly review. – january, . – № . – Р. – . . wedel С. h. sketches from church history for mennonite schools / С. h. wedel. – newton, kansas, . . wiebe w. the story of a church / w. wiebe // mennonite life. – january, . – Р. – . . zijpp n., van der. business among the mennonites of the netherlands / n. van der zijpp // mennonite encyclopedia: in vol. – hillsboro, kansas: mennonite publication house, – . – vol. . – p. . . zijpp n., van der. the Сonfessions of faith of the dutch mennonites / n. van der zijpp // the mennonite quarterly review. – july, . – № . – Р. – . . Шатохина-Мордвинцева Г. А. История Нидерлан- дов / Г. А. Шатохина-Мордвинцева. – М., . references jtmed genet ; : - hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia of hair, teeth, and nails: case reports and review l s chitty, n dennis, m baraitser abstract we report two families with the witkop "tooth and nail syndrome". this term is a misnomer, as the hair was mildly involved in the original case reports and in the families reported here. (jmed genet ; : - ) key words: witkop; ectodermal dysplasia. institute of child health, guilford street, london wc n eh, uk l s chitty m baraitser genetics clinic, southampton general hospital, tremona road, southampton s xy, uk n dennis correspondence to: dr chitty. received for publication december revised version accepted for publication february in , witkop' described an autosomal dominant dysplasia of the nails with hypodon- tia, which occurred commonly in the dutch mennonites of canada. this condition dif- fered from hypohidrotic forms of ectodermal dysplasia in that affected persons did not have involvement of ectodermally derived glands (that is, sweating was normal) and the hair, although fine, was normal in distribution. he called this the "tooth and nail" type of autosomal dominant ectodermal dysplasia. since the original communication there have been few reports of other families with clinical features which match witkop's original de- scription. some authors have reported fami- lies with a similar phenotype but with minor differences, and other similar families have shown apparently autosomal recessive inherit- ance. there are marked similarities between these families, and it may be that many of the dominantly inherited hidrotic dysplasias of hair, teeth, and nails could be included in the same group. we have reviewed these reports, - and describe two additional fami- lies, one which has classical "tooth and nail" or "witkop" ectodermal dysplasia, and another with minor differences. family figure pedigree offamily . case reports family (fig ) this family was referred to the genetics clinic because two of the three children had abnor- mal hair and nails. the oldest, a girl (iii. ), had fair, sparse, fine scalp hair which was very slow growing (fig ). she had a complete set of deciduous teeth which had a conical crown form (fig ). an orthopantomogram per- formed at the age of years showed that there was an incomplete permanent dentition devel- oping, with only two conical crowned upper central incisors and three lower premolars. her nails were discoloured and were said to have been very small at birth. they had improved with age but were still dysplastic (fig ), the toe nails being more severely affected. her skin was dry, but she did not give a history of heat intolerance or problems associated with lack of sweating. her younger brother (iii. ) was born with a cleft palate, which had been repaired by the time we saw him at the age of years. he had had the same discolouration of his nails at birth, but this had improved, leaving him with small dysplastic nails on both hands and feet. his toe nails had never been cut. his hair was sparse, fair, fine, and so slow growing that it had not needed cutting. he had an incomplete deciduous dentition, and both central incisors had conical crowns. his skin was dry but he had no problems relating to sweating. their father (ii. ) had a complete perma- nent dentition, but all his teeth were widely spaced and the lateral incisors had tapered crowns (fig ). he had thick scalp hair which grew well, and nails which, to his knowledge, had always been normal and grew well. his father (i. ) was said to have small teeth, with some missing. his mother (ii. ) and older brother (iii. ) had complete sets of normal teeth and no abnormality of the hair or nails. iii. had a vascular naevus over his right arm with mild hypertrophy, and was thought to have klippel-trenaunay-weber syndrome family (fig ) this family was referred for genetic counsel- ling after the birth of the second child (iv. ), who, as well as having the features of an ectodermal dysplasia, had a terminal trans- verse defect compatible with an amniotic band constriction.. only the mother (iii. ) and her two children (iv. and iv. ) were examined. the children's hair was fine and straight, but not sparse (fig ). there was some scaling of the scalp and their eyebrows were very sparse or absent. their teeth were small, with increased gaps in o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ chitty, dennis, baraitser both primary and secondary dentition, most noticeable in the lower incisors. their nails were small and spoon shaped (fig c). they did not report any problems relating to sweat- ing. their mother (iii. ) had widely spaced dentition (fig ) and dysplasic nails (fig a, b). other affected members were identified by iii. because of their sparse eyebrows. prema- ture balding was reported in affected adult males. hair microscopy showed hypopigmen- tation but no structural abnormality in iii. , and trichorrhexis in iii. . those affected had figure family , iii. , showing the sparse,fine scalp hair. (photographs reproduced with consent.) figure family , iii. , showing the conical shaped deciduous dentition. :.. figure family , iii. , showing the small finger nails. figure familyl ,ii. , showing tapering of the crowns and widely spaced teeth, the only manifestation of ectodermal dysplasia in this patient. dry skin with follicular papules, particularly on the extensor surfaces of the limbs (fig b). review of the clinical features in "tooth and nail" ectodermal dysplasia teeth a variable degree of hypodontia of the perma- nent dentition is present. adontia is rare in this disorder but has been reported." teeth may be widely spaced and conical or peg shaped (figs and ). there are some reports of congenitally absent deciduous teeth which may also be conical (fig ). there is considerable variability in expression, and hypodontia is not an invari- able feature. the father of the patient de- scribed by weech' (case ) had "deficient hair and one tooth was imperfectly developed". in the first family reported here there were two affected children, both with peg shaped de- ciduous teeth, dysplastic nails, and fine hair. their father had no evidence or history of dys- plastic nails or poor hair growth. however, he had conically shaped crowns and was therefore thought to be a gene carrier. there are other published examples showing the wide variabil- ity in expression of this condition, with some presumed gene carriers having a few (fewer than five) absent teeth as their main manifesta- tion," although supernumerary teeth" have also been reported. nails the nails are described as small and dysplastic and may be spoon shaped or concave. in one report there was longitudinal grooving." nails are often slow growing, and the toe nails are usually more severely affected. some children may be born without toe nails, which subse- quently develop slowly but do not usually appear well formed until the second or third decade of life. in the first family reported here, both children were born with small, discol- oured, dysplastic nails which gradually im- k proved. the nail dystrophy shows considerable variation in gene carriers: in some there is no evidence of nail dystrophy, whereas in others only the toe nails are affected and to a very variable extent. still others have severe changes in both finger and toe nails. hair the hair has a normal distribution, but may be fine (figs and ), slow growing, and sparse. total alopecia has not been described. in the cases reported by giansanti et all" the hair was brittle but this has not been a feature in other reports. as with the tooth and nail dystrophy, there is considerable variation in the degree to which the hair is affected, and some gene carri- ers have apparently normal hair or silky, soft hair.' other body hair is not usually affected, but there is one case reported with sparse eye- lashes and eyebrows' and the second family we report here has virtual absence of the outer one third of the eyebrows (fig ). pinheiro et a! described a family with features of witkop's syndrome with, in addition, sparse eyebrows and lashes and mild palmoplantar keratosis. thus it may be that abnormalities of eyebrows and lashes are variable features in this syn- drome. aw o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia of hair, teeth, and nails family craniofacial there does not appear to be a consistent facial phenotype. the most commonly reported fea- i ;:t tures are a prominent or everted lower lip, a small jaw, and maxillary hypoplasia. one of the i. > . patients reported here (iii. , family ) had a cleft palate. t i - skin most affected subjects have normal skin, but some (including family reported here) have dry skin. slight keratosis pilaris on the arms and legs was reported in a single case in a fam- ily reported by hudson and witkop.' none of iv ii t t _~ b i i a the patients reported gave a history of heat . intolerance or problems owing to lack of sweat- ing. figure pedigree offamily . inheritance inheritance is autosomal dominant, but there may be considerable variation in expression. very careful examination of relatives of affected subjects must be performed before advising on carrier status, as gene carriers may have minimal signs. differential diagnosis differentiation from other types of ectodermal p.|* _ ~ dysplasias is difficult and might not be possible until molecular markers are available. the syn- drome first described by clouston in is similar to that of witkop. sweating is normal, _ the hair is fine, depigmented, and sparse and the nails are dystrophic and remain so. there is argument about the involvement of the teeth in this condition, and although oligo- and ano- dontia do occasionally occur, it is primarily a condition involving hair and nails. palmo- plantar dyskeratosis (sometimes involving flex- ure areas elsewhere) is frequent in clouston figure family , (left) iv. and (right) iv . note the fine hair and virtually absent syndrome and the absence thereof and the eyebrows. 't__ figure family . (a) iii. showing dysplastic finger nails. (b) iii. showing dysplastic toe nails. (c) iv showing dysplastic finger nails. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ chitty, dennis, baraitser figure family . teeth of iii. showing the increased gaps. prominence of the tooth involvement in our patients suggest a separate designation. turn- penny et al' discuss a four generation family with features similar to clouston syndrome and speculate about the possibility that it is allelic with it. their family is similar to ours, but differs in that natal teeth were present in some, and acanthosis nigricans was a variable feature. such is the confusion in this area of dysmorphology that we prefer to align our family more with witkop rather than clouston. one member in family in this report had a cleft palate and one member in family had a terminal transverse defect affecting the fingers of one hand. the eec syndrome was consid- ered in both, but true ectrodactyly was not present (it looked like the result of amniotic bands), and the clefting in the patient in family was confined to the palate, and only one member was affected. rapp-hodgkin syn- drome was also considered in view of the cleft, but in that condition the hair is mostly sparse and friable and histologically shows pilli torti. tear duct function seemed normal in all subjects. fried' reported two cousins in a consan- guineous pedigree with clinical signs compat- ible with the tooth and nail syndrome, but as none of the intervening relatives was affected, he considered the inheritance to be autosomal recessive. other reported cases have other lesions not found in tooth and nail syndrome . a central incisor was reported in the family of buntinx and baraitser. in the family reported by lowry et al" a sensorineural deafness seemed to be segregating with the ectodermal dysplasia. the variety of features seen in these cases is such that the condition is likely to be heterogeneous, and an accurate classification must await the mapping of the genes responsi- ble. the majority of these conditions are inher- ited in an autosomal dominant fashion, with extremely variable penetrance, and great care must therefore be taken when offering genetic counselling in apparently isolated cases. summary witkop's syndrome, or tooth and nail syn- drome, is an autosomal dominant condition with hypodontia and teeth with conical crowns, with a nail dysplasia which is present from birth and improves with age. the toe nails are more severely affected. scalp hair may be fine and sparse. sweating is normal. other similar conditions may be allelic or may repre- sent mutations at other loci. witkop cj. genetic diseases of the oral cavity. in: tiecke rw, ed. oral pathology. new york: mcgraw-hill book company, : - . pinheiro m, freire-maia dv, miranda e, et al. trichoder- modysplasia with dental alterations: an apparently new genetic ectodermal dysplasia of the tricho-odonto- onychial subgroup. clin genet ; : - . brain rt. familial ectodermal defect. proc r soc med ; : - . buntinx i, baraitser m. a single maxillary incisor as a mani- festation of an ectodermal dysplasia. jf med genet ; : - . buss pw. syndrome of the month. cleft hand/foot: clinical and developmental aspects. j med genet ; : - . carabok ji, pigott klm. a case of partial anodontia, with associated ectodermal dysplasia. br dent j ; : - . cohen mm sr, wagner r. ectodermal dysplasia with partial anodontia. am jf dis child ; : - . clouston hr. a hereditary ectodermal dystrophy. can med assocj ; : - . felding ib, bjorklund w. rapp-hodgkin ectodermal dysplasia. pediatr dermatol ; : - . fried k. autosomal recessive hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia. jf med genet ; : - . giansanti js, long sm, rankin jl. the "tooth and nail" type of autosomal dominant ectodermal dysplasia. oral surg ; : - . hudson cd, witkop cj. autosomal dominant hypodontia with nail dysgenesis. report of twenty-nine cases in six families. oral surg ; : - . lowry rb, robinson gc, miller jr. hereditary ectodermal dysplasia: symptoms, inheritance patterns, differential diagnosis, management. clin pediatr ; : - . pinheiro m, gomes-de-sa-filho fp, freire-maia n. new cases of dermoodontodysplasia? am med genet ; : - . redpath th, winter gb. autosomal dominant ectodermal dysplasia with significant dental defects. br dentalj ; : - . turnpenny pd, de silva dc, gregory dw, gray es, dean jcs. a four generation hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia fam- ily: an allelic variant of clouston syndrome. clin dysmorphol ; : - . weech aa. hereditary ectodermal dysplasia (congenital ectodermal defect). am _r dis child ; : - . o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n a u g u st . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ ideas, | printemps/Été ideas idées d'amériques  | printemps/Été modernités dans les amériques : des avant-gardes à aujourd’hui omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the latina/o midwest reader university of illinois press, , pages james cohen Édition électronique url : http://journals.openedition.org/ideas/ doi : . /ideas. issn : - Éditeur institut des amériques référence électronique james cohen, « omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the latina/ o midwest reader », ideas [en ligne], | printemps/Été , mis en ligne le mai , consulté le septembre . url : http://journals.openedition.org/ideas/ ; doi : https://doi.org/ . / ideas. ce document a été généré automatiquement le septembre . ideas – idées d’amériques est mis à disposition selon les termes de la licence creative commons attribution - pas d'utilisation commerciale - pas de modification . international. http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org http://journals.openedition.org/ideas/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . / omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the latina/o midwest reader university of illinois press, , pages james cohen rÉfÉrence omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the latina/o midwest reader, university of illinois press, , pages jusqu’au milieu des années la géographie de l’implantation des latinos (ou hispaniques) aux etats-unis était relativement simple : les mexicains et mexicains américains vivaient dans le sud-ouest, les portoricains dans le nord-est (essentiellement à new york) et les cubains, pour l’essentiel, dans le sud de la floride. seule la ville de chicago présentait l’originalité d’être historiquement un espace de rencontre entre mexicains et portoricains. aujourd’hui, le tableau est infiniment plus complexe, non seulement parce que les latinos sont beaucoup plus nombreux ( , % de la population nationale en contre , % en ) et d’origines nationales très diverses, mais aussi parce qu’ils sont beaucoup plus dispersés sur le territoire états- unien. leur présence devient visible dans les régions où historiquement, avant les années , ils étaient très peu nombreux et attiraient peu l’attention. depuis le début des années , des sociologues, socio-économistes, et ethnographes partent à la découverte de ces populations nouvelles . la particularité de ce recueil est de rendre compte de la population latino de la région midwest des etats-unis, qui consiste en etats – illinois, indiana, iowa, kansas, michigan, minnesota, missouri, nebraska, north dakota, ohio, south dakota, wisconsin – où habite environ % de la omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the... ideas, | printemps/Été population nationale, soit millions d’habitants environ. en les latinos ne constituaient que , % de la population de la région, mais ce chiffre représentait un taux de croissance spectaculaire de % depuis . parmi les auteurs des chapitres se trouvent des professeurs de latino studies, american studies, histoire, langue espagnole, lettres, performance studies, sciences de l’éducation, communication, histoire de l’art. les approches de la vie sociale et culturelle des latinos ne sont pas celles des sociologues ou des socio-démographes mais relèvent davantage de l’histoire contemporaine et de l’ethnographie. si les mexicains ont toujours été majoritaires, on trouve des traces dans le midwest de latinos de diverses origines. dans leur introduction les trois co-éditeurs définissent le midwest comme « une région de latinidades à la fois distinctes et enchevêtrées, rurales et urbaines, établies et émergentes, qui se sont forgées depuis un siècle et demi par les migrations du travail, l’urbanisation, la production de lieux (placemaking) et la production culturelle. les latinidades examinées sont à la fois transnationales, trans- régionales, intra-régionales et virtuelles… » (p. ). dans ce livre qui se focalise principalement sur l’époque contemporaine, plusieurs auteurs s’attachent à rappeler un passé encore méconnu. bien avant l’arrivée des mexicains recrutés dans la classe ouvrière à chicago à partir de (voir le chapitre de michael innis-jiménez), des ouvriers agricoles et des cowboys (vaqueros) mexicains avaient laissé des traces dans de nombreuses zones rurales du midwest. a titre d’illustration, josé e. limón, spécialiste de la poésie et des chansons des mexicains du sud-ouest, livre dans son chapitre les touchantes paroles d’une ballade intitulée “el corrido de kiansis”, composée par des vaqueros mexicains itinérants dans les années après avoir été témoins dans le kansas de la mort d’un membre de leur équipe. le livre se compose de cinq parties thématiques. le titre de la première partie – the browning of the midwest – se réfère à des processus locaux d’implantation qui, en modifiant le paysage social et culturel, pose un défi permanent aux latinos perçus comme très différents (« racialisés »). d’où leurs efforts pour défendre leurs droits et obtenir la reconnaissance de la société majoritaire. la chronique contemporaine par aidé acosta de la vie des immigrés et leurs pratiques culturelles dans la petite ville de lorraine (illinois) en zone rurale, est particulièrement éloquente de ce point de vue. la deuxième partie, « essential laborers and neighbors », porte sur les travailleurs immigrés, les flux migratoires qui les ont amenés dans la région, l’histoire de leurs associations, leurs luttes syndicales, enfin leur transformation, à terme, en en « voisins ». cette partie inclut une brève histoire des ouvriers mexicains des quartiers sud de chicago à partir de ; une évocation de la rencontre, et des rapports forts complexes, entre mexicains et portoricains à chicago après ; enfin une étude contemporaine de perry, ville industrielle de habitants dans l’iowa central où la population latino est passée de zéro avant à % en . il ressort de ce chapitre que les enfants des salariés de l’usine locale sont nombreux à résister au stéréotype qui fait de tous les latinos des travailleurs manuels. l’école et les questions linguistiques fournissent la matière de la troisième partie. a signaler dans cette partie, une étude très complète des pratiques linguistiques des latinos et des pratiques de l’enseignement des langues dans le midwest dans une perspective nationale (kim potowski) ; une étude réalisée dans une zone rurale du sud- ouest de l’iowa, près d’une usine de conditionnement de la viande, sur les difficultés des rapports entre les parents immigrés et les enseignants de l’école locale ; enfin la omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the... ideas, | printemps/Été chronique de la lutte, en , pour sauver un programme de latino studies menacé de coupes budgétaires et d’extinction à l’université du nebraska. « performeando the midwest » -- beau néologisme spanglish – est le titre de la quatrième partie, qui a pour thème sur les arts du spectacle. cette partie débute sur l’histoire d’une œuvre filmée de l’artiste ana mendieta ( - ) dans l’iowa, où elle a vécu une partie de son enfance, juste après la révolution cubaine ; une chronique du spectacle gay et transsexuel contemporain à chicago accompagnée d’une réflexion sur l’esthétique queer ; enfin l’histoire et pré-histoire de la fondation en du musée des latinos de detroit, connu sous le nom du museo del norte (musée du nord). la dernière partie (« movimientos ») aborde les mouvements sociaux auxquels ont participé des latinos du midwest : mouvements religieux, politiques, syndicaux et/ou de défense des minorités. cette partie commence avec l’histoire des mennonites, courant religieux d’origine suisse-allemande qui a fait des adeptes parmi des mexicains du midwest à partir des années ; ensuite, une évocation trop courte ( pages !) des young lords, organisation militante portoricaine fondée en à chicago ; une chronique du travail de solidarité active entrepris par des mexicains de l’iowa, dès , avec le syndicat des united farm workers de césar chávez en californie ; et une histoire, sur la base de témoignages oraux, de plusieurs femmes latinas de l’iowa et du wisconsin ayant joué des rôles de leaders de différentes sortes, depuis les années . la partie se termine sur une chronique contemporaine des formes novatrices de lutte des jeunes sans-papiers à chicago, centre névralgique avec los angeles du mouvement des droits des immigrés à l’échelle nationale. la postface de frances r. aparicio constitue un véritable chapitre à part. sur la base d’entretiens avec des jeunes de chicago d’origine mixte « interlatina/o » – le mélange « mexirican » (mexicain et portoricain) étant le cas de figure le plus fréquent – elle réfléchit sur l’irréductible pluralité des « significations sociales et intimes » de la latinidad, d’où les différences de langue, d’origine nationale et de classe sociale ne disparaissent pas comme par magie (p. ). puisque ce recueil vise en effet à rendre compte des latinos du midwest dans toute la diversité des populations, des lieux et des situations, son effet « patchwork » n’est pas nécessairement un mal. si l’on peut regretter l’absence de quelques tableaux statistiques pour préciser davantage les données démographiques, c’est un livre de référence utile qui comporte une bibliographie très complète (p. - ) et fournira beaucoup d’idées aux chercheurs. notes . pour ne citer que deux titres : douglas s. massey (éd.), new faces in new places: the changing geography of american immigration, russell sage foundation, ; et, pour la région du midwest, ann millard et jorge chapa (éds.), apple pie and enchiladas: latino newcomers in the rural midwest, university of texas press, . la bibliographie du latina/o midwest reader (p. - ) est très complète. omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the... ideas, | printemps/Été auteurs james cohen james cohen est professeur à l’université de paris sorbonne nouvelle, crew (ea ), auteur de À la poursuite des « illégaux ». politiques et mouvements anti-immigrés aux États-unis, Éditions le croquant, . omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the... ideas, | printemps/Été 	omar valerio-jiménez, santiago vaquera-vásquez, claire f. fox (éditeurs), the latina/o midwest reader total historical land-use change in eastern bolivia: who, where, when, and how much? copyright © by the author(s). published here under license by the resilience alliance. killeen, t. j., a. guerra, m. calzada, l. correa, v. calderon, l. soria, b. quezada, and m. k. steininger. . total historical land-use change in eastern bolivia: who, where, when, and how much? ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / research, part of a special feature on the influence of human demography and agriculture on natural systems in the neotropics total historical land-use change in eastern bolivia: who, where, when, and how much? timothy j. killeen , anna guerra , miki calzada , lisette correa , veronica calderon , liliana soria , belem quezada , and marc k. steininger abstract. we documented the history of land-use change and migration in eastern bolivia in five temporal periods: pre- , – , – , – , and – . we included all land- cover types located below the natural montane tree line (~ m), including forest, savanna, scrubland, seasonal wetland, second-growth forest, pasture, and cropland. the rate of land-use change has increased from approximately . × ha/yr in the s to > . × ha/yr in the most recent period. land-use change was quantified for groups within which cultural traditions and production systems are shared, including three nonmechanized indigenous groups, four mechanized farming groups, two cattle ranching groups, and the forest products sector. mechanized cruceño farmers and andean indigenous colonists were responsible for most land-use change in the s and s; deforestation by the latter group increased to twice that by all other groups during – , declined in the s, and then increased again in the most recent period. in the last years, land-use change by agro-industrialists specializing in soybean has become important, and cattle ranching based on cultivated pastures has surpassed land use by all other groups. when the rates of change increased for the three indigenous nonmechanized groups, they tended to decrease for the four nonindigenous mechanized groups, and vice versa. key words: deforestation; drivers; land-cover change; markets; migration; social sectors; tropics introduction the amazon is inhabited by various social groups that depend on its natural resources for their livelihoods. many groups clear forest as part of the production system. an understanding of how these groups are integrated into local, national, and regional economies is essential to develop strategies to conserve natural habitat and ensure sustainability. research has shown that deforestation is driven by multiple forces that can be identified by an analysis of spatial and temporal patterns linked to both cultural and economic phenomena (bürgi et al. ). for example, forest resources are a mainstay of the local economy of traditional communities; nonetheless, most indigenous communities clear forest to provide food staples for their families. large-scale deforestation is linked to migratory phenomena and the creation of road networks; in some instances colonies are planned by governments and international agencies, but more frequently, spontaneous settlements are created along highway corridors (sierra , etter et al. , killeen et al. , ). in the andean countries, most settlements produce rice and tropical fruits for highland urban centers; cattle production is important in caquetá, colombia, and santa cruz, bolivia (killeen ). the cultivation of coca for illicit cocaine is a driver of deforestation in colombia, peru, and bolivia (united nations office on drugs and crime ; bradley and millington ). soil depletion and weed infestation lead to abandonment, and the resulting anthropogenic landscapes are dominated by secondary forest (brookfield and padoch , steininger ). in brazil, land-use change is caused mainly by ranches that convert native vegetation to pasture to raise cattle for national markets (margulis , fearnside ). recently, the international conservation international, museo noel kempff mercado http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/viewissue.php?sf= http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/viewissue.php?sf= mailto:t.killeen@conservation.org mailto:aguerra@museonoelkempff.org mailto:mcalzada@museonoelkempff.org mailto:lcorrea@museonoelkempff.org mailto:vcalderon@museonoelkempff.org mailto:lsoria@museonoelkempff.org mailto:bquezada@museonoelkempff.org mailto:m.steininger@conservation.org ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / demand for soybean has led to extensive conversion of the cerrado (a mosaic of savanna and forest) biome in brazil, which is a biodiversity hot spot characterized by high levels of endemism (myers et al. , machado et al. ). most of the expansion in soybean has come from the conversion of pasture, but soybean is displacing the cattle industry into the brazilian and bolivian amazon (margulis , morton et al. , killeen et al. ). the andean and brazilian economies have been separated by the geographic barrier of the amazon wilderness. however, investments in infrastructure will soon integrate these regions; transcontinental highways will expand the agricultural frontier, and deforestation will be stimulated by technology transfer (killeen ). eastern bolivia is a case that can be used to understand how cultural and technological interchange will influence land-use change in andean countries following regional integration. bolivia is already heavily influenced by brazilian technology and has the second highest rate of deforestation in south america (killeen et al. ). in addition, it is an ethnically diverse country that has indigenous peoples and longtime inhabitants of european descent, as well as more recent immigrants from asia, north america, and brazil. settlements are characterized by differences in cultural tradition, access to technology, capital resources, and the security of land tenure. bolivia spans two major ecological transition zones. an altitudinal gradient constrains species distributions on the eastern slope of the andes, whereas a latitudinal gradient characterized by decreased precipitation and increased seasonality broadly defines vegetation structure in the lowlands. rain forest predominates in localized areas on the andean piedmont (killeen et al. ). humid amazonian species predominate on the northern plains; these transition into the seasonally dry forests of chiquitania and eventually, the semi-arid woodlands of gran chaco to the south (killeen et al. ). geomorphology influences the distribution of habitat types across the latitudinal gradient, with seasonally flooded savanna wetland predominating on the alluvial plain of the beni, and cerrado savannas predominating on weathered upland soils or rocky landscapes on the brazilian shield (fig. a). differences in climate and soil fertility influence production systems and consequently, the composition of social groups that occupy the landscape. we report patterns of land-use change in eastern bolivia for different social groups, covering half a century beginning with the bolivian revolution in the s and the construction of the first modern highways that linked the lowlands with the andean highlands in the s. it encompasses periods when international commodity markets stimulated the cultivation of cotton and sugar ( s) or led to the collapse of the country’s mining industry ( s), as well as public policies targeted at the eradication of illicit drugs and structural adjustments intended to promote private enterprise ( s). throughout this period, the road network has been expanded and improved, which has allowed the various social groups to expand their presence and consolidate their settlements while encroaching on lands that were previously dedicated to forest exploitation. lowland bolivia provides a distinctly interesting landscape with which to understand how different social groups react to the stimulus of international markets and public policies that are designed to stimulate economic growth and conserve forest (pacheco , hecht ). methods image classification and gis analysis detailed descriptions of the satellite images, classification methodology, editing process, and validation procedures are reported by killeen et al. ( , ). in summary, we created a map of land- cover change for eastern bolivia below the tropical montane tree line (approximately m above sea level) covering the approximate period from to using orthorectified landsat images (tucker et al. ) and a nonsupervised classification to create approximately classes that were grouped into eight strata: forest, native nonforest (i.e., cerrado savanna, chaco woodland, savanna wetland), anthropogenic nonforest, second growth forest, water, hill-slope shadow, snow, and cloud, as well as the change among classes. anthropogenic nonforest and second growth forest were grouped into one of four change categories, i. e., forest, cerrado, chaco, or savanna wetland, and then further stratified into five temporal periods: pre- , – , – , – , and – . the stratification was based in part on a previous study covering the periods prior to (steininger et al. ), and this was validated by comparison with the original imagery to correct classification and registration errors. change from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . (a) land cover and historical land-cover change (lcc) in eastern bolivia below the cloud forest treeline (~ m), modified from killeen et al. ( ). for lcc, the colored areas represents the outside edge of the deforestation front for agriculturalists in the most recent temporal period; the absence of lcc indicates the forest products sector and extensive cattle ranchers groups. (b) geographic footprint of the major economic and social groups. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / the most recent temporal period ( – ) was added to the map from a separate land-cover classification that was compiled from landsat scenes that contained % of all previous land- cover change (fig. a). the precision and accuracy of the land-cover map were evaluated by comparing the map with video images that were captured during validation flights conducted in late and early . the probability of an error in classification for a pixel from inspected landscapes was relatively high, at ~ %, but because overestimates of deforestation cancel out underestimates, the accuracy of our summary results is relatively robust at ~ % error (see killeen et al. ). the analysis of land-use change is based on an a priori classification of groups defined by differences in social organization, cultural history, technology, and degree of integration into the national economy (table , appendices and ). each group has a known settlement history (stearman , bender et al. , klein , amemiya ), and differences in production systems are reflected in deforestation patterns. the landscape footprint for each group was obtained by digitizing polygons at the outer edge of deforestation patches in the most recent landsat image and includes recently cleared land, agricultural fields, and second growth forest, as well as natural habitat remnants situated among forest clearings (appendices and ). two groups were identified by the absence of land-use change and the presence of natural vegetation types that define their production system: the forest products sector and extensive cattle ranchers; essentially, these were defined by default by their lack of incorporation into other groups. no groups overlapped, and each landscape footprint comprised the total area occupied during the most recent temporal period. we present land-use change in absolute values, rather than as proportions, to avoid the artifact of changing baselines. the restricted-use zone includes only national protected areas that have complete protection, whereas multiple-use protected areas are included within the polygons assigned to the appropriate social group. summary statistics were generated by overlaying the polygons with the multitemporal land-use change map in gis. finally, the land-use intensity was determined for six farm groups based on an evaluation of video images. the gis polygons were used to stratify the flight transects from which – video frames were randomly selected for each group; land-use within each frame (~ ha) was summarized according to the percent cover of forest, native nonforest (e.g., chaco, cerrado, or wetland), second growth forest, pasture, and cropland. results historical land-cover change bolivia has experienced large amounts of land- cover change over the past years. nonetheless, > % of the eastern part of the country remains as forest, wood land, grassland, or wetland (fig. ). deforestation has been the predominant type of habitat conversion, but other biomes also have been affected. no single social or economic actor is responsible for a majority of habitat conversion (table ), but four categories can be recognized: nonmechanized or partially mechanized (indigenous) farming, highly mechanized (nonindigenous) farming, cattle ranching, and forest use and conservation. nonmechanized or partially mechanized farming occupies approximately . × ha and is responsible for ~ % of converted habitat. this supra-group includes the categores of lowland indigenous communities, yungueño indigenous farmers, and indigenous andean colonists. highly mechanized farming occupies approximately . × ha and is responsible for ~ % of converted habitat. this supra-group includes the categories of cruceño farmers, japanese colonists, mennonite colonists, and agro-industrial corporations. cattle ranching occupies . × ha and is responsible for ~ % of converted habitat. this supra-group includes the categories of intensive cattle ranchers, who clear forest for pasture establishment, and extensive cattle ranchers, who use native forage, but also convert native habitat to cultivated grasses. forest use and conservation is the predominant activity on . × ha, with ~ . % of the total converted habitat in both the restricted-use zone and the forest products sector, which includes private companies, indigenous reserves, and state lands. on landscapes occupied by the first two supra- groups, the amount of remnant forest was an unexpectedly large . × ha, representing ~ % of the total forest cover of eastern bolivia. approximately one-third of this was occupied by lowland indigenous communities (fig. a). after removing this group, the number is still large, at . × ha ( . %). the group with the least amount of forest remnant was japanese colonists. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . criteria used to recognize and spatially define social and economic actors, as well as the extent of restricted use and urban areas. social and economic group† subgroup migration period technology scale of land holding (ha)‡ nonmechanized indig- enous agriculture lowland indigenous communities before nonmechanized – yungueño indigenous farmers before nonmechanized – indigenous andean colonists –present nonmechanized and incipient – mechanized agriculture cruceño farmers before mechanized – japanese colonists – mechanized – mennonite colonists –present mechanized – agro-industrial corpor- ations –present mechanized > cattle ranching extensive cattle ranchers after native forage – , intensive cattle ranchers –present cultivated pasture – , forest use and conservation forest products sector after timber and brazil nut > , restricted use after protected areas > , urban areas after commerce and industry †see appendices and for an overview and the spatial distribution of each group. ‡information on the size of land holdings is based on anecdotal information obtained in field surveys conducted by timothy j. killeen as part of an unpublished consultancy conducted for the bolivian government in . http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . summary of total historical land-cover change in eastern bolivia stratified by four major vegetation types or biomes. land-cover type remnant in (ha) total land-cover change (ha) proportion converted (%) forest , , , , . chaco woodland , , , . cerrado savanna , , , . llanos/wetlands , , , . water , , total , , , , . note: see appendices and for an overview and the spatial distribution of each subgroup. temporal variation in land-cover change the dynamic of land-cover change in eastern bolivia has changed over the last half-century (figs. and ). historically, settlement and deforestation was limited to landscapes near the city of santa cruz and the yungas region of la paz. agricultural expansion led to the establishment of colonization zones in the alto beni, chapare, and yapacaní. annual rates of change in the first temporal period (pre- ) were calculated using a variable time period reflecting the approximate date when each group initiated settlement (table ). the three groups responsible for the most land-use change in this first temporal period were cruceño farmers, yungueño indigenous farmers, and andean indigenous colonists (fig. ). the total rate of change in the second temporal period ( – ) remained approximately equal to that in the previous temporal period, but declined for cruceño farmers while increasing for mennonite colonists in the mid- s (bender et al. ). the largest increase came from andean indigenous colonists (fig. ), who were settled in four separate colonization zones by (table ). the newest colony, san julian, was laid out on a grid, with communities located at intersections of secondary roads; the distinctive radial deforestation pattern reflects the land titling system within this planned colonization zone (appendices and ). settlement in other spontaneous colonization zones occurred along primary and secondary roads, forming a fishbone pattern characteristic of colonization projects throughout the amazon (skole and tucker ). the third temporal period ( – ) showed an increase in land-use change for all groups, with andean indigenous colonists showing the largest increase (fig. ). agro-industrial corporations became established on the alluvial plain east of the río grande river (appendices and ). at this point, habitat conversion for mechanized farming approximately equaled that for nonmechanized farming (fig. ). the trend in habitat conversion changed radically in the fourth temporal period ( – ). agro- industrial corporations expanded exponentially, whereas andean indigenous colonist showed a sharp decline (fig. ). intensive cattle ranchers experienced a -fold increase in the clearing of chiquitania cerrado and gran chaco woodlands (fig. c). mennonite farmers increased their annual rate of land-cover change, whereas japanese colonists, cruceño farmers, and lowland indigenous communities all showed decreases. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . (a) remnant habitat and total land-cover change ( – ) for eight groups that depend on habitat conversion as part of the production strategy. (b) cumulative land-cover change according to production system and access to technology. nonmechanized indigenous andean colonists have been acquiring mechanized technology in selected colonization zones (see table ), and both cattle ranching groups establish pastures using a variety of technologies ranging from manual labor with chain saws to the use of bulldozers and chains. (c) cumulative land-cover change over five temporal periods for both intensive and extensive cattle ranchers. habitat conversion has increased over time while also expanding to include a broader range of vegetation types. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . the temporal variation in land-cover change among social and economic groups in eastern bolivia reflects differences in global markets, the national economy, government policies, and migratory phenomena characteristic of individual groups. the fifth and most recent temporal period ( – ) demonstrates the unpredictable nature of the phenomena that drive land-cover change in bolivia. the growth in deforestation rates leveled off for agro-industrial corporations and intensive cattle ranchers, but increased for cruceño farmers and extensive cattle ranchers. the previous decline for indigenous groups reversed, rebounding to all-time highs for lowland indigenous communities and andean indigenous colonists (fig. ). land-use intensity the term land-use intensity refers to the proportion of land dedicated to crop, pasture, second-growth forest, and forest: cultivation is more intensive than pasture, and pasture is more intensive than second- growth forest. the two indigenous groups included in the video survey have a similar intensity of land use following deforestation (fig. ); the small amount of land dedicated to crops by the andean indigenous colonists is due in part to climatic constraints in colonization zones where the annual rainfall exceeds mm and long fallows are necessary to maintain productivity. fallow includes pasture, as well as second-growth forest, because indigenous groups tend to raise pigs and chickens, rather than cattle. the san julian colony has less land in fallow compared to other colonization zones (fig. ), reflecting the more amenable climate (e.g., mean annual rainfall of – mm), fertile alluvial soils of the río grande plain, and an incipient process of mechanization (cochrane et al. ). http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . regional variation in the environment and production systems in four different regions settled by andean indigenous colonists. colonization region physiography date of first settlement area (ha) mean annual precipitation (mm) major crops alto beni and yacumo syncline valley and foothills , rice, coffee, cacao, fruits chapare piedmont and foothills , – coca yapacaní† and santa rosa piedmont , – rice, soybean san julian† alluvial plain of the río grande , – maize, sunflower, soybean note: see appendices and for an overview and the spatial distribution of each subgroup. †the colonization zone has incipient mechanization. mennonite colonists and agro-industrial corporations have the most intensive land use, with > % of cleared land dedicated to annual crops and low levels of second growth. japanese colonists maintain approximately equal proportions of land under cultivation and pasture, a level of land use that is less intensive than that of cruceño farmers (fig. ). the moderately high levels of remnant forest vegetation documented for farming groups is deceptive; these groups are expanding their land- use footprint, and forest remnants are exterminated over time. the second-growth forest observed for agro-industrial corporations is an artifact caused by a single abandoned farm. intensive cattle ranchers maintain slightly less than % of the landscape as forest, even in relatively well-established settlement regions; however, this group has very little land in second-growth fallow because most cleared land is maintained as perennial pasture. the importance of livestock for mechanized farmers is evidenced by the relatively high levels of pasture for all four groups (fig. ). discussion the scientific literature and the popular press have published thousands of reports on the dimensions, extent, and impacts of deforestation in the amazon. understanding the social and economic actors involved in the expansion of the agricultural frontier is essential for developing policies to slow deforestation and conserve natural ecosystems. indigenous farmers subsistence agriculture continues to play an important role in the dynamic of deforestation in bolivia. the level of habitat conversion associated with lowland indigenous communities is small, but has expanded over time. our results show that if income from forest resources is restricted, deforestation will increase as agricultural production replaces forest resources. the increase in deforestation in the third temporal period ( – ) coincided with the collapse of the rubber trade when brazil ended rubber subsidies in the s. instead of keeping workers in the forest for months each year, companies contracted seasonal labor for the brazil nut harvest. employees migrated from remote stations to villages, and the increase in deforestation in northern bolivia was related to an http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . land use and land-use intensity for three regions occupied by andean indigenous colonists. differences in land-use intensity are related to climate, soils, and cropping system (see table ). increase in subsistence farming near communities (fig. ). andean indigenous colonists initiate their settlements as subsistence farmers, but production quickly becomes focused on national markets. wildlife resources are exhausted and timber is exterminated over the short term, obligating settlers to adopt intensive agricultural systems; cultural links to urban centers facilitate the settlers’ access to national markets (stearman ). global markets and international policy had a profound impact on the deforestation rates of andean indigenous farmers. coca has been legally http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . land-use intensity for six social and economic groups as determined from a random sample of video images captured during a validation flight. the land-use categories in the right columns are nested within the converted category in the left column. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . deforestation rates for municipalities in northern bolivia (see inset). the peak in deforestation between and occurred after brazil ended subsidies to rubber collectors. the value for the most recent period is an underestimate because of incomplete coverage for this period (modified from killeen et al. ). cultivated in bolivia for millennia by yungueño indigenous farmers, but once cocaine consumption increased in the s, illicit cultivation expanded to the chapare colonization zone. deforestation dramatically increased in the mid- s following the collapse of international tin prices and the termination of ~ . × miners by the national mining company (klein ). the subsequent increase in migration coincided with a period of weak governance that contributed to the boom in coca cultivation. in the s, bolivian governments implemented an aggressive interdiction policy with international assistance (united nations office on drugs and crime ), and deforestation associated with andean indigenous colonists decreased by almost one-third; however, the downward trend was reversed in the last temporal period as coca policy changed from eradication in the s to tolerance in – , and more recently, permissiveness post (fig. ). despite its importance, it would be inaccurate to attribute most of the deforestation from andean indigenous colonists to the cultivation of illicit coca. the chapare colonization zone is only one of four major colonization zones: the yapacaní colonies specialize in citrus and rice; san julian is a major source of maize; and the alto beni has a diversified agricultural system (table ). slash-and-burn agriculture is the major production system in all of these regions, but established settlers invest in intensive cropping systems and acquire trucks, tractors, harvesting machines, and other implements. evidence of mechanization can be seen in san julian, where older settlements near the major highway show less secondary growth than do younger settlements that are situated further to the northwest (appendices and ). the increase in land-use change in the last temporal period for andean indigenous colonists and lowland indigenous communities demonstrates the impact http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / of public policy on land-cover change. the dissatisfaction of the bolivian populace with the economic reforms of the s led to a fluctuation in the political dynamic, and indigenous groups have been newly empowered in the competition for land and forest resources (movimiento al socialismo ). in northern bolivia, the former employees of rubber and brazil nut concessionaires are being granted titles to land that was previously managed by their former employers; these settlers are supplementing brazil nut harvest with subsistence agriculture (ruiz ). andean indigenous colonists are occupying state lands or properties with unclear titles, as well as invading forest reserves and protected areas, whereas the bolivian government is advocating a return to planned settlement schemes (constituyente soberana ). the cattle sector lowland bolivia has a long tradition of cattle ranching that has evolved over the last three decades as new technologies increase productivity and profitability. the shift from native forage to cultivated grasses began as a response to the scarcity of fodder during the dry season, and the british mission in tropical agriculture introduced many of the most successful cultivated grasses in the s (paterson ). ironically, one of the stated goals of this mission was to reduce deforestation by increasing productivity on previously deforested lands. increased profitability led to the expansion of intensive cattle ranching, and pasture establishment showed near-exponential growth in the s and s (figs. b and ) and eventually impacted traditional grazing lands (fig. c). extensive cattle ranchers remain the largest sector within the cattle industry (table ), but their role within the industry has shifted to providing calves and yearlings to intensive cattle ranchers and mechanized farming groups, which maintain part of their land holdings as pasture (fig. ). deforestation by intensive cattle ranchers has been influenced by the ongoing reform of land tenure. during the s and s, large tracts of state land were distributed to individuals who had political influence; subsequent governments attempted to recover land using provisions of the land reform laws of and . land titles revert to the state if the holder can not demonstrate that the property fulfills an “economic and social function” (instituto nacional de reforma agraria a). many of the lands that have questionable titles are situated on forest landscapes, and most land holders choose to present legal briefs based on the intensive cattle ranching model. the area allowed to each land holder under this model is based on a formula that includes the number of cattle and the area of cultivated pasture; consequently, pasture establishment is driven partly by land holders protecting their holdings from reversion to the state. mechanized agriculture the most intensive land use in bolivia occurs on mechanized farms on the alluvial soils of the río grande plain. approximately % of total deforestation has occurred in this area. the four mechanized farming groups show different patterns of land use that reflect access to technology, capital, cultural traditions, and political influence. the cruceño farmer group includes small, medium, and large properties; individual producers specialize in sugarcane, cotton, rice, soybean, beef, dairy, poultry, or some combination of these. all are highly mechanized and consume fuel, seeds, and chemicals; import machinery; and invest in infrastructure. some farmers used disk harrows on wet soils in the s, causing subsoil compaction; degraded lands were converted to pasture and are one explanation for the high cover of pasture (fig. ). land change in the last temporal period occurred near the río grande floodplain, an area at risk from inundation. the remaining forest landscape (~ %) is situated on the rolling hills near the andes and is suitable only for pasture and forest management (prefectura del departamento y consorcio ip-ces- kwc ). japanese colonists are medium-scale farmers who arrived in the s and occupied the lands with the best soil and climatic conditions. their close-knit social organization allowed them to obtain economies of scale by forming cooperatives. technical support from the japanese government has played a role in introducing new crops and technology. japanese colonists have deforested a higher percentage of their land holdings than has any other group; their land use includes the rotation of crop land and pasture (amemiya ). mennonites are accomplished farmers who have an extensive knowledge of cropping systems; however, their cultural tradition leads them to http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / table . characteristics of extensive cattle ranches in three geographical regions of eastern bolivia. region ecosystem forage area (ha) mean annual precipitation (mm) stocking rate (animals/ha) llanos de moxos inundated savanna flooded grass- land , , – . chiquitania cerrado upland grassl- and , , – . gran chaco gran chaco thorn scrub , , – . note: stocking rates were obtained from ranchers. see appendices and for an overview and the spatial distribution of each subgroup. idiosyncratically limit the use of technology (bender et al. ). in bolivia, they eschew the ownership of cars and trucks, but will rent these services as needed; they own tractors, but use steel wheels, rather than rubber tires, even though this leads to soil compaction. they use genetically modified organisms and chemical inputs, but have been slow to adopt minimum tillage. mennonite colonists have high combined rates of land-cover change and land-use intensity, but have settled in areas that have sandy soils and are exposed to periodic drought (appendices and ). the expansion of agro-industrial corporations started with a world bank project to expand agricultural production to the eastern sector of the río grande plain. the eastern lowlands project (world bank ) included investments in silos, processing facilities, highways, and technical assistance, as well as land-use planning and biodiversity conservation (prefectura del departamento y consorcio ip-ces-kwc ). santa cruz is situated across a pronounced precipitation gradient, with mean annual precipitation ranging from to mm across a northwest–southeast transect of km (cochrane et al. ). the eastern lowlands project area was situated near the southern end of this gradient; within the first decade of the project, agro-industrial corporations experienced crop failures due to drought. subsequent investments flowed to more humid landscapes situated west of the río grande and north of the lands occupied by cruceño farmers (appendices and ). although this area is at less risk from drought, it has greater risk of flooding because it is situated in a delta-like landscape where three rivers, i.e., the grande, piraí, and yapacaní, have meandered in recent history and an upsurge in wetland conversion in the last temporal period ( to , ha/yr) can be attributed to settlement on this landscape. periodic booms fueled by international markets have played an important role in the expansion of agro-industrial corporations because producers respond to short-term opportunities by clearing new land. the existence of the agricultural frontier has impeded investment that might lead to higher levels of productivity. investors have a number of economic incentives to clear land on the frontier to expand production: land is inexpensive in remote areas; nutrients stored in biomass ensure good harvests in the initial years of the investment cycle; and economies of scale can be easily obtained in a single land purchase, avoiding the need to consolidate small holdings. policy incentives could promote the use of technology to increase crop yields in older fields as an alternative to habitat conversion. santa cruz is situated over a large aquifer that could be exploited indefinitely because it is recharged by precipitation http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / and high-volume andean rivers (cochrane et al. ). however, irrigation requires a capital investment that has a less attractive rate of return compared to that of buying land, clearing forest, and expanding production. similarly, chemical fertilizers are not used in bolivia because of the high cost; there are no fertilizer factories, despite the country’s abundant natural gas reserves, which are the primary feedstock for nitrogenous fertilizers. economic models show that if irrigation and fertilizers were used at optimum levels, crop yields could be doubled while eliminating climate risk (cochrane et al. ). forest management and conservation the forest products sector showed an idiosyncratic pattern of deforestation over the five temporal periods. initial rates of deforestation were low, but increased with time, with peaks in the third and fifth temporal periods (fig. ). these moderately large deforestation rates are the consequence of the large total area and numerous scattered patches of deforestation that sum to a large number in absolute terms, but are small in relative terms (table ). the forest products sector has a long history of sustainable exploitation that is rooted in the two rubber booms of the late th and th centuries and the ongoing exploitation of brazil nuts. however, it also has a history of short-term exploitation and the exhaustion of renewable resources, as exemplified by the cases of palm hearts (peña- claros and zuidema ) and mahogany (kometter et al. ). in the s and s, the state granted logging contracts for -yr periods to companies that exploited mahogany; timber royalties were based on the volume of wood harvested. this model collapsed in the late s with the commercial extinction of mahogany and was replaced by a system based on multiple species exploitation, reduced-impact logging, and natural forest regeneration (putz et al. ). under the new scheme, concessionaires are required to implement management plans with rotational harvests spanning yr, and royalties are based on the area of the concession. companies had to rationalize the demand for timber with their ability to pay a tax based on spatial area; consequently, large blocks of forest were returned to the state. under the new model, concessions were made available to communities via cooperatives (asociaciones sociales del lugar), and lowland indigenous communities were granted reserves (tierras comunitarias de orígen, tcos; instituto nacional de reforma agraria b). these groups currently occupy, manage, or have claims to approximately % of the area defined as the forest products sector (fig. ) and are competing for the remainder of the forest, which is nominally held by the state. in the northern part of the country, companies that dominated the brazil nut industry for decades are defending their concessions, arguing that they have managed the forest responsibly, but now face competition from former employees who are demanding titles to forest lands (ruiz ). the forest landscape in the rest of bolivia eventually will be divided among companies, cooperatives, and indigenous communities or will be occupied by one of the farming or ranching groups. forest vegetation is part of the landscape in the settlement areas of all groups; in the case of mennonite and japanese colonists and agro- industrial corporations, the persistence of forest is a temporal phenomenon and is likely to be lost over time. even forest remnants that are left as windbreaks on industrial farms will be degraded due because of the well-known edge effect (laurance et al. ). in contrast, the forest fragments that are associated with intensive and extensive cattle ranchers are more likely to persist over the long term. ranchers tend to consider forest remnants as capital assets and view their properties as dual- purpose production estates. indigenous groups maintain a large portion of the landscape as either forest or secondary forest fallow (fig. ). lowland indigenous communities are usually located near their own forest reserves (tcos) and their farming activities complement forest resources. in contrast, andean indigenous colonists have a much greater impact on the forest, and the fate of native forest remnants within their landscape footprint is similar to that of mechanized groups, although the abundance of secondary forest makes these landscapes more amenable for biodiversity conservation. the absolute low rate of change reported for restricted zones is deceptive because these polygons exclude parts of protected areas that are occupied by andean indigenous colonists and are included in the statistics for that group. a separate analysis that evaluated protected areas showed that deforestation http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / fig. . the distribution of forest-use rights within the forest products sector. private companies and cooperatives are pooled; indigenous communities include both lands legally ceded to them and outstanding demands; and multiple-use protected areas are part of the national protected area system. lands that have undocumented tenure often have multiple claims for competing uses. increased within protected areas in the last temporal period (killeen et al. ). conclusion land-cover change in eastern lowland bolivia is caused by the implementation of distinct economic production models by various social groups. differences among the groups are related to their integration into the national economy, degree of mechanization, and access to credit and markets. cultural differences influence how they establish settlements, whereas their production models determine how quickly and completely the natural habitat is converted to cropland, pasture, or second- growth fallow. the rate of deforestation has increased over time, and the relative contribution of the various social groups to this deforestation has varied according to the market and public policy. mechanized (i.e., nonindigenous) groups tended to expand their activities when the rates of change associated with nonmechanized (i.e., indigenous) groups were in decline. all groups have been affected by market http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / phenomena, including remote communities that rely on forest resources and subsistence agriculture. national urban and international commodity markets are the principal drivers of land-use change for both mechanized farmers and slash-and-burn agriculturalists. markets stimulate deforestation by increased demand for commodities such as sugar, cotton, and soybean or by causing peasants to migrate when alternative production systems such as rubber and tin decline. policy initiatives that have accelerated habitat conversion by the various groups include colonization schemes, visa permits for foreigners, infrastructure investment, and land tenure review, as well as the implementation and suspension of programs to eradicate illicit drug crops. an understanding of how various social groups react to market phenomena and policy initiatives is essential to devise effective policies. the bolivian experience offers important lessons for devising the next round of policies aimed at reducing deforestation. responses to this article can be read online at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /responses/ acknowledgments: financial support for this study was provided to the friends of the noel kempff mercado museum foundation by the critical ecosystem protection fund, the nature conservancy, world wildlife fund, and the vice ministry for the environment of the bolivian government, as well as the gordon and betty moore foundation via its commitment to conservation international. the symposium on human demographics and agriculture on natural systems in the neotropics at the association of tropical biology and conservation in morelia, mexico, was supported by the national science foundation (nsf support #deb- ). literature cited amemiya, k. . celebrating okinawans in bolivia. japan policy research institute critique ( ). [online] url: http://www.jpri.org/publications/ critiques/critique_xi_ .html. bender, h. s., m. w. friesen, m. ediger, i. hiebert, and m. gerald. . bolivia. global anabaptist mennonite encyclopedia online. [online] url: http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/ contents/b .html. bradley, a. v., and a. c. millington. . coca and colonists: quantifying and explaining forest clearance under coca and anti-narcotics policy regimes. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss / art /. brookfield, h., and c. padoch. . appreciating agrodiversity: a look at the dynamism and diversity of indigenous farming practices. environment ( ): - . bürgi, m., a. m. hersperger, and n. schneeberger. . driving forces of landscape change—current and new directions. landscape ecology ( ): - . cochrane, t. a., t. j. killeen, and o. rosales. . agua, gas y agroindustria: gestión sostenible de agua para riego agrícola en santa cruz, bolivia. conservation international bolivia, la paz, bolivia. constituyente soberana. . conflicto en yapacaní: colonos toman hectáreas de ganaderos. constituyente soberana. [online] url: http://constituyentesoberana.org/info/?q=yapacani- colonos-inra. etter, a., c. mcalpine, d. pullar, and h. possingham. . modeling the age of tropical moist forest fragments in heavily-cleared lowland landscapes of colombia. forest ecology and management ( - ): - . fearnside, p. m. . deforestation in brazilian amazonia: history, rates, and consequences. conservation biology ( ): - . hecht, s. b. . soybeans, development and conservation on the amazon frontier. development and change ( ): - . instituto nacional de reforma agraria. a. guía para la verificación de la función social y de de la función económico social. instituto nacional de reforma agraria, ministerio de desarrollo agropecuaro y medio ambiente, gobierno de bolivia, la paz, bolivia. instituto nacional de reforma agraria. b. saneamiento integrado al catastro legal, tierras http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art /responses/ http://www.jpri.org/publications/critiques/critique_xi_ .html http://www.jpri.org/publications/critiques/critique_xi_ .html http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/b .html http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/b .html http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://constituyentesoberana.org/info/?q=yapacani-colonos-inra http://constituyentesoberana.org/info/?q=yapacani-colonos-inra ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / comunitarias de origen (tcos). instituto nacional de reforma agraria, ministerio de desarrollo agropecuaro y medio ambiente, gobierno de bolivia, la paz, bolivia. killeen, t. j. . a perfect storm in the amazon wilderness, development and conservation in the context of the initiative for integration of the regional infrastructure of south america (iirsa). advances in applied biodiversity science : - . available online at: http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/? request=get-document&doi= . % f - - - - . . killeen, t. j., v. calderon, l. soria, b. quezada, m. k. steininger, g. harper, l. a. solórzano, and c. j. tucker. . thirty years of land-cover change in bolivia. ambio ( ): - . killeen, t. j., t. m. siles, l. soria, and l. correa. . la estratificación de vegetación y el cambio de uso de suelo en las yungas y el alto beni de la paz. ecología en bolivia ( ): - . available online at: http://editorenjefe.ecologiabolivia.googlepages. com/indice ( ). klein, h. s. . bolivia, the evolution of a multi- ethnic society. second edition. oxford university press, new york, new york, usa. kometter, r. f., m. martinez, a. g. blundell, r. e. gullison, m. k. steininger, and r. e. rice. . impacts of unsustainable mahogany logging in bolivia and peru. ecology and society ( ): . [online] url: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol / iss /art /. laurance, w. f., t. e. lovejoy, h. l. vasconcelos, e. m. bruna, r. k. didham, p. c. stouffer, c. gascon, r. o. bierregaard, s. g. laurance, and e. sampaio. . ecosystem decay of amazonian forest fragments: a -year investigation. conservation biology ( ): - . machado, r. b., m. b. r. neto, j. m. c. silva, and r. b. cavalcanti. . cerrado deforestation and its effects on biodiversity conservation. advances in applied biodiversity science in press. margulis, s. . causes of deforestation of the brazilian amazon. world bank, washington, d.c., usa. morton, d. c., r. s. defries, y. e. shimabukuro, l. o. anderson, e. arai, f. del bon espirito- santo, r. freitas, and j. morisette. . cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern brazilian amazon. proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( ): - . movimiento al socialismo. . programa de gobierno mas-ipsp. bolivia digna, soberana y productiva para vivir bien. título i: diagnóstico. movimiento al socialismo, la paz, bolivia. available online at: http://www.masbolivia.org/mas/ programa/programa .htm. myers, n., r. a. mittermeier, c. g. mittermeier, g. a. b. da fonseca, and j. kent. . biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. nature ( ): - . pacheco, p. . agricultural expansion and deforestation in lowland bolivia: the import substitution versus the structural adjustment model. land use policy ( ): - . paterson, r. t. . investigación y desarrollo de pastos tropicales, santa cruz: informe final de la asignación técnica de la mbat en el programa de pasturas del ciat – . missión británica en agricultura tropical, santa cruz, bolivia. peña-claros, m., and p. zuidema. . limitaciones demográficas para el aprovechamiento sostenible de euterpe precatoria para producción de palmito: resultados de dos estudios en bolivia. ecología en bolivia : - . prefectura del departamento y consorcio ip- ces-kwc. . memoria del plus. plan de uso del suelo del departamento de santa cruz, bolivia. prefectura del departamento y consorcio ip-ces- kwc, santa cruz, bolivia. putz, f. e., m. a. pinard, t. s. fredericksen, and m. peña-claros. . forest science and the bolfor experience: lessons learned about natural forest management in bolivia. pages - in d. j. zarin, j. r. r. alavalapati, f. e. putz, and m. schmink, editors. working forests in the neotropics: conservation through sustainable management? columbia university press, new york, new york, usa. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi= . % f - - - - . http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi= . % f - - - - . http://editorenjefe.ecologiabolivia.googlepages.com/indice ( ) http://editorenjefe.ecologiabolivia.googlepages.com/indice ( ) http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.masbolivia.org/mas/programa/programa .htm http://www.masbolivia.org/mas/programa/programa .htm ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ruiz, s. a. . rentismo, conflictos y bosques en el norte amazónico boliviano. center for international forestry research, bogor, indonesia. sierra, r. . dynamics and patterns of deforestation in the western amazon: the napo deforestation front, – . applied geography ( ): - . skole, d. l., and c. j. tucker. . tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the amazon: satellite data from to . science : - . stearman, a. m. . camba and kolla: migration and development in santa cruz, bolivia. university of central florida press, orlando, florida, usa. steininger, m. k. . satellite estimation of tropical secondary forest above-ground biomass: data from brazil and bolivia. international journal of remote sensing ( - ): - . steininger, m. k., c. j. tucker, j. r. g. townshend, t. j. killeen, a. desch, v. bell, and p. ersts. . tropical deforestation in the bolivian amazon. environmental conservation ( ): - . tucker, c. j., d. m. grant, and j. d. dykstra. . nasa’s global orthorectified landsat data set. photogrammetric engineering and remote sensing ( ): - . united nations office on drugs and crime. . coca cultivation in the andean region for : a survey of bolivia, colombia, ecuador and peru. united nations office on drugs and crime, vienna, austria. available online at: http://www.unodc.org/ unodc/en/publications.html. world bank. . eastern lowlands natural resource management and agricultural production project. project id: p . world bank project database. [online] url: http://web.worldbank.org/ external/projects/main?pagepk= &pipk= &thesitepk= &menupk= & projectid=p . http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/publications.html http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/publications.html http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagepk= &pipk= &thesitepk= &menupk= &projectid=p http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagepk= &pipk= &thesitepk= &menupk= &projectid=p http://web.worldbank.org/external/projects/main?pagepk= &pipk= &thesitepk= &menupk= &projectid=p ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / appendix . google earth kmz file with links to geographic marers and descriptions of the social groups included in this study. please click here to download file ‘appendix .kmz’. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/ /appendix .kmz ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / appendix . overview of social groups linked to the google earth kmz file (appendix ). lowland indigenous communities multiple different ethnic groups have inhabited the lowland regions of bolivia for centuries, including: guaraní, chiquitano, guarayo, sirionó, moxeño, tsimán, tacana, araona, chacóbo, esse ejé, ayoreodé, and others; groups occupy lands from the humid amazon to the seasonally dry gran chaco. most are subsistence agriculturalists and supplement their diet with resources harvested from the surrounding forests or aquatic systems (see link to forest products sector). land is held jointly by communities; families occupy plots according to need and social rank, but garden plots rarely exceed two hectares. communities are recognized in satellite images by the presence of clusters of small patch deforestation surrounded by second growth forest; settlements are usually located along rivers or other bodies of water. collateral information was derived from cartographic coverage of population centers provided by the bolivian census and personal knowledge of the country by the authors. lowland indigenous communities – urubichá the guarayo community in northern santa cruz is on the edge of the agricultural frontier, where subsistence indigenous farmers live in juxtaposition with extensive and intensive cattle ranchers. this region is experiencing change due to the expansion of the agriculture frontier and competition for land by agro industrial corporations and andean indigenous colonists lowland indigenous communities – manipuri scattered forest settlements are situated along the rio manipuri, a tributary of the madre de dios river; resident families practice subsistence agriculture in combination with fishing and hunting; most also participate in the seasonal harvest of brazil nuts. lowland indigenous communities – riberalta the town of riberalta is surrounded by lowland indigenous communities from the tacana and chacóbo ethnic groups. deforestation rates peaked in the late s as migration increased as rubber tapers were forced to abandon remote stations following the decision by brazil to end subsidies for amazonian rubber. deforestation rates are increasing again after showing a decline in the s. lowland indigenous communities - san ignacio de velasco the provincial capital of san ignacio de velasco is surrounded by numerous chiquitano villages. land title is held by the community and families practice subsistence agriculture using slash and burn; the abundance of second growth forest is the result of their use of a rotational fallow to manage soil fertility and weeds. the region has a natural mosaic of forest and savanna. andean indigenous colonists migration of aymara and quechua speaking people from the andean highlands to the lowlands began in the late s and early s with the construction of highways that linked the lowlands with the bolivian altiplano. there are four major areas of settlement each with unique climatic and soil characteristics that influence the selection of agricultural production systems. title for hectares properties are ceded to individual families that are organized in syndicates to facilitate the colonization and land titling processes. slash and burn agriculture predominates and a large portion of land is in fallow; mechanization and land consolidation has increased in regions that grow crops for national markets. areas colonized by andean indigenous colonists can be identified in satellite images by the pattern of densely clustered, small (< ha), irregularly shaped deforestation patches on landscapes with abundant secondary forest. andean indigenous colonists - san julian san julian is one of four major colonization zones; it was established between and . it is laid out on a rectangular grid of roads; at each intersection is a village or "nucleo". each nucleo is composed http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / of hectare land-holdings that extend outward from the village square to create the radial land-use pattern which identifies this as a planned colonization zone. the older "nucleos" closer to the main highway (east) have become mechanized, as evidenced by the brighter reflectance from bare soil; in contrast the younger and more remote "nucleos" with an abundance of second growth vegetation (bright green in the landsat image) characteristic of the slash and burn agricultural model. andean indigenous colonist – chapare this area was settled in the s following the construction of a modern highway linking the chapare with the city of cochabamba. very high rainfall regimes (> mm) limit the potential for mechanized agriculture. the major crops are coca, and a variety of fruits such as citrus, pineapple and banana; the landscape has an abundance of second growth forest indicative of the slash and burn technology. andean indigenous colonists - alto beni this broad synclinal valley in the andean foothills has received tens of thousands of immigrants since settlement began in the s. the area has a diversified agricultural economy that includes staples such as rice and corn for local consumption and a variety of fruits that it produces for the city of la paz, as well as coffee, cacao, and tea for export. andean indigenous colonists – yapacaní the area was colonized by immigrants from the andean highlands in the s. the major crops are rice, which is largely produced by manual labor; production is limited by very high rainfall regimes, as well as lack of technology and access to capital. slash and burn agriculture and rotational fallow have led to an extensive deforestation and low intensity land-use. the forested mountains in the background are part of amboró national park yungueÑo indigenous farmers aymara and quechua communities have occupied the humid tropical valleys on the eastern slope of the andes (known as the yungas) for centuries. yungueño indigenous farmers maintain close commercial and cultural ties with highland communities and urban centers; production systems are based on perennial crops, such as citrus, coffee and coca. land is held by families and properties are seldom larger than a few dozen hectares. yungueño indigenous farmers - la paz aymara communities have occupied the humid tropical valleys on the eastern slope of the andes (known as the yungas) for centuries. yungueño farmers are the major producers of legal coca leaf for national markets recurrent fire has prevented large parts of previously deforested landscapes to regenerate as second growth forest and species poor grasslands are widespread. yungueño farmers – cochabamba the humid valleys near cochabamba have been farmed for decades, if not longer, by quechua indigenous communities that commercialize their production in the city of cochabamba. cruceÑo farmers farmers with a european heritage have cultivated land or raised cattle near the lowland city of santa cruz de la sierra since its establishment in the th century. this region has been the center of bolivia’s recurrent booms in mechanized agriculture, starting with cattle, rice, and sugar cane in the s, which was diversified by cotton in the s and soy in the s. family farms are the predominant form of land tenure, with property size varying from tens to more than a thousand hectares. the region has relatively fertile alluvial soils and plentiful but not over abundant rains ( – mm) that makes it the most important agricultural region in the country. agricultural production is linked to urban markets and is part of a value added production chain that incorporates both pre and post harvest components. cruceño farmers - río grande the last lands to be cleared were those adjacent to the río grande, which periodically floods surrounding fields. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / traditional farmers - tarija the small farmers in the chaco region of tarija are similar in culture and production systems as the much larger group in santa cruz cruceño farmers – mineros the alluvial plan situated between the río piraí and the río grande is the center of the santa cruz diversified production system that includes both large and small farmers. sugar cane is an important crop and mineros has a large sugar mill. other important crops are soy, rice, and cotton. cruceño farmers – montero poor soil management practices in the s led to soil compaction and many of the lands that were originally cleared for row crops are now used as grazing lands. recently, land owners have been recovering lands by using sub-soil plows to alleviate the soil compaction and recover these lands for agriculture japanese colonists japanese immigrants first came to santa cruz, bolivia in the mid s. family farms have a diversified production system that includes crop rotation, minimum tillage, and livestock grazing. properties range between and hectares and can be identified in satellite images by rectangular or square shapes. the colonies are situated on rich alluvial soils and enjoy precipitation conducive to double cropping; farmers have formed cooperatives to obtain credit, seek technical assistance, purchase supplies, and commercialize production. japanese colonists – yapacaní the colony of san juan de yapacaní was established by immigrants from nagasaki in the late s. the degree of mechanization and land-use intensity is a stark contrast to the andean indigenous colonists situated to the west of the río yapacaní. the japanese are considered by some to be bolivia's most successful farmers, as evidenced by this area which has been under cultivation for almost years. major crops are rice, citrus and soy; as well as raising poultry and cattle. japanese colonists – okinawa these medium size farms on the west bank of the río grande are situated on some of the best soils in bolivia in an area with low climate risk. japanese farmers have led technological innovation including soy and irrigation. mennonite colonies these small farmers first came to bolivia in the late s from mennonite communities in paraguay, canada and mexico. colonies are formed by families that pool resources to purchase and subdivide a single large landholding; family farms are small, averaging between about and hectares. mennonites practice a form of agriculture based on religious beliefs that prescribe the use of selected technologies; in bolivia, most own tractors and farm implements while eschewing the use of rubber tires, trucks and automobiles. mennonites cultivate cash crops such as soy, sorghum, sesame and cotton; they use chemical inputs and genetically modified organisms, but have been slow to adapt minimum tillage. mennonite colonies are situated on the alluvial plain situated to the east of the río grande or on the piedmont south of the city santa cruz de la sierra, -- areas characterized by low precipitation and prolonged dry season. their communities can easily be identified in satellite images because homesteads are established along a single secondary road with narrow parallel fields that extend from the homesteads mennonite colonists - los troncos older colonies are notable by the complete conversion of all natural habitat and the high intensity of land-use with almost percent dedicated to raw crops. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / mennonite colonists - southern expansion zone this colony is established in the southern sector of the alluvial plain of the eastern expansion zone where climate risk is highest. mennonite colonists - piedmont the large colony situated south of santa cruz and west of the río grande is one of the oldest colonies in bolivia mennonite colonists – parapetí the communities on the andean piedmont is in an area of high climate risk and sandy soils new mennonite colony – san jose this is a new mennonite colony established after (post analysis). farm houses are situated along a road that unites the colony, with each family farming a strip of land is situated behind the homestead. older mennonite colony near san jose this is one of the older mennonite colonies, which was established between and . the mennonites did not yet understand the sols and climate of bolivia and this colony is established on the edge of the brazilian shield with poor soils and a strong dry season. the properties to the north of the colony and those situated to the west of the highway are intensive cattle ranchers. agro industrial corporations local businessmen and foreign investors have brought technological expertise from brazil and the united states. soy processing facilities are owned and operated by multinational corporations, as well as regional companies from colombia, peru, and bolivia. agro industrial corporations - eastern expansion zone the alluvial plain situated east of the río grande is dominated by large-scale farms that grow soy and other crops for national and international markets. most have maintained strips of native vegetation as wind breaks, which were a condition of the loans made in the early s, as part of the "eastern lowlands project" of the world bank. many farms were still being established or expanding when this landsat image was taken in or . the landscape is shared with mennonite colonies that are much more intensely farmed and which lack wind breaks. agro industrial corporation - northern expansion zone the northern sector is more humid than the eastern sector and can grow soy during both the summer and winter cycles; nonetheless, farms rotate with other crops, particularly maize, to control pests. expansion in the northern expansion zone is constrained by seasonal flooding. the landscape south of the agroindustrial zone is dominated by the smaller properties of cruceño farmers intensive cattle ranchers cultivated pastures have a much higher carrying capacity when compared to native grassland this allows higher stocking rates, improved animal husbandry, and the introduction of genetically improved breeds. properties range from a few hundred to more than , hectares. intensive cattle ranches occurs in areas where mechanized agriculture is not feasible because it is too dry hilly or the landscape to hilly; consequently, land clearing is solely dedicated to pasture establishment. most of the investment capital comes from urban centers, particularly santa cruz de la sierra; however, brazilians investors have been attracted by the low land prices and the strong value of the brazilian currency. intensive cattle ranchers - el carmen originally pastures were established on deforested lands as a means to compliment native grasses; but in recent years, ranchers have been converting cerrado savannas and scrubland as a means to improve productivity. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / intensive cattle ranchers - gran chaco it is too dry for mechanized agriculture in the gran chaco region, thus most land clearing in this part of the alluvial plain of the río grande is for pasture establishment. ironically, this intensive cattle model using cultivated grasses is replacing an extensive cattle model based on native shrubs and trees as forage. efforts to use centre pivot irrigation systems (circular patterns) have not been economically viable due to the cost of fuel. intensive cattle ranchers – cobija the intensive cattle production model that is widespread in acre, brazil is being implemented near cobija the capital of the department of the pando, a region known for its high forest and production of brazil nuts (known as amazon nuts in bolivia). intensive cattle ranchers - san javier the town of san javier has a long tradition of raising beef cattle on the native grasslands situated south of the village, which was established by the jesuits in the th century. however, the construction of a cheese factory in the s and the introduction of cultivated grasses led to the development of a more intensive cattle raising model. extensive cattle ranchers cattle ranches that rely on the forage resources of native vegetation remain one of the most important agricultural production systems in eastern bolivia and include large estancias owned by corporations and individuals, both domestic and foreign, as well as small family farms. stocking rates are low and animal husbandry is rudimentary; habitat conversion in recent years has come from land holders shifting to cultivated pastures to improve productivity. extensive cattle ranchers – rogagaua the llanos de moxos are a mosaic of savanna, wetland and forest. the traditional cattle ranching model has been effective in producing beef based on native habitat. the habitat diversity on these landscapes reflects differences in water chemistry, inundation regime, fire frequency, and grazing intensity. extensive cattle ranchers – chiquitania the native savannas on the precambrian shield in bolivia (known as chiquitania) have been used for centuries as forage for raising cattle extensive cattle ranchers – beni the native grasses of the vast seasonally inundated savannas of the llanos de moxos have been the mainstay of bolivia's beef cattle production system for centuries. the beni continues to be the largest producer of beef cattle in the country, in spite of the growth of the intensive production model; many of the calves raised in the beni are sold to intensive cattle ranchers in santa cruz extensive cattle ranchers - gran chaco the traditional beef cattle production model in the semi-arid gran chaco is based on the native shrubs and trees that cattle browse for forage. each of the small deforestation patches is a cattle ranch station; production is limited by a lack of both water and forage, causing cows to loose weight during the dry season. forest products sector this category of economic actor includes businesses, cooperatives, and indigenous communities that depend on forest resources for the raw materials that supply their production systems. this may seem an unlikely combination, as the two principal subgroups are private companies with long-term concessions on state lands and indigenous groups that hold title to forest reserves; however, both groups share the common habit of using forest resources. this includes mainly timber, but also brazil nut, rubber, palm hearts, and palm thatch, as well as wildlife and fish resources. geographically, the forest products sector spans all of eastern bolivia, including the humid forests of the southwest amazon, the montane forests of the eastern slope of the andes, and the seasonally dry forests of chiquitania. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / forest products sector – pando the pando has long been the center of bolivia's non-timber forest product sector, principally rubber and brazil nuts. timber only became important in the late s when mahogany was extirpated from the rest of bolivia's forests. today's timber sector is expanding the use of other tropical species. forest products sector – manuripi the manuripi - heath biological reserve is a multiple use area, where forest conservation and management are both priorities. forest products sector - bosque chimanes the chimanes forest reserve is shared by commercial companies with long-term concessions and indigenous communities that have been deeded land as communal reserves. both groups hope to sustainably manage the reserve for timber extraction. logging roads and timber mills established in the s are visible in this landsat image taken in or . forest products sector - mamoré the mamoré river is a forest corridor that transects the llanos de moxos; its wetland habitats provide essential ecosystem and economic services that support the domestic fishing industry, while the river itself is a key transportation link. forest products sector - baures logging roads are usually the first step in the settlement process. this could well be the next major deforestation front in bolivia. forest products sector - bajo paragua the bajo paragauá forest reserve is managed by private companies that have long-term concessions to state lands. the bolivian government has announced plans to settle andean indigenous colonists into this region. forest product sector - chiquitania the chiquitano dry forest contains perhaps of the world's largest reserve of extremely hard-wooded timber species. this locality is within a commercial logging concession that pays royalties to the state for the exploitation of timber. forest products sector -pantanal region the seasonal forests of the pantanal region are threatened over the short-term by the exploitation of vegetable charcoal to supply pig iron factories in brazil. land-holders are clearing land, making charcoal, and - simultaneously - establishing intensive cattle ranches. forest products sector –southern andes the front ranges of the andes between santa cruz and the argentine border are a mix of multiple use national and regional protected areas, indigenous reserves, forest concessions and private properties. forest habitat varies from deciduous to cloud forest depending on altitude and apsect. restricted use zone this category includes national protected areas that enjoy complete protection and e forest exploitation is strictly prohibited; in most cases, the area is uninhabited. restrict use zone - kaa-iya del gran chaco bolivia's largest protected area is co-managed by the guaraní communities. the linear feature in the northern sector of the park is the bolivian - brazil gas pipeline; an endowment to finance park management was created as part of the environmental management plan that accompanied its construction in the late s. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / ecology and society ( ): http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / restricted use zone – madidi two national parks (madidi and apolobamba) extend from lowland forests on the piedmont to the snow capped peaks of the cordillera of apolobamba. they are situated next to the tambopata / bahuaha - sonené protected area complex in peru, creating a protected area complex of global importance. restricted use zone - carrasco the montane cloud forests of carrasco national park are situated adjacent to the chapare colonization zone. restricted use zone - amboró amboró has been zoned to distinguish between strict protection (national park) and multiple use areas (integrated natural management area). the cloud forests are situated on the front ranges behind the piedmont, where andean indigenous colonists have settled, and intergrades’ with semi-arid montane habitats where irrigation agriculture is predominant. restricted use zone - noel kempff noel kempff mercado national park is an iucn category ii protected area, where the extraction of natural resources, such as timber and wildlife, is strictly forbidden, except for traditional use by indigenous communities. urban areas urban areas - santa cruz de la sierra the urban economy is intimately linked to agricultural production, both in the pre- and post- harvest components. santa cruz has experienced consistent growth over four decades, from a small town of , inhabitants in the late s to almost . million in . this growth has left its mark on urban planning via the highway rings for which the city is known. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol /iss /art / 	title 	abstract 	introduction 	methods 	image classification and gis analysis 	results 	historical land-cover change 	temporal variation in land-cover change 	land-use intensity 	discussion 	indigenous farmers 	the cattle sector 	mechanized agriculture 	forest management and conservation 	conclusion 	responses to this article 	acknowledgments 	literature cited 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	figure 	table 	table 	table 	table 	appendix 	appendix lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / open accessr e s e a r c h a r t i c l e research articlepedhunter . and its usage to characterize the founder structure of the old order amish of lancaster county woei-jyh lee , toni i pollin , jeffrey r o'connell , , richa agarwala and alejandro a schäffer* abstract background: because they are a closed founder population, the old order amish (ooa) of lancaster county have been the subject of many medical genetics studies. we constructed four versions of anabaptist genealogy database (agdb) using three sources of genealogies and multiple updates. in addition, we developed pedhunter, a suite of query software that can solve pedigree-related problems automatically and systematically. methods: we report on how we have used new features in pedhunter to quantify the number and expected genetic contribution of founders to the ooa. the queries and utility of pedhunter programs are illustrated by examples using agdb in this paper. for example, we calculated the number of founders expected to be contributing genetic material to the present-day living ooa and estimated the mean relative founder representation for each founder. new features in pedhunter also include pedigree trimming and pedigree renumbering, which should prove useful for studying large pedigrees. results: with pedhunter version . querying agdb version . , we identified , presumed living ooa individuals and connected them into a -generation pedigree descending from founders ( females and males) after trimming. from the analysis of cumulative mean relative founder representation, founders ( females and males) accounted for over % of the mean relative founder contribution among living ooa descendants. discussion/conclusions: the ooa are a closed founder population in which a modest number of founders account for the genetic variation present in the current ooa population. improvements to the pedhunter software will be useful in future studies of both the ooa and other populations with large and computerized genealogies. background the old order amish (ooa) of lancaster county in pennsylvania are a closed founder population, with approximately , - , living individuals that can be connected into a single -generation pedigree. other large ooa populations live in ohio and indiana. there have been numerous medical genetics studies on the ooa. for several decades, the medical genetics studies focused on monogenic diseases such as brittle hair dis- ease [ , ]. more recently, research interests have broadened to include complex traits, such as parkinson disease [ , ], dementia [ ], diabetes [ ], blood pressure [ , ], hip frac- tures/osteoporosis [ ], and vision phenotypes [ ]. inves- tigators at the university of maryland school of medicine (um-som) [ ] have recruited over , ooa from lancaster county for several studies of complex adult- onset diseases beginning in with the initiative of dr. alan r. shuldiner [ , ]. these ooa studies have used genome-wide linkage analysis [ - ], candidate gene association analysis [ ], and most recently genome-wide association studies (gwas) to discover variants influenc- ing traits such as cardiac repolarization [ ], type dia- betes [ ], hypertension [ ], and fasting and post- prandial triglyceride levels [ ] or to validate locus asso- ciations first discovered in other populations, e.g., diabe- tes [ ], human height [ ], fasting glucose levels [ ], * correspondence: schaffer@helix.nih.gov national center for biotechnology information, national library of medicine, national institutes of health, rockville pike, bethesda, maryland , usa full list of author information is available at the end of the article biomed central © lee et al; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons at- tribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of waist circumference [ ], bilirubin levels [ ] and response to the anti-clotting agent clopidogrel [ ]. the ooa comprise one of several groups in the more general category of anabaptists; other anabaptist groups living in north america include other amish, menno- nites, and hutterites. medical geneticists have been inter- ested in anabaptist populations because they are closed populations and have written genealogies and other fea- tures such as a homogeneous, rural lifestyle and high standard of living [ - ]. their genealogies were mostly published in paper books, which make integration and search challenging and time-consuming tasks. in we set out to construct a computer-searchable genealogy database of the ooa of lancaster county in pennsylvania for use by geneticists [ ]. to support the database, we developed a suite of query software that would solve pedigree-related problems automatically and systematically. the digital genealogy database expanded to include other anabaptist populations and was renamed anabaptist genealogy database (agdb) [ - ], and the query software package was named ped- hunter [ , ]. the initial source to construct agdb was a computer file updating the fisher family history (ffh) book [ ] edited by ms. katie beiler. later versions integrated the amish and amish mennonite genealogies (aamg) book [ ], a large computerized genealogy file from mr. james hostetler and two smaller updates from ms. beiler of recent births, deaths, and marriages in the lancaster area. the queries and utility programs of ped- hunter are illustrated by examples using agdb in this paper. several groups have used agdb in their research. some worked on rare diseases, such as nemaline myopa- thy [ ], congenital microcephaly [ ], and dystonia [ , ]. although agdb contains no explicit phenotype data, lifespan can be inferred when both birth and death dates are available. several studies on lifespan using agdb have established that lifespan is heritable [ ], that lifespan may be associated with other implicit traits [ , ], and that lifespan can be associated with experi- mentally measured traits [ ]. a frequent problem in medical genetics is to recon- struct the pedigree relationships among distant relatives. pedhunter was first designed to solve optimal pedigree connection problems and other problems related to pedi- gree construction, verification, and analysis. pedhunter is not formally tied to agdb; in particular, access to agdb requires ethics approval from an institutional review board (irb), while pedhunter is freely available. ped- hunter has been used to construct genealogies for link- age and haplotype analysis on hutterite families [ - ] and analyses of an icelandic population [ ], a southern italy population [ ], and a northern italy population [ ]. in this paper, we report on new features in pedhunter and on how those features can be used to quantify the impact of the pedigree structure of a founder population on the amount of genetic variation present in the current population. under a model of genetic drift, the number of founder alleles present in the current population will depend on factors such as sibship size and number of new genomes that enter each generation. from agdb we can answer this question: how many ooa founders contrib- uted what expected percent of the genetic material to the present-day living ooa? the answer impacts the genetic architecture, and hence phenotypic distribution of important traits such as low density lipoprotein (ldl) and triglyceride (tg) levels. a recent study characterized the patterns of linkage disequilibrium in the ooa [ ]. in this paper, we quantify the representation of founder genes in the current population that contribute to those patterns of linkage disequilibrium. methods pedhunter versions pedhunter version . [ ] that provided queries was first released in . in versions . , . , . , and the cur- rent . we increased the number of queries to . the full list of query programs and seven utility programs is in the additional file . pedhunter . has been tested on platforms running the linux, sunos, windows, and mac os x operating systems. the queries are imple- mented using transact-sql and c version of open cli- ent db-library. all pedhunter queries and utility programs are available as executable files that can be used from the command line prompt and in unix shell scripts. the current version of pedhunter is freely avail- able and can be downloaded from http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cbbresearch/schaffer/ped- hunter.html. pedhunter queries a genealogy database stored either as a sybase relational database or in structured ascii plaintext files. before version . , the source codes for these two variants were separate with much duplication. the single set of code files in version . can be adapted to either type of database representation with small changes to one code header file. queries in pedhunter . pedhunter . supports four categories of queries as basic operations: ) testing a relationship; ) finding all individuals satisfying a certain relationship; ) printing information; and ) complex queries. we use italics to indicate the names of specific queries. queries that find pedigrees print the pedigrees in linkage format [ ]. in the second category, pedhunter . adds two queries pertinent to our study of ooa founder structure: founder_descendant to find founders of a given individ- http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cbbresearch/schaffer/pedhunter.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cbbresearch/schaffer/pedhunter.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cbbresearch/schaffer/pedhunter.html lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of ual, and a new query count_descendant to count number of descendants per ancestor from an input file in the for- mat of ancestor-descendant pairs. new complex queries pertinent to our study include: calculate_r to calculate relative founder representation (rfr) for a founder- descendant pair, and average_r to calculate mean rfr per founder in agdb, as explained below. examples of queries useful for analysis of the anabaptist genealogy database to find possible participants in agdb to be recruited into a study, the living query is useful to find living indi- viduals. the founder_descendant query can be followed to find the founders of each living individual. for each founder-descendant pair, the calculate_r tool computes the rfr, defined below. the average_r tool then com- putes the mean rfr for each founder. the person infor- mation for founders can be obtained using the person_info query. prior to running the asp query to find "all shortest paths" pedigree(s) connecting a set of sam- pled individuals, the subset query is required to first find a maximal subset of individuals that shares a common ancestor. pedigree renumbering pedhunter is also useful for genetic evaluations on large pedigrees. for example, at the united states department of agriculture (usda), the number of animals in the hol- stein dairy pedigree used for genomic evaluation of important economic traits has grown from , to , in less than months as new animals are added. the ability of pedhunter to scale to millions of subjects is a feature. other pedigree storage/query packages, such as pedsys [ ], are not able to process such a large pedi- gree (though pedsys adds the capability to connect large amounts of phenotype data with individuals in smaller pedigrees, such as the subset of more than , ooa individuals that have been studied at um-som). to facil- itate handling large pedigrees, we added the renumber_pedigree utility to pedhunter to number and order subject identifiers, and add missing spouses/mates if necessary into the pedigree. the renumbering process ensures the property that identifiers of parents are smaller than the identifiers of their children, which enables more efficient calculation of kinship coefficients [[ ], ch. ]. adding missing parents into the pedigree is necessary for some software packages, such as link- age, which assume that each person has either zero or two parents in the pedigree. the original identifiers are included in the output, so that information can still be connected to these identifiers. anabaptist genealogy database version . agdb was created in sybase sql server release . .x of the sybase relational database management software. each individual in agdb is assigned a unique integer, called the program id. two main tables in the pedhunter pedigree storage system are the person table and the par- ent-child relationship table. there have been several versions of agdb based on the sources mentioned in background and with sizes summa- rized at the beginning of results. the current agdb ver- sion . (agdb ) was created in , after the most recent published description [ ], to combine all the sources and updates. some small batches of corrections and updates have been incorporated based on feedback from users. as indicated by the change in the first word of agdb from the original "amish" to "anabaptist", many of the individuals in agdb are not ooa. as explained in results, we extracted a subpedigree from agdb that should include most living ooa individuals in the lan- caster area and their ancestors. we used the method described in the next subsection to predict which individ- uals are ooa. prediction of old order amish status an adult or near-adult (older adolescent) is of ooa sta- tus if the individual belongs to the ooa church, which means that the individual has chosen to be baptized. for the purpose of our query, we included children and young adults who were not yet baptized but lived with their ooa parents. for individuals in the printed ffh book, determining the ooa status by eye is usually easy, because for most family records, the religious affiliation is included. however, there are some omissions and some cases that are unclear. due to the syntax in ffh, the word "ooa" appeared only once per family record. when agdb was generated, the ooa status was captured only into the record of the person whose name preceded the word "ooa". if the family head was married, the ooa status was usually assigned to the spouse of family head in agdb. for example, the ffh book reads " . christian fisher b april , , d nov. , , farmer, m bar- bara yoder (yost yoder) ooa, ...". christian fisher's per- son record in agdb does not include any ooa status, but barbara yoder's record does. the spouse and children of the person assigned ooa status should also have ooa status in most cases. therefore, to predict if an individual in the genealogy requires some inferences across rela- tionship links. for individuals added into agdb by ms. beiler after the ffh book was printed, the amount of information about religious affiliation rapidly declined to zero. we believe that virtually all individuals added in updates by ms. beiler in and are ooa, due to biased ascertainment. prediction of ooa status is done in three different ways: ) for an individual born in or before , we con- sider person records of self, parents and spouses; ) for an lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of individual born in - , we check person records of self, parents, spouses and spouses' parents; ) for an indi- vidual born in or later, we examine person records of self, parents, grandparents and spouses. for an individual i, if any of the relatives of i considered has ooa status, then we predict that i has ooa status. pedigree trimming on founders working with large pedigrees, trimming redundant or irrelevant individuals (as defined below) from a pedigree will reduce the computational time of some pedigree analysis methods [ ]. in a nuclear family that is at the top of the pedigree and has only one child, we can replace both parent founders with their only child in the analysis because such a child's genomic data represents all genomic data derived from those parents. nuclear fami- lies at the top of pedigree are recursively trimmed, until no more trimming is possible. figure illustrates a mar- ried founder couple hans beuttschi and margaret zum bach with their only son peter beuttschi. after one round of trimming, peter beuttschi replaces his parents as a trimmed founder. peter beuttschi was married to marga- rete oswald, who is a female founder, and gave birth to their only son also named peter beuttschi. after a second round of trimming, peter beuttschi replaces his parents as a new trimmed founder. estimation of birth years for founders many of the older person records in agdb did not have birth dates in the data sources. to report our analysis by birth cohorts, it is necessary to estimate birth years for individuals; the estimated birth years are used for the analysis in this project, but are not recorded within agdb. for simplicity and to allow inclusion of records with known dates missing the month or day, we used only birth years but not actual birth dates. to systematically estimate missing birth years, we performed a frequency test on known parent-child pairs with known birth years for both individuals in agdb . we extracted birth year of each founder record with known birth year, and sub- tracted from birth year of the oldest child with known birth year. there are , known founder-and-oldest- child pairs. the mean birth year difference is " . years", and the median birth year difference is " years". there- fore, we used years per parent-child generation in the estimation of birth years for founders in agdb . if the birth year of a founder was unavailable, we sub- tracted years from the birth year of the (known or esti- mated) oldest child. if birth year of a child is unavailable, we recursively estimated birth years among the children of the child. the following example estimates a founder (unknown name in agdb )'s birth year to be " " by subtracting years (three generations) from the esti- mated oldest child (henry stehly)'s estimated oldest child (magdalena stehly)'s oldest child (catherine sieber) who was born in . mean relative founder representation we created and used the calculate_r tool to calculate the relative representation of each founder in each study par- ticipant. we define the rfr of a given founder in a given descendant as the expected proportion of alleles in the descendant that were inherited identical-by-descent (ibd) from the founder. for example, an offspring inher- its half its genome from each parent, thus the founder representation for each parent is one-half. the expected proportion can be computed as twice the kinship coeffi- cient between the parent and offspring. the kinship coef- ficient is defined as the probability at a given locus that the allele selected from one individual will be identical by descent to a randomly selected allele of a second individ- ual. for example, twice the kinship coefficient between a parent and an offspring, and the rfr of that parent in that offspring, is . . in a three-generation pedigree, the grandparent-grandchild kinship coefficient is . ; thus the relative representation of each grandparent in a grandchild is . . it should be noted that founder repre- sentation represents the average across the genome, whereas at any autosomal locus the two alleles an individ- ual inherits come from at most two founders. from these definitions and the pedigree structure we use average_r to calculate the mean rfr for each founder over all study descendants. by definition the rfrs in a given individual will sum up to . a subtle point is that the founder representation (expected ibd) as described above is calculated assuming no inbreeding in the founders because by definition, their ancestors are not in the genealogy. conceptually, the probability of inheriting a founder allele is a property of mendelian sampling in the pedigree, independent of the figure sample pedigree trimming in agdb . two recursive rounds of pedigree trimming on three founders down to one trimmed founder in agdb . hans beuttschi margaret zum bach peter beuttschi margarete oswald peter beuttschi lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of probability that the two alleles of a founder are inherited ibd from unknown ancestors. thus, the rfr of a parent in an offspring is . only under the assumption of no inbreeding. if the parent were completely inbred (say a mouse strain) then twice the kinship coefficient would be . . the former agrees with what we expect, while the lat- ter would imbalance the founder representation between an inbred father and non-inbred mother. results the size of agdb has grown from agdb , completed in containing , individuals and , marriages, to the current agdb , containing , individuals and , marriages [ - ]. in , we built a special version called fisher that includes , individuals and , marriages to accommodate three updates since ffh was published in . the results here are based on both fisher and agdb . the subjects of interest in the ongoing genetic studies at um-som are in fisher, but some of their ancestors who are not in fisher can be found in agdb . distribution of old order amish the procedure to analyze mean rfr of founders in pre- sumed living ooa individuals is illustrated in figure . by executing the age tool in pedhunter . on the , individuals in fisher, we collected , individuals born in - . using the living tool in pedhunter . , we found , presumed living individuals, with no death date recorded in fisher. by predicting the ooa status among , individuals born in - , we find , to be ooa. among , presumed living individuals, the results showed , presumed living ooa individuals born in - and in fisher. the difference between the , individuals used here and the , - , estimate in the background is due to children born in - and individuals born before who are still alive. we focused attention on the indi- viduals born in - because death records for those born before are rather incomplete, and birth records after are currently incomplete, although we plan to address these deficiencies in agdb. table reports the birth year and gender distribution among above , presumed living ooa individuals in fisher. the results show increasing numbers of births over time. the year with the most newborns is , in which there were , birth records ( females, males, and of unknown gender). the data consistently show more males than females born. we then located these , individuals in agdb by mapping their program ids from fisher to agdb . using the ancestors tool in pedhunter, we constructed a pedigree containing a total of , individuals, includ- ing the above , presumed living individuals, in figure procedure to analyze mean rfr in agdb . flowchart to analyze mean rfr of founders in presumed living ooa descendants. fisher database for each fisher id i: was i born in - without a known death date (as presumed living)? is i an ooa? discard i. no yes no agdb database convert fisher id i to agdb id d.convert fisher id i yes identify all ancestor founders of d. form pairs of married founder couples. for each founder couple (p,m): number of offspring for (p,m)? replace p and m by the offspring c. = form pairs of ma couplep f ma for each founder ouplep number of offspri replace p and m by == form pairs of trimmed founder and presumed living ooa descendant. form pairs of trimme presumed living oo � for each founder- descendant pair (f,d): calculate rfr as r of founder f in presumed living ooa descendant d. calculate mean rfr for each founder f over all presumed living ooa descendants. r sort all trimmed founders by the descending order of mean rfr ’s.r procedure to analyze mean rfr in agdb lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of agdb . the , individuals form a -generation pedigree, in which there are founders. there are living individuals recorded as founders themselves. the ooa study at um-som confirms that many of these are spouses of individuals who left the amish church, although they may have been ooa at some time and may have ooa children. among the founders, are female and are male. there are marriages between female founders and male founders; five male founders had two marriages to female founders, with the second mar- riage following the death of the first spouse in all cases. among marriages, founder couples have exactly one child. by applying the trimming technique described in methods, founders are reduced down to trimmed founders after one round and trimmed founders after two rounds. all subsequent analysis of founders uses this trimmed set of founders. in the trimmed set, there are female founders and male founders, and married founder couples including females and males. table reports the birth years for the founders. the two most ancient founders are a married couple, estimated to have been born in . prior to , birth years of more than % of founders are not recorded in agdb . all but one founder born after have known birth years. old order amish founder structure using the pedigree structure from agdb , one can esti- mate the contribution of the founders to the current ooa gene pool. this is an estimate because, as described in methods, the calculations are based on probabilistic analysis of the pedigree structures rather than observed dna segregation. moreover, there may be additional relationships (not in the genealogy) among the desig- nated founders and some relationships in the genealogy may be inaccurate. table reports on the birth years of founders and numbers of their living ooa descen- dants. the largest coverage number is , living descendants, who are descended from the oldest founder couple. of founders, were born before . however, many of these founders had few descendants. we were interested in calculating the number of founders contributing to the majority of the extant population to evaluate qualitatively and quantitatively our assumptions about the utility of the ooa for gene mapping. we used the calculate_r and average_r tools in ped- hunter . to calculate the relative representation of each founder in an average living ooa individual. by ranking founders in descending order of their founder representa- tion, we were able to count the number of founders repre- sented in the majority of expected alleles in an average individual among living ooa individuals. we computed the average expected genetic contribu- tion of each of the founders ( females and males) to each of the , presumed living ooa descendants as summarized in figure . we found that founders ( females and males) accounted for over % of the average founder contribution, with a sin- gle founder accounting for nearly % of the average con- tribution. half of the total founder representation came from only founders ( females and males). these data quantify the extent to which the ooa are a closed founder population ideal for elucidating the role of genetic variation in complex diseases. to put the coverage analysis in some chronological per- spective, it is useful to consider isaac huyard who was born on february , . he married into the ooa on december , after working as a servant for an amish family, and is anecdotally the last individual who was born and reached adulthood non-ooa, and then became ooa [ ]. of the highest contributing founders (accounting for % of gene pool) were born in table : distribution of birth years and genders for presumed living ooa in fisher. birth year female male unknown gender sum - , - , , , - , , , - , , , - , , , - , , , - , , , total , , , birth year cohorts of ten years are reported in rows, and genders in three categories are reported in columns. the total number of presumed living ooa individuals in fisher is , . lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of or before . the other three high-contributing found- ers were born in , and . on the other hand, founders born after account for only . % of the founder representation. thus, a detailed study of the ped- igree structure of the ooa as catalogued in agdb sup- ports the notion that there has been very little influx of genetic material into the ooa population since the mid- th century. among founders born after isaac huyard, we found that founders are adopted, and another two founders are likely adopted. one of the improvements in going from agdb to agdb was the identification of adopted table : distribution of known and estimated birth years of founders in agdb . birth year female male sum - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( ) ( ) - - - - - - - - - - ( ) ( ) - total ( ) ( ) ( ) birth year cohorts of ten years are reported in rows, and genders are reported in columns. the numbers represent both known and estimated birth years in the age group; the numbers in parentheses are the number of founders among that cohort whose birth years were estimated, as described in methods. lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of individuals, so that those "non-biological parent to child" links are not in the pedigrees that we construct, if the adoptive relationships are known. relevance of founder structure to published and ongoing studies as of october , the ooa studies at um-som included approximately , participants. % of these participants studied are descended entirely from a subset (numbers of founders per individual ranged between and ) of the founders born before . that is, the entire gene pool of those individuals was derived from founders born before . % of participants studied are descended entirely from a subset (numbers of found- ers ranged between and ) of the founders born before . a subset of founders with more than living descendants comprises the entire gene pool of % of the study participants. a subset of founders with table : distribution of birth years and numbers of descendants among founders in agdb . birth year ≤#(d)< ≤#(d)< ≤#(d)< , , ≤#(d)< , , ≤#(d) sum - - - - - - - total birth year cohorts of fifty years are reported in rows, and numbers of descendants #(d) are reported in columns. founders born earlier have larger numbers of presumed living ooa descendants. figure cumulative mean rfr in agdb . cumulative mean rfr of founders in , presumed living ooa descendants. lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of more than descendants comprises the entire gene pool of % of the study participants. excess of female founders the number of female founders ( ) is larger than the number of male founders ( ) among founders. we evaluated three possible causes for the excess of female founders: ) remarriages of male founders after widow- hood; ) marriages comprising one founder and one non- founder; ) possible overestimate of female founders due to the difficulty of tracking relationships between females with different married surnames. we mentioned previously that there are marriages between female founders and male founders. in addition to the married founder couples, there are female founders married to non-founder males, and there are male founders married to non-founder females. thus, remarriage of widowed male founders is only a minor factor in the excess of female founders. the propensity for female founders to marry non-founders is a more substantial factor, but this may be confounded by difficulty in correctly determining the founder status of females. the lack of knowledge about relationships among female founders is partly due to the male bias in the ffh and aamg books. among female founders, only have partial names given, and only have surnames, making it difficult to track relationships. there are distinct surnames using identical spelling, and after grouping some sets such as {moser, mosser, musser} that are likely to be different spellings of the same surname. if any individuals with the same surname share ancestry, we would be able to reduce the number of female founders. occasionally, the books hint at a hidden relationship among founders, via footnotes, but the footnotes were not used systematically as they are often speculative. we conclude that the excess of female founders is mostly due to cryptic or unknown relationships, so that some of the apparent female founders are not really founders. discussion/conclusions with new queries and utility programs in pedhunter ver- sion . , we identified , presumed living ooa indi- viduals born in - and connected them into a - generation pedigree descended from founders, after trimming. because of the small number of founders, the frequency of consanguineous marriages in ooa steadily increased over time and reached approximately % for individuals born in - . among consanguineous marriages, the median kinship coefficient stayed stable in the th century, but rose in the th century. table reports kinship coefficients of married ooa couples who had at least one offspring in agdb . numbers of couples and kinship coefficients are both increased in temporal statistics. analysis of cumulative mean rfr shows that founders accounted for over % of the average founder contribution among all living ooa descendants. such results confirm that the ooa in lancaster county are truly a closed population. the combination of lack of new genetic material, lack of socio-economic variation, and detailed genealogies make the ooa ideally suited for identifying some rare variants that are associated with complex phenotypes [ ]. the examples of gwas repli- cations cited in background prove that some trait-associ- ated snp alleles seen in other populations can also be found in the ooa. our characterization of the founder structure provides an explanation for why other trait- associated alleles did not enter the ooa population; for example, cystic fibrosis is one of the most common reces- sive diseases in individuals of european ancestry, but hardly seen among the ooa [ ]. that the ooa have a small number of founders, but linkage disequilibrium (ld) patterns similar to outbred european populations [ ] may seem paradoxical. the apparent paradox is explained by noting that ld is a mea- sure of non-random association of alleles at different loci. linkage between the loci maintains this association under random mating and drift, while recombination will decay the association. thus, allele and haplotype frequen- cies drift together. for example, suppose two snps have d' = in the founders, so that only three of the four possi- ble haplotypes are observed, with frequencies . , . and . , respectively, but drift to . , . and . in the current population. both allele and haplotype frequencies have changed, but ld has not changed. the assumption of common alleles is important as random drift over the generations spanned by agdb will not eliminate com- mon variation. for low frequency alleles there is longer ld in the amish due to linkage as shown in [ ] and also in some of our association studies [ , ], where the most significant signal can be more than kbp from the causal allele. one weakness in our characterization of the ooa founder structure is the apparent excess of female found- ers. we tested three hypotheses and concluded that the excess is mostly due to cryptic or unknown relationships, such that some female founders are not really founders. analyses of mitochondrial genomes could provide evi- dence regarding some of these cryptic relationships. the male lineage and y chromosome inheritance have been validated [ ] a unique y chromosome str haplotype bred true within each of the male lineages represented in the um-som study sample. the surnames of the males comprising these lineages captured % of the households in the lancaster county amish address book, which contains distinct surnames. this number lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of is much lower than the total male founders because of genetic drift, conversion of some earlier settlers to other anabaptist sects, and westward migration [ ]. one limitation of our rfr calculations is that the vari- ance of the kinship coefficient due to mendelian sampling variance is not included in the calculation. for example, the kinship coefficient is . for both parent-offspring and full sibs, but the variance is zero for parent-offspring and non-zero for full sibs. analytical expressions of kin- ship variances are not possible for complex pedigrees, but empirical variances can be obtained through simulation by repeated gene-dropping of distinct founder alleles through the pedigree. computationally efficient gene- dropping can be achieved using the ancestor-first pedi- gree renumbering described above. we may implement a function r-empirical in a future version of pedhunter. the notion of "founder" we used is with respect to a trimmed genealogy, not including any explicit conditions on the locations of birth or death. the data sources focus on individuals who lived at least some years in the present united states, but not exclusively. to quantify this, we looked at the source information on founders with known or estimated birth years in and before , and we found that founders ( females and males) probably died in europe or on the sea. therefore, there may be even more female founders who never reached north america. to increase the utility of agdb and other digitized genealogies, we continue to enhance pedhunter with queries and utility programs to assist the discovery pro- cess on pedigrees in large genealogies. for example, agdb has been used to estimate the encatchment popu- lation of specific hospitals to determine the denominator of the hip-fracture incidence [ ]. for a study of osteo- genesis imperfecta, agdb was used prospectively to identify individuals likely to carry a genetic variant of phenotypic interest [ ]. a pedigree constructed from agdb made it possible to trace the origin of a rare apoc null allele conferring a favourable lipid profile and apparent cardioprotective phenotype to a couple born at the turn of the th century [ ]. additionally, pedhunter has been used in other pedigrees, to discover genetic drift and founder effects [ ]. in sum, we quantified the founder structure of the ooa and implemented numerous improvements to the software pedhunter that will be useful in future studies of both the ooa and other populations with large, comput- erized genealogies. additional material abbreviations aamg: amish and amish mennonite genealogies; agdb: anabaptist geneal- ogy database; ffh: fisher family history; gwas: genome-wide association studies; ibd: identical-by-descent; ld: linkage disequilibrium; ooa: old order amish; rfr: relative founder representation; um-som: university of maryland school of medicine. competing interests the authors declare that they have no competing interests. additional file pedhunter . queries and utility programs. table : distribution of birth years and kinship coefficients among married ooa couples with offspring in agdb . birth year #(couples) average % percentile median % percentile - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - . . . . - , . . . . - , . . . . - , . . . . - . . . . union set , . . . . birth year cohorts of ten years are reported in rows. a couple is assigned to the interval containing the average of the two birth years. numbers of married ooa couples #(couples) and kinship coefficients are reported in columns. couples born later tend to have larger kinship coefficients. http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/supplementary/ - - - -s .pdf lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of authors' contributions w-jl implemented the queries added in pedhunter version . , carried out the analysis of founder contributions and agdb shown here, and wrote the paper. tip developed the method for analyzing founder contributions, analyzed the founder contributions using an earlier version of agdb with the pedsys pack- age [ ], suggested additions to pedhunter, and wrote parts of the paper about founder contributions. jro helped develop the method for founder contributions and suggested additions to pedhunter. ra implemented most of the queries added in pedhunter versions . through . and organized data for all versions of agdb including version . and fisher formally announced in this paper. aas conceived agdb and pedhunter, assisted in their implemen- tation, and supervised the project. all authors edited the paper, read and approved all submitted versions including the final manuscript. acknowledgements this research was supported in part by the intramural research program of the nih, nlm. thanks to kathy ryan, braxton mitchell, alan shuldiner and the research team at the university of maryland and amish research clinic for collaborating on pedhunter/agdb usages in studies that stimulated the development of many queries, along with the outstanding cooperation of the amish community, without which the aforementioned studies would not have been possible. thanks to eric grant for suggesting the all_relatives query and for various other suggestions that improved the documentation. author details national center for biotechnology information, national library of medicine, national institutes of health, rockville pike, bethesda, maryland , usa, department of medicine, division of endocrinology, diabetes and nutrition, university of maryland school of medicine, w. redwood street, baltimore, maryland , usa and animal improvement programs laboratory, agricultural research service, united states department of agriculture, baltimore avenue, beltsville, maryland , usa references . nakabayashi k, amann d, ren y, saarialho-kere u, avidan n, gentles s, macdonald jr, puffenberger eg, christiano am, martinez-mir a, salas- alanis jc, rizzo r, vamos e, raams a, les c, seboun e, jaspers ngj, beckmann js, jackson ce, scherer sw: identification of c orf (ttdn ) gene mutations and genetic heterogeneity in nonphotosensitive trichothiodystrophy. am j hum genet , : - . . seboun e, lemainque a, jackson ce: amish brittle hair syndrome gene maps to p . . am j med genet a , : - . . lee sl, murdock dg, mccauley jl, bradford y, crunk a, mcfarland l, jiang l, wang t, schnetz-boutaud n, haines jl: a genome-wide scan in an amish pedigree with parkinsonism. ann hum genet , : - . . racette ba, good lm, kissel am, criswell sr, perlmutter js: a population- based study of parkinsonism in an amish community. neuroepidemiology , : - . . mccauley jl, hahs dw, jiang l, scott wk, welsh-bohmer ka, jackson ce, vance jm, pericak-vance ma, haines jl: combinatorial mismatch scan (cms) for loci associated with dementia in the amish. bmc med genet , : . . hsueh w-c, mitchell bd, aburomia r, pollin t, sakul h, gelder ehm m, michelsen bk, wagner mj, st jean pl, knowler wc, burns dk, bell cj, shuldiner ar: diabetes in the old order amish: characterization and heritability analysis of the amish family diabetes study. diabetes care , : - . . hsueh w-c, mitchell bd, schneider jl, wagner mj, bell cj, nanthakumar e, shuldiner ar: qtl influencing blood pressure maps to the region of pph on chromosome q - in old order amish. circulation , : - . . mcardle pf, dytch h, o'connell jr, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd, abney m: homozygosity by descent mapping of blood pressure in the old order amish: evidence for sex specific genetic architecture. bmc genet , : . . streeten ea, beck tj, o'connell jr, rampersand e, mcbride dj, takala sl, pollin ti, uusi-rasi k, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar: autosome-wide linkage analysis of hip structural phenotypes in the old order amish. bone , : - . . peet ja, cotch mf, wojciechowski r, bailey-wilson je, stambolian d: heritability and familial aggregation of refractive error in the old order amish. invest ophthalmol vis sci , : - . . pollin ti: the old order amish of lancaster county: elucidating the male founder structure and mapping metabolic syndrome quantitative trait loci. in phd thesis university of maryland baltimore, graduate program in human genetics; . . mitchell bd, mcardle pf, shen h, rampersaud e, pollin ti, bielak lf, jaquish c, douglas ja, roy-gagnon m-h, sack p, naglieri r, hines s, horenstein rb, chang y-pc, post w, ryan ka, brereton nh, pakyz re, sorkin j, damcott cm, o'connell jr, mangano c, corretti m, vogel r, herzog w, weir mr, peyser pa, shuldiner ar: the genetic response to short-term interventions affecting cardiovascular function: rationale and design of the heredity and phenotype intervention (hapi) heart study. am heart j , : - . . hsueh w-c, st jean pl, mitchell bd, pollin ti, knowler wc, ehm mg, bell cj, sakul h, wagner mj, burns dk, shuldiner ar: genome-wide and fine- mapping linkage studies of type diabetes and glucose traits in the old order amish: evidence for a new diabetes locus on chromosome q and confirmation of a locus on chromosome q -q . diabetes , : - . . pollin ti, hsueh w-c, steinle ni, snitker s, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd: a genome-wide scan of serum lipid levels in the old order amish. atherosclerosis , : - . . streeten ea, mcbride dj, pollin ti, ryan k, shapiro j, ott s, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar, o'connell jr: quantitative trait loci for bmd identified by autosome-wide linkage scan to chromosomes q and q in men from the amish family osteoporosis study. j bone miner res , : - . . damcott cm, ott sh, pollin ti, reinhart lj, wang j, o'connell jr, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar: genetic variation in adiponectin receptor and adiponectin receptor is associated with type diabetes in the old order amish. diabetes , : - . . post w, shen h, damcott c, arking de, kao whl, sack pa, ryan ka, chakravarti a, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar: associations between genetic variants in the nos ap (capon) gene and cardiac repolarization in the old order amish. hum hered , : - . . rampersaud e, damcott cm, fu m, shen h, mcardle p, shi x, shelton j, yin j, chang y-pc, ott sh, zhang l, zhao y, mitchell bd, o'connell j, shuldiner ar: identification of novel candidate genes for type diabetes from a genome-wide association scan in the old order amish: evidence for replication from diabetes-related quantitative traits and from independent populations. diabetes , : - . . wang y, o'connell jr, mcardle pf, wade jb, dorff se, shah sj, shi x, pan l, rampersaud e, shen h, kim jd, subramanya ar, steinle ni, parsa a, ober cc, welling pa, chakravarti a, weder ab, cooper rs, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar, chang y-pc: whole-genome association study identifies stk as a hypertension susceptibility gene. proc natl acad sci usa , : - . . pollin ti, damcott cm, shen h, ott sh, shelton j, horenstein rb, post w, mclenithan jc, bielak lf, peyser pa, mitchell bd, miller m, o'connell jr, shuldiner ar: a null mutation in human apoc confers a favorable plasma lipid profile and apparent cardioprotection. science , : - . . damcott cm, pollin ti, reinhart lj, ott sh, shen h, silver kd, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar: polymorphisms in the transcription factor -like (tcf l ) gene are associated with type diabetes in the amish: replication and evidence for a role in both insulin secretion and insulin resistance. diabetes , : - . . sanna s, jackson au, nagaraja r, willer cj, chen w-m, bonnycastle ll, shen h, timpson n, lettre g, usala g, chines ps, stringham hm, scott lj, dei m, lai s, albai g, crisponi l, naitza s, doheny kf, pugh ew, ben- shlomo y, ebrahim s, lawlor da, bergman rn, watanabe rm, uda m, tuomilehto j, coresh j, hirschhorn jn, shuldiner ar, schlessinger d, collins fs, davey smith g, boerwinkle e, cao a, boehnke m, abecasis gr, mohlke kl: common variants in the gdf -uqcc region are associated with variation in human height. nat genet , : - . . chen wm, erdos mr, jackson au, saxena r, sanna s, silver kd, timpson nj, hansen t, orrù m, grazia piras m, bonnycastle ll, willer cj, lyssenko v, shen h, kuusisto j, ebrahim s, sestu n, duren wl, spada mc, stringham received: december accepted: may published: may this article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / © lee et al; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of hm, scott lj, olla n, swift aj, najjar s, mitchell bd, lawlor da, smith gd, ben-shlomo y, andersen g, borch-johnsen k, jørgensen t, saramies j, valle tt, buchanan ta, shuldiner ar, lakatta e, bergman rn, uda m, tuomilehto j, pedersen o, cao a, groop l, mohlke kl, laakso m, schlessinger d, collins fs, altshuler d, abecasis gr, boehnke m, scuteri a, watanabe rm: variations in the g pc /abcb genomic region are associated with fasting glucose levels. j clin invest , : - . . heard-costa nl, zillikens mc, monda kl, johansson ?, harris tb, fu m, haritunians t, feitosa mf, aspelund t, eiriksdottir g, garcia m, launer lj, smith av, mitchell bd, mcardle pf, shuldiner ar, bielinski sj, boerwinkle e, brancati f, demerath ew, pankow js, arnold am, chen y-di, glazer nl, mcknight b, psaty bm, rotter ji, amin n, campbell h, gyllensten u, pattaro c, pramstaller pp, rudan i, struchalin m, vitart v, gao x, kraja a, province ma, zhang q, atwood ld, dupuis j, hirschhorn jn, jaquish ce, o'donnell cj, vasan rs, white cc, aulchenko ys, estrada k, hofman a, rivadeneira f, uitterlinden ag, witteman jc, oostra ba, kaplan rc, gudnason v, o'connell jr, borecki ib, van duijn cm, cupples la, fox cs, north ke: nrxn is a novel locus for waist circumference: a genome-wide association study from the charge consortium. plos genet , :e . . sanna s, busonero f, maschio a, mcardle pf, usala g, dei m, lai s, mulas a, piras mg, perseu l, masala m, marongiu m, crisponi l, naitza s, galanello r, abecasis gr, shuldiner ar, schlessinger d, cao a, uda m: common variants in the slco b locus are associated with bilirubin levels and unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia. hum mol genet , : - . . shuldiner ar, o'connell jr, bliden kp, gandhi a, ryan k, horenstein rb, damcott cm, pakyz r, tantry us, gibson q, pollin ti, post w, parsa a, mitchell bd, faraday n, herzog w, gurbel pa: association of cytochrome p c genotype with the antiplatelet effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel therapy. jama , : - . . patton ma: genetic studies in the amish community. ann hum biol , : - . . mckusick va: medical genetic studies of the amish: selected papers baltimore and london: johns hopkins university press; . . francomano ca, mckusick va, biesecker lg: medical genetic studies in the amish: historical perspective. am j med genet c semin med genet , c: - . . agarwala r, biesecker lg, hopkins ka, francomano ca, schaffer aa: software for constructing and verifying pedigrees within large genealogies and an application to the old order amish of lancaster county. genome res , : - . . agarwala r, biesecker lg, tomlin jf, schäffer aa: towards a complete north american anabaptist genealogy: a systematic approach to merging partially overlapping genealogy resources. am j med genet , : - . . agarwala r, schäffer aa, tomlin jf: towards a complete north american anabaptist genealogy ii: analysis of inbreeding. hum biol , : - . . agarwala r, biesecker lg, schäffer aa: anabaptist genealogy database. am j med genet c semin med genet , c: - . . beiler k: fisher family history lancaster, pennsylvania: eby's quality printing; . . gingerich hf, kreider rw: amish and amish mennonite genealogies gordonville, pennsylvania: pequea publishers; . . johnston jj, kelley ri, crawford to, morton dh, agarwala r, koch t, schäffer aa, francomano ca, biesecker lg: a novel nemaline myopathy in the amish caused by a mutation in troponin t . am j hum genet , : - . . rosenberg mj, agarwala r, bouffard g, davis j, fiermonte g, hilliard ms, koch t, kalikin lm, makalowska i, morton dh, petty em, weber jl, palmieri f, kelley ri, schäffer aa, biesecker lg: mutant deoxynucleotide carrier is associated with congenital microcephaly. nat genet , : - . . saunders-pullman r, raymond d, senthil g, kramer p, ohmann e, deligtisch a, shanker v, greene p, tabamo r, huang n, tagliati m, kavanagh p, soto-valencia j, de carvalho aguiar p, risch n, ozelius l, bressman s: narrowing the dyt dystonia region and evidence for locus heterogeneity in the amish-mennonites. am j med genet a , a: - . . fuchs t, gavarini s, saunders-pullman r, raymond d, ehrlich me, bressman sb, ozelius lj: mutations in the thap gene are responsible for dyt primary torsion dystonia. nat genet , : - . . mitchell bd, hsueh w-c, king tm, pollin ti, sorkin j, agarwala r, schäffer aa, shuldiner ar: heritability of life span in the old order amish. am j med genet , : - . . sorkin j, post w, pollin ti, o'connell jr, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar: exploring the genetics of longevity in the old order amish. mech ageing dev , : - . . mcardle pf, pollin ti, o'connell jr, sorkin jd, agarwala r, schäffer aa, streeten ea, king tm, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd: does having children extend life span? a genealogical study of parity and longevity in the amish. j gerontol a biol sci med sci , : - . . njajou ot, cawthon rm, damcott cm, wu s-h, ott s, garant mj, blackburn eh, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar, hsueh w-c: telomere length is paternally inherited and is associated with parental lifespan. proc natl acad sci usa , : - . . greenwood cm, bureau a, loredo-osti jc, roslin nm, crumley mj, brewer cg, fujiwara tm, goldstein dr, morgan k: pedigree selection and tests of linkage in a hutterite asthma pedigree. genet epidemiol , (suppl ):s -s . . lamont re, loredo-osti jc, roslin nm, mauthe j, coghlan g, nylen e, frappier d, innes am, lemire eg, lowry rb, greenberg cr, triggs-raine bl, morgan k, wrogemann k, fujiwara tm, zelinski t: a locus for bowen- conradi syndrome maps to chromosome region p . . am j med genet a , a: - . . wittke-thompson jk, ambrose n, yairi e, roe c, cook eh, ober c, cox nj: genetic studies of stuttering in a founder population. j fluency disord , : - . . pinto jm, thanaviratananich s, hayes mg, naclerio rm, ober c: a genome-wide screen for hyposmia susceptibility loci. chem senses , : - . . thorsson b, sigurdsson g, gudnason v: systematic family screening for familial hypercholesterolemia in iceland. arterioscler thromb vasc biol , : - . . ciullo m, bellenguez c, colonna v, nutile t, calabria a, pacente r, iovino g, trimarco b, bourgain c, persico mg: new susceptibility locus for hypertension on chromosome q by efficient pedigree-breaking in an italian isolate. hum mol genet , : - . . dagklis a, fazi c, sala c, cantarelli v, scielzo c, massacane r, toniolo d, caligaris-cappio f, stamatopoulos k, ghia p: the immunoglobulin gene repertoire of low-count chronic lymphocytic leukemia (cll)-like monoclonal b lymphocytosis is different from cll: diagnostic implications for clinical monitoring. blood , : - . . van hout cv, levin am, rampersaud e, shen h, o'connell jr, mitchell bd, shuldiner ar, douglas ja: extent and distribution of linkage disequilibrium in the old order amish. genet epidemiol , : - . . terwilliger jd, ott j: handbook of human genetic linkage baltimore, maryland the johns hopkins university press; . . dyke b: pedsys: a pedigree data management system san antonio, texas southwest foundation for biomedical research, population genetics laboratory; . . lange k: mathematical and statistical methods for genetic analysis nd edition. new york, new york: springer-verlag; . . lange k, sinsheimer js: the pedigree trimming problem. hum hered , : - . . huyard de: isaac huyard joins the amish. in amish roots: a treasury of history, wisdom, and lore. reprint edition edited by: hostetler ja. baltimore, maryland: the johns hopkins university press; : - . . morton dh, morton cs, strauss ka, robinson dl, puffenberger eg, hendrickson c, kelley ri: pediatric medicine and the genetic disorders of the amish and mennonite people of pennsylvania. am j med genet c semin med genet , c: - . . shen h, damcott cm, rampersaud e, pollin ti, horenstein rb, mcardle pf, peyser pa, bielak lf, post ws, chang ypc, ryan ka, miller m, rumberger ja, sheedy pf, shelton j, oconnell jr, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd: the apob r q polymorphism is common in the old order amish and is a major cause of increased ldl-c concentrations and coronary artery calcification. arch intern med in press. . pollin ti, mcbride dj, agarwala r, schäffer aa, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd, o'connell jr: investigations of the y chromosome, male founder structure and ystr mutation rates in the old order amish. hum hered , : - . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= lee et al. bmc medical genetics , : http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / page of . streeten ea, mcbride dj, lodge al, pollin ti, stinchcomb dg, agarwala r, schäffer aa, shapiro jr, shuldiner ar, mitchell bd: reduced incidence of hip fracture in the old order amish. j bone miner res , : - . . daley e, streeten ea, sorkin jd, kuznetsova n, shapses sa, carleton sm, shuldiner ar, marini jc, phillips cl, goldstein sa, leikin s, mcbride dj jr: variable bone fragility associated with an amish col a variant and a knock-in mouse model. j bone miner res , : - . . pardo lm, mackay i, oostra b, van duijn cm, aulchenko ys: the effect of genetic drift in a young genetically isolated population. ann hum genet , : - . pre-publication history the pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / /prepub doi: . / - - - cite this article as: lee et al., pedhunter . and its usage to characterize the founder structure of the old order amish of lancaster county bmc medical genetics , : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / / /prepub 	abstract 	background 	methods 	pedhunter versions 	queries in pedhunter . 	examples of queries useful for analysis of the anabaptist genealogy database 	pedigree renumbering 	anabaptist genealogy database version . 	prediction of old order amish status 	pedigree trimming on founders 	estimation of birth years for founders 	mean relative founder representation 	results 	distribution of old order amish 	old order amish founder structure 	relevance of founder structure to published and ongoing studies 	excess of female founders 	discussion/conclusions 	additional material genealogy article inscribing ethnicity: a preliminary analysis of gaelic headstone inscriptions in eastern nova scotia and cape breton laurie stanley-blackwell ,* and michael linkletter department of history, st. francis xavier university, antigonish, ns b g w , canada department of celtic studies, st. francis xavier university, antigonish, ns b g w , canada; mlinklet@stfx.ca * correspondence: lstanley@stfx.ca; tel.: + - - - received: may ; accepted: august ; published: august ���������� ������� abstract: focusing on the verbal rather than the visual elements of early and more modern headstones in eastern nova scotia and cape breton, this essay will comment on a selection of gaelic headstone inscriptions, highlighting such elements as word choice (whether secular or religious), cemetery location, time period, and the deceased’s background. despite the striking paucity of gaelic examples, it is our objective to discuss why gaelic had a limited presence in nova scotia’s pioneer scottish immigrant cemeteries and to demonstrate how these cemeteries were contested sites, which mirrored ongoing tensions between assimilation and cultural retention. in sum, this article will assess the importance of cemeteries as material articulations of language use and language maintenance among nova scotia’s diasporic scots, set against the wider background of their struggles, aspirations, and shared values. keywords: gaelic; cemeteries; scottish immigrants; nova scotia . introduction the political, religious, economic, and cultural contours of nova scotia, canada were profoundly shaped by the successive waves of scottish immigrants who came to the colony during the th and th centuries. the reality of this scottish presence is vividly epitomised by the name “nova scotia”, which means “new scotland” in latin, and the provincial flag, which combines the scottish saltire and the royal arms of scotland. despite ties between nova scotia and scotland dating back to the early th century, scottish influence gained prominence during the late s and early s, as expanding numbers of highlanders and lowlanders, both roman catholic and presbyterian, boarded ships that plied the north atlantic en route to the colony (hornsby , pp. – ). although contemporary official immigration record keeping was notoriously unreliable, it is conservatively estimated that between and , , scottish immigrants, many of them gaelic speakers, relocated from scotland to nova scotia (campbell and maclean , p. ). the port community of pictou served as the major point of entry for many of the earlier arrivals, but they soon flowed westward to colchester and cumberland counties and eastward towards antigonish and cape breton (pp. – ). in addition to confronting the physical hardships of pioneering, these scottish immigrants faced the challenges of a power dynamic in nova scotia, which favoured english speakers and jeopardised cultural and linguistic identity. perhaps more than any other ethnic group in eastern canada, the scots have received a prodigious amount of historical attention, both scholarly and popular. their impact on such facets of nova scotia’s past as politics, economics, education, religion, literature, publishing, demography, and folk culture genealogy , , ; doi: . /genealogy www.mdpi.com/journal/genealogy http://www.mdpi.com/journal/genealogy http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /genealogy http://www.mdpi.com/journal/genealogy http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= genealogy , , of have been amply documented. however, despite their central importance in documenting and perpetuating ethnic identity, cemeteries have been an underutilised artefact for scholars researching the socio-historical context of scottish immigration to nova scotia. in short, the headstones of colonial scots, one of the most durable and ubiquitous examples of the scottish immigration and settlement experience, have been largely overlooked by historians. this deficiency may well explain the lingering misconception that the headstones of nova scotia’s immigrant scots and their descendants are devoid of gaelic inscriptions and that this group looked to other attributes, outside of the cemetery, to fortify their group identity. the following article is meant to serve as a corrective to this misreading of evidence by demonstrating to historians, linguists, folklorists, and genealogists that among nova scotia’s scots, there existed a small cohort who defied linguistic homogenisation and through inscriptional language preference (i.e., using gaelic), found a way to give material expression to their culture through death. . literature review in recent years, the cemetery has been identified as an important cultural landscape, rich in the artefactual evidence of text and symbol. gravestones serve multiple functions, most notably as “tools for presentation of self and identity” (reimers , p. ). as well, as noted by the american historian-geographer, richard francaviglia, these “microcosms” of the living tell us “a great deal about the living people who created them” (francaviglia , p. ). canadian ethnic historian, john lehr, echoes this sentiment with his assertion that cemeteries as “fields of remembrance for the living” are as much a part of life as a part of death, “commemorating not individuals, but the society of which they were a part” (lehr , p. ). embodying both individual and collective identities, cemeteries offer important cultural insights into religious tenets, world views, status aspirations, funerary arts, aesthetic tastes, economic and social structures, occupational folklore, and ethnic compositions. for immigrants especially, the cemetery has been invested with a meaning that speaks directly to their sense of ethnic pride and awareness of heritage by demarcating boundaries of belonging and otherness. among certain ethnic groups in north america, cemeteries, often the most “culturally conservative” focal point in a community, have been deemed an ideal site for forging cross-generational connections between the past, present, and future (meyer , p. ). in the united states, during the s and s, the function of the cemetery as a multivocal manifestation of identity was scrutinised closely by american scholars, such as edwin dethlefsen, james deetz (deetz and dethlefsen ), and stannard ( , ). by the s, a surge of interest in the concept of necroethnicity and the phenomenon of ethnic cemeteries paved the way for terry jordan’s texas graveyards: a cultural legacy (jordan ), which studied the burial attributes of three ethnic texan cemeteries (southern anglo-american, hispanic, and german), and richard meyer ’s two edited collections of essays, cemeteries & grave markers: voices of american culture (meyer ) and ethnicity and the american cemetery (meyer ). the latter ’s works, still regarded as classics, spotlight the broader significance of group identity within commemoration behaviour. in his introduction to ethnicity and the american cemetery, meyer asserts: “collectively, america’s ethnic cemeteries represent largely untapped resources for the study of evolving patterns of ethnicity in american culture” (p. ). with this broadened perspective, gravestone studies in the united states opened the door in the s, and onward, to studying the burial customs, cemetery forms, and marker types of indigenous and immigrant peoples, ranging from native americans to eastern europeans, gypsies, and asians, groups who were typically omitted in the “mainstream studies of american life” (ibid., p. ). in the metal cruciform markers of german and russian immigrants, the feng shui designs of chinese cemeteries in hawaii and the pacific northwest, the distinctive graves of navajo, mormons, and zuni in new mexico, and the elaborate graveside decorations in mexican-american cemeteries in texas, could be found evidence that many cemeteries throughout the united states diverged from “the ideal of a unified garden”, which allegedly subsumed in death the differences of “those who lived separately in life” (matturri , p. ). in recent decades, the interest in american cemeteries, as laboratories for studying observable patterns of ethnicity, has continued unabated, among established academics genealogy , , of and graduate students alike, closely examining foreign language epitaphs, relationship wording, siting, and marker styles to extrapolate the meanings of ethnicity and acculturation (broce ; harnois ; chung and wegars ; mallois and caterino ; bruner ; vandam ; gradwohl ; rainville ; giroux ; stone ; cipolla ; cox et al. ; king ; patterson ; baugher and veit ; and gall and veit ). nothing comparable to this fertile body of work exists in canadian historical literature. for example, deborah trask’s life how short, eternity how long (trask ), still regarded as an essential primer on the history of nova scotian cemeteries after forty years, contains a perfunctory three-sentence paragraph on what she styles as “scottish stones” and four paragraphs on so-called “german stones”. conversely, jennifer mckendry’s overview of ontario graveyards, into the silent land (mckendry ), singles out the significance of trades, associations, nature, and religion as important categories of analysis in cemetery research; however, her discussion of ethnicity is cursory, limited largely to a passing mention of celtic crosses. the most significant advances in the study of necroethnicity in canada have been made by scholars, such as medwidsky ( ), carlson-cumbo ( ), and lehr ( ), who have studied the deathways and deathscapes of canadian-ukrainians. their work demonstrates that through visible identifiers of ethnic affiliation such as native language and national symbolism, the headstones of canadian-ukrainians have served as an expressive mirror of cultural retention, as well as a metaphor for cultural transformation and a measurement of the nature and rate of acculturation. a article co-authored by lehr and albanski (lehr and albanski ) highlights the academic dividends inherent in exploring how groups in canada have used cemeteries as an expression of ethnicity. lehr and albanski demonstrate how polish and ukrainian ethnic identities were imagined, expressed, and negotiated in rural southeastern manitoba cemeteries. historian frances swyripa has followed a similar interpretive trajectory, concluding that among ukrainian settlers in canada, burial places doubled as symbolic spaces for localised ethno-religious identity ( , ). recent post-graduate theses (martin ; watkins ; cook ; gallén ; guibord ; jasinski ; and shirley ), the research mandate of the holy cross historical trust in halifax, and the ongoing investigations of this article’s authors into the death customs of nova scotia’s gaels testify to an accelerating interest in canada in exploring ethnic consciousness via the cemetery. only in the past few years, with george thomson’s markers article (thomson ), has there been any serious attempt to unlock the meaning of scottish immigrant cemeteries in canada. this innovative article, which focuses exclusively on letterform analysis as a measurement for gauging the impact of scottish ethnicity on headstones in nova scotia and prince edward island, is highly specialised and one-dimensional. nevertheless, it signals the need for a more expansive framework for studying cemeteries in canada’s gàidhealtachd as an expression of scottish immigrant identity. . discussion of fieldwork evidence our research path for this article has taken us to cemeteries in those regions most closely linked to the scottish diaspora in canada, such as pictou and antigonish counties in eastern nova scotia and victoria, inverness, cape breton and richmond counties in cape breton. the demographic contours of these counties were shaped definitively by scottish immigrants originating from the islands of barra, south uist, north uist, harris, lewis, eigg, and skye, and such mainland areas as sutherlandshire, ross-shire, inverness-shire, and perthshire. by compiling a fieldwork-based inventory of gaelic headstone inscriptions, we have chosen to focus on the cemetery as a linguistic landscape, centring on the verbal rather than visual identifiers of ethnicity. thus far, we have identified headstones, both old and modern, which feature gaelic inscriptions. these range from a single word to a phrase to a fully bilingual inscription. the grave markers that we have encountered range from the primitive to the sophisticated; however, whatever their form, they attest to the power of memory and of memorialising among scottish immigrants. an example of the upper end of the scale is the exquisitely carved headstone genealogy , , of of -year-old archibald “the big bachelor” mackinnon, whose sandstone grave marker beside lake ainslie is encrusted with such images as a stag, lion’s head, archer’s arms with bow and arrow, and boar’s head with shank-bone of a deer, the latter a central symbol on the mackinnon crest. some markers, in contrast, are simply rough fieldstone incised with minimal biographical details, whereas others are just mute remembrances of scottish immigrants. these headstones open up a fruitful line of historical inquiry into whether scottish immigrants forged emotional links with their pioneer cemeteries and whether their grave markers, as a visible stamp on the nova scotian landscape, represented an extension of their distinctiveness. for many scottish immigrants in nova scotia, ethnic affiliation was articulated, not surprisingly, through the use of the thistle, which became a pervasive cultural symbol, albeit not consistently, in scottish catholic and scottish presbyterian cemeteries in eastern nova scotia and cape breton during the nineteenth century (stanley-blackwell and linkletter ; maclean ). the thistle motif appears in endlessly versatile patterns, sometimes paired with a bible and rosettes or a cross or crucifixion scene, symbolising a dual identity rooted in religion and scottish ethnicity. a significant number of scottish immigrants also used their grave markers to reaffirm connections between the old world and the new by identifying the deceased’s place of origin and forever linking them with their original home. in this practice, the scots seem to have eclipsed other ethnic groups who came to canada, such as the mennonites and ukrainians, who rarely recorded their places of birth on their headstones (swyripa , p. ). inscription data for the scots who went to australia reveal a similarly high frequency of specified origins on the headstones of scottish immigrants (wilkie ; straw ). there are several possible explanations for this phenomenon. some historians suggest that recording birthplace on a headstone expresses “alienation from the present and attachment to a faraway past”, but equally credible is the theory that it represents a way for individuals “crystallizing” a new community “to identify themselves for themselves and for each other” (swyripa , p. ). given its visibility as a cultural reference point and as a space used by future generations, the scottish immigrant cemetery would have been a perfect place to record and perpetuate the gaelic language in nova scotian scottish immigrant communities. historians of ukrainian and mennonite ethnicity in north america have discovered that the headstone inscriptions for these groups, who carried their culture to the grave, were originally written in german or ukrainian. as frances swyripa has remarked, this custom reinforced the role of their cemeteries “as places apart from the dominant anglo” culture, thereby making their “personal stories” inaccessible to “outsiders”, especially when even the names appeared in “an unfamiliar script or alphabet” (ibid.). although the history of ukrainian and mennonite migration to canada may not seem directly relevant to this study, there are examples drawn from other ethnic groups in nova scotia, which are equally illuminating. for example, deborah trask has identified in lunenburg and lunenburg county, the main locus of german settlement in nova scotia, twelve headstones inscribed in german that pre-date . after that date, however, english language headstones became the norm among this population. according to trask, this finding runs counter to the popular assumption that their “assimilation into the predominant english culture began immediately” (trask , p. ). the situation among nova scotia’s french-speaking acadians is more complex, with huge disparities in french language use percentages throughout the province’s cemeteries. for example, in cheticamp’s st. pierre cemetery, almost % of the headstone inscriptions, covering the period from to , are in french (ross , p. ), whereas tracadie church’s “old cemetery”, with its polyethnic cross-section of scottish, irish, and french grave markers from to , shows the reverse: almost % of these headstones have english inscriptions, demonstrating how fully the english language gained hegemony in antigonish county, where tracadie is located. the number of gaelic inscriptions identified thus far in our study of nova scotian cemeteries may sound modest, but it prompts conjecture about why some nova scotian scots expressed their cultural identity through gaelic headstone inscriptions, whereas many others did not. for example, judging from his will, pictou county’s kenneth mcdonald, a coal miner in albion mines, manifested genealogy , , of ethno-cultural pride as he contemplated life’s last rite of passage. ironically, however, he made no specific request for a gaelic headstone inscription, although he bequeathed his “highland plaid” and “gaelic [sic] bible testament & psalm book” to family members and stipulated a “decent” burial near the graves of his grandchildren (macdonald ). similarly, pictou county’s william cameron, a west river carpenter, left explicit instructions in for the disposition of his prized gaelic bible but mentioned nothing about wanting a headstone in gaelic (cameron ). one also wonders why there was no gaelic grave marker for the caithness-born alexander forbes, also from pictou county, who invoked his mother tongue on his deathbed, with the utterance: “cha’n eagail duit s, tha dia laidir” (paraphrase of isaiah : , fear not, god is strong) (forbes ). the reasons underlying the use of gaelic inscriptions in nova scotian cemeteries by some deceased, thereby lending themselves a defined and visible presence in death, also prompt curiosity and speculation. for example, why was the sandstone slab for pictou county’s lydia fraser, the wife of a maclennan’s brook schoolmaster, carved in english, while the death of her infant son, donald fraser, in , was commemorated in gaelic: “aig dia’s ro-phriseil bas a naomh” (psalm : , precious in the sight of the lord is the death of his saints) (evans and smith , p. )? conversely, why did the mid- th-century headstone in new town’s hillside cemetery for the elderly couple, angus and jane cameron, feature only two gaelic words “ban” (fair) and “nig” (abbreviation for nighean, daughter)? did this modicum of uppercase gaelic words, framed by the carved names of the deceased, represent merely nicknames to distinguish them as individuals, or was it a more profound assertion of highland identity in a cemetery landscape dominated by english inscriptions? a discussion of language preference in the cemeteries of nova scotia’s highland immigrants, once described as a people who “live, move, and have their being in the language; indeed, they think in it and dream in it, and, if they swear, they do that also in gaelic”, is a key theme in this article (dunn , p. ). however, prior to such a discussion, one should consider a selection of memorial inscriptions drawn from our database, focusing on such variables as word choice, cemetery location, time period, and the deceased’s background. it should be noted that gaelic transcriptions will be provided verbatim et literatim and that accent marks are typically absent in the majority of our examples. headstone inscriptions are, by their very nature, abbreviated snapshots of an individual’s life and identity. they must distil the deceased’s essence in as few characters as possible. gaelic headstones exemplify those instances where the dictates of space and purchasing power were overridden by a deeply felt resolve that those last words, however condensed and costly, should contain some acknowledgement of gaelic tradition. the oldest example in our inventory dates from and was erected in st. margaret of scotland roman catholic cemetery, antigonish county, to commemorate mary macdonald, wife of john macleod, who relocated to arisaig parish from parrsboro, nova scotia in (figure s , see the supplementary materials). such was the profound depth of their religious devotion that they initially travelled the vast distance to arisaig to perform their easter duties and to baptize their first son, william b. macleod, who later became the “first native-born priest” of the diocese of arichat (later antigonish) and the first of the descendants of the pioneer scots to be ordained (cameron , p. ). mary’s remarkable headstone, erected as an act of filial piety by her priest-son, william, bears a partially gaelic inscription, as well as a striking array of motifs, including two trumpeting angels, two thistles, a crucifix, a rosebud, a heart, and an unusual rebus. angus “pioneer” macdonald, sometimes known as angus gillis macdonald, who became one of merigomish harbour’s first european settlers, was also commemorated with a gaelic inscription on a headstone erected in st. andrew’s cemetery, egerton, in the s, approximately years after his death (figure s , see the supplementary materials). this rare individualised epitaph for this native of morar, inverness-shire, celebrates his legendary hospitality to the gulf shore’s early scottish immigrants. some of the offspring of antigonish’s pioneer elite also had gaelic inscriptions on their headstones, such as ronald “peddler” macdonald, a successful miller and one of the first wardens of st. joseph’s parish, who is buried in st. joseph’s cemetery near antigonish (figure s , see the supplementary genealogy , , of materials). his parents, angus “macruari” macdonald and mary macdonald, were among the first wave of settlers who came from inverness-shire to bailey’s brook, pictou county, in the early s. gaelic also found a niche among the more fashionable and elaborate headstones of the late th century. in pictou county’s gladstone cemetery in four mile brook can be found an obelisk-style marker with a gaelic and english inscription for local worthy, alexander murray, a farmer and mason, who came to nova scotia from sutherlandshire in , naming his farm dunrobin after dunrobin castle (figure s , see the supplementary materials). in cape breton, an elderly scottish-born donald mcdonald, a literate gaelic- and english-speaking farmer in middle river, was commemorated with a bilingual stanza, in english with a gaelic translation, from the popular sentimental victorian memorial poem, “the loved one gone forever”, while murdoch mcaulay, an octogenarian nova-scotian-born captain and farmer, also literate, had an impressive grave marker situated in boularderie’s man o war cemetery, cape breton, dated , with a virtually all-gaelic inscription (figures s and s , see the supplementary materials). in our sampling, women are far from an invisible minority. for example, in , in antigonish county’s st. andrew’s old cemetery, -year-old unmarried christy chisholm, who emigrated from strathglass to nova scotia with her parents in , went to her grave with a somewhat generic gaelic send-off “sith dhia [sic] dha h-anam” (peace of god to her soul), as well as a more particularised identification as “ni’n ian duinn” (the daughter of brown-haired john) (figure s , see the supplementary materials). clergy, both catholic and presbyterian, form a distinct subset when studying gaelic inscriptions. examples range from the massive monument erected by his descendants in to commemorate the legendary cleric and gaelic poet, the rev. james macgregor, which includes his gaelic tribute to his first wife, to the elegant marble column marking the heatherton gravesite of father william chisholm, one-time principal of saint andrew’s grammar school, who served pastorates in margaree, cheticamp, and heatherton and was a fluent speaker of gaelic, english, and french (figures s and s , see the supplementary materials). another significant subset of gaelic headstone inscriptions encompasses gaelic-speaking tradition bearers such as john maclean, the rev. alexander maclean sinclair, and jonathan mackinnon, all of whom as valiant champions of scottish gaeldom made an invaluable contribution to the vitality of the transnational gaelic community (linkletter ). the headstone of the gaelic poet, john maclean (shared with his wife, isabella black), enjoys an almost shrine-like status in antigonish county’s glen bard cemetery, a locale once described as “no place of its kind in north america [which] better represents the culture and the spirit of the ancient gaelic race” (figure s , see the supplementary materials) (sinclair , p. ). his gaelic headstone inscription offers a novel twist on the age-old entreaty “stop, passerby”. rather than inviting reflection on human mortality, maclean’s inscription is an impassioned directive, “cum a’ ghaidhlig suas ri d’ bheo” (keep up the gaelic as long as you live). nearby are the grave markers, also adorned with gaelic inscriptions, for his children, charles and eliza who share a headstone, son archibald, and eldest daughter, christy, as well as his grandson, the rev. alexander maclean sinclair, and great grandson, the rev. donald maclean sinclair. this constellation of headstones can be termed a “dynastic burial” (figure s , see the supplementary materials). a modern-day equivalent exists in antigonish county’s lower south river cemetery, where several th-century macpherson family headstones with gaelic inscriptions are situated in close proximity. they are located near the burial site of judge hugh macpherson, local historian and genealogist, storyteller, one-time president of antigonish’s st. andrew’s society, and tireless promoter of nova scotia’s scottish heritage (figure s , see the supplementary materials). this cluster of headstones exemplifies the resurgence of interest in gaelic language renewal, which is making an imprint on the cemetery landscape of present-day eastern nova scotia and cape breton. the sentiments expressed in our fieldwork sample of gaelic inscriptions are largely religious, especially among earlier markers. these include excerpts from biblical passages, such as proverbs : “fosgailidh i a glac do’n truaghan agus sìnidh i a làmhan [do’n fheumach]”, which in the english standard version is as follows: “she opens her hand to the poor, and she stretches out her hands [to genealogy , , of the needy]”. this passage is used on at least two occasions in our inventory. it appears as a direct quotation at the bottom of the headstone of catherine mcdonald near merigomish on the nova scotia mainland, whose marker declares in english, that she was wife of peter mcdonald and a native of lochaber, scotland, who died september at the age of years. proverbs : also appears on the earliest headstone with gaelic that we have thus far found, the marker belonging to mary mcdonald, the wife of john macleod, who died january at the age of . the gaelic inscription on mary’s grave is a personalised adaptation of the proverb. the verb tense is changed from the future (or habitual present) of the actual passage to the past tense, which is of course quite logical when used in reference to someone who has died (i.e., “dh fhosgail i a glac do n truaghan agus shini a [làmhan] do n fheumach” (she opened her hand to the poor, and she stretched out her hands to the needy)). what is especially charming here is that in place of the word for hands “làmhan”, an image of a minute pair of outstretched arms has been carved, now barely visible due to weathering. mary mcdonald’s marker is located in arisaig, nova scotia, approximately km east of catherine mcdonald’s merigomish grave (figure s , see the supplementary materials). it may be that the two were related. certainly, the two communities were connected through the first highland settler in arisaig, angus “pioneer” macdonald, previously mentioned. angus had come initially to north america with the glenaladale settlement, sponsored in large part by the catholic church and john macdonald, laird of glenaladale. this migration, one of the first major highland settlements in what is now canada, specifically prince edward island, was composed of people from south uist and the lochaber district. angus was a cousin of glenaladale and fought in the battle of quebec in . as a reward, he was offered acres of land of his choosing in eastern nova scotia. he initially chose a parcel of land that he called arisaig after the land of his birth but did not stay there long and finally settled further west up the coast in merigomish harbour. apparently, angus’s home became a well-known stop for many gaels travelling from the earlier settlement of pictou, heading east to the newer communities being established in antigonish and cape breton. this hospitality is indicated in the gaelic inscription on his headstone “cairid na chiad gaeil a thainig un’ duthch’” (a friend of the first gaels who came to the country) (figure s , see the supplementary materials). it is perhaps not surprising that reference to hospitality, such an important and central value of gaelic society, is also a tenet represented on headstones. we also see it, for instance, on the grave of allan and sarah macdonald of iona, cape breton, which states, “bho’n a bha dorus bhur taighe daonan fosgailte ri luchd siubhail, guidheamaid dorsan flathanais a bhi fosgailte reidh, ro’r n-anam” (since your door was always open to travellers, let us pray the doors of heaven be clear and open before your soul). the length of a particular gaelic passage can vary according to headstone. these inscriptions run the spectrum from being completely in gaelic, such as that for john maclean “the bard” (or bàrd thighearna chola) already mentioned, to the very short, such as that for alexander and mary macdonald of stewartdale, cape breton. their headstone includes a carving of an open bible on the top of the stone with two gaelic words “tiomnadh nuadh” (new testament) (figure s , see the supplementary materials). the back of the headstone is inscribed with the interesting assertion that the stone was brought to the new world from scotland, again emphasising the important connection to the homeland with the corollary that this particular monument must by extension be extra special. the periodic occurrence of mistakes in gaelic inscriptions may be attributed to a transcriber or carver error, who might or might not have been literate in the language, or it could have been that the client requesting the inscription did not, or was not able to, provide a completely accurate passage in gaelic. errors with prepositional pronouns and gender and the use of the singular versus plural forms appear especially in variations of the stock phrase “fois dha anam” (peace to his soul) and are found predominantly among more recent stones. it is not always clear that the deceased individual, or whoever it was who ordered the stone, was actually a gaelic speaker, as with the grave of lawrence s. macdougall in pictou county (figure s , see the supplementary materials). his headstone, possibly an homage to his ancestor, martin “pioneer” macdonald who came to the gulf shore in the s, genealogy , , of has gaelic on the front side with a nearly equivalent passage in english on the back. whoever provided the gaelic inscription did not get the genders quite right with, for instance, the phrase “fois shiorruidh do a h-anam” (eternal peace to her soul). other examples include “fois air anam” (peace on his soul), instead of “fois air an anmna” (peace on their souls), in reference to two people sharing a headstone, and the incorrect use of the genitive of god as in “sìth dhia” (peace of god) instead of “sìth dhè”, which appears repeatedly and may be attributed to dialect differences (figures s –s , see the supplementary materials). errors may be phonetically based, influenced by english spelling, as in “shinn” instead of “sinn”, or errors with lenition as in “do tamh” instead of “do thàmh” or “mo graidh” instead of “mo ghràidh”. errors can also be unintentionally comical, such as the various misspellings of “fois” as “foif” and “soif”, or instead of “màthair chiùin” one sees “nàthair chiùin”, which is uncomfortably close to “nathair chiùin”, meaning “gentle snake” instead of “gentle mother” (figures s –s , see the supplementary materials). . analysis of findings our research in eastern nova scotia and cape breton demonstrates that the headstones of scottish immigrants and their descendants tell collective, as well as individual stories, offering scholars the means to track through time via inscription samples the trajectories of gaelic language maintenance, language loss, and language renewal. given the supposition of widespread illiteracy among immigrant gaels and the stigma that was sometimes attached to speaking the language, it may seem surprising to find any gaelic on headstones at all (dunn , p. ). therefore, the inclusion of the language among the numbers of gravestones that we have found thus far has to be taken as a sign of a certain level of cultural confidence among those who chose to have gaelic on their own or a loved one’s headstone. such a choice in an era of great pressure to conform to the dominant, mainstream language and culture is obviously a deliberate act. it should be interpreted as a clear indication of cultural and linguistic affiliation among our examples of th-century headstones, or among more recent stones, at the very least, a desire to demonstrate ethnic identity beyond the use of the more generic, nearly ubiquitous symbol of scottish ethnicity, the thistle. it is difficult to ascertain definitively why certain people, resistant to the effects of prejudice, chose to include gaelic on their headstones, thereby ethnically differentiating themselves and retaining a conscious, public and permanent cultural association with their native tongue. why did they defy the de facto memorial lexicon of the time and opt for a choice that could be styled as “marked and transgressive” (vajta , p. )? is it unreasonable to characterise this response as a form of “discourse of opposition to the power in place” (ibid., p. )? such questions, for which the answers remain stubbornly elusive, closely intersect with the issue of why death became a catalyst for conformist expression among so many scottish immigrants and why they actualised their ethnic identity in a pictorial form (e.g., thistle motif), rather than with a linguistic signifier. in answering this question, it is important to acknowledge that it is typically the survivors who choose the wording on headstones. in short, inscriptions are “culturally mediated expressions of social identity” constructed by the “family, friends and community of the deceased” (gallén , p. ). this fact does not undermine the authenticity or utility of this artefact. in fact, inscriptional data obtained from pioneer headstones can potentially reveal how first- and second-generation immigrants “mentally” situated themselves with respect to their “old-world origins” and illuminate why some chose gaelic to memorialise their identity, as well as their language (swyripa , p. ; mytum , p. ). our findings also point to other conclusions. for example, all-gaelic headstone inscriptions are very much the exception. when used, gaelic inscriptions are invariably supplemental to english text. in each of the so-called priest rows in antigonish county, there is at least one grave marker with a gaelic inscription. this inscription, however, has tertiary status, usually relegated to a side panel, whereas english and latin are more prominently featured on the front of the stone. the affection that these scottish catholic clergy had for gaelic cannot be gainsaid, but the multi-lingual inscription also genealogy , , of served another purpose, proclaiming their learning and setting them apart from others, as did the strategic location and grandiose scale of their cemetery memorials. generally speaking, the th- and early th-century gaelic inscriptions that we have inventoried were rarely personalised. in this regard, our conclusions correspond with those of linguist gwenllian m. awbery, whose corpora fieldwork in welsh cemeteries has identified a preponderance of inscriptions with biblical verses, both full and partial, which demonstrate “stability” in choice (awbery , p. ). nova scotia’s scottish immigrants and first-generation descendants tended to favour scriptural passages from psalms, proverbs, or other books of the old testament such as the book of malachi or such new testament texts as matthew, mark, john, acts, corinthians or colossians. sometimes the choice of texts was less doctrinally neutral, with such denomination-specific sources of inspiration as the gaelic metrical psalter, the “prayer for the poor souls in purgatory”, or deuterocanonical texts such as ecclesiasticus. the heavily inflected religious tone of these inscriptions is not surprising, given the centrality of religion in the lives of nova scotia’s scottish immigrants, both presbyterian and roman catholic (stanley ). as noted in douglas campbell and ray maclean’s beyond the atlantic roar ( ), “the church was the single most important influence in the lives of all; their acceptance of and reaction to its teachings led to religion becoming the greatest influence in the formation of the character of people in eastern nova scotia” (p. ). although this study is only a first step in a wider analysis of deathways as communicative symbolic practices among nova scotia’s gaels, our research findings to date point to some additional thought-provoking insights. for example, as a category of analysis, gender was not a decisive determinant in who had a gaelic headstone inscription. so far, we have identified a near-equal number of gaelic headstone inscriptions for men and women (not including clergy). furthermore, the availability of gaelic-speaking stone carvers was not directly related to the incidence of gaelic headstone inscriptions. although many of the early headstones in eastern nova scotia and cape breton do not display the carver’s name, only a handful such as john “stonecutter” mcisaac of lower south river in antigonish county spoke gaelic, as well as english. many, however, were not gaelic speakers, such as the prince edward island-born john f. morrow who carved the headstone for angus “pioneer” macdonald or david hutchison, a skilful baddeck stone carver, who left behind a remarkable body of mortuary sculpture in th-century cape breton. unlike gender and language, age was a significant variable. many of the pre- headstones, bearing gaelic inscriptions (apart from those for clergy), were generally limited to an elderly cohort usually in their s– s, a demographic most likely representing the immigrant generation. the higher incidence of gaelic inscriptions in the late th century may also have another explanation, for it coincides with the increase in gaelic publishing by individuals such as alexander maclean sinclair and jonathan mackinnon of mac-talla gaelic newspaper fame, making secular gaelic literary sources much more available in the region. even with this explanation, one is struck by the conspicuous absence of gaelic inscriptions on the headstones of such celebrated gaelic tradition bearers as the rev. ronald macgillivray, known as the “sagart arasaig” and one of antigonish county’s preeminent seanchaidhs (storytellers); the rev. d. b. blair, a leading th-century gaelic scholar and poet; donald macdonald, the celebrated catechist whose charismatic gaelic discourses dominated cape breton’s ceist circuit for almost years; the members of the “ridge” macdonalds, such as allan and his son alexander of lower south river, antigonish county, who were an important family of tradition bearers stemming from the bohuntin macdonalds of lochaber; or julia macniven who immigrated from tiree and was a renowned midwife in cape breton and wife of dr. john noble. she was the subject of one of the most lauded songs composed by the “bard” john maclean (bàrd thighearna chola), “marbhrann do mhrs noble”, which was commissioned by mrs. noble’s husband. one wonders if the tiny minority of gaelic inscriptions in eastern nova scotia and cape breton betrays a pessimism about gaelic’s viability, even among some of its most fervent exponents. according to archaeologist harold mytum, “the choice of a particular language for a memorial indicates a commitment to that language, a statement of affiliation and confidence that the language will continue genealogy , , of and so the inscription will continue to function” (mytum , p. ). hypothetically, is it possible that the majority of gaels in nova scotia decided that whatever the fate of their mother tongue, that their biographical details, whether name, place of birth, or dates of birth and death, were best preserved in english, so that their inscriptions could be read by all and their memory preserved for posterity? in effect, were they hedging their bets, in a bid to proclaim their success and identity and communicate their personal information in the most accessible form? a partial explanation for this phenomenon can be found in the reality of gaelic language shift in th- and th-century nova scotia. highland immigration to this region contributed to the establishment of a large gaelic-speaking community. for example, it is estimated that by the s % of the roman catholic population alone (just over , inhabitants) in eastern nova scotia and cape breton spoke gaelic. (kennedy , p. ). however, gaelic’s status was far from secure. during the mid- th century, john boyd, editor and publisher of antigonish’s the casket, sounded the alarm about the inexorable march of english into the far corners of nova scotia: “ . . . we must admit that gaelic is drawing back every day and english strengthening her foundations more and more at every turn; so that there is every appearance that she will put the poor gaelic into a tight corner unless it gets more support than it is getting” (dunn , p. ). nova scotia’s state school system, implemented in the s, provided no safeguards to forestall gaelic’s decline. in fact, it was complicit in minoritising the language and ensuring english’s pre-eminence as the medium of instruction. according to lori vitale cox, “by the turn of the century, teachers scolded and spanked their students, in order to prevent them from speaking gaelic in schools, or even in the schoolyard” (cox , p. ). although canada’s census documents the existence of a still robust gaelic-speaking demographic of approximately , nova scotians (dembling , p. ), the pace of language decline accelerated with out-migration from the region to new england and western canada with people in search of greater employment opportunities. over the next three decades, the linguistic remnant of gaelic speakers in nova scotia decreased by about half. it comes as no surprise that the percentage of pictou county gaelic headstone inscriptions in our inventory is miniscule. by , owing to the inroads of anglicisation, gaelic “was wiped off the map” throughout much of pictou county, “especially the most populous districts” (kennedy , p. ). despite the fact that % of the population at this time self-identified ethnically as scottish, only % could speak the language (p. ). throughout the province, english was ascendant as the language of commerce, politics, and professions, a reality which was institutionally entrenched in schools and universities. the message for many gaelic-speaking settlers was clear—english was the passport to upward mobility and conformity to “the contemporary social and cultural standards of the dominant society” (cameron , p. ) offered pragmatic and strategic benefits. some elite gaels even rationalised that “the best of highland tradition” could still be preserved without gaelic (kennedy , p. ), thereby inadvertently making “attempts to infuse institutions with a meaningful gaelic presence extremely difficult” (p. ). by the s, the gaelic language in cape breton, the heartland of the language in nova scotia, registered dramatic losses, especially in the more urbanised and industrialised areas, and from the s onward, the gaelic population was on the defensive, simultaneously shrinking and aging (p. ). the scarcity of gaelic headstone inscriptions in eastern nova scotia and cape breton must be contextualised against this backdrop of language loss. it makes understandable the behaviour of those settlers, who confronting the painful contradictions of assimilation into mainstream culture and maintenance of ethnic identity, rejected the gaelic language as the means by which to anchor the deceased “in a particular ethnic or cultural context” (reimers, p. ) and opted for other ways to demonstrate membership to a particular ethnic group. perhaps, consciously or subconsciously, the priority given to english as an inscriptional language implied for some the success of the individual, and by extension, the success of the group. the more modern headstones (post- s) in our inventory offer a mix of formulaic and idiosyncratic inscriptions and motifs, reflecting the rising individualism in late th-century mortuary genealogy , , of practices. the two main loci of modern headstones with gaelic inscriptions are iona and mabou, cape breton. today, both communities represent important centres at the forefront of the gaelic language revival in nova scotia, dedicated to restoring gaelic’s status among scottish descendants as the parlance of everyday life rather than a heritage language. according to the nova scotia gaelic affairs office (gaelic affairs nova scotia ), there are approximately , descendants of gaelic-speaking immigrants in the province, and the current number of gaelic speakers stands at (https://gaelic.novascotia.ca/community). present-day antigonish and pictou counties are significantly underrepresented in our dataset of modern gaelic headstone inscriptions. there, the language has registered a minimal presence on modern headstones, clearly symptomatic of its linguistic demise in these regions. the contemporary symbols in our sampling sometimes reference the musical tradition so important to current cape breton culture (figures s –s , see the supplementary materials), and texts incorporate variations of standardised gaelic phrases, such as “fois (or sìth) dha anam” (peace to his soul). spelling is heavily influenced by biblical tradition, unsurprisingly, and mistakes appear regularly which may be attributed to semi or complete illiteracy in the language (as with some carvers for instance). increasingly commonplace is the practice of families employing headstones as a permanent record for documenting lineal descent from their pioneer ancestor (figures s and s , see the supplementary materials). this phenomenon is notably paired with the increased usage of clan crests as a means to reclaim a lost sense of uniqueness and familial connection, opting for scottish clan affiliation rather than geographical identity (figures s –s , see the supplementary materials). . conclusions in this article, we have sketched in broad strokes our preliminary findings about gaelic language use in the cemeteries of eastern nova scotia and cape breton. it is clear that these sites offer valuable information about the dynamics of language choice in nova scotia and mirror the fate of the gaelic language through time and space among nova scotia’s gaels and the dominance of english as a memorial language among specific minority groups. as archaeologist mary c. beaudry has noted, “memorialization of the individual at death is the final opportunity for an ethnic group to acknowledge that person as a member of a community constructed out of shared experiences of cultural identity, and often, shared persecution or isolation from the dominant culture” (beaudry , p. ). the majority of nova scotia’s scottish immigrants and their descendants followed the path of conformity by opting for english as the preferred mode of memorialisation. a tiny minority, however, in their final transgressive communication to the living, chose to make a statement from the grave, by inscribing their ethnicity in the language of their ancestors. they defied the norm by adding a gaelic voice to the threnody of remembrances “calling out” to be heard in the cemeteries of nova scotia (vajta , p. ). supplementary materials: the following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s , figures s –s . author contributions: l.s.-b. conceived and designed the research, l.s.-b. and m.l. performed the fieldwork, m.l. prepared the translations, and l.s.-b. (as lead author) and m.l. wrote the paper. funding: this research was funded by an insight development grant from the social sciences and humanities council of canada (sshrc), grant number - - . acknowledgments: the authors gratefully acknowledge the research funding of sshrc and the editorial advice of the guest editor, julie rugg, and the anonymous reviewer. the authors also want to express their appreciation for the assistance of the managing editor, allie shi, and the photographic permissions granted by marleen hubley-macdonald and the cape breton genealogy and historical association. thank you, as well, to john d. blackwell and steven stamatopoulos for assisting with proofreading and data management, respectively. the authors are also grateful to effie rankin for generously sharing with us her great fund of knowledge about the gaels of cape breton. and, finally, we are indebted to margaret mackay, honorary fellow, celtic and scottish studies, school of literatures, languages and cultures, the university of edinburgh, for her inspiration and invaluable encouragement throughout our larger research project. https://gaelic.novascotia.ca/community http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s genealogy , , of conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references awbery, gwenllian m. . biblical verses in welsh commemorative inscriptions. folk life: journal of ethnological studies : – . [crossref] baugher, sherene, and richard veit. . the archaeology of american cemeteries and gravemarkers. gainesville: university press of florida. beaudry, mary c. . review of ethnicity and the american cemetery. the journal of american history : – . [crossref] broce, gerald. . juris: an ethnic cemetery on the high plains. plains anthropologist : – . [crossref] bruner, david. . symbols for the living: synthesis, invention and resistance in th to th century mortuary practices from montgomery and harris county texas. ph.d. thesis, binghamton university, binghamton, ny, usa. cameron, william. . last will & testament. file w- c. pictou: mcculloch heritage centre. cameron, james d. . “erasing forever the brand of social inferiority”: saint francis xavier university and highland catholicism of eastern nova scotia. ccha historical studies : – . cameron, james d. . for the people: a history of st. francis xavier university. kingston/montreal: mcgill-queen’s university press. campbell, douglas f., and raymond a. maclean. . beyond the atlantic roar: a study of the nova scotia scots. toronto: mclelland and stewart. carlson-cumbo, enrico. . contemporary ukrainian-canadian grave markers in urban southern ontario. material history bulletin : – . chung, sue f., and priscilla wegars. . chinese american death rituals: respecting the ancestors. oxford: altamira press. cipolla, craig. . the dualities of endurance: a collaborative historical archaeology of ethnogenesis at brothertown, – . ph.d. thesis, department of anthropology, university of pennsylvania, philadelphia, pa, usa. cook, katherine r. . deathscapes: memory, heritage, and place in cemetery history. master’s thesis, department of anthropology, mcmaster university, hamilton, on, canada. cox, lori vitale. . gaelic and the schools in cape breton. nova scotia history review : – . cox, grant, alberto giordano, and matthew juge. . the geography of language shift: a quantitative cemetery study in the texas czech community. southwestern geographer : – . deetz, james, and edwin dethlefsen. . death’s heads, cherubs, and willow trees: experimental archaeology in colonial cemeteries. american antiquity : – . dembling, jonathan. . gaelic in canada: new evidence from an old census. in cànan & cultur/language & culture: rannsachadh na gàidhlig . edited by wilson mcleod, james fraser and anja gunderloch. edinburgh: dunedin academic press, pp. – . dunn, charles w. . highland settler: portrait of the scottish gael in nova scotia. toronto: university of toronto press. evans, carol, and james smith. . duff cemetery: the forgotten people. pictou: the advocate printing and publishing company. forbes, alexander. . diary of alexander forbes, jr. (unpublished typescript). file - . pictou: mcculloch heritage centre. francaviglia, richard v. . the cemetery as an evolving cultural landscape. annals of the association of american geographers : – . [crossref] gaelic affairs nova scotia. . available online: https://gaelic.novascotia.ca/community (accessed on may ). gall, michael j., and richard f. veit, eds. . archaeologies of african american life in the upper mid-atlantic. tuscaloosa: university of alabama press. gallén, verna elinor. . in silence we remember: the historical archaeology of finnish cemeteries in saskatchewan. master ’s thesis, department of archaeology and anthropology, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sk, canada. http://dx.doi.org/ . /flk. . . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . .tb .x https://gaelic.novascotia.ca/community genealogy , , of giroux, amy. . mea familia: ethnic burial identifiers in st. michael’s cemetery, pensacola, florida. master’s thesis, department of anthropology, university of central florida, orlando, fl, usa. gradwohl, david. . like tablets of the law thrown down: the colonial jewish burying ground of newport, rhode island. ames: sigler. guibord, maurice c. . the evolution of chinese graves at burnaby’s ocean view cemetery: from stigmatized purlieu to political adaptations and cultural identity. master’s thesis, department of history, simon fraser university, burnaby, bc, canada. harnois, richard d. . gone to a better land: a study of gravestone forms, art and symbolism. master’s thesis, department of anthropology, the college of william and mary, williamsburg, va, usa. hornsby, stephen. . patterns of scottish emigration to canada, – . journal of historical geography : – . [crossref] jasinski, cassandra h. . the performance of identity through the design of grave memorials installed between – [sic] in st. peter’s roman catholic cemetery, peterborough, ontario, canada. master’s thesis, department of anthropology, trent university, peterborough, on, canada. jordan, terry. . texas graveyards: a cultural legacy. austin: university of texas press. kennedy, michael. . gaelic nova scotia: an economic, cultural, and social impact study. halifax: nova scotia museum. king, charlotte. . separated by death and color: the african american cemetery of new philadelphia, illinois. historical archaeology : – . [crossref] lehr, john c. . the ukrainian sacred landscape: a metaphor of survival and acculturation. material history bulletin : – . lehr, john c., and lukasz albanski. . identity, integration, and assimilation recorded in manitoba’s polish and ukrainian cemeteries. great plains research : – . linkletter, michael. . "bu dual dha sin" (that was his birthright): gaelic scholar alexander maclean sinclair ( – ). ph.d. thesis, department of celtic languages and literatures, harvard university, cambridge, ma, usa. macdonald, kenneth. . last will and testament. file w- m. pictou: mcculloch heritage centre. maclean, hilda. . gilding the thistle: the amplification of scottish identity in australian cemeteries. paper presented at death in scotland from the medieval to modern: beliefs, attitudes and practices, edinburgh, uk, january –february . mallois, seth, and david caterino. . transformations in san diego county gravestones and cemeteries. historical archaeology : – . [crossref] martin, jean c. c. . “in memory of” chelsea’s historic cemeteries: community institutions from pioneer times to the present. master’s thesis, department of history, university of ottawa, ottawa, on, usa. matturri, john. . windows in the garden: italian-american memorialization and the american cemetery. in ethnicity and the american cemetery. edited by richard e. meyer. bowling green: bowling green state university popular press. mckendry, jennifer. . into the silent land: historic cemeteries & graveyards in ontario. kingston: jennifer mckendry. medwidsky, bodhan. . ukrainian grave markers in east-central alberta. material history bulletin : – . meyer, richard e., ed. . cemeteries & grave markers: voices of american culture. logan: utah state university press. meyer, richard e., ed. . ethnicity and the american cemetery. bowling green: bowling green state university popular press, pp. – . mytum, harold. . language as symbol in churchyard monuments: the use of welsh in nineteenth-and twentieth-century pembrokeshire. world archaeology : – . [crossref] mytum, harold. . mortuary monuments and burial grounds of the historic period. new york: kluwer academic/plenum publishers. patterson, daniel w. . the true image: gravestone art and the culture of scotch irish settlers in the pennsylvania and carolina backcountry. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. rainville, lynn. . home at last: mortuary commemoration in virginian slave cemeteries. markers: annual journal of the association of gravestone studies : – . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . genealogy , , of reimers, eva. . death and identity: graves and funerals as cultural communication. mortality : – . [crossref] ross, sally. . acadian cemeteries in nova scotia: a survey. markers : – . shirley, kimberly d. . to die a ‘canadian’: how nineteenth-century european immigrants influenced the culture of death in canada. master’s thesis, department of history, lakehead university, thunder bay, on, canada. sinclair, donald m. . some family history. unpublished typescript. nova scotia archives (nsa) c s /s . halifax: nsa. stanley, laurie. . the well-watered garden: the presbyterian church in cape breton, – . sydney: university college of cape breton press. stanley-blackwell, laurie, and michael linkletter. . looking for thistles in stone gardens: the cemeteries of nova scotia’s scottish immigrants. paper presented at scotland’s diasporas: a comparative international perspective seminar, national museums of scotland, edinburgh, uk, november . stannard, david. . death in america. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press. stannard, david. . the puritan way of death: a study in religion, culture, and social change. new york: oxford university press. stone, gaynell. . sacred landscapes: material evidence of ideological and ethnic choice in long island, new york gravestones, – . historical archaeology : – . [crossref] straw, leigh. . landscapes of the scottish dead: headstones and identity in colonial tasmania. journal of australian colonial history : – . swyripa, frances. . ancestors, the land, ethno-religious identity on the canadian prairies: comparing the mennonite and ukrainian legacies. journal of mennonite studies : – . swyripa, frances. . storied landscapes: ethno-religious identity and the canadian prairies. winnipeg: university of manitoba press. thomson, george. . lettering on gravemakers in nova scotia and prince edward island: regional variation and scottish influence. markers : – . trask, deborah. . life how short, eternity how long: gravestone carving and carvers in nova scotia. halifax: nova scotia museum. trask, deborah. . hier ruhet in gott: germanic gravestones in nova scotia. in making adjustments: change and continuity in planter nova scotia, – . edited by margaret conrad. fredericton: acadiensis press, pp. – . vajta, katerina. . gravestones speak—but in what language? epitaphs as mirrors of language shifts and identity in alsace. journal of multilingual and multicultural development : – . [crossref] vandam, kara h. . a study of language identity and shift: the calvinistic dutch of west michigan. ph.d. thesis, department of linguistics, university of north carolina, chapel hill, nc, usa. watkins, meredith. . the cemetery and cultural memory: montreal region to . master’s thesis, department of geography, mcgill university, montreal, qc, canada. wilkie, benjamin. . space, commemoration, and iconography: scottish monuments and memorials in australia. in scots under the southern cross: scottish impressions of colonial australia. edited by fred cahir, anne beggs sunter and alison inglis. ballarat: ballarat heritage services, pp. – . © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /bf http://dx.doi.org/ . / . . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	literature review 	discussion of fieldwork evidence 	analysis of findings 	conclusions 	references chh volume issue cover and back matter blessed are the peacemakers martin luther king jr., eight white religious leaders, and the "letter from birmingham jail" blessed are the peacemakers s. jonathan bass "bass offers new insights into the civil rights struggles of the s by subtly illuminating the complex motives and differing perspectives of the eight 'moderate' birmingham religious lead- ers condemned by martin luther king jr."—dan t. carter, author of the politics of rage "the eight clergymen who dared criticize both george wallace and martin luther king jr.'s birmingham demonstrations were hardly 'blessed' by their times or since. bass's compassionate book reveals how southern moderates, even some who took courageous positions on behalf of human dignity and racial fair- ness, became targets from both directions."—wayne flynt, author of alabama baptists: southern baptists in the heart of dixie illustrated • $ . available from booksellers or louisiana state university press ( ) - • www.lsu.edu/lsupress core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core the rise and fall of synanon a california utopia rod janzen "synanon, for all its size and cultural significance, has not previously been the subject of this kind of overview study. janzens scholarship is impressive, making use of a vast amount of primary material. the combination of written and oral sources is particularly appropriate."—timothy miller, university of kansas, author of the s communes $ . hardcover divine feminine theosophy and feminism in england joy d i x o n "in this imaginatively conceived, extensively researched, and insightfully analyzed study, dixon convincingly argues the complicated but crucial connections between the spiritual and the political during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries."—nancy fix anderson, loyola university new orleans, author of woman against woman in victorian england $ . hardcover aspiring saints pretense of holiness, inquisition, and gender in the republic of venice, - a n n e jacobson schutte "schutte goes beyond defining the subject exclusively in terms established by the ecclesiastical authorities, clearly showing how ideas of saintliness and diabolic * influence were not so much separate categories but points on a spectrum of behaviors."—edward muir, northwestern university, author of mad blood stirring $ . hardcover center books in anabaptist studies donald b. kraybill, consulting editor george f. thompson, series founder and director o n the backroad to heaven old order hutterites, mennonites, amish, and brethren donald b. kraybill and carl f. bowman "the most significant comparative analysis of these faith traditions to date."—james davison hunter, author of culture wars: the struggle to define america $ . hardcover the amish on the iowa prairie, to steven d. reschly "reschly examines a system of community, combining both values and practices and illustrating how each can be a catalyst for change in the community."—mary neth, university of missouri-columbia $ . hardcover power, authority, and the anabaptist tradition edited by benjamin w redekop and calvin w. redekop "this is an important and timely work, since discussions of power are central to contem- porary social and theological theorizing." —fred kniss, loyola university chicago $ . hardcover creation and the environment an anabaptist perspective on a sustainable world edited by calvin redekop the first book on the subject supported and produced by the mennonite church explains the unique environmental position of the anabaptists. $ . ! paperback the johns hopkins university press • - - - • www.jhupbooks.com core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core john newton "the analysis offered by this study seems incontrovertible. hindmarsh has deployed an unusual combination of historical, theological, and literary gifts to illuminate john newton and the english evangelical movement he epitomized. . . . certainly the best introduction to the world of eighteenth-century evangelicalism in england." — david bebbington in books and culture "there is not a better account of an eighteenth-century evangelical parish priest than this. though hindmarsh chronicles the career of one man, his is in many ways a microcosmic study that touches on many aspects of the evangelical revival in its 'heroic' early stages. the book is finely nuanced and written with style and clarity." — john walsh in journal of theological studies isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . at your bookstore, or call - - fax: - - www.eerdmans.com . b. eerdmans publishing c o . jefferson ave. s.e. / grand rapids, mi core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core university of pennsylvania press available wherever books are sold or call o o . o www.upenn.edu/pennpress neoplatonic saints the lives of plotinus and proclus by their students translated with a commentary by mark edwards the two texts in this volume are fundamental j for an understanding not only of neoplatonism : but also of the conventions of biography in late ;| antiquity. translated texts for historians pages maps paper $ . spiritual economies female monasticism in later medieval england nancy bradley warren "an ambitious study of the actual and symbolic place of women and femininity in fifteenth-century english monastic, literary, and political culture." -nicholas watson, university of western ontario the middle ages series pages cloth $ . t h e ecclesiastical history of evagrius scholasticus translated with an introduction and notes by michael whitby these six books trace the history of the church from the start of the nestorian controversy in until the death of evagrius's employer, patriarch gregory of antioch, in . translated texts for historians •::.;: •.:.!:;:•:; : : . •:•: pages maps, plans paper $ . ; ' : • : ; < second edition ih; ;;:" t h e b o o k o f p o n t i f f s ( l i b e r p o n t i f i c a l i s ) the ancient biographies o f t h e first ninety roman | : k ' bishops to a.o. s ;ii, ;..: : translated with an introduction by raymond davis from st. peter to a.d. , the lives recorded her? were first compiled in the sixth century and regularly brought up jo date. this curious mixture of fact and legend had come, fay the ostrogo period, to be accepted as history by the f h u r c h in itorrie. :'.-•/. translated texts for historians i s ; ii; :.., s pages maps paper $ . | sj :: : : core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core adventism and the american republic the public involvement of a major apocalyptic movement douglas morgan with a foreword by martin e. marty while many organised religions in america today have affinity for conservative political action groups such as the christian coalition, seventh-day adventists have often found themselves allied with liberals against such measures as sunday laws and prayer in schools. douglas morgan examines the role that ad- ventism has played in american public life and explains its posi- tions from the standpoint of the church's historical development. pages, illus., isbn - - - , $ . recalling religions resistance, memory, and cultural revision in ethnic women's literature peter kerry powers "peter powers brings together critical sophistication in both the- ology and cultural history, while also demonstrating superior skills at literary analysis. there are few books that address the role of religion in american fiction, let alone ethnic american fiction. none do so in so profoundly revisionary a way as this."—joseph t. skerrett, jr., university of massachusetts, amherst july, pages, isbn - - - , $ . disciples of liberty the african methodist episcopal church in the age of imperialism, - lawrence s. little in this new study, lawrence little describes how the a.m.e. church reacted to american foreign policy in the years from the partition of africa in to the u.s. invasion of haiti in . by examining and analyzing church rhetoric and actions in re- sponse to imperialism and oppression, he shows how the a.m.e. church pursued the global application of liberty and identified with oppressed peoples around the world, regardless of race. pages, isbn - - - , $ . social protest thought in the african methodist episcopal church, - edited by stephen w. angell and anthony b. pinn spanning nearly eight decades, this book collects a rich sampling of a.m.e. literature on a variety of social issues and controversies. among the topics covered are civil rights, education, black theol- ogy, african missions and emigration, women's identities, and socialism and the social gospel. pages, isbn - - - , $ . cloth isbn - - -x, $ . paper shipping & handling: $ . for first book; $ . for each additional book. ut press online: http://sunsite.utk.edu/utpress the university of tennessee press knoxville - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core engaging the past and the present probes the history of the church in its worldwide •dimension, emphasizing the social, cultural, and popular aspects of that history. a well-crafted piece of work." —ashland theological journal - - - • pp. • $ . p "this highly recommended work provides a thoughtful yet comprehensive framework for the history of christianity." —library journal "evenhanded, engaging and illuminating." —publishers weekly turning points the harvest oj medieval theology decisive moments intlte history of christianity mark a . noll - - -x • pp. • $ . p "oberman has used all the skills of a specialist to present to us a form of medieval theology which is of great relevance for all theologians." —theology today - - - • pp. • $ . p an updated introduction to a movement that has had a major influence on the evangelicalism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. baker academic - - - • pp. • $ . p subscribe to baker academic's electronic newsletter (e-notes) at www.bakerbooks.com/academic core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core more money lmerican histohv moreminjst larry e s k r i d g e & m a r k a. n o l l editors c o n t r i b u t o r s alvyn austin thomas c. berg robert burkinshaw joel a. carpenter larry eskridge barry gardner peter dobkin hall charles e. hambrick-stowe michael s. hamilton dean r. hoge robin klay john lunn mark a. noll ted ownby gary scott smith john g. stackhouse jr. susan m.yohn "this stimulating work pushes our understanding of american evan- gelicalism into new and intriguing territory — the role of money in the formation of a religious tradition. the authors are expert, the case studies illuminating, and the conclusions bound to generate productive thought, discussion, and continued inquiry on the rela- tionship of faith and finance." -christian smith university of north carolina at chapel hill isbn - - - • pages • paperback • $ . w m . b. eerdmans publishing c o . jefferson ave. s.e. / grand rapids, mi at your bookstore, or call - - fax: - - www.eerdmans.com core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core n o w i n p a p e r b a c k an american bible a history of the good book in the united states, - p a u l g u t j a h r "gutjahr not only presents a fascinating and compre- hensive picture of the good book's history, but brilliantly illumines the explosive world of th- century printing and mar- keting." —new england quarterly "an american bible is a major achievement. . . . it is also an engrossing and readable book . . . rich in detail and color." —christianity and literature $ . paper $ . cloth protestant identities religion, society, and self-fashioning in post- reformation england e d i t e d by m u r i e l c. m c c l e n d o n , j o s e p h p. w a r d , and m i c h a e l m a c d o n a l d assessing the english reformation's legacy of increasing religious diversi- fication, this book explores the complex ways in which england's gradual transfor- mation from a roman catholic to a protestant nation presented men and women with new ways in which to define their rela- tionships with society. $ . cloth 'begotten, not made' conceiving manhood in late antiquity v i r g i n i a b u r r u s this book interprets fourth-century theological discourse as an incident in the history of masculine gender, arguing that nicene trinitarian doctrine is a crucial site not only for theological innovation but also for reimagining and reproducing manhood in the late roman empire. $ . paper $ . cloth the boxmaker's revenge 'orthodoxy,' 'heterodoxy,' and the politics of the parish in early stuart london p e t e r l a k e by narrating a protracted and frequently bizarre altercation between a london minister and a member of his flock, this book provides a vivid pic- ture of puritanism at the parish level in early stuart england, and places this dispute in the multiple social, cultural, and politi- cal contexts necessary to understand it. $ . paper $ . cloth the ambivalences of medieval religious drama r a i n e r w a r n i n g tra n s l a t e d by s t e v e n r e n d a ii what is medieval religious drama, and what function does it serve in negotiating between the domains of theology and popular life? this book aims to answer these questions by studying three sets of these dramas from germany, france, england, and spain: th- century easter plays, th- century adam plays, and th- and th-century passion plays. $ . cloth stanfor e s s core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core plan ahead winter meeting - january san francisco, california deadline for submitting proposals was april . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core asch is now on the web • obtain information about member- ship and subscription • confirm dates and places of future meetings • learn criteria for submissions to church history • verify requirements and deadlines for prizes • place announcements about calls for papers, grants, and competitions, per- sonal items, etc., in our newsletter • enter your own questions, responses, professional concerns, etc., on our bulletin board • plus other features to aid your search visit us at www.churchhistory.org core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core awards of the american society of church history: the frank s. and elizabeth d. brewer prize, offered annually, is a subvention fund of $ , to assist a press in publishing a book-length manuscript in church history. the prize is limited to first books. the monetary grant will be made upon receipt of a commitment in writing from a publisher accepting the manuscript. entries in their final form must be received by november. the albert c. outler prize is an award in the amount of $ , to the author of the best book published in the two previous calendar years in ecumenical church history. "ecumenical" is to be construed as concerned chiefly with problems of christian unity and disunity (doctrinal, cultural, institutional) or with interactions between chris- tianity and other religious movements in any historical period. au- thors of eligible books or any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration; authors should submit a copy of the book. nominations must be received by march in even-numbered years. the philip schaff prize is an award in the amount of $ , to the author of the best book published in the two previous calendar years, originating in the north american scholarly community and present- ing original research on any period in the history of christianity. authors of eligible books or any member of the society may nominate titles for consideration; authors should submit a copy of the book. nominations must be received by march in odd-numbered years. the jane dempsey douglass prize is an annual award in the amount of $ for the author of the best essay published during the previous calendar year on any aspect of the role of women in the history of christianity. authors of eligible articles and any member of the soci- ety may nominate titles for consideration. nominations, accompanied if possible by a copy of the article, must be received by august. the sidney e. mead prize, offered annually, is an award in the amount of $ for the author of the best unpublished essay in any field of church history written by a doctoral candidate or recent graduate whose manuscript stems directly from doctoral research. the manuscript will be published in church history. entries of no more than twenty-five double-spaced pages, including double-spaced endnotes, must be submitted by july. a work may be submitted for only one asch competition. for more information, or to nominate a book or submit a manuscript, write to the american society of church history, p.o. box , red bank, nj . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core church history: studies in christianity and culture is published four times per year (march, june, september, and december) by the american society of church history. membership dues for individuals are s per year for regular membership, s per year for retired persons who previously held regular membership for at least five years; and free for two years for graduate students with the approval of a professor who is a member of the society (after two years, graduate students pay s annually until graduation). institutional subscriptions are $ per year. foreign postage is an additional s per year. single issues are s . please make remittances pavable to "american society of church historv." office of the executive secretary: american society of church history, p.o. box , red bank, nj - . subscription applications, renewals, changes of address, claims for missing numbers, orders for single copies of current or back issues, and requests for permission to quote should be sent lo the executive secretary. claims for missing numbers will be honored without charge if made within two months of the regular month of publication. microfilm reproductions of the american society of church history papers, series and ii. and of church history, volumes - ( — ), are available from the atla preservation board. orders for these reproductions as well as inquiries about microfilm portions and photocopies should be sent to east th place, chicago, il "). microfilm reproductions of church history starting with volume ( ) are available to subscribers and members of the society from university microfilms, north zeeb road. ann arbor, mi . church history is i n d e x e d in the expanded academic index (infotrac), american history and life, arts and humanities search, web of science, historical abstracts, religious periodicals, a n d academic search elite. this periodical is also indexed in the atla religious database, published by the american theological library association, s. wacker dr., * fir.. chicago. il ; ( ) -atla; atla@atla.com; http://www.atla.com/. the following indexes are available from the office of the executive secretary: volumes - ( - ), vols. - ( - ). each index costs s . . editorial office: church history, the divinity school, duke university, box , durham, nc - ; ( ) - ; fax ( ) - ; church-history@duke.edu. send manuscripts, books for review, and requests about advertising to the editorial office. manuscripts should run , - , words (or approximately - pages), not including endnotes, and should be printed double-spaced in - or -point font: endnotes must be printed double-spaced on separate pages following the text. the editors request ( ) three copies of the manuscript (in order to protect the author's anonymity during the review process, the author's name should appear only on the title page of the essay); ( ) three copies of a -word abstract (if church history publishes the essay, the abstract may be printed above the first line of the text of the article a n d / o r it may be included on the church history webpage at www.churchhistory.org); ( ) a '/a-inch diskette containing the manuscript and abstract (instead of sending a diskette, you may submit your manuscript and abstract by electronic mail). further guidelines are available on request. church history is printed by the science press division of mack printing croup. ephrata, pennsylvania. periodicals postage paid at red bank, new jersey and additional mailing offices. postmaster: send address changes to american society of church history, p.o. box , red bank, nj . church history (issn - ) the opinions expressed in this journal represent the views only of the individual contributors; they do not necessarily reflect the views of the editors. duke university, or the american society of church historv. advertising in church history does not necessarily imply endorsement. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core a tale of two leaders: german methodists and the nazi state roland blaich totalitarianism introduction donald dietrich german military chaplains in world war ii and the dilemmas of legitimacy doris l. bergen last years of a resister in the diocese of berlin: bernhard lichtenberg's conflict with karl adam and his fateful imprisonment kevin spicer, c.s.c. racial values vs. religious values: clerical opposition to nazi anti-polish racial policy john j. delaney propaganda, perseverance, and protest: strategies for clerical survival amid the german church struggle kyle jantzen questions about catholic resistance michael phayer core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s x downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s x https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ maximization of livestock anthrax vaccination coverage in bangladesh: an alternative approach article maximization of livestock anthrax vaccination coverage in bangladesh: an alternative approach m. shahjahan a. sarker , mohamed e. el zowalaty , ,* , m. ahosanul haque shahid , m. asaduzzaman sarker , m. bahanur rahman , josef d. järhult and k. h. m. nazmul hussain nazir ,* department of microbiology and hygiene, faculty of veterinary science, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh , bangladesh; shahjahansarker @gmail.com (m.s.a.s.); shahid @bau.edu.bd (m.a.h.s.); bahanurr@bau.edu.bd (m.b.r.) zoonosis science center, department of medical biochemistry and microbiology, uppsala university, se uppsala, sweden department of clinical sciences, college of medicine, university of sharjah, sharjah , uae department of agricultural extension education, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh , bangladesh; masarker@bau.edu.bd zoonosis science center, department of medical sciences, uppsala university, se uppsala, sweden; josef.jarhult@medsci.uu.se * correspondence: elzow @gmail.com (m.e.e.z.); nazir@bau.edu.bd (k.h.m.n.h.n.) received: june ; accepted: july ; published: august ���������� ������� abstract: low vaccination coverage of livestock is one of the major challenges to control anthrax in bangladesh. this study was conducted to assess an alternate approach to maximize vaccination coverage. the method included traditional vaccination campaigns, livestock census, interviews, focus group discussions of cattle farmers, vaccination and livestock personnel, and validation workshops. it was observed that a mass vaccination program covered only % of the cattle population. it was found that . % of the respondents did not bring their cattle to mass vaccination programs due to the difficulties of handling cattle and that there was no male member in the household. only . % of respondents acknowledged that they were not aware of the vaccine, and % of the respondents claimed that they ignored vaccination due to cost. all of the respondents from livestock personnel agreed that manpower was not enough to cover the total area. further, % of vaccinators mentioned that they did not get enough vaccines. for an effective vaccination program, . % of respondents recommended door-to-door service, and . % of respondents suggested to arrange regular vaccination campaigns in six-month intervals. thus, regular campaigns with door-to-door vaccination services are suggested to control anthrax outbreaks in bangladesh. keywords: bacillus anthracis; anthrax; vaccine; livestock; vaccination; challenges; zoonosis; bangladesh . introduction bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. it also has the highest density of livestock such as cattle, goat, sheep, and buffaloes as compared to other countries. rural households mostly rear livestock as a part of their daily lives, and it plays an important role in their livelihood. the contribution of livestock is multidimensional. it is not only a source of quality protein, but also its manure is the best organic fertilizer for land, bone is an important source of minerals, while skin and hides are the primary raw material of leather industries. many sectors and professions like veterinarians, butchers, livestock traders, artificial inseminators, medicine suppliers and marketing networkers, livestock feed industries, and dairy and meat food processing industries vaccines , , ; doi: . /vaccines www.mdpi.com/journal/vaccines http://www.mdpi.com/journal/vaccines http://www.mdpi.com https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - https://orcid.org/ - - - x http://www.mdpi.com/ - x/ / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /vaccines http://www.mdpi.com/journal/vaccines vaccines , , of depend on livestock. it also serves as a farmer’s bank that helps locals to deal with an emergency. in the rural community, livestock owners are mostly landless, marginal, and have a small amount of cultivable land. livestock plays an important economic and socio-cultural role not only in rural households but also in the national economy. about % of the human population is directly, and about % is somehow dependent on this sector [ ]. the contribution of the livestock sector in the national gross domestic product (gdp) is . % [ – ]. there are many challenges like poor productivity, lack of pastureland, traditional husbandry knowledge, unstable market situation, emerging diseases, and insufficiency of veterinary service that are considered as major threats for livestock production. unfortunately, some infectious diseases strike regularly, causing the death of animals and loss in the production, hampering incomes of families and food security, and livelihood of rural communities [ , ]. foot and mouth disease (fmd), hemorrhagic septicemia (hs), anthrax, rabies, and peste des petits ruminants (also known as pseudorinderpest, goat plague, pest of small ruminants) are the most common infectious diseases affecting livestock in bangladesh [ ]. these diseases cause thousands to millions of animal deaths, and some of them have zoonotic potential, i.e., can transmit from animals to humans. anthrax (caused by bacillus anthracis, a soil-borne spore-forming gram-positive bacterium) is endemic in south asian countries, including bangladesh. the anthrax spore is viable for several decades in soil under environmental conditions, and it is resistant to heat and chemical disinfectants. herbivore animals, mostly cattle, become infected when a low number ( × ) of spores enter the body through contaminated feed and water [ ]. after entering, the spores germinate and multiply inside the host body within – days [ ]. in severe cases, massive terminal bacteremia and toxin production lead to death. vegetative bacilli are shed in blood and discharge form the carcass or infected animals. humans become infected through contact with infected animals and animal products. anthrax is also considered an occupational disease affecting people who raise livestock, veterinarians, people who work in leather industries, and those involved in animal slaughter, processing, and the selling of meat and animal products. humans become infected when the spores contaminate a cut or scrape of skin, eat contaminated food, or inhale spores [ – ]. in humans, there are three forms of infection, namely cutaneous, gastrointestinal, and inhalation. anthrax was reported periodically in bangladesh, however in the last few years, there were repeated outbreaks of anthrax in both humans and animals, causing hundreds to thousands of livestock deaths [ ]. in humans, most of the cases were cutaneous, and in two human fatalities occurred in two different locations [ ]. both patients were male, aged years and years, respectively, and had a cutaneous infection along with gastrointestinal symptoms [ ]. although very few humans have died from anthrax, the outbreak has created a panic situation among people of bangladesh. many people avoided eating beef, and the livestock market fell sharply. as a result, a negative impact was seen in the livestock sector and rural economy [ – ]. anthrax was reported to be hyperendemic in many countries of the world. the world organization for animal health (oie), world health organization (who), and the food and agricultural organization of united nations (fao) jointly developed anthrax control guidelines. through implementing effective prevention measures, there has been a progressive reduction of anthrax cases over the past three decades [ ]. now many european countries, north america, and australia have controlled anthrax, and the disease is now absent or only sporadic in those countries. in africa, zambia was identified as a model country of the anthrax control program. regular vaccinations, increased public awareness, and proper quarantine were considered as a major strategy to control anthrax all over the world [ – ]. many exploratory studies were performed in bangladesh to find out the reasons of repeated outbreaks of anthrax, and many of them have suggested measures to control the disease. most of the studies agreed that limited vaccination coverage was one of the most important contributing factors, and studies recommended that regular effective vaccination may reduce anthrax infection [ – ]. anthrax vaccine for livestock is available in bangladesh and manufactured by the livestock research institute (lri, dhaka, bangladesh), a government-regulated and -owned institute under the ministry of fisheries and livestock. the australia-origin sterne f- vaccine strain of b. anthracis is used as vaccines , , of a master seed of vaccine production. one milliliter ( × spores approximately) of the vaccine is used as subcutaneous injection for cattle and . ml for small ruminants such as sheep and goats. despite some technical difficulties associated with the sterne f- non-capsulated attenuated spore vaccine, including local swelling, painful irritation during injecting, elevated body temperature, and reduced milk yield, it is quite effective to protect the animal for a year [ ]. in field trials, it was reported that after proper vaccination with this vaccine, protective serum antibody levels developed within days and remained protective for up to one year [ , – ]. human anthrax mostly originates from livestock and thus control of anthrax in animals is the best strategy to control disease in humans. considering herd immunity, most researchers recommend that for effective control, at least eighty percent of animals should be effectively vaccinated [ – ]. considering the overall situation in bangladesh, the present study was conducted to assess the status of mass anthrax vaccination coverage of livestock in the rural community. moreover, an attempt was made to explore the major challenges to achieve a successful vaccination program and explore the possible strategies for a successful mass vaccination program to establish an anthrax-free model area in bangladesh. . materials and methods . . ethics the study was approved by the animal welfare and experimentation ethics committee, bangladesh agricultural university [reference number aweec/bau/ ( )]. . . study sites the study was conducted in eight districts and eight sub-districts (upazilla), including our proposed anthrax free model area of bangladesh. in each sub-district, we selected one union (lowest administrative unit of local government). nine locations were selected in each union for the mass vaccination program. these locations were carefully selected with the consideration of the farmers’ convenience. three focus group discussions were conducted with the selected community people in each union, and one validation workshop was done in each upazilla headquarter. since our study was conducted in the northern part of bangladesh and each region had minor variations in literacy, awareness level, socio-economic status, population density, as well as cattle number, therefore these variations were overlooked in the present study. the geographical location of the study sites is shown on the map in figure . . . anthrax vaccine used for mass vaccination the anthrax vaccine used for our vaccination campaign was collected from the livestock research institue (lri), mohakhali, dhaka, bangladesh, through upazilla and district office of the department of livestock services. the vaccine was contained in a ml bottle, and each ml contained approximately × attenuated live spores of bacillus anthracis (b. anthracis). according to the manufacturer’s (lri, dhaka, bangladesh) recommendation, the dose to be used for cattle was ml administered as subcutaneous injection. all cattle over six months of age were covered under a mass vaccination program. pregnant cows of age more than six months were not vaccinated. . . organization of campaigns and vaccinated campaign for cattle the study research team, along with the upazilla livestock office of the respective sub-district, jointly implemented the cattle vaccination campaign from through . mennonite central committee bangladesh (an international, voluntary and nonprofit organization) supported the necessary arrangements for the campaigns like community announcements, informed potential local leaders, religious leaders, ward chowkidar and elite persons. before the campaign, a cattle census was performed in each catchment area to record the total cattle population, including age and vaccines , , of pregnancy status, to calculate the number of cattle for anthrax vaccination coverage. before vaccination campaigns, trained community-based facilitators of mennonite central committee bangladesh followed standardized instructions from the study research team to inform the majority of cattle-owning households about the place, date, and time of the vaccination spots by personal contact, peer contact, and contact with religious and local leaders and elites. vaccines , , x of bangladesh followed standardized instructions from the study research team to inform the majority of cattle-owning households about the place, date, and time of the vaccination spots by personal contact, peer contact, and contact with religious and local leaders and elites. figure . a geographical map of bangladesh showing the locations of the study areas. . . livestock census a census was taken on the livestock after each vaccination campaign. before performing the census, all the concerned workers were trained on the data collection methodology. the staff counted the total cattle population, the number of pregnant cows of age more than months, the number of calves aged below months and the number of cattle that had been vaccinated by door-to-door visit. . . focus group discussion focus group discussions (fgd) were used to collect qualitative information about the existing vaccination techniques, explore the possible barriers, and look for possible ways to overcome these barriers. three fgd were conducted in each upazilla considering time and resource limitations. multistage purposeful sampling and maximum variation sampling were used to choose the participants. each fgd had – people that were randomly selected. before starting the session, a facilitator introduced the participants to the purpose of the session and ensured all the findings would only be used for research purposes. keeping the respect for each participant, the facilitator asked the same selective questions. sessions typically lasted one to two hours. all the findings were documented in writing and keynotes were also repeated as the summary of the discussion for further confirmation. . . key informer interview key informer interviews (kiis) were conducted in every upazilla with staff involved in the livestock mass vaccination program. veterinary field assistants, locally trained vaccinators, veterinary surgeons, and upazilla livestock officers were interviewed. the purpose of the key figure . a geographical map of bangladesh showing the locations of the study areas. . . livestock census a census was taken on the livestock after each vaccination campaign. before performing the census, all the concerned workers were trained on the data collection methodology. the staff counted the total cattle population, the number of pregnant cows of age more than months, the number of calves aged below months and the number of cattle that had been vaccinated by door-to-door visit. . . focus group discussion focus group discussions (fgds) were used to collect qualitative information about the existing vaccination techniques, explore the possible barriers, and look for possible ways to overcome these barriers. three fgds were conducted in each upazilla considering time and resource limitations. multistage purposeful sampling and maximum variation sampling were used to choose the participants. each fgd had – people that were randomly selected. before starting the session, a facilitator introduced the participants to the purpose of the session and ensured all the findings would only be used for research purposes. keeping the respect for each participant, the facilitator asked the same selective questions. sessions typically lasted one to two hours. all the findings were documented in writing and keynotes were also repeated as the summary of the discussion for further confirmation. . . key informer interview key informer interviews (kiis) were conducted in every upazilla with staff involved in the livestock mass vaccination program. veterinary field assistants, locally trained vaccinators, veterinary surgeons, vaccines , , of and upazilla livestock officers were interviewed. the purpose of the key informer interviews (kiis) was to collect information about the context, culture, limitation, scope, and anthropological pattern in the respective community. all information was documented for validation of the fgd findings. . . validation of fgd findings one validation workshop was held in each upazilla with the key stakeholders who had been involved in the earlier process. participants included a representative from the university, the department of livestock services, community vaccinators, and local community elites. all the findings of the census, fgds, kiis were represented in the validation workshop. the main goal of the validation workshop was to create a sharing platform to review the findings of the fgd and provided another scope to add more information if anything was not mentioned. the participants asked about the method and findings of the present study and were given further clarification. finally, based on their consensus, the fgd findings were taken for publication and completed the data processing. in the validation workshop, the added findings were also recorded. . . quantitative and qualitative data analysis all data of the censuses, fgd, and kii were transferred to excel worksheets, and descriptive statistics were carried out using microsoft excel® tools and the results were expressed as frequencies and proportions. categorical responses were presented as proportions and their associations were determined using the chi-square tests. . results . . livestock anthrax vaccination rate a total of , cattle were vaccinated in vaccination campaigns in different study areas. in those catchment areas, there were , cattle; among them, were under six months of age, and were pregnant cows over six months. the availability of cattle for vaccination was , . the vaccine was administered to , cattle, thus results in % coverage. the remaining % of vaccination-available cattle remained unvaccinated (figure ). the breakdowns of sampling spots, numbers of cattle in total, under six months, pregnant cows more than six months, cattle available for vaccination, unvaccinated cattle, and vaccine coverage of the different districts was shown in table . vaccines , , x of during fgds, a total of recommendations were identified to maximize anthrax vaccine uptake. the most prominent recommendations identified were individual home delivery service (identified by . % of the fgd participants), arranging anthrax vaccination campaigns every six months ( . %), increasing the number of veterinarians, vaccinators, or skilled staff ( . %), proper storage and following the expiry date of anthrax vaccines in the upazilla livestock office ( . %), informing farmers about the vaccines and investigating apparent vaccination failure ( %) and reasons of the reoccurrence of disease even after vaccination ( %). the recommendations identified by the fgd participants, as well as information on fgds are shown in table . figure . the cumulative livestock census and coverage of vaccine intake during vaccinations in the present study. table . the livestock population and average vaccination intake in different study locations. district spot cattle population (mean ± se) under months (mean ± se) pregnant over months (mean ± se) available cattle for vaccination (mean ± se) actual vaccinated (mean ± se) unvaccinated (mean ± se) percent age (%) mymensingh ± ± ± ± ± ± rajshahi ± ± ± ± ± ± joypurhat ± ± ± ± ± ± rangpur ± ± ± ± ± ± gaibandha ± ± ± ± ± ± dinajpur ± ± ± ± ± ± sherpur ± ± ± ± ± ± sirajganj ± ± ± ± ± ± , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , n u m b er o f c at tl e cattle population cattle below months pregnant cattle over months suitable for vaccine vaccine intake cattle figure . the cumulative livestock census and coverage of vaccine intake during vaccinations in the present study. vaccines , , of table . the livestock population and average vaccination intake in different study locations. district spot cattle population (mean ± se) under months (mean ± se) pregnant over months (mean ± se) available cattle for vaccination (mean ± se) actual vaccinated (mean ± se) unvaccinated (mean ± se) percentage (%) mymensingh ± ± ± ± ± ± rajshahi ± ± ± ± ± ± joypurhat ± ± ± ± ± ± rangpur ± ± ± ± ± ± gaibandha ± ± ± ± ± ± dinajpur ± ± ± ± ± ± sherpur ± ± ± ± ± ± sirajganj ± ± ± ± ± ± . . barriers to vaccine uptake it was found that constraints against anthrax vaccine uptake in livestock were identified from fgds conducted in the study areas. during the study, one of the significant hurdles that surfaced up is that usually no male household is present at home, due to their work, at the time of the vaccination campaign. another prominent constraint was the difficulties faced when handling the cattle. these constraints were identified by . % and . % of the fgds participants respectively. other major constraints were identified in each % of the fgds such as restricted cattle movement, especially for fattening (many farmers believe that fattening animal should not be walked), being busy with other work, and the swelling at the site of vaccination. four constraints were identified in – % of the fgds and included fever caused by vaccination in animal ( . %), the occurrence of the disease despite vaccination ( . %), reduced milk production due to vaccination ( . %), and the lack of farmer’s knowledge about vaccination ( . %). further constraints identified in less than % of the fgds were infertility in animals caused by vaccination, the absence of veterinarians or skilled staff, poor infrastructure to store vaccines, the lack of hardworking, honest staff, and the vaccination costs (figure ). vaccines , , x of figure . the constraints for mass vaccinations identified in the fgds in the present study. . . validation of the fgd findings participants of kiis and validation workshops agreed to all of the research findings regarding the constraining of vaccine uptake and the recommendations. additionally participants in the validation workshop added that the vaccine should be more effective to preventive anthrax disease ( . %), shortage of manpower in the livestock sector ( . %), poor extension services ( . %), lack of knowledge and poor attitude of the cattle farmers ( . %), lack of coordination between demand and vaccine supply ( . %), and livestock owners were not willing to pay the vaccination cost ( . %). (details are illustrated in table ). table . key recommendations for maximizing anthrax vaccine uptake form the focus group discussions in the present study. location total percentage (%) information on fgds - - - - - - - - - - number of fgds - total number of participants - recommendations identified number of participants identifying recommendation - individual home delivery service . arrange anthrax vaccination campaigns every months . inform all about the anthrax disease and how to control it - - - - - . inform farmers about the benefits of vaccination - - - carry out additional research to study potential causes of reduction in milk production post- vaccination, and find solutions to the problem - - - - - . investigate whether or not vaccination causes infertility in animals - - - - - - - . investigate why swelling at the site of vaccination occurs and how it can be controlled - - - - - . study the causes of fever in animals after vaccination - - - - - - . figure . the constraints for mass vaccinations identified in the fgds in the present study. vaccines , , of . . recommendations to maximize vaccine uptake during fgds, a total of recommendations were identified to maximize anthrax vaccine uptake. the most prominent recommendations identified were individual home delivery service (identified by . % of the fgd participants), arranging anthrax vaccination campaigns every six months ( . %), increasing the number of veterinarians, vaccinators, or skilled staff ( . %), proper storage and following the expiry date of anthrax vaccines in the upazilla livestock office ( . %), informing farmers about the vaccines and investigating apparent vaccination failure ( %) and reasons of the reoccurrence of disease even after vaccination ( %). the recommendations identified by the fgd participants, as well as information on fgds are shown in table . table . key recommendations for maximizing anthrax vaccine uptake form the focus group discussions in the present study. location total percentage (%) information on fgds - - - - - - - - - - number of fgds - total number of participants - recommendations identified number of participants identifying recommendation - individual home delivery service . arrange anthrax vaccination campaigns every months . inform farmers about the anthrax disease and how to control it - - - - - . inform farmers about the benefits of vaccination - - - carry out additional research to study potential causes of reduction in milk production post-vaccination, and find solutions to the problem - - - - - . investigate whether or not vaccination causes infertility in animals - - - - - - - . investigate why swelling at the site of vaccination occurs and how it can be controlled - - - - - . study the causes of fever in animals after vaccination - - - - - - . investigate apparent vaccination failure, leading to the reoccurrence of disease even after vaccination - - increase the number of veterinarians, vaccinators or skilled staff . establish a reliable cold chain to store and transport vaccines - - - - . properly store and follow the expiry date of vaccines in upazilla livestock office . carry out research to produce vaccines that can be stored at room temperature (thermostable/thermotolerant). - - - - - . free of charge vaccinations - - - - - - - . increase collaboration of livestock local vaccinators with veterinarians and livestock department - - - - - - . impose fine or punishment if failing to vaccinate - - - - - - . involve law enforcing agencies and local administration - - - - - - . location: = mymensingh; = rajshahi; = joypurhat; = rangpur; = gaibandha; = dinajpur; = sherpur; = sirajganj. vaccines , , of . . validation of the fgd findings participants of kiis and validation workshops agreed to all of the research findings regarding the constraining of vaccine uptake and the recommendations. additionally participants in the validation workshop added that the vaccine should be more effective to preventive anthrax disease ( . %), shortage of manpower in the livestock sector ( . %), poor extension services ( . %), lack of knowledge and poor attitude of the cattle farmers ( . %), lack of coordination between demand and vaccine supply ( . %), and livestock owners were not willing to pay the vaccination cost ( . %). (details are illustrated in table ). table . additional recommendation for maximizing vaccine uptake form validation workshop. location total percentage (%) information on validation workshop - - - - - - - - - - number of validation workshop - total number of participants - recommendations identified number of participants identifyingrecommendation - vaccine should be more effective . lack of knowledge and poor attitude by cattle farmers . farmer are not willing to pay the vaccination cost . lack of coordination between demand and vaccine supply - . shortage of manpower in livestock sector . poor extension services . location: = mymensingh; = rajshahi; = joypurhat; = rangpur; = gaibandha; = dinajpur; = sherpur; = sirajganj. . discussion the livestock population in bangladesh is scattered all over the country, but the density is not similar. smallholder cattle farmers are located mostly in pabna, sirajganj, kushtia, khulna, rangpur, dinajpur, naogaon, and chittagong districts [ , ]. it was also observed in our vaccination campaign records that the cattle number was different from one place to another. the livestock vaccination campaign against anthrax demonstrated that we had only % coverage of the total cattle population, and thus % of cattle population remained unvaccinated. poor vaccination coverage rates of anthrax vaccine in bangladesh were previously reported and it was significantly poor and not more than – % of the total cattle population [ , , ]. this poor coverage of anthrax vaccination uptake was also observed in most of the low-income countries where livestock is reared by households [ – ]. in , the world health organization (who) introduced the expansion program on immunization (epi) that was implemented all over the world [ ]. in this program, there has been tremendous progress in vaccine uptake in humans [ ]. through this program, immunization service and coverage markedly improved, and many countries of the world ensured full vaccination coverage for certain diseases [ ]. as a result, several devastating infectious diseases such as diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, poliomyelitis, and measles are currently under control [ ]. however, there has been no similar initiative in the livestock sector. furthermore, the extension work is done to increase the awareness level, and vaccination uptake in livestock has mostly been aimed at small and large farm levels [ ]. livestock rearing at the household level has rarely been targeted. at the farm level, livestock vaccine acceptance increased five times in the last ten years compared to . times at the household level, thus increasing the gap between them [ – ]. farmers sell more adult males than females or young animals, leaving a herd structure with a relative predominance of female, pregnant cows and calves. in our study, this was reflected as % of cattle were unable to be vaccinated. the relatively large part of herds being unable to be vaccinated was also a finding in our kiis and validation workshops. participants of validation workshops reported that rural households preferred to treat not to prevent the disease. therefore, farmers did not want to vaccinate their cattle in a healthy condition. sometimes, they confused treatment with vaccination, which was also observed in other south asian countries vaccines , , of such as india, nepal, and pakistan [ – ]. in the present stusy, approximately % of the livestock was reared by small scale farmers and landless labors, who control less than % of the land area and farmers had their livestock vaccinated only when a veterinarian or para- veterinarian visited their village under government schemes such as fmd-control program, brucellosis-control program, and others [ – ]. poor coverage of livestock anthrax vaccination and ineffective vaccination in some livestock animals contributed to outbreaks of the disease [ , , ]. the improvement of anthrax vaccination coverage among livestock is also one of the most critical control strategies to control anthrax in bangladesh. barriers to vaccine uptake reported from our study were the absence of male family member at the time of the vaccination program, difficulty to handle the cattle, restriction of cattle movement especially for fattening, being busy with other works, the lack of knowledge about vaccination, reduction of milk production due to vaccination, infertility in cows due to vaccination, swelling at the site of vaccination, fever in animals due to vaccination, reoccurrence of the disease after vaccination, shortage of veterinarian, poor infrastructure and vaccination cost. the national livestock extension policy has been constructed to strategically address the challenges and constraints prevailing in livestock production systems [ ]. among their findings, inappropriate organizational setup with inadequate extension manpower and inadequate animal health care services were similar to our findings. the current study has demonstrated that the unavailability of male person being present at the vaccination campaign who help bring the animal to the vaccination spot is considered one of the greatest barriers to vaccine uptake of livestock. national data also showed that . % of households are small-scale farmers holding . – . acres of land, whilst . % of households have no land [ ]. the dynamics of rural male labor shift from farming to non-farming activities such as trade, business, and services. males usually work outside of their houses, and % of rural females are responsible for rearing livestock and poultry. however, the participation of females was relatively low in activities such as bringing the animals to the veterinary hospital for treatment, sale of animals, breeding of animals, fodder cultivation, and construction of animal shed. a large number of cattle are slaughtered annually for religious purposes and domestic consumption in bangladesh. therefore beef fattening has become popular in rural areas, and cattle movement has been restricted, especially for fattening programs, which was also observed as a proposed vaccination constraint in our study. in bangladesh, the australia-origin sterne f- vaccine strain of b. anthracis is used to prevent anthrax in animals. it has some reported side effects such as the injection site may itch, followed by swelling and discoloration, and sometimes fever or reduced milk production for a few days. a study on sterne f- strain vaccine in cattle and goat found similar side effects after vaccination [ ]. the government of bangladesh sets a subsidized price for most of the livestock anthrax vaccine, approximately us $ . (bdt ), for a vial of doses. however, sometimes, the vaccinator unofficially charged the farmers us $ . (bdt ) extra for a single dose of vaccine to cover their additional expenses [ ]. on the other hand, most livestock offices had some volunteers called local service providers or community animal vaccinators who get no or minimal honorarium. usually, these workers conducted livestock vaccination campaigns, and sometimes they demand additional money for their service from the farmers. sometimes, the upazilla livestock department compensates vaccine costs via other development projects or collecting donations from others, which creates confusion among farmers. this flexibility created another confusion. the farmers did not want to pay because they believed a government-supplied vaccine should be free of charge. the upazilla livestock officers also explained this issue to farmers that the amount did not cover their cost to travel to distant villages, particularly in remote areas, and thus they were not willing to go there. the officers suggested the majority of these problems could be solved by increased manpower in the upazilla hospitals and by increased transport facilities. these measures would be of significant importance for improved vaccination coverage in bangladesh. other researchers have reported various reasons for poor vaccination coverage, such as the acute shortage of the anthrax vaccine and a shortage of veterinary facilities, including manpower [ , , ]. anthrax vaccination was strongly linked to social and cultural rather than economic drivers [ – ]. from the present study, stakeholder vaccines , , of recommendations included individual home delivery service, anthrax vaccination campaigns every six months, information about anthrax disease and vaccination benefits, and the improvement of vaccine quality to reduce adverse effects. it is also recommended that the livestock research institute (lri) should take the initiative to improve the anthrax vaccine quality. the findings of the present study demonstrates that vaccine uptake is a complex multifactorial issue, where responsibility is shared by farmers, veterinary departments, district, local, and national governments, and vaccine producers. . conclusions human anthrax is mainly zoonotic, and thus the control of animal disease is the best mitigation strategy. this study demonstrates that anthrax vaccine uptake was only % in the study area in bangladesh. major identified constraints for vaccination include unavailability of male being present in household during the time of vaccination campaigns, difficulties in handling the cattle, practice of restricted cattle movement, especially for fattening, cattle owners being busy with other works, swelling at the site of vaccination, fever in the animal caused by vaccination, lack of knowledge about vaccination, reduction of milk production due to vaccination, and poor vaccine effect. identified recommendations to improve vaccine uptake include individual home delivery service and to arrange anthrax vaccination campaigns every six months. author contributions: conceptualization, k.h.m.n.h.n. and m.s.a.s.; methodology, m.s.a.s., m.a.s., and m.a.h.s.; software, m.s.a.s.; validation, m.e.e.z., j.d.j., and m.b.r.; formal analysis, m.s.a.s.; investigation, k.h.m.n.h.n.; resources, m.a.s. and m.b.r.; data curation, m.s.a.s. and m.a.h.s.; writing—original draft preparation, m.s.a.s. and m.e.e.z.; writing—review and editing, m.e.e.z., j.d.j., and k.h.m.n.h.n.; visualization, k.h.m.n.h.n. and m.e.e.z.; supervision, k.h.m.n.h.n.; project administration, k.h.m.n.h.n.; funding acquisition, k.h.m.n.h.n. and j.d.j. all authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. funding: this research was supported in parts by the ministry of education (moe), government of the people’s republic of bangladesh, project no: / /moe, entitled: “an integrated approach to establish an anthrax-free model area in bangladesh.” and the ministry of science & technology (most), government of the people’s republic of bangladesh, under nst fellowship program (id# , - ) and by the swedish research council grant number . acknowledgments: we are grateful to all personnel involved in this research study for their valuable time, opinion, advice, and suggestions. the authors would like to thank the district livestock office, upazilla livestock office, department of livestock services (dls), bangladesh, department of microbiology and hygiene, and department of agricultural extension education, bangladesh agricultural university, mymensingh for their technical assistance. authors would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments which significantly improved the manuscript. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . department of livestock services, (dls). livestock economy at a glance. department of livestock services, ministry of fisheries and livestock, government of the people’s republic of bangladesh. available online: http://dls.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/dls.portal.gov.bd/page/ee f _fa a_ ac_ bd _ fb ee / livestock% economy% at% a% glance% % % - % .pdf (accessed on march ). . ehizibolo, d.; ehizibolo, p.; ehizibolo, e.; sugun, m.; idachaba, s. the control of neglected zoonotic diseases in nigeria through animal intervention. afr. j. biomed. res. , , – . . okello, a.l.; gibbs, e.p.j.; vandersmissen, a.; welburn, s.c. one health and the neglected zoonoses: turning rhetoric into reality. vet. rec. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . mondal, s.p.; yamage, m. a retrospective study on the epidemiology of anthrax, foot and mouth disease, haemorrhagic septicaemia, peste des petits ruminants and rabies in bangladesh, – . plos one , , e . [crossref] [pubmed] . hugh-jones, m.; blackburn, j. the ecology of bacillus anthracis. mol. asp. med. , , – . [crossref] . woods, c.w.; ospanov, k.; myrzabekov, a.; favorov, m.; plikaytis, b.; ashford, d.a. risk factors for human anthrax among contacts of anthrax-infected livestock in kazakhstan. am. j. trop. med. hyg. , , – . [crossref] http://dls.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/dls.portal.gov.bd/page/ee f _fa a_ ac_ bd _ fb ee /livestock% economy% at% a% glance% % % - % .pdf http://dls.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/dls.portal.gov.bd/page/ee f _fa a_ ac_ bd _ fb ee /livestock% economy% at% a% glance% % % - % .pdf http://dx.doi.org/ . /vr.d http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.mam. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajtmh. . . vaccines , , of . centers for disease control and prevention (cdc). human anthrax associated with an epizootic among livestock-north dakota, . mmwr morb. mortal. wkly. rep. , , – . . ndiva mongoh, m.; hearne, r.; khaitsa, m. private and public economic incentives for the control of animal diseases: the case of anthrax in livestock. transbound. emerg. dis. , , – . [crossref] . chakraborty, a.; khan, s.u.; hasnat, m.a.; parveen, s.; islam, m.s.; mikolon, a.; chakraborty, r.k.; ahmed, b.-n.; ara, k.; haider, n. anthrax outbreaks in bangladesh, – . am. j. trop. med. hyg. , , – . [crossref] . siddiqui, m.a.; khan, m.a.h.; ahmed, s.s.; anwar, k.s.; akhtaruzzaman, s.m.; salam, m.a. recent outbreak of cutaneous anthrax in bangladesh: clinico-demographic profile and treatment outcome of cases attended at rajshahi medical college hospital. bmc res. notes , , . [crossref] . asanella, a.; garofolo, g.; hossain, m.j.; shamsuddin, m.; blackburn, j.; hugh-jones, m. bangladesh anthrax outbreaks are probably caused by contaminated livestock feed. epidemiol. infect. , , – . [crossref] . islam, m.s.; hossain, m.j.; mikolon, a.; parveen, s.; khan, m.s.u.; haider, n.; chakraborty, a.; titu, a.m.n.; rahman, m.w.; sazzad, h.m. risk practices for animal and human anthrax in bangladesh: an exploratory study. infect. ecol. epidemiol. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . hassan, j.; ahsan, m.m.; rahman, m.b.; chowdhury, s.m.z.h.; parvej, m.s.; nazir, k.n.h. factors associated with repeated outbreak of anthrax in bangladesh: qualitative and quantitative study. j. adv. vet. anim. res. , , – . [crossref] . world health organization. who working group meeting on anthrax control and research, with special reference to national programme development in africa, mongu, zambia, – september ; world health organization: geneva, switzerland, . . siamudaala, v.m.; bwalya, j.m.; munang’andu, h.m.; sinyangwe, p.g.; banda, f.; mweene, a.s.; takada, a.; kida, h. ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in cattle and humans in zambia. jpn. j. vet. res. , , – . [pubmed] . hang’ombe, m.b.; mwansa, j.c.; muwowo, s.; mulenga, p.; kapina, m.; musenga, e.; squarre, d.; mataa, l.; thomas, s.y.; ogawa, h. human-animal anthrax outbreak in the luangwa valley of zambia in . trop. dr. , , – . [crossref] . turnbull, p.; hugh-jones, m.; cosivi, o. world health organization activities on anthrax surveillance and control. j. appl. microbiol. , , – . [crossref] . world health organization. who working group meeting on anthrax control and research, with special reference to national program development in africa, mongu, zambia, – september . in proceedings of the apresentado em: who working group meeting on anthrax control and research, mongu, zambia, – september . . rosanna, a.; michela, s.; massimiliano, f.; michela, i.; adelia, d.; antonio, f. development of a sterne-based complement fixation test to monitor the humoral response induced by anthrax vaccines. front. microbiol. , , . [crossref] . dipti, m.; rashid, m.; ferdoush, m.; roy, p.; khan, m.; hossain, m. morphological and immunological characterization of anthrax vaccine in cattle. bangladesh j. vet. med. , , – . [crossref] . roy, p.r.; rashid, m.; ferdoush, m.; dipti, m.; chowdury, m.; mostofa, m.; roy, s.; khan, m.; hossain, m. biochemical and immunological characterization of anthrax spore vaccine in goat. bangladesh j. vet. med. , , – . [crossref] . friedman, a.; yakubu, a.-a. anthrax epizootic and migration: persistence or extinction. math. biosci. , , – . [crossref] . pantha, b.; day, j.; lenhart, s. optimal control applied in an anthrax epizootic model. j. biol. syst. , , – . [crossref] . osman, s.; makinde, o.d.; theuri, d.m. mathematical modelling of transmission dynamics of anthrax in human and animal population. math. theory model. , , – . . saadullah, m. smallholder dairy production and marketing in bangladesh. in smallholder dairy production and marketing-opportunities and constraints; nddb (national dairy development board) and ilri (international livestock research institute): nairobi, kenya, ; pp. – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajtmh. . - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /s http://dx.doi.org/ . /iee.v i . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /javar. .b http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /td. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://dx.doi.org/ . /fmicb. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bjvm.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bjvm.v i . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.mbs. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /s x vaccines , , of . shamsuddin, m.; goodger, w.; hossein, m.; bennett, t.; nordlund, k. a survey to identify economic opportunities for smallholder dairy farms in bangladesh. trop. anim. health prod. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . rume, f.i.; affuso, a.; serrecchia, l.; rondinone, v.; manzulli, v.; campese, e.; di taranto, p.; biswas, p.k.; ahsan, c.r.; yasmin, m. genotype analysis of bacillus anthracis strains circulating in bangladesh. plos one , . [crossref] [pubmed] . thapa, n.k.; tenzin, k.w.; tshering dorji, m.; dorjee, j.; marston, c.k.; hoffmaster, a.r. investigation and control of anthrax outbreak at the human–animal interface, bhutan, . emerg. infect. dis. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . gunaseelan, l.; rishikesavan, r.; adarsh, t.; hamilton, r.b.e.; kaneene, j. temporal and geographical distribution of animal anthrax in tamil nadu state, india. tamilnadu j. vet. anim. sci. , , – . . sekar, n.; shah, n.k.; abbas, s.s.; kakkar, m. research options for controlling zoonotic disease in india, – . plos one , . [crossref] . yin, d.-p.; wang, h.-q.; cao, l.-q. summary of epi vaccine all the world in . chin. j. vaccines immun. , , – . . ekanem, e.e. a -year review of morbidity from childhood preventable diseases in nigeria: how successful is the expanded programme of immunization (epi)? j. trop. pediatr. , , – . [crossref] . dean, a.g. epi info and epi map: current status and plans for epi info . j. public health manag. pract. , , – . [crossref] . rahman, s.; begum, i.a.; alam, m.j. livestock in bangladesh: distribution, growth, performance and potential. livest. res. rural dev. , , – . . riise, j.; kryger, k.; seeberg, d.; christensen, p. impact of smallholder poultry production in bangladesh– years experience with danida supported livestock projects in bangladesh. danida minist. foreign aff. cph. den. . preprint. . islam, m.; samad, m. mortality in chicks associated with economic impact and prospect of layer chick rearer package programme of the participatory livestock development project in bangladesh. int. j. poult. sci. , , – . . birtha, p.s. technological change in india’s livestock subsector: evidence and issues. in proceedings of the technology options for sustainable livestock production in india: proceedings of the workshop on documentation, adoption, and impact of livestock technologies in india, icrisat, patancheru, india, – january ; national centre for agricultural economics: new delhi, india; policy research and international crops research institute for the semi-arid tropics: andhra pradesh, india; p. . . kang, g.; gunaseelan, l.; abbas, k. epidemiological dynamics of bovine brucellosis in india. ann. glob. health , , – . [crossref] . kenyanjui, m.b.; sheikh-ali, m.; ghaffar, a. observations on cattle dairy breeds in pakistan; need to curb unseen economic losses through control of mastitis and endemic diseases. j. agric. environ. int. dev. (jaeid) , , – . . ghaffar, a.; ashfaq, f. sustainable goat farming for livelihood improvement in pakistan: opportunities, constrains, and potential. in sustainable goat farming for livelihood improvement in south asia; saarc agriculture centre: dhaka, bangladesh, ; pp. – . . mushtaq, m.h.; khattak, i.; haqb, n.; awan, f. mass vaccination and surveillance reduced the burden of foot and mouth disease. veterinaria , , – . . nadeem, m.; hussain, i.; ahmad, t.; qureshi, a.s.; yousaf, a. effect of prophylactic application of levamisole in buffalo-calves immunized with haemorragic septicemia vaccine. rev. vet. , , – . . ahmed, b.-n.; sultana, y.; fatema, d.; ara, k.; begum, n.; mostanzid, s.; jubayer, s. anthrax: an emerging zoonotic disease in bangladesh. bangladesh j. med. microbiol. , , – . [crossref] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - -y http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /eid . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://dx.doi.org/ . /tropej/ . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.aogh. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /bjmm.v i . http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	ethics 	study sites 	anthrax vaccine used for mass vaccination 	organization of campaigns and vaccinated campaign for cattle 	livestock census 	focus group discussion 	key informer interview 	validation of fgd findings 	quantitative and qualitative data analysis 	results 	livestock anthrax vaccination rate 	barriers to vaccine uptake 	recommendations to maximize vaccine uptake 	validation of the fgd findings 	discussion 	conclusions 	references position on environmental issues and engagement in proenvironmental behaviors position on environmental issues and engagement in proenvironmental behaviors gene l. theodori department of rural sociology texas a&m university college station, texas, usa a. e. luloff department of agricultural economics and rural sociology pennsylvani a state university university park, pennsylvania , usa using data collected in a general population survey from a random sample of individuals in four communities in pennsylvania, we tested the following two hypotheses: ( ) that differences in sociodemographic characteristics exist among individuals with variant positions on environmental issues; and ( ) that individuals with different positions on environmental issues exhibit dissimilar levels of pro- environmental behaviors. both hypotheses received substantial support. the results indicate that young individuals, the more highly educated, people with higher incomes, and those with liberal political ideologies are more likely than their opposites to maintain proactive positions on environmental issues. the ®ndings also reveal that while both proactive and sympathetic persons engage more frequently in proenvironmental behaviors than do their neutral counterparts, sympathetic indivi- duals partake in these same behaviors less often than do those who expressed proactive positions on environmental issues. keywords environmentalism, environmental movement, position on environ- mental issues, proenvironmental behaviors, social movement the structure or organization of a social movement is often illustrated with con- centric rings or circles (mauss ). the innermost ring, or core, typically contains the principal leaders, along with the most zealous and committed members (mauss ; morrison ). surrounding the core are various rings or layers of the public organized, to a greater or lesser extent, around the issue at hand. each layer is comprised of actors and=or associations with differing levels of interest in and commitment to the success of the movement. received september ; accepted august . support for this research was provided by the pennsylvania department of agriculture (me ) and the pennsylvania agricultural experiment station (regional project ne- and state station project ) . address correspondence to gene l. theodori, department of rural sociology, texas a&m university, tamu, college station, tx ± , usa. e-mail: g-theodori@tamu.edu society and natural resources, : ± , copyright # taylo r & francis - / $ . + . doi: . = as evidenced by its enduring survival, large organizationa l base, and widespread public support, the environmental movement continues to be one of the more successful social movements throughou t the united states and western europe (mertig and dunlap ). despite the vast literature on environmentalism , research on the different layers of individuals involved in the environmental movement has been somewhat limited. surprisingly little empirical research has been conducted on the sociodemographi c characteristic s and=or attitudes , beliefs, and behaviors of these individuals. this article addresses these issues. two hypotheses were tested. first, it was hypothesized that there are differences in sociodemographi c char- acteristics among individuals with variant positions on environmental issues. the second hypothesi s was that individuals with different positions on environmental issues exhibit dissimilar levels of proenvironmental behaviors. background in a review of the trends in public opinion toward environmental quality from the mid s to the late s, dunlap ( ) proposed a ®ve-layer concentric pattern to depict the various segments of the public involved in the environmental move- ment. according to dunlap ( , ± ), activistsÐ``individuals intensely con- cerned about and personally active on behalf of environmental quality’’Ðare at the core of the movement. encompassing the core is a layer referred to as the attentive publicÐ``individuals interested in and informed about environmental issues . . . [who] are likely to provide occasional support for environmental causes, signing petitions, voting for proenvironmenta l issues and candidates and perhaps even contributing time and money to speci®c environmental campaigns.’’ the third and largest layer consists of the sympathetic publicÐ``individuals whoÐalthough not very attentive to environmental issuesÐexpress support for efforts to enhance and protect envir- onmenta l quality.’’ next are the neutralsÐ``persons who have little interest in and typically no opinion concerning environmental issues.’’ last, the outer layer is comprised of opponentsÐ``individuals who are opposed to some degree to the goals of the environmental movement and hold opinions that can be characterized as `anti-environmental.’’’ data from national surveys appear to support dunlap’s ( ) notion of a multilayered public organized around environmental issues. in , an abc news=washingto n post poll asked, ``in recent years, the environmental movement has been very active. do you consider yourself as: an active participant in the environment movement, sympathetic towards the movement, but not active, neutral, or unsympatheti c towards the environmental movement?’ ’ seven percent reported that they were active participants, % said they were sympathetic, but not active, % indicated that they were neutral, and % said they were unsympatheti c (abc news=washingto n post ). more recently, ®ve wirthline worldwide ( , , , , ) national quorum surveys asked respondents a very similar question [do you think of your- self as: ( ) an active environmentalist , ( ) sympathetic towards environmental con- cerns but not active, ( ) neutral, or ( ) generally unsympatheti c to environmental concerns]. the general trends over this -year period re¯ect those reported in the poll. the percentage of respondents who considered themselves active environmentalist s ranged from a low of % in to a high of % in . sympathetic individuals ranged from a low of % in to a high of % in , while neutral individuals ranged from a low of % in to a high of % g. l. theodori and a. e. luloff in . unsympatheti c individuals ranged from a low of % in to a high of % in . despite the consistent pattern of survey ®ndings over nearly two decades, few studies have been conducted on the sociodemographi c characteristics and=or atti- tudes, beliefs, and behavior s of the different layers of individuals involved in the environmental movement. the present study addresses these issues. in this article, we use data collected in a general population survey from a random sample of indivi- duals in four communities to test the following hypotheses: ( ) that differences in sociodemographi c characteristic s exist among individuals with variant positions on environmental issues; and ( ) that individuals with different positions on environ- mental issues exhibit dissimilar levels of proenvironmenta l behaviors. data and measurement the data used in this analysis were drawn from a study that focused on land-use issues at the rural±urban interface in pennsylvania (luloff et al. ; theodori and luloff ). data were collected through a general population survey from a random sample of individuals in four study sites chosen to represent a typology of increasing levels of urban presence and pressure in agricultural areas. the four areas selected were small portions of snyder, bedford, crawford, and lancaster counties. based on major issues identi®ed in key and action informant interviews in each study site, a questionnaire was developed that addressed land use, agri- cultural, development, and natural resource issues, in addition to social issues including community attachment, community participation, stress, and recreation. following a modi®ed total design method (tdm; see dillman ; luloff and ilvento ), data were gathered in the snyder, bedford, and crawford sites using mail survey techniques. data were collected via a questionnaire drop-off=pick-up procedure (melbye et al. ) in the lancaster site due to the presence of a substantial number of old order amish and mennonites. overall, a response rate of % was achieved. this resulted in completed questionnaire s across the sites. position on environmental issues following earlier work (abc news=washington post ; wirthline worldwide , , , , ), position on environmental issues was evaluate d using a single survey item. the question asked: ``which of the following best describes your position on environmental issues?’’ response categories included: ( ) active in environmental issues, ( ) sympathetic to environmental issues, ( ) neither sympathetic nor unsympathetic , ( ) unsympatheti c to environmental issues, and ( ) actively opposed to any action on environmental issues. based on the small number of cases in the latter two categories, respondents who indicated that they were either (a) unsympatheti c to environmental issues or (b) actively opposed to any action on environmental issues were combined with those who reported that they were neither sympathetic nor unsympatheti c on environmental issues. in this article, the three categories describing individuals’ position on environmental issues are referred to as ``proactive,’’ ``sympathetic,’’ and ``neutral.’’ the per- centages of respondents indicating proactive, sympathetic, and neutral positions on environmental issues were . (n = ), . (n = ), and . (n = ), respectively. position on environmental issues engagement in proenvironmental behaviors engagement in proenvironmenta l behaviors was assessed using a list of seven items. respondent s were asked if, during the previous year, they had engaged in any of the following behaviors: ( ) contribute d money or time to an environmental or wildlife conservation group; ( ) stopped buying a product because it caused envir- onmenta l problems; ( ) attended a public hearing or meeting about the environment; ( ) contacted a government agency to get information or complain about an environmental problem; ( ) read a conservation or environmental magazine; ( ) watched a television special on the environment; and ( ) voted for or against a political candidat e because of the candidate’s position on the environment. each proenvironmenta l behavior was dummy coded ( = yes). sociodemographi c variables following earlier research (dunlap and heffernan ; van liere and dunlap ; theodori, luloff, and willits ), age, education, gender, income, and political ideology were included as sociodemographi c factors. age was measured in years. education was coded as follows: ( ) less than high school; ( ) high school equivalent; ( ) some college; ( ) college degree; and ( ) training beyond college. gender was dummy coded ( = male). income was measured by categories, ranging from ( ) less than $ , to ( ) $ , or more. political ideology was measured by the categories: ( ) liberal; ( ) moderate±liberal; ( ) moderate; ( ) moderate±conservative ; and ( ) conservative. analyses differences in sociodemographi c characteristics among the proactive, sympathetic , and neutral individuals were examined by calculating mean scores for each of the ®ve variables for the three groups. the statistical signi®cance of the observed variances were tested by analysis of variance procedures (f-tests). as shown in table , there was considerable support for the proposition that differences in sociodemographi c characteristics exist among individuals with different positions on environmental issues. age, education, income, and political ideology reached statistical signi®cance at the . level and revealed linear-type patterns. of the three groups, proactive persons had the highest incomes and were the youngest, highest educated, and least politically conservative, while neutral individuals had the lowest incomes and were table means and analysis of variance results for sociodemographi c variables by environmental position variable proactive sympathetic neutral f score age . . . . b education . . . . b gender ( = male) . . . . a income . . . . b political ideology . . . . b a signi®cant at p < . . bsigni®cant at p < . . g. l. theodori and a. e. luloff the oldest, least educated, and most politically conservative. gender attained sta- tistical signi®cance at the . level, but did not manifest a linear-type pattern like the other sociodemographi c variables. the results indicated that proactive individuals were most likely to be female, followed by neutral persons. sympathetic individuals were most likely to be male. logistic regression was used to analyze the differences in the levels of engage- ment in proenvironmental behaviors among individuals with different positions on environmental issues. the analysis was conducted in two phases. table reports the bivariate and net odds ratios for the effect of position on environmental issues on engagement in proenvironmenta l behaviors when neutral was treated as the refer- ence category (phase i). phase i bivariate results at the bivariate level, as shown in table , the results indicate that individuals with a proactive orientation on environmental issues were signi®cantly ( p < . ) more likely than neutral individuals to engage in all seven of the proenvironmenta l behaviors. the odds ratios ranged from . to . . this indicated that while proactive persons were almost times more likely than the neutral individuals to stop buying a product because it caused environmental problems, they were approximately times more likely than the neutral individuals to contribute money or time to an environmental or wildlife conservation group. the bivariate results reported in table also indicate that sympathetic individuals were more likely than the neutral individuals to engage in proenvironmenta l behaviors. each of the odds ratios reached statistical signi®cance at the conventional . level, while all but two were signi®cant at the . level. multivariate results as in earlier research, controls for age, education, gender, income, and political ideology were introduced into the model. as noted in table , the results indicate that controlling for these variables had very little effect on the nature or signi®cance levels of the odds ratios for either proactive or sympathetic individuals, although one statistically signi®cant odds ratio did drop to nonsigni®cance. after introducing the control variables, sympathetic individuals did not differ signi®cantly from neutral individuals in terms of attending a public meeting of hearing about the environment. overall, based on the multivariate results reported in table , respondents who expressed either proactive or sympathetic positions on environmental issues were more likely than those who expressed neutral positions on environmental issues to engage in the majority of proenvironmenta l behaviors. the likelihood of proactive individuals who engaged in each of the behaviors was stronger than that for sym- pathetic individuals in both the bivariate and multivariate models. phase ii treating individuals who reported neutral positions on environmental issues as the reference category for the environmental position variable allowed us to test in phase i (table ) whether proactive and sympathetic individuals differed sig- ni®cantly from the neutral individuals in terms of proenvironmenta l behaviors. what we could not test in phase i was whether or not individuals with a proactive position on environmental issues t a b l e o d d s r a ti o s fo r th e e ff e ct o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l p o st io n o n p ro en v ir o n m en ta l b eh a v io r w it h `` n eu tr a l’ ’ a s th e r ef e re n ce c a te g o ry o d d s ra ti o s b iv a ri a te m u lt iv a ri a te a p ro en v ir o n m en ta l b eh a v io rs p ro a ct iv e s y m p a th et ic p ro a ct iv e s y m p a th et ic c o n tr ib u te d m o n e y o r ti m e to a n en v ir o n m en ta l o r w il d li fe co n se rv a ti o n g ro u p (n = )b . e . e . e . e s to p p ed b u y in g a p ro d u ct b e ca u se it ca u se d en v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m s (n = ) . e . e . e . e a tt en d ed a p u b li c h ea ri n g o r m ee ti n g a b o u t th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . e . c . e . c o n ta ct ed a g o v er n m en t a g en c y to g et in fo rm a ti o n o r co m p la in a b o u t a n en v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m (n = ) . e . d . e . d r ea d a co n se rv a ti o n o r en v ir o n m e n ta l m a g a zi n e (n = ) . e . e . e . e w a tc h e d a te le v is io n sp ec ia l o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . e . e . e . e v o te d fo r o r a g a in st a p o li ti ca l ca n d id a te b ec a u se o f h is = h er p o si ti o n o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . e . e . e . e a o d d s ra ti o s co m p u te d co n tr o ll in g fo r a g e , e d u ca ti o n , g en d er , in c o m e, a n d p o li ti c a l id eo lo g y . b n v a lu e s v a ry d u e to m is si n g d a ta . c s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . d s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . e s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . orientation on environmental issues differed from their sympatheti c counterparts in terms of their environmental behaviors. in order to do so, we recoded the envir- onmental position variable. table reports the bivariate and net odds ratios for the effect of environmental position on proenvironmenta l behaviors when the sympathetic-to-environmental-issue s response was treated as the reference category (phase ii). while the odds ratio values for the sympathetic individuals reported in table and those for the neutral persons shown in table are different (due to treating one versus the other as the reference category), it is important to note that the odds ratios for the neutral individuals in table are merely the inverse values of the odds ratios for sympathetic respondents in table . the alpha values (or p values) for the sympathetic individuals in table and those for the neutral respondents in table are identical in both the bivariate and multivariate models. bivariate results as shown in table , the bivariate results indicate that individuals who expressed proactive positions on environmental issues were signi®cantly more likely than their sympathetic counterparts to engage in six of the seven proenvironmenta l behaviors. while proactive individuals were . times more likely than sympathetic individuals to stop buying a product because it caused environmental problems, they were . times more likely than sympathetic respondents to attend a public meeting or hearing about the environment. proactive respondent s did not differ signi®cantly from sympathetic respondents in terms of their likelihood of watching a television special on the environment, despite the fact that they were . times more likely than sympathetic individuals to do so. the results reported in table also indicated that, at the bivariate level, neutral individuals were signi®cantly less likely than sympathetic respondents to engage in each of the proenvironmenta l behaviors (the opposite of the ®ndings reported in table ). multivariate results the multivariate results indicate that controlling for age, education, gender, income, and political ideology had very little effect on the size of the odds ratios for either proactive or neutral individuals (the odds ratios reported for the neutral individuals in table are simply the inverse of the odds ratios for the sympathetic respondents in table ). in brief, the most interesting ®nding in table was that proactive respondents were signi®cantly more likely than sympathetic respondents to engage in six of the seven proenvironmenta l behaviors, net of the other variables in the model. examining the sociodemographi c variables an examination of the sociodeomgraphi c variables indicated that age consistently failed to reach statistical signi®cance (table ). education was positively and sig- ni®cantly related to ®ve of the proenvironmenta l behaviors. more highly educated respondents were signi®cantly more likely than those with lower education to con- tribute money or time to an environmental or wildlife conservation group, to contact a government agency to get information about an environmental problem, to read a conservation or environmental magazine, to watch a television special on the environment, and to vote for or against a political candidate because of his=her position on the environment. while males were signi®cantly more likely than females position on environmental issues t a b l e o d d s r a ti o s fo r th e e ff ec t o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l p o si ti o n o n p ro en v ir o n m en ta l b eh a v io r w it h `` s y m p a th e ti c’ ’ a s th e r ef er e n c e c a te g o ry o d d s ra ti o s b iv a ri a te m u lt iv a ri a te a p ro e n v ir o n m e n ta l b eh a v io rs p ro a c ti v e n eu tr a l p ro a ct iv e n eu tr a l c o n tr ib u te d m o n ey o r ti m e to a n e n v ir o n m en ta l o r w il d li fe co n se rv a ti o n g ro u p (n = )b . e . e . e . e s to p p ed b u y in g a p ro d u ct b ec a u se it ca u se d en v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m s (n = ) . c . e . c . e a tt en d ed a p u b li c h ea ri n g o r m ee ti n g a b o u t th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . e . c . e . c o n ta ct ed a g o v er n m en t a g en cy to g e t in fo rm a ti o n o r co m p la in a b o u t a n e n v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m (n = ) . e . d . e . d r e a d a co n se rv a ti o n o r en v ir o n m en ta l m a g a zi n e (n = ) . d . e . d . e w a tc h ed a te le v is io n sp ec ia l o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . . e . . e v o te d fo r o r a g a in st a p o li ti ca l ca n d id a te b ec a u se o f h is = h er p o si ti o n o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . e . e . e . e a o d d s ra ti o s co m p u te d co n tr o ll in g fo r a g e, ed u ca ti o n , g e n d er , in c o m e, a n d p o li ti c a l id e o lo g y . b n v a lu es v a ry d u e to m is si n g d a ta . c s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . d s ig n i® c a n t a t p < . . e s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . t a b l e o d d s r a ti o s fo r th e s o ci o d em o g ra p h ic v a ri a b le s o d d s ra ti o sa fo r so c io d em o g ra p h ic v a ri a b le s p ro en v ir o n m e n ta l b eh a v io rs a g e e d u ca ti o n g en d er in co m e p o li ti ca l id eo lo g y c o n tr ib u te d m o n e y o r ti m e to a n en v ir o n m en ta l o r w il d li fe co n se rv a ti o n g ro u p (n = )b . . d . . d . c s to p p ed b u y in g a p ro d u ct b e ca u se it ca u se d en v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m s (n = ) . . . c . . a tt e n d ed a p u b li c h ea ri n g o r m ee ti n g a b o u t th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . . . d . . c o n ta ct ed a g o v e rn m en t a g e n c y to g et in fo rm a ti o n o r co m p la in a b o u t a n en v ir o n m en ta l p ro b le m (n = ) . . c . . . r ea d a co n se rv a ti o n o r en v ir o n m en ta l m a g a zi n e (n = ) . . e . . . c w a tc h e d a te le v is io n sp ec ia l o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . . e . . . c v o te d fo r o r a g a in st a p o li ti ca l ca n d id a te b ec a u se o f h is = h er p o si ti o n o n th e en v ir o n m en t (n = ) . . e . . d . a c o m p u te d c o n tr o ll in g fo r p o si ti o n o n e n v ir o n m e n ta l is su es . b n v a lu es v a ry d u e to m is si n g d a ta . c s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . d s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . e s ig n i® ca n t a t p < . . to stop buying a product because it caused environmental problems, females were signi®cantly more likely than males to attend a public meeting or hearing about the environment. respondents with higher incomes were signi®cantly more likely than those with lower incomes to contribute money or time to an environmental or wildlife conservation group, and signi®cantly less likely to vote for or against a political candidate because of his or her position on the environment. politically liberal respondents were signi®cantly more likely than their politically conservative counterparts to contribute money or time to an environmental or wildlife con- servation group, read a conservation or environmental magazine, and watch a tel- evision special on the environment. summary and concluding comments these data provided substantial support for our two hypotheses, namely, ( ) that differences in sociodemographi c characteristic s exist among individuals with variant positions on environmental issues, and ( ) that individuals with different positions on environmental issues exhibit dissimilar levels of proenvironmenta l behaviors. the results of the analysis of variance tests revealed that young individuals, the more highly educated, people with higher incomes, and those with liberal political ideol- ogies were more likely than their opposites to maintain proactive positions on environmental issues. while gender reached statistical signi®cance, the results were not as clear-cut. the ®ndings of the logistic regression in phase i indicated that, overall, indivi- duals who maintained either proactive or sympatheti c positions on environmental issues were more likely than those who were classi®ed as neutral to engage in proenvironmenta l behaviors. the likelihood of proactive persons to partake in each of the behaviors was stronger than that for sympatheti c respondents. the odds ratios changed only slightly when controls for a variety of sociodemographi c character- istics were added. taken together, the phase ii logistic regression analyses revealed that proactive individuals were more likely than sympathetic individuals to engage in proenvironmenta l behaviors. again, the odds ratios changed only slightly after the addition of the control variables. although both proactive and sympathetic persons participated more frequently in proenvironmenta l behaviors than did their neutral counterparts , sympathetic individuals engaged in these same behaviors less often than did those who expressed proactive environmental positions. these results have practical implications for environmental protection and natural resource management issues. for example, to the extent that behavior s often change, well-designed environmentally oriented educational program s that motivate and encourage understanding , exploration, participation, and group problem solving might lead to the adoption and facilitation of proenvironmenta l behaviors (kaplan ). moreover, informational campaigns that emphasize environmentally responsible behaviors could foster proactiv e envir- onmenta l positions. despite the statistical signi®cance of our ®ndings, several limitations of these data must be considered. one limitation involved the measurement of position on environmental issues. in this study, position on environmental issues was represented by a global measure. future research examining similar linkages might incorporate measures of domain-speci®c positions. a second limitation of this study dealt with the measurement of proenvironmenta l behaviors. individuals were asked only to indicate whether or not they engaged in any of the listed behaviors. in order to fully g. l. theodori and a. e. luloff understand the links between position on environmental issues and engagement in proenvironmental behaviors, future studies should examine the frequency of parti- cipation in such behaviors. notes . see luloff et al. ( ), theodori, luloff, and willits ( ), and theodori and luloff ( ) for a detailed description of the typology and each study site. . no statistical differences in regard to the available sociodemographic characteristics were found between the lancaster sample and those from snyder, bedford, and crawford. the percentages of old order amish and mennonites from the lancaster site totaled and , respectively. the analysis and reported ®ndings include data on both groups. removal of the amish and mennonites from the sample did not change the nature or pattern of the results reported here. . using mail survey techniques in three study sites, a response rate of about % was obtained, resulting in completed questionnaires from snyder, from bedford, and from crawford. using the drop-off=pick-up technique in lancaster, a response rate of % was achieved, resulting in completed questionnaires. . the percentages of respondents who indicated that they were unsympathetic to environmental issues and actively opposed to any action on environmental issues were . (n = ) and . (n = ), respectively. these respondents were combined with the indi- viduals who reported that they were neither sympathetic nor unsympathetic. the newly cre- ated category contained respondents and represented . % of the sample. . we chose the label ``neutral’’ for this category due to the fact that an overwhelming majority of respondents in this group, roughly % ( of ), indicated that they were neither sympathetic nor unsympathetic to environmental issues. it is important to keep in mind that the small numbers of respondents who reported being unsympathetic to environ- mental issues (n = ) and actively opposed to any action on environmental issues (n = ) are subsumed under this label. . in principal, three of the items could indicate anti- rather than proenvironmental behavior. respondents could have attended a meeting, contacted a government agency, or voted for a candidate to prevent, rather than to promote, environmental protection. however, the correlation of these variables with unambiguously proenvironmental behaviors indicated that such intentions were rare. . an odds ratio (y) is e (natural logarithm) raised to the power of b (the metric logit coef®cient); y refers to the effect of a one-unit change in x on the odds of y. it has a ``times as likely’’ interpretation. y can equal any nonnegative number. when x and y are independent, y equals . a value of generally serves as a baseline for comparison. odds ratios on either side of re¯ect certain types of associations. an odds ratio greater than ( < y < ?) indicates a positive association, while an odds ratio less than ( < y < ) denotes a negative association. values of y farther from in either direction designate stronger levels of association (agresti ; liao ). references abc news=washington post. . abc news washington post april poll. compiled by k. i. wright. interview dates ± , april . survey . abc news polling unit, new york. agresti, a. . an introduction to categorical data analysis. new york: john wiley & sons. dillman, d. a. . mail and telephone surveys: the total design method. new york: john wiley and sons. dunlap, r. e. . public opinion and environmental policy. in environmental politics and policy: theories and evidence, ed. j. p. lester, ± . durham, nc: duke university press. position on environmental issues dunlap, r. e., and r. b. heffernan. . outdoor recreation and environmental concern: an empirical examination. rural sociol. : ± . kaplan, s. . human nature and environmentally responsible behavior. j. social issues : ± . liao, t. f. . interpreting probability models: logit, probit, and other generalized linear models. thousand oaks, ca: sage. luloff, a. e., and t. w. ilvento. . respondents, nonrespondents, and population surveys. j. commun. dev. society : ± . luloff, a. e., l. bourke, s. jacob, and s. seshan. . farm and non-farm interdependencies at the rural±urban interface. final project report for the pennsylvania department of agriculture. university park, pa: pennsylvania state university. mauss, a. l. . social problems as social movements. philadelphia: lippincott. melbye, j., l. bourke, a. e. luloff, p. s. liao, g. l. theodori, and r. s. krannich. . the drop-off=pick-up method for household survey research. working paper ipre-wp- - . university park, pa: institute for policy research and evaluation, pennsylvania state university. mertig, a. g., and r. e. dunlap. . environmentalism, new social movements, and the new class: a cross-national investigation. rural sociol. : ± . morrison, d. e. . how and why environmental consciousness has trickled down. in distributional con¯icts in environmental-resource policy, ed. a. schnaiberg, n. watts, and k. zimmerman, ± . new york: st. martin’s press. theodori, g. l., and a. e. luloff. . urbanization and community attachment in rural areas. society & natural resources : ± . theodori, g. l., a. e. luloff, and f. k. willits. . the association of outdoor recreation and environmental concern: reexamining the dunlap-heffernan thesis. rural sociol. : ± . van liere, k. d., and r. e. dunlap. . the social bases of environmental concern: a review of hypotheses, explanations and empirical evidence. public opin. q. : ± . wirthlin worldwide. . research supplement: the wirthlin report. wirthlin rep. (august): ± . wirthlin worldwide. . research supplement: the wirthlin report. wirthlin rep. (october): ± . wirthlin worldwide. . research supplement: the wirthlin report. wirthlin rep. (august=september): ± . wirthlin worldwide. . research supplement: the wirthlin report. wirthlin rep. (september): ± . wirthlin worldwide. . research supplement: the wirthlin report. wirthlin rep. (november): ± . g. l. theodori and a. e. luloff http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi.pdf outcomes of intended home births in nurse-midwifery practice: a prospective descriptive study patricia aikins murphy, cnm, drph, and judith fullerton, cnm, phd objective: to describe the outcomes of intended home birth in the practices of certified nurse-midwives. methods: twenty-nine us nurse-midwifery practices were recruited for the study in . women presenting for intended home birth in these practices were enrolled in the study from late to late . outcomes for all enrolled women were ascertained. validity and reliability of submit- ted data were established. results: of enrolled women intending home births, % miscarried, terminated the pregnancy or changed plans. another . % became ineligible for home birth prior to the onset of labor at term due to the development of perinatal problems and were referred for planned hospital birth. of those women beginning labor with the intention of deliver- ing at home, ( . %) were transferred to the hospital during labor. ten mothers ( . %) were transferred to the hospital after delivery, and infants ( . %) were trans- ferred after birth. overall intrapartal fetal and neonatal mortality for women beginning labor with the intention of delivering at home was . per . for women actually delivering at home, intrapartal fetal and neonatal mortality was . per . conclusion: home birth can be accomplished with good outcomes under the care of qualified practitioners and within a system that facilitates transfer to hospital care when necessary. intrapartal mortality during intended home birth is concentrated in postdates pregnancies with evidence of meconium passage. (obstet gynecol ; : – . © by the american college of obstetricians and gynecolo- gists.) many accept the premise that because of modern tech- nology, hospitals are the safest place to give birth. since the s, most births in the united states have taken place in hospitals with physicians in attendance. none- theless, there are also more than , out-of-hospital births in the united states annually, most in birth centers, clinics, and the home. of these, nearly , are residential births. over the past years, the frequency of home births has remained stable at approximately . % of all births (table ). – home birth is a controversial issue. debates about the safety of home births focus on the risk of preventable perinatal morbidity and mortality, and on broader issues of appropriate screening and referral. questions also are raised about the ability to predict which women can safely give birth at home and about the risk of unforeseen complications that require emergency trans- port to a hospital. published studies on intended home birth have demonstrated low perinatal mortality and morbidity but have stressed the necessity of planning, risk-assessment and well-qualified attendants. – however, international studies report data from coun- tries in which medical and obstetric care systems may be dissimilar from those in this country and in which the reporting criteria for neonatal and perinatal deaths also may vary, making international comparative data less interpretable. – some us studies of home birth are limited by small size; others reflect limited geo- graphic areas or homogeneous populations. – fi- nally, many studies have inadequate methodology for addressing certain issues. studies using birth certificate data, for example, cannot identify perinatal mortality that may be attributable to planned home birth but occur after transfer to the hospital. certified nurse-midwives have attended approxi- mately home births annually ( – ) in the united states. a retrospective study by one of the authors (pam) reported outcomes of , planned home births. the intrapartum and neonatal mortality among women intending home birth at the onset of labor was two per . although a large sample, the from the department of obstetrics and gynecology, columbia uni- versity college of physicians and surgeons, new york, new york, and the department of family nursing care, university of texas health science center at san antonio, san antonio, texas. this project was supported in part by a columbia university strategic research award and by the acnm foundation. vol. , no. , september - / /$ . pii s - ( ) - findings were limited by the retrospective nature of the report. a prospective evaluation of home birth out- comes in the practices of certified nurse-midwives in the united states was then designed and implemented. this article reports the results of this prospective study. methods a community-based nurse-midwifery practice network was recruited in . nurse-midwifery practices pro- viding home birth services were identified by a mailed survey to the membership of the american college of nurse-midwives, advertisements placed in professional publications, and referral from other midwives. forty- five active nurse-midwifery home birth practices were identified in . of these, twenty-nine practices ( %) providing home birth services agreed to participate in the network. three participating practices later with- drew from full participation because they perceived continued participation to be an excessive work burden but did contribute full data on all patients who were enrolled up to a particular date determined by the investigator. solo and group practices participated, enrolling as few as two to as many as planned home births in the enrollment year; practices were located in rural and urban settings. six were located in california, and five in pennsylvania. new york and virginia were each represented by three—illinois and texas each by two. eight other states were represented by one nurse- midwife home birth practice each. the study was approved by the institutional review board of the principal investigator’s institution. eligible subjects were pregnant women age years or older who requested home birth and were eligible for home birth services according to the practice guidelines of the individual nurse-midwifery practices. the researchers made no attempt to evaluate the equivalency of these practice guidelines, nor to establish practice-related standards. uniform data collection forms were developed and pilot tested in several practices prior to initiation of the study. the forms included demographic and perinatal risk information about individual patients, as well as the outcomes of prenatal, intrapartal, and postpartum care. patients were enrolled between december and december . all new patients seeking home birth in participating practices were invited to enroll; enroll- ment generally occurred at a first or second prenatal visit. initial data were forwarded to the central study office at this time; additional data were collected and forwarded at the time of birth and the postpartum visit. any referral to another provider for care or to a planned hospital birth was recorded. hospital records were requested for all women and newborn infants who were transferred to a hospital during labor or immedi- ately after birth. data were reviewed for completeness and logical consistency by clinically experienced study personnel upon receipt in the study office. when data were called into question, practices were contacted with a request for clarification. data reliability was evaluated by comparing dupli- cate records serendipitously received during the course of the study and in a % random sample of duplicate records specifically requested from each practice. study office personnel abstracted these latter records onto study forms. intrarater and interrater reliability were calculated by simple percent agreement, comparing each item on one form to its counterpart. agreement ranged from % to % for the items compared on both duplicate and random samples. agreement for major outcome variables (such as site of birth, perinatal mortality, and primary birth outcomes) was %. accuracy of data submitted for transfers was as- sessed by examining hospital records requested for all women transferred to the hospital in late pregnancy, during labor, or after birth. the condition of mother and infant on arrival in the hospital and birth outcomes were verified. eighty percent of hospital records re- quested were received and were fully consistent with information provided by the practice. full information was obtained on all intrapartum transfers. in addition, midway through the enrollment year, surveys were sent to women who still were eligible for home birth in late pregnancy. the surveys were mailed months after the estimated date of delivery and included requests for data on the birth, as well as information about patient satisfaction. three quarters of the surveys were re- turned, and again, the data were found to be consistent with data submitted by the practice. data were analyzed primarily as descriptive statis- tics. group comparisons were assessed with � and t test procedures. the probability value for statistical significance was set at . . results one thousand four hundred four eligible women en- rolled in the study. participating practices reported table . home births in the united states, – year total births total home births % of all births , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , . , , , . murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes obstetrics & gynecology women who refused to enroll, primarily from amish communities. reasons given were cultural or privacy concerns. table describes the sample of women in- tending a home birth. socioeconomic status was de- rived from payment source, occupation of patient and partner, income (if reported by the patient), and an estimate by the nurse-midwife based on family size, reported income, and special circumstances. thirty-two percent of the women were members of amish and mennonite communities, which contributed to the ed- ucational and socioeconomic profile of the sample. there was little evidence of behavioral perinatal risk among the women in this study. few women reported the use of tobacco, alcohol, or other substances prior to or during pregnancy (table ). all but % had at least five prenatal visits. evidence of prior medical or obstet- ric risk in the sample was also minimal. among parous women in the sample, % had had a previous home birth and % a previous birth center birth; overall . % of the parous women had a previous out-of- hospital birth experience. twenty-two percent of the parous women in the sample had a history of one or more intrapartal or neonatal factors that required inter- vention, possibly indicating a higher perinatal risk potential in the current pregnancy. these included a history of pregnancy-induced hypertension ( . %), as- sisted vaginal delivery ( . %), stillborn fetus or neona- tal death ( . %), low birth weight infant ( . %), or postpartum hemorrhage ( . %). a specific question about previous shoulder dystocia was added to the instrument midway through the enrollment year. data on previous shoulder dystocia thus are available for only parous women; . % of this smaller sample had a history of previous shoulder dystocia. of the women who had a previous cesarean delivery ( . % of parous women), % also had had a subsequent suc- cessful vaginal birth following cesarean. one hundred eighty-three women left or were re- ferred out of the home birth practice during the preg- nancy and prior to labor at term. eighty-six ( . %) miscarried, terminated the pregnancy, moved away, or changed their minds about home birth. only seven of these women reported financial problems or lack of insurance coverage as the reason for deciding against home birth. of the remaining women, ( . %) were referred for hospital-based care prior to the onset of term labor. this group includes those women who developed preterm labor or preterm premature rupture of membranes. according to the protocols of the prac- tices, women were referred directly for hospital labor and birth management if labor or membrane rupture occurred prior to a designated gestational age (usually weeks). table presents specific indications for antepartum transfers, and the outcomes of these preg- nancies in known cases. women leaving the home birth service during the antepartal period were more likely to be unmarried ( % compared with %, p � . ), nonwhite ( % compared with %, p � . ), nulliparous ( % compared with %, p � . ) or to have medicaid ( . % compared with . %, p � . ) when compared with women who remained eligible for a home birth. amish and menno- nite women were less likely to be referred out of the home birth practice (p � . ). follow-up data were obtained for . % of the ante- partum referrals that occurred after weeks’ gestation for medical or obstetric risk factors; all of these women had planned hospital births due to the presence of medical or obstetric problems. there were four imme- diate neonatal deaths reported in this group: three due table . characteristics of women intending home birth characteristic initially enrolled and eligible (n � ) eligible for home birth at labor onset (n � ) married/consensual union . % . % white . % . % parity � � . % . % age mean . y (sd . y) . y (sd . y) – y . % . % – y . % . % – y . % . % – y . % . % – y . % . % primary occupation as homemaker . % . % education � y . % . % college graduate or higher . % . % payment self-pay . % . % commercial/military insurance (includes hmos) . % . % medicaid/other government . % . % other payment (barter, etc) . % . % low socioeconomic status . % . % amish/mennonite . % . % drug/substance use . % . % alcohol use: � drinks per wk . % smokes � cigarette per wk . % . % previous cesarean delivery (multiparas only) . % . % prenatal care in st trimester . % . % number of prenatal visits . . sd � standard deviation; hmo � health maintenance organization. vol. , no. , september murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes to congenital anomalies and one due to complications of prematurity. two ( %) of ten antepartum fetal demises were associated with lethal anomalies. among those in this group for whom follow-up data were available, % had cesarean deliveries. one thousand two hundred twenty-one women re- mained eligible for home birth at the time of labor onset. of these, ( . %) were transferred to the hospital during labor, and gave birth at home. ten women and neonates were transferred to the hospital after birth (tables and ). forty women ( . %) deliv- ered before the midwife arrived at the home; all infants and mothers were well after these unattended births. mean birth weight for infants born at home was g (standard deviation ). only four infants ( . %) weighed less than g at birth, infants ( %) weighed more than g at birth, and of these ( . % of all births) weighed more than g. of those low birth weight infants born at home, infants ranged from to weeks’ gestation and weights ranged from to g. no births at home were assisted with vacuum or forceps; four infants were born in breech presentation. forty-six infants ( . %) were reported as not having spontaneous respirations; of these ( . %) were reported to have had some type of resuscitation procedure (ambu bag, cardiac massage, or intubation). thirty-three of these ( . %) had minute apgar scores of less than ; only infants had minute apgars of less than ( . % of attended home births). participating midwives were asked to report on ac- tual or potential obstetric problems occurring during labor and delivery at home. these are listed in table . twenty-seven percent of nulliparous women and . % of parous women were transferred during labor (p � . ). hospital transfer during the intrapartum period was not related to preexisting obstetric risk factors. it was significantly related to a number of actual or potential intrapartum problems (see table ). gesta- tional age of weeks or more and the presence of meconium were factors that greatly increased the risk of transfer to hospital and perinatal mortality. seventeen percent of laboring women with meconium-stained fluid were transferred to the hospital during labor, compared with . % of women with clear fluid. seven- teen percent of women at weeks’ gestation or more who intended to deliver at home were transferred table . antepartal referrals for obstetric or hospital-based management* reason n % of eligible sample† known infant outcomes ptl or preterm prom . : good � wk gestation ( – wk) : hospitalized : nnd (includes also with anomalies) : unknown multiple gestation � . : good : unknown diagnosis of congenital anomalies (excluding above) . : stable : iufd : nnd antepartum fetal demise (excludes those due to anomalies above) . fetal malpresentation . : good : unknown % cesarean delivery rate vaginal bleeding/placenta previa . : good : unknown % cesarean delivery rate suspected macrosomia . : good suspected fetal growth restriction . : good : unknown other suspicion of fetal compromise . : good medical problems . : good : hospitalized : unknown prom at term � . : good pregnancy exceeding wk . : good ptl � preterm labor; prom � premature rupture of membranes; nnd � neonatal death; iufd � intrauterine fetal demise. * these women were no longer eligible for home birth. † n � . excludes from antepartal group spontaneous abortions, voluntary terminations, and those who changed their mind or moved out of the area (n � ). murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes obstetrics & gynecology during labor for hospital birth, compared with . % of women at less than weeks’ gestation. both intrapar- tum fetal deaths occurred in pregnancies of weeks’ or more gestation with meconium-stained amniotic fluid. as previously noted, full birth information was ob- tained from hospital records or managing clinicians for % of these intrapartum transfers; substantial birth information was received for all others. five-minute apgar scores were or higher for % (of those for whom the apgar was reported); all liveborn infants were well at a postpartum evaluation. thirty-two per- cent of these transfers had a cesarean delivery, and % had an assisted vaginal delivery. among those with a previous cesarean delivery who began labor with the intention of delivering at home (n � ), % were transported to the hospital during labor for care (as compared with . % transported among those with no history of cesarean delivery [not statistically significant]). the cesarean delivery rate was . % in women with a previous cesarean; there was one vacuum assisted delivery in this group ( . %). the overall cesarean rate was . %. among the women beginning labor with the intention of delivering at home, there were five perina- tal deaths. thus the total intrapartum and neonatal mortality was . per (see table ). excluding two fetal demises diagnosed at the first labor status evalu- ation by the attending midwife and referred immedi- ately for hospital birth, there were three fetal or infant deaths among women whose labor was managed in whole or in part at home. this results in a total intrapartum and neonatal mortality for planned labor and birth at home of . per . both fetal deaths were in pregnancies of weeks or more gestation with table . intrapartum/postpartum/neonatal transfers to hospital reason n eligible sample (%)* comment intrapartum transfer changed mind regarding home birth . selfreferred to hospital at labor onset midwife unable to attend home birth . transferred to birth center due to other clients in labor or environmental problems in the home no fetal heart tones . fetal demise diagnosed at the first assessment of the patient in labor nonvertex fetal presentation . woman converted to vertex in hospital and returned home for labor and birth fetal distress . one infant stillborn in the hospital after assisted delivery for meconium and fetal distress; others in good condition moderate to thick meconium . excludes the stillborn infant mentioned above; all infants well at mo vaginal bleeding . mothers and infants well prolonged labor or rupture of membranes . all infants well cord prolapse . infant born in good condition postpartum transfer perineal suturing . discharged after suturing retained placenta . discharged after placental delivery postpartum bleeding . discharged after d; all well infant transfer stillborn . resuscitation unsuccessful; meconium and postdates respiratory problems . hospitalized; all well at mo evaluation of anomalies . stable at mo, given condition evaluation for sepsis . well at mo first postpartum month evaluation for possible endometritis discharged after evaluation cholecystitis/cholecystectomy all well other (colitis, hemorrhoidectomy) all well first newborn month neonatal death at h of age; no cause of death established by medical examiner evaluation of possible anomaly all stable for condition at mo respiratory problems all well at mo infection or jaundice all well at mo other† all well at mo * n � . † circumcision, dehydration, failure to thrive, hernia repair. vol. , no. , september murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes evidence of meconium passage. one stillbirth occurred in the hospital; the mother was transferred during labor for slow progress and meconium-stained fluid. the fetal heart rate was reported as normal on arrival in the hospital, and the mother labored for several hours more before delivering the stillborn infant. meconium aspi- ration was reported as the cause of death. the second stillborn was born at home; there was no autopsy, but the reporting midwife indicated the presence of meco- nium as well. a third infant died at hours of age; postmortem studies were unable to establish a cause of death. for labors managed entirely at home, mortality was . per . there were no maternal deaths. discussion this report is one of the few studies of home birth conducted in the united states and is unique in its multisite prospective nature. although the sample has limited ability to reflect stable rates of perinatal prob- lems in home birth settings due to its relatively small size, the antepartum and perinatal transfer rates re- ported are similar to a larger retrospective study that addressed nurse-midwifery home birth practice out- comes. intrapartum and neonatal mortality rates in this study also compare favorably to rates reported in that study (two per ) and in a prospective study of outcomes of planned birth center births ( . per ). the latter study cited comparisons to two studies of uncomplicated hospital births. a study of electronic fetal monitoring published in identified , births as low risk and reported the associated intrapar- tum and neonatal mortality as one per . a report identified , uncomplicated term and post- term pregnancies for an evaluation of perinatal charac- teristics of postdates pregnancies; of these, were uncomplicated term hospital births with an intrapar- tum and neonatal mortality of . per . a number of studies of home birth also report low rates of intrapartum or neonatal mortality, although it is recog- nized that international reporting criteria for perinatal mortality may vary. when possible, raw data available in these published reports were recalculated to reflect a sample similar to that reported here (table ). a recent meta-analysis of six european and us home birth studies revealed no significant difference in perinatal mortality between home and hospital birth. this meta- analysis included data only from developed countries table . summary outcomes of transfers to hospital-based care or management timing of transfer n % of relevant sample adverse outcomes antepartum referral (includes preterm labor or rupture of membranes if no longer eligible for home birth) . (of ) iufd, nnd, information unknown for % intrapartum transfer . (of ) iufd prior to first assessment, iufd in labor (stillborn in hospital) postpartum maternal transfer . (of ) no maternal mortality postpartum infant transfer . (of ) iufd in labor (stillborn at home) total . (of ) later postpartum . (of ) no maternal mortality later newborn . (of ) nnd at home at h of age iufd � intrauterine fetal demise; nnd � neonatal death (within first week of life). table . actual or potential obstetric problems reported by midwives as occurring during labor and birth at home event n (%)* relative risk for transfer to hospital-based care ( % ci) maternal inability to cope with labor/need for analgesia ( . ) . ( . , . ) fetal heart abnormalities in the first stage of labor ( . ) . ( . , . ) fetal heart abnormalities in the second stage of labor ( . ) . ( . , . ) prolonged latent phase of labor ( . ) . ( . , . ) lack of progress in the first stage of labor ( . ) . ( . , . ) lack of progress in the second stage of labor ( . ) ( . , . ) prolonged rupture of membranes ( . ) . ( . , . ) meconium-stained amniotic fluid (any) ( . ) . ( . , . ) moderate to thick meconium ( . ) . ( . , . ) shoulder dystocia or difficulty delivering shoulders ( . ) . ( . , . ) postpartum hemorrhage or excess bleeding in the third stage of labor ( . ) . ( . , . ) ci � confidence interval. * percentages have been corrected for missing data. in some cases transfer to hospital management early in labor created missing data for some variables. murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes obstetrics & gynecology that use similar perinatal reporting criteria and defini- tions. there are several limitations to note in this report. the results reported here reflect a sample of nurse- midwifery practices willing to participate in data col- lection and to permit the resulting scrutiny of their practices. we cannot draw comparisons to nonpartici- pating nurse-midwifery practices or to the home birth practices of physician and other midwife providers. during and , an average of certified nurse-midwives–attended home births per year were reported in vital statistics data. , thus, these data reflect more than % of those births. this study presents only the outcomes of home birth practice; it makes no comment on the process of care. there was no attempt to require adherence to standard- ized guidelines for practice because the intent was to examine home birth practice as it occurs in the commu- nity. however, it may be reasonable to infer that many participating practices developed their individual pro- tocols in accord with the professional practice guide- lines for home birth practice developed by the ameri- can college of nurse-midwives (acnm home birth committee. guidelines for home birth. washington dc: american college of nurse-midwives, ). the equivalency of clinical protocols in the individual prac- tices was not examined, but participating midwives were asked brief questions about their determination of ineligibility for home birth. for example, % of the midwives considered twin pregnancy a contraindica- tion for home birth, and % considered a breech presentation a contraindication. preterm labor was a contraindication as well; for % of practices, labor before weeks’ gestation conferred ineligibility for home birth; two practices held weeks as a minimum gestational age (data on file). seventy-three percent of the midwives accepted women for home birth if they had a previous cesarean delivery; in most cases a previous successful vaginal birth after the cesarean delivery also was required to confer eligibility for home birth. antenatal screening practices were not evaluated per se. however, the observation that referrals to hospital- based care were made upon diagnosis of obstetric complications such as gestational diabetes, multiple gestation, or congenital anomalies suggests that stan- dard obstetric evaluation protocols were followed. variations in skill and experience of participating midwives could affect findings, but these aspects of practice were not evaluated directly. participants aver- aged more than years of experience as midwives and more than in home birth practice, with a range from a few months to years. practices also varied in the number of intended home births enrolled in the study over the course of year. this number ranged from two to . no attempt was made to analyze outcomes according to the experience of the clinician or practice. as noted above, the purpose was to examine home birth outcomes as they occur, given the mix of practice experience and protocol. the absence of a comparison group may be seen as a limitation of this study, creating difficulty in determin- ing whether the intrapartal and neonatal morbidity and mortality seen here are higher than what would be table . perinatal deaths in other studies of home birth*† author site n perinatal or neonatal mortality comment van alten et al wormerveer, – . per those remaining eligible for home birth at labor burnett et al north carolina, – per neonatal mortality only mehl et al us, . per excludes deaths due to prematurity and anomalies schramm et al missouri, – . per neonatal mortality among physician, nurse-midwife, and mma midwife–attended births only campbell et al britain, . per those booked for home birth woodcock et al australia, – home birth . per uncorrected for birth weight and gestational age sullivan and beeman arizona, . per excludes anomalies tyson canada, – per neonatal mortality only hinds et al kentucky, . per neonatal mortality only durand the farm, . per excludes deaths due to anomalies and premature births nrpmsc group britain, . per planned home birth mma � missouri midwife association; nrpmsc � northern region perinatal mortality survey coordinating group. * recalculated from original data where possible to remove twin births, congenital anomalies, and premature births (by standard study participants referred these complications for hospital birth). † only studies with at least births are recorded. vol. , no. , september murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes expected in a similar group of planned hospital births. however the series of risk screening filters through which women interested in home birth passed in these participating practices (at first inquiry, at first visit, and throughout the antepartal and perinatal period) makes it difficult to choose an equivalent comparison popula- tion from other data sources. in addition, bias due to self-selection would remain a threat despite careful matching of risk status. in consideration of these fac- tors, the prospective data are presented without a direct comparison; the low incidence of mortality allows indi- vidual examination of each case. only a randomized clinical trial would remove the issue of selection bias; however, this would be ex- tremely difficult to carry out. researchers in great britain assessed the feasibility of doing a randomized trial comparing home to hospital birth. they found that of women booking for obstetric care, were deemed of low enough risk for a home birth, and of these only ( . % of the original sample) agreed to be randomized. in addition, the authors noted that four of six women randomized to hospital birth were “dis- appointed,” although all randomized to home birth were pleased; those who declined to participate had strong preferences about the place of birth. wiegers et al further suggest that choice in childbirth may have a positive influence on levels of anxiety and apprehen- sion, which in turn could influence outcomes. elimina- tion of choice, as would be necessary with randomiza- tion, could theoretically have a negative impact on the course of childbirth and thus on outcomes. thus the debate over home birth is not likely to be settled with a randomized trial. questions about the relative safety of different birth settings are legitimate but often are answered in terms of ideologies rather than systematic research. the debate usually is framed as one of hospital compared with home. in most situations, and certainly in the practices described here, however, the circumstances are more planned hospital birth compared with in- tended home birth within a system that facilitates transfer to hospital birth when problems arise. thus, issues related to appropriate risk screening and predic- tion of perinatal problems are important when consid- ering out-of-hospital birth settings. the two factors most strongly associated with perinatal mortality and morbidity are congenital anomalies and low birth weight. neither condition is preventable by choice of birth site, although adverse sequelae may be modulated by the availability of emergency medical care. how- ever, in these practices, premature birth and pregnan- cies known to be complicated by fetal anomalies were referred routinely for planned hospital birth. the ability to identify other perinatal problems then becomes more important in out-of-hospital birth. recognizing that risk screening always will be an imperfect science and that some perinatal events cannot be predicted in any event, this report nonetheless underscores the ability of home birth practicing nurse-midwives to select an initial eligible sample at low risk of adverse perinatal out- comes. subsequently developing problems associated with increased perinatal risk, such as multiple gesta- tion, abnormal fetal lie, or concurrent medical illnesses also are referred appropriately for perinatal manage- ment or hospital delivery. although the outcomes of women referred for hospital birth prior to the onset of labor do not reflect on managed home birth, it is of interest to note the concentration of perinatal morbidity and cesarean delivery among women referred for hos- pital birth during the antepartum period. the apparent success of certified nurse-midwives in identifying higher risk pregnancies and appropriately referring these to perinatal care prior to labor is consistent with other reports. , during labor, events associated with increased need for interventions best delivered in hos- pital settings also are identified by nurse-midwives during home birth management, and the mothers or infants are transferred appropriately. one area that might require reassessment is the postdates pregnancy, especially if accompanied by meconium passage. these data and those from another recently published study suggest that eligibility for home birth should be consid- ered carefully in this circumstance; although hospital birth is no guarantee of a good outcome, specialty care is available more readily in that setting for infants with meconium aspiration. when intrapartum, postpartum, and neonatal emer- gencies occur, prompt transport and intervention is critical. perinatal emergencies were rare in this sample. participating midwives were asked at the beginning of this study about routine preparations for emergencies. all carry oxygen, oral suction equipment, intravenous setups, oxytocin, and methylergonovine to the home. all but one midwife carry a doppler device for moni- toring the fetal heart; the remaining midwife uses a fetoscope. all but one carry an ambu bag for resusci- tation and reported having formal certification in neo- natal resuscitation. sixty-eight percent bring a laryngo- scope and endotracheal tubes to home births; twenty percent also bring mechanical suction (data on file). in addition, most home birth practices in this study had eligibility requirements that the birth site be within minutes of a hospital providing obstetric services. ex- amination of hospital transfer records indicated that in the vast majority of cases, the mother arrived in the hospital with ample time prior to delivery to evaluate maternal-fetal status and make perinatal management decisions. in those cases in which birth occurred imme- murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes obstetrics & gynecology diately upon arrival, infants were born in good condi- tion with pediatricians in attendance. obviously, suc- cessful management of such transfers is also contingent on a close collaborating relationship between the mid- wife, the consulting obstetrician, and the hospital staff, especially given that only % of these participating midwives had hospital privileges. this evaluation of planned home birth points to the possibility that home birth can be accomplished, with good outcomes, within a structured system that allows for collaboration with physicians and referral to hospi- tal-based care where necessary. presentation of these data is not intended to posit home birth as a solution for all or most women. demand for home birth is admit- tedly minimal in the contemporary american health care system, but it has been a stable demand, resulting in , births a year. the outcomes, risks, and benefits of home care for childbirth should be assessed to make appropriate decisions regarding the circumstances in which home birth could occur, for those women who are determined to pursue this choice in childbirth. this report is intended to be a step in this direction. references . pearse wh. trends in out of hospital births. obstet gynecol ; : – . . clarke s, martin j, taffel s. trends and characteristics of births attended by midwives. stat bull metrop insur co ; ( ): – . . national center for health statistics. advance report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics reports; vol. , no. , suppl. hyattsville, maryland: national center for health statis- tics, . . ventura sj, martin ja. advance report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics report; vol. , no. , suppl. hyatts- ville, maryland: national center for health statistics, . . ventura sj, martin ja, taffel sm, mathews tj, clarke sc. advance report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics report; vol. , no. , suppl. hyattsville, maryland: national center for health statistics, . . ventura sj, martin ja, taffel sm, mathews tj, clarke sc. advance report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics report; vol. , no. , suppl. hyattsville, maryland: national center for health statistics, . . ventura sj, martin ja, mathews tj, clarke sc. advance report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics report; vol. , no. , suppl. hyattsville, maryland: national center for health statistics, . . ventura sj, martin ja, curtin sc, mathews tj. report of final natality statistics, . monthly vital statistics report; vol. , no. , suppl. hyattsville, maryland: national center for health statistics, . . barron sl, thomson am, philips pr. home and hospital confine- ment in newcastle upon tyne – . br j obstet gynaecol ; : – . . campbell r, davies im, macfarlane a, beral v. home births in england and wales, : perinatal mortality according to in- tended place of delivery. bmj ; : – . . shearer jml. five year prospective survey of risk of booking for home birth in essex. bmj ; : – . . van alten d, eskes m, treffers pe. midwifery in the netherlands. the wormerveer study; selection, mode of delivery, perinatal mortality, and infant morbidity. br j obstet gynaecol ; : – . . crotty m, ramsay at, smart r, chan a. planned homebirths for southern australia – . med j aust ; : – . . woodcock hc, read aw, moore dj, stanley fj, bower c. planned homebirths in western australia – : a descriptive study. med j aust ; : – . . ford c, iliffe s, franklin o. outcome of planned home births in an inner city practice. bmj ; : – . . tyson h. outcomes of midwife-attended home births in toronto, – . birth ; : – . . ackermann-liebrich u, voegeli t, gunter-witt k, kunz i, zullig m, schindler c, et al. home vs. hospital deliveries : follow-up of matched pairs for procedures and outcomes. bmj ; : – . . davies j, reid w, young g, for the home birth study steering group. prospective regional study of planned home births. bmj ; : – . . northern region perinatal mortality survey coordinating group. collaborative survey of perinatal loss in planned and unplanned home births. bmj ; : – . . weigers ta, keirse mjnc, van der zee j, berghs gah. outcome of planned home and planned hospital births in low risk pregnan- cies: prospective study in midwifery practices in the netherlands. bmj ; : – . . mehl le, peterson gh, whitt m, hawes we. outcomes of elective home births: a series of cases. j reprod med ; : – . . burnett ca, jones ja, rooks j, chen ch, tyler cw, miller a. home delivery and neonatal mortality in north carolina. jama ; : – . . shy kk, frost f, ullom j. out of hospital delivery in washington state: – . am j obstet gynecol ; : – . . sullivan da, beeman r. four years’ experience with home birth by licensed midwives in arizona. am j public health ; : – . . hinds mw, bergeison gh, allen dt. neonatal outcome in planned v unplanned out of hospital births in kentucky. jama ; : – . . schramm wf, barnes de, bakewell jm. neonatal mortality in missouri home births, – . am j public health ; : – . . anderson r, greener d. a descriptive analysis of home births attended by cnms in two nurse-midwifery services. j nurse midwifery ; : – . . durand am. the safety of home birth: the farm study. am j public health ; : – . . janssen pa, holt vl, myers sj. licensed midwife-attended, out of hospital births in washington state: are they safe? birth ; : – . . anderson re, murphy pa. outcomes of , planned home births attended by certified nurse-midwives: a retrospective de- scriptive study. j nurse midwifery ; : – . . rooks jp, weatherby nl, ernst ekm, stapleton s, rosen d, rosenfield a. outcomes of care in birth centers. n engl j med ; : – . . leveno kj, cunningham fg, nelson s, roark m, williams ml, guzick d, et al. a prospective comparison of selective and univer- sal electronic fetal monitoring in , pregnancies. n engl j med ; : – . . eden rd, seifert ls, winegar a, spellacy wn. perinatal charac- teristics of uncomplicated postdate pregnancies. obstet gynecol ; : – . . olsen o. meta-analysis of the safety of home birth. birth ; : – . vol. , no. , september murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes . dowswell, thornton jg, hewison j, lilfford rjl. should there be a trial of home vs. hospital delivery in the united kingdom? bmj ; : – . . declercq er, paine ll, winter mr. home birth in the united states, – : a longitudinal descriptive report of national birth certificate data. j nurse midwifery ; : – . . campbell r, macfarlane a. place of delivery: a review. br j obstet gynaecol. ; : – . . garite t, snell bj, walker d, darrow v. development and experi- ence of a university-based, freestanding birth center. obstet gy- necol ; : – . . austin d. the process of obstetric triage: management by certified nurse-midwives. j perinat neonatal nurs ; : – . . mehl-madrona l, mehl madrona m. physician- and midwife- attended home births: effects of breech, twin, and post-dates outcome data on mortality rates. j nurse midwifery ; : – . address reprint requests to: patricia aikins murphy, cnm, drph department of obstetrics and gynecology columbia university college of physicians and surgeons west th street new york, ny e-mail: pam @columbia.edu received december , . received in revised form march , . accepted march , . copyright © by the american college of obstetricians and gynecologists. published by elsevier science inc. intrapartum controversies december – , the american college of obstetricians and gynecologists is sponsoring a course offering clinical presentations on a variety of difficult challenges the obstetrician encounters in the delivery room. the meeting is to be held at the sheraton new york hotel and towers, new york, new york. the american college of obstetricians and gynecologists has approved up to credit hours in category (formal learning) for this course. for further information, contact the registrar, the american college of obstetricians and gynecologists, th street sw, po box , washington dc, - , ( ) - . murphy and fullerton home birth outcomes obstetrics & gynecology _ - _ _ - comparative studies in society and history issn - founded by sylvia l. thrupp e d i t o r s paul christopher johnson anthropology and history, university of michigan geneviève zubrzycki sociology, university of michigan e d i t o r i a l c o m m i t t e e deirdre de la cruz diane owen hughes andrew shryock asian languages & cultures history anthropology university of michigan university of michigan university of michigan robert donia matthew hull paolo squatriti history anthropology history university of michigan university of michigan university of michigan gillian feeley-harnik erik mueggler thomas r. trautmann anthropology anthropology history and anthropology university of michigan university of michigan university of michigan raymond grew rebecca scott history history university of michigan university of michigan s t a f f david akin nishita trisal managing editor editorial assistant c o n s u l t i n g e d i t o r s leonard barkan comparative literature princeton university jean comaroff african and african harvard university american studies and anthropology natalie z. davis history university of toronto nancy farriss history university of pennsylvania felipe fernández-armesto history university of notre dame carlo ginzburg history university of california, los angeles maurice godelier anthropology École des hautes etudes en sciences sociales engseng ho history and anthropology duke university david a. hollinger history university of california, berkeley emmanuel le roy ladurie history college de france deirdre mccloskey history university of illinois at chicago sherry b. ortner anthropology university of california, los angeles joel robbins anthropology university of cambridge james scott political science yale university teodor shanin sociology moscow school of social and economic sciences gregory starrett anthropology university of north carolina at charlotte ann laura stoler anthropology new school for social research susan r. suleiman comparative literature harvard university katherine m. verdery anthropology city university of new york michael walzer political theory institute for advanced study gavin wright economics stanford university comparative studies in society and history issn - founded by sylvia l. thrupp comparative studies in society and history is a forum for new research and interpretation concerning problems of recurrent patterning and change in human societies through time and in the contemporary world. it sets up a working alliance among specialists in all branches of the social sciences and humanities. review articles and discussions bring readers into touch with current findings and issues. n o t e s f o r c o n t r i b u t o r s cssh welcomes submissions. essays should be written in such a way that complex issues are made intelligible and appealing to erudite readers who are not specialists in the subject under investigation. the editors prefer essays that are concise and will not accept for review essays over , words, including notes, references, and abstracts. authors must attach an abstract of no more than words in length, including a concise description of their hypothesis, methodology, key sources, and conclusions. a list of up to ten keywords, expressing the precise content of the manuscript, should appear directly below the abstract. please include with your submission your full contact information, including your email address. the editors ask that submissions be presented in a manner that facilitates the work of reviewing and editing. please submit a digital version of your work by email attachment to: csshjournal@umich.edu, or on a cd. no printed copies are required. the journal works in microsoft word. the journal uses windows- based pcs exclusively. the work should be formatted in -point type and dou- ble-spaced throughout, including quotations, notes, and bibliography. please al- low generous margins of an inch or more for editorial corrections. authors of essays accepted for publication must secure and submit permissions to repro- duce photographs or other illustrations and tables. digital media or hard copies of correspondence may be sent to: david akin, managing editor comparative studies in society and history university of michigan east huron ann arbor, mi - usa please do not post materials to us by a means that requires a signature for delivery. _ - _ _ - / / : am page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core issn - v ol. n o. p p . – o ctob er volume number october comparative studies in society and history editorial foreword – gods in things webb keane divine text, national language, and their publics: arguing an indonesian qur’an – stephan palmiÉ when is a thing? transduction and immediacy in afro-cuban ritual; or, ant in matanzas, cuba, summer of – armored bodies andrew bickford from idiophylaxis to inner armor: imagining the self-armoring soldier in the united states military from the s to today – niko besnier, daniel guinness, mark hann, and uroŠ kovač rethinking masculinity in the neoliberal order: cameroonian footballers, fijian rugby players, and senegalese wrestlers – architectural politics leo coleman building scotland, building solidarity: a scottish architect’s knowledge of nation – michaŁ murawski actually-existing success: economics, aesthetics, and the specificity of (still-)socialist urbanism – religious others and the french republic emily laxer “we are all republicans”: political articulation and the production of nationhood in france’s face veil debate – kimberly a. arkin historicity, peoplehood, and politics: holocaust talk in twenty-first-century france – diasporic belonging john eicher rustic reich: the local meanings of (trans)national socialism among paraguay’s mennonite colonies – fÉlix krawatzek and gwendolyn sasse integration and identities: the effects of time, migrant networks, and political crises on germans in the united states – edges of sovereignty louisa lombard denouncing sovereignty: claims to liberty in northeastern central african republic – sheetal chhabria the aboriginal alibi: governing dispossession in colonial bombay – what empires can and can’t do richard lachmann what empires can and can’t do – jonathan brack theologies of auspicious kingship: the islamization of chinggisid sacral kingship in the islamic world – jean-philippe dedieu and aÏssatou mbodj-pouye the fabric of transnational political activism: “révolution afrique” and west african radical militants in france in the s – cssh note – c o m p a r a t iv e s t u d ie s in s o c ie t y a n d h is t o r y cambridge core for further information about this journal please go to the journal website at: cambridge.org/csshjournal v o l u m e n u m b e r o c t o b e r _ - _ _ - / / : am page terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core 	ibc.pdf 	obc.pdf << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles false /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize false /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo false /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /remove /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice doi: . / am. j. hum. genet. : – , evidence for genetic heterogeneity in x-linked congenital stationary night blindness kym m. boycott, william g. pearce, , maria a. musarella, richard g. weleber, tracy a. maybaum, david g. birch, yozo miyake, rockefeller s. l. young, and n. torben bech-hansen department of medical genetics, university of calgary, calgary; department of ophthalmology, university of alberta, edmonton; departments of ophthalmology, university of toronto, toronto, and long island college hospital, brooklyn; department of ophthalmology and department of molecular and medical genetics, oregon health sciences university, portland; retina foundation of the southwest, dallas; nagoya university school of medicine, nagoya; and department of ophthalmology and visual sciences, texas tech university health sciences center, lubbock summary x-linked congenital stationary night blindness (csnb) is a nonprogressive retinal disorder characterized by dis- turbed or absent night vision; its clinical features may also include myopia, nystagmus, and impaired visual acuity. x-linked csnb is clinically heterogeneous, and it may also be genetically heterogeneous. we have stud- ied families with x-linked csnb, including fam- ilies with the complete form of csnb and families with the incomplete form of csnb, to identify genetic- recombination events that would refine the location of the disease genes. critical recombination events in the set of families with complete csnb have localized a disease gene to the region between dxs and dxs , in xp . -p . . critical recombination events in the set of families with incomplete csnb have localized a disease gene to the region between dxs and dxs , in xp . . further analysis of the in- complete-csnb families, by means of disease-associ- ated–haplotype construction, identified families, of apparent mennonite ancestry, that share portions of an ancestral chromosome. results of this analysis refined the location of the gene for incomplete csnb to the region between dxs and dxs , a distance of . mb. genetic and clinical analyses of this set of fam- ilies with x-linked csnb, together with the family stud- ies reported in the literature, strongly suggest that two loci, one for complete (csnb ) and one for incomplete (csnb ) x-linked csnb, can account for all reported mapping information. received september , ; accepted for publication december , ; electronically published april , . address for correspondence and reprints: dr. n. torben bech-han- sen, department of medical genetics, faculty of medicine, hmrb , university of calgary, hospital drive nw, calgary, alberta t n n , canada. e-mail: ntbech@acs.ucalgary.ca � by the american society of human genetics. all rights reserved. - / / - $ . introduction x-linked congenital stationary night blindness (csnb) is a nonprogressive retinal disorder; its clinical features include impaired night vision, variable myopia, reduced visual acuity, and congenital nystagmus (carr ; krill ; khouri et al. ; pearce et al. ; héon and musarella ; miyake et al. ). clinical hetero- geneity among families with csnb has led to the sug- gestion that the x-linked variety of csnb should be classified as either complete (csnb [mim ]) or incomplete (csnb [mim ]) (miyake et al. ). this classification is based on abnormalities both in the electroretinogram (erg) (e.g., the scotopic b wave and the oscillatory potentials) and in the psychophysical dark-adaptation thresholds. in the complete form of csnb, both the scotopic b wave that is evoked by dim blue flashes and the early oscillatory-potential wavelets are nonrecordable, and the night blindness is profound, as documented by the lack of rod adaptation to dark- ness. in the incomplete form of csnb, the scotopic b wave is recordable, although it is subnormal in ampli- tude; the scotopic oscillatory potentials are often re- cordable, but they may show abnormal implicit times; and the psychophysical dark-adaptation thresholds are only slightly elevated above normal (for a review, see héon and musarella ). since the original localization of x-linked csnb to xp , by linkage analysis (gal et al. ; musarella et al. ; bech-hansen et al. ), there has been uncertainty about whether the mapping information for x-linked–csnb families supports genetic heterogeneity or whether it supports, instead, a single locus that ex- hibits wide variation in clinical phenotype (khouri et al. ; pearce et al. ). early studies that used linkage and multipoint analyses of complete-csnb and incom- plete-csnb families mapped these conditions to the same region (musarella et al. ). furthermore, re- combinant chromosomes in families that have been ex- am. j. hum. genet. : – , amined to date have provided location information for x-linked csnb, but seldom have individual families provided both close proximal and distal limits for a min- imal genetic region that contains the disease gene. data from the few families that are highly informative indicate that a minimum of two loci for x-linked csnb are pos- sible: one proximal to dxs (bech-hansen et al. ) and one in the region distal to dxs -timp - dxs (musarella et al. ; aldred et al. ; ber- ger et al. ) or dxs (bergen et al. ). in addition to use of recent crossover events to localize a disease gene, ancestral crossovers can be investigated by disease-associated haplotype mapping in isolated populations. the assumption is that a distinct haplotype that reflects the specific allele combination of the an- cestral chromosome should be present, in the immediate vicinity of a disease gene, in the descendants (for a re- view, see de la chapelle ). such studies have refined the location of several disease genes, including that for cystic fibrosis (kerem et al. ); the cystic fibrosis gene is one of the first to be isolated by means of a positional cloning strategy. to resolve the question of genetic heterogeneity in x- linked csnb, we characterized crossover events that were identified in families affected by either the com- plete or the incomplete form of the disease. in addition, disease-associated–haplotype analysis identified a subset of families, of apparent mennonite ancestry, with in- complete x-linked csnb. these families possess a com- mon haplotype that provides additional information on the location of the gene for incomplete csnb. we pres- ent these data in the context of information published elsewhere, and we propose that two loci in xp can account for the current mapping information on x- linked csnb. subjects and methods families thirty-two families that segregate x-linked csnb were ascertained from a number of ophthalmologic cen- ters in canada, japan, and the united states. members of each family included in the present study underwent ophthalmologic examination and diagnosis according to procedures outlined elsewhere (miyake et al. ; khouri et al. ; musarella et al. ; pearce et al. ; ruttum et al. ; bech-hansen and pearce ). family structure and clinical findings for of the families have been reported elsewhere; they in- clude families (b), (a), (i), and (d) (pearce et al. ); family (c) (pearce et al. ; bech- hansen and pearce ); families , r , r , y , y , and y (musarella et al. ); family (khouri et al. ; musarella et al. ); and fam- ily (ruttum et al. ). of the families, (families , , , b , b , r , r , r , y , y , and y ) had absent rod scotopic vision, as determined from ergs generated in response to a dim blue flash; absent oscillatory-po- tential wavelets; and/or profound night blindness (the absence of the rod branch in the dark-adaptation curve); these features are consistent with the complete form of x-linked csnb. the remaining families ( , , , b, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and m ) had reduced but not absent rod scotopic vision, determined by means of erg generated with a dim blue flash, and/or at least one member from each family had reduced but not ab- sent rod psychophysical dark-adaptation findings; these characteristics were compatible with the incomplete form of the disease. families and were initially reported to contain both complete-csnb and incomplete-csnb patients. one of the four affected males in the family reported by khouri et al. ( ) (designated “ ” in the report by musarella et al. [ ]) had both myopia and a relative lack of oscillatory potentials, consistent with complete csnb, and two of nine affected males in a family re- ported by pearce et al. ( ) (“family c”; referred to as “family ” in the present report) had a dark-ad- aptation reduction that was severe enough to be con- sidered an indication of complete csnb, in accordance with the original definition (miyake et al. ). these two families are included here as having incomplete csnb, on the basis of both reevaluation of data (miyake ; weleber et al. ) and further clinical analyses (bech-hansen et al., in press). marker analysis informed consent was obtained and blood was col- lected from family members. dna was extracted, and rflp and microsatellite polymorphism analyses were performed as described elsewhere (musarella et al. ; bech-hansen et al. ; bech-hansen and pearce ). details on the rflp (timp ) and the vntr (dxs ) analyses used in this study can be found else- where (musarella et al. ; bech-hansen and pearce ). the microsatellite polymorphisms used in the present study include dxs , dxs , dxs , dxs , dxs , dxs , dxs , maoa, maob, and dxs (redesigned primers are l, ′-ctt ctg cac agc aaa gga aa; and r, ′-act cca gga ggc cgt atg tc); ec (dxs ); dxs , dxs , syn , and dxs (boycott et al. ); dxs (boycott et al. ); dxs (boycott et al. ); dxs , dxs , dxs , and dxs (boycott et al. ); dxs , dxs , dxs , boycott et al.: genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb figure fifteen recombination events in x chromosomes from nine families that segregate the complete form of x-linked csnb. polymorphic marker loci are shown on the far left, and the family and individual designations are shown along the top of the panel. the status of the person carrying the depicted chromosome is also indicated, along the top: af � affected female; am � affected male; cf � carrier female; and um � unaffected male. blackened circles indicate the loci that are in phase with the disease gene, unblackened circles indicate the loci that are out of phase, and short horizontal lines indicate uninformative markers. the downward-pointing arrow indicates the location of the disease gene in a family in which only one crossover has been identified, and brackets indicate the locations of the disease genes in families in which two crossovers or double crossovers have been identified that give both the distal and proximal limits of the disease gene. dxs , and dxs ; and the relevant information can be found in the human genome database (gdb), unless stated otherwise. the allele sizes that we detected for the microsatellites dxs ( – bp) and dxs ( – bp) were slightly outside the range reported in the gdb. the map order of all the markers either was based on the x-chromosome consensus map (nelson et al. ) or was determined by use of a panel of somatic-cell hybrids (boycott et al. ) and detailed yac contigs (boycott et al. ; k. stoddart and n.t. bech-hansen, unpublished data) within the region. results evaluation of recombinant chromosomes in x-linked csnb families thirty-two families with x-linked csnb were as- sessed for crossovers, on the x chromosome, that would localize the segregating disease gene. crossovers iden- tified in six complete-csnb families (musarella et al. ) and in three incomplete-csnb families had been reported elsewhere (musarella et al. ; bech-hansen et al. ; bech-hansen and pearce ). complete x-linked csnb.—of the families with complete csnb, had been reported to have crossovers in xp (musarella et al. ): in family , the disease gene was localized proximal to otc; in family r , between dxs and timp ; in family r , between dxs and timp ; in family y , between otc and dxs ; in family y , between dxs and timp ; and, in family y , between otc and dxs . to further refine the position of the gene for complete csnb (designated “csnb ”), we investigated the recombinant chromosomes in these families, using new microsatellite markers, and we identified and investigated crossovers in five new complete-csnb families. results of these analyses are presented in figure . am. j. hum. genet. : – , figure eleven recombination events in x chromosomes from seven families that segregate the incomplete form of x-linked csnb. symbols are as described in legend to figure . informative crossovers were identified in three of the five new families: in family b , one individual carried a dou- ble-recombinant chromosome that localized the csnb gene to the region between dxs and timp ; in family b , two recombinant chromosomes were identified that placed the csnb gene in the region between dxs and dxs ; and, in family r , crossovers placed the csnb gene between dxs and dxs . in four of the six families reported elsewhere, the location of the csnb gene was refined (fig. ): in family y , the location of the gene was refined to the interval be- tween dxs and dxs ; in family y , to the region between dxs and dxs ; in family y , to the region between dxs and ec ; and, in family r , to the region between dxs to dxs . in summary, the location of the gene for csnb , between the markers dxs and dxs (the distal and proximal limits defined by family b ), is consistent with all the recombinant-chromosome map- ping information for our set of families with complete csnb. incomplete x-linked csnb.—of the incomplete- csnb families, (families , b, , and ) had been reported to have crossovers that sublocalized the gene for incomplete csnb (designated “csnb ”) on the x chromosome. an affected female in family carried a recombinant chromosome that successively po- sitioned the csnb gene proximal to timp (bech- hansen and pearce ), dxs (bech-hansen et al. ), and dxs (bech-hansen et al., in press). this female is believed to have incomplete csnb, because she has inherited two copies of the same mutant csnb gene—one from her father (a member of family ) and the other from her mother (a member of family b). although there is no known common ancestor, there is evidence for homozygosity by descent (bech-hansen and pearce ; bech-hansen et al., in press). other cross- overs identified in family have mapped the csnb gene distal to dxs (boycott et al. ) and dxs (bech-hansen et al., in press). in addition, clinical and genetic analysis of the extended family ( b) has been performed, and the csnb gene in this family has been mapped to the region between dxs and dxs (bech-hansen et al., in press). furthermore, an individual from family was reported to carry a re- combinant chromosome that placed the csnb gene proximal to dxs (bech-hansen et al. ), whereas an individual from family was reported to carry a boycott et al.: genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb table haplotype analysis of families with incomplete x-linked csnb family/ families locus maob dxs pec dxs dxs syn dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs dxs , , , d d d d d a d d ba d d c d d -pa d a d -da d note.—lines in the table delineate the portion of the haplotypes shared between families. a haplotype is from a recombinant individual. recombinant chromosome that placed the csnb gene proximal to dxs (musarella et al. ). to further refine the map position of csnb , we continued to in- vestigate the recombinant chromosomes in these fami- lies, using new microsatellite markers, and we identified and investigated crossovers in new incomplete-csnb families. results of these analyses are presented in figure . crossovers were identified in of the new families: in family m , a crossover in an affected male placed the csnb gene proximal to maoa, and, in families and , crossovers placed the gene proximal to maob and distal to dxs . in two of the three fam- ilies reported elsewhere, the location of the csnb gene was refined (fig. ): in family , the location of the csnb gene was refined to the region proximal to maob, and, in family , the location of the csnb gene was refined to the interval between dxs and dxs . in summary, the location of the gene for csnb , between the markers dxs and dxs (the distal and proximal limits of the gene, in family ), is consistent with all the recombinant-chromo- some–mapping information for our set of incomplete- csnb families. of the families with incomplete x-linked csnb, the majority did not contain any crossovers that would help to localize the csnb gene. eighteen of the families were from alberta, and of these were known to be of mennonite ancestry. to determine whether the apparent high incidence of incomplete csnb in alberta was due to an ascertainment bias or to a common- ancestor effect, we performed disease-associated– haplotype analysis. haplotype analysis identification of disease-associated haplotypes pro- vides a powerful approach for localization of a disease gene, in relation to dna markers, and for identification of descendants of a founder population. using dna markers that span most of xp , we constructed hap- lotypes for one affected male from each incomplete- csnb family. recombinant chromosomes that resulted from crossovers between any of the markers tested were included in the haplotype analysis. specifically, in family , chromosomes recombinant for the markers used in haplotype construction are carried by an affected male and an affected female ( p and d, respectively), so both of these recombinant chromosomes were included in the analysis. of the families with incomplete csnb, retained various portions of a common hap- lotype that spans the region between marker dxs and the centromere; haplotypes that span the region be- tween the markers maob and dxs are shown in table . these haplotypes suggest that % of the dis- ease-associated chromosomes in our incomplete-csnb am. j. hum. genet. : – , families are separated by single recombination events from a putative ancestral founding-mutation haplotype that spans the proximal portion of xp . greater de- partures from the ancestral haplotype were seen with the distal set of dna markers. although no new distal-limit information on the lo- cation of the csnb gene was gained (it remains at dxs ), the affected haplotype of family potentially moves the proximal limit of this gene from dxs to dxs . all families, with the exceptions of fam- ilies and , share the entire haplotype between the markers dxs and dxs . the haplotypes in fam- ilies and deviate from the common haplotype, at markers dxs and dxs , respectively; this is probably due to a recent spontaneous mutation at this locus, which is not unexpected at a dinucleotide-repeat marker (weber ). of the families that share the common haplotype, are of known mennonite ancestry. further investiga- tion of the genealogies of the other families suggested that they are all of mennonite ancestry. isolated popu- lations, such as the mennonites, can potentially have allele frequencies that are significantly different from those of the general caucasian population. therefore, the allele frequencies of all markers within the common haplotype were determined for a set of mennonites, chosen at random. our results indicate that the allele frequencies in the mennonite population are not signif- icantly different from the allele frequencies in the cau- casians reported in the gdb, for any of the markers (data not shown). therefore, the common mennonite haplotype that contains the csnb gene is apparently not the result of preferentially high frequencies of this set of alleles in the mennonite population studied. this haplotype information, combined with the crossover in family that defined the distal limit, suggests that the csnb gene is located in the region between dxs and dxs . discussion eleven complete-csnb and incomplete-csnb families were studied, to refine the location of the locus or loci responsible for these two entities and, in turn, to evaluate the role of genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb. in summary, our findings establish separate loci for the two forms of x-linked csnb. the crossovers that we observed in family b and family currently provide the most refined localizations, within individual families, for the csnb and csnb loci. our data in- dicate that a gene (csnb ) that is responsible for the complete form of x-linked csnb lies between the mark- ers dxs and dxs (family b ), in xp . - p . . this finding is entirely consistent with the map- ping information that we have presented for the other complete-csnb families. the results of our crossover- mapping studies also indicate that a gene (csnb ) that is responsible for the incomplete form of x-linked csnb lies between the markers dxs and dxs (family ), in xp . . this finding is also consistent with the recombination-based mapping information that we have presented for the other incomplete-csnb families. to put published clinical and recombination data in the context of findings presented in this report, we iden- tified individuals, in eight families reported by other lab- oratories, who carry recombinant chromosomes (fig. ). except for two instances, the published crossovers were not accompanied by sufficient clinical information to establish clearly whether the individual families were segregating the complete or the incomplete form of x- linked csnb. of the two families for which sufficient clinical in- formation was available, one family could be classified as having complete x-linked csnb (gal et al. ), and the other could be classified as having incomplete x-linked csnb (bergen et al. ) (see fig. ). in the complete-csnb family, two recombinant chromosomes localized a csnb gene distal to timp (gal et al. ; li et al. ), whereas, in the incomplete-csnb family, one recombinant chromosome localized a csnb gene proximal to maob (bergen et al. ). this mapping information is consistent with the two-locus hypothesis that we have presented here. the clinical findings reported for the remaining six families precluded classification on the basis of complete or incomplete csnb. in the initial report on the mapping of x-linked csnb, gal et al. ( ) observed crossovers that, in their family , placed the csnb gene distal to dxs and that, in their family , placed the csnb gene distal to the region between otc and dxs . the mapping information for these two families overlaps with the proposed minimal regions for both the csnb and the csnb genes. in two other families (families and ; aldred et al. ), crossovers localized the csnb gene to the region proximal to dmd, again overlapping with proposed minimal regions for both the csnb and the csnb genes. reported crossovers in a dutch family localized the csnb gene to the region between otc and dxs (berger et al. ); this finding is con- sistent with segregation of the csnb gene in this family. an affected male in another dutch csnb family (bergen et al. ) carried a double-recombinant chromosome that localized the csnb gene to the region between dmd and dxs , which again overlaps with the csnb minimal region. if this proves to be a family with complete csnb, then the minimal region for the csnb gene would be refined to the interval between dxs and dxs , in xp . . in the present study, the paucity of critical crossovers boycott et al.: genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb figure recombination-based localization of genetic eye disease genes in xp . part of the x chromosome is represented by the thicker line, on the left of the figure, and the polymorphic markers are indicated along its left side. in the x-linked csnb portion of the figure, the vertical lines delineate minimal regions, determined on the basis of crossover information for complete-csnb families (thinner line), for incomplete-csnb families (thicker line), and for several csnb families that could not be classified as having the complete or the incomplete form of csnb (broken horizontal lines). immediately to the right of x chromosome line, minimal regions for the csnb and csnb loci are shown; these were determined on the basis of findings, for two families, that gave the finest localization of the complete (family b ) and the incomplete (family ) x-linked csnb genes. the region spanned by the common mennonite haplotype is also indicated. eight recombinant chromosomes from previously reported csnb families are also shown; one family (p ) is known to have complete csnb, one is known to have incomplete csnb, and five others are of unknown status (broken vertical lines). an arrow indicates where the distal or proximal limit of the csnb gene in that family was not established, and the lines are drawn to the most distal or proximal marker tested. the current minimal regions for the csnb and csnb loci are represented on the extreme left side of the figure. previously published recombination-based mapping information on other x-linked retinal disorders—aied, rp , rp , and cod —appears in the right portion of the diagram. numbers in square brackets, above the vertical lines that represent the minimal regions, refer to specific family studies: [ ] � li et al. ( ); [ ] � bergen et al. ( ); [ ] � gal et al. ( ); [ ] � aldred et al. ( ); [ ] � bergen et al. ( ); [ ] � berger et al. ( ); [ ] � alitalo et al. ( ); [ ] � schwartz and rosenberg ( ); [ ] � glass et al. ( ); [ ] � meindl et al. ( ); [ ] � thiselton et al. ( ); [ ] � bergen et al. ( ); and [ ] � hong et al. ( ). in the smaller incomplete-csnb families prompted us to attempt to refine the location of the csnb gene, by determination of the ancestral relationship among these families, by means of disease-associated–haplotype anal- ysis. results of this analysis suggest that most of the chromosomes in our set of incomplete-csnb families were derived from a single founder chromosome (table ). derivatives of this haplotype were found in of the incomplete-csnb families, and the portion of the retained haplotype varied, from the entire region tested (dxs –dxs ), a distance of cm, to the region between dxs and dxs , a distance estimated to be ! cm (nih/ceph collaborative mapping group ; buetow et al. ; gyapay et al. ; matise et al. ; gdb). a review of the genealogies of all the incomplete- csnb families that share the common haplotype sug- gests that they all have mennonite ancestry. between and , almost , mennonites immigrated to manitoba from russia (epp ). some descendents of these immigrants are found in alberta, where mem- bers of many of the families reported here still reside. investigation has so far failed to find a common ancestor among any of these families; this raises the possibility that more than one member of the initial immigrant population had incomplete csnb. consequently, it is likely that some descendants of the anabaptist move- ment and members of the mennonite community, in russia and in other parts of the world, are also affected with incomplete csnb. of the families with incomplete csnb, do not share the common haplotype, nor do they share a com- am. j. hum. genet. : – , mon haplotype with each other. this would suggest that there are as many as five independent mutations that cause incomplete x-linked csnb in our set of families: the mutation associated with the common mennonite haplotype and four other mutations, one each associated with families , , , and m . family m is of japanese origin, but detailed ancestry data for families , , and are not available. both the genetic and the clinical information presented in figure are consistent with two loci for x-linked csnb: one (csnb ) for the complete form, in xp . - p . , and one (csnb ) for the incomplete form, in xp . . earlier reports suggested, on the basis of two families reported to contain both complete-csnb and incomplete-csnb patients (khouri et al. ; pearce et al. ), that x-linked csnb is a single disease entity, with highly variable clinical expression (pearce et al. ). this raises important points regarding the clinical assessment of csnb patients. in particular, if testing cri- teria include only measurement of adaptation to dark- ness, and if test results for the first individual in each family show absence of rod adaptation and indicate that the patient has csnb, no distinction between the in- complete and the complete forms of x-linked csnb is possible. ideally, this distinction requires the results of a scotopic erg, generated with a dim blue flash. alter- natively, it may be possible, by examination of several patients in the same family by means of measurement of adaptation to darkness, to observe, in all patients, either complete loss of rod function, which is associated with a diagnosis of complete csnb, or variability in rod function, which is associated with incomplete csnb. the two types of x-linked csnb also appear to be nonallelic, since the fundamental defect appears to be different, based on different erg responses. in patients with complete csnb, the rod b wave is not detectable by means of scotopic dim blue–flash stimulus, and the photopic “on” response (b wave) is significantly re- duced; these features suggest a defect, within the middle retinal layer, that may prevent the rod signal from reach- ing the bipolar cells (carr et al. ; miyake et al. , ; young ). in contrast, patients with incom- plete csnb show variably but significantly reduced b waves, in response to scotopic dim blue–flash stimulus, and significantly reduced “off” and “on” responses to photopic testing (miyake et al. , ). therefore, the pathophysiology that underlies incomplete csnb in- cludes both rod and cone disturbances; these distur- bances may involve structures that are responsible for building the b wave (tremblay et al. ). it has been suggested elsewhere that the condition known as “åland island eye disease” (aied) is clinically indistinguishable from incomplete csnb (krill ; musarella et al. ; weleber et al. ). studies of three aied families (alitalo et al. ; schwartz and rosenberg ; glass et al. ) defined recombinant chromosomes that together localized the aied gene be- tween dxs and dxs , a region that overlaps with the minimal region for the csnb gene (fig. ). this lends further support to the notion that these conditions are most likely allelic. other retinal disorders also map to xp . combined mapping information for two families with x-linked cone dystrophy (cod ) localized a gene for cod , be- tween dxs and syn /araf (bergen et al. ; hong et al. ). two genes (rp and rp ) that are responsible for x-linked retinitis pigmentosa (rp) also map to xp . -p . night blindness is a well-known early-onset symptom of rp, a set of degenerative retinal diseases that are characterized by progressive concentric field loss, pigmentary retinopathy, and reduced erg am- plitudes. autosomal forms of csnb and rp have been shown to be caused by different mutations in the rho- dopsin gene, on chromosome q (dryja et al. ; rao et al. ), and in the gene that encodes the b subunit of the rod cgmp phosphodiesterase, on chromosome p (gal et al. ). in light of these findings, it has been speculated that the genes responsible for x-linked csnb may be allelic with the rp or rp genes. rp was recently sublocalized to the region between dxs and dxs , on the basis of recombinant chromo- somes from two families with this condition (thiselton et al. ) (fig. ). our mapping information localizes the gene for incomplete csnb proximal to dxs —namely, at dxs ; this finding shows that these two genes are not allelic. a gene for rp (rpgr) was recently cloned, and it maps just distal to otc, in xp . (meindl et al. ; roepman et al. ) (fig. ). our mapping information localizes the complete- csnb gene as proximal to otc; this finding shows that complete csnb and rp are also not allelic. although neither rp and incomplete csnb nor rp and com- plete csnb are allelic, a mutation in the rpgr gene appears to be responsible for csnb in at least one family (herrmann et al. ). as in the autosomal forms of rp and csnb, it is possible that a few families with x- linked csnb have disease-causing mutations in rp or rp . further analysis is required to determine whether this is indeed the case. finally, we would like to address the issue of nomen- clature for x-linked csnb. musarella et al. ( ) orig- inally used “csnb ” to designate the locus that seg- regates in their group of complete-csnb families. the work that we have presented, together with published information, defines a locus for the complete form of x- linked csnb, in xp . , between the markers dxs and dxs . we propose that this locus should con- tinue to be known as “csnb .” the use of the abbre- viation “csnb ,” in previous publications (bech-han- sen et al. , , ; bech-hansen and pearce boycott et al.: genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb ) from the laboratory of n.t.b.-h., referred, in each case, to the x-linked form of csnb rather than to the complete-csnb or incomplete-csnb clinical status of the family reported. furthermore, “csnb ” has been used to designate the locus that segregates in families with incomplete x- linked csnb (musarella et al. ; bergen et al. ). the data that we have presented here define a locus for the incomplete form of x-linked csnb, in xp . , between the markers dxs and dxs . we propose that this locus should continue to be referred to as “csnb .” the region that contains the csnb gene is . mb in size (boycott et al. ; schindelhauer et al. ), and this region can now be targeted for transcript identification by one or more of the many techniques available to positional cloners. identification of the csnb and csnb genes will ultimately resolve the uncertainty that surrounds the clinical and genetic het- erogeneity of x-linked csnb; it will also provide in- formation about the basic defects in this x-linked retinal condition, which, for years, has intrigued and puzzled investigators. acknowledgments we would like to thank drs. m. mets, m. pierpont, and m. ruttum, for allowing us to study families that they originally identified; k. gratton and a. schramm, for technical assis- tance; l. maclaren, t. mah, k. elligott, m. l. klimek, and dr. w. murphy, for assistance in contacting the families and in coordinating sample collection; and drs. f. biddle and m. walter and ms. beth duthie, for critical readings of the man- uscript. this research was supported in part by funds from the rp research foundation (canada), in the form of oper- ating grants (to n.t.b.-h., w.g.p., and m.a.m.) and the cook-mccann studentship (to k.m.b.), and by operating grants from the i. d. bebensee foundation (to n.t.b.-h.), the atkinson charitable foundation (to m.a.m.), the canadian genome analysis and technology program (to n.t.b.-h.), and stipends from the department of ophthalmology, university of alberta, and the alberta children’s hospital foundation (to n.t.b-h.). references aldred ma, dry kl, sharp dm, van dorp db, brown j, hardwick lj, lester dh, et al ( ) linkage analysis in x-linked congenital stationary night blindness. genomics : – (erratum [ ] genomics : ) alitalo t, kruse ta, forsius h, eriksson aw, de la chapelle a ( ) localization of the åland island eye disease locus to the pericentromeric region of the x chromosome by link- age analysis. am j hum genet : – bech-hansen nt, field ll, schramm am, reedyk m, craig iw, fraser nj, pearce wg ( ) a locus for x-linked con- genital stationary night blindness is located on the proximal portion of the short arm of the x chromosome. hum genet : – bech-hansen nt, marshall kj, moore bj, schramm am, field ll, breakefield xo, pearce wg ( ) localization of csnb to region xp . -xp . proximal to maoa, b, human gene mapping . cytogenet cell genet : bech-hansen nt, moore bj, pearce wg ( ) mapping of locus for x-linked congenital stationary night blindness (csnb ) proximal to dxs . genomics : – bech-hansen nt, pearce wg ( ) manifestations of x- linked congenital stationary night blindness in three daugh- ters of an affected male: demonstration of homozygosity. am j hum genet : – bech-hansen nt, boycott nm, gratton kj, ross da, pearce wg. localization of the gene for incomplete x-linked con- genital stationary night blindness to the interval between dxs and dxs in xp . . hum genet (in press) bergen aab, kestelyn p, leys m, meire f ( ) identification of a key recombinant which assigns the incomplete congen- ital stationary night blindness gene proximal to maob. med genet : – bergen aab, meire f, ten brink j, schuurman ejm, van om- men g-jb, delleman jw ( ) additional evidence for a gene locus for progressive cone dystrophy with late rod in- volvement in xp . -p . . genomics : – bergen aab, ten brink jb, riemsiag f, schuurman ejm, tijmes n ( ) localization of a novel x-linked congenital sta- tionary night blindness locus: close linkage to the rp type retinitis pigmentosa gene region. hum mol genet : – berger w, van duijnhoven g, pinckers a, smits a, ropers h- h, cremers f ( ) linkage analysis in a dutch family with x-linked recessive congenital stationary night blindness (xl-csnb). hum genet : – boycott km, halley gr, schlessinger d, bech-hansen nt ( ) a -megabase physical contig incorporating dna markers on the human x chromosome at p . - . from znf to dxs . genomics : – boycott km, halley g, schlessinger d, gratton kj, moore bj, bech-hansen nt ( ) development of a yac contig covering the minimal region of a csnb locus in xp . am j hum genet suppl :a boycott km, moore bj, gratton kj, stoddart kl, roland b, bech-hansen nt ( ) integration of dna markers across human xp using a panel of somatic cell hybrids. cytogenet cell genet : – buetow kh, weber jl, ludwigsen s, scherpbier-heddema t, duyk gm, sheffield vc, wang z, et al ( ) integrated human genome–wide maps constructed using the ceph ref- erence panel. nat genet : – carr re ( ) congenital stationary night blindness. trans am ophthalmol soc : – carr re, ripps h, siegel im, weale re ( ) rhodopsin and the electrical activity of the retina in congenital sta- tionary night blindness. invest ophthalmol vis sci : – de la chapelle a ( ) disease gene mapping in isolated human populations: the example of finland. j med genet : – am. j. hum. genet. : – , dryja tp, berson el, rao vr, oprian dd ( ) heterozy- gous missense mutation in the rhodopsin gene as a cause of congenital stationary night blindness. nat genet : – epp fh ( ) mennonites in canada, - : the history of a separate people. macmillan of canada, toronto gal a, orth u, baehr w, schwinger e, rosenberg t ( ) heterozygous missense mutation in the rod cgmp phos- phodiesterase b-subunit gene in autosomal dominant sta- tionary night blindness. nat genet : – gal a, schinzel a, orth u, fraser na, mollica f, craig iw, kruse t, et al ( ) gene of x-chromosomal congenital stationary night blindness is closely linked to dxs on xp. hum genet : – glass ia, good p, coleman mp, fullwood p, giles mg, lind- say s, nemeth ah, et al ( ) genetic mapping of a cone and rod dysfunction (åland island eye disease) to the prox- imal short arm of the human x chromosome. j med genet : – gyapay g, morissette j, vignal a, dib c, fizames c, mis- sasseau p, marc s, et al ( ) the – généthon human genetic linkage map. nat genet : – héon e, musarella ma ( ) congenital stationary night blindness: a critical review for molecular approaches. in: wright af, jay b (eds) molecular genetics of inherited eye disorders. harwood academic, chur, switzerland, pp – herrmann k, meindl a, apfelstedt-sylla e, wissinger b, cic- codicola a, lorenz b, wittwer b, et al ( ) rpgr mu- tation analysis in patients with retinitis pigmentosa and con- genital stationary night blindness. am j hum genet suppl :a hong hk, ferrell re, gorin mb ( ) clinical diversity and chromosomal localization of x-linked cone dystrophy (cod ). am j hum genet : – kerem b-s, rommens jm, buchanan ja, markiewicz d, cox tk, chakravarti a, buchwald m, et al ( ) identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: genetic analysis. science : – khouri g, mets mb, smith vc, wendell m, pass as ( ) x-linked congenital stationary night blindness: review and report of a family with hyperopia. arch ophthalmol : – krill ae ( ) congenital stationary night blindness. in: krill ae (ed) krill’s hereditary retinal and choroidal diseases. vol . harper & row, new york, pp – li y, bleeker-wagemakers e, arlich a, orth u, wright af, schinzel a, gal a ( ) the locus for x-chromosomal congenital stationary night blindness is closely linked to timp in two families but not in a third one, human gene mapping . cytogenet cell genet : matise tc, perlin m, chakravarti a ( ) automated con- struction of genetic linkage maps using an expert system (multimap): a human genome linkage map. nat genet : – meindl a, dry k, herrmann k, manson f, ciccodicola a, edgar a, carvalho mrs, et al ( ) a gene (rpgr) with homology to the rcc guanine nucleotide exchange factor is mutated in x-linked retinitis pigmentosa (rp ). nat genet : – miyake y ( ) x-linked congenital stationary night blind- ness. arch ophthalmol : – miyake y, horiguchi m, terasaki h, kondo m ( ) sco- topic threshold response in complete and incomplete types of congenital stationary night blindness. invest ophthalmol vis sci : – miyake y, yagasaki k, horiguchi m, kawase y ( ) on- and off-responses in photopic electroretinogram in complete and incomplete types of congenital stationary night blind- ness. jpn j ophthalmol : – miyake y, yagasaki k, horiguchi m, kawase y, kanda t ( ) congenital stationary night blindness with negative electroretinogram. arch ophthalmol : – musarella ma, kirshgessner c, trofatter j, miyake y, de- gennaro l ( ) assignment of the gene for incomplete congenital stationary night blindness (csbn ) to proximal xp. invest ophthalmol vis sci : musarella ma, weleber rg, murphey wh, young rsl, an- son-cartwright l, mets m, kraft sp, et al ( ) assignment of the gene for complete x-linked congenital stationary night blindness (csnb ) to xp . . genomics : – nelson dl, ballabio a, cremers f, monaco ap, schlessinger d ( ) report of the sixth international workshop on x chromosome mapping . cytogenet cell genet : – nih/ceph collaborative mapping group ( ) a compre- hensive genetic linkage map of the human genome. science : – pearce wg, reedyk m, coupland sg ( ) variable ex- pressivity in x-linked congenital stationary night blindness. can j ophthalmol : – rao vr, cohen gb, oprian dd ( ) rhodopsin mutation g d and a molecular mechanism for congenital stationary night blindness. nature : – roepman r, van duijnhoven g, rosenberg t, pinkers ajlg, bleeker-wagemakers lm, bergen aab, post j, et al ( ) positional cloning of the gene for x-linked retinitis pigmen- tosa : homology with the guanine-nucleotide-exchange fac- tor rcc . hum mol genet : – ruttum ms, lewandowski mf, bateman jb ( ) affected females in x-linked congenital stationary night blindness. ophthalmology : – schindelhauer d, hellebrand h, grimm l, bader i, meitinger t, wehnert m, ross m, et al ( ) long range map of . mb region in xp . - with a sequence ready map from a . mb gene-rich interval. genome res : – schwartz m, rosenberg t ( ) åland eye disease: linkage data. genomics : – thiselton dl, hampson rm, nayudu m, van maldergem l, wolf ml, saha bk, bhattacharya ss, et al ( ) mapping the rp locus for x-linked retinitis pigmentosa on proximal xp: a genetically defined -cm critical region and exclusion of candidate genes by physical mapping. genome res : – tremblay f, laroche rg, de becker i ( ) the electoretin- ographic diagnosis of the incomplete form of congenital sta- tionary night blindness. vision res : – weber jl ( ) human dna polymorphisms based on length variations in simple-sequence tandem repeats. in: da- boycott et al.: genetic heterogeneity in x-linked csnb vies ke, tilgham sm (eds) genetic and physical mapping. vol . cold spring harbor laboratory, new york, pp – weleber rg, pillers d-am, powell br, hanna ce, magenis re, buist nrm ( ) åland island eye disease (forsius- eriksson syndrome) associated with contiguous deletion syndrome at xp . arch ophthalmol : – young, rsl ( ) low-frequency component of the photopic erg in patients with x-linked congenital stationary night blindness. clin vision sci : – 	evidence for genetic heterogeneity in x-linked congenital stationary night blindness 	introduction 	subjects and methods 	families 	marker analysis 	results 	evaluation of recombinant chromosomes in x-linked csnb families 	haplotype analysis 	discussion 	acknowledgments 	references short report inherited and de novo mutations in sporadic cases of dyt -dystonia lena elisabeth hjermind , , lene moria werdelin and sven asger sùrensen*, department of medical genetics, the panum institute, university of copenhagen, copenhagen, denmark; department of neurology, bispebjerg hospital, copenhagen, denmark a study of danish probands with primary torsion dystonia is presented. the probands were examined clinically and biochemically to exclude secondary dystonia. mutation analyses for the gag-deletion in the dyt gene were performed on probands; and the mutation was detected in three. all three probands had the classical phenotype of dyt -dystonia, but only one had a family history of dystonia. the other two probands had, obviously, sporadic dyt -dystonia, one of which was caused by a de novo mutation, while the other one had a parent being an asymptomatic carrier. de novo mutations in the dyt gene are seldomly reported although independent founder mutations are known to have occurred. the frequency of dyt - dystonia was low in our study even though several probands had early onset generalised dystonia. none of the probands in our study with other types of dystonia had the gag-deletion as reported in other studies. the difficulties in genetic counselling concerning the heterogeneity of dystonia examplified by dyt - dystonia are outlined. european journal of human genetics ( ) , ± . doi: . /sj/ejhg/ keywords: primary torsion dystonia; dyt gene; de novo mutation; hereditary; non-penetrance introduction dystonia is a heterogenous, neurological disease charac- terised by involuntary, sustained muscle contractions, frequently causing twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures. it is believed that about % of all patients with dystonia have idiopathic or primary dystonia rather than sympto- matic or secondary. investigations have indicated that % of all cases of focal dystonia are hereditary, and that % of all cases of generalised, multifocal, and segmental dystonia are hereditary. there are at least different gene loci for autosomal, dominant inherited dystonia, one for autosomal, recessive inherited dystonia and one for x-linked, recessive in- herited dystonia, but only four genes have been cloned: dyt , dyt (two genes, at q . coding for the autosomal dominant dopa responsive dystonia, and at p . coding for autosomal recessive) and dyt . ± (at q coding for autosomal dominant myoclonus-dystonia syndrome). clinically, dyt -dystonia is often described as early limb-onset generalised dystonia, ± but further investiga- tions have shown that both onset of symptoms and expression of the disease in dyt -positive patients can vary with onset up to years and disease duration ranging up to years without spread of symptoms. , dyt -dystonia is by clinical and later also molecular genetic studies shown to be inherited as an autosomal, dominant trait with ± % penetrance and localised on chromosome q . the gene encodes an atp-binding protein, torsina. this protein is a member of the aaa family of atpases, often performing chaperone-like func- tions that assist in the assembly, operation or disassembly of protein complexes. it has been suggested that torsina may function as a motor protein in the transport of dopamine-containing membranous vesicles. european journal of human genetics ( ) , ± ã nature publishing group all rights reserved - / $ . www.nature.com/ejhg *correspondence: sven asger sùrensen, department of medical genetics, the panum institute, blegdamsvej , dk- copenhagen n, denmark. tel: + ; fax: + ; e-mail: sas@imbg.ku.dk received november ; revised january ; accepted january the mutation in the dyt gene is a gag-deletion at the position , and the different haplotypes among families with the gag-deletion suggest that at least six independent founder mutations have occurred. however, another mutation in the dyt gene has recently been reported. this novel base pair deletion is the first additional mutation and seems to be associated with a distinct type of early onset dystonia. a de novo gag-deletion in the dyt gene has been reported in two patients of swiss-mennonite and non-jewish russian origin, respectively; and suggested in a patient of german origin. the purpose of the present study is to report on the frequency of dyt in a danish population of probands with primary torsion dystonia. further to report on the sporadic cases caused by reduced penetrance or de novo mutations with respect to genetic counselling. materials and methods clinical and genetical examinations were done in a study of unrelated danish probands with primary torsion dystonia. primary dystonia was defined as dystonia without any known causes and without any associated neurological symptoms. electromyography was performed in all pro- bands except four and showed the characteristic dystonic changes; ct-scan of cerebrum, mri of cerebrum and both a ct-scan and a mri in , and four, respectively were normal. in the beginning of the study probands were selected from hospital files at hospitals in copenhagen and aarhus ± covering patients from most of denmark ± and later also probands having heard about the study asked for admission themselves. all probands were seen regularly at departments of neurology. the probands were examined from january to september . figure pedigree of family with dyt dystonia. sporadic dyt dystonia le hjermind et al european journal of human genetics five probands were excluded, because of doubt whether their disease was primary or secondary dystonia. the probands were men and women; mean age . years (range: ± ) and mean age at onset . years (range: ± ). the reason for the excess of female probands was that more women applied for admission to the study. thirty-seven were known familial cases. the relatives of probands were known familial cases, while probands reported on dystonic symptoms in relatives who were deceased or for other reasons not available. blood samples were collected for biochemical analyses and extraction of genomic dna. biochemically a standard set of tests analysing red and white blood cell count, liver- and kidney function, antinuclear antibodies, copper in serum and ceruloplasmin were performed. mutation analyses for the gag-deletion in the dyt gene on chromosome q were performed as described earlier. we analysed for the mutation in both familial and sporadic cases, because of the low penetrance of the dyt allele. paternity testing was done by use of the d s vntr- system. results the clinical examinations showed that probands had generalised dystonia, two had hemidystonia, five had multi- focal dystonia, had segmental dystonia, and had focal dystonia. among the probands with generalised dystonia had early limb-onset generalized dystonia with years (range: days ± years) as the mean age of onset. the first symptoms appeared in the lower extremities in probands, in the upper extremities in seven probands and unknown in the remaining three. among the probands investigated we only detected the dyt -mutation in three ( . %) in whom the phenotype was typical. these three correspond to % of the probands with typical phenotype. concerning family status the dyt - mutation was only detected in one proband with familial dystonia out of ( . %). the proband with the dyt -mutation and a positive family history had relatives in two earlier generations with dystonia. the mutation was also encountered in her father, who is the only relative alive with clinical symptoms of dystonia and in six asymptomatic adult relatives (figure ). in order to determine whether the two sporadic cases were de novo mutations or due to the low penetrance of the dyt gene, mutation analyses were performed on the parents of the two probands with no family history of dystonia. in one case the dyt -mutation was encountered in the mother of the proband, while none of the parents of the other case had a gag-deletion. paternity testing revealed that non-pater- nity was unlikely. discussion the preliminary investigations of idiopathic torsion dystonia in denmark indicate a low frequency of dyt dystonia as the mutation was only encountered in three among unrelated probands ( . %), or % among with early onset, generalised dystonia. thirty-seven pro- bands had a positive family history; four of them with the typical dyt phenotype, but only one of the probands with the dyt -mutation had a positive family history. this is in contrast to the higher frequency of the gag- deletion found in patients with early onset, generalised dystonia and/or a positive family history in other stu- dies. , , ± we only found the gag-deletion in probands with early limb-onset, generalised dystonia; but the mutation was not found in several probands with similar symptoms. phenotypic variability has been reported; eg writer's cramp has been reported as the only manifesta- tion of probands carrying the mutation in the dyt - gene. , , in our study one out of two sporadic cases had a de novo mutation in the dyt gene, while the other one had inherited the mutation from the mother, who had no signs of dystonia because of the low penetrance. founder mutations in different populations have been reported, but de novo mutations in the dyt gene have been reported only once in two patients from different populations and suggested in another patient from a third population, where dna from the parents was not available. solitary cases of dyt -dystonia have been reported in studies where molecular analyses of the dna of the parents were not done. , apparently sporadic cases because of the low penetrance have also been reported earlier. the difficulties in genetic counselling concerning dystonia is partly due to the low penetrance of many of the hereditary forms of dystonia and partly due to the variable phenotype within the same type of dystonia and, as shown in our study, the occurrence of de novo mutations. an exact genetic diagnosis is crucial for genetic counselling and cannot be obtained by clinical examina- tion alone because of the phenotypic variability, the low penetrance and the occurrence of de novo mutations. it has been argued not to do diagnostic dyt testing on patients without affected relatives with onset at age years or later. the dyt -mutation, however, has been reported in solitary as well as phenotypically non-typical cases of dystonia. , , the question can therefore be raised whether all patients with primary torsion dystonia, irrespective of symptoms ± sporadic as well as familial cases ± by routine should be offered a mutation analysis for dyt and/or any of the other gene loci for inherited dystonia. european journal of human genetics sporadic dyt dystonia le hjermind et al references fahn s, marsden cd, calne db: classification and investigation of dystonia; in marsden cd, fahn s (eds): movement disorder . london: butterworths, , pp. ± . waddy hm, fletcher na, marsden cd: a genetic study of idiopathic focal dystonias. ann neurol ; : ± . fletcher na, harding ae, marsden cd: a genetic study of idiopathic torsion dystonia in united kingdom. brain ; : ± . muÈ ller u, steinberger d, neÂmeth ah: clinical and molecular genetics of primary dystonias. neurogenet ; : ± . nygaard tg, raymond d, chen c et al: localization of a gene for myoclonus-dystonia to chromosome q -q . ann neurol ; : ± . zimprich a, grabowski m, asmus f et al: mutations in the gene encoding epsilon-sarcoglycan cause myoclonus-dystonia syn- drome. nat genet ; : ± . kramer pl, heiman ga, gasser t et al: the dyt gene on q is responsible for most cases of early limb-onset idiopathic torsion dystonia in non-jews. am j hum genet ; : ± . ozelius lj, hewett jw, page ce et al: the early-onset torsion dystonia gene (dyt ) encodes an atp-binding protein. nat genet ; : ± . risch n, de leon d, ozelius l et al: genetic analysis of idiopathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews and their recent descent from a small founder population. nat genet ; : ± . lebre as, durr a, jedynak p et al: dyt mutation in french families with idiopathic torsion dystonia. brain ; : ± . valente em, warner tt, jarman pr et al: the role of dyt in primary torsion dystonia in europe. brain ; : ± . ozelius lj, kramer pl, moskowitz cb et al: human gene for torsion dystonia located on chromosome q - . neuron ; : ± . neuwald af, aravind l, spouge jl, koonin ev: aaa+: a class of chaperone-like atpases associated with the assembly, opera- tion, and disassembly of protein complexes. genome res ; : ± . leung jc, klein c, friedman j et al: novel mutation in the tor a (dyt ) gene in atypical early onset dystonia and polymorphisms in dystonia and early onset parkinsonism. neurogenet ; : ± . klein c, brin mf, de leon d et al: de novo mutation (gag deletion) in the dyt gene in two non-jewish patients with early-onset dystonia. hum mol genet ; : ± . leube b, kessler kr, ferbert a et al: phenotypic variability of the dyt mutation in german dystonia patients. acta neurol scand ; : ± . thymann m, nellemann lj, masumba g, irgens-mùller l, morling n: analysis of the locus d s by amplified fragment length polymorphisms technique (amp-flp). frequency dis- tribution in danes. intra and inter laboratory reproducibility of the technique. forensic sci int ; : ± . bressman sb, de leon ms, kramer pl et al: dystonia in ashkenazi jews: clinical characterization of a founder mutation. ann neurol ; : ± . klein c, friedman j, bressman s et al: genetic testing for early- onset torsion dystonia (dyt ): introduction of a simple screen- ing method, experiences from testing of a large patient cohort, and ethical aspects. genet test ; : ± . brassat d, camuzat a, vidialhet m et al: frequency of the dyt mutation in primary torsion dystonia without family history. arch neurol ; : ± . gasser t, windgassen k, bereznai b, kabus c, ludolph ac. phenotypic expression of the dyt mutation: a family with writer's cramp of juvenile onset. ann neurol ; : ± . bressman sb, sabatti c, raymond d et al: the dyt phenotype and guidelines for diagnostic testing. neurology ; : ± . sporadic dyt dystonia le hjermind et al european journal of human genetics 	inherited and de novo mutations in sporadic cases of dyt -dystonia 	introduction 	materials and methods 	results 	discussion 	references jensen | review of mothering mennonite | studies in the maternal 	articlesarrow_drop_down 	submissionsarrow_drop_down 	aboutarrow_drop_down 	login 	register 	articlesarrow_drop_down 	submissionsarrow_drop_down 	aboutarrow_drop_down 	login 	register menu 	articles 	collections 	issues 	submissions 	author guidelines 	start submission 	about 	contact 	become a reviewer 	editorial team 	articles 	collections 	issues 	submissions 	author guidelines 	start submission 	about 	contact 	become a reviewer 	editorial team book and exhibition reviews review of mothering mennonite book and exhibition reviews review of mothering mennonite 		 		 abstract mothering mennonite, by rachel epp buller and kerry fast (eds.), bradford, ontario: demeter press, pages, $ . ,paperback, , isbn: how to cite jensen h., ( ) “review of mothering mennonite”, studies in the maternal ( ). p. . doi: https://doi.org/ . /sim. views downloads rachel epp buller and kerry fast’s mothering mennonite, a collection of essays, creative writing, and poetry offers a probing look at the intersections between religion, identity, and the maternal. it persuasively argues that mothers and mothering are central to the formation and distillation of mennonite culture, and that the figure(s) of the mennonite mother and the act(s) of mennonite mothering are rich and diverse. while acknowledging that certain proscriptive doctrines and patriarchal traditions have worked to shape mothers in the faith, the authors readily recognize that mennonite women ‘have always been mothers in situational contexts’ and that mothering ‘has, in mennonite history, been a dynamic process of transmitting and determining cultural, religious and ethnic identity’ ( ). indeed, the contributors to the volume eschew the inscription of an essentialized ideal of the mennonite mother or mothering practice and acknowledge the various historical, geographical, and personal circumstances that shape their identities and activities, as well as the reality of pluralistic and dynamic mennonite cultures. as the fourteen essays in this compendium make clear, there are myriad ways in which to mother as a modern-day mennonite. mothering mennonite is a pioneering volume in that it is ‘the first book to incorporate religious groundings in interpretations of motherhood’ ( ). in its ambitious and thorough introductory essay, editors fast and buller deftly interweave conceptual parameters, historiographical material, and theoretical constructs so as to create cogency in the selection of writings to follow. they provide an overview on key historical scholarship devoted to mennonite women, pointing out that the specific position of mothers as preservers of cultural values had not been closely examined. a brief survey of relevant literary works shows that the subject of the mennonite mother has had enduring interest and its treatment has ranged from the celebratory to the critical. in addition to summarizing the state of the research and creative work on mennonite mothers, fast and epp also use the introduction to place their project within the burgeoning field of mothering studies. noting critical feminist writings and terms for readers is important here; witness their declaration of a preference for the term ‘mothering’ (suggestive of a mother’s agency and power) over ‘motherhood’ (denotative of a patriarchal institution). readers are also alerted to the organization of essays into four sections, picturing mothers and daughters, mothering across generations, challenging mennonite motherhood, and mothering in and around culture(s). the thematic, rather than genre-driven, organization of material is effective and enables productive conversations to emerge. in the first section, authors explore how the mennonite mother and/or the mothering mennonite is perceived by her daughter, and how these perceptions and experiences have shaped her own approaches to this practice. it is appropriate to open with magdalene redekop, who revisits her groundbreaking essay, ‘through the mennonite looking glass,’ of years earlier. continuing its discussion of the theme of the mennonite mother’s erasure of identity, her essay is a poignant rumination over her own mother’s wedding photograph and her experience with adoptive and step-mothering. edna froese continues this leitmotif in her meditation on canonical writings about mennonite women, a trenchant and sometimes heartrending exposé of the impossibilities embodied in the mennonite ideal of motherhood. the labor of mothering, as witnessed by daughters, is the subject of the two other contributions to this section, kirsten eve beachy’s personal essay titled ‘milk,’ in which she explores the various kinds of labor associated with her mother and mother-in-law’s lives, and mary ann loewen’s discursive analysis of the columns her mother produced for a church publication. both approach the question of forging identity within particular cultural constraints, and points to the inter-generational struggles to come to terms with disparate means to identity. intergenerational dynamics, extended family narratives, and the notion of inheritance serve as the focus for the next section of essays in mothering mennonite. connie braun’s selections of poetry, inspired by her wwii-era refugee heritage, light on core issues of mennonite mothering. two particularly noteworthy poems are her ‘i am from many places,’ concerning a daughter’s marking out and settling of her own space within the faith tradition, and ‘a talk with my son about god,’ a mother’s stern and stirring sermon about honoring the faith of one’s parents. susie fisher stoesz provides a compelling analysis of how mennonite mothers have used storytelling, through the spoken word and material culture, to preserve family histories and to secure the bonds of community. social identity and the mothering mennonite are taken up in the final essays in this section by authors with contrasting backgrounds. the loewen siblings, who are multi-generational mennonites, offer a co-authored narrative of the lives of three women and their family tree and their varied forms of engagement with maternal identity, whereas wendy a. crocker, who is neither mother nor mennonite, presents her insights into mennonite mothering as observed from her position as a school administrator who works with old colony children in her informative educational study, ‘”home” schooling.’ another contributor who comes outside the mennonite tradition, tomomi naka, leads out in the next section on challenging traditional cultural constructions of mennonite motherhood. an anthropologist from japan and a single woman living in a conservative american mennonite community, naka capitalized on her unusual position to query the place of “single sisters” and their approach to employment outside the home. importantly, the implications of childlessness in the mennonite culture, whether by choice, as discussed in artist becca j. r. lachman’s ‘creative (m)othering,’ or due to infertility, as broached in christine crouse-dick’s ‘(in)fertile encounters,’ are given just attention. the stories of women who have refused traditional narratives and thereby forged unique paths can be read as both inspirational and disheartening, for while they intimate the power women are increasingly assuming to fashion their own identities, they also speak to the constant negotiations that mennonite women must make as they attempt to bridge personal needs and social expectations. the last section of mothering mennonite is its largest, and provides a space for case studies of the impact of specific contexts in which mennonite motherhood has been shaped over time. tracey leigh dowdeswell’s essay assesses the impact of the modern scientific motherhood on canadian mennonite women, and convincingly argues that this movement undermined their previously-held position of authority in the maternal realm. the disenfranchisement of mennonite woman is the topic of cory anderson’s contribution, in which he queries the effects of beachy amish-mennonite evangelical literature on women’s sense of identity. he contends that such writings tend to aggregate women into the inseparable roles of on woman-wife-mother, and thus not encourage self-actualization. the final three chapters of the volume offer a rosier view of how women can find authentic ways to live their mennonite faith and honor its traditions while functioning in global contexts. melanie springer mock’s consideration of more-with-less cookbook, the go-to lifestyle manual of many north american mennonite women, suggests that it provided a means to find in their roles as homemaker and mother something progressive in its awareness of how simple living and cooking was part of responsible global citizenship. examples of how mennonite mothering has been performed in latin america can be found in doreen helen klassen’s study of children’s play among low german-speaking communities in northern mexico and belize, as well as in jennifer chappell deckert’s essay on the way the mennonite church has harnessed its mothering power to provide care and compassion for refugees and victims of violence. the editors state that the guiding questions for the project included the following: ‘how specific religious groups impart values to children and adolescents that define their future roles; how the church, both consciously and unconsciously, transmits expectations of maternal roles; how memory and nostalgia for lost mothers and grandmothers affects an individual’s mennonite identity and possible maternity; and how mennonite culture and value systems are embraced in cross-cultural settings, passed along from mother to mother’ ( ). this begs the question: what elements of mennonite mothering are unique to those of the faith and which of these ideals, traditions, and experiences might overlap with those of other religious faiths? while its focus is on the praxis of mothering within mennonitism and its aim was to revalue the contributions of women in this faith community as mothers and/or as mothering agents, a byproduct of this volume is the invitation for other communities of mothers to ask similar questions. in sum, buller, fast, and the contributors to mothering mennonite are to be commended not only for producing a highly readable and fascinating inquiry into the praxis of mothering within mennonitism; they are also to be thanked for encouraging future studies into the intersections between religion, culture, and the maternal. competing interests the author declares that they have no competing interests. share authors heather jensen (brigham young university) download 	 download xml 	 download pdf issue 	 volume • issue • • volume dates 	submitted	 - - 	published	 - - licence creative commons attribution . peer review this article has been peer reviewed. file checksums (md ) 	 xml: f c e d e aa c b 	 pdf: b e feb e ff e c table of contents non specialist summary this article has no summary close | - | published by open library of humanities | privacy policy | microsoft word - hhe bf.rtf further section hum. hered. ; : - subject index abo groups, andhra pradesh , --, himachal pradesh abortions and tfc subtypes achromatopsia, congenital acp groups, andhra pradesh --, belgium --, pyreneans --, west bengal ada groups, belgium --, pyreneans affective disorders and blood groups afghanistan, properdin factor b ag groups, belgium - -‚ south african negroes and indians ak groups, affective disorders --, andhra pradesh --, belgium --, pyreneans albumin variants in south india alpha- -antitrypsin levels in pim subtypes types in newborns sweden ‚ see pi types - - thalassaemia and hb new york am groups in siberia amish mennonites, dermatoglyphics andhra pradesh, blood and serum groups , ‚ arabs, ina antigen bantu-speaking negroids, ag groups basques, blood and serum groups belgians, protein and enzyme groups bengal, west, acp groups beta-thalassaemia and gpt -- intermedia --, turkey bf groups, afghanistan - -‚ parentage testing brachydactyly breast cancer and hp groups cameroon, sickle cell trait and g- -pd deficiency -‚ hbs, g- -pd deficiency and malaria canada, pi types , cancer of breast and hp groups c esterase in pyreneans chile, haemophilia a cholinesterase, serum, in affective disorders chromosome no. , regional duplication -- ptrisomy consanguinity and mortality -‚ england c in norwegian lapps c deficiency, familial, and lipodystrophy - groups, uremia --, belgium c groups in graves’ disease denmark, galt groups dental disease and salivary proteins dermatoglyphics, absent d triradius in sibs -‚ amish mennonites -‚ bilateral assymmetry -‚ genetics -‚ hypospadias -‚ maharashtra - of sole, linkage study diabetes, association with glo groups esd groups, andhra pradesh --, belgium --, france --, west bengal fertility and consanguinity finland, glo groups france, esd and glo groups galactose- -phosphate uridyl transferase types in denmark gamma-gct groups gc groups, andhra pradesh --, belgium - -‚ himachal pradesh --, iceland gene frequency estimation genotype probabilities in pedigrees, calculation glo groups, associations with graves’ disease and diabetes --, finland --, france subject index --, iceland --, iraq gm groups, belgium --, siberia - -‚ singapore and sri lanka gpt groups, belgium --, italy --, japan --, pyreneans graves’ disease, c groups --, glo groups greece, serum protein and enzyme groups gsh-px activity in israeli populations g- -pd, affective disorders -‚ afro-americans -.cameroon -‚ pyreneans -‚ south vietnamese -‚ turkey - interactions with sickle cell trait and malaria , : haemophilia a in chile hb new york and alpha-thalassaemia s in cameroon types in turkey heritability estimates himachal pradesh, abo groups hp groups, affective disorders --, andhra pradesh , --, belgium - -‚ breast cancer --‚ himachal pradesh --.turkey - levels, africans -o‚mali hypospadias, dermatoglyphics iceland, gc groups -‚ glo groups immunoglobulins, ige twin study ina antigen in iranians and arabs india, andhra pradesh, albumin, blood and serum groups , , , himachal pradesh, abo groups maharashtra, dermatoglyphics -mem groups punjabis, gm and km groups west bengal, enzyme groups iranians, ina antigen iraq, glo groups israeli populations, gsh-px activity italy, gpt groups japan, gpt groups km groups, belgium --, siberia - -‚ singapore and sri lanka lap in affective disorders lapps, norwegians, c types ldh groups, affective disorders --, andhra pradesh --, west bengal linkage, beta-thalassaemia and gpt locus - dermatoglyphics of soles and blood groups lipodystrophy and c deficiency lung disease and pi types mdh, pyreneans -‚ west bengal mem groups in india mn groups in andhra pradesh monoamine oxidase activity, twin study nadh diaphorase in pyreneans norway, c types in lapps pgd groups, belgium pgmi groups, andhra pradesh --.belgium --.pyreneans --‚ west bengal phi groups in andhra pradesh pi m, subtypes and alpha- -antitrypsin levels -.variant - groups, canada --, lung disease placental alkaline phosphatase variants properdin factor b in afghanistan punjabis, gm and km groups pyreneans, blood, serum and enzyme groups rh groups, andhra pradesh , - -‚ himachal pradesh salivary proteins and dental disease schizophrenia, genetic model subject index serum cholinesterase, pyreneans siberia, am, gm and km groups sickle cell trait and g- -pd deficiency in cameroon , singapore, gm and km groups -pgd, affective disorders -‚ andhra pradesh -‚ pyreneans sjögren-larsson syndrome sod groups in pyreneans somatotype components, family study south africa, ag groups sri lanka, gm and km groups sweden, achromatopsia -‚ pi types jung disease tf c groups, andhra pradesh , --, belgium --, himachal pradesh subtypes, abortions -‚ us black and whites tgp in pyreneans triradius d, see dermatoglyphics trisomy p turkey, beta-thalassaemia, g- -pd, hb variants and hp groups twin studies, ige levels --, mao activity - zygosity diagnosis uremia and c groups vietnamese, south, g- -pd deficiency german protestants in tsarist russia and the soviet union gerd stricker german church life in russia has always been characterised by its extreme diaspora situation - both denominationally and ethnically. outside the lutheran baltic provinces - estonia, livonia and courland i .--: there was no real structure to german churches in russia, and there was always an element 'of uncertainty inherent in church life. the only significant exception to this. was the mennonites ----' but even within the german community they formed an isolated ethnic and religious group. attempts to bring about organisational unity among the churches in the colonists' villages were always suggested to the churches froni outside, i.e. by the state. before the reign of catherine ( - ), attempts to settle the fettilevolga steppe had failed. in and catherine published manifestos in europe inviting people to settle in russia. free land ( ~ hectares }:ler family), deferred taxation, interest-free loans for purchases; and self-administration were included in the offer. religious liberty was also guaranteed , and this was an important factor in .all the phases of immigration. there is no doubt that the first settlers along the volga had the most 'idifficult start in russia. many came from hessen and the rhineland, areas devastated, in frederick ii's seven-year war ( - ). since catherine had specifically invited all professions to settle in russia, only some sixty per cent of the immigrants were farmers or farm labourers; about forty per cent were craftsmen or belonged to other stations - including a considerable percentage of unfortunates (discharged soldiers and officers, impoverished gentry, escaped , convicts), and others (adventurers, artists, ·musicians, hairdressers). once in russia, however, they were all compelled to lead a rural i livonia and courland correspond approximately to present-day latvia - ed. article , of catherine n's manifesto, july . quoted in karl stumpp, die auswanderung aus deutschiand nach rujjiand in den jahren bis (stuttgart, ), pp. - . 'gerhard bonwetsch, geschichte der deutschen koionien an der woiga (stuttgart, ), p. . pastor bachmann at a wedding ceremony in tselinograd. (photos © glaube in der welt.) see article on pp. - . christmas in pastor bachmann's house in tselinograd. (photo © glaube in der welt.) see article on pp. - . reopening of the queen of peace church in klaipeda. lithuanian catholic priests have recently submitted further petitions which include the same request. (photo © lithuanian information centre.) see document on pp. - . cemetery on the outskirts of warsaw. (photo courtesy gareth davies.) see article on pp. - . german protestants in russia and the ussr existence. if one takes this into account, and then considers further that the colonisation programme was quite inadequately planned on the russian side (e.g. no building materials - in many cases the immigrants had to live in zemlyanki (mud huts) for extended periods), and that the unaccustomed climate and lack of agricultural equipment aggravated the situation to no small extent, it is not surprising that it was a long time before the volga colonies started to flourish. raids by the nomad kirgiz and kalmyks also hindered successful development: plundering and pillaging, which continued until after , caused the settlers anxiety and alarm. over the years, some , settlers were seized and sold in the slave markets of bukhara and elsewhere. the volga colonies also suffered extensive devastation during the pugachov uprising ( - ). it took three generations before the situation . stabilised and a certain degree· of prosperity was achieved. between and , some , germans settled along the lower volga to the north and south of saratov. the settlements-were established on a denominational basis. of the io~ "mother colonies" along the volga, there were protestant villages (including four calvinist and a few mixed lutheran and calvinist), and catholic. the whole region was divided into protestant and four catholic parishes, of which had already built a church by . a further daughter colonies had come into being in the volga region by , and the number of settlers had risen to , protestants and about , catholics. in catherine offered west prussian mennonites a special colonisation agreement to establish settlements along the dnepr in the newly-won territory of southern ukraine. she also invited more german .colonists to the molochnaya region in southern russia. alexander i continued the colonisation programme with his manifesto of ' , which resulted in a new wave of immigration that continued into the s and brought some , new settlers into the country. in contrast to the post- colonisation of the volga, the second wave of immigrants (to the black sea area - present-day ukraine) had strong religious motives for coming to russia. many of the colonists came from south-west germany - wiirttemberg, bavaria, alsace, switzerland. religiohs unrest among protestants in germany 'c.f. hermann dalton, "geschichte der reformierten kirche in rul land" (gotha, ), pp. - ; stumpp, op. cit., p. ; die evangelisch~lutherischen gemeinden in ruflland. eine historisch-statistische darstellung (published by the central committee of the benevolent fund for evangelical-lutheran churches in russia: vo\. , st petersburg, ), pp. - ; joseph aloysius kel ler, geschichte der diozese tyraspol (dickinson, north dakota, ), pp. - . (kel ler was the last catholic german bishop in russia before the revolution.) german protestants in. russia and the ussr intensified· when king frederick i of wiirttemberg radically changed the liturgy, hymns and church customs in line with the rationalist spirit of the age. particularly in wiirttemberg, pietistic groups had long been meeting for their "stunde" (hour) for prayer and bible reading because they were not satisfied with what was being offered by the established church., the religious revival which swept across europe at the beginning of. the th century gave rise to "new pietistic" features in wiirttemberg and at the same time further intensified the tendency to introversion and isolation. many of those who were dissatisfied with the state of their church went to russia in the hope that they might be able to sustain their familiar church there without opposition. others' had already separated from the' church - committed christians who had experienced inner conversion, "rebirth". these groups were especially willing to emigrate. the french revolution, the napoleonic wars, crop failures and religious revivals all helped to create an atmosphere conducive to apocalyptic-eschatological ideas. the mystic juliane von kriidener, a long-standing confidante of tsar alexander i, referring to bengel and jung-stilling as well as spener, announced the imminent return of christ in - on mount ararat in armenia - and therewith the beginning of the millennium. she forced (and partially financed) the emigration of these visionaries, who from made their way down the danube to russia. two groups, seriously depleted by illness and epidemics, settled to the north of odessa, where they founded autonomous lutheran churches of born-again believers (hoffnungs- tal and the villages around neuhoffnung). a third group (about families) reached the caucasus and established seven villages near tiflis and to the south of it (including helenenthal and katharinen- feld) - also separated from the lutheran church. when passed ~without the return of christ these visionaries came to their senses and as a result there was a measure of reconciliation with the lutheran church, although they still formed their own evangelical-lutheran synod. only later ( in hoffnungstal, in the caucasus) did they rejoin the lutheran church in russia. ' . while eight villages (consisting of some , people) were founded by the mennonites along the, dnepr (chqrtitsa region) after , there was a more significant influx into the black sea area, along the river molochnaya, during the reign of alexander i, after . over the period - there were approximately , people, and by there were about , mennonites in forty villages in this area. 'benjamin h. unruh, die niederliindisch-neiderdeutschen hintergriinde der mennon- itischen ostwanderungen im ., ., und . jh. (karlsruhe, ), p. ff. german protestants in russia and the ussr by german colonists had established villages in southern russia and bessarabia, of which about eighty were lutheran, catholic, mennonite, six calvinist, three autonomous lutheran, and a few mixed lutheran-calvinist or. lutheran-catholic. . round about there were , germans in villages, and by this number had quadrupled: in southern russia (including bessarabia but excluding the towns)' there· were about , german protestants, , catholics and , mennonites. volhynia and podolia [western ukrainian provinces - ed.] were colonised from onwards, but especially after . the settlers were mainly germans from polish territory which had been added to the russian empire since . in , , german protestants settled involhynia, with only one pastor) by their number had increased to , (more than five hundred villages), divided into only parishes. inadequate spiritual provision on the one hand, and proximity to poland and central europe on the other (together with the. continuing immigration), made volhynia susceptible to new religious movements which offered the settlers more on a spiritual level than did the established lutheran church. thus, twenty per cent of germans in volhynia are thought to have been baptists before . adventism also made its first inroads into russia from volhynia. despite various divisions in the course of the years, the parishes have always been too large: even at the beginning of the th century, many protestant pastors were responsible for the spiritual welfare of more than twenty german villages, whereas german catholic priests generally· had parishes with only three or four congregations. additionally, the protestant parishes suffered from a serious shortage of pastors, so that intensive pastoral care was frequently not provided. @ften the pastor was only able to visit each individual colony two or three times a year (and sometimes not even as often as that). pietistic brethren groups (see below) tried to fill the spiritual vacuum: they had a strong influence on religious life in the villages - more so in the black sea area than along the volga. . the "kiisterlehrer" (sacristan-teacher) was the pastor's represent.- 'stumpp, op. cit., pp. - ; dalton, op. cit., pp. - . 'dalton, op. cif., p. . i johannes schleuning and others, und siehe, wir leben! der weg der evangelisch- lutherischen kirche in vier lahrhunderten (erlangen, ), p. ; kel ler, op. cit., pp: - . 'erik amburger, geschichte des protestantism us in ruftland (stuttgart, ), p. . iolrmgard fleischhauer, das dritte reich 'und die deutschen in der sowjetunion (stuttgart, ), p. ; schleuning, op. cit., p. gives , germans in volhynia, of whom approximately , were probably baptists. german protestants in russia and the ussr ative, and provided what was often the only education the colonists received in their life. as such, he was the spiritual authority in the village. he was appointed by the church and was paid as little as possible. it is hardly surprising. that unqualified people often assumed the office of schoolmaster, of kiisterlehrer. lessons s ffered,not only because of the teacher's lack of qualifications, but also because of the size of classes (four hundred pupils was quite normal in the volga colonies). in southern russia, on the other hand, the german villages were much smaller and did not form self-contained settlements, with the result that in the smaller colonies there were often only between twenty and fifty children in school and a teacher could hardly be paid. . the school was specifically a church school, with the catechism as the main subject but with some time also given to hymn-singing, reading, writing, and arithmetic. children attended school between the ages of seven and· fourteen (when. they were confirmed), but only in winter; in summer they worked in the fields. under such circumstances academic achievements were not particularly high, and as far as girls were concerned, their parents were satisfied if they could read. (the bible, hymn book, and luther's small catechism were often the only teaching materials.) at any rate, every german village had its own school, while the russian and ukrainian villages rarely did. teachers were trained in so-called "central schools", which existed specifically to train kiisterlehrer and "schreiber" (clerks) - german administrators who were also supposed to be able to speak russian - and for this reason some of the teaching in these schools took place in the russian language. in most cases the training period was four years. as the pastor's representative, the kiisterlehrer generally led the whurch service, but since he was not ordained he was not allowed to preach and had to read a printed sermon. he prepared young people for confirmation and engaged couples for their "wedding test" (an examination of their basic religious knowledge). he baptised babies and buried the dead. he helped the colonists as well as the "schulze" (village mayor) with anything needing to be written. when the pastor visited the village, h~ ratified the baptisms, celebrated communion,> tested candidates for confirmation and first the" schulze", as in germany, was the elected village mayor. he was subject to the german district administration, the "oberschulzenamt", which consisted of the elected "oberschulze" (chief mayor) and two other elected members. continuity was maintained by the "schreiber" (clerks) at village level, and the "gebietsschreiber" (district clerks) in the oberschulzenamt - the permanently employed secretaries. only the oberschulzenamt were subject to russian administration - the "tutelkanzlei" in saratov or the "fiirsorgkomitee" (welfare committee) in southern russia. german protestants in russia and the ussr communicants, and blessed them and new marriages. generally speaking, time and circumstances did not permit him to step out of the role of distributor of the sacraments and devote himself to pastoral work, and spiritual life in the colonies was rarely stirred up by the pastors. it was not only the rarity of visits by the pastors, nor revival movements and pietistic traditions that resulted in the colonists often turning to the brethren and to new religious movements. in many cases it was the pastors themselves who remained distant from their congregations - whether they were polish priests in the german catholic villages 'or lutheran pastors who, as gentlemen, often looked down on the "uncultured colonists". the mentality of pastors from germany distanced them from the farming community, and in human terms they were sometimes not able to meet the hopes placed in them. only the calvinists and the autonomous lutheran parishes experienced less difficulty in finding suitable pastors .:..- who came mainly from switzerland (the' basel mission). the relationship between"pastor and parish was also made difficult because in the colonies, apart from their-vocational duties, pastors also had to act more or less as "sittenwiichter" (guardians of propriety) - controlling especially the activities of young people. moreover, . they were. forbidden to engage in' any form of social-charitable activity. this caused a further rift between pastor and parish which encouraged the development of a piety not related to the church. this was not the fault of the pastor alone. it was only in the last third of the th century that the provision of suitable pastors for the villages became a little easier when - as a result of grants - a reasonable number of colonists' sons were able to attend the roman catholic seminary of the german bishopric of tiraspol in saratov, or the protestant faculty at the german university of dorpat, in estonia. the "evangelical-lutheran church in russia" after the decree. as already stated, in contrast to the baltic pro~inces, where there was an established church, else~here in the russian empire there existed only individual congregations with no overall organisational struc- ture. tension between lutherans and calvinists was so great that at times the latter would rather· turn to a catholic priest than to the "gottlieb beratz, die deutschen kolonien an der unteren wolga nd ed: (berlin, ), pp. - . german protestants in russia and the ussr neighbouring lutheran pastor; cases are known where lutheran pastors refused to give communion to calvinist settlers. there were many issues and problems which could obviously not be solved by the clergy themselves. so many complaints came to the tutelkanzlei (tsarist administration) that the "crown" intervened and made some important decisions. in tsar alexander i, as summus episcopus, ordered the establishment of a church council in saratov for the volga colonies and appointed dr ignatius aurelius febler as superintendent. dr febler organised a church structure and also helped to bring about salutary coexistence between lutherans and calvinists~ a year earlier . the tsar had appointed pastor bottiger in odessa as superintendent of a church council that was to be set up for southern russia. these and other significant changes were thwarted· by the decree, which was in preparation from and with regard to which nicholas i had consulted a commission composed mainly of representatives from the baltic provinces.· in accordance with the strictly lutheran denominational format prevalent in the baltic provinces, a set ·of purely lutheran church regulations was established, which did not take into account the fact that the crucifix, the burning of candles, an extended liturgy sung by the pastor and sometimes even the vestments were just as foreign to lutherans from wiirttemberg who had been influenced by pietistic tendencies as they were to the calvinists (approximately , in ), whose interests were supposed to be represented by "reformed sessions" within the appropriate church council (consistorium). the new law made the evangelical-lutheran church in russia a state church, just as the orthodox church was. the secular president and spiritual vice-president (general superintendent) of the peters- burg general consistorium were appointed by the tsar, and even the 'committee members had to be approved by him. the church administrators were paid by the state. the whole church was divided on a regional basis into councils, with six initially allotted to the baltic provinces (later combined into three), and two (petersburg and moscow) for the rest of the russian empire. the administration in moscow and petersburg was clearly too far away to be able to know about problems in the individual churches along the volga, in southern russia, in vothynia, in the caucasus or in siberia. it is. perhaps important to note that the evangelical lutheran church in russia incorporated all protestants in russia ( : . million germans, . million latvians, . million estonians, . million finns). but all church leaders until had been germans. the theological faculty in dorp~t (estonia) was german, "see note german protestants in russia and the ussr and the official language of this church had been german. the church law was a high point for the baltic provinces: it meant that the peculiar position of the lutheran church in livonia, estonia and courland was legally resolved, for even here the dominant lutheran national church had become no more than a tolerated foreign denomination. in southern russia, mixed lutheran-calvinist churches which had grown together as "protestant" churches with no particular denominational status were torn apart again by the strongly lutheran character of the law . . despite its numerous deficiencies and weaknesses, the church law did in time bring about a feeling of community among protestants in the russian empire. common tasks were undertaken through the "benevolent fund for evangelical-lutheran churches in russia" (an enterprise set up in covering the whole empire), which made provision for dependants of deceased pastors, and financed the appointments of incumbents for poor churches, the building of churches and sch()ols, theological training for colonists' sons, and the setting up of new parishes. a large number of lutheran institutions (evangelical hospitals in petersburg, moscow, odessa; charitable undertakings in sarata, grobliebenthal and beideck, talovka) run by protestant nursing sisters, and the existence of a wide-spread protestant press, bear witness to the growing inner strength of this church. the decades before the revolution were characterised by intervention by the state, whose policy of russification led to what became a practically total ban on the use of the german language, even from the pulpit, when the first world war broke out. german pastors were exiled to siberia in large numbers; , germans living in volhynia were forcibly resettled away from the front lines. the brethren movement the brethren movement became characteristic not only of the evangelicals, but of all denominations in the german colonies. advocates of the wiirttemberg stunde brought the pre-conditions for the brethren movement to russia. the lack of spiritual provision for the villages brought new. members to the brethren meetings, who became "brothers" and "sisters" when they experienced revival, conversion and a spiritual rebirth. the bible became the sole guiding amburger, op. cit., p. ill. german protestants in russia and the ussr principle in their lives. a lively faith and deep piety led to a rejection of theology and science. although they were often mocked by or suffered hostility from their church environment, they contributed a great deal to moral development in the colonies in so far as the evangelical pastor was able to integrate them into church life. three preachers of revival who helped to advance the cause of the stunde in the colonies were hannes ( - ) and karl bonekemper ( - ), and eduard wiist ( - ), pastor of the autonomous lutheran church of neuhoffnung. the latter had a considerable influence even among the mennonite churches. the brethren movement reached the volga from the german settlements in southern russia. initial steps in this direction had, however, already been taken at the end of the th century when moravian brethren from sarepta (see below) established brethren circles in the volga villages, until they were expelled by the lutheran pastors. despite the tensions between the brethren and the official church, lutheran brethren did not leave their church. among the mennonites, on the other hand, the brethren movement led to a deep split and eventually provided a basis for the baptist movement in the german villages. finally, it should not be forgotten that the stunde and the brethren movement provided a strong impetus for the development of an autochthonous russian-ukrainian baptist movement ("stund- ismus") .. the moravian· brethren colony of sarepta. in the moravian brethren from the herrnhut briider-gemeinde (founded by count zinzendorf ( » established the colony of ~arepta near tsarytsyn (volgograd), kilometres south of the other volga colonies. it enjoyed more extensive privileges than the other volga villages. the actual aim of the colony - the mission to the kalmuks - had to be given up fairly quickly. pillaging py nomads, but also the pugachov rebellion, . hit sarepta harder than the other german villages and held back its economic development so severely that the colonists were forced:to concentra~e on economic survival, which was only made· possible by assistance from the tsar and from herrnhut. [german territory where the moravians took refuge when· they fled the czech lands after the counter-reformation - ed.] sarepta became known: for its mustard, tobacco, and a special blue linen (sarpinka); it also developed as a spa town. these desperate efforts naturally required the help of outsiders who were not members of the moravian brethren community. this gradually led to the german protestants in russia and -the ussr decline of spiritual life, and eventually -to the secularisation of the colony: in herrnhut recalled the last brethren who were still active -in sarepta. although from the point of view of the moravian brethren this episode was a failure, great blessings extended from sarepta to the german colonies along the volga, and later to the villages in southern russia too. many volga villages came into contact with the brethren movement through the moravian brethren, and this made them open to the later movement spreading from the german villages of southern russia. sarepta's greatest contribution consisted in providing pastors (mainly calvinist) - up till -for the colonies, and advice on spiritual matters right into the th cen.tury. sarepta's primary and secondary schools (for boys and girls) were well-known, and even russian dignitaries tried to send their childreri to school there, although this was of course forbidden by law: many lutheran pastors also sent their children - and especially their daughters - to school in sarepta. * * -* * * pre-revolutionary statistics on the denominations, which can only be taken as a guide and are at times contradictory, give a figure of so'me . to . million germans in russia in , of whom . million belonged to the evangelical-lutheran church in russia. is this figure includes some' , calvinists. the 'number of catholics was somewhere between , and , . they formed about one third of the german population along the volga and almost half of the german, population around the black sea, but were hardly represented in any other german settlements or in'the towns. the thir~ - largest group ,among the' germans in russia -- were the mennonites with their villages along the dnepr (chortitsa) and in tavriya (along the molochnaya river). the baptist movement "theophil meyer (ed:), luthers erbe in ruflland (moscow, ), p. . -this is a commemoration published in connection with the celebration of the th anniversary of the reformation. meyer was the last bishop of the evangelical-lutheran church in russia. - n the volga villages alone there were over , . see die evangelisch-lutherischen gemeinden in ruflland, pp. - " . dalton, op. cit.;gives an estimate of , calvinists among the germans along the volga and in the black sea area in . kebler, op. cit., pp. ~ .. "gerd stricker, "mennonites in russia and in the soviet union", rcl vo!. , no. , pp. - . "the molochnaya is a small river north of the sea ofazov. the principal town is molochansk. the german central villages were prischib (lutheran) and halbstadt (mennonite), present-day molochansk. german protestants in russia and the ussr played a part in the colonies from the s onwards, but statistics are very hard to come by since it often came into being in mennonite villages. o there may have been a total of about , german baptists in russia in . from the october revolution to the october revolution of brought about a completely new situation for all religious communities. the decree on the "separation of church and state", along with other laws, initially paralysed the churches, for their governing bodies had to a considerable extent been composed of government officials; expropriation deprived them of much of their income; and the ban on religious instruction challenged the church with the need to present the catechism in new ways, which were later completely prohibited. the separation of the now autonomous baltic provinces deprived the germans in russia not only of their spiritual centre, but also of the university of dorpat, with the result that theological training became a vital issue for the evangelical-lutheran church in russia. in church leaders attempted to meet the demands of the time by introducing "temporary measures", but changing circumstances - civil war, famine - brought these attempts to nothing. although the real target of the bolsheviks' anti-religious measures was the orthodox church, they also affected the other denominations .to a lesser degree (appropriation by the state of clergy dwellings, denial of ration cards to priests, denial of the vote, continuous persec- ution). , the new economic policy brought some relief to the churches for a time. thus the evangelical-lutheran church was permitted to hold a '.general synod in (the first in its ninety-year history), which granted more. rights to congregations and also to non-german lutherans (in , approximately , germans, , finns, , estonians and , latvians belonged to th~ evangelical lutheran church in russia). the new governing body was a so-called high consistory ("oberkirchenrat") composed of the general superintendents :- later bishops - of mos~ow (theophil meyer) and petrograd (arthur malmgren) as well as a non-german bishop (at first the finnish bishop palsa), and two laymen. as a result of the more conciliatory attitude of the soviet authorities l·yolhynia, with between , and , baptists (see schleuning, op. cif., p. ), on account of its proximity to the west and its late colonisation by germans from russian poland as well as from the german empire - particularly after - is an exception, since many immigrants were already baptists. i amburger, op. cif., p. . german protestants in russia and the ussr on the· one hand, and international interest on the other (the evangelical-lutheran church in russia became a member of the lutheran world congress in ), a seminary was opened in petrograd in - the so-called "theological college". it existed until , but after regular instruction was no longer possible: tutors were arrested, as were candidates and graduates. of the pastors who trained over a period of four years, only a few were able to fulfil their ministry for any length of time - sooner or later they disappeared into the camps, were forbidden to pursue their vocation, or were forced to flee. the decree on religious associations, in conjunction with the campaign of enforced collectivisation and the atheist five-year plan (commencing in ) put an end to all institutional church life in the soviet union. alongside the mass arrests of clergy, churches and chapels were systematically closed on various pretexts. the following statistics may help to clarify the situation: for the lutheran parishes in the ussr there were pastors in (figures refer to the end ofthe year.in eachcase);.in there were (reduction due to imprisonment and the so-called "flight of priests"); in there were (increase due to graduates from the seminary); in there were ; in , ; in , ; in , ; in , ; in , none or perhaps just one. bishop meyer died in and no successor was permitted. after international intervention, bishop malmgren was allowed to leave the soviet union in . in the following years, the stalinist terror destroyed not only all external manifestations of religious life, but also in part the life of faith within families, where any expression of .religion was concealed for fear of arrest. the german attack on the ussr in ushered in the end ofthe traditional german colony in russia. the exception was the ukraine, aloag the right bank of the. dnepr, where, between and , after· the rapid german advance, church life was able to develop again, . although this should be qualified by adding that normal spiritual support, provided by army chaplains, was available only during the military administration. under the civil administration, the religious communities were made more conscious of national socialist church. policy in various ways - jor example; the russian german churches were not permitted'to appoint any pastors. after the russian offensive of , the german settlers fled to the warthegau or along the elbe, where at last religion could be practised freely. "wilhelm kahle, geschichte der evangelisch-lutherischen gemeinden in der sowjet- union, - (leiden, ), pp. - , sin-ss. "the flight of some , ukrainian germans, accompanying the retreat of the german army after into the warthegau (the poznari region, now in poland) is known as the "long trek". most of the fugitives were overtaken by the red army in the german protestants in russia and the ussr the difficulties of church life for germans in the ussr after the deportation of germans following the german attack on the soviet union in made no real impact on their religious life: its institutional manifestation, for the most part, had already' been destroyed in the s. faith only survived, albeit secretly, in families who knew more absolutely and more uncompromisingly than others that they were in christ's service (these families often tended to be brethren). little is known about corporate religious life in the trudarmiya (forced labour camp). for those placed under kommendantura, the situation varied according to whether they were in barracks in the far north (e .. g. the women lumberjacks), or on kolkhozy, or in towns in central asia . .in spite of the great risk of being discovered, and the draconian punishments threatened for religious meetings, prayer groups' sprang up nearly everywhere, some of which'reached astonishing sizes, and, most even managed to provide religious instruction for· children. physical, emotional and spiritual needs brought together, people who were accustomed to praying, and enabled them to forget their denominational divisions: lutherans, calvinists, mennonites of all types, baptists, adventists, pentecostals -:- and many catholics, too - put, into practice a russian-german "ecumenism of the first hour" after . birthdays, anniversaries, and other similar occasions, as well as visiting the sick, all served as ' pretexts for meetings in the case of checks. over a period of time, funerals, which were rarely disturbed by the authorities, became occasions for a open display of religious life, even taking on the role of missionary meetings. these multi~denominational home prayer groups were mainly 'icomposed of women, since most· able~bodied men were' in labour camps. if there were no older men available, the women assumed leadership. from the start; these prayer groups had a brethren- pietistic character, and this facilitated collaboration between the warthegau in . some managed to flee as far as the elbe before being overtaken by soviet troops. about , settled in the west but many of them were discovered by soviet search parties and were handed over to the soviet union by the briti'sh and american military authorities. they were promptly "repatriated" - i.e. sent to join the other germans in siberia and central asia. see note ". . ,. trudarmiya (labouring army): the whole able-bodied population - men bet~een the ages of and sixty, and women too as long as they did not have any children under years old - were sent to these forced labour camps. the compulsory places of exile for old people and women with children were called kommendantura - kolkhozy and industrial towns in central asia and siberia. they lived freely in the towns and villages designated, but had to report regularly (weekly at first) to the local nkvd commander. german protestants in russia and the ussr various denominations. very few bibles and hymn books survived the deportation: everything had to be written down by hand from memory. even today, church life would be inconceivable without the circulation of handwritten texts because there is not enough spiritual literature available. for example, even in officially permitted ("registered") baptist churches -. which are in a relatively good position - ius still customary for each verse to be read out beforeit is sung, ·since there are no hymn books . . after. the· end of the war the situation improved a little for germans in labour camps and under kommendantura. prayer meetings grew in number and size; of course, one of the reasons for this was that the camps and settlements had been filled with "repatriated" germans from the warthegau. in the early s, the deported germans experienced revival on an unprecedented scale - like the earlier revivals among the german colonies in russia, which resulted in thousands of people being converted and joining the brethren communities. after almost a decade, the women handed back their positions of leadership in the churches to the men. the relaxation of pressure and growth of meetings, and probably also the ~ncreasing influence of the men, gave rise again to matters of principle; in particular, the old issue of infant or adult baptism, on which even the brethreri are divided, led to petty jealousies, quarrels, and finally to splits. lutherans, for example, were already accusing baptists and mennonite-brethren of "fishing in our ponds", taking their members away. the "ecumenism of the first hour" had disintegrated; denominational boundaries came· into their own again. the amnesty of led to the mass migration of germans from the arctic zone to central asia and western siberia, areas to which many germans had been deported in . in nearly every case this wasilby no means an unplanned flight but a deliberate reunion with one's family and former neighbours. for those with religious ties, it also meant a reunion with their particular church fellowship, which the women had already set up in central asia. when the m.igration from the arctic zone was over, a certain degree of stability was achieved on the religious front. when today one considers the colourful picture of german religious life in ajma-ata, karaganda, novosibirsk, frunze, etc. (which received fresh impetus at that time), one can only marvel at the development. within the churches there were - and still are - widely differing views of the situation. many thought that by continuing to exist "the amnesty for germans in the soviet union was one of the results (along with the release of the last german prisoners of war) achieved by dr konrad adenauer, the first german federal chancellor, when he visited moscow in . german protestants in russia and the ussr illegally the preservation of their inner freedom amidst a soviet- athei~tic environment of constant persecution would be guaranteed. others considered this to be a dead end: in order to develop a thriving church life it was, in their view, necessary to be registered officially- registration being the prerequisite for opening a prayer house - and this would at the same time bring to an end persecution of the church and its members. they felt that the . church could not attain inner peace in the state of constant shuttling flux between toleration and persecution to which. a church existing illegally. is inevitably condemned. in the' lutheran pastor eugen bachmann succeeded, once he had drawn together the various lutheran groups in the town, in registering a german lutheran church . with the authorities in akmolinsk (tselinograd). the church erected a prayer house with accommodation for the pastor - everything seemed to be in order. but a propaganda campaign was unleashed in the press against the pastor, time and again the church building was closed on various pretexts, the membership came under strict control and the pastor himself was harassed, blackmailed and provoked. he was no longer permitted to go and visit german churches as he had many times in the past (even as far afield as the komi assr): he was only allowed to work in tselinograd. he had to display notices on the church door reading "no young people under years old". in order not to have the church's registration revoked, bachmann found himself com- pelled to make compromises which whole sections of the congreg- ation, particularly the brethren, were not willing to accept. the new religious decree of for the rsfsr (in common with those for the other soviet republics) makes the position of the registered churches even more complicated~ it is the most restrictive law on religion in soviet history. basically, every form of corporate 'i work is forbidden - only the actual "cult observance" is specifically allowed. the appropriate authorities have to be informed of baptisms, weddings, and other church activities,and also given the names and addresses of godparents or witnesses. the pastor ("cult servant") is an employee of the church leadership ("executive organ"), of which he is not allowed to be a member. the three members of this body can be rejected by the plenipotentiary for religjous affairs, and people of his choice (called "spies" or "traitors") can be put in their place. even for the little that is guaranteed in the decree, there is no legal entitlement (e.g. to registration). thus the life of registered "thus only a very few german churches were able to register before the s, although many illegal churches had sought registration - not only with the legally required dvadsatka ("twenty"), but often with hundreds of signatures. the lutheran churches in alma-ata and semipalatinsk, for example, spent seven to ten years requesting permission to register .before it was finally granted. german protestants in russia and the ussr churches is' subject to numerous controls, limitations, inducements and oppression, even though there are many flourishing registered churches where this is not always perceptible. there was no opportunity, however, for german churches to gain experience of registration even after a precedent had been set in tselinograd: no other german churches were permitted to register until after - and then only sporadically. between these registrations came khrushchev's religious persecution ( - ).· a number of churches ("beichtkreise") were established on the short term in the baltic republics in the s, and in the moldavian ssr in the s, when a total of some , to· , russian-germans who wail;ted to emigrate moved into these areas so that they could more easily leave for west germany. since about , there have been no problems in registering german churches - if anything, the authorities are positively encouraging it - which is a fundamental change in soviet policy on the registration of german churches. by permitting german churches to register, the authorities hope to counteract the "emigration psychosis" and quell discontent. this tendency is documented by statistics given in by v. a. kuroyedov, who was then chairman of the council for religious affairs: between and , religious communities were registered in the whole of the ussr, while , lost their registration. of the newly .registered communities, were orthodox, forty catholic, muslim and no less than german lutheran. the authorities have become more liberal towards german churches in recent years not only with regard to registration: it appears to be possible to have more in the way of church activities than used to be the case - although this varies from region to region. thus many churches are able to develop their youth work in relative freedom (for soviet circumstances), although the "executive organ" and "cult servant" have to turn a blind eye to these activities, since they could at any time be called to account for such developments. by permitting a limited degree of freedom, the authorities hope to persuade german parishes which have not yet registered to do so - in order to gain more extensive control. this is probably also the reason why, for a number of years, german mennonite churches .have been allowed to register autonomously, although from the point of view of their beliefs they should have been registered as member churches of the all-union council of evangelical christians and baptists. whereas vladimir a. kuroyedov, re/igiya i tserkov v sovetskom obshchestve (moscow, ), p. . at christmas , superintendent harald kalnins reported· that he knew of lutheran churches (both registered and unregistered); in the summer of he spoke of a total of lutheran churches, of which were then registered. german protestants in russia and the ussr previously registration was, basically only possible for a large association with a central hierarchical leadership (orthodox, baptists; catholics in lithuania and latvia), the authorities now often dispense with the need for this sort of structure if a church will only come out into the open. on the other hand, catholics in asia (mostly multi-national) and purely german churches· (lutherans, church mennonites and mennonite brethren) are only allowed to register autonomously, as separate bodies - they are not allowed to form an umbrella organisation. with regard to the catholics, this is because they are the most uncomfortable church for soviet ideologists; the lutherans are not allowed to unite because the soviet authorities want at all costs to avoid any supra-regional associations of germans, ahd do not want to set a precedent by allowing church organisations. despite a certain degree of accommodation by the soviet authorities on a regional basis, it is also part of today's totally contradictory picture that at the same time there are registered churches which are breaking apart because of the policy of destruction from within carried out by kgb-directed church members, church leaders, and sometimes even pastors. the problem of theological training varies in iritensity for the individual denominations. baptists, mennonites, adventists, and pentecostals have always chosen their pastors from their own ranks; out of necessity the lutherans are also doing this now - but even from the ranks of the lutheran brethren there are calls for a theological training centre to nurture spiritual authority and thereby avoid the danger of becoming a sect. catholics occasionally send germans to study at the seminaries in riga (latvia) , or kaunas (lithuania). finally, the progressive loss of the german language among the younger generation poses problems for the german churches in the soviet union - which seriously undermines their sense of identity and even calls into question their survival. there are currently about million germans in the ussr. thus, numerically, they are the fourteenth nation in the ussr. there are more germans in the ussr than estonians or latvians, who have their own republics, and more germans t~an tatars or komis, who live in autonomous regions. until , the germans in russia were almost exclusively farmers or lived in the country, but now more than fifty per cent of them are town-dwellers in kazakhstan, turkmen- "such as an "evangelical-lutheran church for germans in the soviet union". a "conference of german mennonites" or a "conference of autonomous mennonite- brethren" . ' census. german protestants in russia and the ussr istan, uzbekistan and western siberia. while the amnesty had allowed the deported germans to leave the arctic zone, it did not permit them to settle in the european part of the ussr. in the' germans were cleared of the charge that had given rise to their deportation, namely that they were fifth-columnists who had supported hitler's invasion of the ussr. the deportation of the germans was now declared to have been an arbitrary action by stalin. yet' despite their rehabilitation, the germans did not receive permission to return to their former settlements. this was given in a secret decree of , which only a few came to know about. even so, there are a few germans living in the area of the old volga settlements again. most germans have grown accustomed to their new homes, of course, and have no intention of going back - especially since only the old people remember the former settlements. in this respect, alleged plans to 'create an autonomous area for germans are now probably too late. perhaps just a small number of all the germans in' the ussr would resettle there. the young germans in the soviet union now speak only a little german, and then not' high german, but their regional dialects (that of niederhessen for the volga germans; swabian for the black sea germans; and a mixture of dialects). even where a large percentage of the population is german; as is the case in many towns, germans are not allowed to have their own school there, are directives, of course, that german lessons should be provided in schools for those whose mother tongue it is and whose parents request it, providing there is a certain minimum number (ten pupils); but these directives are often deliberately obstructed by the regional or local administration, or unwittingly neglected. the hours allowed are far too few (a maximum of three to four hours a week, and only one to two hours a week in the higher classes); and german lessons for germans are often transferred to lunchtime or the afternoon, so the pupils are not motivated. because of very small print-runs, there are hardly any text boeks. mostgerman pupils only have the opportunity to learn german as a foreign language - as it is taught to kazakhsor russians. what is learned is minimal, and often the result is just frustration. the few german pupils who live near schools where german is taught as a main foreign language (with a high number of german lessons) are forturiate, as are,those who live near special schools, where, as, well as german language lessons, various other ji dziennik po/ski, london, quoted in deutscher ostdienst of february , noted that the possibility of creating an autonomous region for germans in western siberia (centred around slavgorod) was receiving official consideration. " " "of all those who claim german nationality, only per cent speak german as their first language. the rest can speak only a limited amount of german - and the younger they are, the more this amount decreases. german protestants in russia and the ussr subjects are taught in german (in some cities). generally speaking, however, parents have at best the opportunity of fighting for german lessons. german lutheran churches in the ussr the fresh start made by german lutherans in the ussr after would have been inconceivable without the brethren communities, who (unlike the mennonite-brethren) broke away from their mother church in only a few instances. this explains the brethren features of lutheran church life among the germans in the soviet union. on the other hand, significant impetus for post- developments also came from the lutheran tradition: in pastor eugenbachmann of tselinograd was able to register a german church for the .first time since ; pastor arthur pfeiffer of moscow organised the provision of spiritual literature for the churches which were still illegal, and tried, without success, to effect organisational unity between the estonian lutheran church and the german lutherans in russia; pastors hannes schlundt (who served in prokhladny, caucasus, - ), bachmann and pfeiffer undertook lengthy, dangerous journeys to minister to the scattered churches; they also gave theological instruction to those preachers chosen by the churches whom < they considered < to < be gifted, and ordained them as pastors. < < however, < these men did not always exhibit the human and vocational qualities needed, which put even more of a strain on the already tense relationship between church lutherans and lutheran brethren (the latter, who saw themselves as the "chosen", often looked down on the "worldly" church lutherans), particularly as the 'i newly ordained pastors· came mostly from the ranks. of the brethren. both traditions have their own form of church life: church lutherans celebrate their sunday service (which generally lasts two hours) according to the old liturgy. during the service, ordained pastors preach a sermon or lay preachers read a prepared sermon. the sacraments - baptism and communion - are supposed to be administered by ordained pastors, as are sermons and confirmation, but as there are currently only about sixty pastors for german lutheran churches (registered and unregistered), it has not been "this comprehensive liturgy was part of the church decree. naturally it has been modified slightly (and excludes intercessions for the royal family). "printed sermons from the th and th centuries are preferred (e.g. brastberger, modersohn). german protestants in russia and the ussr possible to establish hard and fast rules. in many churches, communion is still distributed to lutherans and calvinists in different ways: lutherans receive the consecrated wafer and wine while kneeling, whereas reformed believers stand to receiveunleavened bread and wine .. the sermon is always the focal point. lutheran brethren hold their. "meetings" after the service, and also on wednesdays and saturdays, when they sing brethren hymns and three or four brothers "bring the word" (preach on bible passages they have selected· themselves and appeal for repentance and conver- sion). church youth work, officially not permitted,'. is generally undertaken in the choir, which provides a framework for all the charitable and social work which the churches carry out il- legally. since the lutheran churches generally adhere uncompromisingly to the language of the reformer, there are serious difficulties with the younger generation who still know only a little german: many young people drift away to the evangelical christians and baptists, who have strong mennonite german sections in the german settlements, are very active with regard to mission, offer an attractive youth programme, and, while encouraging the use of german, do not oppose the use of russian. the pentecostals too are making inroads among the lutherans in this way. the lutheran w orid federation declared its interest in the german lutherans in russia many years ago and, with the permission of the soviet authorities, has been able to send bibles, hymn books and copies of the liturgy to these churches on a number of occasions. in they finally succeeded in gaining official recognition of senior pastor. harald . kalnins from riga as superintendent of the german lutheran churches in the· ussr. he had been allowed to visit the gefman,churchesperiodically since the death or emigration between and of the last three pastors who had received theological training. however, kalnins has no right of jurisdiction: he is allowed to visit his churches from time to time; but he was not allowed to participate in the congress of the lutheran w orid federation in budapest-he ordains preachers as pastors, instructs churches, settles disputes, and distributes books received - which obviously berrefit only the registered churches. there are just sixty ordained pastors available (with no theological training as such) for the approximately registered german lutheran churches ( of these in the area of the old volga colonies). kalnins is not allowed to ordain any pastors for the approximately unregistered churches. j wilhelm kahle, die' lutherischen kirchen und gemeinden in der sowjetunion seit / (giitersloh, ), p. .. german protestants in russia and the ussr to the present day there are hopes that the german lutheran church in russia will one day be allowed to have its own church organisation headed by a bishop (kalnins). at the end of , however, there were various indications that the soviet authorities might want to bypass kalnins; and were considering a union between the germans in russia and the lutheran church of estonia or latvia; the leadership of both these churches is sceptical about such plans --.:. after all, with at least , to , active members and probably some three hundred registered churches soon, the german lutheran church in russia is much larger than the estonian and latvian lutheran churches combined. such a union would at least ease the problem of theological training: german lutherans from russia would be able to study at the theological institutes in tallinn or riga, something which has so far not been possible because there is no overlapping german church organisation .. prospects it is still possible to talk of church life among the germans in the ussr. the religious communities were, and continue to be, the only institutions with a broad influence which deliberately resist russification and see.the preservation of the german language and a national identity as their responsibility. for all of them, the question as to whether they. will be able to preserve their national and denominational identity if the german language is lost is growing more pressing. most lutherans and mennonites reply to this question with a blunt negative, for in many cases their churches are threatened with depopulation, whereas churches like the baptists and mennonite- 'brethren, who allow the coexistence of both languages, can point with pride to flourishing youth work. it is argued that the churches of all denominations should switch quickly to using russian in their services, before they lose. their young people. those who have studied the situation carefully are very sceptical about such generalised advice,offered from a distance: if the mennonite-brethren switched to russian th~y would encounter in the russian and ukrainian evangelical christians and baptists a denomination closely related to their own with regard to dogma and theology, and with an already established identity as a church, so that, as is already evident, they would lose their specific mennonite identity. for the german catholics in russia, the national element has never been as important as it has for the lutherans, for example, so the loss of the german language would not trouble the basis of faith german protestants in russia and the ussr of german catholics to the same extent. it is quite different for the lutherans who, to a large extent, feel bound to the language of the reformer and to a germanic way of life: for them it would mean introducing something totally 'new, foreign even, into russian spirituality, and in the process purging everything specifically german. what is to be feared, according to insiders, is that if the russian language were adopted, many german lutheran families would lose not only their language but also their denomination, and fall prey to the religious indifference widespread in the ussr - or that they would turn to the established church of the evangelical christians and baptists or even to the pentecostals. on the other hand, more recent studies have shown that even when germans in russia do lose the german language, they still preserve their national identity - and that this offers a possibility for resisting the general programme of russification and similar attempts by the state to level everything out, and for encouraging the preservation of their separate identity. the religious communities have made a considerable contribution towards preserving the german language and a sense of national identity. but it is clear that they will not be able to do this for much longer without' any institutions to attract a . german-speaking intelligentsia and leadership, and this applies to the theological sphere as well. without far-reaching soviet concessions on linguistic and cultural encouragement of the german minority in the ussr, painful developments - from a religious point of view too - will be inevitable. translated from german by g. ablitt bibliography of british columbia compiled by franges m. woodward, reference librarian, special collec- tions division, university of british columbia library. books [alaska geographic society] the stikine river. (alaska geographic, v. no. .) anchorage, alaska geographic society, . p., ill. anthony, harry antoniades. la défense à paris, le quartier d'affaires de vancouver: une comparaison urbaine. (human settlement issues, occa- sional papers.) vancouver, centre for human settlements, university of british columbia, . p., ill. $ . . arthur, elizabeth. island sojourn. don mills, fitzhenry & whiteside [ ] xv, p. $ . . - - - . bain, donald m. canadian pacific in the rockies. calgary, calgary group of the british railway modellers of north america, . bauer, gwen. history of seymour arm. celista, . p., ill. $ . . crumb, lawrence n. historic preservation in the pacific northwest: a bibliography of sources, - ; july . (cpl bibliography no. .) chicago, cpl bibliographies, . vi, p. $ . . ericksen-brown, charlotte. use of plants for the past § years. aurora, o n t , breezy creeks press, . xxiv, p., ill. - - - ; - - - pa. girl guides of canada, british columbia council. sixty years and more: a british columbia dictionary especially for guides. vancouver, . p., ill. g l e n , j., sr. where the rivers meet: the story of the settlement of the bulkley valley. duncan, new rapier press, . p., ill. $ . . grumet, robert steven. native americans of the northwest coast: a critical bibliography. (the newberry library center for the history of the american indian bibliographical series.) bloomington, london, published for the newberry library [by the] indiana university press, . xvii, p., ill. - - - . ju ly Ï . publications of municipal governments and regional districts appear at the end of government publications. isbn (international standard book number). bc s t u d i e s , no. , autumn bibliography h u n g r y w o l f , adolf. rails in the canadian rockies. nd ed. i n v e r m e r e , b.c., g o o d m e d i c i n e books, . [iv] p . , ill. $ . . - - - . k e e n e , r o g e r , a n d d a v i d c . h u m p h r e y s . conversations with w. a. c. bennett; based o n a series of interviews conducted by roger k e e n e , b a c k g r o u n d scenario by d a v i d g. h u m p h r e y s . t o r o n t o , m e t h u e n , , xii, p., ill. $ . . - - - . k i m b e r l e y s e n i o r c i t i z e n s h i s t o r y b o o k c o m m i t t e e . mountain trea- sures. marysville, c o m m i t t e e , . p . , ill. k o p a s , cliff. bella coola. v a n c o u v e r , douglas & m c l n t y r e , . p . , ill. $ . . - - - p a . m e n n o n i t e b e n e v o l e n t society o f b.c. the beginning and the work of the mennonite benevolent society in b.c. from un^l i ^- [abbotsford] society, . p . , ill. - - - . i n english a n d g e r m a n . cover title: miracle on m a r s h a l l r o a d : years of the m e n - n o n i t e benevolent society of b.c. - . m u n i c i p a l h i s t o r i c a l society. "your worship, members of council"; highlights from municipal reform movements in the lower mainland. v a n c o u v e r , society, . p . $ . . n i c h o l s o n , n o r m a n l. the boundaries of the canadian confederation. ( c a r l e t o n l i b r a r y no. .) t o r o n t o , published by m a c m i l l a n of c a n a d a in association with t h e i n s t i t u t e of c a n a d i a n studies, c a r l e t o n university, . xi, p . , ill. - - - p a . p e t e r s , g e r h a r d i . a history of the first mennonite church, greendale, b.c. g r e e n d a l e , first m e n n o n i t e c h u r c h , . iv, p . , ill. $ . . - - - . q u i m b y , george irving, a n d bill h o l m . edward curtis in the land of the war canoes. v a n c o u v e r , douglas & m c l n t y r e , . p . , e z. $ . . - - - . r i c h a r d s , j o h n b. baptists in british columbia: a struggle to maintain "sectarianism." v a n c o u v e r , n o r t h w e s t baptist theological college a n d seminary, . p . r o y , p a t r i c i a e . vancouver: an illustrated history. t o r o n t o , j a m e s l o r i - m e r , . ill. $ . . s t e i n e r , s t a n . fusang: the chinese who built america. n e w york, h a r p e r & r o w , . vi., p . $ . ; $ - p a - - - - p a . s u r t e e s , u r s u l a . sunshine and butterflies: a short history of fruit ranching in kelowna. k e l o w n a , r e g a t t a city press, . p . , ill. w h e e l e r , m a r i l y n , c o m p . & ed. the rob son valley story; sketches by j o h n wheeler. s.l; p r o d u c e d w i t h t h e help of t h e government of c a n a d a ' s n e w horizons p r o g r a m m e by t h e m c b r i d e robson valley story g r o u p , * - v u * j p. ill. $ . . - - - . bg studies w i l s o n , j . d o n a l d , a n d d a v i d c. jo n es, eds. schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia. calgary, detselig enterprises l i m i t e d , . p . - - - . government publications b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , m i n i s t r y o f e n e r g y , m i n e s and p e t r o l e u m r e - s o u r c e s . an energy secure british columbia; the challenge and the opportunity ; f e b r u a r y . victoria, . p . , m i n i s t r y o f e n v i r o n m e n t , h a b i t a t protection. assessment of the impact of the kemano ii proposal on the fish and wildlife resources of the naniko-kidprice and morice systems [based on fieldwork partially funded by british c o l u m b i a h y d r o a n d power a u t h o r i t y ] victoria, . v. — , m i n i s t r y o f f o r e s t s , information services b r a n c h . ecology and management of the grasslands and forested rangelands of interior british columbia: an annotated bibliography, by d r . r. m . strang. revised ed. victoria, . v, p . v a l u a t i o n b r a n c h . log salvage for discussion purposes on proposed log salvage regulations, log salvage permit and log reviewing station licence; j a n u a r y . (ministry of forests w h i t e p a p e r no. .) victoria, . p . , m i n i s t r y o f l a n d s , p a r k s and h o u s i n g , parks a n d o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n division. cave resources in british columbia; a discussion paper; j a n u a r y . victoria, . , p . , m i n i s t r y o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and h i g h w a y s . a short illustrated history of roads in british columbia. victoria, . p . , ill. canada, m i n i s t r y o f i n d i a n and n o r t h e r n a f f a i r s , parks c a n a d a , western region. ^kicking horse chronicle. o t t a w a , . [ ] p . , ill. n o . q s - w - - e e - a i . , p u b l i c a r c h i v e s , public records division. sources for the study of canada's national parks, by t e r r y cook. (special publications series.) o t t a w a , . p . articles a l l e n , c . h e a t h e r . "british c o l u m b i a : h o r s e logging: a n economical, ecological alternative," westworld, v. n o . (july-august ) , p p . - , ill. " a n n u a l industrial l a n d listing," b.c. business, v. n o . ( j u n e ) , p p . - , ill. for a more complete list of british columbia government publications see the monthly checklist compiled by the legislative library, victoria, b.c. bibliography " a r e a r e p o r t : peace r i v e r - l i a r d r e g i o n , " b.c. business, v. no. ( j u n e ) , p p . - , ill. a s a n t e , n a d i n e . "fish o u t of w a t e r , " democrat, v. no. ( m a y ) , p p . - , ill. b a r m a n , j e a n . " g r o w i n g u p british in british c o l u m b i a : the v e r n o n p r e p a r a t o r y school - ," in schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia, edited by j. d o n a l d wilson a n d d o n a l d c . j o n e s ( ) , p p . - . b e r n s o h n , k e n . " l u m b e r m a r k e t i n g : h o w they play the g a m e , " forestalk, v. n o . ( s u m m e r ), p p . - , ill. b u r g e s , a n t h o n y w . " m o v i n g grain from o u r west t o the far east," cana- dian geographic, v. no. ( j u n e / j u l y ) , p p . - , ill. "business electronics," b.c. business, v. no. ( j u n e ), p p . , n o , , , ill. " c a n d i v e ' s phil n u y t t e n : b o a r d r o o m r e n e g a d e , " b.c. business, v. n o . ( j u n e ) , p p . - , ill. c a r l s o n , barry f . , a n d j o h n t h o m a s . " t h e n i t i n a h t inferential," anthro- pological linguistics, v. no. ( o c t o b e r ), p p . - . c a r m i g h a e l , j a c k . " t y e e m a n , " bc outdoors, v. no. ( j u n e ) , p p . - , ill. c a r t e r , n o r m a n . " c h i n a t o w n treasures," western living, v. n o . (july ) , p p . - , ill. c l a r k , cecil. " t h e life a n d times of — bill bagley," scarlet & gold, v. [ Ï ] pp- - , hi c o l c h e s t e r , g a r r y m . " t h e old c o u r t h o u s e a t n e w westminster," vancouver history, v. no. ( m a y ), p p . - , ill. c o l e , douglas. "sigismund baestrom's northwest coast drawings a n d a n a c c o u n t of his curious career," bc studies, n o . ( s u m m e r ) , p p . - . " c o m p a n y story: a r r o w t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , " b.c. business, v. no. ( j u n e i o ) \ p p - , , ill. " c o m p a n y story: carolin m i n e s , " b.c. business, v. no. ( j u n e ) , p p . , , ill. c o w e l l , d o u g . " r a p a t t a c k , " forestalk, v. n o . (spring ) , p p . - , ill. d a n y l c h u k , j a c k . " f o r e s t a l k interviews: d r . i a n m c t a g g a r t - c o w a n , " forestalk, v. n o . (spring ) , p p . - , ill. d o p p , wolfram, a n d peter jiingst. " ' c o m p a n y t o w n s ' des erzbergbaus in d e n k a n a d i s c h e n kordilleren — griindungsmotive u n d planungsprinzi- p i e n , " urbs et regio, v. ( ) , s o n d e r b a n d : s t a d t u n d gesell- schaft soziookonomische aspekte v o n stadtentwicklung, p p . - , ill. bg studies d u n n , timothy a. "the rise of mass public schooling in british columbia, - ," in schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia, edited by j. donald wilson and david c. jones ( ), pp. - . e k l o w , j. " "the loggers' navy,' all's well aboard 'ethelda'," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), p. . ellis, grant. "modern technology: better, faster and made in b.c.," forestalk, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. . "people: john hetherington," forestalk, v. no. (summer ), pp. - , ill. "the film industry: $ million in b.c.," b.c. business, v. no. (june ), p p . , . gallagher, chris. "great vancouver cliches, part two : pictures of para- dise," vancouver, v. no. (july ), pp. - , #'• "the gastown story . . . no happy ending — yet," heritage west, v. no. ( s p r i n g ) , p p . - , ill. goa, david j. "the doukhobors," canadian collector, v. no. (jan./ feb. ), pp. - , ill. grant, peter. "foresttalk interviews: dr. peter pearse," forestalk, v. no. (summer ), pp. - , ill. . "forest issues: undercutting or overcutting: the rate of harvest debate," forestalk, v. no. (summer ), pp. - , ill. . "multiple-use on trial in the kootenays," forestalk, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. gray-grant, daphne. "bc studies: academic but not deadly," ubc alumni chronicle, v. no. (summer ), pp. - , ill. greer, rosamond. "a summer place [gibsons]" westworld, v. no. (july/august ), pp. - , ill. g r i f f i t h s , alison. "athletes are made not born," vancouver, v. no. (june ), pp. - , , ill. guthrie, n. gregor. "japan becomes canada's no. trading partner," canadian geographic, v. no. (june/july ), pp. - , ill. gutstein, donald. "the green city," photographs by alan zenuk, van- couver, v. no. (june ), pp. - , ill. harris, r. c. (bob). "crossover [garibaldi p a r k ] " bc outdoors, v. no. (june ), pp. - , , , ill. harris, e. a. "car that could: an epic model t journey half a century ago to horsefly via spuzzum," bc outdoors, v. no. (july ), pp. - , - , ill herger, bob. "marble canyon," westworld, v. no. (july/august ), pp. , , , ill bibliography h e s s , thorn. "a comparison of marine and riverine orientation vocabulary in two coast salish languages/' anthropological linguistics, v. no. (november ), pp. - , ill. hilliker, j. f. "the british columbia franchise and canadian relations with india in wartime, - /' bc studies, no. (summer ), p p . - . hodgins, jack. "bus griffiths: a legend all unknowing," westworld, v. no. (july/august ), pp. - , - , , ill. h o l e , jack. " 'blubber bay . . . a resume'," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), pp. - , ill. holmgren, eric j. "some early travellers' accounts of alberta," canadian collector, v. no. (january/february ), pp. - , ill. horrall, s. w. "the royal north-west mounted police and labour unrest in western canada, ," canadian historical review, v. no. (june ), pp. - . h u m e , mark. "death of a salmon stream: riley creek is a mud-choked statement about a policy that's gone woefully wrong," bc outdoors, v. no. (july ), pp. - , , ill. hunter, bob. "fighting back : saving whales was one thing. ramming the whalers was something else again," vancouver, v. no. (june ), pp* - , , ill. "ici real estate: investors move south," b.c. business, v. no. (june ), pp. - , ill. "interview: fording coal president jack morrish," b.c. business, v. no. ( j u n e ) , p p . , , , ill. jardine, don. "rossland's heritage project," heritage west, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. j o h n s t o n , elizabeth lee. "the lure of the land: five realtors discuss the market on the coast and in the fraser valley," vancouver calendar magazine, v. no. (june to july , ), pp. - , ill. j o n e s , david c. "the strategy of railway abandonment: the great north- ern in washington and british columbia, - ," western histori- cal quarterly, v. no. (april ), pp. - , ill. . "the zeitgeist of western settlement: education and the myth of the land," in schooling and society in twentieth century british colum- bia, edited by j. donald wilson and donald c. jones ( ), pp. - . lamirande, emilien. "l'établissement espagnol de nootka ( - ) et ses aspects religieux: confirmation des traditions orales," revue de l'uni- versité d'ottawa, v. no. (juil./sept. ), pp. - . larmour, jean. "edgar dewdney indian commissioner in the transition period of indian settlement, - ," saskatchewan history, v. no. (winter ), pp. - , ill. bg s t u d i e s lembcke, jerry. "introduction: the iwa's formative years," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), pp. - , ill. lucich, doris. "people: toke meeker," forestalk, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill lundstrum, fred, and myrtle bergren. " — the first test," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), pp. - , ill. m c g e o w n , mary g. "john macoun," alberta history, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ^« macneil, grant. "the blubber bay strike," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), pp. - , ill. "a man [oscar orr] worth mentioning," scarlet & gold, v. [ ] pp. - , ill. m a n n , jean. "g. m. weir and h. b. king: progressive education or educa- tion for the progressive state?" in schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia, edited by j. donald wilson and david g. jones ( ), pp. - . matters, diane l. "the boys' industrial school: education for juvenile offenders," in schooling and society in twentieth century british colum- bia, edited by j. donald wilson and david g. jones ( ), pp. - . mattison, david. "beyond words : g. s. bailey's photographic life," van- couver history, v. no. (may ), pp. - , ill. mercer, michael. "as others see us," vancouver calendar magazine, v. no. (june to july , ), pp. - , ill. m i l l s , thora mcllroy. "memorial to the pack animals," beaver, outfit no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. moore, jack. "two spires toward heaven," western living, v. no. (july ), pp. - , ill. m u r p h y , peter e. "tourism management using land use planning and landscape design : the victoria experience," canadian geographer, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. [niwinski, alice] "art in the community: four galleries show and tell," urban reader, v. no. ( ), pp. - , ill. o b e e , bruce. "the forest rangers of powell river," forestalk, v. no. (summer ), pp. - , *̂ « o l s e n , m. j. "s. f. tolmie," scarlet & gold, v. [ ] pp. - , ill o l s o n , elizabeth, and andrew scott. "ghost town revival," western living, v. no. (june ), pp. - , ill. parkins, al. "saga of the loggers' navy," labour history, v. no. (winter / ), pp. - , ill. bibliography "pinus contorta d. douglas ex loudon, shore pine, lodgepole pine, member of the family pinaceae," davidsonia, v. no. (winter ), pp. - , ill read, nicholas. "mother came from shanghai," vancouver, v. no. (july ), pp. - , ill rettig, andrew. "a nativist movement at metlakatla mission," bc studies, no. (summer ), pp. - . "the robert j. filberg estate at comox," heritage west, v. no. (spring ) , p p . - , ill robertson, don. "a new lease: now unfurbished, old watson mansion fell into neglect when builder's fiancee spurned him," bc outdoors, v. no. (june ), pp. - , , ill. rogers, edward s. "indian life in spring," illustrations by lee r. updike, beaver, outfit no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. sanchez, joseph p. "pedro de alberni and the spanish claim to nootka: the catalonian volunteers on the northwest coast," pacific northwest quarterly, v. no. (april ), pp. - , ill. scott, andrew. "captain cook: charting and changing the northwest coast," antiques & art, v. no. (july/august ), pp. - , ill. . "the david family of mount pleasant," heritage west, v. no. (spring ), pp. - , ill. . "leisure land for sale," western living, v. no. (june ), pp- - ? > °> , , > > m- scudamore, joy. "the greater vancouver library federation . . . sharing resources," bcla reporter, v. no. (may/june ), pp. - , ill. s h e w c h u k , murphy. "alexandra's bridges," bc outdoors, v. no. (july ), p. , ill. stadum, lloyd m. "french line's motorship oregon of /' sea chest, v. no. (march ), pp. - , ill. . "grace line's santa rosa class liners," sea chest, v. no. (march ), pp. - , ill. stain sby, donald. "our record is dismal . . . in the destruction of native animal species," bc outdoors, v. no. (june ), pp. - , - , ill. — . "a place to belong: . . . brunswick beach," bc outdoors, v. no. (july ), pp. - , , ill. [steel] b.c. business, v. no. (june ), pp. - , , , . stewart, maryalice h. "the mountains in maps," canadian collector, v. no. (january/february ), pp. - , ill. bg studies swagerty, william r. "marriage and settlement patterns of rocky moun- tain trappers and traders," western historical quarterly, v. u no. (april ), pp. - . t e n n a n t , paul. "vancouver civic politics, - ," bc studies, no. (summer ), pp. - . "they came east [the chinese who immigrated to b.c.]" urban reader, v. no. ( ), pp. - , ill. t h o m p s o n , wilbur b. "ss idaho - ," sea chest, v. no. (march ), - , ill trower, peter. "dead man's ticket," vancouver, v. no. (july ), pp. - , - , ill. [ubc alumni association] "achievement and challenge: a report from the ubc alumni fund," ubc alumni chronicle, v. no. (summer ) , p p . - , , ill. vogt, jurgen. "banners up! our summer street banners will feature a comic cast from len nonis cartoons," vancouver calendar magazine, v. no. (june to july , ), pp. - , ill. waddell, steve. "mother came from mission," vancouver, v. no. (july ), pp. - , - , ill. wallace, gray. "it's a smash! victoria's sparkling new crystal gardens," western living, v. no. (july ), pp. - , ill. w e i s s , gillian. "an essential year for the child: the kindergarten in british columbia," in schooling and society in twentieth century british colum- bia, edited by j. donald wilson and david c. jones ( ), pp. - . wilson, j. donald. "introduction: the historiography of british columbia educational history," in schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia, edited by j. donald wilson and david c. jones ( ) , p p . - . wiseman, les. "great vancouver cliches, part one: the view from to- ronto," vancouver, v. no. (june ), pp. - , - , , - , ill. wood, daniel. "the night the earth moved : how vancouver will face the unthinkable," vancouver, v. no. (july ), pp. - , ill. woodward, frances m. "the history of education in british columbia: a selected bibliography," in schooling and society in twentieth century british columbia, edited by j. donald wilson and david c. jones ( ), pp. - . wootton, george. "focus on george wootton, director of vancouver public library," interviewed by barbara barak and john black, bcla reporter, v. no. (may/june ), pp. - , ill. wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ o fall c r d - ^ , <?l interdisciplinary quarterly of russian, eurasian, and east european studies editor mark d. steinberg m a n a g i n g e d i t o r , j a n e t. h e d g e s e d i t o r i a l assistants steven g. j u g oleksandra s h c h u r r o b e r t l. w h i t i n g editorial board history j o h n connelly, university of california, berkeley • yaroslav hrytsak, l'viv national university a n d central european university, budapest • a d e e b khalid, carleton college • william rosenberg, university of michigan • maria todorova, university of illinois • stefan troebst, university of leipzig • lynne viola, university of toronto • mark von hagen, arizona state university • sergei zhuravlev, institute of russian history of the rus- sian academy of sciences, moscow literature, film, and the arts clare cavanagh, northwestern university • gregory freidin, stanford university • catriona kelly, oxford university • christina kiaer, northwestern university • j u d i t h kornblatt, university of wisconsin, madison • michal pawel markowski, university of illinois, chicago and jagellonian university, krakow • eric naiman, university of califor- nia, berkeley • catharine nepomnyashchy, columbia university • andrei zorin, oxford university social sciences j u d i t b o d n a r , central european university, budapest' m. steven fish, university of cali- fornia, berkeley • susan gal, university of chicago • elena gapova, european humanities university, vilnius-minsk a n d western michigan university • grigorii golosov, european university, st. petersburg • bruce grant, new york university • jan kubik, rutgers university • pauline j o n e s luong, brown university • blair ruble, kennan institute cover image: poster advertising the plovdiv fair, bulgaria, . courtesy of the state archive in plovdiv, bulgaria. the editors assume no responsibility for statements of fact or opinion made by contributors. slavic review (formerly the american slavic and east european revieiu) is published quarterly by the association for slavic, east european, and eurasian studies, inc. (aseees, formerly the american association for the advancement of slavic studies, aaass) and is sent to all associa- tion members. members also receive newsnet, the aseees newsletter. membership is open to individuals interested in slavic studies and the study of the non-slavic peoples of eastern europe and eurasia. membership dues: students—$ . ; those with salaries under § , —$ . ; $ , - $ , —$ . ; $ , -$ , —$ . ; $ , -$ , — $ . ; $ , -$ , — $ . ; $ , -$ , — $ . ; $ , -$ , —$ . ; $ , and over— $ . . joint members with one subscription to slavic review, add $ . to dues of higher paid member. for members living in canada or mexico, please add $ . for shipping; for members living overseas, please add $ . . subscriptions without membership are $ . within the united states, $ . in canada and mexico, and $ . overseas. single current issues and back issues to subscribers are $ . ; for members, $ . each. correspondence regarding membership, subscriptions, changes of address, or items for newsnet should be sent to aseees, university of pittsburgh, c bellefield hall, s. bellefield ave., pittsburgh, pa - . telephone: ( ) - ; fax: ( ) - ; e-mail: aseees@pitt.edu; web site: www.aseees.org. published by the association for slavic, east european, and eurasian studies, inc. cover de- sign by b. williams & associates, durham, north carolina; the typeface mason is from emigre fonts. text set in baskerville by newgen-austin, austin, texas. printed by cadmus professional communications, ephrata, pennsylvania. periodicals postage paid at boston, massachusetts, and additional mailing offices. postmaster: send address changes to aseees, university of pittsburgh, c bellefield hall, s. bellefield ave., pittsburgh, pa - . (continued on inside back cover) mailto:aseees@pitt.edu http://www.aseees.org slavic review interdisciplinary quarterly of russian, eurasian, and east european studies v o l u m e n u m b e r • f a l l contributors vi abstracts viii nations on display: world's fairs and international exhibitions in eastern europe and beyond mary neuburger, special section guest editor introduction: exhibiting eastern europe mary n e u b u r g e r fair encounters: bulgaria and the "west" at international exhibitions from plovdiv to st. louis mary n e u b u r g e r articulating identity through the technological rearticulation of space: the hungarian millennial exhibition as world's fair and the disordering of fin-de-siecle budapest d o r o t h y b a r e n s c o t t rodin in prague: modern art, cultural diplomacy, and national display c a t h l e e n m. g i u s t i n o articles witnessing for the defense: the adversarial court and narratives of criminal behavior in nineteenth-century russia l o u i s e m c r e y n o l d s the economy of nerves: health, commercial culture, and the self in late imperial russia susan k. m o r r i s s e y too much trust: regional party leaders and local political networks under brezhnev yoram gorlizki pronatalism, gender politics, and the renewal of family support in russia: toward a feminist anthropology of "maternity capital" michele rivkin-fish featured reviews archie brown, the rise and fall of communism (timothy snyder) sergei alex. oushakine, the patriotism of despair: nation, war, and loss in russia (sascha goluboff) film review victor dashuk, dir., long knives night ( ) and reporting from a rabbit hutch ( ) (grigory ioffe) book reviews withold bonner and arja rosenholm, eds., recalling the past— (re) constructing the past: collective and individual memory of world war ii in russia and germany (nina tumarkin) j o h n czaplicka, nida gelazis, and blair a. ruble, eds., cities after the fall of communism: reshaping cultural landscapes and european identity (chad bryant) valerie sperling, altered states: the globalization of accountability (robert a. saunders) adi kuntsman, figurations of violence and belonging: queerness, migranthood and nationalism in cyberspace and beyond (caryn aviv) laimonas briedis, vilnius: city of strangers (john czaplicka) georgiy kasianov and philipp ther, eds., a laboratory of transnational history: ukraine and recent ukrainian historiography (david r. marples) karin friedrich and barbara m. pendzich, eds., citizenship and identity in a multinational commonwealth: poland-lithuania in context, - (piotr s. wandycz) peter j. klassen, mennonites in early modern poland and prussia (paul w. knoll) barbara engelking and jacek leociak, the warsaiu ghetto: a guide to the perished city, trans. emma harris (piotr wrobel) andrea orzoff, battle for the castle: the myth of czechoslovakia in europe, - (james ramon felak) sabina ferhadbegovic, prekdre integration: serbisches staatsmodell und regionale selbstverwaltung in sarajevo und zagreb - (john k. cox) piotr piotrowski, in the shadow of yalta: art and the avant-garde in eastern europe, - , trans. anna bryzski (pat simpson) aniko imre, identity games: globalization and the transformation of media cultures in the new europe (dina lordanova) nadya nedelsky, defining the sovereign community: the czech and slovak republics (andrew c. janos) kristen ghodsee, muslim lives in eastern europe: gender, ethnicity, and the transformation of islam in post-socialist bulgaria (mary neuburger) ivana macek, sarajevo under siege: anthropology in wartime (pamela ballinger) david n. gibbs, first do no harm: humanitarian intervention and the destruction of yugoslavia (robert j. donia) jelena subotic, hijacked justice: dealing with the past in the balkans (robert m. hayden) matthew p. romaniello and tricia starks, eds., tobacco in russian history and culture: from the seventeenth century to the present (william moskoff) ekaterina brancato, markets versus hierarchies: a political economy of russia from the th century to (stefan hedlund) leonard g. friesen, rural revolutions in southern ukraine: peasants, nobles and colonists, - (shane o'rourke) joseph bradley, voluntary associations in tsarist russia: science, patriotism, and civil society (gregory l. freeze) ol'ga elina, ot tsarskikh sadov do sovetskikh polei: istoriia sel'skokhoziaistvennykh opytnykh uchrezhdenii xviii- -e gody xx veka, vols. (brian bonhomme) g. d. gloveli, geopoliticheskaia ekonomiia v rossiia: ot diskussii o samobytnosti k global'nym modeliam (xix v.-pervaia tret' xx v.) (susan p. mccaffray) leonid heretz, russia on the eve of modernity: popular religion and traditional culture under the last tsars (robert h. greene) daniel beer, renovating russia: the human sciences and the fate of liberal modernity, - (amy nelson) loren graham and jean-michel kantor, naming infinity: a true story of religious mysticism and mathematical creativity (catherine evtuhov) james t. andrews, red cosmos: k. e. tsiolkovskii, grandfather of soviet rocketry (michael r. katz) sergei kan, lev shternberg: anthropologist, russian socialist, jewish activist (marina mogilner) dan healey, bolshevik sexual forensics: diagnosing disorder in the clinic and courtroom, - (tricia starks) marc junge, die gesellschaft ehemaliger politischer zwangsarbeiter und verbannter in der sowjetunion: grundung, entwicklung und liquidierung ( - ) (jonathan w. daly) paul hagenloh, stalin's police: public order and mass repression in the ussr - (j. arch getty) david r. shearer, policing stalin's socialism: repression and social order in the soviet union, - (marcjansen) niels erik rosenfeldt, the "special" world: stalin's power apparatus and the soviet system's secret structures of communication, vols. (david shearer) ber boris kotlerman, in search of milk and honey: the theater of "soviet jewish statehood " ( - ) (robert weinberg) yitzhak arad, the holocaust in the soviet union (joshua rubenstein) vladislav zubok, zhivago's children: the last russian intelligentsia (stuart finkel) per brodersen, die stadt im westen: wie konigsberg kaliningrad wurde, foreword, haug von kuenheim (gabor t. rittersporn) natalia baschmakoffand mari ristolainen, eds., the dacha kingdom: summer dwellers and dwellings in the baltic area (emily d.johnson) donald e. davis and eugene p. trani, distorted mirrors: americans and their relations with russia and china in the twentieth century (gordon h. chang) a. danilov, a. i. utkin, and a. v. filippov, eds., istoriia rossii - . klass, uchebnik dlia uchashchikhsia obshcheobrazovatel'nikh uchrezhdenii; a. v filippov, ed., noveishaia istoriia rossii - gg.: kniga dlia uchitel'ia (janet g. vaillant) irene masing-delic, exotic moscow under western eyes (diane oenning thompson) ilya vinitsky, ghostly paradoxes: modern spiritualism and russian culture in the age of realism (richard peace) janet g. tucker, profane challenge and orthodox response in dostoevsky's crime and punishment (gary cox) joost van baak, the house in russian literature: a mythopoetic exploration (linda ivanits) martha weitzel hickey, the writer in petrograd and the house of the arts (jeffrey brooks) donald loewen, the most dangerous art: poetry, politics, and autobiography after the russian revolution (elena glazov-corrigan) paul du quenoy, stage fright: politics and the performing arts in late imperial russia (cynthia marsh) norbert lynton, tatlin's tower: monument to revolution (roann barris) masha salazkina, in excess: sergei eisenstein's mexico (richard taylor) stephen hutchings and natalia rulyova, television and culture in putin's russia: remote control (john downing) marlene laruelle, ed., russian nationalism and the national reassertion of russia (ben fowkes) vicken cheterian, war and peace in the caucasus: ethnic politics and the new geopolitics (stephen f. jones) . reference books of - : a selection collected essays other books of interest in memoriam microdeletion q . syndrome includes metopic craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay research article microdeletion q . syndrome includes metopic craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay eric a. muller, swaroop aradhya, joan f. atkin, erin p. carmany, alison m. elliott, albert e. chudley, robin d. clark, david b. everman, shannon garner, bryan d. hall, gail e. herman, emma kivuva, subhadra ramanathan, david a. stevenson, david w. stockton, and louanne hudgins * stanford university, stanford, california genedx, gaithersburg, maryland nationwide children’s hospital, columbus, ohio wayne state university and children’s hospital of michigan, detroit, missouri children’s hospital, health sciences centre, university of manitoba, winnipeg, manitoba, canada loma linda university health center, loma linda, california greenwood genetic center, greenwood, south carolina university of kentucky, lexington, kentucky royal devon and exeter hospital, exeter, uk university of utah school of medicine, salt lake city, utah received january ; accepted june basal cell nevus syndrome (bcns), also known as gorlin syn- drome (omim # ) is a well-described rare autosomal dominant condition due to haploinsufficiency of ptch . with the availability of comparative genomic hybridization arrays, increasing numbers of individuals with microdeletions involving this locus are being identified. we present previ- ously unreported individuals with q . deletions that include ptch . while of the patients ( females, males) did not meet strict clinical criteria for bcns at the time of molecular diagnosis, almost all of the patients were too young to exhibit many of the diagnostic features. a number of the patients exhibited metopic craniosynostosis, severe obstructive hydro- cephalus, and macrosomia, which are not typically observed in bcns. all individuals older than a few months of age also had developmental delays and/or intellectual disability. only facial features typical of bcns, except in those with prominent mid- foreheads secondary to metopic craniosynostosis, were shared among the patients. the deletions in these individuals ranged from kb to . mb in size, the largest spanning q . through q . . there was significant overlap of the deleted segments among most of the patients. the smallest common regions shared among the deletions were identified in order to localize putative candidate genes that are potentially responsible foreachofthenon-bcnsfeatures.thesewerea kbregionfor metopic craniosynostosis, a . mb region for obstructive hydrocephalus, and a . mb region for macrosomia. addi- tional studies are needed to further characterize the candidate genes within these regions. � wiley periodicals, inc. key words: ptch ; q ; gorlin syndrome; basal cell nevus syndrome; basal cell carcinoma syndrome; metopic craniosynos- tosis; chromosomal deletion *correspondence to: louanne hudgins, md, stanford university division of medical genetics, pasteur drive, h , stanford, ca - . e-mail: lhudgins@stanford.edu published online december in wiley online library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). doi . /ajmg.a. how to cite this article: muller ea, aradhya s, atkin jf, carmany ep, elliott am, chudley ae, clark rd, everman db,garners,hallbd, herman ge,kivuva e, ramanathan s, stevenson da, stockton dw, hudgins l. . microdeletion q . syndrome includes metopic craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay. am j med genet part a a: – . � wiley periodicals, inc. introduction basal cell nevus syndrome (bcns) is a well described cancer predisposition and multiple malformation syndrome, manifested by a constellation of findings that include lamellar calcification of the falx cerebri at less than years of age, palmar and/or plantar pits, jawkeratocysts,basalcellcarcinomasatlessthan yearsofage (or more than four in a lifetime), cleft lip and/or cleft palate, vertebral and rib anomalies, pre- or postaxial polydactyly, ocular anomalies, occipitofrontal circumference of greater than th centile, and an increased risk of childhood medulloblastomas (primitive neuroectoderm tumor, pnet), lymphomesenteric or pleuralcysts,andovarianorcardiacfibromas[kimonisetal., ]. variousdysmorphicfacialfeatureshavebeendescribed,including a broad forehead with bossing, hypertelorism, epicanthal folds, midfacial hypoplasia, short, high-set upturned nose, a long and tented philtrum, and coarsened facies. this condition is known to result from autosomal dominant loss of function mutations in the ptch geneandfromhaploinsufficiencyofthehumanhomologto the drosophila patched protein [hahn et al., ; wicking et al., ].whiletheaverageageofclinicaldiagnosisofbcnsis years of age, with the increasing use of array-based comparative genomic hybridizationtechnology(cgh),individualswithcontiguousgene deletions that include ptch are being identified at earlier ages, often before manifestation of the characteristic age-dependent bcns features [slater et al., ]. to date, patients have been reported with q deletions that either met clinical criteria for diagnosis of bcns, or include ptch within the deleted interval, excluding intragenic deletions [sekhon et al., ; ying et al., ; farrell et al., ; robb et al., ; evans et al., ; kroes et al., ; shimkets et al., ; paoloni-giacobino et al., ;l’hermineetal., ;olivierietal., ;haniffaetal., ; midro et al., ; boonen et al., ; cajaiba et al., ; chen et al., ; redon et al., ; fujii et al., ; nowakowska et al., ; de ravel et al., ; musani et al., ; shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. recently, several authors have reported an emerging phenotype separatefromthatofbcnsresultingfrommicrodeletionsof q . that include ptch [redon et al., ; shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. macrosomia in these individuals has been hypothesized to result from de novo deletions of the paternal allele specifically, possibly due to the loss of one or more as-of-yet unidentified imprinted genes, or possibly ptch itself [redon et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. here we report on new patients with q . deletions that include ptch , of varying ethnic backgrounds and age at diag- nosis, whose deletions were analyzed by array cgh after referral for evaluation by a medical geneticist. we characterize new phenotypic featuresnotconsistentwithbcns(metopic craniosyntosis, obstruc- tive hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay), and map the common areas of overlap among these deletions. materials and methods study design patient was ascertained by the lead and corresponding authors at an outpatient referral for consultation by a medical geneticist. the other authorswere thencontacted directly for solicitationof similar patients for inclusion in a retrospective case review series study, after approval of the study and consent forms by the stanford institutional review board (irb). the other nine affected individ- uals had been previously evaluated by one or more of the other authors after referral from a medical geneticist evaluation. clinical and molecular diagnosis of bcns was confirmed by detection of an interstitial q . deletion that included ptch by array-based cgh, including bac array, k oligonucleotide array, k oligonucleotide array, and/or snp array; some individuals had more than one of these analyses. the only study inclusion criterion was a confirmed molecular diagnosis by one of the described methods in a previously unreported individual. medical records regarding the affected individual’s phenotype, including clinic notes by the authors, cytogenetic study reports, and facial photographs if explicitly authorized, were sent by each physician for compilation and review by the lead author. in compiling the phenotypic features for each patient, macrosomia was defined as both height or length and weight of greater than th centile. analysis each individual’s reported deletion breakpoints were put into the ucsc genome browser (http://genome.ucsc.edu/) ncbi /hg march build for analysis, in accordance to the human genome assembly used in the cytogenetic report for each patient [kent et al., ]. the isolated regions were then converted to the current grch /hg february human genome assembly to obtain the revised breakpoints, using tools available at the genome browser site. the revised, current build breakpoints were then input into the ncbi mapviewer website for gene annotation using human genome build . (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ mapview/). basepairs described in this report are for the ncbi / hg march build. results the affected individuals included females and males, who ranged in age at time of initial geneticist evaluation from newborn to years. their ages at the time of confirmed array-based molec- ular diagnosis spanned from less than month to years. gestational ages at birth ranged from to weeks. each of these individuals was the only affected member in his or her family, and the deletions were confirmed as de novo in the nine for whom parental samples were obtained. the ethnic background was euro- peancaucasian( ),oneofwhomwasmennonite,mexican( ),and chinese ( ). these findings are summarized in table i. using the previously proposed diagnostic criteria of two major features, or one major plus two minor features, only three indi- viduals (patients , , and ) met a clinical diagnosis of bcns [evansetal., ;slateretal., ].eachpersonexhibitedsomeof the characteristic features of bcns, which included absolute mac- rocephaly ( / ), rib and/or vertebral anomalies ( / ), ocular malformations ( / ), numerous basal cell nevi ( / ), mandibular odontogenic keratocysts ( / ), sprengel deformity ( / ), cardiac fibromas ( / ), polydactyly ( / ), palmoplantar pits ( / ), and american journal of medical genetics part a palatal clefting ( / ), among other features. features not charac- teristic of bcns were metopic craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay with or without intellectual disability. trigonocephaly, resulting from metopic craniosynosto- sis, was present in four individuals (patients , , , and ), each of whom underwent corrective surgery. obstructive hydrocephalus was apparent in five individuals (patients – , ), each of whom required ventriculo-peritoneal shunting. one child, patient , had table i. summary of patient data features patient gender m f f m f f m f f f presenting age birth days weeks y birth mo mo birth y y race/ethnicity caucasian caucasian caucasian mennonite caucasian chinese mexican caucasian caucasian caucasian diagnosis age weeks y mo y y y y mo y y last exam age mo y . mo y y y y mo mo n/a n/a deletion (mb) . . . . . . . . . . metopic fusion þ � � � þ � þ þ � � hydrocephalus � þ þ þ þ � � � þ � macrosomia � � � � � þ þ/� þ � � delay ? global motor a global global global global motor motor motor intellect impaired ? þ ? þ þ ? ? ? � � molecular array bac bac, k k snp k bac, k bac, k k k, mlpa k bcns features craniofacial bossing � þ þ þ � þ þ � � þ coarse face þ þ þ � þ � � � � � synophrys þ � � � � � � � � � epicanthal folds þ þ � � þ þb þ þ � � palpebral slanting � down � � up down � � down up cleft palate � � uvula � � � � � � short nose þ þ � þ þ þ � þ � � philtrum: long þ þ � þ þ � � þ � � tented þ þ � � þ � � þ � � ears: low, angled þ � þ þ þ � � þ þ þ abnormal dentition ? � � � � � � þ þ � jaw keratocysts � � � þ þ � � � þ � macrocephaly � þ � þ þ þ þ þ � þ ocular anomalies � � nerve � � � � micro retinal � skeletal rib anomaly þ ? � þ � þ þ ? þ � vertebral anomaly þ ? � � � þ � ? þ � sprengel deformity � � � þ � þ � � þ � pectus deformity � � þ þ � � � � � � (kypho)scoliosis þ þ � � � þ � � þ � polydactyly � � � � � þ � þ � � syndactyly � � � � � � � þ � � oligodactyly � � � þ þc � � � � � cardiac tumor rv � � � ra � � � ? ? dermatological basal cell nevi � � � þ � þ þ � � � palmoplantar pits � � � � � þ � � � þ neurological hypotonia þ þ þ � þ þ � � � � þ, present; �, absent; ?, unknown or not assessed; k, k-oligonucleotide array; k, k-oligonucleotide array; bac, bacterial artificial chromosome array; micro, microphthalmia and optic nerve hypoplasia; mlpa, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification; n/a, not applicable; nerve, optic nerve anomaly; retinal, abnormal retinal myelination; ra, right atrial; rv, right ventricular; snp, single nucleotide polymorphism array. a not assessed for speech or other delays. b epicanthal folds were present, but were also consistent with patient’s ethnicity. c bilateral thumb hypoplasia was present. muller et al. mildventricularenlargement thatdidnotrequire shunting.macro- somia was present in two individuals ( , ), each of whom also had macrocephaly. one child (patient ) had a height between the th and th centiles, and a weight at the th centile. as this did not meet our strict definition of macrosomia, his deletion was excluded from the overlap region analysis for macrosomia. in all eight individuals who were older than a few months of age and who could be fully assessed, developmental delays were apparent. only motor delays were seen in the children with the smallest deletions, which in some cases resolved over time. global motor, speech/ language, and social/behavioral impairments were observed in those with the larger deletions. intellectual disability was apparent in the three globally delayed patients who were followed to school age and older. hypotonia was present in half of the individuals (table i). various dysmorphic facial features were present in a number of patients, and included a broad forehead with bossing, vertical forehead creases, epicanthal folds, angulated palpebral fissures, micrognathia, and low-set and posteriorly rotated ears. noted among many of the patients were a short nose with the appearance of being ‘‘high set,’’ and a long and tented philtrum (table i; fig. ). the facial features also coarsened over time in two individuals (patients , ; fig. ). features present in some members of our population were synophrys, hypertelorism, partial corpus callosum dysgenesis, chiari i malformation, seizures, joint hypermobility, camptodac- tyly, ataxia, short stature, broad/webbed neck, and inguinal hernias (data not shown). one child ( ) had unilateral renal cysts, mild ipsilateral ureterectasis that resolved spontaneously, and contrala- teral mild renal pelviectasis. none of the other nine individuals had any documented renal anomalies. all of our reported individuals except patient had g-banded chromosomal analysis. the deletions of patients , , and were visibleonhigh-resolutionanalysis.theothershadlower-resolution chromosomal analysis, and their deletions were not visible micro- scopically (data not shown). overall, the deletion sizes ranged from kb, containing only ptch and part of fancc, to . mb, spanning genes, as illustrated (fig. ). individual also had a second kb deletion located at q . , which contained no genes (data not shown). the smallest region of deletion overlap for the five affected individuals with metopic craniosynostosis was kb, between bases , , and , , , and which contained fig. . five individuals with interstitial q . deletions. please note the short nose and long philtrum that is best observed in patients , , and , but isalsopresentinpatient ,andthelowsetandposteriorlyrotatedearsinallofthepatients.tentingofthephiltrumisalsopresentinpatients and . american journal of medical genetics part a fig. . age progression in individuals with interstitial q . deletions. a. patient at age months and months (top row, left-to-right), and at months, years, and years (bottom row, left-to-right). age progression in individuals with interstitial q . deletions. b. patient at age months (top and middle rows), years (bottom left), and years (bottom right). again note the short nose and long, tented philtrum in both patients. fig. . schematicrepresentationofthedeletionsinaffectedindividuals.thedeletionsforeachaffectedindividual, listedontheleft,arerepresentedto scale by horizontal bars of various colors, in comparison to a chromosome q ideogram along the top. bars composed of two colors indicate the presence of both features. the relative position and size of ptch is represented by a vertical bar. listed deletion breakpoints are according to the ncbi /hg build. muller et al. annotatedgenesother thanptch .therewasacommonareaof deletionoverlapof . mbamongpatientswithobstructivehydro- cephalus that contained genes other than ptch . this region localized to bases , , through , , . the smallest region of deletion overlap for the two patients with macrosomia was . mb, located between bases , , and , , . this region contained genes other than ptch . discussion we have expanded the phenotype of individuals with interstitial q deletions that contain ptch to include metopic craniosy- nostosis, obstructive hydrocephalus, and macrosomia, which are separate from the typical features of bcns. this would suggest that there are genes other than ptch in the deleted region that when deleted contribute to these conditions. the common area of overlap among the patients with metopic craniosynostosis, resulting in trigonocephaly, was between base- pairs , , and , , . there are genes other than ptch within this region. these are fancc, encoding the fanconi anemia complementation group c protein, open reading frames that encode a zinc aminopeptidase (c orf ), a putative repair/recombination helicase (c orf ), and a nasopharyngeal carcinoma-associated protein (c orf ), four pseudogenes, two hypothetical rna-encoding genes (loc , loc ), one gene that is expressed in human heart and brain and encodes a hypothetical protein of unknown function (loc ), and four microrna genes. while there are no obvious candidate genes among those listed, it is possible that the deleted region may include one gene whose haploinsufficiency is but one of many factors that influence the development of metopic craniosynostosis in affected individuals, perhaps explaining why every individual who shared our mapped minimal region for metopic craniosynostosis did not demonstrate that finding. the presence of metopic craniosynos- tosis in a substantial percentage of all reported individuals with q . microdeletion is interesting. we do suggest that q . microdeletion be included in the differential diagnosis for individ- uals with metopic craniosynostosis in the absence of multiply affected sutures, and as such, cgh studies may be indicated. in comparison, the commonly deleted region among individuals with obstructive hydrocephalus was located between , , and , , . within this region were the same three open reading frames, four microrna genes, fancc, hypothetical pro- tein gene, and one of the two hypothetical non-protein encoding rna genes which were also present in the deletions of individuals with metopic craniosynostosis. unique to this region was another pseudogene, a non-protein coding rna gene, and an additional hypothetical rna-encoding gene. again, there are no obvious candidate genes among them. we note that asymmetric ventricles, dilated ventricles, and dilation due to cerebral atrophy have been reported in the literature on patients with the clinical diagnosis of bcns [chen et al., ]. we cannot determine whether all of these individuals have inter- stitial deletions that contain ptch , as the diagnosis of bcns was purely clinical before the genetic etiology was identified [hahn et al., ]. similarly, some of the previously described indi- viduals with known interstitial q deletions that contain ptch by mapping or by bcns diagnosis have had ventricular dilation of varying degrees [robb et al., ; kroes et al., ; midro et al., ; boonen et al., ; cajaiba et al., ; chen et al., ; redon et al., ; fujii et al., ], or like many of our newly reported patients, hydrocephalus requiring ventriculo-peritoneal shunting [farrell et al., ; shimkets et al., ]. without the higher resolution mapping available with current technology, we cannot refine the critical regions for those patients beyond those large regions achieved by linkage analysis or bac array-based methods utilized in those studies. we do expect the critical region to overlap with our proposed minimal intervals, however, due to the large size of the reported deletions in the older case reports. in two of the most recently described patients, mild dilation of one or more ventricles was present, and linked to the presence of a space- occupying lesion [shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. we do not consider this to be obstructive hydrocephalus of a nature similar to that in our described patients who required shunting, though one of our patients ( ) did have mild enlargement of the ventricle and cerebral sulci (table ii). overall, a higher proportion of our newly reported individuals had more severe forms of ventricular dilation requiring intervention than those reported previously, whereas the earlier reports described a higher frequency of less severe forms. this may be the result of the more severely affected individuals being brought to medical attention at younger ages in response to rapidly increasing head size, and/or seizures, prompting additional evaluations for other abnormal phenotypic features, and thus allowing diagnosis of q . microdeletion earlier than would otherwise be expected. alternatively, milder forms may only be ascertained incidentally as part of a brain imaging evaluation for developmental delay or as part of the neuroimaging for bcns, may be generally underreported, or may be missed altogether because such imaging is sometimes difficult in developmentally delayed or impaired children who are behaviorally noncompliant during the study. we suggest that brain imaging be performed as part of the initial evaluation for q . microdeletion, andsurveillancemonitoring ofhead circum- ference be performed at all clinical visits (table iii). we described two individuals with macrosomia, as pre-defined by height or length and weight each at the th centile or greater. the deletions of these children contained the common region of basepairs , , through , , . in addition to the pre- vious genes (other than ptch ) described for the regions common among affected individuals with metopic craniosynos- tosis and among those with hydrocephalus, there were genes that were unique to this region. these included three pseudogenes, a hypothetical rna-encoding gene, and an open reading frame (c orf ) that encodes a protein with peroxiredoxin-like domains. also among the genes unique to this common deletion were the genes hsd b , which encodes a -hydroxy-steroid dehydrogen- ase; slc d , which encodes an endoplasmic reticulum/golgi apparatus nucleotide sugar transporter; and, habp , encoding an intracellular hyaluronan binding protein. perhaps most inter- estingly, also located within the region are cdc b, encoding the human homolog of a yeast cell division cycle protein, and znf and znf , which encode novel zinc finger-containing proteins that have been implicated in association studies with regard to modulation of stature specifically within the chinese population american journal of medical genetics part a [lei et al., ]. of note, one of our two reported individuals with macrosomia was chinese. previous case reports have focused on correlating overgrowth in individuals with q . deletions that include ptch with loss of the paternal allele [redon et al., ; shimojima et al., ]. the inference is that loss of one or more imprinted genes within the region, perhaps even ptch , is a cause of macrosomia. in our review of the previously reported affected individuals, six had macrosomia [cajaiba et al., ; chen et al., ; redon et al., ; shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. notably, this number differs from those reviewed and reported by shimojima et al., as we included an individual with hemihyperplasia, and we excludedthethirdpatientoffarrelletal.[farrelletal., ;cajaiba et al., ]. this latter child had a birth length and weight of th and th centiles, respectively, and her length had decreased to th centile by months of age. of the six individuals with macrosomia, table iii. suggested evaluations after a diagnosis of q . microdeletion clinical concern evaluation strategy hydrocephalus, ventricular dilation brain imaging complete neurological evaluation cerebral tumors a surveillance monitoring of head circumference macrosomia, hemihyperplasia surveillance monitoring of growth parameters metopic craniosynostosis complete craniofacial assessment carefully consider cost versus benefit of radiographic imaging developmental delay microarray/cgh of high resolution to confirm extent of deletion formal developmental assessment intellectual impairment childhood intervention services referrals renal anomalies renal ultrasound ovarian fibroma a abdominal/pelvic ultrasound basal cell carcinoma a periodic complete dermatological assessment avoidance of ionizing and uv radiation exposure cardiac anomalies, fibroma a echocardiogram ocular anomalies a ophthalmological evaluation. skeletal anomalies a carefully consider cost versus benefit of radiographic imaging odontogenic keratocysts a cgh, comparative genomic hybridization. a indicates a feature of bcns. table ii. comparison of patients with interstitial q . deletions non-bcns features affected individuals this study previous studies total cumulative number percent (%) number percent (%) number percent (%) metopic craniosynostosis / / . / . ventricular dilation a hydrocephalus / / . / . mild dilation / / b / . macrosomia c / / / . developmental delay motor only / d . / e . / . speech only / / / global / . / e . / . intellectual disability / / e . / . a hydrocephalus refers to severe and obstructive ventricular dilation that required ventriculo-peritoneal shunting, whereas mild dilation did not, and may have been asymmetric, or of only one ventricle. b excludes one case caused by cerebral atrophy and two cases caused by space-occupying masses. c defined as both height (length) and weight > percentile. d excludes patients with motor delay, but who were not old enough to assess speech and for other impairments. e excludes patients without clear description of delays and/or impairment. muller et al. five had lost the paternal allele, though yamamoto et al. did not report the parent of origin for their patient’s allele [farrell et al., ; cajaiba et al., ; chen et al., ; redon et al., ; shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. three other individuals withlossofthepaternalallelehadnormalorunreported growth parameters [shimkets et al., ; olivieri et al., ; fujii et al., ]. in contrast, of the four people who were known to have lost the maternal allele, one was reported as having normal growth, one was reported as having small stature, and the other two did not havereportedgrowth descriptions[yingetal., ;shimketsetal., ; midro et al., ; fujii et al., ; shimojima et al., ; yamamoto et al., ]. we did not determine the parental origin for the deleted allele in our reported individuals, as these studies were not originally performed for any of the individuals on whom parental samples were available, and were outside of the scope permitted by our institutional irb-approved protocol and consent for this retrospective study. in all of the previously reported individuals with macrosomia for whom we could identify the breakpoints from the published report, each shared the smallest commonly deleted region identified in our two children with macrosomia, though again, comparison with the earlier studies before the use of array cgh technology is difficult [chen et al., ; redon et al., ; shimojima et al., ]. based on all of the reported patients to date, there is no consistent evidence for imprinted genes located around or including ptch , as there do not seem to be two distinct (opposite) phenotypes, each segregating with loss of a particular parental allele, especially with respect to growth. while we cannot definitively exclude the possibility of candidate genes within the commonly deleted inter- val, or their downstream effectors, being imprinted at this time, there is no uniparental disomy phenotype described the in the medical literature [wilkinson et al., ; slater et al., ]. we do feel that additional study with regard to parent of origin for the deleted alleles is warranted, and also suggest consideration of snp or array cgh as part of the evaluation of individuals with macro- somia or generalized overgrowth. there is no evidence at this time to determine whether routine surveillance for abdominal tumors in individuals with q . microdeletion and macrosomia or hemi- hyperplasia is warranted. it is expected that individuals with q . microdeletion have the same or similar risk for tumor types that are seen with increased frequency in individuals with bcns, though there is limited information available, given how few affected individuals have been reported to date. in all eight of our affected individuals who were of sufficient age and could be adequately assessed, developmental delays and/or intellectual disability was present. the smallest deletion, containing only ptch and a portion of fancc, was present in individual , who exhibited motor milestone delays. it is likely that her delays are related to ptch haploinsufficiency alone. in our reported indi- viduals with deletions of approximately mb and larger, global impairment, including impairment of speech and language, and in the older individuals, intellectual disability, were present in addi- tion to motor developmental delay. this phenomenon is not unique to the specific genes within the deleted intervals, as numer- ous contiguous gene deletion syndromes show more severe impair- ment with increasing deletion sizes [slavotinek, ; musani et al., ]. our most severely affected person overall, with an approx- imate . mb deletion, was too young to be fully assessed, but was noted to have hypotonia and failure to thrive, and died in infancy of complicationsofarespiratoryillness.hadhelived,itislikelythathe would have had significant developmental and intellectual disabil- ities in the future. the majority of our reported individuals were female. while equal numbers of affected males and females are expected, based on the autosomal nature of the chromosome deletion, we cannot explain this finding by any systemic ascertainment bias. of the previouslydescribedpeoplewith q deletionsthatcausebcns or include ptch , there were males, females, and sex unreported, showing no sex-related skewing. overall, as summarized in table ii, % of our population demonstrated metopic craniosynostosis, compared to approxi- mately % of the previously reported individuals with inter- stitial q deletions. in our reported affected individuals, half had obstructive hydrocephalus, compared to approximately % of those who have been previously reported. in contrast, almost a third of the previously reported individuals presented with milder forms, whereas only one child ( %)in our study did.similarto the previous reports, % of our population demonstrated macro- somia of greater than th centile for height (or length) and for weight. developmental delay and/or irreversible intellectual impairment was present to a similar degree both in our affected individuals, and in those in the previous case reports, though direct comparison is difficult because of limited data and the widely variable ages of all of the patients. it is unclear as to the mechanism which predisposes the q . region to deletion. in silico analysis using the repmask . tool availableontheucscgenomebrowser(http://genome.ucsc.edu/) identifiednumeroussines,largelines,andltrsflankingptch and adjacent genes in the region, which potentially could result in recombinatory deletion and duplication events. perhaps reflective of a reciprocal recombination event to the q . microdeletion, a mother and child with the shared phenotype of microcephaly and mild developmental delay was each reported to have a kb duplication of the q . region that included ptch and exon of fancc [derwinska et al., ]. insummary,wedescribe additionalindividualswithdeletions involving q that include the ptch gene. the findings in these people broaden the phenotype to include metopic craniosynos- tosis, hydrocephalus, macrosomia, and developmental delay with intellectualdisability.whilemanyoftheaffectedindividualsshared similar dysmorphic features that have been previously described in patients with bcns, no other unifying characteristic facial phenotype was recognized, except with respect to that resulting from metopic craniosynostosis. these findings have implications for clinical care in individuals with q . microdeletion (summarized in table iii), as well as for identifying genes that contribute to the expanded phenotype. further studies are neces- sarytofurtherrefinethesmallestareasofoverlapinordertoidentify the genes implicated in these findings. references boonen se, stahl d, kreiborg s, rosenberg t, kalscheuer v, larsen la, tommerup n, brondum-nielsen k, tumer z. . delineation of an american journal of medical genetics part a interstitial q deletion in basal cell nevus syndrome. am j med genet a a: – . cajaiba mm, bale ae, alvarez-franco m, mcnamara j, reyes-mugica m. . rhabdomyosarcoma, wilms tumor, and deletion of the patched gene in gorlin syndrome. nat clin pract oncol : – . chen cp, lin sp, wang th, chen yj, chen m, wang w. . perinatal findings and molecular cytogenetic analyses of de novo interstitial deletion of q ( q . –>q . ) associated with gorlin syndrome. prenat diagn : – . de ravel tj, ameye l, ballon k, borghgraef m, vermeesch jr, devriendt k. . early detection of chromosome q . q . microdeletion and the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome. eur j med genet : – . derwinska k, smyk m, cooper ml, bader p, cheung sw, stankiewicz p. . ptch duplication in a family with microcephaly and mild developmental delay. eur j hum genet : – . evans dg, ladusans ej, rimmer s, burnell ld, thakker n, farndon pa. . complications of the naevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome: results of a population based study. j med genet : – . farrell sa, siegel-bartelt j, teshima i. . patients with deletions of q q do not define a syndrome: three case reports and a literature review. clin genet : – . fujii k, ishikawa s, uchikawa h, komura d, shapero mh, shen f, hung j, arai h, tanaka y, sasaki k, kohno y, yamada m, jones kw, aburatani h, miyashita t. . high-density oligonucleotide array with sub- kilobase resolution reveals breakpoint information of submicroscopic deletions in nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome. hum genet : – . hahn h, wicking c, zaphiropoulous pg, gailani mr, shanley s, chi- dambaram a, vorechovsky i, holmberg e, unden ab, gillies s, negus k, smyth i, pressman c, leffell dj, gerrard b, goldstein am, dean m, toftgard r, chenevix-trench g, wainwright b, bale ae. . muta- tionsofthehumanhomologofdrosophilapatchedinthenevoidbasalcell carcinoma syndrome. cell : – . haniffa ma, leech sn, lynch sa, simpson nb. . nbccssecondary to an interstitial chromosome q deletion. clin exp dermatol : – . kent wj, sugnet cw, furey ts, roskin km, pringle th, zahler am, haussler d. . the human genome browser at ucsc. genome res : – . kimonis ve, mehta sg, digiovanna jj, bale sj, pastakia b. . radio- logical features in patients with nevoid basal cell carcinoma (nbcc or gorlin) syndrome. genet med : – . kroeshy,tuerlings jh, hordijk r,folkers nr, tenkate lp. . another patient with an interstitial deletion of chromosome : case report and a review of six cases with del( )(q q ). j med genet : – . leisf, yangtl,tanlj,chenxd, guoy,guo yf,zhangl,liu xg,yanh, pan f, zhang zx, peng ym, zhou q, he ln, zhu xz, cheng j, liu yz, papasian cj, deng hw. . genome-wide association scan for stature in chinese: evidence for ethnic specific loci. hum genet : – . l’hermine ac, aboura a, simon-bouy b, robin f, audibert f, strouk n, capron f, frydman r, tachdjian g. . female pseudohermaphrodi- tism in a fetus with a deletion (q . q . ). prenat diagn : – . midro at, panasiuk b, tumer z, stankiewicz p, silahtaroglu a, lupski jr, zemanova z, stasiewicz-jarocka b, hubert e, tarasow e, famulski w, zadrozna-tolwinska b, wasilewska e, kirchhoff m, kalscheuer v, michalova k, tommerup n. . interstitial deletion q . -q . associated withadditional familialtranslocation t( ; )(q . ;p . )in a patient with gorlin-goltz syndrome and features of nail-patella syndrome. am j med genet a a: – . musani v, cretnik m, situm m, basta-juzbasic a, levanat s. . gorlin syndrome patient with large deletion in q . -q . detected by quantitative multiplex fluorescent pcr. dermatology : – . nowakowska b, kutkowska-kazmierczak a, stankiewicz p, bocian e, obersztyn e, ou z, cheung sw, cai ww. . a girl with deletion q . -q . including the ptch and ror genes identified by genome-wide array-cgh. am j med genet a a: – . olivieri c, maraschio p, caselli d, martini c, beluffi g, maserati e, danesino c. . interstitial deletion of chromosome , int del( )- ( q . -q . ), including the genes causing multiple basal cell nevus syndrome and robinow/brachydactyly syndrome. eur j pediatr : – . paoloni-giacobino a, floris e, dahoun sp. . fetus with a q q interstitial deletion and hygroma. prenat diagn : – . redon r, baujat g, sanlaville d, le merrer m, vekemans m, munnich a, carter np, cormier-daire v, colleaux l. . interstitial q . micro- deletion: clinical and molecular characterisation of a newly recognised overgrowth syndrome. eur j hum genet : – . robb lj, vekemans m, richter a, meagher-villemure k, neilsen k, der kaloustian k. . interstitial deletion of the long arm of chromsome . am j hum genet : . sekhon g, herman j, neu j, sun j. . interstitial deletion of the q q region causes a distinct syndrome. unpublished abstract cited in farrell sa, siegel-bartelt j, teshima i. . patients with deletions of q q do not define a syndrome: three case reports and a literature review. clin genet : – . shimkets r, gailani mr, siu vm, yang-feng t, pressman cl, levanat s, goldstein a, dean m, bale ae. . molecular analysis of chromosome q deletions in two gorlin syndrome patients. am j hum genet : – . shimojima k, adachi m, tanaka m, tanaka y, kurosawa k, yamamoto t. . clinical features of microdeletion q . (pat). clin genet : – . slater hr, ralph a, daniel a, worthington s, roberts c. . a case of maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome diagnosed prenatally and the related problem of residual trisomy. prenat diagn : – . slavotinek am. . novel microdeletion syndromes detected by chro- mosome microarrays. hum genet : – . wicking c, shanley s, smyth i, gillies s, negus k, graham s, suthers g, haites n, edwards m, wainwright b, chenevix-trench g. . most germ-line mutations in the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome lead to a premature termination of the patched protein, and no genotype–phenotype correlations are evident. am j hum genet : – . wilkinson ta,james rs,crolla ja, cockwell ae, campbell pl, temple ik. . a case of maternal uniparental disomy of chromosome in association with confined placental mosaicism for trisomy . prenat diagn : – . yamamoto k, yoshihashi h, furuya n, adachi m, ito s, tanaka y, masuno m, chiyo h, kurosawa k. . further delineation of q deletion syndrome associated with basal cell nevus (gorlin) syndrome: report of two cases and review of the literature. congenit anom (kyoto) : – . ying kl, curry cj, rajani kb, kassel sh, sparkes rs. . de novo interstitial deletion in the long arm of chromosome : a new chromo- some syndrome. j med genet : – . muller et al. malignant glomus tumor of kidney - a case report abstracts / urological science ( ) s es s ndp : retroperitoneal laparoscopic resection of neurogenic tumor hsuan-ying ho , steven kuan-hua huang , kau han lee , wei-hong lai . division of urology, department of surgery, chi mei medical center, tainan, taiwan; division of uro-oncology, chi mei medical center, tainan, taiwan; division of urology, department of surgery, ditmanson medical foundation chia-yi christian hospital, tainan, taiwan purpose: retroperitoneal laparoscopic resection of retroperitoneal tumor can be challenging due to variations in location, size, and tumor charac- teristics. we would like to share our experience in retroperitoneoscopic surgery for neurogenic tumor and the experience of using intra-operative neuromonitoring technique. materials and methods: between june and december , retro- peritoneal laparoscopic resection of retroperitoneal tumor was performed on patients. three of the patients were pathologically proved shwannoma. others include metastatic malignant melanoma, leiomyo- sarcoma, liposarcoma, cystic lymphangioma, hemangioma, adrenal cortical carcinoma, and pheochromocytoma. among three patient with shwannoma, intraoperative neuromonitoring was used in two patients for pre-operative image suggest possible neurogenic tumor. one patient un- derwent resection of two tumors at the same time. results: the median tumor diameter was . cm (range e ). the tumor location: two embedded on right psoas muscle with right l root compression, one at lower pole of right kidney with right psoas muscle adhesion, one at retrocaval region. all of the tumors were approached retroperitoneally. the median operative time was min (range e ) and blood loss was ml (range e ). no patient required blood transfusion. one patient receiving robotic assisted surgery had a conversion to traditional laparoscopic surgery because of malposition of the robot. pathological examination revealed all schwannoma in cases. during follow-up, there was no tumor recurrence noted. conclusion: retroperitoneal laparoscopic resection of neurogenic tumor is a feasible choice. combining intraoperative neuromoitoring, we can decrease the risk of neurological complication. when dealing with tumor next to great vessel or location hard to approach, pre-operative planning is necessary. ndp : multilocular cystic nephroma: a case report and review of the literature chih-yin yeh , yi-chia lin , , te-fu tsai , , thomas i.s. hwang , . division of urology, department of surgery, shin kong whs memorial hospital, taiwan; school of medicine, fu-jen catholic university, taiwan cystic nephroma is a relative rare benign renal lesion with a bimodal age distribution. diagnostic peaks occur primarily in the first to years of life, and again in the forty to fifty years. they are usually incidentally found as an asymptomatic abdominal mass. radiologically, it is difficult to differentiate between cystic nephroma and cystic rcc in adults. the exact diagnosis primarily depends on the histopathologic examination. we present a year-old male patient with a symptomatic, incidentally found left complicated renal cyst. a laparoscopic partial nephrectomy was performed on this patient. microscopically, the tumor composed of variable-sized cysts lined by a layer of flattened or cuboidal cells with a confirmed histological diagnosis of cystic nephroma. the literatures were reviewed. ndp : metanephric adenoma of the kidney e a case report and literature review chia-hung chen , yen-hua chang , , , alex tong-long lin , , , kuang- kuo chen , , . department of urology, taipei veterans general hospital, national yang-ming university, taiwan; school of medicine, national yang-ming university, taiwan; shu-tien urological institute, national yang-ming university, taiwan purpose: metanephric adenoma (ma) is a rare neoplasm. it’s benign renal neoplasm originating in the epithelial cells of the kidney. most tumors are asymptomatic, and incidentally discovered during examinations for other problems. it is difficult to distinguish metanephric adenoma from malig- nant neoplasms by image. it is often diagnosed by pathological report after surgical treatment. the present study reports the case of a -year-old female that presented with metanephric adenoma. materials and methods: a years-old female had small renal mass over left kidney during evaluation of pancreas mass. physical examination revealed no significant finding. computerized tomography (ct) and magnetic resonance imaging (mri) revealed a neoplasm lesion localized in the left kidney without lymphadenopathy. left partial nephrectomy was performed on december , . microscopic finding composed of monotonous tumor cells with few light pink cytoplasm, small, uniform nuclei and inconspicuous nucleoli, arranged in solid sheets, small acini, and papillary structure. hyalinized stroma with focal calcification are also noted. the tumor cells are immunoreactive for wilms' tumor antigen (wt ). the final pathological report revealed metanephric adenoma. results: according the literature review, metanephric adenoma (ma) is a rare benign tumor that accounts for . e . % of adult renal epithelial neoplasms. < cases have been reported in the literature. peak age of ma was in the fifth or sixth decade of life. most tumors are incidentally finding. some patient will have flank pain, hematuria and palpable mass. lab data may reveal polycythemia. ma cannot be easily distinguished from other malignant neoplasms using imaging alone. macroscopic, ma appears as a well-defined, round, solid, soft mass varying in size. microscopic, ma expresses ck and wt and does not express epithelial membrane antigen or amacr. radical or partial nephrectomy may indicate for treatment due to the risk of malignancy without pathology. conclusion: metanephric adenoma is a rare benign tumor. it cannot be easily distinguished from malignant neoplasms of kidney by imaging. metanephric adenoma can recognized by microscopy. surgical interven- tion is suggested due to diagnosis is challenging without pathology. ndp : primary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the kidney with coexisting high-grade urothelial carcinoma and virchow’s node metastasis: a case report and literature review ming-xi he , i-hsuan chen , yin-shen chen , jen-tai lin , jeng-yu tsai , chia-cheng yu , , , tony tong-lin wu , . division of urology, department of surgery, kaohsiung veterans general hospital, taiwan; division of urology, department of surgery, tri-service general hospital, national defense medical center, taiwan; department of pharmacy, tajen university, taiwan primary large cell neuroendocrine carcinomas of the kidney are extremely rare, and distant metastases are scarcely reported. here, we report a case of a -year-old man who presented with hematuria and was found to have an enlarged neck mass and a huge mass at the left kidney. radical neph- roureterectomy with bladder cuff excision and paraaortic lymphadenec- tomy was performed. a diagnosis of primary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma with coexisting high-grade urothelial components was rendered. besides, the fine-needle aspiration cytology reported neuroen- docrine metastasis. in this report, the clinical, cytological, histological, and immunohistochemical features of this case are described, and a review of the literature about this neoplasm is presented. ndp : malignant glomus tumor of kidney e a case report gu-shun lai , kun-yuan chiu , siu-wan hung , john wang . division of urology, department of surgery, taichung veterans general hospital, taichung, taiwan; department of radiation, taichung veterans general hospital, taichung, taiwan; department of pathology, taichung veterans general hospital, taichung, taiwan purpose: glomus tumors are mesenchymal neoplasms that resemble normal glomus body. glomus tumors most often occurred in the abstracts / urological science ( ) s es s extremities, and rarely arise from visceral organ. herein, we report a rare case of malignant glomus tumor arising from kidney. case report: a years old man with history of nasopharynx cancer, status post chemoraiation therapy, has right renal tumor found incidentally on a pulmonary computed tomography scan for following of nasopharynx cancer. a contrast enhanced computed tomography of abdomen showed a tumor about . cm with heterogenous enhancement over medial upper pole of right kidney. the patient undertook laparoscopic right radical ne- phrectomy with right adrenalectomy and recovered well after the opera- tion. according to the histologic and immunohistochemical examination, the tumor is diagnosed as malignant glomus tumor. conclusion: glomus tumors resemble glomus body, which is associated with body temperature regulation. glomus tumors usually occur in the extremities, most common the subungual region of the fingers. visceral organs are uncommon site involving development of glomus tumors. glomus tumors arising from kidney are extremely rare, with a few cases described before. it is difficult to differentiate glomus tumor from other renal malignany preoperatively through imaging study. histolgoy and immunohistochem- ical study are necessary to make a diagnosis of glomus tumor of the kidney. renal glomus tumors are usually benign with good outcome and prog- nosis, with one exception of malignant glomus tumor been reported. we report a case of malignant glomus tumor of kidney. to our knowledge, this is the second case of malignant renal glomus tumor reported. given the small number of cases reported to date and relative short-term follow up, close clinical follow-up is necessary. ndp : cancer-to-cancer metastasis: breast cancer metastasized into renal cell carcinoma e a case report wei-min tsai. divisions of urology, department of surgery, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan a -year-old female patient, a case of left breast mass with skin ulceration diagnosed by biopsy, was accidentally found to have right renal mass on ct (computerized tomography) during cancer staging workup. metastases to axillary lymph nodes, bone and liver were also noted at the same time. second opinion was sought from urologist for the right renal mass while she underwent ccrt (combined chemo-radiotherapy). biopsy of right renal mass revealed renal cell carcinoma (rcc) and radical nephrectomy was done months after initial ccrt. staging for the rcc was t an m while breast cancer stage was t n m . there are cases (including the current case) reported to have breast cancer metastasized into rcc. their ages range from e . four of them have rcc on the same side as their breast cancers. two of the cases are found only after autopsy. time lapse in diagnosis of rcc after breast cancer is from one month to years. less than documented cases of cancer-to-cancer metastasis have been reported. rcc is the most common tumor found to coexist with other malignancies and is the recipient tumor in cancer-to-cancer metastasis in e % of the reported cases. because of the “terminal stages” when kidneys are involved in breast cancer patients, rcc may be under- diagnosed in these patients and cancer-to-cancer metastasis might be much more frequent. ndp : unusual presentation of direct intra-peritoneal metastases complicated with massive ascites from poor differentiation bladder tumor: a case report yu-hua shau , , sheng-tang wu , shou-hung tang , tai-lung cha , chih-wei tsao , en meng , dah-shyong yu , guang-huan sun , chien-chang kao . division of urology, department of surgery, tri-service general hospital, national defense medical center, taipei, taiwan, roc; division of urology, department of surgery, taoyuan armed forces general hospital, taiwan purpose: plasmacytoid urothelial carcinoma variant is a rare histological finding, which was first described in . since then, only cases have been described in the literature and the biological behavior of this variant of urothelial carcinoma is still not well known. the plasmacytoid variant is usually very aggressive; distant metastases are detected in up to % of cases at the time of diagnosis with special predilection for dissemination through the fascia causing peritoneal carcinomatosis. despite being a tu- mor of poor prognosis, it has been shown to be chemosensitive. this report describes a patient who have adenocarcinoma of colon and plasmacytoid urothelial carcinoma variant of bladder. clinically mimicking a massive ascites and pitting edema of bilateral low legs without hematuria. case report: the -year-old male suffered from abdominal fullness and bilateral low legs edema in mid-aug, . he had visited our gu outpa- tient department and abdominal sonography was performed which revealed massive ascites. he was referred to our er on / and abdomen ct revealed three important finding ( ) massive ascites and omental cake, ( ) enlarged nodes in the para-aortic space, ( ) diffuse irregular wall thickening in the urinary bladder, which suspected bladder. in er, abdominal paracentesis was done and cytology was collected. after admission, tumor markers were checked and cea elevated, so he was scheduled to receiving colonoscopy and one cm colon tumor was found at sigmoid colon and several small nodules over whole colon. he also received cystoscopy and non-papillary type bladder tumor was found. after colon tumor biopsy and transurethral resection of bladder tumor, we confirmed that the patient have double cancer. ascites cytology suggested malignancy and peritoneal carcinomatosis cannot be rule out. we had used ascites immunohistochemistry method for search primary tumor. usually, we think the origin is form the colon tumor. however, this is not what we think as a patient. the histological diagnosis of the tumor was plasmacy- toid urothelial carcinoma variant of bladder with peritoneal metastasis. he was referred to oncology for further chemotherapy. conclusion: the plasmacytoid variant of urothelial carcinoma, defined as the presence of plasma cells similar to myeloma, has had an increase in prevalence in recent years, which has aided in increasing our under- standing of its biological behavior and clinical implications. it is considered to be a type of carcinoma with an aggressive histological behavior with special predilection for local invasion of fascia and adjacent tissue. it also has a poor prognosis with a significant percentage of patients having metastases at diagnosis, especially intraperitoneal dissemination. ndp : salvage hifu (high-intensity focused ultrasound) in the management of prostate residual tumor after primary hifu sharjil wahid, guan-lin huang, po hui chiang. department of urology, kaohsiung chang gung memorial hospital, kaohsiung, taiwan purpose: recent data on the ablatherm® hifu device shows a -year biochemical disease-free survival rate of e %. e % patients have residual tumor when treated by hifu for localized prostate cancer. hifu can also be used as salvage therapy after radical prostatectomy and external-beam radiotherapy. there has been little or no literature about this novel use of secondary hifu. we present our data of using secondary hifu in the management of residual tumor after primary hifu, with the aim of determining efficacy and safety of this modality. materials and methods: a total of patients underwent hifu for pri- mary treatment of localized prostate cancer from december to july . patients were offered hifu as secondary salvage management. all of these had histologically proven residual/ recurrent prostate cancer after primary hifu. were given hifu as the only management, were given hormone therapy with hifu, and received hifu, hormone therapy and radiotherapy. results: the mean pre-secondary hifu psa was . ng/ml ( . e . ). after salvage hifu, out of patients ( . %) achieved nadir psa less than % of pre-treatment values. these showed biochemical disease free survival. mean post-treatment nadir psa value was . ng/ml ( . e . ). time to achieve post-treatment psa nadir was . months ( e ). the patients had mean post-treatment psa of . ng/ml ( . e . ) when followed up over a mean period of . months ( e ), demonstrating biochemical disease free survival. patients ( %) had elevation of psa, mean . ng/ml ( . e . ), after salvage hifu. these were registered as failures. one patient was excluded from the study because of negative prostate biopsy, which meant that it could not be ascertained that the disease was localized or metastatic. 	retroperitoneal laparoscopic resection of neurogenic tumor 	multilocular cystic nephroma: a case report and review of the literature 	metanephric adenoma of the kidney – a case report and literature review 	primary large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the kidney with coexisting high-grade urothelial carcinoma and virchow’s nod ... 	malignant glomus tumor of kidney – a case report 	cancer-to-cancer metastasis: breast cancer metastasized into renal cell carcinoma – a case report 	unusual presentation of direct intra-peritoneal metastases complicated with massive ascites from poor differentiation bladd ... 	salvage hifu (high-intensity focused ultrasound) in the management of prostate residual tumor after primary hifu wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ traumatic spinal cord injuries in the rural region of taiwan: an epidemiological study in hualien county, - paraplegia ( ) - © international medical society of paraplegia traumatic spinal cord injuries in the rural region of taiwan: an epidemiological study in hualien county, - clan md, l js lai md, l kh chang md,z yc jean pt, in lien mdl department of physical medicine and rehabilitation, national taiwan university hospital no , chang-teh street, taipei , taiwan; department of physical medicine and rehabilitation, buddhist tz 'u-chi general hospital, taiwan, republic of china. in order to survey the epidemiological characteristics of traumatic spinal cord injuries (sci) in hualien county, a retrospective study was conducted from january to december in four local general hospitals. during this period, traumatic sci patients were identified and of them were residents of hualien county. the estimated annual incidence of traumatic sci in hualien county was . per million population. as a result of injury patients were tetraparetic, tetraplegic, paraparetic and paraplegic. the male/female ratio was : . the mean age of onset for male patients was years, and that for female patients was years. the major causes of sci were traffic accident ( . %) followed by accidental falls ( . %). the average duration of hospital­ isation ranged from days in paraparetics to days in tetraplegics. ten patients died of respiratory failure or sepsis, and the mortality rate was . %. our data revealed that traumatic sci was prevalent in hualien county in comparison with epidemiological studies elsewhere. the special population composition of hualien county and the preponderance of the motorcycle as a transportation vehicle in this area might result in its unique epidemiological characteristics. keywords: spinal cord injury; epidemiology; incidence. introduction severe traumatic spinal cord injury (sci) is a serious condition, resulting in severe disability or death. patients who survive often have multiple complications. most victims are young and in their most product­ ive stage of life, causing not only them, but also their family members to suffer emotional and financial hardships. con­ sequently, a national registry is needed so that medical and social resources can be organised and integrated for their better management. at present there is still no national sci registry in taiwan; the only epidemiological study of sci was reported by chen and lien. according to that report, the estimated annual incidence of traumatic sci in taipei city was . per million population. taipei, located in north­ ern taiwan, is a densely populated city. therefore, the reported data of sci in taipei might be considered to be a profile in the urban area of taiwan. kraus has pointed out that the incidence rates of sci in different studies were in­ fluenced by the research methods. in addi­ tion, we consider that the incidence of sci is also determined by the sociological and demographic characteristics of the region studied. however, there are few studies which have discussed these factors. in order to elucidate the importance of sociological and demographic factors, we selected hual­ ien county for an epidemiological study of traumatic sci. hualien, located in eastern taiwan, is surrounded by high mountains and faces the pacific ocean in the east. it is a geographically seclusive area and hence suitable for an epidemiological study. in , the population of hualien county was about , and the population density persons per km • in contrast, taipei has paraplegia ( ) - . million inhabitants and the population density was nearly , persons per km . in addition, the aborigines accounted for % of hualien's population. therefore, the socioeconomic, demographic, and geo­ graphic characteristics of these two regions are totally different. this retrospective study was based on hospital records of patients with traumatic sci who had been admitted to local hospit­ als in hualien county from january to december . our purpose is to discover the incidence of traumatic sci in hualien county. in addition, the epidemiological characteristics of sci in hualien and taipei will be compared, as being the best repres­ entative of the rural and urban regions in this island. methods a retrospective review of hospital records of sci patients was conducted from january to december in four general hospitals: the buddhist tz'u-chi general hospital, the povincial hualien hospital, the mennonite christian general hospital and the military hospital. in hualien, the above four have been classified as regional teaching hospitals, and only these hospitals have the capability to provide medical services for sci patients. in addi­ tion, in our pilot study, we found that cases of sci that occurred in hualien were transferred to these hospitals for the acute care and/or further management. records were obtained beginning from emergency service, and continuing through the intens­ ive care phase and the rehabilitation stay. in order to ensure that no cases were missed, the records in the local asociation of sci patients were also extensively surveyed. however, because of the limitations of a retrospective study, those who died before hospitalisation were not included in our study. the definition of traumatic sci was adopted from that proclaimed by kraus et al as 'an acute, traumatic lesion of the spinal cord, including trauma to the nerve roots which resulted in varying degrees of motor and/or sensory deficit or paralysis'. pa­ tients with nontraumatic sci or patients traumatic sci in hualien, taiwan with transient paralysis were excluded. those who were not residents of hualien were also excluded from the analysis. a detailed chart review was done of all hospital records coded with the following rubric numbers of the international classi­ fication of disease (icd): no. . - fracture and fracture dislocation of vertebral column with spinal cord lesion; no. . - spinal cord lesion without evidence of spine injury. case ascertainment included a follow up examination of the patients who were still alive during the time of study. this examination was performed by one of the authors, either at the outpatients depart­ ment or during a home visit. subjects were selected for the present study if they fulfilled the required criteria. results incidence from january to december , a total of patients with a confirmed acute traumatic sci were identified, of whom were residents of hualien county. during - , the population of hualien was about , , hence the average annual incidence of traumatic sci in hualien county was . per million population. age and sex there were male and female sci patients, the male/female ratio being : . the average age at the time of injury was years for males, and years for females. figure illustrates the age distribution of sci patients. the rate of occurrence for each age group was as follows: - years ( . %); - years ( . %); - years ( . %); - years ( . %); - years ( . % ). the age group below and over years accounted for . % of all patients. causes of sci table i lists the causes of sci. traffic accident was the leading cause, accounting for . % of all subjects. motorcycle col­ lisions accounted for % of all traffic accidents. falls accounted for . % of all lan et at � c q) .� - o ..... � u q; a.. c::::::j chen's study _ present study o l.l. __ l-l __ l-l __ l--<- - - - - - - > years of age figure the age distribution of sci patients. in chen's report ( ), the peak occurrence rate of patients studied was in the - years group. in contrast, the present study showed almost the same occurrence rate in the age range - . table i etiology of sci cause case no traffic accident ( . % ) accidental fall ( . % ) struck by object ( %) sports injury ( . %) stab injury ( %) suicidal fall ( %) total ( %) subjects, and most occurred whilst quarry­ ing, tunnelling or doing house construction. other causes were sports injury, being struck by an object, stab injury and suicidal fall; these accounted for only . % of all of the subjects. paraplegia ( ) - functional impairment table ii shows the relationship between the cause of trauma and the resulting functional impairment. tetraplegia and tetraparesis accounted for . % of the subjects, while paraplegia and paraparesis accounted for the remaining . %. eleven patients had nerve root injuries. tetraparesis was the commonest neurological disability that was encountered. complete paralysis was more frequent in thoracic cord injured patients, while incomplete paralysis was more fre­ quent in cervical cord injured patients. duration of hospitalisation the average hospital stay was days for those who were paraparetic, days for paraplegics, days for tetraparetics and days for tetraplegics. causes of death ten patients died of respiratory failure or from sepsis; all deaths occurred within one year after injury. nine of the patients who died were tetraplegic and of them died in the acute stage from respiratory failure. the remaining patient was paraplegic and died months after injury from septicaemia result­ ing from multiple pressure sores. the over­ all mortaility rate was . % . discussion according to the literature review of kraus, the incidence of sci ranged from table ii causes of sci related to neurological deficits cause paraplegia paraparesis tetraplegia tetraparesis traffic accident accidental fall struck by object sports injury stab injury suicidal fall total ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) ( . %) paraplegia ( ) - . to per million population in different regions. however, kraus et al conducted a comprehensively designed study which surveyed traumatic sci in california counties during - and reported an incidence rate of . per million popula­ tion. the incidence was very high because the victims who died before hospitalisation were included. therefore, the authors stated that most of the reported incidence rates might be underestimated because vic­ tims who died before hospital admission were not usually included. in the present study, although the patients who died be­ fore hospitalisation were not included, the incidence of traumatic sci in hualien county was still astonishingly high in com­ parison with other reports, being . per million of the population: about fourfold the incidence reported in taipei city. there are several possible explanations for such a high incidence in hualien county. ( ) mass transportation is insufficient in hualien county, and the motorcycle is the major transportation vehicle. according to the official data ( ), the number of registered motorcycles in taipei was per thousand of the population. however, the number in hualien was per thousand of the population. motorcycle accidents surely expose the driver to an increased risk of a head injury and/or a cervical cord injury. according to previous reports, traffic accidents are the most common cause of sci. , . - however, the types of motor vehicles should be taken into account. in western countries, the major cause of traffic accidents is a car collision. in southeast asian countries, on the con­ trary, motorcycle accidents are the lead­ ing cause of trauma. according to an epidemiological study of head injury in hualien, % of head injuries were related to a traffic accident, and % of the traffic accidents involved motor­ cycle ( s). in the present study, traffic accidents accounted for % of all sci cases, and % of the traffic accidents were motorcycle related. consequently, it is not surprising that the cervical sci traumatic sci in hualien, taiwan patients accounted for % of all of the cas ualti es . ( ) hualien is a mountainous area, and quarrying and mining are the main industries, hence falls are prevalent. in the present study, falls accounted for . % of all of the patients, and % of the falls resulted in paraplegia or para­ paresis. ( ) alcoholism also plays an important role in the high incidence of traffic accidents in hualien county. in taiwan, the pre­ valence of alcoholism was higher in the rural regions than in the urban regions. hwu et al reported that the lifetime prevalence of alcohol abuse in taiwan chinese was . %, . %, and . % in the metropolitan city, small town, and village respectively. in addition, alcoholism is prevalent amongst the taiwan aborigines, resulting in serious sociomedical problems. the reported lifetime prevalence of alcohol abuse was . % in the atayal tribe, and . % in the paiwan tribe, which are the two major ethnic groups of taiwan abori­ gines.lo alcohol may delay response time, hence a drunk driver is more likely to be involved in a motor vehicle collision. hung et al reported that at least % of the head injuries that occurred in hualien might be related to alcohol intake. in the present study, we found that at least % of the sci patients had a significant alcohol intake before the accident occurred. the male/female ratio of traumatic sci in hualien county was : . chen et all re­ ported the ratio was . : in taipei city. kuhn et al have pointed out that the male/female ratio might reflect socio­ economic and cultural differences. the peak incidence of traumatic sci, as is reported in many studies, is usually within the age range of to years. . . , - because people of this age are involved in many significant activities, a higher risk of trauma may be expected. chen et all reported that . % of traumatic sci pa­ tients were in the - years age group. in the present study, patients of this age group comprised only . % of all cases (fig ). lan et al according to these data, the percentage of young sci patients in hualien appeared to be lower than that of taipei city. therefore, we speculated that the population composi­ tion of hualien and taipei was different. according to the official data: people of - years of age accounted for . % of the total population in hualien, while the same age group accounted for . % in taipei. at first glance, the proportion of young people in hualien did not appear to be lower than that of taipei. however, as we explored further, we found that the official data might not represent the actual population composition. hualien is basically an agricultural area, and people who live there are usually underemployed. therefore many of them, most being young, leave their home to look for jobs. however, many people who work elsewhere still retain their residency as being registered in hualien. consequently, the 'occult' population com­ position may be different from that of the official data. although the actual number of people who worked outside hualien was difficult to determine, it has been estimated unofficially that the number was not less than , . therefore, although the incid­ ence of traumatic sci appeared to be low in the - years age group, it did not represent the actual risk to this age group; rather it reflected the unique demographic and sociological characteristics of hualien county. chen et all reported that the mean onset age of sci in male patients in taipei city was . years, and that of female patients was . years. in the present study, the mean onset age of sci patients in hualien county was years in males, and years in female patients. the mean onset age of sci patients in hualien county was about years older than that of taipei city. as we have explained earlier, part of the differ­ ence may be attributed to the unequal population compositions. the duration of hospitalisation in the present study ranged from days for paraparetics to days for tetraplegics. in taipei city, chen et all reported that the duration ranged from days for paraparet­ ics to days for tetraplegics. biering­ sl£jrensen et ae pointed out that the data paraplegia ( ) - from chen's report revealed very short admissions, and he questioned if the com­ plete rehabilitation period was included. in fact, the duration of hospitalisation is dif­ ficult to compare because the social welfare system and the comprehensiveness of med­ ical services are very diverse in different regions. ten patients died of respiratory failure or sepsis; the overall mortality rate was . %. this was higher than that of the report of chen for taipei city ( %). however, the difference of mortality might partly be attributed to the high incidence of cervical sci in hualien. because the actual number of patients who died before hospitalisation was difficult to determine, we expect that the real mortality might be much higher than the above mentioned ratio. in summary, our data revealed that trau­ matic sci was prevalent in hualien county and the incidence rate was very high in comparison with other reports. in this re­ gion, the incidence of cervical cord injury was also surprisingly high. from the sociolo­ gical point of view, the result could be explained by the following facts. ( ) motor­ cycles were widely used as a means of transport. although motorcycles are cheap and convenient, the risk of a serious sci occuring in an accident was high. ( ) mining and quarrying are the main industry in hualien, hence the risk of injury from a fall was high. ( ) the prevalence of alcohol abuse is relatively high in the rural area of taiwan, especially amongst the aborigines. a drunken person is more likely to be involved in a serious trauma. the lower incidence of sci in the - age group might be attributed to the unique demo­ graphic characteristics of hualien county. therefore, we conclude that the sociological and demographic characteristics are impor­ tant, and they must be taken into account in an epidemiological study of sci. acknowledgement the authors gratefully acknowledge the collab­ oration of dr l y chu (department of phys­ ical medicine and rehabilitation, provincial hualien hospital) in this study. paraplegia ( ) - references traumatic sci in hualien, taiwan chen cf, lien in ( ) spinal cord injuries in taipei, taiwan - . paraplegia : - . kraus jf ( ) injury to the head and spinal cord. the epidemiological relevance of the medical literature published from - . j neurosllrg : s -slo. kraus jf, franti ce, riggins rs, richards d, borhani no ( ) incidence of traumatic spinal cord lesions. j chron dis : - . kuhn w, zach ga, kiichlin ph, urwyler a ( ) comparison of spinal cord injuries in females and in males, - basle. paraplegia : - . bracken mb, freeman dh jr, hellenbrand k ( ) incidence of traumatic hospitalized in spinal cord injury in the united states - . am j epidemiol : - . fine pr, kuhlemeier ky, devivo mj, stover sl ( ) spinal cord injury: an epidemiological perspective. paraplegia : - . biering-sorensen f, pedersen y, clausen s ( ) epidemiology of spinal cord lesions in denmark. paraplegia : - . hung cc, chiu wt, tsai jc, laporte re, shih cj ( ) an epidemiological study of head injury in hualien county, taiwan. j formosan med assoc : - . hwu hg, yeh ek, yeh yl, chang l y ( ) alcoholism by chinese diagnostic interview schedule: a prevalence and validity study. acta psychiatr scand : - . hwu hg, yeh yl, wang jd, yeh ek ( ) alcoholism among taiwan aborigines defines by the chinese diagnostic interview schedule: a comparison with alcoholism among chinese. acta psychiatr scand : - . gjone r, nordlie l ( ) incidence of traumatic paraplegia and tetraplegia in norway: a statistical survey of the years and . paraplegia : - . minaire p, castanier m, girard r, beard e, deidier c, bourret j ( ) epidemiology of spinal cord injury in the rhone-alpes region, france, - . paraplegia : - . stover sl, fine pr ( ) the epidemiology and economics of spinal cord injury. paraplegia : - . 	traumatic spinal cord injuries in the rural region of taiwan: an epidemiological study in hualien county, – 	introduction 	methods 	results 	acknowledgement 	references eur volume issue cover and back matter table du tome xxvii a n d e r s o n , robert d. sociology and history : m.s. archer's social ori- gins of educational systems, p. . a s s a y a g , jackie. modernisation de la caste et indianisation de la democratic : le cas des lingayat, p. , b a e c h l e r , jean. aux origines de la modernite* : castes et feodalites (europe, inde, japon), p. . b e t e i l l e , andre . the concept of tribe with special reference to india, p. . g e l l n e r , david n. language, caste, religion and territory : newar identity ancient and modern, p. . g r o s s , jan t. polish-jewish relations during the war. an interpretation, p. . h o r o w i t z , dan. communal armed organizations, p. . k r i s h n a , gopal. islam, minority status and citizenship : muslim experience in india, p. . m r e l a , krzystof. ideology and politics of the lesser evil, p. . m u t e l , jacques. la modernisation du japon, p. . p a t z e l t , werner j. gmndriss einer allgemeinen ethnomethodologi- schen theorie, p. . p r z e w o r s k i , adam and michael w a l l e r - s t e i n . popular sovereignty, state autonomy, and pri- vate property, p. . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. religion, politics and ethnicity in cyprus during the turkocratia ( - ), p. . s c h r o e t e r , gerd. reading the small print, or the weber/durkheim unawareness puzzle revisited, p. . t h r e a u , isabelle. pouvoir de l'j-etat, puissance des traditions. l'evo- lution du mariage paysan en chine de a , p. . w a l l e r s t e i n , michael and adam p r z e - w o r s k i . popular sovereignty, state autonomy, and pri- vate property, p. . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core imprimerie f. paillart a b b e v i l l e issn - le g rant : j a c q u e s l a u t m a n printed in france cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core european journal of sociology numeros sphiaux s p e c i a l i s s u e s sondernummern i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i i industrial society and rep- resentative government. a la recherche des classes perdues. le sabre et la loi. on the welfare state. i- universitat im umbau : i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i anpassung oder wider- stand ? in quest of political par- ticipation. trois eludes sur la science. organisation der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. on suicide. paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'^cole. zur problematik der mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass media. la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... faith and power. citoyens armes, prdtoriens desarmes. observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. might and rite. whither the unwithered state ? xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi xxvii i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de l'^galite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rise of religion. racines aristocratiques de la de'mocratie. michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. watersheds. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik ? tending the roots nation- alism and populism. necessite de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles outres. les series completes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mentionnies page de la couverture. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core annales economies sociitts civilisations fondateuri : lucien febvre et marc bloch. directeur : fernand braudel revue bimestrielle publiee depuis avec le concours du centre national de la recherche scientiflqua et de i'ecole des houtes etudes en sciences sociales comite de direction : charles moraze andre burguiere - marc ferro - jacques le goff emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel - lucette valensi secretaire de la redaction : bernard lepetit eann£e-n° mai-juin ecriture et histoire michel de certeau, ^experimentation d'une methode : les mazarinades de christian jouhaud (note critique) l'ideologie royale lawrence m. bryant, la ceremonie de i'entree a paris au moyen age marina valensise, le sacre du roi : strategie symbolique et doctrine politiqjue de la monarchie francaise ralph e. giesey, modeles de pouvoir dans les rites royaux en france crimes et societgs jens chr. johansen et henrik stevnsborg, hasard ou myopie. reflexions autour de deux theories de i'histoire du droit francois giraud, viol et societe coloniale : le cas de la nouvelle-espagne au xviii'- siecle les structures familiales andre burguiere, pour une typologie des formes d'organisation domes- tique de i'europe moderne (xvie-xixe siecles) christian maurel, structures familiales et solidarites lignageres a marseille au xve siecle : autour de i'ascension sociale des forbin andres guerrero, unite domestique et reproduction sociale : les commu- nautes huasipungo trois domaines de i'histoire sociale (comptes rendus) redaction : boulevard raspail, paris abonnements . france : f - ftudiants france : f • stranger : f • le nume>o : f - le numsro special (double): f les abonnements doivent etre souscrits aupres d'armand colin sditeur, boulevard saint-michel, paris cedex (comptes cheques postaux : paris n" - )cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contributions a la connaissance des elites africaines j tchad regards sur les elites ouaddaiennes issa hassan khayar • les elites tchadlennes, et plus particulierement ouaddaiennes, pendant les piriodes precoloniale et coloniale et leur evolution : comment les systemes €du- catifs et les institutions politiques de ces epoques ont produit leurs lites et quelle talt leur capacit d'adaptation aux diverses volutions et a leur peuple • changement et continuiti au tchad; termes de rifirence; methodes de i'itude • formation du tchad • le ouaddal et ses lites • rapports des elites aux partis politiques x / p. / brochi cart. isbn - - s - f quai anatole france. paris ccp paris - - tel. . . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue francaise de sociologie - , rue pouchet, paris cedex - tel. : juillet-septembre , xxvii- sociologie de l'art et de la litterature etudes reunies et presentees par j.-c. chamboredon et p.-m. menger le marche et le musee les genres et leurs lecteurs l'analyse sociologique des professions artistiques l'oreille speculative : le public de la musique contemporaine de la resurrection dans i'histoire de i'art production symbolique et formes sociales notes critiques artistes en vue le marche du livre les livres raymonde moulin patrick parmentier eliot freidson pierre-michel menger daniel milo jean-claude chamboredon francois de singly frangoise benhamou abonnements : l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser directement a : centrale des revues, cdr ii, rue gossin, montrouge cedex — tel. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numdro de l'annee en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numeros) france f etranger f vente au numero: les ventes au numero et celles de collections sont assurees par les editions du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris — tel. : ( ) . . . . ccp paris - editions du cnrs tarif : le numero f cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core past and present a journal of historical studies "la plus grande revue d'histoir-e du monde anglo- phone": annales "no historical periodical has done more than past and present to influence the study and teaching of history in british universities . . . it has proved extremely fertile in new interpretations, ideas and controversies. . . what makes past and present so invigorating is that it encour- ages historians to extend their horizons and ask new questions": times higher educational supplement past and present began publication in . it now appears in february, may, august and november. it publishes a wide variety of scholarly and original historical articles primarily concerned with social, economic and cultural changes, and their causes and consequences, ranging in time from prehistory to the present day and world-wide in coverage. the journal is designed to reach an audience that includes both specialists and non-specialists; to communicate the results of historical research in readable and lively form; to provide a forum for debate in which historians and scholars in allied subjects take part; to reach beyond the bounds of conventional history into nearby disciplines such as anthro- pology, sociology, literature and study of the visual arts and architecture; and to encourage the examination of particular prob- lems and periods for the light they throw on wider issues of historical change. recent contributors to the journal have included john bossy, robert brenner, peter burke, david cannadine, samuel clark, stuart clark, linda colley, natalie zemon davis, mark elvin, john hatcher, douglas hay, christopher hill, r. h. hilton, e. j. hobsbawm, olwen hufton, martin ingram, mervyn james, henry kamen, fergus millar, theodore k. rabb, w. d. rubinstein, w. g. runciman, eugene schulkind, joan wallach scott, t. c. smout, lawrence stone, enrique tandeter, e. a. wrigley, eileen yeo. for free classified table of contents and for details of subscrip- tion rates write to: the business manager past and present banbury road oxford ox aw cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv i - i a r c h e r , margaret s. proms without system, xxiv . a r j o m a n d , said amir. tbe shi'ite hicrocracy and the state in pre- modcrn iran : - , xxii . a u g u i t i ns, georges. esquisse d'ime comparison dcs systemes de per- petuation des groupes domestiques dans let socie'tgs paysaiines europ< cuncs, xxiii z. b a b a d z a n , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquer des rites ? xxv t. b a e c h l e r , jean. les origincs dc la democratic grecque, xxi . la notuiiture dcs hoinmcs. kssai sur le neoli- tbiquc, xxiii . b e e t i ! a m , david. michel* and his critics, xxii x. d&nktok, philippe. la riynamiqiic rfvoliitionnaire oti la logique du totalitarisme. a propos de 'interpretation de la revolution fr.inc.iisc par atignstin cochin, xxii . b e n - r a f a e l , kliezer and sash a whitman. tue ^constitution of tho family iit the uiblniu xxv . caiinman, werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h u r k a o u i , mohamet). changetnent social «?t anomie : essai dc fonnali- tation de la tbfori« durkheimiennc, xxii . coskr, lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi z. d r i e s s e n, uenk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth- century andalusia, xxiv i. e t s e n s t a d t , shmue] n. the axial age : the emergence of trancrndental visions and the rise of clerics, xxiii . elstbr, jon. negation active ct negation passive, f.ssai de sociologie ivanienne, xxi . farm en, mary k. rational notion in r.conoinic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , ren^e c. is religion important in belgium ? xxiii x. c o o : » r . n . , grace. i-rom status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic* persia, xxi . < » a y , john n. lamb suctions on the borders, xxv . g r e e k p e l d, liah. the role of the public in the success of artistic styles, xxv x. gvrbvicn, aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv x. h a l li day, terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv % h a l s e y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british post- war sociologists, xxiii r. h ass an, riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h r l m n c , ingeborg. das erklarungsmodell der situationslogik be popper : cine logische rekonsuuktion und kri- tik, xxiii . j a n k, allan. schorske's vienna, xxii t. k a a n e, reuven. religious diffusion and modernization : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indonesia and its impact on social change, xxi x k a n tow s k y , detlef. die rezeption der hindtiisrous/buddhismus- studie max webers in svidasien : ein mî verstflnd- nis? xxiii . k e d o u k i b , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, xxv . k e mem y, jim. professional ideologies and organizational struc- ture : tanks and the military, xxiv a. k b n n a , margaret h. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek internal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatolii m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii . k i l b o r k e , benjamin. anthropological thought in tbe wake of tbe french revolution : the *socie'tel des observa- teurs de l'bomme', xxiii x. kumar, krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-century england : theoretical and comparative perspec- tives, xxiv . kuper, adam. tbe man in the study and the man in the fitld. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi i. l i e b e k s o h n , harry. i .eopold von wtese and the ambivalence of func tionalut sociology, xxiii x. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core llkdmolm, charles. images of the pathan : th« usefulness of colonial ethnography, xxi . m a c r e r e l , claude. don et reciprocite en europe, xxiv . m a l a m o u d , charles. seiuantique et rhetorique dans la hierarchic hin- doue des « buts de liioinme », xxiii . m a u n , michael. the autonomous power of the state, xxv * erquior, jose guilhemie. mort a 'homo oecononilcus ? xxi . m t l t o k, john r. the origin and development of the concept of the mam of nature", xxii . m o u m s e n , wolfgang j. max weber aud roberto micliels. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii t. m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o s i e l , mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv j . o t t , sandra. blessed bread, 'tint neighbours' and asymmetric exchange in the basque country, xxi . p a t t e r s o n b r o w n , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicido among the sara nar. xxii a. p o o , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in ths early social sciences, xxi a. ray, laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum practice, xxii . r h o n k s, aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentive* in political machines, xxv . r o m i c e r , luis. modern patron-client relations and historical dientelism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv t. r s s s l , jakob. the economy of an indian temple: landed endow* ment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociolojicil explanation, xxv . rukcihah, w. g. comparative sociology or narrative history t a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unn>**ssary revolution : the case of france, xxiv . s a k t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e r m a n , e. m. zu problemen der sozialokonomischen ceschlch- te roms, xxi . s w a r t z , david. clastes, educational systems and labor mar- kets, xxii . tappssi, nsncy. matrons and mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi . t h e o b a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv i. t r a o o o t t , mark. durhheim and social movements, xxv . u r r v, james. who are the mennonites ? xxiv a. v a n p a r t j s , philippe. sociology as general economic!, xxii s. w k s d e , erich. ordcungspolitik und sicherheitspolitik als ele- mente der sicherungspolitik, xxv . w i i n g r o d , alex. rastomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, x x i i . w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w i t t h a n , sasha and eliezer ben-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbuti, xxv . w i n d o l » , paul. l'exoansion de l'enseignement et la surqualifica- tioo mi ie marche du travail, xxv . w o o d , geoffrey. frazcr's magic wand of anthropology : inter- preting the coucn bough, xxiii . . a » e r, david. ideology and organization in puritaninn, xxi i s s n - n o v e m b e r c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumping ton street, cambridge cb irp j i e«st th street, ne\r york n y , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core teaching the nature of science in a course in sustainable agriculture error_outline javascript disabled you have to enable javascript in your browser's settings in order to use the ereader. or try downloading the content offline download wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ religious culture and economic performance: agricultural productivity of the amish, - m e t i n m. co§gel the fanning practices of the amish have differed in various ways from those of other farmers. i use the information from federal census schedules to examine the differences during the period to in light of amish culture. amish farmers did not resist technological change during - , but the evidence shows other systematic differences. they adopted distinct patterns in investment to ensure the survival of their religious culture, which in turn affected their relative perfor- mance. do religious beliefs affect economic activities and performance? thisis an old and important question, but also a complicated one to address. for large groups, the role of religion is particularly elusive because it is difficult to identify precisely which religious beliefs have a direct impact on economic behavior and to isolate the effect of this behavior on productivity. the problem is highly simplified, however, for smaller religious groups such as the amish, who are well known for their distinct religious beliefs and lifestyle. historians and sociologists have extensively studied the origins, evolution, and significance of amish customs. the effect of amish beliefs on economic activities and performance, however, has received little systematic analysis. in this article i investigate the agricultural practices and productivity of amish farmers in a comparative frame- work, focusing particularly on amish settlements around kalona, iowa, during the period to . the analysis is based primarily on the information recorded in the agriculture and population schedules of the u.s. censuses. comparisons between the amish and other farmers reveal various persistent differences in farming that reflect some of the distinct features of amish culture. the journal of economic history, vol. , no. (june ). © the economic history association. all rights reserved. issn - . the author is assistant professor of economics at the university of connecticut, storrs, ct - . i am grateful to lester j. miller, the staff at the state historical society of iowa city, and the iowa mennonite museum and archives for information on kalona history. george grantham, david wishart, and the editors of this journal provided helpful comments and suggestions. i also thank brad andrew, jennifer easdon, and linda rudolph for research assistance, and the university of connecticut research foundation for financial support. co§gel the amish in iowa the history of the amish people began with the upheavals of the protestant reformation. in the s they emerged as the most orthodox followers of the swiss anabaptist leader, jacob amman. escaping religious persecution, they migrated to america in two waves, first in the early s, and later between and . the first amish families moved to iowa in and formed the largest amish settlement west of the mississippi river in johnson county, near the present town of kalona. this study focuses on the two townships in johnson county where the amish concentration was heaviest, sharon and washington. it also focuses on the period to , because the community had no major schisms before the s, and the current opposition to techno- logical advances had not yet emerged. the amish in these townships differed from other farmers in their religious culture, but faced the same physical constraints in farming. the two townships thus provide a setting where it is possible to assess the effect of religious culture in a comparative framework. moreover, the agriculture schedules of the u.s. censuses for this period provide detailed information about the operations of each farm, allowing for quantitative comparisons. genealogical studies and oral histories make it possible to distinguish amish from other farmers in census records. agriculture schedules recorded amish farmers in , in , in , and in . during the same time period, there were also , , , and non-amish farmers, whose records are available in complete form. farming and the amish how would we expect the religious beliefs of the amish to affect their farming practices and productivity? the amish regulate their economic practices according to their interpretations of the bible and prefer farming over other occupations for religious reasons. the precise rules and norms are recorded in the ordnung, the amish form of common law. it is well known, for example, that amish farmers have generally rejected the use of tractors and various other machinery in farming during the twentieth century and have deviated from mainstream see, for example, hostetler, amish society; kraybiu, riddle; and yoder, tradition, for the history of the amish. see gingerich, mennonites; schwieder and schwieder, peculiar people; wick, amish mennonites; and yoder, "my amish boyhood," for the history of the amish in iowa. these numbers are slightly less than the actual number of farms, because for and the agriculture schedules enumerated only farms with annual produce worth $ or more. for and they enumerated only farms of three or more acres or with an annual produce worth $ or more. amish productivity, - farming practices in other ways. one might therefore expect amish farmers of today to be less productive than their non-amish neighbors because of such differences in farming technology. the amish resistance to technological change in farming, however, is a relatively recent phenomenon. there is little evidence of opposition to mechanized farming before the twentieth century, particularly during the period studied in this paper. amish farmers were some of the first to adopt, and even invent, new developments in technology. therefore, the causes of any difference in their productivity must be sought elsewhere. commentaries on the farming practices of the amish before the twentieth century have consistently praised them as being among the best farmers. the distinct and superior farming practices of the amish are often attributed to their persecution in europe and the confiscation of their land. they were forced to become tenants on marginal land and are said to have excelled in farming to ensure the survival of their communities. it has also been observed that for the iowan amish, success at farming is a sign of god's blessing and strength of character. such observations represent a common sentiment among students of the amish and suggest a positive effect of amish religious beliefs and history on economic performance, relative to other farmers. the performance itself, however, has never been systematically studied, and the superior performance of amish farmers (during the nineteenth century) has almost become an unquestioned presumption. were the amish farmers more productive? agriculture schedules itemize the inputs and outputs of each farm recorded in the censuses, making it possible to calculate the cost and revenue of operating farms. we can aggregate the information on the basis of religious affiliation and use the ratio of revenue to cost as a see, for example, kraybill, riddle, pp. - ; and hostetler, amish society, pp. - , for current agricultural practices and farm technology among the amish. similarly, the ordnung rejects various conveniences such as electricity, television, and cars as "worldly" and sets standardized patterns in clothing, household appliances, and even grooming. but see, for example, berry, unsettling, pp. - , for the superiority of amish practices in other respects. fisher, farm life, chap. ; and yoder, tradition, pp. - . also see gingerich, menno- nites, pp. - ; and yoder, "my amish boyhood," pp. - , for the amish in iowa. the amish do not oppose new technology per se, but for the danger it might present to their community. see correll, schweizerische tdufermennonitentum; and its review by maurer, "review," for the success of mennonite groups in europe. see also kollmorgen, culture, pp. - . gingerich, mennonites, p. . see, for example, hostetler, amish society, pp. - ; kraybill, riddle, pp. - ; stoltzfus, "amish agriculture," pp. - ; and the references in getz, "economic organization," pp. - . co§gel simple measure of productivity to compare the economic performance of amish and other farmers. the information provided by census schedules on cost and revenue is less detailed before . on the cost side, the schedules for and provide only the values of farms, farming implements and machin- ery, and livestock. the estimate of total cost is thus restricted to the user cost of capital only (calculated by multiplying the total value of these assets by the rate of interest). on the revenue side, the schedules provide only earnings generated from orchard products, market gar- dens, home manufactures, and animals slaughtered (or sold for slaugh- ter). we thus need to estimate the revenue from grain production by using market prices and the reported quantities that each farmer produced. the productivity estimates for and thus need to be interpreted with some caution, because not all inputs and products are accounted for in the calculation. if the omitted items are not reasonably proportional to those included, then the estimates will not reflect relative productivities accurately. moreover, the size of the samples, especially for , may be too small to reach any definitive conclu- sions. the census information for and is more detailed, allowing for a more reliable comparison. for example, in both years farmers reported the "estimated value of all farm productions (sold, consumed, or on hand)." furthermore, information about cost included the wages paid (for both and ), the cost of building and repairing fences (for only), and the cost of fertilizers purchased (for only). in addition to the revenue-cost ratio, we can use the average revenue of land as another proxy for productivity. this measure (calculated by dividing the total revenue of each farmer by the acres of improved land he owned) would indicate the productivity of land. although this measure may fail to reflect the productivity of the overall farming operations accurately in the presence of other variable inputs, the two productivity proxies nevertheless appear consistent in this case. federal government bond yield for and railroad bond yields for - are used to calculate the cost of capital, as reported in homer and sylla, history, pp. - . productivity comparisons, reported in table , are robust to other estimates (for example, local mortgage rates reported by bogue, from prairie, p. ), because the same rate applies to all farmers. there are reliable estimates of agricultural prices for iowa beginning in . see strand, prices. prices for are estimated using the price indices for cincinnati, reported by cole, wholesale commodity prices, p. ; and berry, western prices, pp. - . one might object to using the estimates provided by the farmers, because of possible errors or bias in reporting. reported estimates, however, closely reflect market values, as we can infer from the high correlation between farmers' estimates and those calculated from market prices and the quantities reported by each farmer. the simple correlation coefficients between the two estimates of cost and revenue range between . and . across censuses, with no systematic differences between the amish and other farmers. amish productivity, - table comparison of average productivity, amish and non-amish farmers, - revenue-cost ratio amish other average revenue of land ($/acre) amish other sample size amish other . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) . . ( . ) notes: see the text for an explanation of the calculation of cost and revenue. the r-statistics are in parentheses and test for the difference between the two means. at the percent level, amish farmers had significantly lower revenue-cost ratios during - and lower average revenue of land during - . source: u.s. bureau of the census, census schedules, - . also see notes and . as table demonstrates, comparison of productivities reveals a consistent differential in favor of non-amish farmers. the revenue-cost ratios for and are lower than those for and , due primarily to the difference in the items included in cost. the decline in the ratios for reflects the additional items included in cost and the fall in agricultural prices during the census year. despite such fluctua- tions in the absolute levels of revenue-cost ratios, the relative difference in productivity between amish and non-amish farmers persisted, challenging the conventional view about the superior productivity of amish farmers. note that the productivity proxies used above may be biased because they omit labor inputs not reported in the schedules, such as the unpaid labor input of family members and friends. the productivity differential may thus simply be the result of a difference in the ratio of unpaid labor to other inputs between the two groups of farmers. in our case, however, the direction of the bias actually reinforces the conclusion of table . on amish farms, the labor input of family members was probably higher, because the average family size was significantly higher. amish farmers might also have had greater access to non- household labor within the religious network because of their well- known cooperation in farming operations. see note . co§gel . * ( . ) - . ( . ) - . ( . ) . ( . ) - . * ( . ) - . ( . ) . * ( . ) - . ( . ) - . * ( . ) . ( . ) . . * ( . ) - . ( . ) - . * ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) - . ( . ) . * ( . ) - . ( . ) - . * ( . ) . ( . ) . . * ( . ) - . ( . ) . ( . ) - . ( . ) - . ( - ) - . ( . ) - . ( . ) . ( . ) - . * ( . ) . ( . ) . table determinants of productivity, amish and non-amish, native and foreign-born farmers, - variable constant amisha age amish x age nativity " amish x nativity number of products amish x number of products total value of farming assets amish x value of farming assets degrees of freedom r * = significant at the percent level. a dummy variable assigns to amish and to non-amish farmers. b dummy variable assigns to native-born and to foreign-born farmers. c this represents the sum of the values of farm, implements and machinery, and livestock. notes: the revenue-cost ratio is used as the productivity proxy. figures in parentheses are /-statistics. source: u.s. bureau of the census, census schedules, - . explanations of productivity differential to understand why amish farmers were less productive, we must first identify the determinants of productivity. i tested for the effect on productivity of age, nativity, number of products, and the total value of farming assets, using a dummy variable to test for the difference between amish and non-amish farmers in the way each variable affected their productivity. table reports the results. the degree of standardization of our sample can be established by examining the differences in the composition of the amish and non- amish groups that might have contributed to the differential in produc- tivity. the differential might have resulted, for instance, from a gap in the farming experience between the two groups. although census records do not provide information on longevity in farming, we can use age as a proxy for experience. non-amish farmers were indeed older on average by about three years in and (though the average age was approximately equal in ). but the difference in age does not amish productivity, - seem to explain the productivity differential; table reveals either an insignificant (for and ) or a negative (for ) relationship between age and productivity. it would seem that the nativity of farmers might also have affected their productivity. for example, if new immigrants followed traditional methods in farming, their practices and performance might have differed from those of native-born farmers, and significant disparities in the proportion of new immigrants in the two groups could have contributed to the difference in their average productivities. the evidence from our sample, however, does not support this conclusion. although the coefficient of nativity is statistically significant for , the difference in the proportion of foreign-born farmers between the two groups was too small ( percent for the amish and percent for other farmers) to account for the productivity differential. moreover, although the differ- ence in the proportion of foreign-born farmers was substantial in and ( percent and percent for the amish and percent and percent for other farmers), the coefficient of nativity is insignificant in both years, suggesting that nativity had little or no effect on the relative productivities of the amish and other farmers. population characteristics such as age and nativity appear to be insufficient explanations for the productivity differential. to understand why amish farmers were less productive, the relationship between religious beliefs and farming practices must be examined in more detail. amish farmers might have pursued a distinct objective in selecting farming products, which could have reduced their productivity. for example, they might have been highly averse to the risks their commu- nity would have faced by exposure to outside markets and sought to ensure their own self-sufficiency by producing a diverse selection of products. as john hostetler has observed, rather than specialize in certain products, "amish farmers today, as in earlier periods, prefer general farming or a diversity of crops." we can check the applicability of this observation to the period considered in this article by comparing the number of items produced by the amish with those produced by other farmers. among the products listed in the agriculture schedules, amish farmers produced an average of . different items in , . in , . in , and . in . by contrast, other farmers produced an average of . , . , . , and . items. the comparison thus shows greater diversity in the product choices of the amish farmers, especially after . hostetler, amish society, p. . but see stoltzfus, "amish agriculture," pp. - , for recent changes in practices. between and , each new census required the reporting of additional products, which accounts for part of the increase in the average number of items produced by the farmers. the f-statistics for the test of the difference in the averages are . for , . for , . for , and . for . the average number of items produced by the amish farmers was thus significantly higher for and at conventional levels. co§gel the important question in the present context is whether the amish preference for diversity was costly. although product diversity might have helped to insure controlled interaction with the outside world, the amish might have paid a premium for it in lost income. the regression results of table , however, show either a positive (for and ) or an insignificant (for ) relationship between the number of products and productivity. this finding suggests that the product choices of amish farmers did not cause them to be less productive. systematic differences in the use of farming inputs between the amish and non-amish farmers might have caused the differential in productivity. although the amish did not oppose technological change before the twentieth century, they might have had other restraints on the use of farming inputs based on their religious beliefs. for example, as melvin gingerich reports, amish farmers in iowa "object[ed] to mules because they believefd] it contrary to the plan of nature that two species of animals should be crossed." accordingly, census records show no mules and asses on amish farms during the period to . it is difficult to assess, however, how much of the differential in productivity can be attributed to such variations in the composition of livestock holdings or other inputs. more important is the difference in the level of all inputs. as table shows, the coefficient of the total value of farming assets is consistently significant and negative, demonstrating a negative relationship between farm size and productivity. moreover, as table shows, the amount of land as well as the values of farms, farm implements and machinery, and livestock were all significantly greater on average for amish farms. given the differential in productivities, comparison of inputs therefore suggests that amish farmers overinvested in their farming operations, exceeding the optimal size. the question that remains is why the amish invested so heavily in farms, machinery and implements, and livestock, when additional investment actually reduced the efficiency of their operations. the bequest motive the amish were primarily concerned with preserving their religion and maintaining a stable community. because of their belief that they should separate from the world, they minimized contact with outsiders and did not actively seek to recruit members, except from their own families. therefore, although they did not face persecution in iowa, they recognized that their religious traditions could survive only if their children chose to stay in the community and retain the amish religion. therein lies the clue to understanding the effect of religious culture on gingerich, mennonites, p. . amish productivity, - table average size of land and values of farming assets, amish and non-amish, - asset by group land" (acres) amish other value of farm ($) amish other value of machinery and implements ($) amish other value of livestock ($) amish other total value of assets" ($) amish other ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) a this represents the sum of improved and unimproved land. b this represents the sum of the values of farm, implements and machinery, and livestock. notes: the /-statistics are shown in parentheses and test for the significance of the difference between two averages. the average size of land and the total value of the assets of amish farmers was significantly higher in and at conventional levels. source: u.s. bureau of the census, census schedules, - . the investment practices of the amish. because the preservation of their religion depended on children, they encouraged large families and invested in the future of their religious community. the amish have always preferred large families. they interpret the biblical passage "go forth and multiply" literally, and advocate large families by encouraging early marriages and opposing birth control. the amish farms in our sample thus housed consistently greater numbers of people than non-amish farms, by an average of about one person per farm. the average household size for amish farms was . in , . in , . in , and . in . by contrast, non-amish farms housed on average . , . , . , and . people during the same years. large families, however, also presented the amish with a problem',' see ericksen et al., "fertility patterns," for recent trends. household size is calculated from the population schedules, and includes members of extended family such as stepchildren and parents, but excludes those boarding on farm for work-related reasons, such as farm laborers and domestic servants. the r-statistics for the test of the difference between the two averages are . for , . for , . for , and . for . the average size of the amish household was significantly higher in all years at the percent level. co§gel table the bequest motive: wealth" regressed on family size variable constant family size (common slope) dummy " x family size (differential effect for the amish) degrees of freedom r . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . . ( . ) . ( . ) . ( . ) . a this represents the total value of the farm, machinery and implements, and livestock. b dummy variable assigns to amish and to other farmers. notes: figures in parentheses are /-statistics. all coefficients, except for the differential effect for i , are significant at conventional levels. source: u.s. bureau of the census, census schedules, - . because children could stay in the community only if they were able to support their own families after they got married. as eugene ericksen, julia ericksen, and john hostetler have found, "[w]hen families are able to set their children up in farming, the children are likely to remain amish." in the absence of established institutions for credit, the ultimate responsibility rested on the parents to secure farms for their children. as gingerich observes for the amish in iowa, "[m]any a father has had an ambition to acquire enough land in a solid block so that each son could be given a farm." large families thus required amish parents to invest heavily in farming inputs (with the expectation that they would be passed down to future generations), suggesting the presence of a bequest motive as an explanation of their investment patterns. a common procedure to test for the presence of the bequest motive is through the relationship between wealth (total value of farming assets) and family size. if the motive was present, we would expect farmers with larger families to hold more wealth. as table shows, the coefficient of family size is positive and significant for all farmers, confirming the presence of the bequest motive in the overall sample. more important, however, is whether the motive was significantly different for amish farmers, an expectation that can be tested by using a dummy variable that differentiates amish from non-amish farmers. as table shows, the coefficient of the differential effect (dummy x family size) is positive and significant for and , confirming the presence of a higher bequest motive for amish farmers. how successful was the bequest motive? comparison of the agricul- ture and population schedules for two consecutive censuses reveals the e r i c k s e n , e r i c k s e n , and h o s t e t l e r , " c u l t i v a t i o n , " p p . - . gingerich, mennonites, p . . s e e , for e x a m p l e , h u r d , " r e s e a r c h , " p p . - , for a review of tests for the bequest m o t i v e . amish productivity, - table success of the bequest motive (number of fanners) status in census records total recorded in first census recorded in both censuses farm taken over in second census not recorded in second census new farmer in second census (x) child in first census " (y) percentage of children among new fanners (y/x) and censuses amish other and censuses amish other " farmer died or retired between censuses; farm taken over by child or spouse. b farmer was recorded as child of farmer parents in the population schedules of the first census and separately as a new farmer in the agriculture schedules of the second census. notes: in addition to population schedules, genealogical studies were used to determine family connections for the amish in a few uncertain cases. similar information is not available for other farmers; thus, the number of farmers reported as "child in first census" may be slightly lower than actual, if the census schedules are incomplete. sources: u.s. bureau of the census, census schedules, - ; and gingerich, cemetery directory. changes in farm ownership that occurred over the decade, making it possible to test the success of the amish in maintaining their religious community. as table shows, among the new farmers recorded in and , a higher percentage of amish than non-amish had farmer parents living in the area a decade ago. similarly, a lower percentage of amish farmers left the area during the period to . these results testify to the stability of the amish community and to the success of amish parents in affecting the decisions of their children to remain amish and continue farming in the same location. the bequest motive of the amish farmers thus clarifies their invest- ment patterns during the period and . the amish sought and successfully achieved the survival of their religious community by investing heavily in land and other inputs in farming. by this means, they secured farms for their children's future, even though the produc- tivity of their own farms lagged behind those of other settlers. they sacrificed current income in order to raise their bequests and invested heavily in the next generation. conclusion the experience of amish fanners who lived near the present town of kalona, iowa, during the period to demonstrates how religious culture can affect economic practices and performance. the amish were primarily concerned with the survival of their religion and co§gel the stability of their communities. their farming practices accordingly differed from those of their non-amish neighbors, particularly in the selection of inputs: they held larger assets in farming in order to safeguard the future of their religious community. such differences in farming practices resulted in lower levels of productivity, contrary to widely held presumptions about the relative performance of amish farmers during the nineteenth century. it would be presumptuous to generalize about the relationship be- tween religion and economic performance from the experience of this one community. amish practices in farming have evolved over time, and other religious groups assuredly have entirely different beliefs and practices. the case of the amish in iowa does show, however, that the shared beliefs and objectives of a religious community can produce distinct patterns of economic behavior and affect their productivity. references berry, thomas s., western prices before (cambridge, ma, ). berry, wendell, the unsettling of america: culture and agriculture (new york, ). bogue, allan g., from prairie to corn belt (chicago, ). cole, arthur h., wholesale commodity prices in the united states: - (cambridge, ma, ). correll, ernst, das schweizerische tdufermennonitentum (tubingen, germany, ). ericksen, eugene p., julia a. ericksen, and john a. hostetler, "the cultivation of the soil as a moral directive: population growth, family ties, and the maintenance of community among the old order amish," rural sociology, (spring ), pp. - . ericksen, eugene p., et al., "fertility patterns and trends among the old order amish," population studies, (july ), pp. - . fisher, gideon, farm life and its changes (gordonville, pa, ). getz, jane c , "the economic organization and practices of the old order amish of lancaster county, pennsylvania," mennonite quarterly review, (jan. ), pp. - ; (apr. ), pp. - . , gingerich, mary a., cemetery directory of amish and mennonites in iowa, johnson, and washington counties of iowa (kalona, ia, ). gingerich, melvin, the mennonites in iowa (iowa city, ia, ). homer, sidney, and richard sylla, a history of interest rates ( st edn., ; rd edn., new brunswick, ). hostetler, john a., amish society ( st edn., ; rd edn., baltimore, ). hurd, michael, "research on the elderly: economic status, retirement, and con- sumption and saving," journal of economic literature, (june ), pp. - . kollmorgen, walter m., culture of a contemporary rural community. rural life studies no. (washington, dc, ). kraybill, donald b., the riddle of amish culture (baltimore, ). maurer, h. m., "review of correll, das schweizerische tdufermennonitentum," american journal of sociology, (mar. ), pp. - . amish productivity, - schwieder, elmer, and dorothy schwieder, a peculiar people: iowa's old order amish (ames, ia, ). stoltzfus, victor, "amish agriculture: adaptive strategies for economic survival of community life," rural sociology, (summer ), pp. - . strand, norman v., prices of farm products in iowa, iowa state college of agriculture and mechanic arts, research bulletin no. (ames, ia, ). u.s. bureau of the census, federal census schedules, national archives and records service, agriculture and population schedules (microfilm, washington, dc, - ). wick, barthinius l., the amish mennonites (iowa city, ia, ). yoder, paton, tradition and transition (scottdale, pa, ). yoder, sanford c , "my amish boyhood," the palimsest, (mar. ), pp. - . pnas .. correction profile correction for “profile of aravinda chakravarti,” by tinsley h. davis, which was first published may , ; . / pnas. (proc. natl. acad. sci. u.s.a. , – ). the editors wish to note that on page , dr. c. c. li was described as a founder of the field of population genetics. however, dr. c. c. li’s impact on the field was as an influential figure rather than as a founder. published under the pnas license. published online july , . www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. | pnas | july , | vol. | no. www.pnas.org d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , https://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtml https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. https://www.pnas.org profile profile of aravinda chakravarti tinsley h. davis, science writer many of the genetic variations uncovered by genome- wide dragnets are bycatch, not primary disease culprits. separating causality from coincidence in this sea of data is challenging, especially when many of the candidates do not reside in the coding portion of the genome. aravinda chakravarti, director of new york university’s center for human genetics and geno- mics, has made a career of not just cutting through the noise but anticipating it, thanks to his training in statistics and genetics. in his inaugural article, chakravarti, who was elected to the national academy of sciences in , outlines a systematic process for determining causality in genome-wide association stud- ies. he examines variants of regulatory elements that control gene expression by focusing on variation in cis-regulatory elements that target the scn a gene, which is implicated in sudden cardiac death ( ). finding direction born in calcutta, india in , just seven years after the country gained independence, chakravarti remembers a mood of optimism and a sense of possibility. “i grew up in india at a very magical time.” only in hindsight would chakravarti call his family’s financial circum- stances poor. “i had every kind of material to read, from national newspapers to glossy magazines to books,” he says. “i grew up in a house where reading was very valued, and curiosity was valued.” chakravarti attended a local high school run by methodist missionaries that offered advanced science courses. after high school, chakravarti applied to a plethora of colleges. “i don’t know that i had a partic- ular sense of direction,” he says. that changed as soon as chakravarti saw the first page of the indian statistical institute’s entrance examination, which contained two -digit numbers. the question asked which of five possible answers resulted from multiplying the two numbers. “it was obvious that the answer could not be deduced by arithmetic—there was no time—but logic,” says chakravarti. “in india, the ability to advance is the ability to take tests, but that’s not how science advances.” the entrance examination hinted that his soon-to-be alma mater “valued thinking and logic.” during his time at the institute, chakravarti re- ceived a solid grounding in science and published his first two papers, one of which examined petal distri- bution in composite flowers and the relation to the fibonacci sequence, an exercise that required counting the petals on more than , flowers ( ). the experience and mentoring he received encouraged chakravarti. chakravarti was deeply influenced by his training. “we were not taught statistics as a tool as it is today. we were taught statistics as a way of thinking.” true applications of statistics, he says, “require you to know the domain to which you apply it,” and it was from that line of reasoning that chakravarti sought further training in human genetics after graduating in . “i left with a sense of purpose.” chakravarti decided to leave india for a doctoral program in the united states, recalling the advice of visiting australian geneticist robert kirk, who had told him that india would continue to be outpaced in the field. “and this was all before recombinant dna, let alone the human genome project,” he says. most human genetics programs recruited only medical degree holders, and chakravarti wanted the broad laboratory training that most doctoral epide- miology programs would not provide. the relatively new university of texas health science center at houston’s graduate school of biomedical sciences provided this opportunity. there, chakravarti aravinda chakravarti. image courtesy of sumantra chatterjee (new york university school of medicine, new york). published under the pnas license. this is a profile of a recently elected member of the national academy of sciences to accompany the member’s inaugural article on page . published online may , . – | pnas | may , | vol. | no. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. p r o f il e http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /pnas. &domain=pdf https://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/licenses.xhtml https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. studied with population geneticist masatoshi nei and relished the laboratory work. “at that point in time, i was learning the technical details. we didn’t worry about jobs or grants, we just did research,” he says. “it was really just extending my childhood.” during that period, he also published a cookbook, not everything we eat is curry: a bengali guide to indian cuisine, and married biochemist shukti chakravarti ( ). chakravarti’s childhood—but not his passions for his family and cooking—came to an end with gradu- ation in and a short-lived postdoctoral position at the university of washington, where he worked on demographic genetics and large datasets. “it was big data for those days, with intense computing,” he says. “you’d laugh at the computers now.” however, the experience was not quite what chakravarti wanted. getting a handle on things in , chakravarti took a teaching job at the univer- sity of pittsburgh graduate school of public health. he was responsible for six courses a year. he initially had no office or staff, and had to go to the computer center to enter and analyze data. however, the time proved fruitful. he worked with preeminent population genet- icist c. c. li, a founder of the field, and began a col- laboration with haig kazazian and stylianos antonarakis to understand the molecular diversity of the β-globin gene cluster in humans, eventually identifying a hotspot for recombination ( ). using population genetics to predict the disease state of individuals intrigued chakravarti. since , when the sickle cell mutation was shown to be asso- ciated with a noncoding polymorphism in dna, he had imagined that the association, called linkage disequilibrium, could be used to map mutations in reverse. outliers, alleles that associate at rates higher than random assortment, could predict disease and provide the foundation for his work. by the late s, chakravarti wanted to apply the concept of linkage disequilibrium to a disease whose genetic underpinnings were unknown. “the genes cloned at the time had a lesion, deletion, or transloca- tion at the disease locus, which was used as a handle for getting at the gene.” cystic fibrosis had no such han- dles, but chakravarti was convinced its high prevalence in the population was indicative of selection, and thus the key to the problem. “there’s no way you could have selection without inducing strong linkage disequilib- rium.” chakravarti’s hunch was correct, and before long, his team published the positional location of cftr using this principle ( ). “that was the first success in mapping a common disease allele in a general—not isolated—population,” says chakravarti. in addition, the marker maps created to solve the cystic fibrosis problem and detect the alleles’ mutual association (i.e., haplotypes) prompted chakravarti’s role in the eventual creation of the international hap- map project, where he served on the steering com- mittee from to , as well as his eventual contributions to the genomes project ( ). both are projects that aim to catalog human genetic variation for phenotypic mapping. for chakravarti and other human geneticists, it is genetic variation and its association that ironically provide both the power to map and the po- tential to confound causal and irrelevant factors. meeting serendipity to sort through the genetic noise, chakravarti has relied on a de facto model disease. chance led chakravarti to begin studying hirschsprung disease in after lis- tening to an account of a debilitating congenital disor- der that prevents proper innervation of the intestinal tract. what he heard did not sound like either a multi- factorial or mendelian disease, and he thought, “maybe what i should do is to devise methods for studying such complicated non-mendelian disorders.” the challenges would be vast. “we didn’t know at what resolution we needed to develop markers,” he says. “it wasn’t like you could look them up.” when david kupfer, chair of the psychiatry department, asked chakravarti to study mood disorders instead, chakravarti agreed to consult if kupfer provided lab- oratory space for his hirschsprung disease studies. “he gave me the gift of a career.” chakravarti learned how to do family studies, be- ginning with old order mennonite populations, and he now feels a kinship with what he refers to as “his” families. “these are not families that we simply get data on. we communicate with them, and when they have problems, i’m not an md, but i make a point of connecting them with experts.” in , his work mapped one of the major genes, ret, for hirschsprung disease, which encodes a tyro- sine kinase receptor ( ). much of the overall genetic variation in ret was not in the coding areas, but it was not until years later that these variations would be revealed in its enhancers, noncoding genetic elements that affect the expression of ret ( ). today, after years of research and at least genes so far implicated in its cause, the heritability of hirschsprung disease is mostly, but not fully, explained, according to chakravarti. “we are using these lessons for more complicated disorders,” he says. “it never network of regulatory genes underlying hirschsprung disease. such networks are thought to underlie other complex traits and disorders. image courtesy of aravinda chakravarti and sumantra chatterjee (new york university school of medicine, new york). davis pnas | may , | vol. | no. | ceases to amaze me what a single model system can teach you. i believe that we have to first choose systems that can really illuminate features that we want to learn. databases and knowledge are not the same thing.” while he was director of the center for complex disease genomics at johns hopkins university in , chakravarti identified a rare genetic cause of autism by studying families in which females were severely affected ( ). in addition to these two congenital con- ditions, he focused on two genetically complex adult- onset conditions: hypertension, having identified more than genetic contributors over the years ( ), and sudden cardiac death ( ). the heart rhythm’s qt in- terval is physiologically determined, and intervals that are too short or too long can lead to problems. in his inaugural article, chakravarti focused on the genetic control of this physiological process, determining that eight of the cis-regulatory gene variants identified by a genome-wide association study are causal, im- plying that they affect regulation of scn a ( ). throughout his career, chakravarti has held posi- tions in departments as diverse as anthropology, bio- statistics, and psychiatry. however, there are two scientific disciplines that he considers of particular rel- evance to human societies. “socially, i am a complete egalitarian, but of all the biological sciences, even today, i think two of the greatest of public interest are genetics and neuroscience,” he says noting that they come with high public relevance and ethical responsibilities. kapoor a, et al. ( ) multiple scn a variant enhancers modulate its cardiac gene expression and the qt interval. proc natl acad sci usa : – . majumder pp, chakravarti a ( ) variation in the ray and disk florets in four species of compositae. fibonacci quart : – . chakravarti a, morizot dc ( ) not everything we eat is curry: a bengali guide to indian cuisine (harold house, houston). chakravarti a, et al. ( ) nonuniform recombination within the human beta-globin gene cluster. am j hum genet : – . kerem b, et al. ( ) identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: genetic analysis. science : – . abecasis gr, et al.; genomes project consortium ( ) an integrated map of genetic variation from , human genomes. nature : – . angrist m, et al. ( ) mutation analysis of the ret receptor tyrosine kinase in hirschsprung disease. hum mol genet : – . emison es, et al. ( ) a common sex-dependent mutation in a ret enhancer underlies hirschsprung disease risk. nature : – . turner tn, et al. ( ) loss of δ-catenin function in severe autism. nature : – . ehret gb, et al.; charge-echogen consortium; charge-hf consortium; wellcome trust case control consortium ( ) the genetics of blood pressure regulation and its target organs from association studies in , individuals. nat genet : – . arking de, et al. ( ) a common genetic variant in the nos regulator nos ap modulates cardiac repolarization. nature genet : – . | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. davis https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/ . /pnas. news and notes personal and miscellaneous compiled by the managing editor at the meeting of the american political science association, the committee to nominate officers for was authorized ( ) to follow the procedure of the committee for in canvassing the membership of the association for suggestions for nominations, and ( ) to publish its list of nominations in the october review. the committee (consisting of robert r. wilson, chairman, charles g. haines, roscoe c. martin, roger h. wells, and harold zink) reports the canvass duly made, and of- fers the following list of nominations: for president, william anderson (university of minnesota); for first, second, and third vice-president, re- spectively, robert e. cushman (cornell university), frederick a. mid- dlebush (university of missouri), and james hart (university of vir- ginia) ; for members of the executive council, miss keith clark (carleton college), thomas i. cook (university of washington), marshall e. dimock (u. s. department of justice), james w. fesler (university of north carolina), and max lerner (williams college). it may be added that, under a constitutional amendment adopted last year, the secretary- treasurer is now elected by the executive council rather than by the as- sociation. dr. herman finer, of the london school of economics and political science, is visiting professor of political science at the university of michi- gan during the first semester of the current academic year. professor peter h. odegard, of amherst college, has been elected to the board of directors of the institute for propaganda analysis. dr. wilbert l. hindman, formerly of colgate university, has been ap- pointed assistant professor of political science at the university of south- ern california, replacing dr. frank h. jones. dr. robert d. leigh has resigned the presidency of bennington college and has become a temporary member of the school of economics and politics of the institute for advanced study at princeton. at the university of michigan, professor j. ralston hayden has been appointed to the james . murfin professorship of political science. professor david p. barrows, of the university of california, has been appointed an adviser to secretary of war stimson. at the university, he is offering a new course entitled "warfare and the modern state." after a year at northwestern university, professor joseph p. harris has rejoined the faculty of the university of california at berkeley. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the american political science review professor john a. fairlie, who recently retired at the university of illinois, has been appointed visiting professor at ohio state university for the winter and spring quarters of . at the university of illinois, dr. francis g. wilson has been advanced from associate professor to professor and drs. valentine jobst iii and clyde f. snider from associate to assistant professor. professor james w. fesler has a year's leave from the university of north carolina and is serving as analyst assistant to the secretary of the office of production management. professor manley . hudson, of the harvard law school, and judge of the permanent court of international justice, has been appointed anna howard shaw lecturer at bryn mawr college. in february and march, he will give six public lectures there and will participate in the haverf ord- bryn mawr joint seminar. professor raymond mckelvey, of occidental college, has been elected president of the pacific southwest academy. dr. gilbert g. lentz has resigned his position with the illinois legisla- tive council as assistant research director to accept an assistant professor- ship and the directorship of the public service training program at oc- cidental college. dr. henry w. wiens, who during the past year represented the men- nonite central committee at lyons, france, has been appointed instruc- tor in political science at santa barbara state college. dr. bennett rich and mr. john j. dautrich have been added to the political science staff at the university of pennsylvania. dr. edgar b. cale, instructor in political science, has received the pen- field fellowship award at the university of pennsylvania and will spend the coming year in travel and study in south america. professor charles h. titus, of the university of california at los an- geles, is now serving as public relations officer of the th army, with head- quarters at the presidio in san francisco. mr. earl w. hanson, of the university of illinois, has been added to the department staff at the uni- versity. dr. fred v. cahill, who received his doctor's degree at yale university in june, has been appointed instructor in political science at the univer- sity of oregon. at the university of missouri, dr. chesney hill has been promoted to the rank of associate professor. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms news and notes mr. paul l. beckett, formerly research associate in the bureau of gov- ernmental research at the university of california at los angeles, has ac- cepted a position as executive-secretary of town hall, a downtown los angeles civic organization patterned after the commonwealth club of san francisco. dr. richard w. van wagenen, who received his doctor's degree at stanford university in june, has been appointed instructor in government at yale university. hobart college and william smith college (affiliated institutions) an- nounce the appointment of mr. seymour dunn, recently research asso- ciate in political science at cornell university, as assistant professor of political science. dr. wallace mendelson, recently of the university of missouri, has re- ceived an appointment at the university of illinois. at new york university, dr. ray f. harvey has been made an assist- ant professor of government in the washington square college and in the graduate school, and dr. william j. ronan has been made an assistant professor of government in the washington square college and assistant director of the graduate division for training in public service. during the current academic year, bryn mawr college and haverford college are offering a joint graduate seminar dealing with the political, legal, and economic problems of world reconstruction. the seminar is in charge of professors benjamin gerig of haverford and helen dwight reid of bryn mawr. at the university of tennessee, where dr. kenneth o. warner has be- come chairman of the department of political science (lately separated from history), professor lee s. greene will henceforth devote full time to teaching, although continuing as a consultant to the t. v. a. other members of the newly organized department are drs. paul k. walp and ruth stephens. a grant by the carnegie corporation of new york has been awarded to dr. robert m. w. kempner, institute of local and state govern- ment, university of pennsylvania, for research in national socialist ad- ministration, with special reference to the world-wide police system. dr. kempner has served as special consultant in the same field to federal and state authorities during recent months. the members of the staff in history and political science at iowa state college have issued a series of eight bulletins on "the challenge to democracy." professor john a. vieg writes on "democracy on trial," and professor h. d. cook on "toward a better public administration." h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the american political science review the twenty-first annual meeting of the national council for the social studies will be held at indianapolis november - . professor howard white, of miami university, is chairman of a committee which is ar- ranging a symposium on civic education to be sponsored jointly by the council and the national foundation for education. federal, state, and local governmental personnel workers will gather in jacksonville, florida, october - , for the thirty-third annual meeting of the civil service assembly of the united states and canada. the chief topic for discussion during the four-day meeting will be the effect of na- tional defense activities upon the general field of public personnel adminis- tration. since february, , professor helen dwight reid, formerly of the university of buffalo, has been taking the place of professor charles g. fenwick of bryn mawr college. professor fenwick is spending most of his time in rio de janeiro, serving as the united states member of the seven-man inter-american neutrality commission which represents the joint interests of the twenty-one american republics during the war. in the summer of , professor reid was a member of the fourth confer- ence on canadian-american relations at queens university, was the latin-american expert at lehigh university's institute of politics, and gave addresses at the institute of public affairs at charlottesville and at the institute on world organization at american university. professor fenwick will be in residence at bryn mawr during a portion of the present year. a national opinion research center has been set up at the university of denver, sponsored by the university and the field foundation of new york. as listed in the announcement, the purposes of the new center are to establish the first non-profit, non-commercial organization to measure public opinion in the united states, to make available to officials, legis- lators, and non-profit organizations a staff of experts in public opinion measurement, to analyze and review the results of other surveys, to dis- cover, perfect and test new methods and techniques for the management of public opinion, and to provide the university with a new graduate de- partment devoted to the new science of public opinion measurement. mr. harry h. field, associated with dr. george gallup for six years, will be in active charge. the establishment of an institute of public service at the university of chicago, making special training in various aspects of government avail- able to the , public officials and public employees in the chicago metropolitan area, was announced during the late summer. opened in october, and conducted at the university's downtown center, the insti- h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms news and notes tute will flank the professional courses in business and in the institute of statistics which the university inaugurated a year ago to meet the grow- ing need in business and government for statistical fundamentals. a certificate of public administration will be awarded students satisfactorily completing an approved course, providing they have attained a bachelor's degree or an acceptable equivalent in terms of public service. the u. s. department of justice has announced, and the immigration and naturalization service (lately transferred to that department) will sponsor, a liberally financed program of education in citizenship, aimed primarily, but not exclusively, at the alien population of the country. the program will supplement and amplify such projects now in operation in most states and will establish projects where they are not now going on; and it will operate largely from state offices of a recently created national advisory board, with only a small supervisory force stationed in wash- ington. included in the five-man national board are drs. marshall e. dimock, associate commissioner of the immigration and naturalization service, and henry b. hazard, director of research, information, and education for the service; and the general director will be dean william f. russell, of teachers college, columbia university. on invitation of the board, the american political science association is participating through a counseling committee which was in process of formation when this issue went to press. the committee on the british sessional papers, a special committee of the committee on historical source materials of the american historical association, has made an agreement with the readex microprint corpora- tion of new york to issue a microprint edition of the british house of commons sessional papers. the agreement has the unanimous endorse- ment of the executive committee of the american historical associa- tion, and by it the readex company will issue the nineteenth-century vol- umes of the collection, more than , in number, at a price of $ , per set, providing a minimum of twenty-five subscriptions or their equivalent can be obtained. this price is about one-half of what it would be if the volumes were issued in microfilm; and the original volumes, were they ob- tainable, would cost upwards of $ , . the set will be collated to insure completeness and edited as to arrangement to conform to the official bind- ing and foliation. it is planned to issue the volumes for the first thirty years of the nineteenth century by next summer, and the remaining volumes of the century will be issued in the course of a four- or a nine-year period, de- pending on whether or not a foundation can be induced to assist libraries with restricted budgets. for further information concerning the project, address edgar l. erickson, lincoln hall, university of illinois, ur- bana, illinois. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms the american political science review two months before his death from a heart attack on august , dean charles wooten pipkin said in an address to the graduate student body of louisiana state university: "the dynamic thought of scholarship is to create a humane society on earth. the long, last quiet thought of all of us is that the good life of man can be achieved." it was a revealing pro- nouncement of his educational creed and a constantly recurring motif in the voluminous writing which he left. dean pipkin was born in little rock, arkansas, on november , . he received his a.b. degree from henderson-brown college in , and his m.a. from vanderbilt in . after three years as a graduate student at harvard, he was awarded a rhodes scholarship and received the degree of d. phil, from oxford uni- versity in . in the same year, he was appointed to the government faculty of louisiana state university, in which department he taught courses in international politics until his death. this service was inter- rupted twice—during - he studied at the sorbonne as a carnegie fellow in international law, and during - he served as visiting pro- fessor of social legislation at columbia university. at various times he taught during summer sessions at the university of texas and the uni- versity of virginia. in , the louisiana state university graduate pro- gram was reorganized and dr. pipkin was named the first dean of the graduate school. from that time forward his primary concern was the development of graduate study and scholarly activity in his own institu- tion and throughout the south. testifying to his success in this part of his career are a number of publications, activities, and causes which he espoused. among these are the joint editorship of the southern review, publication of the duty of the educated mind ( ), a survey of graduate and research work in the south ( ), and service on a number of im- portant educational committees and conferences, including the commis- sion on improvement in graduate instruction and the presidency of the conference of deans of southern graduate schools. at the time of his death he had just completed a further analysis of graduate work in the south in collaboration with a. b. bonds. dr. pipkin's principal publica- tions were issued before he was charged with administrative duties. his published works include the idea of social justice ( ); world peace is not a luxury ( ); social politics and modern democracies ( vols., ); and social legislation in the south ( ). he was a member of the executive council of the american political science association from to , served as a member of the board of editors of the american political science review from to , was a member of the executive council of the american society of international law from until his death, and at one time or another was a member of the american commis- sion at geneva, of the united states department of justice research council on effects of the eighteenth amendment, the president's con- h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms news and notes ference on home building and home ownership, the white house con- ference on social legislation, the social science advisory committee of twelve in the united states department of agriculture, industry com- mittee number two of the united states department of labor, the southern regional committee of the social science research council, the national committee of the council on southern regional develop- ment, and the president's national emergency council committee on southern economic conditions. in the death of charles w. pipkin, students and faculty of louisiana state university lost a kindly and generous counselor, southern education lost one of its most vigorous sup- porters, and the political science profession lost one of its most brilliant members. h tt p s: // d o i.o rg / . /s d o w n lo ad ed f ro m h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re . c ar n eg ie m el lo n u n iv er si ty , o n a p r a t : : , s u b je ct t o t h e c am b ri d g e c o re t er m s o f u se , a va ila b le a t h tt p s: // w w w .c am b ri d g e. o rg /c o re /t er m s. https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission wednesday, february , a -pos board b cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin- related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission natalia stepanyants, patrick macdonald, rajesh ramachandran. physiology and biophysics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa. cardiolipin (cl) is a unique, dimeric phospholipid essential for mitochondrial dynamics in eukaryotic cells. dynamin-related protein (drp ), a member of the dynamin superfamily of large gtpases, maintains the balance of mitochon- drial division and fusion by rapidly catalyzing mitochondrial fission. although recent studies have indicated a role for cl in stimulating drp self-assembly as well as gtpase activity on the mitochondrial surface, the exact mechanism by which cl functions in membrane fission remains unclear. here we use a variety of fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging approaches, together with model membranes, to demonstrate that drp and cl function cooperatively in effect- ing membrane fission in three distinct steps: (i) drp ’s preferential association with unconstrained, fluid-phase cl molecules located at a high spatial density in the membrane bilayer, (ii) cl’s reorganization in concert with drp self- assembly, and (iii) cl’s rapid phase transition from a lamellar, bilayer structure to an inverted hexagonal, non-bilayer configuration in the presence of drp and gtp, resulting in the creation of localized membrane constrictions that are primed for fission. we propose that drp thus catalyzes mitochondrial division. -pos board b vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin- sensitive channels oscar teijido hermida , adam j. kuszak , susan k. buchanan , sergey m. bezrukov , tatiana k. rostovtseva . program on physical biology, nichd, nichd, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, program on physical biology, nichd, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa. the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac) forms the major pathway for metabolites across the mitochondrial outer membrane (mom). mammalian mitochondria have three isoforms of this protein: vdac , vdac , and vdac which may play different roles in the regulation of mitochondrial func- tions. vdac is the most studied isoform, since it is the major protein of the mom in most cells, followed by vdac . both, vdac and vdac recon- stituted into planar membranes form voltage-dependent anion-selective chan- nels whose conductance is modulated by dimeric tubulin. as counterpart, the poor channel-forming ability of vdac together with its low proficiency in restoring normal growth in pore-less yeast led to hypothesize that this isoform does not form channels and could be just a modulator of the other two isoforms. we developed an improved protocol of purification and refolding of mouse re- combinant vdac that allowed us to fully characterize channels formed by vdac reconstituted in planar lipid membranes and to compare its channel properties with those of vdac and vdac . we observed the typical vdac channel behavior of vdac , such as high conductive open state ( . - . ns in m kcl) and multiple low conductive states at potentials r mv, selectivity for anions with pcl -/pk þ¼ . , and typical voltage- gating. this suggests a structural homology of vdac with the other two iso- forms. interestingly, the most distinct characteristic of vdac is its signifi- cantly lower sensitivity to the blockage by tubulin, which would lead to an increased permeability of this channel to atp and other metabolites. this might explain why the down-regulation of vdac expression among the three vdac isoforms in some cancer cells causes the most drastic decrease in their mitochondrial membrane potential, or why vdac is predominantly ex- pressed in the short-term high energy demanding cells, such as spermatozoa. -pos board b channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential victor v. lemeshko. escuela de fisica, universidad nacional de colombia, medellin, colombia. mitochondria are the main source of energy in eukaryotic non-proliferating aer- obic cells. in cancer cells, significant part of the energy metabolism is sup- ported by the aerobic glycolysis. oxidative phosphorylation metabolites cross the mitochondrial outer membrane through the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac). the possibility of the voltage-gating functioning of vdac under physiological conditions and proposed mechanisms of generation of the outer membrane potential (omp) require further study. in this work, we present a computational thermodynamic analysis of a possible generation of omp by the creatine kinase(ck)-vdac and vdac-hexokinase(hk) com- plexes, as well as by their intermembrane complexes with the adenine nucleo- tide translocator (ant). the ck-vdac and vdac-hk complexes function as direct steady-state voltage generators, using the free energy of kinase reac- tions, while the ant-ck-vdac and ant-vdac-hk complexes allow the application of a part of the sum of the corresponding ‘‘kinase voltage’’ and the inner membrane potential to the outer membrane. the developed computa- tional models demonstrate a high probability of generation of the metabolically-dependent omp with magnitudes high enough to close free vdacs. we suggest that in case of cardiac cells, the ck-vdac-mediated channeling of mitochondrial energy, earlier postulated by saks and wallimann, leads to the metabolically-dependent generation of a high omp during systole, thus causing electrical closure of free vdacs and essentially avoiding the mitochondrial atp usage by non-contraction system consumers. in case of cancer cells, that have a very high percentage of hexokinase attached to mito- chondria, the electrical closure of free vdacs by omp allows the preferential vdac-hk-mediated channeling of the mitochondrial atp to initiate the aer- obic glycolysis by an anti-turbo mode. (research grants # and # , colciencias). -pos board b alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease philip a. gurnev , , tatiana k. rostovtseva , david p. hoogerheide , , olga protchenko , thai leong yap , jennifer c. lee , sergey m. bezrukov . physics department, umass-amherst, amherst, ma, usa, section on molecular transport, ppb/nichd/nih, bethesda, md, usa, center for neutron research, nist, gaithersburg, md, usa, liver diseases branch, niddk/nih, bethesda, md, usa, laboratory of protein conformation and dynamics, nhlbi/nih, bethesda, md, usa. alpha-synuclein (a-syn), an intrinsically disordered neuronal protein, is impli- cated in the etiology of parkinson disease (pd) and a number of other neurode- generative dementias. though recent research demonstrates the involvement of a-syn in a variety of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration, the mo- lecular mechanism of a-syn toxicity and its effect on neuronal mitochondria remain vague. we demonstrate a functional interaction between a-syn and the voltage-dependent anion channel (vdac), the major conduit for atp and other bioenergetics metabolites in the mitochondrial outer membrane. we found that at nanomolar concentrations, the full-length a-syn, its amino acid c-terminal truncated mutant, as well as b- and a-synuclein isoforms induce reversible and highly voltage-dependent blockage of vdac reconsti- tuted into planar lipid bilayers. binding parameters varied with each isoform, revealing the key role of the negatively charged c-terminal of synucleins in blocking a positively charged pore of vdac. synuclein-blocked states of vdac differ in ionic selectivity, implying the existence of several conforma- tion states of synuclein molecules in the channel pore. we propose a model of a-syn interaction with vdac, in which the negatively charged c-terminus of a-syn enters the net-positive channel pore, providing a steric block for atp flux. experiments with a yeast strain deficient in vdac demonstrate that a-syn toxicity in yeast depends on vdac, revealing a-syn interaction with the channel in living cells. thus, our findings show the long-sought physiolog- ical and pathophysiological roles for monomeric a-syn, which reconcile previ- ous observations of various synuclein effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics. -pos board b mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter meagan mcmanus , martin picard , alessia angelin , prasanth potluri , jagat narula , douglas wallace . chop/upenn, philadelphia,, pa, usa, mt sinai, new york, ny, usa. cardiac conduction defects and cardiomyopathy are commonly reported in pa- tients with inborn errors of metabolism harboring pathogenic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear dna (mtdna and ndna, respectively). we hypothesized that the pathophysiology of inborn errors of metabolism varies due to synergistic heterozygosity between the two genomes. we examined a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy due a mutation in the adenine nucleotide translocator- (ant ). substantial variability in the progression of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and the severity of cardiomyopathy correlated with the mtdna haplogroups (strauss, et al ). to determine the causative nature of this correlation, we examined the influence of inherited mtdna mutations on ant - cardiomyopathy in the mouse. we introduced homoplasmic mtdna nd or coi missense mutations into the mouse female germ line, generating mice with complex i or iv deficiency, respectively, and analyzed ant -dependent cardiomyopathy on the different mtdna backgrounds. on wt mtdna back- ground, the ant -/- mice developed a distinctive concentric dilated cardiomy- opathy, characterized by substantial myocardial hypertrophy and ventricular dilation. both coi and nd mtdna mutations accelerated ant -/- age- dependent cardiomyopathy, as evidenced by ultrastructrural abnormalities, bio- energetic defects, mtros production, sensitized mitochondrial permeability transition, increased mtdna damage, and heart failure, which ultimately 	cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission 	vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels 	channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential 	alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease 	mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. note to the repmnt edition: full page advertisements which do not add to the scholarly value of this volume have been omitted. this accounts for the irregular pagination found in this reprint edition. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman vol. ii published by the american society of church history ams reprint company new york , n.y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for conrad henry moehlman president frederick william loetscher vice president frederick william loetscher secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer matthew spinka assistant secretary other members of the council shirley jackson case william david schermerhorn w i l l i a m walker rockwell abdel ross w e n t z george warren richards william warren sweet w i n f r e d ernest garrison j o h n t h o m a s m c n e i l l edward strong worcester james moffatt wllhelm pauck e d i t o r i a l b o a r d of church h i s t o r y matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols conrad henry moehlman, ex officio publication office, scottdale, pennsylvania executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois reprinted w i t h the permission op the original publisher ams reprint company new york . n. y. , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles breen, q., domine everhardus bogardus - gaddis, merrill e., religious ideas and attitudes in the early frontier - hardy, edward rochie, jr., national elements in the career of st. athanasius - harkness, r. e. e., early relations of baptists and quakers.. - higgins, john s., ultramontanism of st. boniface - knappen, m. m., the early puritanism of lancelot andrewes - lyttle, charles h., deistic piety in the cults of the french revolution - mccutchan, robert g., american church music composers of the early nineteenth century - oborn, george t., why did decius and valerian proscribe christianity? - richards, george w., was troeltsch right? - riddle, donald w., factors in the development of modern biblical study - schaff, david s., cardinal bellarmine—now saint and doctor of the church - scott, e. f., the opposition to caesar worship - sweet, william w., the churches as moral courts of the frontier - in memoriam: arthur cushman mcgiffert - franklin p. manhart albert henry newman - , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core books reviewed baynes, norman h., constantine the great and the christian church - booth, h. k., the world of jesus buckley, george t., atheism in the english renaissance - butler, pierce, comp., fifteenth century books case, s. x, the social triumph of the ancient church case, s. j., and schermerhorn, w. d., church history deputation report - the catholic church in contemporary europe -. clayton, joseph, saint anselm cory, david m., faustus socinus - dearmer, p., songs of praise discussed dobree, b., william penn, quaker and pioneer - edwards, m., john wesley and the eighteenth century - friess, h. l., and schneider, h. w., religion in various cultures « - garrison, w. e., the march of faith - griffin, joseph a., the contribution of belgium to the catholic church in america - horsch, john, the hutterian brethren kaufman, e. g., the development of missionary and philanthropic interest among the mennonites - kidd, b. j., the counter reformation - knappen, m. m., two elizabethan puritan diaries - koch, g. adolph, republican religion - leslie, shane, the oxford movement - levison, n., the jewish background of christianity , - lietzmann, hans von, geschichte der alter kirche, b. - macfarland, c , christian unity in practice and prophecy - mcgiffert, a. c., a history of christian thought, vol. i i - mackay, john a., the other spanish christ - maiden, r. h., the roman catholic church and the church of england mathews, s., new testament times in palestine - maxwell, william, john knox's genevan service book, nebelthau, j. h., ed., the diary of a circuit rider palm, f . c , calvinism and the religious wars - plooij, d., the pilgrim fathers from a dutch point of view - posey, w. b., the development of methodism in the old southwest, - ross, j. e., john henry newman - spinka, matthew, a history of christianity in the balkans - stackhouse, p. j., chicago and the baptists - sweet, w. w., methodism in american history - tillich, paul, the religious situation - vander velde, lewis g., the presbyterian churches and the federal union, - - walter, joh. von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i - wentz, a. r., the lutheran church in american history - westin, g., protestantismens historie i amerikas forenta stater westin, g., negotiations about church unity, - white, hugh g. e., the history of the monasteries of nitria and scetis - wilbur, e. m., tr., servetus on the trinity «. - worcester, e., studies in the birth of the lord - wright, luella m., the literary life of the early friends , available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core games:science:science_magazine_ - :root:data:science_ - :pdf: _v _n :p _ .pdf [ganino] ganino user tools 	register 	log in site tools search tools show pagesource old revisions backlinks recent changes media manager sitemap register log in > 	recent changes 	media manager 	sitemap trace: games:science:science_magazine_ - :root:data:science_ - :pdf: _v _n :p _ .pdf this topic does not exist yet you've followed a link to a topic that doesn't exist yet. if permissions allow, you may create it by clicking on create this page. page tools 	show pagesource 	old revisions 	backlinks 	back to top wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ th new york film festival th new york film festival drake stutesman framework: the journal of cinema and media, volume , number , spring , pp. - (article) published by wayne state university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /frm. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /frm. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ the th new york film festival had a strong selection from illustrious directors: sidney lumet, béla tarr, alexander sokurov, catherine breil- lat, claude chabrol, eric rohmer, brian de palma, hou hsiao-hsien, jia zhangke, john landis, wes ander- son, todd haynes, gus van sant, and the cohens, among many others, all showed new work. dominant themes were faith, women and dead chil- dren, comedy, adaptations, and father/son oedipal fears. the last seamed the work of the older direc- tors—especially lumet, chabrol, and rohmer, now in their seventies and eighties—but it appeared in younger directors’ films too—notably that of the cohens. their no country for old men was by far the strongest entry, and its first hour was a state-of-the-art blood-and-guts chase story, a perfect killing machine called cinema. the film later dissipated into sophistic, what-is-life-about philosophy-ridden dialogue that carried a new kind of oedipal subplot. the older man (here tommy lee jones as the baffled sheriff) survived the “deadly son” (here the terminator-like killer, javier bardem) but, then, forlornly longed for a mythic father’s comfort. this narrative—of implacable death and worn-out, nostalgic older men— became a suspicious metaphor for the iraq war vs. world war ii. the cohens shouldn’t waste their art on parables when what we need from them is a direct iraq war hit. war itself was little addressed except in the set- tings of sokurov’s almost fablelike, spare alexandra, set in a chechnyan desert army camp, and de palma’s unfortunate “antiwar” iraq film, redacted, the first war feature from a well-known u.s. director. his fiction- th new york film festival drake stutesman new york city, september –october , framework , no. , spring , pp. – . copyright © wayne state university press, detroit, michigan - . fw . -reviews / / : pm page framework: the journal of cinema & media . alized version of a well-publicized, real rape and killing, structured as clips of videos, international tv reports, and internet sites, is a morass of the worst army-platoon-gone-crazy clichés. no contribution to the anti- war effort, it trivializes the war as sim- ply a place where psychopathology is acted out. a few films were notable for their directors’ pursuit of originality. todd haynes, one of american cin- ema’s most interesting talents, lost the mark in his ambitious and ironic attempt at a biographic kaleidoscope of bob dylan’s life, i’m not there. haynes states that we shouldn’t be trying to “find out who we are” (which he sees as the philosophy of the last few decades), but rather we should be “reinventing ourselves,” and he conceptualizes dylan as the ultimate self-reinventor. the film is a collage of the supposed dylan inven- tions—as husband, as cultural icon, as billy the kid, as a black runaway child, as folk singer—played by six actors, including an excellent cate blanchett. but none of the versions can carry this grand scheme. the film has no center. haynes’s rendi- tion of dylan’s s and s are only gimmicky and, more, he pro- motes the ingrained prejudices of those eras as the film borders on racism and sexism. i think haynes’s best work is to come and will be in his take on contemporary reinven- tion, something far truer to his gener- ation than to dylan’s. carlos reygadas’s film, stellect lichet (silent light), about an illicit affair within a mennonite commu- nity in northern mexico, was fluidly constructed, using monumental tableau shots set up within or against vast panoramas. yet, despite this size, reygadas managed to subdue its largesse in favor of stressing its for- mality, certainly a feat in itself. these orchestrations had the immediate feel of carl dreyer’s forms and, indeed, reygadas was attempting to re-create, in plot as well as in shape, dreyer’s magnificent, uncanny, and somehow profoundly realistic ordet (dk, ), one the world’s greatest films. though stellect lichet lacks pre- tension, reygadas could not carry off this unheard-of task. he didn’t anchor the narrative in a real exami- nation of faith, which is ordet’s absolute groundwork, but rather let the mennonite community stand in for “spiritual.” he thus never touched the nature of belief and, thus, never touched the arcane actions of resurrection. he let the weight of this phenomenon ride loosely on a hackneyed version of a man torn between a doting lover and a doting wife. in ordet the characters are entwined in faith as a social habit and faith as a truly weird, almost repellent mystery, but in stellect lichet none of this is explored. rather the lover has sudden supernatural, messianic powers, which the script has never introduced. another exploitation of “faith,” was in south korean director, lee chang-dong’s secret sunshine. this film plunges into the process of grief by following a mother’s hysterical pain as she grieves the murder of her child and goes to enormous lengths to assuage her guilt. the actress, jeon do-yeon, gives a great performance fw . -reviews / / : pm page new york film festival but the script has every cliché about a troubled woman (she has no friends, is a bad mother, and is superficial in her choices, etc.) and many narrative holes that could easily have been filled. this suggests that the writer–director does not really understand what he is trying to do in this portrayal of suffering, which is a shame because the storyline’s poten- tial is huge. the film also taps into the nature of faith but views it only in the most banal terms and, worse, throws away a moment worthy of the catholic writer flannery o’connor, when the mother, a newly born- again christian, confronts her son’s jailed killer only to find that he has also found god’s forgiveness in a new conversion before she can bring him her own. finally, a celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of ridley scott’s (also oedipal!) blade runner (us, ) and the release of its last final cut (the seventh version) included input from academics as well as the film’s art director, produc- tion designer, and screenwriter and from the audience in what became a three-hour discussion. this was a welcome synthesis of what a film fes- tival can offer: a conglomerate of ideas, opinions, experiences, and belief in cinema. i hope nyff plans more of these kinds of events. drake stutesman is the editor of framework. fw . -reviews / / : pm page wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ restorative justice innovations in canada behavioral sciences and the law behav. sci. law : – ( ) published online in wiley interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). doi: . /bsl. restorative justice innovations in canada robin j. wilson, ph.d., c.psych.*, bria huculak, ll.m., ph.d. candidate and andrew mcwhinnie, m.a. as many jurisdictions move towards more retributive measures as a means to address public discontent with crime, a parallel movement has developed in regard to restorative justice. this article presents three restorative initiatives currently in use in canada. each initiative addresses offender behavior and community engagement at a different point in the justice continuum. the use of sentencing circles is an example of how restorative justice principles can be instituted at the front end, prior to an offender becoming lodged in the system. the restorative justice options to parole suspension project demonstrates how community engagement can assist in preventing offenders from being returned to the system once they have achieved conditional release. the circles of support and accountability project has enlisted the support of professionally supported volunteers in the community reintegration of high-risk sexual offenders. these initia- tives are presented within a framework of effective cor- rectional interventions and increased empowerment for a variety of stakeholders. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. it is clear that the canadian justice system is unsatisfactory for both victims and offenders. many jurisdictions in canada and the united states, among others, have converted to the ‘get tough on crime’ zeitgeist. this call to get tough is a demand for more official punishment, to inflict more pain, to separate and sever social bonds and, in some countries, to execute more citizens. these official responses to crime create an illusion of safety and allow some to feel good about our official treatment of offenders. while the retributive responses above have garnered favorable attention copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. *correspondence to: dr robin j. wilson, sexual behaviour program, central ontario district (parole), correctional service of canada, keele street, main floor, toronto, ontario, m p k canada. e-mail: wilsonrj@csc-scc.gc.ca dr wilson is director of the sexual behaviour program, central ontario district, the correctional service of canada. judge huculak is a judge on the provincial court of saskatchewan in saskatoon. mr mcwhinnie is project manager of the restorative justice options to parole suspension project in victoria, b.c., operating from the victoria parole office, the correctional service of canada. the views presented in this article are those of the authors, and do not necessarily represent those of the governments of canada or saskatchewan, or their constituent departments. we wish to thank hugh kirkegaard for his assistance with elements of this article. in the media and the community at large, they are not inclusive of the communities they purport to protect. in response, many have become disillusioned with the criminal justice system, and have contributed to a parallel movement in regard to restorative justice. canada has a longstanding tradition of restorative justice innovation, with many of those initiatives originating in the faith community. in particular, the mennonite community has a long tradition of using restorative techniques in addressing victim and offender needs. for instance, yantzi ( ) documents the victim offender reconciliation program (vorp), a groundbreaking mennonite initiative that began in canada in the s and quickly gained favor in the united states. the work of andrews and bonta ( ) shows very clearly that sanction alone will not curb crime. rather, it is the provision of appropriate human service that underscores effective correctional intervention. this article presents three current canadian restorative justice initiatives. (i) the sentencing circles program in use in saskatchewan demonstrates how restorative principles may be implemented at the sentencing phase of the criminal justice process.(ii) the restorative justice options to parole suspension program currently under way in victoria, british columbia, shows how such principles may be applied while an offender is on conditional release during the course of a sentence. (iii) the circles of support and accountability (cosa) pilot project in the greater toronto area has been initiated to assist high risk sexual offenders in community reintegra- tion following the completion of their sentences, when no formal assistance (i.e. correctional supervision) is typically available. sentencing circles the concept of sentencing circles (scs) entered the canadian lexicon in , with the yukon territory and the province of saskatchewan becoming the focus of the circle process (church council on justice and corrections, ). this section will deal primarily with the sc process in saskatchewan, where it has been used in both rural–aboriginal and urban settings, with a variety of offenders and offense types. although it shares common ground with restorative justice theory, the sc process did not develop from an overarching theoretical framework. the practice came first. the saskatchewan experience initially involved three northern judges and several communities. the general process combined respect for due process, mediation and interest-based negotiation, and consensus-based decision-making with aboriginal healing and peacekeeping concepts. while the model draws much from certain aboriginal traditions, it is important to note that scs are not inherently ‘aboriginal’. aside from implementation criteria developed by the judges involved in the process, there was no initial attempt to delineate exactly how this process would occur in each community. with input from lawyers in the involved districts, the judges determined the procedure and criteria. this has caused difficulties, parti- cularly as the legal profession continues to ‘adapt the conflict to the process, rather than the process to the conflict’, the latter being more closely the agenda of scs and the community (hon. barry stuart, yukon territorial court, personal r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) communication). the implementation of scs has suffered from this apparent lack of formal structure, resulting in a degree of confusion as to how scs should be conducted. subsequently, this has led some to believe that they do not work. however, it appears that it is not scs that are not working, rather it is the ad hoc or, often, haphazard way in which they are formed that leads to diminished results. for instance, each potential sc should be preceded by a rigorous evaluation of the circumstances in order to ascertain the appropriateness of using such a process. as sentencing circles proliferate in canada, there has been some opposition. first, not all aboriginal bands have embraced scs, most often because they do not see the process as being consistent with their particular traditional beliefs regarding justice (e.g., the kaska and tlingit peoples of the yukon and alaska). second, the legal community has also experienced growing pains, particularly in regard to the court of appeal. to date, the appellate court has appreciated the concept but, perhaps, not the dynamics of the sc process (hon. barry stuart, personal com- munication; r. v. morin, saskatchewan court of appeal, ). in a recent decision, the alberta court of appeal (r. v. b. l., ) addressed issues surrounding the use of scs. specifically, the decision spoke to means of establishing fact when employing scs, as well as dealing with the issue of appro- priateness of sentence. while the appeal was dismissed in r. v. b. l., the court found that the facts of the case were never established according to the normal process of law. although the offender pleaded guilty to the charge of aggravated assault, the crown was not afforded the opportunity to present the facts, nor was it afforded the opportunity to prove any aggravating circumstances. in summary, the facts should be established before a circle hearing, either by admission or by proof in the ordinary course. those facts should be presented to the circle. the circle is not the appropriate forum in which to prove disputed facts. the sentencing circle deals with the possibility of a restorative sentence based, in part, on the facts constituting the offence. no doubt additional facts will frequently arise during the course of the hearing, but, if challenged, disputed facts must be proven as outlined above. . . . the conflicting comments the judge made in this case make it difficult to ascertain which facts he accepted. but for the agreed facts provided at this appeal, we would return this matter for rehearing (r. v. b. l., para. , emphasis added). the court also addressed the issue of composition of this circle, specifically, in regard to absence of support for the victim and the failure to include meaningful representation from the community. further, the victim’s wife was not present, even though she witnessed the attack on her husband and, due to the severity of her husband’s injuries (resulting in permanent disability), the court noted that ‘she was yet another victim’ of the assault. process participation in the sc process is entirely voluntary for all concerned. in general, scs have tended to be used in response to serious offences, particularly those where there is an identifiable principal victim (e.g., robbery, criminal negligence causing innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) death, and assault). many of the offenders involved in such crimes would expect to receive a lengthy period of incarceration. although avoidance of incarceration is not always the result, generally, a non-custodial sentence is recommended. the focus in taking the sc route is on accountability, rehabilitation, and community integration. offender motivation to change is often evident in facing the victim and the people most important to him/her. many offenders experience the sc process as significantly more personally challenging than facing a judge in the usual court sentencing procedure, in which there is minimal discomfort, a lawyer speaking for them, and less personal investment of time. the families of both the victim and offender, as well as the community, are often an important part of the rehabilitation aspect and a necessary part of the community integration. in the sc process, an effort is made to distinguish the criminal act from the offender. although it is made clear that the behavior is not acceptable, the offender is given the opportunity to correct the criminal behavior. because the sc process puts a face on the stakeholders, an offender’s failure to comply with the resultant terms and conditions of the sentence results in letting down family, friends, the community, and oneself. also, the offender may face incarceration if the terms of the sc are breached. consequently, there is considerable social support for the offender to comply. circles often take several hours in gathering information, responding to it, and in developing a resultant sentencing plan. at the end of much discussion, a successful sc will result in a resolution satisfactory to all stakeholders, and recommendations are made to the judge. judges rarely refuse to follow the recommendations, which may include elements of reparation and restitution to the victim, as well as a plan for rehabilitation and integration of the offender. treatment is also an important component of the sentencing plan, as many offenders have significant clinical problems, including addictions. social control through social support can often be more effective than incarcera- tion which, for many offenders, has generally failed to deter or rehabilitate them. by strengthening connections to family and community, obligations are created that seem to operate both as deterrent and as rehabilitation. the resources of the com- munity are frequently called upon, including individuals such as aboriginal elders. the victim is also supported through the sc process. they are able to express the damage done to them, to understand how and why this victimization occurred, and to hear the offender, and often his family, express genuine sorrow and regret for the criminal behavior and remorse for the harm caused. the power of publicly hearing the words ‘i’m sorry’ is sometimes underestimated. the sc process provides an opportunity for the offender to reinvent aspects of himself, to detach himself from the criminal appellation through various technologies (e.g., treatment), and to utilize the power of the community and its resources to assist in his rehabilitation. although social control through help and support is an important aspect of the sc process, healing of the offender, victim, and community are equally important. indeed, the opportunity to provide a measure of healing in regard to a specific criminal event is a sufficient justification for the circle process regardless of whether the offender reoffends. this critical importance of ‘healing’ has been officially recognized by the courts in saskatchewan. a variety of sc initiatives now exist in saskatchewan: (i) pre-charge and post-charge diversion of youth directly to a community/healing circle; (ii) r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) pre-sentence circles, where the result of the circle deliberations is presented to the judge; and (iii) an sc process which involves a judge, counsel for the offender, the prosecutor, and the community. since , hundreds of scs have been held in canada. the majority of scs in saskatchewan have been implemented in the aboriginal community, which is largely rural in nature; however, there are numerous examples of scs undertaken in urban settings. in general, several core themes are reflected in the sc process: community, dialogue, reparation, rehabilitation, participation, respect, responsibility, empathy, consensus, healing, empowerment, transformation, and hope. although the accused generally asks for the sc, the judge may also suggest one. indeed, the first sc in saskatchewan was initiated by a judge. further, in r. v. b. l. ( ) the alberta court of appeal suggested that laws surrounding the use of scs should develop incrementally, stating, ‘in our view, the trial courts are the appropriate forum for this process to mature’. sentencing circles in rural communities in small, northern aboriginal communities where most inhabitants know each other, sentencing circles are usually held in a band hall or a church. the setting is informal, with participants (including the judge) in casual attire. the space is free from the ritualistic legal language and furniture of the regular courtroom. partici- pants usually include the offender, victim, their families, friends, and support systems, others from the community (e.g., alcohol/drug treatment specialists), as well as the judge, prosecutor, and defense. basically, the process is sufficiently open to include anyone with an interest in participation. the judge acts as a facilitator, in a non-directive way. in some communities, someone other than the judge may facilitate or a co-facilitation model is employed. in aboriginal communities, elders are an integral part of the process. once all concerned parties have gathered, participants arrange themselves in a circle of chairs. the inner circle includes those who wish to participate and speak, while an outer circle includes those who are interested as observers and who are not as directly connected or do not express an interest in speaking. in aboriginal communities, the process opens with a prayer, often in the local native language as well as in english. this sets the tone for the important nature of what is to occur. introductions are made and the connections between the parties are explained. the circumstances of the offense are read out by the crown attorney, and the offender acknowledges guilt and takes direct responsibility for his/her actions. the offender, his lawyer, and the victim are then given the opportunity to speak. frequently, the offender opens with an apology, which the victim may accept, provided that genuine remorse is expressed. each person in the room is given many opportunities to speak while the other participants listen respectfully. the process is transparent, open, flexible, and unscripted in the sense of limiting the nature of the dialogue or limiting who can participate. there is no pressure to speak, and interruptions are not tolerated. there is attention to context, relationships, and dialogue. sentencing circles often include a great deal of emotion, pain, and tears; however, participants also express positive emotions. the sc closes with a prayer, shaking of hands and, often, hugs. innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) sentencing circles in urban settings sentencing circles in urban centers resemble those undertaken in smaller commu- nities, except that the concept of ‘community’ becomes a relational one not based on a particular geographic area. instead, the participants are involved by the nature of their connection to the offender, victim, or the circumstances of the offense. for example, in a dangerous driving case where, fortunately, no one was injured, participants included mothers against drunk driving, an emergency room doctor who routinely treated accident victims, a former accident victim who was perma- nently paralyzed, an addictions counselor, and a representative from an insurance company. in urban scs, the process is one of constructing ‘community’ whereby the process creates a ‘community of purpose’ for a particular individual and a particular circumstance. although this larger community usually disperses after the circle is complete, important connections are made, including connections to family mem- bers and other members of the community at large. offers to help are often made by community members. for many individuals, the contact continues or becomes part of a probation order. urban scs tend to be large, with the inner circle of participants comprised of as many as – people. the urban sc process can take much longer than its rural partner, mostly because the first couple of hours involve dialogue intended to construct ‘commu- nity’ where it may not have previously existed. this construction process is necessary in order to build a foundation on which participants can move to the next phase of determining an appropriate response to the crime in question. indeed, in a ‘constructed’ circle in saskatoon, one particular young offender made many intimate and distressing disclosures. this youthful male offender disclosed that he had been sexually victimized by a relative, and that he had had thoughts of suicide while imprisoned for his last offense. these disclosures came out in the context of an environment where the participants had no pre-existing relationships. one can speculate that a foundation of trust must have been established in order to permit these disclosures. certainly, the sharing of such information took immense courage on the part of the offender, and this courage was not lost on the other participants. conclusions there are many examples of communities, aboriginal and otherwise, adopting the sc approach to justice. in each instance the community was engaged in a direct way, such that dialogue, participatory democratic decision-making, power-sharing, and sharing of responsibility occurred. the uniqueness of the sc process is an ever- present reminder of a different way of responding to crime, particularly, in a public atmosphere bent on ‘getting tough on crime’. the sc process directly challenges the foundational underpinnings of the criminal law construct of the autonomous, rational ‘chooser’ in favor of the historically situated subject as a socially con- structed, relationally connected person. sentencing circles contest the reason– emotion dualism, as well as the concept of impartiality, by standing in opposition to a rule-based, ‘objective’, hierarchical system. the canadian supreme court recognized recently recognized this process (r. v. gladue, ) in expressing r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) concern for the appalling number of incarcerated aboriginal offenders. the court pointed to sentencing and healing circles as a way of diverting aboriginal offenders from jail. this decision was particularly important in recognizing that poverty, substance abuse, lack of employment, and poor educational opportunities are critical factors in the crisis facing many aboriginal people. although the court was interpreting amendments to the criminal code of canada in , which directed judges to consider the circumstances of the aboriginal offender in sentencing, the court’s comments can be applied generally to all offenders. that is, sentencing should take into account the structural antecedents of crime. this is consistent with the circle approach, which has been open to both aboriginal and non-aboriginal offenders. in some respects, it may seem impossible that a relatively simple process of bringing people together, sitting in a circle talking, listening, and feeling, could have such a profound impact. nonetheless, the powerful collective energy produced through open expression of emotion, storytelling, a willingness to connect with others despite differences, and the ability to empathize, coupled with a willingness to rise to a higher level in asking for and receiving forgiveness, all have the potential to occur in the sc process. a sentencing circle is a space where the impossibility of separating cognition and emotion exists, where reason meets feeling. what makes this process so powerful is that we would not normally expect all these events to occur in a situation where the principal reason for meeting is a breach of the law and the infliction of harm on another. the sentencing circle process is a way of judging that is situated, embodied, and interested as opposed to judging that is unsituated, disembodied, and disinterested. such contextual reasoning includes perspectives stretched by dialogue and em- pathy. empathy is a key component in the process, and may be described as attention to the particularized other. it allows for the ability to imaginatively step inside the beliefs, feelings, motives, and thoughts of others in order to reach shared understandings. empathy for the victim by the offender opens a space for remorse and permits understanding of the offender’s conduct by the victim. empathy opens the space for reconciliation and forgiveness, and forms the foundation of social change and transformation. it provides a means for bridging differences and enhancing reasoning. empathy inspires action and a willingness to help others; active empathy calls on all participants to contribute to constructive consensus- based solutions and mutual responsibility. the sc process challenges us to rethink the concept of blame and responsibility. the structural underpinnings of crime challenge us to see crime from differing perspectives in the context of an attitude of caring — the willingness to respond to needs. it is impossible to participate fully in the circle process and not be affected. sentencing circles are an approach to crime that addresses victim, offender, and community needs more fully than the traditional court process. the challenge is to link the personal transformative potential to the structural transformation. while the above generally paints scs in a positive light, fairness requires that we recognize that not all views of this process are favorable. one particular criticism, raised in by roberts and laprairie, but still largely unanswered, is the need for empirical evaluation of the sc process. certainly, many of the variables are measurable and, thus, applicable to scientific inquiry. unfortunately, much of the process has remained ad hoc, perhaps as a consequence of a continued failure to fully innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) operationalize scs, or to generate full and consistent support of the model, even within a single jurisdiction. others have cited the need for extreme caution in the use of scs, particularly where the power differential between victims and offenders is great. for example, caution is warranted in cases of sexual assault, spousal assault, and in crimes where the victims are children and the offenders are adult. cayley ( ) cites examples where the assumptions of the community should be closely examined before considering whether or not to employ a sc. citing ottawa lawyer mary crnkovich and her testimony before the house justice committee on behalf of the inuit women’s association (pauktutit), cayley noted that an assumption of community homogeneity can drown out the identity and voice of victims in a collective. instead of a true hearing of the wounds endured, the emotions and the fears of victims who seek justice, and healing through offender accountability and responsibility, victims can be ‘persuaded to comply with the consensual ‘community’ interest rather than . . . ’ their own (cayley, , p. ). regarding r. v. gladue ( ), cited above, in which the supreme court of canada acknowledged the unsuitability of punitive sentences in the adjudication of cases involving aboriginals, caution in the interpretation of that ruling for the purposes of employing sc in the determination of sentences must be exercised. in r. v. b. l. ( ), for instance, the alberta court of appeal opined that in handing down a suspended sentence, the trial judge ‘erred in his understanding of the breadth of r. v. gladue ( ). . . . a suspended sentence in the circumstances of this case fails to properly take into account deterrence and denunciation’. the court went on to say while no category of offence is automatically excluded from consideration for a restorative sentence, a sentencing judge must weigh the offender and the offence, properly understanding the role that denunciation and deterrence play in sentencing (r. v. b. l., para. ). these comments are echoed by cayley ( ), who notes the words of yukon territorial judge barry stuart: ‘charter rights, statutory provisions, and all the fundamental principles of justice must be retained’ in the sc process (p. ). finally, the alberta court of appeal, while not seeking to place strictures on the process involved in mounting a sc, nevertheless offered the following as commen- tary on the case of r. v. b. l.: as noted, the most serious problems with sentencing circles arose with respect to the facts, the lack of input by the parties, the composition of the circle, specifically the wife’s absence in view of [her husband, the victim’s] disability and the absence of objective community members. all these issues worked to undermine the circle’s conclusions (para. ). restorative justice options to parole suspension in late , staff working in the victoria parole office of the correctional service of canada (csc) on vancouver island observed how the principles of restorative justice (rj) were being innovatively applied at the front end of the canadian justice r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) system. sentencing circles (see above), along with community justice forums supported by the royal canadian mounted police (rcmp), stood out as examples of how criminal behavior was being effectively addressed restoratively before offenders became entrenched in the traditional justice system. for victoria parole, the question was: could the same restorative principles that guide ‘front-end’ innovations be applied at the ‘back end’ of the system? the resultant attempt at answering this question has since come to be known as the restorative justice options to parole suspension project (rj options) (see also correctional service of canada, – ; mcwhinnie & brown, ). parole suspension process in canada, the former british north america act established federal jurisdiction over prisoners sentenced to two or more years. under the rules of the criminal code of canada and the corrections and conditional release act, some prisoners become eligible to serve portions of their sentence under supervision in the community. the decision to release a prisoner under such supervision is made by the national parole board (npb), which also stipulates conditions of release. however, supervision of these conditions is the responsibility of csc, a body separate from the npb. as a major part of their job, community parole officers (pos) supervise offenders in the community, and must continually gauge the level of risk the offender poses to community safety. if the po feels that risk is escalating (e.g., a parolee breaches a condition to abstain from alcohol), he or she can suspend the offender’s release, resulting in temporary detention in custody pending review. within days, the po may return the offender to the community, provided that steps have been taken to ameliorate the risk to community safety (e.g., a commit- ment not to violate the abstain condition, and enrolment in a substance abuse relapse prevention program). this basic example of the ‘parole suspension’ process demonstrates where the rj options project might be used — when risk begins to escalate but has not reached the point where community safety is jeopardized. the primary objective of the rj options project was to initiate a process using commu- nity group conferences for offenders facing possible parole suspension while maintaining and enhancing community safety. project implementation paul mccold ( ) noted that the best applications of restorative justice are found in practices that employ models such as circles, mediation, and family group conferencing. community group conferencing is a model developed in wagga wagga, new south wales, australia, as a way of dealing with youth crime. it involves a tightly scripted method for bringing together the offender and his/her victim(s) in a supportive circle comprised of community members and justice officials. the offender is asked to address the victim(s), take full responsibility for his/her criminal acts, experience remorse and shame, and offer reparations for the damage done, either symbolically, actually, or both. in this example, the offender and victim engage in a process of recognizing that more than just a law was innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) violated — that real damage happened to real people. in this process, the com- munity is engaged in helping to achieve tangible justice for victims, while assisting the offender in accepting responsibility for his/her part in the violation of a fellow citizen. community group conferences address howard zehr’s ( ) twin principles of harm and engagement by bringing to bear all of an offender’s criminal behavior and the effects of victimization resulting from that behavior (harm). in canada, the rcmp has facilitated the creation of ‘community justice forums’, which utilize an adaptation of the concept of community group conferencing in addressing some forms of youth crime. this initiative was undertaken with extensive consultation with those involved in the wagga wagga project. in february , staff and volunteers of the victoria parole were trained as conference facilitators by the westshore rcmp detachment. victoria parole adopted the community group conferencing model and, with its own trained and accredited facilitators, held its first rj options session in august . utilization of a best practices approach the rj options project directly taps the two most powerful factors known to influence the risk of criminal offending: antisocial attitudes and antisocial peer affiliations (andrews & bonta, ; motiuk & serin, ). the rj options project serves to pull together and strengthen prosocial influences present in an offender’s community while targeting antisocial values and beliefs. when an offender is confronted by police, prison officials, treatment staff, or his parole officer, he/she may or may not be able to assess a personal need to make positive changes. however, the power of being confronted by one’s brother, sister, child, spouse, employer, pastor, or even a best friend is quite another matter. very often, these individuals can tell him what his involvement in crime has meant to them in ways no justice official could. the collective power of the (traditional) justice system, when combined with that added by family and community members, is exponential. hence, the ability to influence criminal thinking styles (e.g., the belief that no one other than the direct victim is influenced by an offender’s criminal behavior) is also increased. since offenders referred to the rj options project have already been tried and sentenced, the challenge is no longer one of matching a suitable punishment with a particular crime. rather, the challenge becomes one of repairing harms done. this is an opportunity for the offender to join a particular community and to eventually live at peace. the rj options project gathers members of that community around an offender in an effort to resolve problems that, unattended, might escalate to the point where the offender must be removed from the commu- nity. the rj options project provides healing and restoration while enhancing public safety. in our experience, community members are more than eager to become engaged in such a process of justice-making. when they do, community members become personally invested in their own safety. justice is no longer a commodity delivered by dispassionate professionals, but becomes a locally crafted action plan made in collaboration with those same professionals. this plan of action then becomes intrinsically linked with community safety. r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) the rj options initiative has been presented to a number of organizations (e.g., faith groups, rotarians, legionnaires, universities, and local community groups). in many of these venues, the response has been, ‘it’s about time!’. this sentiment reflects the community’s interest in assuming some of the responsibility for helping to shape what happens with offenders in their midst. this is an appealing concept to many community-minded people. essentially, it affords communities the opportu- nity to ‘own the conflict’ (christie, ), and, in so doing, to rediscover something of what it means to be a community. offenders asked to become part of the process (participation is voluntary for everyone) do not find the experience an easy one. for them, two responses are common. (i) ‘this is huge.’ by this, they are acknowledging that this undertaking may be more involved and emotionally taxing than even the court and sentencing process they have already experienced. (ii) ‘i had no idea there were so many people involved in my life.’ this realization is a positive one which usually comes during or after a conference. while some critics are tempted to see the rj options project as being ‘soft’ on criminals, it is a difficult, draining, yet ultimately rewarding experience for everyone involved. for many offenders, there is nothing more foreign than sitting in a group comprised of one’s family, friends, community members, victims’ representatives, and correctional workers, and saying what has happened to bring them to this point. family members, friends, and community all hear the same story, which is simultaneously heard by the parole officer (who may add or clarify information as required). family members add context and depth to the story. the ‘unsung victim’ in implementing the philosophies of restorative justice, there is much concern about victims. some have said that unless an intervention trying to qualify itself as a restorative practice includes the actual victims of an actual crime with the actual perpetrator, it is only ‘wannabe’ restorative justice. initially, the rj options project was criticized as a such. however, there is due consideration of victim roles and issues in family and community group conferences. this is evident in the story of a mother betrayed by her son’s sexual offences, or that of a grandparent bullied and robbed of her television set for drug money by her cocaine-addicted grandson, or even a twelve-year-old who is bullied on the school ground because his older brother is a ‘con’. similarly, to hear a woman’s story of being beaten by her lover’s street friends when he was in jail, or that of a young mother and wife fending off drug-debt collectors at her apartment door after her husband was returned to jail, drives home recognition of the integral part that victim perspectives take in this process. family members of offenders are victims of crime in every sense of the word. however, they are often overlooked in discussions of rj. yet, when an offender returns to his home community, these are the people he or she will be with the most. family members are often frightened, ashamed, angry, and shunned by their own community and other family members. they are also victims of the offender’s crime(s), but often feel obligated by blood ties to bring their victimizer back into their lives, something ‘official’ victims would never be asked to do. family members innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) have the same questions, fears and, often, similar trauma issues as do the ‘official’ victims. however, they frequently have nobody to turn to for help. in some cases, families represent more of an antisocial than a prosocial influence on their offending member. this is frequently true with alcoholic families. in one case, the father of an offender insisted that his son meet him at the local tavern, even though the offender was forbidden to imbibe as a condition of his parole. as part of the conference, two things happened. (i) the father learned the true nature of his son’s criminal behavior, including the fact that trouble was more likely to occur while he was drunk. (ii) the father was confronted by his son about his own drinking patterns. at the very least, the pressure to drink with his father (a violation of his condition) was removed. at best, the alcoholism in the family was exposed, leaving room for repair and healing. does it work? to date, referrals have been received by the rj options project. of these, seven were not conferenced — four individuals declined participation, the other three had their parole automatically revoked by the npb before a conference could be held (owing to further criminal charges, which later became convictions). a total of persons participated in the resultant conferences, not including the offenders, with an average of eight community participants per conference. in the context of this project, recidivism is defined as conviction for another criminal offence occurring after referral to the project. the recidivism rate for those not con- ferenced was %. on average, those offenders not conferenced spent days in the community. of the offenders who were conferenced, the recidivism rate is %, with the average time spent in the community being days, a difference of just over two months ( days). the cost of maintaining an offender in the community on supervision by csc may be estimated as approximately $ per annum, while the cost to maintain that same offender in detention is approximately $ . the obvious monetary gains of safely maintaining offen- ders in the community through the rj options project should be seen even more positively against the backdrop of increased community engagement with the criminal justice system. while the results above are very promising, they do not represent a formal evaluation. an evaluation is currently under way through the department of the solicitor general canada, corrections research division, with results expected in early . nonetheless, the current results move thoroughly in the right direction and are certainly in line with what is known to work in correctional practice today (see andrews & bonta, ). the rj options project is also principled, in that it adheres to the best practices of both rj (harm and engagement) and sound correctional practice (risk, need, and responsivity). the current outcome requires thorough evaluation and scrutiny to determine the project’s true worth. these initial results, however, are encouraging and seem to demonstrate that the principles of restorative justice may indeed be applied at ‘the end of the system’ before the expiration of a sentence, as well as the ‘front end’ of the system before a sentence begins. r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) circles of support and accountability persons who commit sexual crimes are among the least understood and most publicly feared of all offenders. public sentiments and legislative attempts in canada and other countries clearly reflect a general intolerance of sexual offenders. many individuals espouse a ‘lock them up and throw away the key’ philosophy, with the tabloid media frequently ‘fanning the flames’. a recent sex offender release in southern ontario was met with headlines reading ‘a community lives in fear’, ‘perv’s neighbours in scary, ugly mood’, and ‘neighbours: we’ve done our jobs’. the latter headline trumpets the neighborhood’s success in driving the offender from the community. the big question is, however, to where? it is a simple truth that most sexual offenders receive determinate sentences of incarceration. in canada, higher-risk offenders are frequently detained until the very end of their sentences, resulting in many being returned to the community with little or no community support. legislation has been enacted in both the provincial and federal domains to aid in long-term risk management, as well as to assuage public fears regarding the return of sexual offenders to community living. however, police services are still adjusting to the increasing demand for public accountability. as such, the police have sought to involve their community partners in managing difficult cases. this section will outline a model for community-based risk management, with a particular focus on the practical aspects of providing support to (and ensuring continued accountability in) high-risk sexual offenders within a professionally supported, volunteer framework. issues of recruitment, liability, ethics, and the overall efficacy of the project as a means to enhance risk management will also be discussed. circles of support and accountability (cosa), as a means to address offender needs and public concerns, began in with a group of people from a local church who gathered around a pedophile in a mid-sized canadian city. these volunteers assisted him in finding a place to live, helped him get settled in the community, and dealt with police, media, and angry community activists. on a daily basis, members of this group visited with the released offender, both supporting him and holding him accountable for his attitudes and actions in the community. their creative response to this convicted pedophile returning to the community became the template for a similar response, a few months later, in another community. in both of these initiatives, the response balanced the fear of the community on the one hand and the needs of the released offender on the other. the result was the evolution of a model that has come to be known as circles of support and accountability. motivated by a desire to take the safety concerns of the community seriously, community volunteers create a supportive and responsive community around an offender (known as the core member). the primary concern of all is that there be no more victims. the cosa model recognizes the humanity of both the offender and the victims of their offenses, and challenges the community to work with the offender in ways that promote healing and responsible living. as this work evolved in a more intentional manner, the mennonite central committee (mcc), with its history of pioneering restorative justice initiatives, agreed to sponsor a cosa pilot project focused on the re-integration of warrant expiry sex offenders. innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) while no formal mandate existed for government involvement, funding and support were provided by the correctional service of canada, based on moral responsibility. the model that emerged from the initial experiences outlined above was a community-based approach, volunteer driven and professionally supported, that gathered four to six volunteers in a circle around an offender as he returned to the community (see figure ). as such, the model represents a shift away from the traditional reliance on professional expertise to resolve the problems and issues of sexual offenders and their behavior in the community. in place of this professionally driven model for problem solving, cosa offers a collaborative approach which makes appropriate use of professional resources in ways which re-empower com- munities to respond to these challenges creatively and responsibly, drawing upon the latent skills of community volunteers. hence, police and other professionals can join circle volunteers by sitting in on circles, on either a consistent or an as-needed basis. the work of the circle happens in daily contacts between individual circle volunteers and the core member, in coffee shops and the wider community, and in weekly meetings to address issues. everything from the practical concerns of finding appropriate housing to observations that the core member may be moving into his offense cycle is discussed in the circle. the goal of the circle is not to be therapeutic, but to provide the support and accountability of well trained, profession- ally supported community volunteers. to date, the majority of cosa volunteers have come from churches involved in work with offenders, refugees, the devel- opmentally delayed, and other groups traditionally marginalized in society. volun- teers are trained in a number of areas, including group dynamics, patterns of sexual offending, related legal issues, and restorative justice principles (see below). these volunteers commit to working with the core member of the cosa and, in turn, the core member commits to working with them. while involvement in a cosa by the core member is voluntary, these commitments are formalized in a shared under- standing of expectations. the cosa interacts regularly with professionals involved with the core member, including police representatives, psychologists, and physicians in ways that both enhance the ability of the volunteers to support the core member and hold him accountable, as well as to strengthen professional understandings of the core member. where necessary, the cosa also advocates on behalf of the core member with these professionals and others (such as landlords). it confronts him about attitudes and behaviors that could lead to his re-offending. it mediates in situations of conflict with the community and others, including family members and even past stability in the community known in the community (references checked) maturity healthy boundaries availability and commitment balance in . . . &lifestyle &viewpoint figure . volunteer recruitment. r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) victims. the cosa walks with the core member through problems and crisis situations and celebrates with him the various anniversaries and milestones in his reintegration to society. in short, the cosa is an attempt to re-create community in practical and realistic ways, around one who, by his own actions, has fallen out of community. training and support while circles of support and accountability draw strength from their existence as a community-driven initiative, we acknowledge that volunteers do require training and support. as support for this type of approach has grown, several other canadian communities have developed cosa initiatives. in response, training materials and resources have been developed nationally as a result of several national gatherings. it was subsequently decided that a national standards training and resource manual should be prepared. to that end, an orientation and training regime is nearing completion. portions of this training package have been piloted at several locations across canada. this process assists volunteers to become more comfortable in working with offenders, as well as to educate them regarding sexual offending, risk factors, and means by which they can assist in risk reduction in their communities. the training outline shown in figure has been developed; a similar model is used in the original pilot project in south-central ontario. preliminary outcome data: recidivism while the circles of support and accountability concept appeared to make sense from a philosophical perspective, it has been necessary to formally evaluate the effect topics of training overview of the criminal justice system restorative justice needs of survivors the circle model effects of institutionalization human sexuality and sexual deviance risk assessment boundaries and borders conflict resolution group dynamics building group cohesion circle functions crisis response and preparing for critical incident stress working with correctional officials, police, news media and other community professionals needs assessment building a covenant court orders closing a circle figure . volunteer training ( . days or hours total). innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) the initiative has had on its constituent groups, particularly ex-offenders and the community at large. at present, evaluation has been completed in regard to the reoffense rate of core members in the pilot project (wilson & prinzo, in press). however, it will be necessary to augment these data with more process-oriented data, that is, information that speaks to the individual involvement of stakeholders and the resultant changes that may or may not have occurred in the community as a whole. this latter component of the evaluation of the pilot project is as yet unfinished, and will be reported at a later date. to date, circles have been undertaken in southern ontario (i.e., the pilot project administered by mcc). mean time at risk was months (also mean length of involvement in the program), with the range being from nine months to almost seven years. average static- (hanson & thornton, , ) scores confirm the high-risk status of offenders involved in the program. in comparing the expected recidivism rate with the observed recidivism rate, using static- survival data, we have found that recidivism has been reduced by more than % (eight expected versus three observed instances of sexual recidivism). further, from a harm reduction perspective (see laws, ; marlatt, ), each incident of sexual recidivism was categorically less invasive and less severe than the offense for which the offender had most recently been incarcerated. it should be noted, however, that the actuarial projections provided by the static- standardization sample appear to overestimate risk in this group. in a soon-to-be-released evaluation of the cosa pilot project, offenders receiving assistance via a circle reoffended at a lower rate incrementally in comparison with a matched control sample (wilson, picheca, & serin, ). conclusions we are firmly convinced that prospects for offender success in the community are significantly increased when the offender has a supportive network and a real accountability framework, especially when both are derived from community involvement sensitive to both victim and offender needs. while this is certainly intuitive, it is also supported by the data reported here, as well as by studies demonstrating the benefits of collaborative, community-based approaches (wilson, stewart, stirpe, barrett, & cripps, ). we hope that further investigative reviews, currently under way, will lend additional credence to this proposition. from the interim data presented above, it would appear that these initiatives have assisted the management of offender risk in the community while maintaining offender accountability, through attention to the principles of risk, need, and responsivity (andrews & bonta, ). however, data regarding the process of offering and being involved in such endeavors are required to complete the evaluation picture. this component of evaluation will need to solicit process information from offenders and their families/friends, community volunteers and their families/friends, professional and other adjunct persons, and members of the community at large. the intent must be to qualitatively evaluate the effect of involvement in such projects on the various subgroups of stakeholders, while also soliciting information from community persons not specifically involved in the project (as a means to gauge the education and public information component). r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) presently, support for restorative justice initiatives has come head to head with support for the ‘get tough on crime’ agenda. both of these perspectives have increased community safety at heart but, clearly, the means by which that increased safety is to be achieved is radically different. the research literature (e.g., andrews & bonta, ) suggests that initiatives which increase community involvement in holding offenders accountable is more likely to result in decreased recidivism. in those communities where restorative techniques have been employed, stakeholders report feeling more knowledgeable about the system and, generally, feel more empowered in dealing with risk. however, most examples result from relatively tight-knit circumstances where, perhaps, ‘community’ means something different than it does in larger, urban settings with a greater degree of anomie. notwithstanding the important gains we have made with our, admittedly select, groups of offenders, the real key to long-term success seems to be in promoting community development. that is, communities require assistance in getting to the point where they will tolerate initiatives such as those described in this article. we believe that tolerance will increase as links grow between various community members. the examples presented here have garnered support from community agencies and leaders in relatively tight-knit communities, but the blessing of the average citizen has been given with many caveats and misgivings, if given at all. larger communities appear to be at a distinct disadvantage when it comes to hands-on, community-based risk management. clearly, there is still much to be accomplished in appropriately assisting our communities to address the realities of risk and risk management inherent in returning offenders to our midst. references andrews, d. a., & bonta, j. ( ). the psychology of criminal conduct ( nd ed.). cincinnati, oh: anderson. cayley, d. ( ). the expanding prison: the crisis in crime and punishment and the search for alternatives. toronto: anansi. christie, n. ( ). conflicts as property. british journal of criminology, , – . church council on justice and corrections. ( ). satisfying justice: safe community options that attempt to repair harm from crime and reduce the use or length of imprisonment. ottawa, on: author. correctional service of canada. ( – ). alternatives to revocation: safely sustaining offenders in the community. strategic planning and policy branch (available from the authors). hanson, r. k., & thornton, d. ( ). static- : improving actuarial risk assessments for sex offenders. (user report – ). ottawa, on: department of the solicitor general of canada. www.sgc.gc.ca. hanson, r. k., & thornton, d. ( ). improving risk assessments for sex offenders: a comparison of three actuarial scales. law and human behavior, , – . laws, d. r. ( ). relapse prevention or harm reduction? sexual abuse, , – . marlatt, g. a. ( ). harm reduction: pragmatic strategies for managing high-risk behaviors. new york: guilford. mccold, p. ( ). restorative justice handbook. corrections compendium, , – . mcwhinnie, a. j., & brown r. e. ( ). restorative justice alternatives to parole suspension. journal of the american probation and parole association, , – . motiuk, l., & serin, r. ( ). situating risk assessment in the reintegration potential framework. forum on corrections research, , – (also available at www.csc-scc.gc.ca). r. v. b. l. ( ) a. r. . r. v. gladue ( ) s.c.r. . r. v. morin ( ) sask. r. . roberts, j. v., & laprairie, c. ( ). sentencing circles: some unanswered questions. criminal law quarterly, , – . innovations in canada copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) wilson, r. j., picheca, j. e., & serin, r. c. ( , november). circles of support & accountability: evaluating the efficacy of professionally-supported volunteerism in the long-term reintegration of high-risk sexual offenders. paper presented at the th annual conference of the association for the treatment of sexual abusers, san antonio, tx. wilson, r. j., & prinzo, m. (in press). circles of support: a restorative justice initiative. journal of psychology & human sexuality. wilson, r. j., stewart, l., stirpe, t., barrett, m., & cripps, j. e. ( ). community-based sex offender management: combining parole supervision and treatment to reduce recidivism. canadian journal of criminology, , – . yantzi, m. ( ). sexual offending and restoration. waterloo, on: herald. zehr, h. ( ). changing lenses: a new focus for crime and justice. waterloo, on: herald. r. j. wilson et al. copyright # john wiley & sons, ltd. behav. sci. law : – ( ) exercising a free conscience: the conscientious objectors of the soviet union and the german democratic republic lawrence klippenstein all the nine communist-led nations of eastern europe guarantee their peoples freedom of conscience.! how this ideal is understood by the powers that be and how it is applied may, however, contradict in practice what theoretically is said so well. the degree of contrast varies from one country to another. for many persons in these countries, as in western nations, the refusal to take the oath, and/or to bear arms as military . recruits , has become a public test of the guarantee of freedom of conscience. defence of "the motherland", or "socialist peace" is the obligation of all citizens, according to the same constitutions which appear to offer a right to reject that demand if conscience so dictates. penalties for those who refuse to serve are legislated in all these countries, and there are few alternatives. that, for conscientious objectors, is really where the problem may begin. conscientious objection to military service, usually on religious grounds, is at present an acknowledged official concern in the soviet union, an open debate in hungary and the german democratic republic, and more than just an occasional occurrence (a number of cases are known) in czechoslovakia, poland, romania and yugoslavia. three of these governments, hungary, poland and the gdr, already provide legal alternatives for certain categories of these "dissidents" , and in several others of the nine, such forms of service can at times be obtained upon request. if the sharpness of potential cohflict or opposition faced by coriscien~ tious objectors in all eastern european co,-!ntries were placed on a continuum, then the ussr would be at the end where there are the greatest pressures, along with albania and perhaps romania. the german democratic republic is at the other end of the spectrum, where there is most accommodation between government and religious objectors to military service. hungary, and possibly also poland, if it had to deal with the issue on a larger scale, would be closer to the gdr. we shall examine two situations, those ofthe ussr and the gdr, to exercising a free conscience illustrate more specifically the range of difficulties which objectors must anticipate,as well as a measure of flexibility which even socialist non- western governments can offer. the soviet union in the soviet union conscientious objectors arein for a struggle the moment they register their reservations about fulfilling their military obli- gations at their local commanding office. th~ military statutes, based upon the constitution of the ussr, state that every able-bodied soviet male between the ages of and years of age must expect to be called up for military service in the armed forces of the motherland. this means a term of active service of from one to three years, depending on placement in the various branches of the forces. temporary deferral for study purposes in some instances, or physical inability to serve are the only accepted qualifications for exemption. members ofa soviet peace committee delegation, when asked about conscientious objectors on a visit to britain, expressed their disbelief that any man would refuse to fight for his country. the fact is nevertheless that in the ussr a growing number of individuals, certainly hundreds, and perhaps as many as several thousand' a year, are insisting that the right to exemption from military service for reasons of conscience, whether religious or otherwise, ought to be statutory. what else, they say, can the much-vaunted "freedom of conscience" really mean? the soviet government faced this argument with respect to freedom of conscience and military service in its early months, immediately after the revolution. lenin, though a bitter opponent of all pacifists, neverthe- less yielded to pragmatic considerations when he decreed an exemption clause for conscientious objectors on january . during the civil war particularly it was this decree which allowed tens of thousands of persons from such religious groups as the baptists and evangelical christ- ians, seventh-day adventists and mennonites to obtain exemption from military service on grounds of conscience and religious conviction. within a few years after lenin's death, the decree appears to have been revoked in practice, if not in the statute books. all these groups were forced to reconsider their pacifist views and make explicit declarations of loyalty to the new government. o dissenters from such official support took their views' "underground". ,the mennoiiites almost alone con- tinued to negotiate actively'for an alternative to service in the armed forces. tentative arrangements for alternative service such as construc~ tion work and forestry service were made, but they too were terminated when the stalin constitution of created a firm and permanent basis for the universal military service requirements as they now stand. a few years later the german invasion during the second world war brought to the fore the deeply-rooted patriotic feelings of the soviet exercising a free conscience people. the russian orthodox church and the evangelical christians and baptists openly supported the war effort. they were rewarded by being allowed to reorganise and reconstitute themselves as legal church communities. smaller bodies with pacifist traditions, mainly menno- nites and seventh-day adveritists who were of german origin, found themselves classed as "unreliable" and "fascist" enemies of the state. they were most often sent .into the work battalions of prison camps and other non-military installations or labour projects. after the war they were left for a decade or so in restricted residence (komendatura) com- munities in the urals and central asia. conscientious objection to military service was almost unheard of publicly, though instances· of it probably did still occur. since about conscientious objection to military service, as a form of dissent, has increasingly become a public affair again. military authori- ties not infrequently express anxiety about the influence of "pacifistic ideas" in the army and in society generally. soviet papers and periodi- cals comment on this regularly. conscientious objectors, and those who support or encourage them, whether parents, friends, or congregations, are accused of disloyalty and hostility toward the soviet state. at least one soviet religious periodical, the journal of the evangelical christians and baptists, bratsky vestnik, has recently addressed the matter as well. publicised cases of refusal to bear arms or to swear the military oath are found chiefly among unregistered religious communities such as the reform baptists, the true and free seventh-day adventists, jehovah's witnesses, and those pentecostals who do not belong to the national pro- testant organisation, the all-union council of evangelical christians and baptists. similar protests may be found, albeit less frequently, among other soviet germans and jews, crimean tatars, the true orthodox church, roman catholics and some other groups. while congrega- tional registration no doubt implies some acquiescence with the laws on ~ilitary conscription, there is reason to think that members of registered congregations, especially baptists and mennonites, are to be found among the objectors. theological differences still divide these groups, but on the issues of bearing arms and the taking of human life, many of them agree. as these objectors interpret the bible, in. the case of christian» at least, killing in any form is wrong and sinful. there is moreover a clear new testament command against swearing any kind of oaths: as one christian recruit put it to his local military officials: "i am a believer, and from my purely . religious conviction i cannot take the military oath or bear arms. . . i do not refuse to serve in the ranks of the soviet army, and am prepared to fulfil conscientiously all that my service demands. but with regard to the oath, as a religious believer, i cannot alter my thoughts and con- victions. ,, exercising a free conscience that expression of concern about the oath, coupled with a willingness to perform some kind of appropriate non-military form of service (some- times even including the bearing of arms) is shared by many reform bap- tist young men in particular. it may include some mennonites as well. jehovah's witnesses are consistently opposed to any form of military or alternative work within the framework of the armed forces. severith- day adventist believers may initially refuse to perform military duties on saturday (their biblical "day of rest") but are often cited as refusing to take the oath or to bear arms as well. for some, the refusal of military service is less a matter of religious con- viction than a concern for its impact on emigration plans. this has been true for a number of young jews and pentecostals, and also some soviet germans who wish to emigrate. they feel that military service could make their departure more· difficult. in the past some would-be emigrants have had their requests turned down because they were considered to possess sensitive military information as a result of serving in the army. some jewish applicants, having received permission from israel to enter, hand in their soviet citizenship papers and claim that they are no longer citizens of the soviet union, hence not subject to its military service requirements. the soviet military authorities will not accept any views which disclaim an obligation to serve in the armed forces, either on the grounds of consci- ence or otherwise. they generally regard a refusal to swear the military oath as an objection to bearing arms. there is some logic to this, since the law forbids the handing of weapons to anyone who does not swear the oath. when prosecuted, such people are sentenced not simply for non- swearing of oaths, or "evasion of call-up to service" (article of the rsfsr criminal code), but also under article of the code, namely, attempting to evade the obligations of military service altogether. . punishments under article typically include imprisonment for peri,ods from three to seven years in peace time, and could include the death penalty during war time. a sentence of two to three years served in ordinary regime camps seems to be most common at present. imprisonment is not inevitable however. the local commanding office at its discretion may grant an alternative form of non-combatant service, and this happens more often than might be expected. o however, even when an alternative form of service is granted, conscientious objectors may still encounter pressures\ and sundry forms of harassment designed to force them to surrender their pacifist views, and indeed, their faith itself. several instances of death brought about by mistreatment and abuse of christians on active duty have been reported. the !jerman democratic republic the present-day military service requirements of the german democra- exercising a free conscience tic republic are in essence identical to (perhaps even greater than) those of,the ussr . conscientious objectors, however, find themselves in a considerably illore flexible situation in the gdr a legal wehrer- satzdienst (alternatiye defence service) option has been in existence for over twenty years, and the prospect for further accommodation to the wishes of objectors may be somewhat less remote than in the soviet union . . the gdr had. no form of conscription during the first years of its short history. the war-time allies, having attempted to crush the "milit- ary spirit of the german people", made it a major objective in to ensure that the new germany would be a nation of peage. for a time some people dreamed of a single neutralist state, with no more than a tiny defence force (home guard) along the lines. of what was eventually worked out in austria. events, however, followed a different path. the federal republic of germany passed a compulsory conscription law just ten years a(ter the war ended, and in the gdr followed suit. the statutes of east germany rendered all males between the ages of and fifty liable for service in the nationale volksarmee (national people's army). for emergencies of defence that regulation was subsequently ex- tended to cover women of the same age, and also to include men up to the age. of sixty. in the initial legislation prison was the only legal. "alterna- tive" to service in the armed forces of the. gdr. significant segments of the east german public registered disapproval of the move. among young adults, that is, those who had experienced the horrors of and as children, there was widespread detestation of violence and all forms of war. the oft-repeated slogan that conscripts would b~ "defend- ing the peace" frequently fell on virtually deaf ears. some protestant church leaders of the ekd (evangelical church of germany) were deeply disappointed by the government's seeming lack of respect for freedom of conscience. the ekd had in fact raised this very i~sue a decade or more before the.military service statutes of had come into being. its synods of (eisenach), (berlin-weissensee) and (elbingrode) made public declarations of their readiness to stand behind the decisions of young germans who might at some time re- sist the call to military service for reasons. of conscience and christian faith. as the situation developed, it was the protestant leaders in particular (in great contrast to what took ,place in the ussr), who helped to shape the legal status of conscientiousobjectors in the gdr church-state con- versations led in the spring of to a modus vivendi by whighthe state agreed to end its earlier attacks on all forms of pacifist thinking, and even admitted its willingness to tolerate conscientious objectors. it did not however concede to the church's demand for a legal alternative to bearing arms,so that even its relatively generous treatment of conscientious exercising a free conscience objectors in the next few years could not alleviate the unrest and suspicion generated by the military service legislation. in a conference of ekd leaders called explicitly for the legal pro- tection of those refusing military service for reasons of conscience, and also assured such persons of church support for their position. the crea- tion of non-combatant "construction units~' (baueinheiten), which the state ordered on september ofthe following year,came, by all appear- ances, as a direct response to this conference request. the party news- paper, neues deutschland, spoke of the move as a "military necessity'~ since such military building units would be a vital factor for building up the defence capacity of the nation. the need for broader "democratic legitimisation" of the new state has been cited as another reason for the concession. however, the possibility of facing a potential force of three or four thousand conscientious objectors, and an intensified conflict with the ekd, may have been the strongest motivator of all. _ the baueinheiten, with its recruits henceforth designated as bausolda- ten ("building soldiers") provided recruits with a distinctive uniform bearing the design of a spade on a shoulder patch (hence also the term spaten-soldaten ("soldiers of the spade"). their regular work excluded the bearing of arms. the term of service was eighteen months, equal to that of regular soldiers. building activity included in the first instance con- struction of military sites and installations. the men were usually stationed in small units of fifteen to twenty persons, although they were sometimes used for large-scale projects like that of building a new harbour at mikran on the island of reugen. neither theekd churchmen nor the conscientious objectors felt that this arrangement was really satisfactory. the units were still under the total control of the army, the construction of military sites seemed still to be involvement in the armed forces, and the required oath of commit- ment to service differed little in substance from that required of regular soldiers. almost immediately some men protested against the require- ments of the units, both by appeals to the authorities and by non-partici- pation. many men called for an open discussion of all ideas related to fim.ling peaceful alternatives to military service. by autumn the regional synod of berlin-brandenburg had sub- mitted a complaint that "the concerns of the conscientious objectors were not being met", while the goerlitz provincial synod a year later asked for "a form of alternative service which would not force anyone to participate in military building projects against his conscience." in spring the provincial synod of saxony registered its anxieties about students who had served in construction units being discriminated against in schools. this meant that leading career opportunities were being closed to those who refused to serve in the active military services of the country. . the call for a civilian form of alternative service began to re-focus the exercising a free conscience church's interest in the fate of the conscientious objectors. -bishop jaenicke had already proposed'at the synod in saxony that the government ought to consider alternatives in the fields of health or disas- ter services. beyond east germany itself the conference of european churches held in nyb~rg in considered the same idea put forward in propositions on peace service by bishop kausche. it resolved in the end to encourage member-churches to be sympathetic to conscientious objec- tors, especially in cases of discrimination or even arrest. beyond all this, it seemed, little more could be done. proposals for a civilian peace service alternative have been sharpened by a seven-point programme set forth in may by the dresden group, sozialer friedensdienst ("social peace service"). the programme pro- poses a -month term of work, preceded by educational preparation on themes of demilitarisation, disarmament~peaceful security and non-vio- lent forms of resolving conflicts. it suggests the extension of service to that of medical aides, social work, disaster control, and protection of the en- vironment. synods of the ekd regional churches gave this proposal sym- pathetic hearings, as the bishops continued to warn against increasing militarisation of the gdr. in september of the same year klaus gysi, the secretary of state for church affairs, explained his government's total rejection of such a scheme. the constitution of the gdr, he pointed out, required military service from all citizens of the nation, while the construction units catered to all those not wishing to bear arms. to make additional exceptions would undermine a fundamental principle. moreover, the introduction of a so-called "civilian peace service" would imply that the national people's army, which does nothing but "defend peace and socialism" is a "war service". such an idea would be inadmissible, gysi said. this latest encounter between church and state has, then, left the situa- tion basically unchanged. there is some indication in recent times that the 'i construction units are becoming less demanding in their requirements, and that projects-of a civilian nature are now qualifying for the use of such units. defence minister heinz hoffmann praised the "building soldiers" at his visit to the mukran site in july last year, a form of recognition which the press had not publicised until then. erich honecker himself has claimed that there is no discrimination now against these men, and some church circles seem to support this view. • there remain the tot'tllverweigerer ("total objectors") who resist any form of military service, the baueinheiten included. they are a growing group, and the penalties for them seem to be increasing. all jehovah's witnesses (who form an illegal religious community) refuse to participate in the available options altogether-the consequence is a prison sentence of months (it used to be six to eight months). if they are called up to the reserves, they spend the time in jail. in the building units, refusals to exercising a free conscience swear the oath or to be involved in military construction can provoke sen- tences of two years in jail. there are however examples of lesser penal- ties, and, as in the early years of conscription during the s, cases where no action at all has been taken against those who refuse to serve. annual statistics on the number of conscientious objectors in the gdr, whether in the construction units or elsewhere, are still difficult to obtain. one source gives the early yearly number of bausoldaten as at first, rising to five hundred in , and one thousand now. the figure is estimated to be about half the number of all conscientious objectors. for the years - about a thousand, thought to be about half, of the ob- jectors who refused even to join the construction units were members of the jehovah's witnesses. this could mean that as many as , men may have served in the units so far, and that about two thousand may have been sentenced for being total resisters during these two decades. the governments of both the ussr and the gdr emphasise their commitment to defend their countries and to build up the armed forces needed for this task, a decision that few nations ofthe world have chosen not to make. smaller nations depend on larger ones to help when the need arises. both the ussr and the gdr give limited toleration to those who want to serve their countries, but without bearing arms. conscienti- ous objectors in both countries are trying to discover the final limits of this tolerance. in both countries, the churches do not speak with one voice on this issue. some support the pacifists and nurture their ideas and actions, others do not. in the ussr supporters of pacifism must-generally take an "illegal" path, trusting to the discretion of the system itself to make indi- vidual exceptions to the rule. in the gdr there is an officially recognised form of non-combatant service, not fully acceptable, but considerably more than the soviet union will grant at present. there is also a church that openly promotes the cause of its conscientious objectors; in the ussr that is something the churches find very difficult to'do. qbjectors to the ideological governmental pronouncements of these nations always encounter dilemmas which can be resolved only at a price, with few prospects that it will decrease. what will happen ifthe demands for an alternative to bearing arms continue to escalate? can the objectors be "bought off" somehow, and the churches' protests silenced? only time will show whether compromises can be achieved which will settle the issues in these two countries, and the other eastern european countries as well. " j jan triska, ed. constitution of the communist party states. stanford, california: , pp. , , , , , , , , . see, for example, issues of the past five years for periodicals such as end churches register, war registers international newsletter, and various publications of amnesty inter- national, all published in great britain. a recent survey of the world-wide situation regarding government policies on conscrip- tion for military service, alternative service, etc. has been published: asbjorn eide and exercising a free conscience chama mubanga-chipoya, eds., question of conscientious objection to military service. prepared under the auspices of the commission on human rights (unesco), geneva, . for western europe no countries are listed under "conscription without alternative service", and the following as having no conscription at all: ireland, liechtenstein, luxem- bourg, and the united kingdom. poland provided a form of civilian service in . see a comparative study on the ussr and poland in karen schmidt, "kriegsdienstverweigerung in sozialistischen staaten. dargestellt am beispiel der sowjetunion und der volksrepublik polen" , berichte des bun- desinstituts fur ostwissenschaftliche und internationale studien. cologne: / , pp. - . see article in the section "on universal military service" in vedomosti verkhovnogo sovieta sssr no. , october , item , and a summary description of service requirements in prisoners of conscience in the ussr. their treatment and conditions. lon- don: amnesty international, , nd rev. ed., pp. - . hcatherine perry, "voices from russia", newspeace, april , p. . exact statistics for conscientious obj ectors in the soviet union are not available. a docu- ment noting the refusals of pentecostals in the rovno region was published in a chronicle of current events, no. , , p. . kdevelopments regarding exemption provisions in the early years of the soviet period have been detailed in lawrence klippenstein,"mennonite pacifism and state service in russia: a case study of church-state relations, - ", unpublished phd disserta- tion, university of minnesota, minneapolis, , pp. - . on lenin's views on pacifism see michael voslensky, "the concept of peace in the political philosophy and ethics of the soviet union", in peace: whatcan we do? international lutheran contribu- tions to peace ethics, ed. e. lorenz. geneva: , pp. ff. . a. klibanov. religioznoye sektanstvo i sovremennost'. moscow: , p. . iiiwalter sawatsky, soviet evangelicals after world war ll. kitchener, ontario, canada and scottdale, pennsylvania: , ff. ii article of the constitution: "military service in the armed forces ofthe ussr is an honourable duty of the citizens of the ussr. " it meant everyone, and the wording ofthat article has remained basically unchanged to the present day. sawatsky, op.cit., p. . see also w. alexeev and t. g. stavrou. the great revival: the russian church under german occupation. minneapolis, minnesota: , pp, ff. walter sawatsky, "mennonite congregations in the soviet union today", mennonite life xxxiii, march , pp. - . the situation is well depicted in waiter wedel, nur zwanzig kilometer. wuppertal: , where one of the main characters mentions his struggle with his conscience over serving in the army during this period. . xana antic, "atheist indoctrination of soviet troops", radio free europe research, august , pp. - . lbid. , "materialy plenuma vsyekhb prochodivshego noyabrya - dekabrya 'lgoda", bratsky vestnik, no. , , p. . . '"reports from these groups are found frequently in samizdat. . examples are found in amnesty international report, , p. and a chronicle of current events, no. , , p. , or more recently menschenrechte, january-february, , pp. - . osawatsky, soviet evangelicals, p. . passages in question would include exodus : and matthew : . prisoners of conscience, pp. - , and "young christians refuse the soviet military oath", evangelical times, january , pp. - . . dbud bultman, "serving two masters. bearing amis and the cross in soviet military service", sparks, vo\. , no. (summer ), p. ; and michael bourdeaux, hans hebly, and eugene voss, eds., religious liberty in the ussr. wcc and ussr. a post-nairobi documentation. keston, england: , pp. ff. heinrich and gerhard woelk, die mennoniten brudergemeinde in russland - . fresno, california: , p. . jehovah's witnesses seem to be gaining more attention in the soviet press recently. their refusal to bear arms is noted as evidence of their disloyalty to the nation. see oxana antic, "jehovah's witnesses in the soviet union", radio free europe research, / , exercising a free conscience january , pp. - , and the march issue of the recently published chronicle of the catholic church in ukraine, p. , which mentions jehovah's witnesses of trans- carpathian ukraine, imprisoned for refusing to serve in the soviet army. (all extant issues (nine) are on file in the keston college archives.) v. a. shelkov, "lenin cited in support of true and free adventist view", rcl vol. no. , , pp. - . the history of pacifist thought among adventists is surveyed help- fully in marite sapiets, "one hundred years of adventism in russia and the soviet union", rcl vol. no. , , pp. - . a case of conscientious objection is described in "paul schreider: conscientious objection and the criminal code", a chronicle of human rights in the ussr, no. , april-june , pp. - . cf. the experiences of anatoli malkin, noted in a chronicle of current events, no. , , pp. loff., and that of grigori viktorovich yevich, in "soviet religious samizdat", rcl vol. no. , , p. . zllthere is no specific article dealing simply with non-swearing of oaths. the four articles normally applied are: article : "evasion of regular call to active military service; article : "evasion of call-up for mobilisation"; article - : "evasion of training courses or musters and of military registration by persons subject to military service", and article a: "evasion of military service by maiming or any other method". cf. harold j. berman, ed. soviet criminal law and procedure. the rsfsr codes. cambridge, mass: , pp. - , and . based on about a hundred publicised cases of conscientious objection examined by the writer for this study. the conclusions need confirmation from a broader study. gary thatcher, "despite official scorn, interest in religion rises in the soviet union", christian science monitor, january , p. ; perry, op. cit. p. , and woelk and woelk, op. cit., p. . the cases examined by the author (cf. note ) included only one or two instances of alternative service. grigori viktorovich yevich, a pentecostal co, was sent to serve in a construction camp (see note ). lbultman, op. cit., pp. - , and "other cases of religious persecution in the red army", religion in communist-dominated areas, vol. xii, nos. - , january, february and march, , pp. -lo. , martin mccauley, the german democratic republic since . london: , pp. ff. . kurt and hildegard mocker, "wehrdienstverweigerung in der 'ddr': rechtsgrundla- gen des wehrdienstes", christen drueben, no. , november . these writers also cite the earliest phase of ideological development in the gdr when the slogan of the socialist unity party was radically pacifist: "no german may again take a weapon in his hand" (p. lo). bernd eisenfeld, "mit wechselnder intensitat: das eintreten der evangelischen kirchen in der ddr fiir den waffenlosen ersatzdienst", kirche im sozialismus, vol. v, no. , march , pp. - . ibid., p. . ibid., pp. - .., , , bernd eisenfeld, "spaten-soldaten. jahre bausoldaten in der ddr", kirche im sozialismus, vol. x; no; , , pp. ff. renate hackel, " jahre bausoldaten-dienst mit den spaten", informationen undberichte, no. , , pp. ff. heisenfeld, "mit wechselnder intensitat ... ", pp. - . mocker and mocker, op. cit., pp. lo- ; ernst legahun, '''bausoldaten' und ziviler ersatzdienst", christen drueben, no. , , pp. - . the latter includes the exact wording'ofthe oath. eisenfeld, "mit wechselnder intensitat ... ", pp. - , - . , ohackel, op. cit., pp. - . ibid. . , ibid.~ pp. - . ' lbid. ',' mocker 'and mocker, op. cit.; p. . cf. also the comments of john thiessen in a memo to the author, "bausoldaten in the. gdr". the comment includes a summary of remarks made by speakers at two events celebrating the twentieth anniversary of the institution of the "construction units" in . the basic materials are drawn from an address by manfred stolpe, entitled "wie dienen wir den frieden am besten: mit oder ohne waffen?" (how can we best serve the interests of peace: with or without weapons?). journal of reseafv:h on christian education autumn , vol: , no journal of reseafv:h on christian education autumn , vol: , no. pp. - editorial . parochial education and the state: who is in control? ray j. ostrander associate editor imagine the intrigue, the whispers and hot debate. a new teacher was questioning the authority of the established church, and ministers and administrators were losing not only respect, but face, something to which they were unaccustomed. therefore, church leadership and sympathetic followers concocted a plan to entrap this individual in his own words. so a selected few visited this teacher and stated-- h, so subtly ,-"we know you are a man of integrity and that you teach truthfully, regardless of the consequences. you are impartial and are not swayed by power or position. because of this, we have a question for you, and we want you to share your opinion with us. is it right to pay taxes to the government or not?" recognize the story? "but jesus, knowing their evil intent, said, ...'show me the coin used for paying the tax. ' they brought him a denarius, and he asked them, 'whose portrait is this? and whose inscription?' " " , caesar's,' they replied." "then he said to them, 'give to caesar what is caesar's, and to god what is god's' " (matthew : - niv). from christ's reply to the pharisees until today, the relationship of church and state remains perplexing and often hazy. where do the claims of caesar (the state) end and those of god (the church) began? and if the claims of church and state conflict, to whom should authority be granted? who has primacy of control? or should primacy of control even be an issue? i would posit that nowhere is this question of the role of church and state more intricate and complex than in education. many nations' governments sanction a state-sponsored religion. even in such countries, however, ambiguity exists between the role of religion in the curriculum and the control of religious schools. in the united states, parochial education and the state are addressed in the first amendment to the constitution. "congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or preventing the free exercise thereof. " notwithstanding, even during the times of jefferson and madison debate raged over church/state issues. questions still remain today as to how finely the first amendment should be interpreted. some advocate a broad, separate, and secular meaning. others argue for a more accommodating view based upon a perceived intent of the constitution's framers. throughout all such discussions, however, is one central issue: control. who should oversee a child's education? who has charge of educating youth-governments, school boards, educators, parents, the students themselves? in many cases, issues of educational accountability and control in the united states are a function of the individual states. some states, such as florida and tennessee, leave considerable discretion to parents and private schools. in the ostensible interest of protecting the welfare of school-age citizens, other states, such as nebraska, are prescriptive in controlling private education to the point of closing schools and imprisoning those who fail to comply with state directives. in such states the potential obviously exists for private schoolers to run afoul of the law, and some do. recently, for example, a student was designated by her teacher as the yip of the week. in this class, the honor allowed students to bring to school something akin to a show-and-tell. the young lady in question brought a video of her singing in her church choir. the teacher remonstrated, "you can't show this. it violates the first amendment." the principal concurred. the issue ended in the courts. this is remarkable considering that polls consistently show % to % of americans believe in the existence of god. approximately % believe in immortality. approximately % state their relationship with god is the most important element of their lives, whereas only % state their job is the most important aspect of their lives .this is extraordinary , especially considering the seeming regard the states manifest today toward religious education. early protestant americans did not turn over the education of their youth to the state thinking the education would become unrecognizable in regard to what they saw as the teaching of truth. that only occurred much later as times changed. therefore, i have to ask, in a nation whose founding fathers initiated and whose highest judiciary verbally uphold separation of church and state, in a nation where a clear majority of the population believe in the existence of god, how much authority should the state have in prescribing how a parochial school should be governed and what subject matter should be taught? if we are "one nation, under god, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all, " cannot we justifiably and reasonably expect supporters of parochial educational systems (a definite part of the "all") to have locus of control, to establish their own educational goals and curriculum to fulfill the educational and spiritual needs deemed essential for their children. would this ambition be contrary to the interests of the state for an educated populace? am i stretching boundaries of credulousness to expect states to support this right through, at best, school-choice policies (think of the double "tuition" the parents of parochial-schoolers pay), or at least accommodation of private schools without harsh, oligarchic, prescriptive controls? my personal journey as guest editor of this issue began on a fall morning in as i drove to my office. i was listening to "morning edition" on national public radio when a report concerning a school voucher initiative in california was aired. i was intrigued. california actually had placed a referendum on the ballot that, if passed, would mandate state support to private education. while i am quite certain william bennett, who was featured in the report, is unaware that his vigorous support for proposition was the seed that germinated this issue of the jrce, nonetheless, i thank him. his commentary sparked an interest within me hitherto not seriously considered beyond the generalization, freedom of religion. thus began this autumn issue of the journal of research on christian education, an issue that focuses upon the relationship between parochial education and the state. the lead article by vance randall, "the state and religious schools in america: an overview of a rocky relation- ship," presents an historical perspective of the relationship between religious schools and the state, providing a conceptual framework for understanding religious schools in a society with a public-school ethos. two of our articles were generated by canadians. "religious schooling and prejudice in canada: implications for public funding of christian schools" is authored by john hiemstra, who examines whether or not attendance at religious schools correlated with higher levels of racial prejudice and whether this correlation would affect current discussions regarding public funding for parochial schools. "eden despoiled: a questionable experiment in school choice," by john vriend, explores the transfer of an independent mennonite secondary school in ontario to an alternative public school. this case study indicates the transition changed the original goals of the school. vriend presumes that individuals wishing to use alternative-school status to maintain protestant religious schools as part of public education will be disappointed. the last two articles are case-iaw analyses. the first, "religious educational institutions: limitations and liabilities under adea and title vii, " is by ralph mawdsley. this analysis examines an interpretation of the age discrimination in employment act and title vii in light of the two religion clauses in the first amendment, one protecting free exercise of religion and the other prohibiting an establishment of religion. lyndon furst explores "the employment contract in nonpublic schools: a review of case law. " in this article furst reviews case law relating to employment-contract issues in nonpublic schools. the review centers around three themes: validity of contracts, procedural issues, and termination of employment. conclusions are drawn from cases that are described and analyzed. the discussion section features an interview with terry moe. in my bennett-inspired quest for informatio-n on vouchers and school choice, a colleague loaned me the book politics, markets, and america's schools authored by john chubb and terry moe. in its pages i found a fresh and stimulating examination of education in america today coupled with educational alternatives, specifically school choice, designed to remedy these major ills. i was so impressed with this work that i contacted dr. moe for an interview. the extent of this dialogue explores issues from school choice, the first amendment, and the charter-school movement to home schooling. the articles, interview, and book reviews are by no means an exhaustive examination of private education and the state. rather, they offer the surface scratch, trusting your intellectual and personal interest will be piqued to further inquiry .may your journey through the complexity of state- and parochial- school issues be rewarding. editorial journal of research on christian education fdok reviews espenshade, a. howry, pennsylvania place names, s t a t e college, pa. ,perm- sylirania s t a t e university, . ~ e p r i n t e d by gale research company, d e t r o i t , . pages. $ . . the study of place names, long i n t h e p a l e of those enamoured ef popu- l a r antiquarianism, has f o r some time received r e l a t i v e l y s e r i o u s at- t e n t i o n from c u l t u r a l geographers, and more recently, from f o l k l o r i s t s . espenshadds study, completed i n t h e f i r s t decade of t h i s century, re- mains a standard, e x c e l l e n t work on t h e major place names of t h e coun- t i e s , county s e a t s , p r i n c i p a l towns ( a t t h a t time those with a popula- t i o n of , o r more) and o t h e r important v i l l a g e s and townships of pennsylvania, h i s readable comments on t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e s o f t e n i n - clude valuable though s h o r t h i s t o r i e s of t h e a r e a and biographies o f noteworthy persons. the f o l k l o r i s t may r e g r e t t h a t i n his introduction espenshade scoffs a t ftfabulous explanations" and l l r i d i c u l o u s rname s t o r i e s ! fihich a r e current about t h e o r i g i n of place names" ( p .l ). he gives s z v e r a i llspe- cimens of f o l k etymologyt a s i l l u s t r a t i o n s : the following explanation of t h e v i l l a g e named tamanend is given by a l o c a l h i s t o r i a n : 'there i s a t r a d i t i m n among t h e o l d r e s i d e n t s t h a t about t h e time of t h e wyoming massacre a noted indian chief, taman by name, an a l l y of t h e b r i t i s h , was foremost i n t h e war upon t h e defenseless f r o n t i e r . af- terward, when t h e avengers of these butcheries made war up- on t h e savages, taman was brought t o bay a t hawk's curve, near the s i t e of t h e v i l l a g e . here he was captured and im- mediately hanged; hence t h e name taman's end o r tamanend.' alas f o r t h e name and f a t e of st. tammany. here i s an explanation o f t h e name bellefonte which p o i n t s t o a german r a t h e r than a french o r i g i n , an o l d pennsylva- n i a german farmer put a b e l l on one of h i s cows and turned t h e drove loose t o pasture on t h e wooded h i l l s surrounding t h e v i l l a g e . the cows came home, but t h e b e l l w a s l o s t . not u n t i l t h e autumn, when t h e farmer was hunting among t h e h i l l s , was t h e b e l l found. t ya wohll t h e r e , among t h e bu- shes wass t h a t b e l l fount&! and, of course, t h e town w a s christened bellefonte t o cornmerraarate t h e event 'how d i d tyrone g e t i t s name?$ i once asked a good e&d la- dy who had l i v e d t h e r e a l l her days. 'have you never heard,' she said. fi thought everyone k n e w e f i t w a s this way: t h e f i r s t pioneer who came i n t o t h i s region with h i s wife camped near where t h e town now stands. he had two horses, a gray and a roan, which he turned out t o pasture i n t h e evening. the roan seemed so r e s t i v e t h a t t h e c a r e f u l wife urged h e r hus- band t o "tie roan.' they s e t t l e d here and accordingly named t h e place tyrone. and t h e good t r u s t f u l soul who expected m e t o believe t h i s s t o r y bore an i r i s h name (pp .l - ) . that place name legends a r e s t i l l a l i v e and well i n pennsylvania a s w e l l a s throughput t h e country t h e r e i s no doubt: r a i s e d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e swatara creek, near harrisburg, pennsylvania, i o f t e n heard from my grandfather t h a t t h e creek got i t s name from an indian brave who, upon shooting an arrow i n t o t h e a i r s a n d it landing he knew not where on the opposite shore of the creek, c r i e d out, !igoodbye, - s w i f t ( o r sweet) arrow!!! -- espenshade, however, p r e f e r s t o i n t e n s i f y h i s work with s u b s t a n t i a l h i s t o r i c a l f a c t gleaned from numerous l o c a l h i s t b r i e s of i n d i v i d u a l towns and counties. the r e s u l t i s by no means d u l l o r u n i n t e r e s t i n g ; it i s extremely well i n t e g r a t e d and b e a u t i f u l l y w r i t t e n i n a s t y l e we might c a l l victorian. h i s approach is t h a t of a serious, dedicated scholar, i n t e n t upon recording and c a r e f u l l y c l a s s i f y i n g t h e m a t e r i a l before h i m , r a t h e r than t h a t of a d i l l e t a n t e o r saturday savant. he observes f o u r broad source a r e a s f o r most place names, although he d i s t i n g u i s h e s numerous o t h e r s i n the s p e c i f i c breakdown of c l a s s i f i - cations : ( ) aboriginal place names, rehbained because "they have become f a m i l i a r , o r are thought t o be appropriate o r euphonioustt ( p a s ) ; such examples as allegheny, lycoming, susquehanna, wyoming and k i b taning ( f a m i l i a r t o a l l who frequent t h e pennsylvania turnpike) a r e c i t e d . ( ) place names borrowed from t h e old world, some of which a r e merely t r a n s f e r r e d from the o l d country t o t h e new: this same phenomenon i s o f t e n apparent within t h e r e s t r i c t e d limits of a s i n g l e county. lancaster county, which was o r i - g i n a l l y s e t t l e d by english quakers, welsh episco@ians, ir- i s h presbyterians, and german mennonites and moravians, f u r - nishes a good i l l u s t r a t i o n , the names of t h e townships and v i l l a g e s o f t e n show whence t h e first s e t t l c r s came. the town- ships of lancaster, warwick, salisbury, and l i t t l e b r i t a i n mark t h e fnglish settlements. i n l i k e manner t h e welsh hcve given t h e i r names t o east and west lampeter, caernarvon and bmcknock townships, the scotch-irish gave t h e i r settlements such names a s leacock, dremore, colerain, rapho and donegal. the s e t t l e r s of german e x t r a c t i o n bestowed t h e i r own names on manheim, l i t i t z , new holland and strasbourg. (pp. - ) ( ) names of persons, whether t h e y be i l l u s t r i o u s f i g u r e s from h i s - t o r y , a s evidenced by t h e appearance of such names a s washington, frank- l i n , pike and wa$ne, o r l o c a l c e l e b r i t i e s such a s john h m i s ( h a r r i s - burg), james gettys (gettysburg) o r elizabeth hughes reeby(e izabeth- town) . ( ) invented names owing " t h e i r o r i g i n t o some p l a n t , animal, o r industry, t o some prominent geographical feature, t o an h i s t o r i c event o r circumstance, o r t o mere caprice.i (p,ls), examples are, of course, abundant. the names bird-in hand, red lion and king of p r u s s i a (named f o r e a r l y tavern signs) come immediately t o mind, but o t h e r s e x i s t with g r e a t frequency, s t e e l t o n (named f o r i t s l a r g e s t e e l m i l l s ) , mid- dletown (named f o r i t s c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n between the e a r l y c i t i e s of lancaster and c a r l i s l e ) , snow shoe, s l i p p e r y rock, lock haven, o i l c i t y and valley forge me but a few. the bibliography, although somewhat l i m i t e d by the time f a c t o r , i s nevertheless an e x c e l l e n t catalogue of l o c a l h i s t o r i e s . there a r e s e v e r a l appendices % useful c h a r t s but it i s t o be r e g r e t t e d , t h e r e i s no map t o guide t h e o f t t i m e s confused reader through t h e geogra- p h i c a l i n t r i c a c i e s of t h e s t a t e , apparently assumed by the author t o be a p r i o r i knowledge (philadelphia - i s on lake erie, i s n r t i t ? ) . one problem remains: the book i s i n t e r e s t i n g and informative, d e l i g h t - f u l t o read and r e p l e t e with f a c t u a l h i s t o r y , but how can it p o s s i b l y be of use t o f o l k l o r i s t s ? the answer comes, not unenrpect&dly, from a c u l t u r a l geographer, e . joan wilson m i l l e r : however extraordinary some of them moy seem, toponyms have meaning and value to the c u l t u r a l geographer. m a y o f them represent s e l e c t i v e o r a l material disseminated r e g i o n a l l y by ingrained, p e r s i s t e n t speech h a b i t s . such names belong t o t h e f o l k because t h e y a r e a p a r t of a shared experience and a r e a r e a c t i o n t o a r e a l , immediate, and p r a c t i c a l si- tuation. some of t h e i r o r i g i n s a r e e l u s i v e and v a r i a n t s concerning t h e s e o r i g i n s e x i s t . the study of placc. names i n d i c a t e s t h a t they a f e a geographic expression of c u l t u r a l processes t h a t a r e s t i l l dynamic. so they,too, a r e a p a r t of t h e continuum of man's changing occupance of t h e land.* yvonne j . milspaw indiana university * !#.joan wilson miller, "the naming of the land i n t h e arkansas; ozarks: a study i n culture ~ r o c e s s e s , ~ n n & s of the association of american geographers, l i x ( ) , . umeasiegbu, rems nna , the way we lived, i l l u s , heinemann educational books, malta, . pages, the way we lived i s one of those unusual but i n c r e a s i n g l y common books mushrooming i n africa, this book i s p a r t i c u l a r l y strange because of t h e d e t a i l s of i t s creation, described i n a l e t t e r by t h e author t o h i s fa- t h e r (page v i i i ) . the author belongs t o the ibo, a famous t r i b e i n the eastern region of nigeria. h i s f a t h e r , g.u. umeasiegbu, was ( o r is, i c a n t t t e l l ) , a leading e l d e r i n t h e county of aba, and he customarily e n t e r t a i n e d such d i g n i t a r i e s a s t h e councillors of t h e aba urban coun- c i l . one day when the c o u n c i l l o r s gathered i n h i s homestead, he asked h i s son, rems nna umeasiegbu, t o bring i n palmwine f o r t h e guests, the son served t h e palmwine without t a k i n g a s i p f i s s t , a v i o l a t i o n of ibo custom, the f a t h e r threatened t o remove him from school, which, t h e f a - t h e r f e l t , was corrupting h i s knowledge of t h e ibo t r a d i t i o n s . the se- r i o u s sermon following t h e reprimand l e f t such an imprint on umeasieg- buts mind t h a t he l a t e r decided t o reconstruct t h e ibo customs a s he r e c o l l e c t e d them while studying a t oxfordshire i n b r i t a i n . thus h i s only informant i n r e t r o s p e c t was h i s f a t h e r , and h i s only methodology, r e c o l l e c t i o n of h i s f a t h e r ' s sermons and t a l e - t e l l i n g sessions, this book t r e a t s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , fashionable path of d e s i r i n g t o recon- s t r u c t t h e african c u l t u r a l p a s t which i s believed t o have d i e d out. while a number of a u t h o r i t i e s i n african f o l k l o r e ( o r s t u d i e s ) would have ins b e l i e v e t h a t o r a l t r a d i t i o n s i n africa a r e a l i v i n g r e a l i t y , mr, ugmeasiegbu emphasizes: l l p r a c t i c a l l y all t h e customs d e t a i l e d i n t h i s book a r e now o b s o l e t e and a r e nowhere t o be found amongst t h e ibo today, they have been put down here f o r record purposes." this book i s divided i n t o two p a r t s : . customs and . folklore, the customs include b i r t h of children, b i r t h of twins, t e e t h i n g of c h i l - dren, circumcision, marriage, hunting, naming babies, divorce, fune- rals, worshipping i d o l s , oaths, greetings, f e s t i v a l s , games, bmking kolanut and h o s p i t a l i t y . the author gives synopses of t h e various journal of medical genetics , , - non-random association between alleles detected at d s and d s and the huntington's disease gene j theilmann*, s kanani*, r shiangt, c robbins*, quarrell*, m huggins*, a hedrick*, b weber*, c collins*, j j wasmutht, k h buetow§, j c murrayt, and m r hayden* from *the department of medical genetics, university of british columbia, vancouver, canada v t b ; tdepartment of pediatrics, university of iowa; *department of biological chemistry, university of california, irvine; and §division of population science, fox chase cancer centre, philadelphia, usa. summary analysis of many families with linked dna markers has provided support for the huntington's disease (hd) gene being close to the telomere on the short arm of chromosome . however, analysis of recombination events in particular families has provided conflicting results about the precise location of the hd gene relative to these closely linked dna markers. here we report an investigation of linkage disequilibrium between six dna markers and the hd gene in separate families of varied ancestry. we show significant non-random association between alleles detected at d s and d s and the mutant gene. these data suggest that it may be pos- sible to construct high and low risk haplotypes, which may be helpful in dna analysis and genetic counselling for hd, and represent independent evidence that the gene for hd is centro- meric to more distally located dna markers such as d s . this information may be helpful in defining a strategy to clone the gene for hd based on its location in the human genome. directed attempts to clone the gene for hunting- ton's disease (hd) depend on an accurate know- ledge of its location in the human genome. over the last few years different dna markers closely linked to the hd gene have been identified. - analysis of many hd families with these markers has provided evidence that the gene causing hd lies close to the telomere of the short arm of chromosome . cur- rently, attempts are being made to define physically the minimal genomic fragment which contains the hd gene. towards this goal and in an effort to iden- tify clearly a flanking marker for the gene, recent efforts have been directed towards cloning the telo- mere of chromosome p. analysis of families in which recombination between a closely linked dna marker and the mutant gene has occurred can be extremely helpful in determining the order of the mutant gene relative to these linked dna markers. we recently reported evidence suggesting the gene for hd was telomeric to the most distal marker d s based on an analy- sis of a recombinant in one large family. more recently, contradictory evidence has been pre- sented. macdonald et at have shown by analysis of received for publication august . accepted for publication august . recombinants in three families that the gene for hd may be flanked by the most distal markers in one family while analysis of two others favours a more telomeric location for the gene. how can these apparent contradictions be resolved? while analysis of recombination events in selected families is useful in providing evidence in favour of a certain locus order, such studies may also be misinterpreted. one source of error in such analyses may include misdiagnosis of the disease in a crucial family member. in addition, the simplest interpretation of the data is to assume a single recombination event. however, in the absence of a clearly defined distal marker, double recombination events cannot be excluded. this may be particularly relevant as one uses dna markers close to the telo- mere where enhanced recombination has already been postulated to occur. additional independent sources of evidence in favour of a particular locus order relative to the hd gene are needed. linkage disequilibrium shown by a non-random association between an allele at one locus with the mutant gene would provide strong evidence that two loci are physically in close proximity. here we report on the assessment of linkage disequilibrium between six dna markers [d s (p ), d s co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ non-random association between alleles detected at d s and the huntington's disease gene (g ), d s ( ), d s ( ), d s ( ), and d s ( r )] and the hd gene. we show that the gene for hd is in significant linkage disequilibrium with d s and d s . this provides independent evidence that the gene for hd is proximal to d s and distal to d s . the most distally located dna markers including d s are therefore likely to flank the. gene for hd. materials and methods families a total of unrelated families with a documented history of hd was used in the analysis. all of these families were part of the canadian predictive test- ing programme for hd. the ancestry of the families was determined during interviews with appropriate family members and is presented in table . for con- trols the alleles in unrelated family members and the alleles segregating with the non-hd chromo- some in affected persons were used. in all instances, the ancestry of the family members was assumed to be similar to that of the affected persons. haplo- types for hd and marker restriction fragment length polymorphisms (rflps) were constructed using family studies where phase with hd was un- equivocal. dna analysis a total of persons, affected and table ancestries of affected persons in separate families with hd. no united kingdom england ireland scotland wales british (exact ancestry unknown) total non-united kingdom egypt french canadian germany holland pennsylvania dutch hungary indian (asian) metis (north american indian) italy mennonite dutch mennonite russian norway romania russia sweden grand total ancestry unknown gcrand total unaffected, from these families was included in this analysis. dna was extracted from leucocytes of each person and digested with restriction enzymes hincii, ecori, bgli, hindiii, acci, taqi, mboi, ssti, and mspi. electrophoresis, transfer, and hybridisation conditions were performed as des- cribed previously. - ten polymorphisms detected by six dna probes d s , d sjo, d s , d s , d s , and d s were examined. a hincii poly- morphism was detected by d s , ecori, bgli, and hindiii polymorphisms recognised by d s , acci, taqi, and mboi polymorhisms by d s , a ssti polymorphism by d s , and an mspi poly- morphism by d s . two polymorphisms are detected by acci. the acci polymorphism assessed in this analysis was the result of a single site varia- tion and resulted in fragments of - and/or - kb. d s was isolated from the same cosmid as recognised by d s . a frequent hindiii poly- morphism was used in this analysis. the order of these dna markers has been pre- viously established as d s -d sio-d s -d s - d s -d s -telomere. a diagramatic map with approximate genetic distances between these dna markers is shown in fig . by convention, for single site variation polymorphisms, the larger band is termed a and the smaller band b (fig ). statistical analysis non-random association was evaluated by x analy- sis of allelic counts for locus pairs. significant asso- ciation for biallelic pairs was determined by fisher's exact probability test (one tailed). the linkage dise- quilibrium metric, r, was used to measure the mag- nitude of non-random association where r=(g-plp ) (pjq p q )½ and pj and qj are the frequencies of the alternative alleles at site j, and g is the observed frequency of the p p haplotype. results the non-hd chromosome allelic frequencies for the polymorphisms assessed are in general agreement with past studiesl and are shown in table . the frequencies of the alleles for the hd chromosomes are similar to their unrelated family member centromere p ololo>>oy v .. telomere ± cm + cm + cm + cm fig a diagramatic map showing approximate genetic distances between dna markers used in this study. (based on data presented in references , , , and ). co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ j theilmann et al table allele frequencies and percentages for rflps on hd and non-hd chromosomes. hd chromosomes non-hd chromosomes r p value no % no % d s (p ) a - - - ns (hincii) b - - c - - d - total - - d s (g ) a - - - - ns (ecori) b - - total - - d s (g ) a - - - - ns (bgll) b - total - - d s (g ) a - - ns (hindiii) b c - - d - total - ( -( d s ( ) a - - - - - (taqi) b - - total . d s s ( ) a - - - - (acci) b - - total - - d s ( ) a - - - - (mboi) b - - total - - d s ( ) a - - - - (ssti) b - total . - d s ( ) a - - - ) ns (mspi) b - - total d ( r ) a - ns (hindiii) b . - total - . ns=not significant at p_ - . table acci and mboi alleles of hd and non-hd chromosomes by ancestry. acci: united kingdom english irish scottish british total alieles hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd r p a - - b acci: non-united kingdom french canadian german other total alleles hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd r p a - - b mboi: united kingdom english irish scottish british total alleles hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd r p a . - b mboi: non-united kingdom french canadian german other total alleles hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd hd non-hd r p a . b co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ non-random association between alleles detected at d s and the huntington's disease gene acci '- m ma vtlrl -si :vbo . om sw i' "i$"r- * ab ab aa - _ -- bb ab ab ab aa fig the polymorphisms of acci and mboi detected by d s . a refers to the larger fragment ( & , - kb) while b pertains to the smaller fragments ( , - kb). table acci and mboi haplotype frequencies in persons affected with hd and their relatives. hd non-hd r p chromosome chromosome no % no % a (acci) a (mbol) - ab ba bb total controls for the polymorphisms detected by d s , d sjo, d s , and d s . however, two of the three rflps (acci and mboi) (fig ) detected by d s show statistically significant differences (p= and p= - , respectively) in allelic fre- quencies between hd chromosomes and controls. the third rflp (taqi) detected by d s shows no allelic frequency difference between hd and non- hd chromosomes (p= ). the polymorphism detected by d s is also in linkage disequilibrium with hd (p= ). the families in this study represent many different ancestries (table ). a significant difference for acci (p= - ) and mboi alleles (p= - ) on hd and non-hd chromosomes was seen in families emanat- ing from the united kingdom. however, for the smaller number of families outside the uk the trend in allele frequencies was similar but was not statisti- cally different (table ). as noted previously, the single site variation polymorphism detected by acci is in strong linkage disequilibrium with mboi. for these two rflps the a alleles cosegregate as do the b alleles. thirty-nine of hd chromosomes have an aa haplotype and have a bb haplotype. no ab or ba haplotypes were detected in this group (table ). it was possible to determine the phase of the acci and mboi polymorphism segregating with hd in and of families assessed respectively (table ). there were significant differences in the haplotype fre- quencies between hd and non-hd chromosomes (p= - ) (table ) and the families from the uk when analysed as a sepa-rate group (p= ) (table ). table acci and mboi haplotypes of hd and non-hd united kingdom haplotypes aa ab ba bb total english hd non-hd non-united kingdom french canadian haplotypes hd non-hd aa ab ba bb total ancestry unknown haplotypes hd aa ab ba bb i total % non-hd irish hd non-hd german hd non-hd scottish hd non-hd other hd non-hd chromosomes by ancestry. british hd non-hd total hd % non-hd total hd % non-hd % r - r p . - b r p - - p - co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ j theilmann et al however, there is a similar trend but no signifi- cant difference in the haplotype distributions of hd and non-hd chromosomes for the families from outside the united kingdom (p= ) and for fami- lies with unknown ancestry (p= o ) (table ). discussion the major finding of this study is the non-random association between alleles for acci and mboi detected by d s , ssti alleles for d s , and the mutant gene for hd. linkage disequilibrium was detected with mboi and acci and not with taqi with d s . possible explanations for this include the presence of a recombinational hot spot between the sites for taqi on the one hand and mboi and acci polymorphisms on the other. alternatively it has already been shown that the recognition site for taqi itself may act as a mutational hot spot' with the taqi poly- morphism arising independently on several occa- sions. finally it is possible that there are multiple origins of the hd gene on identical acci and mboi haplotypes but different taqi backgrounds. in all these instances linkage disequilibrium would not be apparent with taqi. the families in this study are of many different ancestries with the majority being of british descent ( / ). the other families include at least dif- ferent ancestries. the allele frequencies of acci and mboi show significant differences between hd and non-hd chromosomes for the whole group and for families from the united kingdom. a similar trend, but which with smaller numbers does not show sta- tistical significance, was seen with the non-uk fami- lies. it is particularly noteworthy that the haplotype distributions do not significantly differ between uk and non-uk families. hd is a disease with an extremely low mutation rate. the frequency of the disease in persons of caucasian descent varies between and / , while there is a particularly low prevalence in per- sons of black and japanese descent.' these find- ings, together with accumulating genealogical evi- dence which traced families in australia, south africa,' and north america ' to europe, impli- cates north western europe as the major source of the gene and suggests that there may have been only a few separate mutations underlying the frequency of hd in the world. the finding of similar haplotype distributions in both british families and other families of many different ancestries is sugges- tive evidence against many different mutations underlying hd. on the contrary this would suggest that there may be only a few hd mutations which have spread around the world during particular waves of immigration. these findings, however, must be viewed as preliminary and do not exclude the possibility that multiple mutations may have occurred by chance on the same chromosomal back- ground. clearly, additional investigations in certain ethnic groups are needed to determine whether the same non-random association is found. the failure to find the same non-random association in other studies may occur because of separate origins for the hd gene in different ancestries, or may reflect recom- bination early in history in a particular country between markers around the hd gene. however, if additional studies confirm and strengthen these initial findings, and continue to show particular linkage disequilibrium in certain ancestries, this would open the way to using linkage disequilibrium in dna analysis and genetic counselling for hd in certain situations. it may be possible to calculate high and low risk haplotypes. over % of persons requesting predictive testing for hd are able to receive a significant change in risk. ' our major limitation in performing dna analysis for such persons is the unavailability of dna from crucial family members, which excludes up to % of persons from receiving a modification of risk. the ability to detect heterozygosity in an affected person is not now a problem if multiple highly polymorphic markers are used. ' linkage dis- equilibrium data, if confirmed, may significantly reduce the need for dna from numerous relatives and may allow predictive testing to be performed even in the absence of dna from an affected person in certain instances. such linkage disequilibrium data are now frequently used for risk calculation in some cystic fibrosis families where it has improved estimates of risk. these hd haplotype studies are similar to investi- gations in cystic fibrosis in that for both diseases the mutant gene is not cloned. in both instances linkage disequilibrium data can be used to provide clues as to the location of the mutant gene. in this study, non-random association was not seen with four other polymorphic dna markers including d s , d s , d s , and d s . in particular no evidence for linkage disequilibrium was seen using distal markers d s and d s . the absence of disequilibrium does not necessarily imply that it does not exist but rather that it was not detected. the sample sizes in this study are small compared with those that are absolutely necessary for a definite statement that disequilibrium does not exist. nevertheless some conclusions based on the data presented can be made. in particular, these findings suggest that the gene for hd may be more proxi- co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ non-random associationi between alleles detected at d s and the huntington's disease gene mally located than we, and others, have previously reported and may be centromeric to some of the more distally located dna markers such as d s or d s . a reasonable explanation for the appa- rent contradictory results concerning the location of the hd gene is that double recombination has occurred. currently, in the absence of a polymor- phic sequence adjacent to the telomere, this hypoth- esis remains untested. nevertheless these findings suggest that directed cloning strategies to identify the gene for hd should not be concentrated only on the most distal region close to the telomere on chro- mosome . we wish to thank drs j gusella, m singer, r snell, d shaw, and s youngman for gifts of the probes. we wish to thank the following people for their cooperation with this study; ms m klimek, dr suchowersky, calgary; dr s grover, dr s bam- forth, edmonton; mr b lynch, dr m shokeir, sas- katoon; ms l thompson, dr c greenberg, winni- peg; dr h soltan, london; ms d eisenberg, hamil- ton; ms s bobkin-raz, north york; mr m cook, dr a hunter, ottawa; ms j fleming, dr p macleod, dr p bridges, kingston; dr p welch, ms a fuller, halifax; dr e ives, st john's, canada. this study has been supported by grants from the mrc (ma ) (mrh), the national health research development program, a western cana- dian private foundation, and nih grants gm (jcm, khb) and gm (rs). oliver quarrell is supported by the royal society (uk) and nserc. bernhard weber is supported by a fellowship from the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft (we / - ) and colin collins is a predoctoral scholar of the huntington society of canada. references lgusella jf, wexler ns, conneally pm, et al. a polymorphic dna marker genetically linked to huntington disease. nature ; : - . hayden mr, hewitt j, wasmuth jj, et al. a polymorphic dna marker that represents a conserved expressed sequence in the region of the huntington's disease genie. amii j hum genet ; : - . wasmuth jj. hewitt j, smith b. et al. a highly polymorphic locus very tightly linked to the huntington's disease gene. nature : : - . youngman s, shaw dj, gusella jf. et al. a dna probe (d s ) mapping to human chromosome p - . nucleic acids res ; : . gilliam cg. tanzi re, haines jl. et al. localization of the huntington's disease gene to a small segment of chromosome flanked by d slo and the telomere. cell : : - . whaley wh, michiels f, macdonald me, et al. mapping of d s /s /s confines the huntington's defect to a reduced physical region at the telomere of chromosome . nucleic acids res ; : - . bates g, baxendale s, sedlacek z, et al. a telomere clone likely to contain the mutant form of the huntington's disease locus. human gene mapping , , a . cytogenet cell genet (in press). robbins c, theilmann j, youngman s, et al. evidence from family studies that the gene causing huntington disease is telomeric to d s and d s . am j hum genet ; : - . macdonald me, haines jl, zimmer m, et al. recombination events suggest potential sites for the huntington's disease gene. neuron (in press). nakamura y, lathrop m, o'connell p, et al. frequent recom- bination is observed in the distal end of the long arm of chromo- some . genomics ; : - . southern e. detection of specific sequences among dna frag- ments separated by gel electrophoresis. j mol biol ; : - . feinberg ap, vogelstein b. a technique for labelling dna res- triction endonuclease fragments to high specific activity. anal biochem ; : - . hayden mr, kirk h. clark c, et al. dna polymorphisms in and around the apo-ai-ciii genes and genetic hyperlipidemias. am j hum genet ; : - . smith b, skarecky d, bengtsson u, magenis re, carpenter n, wasmuth jj. isolation of dna markers in the direction of the huntington disease gene from the g locus. am j hum genet ; : - . snell rg, youngman s. lehrach h, sarfarazi m, harper ps, shaw dj. a new probe ( r ) in the region of huntington's disease. human gene mapping , , a . cytogenet cell genet (in press). barker d, schafer m, white r. restriction sites containing cpt show a higher frequency of polymorphism in human dna. cell ; : - . hayden mr. huntington's chorea. new york, berlin: springer verlag, . brothers cr. huntington's chorea in victoria and tasmania. j neurol sci ; : - . hayden mr, hopkins hc, macrae m, beighton p. the origins of huntington's chorea in the afrikaner population of south africa. s afr med j ; : - . barbeau a. fulham g. origin and migration of huntington's chorea in canada. preliminary report. can med assoc j : : - . '' hayden mr. robbins c, allard d, et al. improved predictive testing for huntington disease using three linked dna markers. am j hum genet ; : - . beaudet al, feldman gl, fernbach sd, buffone gj, o'brien we. linkage disequilibrium, cystic fibrosis and genetic coun- selling. am j hum genet ; : - . murray jc, buetow kh, donovan m, et al. linkage disequilib- rium of plasminogen polymorphisms and assignment of the gene to human chromosome q - q . am j hum genet : : - . correspondence to dr michael r hayden, department of medical genetics, f university hospital, wesbrook mall, vancouver, bc v t b , canada. co p yrig h t. o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm g . . . o n n o ve m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ conflict resolution among peaceful societies: the culture of peacefulness conflict resolution among peaceful societies: the culture of peacefulness author(s): bruce d. bonta source: journal of peace research, vol. , no. (nov., ), pp. - published by: sage publications, ltd. stable url: http://www.jstor.org/stable/ . accessed: / / : your use of the jstor archive indicates your acceptance of the terms & conditions of use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . jstor is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. we use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. for more information about jstor, please contact support@jstor.org. . sage publications, ltd. is collaborating with jstor to digitize, preserve and extend access to journal of peace research. http://www.jstor.org this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/action/showpublisher?publishercode=sageltd http://www.jstor.org/stable/ ?origin=jstor-pdf http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp ? journal of peace research, vol. , no. , , pp. - conflict resolution among peaceful societies: the culture of peacefulness bruce d. bonta general reference section, pennsylvania state university libraries the literature about peaceful peoples was examined to determine if their ways of conflict resolution differ from the approaches to conflict found in other, more violent, societies. while the strategies for managing con- flicts employed by these peoples are comparable to those used in many other small-scale societies, their world- views of peacefulness and the structures they use to reinforce those world-views do distinguish them from other societies. several common notions about conflict and conflict resolution that are asserted by western scholars can be questioned in light of the success of these societies in peacefully resolving conflicts: namely, that violent con- flict is inevitable in all societies; that punishment and armed force prevent internal and external violence; that political structures are necessary to prevent conflicts; and that conflict should be viewed as positive and necess- ary. the contrary evidence is that over half of the peaceful societies have no recorded violence; they rarely punish other adults (except for the threat of ostracism); they handle conflicts with outside societies in the same peaceful ways that they approach internal conflicts; they do not look to outside governments when they have internal dis- putes; and they have a highly negative view of conflict. . introduction and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. from 'the lord's prayer' nyam, the articulate son of a former headman, had been accused of planting durian trees on lands that traditionally belonged to others. in recent years the semai, peaceful aboriginal people who live in the rugged mountains of the malay peninsula, have been harvesting durian fruit and packing it out to the road which comes up from the lowlands, so they can sell it and buy the consumer goods that have become essential to them - tobacco, machetes, radios, and so forth. planting trees on other properties threat- ened and angered nyam's neighbors, some of whom belonged to different families. tensions were mounting. tidn, the headman of the village affected by nyam's actions, recognized the potential for conflict so he convened a becharaa', a proceed- ing which the villagers use to try to resolve dis- putes. nyam and his relatives were invited to attend to discuss and settle the matter. since his land also had been invaded by nyam, tidn was a party to the dispute; he invited entoy, head- man from a nearby valley, to preside over the becharaa'. nyam arrived near dusk at the semai village. conversation was casual, as everyone was well acquainted and was generally familiar with the nature of the conflict. nyam, a picture of studied indifference, talked animatedly with various people. after a while, the villagers gathered in a circle and the formal discussions began with preliminary speeches about the im- portance of settling the dispute before it got out of hand. each of the parties to the conflict gave his version of events, justifying his actions in an unemotional manner. nyam denied some of his trespasses and sought to rationalize others. speakers advanced their points of view, but no one acted as witnesses except for the principals in the case; there was no direct confrontation or cross-examination. the speeches went on and on, with people frequently talking past one another and not answering the comments of others. when no one had anything more to say - points had been emphasized and re-emphasized until all were exhausted from the proceedings - the becharaa' was ready to be concluded. it was obvious to everyone that nyam's actions were wrong, but the consensus was that he could keep and use the trees that he had already planted, though he must plant no more. entoy could have levied a small fine on nyam but everyone felt it was more important for the group to keep its harmony than to treat the guilty party too roughly. entoy lectured the assembled people on the importance of their tradition of unity, this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta peacefulness, sharing food, and not fighting. he made it clear to all that the matter had been completely settled and that no one was allowed to bring it up again (robarchek, , , ). contrast that scene reported in the anthropol- ogy literature with a comparable one from the legal proceedings of pennsylvania. for two years charles peterman leased acres of farm land in columbia county, pennsylvania, but a crop of winter wheat which he planted the sec- ond fall could not be harvested before the lease expired the following april. late the next spring, peterman tried to harvest his grain any- way, despite being warned away by the agent of the owner; when he continued to enter the land, the agent had him arrested. the matter soon reached the court of quarter sessions in the county seat of bloomsburg, where peterman was found guilty of criminal trespass. he ap- pealed his conviction to the superior court of pennsylvania, which reversed the ruling of the lower court (commonwealth v. peterman, ). the ways that conflicts are handled in pennsylvania courthouses differ significantly from the approaches the semai take with their becharaas', though the latter may have a super- ficial resemblance to american trials: the semai are most concerned with resolving con- flicts peacefully, while americans are primarily focused on fulfilling justice. everyone in the semai village knows the parties to a conflict and are already familiar with the facts; if a case in pennsylvania goes to a formal jury trial, the ju- rors must have no previous knowledge of the parties or the case. the parties to a conflict in the us usually hire attorneys to present their ar- guments aggressively; the semai present their own positions without confrontation or aggres- siveness. near the conclusion of the proceed- ings, the pennsylvania judge explains the legal issues to the jury and tells them that their role is to decide the truth of what happened; the semai headman lectures the whole village on the over- riding importance of the peaceful resolution of the conflict. punishment is the normal conclu- sion of the us trial; it is relatively unimportant to the semai. and finally, at the end of the becharaa', the semai headman prohibits any further consideration of the case, since it has been thoroughly resolved; the pennsylvania cit- izen is free to appeal his conviction, as peterman did. the important point in the us courtroom is winning; the major issue for the semai is resolving the conflict, removing the emotions from the parties to the dispute, and reaffirming correct, peaceful behavior. the lives of their children and grandchildren depend on it, they believe (robarchek, , , ). while these brief, simplified sketches repre- sent only a couple of the many ways that societies resolve disputes, they do illustrate fun- damental differences in perceptions of conflicts, resolution of disputes, and tolerance for viol- ence. the semai are among more than so- cieties that have evolved highly peaceful lifestyles, that rarely if ever resort to violence; us citizens are among the thousands of soci- eties that do use violence, if need be, to settle their differences. the processes of settling dis- putes in the usa, such as the jury trial, are based on assumptions about conflict that differ from those of the peaceful societies. the goal of this article is to explore those differences. the basic issue is to gain an understanding of why dozens of peaceful peoples are able to resolve conflicts nonviolently virtually all the time, while the rest of the world is not so successful. as the examination of conflict resolution in these small-scale societies proceeds, one funda- mental fact emerges: the peacefulness of their conflict resolution is based, primarily, on their world-views of peacefulness - a complete rejec- tion of violence. that argument may appear to be circular, but a careful look at conflict resol- ution in those societies seems to support it. in contrast, the western world-view boils down to an acceptance of the inevitability of conflict and violence. peace and conflict studies, for western scholars, is frequently a process of understanding the reasons for conflict, and the study of conflict resolution often focuses on strategies for preventing and resolving dis- putes. some of the major facets of western be- liefs that will form a framework for this essay include the following concepts: ( ) all societies have violent conflict and warfare (boulding, ; deutsch, ; knauft, ); ( ) pun- ishment deters internal conflicts and violence (greenawalt, ); ( ) the threat of armed force helps prevent external conflicts and viol- ence (brown, ; ceadel, ); ( ) conflict is best managed through reliance on political this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies structures such as governments (boulding, , p. ); and ( ) conflict has many positive functions, and as long as it is managed properly it should be viewed as normal, reasonable, beneficial and helpful (augsburger, ; deutsch, ), or at least neither desirable nor undesirable (nader, ; ross, b). the purpose of this investigation is therefore to examine conflict and conflict resolution among the peaceful societies and to compare them with the corresponding western beliefs. since much of the literature of conflict resol- ution is based on the experiences of the thou- sands of relatively violent societies, a balance is needed from the perspective of peaceful peo- ples. in this paper i attempt to show that conflict resolution in peaceful societies is founded on overarching world-views that conflicts are the exception, not the norm, and that they are neither reasonable nor desirable. conflicts, to these peoples, must be avoided as much as poss- ible, resolved as quickly as possible, and har- mony restored as soon as possible in order for people to live peacefully with one another and with outsiders. in order to achieve nonviolent conflict resolution in practice, individuals and groups of people should rely on themselves to settle disputes within their groups as well as conflicts with other peoples; furthermore, they should use resolution strategies that dissipate tensions as well as settle the issues. this resol- ution should be achieved as much as possible without the threat of punishment (other than os- tracism). before getting to the information about peaceful societies and the reasons they provide a challenge to western thinking about conflict resolution, it is necessary to pause a moment, define terms, and introduce some basic under- standings. . background and definitions peacefulness is a condition of human society characterized by a relatively high degree of in- terpersonal harmony; little if any physical viol- ence among adults, between children and adults, and between the sexes; workable strategies for resolving conflicts and averting violence; a commitment to avoiding violence (such as warfare) with other peoples; and strategies for raising children to adopt and continue these nonviolent ways. a people or a society (those terms are used in- terchangeably, for variety) is a group of human beings who share a common ancestry for the most part, who share common beliefs and cul- tural value systems, and who primarily live in the same area. the peoples.: evidence demonstrates that a modest number of societies have developed highly, and in some cases totally, nonviolent social systems. several writers have provided different, but overlapping, lists of these peace- ful, peaceable, nonviolent, or low-conflict soci- eties (e.g. bonta, ; fabbro, ; howell & willis, a; montagu, ; ross, a; sponsel & gregor, ). the peoples included in this paper are based on the peace- ful societies included in bonta ( ); these were selected because there is at least some information about their styles of conflict resol- ution in the literature. most of the societies dis- cussed here are far from being utopias: many of them are plagued by the same jealousies, gossip, resentments, and backbiting as the rest of hu- manity (see robarchek, , p. ). some have social and cultural practices that would repel outsiders; they vary greatly from one to the next. the common denominator among all of them is that they are able to resolve their con- flicts peacefully, and that they fit the definition of peacefulness as given above. some are pri- marily hunting and gathering peoples; others rely mostly on shifting cultivation (swidden agriculture); others are settled farmers and are very much a part of the modern, world-wide trading society. these societies are listed in the appendix, with a brief paragraph describing each one. conflict is variously defined by scholars. some think of it in economic terms, such as 'a phenomenon that necessarily implies scarcity' (padilla, , p. ), or as an 'incompatibility between the preferences or goals of two or more parties' (schmidt, , p. ), or as the exist- ence of incompatible activities (deutsch, , p. ). these definitions do not go far enough, so conflict is defined here as: the incompatible needs, differing demands, contradictory wishes, opposing beliefs, or diverging interests which produce interpersonal antagonism and, at times, hostile encounters. conflict situations thus range from antagonist behavior to verbal abuse to physical violence to, ultimately, killing. this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta conflict resolution among peaceful peoples is the settlement or avoidance of disputes between individuals or groups of people through sol- utions that refrain from violence and that at- tempt to reunify and re-harmonize the people involved in internal conflicts, or that attempt to preserve amicable relations with external societies. basic understandings: a few basic under- standings must be introduced before proceeding any farther. first of all, while the peaceful societies are quite different from one another, they can be grouped together for this analysis because they do share at least one major charac- teristic: they rarely, if ever, have violent con- flicts. also, comparing conflict management in widely differing cultures is risky, though ross ( a) is confident that the shared features of conflict resolution in different cultures can be analyzed successfully. and while conflict resol- ution is commonly practiced by almost all soci- eties (sponsel, ), the unifying feature of nonviolence among the small group of peaceful peoples makes the study of their strategies and attitudes toward peace particularly worthwhile. another caveat: this work is not based on statis- tical research about cross-cultural peacefulness. social scientists doing research on conflict (e.g., ember & ember, ; ross, b) often use statistically valid samples of cultures, such as from the human relations area files, but this essay does not follow that approach. it is based, instead, on a careful examination of the litera- ture about all of these societies: a sampling would not have served the purposes of the in- vestigation. . strategies of conflict resolution the peaceful societies use a variety of strat- egies to try to prevent, control, manage, and re- solve the conflicts that do come up, such as the semai becharaa' that was mentioned at the opening of this paper. an examination of these various strategies provides an overview of the common processes used by these peoples to re- solve conflicts, and helps set the stage for the discussion that follows. unfortunately, there is no standard listing of conflict-resolution strat- egies, which have been described in many ways (e.g., takie sugiyama lebra, as described by augsburger, , pp. - ; boulding, ; lederach, ; le vine, ; ross, a and scimecca, ). since a commonly- agreed upon list of strategies is not available, it seemed best to look directly at the literature on the peaceful peoples and see what common strategies are suggested there. the following six are suggested by the literature. . self-restraint the literature explicitly describes the ways that the ifaluk (lutz, ), tahitians (levy, ), paliyan (gardner, , , ), and toraja (hollan, ) use variations of self-re- straint as a means of moving away from conflict situations once they arise. (their approach is doubtless followed by other peaceful societies, such as the amish, mennonites, and hutterites, though the literature about those peoples is not as explicit on the subject.) these peoples feel that heightened emotional states lead quickly to further trouble, so they actively try to dissipate their emotions whenever a conflict seems poss- ible. a first-stage approach for a toraja individ- ual experiencing heated emotion is to remind himself or herself that any open expression of the feeling might be dangerous: the expression of such feelings would be ridiculed, might lead to hostile supernatural actions, and would open oneself to serious illness (hollan, ). . negotiation negotiation is often considered in a positive light by western writers (rubin, ), particu- larly when it is broadly defined as the interac- tion between parties to a dispute who work toward an agreement without the intervention of third parties who might make compulsory de- cisions (gulliver, , p. ). but the literature on the peaceful societies, other than the montagnais-naskapi (lips, ), semai (robarchek, ) and amish (cong, ), has little to say about direct negotiations by dis- putants. people in many of these societies do not want to confront one another directly, and they prefer indirection rather than assertion, infer- ence rather than confrontation. the parties to a conflict are encouraged to settle their problems on an internal level, through self-restraint, but not necessarily through the confrontational tac- tics of direct negotiation. other techniques are more effective. this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies . separation at least ten of the peaceful societies separate in order to avoid conflicts (which is equivalent to resolving them). clearly, walking away from a dispute is one of the most favored ways of re- solving conflicts among these peoples. among the malapandaram (morris, , ), paliyan (gardner, , , ), birhor (sinha, ), buid (gibson, , , ), and !kung (draper, ; lee, ), in- dividuals, including spouses, separate when a quarrel cannot be easily resolved, and whole communities will split apart to avoid conflicts. the literature about these peoples is filled with examples of individuals or whole communities moving away from an area, in some cases quite abruptly, because they faced conflicts. among the toraga (hollan, ) and balinese (howe, ), separations to avoid conflicts appear from the literature to be somewhat less perma- nent than among the other five peoples men- tioned above. the historical literature about some of the western peaceful peoples - the amish, hutterites, and mennonites - makes it clear that they moved away from domination and conflict by stronger societies numerous times. while they would doubtless not abandon their communities and flee on a moment's no- tice because of a minor conflict, there is no question that they might well move again if faced with an unresolvable conflict with the larger society. . intervention western writers on conflict resolution concen- trate heavily on the importance of third-party in- tervention in disputes (keashly et al., ; augsburger, ; fisher & keashly, ). among peaceful peoples, intervention by others is an effective technique for resolving conflicts. in several of these societies, such as the ifaluk (lutz, ), !kung (lee, ), mala- pandaram (morris, , ), nubians (femea, , ), toraja (hollan, ), zapotec (paddock, ), montagnais-naskapi (lips, ), paliyan (gardner, ), and yanadi (raghaviah, ) the ethic of avoiding conflicts is so strong that it is incumbent on by- standers to become involved in virtually any cir- cumstances where controversies threaten to be- come serious or where a conflict situation seems to be developing. among some peoples, certain individuals are noted as being particularly skilled at helping defuse conflicts, but in others the literature indicates that any bystander will step in to mediate. the common thread of these mediators is their desire to get a dialogue going - and keep the potential contestants talking until the tensions are defused. . meetings humor and meetings, such as the semai becharaa' mentioned earlier, are specific tech- niques used by third parties, but they deserve to be mentioned separately because they are fre- quently used by several peaceful societies. as with the other strategies, the purpose of the meeting is to lessen tensions more than it is to confront or decide, though those elements may also be present. these meetings provide forums for the airing of hostilities: frequently the simple discussion of grievances is enough to defuse problems. the meetings also serve to contain conflicts before they can disrupt society, either by minimizing issues as private rather than public concerns, or by restricting involve- ment in order to allow informal mechanisms of social control to operate. meetings are used heavily, as a major part of the strategy for re- solving conflicts, by the birhor (sinha, ), buid (gibson, , ), ladakhis (norberg- hodge, ), zapotec (o'nell, , and nubians (femea, ; callender, ). . humor humor is undoubtedly a useful strategy for re- ducing tensions and resolving conflicts in many societies, but it has been mentioned only a few times in the literature of peaceful peoples. the !kung (marshall, ) try hard to maintain a joking atmosphere in their camps, frequently pointing out one another's faults in a facetious manner to resolve their tensions. when a leader in a paliyan community becomes involved in helping to resolve a conflict, he will often use joking or soothing to defuse the situation (gardner, ). if a tristan islander ever lost his temper in a quarrel he would have that scar on his reputation for life; people who defuse tense situations with jokes gain general respect (munch, ). the inuit joke to avoid and defuse conflicts; joking also allows them to con- front problems with enough ambiguity that this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta grievances can be aired without fear of provok- ing others (briggs, ). in the past, the inuit had song duels to resolve conflicts in a humor- ous fashion before they became serious enough to provoke violence, and to laugh off animosi- ties and return to friendship, or at least restraint (eckert & newmark, ). these strategies seem to dissipate tensions and resolve issues effectively when conflicts do arise in the peaceful societies. in some societies authority figures make judgments while in others the people decide by consensus, but the overall effect is the same - healing, continuation of the community, or separation. furthermore, the traditional forms that those strategies take among these peoples appear to be important fac- tors in their success. that is, peoples are con- scious of their own traditional ways of handling problems and seem able to keep the peace in part through the force of their traditions. for these peoples, the ways they resolve disputes are logical and effective - and they seem to work. when the traditional ways are not used, conflicts can result. for instance, the failure of a group of buid to follow their traditional meet- ing-style of conflict resolution (called a tul- tulan) on one occasion resulted in tragedy (gibson, ). . conflict is a normal aspect of all societies some scholars have maintained that conflict and violence is the normal condition of small-scale societies, which typically rely on a superior state authority to prevent warfare (ferguson, , pp. - ). others argue that all societies have to contend with violence (knauft, , ). the literature on the peaceful peoples flatly contradicts these assertions. while viol- ence exists in very modest amounts in some of these societies, in others it appears to be rare or completely absent. there are a few basic differences in strategies for resolving conflicts among these societies. some of the ones that experience occasional vi- olence use moderately aggressive techniques for resolving disputes, such as stylized rhetorical speaking referred to as 'talking' by some an- thropologists. when the !kung are discussing a contentious issue and their emotions begin to rise, they may pour out their thoughts at a very rapid rate - a sudden, spontaneous discussion by the various people involved with the issue (marshall, ; lee, ). when the g/wi have a conflict that is threatening to escalate, one party to the problem will talk out the diffi- culty to a third person within the hearing of the whole band, and the other party may answer to a fourth, again so everyone will hear (silberbauer, ). when the temair become too angry for mediation to work, instead of a face-to-face confrontation the angry people may conduct night time harangues so everyone in the longhouse can hear without specifically naming individuals (roseman, ). these practices allow everyone to be a party to the dispute, to get feelings about an issue into the open without provoking direct confrontations, and to settle the contentious issues. they also save face for all participants, a universal need according to some (augsberger, ). on the other hand, many of the societies that almost never experience any violence tend to be meek and to have world-views that advocate meekness. for instance, the highly peaceful chewong, ifaluk, paliyan, and semai generally describe themselves as fearful people; the batek, chewong, paliyan, and semai flee from violence; and the amish, hutterites, chewong, semai, tristan islanders, and yanadi are no- table for their belief in nonresistance (not resisting aggression by the state or other indi- viduals). but, while the most highly peaceful peoples are strongly characterized by a general fearfulness, passiveness, meekness, flight from conflict, and a belief in nonresistance, the soci- eties which appear to take a more active role in promoting peacefulness do have patterns of oc- casional violence. there are elements of aggres- siveness in these peoples - perhaps it could be described as an aggressive pursuit of non- violence in resolving conflicts. . punishment deters conflict and violence western peoples believe that punishment is necessary to deter crime and violent conflict. they feel it creates fear in potential offenders that they will suffer as a result of their actions, and it is a just retribution for violations of the normal moral order (greenawalt, ). it seemed reasonable to look for evidence of pun- ishment in the literature about these societies to see if it is part of their conflict resolution this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies practices. as it turns out, except for the punish- ment that parents in a few of these societies use for disciplining their children, these peoples use very little adult punishment. in fact, the absence of punishment appears to be one of the defining characteristics of a peaceful society. these peo- ples seem to rely on the strength of their other mechanisms to prevent and resolve conflicts peacefully and effectively. the threat of punish- ment is not needed, except for the practice of os- tracism, a form of punishment. ostracism is practiced by a range of societies worldwide to enforce social standards, according to gruter & masters ( , p. ), who define it in general terms as 'the general process of social rejection or exclusion'. from the perspective of the peaceful peoples, ostracism may be defined as complete banishment from the society or, per- haps less severely, as rejection by a people of an individual's participation in some or all of the group's activities. the societies that use it at all use it quite infrequently, but the possibility is al- ways there. probably the most dramatic practice of os- tracism in this body of literature is the amish strategy of shunning. if an amish person has a problem accepting one of the rules of their church, and he or she refuses to give in to the will of the group, the individual will be os- tracized by all members of the community, in- cluding the spouse, children, parents, siblings, and friends. no one may speak to the shunned person or hand food or other goods to him or her - food or other articles will be placed on a table for the shunned person to pick up (gruter, ; hostetler, ). the person may continue to live at home and try to carry on a normal life - though that is, of course, nearly impossible. the hutterites have a similar style of excommuni- cating members without expelling them from their colonies (hostetler, ). a comparable example can be found in ladakh, where again ostracism does not necess- arily mean the person is sent away from the community. if someone refuses to stop provoca- tive or offensive behavior, the lamas may cease serving the religious needs of the individual, which would be highly demoralizing to a ladakhi. no one would visit the ostracized per- son; no one would help the offender or his fam- ily in any endeavor; no one would offer food to, or accept food from, the individual; and there would be no possibilities of marriage alliances with other families. a harsh punishment such as that could only be relieved when the offender sought the pardon from the village civil and re- ligious leaders (norberg-hodge, ). ostracism in other societies usually means totally excluding offenders from the group - e.g., the nubians (fernea, ) - though in some cases it is done very gently. when a mem- ber of a g/wi band does not heed the consensus judgment of the group about a conflict, and when he ignores the barbed comments of others and does not mend his ways, the people may have to ease the offender out. this is done not by overt antagonism, but rather by subtly frus- trating the offender, by misunderstanding his wishes on purpose, by not hearing him: by, in effect, rejecting him without causing him to feel rejected or offended. the process prompts the offender to feel disgusted with his life in the band, so that he'll leave of his own accord with- out feeling a need for revenge. sometimes the offender will find another band to be more com- patible and will settle into acceptable behavior patterns. some g/wi, of course, never adapt and move about from band to band, accepted by all as individuals who have to be tolerated for a time (silberbauer, ). . armies are necessary to deter external conflict many western writers maintain that the exist- ence of armies and the threat of military force is the only thing that keeps the peace between nations. states would invade one another con- stantly in their egocentric drives to acquire more territory, goods, trade markets, resources, and security, according to this argument, if it weren't for the certainty that the invaded state would fight back (brown, ; ceadel, ). this kind of argument is also extended to peace- ful societies, which, it is argued, exist only in re- lation to, and through the sufferance of, more aggressive neighboring societies. these peace- ful peoples must have relatively peaceful neigh- bors, live where they are relatively isolated from attack, live where flight from attack is a reason- able option, or be much stronger than potential attackers so that others wouldn't dare try an at- tack (argument and literature summarized by ross, a, pp. - ). some of the peaceful societies under this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta consideration here follow this generalization, at least superficially. the problem with the idea is that it views the relationship of the nonviolent society and the aggressive society only from the perspective of the latter: the peaceful society must be isolated from the strong society or it can't exist; it must be able to flee quickly from an attack by the neighboring violent people or it would quickly be destroyed. the literature on these peoples and their relationships with dominating societies provides insights into this issue of peaceful peoples getting along with ag- gressive peoples - and it allows the simple gen- eralizations to be challenged. some of the peaceful societies fit those stereotypes but others do not. clearly, a few of the peoples live in very isolated locations, such as the ifaluk and the tristan islanders, who inhabit, respectively, is- lands in the pacific and atlantic oceans. other societies, such as the paliyan (gardner, , ), semai (dentan, a), batek (endicott, ), malapandaram (morris, ), buid (gibson, , ), and chewong (howell, , ) solve problems with outsiders, par- ticularly with more powerful outsiders, by flee- ing from danger. at the first sign of conflict, these peoples will abandon their villages and melt back into the forest, where they may stay for weeks or even years. but it is a mistake to assume that their relationships with their more powerful neighbors or the nations that they live in can be characterized only by isolation or flight from danger. they take their nonviolence seriously - as a positive approach to human re- lationships and as the basis of their lives - and avoiding conflict is only part of their logic. conflict resolution, such as the semai becharaa', is more complex and ingenious than the simple term 'separation' would imply. the semai are highly committed to their peaceful ways, and they try hard to resolve conflicts with their more powerful neighbors, the malay people, nonviolently. they have been invaded, dominated, and enslaved by the malays for a long time (endicott, ; robarchek, , pp. - ), but they still agonize over the di- lemma of how to continue to maintain their own ethic of peacefulness in the face of this domi- nation (robarchek, , pp. - ); they do not easily accept the ethic of the aggressor (dentan, ). a number of the peaceful peoples do have frequent contacts with outsiders and have been able to maintain their peacefulness despite it. the literature on these peoples suggests that they are able to get along with larger and more aggressive societies. not all conflicts with people and government officials from outside their societies can be avoided, of course, yet they handle conflicts with outsiders in a similar fashion to their handling of internal conflicts - i.e., peacefully. for instance, the anarchistic tristan islanders historically disliked the idea of any outside in- stitutional authority in their midst, but they have always had a knack for resolving conflicts with outsiders in a highly deferential, but still quite effective, fashion. in the late s an english minister on the island tried to run the lives of the people in an imperious, dictatorial manner, which the islanders didn't care for. he estab- lished a storehouse over which he exerted absolute control, in an attempt to bend the is- landers to accepting his will. the tristan islanders never got to the point of openly con- fronting the minister, however, since they could not endure the strain of confrontation with him; they would buckle under to his will with a meek 'yes, father', out of respect for his power and high office. they accepted his orders if they couldn't avoid them, to placate him and ignored everything else that they could get away with. they felt that his antics in trying to run their lives were simply part of the fun he enjoyed being among them. besides, they realized that in a few years he would be replaced by another minister who would have different ideas (munch, ). in the early s the entire population of tristan da cunha was brought to great britain by the british government when a volcano on the island threatened to destroy the settlement. however, when the government decided to make the evacuation permanent, the islanders united for the first time in their history to ex- press their feelings. they affirmed their belief that people should not control the lives of others; they agreed on a dislike for the ag- gression and self-assertion that they witnessed in britain; and they recognized that the violence in british society was too different from their own nonviolent culture for them to tolerate. they decided to return to their island on their this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies own. faced with this determination, and with a lot of criticism in the media, the colonial office backed down and agreed to return them to tristan da cunha (munch, ). the tristan islanders succeeded in resolving the conflict with the government by confronting it in the most unobtrusive and peaceful manner they could figure out - by trying to find a way to get themselves back without the assistance of the government. the peaceful anabaptist peoples that live in north america - the mennonites, hutterites, and amish - have been persecuted for centuries but, like the tristan islanders, they have tried to settle conflicts with the larger societies in the same spirit of nonviolence that characterizes their internal relationships. for instance, during world war i draftees from these groups were punished, beaten, and tortured in us military prisons (unruh, ; juhnke, ), and civil- ians who refused to contribute money to the war effort through the purchase of war bonds were named in local newspapers, harassed, and physically abused by the local citizens (juhnke, ). as a result of these experiences, the con- troversial civilian public service program (cps) of world war ii (bush, ), and a range of other factors (toews, ), the basic beliefs of most mennonites in nonresistance have been slowly changing. from the s through the s mennonite commitment to 'nonresistance' (taken from matthew . , 'do not resist one who is evil'), has changed into a belief in 'peacemaking', the feeling that they have a responsibility to engage the broader american and canadian societies and work ac- tively for peace, rather than avoid outsiders as nonresistance had previously implied (driedger & kraybill, ; bush, ; nisly, ). the two other anabaptist peoples, the hutterites and the amish, have not developed a spirit of engaging the larger societies of the usa and canada as the mennonites have done; but they still have conflicts or the threats of con- flicts with outsiders to deal with. the hutterite colonies try to prevent conflicts from arising by fostering frequent contacts with their farming neighbors and by generous exchanges of farm produce (bennett, ). the amish have prob- lems resolving individual conflict situations with outsiders since they cannot file lawsuits against others - that would violate their belief in nonresistance. business competitors, buyers, and suppliers, knowing of that prohibition, take advantage of them by cheating and exploiting them (kraybill, ). much as they say they do not deal with the outside society, in fact the amish have devel- oped a pattern of adjustments to external con- flicts. non-amish leaders and supporters of the amish help them informally to resolve their conflicts with outsiders in positions of power and influence, sometimes through helpful advo- cacy, sometimes through finding creative sol- utions to their problems. if an amishman were taken into court, he would never contest charges and hire an attorney because of his belief in non- resistance, but an attorney friend might go along, just to sit there and make sure the courts acted fairly. the lawyer would not be paid, but the amish would give him some garden vegetables or freshly baked bread. when the pennsylvania government passed a new state requirement that all teachers had to be certified and had to meet minimum educational require- ments, which the amish teachers in their one- room schoolhouses couldn't do, the amish got around the regulation by declaring that all their teachers were substitutes, and thus exempt from the regulation. the rural amish people have little concern or interest in these pressures, counterpressures, and maneuverings - they be- lieve in nonresistance and, if necessary, mi- gration to avoid problems. even their leaders do not frame their advocacy in the terms of the out- siders: rather, they see their activity as 'working things out', being helpful in resolving issues, and liberating officials from their constant need to obey rules (kidder & hostetler, ). while their strategies are not precisely the same as those of the tristan islanders, the similarities are striking. conflicts with outsiders are thus resolved by peaceful peoples in a variety of ways, but the conclusion from these examples is that armies, killing, or other forms of violence are never part of their thinking, as they are to the rest of the world. the non-western peaceful peoples like- wise, such as the yanadi (raghaviah, ), try to resolve their conflicts with outsiders in fashions that are consistent with their overall commitments to peacefulness. the cumulative story is thus of peaceful peoples resolving con- this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta flicts with larger, more aggressive societies through meekness, active involvement, and at- tempts to resolve difficulties peacefully - in complete accord with their world-views. . conflict is best managed through political structures boulding sees conflict management as extend- ing from the family to the tribe, to the nation, to the superpower, to the evolving world govern- ment. 'conflict control is government', he writes, 'and though government has broader functions than this, conflict control is perhaps its most important single task' (boulding, , p. ). the literature about the peaceful peoples suggests that avoiding governments may also provide a viable model for peacefully resolving conflicts. in many traditional societies, people avoid calling in outside authorities and try to settle their internal conflicts themselves (just, ; nader, ). outside police are to be avoided if at all possible. the peaceful societies likewise try to keep their conflicts to themselves. the idea that an outside government or political structure is an essential part of solving their con- flicts, or would even be helpful in such situ- ations, would be alien to these peoples. they see government agencies as highly threatening and they avoid such outsiders as much as possible during conflicts, though there are some excep- tions (hollan & wellenkamp, ). for instance, a peaceful zapotec town voids having government officials involved in the af- fairs of their community since people feel that they would be treated much as any other mexican town - and they are convinced that their town is different from the rest in its oppo- sition to violence (paddock, ). likewise, nubian communities don't reveal serious prob- lems to outsiders, particularly to authorities such as the egyptian police; they feel that the best chance for their villages to survive is to be ignored by authorities (fernea, ). the amish also settle their conflicts within; an in- stance where an amish man sued his own church officials in court because he was ostra- cized (gruter, ) was exceedingly unusual. in fact, none of the peaceful peoples included in the group of , to judge by the available litera- ture, appear to rely on intervention by outside agencies of any kind, with the possible excep- tion of the mennonites, many of whom today no longer feel the strict need to remain absolutely separate from all government functions, par- ticularly in canada (driedger & kraybill, ). in the peaceful societies, conflicts are handled by the individual parties to the conflict and by the group - rarely by outsiders. individuals are expected to deal with conflict situations by walking away from them, by laughing them off, by displacing their feelings of anger in various ways, by smiling and being pleasant to every- one, by actively socializing with people with whom they may have unpleasant inner feelings, and so on. individuals should try to solve their problems internally if they can. when that doesn't work, the parties to a con- flict should resolve the issues between them- selves, or, more frequently, bring them to larger groups of people or authority figures within the society for discussion and resolution. but even group resolutions of conflicts, such as the semai becharaa', rely on the group to foster the dissi- pation of tensions so that individual, personal controls may keep the peace. none of these so- cieties rely on the power of people as a political body to enforce the peace, with the sole excep- tion of the threat of ostracism. but if the ulti- mate approach to resolving difficult conflicts for western peoples is outward, to the next larger political or governmental body, as boulding as- serts, the ultimate focus for the peaceful peoples (and many other traditional societies) is inward, towards individuals and the group. . world-view of conflict resolution 'conflict is ... inevitable in human life .... eliminating conflict is clearly impossible, and likely undesirable, because of the close link be- tween conflict and creative, constructive change' (augsburger, , pp. , ). two decades earlier, deutsch ( ) expressed simi- lar ideas, and popular writers often reflect this thinking: 'conflict is a necessary part of every marriage.... if there is no conflict... it is a sign that something is wrong with the marriage' (warren, ). other scholars (e.g., ross, b; nader, ), though not necessarily so enthusiastic about conflict as those writers, con- sider it simply a cultural behavior, and as such this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies not to be judged desirable or undesirable. these ideas reflect the predominant world-views of western societies that proclaim the ideology of love, peace, cooperation, and generosity, but ac- cept conflict, aggression, competition, and viol- ence as inevitable aspects of human nature and human societies. conflict resolution, in this view, is just a process - a strategy or series of strategies for settling disputes. such attitudes toward conflict would not be shared by peaceful peoples. while many of them would recognize that conflict is a problem at times in their societies, none would see it as beneficial. the purpose of this section is to look at the (mostly) positive ways these peaceful so- cieties view their lack of conflict - their world- views of peacefulness - and to compare those views with the thinking of western writers. to start with some western thinking, scholars using cross-cultural data have sought to explain the phenomenon of conflict and conflict resol- ution based on either the structural factors in so- cieties or on psychological/cultural elements (ross a, b). the social structural analysis concentrates on economic, political and social organization as the source of conflict; the psy- chocultural approach focuses on deep-seated 'we-they' conceptions of human opposition. the former argues that stronger ties, such as kinship, will reduce conflicts, while the latter sees ambiguity in social actions, and thus tries to explain why some disputes are far more in- tense than others. based on his own extensive cross-cultural analysis, ross feels that both have validity: psychocultural factors may determine the intensity of a conflict, while structural fac- tors may point out the targets of hostile actions and the ways conflicts are organized. he argues that low-conflict societies are characterized by both a psychocultural atmosphere of warmth and affection and cross-cutting social structures (ross, a). these arguments, and the impressive amount of cross-cultural data assembled, make a lot of sense but are not completely supported by the literature on peaceful societies. ross's descrip- tion ( a, pp. - ) of the strong sense of interpersonal trust that exists in low-conflict so- cieties, with a corresponding lack of fear of iso- lation and abandonment, is contradicted by briggs's ( , a, , ) writings on peaceful inuit groups, lutz's ( , ) descriptions of the ifaluk, wikan's ( ) work on the balinese, and other writings about non- violent peoples. these societies try to eliminate expressions of anger and aggression by devel- oping fears, anxieties, and uncertainties in chil- dren about other people. if others are not to be depended on to love them, if affection and sup- port can never be taken for granted, the children internalize a constant need to live up to the society's peaceful values. aside from that, ross's theory of the culture of conflict is impressive, but his bias is similar to other western thinkers - that conflict is in- evitable, though it can be managed better. his choice of terminology reflects his thinking: he frequently refers to 'the culture of conflict', the title of one of his works ( b); yet nowhere in either volume does he use the phrase, 'the cul- ture of low conflict'. conversely, he refers to a group of five peaceful societies as 'low-conflict societies', but he does not refer to other, more violent, peoples as 'high conflict' or even 'nor- mal conflict' societies. conflict is normative, in this view, while the lack of conflict is the ex- ception. of course, the literature on a wide range of peoples, such as ross has studied, does show that conflict is normative, and 'low-con- flict' societies are the exception. but - and this is the critical point - viewed from within the literature of the peaceful societies, from the per- spective of those peoples, the 'high conflict' so- cieties are the ones that vary from their norm. perhaps this alternative norm should be called 'the culture of peacefulness', or as unesco has designated one of its new programs, the culture of peace (mayor, ). conflict resolution among the peaceful so- cieties, their culture of peacefulness, is based on more than psychocultural and social structures: just as significant are their world-views of peacefulness. gregor ( ) touches on this when he points out that the ideologies and sym- bolic values that societies hold to are also criti- cal elements in providing the basis of a peaceful (or a violent) society. deutsch ( ) makes the same point in his so-called 'crude law of social relations', namely that 'the characteristic pro- cesses and effects elicited by a given type of social relationship (e.g., cooperative or competi- tive) also tend to elicit that type of social relationship'. in other words, cooperation breeds cooperation, competition breeds compe- this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta tition. likewise, howell and willis ( b, p. ), introducing the peaceful societies included in their anthology, conclude that these peoples all place an emphasis 'on peaceful interaction among the members of the society, and this emphasis is cosmologically constructed and morally embedded in a cosmological universe of meaning'. the literature on the societies considered for this essay shows that their peace- ful conflict resolution practices are fostered by their beliefs in peacefulness, which are in turn bolstered by the successful practices. to a western analyst, 'the goal of conflict resolution is to shape new political and social arrange- ments . . . ' (kelman, , p. xi). to the members of these peaceful societies, the goal of conflict resolution is to maintain social harmony through traditional means of prompting indi- viduals to remember and act on their shared beliefs. the basic reason for peacefulness in these so- cieties is that the people are strongly opposed to actual physical violence and firmly in favor of nonviolence, in contrast to neighboring, and sometimes very similar, communities that may only pay lip service to the ideals of peace and are, in actual practice, far more violent. the peaceful peoples not only believe fervently in their world-views of nonviolence: in general, they have internalized those beliefs and adhere to them very strictly, using primarily internal controls to prevent and resolve conflicts, as has been discussed earlier. in other societies that claim they have nonviolent values, but have not really internalized them, people rely primarily on external controls for preventing and resolv- ing conflicts. for instance, several scholars have written about a zapotec town in the state of oaxaca, mexico (dubbed 'la paz'), which is much more peaceful, and experiences a lot less violence, than other nearby towns. in la paz, violence is never acceptable: people avoid problems with others, deny that they have interpersonal diffi- culties, and refuse to fight. by way of contrast, in a nearby, more violent community, even though the people talk about themselves as having a peaceful town, they rationalize that sometimes humans get violent and sometimes fighting is understandable, particularly if pro- voked by alcohol or sexual jealousies (fry, ). the semai, as indicated at the beginning of this essay, emphasize and re-emphasize their shared value of peacefulness (robarchek, ). other peoples are highly conscious of, or take active pride in, their peacefulness as the defining characteristic of their societies, e.g., the paliyan (gardner, ), nubians (fernea, ), toraja (hollan, ), mennonites (driedger & kraybill, ), malapandaram (morris, ), tristan islanders (loudon, ), and so on. even in those peaceful so- cieties in which people fear their violent nature (as they conceive it), such as the inuit (briggs, b), strongly held values promote their non- violence. in addition, the point made at the beginning of this essay can't be emphasized too strongly, that the peacefulness of these societies is not based on utopian thinking. people such as the semai do not conceive of nonviolence as an ideal they should strive for; rather, they think of themselves as nonviolent. according to dentan ( b, p. ) the semai would not describe anger as bad in the abstract; instead they would say, 'we do not get angry'. the practice of non- violence of these peoples combines their world- views of peace with a very realistic, pragmatic understanding of the results of violence (thomas, ). for instance, the anabaptist societies and the tristan islanders see a con- stant, practical benefit to themselves in main- taining their meek, non-confrontational, peace- ful relationships with each other and with outsiders. the literature on the peoples who live on the fringes of indian society - the ladakhis, paliyan, malapandaram, birhor, and yanadi - emphasizes the practical ways their economic and social structures are integrated with their peacefulness. to sum up this section, the peaceful peoples are intolerant of internal strife; they do not rationalize conflict and would not accept the possibility that violence is excusable in some circumstances. few individuals in these so- cieties would admit that, while they know they should be peaceful, sometimes they just have to use violence - that's the way humanity is. to them, other peoples are obviously violent, ag- gressive, and filled with conflicts and warfare; but they themselves are peaceful and highly conscious of it. peacefulness is an absolute commitment for them. most of their social, reli- gious, mythical, cultural, psychological, and this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution anmong peaceful societies educational beliefs are derived from this world- view of their own peacefulness. . conclusion attitudes about conflict and approaches to con- flict resolution among of the earth's peaceful peoples differ from those of the other societies on earth. personal development and social life in the peaceful societies is based on striving for - and achieving - an absence of conflicts and violence. people in most of these societies do not view conflict as normal and productive, as westerners often do; they view it as harmful and destructive. they avoid all types of conflicts if they possibly can, and if they can't they almost always resolve them quickly and nonviolently. while these peoples resolve conflicts by using techniques that other societies also use, they emphasize certain strategies in unique ways. for instance, direct negotiation between the parties to a dispute, an important approach in western societies, is not used too often by the peaceful peoples. instead of negotiating, most of them rely on self-restraint to prevent conflicts and to help people settle the disputes that do arise. people in many of the peaceful societies prefer to avoid controversy, to walk away from conflicts, to separate families or communities in order to circumvent hostilities. one-on-one negotiation is too confrontational for many of these peoples. also, bystanders in several of the peaceful societies will intervene enthusiastically to help resolve conflicts - a contrast to modem urban areas where strangers often fear getting involved in confrontations. a number of the peaceful societies depend on community meetings as a technique to help settle disputes, while western societies settle conflicts by relying on formal court trials to de- termine guilt or innocence, right from wrong. the peaceful community meetings exemplify the importance of preventing and resolving con- flicts, while the western belief in trials is founded on abstract conceptions of justice. also, angry individuals in several peaceful so- cieties may talk out problems without specifi- cally addressing other people - a rhetorical discussion of grievances with the community at large which does not directly confront the other parties to the problems. to repeat, in these so- cieties avoiding conflict is more important than confronting it, and resolving disputes by what- ever nonviolent means possible is the highest goal of society. however, conflict resolution in the peaceful societies relies on more than just strategies and techniques. it is based on assumptions about human relations and social patterns that are quite different from those of modern societies. for instance, people in the peaceful societies strongly believe they should avoid, and if they can't avoid then they should quickly resolve, all conflicts. they view nonviolence as absolutely essential to the proper functioning of their so- cieties. in contrast, western social scientists and popular writers believe that conflict is an in- evitable, and to some extent productive, aspect of human societies which we must learn to manage effectively. the peaceful peoples settle conflicts with outsiders by using nonviolent strategies which are quite comparable to the techniques they use for resolving internal dis- putes. western societies, in general, view force and violence as a necessary, and at times justifi- able, aspect of external relations. other ways that the peaceful societies con- trast with the rest of the world are that they do not punish those who violate social norms, ex- cept for the occasional use of ostracism; and they place very little reliance on political struc- tures larger than their own communities for achieving peace. the most peaceful of them have ideologies that encourage meekness and nonresisting behavior. most important of all, the peacefulness in these societies - and their suc- cess in resolving conflicts - is founded on world-views which include nonviolence as one of the defining characteristics of humanity. their world-views are not just ideology: they include, and integrate, psychological, social, re- ligious, and ethical structures that constantly re- inforce their shared beliefs in living peacefully. the natures of these structures, of course, vary widely among all the peaceful societies. how do the conflict-resolution strategies and beliefs of the peaceful peoples relate to the com- plex societies of today's world? on a practical level, professionals in the dispute resolution field might find some of the techniques used by these societies to be applicable at times, such as relying more on humor to defuse tensions, or placing more emphasis on building up individ- ual restraints on hostility in conflict situations. this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta but the peaceful societies exemplify a more basic lesson about resolving conflicts without violence. they demonstrate that peaceful con- flict resolution, in order to be an integral part of modern social life, must be based on a fervent commitment to nonviolence. if the examples of the peaceful peoples have any validity, nonviol- ence has to be accepted as one of the highest ideals, one of the most strongly accepted be- liefs, of today's societies. we can gain glimpses of a world which resolves conflicts nonviolently through the vision provided by the peaceful peoples: a vision of individuals who always pre- fer peaceful behavior over aggression, and who always avoid confrontation and conflict; a vision of societies which look to their widely varying ethical, religious, and social traditions to support world-views of peace; and a vision of humanity successfully building and reinforcing peaceful beliefs into nonviolent social lives. unesco has launched a comparable vision, a new culture of peace program, which seeks ways of building nonviolent world-views among nations (mayor, ): the peaceful societies discussed here should provide inspi- ration and support for unesco's work. the example of the peaceful societies cannot be extended too far - they do not provide clear answers to many of the complex issues of con- flict in today's world. the peaceful peoples do, however, provide a basis for understanding successful conflict resolution and they do in- spire a vision of a potentially peaceful world. arguments about the complexity of modem so- cieties (compared to the small-scale peaceful peoples) may try to justify conflict as inevitable, but these are rationalizations which fade under the vision of peacefulness provided by these peoples: that human societies can be peaceful, that people can build virtually fail-safe struc- tures for avoiding and resolving conflict, that punishments and armed conflicts are not es- sential for keeping the peace. the answer is for us to build, in our societies, world-views of peacefulness that are as strong as those of the peaceful peoples. this is the first step. notes . variation of the standard text of matthew . , used in some protestant churches such as the episcopal, methodist, congregational, and others. . i have served twice on criminal court juries, and i base this description of a pennsylvania trial on those experi- ences. . it would be ideal to include in the rest of this essay more descriptions of ethno-concepts such as the semai becharaa'; the analysis to be presented would be con- siderably enriched by looking at peacefulness primarily through the languages of the peoples themselves. unfortunately, that is not possible: there is not enough space to add the additional discussions, and many of the works about these societies are not enriched by that level of detail. . this is not meant to demean the work of researchers within the western tradition on war, conflict, and conflict resolution - much of it is immensely valuable. my point is to argue for a peaceful basis of understanding conflict. . the definitions of 'peacefulness' and 'people' or 'society' are taken from bonta ( ) with some updat- ing and modifications. . the present tense is used throughout this article for peo- ples discussed in the anthropological literature, even though the information may or may not be current; the past tense is used for references that are from the histori- cal literature. . i would define 'world-view' as a system of thoughts and emotions about individual, social, and spiritual life which includes the human actions guided by those thoughts and emotions, while 'ideology' is a system of beliefs which may or may not influence individual acts. . see bonta ( ) for a listing of the literature. . in some of these societies, on rare instances murderers or dangerously insane individuals have been killed by other members of their groups. the people evidently felt they had no other ways to handle these dangerous situations. references augsburger, david. w., . conflict mediation across cultures: pathway's and patterns. louisville, ky: westminster/john knox. bennett, john w., . hutterian brethren: the agricultural economy and social organization of a communal people. stanford, ca: stanford university press. bonta, bruce d., . peaceful peoples: an annotated bibliography. metuchen, nj: scarecrow. boulding, kenneth e., . conflict and defense: a general theory. new york: harper & row. briggs, jean l., . 'the origins of nonviolence: inuit management of aggression', pp. - in ashley montagu, ed., learning non-aggression: the experience of non-literate societies. new york: oxford university press. briggs, jean l., a. 'the creation of value in canadian inuit society', international social science journal, vol. , no. , pp. - . briggs, jean l., b. aspects of inuit value socialization. ottawa: national museums of canada. briggs, jean l.. . 'in search of emotional meaning', ethos, vol. , no. , march, pp. - . briggs, jean l., . 'expecting the unexpected: canadian inuit training for an experimental lifestyle', ethos. vol. , no. . september, pp. - . this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies briggs, jean l., . '"why don't you kill your baby brother?" the dynamics of peace in canadian inuit camps', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds, the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne rienner. brown, seyom, . the causes and prevention of war. new york: st. martin's. bush, perry, . '"we have learned to question government'", mennonite life, vol. , no. , june, pp. - . callender, charles, . 'the mehennab: a kenuz tribe', pp. - in robert a. fernea, ed., contemporary egyptian nubia. a svmposium of the social research center, american university in cairo, volume ii. new haven, ct: human relations area files. ceadel, martin, . thinking about peace and war. new york: oxford university press. commonwealth v. peterman, . superior court of pennsylvania, atlantic reporter, vol. , april , pp. - . cong, dachang, . 'amish factionalism and technological change: a case study of kerosene refrigerators and conservatism', ethnology: an international journal of cultural and social anthropology, vol. , no. , july, pp. - . dentan, robert knox, a. 'semai response to mental aberration', bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en volkenkunde, vol. , no. , pp. - . dentan, robert knox, b. the semai: a nonviolent people of malaya. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. dentan, robert knox, . '[response to knauft and otterbein]', current anthropology, vol. , no. , august-october, pp. - . deutsch, morton, . the resolution of conflict. new haven, ct: yale university press. deutsch, morton, . 'subjective features of conflict resolution: psychological, social and cultural influences', pp. - in raimo vayrynen, ed., new directions in conflict theori. conflict resolution and conflict transformation. london: sage. deutsch, morton, . 'constructive conflict resolution: principles, training, and research', journal of social issues, vol. , no. , pp. - . draper, patricia, . 'crowding among hunter- gatherers: the !kung bushmen', science, vol. , no. , october, pp. - . driedger, leo & donald b. kraybill, . mennonite peacemaking, from quietism to activism. scottdale, pa: herald. eckert, penelope & russell newmark, . 'central eskimo song duels: a contextual analysis of ritual ambiguity', ethnology: an international journal of cultural and socialanthropology, vol. , no. , january, pp. - . ember, carol r. & melvin ember, . 'war, socialization, and interpersonal violence', journal of conflict resolution, vol. , no. , december, pp. - . endicott, kirk, . 'the effects of slave raiding on the aborigines of the malay peninsula', pp. - in anthony reid, ed., slavery, bondage and dependency in southeast asia. st. lucia and new york: university of queensland press. endicott, kirk, . 'property, power and conflict among the batek of malaysia', pp. - in tim ingold, david riches & james woodbumrn, eds, hunters and gatherers .: property, power and ideology. oxford: berg. fabbro, david, . 'peaceful societies: an introduction', journal of peace research, vol. , no. , pp. - . ferguson, r. brian, . 'introduction: studying war', pp. - in r. brian ferguson, ed., warfare, culture, and environmtent. orlando, fl: academic. femrnea, robert a., . 'integrating factors in a non-cor- porate community', pp. - in robert a. fernea, ed., contemnlporary egyptian nubia: a sylmposiumnl of the social research center anmerican university of cairo, volume ii. new haven, ct: human relations area files. fernea, robert a., . nubians in egypt: peaceful people. austin: university of texas press. fisher, ronald j. & loraleigh keashly, . 'third party consultation as a method of intergroup and international conflict resolution', pp. - in ronald j. fisher, ed., the social psychology of intergroup and inter- national conflict resolution. new york: springer verlag. fry, douglas p., . 'maintaining social tranquillity: internal and external loci of aggression control', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds, the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne reinner. gardner, peter m., . 'symmetric respect and memorate knowledge: the structure and ecology of individualistic culture', southwestern journal of anthropology, vol. , no. , winter, pp. - . gardner, peter m., . 'paliyan social structure', pp. - in david damas, ed., contributions to anthropology: band societies. proceedings of the conference on band organization. ottawa, august to september , . ottawa: the national museums of canada. gardner, peter m., . 'the paliyans', pp. - in m. g. bicchieri, ed., hunters and gatherers todav: a socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. gardner, peter m., . 'bicultural oscillation as a long- term adaptation to cultural frontiers: cases and questions', human ecology, vol. , no. , december, pp. - . gibson, thomas, . 'the sharing of substance versus the sharing of activity among the buid', man, vol. , no. , september, pp. - . gibson, thomas, . sacrifice and sharing in the philippine highlands: religion and society among the buid of mindoro. london: athlone. gibson, thomas, . 'meat sharing as a political ritual: forms of transaction versus modes of subsistence', pp. - in tim ingold, david riches & james woodburn, eds. hunters and gatherers : propert', power and ideology. oxford: berg. gibson, thomas, . 'symbolic representations of tranquility and aggression among the buid', pp. - in signe howell & roy willis, eds, societies at peace: anthropological perspectives. london: routledge. gibson, thomas, . 'raiding, trading and tribal autonomy in insular southeast asia', pp. - in this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp brluce d. bonta jonathan haas, ed., the anthropology of iwar. cambridge: cambridge university press. greenwalt, kent, . 'punishment', pp. - in sanford h. kadish, ed., enclyclopedia of cdrime and justice, vol. . new york: free press. gregor, thomas, . 'symbols and rituals of peace in brazil's upper zingu', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds. the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne rienner. gruter, margaret, . 'ostracism on trial: the limits of individual rights', social science information, vol. , no. , march, pp. - . gruter, margaret & roger d. masters, . 'ostracism as a social and biological phenomenon: an introduction', ethology and sociobiologv (special issue on ostracism), vol. , nos. , pp. - . gulliver, p.h., . disputes and negotiations: a cross- cultural perspective. new york: academic. hollan, douglas, . 'emotion work and the value of emotional equanimity among the toraja', ethnology: an international journal of cultural and social anthropology, vol. , no. , january, pp. - . hollan, douglas w. & jane c. wellenkamp, . contentment and suffering: culture and experience in toraja. new york: columbia university press. hostetler, john a., . hutterite society. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. hostetler, john a., . amish society, rd ed. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. howe, l.e.a., . 'peace and violence in bali: culture and social organization', pp. - in signe howell & roy willis, eds. societies at peace: anthropological perspectives. london: routledge. howell, signe, . society and cosmos: chewong of peninsular malaysia. singapore: oxford university press. howell, signe, . "'to be angry is not to be human, but to be fearful is": chewong concepts of human nature', pp. - in signe howell & roy willis, eds, societies at peace: anthropological perspectives. london: routledge. howell, signe & roy willis, eds, a. societies at peace: anthropological perspectives. new york: rout- ledge. howell, signe & roy willis, b. 'introduction', pp. - in signe howell & roy willis, eds, societies at peace: anthropological perspectives. london: routledge. juhnke, james c., . 'mob violence and kansas mennonites in ', kansas historical quarterly, vol. , no. , autumn, pp. - . juhnke, james c., . 'mennonites in world war i', mennonite life, vol. , no. , december, pp. - . just, peter, . 'conflict resolution and moral community among the dou donggo', pp. - in kevin avruch, peter w. black & joseph a. scimecca, eds, conflict resolution: cross-cultural perspectives. new york: greenwood. keashly, loraleigh; ronald j. fisher & peter r. grant, . 'the comparative utility of third party consultation and mediation within a complex simulation of intergroup conflict', human relations, vol. , no. , march, pp. - . kelman, herbert c., . 'foreword', pp. ix-xii in dennis j. d. sandole & h-ugo van der merwe, eds, conflict resolution theoryi' and practice. integration and application. manchester: manchester university press. kidder, robert l. & john a. hostetler, . 'managing ideologies: harmony as ideology in amish and japanese societies', law & society review, vol. , no. . pp. - . knauft, bruce m., . 'reconsidering violence in simple human societies: homicide among the gebusi of new guinea', current anthropology, vol. , no. , august-october, pp. - . knauft, bruce m., . 'culture and cooperation in human evolution', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds, the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne reinner. kraybill, donald b., . the riddle of amish culture. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press. lederach, john paul, . 'of nets, nails, and problems: the folk language of conflict resolution in a central american setting', pp. - in kevin avruch, peter w. black & joseph a scimecca, eds, conflict resolution: cross-cultural perspectives. new york: greenwood. lee, richard borshay, . 'male-female residence arrangements and political power in human hunter- gatherers', archives of sexual behavior, vol. , no. , march, pp. - . lee, richard borshay, . the !kung san: men, women and work in a foraging society. cambridge: cambridge university press. levine, robert a., . 'anthropology and the study of conflict', pp. - in richard a. falk & samuel s. kim, eds, the war system: an interdisciplinary approach. boulder, co: westview. levy, robert i., . tahitians: mind and experience in the society islands. chicago, il: university of chicago press. lips, julius e., . 'naskapi law', transactions of the american philosophical society, vol. , no. , pp. - . loudon, j.b., . 'teasing and socialization on tristan da cunha', pp. - in philip mayer, ed., socialization: the approach from social anthropology. london: tavistock. lutz, catherine a., . 'ethnopsychology compared to what? explaining behavior and consciousness among the ifaluk', pp. - in geoffrey m. white & john kirkpatrick, eds, person. self. and experience: exploring pacific ethnopsvchologies. berkeley, ca: university of california press. lutz, catherine a., . unnatural emotions: everyday sentiments on a micronesian atoll & their challenge to western theory. chicago, il: university of chicago press. marshall, lorna, . 'sharing, talking, and giving: relief of social tensions among the !kung', pp. - in richard b. lee & irven devore, eds, kalahari hunter-gatherers: studies of the !kung san and their neighbors. cambridge, ma: harvard university press. mayor, federico, . 'how psychology can contribute to a culture of peace', peace and conflict: journal of peace psychology, vol. , no. , pp. - . this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp conflict resolution among peaceful societies montagu, ashley, ed., . learning non-aggression: the experience of non-literate societies. new york: oxford university press. morris, brian, . forest traders: a socio-economic study of the hill pandaram. london: athlone. morris, brian, . 'hill pandaram', pp. - in paul hockings, eds, encyclopedia of world cultures, volume i, south asia. boston, ma: g. k. hall. munch, peter a., . sociology of tristan da cunha. oslo: det norske videnskaps-akademi. munch, peter a., . 'culture and superculture in a displaced community: tristan da cunha', ethnology: an international journal of cultural and social anthro- pology, vol. , no. , october, pp. - . munch, peter a., . crisis in utopia: the ordeal of tristan da cunha. new york: crowell. nader, laura, . 'harmony models and the construction of law', pp. - in kevin avruch, peter w. black & joseph a. scimecca, eds, conflict resolution: cross- cultural perspectives. new york: greenwood. nisly, hope, . 'witness to the way of peace: the vietnam war and the evolving mennonite view of their relationship to the state', maryland historian, vol. , no. , spring/summer, pp. - . norberg-hodge, helena, . ancient futures: learning from ladakh. san francisco, ca: sierra club books. o'nell, carl w., . 'hostility management and the control of aggression in a zapotec community', aggressive behavior, vol. , no. , pp. - . paddock, john, . 'values in an antiviolent community', humanitas, vol. , no. , may, pp. - . padilla, luis alberto, . 'conflict resolution theory and its application to guatemala's socio-political context', pp. - in kumar rupesinghe, ed, internal conflict and governance. new york: st. martin's. raghaviah, v., . the yanadis. new delhi: bharatiya adimjati sevak sangh. robarchek, clayton a., . semai nonviolence: a systems approach to understanding. phd dissertation, university of california, riverside. robarchek, clayton a., . 'conflict, emotion, and abreaction: resolution of conflict among the semai senoi', ethos, vol. , no. , pp. - . robarchek, clayton a., . 'primitive warfare and the ratomorphic image of mankind', american anthropolo- gist, vol. , no. , december, pp. - . robarchek, clayton a., . 'ghosts and witches: the psychocultural dynamics of semai peacefulness', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds, the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne rienner. roseman, marina, . 'head, heart, odor, and shadow: the structure of the self, the emotional world, and ritual performance among senoi temiar', ethos, vol. , no. , september, pp. - . ross, marc howard, a. the management of conflict: interpretations and interests in comparative perspective. new haven, ct: yale university press. ross, marc howard, b. the culture of conflict: interpretations and interests in comparative perspective. new haven, ct: yale university press. rubin, jeffrey z., . 'models of conflict management', journal of social issues, vol. , no. , pp. - . schmidt, sabine, . world-system impact on local patterns of conflict and violence: case studies and cross-cultural comparison. cologne: omimee inter- cultural publishers. scimecca, joseph a., . 'conflict resolution in the united states: the emergence of a profession', pp. - in kevin avruch, peter w. black & joseph a. scimecca, eds, conflict resolution: cross-cultural perspectives. new york: greenwood. silberbauer, george b., . 'the glwi bushmen', pp. - in m. g. bicchieri, ed., hunters and gatherers today:. a socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. sinha, d. p., . 'the birhors', pp. - in m. g. bicchieri, ed, hunters and gatherers today: a socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. new york: holt, rinehart & winston. sponsel, leslie e., . 'the mutual relevance of anthropology and peace studies', pp. - in leslie e. sponsel & thomas gregor, eds, the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne rienner. sponsel, leslie e. & thomas gregor, eds, . the anthropology of peace and nonviolence. boulder, co: lynne rienner. thomas, elizabeth marshall, . 'management of violence among the ju/wasi of nyae nyae: the old way and a new way', pp. - in s. p. reyna & r. e. downs, eds, studying war: anthropological perspectives. langhorne, pa: gordon & breach. toews, paul, . 'the impact of alternative service on the american mennonite world: a critical evaluation', mennonite quarterl' review, vol. , no. , october, pp. - . unruh, john d., . 'the hutterites during world war i', mennonite life, vol. , no. , july, pp. - . warren, neil clark, . 'work it out: the triumphant marriage', focus on the family, october, pp. - . wikan, unni, . managing turbulent hearts: a balinese formula for living. chicago, il: university of chicago press. appendix. twenty-four peaceful societies the following list provides a brief description of where and how each of the societies mentioned in this article lives. for a full bibliography of works describing the peacefulness of these societies, as well as the works of detractors who dis- cuss their violence, please consult bonta ( ). amish. over , amish live in canada and the united states, mostly on traditional family farms in the eastern states of pennsylvania, ohio, and indiana, though many are now engaging in small business enterprises. balinese. over two million people, most of whom practice hindu beliefs, live on the indonesian island of bali and work as either farmers or business people. batek. peoples of the mountainous malay peninsula who gather forest products for trade as well as hunt and gather their food. this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp bruce d. bonta birhor. a gathering and hunting people who also trade with other peoples in southern bihar state, east central india. buid. shifting agricultural peoples of the forested highlands of mindoro island in the philippines. chewong. a hunting and gathering people of the mountain- ous interior, peninsular malaysia, who also undertake some swidden agriculture. g/wi. a san people of central botswana, southern africa, who used to live as hunting and gathering nomads in the kalahari desert, but who now mostly work as hired la- borers on ranches. hutterites. an anabaptist people who live in colonies scat- tered across the plains of rural north central united states and central canada. ifaluk. a fishing and agricultural people who live on a pacific atoll in the federated states of micronesia, near the large island of yap. inuit. the anthropologist jean briggs has written many arti- cles and monographs about the strategies that two differ- ent inuit groups, one in the central canadian arctic and the other on baffin island, use to control anger and pre- vent violence from occurring. these peoples traditionally survived on fishing and hunting, though they now are part of the cash economy. !kung. one of the most studied of traditional societies, the !kung, a so-called san people, live in the boundary area of botswana and namibia, in southern africa. traditionally they were nomadic gatherers and hunters. ladakhis. buddhist agricultural and pastoral people who live south of the karakoram range in the northwest cor- ner of india, the state of jammu and kashmir. malapandaram. the malapandaram, or hill pandaram, live in the hills at the southern end of the western ghats in india. mennonites. nearly , mennonites live today in canada and the united states, some as traditional farmers who live without much technology, much as the amish do, and others in quite contemporary businesses, trades, and professional positions. montagnais-naskapi. an indian society of the labrador peninsula, eastern canada, the montagnais-naskapi live on trapping, trading, hunting, gathering and seasonal em- ployment. nubians. before the completion of the aswan high dam in upper egypt in the s, the nubian people lived in tra- ditional farming villages along the nile river, though many of the men had to leave for periods of time to work in cities to the north. paliyan. a gathering people who live in a range of hills at the southern end of the western ghats of india. semai. the semai, people of the mountainous malay peninsula, live (or formerly lived) primarily on their hunt- ing, fishing, gathering, and swidden agriculture. tahitians. residents of the society islands, part of french polynesia in the central pacific, live off their gardening, fishing, trade and business pursuits. temiar. the temiar, primarily agricultural peoples who do some hunting and gathering, live in permanent villages in longhouses built, in the past, for defense from the malay slave raiding. toraja. several hundred thousand toraja, most of whom have converted to christianity, live primarily by farming in the mountains of south sulawesi, in indonesia. tristan islanders. a small population of mixed european and either african or south east asian ancestry who have lived on the isolated island of tristan da cunha, a british dependency in the south atlantic, since the early nine- teenth century. these people have traditionally engaged in fishing, gathering, and agriculture, though in recent decades they have also had cash income from a fishing factory and tourists. yanadi. several hundred thousand yanadi live mostly in the eastern coastal areas of india, where they engage in gath- ering, work for wages, and subsistence hunting. zapotec. while the zapotec, an indigenous agricultural people of oaxaca state, southern mexico, may not be ex- ceptionally peaceful, a few highly nonviolent communi- ties not too far from the city of oaxaca have been studied by a succession of social scientists. bruce d. bonta, b. , mls in library science (university of maine, ); reference librarian at the library of congress, colby college (waterville, me), and the pennsylvania state university (university park, pa), history/area studies librarian, pennsylvania state ( - ); author of peaceful peoples: an annotated bibliography (scarecrow press, ). this content downloaded from . . . on thu, aug : : pm all use subject to jstor terms and conditions http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp 	article contents 	p.[ ] 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	p. 	issue table of contents 	journal of peace research, vol. , no. (nov., ), pp. - 	volume information [pp. - ] 	front matter [pp. - ] 	focus on 	antinomies of postmodernism in international studies [pp. - ] 	united states military intervention and the promotion of democracy [pp. - ] 	conflict resolution among peaceful societies: the culture of peacefulness [pp. - ] 	when the individual soldier says 'no' to war: a look at selective refusal during the intifada [pp. - ] 	explaining territorial disputes: from power politics to normative reasons [pp. - ] 	the nordic area as a 'zone of peace' [pp. - ] 	when officers need internal enemies: aspects of civil-military relations in scandinavia between the world wars [pp. - ] 	the political economy of defense spending in south korea [pp. - ] 	review essay 	war termination [pp. - ] 	book notes 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [pp. - ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [pp. - ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [pp. - ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [pp. - ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [p. ] 	untitled [pp. - ] 	untitled [p. ] 	books received [pp. - ] 	back matter [pp. - ] the influence of light on gene frequency changes in laboratory populations o f ebony and non-ebony drosophila melanogaster m. e. jacobs department of biology, bethany college, bethany, west virg;n;s received february , hat the mating behavior of ebony and non-ebony drosophila melanogaster is influenced by light has been shown by rendel ( ) using the multiple choice method and jacobs ( ) using the direct observation method. both these authors found ebony flies to show greater sexual activity in the dark than in the light, while with non-ebony the converse was true. laboratory population studies in which ebony competes with non-ebony have shown ebony to decrease in frequency to about ten percent and then to stabilize (l'heritier, neefs and teissier ). in similar studies, kalmus ( ) found ebony to increase in numbers when the temperature and relative humidity were decreased from °c and percent relative humidity to - °c and ten percent relative humidity. the above authors postulated heterosis theories to explain stabilization of ebony following decline from an initial high frequency. the present study was undertaken with ebony and non-ebony from a wild population to determine whether light influences the frequency of ebony in laboratory populations and also whether the multiple choice method would show a difference in mating success between ebony, non-ebony, and the heterozygote under different lighting conditions. materials a n d methods the flies used were ebony ( e / e ) and light tan (+/+) collected from a wild population at beaufort, north carolina (jacobs ). i n an attempt to random- ize genes away from the ebony locus so that the effects studied would be those differentially due to the e gene and its + allele, a series of crosses was continu- ously made. i n the following description of these crosses, an asterisk indicates that the flies were grown at °c until pupation, at which time the pupae were placed at °c to cause development of a darker color of +/e as compared with +/+ to facilitate selection of +/+ for pure cultures. in all other cases, h e flies present address: eastern mennonite college, harrisonburg, virginia. genetics : - september . m. e. jacobs were cultured a t °c. this series of crosses is as follows, with females on the left: p, e / e x +/+ p, + / e x + / e p, *f, +/+ + / e e / e +/+ and e / e selected for pure cultures + / e x + / e *f, +/+ + / e e / e repeat as for p, and add +/+ and e / e cultures to those previously selected as soon as homozygosity is proved. p, homozygosity was proved by crossing numerous males from the presumed +/+ cultures x e / e females. this procedure has been continuously repeated as for p, and later generations for over three years to the date of the present investi- gation. to obtain flies for study, +/+ males and females were placed in a five-liter wide mouthed egg-laying jar with a cloth sleeve at the opening through which petri dishes with medium were entered. in a similar egg-laying jar e / e males and females were placed, and in another, e / e females and +/+ males. from the petri dishes, a block of medium with about eggs and/or newly hatched larvae was cut. this was placed in a half-pint milk bottle with about ml of medium. the cultures were incubated at °c in the dark. all medium used was of a modified carpenter-baker formula (jacobs ). populations were cultured in five-liter wide mouthed jars. a hole about m m in diameter was cut into the lid and cardboard lid sealer, and a wire gauze was placed be- tween the lid and sealer to make the jars fly tight. newly emerged e / e adults, of each sex, and five +/+ males were placed in each jar. each day, the closed end of the jar was faced toward the light, and a x mm vial with about ml of medium was added quickly to prevent escape of flies. the number of vials each jar contained at any one time throughout the study varied from about to w . at about biweekly intervals, flies were counted from each jar after the adults had been etherized to a very early immobile state by means of ether-soaked cotton in a finger bowl placed over the wire gauze opening as the jars lay hori- zontally. the larvae appeared little affected by the ether and remained mobile. the vials were then removed, and the nonstuck flies in the vials and jar were dumped through a funnel into a half-pint bottle. after the jar and gauze were cleaned, the adults, and vials which still contained larvae were readmitted. two jars were kept in the dark in a . m incubator, and two were kept in a . m glass-paneled incubator, one above the other, cm from a vertical b & l ft-c microscope lamp containing two four-watt daylight fluorescent tubes cm long. all jars were incubated horizontally. on the floor of each incubator was kept cm of water in trays. both incubators were kept at approximately °c with fenwall no. thermoregulators with inherent sensitivity specification g e n e frequency changes of . "f. the results of the population studies were drawn up at the end of a seven month ten day period after inoculation of the jars. multiple choice studies were made using etherized adults which had just emerged from the pupa cases and were still transparent, but which had expanded wings. two types of crosses were made as follows: ( ) ten e / e females x (ten +/+ males and ten + / e males) ( ) ten e / e females x (ten +/+ males and ten e / e males). each cross was repeated four times in the light and four times in the dark, giving a total of separate crosses. each cross was made in a half-pint milk bottle with m l of medium sprinkled with about mg of fleischmann's dry active yeast. the + / e males had been grown from eggs of e / e females crossed with +/+ males. the crosses in the dark were made in the dark incubator de- scribed above; while the crosses in the light were made in the light incubator cm in front of the fluorescent light where the population jars had been kept. results in all population jars, the frequency of e / e dropped from the initial . percent, and it dropped most rapidly in the light (figure ) . in the seven month ten day period in the dark, the frequency of e / e reached a low of . percent in one jar and . percent in the other, while in the light it reached . percent in one jar and . percent in the other. in the multiple choice tests in which e / e and +/+ males were placed with e / e females (where random mating would yield percent e/e progeny) . per- cent of the progeny were e / e in the lighted bottles, and . percent were e / e in the dark bottles. this indicated a mating advantage of +/+ males in the light and e/e males in the dark (table ) . the deviation from the expected percent e/e in both conditions gave chi-square values of over which is highly signifi- cant. i n those bottles containing +/+ and + / e males with the e / e females (where random mating would yield percent e / e progeny) there were . percent e/e progeny in the lighted bottles and . percent in the dark bottles. this indicated that + / e males had a mating advantage over +/+ males in light and table comparative maitng success of melanogaster males as indicated b y the percent of ebony progeny they produced when ten males of each genotype were introduced, in various competitive combinations, into culture bottles with ten ebony females at °c competitive progeny produced in light progeny produced in dark combination ebony non-ebony percent ebony ebony non-ebony percent ebony +/+ and e / e observed . . . . . . males expected . . . . . . chi-square . . observed . . . . . . +/+ and + / e expected . . . . . . males chi-square . . m. e. jacobs . . .. . . . . . . . e . . . . w e e k s figure .-frequency of e / e drosophila melanogaster in population jars after various inter- vals. two jars were kept in dark conditions (solid circles) and two in lighted conditions (hollow circles). each jar had been inoculated with e / e males and e / e females and five +/+ males. gene frequency changes dark, the differences from the expected percent here again gave chi-square values of over . the + / e males in competition with the +/+ males had a greater mating advantage in the dark (to produce the . percent ebony progeny) than in the light (to produce the . percent ebony progeny). the chi-square value for this difference is . which is below the one percent prob- ability level, and highly significant. the question arose as to whether, perhaps, the above effect of “light” may really be due to light-heat raising the temperature of the flies by absorption. to test this, two bottles containing the e / e female and (+/+ and e / e ) male combi- nations were placed, in the dark, at °c in the refrigerated incubator and two were placed in the dark, at °c in the ordinary incubator. the bottles were treated as before to tell whether the e / e males would still have a n advantage over the +/+ males in these dark conditions with varying temperature. the results showed no significant difference at the two temperatures. in the ” bottles / or . percent of the progeny were e/e, while in the ” bottles / or . percent of the progeny were e/e. the chi-square value for this difference is only . , which is above the percent probability level and not significant. even if the difference would have been significant, it would not indicate that the “light” effect is really a heat effect, for if the ebony males were placed at a disadvantage in the light because of the heat, there should be more e / e progeny observed in the colder bottles instead of the fewer that were observed. the mating advantage of + / e over +/+ males was supported by studies using the direct observation method described by jacobs ( ). males were isolated from females upon emergence and aged four days before being placed in observa- tion cells. in each of two cells were placed e / e females. i n one of the cells were placed + / e males, and in the other were placed +/+ males. the cells were placed under . ft-c of daylight fluorescent light, and matings were counted for five hours. this procedure was repeated times, in which period the + / e males mated times while the +/+ males mated only times, showing that, even in the light, the + / e males outmated the +/+ males. previous studies under these conditions (jacobs ) had shown that under the same lighting condi- ditions +/+ males outmated e / e males in the same cells. similar results using similar methods have been obtained by elens ( ). discussion the more rapid decrease of e / e in lighted than in dark population jars is prob- ably due, at least in part, to the mating advantage afforded the +/+ males in light as compared with darkness, thereby allowing relatively greater numbers of + / e and e / e males to mate in dark conditions. this conclusion is supported by the multiple choice studies and previous direct observation studies i n which it was found that +/+ flies mate and court more frequently in light than in di- minished light (jacobs ). the tendency for the e gene to decline in population jars may be due to lessened m. e. jacobs viability of ebony as compared with non-ebony under crowded conditions. moree ( ) found a steady decline in percent of ebony emerging from bottles as the number of + / e parents was increased from two to , a t the latter density of which ebony was reduced to . percent. the stabilization of the e gene in spite of negative selection against it, as found by ~ h e r i t i e r , neefs, and teissier ( ), could be due partly to heterozygote mating superiority as shown by the multiple choice and direct observation studies. elens ( ) has also found that el in the heterozygous state increases sexual activity of males, and in another study ( ) he found el homozygotes to have decreased sexual activity as com- pared with the wild type. if ebony stabilizes in population cages in competition with non-ebony, the question of its rarity in nature arises. in a study of a beaufort wild population (jacobs ) ebony was found only once. however, other dark forms inter- mediate between ebony and the light tan wild type were found commonly. these dark flies, when crossed with ebony, gave cultures ranging from ebony to dark without the appearance of a light tan form in subculture. the dark form ap- peared to be produced by an e allele with effects intermediate between e and + when homozygous. such “mild” ebony alleles have also been reported from texas (mary alexander, personal communication). it may be that the frequency of e in wild populations in spite of + / e superiority may be due partly to the inter- action of other alleles complicating the population dynamics. also other factors may alter the frequency of the e gene in nature. kalmus ( ) has found evi- dence that temperature and humidity alter the frequency of ebony in laboratory populations. i n other drosophila species dark forms persist in nature. freire-maia ( ) has found a case of melanistic polymorphism in montium, and ward ( ) has found eastern woodland forms of melanica to be darker than western desert forms. a similar situation appears in the dragonfly perithemis tenera (jacobs ). studies in physiological genetics on these forms may help unravel the problem of melanistic adaptation in nature. s u m m a r y studies of laboratory populations of drosophila melanogaster showed ebony, in competition with non-ebony, to decrease from an initial high frequency more rapidly in the light than in the dark. multiple choice studies in which e / e com- peted with +/+ showed +/+ to have a mating advantage in the light, while e / e had a mating advantage in the dark. + / e males showed a mating advantage over +/+ in light, and still more in the dark. direct observation studies showed + / e males to mate with higher frequency than +/+ males. the bearing of these results on population dynamics is discussed. acknowledgments the writer is grateful for the assistance of mr. jeffrey stier who made many of the counts in this study. g e n e f r e q u e n c y c h a n g e s literature cited elens, a. a., importance selective des differences d’activite entre males ebony et sauvage, le role de l’heterosis dans la competition entre ebony et son allele normal. experientia balanced polymorphism in drosophila montium. evolution : . studies on territorialism and sexual selection in dragonflies. ecology : dans les populations artificialles de drosophila melanogaster. experientia : - . : - . freire-maia, newton, . jacobs, m. e., - . kalmus, h., influence of light on mating of drosophila mlanogaster. ecology : - . adaptive and selective responses of a population of drosophila melanogaster containing e and e+ to differences in temperature, humidity, and selection for develop- mental speed. j. genet. : - . l’heritier, ph., y. neefs, and g. teissier, apterisme des insects et selection naturelle. compt. rend. (paris) : - . moree, ray., experimental measurement of the relative viability of the mutant “ebony” in drosophila melanogaster. am. naturalist : - . rendel,, j. m., mating of ebony, vestigial, and wild-type drosophila melanogaster in light and dark. evolution : - . ward, c. l., chromosome variation in drosophila melanica. univ. texas publ. : - . renq .. reimagining religious identity: the moor in dutch and english pamphlets, – * by ga r y k. wa i te this essay examines how dutch and english vernacular writers portrayed the moor in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, when their respective governments were engaged in diplomatic and trade discussions with morocco. it aims for a better understanding of the difference in religious attitudes and cultures between these two protestant realms by arguing that their respective approaches to internal religious toleration significantly influenced how their residents viewed muslims. dutch writers adopted a less hostile tone toward the moor than english writers due to the republic’s principled defense of freedom of conscience, its informal system of religious toleration in the private sector, and its merchant realpolitik. unlike in england, dutch conversos were allowed to be jews. a number of moroccan muslims also resided in holland, lobbying on behalf of the muslim king of morocco. the moroccan jewish pallache family played prominent roles with the government and in two of the pamphlets examined here, including one that interprets a moroccan civil war through the lens of demonic sorcery. so too did jan theunisz, a liberal mennonite of amsterdam who collaborated with both jews and muslims in his home. as dutch citizens were adapting to a new religious environment that effectively privatized religious practice, they were better equipped than their english counterparts to acclimatize to jews inside and the moor outside their borders. . introduction: religious conflict and toler ance in northwestern europe reporting from the dutch republic in , the french protestantjean-baptiste stouppe asked ‘‘is this really a protestant country that we have occupied?’’ his consternation focused on the ‘‘unlimited freedom to all sorts of religions, which are completely at liberty to celebrate their mysteries and to serve god as they wish.’’ these included not only the usual christian varieties, but also the polish socinians, who rejected the doctrine of the trinity; the english quakers, libertines, and others who were ‘‘seeking a religion and they do not profess any of those established’’; and, most shockingly, ‘‘jews, turks and * the research for this essay was generously supported by a grant from the social sciences and humanities research council of canada. i wish also to thank the members of the tri-campus colloquium of the university of new brunswick (fredericton and saint john) and st. thomas university for their very helpful comments on an earlier, less coherent draft of this essay. thanks also go to the anonymous reviewers of renaissance quarterly for their extremely helpful suggestions. renaissance quarterly ( ): – [ ] this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). persians.’’ while there was certainly a measure of truth to stouppe’s shocked assertion, benjamin kaplan appropriately cautions that such references to the toleration of islam by the dutch were largely rhetorical exaggeration. they do, however, remain valuable as a mirror reflecting the opinions of orthodox christians, both within and outside the republic, who were disturbed about how much religious accommodation the dutch government was allowing, fearing it would contribute to the spread of atheism. yet most dutch citizens seem to have been content with the high degree of religious toleration that their regents encouraged, and while there was a great deal of confessional and doctrinal conflict reflected in the pamphlet literature, there was little of the state-sponsored repression of religious dissent that had been a hallmark of the netherlands before , or that remained a feature of the religious landscape of the southern provinces still controlled by the spanish habsburgs. even more interesting was the relative paucity of voices protesting the discovery in of a jewish community in amsterdam or of news that the regents were negotiating with muslim principalities around . this essay pursues the question of whether or not the unusual form of religious accommodation followed in the dutch republic altered its citizens’ perspective on non-christian religious groups. using the moroccan moors as a case study, this essay investigates a number of vernacular writings, ranging from correspondence to newssheets to polemical pamphlets, to get a sense of whether this internal religious dynamic influenced in any way how dutch authors depicted relations with muslim morocco, and how this compared with contemporary english writers whose opinions on the moor have been more extensively studied. it will reveal some noticeable differences in language and tone between english and dutch publications stouppe: listed in knuttel, , no. , as cited by frijhoff, – . there may have been an informal mosque for the moriscos in / : see wiegers, a, ; kaplan, b, ; also kaplan, a, – . on the persecution of anabaptists, see geraerts; tracy, . on the debates over and development of religious tolerance in the northern netherlands, see, among many others, pollmann; berkvens-stevelinck, israel, and meyjes; calvinism and religious toleration; kaplan, , , , and a. i will avoid using the term other as much as possible, given daniel vitkus’s careful discussion of the problems with its usage, especially in an era when ‘‘cultural identities’’ were poorly defined, unstable, and malleable: vitkus, , – . the european fascination with the eastern others is of course a major theme in edward said’s orientalism thesis. here i will merely note the many ways in which western writers were beginning to create an image of the orient on the eve of colonialism: see said. for a history of english interactions with the moor, see matar, , esp. – ; ibid., . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). that cannot be explained solely in terms of economic interest. and it will reveal that the level of acceptance of jews helped determine how muslims would be depicted in the popular press. first it will be necessary to set the scene by surveying the religious situation in the two protestant realms. tolerance had not always been the hallmark of the dutch: until the s, in fact, the netherlands were a region of extreme religious persecution, accounting for a large number of europe’s heresy executions. especially targeted were the anabaptists, radical religious reformers who were roundly demonized by both catholics and protestants, who associated the radicals with sedition and called for their suppression, thanks in large measure to the notorious anabaptist kingdom of m€unster ( – ). yet the moment the northern provinces of the netherlands were embarked on the war with spain, their rulers quickly gave up heresy trials altogether, justifying the war as a campaign to rid the provinces of the despised heresy placards of the habsburg overlords. hence, when in the leaders of the new republic came together to sign the union of utrecht, they agreed to proclaim freedom of conscience as a founding principle. a desire for some measure of religious peace and tolerance had been a prominent theme even before the revolt: the magistrates of antwerp had requested of their archduke, the habsburg emperor charles v, that their new christian merchants be allowed to reside in peace, since no one could know their inner heart, while prince william of orange ( – ), the future leader of the revolt, argued similarly that the netherlands’ economic prosperity required religious tolerance. the prince’s original hope had been to establish complete religious toleration for the dutch republic that would include catholics as well as the protestant sects: this was, however, frustrated by more conservative reformed notables. as a compromise, william and the states general approved a national reformed church but, unlike the english, did not mandate membership, so that other christian faiths, including anabaptists — now called mennonites for the conservative wings, and doopsgezinden for the more liberal branch — could worship as they saw monter; duke, – . see waite, . israel, , remains the standard history of the dutch republic; but see also tracy, . swetchinski, . the topic of religious compromise and peace was a prominent one in the literature and drama of the netherlands’ chambers of rhetoric: see waite, . proponents of complete religious freedom included william of orange’s spiritualist acquaintance dirck volckertsz coornhert: see voogt. renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). fit behind a private façade in schuilkerken, or hidden churches. members of the portuguese nation who had fled antwerp for amsterdam in the s soon found to their delight that this situation applied to them as well, and they began a private synagogue that in became public knowledge — and without a great deal of turmoil, it seems, from most of their christian neighbors, apart from some reformed preachers. england’s path toward religious peace was a bumpier one: the degree of reform within the national church of england was, of course, determined by the crown, with edward vi (r. – ) moving toward a swiss reformed model, mary tudor (r. – ) restoring catholicism, and elizabeth i (r. – ) attempting a via media, a reformed church that could, she hoped, encompass both protestants and catholics. english citizens continued to witness heresy executions, including the burning of two dutch mennonites in london in under queen elizabeth i. in her parliament passed a law associating jesuits especially with treason, while the conventicle act of made refusal to attend the church of england services a capital offense. not only catholics, but also puritans — who wanted the national church to become fully calvinist — and more radical dissenters, ranging from the free church brownists and the spiritualistic family of love, among many others, remained in danger, as the brownists henry barrowe and john greenwood found to their sorrow when they were arrested and hanged in . most others went underground or fled, and the dutch republic was a favored locale. what they found there was not, however, complete freedom of worship, as catholics periodically suffered the raiding of their schuilkerken by sheriffs, but such harassment was far removed from the vicious persecution of the kaplan, ; ibid., a, – ; for catholics in the dutch republic, see kooi, ; parker; kooi, and . exceptions to the schuilkerken rule were eventually made for ‘‘foreign’’ faiths, such as lutheranism, which attracted mostly german merchants and immigrants, and jews: kaplan b, . swetchinski, – , – . the jews built their first synagogue in , an action that provoked complaints from the reformed synod of amsterdam on march and april: fuks-mansfeld, ; see also bodian. duke, – . tracy, , ; ibid., – , contains a nicely succinct survey of these religious developments. bakker, , who provides much detail on the relationship between english sectarians and dutch mennonites. kaplan a, – , contains a nice summary of the ‘‘waves of ‘panic fears’’’ regarding a resurgent catholicism that convulsed england throughout the seventeenth and first half of the eighteenth centuries, and that invariably encompassed the radical protestant sects as secret allies of the pope. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). preceding decades. furthermore, the union of utrecht’s adoption of freedom of conscience clearly reinforced their merchants’ pragmatism and desire to trade with any and all, regardless of religious difference. unlike in england, dutch citizens were acclimating to a form of religious diversity that included jews, while their merchants and agents were reaching outward to the lesser-known moor. the important economic contributions of the sephardic community to the financial health of the dutch republic assisted their christian neighbors in maintaining a positive evaluation of them, although in other places and other times such economic appreciation had proven short-lived. certainly spain remained concerned about the economic power of the dutch sephardim. the religious environment of the united provinces of the netherlands was therefore distinct from its near neighbors, such as england, which continued to enforce a single national church, or the spanish netherlands, where anything but orthodox catholicism was outlawed. freedom of conscience proved to be much more than a slogan and was used by calvinists, catholics, and sectarians alike to support their own agendas in a wide array of polemical writings. it clearly appealed to the sensibilities of nobles, urban merchants, and artisans who had tired of religious conflict and hoped for peace and good business, aspirations supported for obvious reasons by the growing international merchant class. before examining the pamphlet literature on the moor composed by dutch and english writers, it is necessary briefly to survey more broadly european attitudes toward and relations with both jews and muslims, since it is argued here that the two were interrelated. unless european christians made a measure of religious accommodation among themselves and some positive alterations in their attitudes toward jews, who played important roles in moroccan diplomacy and trade, they would experience greater difficulty in understanding their new muslim allies. in the first decades of the seventeenth century jewish agents from morocco and some moriscos exiled from spain lobbied in the dutch republic on behalf of tracy, , , – ; kooi, . there have been many studies of the image of the turk in english literature and drama, but far fewer concentrating on the vernacular press — pamphlets, newssheets, and chronicles — especially for the dutch republic. for english drama, see vitkus, ; dimmock; matar, ; for the low countries, see especially mout; hamilton. both jews and muslims had played important roles in spain before their expulsions: see harvey; for a reappraisal of jewish economic life and hazards in medieval europe, see chazan, – . israel, , – . waite, . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). the muslim king of morocco and even produced two of the pamphlets that will be consulted here. in several respects, the religious adjustments made internally by the dutch assisted greatly in their diplomatic efforts with the moors. . europeans, moors, an d jews unlike the multicultural realms of the mediterranean, northern european regions had little experience in dealing with peoples of non-christian faiths, especially after they had expelled their jews — the english in , and the dutch and flemish on a piecemeal basis through the late middle ages. by there were no jews residing permanently in these realms, although converso members of the portuguese nation were typically regarded as jews, regardless of their public catholic identity. even so, conversos increasingly aided these atlantic realms in expanding their markets: as daniel vitkus has observed, northern realms such as england were quickly adjusting to the dynamics of global trade and new identities based on nation states, while the old ideal of christendom was in decline. england, though, was quicker off the mark when it came to negotiating with muslim princes. under queen elizabeth i, by the early s england already had trade deals with the ottoman turks and had developed firm relations with morocco. as noted, elizabeth remained deeply concerned about subversive sectarians and catholic plots and did not alter the standing of conversos, as witnessed by the notorious case of dr. rodrigo lopez, who was executed in london in on dubious treason charges. when james i ascended the throne in , he did nothing to alter this situation with respect to the jews and he actively discouraged further negotiations with muslim rulers. this gave greater room for the dutch to carry on independent of the english (under whose flag they were protected in muslim waters) and develop new trade and diplomatic arrangements on their own. while commercial interests were clearly critical in shaping attitudes toward non-christians, this was as true of england — especially its political and economic urban powerhouse of london — as it was of the united provinces of the netherlands. for the netherlands, see speet; swetschinski. on jews in england and on the english stage, see shapiro; for the conversos in antwerp, see leoni. vitkus, . katz, – . on the dutch and the new global economy, see israel, and . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). as daniel vitkus, linda mcjannet, benedict s. robinson, nabil matar, and others have shown, english writers and playwrights were well aware of the rich variety of cultural and religious variations in the ottoman world, although they, like their fellow citizens, struggled also with widespread anxieties about the military and conversionary power of islam. as protestant merchants and political leaders adapted their thinking to a more global and complex world, they looked for means to justify their trading with previously unthinkable partners, such as muslim principalities. doing so also elicited criticism, as when in queen elizabeth i signed a treaty with the ottomans that was ‘‘greeted with outrage and protest by european diplomats, who accused elizabeth of selling out to the turkish infidel,’’ while the pope called her a ‘‘confederate’’ of the turks. many devout christians revived traditional medieval christian polemics that demonized their muslim competitors as a means to protest such dealings. the christian association between muslims and the devil appeared even in ceremonial events, such as the celebration over the baptism of prince james of scotland, during which stirling castle was ritually attacked by a band of highland men, moors, and ‘‘devillis.’’ aside from what it says about scottish highlanders, this juxtaposition illustrates the ongoing anxiety toward muslims as the ottoman turks continued to advance westward and pirate corsairs made travel in the mediterranean extremely hazardous. almost all christians viewed sultan suleiman the magnificent ( – ) — who had besieged vienna in and battled charles v to a humiliating standstill in — as god’s apocalyptic scourge upon a sinful christendom, the external enemies of christ comparable to the internal foes, the jews. although less preoccupied with such apocalyptic foreboding, learned humanists regarded the turks as the ‘‘new barbarians,’’ and many humanists, such as erasmus, maintained a strong antipathy toward the jews. some reformation radicals expressed preference for the tolerant ottomans over the persecuting catholics, hence their reputation of being in league with the muslims. there were other vitkus, , – ; see also ibid., a; robinson; mcjannet; matar, . vitkus, , . matar, , , . for medieval views, see moran cruz; for the renaissance and early modern periods, see bisaha, ; vitkus, a. goodare and miller, . sxahin. on the renaissance image, see bisaha, ; schwoebel. on erasmus and the jews, see pabel. waite, a. on luther and the turks, see miller, ; francisco. renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). exceptions, of course, both among learned writers and in popular literature. the reformation’s splintering of christendom recast politics as well as religion, and despite the apocalyptic anxiety associated with the ottomans, some european rulers reached out to the turks for assistance against the catholic habsburgs. german lutheran princes and the catholic king francis i of france ( – ) sent representatives to istanbul (still called constantinople in european writings), although only the french returned home with a treaty. later in the century queen elizabeth i of england followed suit, adding trade and rescue of english captives to the list of requests and signing a separate treaty with the ottoman sultan in and later with the independent kingdom of morocco. such diplomatic efforts revealed that european princes could distinguish clearly among the various muslim powers, making deals to help morocco retain its independence from the ottomans, just as they assisted shi’ite persia against the sunni ottomans. even so, their comprehension of the religion of islam was rudimentary in the extreme and dominated by polemical needs that invariably led to the retelling of hoary stories, for example, about the prophet muhammad and his affiliation with a heretical monk named sergius. in the s a number of publications detailing the horrific turkish- hungarian conflict revived latent apocalyptical foreboding in the west and reinforced the christian stereotype of the cruel turk. however, in the dutch republic the war with spain inspired propaganda applying the anti- catholic rhetorical device of unfavorable comparisons to the turks, with some — and not just anabaptists — extolling the ottoman tolerance of see setton, which focuses primarily on learned latin works; see also the essays in western views of islam ( ). other recent studies of europeans and the turks are matar, and ; adas; cxirakman; daniel; darling; frey; gaiduk; hamilton and richard; hess; hourani; lewis, and ; rath; woodhead; wunder. see vitkus, a. matar, , – . on european knowledge of the religious division within islam, see daniel, – . see waite, a, – . see, for example, the ottoman of lazaro soranzo. on turkish atrocities in hungary, see unghv�ary, – , although he accepts uncritically the medieval legends about muhammad ( – ). several dutch pamphlets contributed to this polemical turn: mout, . european reporters such as the writer of a true discourse used every opportunity to depreciate christian losses, highlight their victories in the face of overwhelming odds, and detail acts revealing the tyrannical nature of the turks. another newssheet, the estate of christians, asserts that islam leads to idolatry, superstition, and atheism, revealing a profound, if typical, ignorance of the real tenets of the religion. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). jewish and christian religious practice. the notorious dutch sea beggars, in fact, adopted the ‘‘rather the turk than the pope’’ sentiment as their slogan. while late to the diplomatic game, the dutch in – hosted embassies from the levant and morocco, and then in sent their own ambassador, cornelis haga ( – ) to istanbul, a trip widely praised in both dutch and english pamphlets. at around the same time, the dutch provided a temporary haven for moriscos (iberian muslims who had been forced to convert to christianity) who had been expelled from valencia in . in answering the original question of the extent to which such interaction and diplomatic repositioning altered popular imagining of the moor, it must be acknowledged that, as with the english, dutch writers expressed a variety of responses, including anxiety over the continued conversions of christians to islam. a significant number of their publications, however, reveal a growing acclimatization that not only led to a noticeable decline in demonizing language and imagery, but which added several more hues to the palate of popular opinion. in some cases the religious identity of the moor was deemphasized in favor of political and military factors, while in others decidedly european obsessions, including that of diabolical witchcraft, were superimposed onto moorish conflicts, perhaps as a means of making them more comprehensible, and indeed more interesting, to european audiences. of course, many traditional medieval and renaissance prejudices remained, yet there is evidence of less hostile imaginings in the dutch popular press in comparison to the english, this in a medium that typically catered to the public’s thirst for eschatological predictions and miracle stories. as with the pamphlet account of haga’s mission to the ottoman sultan, which presents turkish culture and court albeit hemmed about by restrictions and fees: see mout. for examples of anti-spanish propaganda, much of it appearing on the eve of the peace treaty between spain and the republic signed at antwerp in april , see den spiegel. this work portrays in words and pictures the barbaric brutality of the spanish in the new world. ‘‘liever turks dan paaps.’’ their banners were red with a crescent, the colors of the turkish flag. de groot, , speculates that, despite some cooperation between dutch pirates and turkish corsairs along the barbary coast, this slogan did not indicate any real common basis between the rebels and the turks, but was merely a symbolic expression of anti-catholicism. see also mout, . de groot. wiegers, a, ; kaplan, b, – . for examples in english pamphlets, see friedman; for dutch, there are several in knuttel, , such as wonderbaerlicke vertooninghe of , which describes an apparition of , soldiers, dressed all in white, marching near marseilles, forecasting a major apocalyptic event. on the dutch pamphlets in general, see harline. renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). ritual as exotic but does not once mention the muslim faith, many dutch writers sought to depreciate the considerable religious differences between the two realms. this was, in fact, an approach many writers were applying to the various internal religious divisions within the republic, and it is in the unique system of religious accommodation that the dutch regents had crafted for their new nation that a partial answer can be found to the question of why dutch writers could portray a less negative image of the moor, making dealing with him less odious for dutch readers. . english merchants in mor occ o as a result of elizabeth’s positive attitude toward morocco, in april english merchants trading in morocco felt emboldened to request the privy council to regularize and approve their business, which benefitted london’s millenary trade and provided the gold, spices, and sugar in great demand in england. they also noted, however, that the jews held a peculiar place in morocco: ‘‘for the merchaunts of that countrye being onely jewes, wiche twoo only jewes have all the said comodities of that countrye in ferme of the king, persevyng the great number of clothes brought thither in undew season and time of the yere,’’ a monopolistic advantage that allowed them to offer the english lower prices for their goods, ‘‘for the said jewes, perseyvinge the hast of these unskilfull merchaunts in selling, or the gredines of them in buying, have compacted and agreed toogether not to geve above a certayne price for clothes, farr under the accustomyd price.’’ in other words, these moroccan jews were taking advantage of inexperienced english merchants impatient to make a deal, hence the writer requests that the queen forbid such ‘‘unskilful merchants’’ from plying their trade in barbary. even as they sought to reduce anxiety over dealing with muslims, many english merchants found it difficult to change their prejudicial view of jews. this is seen is other correspondence from english merchants, such as the memoir composed in by the english envoy john williams, who was sent to morocco on behalf of his merchant master edmund hogan to negotiate the purchase of saltpeter. it seemed that the only commodity morocco’s king muley abu abdallah mohammed ii (r. – ; called by williams the ‘‘black king’’) wanted in return was iron shot, which in essence meant dealing in material for weapons on both sides. samples were sent and permission granted, but before trade could begin, muley mohammed’s on haga, see de groot. sihm england, : – , april . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). government was overthrown by his uncle, muley abd el-malek. the latter, seeing the sorry state of his artillery, apparently asked williams for the same trade deal to which his nephew had agreed. he promised access to any moroccan commodities that the english desired, since he had a ‘‘good leekinge’’ of the english nation and guaranteed safe passage through moroccan waters, pledging not to deal with any other christian nation and noting that morocco was a staging post for all christian goods traveling overland to constantinople. the implication was that the english could thereby replace the italians as the favored transporters of european material to the porte. for their part, the english negotiator agreed to the terms so long as no portion of the saltpeter would fall into spanish or portuguese hands, noting furthermore the benefits of being able to unload a great deal of dyed cloth besides, since the new moroccan king favored turkish styles. the queen, while asking hogan to express her pleasure at the agreement with the king of morocco, also requested him to bring forward her complaint about the roadblocks the moroccan authorities had erected when it came to trading in moroccan sugar. she also refused to yield to the moroccan request for armaments as part of the deal, since this would be in contravention of england’s relations with other christian principalities, such as portugal. she hoped the moroccans would understand england’s dilemma. in may hogan arrived in marrakesh and was pleased at the grand reception he received as queen elizabeth’s envoy: he met with ‘‘all the christian marchauntes’’ and the king’s council, which assured him of the king’s good intentions. brought into the royal chamber, hogan observed that the king’s councilors arrayed about him included both ‘‘moores’’ and christians, to whom he delivered the queen’s letters and spoke in spanish, which was then translated into the ‘‘arrabian language,’’ not for the king’s sake, for he could understand spanish, but for the other ‘‘moores.’’ both sides agreed to hold further discussions. that very night hogan was called back from his lodgings to the court, where king abd el-malek informed him that philip ii of spain had requested postponing abd el-malek’s conference with the english until a spanish envoy could meet with the moroccan court. what the muslim ruler then apparently told hogan, and hogan’s reaction to this, is very illuminating. abd el-malek intended to ‘‘make more acoumpt of you [hogan] coming from the queene of england then of anie from spaynne: ibid., – . ibid., – . ibid., – ; on hogan’s mission, see also robinson, ; matar, , – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). for i will use him after the use of somm places in christendom,’’ to make the spanish envoy cool his heals for twenty days before granting him an audience, for, he continued, the spanish king is unable to rule his own country, which is instead governed ‘‘by the pope and inquisition.’’ hogan claims the king also expressed his strong dislike for the catholic religion, a response that hogan jumped on to indicate that abd el-malek was ‘‘a vearie earnnest protestant,’’ of ‘‘good religion and living, and well experimented as well in the old testament as new, bering great affection to godes trew religioun,’’ just as it was practiced in england. he describes the moroccan ruler this way: ‘‘i finde him to be one that liveth greatly in the feare of god, being well exercised in the scriptures, as well in the olde testament as also in the new, and he beareth a greater affection to our nation then to others because of our religion, which forbiddeth worship of our idols, and the moores called him the christian king.’’ ignorance of the religion of islam was obviously central to this misunderstanding: because abd el-malek, like any educated muslim, knew the hebrew and christian scriptures as well as his own, and expressed contempt for the catholic faith, hogan interprets the king’s faith within the strictures of european confessional definitions. this misunderstanding at this early stage of english-moroccan diplomacy helped shape the fairly positive image that the queen and her court had of muslim principalities, reinforcing hopes that muslims might be proto-protestants. certainly the fact that morocco was frequently in conflict with catholic spain — although king muley abd el-malek was energetically pursuing a treaty with spain at this very moment — was a significant factor explaining why protestant realms were willing and able to negotiate with this muslim realm. clearly a case of seeing what one wants to see, such creative misunderstandings would be replicated time and again. these early contacts between protestant merchants and moroccan muslims were definitely fraught with misunderstanding and prejudicial perspectives. these, however, were not always with negative effect, as edmund hogan’s hogan merely records the caliph as saying that the king of spain is ‘‘so governed by the inquisition that he can doe nothing of himselfe’’: sihm england, : . ibid. similarly, when he notes that the king’s alcaydes could not attend him on the friday ( june), hogan seems unaware that this was the muslim holy day, while he describes the dancing that he witnessed at the court as a ‘‘morris dance,’’ something that it surely was not; obviously hogan’s observational powers were strongly defined by his home culture: ibid., . ibid., – , correspondence of hogan to the queen, june . ibid., n . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). misconception of the moroccan king as a proto-protestant helped ease negotiations with him on the part of the english. hogan also reflects elements of the traditional stereotype of the avaricious jew, as when he requested and received from the king the forgiving of all the debts owed by english merchants to the jews. a comparable attitude is expressed in an anonymous english account of the infamous battle of el-ksar el-kebir, also called the battle of three kings, fought in august in morocco between the portuguese and the moroccans. both sides suffered devastating casualties, including the portuguese and moroccan kings, setting off a dynastic crisis in portugal and establishing in morocco the new sa‘dian dynasty, headed by ahmed al- mansur ( – ). in his efforts to explain this disaster for christendom, the english pamphleteer discourses on the nature of ‘‘barbary’’ in a fashion that clearly reveals his protestant prejudices, especially when he claims it is inhabited by a ‘‘barbarous people observinge the lawes of mahomet, geven (for the most part) to idlenes, and sundry supersticions.’’ moreover, in this country ‘‘are manie jewes enhabiting, in whose handes consisteth the most parte of the trafique of the country,’’ especially in sugar and molasses, and for which the jews paid heavy duties. the implication seems obvious: a lazy population of muslims was at the mercy of unscrupulous jewish merchants. whether or not jews were depicted in such accounts as the principal agents of deceit or themselves as exploited by muslim rulers, the picture painted by english correspondents on the relationship between the two religious others remained negative. . the enemy of my enemy a number of other english writers clarified the political-religious advantages of diplomacy with morocco, such as the memoir of captain roger bodenham, composed in response to a french book extolling the sea victory of don juan (presumably the battle of lepanto in ), which made reference to a league ‘‘defensive and offensive betwene the king of spaine and barbarie,’’ which bodenham castigated as ‘‘mahomeit for the one syde, in the end, hogan claims that he was ‘‘dismissed with great honour and speciall countenance, such as hath not ordinarily bene shewed to other ambassadors of the christians’’: ibid., . birmingham, – , has a nice summary of king sebastian’s crusade motivation and the aftermath of his defeat for the portuguese, who continued to hope for his return or resurrection until the s. sihm england, : . ibid., . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). and infydelytie on the other.’’ negotiations for such an arrangement were indeed in the works, as spain sought a regional ally against the turk. the remedy for such a threat for england was its own treaty with morocco, one that would have the added benefit of using morocco as a staging post to threaten spain with invasion, deprive it of the barbary fishery, impoverish its treasury, and encourage a revolt in spain’s indies colonies. bodenham justified such an alliance with a non-christian prince against a christian realm by quoting the dutch prince of orange, who apparently affirmed that it is ‘‘not onely lawfull in christians, but necessarye in all estates, for defence of there relygion, countrey, and libertie, to use the ayd of anye, for the tyme, to repulce and beate downe the vyolence and tyrannye offred them bye the common enemye: makinge smale deference betwene poperye and paganisme in this case, or betweene maranes [marranos] and mahomettes, in the nacions where the romishe churche and inquisycion doth nowe governe, whoe, in justifienge, accordinge to ther faith borne to us of ther relygyon, the horible massacre of paris, affirmed that yt was simulatio sancta et dissimulatio pietatis plena, to have brought these poore men professinge god soe happely into that treacherous trappe.’’ that the english captain bodenham quotes the dutch prince implies that he saw the two protestant nations as confronting the same problem, and that dutch policy might be useful as a model in international relations relating to the dangers spain presented protestant countries, so that the enemy of one’s enemy would be one’s friend. bodenham, however, defines the problem of spain in particularly religious terms so that, as a catholic nation, spain could not be trusted, as illustrated in the deception used by the catholic cardinal of lorraine to entrap the huguenots in paris for the bloody st. bartholomew’s day massacre of . such behavior, he concludes, justified allying with muslims against catholic forces. in the face of the inquisition, bodenham moreover suggests that differences between the ostensibly christian marranos and the muslims were of no account. an anonymous memoir from reinforced this view that, at least as far as these english protestants were concerned, the spanish king was ‘‘an infidell,’’ hence making a treaty with a different infidel against the spanish eminently justifiable. two years later the english merchants trading in morocco expressed their displeasure to the english privy counsel at the illegal trade in munitions with ‘‘infidels’’ from which some of their countrymen were profiting, a trade that caused their ‘‘most trew and pewar [pure] relygyon to ibid., . ibid., . ibid., . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). be broughte in questyon,’’ especially since some merchants were sending such material to spain. they also complained about how the moroccan jews, who controlled the sugar trade in barbary, had tricked them out of a considerable amount of money, although they were unable to press their case in morocco itself, fearing to displease its king. this english reporter made dealing with muslim morocco more palatable by recourse to anti- semitism: while trading with the moors was indeed dealing with the infidel, it was the jews who were most directly blamed for the exploitation of english merchants. there remain, however, real dangers to one’s religious identity in working with the moor, dangers that could be ameliorated only by better organization and control of england’s merchant adventurers. as tensions between philip ii and the english mounted, the term infidel was used more pointedly against him than against muslim allies. moreover, in a request of english merchants in morocco for permission to incorporate themselves as a company, the comment was made that without such legal protection, if faced by a lawsuit at home, english merchants in morocco might have to ‘‘of a christien become a infidell’’ and abandon their homeland to avoid punishment. here conversion to a non-christian religion is a means of avoiding legal prosecution, the recommended solution for which was not deeper religious instruction or a well-trained minister on the ground, but the formal incorporation of the merchant adventurers. on july , queen elizabeth granted the petitioners’ request for a monopoly control of the trade with morocco for a period of twelve years. elizabeth’s moroccan agents continued to express frustration, for example, john de cardenas, who in was engaged in ultimately fruitless negotiations with morocco’s king muley ahmed over a military alliance against spain. he interpreted muley ahmed’s tactics of frequent delays in arranging meetings and sending his court jew and renegados (christians who had converted to islam) in his place as evidence that the moroccan king’s allegiance was really with spain, to which was added ‘‘the naturall hatrid he beareth to christians, and his cowardly and extreeme covetous disposicion.’’ instead, de cardenas surmised, muley ahmed was hoping to draw england into an all-out war with spain while he could remain safely at home. de cardenas’s antipathy toward muley ahmed ibid., – . ibid., ; on english dramatic works relating to renegados, see vitkus, b. sihm england, : . these merchants also described the moors as ‘‘brute people’’ against whom english merchants would be at the mercy of untrustworthy interpreters. ibid., – . ibid., – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). reached so far that he was willing to excuse the jews for absconding with the goods of english merchants, for ‘‘the moore doth robbe the jewes and maketh them so bare as they are forcid to breake and runne awaye daily with the merchauntes goodes.’’ as for moorish demands for english munitions, de cardenas seethes at the notion that ‘‘christians should furnishe the sworne ennemyes of christ’’ with firearms. his solution was to move the english trade in north africa to the coastal towns of sus, ‘‘where the ingennes be, lyke as other christians do trade with the indians and with other negros,’’ rather than continuing to trade at the discretion ‘‘of an infidell, voyde of honnor and honesty,’’ and in a country subject to so much civil discord. in de cardenas’s intriguing blend of realpolitik and religious antipathy is implied a preference to deal with ‘‘irreligious’’ amerindians and black africans rather than with infidel muslims and jews in morocco. here too is obvious the power that religious beliefs and prejudices could have in making tricky trade negotiations even more difficult, and how they could even trump the profit motive. in these official records covering just over a decade in time, there appear quite wide variations in opinion about moroccans: from the moorish king as a proto-protestant to an infidel unworthy of english trust and support, the image of this often difficult ally varied dramatically. so too did opinions diverge about jews in morocco, as some of the early reporters believed that moroccan jews were responsible for the difficulties faced by english merchants, though not all english merchants were contemptuous of moroccan jewry: in henry roberts, the official english agent of the barbary merchants in morocco, described the jewish quarter of marrakesh as ‘‘the fairest place and quietest lodging in all the citie,’’ and he makes no disparaging comments about either muslims or jews. even so, there is always a hint that the jews deserved whatever hardships they faced because of their avaricious nature. such argumentation reinforces a point made by benjamin kaplan: the internal religious divisions within christendom remained the primary focus for europeans as they conversed with non-christians elsewhere on the globe. he writes, ‘‘the form of ‘otherness’ that challenged and engaged europeans most forcefully was still the religious differences among themselves.’’ in their retelling of interactions with the moor, english writers transplanted their own internal conflicts onto the muslims, just as they superimposed ibid., . ibid., – . ibid., – . kaplan, a, . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). traditional christian anti-semitism upon their reading of jewish-muslim relations within morocco, unable to interpret these as anything other than exploitive. such prejudices were, however, usually tempered by the need for new markets for their goods, especially cloth, and the need to maintain a confederate against spanish power and ambition. such negative attitudes toward jews could hinder negotiations with morocco’s king, since he relied so heavily on them in terms of both economics and diplomacy. these english examples provide a comparison to the attitudes expressed by dutch agents, who were similarly engaged in a quest for new markets and allies against spain. . the dutch republic joins the fray documents relating to relations between the protestant dutch republic and morocco are not extant until , when the regents received a copy of a translated letter addressed from muley ahmed el-mansour to don christoph, claimant to the portuguese throne. in this missive the dutch were given a window into the complex relationship between morocco, portugal, and england. at the same time, a group of amsterdam merchants petitioned the regents to obtain the same trading privileges in morocco that the english had, especially freedom from captivity. they also wanted to begin negotiations to release enslaved countrymen and to make sea travel in the region somewhat safer. muslim trading partners were apparently suggesting that as the dutch were ‘‘friends of the english who are our friends, and conduct war against the spanish,’’ it seemed logical to consider the dutch ‘‘also our friends.’’ according to these merchants, the moroccan king was also deeply impressed that so small a nation as the dutch republic should be able to wage such an effective and long war against mighty spain. in response the states general commissioned the merchant jacob bartholomeusz to deliver a letter to muley ahmed to prepare for formal negotiations. among other things, this letter affirmed that the dutch had signed an accord with england and france against spain, expecting success ‘‘with the help of god.’’ to reinforce their desire for an alliance, the dutch were sending a moroccan subject whom they had delivered from spanish captivity, hoping that this grateful man, mahumeth oachia, would bring word of how well he was treated by his rescuers. sihm dutch, : – . ibid., – . ibid., – . ibid., – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). having to adjust to a largely unknown culture for which they possessed little accurate information, dutch agents to morocco also had to contend with the instability and volatility of the local political scene. they could not act like their fellows in the new world colonies, where some agents so immersed themselves in the native society they became cultural intermediaries between amerindians and european powers. turning native in the moroccan context risked the charge of ‘‘renegadoism,’’ since islam was a clear alternate religion and society to christianity, rather than a vaguely defined paganism. when europeans ‘‘turned turk,’’ they legally lost any role they could play with their home governments and even in the tolerant netherlands, where conversos and moriscos were welcomed, but renegados were threatened with capital punishment. even so, dutch pamphleteers writing about their countrymen fighting in the moroccan armies do not identify them explicitly as renegados, even though many of them undoubtedly were. such challenges aside, the practical benefits of relations with morocco reached a dutch audience first as a result of english actions. in three envoys of the moroccan king visited the court of queen elizabeth and the queen’s secretary, robert cecil, invited noel de caron, the dutch ambassador to england, to attend the meeting, since the envoys had brought a particularly relevant gift: nine dutchmen who had been enslaved in morocco. de caron’s letter of august to the states general describes the ways in which the queen sought to impress visually upon the moroccans the glory that was england and reveals the complexity of the process of communication, as the moroccan’s words were translated from arabic into spanish, then into english for the queen, who then spoke in french to the netherlandic prisoners while de caron translated her words into dutch. elizabeth was willing to receive the prisoners as a gift from morocco, but noted that out of christian charity she would immediately hand them over to the dutch ambassador. the gift, she explained to those ransomed, also reflected the glory of the nation because the ‘‘barbary nation was willing to come so far to her, a christian princess, to do their homage.’’ the audience concluded, de caron noted some other peculiarities, including the envoys’ turbans, which de caron described as ‘‘like a night cap which they always have on their head,’’ and their diet, since they ate no meat ‘‘that they had not slaughtered themselves.’’ instead of wine they drank a mixture even in the new world, however, seventeenth-century dutch agents generally acted as pragmatic agents for their government and largely resisted any level of internalizing the cultural values of their mohawk allies: meuwese. kaplan, b, – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). of water and spices they had brought with them. apart from adding (at the beginning of this published account) the hope that god would open the eyes of the foreigners to the knowledge of his word, de caron himself makes no disparaging comments about any of the moroccans’ habits, apart from humorously noting that their dietary restrictions were surely saving money for the english crown. he does, however, report on a comment made by the english (one presumes the nobility gathered at the event), that the envoys were clothed ‘‘like their old women in the province of kent.’’ the contrast between de caron’s restraint and the comments he puts in the mouths of the english is noteworthy and will be seen again. . henr i ch �erif in , the same year as the horrific siege of oostende, the regents were distracted from more serious discussions with morocco by an alleged pretender to the moroccan throne who called himself muley bamet or henri ch�erif, claiming to be the son of muley mahomet (presumably ahmed al-mansur), the moroccan king. in that year the treasurer of utrecht paid the alleged prince three pounds to cover his travel costs and it seems that government officials accepted his claims to his princely identity. this became especially obvious when in henri ch�erif converted publicly to reformed christianity. the thirty-nine-year-old prince then requested a commission in the cavalry of prince frederick hendrik of nassau, the brother of maurice, which the regents happily endorsed in view of the supplicant’s ‘‘quality’’; reformed ministers attested also to the sincerity of his conversion. the hague therefore provided him with fifty gulden and letters of recommendation to the prince that included their desire that this princely convert be provided weapons, two horses, and a monthly income. in april , the city of leiden published the marriage banns of ‘‘henricus charif, prince of morocco’’ with trijntgen barthelmees from sluys. the states treasurer noted payments of gulden on march to henri cherif, ‘‘the cheriff of morocco’’ so that ‘‘he would not trouble the states,’’ and of gulden on june so that he could travel to the army. after this reference the trail goes cold, although it can be assumed that the convert became a member of prince frederick hendrik’s army. warachtighe verclaringhe. see the various documents in sihm dutch, : – ; also resoluti€en der staten-generaal, ( – ): – ( october ). see also kaplan, b, n . sihm dutch, : . resoluti€en der staten-generaal, ( – ): – n ( december ). renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). it seems unlikely that henri ch�erif was anything like what he claimed, but was instead one of many adventurers seeking to profit from the intense desire of reformed leaders to display prominent examples of converts from islam. one should not be surprised at the credulity of these officials, for there trod throughout europe many prophets and pretenders to exotic thrones who had beguiled notable europeans, such as david reuveni, who in the s had deceived the papal court with his claims to be the brother of king joseph, ruler of the lost tribes of israel, until he was proven a fraud. it appears that the dutch regents were spared such a humiliating revelation, and their success with the alleged prince may have added to their self-identity as god’s chosen nation and encouraged their efforts to forge alliances with muslim princes. cherif’s story was part of a broader genre of conversion narratives from both catholic and protestant presses aiming to prove that their church was the true church, having won over various prominent members of the opposing confession, or jews, or in this case a muslim prince. . european reports on mor oc co’s civil wars, – when their focus returned to morocco, the dutch regents sent the merchant peter merttensz coy to barbary in may to return moorish captives from sluys to their homeland and to negotiate a free trade deal, the release of dutch prisoners, and an agreement allowing dutch ships free use of the port of larache as a base from which to attack spanish shipping. the captives were to act as a pledge that the dutch, having freed themselves by god’s grace from their own spanish tyranny, would maintain the fight against their common enemy. further negotiations, however, were delayed by another moroccan civil war. this is more or less the conclusion of the sihm editor le comte henry de castries, who finds no surviving possibilities among the sons of muley mohammed el-messloukh: sihm dutch, : – n . eliav-feldon; davis, , – . further on confused identities, see, of course, davis, . there seems to be no surviving pamphlets about henri ch�erif. catholic narratives were even more prominent. see duke, , who counts some catholic and eighty-five protestant accounts in french between and ; and lists for dutch works, knuttel, , nos. , , , and . see, for example, pereyra, which seeks to comfort king philip iii over the loss of his dutch possessions with the news of a mass conversion of muslims in the east indies. sihm dutch, : – . ibid., – . ibid., – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). such political and social strife was a hallmark of morocco after the death of ahmad i al-mansur in . european reports on moroccan affairs at this time focused on european combatants, usually renegados. while one english reporter, r. cottington, castigated muley zaydan for consulting his ‘‘sorcerers and astrologers’’ before a battle, a sign of the ‘‘verie suspicious’’ nature of ‘‘a barbarian,’’ he avoids explicitly demonizing rhetoric. he instead praises the recently deceased ahmad i as a great ruler who ‘‘was not too tyrannicall,’’ and ‘‘was alwayes of minde to keepe peace with christendome, with spaine, who was his next potent neighbour, but oboue all loued the english nation,’’ admiring especially the late queen elizabeth. his three contentious heirs suffered from an abundance of ambition but with only modest talents for governing, while one of these, muley sheck (mohammed esh sheikh el mamun, r. fez – ), was unfortunately influenced by a feckless spanish renegado who taught him how to drink wine. cottington also notes that the early battles lacked any real ferocity, since ‘‘they were all mores of one country, and one religion and howsoeuer the kings might be affected one to the other, yet between the cominality of each side was no hatred onely for their paye, came into the field to fight one against an other.’’ evidently cottington still believed that people of the same nation and religion would not engage in vicious warfare against each other, hardly a realistic expectation for a protestant living during the wars of religion. as with his critique of muley sheck’s propensity for wine and muley zaydan’s for soothsaying, this remark was surely intended as a criticism of contemporary english behavior. cottington also applied machiavellian theory to explain that one of the combatants had lost because he had desired to be loved rather than feared by the moroccans. similar to cottington, an anonymous dutch pamphlet-writer concentrates on the fates of european combatants in this civil war, but also notes that as troops from fez were plundering marrakesh, the moroccans complained that the fez people were barbarians and ‘‘no better than jews,’’ a telling een cort; cottington. on the saadi (or sa‘dian) dynasty, see v�eronne; kaba. the actual dates of rule for each heir are vague: see hess, . on the use of renegados by moroccan princes, see birmingham, . cottington, g r . his drunkenness apparently led to ‘‘other detestable vices, which amongst the mores commonly accompanieth that sinne’’: ibid., b v –b v . as matar, , , notes, the english tended to characterize the muslims as sodomites. cottington, d r . whether or not zaydan had read machiavelli is not clear, although he would likely have had access to machiavelli’s muslim predecessor, ibn zafar al-siqill�ı, whose advice to princes was comparable to that of the later italian: dekmeijian and thabit. renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). statement given the low esteem that the muslims of fez accorded their jewish neighbors. in both accounts sympathy for fellow countrymen competes with anger over their renegado status. commenting on the nasty end of most of the renegados, cottington moralizes: ‘‘this was the ende of them, who had liued in the streights of gibraltar and the mediterranean sea, not as marchants by honest trading, but hauing committed spoyle vpon diuers seafaring men, felt the bloody hande of a barbarous natien (as a deserued punishment sent from god) to execute iustice for their manifold committed wrongs and outrages.’’ these two european writers found themselves in a difficult position when seeking to explain the victory of one aspiring king over the other; they could not, as christians, imply that god was on either side in the moroccan civil war, as they would have done had the battles been fought in europe. instead, they had to find nonreligious explanations, resorting to bad decisions or personal vices on the part of the participants, or to machiavelli’s political theory. it remains an open question whether these writers were able to apply such secular reasoning to events closer to home. . moors, jews, and doopsgezinden in amsterdam having won the day, muley zaydan set about to normalize relations with european merchants and governments, in and sending embassies to the dutch republic who succeeded in negotiating a formal trade agreement, although zaydan’s desire for a military alliance against spain was frustrated when the dutch signed a twelve-year peace with spain in april . the dutch regents therefore rebuffed the moroccan ruler’s plans for a joint attack on spain, although a more limited treaty was eventually signed on december . among those helping zaydan in these negotiations was his agent to the dutch republic, the moroccan jewish merchant samuel pallache, who had first arrived in amsterdam in , and who accompanied the moroccan ambassador ahmed ibn ‘abdallah on his official visits. the moroccans’ tour of holland in december provoked considerable interest, as noted by the contemporary mennonite chronicler pieter jans twisck: ‘‘king mulay sidan of morocco, sent an ambassador to the united netherlands, who sought to make a firm and certain neighborliness and een cort, aijv. on the jews of fez, see davis, , , where she cites leo africanus (yuhanna al-asad): ‘‘the jews are much deprecated at fez.’’ cottington, f r–v . he earlier notes how abdela had spared zaydan’s english mercenaries in honor of the service ‘‘that nation’’ had performed for him: ibid., aiv v . de groot, – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). correspondence with the united lands, at land, at sea and upon the rivers, so that they might do business freely with each other, whereto were concluded eighteen articles at the hague.’’ he insinuates no criticism of the decision to sign a treaty with a muslim prince or of using a jew as intermediary, in large measure because morocco and the republic shared a hated enemy in catholic spain. this conservative mennonite, moreover, expresses no discomfort with the presence of jews in holland; instead, the greatest threat to the hard won ‘‘freedom of conscience’’ that mennonites extolled was neither judaism at home nor islamic foreign powers, but the black legend of the spanish inquisition. this made dealing with the moors much easier. pallache himself was a controversial figure who dealt in a variety of items, including arms and munitions, and who was later forced to defend himself in an english court on charges of piracy against the spanish. he was also involved in later efforts to create a dutch-turco-moroccan alliance, using his nephew moses as an agent in istanbul. some of his plans failed, while at times his family’s interests clashed with those of the dutch regents; it did not help that samuel was often playing a double game with the spanish, although the states general never caught wind of this. despite several setbacks, samuel, along with his brother joseph and nephew moses, were indispensible in establishing formal relations between morocco and the dutch government. samuel also assisted the new jewish community in amsterdam, helping to establish a second sephardi congregation, the neve salom, which met in his home. while relations between samuel and stadholder prince maurice of nassau had become strained in samuel’s last years, maurice served as a pallbearer at samuel’s funeral in . jews therefore were the central mediators between the christian dutch republic and muslim morocco. for northern protestants unacquainted with the multiethnic mediterranean, having the well-connected and multilinguist twisck, : . just three pages earlier twisck reports, with a note of criticism in his voice, on philip iii’s expulsion of the moriscos from valencia, and a few pages later, on the arrival of the persian ambassador in : ibid., , . twisck evidenced considerable sympathy for the persecuted spanish conversos: ibid., : – ; see also waite, . garc�ıa-arenal and wiegers, – , which now replaces the older literature on the pallaches, such as abrahams; gans. along with garc�ıa-arenal and wiegers, see also de groot, , – , – , – . bodian, – . garc�ıa-arenal and wiegers, – , – , – , have corrected the belief that samuel had helped organize the first jewish community in amsterdam in the s, since he first arrived in the city in . see the states general resolution, april , in sihm dutch, : . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). pallaches as go-betweens meant that the dutch could move well beyond a trade deal in their relations with the moor. even before pallache arrived in , the dutch regents tacitly allowed conversos to revert to judaism, and this may have been part of a broader diplomatic strategy toward muslim rulers. whatever their motivation, the regents found ways to appease the complaints of reformed ministers about tolerating jews by making essentially surface changes to the system of informal toleration. for example, in , some remonstrants — those of the reformed who desired an inclusive national church rather than the narrower version promoted by the calvinists — complained that the government was tolerating jews while allowing their own repression, despite being fellow reformed christian citizens. in response, amsterdam’s magistrates drafted a bylaw forbidding jews from expressing contempt for christianity, seeking to convert christians, or having sex with christian women. however, three years later the states general gave each city the leeway to decide for itself how to treat jews, and amsterdam now openly welcomed them, but without formal citizenship rights. it is certainly difficult to imagine how the kind of open negotiations among jews, christians, and muslims taking place in early seventeenth- century holland could have succeeded without a strong measure of religious toleration. other christian realms relied on the ostensibly catholic members of the portuguese nation to assist in negotiations with muslim governments. however, negotiating with conversos added an extra layer of subterfuge to such dealings since the true identity of the converso agents had to remain hidden and their allegiance left in some doubt as they acted as honest brokers. by according their sephardim public status as jews, the dutch republic simplified the process. here the multicultural interaction occurred not just within the quasi-private arena of the estates general but also in the private and public spaces of amsterdam. while largely absent from the pamphlet literature, anti-semitic comments are rife in the less public forum of reformed synods. for example, in , the gorinchem synod of south holland expressed its great frustration that the dutch regents had permitted a synagogue of jews, despite the fact that the jews were perpetrating their abominable blasphemies and scandalous acts, both inside and outside their synagogues, and earnestly sought the regents to forbid their synagogish gatherings: see knuttel, , . the following year the first ashkenazi jews arrived in the realm, and now there were two distinct jewish communities, eventually with their own synagogues. as with mennonites, jews had to manage their community’s internal affairs, religious courts, education, and poor relief. on the intriguing form of freedom of worship in embassy chapels, see kaplan, a, – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). at the critical moment when the dutch regents were reaching out diplomatically to morocco and the ottomans, three important actors met in amsterdam, all with a strong interest in deepening understanding and relations between muslims and christians: the jew samuel pallache; his muslim colleague ‘abd al-‘az�ız b. muhammad al-taghlib�ı, who was mulay zaydan’s morisco secretary; and the liberal mennonite (doopsgezind ) jan theunisz. while scholars have detailed their individual stories, there has been no serious effort to explore how their interaction both illustrates the distinctive religious situation in amsterdam and influenced how other dutch citizens perceived muslims and jews both within and outside the realm. ‘abd al-‘az�ız was one of a small number of muslims (especially ex- moriscos) who encouraged the study of arabic in the united provinces and discussed theology with dutch politicians and theologians. part of the moroccan embassy to holland in , ‘abd al-‘az�ız stayed behind in amsterdam after his colleagues had returned to morocco. he resided with theunisz, one of the city’s most intriguing citizens. a distiller, innkeeper, printer, and intellectual, theunisz was a member of the waterlander doopsgezind fellowship, which, in contrast to twisck’s conservative group, deemphasized adherence to formal confessions of faith and promoted discussions with other religious groups that stressed personal piety and nonviolence, including the english brownists (who joined with them in ), the remonstrants, and in some cases the refugee polish socinians, who denied the doctrine of the trinity. some of theunisz’s coreligionists moved in spiritualistic directions, but theunisz preferred an intellectual stance more in keeping with the university elite, associating with scholars from a wide variety of religious and confessional backgrounds. waterlander doopsgezinden such as theunisz emphasized religious toleration and an ecumenical approach that ultimately contributed to the skeptical and rational climate of seventeenth- century amsterdam. above all, theunisz, like twisck, was a principled proponent of freedom of conscience, and he applied this broadly indeed. after theunisz bumped into ‘abd al-‘az�ız, the two struck up a conversation and theunisz invited his muslim counterpart to reside with him. they became friends, and for four months the two conversed in arabic as ‘abd al-‘az�ız helped hone the doopsgezind ’s linguistic skills until he became the most accomplished dutch scholar of arabic in holland at that moment. in theunisz convinced the regents of the university of leiden to provide him with a probationary lectureship in the language, until the younger calvinist scholar thomas erpenius alerted them to theunisz’s on theunisz and the waterlanders, see zijlstra, – ; dipple, – . on the collegiants, see fix, and . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). religious identity as ‘‘a holland anabaptist,’’ hence the professorship was handed to erpenius. theunisz was also a capable hebraist, eventually teaching this language at the amsterdam academy. he was also one of the earliest printers of hebrew works in amsterdam and became a key member of an intriguing network of english and dutch scholars interested in matters arabic and hebrew, beginning with theunisz’s first teacher of arabic, the polish converso philippus ferdinandus, who died in having just accepted the post of professor of arabic at the university of leiden. theunisz also befriended the english rector of the latin school in amsterdam, mattheus saldus, and the english nonconformist john paget, who since was preacher of the english presbyterians in amsterdam. theunisz was also acquainted with the english puritan hugh broughton, who came to amsterdam to dispute with jews and who had at least one of his works translated from hebrew and printed by theunisz. meetings with such nonconformists were often held at theunisz’s home, and collaborative work sometimes resulted. one of these was a polemical treatise on the nature of christ that theunisz composed with ‘abd al-‘az�ız and that theunisz used to convince the states general that he was worthy of the arabic teaching position. it appears that this doopsgezind had the rare talent of being able to work with people across the religious spectrum. theunisz’s skills in both translation and multicultural collaboration were quickly appreciated by the stadholder and the states general. this is evident in another collaborative work that the stadholder commissioned of theunisz: a translation of a letter sent from the ottoman sultan ahmed i (r. – ) to the dutch government, none of whose members could of course read turkish. theunisz succeeded in this task only thanks to the multicultural network he had established. in the foreword to his version of the letter, theunisz explains to the regents the process of translation that was required, since theunisz knew arabic rather than turkish. so thanks to a ‘‘hebrew . . . coming here [to theunisz’s home] each wijnman, . ibid., . the title of the work was antwoort op een hebreuwschen brief van een jode, begeerichlijck vereyschende onderwijs des christen geloofs: into hebreuwsch gedaen door hugo broughton, uytten hebreeusche in nederduytscher tale overgheset door jan theunissen (amsterdam, ). most of this information is from wijnman, – , – ; see also wiegers, b, – . further on mennonites and islam, see waite, a. interestingly, the year before theunisz’s appointment, the university’s curators were seriously considering appointing a moroccan jew — likely moses or isaac pallache — to the position: wijnman, – ; wiegers, b, . copie van eenen brief. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f day’’ the turkish original was transliterated into hebrew letters, but keeping the arabic vocabulary. this the ‘‘hebrew’’ knew how to read and pronounce well. h. f. wijnman identifies this jew as the venetian merchant joseph pardo of salonica, who just happened to be visiting the city. once converted into the blend of hebrew and arabic, the letter’s contents were translated into spanish and interpreted by samuel pallache, who was likely the contact between pardo and theunisz. it was then delivered to the states general, but was printed, it seems, without the permission of either party. at this critical juncture in relations between the dutch republic and muslim principalities, the regents clearly benefitted from their policy of religious toleration, permitting, if not actively encouraging, previously persecuted religious groups, in this case anabaptists and jews, to work together on government-sponsored projects. while not quite the convivencia of medieval spain, it is hard to imagine any other locale in northern europe where this open collaboration could have been possible in the early seventeenth century. at this moment the doopsgezind theunisz was at the center of muslim and jewish activities in amsterdam, and undoubtedly helped both levantine and sephardic jews to feel at home in the city. in his preface theunisz too presents the details about the involvement of jews in the translation without any hint of concern, nor does he seek to cover up their religious identity. if not intended for publication, then his editorial comments were meant solely for the regents who had come to respect and rely heavily on pallache for their relations with muslim rulers, both moroccan and ottoman: they even provided assistance to him when in he was on trial in london for piracy. moreover, whoever was wijnman, – . the work was printed without the identity of the press. theunisz possessed a printing press, but there would have been little advantage for him to print this work and, given the delicacy of relations with spain at this moment, there is no reason why the states general would have approved its dissemination. their ambassador to england, noel de caron, effectively defended him, despite at one stage agreeing with his spanish counterpart that as a jew pallache deserved no better treatment than a dog, but as a representative of a monarch (the king of morocco), he should be treated with all of the dignity that office provided. he was released. reading de caron’s other correspondence referring to the pallaches, it appears that his comments during the trial were merely a rhetorical strategy aimed at winning over the english judges: certainly the aggrieved spanish ambassador to england declaimed that the dutch preferred jews and barbarians to christians. see sihm dutch, : ; de caron’s correspondence about the trial takes up ibid., – . see also de caron’s other comments to the states-general in ibid., – ( february ); – ( march ); – , – ( march ); and especially his report on the trial, – (march–april, ). see also garc�ıa-arenal and wiegers, – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). responsible for the turkish letter’s publication did not fear a backlash over the news that a sectarian was working openly with non-converso jews on a state document. in theunisz’s case, interpersonal contact and discussion helped undercut some of the older stereotypes that impeded dialogue with non-christians and made alliances with them against a common enemy more conceivable. a few years later, in , erpensius himself hosted another morisco agent of morocco, ahamd ibn qasim al-hajari, who resided for several months as a friend at erpensius’s home in leiden and who, unsurprisingly, made positive comments about the reformed faith in contrast to the catholic when visiting the hague. attitudes toward jews acted in some ways as a barometer of just how far a realm could go in relations with muslim princes, given the extent to which the latter relied on jews economically and politically. a survey of the correspondence between dutch diplomats, such as de caron, and the states general reveals a decided lack of negative epithets applied to jews, such as the pallaches, a clear contrast to the reports of english statements included in these records. while space does not permit an exploration of dutch relations with the ottomans, it must be noted that jews and muslims who had experienced the tolerance and generosity of the dutch, especially in amsterdam, helped open doors for the dutch agent cornelis haga’s admission to the porte, especially in the persons of moses pallache and a number of exiled moriscos who seem to have been permitted to hold an informal mosque in amsterdam. it is also important to reiterate here that the dutch pamphlet detailing the story of haga’s mission and meeting with the sultan’s court makes not one reference to the religion of the ottomans. here then is further evidence that the strategy of the regents in crafting their system of informal tolerance, in which non-state-sponsored religions could worship freely behind the fiction of private space, was the pamphlet does not name the place, printer, writer, or translator, while the go-between is merely named jacob, all signs of an unofficial publication: de groot, – . interestingly, while the original letter recalled the generosity of the states general in releasing turkish prisoners at sluis in , the printed copie van eenen brief identifies the prisoners as moors, and does not make specific geographical or chronological references: it is impossible to say which member of the translation team was responsible for these emendations, although pallache’s work on behalf of morocco may have played a role in this. kaplan, b, , – . waite, b, . two sources, both catholics, comment upon this: see kaplan, b, ; wiegers, a, . waerachtich verhael, translated faithfully into english as a trve declaration. for haga’s mission, see de groot, – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). creating a public atmosphere in which religious differences were becoming commonplace and evoking much less anxiety and demonizing polemics than elsewhere in northern europe. in the dutch republic it was even possible to not belong officially to any confessional body, something that a large minority of dutch citizens took advantage of until the middle of the century. this unusual domestic arrangement greatly assisted the dutch in dealing with non-christian principalities outside of their borders. it also reduced demonizing rhetoric against the religious other within their own borders. . europeans and the moroc can ‘‘saint-king’’ one of the rare occasions when a dutch writer used explicitly demonizing rhetoric in reference to the moor arose as part of a cluster of pamphlets recounting another civil war in morocco. three pamphlets on this have survived: a newssheet printed in delft, an english pamphlet, and another dutch-language pamphlet composed not by a native dutchman, but by a moroccan jew, moses pallache. it is with the latter two that the devil makes an appearance, hence it is important to examine all of these works in some detail, correlating what these writers say about moroccan affairs with european conceptions of demonology and witchcraft in the early seventeenth century. at the time of haga’s famous mission to istanbul, a new civil war broke out between the european-friendly king muley zaydan and a former ally, a charismatic mystic named ahmed ibn ab�u mahall�ı ( – ), called muley hamet ben abdela by european writers. by zaydan had dominated government from marrakesh, and was identified by european correspondents as the king of morocco. his rule over the whole kingdom was, however, tenuous and patchy, especially when in spain captured the port city of larache thanks to the connivance of zaydan’s brother muley sheck, who was a guest of spain and who was seeking help to regain the moroccan throne. this traitorous action against islam became widely known, and the reputation of the sa‘dian family as defenders of the faith dropped precipitously, opening the door for a populist uprising led by ab�u mahall�ı. calling himself a reformer of true islam, his followers saw him as the mahd�ı, the messiah figure whose arrival heralded the last kaplan, . waite, b. een wonderlicke ende vreemde; the new prophetical king; een waerachtige beschrijvinghe. renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). days. european writers admitted that he possessed a reputation for sanctity and strict observance of the muslim law. the ensuing civil war quickly took on the characteristics of a holy war against the sa‘dian family, as ab�u mahall�ı condemned zaydan’s favoring of christians and depicted the conflict as a battle for pure islam against syncretizers. the two armies clashed on may at the entrance to marrakesh, and zaydan was forced to withdraw to safi. he found another southern ally to continue the fight against ab�u mahall�ı, and during the next battle outside marrakesh on november , the saint-king was killed by a musket ball. zaydan’s portuguese troops rushed ab�u mahall�ı’s camp and his troops fled. this civil war that focused on the question of muslim-christian interaction provoked some intriguing spin in the european press, as christian european writers could see mirrored in it their own religious disputes. the first of the three pamphlets describing this conflict was a newssheet printed anonymously in delft shortly after ab�u mahall�ı’s amazing may victory. the translated title of this newssheet reveals much about the author’s perspective: a wonderful and strange new tiding, written out of barbary, how that a new king was raised up there, named muley hamet ben abedela, the titular king of the two seas and of the sands passing through to china; raised up through the command of god in order to bring peace into the world, believing in the law of god, a fighter against the unbelieving ( ). according to the unnamed merchant correspondent, ab�u mahall�ı claimed a divine mission against unbelievers, fulfilling a number of written moorish prophecies, including the finding of a lost drum, which inspired his followers to fight against overwhelming odds. the correspondent describes a meeting between european merchants and the saint-king in his tent on july , after he had won the seemingly miraculous victory over muley zaydan. according to this source, ab�u mahall�ı felt called by god to fight against unbelievers, and his supporters were inspired by an old prediction of a prophet originating from the sahara who would first bring war, then peace. beginning two years earlier with just ‘‘three or four servants, on zaydan and larache, see wiegers, , – . wiegers, , . it was from safi that zaydan decided to send his family members and his extensive library to agadir, the former on a dutch ship, the latter on a french vessel. however, the french captain was captured by spanish ships, which brought the literature treasures to spain, where they still reside in the escarole: v�eronne, – . v�eronne, – . een wonderlicke ende vreemde. as proof of his calling the pretender to the throne said ‘‘that he had found this drum,’’ evidently some aspect of the prophecy now lost to us: ibid., ai v , ‘‘segghen/ dat hy desen trommel ghevonden heeft.’’ reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). two horses, a mule and two camels,’’ he had called out for all those wishing to ‘‘fight for the truth’’ to join him. the first conflict with one of zaydan’s governors had been against overwhelming odds, yet ab�u mahall�ı’s troops were motivated by ‘‘their faith,’’ while their opponents panicked and fled. this was, of course, regarded as a miraculous sign of ab�u mahall�ı’s verity as a prophet, as were other indicators. by may, he had tens of thousands of troops from across the saharan region, a people, this correspondent says, much tougher than the moors and ‘‘an enemy of all other nations.’’ the dutch reporter then tells the reader that once the prophet ab�u mahall�ı had gathered his forces on the outskirts of marrakesh, he emboldened his troops with assurances that they would be fighting christians, whose artillery and musket balls would not hurt them. ‘‘keeping their laws more than other moors,’’ ab�u mahall�ı’s troops prayed instead of drinking wine on the eve of battle and their zeal won the day, forcing zaydan to flee to sus. during a july meeting, the new king told european merchants that they were ‘‘welcome in my land; keep yourselves pious, [and] you will find with me good justice and policies, for god has sent me to protect the oppressed, eradicate evil from the world, [and] restore and reestablish his laws.’’ they also saw the bodily marks predicted in the moorish prophecies, and were told of the king’s ambition to conquer all the christian lands as far as rome. to his departed rival he wrote a letter calling zaydan ‘‘chitan,’’ or devil, boldly challenging him to finish the fight and not ‘‘run away like a jew.’’ despite the obvious dutch affinity for zaydan, the writer does not demonize the saint-king. this was certainly a pragmatic stance, given that, as far as the writer knew, europeans would have to accommodate themselves to this new ruler. despite ab�u mahall�ı’s pretensions at world dominance and his foreign religion, this reporter is impressed with the new king’s piety, and there are no aspersions cast on islam in general, nor in the prophet-king’s particular version of it. instead, piety, unattached to doctrine or confession, is highlighted. this is an interesting example of quasi-objective reporting, one made possible thanks to the writer’s experience with the dutch schuilkerk tradition, in which each religious sect was responsible for its own affairs, and citizens therefore no longer had to concern themselves with the possibly heterodox opinions of neighbors. this sympathetic posture was not pursued by the author of the english newssheet, printed in london at least twice in . the author’s source was ibid., aij v . ibid., aiiij r . see especially kaplan, and . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). a merchant called r. s., writing from morocco on september . unlike the dutch account just cited, this work — written while the prophet- king was still in power — strongly imputes a diabolical motivation to ab�u mahall�ı’s ostensibly pious appearance and actions. while admitting that several of his prophecies were fulfilled, such as his assurances to his troops that the enemy’s artillery would not hurt them, the writer is affronted by ab�u mahall�ı’s claim that god had called him to conquer southern europe and rule morocco for forty years, when ‘‘christ must come to judgment.’’ r. s. suggests that ‘‘diabolical witchcraft’’ may have been behind the prophet’s success, while the newssheet’s editor hopes that his work ‘‘may serue to some good vse also for vs christians of these last daies, vpon whom the ends of the world are come: to see how busily the deuell acteth his last part, how in this last age of the world . . . for that he knoweth he hath but a short time, yeers by his own calculation.’’ the editor describes the ‘‘miserable moores’’ as blinded by the devil and given over, ‘‘beyond measure,’’ to ‘‘superstitious vanities . . . blind prophesies, dreams, necromancie and such like,’’ by which means this ‘‘fanaticall’’ saint has entrapped them. the moral is clear: for ‘‘whether christian or heathen, the vse is generall to all, beware of these saints for all their hypocriticall shewe of holinesse.’’ here, then, are two contemporaneous news accounts of ab�u mahall�ı’s amazing victory over muley zaydan, both printed before the latter’s resurgence and return to the throne, but which make contrasting observations. one factor explaining this difference was that the dutch government was actively pursuing closer relations with morocco while england’s king james i was the new prophetical king, a r, b r. the writer summarizes hamet’s goals as ‘‘to stablish their prophets religion, that was decaied, and to fight against the christians, and recouer those parts of christendome the king of spaine holds from them, as granada, anadaluzia, etc.,’’ as well as to conquer italy and france by crossing a bridge that will miraculously surface at the mouth of the straights of gibraltar. once he had defeated these realms, he would reign for forty years, then sidie nicer would arrive for the judgment. on this last point, however, r. s., the merchant correspondent, notes that the moors call this eschatological christ sidie nicer, to whom all authority will be given. this seems to have been the islamic eschatological teaching as distorted through a christian lens. in arabic, jesus is called isa, and muslims deny that he was crucified, affirming instead that he was resurrected. most believe that isa will return to earth at the time appointed by allah, end warfare, usher in peace, and destroy the muslim antichrist figure known as ad-dajjal. see daniel, – ; armstrong. the new prophetical king, a r–v. hamet’s alleged saintliness was merely evidence that the devil can ape god, performing ‘‘lying wonders’’ to impress the credulous and to prepare the way for the antichrist. ibid., a r . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). actively discouraging such efforts, hence the dutch reporter had to be more careful in his exposition. it is also possible that the english account was composed as a satirical device to critique english adherence to superstition and magic by comparison to the ‘‘superstitious’’ practices of the moors, but there is no perceivable irony or signs of such satire in what appears to be a straightforward account. instead, this is a writer with his own eschatological obsessions who is affronted that a muslim would claim similar prophetic authority. his assertion that ab�u mahall�ı’s inspiration was diabolical was a means of reinforcing his own message that the true messiah was indeed coming soon. moreover, since catholicism was for english protestants the religion of the antichrist, the author of the english newssheet may also have been seeking to warn james i away from both catholic influences and those sectarians who, like the moorish prophet, were proclaiming their own prophecies and miracles that the writer believed would be proven false. given how other contemporaneous english travel writers were associating the religions of the amerindians, the chinese, and the turks with devil worship, such demonizing of the muslim saint-king should not be surprising. the last of the known newssheets on this saint-king is on a number of fronts even more extraordinary. printed twice in in rotterdam, this work appeared after ab�u mahall�ı’s defeat at the hands of the resurgent zaydan in november . although it is not known whether or not the writer of this work had read (or had had a hand in composing) the english newssheet with its hint of diabolical witchcraft, it appears that the rumors of such had developed considerably since . the editor lists as the author other writers focused on the coming year of the beast as the date of the antichrist’s appearance, but the pamphlet’s forty years would have brought the end to around . see, for example, lake, – ; firth. for the years between and , a search of antichrist in eebo delivered nine separate works, excluding the new prophetical king. five of these were in latin, and the vernacular titles were: downame; rainolds; and thompson. the dutch were not immune, as seen in a dutch astrological pamphlet that claimed to have identified the antichrist’s parents as a jewish father and his daughter: een wonderlijcke nieuwe tijdinghe. the antichrist could succeed by deceiving christians through false saintliness. for example, see the excerpts in burton and loomba, esp. , where alexander whitaker in compares the priests of virginian aboriginals with ‘‘our english witches’’; and ibid., , where richard hakluyt in comments on the indigenous peoples of the marianas islands that ‘‘these people wholly worship the devil, and oftentimes have conference with him, which appeareth unto them in most ugly and monstrous shape.’’ een waerachtige beschrijvinghe. the printer notes that this version is ‘‘after the copy’’ of another, but that one is not found in the knuttel collection. the edition has been included in sihm dutch, : – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). of this pamphlet moses pallache (mose palatse), the ‘‘son and nephew of muley zaydan’s ambassadors,’’ joseph and samuel pallache, although the original publication by moses seems not to be extant. in this account ab�u mahall�ı was a ‘‘sorcerer [toovenaer] and deceiver named bumchii,’’ a false holy man who learned from a saharan necromancer how to use a set of tiny drums to call up a demon and make a pact with him in exchange for military success; the prophetically recovered drum has now become a satanic percussion instrument. after honing his new sorcery skills, bumchii began preaching to the gullible moors, cementing his authority by ‘‘many false signs and miracles.’’ muley zaydan is the story’s hero, whose flight to sus was not cowardice but prudence, and after rebuilding his forces, ‘‘as a good and valiant soldier,’’ he again confronted the sorcerer, finally winning the day after a vicious battle during which the sorcerer king was slain, and on whose corpse were allegedly found letters of sorcery and pacts with the devil. the sympathies of this pamphleteer are obviously with zaydan, ‘‘whom god almighty had exalted, having an alliance and friendship with the noble mighty lords of the states of the united provinces.’’ this, moses pallache concludes, was a warning that no ‘‘subjects should rebel and raise themselves against their rulers, for at the last god will chastize them again, giving each one what they deserve.’’ appended to this pamphlet is another newssheet describing the ‘‘treason’’ committed by jesuits in aachen, germany, and the two works together prove that rebellion against a duly constituted ruler is treasonous, and divine providence will always win out. in the story about bumchii, the protagonist selected for praise and divine sanction was muslim, but one favorably inclined to dutch interests. to be on the side of the dutch was to be on god’s side and to be an enemy of the devil and his earthly agents. here, then, are examples of an englishman and a moroccan jew using demonizing rhetoric to condemn one muslim side against the other. there is evidence, in fact, that moses pallache’s story of the moroccan necromancer leo africanus (hassan ibn muhammad al-wazzan) records in his geographical history of africa the activities of ‘‘women-witches’’ of fez, who use their reputation to cast out demons in order to procure lesbian lovers. he castigates husbands who stupidly cooperate in their rituals, preparing for the witches a banquet, after which they ‘‘daunce very strangely at the noise of drums’’: africanus, : : . yet africanus makes no reference to demonic pacts, or to male sorcerers using drums. een waerachtige beschrijvinghe, [title page– v]. garc�ıa-arenal and wiegers do not analyze this pamphlet by moses. that jesuits were also linked to sorcery in dutch protestant propaganda is clear from wonderlicke nieuwe tijdinghe, which referred to the sorcery (toouerijen) and idolatry of jesuits. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). king had earlier influenced the attitudes of the dutch regents in the desired direction. in the states general records of august , the regents request the french government to provide a safe conduct for moses pallache, who was overseeing the transport of munitions and supplies from the dutch republic to morocco to assist muley zaydan, ‘‘the king of barbary,’’ after ‘‘the disaster of the battle he lost against a sorcerer.’’ the french rejected the request, since the moroccans had yet to restore property taken from french residents in morocco. it is important to note also the timing of the publication of this pamphlet for its relationship with the history of witchcraft prosecution in holland. the last judicial execution for the crime was in in nijmegen, while the last formal witch trial to be conducted in holland was still underway as the civil war raged in morocco, having begun in but ending shortly after when the accused, whose charges included making a pact with the devil, was released from prison in gorinchem. this sudden ending of witch trials was through an explicit decision of the republic’s regents, who, after consulting with their university professors and jurists, put a halt to legally sanctioned executions for witchcraft, well in advance of most other principalities and in clear contrast to their catholic neighbors to the south, where witch panics were in full bloom. moses pallache’s pamphlet is not the work of a european christian, but of a moroccan jew who lived in both the north african muslim and dutch protestant worlds. in it there is not the same sense of competing eschatological schemes as seen in the english pamphlet. like his uncle samuel, moses was engaged in a broader enterprise of improving relations between moors and christians while at the same time building up the family’s international trade business. why he took such an extreme position with respect to the short-lived reign of the saint-king remains an intriguing question. he was clearly seeking to make his moroccan sponsor, muley zaydan, look like a rational and safe trading partner by comparison to what he depicts as the extreme fanaticism and, indeed, diabolical affiliation of his opponent. moreover, in the light of the era’s dominant binary perception of the cosmos, by associating ab�u mahall�ı with the devil, moses was strongly implying that zaydan was on god’s side. moses too sihm dutch, : – . de waardt, , , where he summarizes in english the chronological developments. on moses’s efforts, see also de groot, – . in moses travelled to istanbul. on polarity and the devil, see especially clark, – . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). must have been aware of europeans’ obsession with diabolical witchcraft, despite dutch courts turning away from witch hunting. by implication, then, both the dutch and moroccans had in some respect defeated the superstition of sorcery, in contrast to the spanish netherlands. having given up both heresy and witch prosecution, the dutch remained willing to see other realms as infected with diabolical sorcery. as seen in this and other pamphlets, dutch readers seemed poised to interact with other cultures on a more or less secular footing that required less demonizing of alternate cultures, even if particular individuals within them could still be defined in such negative terms. after the flurry of pamphlets relating to the moor between and , interest in the subject in the dutch press seems to have waned, as attention for the next few years focused on the ottomans. accounts of dynastic disputes in istanbul and fictive declarations of war continued appearing off english presses, and dutch printers produced translations of ottoman correspondence. dutch pamphlets were dominated over the next few decades by in-house reformed polemics (the remonstrants versus the counter-remonstrant calvinists), which were of course linked to internal political disputes, as well as to accounts of dutch explorations in the east indies and their search for the northeast passage to china, all of which proved much more popular subjects for printers than moroccan affairs. judging from this review of the surviving pamphlet literature, there was little public anxiety about the dutch entering into trade, diplomatic negotiations, and relationships with the moor. trve copies. the english next published a cluster of pamphlets recounting the succession to the ottoman throne after the death of ahmed i (r. – ) of his brother mustapha i, his dramatic escape from assassination, brief rule, replacement by his brother osman ii (r. – ), and return to the throne in – : for an example, see newes from turkie. i could find no comparable dutch pamphlets in knuttel, . there appeared, however, news reports from eastern europe, such as the newssheet ‘‘amsterdam news’’ that its reformed author used to condemn reformed opponents, especially the arminians, whom he depicted as worse than the turks: see a. r. e. s. copie translaet. the printer, broer jansz, helped produce the first dutch newspaper, tydinghen uyt verscheyde quartieren, the oldest copies of which date to : see dahl. this pamphlet was purportedly translated by the dutch ambassador to morocco, and confirms the agreement to fight jointly against the spanish and chastizes the dutch for allowing some of their freebooters to sell captive muslims into slavery. seen especially in the degree of coverage in histories and chronicles such as pontanus. for an analysis of one particularly popular form of pamphlet known as the praatjes, a form of dialogue, see dingemanse. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). . con clusion not every realm was so sanguine when it came to relations with the muslim other. spain and its allies, including the southern netherlands, retained an attitude of intense hostility and viewed protestant efforts at negotiating with muslim princes as a sign of their heretical, even diabolical nature. spain of course had its own internal problems with residual muslim and jewish beliefs and customs that incited fears of religious contagion that the spanish inquisition sought to alleviate. spanish flanders and brabant therefore forbade any explicit jewish presence, although only rarely conducting trials against offending conversos. in the dutch republic, on the other hand, citizens were adapting to a new religious environment that effectively privatized religious practice, hence they were able quite quickly to acclimate to the jews living openly among them and essentially to ignore the complaints of some of their preachers. a scan of pamphlets published in the dutch republic confirms too that there was a significantly reduced level of demonizing on the domestic front, and even in their quite heated theological battle over control of the state church, remonstrants and their calvinist opponents rarely utilized the devil in their polemical literature. similarly, when the dutch government began negotiating with muslim princes, there was no concerted effort to oppose such dealings on the basis of religion, never mind by demonizing islam. of course, economic incentive and political need featured heavily in this transition from traditional religious animosity to a dialogue of partners, but such motivation was also present in england. its populace was also adapting to global commerce, but their religious culture continued to focus on the suppression of protestant nonconformists and catholics, a situation that figured heavily in england’s civil war ( – ). it is useful to return to kaplan’s astute observation that in the early seventeenth century europeans remained obsessed with their own internal religious conflicts, and that these deeply informed how they viewed the rest of the world. the inner dynamic of religious conflict and accommodation within a particular early modern state was important in determining how its citizens would regard the peoples outside of their borders: if they had learned to tolerate religious alterity or otherness at home, they could more readily a nice survey of the converso problem is melammed. g�enard, . see waite, b. see friedman. kaplan, a, . renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). apply that same reasoning to other peoples, such as muslims and jews, although this was not always put into practice. if no longer afraid of the devil at home, travelers might be less likely to fear him in other locales. this conclusion should be tested in other contexts: for example, comparing what dutch writers say about muslims with what they report about the non- christian peoples they encounter in their voyages to the east indies, the americas, and the northeast passage, could prove very valuable, and act as a counterpoint to nabil matar’s intriguing comparison of english attitudes toward muslims and amerindians. the rhetorical restraint shown by dutch writers reviewed in this essay was not yet possible everywhere else: residents of the spanish netherlands, for example, witnessed no religious accommodation internally; continued to read provocatively drafted polemics linking heretics to the devil; were still preoccupied with diabolical conspiracies, especially witchcraft; and remained in conflict externally with both muslim morocco and the porte. their conversos knew well enough to keep their jewish practices secret and to maintain the façade of catholic identity. neighbors might very well have suspected members of the portuguese nation of covertly practicing judaism, and local officials often winked at such illegal practices, but this was a far cry from the environment in holland, where conversos brazenly reverted to judaism without fear of serious consequences. the essentially spiritualistic approach of the dutch regents, which ostensibly outlawed a number of dissident religious groups from the public sphere, but which at the same time defended freedom of conscience and allowed sects to worship in the private space, not only helped reduce demonizing rhetoric, but more positively encouraged the rethinking of religious identities and the crossing of confessional boundaries, or ignoring them as a significant factor altogether. in many respects confessional identities were increasingly blurred, as many members of the reformed church — remonstrants — sought to expand its membership to include most, if not all christians, while the calvinists fought to maintain more narrow criteria. while the latter side won the day, the remonstrants reached out to other non-reformed groups, such as the doopsgezinden, in their attempt to craft an inclusive church. such efforts helped make confessional boundaries more traversable, while even committed calvinists, such as arnoldus buchelius, could count among their close friends remonstrants and other non-reformed. such inter-confessional matar, . for how dutch writers depicted the new world, see schmidt. for several decades a large proportion of dutch residents did not belong to any denomination: see pollmann; kaplan, . see pollmann. reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). relationships surely helped in reshaping attitudes toward those of other religions. while there were jews (as conversos) and muslims in protestant england and the spanish netherlands both, there was no possibility of the kind of open and frank display of convivencia as witnessed, for example, at the amsterdam home of jan theunisz. based on the works examined here, dutch writers were much more ready to shake free of demonizing muslims as a people in favor of condemning the enemy of their particular muslim allies. the principled defense of freedom of conscience and the realpolitik of the dutch regents and merchants helped mute apocalyptic christian fears of muslim conquest and increase willingness to understand the moor. one of the differences between english and dutch contexts was the public presence of a few prominent muslims, and especially of a number of jews in the dutch republic and the explicit absence of the latter — except as ostensible conversos — in england. the role played by the doopsgezind jan theunisz and the jewish pallache family in shaping attitudes of the dutch regents and magistrates is particularly noteworthy. moses pallache’s ability to play to christian desires and fears about the demonic on behalf of muslim rulers — which perhaps also helped make moroccan affairs seem more comprehensible to a european audience — while at the same time smoothing relations with the moor and calming fears of islam, seems in this case to have been quite effective. university of new brunswick, fredericton renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). bibliography abrahams, lionel. ‘‘two jews before the privy council and an english law court in – .’’ the jewish quarterly review ( ): – . adas, michael. islamic and european expansion: the forging of a global order. philadelphia, . africanus, leo. the history and description of africa. ed. robert brown. vols. london, . a. r. e. s. amsterdamsche nouvellos. dat is/ nieuwe tydinghen/ van ‘tghene datter onlancx is ghepasseert in bohemen/. . . ende hollandt/ etc. wt ghegeven ende in ‘tlicht ghebrocht tot troost der calvinisten. hardewijck, . armstrong, karen. muhammad: a biography of the prophet. new york, . bakker, henk. de weg van het wassende water: op zoek naar de wortels van het baptisme. zoetermeer, . berkvens-stevelinck, c., j. israel, and g. h. m. posthumus meyjes, eds. the emergence of tolerance in the dutch republic. leiden, . birmingham, david. trade and empire in the atlantic, – . london, . bisaha, nancy. ‘‘‘new barbarian’ or worthy adversary? humanist constructs of the ottoman turks in fifteenth- century italy.’’ in western views of islam ( ), – . ———. creating east and west: renaissance humanists and the ottoman turks. philadelphia, . bodian, miriam. hebrews of the portuguese nation: conversos and community in early modern amsterdam. bloomington, . burton, jonathan, and ania loomba, eds. race in early modern england: a documentary companion. basingstoke, . calvinism and religious toleration in the dutch golden age. ed. r. po-chia hsia and henk van nierop. cambridge, . chazan, robert. reassessing jewish life in medieval europe. cambridge, . cxirakman, asli. from the ‘‘terror of the world’’ to the ‘‘sick man of europe’’: european images of ottoman empire and society from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth. new york, . clark, stuart. thinking with demons: the idea of witchcraft in early modern europe. oxford, . copie translaet uyt den turcxschen ghesonden van argiers ende tunis aen de hoogh- mogende heeren staten generael, ende den doorluchtighen prince van oragnien, etc. amsterdam, . copie van eenen brief ghesonden van turckschen keyser/ aen de doorluchtighe hooghe moghende heeren/ de staten generael der vereenighde neder-landen. n.p., . een cort ende waerachtich verhael vande ghedenckweerdighe gheschiedenisse in barbaryen ende vanden grooten slach ontrent maroques, gheschiet den . aprilis . the hague, . cottington, r. a true historicall discourse of muley hamets rising to the three kingdomes of moruecos, fes, and sus. london, . dahl, f. ‘‘amsterdam, earliest newspaper centre of western europe: new contributions to the history of the first dutch and french corantos.’’ het boek ( ): – . daniel, norman. islam and the west: the making of an image. rev. ed., oxford, . darling, linda t. ‘‘rethinking europe and the islamic world in the age of exploration.’’ journal of early modern history ( ): – . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f davis, natalie zemon. the return of martin guerre. cambridge, ma, . ———. trickster travels: a sixteenth- century muslim between worlds. new york, . de groot, a. h. the ottoman empire and the dutch republic: a history of the earliest diplomatic relations, – . leiden, . dekmejian, r. hrair, and adel fathy thabit. ‘‘machiavelli’s arab precursor: ibn zafar al-siqill�ı.’’ british journal of middle eastern studies ( ): – . de waardt, hans. toverij en samenleving. holland – . the hague, . dimmock, matthew. new turkes: dramatizing islam and the ottomans in early modern england. aldershot, . dingemanse, clazina. rap van tong, scherp van pen: literaire discussiecultuur in nederlandse praatjespamfletten (circa – ). hilversum, . dipple, geoffrey. ‘‘the spiritualist anabaptists.’’ in a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, – , ed. john d. roth and james m. stayer, – . leiden, . downame, george. a treatise concerning antichrist. london, . duke, alastair. dissident identities in the early modern low countries. ed. judith pollmann and andrew spicer. farnham, . eliav-feldon, miriam. ‘‘invented identities: credulity in the age of prophecy and exploration, ’’ journal of early modern history ( ): – . the estate of christians, liuing vnder the subiection of the turke. and also the warres betweene the christians and the turke, beginning and continuing till the end of . london, . firth, katherine r. the apocalyptic tradition in reformation britain, – . oxford, . fix, andrew. ‘‘radical reformation and second reformation in holland: the intellectual consequences of the sixteenth-century religious upheaval and the coming of a rational world view.’’ sixteenth century journal ( ): – . ———. prophecy and reason: the dutch collegiants in the early enlightenment. princeton, . francisco, adam s. martin luther and islam: a study in sixteenth century polemics and apologetics. leiden, . frey, manuel. ‘‘europaer und ihre feinde: der wandel des turkenbildes von der fruhen neuzeit bis zur mitte des . jahrhunderts.’’ sozialwissenschaftliche informationen ( ): – . friedman, jerome. the battle of the frogs and fairford’s flies: miracles and the pulp press during the english revolution. new york, . frijhoff, willem. ‘‘religious toleration in the united provinces: from ‘case’ to ‘model.’’’ in calvinism and religious toleration ( ), – . fuks-mansfeld, r. g. de sefardim in amsterdam tot : aspecten van een joodse minderheid in een hollandse stad. hilversum, . gaiduk, ilya v. the great confrontation: europe and islam through the centuries. chicago, . gans, mozes heiman. ‘‘don samuel palache als mor�e en zeerover: grondlegger onzer gemeenschap.’’ in opstellen opperrabbijn l. vorst aangeboden ter gelegenheid van zijn installatie, ed. e. berlinger, – . rotterdam, . garc�ıa-arenal, m., and g. a. wiegers. a man of three worlds: samuel pallache, a moroccan jew in protestant and catholic europe. baltimore, . g�enard, p., ed. ‘‘de nieuwe christenen te antwerpen in de xvi e eeuw.’’ antwerpsch archievenblad st series (n.d.). renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fej. .i- http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fej. .i- http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fej. .i- http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f - - - - http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f - - - - http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f - - - - http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f geraerts, jaap. ‘‘the prosecution of anabaptists in holland, – .’’ the mennonite quarterly review ( ): – . goodare, julian, and joyce miller. ‘‘introduction.’’ in witchcraft and belief in early modern scotland, ed. julian goodare, lauren martin, and joyce miller, – . basingstoke, . hamilton, alastair. arab culture and ottoman magnificence in antwerp’s golden age. oxford, . hamilton, alastair, and francis richard. andr�e du ryer and oriental studies in seventeenth-century france. oxford, . harline, craig e. pamphlets, printing, and political culture in the early dutch republic. dordrecht, . harvey, l. p. muslims in spain, to . chicago, . hess, andrew c. the forgotten frontier: a history of the sixteenth-century ibero- african frontier. chicago, . the history of the jews in the netherlands. ed. j. c. h. blom, r. g. fuks- mansfeld, and i. schoffer. oxford, . hourani, albert. islam in european thought. new york, . israel, jonathan i. european jewry in the age of mercantilism, – . nd ed., oxford, . ———. empires and entrepots: the dutch, the spanish monarchy and the jews, – . london, . ———. the dutch republic: its rise, greatness and fall, – . oxford, . kaba, lansine. ‘‘archers, musketeers, and mosquitoes: the moroccan invasion of the sudan and the songhay resistance ( – ).’’ the journal of african history ( ): – . kaplan, benjamin j. ‘‘dutch particularism and the calvinist quest for ‘holy uniformity.’’’ archiv f €ur reformationsgeschichte ( ): – . ———. ‘‘remnants of the papal yoke: apathy and opposition in the dutch reformation.’’ sixteenth century journal ( ): – . ———. calvinists and libertines: confession and community in utrecht – . oxford, . ———. ‘‘fictions of privacy: house chapels and the spatial accommodation of religious dissent in early modern europe.’’ american historical review ( ): – . ———. divided by faith: religious conflict and the practice of toleration in early modern europe. cambridge, ma, a. ———. muslims in the dutch golden age: representations and realities of religious toleration. amsterdam, b. katz, david s. the jews in the history of england, – . oxford, . knuttel, w. p. c., ed. acta der particuliere synoden van zuid-holland, – . vol. , – . the hague, . ———, ed. catalogus van de pamfletten- verzameling berustende in de koninklijke bibliotheek. vols. utrecht, . kooi, christine. ‘‘popish impudence: the perseverance of the roman catholic faithful in calvinist holland, – .’’ sixteenth century journal ( ): – . ———. ‘‘paying off the sheriff: strategies of catholic toleration in golden age holland.’’ in calvinism and religious toleration ( ): – . ———. calvinists and catholics during holland’s golden age: heretics and idolaters. cambridge, . lake, peter. the boxmaker’s revenge: ‘‘orthodoxy, ’’ ‘‘heterodoxy’’ and the politics of the parish in early stuart london. stanford, . leoni, aron de leone. the hebrew portuguese nations in antwerp and reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fs http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fs http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fchicago% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fchicago% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fchicago% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fchicago% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fchicago% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo london at the time of charles v and henry viii: new documents and interpretations. jersey city, . lewis, bernard. islam and the west. oxford, . ———. cultures in conflict: christians, muslims, and jews in the age of discovery. oxford, . matar, nabil i. islam in britain, – . cambridge, . ———. turks, moors, and englishmen in the age of discovery. new york, . mcjannet, linda. the sultan speaks: dialogue in english plays and histories about the ottoman turks. basingstoke, . melammed, ren�ee levine. a question of identity: iberian conversos in historical perspective. oxford, . meuwese, mark. ‘‘pragmatic agents of empire: dutch intercultural mediators among the mohawks in seventeenth- century new netherland.’’ in boundaries and their meanings in the history of the netherlands, ed. benjamin kaplan, marybeth carlson, and laura cruz, – . leiden, . miller, gregory j. ‘‘luther on the turks and islam.’’ lutheran quarterly ( ): – . monter, e. w. ‘‘heresy executions in reformation europe, – .’’ in tolerance and intolerance in the european reformation, ed. o. p. grell and r. w. scribner, – . cambridge, . moran cruz, jo ann hoeppner. ‘‘popular attitudes toward islam in medieval europe.’’ in western views of islam ( ), – . mout, m. e. h. n. ‘‘turken in het nieuws. beeldvorming en publieke opinie in de zestiende-eeuwse nederlanden.’’ tijdschrift voor geschiedenis ( ): – . newes from turkie. or a true and perfect relation sent from constantinople, touching the death of achmet the last emperour of the turkes. . . . london, . the new prophetical king of barbary. or the last newes from thence in a letter written of late from a merchant there, to a gentl. not long since imployed into that countrie from his maiestie. . . . london, . the ottoman of lazaro soranzo. wherein is deliuered aswell a full and perfect report of the might and power of mahamet the third, great emperour of the turks now reigning. . . . london, . pabel, hilmar. ‘‘erasmus of rotterdam and judaism: a reexamination in the light of new evidence.’’ archiv f€ur reformationsgeschichte ( ): – . parker, charles h. faith on the margins: catholics and catholicism in the dutch golden age. cambridge, ma, . pereyra, franciscus. waerachtighe verhaelinghe/ ghesonden van die prelaten/ viceroy/ groote cancellier secretaris/ etc. de staten van oost indien. aen de catholijcke maiesteyt. . . . antwerp, . pollmann, judith. religious choice in the dutch republic: the reformation of arnoldus buchelius ( – ). manchester, . pontanus, isacius. historische beschrijvinghe der seer wijt beroemde coop-stadt amsterdam. . . . amsterdam, . rainolds, john. the discovery of the man of sinne. oxford, . rath, jan, et al., eds. western europe and its islam. leiden, . resoluti€en der staten-generaal van tot . ed. n. japikse. vols. the hague, . robinson, benedict s. islam and early modern english literature: the politics of romance from spenser to milton. basingstoke, . sxahin, kaya. ‘‘constantinople and the end time: the ottoman conquest as renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fcbo http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f a portent of the last hour.’’ journal of early modern history ( ): – . said, edward. orientalism. new york, . schmidt, benjamin. innocence abroad: the dutch imagination and the new world, – . cambridge, . schwoebel, robert. the shadow of the crescent: the renaissance image of the turk ( – ). new york, . setton, kenneth m. western hostility to islam and prophecies of turkish doom. philadelphia, . shapiro, james s. shakespeare and the jews. new york, . sihm dutch: castries, le comte henry de, ed. les sources in�edites l’histoire du maroc de �a : collection de lettres, documents et m�emoirs. premi�ere s�erie — dynastie saadienne, – , archives et biblioth�eques des pays bas. vols. paris, – . sihm england: castries, le comte henry de, ed. les sources in�edites de l’histoire du maroc, premi�ere s�erie — dynastie saadienne. archives et biblioth�eques d’angleterre. vols. paris, london, – . speet, m. j. ‘‘the middle ages.’’ in the history of the jews in the netherlands ( ), – . den spiegel van de spaensche tyrannie beeldelijcken afgemaalt/. . . . amsterdam, . stouppe, jean-baptiste. de gods-dienst der hollanders. amsterdam, . swetchinski, daniel m. ‘‘from the middle ages to the golden age, – .’’ in the history of the jews in the netherlands ( ), – . thompson, thomas. the trial of gvides. london, . tracy, james d. holland under habsburg rule: the formation of a body politic. berkeley, . ———. europe’s reformations, – . lanham, . ———. the founding of the dutch republic: war, finance, and politics in holland, – . oxford, . trve copies of the insolent, crvell, barbarouvs, and blasphemous letter lately written by the great turke, for denouncing of warre against the king of poland. . . . london, . a trve declaration of the arriuall of cornelius haga; (with others that accompanied him) ambassadour for the generall states of the vnited netherlands, at the great citie of constantinople. london, . a true discourse wherein is set downe the wonderfull mercy of god shewed twoardes the christians, on the two and twenty of june, against the turke, before syssek in croatia. london, . twisck, pieter jansz. chronijck vanden onderganc der tijrannen ofte jaerlycklche geschiedenissen in werltlycke ende kercklijke saecken. van christi geboorte af tot desen tyt toe. vols. hoorn, . unghv�ary, alexander s�andor. the hungarian protestant reformation in the sixteenth century under the ottoman impact: essays and profiles. lewiston, . v�eronne, chantal de la. histoire sommaire des sa’diens au maroc. paris, . vitkus, daniel. ‘‘early modern orientalism: representations of islam in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century europe.’’ in western views of islam ( a): – . ———, ed. three turk plays from early modern england: selimus, emperor of the turks; a christian turned turk; and the renegado. new york, b. ———. turning turk: english theater and the multicultural mediterranean, – . basingstoke, . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f x http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % facprof% aoso% f . . ———. ‘‘‘the common market of all the world’: english theater, the global system, and the ottoman empire in the early modern period.’’ in global traffic: discourses and practices of trade in english literature and culture from to , ed. barbara sebek and stephen deng, – . basingstoke, . voogt, gerrit. constraint on trial: dirck volckertsz coornhert and religious freedom. kirksville, . waerachtich verhael, belanghende de aenkomste tot constantinoplen/ van den ambassadeur der edele moghende heeren staten generael van de vereenighde nederlanden. . . . alkmaar, . een waerachtige beschrijvinghe vant ghene datter geschiet is int lant van barbarien/ tot den teghenwoordighen jare . . . . de geschiedenisse is met een toovenaer ende bedriegher genaemt bumchij/ in druck gestelt door st. mose palatse/ sone ende neef van beyde dambassadeurs vande voorsz keyser. rotterdam, . waite, gary k. ‘‘rhetoricians and religious compromise during the early reformation (ca. – ).’’ in urban theatre in the low countries, – , ed. peter happ�e and elsa strietman, – . turnhout, . ———. ‘‘tolereren de onlangs getolereerden de ander? spiritualisten, dopers en joden in de nederlanden.’’ trans. jelle bosma. doopsgezinde bijdragen ( ): – . ———. ‘‘menno and muhammad: anabaptists and mennonites reconsider islam, – .’’ sixteenth century journal ( a): – . ———. ‘‘seventeenth-century dutch reformed, mennonites and spiritualists on one another, jews and muslims.’’ in calvin at : a special supplement of the toronto journal of theology, ed. peter wyatt, supplement ( b): – . warachtighe verclaringhe, in wat manieren de dry ambassadeurs des conincx van barbaryen by hare ma. van enghelandt zijn ghecomen, ende audientie hebben verkreghen. enz. n.p., . western views of islam in medieval and early modern europe: perception of other. ed. david r. blanks and michael frassetto. new york, . wiegers, gerard. ‘‘de complexe relatie tussen religie en geweld. de marokkaanse sultan zayd�an en de djih�ad ( – ).’’ leidschrift ( ): – . ———. ‘‘managing disaster: networks of the moriscos during the process of the expulsion from the iberian peninsula around .’’ journal of medieval religious cultures ( a): – . ———. ‘‘moriscos and arabic studies in europe.’’ al-qantara ( b): – . wijnman, h. f. ‘‘de hebra€ıcus jan theunisz. barbarossius alias johannes antonides als lector in het arabisch aan de leidse universitieit ( – ). een hoofdstuk amsterdamse geleerdengeschiedenis.’’ studia rosen- thaliana ( ): – , – . wonderbaerlicke vertooninghe/ gheschiet ontrent marcilien/ by claren daghe. . . . n.p., . een wonderlicke ende vreemde nieuwe tijdinghe/ geschreven uyt barbarien, hoe dat hem aldaer een nieuwen coninck op gheworpen heft/ ghenaemt muley hamet ben abdela. . . . delft, . wonderlicke nieuwe tijdinghe. een warachtich verhael vande schrickelicke teeckenen gheschiet den den seuensten augusti m.d. lxxxvii. lestleden renaissance quarterly this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % falqantara. .v .i . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fmrc. . http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fmrc. . inde stadt van gendt. . . . alkmaar, . een wonderlijcke nieuwe tijdinghe van het leuen vanden seer . . . antechrist rotterdam, . woodhead, christine. ‘‘‘the present terrour of the world’? contemporary views of the ottoman empire c. .’’ history ( ): – . wunder, amanda. ‘‘western travelers, eastern antiquities, and the image of the turk in early modern europe.’’ journal of early modern history ( ): – . zijlstra, samme. om de ware gemeente en de oude gronden: geschiedenis van de dopersen in de nederlanden – . hilversum, . reimagining religious identity this content downloaded from . . . on july , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % f http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/action/showlinks?crossref= . % fj. - x. .tb .x canadian ethnic studies, special issue: ethnic art and architecture, xvi (fall ). calgary: canadian ethnic studies association, . pp. . illustrations. $ . all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine canadian ethnic studies, special issue: ethnic art and architecture, xvi (fall ). calgary: canadian ethnic studies association, . pp. . illustrations. $ . john c. lehr special issue on the history of canadian housing policy volume , numéro , june uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu lehr, j. c. ( ). compte rendu de [canadian ethnic studies, special issue: ethnic art and architecture, xvi (fall ). calgary: canadian ethnic studies association, . pp. . illustrations. $ . ]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews/comptes rendus throughout they fail to estabish a sufficient context for comparison, to present the calgary experience in the light of development elsewhere. how sycophantic is journalism in other canadian cities, how are other civic exhibitions man- aged, which other cities have coped better with explosive urban growth? only the discussion of construction accidents shows just how bad the local record was compared with other provinces and against the earlier alberta figures. the other arguments presented are too often without a clear frame or solid foundation. the recital of instances of mismanagement, manipula- tion, and waste records some useful material for a future history of the boom years, and will win the reader's agree- ment that all this is deplorable, that somehow things should be better, but fails to suggest what improvement is likely, or how it might be achieved. the one contributor with experi- ence of political office, one-time alderman elaine husband, explains that she chose not to run again despite strong sup- port because she had no interest in playing "loyal opposition." organized community power was more important, she felt, in improving the balance of a political process dominated by business interests. her choice seems to confirm a disheart- ening message: representative government doesn't work, the representatives are either pawns or powerless; the best you can do is join the manipulators by establishing your own power block. urban evolution is reduced to social darwin- ism. stampede city was clearly not intended to address the larger questions of civic life and growth. nonetheless they are implicit in the experience presented and the perspective taken. what roles should and do power blocks, administra- tors, politicians and voters play in shaping the city, and the experience of its citizens. can and should everyone's imme- diate interests be equally powerful? what place is there for the vision of a burnham and the ambition of a drapeau? in the light of their efforts, calgary's ambitions, and its fail- ures, seem modest. this collection reminds us of both. michael mcmordie faculty of environmental design university of calgary canadian ethnic studies, special issue: ethnic art and architecture, xvi (fall ). calgary: canadian ethnic studies association, . pp. . illustrations. $ . . the canadian scholarly journal, canadian ethnic stud- ies, published three times a year, periodically devotes special issues to specific themes in ethnic studies. the recent fall issue of was one such volume, devoted to the topic of ethnic art and architecture in canada, some pages with nine major articles, one research note, a review article, sev- eral book reviews, and a special bibliography centred upon the theme of the issue. although the declared topic is ethnic art and architec- ture, the thrust of the issue is clearly towards ethnic architecture. of the major papers only two deal directly with ethnic art; the review article and the research note address the art component of the theme, but in general it appears that ethnic art receives short shrift. although it may be argued that architecture is an art form, it seems unfortunate that the editors did not separate out the two themes as dis- tinctive manifestations of ethnicity, and devote an issue to each theme, rather than attempting to integrate them in a single issue. architecture and ethnicity is covered here from a variety of standpoints. the approaches range from the analytical to descriptive and from the innovative to conventional. taken together they provide a good baromètre of the level of schol- arship in the field and provide a ready indication of those fields which are making significant contributions to this facet of ethnic studies in canada. the collection of articles opens with papers by trevor boddy and radoslav zuk, who address, respectively: "eth- nic identity and contemporary canadian architecture," and "architectural significance and culture." the following articles range across domestic and religious vernacular eth- nic architecture, from the structure and symbolism of a swiss-german mennonite farmstead of waterloo county, ontario; through doukhobor architecture; to ethnic reli- gious architecture as exemplified by three churches in sydney, nova scotia. in canada there is an unfortunate but common miscon- ception that ethnic contributions to the canadian architectural heritage are confined to the quaint or pictur- esque heritage of european folk architecture transferred to canada by those who pioneered the agricultural frontier- lands of the new world. in his opening article boddy refutes this as he argues that recent immigrants and canadians from ethnic and religious minorities have enjoyed considerable success as architects. of these, the edmonton métis, doug- las cardinal, the winnipeg franco-manitoban, etienne gaboury, and the toronto-based japanese-canadian, ray- mond moriyama, are perhaps the best known. through a review of their careers boddy attempts to isolate the one factor which has caused them to rise to the top of their profession. he argues that the role that their ethnicity has played was, and is, that of a "simulacrum which focuses and forges character within a far-too-homogenized culture" (p. ). more prosaic, but probably of equal significance was the position of all three outside the social elite of canada's two "founding nations" and their consequent exclusion from a social network through which contacts could be made and contracts awarded. pushed by circumstance to obtain work strictly upon their own demonstrated merits they made urban history review/revue d'histoire urbaine special use of design competitions as a democractic way of obtaining commissions and demonstrating their architec- tural qualities. this led to their being typed as "high design" prima donnas with no overt manifestation of their ethnic heritage appearing in their major designs. the ethnic tradi- tion, indeed, was displayed mostly through a ready sensitivity to the relationship between architecture and environment, more especially, between building and the regional environ- ment. it is this quality which offers the most promising opportunities for the development of distinctive and appro- priate regional styes of architecture in this country. this concern with image, meaning, and an embodiment of sense of place in building design is central to radoslav zuk's article dealing with architectural significance and cul- ture. zuk, a professor of architecture at mcgill university and a practising architect of ukrainian background, is well known for his innovative designs of ukrainian-catholic churches. here zuk explains his approach toward design of ethnic architectural icons. briefly put, his philosophy is that the organization, presence and image of a building, which relate, respectively, to the functional, absolute, and expres- sive aspects of architecture, need expression beyond the traditional forms and materials of pioneer immigrant build- ing. new materials, changed economic circumstances and transformed landscapes demand a re-expression of the ukrainian spirit in modernistic forms within which tradi- tional values are maintained in a conceptual way. the implementation of this thesis is well illustrated — both lit- erally and figuratively — through a discussion of his evolving approach toward the design of five ukrainian churches, commissioned between and . both boddy and zuk address an issue too often neglected in the study of "ethnic" architecture in canada: the place and role of ethnicity in the modern landscape, which for most intents will entail a study of the function of ethnicity in high-style urban based building. in following articles nancy-lou patterson examines mennonite farmsteads in waterloo county and william thompson addresses the question of meaning in hutterite architecture and patterns of settlement. both adopt an ana- lytic approach in an attempt to achieve an understanding of the underlying forces which shape the respective cultural forms associated with both group». mark mealing pursues a similar approach to the explanation of doukhobor archi- tectural forms as found in saskatchewan and british columbia, tracing the evolution of doukhobor architectural forms from the beginning of the sect in seventeenth century russia and assessing the changes which contact with the wider society and an evolving theological debate have had upon the doukhobor's building traditions. a study of three churches in sydney, nova scotia, by elizabeth beaton-planetta adopts a somewhat different approach, relying more upon the description of the churches and their communities to illustrate the diversity of architec- ture built, and still maintained, by ethnic groups in a canadian urban setting. unlike the foregoing papers she makes no real attempt to analyse the expression of symbolic meaning within the context of the built form and the paper, though well researched and thorough, lacks the intellectual challenge found earlier. the final paper, which is devoted to an architectural topic, is that by geographer audrey kobayashi, "emigration to canada and development of the residential landscape in a japanese village: the paradox of the sojourner." this is a fascinating account of the ways in which emigration affected the landscape and architecture of one village — kaideima — in japan, and by extension, illuminating the process of landscape change in the homeland as initiated by the process of emigration and return. kobayashi's paper is noteworthy on a number of counts: it poses new questions, provides new insights, and may well serve as a model for future work on landscape change and the emigration pro- cess. most scholarship has simply viewed the cultural transfer associated with emigration as a one way affair: the emi- grants export culture to the new land. kobayashi shows that it is not always so, that the process is complex and defies simplistic interpretation. all this notwithstanding, kobayashi's paper leaves many questions unanswered. she readily acknowledges this, and concludes by noting that further studies are needed to show "different dynamics of preservation and change, and con- firm the claim that the value of 'tradition' is interpreted according to individual and group circumstances" (p. ). if these further studies maintain the excellent quality of this pioneer article then kobayashi will have made a major con- tribution to the understanding of the emigration process and the ethnic impact upon landscape. this brief revue has dwelt only upon those papers which focus upon ethnic architecture. together they comprise an excellent collection, diverse in approach but still preserving a strong sense of unity. it is unfortunate that those articles which are devoted to ethnic art seem misplaced within the context, or imbalance, of the volume. that, however, is no reflection upon their content, but it seems to this reviewer that it was somewhat injudicious to place them amongst a set of papers devoted to architecture. they deserve place- ment in a similar volume wherein ethnic art is more fully considered. john c. lehr department of geography university of winnipeg original article injury analyses in rural children: comparison of old-order anabaptists and non-anabaptists karen forward, md, melissa chan, md, tanya charyk stewart, msc, jason gilliland, phd, craig campbell, md, msc, frcpc, and douglas d. fraser, md, phd, frcpc background: southwestern ontario largely comprises rural farming districts and is home to numerous old-order anabaptist settlements. our objective was to describe the injuries sustained by rural children, both old-order anabaptist and non-anabaptist, to better target injury prevention programs. methods: we retrospectively examined injury data of rural children in southwestern ontario with injury severity scores � obtained from hospital and trauma databases ( – ). results: a total of rural children were included in this study: . % anabaptist (n � ) and . % non-anabaptist (n � ). the age of injured anabaptist children (median, years; interquartile range � ) was younger than non-anabaptist children (median, years; interquartile range � ; p � . ). anabaptist children were most frequently injured on their property ( . %; n � of ; p � . ). non-anabaptist children were mostly injured on roads ( . %; n � of ; p � . ) and by motor vehicle collisions (mvcs; . %; n � of ; p � . ). frequent causes of injury among anabaptist children were falls ( . %; n � of ; p � . ), animals ( . %; n � of ; p � . ), and buggies ( . %; n � of ). approximately half of both groups injured in mvcs did not use seat belts. there were no significant differences between cohorts in sex, injury severity scores, hospitalization days, rates of complications, interventions, comor- bidities, or mortality rates. conclusions: injuries to anabaptist children occur at a young age, primarily on their property, and exhibit a unique spectrum of mechanisms. in contrast, injuries to non-anabaptist children occur at an older age, primarily on roads, and in mvcs. the use of protective devices was low among all rural children. development of collaborative injury prevention programs targeted to distinct rural communities, including anabaptist and non-anabaptist, are needed for reducing injuries among rural children. key words: rural populations, trauma, injury prevention, adolescent, child. (j trauma. ; : – ) southwestern ontario primarily comprises rural farmingdistricts, with a relatively large concentration of old- order anabaptist settlements. anabaptist old-order menno- nites and amish migrated to north america from europe during the s to escape persecution and to preserve their culture, practices, and beliefs. anabaptist individuals pos- sess a strong sense of social obligation, assist one another in times of need, and oppose the need for conventional health insurance. in canada, anabaptists are eligible for medical insurance; however, they have negotiated with the govern- ment to gain exemption, and most choose to pay for medical services out of pocket. anabaptist individuals abstain from the use of modern technology, dress conservatively, and engage in traditional farming practices akin to those used in the s. farming can be a dangerous industry, particularly for children among whom agricultural injury has been recog- nized as an important public health concern. , common farming hazards for children include animals, farming equip- ment, and falls. , – head and musculoskeletal injuries are commonly reported. , , previous studies have shown that children and adults living in rural areas are at higher risk of injury requiring medical treatment, , perhaps because of limited access to definitive health care, longer travel dis- tances, different living environments, and different behav- ioral norms. for anabaptist families, the availability of health care may be further impaired by limited access to automobiles and telephones, the cost of care, and an uncon- ventional perception of illness severity. anabaptist individu- als frequently perceived themselves as “ill” only when they are unable to complete routine farming tasks. the objective of this study was to analyze the epi- demiology and spectrum of severe injuries occurring in rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist, resid- ing locally in the same rural region. injury analyses of distinct communities, such as the anabaptist population, are essential for the development of targeted injury pre- vention programs. patients and methods the university of western ontario ethics review board approved this study. the referral region of southwest- ern ontario consists of counties (gray, bruce, huron, perth, middlesex, elgin, oxford, essex, kent, and lambton) and has a geographical area of � , km , with a pediatric population of � , . the hospital databases and provin- submitted for publication august , . accepted for publication september , . copyright © by lippincott williams & wilkins from the departments of pediatrics (k.f., c.c., d.d.f.), surgery (t.c.s.), geography (j.g.), physiology and pharmacology (d.d.f.), and clinical neu- rological sciences (d.d.f.), university of western ontario, london, ontario, canada; department of pediatrics (m.c.), university of toronto, toronto, ontario, canada; trauma program (t.c.s., d.d.f.), london health sciences centre, london, ontario, canada; children’s health research institute (j.g., c.c., d.d.f.), london, ontario, canada; and centre for critical illness research (d.d.f.), london, ontario, canada. support by the children’s health foundation and the london health sciences centre trauma program. address for reprints: douglas d. fraser, md, phd, frcpc, pediatric critical care medicine, room c – , children’s hospital, london health sciences centre, commissioners road east, london, ontario, canada n c v ; email: fraserd@lhsc.on.ca. doi: . /ta. b e fa e the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november cial trauma registries of two southwestern ontario trauma centres (london health sciences centre, london, on, and hotel dieu grace hospital, windsor, on) were used to identify rural children (younger than years) who presented with an injury severity score (iss) � between and . anabaptists were recognized in the database through religious identification as “mennonite” or “amish” and through the absence of a provincial health insurance number. rural localization of subjects was determined by mapping their home addresses or postal codes or both within a geo- graphic information system (arcgis . ; environmental sys- tems research institute, redlands, ca) and comparing the locations against canadian census data (statistics can- ada). all data were checked for geographic accuracy. rural areas were defined as areas with a minimum population concentration of � , persons and a population density of � persons/km . the data collected in the provincial trauma registries comprise the comprehensive data set and is collected on all severely injured patients (iss � ). the comprehensive data set contains � data elements including patient demographics, prehospital care, hospital treatment, injury data, and patient outcomes. dedicated injury data specialists with training in injury scoring analyze and enter all data. data were verified upon entry and in subsequent data quality checks at each institution and provincially to ensure accuracy and completeness. information extracted from the trauma databases for this study included demographics, address, postal code, use and misuse of protective gear or devices (i.e., seat belt, car seat, and helmet), injury information (mecha- nism, time, date, severity, and injury profile), and hospital- ization data (i.e., length of stay, need for intensive care unit admission, and operative procedures). data on complications and outcomes were also recorded. the maximum abbrevi- ated injury scale score and iss were calculated by trained trauma data analysts. – the locations where injuries occurred were grouped into four categories: property (home or farm), road, recre- ation facility, and other locations (industry, public building, residential institution, and other unspecified locations). causes of injury included the following: falls, animals, ma- chinery, motor vehicle collisions (mvcs), pedestrian or bikes, buggy, other (including abuse, burns, drowning, as- sault, and sports), and recreational motorized vehicles (rmvs; including snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles [atvs], and dirt bikes). data were analyzed with excel . . (microsoft, red- mond, wa) and sigmastat . (systat software, richmond, ca). all data sets were prescreened for normality. data are presented as median values with an interquartile range (iqr), and direct comparisons were made with mann-whitney rank- sum tests. percentages were used to describe categorical outcomes, and distributions of categorical data were com- pared with either a pearson’s � test or a fisher’s exact test. p values � . were considered statistically significant. an institutional statistician reviewed all analyses for appropri- ateness of selected tests and accuracy. results a total of children injured during a -year period in rural southwestern ontario met the inclusion criteria for this study. demographic features of injured children are shown in table . anabaptist children comprised . % of this injured rural population. the ratio of males to females was similar between anabaptist and non-anabaptist cohorts, with more males in both groups. anabaptist children were signif- icantly younger at the time of injury (median, years; iqr � ) when compared with non-anabaptist children (median, years; iqr � ; p � . ). the most common injury location for anabaptist chil- dren was on their property ( . %; p � . ) when com- pared with non-anabaptist children who were more often injured on roads ( . %; p � . ; table ). in subgroup analysis of injury location stratified by age, anabaptist chil- dren aged years to years were more likely to be injured on farms than non-anabaptist children (p � . ). the peak months for injuries were june and august for all rural children. the peak times of injuries were similar at pm to pm for anabaptist children ( . %) and pm to pm for non-anabaptist children ( . %). no injuries occurred in the anabaptist group between midnight and am. injury mechanism data are shown in table . the most common causes of injury among anabaptist children were falls ( . %; p � . ). when stratified by age, more -year to -year-old anabaptist children were injured by falls than non-anabaptists children ( . % vs. . %; p � . ). other notable causes of injuries in anabaptist children included mvcs ( . %; p � . ), animals ( . %; p � . ), and buggies ( . %). no injuries in the anabaptist population were caused by abuse, suicide, or assault. among non- table . demographic characteristics of rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children (n � ) non-anabaptist children (n � ) p male:female ( . ): ( . ) ( . ): ( . ) . age (yr) – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) � . – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) . – ( . ) ( . ) . site of injury property ( . ) ( . ) � . road ( . ) ( . ) . other/unknown ( . ) ( . ) . recreation facility ( . ) ( . ) . season of injury summer ( . ) ( . ) . fall ( . ) ( . ) . winter ( . ) ( . ) . spring ( . ) ( . ) . data presented as n (%). the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins anabaptist children, the most common causes of injury were mvcs ( . %; p � . ). when stratified by age, mvc injuries among -year to -year olds were more prevalent among non-anabaptist youth (n � of , . %) than anabaptist youth (n � of ; . %; p � . ); however, the difference was not statistically significant. furthermore, the age-stratified analysis comparing the groups was limited by small sample size or did not reveal significant differences. the injury profiles and severity of injury to each body region, as represented by the median maximum abbreviated injury scale scores, are listed in table . compared with the anabaptist children, significantly more non-anabaptist children sustained injuries to the chest ( . %; p � . ) and abdomen ( . %; p � . ). significantly, more anabaptist sustained trauma to multi- ple systems (p � . ). no statistically significant dif- ferences were noted between cohorts in iss. a summary of protective device data are shown in table . injuries were classified as potentially preventable through the correct use of seat belts or bike helmets in . % of non-anabaptist children and in . % of anabaptist chil- dren. seat belts were unused or incorrectly used in . % of mvcs involving anabaptist children and . % of non- anabaptist children. seventy-four non-anabaptist children were injured using rmvs (i.e., atvs, snowmobiles, motor- cycles, and dirt bikes). of these, . % reported using a helmet, . % wore helmets that fell off, and % did not use a helmet. data were unavailable on two individuals. one anabaptist was injured using a rmv without a helmet. analyses of admission and hospitalization data are shown in table . deaths in the emergency trauma room occurred in six ( . %) non-anabaptist children and two ( %) anabaptist children. intensive care unit admissions and lengths of stay were comparable among anabaptist and non-anabaptist children. lengths of stay data were unavail- able for five non-anabaptist children and one anabaptist child. more non-anabaptist children ( . %) underwent sur- gical interventions than anabaptist children ( . %; p � . ). the proportions of complications, comorbidities, and mortalities did not differ statistically between anabaptist and non-anabaptist children. discussion in this study, we analyzed injury data for rural children in southwestern ontario in comparison with anabaptist and non-anabaptist populations. our data show that anabaptist children are more likely to suffer severe injuries at a young age, occurring primarily on their property, and exhibit a unique spectrum of injury mechanisms. given that injuries in this population generally occur at home or farm, injury table . mechanism of injury anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p falls ( . ) ( . ) . mvc ( . ) ( . ) . other ( . ) ( . ) . animals ( . ) ( . ) . buggy ( . ) ( ) na pedestrian/bike ( . ) ( . ) na machinery ( . ) ( . ) na rmv ( . ) ( . ) na na, not assayed. data presented as n (%). table . injury severity scores for rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children (n � ) non-anabaptist children (n � ) p iss median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais head/neck number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais face number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais chest number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais abdomen number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( . ) ( ) . mais extremity number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . mais external number (%) injured ( . ) ( . ) . median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . � body area injured number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . mais, maximum abbreviated injury score. mais external includes burns, lacerations, abrasions, and contusions. table . analyses of protective devices used or misused by rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p mvc seatbelt used ( . ) ( . ) . no seatbelt used ( . ) ( . ) . incorrect car seat use ( ) ( . ) na unreported ( ) ( . ) na bicycle injury helmet ( ) ( . ) na no helmet ( ) ( . ) na unreported ( ) ( . ) na overall protective device use incidence—correct use ( . ) ( . ) . incidence—incorrect/not used ( . ) ( . ) . na, not assayed. data presented as n (%). forward et al. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november © lippincott williams & wilkins prevention at home should be emphasized. in contrast, non- anabaptists are more likely to suffer injuries in adolescence, primarily on roads and in mvcs. this study reveals impor- tant data for developing targeted injury prevention programs and supports the need for injury prevention in the rural population given the relatively low use, and correct use, of protective devices. previous studies relating injuries to developmental age identify younger children as being at high risk for injury with their tendency to fall, place objects in their mouth, and explore independently. among anabaptist children, there was a significantly younger median age at the time of injury compared with non-anabaptist children with one-third of injuries occurring in children younger than years. injuries in this age group are often preventable (i.e., burns, falls, and animal-related injuries), suggesting that future injury preven- tion strategies in the anabaptist population should emphasize safety to children in this age group, in addition to their parents and caregivers. adolescent injuries in the anabaptist population were remarkably low, with a significantly lower rate of mvc, the most common mechanism of injury in adolescence, and no intentional injuries caused by abuse, suicide, or assault. in pediatric populations, it is typically the late adoles- cent age group that accounts for the majority of severe injuries. indeed, youth aged years and older made up the majority of the non-anabaptist injured population ( . %), and older children were more likely to be injured in mvcs events largely associated with rapid deceleration and blunt trauma. this mechanism of injury could explain their signif- icantly higher rates of chest and abdominal trauma and significantly greater rates of operative procedures. common injury mechanisms noted in our anabaptist population were similar to mechanisms described in the literature. , , , unique to the anabaptist population, the horse and buggy is an important method of transportation, which contributed to . % of injuries in this study. motorized vehicles are important causes of buggy-related trauma, rein- forcing that slow-moving vehicle signs, reflective tape for buggies and horses, and construction of wider rural roads might reduce the risk of collision. in contrast, rmvs, such as atvs, snowmobiles, and two-wheeled dirt bikes, were a cause of significant morbidity among non-anabaptist chil- dren. atvs, in particular, have been recognized as significant causes of severe injury, , especially in the rural population where these vehicles are used for both recreation and service. in ontario, beyond legislation, which governs the use of atvs, many stakeholders including the canadian pediatrics society and the consumer product safety commission rec- ommend that children younger than years should not drive recreational vehicles because of the significant strength, co- ordination, and judgment required for their safe opera- tion. – a recent position article from the ontario medical association more conservatively states that children younger than years are not allowed to operate atvs. anabaptist children were more frequently injured on their property, either house or farm, than any other location. farms are known to be inherently dangerous because there are many opportunities for injury by machinery, animals, and through falls. , , the north american guidelines for chil- dren’s agricultural tasks have been developed to decrease childhood farming-related injuries by outlining appropriate farming tasks for a child’s developmental stage. – the guide- lines are developed for the population-at-large; however, it do not account for the cultural sensitivities of the anabaptist population, their involvement in farm work at a young age, and their wish to preserve a traditional way of life. farming injury prevention initiatives should be developed and intro- duced with the input of community elders. in farming families, parental supervision of children can sometimes be difficult while concurrently attending to farming tasks. however, previous research suggests that for young children, decreasing environmental risk may be more effective than increasing parental supervision. suggestions to minimize risk and reduce injury have included the intro- duction of passive barriers (i.e., fences) to contain play areas and separate children from potential hazards (i.e., hay stacks, water, barns, and animals). , the introduction of passive barriers may be an intervention that would not infringe on the anabaptist way of life while reducing children’s exposure to hazards. , , the use of protective devices is paramount for injury prevention in the entire rural population. mvcs were an important cause of trauma in both cohorts. seat belt use in motor vehicles is mandatory by ontario law. in a recent survey examining seat belt use in rural areas, seat belt usage rate in ontario was . %. despite these reported compli- ance rates, seat belts were not worn by approximately half of injured rural children in both cohorts, making unbelted chil- dren more likely to be severely injured when a crash occurs. there remains a need for further injury prevention programs targeting seat belt use among rural adolescents. table . analysis of hospitalization data and mortality for rural children, both anabaptist and non-anabaptist (matched for location with geographical mapping) anabaptist children non-anabaptist children p hospital admission number admitted (%) ( . ) ( . ) . days: median (iqr)* ( . ) ( ) . intensive care unit admission number admitted ( . ) ( . ) . days: median (iqr)* ( . ) ( ) . operative procedures no. patients (%) ( . ) ( . ) . procedure: median (iqr) ( ) ( ) . complications number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . comorbidities number (%) ( . ) ( . ) . mortality no. deaths (%) ( . ) ( . ) . * individuals who died were not included in the length of hospitalization calculations. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins numerous studies support the efficacy of helmet use to reduce the severity of injuries; however, helmet use among cyclists in the rural population as a whole was low. in a recent cochrane systemic review, bicycle helmet use in children conferred an % and % risk reduction for head and facial injuries, respectively. a statistically significant protective effect of helmets for head, brain, facial, and fatal injury was recently quantified in a meta-analysis providing clear evi- dence on the benefits of helmets for cyclists. multidisci- plinary community campaigns may be effective in promoting bike helmet use and bike safety, particularly in those who resist helmet use. in the southwestern ontario, to our knowledge, there are no campaigns that focus directly on the anabaptist pop- ulation and take into consideration their unique culture and beliefs. designated play areas for children, animal or machin- ery training, and correct use of protective equipment such as seat belts or helmets may significantly reduce injuries to anabaptist children. , , future research is needed to analyze what anabaptist-specific safety measures (i.e., seat belts in buggies) may be effective in reducing injuries while being amenable to anabaptist community members. the develop- ment of successful injury prevention programs for anabaptist children requires collaboration with the anabaptist commu- nity and elders to ensure that all initiatives respect their culture and lifestyle. this study has potential limitations. first, it is possible that some children, despite the severity of their injuries (iss � ), were not brought to hospital out of concern of treat- ment cost, and we were unable to include these patients. second, the provincial coroner’s data do not identify religion, cultural affiliation, or provincial health insurance status in their database, and hence we could not identify anabaptist children that died before arrival to hospital. third, the small sample size in some subgroup analyses may have limited our power to detect a difference between our two cohorts. fourth, the non-anabaptist cohort is likely quite heterogeneous rel- ative to the anabaptist population; however, we were unable to reliably identify other culturally distinct groups in our rural area for comparison. fifth, the anabaptist population is culturally distinct from other rural populations; thus, conclu- sions drawn from the injury analyses of the anabaptist group cannot be applicable to rural populations at large. finally, we are unable to analyze the incidence of injuries within the anabaptist cohort as the provincial consensus data do not report total anabaptist population. these limitations high- light the need for methodological enhancements to adminis- trative health databases to facilitate the study of unique populations. despite these limitations, this study emphasizes the importance of understanding the injury epidemiology of distinct groups and is applicable to other old-order anabap- tist populations found in the united states (indiana, ohio, kansas, pennsylvania, and virginia). it also provides impor- tant injury analyses on the general rural population. conclusions our data suggest significant differences in injuries be- tween two rural cohorts that could help target injury prevention programs. injury prevention targeted to younger anabaptist children and adolescent non-anabaptist youth may help to reduce severe injuries in these populations. furthermore, the low use of protective devices among all rural children rein- forces the need for focused initiatives to increase their use among rural children. collaboration with the anabaptist com- munity is needed to best address injury prevention in this distinct community and create solutions that increase safety without infringing upon their culture and way of life. acknowledgments d.d.f. holds a career development award from the canadian child health clinician scientist program, a stra- tegic training program of the canadian institutes of health research. the authors thank the windsor’s hotel dieu grace hospital trauma program for sharing their regional trauma data. the authors thank mr. jamie a. seabrook for statistical review and drs. d. matsui and k. speechley for critical comments on the manuscript. references . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet a. ; a: – . . adams ce, leverland mb. the effects of religious beliefs on the health care practices of the amish. nurse pract. ; : , , . . jones pj, field we. farm safety issues in old order anabaptist communities: unique aspects and innovative intervention strategies. j agric saf health. ; : – . . conway ae, mcclune aj, nosel p. down on the farm: preventing farm accidents in children. pediatr nurs. ; : – . . doty b, marlenga b. north american guidelines for children’s agricul- tural tasks: five-year assessment and priorities for the future. am j ind med. ; : – . . jones mw. a study of trauma in an amish community. j trauma. ; : – . . fisher km, hupcey je, rhodes da. childhood farm injuries in old- order amish families. j pediatr nurs. ; : – . . smith ga, scherzer dj, buckley jw, et al. pediatric farm-related injuries: a series of hospitalized patients. clin pediatr (phila). ; : – . . pickett w, dostaler s, berg rl, haley kj, shields bj. pediatric fall injuries in agricultural settings: a new look at a common injury control problem. j occup environ med. ; : – . . meiers s, baerg j. farm accidents in children: eleven years of experi- ence. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . hubler cl, hupcey je. incidence and nature of farm-related injuries among pennsylvania amish children: implications for education. j emerg nurs. ; : – . . jiang x, li d, boyce w, pickett w. variations in injury among canadian adolescents by urban-rural geographic status. chronic dis can. ; : – . . chapital ad, harrigan rc, davis j, et al. traumatic brain injury: outcomes from rural and urban locations over a -year period (part ). hawaii med j. ; : – . . statistics canada. profile of urban and rural areas. ontario, canada: authority of the minister responsible for statistics canada; . . copes ws, champion hr, sacco wj, et al. progress in characterizing anatomic injury. j trauma. ; : – . . boyd cr, tolson ma, copes ws. evaluating trauma care: the triss method. trauma score and the injury severity score. j trauma. ; : – . . champion hr, sacco wj, copes ws, gann ds, gennarelli ta, flana- gan me. a revision of the trauma score. j trauma. ; : – . . association for the advancement of automotive medicine. the abbre- viated injury scale manual. ed. des plaines, il: aaam; . forward et al. the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november © lippincott williams & wilkins . agran pf, anderson c, winn d, trent r, walton-haynes l, thayer s. rates of pediatric injuries by -month intervals for children to years of age. pediatrics. ; ( pt ):e – e . . charyk-stewart t, grant k, singh r, girotti m. pediatric trauma in southwestern ontario: linking data with injury prevention initiatives. j trauma. ; : – . . aaland mo, hlaing t. amish buggy injuries in the st century: a retrospective review from a rural level ii trauma center. am surg. ; : , ; discussion . . collins cl, smith ga, comstock rd. children plus all nonautomobile motorized vehicles (not just all-terrain vehicles) equals injuries. pediatrics. ; : – . . yanchar nl, kennedy r, russell c. atvs: motorized toys or vehicles for children? inj prev. ; : – . . brown rl, koepplinger me, mehlman ct, gittelman m, garcia vf. all-terrain vehicle and bicycle crashes in children: epidemiology and comparison of injury severity. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . mullins rj, brand d, lenfesty b, newgard cd, hedges jr, ham b. statewide assessment of injury and death rates among riders of off-road vehicles treated at trauma centers. j am coll surg. ; : – . . decou jm, fagerman le, ropele d, uitvlugt nd, schlatter mg, connors rh. snowmobile injuries and fatalities in children. j pediatr surg. ; : – . . canadian paediatric society, injury prevention committee. prevent- ing injuries from all-terrain vehicles. paediatr child health. ; : – . . ontario medical association. oma position paper: all-terrain vehi- cles (atvs) and children’s safety. ont med rev. ; – . . hartling l, brison rj, crumley et, klassen tp, pickett w. a systematic review of interventions to prevent childhood farm injuries. pediatrics. ; :e – e . . marlenga b, brison rj, berg rl, zentner j, linneman j, pickett w. evaluation of the north american guidelines for children’s agricul- tural tasks using a case series of injuries. inj prev. ; : – . . gadomski a, ackerman s, burdick p, jenkins p. efficacy of the north american guidelines for children’s agricultural tasks in reducing child- hood agricultural injuries. am j public health. ; : – . . pickett w, brison rj, berg rl, zentner j, linneman j, marlenga b. pediatric farm injuries involving non-working children injured by a farm work hazard: five priorities for primary prevention. inj prev. ; : – . . morrongiello ba, pickett w, berg rl, linneman jg, brison rj, marlenga b. adult supervision and pediatric injuries in the agricultural worksite. accid anal prev. ; : – . . dowswell t, towner em, simpson g, jarvis sn. preventing childhood unintentional injuries—what works? a literature review. inj prev. ; : – . . ministry of transportation. ontario road safety annual report [ontario ministry of transportation web site]. february , . available at: http://www.mto.gov.on.ca/english/safety/orsar/orsar / foreword_ .shtml. accessed may , . . thompson dc, rivara fp, thompson r. helmets for preventing head and facial injuries in bicyclists. cochrane database syst rev. ; :cd . . attewell rg, glase k, mcfadden m. bicycle helmet efficacy: a meta- analysis. accid anal prev. ; : – . . cushman r, down j, macmillan n, waclawik h. helmet promotion in the emergency room following a bicycle injury: a randomized trial. pediatrics. ; : – . errata elderly hip fracture patients admitted to the trauma service: does it impact patient outcome?: erratum in the article that appeared on pages – in volume , number , an author’s name was listed without a middleinitial. the author has requested his middle initial be added. the corrected list of authors is as follows: melvin e. stone jr., md, facs, casey barbaro, bs, castigliano m. bhamidipati, md, janet cucuzzo, rn, msn, and ronald simon, md, facs. reference stone jr. me, barbaro c, bhamidipati c, cucuzzo j, simon r. elderly hip fracture patients admitted to the trauma service: does it impact patient outcome? j trauma. ; : – . injury patterns and psychological traits of patients with self-inflicted wounds produced by punching glass: erratum in an article that appeared on pages – in volume , number , the authors’ names were listed in transposed order.the authors should have been listed as: ahmet sönmez, md, kaan kora, md, nurdan öztürk, md, burak ersoy, md, memduha aydın, md and ayhan numanoğlu, md. reference ahmet s, kaan k, nurdan ö, burak e, memduha a, ayhan n. injury patterns and psychological traits of patients with self-inflicted wounds produced by punching glass. j trauma. ; : – . the journal of trauma® injury, infection, and critical care • volume , number , november injuries in rural children © lippincott williams & wilkins vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels wednesday, february , a -pos board b cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin- related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission natalia stepanyants, patrick macdonald, rajesh ramachandran. physiology and biophysics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa. cardiolipin (cl) is a unique, dimeric phospholipid essential for mitochondrial dynamics in eukaryotic cells. dynamin-related protein (drp ), a member of the dynamin superfamily of large gtpases, maintains the balance of mitochon- drial division and fusion by rapidly catalyzing mitochondrial fission. although recent studies have indicated a role for cl in stimulating drp self-assembly as well as gtpase activity on the mitochondrial surface, the exact mechanism by which cl functions in membrane fission remains unclear. here we use a variety of fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging approaches, together with model membranes, to demonstrate that drp and cl function cooperatively in effect- ing membrane fission in three distinct steps: (i) drp ’s preferential association with unconstrained, fluid-phase cl molecules located at a high spatial density in the membrane bilayer, (ii) cl’s reorganization in concert with drp self- assembly, and (iii) cl’s rapid phase transition from a lamellar, bilayer structure to an inverted hexagonal, non-bilayer configuration in the presence of drp and gtp, resulting in the creation of localized membrane constrictions that are primed for fission. we propose that drp thus catalyzes mitochondrial division. -pos board b vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin- sensitive channels oscar teijido hermida , adam j. kuszak , susan k. buchanan , sergey m. bezrukov , tatiana k. rostovtseva . program on physical biology, nichd, nichd, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, program on physical biology, nichd, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa. the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac) forms the major pathway for metabolites across the mitochondrial outer membrane (mom). mammalian mitochondria have three isoforms of this protein: vdac , vdac , and vdac which may play different roles in the regulation of mitochondrial func- tions. vdac is the most studied isoform, since it is the major protein of the mom in most cells, followed by vdac . both, vdac and vdac recon- stituted into planar membranes form voltage-dependent anion-selective chan- nels whose conductance is modulated by dimeric tubulin. as counterpart, the poor channel-forming ability of vdac together with its low proficiency in restoring normal growth in pore-less yeast led to hypothesize that this isoform does not form channels and could be just a modulator of the other two isoforms. we developed an improved protocol of purification and refolding of mouse re- combinant vdac that allowed us to fully characterize channels formed by vdac reconstituted in planar lipid membranes and to compare its channel properties with those of vdac and vdac . we observed the typical vdac channel behavior of vdac , such as high conductive open state ( . - . ns in m kcl) and multiple low conductive states at potentials r mv, selectivity for anions with pcl -/pk þ¼ . , and typical voltage- gating. this suggests a structural homology of vdac with the other two iso- forms. interestingly, the most distinct characteristic of vdac is its signifi- cantly lower sensitivity to the blockage by tubulin, which would lead to an increased permeability of this channel to atp and other metabolites. this might explain why the down-regulation of vdac expression among the three vdac isoforms in some cancer cells causes the most drastic decrease in their mitochondrial membrane potential, or why vdac is predominantly ex- pressed in the short-term high energy demanding cells, such as spermatozoa. -pos board b channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential victor v. lemeshko. escuela de fisica, universidad nacional de colombia, medellin, colombia. mitochondria are the main source of energy in eukaryotic non-proliferating aer- obic cells. in cancer cells, significant part of the energy metabolism is sup- ported by the aerobic glycolysis. oxidative phosphorylation metabolites cross the mitochondrial outer membrane through the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac). the possibility of the voltage-gating functioning of vdac under physiological conditions and proposed mechanisms of generation of the outer membrane potential (omp) require further study. in this work, we present a computational thermodynamic analysis of a possible generation of omp by the creatine kinase(ck)-vdac and vdac-hexokinase(hk) com- plexes, as well as by their intermembrane complexes with the adenine nucleo- tide translocator (ant). the ck-vdac and vdac-hk complexes function as direct steady-state voltage generators, using the free energy of kinase reac- tions, while the ant-ck-vdac and ant-vdac-hk complexes allow the application of a part of the sum of the corresponding ‘‘kinase voltage’’ and the inner membrane potential to the outer membrane. the developed computa- tional models demonstrate a high probability of generation of the metabolically-dependent omp with magnitudes high enough to close free vdacs. we suggest that in case of cardiac cells, the ck-vdac-mediated channeling of mitochondrial energy, earlier postulated by saks and wallimann, leads to the metabolically-dependent generation of a high omp during systole, thus causing electrical closure of free vdacs and essentially avoiding the mitochondrial atp usage by non-contraction system consumers. in case of cancer cells, that have a very high percentage of hexokinase attached to mito- chondria, the electrical closure of free vdacs by omp allows the preferential vdac-hk-mediated channeling of the mitochondrial atp to initiate the aer- obic glycolysis by an anti-turbo mode. (research grants # and # , colciencias). -pos board b alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease philip a. gurnev , , tatiana k. rostovtseva , david p. hoogerheide , , olga protchenko , thai leong yap , jennifer c. lee , sergey m. bezrukov . physics department, umass-amherst, amherst, ma, usa, section on molecular transport, ppb/nichd/nih, bethesda, md, usa, center for neutron research, nist, gaithersburg, md, usa, liver diseases branch, niddk/nih, bethesda, md, usa, laboratory of protein conformation and dynamics, nhlbi/nih, bethesda, md, usa. alpha-synuclein (a-syn), an intrinsically disordered neuronal protein, is impli- cated in the etiology of parkinson disease (pd) and a number of other neurode- generative dementias. though recent research demonstrates the involvement of a-syn in a variety of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration, the mo- lecular mechanism of a-syn toxicity and its effect on neuronal mitochondria remain vague. we demonstrate a functional interaction between a-syn and the voltage-dependent anion channel (vdac), the major conduit for atp and other bioenergetics metabolites in the mitochondrial outer membrane. we found that at nanomolar concentrations, the full-length a-syn, its amino acid c-terminal truncated mutant, as well as b- and a-synuclein isoforms induce reversible and highly voltage-dependent blockage of vdac reconsti- tuted into planar lipid bilayers. binding parameters varied with each isoform, revealing the key role of the negatively charged c-terminal of synucleins in blocking a positively charged pore of vdac. synuclein-blocked states of vdac differ in ionic selectivity, implying the existence of several conforma- tion states of synuclein molecules in the channel pore. we propose a model of a-syn interaction with vdac, in which the negatively charged c-terminus of a-syn enters the net-positive channel pore, providing a steric block for atp flux. experiments with a yeast strain deficient in vdac demonstrate that a-syn toxicity in yeast depends on vdac, revealing a-syn interaction with the channel in living cells. thus, our findings show the long-sought physiolog- ical and pathophysiological roles for monomeric a-syn, which reconcile previ- ous observations of various synuclein effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics. -pos board b mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter meagan mcmanus , martin picard , alessia angelin , prasanth potluri , jagat narula , douglas wallace . chop/upenn, philadelphia,, pa, usa, mt sinai, new york, ny, usa. cardiac conduction defects and cardiomyopathy are commonly reported in pa- tients with inborn errors of metabolism harboring pathogenic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear dna (mtdna and ndna, respectively). we hypothesized that the pathophysiology of inborn errors of metabolism varies due to synergistic heterozygosity between the two genomes. we examined a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy due a mutation in the adenine nucleotide translocator- (ant ). substantial variability in the progression of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and the severity of cardiomyopathy correlated with the mtdna haplogroups (strauss, et al ). to determine the causative nature of this correlation, we examined the influence of inherited mtdna mutations on ant - cardiomyopathy in the mouse. we introduced homoplasmic mtdna nd or coi missense mutations into the mouse female germ line, generating mice with complex i or iv deficiency, respectively, and analyzed ant -dependent cardiomyopathy on the different mtdna backgrounds. on wt mtdna back- ground, the ant -/- mice developed a distinctive concentric dilated cardiomy- opathy, characterized by substantial myocardial hypertrophy and ventricular dilation. both coi and nd mtdna mutations accelerated ant -/- age- dependent cardiomyopathy, as evidenced by ultrastructrural abnormalities, bio- energetic defects, mtros production, sensitized mitochondrial permeability transition, increased mtdna damage, and heart failure, which ultimately 	cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission 	vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels 	channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential 	alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease 	mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter "witness against war": pacifism in canada, - / ~' :/ ') "witness against war": pacifis~l in canada, - iiwitness against warii: pacifism in canada, - by thomas paul socknat, b.a., m.a. a thesis submitted to the school of graduate studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy mcmaster university january / ;-;/ j "witness agp.inst warii: pacifis~l in canada, - "witness against war": pacifism in canada, - by thomas paul socknat, b.a., m.a. a thesis submitted to the school of graduate studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree doctor of philosophy mcmaster university january doctor of philosophy ( ) (history) mcmaster university hamilton, ontario title: iiwitness against war ll : pacifism in canada, - author: thomas paul socknat, b.a. (wayne state college) m.a. (university of nebraska) supervisor: professor richard allen number of pages: x, i; abstract the twentieth century has been a time of world wars, violent revolutions and radical social movements. conversely, perhaps in response to the former, there has also been an upsurge in the phenomenon of pacifism, especially in the english speaking world. this thesis examines the development of pacifism in canada in the first half of this century and describes its radicalization in conjunction with the trend towards radical social change. however, although pacifism in canada, as elsewhere in the western \vorld, was in a state of transition during this period, the manner and degree of its transformation reflected its peculiar composition. canadian pacifism can trace its origins to a varied european, british and american past inspired by religious belief. however, unlike the british pacifist movement which was also heavily secular, and the american, with its enlightenment and isolationist tendencies, the canadi an pacifi st heritage \va s rooted in two d i sti nct but complementary traditions~ both of which were heavily religious in character. one was the historic non-resistance of pacifist rel igious sects which tried to remain separate from the social mainstream. the other was the liberal protestant and humanitarian tradition associated with the progressive reform movement. both traditions underwent an important transition in the course of maintaining a pacif-lst witness against war during the twentieth century. iii although sectarian pacifists, by far the largest and most consistent element in canadian pacifism, made a far-reaching adjustment within canadian society, it was liberal pacifists who experienced a general radicalization. from the time of the first war increasing numbers of those who wished to exercise a pacifist witness were forced to abandon liberal reformism for some variant of the socialist creed. in effect, liberal pacifist ideals were combined with radical criticism of canadian social, political and economic structures. although liberal pacifist hopes resurfaced in post-war enthusiasm for the league of nations and the disarmament campaign, the inter-war peace movement, including such groups as the society of friends, the women s international league for peace and freedom, the fellowship of reconciliation and the fellowship for a christian social order, reflected the socially radical pacifism the great war had bred. this became especially evident during the depression and for a time it appeared a pacifist-socialist alignment was in the forefront of canadian social thought. increased inter- national violence by the mid-thirties, however, placed pacifists in a serious crisis -- their pursuit of social justice came into direct conflict with their commitment to non-violence. consequently, as social radicals began to abandon pacifism for the fight against fascism, the canadian peace movement was severely weakened. with the exception of the quakers, who bridged the primary division in the canadian peace movement, the historic peace sects were not as open to view, but once confronted with the renewed iv challenge of conscription in the 's, sectarian pacifists joined with socially active pacifists in a concerted effort to preserve the right of individual conscience and to resist compulsory military service. some pacifists, especially those with liberal roots, went further and sought and found a realistic pacifist response to wartime conditions, over and above moral indignation or isolation. regard- less of their precise actions, however, canadian pacifists success- fully exercised their witness against war. the chronological development of pacifism and pacifist organizations discussed in the thesis reflects the historical evidence gathered from primary sources across canada, from private papers and government records to files of organizations. moreover, much of the record has been confirmed, enhanced and extended through personal correspondence and numerous oral interviews with canadian pacifists of the period. the thesis concludes that canadian pacifists were a small but forceful minority who exercised a dual function in canada: prophecy of an ideal of peace and justice and reconciliation of war- time tensions in society. above all, however, in its uncompromising emphasis upon questions of conscience, the pacifist witness against war both directly and indirectly helped preserve enduring moral principles underlying canadian culture. v acknowledgements i am indebted to numerous individuals and organizations for their assistance in the preparation of this thesis. first, i wish to express my sincere appreciation to w~ thesis supervisor, dr. richard allen, for his patient guidance and careful scrutiny of the manuscript. his insight into the nature of canadian social and intellectual development often provided me with a clearer understanding of the historical problems i encountered. his advice has been invaluable. the same is true of dr. c. m. johnston, my committee chairman, who offered detailed criticisms as he read and re-read the early drafts. he has been a source of consistent encouragement not only with this thesis but throughout my graduate career. likewise, my thanks are extended to the other members of my committee: dr. david j. russo, with whom i have enjoyed a rewarding working relationship in the department of history, and dr. louis greenspan, department of religious studies. i thank the graduate school at mcmaster university for four years of financial assistance, and the history departments at mcmaster and brock universities for the part-time teaching positions which helped ease the financial strain of the last few years. in that same regard, i am grateful to phi alpha theta, international honour society in history, for awarding me their pine memorial scholarship in . vi i am also thankful for the support of my fellow graduate students through the years, particularly that of dr. jeanne beck, my former officemate, who first suggested the general topic of this thesis. the topic has proven to be a rich and stimulating one and i am sincerely grateful to all those, too numerous to mention here, who assisted me with my research, especially those who welcomed me into their homes and offices to share their memories. i am indeed fortunate, for example, to have interviewed the late arthur g. dorland and the late fred haslam, both of whom were prominent in the canadian peace movement. finally, my most heartfelt appreciation is reserved for my wife, carmen, whose criticisms, encouragement and enthusiastic support have aided the preparation of this thesis through its various stages to a successful conclusion. vii acknowledgements list of abbreviations introduction contents vi ix chapter i. early pacifist traditions in canada chapter ii. the disruption of the liberal peace movement chapter iii. conscription and the conscience of radical pacifists chapter iv. a resurgent peace movement: the 's chapter v. cementing the bonds with social radicalism in the early depression years chapter vi. the crisis of conscience, - chapter vii. the initial sturggle to maintain a pacifist witness during the second world war chapter vi ii. conscriptio~! and conscience: act two chapter ix. conclusion appendices bibliography the pacifist search for ~jartime realism vtii list of abbreviations asw: alternative service work bcfs: british columbia forest service ccf: co-operative commonwealth federation ccym: christian commonwealth youth movement cfcc: canadian federation for cooperative community cfsc: canadian friends service committee chpc: conference of historic peace churches clpd: canadian league for peace and democracy clwf: canadian league against war and fascism cncr: canadian national committee on refugees c.o.: conscientious objector cpc: canadian peace congress cyc: canadian youth congress fau: friends ambulance unit fcso: fellowship for a christian social order for: fellowship of reconciliation ifor: international fellowship of reconciliation lsr: league for social reconstruction msa: military service act, mcrc: mennonite central relief committee mcso: movement for a christian social order ncw: national council of women ix nrma: national resources mobilization act, scm: student christian movement wctu: women s christian temperance union wil: women s international league for peace and freedom wri: war resisters i international x introduction this thesis is a study of the manifestation of pacifism in canada within the context of the canadian reaction to war and social change during the first halfof the twentieth-century. it does not attempt to analyze the larger philosophical aspects of pacifism nor to develop any specific biographical studies of individual pacifists. it proposes instead to trace the changing role of the pacifist idea in the recent canadian past. in doing so, numerous individuals, groups and organizations come to the fore, but their true significance lies in their interaction -- in the composite picture -- and in their collective and distinctive contribution to the canadian response to the social violence and wars of this century. most historians are agreed that pacifism is basically a christian phenomenon with roots in the early christian church. war has always been an inescapable social reality and ethical problem for christians, resulting in both pacifists and anti-pacifists searching the new testament for support. the most relevant passages of new testament pacifism are the sermon on the mount (matt: : - ) with its non-resistant overtures and the beatitudes (matt: : - ) but c. j. cadoux, probably the leading scholar on the early christian attitude to war, has emphasized that the pacifism of jesus is expressed more in the spirit of his teachings than in his words. l pacifists have formed a minority in the christian church since about the fourth century although the early christians universally had been pacifists for almost two centuries. early christian pacifism was expressed by a withdrawal from political and military affairs alike. the pacifist period of the church was finally terminated with the accession of constantine and the appearance of the theory of the just war, formulated by st. ambrose and amplified by st. augustine. according to this doctrine the church approved of war as long as the end was just and the intention to restoring peace. in time this conception of just war with the church promoting peace was joined by the idea of the crusade, a holy war in which the church actually promoted war for religious ends. medieval reactions to the crusades appeared in the pacifism of anabaptism during the radical reformation and in the humanist pacifism of thomas more and erasmus, forerunners of the liberal rational rejection of war. christian pacifism, therefore, survived primarily among the sectarian pacifist enclaves scattered across europe and later in north america, while generally disappearing from the mainstream of christian society. although these peace sects promoted a conservative, withdrawn, quiet lifestyle, they offered at times what seemed a radical challenge to the established order. in fact, steadfast pacifism and radicalism reinforced one another. the subsequent growth of liberal rationalism, however, also promoted the idea of humanitarian pacifism and war-prevention, primarily through organized peace societies, and by the late nineteenth century the liberal ideals of peace and progress merged with elements of evangelical christianity in the liberal peace movement. it was these two distinct but complementary traditions which formed the basis of pacifism in canada: the historic, absolute non-resistance and non-participation in the worldly state which peter brock has called iiseparational pacifism", characteristic of sectarian pacifist groups like the mennonites and hutterites, and the liberal pacifism or liintegrational pacifism" assosicated with the quakers and later with the protestant social gospel and the progressive reform movement (and ultimately with social radicalism). pacifists in both traditions underwent a far-reaching transi- tion and adjustment to social reality during the first half of the twentieth century. two world wars', the social and economic upheaval of the depression years, and the popularization of socialism and the fear of fascism and communism all left their mark on the entire canadian community. pacifists were no exception and even the meaning of the word pacifism changed accordingly. since its initial usage shortly before the great war, the word pacifism has often referred to both the belief that war is absolutely and always wrong and the assumption that war, though some- times necessary, is always inhumane and irrational and should be prevented. the former applied mainly to the sectarians while the latter was representative of the liberal-progressive pacifists at the turn of the century who still reflected victorian social attitudes: forcefulness of character, a militaristic patriotism and hero worship. their advocacy of international harmony for peace was quite different from pacifist non-resistance or opposition to all wars. the sub- sequent growth of violence, death and destruction between nations and within them, however, gave birth to a specific twentieth century pacifism defined by brock as an ideology of "personal non- participation in wars ..• or in violent revolution with an endeavor to find non-violent means of resolving conflict.,, in effect, pacifism was adjusting to the challenges of a new age of mass inter- national warfare and social revolution. as a result of this etymological evolution, the exact meaning of pacifism in the twentieth century has often been vague. in his recent history of pacifism in britain, martin ceadel has admirably attempted to clear the air by separating the liberal internationalists and other "quasi-pacifists" from the pacifists proper. although successful in defining the absolute faith of pacifism in britain's recent past, his typology is rather artificial and confining to the study of the full impact of the pacifist phenomenon. applied to the canadian experience, it is somewhat misleading. in terms of ·contemporary historical usage the word pacifist usually narrowed during times of war to ·mean;·enl"y those opposed to all wars, but during times of peace it broadened again to include all those working on behalf of peace. this thesis often uses the word pacifism in its broadest sense to reflect its common usage and meaning in canada's past. on the other hand, distinctions are drawn between sectarian pacifism and the various expressions in the liberal tradi- tion: first, the liberal-progressive reformers at the turn of the century who advocated international arbitration as the rational solution to international conflicts; second, the liberal inter- nationalists of the inter-war era who, while displaying a new aware- ness of the social and economic roots of war, reaffirmed their faith in the perfectability of man and world peace through support for the league of nations and disarmament, but stopped short of endorsing total pacifism; and third, the post-war breed of socially radical pacifists who blended liberal pacifist ideals with the socialist attack upon the economic and political superstructure, thereby demanding both peace and radical social change. since pacifist as well as social thought was in a state of transition and individual adherents held varying degrees of pacifist sympathies, differences between liberal internationalists and pacifists proper were often blurred, with the result that it is difficult, and historically some- what inaccurate, to separate completely those two strands of the canadian peace movement. furthermore, despite an overall resemblance, the canadian pacifist experience did not exactly mirror that of the united states or britain. the socialist basis of pacifism, for instance, was more evident in britain while in canada the pacifism of social radicals was most often grounded upon religious conviction. that is not to say, however, that canadian pacifism was without its radical dimension. in fact, it was thought initially that this thesis might show the merger of both the sectarian and liberal pacifist traditions into one broad radical movement but research proved that this did not happen. although both traditions underwent a notable transition, sectarian pacifism ~ remained separate and aloof from radical social movements. con- sequently, while not minimizing the role of sectarian groups, this thesis has focused most heavily upon the radicalization of liberal pacifist thought. neither did a specific pattern arise to explain the transition of pacifism, unless it was simply the struggle for survival of the individual conscience in a society victimized by war and depression. rather than propose a specific theory, there- \ fore, this thesis describes and documents the process of this radical- ization of pacifism in canada. for the most part, the sectarian pacifists remained the constant factor in the survival of the pacifist idea in canada, par- ticularly in times of war, and their communal societies served as models for those canadians seeking new methods of social organization. because they attempted to remain withdrawn from society, and, hence, from the larger peace movement, the peace sects were probably less noticeably affected by world events. nevertheless, their experience during the two world wars ultimately resulted in a degree of accom- modation with the state and a tendency towards assimilation into society. the central core of this thesis, however, concerns the left- ward transition of the "integrational" liberal pacifists in their search of political realism. as they examined the social and economic roots of war during and after the great war, committed pacifists abandoned liberal reformism for a socially radical outlook. the merger of the pacifist means of non-violence and the radical ends of social justice into one broad movement, however, also posed a dilemma. in contrast to traditional non-resistance, socially radical pacifists increasingly sanctioned forms of social coercion such as strikes which v' threatened to compromise their pacifist rejection of the use of force. sectarian pacifists had recognized the danger and it was one of the reasons they avoided all contact with the peace movement. the crisis finally came to a head during the late thirties when, under the pressure of increasing international tensions, liberals and social radicals rallied to the armed defense of western democracies, thereby abandoning the pacifist ideal. their defection left the peace movement much weakened and resulted in the gradual retreat of committed pacifists behind the confines of a strictly christian ideal not entirely unlike their sectarian brothers. but, although socially radical pacifists were forced by renewed warfare to shed their utopian vision and offer their pacifist witness in terms of the world as they found it, they did not entirely abandon a radical social criticism or cease to labor for social change. they attempted, therefore, to combine a pacifist witness with a meaningful confrontation with social reality and, in doing so, they, too, experienced a measure of accommodation with the state and were assimilated in their turn into the nation's war effort. nonetheless, the assimilation was substantially on their own terms, and the war and post-war years found them opposing the state in a very notable campaign in defense of civil liberties. in a larger sense this thesis reveals that pacifism had become an important ingredient in canadian social activism and social criticism. as it developed in the course of the century the peace movement encompassed a broad campaign for disarmament, international harmony and social and economic reorganization. furthermore, pacifists were not typical men and women. as a prophetic minority, they were influential beyond their numbers. canadian pacifists, for instance, exercised leading roles in the development of radical christian social ethics, in the building of a social democratic political alternative and in the struggle for economic justice and civil liberties. above all, however, pacifists lobbied against all types of militarism in ~ canadian society from conscription and cadet training in the schools to armament increases and nuclear weaponry. during the interwar years pacifists tried to create an anti-war public but, while they succeeded in broadening the public to which they appealed, they failed to in- crease substantially the adherents of pacifism itself. thus, as in the case of most social movements, their efforts did not always yield desired results, but in the end the peace movement and the pacifist witness of sectarian groups had important consequences for the changing nature of canadian society. as a phenomenon of the twentieth century, pacifist resistance to war has been largely confined to the english-speaking world. its dimensions coincided with a north atlantic culture based upon a similar religious, philosophical and political heritage. both the non-conformist conscience and radical political individualism were common in the anglo-american past while absent in most of europe. great britain, the united states and canada became important out- posts in the struggle of the individual conscience against war and violence; against official government positions and the respectable but subservient role of social institutions. it is no surprise, therefore, that most historical literature on the topic has con- cerned pacifist movements in britain and the united states. some of this work, however, resembles hagiography more than historiography since it is written by committed pacifists intent on expressing their particular faith or canonizing their own heroes. but there are also sound scholarly studies. for the most part, british scholars have tended to concentrate on the first world war and interwar periods while the american pacifist experience has been more evenly explored. in- deed, bursts of american scholarship appear to be related to periods f t u s " t " i h" t " o ac ua . . nvo vemen n war. n any case, s or ans generally agree that the peace movement in both britain and the united stated became linked with social radicalism and faced a serious internal crisis as pacifists confronted the reality of -fascist aggres- sion in the mid-thirties. that is the opinion, for instance, of peter brock, one of the most important historians of pacifism in both europe and the united states and one often mentioned in the course of this thesis. in contrast to british and american historiography, the historical study of pacifism has been largely ignored in canadian history. this is partly because the pacifist movement was not large, but also because historians in both the liberal nationalist and laurentian traditions, and certain social historians as well, were committed to more political, collective, international solutions, and finally to war itself as the least of evils. as arthur lower and donald creighton have demonstrated, these historians were not unaware of the pacifist tradition in canada's past although they viewed pacifists, like native peoples, as largely irrelevant in the flow of history. the continuing experience of war and the questionable state of international order, however, gives significance once more to the pacifist ideal in its preservation of the moral imperative central to our culture. despite the limitations of canadian historiography important observations have been made concerning pacifism in canada. some of the best sources are the various monographs on specific pacifist groups such as frank epp's treatment of mennonites in mennonites in canada, - : the history of a separate people and m. james penton's study of the jehovah's witnesses in canada. ll still another view of pacifism can be found in church histories such as the well known theses by e. a. christie and m. v. royce, which contrast the presbyterian and methodist attitudes to war, and j. m. bliss's article lithe methodist church and world war i." the relationship between liberal pacifists and internationalists is explored in the thesis by donald page, "canadians and the league of nations before the manchurian crisis. i although page tends to view the peace movement from the perspective of the internationalists, he provides a good introduction to the canadian peace movement, particularly on the prairies. the most important basis for the further study of canadian pacifism, however, was laid by richard allen in the social passion. allen claims the resurgence of pacifism in the twenties sublimated the crisis of social gospel reform and actually inhibited the develop- ment of a more profound christian ethic of war or of peace, thereby leaving the whole question unresolved for a later generation. but in contrast to this evasion of social reality, allen argues that v some social gospellers had already begun to reflect an international realism which ultimately helped give birth to a new radical christianity the following decade. rooer hutchinson examines some of these radical christians in his study of the fellowship for a christian social order. he claims the social radicals in the fcso were realistic in that they had a clear vision of the world as it was and yet idealistic in their determination to improve the social order. the same thing could be said of most socially radical pacifists in the thirties. hutchinson emphasizes that pacifism was an important part of fcso social thought but he does not adequately analyze that pacifism. he fails to put fcso pacifism to the same scrutiny as he does its social radicalism. likewise, michiel horn emphasizes the mixture of pacifism and socialism in the league for social reconstruction but he largely ignores the concomitant role of lsr radicals in the peace movement and tends to associate pacifism with isolationism. this mixture of pacifism and socialism is also recognized by kenneth mcnaught in his biography of j. s. woodsworth. but in the end mcnaught overstresses the socialist influence at the expense of the christian basis of woodsworth's pacifism. the pacifist if not the socialist ethic of many social radicals was rooted in christianity but, as thomas sinclair-faulkner argues in his study of the response of canada's churches to the second world war, the churches themselves had no trouble supporting the war because, despite pressure from a vocal pacifist minority, they had never endorsed outright pacifism. faulkner, however, fails to examine the pacifist churchmen in conjunction with the wider interwar peace movement. neither does he adequately explain the fate of united church pacifists after . in fact, his claim that united church pacifists ceased to act as a pacifist front after is a gross overstatement if not entirely misleading. nevertheless, faulkner, as well as allen, hutchinson, horn and a few others, have begun the process of examining pacifism in the context of canadian social history which this thesis attempts to develop further. while most historians in the mainstream of canadian historio- graphy have made no more than passing references to pacifists in canada, some, like ramsay cook, james eayrs and an older donald creighton, have shown an appreciation of the pacifist phenomenon. for instance, in the forked road: canada - , creighton refers to canadian churchmen who professed a na've pacifism before but ended up supporting the war as a righteous crusade. the interwar years, he writes, resulted in a bitter disillusionment. some clergymen confessed their tragic mistake and re- confirmed their pacifism. others, together with a good many laymen, placed their hopes for the future in the league of nations. it was a long drawn-out and painful experience which ensured that english canadian churchmen would look at the second world war in a fashion very different from that in which they viewed the first. it was also an experience which passed by the clergy of french canada almost comp ete y. this " ng drawn-out and painful experience" mentioned briefly by creighton and discussed separately by allen, hutchinson and faulkner is the core of this thesis. footnotes lsee c. j. cadoux, the earl! christian attitude to war ( ) and the early church and the world ) .. other important works on new testament pacifism are: g. h. c. macgregor, the new testament basis of pacifism (reprint ed. new york: fellowship publications, ), roland h. bainton, christian attitudes toward war and peace (nashville: vanderbilt university press, ), jean lasserre, war and the gospel ( ); lasserre is the son of the canadian henri lasserre later mentioned in this thesis. peter brock, pacifism in europe to (princeton: princeton university press, ), p. . bainton, christian attitudes toward war and peace, p. . brock, pacifism in europe, pp. - . brock divides pacifists into six classifications, the most important of which in the canadian context are the separationa and integrational pacifists and the "eschatological pacifists" such as jehovah's witnesses. peter brock, twentieth-century pacifism (new york: van nostrand reinhold, ), p. . martin ceadel, pacifism in britain, - : the defining of a faith (oxford: clarendon press, ). ceade actually admits his typology is "somewhat contrived." ibid., p. . for instance, ceadel disregards brock's "separational pacifism" or sectarian pacifism as "quasi-pacifism" because it was largely based upon birthright and orientation towards society rather than personal inspiration. such a generalization is untenable in the canadian con- text where sectarian pacifists such as the mennonites have been in the forefront of defending personal pacifist beliefs. brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . an exception was tolstoy. the standard british scholarship includes: david boulton, objection overruled (london: macgibbon and kee, ), john w. graham, conscription and conscience (london; george allen and unwin, ), david a. martin, pacifism: an historical and sociological s~ud* (london: oxford university press, ), keith robbins, t e bolition of war: the 'peace movement' in britain, - (cardiff: university of wales press, ), and most recently, ceadel, pacifism in britain, - . a complete view of the american pacifist experience is provided in the following: peter brock, pacifism in the united states: from the colonial era to the first world war (princeton: princeton university press, ), charles chatfield, for peace and justice: pacifism in america - (knoxville: university of tennessee, ), lawrence s. wittner, rebels against war: the american peace movement - (new york: columbia university press, ). ne of the most important bursts of this scholarship, for instance, occurred during the era of the vietnam war, such as brock, chatfield, wittner and john k. nelson, the peace prophets: american pacifist thought, - (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ) and roland c. marchand, the american peace movement and social reform - (princeton: princeton university press, ). frank h. epp, mennonites in canada, - : the histor of a se~arate people (toronto: macmillan, ; m. james penton, jehovah s witnesses in canada (toronto: macmillan, ). others include: david fransen, i'canadian mennonites and conscientious objection in world war ," m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, ; victor peters, all things common: the hutterian way of life (minneapo i·s: university of minnesota press, ), john w. bennett, hutterian brethren (stanford: stanford university press, ), george woodcock and ivan avakumovic, the doukhobors (toronto: oxford university press, ), arthur g. dorland, the quakers in canada, a history (toronto: ryerson, ). e. a. christie, lithe presbyterian church in canada and its official attitude towards public affairs and social problems, - ," m.a. thesis, university of toronto, ; m. v. royce, lithe contribution of the methodist church to social welfare in canada," m.a. thesis, university of toronto, ; j. m. bliss, lithe methodist church and world war i," canadian historical review, xlix (september, ). donald page, "canadians and the league of nations before the manchurian crisis," ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, . richard allen, the social passion (toronto: university of toronto press, ). roger hutchinson, lithe fellowship for a christian social order: a social ethical analysis of a christian socialist movement," th.d. thesis, victoria university, toronto, . michiel horn, "the league for social reconstruction: socialism and nationalism in canada, - , ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, , recently published as: horn, the league for social reconstruction: intellectual origins of the democratic left in canada - (toronto: university of toronto press, ). l kenneth mcnaught, a prophet in politics (toronto: university of toronto press, ). c. t. sinclair-faulkner, ii'for christian civilization': the churches and canada's war effort, - . th.d. thesis, university of chicago, . these include such recent works as h. blair neatby, william lyon mackenzie king. vol. iii: - : the prism of unity ( ); jack l. granatstein, canada's war: the politics of the mackenzie king government - (toronto: oxford university press, ) . see : ramsay cook, iifrancis marion beynon and the crisis of christian reformism, i in the west and the nation, ed. carl berger and ramsay cook (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), james eayrs, in defense of canada, vols. (toronto: university of toronto press, ). others include john h. thompson and ross mccormack. donald g. creighton, the forked road: canada - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . chapter i early pacifist traditions in canada the canadian pacifist tradition evolved during the nineteenth century from both the heritage of radical religious dissent and the liberal reform movement. the gradual immigration into canada of pacifist religious groups strengthened the principle of passive non- resistance within canadian society while the simultaneous growth of the liberal peace movement popularized the cause of world peace and order. the non-conformism of the peace sects paralleled a marginal position on the fringes of canadian society while the broader peace movement was part of the established~ mainline liberal reform tradition largely represented by the middle class. these liberal peace advocates were broadly labeled pacifists but not. because they all adhered to genuine pacifist non-violent principles; most simply favored arbitration and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. overall the canadian pacifist movement was a christian tradition reflecting the combined influences of the radical reformation and liberal protestantism and was closely related to the activities of various christian communities and small liberal peace organizations up to the first world war. the sectarian pacifists by far the largest element in the canadian pacifist tradition has been the sectarian pacifism of the anabaptist sects born during the radical reformation, the society of friends founded in the seventeenth century, and some other more recent christian sects. the anabaptists belonged to the radical wing of the reformation since they rejected the ethic of the old testament as having been superceded by that of christ. the anabaptist belief in the complete separation of church and state and the condemnation of war and killing as contrary to christ's ethic of love and respect for human life, were exemplified in their pacifistic lifestyle, separate from the secular world. one group of anabaptists in moravia organized their communities along communistic economic lines under the leadership of jacob hutter and thereafter became known as hutterites.. chief among their bel iefs were adult baptism and non-violence. l another wing came under the influence of menno simmons who emphasized passivity and non-resistance as the basic tenet of their faith. ii'the regenerated do not ~o to war, i wrote simmons, '" nor engage in strife. they are the children of peace who have beaten their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks, and know of no war. "' his followers became known as mennonites. although anabaptists were pacifists, their lifestyle repre- sented a radical revolutionary threat in the minds of authorities and large scale persectuion of anabaptists occurred. from the very beginning, therefore, pacifists were linked to radicalism and anabaptists began their search for a new home where they could live according to their conscience. it has been argued that anabaptism was the parent of quakerism. certainly, quakers resembled the anabaptist protest against the un- christian state, but whereas sects like the mennonites were, in peter brock's words, "separational pacifists" who urged withdrawal from the world, quakers were "integrational pacifists" who sought to transform the world. they were part of the large non-conformist tradition in the seventeenth century_ founded by george fox in the early 's, the society of friends based their spiritual life on the belief in the presence of the "inner light" of christ in all men. they were also apocalyptically minded and supported cromwell's war and victory as a sign of the coming of the kingdom. the persecution of friends under the commonwealth, however, shattered their millenarian hopes and after their early hesitation quakers concluded that war and violence were against their beliefs and incorporated non-resistance into their basic testimony. down through the centuries that followed mennonites and quakers remained true to their pacifist beliefs although, admittedly, individual mennonites in holland and germany abandoned the principle of non-resistance as they integrated into society. but in switzerland and russia and then in north america, "separational" sects like the mennonites remained withdrawn from contemporary society and faithful to the doctrine of non-resistance. the liintegrational ll quakers on the other hand, regarded politics as compatible with the pacifist stance. but they largely maintained a quietistic mood until the nineteenth century, when, under evangelical influences, quaker pacifism became lian outreaching creed and sought to find expression in both domestic politics and international relations. iis both these groups entered canada as early as the eighteenth century and their pacifist beliefs were officially recognized in militia acts and immigration guarantees. english legal precedents respecting non-conformity and religious dissent dating back to the seventeenth century provided a secure atmosphere that attracted both mennonites and quakers to canada from the united states during the american revolution. although there were some mennonite settlements reported in the maritimes during the mid-eighteenth century the first significant migration of pacifist sects coincided with the coming of the united empire loyalists. while their doctrine of non-resistance forbade participation in british wars or political revolution, many felt a certain loyalty to the british due to official recognition of their freedom. the militia bill of s , for instance, allowed for the exemption of quakers, mennonites and moravians from the bearing of arms. the emigrating sects mainly included the pennsylvania centered quakers, mennonites, dunkards (german baptists) and tunkers (later known as brethren in christ), a revivalistic group of partly mennonite origin. --------- the principles of the radical pacifist christian conscience and military exemption recognized in british legal precedents were introduced into canada with the migration of these sects. upper canada's first lieutenant-governor, john graves simcoe, personally invited mennonites, quakers and tunkers to settle in upper canada with the promise of the customary exemptions from militia duties. this promise was officially recognized by the first upper canada parliament in the militia act of which provided for exemption of quakers, mennonites or tunkers, on condition of the payment of annual fines "' ..• the sum of shillings per annum in time of peace, and five pounds per annum in time of actual invasion or insurrection. '" the pacifist sects, however, were dissatisfied with the thought of paying fines. the mennonites objected more for financial than moral reasons and usually paid the tax in line with past precedents in pennsylvania and prussia. the quakers, on the other hand, usually refused to pay the fine reasoning that the proceeds would support the militia. those who did pay the fines were disciplined by their brothers as if they had joined the militia. the quaker non-compliance resulted in some retaliatory incidents such as the confiscation of $ , worth of goods from the yonge street monthly meeting in and the jailing of eight members for one month. there followed what frank epp has called "one of the most active lobbies in the half-century of upper canada" on behalf of quakers and mennonites to change the law. this movement was briefly interrupted by the war of - which witnessed the im- pressment of pacifists' horses and carriages. while mennonites agreed to comply with "extreme re uctance," quakers remained adamant and accepted fines and imprisonment rather than render any assistance to the military. actually to enroll in the militia was a serious offense for a friend and resulted in disownment by the meeting, as in the case of peter hunter, a quaker who attended military training in order to save his fine. following the war the pacifist groups again petitioned the government until a new militia law passed under a reform administration in t removed the principle of fining. a tradition of christian pacifism, therefore, was firmly rooted in the early settlement of british north america and its practical protection through military exemption was reconfirmed in the first military service act of the new canadian confederation in . this act provided for the exemption of quakers, mennonites, tunkers and persons of any religions denomination if their religious doctrine forbade the bearing of arms and personal military service. with this important step canada officially recognized the principle of religious pacifist dissent and military exemption characteristic of british law and continued to make similar legal provisions for newly immigrating groups in the late-nineteenth century through a series of orders-in-council. in at the very time when the first mennonites migrated to canada from the united states, european mennonites were moving into russia. nearly a century later, when the tsar began to with- draw the privilegium protecting mennonite rights, a mass migration to north america resulted. the majority of these russian mennonites chose the united states as their new home, probably due to the prospect of better land, while those that chose canada held their german culture and conscientious non-resistance in paramount impor- tance. only after a mennonite delegation visited canada in and received a canadian version of the privilegium, including an entire exemption from military service, was the mennonite exodus ensured. a special order-in-council was issued in providing an entire exemption from military service for mennonites. this was the first of the special orders-in-council based upon the earlier statutes exempting quakers, mennonites and tunkers. there followed an order-in-council in granting exemption to doukhobors and one in exempting hutterites, the two other pacifist groups immigrating into western canada. other than their pacifism, all three groups shared a common russian background and a type of communal organization. thus, by the beginning of the twentieth century the old "pacifist trinity" of eastern canada -- quakers, tunkers and mennonites -- was joined by a strange new grouping of mennonites~ doukhobors and hutterites in western canada and the non-conformist pacifist traditions of all were protected by canadian aw. in the 's the hutterites had immigrated from russia to the dakotas but by with the threat of the spanish-american war they looked northward to manitoba. the canadian government, favoring settlement of the west, eagerly granted them permission to establish their communal colonies along with an exemption from military service. in a hutterite colony was established on the rosean river east of dominion city, manitoba, but, after only a five year stay, the colony returned to south dakota. they had suffered hardships with unsatisfactory land and flood damage, and in the meantime the war involving the united states had ended. although it was not until that large numbers of american hutterites, fleeing from the threats of another war, migrated to western canada, the legal precedent had already been set recognizing both their pacifism and the communal ownership of property. both mennonites and hutterites share common anabaptist roots to their faith and their withdrawn and separate lifestyles, but each reacted differently to the modern age. whereas large numbers of mennonites began to participate within society but eschewed modern technology, hutterites accepted modern technology but remained isolated from society. by far the most contentious of the new immigrant pacifist groups to arrive in canada were the doukhobors. because of the persecutions of tsarist russia, influential supporters, from leo tolstoy to british quakers, encouraged the exodus of these strange russian peasants to a new homeland in canada. they injected a host of unorthodox social, political and religious views into canadian society, adding yet another variant to the pacifist tradition building within canada. the doukhobor movement originated in south central and southern russian during the eighteenth century but did not crystallize until the early l s. it was an undogmatic faith that abandoned tradi- tional christianity and rejected all outward rites and forms such as sacraments, ikons, liturgy, and a separate priesthood. love and brotherhood became the central principles of the sect while the bible was of secondary importance. they were living examples of a messianic and millenarian christianity dying out elsehvlere in the world. l the doukhobors, in their rejection of baptism, were more radical than anabaptists and,in their rejection of the doctrine of redemption and v denial of the authority of the scriptures, they were more radical than the quakers. similar to that of quakers, their faith is based upon a radical belief in the presence of christls spirit in each man a voice within which directs his actions. this presence was supreme in the man jesus. "since the direction of their behaviour must come from within," write george woodcock and i van avakumovi c, ii they na tura lly deny the right of the state or other external authority to dictate their actions. and, since all men are vessels for the divine essence, they regard it as sinfu to kill other men, even in war: hence springs the pacifism that is the most durable and widespread of doukhobor attitudes .... from the very beginning, doukhobor faith has been lia strange blend of religious anarchism and theocratic autocracy. i s while denying the need for government they elevate a semi-divine leader as head of their community. the doukhobor philosophy present in the twentieth century, however, did not appear until the fusion of their old traditions with to stoyan ideas in the late-nineteenth century. when tolstoy first heard of the doukhobors he thought he had found the natural peasant anarchists of his dreams, li'the germinating of that seed sown by christ eighteen hundred years ago: the resurrection of christ himse f. , he failed to understand their mystical and prophetic side with its support of theocratic authority but from what he knew he found their philosophy generally in line with his own. to stoy ' s conversion to pacifism occurred during the russo- turkish war of - and in a confession ( ) he first expressed the concept of "non-resistance to evil" that formed an important part of his broader program of social ethics. his philosophy was one of individual ethics, stressing personal responsibility for actions and the importance of taking a moral stand, similar to the kantian absolute moral imperative. according to tolstoy, non-violence was an ethical imperative evident in the moral rules laid down by christ in the sermon on the mount. tolstoy's goal was christian perfection. since the realization of the law of brotherly love and sacredness of human life, however, was blocked by the existence of the state and its law of violence, tolstoy advocated the total transformation of society. hence, anarchism is an essential element of tolstoy's christian pacifism. his complete opposition to authoritarian forms including the state clearly classifies this thought as anarchistic even though tolstoy preferred to call himself a literal christian. his attitude is best expressed in his own words of advice to the doukhobors: the christian teaching cannot be taken piecemeal: it is all or nothing. it is inseparably united into one whole. if a man acknowledges himself to be a son of god, from that acknowledgement flows the love of his neighbour; and from love of his neighbour flow, equally, the repudiation of violence, of oaths, of state service, and of property. in a display of civil disobedience in members of the doukhobor community endured imprisonment and punishments under the tsar rather than submit to conscription. tolstoy thought of them as christian martyrs and appealed to british quakers and other pacifists on their behalf. the quakers responded with a special assistance fund to help resettle the doukhobors in a new land while tolstoy completed his last work, resurrection ( ) and donated the royalties to the same cause. if the doukhobor emigration to canada in meant survival for their particular way of life, it also weant the addition of a peculiar, anarchistic type of christian pacifism to the canadian scene. by order-in-council, , doukhobor pacifism was guaranteed by canadian law. quite apart from his link with the doukhobor influx tolstoy's considerable influence upon the development of pacifism and social criticism in the twentieth century would make itself felt in canada in its own right as the century passed. tolstoy was among the topics discussed at the annual queen's theological alumni conference in the 's where christian ministers and laymen advocated broad goals of christian social action, though few if any were persuaded pacifists. it was tolstoy who criticized the liberal peace societies of his day for concentrating on secondary issues while avoiding the fundamental v issue of individual witness against war. another of his contributions was his influence on mahatma gandhi and the latter's doctrine of non- violent resistance. tolstoy, therefore, was instrumental in the formulation of a new pacifist idea built upon individual moral respon- sibility with a universal application to all mankind rather than just a sectarian christian approach; a pacifism concerned with the extent to which war and violence are rooted in the social environment. few pacifists in the twentieth century followed tolstoy to the final repudiation of the state, but he obviously made a powerful contribu- tion to the socially radical pacifism that, in canada as elsewhere, emerged in the century of the world wars. in addition to groups now designated as "historic peace churches," various fundamentalist and millennial sects holding radical objections to war entered canada during the late-nineteenth century from britain and the united states. the plymouth brethren, one of the most significant of the british groups, was organized around - . their objection to war was based upon the well-known passage on non- resistance to evil in the sermon on the mount. the brethren were strict literalists and remained aloof from politics and secular activities. together with several other sects, including christa- delphians, seventh day adventists and jehovahls witnesses, they advocated an apocalyptic non-combatancy conditional upon the coming of the millennium. thus, again to use brockls classification, they were li eschatological pacifists ll who professed a kind of interim ethic. while non-combatant in the present world, they foresaw the possibility of fighting under christls banner at armageddon. the most important of these li eschatological pacifists ll in canada were the jehovah's witnesses, also known as international .bible students, millennial dawnites and russellites, founded by charles taze russell, a pittsburg businessman, in the s. within a decade pastor russell had founded the watch tower bible and tract society and written numerous books and articles espousing his beliefs. according to russell, human history is a struggle between jehovah and satanls forces of evil. although satan rules the world, including the religious, political and economic institutions, eventually christ will come again to destroy the worldls wicked system. therefore, russell urged bible students to iii ••• honour all men and be obedient to earthly authorities in matters not contrary to divine law. iii they should also iii • refrain from participating in politics, voting, and killing their fellow men in the wars of the nations. on the one hand, witnesses are strict biblicists, but they keep reassessing the bible in order to move from spiritual darkness to spiritual light. they also believe that every member in good standing should be a preacher. jehovah's witnesses began to penetrate canada soon after pastor russell began his activities. watch tower literature reached ontario as early as while pastor russell's first visit to toronto in was followed by frequent appearances in canada before his death in . at that time there were eighteen congregations in ontario alone as well as bible student representations in all the maritime provinces and throughout the west. the absolute refusal of jehovah's witnesses and other recently organized "eschatological" sects to participate in the wars of the state further enlarged the religious minority'in support of pacifist non-violence. indeed, jehovah's witnesses, doukho~ors and the more traditional peace sects, mennonites, hutterites and quakers, formed the backbone of pacifist dissent in canadian society and would provide the major resistance to compulsory military service in the course of the twentieth century. the liberal pacifists outside the religious sects there was little pacifist activity in canada's early past, although liberal, non-sectarian peace societies that appeared in the united states after also began to move into british north america and by there were twelve such societies in upper canada and several in the maritimes. this non-sectarian interest in peace was based upon the en ightenment's emphasis on rationalism and humanism, with biblical teachings used as further support for establishing the ideal of peace. canadian peace societies, however, were short lived, disappearing by mid-century, but the same philosophical approach appeared again in the ate- nineteenth century in conjunction with the reform spirit. besides this movement there were also a few early cases of pacifists such as rev. nathaniel paul, a baptist minister at wilber- force settlement in upper canada, who converted to a completely pacifist position in after hearing a lecture presented by george pilkington, pacifist apostle and former captain of the royal engineers in britain. another rather unusual case concerned the canadian, henry wentworth monk, a self-proclaimed peace prophet. a descendant of a distinguished canadian family from the ottawa area, monk turned into a christian mystic in reaction to industrialism and the "barrenness of ecclesiastical christianity. i during the second half of the nineteenth century he travelled regularly to britain to publicize various schemes for world peace, including the cause of zionism. to avoid the series of world wars which he had predicted, he advocated the creation of a world council centered in jerusalem with power to enforce world peace. but the absence of enthusiasm for his plans and his failure to become a successful mediator for peace in the american civil war was personally discouraging and damaged his credibility among supporters in britain. by the 's monk returned to the ottawa area and spent the last twelve years of his life writing a barrage of peace propaganda, in pamphlet and letter form, urging the codification of international law, permanent international arbitration, establishment of a sort of league of nations and anglo-american leadership in the movement towards peace. thus, although he started his career as a mystical peace prophet, he ended it taking the same rational approach common to nineteenth century peace organizations. the major rise of non-sectarian pacifism in late nineteenth century canada occurred within the framework of the north american liberal reform movement. the participants in this peace movement, both pacifists and non-pacifists, were affected by religious inspiration as well as philanthropic and reform impulses. for most active supporters peace activities were just one of their reform concerns. this ~eace movement, therefore, was inextricably tied to other causes such as the movement toward anglo-american rapprochement, the campaign for woman suffrage, and the social gospel. since most social reformers shared the belief that their individual domestic concerns were affected by the international climate, the peace movement was elevated to a . t . f k . d . t posl lon ey lmportance an common in erest. although the non-sectarian north american peace movement eventually produced a socially radical wing, the pre-war peace move- ment was predominantly a conservative and moderate attempt to achieve order and stability within the world through the practical goals of international arbitration and an international court. iipeace, i writes robert wiebe, "connoted order and stability, the absence of violence, the supremacy of reason and law. it suggested the dis- appearance of militarism and all other vestiges of a barbaric past. i the liberal progressive rhetoric expressed a faith in progress to carry civilization beyond war. the north american liberal reform tradition, including the non-sectarian peace movement, expressed the pragmatic institutional approach but was largely indebted to religious inspiration, particu- larly to quaker and social gospel influences. while the impact on canadian society of sectarian pacifism was extremely limited, liberal quakerism emerged to bridge the gap between historic christian pacifism and the liberal progressive ideology. quakers went beyond negative anti-militarism and in conjunction with social gospellers began to relate war to socio-economic conditions and encouraged interest in international affairs. this was a gradual development, however, and the full impact of quaker leadership was not felt in canada until after the first war when the three separate branches of the society of friends in canada began to co-operate with one another. but, as early as the 's, the canada yearly meeting of friends established contact with canadian evangelical churches in foreign mission work, and it was the influence of evangelical methodism among orthodox quakers that resulted in the separation and organization of the progressive branch of the canadian society of friends in . in that same year canadian quakers also became involved in north american peace activities when all three canadian yearly meetings of friends became affiliated with lithe peace association of friends in america. i and canadian friends were shortly involved in the lake mohonk con- ference on international arbitration, an annual affair initiated by a quaker in new york state in , which provided links with the turn of the century spirit of liberal pacifistic internationalism and which attracted a wide range of adherents from politicians to businessmen and journalists. it was symptomatic of broadening quaker concerns that in the hicksite branch of canadian friends sent a deputation to ottawa to present the quaker position on lithe responsibil ities of public men, militarism, temperance, judicial oaths, and capital punishment. ii during the course of their meeting in the office of the prime minister, sir wilfrid laurier praised canadian quakers for their advocacy of reforms. in the meantime, the evangelical spirit credited with broadening quaker activities in society also affected the larger protestant world, resulting, in one of its phases, in the liberal social gospel movement of the latter nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. the social gospel was a social religious outlook concerned with the realization of the kingdom of god on earth. it represented liberal protestantism's optimistic faith in an evolutionary progression towards the perfect christian society. the evangelical creed of personal perfection was planted in canada by the baptists, congregationalists, and methodists and later by the free kirk movement within presbyterianism. their belief in an immanent god, free will, and restrictive personal and social morality had become a dominant feature of canadian protestantism in the course of the nineteenth century. canadian national expansion and the hope of a christian society in the northern half of the continent~ the growing awareness of social problems, and the spread of liberal and social conceptions after pressed evangelicals to reinterpret their gospel in terms of a social as well as a personal creed. the need to christianize the world blossomed into a program of social salvation, in the course of which the christian doctrine of peace became inextricably linked with the hope of attaining the christian social order. one of the first canadians to relate the social gospel to international affairs was c. s. eby, a methodist missionary to japan in the ls and s. while in japan, eby edited the missionls chrysanthemum magazine and in he delivered a series of lecturers on "christianity and civilization" to foreign and native scholars at the meiji kuaido in tokyo. his experience as a missionary had made him aware of the inability of the christian church~ "entombed in institutions and anachronistic forms of thought, i to compete "lith secular forces shaping the destiny of the world. his message, therefore, called for a christianity that could lead towards the triumph of the kingdom of god on earth. once back in canada, eby founded the peoples l institute, a socialist church in ioronto, in , the same year he became secretary of the canadian peace and arbitration society. he also wrote a series of pamphlets on lithe word of the kingdom" which \vere later incorporated into his book, the world problem and the divine solution. the world problem according to eby was that the iiso-called christian nations ll were rotten within and world plunderers without, " .•. a travesty of the thing for which the bible stands. i l but canada, being part of the new world, had a choice and the opportunity to set an example for the rest of the world. he wrote: canada is beginning a career which is bound to be epoch- making in the history of the world. is canada to be carried into this destructive flood, under which all old nations have perished? must we keep up the dance of death with all mature nations now heading in the same direction of moral failure? or is it possible that we may find a better way and influence other nations for the common good? underneath the bad in every land there is the fundamental desire for the good: underneath the war-attitude there is the everlasting profession of a desire for peace: under- neath the universal exploitation of man by man there is the universal protestation of the desire to do right .... eby claimed the solution to the world problem did not lie in just practical socialist planning since socialism alone was a iimodern paganismll lacking intellectual and spiritual strength. the only solution was a world renaissance of christianity; a revival of the spiritual and practical rules laid down by christ in the sermon on the mount. if all christian churches, claimed eby, "were followers of jesus, they could and would say ipeace, be still ,i and there would be universal peace and a new earth." thus, the sermon on the mount was the charter to govern future actions of canadians. the social gospel concern for peace and human justice, as voiced by eby and others, became enmeshed in the liberal reform move- ment and the peace movement in particular. the altruistic spirit of most canadian reformers, whether they were journalists, ministers, politicians or trade unionists, was based upon social gospel principles. their faith in the messianic quality of a peaceful kingdom on earth, however, diverted their attention away from the consideration of the possibility and consequences of actual warfare. it was only once world war i struck that social gospellers faced squarely the issue of absolute pacifism. until that time early social gospel rhetoric reflected the general faith that world peace and social justice would be the ultimate rewards for following the word of christ, especially the sermon on the mount. the first direct challenge to canadian pacifists and peace advocates came with the outbreak of the boer war in , but, although it interrupted the growth of the peace movement, it did not seem to have any detrimental effect on its subsequent development. a canadian contingent left for south africa soon after the outbreak of hostilities and by christmas, , protestant churches in toronto offered special prayer services for the success of the british cause in bringing the blessings of civilization to south africa. opposition to the war, however, did exist in isolated instances among certain segments of canadian society, such as the protestant clergy, radical labor, farmers, and anglophobic minority groups. their stand remained far from popular in the tide of emotional imperialism that swept the country. re- calling the gruelling episode of his father's pacifist stand while a minister in vancouver, roland bainton claimed that it was more difficult to criticize the boer war in canada than in britain. rev. james herbert bainton, newly arrived from ilkeston, england, no sooner took charge of the congregational church in vancouver when a controversy erupted concerning his pacifism. he sometimes referred to the boer war in his public prayers and asked god to look with compassion on the british and boer alike. such prayers incensed the "super-patriots" of the congregation and they demanded a forthright statement from their new minister on the war. the elder bainton answered this request in a sermon in which he con- fided that he thought the war was deplorable and hoped all agreed. it was deplorable for both physical and moral reasons, claimed bainton, since it had a deleterious moral effect upon the participants. he continued: war blunts the moral feeling of the nation because it slays sympathy. we grow insensitive to human feeling and we hear of the slaughter of hundreds, perhaps thousands with less sorrow than we do of the death of a single friend. compassion is in danger of dying when a nation is at war. rev. bainton concluded his remarks with the assertion that any war was incompatible with christianity. iiino, in my heart of hearts, i he said, do not believe jesus christ would have countenanced war of any description. reaction to the sermon split the congregation and while the majority continued to support bainton, the "super-patriotic" faction seceded. such a small congregation of around persons could not long afford such a division so when the war was over bainton decided to leave, hoping the dissidents would then return. the experience proved to be a sobering ordeal for the bainton family. mrs. bainton ii .. took it very intensely and the worry permanently impaired her health." it was decided that since all of canada had been involved in the war it was best to emigrate to the united states. l the bainton experience was one example of a christian minister s pacifist con- science in conflict with the popular position accepted by a significant part of his congregation and was to be repeated in canada again and again during the course of the century. there were numerous other cases of anti-war statements by clergymen for denunciations of the boer war came from the ranks of each major protestant denomination in canada. the rev. dr. william wright, anglican priest of st. john the evangelist parish in montreal, preached that war was inconsistent with christianity on the very sunday desig- nated by anglicans as a day to support the war. also, the sermons of rev. j. c. herdman, pastor of knox presbyterian, calgary, expressed pro-boer sentiments and condemned the wickedness of war. while herdman s anti-war statements received wide press coverage, the widest public notice was won by rev. morgan woods, minister of bond street congrega- tional church, toronto, whose pacifist protests appeared in the globe, a dozen ontario weeklies and some out-of-province papers. his proposed peace movement, however, never got off the ground. there were also isolated cases of anti-war pronouncements by methodist clergymen although the majority were somewhat ambivalent. the hierarchy of the methodist church, on the other hand, openly supported the war. a major protestant body sympathetic to pacifism was the women's christian temperance union. the various provincial sections adopted resolutions favoring peace and arbitration, such as the ontario union's resolution which read: resolved, that we place on record our deep regrets that our country has recently deemed it necessary to engage in war, that we earnestly recommend the women of our country to proclaim the principles of peace, and that we do all in our power to discourage the fostering of the military spirit in our families, in our schools and in our churches and also resolved, that we favor the settlement of international disputes by arbitration instead of war. the annual convention of the dominion wctu in , however, side- stepped the war issue and merely expressed regret over it. an example of a liberal pacifist in canada at the time was j. e. atkinson, editor of the toronto star. his pacifism was founded upon social gospel principles and reflected the contemporary reform spirit, but it is doubtful that he was an absolute pacifist. according to his biographer, atkinson believed canada was stampeded into participating in the war by british newspapers and the montreal star but he tried to keep his head. "as a newspaper man," claims harkness, "mr. atkinson "had to report the war, as a pacifist, he was determined not to glorify it.,, when atkinson advocated a negotiated peace with honor he was buried in an "avalanche of vituperation.,, while the star remained neutral, an anti-war position was expressed by the occasional radical labor and farm journal. the voice, a weekly endorsed by the winnipeg trades and labor council, at first adopted the radical critique of war as a capitalist creation and urged men to refuse to fight. within a month, however, it changed its course and supported the british cause, due to the political aspira- tions of one of the edi~rs, arthur w. puttee, a leading winnipeg "labourite." in the by-election, puttee defeated the independent liberal candidate, edward d. martin, by only ten votes to become the first labor member elected to the canadian house of commons. although the basic issue in the election appears to have been the question of independent respresentation for labor, the war assumed an "inordinately important" role in the closing days of the campaign as a result of mounting british losses in south africa and martinis accusation that puttee and the voice were pro-boer. in response the voice began to rephrase its position in line with the militant mood of the city and puttee actually pledged himself to vote for war supplies. his apostasy aroused considerable criticism within radical labor circles and contributed towards the mounting suspicion among the more radical socialists that puttee was an opportunist. a more faithful radical position was expressed by the toronto weekly, the citizen and country, official journal of the toronto trades and labor council under the editorship of george wrigley. from its inception in , citizen and country advocated the christian socialist position against war and in favor of social, moral and economic reform common to the more radical element within the canadian social gospel movement. the journal's content ranged from discussions of the benefits of christian socialism and the single tax to the curse of militarism and the question of peace. it also reprinted british anti-war articles since the editor reflected generally the attitude representative of keir hardie s independent labour party and the british pro-boer faction. george wrigley had made a career of editing labor and reform journals and as secretary of the direct legislation league of canada he actively promoted the social progress league, a citizen s discussion group in toronto, and the canadian socialist league which advocated reforms and public ownership. his pacifist position, based upon the christian socialist conception of the brotherhood of man, was evident in his relentless denunciations of the spanish american war and the south african war. war was not only a setback for social progress, claimed wrigley, but also led to a moral degeneration within canada affecting the government, the press and the church. he believed that the canadian people would have condemned england s policy in south africa if it were not for a ii purc hased metropolitan press ll that distorted the truth and misled the public. iiwe regret exceedingly, i wrote wrigley, iithat canada has a jingo press and jingo politicians. we fear, too, that her pulpits are jingoistic. ~lammon is king, and ~lar is her minister. i in one editorial he asked if clergymen were voiceless on the matter and on another occasion he warned that ii ... the clergyman who prays for his country when he knows it to be wrong is standing on :he brink of hell. ii above all, vjrigley feared that the war unleashed a violent attitude that could brutalize canadian society and possibly create a dangerous cultural cleavage in the country. during the course of the war wrigley expressed the pro-boer viewpoint and ran such articles as 'a biography of paul kruger. in october, he noted with pride that: citizen and country has a large constituency of thought- ful readers, and we are glad that no one has complained because we have championed the cause of the boer. canadians are not all jingoes. but wrigley was not complacent and the paper consistently contained warnings on the danger of militarism in canada as in the following alarm sounded by a contributor from brandon, manitoba: canadians, wake up! or the maple leaf will wither. almost every newspaper, especially the subsidized press ... are howling for militarism. why is this? even in the schools they are preparing for the same thing, they preach patriotism and invite the military spirit .... such individual contributors often added fuel to the fire of wrigley's personal anti-war campaign. in another instance, working- class opposition to war was expressed in an article on "anglo-saxon jingoism" by phillips thompson of toronto, left-wing intellectual and author of the book politics of labor ( ), the first canadian socialist critique of north american capitalism. thompson echoed the classic british pro-boer labour argument that workers gained nothing from war but a further setback in the realization of social progress. wrigley never faltered as a war critic, even when threatened with the resignation of rev. elliot s. rowe, the popular president of the social progress company, citizen and country's publisher, in protest over wrigley's anti-war stand. wrigley countered that rowe was the only one of the five directors to complain and argued that the journal was actually gaining in popularity. in its critical assessment of the boer war, citizen and country held capitalist and imperialist exploitation responsible and concluded there were " ... few canadians better able to correctly state the motives governing the parliament of great britain in the south african question than prof. goldwin smith." l goldwin smith, arch-supporter of anglo-american unity and anti-imperialist, became the best known english-canadian opposed to the boer war. his version of world peace was based upon the manchester liberal idea of order and stability rooted in laissez-faire economics. his arguments against the war reflected those of the british anti- imperialist liberals. of all canadian anti-war spokesmen, he alone " ... deplored british atrocities, the concentration camps, and the use of dum-dum bullets. i in his two small toronto weeklies smith carried on a steady campagin against the imperial war, especially canadian enthusiasm. 'iimost repulsive,' he lamented, illis the sight of volunteeers going ... to slaughter people who have done them no wrong in a cause about which they know nothing. smith's paper, the farmers weekly sun was one of four canadian rural weeklies firmly to oppose the war. the others were: the bobcaygeon independent, the canadian gleaner and the standard. they all sympathized with the poor boer farmers and appealed to the anti-militarism and strong morality common to canadian farmers. in contrast to gold\t/in smith, robert sellar, editor of the canadian gleaner of huntington, quebec, appealed to farmers' isolationist sentiments. the gleaner also posed as the last bulwark of quebec's english protestant farmers and expressed fear that quebec nationalists would press for greater provincial autonomy due to english- canadian zeal for war. threats of internal cultural divisions were evident in the anglophobic/anti-imperialist sentiments expressed by german canadians, irish canadians and most particularly, french canadians. anti-war sentiment ran rampant in quebec resulting in student riots in montreal in march, . the press in quebec intepreted the war as imperial aggression and french canadian nationalists demanded canada prove her independent nationhood by refusing to fight in an imperialist war. their leading spokesman was henri bourassa, father of modern french canadian nationalism, who resigned his seat in parliament to emphasize h " "t" s convl c ons. in bourassa suggested to goldwin smith the creation of an anti-imperialist party. but no coalition of french-english dissidents was formed; no peace party was created. the anti-war factions failed to move from iiverbal protests to concerted action. i b they lacked the numbers necessary for political force and were divided in their motives and on the issues, including that of pacifism. for a time the war fever in canada more or less paralyzed the . , peace movement. the superi-ntendent of the dominion women's christian temperance union reflected in - that: ' the din of the war was such that for a time it seemed useless to call attention to this work, as we feared but little heed would be paid to the small voice of peace .. imperialism, patriotism, heroism and loyalty have been continuously before us, and the military craze has been carried to such an extent that those who did not bow down as hero-worshippers were looked upon as dis- yal. the dominion wctu had made one of the first efforts to involve canadians in the peace movement with its establishment of a peace and arbitration department in the early 's. this department's aim was to ii ••• mould public opinion up to a higher standard; to lead all to believe that arbitration and reconciliation are better for a nation than war and conquest. i the results of the new department's work, however, were discouraging. the wctu soon discovered it was much easier to voice platitudes than actually to enlist support against cadet training or the sale of war toys. l although most of its activity centered upon the montreal area, an active department was established in nova scotia in . overall the wctu concentrated their attack on the growth of militarism in canada and worked in con- junction with other organizations such as the national council of women. it was mrs. ada courtice, wctu peace activist and wife of the founder of the canadian peace and arbitration society, who suggested the creation of a peace and arbitration committee by the national council of women in . mrs. courtice echoed the feminist argument that women should take the lead in peace work since they suffered the most from the effects of war on family life, but the response to mrs. courtice's call was disappointing. by only six out of twenty-four local councils appointed representatives to the national peace committee. although some local councils did take part in circulating a petition endorsing international use of the hague court, the national council of women, from the national peace and arbitration committee to the local councils, was not ready to commit itself to any specific proposals for arbitration and disarmament. nor could they penetrate the general apathy of canadian women con- cerning war and peace. in theory, however, all women's organizations in canada were supposed to be pacifist due to the general acceptance of the nineteenth century stereotype of women as the morally superior sex. the central assumption was that women were free from aggressive instincts, a freedom which made them men's moral superiors at all times. woman as the nurturer of life could have no warlike emotions and should she receive her political rights it followed that society would be cleansed of conflict and nation states would no longer go to war. the special interest of canadian women in peace, therefore, was closely allied to the wider middle-class movement for suffrage and temperance. according to the feminist solution, once women received the vote they could prevent war and prohibit drink, resulting in both international and domestic peace and christian progress. one such canadian feminist was flora macdonald denison, columnist for the toronto world. in a biennial presidential address to the canadian suffrage association she claimed ii ••• the male through centuries upon centuries has been combative and war has resulted. i only with political freedom and equality, she argued, could women effectively combat militarism and foster peace. the same message was echoed by the suffragist and social reformer nellie mcclung when she condemned canada's national policies of unjust taxation, legalized liquor traffic and militarism as the result of "male statecraft. i she insisted that war was not inevitable: war is not of god's making. war is a crime committed by men and, therefore, when enough people say it shall not be, it cannot be. at the core of mcclung's feminism, a product of the social gospel, was the faith in women as redeeming agents in a militaristic civiliza- tion. peace would not arrive until: ... women are allowed to say what they think of war. up to the present time women have had nothing to say about war, except pay the price of war -- this privilege has been theirs always. a close friend and associate of nellie mcclung and a leading figure in the canadian women's movement was judge emily murphy of edmonton. among her various civil endeavors, judge murphy organized the women's canadian club of edmonton, served as president of the canadian women's press club for several years and headed the canadian national council of women's peace and arbitration committee in , the year its membership more than doubled. lll in this latter capacity she praised the work of the hague court and predicted "a world without warll in the twentieth century. contrary to the popular impression, however, canadian women were not committed pacifists. the most support for a women's peace movement came from the wctu but by even it was concentrating on such innocuous activities as persuading ministers to celebrate peace sunday, an annual commemoration of the first hague conference used to re-emphasize christian principles of peace. it was evident that such a policy, lacking any serious commitment for an active pacifist program, would not accomplish much to secure peace. even nellie mcclung lamented: once a year, of course, we hold a peace sunday and on that day we pray mightily that god will give us peace in our time and that war shall be no more .... but the next day we show god that he need not take us too literally, for we go on with the military training, and the building of the battleships, and our orators say that in time of peace we must prepare for war. rather than women's organizations, the major representative of liberal pacifists was the canadian peace and arbitration society, the first non-denominational peace society organized in canada. the creation of such a non-denominational peace committee was initiated by a group of hicksite friends in toronto in . but the task of enlisting other christian pacifists was undertaken by andrew cory courtice, a former editor of the christian guardian and a methodist minister in toronto. the canadian peace and arbitration society, quickly endorsed by the farmers convention of ontario and several churches, counted among its membership such prominent men as professor adam shortt of queen's university, professor j. mccurdy of the university of toronto, professor lewis e. horning of victoria college and sir william mulock, chief justice of the ontario high court of justice. the support of the business community was also enlisted, largely through the efforts of elias rogers, a prominent quaker businessman and liberal politician who was a toronto alderman and the unsuccessful reform candidate for mayor of toronto in . eventually there were members scattered across canada, but the center of the society's activities always remained in toronto. from their periodic meetings in mulock's home, the society concentrated its efforts, as did the wctu, in promoting peace education in schools, pledging support for international arbitration and denouncing militarism, whether it was cadet training or an increase in defense expenditures. ll ? overall, therefore, canada's liberal pacifists were pragmatic and promoted a generally inoffensive campaign for peace based upon broad christian principles and international goodwill rather than upon a strict inter- pretation of pacifism. an example of this practical approach was the unified attack by liberal pacifists·upon the question of militarism, especially the practice of cadet training in public schools. ever since the boer war the equation among english-speaking canadians of canadian patriotism with the british empire resulted in a blossoming cadet movement. a huge cadet parade became the high point of empire day celebrations in toronto as imperial fervor continued to bui d. in fact, the injection of the martial spirit into empire day celebrations actually increased public support for the day. nevertheless, nearly all pacifist groups opposed such militia training and used it to good ad- vantage in relating the issue of militarism to the local community. pacifist pressure as well as escalating costs eventually restrained the spread of military training into several school districts and excluded it entirely in others, particularly in nova scotia and the w t es . although small, the canadian peace movement was not without its vocal champions of peace. one prominent pacifist speaker was lewis g. horning, a professor of classics and teutonic philology at victoria college and president of the canadian peace and arbitration society. on the eve of the great war he undertook a vigorous speaking tour to arouse the nation to the growing menace of militarism and an escalating trend towards war. in an address before the canadian club of hamilton, horning declared his greatest hope for world peace lay not with commercial, educational or religious forces but with the common man and personal interaction and friendship between england and germany. horningls emphasis upon the survival of teutonic ideals made war between german and angio-saxon unthinkable. he concluded that peace among teutonic peoples was of special concern to canadians: i believe that we here in canada are especially favored by fortune ... we are becoming a melting pot out of which will come a new race combining the political sagacity of anglo-saxon, imagination of the german, the polish and tact of the french, the adaptability of the southeast, the patience of the east, an unequalled and unbeatable combina- tion. therefore, we ought to be profoundly interested in the first step towards the realization of that ideal ... the fostering of peace and amity between the great sisters, england and germany. horning also reiterated the popular call for anglo-american unity. iiwe in canada and the united states, i he boasted iihave a mission in this world. we have no entanglements in our alliances. we have the chance to show the best of all civilization. i again in an article in the christian guardian, horning continued his assault on those liupholders of warll who claimed war produced training for heroic conduct or survival of the fittest. iihow can war result in survival of the fittest," he asked, ii when the flower of our young men are led away to death? i he concluded that rivalry among nations, rather than finding expression in war and armaments, should be expressed in work towards the liuplifting of humanity and ... in the increasing of opportunity for each individual to round out his life in the highest and noblest service. i "if we believe these things," claimed horning, iithen we must work for peace and goodwill upon the earth." another leading exponent of the liberal peace movement in- fluenced by the social gospel was james alexander macdonald, managing editor of the toronto globe and a representative of various united states based peace organizations in pre-war canada. as one of the directors of the world peace foundation, the philanthropic research organization endowed by the american publisher edwin ginn, macdonald travelled, lectured and wrote on peace as well as one of his favorite topics -- the iinorth american idea." this idea, which macdonald viewed as almost a prerequisite for world peace, drew upon the north american example of peaceful relations and the eventual spread of their "liberty, democracy and fraternity to a world community of free nations." l in his book, the north american idea, ~ acdonald wrote: the anglo-saxon idea, the british idea, the north american idea, the world idea, that a free people must be left free and be kept free -- that idea cannot live merely as an abstract idea alone. it must find release in life. it must dominate the thinking and organize the service and direct the activities of all who would be free. canada and the united states, macdonald claimed, were the trusteees of the hope for all humanity. as the world situation began to worsen in the globe urged britain, germany and america to lift themselves above the barbarism that still disfigured international relations. lithe new and critical world situation which this decade faces," ran one editorial, "is a challenge to christendom to christianize the ideals and motives of all the world and to do it in this generation. n the breeding ground for the north american idea of peaceful international relations was the lake mohonk conference on inter- national arbi~ration. these annual conferences were attended by a wide variety of individuals interested in international affairs from politicians to' business .leaders and church leaders. the lake mohonk conferences, however, concerned arbitration and the practical side of the peace movement, not pacifism. indeed, the conference actually applied selectivity of membership and prescribed rules prohibiting references to the horrors of war, absolute pacifism or specific alarming realities, in order to maintain an air of genteel demeanor. what was characteristic of the lake mohonk conference was also true of the larger pre-war peace movement. the support of businessmen and ---~- - other non-pacifists was believed to add prestige but, in reality, it weakened the movement and made it unlikely that peace organizations would take a controversial stand. canadian involvement in the lake mohonk scene began when oliver a. howland, member of the legislative assembly of ontario, was invited to attend the conference in . as president of the international deep waterways association, howland had advocated the creation of a permanent international court of appeal to settle all disputes between canada and the united states, thus capturing the attention of the american arbitration sympathizers. canadians were invited to each succeeding conference thereafter, and at its close in , thirty-one prominent canadians -- businessmen, politicians, justices, lawyers, clergymen and journalists -- had visited lake mohonk. these canadian participants assured the conferences that canada definitely supported their movement for peace and, on one occasion, cited an endorsement by prime minister laurier. reflecting the overriding theme of most speeches, three-fourths of all canadian addresses were devoted to praising the idea of arbitration as promoted by the conference. indeed, arbitration was hailed as the sure-fire remedy for all international ills. it was not only iipractically infallible ll in preventing war but also effective in removing a desire for war. this was the reasoning used by the lake mohonk conference's appeal to businessmen in their circulars: iiwhy business men should promote international arbitration ll and iihow business men should promote international. arbitration. i support for this idea among the canadian business community was encouraged by elias rogers, a frequent delegate to lake mohonk representing the toronto board of trade. by the principle of arbitration was endorsed by the retail merchants association of canada, the canadian manufacturers association, and the winnipeg, hamilton, toronto and montreal boards of trade. besides rogers, other frequent canadian participants included john murray clark, a toronto lawyer; john lewis, editor of the toronto star; william lyon mackenzie king and senator raoul dandurand. in his address to the conference, clark drew attention to the uses of arbitration and conciliation by the canadian government in settling labor disputes. the following year william lyon mackenzie king, minister of labour, was present at lake mohonk to share his experience in the practical application of arbitration in domestic quarrels. lithe greatest contribution to the cause of international peace, i claimed king, iiwill be the furtherance of industrial peace. i if workingmen accept the appeal to reason in settling disputes, why can not nations? the successful application of arbitration in the industrial world, he concluded, was a preview of its possibilities on the international scene. upon their return home, canadians eagerly spread the faith in international arbitration and the hope for peaceful international relations. although they failed to organize many canadian branches of american peace organizations, they were more successful in arousing interest in arbitration. in the ontario legislative assembly endorsed a resol ution to turn the hague conference into a permanent . . . th f b . t t' nternatlona congress wl powers ar ra n. another endorsement of international arbitration among canadian parliamentarians was senator raoul dandurand's effort to form a canadian group of the interparliamentary union for peace in . after persuading over parliamentarians to subscribe to the principle of arbitration in settling international disputes, however, he was not able to obtain official membership for colonials until . in the meantime interest waned and it never did excite much more than enthusiasm for the general idea of arbitration. a further endorsement of arbitration came from the presbyterian church in canada. meeting in ottawa in , the presbyterian assembly issued the following statement on the church's attitude toward war: we believe that war is contrary to christian morals, and that international disputes should be settled by con- ciliation and arbitration. we protest against the patent injustice of submitting questions of right and wrong to trial by force, as well as against the enormous cost, destruction and cruelty entailed. we believe that the church should support every wise effort to restrain and abolish war. we believe that the great commandment: "thou shalt love" is binding upon nations as well as individuals. this was quite a switch from the previous presbyterian statements during the nineteenth century in support of british wars and the use of force. canadian presbyterianism had never questioned warfare from a christian viewpoint until the popularization of peace rhetoric following the boer war. thereafter the church accepted the liberal peace movement, as exemplified in an article entitled "canada and the peace movement" by rev. r. w. dickie of montreal. "canadians can do nothing better for the peace movement," declared dickie, "than to do some hard thinking about the fruit of past wars and the present burden of armaments •.• as christians it is our duty to stand against th . d ,, e war ea. . . . the presbyterian, an unofficial church weekly in toronto, also endorsed the movement for disarmament and peace arguing that the most significant consequence of the international arms rivalry was moral rather than economic. "the effect of all this military preparation and enthusiasm," claimed the editor, "is to enthrone force rather than justice as arbiter of international dis- putes.,, the ideals of christ were being replaced by those of paganism. similar arguments were raised by methodists, especially those participating in the canadian peace and arbitration society. the official organ of the methodist church, the christian guardian, expanded its pacifist-oriented approach to include specific proposals for the prevention of war through direct strike action by unions and occupational groups. dr. w. w. andrews, an ordained methodist minister and unorthodox evolutionist working in scientific research at the university of saskatchewan, suggested that various groups within society could prevent war: banks could so do by refusing to make loans; labor could do so with an international strike; popular enforcement of a commercial boycott was possible through world-wide press services; while commercial interests naturally favored peace and uninterrupted international trade. there was never a time when the promise of peace was so strong, he concluded, than the present. despite such optimism the canadian churches overall gave little serious attention to the problems of peace. of course, there were the usual resolutions endorsing the hague principles of arbitration but only a small proportion of canadian clergy were actually involved in peace work. canadian churches held divergent views on the role of the church in promoting peace and they were as uncertain as the general public on how best to maintain peace. even the methodists, the most vocal advocates of peace, had their supporters of armed preparedness. but this did not mean that there were not strong statements from clergymen on behalf of peace. once such message was an address entitled "canadian churches and peace ii delivered to the lake mohonk conference in by rev. william sparling, pastor of st. james methodist church in montreal. sparling had social gospel leanings but his speech also showed how the older evangelism of the heart persisted, even in peace rhetoric. he claimed that what was needed in canada was a strong public opinion upon the moral question of peace: at bottom the forces that make for peace are moral forces, and those moral forces reside in the heart of the in- dividual: hence, the responsibility that rests upon all our churches in creating the national opinion that will bring about the day of peace. the war spirit, sparling continued, was the arch enemy of jesus christ; war and christianity were mutually destructive forces. as a course of action, therefore, he proposed that the christian church must preach that love is the all- conquering force in the world; a love which will drive out the belligerent spirit from our hearts and will help us that we may never stimulate that spirit in other hearts ...• if we could only get the thirteenth chapter of first corinthians written upon the hearts of people, we would have no war. sparling concluded by warning the conference that "there are people who profess to point out some good things of war in history but i do not think that war can possibly bring canada anything but what is bad.,, the attacks on militarism which surfaced in the peace movement at lake mohonk and among such churchmen as sparling, were directly challenged by the canadian defense league, a rival organization that mounted a public campaign to increase military expenditures and en- courage military training in the nation's schools, with future aims at compulsory militia service. the strongest reaction to this renewed defense of militarism came from the quakers. in an article in the canadian friend entitled "militarism in canada" arthur g. dorland, a young quaker destined to become the leading spokesman for canadian friends, claimed the military propagandist was attempting to recover ground recently lost to the "phenomenal progress of the peace ~ vement." he warned canadian pacifists not to lapse into a "condition of self- congratulatory inaction" since their success " ... has aroused just as determined an effort on the part of the militarists to recapture public opinion.,, he accused the militarists of using periodic war- scare talks to prepare people for universal military training and compulsory military service. iiif the militarists can win over the younger generation to their propaganda, i he warned, iithey will have set back the cause of peace for over a century and have won canada for militarism. ii dorland proceeded to point out that military conscription had recently become law in australia and new zealand. if the minister of militia, colonel sam hughes, and the canadian defense league could have their way, this would happen in canada too. the most immediate danger, according to dorland, stemmed from military training in schools. many of our big collegiate institutes and high schools have cadet corps in which attendance is practically compulsory. for several years it has been the policy of the government to subsidize schools which give military training, thus discriminating against those where it was not taught. and all this with a definite purpose. to pretend that the purpose of all this mili- tary training in the schools and colleges is the physical development of the students, will not do, iiuniforms and guns have a definite significance. they minister to the war passion. they signify war. i in the canada yearly meeting of friends sent a resolution to ottawa condemning increased military expenditures and its acompanying war system and urged the creation of a national peace commission. such a commission, or department of peace, was to help v' eliminate distrust between nations, promote the feeling of brotherhood and understanding among all peoples and help stem the tide of militarism within canada. although nothing came of the suggestion, friends were thankful for what they considered an advance in the peace movement. at the same time, however, they were saddened at the prospect of peaceful peoples "being sucked into the vortex of military preparations" and, despite their hope for peace, they were candidly warning their membership by that the time might not be distant when they would be called upon to defend their pacifist principles "at heavy cost. i although quakers and other pacifist organizations were centered in ontario, pre-war pacifist declarations emanated from the west as well. in march , for instance, professor s. m. earlman of the university of calgary sounded a note of isolationist innocence when he warned an alberta rural municipalities meeting that: "it is not our duty to squander our fair heritage in aggravating old world ills.,, from regina the temperance crusader c. b. kennleyside, later a methodist chaplain during the war, proposed that spending , , dollars to spread the gospel would be a greater national protection than the same amount for defense expenditures. also, by two small independent . t' ft' d' r· d v' t . peace socle les unc lone ln eglna an lc orla. on the whole, pacifist warnings found a sympathetic audience in the farm community, but, as john h. thompson suggests, the most common reacti on of wes terners tended to be "paci fi sm of the pocketbook as much as of principle.,, although the national grange had earlier endorsed the idea of disarmament and international peace, it was dot until the canadian naval debate in that canadian farmers joined in the discussion of foreign affairs and the prospects for peace. the grain grower s guide, the leading voice of canadian farmers, always considered the question of international affairs and armaments within the context of free trade and lower taxes. according to this formula free trade and lower taxes would lead to international co-operation disarmament and peace; while protectionism led to higher taxes, in- creased defense expenditures and war. it was obvious, therefore, that farmers would benefit from free trade and international peace. a poll conducted by the guide in revealed that a majority of those who replied agreed that canada should divert defense funds marked for naval armaments towards the realization of disarmament and arbitra- t . n. leading canadian farm journals, including the guide, weekly sun and the farmer's advocate and home magazine, presented a consistent denunciation of militarism and increased defense spending throughout the pre-war years. some farm leaders like w. c. good of ontario also addressed these problems but, overall, most canadian farmers resembled the rest of canadian society. they shared the illusion of a peaceful and secure north american continent while generally remaining apathetic to international affairs. it was difficult, in the isolation of rural life, to think about the horrors of war. labor opposed the trend towards militarism and war as well and the trades and labor congress of canada (tlc) passed numerous resolutions condemning war as a capitalist ploy. as early as the tlc convention in calgary passed a resolution supporting a general strike to help prevent the outbreak of war and for the three succeeding years the congress reiterated its opposition to international conflicts with the argument that wars resulted in the degradation of the working class. in may, , james simpson, vice-president of the tlc, warned a labor meeting in st. thomas, ontario, that workers could not be faithful to both their unions and the militia at the same time, an idea which posed a real dilemma later that year. but in pre-war canada, the tlc and canadian labor, like farmers, were not deeply concerned with the prospects of world peace and were content merely to pass resolutions in favor of international arbitration. neverthe- less, the fact that they did anything at all reflected some growth of anxiety about world affairs in farm and labor circles. when the canadian public did think about peace or inter- nationalism during the immediate pre-war years, they usually thought of the upcoming centenary celebrations commemorating one hundred years of peace between canada and the united states. it was this single event that fired the imaginations and enthusiasm of the canadian public; joined the forces of canadians interested in peace; and diverted attention away from the more serious and controversial ques- tions of peace and pacifism. the idea to celebrate the anglo-american peace centenary was first suggested by mackenzie king. he was successful in persuading both the americans and british to establish committees to organize the celebrations but found the canadian government reluctant to act until the british government indicated its final support of the idea in . prime minister borden then proceeded, with the assistance of sir george perley and sir joseph pope, to organize an "uno fficial" canadian peace centenary association. an international conference in coordinated the efforts of the committees and decided that the public festivities would be held in . the object of the celebrations was to instil in the public mind lithe value of international goodwill". since the canadian government wished to avoid any broad international commitments, the association confined its activities to the usual praise of anglo-american harmony and internationalism. the association also co-ordinated the centenary projects of their local affiliations scattered across canada. most communities confined their plans to classroom studies of canadian-american relations, thanksgiving church services and the erection of memorials. the more ambitious international proposals included a centenary momunment in each of the three capitals; archways over international highways at the british columbia-washington state border and at rouses's point, quebec; a bridge across the niagara river; and watergates between detroit and windsor. as the time for the celebration approached, however, the carefully laid plans for commemorating peace in north america were interrupted by the stark reality of war in europe. the executive committee of the canadian peace centenary association decfded that although the association should be kept alive to carryon some quiet work, the public festivities in canada should be postponed. and so ended the momentum of the heralded peace celebrations, as well as the liberal peace movement in canada. the non-sectarian peace movement was composed largely of iifair-weather pacifists ll and once war became a reality they, with the majority of canadians, eagerly or sorrowfully supported the new cause. the pre-war peace movement therefore, was not a pacifist movement as such, although it did contain some resolute pacifists. it was an example of the liberal, rational approach to international affairs; the belief that reason and arbitration could prevent war. the absolute pacifists among them, mainly quakers, shared in this hope but also adhered to a pacifist creed they founded upon christian scripture. the dilemma of the pre- war peace movement arising from its semi~pacifist composition was clearly defined by arthur g. dorland a year before the war: ... the phenomenal advance of the peace movement has tended to make us as friends feel less responsible for the advocacy of our peace principles . . . some of us have come to believe that our position in regard to war has been pretty generally accepted, in theory, at least by the majority of thinking persons today. but ... the position adopted by many of the recent advocates of peace differed fundamentally from the position of friends. for the former, while they condemn the disastrous results of war, still believe that many wars are under certain circumstances justifiable and right. but friends believe that since war is inherently immoral, it can never be right; and that therefore peaceable methods are the only right and just methods of settling international disputes. in other words, the pre-war peace rhetoric in canada was not truly representative of the pacifist principles in the radical christian tradition. as dorland warned, the neo-pacifists stressed the futility of war rather than its immorality. in fact, the various liberal reformers largely avoided the moral issues and concentrated, instead, on the generalized threat of militarism, something upon which they could all agree. little or no thought was given to prepare pacifists for the reality of war nor to formulate some sort of contingency plan of action for pacifists in time of war. no system or international machinery existed to allow christian goodwill to be expressed in action. instead, pacifism was viewed by many as negative and passive. a~ j. m. bliss has succinctly stated: "ripples from the world tide of peace sentiment increased the volume of pacifist rhetoric in edwardian canada. they did not produce a serious re- exami nati on of the ethi cs of war. ii it \' as this absence of a moral stand that weakened the effectiveness of the liberal peace movement throughout the pre-war years and ultimately led to its disruption during the great war. rather than wither completely, however, liberal pacifism began to show signs of an important transition towards a social radicalism which would reflect something of the non-conformist tradition ~ of radical christian dissent exemplified in canada by the historic peace sects. during the late nineteenth century canada inherited a rare legacy of christian pacifism from an assortment of immigrant religious sects with radical roots. their religious radicalism, however, had overall a socially conservative cast deriving from the separatism of the mennonites, hutterites, and doukhobors and the early quietism of the quakers. although these and the later fundamentalist groups i developed their own peculiar beliefs and ways of life, they all shared, in principle, the millennial ideal of a perfect society. "in the judaeo-christian tradition," writes j. w. bennett, "the millennial ideal has played an important role as a revolutionary force and as an impetus for renewal and reform. it has led some men towards a utopian vision, and others toward the active reform of contemporary institutions.,, the majority of the sectarian pacifists did not follow the latter course and remained "separational pacifists" aloof from politics and society. but the "integrational" quakers exerted an increasing influence in the liberal reform movement and in the adaptation of christian pacifism to the relaities of a new age. during the course of the war and the immediate post-war years a socially radical pacifism was to take shape which blended the progressive optimism of the liberal creed and the moral radicalism and millennialism of the peace sects. it was this regenerated pacifist idea which would capture the immagination of a notable minority of canadians during and after the great war. p. . footnotes lpeters, all things common, p. . epp , mennonites in canada, p. . brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. ; knox, enthusiasm, srock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . ion epp , mennonites in canada, p. . "this exemption, however, required service in other capacities such as extinguishing fires, suppressing the insurrections of slaves, caring for the wounded, and transporting food and information. ii ibid., p. . ibid ., pp. - . ibi d. r and, the quakers in canada, p. . epp , mennonites in canada, p. . especially noteworthy were the numerous mennonite petitions. ibid., p. . ibid ., pp. - . quakers opposed war preparations in upper canada, i the canadian friend, , pp. - . victoria chap. sect. ( ) as quoted in epp, mennonites in canada, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid., p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . peters, all things common, p. . ibid ., p. . bennett, hutterian brethren, p. . woodcock and avakumovic, the doukhobors, p. . ibid ., pp. , . the doctrine is common to other christian groups also, such as quakers. the presence of christ refers to the external, expressive element of the trinity, distinct from the man jesus of nazareth. woodcock and avakumovic, doukhobors, p. . brock, pacifism in europe, p. . woodcock and avakumovic, doukhobors, p. . brock, pacifism in europe, p. . to stoy ' s pacifism is expressed in the kingdom of god is within you. ibid., p. . - ibid ., p. . ibid., p. ; george woodcock, anarchism, a histor~ of libertarian-tdeas and movements (london: penguin books, , p. . ibid ., pp. , . letter, tolstoy to doukhobors, february as quoted in woodcock and avakumovic, doukhobors, p. . ibid ., p. ; brock, pacifism in euorpe, p. . brock, pacifism in europe, p. ; anarchist pacifists and neo-tolstoyan communities did not even surface until the second world war. woodcock, anarchism, p. . allen, the social passion, p. . brock, pacifism in europe, p. . ibid ., p. . the use of the term fundamentalist refers to those groups within protestantism which adhere to orthodox religious beliefs based on a literal interpretation of the bible. brock, pacifism in europe, p. . ibid ., pp. - ; other pacifist sects included the disciples in christ and various pentecostal groups. lpenton, jehovah s witnesses in canada, p. ; among his books were the six volume millennial dawn series. at russell s death in , joseph f. rutherford· became the new president of the watch tower society. ibid., p. . ibid., p. ; russell s the divine plan of the ages ( ) presents his view of history. ibid ., pp. - . dona d page, iicanadians and the league of nations before the manchurian crisis," ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, , pp. - . peter brock, radical pacifists in antibel um america (princeton: princeton university press, ), p. . r. s. lambert, iiforgotten peace prophet, i macleans, march , , p. . ibid., pp. , . ibid., p. : monk's portrait by ~olman hunt hangs in the national gallery in ottawa. marchand, the american peace movement, p. x. i bid., p. i x • robert h. wiebe, the search for order, - (new york: hill and wang, ), p. . ibid ., p. . the three branches of friends in canada were the following: genesee yearly meeting (hicksite), canada yearly meeting (conservative) and canada yearly meeting (orthodox or progressive). the three branches began to cooperate after the first war and finally united tgoether in . dorland, the quakers in canada, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . allen , the social passion, p. ; richard allen, lithe social gospel and the reform tradition in canada, - ," canadian historical review, december, , p. . a e:~n, lithe social gospel", p. , also the social gospel in canada, ottawa, , "background to the social gospel in canada," pp. - . c. s. eby, god-love, the word of the kingdom series, study i (toronto: ), pp. - ; c. s. eby, christianity and civilization, tokio lectures i, january , ; henry james morgan, ed., the canadian men and women of the time: a handbook of canadian men and women of the time: a handbook of canadian bio ra h of living characters toronto, , p. . morgan, canadian men and women, p. ; charles s. eby was born in goderich, ontario in and spent his early boyhood in elora. he received his b.a. from victoria univeristy of coburg and attended the theological university at halle, germany. he served as superintendent of the methodist church's german mission at preston, ontario before leaving for japan. after his return to canada he served as the first secretary of the canadian anti-tuberculosis association form - . charles s. eby biography file, united church archives. c. s. eby, the world problem and the divine solution (toronto, ), p. ; eby, god-love; c. s. eby, sermon on the mount, the charter of the kingdom, the word of the kingdom series, study ii (toronto, ). . eby , the world problem, pp. - . ibid ., pp. , ; eby, god-love, p. ; eby, sermon on the mount, p. ~ eby , the world problem, p. . the globe (toronto), december , , p. . dorland, the quakers in canada, p. . roland h. bainton, pilgrim parson, the life of james herbert bainton ( - ) (new york: thomas nelson & sons, ), pp. - . ibid ., p. - . . ibid ., p. . ibid., pp. - . ibid ., pp. - . carman miller, iienglish-canadian opposition to the south african war as seen through the press, i canadian historical review, december, , p. . ibid ., pp. - . ibid ., p. . as quqted in ibid., p. . ibid ., p. . ros s harkness, j. e. atkinson of the star (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . ibid • ibi d. miller, "english-canadian opposition to the south african war," pp. - ; the term "labourite" as borrowed from a. ross mccormick, refers to the moderate radicals or reformers who based their indictment of capitalism on gladstonian radicalism, marxism and christian ethics. british-born puttee settled in winnipeg in and became a leading figure in this labourism modelled on britain's labour party. a. ross mccormick, reformers, rebels, and revolutionaries: the western canadian radical movement - (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. , . miller, "english-canadian opposition to the south african war," p. ; mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, p. ; there was a basic ideological conflict between puttee's brand of abourism and the revolutionary socialist party of canada and eventually the spc regarded puttee as "an enemy of the proletariat in league with the capitalist parties." ibid. puttee's loss of credibility as a pacifist during the boer war weakens mccormick's general characteriza- tion of him and other labor radicals as "pacifists" during the great war. prior to his position with citizen and country wrigley was editor of canada labor council, st. thomas, ontario; canada farmer's sun, toronto; and the templar, hamilton. citizen and country, toronto, march , , p. ; mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, p. . citizen and country, july , , p. . ibid., october , , p. . ibid., november , , p. ; ibid., july , , p. . ibid ., october , , p. . ibid., august , , p. . ibid ., december , , p. ; desmond morton, mayor howland, the citizens--candidate (toronto, ), pp. - . thompson, a be amyite socialist and resident intellectual in the toronto theosophist group, supported north american continental ism, as did goldwin smith, but, contrary to smith, based his conviction on working class rather than racial solidarity. although thompson and smith were poles apart in their analysis of and prescription for the crisis facing late-nineteenth century canada, they both condemned involvement in imperialist wars. see ramsay cook, lithe professor and the prophet of unrest, i paper presented at the colloquium on canadian society in the late nineteenth century, january - , , mcgill university. citizen and country, november , , p. . ibid ., july , , p. . mi er, iieng ish-canadian opposition to the south african war, ii p. . . craig brown, iigoldwin smith and anti-imperialism, i in carl berger, ed., m erial relations in the a e of:laurier, canadian historical readings toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . miller, iieng ish-canadian opposition to the south african war, i p. . bid., p. . the standard (regina) moderated its stand soon after the war began and refrained from criticizing the british cause. ibid., p. . robert craig brown and ransay cook, canada, - , a nation transformed (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . ibid., p. . miller, "english-canadian opposition to the south african war," p. . "report of the peace and arbitration department," report of the convention of the dominion woman's christian temperance union, , p. . ibid., , pp. - . page, "canadians and the league of nations," p. . the department in nova scotia was established under the direction of mrs. mary r. chesley, wife of justice samuel a. chesley, vice-president of the canadian peace and arbitration society. ibid., p. . mrs . courtice opened a private school in toronto after the death of her husband and as a member of the toronto board of education she founded the home and school movement in that eventually spread throughout canada. w. stewart wallace, ed., the macmillan dictionary of canadian biography, third edition (toronto: macmillan, ), p. ; as early as the canadian national council of women adopted a resolution approving the principle of international arbitra- tion in the settlement of international disputes. report of the lake mohonk conference on international arbitration (lake mohonk: lake mohonk conference on international arbitration, ), p. . page , "canadians and the leage of nations," p. . ji conway, "the women's peace party and the first world war," war and society in north america, edited by j. l. granatstein and r. d. cuff (toronto: thomas nelson and sons, ), p. . flora macdonald denison, war and women (toronto: canadian suffrage association, ), p. . ne ie mcclun , in times like these, with an introduction by veronica strong-boag (c. ; reprinted toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . ibid ., p. . ib o d ° _ _., p. xlv. l ibid., p. . byrne hope sanders, emily murphy, crusader (toronto: macmillan, ), pp. - ; page, hcanadians and the league of nations," p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . l mcclung, in times like these, p. . l dorland, the quakers in canada, p. . l sir william mulock served as reform association in and later as peace and arbitration society in . women, p. . president of the toronto president of the canadian morgan, canadian men and dorland, the quakers in canada, p. ; page, "canadians and the league of nations, i p. ; elias rogers, a close friend and political protege of william h. howland, reform mayor of toronto from to , was defeated in his bid for mayor in due to a coal ring scandal in which he figured as the architect of a con- spiratorial coal monopoly. although he never returned to politics, the scandal did little damage to rogers' prestige or personal finances. other than his civic and peace activities, rogers later became president of the notorious crowsnest pass coal company; director of several life assurance companies and trust companies; director, china inland mission; honorable treasurer of the canadian bible society and vice president of the canadian peace and arbitration society in . morton, r ayor howland, pp. - ; morgan, canadian men and women, p. . elias and albert rogers were members of one of the most prominent quaker families in canada and descendent from timothy rogers, the first white settler in the newmarket ontario area. besides his well known business interests in coal, elias and his brother samuel founded the queen city oil company in toronto. in time, samuel's son albert s. rogers took over the firm which later became the imperial oil company. while elias was a flamboyant and colorful character, albert led a more simple lifestyle and eventually became the most prominent member of the society of friends in canada during the early twentieth century. dorland, the quakers in canada; interview with arthur g. dorland, january ; phone conversation with arthur g. dorland, december . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. . robertftt.stamp,"empire day in the schools of ontario: the traning of young imperialists," journal of canadian studies, august, , pp. - . i bid ., p . . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. . \ewis e. horning, "england and germany," addresses delivered before the canadian club of hamilton, - (toronto: canadian club, ), p. . ibid ., p. . victoria university archives, lewis emerson horning papers, vault , j. lewis e. horning, "some aspects of the questions of world peace," christian guardian, may , , pp. - . macdonald was editor of two presbyterian newspapers, the presbyterian and the westminster before becoming editor in chief of the globe in , succeeding j. s. willison, the presbyterian, january , , p. . marchand, the american peace movement, p. . james a. macdonald, the north american idea (toronto: fleming h. revell, ), p. . the globe (toronto), november , , p. . marchand, the american peace movement, p. . page , iicanadians and the league of nations': p. . report of the lake mohonk conference, , p. . page , iicanadians and the league of nations, i p. . report of the lake mohonk conference, , p. . ibid ., , p. ; ibid., , p. ; dorland, the quakers in canada, p:- . w. l. mackenzie king, lithe bearing of industrial conciliation and arbitration on international peace, i report of the lake mohonk conference, , p. . ibid., pp. - . report of the lake mohonk conference, , pp. - . page , iicanadians and the league of nations, i pp. - . edward a. christie, lithe presbyterian church in canada and its official attitude toward public affairs and social problems, - ," m.a. thesis, university of toronto, , p. . ibid ., pp. - , , . ib ;-d., p. ; quoted from the record, december, . the presbyterian (toronto), february , , p. . christian guardian, january , , p. ; january , , pp. - ; august , , p. ; wilbur william andrew~ advocated an unorthodox theology encompassing evolution and emphasizing considerations affecting iichristian living. i he taught science at mount allison college from - , served as secretary of the board of education of the general conference of the methodist church of canada in and was the first president of regina college ( - ) before entering into scientific research liof a very absorbing kind ll for the saskatchewan government. he died in . uca, w. w. andrews to revl j. d. simpson, superannuation fund, april , ; twenty- eighth annual re~ort of the educational society of the methodist church, - (toronto: methodist book publishing house, ), p. ; minutes of board of education and of executive committee, september , -april , . united church archives. page , "canadians and the league of nations, i p. . ibid ., pp. - . rev . william sparling, iicanadian churches and peace," report of the lake ~tohonk conference, , p. . ibid ., pp. - . ibid ., p. . arthur g. dorland, "militarism in canada," the canadian v friend, july, , pp. - ; arthur g. dorland was born in wellington, ontario in . after receiving a b.a. from queen's university in , an m.a. from yale in and a ph.d. from the university of toronto in , he made a career of university teaching, first at queen's and then at the university of western ontario. during the first half of the twentieth century he was one of the most prominent members of the society of friends in canada. i bid., p. . memoria of the religious society of friends to the government and people of canada," minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , pp. - ; orthodox friends created a special committee on canadian military and naval propaganda. minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, (toronto: society of friends, ), p. . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . ibid . page , "canadians and the league of nations. i p. . john h. thompson, the harvest of war the prairie west, - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . page , "canadians and the league of nations, i p. . ibid ., p. . ibid . , p. . ibid . , p. . martin robin, iiregistration, conscription and independent labour politics, - , canadian historical review, xlvii (june ) in conscription , ed. carl berger (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - ; hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . ibid ., p. ; the executive committee of the canadian peace centenary association consisted of sir edmund walker, han. senator raoul dandurand, traver lewis and c. a. magrath. canadian peace centenary association, circular # , p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., circular # , p. . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. ; canadian peace centenary association, circular # , p. . ibid ., circular # , p. . l orland, iimilitarism in canada," p. . j . m. bliss, lithe methodist church and world war i," canadian historical revie~", xlix (september, ), in conscription , ed. carl berger (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . bennett, hutterian brethren, p. . l brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . chapter ii the disruption of the liberal peace ~ vement on the eve of the great war canadians were relatively com- fortable and confident of what the future would bring. as historians have noted elsewhere it was a time of optimism. and perhaps no canadians were more enthusiastic and optimistic than the large numbers who vaguely thought of themselves as pacifists. the popular commit- ment to peace was visible across canada in churches affected by the social gospel and in women's clubs and business, farm and labor organizations concerned with international affairs. although its members were often associated with various reform causes, the peace movement had become a particularly attractive outlet for the middle class reform impulse. respectable and uncontroversial, it associated pacifism with order, stability and the status quo. "peace, prosperity and progress" was the call of the day. on the whole, however, the generalities and moving platitudes characteristic of peace rhetoric were somewhat ambiguous, causing that perennial observer of canadian affairs, j. castell hopkins, to comment that it was "difficult to oppose and hard to discuss," but "easy of presentment and popular acceptance. lil "peace," noted hopkins, "had become a habit of thought with many minds in canada and, in some cases, was almost a religion. i hopkins, himself an ardent imperialist, claimed that the "peace school of thought" had always been a strong factor in tempering canadian responses to imperial obligations, national responsibilities and support of the militia. the degree of such pacifist influence is questionable but, certainly, the antagonism of the nation s farmers toward increased military expenditures and the french canadian iipassive ll and liinstinctive ll opposition to imperial entanglements were well known and formed an additional aspect of the general clamour for peace. the threatening climate of world events preceding august , increased the tempo of pacifist rhetoric concerning the need for the peaceful settlement of international disputes through arbitration and international courts of justice. canadians poured into crowded meetings to hear prominent pacifists like j. a. macdonald, lewis e. horning and goldwin smith, as well as such international figures as andrew carnegie and norman angell. riding the crest of his popular book, the great illusion, angell advised the canadian club of toronto that the best service canadians could render for british ideals was to push for the rule of international law over force, but not, he warned, to supply aid to the british navy. on the contrary, all measures of military preparedness were condemned dogmatically by pacifists as militarism. it was in this charged atmosphere that principal maurice hutton of toronto s university college warned a toronto audience that lithe air is so full of pacifism thatit is necessary to urge upon the country the duty of national defense. i another critic predicted that ii the debauch of paci fi sm now sweepi ng over the country wi be followed by a rude awakening. i indeed, pacifists -- even more than the nation at large -- did have a ii rude awakening ll : august . liberal pacifists, like most canadians, were surprised and totally unprepared for war. just as they were about to cele~brate one hundred years of peace with the united states, peace advocates found themselves in an unthinkable position. to them war was an atavism, contrary to their faith in christian progress. in fact, the~ whole basis of christian civilization seemed to be crumbling befol"e their eyes. in shock and dismay they attempted to gather up the pieces and keep their pacifist goals intact, but few succeeded. the l"iberal peace movement was shattered, never to be quite the same again. canada's liberal pacifists splintered off into vari()us responses to the war. some attempted to maintain a moderate stance re~cognizing the necessity to support the war effort while, at the same time, striving towards pacifist ideals and a hopeful post-war era., this was perhaps the most difficult position to maintain. others gradually came to think of the war as the crucible in which christianiity and the ideal of christian peace were in danger of extinction at the hands of enemy forces and joined in a crusade against german "barbarism." at the opposite extreme were radical pacifists irrevocably opposed to any involvement in war and militarism. although some, like the historic pacifist sects, rejected the worldly social order alnd attempted to remain relatively withdrawn from society and its wars, there were other radical pacifists within society who began to broaden their attack to include the whole social and economic system they believed produced war in the first place. these socially cclnscious pacifists represented new groups of women suffragists, socia,l workers, labor organizers and social gospellers who not only found war and militarism antithetical to the christian basis of their social philosophy but also threats to their particular reform conce!rns. contrary to earlier peace advocates s they came to view radic:al social change as essential for world peace and thereby began a far-,reaching transition that ultimately changed the intrinsic nature of pacifism from that of an ideal liberal reform into a new form of social radical- ism. naturallys liberal peace advocates re-emerged in the post-war era but the synthesis of pacifism and radical social changes even if not articulated fully, was forged during the first war. while the pre-war peace movement more or less disintegrated with the shock of war, the immediate reaction of most peace advocates was temperate. on the whole they agreed with the majority of their fellow canadians that the war was unfortunate but necessary to rid the world of european militarism and they supported the british cause. as this initial critical acquiescence in the war gradually developed into a militant crusade some pacifists attempted to maintain a moderately realistic position by combining support for the war with a continuing struggle against militarism and its brutalization of society. to avoid open contradictions in their stand they aimed most of their pacifist remarks at future post-war society rather than the current conflict. probab ly the most serious attempt to mai ntain such a moderate approach was displayed by the canadian peace and arbitration society, primarily through its wartime president, lewis e. horning. although recognizing the benefits of victory, the society attempted to remain calm and to keep the whole situation in perspective, thereby resisting the growing war frenzy. its aim was to support the imperial position in the war while taking some kind of constructive action in line with pacifist principles. as a start in that direction members of the society made financial contributions, through the canadian society of friends, to the friends' ambulance corps organized by british quakers. despite the failure of peace societies to prevent war, horning hoped the canadian peace and arbitration society could weather the storm and become a valuable agent for instilling new moral values in the post- war world. according to horning the peace movement failed because it was very young in an old world accustomed to the tradition of war but not, as so many charged, because it encouraged unpreparedness. al- though he realized war conflicted with the law of love and basic christian thought, horning agreed that the current war was a just struggle between democracy and militarism. he exclaimed: i believe thoroughly that england has never entered into any war iit which she has had a juster cause, in which she has in this war; but at the same time ... this whole wa~, and all war, is barbarism that denies civi ization. the position of the peace and arbitration society, wrote horning, was to carry the war through lito a successful conclusion in the hope that good shall be the final goal of i . n the perplexing problem was to reconcile the war with christianity. one tactic, horning concluded, was for peace-loving christians to waste no time --------- - in building a new christian spirit to supplant war. iiwe will have to see to it,ll he declared, "that out of this conflict of the nations, this degradation of civilization -- this terrible war -- shall come up in this land, a new christianity.lllo addressing a methodist congre- gation in mimico, ontario, he continued: our new christianity will have to drop all ideas of the past. we wi have to put the iilaw of lovell .•. into practice ..• and then we will bring about those things which will come out of this terrible conflict -- lithe brotherhood of man ll -- that parliament of man, that confederation of the world of which our poet sang. we must make iilove ll the law of life, the law of social and political life, and national life. are we ready to do it?ll an affirmative answer to this question, he claimed, demanded that people think iisoberly, righteously and fairli' about the events occurring around them. shortly after the outbreak of war, the views of the canadian peace and arbitration society were articulated clearly by horning in a letter to dr. t. albert moore, secretary of the general conference of the r~ethodi s t church of canada. he exp a i ned that although it was not an i pportune time ll to talk of what was usually associated with pacifism, the members of his small society felt it was a proper time to plan that coming generations think ll more sanely and soundly than the past and present generations jl and he appealed to the methodist church for support in this endeavor. jla great many of us are saying 'never again, i he wrote, iibut to make sure of this, we ask your sympathy, wholehearted co-operation and active support. jl as a course of action, horning suggested combatting the martial spirit which had infiltrated daily lives and language by building a new vision of patriotism free from the taint of militarism and war. he argued tha t the old patriotism is altogether too often associated with the soldiers life. the language of our everyday life and of our past literature smacks very much of the martial, that is, it is a language based upon old ideals and old habits. ijpatriotic fund lj •••• why not soldiers fund?l conversely, the word patriotism was to be reserved for references to peace, self-sacrifice and brave service for one's fellow man. lithe new patriotism," claimed horning, "call s for life and opportunity for life, not death and destruction, and vandalism and horrors. i he claimed such arguments were based on iireason and science" rather than the ii fa aci ous arguments ii of mi i tari sts. the canadian peace and arbitration society also maintained that its members and sympathetic friends had a special duty to perform regarding canada's own peculiar problems such as french-english relations, further complicated by the war, and the question of state ownership and control of the nation's productive wealth. lion all sides," horning warned, ii we need new light, new thought, a new spirit ... we should believe in another destiny, that of the saving of the nations." in conclusion horning made a final appeal to the church: preachers of peace and believers in goodwill, help us ... by your heartfelt sympat~y,cordial co-operation and willing openmindedness ... we can be of great service to each other.ls despite this eloquent plea, the church hierarchy flatly ignored horning's suggestions for a "new patriotism" in favor of the old patriotic call to arms. on the other hand, the canadian peace and arbitration society and fellow moderates continued to sponsor pacifist oriented meetings and addresses at least as long as the united states remained neutral. in october , for instance, chrystal macmillan, a british pacifist, addressed a meeting of the canadian national council of women in toronto with horning and other members of the peace society in attendance. the lecture was organized by two toronto pacifists, mrs. hector prenter of the political equality league and mrs. wesley barker, past president of the business women's club, who had resigned over the club's war work. gradually, however, members of the peace society and others with moderate pacifist leanings grew passive and silent. they had tried in vain to prevent the development of an overzealous war mentality but in the end they were not ready to go as far as to endorse radical dissent. accordingly, horning ceased his attempt to organize a pacifist program of action and retreated to safer pursuits. in keeping with his personal desire to educate the public, for instance, he delivered a nationwide series of lectures during the summer of concerning problems of war and canadian citizenship.' the editors of two of toronto's leading newspapers were also examples of a moderate pacifism and its wartime transition. dr. j. a. macdonald, the managing-editor of the toronto globe and one of the leading spokesmen of the liberal peace movement in canada before the war, announced that the outbreak of war meant lithe union of all canadians for the defense of canada, for the maintenance of the empire's integrity, and for the preservation in :the world of britain's ideals of democratic government and ife. i a few months later during a toronto address macdonald again defended canada's role in the war: in the ghastly brute-struggle at the front and in the trenches, canada must take its place and do its share . . . . enlist? yes. drill? yes. arm? yes. fight? yes. shell against shell: bayonet against bayonet: man against man. there can be no turning back in this awful struggle until armed force has vanquished armed force. macdonald combined such statements of patriotic duty with his familiar peace rhetoric, since a time of war, he claimed,was also a time to prepare for peace and disarmament. in one editorial canadians were asked to look to the future and choose between mili- tarism and war or disarmament and peace. the argument was that either the new world idea of reason and international faith must be pushed to the limit of disarmament or the old world idea of brute force and international distrust must be accepted by all countries: either we must all stand with christ or all stand with caesar. confi dent of future peace, macdonald reported that from the iitrenches and dugouts of the battlefields and from the battalions who have faced war's stern realities, men send back one strong resonant, unfaltering testimony: 'not caesar but christ'. i l at first the globe exercised a moderating influence on the public as its editorials protested against building anti-german sympathies in canadian youth and argued that "no canadian cadet should be allowed to think of a german or any other man as a target for his marksmanship. overall the paper reflected macdonald's two distinct lines of thought but given the circumstances this dual approach was impossible to maintain for long and in macdonald resigned as editor, thus freeing the globe to assume a more ardent patriotic position. macdonald himself became absorbed in lecturing and writing. at the close of , for instance, he addressed a series of patriotic meetings in ontario, urging young men to enlist. by he called upon canadians to stand, to fight and, if need be, to die in the defence of lithe north american idea, the inalienable and priceless ri ght of a free peop e to govern themselves. i n the end he had accepted the war as a means to create a new world order based upon liberty and freedom. but the idea of armed peace or preparedness macdonald still denounced as "doomed to the rubbish heap of the world's barbarism." "another idea must be set free," he claimed, "a world idea, the idea not of international strife, but of international partnership.,, macdonald's final sanction of war as a means to an end was indicative of his nineteenth century pacifist thought which stressed world order and the futility of war rather than moral questions. a more extreme transformation was made by j. e. atkinson, managing-editor of the toronto daily star. atkinson had long felt war was wrong and he initially adopted a moderate approach, but within a year he switched to all-out support for the war effort. atkinson reasoned that war was the ultimate and logical conclusion of the / ~~--.-- - worship of materialism, especially in germany. he accepted the war, therefore, as an attempt to secure the liberal goal -- that of protecting the liberties and rights of all peoples. in an address before the canadian club of toronto during the second year of the war he even claimed that the war was a crusade lito secure the possession to mankind of christinaity itself." such a remark was indicative of the growing support for the war effort among former peace advocates. although a moderate pacifism was displayed for a time~ moderation in defense of the war or pacifism succumbed to more extreme, vocal positions as emotional events of the war unravelled and a deeper commitment was made by canadians. while some moderates were converted to one extreme or the other, most were simply silenced into oblivion by the rising tide of militant christian patriotism. almost all groups of liberal reformers came to reflect this militant patriotism one way or another. women s groups, for instance, quickly redirected their energies towards more respectable pursuits in red cross work and patriotic activities. indeed, it is ironic that the women who helped popularize the expectation that women would react differently to war than men because of their moral superiority, were the very ones who contributed substantially to the disintegration of this myth during the war through their various wartime endeavors. initially, canadian women agreed with flora macdonald denison, columnist for the toronto world, that lithe women of england have no quarrel with the women of germany. in a matter of months, however, most women were actively involved in war support activities. the most important of these groups were the lode and the women's institutes. in fact, the effectiveness of the latter's co-ordinated war effort led to the federation of women's institutes in canada under the guidance of judge emily murphy; an idea that spread ultimately to britain and the united states. the national council of women, altering their pre- war stand, organized a khaki league in montreal to operate a convales- cent home for sick and wounded officers and a number of recreation centers near army barracks. numerous other women's patriotic activities were founded, including queen mary's needlework guild, which provided garments for incapacitated soldiers and sailors of the empire and their dependents; the national ladies guild for british sailors in canada, and the lady jellicoe's sailors fund, a committee in toronto. contrary to their early pacifistic assumptions, therefore, women's war work became the greatest organizational aid for the women's movement. certainly, long before women voted for a union government and supported conscription they shared responsibility in the war. the m~st vocal expression of this moral transformation, however, was provided by the nation's churches. overall, the response of protestant forces representative of pre-war, social gospel pacifism reflected the dilemma of the patriotic christian in time of war. the war became the supreme challenge to their idea of the partnership of church and state in developing the national culture. anxious to prove themselves, they gradually identified almost totally with national policy. as a result, the church press became champions of the war as a righteous cause. this was the unqualified position from the beginning of the war of the baptist and anglican journals, the canadian baptist and the canadian churchman as well as the official periodicals of the presbyterian church, the presbyterian record and the presbyterian witness. the presbyterian, an unofficial toronto weekly, however, was more cautious and maintained its pacifist tendencies for some months before finally succumbi ng to the pressure for an lia ll-out war effort. ii the presbyterian blamed european militarism rather than germany as the cause of hostilities and condemned war, above all else, for sowing seeds of hatred among men. iiwe canadians and britons everywhere, i wrote the editor, ii shou d guard against unchristian and unreasoning feelings of hatred. i another editorial urged that the liirrationa blasphemy of warll be replaced by arbitration and iitribuna s of peace and justice. i the manitoba presbyterian synod adopted a resolution deploring the war while absolving britain of any responsibility for the calamity and reaffirmed the righteousness of the empire's cause. but the resolution concluded that war might never have been if european christian churches iihad been more under the sway of the prince of peace. i this critical acquiescence was also expressed by the methodist church's christian guardian, previously a leading peace organ. its editor, dr. w. b. creighton was well-known as a pioneer in social reconstruction and a promoter of missions as well as a crusader for world peace. shortly after the outbreak of war creighton warned that god must not be asked for victory but only for forgiveness and guidance as he condemned the war as foolish, costly and unchristian: there is nothing like war to demonstrate the inexcusable folly of war. as a method of settling national dif- ferences it is foolish, wasteful, irrational and un- christian, and can only be tolerated when it seems to be absolutely inevitable as a means of escaping still greater calamities. in the same issue creighton also reaffirmed his belief that christian pacifism was still on its way. "a mighty inspiration is coming over men," he wrote, "and a vision of brotherhood that will eventually kill war and stop battleship building and army recruiting ... it will take a while ... but it will be done. i towards the end of the first month of the war the christian guardian summed up its general position of support for the war: we hate war, but this is not a war of conquest, but is a struggle which has been forced upon us by a military autocracy which appears to have become so intoxicated with a belief in its own greatness that it is prepared to defy a whole continent. that this un- provoked war' may result in the uprising of the peoples and the overturning of tyrannical and autocratic govern- ments is our earnest hope. by autumn the guardian began to promote the war effort with increasing zeal. the general superintendent of the methodist church, samule dwight chown, for instance, urged methodists to enlist in the canadian army and iigo to the front bravely as one who hears the call of god. i the passionate call to arms soon became a familiar plea and within a year the war which chown had originally described as "just, honorable and necessary" was transformed into an apocalyptic crusade, an eschatological confrontation between good and evil, between christianity and the anti-christ epitomized in germany. the traditional concept of the just war, prescribing justice and moderation in warfare, gave way under various wartime pressures to the crusading spirit characterized by the extremely dangerous qualities of self-righteousness and fanaticism. the conflict that began as a necessary, if somewhat idealized campaign to safeguard national interests and rid the world of a military despotism was transformed under the pressure of events into a holy war, ending as a frenzied crusade against the devil incarnate. albert marrin's description of british war fever applies to the canadian scene as well. stories of german atrocities in belgium and government controlled war propaganda triggered an emotional response and helped reinforce fears for the future of christendom itself. the crusading war effort, in effect, became a new attempt to reach the old nineteenth century illusion of eternal peace, progress and prosperity by casting out the german devil. to be sure, the conversion of liberal pacifists to such a passionate desire for victory required much rationalization, as well as a good deal of serious soul-searching. it was a complex internal struggle in which individual tensions were resolved in a variety of responses. for instance, the western feminist nellie mcclung success- fully combined feminist demands with the war effort without abandoning her earlier faith in christian peace and progress. in she could still condemn war as the antithesis of all her teaching. war, she claimed, proved nothing while it twisted the whole moral fabric: hardening society to human grief and misery; taking the fit and leaving the unfit to perpetrate the race; and, the greatest inequity of all, setting aside the arbitrament of right and justice in favor of brute force. on the other hand, she could support the war as a purgative that would assist in the redemption of the world. in retrospect mcclung described her new perception of the world shared by like-minded christians: in the first days of panic, pessimism broke out among us, and we cried in our despair that our civilization had failed, that christianity had broken down, and that god had forgotten the world. it seemed like it at first. but now a wiser and better vision has come to us, and we know that christianity has not failed, for it is not fair to impute failure to something which has never been tried. civilization has failed ... we know how that underneath the thin veneer of civilization, unregenerate man is still a savaqe; and we see now ... that unless a civilization is built upon love, and mutual trust, it must always end in disaster, such as this. up to august fourth, we often said that war \vas impossible between christian nations. we still say so, but ... we know now that there are no christian nations. "no," she concluded, "the principles of christ have not yet been applied to nations. we have only christian people.,, it was in this frame of mind that liberal reformers came to think of participation in the war as an act of "national regeneration.,, the apocalyptic war hysteria demanded an all-out fight against all evil in society. the demon hun, the demon rum, the scourge of veneral disease and other vices affecting humanity became prime targets of crusading zeal. as the te~perance movement joined forces with the war effort, the christian guardian maintained that "theoretically the church knows no peace -- she is always at war with evil." the same line or argument was used by the record when its editor equated war against germany with the war against the i quor traffi c and refl ected: "wa r is never wrong when it is war against wrong. given this radical redefinition of war, former peace advocates went full circle and labelled pacifism itself as evil. the shifting perspective could be observed in november , when w. b. creighton, while praising pacifism as "one of the most hopeful signs of our time," claimed pacifists were guilty of "dull obstinacy," "bitter prejudice," and "plain stupidity" for the manner in which they attempted to apply pacifism to the war with germany. if pacifists were disappointed to read such words from a former sympathizer they were assuredly shocked to read the conclusion to that line of thinking in the april , issue of the guardian. in the cover page editorial entitled lithe vice , of pacifism," creighton retold the story of moses killing the egyptian slave driver for beating a fellow israelite and concluded with the following analogy: moses' flashing eye and furious death-dealing blow has seemed to say to us that if a man doesn't react in anger and fierce resentment in the presence of injustice and cruelty and masterful evil-doing there is something wrong with him, very seriously wrong too. under those circumstances pacifism is not a virtue and cannot be made into the semblance of a virtue, but is instead a vice revealing the terrible fact that the conscience has lost its sensitiveness and the soul has lost its courage. as if this rejection of pacifism as a legitimate christian doctrine was not harsh enough, the following month creighton declared, in no uncertain terms, that there was no room in the methodist church for ministers with a pacifist conscience, even though the church had been pacifist in the past. lias a church we have opposed war, and our preachers have denounced it most vehemently," explained creighton, but now the situation was viewed in a "fresh lightll especially when it was ii cl ear beyond dispute ll that the country was forced into war. as the state iirightly refuses to allow a peace propaganda to be carried on in its midst," so the church must prevent "unpatriotic semons in her pulpits." both the country and the church had a right to insist on the "truest patriotic utterances." "if a man cannot conscientiously declare himself a patriot," warned the editor, "he has no business in any church which prides itself upon its patriotism. iiso creighton concluded that the matter of conscience did not change the facts of war and that where the man's conscience is of such a stubborn type that it refuses to admit that a victory for the allies is any more to be desired than a victory for the germans, a church nas no choice, if such a man be in her pulpits, but to silence him, and no plea of christian liberty and of freedom of speech can be allowed for a moment .... it is not a case of conscience, but a case of christian morals, and the sin of unpatriotic speech and act is one which the church cannot afford to condone.sl the same sentiments were echoed by the official presbyterian press: to be at peace with evil-doing is to share in that evil-doing ... to cease fighting the german wrong, while that wrong remains,'is to be a partner in the wrong. in 'pacifism' we become sharers with germany in her guilt. such pacifism is a crime against humanity and against god. such wholesale condemnation of pacifism and denial of the right of conscience either silenced pacifists or drove them from the church entirely. it was after the publication of creighton's remarks, for instance, that j. s. woodsworth resigned from the methodist ministry. most pre-war pacifists, such as creighton, had not abandoned their nineteenth century concept of peace and christendom as a fragile world order that bound men and nations to conduct themselves in accordance with christian principles and understanding. the pacifist ideal, therefore, was viewed more as an end than a means. their con- cept of peace remained one of pure idealism with no room for compromise, only now it was peace at any price even if that price was war. the result, as j. m. bliss states, was a paradox: idealized christian pacifism produced an extreme zeal for a holy war. the former peace advocates who could not rationalize support of a just war with their dedicated faith i~ the christian gospel more easily accepted the idea of a holy crusade to save christianity and peace from the diabolical german menace. in the editor of the presbyterian record concluded: the world's real crusade is now on, and men in millions are thronging across the seas as did european legions to asia a millennium gone, but with a more intelligent purpose and a higher, holier aim. / before the end of the war the crusading zeal of these former peace advocates resulted in ardent support of the military but it would be unfair to classify them as militarists per~. although they absorbed and reflected the martial spirit, their principal concern was not the development of militarism but a world safe for the realization of the kingdom of god. thus, some combined support for the war to end war with their commitment to social reform. in the opposite extreme, a small minority of canadians main- tained radical opposition to the war and its accompanying infringements on individual rights and freedoms. one variety of this radicalism was the religious non-resistance expressed by the historic peace sects and fundamentalist groups. as seen in the last chapter, the right to live according to religious principles of non-violence was protected by several orders-in-council and by had become a tradition en- trenched firmly in canadian law and custom. most of these religious communities, such as the mennonites and the hutterites, lived separate and withdrawn from the larger canadian society and therefore remained more or less silent on the war until threatened directly with con- scription. the other committed pacifists were pre-war reformers who began to link pacifism with social radicalism. they included both confirmed social radicals who adopted pacifism during the war as part of their overall struggle against the existing social and economic system as well as staunch pre-war pacifists such as the quakers. from the very beginning of the war the quakers attempted to maintain a program of pacifist activity. the canadian peace and arbitration society counted several quakers, including w. greenwood brown and elias rogers, among its membership. most quaker concern, however, was expressed through the society of friends' own peace and arbitration committees which urged individual friends to continue th.ir public pacifist witness and waste no opportunity to iitestify that all war is contrary to christ's teaching. i friends condemned the moral effect of the war in creating a certain indifference to the destruction of human life and suggested pacifists assume the role of reconcilers in the war. all peace groups, proclaimed the genesee yearly meeting, should iicheck and mitigate as far as possible the disastrous feeling of bitterness and hatred that is being intensified between the warring peoples, and thus prepare them sooner for the new regime of universal brother- hood. iis canadian friends began searching for some type of positive service to be undertaken by pacifists in time of war and in this way bridged the gap between historic non-resistants and the non-violent activists of the twentieth century. their general position was expressed by arthur g. dorland, chairman of the peace committee, in his report to canada yearly meeting in . the report urged friends to extend llmoral support to those who, though not members of our society, nevertheless hold genuine religious objection against war. i dorland then voiced the desire for worthwhile pacifist service: during the present crisis we should endeavor consistently to observe our traditional attitude as friends against active participation in war, it is therefore our special duty to exert ourselves as individuals and as a society along those lines of work in which we can consistently engage so that we should render to our country and to those who have suffered because of the war some equivalent service and even sacrifice. as an example of a practical service dorland noted the loan of pickering college, a quaker institution, to the government as a con- valescent hospital for returned soldiers. other quaker activities included a petition for physical training for boys and girls in schools in lieu of military training, and support of the english friends· ambulance unit and the english war victims relief committee. through these various fields of service friends demonstrated that social action was entirely consistent with their peace testimony. quakers, however, pressed further, extending their association of pacifism and social reform by insistently examining both the con- ditions that made for war and their own complicity in them. as the genesee yearly meeting reflected: this unfortunate and regrettable war has caused us to ask ourselves, "what part have we had in the making or maintaining of those conditions which have brought on the war?" have we, either as christians or as responsible citizens of our respective countries, done all that we might or should to remove these conditions? clearly, friends were moving toward a synthesis of their historic radical christian pacifism with a radical political outlook as well. once they discovered the seeds of war sown within the existing social order, modern quakers replaced their older emphasis upon mercy in a static society with a radical commitment to change that society. canadian friends began to endorse government control and possible ownership of all industries manufacturing war-related articles. furthermore, anticipating the post-war years as early as , they began to discuss the implications of their social philosophy in such national and international considerations as the future role of the state and the relationship between capitalism and war. another example of socially radical pacifism was a small group of radical feminists. largely centered in toronto, they worked through the women's social democratic league and the toronto suffrage association until the summer of when miss alice chown, miss laura hughes and miss elsie charlton founded the canadian women's peace party, a branch of the international committee for permanent peace. aware of the fact that the women of england and australia were organized in this regard, charlton and hughes expressed concern that canada should not lag behind. the conspicious involvement of alice chown and laura hughes in wartime pacifism, however, proved to be a matter of some embarassment to their uncles, the reverend s. d. chown, general superintendent of the methodist church, and colonel sam hughes, the canadian minister of militia. colonel hughes even tried to bribe his ~ niece to remove the disgrace. the original women's peace party was formed in the united states in january by jane addams and her feminist associates and the idea spread to other nations after the international congress of women first met at the hague in the spring of . it was here that laura hughes grasped the idea. present in an unofficial capacity, ---------- miss hughes was the only canadian to attend the women's congress, billed as a women's peace conference. the large majority of canadian women's clubs rebuffed the invitation from the congress as "untimely peace propaganda" and endorsed the public reply drafted by the national committee of patriotic services of canada, a federation of nationally organized women's societies. this letter, officially sent to jane addams as president of the congress, explained that canadian women felt they could not send delegates since they believed that "the time for peace has not yet arrived." the letter further argued that to do so would mean a peaceful acquiescence in the devastation of a country such as belgium. the hamilton chapter of the national council of women agreed and condemned those women calling for a halt to the war as ii gu ilty in the eyes of god. \ supplanting a planned meeting of the international suffrage alliance, the international congress of women provided a forum in which women from around the world discussed plans for ending the war. besides the idea of forming women's peace societies at home, the most importan~ achievement was a proposal for continuous mediation between the belligerent powers on the part of a group of neutral experts. although presented to the congress by jane addams, the plan for continuous mediation was the work of julia grace wales, a canadian from quebec then teaching at the university of wisconsin. miss wales conceived her plan for iicontinuous mediation without armistice," . or the wisconsin peace plan as it became known after being endorsed by the wisconsin peace society, in the hope of averting a iiprolonged, irrational and un-christian war. i the plan was unanimously accepted by the congress and a scheme was devised for putting it into operation, but the worsening events of the war over- shadowed any chance of its success. meanwhile, the canadian women's peace party, later re- christened the women's international league for peace and freedom (wil), based its program for a new international order upon the reforms outlined at the hague, including compulsory arbitration, universal disarmament and a league of democratic nations. upon closer examina- tion, however, it appeared to be a iistop the warll movement, for privately, laura hughes actually desired an immediate unilateral canadian withdrawal from the war. in public she had to be more discrete in order to avoid the charge of treason. generally, hughes moved to an increasingly radical outlook. with the wil she directed her wrath at the military-capitalist complex behind the·war effort and joined with the labor-socialists in their attack on war profiteering by financial trusts and armament makers. hughes was converted to the labor cause after touring armament factories as an inspector and decided an independent labor party was the only solution to the disgraceful working conditions she found. at the tlc convention hughes electrified the delegates with a stirring radical speech supporting an independent labor party and once the ontario independent labor party was formed in she served on its executive comm;ttee. alice chown, the other founding member of the women's peace party and wil, was also no newcomer to radical activities. somewhat of a free spirit who usually appeared barefoot to emphasize her free will, miss chown was committed to furthering the cause of women's suffrage and women's trade unions. her early interest in socialism stemmed from social gospel influence and a religious hope for a new social order. she tried living in a social settlement when that was a fad, taking particular interest in the british utopian community, garden city, where emphasis was placed on non-resistance and co- operation. in she marched through the streets of london with the women's league for social and political equality carrying a canadian banner. the following year she was horrified at the con- ditions she discovered while writing a series of articles for a toronto newspaper on the life of an average working girl and entered into trade union activities as a result. the evolution of her social outlook appeared to reach its final form when, after hearing an address by emma goldman, chown became infatuated with the assault against special privilege and, although rejecting the anarchist approach, she recognized goldman's ultimate goal as her own. faith in laws, institutions and customs enforced by the state, church or some other external authority, she argued, must be replaced by faith in the life force present within all men. by chown turned her attention to the war, and, calling herself a "strenuous pacifist," criticized all violent methods for settling disputes, whether they be strikes, anarchistic actions or wars, as too costly and only partially successful. instead she suggested non-violent action as the best alternative: i feel that non-resistance, not in the sense of acceptance of evil, but in the attempt to return good for evil, to substitute for the outgrown ideal of conflict a world-wide positive ideal of good in which all would share, is the only right path for a nation to follow. arguing that christ was a better psychologist than men, chown proposed that germany be conquered through a new conception of brother- hood which included, first of all eliminating injustice and selfishness within canadian society. such public declarations as lito conquer your enemy is to love himll received a hostile reception in a country at war, resulting in public abuse and demands that chown be confined in an asylum or a jail. undaunted, chown continued to work towards lithe brotherhood of nations, i and lithe abolition of special privileges for individuals and states. ii iibut for the people around me, i she recalled, lithe most heroic thing that they could do was to throw themselves disinterestedly into the war. iiso alice chown also feared the war would have a brutal effect upon canadian soci~ty in general. iii am positive, i she wrote, iithat the evils we go out to fight with violence we shall graft upon our own nations life. i she explained: starting with natred of our enemy's cruelty, we shall end by being cruel ourselves; detesting the subservience of the german people to their state, we shall become in- different to the subservience of our people to our state. we shall lose our free institutions, free speech, free press, free assemblage, and have to struggle to regain them.sl shortly after the armistice she explained to her uncle, s. d. chown, how she had fought all through the war for a knowledge of facts, for justice to the enemy and for the allies to refrain from "acts of unrighteousness" in russia, while he and his associates in the methodist church hierarchy had allowed themselves to become "dupes" of the militarists. "i kept my faith in the sermon on the mount," she exclaimed, "and you have put your faith in force and have acquiesced in the lies of the censored press. i the experience of the wil and the quakers during the first few years of the war, therefore, reveals that committed pacifists had moved a long way from the old progressive call for peace, order and stability characteristic of pre-war pacifism. their blending of pacifism and social radicalism signified the beginning of an important transition in the canadian pacifist tradition: the pacifist initiative had passed from the old coalition of progressive reformers to a developing re-alignment of pacifists with the political left. the liberal peace.movement, itself disintegrated as the majority of its adherents deserted pacifism in favor of a new means to achieve peace -- a holy war. even those who attempted to maintain a moderately realistic position were smothered in the process. certainly, the ease and enthusiasm with which this reversal was made betrayed the narrowness of the pre-war liberal concept of pacifism. but the death of the progressive peace movement early in the war was not the end of liberal pacifism in canada. it would re-emerge in the post-war years among such groups as the league of nations society and, once again, attempt to ensure world peace with- out directly challenging the state. amid the pressures of the escalating wartime crusade, however, liberal pacifism proved to be utterly untenable. those who wished to maintain a pacifist protest found it necessary to adopt a radical critique of the social and economic roots of war and in doing so abandon their liberal reformism for some variant of the socialist creed. for some, that, too, would become almost an eschatological warfare against the existing social order not entirely unlike their erstwhile colleagues, no less committed to social change, who sought the reign of peace via the war to end war. the quakers and radical feminists were some of the first to exercise this shift but it was not until individual liberties were directly threatened by conscription and other repressive measures that the new socially radical pacifism was more fully expressed. con- scription became the catalyst in a radical pacifist response. never- theless, even before canadian pacifism showed signs of survival as a moral and social alternative. footnotes lj. c. hopkins~ the canadian annual review~ ~ p. . i bid. ~ p. . ibi d. norman angell~ iicanada l s best service for british ideals~ i addresses delivered before the canada club of toronto. - (toronto: canadian club~ ); in the great illusion ( ) angell made a critical analysis of war and economics concluding the popular belief that a successful war brings material gain was an optical i usi on. the words of lieutenant-colonel j. t. fotheringham in hopkins~ canadian annual review, , p. . of friends~ victoria university achives (vua), lewis~e. horning papers~ lewis e. horning~ lithe two ideals~': acta victoriana, october~ ~ p. . bibi d. ~ lewi s e. horni ng ~ lithe new ci ti zi enshi p ~ ii unpub i shed manuscrip~ united church archives (uca)~ the methodist church of canada~ general conference office, general correspondence~ , box , file , lewis e. horning to t. a. moore~ september , . horni ng ~ lithe new ci ti zenshi p. ii horning to moore~ september , , p. . ibid . ibid . ibid • hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . vua , horning papers, vault, e. w tp. the globe (toronto), august , p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . the globe (toronto), august , p. . macdonald, north american idea, p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . macdona d, north american idea, p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . j • e. atkinson, lithe aftermath of the war," addresses delivered before the canadian club of toronto, - (toronto: canadian club ), pp. - . -denison, war and women, p. . sanders, emily murphy, p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , pp. - . john h. thompson, iiithe beginning of our regeneration~: the great war and western canadian reform movements ," historical papers, canadian historical association, , pp. - . christie, lithe presbyterian church in canada," p. . ibid .; also see: colm brannigan, the anglican church in canada and the- great war, i graduate seminar paper for professor a. r. allen, department of history, mcmaster university, and steven r. ramlochan, lithe baptists of ontario and world war i, - , undergraduate paper for professor c. m. johnston, department of history, mcmaster university, . christie~ lithe presbyterian church in canada, i p. ; the presbyterian, august ; august , p. . the presbyterian, november , p. . christian guardian, august , p. ; w. b. creighton was born in dorchester, ontario in and graduated from victoria university, coburg. he served as associate-editor of the christian guardian from to and then as editor until church union in when he became editor of the new outlook. he retired in and died in . uca, w. b. creighton biography file. christian guardian, august , p. . ibid ., august , p. . ibid ., september , p. . b iss, iimethodist church and war," p. . a bert marrin, the last crusade: the church of enrland in the first world war (durham: duke university press, , pp. - . ibid., p. . nellie mcclung, in times like these, with an introduction by veronica strong-boag (toronto: ; reprint ed., toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - . ibid • ibid ., p. . i bid., p. . thompson, iiithe beginning of our regeneration l • i christian guardian, december , p. . the presbyterian record, october, , p. ; the same connection between the war effort and temperance was made by the presbyterian, november , p. . christian guardian, november , p. . ibid., april , p. . ibid ., may , p. . ibid • the presbyterian record, june, , p. . discussed in chapter three. marrin, the last crusade, pp. , . s iss, "methodist church and war, i p. . the presbyterian record, june, . minates of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. . mi~utes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , pp. - . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , pp. - ; durinq the first war dorland was a graduate student at yale university in tne united states and then a lecturer in history at queen's university. although ready to take his stand as a c. ., the war ended before his classification group was called up. arthur g. dorland, former days and quaker ways (picton, ontario: the picton gazette publishing company, ltd., ), pp. - ; interview with arthur g. dorland, january . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , pp. - . 'ibid., , p. ; minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, l~ p. ; pickering college was used by the government as a military hospital until july . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, . dor and, a history of quakers in canada, p. . minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. . chatfie d, for peace and justice, p. . minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. ; , p. . saskatchewan archives board, saskatoon (sabs), s. v. haight papers, file a .b, elsie charlton and laura hughes to s. v. haight, n.d.; evidently haight was one of the first women in saskatchewan to be interested in the wil. other wil women in toronto included flora macdonald denison and t· rs. hector prenter. see carol lee bacchi- ferraro, "the ideas of the canadian suffragists, - ," m.a., thesis, mcgill university, , p. . ibid .; page, "canadians and the league of nations," p. . the daily mail and empire (toronto), april , p. . . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . ji conway, "the women's peace party and the first world war," in war and society in north america, ed. j. l. granatstein and r. d. cuff {toronto: thomas nelson and sons, }, p. ; walter i. trattner, "julia grace wales and the wisconsin plan for peace," wisconsin magazine of history, xliv ( ); julia grace wales was born in bury, quebec, graduated from mcgill university in and taught english and shakespearean literature at the university of wisconsin from - . she returned to canada in and died in . ibid. page , iicanadians and the leage of nations, i p. ; the canadian women's peace party was also briefly named the women's peace organization and the canadian league for international con- struction before it became affiliated with the wil. ibid., p. ; sabs, haight papers, file a . , charlton and hughes to haight, n.d. page , iicanadians and the leage of nations ,ii p. . martin robin, iiregistration, conscription, and independent labour politics, - , canadian historical review, xlvii (june ) in conscription , ed. carl berger, canadian historical readings no. (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . ibid., pp. - . a ice chown, the stairway (boston: the cornhill comapny, ), p. . ibid ., pp. , . ibid ., pp. , . ibid., p. . ibi d,., pp. , . ibid., p. . ibid , p. . uca , s. d. chown papers, box , file , alice chown to s. d. chown, december . chapter iii conscription and the conscience of radical pacifists by the time of the great war pacifism and anti-militarism had become an important dimension of the canadian radical movement, reflecting the increased influence of marxist internationalism, christian social ethics and the british labor tradition. indeed, a number of liberal pacifists from religious, farm, labor and feminist back- grounds moved toward the radical left as their wartime expression of pacifism blended with a socialist critique. as noted in the last chapter, the society of friends had become one of the leading exponents of this socialized pacifism, thereby bridging the gap· between social radicalism and historic religious non-resistance. but quakers and other sectarian pacifists, traditional dissenters with a long and recognized history of dissenting from the established social order whenever it intruded upon their religious belief and way of life, could capitalize upon their history and secure a grudging, even respected tolerance, while these new social radicals, arising more from the maintstream of society, were viewed as dissenters in a more directly political sense. their pacifism may have been based on christian ethics but it was also an expression of their general discontent with the whole social and economic system; thus, it led the suspicions of subversion and treason in the minds of militant patriots. neverthe- less, the new socially radical pacifists, as well as the traditional religious pacifists, faithfully exercised their witness against the war and thereby set important precedents for minority dissent within canadian society in wartime. although a pacifist social critique began to take shape prior to , conscription proved to be the catalyst in mounting opposition to the war. following a prelude of national registration, conscription was established by the military service act (msa) in august . the msa provided for compulsory military service of all male inhabitants in canada between the ages of eighteen and sixty unless otherwise exempted. the men were to be called up according to six classes, beginning with the young and single. other than hardship cases, ill health, and conscience, most exemptions were to be limited to certain occupations considered to be in the national interest. although readily acceptable to the vast majority of the english speaking popu}ation, these provisions irritated a variety of canadians, and posed a direct challenge to pacifists. young male pacifists, especially, were confronted with a traumatic decision of conscience. consequently, a relatively silent pacifist minority was provoked to speak out against the war and the restrictions of individual liberties. in addition to its well-known effect upon other sectors of society, therefore, conscription triggered pacifist protests and resistance. for most canadians, however, the real crisis of conscription in concerned quebec's nationalist and anti-imperialist opposition to war rather than pacifist stirrings or radical discontent. the introduction of conscription, further complicated by threatened linguistic rights of franco-ontarians, ignited an explosive reaction among french canadians that resulted in violent anti-conscription riots. the most serious disturbance occurred in quebec city during the easter weekend of over the government's rigid enforcement of the msa and quebec's frustrating, powerless position after the election. when the violence finally subsided on easter monday, four civilians were dead and more than fifty civilians and five soldiers were injured. although government authorities feared a nation-wide movement of resistance to conscription since anti-conscription disturbances occurred elsewhere in canada, quebec remained the most serious challenge to the msa. the majority of quebec registrants wished to be exempted, mainly for occupational reasons, however, rather than as conscientious objectors. agcording to rumor, once exemption attempts failed, french canadian draft resisters fled either to the mountainous laurentian countryside or to the united states. the effect of this resistance was that french canada, accounting for forty per cent of the total canadian population, supplied approximately only five per cent of the canadian expeditionary forces during the war. in english canada conscription also triggered an emotional response which, on the whole, intensified support for the war effort. the major churches, for instance, enthusiastically endorsed the msa. in fact, at times the churches resembled auxiliary recruiting units for the government. a number of patriotic clergymen were appointed recruiting directors while the churches themselves seemed to be in competition for the most recruits. the methodist emphasis on recruiting, for instance, was partly in response to government released recruitment figures which revealed that the methodist church had produced the lowest percentage of recruits of any protestant denomination. although those figures were later supported by the methodist's own tabulations, the general superintendent, dr. chown, publicly refused to accept the government's figures and maintained that canadian methodism was willing to do her share. the war effort of the methodist church was directed by the department of social service and evangelism until the creation of a special army and navy board during the winter of . besides the responsibilit~ for methodist enlistment and employment of chaplains, the board became the official voice of the church in consultation with military and government departments. similar boards were established by the presbyterian, baptist and congregationalist churches. once the voluntary method was officially recognized as in- sufficient, the churches quickly supported conscription as the necessary step lito enroll the man-power of the country in a final and decisive effort to secure a permanent peace. i the christian guardian reminded its readers that service to god and country were closely allied and argued that the church had a right to demand conscription since ministers and their sons were in uniform. iiyes, i remarked the editor, lithe church has a right to inculcate patriotism and to rally her sons to the defense of the flag in the great world-war. the presbyterian and westminster also came out for conscription even though its editor suggested the bill might have been defeated if submitted to a national referendum. given the patriotic attitude of the churches and their lack of concern for pacifists, the possible alternative of conscientious objection was clearly inconceivable to most canadians. the average young man was under almost irresistible pressure to enlist. in canada, as in britain, women as well as children were encouraged to shame men into uniform. not to be in uniform labelled one a slacker or shirker, words not reserved just for men of the pacifist sects. the presbyterian record defined the "slacker" as not merely the able bodied of military age who prefers ease to duty, and will not give himself. the "slacker" is the self indulgent of either sex, and of every age and station, who does not lend every energy to help \llin the war. likewise, the christian guardian claimed th~t, although the word slacker "had something of a nondescript qualitil in the past, the war had given it a new meaning. .•. we have added to it all the contempt that men ought to feel for the coward, the shirker, the man who refuses to stand up squarely to his duty. and we do well to put teeth into such a word as that, being sure always that we apply it to men who really deserve it. although the incriminattng term was directed most frequently against french canadians, it was clearly intended to include all those opposed to the msa and generally critical of the war effort. outside quebec initial opposition to conscription came from farm and labor critics in reaction to the national registration scheme. although alarmed, the national executive of the tlc eventually recommended compliance of trade unionists with the plan. their recommendation met with general approval in eastern trades councils but the leadership of the western labor movement bolted. the trades council and socialists in winnipeg established an anti-registration league and across the west trades and labor councils emphatically opposed the scheme as a prelude to conscription and urged workers t t fl'll t th . t t' ~ no ou e regls ra n caruso conscription met with even stronger disapproval. mass . protest meetings organized by the national tlc and the socialist party of canada aroused talk of a general strike. at first the tlc executive favored a national general strike to force the government to conscript wealth before manpower but finally decided that once conscription was the law they should yield to the increased clamour for political action rather than the direct action of a general strike or passive resistance. some historians have argued that the entrance of organized labor into independent politics in opposition to the union government was the culmination of labor's strong resistance to war regimentation but, as john h. thompson has shown, the opposition of some labor leaders to the registration and conscription of manpower was not shared by the rank and file of the canadian labor movement. on the contrary, most workers and farmers, including those in the west, wholeheartedly supported the war effort. nevertheless, some militant workers viewed the military draft as anti-democratic, especially since radical leaders complained that workers' applications for exemptions were routinely rejected. the most notable incidents of labor opposition to the war effort occurred in the west. for instance, the british columbia federation of labor assumed the function of political party and issued a manifesto calling for the repeal of the msa and the abolition of the capitalist system which it believed to be at the root of all wars. it was the winnipeg trades and labor council, however, that took the lead in opposing both registration and conscription and continued to press for a general strike even after their national congress had decided otherwise. when the tlc convention endorsed the execu- tive recommendation that the congress not oppose the implementation of conscription, the western delegates remained openly defiant. at times western radicals protested violently. l and, as in quebec, some workers fled into the woods to avoid induction, thus giving birth to "rag-tag colonies" of draft resisters on indian reservations in southeastern manitoba, on british columbia's lower mainland and on vancouver island. in august the western radical movement became outraged when one of these resisters, the socialist leader of the miners' union named ginger goodwin, was killed by a do .. . ff· mlnlon po lce lcer. overall, labor opposition to conscription was based on the fear that it would result in industrial conscription, government con- trol of workers in specific industries, and thereby the destruction of collective bargaining and trade unionism itself. despite these larger concerns, however, the radical labor anti-war position ii certainly had a doctrinal dimension ll and remained sympathetic to ·f· pac, , sm. labor's insistent demand for the conscription of wealth before men was echoed by farmers and was officially endorsed by the united farmers of ontario. in effect, conscription became the catalyst in mounting agricultural grievances over urbanization, rural depopulation and the accompanying shortage of farm laborers. confronted with the msa, farmers demanded exemptions for their sons in order to keep them on the farms; especially since farm work was considered essential in the war effort. with the election on the horizon, the govern- ment temporarily agreed to their request, but in april cancelled all special exemptions except for conscientious objectors. about five thousand ontario farmers, feeling angry and betrayed, marched on ottawa on may , , to voice their disp easure. despite their opposition to conscription, however, most farmers strongly supported the war effort and denounced implications that they were in any way unpatriotic. this sensitivity was clearly reflected in the following message sponsored by the citizens union committee prior to the election: the man is a slanderer who says that the farmers of ontario will vote with bourassa, pro-germans, suppressors of free speech and sl ackers. never they will support union government. western farmers were no less committed and, contrary to their eastern counterparts, they quietly accepted the cancellation of ex- emptions as linevitable." those who did protest usually did so on the grounds that "conscription of farmers would reduce the canadian contribution to the allied cause." it appears that initial western opposition to the msa was not so much anti-war as it was against the uneven enforcement of conscription. eventually their overall support for the war effort overcame their reluctance to accept conscription · . t' . t as a ml ary necessl y. despite some initial anti-conscription sentiment, the main- stream of canada's church, labor and farm communities accepted conscription, as well as the whole war effort, as compatible with their broad goals of social reform. within their ranks, however, there remained a small minority of radical pacifists critical of the war. the introduction of conscription further intensified their pacifist inclinations. as with the protests of radical labor, the center of this pacifist activity was winnipeg, the home of such notable radicals as j. s. woodsworth, william ivens, f. j. dixon, a. vernon thomas and francis r· arion beynon. these western reformers challenged the gosepl of wealth and materialism with a philosophy of social reform based upon the social and ethical spirit of christianity as well as socialism. f. j. dixon, a sinqle taxer and organizer of the direct legislation league of manitboa, was one of these reformers committed to gradual peaceful change and a pacifist during the war. as early as the naval debate, for instance, dixon wrote prime minister sir robert borden protesting strenuously against the growing spirit of militarism in canada. he asked borden to pause and consider if it was wise to ii ••• in any v/ay assist in drawing canada into the maelstrom of militarism which is the curse of europe at the present time. i liyou may ignore this letter or you may not, i he concluded, iibut i do hope that you will receive a large number of letters from the peace advocates in canada. i during the war years dixon was denied a hearing on many plat- forms and became a prime target of public abuse when he aired his pacifist anti-war views. an independent member of the manitoba legislature since , dixon was almost the only member of the house to speak out strongly against the war. in a particularly stormy session dixon denounced the proposed national registration scheme as the first step towards conscription and declared he would not sign the card. when premier t. c. norris proposed that those who opposed the scheme should be put in jail, dixon responded: any tyrant would allow the expression of opinion with which he agreed. but freedom demanded the right of expression for minorities. the way to meet a weak argument was to refute it, not to imprison the upholders of it. dixon's remarks were interrupted with cries of "traitor lj and "throw him in jail" and resulted in a movement to impeach him. it,as well as a recall campaign,failed and dixon continued to blast away at con- scription, maintaining it was absurd and morally wrong to force a man to place his life at the disposal of the state. once the winnipeg trades and labor council declared its unyielding opposition to conscription and called for a national referendum on the issue, dixon and other prominent socialists and labor leaders organized the anti-conscription league. its purpose was to circulate petitions, publicize their vie\'/s and hold meetings to rally anti-war support. sometimes these league meetings were broken up by the returned soldiers ' association and their supporters and at one gathering dixon and other speakers were mobbed. l one of the casualties of the anti-war campaign was the winnipeg reformer and journalist, a. vernon thomas. thomas was attractedto the free press from the manchester guardian and became involved in winnipeg reform circles soon after his arrival. in time the journalist became good friends with j. s. woodsworth and one of his main allies in the establishment of the people's forum. thomas' wife, lillian beynon, was a leading winnipeg reformer and suffragist and also a journalist, as was her sister francis marion beynon. all three d· . f . t f . . t d t h were ra lca pacl ls s. or a journa st emons rate suc views publicly, however was dangerous and thomas was quickly fired from his job at the free press after he walked onto the floor of the legislature to congratulate f. j. dixon on one of his anti-war speeches. shortly afterward the thomases, bitterly disappointed, left the country and spent the duration of the war in new york. writing to woodsworth from his self-imposed exile, thomas confessed that the sacrifice in their "little attempt at freedomll seemed contempti b e compa red to the persona vi gil of v/oodsworth and other pacifists in canada. iiso far we have been comfortable," he reported, "and i have in fact had a larger salary than i had in winnipeg. but we have felt very much being cut off from our friends and then our position has been and still is one of uncertainty. i thomas found most of his office colleagues fairly tolerant of his pacifist views but never felt secure in his new job due to continual pressul~e by i berty loan campaigns. ii i may get it put up to me very unpleasantly before the campaign is over, i he wrote, ", . however, i shall stand to my guns and take whatever comes along. i although thomas continued to contribute anti-war articles to winnipeg's labor paper, the voice, he often wondered if he could not make a greater protest. "i don't think the pacifist note of my articles can be mistaken," he wrote. "but it ends there and my position is simply that i am not extolling the war in my daily work, which is a great satisfaction." on the other hand~ thomas maintained there would be plenty to do once the war was over and "immediate fear is removed from the hearts of the people." he looked forward to the day when he could return to canada and join woodsworth in the work i f absolutely challenging the present constitution of society and its ideals. i confident the future would be with them he cautioned: frankly, until then i do not see what we can do. the only thing, as i see it, would be to ensure ourselves a speedy removal to prison, and we may get there anyway before this horror is over. thomas had considered the possibility of prison seriously and decided he would certainly go to prison rather than enlist if called up; a distinct possibility since he was in the last class but one in canada. but to do more active propaganda work would also mean prison and he did not feel he had the reserve of physical strength necessary for such a vigil. despite his attempt to remain optimistic about the post-war era, thoma~ became depressed over the increasing toll the war was taking in canadian society. the evil fruits of war, he warned, were growing every day: we cannot think the war out of existence. people are not what they were. their minds have become militarized and we shall have to deal with people of that kind. the workers have not been spared. a good deal of the labor movement is now war. it is all a tragedy and we can only make the best of it. thomas' sister-in-law, francis marion beynon, stayed behind for a time .in winnipeg as the editor of the women's page of the grain growers' guide and carried on the anti-war struggle. social discontent was on the rise in wartime winnipeg and francis beynon exemplifies the transition of pre-war liberal into radical. like most liberals before , beynon subscribed to the usual anti-militarist, pacifist sentiments. but as ramsay cook has explained, the war raised serious questions about fundamental liberal intellectual assumptions, exposing . f "th " a na ve a n mora progress. although she believed women had a greater interest in social and ethical questions than men, beynon questioned the validity of feminist comments on the pacifist influence of women. in a short time her growing skeptism seemed justified by the thorough involvement of women in various war activities and the intolerant, conformist attitude associated with their patriotism. beynon's conviction mounted that there was something radically wrong with the whole social order that demanded correction. patriotism and nationalism merely defended the established order, she argued, while its intolerant, militaristic spirit was the same spirit that crucified christ and continued to threaten those preaching his pacifist doctrine. the super-patriotic atmosphere of the country strengthened beynon's individualism as well as her radical commitment to pacifism and social reconstruction. initially, however, the popular association of dissent with subversion cautioned bynon to restrain her pacifist sentiments in favor of safer demands like the conscription of wealth as well as men. but unlike those who associated this proposal with some form of graduated income tax, beynon made it clear she favored the actual iitaking over by government of all real property.u as she became more outspoken she also echoed the familiar charge that the most fervent patriots were those getting rich from iisweated labor and war profiteering. i such regular anti-war statements and the whole radical tone of her column, she suspected, had aroused the wrath of the press censor and ultimately placed her at odds with her editor, george f. chipman, who had moved towards support of conscrip- tion and union government. consequently, rather than restrain her pacifist and radical beliefs, beynon resigned in the summer of and joined the thomases in exile. francis beynon became convinced that the war was the result of capitalist, economic conflicts and a militant mentality and that it would create more problems than it would solve. like other radical pacifists, for example, she feared that wartime mobilization was causing canadian society to become increasingly insensitive to social injustices. . the only way to solve world problems and prevent future military conflicts, she asserted, was through a social and intellectual revolution. previously social reformers had legitimated their campaigns by appealing to the rationality of man and the theology of liberal protestantism but it now appeared the progressive social gospel lacked the intellectual depth required to support a major move- ment of social and moral reconstruction. what was necessary, according to the radicals, was a synthesis of the moral and ethical aspects of christianity with an intelligent, dynamic philosophy for radical change. the radicalized social gospel was partly an attempt in the direction. according to historian richard allen, by the social gospel began to crystalize into three wings: conservative, progressive and radical, each conflicting with the other throughout the following decade. at the same time, however, there was a general leftward movement of the social gospel as a whole, reflected in increased radicalism during the war years. l the majority of social gospellers found reform -- and some radical reform -- quite in harmony with the war effort. nevertheless, a committed minority, including some leading radicals, separated from the mainstream of the social gospel over the issue of pacifism. by taking the pacifist stand they believed they were remaining faithful to pre-war social gospel pronouncements on the necessity of world peace for the coming of the kingdom. among these dissidents was c. s. eby, one of the earliest proponents of the social gospel who continued to voice anti-war sentiments while calling for a "great spiritual revolution" based upon the sermon on the mount or the "charter of the kingdom. ii unless such a change occurred, he believed the war would be but a prelude to still greater struggles. lithe obscene vermi!" of vice, degeneracy and more war, that will rise out of this war, as they always rise out of every war, i warned eby, iican be met ... only by the positive creative spirit of ch~ist. i v the newer breed of radicals in the church generally agreed with eby's diagnosis, but when they sought to put their pacifist preaching into practice a crisis resulted in which some either lost their charges or left the ministry entirely. the latter was the case of j. s. woodsworth, a radical methodist reformer who ultimately became canada's most famous pacifist. representative of the pacifist strain in the social gospel, woodsworth favored the practical extension of the gospel of love during wartime, both as an ideal and a method of reform. his pacifism was an integral part of his larger concern for social justice based upon the ethical demands of christianity. according to his biographer, kenneth mcnaught, woodsworth represented a complex mixture of the moral doctrine of religious pacifism with the pragmatic arguments of socialism. he and other radicals suspected that the established social order was based on the same ethic of force which produced war; consequently they united their opposition to the war with a call for social reconstruction. woods~orth's pacifist convictions evolved slowly. his student life at oxford and the boer war started him thinking along new lines but he still accepted lithe existing order of things. i then gradually, as he examined the cruelty of war and its disastrous effect upon private and public morality, his pacifist sympathies grew stronger and were reflected in his speeches and writing. as chairman of the canadian welfare league in , woodsworth compiled studies in rural citizenship, a book authorized as the basis for adult study courses by the canadian council of agriculture. in it he suggested a number of controversial resolutions for debate, including the following: "resolved that cormnercial interests are at bottom of modern wars" and "ls war justified by the teachings of jesus?" the book also contained a pacifist statement by nellie mcclung and salem bland's proposal for the moral transformation of canadian politics. the outbreak of war began a time of "heart searching" for woodsworth. he later recalled attending a sunday night service in st. james methodist church, montreal, in which a military man reviewed the atrocities in belgium while the president of mcgill university made a patriotic appeal to youth; then the pastor of the church in approved evangelistic style appealed for recruits, urging that the young men give their name to sergeants in uniform stationed at the door. this in the name of jesus! the whole perfor- mance seemed to me absolute sacrilege. i walked the streets all night. throughout the following year woodsworth corresponded with numerous pacifists and became increasingly adamant in his own pacifist convic- tions. by june he was labelled a pacifist by the manitoba press following an address to the young men's club of winnipeg's grace church in which he expressed doubt that moral issues could be settled by military force. it was not until conscription became the issue of the day, however, that woodsworth made a public pronouncement. in the meantime he was deeply absorbed in social welfare work. his pioneering work with winnipeg's all peoples' mission and his work with the canadian welfare league earned woodsworth the repu- tation of a canadian authority in the field of social welfare. in he was appointed director of the bureau of social research, an agency established by the three prairie governments. it promised to be an eventful enterprise but within a year the bureau was closed following woodsworth's protest against the introduction by the federal government of a national registration scheme. woodsworth decided the time had come to take a public stand and in a letter to the manitoba free press condemned national registration as a prelude to conscription: this registration is no mere census. it seems to look in the direction of a measure of conscription. as some of us cannot conscientiously engage in military service, we are bound to resist what -- if the war conti nues -- will i nevi tab ly ead to forced servi ce. he also raised the labor-socialist argument that "conscription of material possessions should in all justice precede an attempt to force men to risk their lives and the welfare of their families.,, vjoods- worth later recalled that, following the closing of the bureau, he was bitterly denounced as a fool, even by his closest associates. although woodsworth's action coincided with the protests of organized labor, it appears evident, as richard allen maintains, that woodsworth's dismissal was due to his pacifism rather than to his social and economic radicalism. the three provincial governments were aware of his radical political outlook before appointing him but his pacifism represented an "unkno\'jn potential" in the context of talk in labor circles of passive resistance to the registration scheme. l at any rate, considering the patriotic feeling within the country, the prairie provinces were in no mood to endorse a pacifist. after his dismissal woodsworth for a time contemplated joining aooukhoborcomrnunity and even made active inquiries in that direction. the doukhobors were sympathetic but wondered if woods- worth could really adapt to their ways. perhaps woodsworth agreed, for he finally accepted another charge in gibson s landing, british columbia, a small coastal mission. his outspoken pacifist views, however, were no more welcome in british columbia than in manitoba and the following year the british columbia stationing committee complied with a request by the congregation that he be removed. in response, j. s. woodsworth resigned from the ministry and for the remainder of the war he worked as a longshoreman on the west coast while his wife lucy organized the vancouver chapter of the womens l international league for peace and freedom. among the reasons for his resignation, woodsworth emphasized that the war eolicy of the church and the issue of pacifism were of central importance. although there was little opportunity to protest against participation in the war at first, he confided, "as the war progressed, i have protested against the curtailment of our liberties which is going on under the pressure of military necessity and the passions of war." woodsworth's letter of resignation, even more than beynon's protest, revealed a new socially radical pacifism -- a synthesis of absolute christian social ethics with a radical political critique -- that was to become more common in the twentieth century. for instance, he claimed war was the "inevitable outcome of the existing social organization with its undemocratic form of government and competitive system of industry." a murder in serbia or the invasion of belgium was not the cause of the war, he argued, and to claim they were was a product of "ignorance or a closed mind, or camouflage, or hypocrisy. i woodsworth warned that, rather than solve any problems, the war would have a brutal i zi ng effect upon soci ety. lithe devil of mi itari sm cannot be driven out by the power of militarism," he wrote, "without successful nations themselves becoming militarized. permament peace can only come through the development of good-wi . ,, above all, however, woodsworth emphasized the christian point of view that the spirit and teachings of jesus were "absolutely irreconcilable with the advocacy of war." "christianity may be an impossible id~alism," he declared, "but so long as i hold to it, ever so unworthily, i must refuse, as far as may be, to participate in or to influence others to participate in war." he explained: when the policy of the state -- whether that state be nominally christian or not -- conflicts with my concep- tion of right and wrong, then i must obey god rather than man. as a minister i must proclaim the truth as it is revealed to me. i am not a pro-gerw~n; i am not lacking, i think in patriotism; i trust that i am not a slacker or a coward. i had thought that as a christian minister i was a messenger of the prince of peace. v in closing his letter, woodsworth criticized church leaders for their intolerant and militaristic attitude; they denounced pacifism as a vice, tempered love with hatred and turned churches into recruiting agencies. "a minister's success seems to be judged by the number of recruits in hi s church, ii he qui pped, ii rather than the number of con- verts." to support his accusations, woodsworth quoted the christian guardi an is editori al si encing all paci fi sts in the church. "apparent y the church feels that i do not be ng," he lamented, "and reluctantly i have been forced to the same conc usions." woodsworth's brand of pacifism was also shared by william ivens, pastor of mcdougall methodist church, winnipeg. a british immigrant and former student of salem bland at wesley college, ivens was already a radical social gospeller in but had shown no sign of pacifist conviction. he had come to mcdougall with the hope of establishing a labor-oriented church. his increased radicalism after the introduction of conscription paralleled that of organized labor with whom he sympathized. rather than his radicalism, however, it was his pacifism that led to his crisis in the church. although he refrained from voicing pacifist views from the pulpit, ivens felt free to express himself on the outside. consequently, he contributed several anti-war articles to the voice and became involved in trade union activities. iven's actions split his congrega- tion and in the spring of church officials made an urgent appeal to the manitoba stationing committee for his removal. rather than be intimidated, however, ivens immediately embarked on a speaking tour of the prairies. vernon thomas wrote woodsworth that ivens' tour of western canada was greatly encouraging, demonstrating that it was possible for one with his reputation to speak publicly. thomas praised ivens for fighting a tremendous fight and "winning his way into the hearts of people. i l iii am sure, i he wrote, "a great many must admire him in their hearts who dare not speak out. we must not forget that there is a tremendous intimidating force at work now in all countries to crucify any opinions except those of the powers that be. despite numerous letters and petitions supporting ivens, the methodist stationing committee removed him from mcdougall and yet offered him a different station in winnipeg. ivens declined the offer, claiming his pacifist views would only cause more difficulties, and assumed the editorship of the western labor news, the official organ of the winnipeg trades and labor council. the most visible example of ivens' radicalism, however, was his labor church founded in july, , as a creedless church aimed at the li es tablishment of justice and righteousness on earth, among all men and nations. u linking ethical christianity and social radicalism, the church was also a protest against war, as j. s. woodsworth, shortly to be associated with ivens' new enterprise, ater commented: we believe that physical force settles nothing ... what is won by physical force must be maintained by physical force. physical force is a deceptive short- cut. ii mora ends can be attai ned only by ii mora means ••. education, then, not the sword, is to be the instrument of our emancipation. a new pacifist ethic clearly emerged as woodsworth, ivens and other social radicals voiced their opposition to conscription and to the war. by linking war and capitalism, they combined socialist anti-war critique with the radical christian belief in the moral necessity of pacifism in any meaningful social revolution. thus, they staunchly opposed the existing social order, the state's war effort in particular, and, as a result, pacifist ministers lost their churches while others were forced from their jobs. in the end, however, the war resistance of a small number of social radicals strengthened not only the principle of minority dissent but the idea of a socially radical pacifism as well. ./ despite the protests of social gospel radicals, the most ardent pacifist opposition to conscription was exhibited by the historic peace sects, especially the society of friends which, by this time, had come to represent radical social change as well as traditional religious non-resistance. as early as may a joint committee respresenting all three branches of canadian friends met in toronto to outline quaker resistance to an anticipated conscription bill. an executive sub-committee composed of albert s. rogers, charles a. zavitz and george clark, representing each of the three branches, forwarded a resolution to prime minister borden in which they reaffirmed the two and one-half century old opposition of friends to bearing arms and requested that the exemptions allowed under the old militia act be continued in any new measure. furthermore t reflecting a radical concern with individual rights of conscience t the quakers urged that the new exemption clause should be broadened to include not only recognized pacifist sects but all those iiwhose conscience forbade them to carry arms regardless of their membership in any particular church or soci ety. ii once the conscription bill became law t albert s. rogers interpreted the military service act to all members of the peace committee t explaining the division of classes and list of possible exemptions. friends of military age were advised to report to the proper authority in plenty of time to process their applications for exemption and then be prepared to appear before the local tribunal to explain their claims and present the certificates of membership issued by the clerk of their monthly meeting. the certificate forms were devised by the peace committee and distributed to the clerks of the.various monthly meetings in order to help organize f · d . fl' r en s a ong un orm nes. as the defenders of their faith the young men in question received enthusiastic support from their fellow quakers. for example t the genesee yearly meeting sent the following letter to all members of military age: as we have gathered together in our yearly meeting, our hearts have been drawn towards you in loving sympathy, praying that you may be continually and renewedly conscious of the divine guidance, in what- ever field of service you may be led. it was expected, however, that young friends would claim exemption as absolute pacifists and when a few enlisted or, as leroy cody, joined the non-combatant military corps, they were highly criticized. one of elias rogers' sons actually joined the royal flying corps and was killed in action in june . a few other canadians, including albert rogers' nephew david and edwin zavitz joined the friends ambulance unit in italy and france respectively, an acceptable though still unfamiliar alternative for active pacifist service. just as most young quakers conscientiously refused to bear arms, many older friends were conscientiously unable to subscribe to war loans since they believed such money was used solely for the destructive purposes of war. they contributed instead to the friends' ambulance unit fund in order to suppport c.o.s in constructive . servlce. at first, the majority of quakers, as well as mennonites and hutterites, found it less complicated to receive exemptions from military serivce as farmers rather than as pacifists, especially since the military service act was somewhat ambiguous on the question of religious objectors. contrary to the militia act or the order-in- council providing pacifist exemptions, the msa failed to name the pacifist sects specifically while it included them in general under either an exemption clause, offering exemption from combatant service only, or an exception schedule, excepting some from the act altogether. the grounds of exemption for conscientious objectors were that he conscientiously objects to the undertaking of combatant service and is prohibited from so doing by the tenets and articles of faith, in effect on the sixth day of july, , of any organized religious denomination existing and well recognized in canada at such date, and to which he in good faith belongs. on the other hand, the exception schedule applied to those men holding a certificate of exemption, on grounds other than conscientious objection, and to those persons exempted from military seryice by order-in-council of august th, and by order-in-council of december th, . it appeared that except for the mennonites and doukhobors v referred to in the above mentioned orders-in-council, canadian religious pacifists were to be exempted only from combatant service unless they could receive exemption on one of the other possible grounds: work in the national interest, education postponement, serious personal hardship, and ill health or infirmity. as farmers, therefore, it was possible for religious pacifists to receive exemptions from all service, even non-combatant work. other pacifists, even less protected by the act, undoubtedly perceived that loophole as well. as an escape from military service, however, it was by no means simply a pacifist device, for ninety-five per cent of all those called up across canada in october claimed exemption for one reason or another. faced with such wholesale evasion, the govern- ment, in april , cancelled all exemptions except those for conscientious objectors. various religious groups remained uneasy over the lack of any specific guarantees and some, such as the seventh day adventists and christadelphians, petitioned the house of commons with respect to their opposition to military service. their worst fears were realized when the ontario registrar wrongly ruled that tunkers, fellow religious pacifists, were not exempted; thereby exposing tunker men to military discipline for remaining faithful to their beliefs. one such case involved ernest j. swa m, later a canadian tunker bishop. after being denied exemption as a tunker or as a farmer, swa m refused military duty and was sentenced to two years hard labor. within a month, he was released and the tunker church was recognized; never- theless, other pacifist groups feared similar experiences. finally, the central appeal judge, in an effort to help clarify a confusing situation, ruled that mennonites, dunkards or tunkers, christade phians, seventh day adventists and the society of friends all qualified as bona fide pacifist sects eligible for exemptions. as far as the mennonites were concerned, however, their legal status under the msa remained inconsistent and confused until the end of the war. at first a temporary problem arose concerning the proper identification of young men as mennonites since their official baptism did not occur until around age . the issue was settled when government authorities accepted the argument of the mennonite church that unbaptized children were as much mennonites as baptized adults and that their earlier petitions for exemption from military service had always intended that to be the case. l the main point of contention for mennonites involved the interpretation of the provisions for exemptions and exception. all the mennonites of western canada, those who immigrated in as well as those who mi grated from ontario, were excepted from the msa whi e '/ the mennonites of ontario were exempted from combatant service only. at times it appeared that all canadian mennonites would be excepted, at least this was the attitude the justice department conveyed to a mennonite delegation headed by bishop s. f. coffman in november . yet in ontario district registrars continued to insist that eastern mennonites were exempt only from combatant service. their judgement was upheld by the central appeal judge five weeks before the war ended. in practice, however, ontario mennonites escaped all service when granted a iileave of absence, i a special procedure arranged by bishop coffma~ in conjunction with friends in the house of commons. the "leave of absence ll became automatic with proper mennonite identifica- tion and allowed tribunals to avoid the question of exemption and t " excep n. one of the reasons for the reluctance of administrators to grant a blanket exception to mennonites was the public concern over the influx into canada of mennonite and hutterite conscientious objectors from the united states. once the united states entered the war and enacted compulsory military service, war hysteria swept that country, creating an oppressive, intolerant atmosphere for pacifists, especially those of german ancestry. contrary to the situation in canada, religious objectors in the u.s. faced the real possibility of military induction, maltreatment and prison terms. added to this, the germanophobia of the midwest and the vicious harrassment of hutterite communities in south dakota produced a crisis for mennonites and hutterites in the u.s. glowing reports from their canadian brethren of the tolerance and freedom of religious practice extended by the canadian government resulted in a mass emigration to canada that increased as the war progressed. while some hutterite communities resettled ~ masse, most mennonite youths emigrated alone. with the encouragement of their families, they slipped across the border in underground fashion throughout the war years. in alone, approximately - mennonites and , hutterites entered canada according to the hon. j. a. calder, minister of immigration. the exaggerated figures of , to , quoted in the press and the house~f commons, however, reflected a growing nativist reaction against germans, shirkers, and "slackerism" in the canadian west. westerners, particularly, resented the ease with which pacifists received exemptions from military service. they argued that, while their own sons were away in the military, the new settlers or "dirty shirkers" were acquiring the most desirable farm land. singled out as "one-man exemption tribunals," mennonite ministers such as bishop david toews were accused of signing exemption certificates indiscrimin- l~ ately regardless of the bearer's citizenship. political organiza- tions, major protestant denominations and veterans groups, such as the great war veterans association, all denounced the mennonites. the great war next-of-kin association even suggested they be drafted and anglicized. during the autumn of , the mounting public hostility erupted in demonstrations against the new mennonites at swift current, moose jaw and regina. in october , shortly before the end of the war, the governor-genera -in-council ruled that immigrant mennonites and their descendants not covered by the order-in~ council would neither be exempted nor excepted from military service. although canadian mennonites were at first ill prepared in terms of organization and structure to cope with government bureaucracy and adverse public opinion, they began to pull together during the war in order to secure their common pacifist goal. the various groups of mennonites also began to unite in an attempt to undertake some active, constructive, humanitarian service during wartime. early in the western mennonites made financial contributions to the canadian patrjotic fund for the support of war victims, invalids, widows and orphans. the next year the various factions of ontario mennonites and tunkers joined together to form the "non-resistant relief organization ll through which funds were collected for relief and charitable purposes. the crises of war and threatened liberties produced among canadian mennonites a new awareness of themselves, their unique position within canadian society and their possible future role in non-violent constructive action in this world. the lessons they learned in the first war eased considerably their adjustment to the second. from mennonites to quakers, regardless of their perceived roles within society, the historic peace sects were largely responsible for exercising the ultimate in pacifist dissent -- the steadfast refusal on the part of individuals to undertake military service for reasons of conscience. the question of pacifism in twentieth century canada was purely academic until young men were directly challenged by con- scription; thereafter it was in the personal response of pacifists to conscription that pacifism left its mark upon canada during the great war. the actual process of applying for conscientious objector status was relatively simple, even though the climate of public opinion hindered the chances of success. the religious pacifist would report to the authorities, claim exemption as a conscientious objector and then report to his local tribunal to present his case and prove his membership in a recognized pacifist denomination. the military service act provided for three tribunals: local tribunals, appeal tribunals and a central appeal judge. each local tribunal was composed of two members, one appointed by a board of selection and the other a county court or district court judge. the chief justice of the court of last resort in each province acted as the appeal tribunal while the central appeal judge was one of the justices of the supreme court of canada. the local tribunals, of course, were the most important in determining a young man's status as a conscientious objector. the attitude of local tribunals varied from one locality to the next but over all, in canada as in britain, they represented the patriotic elements of society and tended to look askance at claims for conscientious objections. they and the majority of canadians were not well acquainted with religious pacifism and neither understood nor trusted the variety of claimants. it was much easier for a young man to receive an exemption for occupational reasons such as farm work. whatever the reasons, however, ultimately half of the men registered under the msa, were granted exemptions. an exemption for a religious pacifist depended most upon the religious denomination to which he belonged. if he did not claim membership in a denomination recognized by authorities as a legitimate pacifist sect, and yet persisted in his pacifist stand, the claimant faced military discipline and possible imprisonment. at first the government did not know quite what to do with conscientious objectors. since the religious groups qualifying for exemptions were not specifically named in the m.s.a., registrars depended on rulings by the central appeal judge in determining the legitimacy of certain claims. initially those individuals who did not belong to one of the required religious affiliations and those whose exemp.tions were refused, were tried by district courts martial and punished by im- prisonments of up to two years. while some military districts reported that a short period of detention produced a "complete cu~e" and discouraged further conscientious objections, the military district headquarters in toronto argued that such sentences failed to provide a sufficient deterrent to conscientious objections and claimed that many men preferred "a short sentence of imprisonment at the burwash industrial farm to military duty.,, consequently, conmanding officers of units receiving c.o.s were ordered to determine the sincerity of a man's conscientious objections. under this system, if a pacifist's objections were recognised as bona fide he was transferred to a non-combatant unit, but if it was decided he was insecure or if he refused non-combatant duty he was given a general court-martial resulting in sentences from five years' imprisonment to life. according to a memorandum issued by the office of the judge advocate general in october , the imposition of longer sentences proved livery effective" in discouraging claims as c.o.s. of approximat~ly alleged c.o.s punished, only around cases involved a general court-martial. following a clumsy beginning, the justice department and the department of militia and defense settled in with its task of enforcing the msa and handling the problerrl of conscientious objectors refusing non-combatant service. although their prime con- cern remained always to discourage conscientious objections, military and government authorities began to take a more tolerant and imagina- tive attitude. by the summer of the chief of the general staff suggested several possible courses of action regarding the absolute pacifists. the first option, just to continue sending them to ordinary jails and penitentiaries, raised the most serious objections since it was recognized that the men were not, "properly speaking, criminals, and to punish them adequately in this way may arouse public criticism." the idea of congregating the c.o.s in one place of detention, on the other hand, was offset by the loss of their possible services to the community. finally, serious consideration was given to the idea of organizing a forestry unit in british columbia, especially since labor was needed in getting out the white spruce timber for airplane manufacturing. also, it seemed to offer the possibility of construc- tive service for c.o.s who "would otherwise spend their time uselessly in the penitentiary. i another suggestion involved the use of c.o.s in non-combatant duty as cooks in the naval service. the deputy minister of militia and defense had no objections to this idea but doubted if any imprisoned c.o.s would agree.. although the war ended before any of these plans formalized, the idea of a forestry unit was reintroduced during the second war. government and military authorities were beseiged with requests and petitions regarding specific problem cases from a wide variety of religious groups including quakers, doukhobors, and moravians plus some unusual sects such as the "holiness movement church" and the "community of the son of god." the unitas fratum or united brethren in alberta claimed that they were excepted from all military service by virtue of statute , george nd, chapter , but the director of military service disagreed and maintained that a man's status in regard to military service was determined by the legislation of the dominion only and not liancient imperial statutes. i a different sort of problem arose concerning c.o.s performing non-combatant service. canadian seventh day adventists argued that, although they were willing to serve in any non-combatant capacity, that outlet might be closed if they were forced to perform drills and unnecessary labor on their sabbath. it was a difficulty the authorities had not foreseen but remedied quickly when the adjutant general ordered all military districts to relieve all seventh day adventists from duty on saturdays. a different and more difficult question of the status of young pacifist members from churches supporting the war was raised by the reverend fred f. prior, pastor of the free methodist church, st. boswells, saskatchewan. he claimed that a c.o. in his church was lian intelligent, consistent-living young man, objecting a hundred times more intelli- gent y, and wi.th far rna re consc i ence in the rna tter, than many members of exempted churches. i it was a tragedy, the pastor concluded that this young man and others like him were forced into either the iicategory of criminals" or into what was to them "treason against jesus christ. i this dilemma could have been avoided if the quakers' radical suggestion that individual conscience rather than religious affiliation had been adopted as the basis of exemption. but as it stood, the msa made no provision for c.o.s within the established churches or for individual belief. the central appeal judge further limited the possibilities of conscientious objection when he ruled in that the church of christ or disciples, pentecostal assemblies, plymouth brethren and the international bible students association failed to meet the necessary qualifications for conscientious objections. restricting the numbers of conscientious exemptions was clearly in harmony with the mood of the country. while some communica- tions to authorities complained against eve~ quakers being exempted or let out of prison, most private citizens were more general and directed their venom against all "slackers." on the part of a few people it became an obsession, as in the following letter to the commanding officer of the military district of montreal: i have reason to say i am positive that many young men which are fit for service to the country will try to elude undercover of night from military serive, as the majority of them are called night birds. they are never seen in the day-time, but if you will take my advice and give me a special commission i will do everything to bring these slackers to serve the country. this ·reference to "night birds" undoubtedly included french canadian resisters as well, since very few men claimed c.o. status in quebec. most religious exemptions were granted by tribunals in the districts of london and toronto, ontario, and in western canada. out of such exemptions granted between february and march , were from regina alone but very few, if any, were from quebec or the maritimes. in a confidential report prepared in december , the military district of montreal estimated that it encountered no more than twelve conscientious objectors during the war and of these ------- the majority were international bible students or jehovah s witnesses. as early as several of these international bible students applied for conscientious exemptions by submitting prepared affidavit forms in which they claimed they were obligated by conscience to iilfollow peace with all men i and to do violence or injury to none. i l the commanding officer of the district, at first perplexed by the sudden appearance of form letters all properly notarized by a justice of the peace, remarked angrily that he would like to ii ... take damn good care that everyone of these fellows would be enlisted. i following a brief inquiry he discovered the men were advised by j. f. rutherford, editor of the watch tower magazine, to complete the forms, legal proof of their membership and beliefs as bible students, as .protection from conscription. rutherford must have been unaware that the central appeal judge supported the government s contention that the international bible students association was not an liorganized religious denomination ll as required in the msa. if bible students could not obtain a different form of exempt~on, therefore, they had to serve when conscripted or suffer the consequences. although there were members of other denominations in the same position, as a group, jehovah s witnesses proved to be the most radical and stubborn in their passive resistance and therefore experienced the worst treatment accorded canadian con- scientious objectors in world war one and later in world war two. the most scandalous mistreatment of c.o.s occurred during the winter of - at the minto street barracks, winnipeg, where, it was alleged, conscientious objectors were tortured into accepting authority. while serving a sentence of three days confinement in the barracks for refusing to obey a lawful command, two bible students, robert clegg and frank naish and a pentecostal, charles matheson, were forcibly undressed and held under ice cold showers until they either accepted military authority or co apsed. matheson broke down after several hours' resistance and agreed to obey orders. later in his testimony to a court of inquiry, he described his encounter with provost sergeant simpson: ... it was very cold, and as i stood under it, it got colder, till it became icy cold. my whole body began to heave ... when i would stand with my back to it, he would make me turn around and face it, and make me turn my face up to it. i was shading my face with my hand . . . he made me take my hand down . . . i was beginning to get dazed, and i was tumbling around .. he asked me, "will you give in now?" i said no. he put me in again ... this went on three or four times .... he said "we will either break you or break your heart" .•. i was put into my undershirt and things, and i was dragged away. my body was wet, my hair was wet, i was taken up to the guard room and put in thire .... the firm resistance of clegg and naish to such punishment ended with naish in a state of nervous collapse and clegg, reportedly unconscious, admitted to hospital. in a sworn affidavit published in winnipeg newspapers, clegg charged that he was stripped of his clothes and " ••. subjected to a violent treatment of ice-cold water, which was from time to time directed at my neck, shoulders, spine, kidneys, forehead, chest. i clegg then claimed he was violently lashed dry before being subjected to a second cold shower treatment. i was in a semi-conscious state during the greater period of the second treatment, and when taken out, i was seated upon a cold stone slab, which caused me to lose control of myself and became absolutely incap- able of any control of my limbs or muscles ... while still wet and in a condition of complete nervous prostration, and helplessness, i was dressed ... dragged on the concrete floor, upstairs, through the drill hall, to the place of detention .... sub- sequently, while unconscious, i was removed to st. boniface hospital. although the military authorities claimed the affair was greatly exaggerated, the c.o. allegations were supported by several witnesses including a statement by private paul e. case, a member of the depot battalion. writing on behalf of fellow soldiers, case sub- stantiated the r~port of cold showers and harsh treatment and reported that the soldiers of the barracks were ii ... highly incensed over such cruel treatment and have questioned if even germany can beat it. i "we, as men," case affirmed, iiregret there are those so debased who would tolerate such treatment on human beings when it would be unlawful to mete out such treatment even to a dog. i f. j. dixon, the voice of radical anti-war protest, raised the matter in the manitoba legislature and demanded an immediate investigation from authorities. in a letter to t. a. crerar, federal minister of agriculture, dixon maintained there was no doubt about thefacts of the case and suggested the minister of militia and defense, major-general s. c. mewburn, issue a general order regarding the treatment of conscientious objectors. lithe day of torture should be past," argued dixon. "if there is no other way of dealing with these men, it would be more humane to shoot them at once than to sub- mit them to torture which endangers their reason. i the manitoba free press was also aroused by the incident and, in an editorial entitled iistop it!li, declared that the canadian people would iisimply not stand this sort of thing. i convinced there was conclusive evidence of iihazingli and iiphysical coercion, i similar to the british experience, the free press warned against the repeti- tion in canada of the livery serious mistakes made across the water. i lilt is idle to pretend, i the editor concluded, iithat, in cases like this, the hazing is the result of spontaneous indignation by the companions of the recalcitrant; these things happen because some one in authority is des i rous that they sha happen. ii joining in the protest, the roaring river branch of the manitoba grain gowers' association drafted a resolution condemning the mistreatment of conscientious objectors at the minto street barracks as iigennan frightfulness methods. i the public outcry reached all leading government officials, including prime minister b d h f d . d' t' t' t' or en w avore an lmme la e lnves a lone the court of inquiry, which has been described as i itt e more than a judicial farce,"l took no action regarding the future treatment of conscientious objectors. neither did government or military authorities. in his report to the prime minister, major- general mewburn supported his subordinates in winnipeg and concluded the affair was greatly exaggerated. the militia council merely ordered that future c.o.s whc refused military orders be court- martialed and sent to civil prisons. consequently, clegg, naish and another jehovah's witness, frank wainwright, were convicted by district courts martial of wilful disobedience of a military order and sentence to two years imprisonment. shortly afterward, their sentences were interrupted by an overseas draft and they were shipped to england. meanwhile, within a month of the minto street incident, public attention was focused again on the treatment of conscientious objectors in manitoba with the death in february of david wells, a pentecostal c.o. a month earlier wells was sentenced by sir hugh john macdonald to two years' imprisonment in the stoney mountain penitentiary for refusing military service. within two weeks, however, wells was declared "violently insane" and was moved to selkirk asylum where he died approximately a week later. the public outcry was led by the radical pacifist reverend william ivens who wrote t. a. crerar that lithe time had come for protest on the part of the people and effective action on the part of authorities. ii ivens reiterated the radical pacifist demand that individual conscience be given full and proper respect rather than the type of maltreatment that led to wells' death. "it may be that his death was necessary," ivens remarked, lito convince the government that there are conscientious objectors in the dominion outside the pacifist organizations who are prepared to die for their convictions rather than submit to perform military service. i although the justice department reported that wells was a manic-depressive overcome with shame, crerar evidently agreed with ivens and submitted the matter to borden for consideration. the prime minister also received a petition from the winnipeg trades and labor council requesting an immediate investigation into the treatment and death of wells and into the treatment of c.o.s generally. their resolution criticized the msa's unequal applica- tion of c.o. status resulting in the imprisonment of those not belonging to certain sects and concluded: we request that the act be so amended as to apply equally to all bonafide conscientious objectors and that those conscientious objectors now suffering incarceration under the act be immediatley released by being placed in the same category as those belonging to the recognized sects. such protests did not seem to have much of an effect on the government, however, and in march the military council issued a routine order that c.o.s sentenced to civil prison were to be sent overseas. among the first group shipped to england in april were clegg, naish and wainwright, all released from penitentiary for the draft. the remainder of the first group included two more bible students from winnipeg: john gillespie and claude brown; a baptist, n. s. shuttleworth; and two plymouth brethren, w. bagnall and e. w. mcaulay. all had appealed to tribunals for conscientious exemptions but were rejected for not belonging to recognized sects. the second group, which sailed from halifax on june , comprised four c.o.s from fort henry, kingston, ontario: j. l. adams, j. running, o. k. pim tt and syndey ralph thomas. pim tt, from belleville, ontario, and thomas, from haliburton, ontario, were bible students. once in england the c.o.s were sent to seford camp, sussex v where they were subjected to brutal punishment in an attempt to force them to obey military commands. pimlott reported he was dragged over knolls and dales by the feet, beaten over the head, kicked with heavy boots until unconscious and finally taken to eastbourne hospital for x . t' th th cot d . ' . an -ray examlna n. e er .. s repor e s m, ar experlences. thomas claimed he was "dragged, shoved and kicked several miles into the country to the edge of a foot precipice and threatened to be thrown over." he also charged that "ten officers took turns in beating him, threatened to bayonet him • . . shoved him against a target and fired at him from the other end of the range, tried to shoot him at close range and cursed because the gun would not go off." finally he was pounded with the butt of a gun until unconscious. in one of his beatings clegg received a broken rib. while at seford camp, shuttleworth abandoned his baptist faith to become a btble student convert. he then joined the other jehovah's witnesses from manitoba: clegg, naish, wainwright, gillespie and brown in their transfer to wandsworth prison, where they received the usual harsh treatment. meanwhile, as protests mounted in canada against sending c.o.s overseas, both canadian and british authorities began to recognize the action was a mistake, especially since the c.o.s were considered a "constant menace to other soliders undergoing detention with them.,, (' consequently, on april , the ~lilitary council issued a new order that conscientious objectors would no longer be sent overseas but would be obliged to serve in canada in the canadian engineers, army service corps, army medical corps, canadian ordnance corps or on . d . e . d tl h d f c h d b c erlca utles. vl en y t e secon group .. s a een t . sen ln error. in august the government began to arrange for the return of all canadian c.o.s except for three who agreed to perform non-combatant service in england. the young absolutists arrived back in canada on armistice day, november , and shortly there- after were released from the army with dishonorable discharges. the end of the war, however, did not necessarily mean the automatic release of the radical pacifists imprisoned in canada and by january , there were still c.o.s in custody. in an attempt to alleviate this situation the government appointed a special committee composed of the solicitor-general, the judge advocate general and the deputy minister of justice to consider the sentences being served by c.o.s and military defaulters on a case by case basis. the committee decided that, regardless of religious affiliation, conscientious objectors who were found to be bona fide objectors would b d ft ' . th t e re ease a er serv ng a slx mon erm. meanwhile, private citizens protested the continued punishment of religious pacifists and in the spring of the issue was raised l'n the house of commons. ~ h th h r d h l ' n i,arc , eon. p e em eux introduced the following motion for amnesty: that, in the opinion of this house, amnesty should now be granted to religious conscientious objectors to military service. lemieux reminded the house that great britain had always led the world in the protection of religious and civil freedom and urged the government to be "merciful to these honest and sincere young men, law- abiding citizens in every other respect, who did not default but presented themselves boldly before the tribunals and stated their objections. ii "i have received many letters on this subject from di fferent parts of the country, ii he stated, ii and i say that the east we can do, now that the war is over • . . is to act generous ly. / lemieux withdrew his motion, however, following solicitor general hugh guthrie's explanation that a general amnesty was unnecessary since all c.o.s would be released before summer. in his closing statement lemieux praised the active, non-violent service undertaken by quakers in france and belgium and suggested strongly that the military service act be amended to provide more liberal provisions for conscientious objectors in the future. above all, the amnesty motion reminded the house of the staunch resistance to military service of young pacifists in canada. besides the right of individual conscience, other basic liberties were also suppressed in canada during the war. various religious groups, radical dissenters and enemy aliens were among those either threatened or persecuted in the name of patriotism by the govern- ment and society in general. just as radical pacifists had warned, the war hysteria that swept the country had a brutalizing effect upon canadian society; it hardened the nation's insensitivity to the rights and problems of human beings. the erosion of christian compassion and disregard for human rights were just as costly to society in the long run, claimed the pacifists, as the death and destruction of war itself. the war measures act of provided the government with broad powers to censor, control and suppress free speech and to arrest, detain, exclude and deport individuals. a few years later any public statements that could weaken the war spirit were specifically pro- hibited. the result was a list of banned organizations and publica- tions and the harrassment of those citizens opposed to the war. in a letter to woodsworth, vernon thomas predicted that the government's vicious attempts to prohibit public criticism of the war effort, although aimed at bourassa, would silence pacifist protests. phillips thompson, an elderly radical pacifist and well-known labor spokesman, came out of retirement to protest publicly government suppression of free speech. thompson criticized the treat- ment accorded bourassa, lavergne and others for exercising their rights as free citizens. lito ostracize and hound down every man who opposes canada's participation in the war," he declared, "is a practical demonstration of the fact that our boasted self-government is a sham. ills? thompson also criticized the government's effort to prevent pastor russell of the jehovah's witnesses from preaching in canada. ii if you had any sense of consi stency or even a sense of humour, ii he quipped, "you would be ashamed to ask canadians to fight for i freedom, i 'justice,' etc. when free speech at home is a thing of the past. n radical labor organizations were especially vulnerable to government infringements on civil liberties. from the beginning of their anti-war activities, radical organizations were monitored by canada's various security agencies: the royal canadian mounted police, military intelligence and the press censor. this surveillance increased considerably as the radicals launched their campaign against conscription in and as a result of the russian revolution and the supposed threat of bolshevism. in effect, radicals came to be feared in the same way as enemy aliens. consequently, dossiers were prepared on several hundred western radicals, raids were conducted, arrests made, and the radical labor press was censored. the chief press censor, ernest chambers, became particularly disturbed with the views of radical labor and recommended the supression of several radical publications. in the autumn of chambers warned william ivens, the radical pacifist editor of western labor news, that his paper would be outlawed unless he restricted revolutionary and ·f· t t· pac s ar c es. among those publications prohibited in canada were the new world, a radical christian pacifist magazine from new york later retitled the world tomorrow, and jehovah's witnesses materials including several watch tower society tracts, the bible students monthly, and the book, the finished mystery. police in many cities conducted raids on jehovah's witnesses ' meeting halls, homes and places of business, searching for illegal publications. when such material was found in their possession, bible students were fined and sentenced to brief jail te rms. official censorship of the german language press was the most vigorous. all german oriented papers were prohibited from entering canada, including christ icher brundesbote, the weekly organ of the general conference mennonites. canadian german language newspapers continued to be published, subject to censorship, until when an order-in-council prohibited the printing, publication or possession of all enemy language publications without a license from the secretary of state. shortly afterward the use of the german language in group meetings was also banned. such action by the government was clearly in harmony with the mounting anti-german sentiment abroad in the land. some canadians suspected pacifist organizations were part of a vast german espionage t ' s· . fo t d t b g th g sys em. nce pac s s were assume e pro- erman, e erman speaking mennonite and hutterite communities were guilty on two counts in the eyes of groups like the great war veterans association. the fervor of their prejudices was exemplified in the formation of an anti-german league in toronto in and with the change of the name berlin, ontario, to kitchener. a further infringement on individual liberties of pacifists and canadians of enemy ancestry occurred when the wartime elections act disenfranchised conscientious objectors, persons of german speech and all enemy aliens, including those naturalized since . at the same time, however, the act extended the franchise to women who had relatives in the armed forces. even at the time it was criticized as a political manoeuver by the borden government to silence those opposed to the war. the most glaring example of a society brutalized by war was the harrassment:and internment of enemy aliens. more than , men of enemy alien origin were interned in twenty-three prison camps across canada. the official program began as mandatory registration of all aliens with possible internment in cases of any breach of the regulations, depending on the discretion of the registrar. by the end of the war, however, any person could file a complaint in county or district court to have a particular enemy alien interned. the war, as desmond morton states, ii was rapidly legitimizing anti-alien prejudices which hitherto had been muted .. the stirring up of such hatreds was symptomatic of the type of violent society pacifists had hoped to prevent. having failed that, they attempted to perform constructive humanitarian service to help offset the violence and insensitivity of a world at war. l british pacifists, fo~ instance, organized an emergency committee to aid aliens headed by fenner brockway, and, since there was no equivalent effort in canada, a quaker from british columbia, robert w. clark, spent over three years with the committee ministering to the needs of interned aliens in britain. some pacifists, however, did protest the treatment of enemy aliens in canada but, given the war measures act and the temper of the time, there was little they could say or do to v - - --------- - halt the growth of prejudice and the erosion of individual liberties of either conscientious objectors or citizens of enemy ancestry. the great war and the conscription issue in particular had confronted canadian pacifists with a crisis. the majority of pre- war pacifists responded by supporting the war measures, but others, such as quakers and some feminists and social gospellers, remained stalwart pacifists and began to formulate a new pacifist ethic as they united their opposition to war and violence with a left critique of the capitalist social and economic system as the breeding ground for violence, whether international or domestic. in addition, a complementary though more traditional pacifist witness was exhibited by canada's sectarian pacifists. except for the society of friends, the historic peace sects and the more recent pacifist groups, like jehovah's witnesses, maintained an adamant isolation from war and society alike, but their staunch resistance to compulsory military service reinforced the principle of conscientious objection and pacifist dissent in general within canadian society and encouraged individual resistance to warfare. it would be too much to suggest that the radical pacifism of the historic peace groups cross-fertilized with a radicalized liberal reformist pacifism in the war years. as a historic development that did not happen. but in the pacifist front that extended from the quakers to woodsworth there was an ideological configuration that reflected elements of both traditions: the radical sectarian adherence to the principle of non-resistance to evil while awaiting the millennium and the liberal faith in man's destiny to actively bring about this millennial ideal of a perfect society. at best it was an unstable alliance, but the tension could help propel the activism of social dissent. for the most part, however, the synthesis of radical pacifism with radical social change was still in its infancy in canada. con- trary to britain, where the union for democratic control and the no-conscription fellowship organized a socialist-pacifist base, there was no practical coalition of canadian pacifist forces. nor was there an active peace party. in fact, at the war's end there was little understanding of the pacifist ethic in canada and little evidence of inquiry into the ethics of war or christian pacifism in the centers of theological training. l also, in both britain and the united states, a newly formed christian pacifist organization, the fellowship of reconciliation, was engaged in activities on behalf of aliens, conscientious objectors and the promotion of a radical vision of social and moral reconstruction. the fellowship did not enter canada, however, until after the war. nevertheless, despite these handicaps, canadian pacifists were already expressing a radicalized pacifism born of the wartime experience. although the new pacifist ethic was not yet fully articulated at the close of the war, radical pacifists like woodsworth, beynon and thomas, had clearly recognized the necessity for far-reaching social --- and economic reconstruction in order to prevent the occurrence of another war. friends had also come to the conclusion that the real cause of war lay in the realm of economics. no permanent peace could be secured, they warned, without ending economic injustice first. thus, they called for a "revolution, not necessarily violent, and an edifice of new design" which would guarantee labor "shorter hours, more of the product it produces, larger opportunities, a different interpretation of justice. i furthermore, when the quakers in came to reflect on the war and its causes in the context of post-war unrest, their rhetoric manifested a merging of opposition to war and the struggle for social justice, something which vias central to the new socially radical pacifism the war had bred: the crime, the wickedness, the deceit, the hypocrisy that stood at the back of the conditions that produced the first war, remain. the interests of capital, labor and the public must be considered, and proper understandings of a mutual and just character must prevail all round, or the second war, the revolt we are now in, will be e,qual to the first in horror. we must watch and pray and work. despite such prophetic warnings of future violence unless social and economic justice was realized, socially radical pacifists failed to foresee a serious dilemma awaiting them beyond the horizon: their momentum towards radical reform and social change to secure peace and justice was on a long term collision course with their pacifist rejec- tion of the use of violence in any cause. footnotes mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, p. . canada, statutes, , - george v, chapter , the military service act, pp. - . e izabeth armstrong, the crisis of quebec, - (new york: columbia university press, ; reprinted toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ltd., ), pp. - ; brown and cook, a nation transformed , p. . armstrong, crisis of quebec, pp. - . ibid., p. . christie, "the presbyterian church in canada," p. . b iss, "methodist church and war," p. . uca , the methodist church of canada, the army and navy board, - , box , file , christian guardian, june , p. . ibid . l presbyterian and westminster, september , p. . the presbyterian record, march , p. . christian guardian, march , p. . robin, "registration, conscription and independent labour politics," pp. - ; mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, pp. - . l mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, p. . robin, "registration, conscription and independent labour po i ti cs ,", p. . l thompson claims that historians such as charles lipton and martin robin have overdrawn their generalizations concerning the anti- war sentiment of the trade union movement and he argues instead that anti-conscriptionists were unable to create "a working class based opposition to conscription within the west." see thompson, the harvests of the west, p. . robin, "registration, conscription and independent labour po it i cs ," pp. - , , ; abor had long adopted the radical critique. prior to the war keir hardie toured canadan denouncing war as a capitalist device to check democracy. hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . robin, "reaistration, conscription and independent labour politics," pp. , . mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, pp. - ; following the tlc convention it was apparent that the canadian labor. 'movement was split between the eastern establishment and western radicalism. ibid. ibid., p. ; as an example of violent protests mccormick cites the strike of vancouver dockworkers when a stevedore was challenged for not carrying his registration papers and the riot of loggers at big river, saskatchewan when military authorities tried to collect draftees. ibid. ibid., pp. - . ibid ., p. . w. r. young, "conscription, rural depopulation, and the farmers of ontario, - ," canadian historical review, lili (september ). presbyterian and westminster, september . thompson, the harvests of the west, p. . ibid., pp. - . roy st. george stubbs, prairie portraits (toronto: mcclelland and stewart ltd., ), p. . manitoba free press, january , p. . i bi d ., p; . avid j. bercuson, confrontation at winni e , labour industrial relations, and the general strike mcgill-queen's university press, ), p. . ramsay cook, "francis marion beynon and the crisis of christian reformism," in the west and the nation, essays in honour of w. l. morton, ed. carl berger and ramsay cook (toronto: mcclelland and stewart ltd., ); lillian beynon thomas was the founder and first president of the winnipeg political equality league as well as chairman of the speakers bureau. c. l. cleverdon, the woman suffrage movement in canada (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - . cook , "francis marion beynon," p. . woodsworth papers, correspondence, a. v. thomas to woodsworth, june . ibid., and thomas to woodsworth, april . ibid., thomas to woodsworth, june . ibid ., and thomas to woodsworth, april . ibi d. ibid ., thomas to woodsworth, june . ibid ., thomas to woodsworth, january . cook , "francis marion beynon, i pp. - . grain growers' guide, november , p. . ibid . , march , p. . ibid ., march , p. . ibi d .. , july , p. . ibid., june , p. . ibid., july , p. ; cook, "francis marion beynon, i p. ; once in new york, francis beynon worked with her sister lillian at the seamen's church institute and wrote the novel aleta day, a fictional autobiography. the novel, set in wartime winnipeg, reveals the various currents of thought prevalent among reformers, especially with regard to militarism, christianity and socialism. through two of the main characters in the book, beynon argues that traditional christianity or iichurchianiti' has failed. rather than abandon religion completely, however, beynon proposed a new radicalized christianity as the best hope for the future. ibid.; francis marion beynon, aleta day (london: w. c. daniel ltd., i t. a case in point was the treatment of enemy aliens described below. for beynon's reaction see: grain growers' guide, june , cooke, "francis marion beynon," p. . ibid ., p. . --. allen, the social passion, p. . eby , the world problem, pp. - . kenneth mcnaught, of j . s • woo dswo rth (to ron to : ~':-'-""j....;.;,~---'-''''''''''''::'-;-';'~~-=--,;'';''''':;''';'';;'~~m-p~. . j . s. woodsworth, limy convictions about war," vox (december, ), p. . j • s. woodsworth, ed., studies in rural citizenship (winnipeg: the canadian welfare league and the canadian council of agriculture, ), p. . -- ---------- woodsworth, "convictions about war," p. . mcnaught, prophet in politics, p. . manitoba free press, december , . ibid . j . s. woodsworth, following the gleam (ottawa: ), p. . allen, the social passion, pp. - . woodsworth, following the gleam, p. . ibid . ibid . ibid . ibid., p. . allen, the social passion, p. . ibi d., p. l. ibid • wood~worth papers, correspondence, v. ; thomas to hoodsworth, april , . ibid ., thoams to woodsworth, june , . ibid ., thomas to woodsworth, april , . the western labor news was established by the winnipeg trades council as part of their joint campaign with the socialist party of canada to break the power of arthur puttee, editor of the voice, whom they now considered too moderate and therefore dangerous to their cause. mccormick, reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, p. . j . s. woodsworth, the first story of the labor church, winnipeg, , pp. - . ibid ., pp. - . two other representatives of the social gospel left wing, william irvine and salem bland, were also dismissed from their posts during the war. although neither were pacifists, irvine's problems did concern criticism of the war effort. bland, on the other hand, supported the successful prosectuion of the war effort as harmonious with his radical reform objectives. but he may have been a little too radical for the board of directors of wesley college. see allen, the social passion, pp. - . minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. ; the canadian friend, october , pp. - . the canadian friend, october , p. . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. . minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. . b. m. greene, ed., who's who and why, - (toronto: international press~ltd.), p. . interview with arthur g. dorland, january ; the f.a.u. was organized by phillip noel baker, british quaker and son of the former canadian quaker, joseph allen baker. ibid. the canadian friend, november, , pp. - . canada, statutes, , - george v., chapter , lithe military service act, ," section , para. f, p. . ibid ., schedule: , p. . ibid ., sect. , pp. - . eppt mennonites in canada, p. . canada, department of national defense corm), v. , hq - - , v. ; "petition presented to the honourable the house of coll llons of canada, in parliament assembled, ;" ibid., v. t hq - - , "dec aration by the seventh-day adventists of the dominion of canada and the united states concerning bearing arms." epp , mennonites in canada, p. . canada, dnd, r.g. , v. , md - - - , canadian expeditionary force routine order, july . epp , mennonites in canada, pp. - . ibid ., pp. - . ibid ., p. . allen teichroew, "wor:ld war i and the mennonite ~ igration to canada to avoid the draft," mennonite quarterly review t july, . i bid., p. . frank h. epp, ed. t i would like to dodge the draft-dodgers but (waterloo: conrad press, ), p. . teichroew, "mennonite migration," p. . ibid . epp , mennonites in canada, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid., p. . canada, statutes t , - george v, chapter , lithe ~ il;tary service act, ," sections - , pp. - . brown and cook, a nation transforw~d, p. . canada, dnd, r.g. , v. , hq · - -v , judge- advocate general, memorandum: "treatment of conscientious objectors in canada." ibid . ibid .; generally, most of the longer sentences were mitigated to ten years imprisonment. ibid. ibid . ibid ., v. , hq - - , memorandum, chief of the general staff to ~ ilitia council, august, . ibid ., v. , hq - - -v , judge-advocate general, memo, "treatment of conscientious objectors in canada. ii ibid ., v. , hq - - , deputy minister, department of militia and defnce to deputy minister, department of naval service, july , ; deputy minister, department of militia and defense to deputy minister, department of naval service, august . dnd , r.g. , v. , hq - - , captain o. s. tyndale, secretary, military service sub-committee, august . ibid ., v. , hq - - , c. f. mcvagh, president, western canada union conference of seventh day adventists to t. m. tweedie, house of commons, may ; j. l. wilson, president, maritime conference of "seventh-day adventists to sir robert borden, prime minister, may . ll ibid ., adjutant general to g.o.c. military district # , june -.- l ibid ., rev. fred f. prior, st. boswells, saskatchewan, to minister of"mititia, june, . ibid ., central appeal judge to ca~tain o. s. tyndale, secretary, military service sub-committee, may . ibid ., v. , hq - - -v , l. clark, ildeston, ontario, to minister of militia, (nd). ibid ., v. , md - - - , louis friedenberg, montreal, to major-general e. w. wilson, g. o. c. military district no. , september . dnd , r.g. , , v. , file , sessional papers no. , iireport of the military service council on the administration of the military service act, , . dnd , r.g. , v. , t d - - - , iireport on the admini- stration of the military service act in military district no. , montreal, december . ibid ., v. , md - - - , cyril heath to brig general e. w. wilson, march, . ibid ., brig-gen. e. w. wilson to h. j. ross, march . ibid ., h. j. ross to brig-gen. e. w. wilson, march . winnipeg evening tribune, january . dnd , r.g. , v. , hq - - , iiproceedings of a regimental court of enquiry assembled at winnipeg, manitoba, , january , p. . winnipeg evening tribune, january . ib id. ibid . ibid . ' dnd, r.g. , v. , hq - - , t. a. crerar, minister of agriculture, to maj-gen. s. c. mewburn, minister of militia and defense, january . manitoba free press, january . for the british experience see john rae, conscience and ~olitics. dnd , r.g. , v. , hq - - , john livesey, sec. treas., manitoba grain growers' association, swain river, manitoba, to minister of militia and defense, february . sir robert l. borden papers, rlb , borden to mewburn, february . penton, jehovah's witness in canada, p. . borden paers, rlb , mewburn to borden, february . dnd, r.g. , v. , hq - - , g.o.c. winnipeg to judge advocate general, april . borden papers, rlb , rev. william ivens to t. a. crerar, february . ibid ., rlb , justice department memo, march ; penton, jehovah's witnesses in canada, p. . sorden papers, rlb , e. robinson, sec. winnipeg trades and labor council to borden, april . l~ dnd, r.g. , v. , hq - - , g.o.c. winnipeg to judge advocate general, april . ibid ., adcanef, london to militia, ottawa, may . ibid ., v. , hq - - , adcanef, london to militia, ottawa, august . the golden age ( september ), p. . ibid • ibid . dnd , r.g. , v. , hq - - , f. heap, winnipeg, to department of militia, may ; ibid., v. , hq - - -v , adcanef, london to aconticone, ottawa,-rr-september . ibid ., v. , md - - - , canadian expeditionary force routine order:- , april . ibid ., v. , hq - - , judge advocate general to adcanef, london, may . penton, jehovah's witnesses in canada, p. . dnd , r.g. , v. , hq - - -v , deputy minister, militia to deputy minister, justice, december . canada, debates of the house of commons, , v. i, p. . dnd, r.g. , v. , hq - - -v , c. b. st. george, parry sound, ontario to minister of militia, february . canada, debates of the house of commons, , v. i, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . thomas to woodsworth, april , , woodsworth papers, correspondence, v. . . the globe (toronto), june , , p. . ibid ., july , , p. . mccormick , reformers, rebels and revolutionaries, pp. - . ibid ., p. . ibid ., pp. , . ibid ., p. . penton, jehovah's witnesses in canada, p. . joseph a. boudreau, "the enemy alien problem in canada, - ," ph.d. thesis, university of california, los angeles, , p. . hopkins, canadian annual review, , p. . boudreau, "enemy alien problem," p. ; desmond morton, "sir william otter and internment operations in canada during the first world war," canadian historical review, lv (march, ): . morton, "otter and internment operations'" p. . ibid ., p. . the globe (toronto), march , , p. . anna braithwaite thomas, et. al., st. stephen's house: friend's emergency work in england to (london: emergency committee for the assistance of germans, austrians, and hungarians in distress, n.d.), p. . chri s ti e, "the presbyteri an church in canada," p. ; canadian theological colleges had not yet expanded or liberalized their curriculums to include a serious examination of war in the light of the christian conscience even though courses for the study of christian ethics, moral philosophy and social problems had been added a decade earlier. such courses, which might have encompassed international problems and the issue of war, were rather centered on rural and urban problems. charles m. johnston, mcmaster university, vol. : the toronto years (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - , , - ; mcmaster university, calendar, - , - ; vox wesleyan, wesley college, winnipeg, - ; wesleyan theological college, montreal, calendar, - , - ; the methodist church of:c~nada, the doctrine and discipline of the methodist church in canada, , . i report of the peace and arbitration committee, i minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. . ibid • chapter iv a resurgent peace movememt: the b ' s the years following the great war were filled with discontent in canada as elsewhere in the western world. physical and spiritual exhaustion and the economic strains associated with post-war readjust- ment were aggravated by the fact that the terrible scale of wartime sacrifices had produced an apocalyptic sense that the war might purge the world of evil and thereby result in a more just social and economic order. many canadians had shared this expectation. liberal social gospellers and conservative imperialists alike had convinced themselves that the postwar world would be a new era. when the desired changes did not materialize, however, initial disappointment turned to dis- illusionment, frustration and protest. in both britain and the united states strikes by labor unions were endemic. in canada the mounting wave of labor and farm unrest evident during the war began to be felt on a new scale. within a year of the cessation of hostilities in europe, the largest labor demonstration to date in canadian history, the winnipeg general strike, ended in violence as strikers and returned war veterans battled special police forces while the military stood by at the ready. probably few canadians at the time connected such domestic violence with international warfare but, earlier, pacifists had warned their fellow countrymen that their support of the war would ultimately unleash the same type of violence upon the domestic scene. militarism and war, they had argued, legitimized violence, a condition which would be reflected in the future values and responses of canadian society. furthermore, by canadian quakers viewed the winnipeg strike as the possible beginning of a violent social revolt, equal to the war in horror, unless there was a radical reconstruction of the social and economic structures of canadian society.l that analysis as well as the active support for the labor cause displayed in winnipeg by f. j. dixon, j. s. woodsworth and william ivens were indicative of the socially radical pacifism the war had bred. canada's committed non-sectarian pacifist minority emerged from the war convinced of the urgent need for radical social and economic change in order to eliminate war and violence from the world. but like their counterparts in britain and the united states, they remained suspicious of a socialist workers state, preferring the idea of a decentralized co-operative commonwealth similar to the tradition of guild socialism in britain and based upon the moral conscience as stressed in the social gospel. woodsworth and ivens, for instance, had become leading spokesmen for democratic socialism and popularized the cause in the political arena. as a pacifist woodsworth also emphasized that the people's enemy was not just "capitalism" but v' capitalism in league with militarism and imperialism, the deadly mixture which caused war. m canada's socially radical pacifists agreed that without a more equitable distribution of wealth neither domestic nor international tranquility could be maintained for long. the cultivation of public awareness of this fact, however, was not easily accomplished in the postwar era. in fact, as richard allen has suggested, support for social reform and pacifism developed somewhat inversely in the nine- teen twenties. rather than a commitment to radical social action, the initial resurgence of pacifism resembled an act of national repentance built upon both disillusionment with war and hope that international peace would be secured by the league of nations. once again canadians began to rally to the peace movement and by the late twenties there was a great upsurge in pacifist feeling. but the mere abhorrence of war and desire for a peaceful world were not the equivalent of pacifism, especially a socially radical pacifism. the relationship between war and social injustice, although recognized during the twenties, was not very profoundly explored in canada until the great depression and international crises of the thirties. in the meantime canadian peace advocates felt free to fight militarism without directly challenging the state. post-war pacifism first surfaced in britain. in a central pacifist organization, the no more war movement, was formed around a core of left wing intellectuals and members of the labor movement. socialism as well as pacifism were part of its program. but the no more war movement never attracted widespread labor support. nor did it succeed in mobilizing the various forms of anti-war sentiment which were manifested near the end of the decade. during most of the twenties, therefore, the british peace movement remained a loose coalition of religious as well as non-religious pacifists, socialists and anti-militarists. contrary to this pragmatic and largely secular bias, the peace movement in the united states was closely associated with the social gospel pursuit of a new social order. by the late twenties, for instance, the american movement was dominated by the fellowship of reconciliation, the radical christian organization which united both christian pacifists and christian socialists in a struggle against capitalism and war. like that in the united states, the resurgence of pacifism in canada did not gain momentum until mid-decade, after the fortunes of early postwar protests had begun to wane. the principal one, although not as dramatic as the winnipeg strike, was the political revolt of farmers in nova scotia, new brunswick, ontario, manitoba, saskatchewan and alberta. in provincial elections from to and the federal general election of , agrarian progressives were swept to the threshold of national political power. although it was mainly a political revolt against the financial establishment, the farmers' action also reflected long standing anti-war sentiment and social grievances. farmers had become especially critical of war as a result of the conscription of their sons and in reaction to the" related problem of rural depopulation and reports of war profiteering and graft. as a result, agrarian discontent remained strongly in support of the anti-militarist and anti-imperialist designs of a broadly based peace movement. anti-imperialism, indeed, was an important factor in generating support for a canadian peace movement. one of the lessons of the great war appeared to be that it was the british imperial connection which had propelled canada into the european war and might do so again unless counteraction was taken. consequently, the liberal nationalist argument for canadian autonomy found eager converts throughout :canada, especially among peace advocates. regardless of their particular motivation, most canadians appeared to be interested in canadian autonomy. at the imperial conference of , for instance, the conservative canadian prime minister, arthur meighen, warned british delegates that canada would not support imperial policy unless the anglo-japanese alliance was abrogated. popular sentiment across canada was heavily against any international agreement which might involve canada in another war, or strained relations with the united states. again, in , the liberal government of prime minister william l. mackenzie king refused to assist great britain against the turks in the chanak affair and repudiated any responsibility for the resulting treaty of lausanne. in such a manner, official government policy continued to reflect anti-military and anti-imperial sentiment throughout the 's, attitudes pacifists could in some measure exploit. canadian nationalists and pacifists, however, did not intend autonomy to mean isolation on the north american continent. rather, they were internationalists who had tasted international power as part of the british empire and now desired to remain a constructive force within the international order but without imperial military obligations. hence, the league of nations captured the imagination of most canadians interested in international affairs during the twenties. ll pacifists rallied to its support. for instance, as early as canadian quakers were encouraged to work hard for the "education and enlightenment of public opinionll on the subject of the league. "we have stood together through the war for the service of peace, under all sorts of limiting and restrictive conditions," reported the canadi an fri end, iii et us now stand together for the international practice of peace, even though it be circumscribed by many limiting human circumstances and conditions. i the problem for pacifists was just how this was to be done. despite their general approval of the league, in former wartime pacifists "had neither the respectability nor the energyll to launch a major pro-league movement, in part because their move towards social radicalism had further tarnished their public image. the churches, on the other hand, while sympathetic, became engrossed in more immediate social problems. in the end it was a new grouping of like-minded internationalists, both pacifist and non-pacifist, who established the canadian league of nations society in . one of the major problems faced by the new society was the struggle between those who favored armed-preparedness and the out-right pacifists. at first the society tried to present a respectable facade by excluding wartime pacifists from membership but when the practice did not prove feasible and they were admitted, the imperialists indiscriminately branded all pro-leaguers as pacifists. although the leadership of the league of nations society carefully emphasized the distinction between themselves and pacifists, in reality they both shared a common desire for disarmament and world peace. through their own separate experiences, howeve~ both groups ultimately discovered that the post-war canadian public was largely uninterested or unwilling lito accept any responsibility for the creation of a peace mentality throughout the- world.,, pacifists could take comfort, however, in the fact that on the international scene itself the question of disarmament had become a major issue of the decade. not only did the league of nations endorse the idea but several international conferences wrestled with the problem as well. the washington naval conference of - , the geneva conference of the mid- 's, and later the london disarmament conference . all reflected an urgent view of the problem and confident hope for its solution. this post-war interest in disarmament and the rational approach to peace associated with the league of nations revived the remnants of the pre-war progressive peace movement in canada. by the mid-twenties these liberal internationalists joined with pacifists in a broad inter-war peace movement. during the first few years of peace protestant churches in canada devoted little serious discussion to international affairs and, instead, concentrated their efforts on such areas as progressive politics, evangelism and 'church union. there was a general consensus among the protestant press, however, in support of the league of nations and the international disarmament conference at washington. presbyterian publications, for example, gave lengthy coverage to the league and related international questions. they presented the positions for the cancellation of war debts and against allied pun;sh- t f . . men war crlmlna s. following the example of the lambeth conference in britain, the anglican church of canada in general synod praised the league and adopted a resolution in support of international peace and goodwill. the anglican council for social service, believing the church could help create and mobilize public opinion in favor of the league, distributed a pamphlet to the clergy which contained a detailed examination of the league and its embodiment of christian principles. when attention was focused on the international dis- armament conference in washington, anglicans were joined by presbyterians and methodists in their prayers for the success of the meeting and similar attempts at international co-operation. overall, however, the post-war resurgence of pacifism was a reassertion of social gospel concern for the international order. social gospellers, having led the churches into new areas of social concern,were by mid-decade increasingly disillusioned with the prospects of social reconstruction and diverted their crusading spirit to a new outlet -- the peace movement. it was not a complete diversion, however, since both social inequities and war were considered to be caused by the same competitive economic system. more than merely complementary,the ideals of social justice and peace became the double-edged purpose of the more socially radical inter-war pacifists. nevertheless, by diverting their energies to the cause of peace, social gospellers avoided and therefore failed to absorb the meaning of the crisis confronting their programs of social reform. when canadian churchmen began to lend support to a nascent peace movement most of them had gone full circle from their pre-war pacifist rhetoric through enthusiastic support of the war and back again to an anti-war, pro-peace position. among those exhibiting this reversal none were more apparent than some of the leading social gospellers in the methodist church, particularly the reverend s. d. chown, since the general superintendent of his church, and william b. creighton, editor of the christian guardian. in his quadrennial address to the general conference of the methodist church in october , chown called upon all nations "to cease their moral insaniti' and to settle all future difficulties "on terms of christian equity." l the following summer chown sent a manifesto to all methodist ministers in canada asking them to set aside july as "anti-war sunday" in order to emphasize the "folly of war as a means of settling international disputes" and to create a "no more war" . . h h ? 'ent ment n t e c urch. - chown became a staunch supporter of the league, and after his retirement as general superintendent in he devoted himsel f to the campaign for peaceful settl ement of inter- national disputes. the most dramatic change of heart was exhibited by creighton, whose earlier editiorials in the guardian had literally driven some pacifist ministers out of the church. by the time of the so-called chanak crisis, however, creighton was condemning the spectacle of "christian and enlightened menu in canada urging vehemently that canadians "pledge themselves without reserve to stand back of the motherland should she decided that war was inevitable." "god forgive us,ii wrote creighton, iithat our first reaction was not of such a character that there would go up from a united people one thunderous, mighty no .... " he insisted that canadians must learn to feel and to think in different terms and to remember "how cruel and wicked and unchristian and inhumane war is." iiwe must learn to think peace, to talk peace, to insist on peace, because anything else is a horrible anachronism. if anyone had missed the meaning of these words it was difficult not to notice creighton's dramatic announcement on the cover page of the guardian, february , . as if to cancel his wartime cover page editorial on the "vice of pacifismll creighton now declared: there is surely not an intelligent, civilized man left in all the world who thinks that there is any virtue or goodness or saving grace in war. and most of us have been driven far beyond that negative position to the very positive and inescapable belief that war is, for our day and time, a hideous, utterly unchristian, unforgivable crime. referring to the church's pro-war position a few years before, creighton confessed that "many of us are ready to acknowledge our fault in truest humility, and seek pardon for our ignorance and our lack of the spirit of our master. i in regard to the future he declared: "never again, under any condition, will war have our sanction or our blessing. i the editor then concluded: we have made up our minds that in this matter we must try to be christians, whatever else we are, for if we are ,not in this way then we surely are not worthy to bear the christian name at all. in the name of christ we would set our face forever against war. creighton's testimony to peace initiated a serious discussion in the guardian and its successor, the new outlook. one of the first responses questioned the basis of creighton's new sympathy with "the once despised brotherhood of pacifists." the enquirer was douglas hemmeon, a pacifist minister from wolfville, nova scotia, who described himself as one who had "paid a bitter penalty in suffering and loss which will never be regained. i hemmeon suggested that creighton's announce- ment was plainly pacifism "without reservation and without qualifica- tion" and therefore he demanded to known "by what processes, intellectual and emotional, and by what methods, historical, scientific, philo- sophical, religious .•. ,ii creighton had arrived at such a "radical and significant conclusion.,, the question was a valid one since creighton had reversed his position without offering his readers any type of reasoned explanation. in reply to hemmeon, creighton con- fessed that his "changed viewpoint and conviction" had been the result of "a slow disillusioning process that has been going on every since the close of the war," rather than a study of iijesus' attitude and teaching as to non-resistance. i furthermore, the sad experience of the war had underlined the clear confrontation of the "whole issue of war" with christian teaching, particularly with the coming of the kingdom. the principle of brotherhood, he at~ued, left no "place in the world for war among nations.,, although creighton's explanation left much to be desired it was an honest attempt to come to grips with the issue of christian responsibility and war. l in the years to follow creighton refined his thinking but continued to steer away from the question of passive resistance. in fact, neither creighton nor chown ever embraced outright pacifism, even in the twenties; they continued to allow the possibility of iijust war": "just and inevitable wars ,have come into the world," wrote creighton, "it is even conceivable that they may still come. ,, in order to help christians make such wars impossible, however, creighton concentrated his thinking on the prevention of future war th~ough education and international co-operation. he thought of war as a iistate of mind" resulting from preparedness and traditional ways of thinking, and therefore concluded that the task of the church was "to educate the public mind for peace.,, the return to pacifistic categories by canadian churchmen like creighton and chown reflected, in part, the strong influence from an outspoken pacifist minority in american protestantism. although ~ few canadians attended peace rallies in the united states, american pacifist thought reached most canadian ministers through such avenues as the christian century, an american religious journal which aligned the social gospel with pacifism. its editor, clayton c. morrison, became well-known among his canadian readers and addressed the first general council of the united church of canada in june . the previous year the social service council of canada invited the famous american pacifist, kirby page, to address its annual meeting. page was the editor of the journal, the world tomorrow, which had some canadian readers. by and large, the american peace movement provided the major inspiration for canadian pacifism in the early twenties. following the american lead, canadian churches recognized that peace had become a vital issue to be considered in their confer.ences. the methodist church, for example, adopted several anti-war resolutions supporting the league and the peaceful settlement of international disputes, but stopping short of a true pacifist position. although the department of evangelism and social service was instructed to arouse public opinion on the issue, the most important discussion of pacifism continued in the christian guardian with the encouragement of its editor. the may and june issues of the guardian carried a series of feature articles on "the struggle for peace" by archibald f. key. following a survey of past peace movements and international conferences, key concluded that the best hope for future peace lay in the education of the people in international affairs. "it is only when the people of the world begin to take an active interest in international affairs," he wrote, "that war will cease to exist.,, to accomplish this end he endorsed the peace movement but lamented the fact that according to the peace year book of only one peace organization in canada had survived the war -- the women's inter- national league for peace and freedom. in the months to follow a controversy on the issue of pacifism developed in the ii readers , forum" of the guardian. w. r. mcwilliams of grafton, ontario,suggested that if the church really wanted to do away with war it would announce its position to the world just as the society of friends had done. j. a. hart of truro, nova scotia, doubted that canadians possessed the iispiritua control" of the state necessary to prevent a reversion to war. when herbert s. cobb wrote from griffin, saskatchewan, that there were "more logical, as well as christian ways" other than pacifism to accomplish peace, he was challenged by the editor to explain himself. creighton also criticized an article by alfred e. lavell which presente~ the case for preparedness. it was a faulty argument, charged the editor. lilt leaves us just where we were before the last war broke out and as a scheme it will work just as ineffectively the next time as it did the • last time. ii throughout the twenties creighton remained determined to encourage full discussion of the peace issue even though he was aware that some of his readers had grown more than tired of his campaign against war. "while in some ways it might be more comfortable if we were all to decide that we would leave this whole perplexing problem in the ap of the gods. . . ," he confessed, "we cannot get away from the conviction that as intelligent christian men and women it still remains our problem. ii a problem that demanded lithe most careful and honest investigation at this very hour .• . the editor heard from several unsympathetic correspondents who liappeared to think that they settled the whole thing by a few strong sentences, i and left nothing more to be said. creighton disagreed and declared that there was more yet to be said and some decisions to be reached. lias christian men and women, i he wrote, lithe time has fully come when we must do some very hard and very honest thinking. i accordingly, creighton welcomed the entry of r. edis fairbairn into the fray with the hope that he would help a little liin that thinking and toward the making of those decisions. i with this enthusiastic endorsement from the editor, fairbairn began a long series of provocative articles y' which marked him as li one of the most able and certainly the most contentious pacifist writer in the church. fairbairn was one of several prominent canadian churchmen who began to articulate the pacifist argument during the early and mid- 's. he originally hailed from england where he had entered the wesleyan ministry in . fairbairn was never completely satisfied with the wesleyan methodists, particularly because of what he considered their increasing dogmatism, and finally in he left england for canada. during the first world war the army and navy board of the methodist church assigned fairbairn to bermuda where he acted as a chaplain under the british admiralty. it was this wartime experience in bermuda, especially his first-hand exposure to the reaction of young men in bayonet drill, which launched fairbairn on the road to- d "f" war s pac sm. it was also in bermuda where fairbairn first demonstrated his impetuous and outspoken manner over a matter of principle. the controversy, or so-called bermuda scandal, concerned fairbairn's public criticism of the moral conditions at the sailor's home on ireland island without first reporting to the commandant of the dockyard. the british admiralty and the wesleyan methodist church "took a very strong line" and demanded fairbairn's removal or, at the very least, an apology but left the final decision up to the army and navy board in canada. fairbairn, on the other hand, ada- mantly refused to render an apology "except on the explicit instructions of the board, and even then most unwi i ngly. ,, in the end the board decided that rather than an apology, fairbairn should offer nothing more than an "expression of regret at having made public statement before making official complaint"; thereby taking issue with only the method and not the content of fairbairn's remarks. when fairbairn complied the matter was closed. nevertheless, the incident served as a preview of fairbairn's stormy career in the ministry. by the time fairbairn began his examination of "christianity and war" in the christian guardian he had become a committed pacifist and a radical. his pacifist argument incorporated a socialist analysis of western capitalism as the "war system", a system which compelled "otherwise honourable" men to perform unscrupulously and which made f t .. t bl u ure war lnevl a e. the root cause of modern wars, he argued, was the monopolistic expansion of international commerce with the support of military force. it was the same war mentality which still characterized domestic industrial relations and posed "possibilities of civil war within the nation, and of a class war extending over all the nations. furthermore, militarism and imperialism were natural allies with capitalism since all three liisms" promoted the selfish belief "that it is your duty to yourself to assert your power over others to your advantage. the alternative to this whole unchristian "war system", argued fairbairn, was for the world to organize for peace lias in the past it has been organized for war. pacifism and a campaign for the institutionalizing of pacifistic relations in social life, therefore, was man's best hope of averting future war. fairbairn rejected the claim that jesus made no condemnation of war since the whole message of jesus, and not just his references to non-resistance to evil, was an indirect rejection of war. "it is literally true," wrote fairbairn, "that for jesus there were but two alternatives -- a messianic war, or the cross. that he chose the cross is demonstration of what he thought of war. at the heart of fairbairn's pacifism was the social gospel belief in the immanence of the kingdom of god on earth. consequently, war, as the greatest sin, had to be stopped in order to pave the way for that kingdom, unlike some other social gospellers who were attracted to pacifism, fairbairn became a dedicated and radical pacifist and re- mained so for the rest of his life. he was a prolific writer, mainly of articles in church journals, and earned a reputation as the most vocal if not the most radical pacifist in the united church of canada. as long as he felt something needed to be said on the war issue, fairbairn refused to remain silent, at times enraging his readers and stirring a host of critics. but in the end, although fairbairn developed a careful analysis of the past war and how it should have been avoided, he devoted little imaginative thought to the application of pacifism to the international problems of the twenties. never- theless, fairbairn and other churchmen helped greatly to revitalize canadian interest in pacifism. the regenerated peace campaign was stimulated further with the immigration to canada of one of the leading pacifists of the day. richard roberts, pacifist presbyterian minister and co-founder of the fellowship of reconciliation, came to canada from england via the united states. from the time roberts assumed the pulpit of the american presbyterian church of montreal in , his presence exerted a gentle but important influence upon young canadians in the united church and the student christian movement in particular. although it probably went unnoticed at the time, roberts arrival provided an awakening christian pacifist consciousness with important intellectual depth and a direct link to the anglo-american pacifist experience. shortly after the outbreak of the great war, roberts and the british quaker henry hodgkin agreed upon the necessity of forming v some organized body which would maintain a christian pacifist front during the war. through their efforts the fellowship of reconciliation (for) was born at trinity college, cambridge, in the last four days of . according to original members of the for it was roberts who chose the word "reconciliation ll in the fellowship's title. roberts thought peace was more than just the absence of war; it was something to be waged, as war was waged. "peace is not a passivity. a lull between wars," he wrote. "it must be conceived as an activity; and the name of that activity is reconciliation, practice of turning enemies into friends. the act and by the spring of the following year roberts' pacifist stand necessitated his resignation from crouch hill presbyterian church and that july he accepted the secretaryship of the new for and became the first editor of its monthly periodical, the venturer. in , after hodgkin had planted the roots of the for in the united states, roberts accepted a call to the congregational church of the pilgrims in brooklyn, new york, where he remained for the duration of the war. in new york, roberts maintained close connections with the for and served on the editorial board of the world tomorrow, a radical christian journal at that time banned in canada. it appears that his radical pacifist activities were of some conce~n to united states government authorities and at least on one occasion roberts was questioned by the united states attorney's office about his communica- tions with the anti-war radicals: floyd dell, max eastman and the masses publishing company. despite his apparently important reputa- tion in new york as a leading christian pacifist it is not known if roberts had any contact with the canadian pacifists, vernon and lillian thomas of winnipeg, who had exiled themselves to new york at that time. roberts did continue his correspondence with british pacifists such as hodgkin and fenner brockway and to some extent strengthened their liaison with such american pacifist figures as rufus jones. hodgkin kept roberts informed on the development of the for in britain and in return expected his advice, particularly on the role of pacifists in the post-war world. livery often do i wish that you were here again," wrote hodgkin, "in order that we might think out together some of these questions, and •.. to prepare for the situation which we can, in some measure, foresee. i roberts· major concern during these years, however, was the iiproblem of conscience ll and the personal dilenma faced by conscientious objectors. in a letter to fenner brockway, he confessed his sympathy for the absolutist position but warned that absolutists must be exceedingly careful not to allow their own position to dominate their thinking and cause them to believe that ii what is right for us might be right for everybody. ii the only safe and right principle, he argued, was: iigo so far -- neither more nor less -- as your con- science compels you. i shortly after the war, in an article in the international journal of ethics, roberts praised conscientious objection as a healthy exercise of the individual conscience and therefore i nva uab e to the stabil i ty and growth of democracy. lithe ultimate battleground of democracy is in men's hearts; i he wrote, li an d its appeal must at last ever be to men's consciences. i s even in time of war, it is safer for democracy to let a hundred shirkers go scot-free rather than run the risk of penalizing an honest conscience. roberts hoped that the pacifist witness in the last war might have begun a new reign of personal idealism and individual conscience in the western world. indeed, he believed it was only by a frank recognition of the moral autonomy of the individual that we can establish any kind of moral order in the world. there are, of course, other ways of securing a quiet world -- for a time; but in any case a quiet world is not necessarily a moral world. for a time in it appeared as if roberts would assume the presidency of the pacific school of religion in berkeley, california, but when opposition arose to his pacifism and labor sympathies he withdrew his name. finally, in he left the united states for canada and the prestigious american presbyterian church in montreal. and then in ~ roberts joined with other members of the protestant ministerial association of montreal to produce the christian and war, the definitive canadian pacifist statement of the inter-war period. although the christian and war was the consensus of several montreal clergymen, including roberts, m. f. mccutcheon, t. w. jones, w. d. reid and cannon a. p. shatford, its major author was w. a. gifford, a professor of ecclesiastical history at united theological college in montreal. the signatories, all canadians by birth or adoption, contributed little original thought to the question of the church and war but they recognized the vital necessity for a new christian ethic of war and, through gifford's hand, made a sweeping appeal for a pacifist state of mind. "our object," wrote gifford, "is to present the christian view of society, to judge war in the light of that view, to indicate ways of making the christian view effective against war. i in language becoming to a pacifist, gifford talked of armed preparedness, secret diplomacy and national fears as immediate causes of war while the ultimate causes he found to be economic imperialism and militarism, especially "the education of childhood for war. ii unlike absolute pacifists such as fairbairn, gifford dis- tinguished between the question of war and the more general question of the admissibility of force as in international police actions. iiwe conceive that there are circumstances, i he wrote, liin which force can be made to serve the ends of love, reverence and service." the use of force, therefore, was admissible as long as it was kept sub- sidiary to, controlled by and exercised in accordance with moral ends. this could not apply to war, he argued, since war liobscures all moral ends, and never can be a christian weapon, even when waged in a righteous cause. i the christian alternative to war, therefore, was the active promotion of peace. the conscience of the christian church was awakened, reported gifford, and many christians were ready to stand with the quakers for pacifism and strive towards a warless world. as practical measures in this regard he endorsed the league of nations, treaties of arbitration and disarmament, and the whole concept of international co-operation. particular emphasis was placed upon the promising roles of such associations as the world alliance for international friendship through the churches, the war-resisters international and the fellowship of reconciliation. the book did not completely ignore the ultimate question of what christian men shoulddo in the event of a future war. in fact, gifford's most important message concerned the heavy responsibility of the individual christian conscience when confronted with the "immediate presence of war. ii although the authors had left the door open for the use of force in certain situations, he asserted: "we who make this appeal cannot conceive any future war in which christian men can participate. i regardless of this belief, gifford recognized that the final decision was up to each individual and, in the following passage, he lent strong words of encouragement to the principle of individual conscientious objection to war: if some men and women should have to stand alone in their resistance to war, let them remember that the "city of man-soul ii has but one citizen .... let them remember too that by suffering for their cause they will accredit it. those who think out the great human issues in advance of mankind, and endure the reproach of dissent, help to clarify the thoughts of others and thus become creative factors in progress. being lifted up from the earth, they draw others unto them. on the one hand, gifford almost elevated conscientious ob- jectors to the level of sainthood, but on the other he failed to give serious consideration to alternative decisions of conscience in the event of a future conflict. the omission was understandable since the underlying premise of the christian and \~ar was the social gospel faith in the "coming of the ultimate order of history" in which there was no room for war. if gifford and his associates ever really considered war a future possibility once more, they found it difficult to follow to its end a train of thought contrary to their whole frame of mind; consequently, they missed the opportunity to develop a viable christian response to war and left the matter unresolved for a later generation of canadians. the authors of the christian and war also failed to recognize an important new dimension of liberal pacifism. their qualified approval of force for moral ends and controlled by moral means ruled out complete non-resistance but they did not go as far as to develop this qualified use of moral force into a method of pacifist social action. in other words, they failed to bridge the gap from liberal pacifism to the idea of non-violent force or resistance then taking root within the pacifist outlook of the quakers and the more radical anglo-american protestants. nevertheless, the christian and war was welcomed by pacifists in canada and helped justify a fledging canadian peace movement. v the active organization of a more rigorous peace campaign in canada was undertaken by the small group of liberal pacifists who had survived the war and some enthusiastic converts from farm, labor, religious, student and women's groups. the wartime pacifists had kept alive the ongoing tradition of pacifism in canada; now their contribution would be central to a much expanded peace movement. except for the historic peace sects, however, the only organized peace group still functioning in canada after the war was the women's international league for peace and freedom, popularly known as the wil. during the war the wil assumed the pacifist role discarded by other women's groups, and although the wctu and the national council of women later revived their respective peace and arbitration committees, the wil remained dominant in post-war women's peace activities and a major element in the canadian peace movement in general. although the wil was not formally organized on a national scale until the late twenties, several branches and affiliated groups sprang up across the country, including major chapters in toronto and vancouver. the original women's peace organization in toronto had been the sole representative of the wil in canada until the vancouver branch was established in . at the war's end, however, the toronto section appeared to be a "factious" group of women who devoted their energies to negative attacks on the military and the celebrations of empire and armistice days.?? the vancouver branch, on the other hand, began with a fresh post-war approach which involved educating the public towards peace. the organization of the vancouver section was largely the work of its first president, lucy woodsworth, and secretary, judge laura jamieson. mrs. woodsworth, wife of canada's most renowned pacifist, was active in the wil both in the early vancouver days and later in winnipeg. mrs. jamieson succeeded mrs. woodsworth as president of the vancouver branch and became one of the most promi- nent and influential pacifists in western canada. through her initia- tive the vancouver branch co-operated with other civic groups in sponsoring public lectures on peace, a peace library, peace pageants and an annual international fair during armistice week. mrs. jamieson, like fairbairn, thought of peace not merely as the absence of war but as "a way of life built on cooperative human relationships which provided for the interchange of ideas and emotions." in her opinion, this pacific spirit was already visible in the international friend- ship and co-operation of women in the wil. peace would be assured, she maintained, when the co-operative spirit of peace-loving people replaced the aggressive, competitive spirit of the capitalist economic system. when she spoke of peace as the extension of the co-operative idea to international affairs, farm women on the prairies, already attuned to internationalism through the progressive movement, were attracted to the peace campaign, and by the mid-twenties several local chapters of the united farm women of alberta had become affiliated with the vancouver branch of the wil. one of jamieson's earliest and most important disciples was mrs. violet mcnaughton, women's editor of the western producer in saskatoon. mrs. mcnaughton was well known in saskatchewan for her role in the founding of the women's section of the canadian council of agriculture and the saskatchewan women's grain growers association .. she was first attracted to pacifism and the women's international league for peace and freedom while a suffragette during the war. subsequently, she began to combine the wills pacifist principles with the co-operative idea then popular on the prairies, arriving at a peace philosophy similar to that of mrs. jamieson. indeed, she was indebted to mrs. jamieson for major concepts and inspiration. the two women became close friends and remained regular correspondents throughout the inter-war period. as editor of the women's page for one of western canada's most widely read farm newspapers, mcnaughton popularized mrs. jamieson's brand of pacifism and became a regular propagandist for the wil and the peace issue. the pacifist slant of the women's page actually reflected the.official policy of the newspaper. the publisher of the western producer, harris turner, was a disabled war veteran who was intent upon educating the public on the causes of war and the necessity for an effective peace campaign. he not only encouraged mcnaughton in her pacifist views but hoped that her message would help create a broad movement for world peace among western farmers. s mcnaughton presented her readers with the usual pacifist and labor view of international diplomacy and the cause of the last war, but her major emphasis was placed upon the co-operative spirit of pacifism. considerable space was also devoted to reviews of books with a pacifist message and to those issues dear to the wil such as the struggle against cadet training in schools and militarism in school textbooks. mcnaughton's commitment to the wil and the peace issue was a personal one and not just that of a journalist and feminist. in saskatoon, for instance, she organized a peace group and sponsored "peace evenings" which consisted of debates, addresses, discussions and plays. one of the more popular events were poetry readings featuring such pacifist works as siegfried sassoon's war poetry. ? gradually through the twenties, mcnaughton raised the consciousness of her readers on the issues surrounding world peace and, more directly, introduced prairie women to the wil. the growth of canadian interest in the women's international league for peace and freedom did not really gain momentum until after the fourth international congress of the wil met in washington in . this was partly because previous wil conclaves had been largely inaccessible to most canadian members. for instance, there was no canadian representative at the vienna conference and when the wil met at the hague in , dr. rose henderson, member of the toronto board of education and the toronto branch of the wil, was the sole canadian delegate. once the international body gathered in north america, however, it drew a larger response from canadians. organized around the theme iia new international order, i the washington wil conference was attended by representatives of twenty- two national sections of the wil including large delegations from the united states and canada. among the most notable canadian delegates were lucy woodsworth from winnipeg and agnes macphail, federal member of parliament from ontario. one of the first female politicians in canada, miss macphail provided important encouragement and inspiration to the organization of a strong canadian section of the wil and was a key spokesman for peace advocates in ottawa. it was macphail who invited the european delegates at the washington conference to include canada in their tour of north america. in june the iimuch heralded ll train dubbed the iipax special ll pulled into toronto carrying the distinguished delegation of twenty- five women including the german pacifist, lida gustava heymann: marcelle capy, editor of the radical french magazine la vague; and lady claire annesley, british pacifist and member of the no- conscription fellowship. following advance publicity in the christian guardian and toronto newspapers, the wil delegation received an enthusiastic reception in massey hall with toronto·s religious and labor leaders in attendance. they also addressed a large gathering at parliament house in toronto under the auspices of th p " m"· t e r me n s er. despite a generally favorable reception there was some noisy opposition to the presence of the wil women, particularly those from austria and germany. the toronto evening telegram attacked the visit and persuaded the toronto board of education to denounce -------- their gesture of goodwill as a iisinister attempt to undermine british patriotism. ii the telegram was also accused of creating the iivicious vehemence ll that earlier had blocked an appearance at the university of toronto by jane addams, the noted american social reformer and president of the international wil. despite the occasional hostile atmosphere, toronto was the usual site of peace demonstrations in canada. the previous summer, for instance, the "no more war" campaign staged a mass demonstration at queen's park complete with a parade, banners and a series of speakers. the participants included wil members such as agnes macphail, leading religious figures like rev. father minehan and rev. dr. pidgeon, and labor leaders from toronto such as rollin brickner and james simpson. a special appearance was made by g. stanley russell, repre- sentative of the british council of the no more war society and shortly to take up residence as a toronto cleric of note. the following year a world peace rally held in london, ontario, attracted a wide variety of civic representatives as wel . the society of friends was so impressed by this new surge .,.' of peace activity, which seemed at the same time to indicate a growing popularity of peace sentiment, that it suggested the slogan of the year in canada should be: iistop warl co-operatel ll they themselves added to the new impetus by co-operating with the wil in the formation of a toronto branch of the fellowship of canadian v youth for peace, a body which had been first organized in montreal. the toronto membership included a wide diversity of religious and ethnic groups. the purpose of the organization was lito strive for the removal of the cause of war •.• and to foster a positive spirit of gocdwill and co-operation among all nations, races, religions and classes. i the participation of young people in peace work continued during the following years and in ten young delegates with varied religious backgrounds represented canada at the world youth congress of peace in holland. the increasing international awareness and pacifist commit- ment of students was, indeed, an important element in the resurgence of pacifist concern in canada. in the christian and war, for instance, gifford recognized students as one of the groups most supportive of the new internationalism, and w. b. creighton claimed his conversa- tions with returned war veterans and students were decisive in his return to the pacifist fold. the leading force in developing this internationalism and peace sentiment among university students was the student christian movement (scm). its organization in was initiated by those veterans (to whom creighton referred) who had returned from the war profoundly dissatisfied with the existing world order and determined to eliminate the social and economic injustices which caused wars. consequently, they emphasized the need for a new moral force to prevent war, and for intellectual guidance on this issue they called upon richard roberts, who had just arrived in canada in . from then on roberts figured prominently in the movement and became a frequent speaker at scm gatherings. after a few years the scm members who had had direct contact with the war began to be succeeded by a new generation of students, but the general interest in the peace question continued to gain momentum and in the scm concluded that the way of peace can only be discovered if ordinary people have a reasoned and passionate belief in the creative possibilities of peace and give themselves in a conscious effort to establish international solidarity. later that year pacifism became the focal point of debate at the student volunteer convention in indianapolis and, while not the pre- dominent view to emerge from the conference, it made a profound impression upon the canadian delegates. n. a. mackenzie, maritime secretary of the scm and one of those in attendance, regarded the pacifists "by far the most aggressive, determined, convincing group" present and he returned to canada hopeful that the "war cursed world" could be transformed if a sufficient number of young people were convinced of the "invariable futility of war ll and would refuse to fight. los the pacifist debate, itself, received full coverage in a special supplement to the university of toronto student newspaper, the varsity. for the balance of the decade it was primarily through student newspapers and its own journal, the canadian student, that the scm focused student attention on such issues as the christian and war and disarmament, and campaigned against the officers' training c . • ·t· orps ln unlversl lese by the mid-twenties university students joined an increasing number of canadians attracted to the pacifist idea. the resurgence of pacifism was particularly evident within the nation's protestant churches and was articulated by several spokesmen, including fairbairn, roberts and gifford. but it was also reflected in the growing popularity of pacifist groups like the wil which dated back to the war years. together, this wide range of individuals and groups, from wil activists and quakers to social gospellers and liberal inter- nationalists, had begun to forge a broad canadian peace movement. the increased peace activities on the part of students, quakers and the wil, especially the visit to toronto of the inter- national delegation from the wil conference in washington, brought the whole issue of peace much closer to canadians and heightened public interest. the second half of the decade, for instance, was marked by an increased tempo in wil activities and its growth in membership across the country. by the late twenties there were three branches of the wil in canada -- toronto, winnipeg and vancouver -- and several affiliated groups in saskatchewan and alberta. however, since there was no single national organization with elected officers during the twenties, laura jamieson took it upon herself to serve as the canadian secretary of the wil and designated the vancouver branch the office of the canadian section as well. in the fall of she further publicized the wil peace program during a speaking tour she made through western canada under the auspices of the canadian club, a sign that pacifists were no longer persona non grata to the establishment. l the following year, with the aid of several women's organiza- tions and the league of nations society, jamieson co-ordinated the various peace activities in vancouver into a one day peace conference during armistice week. the idea spread and in april a similar conference was held in winnipeg in which thirty-seven different societies co-operated. saskatoon followed with a peace conference in june. the program featured talks by mrs. jami eson on "how to make the kellogg pact a reality," j. b. mcgeachy on "economic aspects of war and peace," g. w. simpson on "arbitration and international law," claude lewis on "practical educational steps towards peace," and j. s. woodsworth on "armaments." at the same time, the saskatoon farm women's university week concluded by passing various resolutions concerning peace. they suggested, for example, that the saskatchewan peace conference committee not only hold an annual peace conference but work towards a national conference as well. they also recommended that every women's local lodge and women's section of the united farmers of saskatchewan take out membership in the women's international league for peace and freedom through the vancouver branch, a suggestion which was later followed by the regina peace society. furthermore, the saskatchewan women endorsed the wil proposition that "for every hundred dollars now devoted to preparations for a possible war, one dollar should be given to establish a fund .•. to provide in each university in canada a chair and scholarships for the study and development of better international relationships.lilll this was one of the wills pet projects; a similar proposition was introduced into the house of commons by agnes macphail in . the popularity of the peace conferences alone spoke for the commanding influence of mrs. jamieson and the vancouver branch of the wil in western canada. vancouverls second annual peace conference was staged in november , with over thirty societies co-operating. the theme of the conference was iieducation and peace." according to jamieson the whole tone of the conference was "practical and realistic" rather than visionary. iipeace was spoken of, not as a pious hope," she wrote, "but as an objective which must have some assurance of attainment if any other form of social service is to be worth while. ii it was useless to work for human betterment, she added, if another war was to wipe out civilization. although most of those in attendance were already converted to the cause of peace, the conference °d d h was consl ere a uge success. it was a notable advance in mobilization and, no doubt for many, the occasion of crystallization of thought and revitalizing of commitment. accordingly, the one day peace conferences, usually held during armistice week, became popular events as the inter-war peace movement continued to build momentum across canada. one of the high points in the wil activities occurred in when agnes macphail, violet mcnaughton and laura jamieson represented canada at the international congress of the wil in prague, czechoslovakia. the presence of a canadian delegation representative of three regions of the country was symbolic of both the growing influence of the wil in canada and the desire for closer co-operation between the various canadian branches. while in europe the canadian delegates discussed future plans for peace work at home and agreed that the time had come to co-operate on a national basis. jamieson and mcnaughton noted that the united farm women of saskatchewan already favored such a move. the three women returned fully inspired by their inter- national experience and hopeful that a stronger wil could be built in canada. as acting canadian secretary, jamieson began to circulate monthly wil newsletters in which she reiterated the plea for unity. within a year the move for nation-wide co-ordination of the wil was completed with the formal organization of a canadian section with official branches in toronto, winnipeg and vancouver and affiliated groups on the prairies. in alberta, for instance, seven- teen locals of the united farm women of alberta and the alberta wctu joined the wil. on the other hand, neither the wil nor the peace movement in general were successful in organizing a base east of montreal. vancouver remained the national headquarters, probably because jamieson was maintained as the canadian secretary. other national officers included agnes macphail as president, lucy woodsworth as treasurer and vice-presidents from each of the five provinces with wil rperesentation: ontario, manitoba, saskatchewan, alberta and british columbia. mrs. mcnaughton headed a publicity committee while mrs. alice e. loeb of toronto chaired a committee on militarism and beatrice brigden of brandon, manitoba handled the committee on education. in their publicity brochure the canadian women advertised the wil as an active organization in touch with realit~/. the aim of the wil, it was explained, was to liunite women of all countries, and of all parties and classes, who are opposed to war, exploitation and oppression. llll ? their overall peace philosophy was revealed in the stated "plan of work" for the canadian section. although the program included the usual support for the league of nations and the principle of arbitration and conciliation, its major aspect concerned the education of canada s youth. without being specific, the wil hoped to ensure that teachers were properly instructed on the league iiso that our youths may learn to solve international problems by peaceful and constructive methods, i they also reiterated their well-known demand that a university course in international relations be offered in each province, along with the creation of appropriate libraries and inter- national scholarships. this could easily be accomplished, they in- sisted, if the canadian government would show its good faith in the kellogg peace pact by financing the preparation for peace as it did the preparation for war. central to the can?dian program was the abolition of cadet training in the schools and the substitution of physical education courses. another suggestion called for the creation v of peace activities which would catch the imagination of young people, ~ iithereby making peace as interesting as war. i the practice of holding one-day peace conferences across canada was also endorsed, as was the desire for a stronger emphasis on peace and iil ess military displayll during armistice day observances. l overall, the wil concentrated on what they considered practical steps for world peace, emphasizing the futility of war rather than religious or moral non-resistance. thus, most wil women were not pacifists in the true sense of the word, but they eagerly accepted the label and, by doing so, tended to blur any real distinction in the general make-up of the inter-war peace movement. their broad pacifist sympathies were reflected in their suggested reading list which recommended leading pacifist publications such as the christian and war, the canadian pacifist statement by gifford and his montreal associates, and the radical christian journal, the world tomorrow. the canadian section also suggested two new publications of their own entitled: "military training in canadian schools" and "world federation takes a stand on military training. i l the primary objective of the wil as well as other canadian pacifists during the twenties was the elimination of militarism in v education, whether in school textbooks or in cadet training. it became a burning issue among various pacifist groups throughout the country; thus, it was the catalyst in uniting pacifists and in building a stronger more cohesive peace movement in general. as evident from their pamphlets on the subject, the wil provided the initial impetus in the campaign. central to their attack was the glorification of the military and war in canadian school textbooks. the wil and their pacifist supporters favored a complete revision of textbooks in canada in order to supplant a militaristic bias with lessons on the prevention of war, international goodwill and the economics and spiritual unity of mankind. j. s. woodsworth was one of the first to join in the attack on textbooks. "unless our children are taught the futility and suicidal tendency of modern war, i he wrote, "they will as adults find themselves engaged in another war which experts tell us will almost certainly wipe out western . ' ' t . ii w d th t d ii d d f' t til' c vl lza lon. swor repor e a goo ea ln eres ln the issue across central and western canada as early as . in toronto the society of friends waged a successful campaign with the support of the toronto globe against the use of flag and fleet in ontario schools. l the whole issue came to a head at the end of the decade when the toronto branch of the wil sponsored an independent survey by fifty-seven history teachers of all history textbooks used in canadian schools. although the report of the survey committee concluded that between seventeen and thirty per-cent of the content of most texts was devoted to military history, it provided no evidence that a militaristic bias prevailed throughout the books. however, the percentage devoted to military history was certainly excessive and the wil remained convinced that a revision of history books was . d t b th th f . . t . necessary ln or er cur e grow ml arlsm. the other major target of pacifist derision, and the one which aroused the most interest and debate, was cadet training in the schools. the widespread practice of military training in canadian schools began with the creation of a special trust fund for that purpose by lord strathcona in . from that time its growth accelerated, particularly during the war. ironically, the greatest increase in the number of cadets occurred in the twenties when opposition to military training was stirring. for instance, the number of cadets in canada jumped from , in to , in while the national expenditure on cadet training rose from $ , in to $ , in . alarmed, pacifist groups publicized the statistics as further evidence of the trend towards a militaristic society. when the annual grant to cadet services was debated in the house of commons, farm and labor opposition was voiced repeatedly by j. s. woodsworth and agnes macphail. farm organizations in particular passed numerous resolutions condemning the cadet program while farm journals such as the western producer publicized the woodsworth-macphail speeches against military training in schools. macphail painted such a lurid picture of school boys being sent to a bloody slaughter that there was a general outcry from the public. in she made her first of many ill-fated motions in the house protesting cadet training. "why should we take our boys," she asked, iidress them in uniforms and teach them to strut along to martial strains with their foolish little guns and swords at their sides? i the same line of argument was used by macphail's colleagues in the wil. for instance, the toronto wil, through the efforts of its post-war presidents, alice loeb and berta hamilton, continually raised the issue in public meetings and lectures and, by mid-decade, was effective in placing an anti-cadet resolution before every trade union in toronto, . th t' f . t w sa s y ng resu s. officially, cadet training consisted of military dril" rifle shooting and physical training, but its opponents maintained it also included psychological conditioning in the desirability of war in settling disputes and the glorification of war as an ideal. ' the alternative, they proposed, was proper instruction in physical education. according to a report of the educational committee of the toronto wil, however, even physical training programs had come undermi itary influence. the wil found that three-fourths of all instructors of physical training courses at teacher training institu- tions were officers of the permanent militia. in ontario only men with a cadet instructor s certificate issued by the department of militia and defense could be granted certificates as specialists in physical culture by the ontario department of education. further- more, although military training was not compulsory in canadian schools and colleges, the report maintained that strong pressure was exerted upon boys to join the cadets, "sometimes taking the form of an indication that preference will be given to cadets in the choice of boys to place on the sport teams." the report concluded that canada was "in great danger of becoming a militaristic countryll with schools as the culture ground for lian embryo army. ii the wil pamphlet on military training received a hearty endorsement from the society of friends for use in their study groups. historically opposed to military training for reasons of conscience, the quakers criticized the post-war cadet program as antagonistic to the progessive reconstruction of the world and argued in favor of t t · h· t . . . h i th a erna lve p yslca ralnlng courses ln sc s. n e canada yearly meeting reaffirmed their position that: the training of the body in physical exercise is a valuable part of any educational system for our young people, but any instruction that inculcates in a boy at such a time in his life the ideals of militarism is not only in its tendency contrary to the spirit of love and brotherhood which the society of friends desire to follow, but would inevitably cause them to forget or miss the lessons of the horror and futility of war ...• from resolutions to individual actions, quakers struggled to support the campaign against the cadet program and militarism in education. in , for example, edgar zavitz of the genessee yearly meeting tried to organize a letter-writing campaign in support of agnes macphail's stand in parliament against increased cadet expenditures. a few years later, raymond booth, secretary of the toronto monthly meeting, suggested that favorite device of all causes, an oratorical contest, to help combat the spirit of militarism in toronto schools. the canadian friend followed the issue closely and excited its readers with such rhetorical questions as: are we as a people being militarized? are our sons and daughters being trained for war? are we taking any steps to check the insidious propaganda of those interested in shackling the youth of this land with the blight of the war-mind? despite the united determination of the society of friends, the women's international league and other pacifists, the campaign against cadet training was largely ineffective during the twenties. the cadet corps in canadian schools continued to drill and grow, and by the government expenditure on military training had risen to a half million dollars. arthur dorland, one of the leading quaker spokesmen, attributed this dilemma to the fact that it was simply more convenient for school officials and boards of education to continue militia training considering the strong incentive of the government grants. indeed, the average cadet instructor had a vested interest in the program since he received at least an additional $ per year for every ninety cadets. local school boards were also reluctant to abolish the cadet corps because "they liked the cheap means of providing for physical education.,, finally, the wil appealed to the united church to condemn the cadet corps as unchristian. the first general council of the united church in had considered a resolution favoring the abolition of cadet training but h d t d f · d .. w ' . c . ht d' t f a pos pone a lna eclslon. lam relg on, as e or - the new outlook, took up the wil cause, arguing that if it can be shown that military training in our schools tends to foster the military spirit among our youth, and lends itself to a sympathetic attitude towards war as an established institution of our world order, the church cannot consistently give it her approval. although sympathetic, united churchmen remained noncommital on the issue until the general council appointed a special commission v on the cadet corps and officers' training corps. the investigation revealed that church membership was divided over the issue but more than ninety per-cent of those answering a questionnaire reported they found no evidence of militarism in the schools and approved of the cadet corps. ernest thomas, perhaps a little too easily, declared that the commission narrowed the issue down to one question: is the presence within the school life of the national government in the person of an inspecting officer on one day in the year such an infringement of christian obligation that the church should call for its abolition? the commission thought not and ultimately the church agreed that cadet training was not contrary to the christian conscience. the decision, while a severe blow to pacifists, far from settled the issue and the anti-cadet campaign persisted into the thirties when it met with some limited success. the co-operation of the society of friends in the broad campaign against cadet training was indicative of both the broad make- up of the inter-war peace movement and the general transition in quaker thought. by the end of the war friends around the world had revised their interpretation of pacifism to give it an active rather than a passive meaning. in keeping with their belief in the perfectibility of the world, friends adopted a more dynamic approach to removing the evils obstructing the achievement of the kingdom of god on earth. they opposed not only the violence of war but all forms of social oppression. thus, the new goal of twentieth century quakers was not ------ • merely a peaceful way of life but a complete, radical reconstruction of the political and economic order both within and among nations. furthermore, their acceptance of the state and the use of force to sustain it, such as a police force, allowed friends to broaden their historic tradition of passive resistance into an active but non- violent resistance as a means with which to achieve the new social order. twentieth-century quaker pacifism became synonymous with non-violent resistance and not just a philosophic attitude. quaker acceptance of non-violent force to bring about social change challenged traditional religious pacifism and, although rejected by the other historic :peace sects, the idea received considerable support from liberal protestants in the peace movement. for friends, however, their new creed posed a special dilemma: once pacifism became an instrument of radical social change and quaker concern centered on the achievement ofa new social order, they faced the constant tempta- tion to sacrifice the purity of their non-violent means in order to reach their goals. nevertheless, the transition among quakers from passive resistance to a more active pacifism, although gradual, was an important factor in the growth of the peace campaign in canada. canadian friends were kept abreast of the changing inter- pretations of "quakerism" largely through the efforts of albert s. v rogers, chairman of canada yearly meeting, professor arthur g. dorland, chairman of the peace committee, and fred haslam, treasurer of the finance cormnittee and later ,the jeading figure in the service committee. in august dorland and rogers were among the canadian delegates to the first world conference of all friends in london. the purpose of the conference was to clarify and deepen the peace testimony of the society as well as to "bi nd together its scattered branches in common work for the coming of the kingdom of god." l the conference produced various pamphlets for publication, including lithe fight against war, i a new statement of the quaker position. upon his return rogers reported that the london discussions were primarily concerned with the implications of pacifism in "civic and international relations •.. in personal and social relations .. and in the iii i fe of the sod ety. ii he also noted that the general tone of the conference emphasized individual responsibility in the building of "a new world order through practical application of ii the teach i ngs and spi rit of jesus. the canadi an delegates retu rned from england with a host of mental and spiritual impressions concerning their peace testimony. "we must have much quiet time at home," reported rogers, lito sort them, to make them more fully our own and to show as much of them to our friends as we can. i canadian friends had always thrived on anglo-american inspiration but it appears to have been the post-war influx of ideas and people which propelled them further on the road to social activism. the post-war attitude of the society of friends in canada came to reflect the dependence of the cause of peace on the successful quest for social and economic justice. the canadian friend publicized the correlation between the two ideals and reprinted numerous articles on the subject by internationally-known pacifists. the november issue, for instance, carried an article by mahatma gandhi, the famous indian pacifist and social activist, which had been originally printed in the world tomorrow. gandhi praised non- violence as the greatest force available to man in the struggle against evil. then, following an endorsement of the peace movement, he confessed: "i cannot help the growing fear that the movement will fail if it does not touch the root of all evil -- man's greed." l a similar note was struck when arthur dorland explained the wider implications of the quaker peace testimony to his fellow friends: it means a peaceable and loving spirit in our home circle, in our neightborhood, a proper sense of economic and social justice, a consideration for the rights of others in all the manifold relations of life. the most important expression of this philosophy by canadian friends in the early twenties was their support for post-war relief work in europe. in the two years from to canadian quakers contributed almost five thousand dollars to the american friends service committee for friends' famine relief in poland, france, germany and austria. apparently they agreed with dorland that european relief work presented the opportunity " ... to send our quaker message of goodwill to those who have so recently been called our enemies, and so help to heal the wounds of war. u some young canadians who had served with the friends' ambulance unit in europe during the war remained to assist in the relief program. the tragedy of the russian famine in prompted albert rogers to organize a drive for emergency aid to russia. with the support of john lewis, editor of the toronto globe, and charles d. gordon, manager of the head office of the dominion bank, over $ , in public donations were collected in toronto alone. as treasurer of the canada yearly meeting finance committee, fred haslam administered the national appeal. initially the canadian funds were sent to the american friends service committee for use in their relief work in russia, but later, "in the interest of wider appeal," the friends directed their funds for russian famine relief through the canadian save the children fund. the direct co-operation of canadian quakers with other religious groups in furthering the cause of peace was accelerated when the canada yearly meeting authorized arthur dorland to contact "other churches in order to organize some form of peace association in canada. u the association dorland had in mind was the world alliance for international friendship through the churches founded by joseph allen baker, a canadian born quaker then residing in britain and personal friend of the dorland family. the world alliance was the re-organized post-war version of the associated councils of churches in the british and german empires for fostering friendly relations between the two peoples. prior to the war the associated councils of churches had enlisted the support of over , canadians with the canadian peace and arbitration society acting as the official canadian section. since the peace and arbitration society dis- integrated during the war, however, canadians had no contact with the new world alliance until dorland took the initiative to restore the connection. after meeting with the american council of the world alliance in , dorland was convinced that the first step was to get canadians into the world alliance and then to organize a separate canadian section. subsequently, with assistance from the british council, over canadian clergymen were persuaded to join the american council. at first the world alliance had little impact in canada, primarily because canadian members were merely part of an american organization. dorland's efforts to organize a canadian council, "however, were rejected by the other denominations who were ., f q k . f' th t th t f susp c us ua er pacl sm. e re uc ance on e par canadian clergymen to co-operate with the quakers was overcome only when the archbishop of canterbury, president of the international world alliance, endorsed the idea of a canadian section. quakers, anglicans and other major protestant denominations finally joined together to form the canadian council of the world alliance in november . the most active members where those already prominent in the peace debate. they included: dorland, albert rogers and fred haslam, all quakers; archibishop matheson of halifax, primate of the anglican church in canada; s. d. chown, the former general superintendent of the methodist church; and professor p. v. pilcher v of trinity college, toronto. pilcher became particularly active in the canadian council and on several occasions had to assure his anglican colleagues that the world alliance was not strictly a pacifist organization, "but a means of promoting world peace by both pacifists and non-pacifists who hoped to discover mutually acceptable means of furthering christian goodwill and friendship.,, the effectiveness of the world alliance in canada was hampered by the fact that its staunchest supporters, the quakers and anglicans, represented the two extremes of pacifism and armed preparedness. consequently, the world alliance avoided the controversial topics of the day such as cadet training and became involved instead in more mundane efforts such as the promotion of the league of nations or the celebration of peace sunday. by the primary canadian role in the world alliance appeared to be the promotion of anglo-american co-operation, reminiscent of pre-war canadian peace societies. regardless of their particular activities, however, the creation of a canadian council of the world alliance further broadened the base of a canadian peace movement and focused attention on the moral necessity of international co-operation. its most important purpose, according to dorland, was simply to provide the means by which the church could be aroused to its oppor- tunity and duty to create that enlightened, christian, public opinion in which the peace of the world and the success of any machinery designed to secure it, ulti- mately rest. one of the most important contributions of friends to the peace movement was their attempt to create an liintelligent public sentimentll and a sense of public responsibility for domestic and international peace. furthermore, friends promoted canadian membership in various pacifist or peace-oriented associations, including: the league of nations society, the world alliance, the women's international league and the fellowship of reconciliation. the peace committee of the canadian and genesee yearly meetings maintained a peace library of current pacifist publications and encouraged their membership to read important new books. the canadian pacifist publication, the christian and war, for instance, / was recommended highly by dorland to readers of the canadian friend. although canadian friends had begun to radicalize their thinking in terms of the real social and economic prerequisites for world peace, they also maintained their faith in the power of a public peace mentality and therefore welcomed the kellogg peace pact as a great step in that direction. . throughout most of the twenties the other historic peace sects in canada were relatively silent on the public issue of international conflict and the popular movement for world peace. contrary to quakers, the mennonites, hutteri tes and doukhobors remai ned fai thfu ./' to the principle of non-resistance and tried to maintain the separation of their communities from the mainstream of canadian society. although mennonites in the united states actively opposed the quaker iiheresy" of non-violent resistance, canadian mennonites were too pre-occupied with more immediate problems confronting their communities, such as the immigration of more mennonites from russia, to mount any opposition to new quaker ways, even if they were disposed to do so. indeed, there was an unintended collaboration when the humanitarian work of friends in russian famine relief in coincided with the efforts of canadian mennonites to resettle russian mennonite refugees in canada. ever since the bolshevik revolution, large numbers of russian mennonites wished to join their north american brethren, but the immigration into canada of "mennonites, hutterites and doukhobors" had been specifically banned by a order-in-council. the dis- criminatory measure was passed in response to widespread public reaction against the hutterian communal lifestyle, the t~ennonite resistance to learning the english language and their common german background and conscientious objections to military service. following the war mennonites carried on an active lobby to get the order-in-council rescinded and solicited the support of william lyon mackenzie king who had been raised in ontario's mennonite country. finally, in , when king and the liberal party were returned to power, the order-in-council was repealed and the door was open for russian mennonites to enter canada once more. in conjunction with the colonization program of the canadian pacific railway, annual waves of mennonites reached canada in the 's. the largest move- ments occurred between and . by the time immigration was again restricted in over , new russian mennonites had flocked to the canadian prairies. the newcomers who arrived from russia after became known as russlanders, while the canadian mennonites who had left russia in the 's identified themselves as kanadier. although the influx of mennonite immigrants in- creased the number of those in canada opposed to military service and warfare, the mennonites themselves recoiled from the pacifist debate until they were again directly threatened by conscription and the second world war. hutterites, as well, remained withdrawn from canadian society and concentrated on protecting the integrity of their communal colonies from local prejudice and discriminatory legislation designed to prevent their further expansion. the resentment of western canadians to the idea of con- scientious objectors profiting at the expense of those in uniform also plagued the doukhobors in british columbia. although relatively unmolested during the war, they were the victims of post-war dis- content and suspicion. in british columbia deprived doukhobors of their right to vote in provincial elections, while the citizens of nelson and grand forks passed resolutions demanding deportation of doukhobors to russia and the expropriation of their lands for re-distribution to returned soldiers. dissatisfaction and un- easiness mounted among the doukhobors, and in a new confrontation with the state was triggered when they began to withdraw their children from the schools. attempts by authorities to seize property in payment of fines levied against the parents were followed by a wave of school burnings. from to nine schools were destroyed by arson along with peter verigin's own house and other doukhobor property in brilliant, british columbia. "peter the lordli' himself was killed in october when the railway coach in which he was riding exploded. the mysterious series of violent acts notwith- standing, most doukhobors remained adamantly opposed to military force and war. their pacifist beliefs, however, allowed the exercise of physical protests such as the boycott of schools and nude marches, tactics in keeping with non-violent resistance. contrary to most liberal pacifist practices, however, doukhobor protests were tied to their anarchistic rejection of the authority of the state. above all, doukhobor concern centered on the maintenance of their freedom and peculiar way of life; therefore they remained aloof from the general clamour for world peace during the inter-war years. an exception was peter makaroff, a doukhobor lawyer who played an important role as a pacifist and socialist in saskatchewan before and during the second world war. as the ' s came to a close, the canadian peace movement reached an important stage in its growth and development. although some of the historic peace sects remained aloof, the movement had become a "broad front of groups and activities" made up of both absolute pacifists, those adamantly opposed to all wars and violent revolutions s and liberal internationalists and other peace activists who believed wars though sometimes necessarys was always irrational and inhumane and, therefore, should be prevented. this inter-war coalition was made possible when, with the absence of an immediate threat of war, lithe social hope of the social gospel fused with the world hope of pacifists and a broad range of internationalists." l once this merger of social gospel and pacifist groups began, a wide v variety of social and political activities were brought under the banner of the peace movement with the result that the larger social outlook and political action of people such as w. b. creighton, r. edis fairbairn, richard roberts, laura jamieson, violet mcnaughton, agnes macphail or j. s. woodsworth became inseparable from their pacifism. but that is not to say that the broad range of individuals associated with the movement agreed on one philosophical approach. not all, for instance, shared the pacifist belief in total war renunciation or a radical commitment to social change. indeed, the pacifist alignment with socialism which had begun during the war evolved s:lowly during the twenties. socially radical pacifists like woodsworth or fairbairn continually emphasized the relationship between war and capitalism but most of the liberal internationalists and social reformers who rallied to the peace movement felt free to display both their revulsion against war and militarism and their generally progressive reformism without engaging in a radical challenge to the political and economic order. consequently, the socially radical dimension of pacifism was hardly fully demonstrated in the twenties and would only become more apparent in both declaration and action under the pressure of the social and economic plight of the depression years. in the meantime, socially radical pacifists united with the rest of the peace movement in a campaign to redirect the thinking of canadian society towards peace and international co-operation. although they could "hardly hope to exercise any very great influence in the international field," wrote woodsworth to the british pacifist e. d. morel, canadian pacifists were doing "whatever is possible in the interests of peace.,, given the broad nature of the pacifist coalition, its members evaded questions which might have provoked disagreement in their ranks and joined forces, instead, in endorsing the league and disarmament and in combating the various manifestations of militarism in society, from the sale of military toys to military appropriations and cadet training in the schools. the expansion of the wil into a national organization and the effort by the scm to keep canadian university students interested in both pacifism and social action were the type of accomplishments which contributed to an upsurge of pacifist feeling in canada by the end of the twenties. indeed, no event better characterized the canadian peace movement than its reaction to the signing of the kellogg peace pact in . culminating a decade of pacifist activity dedicated to the condemnation of war, the pact was heralded as proof that the pacifist idea had taken root. the enthusiastic response of canadians ranged from endorsements by numerous organizations and churches to the ritual hanging of the pact in schools across the country. the importance of the pact in canada was underlined further by the fact that the canadian prime minister, w. l. mackenzie king, had been the canadian representative in paris. rather than a concrete plan to guarantee the peaceful settlement of international disputes, the kellogg pact was a mere statement of intention not much different than any other peace resolution; nevertheless, to pacifist forces it was the spirit of the peace pact which seemed to promise lia new and better day. i sl on the other hand, as peace advocates looked to the future they were painfully aware of the existence of conditions in the world which contained the threat of war. in his report for a united church sessional committee on war and peace, newton w. rowell, father of the league of nations society in canada, reflected this realism of the movement when he warned that the presence of immense standing armies, the development of great navies and the creation of mighty air-fleets cannot but be an occasion of unrest and constitute an every present reminder that we have not yet passed from the menace of war. as a course of action, rowell urged the church to enter a new crusade in order lito lead and to develop the peace purpose of the nations, i especially the creation of lia christian public opinion and the obliteration from the national life of such continuing evils as racial antipathies, selfish nationalism and international jealousies. i the united church, rowell concluded confidently, had declared her will for peace and consecrated herself to its attainment. the same determination characterized the entire peace movement as it accelerated its campaign for both peace and social justice amid the crises of the thirties. footnotes minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, , p. . brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . norman penner, the canadian left: a critical ana jsis (scarborough, ontario: prentice-hall of canada, ltd., , p. . a en, the social passion, pp. - . brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . ibid • ibid ., pp. - . for a full account of post-war agrarian politics see: w. l. morton, the progressive party in canada (toronto: university of toronto press, ) and l. d. courville, "the conservatism of the saskatchewan progressives," cha historical papers, , pp. - . w. r. young, "conscription, rural depopulation, and the farmers of ontario, - ," canadian historical review, september , pp. - ; throughout the war farm journals criticized the cost of the war, treatment of conscientious objectors, and repeatedly denounced militarists and armed preparedness. see page, "canadians and the leagu! of nations," p. . thomas p. socknat, "canada, imperial foreign policy and the abrogation of the anglo-japanese alliance, ," m.a. thesis, university of nebraska, omaha, . llpage, "canadians and the league of nations," p. . the canadian friend, january , p. . l page , "canadi ans and the league of nati ons," p. . an exception was s. d. chown's effort to promote the league in local congregations of the methodist church. . page , "canadians and the league of nations," pp. , ibid ., p. l. allen, the social passion, pp. - . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. . ibid ., p. ; allen, the social passion, pp. , . a en, the social passion, p. . the christian guardian, october , , p. . the globe (toronto), july . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. . the christian guardian, october , p. . ibi d. ibid ., february , p. . ibid . ibid ., april , p. . . ibid • ibid ., april , pp. - . a en, the social passion, p. . christian guardian, october , p. . allen, the social passion, pp. - . ibid ., pp. - ; kirby page was the secretary of the fellowship for a christian social order in the united states, a socialist-pacifist organization. allen, the social passion, pp. - ; christian guardian, june , p. . christian guardian, may , p. ; june , p. ; june , p. . ). ibid ., june , p. . ibid ., july . ibid ., may , p. . ibid . ibid ., september , pp. , . ibid ., january , p. . ibid., july , p. . ibid .; allen, the social passion, p. . r. edis fairbairn, apostate christendom (london: ken-pax, united church of canada archives (uca), army and navy board, box , file . ibid ., rev. j. h. bateson, secretary, wesleyan army and navy board to rev. t. a. moore, secretary, army and navy board of the methodist church of canada, may , . ibid ., fairbairn to moore, june . ibid ., moore to fairbairn, august . christian guardian, july , pp. , ; september , p. . ibid., january , p. . ibid., march , p. . ibid ., december , p. . ibid., may , p. . ibid., september , p. ; allen, the social passion, p. . uring the inter-war years fairbairn wrote over sixty-five articles for the christian guardian and its successors the new outlook and the united church observer. allen, the social passion, p. . richard roberts, "how the fellowship began," fellowship, ix (january ), p. . ibid ., p. ; uca, richard roberts papers, file , gwen r. p. norman, "richard roberts," unpublished manuscript, . norman, "richard roberts," pp. , . richard roberts papers, box , file , m. a. coffey, u. s. attorney to roberts, december . ibid ., hodgkin to roberts, november . ibid ., roberts to brockway, september . richard roberts, lithe problem of conscience," international journal of ethics (april ), p. . ibid . ibid ., p. . norman, ii ri chard roberts, lip. . w. a. gifford, et. al., the christian and war (toronto, ) • ibid., p. . l ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . allen, the social passion, p. . among those pacifists who endorsed the christian and war were arthur dorland in the canadian friend, r. edis fairbairn in the new outlook, and violet mcnaughton in the western producer. page , "canadians and the league of nations ," p. . saskatchewan archives board, saskatoon (sabs), violet mcnaught papers al.e ( ), laura jamieson, wil circular letter, march ; woodsworth papers, manuscript group , iii, c , vol. , j. s. woodsworth to hattie, august . ~mcnaughton papers, al.h. (j), women's international league for peace and freedom, vancouver board, pamphlet, n.d. donald m. page, lithe development of a western canadian peace movement, i the twenties in western canada, edited by s. m. trofimenkoff (ottawa: national museum of man, " ), p. . ibid., p. . mcnaughton papers, al.h. ( ), women's international league for peace and freedom, vancouver branch, pamphlet, n.d. page , "wes tern canadi an peace movement,.' pp. - . mcnaughton papers, al. e. ( ), mcnaughton to jane addams, october . page , "western canadian peace movement," pp. - . ibi d., p. . mcnaughton papers, a . e. , laura jamieson to mcnaughton, october . ibid .; gertrude bussey and margaret tims, women's inter- national leaiue for peace and freedom, - (london: george al en and unwin ltd., , r. . ibid ., p. . christian guardian, june , pro , . ibid ., may , p. ; bussey and tims, women's internationar-league, p. . evening telegram (toronto), june , p. ; page, "canadians and the league of nations," p. . margaret stewart and doris french, ask no quarter (toronto: longmans, green and company, ), pp. - . p. . the "canadian friend, july , p. . minutes of the genessee yearly meeting of friends, , the canadian friend, august , p. . ibid ., april , p. . gifford, et. a ., the christian and war, p. . the christian guardian, april , p. . ernest a. dale, twenty-one years a-building, a short history of the student christian movement of canada, - (toronto: scm, n.d.), p. . a en, the social passion, p. . dale , twenty-one years a-building, p. . an exception was j. davidson ketchum, a returned war veteran who had been a german prisoner of war. ketchum remained prominent in the scm leadership. margaret beattie, a brief history of the student christian movement in canada, ed. by the scm (toronto: scm, ), p. . ibid • the student volunteer movement was a parent organization of the sot devoted to the study of foreign missions for the purpose of encouraging students to become missionaries. canadian student, february , p. . n. a. mackenzie later became a canadian authority on international law. the varsity (university of toronto), january , special supplement. l beattie, the scm in canada, p. . l°bwilpf, vancouver branch, pamphlet, n.d. l mcnaughton papers, al. e. ( ), mcnaughton to jane addams, october . llolaura jamieson, "how did the peace conference turn out," the church review, n.d., p. , mcnaughton papers, al. e. ( ). lllmcnaughton papers, al. e. (l), "addresses given at the peace conference held on june th ," and "resolutions passed at the farm women's university week." ibid ., jamieson, "how did the peace conference turn out?", p. . ibid . page , iiwestern canadian peace movement, i p. ; mcnaughton papers, al. e. ( ), agnes macphail to mcnaughton, march ; jamieson, wil newsletter, september . despite their anti-war and anti-imperialist prejudices, french canadians were not receptive to pacifism, probably because of their conservative catholicism. on the other hand, there is no clear' explanation for the general lack of support for the peace movement in the maritimes; perhaps it is related to a possible conservative pro-imperial spirit. mcnaughton papers, al. h. ( ), women s international league for peace and freedom, canadian section, pamphlet; beatrice brigden was to become an influential exponent of social radicalism as well as pacifism in the interwar era. for more on her see: beatrice bridgen, i ne woman s campaign for social purity and social reformll in richard allen, ed., the social gospel in canada (ottawa: national museum of man, ), pp. - . ll ibid . ibi d. ibid . mcnaughton papers, al. d. , j. s. woodsworth to mcnaughton, march . page , "canadians and the league of nations, j p. ; minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. ; ibid., , p. . isa m. byers, report of the canadian school history textbook survey committee (toronto: women s international league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, ). l ibid .; page, iiwestern canadian peace movement, j p. . james willis howard, iia study of cadet training in the dominion of canada, j ph.d. thesis, cornell university, , abstract. military trainin~ in canadian schools and colleges (toronto: womenis internatl nal league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, ). page , "western canadian peace movement," p. . stewart and french, ask no quarter, p. . ibid., p. . mcnaughton papers, al. e. ( ), alice loeb to mcnaught, may . p. . p. . howard, iia study of cadet training," abstract. m"l "t t"" "c d" s h ary ralnlng n ana an c s. ibid . the canadian friend, may. , p. . minutes of the genesee yearly meeting of friends, . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , l minutes of the genesee, yearly meeting of friends, , the canadian friend, september , p. , ibid., may , p. . m" "t t"" "c d" s h ary ra nlng " ana lan c s. the canadian friend, september , p. . m"l't t"' 'c d" s h ary ralnlng n ana lan c s. page , "western canadian peace movement," p. . ibid ., p. . new outlook, january , p. . ibidq p. ., page , "western canadian peace movement," p. . new outlook, october , p. . nelson, peace prophets, p. . ibid ., pp. - . a bert s. rogers, lithe london conference," the canadian friend, october , p. . ibid. ibid . mahatma gandhi, "non-violence -- the greatest force, i the canadian friend, november, , p. . p. . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , ibid ., , p. . ibid ., , p. . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. ; the canadian friend, march, , p. ; fred haslam, - a record of ex erience with canadian friends uakers and the canadian ecumenical movement toronto: society of friends, , pp. - . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , p. . interview with arthur g. dorland, january ; arthur g. dorland, former days and quaker ways, a canadian restrospect, p. . p. . page , "canadians and the league of nations," p. . ibid., pp. - . ibid., p. . the canadian friend, august , p. . page , "canadians and the league of nations," pp. - . ibid., p. . the canadian friend, december , p. . minutes of the canada yearly meeting of friends, , minutes of the canadan and genesee yearly meetings, , the canadian friend, january, , p. ; july, , ibid ., september, , p. . frank h. epp, mennoni te exodus (altona, r~anitoba: d. w. friesen and sons, ltd., ), p. . ibid ., p. . woodcock and avakumovic, the doukhobors, p. . ibid ., pp. - . l makaroff's contributions are discussed in the following chapter. l a len, the social passion, p. . l woodsworth papers, m. g. , iii, c , v. , j. s. woodsworth to e. d. morel, may . l nelson, the peace prophets, p. , nelson claims this became the typical approach of british and north american pacifists in the twenties. l brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. , brock notes that this general upsurge in pacifist feeling throughout the english-speaking world at the end of the twenties was illustrated in a whole spate of popular anti-war novels, plays, and memoirs which appeared in the years - . one such canadian novel was charles yale harrison, generals die in bed (london, , reprint ed., hamilton, ontario: potlatch publications, ). l the idea of framing the peace pact and hanging it in schools seems to have been originated by rev. harold t. allen, a united church minister in british columbia, and thereafter gained the support of the dominion government through the effort of dr. hugh dobson, the western field secretary of the united church department of evangelism and social service. hugh dobson papers (in personal file of a. r. allen), william deans to dr. hugh dobson, august ; dobson to w. l. mackenzie king, december ; interview with harold t. allen, may , hamilton, ontario; for more on harold t. allen see: harold t. allen, iia view from the manse: the social gospel and social crisis in british columbia, - , in richard allen, ed., the social gospel in canada, pp. - . l the new outlook, september , p. . ibid . ibid . chapter v cementing the bonds with social radicalism in the early depression years while an inter-war peace coalition gained momentum after the mid-twenties, canadians enjoyed a period of economic prosperity marked by the largest wheat harvest on record in . as the 's drew to a close, however, the short-lived boom collapsed and canada, along with the united states, great britain and most other industrial nations, found herself in the great depression, the social and economic upheaval which characterized canadian life for the next decade. following the great wall street crash of the canadian situation grew steadily worse. the price of wheat tumbled while unsold grain surpluses increased each year. years of crop failure spelt economic disaster for canada, a crisis further aggravated by severe drought on the prairies. meanwhile, unemployment mounted in urban areas and by , with approximately one out of every two wage earners out of work, eanada was in the middle of the most serious challenge to her social and economic structure. canada was not alone in her despair, however, and canadians became increasingly aware of the international ramifications of the depression. industrial capitalism was face to face with the deepest crisis of its history, and liberal democratic regimes and ideology were thrown on the defensive before collectivist and racist solutions. in partial reaction to economic plight, for instance, japan was the first to defy the post-war ideal of collective security by moving into manchuria in , and by hitler's third reich had replaced the weimar republic in germany, promising simple solutions to colossal economic confusion and unemployment. the international situation gradually deteriorated and by mid-decade the optimism of the peace movement was severely shaken by increased fascist aggression. in the meantime, amid the depression years of the early thirties, canadian pacifists strengthened their alliance with league of nations internationalists .and the radical left in the quest for both peace and social justice at home and abroad. in regard to international tensions pacifists continued to place their faith in disarmament, but on the domestic scene, as new groups promoting radical solutions to the economic crisis proliferated, pacifist sentiment became closely linked with social radicalism, particularly since the new radical social gospel with its pacifistic sympathies had socialist inclinations. since the great war liberal pacifists had come to appreciate the positive uses of the state to secure greater social welfare and, hence, they believed, the institutionalizing of more pacifistic arrangements in society. that did not, of course, run counter to their belief that human nature was essentially good -- just that new social and economic circumstances required a more collective response to social needs. consequently, pacifists were influential in the various socially radical groups organized in response to the depression; especially during the first half of the thirties, the peace movement became unequivocally allied with the movement for radical social change. the new decade of peace activities began with the organization of socially concerned toronto pacifists around a small nucleus of activists. one was richard roberts. since his arrival at toronto's sherbourne united church in , roberts had become an influential force within both the student christian movement and the wider peace movement. by the spring of roberts and dr. w. p. firth, a quake~ succeeded in organizing the first chapter of the fellowship of reconciliation (for) in canada, and within a year the toronto organization attracted approximately members from varied religious, political and social affiliations. afterward, various peace groups across the country adopted the name of the fellowship but canadian pacifists did not attempt to affiliate with the inter- national parent organization until the late thirties. one of the first activities of the new for was its co- operation with affiliated toronto peace groups, such as the women's international league for peace and freedom, in sponsoring an "all day peace conference" on armistice day, . the primary organizers of the event were rabbi maurice n. eisendrath, president of the for, and g. raymond booth, executive secretary of the for and chairman of the toronto monthly meeting of friends. ceremonies began on a religious note with the decoration of graves of "heroes of peace ll at mount pleasant cemetery by a variety of religious and political leaders, including the venerable archdeacon j. c. davidson of the anglican church, rabbi samuel sachs, controller james simpson and the poet wilson macdonald. a young people's program featured a showing of "hi gh treason," a sri ti sh fil m with a peace esson, to hundreds of high-school pupils followed by a discussion led by earl lautenslager, a theological student at victoria college. the main speaker of the peace conference was j. s. woodsworth. in the afternoon he led a series of group discussions on the "psychological, political, and economic causes of war" and proposals for pacifist action in light of the social and economic problems of the day. the canadian forum, emphasizing the radical tone of the pacifists, later reported a general conviction of the conference that war has its roots in almost every branch of human activity, but the taproot feeds upon social injustice, and the economic insecurity of great masses of people in every part of the world.? the climax of the conference was woodsworth's address to a public meeting on disarmament sponsored by the toronto branch of the wil and chaired by dr. salem bland. delivered at yorkminster church, woodsworth's address was broadcast over the toronto radio station cfrb. also on the program was a poetry reading by wilson macdonald. macdonald's poems, especially those concerning war and human nature, were popular among canadian pacifists. an example is the following poem entitled "war": his feet are rotting from a slow gangrene; his tusks are yellow and his eyes are green. but the church of god calls him sweet and clean. his flesh is livid with copper-hued sores. he ravishes lads and he sleeps with whores. but the church of god lets him in her doors. his eyes are founts of greed, hate, lust. and he killed high freedom with a quick, cold thrust. but the church of god has declared him just. o church of god, where the great hymns roar, is that man, jesus, going from your door? is he going to make room for your red saint, war? the wil took advantage of the toronto conference to begin circulation in canada of the "international declaration of world disarmament," a petition in support of disarmament which was being distributed io forty-seven different countries. ll initiated by lord robert cecil, joint president of the league of nations, the declaration was publicized by the wil in great britain where it received the official support of the league of nations union, many churches, political parties, labor organizations and peace societies. as in toronto, the wil groups in winnipeg, regina, edmonton and vancouver began circulating the declaration during their respective peace conferences in . within a few months the declaration for disarmament had been endorsed by the annual convention of the united farmers of ontario, the federated women's institutes of toronto, the board of the women's missionary societies of the united church, the women's baptist foreign missionary society of western ontario, eastern ontario and quebec, the national women's missionary committee of the church of christ (disciples), the women's auxilary to the missionary society of the church of england in canada, the national wctu and the national council of the ywca. the enthusiastic response of canadian women's groups to the declaration for disarmament suggests that disarmament had become one of the major international issues of the day. indeed, the world- wide petition for disarmament was intended to consolidate public support for the international disarmament conference scheduled to commence at geneva in february . since an earlier conference had ended in failure in , the new prospect for disarmament had become the major hope of pacifists in the early thirties and was viewed with both anxiety and urgency. in canada, the campaign for disarmament received the dedicated support of all major pacifist groups, particularly the wil who told its members that it was "imperative that public opinion be thoroughly educated, and that the peoples be pledged to give every support to the cause of disarmament, both before and when the conference begi ns. ii as part of their preparation for the upcoming disarmament conference, the toronto branch of the wil held a special "s ummer school" or "institute" for the american and canadian wil sections at the end of may . the institute was held at wymilwood, the women's union of victoria college and was the first summer school in which the canadian wil had a direct part. prime initiator of the event was anna sissons, wife of professor c. b. sissons of victoria college (cousin of j. s. woodsworth). as the new president of the toronto branch she was instrumental in wil activities throughout the decade. organized around the theme lithe economic basis of peace," the institute was attended by representatives from chicago, cleveland, detroit and seven canadian cities. among the guest speakers were emily g. balch, president of the united states section of the wil and jane addams, the international president. agnes macphail, honorary president of the canadian section, chaired a timely discussion on "preparing for the disarmame~t conference in ". by the summer of the wil was actively joined in the campaign for disarmament by the canadian national council of women, reflecting the united demand for disarmament by the member organiza- tions of the women's inter-national drganizations. the canadian local councils were particularly motivated in this regard by lady aberdeen, the president of the international council of women and original founder of the national council of women in canada. lady aberdeen noted with pride the enthusiastic response of the canadian national council and its local councils to the disarmament campaign and wrote: it will be a great satisfaction to me to be able to report to the international council of women, and the other national councils of women, how energeti- cally the canadian women are promoting this great world campaign for promoting peace. an example of this peace work was the resolution passed by the toronto local council of women urging the canadian government to insist that any disarmament convention reached at geneva require all signatories to assume control of industries in their respective countries which manufactured the iiprimary equipment of warll. in another vein, miss m. winnifred kydd, president of the canadian national council of women, conducted a speaking tour of eastern canada in support of the disarmament conference and urged local councils to take an active interest in international affairs. the following year when miss kydd was appointed an official member of the canadian delegation to the disarmament conference, lady aberdeen was overjoyed with the achievement of the canadian national council of women. iii always feel it was canada, i she confessed, iithat taught me the practicality of both n.c. 's and of the i.c.w. and prepared me for the further devel~pment with which i have been identified. i l in a broadcast from geneva made through the facilities of the columbia broadcasting company, miss kydd reported to the canadian public on the progress of the conference and praised the work of canadian women for peace: i am convinced that you, who have laboured so devotedly to have these petitions signed and placed before the conference, are largely responsible for this more friendly atmosphere in which our work is proceeding. i appeal to you not to relax your efforts. the world-wide promotion of the international declaration on disarmament was successful in collecting over eight million signatures from fifty-six countries. in canada the disarmament petition and the geneva conference in general received both encourage- ment and publicity from pacifist and internationalist elements. violet mcnaughton, for instance, reported that over , signatures were collected in saskatoon alone, while the new outlook devoted the cover of its february , issue to lord cecil and his disarmament petition circulated by the wil. the united church was a strong supporter of the peace campaign and disarmament in particular. while international discussions took place in geneva, a special committee of the general council of the united church was appointed to consider the issue under the leadership of richard roberts. asserting that ii war is contrary to the mind of christ," the committee called upon ministers and members of the church to iiredouble their efforts everywhere to stir up such a conviction in these matters as has never been known before. i concerning disarma- ment, the committee advocated the abolition of the private manufacture of armaments but confessed that it would take "something sterner and more influential than mere resolutions" to influence one of the largest and richest of industries. a year later when it became apparent that the geneva conference was headed for failure, roberts wrote prime minister r. b. bennett that the disarmament conference was bound to miscarry iibecause of the absence of a thorough-going realism in its proceedings. i roberts argued that the basis for disarmament discussions at geneva were iifar too much occupied with questions that are hardly more than academic in view of the new and awful possibilities ll of the one dominant threat in any future war -- the bombing aeroplane. since there was little defense against air attacks and i.!!. _ means of defending .! city from.! night attack..qy air, i the new military strategy would concentrate upon the element of surprise -- striking the first blow liin which case such a formality as a declaration of war would hardly be considered. i the ultimate significance of this revolutionized theory and practice of war, roberts concluded, was that the brunt of the next war would fall upon non-combatant populations, li an d in particular upon the dwellers in cities. i consequently, traditional arms and the strategy and tactics appropriate to them were no longer relevant to meaningful disarmament tal ks. given this iiprevision of " future war, i roberts urged that canadian representatives of the league of nations take the lead in organizing another disarmament committee for the single purpose of getting the nations to look frankly at the actual facts bearing upon the production and development of arms and materials for aerial warfare, and in that light to endeavour to envisage the situation which would immediately be created in the event of an outbreak of war. not only did prime minister bennett fail to act upon roberts' suggestion, the popularity of disarmament itself began to wane by mid-decade as the attention of the peace movement turned to the question of imposing sanctions against aggressor nations. roberts was one of the few pacifists who came close to articulating the stark reality of the disarmament question; the peace movement as a whole sublimated the failure to disarm nations in an upsurge of interest in individual war resistance and the quest for social justice. as evident from the disarmament campaign, one of the most active groups in the canadian peace movement was the women's inter- national league for peace and freedom. for the most part the wil emphasized practical issues such as the question of cadet training in the schools. the campaign launched during the 's to substitute the cadet system with classes in physical education met with some success in the thirties, particularly in winnipeg and toronto. in both instances the final outcome resulted from a concerted effort by wil women to separate militarism from education. one of the tactics of the toronto branch was to nominate members as candidates for the board of education. once a member of the board, however, it was not easy to persuade toronto's civic leaders, many with imperialist sympathies and military memories, to abolish the cadet system. the issue finally came to a head when mrs. ida siegel, member of the toronto board of education for ward four and wil activist, publicized the practice of financially rewarding teachers according to the number of cadets in their classes, which in turn resulted in favoritism shown to cadets over other students. when the toronto board of education discontinued cadet training in the cadet uniforms were distributed among boys in the poor areas of the city. the moving spirits of the toronto wil during the thirties were anna sissons, president, and alice loeb, secretary. under their guidance, the toronto wil organized annual peace demonstrations on armistice day with numerous organizations participating. such demonstrations, often featuring a parade of banners and posters renouncing war, were characteristic of pacifist efforts to keep alive the public demand for peace. in the toronto wil and the society of friends sponsored a one-day national conference concerning the special geneva conference on peace called by lord robert cecil. their special guest was the well-known british pacifist, maud royden. dr. rose henderson, member of the toronto board of education and the toronto wil, was selected to represent canada at the international wil congress also slated to meet in geneva. dr. henderson, who had also served as the canadian delegate to the wil congress at the hague in , had been instrumental in organizing a competition for peace posters in toronto's technical schools. over posters were submitted and exhibited in a new art gallery opened by arthur lismer, the canadian artist and member of the famous iigroup of seven ll • other school competitions in the interest of peace included the writing of essays and peace plays. violet mcnaughton remained a leading figure in the western wil and it may have been under her inspiration that a school girl from saskatoon won second prize in an international peace essay competition. throughout the thirties mcnaughton maintained regular correspondence with wil women across canada and was in iifairly constant" contact with katherine d. blake, chairman of the committee on international relations for the new york city federation of women s clubs. through blake, mcnaughton was kept abreast of the current drift of . t t· to . to n erna na peace ac v les. the growth of the wil in western canada in the s, however, was hardly spectacular. in the edmonton peace study group, under the leaderhsip of nellie mcclung, became a full-fledged branch of the wil, increasing the number of canadian branches to four as well as peace groups in brandon, regina, saskatoon and calgary. as a direct result of mcnaughtonls influence, a peace group in moose jaw became affilitated with the wil in and by two new wil groups were formed in jasper and edson, alberta. the women of the wil, however, had other rows to hoe in the s. mcnaughton continued to draw much of her inspiration and many of her ideas onlithe discussion of current affairs from the dynamic vancouver wil branch and their president, laura jamieson. by , however, jamieson devoted less time to the wil than to radical political pursuits. she was particularly active in the vancouver section of the league for social reconstruction (lsr), a newly formed national organization dedicated to the establishment of socialism in canada. jamieson joined a co-operative, mainly composed of the unemployed in burnaby, british columbia, because she felt strongly that "co-operative associations are the intennediate steps between the present order and the socialist state. i the social reconstruc- tion clubs, however, were not radical enough for mcnaughton who described them as "fifty years behind the time. i lithe crisis is so acute here," she confided to jamieson, "that one hardly feels like studying academic measures when what we need is something dynamic and ifll ediate. \ similar sentiments were echoed in toronto where numerous wil members were active in radical politics. alice loeb, for instance, headed a ccf membership drive under the slogan: "socialism for canada in our time. i the increasing sympathy of jamieson, mcnaughton, loeb and other wil women for radical social change was fairly typical of the transition of the entire canadian peace movement during the depression. the worsening economic situation in canada, with its accompanying personal hardships and widespread discontent, increased the popularity of radical social, economic and political alternatives throughout most levels of canadian society. those canadians deeply involved in the peace movement found socialism to be a natural extension of their desire for a new social order, and in effect, mixed the basic ingredients of both pacifism and socialism together in their dream of a peaceful, co-operative and just society. but the association of pacifism and socialism carried with it the responsibility for a new level of social criticism and once authorities began to persecute those, such as communists and "communist sympathizers," who advocated radical social alternatives, pacifists were quick to speak out in defense of free speech and endangered civil liberties. in january , for instance, the toronto branch of the fellowship of reconciliation planned to hold an open forum on the topic of free speech. speakers for the occasion were to be dr. salam bland and rev. john lowe of trinity college, toronto. invitations were also sent to general draper, the toronto chief of police and judge coatsworth, a member of the police commission, to present their case to the audience. instead, the police commission blocked the meeting under the pretense that for members were "thinly- veiled communists. i once the for learned it would be denied the use of a hall, its executive secretary, richard roberts, complained to judge coatsworth and warned general draper that the police department would be in a "wholly indefensible position ll if it forbade the proposed meeting of th~ for. "there wi be no more communi sm there," he assured draper, iithan in your own office. i since roberts· plea was ignored by the authorities, the for sent a delegation to the toronto city council demanding the restoration of their rights of free speech and assembly which had been denied by the police commission. they also presented a petition asking for a judicial enquiry into the t . . t· f th c . . ac lvl les e ommlss n. in its report, the editors of the canadian forum suggested that the inference that the for was communist inspired was so "manifestly absurd" that even those who would give their moral support to the campaign for 'stamping out the reds', will be inclined to doubt whether the commission has sufficient intellec- tual ability to distinguish between the 'disruptive' and 'respectable' elements in the community. the police commission, charged the forum, represented an alliance of militaristic and religious fundamentalist bodies while the for was backed by liberal elements, and the clash between the two groups reflected the economic developments of the depression. at no time in the past history of canada has there been such an accumulation of wealth at the top of the social scale, and such an accumulation of distress on the lower levels. this sudden increase of inequality must inevitably produce unrest on the one hand and uneasiness on the other. inevitably, the defense of the liberal tradition of free speech had a radicalizing effect upon canadian liberal pacifists. one of the earliest manifestations of radical social criticism in canada was the formation of the league for social reconstruction (lsr) by two small groupsrof-intellectuals, mainly university professors, in montreal and toronto. the new organization was formally launched in january following the adoption of a manifesto or plan of action which described the lsr as an association of men and women who are working for the establishment in canada of a social order in which the basic principle regulating production, distribution and service will be the common good rather than private profit. largely modeled on the fabian society in britain, the lsr was designed primarily as a research and education organization. by , for instance, seventeen lsr branches with a total membership of five hundred met monthly across canada. besides their branch activities, the lsr also sponsored public meetings with guest speakers such as fenner brockway, the british pacifist and socialist, and reinhold niebuhr and harry f. ward, the radical american theologians representative of the pacifist-socialist bias of the union theological seminary in new york. in this manner, perhaps inadvertently, the lsr not only spread the gospel of socialism but of pacifism as well. in addition to their educational activities, the lsr also engaged in important research work. by four pamphlets were produced by the research committee while the following year marked the appearance of their monumental book, social planning for canada, the first comprehensive blueprint for democratic socialism in canada. the book presented a survey and analysis of the canadian economic system as well as the application of socialist reconstruction to the canadian scene, advocating both public ownership of major capitalist industries and the reform of the remaining private sector. concerning international affairs, the authors reflected the socialist view that war was the uinevitable outcome of capitalist imperialism." not surprisingly, the book was generally condemned as a iimajor heresyll by those in government and in the business community. beside j. s. woodsworth as honorary president, the lsr national executive included frank underhill, j. f. parkinson and eric havelock, all professors at the university of toronto, frank r. scott, a professor of law at mcgill and j. king gordon, a professor of christian ethics at the united theological college in montreal. probably the strongest pacifist statements of an lsr member came from g. m. a. grube, a professor of classics at trinity college, toronto. in the pages of the progressive journal, the canadian forum, grube proposed that pacifism was "the only solution" to the economic and psychological difficulties that were driving the world towards another war. he defined pacifism as lithe refusal to resort to arms accompanied by a sincere willingness to solve international problems by genuine and friendly co-operation between nations," a positive approach not to be confused with passive resistance. he explained: it should be clear that the advice to turn the other cheek means something far nobler and far more active than merely not to strike back •... it clearly refers to an attitude of mind, and the exercising of a positive, restraining influence .... grube ~lso maintained that to be a pacifist required a great deal of will power and "not being afraid of being thought afraid. i "it is far less of an effort to follow the crowd into uniform," he wrote, iithan to stand out against it." l the modern pacifist received the strength for his convictions from religion as well as social utilitarian- ism, argued grube. pacifism, above all else, was a religion of the individual conscience. rejecting the charge that pacifism was contrary to human nature, grube asserted that it was war that was incompatible with both human nature and the christian civilized world. grube also had a word of warning for his fellow socialists. in reference to the growing approval of the use of violence in the movement for social change, grube defended pacifism as the best course of action in a class war as well as an imperialist war. in fact, he thought the power of the proletariat would be irresistible if organized into a pacifist program of non-eo-operation, including the general strike and refusal to bear arms or pay taxes. overall, ~ despite a fairly realistic analysis of international conflicts, grube shared the liberal pacifist faith that it was "quite possible" that wars would disappear from the face of the world in a few generations. meanwhile, the demand for social reconstruction had been given political expression in . under the leadership of j. s. woodsworth, representatives of the farmer and labor parties of the four western provinces and the canadian brotherhood of railway employees formed the co-operative commonwealth federation (ccf). the new political movement aimed to establish a co-operative economic system in canada whereby lithe basic principle regulating production, distribution and exchange, will be the supplying of human needs instead of the making of profits. i from the very beginning, the basic philosophy of the ccf incorporated woodsworth's particular blend of socialism and pacifism. the regina manifesto, for instance, called for a foreign policy dedicated to international economic co-operation, disarmament and world peace. the new ccf agreed that iicanada must refuse to be entangled in any more wars fought to make the world safe for capitalism. i some members even looked upon the ccf as the political expression of pacifism. indeed, pacifism and socialism were inseparable in the general movement for social democracy in canada during most of the 's. in his study of the league for social reconstruction, historian michel horn explains the lsr's "inter-related comnitment to peace and sod ali smll as follows: the introduction of socialism in canada required peace; peace required non-involvement in international capitalist rivalries which the league of nations was doing nothing to resolve. and the best service which canada could render to the cause of peace abroad was to introduce socialism at home. similar sentiments also characterized the more radical elements of the canadian left including the communist party in canada which supported the thesis that war could be prevented by the iimight of the people. i according to the marxist view, to work for peace was to oppose capitalist imperialism; therefore, the radical left supported the'peace movement and actually joined pacifist societies. in the eyes of the authorities, however, the association of the radical left with anti-war activities tended to discredit the entire peace movement. in this same regard, both the moderate and radical left were considered a common threat even though there were fundamental differences between them. for instance, neither the lsr nor the ccf adopted a marxian approach; instead, they made a broad appeal to "industrial workers, farmers and the 'middle clases 'll by using a mixture of liberal humanitarian, democratic socialist and judaeo- christian arguments that capitalism was immoral because it exploited, for personal gain, other peoples and nations. although not directly affiliated with the ccf, the lsr became an unofficial "think tank" responsible for the "core ideology" of the ccf. besides this unofficial advisory role, however, individual lsr members took an active part in ccf activities. representative of their social gospel roots, many lsr members, including some key figures, also held dual memberships in the fellow- ship for a christian social order (fcso), a newly formed canadian organization which viewed socialism not only in political and economic terms but as the practical application of radical christianity as well. christian socialists believed that the social crisis con- fronting canadians during the depression was ultimately a religious problem that required a religious interpretation and response. the social-gospel movement which might have attacked this problem was, they believed~ too infected with liberal optimism to provide a basis for the radical changes required by the crisis at hand. the roots of the movement can be traced back to when j. king gordon, r. b. y. scott and a vancouver study group which called itself lithe fellowship" began to work for the replacement of capitalism with christian socialism. subsequent communication between the vancouver activists and a toronto group headed by john line, a professor of history and religion at victoria college, resulted in the formation of the movement for a christian social order (mcso) in , and further consolidated in january as a iichristian socialist movement. i the british columbians were now organizing themselves as the league for christian social action under the presidency of harold t. allen, and a christian commonwealth youth movement was being promoted by warwick kelloway of dominion united church, ottawa, and later of calgary. as j. russel harris, secretary of the mcso, confided to allen, the objective was to establish "a left wing group within the church to arouse a new conscience. i finally, in april . a number of united churchmen, both lay and clerical, met at queen's university in kingston to found a national fellowship for a christian social order. the founders, familiar names in the lsr and the peace movement, described the fsco as an association of christians whose religious convictions have led them to the belief that the creation of a new social order is essential to the realization of the kingdom of god. in order to convert fellow christians to their cause, fcso members organized study groups and social action groups across canada, released statements on various social and economic problems, gave lectures to public gatherings and summer schools, contributed articles to the religious and secular press and published a bulletin, christian social action, which reached a circulation of . the fcso hoped to attract young people through the christian commonwealth youth movement (ccym) founded by kelloway. as president v of the ccym national council, kelloway urged canadian youth to help christianize the social order and thereby avoid the dangers of "violent revolution or fascist dictatorship. i the fsco helped initiate ccym units across the country and co-operated with them in joint projects. by the bulk of the ccym membership was centered in montreal and ontario under an eastern council in ottawa and in alberta under a western council in calgary. the calgary group also served as the national council and sponsored a weekly radio program entitled lithe voice of youth. u l central to the movement was its liunqualified opposition to war~ i and~ in order to further that cause, the ccn advocated two types of action. first was the call of support for the league of nations, qualified, however, by refusal to approve the use of military sanctions. such sanctions were believed to be identical with the methods of war and therefore would result in ii mass murder and destruction. ii according to the ccym~ peace could only be built on a foundation of social health but sanctions were merely lian attempt to repress from without the irruption of disease from within. i that disease was imperialism, economic nationalism, militarism and anarchy. secondly, the ccym urged affiliation with the war resisters' international (wri) and endorsed the wri declaration: war is a crime against humanity. we therefore are determined not to support any kind of war and to strive for the removal of all causes of war. those canadians who wished to join the ccym were asked to complete a pacifist-oriented questionnaire in which they were asked if they would bear arms or othenvise support war, if they favored the use of military or economic sanctions by the league of nations, if they would use violence in a class war or strike, and if they favored the socialized state. the ccym's joint emphasis upon pacifism and socialism reflected the particular radical approach of the fcso, as well as that of the lsr and the ccf. indeed, in his study of the fcso roger hutchinson agrees that the iiradical ethic of absolute ends -- the kingdom of god as an immanent possibility; and the pacifist ethic of absolute means -- non-violence and the abolition of war, co-existed in the same movement. i the fcso constitution, for instance, condemned the capital ist economic system as not only responsible for war but as entirely contrary to the christian ethic and suggested salvation rested in the creation of a new society which would offer the liopportunity to practice the ethics of the sermon on the ~ unt. rather than the historic iinon-resistance to evilll of jesus, however, the paci fi sm extolled by the fcso vias the modern ' ersi on of non- violent resistance or, as they called it, iinon-co-operative action. ii the fcso maintained that only the iipressure of publicly-expressed non-coperation ll ivould force capital ist governments to settle inter- national disputes peacefully. therefore, fcso members pledged themselves to lithe most effective non-co-operative action in which we can engage in the event of war and in times of peace. i their declaration was nothing less than a united commitment of christian socialists to the contemporary pacifist ethic and it represented one of the first direct calls for non-violent resistance as a realistic means of social action in canada. in another vein, pacifism was also viewed as the best method by which the church could ease the impact of radical change upon society. according to the fcso·s first chairman, j. king gordon, the function of religion was lito mitigate acts of violence in social change by introducing ethical aspects to offset hatreds, cruelty, etc. which are inevitably associated with social conflicts. i thus, the radical christianity proposed by the fcso included inseparably inter- twined aspects of socia-political radicalism and pacifism. this overall radicalism was underlined when gordon was dis- missed under controversial circumstances from his position at united theological college. a bright young christian socialist, king gordon had studied under both reinhold niebuhr and harry ward at union theological seminary in new york. after joining united theological college in montreal, gordon became noticeably active in both the lsr and the fcso, at times extremely vocal in his criticisms of the capitalist order. in he joined eugene forsey and j. a. coote on a social and economic research committee for the montreal presbytery of the united church. the committee publicized their findings on civil liberties, unemployment, penitentiaries and wages and dividends in the quebec textile industry. the last area was extremely sensitive since the chairman of canadian cottons, a. o. dawson, and other prominent businessmen like william birks, were members of the board of governors of united theological college. in the board dismissed king gordon on the grounds that they were implementing a decision of the general council to economize. l as a result, many ministers, particularly those in the fcso, rushed to his defense on the grounds of academic freedom. the college finally agreed to keep him on for one more year when his supporters raised fifteen hundred dollars to pay his salary. among those who defended gordon was richard roberts, former spiritual leader in montreal but now in toronto. putting his pacifism into practice, roberts renewed contacts with his old montreal acquain- tances in order to help reconcile the hostile atmosphere that resulted between the business community and the young social activists within the church. in a letter to a. o. dawson of canadian cottons, roberts warned that "pro found changes in the social structure" could not be averted. "but it is still open to us," he argued, lito say what changes are to come and how they wi come. ii then he conti nued: and it is for christian men to see to it that so far as possible the changes will come in a christian way and take a christian direction. roberts appealed to dawson to bring together "those leaders in conmerce and industry who are christian men of good will" in order to reason together and discuss the subject of social change and the church's role in lithe ethical aspect of social processes whether economic or political." the person in montreal roberts suggested dawson approach in order to begin this dialogue was r. b. y. scott, a professor of old testament literature at united theological college and chairman of the fcso. other than scott, the central figures in the fcso included john line and gregory vlastos, a professor of philosophy at queen s university. philip matthams, a pacifist minister from montreal, served as fcso national secretary until . another prominent member of the national executive was the radical pacifist, r. edis fai rbai rn. following his last year at united theological college, king gordon became the travelling secretary for the fcso. later, similar duties were assumed by j. stanley"allen, a professor of natural sciences at sir george williams university. known to his friends and associates as the "pamphleteer of canada," allen operated the associated literary service from the basement of his home in montreal and distributed fcso and pacifist literature throughout canada. allen, like so many others in the fcso, leaned towards the pacifist position in the early s. in the intellectual leadership of the fcso pooled their resources to produce the book towards the christian revolution. something of a religious counterpart to social planning for canada, the book was a symposium of radical christian thought which spanned the spectrum from liberal utopianism to a new radical realism. in one important respect, the authors promoted socialism as a natural derivative of christian social ethics. in his analysis of contemporary economics) for instance, eugene forsey emphasized that there was no "painless substitute for socialism. ii "until christians learn to understand and apply the lessons of marxism)" he wrote) "they cannot enter the kingdom of heaven -- nor, probably, can anyone else." b the fcso's alignment of socialism with pacifism was underlined when king gordon suggested the political task of his generation was to organize the socialist state in order to save civilization "from the devastation of war brought on by the desperate imperialist excursions of the fascist states." lilt is a matter of ironic interest," he added, "that the reactionary opponents to the church's participation in the field of social reform ... are the same individuals who applauded so lustily the church's activity in furthering the war aims of modern nations." in the same vein, r. edis fairbairn emphasized the revolutionary evangel ism of the christian gospel, arguing that the distinct function of the judaeo-christian religion was to generate lithe negative dynamic of indignation, resentment, and revolt against the immoral and insane elements in our social structure." to fair- bairn the most "immoral and insane" element was war. the authors agreed, therefore, that christianity was essentially revolutionary and that the duty of the christians was to follow the revolutionary spirit which originated in god and demonstrate their faith through the transformation of society. indeed, in the closing chapter eric havelock suggested the ideal socialized state was finally within man's reach, thus concluding on a note of liberal optimism. but havelock did not speak for all the contributors. john line, for instance, recognized the need for a new radical realism in christian the gy and philosophy that would move beyond religious liberalism and conservative orthodoxy, especially the need to speak more deeply to the roots of sin in both the individual and society. very well aware of the depths of human sin, line, forsey and gordon no longer viewed the kingdom of god as a realizable historic social order, although they still believed a prophetic minority could help transform society in such a way as to bring about human fulfillment in the real world. thus, not all the authors could be classified as liberal. they themselves rejected the label. but neither did they represent a neo-orthodoxy and the basic alienation of man from the ideal. what emerged from towards the christian revolution was a radical concept of christian social ethics based upon the realization of man's struggling existence in a sinful world. line himself explained that outwardly their approach was similar but inwardly different from the liberal social gospel. in the "forward" richard roberts endorsed the book as an important contribution to christian thinking in a time "of strange and rapid transition." most reviewers were also favorable. gordon a. sisco, executive secretary of the united church, for instance, praised the book as "a notable contribution to radical christian teaching" and claimed it contained a "more profound theology" than the old social gospel liberalism. in the left book club adopted towards the christian revolution as an optional monthly book selection. in his review in the left news the british socialist john strachey claimed that towards th~christian revolution was the book "for which many socialists and communists outside church circles have been eagerly waiting. i iiif i may say so without offense, i he wrote, iithis is the first intellectually adult work, in the full sense, on the social crisis from the pens of churchmen. its publication will leave no one of the churches untouched. ul according to strachey, towards the christian revolution marked the fcso radicals as the leading spokesmen for christians in the modern world and he predicted it would have ii pro found repercussions" throughout christendom including strong opposition from the right wing of the church. one of the most important critics to appear, however, was not a conservative churchman but the american theologian reinhold niebuhr whose earlier marxism was increasingly qualified by his thesis in moral man and immoral society. although he described the book as lian able presenta- tion of the faith by which these young radicals live, i niebuhr claimed the book revealed "little understanding for the more difficult issues of the relation of christianity to radicalism. i contrary to sisco·s observations, niebuhr maintained that the authors shared the same illusion characteristic of the older social gospel that the socialist commonwealth was identical with the christian vision of the kingdom of god. basically, niebuhr agreed that christians must recognize the necessity of an economic and political revolution for the sake of justice, but he also argued that these same christians must iinot imagine that any perennial problem of the human spirit is solved by such a revolution. i the authors of the book were deeply dis- appointed by niebuhr's reaction, especially those like gordon who thought they had absorbed niebuhr's particular brand of christian radicalism including his cautions about reducing the kingdom of god simply to a social order. perhaps the main difficulty was that the book did not represent one distinct view. thus, the liberal illusion criticized by niebuhr was not precisely the same radical vision espoused by line and others. regardless of its international reception, however, towards the christian revolution had important implications for pacifists in canada. the authors had clearly linked pacifism and socialism in their interpretation of christian social ethics and the pacifist witness was viewed as an important contribution to world peace. on the other hand, pacifists also began to reflect the philosophic differences separating the fcso leadership. some pacifists shared fairbairn's faith that a prophetic pacifist minority would help society attain the socialist and pacifist ideal. further along the spectrum, were those, like forsey, with a lingering sense that the pacifist way was an important social witness but, like the perfect society, probably not historically realizable. it was a split which would become more apparent once pacifists confronted the realities of the later thirties. in the meantime, towards the christian revolution boosted the stature of both the fcso and a socially radical pacifism in canada. l it was not the fcso, however, but an agency known as the "alberta school of religion" that provided the center for most radical christian activity on the prairies. found in by henry m. horricks, a calgary united church minister, the alberta school of religion was designed as a summer refr.esher course of about one week to ten days duration for united church ministers and their families. lll during the early years, the annual sessions of the alberta school of religion were held at mount royal college in calgary but the lack of an appropriate lecture hall necessitated the move in to st. stephen's college in edmonton. after a few years, however, the board of governors of the college became alarmed at the radical nature of the summer sessions and assumed the right to censor the program. in response the alberta school of religion moved its sessions to st. joseph's college in edmonton and then settled at the morley indian industrial school in morley, alberta. when opposition again arose to the radical tone of the sessions, the alberta school of religions finally found a more permanent home at the fairweather christian fellowship camp on the bow river approximately twelves miles from calgary. although somewhat primitive, the camp meetings provided a congenial and informal atmosphere for the discussion of radical christian ideas. the annual sessions were financed on a shoe-string budget which usually just barely covered the travelling expenses of the guest lecturers, but over the years the alberta school of religion attracted some of the best speakers available and some of the most radical christians in the country. for instance, among the canadians featured were woodsworth, william irvine, richard roberts, t. c. douglas, the ccf politician from saskatchewan, professor john line of the fcsq, watson thomson, "se f-sty ed guru of co-operative living, i carlyle king, the radical socialist and pacifist professor from the university of saskatchewan, james g. endicott, radical united church missionary in china, and charles h. huestis, united church minister and pacifist journalist. furthermore, the impressive international guests included: h. richard niebuhr, harry f. ward, sherwood eddy, scott nearing, ley ton richards, cannon stricter and a. j. muste. reinhold niebuhr and the japanese christian pacifist leader toyohiko kagawa were both interested but unable to attend be- cause of conflicting commitments. other than horricks, the leading forces behind the alberta school of religion were charles h. huestis, arthur h. rowe and stanley hunt, all united church ministers from alberta. the chief concern of the alberta radicals was to "find some christian economic solutions for a sick world ll and to "try to do something toward a peaceful way of living together. ii " although the alberta school of religion became affiliated with the fcso in and was therefore the representative of the fcso in alberta, the horricks movement tended to place more direct emphasis on pacifism than did the fcso. those who joined the "horricks fellowship," for instance, agreed not only to refrain from the use of all "intoxicating liquors, tobacco and drugs" but made the following pacifist pledge: i will endeavor as far as my influence goes to dis- courage the use of violence as a method of settling disputes among nations but will rely on love and good will as the most powerful force in all life. despite its slightly stronger emphasis on a personal pacifist stand, the alberta school of religion remained affiliated with the fcso until the pacifist issues assumed priority during the second world war; thereafter it affiliated with the pacifist fellowship of r " " t" "c d econcl la n n ana a. having involved themselves so fully in the creation of new religious and secular radical movements like the lsr, the ccf and the fcso, it is not surprising that the depression stimulated pacifists to explore the idea of experimental co-operative communities modeled on the order of the communities built by the historic peace sects. this renewed interest among liberal protestants in christian communal living began in europe in partial reaction to the "great war. among its leading proponents was eberhard arnold, the general secretary of l,.-' the student christian movement for germany, who founded an experi- mental community, first at sannerz and later in the rhoen hills of the black forest. the community was based upon a communal lifestyle characteristic of the early christians and arnold was interested in uniting with similar christians, particularly the hutterian bruderhofs of north america, in a common network of christian co-operative communities. accordingly, after careful consideration and months of negotiations, arnold traveled to canada in and lived among the hutterian brethren for several months. during that time he was not only received into the hutterian brotherhood but confirmed as a minister of the hutterian faith as well. subsequently, he reorganized the rhoen hills community into the iisociety of brothers", another bruderhof in which members shared hutterian practices and beliefs, including communal property and unconditional non-violence. their goal was to establish iisome place in the world, however small, where people actually live in brotherhood, justice and peace. ,, but contrary to the rigid other-worldliness of historic peace sects like the hutterites, the society of brothers fostered a more worldly hope, calling liall. men to an utterly different way of life ... a joyous aggression against all wrong.,, the days of the rhoenbruderhof, however, were numbered. within a year of the rise of hitler and the national socialists, the majority of the brothers had fled, first to a settlement in liechtenstein and then in to ashton keynes, wiltshire, in the cotswald district of england. the birth of the cotswold bruderhof coincided with a growing interest and experimentation in communal living in britain, especially among pacifists. vera brittain, for instance, appears to have shown v some interest in the society of brothers and their radical attempt to put the "gospel of the new kingdom into practice. i overall, most pacifists had welcomed intentional communities as the practical expression of the iispiritual, social and economic aspects of peace- making ll and therefore the first step in re-ordering society. the peace service handbook, for example, characterized communities as iinot so much an end in themselves as a means to the endll of a recon- struction of the social order based on co-operation and sharing rather than competition and possess;on. it was this ethical aspect of a complete communal lifestyle rather than just the economic role of producer or consumer co-operatives which was the key element of intentional communities. the~ontemporary movement for co-operative communities, which had developed parallel to the bruderhofs, was promoted in canada by henri lasserre. a descendant of a wealthy swiss family, lasserre had embraced christian socialism and the co-operative ideal; thereafter using his personal fortune to finance various experimental communities. as early as lasserre and paul passy, the leader of the french christian-socialists, had founded terre libre, an association designed to give moral and financial support to passy's li~fra colony. later, in association with men like r~ne thury, adolphe ferri~re and paul k bir~ff, the tolstoyan protege who later assisted the doukhobors in canada, lasserre organized the soci~t~ de coop~ration int~grale and founded the short-lived peney co-operative colony in switzerland. despite his disappointment in the failure of these early experiments, lasserre remained dedicated to the idea of a wholly co-operative community, a concept he called coop~ratisme integral. by integral co-operation lasserre meant the total integration of consumer with producer co-operatives and agricultural with industrial co-operatives in order to form a truly co-operative community. he believed this radical application of the co-operative principle was both a creative and non-violent means towards the trans- formation of economic society and also as moral and psychological preparation for, and partial anticipation of the new social relations of brotherhood and justice which must replace the older order. in effect, lasserre believed integral co-operative communities would lay the moral foundations necessary for the realization of a new social ethic. but where would such communities best survive? following the collapse of the peney colony, lasserre looked to north america, free from the constraining traditions and prejudices of europe, as a fertile field for the cultivation of integral co-operatives; accordingly he emigrated to canada in may . following several years in the hamilton area, he finally settled in toronto as an assistant professor of french at victoria college. lasserre·s arrival in canada coincided, as it were, with labor and agrarian unrest and an increased interest in the co-operative solution. during the ·s lasserre established contacts with two co-operative experiments at that time flourishing in the united states -- the llano colony, a socialist republic in miniature, and the columbia conserve company, a radical industrial co-operative -- and as a result he had high hopes of creating an international foundation for the support of similar co-operative projects. he s~on discovered, however, that americans were preoccupied with the more conventional movement for consumers· co-operatives and trade unions. this lack of enthusiasm in the united states for the co-operative community idea as well as the legal and constitutional difficulties arising from international boundaries finally convinced lasserre to confine his plans to a strictly canadian foundation. subsequently, in association with a few kindred spirits in toronto like e. j. urwick, murray brooks, j. o. leitch and spencer clark, lasserre established the robert owen foundation. the stated purpose of the foundation v was to assist in the establishment and operation of co-operative enterprises, whether producers· co-operative associations, industrial co-operatives or integral co-operative communities, and to promote interest in the co-operative movement. in effect, the robert owen foundation was to act as a holding company in order to allow the co-operative group to complete ownership without jeopardizing the t · " co-opera lve prlnclp e. lasserre found that those most receptive to his philosophy of integral co-operative communities and the robert owen foundation were the radical christians and pacifists he met through the fcso and the toronto for. with their support, the robert owen foundation searched for worthy projects in canada, especially industrial experi- ments, in the hope of applying the co-operative solution to the industrial di~ruption caused by the depression. although canadian farmers had become imbued with the co-operative spirit, labor was not so inspired and the foundation·s sole attempt in sponsoring an industrial co-operative was the ill-fated work togs limited of toronto. the overalls manufacturing company operated for less than a year and with its closing the robert owen foundation rapidly lost its initial enthusiasm for industrial co-operatives and turned to other co-operative 't pursul s. for a time it appeared the foundation could best help in establishing christian communities such as the society of brothers in britain. following a visit to the cotswold bruderhof in , for instance, lasserre was so impressed with their living example of a "christian-communist community" that he arranged for the robert owen foundation to grant them a substantial loan. although he was attracted to the spirit of co-operation and brotherhood that prevailed in the bruderhof, lasserre was critical of its theoretical basis, particularly with regard to the relationship between the individual and the community. instead of sacrificing individuality to a narrow interpretation of christianity, lasserre argued, community life should provide the "greatest possible opportunity" for individual freedom and the creative expression of a new social ethic. this attitude was largely shared as well by the canadian pacifists who had gradually become the core membership of the robert owen foundation, particularly since it reflected the gulf between themselves and the historic peace sects in canada. canadian pacifists were attracted to the utopian communalism promoted by the robert owen foundation because it seemed to promise the ideal socialist and pacifist lifestyle at a time when they were searching for experimental alternatives. the same attitude was shared by pacifists in britain and the united states. in japan, the co- operative idea was advocated by the christian pacifist and evangelist, toyohiko kagawa. kagawa, himself, was extremely popular in north v america and in the early thirties the kagawa co-operating committee, an interdenominational group of canadian churchmen, was formed in toronto under the direction of richard roberts. the group of approximately thirty men often met in retreats where they combined oriental meditation and prayer in privacy and in fellowship. roberts wrote kagawa that their program was radical and experimental for canadians, especially since "nothing of the sort had been tried in protestant circles in toronto within living memory. i such an experiment was typical of roberts, however, who had advocated ii radical religion ll since he was first attracted to socialism as a youth in the eighteen-nineties. now the author of more than twenty books and pamphlets and various articles in religious journals, he enjoyed an important american and british readership and was known as one of the leading socially concerned intellectuals in the church. perhaps for this reason he was chosen to become the moderator of the united church of canada in . as moderator, roberts turned his attention to the devastating effects of the depression upon canadian life and the need for radical social and economic change. speaking to a meeting of unemployed men at toronto's church of all nations in april he proclaimed that the church was committed to the establishment of a new social order based upon economic and moral prerequisites. it was not only the church's business, he argued, but also its right to guarantee that society allow man to rise to iihis full spiritual height, i a condition denied by the capitalist order. roberts admitted he was skeptical of canadian political processes to achieve social and economic justice but he warned against the use of violent revolution. roberts was hardly a marxist, and had actually opposed the fcso position in . although he endorsed the antigonish co-operative movement in nova scotia as a step in the right direction, he left future social and economic reconstruction rather open ended. nevertheless, the socialist and pacifist views of the moderator were unmistakable and toronto newspapers publicized roberts' "cry for a new social order" as well as his call for a united protestant decl aration agai nst the furtherance of any future war effort. agai n, in the closing address of his moderatorship, roberts warned the general council that general resolutions condemning war were not adequate and called upon the united church to join with other protestants in a specific stand against war. the opportunity for such common action, he hoped, would be provided by the oxford conference of the universal christian council for life and work scheduled for . the important influence of churchmen such as roberts and those in the fcso notwithstanding, pacifists remained a minority in canada's protestant churches. in fact, neither the baptists nor the continuing presbyterians showed much interest in pacifism. after t. t. shields of toronto's jarvis street baptist church and his arch-fundamentalists were purged from the baptist convention in , ontario and quebec baptists began to show "a more unreserved interest in social questions," but they remained somewhat wary of such a t " " "f" th a " ch h th th con roversla lssue as pac sm. e ng lcan urc, on e er hand, did address the issue of war and the christian conscience. for the most part, anglicans reflected the general declaration of the lambeth conference in england that war was incompatible with the teachings of jesus, but they stopped short of adopting a strictly pacifist approach. for instance, although they criticized and opposed all defense programs, anglicans specifically recognized the right of christian citizens to bear arms while serving their country. despite the uneasiness of most anglicans with pacifism, there were a few leading anglican pacifists in canada, such as john frank, rector of trinity anglican church, toronto and father-in-law of the british pacifist organizer, dick sheppard. another was frank s assistant at trinity, john f. davidson, who had been influenced by the scm and was associated with upper canada college during the l s and s. l of all the protestant churches in canada, however, the united church was the one most profoundly affected by pacifism and the one which ultimately became seriously divided over the issue. because of its close association with the social gospel and its concern with contemporary social ills, the united church was naturally attracted to the peace movement as another field for responsible christian action. not only did the left wing of the church supply the peace movement with leading radical spokesmen, but the general council, as well, encouraged the growth of pacifism without itself adopting a strictly pacifist position. in each of their sessions during the thirties the general council openly debated the issue of peace and passed successive resolutions condemning war as contrary lito the mi nd of chri st. in the sixth general council of the united church declared: we believe armed warfare between nations to be contrary to the spirit and teachings of christ, and that it is the duty of the church to promote a christian public opinion in opposition to war, to seek a complete abolition of national armaments and the placing under international control of whatever armed forces may be necessary to protect the world's peace in an emergency, with the cultivation of true international conscience. furthermore, all ministers were liearnestly requestedll to promote the concern for international peace within their congregations, especially among young people. ernest thomas later reported that the most difficult task faced by the council was not the consideration of its opposition to war, but the question of conscientious objection to military service. two proposals were presented for debate: one favored "an official register of those who will pledge themselves in advance to render no military obedience;" the other suggested that "membership in the united church should be a guarantee of conscientious objection to armed service." l while the latter was quickly rejected, the first idea raised the question of sanctioned civil disobedience and resulted in a lengthy debate. in the end, the council over-ruled a vocal . minority and decided the church could not "take a step which savored of organized 'concerted disobedience,." the general council did, however, uphold the principle of conscientious objection as long as the conscientious objector was a person who "is so clearly governed by conscience as supreme that he will accept the civil consequence of disobedience." regardless of whether they shared these views or were "una b e, as yet, to take a thoroughgoing pacifist position," the council expressed thankfulness for the liamazing outburst of hostility to war, particularly in colleges, which has of late startled the eng ish- k" t" spea ng na ns. in conclusion, the general council suggested that the peace movement "may be the agency through which war may be made impossible, at least among christian peoples .•.. ,, despite repeated resolutions, the united church hesitated to provide their members with a more specific sense of direction concerning christian responsibility in time of war. in , w. a. gifford, leading author of the christian and war, the canadian pacifist statement of the twenties, accused the united church of not having the "moral authority to implement her declarations of principle" and suggested that the public was "paying less and less attention to them.,, in reference to the deteriorating international situation, gifford challenged the seventh general council, which was about to convene, to "guide the public mind ll on the question of war and more specifically: "what shall we say to our boys? i concerning the chaplaincy, gifford urged the council to take immediate action to receive government assurance that minjsters would be free to serve men at war ii in the habi iments of the pri~esthood, not of the mi itary" and therefore not compromise their personal witness against war. rather than produce any specific prescriptions for christian action in time of war, however, the seventh general council merely adopted the general declaration that in view of the extremely critical world situation, and the numerous evidences that the present policy of many nations is leading -- towards war, this general council, on behalf of the united church of canada, reaffirms its loyalty to the pledged word of canada and the british commonwealth in the pact of paris, "renouncing war as an instrument of national policy." we accept as solemn and urgent responsibility the necessity of defining and demonstrating in our faith and life the things that make for peace, and our determined opposition to war. on the other hand, in a proposal of outright pacifist dimen- sions, the council suggested that christians "must be prepared to follow christ in turning from war .... " furthermore, in regard to the interdependence of peace and social justice, the council echoed the pacifist argument that the roots of war could be destroyed "only as we humanize cormnerce, moralize society, spiritualize educa- tion, and built an international order of equity and ve. i while encouraging the pacifist ethic and the canadian search for peace, the united church never really endorsed an outright pacifist - position. neither did it provide clear guidelines for christians confronting the issue of war. in reference to the general council s numerous declarations condemning war, j. s. woodsworth asked: iiprecise y what is meant by these statements? ... in the event of war -- which may not be so removed as many imagine -- what is to be the attitude of the church? i l as one who shared a certain responsibility in the formation of canadian policy, woodsworth wondered where the church would stand in the event of an international crisis. iigeneral statements are not enough, i he stated. "what concretely should be the policy of canada?"l he particularly wished to know if the church would advocate civil disobedience and if so if such a policy would extend to active participation in war, the making of munitions and assistance to those engaged in war. woodsworth called upon the church to "give some guidance in these definite matters of national policy. i in some respects the united church had attempted to offer this guidance, particularly in their open discussions of the peace issue in their councils, in the church press and in its general support for the peace movement. one of the leading spokesmen for the church in this regard was ernest thomas. since the resurgence of pacifism in the mid-twenties, thomas had demonstrated lia notable sense of realism" in his appraisal of international questions. contrary to fairbairn's radical condemnation of the "~ar system" as the root cause of war, for instance, thomas blamed liexclusive nationalism directed by fallible men" and suggested that this danger could be overcome by the slow and painful process of building what he called institutions of social determination, included among which were those of international co-operation and goodwill. thomas we'comed the prophetic role of pacifists within the church but he also warned that "no one should lightly assume that his passionate revolt against some existing evil guarantees prophetic insight .... " neverthe- less, thomas believed that there was "little doubt as to the obligation of the church to release such spiritual energies as make for the elimination of war. i the proper responsibility of the church, he argued, was to provide the iispiritual forces" which would help man ii withstand the tendencies which made for war. i in the thirties thomas continued this line of thinking in the quest for peace, a pamphlet issued by the board of evangelism and social service of the united church in order to help study groups focus attention on the christian basis for the abolition of war. thomas defined peace as the iico-operative effort to bring about changes." iipeace is much more than absence of fighting, i he wrote. there is not so very much difference in moral quality between the spirit which fights to prevent another people achieving some required change, and that which tells the other people that their anxieties are no concern of ours. the latter is no more peaceful than the former -- indifference or contempt is no better than hate. in regard to the responsibility of christian citizens in time of war, thomas claimed he "dare not assume responsibility for formulating the decision of his readers ll since conscientious objection to military service, so~ething which affected the very foundations f . t tt f' d' . d . o socle y, was a rna er n lv ua consclence. thomas did suggest, however, that prospective conscientious objectors base their convictions upon christian belief rather than the utilitarian view that private or concerted refusal of military service would be an effective political tool to prevent war. in conclusion, he cautioned his readers not to mistake the iiglorious impatience with war" character- istic of the peace movement, "for a deep-seated change of attitude and an abiding determination that, no matter what the issue may appear to be, war shall not be recognized." while in sympathy with the latter aim, thomas argued that, in the reality of another world crisis, "it will take more than an emotional dislike to overcome the new urge.,, in contrast to the prevailing pacifist mood of the social gospel, thomas represented a new outlook of liinternationalism realism" similar to what was later called niebuhrian. at times he was sharply critical of outright pacifism and those who espoused it. in thomas criticized iiquite adverselyll kiriby pagels plea to the federal council of churches for lian out-and-out pacifist pledge", and claimed pacifists were guilty of "philosophical anarchism. i the opposite view was taken by william b. creighton, editor of the new outlook. creighton accused thomas of being caught up in the liargumentative soundness ll of the pacifist campaign for an anti- war enlistment when what was really important was whether or not it "would help to make war less possible.,, creighton questioned thomas i criticism of christians for iistriving to reach what they , believe to be their high principle touching this issue" and suggested that if a large percentage of christians shared the pacifist stand of quakers, lia world war would become very shortly an impossibility. i creighton's enthusiasm for the peace movmeent was characteristic of the new outlook during most of the inte:r:-war period. the editorial page, for instance, often endorsed pacifist works by such writers as a. a. milne, max plowman and aldous huxley.l huxley's lithe case for constructive peace ll was hailed as a ii sane pacifist philosophyll built on a iifirm and convincing base. iil in another vein~ the popular british pacifist vera brittain adorned the cover of the november , issue of the new outlook when it featured her article on iiyouth and war. i overall, creighton believed that the christian church was the best force to undertake a iipowerful and desperate ll campaign against war, but he wondered if the church had it left in her to do that sort of thing any more -- to fight against vested interests and strongly entrenched prejudices and popular follies and inconsistencies with a strong and persistent and somewhat ruthless hand. instead, creighton suggested that organizations and movements outside the church possessed these qualities and were using them ilin campaigning for just and righteous causes more aggressively and effectively than the church •... in creightonls view the church was iicalled to militancy and an aggressive activity in the interests of world peacell and he warned that it will b~ a sorry thing for her, and for the world before which she is supposed to bear her witness, if she should fail to engage in her task with a heroic courage and a noble enthusiasm. l for the most part, creigthon, as well as many other canadian protestants with pacifist sympathies, condemned war as unchristian without implying absolute pacifism and sidestepped the whole issue of the christian duty in the event of war. there was a strong pacifist element within the united church which had been nurtured throughout the interwar years. many of these pacifists were involved in radical organizations such as the lsr, ccf and fcso where they combined their work for peace with that for social justice. through these and other activities, united church pacifists became some of the leading proponents of the peace movement in canada. one such pacifist was charles herbert huestis, the alberta school of religion promoter who served as the executive secretary of the canadian lord's day alliance in the nineteen thirties. during that time, huestis became well-known for his column in the toronto daily star in which he discussed current topics of interest from a radical pacifist viewpoint. for instance, in reference to the whole question of armament manufacturers reaping huge profits, huestis reported that canadians were "getting all fused up emotionally over the matter" and were in iidanger of missing what ought to be the real lesson ... namely, that the armament business is a quite legitimate product of our political and economic system. i he warned that the arms industry and war, like the liquor trade, were representative of modern capitalism. on another occasion huestis proposed that churches and educational institutions canalize the fighting instinct of man to oppose nationalism. here, one would say, is a better job for the church and the school and one more sure of success than organizing pacifist movements which deal with the symptoms only of war rather than with the disease. huestis admitted that he was impressed with the iipragmaticli base for pacifism which blamed war on capitalism, imperialism and nationalism, but he was not fully persuaded by that argument alone. in the end, he told his readers, pacifism is the christian way. when confronted by challenges from mussolini and hitler, however, huestis confessed that pacifists like himself were in a dilemma: could they remain pacifists and christians if the nazis attempted to impose their will upon mankind by force? the reference to hitler and musso ini reflected the attitude of the star's publisher, j. e. atkinson. despite his pacifist sympathies. atkinson feared that the rise of fascism would ultimately lead to a world war, a fear strengthened by the fact that the star was one of the first publications to be banned from germany by hit er. nevertheless, he remained conscientiously averse to inflaming war passions and throughout the thirties the star published gruesome photographs from the first world war as graphic proof of the horror of war and regularly carried pacifist articles by huestis on the editorial page. at the same time, w. b. creighton was urging his readers to wage peace lias men have waged war. i the editor of the new outlook, maintained that the peace movement had been fltoo long confined to the halls of academic discussion, and to the pulpits and platforms of the churches. ii what was needed was to take the discussion into the crowd. "we need to get down to individual study of the causes and effects of war, i he wrote, liand individual enlistment in the cause of peace." to this end the new outlook endorsed dick sheppard's peace pledge petition in britain and urged canadians to sign a similar pledge initiated in canada by j. lavell smith, minister of westmount park united church, montreal. lavell smith, one of the leading figures in montreal's pacifist circle, had served in the army during the first world war with the army of occupation on the rhine. upon his return to canada, smith completed his university training at victoria college. during the 's he attended union theological seminary in new york. there, under the influence of harry emerson fosdick and other pacifist theologians, he embraced pacifism. as a member of both the fcso and the fellowship of reconciliation in montreal, smith was repre- sentative of the concern for peace and social justice among young radical ministers. the peace movement in canada took a new turn in the autumn of when smith called upon his fellow members of the united church, both lay and clerical, and his fellow canadians to join him in a peace pledge modeled after dick sheppard's famous pledge of war renunciation. "i am convinced that the time is more than ripe for such an appeal here in canada," he wrote, "and now, after long hesitancy, i am acting in accordance with my convictions in making such an appeal. i l smith lamented that the international situation kept getting worse while the peace movement had failed to "prevent anything approaching thoroughgoing action for peace." "what can we do about this?" he asked. his suggestion was the individual pacifist stand: i have for some years been convinced that the greatest service i can render to the cause of peace is that i shall declare myself to be utterly and unalterably opposed to war. the evils flowing from war are as terrific that i am determined that war shall never again have my support. no international situation can possibly be so serious as to call for the employment of the agency of warfare whose proven results are so thoroughlyevil. what was needed, claimed smith, was "some convincing demon- stration" of public opinion in favor of pacifism and for that reason he initiated a peace pledge in canada borrowing the very phraseology of sheppard's peace pledge union: "i renounce war and never again, directly or indirectly, will i support or sanction another war.,, smith urged all who were willing to take the pacifist stand to sign the pledge and sent it to him without delay in order that canadians "may have the encouragement of knowing that many others stand with them, and in order that our government may be aware of this body of opinion. u in the end, smith collected from three to four thousand signatures. prior to public disclosure, smith had shown his pacifist pledge to his fcso associate, professor john line of toronto. line agreed "heartily with every word" and agreed that the refusal of individuals to participate in war was the "only means finally to prevent its recurrence." moreover, line suggested that "the peopl e who wi never again assist in war are now a large body, and i think it only right that our rulers should know of this.,, if war came again, line declared, he would not only have no part in it himself but would also urge that course upon others, "including potential combatants." in conclusion line s~ggested that the pledge would serve as a warning to the canadian government not to get involved in war. another who publicly endorsed the pledge was the social gospeller, stanley knowles. lilt is my feeling," he wrote, "that our governments ought to know something of the extent of pacifism amongst individual citizens. while he agreed with line that the awareness of wide-spread pacifist sentiment would "have some effect as a deterrent" to canada entering war, knowles felt there was "something further that our governments ought to know." there were hundreds of pacifists, he claimed, who would not only withhold their support in the event of war but would actually do all within their power, without violence, to hinder the war effort. what specific action would pacifists take? knowles suggested they would seek to persuade others, including potential com- batants, to desist. we would be strike-organizers at munitions plants, and would encourage the crippling of domestic economic processes. we would use our pulpits, or whatever means might be available, to put barriers in the way of carrying on the war. a declaration of war, knowles insisted, would be lia signal for drastic, positive action on the part of pacifists prepared to pqy any personal price for peace. i this general concern in with the individual pacifist commitment also affected canadian youth. that autumn the world student christian federation, the international scm, sponsored a questionnaire among canadian university students to determine what students thought v about war and "under what circumstances, if any, they would support their country in a war." the survey, headed by the ~ cgill daily, was conducted through student newspapers across canada. students were asked if they believed there would always be wars and whether they would support the canadian government in any war, only in certain wars or in no war at all. the questionnaire also attempted to discover what specific actions students would take in the event of war, such as enlisting voluntarily, refusing all service or actively opposing the war in other ways. l the results of the poll indicated that, of those students who responded, the majority did not believe that wars were inevitable. out of responses at mcgill, reported they would support the canadian government in a just war, would not support any war, while only would support canada in any war she declared. at mcmaster university the anti-war position was even more noticeable. out of a total of students, only eight declared unreserved support for canadian participation in war. otherwise, agreed to support a just war, while , or % of those polled, definitely refused to support canada in any future war. at both mcgill and mcmaster the majority of respondents revealed that in the event of war, they would either "refuse military but render humanitarian service" or refuse all service. a large number of the students also agreed to actively oppose a war effort by refusing to pay taxes, engaging in a general strike or, the most popular action, organizing peaceful mass protests and petitions. overall, the war questionnaire circulated in revealed that canadian university students were, indeed, in sympathy with the general peace movement abroad in the land. in fact, the campaign for disarmament and war renunciation captured the attention of students as much as the effects of the depression. while not necessarily radical, student opinion was strongly opposed to war. during the thirties, as during the twenties, university students were most often drawn into the peace movement through the student christian movement. in order to create public support for disarmament in , for example, student committees across the country organized public meetings and circulated an scm initiated petition to r. b. bennett, prime minister of canada. signed by ten thousand canadian university students, the petition urged the prime minister to "ensure that canadian influence will be exerted vigorously on behalf of significant reduction of armaments ll at the geneva conference. indicative of their radical orientation, scm students often linked war with capitalism and argued that, as long as that condition remained, there would be a continuous, de facto war. in the end of the day, having done all v'e can to mitigate or avoid an open holocaust, we peace-makers are exactly what the militarists say we are -- naive visionaries unless we are willing to kill war where it is born. that is the private ownership of machines. a similar argument was raised in the mcgill student magazine the echo. the author, c. t. howell, blamed war on nationalism, war debts, capitalism and the breach between capital and labor. "for the safety of civilization and the survival of humanity, i he wrote, "present world economic relations must change •.• the war-system has got to be smashed." howell su'ggested that a peace spirit recognized that true pacifism does not merely involve non-resistance in war time; but it also means that, in times of peace, specific programmes, concrete and constructive, will be created and applied in education, religion, and industry to try remove the basic causes of war, and to strengthen the permanent peace-system now gr~/ing -- a challenge any- thing but simple, cowardly, or negative. this is the ex- pression of true patriotism stripped of its flags and bayonets. in the scm unit at the university of toronto initiated an annual armistice day peace service as an alternative for those students who did not wish to participate in the traditional military remembrance. the first scm service drew a capacity crowd of . also in the scm national council appointed a special committee to formulate the scm position on peace and war. the committee report affirmed the scm's opposition to war lias contrary to the mind of god and his purpose for man as revealed in jesus christ" and endorsed the "power of love as expressed in and operative through human relationships" as the means to bring about the new social order. ll the logical implication of this position, the committee claimed, was the personal renunciation of war. in recognition of the scmls responsibility for peace education, the report recommended several courses of action for local scm units: co-operation with the league of nations society; protests against militarism, narrow patriotism and fanatic nationalism; the utilization of armistice day for meetings and parades to arouse peace consciousness; the use of questionnaires and peace ballots. l v the scm also supported another peace activity of north american youth known as the "peace caravan." begun by the american friends service committee in the 's, peace caravanning was an annual summer custom of university students who toured the united states, stopping in small towns to hold public meetings on peace and inter- national issues. l in canada was added to the tour and john copithorne, a young canadian friend and member of the toronto youth council, joined the caravan. following two weeks of training at the institute of international relations in durham, north carolina, copithorne teamed up with a young american and toured ohio, new york and ontario. they spent the summer spreading the gospel of pacifism to political, social and religious groups meeting in churches, clubs and on street corners. the new outlook praised the peace caravan for its enthusiasm and idealistic spirit and suggested it would give the peace movement "a little of the glamour or romance that great and good movements sometimes lack." lilt is quite true that idealism and romance may not be able to establish world peace and far-reaching international goodwill on a secure and safe basis," wrote the editor, "but they may be used, and used very effectively, toward that end.,, l although it was not always an annual event in canada, the peace caravan remained a popular activity throughout the thirties and received the financial support of canadian friends and the scm. besides his role in the peace caravan, copithorne was secretary of the toronto branch of the league of nations society and contributed to a monthly column to the canadian friend entitled "peace parade" in which he reported on the general progress of the peace movement in light of international crises. whether in the peace caravan or the scm, canadian youth had assumed an important role in the inter-war peace movement. the personal pledges of university students to resist war and their growing demands for social change were further evidence of the revolutionary potential of a socially radical pacifism. and no group was more committed in this regard than the society of friends which had moved further towards the left under the impetus of the depression. to be sure they continued some fairly traditional activities and attitudes but they were also deeply in tune with the student peace movement. they could hardly object to the deepening interest in peace issues manifested in the lively debate in the united church. the communal aims of the robert owen foundation was too much like a page from their own past to be ignored, and increasingly their own statements sounded like those of the fcso. thus, the quakers were central to the growth of a socially radical peace movement in canada. the involvement of quakers in the movement for peace and social reconstruction was now the responsibility of the canadian friends service committee (cfsc), founded in . at first the cfsc only represented the canada and genesee yearly meetings but subsequent support from the conservative friends meant that for the first time all three branches of canadian quakers were united behind one committee d k °th of' d . f th f' t t' f th an spo e wl a unl le volce. ne e lrs ac lons e new committee was an appeal to prime minister bennett for the appoint- ment of suitable canadian delegates to the geneva disarmament conference in . the second annual meeting of the cfsc reaffirmed the quaker peace testimony and emphasized that pacifism was a iipositive, practical recognition of the universal fatherhood of god, brother- hood of man and sacredness of human personality. i pacifism, the committee declared, was the full and practical application of the sermon on the mount. an example of a practical activity was the creation of a toronto peace library and reading room in the toronto friends meeting house. with the assistance of g. raymond booth, secretary of the toronto monthly meeting, an interdenominational committee representing toronto's religious and social organizations was formed in in order to establish a special library offering free circulation of books dealing with peace and war to the general pub ic. instru- mental in the toronto peace library committee was norman mackenzie, professor of international law at the university of toronto who had been active in scm peace activities during the twenties, and several friends, such as booth and fred has am. in addition to its facilities in toronto, the peace library mimeographed articles and sent copies to interested study groups, particularly in the rural districts of ontario. by approximately copies of articles and books had been distributed across canada. that peace literature together with an annual subscription to goodwill, the publication of the world alliance for friendship through the churches, accounted for the major expenditure in the section of the cfsc budget allocated to peace wo rk. in conjunction with the peace library, the cfsc issued several pamphlets of concern to pacifists. one such leaflet entitled "an alternative to sanctions" proposed the "reconsideration of the coltltlon rights of nations and peoples to share equitably in the resources of the world. i it was sent to members of parliament and to the press only to receive a limited but critical response. another pamphlet was "the economic crisis ll by fred haslam, the v general secretary of the cfsc. haslam's call for fundamental social and economic changes in canadian society was described as lithe most intelligent and also as the most radical statement thus far produced by canadian friends. i a major part of quaker activities during the thirties was their co-operation with a broad range of canadians in the consideration of radical solutions to economic and international problems. through the initiative of arthur g. dorland and g. raymond booth, for instance, fri~nds joined with several other crganizations to found the annual institute of economic and international relations. the first institute was held in august at the ymca camp at geneva park, lake couchiching, ontario. the annual event received par- ticularly good support from the united church, fcso and lsr, and in the summer of eugene forsey joined the staff of the institute. _._----- -- - since the idea of inherent violence in capitalism pervaded pacifist thought during the inter-war years, canadian friends in- stinctively related their pacifism with the need for radical economic change. such radical sympathies were evident in quaker praise of the ccf as being "in the vanguard of the great fcrward advance ll of mankind. another commendation went to the antigonish co-operative movement under father m. m. cody, an experimental but promising socio-economic reorientation of nova scotian farmers, fishermen, miners and industrial workers. l pacifists were particularly interested in the adult education phase of the movement. from their ~ support of radical alternatives to specific activities like the toronto peace library and the institute for international relations, canadian quakers were instrumental in the quest for peace and social justice during the thirties. during the first half of the nineteen-thirties pacifist feeling thrived in canada and pacifists cemented their bonds with social radicalism. although specific peace organizations were largely limited to the society of friends, the women's international league and the toronto fellowship of reconciliation, the peace movement in general was composed of a broad range of groups and individuals, and peace activities received wide popular support, from league of nations internationalists to communists. the large majority of these peace advocates, therefore, were not strictly pacifists but they eagerly accepted the label which had become synonymous with the abhorrence of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. dis- armament continued to receive the enthusiastic support of peace advocates as one of the best ways of relieving international tensions. otherwise, the peace movement was largely pre-occupied with the domestic crisis caused by the depression, and pacifists joined in the growing demand for radical solutions to the social and economic ills facing the nation. the alignment of pacifism and socialism had been building since the great war but it was not until the urgency of the depression years that pacifists concentrated on the necessity to eliminate or reform capitalism in order to secure both peace and social justice. accordingly, pacifist influence was present within the various groups promoting radical alternatives: the league of social reconstruction, the co-operative commonwealth federation and the fellowship for a christian social order and its western affi itate, the alberta school of religion. all these groups attempted to grapple with ways to effect radical social·and economic change as well as the pacifist alternative. churches also endorsed the movement for peace and social justice, as did student groups such as the student christian movement and the ymca and ywca. during the thirties hundreds of young people were attracted to the peace movement and toyed with the idea of refusing to fight in any future war. in fact, the personal pledge of individual war resistance was an important pacifist tactic in canada, although never as popular as in britain. the exuberance of the peace movement in the thirties, however, was short-lived. by mid-decade, as national attention again turned to the international scene, the ideals of peace and social justice were threatened by increased fascist aggression. as a result, the liberal democracy which had seemed the route to world peace was in- creasingly in need of defense, ultimately, it would be argued, by armed resistance. liberal and socially radical pacifists would find it difficult to evade the crisis looming just beyond their threshold. footnotes lnorman, "richard roberts," p. . the canadian friend, december , p. . mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), "all day peace conference," poster. for a copy of the poster see appendix a. ibid.; the canadian friend, december, , p. . ibid .; "all day peace conference," poster. the canadian friend, december, , p. . ibid ., p. ; "all day peace conference," poster. for instance, r. edis fairbairn and several of his cor- respondents were particular fans and friends of wilson macdonald. _ ' -wilson macdonald, "war," in a flagon of beauty (toronto: peace tree publishing co., ), p. . mcnaughton papers, h. ( ), women's international'league for peace an(freedom, toronto branch, "newsletter," april . ibid . ibid . ibid ., e. ( ), women's international league for peace and freedom, canadian section, "newsletter," january . ibid . ibid ., women's international league for peace and freedom, "preliminary programme of an institute on 'the economic basis of peace l ." pac , national council of women papers, manuscript group , . , v. , lady aberdeen to presidents of national women's organizations, july . ibid ., lady aberdeen to mrs. bundy, august . ibid., "resolution of the toronto local council of women," proposed by mrs. j. a. maitland. ibid ., m. winnefred kydd to all peoples association, london, england, october . ibid., lady aberdeen to m. winnefred kydd, january . ibid., m. winnefred kydd, "broadcast from geneva," february . ibid ., statement by the disarmament committee of the women's international organizations. mcnaughton papers, h. , ( ); the new outlook, february , p. l. the new outlook, october , p. . ibid . richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to prime minister r. b. bennett, december ; both j. s. woodsworth and w. l. grant charged that canada had helped to undermine the success of the world disarmament conference by sending professional militarists like the general staff officers general a. g. l. mcnaughton and colonel h. d. g. crerar to geneva as technical advisors to the canadian delegation. see james eayrs, in defense of canada, vol. i: from the great war to the great depression (toronto: university of toronto press, ), pp. - . richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to r. b. bennett, december . ibid., this passage was underlined in the original. mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), women's international league for peace and freedom, canadian section, inews etter," january . interview with ida siegel, toronto, february . ibid • ibid . pac , c. b. sissons papers, manuscript group , iii, f , v. , women's international league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, "newsletter," november . ibid • mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), women's international league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, "newsletter," july . ibid . a so a well known socialist, rose henderson was on the executive of the ontario labour party in the early thirties. see: john manley, "women and the left in the ' s: the case of the toronto ccf women's joint corrnnittee," atlantis, (spring, ): - . mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), women's international league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, "newsletter," july, . ibid ., mcnaughton to anna sissons, november . eventually jamieson became a ccf member of the british columbia legi s a ture. ibid., blake to mcnaughton, september . ibid., m. cousineau to mcnaughton, october . ibid., mcnaughton to sissons, november . ibid., d. , jamieson to mcnaughton, july . ibid .. ibid., mcnaughton to jamieson, july . ibid., e ( ), women's internation~ league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, "newsletter," july . the canadian forum, february , pp. - . ibid., p. ; judge coatsworth claimed this conclusion was based on an article sympathetic to russia written by rabbi eisendrath, president of the for. richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to general draper, january (letter mistakenly dated ). the canadian forum, february , p. . ibid • ibid • the research committee of the league for social reconstruc- tion, social planning for canada (toronto: thomas nelson and sons, ; reprint ed. with an introduction by f. r. scott, et. al. toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. vi. ibid . , p. i x. ibid ., p. xi. ibid ., p. xii. ibid ., p. xx : government and business leaders were still very suspicious and even antagonistic towards the idea of socialism. g. m. a. grube, "pacifism: the only solution," the canadian forum, june , p. . ibid . ibid . ibid .; g. m. a. grube, "pacifism and human nature," the canadian forum, july , p. . the canadian forum, october , p. . grube, "pacifism: the only solution," p. . f. r. scott, et. al., social planning for canada, p. xiii. michie horn, "frank underhill's early drafts of the regina manifesto ," canad.ian historical review, (december ): . interview with carlyle a. king, regina, september . michie horn, "the league for social reconstruction: socialism and nationalism in canada, - ," ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, , p. . tim buck, thirty years (toronto; progress publishing co., ) • michiel horn, "the league for social reconstruction and the development of a canadian socialism, - ," journal of canadian studies, november , p. . walter young, the anatomy of a party: the national ccf - (toronto, ), p. . horn , "the league for social reconstruction and the develop- ment of a canadi an soc; ali sm, ii p. . the fcso had no connecti on to the former american organization of the same name. roger hutchinson, lithe fellowship for a christian social order: a social ethical analysis of a christian socialist movement," ph.d. dissertation, victoria university, toronto, , p. . interview with r. b. y. scott, toronto, november . ibid., the new outlook, january , p. . j . russel harris to h. t. allen, february , fcso file in possession of professor richard allan; harold t. allen, "a view from the manse: the social gospel and the social crisis in british columbia, - " in the social gospel in canada, ed. by richard allen (ottawa: national museums of canada, ), p. . christian social action, (march ): . ibid • ibid • norman a. colley, ed., the handbook of the christian commonwealth youth movement (calgary: national council of the ccym, ) . p. . ibid., pp. - . i bid., p. . ibid ., p. . , hutchinson, "the fellowship for a christian social order,", ibid ., appendix , "the fellowship for a christian social order, basis of agreement and constitution, ," p. . ibi d., p. . minutes of the western institute on social and economic affairs, - july , summarized version in possession of professor richard allen. j • king gordon, iia christian socialist in the 's," in the social gospel in canada, ed. by richard allen, p. . for example see: j. king gordon, "capitalism -- a played out creed, i the echo, (winter ): , mcgill university archives, montreal. p. . p. . gordon, "a christian socialist in the 's," ibid ., p. ; norman, "richard roberts," p. . gordon, "a christian socialist in the 's," richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to a. o. dawson, november . ibid . ibid . interview with j. stanley allen, hamilton, august . r• b. y. scott and gregory vlastos, ed., towards the christian revolution (new york, willett, clark and co., ). ibid., p. . . - ibld., p. . ibid., p. . ibid. in the industrial struggle and protestant ethics in canada (toronto: ryerson, ), p. , stewart crysdale uses havelock's contribution to claim the entire fcso leadership gave a "renewed christian sanction" to the liberal idea of inevitable progress. a careful study of the book, however, reveals that the authors did not speak with one mind. a fairer analysis made by roger hutchinson in his thesis is presented here. l the new outlook, february . l john strachey, lithe churches speak at last, i the left news, may , p. . ibid . l radical religion, spring, , p. . l ibid . ibid ., p. . for a detailed study of the relation of niebuhr's views and those of the fcso see hutchinson, lithe fellowship for a christian social order, i especially chapter v. by the fcso included at least active and associate members, many with pacifist persuasions, and fcso study groups were organized in every province of canada and newfoundland. gordon, iia christian socialist in the ' s," p. . lllsaskatchewan archives board, regina (sabr), h. m. horricks papers, i. , mrs. h. m. horricks to richard allen, june . ibi d. l ibid .; interview with carlyle king. interview with carlyle king. horricks papers, i. , alberta school of religion, program of annual sessions, - . ibid ., mrs. h. m. horricks to richard allen, june ; t. kagawa to horricks, september ; r. niebuhr to horricks, september . ibid • ibid ., lithe horricks fellowship pledge." ibid ., mrs. h. m. horricks to allen, june . henri lasserre, lithe birth of a christian community," the united church observer ( december ), p. . ibid . ( december ), pp. - . l mcmaster university, special collections, vera brittain papers, society of brothers file, society of brothers, limen and brothers, what shall we do?". ibid • ibid . norman whitney, experiments in community (wallingford, pennsylvania: pendle hill, ), pp. - ; peace service handbook, pp. - . l ibid., p. . watson thomson, pioneer in communitf. henri lasserre's contribution to the full coo erative societtoronto: ryerson press, , pp. - . ibid ., pp. - . ibid . , p. . ibid ., p. . ibid . ibid • , p. . ibid., p. . ibid ., p. ; ian macpherson, each for all: a history of the co-operative movement in english canada, - (toronto: macmillan, ), pp. - . thomson, pioneer in community, p. . norman, iirichard roberts," p. . roberts papers, box , file , roberts to kagawa, october . ibid ., richard roberts, /i'radical religion' forty years ago. ii for a complete list of roberts' publications see: richard roberts papers, finding aid. norman , /lrichard roberts," p. ; the globe (toronto), april , p. ; the mail and empire (toronto), april , p. . ibid • the globe (toronto), september , p. . thomas sinclair-faulkner, /i 'for christian civilization': the churches and canada's war effort, - ," th.d. thesis, university of chiago, , pp. - . ibid .; allan, the social passion, p. . sinclair-faulkner, "for christian civilization," p. . interview with john f. davidson, toronto, october . sinclair-faulkner, "for christian civilization," p. . ibi d. the united church of canada, on peace and war, statements of the sixth and seventh general councils held at kingston and ottawa (toronto: board of evangelism and social service, united church of canada, ), p. . l ibid . 'ernest thomas, "general council of war and peace," the new outlook, january , p. . ibid . ibid united church of canada, on peace and war, p. . ibid . for peace activity in colleges and universities see below. -- w. a. gifford, "may we hope in the general co unci l?" the new outlook, september , p. . ibid . ibid • united church of canada, on peace and war, p. . ibi d. the new outlook, february , p. . ibid . ibi d. l allen, the social passion, p. . l ib "d -'-" p. • . ernest thomas, iishould the united church condemn war? i the new outlook, august , p. . ibid • ibid ., p. . ernest thomas, the quest for peace (toronto: board of evangelism and social service, united church of canada, n.d.), united church archives, toronto. ib "d -'-" p. . ib "d -'-" p. . ib "d -'-" p. . a en, the social passion, pp. - . the new outlook, december , p. . ibid . ibid . ibid .; march , p. ; october . brhe new outlook, october . , ibid ., november , pp. - . ibid ., may , p. . ibid . sinclair-fau kner, ii'for christian civi ization',u pp. - . l charles h. huestis, biography file, united church archives, toronto; the toronto daily star, june , p. . . the toronto daily star, june , p. . ibid ., may , p. . harkness, atkinson of the star, p. . ibid ., pp. , . the new ut ook, august , p. . l ibid ., november , p. . interview with mrs. j. lavell smith, toronto, november the new outlook, november , p. . ibid . ibid • ibid . ibid • ibi d. ibid ., december . ibid . ibid . the mcmaster silhouette (mcmaster university), november , p. . ibid . ibid .; eayrs, in defense of canada, vol. : from the great war to the great depression, p. . easyrs, in defense of canada, i, pp. - . the mcmaster silhouette, december . ibid .; eayrs, in defense of canada, i, pp. - . margaret beattie, a brief history of the student christian movement in canada, ed. by the scm (toronto: scm, ), p. . ibid ., p. . the echo, winter , pp. - . ibid ., p. . beattie, the scm in canada, p. . ibid • l ibi d., p. . l the new outlook, july , p. . l the canadian friend, august , p. . l the new outlook, july , p. . as late as a young canadian from saskatchewan was caravanning fgr peace. minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meeting, , p. . the canadian friend, november , p. ; haslam, canadian fri ends, p. . l ibid .; minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings, , p. -.- the canadian friend, march , p. . haslam, canadian friends, p. ; minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings, , p. . the canadian friend, may , p. . haslam, canadian friends, p. ; minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings , , p. . p. . ibid ., , p. . ibid ., , p. . ibid ., , p. . ibid., , p. . ibid ., , p. . ibid ., , p. ; haslam, canadian friends, p. . minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings, , the canadian friend, july , p. . ibid ., may , pp. - . chatfie d,' for peace and justice, p. . chapter vi the crisis of conscience, - during the latter half of the 's increasing international violence challenged the viability of the peace movement. the civil war in spain, the sino-japanese ,war and german aggression all placed pacifists in an agonizing position of choosing between the preserva- tion of democracy and social progress in the world or their pacifist ideal of non-violence. to many pacifists recently won to a new social conscience the two goals seemed so closely interrelated that choice was impossible; yet, the ineluctable march of events appeared to force the impossible choice. concurrent with the challenge of world events, and aggravating their dilemma, was a transition in the world of theology which was now beginning to have its effect upon the theological underpinning of twentieth century pacifism. as a result of these combined influences many leading liberal and modernist protestants began to doubt, and some abandon, their theological posi- tion in favor-of neo-orthodoxy and to adopt what they considered a more realistic approach to international violence. following such heart searching over a period of years a large number of these persons fell out of the peace movement. a more general slippage in public support became evident as the latter half of the decade progressed and, in reaction, those canadians who remained pacifists attempted to consolidate their forces and prepare for approaching world disaster. a rift within the peace movement separating pacifism from its temporary alliance with league of nations internationalists and left wing anti-imperialists began to develop in response to the increase in fascist aggression at mid-decade and, in particular, to the spanish civil war. the debate in the former case largely centered on the use of economic and military sanctions to enforce the principle of collective security. some pacifists like j. s. woodsworth approved the use of economic sanctions against aggressors and for a brief time, in response to the italian invasion of abyssinia in , it appeared the canadian government had agreed. but as the "riddell incident" eventually proved, government officials, perhaps reflecting somewhat of an isolationist tinge in popular peace sentiment, were not ready to take such a decisive action. accordingly, canada joined with member nations in removing the league's economic sanctions against italy. the league's failure to employ economic sanctions successfully meant that internationalists who still valued collective security as the route to world peace now looked to military sanctions. on this point, however, they definitely lost the support of committed pacifists and the fissure in the peace movement widened. a more serious question arose, however, in response to the spanish civil war in . besides being another instance of fascist aggression, the civil war in spain also posed a threat of extinction for all left wing groups struggling in a newly established democracy. predictably, the radical left rallied to the support of spanish democracy and began to call for a military response. the peace move- ment on the whole, especially that element in the vanguard of the quest for social and economic justice, found itself in an inescapable dilemma; its commitment to non-violence was in danger of being com- promised by its commitment to social justice, which some inter-war pacifists had already begun to equate with the necessity to resist fascism, if need be, by armed resistance. failure to resolve that dilemma left the pacifist movement severely weakened. the first arm of the peace movement to adopt a more militant stance in the campaign against fascism was the radical left. the rather tenuous alliance between pacifists and radical leftists and communists was exemplified by the league against war and fascism under the direction of a. a. macteod, a canadian radical and former executive editor of the world tomorrow. reflecting a strong christian background, macleod had served as the ymca secretary in halifax and chicago before first joining the staff of the world tomorrow as business manager in . based in new york city since before the first world war, the world tomorrow had becon~ the leading exponent of the pacifist-socialist alignment among radical christians. its editors included such leading radicals as devere allen, kirby page and reinhold niebuhr. their call for a militant pacifism reflected the popular view of pacifism as the best means to achieve a socialized st~te. although published in the united states, the journal maintained an international flavor with regular foreign correspondents, including canadian contributors such as agnes macphail and jack duckworth, a young pacifist from montreal. the world tomorrow also followed closely the progress of the ccf and the antigonish movement in canada. since macleod had been born and raisp.d amid the coal mines of nova scotia he was in direct sympathy with the plight of idle miners there, and in he returned to cape breton for a time to establish a worker's school. two years later, following his resignation as executive editor of the world tomorrow, macleod arrived in toronto to assume the chairmanship of the canadian league against war and fascism (clwf). launched by canadian communists in , the league against war and fascism was the canadian branch of ~ a worldwide movement lito mobilize intellectuals prepared to combine opposition to war and fascism with support of soviet foreign policy. jl it was, in macleod's view, an organized effort to steer the peace movement away from pure pacifism and towards a "more realistic under- standing of the struggle for peace" characteristic of the soviets. support for the league formed around a nucleus of intellectuals: professors at the university of toronto, protestant clergymen and pacifists in the fellowship of reconciliation and the women's inter- national league for peace and freedom. members of the league's national council, for instance, included dr. salem bland, the social gospel spokesman; t. c. douglas and william irvine, the ccf mp's; john line and j. w. l. nicholson of the fcso; rabbi maurice n. eisendrath, president of the toronto for and peter g. makaroff, the pacifist doukhobor lawyer from saskatoon. the communists stayed out of the limelight as much as possible in order to reassure skeptical liberals and socialists. for a time, t. c. douglas and frank underhill, history professor and socialist intellectual in the lsr, were vice-presidents of the league. overall, however, macleod was the moving spirit behind the league and its nationwide campaign against fascism as the major threat to peace and democracy. it is doubtful that macleod ever embraced pacifism, but, as a socialist and one of canada s leading communists, he was active in the general peace movement of the time. in the summer of , for instance, macleod embarked on a national tour that included peace rallies, protest meetings on the persecution of jews, and conferences on the clwf advocacy of the use of sanctions against italy. most meetings were held in co-operation with other organizations such as the wil or for. in august the league co-operated with the canadian youth congress in organizing a torch light parade for peace through downtown toronto which ended with a speech at queen s park by john copithorne of the student peace caravan. over the years the league also sponsored visits to canada by such internati nal figures as andre malraux, thomas mann, harry ward and lord robert cecil. in macleod headed a fourteen man canadian delegation to the first world peace congress in brussells. there he was elected to the general council of the international peace campaign inspired by lord cecil. in that same year, however, the leaguels sympathy with canadian pacifists began to change as macleod and others in the league adopted a more militant response to fascist aggression. their support for military sanctions and their disregard for proper demo- cratic procedures in meetings ultimately resulted in a breach between the league and other peace organizations such as the wil. the toronto wil, in particular, discontinued all association with the league against war and fascism while other branches continued to work with the league for a time but without affiliation. in order to project a more positive image, the league changed its name in to the league for peace and democracy and claimed its aim was to: "protect democratic rights for all sections of the canadian people. save canada from war by helping to restore world peace. i regardless of its exact name, however, the league's position remained clear-cut support for a military victory of the international brigades over general franco's fascists. while obviously never a pacifist organization, the league for peace and democracy capitalized on popular peace sentiment by equating their fight against fascism with the preservation of peace and democracy. as a result, pacifists were tempted to support the fight for international justice at the expense of their pacifist beliefs. although an indirect endorsement of international violence, the call to aid spanish democracy succeeded in attracting considerable support within the peace movement. leading liberal and socialist peace advocates joined with the league for peace and democracy to establish the canadian committee to aid spanish democracy under the honorary chairmanship of salem bland. later, the same coalition lent support to the group of young canadian men who joined the international brigades in spain as the mackenzie-papineau battalion. the canadian committee to aid spanish democracy also received enthusiastic support from the various youth organizations, including the ccym, scm, ymca and ywca, which had recently joined forces to form the canadian youth congress (cyc). the first canadian youth congress was organized in toronto in may with approximately observers and delegates from over organizations, largely from toronto, in attendance. discussions centered on the topics of peace, unemployment and education, and the congress elected a continuing committee known as the canadian youth council to pursue peace activities and educa- tional forums in toronto as well as in other cities. within several months the idea of the cyc began to spread and local youth councils sprang up in most of the larger centers of population across the country. from their beginning the local councils supported peace activities and staged youth peace parades in various cities during the summer of . the canadian youth council also invited all candidates in the general election to complete a questionnaire designed to provide a profile of the candidates vis-a-vis pacifism, the question of sanctions and social welfare programs. although he complied with the request, j. s. woodsworth appeared somewhat annoyed by the tactic and commented critically: why does the canadian youth congress stand on the sidelines and content itself with cheering and booing those in the game? resolutions not fierce enough -- get into action! perhaps with woodsworth s challenge in mind, the cyc councils began to take steps to form a national body which could co-ordinate their various activities into an effective program of action. this plan was accelerated further when the canadian league of nations society asked the canadian youth council to call a national convention of all youth organizations in order to select a broad range of delegates to represent canada at a world youth congress scheduled to meet at geneva in the fall of under the auspices of the international federation of league of nations societies. in may the first national meeting of the canadian youth congress convened in ottawa with delegates from across canada representing over twenty different youth organizations. the major goal of the young delegates was to draft a program to improve the living conditions of all young people through education and affirma- tive action on such issues as unemployment, social justice and peace. accordingly, the main topics of discussion were iicanadian youth and world peace ll and iiyouth in the canadian economy. i one delegate, wilfred cantwell smith, reported that the impressive fact of the conference was the overriding spirit of co-operation and compromise in spite of some incompatible attitudes. even the communists, he wrote, ii were conspi ci ous by thei r mi dness. smith also reported that the tenor of discussion was radical liin the sense that the delegates were trying to get at the root of things, i but he refuted the rumor that the congress was merely an attempt by extremists to attain respectability: revolutionary suggestions were not disputed but laughed at merrily; the absolute pacifist, though applauded, was voted down. the congress endorsed a proposed canadian youth act, which recommended government sponsored youth projects, and adopted several resolutions, including one that condemned war as primarily an economic issue and urged canadian participation in international discussions and action to eliminate war's causes. while most motions received virtual unanimous approval, a resolution which supported military sanctions by the league of nations was opposed by twenty per-cent of the delegates. in the end, the congress issued a iideclaration of rights of canadian youthll which explained cyc demands for work, security, recreation, knowledge, training, freedom and justice. concerning peace the cyc declared: we want our country continually, and wit~ all its resources, to struggle to promote collective security and peace among all the nations and peoples. this will be the best guarantee of our peace. we want our government to establish responsibility to the people in matters of foreign policy, and demand that on these matters the people shall be asked to decide by vote. we also declare intolerable any and all acts, bills and laws which would or do provide the breach of the state of peace either within or without our borders. the issue of peace was considered to be of primary importance to canadian youth and, to a certain extent, the cyc pronouncements on peace served as an indication of youth opinion for the delegates selected to attend the world youth congress, also billed as the international congress against war. in september over seven hundred delegates from thirty-six nations gathered in geneva~ including one of the largest delegations of thirty-two delegates and observers from canada. the canadians~ representative of every section of canada, were members of the ymca~ ywca~ the united church~ the baptist church, ccym, scm, communist youth league and several sectional groups. among them were william kashtan, secretary of the communist youth league, paul martin, a future member of the liberal government and t. c. douglas, the future ccf premier of saskatchewan. kenneth woodsworth, the chairman and chief spokesman of the cyc and one of the canadian delegates, felt that the canadian delegation gave "constructive leadership" to the world congress and became more confident from the experience. the proposed canadian youth act~ for example~ was used as a model by the world youth movement. the major accomplishment at geneva was the establishment of the ~~orld youth congress as a "permanent continuing body" in order to achieve "unity of action on an international scale." in regard to world peace, the congress issued a call for a collective peace system which would provide real security against aggressors, a system having its roots deep in the mass movement of the people for peace; not in support of an abstract ideal of collectivism, but to create a potent instru- ment to maintain the peace of the world. the hope of the young delegates was to direct the enthusiasm of youth away from fascism towards a constructive peace movement. peace could be established, they believed, "through the unified will of the whole people, organized in their own popular movements, con- sistent y directed against any and every force which might lead to war." the world congress concluded that economic reform was essential to lasting peace and therefore outlined specific proposals which delegates might adopt in their respective countries, particularly in regard to the economic distress of young people. upon his return home, kenneth woodsworth boasted that the canadian delegates were infected with a "spirit which will blossom forth in still greater accomplishments. i during the next few years the cyc accelerated its campaign on behalf of a canadian youth act and took the lead in organizing youth peace day demonstrations across the country every armistice day. despite these displays of enthusiasm, the cyc had also begun to re-evaluate the proper response for canadian youth to increasing fascist aggression and by the cyc was instrumental in organizing a special canadian youth committee to aid spain. national cyc chairman ken woodsworth welcomed the new activities like assisting war refugees in spain, as the type of practical peace work needed by the youth councils. later, during the sino-japanese conflict, the cyc broadened its appeal to include refugees in china as well and called for a boycott of japanese goods. it was inconsistent on the part of the canadian government, charged the cyc, to build up defense on the pacific coast but at the same time to permit the shipment of war materials to japan, canada's only potential enemy in the pacific. under the pressure of continued international aggression, the cyc had begun to argue that a meaningful movement for peace demanded sterner measures than mere demonstrations and humanitarian services. in a letter to local youth councils in november ken wdodsworth lamented the impotence of the peace movement. despite another year of peace rallies by youth, czechoslovakia had fallen and canton and hankow were 'destroyed. lithe crisis through which we are now passing," he wrote, "has tried the peace movement severely and has found it wanting in many respects." woodworth challenged the local councils to seek a new approach of practical activity for the peace movement. furthermore, while reaffirming its faith in the principle of collective security, the cyc called upon canadian authorities to formulate a peace policy for canada which would include the type of action t h t f . t . c . h f th necessary a asc s aggress n. ear y, n t e eyes e cyc, the popular peace movement had corne to be associated with some- thing quite different from pacifism. the crisis in the peace movement marked by the abandonment of non-violence by the clpd and the cyc was also reflected within the ccf and its gradual move away from a strictly neutral foreign policy position. l from its inception the ccf closely followed j. s. woodsworth's pacifist-socialist philosophy and endorsed a strict neutralist foreign policy for canada. in effect, the ccf echoed the socialist argument that the best way to rid the world of war was through the elimination of capitalism with its social injustice and imperialist aggression. for a time there appeared to be no conflict between pacifism and socialism since it was generally assumed that future wars would be primarily capitalist wars. the outbreak of civil war in spain, however, severely challenged the socially radical pacifist analysis and triggered a shift among socialists away from a neutral or pacifist position. certainly, once ccf members became instrumental in the canadian committee to aid spanish democracy, the party was in a di enma. on the one hand, it opposed canadian participation in any foreign war, but, on the other, it championed the individual right of canadians to go to spain to fight fascism. the ambiguity of this stand was underlined further in when the ccf national council rephrased its foreign policy resolution which urged neutrality in the event of "any war" to read "any imperialis·t 'liar." did this mean the ccf would support a war to resist fascist aggression, as in spain? woodsworth, of course, continued to call for a policy of strict neutrality, and the ccf endorsed that position in regard to the sino-japanese conflict. nevertheless, unrest continued to mount and in the ccf reversed an earlier stand and recognized the need for home defense as the stugg e intensified between the pacifists and non-pacifists within the party. the neutralist platform was doomed. thus, the spanish civil war pre-eminently among the events of mid-decade was prompting a crisis of major proportions in the peace movement. relations with the league for peace and democracy were strained; the cye response to the spanish civil war pressed hardly upon pacifists; and the ccf foreign policy alliance of anti-imperialists, anti-militarists, neutralists and pacifists was threatened and a wide- spread re-evaluation of the use of armed force to defend liberal democracies from the encroachments of totalitarian regimes was under- way. the threat of fascism had shaken, to its very foundations, the pacifist convictions of many social radicals, including m. j. coldwell, stanley allen and eugene forsey, and resulted in their defection from the peace movement. to some extent the change of heart exemplified by many canadian pacifists during the later thirties followed the lead of the american theologian, reinhold niebuhr. former chairman of the fellowship of reconciliation in the united states and one time editor of the world tomorrow, niebuhr left the for in because its pacifist membership refused to declare total allegiance to the class struggle. soon v afterward he rejected pacifism altogether as an ineffective and unrealistic philosophy of social change. as niebuhr moved towards marxism on political and social questions he launched a far-reaching critique of theological liberalism and moved towards a reformulation of theological orthodoxy. niebuhr concluded that only a neo-orthodoxy which emphasized the depth and continuity of the sinfulness of man in human history could come to terms with the realities of the twentieth century and provide the philosophic base for radical social thought. he looked on liberal protestantism and pacifism as heretical developments that had substituted faith in man for faith in god. al- though individual man was moral, he argued, society on the whole was immoral and therefore incapable of perfection. neither the perfect v means nor the perfect end were real options in social action, and to act as if they were so was not only unrealistic, it was to invite disaster. contrary to the absolutism of pacifists and many social radicals, the moral relativism of niebuhr required christians to choose the least possible evil relative to their particular situation. although the real impact of niebuhr in canada was not until after the second world war, his changing philosophy was already being publicized in canadian religious journals. thus, niebuhr's rejection of pacifism and his call for a more realistic christian approach to international conflicts was an important influence upon those canadian pacifists re-thinking their pacifism in response to the anti-fascist mood of the late thirties. on the other hand, the loss of his support was a major setback to the peace movement and, coupled with the emotional issue of spain, revealed the vulnerability of the socially radical pacifism of the twentieth century. there was no serious attempt by a canadian pacifist to answer niebuhr directly until the second world war but the dilemma of the christian pacifist was clearly recognized in by arthur g. dorland. v in an article in the canadian friend, dorland urged his fellow pacifists to maintain their trust in the redemptive power of love in bringing about the kingdom of god. many christians, he warned, were abandoning this faith with the excuse that "man is fundamentally wicked and untrustworthy. i that attitude may have been in line with the teachings of calvin but was not according to the teaching of jesus. dorland recognized, however, that christian pacifists who did rely on spiritual forces and who sought to apply the principles of the kingdom of god to "every relationship of life" found themselves in a particular dilemma. "this dilemma is of far greater complexity," he wrote, "than just the question as to whether shooting out the brains of an opponent -- either individually or in mass -- is a christian or reasonable way of settling a dispute. i rather, the dilemma of war included the pressing social and economic problems of the day. on this point dorland made himself perfectly clear: ... those christians who seek to dodge the dilemma of economic and social justice in a christian society and who refuse to do anything to remove these injustices or to construct a more equitable and truly christian order, actually become by their timidity and inertia the up- holders and defenders of the existing injustices and social evils. on the other hand, christians could face the dilemma and seek to remove the causes of injustices and evils in contemporary society. what was needed, suggested dorland, was the establishment of a form of soci.ety "in which man will live by something better than the rule of profit and self-aggrandisement. i l the heart of the dilemma, however, concerned the extent to which the christian pacifist should pursue the new social order, especially since there was a real danger that pacifism would be sacrificed if the end goal of social and economic justice was carried to the extreme. dorland particularly noted that, in their dedicated campaign for social and economic reform, some social gospel radicals had already lent support to persons and causes that were "activated by hate and revenge against those who control our present social and economic system" and who favored class warfare. there were a "rapidly growing number" of canadians, he reported, "who have been so won by the avowedly idealistic appeals of the fascist or communist as the case may be ... that they are ready to go out to kill their fellowmen to secure these desirable social ends in a class war, if not in an international war." dorland hoped that his fellow pacifists would recognize the hidden danger in supporting radical alternatives. in reality, christian pacifists were being asked to support causes "that would justify the use of the war method in a bloody class war to atta'in ... particular economic and social ends." in conclusion, dorland reminded his readers that if they wished to bring in the kingdom of god they would have to use the methods of the kingdom and not violence and hate, "however praiseworthy or desir- able the end to be attained may appear to be. ii ii~je cannot further heaven's end, i he wrote, "by breaking heaven's laws." but finally, that was to put the issue once more in terms of absolute means and ends. dorland was realistic up to a point. he had absorbed the need to pursue peace through social and economic justice, and saw that if followed to extremesthat approach could compromise pacifism. what he did not seem to have absorbed was that it was not extremists who were drifting away from pacifism, but committed liberal, labor and social democrates who had had pacifist inclinations but now feared the defense of their primary values might entail a war they could not reject. dorland did not state that dimension of the crisis. he remained a committed absolute pacifist and, still basically liberal in his thinking, he was unable to turn the last screw in analyzing the dilemma. niebuhr remained to be reckoned with. the question raised by niebuhr and dorland concerning the proper christian response to war also became one of the major issues considered by the world's leading protestants at the oxford conference of the universal council for life and work. over four hundred delegates as well as four hundred associate members and visitors representing almost every branch of the protestant church throughout the world gathered at oxford in to consider the relationship between the church and the social and economic order. on the whole, the conference reflected a growing realism in christian social thought, "and a more resolute determination that the church should bear its witness in the world as it was, rather than remain in the realm of utopian idealism." this was espetcally true concerning the issue of pacifism, perhaps in response to the worsening international situation. as one of the canadian delegates to the oxford conference, richard roberts was primarily concerned with the question of war. in fact, prior to his departure for england, roberts confided to john nevin sayre, the international chairman of the fellowship of recon- ciliation, that he felt the most urgent question at oxford would be that of peace. ii i am not at all sure, ii he wrote, "whether it i sn i t the most immediately critical issue for the church at this moment. any- thing short of a stark condemnation of war, root and branch, will stultify the church in the face of the world. iis as a member of the group on international order and war, roberts worked in close associa- tion with the british pacifist canon charles raven in drafting the statement on war. it was not a pacifist document but he thought it was lithe strongest thing that has yet come from a church body on war. iis in effect, the oxford pronouncement recognized three possible positions for a christian in time of war: christian submission to the state's declaration of war, support for only a just war waged according to christian principles, and the pacifist rejection of all wars. roberts was particularly pleased with the official recognition of absolute pacifism as a legitimate christian stand because he realized the report of the oxford conference would influence sub- sequent declarations of canada's churches. indeed, when the general council of the united church reiterated its opposition to war in it mentioned only two of the three possible christian alternatives upheld by the oxford conference: absolute pacifism and selective abstention from war. omitted altogether was any reference to legiti- mate grounds by which the state or christians might wage war. s in effect, the general council reached a compromise between absolute pacifism and the growing christian realism regarding international affairs. when roberts returned to canada he became the center of a controversy arising from the oxford pronouncement on war. while speaking at the twentieth annual pastors' conference at the hartford seminary in connecticut, he made an impromptu statement that if the oxford report on war was to sink into the mind of the church, there would be "no more recruiting and drumbeating in the pulpits and no more prayers for victory.n l once his corrnnents were reported in toronto newspapers a furor broke loose with all sorts of people writing to the correspondence columns of the papers. roberts' most venomous critic was h. a. kent, principal of queen's university. in a letter to the editor of the globe and mail, kent branded roberts' statement as iifoolish utterance ... only possible in the mouth of someone who sits by while other people may be in agony. ii lithe tongue is a little member," kent concluded. "in the mouth of moderators and ex-moderators it should be bridled against foolish utterance." the controversy that resulted from roberts' speech and kent's rejoinder lasted for several months. most contributors either cursed roberts or spoke out whole-heartedly on his behalf. one of the most penetrating comments came from the radical 'pacifist, r. edis fairbairn. fairbairn agreed with kent that roberts' statement was "foolish utterance" since, regardless of an anti-war position by the church, individual ministers would "certainly recruit: from the pulpit and pray for vi ctory . . . in the next war, as in the as t. ii ii dr. roberts' misguided optimism," he wrote, "seems to me as dangerous as dr. kent's naive unrealism. fairbairn predicted that mammon and mars, the twin gods of civilization, would have no difficulty swinging the churches into line in time of future crisis. another well-known pacifist minister, g. stanley russell of deer park united church, argued that it was not roberts but kent who needed to defend his position. in a personal letter to roberts, gordon sisco, general secretary of the united church, wrote that he felt kent had missed the point and then continued: what i do want to say is that in this difficult time, when many of us are trying to think our way through to a christian conclusion, and the relation of church to state, especially in times of war, we are heartened by what you said at hartford, connecticut. there are many of us who know exactly what you mean when you speak of the church as a body of believers who must be true to the christian ethic as far as possible in time of international strife. i do hope you will be encouraged to feel that many are with you. don't budge a damn bit! roberts did not move from his pacifist position in the years to come. he left toronto in after having worked there slightly over a decade, and in that time had become well-known and respected for his constant but reserved call for pacifism and social action both within the united church and throughout canada as a whole. nevertheless, the response to the oxford pronouncement on war, the kent-roberts contro- versy in particular, underlined a growing dilemma within the church, the peace movement and canadian society in general concerning the proper role for canadians in a war against fascism. the latter half of the thirties was indeed a time of crisis for the peace movement as numerous canadians drifted away from pacifism in order to support the fight against fascist injustice. alarmed, committed pacifists, especially those in the society of friends, the women s international league and the fellowship of reconciliation began to re-group and consolidate their particular organizations. in , for instance, all three branches of the society of friends in canada issued a joint statement reaffirming their ancient peace testimony and sent copies to the prime minister, minister of national defense, and the leaders of both opposition parties. since canadians were again pre-occupied with the thought of war, quakers felt impelled to remind the government of christ s message: but i say unto you that ye resist not evil, but overcome evil with good. to oppose force with more force, they argued, would accomplish nothing; "it is like using frost to destroy frost, hate to destroy hate, or evil to destroy evil. i although they offered their loyal assistance in arriving at crucial decisions, friends warned that liunder no circumstances" would they take part in war or preparation for war. rather, they placed their faith in lithe spirit and principle of love" to bring about real peace on earth. such pleas might suggest that canadian quakers were entirely out of touch with the enormities of political and racial persecution that were becoming a hallmark of the s, but they were among the first to respond with humanitarian services in response to the suffering in war-torn countries and under fascist regimes. after the outbreak of civil war in spain, for instance, the ~anadian friends service committee and the canadian committee of the save the children fund issued a joint appeal for assistance for spanish children. likewise, with the outbreak of war in china the following year, the two organiza- tions acted together again. already, however, as early as , friends had voiced their concern for the growing number of those fleeing nazi germany and pledged their assistance. it was believed that most of the exiles were german pacifists, jews or christians of jewish descent. by friends joined a group of toronto churchmen in a demand that the canadian government offer asylum to the refugees. canada, they proposed, could become a sanctuary for those escaping n . t az error. friends followed the issue closely and warned that hitler and his nazi supporters would never restrain their sadistic persecution of german jews. in order to create an effective network of refugee work, quakers co-operated with other religious or pacifist organizations such as the canadian conference of christians and jews ' and the women's international league for peace and freedom. the wil took a keen interest in the problem and was particularly instrumental in the movement to assist german refugees in canada during the war. in fact, the toronto branch of the wil received credentials from a few refugees seeking permanent residence in canada as early as . most refugee work required careful personal attention to each individual being considered. it proceeded slowly, without publicity, and generally did not meet with much success until the problem directly involved canada during the second world war. other than refugee work, the wil launched an active opposition to increased military spending and the shipment of war materials to japan. in february the toronto branch sponsored an emergency peace meeting in an attempt to organize sentiment against increased military expenditures. the meeting sent five thousand cards to members of parliament requesting them to vote against any such increases. anna sissons, president of the toronto wil, urged other branches to t k ·· t· a e slml ar ac lon. the majority of wil activity in the late thirties, however, was devoted to national reorganization and consolidation in light of the growing challenge to world peace. during the course of the decade national co-ordination of the wil had fallen into disarray, especially since laura jamieson, the leading national figure, devoted more and more of her time to ccf political activities in british columbia. consequently, anna sissons, made an effort to keep the organization together by assuming the duties of the national secretary and distributing a national wil newsletter. following the international events of the mid- 's, however, it was evident that closer national organization was necessary if the wil was to lead an effective peace program. in violet mcnaughton of saskatoon and lila phelps of winnipeg agreed on the urgent need for national eadership and in june of the following year the winnipeg branch of the wil sponsored a national organization confer- ence. the conference delegates included anna sissons from toronto, laura jamieson from vancouver, mrs. v. a. mcconkey from edmonton, mrs. l. g. salverson and miss coutes from calgary, mrs. g. hartwell and mrs. g. w. hutchinson from regina and beatrice brigden, mrs. f. l. lloyd and the chairman of the conference, lucy woodsworth, all from manitoba. judging from this list of prominent members the wil appears to have been the women's peace arm of the ccf. reports of the conference on the various activities of local branches revealed that wil women across canada were involved in the sponsorship of local peace conferences, radio programs, essay and poster contests in schools, theatrical productions, and goodwill day celebrations. the regina women were particularly proud of their recent success in removing cadet traini~g from schools. following enthusiastic agreement to organize on a strong national basis, the new canadian section passed resolutions in favor of numerous issues ranging from birth control to peace. one example was the following proposal for a national referendum to decide canadian participation in an imperial war: resolved: that the women's international league for peace and freedom, canadian section, urges the government to take necessary steps to ensure to canada her right to decide as to participation or non-participation in any war in which the united kingdom may become involved. the wil also declared its support for the creation of a select standing committee in the house of commons to investigate the entire question of the manufacture, purchase and sale of armaments in canada and its effect upon the canadian economy. - although unable to attend the national wil conference in winnipeg, violet mcnaughton actively promoted wil objectives in saskatchewan and was instrumental in the creation of the saskatoon peace group, a forerunner of the fellowship of reconciliation in saskatoon. wil efforts in saskatoon, however, appear to have met only limited success. depressed about their rather poor showing, mcnaughton complained in april that ninety per-cent of the inhabitants of saskatoon did not have the least interest in the peace question "and yet we've tried all kinds of methods of reaching them. " pacifists in toronto appeared to have fared a little better. in may , for instance, the wil joined with the for, lsr, and fcso and sponsored a special peace day celebration, featuring the american pacifist harry emerson fosdick, in order to commemorate years of peace between canada and the united states. as popular support for the peace movement began to wane, pacifist groups accelerated their effort to unite their members and to maintain some semblance of pacifist activity. the organization of the women's international league on a national basis was an important step in that direction. likewise, the fellowship of reconciliation began to organize on an official national basis and before the end of the decade the for became the leading inter-pacifist organization in canada. prior to , however, small for groups in various canadian cities functioned without national -co-ordination or even affiliation with the international organization. what little contact they did have with the official for was largely through the american branch and its publication, fellowship, and other journals such as the christian century and the world tomorrow. during the thirties the largest for group was in toronto. it was a popular but loosely organized society through which a variety of pacifists co-operated in the promotion of peace demonstrations and other events. its wide range of supporters included members of the society of friends, the united church, the wil, the jewish community and various interested parties. for years major leadership was exercised by rabbi maurice n. eisendrath of toronto's holy blossum temple and g. raymond booth, chairman of the toronto monthly meeting of friends. in montreal a small for group functioned under the leadership and guidance of j. lavell smith of westmount park united church, clarence halliday of montreal's west united church, philip matthams, national secretary of the fcso, j. m. c. (jack) duckworth, general secretary of the notre dame de grace ymca and various mcgill university students. eugene forsey, a professor of economics at mcgill, j. stanley allen, an fcso travelling secretary and other members of the fcso were also active in the montreal pacifist circle, although they began to re-evaluate their pacifist stand in reaction to the spanish civil war. on the west coast the for developed primarily around university of british columbia students and counted among its membership the western secretary of the united church department of evangelism and social service, hugh dobson. in alberta and most of the prairies the major inter-war christian pacifist organization was still the alberta school of religion, the fcso affiliate. by the late 's, however, the fcso had become clearly divided over the pacifist issue and its pacifist members, while not bitter, became uncomfortable and gradually gravitated towards the for. in fact, fcso members desiring a more specifically pacifist affiliation were largely responsible for the active for groups across canada. likewise, under the developing rift, and sensing the need for a closer bond among pacifists, the alberta school of religion finally cut its official ties to the fcso in favor of affiliation with the for. the for in saskatchewan developed out of the saskatoon peace group, a small society devoted to the study and discussion of the current questions of concern to pacifists, such as the reorganization of the league of nations, canada's defense policy and conscription. the saskatoon peace group also sponsored public forums for the discussion of topics relevant to world peace and endorsed numerous resolutions favoring such measures as the nationalization of the munitions industry, conscription of all wealth in the event of war and a national referendum on the question of canadian participation . ln war. the leading figures in the saskatoon pacifist circle were john and violet mcnaughton, peter makaroff, the doukhobor lawyer, nelson chappel of westminster united church, carlyle king, professor of english at the university of saskatchewan, cleo mowers, a theological student and various other university students. the group met regularly in makaroff's law office, usually fortnightly for two hours, where they studied pacifist works, such as richard gregg's the power of non-violence, chapter by chapter, learned about the peace movement abroad and organized their activities for saskatoon. according to carlyle king, the group began to call themselves the fellowship of reconciliation chiefly because they "liked the sound of it" and because it seemed more positive than war resisters· international or peace pledge union. iiwe had no written statement of purpose,ji wrote king, "but we had unity of purpose although we had come to pacifism by a variety of roads. there were doukhobors who had left the faith, friends who had no meeting, bahaists, jews, mennonites, united church people, and others without formal church or religious connection. ubb with a membership roll of thirty in , saskatoon boosted one of the largest for groups in the country.b although a number of canadians were members of the american for, increased correspondence between the various pacifist groups revealed the growing desire to organize the for on a national basis within canada. the move towards this end was initiated by the montreal group and accelerated when percy bartlett and john neven sayre, secretary and chairman, respectively, of the international for, toured canada in the summer of under the auspices of the canadian frie~ds. by autumn of that year, sayre, chairman of the american branch as well as the international organization, assured the montreal spokesmen, j. lavell smith and jack duckworth, that he would personally endorse their application for affiliation with the international for if there was a jl sa tisfactori y functioning canadian section. ii iii must certainly favor it,ll sayre wrote smith, iiprovided you find that there are convinced and capable converts of christian pacifism in several canadian cities who favor the move. i l it appears sayre had co-operated on several occasions with the canadian league of nations society and appreciated their support, but he warned smith that it was "not a good thing to have most of the organized peace movement in canada under the league of nations society.,, experience in both the united states and england, he wrote, demonstrated that christian pacifism could not be propagated adequately under league auspices. consequently, it was sayre's wish that there might one day be in canada a variety of peace organizations, each fulfiling the function and spreading the message for which it is fitted, but all of them sending their executive to such meetings for continuing conference and consultation .... perhaps such a development would be hastened if there was a canadian for strong enough to put its case against sanctions and for completely peaceful measures, before your country. on the other hand, sayre was not in favor of "purely a paper organization" and, therefore, recommended that the montreal group establish a national office and select officers who were known and trusted. if this minimum organization could not be affected, he concluded, "it would probably be best for the f.o.r. headquarters in the united states to continue serving members in canada as at present. ,, in any case the ameri can for was ready to send thei r literature to canada and route some of their speakers to various canadian cities. sayre's presumptuous attitude that a canadian for should affiliate with and thus become an arm of the american branch annoyed the montreal group. lavell smith, in particular, rejected the idea in favor of a canadian organization independent of both american or british connections. consequently, the montreal group shelved sayre·s proposal and turned their attention to more immediate issues. in july , for instance, they distributed a leaflet, framed by smith, halliday and duckworth, protesting the proposed multiplication of training centers for military aviators and construction plants for fighting and bombing planes as contrary to the canadian government·s claim to be rearming for defense only. as far as the consolidation of canadian pacifists was concerned, halliday and duckworth admitted that the job was too much for their small group and they suggested it be assumed by a larger for unit, preferably the one in saskatoon. the first step in that direction occurred when a national for organization conference convened in toronto during the sessions of the general council of the united church in september . approximately thirty people, representing toronto·s peace groups and pacifists within the united church and the fcso in particular, gathered at toronto·s diet kitchen on september and resolved to establish an official canadian section of the for. the meeting named a national committee consisting of three from toronto: booth, joseph round and ted mann; three from montreal: smith, halliday and thelma allen; three from saskatoon: king, mowers and f. blatchford ball; two from alberta: w. f. kelloway and w. h. irwin and two from northern ontario: c. clare oke and j. w. e. newbery. the meeting announced that the saskatoon unit was iiwilling to co-operate in organizing a national f.o.r. movement ll and concluded by instructing the new committee to communi cate wi th carlyle "k ng in that regard. although king and mowers did not attend the meeting and, therefore, were named to the committee without their knowledge or consent, it appears the mowers had implied their willingness to under- take the task while he was in montreal earlier that year. thus, king and mowers accepted the challenge. since they received no further word from the national committee, king and mowers appointed themselves chairman and secretary respectively and then sought committee approval of their unilateral action. it turned out that the other committee members "were only too happy" with the new national executive and a november meeting of these members from ontario and montreal adopted the following resolution: that this group, representative of montreal, toronto and north bay, concur in the suggestion that there be set up a national council of the canadian fellowship of reconciliation with the following executive officers: president: professor carlyle a. king, university of saskatchewan. secretary: mr. c. w. mowers, university of saskatchewan, and that these executive officers proceed to complete the formation of the council. it was further moved that steps be taken to secure the ratification of local units of the f.o.r. in canada, of these appointments. it was also recommended that one of the first tasks of the executive should be the formulation of a statement of purpose acceptable to groups across canada. king had already begun to draft a statement of basis and aims and by late november he sent copies to the various units for approval. since the response of council mewbers was completely favorable, king proceeded to incorporate the basis and aims in a leaflet describing the canadian for for use in a membership drive. from the very beginning, king's most ardent support came from smith, halliday and duckworth in montreal. they were always prompt with suggestions and offers of assistance. in january , for instance, smith sent king a list of approximately three to four thousand names of canadians who had signed the war renunciation pledge of . smith confessed that the list was not one hundred per-cent reliable in view of the fact that many addresses had probably changed and undoubtedly some had renounced pacifism, but he hoped it would be of some use. elated over the prospect of an organization incorporating a thousand or more prospective pacifists in canada, king and mowers launched a membership drive. in the spring of mowers recalled their experience: first we compiled a list of about one hundred names of people in all parts of the nation, people whom we thought were sure bets. we sent each of them copies of our printed leaflet. only a very few replied. we wrote many personal letters and still very few replied. we sent circular letters, with the leaflets, to united church ministers who signed the peace pledge about four years ago, and still only a very few replied. disheartened with their enrollment of only sixty new members in four months, king and mowers concluded that they had made a "gross error in judgement" concerning the popular demand for a canadian for. clearly, the heightened international tensions of the latter thirties were taking their toll of pacifist sentiment. on the other hand, king and mowers were encouraged by the formation of some new units, especially among fcso members. j. w. e. newbery of all peoples' mission in sudbury organized an for unit, and in the north bay area the fellowship for constructive peace under c. clare oke of sundridge, ontari~ announced its support for the for. on the east coast, fred young, a united church minister in tryon, prince edward island,promoted both the fcso and the for as the means to convince people of the underlying economic causes of war. young was one of the few for supporters in the maritimes. in their leaflet entitled "our battle for peace", the toronto branch of the fcso endorsed the for as well as other peace organizations in an urgent appeal for all christians to work for peace 'in spite of the "apparently unbri dgeab le gul f of opi ni on as to the methods of peace- making" within the fcso. some members ike eugene forsey and stanley allen, for instance, had begun to move away even from the fcso in light of their ccf commitments on the one hand and the fsco's willingness to continue a broader front of operations, including support for macleod's league for peace and democracy which forsey and allen among others viewed through macleod's communist ties as a communist party front. obviously, the pressure of international events of the latter half of the decade was fragmenting the peace movement once more, and there was now quite a string of options for achieving an ultimately peaceful world; thus, the fcso could hardly hold together and pacifists were bound to look for another home. indeed, their non-pacifist colleagues such as r. b. y. scott and gregory vlastos supported the validity of the absolute pacifist position for some people and encouraged pacifists to join the for. but division was deepening. in the' spring of , clare oke reported that the peace committee of the fcso had decided that the best contribution a divided fcso could make to world peace laid in the effort to bring about a better social order rather than pacifism. iii have a growing conviction," oke concluded, "that the f.o.r. with its pacifistic method is perhaps the wiser in its policy even in relation to the evolving of a better sod ety. a similar criticism of the fcso's retreat from pacifism was leveled by stanley knowles, ccf mp from winnipeg. in regard to the for knowles welcomed lithe possibility of uniting and consolidating pacifist opinionll and pledged his support. he also predicted that the majority of the fcso unit in winnipeg would join the for since they were in "full sympathy" with its basis and aims. the prospect of a new for unit in winnipeg as well as the report of similar action in edmonton was welcome news to canadian pacifists in . in addition, a stronger for unit was being organized in vancouver, largely through the efforts of robert tillman, scm chairman in british columbia, and ernest bishop, a theological student. what seemed to be the most encouraging news, however, carne from toronto where an for unit of approximately thirty-five pacifists elected r. j. irwin, an fcso minister, and g. raymond booth, chairman and vice-chairman respectively. according to the secretary, joe round, the toronto group planned to launch a "militant! pacifist effort. ii iii wou-ld like to express the private hope, i round wrote king, iithat you will bombard us with all sorts of proposals for pacifist action .... despite round's pledge to iidrop all other activities in favor of the peace work, i his optimistic appraisal of the toronto organization and rumors of a thousand pacifists active there, mowers feared that the toronto unit was ii practically dead. i to be sure, the for in toronto was disorganized and beset with dissension until well into the war years. although finally organized on a national basis, the canadian for was still a relatively small, weak organization. moreover, the gradual defection of their fcso allies further heightened the sense of isolation among pacifists. it was not surprising, therefore, that the national organization in canada sought a closer association with fellow pacifists in other countries, particularly the neighboring united states. the move in that direction was apparent by autumn when the american for publication fellowship began to feature a regular report on the canadian movement with the help of an official canadian correspondent, jack duckworth. it was also at that time that efforts were renewed to affiliate the canadians with the american branch, an arrangement favored by john nevin sayre for several years. in november the executive secretary of the for in the united states, harold e. fey, reminded duckworth that the american council planned to consider the affiliation of the canadian group the following month and, therefore, needed a copy of the canadian statement of purpose. if it was ii sufficiently nearll to the american statement he foresaw no objections to the idea. fey also outlined what he thought would be the basis of such affiliation. the canadian fellowship would receive a special group membership in the american for with official representation at american meetings and, in return, the american branch would continue to supply various services and guest speakers as well as their magazine fellowship. a few days later, sayre reassured carlyle king that, despite the failure of the montreal group to act upon his proposal the previous year, lithe way is open today, as it always has been, at this end for some form of affiliation, if that is what our canadian brothers want." it appears that most of the canadian members did favor affiliation with the american branch, perhaps because they were already familiar with the american organization or because they felt the need to consolidate pacifists in north america. in any case, king informed sayre that the canadian council had agreed to affiliate with the american for on the basis of fey's letter to duckworth and he enclosed a copy of the canadian statement of basis and aims for american appr~val. the canadian statement, however revealed a conflicting difference between the canadian and american sections. the statement in question identified the canadian for as "an association of men and women who believe in the non-violent settlement of all conflictsll and listed several ways in which they could express their faith, from personal relationships to the refusal to sanction war. the most controversial part concerned the omission of a predominantly christian basis of belief. instead, the statement read: many of the members have joined because of their desire to follow unswervingly the way of life exemplified by jesus; some have received their inspiration from other religious leaders, and some have reached their faith in love and non-violence in still other ways. in his letter to sayre, king had particularly pointed out that canadians desired a broad statement in order to attract all pacifist groups. iiwe have felt, i he wrote, iithat there is room in canada for only one pacifist organization and accordingly have drafted our state- ment of basis and aims in such a way as to make it acceptable not only to christian pacifists but to people who are pacifists on other grounds."llg since the statement closely followed the american version in all other respects, king felt there was no reason to fear there would be a problem. nevertheless, in his response, sayre was dubious about the canadian movement and criticized the canadian statement for its lack of sufficiently christian content. he advised canadians to revise their statement, especially since canadian-american affiliation was contingent upon the international for granting official recognition to their group. as it stood, sayre warned, the international for executive committee, of which he was chairman, might wonder if the canadian statement "does not relegate jesus to the periphery of the canadian fellowship instead of having him at the center. i l what sayre wished to see inserted in the canadian statement was some reference to jesus such as the sentence in the american statement that for members: believe that love, such as that seen preeminently in jesus, must serve as the true guide for personal conduct under all circumstances; and they seek to demonstrate this love as the effective force for over- coming evil and transforming society into a creative fellowship. sayre closed by reminding canadians that the international for was convinced that its affiliated branches iimust be definitely and predominantly chri stian. ii annoyed and offended at the tone, if not the content, of sayre's letter, king shared his thoughts on the matter with the other members of the national council, booth, duckworth, halliday, oke and smi th: mr. sayre insists that the f.o.r. should be primarily a christian pacifist movement. our council agreed that in canada we should try to unite christian and non-christian in a pacifist program, and agreed to a statement of basis and aims which should be acceptable to both. we have been able, as you know, to work out such a statement -- a statement which embodies a whole philosophy of life embracing personal, social, national and international conduct. that is, we have been about our business of reconciling diverse points of view and uniting people of differing religious attitudes around a program of good will to all men. we have succeeded in that, only to be told by mr. sayre that we ought to be sectarian. he asks us to revise our statement to make it specifically christian. king also maintained sayre's letter, "politely but clearly," implied a lack of confidence in the canadian chairman, underlined by the fact that copies of the letter were sent directly to the other members of the national council. consequently, king felt compelled to resign as chairman unless he was reass,ured of the continued support of the council. reports from the national council unanimously supported king as chairman and expressed surprise at the whole affair. the montreal group was particularly puzzled and wrote sayre asking him if there was not some mistake and if he had received the final form of the canadian basis and aims. as far as their statement relegating jesus to the periphery, duckworth emphasized that they did "not so interpret it." in reply, sayre reiterated his view that the canadians should demonstrate that they regarded jesus as "more authoritative for the fellowship than other teachers of non-violence -- for instance, gandhi ." sayre also reported that he had been assured by raymond booth that the canadian fellowship was "definitely and certainly christian. ii if that was indeed the case, he argued, "in the interests of frankness and clarity, it should be so indicated in your statement of basis." after meeting with sayre in new york, booth notified king that he was in sympathy with sayre's demand for a strictly christian statement since it stemmed from the past experiences of the american for being infiltrated with "communists and other borers-from-within." booth confided that the toronto group had suffered a similar experience when it was first organized. hour toronto f.o.r. was organized upon such a broad basis," he wrote, "and for this i am quite largely respon- sible, that we attracted to ourselves all the people who were itching for a fight. i booth concluded that he agreed with sayre that only those with "an abiding conviction of the fundamentally spiritual nature of the universe" would be loyal to the pacifist cause. despite assurances from canadian members of their strong christian bias, sayre remained skeptical of the canadian movement and king's leadership in particu ar. since it appeared king did not wish to revise the canadian statement, sayre suggested canadians try for something more like the peace pledge union or the war resisters' international. "but, obviously ... if you want your organi zation to be the a ll-incl usive pacifi st type, ii wrote sayre, "you should not use the name 'fellowship of reconciliation,' which stands for something different." on the other hand, sayre reminded king that. a christian pacifist organization such as the for could also include a minority margin of non-christian members as long as its statement of purpose was appropriately christian. although booth favored amending the canadian statement in line with sayre's suggestions, most of the other members on the national council did not. neither did they consider the peace pledge union or war resisters' international as real alternatives to the for. sayre obviously did not understand conditions in canada where the peace movement was predominantly christian and yet so small in numbers that it required no more than one national organization to consolidate pacifists. canada's chcistian pacifists wanted that organization to be the for but they agreed with king as well on the importance of sheltering all those who embraced pacifism, regardless of their particular beliefs. ironically, sayre's pressure for a christian statement could hardly serve a time when christians in canada were in fact dividing precisely over the christian reponse to the looming prospect of war. in may , clare oke wrote king that the members of his local group in the north bay-sundridge area recormnended that lithe canadian f.o.r. apply for affiliation with the international f.o.r. at once on the basis of our present statement of principles and aims. i they felt that any revisions should be considered only if the international council indicated its dissatisfaction. king was also encouraged in this regard when halliday reported that the british pacifist leader, canon charles raven, had intimated he saw nothing wrong with the canadian statement. consequently, on ~ ay , , king formally applied for affiliation of the canadian organization with the international for. in his letter to percy bartlett, secretary of the ifor, king expressed the hope for a favorable reception despite sayre's doubts concerning the canadian statement. the canadian request was laid before the international for executive council meeting at fan¢, denmark on june . a few weeks later bartlett reported that the ifor council rejected the canadian v' bid for affiliation because the canadian statement of basis "did not approach quite closely enough to the definitely christian phrasing required of an officially recognized branch of the international fe owsh i p. ii although not present at the fan¢ meeti ng, sayre reported that the ifor council did desire fellowship with the canadians; therefore, he patronizingly expressed the hope that the canadian group would overcome their difficulty with their statement in the near future. the response of the canadian council, while disappointed, generally favored revision of the basis and aims. lavell smith wrote king that he believed the majority of canadian for members now supported the idea of a specifically christian movement. smith also warned that pacifists who lacked a religious foundation for their convictions were already falling out. as an example he cited professor g. m. a. grube, editor of the canadian forum and a founding member of the lsr, who had penned numerous articles in support of pacifism during the thirties. by the end of the decade, however, grube confessed to smith that he lacked the type of religious con- viction necessary to sustain a pacifist stand in light of contemporary . ~reblems. despite smith's interest in a revised statement, council members failed to take any action in that regard or to make further suggestions to king. instead,pacifists began to turn their atten- tion to more immediate issues such as plans to unite conscientious objectors in canada a hint of what was on the horizon. as far as the canadian for was concerned, its statement remained unchanged as it hobbled along, with king's assistance, in an attempt to serve canadian pacifists in the face of approaching international disaster. besides the loss in prestige, the for's failure to become an official part of an international pacifist network left canadian pacifists rather isolated and loosely organized at the close of the decade. the last display of pacifist solidarity before the war occurred during the summer of as representatives of various pacifist and youth organizations gathered on the shore of lake simcoe for a weekend peace conference. the purpose of the meeting was to discuss ways and means of spreading the pacifist answer to modern violence and war. conference participants, largely young people, expressed the conviction that it was "high time pacifists made over- tures to producer groups, co-operatives, and labour unions, as well as campaigning in the churches .... dr. willard brewing of st. george's united church in toronto reminded the pacifists that they were "pledged to refuse participation in all wars, whether civil, class, or imperialist.,, other participants argued that the major task of pacifists was to work for a new social order without the competitive profit-motivated tensions that lead to war. the suggestion was also made that ii s incere pacifists should express their sympathy with the underpriviledged, by living on a minimum allowance and giving away the rest of their salary. ii speaking in a personal vein, professor g. m. a. grube emphasized how difficult it w'as to be active in politics and still hold pacifist ideals. he told the crowd that pacifists iicould have little influence in politics and should be content to play the role of the social prophet in society. i his critical analysis of the weakness of the pacifist answer to current political and international tensions, however, sparked considerable discussion among the delegates. by the time it closed, the conference was credited with arousing "enthusiasm and renewed vigourll in the peace movement. plans were formulated to begin training people in the ideas and methods of non-violence and a motion was passed to encourage the fellowship of reconciliation to organize an even larger pacifist convention in toronto the following year in order to launch an extensive peace campaign. although these ambitious plans were later curtailed by the outbreak of the war, the united church observer, caught up in the spirit of the moment, concluded that toronto pacifists have a close knit body who mean to translate their theories into action, and have decided to move from the realm of talking, into the realm of action! at about the same time, a controversy was raging in the observer's reader's forum which pointed out the sharp divisions within the united church on the pacifist issue and the proper christian attitude to war. the barrage of letters were incited by a statement by william iverach of isabella, manitoba, that war was not unchristian. one contributor argued that war liin defense of international law and order or in resistance to lawless aggression ll was the proper christian response. another writer suggested that christians could participate in war but not in the name of christ. still another accused iverach of a ii grea t sin ll in attempting to link the new testament with war. cleo mowers, the national for secretary from saskatoon, maintained that pacifists did not need biblical authority since it was enough that the hate and killing of war was contrary to the spirit of jesus. the radical pacifist, r. edis fairbairn, suggested that iverach had inadvertently "rendered a service to the whole church in expressing bluntly and forcibly the average man's reaction to the church's repudiation of war. i he was not to be blamed, fairbairn argued, because the pulpit had failed to exnlain the latest develop- ments in christian thinking on the problem of war. in particular, fairbairn referred to the oxford pronouncement's allowance of the absolute pacifist position. in his response to the controversy, iverach thanked the observer for opening the "all-important question" for discussion, thereby showing lithe every-day members of the united church where a section of its ministers stand on some great national questions. i lilt exposes, too," he charged, lithe attempt of the pacifist section of our ministry to set themselves up as a sort of super-christian. i despite the eleventh hour surge of enthusiasm among toronto pacifists, iverach's defense of christian participation in war probably more clearly reflected the public mood at the end of the decade. during the latter half of the thirties, the canadian peace movement was reduced to a shadow of its former self. this wholesale abandonment of pacifism occurred as the suppressed inner divisions inherent in any broad movement surfaced in response to increased international tensions and the theological search for political realism. the fascist threat to world peace began to sort out the supporters of collective security and possible military action from the pacifists proper, while the spanish civil war further disrupted the alliance between pacifists and the radical left. consequently, internationalists and social radicals began to abandon their pacifist ideals, particularly as they re-evaluated the proper christian response to war. the churches, themselves, had refused to endorse a strictly pacifist position and some churchmen again began to defend the armed defense of christian civilization. in response to this crisis, committed pacifists in the society of friends, the wil and the for reorganized and consolidated their forces. furthermore, since the political relevance of pacifism appeared to dwindle with each instance of international violence, socially radical pacifists gradually retreated to the position that war was absolutely and always wrong, not entirley unlike the sectarian creed of the historic peace churches. indeed, by the end of the decade the once broadly-based peace movement and contracted to the point where it often resembled a quasi-religious sect. this was especially true of the for as its membership moved towards a strictly christian basis of organization. nevertheless, the canadian for was destined to become the central core around which canada's non-sectarian pacifists would ~ coalesce during the war years. footnotes woodsworth, however, wanted oil sanctions to be accompanied by a demand for disarmament. see agnes jean groome, "m. j. coldwell and c.c.f. foreign policy - ," m.a. t~esis, university of saskatchewan, regina, , pp. - . the canadian government withdrew its support for the proposal for oil sanctions against italy initiated by the canadian advisory officer in geneva, walter riddell. for a full discussion of this incident see: eayrs, in defense of canada, vol. ii: appeasement and rearmament, pp. - ; robert bothwell and john english, n'dirty work at the cross-roads': new perspectives on the riddell incident," cha historical papers, , pp. - . brock, twentieth-century pacifism, p. . interview with mrs. a. a. macleod, toronto, march . the world tomorrow ( - ). ibid ., january . chatfield, for peace and justice, p. . interview with mrs. a. a. macleod. avakumovic, the communist party in canada, p. . loa. a. macleod papers (in possession of mrs. a. a. macleod, toronto). ibid . avakumovic, the communist party in canada, pp. - . mcmaster university, special collections, canadian youth congress (cyc) papers, box , file , minutes of the canadian youth congress, toronto, july . macleod papers, league for peace and democracy, agenda of events. rbid • mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), report of the canadian women's international league for peace and freedom national convention, june . macleod papers. for a full account of these activities see victor hoar, the mackenzie-papineau battalion (toronto: copp clark, ). cyc ' papers, box , file , continuing committee of the canadian youth congress and the toronto youth council, why a'canadian youth congress? (toronto: april ); memorandum on the canadian youth congress movement, n.d. ibid., memorandum on the canadian youth congress movement. ibid ., box , file , minutes of the canadian youth congress, toronto, june , july and july . ibid ., box , file , cyc questionnaire file. quote comes from woodsworth's completed questionnaire. ibid ., box , file , memorandum on the canadian youth congress movement. ibid .; the silhouette (mcmaster university), october , p. . wi fred cantwell smith, lithe canadian youth congress," the canadian forum, july , p. . ibi d. rbid • cyc papers, box , fil e , canadian youth congress, ii dec ara- tion of rights of canadian youth" (ottawa: may ), p. . ivan avakumovic, the communist party in canada (toronto: mcclelland and stewart ltd., ), p. . kenneth woodsworth, lithe world youth congress," the new outlook, october . cyc papers, box , file , memorandum on the cyc movement. woodsworth, lithe wor d youth congress. ii ibid . ibid • cyc papers, box , file , memorandum on the canadian youth congress movement; box , file , youth peace day file. in november the cyc received numerous messages of support and encouragement for their work on behalf of youth peace day from members of parliament, senators, principals of universities, church officials and the governor-general lord tweedsmuir. cyc papers, box , file , minutes of the national committee meeting, kingston, november . ibid ., minutes of the national committee meeting, montreal, september ; toronto, february ; canadian congress journal, june , p. . cyc papers, box , file , ken woodsworth to local councils, november . ibi d. the cyc also endorsed the "vassar peace pact" adopted by the second world youth congress meeting at vassar college in new york state in august , and was in regular contact with the british youth assembly and the american youth congress. for much of this information i am indebted to groome, "m. j. coldwell and c.c.f. foreign policy." ibid ., p. . this is also related in mcnaught, a prophet in politics, p. . reinhold niebuhr, "why i leave the f.o.r .. " the christian century, ( january ): - . ne son, the peace prophets, p. . reinhold niebuhr, moral man and immoral society (new york: scribners, ). for richard roberts' response to niebuhr see chapter vii. arthur g. dorland, "some dilemmas of christian living and of pacifism today," the canadian friend, may , p. . ibid . i bid., p. . ibid . ibi d., p. . ibid ., p. . ibi d-., p. . ibid . john oliver, the church and social order: social thought in the church of england, - (london: a. r. mowbray, ), p. . roberts papers, box , file , roberts to sayre, may . norman, "richard roberts," pp. - . sinc air-faulkner, "for christian civilization," p. . ibid . nonnan, ii ri chard roberts til pp. - ; the globe and ma i (toronto), september . ibid ., september . the christian advance, november , p. . i bid., p . . roberts papers, box , file , sisco to roberts, september . minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings of the society of friends, , p. . ibid . ibid . has am, canadian friends, pp. - . the canadian friend, june , p. ; (december ), p. . ibid., march , p. . ibid ., december, , p. ; mcnaughton papers, e. ( ). according to violet mcnaughton's contact in new york, katherine blake, one-third of the refugees were christians. ibid ., women's international league for peace and freedom. toronto branch, inews etter," . mcnaughton papers, e. ( ), the wil petitioned prime minister king for an embargo on japan. ib ,"d., a s" t m n ht t f b nna ssons c aug on, e egram, e ruary . ibid ., lila phelps to mcnaughton, april . ibid.; ibid., mcnaughton to phelps, april . ibid ., minutes of the organization conference, women's international league for peace and freedom, canadian section, winnipeg, - june . ibid . ibid . ibid., mcnaughton to jamieson, april . ibid., e. ( ). gordon k. stewart to thomas p. socknat, march ; interview with j. stanley allen. group. interview with harold t. allen, hamilton, may . ibid., interim statements of aims of the saskatoon peace interview with carlyle king. saskatchewan archives board, saskatoon, carlyle king papers, : , carlyle king to j. m. c. duckworth, january . king to mildred fahrni, november , copy enclosed in king to thomas p. socknat, november . ibid • carlyle king papers, : , john nevin sayre to carlyle king, november . 'ibid., sayre to j. m. c. duckworth, october ' ; sayre to j. lavett:smith, november . ibid . ibid • ibid., sayre to duckworth, october . ibid ., : , fellowship of reconciliation, montreal unit, "a protest'tl"feaflet, july . ibid., cleo mowers to r. edis fairbairn, april . ibid ., minutes of the f.o.r. meeting held in the diet kitchen, toronto, september . ibid . ibid ., : , mowers to p. g. makaroff, august ; mowers to ~dis fairbairn, april ; king to farhni, november . ibid., : , lavell smith to king, november . ibid., king to members of the national council, canadian for, november . ibid ., king to lavell smith, december ; fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, "basis and aims ," leaflet, . ibid ., lavell smith to king, january . ibid ., mowers to fairbairn, april . ibid ., lavell smith to king, november . ibid., : , king to fred young, may . fellowship for a christian social order, toronto branch, "o ur battle for peace" (toronto: fcso, ). the leaflet also recommended a bibliography of popular pacifist books, pamphlets and periodicals. carlyle king papers, : , mowers to fairbairn, april . ibid., c. clare oke to king, may . ibid., stanley knowles to king, february . ibid ., joseph round to king, february . l ibid., r wers to fairbairn, april . ibid ., mowers to tillman, november ; duckworth to king, january . ibid ., : , harold e. fey to duckworth, november . l ibid . l ibid ., sayre to king, november . l ibid., king to sayre, december ; oke to king, february ~ ll ibid., fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, iibasis and aims, i . for the complete statement see appendix b. . carlyle king papers, : , king to sayre, december ibid ., sayre to king, january . ibid . ibid . ibid ., king to booth, duckworth, halliday, oke and smith, febrary . ibid • ibid., duckworth to sayre, february . ibid ., sayre to duckworth, february . ibid . ibid ., booth to king, february , king to oke, may -.- this statement referred to communists and the forls con- frontation with the toronto police commission over the issue of free speech in the early thirties. . car y e king papers, : , booth to king, february ibid ., sayre to king, may . ibid . ibid ., : , oke to king, may . l ibid .; ibid., halliday to king, march . ibid., : , king to percy bartlett, may . l ibid., bartlett to king, june . ibid ., : , sayre to king, july . lavel smith to king, august . ibi d. ibid., : , king to fairbairn, june . ibid ., : , r. tillman to king, august . the united church observer, july , p. . ibid • ibid . ibid . ibid., april , p. ; august , p. ; september , p. . ibid., may , p. . ibid . ibid ., july , p. . chapter vii the initial struggle to maintain a pacifist witness during the second world war the second world war began on september , . germany invaded poland and two days later britain declared war. legally, canada was also at war, but unlike the "ready, aye, ready" attitude of , the canadian government symbolically maintained a policy of neutrality for a week before it committed canada to the world con- flict. l from the pacifist perspective the worst had happened; he was isolated in a world that had turned to war despite his own best efforts. the consequences in terms of human suffering were nightmarish to con- template. but as a suspect member of the national community, what could he now do? the depression had sharply honed his social con- science. but what could now be accomplished on that front? the first two years of war were therefore especially agonizing for canadian pacifists: they would protest and debate in the columns of the church press, outspoken pacifist clergy would find their pastorates challenged, even in the fcso there was a hardening of lines, and they would have to confront anew the slings of niebuhrian neo-orthodoxy. much of their time, one suspects, was spent in silent agony, to which they occasionally gave expression. of necessity they leaned on each other for mutual support and summoned what courage they could to meet what the future might bring. survival was a critical concern, but their conscience told them that survival was not a sufficient role in such a time. canadian pacifists also discovered t~,at the experience of the second world war was to be quite different from that of the first war. for one thing, there was a noticeable coolness in the canadian response to the thought of war in . as donald creighton has recorded, "canadians had lost, or were losing, some of their moral extremism as well as their evangelical zeal.,, in the end canada did go to war in part because britain went to war, but also because most canadians were convinced by four years of international turmoil and fascist aggression that war was unavoidable. in both respects, a sober reluctance hung over the land: there were no crowds around newspaper offices, no bands in the streets, no impassioned singing of god save the king or la marseillaise. the memories of - , the terrible casualties of that war, and the divisions it left in the fabric of the nation were still too deep for that. the disillusionment over the failure of the 's, over the collapse of the league of nations, and over the weaknesses of british policy -- all were too clear .... above all, the great depression had sapped the will of the people. for the first time many canadians might even have wondered if the system was worth fighting for. in that connection, o. d. skelton, under secretary for external affairs, noted at the time that there was little enthusiasm even among the war supporters. he doubted if the majority of canadians would have voted for war in a free-plebiscite and observed that the main reason the anti-war forces failed to muster a more significant opposition to canada's entry into the war was because they lacked effective eadership.s to be sure, support for the once popular peace movement had dwindled in response to the growing nazi menace. neverthless, the lack of canadian enthusiasm for war reflected to a certain extent the growth of pacifist, isolationist and socialist sentiment during the thirties. by the eve of the second world war, pacifists and isolationists and some socialists had aligned themselves in the demand for canadian neutrality. neutrality was urged by pacifists as a last ditch effort to keep canada out of war despite their strong belief in the necessity to build a new social order on an international scale. on the other hand, more isolationist minded canadians recoiled from international entanglements in an effort to preserve peace and protect canada from european and imperialist violence. the league for social reconstruction, for example, demanded a plebiscite on the question of canada's partici- pation in war, similar to the referendum proposed earlier by the wil and the saskatoon peace group. the lsr's isolationist rather than pacifist stance was exhibited by frank underhill, professor of history at the university of toronto.? underhill suggested that canadians should refrain from lending military support to britain in a european struggle since such action would only assure the burying of , more canadians somewhere across the ocean. it may be that another such mass burial service will assure world peace, or democracy, or freedom -- after the next war. but our experience during and since the last war should have made us skeptical to such claims. a slightly different type of anti-war sentiment existed in quebec. formed along neutralist and quebec nationalist lines, french canadian opposition to the second world war lacked any pretense of a pacifist nature. as in the first war, quebec was primarily worried about conscription rather than the principle of non-violence. a similar stand in favor of neutrality was taken by canada's communists, especially after the hitler-stalin pact of august . the political reaction to canadian entry into war was varied. the liberal party was divided, primarily because of french-canadian opposition to war, but the cabinet, including the ministers from quebec, was solidly behind the prime minister. likewise, consistent with their tory heritage, the conservatives vigorously supported the decision to go to war and their leader, dr. r. j. manion, pledged his co-operation with the government. the party most seriously torn by the war issue was the ccf. as early as , for instance, the ccf had begun to modify its pacifist policy; a committee of the national council rephrased the party's foreign policy statement so as to urge neutrality only in the event of an "imperialist" war." the leading spokesman of the anti-pacifist e ements in the ccf was george williams, president of the party in saskatchewan. williams and his followers formed an undercurrent of opposition to a party policy of pacifism and neutrality which finally surfaced in the ccf debate on the war in . meeting in emergency session from the sixth to the eighth of september, the ccf national council was sharply divided over the issue. in the end a committee worked out a compromise between the all-out war effort advocated by williams' faction and the absolute neutrality of woodsworth and his fellow pacifists; the result was qualified support of the war but opposition to sending men overseas. the decision of the party was a complete reversal of its previous official policy of neutrality and a repudiation of woodsworth's pacifism. the new position was tempered, however, with the party decision that it would be stated in the house of commons by the national chairman, m. j. coldwell, thus freeing woodsworth to voice his unyielding personal opposition to war. the ccf council was in the midst of reaching its compromise position when ~e special war session of parliament was convened on september seventh. in the speech from the throne the government sought approval for canadian entry into the war. it was no surprise to the house, and, assured of the support of both the conservatives and the ccf, the prime minister knew there would be little opposition to the request. in the brief debate that followered there was a steady stream of support for war; even one-time peace activists like agnes macphail sided with the government. despite almost two decades of pacifist rhetoric and pledges of "never again", canada was at war three days after the special session opened. other than a few disgruntled comments only one voice was raised in the house in opposition to canada's entry into the war. j. s. woodsworth, freed the constraints of his party's position, spoke out for his own conscience as well as for the pacifist minority in canada. his address was a lonely but eloquent appeal for neutrality and pacifism. woodsworth began by questioning the meaning of the government's statement. he argued that the house had a right to know every aspect of government policy. for instance: would an expedi- tionary force be sent to europe? would wealth be conscripted? woods- worth also maintained that if canada was not already at war there was no reason to have reinstated the war measures act. s the gist of woodsworth's remarks, however, were devoted to his unswerving pacifist conviction. in his biography of woodsworth, kenneth ~ cnaught argues that in "the final analysis" it was woodsworth's "estimate of capitalism that produced his pacifism.,, while mcnaught admits that this pacifism "came to have a high emotional content not dissimilar to that of a religious pacifist", he seems to overstate the material aspect of woodsworth's beliefs. l ? to be sure woodsworth's socialism and pacifism were probably inseparable; nevertheless it appears that ~n lithe final analysis", at least from his famous address to the house, the basis of woodsworth's pacifism was more religious than not. for while it is true he argued war was "the inevitable outcome of the present economic and international system with its in- justices, exploitations and class interests," woodsworth also emphasized that pacifism, although not necessarily christian, was a religious and moral force. in reference to his own pacifism woodsworth recalled: v ~ i left the ministry of the church during the last war because of my ideas on war. to-day i do not belong to any church organization. i am afraid that my creed is pretty vague. but even in this assembly i venture to say that i still believe in some of the principles underlying the teachings of jesus and the other great world teachers throughout centuries. for me at least, and for a growing number of men and women in the churches ... war is an absolute negation of anything christian .... it requires a great deal of courage to trust in moral force. but there was a time when people thought that there were other and higher types of force than brute force . . . that is what the church fathers used to call faith. it requires a great deal of courage to carry out our convictions; to have peace requires both courage and sacrifice. at another pc tnt woodworth lent support to the idea of con- scientious objection to military service: i do not care whether you think me an impossible idealist or a dangerous crank, i am going to take my place beside the children and those young people, because it is only as we adopt new policies that this world will be at all a livable place for our children who follow us ... yes i have boys of my own, and i hope they are not cowards, but if anyone of those boys, not from cowardice but really through belief, is willing to take his stand on this matter and, if necessary, to face a concentration camp or a firing squad, i shall be more proud of that boy than if he enlisted for the war. l interrupted at this point with a cry of shame, woodsworth emphasized that it was not only his belief but the belief of a growing number of canadians as well. then he concluded: i must thank the house for the great courtesy shown me. i rejoice that it is possible to say these things in a canadian parliament under british institutions. it would not be possible in germany, i recognize that, but it is possible here; and i want to maintain the very essence of our british institutions of real liberty. i believe that the only way to do it is by an appeal to the moral forces which are still resident among our people, and not by another resort to brute force. and so ended woodsworth's last major speech in the house. in a sense it was his formal farewell to his party and his country, neither of which followed him on the pacifist trail he had blazed in parliament. within two years the pacifist-socialist pioneer was dead. while he had not assumed the role of canadian pacifist leader during his last years, woodsworth had maintained his warnings against con- scription and his demand for the nationalization of war industries. above all, however, his address to the special war session became an inspiration to canadian pacifists in a time of crisis. as an advisor to prospective conscientious objectors within the society of friends, for instance, fred haslam kept a copy of woodsworth's speech on hand throughout the war. in his address woodsworth had expressed confidence, from the scores of telegrams and letters he had received, that there were "thousands upon thousands" of canadians who shared his pacifist conviction; he felt he had voiced their feelings as well as his own. a further avalanche of mail followed the speech, the bulk of which, if not in complete agreement with his pacifism, at least commended woodsworth's stand. for example, c. c. annett of winnipeg wrote woodsworth that he approved heartily of his stand and added that many others also agreed with him "even though they may lack the moral courage to stand up and say so. washington, escot reid wrote: from the canadian legation in i have read with the greatest admiration your most moving speech in the house of commons. that is a speech of which you and your friends will always be proud. their pride will increase as time goes on and we can see the events of these days in better perspective. a young man from calgary experienced admiration and appreciation of woodsworth s pacifist stand and offered his assistance in furthering the cause of peace. the writer, howard patton, claimed he shared similar pacifist convictions as did the majority of young people with whom he had associated within the last two years. a somewhat different letter of praise came from h. g. l. strange, qirector of agricultural research for the searle grain company of winnipeg. although strange was not a pacifist, he found himself in "complete agreement with almost everything" wood~worth said. iijust as i feel it my duty to do all i can to win this war, i wrote strange, iis likewise do i feel it my duty to do everything i possibly can to respect and esteem the stand that true christians like you take .... strange concluded on a note of deep admiration for woodsworth s moral courage and faith. the assumption that woodsworth s pacifism was an admirable stand was not reflected in the official reaction to the war of canada s churches. prior to the war pacifism was a popular issue of debate among canadian protestants but it was amuddled debate because few churchmen were prepared to argue forcefully that war was unchristian without implying absolute pacifism. in effect they tended to condemn war ~~ while at the same time sidestepping the whole issue of what to do iiwhen the bombs begin to fall. i despite their concern with peace, therefore, they largely remained unprepared to support a pacifist or even semi-pacifist course of action for christians confronted with the reality of war. in the autumn of , therefore, protestants began to repudiate their "unrealistic" flirtations with the pacifism of the thirties. in his study of the churches and canada's war effort, c. t. sincalir-faulkner has shown that the major churches in canada, protestant and roman catholic alike, accepted the war as a fight iifor christian civilization. i shortly after the beginning of the war, canada's major protestant denominations -- anglican, baptist, presbyterian and united church -- issued a joint statement on the war . • • • we believe that our cause is the cause of christian civilization, and that divine power and guidance will be given to us to win victory for it, however hard the road we must first travel. . ; . the roman catholic church, generally, abided by the doctrine expounded by bishop briand in of obedience to oath and king. nevertheless, although it did not believe the war raised the issue of pacifism or even of "just war," the catholic church in quebec displayed little enthusiasm for the war. for instance, cardinal villeneuve, archbishop of quebec and head of the canadian hierarchy, remained relatively silent on the 'question of war. english canadian catholics, by contrast, were more vocal in their support and criticized isolationist sentiment. the major protestant churches, baptist, presbyterian, anglican and united, all supported the nation's declaration of war but they differed in their reasons for doing so and in degrees of enthusiasm. contrary to their extreme zeal during the latter years of the first war, most protestant newspapers urged respect for pacifists even while they lent encouragement and support to those who chose to fight in a just war. baptists, especially fundamentalists like t. t. shields of toronto's jarvis street baptist church, .ljere the most vocal in their demand for a maximum canadian war effort and even advocated conscription. anglicans and presbyterians supported the war with a little less enthusiasm but, like the baptists, their decision: was never really complicated by pacifist consideration. it was the united church which was the most deeply torn between support for the war and pacifist sympathies. the mid-depression posture of the united church was some'l/hat difficult to reconcile wi th an all out war effort. throughout the interwar years the general council had adopted successive resolutions condemning war, but its open debate over pacifism "offered little practical help in giving leadership during actual war conditions. i apparently aware of the confusion, j. r. mutchmor, secretary of the united churchl's board of evangelical social service, called a series of meetings the week before hitler invaded poland in order to consider a proper course of action for the united church in the impending crisis. the members of these meetings agreed with mutchmore that war, was iicontrary to the mind of christ" but questioned the iipractical value of such an ultimate ethic ll as pacifism under present circumstances. furthermore, while they agreed that citizens had a duty to disobey li un just and tyrannical ll governments they were strongly against basing such civil disobedience solely on an individual's private judgement. the result of these deliberations appeared to weaken the general council's sanction of conscientious objection to military service. a week later, however, the moderator of the united church, john w. woodside, sent a pastoral letter to the clergy concerning the church's response to the war in which he reiterated official church support for the right of conscientious objection: ... we must affirm for ourselves and our brethren the paramount authority of conscience under the leadership of christ. we are at war with a power which seems to disregard conscience; and we must not fall into what we hold to be its error. at first, the moderator's letter appeared to calm those who feared the worst for the united church's attitude towards war, including the well known pacifist, richard roberts. roberts wrote his daughter that he was particularly hopeful over the moderator's stand. it is very cheering to me ... i had to resign from my congregation in for saying the things that apparently all the united church ministers are saying these days. it is not that they have become pacifists, but that they have come to see that the gospel and war are at extreme antipodes from one another. furthermore, jack duckworth, general secretary of the notre dame de grace ymca, told roberts that a group of laymen and ymca directors in montreal had agreed that, rather than formenting the war spirit, the business of the church in wartime was to preach peace and goodwill. perhaps because of its earlier pacifist inclinations, the united church appears to have been somewhat uncomfortable in its internal support of the war. but the optimism of roberts and duckworth was not com- pletely warranted, especially in light of the church's ambiguity in defining its exact position with regard to pacifist dissent. never- theless, shortly after the canadian declaration of war on september the presbyteries of the united church unanimously endorsed the general council's expression of loyalty to the government of canada. unlike similar statements by the other major churches, however, the united church action was not without repercussions. although clearly in a minority, pacifists within the united church were in a defiant mood, especially since it appeared as if their church was about to surrender to the war spirit and perhaps repudiate its declared support for the pacifist alternatives, if not repeat its over zealous crusade during the great war. in addition to the apparent abandonment of their cause, however, pacifists were also repelled by the behaviour of the church during the first few weeks of war, particularly when a newly formed war services committee actually met four days before canada officially declared war. consequently, the likely prospect of the united church's war effort ultimately leading to a complete apostasy compelled the pacifist minority to speak out against the war in radical defiance of the authority of their church. their protest took the form of a letter to the editor of the united church observer, appearing in the sunday october , issue. it was the first instance of an organized public declaration of pacifist dissent within a canadian church denomination. entitled iia witness against war, i the pacifist manifesto was signed by sixty-eight united church ministers, mostly from toronto and montreal but representative of the whole country. it included an invitation to others to forward their names for later publication. a month later the observer published an additional sixty-four names, lay and clerical, which brought the total of published signatories to one hundred and thirty-two. the manifesto began with reference to the declaration of the general council of , which officially recognized pacifism as a legitimate christian alternative in time of war. accordingly, the ad hoc committee of ministers felt they were merely exercising their right as pacifists to disapprove of the war. they recognized that other ministers and church members, "equally sincere," felt duty bound to support the war and they respected right of their brethern to do so. nevertheless, they believed their pacifist convictions, "characteristic of the earliest christian church, and of many reform movements throughout the centuries," was a truer christian position. it is generally agreed and confessed that christendom has through the centuries sadly and seriously fallen short in faithfulness to christ. we are convinced that at no point has christendom departed so radically from the mind of christ and its own original faith as in its acceptance of war. as to the question of war itself they stated forcefully that lithe will and kingdom of god must take precedence over the national convenience or policy" and emphasized that the nature of modern warfare was especially incompatible with christianity. apart from the religious argument, the manifesto cited british, prime ministers baldwin and chamberlain on the futility of war. . the most important point of the "witness against war" concerned the signatories' desire to preserve the soul of the church especially since they remembered that lithe churches lost heavily in spiritual authority because of their general surrender to the war spirit" during the fi rst war. we think it ought to be placed on record now, in view of the further loss of spiritual authority probable if the church sanctions this present war, that at least some representatives of the christian churches disapproved and uttered their protest. rather than taking the form of a passive or unpatriotic opposition to war, however, the manifesto concluded by emphasizing the desire on the part of the signatories to perform some constructive pacifist action in the days ahead. we affirm that we are not seeking escape from the burden or sacrifice, and we profess our readiness to implement our citizen loyalty in some form of service equally as taxing, difficult, and dangerous as military service, providing it does not contribute directly to the war effort. although it was publicized as a joint effort, the drafting and circulation of the "witness against war" was almost entirely the work of r. edis fairbairn of bracebridge, ontario. he was assisted by his montreal and toronto associates in the fellowship for a christian social order and the fellowship of reconciliation but several of these men later reported that their final statement was virtually identical with fairbairn's original draft. well known for his radical pacifism, fairbairn was also acquainted with the nature of church politics. he had long realized that the united church was not pacifist but, at the same time, he was dismayed by the speed with which church officials were diverting their energy into moral support of the war. the manifesto was intended to "force the church to recognize the moral dilemma posed by the war and to advertise the conscientious commitment he and some others shared." l despite fairbairn's radical nature, the iiwitness against war" was a temperate pacifist statement. it made no attempt to undermine the authority of the general council of . nor did it advocate any type of civil disobedience. following i'nitial approval of the statement, fairbairn and his fcso and for associates like james m. finlay and r. j. irwin of toronto and j. lavell smith and clarence halliday of montreal set out to collect as many signatures as possible. twenty-two pacifists from the toronto-ottawa-montreal area were the first to sign the manifesto before it was circulated under a cover letter signed by finlay to other clergymen across canada. since the manifesto was given the widest possible circulation, it seems evident that the "witness against har" was also part of a continuing effort to consolidate or "bring into fellowship" all christian pacifists in the united church as well as to organize some type of appropriate emergency pacifist action. in order to pursue that goal, a meeting of the signatories of the "witness against war" within the toronto area was held on october , ~ at carlton street united church, toronto. under its pacifist minister, james finlay, the carlton street church, known as the iihouse of friendship," often served as an unofficial meeting place for toronto pacifists during the war. the meeting was held behind closed doors iifor freer discussion ll with finlay presiding, assisted by r. j. irwin, minister of donlands united church and president of the toronto for, and gordon lapp, assistant minister of westminster-central united church, toronto. the meeting succeeded in obtaining several more signatories to the list, boosting the total number of signatories to over seventy-five. thereafter, the manifesto became known as the "protest of the seventy-five." among the names added was that of richard roberts who had mailed in his signature from pine hill divinity school in halifax. in regard to some specific pacifist action, the meeting decided to send a deputation, composed of fairbairn, finlay, irwin and s. t. martin of hamilton, to the war services committee of the united church. the delegation was to urge the committee to redirect the church's war effort so as to focus attention on the future peace, to be completely honest about the causes and evils of war and to take action to conserve civil liberties, to provide a service for refugee aliens both in the war arid at home, and to initiate conferences with the society of friends and similar groups with a view to co-operating with them. . in effect, the pacifists offered an alternative stance for the church in time of war. before the pacifist challenge could be completely articulated, however, a nation-wide controversy erupted over the "witness against warll manifesto. other than condemnation from their peers within the church, the signatories also risked criminal prosecution under the section of the defence of canada regulations pertaining to "subversive teachings." some- how, the office of the attorney-general of ontario received a copy of the "witness against war" on october , , five days before its publica- tion, but the attorney-general, gordon d. conant, did not order an of- ficial investigation until the matter made the front pages of torontols three daily newspapers. press reaction in toronto and throughout the rest of the country was generally unsympathetic, at times arguing that the war was actually caused by such pacifism. the fact that the toronto signatories met behind closed doors fueled further suspicion. the ontario attorney-generalis staff finally concluded that the "witness against war" signatories did, indeed, violate the defence of canada regulations on two counts: the publication of the manifesto was "likely to prejudice the recruiting of his majestyls forces" and would be ~rejudicial to the efficient prosecution of the war. rather than launch a full-scale prosecution of the pacifist ministers, however, conant referred the matter to the federal minister of justice. the reply from ottawa doubted if the pacifist statement would prejudice military recruiting and consequently recommended against prosecution. accordingly, the attorney-general decided not to act. instead he called a press conference on november , and in the presence of representatives of the united church sub-executive and their legal counsel, he condemned the pacifist "witness" but announced that the government would leave it up to the governing body of the church to "render a sufficient verdict and provide the effective remedy. i the sub-executive of the general council had already met on october to consider the "witness against war." their statement, published the very day of the attorney-generalis press conference, steered a middle course that appeased neither the attorney-generalis office nor the pacifist dissidents. in effect, the sub-executive sidestepped the basic question concerning the right of christian pacifists to concientiously object to the war. instead, they concluded that too much attention had been given to a document which did not emanate from an official body of the church and then seized the opportunity to reaffirm that the church as a whole was completely loyal to the king and was ready "to support him in the present dire struggle in every way which is open and proper to the church.,, as far as the "witness against war" was concerned the sub-executive expressed regret that the signatories had made their manifesto public, and then stated: the church is determined to adhere to its previous declarations that it will protect the individual conscience, but in our judgement, by acting collec- tively and inviting signatures "for later publica- tion", the signatories of this manifesto, however sincere, have gone far beyond the limits of what is wise and proper in time of war. overall, the statement of the sub-executive appeared to be a prudent attempt to disassociate the church from pacifist dissent, and inconsistent with the moderatorls pastoral letter which had urged tolerance and respect for the "paramount authority of conscience under the leadership of christ.,, indeed, r. b. y. scott, one of those who helped draft the moderator's letter, publicly registered his dis- appointment: the text of the sub-executive's statement is ... not quite the complete repudiation suggested by the press, but in effect it is a desertion of our comrades who are under fire because they have made an unpopular witness for conscience sake. the whole tenor of the official statement suggests that the church's reputation for loyalty to the military enterprise of the state is a more important consideration than that of loyalty to religious conviction. in reality, the sub-executive was badly split over the pacifist issue and following a heated debate, apparently approved the final statement by only one vote. according to a report fairbairn received from a member of the sub-executive, there were iithreatenings of a split in the church" unless the sub-executive disowned the pacifists and supported the war. in such a charged atmosphere the sub- executive could hardly settle the question of pacifist dissent but it did attempt to protect individual conscience as long as it remained prudent. this action, together with the decision of the attorney- general's office not to intervene, calmed the fears that some type of disciplinary or legal action would be taken against the signatories. perhaps the presence of such a well respected churchman as the former moderator, richard roberts, on the list facilitated that result. while it is true that his name had lent a certain credibility to the manifesto, roberts himself had not been in favor of its publication. in fact, he had advised fairbairn not to make a public declaration at that time, primarily because he considered the moderator's letter "far in advance in its christian temper of any comparable document in .. ,, ()l the other hand, he felt that if a pacifist statement was publicized, he could not afford to let anyone suppose that he had "ratted" from a conviction that he had held and publicly avowed since and which he had reaffirmed as recently as canon ravenls visit to toronto in march . in any case, roberts expected to see the final draft and receive further word before definite action was taken; however, fairbairn and his associates had already "taken the plunge.,, in a letter to lavell smith, roberts remarked that the soundness of his "caveat" was borne out by the fact that the "witness" had lithe effect of provoking the action of the sub- executive which virtually throws the church on the side of war." nevertheless, once the sub-executive released their statement, which he described as "feeble" and "cowardly", roberts expressed gratitude that his name was on the "black list". lithe sub-executive", he wrote, "should, in addition to iregrettingl, have affirmed the right of its ministers to hold and express dissenting convictions. i furthermore, from the deluge of letters he received following the publication of the iiwitness, i roberts concluded that many others were in agreement wi th him. there is much more support in the church for the forthright christian position on the matter than the sub-executive and the "patriotic" suppose. i wonder how long christian churchmen are going to allow their nationalism to prevent their churchmanship -- especially when the ecumenical church is beginning to enter into our calculations. l roberts' reaction was shared by others. lavell smith, for instance, expressed disappointment that the sub-executive repudiated the pacifist witness "without so much as a hint that the church has ever denounced war. i at the same time, however, he was encouraged to find several men in montreal who were "standing staunchlyll for the right of pacifists to make such a statement. the reluctance on the part of the sub-executive to come out in defence of pacifist dissent was also reflected in the general attitude of other committees as well as a sizeable portion of the church membership at large. the war services committee, for instance, sought no alternative ways to allow pacifists to perform non-military service related to the war crisis. lavell smith criticized the committee's stand as "a trumpet call with but a single note" and pressed for some type of pacifist participation. the delegation from the "witness against war" group made a similar plea when they attended the third meeting of the war ervices committee in october. among their specific proposals was the recommendation that local congregations,minister to the peculiar social, moral and spiritual problems caused by the war among military personnel and their families. the pacifists also emphasized the need to maintain normal church services and recommended that the church provide pastoral care for interned aliens and hospitality for refugee children from enemy t ' na ns. the response of the committee was generally unsympathetic. most of the pacifist requests were either ignored completely or merely acknowledged as unimportant and occasionally passed to other administrative divisions for consideration. the suggestion that the united church ask the government to send canadian pacifists overseas in order to help with reconstruction in poland was dismissed outright as liimpractical ll . when the pacifists complained that the name iiwar services committee ll implied the church's iiwholesale support for the warll they came close to the truth. it was soon evident that the aim of the committee was to maximize support for the war effort and to minister to soldiers -- not pacifists. having failed to convince the war services committee to create some type of pacifist service, the iiwitness against warll group ceased to function as an organized group. other than the threat of legal conviction, angry denunciations in the press and virtual dismissal by the church hierarchy, the major fallout from the iiwitness against war" manifesto occurred within the individual congregations of the signatories. while generally unsympathetic, specific reaction varied according to congregation. in most cases, however, it was usually a corps of wealthy congregational leaders who most forcefully denounced the pacifist ministers and de- manded their resignation. in the end several of the signatories were forced out of their churches; some accepted new stations, usually small northern posts, while others left the church entirely. montreal's pacifists were seriously affected since both clarence halliday and lavell smith were forced to resign from their respective churches, west united and westmount park united. during the first few years of the war, halliday served as a voluntary chaplain to german refugees interned in camps outside of montreal. then, following a brief station up north, he left the ministry for social work, ultimately becoming the head of the children's aid society in ottawa. the case of lavell smith was slightly different. by the time of the war, smith had become known as one of the most promising young radical ministers within the united church and, although he also lost his church because of the "witness against war", he continued as one of the leading pacifist spokesmen within the church throughout the war years and after. almost immediately following the outbreak of war but prior to the publication of the pacifist manifesto, lavell smith had reiterated has pacifism and outlined what he thought constituted a pacifist ministry in time of war. smith's outspoken pacifism had never been representative of the membership of westmount park united, one of the most imperialist-minded establishment congregations in the country. following the publication of the "witness against war" a powerful minority of the congregation, mainly composed of former presbyterians, began to organize, quietly and secretly, against smith and appointed a local war services committee in order to prove their loyalty to king and country. at one point a poll taken of the congregation revealed that eighty per-cent of the church members desired lavell smith to remain as their pastor despite his pacifist views. an engaging, earnest man, and a forceful preacher, smith stayed on a few more years and unlike some of his co-signers showed remarkable resistance to a mounting undercurrent of opposition. finally, after nearly sixty of the wealthiest members had left the congregation and many others refused to attend or to participate in their accustomed activities, smith decided to resign. on april , , hundreds of montreal ers crowded into "every corner of l~ebster hall", which adjoined westmount park united church, to bid farewell to lavell smith and his wife emily. even at that late hour smith received an enthusiastic show of support. nevertheless, four days later he assumed his new duties as superintendant of toronto's church of all nations where he would remain for the next seventeen years. despite the obvious respect of many, however, the smiths endured their last few years in montreal only at the price of much strain and discomfort. they were snubbed by numerous members of the congregation, closely watched by the authorities and visited by the rcmp. lavell smith himself suspected that his phone was tapped. through it all, he continued to speak out according to his conscience and, like halliday, became interested in the problems of german refugees interned in quebec. but his was not a one-sided approach and through- out the war he kept in regular communication with the enlisted men of h · t· s congrega n. this practice of writing men overseas was also shared by jack duckworth, general secretary of the notre dame de grace ymca (ndgy) and another of montreal's active pacifists. duckworth sent circular letters to all the ndgy boys he knew in the military. his intention was merely to keep up their morale; therefore he avoided any mention of his personal pacifism. those who knew duckworth~ however~ were well aware of his pacifist and socialist inclinations. he had studied under reinhold niebuhr and harry ward at union theological seminary in new york. furthermore he and his wife, muriel, were noticeably active in the scm, for, fcso and various radical concerns. once he joined the staff of the ndgy in the early 's duckworth became a leading moral influence upon teenage boys in montreal. he never attempted to indoctrinate the boys but his activism and his outspoken- ness on his radical beliefs, including pacifism, made him somewhat unpopular with the montreal business community which controlled the ymca board. s the board was particularly displeased, for instance, with his opposition to the boy scouts which he viewed as a para- military organization, uniforms and all. evidently duckworth aroused enough antagonism t~ cause someone to fire a gun shot through his office window. despite a somewhat tense relationship with the ymca board, however, duckworth endured the war years in montreal and only in was he transferred to halifax. some among the signatories to the "witness" met a sterner fate. in ontario, for instance, both r. edis fairbairn and e. harold toye lost their churches at the insistence of their congregations. fairbairn, the instigator of the "witness against war" protest, was officially rebuked and ejected from his church in bracebridge. but fairbairn refused to leave the ministry altogether and accepted what was ecclesiastically known as an "un desirable charge" at winderemere, a small rural community in the muskoka region of ontario. fairbairn had realized for some time that he would always be relegated to the so-called "undesirable charges" because of his outspoken radicalism and impetuous nature. in fact, it appears that he even looked upon his rather undistinguished career in the ministry as a form of martyrdom -- the penalty he had to pay for remaining true to christianity while the church floundered. at any rate, although his new congrega- tion at winderemere did not necessarily approve of his pacifism, they were grateful for his presence and encouraged him to stay there until his retirement in . in windermere fairbairn enjoyed a certain amount of freedom for his various pacifist pursuits. he even found "farmers on the back concessions whose total indifference to religion dated from the shock they received when the churches recruited for the first world war,,, a discovery, he felt, which proved what he had been saying for years and supported his more recent criticisms of the church. the case of e. harold toye was similar but, unlike fairbairn, toye did leave the parish ministry. toye's trouble at toronto's kingston road united church began before the iiwitness" agai nst warn and was directly related to his overall radicalism. for example, toye had always employed the social gospel in his pulpit ministry but, like other members of the fcso, his radicalism increased in response to the social conditions of the depression years. at one point, the official board of the kingston road church succeeded in bringing him before a special presbytery commission for examination. although the presbytery ruled in toye's favor the officials countinued in their effort to have toye removed as their pastor. on two occasions toye tendered his resignation only to have it refused by the majority of the congregation. when toye's wartime pacifism was added to his labor sympathies and socialist politics, however, the dissatisfied minority seized the opportunity to respond to his signature on the "witness against war." the eleven largest contributors launched a concerted campaign to have toye removed, employing tactics ranging from withholding their church contributions to severing completely their connections with kingston road church. confronted with a now helplessly divided congregation on the one hand and what he considered the failure of the united church to relate ethical and spiritual ideals to the social order on the other, toye finally resigned in and asked to be left without station in order to engage in the work of industrial evangelism. although pacifism was the immediate issue surrounding toye's resignation, it was but one expression of his radicalism. within the next few years he joined with a small group of kindred spirits --labor representatives, professional people and social workers -- in an attempt to make religion relevant to industrial society. at first toye was urged to found a toronto labor church but he did not agree with that approach. instead he strove to create a dialogue between organized religion and organized labor, whose co-ordination and co-operation, toye believed would promote social change within a moral framework. organized religion, he argued, had failed to recognize that unions, collective bargaining and industrial strikes were all part of the true revolutionary character of the hebrew-christian religion. organized labor, on the other hand, had to function within the frame- work of a moral 'order prescribed by the ethical and spiritual demands of religion. the time had come, claimed toye, lito lift the whole struggle of the workers from the mere level of class struggle . and view it in relation to the moral integrity of the universe. in order to develop this spirit of co-operation between religion and labor toye and his associates founded the religion-labor foundation (rlf). it was a small organization composed of clergymen, laymen and active unionists who thought of themselves as lithe brotherhood of church, farm and factory. i while most canadians at the time were concerned with the war, this small group turned their attention to the social, economic and moral problems of industrial society, anticipating the post-war era. but that is not to say that they ignored or overlooked the war; rather, they viewed war as an important problem of industrial peoples. toye, for instance, believed the whole war effort of the l s was a humiliating and devastating experience for canadian workers. he saw the need for a great moral crusade and hoped the religion-labor foundation would help bring about some necessary radical changes. the religion-labor foundation is convinced that we are due for a new reformation. the recovery of tra- ditional revivalism, in whatever form, is not likely to help much. it will have to be truly radical ... and provide salvation from sin, not merely in the theological sense, but from specific sins, monopoly control, unfair employment practices, starvation wages, unethical and unjust profits, racial discri- mination and war. small in number and experimental in approach, the religion- labor foundation progressed slowly, at first receiving more co- operation from labor than from the church. nevertheless, it made its impact, or "christian witness", in canada's industrial society, from mediating in industrial disputes and strikes to lobbying for specific legislation designed to recognize and protect ethical and spiritual values in labor-management relations. the foundation was also successful in holding regular joint sessions of clergy and unionists in many ontario communities. as the executive secretary of the rlf, harold toye was largely responsible for directing this experimental work in industrial evangelism. it was a new outlet for his radicalism once wartime pacifism forced him out of the parish ministry, and.he remained devoted to the task for the rest of his life. other signatories to the "witness against war" suffered fewer repercussions because of their pacifist witness. for example, fred smith, a "stop-gap" national secretary of the fcso, was never confronted with a campaign to oust him. nor was j. w. e. newbery. in st. john, new brunswick the congregation of the reverend h. mclean unanimously repudiated his pacifism but asked him to keep his pu pit. this was also the experience of douglas smith who stayed on in belleville,ontario. one of the most prominent cases involved james m. finlay, an organizer of the "seventy-five", who, with the support of his congregation, withstood a serious challenge from the official board of toronto's carlton street united church. a small but influential minority of the congregation had been unhappy about finlay's role in the "witness against war" and by the spring of church officials called for the resignations of finlay and his two deaconesses, miss bessie irwin and miss m. clapham, who also betrayed pacifist leanings. but finlay refused, arguing that since he accepted his pastoral duties at the invitation of the congregation it was a matter for them to decide. accordingly, on monday evening of june , the congregation, both "members" and "adherents", as well as sympathetic guests crowded into the carlton street church to put an end to the controversy. john coburn, president-elect of the toronto conference of the united church, opened the meeting by urging the congregation to "recognize the right of other people to hold opinions diametrically opposed to ours", and reasoned: we have sent our boys to fight hitler. hitlerism is a force that crushes individualism, freedom of thought and even the human soul. if we are fighting it in europe, we must exemplify it [freedom] at home. testimonials on behalf of finlay and the deaconesses poured in from every side including many people from across the country who listened to finlay's weekly radio broadcasts. while the meeting unanimously pledged its support to the allied cause and canada's war effort, finlay was accorded a sweeping vote of confidence. by a vote of to the members of the congregation adopted the following resolution: ... while we may not all agree with our minister, we assure him of our confidence in him as a minister of christ and our whole-hearted co-operation in his efforts to win souls for christ and to advance the kingdom of god on earth. a further motion to· have the contentious matter brought before presbytery was defeated by the same wide margin. following a standing ovation, finlay thanked the meeting and expressed the hope for a unified congregation in the future. but the eighty wealthy members who had opposed finlay remained unimpressed. many of them left the congrega- tion in the belief that the absence of their support would force finlay to resign. instead, young couples and sympathetic people from across toronto came flocking to finlay s side, and the carlton street united church, in keeping with its reputation as the "house of friendship," was ireborn".l finlay himself felt a particular loyalty to the young pacifists brought up during the "never again" attitude of the l s and there- fore completely bewildered by the church s support of the war effort and condemnation of the "witness against war". l the previous year, for instance, a group of victoria college students had signed their own pacifist manifesto in which they reaffirmed their belief that peace could be achieved by one method: lithe absolute renunciation of war by individuals, by the church, and the state." they also called upon the united church to formulate an alternative program to military service in which conscientious christians could take "a positive stand without compromising their christian faith.,, l by many of these young pacifists sought refuge in finlay's church and advice on the proper role of christians in time of war. overall, the united church had offered little guidance on the question since its exact teaching on war was unclear. for this reason both pacifists and non-pacifists urged the church to justify its action in condemning the "seventy-five" pacifists and "to show how its members could at the same time avow an allegiance to christ while doing the necessary deeds of warfare. ,, the general council did appoint a special committee to produce such a statement but "for some unstated reason it never reported.,, frustrated and angered by the "stony silence" of church leaders, edis fairbairn unleashed his wrath on the pages of the united church observer and stirred up another storm. his statement, entitled "indictment", condemned the united church as "incompetent and unworthy to serve the cause of god." in reference to the church's often repeated anti-war statements of the pre- vious decade, fairbairn charged that church leadership lacked the courage of its convictions and registered particular disappointment at the way the general council "boldly slunk around" the war issue. i am therefore heartily ashamed of the united church. be- cause of its cowardly failure to confess its errors and clear its standards it has brought about the farcical situa- tion that while volubly expressing itself in support of the war, its official statement is, "we positively reject war."l a what fairbairn objected to most was the "unreality" or ingonsis- tency in the situation. "much as i differ in conviction," he explained, "i could have retained my respect for "the effective leader- --~~--~ ship of the church if it could have brought itself to the point of clearly declaring its change of mind and its present approval of war. i on the other hand, fairbairn accused the church of allowing its ministers to speak out on social evils only as long as their prophesying was not accompanied with a demand for action. lilt is possible in this wail he observed, lito gain great repute for eloquent but harmless radicalism. i as one who had lost his church, fairbairn testified that there was no freedom in the church for li any utterance that annoys the good contributors to the local or general church funds. ii in other words, argued fairbairn, the united church was iifundamentally a financial institution ll since first and foremost its ministers had to avoid upsetting their contributors. the most damaging result of the church's position, however, may well have been a loss of creditability with the average man. fairbairn claimed that men were already asking, ills there ~ issue upon which the united church will take a stand and act on it regardless of consequences? i besides the fact that an affinnative answer was in doubt, the real tragedy, he wrote, was that ... the average man does not believe in the christianity of the churches because he is unable to believe that they believe in it. and all the revivals or preaching missions in the world will not convince ordinary men, that we christians believe in christianity. only a faithfulness to jesus christ and his gosepl of the kingdom of god could do that ... in reality the acid test is not, will you die for your faith? but, will you cheerfully suffer financial loss for it? the observer received so many letters in response to fairbairn's "indictment" that the editor found it impossible to publish them all. instead he used only those "communications covering various shades of opinion" as well as a brief synopsis of others. among those in support of fairbairn were two members of the alberta school of religion, william irwin and charles huestis. huestis endorsed every word of the article and pointed out that it was quite appropriate that the moderator's endorsement of the war savings certificates plan was printed on the same page as fairbairn's statement since "it so fully supports the indictment. ii "having found that people will not adequately support the schemes of the church from loyalty to christ, i he wrote, ii we promise to implement their loyalty to the state in its war plans. i praise also came from fairbairn's former fcso colleague, gregory vlastos, now at queen's university. vlastos did not share fairbairn's pacifism, and he eventually supported the war effort, but for the moment he opposed the war on other grounds. he agreed with fairbairn that people lost their religion because of "glaring contradictions between the faith we profess and the way we ive. ii he suggested that all those who considered themselves followers of christ should "read and re-read ll fairbairn's "indictment" and ask themselves: "what are we to do about i t?" r. b. y. scott, vlastos' co-editor of towards the christian revolution, however, was not so kind. he argued that fairbairn's wholesale indictment was lias unfair and untrue as it is sweeping. i more specifically, he claimed fairbairn misrepresented the church's attitude to war. according to scott there was no inconsistency in the united church's past anti-war statements and its support of the war effort since no general council ever equated rejection of war with complete pacifism. on the contrary, he argued~ ii mu ltitudes ll in the united church and many in its leadership still rejected war as genuinely as fairbairn but that did not mean they adhered to doctrinaire pacifism. they could not escape their responsibility in the war by simply washing their hands. we have not chosen war and do not willingly partici- pate in it; we reject it, but cannot now avoid it. s the way to world peace, scott concluded, was not necessarily fairbairn's way. and there the issue rested for the readers of the observer. perhaps the most notable feature of the debate in the observer was the disagreement between principal members of the fcso which revealed the tragic fragmentation of the christian left in the face of the war. such a development could only spur the growth of the for, but both groups worked at keeping doors open to the other. scott, vlastos and other non-pacifist fcso members did not wish their disagree- ment on the war issue to overshadow the fcso's overall goal of radical social change. hoping, therefore, that the fcso could continue to encompass both pacifists and non-pacifists, the national executive encouraged freedom of conscience and expression among its members. in response to the iiwitness against war ll controversy, fcso spokesmen argued that although the church had decided to support the state at ------- -------- war, lithe prosecution of the war must never become its peculiar task." l furthermore, they urged the church to iirefrain from even appearing to conceal divergence of opinion among its ministers" and suggested that when a conflict arose between loyalties to god and state the church should: ) recognize the conflict as essentially religious whatever the decision finally reached .... ) try to make clear to the public as well as to its members that the difference of opinion is merely one of method in driving towards the one supreme end. ) widen the scope of its war time service to have it provide worthy occupations not only in non-combatant war-service but also in services which in no way con- tribute to war. overall the fcso was quite sympathetic and tolerant towards their pacifist members and tried to accommodate them, even to the point of advocating some type of pacifist alternative service. nevertheless, it was also clear that most members of the fcso had divorced pacifist means from christian socialist action. for instance, the annual fcso convention in was presented with two positions on the war, the pacifists being in the minority. the majority of delegates were of the opinion that the vital task of the fcso during the war was to pre- serve civil liberties at home while supporting the cause of freedom, equality and brotherhood throughout the world. without mentioning the challenge to christian pacifism, they suggested the war "verified and intensified" the need for radical social change and agreed that the christian force is moving in the direction of socialism, and that only when productive resources in every nation are owned and controlled by its people will war be securely outlawed and peace established. although they shared this passion for radical social change, even socialism, pacifists could hardly believe that peace could be established without commitment to pacifism, the way of peace. pacifism and socialism were part and parcel of radical christianity and there- fore inseparable, but with the fcso now visibly rejecting pacifism as a realistic alternative, pacifists already uneasy in the fcso on the eve of the war, were increasingly isolated and in need of the separate fellowship, assurance and strength provided by the fellowship of reconciliation. the for, however, was still a weak reed and it was the good fortune of pacifists that their fcso associates were still sympathetic. eugene forsey, stanley knowles and stanley allen, for example, had changed their minds on pacifism but still showed an in- terest in their pacifist brothers. whenever he was in toronto during the war years, forsey visited carlton street united church to converse with finlay. the two men obviously held each other in the deepest respe~t. there was an increasing sense of isolation among canadian pacifists during the first two years of the war. it was visible in the church, created in part by the "witness against war" manifesto, in the observer debate and within the ranks of the fcso. only the canadian fellowship of reconciliation seemed to promise pacifists some solace but, after the canadian group lost its initial bid for affiliation with the international for in , it remained weak and loosely organized until well into the war years. until then the first national chairman, carlyle king, carried on as best he could to offer leadership to the various for groups scattered across the country. almost single-handedly he kept the sole canadian pacifist organization afloat during its darkest days. once the war measures act was in force the for could do little liin a public way to advance the cause of peace. l nevertheless, within a few weeks of canada's entry into the war, for members in vancouver, toronto and montreal began organizing opposition to the possible introduction of conscrip- tion and the curtailment of civil liberties. king had singled out conscription as the most immediate danger and he urged all for units to draw together religious, political, labor, youth and other groups in order to pressure the government to stand by its word that conscription would not be introduced. the vancouver group took the lead when they set up a "committee for the maintenance of peace time liberties ll comprised of representatives from the for, wil, ywca, ccf and ccym. a similar scheme was organized by the toronto for with assistance from the wil, fcso, ccym, ccf, quakers and pacifist students from the university of toronto. their activities were described by a wil member in the following report: while we have to keep fairly under cover -- no publicity of any kind -- we are having weekly meetings, with a study group every other week. we send letters of congratulations and of protest to various government officials, and keep in touch with ccf and other left- wing groups, to cooperate wherever possible. we are also in touch with the american wil and are urging them to work for american intervention to call a world conference [on peace]. • •. other groups, such as the league for social reconstruction, the league of nations society, and the social workers, seem to favor our position, too. another project already under discussion among toronto pacifists was their possible co-operation with the friends in some type of humanitarian relief project similar to the work done by the american friends service committee in the great war and the spanish civil war. the idea was to provide canadian pacifists with "an alternative to military service and a chance for a positive witness to their idea of human brotherhood in wartime. u as for the role of the individual pacifist, king offered the following advice: ..• his main task is to keep sane and preserve in him- self and his friends the spark of friendship and decency. he must guard against hysteria, hatred, and indignation; he must be an island of sanity in the midst of surrounding chaos, so that when the madness passes there may be some people who can give us leader- ship in seeking to establish human unity, understanding and good-will. perhaps he can damp down the hatred of the "enemy" in the people he meets, minimize atrocity stories, and check harsh treatment of alien folk in his own community. in a quiet and private way he can give sympathy and counsel to young people perplexed and harassed by "patriotic" pressure. king also suggested that pacifists meet regularly in small groups to discuss peace literature and its relation to the war. he felt such a practice would not only strengthen and encourage their pacifism but woul d provi de as well an opportuni ty for them "to exchange ideas and feeling frankly." above all, however, he reminded canadian pacifists not to speak out publicly against the war and to refrain from arguing with the "belligerently minded.,, king was well aware of the dangers of making unpopular public statements. the previous year he himself had been under fire because of his own outspokenness. speaking at a meeting of the saskatoon young communist league on march , ,king advised canadian youth to "refuse to fight to maintain the profits of the british plutocracy" and expressed his opposition to canada entering war merely because of its connections with the british empire. given front page coverage in the press, his remarks triggered a minor furor as organizations and individuals throughout the province condemned his unpatriotic utterance. some li ke the moose jaw branch o.f the canadian legi on and numerous parents of university students demanded king's dismissal from the university of saskatchewan faculty and called for an investi- gation into the overall teachings of the university. others labeled him anti-british, anti-canadian and communist. the regina daily star, for instance, condemned king as dangerous and dogmatic and suggested that the young communists who had arranged the meeting must have been pleased. in his defence king released a statement in which he declared that he was not and never had been a communist and did not accept their philosophy. rather, as a member of the for he rejected the use of violence in settling disputes between nations or between classes, creeds or races within nations. secondly, king suggested that his criticism of british imperialism was not necessarily anti-british and definitely not anti-canadian. on the contrary, he maintained that his brand of patriotism or nationalism, although the exact opposite of blind allegiance to the british empire, was entirely sincere. my love of canada takes the form of working to see that every canadian has good food, good clothes, good housing, a permanent job and an income that will permit him to enjoy those forms of recreation and culture he likes; of urging our government to co-operate with other nations to remove the causes of war and to establish a just peace; and of being willing to make personal sacrifice toward those ends. i leave it to candid minds to say which form of patriotism is more canadian or more in harmony with our professed religion. support for king's right to free speech and academic freedom poured in from all sides. numerous individuals praised king's stand in letters to the press. university students, while not necessarily endorsing his specific opinions, pledged their support for king and lauded his "un biased views." l l tracing the history of opposition to free speech back to biblical times, w. g. brown, minister of st. andrew's presbyterian church in saskatoon, defended the right of a university professor, such as king, to offer criticisms. the leader-post of regina helped defuse the issue by observing that lithe core of his speech was an attack on war." the editor emphasized the necessity to protect free speech and concluded: if the present social order and its views on war cannot stand up against the views, here and there, of a pacifist or of a communist, then it will collapse sonner or later of its own weakness. the issue appeared to settle down when the university board of governors refused to take action but flared up again six months later when king, addressing the kinsmen club of saskatoon, was critical of the chamberlain government of britain. a new round of attacks and demands for king's dismissal erupted almost immediately. in order to prevent further embarrassment to j. s. thompson, president of the university and staunch defender of academic freedom, king voluntarily decided to refrain from speaking publicly on the subject of peace. accordingly, on september , , he cancelled his plans to speak that evening to a meeting sponsored by the saskatoon branch of the canadian legion for peace and democracy. in his letter to the local secretary of the league, king blamed his decision on the harrassment of president thompson and accused his critics of condemning him from inaccurate newspaper reports. the major question raised by the whole affair, he argued, was why a professor in saskatchewan could not repeat what members of the house of lords stated freely in england. in the first draft of the letter, but omitted altogether from the public statement, was king's personal interpretation of his public utterances: for two years my public speeches have had one object, and one only: to keep my country out of european war: i had thought to do what i could to keep canadian boys, particularly my students, from the moral iniquity of burning and torturing the women and children, the aged and the infirm, of i enemy. nations. i had hoped to use my knowledge and my ability to that end. in my speeches i have never once objected to canada's member- ship in the free and voluntary association of nations. would that there were more such associations! king faithfully refrained from speaking out on international issues, even though he was implicated in bitter attacks upon the for and its leadership. in a front page and lengthy article appearing december , , and in subsequent articles, the toronto financial post attacked the canadian for alleging that its leaders were either communists or communist-inspired, charges which the vancouver financial post readily echoed. as a result of such accusations, king's assistant, cleo mowers, was forced to resign as national secretary of the for and sever all connections with the organization in order to save his job as a journalist for the saskatoon star-phoenix. mowers i resignation placed king in a difficult position since he could not find a suitable replacement for mowers and could not carryon the executive work of the for alone. he therefore offered his resignation to the national council. in doing so he recommended strongly that the executive work be assumed by either the toronto or montreal organizations. by this time, however, the other members of the national council were caught up in their own troubles stemming from the iiwitness against war ll controversy and were unable or unwilling to assume further responsibility in the for. with the promise of extra money for stenographic assistance, lavell smith once again per- suaded king to continue as national chairman. smith also added that, however lamentable, the policy of silence was lithe only one which can now be followed. ,, although it was not exactly the silence that smith had in mind, the national chairman seldom heard from other members of the national council over the next year. king was aware, however, that the canadian for was not in the healthiest of conditions. other than the loss of mowers, both thelma allen of montreal and f. blatchford ball of saskatchewan reneged on their pacifism and therefore resigned from the national counci . furthermore, the toronto group, supposedly one of the most important units in canada, was weak and disorganized. for all practical purposes, the toronto for came to a standstill once its president r. j. irwin resigned on the heels of the "witness against war" controversy. to some extent, however, the slack was taken up by the work of the toronto pacifist council, an alliance of twelve groups including the for, wil, friends, united church youth, and the ccym. under an executive which included james m. finlay, anna sissons and ted mann, the toronto pacifist council counted approximat ey two hundred pacifist members. its major activities were devoted to lending assistance to german aliens in toronto, supporting the no-conscription league and lobbying to amend the defense of canada act so as to protect the rights of pacifists. such activity on behalf of civil liberties notwithstanding, the majority of canadian pacifists appeared for a time to have followed lavell smith's advice for a policy of silence. as for national chainnan, carlyle king remained the official voice of canadian pacifists v' and single-handedly maintained correspondence with would-be pacifists and prospective conscientious objectors scattered across the country. he never received the promised financial help for stenographic assistance. then in june king was encouraged by an inquiry from fairbairn about the possibility of reorganizing the for. "i had begun to think that nobody was going to take any interest any more in the infant," king replied. "now that some people feel a definite [need] for a fellowship of war resisters, perhaps the under-nourished babe can be revived." after providing fairbairn with a brief history of the canadian organization, king expressed his feeling that the time was "ripe for a new deal and a new slate of officers" and suggested that fairbairn and others in eastern canada who were "close enough to work together easily" should take over the organization. accordingly he sent fairbairn the for membership lists and other lists of contacts, the balance in the treasury, no more than fifteen dollars, and a bundle of for statements. concerning the canadian statement of basis and aims king conceded that, after all, the other scheme having failed, the canadian group should conform to the regular pattern of the international for and "make our body a specifically christian one." as king finally relinquished the national chairmanship he advised fairbairn that if he was really serious about reviving the for he should elect himself "president, or dictator or what have you, pro tempore, and afterwards conduct a ballot by mail at your leisure." l it appears fairbairn's interest in the for coincided with a renewed concern among remaining members of the for national council to strengthen the fledgling pacifist organization. in the spring of , for instance, lavell smith, james finlay and clarence halliday sent a letter to those on their old mailing list in an attempt to renew contacts and "keep alive a sense of fellowship" among canadian pacifists. forty of the forty-six who replied were standing firm in their pacifism. again, in september, claire oke distributed a similar letter in which he suggested the desirability of revising the canadian statement of basis and aims according to ifor guidelines. while only twenty-four individuals replied, two-thirds agreed that the canadian statement should be made more specifically christian. no further initiative was taken to reorganize the for, however, until the beginning of the new year when lavell smith again called for a renewed corrmitment from "canadian lovers of peace". in reference to the rather poor response to oke's letters he asked: "ooes that mean we ought to stop writing? some of us think not, for there is all too little here in canada to hold us together. i contrary to the american for which numbered over , members, the canadian organization faced peculiar problems which he outlined as follows: here in canada our members are few; great distances separate us; some are cut off from fellowship with sympathetic spirits; the columns of our journals are largely closed to "peace propaganda"; many of us are under too great pressure to venture to express ourselves in print. it would appear that we ought at least to circulate an occasional letter in the interests of fellowship. furthermore, since the canadian for no longer had either an executive or a complete national council, smith emphasized the need for a total reorganization and proceeded to request nominations for a new national council, lias representative as possible of the various provinces. i despite the plea for national representation, the revived for was largely dominated by united church pacifists in ontario, especially after lavell smith's move to toronto in may . it also appears that they desired a specifically christian pacifist organiza- tion following the suggestion made by richard roberts to organize pacifist cells within the church for fellowship and prayer, with the prospect of leading toward the spiritual renewal of the church. james finlay, for example, concurred that the brand of pacifism most likely to endure was that based upon the christian faith rather than some other foundation. the focal point of pacifist thinking, words, and deeds, he emphasized, should not be their pacifism as such but their overall "positive dynamic witness in all situations" as ch . t' rl s ans. by september the reorganization of the canadian for was complete. despite the fact that the national council was expanded in order to encompass representatives from across the country, the hub of the revived organization was toronto. the new executive included lavell smith as chairman, j. w. e. newbery as secretary, and claire oke as treasurer, all of whom had resettled in the toronto area. while carlyle king's continued membership on the national council offered a certain element of continuity with the early days, the new organization clearly reflected a stricter christian bias. the canadian basis and aims, revised by oke and renamed the statement of purpose, adhered more closely to the christian format of the international statement. included was a version of the christian basis specifically requested by john nevin sayre in as a pre- requisite for international recognition of the canadian group: that love, as revealed and interpreted in the life and death of jesus christ involves more than we have yet seen, that it is the only power by which evil can be overcome and the only sufficient basis of human society. that, therefore as christians, we are forbidden to wage war, and that our loyalty to our country, to humanity, to the church universal and to jesus christ, our lord and master, calls us instead to a life service for the enthronement of love in personal, social, commercial and national life. l the remainder of the statement outlined the specific responsibilities of members in the movement to abolish war and build a new social order. with this revised statement and apparent encouragement from sayre, the canadian for proceeded to reapply for affiliation with the international organization. finally, almost four years after their initial bid, canadian pacifists were accepted into the international for fold. at long last christian pacifism in canada had begun to gel, from the public protest of united church ministers in the "witness against war" manifesto to the long-awaited affiliation of canadian pacifists with the international for. in effect, this surfacing of a christian pacifist front, weak as it still was, was a tribute to one of its, most devoted proponents, richard roberts. a co-founder of the original for in , roberts had become a perennial pacifist influence in canada since his arrival in . first in montreal and then in toronto, where he also served as moderator of the united church during the depth of the depression, roberts aroused public interest in christian pacifism and social action. by he had retired from the active ministry and accepted a lectureship at pine hill divinity school in halifax. as the canadian port most directly involved in the war, halifax was an uncomfortable place for a pacifist, especially one like roberts who, in "both sentiment and judgement, i was in complete sympathy with the allied cause and yet remained committed to pacifism. lithe ethical disparity of the two sides is hardly measureable, i he wrote. iibut i am sure the church should stick to its own job -- if everythi ng is not to go with the flood. ii perhaps because of this personal dilemma roberts became particularly annoyed with what he called the "hoity-toity pacifism" professed by such people as muriel lester. what he specifically missed in their attitude was any realization of the actual and tragic failure of pacifism which the war indicates; and that the proper wear of pacifists at this time is sackcloth and ashes. roberts was convinced that in the world as it was in anything that seemed easy was suspect, including pacifism. nevertheless, while aware of the spacific weaknesses of paci- fists, roberts spoke out strongly in defense of radical pacifism in response to the challenge of reinhold niebuhr's "christian rea ism, i which seemed to him more like ii mora re ativism. i in fact, his major contribution to the pacifist debate during the war was his open dialogue on the topic with niebuhr himself. it began in the winter of when niebuhr, writing in radical religion, castigated the pacifist position as "self righteous. i in response roberts took niebuhr to task in an open letter published in christianity and society. the use of the word "self righteous", claimed roberts, was a boomerang since it betrayed that unpleasant condition in niebuhr himself and raised as well the suspicion that he was not too sure of his own position. although roberts admitted that there were "all sorts of faults and perversities in the pacifist movement", he argued there was a larger proportion of them in the case for christian participation in war. he confessed, however, that he could not find an easy answer to niebuhr's arguments and consequently was "caught in a lacerating conflict of loyalties ll : frankly, i would give a good deal to be able to accept your [niebuhr's] doctrine. it would make life a good deal easier for me; there's the sense of alienation from my people, the coolness of friends, the suspicion of disloyalty, the spite of the intolerant, and the like, all which hurt me deeply. to roberts, pacifism was a difficult complex principle; it was neither the "simple christian mora ism ll as niebuhr had charged nor the "equally simple" moral relativism which niebuhr professed. for roberts warned that, contrary to the strict christian basis of the pacifist doctrine, ii moral relativity" made a "virtue or a sort of philosophy" out of the failure to follow christ. while it appeared to solve a momentary and isolated problem, roberts questioned if moral relativism was not the "first step down a very slippery slope. i in effect he suggested that niebuhr's dialectic had led to what plato called "making the worse appear the better reason." although he himself detested "hitlerism and all its works" roberts argued that the chief duty of christians was not to discriminate between parties in the present war but to judge the "whole business of war" against the "revealed righteousness of god. ii unless that was done, he warned, the evil of war would perpetuate itself throughout society: nations at war tend to grow like each other; and the restoration of civil rights and liberties suspended in wartime has generally been slow and grudging. the longer this war lasts and the more fiercely it is fought, the more dangerous will become the menace of hitlerism, even though hitler be destroyed. in reply niebuhr praised roberts' letter as the first com- munication he had received from a pacifist which had not been "i - tempered" and .claimed it neatly revealed the theological gulf between pacifism and non-pacifist christianity. roberts' casual reference to war as an "incident" in history, conflicted with niebuhr's view of it as "a final revelation of the very character of human history ". although niebuhr conceded that roberts was quite right in his obser- vations that moral relativism could easily degenerate into opportunism and "unprincipled conduct", he retorted that at times it was the duty of christians to "preserve some relative decency and justice in soci ety" and thus parti cipate in war despi te the sinful character of the action. in effect, niebuhr accused roberts and his fellow pacifists of trying to reach the impossible dream of living in history without sinning. the bulk of niebuhr s criticism, however, was directed toward isolationism and those american pacifists "inclined to i dent i fy neutra i ty wi th the i sermon on the mount i • ii on the who e, the dialogue between roberts and niebuhr revealed little that was new and yet it served as an important reminder that, despite the loss of niebuhr, christian pacifism was not intellectually stalemated by the war. nevertheless, niebuhr had seriously challenged liberal and socially radical pacifists to face reality rather than to retreat behind the confines of a religious ideal like a millennial peace sect. for the most part, canadian pacifist leaders were sensitive to niebuhr s criticism. none were more aware than they of a menacing irrelevance. they realized that pacifist protests alone were not a satisfactory answer, but neither could they condone what roberts called niebuhr s dangerous policy of iimoral relativism. i instead, pacifists attempted to face reality in their own way, and what could be more real than the heightened experience they had been through by . although the iiwitness against war ll manifesto appeared to have cast united church pacifists into the role of rebels, for instance, it was primarily an attempt to provide a realistic pacifist alterna- - -- ------ ----- tive within the existing framework of their church. failing in that, they began to rebuild pacifist solidarity through the for and turned to the implementation of the pacifist witness within the historical context in which they found themselves. thus, during the remaining war years pacifists would respond to niebuhr's challenge to face the reality of the times by assuming an active role in various humanitarian activities, the defense of civil liberties and, above all, the struggle for alternative pacifist service for conscientious objectors. if it did not meet the demands of niebuhr's neo-orthodoxy, the course they would take required its own heroic assumption of the tragic burden of the war. footnotes lc. p. stacey, ed., historical documents of canada, vol. v: the arts of war and peace - (new york: st. martin's press, ), pp. - . although the war measures act was immediately reinstated, it was not until the tenth of september that canada officially declared war on germany. the delay, which allowed time for the country and the government to consider the ramifications of the action, was caused primarily, no doubt, by the post-war upsurge of canadian nationalism which had held canada aloof from british foreign policy in the 's and in had issued in giving canadians a still greater control of their own destiny. dona d creighton, the forked road, canada - (toronto: mcclelland and stewart, ), p. . j . l. granatstein, canada's war, the politics of the mackenzie king government, - . (toronto: oxford university press, ), p. . horn , "the league for social reconstruction: socialism and nationalism in .canada," p. . un ike grube and a few others in the lsr, underhill had never endorsed outright pacifism. frank h. underhill, "keep canada out of war," maclean's ( may ) in frank h. underhill, in search of canadian liberalism (toronto: macmillan, ), p. . granatstein, canada's war, pp. - . ibid ., pp. - . mcnaught, a prophet in politics, p. . l williams was perturbed by the pacifism within the ccf and was extremely vocal in his opposition to an isolationist or neutralist foreign policy which he believed could only hurttheccf in saskatchewan. on the whole his provincial party was much cooler to pacifism than the federal ccf. see friedrich steininger, "george h. williams: agrarian socialist" (m.a. thesis, university of regina, ), pp. - . mcnaught, prophet in politics, pp. - . l canada, debates of the house of commons, special session, ibid ., pp. - . mcnaught, prophet in politics, p. . ibid ., p. . l debates of the house of commons, special session, , pp. - . i bid., p. . ibid., p. . . ibi d. ibid . mcnaught, prophet in politics, pp. - . debates of the house of commons, special session, , p. . mcnaught, prophet ir. politics, p. . j • s. woodsworth papers, correspondence , vol. , c. c. annett to j. s. wordsworth, september . ibid ., escot reid to woodsworth, september . ibid., howard patton to woodsworth, september . ibid ., h. g. l. strange to woodsworth, september . sinclair-fau kner, "for christian civilization," p. . ibid ., p. . the united church observer, january , p. . sinclair-faulkner, "for christian civilization," pp. - . ibid ., p. . ibid ., pp. - . i bid., p. . ibid ., pp. - . woodside to united church clergy, september , as quoted in ibid., p. . the moderator's letter was chiefly the work of j. ~. schater and r. b. y. scott. norman, "richard roberts," p. . ibid . david r. rothwell, "united church pacifism, october, ," the bulletin (united church of canada) xx ( ): . ibid • ibid ., p. . the united church observer, october , p. . ibid ., november , p. ; while the manifesto revealed a rift within the united church on the issue of pacifism, the fact remains that the signatories represented a small minority within the total of approximately , united church ministers in canada in . the united church of canada, yearbook, , pp. - . the united church observer, october , p. . ibid . ibid . ibid • rothwell, iiunited church pacifism, i p. . ibid . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . ibid .; globe and mail (toronto) october , p. . rothwell, iiunited church pacifism, i p. . ibid ., pp. - . rothwell quotes freely from all three toronto dailies. i bid., p. . ibid ., p. . sinc air-fau kner, iifor christian civilization,ii p. . the united church observer, november , p. . ibid . sinclair-faulkner, iifor christian civilization, i p. . the united church observer, november , p. . norman, "richard roberts, i p. . richard roberts papers, box , file , fairbairn to roberts, march . ibid ., box , file , roberts to lavell smith, october . ibid . ibid ., box , file , roberts to margaret p. macvicar, october . ibid ., box , file , roberts to lavell smith, october . ibid ., box , file , roberts to margaret p. macvicar, october . . ibid., roberts to margaret p. macvicar, november . ibid ., box , file , lavell smith to roberts, october the united church observer, october , p. . united church of canada, war services committee file, minutes of meetings of october and november . ibid ., november . sinc air-faulkner, iifor christian civilization, i p. . interview with mrs. j. lavell smith, november . the united church observer, september , p. . interview with mrs. j. lavell smith; reconciliation, (october ): . ibid . the united church observer, may , p. . interview with mrs. j. lavell smith. reconciliation, (october ): ; in explaining his position to a leading member of the congregation smith wrote: "on the positive side: i have given my blessing to the red cross and refugee work. i have communicated both to the chief chaplain and the commanding officers of two military units my readiness to have their troops attend divine service in our church. i have expressed no single doubt as to the sincerity of purpose of young men donning the uniform. my attitude to any who have consulted me has been that their going or remaining at home must be a matter of their own individual conscience. it is not for me to determine pro or con. i have communicated with every enlisted man belonging to the congre- gation, so far as known to me, and with others who have had only the loosest sort of connection. i have had replies from several of these men and quite a number of them have made it a point to see me before leaving. i am now in process of sending out "commendation cards" to these men to be used by them as an introduction to churches or chaplains wherever they may be going. i uca, lavell smith biography file, smith to h. s. cheesbrough, jan . te ephone conversation with mr. beverly bailey, montreal, november ; interview with muriel duckworth, toronto, november . . telephone conversation with mr. beverly bailey. ibi d. sinclair-faulkner's assertion that "r. edis fairbairn and harold toye parted company with the united church during wwii" is not correct. fairbairn remained in the parish ministry while toye entered industrial evangelism but both remained in the church. fairbairn relates his experience in his book apostate christendom. ibid ., p. . un ted church archives, harold toye papers, box , file , miscellaneous papers. ibid • - bid.; rothwell, "united church pacifism, i p. . rothwell based his information on an interview with toye. the religion-labor foundation " , micellaneous papers, toye papers, box , file . e. harold toye, trifling with destiny (toronto: religion- labor foundation, ), p. . bid ., p. . bid ., p. . bid., p. l. bid., p. . bi d_. , p. . looiithe religion-labor foundation," miscellaneous papers, toye papers. ibid . rothwell, "united church pacifism," p. . sinclair-faulkner, "for christian civilization," p. . nterview with ernest nix, toronto, november . another signatory, nelson t. chappel of westminster church, saskatoon, changed his mind and became a chaplain in the rcaf, ibid. toronto daily star, june . . ibid .; interview with james m. finlay, toronto, october l toronto daily star, june . l ibi d. ibid • interview with james m. finlay. lllibid. ibid . united church observer, april . ibid • fairbairn, apostate christendom, p. . l ibid . r• edis fairbairn, "indictment," the united church observer, february , p. . ibi d. ibi d. ibid . ibid . united church observer, march , p. . ibid . ibid • ibid ., p. . ibid . interview with r. b. y. scott. according to scott all fcso members were anti-militarists. christian social action, i (december ): . ibid ., p. . ibid ., ii (july ): . l ibid . l intervi~ with james m. finlay. the fcso "more or less broke up" following its annual convention at toronto's carlton street united church in . one the main causes for the discord was that the newer breed of christian leftists,newly arrived from britain, aligned with the communists. interview with r. b. y. scott. interview with stanley allen. interview with james m. finlay. ibid . l carlyle king papers, : , king to miss marguerite corner, gypsenvi e, manitoba, september . ibid . ibid ; king specifically suggested that for units communicate with mennonites, quakers, doukhobors, latter day saints, jehovah's witnesses, ministerial associations, trades and labor councils, cef, ccym, scm, fcso, wil, wctu and the canadian civil liberties union. carlyle king papers, : , king to mrs. n. a. fraser, winnipeg, october . l ibid . l ibid • itiid . ibid ., king to miss corner, september . ibid . the star-phoenix (saskatoon), march , p. . ibid ., april , p. ; october , p. . ibid ., april . regina daily star, march , p. . the star-phoenix (saskatoon), april , p. . ibid . ibid ., april , p. . l ibid., april , p. l. ibid ., p. . l the leader-post (regina), april , p. . the star-phoenix (saskatoon), september , p. . ibid . u' . f k a h . s k c a k' nl versl ty sas atchewan rc lves, as atoon, . . ng papers, iii, , rough draft of letter. l sabs , carlyle king papers, : , king to canadian for national council, january . l mcnaughton papers, al e ( ). carly e king papers, : , king to canadian for national council, january . l ibid ., lavell smith to king, january . ibid . ibid ., : , king to fairbairn, june . ibid . ibid., : , ted mann to king, april . ibid ., mann to king, september ; : , mann to king, december . ibid ., : , mann to king, april . ibid ., : , king to fairbairn, june . ibid . ibid ., king to fairbairn, july . l ibid ., king to fairbairn, june . ibid ., king to fairbairn, july ; despite fairbairn s apparent interest in reviving the for, he failed to take an active role in the reorganization and although an for member throughout the war years he preferred to carryon his pacifist pursuits free of the confines of any organization. uca , fellowship of reconciliation papers, box , file , lavell smith to iicanadian lovers of peace", january . ibi d. ibid . ibi d. ibid . l ibid . ibid ., box , file , finlay circular letter to friends of peace, april. ibid ., box , file , newbery to canadian for members, september-r . l ibid • l the fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, "statement of purpose", leaflet, post- . king to mildred fahrni, november . richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to margaret p. macvicar, june . n.d. ibid . norman, iirichard roberts, i p. . l richard roberts papers, box , file , roberts to niebuhr, ibid • l ibid . ibid . ibid ., niebuhr to roberts, n.d. ibid . inc air-fau kner, iifor christian civilization, i p. . chapte r v ii i conscription and conscience: act two despite the initial shock of wars despite their attempt to witness against war and for the pacifist alternatives and despite the debate and the rejection of the many and the praise of the few, canadian pacifists faced one major threat from the moment the gunfire began: conscription. also from the first, they recognized the necessity of making a positive response as pacifists to the conditions war brought in its train. perhaps the latter was construed as the means of coping with the former. whether it was or not, it was necessary to discover -- more, to help determine that canada show some measure of moral advance over the great war in the question of conscientious objection. for many non-pacifists freedom of conscience was what the war was about -- the pacifist at home stood at the crux of the matter. many more saw it quite differently and there for pacifists lay the danger. particularly mindful of the potentially explosive opposition of quebec, the liberal government of mackenzie king tried to avert a repetition of the crisis by introducing compulsory military service gradually in two stages. at first limited to home defense, it was broadened to include overseas service only at the eleventh hour. such a course of action generally reflected the mood of the house of commons prior to the outbreak of war. in march for instance, both king and the leader of the opposition, r. j. manion, had declared their opposition to conscription for overseas service. at that time the prime minister actually promised that as long as his govern- ment was in power no such measure would be enacted, a pledge he later repeated in the house during the special war session. accordingly, the king government pursued an initial war policy of " imited iabi iti' emphasizing home defense and thus keeping the participation of canadian forces abroad to a minimum. canadians were told their major responsibility would be the provision of munitions, raw materials and foodstuffs rather than men. gradually, however, government policy began to change. alarmed by the end of the so-called "phoney war" and the collapse of france in the spring of , the government initiated a more aggressive war effort marked by the adoption of the national resources mobilization act (nrma) in june. in effect, the nrma authorized conscription but only of a restricted variety since, in accordance with the government's pledges, it was limited to home defense. thereafter, the debate centered on the question of conscription for overseas duty as well. again, government policy reflected the course of the war. the japanese attack on pearl harbor and their defeat and capture of canadian forces at hong kong in december increased demands for "total war now" and for an end to the restrictions on the service of nrma men, derisively known as zombies. by spring, king decided to ask the canadian public in a plebiscite to release the government from former pledges "restricting the methods of raising men for military service. it was at this point that french canadian opposi- tion to conscription solidified in la ligue pour la defense du canada under the leadership of its secretary, andr~ laurendeau. the league appealed to all canadians to vote "no" in the plebiscite but it was no surprise when quebec stood alone in opposition to releasing the government from its past commitments. despite the favorable outcome of the plebiscite, king remained reluctant to force conscripts into regular service and continued to insist that such changes occur on a voluntary basis. ultimately, however, the voluntary system failed to meet the needs of the army and the king government finally succumbed to overseas conscription in november , only a few months before the end of the war in europe. in the long run the government's five year delay in adopting conscription for overseas duty was relatively successful in defusing an historically explosive issue. it was also effective in undermining any possible development of an anti-war coalition by dividing, along philosophical lines, those chiefly opposed to military service overseas from those opposed to military service in any form. as long as con- scripts were not sent outside canada many canadians initially opposed to conscription were mollified. but to pacifists the question was settled in june with the national resources mobilization act and the rest of the conscription debate concerning overseas service, in- cluding the plebiscite, was never really relevant to their personal dilemma. instead, they sought ways in which to reconcile their pacifism with the reality of war. for instance, whilp. the nation at large was debating the pros and cons of the plebiscite, pacifists were arguing for an expansion of alternative service, and while the question of overseas service for conscripts was still under discussion, canadian conscientious objectors were already serving overseas in a humanitarian capaci ty. although the national resources mobilization act authorized the government to adopt conscription it was the national war services regulations (recruits) which defined the groundrules for the actual call-up of men. according to the regulations the country was divided into thirteen administrative districts, each with a divisional registrar responsible to the minister of national war services for selecting men for military training. in keeping with historical precedent provision was also made for the exemption from service of those with special occupations such as judges, clergymen, policemen, firemen and prison and mental asylum workers as well as for the deferment of doukhobors, mennonites and conscientious objectors. contrary to the military service act of , however, which either exempted or excepted the historic peace sects, the regulations merely provided for their postponement from military training. in order to be granted such a postponement order mennonites, doukhobors and others with conscientious objections were required to submit a written application to their divisional registrar and to appear before the national war service board (often referred to as the mobilization board) in their military administrative district. if the board was satisfied that the applicant conscientiously objected by reason of religious training or belief to war in any form his military training was postponed. the first step in the implementation of the conscription regulations, however, was the program of national registration begun in each federal election district in august . on the whole, canadians complied with registration in an liatmosphere of calm and resignation". the only major incident occurred when the mayor of montreal, camillien houde, publicly declared his opposition to national registration as li'unequivocally a measure of conscription'" and was swiftly seized and shipped off to an internment camp by federal authorities. this draconian reaction on the part of the government served as a clear indication that public criticism of the nation's war effort would not be tolerated and pacifists took heed. during the first war registration had been denounced passionate- ly by such radical pacifists as j. s. woodsworth and f. j. dixon but in , except for some doukhobors, particularly the sons of freedom, pacifist groups accepted national registration without protest. they concentrated instead on securing two major concessions from the government: the right to conscientious objector status of all individuals who conscientiously opposed military service regardless of religious affiliation and the establishment of some form of alter- native service in the national interest. although of minor importance during the first war, both demands had become crucial by because of the increased number of pacifists within canada's regular protestant denominations and because of the strengthened determination of pacifists to assume an active role during the world's hour of need. consequently, pacifists were quick to express this attitude to proper government authorities. by august the chief registrar in ottawa had received several communications to that effect, all copies of a form letter devised and circulated by lavell smith in an effort to represent the interests of united church pacifists. the various senders, including smith, qualified their willingness to co-operate in the matter of national registration with their religious objection to assisting in the prosecution of any war; therefore, they appealed to the government to provide all conscientious objectors the same privileges as provided in britain, including alternative forms of national service. likewise, the same concern was exhibited by the more tradi- tional pacifist groups. as early as , for instance, the christadelphian service committee of canada had reminded the minister of justice, ernest lapointe, of its historic religious objections to military service or military training and had argued that, in the event of a serious national crisis, some provision be made for alternative service of national importance. similar statements were made by other religious groups as well but the society of friends more or less took the lead in organizing a pacifist front for alternative service. in reaffirming its peace testimony at the outbreak of war the canadian friends service committee (cfsc) assured all canadian political party leaders of the readiness on the part of friends to serve in "any constructive civilian capacityjl. the committee also circulated a questionnaire among its members to ascertain the exact types of humanitarian service friends of military age would be willing to perform ? and by mid-summer specific recommendations were made. in a letter to prime minister king cfsc general secretary fred haslam proposed the following forms of alternative service work under civilian ~ supervision: . reforestation or other constructive work. . maintenance of roads which might otherwise be neglected under pressure of this national emergency. . social service work in distressed areas. . non-competitive agricultural work, the produce from which might be devoted to designated social welfare organizations. . participation in post war rehabilitation plans. . any practical combination of the above. furthermore, the committee did iinot necessarily feel that the length of service in such work should be limited to that of the military training ... haslam claimed he was writing not only on behalf of quakers but all those with iireligious or moral objections to participation in warll and therefore he requested a personal interview v/ith the prime minister. the prime minister's office promptly replied that since the problem of conscientious objection fell under the department of national war services, haslam's communication had been passed to the minister of national war services, j. g. gardiner, for further action. subsequently, all further negotiations on the issue were conducted through that department. in his letter haslam had also referred to the desire of friends to join with the other historic peace churches in representing the interests of conscientious objectors in ottawa. with this goal in mind the cfsc contacted the mennonite and brethren in christ (tunker) churches in ontario. the ontario peace churches, already in the process of organizing a united response to the challenge of conscrip- tion, after iidue consideration ll accepted liin principle ll the quaker proposal for alternative service and invited the society of friends to join the newly formed conference of historic peace churches (chpc) as well as its special subcommittee concerned with c.o.s, the military problems committee. friends accepted the invitation eagerly and their association with the conference of historic peace churches throughout the war proved to be an important link between socially- conscious, liberal pacifists and those from the traditional religious sects. by september the military problems committee sent its first delegation to ottawa on behalf of conscientious objectors. in a meeting with justice t. c. davis, associate deputy minister of national war services, chpc chairman ernie j. swalm, military problems committee chairman j. b. martin and haslam (as well as david toews, a representative of western mennonites) reaffirmed their concern for the official recognition of all c.o.s and presented specific proposals for alternative forms of iiconstructive civilian service ll • davis responded sympathetically and promised his department would consider the recommendations, but he strongly suggested that in the meantime the peace churches should proceed with national registration and refrain from attracting publicity. although dissatisifed with this response, the military problems committee agreed that its first priority, in view of existing regulations, was to launch an immediate campaign to register its members as well as to safeguard their claims to conscientious objector status. accordingly, a special registration card and form letter of "app ication for postponement of military training" were drafted and circulated among the various churches. as for the quakers, haslam distributed the forms to monthly meeting clerks with instructions that all men of military age complete the registration questionnaire at once and send the letter of application for postponement to the divisional registrar of their administrative district within twelve days of the call up of their particular age group. with this procedure underway the committee again turned its attention to the question of alternative service. within a few weeks it organized the canadian fellowship service, a new subcommittee of the chpc responsible for co-ordinating a wide variety of proposed pacifist public services under the direction of government welfare agencies. the committee informed the department of national war services of this plan in mid-october and the following month it was presented in ottawa by a chpc delegation in conjunction with representa- tive of western mennonites. although mennonite groups on the prairies were not initially members of the conference of historic peace churches, they had al- ready undertaken to unify their response to questions raised by the war. in fact, the first move by mennonites in that direction actually began at winnipeg with the founding of the mennonite central relief ,_ committee (mcrc) in march . the mcrc became the most important wartime organization of western mennonites but complete unity was hampered by the split between the kanadier ~nd russlaender factions, particularly in relation to conscientious objector status and the question of alternative service. the kanadier group, russian mennonites who emmigrated to canada in the late nineteenth century, had set historical precdents as c.o.s in canada and were the only mennonites specifically deferred from military training in the regulations. relatively assured of their rights to c.o. status, therefore, the kanadier mennonites initially opposed the idea of alternative serivce. on the other hand, russlaender mennonites, those who immigrated to the prairies from the soviet union during the 's, received no guarantee of conscientious objector status; consequently, they believed that status would best be achieved by offering to perform alternative service, even non-combatant duty, as they had done in russia under the tsar. furthermore, russlaenders had come to view alternative service as an expression of their faith rather than a compromise in principle. as a result of these philosophic differences, the kanadier block in manitoba formed their own relief committee and the aeltestenkomitee, or committee of elders, remained aloof from the initial negotiations in ottawa concerning alternative service. the most important of these discussions occurred in mid- november when a joint delegation composed of four western representa- tives of the mcrc and four eastern representatives from the chpc launched a series of meetings with the associate deputy ministers of national war services, justice t. c. david and major general l. r. lafl~che. the pacifists repeatedly argued for the introduction of civilian alternative service under civilian supervision but davis and lafl~che rejected the idea as impractical and too costly. they urged the delegation to reconsider the government proposal for non-combatant service, possibly in civilian clothes but under military control. the pacifists replied that the young men they represented "would not respond favourably to the suggestion that they should work in military camps" regardless of whether or not uniforms would be worn. thus they reiterated their demand for strictly civilian alternative service and forwarded the following suggestions for such a program: . that the work should be of an agricultural or forestry nature combining if possible re-forestation, setting up of nurseries as needed, land reclamation and farm improve- ment. . that first aid courses might be given as part of the training of the men while in camp in order to equip them to render service in the event of epidemics or other emergency resulting from the war. . that this work be done on government-owned land, in order that the benefit from labor expended should accrue to the country as a whole. . that sites might be chosen after consultation with the department of agriculture and the department of lands and forests; and that supervisors might be selected from such departrrents. --~-~----- - - ~-- . that for this purpose, the dominion be considered as having three divisions. (a) british columbia - alberta (b) saskatchewan - manitoba (c) ontario and the east. with these specific proposals, far in advance of government planning, the delegation rested its case. at one point, however, b. b. janz, an albertan, intimated to lafl~che that the western russlaender mennonites would be willing to accept non-combatant medical service under the red cross, but he was quickly overruled by the other delegates, who proceeded to make it clear that the peace churches were united in their demand for nothing less than civilian service under civilian supervision. when lafl~che retorted with the liobviously bluffingll question, iiwhat lll you do if we shoot you?ii, jacob h. janzenls emotional response erased any doubts as to the sincerity of pacifist determination: listen, major-general, i want to tell you something. you canlt scare us like that. live looked down too many rifle-barrels in my time to be scared that way. this thing s in our blood for years and you canlt take it away from us like you d crack a piece of kindling over your knee. i was before a fi ri ng squad twi ceo ~ we believe in this. lt s deep in our blood. on this note the negotiations ended in a stalement. neverthe- less, the pacifist delegation had made some significant accomplishments. most importantly, the pacifists had received a full hearing in ottawa during which time they exerted considerable influence upon government authorities, even if that was not completely visible until many of their specific recommendations for alternative service were later incorporated into government policy. furthermore, a different type of pacifist alternative resulted from their suggestion to dr. d. c. clark, deputy minister of the department of finance. in order to allow the pacifist community to purchase war bonds without assisting the war effort, the government authorized a special series of non-interest bearing certificates, series b, with its funds earmarked for the relief of war victims. regardless of government decisions, however, the joint pacifist delegations to ottawa in november , as well as sub- sequent visitations, came to symbolize pacifist unity. the various mennonite groups in particular were encouraged to work together and overcome their differences -- differences which had been aggravated initially by the law itself. the conference of historic peace churches and other pacifist spokesmen successfully represented pacifist interests with a strong voice in ottawa but prospective conscientious objectors still faced a number of uncertainties and restrictions. for instance, although the national war services regulations had specifically guaranteed doul obors and mennonites an indefinite postponement from military training, it had restricted the term iimennonites ll to include only the descendants of the 's immigration wave. in other words, to achieve postponement the kanadier had only to prove membership in the mennonite church and that they had been residents in canada continuously, whereas all other mennonites such as the russlaender fell under the general category of iiconscientious objectors ii and were required, there- fore, to articulate their religious objections to war individually. this distinction was applied in the beginning, but as the war progressed mobilization boards began to require all mennonites . t th . . t' b . t' m . to artlcu a e elr consclen us jec lons. oreover, slnce each mobilization board was autonomous, the ease or difficulty in obtaining a postponement as a c.o. varied from one division to another and depended on a variety of factors such as the personality of the board chairman or the attitude of the local populace. for example, the chairman of the manitoba baord, justice j. e. adamson, had a reputation as a stern administrator who at times acted more like a recruiting agent. his refusal to recognize numerous young russlaender mennonites as bona fide c.o.s posed a particular problem for the mennonite central relief committee in winnipeg. another factor of uncertainty surrounding the question of c.o. status concerned the clause within the regulations requiring all conscientious objectors to belong to a religious denomination which definitely, as a tenet of faith, prohibited the bearing of arms. thus, despite pacifist pleas to the contrary, those canadians from major protestant denominations, or any church other than the historic peace sects, were initially denied c.o. status. the first test of this restriction occurred in november , when the war services board in saskatoon under the chainnanship of justice j. f. l. embury, refused the applications for postponement from military service of eight young men, most of them theological students at st. andrews college, the university of saskatchewan, on the grounds that members of the united church and the church of england could not be considered c.o.s within the meaning of the regulations. although they had admitted there was no tenet or article of faith in their church which prohibited the bearing of arms or the under- taking of combatant service, the applicants argued the united church left the final decision on such matters to the individual conscience of its members. l at one point the board "tried very hard," but in vain, to get the students to confess they were under the direct in- fluence of professor carlyle king, popularly known by this time as a radical socialist and pacifist. official reaction to the board's decision was completely favorable. for instance, in a letter to lafl~che the deputy adjutant general of division "m", brigadier george h. cassels, expressed con- fidence that it would lido a lot to keep down applications for post- ponement or exemption on this ground" and suggested a copy of the decision be distributed to the chairmen of all other boards as a precedent. on the other hand, the response of pacifists, as well as the churches directly affected by the decision, was one of alarm and protest. from his earlier discussions with officials in the department of national war services, fred haslam was under the impression that liit was going to be the intention at ottawa to judge conscientious objectors individually, regardless of and apart from church connec- tions ". it was ater suggested to him by a fellow pacifist, however, that perhaps the judgement of the saskatchewan board could be explained best by the fact that lithe churches your committee represents have been pestering ottawa and that the anglican and united have made no representations on behalf of their members, except through the christian social council, which has not kept at the job .•.. ,, although this charge contained a certain element of truth it was not entirely accurate, especially since haslam and the cfsc had made every attempt to represent the interests of all pacifists regardless of church affiliation. as for the christian social council of canada, its executive passed a resolution asking the canadian government to adopt the british procedure of basing c.o. exemptions solely on individual conscientious convictions. likewise, a similar resolution was passed and forwarded to the government by the ninth general council of the united church. along with these demands to amend the war service regulations and the pressure of pacifist groups for alternative service, govern- ment officials also faced increasing public resentment, particularly in the 'west, over the whole question of exemptions. prime minister king raised the issue for consideration by the department of national war services in reference to a letter by george mcdonald, a former member of the house from souris, manitoba. after reporting that il many of our people do not like it when they find that the young mennonites here do not have to take this [military] training," mcdonald echoed the familiar complaint: these young mennonites are getting married and setting up homes for themselves. many of our boys will have to take up arms, many will not return. while our sons are fighting these men will be building up good homes. it certainly isn't fair and i would like to know how they got into our country ...• "our people here are going to be very bitter about this," he warned, "and the government would be justified in compelling all our people to prepare themse ves for at east home defense. ii such expressions of anger and suspicion were viewed in ottawa as a matter for serious consideration and, consequently, came to play a part equal to, if not greater than, pacifist influence in the formula- tion of plans for alternative service. indeed, both military and government officials had agreed that the main reason to use c.o.s in some type of non-combatant service was to "placate the westerners". finally, under fire from all sides, the minister of national war services, james g. gardner, announced that due to numerous requests the government had decided to amend the section of the national war service regulations concerning conscientious objectors. accordingly, an order-in-council passed on christmas eve deleted the requirement that c.o.s belong to a recognized peace church, thus making the individual conscience the sole ground for exemption as a c.o. in addition to the usual letter of application for postponement, however, the amendment also required the prospective c.o. to forward to his board a "certificate" stating "that he belongs to a religious denomination and that, in the opinion of the proper authorities of that denomination, the man has sincere conscientious scruples against the bearing of arms. n furthermore, all c.o.s found to be medically fit were required to perform one of three basic alternatives: non- combatant training in a military camp, non-combatant first aid training in other than a military camp, or civilian labor service at other than a ~il;tary camp. the period of such training or service as well as the rate of pay were to be identical to that of those in the military. within a little over a year of war, therefore, canadian authorities officially recognized the right to conscientious objection by all individuals regardless of church affiliations and began to incorporate pacifist alternatives into the national war effort. whatever the major impetus behind this action, it was to the credit of pacifist persistence that the provision for civilian service under civilian supervision appeared as a possible form of alternative service. accordingly, most pacifist groups were pleased with the changes, but not the aeltestenkomitee, the kanadier bishops. up to that point, they had boycotted all negotiations with federal authorities, but, alarmed by the new provision for alternative service, the aeltestenkomitee finally approached ottawa and registered a desperate plea for the complete exemption of kanadier youth from all types of service. but it was too late. in effect, the kanadier had gambled that by remaining silent they would continue to enjoy the same type of exemption they had enjoyed during the first world war, and they had lost. thereafter the kanadier mennonites modified their absolutist stand and joined their brothers in insisting upon civilian alternative service under civilian supervision. their acceptance of y alternative service marked the end of absolutism among canadian pacifists except, of course, for the stubborn resistance of doukhobors and jehovah's witnesses to the authority of the state. having won concessions on the question of conscientious objector status and the principle of alternative service, pacifists now concentrated on the nature of pacifist service itself. although it had been decided in principle that all persons exempted from military service would be required to render some form of alternative service, no definite plan was reached until the spring of . initially, the government favored sending c.o.s to military camps for non-combatant training and service, especially since the original period of training was to be for only thirty days. the military authorities, however, were against having c.o.s in their camps "under any condition" and once the training period was lengthened to four months the department of national war services was finally swayed by the pacifists' recommendation for a civilian-oriented program. accordingly, in may the associate deputy ministers of national war services, t. c. davis and l. r. laf ~che outlined plans for the creation of alternative service work (asw) camps in national parks across western canada under the supervision of the parks board of the federal department of mines and resources. asw camps were established at kootenay national park, british columbia; banff and jasper national parks, alberta; prince albert national park, saskatchewan and riding mountain national park, manitoba, as well as at two forest experimental stations: kananaskis camp, seebe, alberta and petawawa camp, chalk river, ontario. mennonites and other conscientious objectors were directed to these asw camps as their particular age groups were called up for military training, but doukhobors, "so far as possible", were segregated and assigned to separate road building projects such ~s the construction of the lac la ronge highway, a mining road in northern saskatchewan. unlike their independent brothers in saskatchewan, however, the doukhobors in british columbia, particu- larly the sons of freedom, were extremely hostile to the idea of alternative service and many even refused to report for medical examinations. their pacifism, ironically, was accompanied by a reputation for dramatic and sometimes violent resistance, from nude marches to bombings and burnings. as a result the initial plan to utilize them in the construction of the nelson nelway highway, a road from nelson, b.c. to the american border, fell victim to the government's uppermost desire to avoid a potentially explosive confrontation. in a cleverly worded rationalization, davis and la fl~che actually recommended that doukhobors in british columbia not be asked lito render any alternative service" since they were already subject to the penalty proposed for those who failed to report for al- ternative service -- disenfranchisement in both the dominion and provin- cial levels. by using this criterion, they,argued, the government was justified "tn doing nothing with the doukhobors in british columbia and avoiding trouble there. i in time, the cabinet war committee agreed and issued a secret directive halting enforcement of the regulations against doukhobors, since it was felt "that to compel universal compliance in the communities in question would involve a very heavy undertaking and that no substantial effect could be anticipated from the doukhobors so drafted for a lternati ve servi ce. ,, despite the general acceptance of this "hands off" policy, publicly the government remained committed to bringing all doukhobors into alternative service. in practice, however, the only serious attempt in that direction was the lac la ronge project. although later described by the authorities as having attained a "considerable degree of success", in reality the project was a dismal failure. for example, compared to the seventy doukhobors who put in an appearance at the camp ninety-two were imprisoned for refusing to report, and after only one season the experirl.ent was abandoned. another attempt at road building was conducted at the montreal river camp, one of the earliest and largest asw camps, located at an old logging camp eighty miles northeast of sault ste. marie, ontario, at the mouth of the montreal river. unlike those in the west, this camp was under the direction of the surveys and engineering branch of the department of mines and resources since the work consisted almost exclusively of construction on the trans-canada highway along the north shore of lake superior. the first group of c.o.s arrived there in july and for the next few years the montreal river camp became the main depot for c.o.s from eastern canada. in effect~ the montreal river camp was the mother of all other asw camps. it was here where canada's asw program was inaugurated. as the major c.o. reception center, it contained a good mixture of religious backgrounds in addition to the mennonite majority. it was also here where the largest variety of c.o.s were first introduced to one another and to alternative service; and much of their experience here became the basis for camp organization on the west coast. undoubtedly the camp provided a good deal of pacifist cross- fertilization~ reinforced by the fact that life at montreal river was hard, especially during the winte~ and most of the young pacifists shared a common sense of isolation. the only way into the camp was by truck from the "soo" and once there the "conchies" were almost completely cut off from the rest of society. although they waited eagerly for letters and parcels from home, even the camp post office was eighty miles away. as a result the c.o.s spent much of their free time in group activities. bible study and other religious functions were under the direction of rev. j. harold sherk, secretary of the conference of historic peace churches, who travelled to the camp about once a week. during the first few years at montreal river sherk established the pattern for religious supervision later followed in other camps. the majority of the c.o.s in the camp were members of either millennial sects or the conference of historic peace churches; consequently, they viewed alternative service as simply the price they had to pay to remain true to their faith. on the other hand, a smaller number of quakers and liberal pacifists from the larger protestant denominations viewed the work camps as experiments in christian communal living and welcomed the opportunity to perform some "disinterested service". as one of these c.o.s wrote, we "are trying to take our position as cos seriously. we believe it lays responsibilities on us.,, some were attracted to the war resisters' international in the belief that the effect of pacifism upon their personal lives would also produce some change in the structure of , . t't t' socla lns u ns. the enthusiasm of the small group of activists was reflected in the birth at montreal river of the first canadian c.o. publication, the northern beacon. edited by wes brown, a c.o. from toronto with a united church background, the mimeographed newsletter was primarily intended to boost the morale of the c.o.s in the various camps scattered across canada as well as to publicize camp life to pacifists at home. one of those in toronto, james finlay, commended the editor on the idea. "you can well imagine," he wrote, "that some of the lads who may succeed you were greatly interested to learn something of the situation. ,, indeed, young pacifists such as gordon stewart, a student at mcgill university, were not only anxious to learn about the work camps and other possible alternatives to military service but they emphasized, as well, the need for even closer communication between c.o.s in canada. l consequently, stewart and fellow pacifists in montreal launched the canadian c.o., another newsletter designed to keep canadian pacifists "posted on what their isolated fellows and groups are doingll and in this way to help dispel the "almost in- evitable" feeling of loneliness among c.o.s in such an immense country as canada. the paper also reserved space for contributions from women c.o.s since it was felt "their pacifist stand can and is being expressed conscientiously in many different ways, seeking to ennoble life and relieve human suffering. above all, however, the main theme of the canadian c.o. was iipacifist action" in various fields of service at home and abroad. by the spring of this call for more pacifist action had become the major goal of liberal pacifists. r. edis fairbairn, for instance, reminded the "campers" at montreal river that beyond the work camp experience we still have to find some way of demonstrating our christian citizenship by a sacrificial service comparable in risk and costliness to that service given, willingly or unwillingly, by the enlisted men. as an example he referred to the humanitarian service of quakers and he suggested that perhaps the conference of historic peace churches would be able to arrange something similar in canada. the whole question of pacifist service had become a popular matter of speculation in the camp. there was a growing resentment among c.o.s that the government had shipped them up to montreal river merely to keep them out of the public eye. their work, especially during the winter, seemed to be of minimal value and some of them yearned to make a more useful contribution than swinging a pick and shovel. even the work in the asw camps out west appeared more attractive. there in the national parks alternative service personnel were responsible for the prevention and suppression of forest fires and throughout the war years they formed the nucleus of firefighting crews. silviculture, the control of forest insect infestation, was another of their endeavors and the alternative service men in the banff and kootenay parks were credited with saving large quantities of saw-timber and mine props. the demands from pacifist groups and c.o.s for more worthwhile work than that offered at montreal river coincided with two other factors which, taken in combination, caused the government to expand the deployment of c.o.s to forest areas. namely, by april the authorities had come to recognize that c.o. labor was to be a permanent and important resource for the duration of the war. at the same time there were increased warnings of forest fire emergencies on the west coast because of the danger of japanese attacks with incendiary bombs. consequently, the minister of national war services entered into an agreement with the province of british columbia whereby up to one thousand c.o.s were made available to the british columbia forest service (bcfs) for forest protection duties on vancouver island and the adjacent mainland. for the next few years the west coast was the center of asw activity. the new asw camps under the bcfs, approximately twenty in all, were established in three main project areas: the lower mainland camps were called g.t. (green timber) camps, those on southern vancouver island were known as "c" (cowichan) camps and those north of nanaimo were designated as "q" (quinsam) camps. where possible, the asw camps utilized existing camp sites and buildings, including those that had served as relief camps during the thirties; otherwise new camps were hurriedly built with prefabricated huts and sometimes even tents, both of which added to the mobility of the workers to meet fire emergencies. the main responsibility of asw crews in the bcfs was fighting forest fires. the "campers" in all three project areas were fully trained in firefighting measures and during the summers of and they fought a total of fires. none of the fires, however, was caused by lienemy action ll . aside from actual firefighting work the alternative service men also accomplished valuable and essential forest protection improvement work such as snag-falling, truck trail construction and reforestation. the alternative service workers who first reported for these new duties in june were largely transferred from other camps, particularly from montreal river. in fact, by the following month all but a few of the montreal river iicampersll had been reassigned to the bcfs. bo the men from montreal river exerted much of the leader- ship and influence in the new camps. even the northern beacon resurfaced in british columbia at campbell river camp under a new name, the beacon, but the same editor, wes brown. bl the mixed bag of c.o.s from ontario, therefore, generated much of the early enthusiasm in the camps. initially the c.o.s welcomed the idea of the b.c. camps as a worthwhile and exciting adventure, especially since prior to the war many of them had never travelled more than a short distance from their homes. but it was not long before dissatisfaction set in. faced with the prospect of life in the asw camps for the duration of the war, the mennonites yearned to return to the work on their farms. the liberal activists, on the other hand, complained that chopping wood and planting trees was not the type of wartime humanitarian service they had hoped to perform. ~lthough they recognized the value of the work, they wondered if better use could not be made of their respective skills. b the issue came to a head when wes brown, editor of the beacon, circulated a questionnaire asking c.o.s in the various bcfs camps for their reaction to the idea of diversified alternative service in private industry and in such fields as agriculture, coal mining, logging and hospital and ambulance work. b the committee of c.o.s at campbell river responsible for the questionnaire suggested that an acute labor shortage in canada would ultimately necessitate releasing c.o.s from asw camps for employment in more important fields of service. regardless of the validity of this statement, the authorities viewed the questionnaire as premature and feared it would raise false expectations and only result in bitter discontent among a generally passive lot. the assistant chief forester in british columbia reprimanded the questionnaire committee for not having first obtained the permission of the bcfs and he ordered the confiscation of all complete questionnaires so the conference of historice peace churches could use them. s nothing ever came of the questionnaire, however, and as a result of his role in the fracas wes brown was forced to resign as editor of the beacon. despite its overall failure, the questionnaire episode dramatized the intensified effort on the part of canadian pacifists to convince the government to provide conscientious objectors with legitimate alternatives within society rather than hiding them in the nation's forests. as dissatisfaction mounted among the interned conscientious objectors, government authorities also began to reassess ·their entire approach to the mobilization and utilization of manpower. by september , for instance, the administration of the national war service regulations, including that governing alternative service, was transferred from the large, cumbersome department of national war services to the department of labour, and within a few months the regulations themselves were revoked and replaced by the national selective service mobilization regu ations. under these new regulations the nature of alternative service largely remained the same but the change in the administration of that program meant that pacifists had to familiarize a whole new set of bureaucrats with their peculiar position. accordingly, pacifist spokesmen were quick to protest section twelve of the new mobilization regulations which stipulated that conscientious objectors would no longer be recognized as students in canadian universities, colleges or preparatory schools. on the contrary, all male students found to be physically fit were required to enroll in a canadian officer training corps contingent at the educational institution or to report for military training. the military problems committee of the chpc charged that this regulation, as well as the requirement that all ~students for the ministry be willing to serve as military chaplains, was "a discrimination on religious grounds" that was ii no t in keeping with the general principle and practice of religious liberty in canada. ii if this restrictions were allowed to stand, the committee argued, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, for the peace churches to recruit and properly train candidates for the ministry. instead, the pacifists requested an alternative program within the universities "which would be applicable to students in the same way that alternative service camps provide for non-students," but the department of labour felt that implementing such a plan would be difficult due to public opinion and the relatively small number of students involved. go eventually, therefore, students ended up in the asw camps. the military problems committee also raised objections to the power of the various mobilization boards whose decisions, it was argued, had caused serious inequities in the administration of the regulations which could be remedied only by allowing c.o.s to appeal the decisions of the boards. l (the most glaring example of this was the large number of russlaender mennonites denied c.o. status by the manitoba board.) furthermore, the committee criticized the remuneration of alternative service workers at the basic rate of fifty cents a day with no allowance for clothing or dependents as insuf- ficient, and it suggested that provisions be made for the dependents of as workers similar to that provided for the dependents of military personnel. concerning the asw program itself the committee registered the familiar call for more diversified forms of alternative service, especially since a number of as men were trained specialists -- doctors, dentists, teachers and engineers. only a broader range of service, they argued, would lienable each person to make the largest possible contribution to the good of canada and of all mankind. i support for diversified alternative service also came from the spokesmen for united church pacifists. lavell smith, for instance, personally vouched for the ability of a number of c.o.s lito do work of much more urgent importance than snag-falling and road buildingll and he urged the minister of labour to follow the british example and utilize them as hospital orderlies or as attendents in mental hospitals, both of which were in short supply in canada. iii trust, sir, i smith concluded, iithat i may have from you, in answer to this letter, some- thing more than the all-too frequent stock reply ... surely this is a matter of sufficient importanc~ to warrant the most careful investigation and necessary action. i a similar plea was entered by harold toye on behalf of a delegation of united church ministers. moreover, toye argued the discrepancy between the allowance and privileges granted to alternative service men compared to those granted military personnel created the general impression that canadian asw camps were "concentration or internment camps" rather than respectable alternatives to military service. in order to help rectify this unhappy situation the delega- tion urged the government to recognize desired pacifist alternatives such as dental and medical service, education and farm work and possible civilian ambulance service in war-devastated areas. to a large extent the arguments raised by pacifist spokesmen in ottawa reflected the frustration they discovered during their personal tours of the asw camps. for instance, in most of the eleven camps they visited, j. b. martin and ernie swalm of the military problems committee found lia lot of anxiety" and reported: some of the boys were discouraged. a number even thought maybe after all the best way out would be to enlist in some corps of the military. likewise, during his swing through the camps, james finlay conferred with a number of c.o.s anxious to iitest" their pacifist convictions outside the camps. although they felt it was probably easier for pacifists to live in the asw camps than to mingle in society, they yearned to perform some other form of service within society. in response to the various demands from pacifist quarters as well as part of its overall effort to make the most efficient use of manpower~ the government finally reorganized the alternative service program in the spring of . basically the action merely continued the movement already begun the previous year with the transfer of alternative service responsibilities to the department of labour. the new directive further shifted alternative service from the mobilization section of national selective service to the civilian section under a chief alternative service officer, l. e. westman, and with alterna- tive service officers in each military district. most important from the pacifist standpoint, however, was the broadening of alterna- tive service to include essential work in agriculutre and industry. this change, which became effective in may , was a turning point in the struggle of pacifists for a proper role within canadian society in wartime. certainly, once conscientious objectors were allowed to perform a wide range of alternatives to military service, the pacifist alternative, itsel~ gained credibility as a legitimate and valuable part of the canadian response to war. following goncerted pressure by pacifists and re-thinking by government authorities~ diversified pacifist service was finally a reality. on the whole the broadening of alternative service was effected easily but not without some disapproval. initial news of the government's decision to utilize c.o.s in work outside the camps was greeted by a barrage of protests~ chiefly from lumber men in british columbia and b.c. government officials concerned with the prospect of losing their best source of low-paid labor for forest protection. other complaints, not surprisingly, came from irritated members of the canadian legion and the imperial order of the daughters of the empire. on the other hand, there were also some favorable responses, particularly from the farm organizations, industries and politicians, such as john diefenbaker, who had been lobbying for such a move for some time. l for the most part, however, the government policy of silence concerning the allocation or treatment of c.o.s meant that the general public was not aware that c.o.s were employed outside the camps. under the new arrangement, alternative service officers in each military district screened c.o.s and assigned them to jobs where their skills were most needed. although a considerable number were assigned to laboratories, hospitals and certain industries not directly involved in the war effort such as saw-mills and food processing plants, the majority of the c.o.s, largely mennonites, with farm experience, were directed to agricultural work. the employment of c.o.s in agricultlre and industry was conditional upon their agreement to contribute part of their earnings to the canadian red cross society. under the terms of a special contract with their employers c.o.s were paid at the "prevailing wage rate" but received only twenty-five dollars monthly while the remainder of their earnings, less taxes, was diverted to the red cross. the c.o.s in agricultural work also received free board and lodging while those in urban industries were paid an additional monthly allowance of thirty-eight dollars to cover living expenses. within a year, however, amid mounting protest from various pacifist groups that the financial reimbursement for alternative service was not only insufficient but totally unfair compared to that for military service, the government authorized additional allowances for dependents and for medical and dental services; thereafter the government continued to take steps to ease the financial burden on alternative service workers and their families. l pacifist organiza- tions such as the canadian friends service committee were also intru- ~ mental in assisting the dependents of c.o.s and in finding jobs for the c.o.s themselves, although the actual placement of men in as jobs was made by the divisional alternative service officers through local employment offices. by summer the transfer of c.o.s to the newly approved fields of service was in full swing. the number of as men in the bcfs camps alone dropped from to approximately . those that remained in the camps were either newly postponed c.o.s entering alternative service for the first time or th se, such as jehovah's witnesses, who were unwilling to enter an employment contract or to allocate funds to the red cross. the montreal river camp, which had already lost most of its workers to the bcfs camps the previous year, was closed entirely in may . the as men there at the time were either returned to farms in the kitchener-waterloo area or sent to work in the sugar beet fields of southern ontario near chatham. an experiment using jehovah's witnesses in the sugar beet work ended in failure because they regularly left the fields in order to spread the "gospel" in near-by towns. as a result the offenders were sent to the chalk river camp for the duration of the war and jehovah's witnesses as a whole were denied employment outside the camps. from the beginning jehovah's witnesses had resisted the principle of alternative service as part of their refusal to recognize the authority of the state. consequently, of the c.o.s prosecuted in canada for failure to report for alternative service, thirty per- cent were jehovah's witnesses. following brief jail terms they were taken to asw camps under police escort. once in the camps they were the last to leave. for all practical purposes they were more like prisoners than voluntary workers. lll perhaps for this reason jehovah's witnesses viewed the asw camps as internment camps not far removed in principle from the german camps at buchenwald and dachau. the frustrated alternative service authorities, on the other hand, were "quite definitely sure" that jehovah's witnesses were not conscientious objectors in the true sense of the term and concluded that "they should not be so classified in the event of another war."ll~ by and large the transition from camp life to the farms, factories and hospitals was carried out smoothly and enthusiastically by the c.o.s affected. nevertheless, the feeling persisted that the government had not gone far enough to offer c.o.s real alternatives for humanitarian service in war zones. for instance, c. f. klassen, secretary of the mennonite central relief committee in winnipeg, reminded the labour minister that russlaender mennonites had always been willing to perform non-combatant medical work and he urged that a field ambulance corps be created as soon as possible. likewise, a group of six to eight c.o.s at banff also proposed to form a civilian ambulance service lito be used in whatever zone of war assigned by the authori ti es. ii in a etter to j. w. noseworthy, the newly el ected ccf mp from ontario, they reported that the five toronto churches they represented were prepared to provide the necessary equipment for such a service, including a new ambulance. "we are desirous to be of more valuable service to our country in this time of urgent need," they wrote, "than at our present occupation.,, l despite the obvious willingness on the part of pacifists, government authorities remained hesitant to deploy c.o.s overseas in a non-combatant or humanitarian capacity. a precedent for such service, however, had been set the previous year with the inclusion of c.o.s in the civilian corps of canadian firefighters sent to the united kingdom. eventually twenty canadian c.o.s, mainly mennonites and united churchmen, enlisted and served overseas as junior firemen, the same status as other untrained members. following some preliminary training, the canadian firefighters assumed full respon- sibility for fire stations in southampton, portsmouth, plymouth, bristol and london, where they not only extinguished fires but carried on salvage and rescue operations as well. the young pacifists wel- corned this opportunity to leave asw camps in canada in order to help save life and property amid the destruction of war. nevertheless, they feared that perhaps a compromise had been made since the firefighting corps appeared to be in danger of becoming nothing more than a "fourth arm" of the military. l a thin line obviously separated the concept of alternative service from indirect support of the war effort and in the end most of the c.o.s concluded that service in the corps did not directly conflict with their conscience. the firefighting corps was an example, therefore, of the type of relief work a growing number of young pacifists wished to perform but the corps could only absorb a few c.o.s. consequently, their cohorts had to press for other possibilities, the most likely of which was the type of non-combatant medical service provided for c.o.s in britain and the united states but initially opposed in canada b ' . t th· t· y ml ary au or, les. by the spring of , however, the government appeared more receptive to the pacifist minority, as when the prime minister's assistant j. w. pickersgill remarked: it seems to me that anything we can do to meet any group of conscientious objectors half-way so that they can participate in the national effort, will go a long way to remove one serious cause of disunity and of poor civilian morale, particularly in certain parts of western canada. i admit that these considerations are social and broadly political rather than military. finally, in september of that year an order-in-council authorized the enlistment of c.o.s for overseas service as non-combatants in the royal canadian army medical corps and the canadian dental corps. before the end of the war over two hundred c.o.s joined the non- combatant units and many of them served overseas in various theaters of the european war. russlaender mennonites, in particular, were attracted to the new service but others, such as liberal protestants, were less interested. although enlistment was voluntary and the service was to be strictly non-combatant, those who joined became subject to military law, and reports soon circulated that once overseas only mennonites and seventh day adventists were recognized as c.o.s while others were ordered to undertake infantry training. a number of c.o.s also criticized participation in the non-combatant units as direct support for the war machine. what was needed, they insisted, was some type of relief and rehabilitation work conducted completely separate from the ' . t c t th . d f ' ' ' b . t ml ary. onsequen y e ea or a clvl lan am u ance unl overseas manned by c.o.s gained in popularity. it more than any other proposal captured the imagination of pacifists seeking to translate the principle of non-violence into a realistic and meaningful response to the tragedy of world war. the model for such an ambulance unit was the friends ambulance unit (fau) first organized by british quakers during the great war and revived by british and american friends during the second world war. the fau was active in europe, the mid-east and north africa, but it was the lure of the far east, china in particular, which aroused the most enthusiasm among young conscientious objectors. those in canada were no exception and from their first discussion of a possible ambulance unit pacifists had set their eyes on china as the field of service. the prospect of adventure as well as of humanitarian service aroused considerable excitement in the asw camps and numerous men expressed their willingness to volunteer. one of the leading spokesmen for the as men was gus harris, a toronto c.o. attached to spray river camp number three near banff and editor of the canadian pacifist, the newest c.o. monthly. in a letter to prime minister king, harris expressed the desire of c.o.s for "more human; tari an work w; thout avoi di ng danger. ii he and hi s associates at spray river had earlier volunteered to the department of pensions and national health to serve as human iiguinea pigs" for nutritional experiments in the clinical study of wartime and post- war illnesses, but their offer was rejected because of the lack of laboratory facilities. now they were asking for permission to organize an ambulance unit for china. in response, j. w. pickers- gill remarked that it was iicompletely out of the question" in view of canada's many other commitments. nevertheless, the prime minister's office referred harris to a similar effort undertaken by c d · f' d ana lan rlen s. by the summer of the canadian friends service committee through its general secretary, fred haslam, had begun preliminary negotiations for a canadian contingent to join the fau in china. the major task was to secure government permission for canadian c.o.s to travel abroad with the fau and the initial response from authorities was not encouraging. in reply to haslam's inquiry, for instance, the chief alternative service officer, l. e. westman, doubted that c.o.s under alternative service could go to china since "nothing within present regulations would seem to make this possible." rather, he suggested interested c.o.s join the newly created non-combatant units in the royal canadian army medical corps and the dental corps. the only c.o. he thought might be allowed to go to china would be one who had applied to a non-combatant unit but had been turned down for physical reasons. in any event, he concluded, the question would have to be raised with numerous authorities including alternative service officers, mobilization boards, labour exit authorities, the department of external affairs and the armed forces. l despite the obvious reluctance on the part of authorities, haslam plodded ahead with plans for a canadian contingent. during the winter - he, james finlay and several other pacifists formed a special personnel selection committee to process applications, interview candidates and finally select those canadians to go to china. in keeping with the government policy of secrecy regarding c.o.s, the friends service committee agreed to conduct its arrangements in a discreet "personal way and not make a national issue out of it. lll accordingiy, the chinese consulate was asked to make an official request to the department of external affairs for the services of canadian c. .s. the authorities also required that prospective unit members be recruited on an individual basis, thereby blocking the normal practice of simply posting notices at asw camps. the momentum towards making the unit a reality was accelerated in the spring of by the visit to canada of dr. robert b. mcclure, the canadian missionary doctor who headed the fau in china. mcclure not only helped publicize the value of the fau work but also assisted the friends service committee in final negotiations with the canadian government. following a few meetings in ottawa, mcclure was assured that alternative service men would be granted exit permits. sub- sequently, in the summer of twenty canadian volunteers recommended by the selection committee were granted permission to travel to china as the canadian contingent to the fau. while the canadian red cross agreed to furnish uniforms and equipment for the canadians, the best news came from the chinese war relief fund, a canadian charitable organization, which agreed to contribute approximately , dollars towards the support of the canadian contingent and fau medical work in china. once in china the canadians took their place alongside one hundred other fau members from britain, the united states, china and new zealand, and th~y performed various tasks in medical, mechanical and administrative work. some were stationed at hospitals and warehouses while others were on the road hauling supplies. it was this task of distributing drugs and other medical supplies to the various mission hospitals scattered across inland china that earned the fau "china convoy" its reputation as the lifeline of china during the war. canadian pacifists were especially proud of their role in this international relief effort and the canadian contingent to the china convoy came to symbolize the rich possibilities of active pacifist service in assisting civilian populations in a time of war. most of the canadian volunteers had returned home before the end of pleased that they had finally made an important contribution not only to humanitarian service within china but to the broadening of the humanitarian spirit within their own country as well. during the last few years of the war there were quite a few options open to conscientious objectors. other than working in asw camps they could now assume diversified jobs on farms and in factories. there were also possibilities of humanitarian and relief work overseas in the non-combatant corps, the firefighters corps in england and the fau in china. this broad range of alterna- tive service may have posed some new dilemmas for individual c.o.s but on the whole pacifists were pleased with the government's response to their demands for a meaningful role in the world crisis. only the question of post-war demobilization still worried pacifists. although the war officially ended with the japanese surrender in august , the men in alternative service were not completely demobilized until august of the following year. the main reason for this delay appears to have been the reluctance on the part of the government as well as some pacifists to take an action which could have aroused adverse public opinion. l. e. westman, the chief alternative service officer, had actually recommended the quick release of all alternative service men at the end of the war but other influential individuals and groups warned that the canadian public would resent the release of conscientious objectors before all military service personnel were home. the conference of historic peace churches agreed and its spokesmen made a number of recommendations (later adopted by the authorities) for the gradual demobilization of alternative service men. although there was some displeasure among pacifists with this arrangement, the strongest protests came from jehovah s witnesses, the group which accounted for the majority of the c.o.s kept in the asw camps and in prison following the war. despite their cries of religious persecution, the government adhered to the policy of gradual demobilization while easing the restrictions on the men. in order to deal with those men who refused diversified forms of alterna- tive service, however, selected asw camps remained open until july when all camps in the national parks were closed officially. the following month, exactly one year after the end of the war, remaining government control over c.o.s finally came to an end. during the war well over twelve thousand young canadian men had been classified as conscientious objectors. but of these close to one thousand had enlisted in the armed forces both as combatants or non-combatants and another had either died or had their c.o. status revoked by mobilization boards, so that by january there was a total of , conscientious objectors in canada. while approxi- mately two hundred remained in asw camps for the duration of the alternative service program, the great majority of c.o.s eagerly accepted employment in agriculture and miscellaneous essential industries and by the time the as program ground to a halt they had contributed $ , , . to the canadian red cross society. on the whole, therefore, canada's first experiment in alternative service was considered a huge success, particularly by the pacifists who had helped shape it. not only had they achieved the right to refrain from military service on grounds of individual conscience; they also made various alternative contributions in keeping with their religious beliefs as well as their growing social consciousness. in effect, alternative service set an important precedent by allowing pacifists to assume an active role within wartime society, which in turn helped conscientious objection, itself, became recognized as a legitimate, constructive option in the canadian response to war. clearly, however, it could only be legitimate to the state as an option exercised by a tiny minority. the most vocal demands for active non-violent service had come from the more socially radical quakers and united churchmen but that is not to underestimate the staunch pacifist witness of the more traditional historic peace sects. in sheer numbers alone, for instance, canada's mennonites dominated pacifist resistance to military service in the second war as in the first. although the more conservative mennonites continued to refrain from social involvement, others, particularly the russlaender out west, were more than willing to demon- strate their religious beliefs through social action. in ottawa the conference of historic peace churches took the lead in negotiations on behalf of c.o.s and the quaker representative, fred haslam, credited his mennonite cohorts with much of their success. "i cannot be too grateful," he wrote, "for the way in which the mennonites have stood firm on this matter of peace. it would have been difficult indeed to accomplish what has been done but for their gentle firmness in dealing with the government. besides encouraging close co-operation between pacifists as in the conference of historic peace churches, the c.o. episode had a unifying effect upon the individual peace sects themselves. canadian mennonites, for instance, reached a new level of understanding among themselves and their pacifist witness helped forge a new spirit of unity and inter-mennonite co-operation. in the case of doukhobors, the wartime pressures enhanced the pacifistic as opposed to the nihilistic element in their philosophy; consequently, the bitterly divided factions of the previous decade began to consolidate and by they joined together to form the union of doukhobors of canada. v' nevertheless, this unity among doukhobors, based as it was upon the necessity for a united response to the threat of conscription and to other outside hostilities, did not long outlast the war. as for the society of friends, their unified response to conscription and other wartime problems through the canadian friends service committee resulted in the first joint meeting of all three canadian branches in and in subsequent quaker initiative in the canadian ecumenical movement. above all, the c.o. episode revealed that pacifists were anxious to undertake some real response to wartime circumstances -- a personal witness that went beyond mere words. at the time, alterna- tive service for conscientious objectors appeared to be an answer to the dilemma of the pacifist in wartime, and most pacifists, in- cluding many in the historic peace sects, were satisfied, if not pleased with the arrangement. in the long run, however, alternative service, as prescribed in canada, failed to overcome the pacifists' moral problem of separating themselves from implication in the war effort. this was especially true once government authorities came to view conscientious objectors as an important source of manpower in the overall national effort. thus, despite their initial satis- faction in achieving a realistic alternative to military service, conscientious objectors failed to escape the total mobilization of society that modern war entailed. in this sense, rather than securing a pacifist option, alternative service could be seen as providing a precedent for the totally isolated internment of war resisters in any future war or in their complete assimilation in a diversified war effort. some conscientious objectors had recognized this dilemma but under immediate wartime pressures they could hardly resolve it. in- stead, exercising their own version of christian realism, they chose what they perceived as the least possible evil -- performing worthwhile humanitarian service without taking up arms. the degree of their implication in the war effort varied according to specific activities, from the almost complete separation of the asw camps to the thinly disguised military function of the non-combatant corps. perhaps for this reason, the canadian contingent to the friends' ambulance unit in china was viewed as a promising venture. it allowed c.o.s to minister to the needs of mission hospitals and the civilian population behind enemy lines without directly assisting the military; certainly, in such special circumstances c.o.s temporarily avoided the dilemma almost inevitably awaiting those performing other forms of alternative service. nevertheless, the state recognition of an individual's right to conscientious objection and its provision for alternative service under civilian supervision appeared to be appropriate concessions for the time and a tribute to the persistence of pacifist resistance to compulsory military service. it was certainly a notable moral advance for canadians, but one that would always need defending. conscription, however, was by no means the only issue facing pacifists during the war. there were other concerns, such as the treatment of japanese- canadians and the plight of refugees, and in response to them, as in the case of conscientious objectors, pacifists searched for a realistic witness over and above moral indignation and dissent. footnotes 'canada, house of commons debates, march . ibid ., september . j . l. granatstein, conscription in the second world war - (toronto: mcgraw hill-ryerson ltd., h ), p. ff. i bid., p. . see andre laurendeau, witness for quebec, edited by philip stratford (toronto: macmillan, ). the vote in the country at large was , , to , , in favor of release while the quebec vote was , to , against. c. p. stacey, ed., historical documents of canada, vol. v: the arts of war and peace - (new york: st. martin's press, ), p. ; outside quebec the constituencies voting "no" were populated by french-canadians, ukranians, germans, mennonites and other ethnic groups. for p ebecite results see canada gazette, june . for a thorough discussion of conscription debates during the second world war see granatstein, canada's war and j. l. granatstein and j. m. hitsman, broken promises, a histor of conscri tion in canada (toronto: oxford university press, . the national war services regulations, (recruits) were issued shortly following the creation of the department of national war services in july . canada, statutes of canada, george vi, chapter , the department of national war services act, . national war service regulations, (recruits). ibid . two privy council orders (p.c. , july and p.c. , july) called for national registration to begin in august. granatstein and hitsman, broken promises, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid . pac , labour, rg , v. , file - - - - , j. lavell smith to chief registrar, august . pac, dnd, rg , v. , hq - , v. , h. w. smallwood, chairman, the christadelphian service committee, to ernest lapoint, minister of justice, january . pac , privy council, rg , , v. , - , fred haslam to prime minister king, july . cfsc papers, co file, voluntary peace registration form. ibid ., haslam to king, july . in order to ensure that the prime minister thoroughly understood their position the cfsc also sent him a copy of arthur dorland's history of the society of friends in canada. pc , rg , , v. , - , j. w. pickersgill to haslam, august . minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meeting of the society of friends, . tenth report of the canadian friends service committee, p. ; david warren fransen, "canadian mennonites and conscientious objection in world ~lar ii," m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, , p. . ibi d. cfsc papers, co file, haslam to monthly meeting clerks, september ; fransen, "canadian mennonites, i pp. - . ibid . cfsc papers, co file, haslam to monthly meeting clerks, september ; see appendix c and for copies·of the' registration form and letter of application for postponement of military training. ibid .; a copy of each completed registration questionnaire was filed with the military problems committee since questions con- cerning occupational skills and training were included specifically in order to assist the committee in negotiating the question of alternative service. fransen, "canadian mennonites," p. ; minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meeting, , p. ; mennonite archives of canada, conference of historic peace churches papers, xv, . . . ibid ., xv. . . . fransen, "canadian mennonites," pp. - . ibid . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . j . a. toews, alternative service in canada during world war ii (winnipeg: christian press, ltd., ), pp. - . fransen, "canadi an mennoni tes, ii pp. - . as quoted in ibid., p. . ibid ., pp. - . ibid., p. . toews, alternative service in canada, p. . fransen, "canadian mennonites," p. . labour, rg , v. , . - , v. , c. f. klassen, secretary/treasurer, mcrc, to humphrey mitchell, minister of labour, february . dnd , rg , v. hq - - , report of j. l. embury, chairman nws board, division "m". the other members of the board included george bickerton, president of the saskatchewan section of the united farmers of canada and carl stewart, mla for yorkton, the saskatoon star-phoenix, november , p. ; the young men in question included ian kenil , o. a. olsen, harvey moats, w. vernon barker, j. douglas mcmurtry and keith and clyde woollard, all members of the united church, as well as the lone anglican, john m. marshall. marshall was the nephew of saskatoon doukhobor pacifist peter makaroff and his grandfather, john marshall, had left queen's university during the boer war over the same issue. once these men were recognized as c.o.s, moats and keith woollard joined the canadian firefighter unit in britain while mcmurtry joined a canadian contingent to the friends ambulance unit in china. ibid . interview with carlyle king. dnd , rg , v. , hq - - , ~. h. cassels, deputy adjutant general, division "m" to major-general l. r. lafl~che, associate deputy minister of national war services, november . cfsc papers, co file, frank wadge to haslam, november . minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meeting, , p. . pc , rg , , v. , - , james g. gardner, minister of national war services, press release, december . ibid ., h. r. l. henry, private secretary to pm, to james g. gardner~ november . ibid., extract from letter from george mcdonald, nd. ibid . dnd, rg , v. , hq - - , g. h. cassels to adjutant general, october . gardner, press release, december . rder-in-council p.c. . gardner, press release, december . see appendix for a copy of the application for postponement. ibid . fransen, "canadian mennonites", pp. - . pc , rg , , v. - -( ), davis and lafl~che, memorandum to cabinet war committee, may . bid ,; the initial proposal also called for an asw camp in cape breton park for c.o.s from the maritimes and for one in gatineau park for those from quebec and ontario but this plan was later rejected. ibid . bi d. pc , rg , , v. m- - , p. heeney to h. mitchell, february . pac , interdepartmental committees, rg , series , v. , j. f. mackinnon, "historical account of the wartime activities of the alternative service branch," department of labour, unpublished, april , p. . ibid . woodcock and avakumovic, the doukhobors, pp. - . toews, alternative service in canada, p. . paul l. storms, "life at montreal river camp," the canadian friend, (april ): - . ibid .; toews, alternative service in canada, p. . . roy clifton papers, clifton to sid, january . ibid ., clifton to h.runham brown, secretary, wri, december john l. fretz, "an history," the beacon, march , p. . the northern beacon, april , p. . ibid ., may , p. . the canadian c.o., august , pp. - . ibid . the northern beacon, may , p. . toews, alternative service in canada, p. . mackinnon, "alternati~e service branch," p. . toews, alternative service in canada, pp. - . ibid ., p. . ibid • ibid., p. . ibid., p. ; the beacon, march , p. . united church archives, for papers, box file , "implica- tions of the use of force today," notes of a conference at asw camp q with james m. finlay, nd. cfsc papers, co file, "questionnaire on alternative service. ii ibid., questionnaire committee to fellow c.o.s in bcfs camps, nd. ibid., military problems committee file, g. p. melrose, assistant chief forester, to wes brown, march . toews, alternative service in canada, p. . in a letter to the chpc brown reported that the i questionnaire committee had in mind only good purposes" and asked for their help in securing releases from the camps. cfsc papers, military problems committee file, brown to chpc, march . mackinnon, "alternative service branch, i p. . these changes were effected through order-in-council p.c. , september and order-in-council p.c. , november . national selective service mobilization regulations, p.c. ; cfsc papers, co file, student conscientious objector memo. cfsc papers, military problems committee file, memorandum to ottawa, nd. ottawa. ibid ., co file, student conscientious objector memo. ibid ., military problems committee file, memorandum to ibid . labour, rg , v. , . - v. , lavell smith to humphrey mitchell, march . ibid., harold toye to mitchell, april . ibid • cfsc papers, co file, j. b. martin and e. swalm, "report of alternative service workers in b.c. and alberta." for papers, box , file , "imp ications of the use of force today," notes of a conference with james m. finlay at bcfs asw camp q . mackinnon, "alternative service branch," pp. - . under authority of order-in-council p.c. , may . rg v. , . - v. , w. h. mclallen, president, canadian forestry association to mitchell, february ; g. s. raphael, consolidated red cedar shingle association of british columbia to mitchell, february ; l. r. andrews, b. c. lumber and shingle manufacturers association to mitchell, february ; robert mckee, b. c. loggers association, to mitchell, february ; w. c. mainwaring, provincial civilian protection committee, to ian mackenzie, minister of pensions and national health, february ; a. wells gray, minister of lands, b.c., to laf ~che, january . toews, alternative service in canada, pp. - . mackinnon, "alternative service branch," p. a. ibid ., p. . ibid., pp. - . this also applied to c.o.s allowed to return to their own farms. ibid ., p. ; rg , v. , . - , v. , t. c. douglas to mitchel :- may . on june , the maximum monthly payment to the red cross was reduced and set at five dollars for those ;n agriculture and fifteen dollars for those in industry. furthermore, all married c.o.s over thirty years of age were released entirely from red cross payments but remained under the jurisdiction of the alternative service officers. cfsc papers, mcninch file, haslam to a. s. mcninch, divisional alternative service officer, july ; for papers, box , file , james fina y to mackinnon, september . toews, alternative service in canada, p. . penton, jehovah's witnesses in canada, p. . mackinnon, "a ternative service branch," pp. - . l ibid., p. . 'ibid., pp. , ; penton, jehovah's witnesses in canada, pp. - l:--the authorities steadfastly refused to recognize the main argument of jehovah's witnesses that all baptized witnesses were ministers entitled to exemption from military service and alternative service. dnd, rg , v. , hq - - , g. j. hill to prime minister king, july . mackinnon, "a ternative service branch," pp. - . rg , v. , . - v. , c. f. klassen to mitchell, february . ibid ., allen rayner reesor, asw camp, banff, to j. w. noseworthy, july . rg , , v. , "history of the corps of (civilian) canadian firefighters," p. . ibid .; among those were keith woollard and harvey moats, two of the saskatoon boys originally denied c.o. status because they were members of the united church and gordon stewart, former mcgill student and editor of the canadian c.o .. a breakdown of the c.o.s according to denomination follows: mennonites, united churchmen, presbyterian, roman catholic, brethren, brethren in christ and church of christ. the canadian c.o., august , p. . l ibid ., december , p. . ibid .; interview with keith w'oollard, toronto, march ; recorded letter, gordon k. stewart to author, received march . the c.o. firefighters served overseas until the corps was demobilized in . at that time most canadians returned home but some of the c.o.s entered relief work in europe. keith woollard on the other hand, remained in england in order to assist donald soper in the london mission. the canadian c.o., december , pp. , . rg , v. , hq - - , j. w. pickersgi to major- general h. f. g. letson, adjutant general, may . rder-in-counci , pc. . toews, alternative service in canada, pp. - . for papers, box , file , james finlay to l. e. westman, july ; rg , v. , hq - - , manley j. edwards, mp, to prime minister king, february . edwards charged that even seventh day adventists were forced to undertake basic training. reconciliation, (december ): - . for a more in-depth discussion of this topic see thomas p. socknat, lithe canadian contribution to the china convoy, i quaker history, autumn, . dnd rg , v. , hq - - , harris to prime minister king, april . ibid., j. w. pickersgi to letson, may . ibid., h. r. l. henry, private secretary to pm, to harris, june -.- cfsc papers, westman file, westman to haslam, november . ibid ., tennant file, gordon keith to peter tennant, january (excerpt). ibid., mcclure file, mcclure to dr. liu shih shun, april . ibid., tennant file, p. tennant to fau headquarters, february ~p. . although organized in toronto by the canadian friends service committee, the canadian contingent was comprised of volunteers from almost every section of canada and represented various religious denominations: six united churchmen, five anglicans, five friends, one presbyterian, one disciple of christ and two with no religious affiliation. they included ed abbott, walter alexander, joe awmack, russell beck, wes brown, al dobson, jack dodds, albert dorland, terry dorland, de f fransham, elmer hobbs, wilf howarth, russell mcarthur, vernon mjolsness, stan outhouse and francis starr, as well as united church ministers doug mcmurtry and george wright and two women, harriet brown and kathleen green. l cfsc papers, s. pifher files, d. h. clark, executive secretary, chinese war relief fund, to g. pifher, department of national war services, may . socknat, lithe canadian contribution to the china convoy." l toews, alternative service in canada, p. . ib ,·d. , pp. - . l ibi d. lpenton, jehovah s witnesses in canada, pp. - . l toews, a"lternative service in canada, p. ; pac, national parks branch, rg , v. , u- - - , j. d. b. macfarlane, "operation of asw camps in national parks, report, july ." mackinnon, "alternative service branch," p. . l ibid., p. ; for an exact breakdown of men in alternative servi ce see appendi x e and f. l cfsc papers, co file, haslam to andrew petrie, september . fransen, "canadian mennonites," p. . woodcock and avakumovic, the doukhobors, p. . haslam, canadian friends, p. . chapter ix the pacifist search for wartu e realism in light of their own commitment to radical social change on the one hand and the challenge of christian realism on the other, canadian liberal pacifists were ever mindful of the necessity to con- front the reality of wartime ci rcumstances if they were to exercise a meaningful role in reshaping society. thus, throughout the war they searched for ways in which to translate pacifism into practical action. their response to conscription and endorsement of alternative service for conscientious objectors was one example. others involved their co-operation with a variety of concerned canadians in reconciling wartime tensions in society through the defense of civil liberties and in refugee and relief work. pacifist efforts on behalf of refugees actually began in the mid- 's. both the wil and the society of friends, in con- junction with their counterparts throughout the world, had displayed an active interest in assisting primarily jewish refugees fleeing nazi persecution but had received little support from canadian authorities. while several countries, including great britain, the united states, australia, france, belgium and holland, had opened their doors to some of the refugees, canadian immigration regulations permitted the admission only of those europeans who had immediate relatives residing in canada or agriculturists with sufficient money to farm in canada, thus excluding the majority of the refugees.' in fact, the government explicitly restricted jewish immigration and refused to allow into canada , jewish refugees over a five year period even though the canadian jewish congress had agreed to assume financial responsibility for the newcomers. such a response, claimed the canadian activists, was not only a national disgrace but demanded immediate counter-action. accordingly, in a number of canadians representing various church, liberal and pacifist organizations formed the canadian national committee on refugees (cncr) under the auspices of the league of nations society of canada. the first task of the committee was to publicize the refugee problem in order to mount public pressure for a change in government policy, particularly, but in vain, with regard to the urgent question of jewish refugees. the committee also took the initiative in securing special immigration permits for individual refugees and in providing assistance in the readjustment and resettlement of refugees in canada throughout the war years. headquartered in toronto, the cncr was directed by an executive composed of senator cairine r. wilson, president of the league of nations society of canada, as chairman, constance hayward as executive secretary, and sir robert falconer and sir ellsworth flavelle as the honorary chairman and treasurer, respectively. from its beginning, the committee contended that the admission of selected groups of refugees would constitute a sizeable contribution to the economic and cultural development of canada, an argument later supported with specific examples. a promotional leaflet distributed in , for instance, described the individual cases of several refugees who, with the help of the committee, had become constructive new residents of canada. although the committee admitted that it had become increasingly difficult for refugees to escape from german dominated countries, it nevertheless maintained that a few did "trickle through", including engineers and experts valuable to canada's war effort. other than the occasional patriotic reference, however, the committee usually emphasized the humanitarian side of the issue and argued that its major goal during the war as well as the post-war years was to create a national attitude favorable towards lithe great problem of immigration. lil one of the committee's major efforts during the war concerned the "friendly aliens " , particularly the refugee students, who had interned in great britain and then transferred to internment camps in canada. once british authorities began to reappraise the fate of these refugees, the refugee committee was successful in enlisting the financial support and personal sponsors necessary for the release of the younger refugees from camps in order to continue their studies in canada. to deal with this problem specifically, the canadian national committee on refugees, in conjunction with the united jewish refugee and war relief associations, formed the central committee for interned refugees in november . headquartered in montreal, this joint organization benefited from the services of senator cairine wilson and constance hayward, chairman and secretary, respectively, as well as stanley goldner, liaison officer to the camps, and mr. c. raphael, a co-ordinating officer representing the british refugee cemmittees at bloomsbury house, london. of the canadians who worked on behalf of the refugees interned in canada, none were more involved than pacifists, particularly those in the wil and society of friends. in effect, the problem of interned refugees offered pacifists another opportunity to perform a constructive humanitarian service at a time when outlets for pacifist action were limited. largely because of its failure to attract younger women in the late ls the wil had gradually lost most of its base across the country. in fact, outside of a few women in vancouver, edmonton and winnipeg, the only office really active during the war was the wills national headquarters in toronto. there the national president anna sissons and secretary laura davis, continued to promote the wills humanitarian interests. alice loeb, another long time wil activist, became the national chairman of a special refugeee committee, representative of the wills general orientation during the war. the concern with the refugee problem was also shared by canadian quakers. as a result of their experiences in the first war as well as their transition towards social activism, friends considered their primary responsibility during war was not only to maintain their ancient peace testimony but also to help relieve the personal suffering and hardships caused by war. accordingly, in the canadian friends service committee (cfsc) maintained that it was indeed possible for ii ••• those who cannot condone war as a method, to be truly loyal to their country, and to help in the work of preservation and healing of the stricken peoples of the world. i l under the direction of the general secretary, fred haslam, the committee successfully organized quaker activity on behalf of conscientious objectors and was quick to create a war victims relief fund through which contri- butions were solicited for overseas relief projects conducted by british and american friends. it was also through friends in britain that canadian quakers first learned of the plight of the refugees interned in canada. canadian involvement in the internment operations began in the summer of when britain, fearing a fifth column danger at home, transferred thousands of interned enemy aliens to canada and australia for further detention. among those sent to canada were a number of so-called iinazi sympathizers" as well as approximately german and austrian males classified as "refugees from nazi oppression. ii included were boys as young as seventeen years of age, many with partial jewish ancestry. after escaping from germany and austria many of these aliens had sought refuge in england with the hope of eventually emigrating to the united states. suddenly in the spring of they were interned and then transported across the sea together with regular prisoners of war. in most instances families were split up with some cases of one brother going to canada and another to australia while the father or mother remained on the isle of man or in some other british camp. for its part the canadian government agreed to take approximately prisoners of war and internees from the united kingdom for future internment in camps administered by the internment operations branch of the department of state. the first ship of evacuated pow's and internees reached quebec city on july , . upon their arrival they were immediately rushed "through long lines of canadian bayonets" to trains waiting to whisk them off to especially prepared camps. these internment camps, the canadian public was assured, were well guarded and situated "far from civilization". a few days later another group of enemy aliens bound for canada met disaster when their ship the arandora star was sunk by german torpedoes. while canadian seamen managed to rescue one thousand survivors that same number of german and italian prisoners perished at sea. although the incident aroused little immediate sympathy in the british or canadian press, the tragedy of the arandora star ultimately stirred public criticism in britain of the whole internment operation. this was especially true once it was revealed that other than nazis, the victims also included anti-nazis and german jewish refugees. initially, the procedure of mixing actual prisoners of war with the other interned enemy aliens was followed in canada as well. all the internees who arrived in canada, from the pro-nazi aliens to the "refugees from nazi oppression" were herded together into camps and accorded the treatment of prisoners of war. despite a concerted effort by the canadian committee on refugees to remedy the situation of "friend yll aliens, they remained isolated as prisoners of war through- out the \'/i nter of - . fi na lly, under unremitti ng pressure from the central committee for interned refugees, the canadian government segregated the refugees from the dangerous aliens and bona fide pow's and on july , an order-in-council removed the alien refugee camps from the prisoner of war administration and placed them under the control of a commissioner of refugee camps. the two camps were both situated in quebec: camp "n" outside sherbrooke and camp "a" at farnham, thirty miles from montreal. the change in canadian policy followed the relaxation of the internment policy in britain where a special tribunal had ordered the release of close to ninety-five per cent of the interned refugees, many of whom there- after entered useful war work or joined the pioneer corps. while approximately of those interned in canada returned to england for release under this amnesty, , men remained in the canadian camps, chiefly because of immigration technicalities. as part of their new refugee policy, however, canadian authorities did provide for the possible release of refugee students under twenty-one years of age in order to continue their studies in canada provided they received sufficient financial support from canadian individuals or groups acting as sponsors. it was at this point that the canadian friends service committee ~ as well as the wil and other pacifists became more directly involved. friends in particular received appeals from british and american quakers to minister to the needs of the boys and help secure their release from the camps. apparently a substantial number of the young refugees had been registered with the germany emergency committee of the friends' service council while in britain. once interned in canada the refugees maintained communications with british friends who in turn contacted canadian quakers on their behalf. by summer, , however, the canadian friends service committee also began to receive letters from the young internees themselves. following usual references to the fact that the majority of the men in their camp were "refugees from nazi oppression" who had to leave germany or austria for "racial, religious or political reasons", the internees turned to their anxiety over the chance of being released and pleaded for assistance in that regard. the letters from the camps also in- dicated that those who had associated with the society of friends in britain desired to meet with canadian friends. for instance, in a letter to the cfsc general secretary fred haslam, ernst-ludwig landsberg, a spokesman for a group in camp "w, wrote that he and his friends were anxious for haslam or some other canadian friend to arrange a visit to the camp. "this would enable us to discuss our problems with you," he wrote, "and i can assure you that your advice would be appreciated very much." following similar requests from friedrich hoeniger and ulrich weil at camp "a", haslam sought per- mission from the authorities to visit the refugee camps in quebec. the commissioner of refugee camps, lieutenant-colonel r. s. w. fordham, replied that before such an application could be approved he would need to know the nature of haslam's proposed visit and warned: it is very easy to upset refugees, and it is regarded as a duty here to make sure that the representatives of any organizations desiring to communicate with them are not engaged in missions that might prove upsetting to the camp administrative system. once he was assured of the sincerity of the cfsc's intentions, however, fordham agreed to haslam's visits subject to the stipulation that only "matters of welfare be discussed, but not questions relative t ,, o re ease .... consequently, in october , haslam visited both the farnham and sherbrooke camps on behalf of the cfsc. he met the several young men with whom he had corresponded and at sherbrooke he found a "society of friends group" organized by thirty-five men who had been helped by the germany emergency committee while in britain. in accordance with the ground rules for his visit haslam concentrated on the welfare and educational needs of the men in the camps but he found the refugees most eager to learn something of release possibilities, a topic he had agreed not to discuss. although initially frustrated by the restriction, he discovered that the authorities were merely determined not to build up false hopes and thus avoid a possible repeat of the bitter disappointment experienced by the internees following the collapse of their efforts to emigrate to the united states. the large majority of those refugees had registered for american visas years before their internment. in fact, statistics on camp "nil personnel showed that out of prospective emigrants to the united states, % had registered in and % in . once prisoners in canada, however, they discovered they were no longer eligible. the camp lin" survey also revealed the following set of statistics: % of the refugees were under the age of twenty- five while a huge % were under thirty; . % had been classified by british tribunals as "refugees from nazi oppression"; . % had been imprisoned in german concentration camps such as dachau and % had lived in transit camps on the continent and in england. l as a result of haslam's tour of the camps, those canadians interested in assisting the refugees were better acquainted with their individual needs and better prepared to deal with specific problems in the future. haslam was particularly hopeful that others, perhaps pacifists in montreal, would undertake similar visits on a regular basis. among those who answered the call to the camps were john hobart, a montreal quaker, and clarence halliday, the united church pacifist who traded his church in montreal for the unofficial duties as chaplain/welfare officer to the refugees. visits were also made by friends from outside canada, including mary m. rogers from philadelphia and emma cadbury from london. for their part the canadian friends service committee organized a nation-wide drive for winter clothing and books for the camps and within a few months donations of books arrived from as far away as kootenay bay, british columbia. arrangements were also made for queen's university to offer correspondence courses to the refugees at reduced fees while the remaining tuition as well as the textbooks were subsidized by the student christian movement. meanwhile, haslam had been co-operating with constance hayward, v secretary of the committee for interned refugees, and dr. jerome davis, canadian director of the war prisoners' aid of the ymca, in an attempt to secure the release of interned students. there were approximately such youths between the ages of seventeen and twenty-four who had been admitted to english schools and colleges prior to their internment and transfer to canada. since then a number of them had continued their studies in camp and a few had actually written matriculation examinations for entrance to canadian universities. according to government regulations, however, release of the students was contingent upon canadian citizens acting' as sponsors and thereby accepting full responsibility for the cost of the student's education and maintenance for the duration of the war or until their education was completed. more specifically, sponsors were required to prove their ability to pay one thousand dollars a year for each student released. this requirement, while viewed by authorities as a fair estimate of the annual costs of student support, made it exceedingly difficult for individuals to sponsor interned students without extra help. consequently, various groups such as the cfsc, wil and the national council of women, pooled their resources to create a central sponsorship fund administered by the central committee for interned refugees. other than merely co-ordinating the sponsorship scheme, the committee launched a national appeal on behalf of the refugee students. families and organizations were urged either to sponsor refugees individually or to contribute to the committee's sponsorship fund. the cfsc was particularly interested in assisting two young rren in camp iia:, friedrich hoeniger and ulrich weil, both of whom were k t f · d . b· t· h· f h d we - nown rlen s n rl aln. oen ger, or examp e, a attended a quaker school in ommen, holland, and a quaker camp in cornwall, england, prior to internment. in order to secure hoeniger's release, haslam successfully sought the support of the wil refugee committee. in the final arrangement the cfsc made financial contri- butions to the hoeniger fund but it was the wil president, anna sissons, who acted as hoeniger's official sponsor. in april , nearly ten months after the initial move to secure his release, hoeniger wrote has am that he was "now happily she tered" at professor and mrs. sissons ' home in toronto. although not always a popular move, it was not unusual for pacifists to open their homes to the refugees; for instance, professor arthur dorland, chairman of the friends yearly meeting, also arranged for a young interned student to live at his home in london, ontario, as did lavell smith while he was still living in montreal. once successful in securing the release of students the cfsc and the committee for interned refugees shifted their attention to the prospect of doing the same for some of the older men with useful pro- fessions or trades. while visiting the camps haslam had discovered that other than students many of the men were skilled in medicine, research, engineering and tool-making. consequently, the committee for interned refugees exerted considerable pressure on their behalf until the government gradually began to approve the release of men to work in essential war industries and agriculture. the first of such men to be released were tool-makers such as alexander horak. haslam immediately set out to find horak a job with rogers radio tubes limited in toronto. in co-operation with constance hayward and jerome davis, haslam also represented the interests of alois zockling, an engineer, and hans loewit, a former medical student at the university of vienna. the release of skilled refugees progressed through the winter and in the spring of arrangements were made with farmers to place some of the men in agricultural work. for instance, reinhold grischkat was offered a farm job in burgessville, ontario, upon his release from the farnham camp. during the next few years canadian pacifists, including the wil, for and friends, continued to co-operate in a national effort to aid wartime refugees at home and abroad, but by the autumn of they also began to consider the prospect of post-war relief work overseas. since most european refugees had been barred from entering canada, pacifists claimed the best way canadians could lend their support was to contribute to the friends war victims relief fund or a special fund collected by for chairman lavell smith for european relief work administered by war resisters' international. accordingly, pacifists began a program of relief work that continued well into the post-war era, and a number of canadian friends joined the relief teams. for instance, barbara walker, haslam's one time assistant in the cfsc office, was attached to a friends relief service team in germany while naomi jackson, a future mcmaster university professor of fine arts, served in finland and paul zavitz of sparta, ontario, worked in poland, both under the auspices of the american friends service committee. perhaps because of their close association with quakers and other pacifists during the war, particularly with respect to the problems of conscientious objectors, canada's mennonites also became involved in their own relief projects in china, india and poland. unlike the quakers, however, who had become social activists, the more traditional historic peace sects generally remained a separate people withdrawn from the mainstream of canadian society. although the issue of conscription during the two world wars and state regulations concerning education often forced them into a confrontation with the earthly world, the historic peace sects, whether mennonite, hutterite or doukhobor, strove to maintain their particular versions of christian living independent of a hostile world. as noted above, their example of isolated communities had become increasingly popular among socially conscious christian pacifists during the inter-war period and had resulted in the birth of christian co-operative communities like the society of brothers' cotswold bruderhof in britain. by the 's canadian pacifists had become active in the movement for co-operative communities, largely through the efforts of henri lasserre and the robert owen foundation. lasserre and his pacifist associates were particularly enthusiastic about the cotswold experiment; thus, they were frantic though helpless when they learned of the plight of the society of brothers during the war. with the internment of german aliens in britain in the cotswold bruderhof, largely comprised of germans or german-speaking members, came under direct attack from the local populace and was pressured to leave britain. in july of that year the head of the bruderhof, eberhard c. h. arnold, appealed to lasserre and the robert owen foundation to help persuade the canadian government to allow the migration to canada of the bruderhof en masse. since exit permits from england had been secured and the hutterian brethren of canada had offered the necessary financial guarantees only the negative response of canadian immigration officials blocked their way. lasserre and pacifist friends in canada made numerous appeals to ottawa on behalf of the bruderhof but to no avail. given the wartime atmosphere in canada it was difficult, to say the least, for a handful of canadians to plead the cause of a pacifist community like the bruderhof. in the end, gravely disappointed by their rebuff from canada, the cotswold bruderhof emigrated to paraguay. for their part, canadian pacifists remained attracted to the way of life proposed by the society of brothers and hoped to emulate similar experiments in community in canada. for instance, near the end of his long pilgrimage fairbairn endorsed the movement for co- operative communities as the best way to bring in a new social order. before christian socialism could be successfully introduced on a large scale, he argued, people must first build model communities isolated from the prevailing world system. although lasserre was not an active pacifist during the war years, he associated with pacifists more than any other group because it was socially-minded pacifists and conscientious objectors who were the most attracted to the idea and practice of integral co-operative communities. such a way of life appeared to promise the "completest realization of ... their religious devotion to non- violence, simplicity and brotherly fellowship"; thus providing a living example of a new social ethic for the future. in march , a nucleus of pacifists including fred haslam, • george tatham, professor of geography at the university of toronto, and several conscientious objectors like leslie johnson, walter alexander and roy clifton, joined with henri and madeline lasserre in the formation of the canadian fellowship for cooperative community (cfcc). the cfcc assumed the educational, research and library functions of the robert owen foundation, published a small newsletter as well as pamphlets and generally renewed canadian interest in the movement for co-operative communities. the cfcc statement of principles explained the need for such community as follows: the fellowship believes that a cooperative democratic social order, freed from competition greed and war, must sooner or later be brought about by the voluntary efforts of cooperatively-minded people, to replace existing individualistic and acquisitive society or any totalitarian system which may follow the present structure. there can be no durable peace until such a cooperative order has been established. this order cannot be imposed by compulsion, but requires for its establishment the free and general acceptance by the people of the new human relationship implied. the fellowship believes that the formation of cooperative communities where these new relationships are experiences, practised and witnessed, is one of the factors required at the present stage of the world's crisis for the preparation of this new social order. one of the first actions of the cfcc was the creation of a land based community on a farm at aurora, ontario. those associated with the aurora experiment included leading cfcc members and several conscientious objectors as well as the poet wilson macdonald. although brief, the aurora years were a valuable introduction to co-operative living in canada, and throughout the war pacifists remained en- thusiastic about the idea. the fellowship of reconciliation, for instance, developed a close relationship with the cfcc and the robert owen foundation and promoted the co-operative communities as not only a non-violent lifestyle but the "first cells ... of the social structure of the future." ? although the wil and the society of friends assumed the lead in refugee work and the canadian rellowshipfor cooperative community provided an outlet for more idealistic experiments t the fellowship of reconciliation dominated pacifist activities in canada. following its reorganization early in the wart the for attempted to broaden its membership base to include more than primarily united church pacifists. a small but important step in that direction was taken in december , when two toronto anglicans, john frank, rector of holy trinity church, and john f. davidson of upper canada college, declared their support for the revived group of reconcilers. in doing so they expressed openly the hope that the addition of their names would encourage other anglicans to do likewise. despite an intensive membership drive, the for membership of remained overwhelmingly dominated by united church pacifists. nevertheless, the for quickly became the principal inter-pacifist organization in canada and took the lead in advocating practical action in response to the serious issues confronting wartime society. in effect, the for executive believed their primary function was not just to comfort and consolidate fellow pacifists but, at the same time, to provide them with the direction and courage necessary to act upon their principles individually and in groups. such unity of purpose, it was felt, would replace the individual's lonely con- sciousness of insufficiency with the strength and wisdom gleaned from co-operative act;on. with this task in mind the canadian for embarked upon a simple, but to date its most daring enterprise -- the publication of its own magazine. launched in october , and usually published at least six times a year, reconciliation was more than merely the official organ of the canadian for. rather, its emergence marked a significant milestone in the development of the pacifist movement in canada. until that time the expression of canadian pacifist thought has been confined to several small mimeographed newsletters, usually issued monthly by the for national council and at irregular intervals by a few industrious individuals with regional interests. as the various newsletters merged into one, the new publication aimed at representing all pacifists in canada. the canadian for chairman, lavell smith, claimed the need for such a pacifist journal was greater in canada than in either britain or the united states. in canada, he reasoned, our numbers are fewer, the distances that separate us are greater, many of us are unable to meet often with like- minded folk and the sense of isolation is often over- powering. furthermore, although british and american pacifists had been more vocal and effective, their journals such as the christian pacifist, peace news, the conscientious objector, and the catholic worker were not easily accessible to canadians during the war. lilt is a strange commentary upon our canadian conception of freedom of the press, i wrote smith, iithat journals which circulate freely in britain are frowned upon here. i moreover, the situation was aggravated further by the fact that canadian papers, both religious and secular, had iifailed almost completely to give space to pacifist writers or to allow their readers to judge for themselves the pacifist argument. i therefore, if the pacifist argument was not to be left largely unstated in canada, canadian pacifists would have to publish their own journal. considering these alternatives, smith boastfully predicted that the launching of reconciliation would prove to be "a more significant event than the launching of an aircraft carrier or the taking of naples. in any case, he added, it was the right of canadian pacifists, as a resolute and law abiding minority, to express their iiconscientious views and to circulate news nowhere else available." one of the first to congratulate the canadians on their new pacifist magazine was the chairman of the international for, john nevin sayre. while noting with satisfaction the witness of canadian pacifists since the beginning of the war, sayre praised the renewed commitment demonstrated with the publication of a magazine and added as "not beginning a day too soon." furthermore, sayre suggested conciliation succeeded in fusing canadian pacifists into a ommunity" knowledgeable in the practice of non-violence, it achieved a significant goal. dncident with the birth of reconciliation was the appoint- bert "abe" watson as the new executive secretary of the r and, consequently, the managing editor of their new ~atson had been active in the united church and ymca and year as a conscientious objector in an alternative service british columbia prior to assuming his duties with the ng closely with watson in the production of the journal committee of several people, most notably edith reen and roy clifton, responsible for writing as well anizational work. other than the material from staff, however, the journal usually depended upon ious contributors scattered across the country, th in montreal, fairbairn in windermere, ontario, , huestis in edmonton and several conscientious rnative service work camps in british columbia. in adian content was supplemented with original and s by popular internationally known pacifists as ichard b. gregg, thus providing canadian readers with world's leading pacifist thought. , the editors of reconciliation featured articles pics of pacifism and the for as well as their regular the pacifist movement in canada. in the first issue, canadian chairman, lavell smith, explained the or. while granting full recognition and respect to ched by a logical, political or historical approach that the for advocated a religious pacifism based hat warfare was "contrary to the wi of god, as t.,, such a pacifist conviction, smith argued, must anaticism" since it was merely obedience to the word ore, contrary to "passivism", the pacifism of the for plication of christ's message in all circumstances. l another regular feature of reconciliation during its first few years was a column entitled "rev. r. edis fairbairn says . in the course of which fairbairn wrote a series of articles on " lithe elements of sound thinking. after the appearance of fairbairn's fourth article, however, the editor of reconciliation decided to stop publication of the series and ignored fairbairn's numerous inquiries on the fate of his column. although the reason for this move is not clear, it appears to have reflected a growing opposition in the for to the acid tone of fairbairn's criticisms. ~ at first disappointed, fairbairn appeared satisfied when an "atheist-radical-pacifist editor in scotland" promised to publish "the elements of sound thinking" in booklet form. nor was he particularly upset that he was no longer contributing to reconciliation. although he had agreed to support the new pacifist publication he did not do so at the expense of his own independent newsletter, as did other individuals. instead, he turned his small newsletter into a monthly bulletin with an international readershi p. originally entitled "to maintain courage by sharing conviction" but shortened in to read simply "to share conviction", the bulletin was the product of a true one-man operation. at his home in windermere, fairbairn wrote, typed and mimeographed the bulletin, usually one to two pages in length, and then distributed several hundred copies at his own expense. he continued the practice until his retirement in and then, less regularly, until november . fairbairn's reason for this undertaking was two-fold. first, he was "solidly convinced" of a fundamental need for radical pacifist journalism among canada's conscientious objectors, as well as other pacifists, farmers and "ordinary religious people"j his bulletin, he believed, would help them clarify and justify a pacifist stand they may have taken originally upon a "blind but commanding impulse. lln secondly, he was delighted with the prospect of having complete freedom of expression, especially once other avenues for pacifist writing were largely closed. within his bulletin fairbairn aimed to "probe the implications of the anti-war stand from the christian point of view. i he often reiterated the same basic arguments he used in the past, particularly in his "indictment ll of the united church, and which he later repeated in his book apostate christendom published in . christendom, he claimed, was astray -- apostate. the church had "compromised supreme loyalty to christ with the state" and could never again justify its existence "until and unless it humbles itself, confesses its tragic forsaking of the way of jesus, and sets out once again to do what jesus asked it to do." g the way of jesus, wrote fairbairn, was the way of the cross, the alternative to messianic war; nevertheless, although jesus died as a pacifist, his insight went far beyond the mere repudiation of war. "he did not so much repudiate war as affirm the reverse of it ... " argued fairbairn, the model for pacifists who placed their faith in the power of love to bring in a new era of social and economic justice. l but a peaceful and successful economic system was endangered, he wamed, when the church supported the war and therefore endorsed the essential use of violence. as an example he cited the fcso, a movement which exposed the lieconomic wickedness of the world ll and then "wilted suddenly" when it committed itself to the war. above all, at the heart of fairbairn's criticisms was his frustration with the church leadership, not only for abandoning the pacifism of jesus, but also for supporting the war without producing a reasoned christian ethic of war. on the whole, most responses to fairbairn's bulletin were sufficiently encouraging to convince him of its justification. some readers, for instance, offered unsolicited financial assistance to help fairbairn meet the increasing number of subscriptions from across canada as well as from britain and the united states. fairbairn always sent a copy of the bulletin to the office of the american for in new york city and a. j. muste "not infrequently" responded appreciatively. furthermore, certain of the bulletin's "hotter issues" were used by similar american and british newsletters and on several occasions fairbairn was quoted in the "english community broadsheet.,~ in the british isles the bulletin was distributed to well over a hundred readers under the auspices of the movement for a pacifist church of "pax christi.,, this movement was a scheme promoted by reverend albert d. belden of england to remobilize the great churches of christendom around a "new universal christian agreement" on pacifism. hailed as the ultimate pacifist movement, the plan was to recruit all those christians who felt they could take the pacifist stand only when supported by the authority of the church. it was belden's hope that once thousands of christians signified their willingness to refuse to participate in war the churches would be reborn on a pacifist basis and thereafter save mankind from the worst of sins. initially, fairbairn was keenly interested in the pax christi movement and publicized it as possibly the most "practical way in which the present ineffective pacifist minority could become, if not a majority, at least a much more effective minority. i in the final analysis, however, fairbairn rejected the idea of a pacifist church as too narrow an application of the word and spirit of jesus and too optimistic a faith in the ordinary churches. "indeed," he wrote, "it looks increasingly dubious whether any church integrated in the capitalist economy can do other in a pinch than fire a radically christian minister. if the hope of the future was not a pacifist church, however, he intimated it may lie in the movement of religious t · 't' co-opera lve communl lese belden was somewhat disappointed with fairbairn's attitude, especially since he had hoped the outspoken canadian pacifist would organize the pax christi movement in canada. nevertheless, following the war belden personally toured canada on behalf of his movement. although he received a courteous reception, the canadian for appears to have agreed with a. j. muste's negative critique of belden's scheme and declined to give it a favorable endorsement. muste had rejected the pax christi idea on the grounds that there was something "basically wrong" with the suggestion that individual christians should not act on an issue of principle li un til a majority of his fellows are ready to do likewise. i pacifism, he argued, was not a matter of 'th t' arl me lc. on the whole, the canadian for adhered to a. j. muste's philosophy that pacifism was the i ne adequate revolutionary movement in the world ll since it was based upon the spiritual revolution of mankind as well as a non-violent social revolution. in the pages of the canadian magazine reconciliation, muste reminded pacifists they had a iipositive responsibility to develop techniques of non- , th t b db' t' vl ence a can e use y mass organlza ns. if pacifists failed in their revolutionary job, he warned, the masses would have no choice except lito submit to injustice or to try to break their chains by the self-defeating method of violence. ii in closing, muste emphasized that the only alternative to total war in the future was total pacifism in the present. in an attempt to translate this revolutionary pacifism into practical action canadian pacifists concentrated on what they con- sidered the most immediate issue on the home front -- the protection of civil liberties in wartime. other than the threat of conscription, pacifist emotions were most deeply aroused over the government's forced evacuation and relocation of japanese canadians from the west coast region and their eventual dispersal throughout canada. shortly after the official entry of japan into the war with their bombing of pearl harbor in december , the canadian govern- ment evicted , japanese canadians from the british columbia coast, confiscated their property, both real and personal, and herded them into "relocation centres" hurriedly set up at old "ghost towns" in the british columbia interior: greenwood, slocan city, roseberry, new denver, sandon, kaslo, lemmon creek and tashme. although originally confiscated under the excuse of protective custody, all japanese property was subsequently sold at prices far below its actual value. the japanese canadians themselves, mostly canadian citizens, either lived out the remaining war years as refugees in the "relocation camps" or were dispersed to other areas of canada in order to perform essential work in sugar beet camps, domestic and nursery service, steel plants, foundries and chemical works. approximately , were directed to the prairies alone while others resettled in ontario and quebec. in addition, japanese canadians were subjected to restrictions not imposed upon those of german, italian or other "enemy" ancestry. they were forbidden, for example, to buy or rent property without the permission of their provincial minister of justice and attorney general and were prohibited from crossing provincial boundaries without a special permit. therefore, rather than merely being considered suspect because of their "enemy" origin, it appears that japanese canadians were also victims of an official policy of racial discrimina- tion. later generations of canadians would condemn the government's arbitrary action as one of the most glaring violations of civil rights in the nation's history but at the time most canadians, especially those in british columbia, either remained silent or generally approved of the discriminatory measures. it was a clear example, claimed the pacifists, of the kind of brutal, insensitive response of a society at war, similar but even more pronounced than the internment of enemy aliens during the first war. by june , a number of pacifists, representative of the for, wil and society of friends, joined with other concerned canadians to found the co-operative committee on japanese canadians. al- though initially designed to help resettle the japanese canadians in toronto and other parts of the country, the co-operative committee eventually became the instrument through which a number of conscientious citizens, working closely with the japanese canadians themselves, directly challenged the official discriminatory policies, particularly the government's attempt to repatriate those of japanese ancestry after the war. since few ordinary citizens were aware of the situation, the first task of the committee was to publicize the plight of japanese canadians with the hope of arousing the national conscience. the committee also began to fight local opposition to the resettled japanese canadians and called upon the canadian public to display a new level of tolerance. the editors of reconciliation urged their readers to take the lead in working towards community acceptance of japanese canadians and the achievement of practical goals such as finding them decent living accommodations and jobs, organizing english language training classes and relocating japanese canadian students in schools and colleges. furthermore, pacifists were urged to register their opposition to repatriation with their federal members of parl i ament. basically, it was the government s threat of deportation or iirepatriationll of the japanese canadians, including those born in canada, that infuriated pockets of canadians and increased support for the work of the committee. by june the co-operative committee had expanded into a federation of thirty-three groups and organizations interested in securing justice for japanese canadians. among the co-operating groups were the for, wil, society of friends, student christian movement, national council of women, civil liberties association of toronto, toronto labour council, ymca, ywca and various churches. the task of co-ordinating the activities of these various groups into a unified front belonged to the committee executive: james finlay, chairman, mrs. hugh macmillan, secretary and miss constance chappell, treasurer. as the pacifist pastor of carlton street united church in toronto and executive member of the for, finlay personally ensured that the struggle on behalf of japanese canadians was a popular outlet for pacifist social activists. for instance, among the pacifists particulrly active in the work of the committee were albert·watson a d edith fowke of the reconciliation editorial staff. other than committee work, however, a number of for people also worked directly with the japanese canadians in the relocation centers. among these were mildred fahrni, helen lawson, ella lediard v and three conscientious objectors, ernest best, donald ewing and john rowe, all of whom taught at japanese canadian schools in new denver and tashme. the work of the committee went into high gear in september , when the canadian government announced its plans to proceed with repatriation on the basis of its survey conducted earlier that year at the detention centers. at that time over , had agreed to voluntary repatriation of what amounted to , people, mostly canadian citizens, as the alternative to moving east of the rockies. since then, however, many of those who had signed revealed that they had done so only because of direct threats of separation from their families or the loss of their livelihood. lob rather than a true measure of those who desired to return to japan, the co-operative committee argued that the government survey merely indicated the dissatisfaction and frustration of a restricted people. in response to the imminent threat of deportation the committee distributed , copies of a leaflet entitled "from citizens to refugees -- it's happening here!"l the editors of reconciliation had previously reprinted a thousand copies of their issue on japanese canadians of which were sold before printing. l in addition, some individual groups such as the canadian friends service committee cabled prime minister king and selected members of parliament urging suspension of the repatriation scheme. despite such pleas and personal deputations to ottawa by finlay, mrs. macmillan and other committee members, the government proceeded with its plans and in december , tabled three orders-in-counci providing for the deportation of all persons of japanese ancestry and their families who had signed requests for repatriation and had not revoked their action prior to september , . the co-operative committee then decided its only recourse was to take legal action. accordingly, andrew brewin, a toronto lawyer who had been representing the civil liberties association on the committee, was appointed as legal counsel and argued the committee's case before the supreme court once the ministry of justice agreed to test the legality of the orders. popular support for the committee's effort to stop repatriation began to build and donations came pouring in from across the country. in toronto nearly a thousand people gathered to show their support and hear addresses by senator cairine wilson, senator arthur roebuck, rabbi a. feinberg and andrew brewin. the meeting passed a resolution urging the prime minister to abandon plans for the expulsion of japanese canadians. similar resolutions had already been passed at meetings in london, brantford, ottawa, montreal, winnipeg and vancouver. national opposition to forced repatriation continued to mount once the supreme court ruled that the orders were legal simply because of the government's power under the war measures act. in response, the co-operative committee appealed the case to the privy council, but recognizing that the privy council's decision would only deal with the legal and constitutional question involved, it also renewed representation to the government to suspend the policy of wholesale deportation, even if it was lesal. the committee also distributed fifty thousand copies of a new leaflet entitled "our japanese-canadians -- citizens, not exiles" in order to help bolster their support among the canadian pub ic. it appears the committee anticipated the decision of the privy council, handed down on december , , that the orders-in-counci were, indeed, valid under the war measures act. under increasing public pressure, however, the government finally backed down and on january , , prime minister king announced that the orders-in-counci providing for the repatriation of japanese canadians had been repea ed. while overy joyed that its long campaign for social justice and civil liberties had succeeded at least in suspending repatriation, the co-operative committee quickly turned its attention to the remaining issues, such as compensation for property loss, and continued to function in the post-war era until when all restrictions on japanese canadians were finally removed and all their claims were sett ed. l in the end, pacifists came to view the practical achievements of the co-operative committee on japanese canadians as a clear example of pacifism in action. together with sympathetic representatives of other sectors of society they successfully cha enged wartime i nj usti ce as part of their overall effort to secure decency and justice for all citizens. james finlay, chairman of the co-operating groups for six years and member of the for executive, later recalled that the plight of japanese canadians became the overriding concern of canadian pacifists during the war and immediate post-war years. in effect, it was their battleground for peace and justice. meanwhile, members of the for also investigated other avenues for countering the increasing insensitivity of canadian society to the moral problems accompanying war. in january , for instance, lavell smith questioned the morality of allied strategic bombing of german cities, the issue which had come under considerable attack from pacifists and churchmen in britain. smith condemned canada's church- men for remaining silent. he reminded the church that during the days of the london blitz it condemned the very practice of indiscrimi- nate bombing that it apparently tolerated when turned on german cities. "is it to be concluded that bombs dropped upon us are murderous and inhuman while bombs dropped by us are remedial or salutary?,, l the inconsistency of such a moral stand was aggravated further, he argued, as news dispatches revealed that more bombs were being dropped on berlin in a single night than ever fell on london in a month. our bombers are described as cutting swaths of utter destruction clear across a city. our political leaders promise the enemy worse things to follow. yet i listen in vain for the voice of the canadian church to condemn such indiscriminate bombing. the silence of the church, he suggested somewhat inconsistently, was indicative of the "dulling of moral sensitivity" during wartime and as a result pacifist opinion within canada was growing day by day. in the long run, however, canadian pacifists were never successful in arousing much opposition to strategic bombing, even though vera brittain, one of the leading spokesmen for the bombing restriction committee in britain, spoke in canada on several occasions at the invitation of the for. when over a hundred for members gathered in their first annual conference in july , it was evident that canadian pacifists were primarily concerned with the immediate problems confronting those canadians directly affected by the war and the larger economic issues underlying world peace. thus the conference delegates recommended that the national council set up a committee on race relations including members of the negro, japanese canadian and jewish communi- ties of canada. although primarily concerned with youth education and personal counselling the committee would also be responsible for publishing news of race problems, providing speakers on the race question and organizing a letter writing campaign in order to keep the problem before the public. the conference also endorsed several proposals for action in respect to economic problems, emphasizing that, as christian pacifists, the for iimust be prepared to give courageous leadership in the field of social and economic reform. i among the suggestions was a call for the socialization of the canadian economy as well as recommendations that the for work with the religion- labor foundation in the struggle for industrial democracy, promote closer co-operation between agricultural and industrial workers, encourage the establishment of credit unions and consumers· and pro- ducers· co-operatives and advocate the immediate creation of public housing centers. in the international field the conference urged the creation of a co-operative world organization to guarantee fair distribution of the world's raw materials to all nations. overall, the for conference reflected a renewed optimism among canadian pacifists. in an effort to broaden its outreach for instance, the for decided to affiliate with the war resisters' international as well as the ifor. the for executive also began to develop closer co-operation with american pacifists. the previous year, for instance, john nevin sayre, chairman of both the american and international for, visited toronto for a two-day conference with the canadian section. in succeeding years, the annual conferences usually followed the practice of featuring internationally known pacifists such as a. j. muste in , john m. swom y in , muriel lester in , and g. h. c. macgregor in . this international exchange was balanced by canadian representation at american con- ferences when in later years, for instance, lavell smith attended an for conference in new york city, and james finlay addressed the national conference of the american for on the progress of the canadian fellowship. l as well as extending its international associations, the canadian for underwent an internal reorganization at the war's end. the national council was expanded to include twenty-four members, twelve from toronto and twelve from outside toronto; and albert watson, who had served as executive secretary on a part-time basis the previous year, was reappointed on a full-time basis with an annual operating budget of sixteen hundred dollars. as the for's first paid executive secretary, watson devoted himself to promoting an effective for program as well as assuming related responsibilities as a member of a toronto inter-racial committee and as an advisor to the japanese canadian credit union. within a few years the for successfully organized canadian pacifist action on a wide variety of fronts. since the for was centered largely in toronto one of its major problems was that it lacked effective co-ordination of those pacifists more or less isolated in other areas of the country. in fact, the difficulty of uniting a small minority of citizens scattered across a vast, sparsely populated country remained the canadian for's most intractable problem. in an attempt to minimize this handicap the executive decided to send watson on a cross-country trip in the fall of . since the initial plans were made before the end of the war it was intended originally that one of watson's primary goals would be to elicit the support of canadians for the for's campaign for a constructive and democratic peace, a version of the petition sponsored by the national peace council in england which called for a peace settlement built upon a radical reconstruction of society rather than upon national guilt, racial inferiority or preponderant power as in . by the time watson embarked on the trip, however, the war had ended and the attention of canadian pacifists had shifted to the future of the for in canada and post-war challenges such as the issue of peactime conscription. watson first toured quebec and helped reorganize an for unit in montreal under the leadership of jack duckworth. then in august he set out for the west coast claiming the journey had a five- fold purpose: to meet with as many for members and friends as possible, to organize new for units, to publicize the work of the for, particularly its "forerunner" program for teenage youth, and to promote the magazine reconciliation. upon his return to toronto watson was confident that after addressing over forty-six meetings and delivering several radio broadcasts he had succeeded in making valuable new contacts as well as contributing to a greater sense of unity between western members and the national office in toronto. he proudly reported that "for the fi rst time in its hi story" the for was organized on a truly national basis with active groups not only in toronto, hamilton and montreal but also across the country in winnipeg, saskatoon, regina, edmonton, medicine hat, calgary and vancouver. according to watson, one of the highlights of his journey was his visit with the leaders of the co-operative mennonite community of altoona, south of winnipeg. he left convinced of the necessity to maintain and extend for co-operation with mennonites during the post-war years. the value of watson's personal diplomacy notwithstanding, the magazine reconciliation remained the most valuable link between canadian pacifists as well as a stimulus for pacifist action. within a year of its initial publication, the editorial staff modified the magazine's format to produce specific problem-oriented issues. from july , approximately two-thirds of each issue was devoted to a single topic, such as anti-semitism, canadian immigration policy, canadian unity, industrial relations, japanese canadians, conscientious objectors, refugees and the movement for co-operative communities in canada. in so doing, the editors not only focused attention on the various ways in which the pacifist ethic of non-violence was breached within canadian society but reflected as well the primary concerns of canadian pacifists and their co-operation with non- pacifist groups in working towards practical solutions to controversial problems related to the war. throughout the war years pacifists in canada strove to make a realistic response to actual wartime circumstances in such a way as to move society further toward their desired end. first and foremost they were concerned with liberty of conscience, and strove to implant the right of conscientious objection more deeply in canadian soil. this was more than just a self-protective device, however, for they organized relief efforts to assist the victims of war overseas and worked on behalf of those groups in canada who were victimized by internment, and the plight of refugees and japanese canadians became a prime concern. moreover, using the communal lifestyle of the historic peace sects as an example, liberal pacifists began to take steps to build experimental co-operative communities which they hoped would serve as practical models for a future co-operative, peaceful society. another important action was taken when the for began to publicize these issues through their own magazine, reconciliation. from the areas of race relations to industrial relations, its pages explored the dynamic potential for canadians of non-violent action and the humanitarian response. the christian pacifist argument, itself, was also publicized in personal newsletters such as fairbairn's bulletin. all in all, pacifists actively promoted the non-violent alternative for building a new social order, and by the end of the war they were confident they had successfully adapted their pacifism to the reality they faced. but contrary to niebuhrian realism which rejected utopian ideals and demanded that christians assume responsibility for the fight against the harsh realities of fascism, the realism of the pacifist response was confined within the limits of the pacifist ideal. al- though prevented therefore from sharing responsibility in the direct outcome of the war, pacifists considered their role a serious and important one. they attempted to make constructive contributions to wartime society, acting both as prophets, judging the war and its efforts from the standpoint of the kingdom of god, and as reconcilers, enlarging the ground of civil liberties in canadian society. some among the liberal-radical pacifists, as among the historic peace sects, were inclined to one or the other pole. fairbairn, for example, was clearly more the prophetic judge than the reconciling agent. on the other hand, the perception of one role often depended upon the other; thus, fairbairn could not see reconciliation short of the total re- organization of the structure of society. even the more withdrawn mennonites emerged to help through their own relief organizations. in the end, the pacifist activities begun in response to the war continued well into the post-war era and served as a constant reminder of the non-violent alternative in a world conditioned by war. footnotes constance hayward, "the canadian national con t ittee on refugees," reconciliation, (november ): . irving abella and harold troper, "ithe line must be drawn somewhere i : canada and jewish refugees, - , canadian historical review, june , p. ; see the above for an account of canada's response to the jewish refugee problem before the war. hayward, "the canadian national con t ittee on refugees," p. . canadian national committee on refugees, new homes for old, leaflet, ; j. r. mutchmore, secretary of the united churchls board of evangelism and social service represented the united church on the cncr while raymond booth of the society of friends served as secretary of the cncrls promotion campaign. the united church of canada, yearbook, , p. . canadian national committee on refugees, new homes for old, leaflet, . ibid • pac , national council of women (ncw) papers, : , v. , canadian national committee on refugees, bulletin no. , april . interview with ida siegel. llminutes of the canada and genesee yearly meetings of the society of friends, , p. . l canadian friends service committee (cfsc) papers, internees fi e, iirefugee students. ii l c• e. sil cox ~ "young refugees interned in canada, ii the canadian friend, january ~ pp. - . the globe (toronto)~ july ~ p. . ibid . ~ july ~ pp. - . ibid . ~ july ~ p. . ibid.~ july ~ p. ; austin stevens~ the dispossessed: german refugees in britain (london: barrie and jenkins~ ), pp. - . l interview with ida siegel; silcox, iiyoung refugees interned in canada," p. . ibid . cfsc papers ~ internees fi e, "refugee students. ii ibid ., mary s. milligan, london, to barbara walker, toronto, october ; sara bright skilling, winnipeg~ to haslam, february ; haslam to horace g. alexander, birmingtham, england, october ; raymond booth to haslam, june ; and other letters. ibid . for numerous such letters see cfsc papers, internees file. ibid.~ e. l. landsberg to has am~ september . ibid.~ haslam to horace g. alexander, october ; haslam to ~co . r. s. w. fordham~ october ; u. weil to haslam~ august . ibid.~ fordham to haslam, october . ibid.~ fordham to haslam, october . ibid ., haslam to mrs. j. m. garner, october ; haslam to mrs. c.~sissons~ october . ibid . ncw papers, : , v. , c. raphael, "report on emigration of interned refugees," june . ibi d. cfsc papers, internees file, haslam to fred j. tritton, friends service council, october . haslam to john h. hobart, december . ibid ., h. graham brown, kooteney bay, to haslam, january . ibid ., haslam to mrs. j. m. garner, october . ibid ., "refugee students;" for example ulrich weil had taken the matriculation exam for mcgill, weil to r. booth, july . ncw papers, : , v. , constance hayward to mrs. e. d. hardy, july ; cfsc papers, internees file, haslam to mrs. j. m. garner,s august ; jerome davis to haslam, july . ibid., hayward to mrs. e. d. hardy, july . ibid ., haslam to jerome davis, august . ibid ., hoeniger to haslam, july . ibid ., haslam to mrs. c. b. sissons, august ; haslam to mrs. j.~garner, august . ibid., mrs. c. b. sissons to haslam, september ; laura dav;~il treasurer, to haslam, march . ibid ., hoeniger to haslam, april . interview with arthur g. dorland; interview with mrs. j. lavell smith; interview with ida siegel. another who was interested in sponsoring a refugee student was the fcso spokesman, gregory vlastos, george j. hoeniger, chicago, to haslam, july , internees file, cfsc papers. fred haslam, "refugee camps," the canadian friend, (december ): ; cfsc papers, internees file, haslam to john h. hobart, december . ibid ., haslam to kathleen a. bell, victoria, b.c., august ; haslam to f. j. cluett, rogers radio tubes ltd., toronto, august . ibid ., haslam to c. hayward, may ; haslam to j. davis, october . reconciliation (september ): . haslam, a record of experience with canadian friends, p. ; a group of canadian conscientious objectors, including friends, also served in the friends ambulance unit in china. a full discussion of this unit appears in chapter viii. thomson, pioneer in community, p. . ibi d. uca , for papers, fairbairn, lito maintain courage by sharing conviction, i bulletin no. ; in fairbairn confided to a friend: iii v/ish very much that the fellowship for cooperative community could see its way to initiate something in canada like the bruderhof. in another two years i would be superannuated and free, perhaps, to participate from the woodcraft end!li, ibid., box , file , fairbairn to howey, april ; for the interest of other pacifists see: reconciliation, (may ): . thomson, pioneer in community, p. . ibid . statement of princi p es of the canadi an fellowship for cooperative community, i quoted in thomson, pioneer in community, p. . interview with george tatham, toronto, february . reconciliation (may ): . for papers, box , file , john frank and john f. davidson to canadian for members, december . a one time member of the national executive of both the fcso and the scm, davidson advocated what he called a "social y conscious pacifism." interview with john f. davidson~ toronto~ october . ibid., fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, "newsletter,rr-may . in may , the canadian for membership list included members, mainly united church, but not all exhibited a lively interest. ibid.; by october , canadian membership was . j. lavell smith, "we launch our new magazine," reconciliation, (october ): . for papers, box , file , fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, leaflet (n.d.). smith, "we launch our new magazine," p. . ibid . ibid . ibid., p. ll. ibid . ibid . ibid ., p. . ibid ., p. . thers on the editorial committee included isabel alexander, edna barnett, peter gorrie, gus harris and frank mcphee, the first business manager. smi th, "we launch our new magazi ne, ii p. . ibi d. reconciliation, (may ): ] . for papers, box , file , fairbairn to harvey howey, may . ibid ., fairbairn to j. m. finlay, march ; fairbairn to howey, may . ibid ., fairbairn to howey, may . it is not known if the booklet was ever published. ibid ., fairbairn to howey, april ; r. edis fairbairn, lito maintain courage by sharing conviction," bulletin, january . fairbairn, bulletin no. , february . although the bulletins were numbered consecutively, fairbairn was inconsistent in this practice. some issues were both dated and numbered while others included only a number or a date. in addition, fairbairn apparently attributed a kind of divine importance to his bulletin, arguing that iigod still needs a human voi ce to utter to men hi s i ndi gnati on ll and over the years he eventually came to think of himself as a ii mo dern day prophet" with an obligation to preach the unwelcome truth. fairbairn, bulletin, february ; june . ibid., february . ibid . , no. , october . ibid ., no. , july ; no. , march . ibid ., no. , october . ibid ., march . ibid ., no. , february . ibid ., no. , september . for papers, box , file , fairbairn to howey, march . fairbairn, bulletin, no. , february . a bert d. belden, pax christi, nd ed. (wa inton: corwal publications, ), pp. -~ . ibi d., p. . reconciliation, (october ): . fairbairn, bulletin, no. , june . for papers, box , file , fairbairn to howey, april . ibid ., box , file , belden to howey, february . ibid ., box , file , fairbairn to finlay, october ; for notice:- october . ibid ., a. j. muste to executive committee and staff, february . reconci iation, (september ): . ibid . ibi d. edith fowke, they made democracy work: the story of the co-operative commitee on japanese canadians (toronto: garden city press, n.d.), p. . ibid., p. . ib ' d - . -'-" pp. reconci iation, (march ): . fowke , they made democracy work, p. . n donalda macmillan was succeeded as secretary by her husband hugh, a former missionary in japan. while a student at the university of saskatchewan, fowke was attracted to the for by professor carlyle king but she did not completely agree with its christian bias. nevertheless, once in toronto during the war she maintained her m~mbership in the for, helped edit reconciliation and became deeply involved in the effort to aid japanese canadians. reconciliation, (march ): . fowke, they made democracy work, pp. - . ib o d _,_., po ; . ib od -'-" p. . l ibid., p. . lllreconciliation, (september ): . cfsc papers, japanese canadian file, fred haslam to mackenzie king, john bracken and m. j. coldwell, telegram, october . the orders-in-council were p. c. , and . fowke, they made democracy work, p. . ibid ., p. . ibid., pp. - . ibid ., p. . ibid ., pp. - . interview with james m. finlay. for papers, box , file , the co-operative committee on japanese canadians, bulletin no. , september . the united church observer, january , p. . ibid . ibid . vera brittain made canadian appearances in , and . reconciliation, (december ): ; the canadian friend, november , p. ; mcmaster university special collections, vera brittain papers, lecture contracts. reconciliation, (september ): . ibi d. , p. . ibi d. , p. . ibid . for papers, box , file , fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, "newsletter," april, . ibid ., fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, suggested program for two day seminar, - august ; ibid., box , file , program for annual conference, february, ; box , file , program for annual confernece, june, ; for meeting agenda, april . l ibid ., box , file , fellowship of reconciliation, canadian section, "newsletter, i may, . . ibid ., box , file , a. j. muste to finlay, july ibid., september . reconciliation, (september ): . l for papers, box , file , lavell smith to for national council, january . l ibid .; national peace council, london, england, "national peti tion foraconstructive peace," august, . reconciliation, (april ): . ibid ., (december ): . ib o d - . -,_., pp. ibid ., pp. - . conclusion the atomic bombing of hiroshima and nagasaki in early august finally brought the second world war to an end, but, in light of the new awesome threat of mass nuclear destruction, tranquility was hardly secured. on the contrary, it was the beginning of an era of bewilderment and frustration, and, more specifically, a time of increased international tensions as a new armaments race escalated between the united states and the soviet union. a sense of impending doom hung in the air. the imminent threat of atomic warfare imbued pacifism with a sense of urgency which ultimately altered the character of the post-war peace movement in canada. in contrast to the initial hopelessness surrounding the news of the atomic weapon, pacifists were encouraged to maintain their optimism by continuing the kind of humanitarian activities begun during the war. for instance, lavell smith urged his fellow for members to pursue the new channels that had begun to open for pacifist action: millions of people face death from cold and hunger in europe. hundreds of thousands are on picket lines in canada and the united states. victims of racial prejudice suffer under grievous disabilities. others who were true to the dictates of conscience are still discriminated against. in all these situations, as in others, the word of brotherhood and reconciliation needs to be spoken. it may even be that there are increasing numbers ready to hear it. post-war relief and reconstruction proved to be one of the most popular areas of pacifist activity. canadian quakers, in particular, launched a massive drive for refugee relief following the war and, with the permission of the canadian government, the cfsc issued its first public appeal for funds in february . as the donated funds became available the cfsc purchased supplies and shipped them directly to the needy areas of central europe and the far east where relief teams were organized by the american friends service committee. from january to august the friends war victims relief fund had raised over thirty-two thousand dollars and by october fifty thousand dollars worth of supplies had been sent overseas. the shipments included bulk supplies of cod liver oil and powdered milk as well as medical supplies, blankets and clothing. the appeal of canadian friends for relief funds received the staunch support of the entire pacifist community especially that of james finlay who used his weekly radio broadcast to publicize the quaker cod liver oil program. such enthusiastic support for the friends relief fund was typical of the co-operation between pacifists and the whole network of canadian relief agencies such as the canadian save the children fund, canadian church relief abroad, representing the large protestant denominations, and the ontario committee for relief in japan. the cfsc maintained its program of overseas relief well into the 's and after. following the war pacifists also continued to display an active interest in experimental co-operative communities through the canadian fellowship for cooperative community (cfcc). although the death of henri lasserre in severely weakened the movement, both the cfcc and the robert owen foundation were kept alive by a small nucleus of pacifists. they not only continued to publish the cfcc newsletter but also organized small experiments like dale house, a co-operative house in toronto. those attracted to co-operative living included a number of conscientious objectors who had viewed life in alternative service work camps as an introduction to communal organization. ultimately, several of these c.o.s joined bruderhofs in the united states. the cfcc's major though still modest experi- ment in co-operative pacifist living was the winterbrook community near hornby, ontario. other than christian pacifists, however, the cfcc also encouraged co-operative farming experiments in the west such as the co-operative farm for veterans at matador, saskatchewan. still another side of the cfcc was its support for the jewish chabitzim, a group which maintained a collective residence in toronto and a collective farm at prescott, ontario, as training for collective settlements in palestine (forerunners of the israeli kibbutzim). thus, the cfcc succeeded in uniting a wide range of canadians -- farmers, laborers, professionals, pacifists, jews and gentiles in a common quest for a new social order which would guarantee justice and peace. to some extent, however, the post-war pacifist response, such as support for co-operative communities, was viewed as irrelevant to the realities of the atomic age. in a reconciliation article entitled "pacifism after hiroshima" dr. j. j. brown, director of the canadian association of physicists, claimed the atomic bomb had placed pacifism in a dilemma. i before hiroshima, he argued, realistic pacifists did not expect to see much change in the common attitude towards war in their lifetime but they believed their efforts would ultimately be brought to fruition. after , however, the tradi- tional pacifist approach of educating public opinion or building model communities was no longer relevant since the world had run out of time. thus, brown concluded, pacifism and its corollary, pacifist action, was in need of an urgent and "thorough overhauling. i in reply, clare oke argued that the pacifism of the for was unaffected by the possibility of imminent disaster since it was based upon christian conviction rather than rational, political considerations. nevertheless, recognizing the need for some realistic pacifist response, the for appealed to the canadian government to "renounce war for all time," to ban the atom bomb and work for a world-wide halt in the production of atomic weapons, and to place an immediate embargo on the further export of uranium ore. the for executive also formulated a detailed program of pacifist strategy for the atomic era in which pacifists were urged to convert people to religious pacifism and to take the lead in working for various actions designed to ensure peace. among the specific for proposals were campaigns to stop the atomic arms race and to achieve universal disarmament, to put an end to imperialism and to promote understanding and friendship between canada and the soviet union, to work for a more liberal immigration policy in canada, and to abolish cadet training in high schools. indeed, much of the for's post-war energy was directed against the old issue of cadet training in the schools. during the twenties and thirties the campaign against the cadet corps actually succeeded in removing the practice from various school systems throughout the country but in september it was again made compulsory in the nation's secondary schools. i by the end of the war, however, the cadet corps was either placed on a voluntary basis, as in british columbia, saskatchewan, quebec and pri"nce edward island, or eliminated from the school program altogether, as in manitoba. the glaring exception was ontario where cadet training remained on a compulsory basis. s in response, the for launched an all out cam- paign to disband the ontario cadet corps labeling it "mr. drew's army" after the premier of ontario, george a. drew. the for revealed that the drew government required all boys in ontario high schools to devote the majority of their physical and health education periods to cadet training and military drill. in reference to the govern- ment's defense of the cadet system as valuable training in "good citizens.hip" for critic albert watson argued that the only way to train youth in "good citizenship" was lito educate them from their childhood in canadian ideals and privileges of democratic living." lilt is not possible to train boys in democratic citizenship, i wrote watson, iiby compell i ng them to submi t to the authori ty of a mil i tary system. i furthermore, instead of recruiting an army of boys, drew was challenged to support alternative measures that would help achieve lasting peace such as the improvement of race relations, jobs for all at adequate wages, decent labor legislation and improved social services. as part of their campaign to abolish cadet training the for distributed flyers presenting a point by point case against the cadet system and urging the people of ontario to actively voice their opposition to cadet training in letters to the editors of local papers, to local school boards, to mla's and, most of all, to premier drew himsel f. "act now, ii warned the for, iithere is no time to lose! in an angry reaction, premier drew charged that the for was a iicrypto false front communist organization. i the for was also criticized by an old liberal ally, b. k. sandwell, editor of saturday night. in an editorial entitled "pacifism again ll sandwell accused the for of being inconsistent in supporting canada's role in the united nations, which included the possibility of supplying military forces, on the one hand, while advocating the undermining of canadian preparedness on the other. although he agreed that a good argument could be made for the exemption of students from compulsory cadet training for reasons of conscience, sandwell was not prepared to share the logical conclusion to the pacifist line of thinking the complete disarmament of canada. considering the inconsistency in ----- the for position, he also wondered if pacifists really desired that end, implying that perhaps for members wanted lito be defended while doing nothing for defense." the for national council attempted to refute the unfavorable allegations through an explanation of the campaign. the heart of the issue, they argued, was that compulsory cadet training was not only an unwarranted form of conscription in itself, but a prelude to national military conscription during peacetime. the solution was to nip militarism in the bud. thus, only by first abolishing cadet training in the high schools could canadians finally put an end to militarism in canada. following a few years of an intensive campaign, the compul- sory cadet system in ontario was replaced by a new citizenship corps training course. although not completely satisfactory to pacifists, it was greeted by the for as a "vast improvement and a step in the right direction." in this instance the for met limited success but in the long run it was unable to escape the type of criticism leveled by sandwell that its brand of pacifism was unrealistic for the time. by the for, as well as the entire canadian peace movement, had reached a critical juncture. plagued by a lack of financial resources, a dwindling membership and public apathy, the future for pacifism looked bleak even though world peace was increas- ingly in need of defense. the previous summer while attending the alberta school of religion, scott nearing, the american anti-war radical, recognized the crisis and blamed the failure of pacifists and anti-war socialists to attract young converts. the pacifists and socialists who come out to meetings are seldom under forty. many of them are past sixty. they are the stalwarts who learned to hold the torch on high before world war i. they have gained few loyal adherents since. meanwhile death and disaffection have decimated their ranks. it is a rebel remnant, still rebellious, but thinning out with the years. as a last resort, james finlay, the post-war for chairman, appealed to the american for for a grant of eleven to twelve hundred dollars a year over a two year period. d finlay proposed to use the funds for an office secretary, thus freeing abe watson, the executive secretary, for field work in broadening and consolidating for member- ship across canada. but american financial assistance was not forthcoming. john nevin sayre replied that, although he and a. j. muste were one hundred per-cent behind abe watson, the needs of the for in europe were far greater than in canada. accordingly, he suggested finlay begin with a less ambitious program for watson, particularly since, he implied, canada might prove to be a "finan- cially arid country" for pacifist fund raising. one of the first casualties of the financial crisis was the for publication, reconciliation. the magazine already appeared less and less frequently but by october the national council was forced to suspend its publication permanently. in its place the american for journal, fellowship, was distributed to canadian subscribers. rather than merely a magazine, however, reconciliation had been viewed as a special bond between christian pacifists in canada. the breaking of that bond further weakened that part of the canadian movement. shortly afterward, for instance, reconciliation's editor, abe watson, resigned as for executive secretary and left for a new position with the american for. he was succeeded by mrs. mildred fahrni, eventually one of the leading figures in the post-war for, first as executive secretary and then as western secretary in vancouver. for the next decade the for would continue to emphasize the theme of non-violent so€ial action in such areas as race relations, labor disputes and penal reform. above all, however, the for repre- sented the last major vestige of a liberal christian pacifism founded upon faith in a divine force working on its behalf. thus, it was believed that, in time, religious pacifism would lead to a peaceful and just social order. the threat of atomic warfare, however, under- mined the social hopes of liberal pacifism. carlyle king, the first national chairman of the for and the post-war president of the saskatchewan ccf party, was one of those who concluded that the pacifism of the for was outmoded by the realities of the atomic age. indeed, the ranks of the peace movement eventually swelled with a whole new group of adherents, known as nuclear pacifists or neo-pacifists, who were not willing to follow the lead of the ~or. since these nuclear pacifists believed it was the new dimension of atomic power which made war unthinkable, they were primarily concerned with removing the threat of atomic weapons and easing tensions between the soviet union and the west. moreover, rather than the strictly christian character of the for, the new wing of the peace movement forged a renewed alliance with the radical left and endorsed the marxist revolutionary hope as the way out of the nuclear dilemma. the move in that direction was accelerated with the founding of the canadian peace congress in . the initial stimulus for the congress came when harry ward, of union theological college fame, addressed a toronto meeting which included a number of his former students such as a. a. macleod, the communist head of the league for peace and democracy be'fore the war, and james finlay and . g. perkins of the for. ward urged his audience to take some type of non-violent political action on behalf of peace and, in response, a provisional committee was established to set up a peace congress in canada. to organize the congress on a national basis the committee enlisted dr. james g. endicott, the radical united church missionary who had resigned from his missionary post in china and from the ministry because of the church's disapproval of his outspoken support for the chinese communists. endic~tt soon discovered that a number of like- minded peace councils had already been formed, such as the vancouver assembly for peace founded by norman mackenzie, an scm activist in the twenties and then the president of the university of british columbia, h. h. stevens, leader of the reconstruction party during the thirties, and watson thompson. within a year a national conference was called to co-ordinate the various peace councils and the canadian peace congress (cpc) was officially launched. in the years to follow, endicott and the peace congress would become embroiled in a concerted condemnation of united states foreign policy as part of a rather stormy campaign to halt the nuclear arms race and germ warfare. much of the support for the congress came from former members of the defunct, communist inspired, league for peace and democracy, but it also came from other wings of the peace movement, including the for. endicott himself emphasized the ideal of openness in the cpc and claimed it "did not exclude anyone, right, left or centre." nevertheless, the emergence of the canadian peace congress marked the abandonment of the liberal tradition in the canadian peace movement. in a desperate attempt to reach some semblance of harmony in a world threatened by nuclear destruction, the main activist force of pacifism moved onto more radical ground, thus culminating a leftward transition which had begun before the great war, and which had received a major impetus from the depression. reluctant liberal pacifists, remnants of mainline christian pacifism, and the historic peace sects were left to one side by the force of the new movement. from the time of the great war, canadian pacifism showed signs of a secular, socialist basis already a major tradition in the british and american movements but it was not until the dawn of the atomic age that a substantial number of canadian pacifists were inspired more by humanitarian and political considerations than by religious belief. thus, other studies which emphasize that type of pacifism before the war, such as ceadel 's recent analysis of british pacifism, hardly apply to the canadian experience. rather, despite various divisions of discreet pacifist groups, the major force of canadian pacifism during the first half of the twentieth century was rooted in two basic traditions. one was the liberal tradition asso- ciated with the peace movement. the other was the historic religious non-resistance of sectarian pacifist groups like the mennonites and hutterites. since these historic peace sects tried to remain aloof from war and society alike, they had little impact on the peace movement, but, their steadfast refusal to submit to compulsory military service during the two world wars indirectly reinforced the principle of pacifist dissent, particularly that of conscientious objection, within canadian society on the whole. furthermore, their peaceful co-operative co~!nities served as living examples for the pacifist hope of building a new social order along communal lines. although the sectarian pacifists largely remained withdrawn from canadian society, they also underwent a slight transition towards accommodation with the state. this adjustment was less evident among the doukhobors and jehovah's witnesses, but on the whole the peace sects, especially some mennonite groups, became more involved in social problems because of the need of defending their pacifist ifestyle. the valuable witness of the historic peace sects, notwithstand- ing, the peace movement in canada more directly reflected the liberal christian tradition of pacifism. from their first appearance as part of the progressive reform movement in the late nineteenth century, liberal, non-sectarian pacifists underwent a slow transition towards the political left. initially, the liberal-progressive peace move- ment reflected a complex set of victorian social attitudes -- force- fulness of character, imperialism and hero worship -- which made a real assertion of pacifism somewhat difficult. amid the pressures of an escalating wartime crusade this liberal pacifism proved to be utterly untenable. those who wished to maintain their pacifist protest found it necessary to adopt a radical critique of the social and economic roots of war and, in doing so, to abandon their liberal reformism for some variant of the socialist creed. for some, that, too, became almost an eschatological warfare against the established social order, not entirely unlike their erstwhile colleagues who sought the reign of peace via the war to end war. thus, following in the path of anti-war socialism, a new socially radical pacifism emerged in the wake of the disruption of the progressive peace movement during the great war. liberal pacifism, on the other hand, re-emerged in the post- war years among such groups as the league of nations society and again attracted a wide range of public support. in effect, the resurgent peace movement of the twenties, representing a broad front of groups and activities, resembled an act of national repentance built upon revulsion against the great war and the belief that world peace could be ensured without directly challenging the state. in one sense, this resurgence of liberal pacifism served as a diversion from the crisis confronting liberal reformism as well as from the task of developing a more profound christian ethic of war. rather than strictly an expression of liberal pacifism, however, the post-war movement was colored by the socially radical pacifism the war had bred. this became increasingly evident during the depression years as socially radical pacifists allied with the political left in an effort to maximize justice through radical reforms and social change. for a time the quests for both peace and social justice appeared to be compatible but pacifists were soon confronted with a dilemma when, in the light of increased fascist aggression, their pacifist rejection of the use of force came into direct conflict with the struggle for social justice. by mid-decade, particularly with the outbreak of the civil war in spain, social radicals began to abandon pacifism in favor of the fight against fascism. it was a process that continued during the latter thirties and which tended to rob pacifism, even a socially radical pacifism, of any sense of political realism. consequently, those who remained committed pacifists re- treated behind the confines of a narrower christian pacifism, not entirely unlike the historic peace sects. some among them assumed the role of the christian prophet, exercising social protests, such as the "witness against war" manifesto and conscientious objection to military service, and judging the war and its effects from the standpoint of the kingdom of god. unlike their sectarian brothers, however, they could not escape the niebuhrian challenge for a realistic response to the wartime situation. thus, another role of the pacifist during the second world war became one of reconciling the wartime tensions in canadian society at large by exercising realistic pacifist alternatives, including alternative service for conscientious objectors, refugee and relief work and the defense of civil liberties. in this way, pacifists like the quakers sought to prove that they were not just idealists or politically irrelevant dreamers, but their sense of realism was confined within the framework of the pacifist hope for the dawning of a new peaceful world in contrast to niebuhr's argument that that type of peace would never exist in history. the wartime experience also had a unifying effect upon the various pacifist groups themselves and encouraged a new level of co-operation between the historic peace sects and the more socially active pacifists. in the end, pacifists of all stripes successfully maintained a witness against war, some merely by refusing, as much as possible, to co-operate with the state, others by exercising state-approved alternatives. indeed, the pacifist witness was not effected without some accommodation to the state. despite the continued commitment of pacifists to a new social order, the disaffection of radical colleagues shortly before and during the war tended to undermine the radical social prophecy of christian pacifism and left it unprepared to lead a more politi- cized peace campaign in response to the urgent threat of atomic weapons. instead, the post-second world war initiative was seized by the radical left, forging a renewed alliance between the marxist ideal and the pacifist search for harmony among all peoples of the world. every stage of the peace movement in its leftward transition represented the religious quest to realize this ideal vision of an ordered, peaceful world. pacifists who joined the canadian peace congress of the 's believed they had reached the point where they had become part of the ultimate movement towards that kind of social order. they moved beyond liberalism as the best way to achieve their particular rendezvous with destiny. but it was neither an easy nor complete transition. critics charged the canadian peace congress, as the league for peace and democracy before it, was largely an instrument of soviet foreign policy and, despite endicott's insistence to the contrary, the reputation of the new peace movement was tarnished. pacifists, them- selves, criticized endicottjs inconsistency in working for peace while at the same time supporting the cause of the people's liberation army in china. it was all too familiar to the pacifist dilemma of the thirties when the pursuit of social justice came into conflict with the pacifist commitment to non-violence; thus, tragedy once again awaited pacifists as the cpc broke apart over conflicting international policies of the post-war communist states. at mid-century pacifism in canada was represented by both the historic non-resistance of sectarian groups, slightly accommodated to the state but struggling to maintain their separate communities, and a radicalized peace movement including both socialists and christian idealists. other than the rural-oriented peace sects, those canadians attracted to pacifism over the years represented a cross section of canadian society, especially once the business and community leaders who had dominated the early progressive peace . movement gave way to a new alignment from farm, labor and pro- fessional backgrounds. many were educated, a few were intellectuals. most were religious pacifists with roots in the social gospel and much of the leadership in the canadian movement was provided by clergymen. in fact, when compared to the variety of political and humanitarian pacifists in britain and the united states, canadian pacifists as a whole were more religiously motivated in their beliefs. although its universal appeal blurred any sense of canadian nationalism in the pacifist movement, the religious factor was characteristic of canadian pacifists and, despite a good deal of influence from the british and american movements, canadian pacifism developed in its own distinctive way. above all, however, pacifists tended to be individuals of exceptional quality and in nearly all areas of social concern they sought ideal solutions for harsh realities. whether liberal or radical they were determined to help bring about a new peaceful social order built upon social and economic justice. that they were not entirely successful in this quest does not minimize the importance of their attempt to shape canadian social attitudes. the fact remains, however, that throughout the first half of the twentieth century only a small number of canadians became pacifists. at best, the peace movement enjoyed its widest popularity during times of peace, particularly in the early thirties, when it embraced a broad range of individuals and groups, but still, true pacifists remained a small minority. the ranks of conscientious objectors in both wars were primarily filled by sectarian groups rather than from the mainstream peace movement. the leading inter- pacifist organizations such as the wil and the for never attracted a large number of members. whether measured against the hutterites or canadian society at large their communitarian ventures were pitifully small. but surely, in the final analysis, the pacifist phenomenon must be measured on some scale of judgement other than size. if this is the historian's task, then the history of the pacifist witness speaks for itself. regardless of numbers, for instance, pacifism was an important ingredient in canadian social thought and for a time a pacifist- socialist alignment offered creative leadership. on the other hand, the gradual radicalization of pacifism as a political as well as a moral commitment resulted in a strengthened idealism and determination which in turn inhibited the pacifist searcn for political relevancy. but more than offering a prophetic vision of an ideal, pacifism, in both the sectarian and liberal traditions, came to symbolize reconciliation and the priority of questions of conscience in a changing canadian society. the mere survival of pacifism alone, for instance, was a tribute to those very ideals of civil liberty and freedom of conscience for which pacifists worked. indeed, their preservation and advancement of enduring moral principles underlying our culture -- regardless of social practice -- remains the real legacy of the pacifist witness against war during the first half of the twentieth century. footnotes ij . lavell smith, "whither the for?," reconciliation, (december ): . haslam, a record of experience with canadian friends, pp. - . minutes of the canada and genesee yearl~ meetin~ of friends, , pp. - ; cfsc papers, war victims relie file, -'canadian friends and war victims," newspaper clipping. haslam, a record of experience with canadian friends, p. . ibid ., p. ; reconciliation, (september ): . haslam, a record of experience with canadian friends, p. ; cfsc papers, war victims relief file. ibid ., cfsc papers, alexander file, barbara walker to walter alexander, january . for papers, box , file , minutes of the for national council meeting, march . thomson, pioneer in ccmmunity, pp. - . llj. j. brown, iipacifism after hiroshima," re·conciliation, (july ): . ibid . clare oke, upacifism unaffected by the possibility of imminent disaster,t' reconciliation, (july ): . for papers, box , file , the canadian fellowship of reconciliation, lithe atom bomb demands that war be abolished," n.d. ibid ., the canadian fellowship of reconciliation, "pacifist strategy ancrrrrogram in the atomic era. i ibid . ibid ., "memo on cadet training"; children of friends and other pacifist sects were excused from cadet training in ontario, minutes of the canada and genesee yearly meeting, , p. . "memo on cadet training. i a. g. watson, iimr. drew's army must be disbanded, i reconciliation, (february-march ): . i bid., p. . ibid . carlyle king papers, : , for flyer, iiabolish cadet training." this flyer is reproduced in appendix g. for papers, box , file , minutes of for national council meeting, may . b• k. sandwell, "pacifism again, i saturday night, may , p. . apparently sandwell wrote the editorial in response to a request by watson that saturday night present an argument against the compulsory nature of cadet training in ontario. for papers, box , file , minutes of for national council meeting, may . sandwell, iipacifism again. i for papers, box , file , minutes of for national council meeting, may . ibid ., fellowship of reccnciliation, canadian section, "militarism must end in canada, i n.d. ibid ., box , file , draft of a letter on behalf of the for to the chairman of the chatham board of education, chatham, ontario, n.d. scott nearing, world events~ september , p. ; although pacifism failed to attract much support, the question of world peace itself had become a dominant issue of public concern and even the theme of the roman catholic congress of cardinals meeting in ottawa in june . henry somerville, "congress takes theme of prayers for peace," saturday night, june , p. . for papers, box , file , james finlay to john nevin sayre, july . ibid . ibid ., sayre to finlay, july . ibid .; box , file , minutes of for national council meeting, october . interview with albert watson. rnterview with carlyle king. stephen endicott, james g. endicott: rebel out of china (toronto: university of toronto press, ), p. . bid ., pp. - . bid ., p. ; moffatt, the canadian peace movement, p. . n june charles huestis, for activist and original member of the alberta school of religion, had already begun to argue that canada should declare herself a neutral nation, refuse to allow u. s. military bases on canadian soil, and develop lines of friendship with the soviet union. saturday night, june , p. . endicott, rebel out of china, p. . all appendix a * peace conference poster, day peate , !. auspices of fellowship of reconciliation and affiliated peace groups in toronto monday, november th, programme for the day chairman: rabbi m. n. eise:\drath, pres., f.o.r. a.m.-at mt. pleasant cemetery, yong~ street entrance. decoration of graves of heroes of peace participants in flower-strewing ceremonies: archibishop neil ~ic:\eil rabbi sa~icel sachs rev. e. crossley hcnter ir. ja)' es sl\lpso~ ve~. arch. j. c. da ndson :\ir. wilson :\iacdol\:.\ld dr. geo. t. webb. presiding. a.m.-at alhambra· theatre, bloor, near bathurst street. young people's programme ea special showing of "i-~igll t rea.son" a dritish l yillg picture with a peace lesson. di~cussion of picture will be led by )'ir. earl lautensl. .... ger. of victoria college. - · p.m.-at lecture hall, y orkminster church, yonge and heath streets. peace conference • discussion g~oups conference will be opened by mr. j. s. woods\vorth, };lp. chairman: rev. g. r. dooth, exec.-sec. f.o.r. . p.m.-at lecture hall, york minster church, yonge and heath street. public p-aeeting on digarrnan en'i under auspices of 'vomen's international league for peace and freedom. speaker: :'ir. j. s. woodsworth. )'lp. chairman: dr. s. g. ul.\~d. :'lr. wtlso::-< :'!.\cdo:--,r,\ld will read his poetry. ).( usic book exhibit everybody welcome! come! * _mcnaughton papers, e. ( ). * appendix b canadian statement rejected by the international for in fellowship of reconciliation canadian section basis and aims the fellowship of reconciliation is an association of men and women who believe in the non-violent settlement of all conflicts between individuals, groups, classes, nations, races, and religions. its members believe that hatred is increased through return of hatred; that peace is not achieved by fighting; that the use of violence raises more problems than it solves. they believe that only positive acts of good-will, justice, and generosity can over- come evil in human society and make possible an abundant life for all men. many of the members have joined because of their desire to follow uns\~ervingly the way of life exemplified by jesus; some have received their inspiration from other religious leaders; and some have reached their faith in love and non-violence in still other ways. in practice their faith expresses itself in the fol owing ways: ( ) they try to show respect for human persona ii ty -- in the home, in the education of children, and in their association with people of other classes, nationalities, and races; ( ) they advocate the treatment of offenders against society, not by retaliatory punishment, but in ways calculated to restore the wrongdoer to co-operative citizenship with his fellows; ( ) they strive to build a social order in which none will be exploited, but in \~hich all will be assured of the means to realize a good life; ( ) they refuse to sanction war preparations or to participate in any war; rather they work to remove the causes of war, by advocating policies of international justice and by supporting every effort of international conciliation. the fellowship is open to all who accept the above principles, wish to work for their realization in human society, and are prepared to take the risks involved. carlyle king papers, : . * appendix c * conference of historic peace churches registration form, wil/tij ci.eari.y conference of historic peace churches-registration ~ ·~i .. llnllnll i lelecloral dislrktlno. ,pollillg division\no. = month ljay yr, -:::~~~::~~::~~====================-~::~~~~==============~n~a~'.~' f============= , ," .. cartl!no. nam~, if ;\il~ i. su ,lii c giv('u names u~rn,t h h\;'k ),.-lic[,,) . pt'rlll,llu'nt ij()"t,tl adclic"'i fir away irolll i<., .. al it" .. illl tlte \\' <' fillilik in card give t"wll (,iy pi~)vlnr .... dale uf hlrlh milllh·" \\'itlowed divorced . fh what d{'p(lidclib (if .-thy) ,lie ,\( tilt' "(tic ;lil'polt:- la) fallhr ( ) molh"r (.-) wife (ii) f\iulhh('r or ( lildn'li if) ii" )," i f'olllr;hlllt' p,lrlml <,npjjort tu \' on(' (f') vprali,ij):lj tr;aijjlllg (bii·.llh· ... s ('()ijt',i{j', ,(,('(hilh ,if i hgh ~(hflo ) (el, cullege or ullhl.l ... ,i\, ill.~n'c'? i. j... \' gt'llc'ral ht'.dlh (a) goott? f klll!'.!!i' nr crah: (, ) (h,tll! il·.:tllp;llion? (ii) \rhllt , .. )'tlllr n.'j::ul. r ()(cup.lt;oll ii (,) \vhat lither \\urk lau ) \ do \\cll? ( ) fair? (i) ,ul? { (a) iii) l<l (d) if an ciii(llll}l'l', \\ i .. )'ilur prurnl (,liipll')('r? t\al ll! ad,ln· .. •. nature flf i ... iiic ..... "hl'r~' ('mph,\ ('cl? (c) if (·xp.'riclllf..·d ill a ~"'if('fl il dfl~tri.lr ( «ul':lllon (i( pn.(.· ..... i •• ii, tlt'''lllhr 'pfcllwa'h the' tyih' (lr type, of \\or = in whkh \' u tlr(" c;pcchlh' ('lll il'l\(', in iil i i h" nr cxpctlrll('(' . (: ) \v('t(· 'ull hroll~ht up a farm? (hi) hav(' yi \l \",ot~('d a f,trlll? fa.?) until what .ige? (h ) ilo\\' lout{ plovillf(, ot couhii)t .r.ldor? (el) can you h;ul,lic lior ("-.? «.t) l <;c ( lliadlilll'f,\? (c ) arc.' you al.le i.l do otlh't {.iflll \\llrk? ii. \vh.lt ihulllllinalioll or f;ol'i,'i)' arc ~()u ",,"-i)i'latl,. with? (h) ,\dhlh'lil \\ i"n~ (e ) dri", . . . if "( , :lil' ,\ "ilhllg tu ont'r }t\ur ~lldl'('" for ,·j\iii.l'l \\.lrk uluhr i'i\iliii (·!lilil., for a ptrit cl (flf iio .. ~ihly "ixl,· ", ,) "i"hlnt pal hut "jth ihi.lnl and ,, ,i,-:illj.."; ilfll\:tlltl' i ,if iii iii ihal i h: \',' \i'ritw. till' ;ih .. \" <lnli\\',"" , i .it ihl" .ift' irur * cfsc papers, chpc file. appendix d * application for postponement of military service, applica.tion for an order deferring or postponing military training to the divisional registrar of the . ... ...... .... ... ..... ................ .............. ... . ........ ...... ........... ...... . ..................... . administrative division. pursuant to the provision made for conscientious objectors to military training and service. . ................... . of... .................................................................. , in the township of post office in the county of . .. and province of ........................ _ ....•.. _ ..•. -... _ ................. _._ ..••.. , do hereby apply for an order deferring or postponing military training as {'a member of the • an adherent ..... church, whose tenets and articles of faith are opposed to the bearing of arms and to the performance of military service in any form, to which faith and doctrine i personally agree. date ... signed. ~ame in full * cfsc papers, c.o. file. appendix e number and disposition of canadian conscientious objectors as of december , * number of consceintious objectors under alternative service total referrals from mobilization boards since the commencement of alternative service regulations .. , deduct: inter-office transfers enlisted as combatants enlisted as non-combatants c.o. status revoked by mobilization boards di ed . . . total conscientious objectors under alternative service , disposition of conscientious objectors under alternative service employed in agriculture employed in miscellaneous essential industries employed in sawmills, logging and timbering employed in packing plants and food processing plants employed in construction employed in hospitals employed in coal mining employed in grain handling at the head of the lakes employed in alternative service work camps serving jail sentences in hands of or being prepared for enforcement division in hands of rcmp or other agencies to locate whereabouts cases under review -----~ , total conscientious objectors under alternative service *compiled from mackinnon, "alternative service branch, i p. . appendix f * number and disposition of conscientious objectors by province as of december , - - -.---- -.---- ---.-----------------. -----.------------... -.------- -- -- ----- number of c.o.s p. e. i. n.s. n.b. gue. ont. man. s~sk. alta. b.c. total referrals fro_m registrars n , subsequent changes in status accepted enlistments/combat accepted enlistments/non-combat oea ths revocations/other than enlist. transfers to other divisions n total changes in c.o. status _l. c.o.s retaining status , ~ pisposition of c.o.s under red cross in agric. , under red cross/non-agric. , relieved of red cross agts./ phys. or compass. , relieved of red cross agts./ june st regulation changes , in asw camps serving jail sentences in hands of enforcement division can't locates/in hands of rcmp disposition pending/under review ----- total c.o.s , * compiled from mackinnon, "alternative service branch, ii p. . appendix g anti-cadet training flyer, * do you know that there is compulsory cadet training in the high schools of ontario? do you know that ontario is the only province in which cadet training is compulsory? cadet training t ust ce ~\bolish d • • • o because it is not good training for citizenship. the only way to prepare young people to be good citizens is to educate them from their childhood to think for themselves and to co- operate with others in a dpmocratic way. o because~it is not the best way of meeting the need for healthful recrea~ion. an intelligent and active community provides its young people with opportunities for recreation on a ci .... ilian basis. _ • o because it substitutes for self-discipline the discipline of the military, which leads to the regi- mentation of mind and bod)'. self-discipline, on the other hand, develops individual freedom and initiative. o because it is, as part of a program of military preparedness, no protection in an atomic era. as capt. liddell hart, famed british military expert, has said: "the atomic bomb makes - " nonsense of the conscript system. o because it offers no guarantee of security from war, but rather arouses the jarkest suspicions between nations, thus driving them into a competitive armaments race. o because it is wrong to compel boys to submit to the authority of a military system. no gov- ernment or person has the right to interfere with the conscience of the indi .... idual. join in the campaign to abolish cadet training here is what you can do: . write to premier george a. drew voicing your opposition to cadet training in the high schools and asking that it be abolished. . write to your member of the provincial legislature, and to your local-school board and high school principal, expressing similar views. . keep writing letters to the editor of your local pa.per. . organize a committee to abolish cadet training in your community. write us [or materials and suggestions. . ask for speakers. arrange programs on cadet training at as many groups as possible. . send a contribution to help carry on this important work. we are working for the future safety of yourself and your children. 'i. f!.. i?~ /','\ l\ : "-~". j • • issued by the committee to ahol:'h cadet tr:tinin~ of the fcllow,hip of reconciliation, charles st. w., toronto . ont~ albert g. watson, secretory. additional copies of thi, lca lct n",y be obtained "p>n ,,:quest. * a~~ carlyle king papers. a ; : . bibliography primary sources manuscript collections edmonton. university of alberta archives. w. h. alexander collection hamilton. professor a. r. allen. personal files. hugh dobson papers (microfilm). fellowship for a christian social order file. hamilton. mcmaster divinity college. canadian baptist archives. mcmaster officer training corps papers. hamilton. mcmaster university special collections. vera brittain papers. canadian youth congress papers. montreal. mcgill university archives. united church of canada papers. ottawa. public archives of canada. r. b. bennett papers. sir robert borden papers. william lyon mackenzie king papers and diaries. agnes macphail papers. arthur meighen papers. national council of women papers. james layton ralston papers. c. b. sissons papers. j. s. woodsworth papers. regina. saskatchewan archives board. henry magee horricks papers. j. m. and g. s. telford papers. saskatoon. saskatchewan arcnives board. s. v. haight papers. carlyle a. king papers. peter g. makaroff papers. violet mcnaughton papers. saskatoon. university of saskatchewan archives. c. a. king papers. toronto. n. roy clifton. personal collection. roy clifton papers. toronto. mrs. a. a. macleod. personal collection. a. a. macleod papers. toronto. mrs. emily smith. personal collection. j. lavell smith papers. toronto. society of friends meeting house. canadian friends service committee papers. toronto. united church archives. wilbur william andrews biography file. s. d. chown papers. w. b. creighton biography file. charles s. eby biography file. fellowship of reconciliation papers. methodist church of canada. the army and navy board documents, - . methodist ch~rch of canada. general conference office. general correspondence, . richard rcberts papers. student christian movement papers. e. harold toye papers. toronto. university of toronto archives. f. m. denison collection. toronto. victoria university archives. lewis emerson horning papers. waterloo. university of waterloo. canadian mennonite archives. conference of historic peace churches papers. oral history collection. iiwwii alternative service. ii government records ottawa. public archives of canada. department of justice. record group . department of labour. record group . department of national defense. record group . interdepartmental committees. record group , series . military service act. reports. record group , d . national parks branch. record group . privy council papers. record group . secretary of state papers. chief press censor. record group , el. documents canada. house of commons debates. canada. sessional papers (commons), - . canada. statutes. - george v. chapter ~ lithe military service act, . ii canada. statutes. george vi. chapter . iinational resources mobil ization act, . ii canada. statutes. george vi. chapter . "the department of national war services act, . stacey, c. p., ed. historical documents of canada. vol. : the arts of war and peace - . new york: st. martin's, . reports and proceedings canadian peace centenary association. peace centenary circulars. numbers - (circa ). chinese war relief fund. report, - . toronto: chinese war relief fund, . "history of the corps (civilian) canadian firefighters." unpublished report, department of labour, . united church of canada. board of evangelism and social service. annual reports. - . . minutes of conferences. / . --- . yearbooks. / . --- mackinnon, j. f. "historical account of the wartime activities of the alternative service branch." unpublished report, department of labour, . methodist church of canada. general conference. minutes of board of educa,tion and of executive committee, september , - april , . _~....,..,.... journal of proceedings of the general conferences of the methodist church. - . _----,,.......,..,. twenty-eighth annual report of the educational society of the methodist church of canada, - . . presbyterian church in canada. acts and proceedings of the general assemblys of the presbyterian church in canada. - . report of the 'international congress of women. the hague: . reports of the conventions of the dominion women's christian temperance union. / . reports of the lake mohonk conferences on international arbitration. - . the society of friends in canada. minutes of canada yearly meeting (conservative). - . ___ . minutes of canada yearly meeting (orthodox). - . ___ . minutes of genesee yearly meeting. - . ___ . minutes of canada and genesee yearly meetings. - . . -~ =-= ~o . minutes of the canadian yearly meetings (combined). - interviews and correspondence abbott, dr. edwin. willowdale, ontario. interview, january . alexander, harriet. rifton, new york. letter, march . allen, dr. a. stewart. cardinal, ontario. letter, february . allen, rev. h. t. victoria, british columbia. interview, hamilton, may . allen, j. stanley. hamilton. interview, august . allen, thelma s. montreal. letter, september . awmack, joseph. vancouver. interview, toronto, november . bailey, beverly. montreal. telephone interview, november . best, ernest. toronto. interview, november . boos, margaret. toronto. letter, may . brock, peter. toronto. interview, february . brown, g. wesley. toronto. interview, march . clayton, arthur. toronto. interview, november . clifton, roy. richmond hill, ontario. interview, march . davidson, rev. john f. toronto. interview, october . dobson, rev. j. d. a. combermere, ontario. letter, june . dodds, dr. jack. streetsville, ontario. intervie~ may . dorland, albert a. carp, ontario. interview, june . dorland, arthur g. toronto. interview, january . ___ • telephone interview, december . duckworth, muriel. halifax. interview, toronto, november . endicott, james g. toronto. interview, hamilton, november . fahrni, mildred. vancouver. lette~ april . fairbairn barnett, s. m. st. marys, ontario. letter, august . finlay, rev. james m. toronto. interview, october . forsey, senator eugene. ottawa. telephone interview, october . fowke, edith. toronto. interview, february . harris, gus. scarborough, ontario. interview, june . haslam, fred. toronto. interview, december . hobbs, a. elmer. scarborough, ontario. interview, may . howey, harvey. owen sound, ontario. letter, march . hutchinson, roger. toronto. interview, february . kidd, j. r. toronto. interview, october . king, carlyle a. saskatoon. letter, november . ___ . regina. interview, september . mcarthur, h. russell. nelson, british columbia. letter, may . taped oral letter, received january . mcclure, dr. robert b. pucallpa, peru. letter, february . ___ . toronto. interview, may . macleod, mrs. a. a. toronto. interview, march . mcmurtry, j. d. st. boniface, manitoba. taped oral letter, april . . interview, toronto, november . ------- mjolsness, verdine. hollywood, california. taped oral letter, received january . newbery, j. w. e. sudbury, ontario. letter, february . nix, ernest. toronto. interview, november . outhouse, stanley. toronto. interview, april . rebert owen foundation members. toronto. interview at meeting, march . savin, kathleen green. toronto. interview, october . scott, dr. r. b. y. toronto. interview, november . showler, frank l. toronto. interview, february . siegel, ida. toronto. interview, february . smith, emily. toronto. interview, november smith, w. reg. toronto. interview, may . starr, francis. howe island, ontario. interview, june . stewart, gordon k. sackville, new brunswick. taped oral letter, received march . _______ . letter, december . tatham, george. toronto. interview, february . turner, allan. provincial archivist, victoria, british columbia. letter, may . watson, albert. toronto. telephone interview, january . -------. interview, february . wolfenden, louise. toronto. interview february . woollard, keith. toronto. interview, march . wright, rev. george w. mou.nt forest, ontario. interview, may . yeomans, nina. toronto. interview, november . zavitz, jane. newmarket, ontario. interview, toronto, november . newspapers, periodicals and newsletters the beacon (asw camps, british columbia). bulletin: to maintain courage by sharing conviction (r. e. fairbairn). canadian annual review. canadian baptist. the canadian c.o. (montreal). the canadian forum. the canadian friend. canadian student (scm). the christian century. the christian guardian. christian social action (fcso). citizen and country (toronto). the daily mail and empire (toronto). the echo (united theological college, montreal). evening telegram (toronto). fsu chronicle (shanghai, china). grain growers' guide. the globe (toronto). the leader-post (regina). manitoba free press. the new outlook. the new trail (university of alberta). the northern beacon (asw camp, montreal river). the presbyterian. the presbyterian and westminster~ the presbyterian record. reconciliation (canadian for). saturday night. the silhouette (mcmaster university). the star-phoenix (saskatoon). the toronto dail¥ star. the united church observer. the varsity (university of toronto). vox weslleyan (wesley college, winnipeg). the world tomorrow. books and pamphlets addams, jane. peace and bread in time of war. new york: . auden, w. h. and isherwood, christopher. journey to a war. new york: random house, . belden, albert. pax christi. london: allen and unwin, . beynon, francis marion. aleta day. london: c. w. daniel, . bland, salem. the new christianity. toronto: ; reprint ed. with an introduction by r;che,rd allen. toronto: ur.iversity of toronto press, . bowles, r. p. socialism, pacifism, m¥sticism. toronto: ryerson, . brittain, vera. the rebel passion. nyack, new york: fellowship publications, . buck, tim. thirty years: - . toronto: progre~s books, . byers, i. m. report of the 'canadian 'school history textbook survey. toronto: wil, . canadian national committee on refugees. new homes for old. leaflet, . canadian youth congress. declaration of rights of canadian youth. ottawa: cyc, . chown, alice. the stairway. boston: cornhill company, . cochrane, arthur c. the church and the war. toronto: thomas nelson and sons, . colley, norman a., ed. the handbook of the christian commonwealth youth movement of canada. calgary: national council of the christian commonwealth youth movement, . creighton, w. b. all in the day·s work. toronto: ryerson, . dale, ernest a. twenty-one years a-building: a short account of the student christian movement of canada, - . toronto: scm, . durkin, d. the magpie. toronto: hc·dder and stoughton, ; reprint ed. with an introduction by peter e. rider. toronto: university of toronto press, . eby, c. s. christianity and civilization. toronto: united church of canada, . · god-love. the word of the kingdom series, study i. toronto: ---,.,..un ...... i-:-ted church of canada, . · sermon on the mount: the charter of the kingdom. the ---"w:" ""o-r'd of the kingdom series, study ii. toronto: united church of canada, . • the world problem and the divine solution. toronto: --w:-r"il'"';"lt"liam briggs, . fairbairn, r. edis. apostate christendom. london: ken-pax, . ___ . the appeal to reality. new york: abingdon press, . fairbairn, r. edis. kinqdom of god evangelism. toronto: ryerson, . fellowship for a christian social order. our battle for peace. toronto: fcso, n.d. fellowship of reconciliation. pacifist handbook. new york: for, n.d. fowke, edith. they made democracy work: the story of the co-operative committee on japanese canadtans. toronto: garden city press co-operative, . gifford, w. a. et al. the christian and war. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . gregg, richard. the power of non-violence. new york: . harrison, charles yale. generals die in bed. london: ; reprint ed., hamilton, ontario: potlatch publications, . haslam, fred. - : a record of experience with canadian friends and the canadian ecumenical movement. toronto: canadian yearly meeting of the society of friends, . johnston, p. education for peace. saskatoon: united farmers of canada, . king, william lyon mackenzie. industry and humanity. toronto: ; reprint ed. with an introduction by david jay bercuson. toronto: university of toronto press, . lasserre, henri. the communities of tolstoyans. translated by purcell weaver. toronto: rural co-operative community council and canadian fellowsbip for co-operative community, . __ ~~~. the conscience of the rich confronted by the world crisis. montreal: fcso, . ____ . co-operatisme integral. bale: u.s.c., . league for social reconstruction, research committee. social planning for canada. toronto: thomas nelson and sons, ; reprint ed. with an introduction by f. r. scott et al. toronto: university of toronto press, . leatherman, noah. diary kept by noah l. leatherman while in camp during world war . linden, alberta: aaron l. toews, . lindsay, a. d. pacifism as a principle and pacifism as a dogma. london: scm, . macdonald denison, flora. war and women. toronto: canadian suffrage association, . macdonald, james a. democracyand the nations: a canadian view. toronto: s. b. gundy, . ___ . the north p·merican idea. toronto: fleming h. renell, . macdonald, wilson. a flagon of beauty. toronto: peace tree publications, . mcclung, nellie. in times like these. toronto: ; reprint ed. with an introduction by veronica strong-boag. toronto: university of toronto press, . . the stream runs fast. toronto: thomas allen, . --- mcmaster university. calendar. - . ___ . faculty of theology calendar. - . methodist church of canada. the dcctrine and discipline of the methodist church of canada. toronto: . military training in canadian scnools and colleges. toronto: women's international league for peace and freedom, toronto branch, . morris, david. china changed my mind. london: cursell, . muste, a. j. nonviolence in an aggressive world. new york: harper and brothers, . __ -;--' not by might. new york: harper and brothers, ; reprint ed., new york: garland, . niebuhr, reinhold. an interpretation of christian ethics. new york: harper and brothers, . ___ . moral man and immoral society. new york: scribners, . . why the christian church is not pacifist. london: scm ---=-pr-e-ss, . peace pledge union. peace service handbook. london: peace pledge union, n.d. raven, charles e. war and the christian. london: scm press, ; reprint ed., new york: garland, . russell, g. stanley. the chrrch in the modern world. toronto: mc.clelland and stewart, . . the road behind me. toronto: macmillan, . --- scott, r. b. y. and vlastos, gregory, eds. towards the christian revolution. new york: willett, clark and company, . thomas, anna braithwaite et ale st. stephen's house: friends emergency work in england to . london: headley, n.d. thomas, ernest. christian life in a changing world. toronto: ryerson, . . the church and the economic order. toronto: lsr, . --- _--,,:---.-' the quest for peace. toronto: board of evangelism c.nd social service, united church of canada, n.d. thomson, andrew. the wars: what can the churches do? toronto: united church publishing house, . toye, e. harold. some impressions of a parson after two years in the religion-labour field. toronto: religion-labour foundation, n.d. ___ . trifling with destiny. toronto: thistle, . united church of canada. on peace and war. toronto: board of evangelism and social service, united church of canada, . the war and the christian church. tcronto: presbyterian assembly's commissicn of the war, . wesleyan theological college (montreal). calendar. - . woodsworth, j. s. the first story of the labor church. winnipeg: . ___ . following the gleam. ottawa: € . . ed. studies in rural citizenship. winnipeg: canadian --,.....we~l-;:'fare league and the canadi an counci of agricul ture, . woodsworth, kenneth. canadian youth comes of age. toronto: ryerson, . articles and addresses allen, harold t. iia view- from the manse: the social gospel and social crisis in brittsh columhia, - ." in the social gospel in canada, pp. - . edited by richard allen. ottawa: national museum of man, . angell, norman. "canada's best service for british ideals. ii addresses delivered before the canadian club of toronto, - . toronto: canadian club, . atkinson, j. e. lithe aftermath of the war. ii addresses delivered before the canadian club of toronto, - . toronto: canadian club, . aubrey, edwin e. review of towards the christian revolution, by r. b. y. scott and gregory vlastos. journal of religion, (july ): - . bailey, gerald. "a strategy of peace. ii the canadian friend, february , pp. - . brigden, beatrice. iio ne woman's campaign for social purity and social reform." in the social gospel in canada, pp. - . edited by richard allen. ottawa: national museum of man, . dorland, arthur g. "militarism in canada. i the canadian friend. july , pp. - . eastman, samuel mack. lithe hague, august, . socialist review, june , pp. - . einstein, albert. "militant pacifism. i the world tomorrow, xiv (januaryi ): . fairbairn, r. edis, et al. iia witness against war. ii united church observer, october , p. . ferm, vergilus. review of towards the christian revolution, by r. b. y. scott and gregory vlastos. international journal of ethics, (july ): - . gandhi, mahatma. iinon-violence -- the greatest force. i the canadian friend, november , p. . gordon, j. king. "a christian socialist 'tn the 's." in the social gospel in canada, pp. ~ . edited hy richard allen. ottawa: national museum of man, . grube, g. m. a. "pacifism and human nature. i tne canadlan forum, july , pp. - . · "pacifism: the only sol ution.' the canadian forum, june -~= , pp. - . hayward, constance. utile canadian national committee on refugees." reconciliation, (november ): . havelock, eric a. "canada and a european war. i christian century, (march ): - . ---· "peace cranks.' the new outlook, february , p. . hopkins, j. c. "german propaganda: u. s. aliens and pacifists." canadian annual review, , pp. - . · "pacifism in canada." canadian annual review, , --pp-.- - . horning, lewis e. "england and germany." addresses delivered before the canadian club of hamilton, - . toronto: canadian club, . ---· "the two ideals." acta victoriana, xl (october ): - . lasserre, henri. "towards cooperative industry." the canadian forum, march , pp. - ; april , pp. - . mcclung, nellie. "the new citizenship." addresses delivered before the canadian club of toronto, - . toronto: canadian cl ub, . newbery, j. w. e. and lasserre, henri. "they seek for a city." a series on the birth of a christian community. united church observer, - . niebuhr, reinhold. review of towards the christian revolution, by r. b. y. scott and gregory vlastos. radical religion, ii (spring ): - . · "why i leave the for." the chri sti an century, li ---""c ..--:"'january ): - . silcox, c. e. iiyoung refugees interned in canada. f the canadian friend, january , pp. - . smith, w. c. lithe canadian youth congress. i the canadian forum, july , pp. - . storms, paul l. "life at montreal river camp.'t tne canadian friend, april , pp. - . strachey, john. lithe churches speak at last: being a review of towards the christian revolution. f the left news, may . thomas, -ernest. iis nou ld the united church condemn war?" the new outlook, august , pp. - . vlastos, gregory. review of creative society, by john macmurray. radical religion, i (winter ): - . wood, lieutenant colonel william. iiwar -- the neglected factor in canadian problems for a hundred years. i addresses delivered before the canadian club of toronto, - . toronto: canadian club, . woodsworth, j. s. limy convictions about war." vox, december , pp. - . zieglscmid, a. j. f. iimust the hutterites leave canada?" the christian century, lxiv ( october ): . secondary sources books and pamphlets adachi, ken. the enemy that never was: a history of the japanese canadians. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . addison, paul. the road to : british politics and the second world war. lnndon: jonathan cape, . allen, richard. the social passion: religion and social reform in canada - . toronto: university of toronto press, . _---;::-_. ed. a region of the mind: interpreting the western canadian plains. regina: university of saskatchewan press, . allen, richard, ed~ the social gospel in canada. ottawa: national museum of man, . armstrong, elizabeth. the crisis of quebec, - . ne~ york: columbia university press, ; reprint ed., toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . arnold, emmy. torches togeth~r: the'beginning and early years of the bruderhof communities. translated by the society of brothers. rifton, new york: plough publishing house, . avakumovic, ivan. the communist party in canada: a history. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . bainton, roland h. christian attitudes towards war and peace. nashville: vanderbilt university press, . bamba,n. and howes, john f. pacifism in japan: the christian and socialist tradition. vancouver: university of british columbia press, . beattie, margaret. a brief history of the student christian movement in canada. toronto: scm, . bennett, john william. hutterian brethren. stanford: stanford university press, . berger, carl. the sense of power. toronto: university of toronto press, . betcherman, lita-rose. the swastika and the maple leaf. toronto: fitzherny and whitside, . bercuson, david jay. confrontation at winnipeg. montreal: mcgill- queen's university press, . best, ethelwyn and pike, bernard. international voluntary service for peace, - . london: allen and unwin, . boulton, david. objection overruled. london: macgibbon and kee, . brock, peter. pacifism in europe to . princeton: princeton university press, . brock, peter. pacifism in the united states: from the colonial era to the first world war. princeton~ princeton university press, . _--;::---:-,' twentietn-century pacfflsm. toronto: van nostrand reinhold, . brown, robert craig. robert laird borden: a biography. vols. toronto: macmillan, and ] . brown, robert craig and cook, ramsay. canada ~ : a nation transformed. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . bussey, gertrude and tims, margaret. women's international league for peace and freedom, - . london: george allen and unwin, . cadoux, c. j. the early christian attitude to war. london: ; reprint ed. with an introduction by w. e. orchard. london: allen and unwin, . carter, paul a. the decline and revival of the social gospel. ithica: cornell university press, . ceadel, martin. pacifism in britain - : the defining of a faith. oxford: clarendon press, . chatfield, charles. for peace and justice: pacifism in america, - . knoxville: university of tennessee, . clark, s. d., grayson, j. paul and grayson, linda m., eds. prophecy and protest: social movements in twentieth century canada. toronto: gage, . cleverdon, c. l. the woman suffrage movement in canada. toronto: university of toronto press, . coady, father m. m. masters of their own destiny: the story of the antigonish movement of adult education through economic co-operation. new york: harper and brothers, . creighton, donald. the forked road: canada - . toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . crysdale, stewart. the industrial struggle and protestant ethics in canada. toronto: ryerson, . davies, a. tegla. friends ambulance unit: the stor of the f.a.u. in the second world war - . london: allen and unwin, . davies, j. g. christians, politics and violent revolution. london: scm press, . davis, morris and krauter, joseph f~ the other canadians: profiles of six minorities. toronto: methuen, . dawson, c. a. grout settlement: ethnic communities in western canada. toronto: macmi lan, . degen, marie louise. the history of the woman's peace party. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press, . dennis, peter. decision by default: peacetime conscription and british defense, - . london: routledge and kegan paul, . dorland, arthur g. former days and quaker ways, a canadian retrospective. picton, ontario: picton gazette, . _--;::-_. the quakers in canada: a history. new ed., toronto: ryerson, . eayrs, james. in defense of canada. vols. toronto: university of toronto press, . endicott, stephen. james g. endicott: rebel out of china. toronto: university of toronto press, . epp, frank h. mennonites in canada, - : the history of a separate people. toronto: macmillan, . _--,...,...-,.-' ed. r would like to dodge the draft-dodgers but .... waterloo: conrad press, . farrell, john c. beloved lady: a history of jane addams' ideas on reform and peace. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press, . finn, james, ed. protest, pacifism and politics. new york: random house, . flint, david. the hutterites: a study in prejudice. toronto: oxford university press, . francis, e. k. in search of utopia -- the mennonites i, i manitoba. glencoe: the free press, . forty years for peace: a history of the fellowship of reconciliation - . new york: for, . fussell, paul. tne great war and modern memory. london: oxford university press, . gingerich, melvin. service for peace: a history of mennonite civilian public service. akron, penn: mennonite central corrmittee, . graham, john w. conscription and conscience. london: allen and unwin, ; reprint ed., new york: augustus m. kelly, . granatstein, j. l. canada's war: the politics of the mackenzie king government - . toronto: oxford university press, . _--:-:--=--' conscription in the second world war - . toronto: mcgraw-hill ryerson, . granatstein, j. l. and hitsman, j. m. broken promises: a history of conscription in canada. toronto: oxford university press, . grant, john webster. george pidgeon: a biography. toronto: ryerson, . greene, b. m., ed. who's who and why, - . toronto: international press, . greenwood, john ormerod. quaker encounters. vol. i: friends and relief. york, england: william sessions, . grubb, edward. social aspects of the quaker faith. london: headly brothers, . grubbs, frank l. the struggle for labor loyalty: gompers, a.f. of l. and the pacifists, - . durham: duke university press, . harkness, ross. j. e. atkinson of the star. toronto: university of toronto press, . hayes, denis. challenge of conscience: the story of the conscientious objectors of - . london: sheppard press, . hayes, denis. conscription conglict: the conflict of ideas in the struggle for and against military conscription in britain between and . london: srreppard press, ; reprint ed., new york: garland, . hentoff, nat. peace agitator: the story of a. j. muste. new york: macmillan, . hershberger, guy franklin. toe mennonite churc" in the second world war. scottdale, penn: mennonite publication house, . hill, christopher. the world turned upside down: radical ideas during the english revolution. london: penguin books, . hoar, victor. the mackenzie-papineau battalion. toronto: copp clark, . houghton, walter e. the victorian frame of mind, - . new haven: yale university press, . hyatt, john, ed. pacifism: a selected bibliography. london: housmans, . innis, mary quayle, ed. the clear spirit: twenty canadian women and their times. toronto: university of toronto press, . johnson, donald. the challenge to american freedom: world war i and the rise of the american civil liberties union. lexington: university of kentucky press, . johnston, c. m. mcmaster university. vol. i: the toronto years. toronto: university of toronto press, . knox, r. a. enthusiasm: a chapter in the history of religion. oxford: clarendon press, . laurendeau, andre. witness for quebec. edited and translated by philip strarford. toronto: macmillan, . luckman, thomas. the invisible religion. new york: macmillan, . macewen, grant .... and might~ women too: stories of notable western canadian women. sas atoon: western producer, . macgill, elsie g. my mother the judge: a biography of judoe helen gregory macgill. toronto: ryerson, . macgregor, g. h. c. the new testament basis of pacifism. london: ; reprint ed., new york: fellowship publications, . mackay, j. i. and smith, j. lavell. one lord, one door, one people: the church of all nations> toronto'. toronto: board of home missions, united cnurch of canada, . maclachlan, lewis. c.p.f.l.u.: a short history of toe christian pacifist forestrx land units~ - . london: for, . macphersqn, ian. each fqr all: a htstorx of the co-operative movement in english canada, q~ . toronto: macmillan, . marchand, c. roland. the american peace movement and social reform - . princeton: princeton university press, . marrin, albert. the last crusade: the church of england in the first world war. durham: duke university press, . martin, david a. pacifism: an historical and sociological study. new york: schacken books, . marwick, arthur. the delu~e: british society and the first world war. new york: norton, . mccormick, a. ross. reformers, rebels, and revolutionaries: the western canadain radical movement - . toronto: university of toronto press, . mcnaught, kenneth. a prophet in politics: a biography of j. s. woodsworth. toronto: university of toronto press, . reprinted . mellanby, kenneth. human guinea pigs. london: gollancz, ; reprint ed., . meyer, donald b. the protestant search for political realism: - .. berkeley: university of california press, . moffatt, gary. history of the canadian peace movement until . st. catharines: grapevine press, . morgan, henry james, ed. the canadian men and women of the time: a handbook of canadian biography of living characters. toronto: . morrison, sybil. i renounce war: the storx of the peace pledge union. london: sheppard press, . morton, desmond. mayor howland: the citizens' candidate. toronto: hakkert, . morton, w. l. the progressive party in canada. toronto: university of toronto press, ; reprint ed., toronto: university of toronto press, . ' neatoy, h. blair. wtlltamlyon mackenzie king. vol. iii: - : the prism'of unity. toronto: macmillan, . nelson, john k. the peace prophets: american pacifist thought - . chapel hill: university of north carolina press, . nickalls, john l.~ ed. journal of george fox. london: society of friends, . oliver, john. the church and social order: social thought in the church of england, - . london: mowbray, . park, julian, ed. the culture of contemporary canada. ithaca: cornell university press, . penner, norman. the canadian left: a critical analysis. scarborough: prentice-hall, . penton, m. james. jehovah's witnesses in canada. toronto: macmillan, . peterson, h. c. and fite, gilbert c. opponents of war, - . seattle: university of washington press, ; reprint ed., . peters, victor. all things common: the hutterian way of life. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, . prang, margaret. n. w. rowell: ontario nationalist. toronto: university of toronto press, . prasad, devi and smythe, tony. conscription: a world survey. london: war resisters' international, . rae, john. conscience and politics: the british government and the conscientious objector to military service - . london: oxford university press, . ramsay, paul. basic christian ethics. new york: charles scribner's . _-=-_. war and the christian conscience. durham: duke university press, . raven, charles e. the theological basis of christian pacifism. london: fellowship press, . regamey, p. non-violence and the christian conscience. london: dorton, longmans and iodd, . reimer, david p. experiences of the mennonites of canada during the second world war, - . altoona, manitoba: d. w. friesen and sons, . robbins, keith. the abolition of war: tne iipeace movement j in britain, - . cardiff: university of wales press, . rodney, william. soldiers of the international: a history of the communist party of canada, - . toronto: university of toronto press, . sampson, ronald. the anarchist basis of pacifism. london: peace pledge union, . sanders, byrne hope. emily murphy, crusader. toronto: macmillan, . scott, munroe. mcclure: the china years. toronto: canec publishing, . shortt, s. e. d. the search for an ideal. toronto: university of toronto press, . sibley, mulford q. and jacob, philip e. conscription of conscience. ithaca: cornell university press, ; reprint ed., new york; johnson reprint corporation, . smucker, dan e. the theological basis for christian pacifism. scottdale, penn: mennonite publishing house, . stevens, austin. the dispossessed. london: barrie and jenkins, . stewart, margaret and french, doris. ask no quarter. toronto: longmans, green and company, . stubbs, roy st. george. prairie portraits. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . swettenham, john. mcnaughton. vols. toronto: ryerson, . thompson, john herd. the harvests of war: the prairie west, - . toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . thml)son, watson. pioneer in communt ty. toronto: ryerson, j . toews, j. a. alternative service in canada during world war ii. winnipeg: the christian press, s . underhill, franr ff. rn search of canadian liberalism. toronto: macmillan, . wallace, w.stewart, ed. the macmillan dictionary of canadian biography. third edition. toronto: macmillan, . wiebe, robert h. the search for order, - . new york: hill and wang, . wilson, barbara, ed. ontario and the first world war, - . toronto: university of toronto press, . winter, c. f. lt. gen. sir sam hughes: canada's war minister. toronto: macmillan, . wittner, lawrence s. rebels against war: the american peace movement, - . new york: columbia university press, . whitney, norman. experiments in community. wallingford: pendle hill press, . woodcock, george. anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements. london: penguin books, . . civil disobedience. toronto: cbc, . --- ___ . the basis of communal living. london: freedom press, . woodcock, george and avakumovic, ivan. the doukhobors. toronto: oxford university press, . young, walter d. the anatomy of a party: the national c.c.f., - . toronto: university press, . zahn, gordon c. war, conscience and dissent. new york: hamilton books, . zakuta, leo. a protest movement becalmed. toronto: university of toronto press, . zubek, john p. and solberg, patricia anne. doukhobors at war. toronto: ryerson, . articles abella, irving and troper, harold. iiithe line must be drawn somewhere i : canada and jewish refugees, - . canadian historical "review, ix (june ): - . allen, richard. lithe background of the sodal gospel in canada. i in the social gospel in canada, pp. - . edited by richard allen. ottawa: national museum of man, . _--,,-,=....-. lithe social gospel and the reform tradition in canada, - . canadian historical review, xlix (december ): - . . lithe social gospel as the religion of the agrarian -~re-v-"'olt.' in the west and the nation, pp. - . edited by carl berger and ramsay cook. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . bliss, j. m. lithe methodist church and world war i.ii canadian historical review, xlix (september ). in conscription , pp. / . edited by carl berger. canadian historical readings no. . toronto: university of toronto press, . bothwell, robert and english, john. iiidirty work at the cross- roads i: new perspectives on the riddell incident. ii canadian historical association, historical papers, , pp. - . brown, r. craig. iigoldwin smith and anti-imperialism. i canadian historical review, xliii (june ). in imperial relations in the age of laurier, pp. - . edited by carl berger. canadian historical readings no. . toronto: university of toronto press, . chatfield, charles. iiworld war i and the liberal pacifist in the united states. i american historical review, (december ): - . chomsky, noam. lithe revolutionary pacifism of a. j. muste." gandhi marg, (april ): - . cole, alan. lithe quakers and the english revolution. i in crisis in europe, ~ , pp. - . edited by trevor aston. new york: doubleday, . conway, jill. lithe women's peace party and the first world war. ii in war and society in north america, pp. - . edited by j. l. granatstein and r. d. cuff. toronto: thomas nelson and sons, . cook, ramsay. iifrancis marion beynon and the crisi's of chri'stian reformism. i in tlie west and the nation, pp. - . edited by carl berger and ramsay cook. toronto: mcclelland and stewart, . courville, l. d. lithe conservatism of the saskatchewan progressives. i canadian historical association, historical papers, , pp. - . filene, peter. "the world peace foundation and progressivism, - . new england quarterly, (december ): - . goldman, aaron l. iidefense regulations b: emergency internment of aliens and political dissenters in great britain during world war ." the journal of british studies, (may ): - . harkness, georgia. "roland h. bainton: a biographical appreciation." in reformation studies: essays in honour of roland h. bainton, pp. - . edited by f. h. littell. richmond: john knox press, . horn, michiel. "frank underhill's early drafts of the regina manifesto, ." canadian historical review, xiv (december ): - . _---,=--=-. "the league for social reconstruction and the development of canadian socialism, - ." journal of canadian studies, vii (november ): - . kennedy, t. c. "public opinion and the conscientious objector, - ." the journal of british studies, (may ): - . lambert, r. s. "forgotten peace prophet." macleans, march , pp. - . macpherson, ian. "the crisis of the canadian co-operative movement, - ." canadian historical association, historical papers, , pp. - . manley, john. iiwomen and the left in tbe 's: the case of the toronto ccf women i s joint commlttee. \ atl anti s, (spring j } : = . martens, hi degard m. "accommodation and w'lthdrawal: the response of mennonites in canada to world war ii. soctal history, ( ): - . miller, carman. iienghsh canadian opposition to the south african war as seen through tne press.'l canadian historical review, lv (decemoer ig ): - . morgan, kenneth o. review of pacifism in britain, - t by martin ceadel. times literary supplement, august , p. . morton, desmond. iisi r will i am otter and internment operations in canada during the first world war." canadian historical review, lv (march ): - . nickel, j. w. lithe canadian conscientious objector." mennonite life, january . page, donald. "the development of a ~~estern canadian peace movement. i in the twenties in western canada, pp. - . edited by s. m. trofimenkoff. ottawa: national museum of man, . page, robert j. d. iicanada and the imperial idea in the boer war years." journal of canadian studies, february , pp. - . patterson, j. o. review of for peace and justice, by charles chatfield. journal of american history, (june ): . iiquakers opposed war preparation in upper canada." the canadian friend, february-march , pp. - . rempel, richard a. iibritish quakers and the south african war. i quaker history, (autumn ): - . _--.-_. lithe oilerrmas of british pacifists during world war . journal of modern history, (december ): . robin, martin. "registration, conscription, and independent labour politics, - ." canadian historical review, xlvii (june ). in conscription [, pp. - . edited by carl berger. canadian historical readings no. . toronto: university of toronto press, . rothwell, david r. "united church. pacifism -- october . the bulletin, xx c }: ~ . shapiro, stanley. lithe great war and reform: lioerals. and lacor, - . lador history, csurmner }: - . stamp, robert m. "e pfre day in the scflools of ontario: the training of young imperialists." journal of canadian studies, august , pp. - . tei'chroew, allen. "world war i and the mennonite migration to canada to avoid the draft. mennonite quarterly revfew, xiv (july ): - . thompson, john h. ii 'the beginning of our regeneration': the great war and western canadian reform movements." canadian historical association, historical papers, , pp. - . • ii 'permanently wasteful but immediately profitable': prairie --a"r"g-r ..... ;culture and the great war. i canadian historical association, historical papers, , pp. - . trotter, william. iijulia grace wales and the wisconsin plan for peace. i wisconsin magazine of history, xliv ( ): - . unruh, john d. lithe hutter; tes during worl d war i." mennoni te ./ life, july , pp. - . ward, w. peter. "british columbia and the japanese evacuation. i canadian historical review~ lvii (september ): - . young, w. r. "conscription, rural depopulation, and the farmers of ontario, - . canadian historical review, liii (september ): - . unpublished papers and dissertations bacchi-ferraro, carol lee. lithe ideas of the canadian suffragists, - . m.a. thesis, mcgill university, . barker, ralph. "the united church and the social question: a study of the social and theological outlook of the united church after thirty-fhe years. i th.d. thesis, victoria university, toronto, . beattie, margaret eileen. iipressure group politics: the student chris.tian movement in canada." ph.d. thesis, university of alberta, . brannigan, colm. lithe anglican cnurch in canada and the great war. i graduate seminar paper for professor a. r. allen, department of history, mcmaster university, . boudreau, joseph amedee. lithe enemy alien problem in canada, - . ph.d. thesis, university of california, los angeles, . christie, edward a. lithe presbyterian church in canada and its official attitude toward public affairs and social problems, - ." m.a. thesis, university of toronto, . cook, ramsay. iicanadian liberalism in wartime: a study of the defense of canada regulations and some canadian attitudes to civil liberties in wartime. i m.a. thesis, queen's university, . . lithe professor and the prophet of unrest. i paper presented ----a~t~t'he colloquium on canadian society in the late nineteenth century, mcgill university, january - , . fransen, david warren. iicanadian mennonites and conscientious objection in world war . m.a. thesis, university of waterloo, . _--==--_. "debate on alternative service during world war . paper for institute of annabaptist-mennonite studies, conrad grebel college, university of waterloo, . groome, agnes jean. "m. j. coldwell and c.c.f. foreign policy, - . m.a. thesis, university of saskatchewan, regina, . horn, michiel, lithe league for social reconstruction: socialism and nationalism in canada, - . ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, . howard, james willis. iia study of cadet training in the dominion of canada. i ph.d. thesis, cornell universfty, . husemeyer, elizabeth turton. lithe treatment of enemy aliens in britain during the first world war. i graduate seminar paper for professor r. rempel, department of history, mcmaster university, . hutchinson, roger. "the fellowsh'tp for a christian social order: a social ethical analysis of a christian socialist movement. ii th.d. thesis, victoria university, toronto, . lutzker, michael a. "the practical peace advocates: an interpretation of the american peace movement, - ." ph.d. thesis, rutgers university, . newberry, j. "bertrand russell and the pacifists in the first world war." ph.d. thesis, mcmaster university, . norman, gwen r. p. "rlchard rooerts. i unpublisned manuscript, . in richard roberts papers, united church archives, toronto. page, donald'm. iicanadians and the league of nations before the manchurian crisis. i ph.d. thesis, university of toronto, . royce, m. v. lithe contribution of the methodist church to social welfare in canada." m.a. thesis, university of toronto, . sibley, abigail. lithe response of british teachers to the ideological issues of war and peace during the inter-war period, - . paper presented at the canadian historical association, annual meeting, montreal, june . sinclair-faulkner, c. t. '" for christian civilization": the churches and canada's war effort, - . th.d. thesis, university of chicago, . socknat, thomas p. ii canada , imperial foreign policy and the abrogation of the anglo-japanese all iance, ." m.a. thesis, university of nebraska" omaha, . steininger, fred. iigeorge h. williams: agrarian socialist. i r .a. thesis, university of regina, . . "war and the crisis of conscience, - ." paper ---,,,.--,. for professor a. r. allen, department of history, university of regi na, . original article dense snp association study for bipolar i disorder on chromosome p suggests two loci with excess paternal transmission jg mulle , md fallin , vk lasseter , ja mcgrath , ps wolyniec and ae pulver mckusick-nathans institute of genetic medicine, johns hopkins school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa; department of epidemiology, johns hopkins bloomberg school of public health, baltimore, md, usa and department of psychiatry and behavioral sciences, johns hopkins school of medicine, baltimore, md, usa parent-of-origin effects have been implicated as mediators of genetic susceptibility for a number of complex disease phenotypes, including bipolar disorder. specifically, evidence for linkage on chromosome is modified when allelic parent-of-origin is accommodated in the analysis. our goal was to characterize the susceptibility locus for bipolar i disorder on chromosome p and investigate this parent-of-origin hypothesis in an association context. this was achieved by genotyping single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) at a high density ( snp/ kb) along . megabases of the linkage region. to increase our ability to detect a susceptibility locus, we restricted the phenotype definition to include only bipolar i probands. we also restricted our study population to ashkenazi jewish individuals; this population has characteristics of a genetic isolate and may therefore facilitate detection of variants for complex disease. three hundred and forty-four pedigrees ( parent/child trios) where probands were affected with bipolar disorder were genotyped. transmission disequilibrium test analysis revealed no statistically significant association to snps or haplotypes within this region in this sample. however, when parent-of-origin of transmitted snps was taken into account, suggestive association was revealed for two separate loci. molecular psychiatry ( ) , – . doi: . /sj.mp. ; published online october keywords: bipolar disorder; genetic association; p ; psychiatric genetics; parent of origin; transmission disequilibrium introduction bipolar i disorder is a severe mood disorder char- acterized by episodes of both mania and depression. lifetime prevalence of bipolar i disorder is estimated at . – . %; approximately % of bipolar i patients commit suicide (diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (dsm iv)). annual costs for bipolar disorder are estimated at $ – billion dollars. despite this heavy burden of disease, the underlying pathology of bipolar disorder remains poorly under- stood. a greater understanding of disease etiology is imperative for the development of successful treat- ment and management options. there is substantial evidence that genetic factors contribute to the development of bipolar disorders. heritability is estimated between and %, and heritability of specifically bipolar disorder has been estimated to be %. despite this high heritability, segregation analyses do not support mendelian para- digms of inheritance. the complex inheritance of bipolar disorder, as well as phenotypic and etiologic heterogeneity, implies that multiple susceptibility loci may exist. numerous whole-genome linkage studies have been modestly successful in identifying regions of the genome that may harbor susceptibility loci, including six studies that find significant or suggestive evidence for linkage to chromosome p . – a meta-analysis of whole-genome linkage scans of bipolar disorder identified chromosome as nominally significant; another meta-analysis of studies found the p region significant at p < . . there is also evi- dence for a parent-of-origin effect on linkage evidence at the p locus. , , it is important to note that many studies have failed to find linkage evidence to chromosome p . the lack of agreement in findings from genetic studies may be attributable to etiologic heterogeneity of bipolar disorder; it may also be due to lack of consistency in ascertainment or diagnostic methods, or to low statistical power, as many linkage studies have a small number of pedigrees for analysis. a number of candidate genes on chromosome p have been investigated for association with genetic markers, including napg, pacap, mc r, impa , ndufv , gnal and clul – (table ). received august ; revised january ; accepted january ; published online october correspondence: dr ae pulver, department of psychiatry and behavioral sciences, johns hopkins school of medicine, lancaster street, suite # , baltimore, md , usa. e-mail: aepulver@jhmi.edu molecular psychiatry ( ) , – & nature publishing group all rights reserved - / $ . www.nature.com/mp some of these studies show promising genetic- association evidence, and await replication and biology-based evidence for involvement in disease. the majority of candidate gene studies have utilized a case–control design; testing of a parent-of-origin hypothesis is not possible in these studies. lack of consistency among linkage and association findings for bipolar disorder is complicated by the definition of affection status. many linkage studies do not distinguish between bipolar i, bipolar ii, unipolar depression and schizoaffective disorder; often, all are considered affected. a reduction in heterogeneity may be achieved by restricting the investigated phenotype to include a single and more reliable diagnosis. the investigation of disease in an isolated population may also reduce heterogeneity and facilitate identifica- tion of susceptibility variants. because isolated popula- tions arise from a limited number of founders, genetic variation is reduced and the probability that affected individuals share a common susceptibility locus is increased. the investigation of isolated populations for complex genetic disease has been previously successful for both linkage and association for complex diseases. for example, the ednrb locus for hirschsprung disease was discovered by linkage in mennonite kindreds, and mutations in the gene were also first identified in the mennonite population. , subse- quently, it has been shown that mutation in the ednrb gene is responsible for % of hirschsprung disease in outbred populations. recent studies in the icelandic population have identified associated regions or spe- cific variants for prostate cancer and type ii diabetes; these associations have been replicated in non-icelan- dic populations. , in the ashkenazi jewish popula- tion, variation in the genes msh , brca and brca contribute to the burden of prostate, breast and colon cancer in the ashkenazim as well as outbred popula- tions. – we have elected to focus on the ashkenazi jewish population, which has arisen from a limited number of founders and where endogamous mating is culturally reinforced. we have previously investigated evidence for linkage in ashkenazi pedigrees multiplex for bipolar disorder (i and ii). the results of this scan were suggestive for linkage to chromosome p ; this linkage evidence increased when analysis was restricted to a diagnosis of bpi only ( pedigrees), and is due to excess sharing of paternal alleles among affected relatives in the p region. our goal in the present study was to fine map the linkage region with informative snps, and further investigate the parent- of-origin effect observed in our linkage study. to this end, we ascertained pedigrees ( bpi trios) all of ashkenazi descent. this sample was genotyped for snp markers in a . mb region on chromo- some p . we find suggestive association evidence for paternally transmitted snps. further investigation and close scrutiny of this region is warranted. materials and methods study subjects ashkenazi jewish individuals affected with bpi were recruited nationally over a -year period through table candidate genes studied for bipolar disorder on chromosome p candidate gene position, build study, year sample size parent-of- origin analyzed? no. of markers tested evidence for association napg . weller et al. bpi cases, controls not possible p = . , single snp genotypic test, uncorrected adcyap (pacap) . ishiguro et al. bipolar (i and ii) cases, and controls not possible no association gnal . tsiouris et al. trios from families yes ( alleles) no association; no parent- of-origin association mc r . lohoff and berrettini bpi cases, controls not possible no association impa . sjoholt et al. norwegian bipolar cases, controls not possible . , single snp, uncorrected arab bpi trios no . , single snp, uncorrected yoshikawa et al. bipolar cases; bipolar cases, controls not possible . , uncorrected ndufv . washizuka et al.; washizuka et al. bipolar (i and ii) japanese cases, controls not possible . ( -snp haplotype), corrected bipolar (i and ii) case–parent trios no . ( -snp haplotype), corrected clul . mcinnes et al. (nonindependent) bpi cases, controls no . , uncorrected bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry advertisements in newspapers and jewish newslet- ters, talks to community organizations, letters to leaders of the jewish community and a study web site (johns hopkins epidemiology/genetics program in psychiatry home page, www.hopkinsmedicine. org/epigen). case–parent trios were eligible for inclu- sion in these analyses if: the proband met dsm-iv criteria for a bpi diagnosis, both parents were available for dna collection, and all four grand- parents were of ashkenazi jewish descent. this recruitment effort led to eligible families for analysis ( trios), including families ( trios) from our previous linkage study. forty-eight percent of affected individuals in our study were male; mean age of onset for bpi was . years. probands were assessed for psychiatric illness according to established procedure, as follows: a trained clinical examiner (doctoral-level clinical psychologist) interviewed each study subject in person (usually in their home) using the diagnostic interview for genetic studies (digs), a standard, semi-structured instrument widely used for pheno- typic classification of individuals for psychiatric genetic studies. these interviews were tape-recorded. for each study subject, medical records were also obtained, and collateral interviews with at least one additional informant were conducted. the examiner then completed a written diagnostic workup, includ- ing relevant clinical features and course of illness. all collected clinical information (tape-recorded inter- views, digs interview booklets, medical records, collateral interview information and written diagnos- tic workup) was forwarded to two independent, trained clinicians, who reached a consensus diagno- sis of bipolar i disorder before an individual was included for study. complete details about clinical methods are available in fallin et al. we assessed power in a post hoc manner by first accounting for the number of tests done while incorporating the ld structure of this region in our sample, as follows: all snps in an ld block (defined as r > . ) were regarded as a single test per block ( blocks, snps). all remaining ‘orphan’ snps were considered independent tests (n = ). by these rules, independent single snp tests were conducted in this experiment, requiring a bonferroni- corrected p-value of . for statistical signifi- cance. quanto , was then used to calculate power for varying relative risks and disease allele frequencies, given a sample size of trios and an alpha level of . . genotyping strategy on chromosome p , . mb of the bipolar linkage region was selected for dense snp genotyping. snps were genotyped using the illumina beadarray geno- typing technology, which has been shown to have a high degree of assay conversion, a low rate of missing data and error rates of less than one error in genotypes (altshuler et al., supplemental tables and ). snp selection. at the time snps were selected for this experiment, the hapmap consortium genotyping project was at an early stage; ‘tagging’ methods had not been developed nor validated. we therefore developed our own criteria for snp selection, balancing our desire to obtain maximal information with efficiency and cost. as a first step, all snps in dbsnp that mapped to the first . mb of chromosome p were vetted using an algorithm proprietary to illumina, which calculates a ‘design score’ for each snp (ranging from to ); this is approximately the probability that an assay will successfully generate data in the illumina system. snps with a design score above . were considered for assay development. snps with reported minor allele frequency below . were excluded. of snps that met these criteria, those that were in the hapmap or had been deposited in dbsnp by perlegen were preferentially selected for genotyping at a maximum density of one snp every . kb, though there were many regions where large gaps existed. this scaffold was then supplemented from the remaining pool of snps at variable density depending on the partial ld information available from hapmap. in regions of low ld, we selected snps at a maximum density of one snp every kb; in regions of high ld maximum selection density was one snp every kb. this resulted in snps chosen for assay development with an average spacing of one snp every . kb. the largest gap between snps was . kb. seventy-seven genes are cataloged in refseq in this region (pruitt et al., http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/refseq/). one thousand two hundred and thirty-nine snps were selected for genotyping in these transcripts. the average snp density in transcribed sequence was one snp every . kb. analysis data quality was assessed by ( ) consistency of working assays, ( ) genotype analysis of replicate samples and ( ) the rate of mendelian errors in families. for ( ), genotype analyses of duplicate samples, four ceph samples were used as controls. these four samples were genotyped on every -well plate ( plates total). to assess the rate of mendelian errors, family-based study samples were used. men- delian errors underestimate the true genotyping error rate, because many genotyping errors are consistent with mendelian inheritance. we therefore assumed that observed mendelian errors represent one-third of the actual genotyping errors and adjusted the estimated error rate in this study accordingly. hardy– weinberg equilibrium was also tested for each snp in the parental population; snps out of hwe at p < . were analyzed separately. association was investigated in this study via the transmission disequilibrium test (tdt), where trans- mission of alleles from heterozygous parents to affected offspring are tested, and statistical signifi- cance is assessed using the tdt w test with d.f. adjusted p-values were assessed by permutation of bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry transmitted alleles from heterozygous parents to affected offspring times. haplotypes were inferred using the stephens– smith–donnelly algorithm as modified by lin et al., , which accounts for missing data, can exploit inheritance information to generate accurate haplotypes between related individuals, can accu- rately phase between regions of high ld and can handle very large amounts of data. – this algorithm is accurate over long distances ( – kb), particu- larly for family-based samples. after haplotypes were generated, ‘exhaustive allelic’ testing was accom- plished by investigating all haplotypes of every possible window size (linear combinations), using the tdt test (ea-tdt , ). statistical significance for haplotype-based tests was calculated unadjusted for multiple tests, and was also adjusted for multiple tests via permutation ( > permutations). a recent report by lin et al. suggested that evidence for linkage to chromosome p is en- hanced in later-onset (age of onset x ) bipolar pedigrees. we explored whether late age at onset also led to detectable differences in association evidence by stratifying our sample and conducting associa- tion analysis on trios with probands < ( . % of probands) and x ( . % of probands) separately. seven probands lacked information about age-at onset and were excluded from this analysis. parent-of-origin analyses were conducted in multi- ple ways. to assess whether allelic parent-of-origin was relevant to association results, informative transmissions/nontransmissions were stratified by source parent for all snps, and the tdt was recalculated. by this method, four snps showed excess paternal transmission at p < . (unad- justed), with no excess maternal transmission. stra- tified tdt can sometimes give spurious results, particularly in the presence of (a) maternal effects or (b) skewed distribution of genotypes between parental classes. we therefore assessed these four snps for parent-of-origin association in two additional ways. first, we performed the tat as suggested by wein- berg, which is similar to the tdt but excludes double heterozygote mating pairs. next, we formulated a conditional logistic regression matched by parental- child genotype combination, and included an inter- action term for paternal origin of risk allele, such as was used by le stunff et al.: ln pðtÞ � pðtÞ � � ¼ aa þ ba � f where outcome is probability of transmission, a = if putative risk allele is transmitted for a given parent– child pair, otherwise, and f = if the transmission was paternally informative. parent-of-origin effects are assessed by a likelihood ratio test between models with and without the interaction term. this analysis has the added advantage of allowing for estimation of the odds ratio for paternal inheritance. analysis was carried out using standard statistical software (sta- ta/se . for windows). results three thousand and seventy-two snp assays were attempted in this study; ( . %) failed to generate data. of the remaining snps, were mono- morphic and were out of hardy–weinberg equili- brium at p < . , leaving snps for analysis. the estimated error rate for these snps, as assessed by presence of mendelian errors and replicate analysis, is . and . errors per genotypes, respec- tively. this implies there are between and errors in . million genotypes in this study. genotyping was attempted on unique sam- ples. genotyping was unsuccessful on four indivi- duals, as assessed by missing data rates and repeated poor clustering of genotype data. one pedigree had > % of genotypes with mendelian errors, and was subsequently removed from analysis due to suspected non-paternity or sample mislabeling (four individuals removed). analysis we estimated the power of this study in a post hoc way to account for the number of independent tests conducted in this study, given trios tested and the ld structure of our sample. for experiment-wide significance, a p-value of . is required ( independent tests). this sample has % power to detect genetic relative risks x . if disease allele frequency is %, given a log-additive genetic model. if disease allele frequency is %, this study is powered to detect genetic relative risks x . . transmissions of alleles from heterozygous parents to affected offspring were tabulated, and the tdt statistic was calculated for individual snps (figure ). the marker with the strongest evidence for association was rs , position ( transmitted vs untransmitted, p < . , permu- tation-adjusted p < . ). no snp in this analysis had an adjusted p-value < . . details about the snps with the highest evidence for association are provided (table ). haplotypes were generated, and transmission of all possible contiguous snp haplotypes of all possible window sizes was assessed via the tdt. a snp haplotype of size kb, midpoint at , was the most strongly associated ( transmitted: untrans- mitted, unadjusted p < . ; adjusted p < . ). no compelling evidence for differential association related to age at onset ( > vs < ) of bipolar disorder was observed. parent-of-origin effects were first investigated by stratifying informative transmissions/nontransmis- sions by source parent for all snps. this method revealed four snps with paternal transmission dis- tortion at p < . (unadjusted for multiple tests), and no excess maternal transmission. three of these snps (rs , rs , rs ) map within kb, and are correlated with one another (all r > . ). for these snps, the minor allele is paternally overtransmitted. (these three snps are approximately bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry equally informative for a single putative susceptibility variant; to avoid redundancy we report detailed results for rs only.) the remaining snp (rs ) is . mb telomeric to this locus, and is not correlated with the others (all r = ). we therefore regard rs as an independent putative suscept- ibility locus. these two loci map within d s and d s , two microsatellite markers that describe the peak linkage region of paternal allele sharing pre- viously reported in this population (figure ). the transmission asymmetry test (tat), as sug- gested by weinberg, excludes mating pairs of two heterozygotes in order to avoid bias from these matings, which contribute twice to a stratified tdt. after this exclusion, excess paternal transmis- sion is still observed for both loci (table a). next, we formulated a conditional logistic regression matched by parental mating type, and included an interaction term for paternal origin of risk allele, such as was used by le stunff et al. likelihood ratio tests for the parent-of-origin interaction term were significant at p < . for both loci tested (table b). for snp rs , the estimated odds ratio for developing bipolar disorder when the risk allele is paternally transmitted is . (ci . – . ), relative to maternal transmission. for snp rs , estimated odds ratio for bipolar disorder given paternal transmission is . (ci . – . ) relative to maternal transmis- sion of the risk allele. snp rs is out of hardy–weinberg equili- brium; there are % too many heterozygotes com- pared to what is expected. excess heterozygosity is consistent for both parent populations. to glean additional information about this snp, we examined the genotypic distribution in the four hapmap populations. the trend of aberrant heterozygosity is also observed; there are . % too many hetero- zygotes in the ceu population, and . % too few heterozygotes in the chb population. this trend is not observed for snp rs (figure ). discussion the aim of this study was to characterize the linkage region for bipolar disorder on chromosome p , and investigate the paternal parent-of-origin hypoth- esis for susceptibility, as was suggested by an earlier linkage study in the ashkenazi jewish population. in this study, our sample of trios had % power at an alpha of . to detect risk ratios of at least . – . -fold, at a disease allele frequency of – %, respectively and a log-additive model of genetic risk. without taking parent-of-origin into account, our inability to detect a statistically significant associa- tion implies that a common allele that confers this magnitude of risk does not exist in the p region. there is evidence for a parent-of-origin effect at the p locus from a linkage study in the ashkenazi jewish population, as well as other populations. , parent-of-origin effects imply an epigenetic mechanism of inheritance and may be a compelling hypothesis to explain complex genetic disorders such figure distribution of association evidence, allelic tdt test. uncorrected p-values are plotted by chromosomal position for each snp tested. highest evidence for asso- ciation is at rs , position , , , t vs u, uncorrected p-value . , permuted p-value . . table ten most associated snps, allelic tdt snp position t:u w p-value rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . rs : . . figure tdt results, paternal transmission only. trans- mission from paternal heterozygotes only was tabulated for each snp. unadjusted p-values are plotted for each snp tested. d s and d s are microsatellite markers that previously showed evidence for excess paternal allele sharing among sibs affected with bpi. bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry as bipolar disorder. – the paternal allele sharing in the fallin et al. linkage study is described by microsatellite markers d s and d s ; the two loci (four snps) with putative parent-of-origin effects in this study map between these two markers and is therefore consistent with previous results. these loci confer substantial risk for bipolar disorder (fourfold and sixfold respectively, relative to maternal trans- mission). they may represent two different regions that each control the same transcript, two different table a transmission of alleles to bipolar i offspring, stratified by parent-of-origin of alleles rs rs t u p-value tau t u p-value tau stratified tdt paternal . . paternal . . maternal . . maternal . . totala . . totala . . tat paternal . . paternal . . maternal . . maternal . . total . . total . . aexcludes trios where parents and off spring are all heterozygous, as these are not informative. table b test for parent-of-origin effects model estimates � ll w lrtw d.f. p-value a (s.e.) b (s.e.) rs allele effect (a) . ( . ) . allele and po (a þ a*f) . ( . ) . ( . ) . po . . rs allele effect (a) . ( . ) . allele and po (a þ a*f) . ( . ) . ( . ) . po . . figure genotype frequencies and deviation from expected heterozygosity for two paternally transmitted snp are shown for ashkenazi jewish parents, ashkenazi maternal and paternal populations separately, and hapmap populations. bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry regions that are related to two different susceptibility genes, or one or both may be false positives. a note about parent-of-origin transmission tests for association: as these methods are only now emerging, the methods to apply empirical p-value estimation in this framework are lacking. the simple permutation of transmission status used for standard tdt analyses would not provide the appropriate null distribution for hypothesis of parent-of-origin. therefore, we caution the reader to interpret the distribution-based p-values we provide with the understanding that they are based on a w assumption. one of the snps with excess paternal transmission, rs , is out of hardy–weinberg equilibrium, with % too many heterozygotes observed. this may be due to chance, however, this trend is also observed in two of the four hapmap populations. this aberrant genotypic distribution may be a consequence of selection, implying that rs or a linked variant is involved in susceptibility for bipolar disorder. it is also possible this excess heterozygosity represents genotyping error, perhaps owing to a yet undetected segmental duplication in the human genome. the other snp with excess paternal transmission, rs , is consistently in hardy–weinberg equili- brium, but has a wide spectrum of allele frequencies between populations. this too may represent the action of selection. in this study, we have pursued a family-based study design. family-based samples are not without draw- backs; they require more collection effort and in- creased genotyping costs compared to case–control designs. however, these drawbacks are balanced by two important advantages: first, it is possible to investigate parent-of-origin hypotheses. second, fa- mily-based study designs are robust to interference from population stratification. it has been shown that population stratification can mask true positive findings, and cryptic substructure can create false positives. , parent-of-origin effects have been shown to be important for a number of genetic diseases, usually through an imprinting mechanism. at least eight syndromes have been shown to involve aberrant transmission or regulation of imprinted genes. for example, prader–willi syndrome involves either loss of the paternally transmitted region of chromo- some q – , or maternal uniparental disomy (upd) of this same region. angelman’s syndrome, a distinct phenotype, results from loss of maternal q – or paternal upd. several genes in the critical region on chromosome q – including ube a, snrpn, par , par and par , have shown parent-of-origin-specific expression. loss of parent- of-origin expression is principally responsible for disease. it is likely that for complex diseases such a bipolar disorder, a similar mechanism contributes to susceptibility. there has not yet been reported evidence for an imprinted region on chromosome p . however, a recent study finds evidence of parent-of-origin- dependent expression for an alternative transcript of gnal, which encodes golf, the alpha subunit of a heretotrimeric stimulatory g-protein that may func- tionally associate with the dopamine d receptor. gnal has previously been investigated for parent-of- origin effects in bipolar disorder, and no association has been reported; however, this study tested a single marker in a small number of trios. gnal maps more than mb distal to the loci reported in this study. it is unlikely that the loci we report here are responsible for control of gnal expression; kb is the greatest distance yet reported between a regulatory element and its target gene. the mitochondrial subunit gene nduvf has been reported to be associated with both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, , , as has impa , , though these loci are also located – mb distal to the loci reported herein. parent-of-origin associations have not been investigated at these loci. of candidate genes investigated, clul and adcyap (pacap) are located within mb of the paternally transmitted snps we report herein. these loci have been investigated previously in a case–control study design, and evidence for association has been margin- al (clul ) or nonexistent (pacap ). it is possible that accounting for parent-of-origin would strengthen association evidence. the results of the current study suggest a reexamination of these loci; of particular interest is whether parent-of-origin-specific expres- sion of these genes can be detected. the results of this study suggest that parent-of- origin of transmission plays a significant role in susceptibility to bipolar disorder for variants on chromosome p . this statistical evidence must be supplemented with biological information about candidate loci near snps reported in this paper; further experimentation in this region is warranted. references kleinman l, lowin a, flood e, gandhi g, edgell e, revicki d. costs of bipolar disorder. pharmacoeconomics ; : – . mcguffin p, rijsdijk f, andrew m, sham p, katz r, cardno a. the heritability of bipolar affective disorder and the genetic relation- ship to unipolar depression. arch gen psychiatry ; : – . kieseppa t, partonen t, haukka j, kaprio j, lonnqvist j. high concordance of bipolar i disorder in a nationwide sample of twins. am j psychiatry ; : – . berrettini wh, ferraro tn, goldin lr, weeks de, detera-wadleigh s, nurnberger jr ji et al. chromosome dna markers and manic- depressive illness: evidence for a susceptibility gene. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . stine oc, xu j, koskela r, mcmahon fj, gschwend m, friddle c et al. evidence for linkage of bipolar disorder to chromosome with a parent-of-origin effect. am j hum genet ; : – . lin jp, bale sj. parental transmission and d s allele sharing in bipolar affective disorder. genet epidemiol ; : – . detera-wadleigh sd, badner ja, berrettini wh, yoshikawa t, goldin lr, turner g et al. a high-density genome scan detects evidence for a bipolar-disorder susceptibility locus on q and other potential loci on q and p . . proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . bennett p, segurado r, jones i, bort s, mccandless f, lambert d et al. the wellcome trust uk–irish bipolar affective disorder bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry sibling-pair genome screen: first stage report. mol psychiatry ; : – . fallin md, lasseter vk, wolyniec ps, mcgrath ja, nestadt g, valle d et al. genomewide linkage scan for bipolar-disorder susceptibility loci among ashkenazi jewish families. am j hum genet ; : – . segurado r, detera-wadleigh sd, levinson df, lewis cm, gill m, nurnberger jr ji et al. genome scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, part iii: bipolar disorder. am j hum genet ; : – . badner ja, gershon es. meta-analysis of whole-genome linkage scans of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. mol psychiatry ; : – . nothen mm, cichon s, rohleder h, hemmer s, franzek e, fritze j et al. evaluation of linkage of bipolar affective disorder to chromosome in a sample of german families. mol psychiatry ; : – . tsiouris sj, breschel ts, xu j, mcinnis mg, mcmahon fj. linkage disequilibrium analysis of g-olf alpha (gnal) in bipolar affective disorder. am j med genet ; : – . yoshikawa t, padigaru m, karkera jd, sharma m, berrettini wh, esterling le et al. genomic structure and novel variants of myo- inositol monophosphatase (impa ). mol psychiatry ; : – . ishiguro h, ohtsuki t, okubo y, kurumaji a, arinami t. association analysis of the pituitary adenyl cyclase activating peptide gene (pacap) on chromosome p with schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. j neural transm ; : – . mcinnes la, service sk, reus vi, barnes g, charlat o, jawahar s et al. fine-scale mapping of a locus for severe bipolar mood disorder on chromosome p . in the costa rican population. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . washizuka s, kakiuchi c, mori k, kunugi h, tajima o, akiyama t et al. association of mitochondrial complex i subunit gene ndufv at p with bipolar disorder. am j med genet b neuropsychiatr genet ; : – . sjoholt g, ebstein rp, lie rt, berle jo, mallet j, deleuze jf et al. examination of impa and impa genes in manic-depressive patients: association between impa promoter polymorphisms and bipolar disorder. mol psychiatry ; : – . washizuka s, iwamoto k, kazuno aa, kakiuchi c, mori k, kametani m et al. association of mitochondrial complex i subunit gene ndufv at p with bipolar disorder in japanese and the national institute of mental health pedigrees. biol psychiatry ; : – . lohoff fw, berrettini wh. lack of association between variations in the melanocortin receptor gene and bipolar disorder. psychiatr genet ; : – . weller ae, dahl jp, lohoff fw, ferraro tn, berrettini wh. analysis of variations in the napg gene on chromosome p in bipolar disorder. psychiatr genet ; : – . puffenberger eg, hosoda k, washington ss, nakao k, dewit d, yanagisawa m et al. a missense mutation of the endothelin-b receptor gene in multigenic hirschsprung’s disease. cell ; : – . puffenberger eg, kauffman er, bolk s, matise tc, washington ss, angrist m et al. identity-by-descent and association mapping of a recessive gene for hirschsprung disease on human chromosome q . hum mol genet ; : – . chakravarti a. endothelin receptor-mediated signaling in hirsch- sprung disease. hum mol genet ; : – . amundadottir lt, sulem p, gudmundsson j, helgason a, baker a, agnarsson ba et al. a common variant associated with prostate cancer in european and african populations. nat genet ; : – . grant sf, thorleifsson g, reynisdottir i, benediktsson r, mano- lescu a, sainz j et al. variant of transcription factor -like (tcf l ) gene confers risk of type diabetes. nat genet ; : – . struewing jp, hartge p, wacholder s, baker sm, berlin m, mcadams m et al. the risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of brca and brca among ashkenazi jews. n engl j med ; : – . neuhausen sl, godwin ak, gershoni-baruch r, schubert e, garber j, stoppa-lyonnet d et al. haplotype and phenotype analysis of nine recurrent brca mutations in families: results of an international study. am j hum genet ; : – . foulkes wd, thiffault i, gruber sb, horwitz m, hamel n, lee c et al. the founder mutation msh * g– > c is an important cause of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer in the ashkenazi jewish population. am j hum genet ; : – . lynch ht, coronel sm, okimoto r, hampel h, sweet k, lynch jf et al. a founder mutation of the msh gene and hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer in the united states. jama ; : – . gauderman wj, morrison jm. quanto . : a computer program for power and sample size calculations for genetic-epidemiology studies, http://hydra.usc.edu/gxe, . gauderman wj. sample size calculations for matched case–control studies of gene-environment interaction. statistics in medicine ; : – . oliphant a, barker dl, stuelpnagel jr, chee ms. beadarray technology: enabling an accurate, cost-effective approach to high-throughput genotyping. biotechniques suppl ; : s –s . altshuler d, brooks ld, chakravarti a, collins fs, daly mj, donnelly p. a haplotype map of the human genome. nature ; : – . pruitt kd, tatusova t, maglott dr. ncbi reference sequence (refseq): a curated non-redundant sequence database of genomes, transcripts and proteins. nucleic acids res ; (database issue): d –d . douglas ja, skol ad, boehnke m. probability of detection of genotyping errors and mutations as inheritance inconsistencies in nuclear-family data. am j hum genet ; : – . spielman rs, mcginnis re, ewens wj. transmission test for linkage disequilibrium: the insulin gene region and insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus (iddm). am j hum genet ; : – . lin s, chakravarti a, cutler dj. exhaustive allelic transmission disequilibrium tests as a new approach to genome-wide associa- tion studies. nat genet ; : – . lin s, chakravarti a, cutler dj. haplotype and missing data inference in nuclear families. genome res ; : – . lin s, cutler dj, zwick me, chakravarti a. haplotype inference in random population samples. am j hum genet ; : – . lin pi, mcinnis mg, potash jb, willour vl, mackinnon df, miao k et al. assessment of the effect of age at onset on linkage to bipolar disorder: evidence on chromosomes p and q. am j hum genet ; : – . weinberg cr. methods for detection of parent-of-origin effects in genetic studies of case–parents triads. am j hum genet ; : – . le stunff c, fallin d, bougneres p. paternal transmission of the very common class i ins vntr alleles predisposes to childhood obesity. nat genet ; : – . petronis a. epigenetics and bipolar disorder: new opportunities and challenges. am j med genet c semin med genet ; : – . bjornsson ht, fallin md, feinberg ap. an integrated epigenetic and genetic approach to common human disease. trends genet ; : – . jiang yh, bressler j, beaudet al. epigenetics and human disease. annu rev genomics hum genet ; : – . marchini j, cardon lr, phillips ms, donnelly p. the effects of human population structure on large genetic association studies. nat genet ; : – . campbell cd, ogburn el, lunetta kl, lyon hn, freedman ml, groop lc et al. demonstrating stratification in a european american population. nat genet ; : – . morison im, ramsay jp, spencer hg. a census of mammalian imprinting. trends genet ; : – . omim online mendelian inheritance in man, omim (tm) mckusick–nathans institute for genetic medicine, johns hopkins university (baltimore, md) and national center for biotechnology bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry information (bethesda, md), world wide web url: http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim. corradi jp, ravyn v, robbins ak, hagan kw, peters mf, bostwick r et al. alternative transcripts and evidence of imprinting of gnal on p . . mol psychiatry ; : – . lettice la, horikoshi t, heaney sj, van baren mj, van der linde hc, breedveld gj et al. disruption of a long-range cis-acting regulator for shh causes preaxial polydactyly. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . washizuka s, kametani m, sasaki t, tochigi m, umekage t, kohda k et al. association of mitochondrial complex i subunit gene ndufv at p with schizophrenia in the japanese population. am j med genet b neuropsychiatr genet ; : – . bipolar i association study on chr p jg mulle et al molecular psychiatry 	dense snp association study for bipolar i disorder on chromosome p suggests two loci with excess paternal transmission 	introduction 	materials and methods 	study subjects 	genotyping strategy 	snp selection 	analysis 	results 	analysis 	discussion 	references influences of satisfaction with telecare and family trust in older taiwanese people int. j. environ. res. public health , , - ; doi: . /ijerph international journal of environmental research and public health issn - www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph article influences of satisfaction with telecare and family trust in older taiwanese people chung-hung tsai , *, yu-ming kuo and shu-lin uei department of health administration, tzu chi college of technology, , sec. , chien-kuo road, hualien, taiwan , china; e-mail: tzustu@gmail.com college of nursing, kaohsiung medical university, , shih-chuan st road, kaohsiung, taiwan , china; e-mail: mchwsl@gmail.com * author to whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail: tsairob@tccn.edu.tw; tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - . received: november ; in revised form: december / accepted: december / published: january abstract: the level of trust given towards telecare by the family members of older people using the service is extremely important. family trust may be an influential factor in deciding whether to use such services. this study focuses on older people’s satisfaction with telecare and examines their family’s trust in telecare services. influences on intention to continue using telecare services are also explored. a questionnaire-based survey on communities dwelling older people who had been receiving telecare services in the past two years was employed. this study developed a satisfaction and trust scale based on previous studies. our results show that older people’s satisfaction with telecare services and families’ trust were influential in decided whether to continue to use of telecare services. these findings can help medical institutions to better insight into the user experience of telecare to help them provide future services that better comply with clients’ desires and requirements. keywords: older people; telecare; satisfaction; trust; continued use intention open access mailto:tsairob@tccn.edu.tw int. j. environ. res. public health , . introduction recent improvements in medical care and living standards have increased the average life expectancy of taiwanese people, leading to an ageing population. this potentially creates numerous medical problems and may influence lifestyle transitions. these factors have led to increased attention to medical care issues, care of disabled people, emergency medical services, chronic diseases and medication complications. telecare in health is an emerging field of remote medical technology, which has seen rapid development in recent years. through information and communication technology, telecare monitors physical health and activities, provides safety and security and enables more convenient information and interpersonal communication [ – ]. it also provides and conveys health and social care directly into clients’ homes [ ]. telecare allows older people to be cared for in their own family home environments, this has been shown to increase older people’s autonomy and levels of self-esteem [ ]. to date, most telecare studies have focused on the scientific dimensions of the service. however, a few studies have investigated the influence of information technology services in the care of older people, focusing on health related quality of life of clients [ – , – ]. this study is based on the theory of reasoned action (tra). tra provides a model predicting the intention to perform a behaviour based on an individual’s attitudinal and normative beliefs [ ]. a change in any of these factors results in a different behavior being explained. delone and mclean [ ] have shown that satisfaction with a service has a positive impact in relation to continued use. mayer and davis [ ] viewed this form of belief of trust to directly affect an individual’s intention to use a service. it is expected these relationships will apply in the delivery of telecare services. in this work, this theory promotes that the belief of trust (perceptions of telecare attributes) could cause attitudes (satisfaction), and influenced intention to reuse (continued use intention) [ ]. all participants in this study lived in hualien county, in eastern taiwan. the majority ( %) of this geographical region is covered by mountains [ ]. medical resources are not evenly distributed in hualien couny, the majority of medical resources are delivered in urban areas. these geographic traits, make it problematic to deliver conventional medical resources to all the people in this region of taiwan. therefore, telecare services may be one potential option to maximize healthcare delivery. the mennonite christian hospital started a telecare service in eastern taiwan in . services include tele-consultation, tele-physiological monitoring, tele-health education, medication safety, alarm systems, and life resource linkage. in this study, services are categorized into the fields of telecare, telehealth and telemedicine. tele-physiological monitoring is the most commonly used within our hospital and this will form the focus of this study. there are four distinct aims within this study: (a) determine the telecare service(s) most commonly used by older people; (b) older people’s satisfaction with telecare; (c) the trust of older people’s families towards telecare services; and (d) influences of older people’s satisfaction with telecare services and their families’ trust on the intention to continue using the service. from these four aims, specific attention will be given to family trust towards telecare. this is extremely important as older people are the ones who are cared for, but the family (who are the care givers) making the critical decision as to whether to continue or stop the use of telecare services. int. j. environ. res. public health , . methods this study conducted surveys and adopted convenience sampling. the institutional review board (irb) of mennonite christian hospital sanctioned this study. . . participants in this study, a convenience sample was taken from the sole provider of telecare in a hospital in eastern taiwan. the foundation of the hospital aims to provide home care services for patients in this remote mountainous region. the inclusion criteria for the sample in this study are as follows: (a) users of telecare or telehealth services during the previous two years; (b) have paid for the telecare or telehealth services (c) family members do not live with the telecare or telehealth user. . . measures a specifically designed telecare satisfaction scale was developed. this was based on themes or dimensions developed in previous telecare studies studies [ , ]. our scale comprised five items for the older person using telecare in health care. in addition, we adopted the telecare trust scale for families developed by shea and effken [ ] and varghese and phillips [ ]. the scale of continued use intention was based on the studies that used telecare systems [ , ]. for each of these three dimensions see the questionnaire provided in the appendix. the questionnaire was made up three dimensions and includes twelve five-point likert scale questions. for each question a score of one equates to strongly disagree and a score of five means strongly agree. three investigators collected data through telephone interview or by visiting the user’s, this involved oral questioning by investigators and completion of the questionnaire. professional training was given to all three investigators and this included training with the interview protocol to ensure rigor in the study and to confirm that all data was correctly collected. data collection took six months to complete. . . method the relationship between older people’s satisfaction with telecare and their intention to continue to use this service was verified. firstly, we calculated the satisfaction and their intention to continue using the service. average scores of the questionnaires were calculated, and then spss was used to perform linear regression analysis of the sample. linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of family trust on intention to use telecare services in the future. . statistical analysis . . descriptive statistical of the respondents from people using telecare services in the region there were older people who met the study inclusion criteria. a total of sixty fully completed questionnaires were collected, giving a response rate of %. additionally, the family members of sixty telecare service users also completed level of trust questionnaires; again the response rate was %. the demographic characteristics of telecare users showed that the average user age was ± . . of the participants, % were female; % had received int. j. environ. res. public health , nine years or less of formal education; half the sample were married and % were widowed; . % lived with their family and . % lived alone; % spent most of their daytime hours alone at home and . % lived in the mountains area. in relation to health status, % of the sample suffered from two or more chronic diseases. . . use of telecare services by older people the first question of this study was used to identify the most popular telecare services amongst older people. the results show that the most commonly used telecare services by the sixty participants were, in descending order: tele-physiological monitoring ( %), tele-healthcare education ( . %), tele-healthcare management ( . %), offering living resources ( %), tele-healthcare consultation ( %), tele-medication safety advisement ( . %), and remote video visitation ( %). . . satisfaction of older people using telecare services table shows the overall satisfaction scores of older people accessing telecare services. telecare users scored an average of . regarding overall service quality. the highest-rated item was “you think your health condition improved after using telecare services”, with an average satisfaction of . . the lowest-rated item was “telecare reduces your expenditures on health care”, with an average satisfaction score of . reported. table . satisfaction scores. item minimum maximum mean variance you think your health condition improved after using telecare services . . telecare reduces your care time for health issues . . telecare alleviates your concerns with health . . telecare reduces your expenditures on health care . . telecare has superior overall service quality . . . . family trust towards telecare services in addition to the examination of telecare from the users’ perspective, this study also examined levels of family trust towards telecare services. table demonstrates that families had an average trust score of . with the quality of the telecare service, which was the highest score reported across all dimensions as was older people’s satisfaction with telecare services. the item with the lowest average trust was “you believe that telecare saves care time for your family”, with an average of . . . . older peoples’ satisfaction and intention to continue to use telecare services statistical results reveal that older peoples’ satisfaction with their telecare services has a positive impact on their desire to continued using the service (table ). hence, a higher telecare service satisfaction led to a higher intention to continue using telecare services. the t-value was . and adjusted r was . , which implied good explanatory power for the overall model. there appears no significant relationship exists between age and satisfaction. int. j. environ. res. public health , table . descriptive statistics of families’ trust in telecare. item minimum maximum mean variance you believe that telecare enhances your family’s health conditions . . you believe that telecare saves care time for your family . . you believe that telecare alleviates your concerns with the health conditions of your family . . you trust the quality of telecare services . . table . older peoples’ satisfaction and the continued use intention. control variables continued use intention age . satisfaction (elderly) . ** max vif . t-value . adjusted r . note: ** p < . . . . family trust in telecare and continued use intention in this study, statistical results demonstrated that family trust had a positive impact on the intention to continue using telecare services (table ). table . family trust and the intention to continue using telecare. control variables continued use intention age . trust (family) . ** max vif . t-value . adjusted r . note: ** p < . . it would appear that a higher level of family trust in telecare services leads greater intention for older people to continue to use the service. the t-value was . adjusted r was . , which implied good explanatory power for the overall model. there was no significant relationship between age and satisfaction. thus, this model may be appropriate to explain factors that influenced the intention to continue paying for telecare services. . discussion globally, information and communication technology products that are used in telecare services have developed greatly in recent years. this is no exception in taiwan where implementing telecare technology has become increasingly popular. nonetheless, considering the future development of int. j. environ. res. public health , telecare services from a purely scientific and technical perspective creates a potential gap between ideals and users’ regular life [ – ]. in taiwan, many older people cannot read and have no previous experience of using high-tech products. therefore, this study focused on the user experiences and families’ trust in telecare. these results provide a referential framework for manufacturers of medical instrument and to the medical institutions to help improve design of relevant healthcare services for older people. our results reveal that tele-physiological monitoring, tele-healthcare education, and tele-healthcare management were the most commonly used items by our study participants. in addition, tele-healthcare consultation, tele-medication safety advice, and remote video visitations were the most rarely used items. infrequent use of remote video visitations may be potentially explained by the fact that taiwanese families are inclined to dwell together or in adjacent neighborhoods. with this cultural background, the elderly can quickly and easily get help from others. in addition, we believe that telecare services are still in a developmental phase in taiwan, and medical institutions could easily promote and produce less complex medical services. we also found that users were not used to using tele-healthcare consultations and tele-medication safety advice and were inclined to go to the hospital in person. we suggest that reference is made to the work of turner et al. [ ] on the development of future telecare studies. this would ensure the perceived perspective of the user influences further exploration of use of healthcare services. in this study, the mean score of older people’s overall satisfaction levels with telecare was . , indicating that telecare services mainly satisfied their needs. items concerning satisfaction showed that older people had lower expenditures on telecare services than on other items. this implies that cost may be a significant factor that influences users’ decision to continue using the service. whitten et al. [ ] contended that in addition to superior functional capability, finance is the essential key factor for a telemedicine service to succeed. therefore, future research should focus on how telecare services can balance the revenue of medical institutions and user costs. family trust mean scores for telecare was . , which was much lower than overall telecare satisfaction scores given by older people. this may have resulted as families were not directly using the service and may not have been present when their relative used the service. therefore, they could not fully realize the quality and potential benefits of telecare. in addition, telecare services do not allow physicians to make a medical diagnosis or to prescribe for clients under medical regulation in taiwan. thus, time spent on taking care of the older people can only be partially reduced, however the client still has to use hospital service and is required to be taken to the hospital by the family for the purpose of diagnosis and prescription. another probable cause is taiwan’s emphasis on the concept of filial piety, which indicates that children have the responsibility and obligation to care for their frail elderly and should not rely solely on technology. we suggest that future research should examine varying medical systems in different societies and cultures to gain insight as to whether these factors result in varying usage habits and perceptions of telecare. finally, by using regression analysis, this study verified the influence of older people’s satisfaction with telecare services and families’ trust on their intention to continue using the service. according to our results, these two factors had a positive and significant correlation with the intention to continue use. this corresponds to previous studies examining satisfaction with telecare services [ – , , ]. furthermore, these results can be used to discuss the influence of family trust on the use intention of int. j. environ. res. public health , telecare and can broaden the explanatory scope of preceding studies by showing that families’ trust in telecare services is a critical factor that supports users to continue using the services. historically, tra theory has been applied to to the examination patients or their families perspective [ ]. most of studies have used the tam model [ ]. we suggest that in addition to providing services for users, consideration of feelings of their significant others should be made by medical institutions, because older people (whose physiological functional capability may have deteriorated) may not be in best position to fully express their needs. this highlights the importance of the role the family plays in this decision making process and feedback may potentially have an influence on the dependence of the older person. however, in remote mountainous areas or remote islands in taiwan, insufficient medical resources contribute to the thriving development of telecare. this study provides valuable information for medical institutions who use telecare services. understanding the users’ perspective and experience will potentially allow them to tailor services to best meet these needs. limitations related samples are difficult to access because only a few taiwan medical institutions promote home telecare systems, and some of these institutions may still be operating in an experimental phase and are not appropriate for comprehensive testing. this study experienced limitations in the conceptualization and expansion of the theoretical model because our samples were from rural area in eastern taiwan, where cases could not be monitored continuously, samples were insufficient, and the vastness of the area impeded the distribution of questionnaires. the valid samples from this study were all elderly people who had used telecare services for at least two years. the conclusion is that a high degree of satisfaction in the service influenced continued use of telecare. however, participants in the study were recruited from an area where there is uneven distribution. another potential limitation is the restricted time and space the patients had to use telecare. however, this study does still provide a valuable and unique insight into the existing knowledge on use of telecare services in older people. we recommend future research target people who have chosen to discontinue their use of telecare services to evaluate their satisfaction and ascertain why they have chosen to discontinue use. in addition, recommendation is made that any future research be able to continuously track telecare users, as presently there remains a gap between intention to continue using telecare services and continued use behavior in this area. this phenomenon can be explored from the normalization process theory which may be a new technology becomes routinely embedded in a social context as the result of individual [ ]. . conclusions most telecare studies to date have focused on european and american populations. this study provides a different perspective as it is one of only a few studies which has examined telecare use in older chinese people. as most asian countries are densely populated, even with technological developments there is no guarantee that asian people are familiar with and using telecare services. our findings are as follows: ( ) tele-physiological monitoring, tele-healthcare education, and tele- healthcare management were the most commonly used items; ( ) taiwanese older people were satisfied with telecare services; ( ) we verified the influence of older people’s satisfaction with telecare services and families’ trust on int. j. environ. res. public health , the continued use intention. this study provides greater understanding and expands the explanatory scope of the existing literature. acknowledgments this research was supported by grants from mennonite christian hospital. the authors would like to thank the participants in the community for their help in collecting the data for this study. author contributions these authors contributed equally to this work. conflicts of interest the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . agha, z.; schapira, r.; laud, p.; mcnutt, g.; roter, d. patient satisfaction with physician-patient communication during telemedicine. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . yip, m.p.; chang, a.m.; chan, j.; mackenzie, a.e. development of the telemedicine satisfaction questionnaire to evaluate patient satisfaction with telemedicine: a preliminary study. j. telemed. telecare , , – . . styles, v. service users’ acceptability of videoconferencing as a form of service delivery. j. telemed. telecare , , – . . whitten, p.; holtz, b.; nguyen, l. keys to a successful and sustainable telemedicine program. int. j. technol. assess health c. , , – . . hanson, j.; percival, j.; aldred, h.; brownsell, s.; hawley, m. attitudes to telecare among older people, professional care workers and informal carers: a preventative strategy or crisis management? access inf. soc. , , – . . levy, s.; jack, n.; bradley, d.; morison, m.; swanston, m. perspectives on telecare: the client view. j. telemed. telecare , , – . . tousignant, m.; boissy, p.; moffet, h.; corriveau, h.; cabana, f.; marquis, f.; simard, j. patients’satisfaction of healthcare services and perception with in-home telerehabilitation and physiotherapists’ satisfaction toward technology for post-knee arthroplasty: an embedded study in a randomized trial. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . cranen, k.; drossaert, c.h.; brinkman, e.s.; braakman-jansen, a.l.; ijzerman, m.j.; vollenbroek-hutten, m.m. an exploration of chronic painpatients’ perceptions of home telerehabilitation services. health expect. , , – . . cranen, k.; veld, r.h.; ijzerman, m.; vollenbroek-hutten, m. change of patients’ perceptions of telemedicine after brief use. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . fishbein, m.; ajzen, i. belief, attitude, intentions and behavior: an introduction to theory and research; addison-wesley: boston, ma, usa, . int. j. environ. res. public health , . delone, w.h.; mclean, e.r. the delone and mclean model of information system success: a ten-year update. j. manage. inform. syst. , , – . . mayer, r.c.; davis, j.h. the effect of the performance appraisal system on trust for management: a field quasi-experiment. j. appl. psychol. , , – . . ministry of the interior taiwan year book. available online: http://www.moi.gov.tw/ stat/english/year.asp (accessed on april ). . demiris, g.; speedie, s.m.; finkelstein, s. a questionnaire for the assessment of patients’ impressions of the risks and benefits of home telecare. j. telemed. telecare , , – . . bakken, s.; grullon-figueroa, l.; izquierdo, r.; lee, n.; morin, p.; palmas, w.; teresi, j.; weinstock, r.s.; shea, s.; starren, j.; et al. development, validation, and use of english and spanish versions of the telemedicine satisfaction and usefulness questionnaire. j. am. med. inform. assoc. , , – . . shea, k.; effken, j.a. enhancing patients’ trust in the virtual home healthcare nurse. comput. inform. nurs. , , – . . varghese, s.b.; phillips, c.a. caring in telehealth. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . chau, p.y.k.; hu, p.j.h. investigating healthcare professionals’ decisions to accept telemedicine technology: an empirical test of competing theories. inf. manage. , , – . . turner, j.w.; thomas, r.j.; reinsch, n.l. willingness to try a new communication technology: perpetual factors and task situations in a health care context. j. bus. tech. commun. , , – . . whitten, p.s.; mair, f. telemedicine and patient satisfaction: current status and future directions. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . collins, k.; nicolson, p.; bowns, i.; walters, s. general practitioners’ perceptions of store-and-forward teledermatology. j. telemed. telecare , , – . . gustke, s.s.; balch, d.c.; west, v.l.; rogers, l.o. patient satisfaction with telemedicine. telemed. j. , , – . . agrell, h.; dahlberg, s.; jerant, a.f. patients’ perceptions regarding home telecare. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . huang, j.c. exploring the acceptance of telecare among senior citizens: an application of back-propagation network. telemed. j. e-health , , – . . may, c.; mair, f.s.; finch, t.; macfarlane, a.; dowrick, c.; treweek, s.; rapley, t.; ballini, l.; ong, b.n.; rogers, a.; et al. development of a theory of implementation and integration: normalization process theory. implement. sci. , , doi: . / - - - . appendix satisfaction scale (cronbach α = . ; [ , ]) . you believe your health condition has improved following the use of telecare services. . telecare reduces the time you spend on health-realated issues. . telecare alleviates health-realated concerns. . telecare reduces the cost of health care. . telecare has superior overall service quality. int. j. environ. res. public health , trust scale (cronbach α = . ; [ ]) . you believe that telecare enhances your family’s health conditions. . you believe that telecare saves care time for your family. . you believe that telecare alleviates your concerns with your family’s health conditions. . you trust the quality of telecare services. continued use intention (cronbach α = . ; [ , ]) . when i am in need, i will use a telecare system. . i will continue using the telecare system. . i have high intention to use the telecare system. © by the authors; licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize — vrije universiteit amsterdam 	 skip to main navigation 	 skip to search 	 skip to main content 	 help & faq 	 home 	 profiles 	 research units 	 research output 	 datasets 	 activities 	 prizes 	 press / media search by expertise, name or affiliation female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize c.h. roessingh, m. nuijten 	organization sciences 	network institute 	organization & processes of organizing in society (opos) research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review downloads (pure) 	 overview 	 fingerprint abstract this study explores the underexposed possibilities of starting and running a business by mennonite women in the kleine gemeinde community of blue creek, belize. the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. we address the changing role of kleine gemeinde women in the mennonite settlement of blue creek in northern belize, central america. this mennonite settlement has its roots in canada. the labour system of the mennonites enterprises is mainly organised independently from the general belizean labour system with the help of their canadian families. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years however, their role has changed and some women has started small enterprises at their home. in this article a description of two of these women of the kleine gemeinde church in blue creek will be presented. mennonite female entrepreneurship in blue creek in northern belize is constructed on three principles, first their motivation to be an entrepreneur is symmetrical connected with the notion of mompreneurship, secondly they are basically self-employed and thirdly their way of doing business is strongly embedded in their religious-cultural environment. future research might examine the ways in which these mennonite women contribute to the notion of business possibilities through self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. copyright © inderscience enterprises ltd. 	original language	english 	pages (from-to)	 - 	number of pages	 	journal	international journal of entrepreneurship and small business 	volume	 	issue number	 	dois		https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . 	publication status	published - access to document 	 . /ijesb. . 	ijesb roesnuijtenfinal published version, kb fingerprint dive into the research topics of 'female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize'. together they form a unique fingerprint. 	 self-employment business & economics 	 female entrepreneurship business & economics 	 labor business & economics 	 central america business & economics 	 small enterprises business & economics 	 entrepreneurs business & economics 	 entrepreneurial activity business & economics 	 canada business & economics view full fingerprint cite this 	 apa 	 author 	 bibtex 	 harvard 	 standard 	 ris 	 vancouver roessingh, c. h., & nuijten, m. ( ). female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize. international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . roessingh, c.h. ; nuijten, m. / female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize. in: international journal of entrepreneurship and small business. ; vol. , no. . pp. - . @article{ dd e eefb bdd e fa d fe , title = "female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize", abstract = "this study explores the underexposed possibilities of starting and running a business by mennonite women in the kleine gemeinde community of blue creek, belize. the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. we address the changing role of kleine gemeinde women in the mennonite settlement of blue creek in northern belize, central america. this mennonite settlement has its roots in canada. the labour system of the mennonites enterprises is mainly organised independently from the general belizean labour system with the help of their canadian families. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years however, their role has changed and some women has started small enterprises at their home. in this article a description of two of these women of the kleine gemeinde church in blue creek will be presented. mennonite female entrepreneurship in blue creek in northern belize is constructed on three principles, first their motivation to be an entrepreneur is symmetrical connected with the notion of mompreneurship, secondly they are basically self-employed and thirdly their way of doing business is strongly embedded in their religious-cultural environment. future research might examine the ways in which these mennonite women contribute to the notion of business possibilities through self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. copyright {\textcopyright} inderscience enterprises ltd.", author = "c.h. roessingh and m. nuijten", year = " ", doi = " . /ijesb. . ", language = "english", volume = " ", pages = " -- ", journal = "international journal of entrepreneurship and small business", issn = " - ", publisher = "inderscience enterprises ltd", number = " ", } roessingh, ch & nuijten, m , 'female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize', international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. , pp. - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize. / roessingh, c.h.; nuijten, m. in: international journal of entrepreneurship and small business, vol. , no. , , p. - .research output: contribution to journal › article › academic › peer-review ty - jour t - female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize au - roessingh, c.h. au - nuijten, m. py - y - n - this study explores the underexposed possibilities of starting and running a business by mennonite women in the kleine gemeinde community of blue creek, belize. the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. we address the changing role of kleine gemeinde women in the mennonite settlement of blue creek in northern belize, central america. this mennonite settlement has its roots in canada. the labour system of the mennonites enterprises is mainly organised independently from the general belizean labour system with the help of their canadian families. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years however, their role has changed and some women has started small enterprises at their home. in this article a description of two of these women of the kleine gemeinde church in blue creek will be presented. mennonite female entrepreneurship in blue creek in northern belize is constructed on three principles, first their motivation to be an entrepreneur is symmetrical connected with the notion of mompreneurship, secondly they are basically self-employed and thirdly their way of doing business is strongly embedded in their religious-cultural environment. future research might examine the ways in which these mennonite women contribute to the notion of business possibilities through self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. copyright © inderscience enterprises ltd. ab - this study explores the underexposed possibilities of starting and running a business by mennonite women in the kleine gemeinde community of blue creek, belize. the paper is the result of ethnographic fieldwork research combined with a literature study. we address the changing role of kleine gemeinde women in the mennonite settlement of blue creek in northern belize, central america. this mennonite settlement has its roots in canada. the labour system of the mennonites enterprises is mainly organised independently from the general belizean labour system with the help of their canadian families. mennonite women have gained a pivotal position in this independent system over the past years. traditionally, mennonite women stay at home to work in the domestic sphere. in recent years however, their role has changed and some women has started small enterprises at their home. in this article a description of two of these women of the kleine gemeinde church in blue creek will be presented. mennonite female entrepreneurship in blue creek in northern belize is constructed on three principles, first their motivation to be an entrepreneur is symmetrical connected with the notion of mompreneurship, secondly they are basically self-employed and thirdly their way of doing business is strongly embedded in their religious-cultural environment. future research might examine the ways in which these mennonite women contribute to the notion of business possibilities through self-employment and entrepreneurial activities. copyright © inderscience enterprises ltd. u - . /ijesb. . do - . /ijesb. . m - article vl - sp - ep - jo - international journal of entrepreneurship and small business jf - international journal of entrepreneurship and small business sn - - is - er - roessingh ch, nuijten m. female self-employment among the kleine gemeinde in the mennonite settlement of blue creek, northern belize. international journal of entrepreneurship and small business. ; ( ): - . https://doi.org/ . /ijesb. . 	 	 	 	 	 powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure vrije universiteit amsterdam data protection policy about web accessibility case-pierce_layout a -year-old woman of average build (height . m, body mass index . ) was referred to the respirology clinic for assessment of recurrent, bilateral, sponta- neous pneumothoraces of unknown cause. she had her first spontaneous pneumothorax at the age of years and had a total of six sponta- neous pneumothoraces, distributed bilaterally, over the next years. repeated surgical inter- ventions were done, including bullectomies and pleural abrasion. surgical pathology showed subpleural bullae without generalized emphyse- matous changes or infiltration of smooth mus- cle cells. aside from these acute events, the patient was asymptomatic and had no other res- piratory symptoms. the patient’s medical history included post- nasal drip, dyslipidemia and hypertension. she had no history of other respiratory illness or abnormalities of the skin, kidneys or central ner- vous system, and she was a lifetime nonsmoker. the patient’s family was of dutch–mennonite descent with a strong history of spontaneous pneumothoraces in adulthood, with occurrences in four of seven siblings, the patient’s father and two paternal cousins (figure ). the patient’s physical examination was normal except for several small, dome-shaped, pale and flesh-coloured papules on her face, the largest of which appeared on her nose (figure ). biopsies of these papules were consistent with fibrofollicu- lomas (appendix , available at www .cmaj .ca /cgi /content /full /cmaj . /dc ). skin tags were found on the patient’s neck. a radiograph of the patient’s chest showed no abnormalities, but multiple thin-walled cysts were seen bilaterally in the lungs on a computed tomography (ct) scan (figure ). tests of our patient’s pulmonary function showed that her air flows, lung volumes and diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide were all normal. a diagnosis of birt–hogg–dubé syndrome was suspected on the basis of clinical and radi- ographic features, as well as evidence of autoso- mal dominant transmission in the patient’s fam- ily. the diagnosis was confirmed with a skin biopsy, and a dna test on a peripheral blood sample showed a heterozygous mutation in the gene encoding folliculin (flcn). subsequent abdominal imaging to assess for renal tumours showed a small ( mm) lesion in the patient’s right kidney. the lesion is being closely monitored, and has not increased in size on two subsequent ct scans over a period of one year. discussion our patient had a personal and family history of recurrent bilateral pneumothoraces despite other - wise normal lung function and no known previ- ous lung disease. in addition to the lesions on her skin and the multiple, thin-walled, pulmonary cysts that were visible on a ct scan, these fac- tors led us to a clinical diagnosis of birt–hogg– dubé syndrome. this diagnosis was confirmed with a skin biopsy and genetic testing. about . % of spontaneous pneumothoraces occur in the context of a positive family history and involve heritable conditions such as α - antitrypsin deficiency, marfan syndrome, ehlers–danlos syndrome (type iv: vascular type), lymphangioleiomyomatosis (when associ- ated with tuberous sclerosis) and cystic fibrosis. cases birt–hogg–dubé syndrome: an inherited cause of spontaneous pneumothorax cameron w. pierce md, peter r. hull md phd, edmond g. lemire md phd, darcy d. marciniuk md competing interests: see end of article for competing interests. this article has been peer reviewed. correspondence to: dr. cameron w. pierce, camoplasm@hotmail.com cmaj . doi: . /cmaj. practicecmaj • because a positive family history is found in about . % of patients presenting with a spontaneous pneumothorax, it is important to consider genetically inherited syndromes among the possible causes. • birt–hogg–dubé syndrome is a genetic condition with autosomal dominant transmission; classic features include skin lesions, renal tumours and pulmonary cysts that increase the patient’s risk for spontaneous pneumothoraces. • patients with birt–hogg–dubé syndrome should be regularly checked for renal tumours. • identifying a proband with birt–hogg–dubé syndrome provides an opportunity for genetic counselling and screening in the affected individual’s family. key points © canadian medical association or its licensors cmaj early release, published at www.cmaj.ca on february , . subject to revision. (appendix outlines the causes of spontaneous pneumothorax, with clinical features and diag- nostic testing.) recently added to this list is birt– hogg–dubé syndrome, a rare genodermatosis that was first described in in a family from win- nipeg, manitoba, on the basis of skin lesions that showed a pattern of autosomal dominant inheri- tance. the cardinal cutaneous features of this syndrome are follicular hamartomas — fibro - folliculomas, trichodiscomas and acrochordon- like growths — which usually become apparent only in the third or fourth decades of life. , fibro - folliculomas and trichodiscomas present as multi- ple, small, pale or skin -coloured, dome-shaped papules. they are usually seen on the face but are sometimes found on the neck and upper trunk. acrochordon-like growths that are simple-to- globoid in shape are found on the neck, trunk and arms and in the axillae. although the diagnosis has historically been based on the presence of – fibrofolliculomas, one of which should be con- firmed histologically, there is increasing reliance on non dermatologic findings and genetic testing in the diagnosis of birt–hogg–dubé syndrome. in addition to fibrofolliculomas and related skin findings, birt–hogg–dubé syndrome is associated with cystic lung disease, spontaneous pneumotho- races, and benign and malignant renal tumours. , cystic lung disease is estimated to occur in % of patients with birt–hogg–dubé syndrome, and spontaneous pneumothoraces occur in about % of patients. both conditions may occur without associated dermatologic or renal findings. plain chest radio graphy may appear normal, and ct scans are often required to detect pulmonary cysts. the prevalence of renal tumours such as oncocy- tomas, chromophobe renal cell carcinomas, clear cell carcinomas and papillary renal cell carcinomas is about % among patients with birt–hogg– dubé syndrome. , genetics the genetic locus responsible for the syndrome has recently been mapped to chromosome ( p . ) and the gene encoding folliculin (flcn). the fol- liculin protein is amino acids long. it is expressed in stromal cells, the skin and its appendages, the distal nephron and type i pneumo- cytes. although the exact function of folliculin is not known, there is some evidence to support its role as a tumour suppressor. more than unique germline mutations in flcn have been reported, most of which are frameshift or nonsense muta- tions predicted to result in premature truncation of the protein. mutation analysis can detect mutations in nearly % of patients clinically suspected of having birt–hogg–dubé syndrome. , in our patient, amplification of exons – by poly- practice cmaj figure : partial pedigree of a -year-old woman with birt–hogg–dubé syn- drome (arrow). filled symbols identify individuals with a confirmed or reported history of spontaneous pneumothorax. figure : pale papules (arrows) on the patient’s cheeks and nose. figure : computed tomography scan of the lower lung fields, showing multi- ple thin-walled cysts bilaterally. merase chain reaction showed a deletion of a sin- gle thymine residue at nucleotide of the flcn gene (c. delt) resulting in the premature trunca- tion of the protein at amino acid . management caring for patients with birt–hogg–dubé syn- drome includes an assessment at baseline, ongo- ing surveillance and treatment of symptoms as needed. high-resolution ct scans of the chest will help identify pulmonary cysts. subsequent pneumothoraces are treated in the same way as other spontaneous pneumothoraces, with particu- lar consideration given to interventions that will reduce the risk of recurrence. patients with birt–hogg–dubé syndrome should have a careful dermatologic examination, and any suspicious lesions should be biopsied. because regular imaging of the abdomen is impor- tant for the surveillance of renal tumours, magnetic resonance imaging is preferred over ct scans to minimize the patient’s exposure to radiation. com- plementary use of renal ultrasound may help clar- ify the nature of small lesions. it may be possible to follow small (< . cm) renal lesions before considering surgery; consultation with a urologist is appropriate. this report highlights the importance of con- sidering genetically inherited syndromes when a patient presents with recurrent pneumothoraces, especially when there is a positive family his- tory. meaningful interaction between multiple subspecialty teams facilitates the correct investi- gations and diagnosis. moreover, establishment of the diagnosis enables the appropriate screen- ing for associated malignant diseases that would not otherwise have been considered. references . graham rb, nolasco m, peterlin b, et al. nonsense mutations in folliculin presenting as isolated familial spontaneous pneu- mothorax in adults. am j respir crit care med ; : - . . toro jr, pautler s, stewart l, et al. lung cysts, spontaneous pneumothorax, and genetic associations in families with birt–hogg–dubé syndrome. am j respir crit care med ; : - . . birt a, hogg gr, dubé wj. hereditary multiple fibrofolliculomas with trichodiscomas and acrochordons. arch dermatol ; : - . . toro jr, glenn g, duray p, et al. birt–hogg–dubé syndrome: a novel marker of kidney neoplasia. arch dermatol ; : - . . toro j. birt–hogg–dubé syndrome. genereviews. genetests: medical genetics information resource [database]. seattle (wa): university of washington; – . available: www .genetests .org (accessed july ). . toro jr, wei m, glenn g, et al. bhd mutations, clinical and molecular genetic investigations of birt–hogg–dubé syndrome: a new series of families and a review of published reports. j med genet ; : - . competing interests: darcy marciniuk is a consultant for astrazeneca, boehringer-ingelheim, glaxosmithkline, health quality council, novartis, nycomed, pfizer, the public health agency of canada and saskatoon health region; he has received grants from astrazeneca, boehringer-ingelheim, the canadian agency for drugs and technology in health, the canadian institutes of health research, glaxosmithkline, the lung association of saskatchewan, novartis, the royal university hospital foundation, the saskatchewan ministry of health and schering plough; he has received speaker fees from astrazeneca, boehringer-ingelheim, glaxosmithkline, the lung association of saskatchewan and pfizer; and he has developed educational presentations for astrazeneca, boehringer-ingelheim and pfizer. affiliations: from the departments of respirology (pierce, marciniuk), dermatology (hull) and genetics (lemire), uni- versity of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sask. contributors: all of the authors saw the patient in consulta- tion, derived the clinical data, helped draft the manuscript, revised it for important intellectual content and approved the final version submitted for publication. practice cmaj the section cases presents brief case reports that convey clear, practical lessons. preference is given to common presentations of important rare conditions, and important unusual presen- tations of common problems. articles start with a case presentation ( words maximum), and a discussion of the underlying condition fol- lows ( words maximum). generally, up to five references are permitted and visual ele- ments (e.g., tables of the differential diagnosis, clinical features or diagnostic approach) are encouraged. written consent from patients for publication of their story is a necessity and should accompany submissions. see informa- tion for authors at www.cmaj.ca. << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile (dot gain %) /calrgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /calcmykprofile (u.s. web coated \ swop\ v ) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /tags /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjdffile false /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /cmyk /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams false /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage true /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments true /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /preserve /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages true /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages true /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /ok /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck false /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly false /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile () /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f e e ad d cf d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef bc ad c cea d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c e c d b e e f a b c e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d f b d e e c f e e e f d b a e d f e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f f d f e d f c c c e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e c e d f e e e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita <feff c a a d f a f e f d e f f e d c c e e f d e f f e f f e f f e f e e> /jpn <feff ad c cea a d ea d ec b fa b f f e f c b f f e e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e e a d b a b f d a f c e cb fbc f c fc > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec ace d c c c dcd d c c c c d ac c a c d d c f bb c cb c c c d b c b e e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d e f f b b b f b c e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f d f e d d f c c e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f c e e e e e e b e c d c f f e f f d f b d e a e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d e c e d c f d b d f b c e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. created pdf documents can be opened with acrobat and adobe reader . and later.) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /mediumresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice book reviews extent the approaches to illness and healing have become "disenchanted" during this period or not. the authors have drawn on a broad range of archival sources, medical literature and field studies (as far as the more recent history is concerned). the studies in this volume show that max weber's concept of the "disenchantment of the world" may be perfectly applicable to many phenomena, but lack of uniformity and divergent trends defeat the notion of "disenchantment" as a single, universal, scientific category. one might ask, however, why magic beliefs should interest medical historians. the argument that such a system of knowledge or belief has been subjected to criticism and labelling, both by contemporaries and by later historians or folklorists is not, in my opinion, sufficient. the best answer perhaps is given in matthew ramsey's essay on magical healing in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century france in which he points out that at the end of this millennium "witchcraft and magical healing, which lost their metaphysical authenticity three centuries ago, have regained a cultural authenticity" that would have astonished our ancestors. in the case of witchcraft this assumption is confirmed by hans de waardt for eighteenth-century holland and enrique perdiguero for nineteenth-and twentieth-century spain. gillian bennett and ineke van wetering present examples of old and new religious, occult or magical "repertoires" of illness and healing up to the present day, describing, for example, the persistent belief in the ability of snakes to inhabit the human body or the cultural transfer of the creole winti healing tradition to present-day amsterdam. the essays by cornelie usborne and sarah ferber indicate that illness and healing alternatives have to do with a different perception, which is deeply imbedded in the language people use to describe and explain sickness. the issue of rationality of past notions of illness and healing is also dealt with in this volume. stuart clark demonstrates that the notion that devils could cause disease was a rational belief in the context of academic medicine in the later medieval and early modern period. later the founder of homoeopathy, dr samuel hahnemann ( - ) and his many "converted" followers referred to his new art of healing as "rational", as marijke gijswijt-hofstra points out in her fascinating paper on religious metaphors and the complex relations between healing and belief. how an explanation of illness was considered rational in one context and rejected as irrational in another is elaborated by gary waite, showing that already in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the dutch spiritualists and mennonites faced the dilemma of accepting the notion of the devil causing diseases, preferring naturalistic explanations of supposed magical phenomena. albrecht burkhard and willem frijhoff provide two interesting biographical studies which demonstrate that in one case the authorities imposed their rationality over what they considered superstition, while in the other they did not. there can be no doubt that the new wave of alternative or complementary medicine in europe prompts us to think further about the ways in which sickness behaviour is historically determined. we should be grateful to the editors of this fine volume for opening up this promising avenue of research and proposing a powerful, if not always convincing, interpretation. robert jutte, institute fur geschichte der medizin der robert bosch stiftung, stuttgart marcos cueto, el regreso de las epidemias. salud y sociedad en el peru del siglo xx, lima, instituto de estudios peruanos, , pp. , illus., $ . (in the americas), £ . (rest of the world) ( - - - ). cueto's book is a collection of historical essays, some published previously, and it concludes with a chapter on a new development in the area of epidemic disease in peru: the cholera epidemics of . it is, however, more than just a loose collection of available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews historical case studies. their juxtaposition allows for interesting confrontations between different approaches to public health in a developing country, while the discussion of recent epidemics illuminates the lesson that present-day public health officials can learn from past experiences. the bubonic plague epidemics of the early twentieth century led to the establishment of state intervention in public health in peru, but also associated disease with poverty and marginalization, and legitimated governmental control over the life of the poor. the anti-yellow fever campaign, directed by dr hanson of the rockefeller foundation in , illustrates some of the pitfalls of external intervention which does not take into account the local lay and medical cultures. by contrast, the anti-typhus and anti-smallpox campaign conducted by manuel nuniez butr n in the rural department of puno in the s and s shows the importance of integrating indigenous approaches and sanitary action. the failure of ambitious anti-malaria programmes in peru questions the adequacy of approaches based on the eradication of disease, while the recent cholera epidemics show at the same time the possibility of an efficient emergency sanitary action, even under adverse conditions, but also the insufficiency of such emergency actions. the image of public health in a developing country shown by cueto is by no means simplistic. there are no good local doctors and bad foreigners, devoted sanitarians and heartless bureaucrats. hanson did not understand much about peru, but he was successful in eliminating yellow fever; butr n's campaigns were efficient partly because he used paternalistic approaches and authoritarian measures. science-based measures may work or not, depending on numerous contingent conditions, and science itself can be used in multiple ways. for example, the peruvian doctors who resisted hanson's anti-yellow fever campaign argued that the putative yellow fever germ, the bacterium leptospira icteriodes, cannot be isolated from the patients' blood and therefore the disease is not yellow fever. indeed, hanson's "scientific" campaign was based on two assumptions which were disproved later: noguchi's theory that leptospira is the causative agent of yellow fever, and carter's "key focus theory", which assumed that the only reservoir of the yellow fever agent is in the cities. the complexity of some of the issues discussed in the book is nicely underlined by the choice of illustrations and photographs. the photograph of chagas and noguchi, a brazilian and a japanese, both doctors who adopted western science and were legitimated throughout their success as mainstream medical researchers, hints at the use of western science as a tool for personal advancement by non-westerners. the photograph of manuel nuniez butr n carrying a candle in a procession, illustrates the role of the sanitarian as a local personality, well integrated into indigenous elites. woodcuts from butr n's publication, runo soncco, display the unique mixture of indigenous traditions and glorification of science and progress, proposed by butr n and his collaborators. the posters which advertise the fight against malaria employ the visual language of war propaganda, while photographs from the cholera epidemics focus on the suffering and the bewilderment of individual patients. cueto explicitly criticizes the hagiographic type of history of medicine often done in peripheral countries: the glorification of local "great doctors", hospitals and medical faculties, which aims to boost national pride, and to demonstrate that a given country is not "backward", and he advocates a historiography which includes the point of view of the local populations. he also insists on links between poverty, underdevelopment and disease. on the other hand, cueto, living in peru, does not share the pessimistic point of view of some western social historians, who conclude that because there is no end to poverty and underdevelopment in sight, there is little chance of significant improvement in public health in the developing countries. citizens of these countries cannot afford the luxury of sterile despair and cannot limit themselves to available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core book reviews complaints, however justified, against the disastrous effects of international capitalism and of corruption of local elites. cueto does not propose easy solutions-there are none- but his studies indicate that some improvement can take place even under difficult conditions and with limited material means, and that even in the poorest areas long-term policies which associate central planning with the participation of local communities can make a significant difference in limiting epidemics. a final remark: cueto's book is in spanish, and is destined for the peruvian (and more broadly latin-american) market, as indeed it should be. it is, however, of interest for western investigators as well because of the intrinsic interest of the historical materials it contains, and above all because-unlike the majority of historical studies on colonial medicine and medicine in developing countries-it is written from a non-western point of view. ilana lowy, inserm, paris claudia clark, radium girls: women and industrial health reform, - , chapel hill and london, university of north carolina press, , pp. xii, , $ . (hardback - - - ), $ . (paperback - - - ). most medical students have been told of the fate of the young women who in the s painted clocks, watches and other dials with luminous paint containing radium; of how they developed radium toxicity and bone cancer. few doctors know the full story of what happened. i became interested in these extraordinary events about ten years ago when i was writing an account of the causes of a form of cancer of the bone known as osteosarcoma. i burrowed deep into the original accounts and contacted some of the physicians who were still alive who had worked with the doctors who established the connection between the dial painters' exposure to radium and the illnesses which they developed. the history can briefly be summarized. during and after the first world war the discovery by sir william crookes that radium, when mixed with zinc sulphide, gave a luminous material, was exploited by several companies set up in the usa and canada to paint watches and other dials. these companies mainly employed young women school-leavers who painted the dials with a fine brush which they "pointed" between their lips. after a few years, the women began to get ill with falling teeth, necrosis of the jaw, anaemia and, later, osteosarcoma and cancer of the sinuses of the skull. it was some time before it was realized that the radium was responsible. it caused radiation necrosis of the jaw by direct action in the mouth where radium was deposited around the teeth. it caused bone marrow failure and bone cancer at distant sites because the young women swallowed the radium paint which was partially absorbed in the gut and deposited like calcium in bones. the process of medical discovery of the mechanism is fascinating and one man, harrison martland, made an outstanding contribution to the events. martland was also involved, for a time, in helping the young women get some form of compensation from the employers-often rather shifty companies who would close at one site to re- open in another and who denied the association between radium and the illness it caused. martland, in his papers in the s, gives full vent to his disgust at the legal and industrial attitudes towards these young women. claudia clark's book is a detailed, fascinating, and lucid account of another part of the story. this is the fight undertaken by the women for recognition of what had happened and to gain compensation. in her introduction she gives her motive as striving to tell "not only the moving story of the discovery of radium poisoning ... but also to analyse the changing knowledge, attitudes, and institutions that affected the dial painters' struggle . . she succeeds in these aims. clark takes us through the early stages of the establishment of the factories, the state of the existing industrial legislation and the social attitudes towards radium which then prevailed. available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ corruption and conflicts as barriers to adaptive governance: water governance in dryland systems in the rio del carmen watershed this is a repository copy of corruption and conflicts as barriers to adaptive governance: water governance in dryland systems in the rio del carmen watershed. white rose research online url for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ / version: accepted version article: lopez porras, g orcid.org/ - - - , stringer, lc orcid.org/ - - - and quinn, ch orcid.org/ - - - ( ) corruption and conflicts as barriers to adaptive governance: water governance in dryland systems in the rio del carmen watershed. science of the total environment, . pp. - . issn - https://doi.org/ . /j.scitotenv. . . © elsevier b.v. all rights reserved. licensed under the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivatives . international license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/ . /). eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ reuse this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial-noderivs (cc by-nc-nd) licence. this licence only allows you to download this work and share it with others as long as you credit the authors, but you can’t change the article in any way or use it commercially. more information and the full terms of the licence here: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ takedown if you consider content in white rose research online to be in breach of uk law, please notify us by emailing eprints@whiterose.ac.uk including the url of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. mailto:eprints@whiterose.ac.uk https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ corruption and conflicts as barriers to adaptive governance: water governance in dryland systems in the rio del carmen watershed gabriel lopez porrasa  , lindsay c. stringera, claire h. quinna a sustainability research institute, school of earth and environment, university of leeds, woodhouse lane, leeds ls jt, uk. abstract water governance in the rio del carmen watershed has failed to achieve sustainable water use, generating social conflicts, water overexploitation, and grassland loss. this leaves it unable to adapt and learn, to reconcile different stakeholder perspectives and to adequately respond to uncertainty. adaptive water governance regulates water access through flexible, inclusive and innovative institutions, increasing system adaptive capacity in the face of uncertainty. this is necessary for water-scarce systems since they suffer context-specific exposure to land degradation and climate change. this research focuses on how water governance regulates water access in the rio del carmen watershed, mexico, identifying key legal and institutional features that could increase adaptation and secure water resources in the long-term. semi-structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholders in the watershed, in order to understand the water governance structure and its system dynamics.  corresponding author at: sustainability research institute, school of earth and environment, university of leeds, woodhouse lane, leeds ls jt, uk. e-mail address: eegilp@leeds.ac.uk (g. lopez porras). mailto:eegilp@leeds.ac.uk it was found that water mismanagement, overexploitation, and conflicts over access to water are due to the lack of application and neglect of formal rules. results indicate that breaches of the legal framework are commonplace, permitted by corruption of both former and current government officials. many farmers have institutionalized this corruption in order to access water; increasing social conflicts and hindering any type of planning or water management, which, in turn, continues to affect the ecological conditions of the watershed. by understanding the governance system, its structure and the interactions that weaken and bypass formal institutions to the detriment of water resources, stakeholder engagement has emerged as an entry point for enabling collaboration and acceptance of formal institutions. this process has the potential to create a formal network, as a watershed committee, that could be honoured in practice through the efficacy of this engagement. keywords social-ecological resilience · water scarcity · agricultural systems · stakeholder engagement · mexico . introduction drylands are expanding as a result of environmental change and mismanagement (huang et al. ). resulting droughts, desertification and degradation accentuate the emergence of often violent conflicts in these regions (ipbes ). adaptive capacity in dryland systems is the ability to develop innovative solutions to face unpredictable changes or disturbances in a water-scarce context (reed and stringer ; folke ). adaptive water governance (awg) seeks to foster this adaptive capacity through knowledge generation, flexibility, cross-scale collaboration and subsidiarity, as basic principles that can increase system resilience (hill clarvis et al. ). a central challenge in increasing drylandsげ ヴwゲｷﾉｷwﾐiw is the conservation of societal benefits obtained from freshwater sources, also known as water ecosystem services (wes), as they are the basis for maintaining multiple ecosystem functions and sustaining and improving human well-being (davies et al. ; pravalie ). wes conservation needs proactive management of natural processes, if they are to sustain dryland livelihoods (wwap ). however, in dryland systems like the rio del carmen watershed in mexico, where agriculture is the predominant livelihood activity, the mismanagement of wes has resulted in social conflicts and ecological degradation (lopez porras et al. ), which generate a loss of resilience and increase vulnerability (reed and stringer ). analyses of water governance systems have revealed many failures in the conservation of wes, particularly because governance regimes often do not exhibit a good fit with the societal and environmental context in which they are applied (smidt et al. ; pahl-wostl ). centralised and top-down governance lack stakeholder collaboration and learning processes, and for these reasons, these approaches have been losing legitimacy (akhmouch and clavreul ). they are also viewed as unfit to respond to non-linear dynamics (armitage et al. ), such as the continuous and unpredictable variations in climate, water quality or vegetation cover (capon et al. ). systems like the rio del carmen watershed, where informal institutions have considerably greater influence than formal institutions (lopez porras et al. ), have weak governance structures that fail to conserve wes. they cannot be restructured and improved by simple governance reforms unless the required conditions for their operability are considered and analysed (pahl-wostl and knieper ), and stakeholder involvement is enacted (akhmouch and clavreul ). in order to improve human well-being and increase system resilience in drylands, access to wes needs to be regulated within an inclusive and integrated water governance regime (aylward et al. ). this requires a feasible legal and institutional structure with the underlying elements of learning, connectivity, collaboration, flexibility, and subsidiarity (figure ), where wes access can be adjusted according to the system needs in the face of uncertainty (hill clarvis et al. ; decaro et al. ). sarker ( ) highlights how collaboration and usersげ autonomy to manage their resources, supported by the financial, technological and legal resources that the state can grant, increases efficiency in water governance. awg offers one route towards these features (cosens et al. ). however, as aﾗ┌ﾐs ｷﾐ a┌ゲデヴ;ﾉｷ;げゲ murray darling basin, where the excessive use of water resources for agriculture led to environmental degradation and water quality problems, water reforms and their implementation is highly challenging in dryland systems that have institutional problems and conflicted interests (alexandra ). more information is needed regarding the potential for restructuring dryland water governance and the implications for awg (decaro et al. ). figure adaptive water governance conceptual framework this paper critically assesses and describes how water governance regulates access to wes, with the aim of identifying key legal and institutional features that could support adaptation and secure wes, using the rio del carmen watershed as a case study. to do this, we ask: ) what is the legal and institutional structure of water governance in the watershed? ) how has water governance affected water availability and wes in the watershed and for whom? and ) what kind of conflicts and trade-offs are taking place in the watershed and how are these shaped by institutional aspects? by answering these questions, we describe ) the main societal and institutional aspects of the system, ) the social-ecological interplay in relation to water governance and the benefits that stakeholders obtain from wes, and ) stakeholder interactions and their side effects. capability for achieving adaptation can be found in system properties, like the legal, social or political potentials, though there are also barriers that hinder awg (cosens et al. ). ways in which system adaptive capacity can be enhanced can be revealed through a social-ecological system (ses) assessment. we highlight the main issues that undermine adaptive capacity of water governance in dryland systems, and identify entry points within the social and legal structure that could help to restructure the ゲ┞ゲデwﾏげゲ ｪﾗ┗wヴﾐ;ﾐiw ｷﾐ ﾗヴswヴ デﾗ さヴws┌iw ﾗヴ w┗wﾐ hヴw;ﾆ ヴwゲｷﾉｷwﾐiw ﾗa デｴw currwﾐデ ゲ┞ゲデwﾏ デﾗ wﾐ;hﾉw ゲｴｷaデゲ ;┘;┞ aヴﾗﾏ デｴw i┌ヴヴwﾐデ ヮ;デｴ┘;┞ふゲぶ ｷﾐデﾗ ﾐw┘ ﾗﾐwゲざ (folke, , p. ). . study area and methodology . the rio del carmen watershed the rio del carmen watershed (figure ) is located in the driest area of the chihuahuan desert, in chihuahua, mexico (quintana ). its vegetation, average rainfall, and climate conditions (figure ) are representative of many dryland systems (safriel et al. ). it is composed of main aquifers: santa clara (upstream), flores-magon に villa ahumada and laguna de patos (both downstream). more than % of water from these aquifers is used for agricultural purposes (conagua a), producing mainly chilli, pecans, cotton, alfalfa, sorghum, and maize (lopez porras et al. ). however, the three aquifers are considered to be overexploited (dof ). the most important river is the river carmen, whose waters are retained in the las lajas dam with a capacity of . million m (inegi ). figure location and upstream and downstream divisions in the rio del carmen watershed. images obtained from inegi, ( ). cultural diversity in the rio del carmen watershed is marked by the coexistence of two different agricultural communities: the mennonite community settled upstream and mexican farmers settled downstream (lopez porras et al. ). each group has its own unique agricultural production model: mennonite farming techniques are more intensive and technology based, while mexican farmers use more traditional techniques that rely on significant labour inputs (manzanares rivera ). in the s, downstream areas saw substantial agricultural growth, so a presidential decree was issued in ordering the creation of the irrigation district el carmen along with the necessary hydraulic infrastructure (las lajas dam), in order to support and control agriculture in the area, and avoid water overexploitation (dof ). many of the mexican farmers downstream are organized through this irrigation district. the same presidential decree also established an undefined period of restricted-access for new water exploitations in the whole rio del carmen watershed, to avoid lowering the watershed´s water cycle and affect the water availability needed for the irrigation district agriculture (dof ). this means that new applications for water rights in the watershed will only be issued if studies determine that there is water available (lan ). given the increasing depletion of ground water, numerous conflicts over water access have arisen between the groups (quintana ), a situation that has been reported by the international press (burnett ). to date, this situation has not been resolved, in part due to the cultural differences and differing perceptions over wes between mennonites and mexican farmers (lopez porras et al. ). as a result, the rio del carmen watershed social-ecological context presents some interesting challenges from the point of view of water governance in dryland systems. figure precipitation, vegetation cover and climate conditions in the rio del carmen watershed. maps modified from information obtained from inegi ( ). . research design and methods in order to assess the governance system, which integrates the political, legal, economic and social features of governance (pahl-wostl ), we first used stakeholder analysis to identify the key types of stakeholder that play a dominant role in the water governance of the rio del carmen watershed (see reed et al. ; lopez porras et al. ). the stakeholder categories, based on the literature and verified in the field, consisted of farmers, government officials, consultants/industry, ngos and academics. . . sampling a combination of snowball (reed et al. ) and purposeful sampling (patton ) approaches was then used, asking interviewees to identify and nominate other stakeholders that would provide significant information regarding water governance in the rio del carmen watershed. the snowball sample had multiple starting points, beginning with an interview in each stakeholder category in order to avoid a biased sample (sulaiman-hill and thompson ; seale ). in qualitative research, sample size and participant selection do not require representativeness or statistical significance to legitimize the findings (luna- reyes and andersen ; reed et al. ). instead, to obtain in-depth qualitative data, the purposeful sample allowed us to better understand the governance system in the rio del carmen watershed, by obtaining in-depth insights from relevant stakeholders rather than generating generalized data from a population subset (patton ). the stakeholder nominations resulted in a sample of interviews with representatives of the main sectors related to water access and agriculture in the watershed (table ), consisting of farmers, government officials, consultants, ngo and academic. table description of the organisations and sector representation from each stakeholder category. stakeholder category farmers government officials consultants ngo academic sector representatives mennonite community national water commission agricultural management world wide fund for nature faculty of zootechnics and ecology of the autonomous university of chihuahua mexican farmers secretariat of environment and natural resources legal advice secretariat of agriculture, livestock, rural development, fisheries and food agricultural products and trade state coordination of civil protection . . data collection data was collected with the ethical approval area - granted by the research ethics committee at the university of leeds. to obtain the qualitative data needed to understand the governance system from all stakeholder perspectives, the semi-structured interview method was selected, given its suitability for producing this in-depth information (reed et al. )が h┞ ┌ﾐiﾗ┗wヴｷﾐｪ さデｴw iﾗﾏヮﾉw┝ｷデ┞ ﾗa ヴw;ﾉ-world systems through detailed stories and swゲiヴｷヮデｷﾗﾐゲざ (luna-reyes and andersen, , p. ). based on the results obtained from lopez porras et al. ( ) ;ﾐs デｴw aｷヴゲデ ;┌デｴﾗヴげゲ ヮヴｷﾗヴ w┝ヮwヴｷwﾐiw ｷﾐ デｴe region, an interview protocol was designed (appendix). semi-structured interviews were then conducted in spanish by the lead author from february to april , in the municipalities of ahumada, buenaventura, chihuahua, namiquipa and riva palacio, in the state of chihuahua, mexico, since the identified stakeholders were located in these municipalities. given the conflict context in the watershed, neutrality and non-bias were necessary to conduct the interviews and have access to all stakeholders (luna-reyes and andersen ). this non-biased question wording and approach can be found as an appendix (bhattacherjee ). . . analysis interviews were recorded in spanish. in may they were transcribed, at which point they were translated into english and anonymised. prior to the interview, a consent form was signed by each stakeholder indicating that they understood the nature of the research, what the data would be used for, and how anonymity would be maintained. transcripts were analysed using nvivo for windows using the content analysis method (bernard ) based on a deductive coding technique (luna-reyes and andersen ), where coding categories where determined on the basis of the adaptive governance literature (cosens et al. ). the resulting codes were: agriculture, economic and social drivers, environmental change, institutional and structural features, water management, wes access, trade-offs, conflicts, entry points for adaptation, and legal compliance. during the process, indicative stakeholder quotes were structured in a matrix of codes (figure ) in order to test the accuracy of the coding process. secondary data on aspects including water availability, legal provisions such as the restricted-access decree, and pecan production in the watershed, were ﾗhデ;ｷﾐws aヴﾗﾏ デｴw fwswヴ;ﾉ gﾗ┗wヴﾐﾏwﾐデ ﾗa mw┝ｷiﾗげゲ ┘whゲｷデwゲぎ https://www.gob.mx/conagua; www.dof.gob.mx; http://www.diputados.gob.mx/leyesbiblio/; http://gaia.inegi.org.mx/; and https://datos.gob.mx/. secondary data was analysed using the same coding criteria as the interviews in order to facilitate data validation (patton ). the data obtained from the semi-structured interviews and the secondary data were compared, and triangulated with other sources related to water governance in the rio del carmen watershed, such as athie, ( ); burnett, ( ); manzanares rivera, ( ); and quintana, ( ). by doing this, we avoided the weakness associated with the use of a single data collection method (patton ). this also helped to validate and verify the results, by corroborating the consistencies https://www.gob.mx/conagua http://www.dof.gob.mx/ http://www.diputados.gob.mx/leyesbiblio/ http://gaia.inegi.org.mx/ https://datos.gob.mx/ of the data and identifying where the differences were (chi ). the explanation of the governance system started from the integration of the coding matrix using the system narrative method (luna-reyes and andersen )く tｴｷゲ ケ┌;ﾉｷデ;デｷ┗w ﾏwデｴﾗs さ;ﾉﾉﾗ┘ゲ aﾗヴ causal analysis and exploration of デｴw ｷﾐデwヴヮﾉ;┞ ﾗa iﾗﾏヮﾉw┝ ゲ┞ゲデwﾏ iﾗﾏヮﾗﾐwﾐデゲざ (rissman and gillon, , p. ). for contradictions during the cross-data validity checks, a complementary approach was used since differences did not necessarily refute each other, so they were analysed in context and were included to demonstrate the perception of each interviewee (may ). figure stakeholder analysis process and coding process with three indicative quotes from three coding categories that illustrate the composition of the coding matrix. . results . what are the legal, economic, political and social features of the water governance system in the watershed? . . legal and institutional structure article of the political constitution of mexico establishes that the state is the original owner of water resources located within national territory, and the use or exploitation of water can only be made through concessions granted by the federal government. in this sense, the national water law establishes a water-rights system to grant concessions for water exploitation, and designates the national water commission (conagua) as the ｪﾗ┗wヴﾐﾏwﾐデ ;ｪwﾐi┞ ヴwゲヮﾗﾐゲｷhﾉw aﾗヴ デｴw ﾐ;デｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ ┘;デwヴ ﾏ;ﾐ;ｪwﾏwﾐデく conaguaげゲ framework of action is regulated by legal instruments: the national water law published in the federal official gazette on st december , the regulation of the national water law published in the same gazette on nd january , and the interior regulation of the national water commission published in the gazette on th november . accordingly, conaguaげゲ ゲデヴ┌iデ┌ヴw encompasses governance levels: national, regional hydrological- administrative, and state level. the administrative units that relate to rio del carmen watershed governance are the river basin councils, the chihuahua local directorate, and the irrigation district el carmen . river basin councils are mixed and collegiate organizations that hold supportive, consultative and advisory roles between conagua, other government agencies, and society, being the space for public participation in water decision-making (conagua ). the rio del carmen watershed is located within the rio bravo river basin council, which covers , km distributed across five states, and has thirteen different types of climate according to the köppen climatic classification (conagua ). the rio bravo river basin council is located in the state of nuevo leon, more than kilometres from the chihuahua local directorate (google )く さit is a regional participation space formed by civil society and the government. it has representatives from all sectors of the state of chihuahua, such as agriculture, livestock, and industry, even has a representative of the governor of chihuahuaざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ cぶく hﾗ┘w┗wヴが ┘ｴwﾐ ;ゲﾆws ｷa they had participated in council processes, or if the farmers from the rio del carmen watershed had representation on that council, conagua officials said no, they had not been invited. both mexican farmers and mennonites did not know what the rio bravo river basin council was, expressing it with statements such ;ゲ さi do not know it, rather we are organized through an irrigation district, that's where we participateざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ dぶが ﾗヴ さi have never participated or been invited to any conagua meetingざ ふmwﾐﾐﾗﾐｷデw bぶく none of the farmers nor conagua officials interviewed had been invited to or had participated in a council process. at state level is the chihuahua local directorate. the directorates are the local organisations representative of conagua´s water management throughout the mexican states, applying for its policies, strategies, programs, and actions (conagua official c, interview transcript). regarding water management iﾐ デｴw ┘;デwヴゲｴwsが さconagua has been デヴ┞ｷﾐｪ デﾗ ;ssヴwゲゲ デｴw a;ヴﾏwヴゲげ iﾉ;ｷﾏゲ ;ﾐs ｴ;ゲ hwwﾐ ﾏﾗﾐｷデﾗヴｷﾐｪ デｴw ヮｷw┣ﾗﾏwデヴｷi ﾉw┗wﾉ ﾗa デｴw watershedざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ bぶく nonetheless, interviewees noted that the local directorate lacks human and economic resources in ｷデゲ ﾏ;ﾐ;ｪwﾏwﾐデく fﾗヴ w┝;ﾏヮﾉwが さthe technical data for water resources is not obtained according to the procedures that the law dictates. there are only or inspectors in chihuahua state and they never go to the rio del carmen watershed to verify and measure water accessざ ふcﾗﾐゲ┌ﾉデ;ﾐデ dぶく tｴw n;デｷﾗﾐ;ﾉ w;デwヴ law establishes that restricted access areas like the rio del carmen watershed should have a comprehensive watershed management program and participatory processes for designing and implementing mexican official standards that regulate water access. also, this law envisages the creation of organizations such as watershed committees or technical committees of underground water, among other formal institutions, for enabling participative water management according to the specific water-system needs. the local dｷヴwiデﾗヴ;デw ｷゲ デｴw ゲデ;ヴデｷﾐｪ ヮﾗｷﾐデ aﾗヴ デｴwゲw ヮヴﾗiwゲゲwゲく hﾗ┘w┗wヴが さthe local directorate has not designed any watershed management programme; its bad reputation has caused it to lose acceptance in the watershed and therefore it has had less presence in the areaざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく lｷﾆw┘ｷゲwが さthere are always isolated requests to increase the watershed's regulation: these are people [farmers] worried about their work, but nothing has been doneざ ふconagua official c). the only conagua organizational unit where there is farmer participation is the irrigation dｷゲデヴｷiデ eﾉ c;ヴﾏwﾐ ヰΒΓが さwhich is formed by several civil associations that are called irrigation modules, and a water district chief designated by conaguaざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ dぶく according to the national water law, irrigation districts must have the hydraulic infrastructure, surface water, and groundwater necessary for their activities. therefore, the iヴヴｷｪ;デｷﾗﾐ dｷゲデヴｷiデ eﾉ c;ヴﾏwﾐ ヰΒΓ さis supplied from the las lajas dam and the flores-magon に villa ahumada aquifer, through common water rights granted to the district during its creationざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく hﾗ┘w┗wヴが ヮ;ヴデｷiｷヮ;デｷﾗﾐ ;ﾐs デｴw swiｷゲｷﾗﾐゲ デ;ﾆwﾐ ｷﾐ デｴw irrigation district el carmen only cover the area under its management, so in this institutional structure, there is no space for collaboration at watershed scale. this means that despite the water cycle occurring at the watershed scale, the current water governance system does not have any collaboration or decision-making process that can increase ses adaptation at this scale. . . societal complexity in the governance system governance problems in the rio del carmen watershed have their roots in the social complexity of the area following the establishment of early mennonite settlements. the mennonite community initially arrived in the laguna de bustillos watershed around , h┌デ ┘ｴwﾐ デｴw iﾗﾏﾏ┌ﾐｷデ┞ ゲデ;ヴデws デﾗ ｪヴﾗ┘ さa group of consultants in coordination with a credit union of mennonite farmers, with great lines of credit with many banks, started to buy the upstream grasslands, dividing them into smaller plots, and selling them with irrigation systemsざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく iﾐ デｴｷゲ ヮヴﾗiwゲゲが さconagua officials at that time were advising this group of developers, selling them some water rights so that they could be divided into different plots, telling them that they could use more water than allowed and nothing would happenざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ dぶく さthis offered an incentive to settle in the watershed, but conagua lied, many of the rights were falseざ ふmwﾐﾐﾗﾐｷデw aぶく aﾐs ﾐﾗ┘が さformer conagua officials are advising mennonite farmers with all their acquired knowledge of how to break the lawざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ dぶが h┞ さlodging requests for defence in courts, and delaying the trials so that the mennonites can continue extracting water without water rightsざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく around the mexican farmers became involved in violent conflicts against the mennonites, arguing that the upstream illegal water use was affecting their exploitations and increasing water depletion (conagua official c, interview transcript). afterward, due to conaguaげゲ ﾏｷゲﾏ;ﾐ;ｪwﾏwﾐデ ;ﾐs ｷデゲ ｷﾐ;hｷﾉｷデ┞ デﾗ ヴwゲﾗﾉ┗w デｴw sｷゲヮ┌デwが デｴw mw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴゲ started to work in an inter-institutional way with several government officials to solve the illegality that was taking place in the watershed (mexican farmer d, interview transcript). hﾗ┘w┗wヴが デｴw ゲｷデ┌;デｷﾗﾐ ｷゲ sｷaaｷi┌ﾉデ hwi;┌ゲw さdownstream farmers ask for the removal of all illegal exploitations, with zero openness and flexibility to negotiate, but unfortunately, nothing can be done until mennonite litigations are solved by the courtsざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ a). by the violence had receded, because さデｴw ヴ;ｷﾐ ｴ;ゲ hwwﾐ aｷﾉﾉｷﾐｪ l;ゲ l;ﾃ;ゲ s;ﾏ ;ﾐs that has them [mexican farmers] calmざ ふmwﾐﾐﾗﾐｷデw dぶく however, in late the mexican a;ヴﾏwヴゲ さreceived proof of apocryphal water rights that the former conagua chihuahua director sold to his family and to upstream mennonitesざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ dぶが which exacerbated tensions, generating new violent clashes, and highlighting the fragility of the social relations in the system (consultant d, interview transcript). . how has water governance affected water availability and wes in the watershed and for whom? . . agriculture and wes access bwゲｷswゲ conaguaげゲ ﾏｷゲﾏ;ﾐ;ｪwﾏwﾐデが デｴwヴw ;ヴw デｴヴww iﾗヴw ｷゲゲ┌wゲ デｴ;デ ｴ;┗w hwwﾐ ゲｴ;ヮｷﾐｪ agricultural practices in the watershed, and thus wes access: i) environmental change, ii) crop choices and iii) lack of irrigation technﾗﾉﾗｪｷwゲく さin chihuahua the rainfall is torrential, we have had mm of rain in less than an hour which causes great soil loss and no infiltration for aquifer recharge. however, this helps to maintain the lajas dam full to its maximum capacityざ ふ“デ;デw ｪﾗ┗ernment a). irregular rainfall has caused some farmers to build retention ditches as an adaptive strategy, while others combine rain-fed irrigation with ┘;デwヴ ┘wﾉﾉゲく hﾗ┘w┗wヴが s┌w デﾗ ┌ﾐswヴｪヴﾗ┌ﾐs ┘;デwヴ swヮﾉwデｷﾗﾐが ｷデ ゲwwﾏゲ デｴ;デ さhydraulic infrastructure and irrigation technologies are fundamental for agriculture continuityざ ふ“デ;デw government a). f;ヴﾏwヴゲ ｴ;┗w ゲwﾉwiデws さhighly water-demanding crops that have a close relationship with water overexploitationざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ bぶく さa big problem is that these crops fight against nature, they are not suitable for the watershed, and the reason is the short-term profitability of the cropsざ ふcﾗﾐゲ┌ﾉデ;ﾐデ cぶく pecan planting has been increasing downstream because its market price is very high, even though the crop needs a huge amount of water. in the agricultural cycle - the irrigation district el carmen had , hectares of pecan (conagua b). according to sifuentes et al., ( ), in mexico around , million m y- of water is used to irrigate one hectare of pecan trees, which is more than double the million m y- of water per hectare that maize needs (collet ). hence, in that single year, the irrigation district used approximately , , million m of water only for pecan production. notwithstanding, the irrigation district has the infrastructure and the water rights which should sustain that agricultural production, but depletion levels and the decrease in surface water are restricting water access. furthermore, surface irrigation is commonly used downstream, which is unsuitable for the sustainability of agriculture in the watershed, as it represents a significant source of water loss and leads to soil erosion, as a conagua official stated: さcurrently many downstream pecans are young, and even with a glass of water i can go and water them, but when they begin to produce, it will be impossible to water them with these depletion levels and irrigation methodsざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく upstream is a different situation, as the main crop is maize and mennonite agriculture uses sprinkler irrigation (mennonite a, interview transcript). however, optimization of agriculture through irrigation technologies has been an incentive to increase the agricultural frontier and irrigate more, since the mennonite irrigation technologies are for large-scale agriculture, so they have been changing the upstream grasslands to croplandsく さthey [mennonites] do not sow in or hectares as mexicans, they sow in or hectaresざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ gぶく rwｪ;ヴsｷﾐｪ デｴw ｷヴヴｷｪ;デｷﾗﾐが さthey [mennonites] say that if you water little the plant produces little, but if you water the plant a lot it produces a lotざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ f). this increases the pressure on wes. besides that, the lack of information regarding all the upstream crops that are being irrigated by the mennonites without water rights, does not allow for any comprehensive agricultural planning (conagua official a, interview transcript). as stated by almost all intervieweesが ヴwｪ┌ﾉ;デｷﾗﾐ ｷゲ ﾐwiwゲゲ;ヴ┞が ┘ｴwヴw さstrategies for saving water and not oversupplying the market can be implementedざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ d). moreover, this regulation needs to establish what type of irrigation technology should be used for each type of crop, clearly define the agricultural frontier in order to protect the grasslands, and set crop restrictions (consultant c, interview transcript). . . social and ecological impacts water availability is defined by the volume that can be extracted without affecting the water and ecosystem balance (conagua a), so from this perspective, ecological thresholds in water-based ses are crossed through water depletion. underground water is getting towards that point as it is alarmingly overexploited (figure ぶく さin the last years the water levels in the aquifer have been decreasing. we have had to deepen the wells which is very expensive, but also we are already drawing very deep waterざ (mexican farmer g). the watershed has surface water availability (figure ), nonetheless, the construction of illegal s;ﾏゲ ┌ヮゲデヴw;ﾏ ｷゲ i;┌ゲｷﾐｪ ゲwヴｷﾗ┌ゲ ;ﾉデwヴ;デｷﾗﾐゲ デﾗ デｴw ┘;デwヴ h;ﾉ;ﾐiwく さ years ago, we had surface water flow of million m y- , and in we discovered that the surface water flow had dropped to million m y- ざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく gｷ┗wﾐ ｷﾉﾉwｪ;ﾉ ┘;デwヴ ;iiwゲゲ (figure ), there are no reliable data regarding water access and its availability. again, this is an important barrier to any agricultural planning in the watershed. figure socio-ecological water interactions in the rio del carmen watershed. data obtained from dof, ( ), dof, ( ) and conagua official a. wes, such as provisioning water for irrigation, regulating and supporting services linked to water infiltration, as well as soil and vegetation conservation, are in decline. さupstream, there are approximately , ha that have been transformed to agricultural use in the last years, without any authorizationざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく tｴw wiﾗﾉﾗｪｷi;ﾉ sｷゲデ┌ヴh;ﾐces that this generates are largely affecting downstream farmers, particularly hwi;┌ゲw さthe water that fills the las lajas dam, from where the mexican farmers are supplied, is produced upstream where the mennonites liveざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく tｴｷゲ ｷゲ ┘ｴ┞ mexican farmers are the more interested group when it comes to addressing water overexploitation, addressing grassland loss, and arranging inter-institutional working groups. they have submitted proposals, for w┝;ﾏヮﾉwが デﾗ さcreate a trust fund for climate change adaptation through the conservation of grasslands and wes, by taxing % of agricultural productionざ (mexican farmer d); however, to date, they have not achieved any outcome. crop choice also causes impacts on wes availability. for instance, the ecological conditions ﾗa デｴw ┘;デwヴゲｴws i;ﾐﾐﾗデ ゲ┌ヮヮﾗヴデ ﾉ;ヴｪw ヮwi;ﾐ ヮﾉ;ﾐデ;デｷﾗﾐゲく さif someone sows pecans, it should be mandatory to use a drip irrigation systemざ ふcﾗﾐゲ┌ﾉデ;ﾐデ cぶが ;ゲ ;ﾉﾉ ヮwi;ﾐ investments that farmers have made in the watershed can be lost if current agricultural practices continue to increase the depletion levels, さit is possible that in the future i will have to cut all my pecan trees, because many pecans are being planted and there will be no water to irrigate themざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ aぶく oﾐ デｴw ┘ｴﾗﾉe, it can be observed that water governance in the rio del carmen watershed does not regulate water access in relation to availability as established by conagua; on the contrary, water is accessed according to the number and types of crops that farmers wish to harvest, with individual decisions being made without any planning at watershed scale (consultant a, interview transcript). . what kind of conflicts and trade-offs are taking place in the watershed and how are these shaped by institutional aspects? . . corruption and conflicts as barriers several statements assert that corruption within conagua is the culprit of illegal water access: さconagua has created a black market for water rights, and the worst thing is that despite being the only way to get them, many are false and they ask for money so they can continue exploiting water illegallyざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ aぶく さwｴwﾐ ┘w ｪﾗ aﾗヴ ｴwﾉヮが デｴw┞ [conagua] tell us that our water right is false, they charge us money to regularize our exploitations and then it turns out that what they sold us is also false, and still, they extort us by asking for money so as not to remove ﾗ┌ヴ w┝ヮﾉﾗｷデ;デｷﾗﾐゲざ (mennonite a). however, conagua officials said that they have been trying to solve the problem of illegal exploitation: さbetween the years - conagua, the federal police, and other agencies tried to destroy the illegal dams that are located upstream, but we could not continue since the mennonites started to lodge requests for defence in the courtsざ (conagua official a). some mennonites recognise this situation stating that, さsome water exploitations are illegal because conagua has been selling fake property rightsざ ふmennonite a), and that is the reason why mennonites started to lodge requests for defence in the courts. nonetheless, some mexican farmers see this situation as untenable, stating that, さthey [mennonites] do not mind getting into corruption and paying for false water rights whenever necessary; they do not care if that is affecting us and our familiesざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ farmer e). the concern is that the exploitation of false water rights are taking place outside conaguaげゲ control and ﾃ┌ヴｷゲsｷiデｷﾗﾐが hwi;┌ゲw ┘ｴwﾐ さthe judges grant the requests of the defence, conagua cannot interfere, until years after when the litigations are finished and the watershed depletedざ (mexican farmer d). many farmers referred to this corruption, which has conceded the illegal water access, as デｴw ゲﾗ┌ヴiw ﾗa ゲﾗiｷ;ﾉ iﾗﾐaﾉｷiデゲく さthe grounds of the dispute are that the authorities do not enforce the rule of law, conagua does not make farmers respect the law, so mexican farmers do it their wayざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ cぶく f┌ヴデｴwヴﾏﾗヴwが さwith the recent conflicts caused by corruption of the former director of conagua, the government does not want to get involved, it is very dangerousざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ gぶ. although these conflicts have resulted in the destruction of some dams that mennonites used for irrigation (mennonite d, interview transcriptぶが さthe peaceful way of being of the mennonites has not fed the animosityざ (conagua official a), rather, it is fuelled by デｴwｷヴ ｷﾉﾉwｪ;ﾉ ┘;デwヴ ;iiwゲゲく fヴﾗﾏ conaguaげゲ ┗ｷw┘ヮﾗｷﾐデが さconflicts between farmers are an economic issue: w┗wヴ┞hﾗs┞げゲ ｷﾐデwヴwゲデ ｷゲ デﾗ ｴ;┗w enough water to irrigate, but due to the water shortage in the watershed, we cannot generate an agreement with which all the parties agreeざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ cぶく nevertheless, according to other stakeholders, the problem is more complex than only conflicting interests between the farmers, it is also because, さa system based on corruption has been established over water access in which some conagua officials and many farmers are working, and they will not easily allow this to change because that is what generates them moneyざ ふcﾗﾐゲ┌ﾉデ;ﾐデ dぶく . . side effects of social conflicts さthe conflicts in the watershed have caused a distancing between conagua and the farmersざ ふconagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉ aぶく conaguaげゲ ;デデwﾐデｷﾗﾐ デﾗ デｴw ┘;デwヴゲｴws ﾐwwsゲ ｴ;ゲ hwwﾐ ;ﾉﾏﾗゲデ ﾐｷﾉが さthey never give an answer, you cannot communicate with themざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ farmwヴ cぶが さwhen we ask conagua for help they never come, they do not do anythingざ (mennonite c). wes loss and fragmentation of the social fabric are not the only outcomes デｴ;デ iﾗヴヴ┌ヮデｷﾗﾐ ｴ;ゲ ヮヴﾗs┌iwsぎ さthe lack of both agricultural planning and water management, make the farmers compete locally, instead of collaborating to be productively competitive at greater scalesざ ふcﾗﾐゲ┌ﾉデ;ﾐデ aぶく iﾐ ﾗデｴwヴ ;ヴw;ゲ ﾗa デｴw “デ;デw ﾗa cｴｷｴ┌;ｴ┌; デｴwヴw ｴ;┗w hwwﾐ さseveral commercial alliances between mexicans farmers and mennonites, however, the social context in the rio del carmen watershed makes collaboration almost impossibleざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ fぶく iﾐ デｴｷゲ ヴwｪ;ヴsが ; mw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ ゲ;ｷs デｴ;デ ﾗﾐw ゲデヴ;デwｪ┞ デﾗ ﾏｷデｷｪ;デw iﾗヴヴ┌ヮデｷﾗﾐ ｷゲ さthrough collaboration with the farmers to verify that all the water exploitations comply with the lawざ ふmw┝ｷi;ﾐ a;ヴﾏwヴ eぶく tｴｷゲ iﾗｷﾐiｷswゲ ┘ｷデｴ ; conagua ﾗaaｷiｷ;ﾉげゲ ゲデ;デwﾏwﾐデぎ farmers must contribute with human resources in order to verify and regularize the rule of law in the watershed. for instance, there is another area in mexico where a committee composed of water right holders is the one that authorizes and verifies the exploitations, and the government participates only to support and strengthen that organization (conagua official a). despite these attempts and proposals from some mexican farmers to improve the management of the rio del carmen watershed, coordination with conagua has not been ;iｴｷw┗wsく さthe problem is that the stakeholders with more influence [conagua officials] and more economic resources [mennonite farmers] are benefited by the status quoざ (consultant d). this power asymmetry strengthens unsuitable institutional conditions and incentivises corruption, given the niche of impunity that is created, as a mexican farmer stated: the fear of being sanctioned or imprisoned is the main reason for legal compliance because freedom is a priority for every human being. the high level of corruption in the watershed derives from this lack of fear, since corruption has no consequences either for the farmers or conagua officials (mexican farmer d). “ﾗﾏw a;ヴﾏwヴゲ ゲデ;デws デｴ;デ さthe solution is to restructure conaguaざ ふmwﾐﾐﾗﾐｷデw aぶく aﾐﾗデｴwヴ proposed solution consisted of さfinding a way to develop the same degree of awareness among all groups [farmers and conagua] (mexican farmer f). nonetheless: さthe common long-term objective must be water conservation for future generations, so each one must contribute to achieving a responsible water accessざ (conagua official b). . discussion . conceptual framework and current water governance in the rio del carmen watershed knowing the complexities regarding the legal, economic, political and social features of the water governance system, the conflicts that are taking place, and the impacts over wes as highlighted in this study, is requisite for identifying entry points that could be used to restructure the governance regime, such that it better supports awg in dryland systems. according to the legal and institutional design principles of adaptive governance (decaro et al. ), and the adaptive governance principles for incorporating uncertainty into legislation and policy design (hill clarvis et al. ), awg in the rio del carmen needs to: - be iterative and flexible in order to adjust water governance in the face of uncertainty. these uncertainties include precipitation variability and unanticipated changes in land coverage (sietz et al. ). - give legally binding authority and accountability to stakeholders, to allow locally appropriate decision-making and encourage collaboration. - have financial, technical and administrative powers to self-govern wes in the watershed. - embrace connectivity and subsidiarity, so that different centres of activity can concur at the watershed scale, with local standards and policies. in light of this, it is clear that the administrative river basin scale established by the national water law does not fit with the required elements for awg, or with the social and ecological needs in the watershed. river basin councils are failed water organizations without representativeness (oecd ). the distance to and the lack of participation of the rio del carmen stakeholders in the rio bravo river basin council, is a barrier to the connectivity and subsidiarity that awg requires. governance problems are often different between local watershed scale and the wider river basin system (cosens et al. ). this has been found to be the case elsewhere, such as in the murray darling basin in australia, where the large-basin scale and institutional complexity create bureaucratic obstacles that have undermined water governance and the implementation of water reforms (alexandra ). indeed, bureaucracy and institutional inefficiency is a problem that increases conagua's corruption (athie ). in this regard, despite the attempt to decentralize water governance through the creation of these councils, conagua is still a centralised and top-down agency with no political stability, and no control over corruption (murillo-licea and soares-moraes ). decentralization as an attempt to increase the effectiveness of water governance does not solve corruption, and any governance reform in this sense can be prejudicial to the ses (pahl-wostl and knieper ). inefficient water governance regimes derive from inefficient formal institutions (pahl-wostl and knieper ); and corruption is both a driver and an outcome of this situation, leading to negligent, colluded, and incapable water management (quintana ). the main stakeholders, as water rights holders, do not have the legal authority to formally address corruption in water management nor deal with environmental dilemmas, nonetheless, they are those that are affected the most. in this sense, water governance has been reduced to a;ヴﾏwヴゲげ ┘ｷﾉﾉ デﾗ iﾗﾏヮﾉ┞ ┘ｷデｴ aﾗヴﾏ;ﾉ ヴ┌ﾉwゲ ┘ｷデｴﾗ┌デ ;ﾐ ;┌デｴﾗヴｷデ┞ デｴ;デ ゲ;awｪ┌;ヴsゲ デｴw ﾉ;┘が ;ﾐs since many lack this will, evidenced by illegal water use, it allows disaffection and disagreements between stakeholders to grow. dryland adaptive capacity shrinks with social conflicts and wes loss (mortimore et al. ; middleton et al. ), but also lack of coordination is related to low system adaptive capacity (pahl-wostl and knieper ). conflicts over water access and water depletion are not only undermining the watershed adaptive capacity, but also creating unmanaged agricultural development. . agriculture in a dryland context crop expansion and unsuitable agriculture are direct drivers of land degradation and water depletion (marston et al. ; ipbes ). improving dryland agriculture is of paramount importance, since desertification, an extreme form of drylands degradation (reed and stringer ), already affects ;ヴﾗ┌ﾐs ΑヰХ ﾗa デｴw ┘ﾗヴﾉsげゲ ;ｪヴｷi┌ﾉデ┌ヴ;ﾉ sヴ┞ﾉ;ﾐsゲ (winslow et al. ). in this regard, desertification is a potential problem in the rio del carmen watershed, since the chihuahuan desert has been suffering from grassland loss and soil degradation (pmarp ; caracciolo et al. ). however, the crops that are being sown in the watershed are unsuitable given its precipitation and climate conditions (figure ), and water overexploitation (quintana ). as in the limarí basin in chile, the absence of agricultural planning in dryland watersheds increases water scarcity and thus conflicts over water access, creating the self-produced problem of agricultural drought (urquiza and billi ). in the rio del carmen watershed depletion levels are increasing and water flow decreasing. surface irrigation is not suitable in a water-scarce context (becerra et al. ), and there are better technologies than sprinkler irrigation for maize, like subsurface drip irrigation (olague et al. ). accordingly, proactive wes-based governance is key to avoid watershed degradation, and to address the global challenges of climate change adaptation and contemporary water management problems (wwap ). a governance system that adjusts agricultural production and crop selection according to the dryland context is needed in order to avoid desertification and support the restoration of degraded soil (ipbes ). this has been done elsewhere in mexico, such as in the nazas watershed in the north. this demonstrates that it is possible to establish water assets for agricultural planning in drylands, as long as there is an organized network at the necessary scale, with reliable data on water access, crop species, and land that is being sown (sanchez cohen et al. ). however, the rio del carmen does not yet have these aspects in place. current governance problems will not change if current conflicts and corruption continue to permeate the social setting, because collaboration will be not achieved. . entry points and barriers for awg an entry point for enabling collaboration, and thus addressing corruption, conflicts, and wes loss, is the inception of a process by which the stakeholders in the watershed get engaged and involved in the decision-making and management of water resources (akhmouch and clavreul ). this stakeholder engagement increases social awareness and acceptability of trade-offs when moving towards adaptation, while reducing conflicts over water access (akhmouch and clavreul ). decisions taken within a network that engages a broad range of stakeholders from conagua, the mennonite community, and the mexican farmers in the water management, will be more likely to be honoured in practice (akhmouch and clavreul ). this collaboration and acceptance will also open the door to formally establishing awg in the rio del carmen watershed. evidence from elsewhere with similarly conflicting stakeholders, such as the southern ocean case study, where the formalization of an informal collaborative network enabled the emergence of adaptive governance that addressed the fisheries crisis (Österblom and folke ), indicates this is a potentially feasible proposition. nonetheless, governance reforms should be based on research that considers societal and institutional features as system drivers, providing suggestions of what needs to be done differently, and with the inclusion of local knowledge (wiek and larson ; anthonj et al. ). based on our results, we have identified the creation of the rio del carmen watershed committee as an entry point that will formally restructure system governance towards awg. characteristics of this are as follows: - watershed committees are a collegiate organization with government and private participation that will allow the collaboration between farmers, conagua, and other authorities from the agricultural sector that can support sustainable agricultural development in line with the watershed conditions. this integrates the connectivity principle of adaptive governance. - the committee is an ideal space for developing a suitable watershed management program, along with the mexican official standard that the national water law requires for restricted-access area management. this embodies the subsidiarity principle. - the committees must have rules of integration, organization, and operation, allowing a continuous verification and restructuring of their strategies according to the results. this incorporates the iterativity and flexibility principles. - the committees should establish the attributions and responsibilities that their members have within their hydrological-specific areas, for the execution of their management programs. this includes mechanisms to strengthen verification, legal compliance, and establish conflict resolution processes, giving stakeholders the formal authority and responsibility that awg requires. - the national water law dictates that conagua should provide the support, space, and mechanisms to promote and facilitate participation and collaboration in the public organizations that could help conagua in water management, such as the watershed committees or the technical committees of underground water. this, in conjunction with other financing mechanisms, will give the necessary resources that awg requires for its operation. for such a committee to be formulated, stakeholder engagement is needed, with the acceptance of the of costs and benefits that this brings with it (akhmouch and clavreul ). the identified barriers for the stakeholder engagement include that those who are accessing water illegally do not have incentives to collaborate, since submitting voluntarily to this process will represent large losses in their agricultural investments, similar to a commons problem where individual benefits outweigh collective benefits (hardin ). however, this risks the livelihoods of those who use water legally, so farmers with water rights need to take leadership and drive institutional change (pahl-wostl and knieper ). the success of collaboration will depend on the acceptance of trade-offs that arise during the engagement. for farmers, this could consist of voluntarily restricting water access or stopping sowing certain crops; from conagua this might mean giving farmers some licences or authorizations regarding water verification and management. but as demonstrated by the southern ocean case, an informal network that effectively engages the stakeholders in resource management, has the potential to evolve and be endowed with legal formality, in order to formally establish awg (garmestani and benson ). by assessing and describing the water governance system and how it influences the rio del carmen watershed, we have identified the main problems that undermine ses resilience. this is important for locating the potential to increase adaptive capacity in dryland systems. we have highlighted the main barriers to and needs for awg. however, more research is needed in order to identify barriers and opportunities for enabling the necessary social engagement for awg, along with improving understanding of the system conditions, institutional arrangements and the possible trade-offs needed to allow the emergence of awg. this will be particularly challenging given the current conflicts. . conclusion commonly, water governance does not fit with system requirements for wes conservation, which in turn decreases デｴw ゲ┞ゲデwﾏげゲ adaptive capacity. this issue has to be addressed, especially in drylands as these areas are commonly exposed to land degradation and climate change. governance problems grow when vulnerable dryland systems, with depleted underground water and large scale grassland loss, combine with water mismanagement, corruption, lack of coordination, legal breaches and unsustainable agricultural development. this was found in the case of the rio del carmen watershed, where these problems have generated ecological deterioration and significant social conflicts. assヴwゲゲｷﾐｪ デｴw ｷゲゲ┌wゲ デｴ;デ ┌ﾐswヴﾏｷﾐw デｴw rｷﾗ swﾉ c;ヴﾏwﾐげゲ ;s;ヮデｷ┗w i;ヮ;iｷデ┞ ヴwケ┌ｷヴwゲ デｴw establishment of an informal network with the engagement of a broader number stakeholders. this will guarantee the acceptance and distribution of the emerging trade- offs, in exchange for the continuity of agriculture in the watershed, and greater autonomy and participation in water management. over the longer term it will be necessary that this stakeholder engagement embedded with local knowledge, be endowed with legal formality, in order to be effective, legitimate and sustainable, and create the required conditions for awg, like establishing subsidiarity, flexibility, connectivity, and iterativity in the governance regime. finally, a water governance assessment is required in order to understand the system needs and problems. comprehending how the governance system shapes ecological and societal interactions enables identification of the barriers and opportunities to increase ses resilience. acknowledgments we thank the study participants as without their contributions of time and knowledge this research would not have been possible. we also thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments that strengthened this paper. the first author acknowledges financial support from conacyt-secretaria de energia-sustentabilidad energetica grant no. . conflict of interest none references akhmouch a, clavreul d ( ) stakeholder engagement for inclusive water governance: さpヴ;iデｷiｷﾐｪ wｴ;デ ww pヴw;iｴざ ┘ｷデｴ デｴw oecd w;デwヴ gﾗ┗wヴﾐ;ﾐiw iﾐｷデｷ;デｷ┗wく w;デwヴ (switzerland) : に . doi: . /w aﾉw┝;ﾐsヴ; j ふヲヰヱΒぶ e┗ﾗﾉ┗ｷﾐｪ gﾗ┗wヴﾐ;ﾐiw ;ﾐs cﾗﾐデwゲデws w;デwヴ rwaﾗヴﾏゲ ｷﾐ a┌ゲデヴ;ﾉｷ;げゲ m┌ヴヴ;┞ darling basin. water : . doi: . /w anthonj c, diekkrüger b, borgemeister c, thomas kistemann ( ) health risk perceptions and local knowledge of water-related infectious disease exposure among kenyan wetland communities. int j hyg environ health : に . doi: . /j.ijheh. . . armitage dr, plummer r, berkes f, et al ( ) adaptive co-management for socialに ecological complexity. front ecol environ : に . doi: . / athie k ( ) el agua, ayer y hoy. camara de diputados lxiii legislatura, mexico city aylward b, bandyopadhyay j, belausteguigotia j-c, et al ( ) chapter freshwater ecosystem services. ecosystems and human well-being: policy responses. volume , findings of the responses working group of the millennium ecosystem assessment. washington, d.c., usa. becerra m, sainz j, muñoz c ( ) los conflictos por aguaen méxico.diagnóstico y análisis. gestión y política pública xv: に . bwヴﾐ;ヴs hr ふヲヰヱヱぶ rwゲw;ヴiｴ ﾏwデｴﾗsゲ ｷﾐ ;ﾐデｴヴﾗヮﾗﾉﾗｪ┞票ぎ ケ┌;ﾉｷデ;デｷ┗w ;ﾐs ケ┌;ﾐデｷデ;デｷ┗w approaches, th edn. altamira, maryland bhattacherjee a ( ) social science research: principles, methods, and practices, book . textbooks collection burnett v ( ) mennonite farmers prepare to leave mexico, and competition for water. in: new york times. https://www.nytimes.com/ / / /world/americas/mennonite-farmers-prepare- to-leave-mexico-and-competition-for-water.html. accessed oct capon sj, lynch ajj, bond n, et al ( ) regime shifts, thresholds and multiple stable states in freshwater ecosystems; a critical appraisal of the evidence. sci total environ : に . doi: . /j.scitotenv. . . caracciolo d, istanbulluoglu e, noto lv, collins sl ( ) mechanisms of shrub encroachment into northern chihuahuan desert grasslands and impacts of climate change investigated using a cellular automata model. adv water resour : に . doi: . /j.advwatres. . . chi mth ( ) quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: a practical guide. j learn sci : に . doi: . /s jls _ collet k ( ) una agricultura de regadío racional: el salobral - albacete (españa). papeles geogr に . conagua ( a) comisión nacional del agua. disponibilidad por acuíferos. http://sigagis.conagua.gob.mx/gas /sections/disponibilidad_acuiferos.html. accessed jun conagua ( ) consejos de cuenca: comisión nacional del agua. https://www.gob.mx/conagua/documentos/consejos-de-cuenca. accessed jun conagua ( ) comisión nacional del agua, programa de medidas preventivas y de mitigación de la sequía (pmpms) consejo de cuenca del río bravo (cc-r bravo). mexico conagua ( b) comisión nacional del agua. estadísticas agrícolas de los distritos de riego año agrícola - . mexico cosens b, gunderson l, allen c, et al ( ) identifying legal, ecological and governance obstacles, and opportunities for adapting to climate change. sustainability : に . doi: . /su cosens ba, gunderson l, chaffin bc ( ) introduction to the special feature practicing panarchy: assessing legal flexibility, ecological resilience, and adaptive governance in regional water systems experiencing rapid environmental change. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - davies j, barchiesi s, ogali cj, et al ( ) water in drylands: adapting to scarcity through integrated management. iucn, gland, switzerland decaro da, chaffin bc, schlager e, et al ( ) legal and institutional foundations of adaptive environmental governance. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - dof ( ) diario oficial de la federación. acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de agua subterránea de los acuíferos de los estados unidos mexicanos, mismos que forman parte de las regiones hidrológico- administrativas que se indican. http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / . accessed jun dof ( ) acuerdo que establece el distrito de riego de el carmen, en san buenaventura y villa ahumada, chih., y declara de utilidad pública la construcción de las obras que lo formen y la adquisición de los terrenos necesarios para alojarlas y operarlas. http://dof.gob.mx/nota_to_imagen_fs.php?cod_diario= &pagina= &seccion= . accessed jul dof ( ) acuerdo por el que se actualiza la disponibilidad media anual de las aguas nacionales superficiales de las cuencas hidrológicas que comprenden las regiones hidrológicas en que se encuentra dividido los estados unidos mexicanos. http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo= &fecha= / / . accessed aug folke c ( ) resilience (republished). ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - garmestani a, benson m ( ) a framework for resilience-based governance of social- ecological systems. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - google ( ) google maps directions for driving from the chihuahua local directorate of conagua, to the rio bravo river basin council. https://www.google.co.uk/maps/dir/avenida+universidad+ ,+magisterial+universi dad,+ +chihuahua,+chih.,+mexico/edificio+bisa,+gral.+jerónimo+treviño+pte.+ ,+centro,+ +monterrey,+n.l.,+mexico/@ . ,- . , z/data=! m ! b ! m. accessed sep hardin g ( ) the tragedy of the commons. the population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality. science : に . doi: . /science. . . hill clarvis m, allan a, hannah dm ( ) water, resilience and the law: from general concepts and governance design principles to actionable mechanisms. environ sci policy : に . doi: . /j.envsci. . . huang j, li y, fu c, et al ( ) dryland climate change: recent progress and challenges. rev geophys : に . doi: . / rg inegi ( ) síntesis de información geográfica del estado de chihuahua. instituto nacional de estadistica y geografia. aguascalientes, mexico inegi ( ) mapa digital de méxico v . . instituto nacional de estadistica y geografia. https://gaia.inegi.org.mx/mdm /?v=bgf oji ljc mtu lgxvbjotmtaylje nty lho m ixsommxmtfzzxj awnpb n dgmxmtfzzxj awnpb m=. accessed feb ipbes ( ) summary for policymakers of the assessment report on land degradation and restoration of the intergovernmental sciencepolicy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services. r. scholes, l. montanarella, a. brainich, n. barger, b. ten brink, m. cantele, b. ipbes secretariat, bonn, germany lan ( ) ley de aguas nacionales. diaro oficial de la federacion. cÁmara de diputados del h. congreso de la uniÓn. http://www.diputados.gob.mx/leyesbiblio/pdf/ _ .pdf. accessed feb lopez porras g, stringer lc, quinn ch ( ) unravelling stakeholder perceptions to enable adaptive water governance in dryland systems. water resour manag : に . doi: . /s - - - luna-reyes lf, andersen dl ( ) collecting and analyzing qualitative data for system dynamics: methods and models. syst dyn rev : に . doi: . /sdr. manzanares rivera jl ( ) hacer florecer al desierto: análisis sobre la intensidad de uso de los recursos hídricos subterráneos y superficiales en chihuahua, méxico. cuad desarro rural : に . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /javeriana.cdr - .hfda marston l, konar m, cai x, troy tj ( ) virtual groundwater transfers from overexploited aquifers in the united states. proc natl acad sci u s a : に . doi: . /pnas. may v ( ) realities toolkit # . what to do with contradictory data? morgan centre, university of manchester middleton n, stringer l, goudie a, thomas d ( ) the forgotten billion mdg achievement in the drylands. new york mortimore m, anderson s, union. i--twcが wデ ;ﾉ ふヲヰヰΓぶ dヴ┞ﾉ;ﾐs ﾗヮヮﾗヴデ┌ﾐｷデｷwゲ票ぎ ; ﾐw┘ ヮ;ヴ;sｷｪﾏ aﾗヴ ヮwﾗヮﾉwが wiﾗゲ┞ゲデwﾏゲ ;ﾐs sw┗wﾉﾗヮﾏwﾐデく iucnが iucn票き lﾗﾐsﾗﾐ票ぎ iied票き nw┘ yﾗヴﾆ票ぎ undpが gﾉ;ﾐsが “┘ｷデ┣wヴﾉ;ﾐs murillo-licea d, soares-moraes d ( ) el péndulo de la gobernabilidad y la gobernanza del agua en méxico. tecnol y ciencias del agua : に . oecd ( ) making water reform happen in mexico, oecd studies on water, oecd publishing. olague j, montemayor j, bravo s, et al ( ) características agronómicas y calidad del maíz forrajero con riego sub-superficial. rev mex ciencias pecu : に . Österblom h, folke c ( ) emergence of global adaptive governance for stewardship of regional marine resources. ecol soc : . doi: . /es- - pahl-wostl c ( ) an evolutionary perspective on water governance: from understanding to transformation. water resour manag : に . doi: . /s - - - pahl-wostl c, knieper c ( ) the capacity of water governance to deal with the climate change adaptation challenge: using fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis to distinguish between polycentric, fragmented and centralized regimes. glob environ chang : に . doi: . /j.gloenvcha. . . patton mq ( ) enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. health serv res : に . pmarp ( ) plan maestro de la alianza regional para la conservación de los pastizales del desierto chihuahuense. montreal, canada pravalie r ( ) drylands extent and environmental issues. a global approach. earth- science rev : に . doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.earscirev. . . quintana vm ( ) nuevo orden alimentario y disputa por el agua en el norte de méxico. apunt rev ciencias soc : に . doi: . /apuntes. . rwws m“が gヴ;┗wゲ aが d;ﾐs┞ nが wデ ;ﾉ ふヲヰヰΓぶ wｴﾗげゲ ｷﾐ ;ﾐs ┘ｴ┞い a デ┞ヮﾗﾉﾗｪ┞ ﾗa ゲデ;ﾆwｴﾗﾉswヴ analysis methods for natural resource management. j environ manage : に . doi: . /j.jenvman. . . reed ms, stringer lc ( ) climate change and desertification: anticipating, assessing & adapting to future change in drylands. rd unccd scientific conference, cancun, mexico rissman ar, gillon s ( ) where are ecology and biodiversity in social-ecological systems research? a review of research methods and applied recommendations. conserv lett : に . doi: . /conl. safriel u, adeel z, niemeijer d, et al ( ) chapter dryland systems. ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. volume , findings of the responses working group of the millennium ecosystem assessment. island press, washington, d.c., usa. sanchez cohen i, inzunza ibarra m, esquivel arriaga g, et al ( ) the impact of climatic patterns on runoff and irrigation water allocation in an arid watershed of northern mexico. meteorol hydrol water manag : に . doi: . /mhwm/ sarker a ( ) the role of state-reinforced self-governance in averting the tragedy of the irrigation commons in japan. public adm : に . doi: . /padm. seale c ( ) researching society and culture. sage publications sietz d, fleskens l, stringer lc ( ) learning from non-linear ecosystem dynamics is vital for achieving land degradation neutrality. l degrad dev : に . doi: . /ldr. sifuentes e, samaniego j, anaya a, et al ( ) programación del riego en nogal pecanero (carya illinoinensis), mediante un modelo integral basado en tiempo térmico. rev mex ciencias agrícolas : に . smidt sj, haacker emk, kendall ad, et al ( ) complex water management in modern agriculture: trends in the water-energy-food nexus over the high plains aquifer. sci total environ に : に . doi: . /j.scitotenv. . . sulaiman-hill cm, thompson sc ( ) sampling challenges in a study examining refugee resettlement. bmc int health hum rights : . doi: . / - x- - urquiza a, billi m ( ) water markets and socialにecological resilience to water stress in the context of climate change: an analysis of the limarí basin, chile. environ dev sustain に . doi: . /s - - - wiek a, larson kl ( ) water, people, and sustainability-a systems framework for analyzing and assessing water governance regimes. water resour manag : に . doi: . /s - - - winslow m, shapiro b, thomas r, shetty sv. ( ) desertification, drought, poverty and agriculture: research lessons and opportunities. international center for agricultural research in the dry areas (icarda), the international crops research institute for the semi-arid tropics (icrisat), and the unccd global mechanism (gm) wwap ( ) united nations world water assessment programme/un-water. the united nations world water development report : nature-based solutions for water. paris appendix interview protocol . interviewee background are you a farmer, government official, agricultural representative or stakeholder related to the grasslands and the water governance of the rio del carmen watershed? if yes, can you explain your activities? . what are the legal, cultural, political and social features of the water governance model in the watershed? for the farmers what species do you have been sowing in the last years? why did you select those crops? do you think that there is a relation between the crop species and water overexploitation? if yes, do you think that a crop regulation is needed in the rio del carmen watershed? how would you define the main features of the mennonite and the mexican agriculture, and what would be their main differences? is there another agricultural model that is taking place within the rio del carmen watershed? what kind of permits did you need to start farming? (please answer this from clearing the land to the sale of your products). have you received any government support? for example money, machinery, subventions or training. do you think grasslands regulation can support the water governance in the rio del carmen watershed? if yes, how? do you know what policies affect water governance in the rio del carmen watershed? do you know the spaces for participation regarding the water governance in the watershed? if yes, have you been invited to one? given the lack of conagua´s law enforcement, what do you suggest it will be a good strategy to face the illegal exploitations? for the other stakeholders do you think that there is a relation between the crop species and water overexploitation? if yes, do you think that a law to set the types of crops to be grown is needed? do you think that stricter regulations in the use of the grasslands can support the water governance in the rio del carmen watershed? if yes, how? how would you define the main features of the mennonite and the mexican agriculture, and what would be their main differences? is there another agricultural model that is taking place within the rio del carmen watershed? do you know what the policy instruments are regarding the water governance in the rio del carmen watershed? do you know that the national water law establishes that closed access areas like the rio del carmen watershed should have a comprehensive watershed and aquifer management program, as well as participatory processes for designing and implementing a mexican official standard that regulates the water access in the watershed? if yes, do you know if conagua has been taking steps to comply with these legal precepts? do you consider that some exploitations are breaching the national water law in the watershed? if yes, what do you suggest will be a good strategy through which to tackle the illegal exploitation? . how has water governance affected water availability and water ecosystem services in the watershed and for whom? for the farmers how and when did you get the land that you are irrigating and your water exploitation? there is something that has impacted your land and your access to water since you got them? what will be a good strategy to address the water deficit between the granted water and the annual recharge volume? do you think it will be possible to deny an extension of some property rights because of the overexploited status? if yes, what could be the criteria for giving or denying this extension? do you have noticed an increasing heat or drought during the last years? if yes, what have you done in order to adapt your farming practices? what would be a good strategy to recharge the aquifers of the rio del carmen watershed? what agricultural technologies have you incorporated into your land to improve your water access and agricultural production during the last years? what would you do if the watershed were to be depleted this year? how have farmers helped preserve the benefits they get from the watershed for their agriculture? what have been the conagua´s achievements in the rio del carmen management and the preservation of the benefits obtained for the agriculture? for the other stakeholders regarding the data published by conagua, the rio del carmen aquifers are overexploited. do you think it will be possible to deny an extension of the property rights under the overexploited status? if yes, what could be the criteria for giving or denying this extension? what could be another strategy to address the overexploitation? what would be a good strategy to recharge the aquifers of the rio del carmen watershed? in what way has the government has been supporting agriculture in the rio del carmen watershed? what would need to be adapted to face climate change in the watershed? what would happen if the watershed were to be depleted this year? what positive results have been delivered in the application of water policies in the watershed? what have the government been doing to preserve the benefits that the watershed is giving to the agriculture? . what kind of conflicts and trade-offs are taking place in the watershed and how are these shaped by institutional aspects? for the farmers what have conagua been doing to address the conflicts in the rio del carmen watershed? how are the conflicts over water access affecting you? do you know how it has affected other farmers too? what are the main obstacles to collaboration in the watershed? can you tell me who, why and how would be affected if those obstacles are eliminated? do you think that mennonites and mexican farmers are willing to solve those conflicts? if not, why not? if yes, why are they not solved? wｴ;デ ┘ﾗ┌ﾉs ┞ﾗ┌ swaｷﾐw ;ゲ ; さiﾗﾏﾏﾗﾐ ｪヴﾗ┌ﾐsざ ﾗヴ さﾏ┌デ┌;ﾉ ｷﾐデwヴwゲデゲざ hwデ┘wwﾐ デｴw mennonites and the mexican farmers? what would be your contribution as a first step to solve these difficulties? for the other stakeholders what has conagua been doing to address the conflicts in the rio del carmen watershed? how are the conflicts over water access affecting ) the farmers, ) conagua´s management and ) the watershed? what are the main obstacles to collaboration in the watershed? can you tell me who, why and how would be affected if those obstacles are eliminated? do you think that mennonites and mexican farmers are willing to solve those conflicts? if not, why not? if yes, why are they not solved? wｴ;デ ┘ﾗ┌ﾉs ┞ﾗ┌ swaｷﾐw ;ゲ ; さiﾗﾏﾏﾗﾐ ｪヴﾗ┌ﾐsざ ﾗヴ さﾏ┌デ┌;ﾉ ｷﾐデwヴwゲデゲざ hwデ┘wwﾐ デｴw mennonites and the mexican farmers? what would be your contribution as a first step to solve these difficulties? biron - birkbeck institutional research online hill, katherine ( ) memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations. palgrave communications , p. . issn - . downloaded from: http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / usage guidelines: please refer to usage guidelines at https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html or alternatively contact lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk. http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/ / https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/policies.html mailto:lib-eprints@bbk.ac.uk comment memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations kat hill abstract with the recent -year jubilee of the lutheran reformation, reformation anniversaries have become big business and the subject of much scholarly debate. this paper considers the question of anniversaries in relation to suppo- sedly marginal religious groups in the era of the reformation. what do they choose to commemorate? how did they fit into our accounts of religious change? and what does memory from the margins tells us? the paper argues that con- sidering memories and anniversaries amongst these communities allows us to reassess our categories of mainstream and marginal in relation to religious change in the early modern world and beyond, and to reconsider some of our narratives about the legacies of religious change. https://doi.org/ . /s - - - open birkbeck college, university of london, london, uk. correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to k.h. (email: katherine.hill@bbk.ac.uk) palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms () :,; mailto:katherine.hill@bbk.ac.uk www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms introduction was ‘luther year’, the -year anniversary of the posting of the ninety-five theses and the start of the reformation. ten years of preparation from the lutheran church and german authorities culminated in celebrations all over the world. from poetry slams to movies, panorama installations to conferences, heritage tours to a wave of publications, luther sparked intense intellectual and academic analysis about the meaning of religious change in early modern europe. (marshall, ; roth, , pp. – ). anniversaries and moments of memory activation invite us to consider what narratives are being shaped about the past and what narratives we as historians and scholars want to tell. remembrance inevitably sparks renewed debates about origins and outcomes, and we can learn much about a movement, nation or community at times of commemorative celebration. the first big -year reformation jubilee, that of luther’s birth, initiated a battle for ownership of his memory in a fractured germany in the dying days of the gdr (hoffmann, ; scott, ). from – , visitors might have experienced the nuanced differ- ences of nationally inflected exhibitions commemorating the anniversary of world war one in, for example, belgium, france, england, and germany. the -year anniversary of women’s right to vote and the suffragettes has struck chords with the contemporary #metoo movement. the luther anniversary was, it seemed to many, a chance to embrace a more ecumenical luther, though there have also been concerns about the way in which commemorations renewed a hero image of the reformer (evangelical church in germany, ; roth, ). but what if we did not focus on luther’s story? the years and will mark the anniversary of a different part of the reformation. these are the dates that the mennonite world conference (mwc) has picked to commemorate the origins of anabaptism. recalls the moment at which conrad grebel baptized george blaurock in zurich ‘to ignite a brand-new anabaptist movement which countered the movements of luther, zwingli and catholicism’. coincides with years since the appearance of the schleitheim articles, a statement of ana- baptism’s separation from the world, and the martyrs’ synod, a meeting which established a principle of mission. (it earned its name because many of its principle participants died soon after). the significance of these dates is clear, but any such immediate connection is sidestepped on the front page of the mwc’s website for the anniversary which focuses on the message of what has been titled ‘renewal ’. renewal was launched in the same year as the -year anniversary of the lutheran refor- mation and is presented as a chance for ecumenical discussion within and beyond the mennonite church, with ten years of events designed to invigorate anabaptist faith globally. these events are not likely to be on most people’s radar and will not spark the same rash of publishing as luther’s . nor are the events uncontroversial amongst mennonites some of whom question whether these anniversaries are an appropriate or rele- vant celebration of mennonite identity (goossen, b). for mennonite communities and mennonite scholars the question of anniversaries has stoked intense debate about the historical nar- ratives that surround these public rituals of commemoration. (roth, , pp. – ; osborne, ). considering the anni- versary celebrations and controversies of the lesser known part of the reformation story, however, is also a chance for reformation scholars to revisit some of our accounts of religious change and its legacies. what if we switched our perspective to those who were supposed to be on the edges of the story? what do the debates within the mennonite community reveal about these memories and anniversaries more broadly? what new questions or old problems might we consider by examining remembrance from the edges of the reformations? memory on the margins makes us reconsider the centre. the mennonite church, which is coordinating the -year anniversary, has its roots in anabaptism. this reforming move- ment of the sixteenth century rejected infant baptism along with many of the conventional structures of society, such as swearing oaths and serving in the military (stayer, ; goertz, ). anabaptism is not well integrated into reformation histories. histories of the radical or ‘left-wing’ of the reformation remain understudied and marginalized from the mainstream historio- graphical scholarship on the reformation, and despite a spate of histories produced in the s and s on early modern ana- baptism, anabaptist studies have not seen the same energy since. new waves of scholarship have started to redress this problem, recognizing the fundamentally problematic label of the ‘radical reformation’ and a group of new researchers are spearheading moves to bring anabaptist histories into the digital age with the open access website, anabaptist historians. scholarship in the last fifteen years has seen a handful of important monographs on anabaptist and mennonite histories (driedger, ; räisänen- schröder, ; monge, ; hill, ; goossen, a). but the scholarly imbalances and the division between mainstream and radical persist, especially for the pre-modern era. not everyone agrees that anabaptist studies are an endangered enclave (dipple, ; p. ). anabaptism does have a rich historiography, and there are mennonite presses and journals, notably the mennonite quarterly review and journal of menno- nite studies, which are energetic and stimulating fora. however, the specialist focus of this publishing can also reiterate the boundaries separating scholarship. research is often produced in confessional contexts, and though confessional history in itself is not inherently problematic, i would agree with academics who stress that there has been a return to confessionalised scholarship in reformation studies. the anniversary sharpened this in many cases, despite its claims to ecumenism, and has reinforced a sense of separatism. even sources may be divided. a special series exists for documents on the anabaptist reform movement (with the tactical name change from the pejorative ‘wiedertäufer’ to ‘täufer’ in the late s). so, while students of the european reformation may have a week on radical anabaptists in the sixteenth century, few courses touch on much beyond this or examine the longer-term traditions that evolved from non- conformist impulses. the distorting nature of this scholarship has broader impli- cations. it matters that anabaptists have been on the edges of historiography since it is partly a symptom and consequence of on one of the biggest, most problematic debates in reformation historiography: confessionalisation (brady, ). reformation scholars have for some time sought ways to write histories which go beyond the confessionalisation thesis which ties long-term narratives of religious change into accounts of state, discipline, and institutions. confessionalization neglects alternatives to the model of institutional faith, faiths often related to national identity and larger historical narratives of the rise of nationalism, and thus it omits a fundamental and long-lasting element of confessional change (lotz-heumann, ). moments of mem- ory and celebration, therefore, are a chance for academics to address these questions. anniversaries bring to the fore big debates about origins and futures, as well as the place of com- munities in the contemporary world, and so often implicate national and international institutions. though there are ques- tions about its success, a major emphasis of the luther commemoration, for example, was to attempt to move away from national and confessionalised narratives and embrace a more ecumenical vision for lutheranism’s future in the modern comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms world (lwf and pcpcu, ). the run of reformation anniversaries can stimulate conversations which re-invigorate scholarship. anabaptists memories there are over million anabaptists in the world, and the mwc -year celebrations for many are a remembrance of those things that characterize the collective memory of their commu- nities—an emphasis on the separation between church and state, a history of persecution and martyrdom, freedom of religion, liberty of conscience, and elective entry into the church. it is also seen as a chance to assess and reinvigorate mennonite identity in the contemporary world (roth, ). clearly memory matters to mennonites (and their close cousins the amish and hutterites). for numerous mennonites, there exists a deep sense of connec- tion to their early modern past, its martyrs and heroes. but whilst the / centenary will be a celebration coordinated by the mwc, the reality is of course that cultures of memory amongst anabaptist descendants go far beyond the official celebration and central structures. the attitudes which form the global backdrop to the planned commemorations are rooted not in national churches and state institutions, but family, communal and personal memories which have preserved the sense of the past and collective remembrance. mennonites, amish and hutterites all migrated great distances from the sixteenth century onwards. this was not always the result of persecution and exile, as a traditional anabaptist narrative might suggest, but anabaptists undeniably traveled far. communities moved from northern and central europe to russia and ukraine, migrated to the americas, or undertook confessional work in india, south east asia, and africa. as people move, memories travel with them. indeed, for mennonites, amish and hutterites, memory was a critical tool for bridging the gap between communities dispersed across wide areas and separated from society in a variety of ways. memory is central to diasporic identity (agnew, ; baronian, et al., , pp. – ). anabaptist memories existed in the records kept by their own churches, family possessions or per- sonal recollections which bound the community together. men- nonites in contemporary manitoba or kansas, for example, have objects, documents and shared narratives which trace cross- generational diasporic histories in europe, russia and beyond. we can only follow these histories and memories if we look beyond conventional institutional and geographical boundaries, since the very core of mennonite, hutterite and amish identity is in the communities of dispersion which stretched across regions. memory in these diasporic communities could not tell the same story as institutional churches. lutheran memories had an inclusive message in which looked to a global lutheran culture but also reasserted the dominance of wittenberg. calvi- nist memories are focused on geneva. anabaptist memories have been of a more disparate nature, though the mwc’s focus on and the swiss origins of the movement has caused con- troversy by centring anabaptist histories on one location deter- mined by a central committee. but why does it matter to think about this type of memory? is it not just one more anniversary, one more strand of the legacy of the reformation era? first, it reveals issues concerning con- temporary mennonite identity in relation to an early modern past and a diasporic identity. debates arose whether the date for a mennonite anniversary should be or , or indeed whether should have been the date for celebration. the result is ten years of renewal announced in , culminating in but with a celebration of in switzerland along the way. deeper unease amongst some members of the community has focused on the way in which any anniversary of this kind reinforces a monogenetic heritage which excludes the global church and diversity, and even alludes to a form of european ethnic purity (goossen, b). the monogenesis versus poly- genesis debate about anabaptist origins is long-standing but seems not to have died (stayer et al., ). an official celebration which gives one line of interpretation and reinforces one nor- mative view of anabaptist and mennonite heritage, rather than recognize all the alternatives and global perspectives, is proble- matic. it is possibly in dialogue with these concerns that africa is a suggested location for the th mennonite world conference assembly (roth, , p. ). some counterpoint views to the and dates also argue that the anabaptist church did not originate in the sixteenth century since it was a continuation and successor to the apostolic church of christ (roth, , pp. – ; goossen, b). this was the line taken by the two most famous anabaptist historical works, the seventeenth-century martyrs mirror and the hutterite great chronicle. such a view, however, can be equally proble- matic and elide the constant and shifting creative power of memory formation and the way in which recollections have been reinvented across the centuries. there are, too, always political questions at stake in commemorations (goossen, b). men- nonites, not the amish or hutterite, are driving the -year anniversary, but it is presented as celebration for all anabaptists. what does it tell us that this celebration matters most for the better integrated and politically active part of the anabaptist legacy, and that this is intertwined with institutional and con- fessional narratives? anniversaries after all always serve some purpose, and also coincides with the -year anniversary of the foundation of the mennonite central committee, so some would argue that this has more to do with institutional and political positioning than organic commemoration (goossen, b). we should remember that the official celebrations are only one part of memory; we have to look beyond to broader memory cultures, to individuals and local communities. memory is the aggregation of these narratives, as much as central cele- brations. the intense debate amongst different anabaptist tra- ditions is a stark reminder of the power and importance of diasporic memory, but also the need to recover alternatives to centralized commemorations. scholarship should consider how memory cultures themselves are created and recreated, why and when, and in what contexts. centenaries and anniversaries of origins, celebrated centrally, are a relatively modern phenomenon. marked the first major mennonite anniversary when the new mennonite world con- ference convened in basel and there do not seem to have been parallel events in or before. earlier celebrations and asso- ciated controversies existed. in various mennonite com- munities celebrated the death of menno simons and a call was issued in by august heinrich neufeld, pastor of the iber- sheim mennonite congregation in rhine-hesse, for ‘every men- nonite congregation in the old world and the new’ to plan for the date. the proposed celebrations sparked considerable con- troversy which revealed the fault lines in nineteenth-century mennonite society (roth, ; urry, ). thus, historians should be sensitive to the way in which memories are chosen, contested, and narrated, how they vary and shift, and how they exist at different levels. for specific communities, individuals, and families, it might be personal or local commemorations which held the most weight, and memory cultures had local inflections. mennonites in chortitza (zaporizhia oblast, ukraine) erected monuments in the late nineteenth century to figures of their past, to johann bartsch and jakob höppner, the men who had nego- tiated the details of the settlement for mennonite migration from prussia at the end of the eighteenth century (urry, ). research needs to understand the way in which memory has been palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - comment palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms constructed at local, regional and familial levels, as well as focusing on global and international commemorations. second, i would argue that by interrogating anabaptist memories as this anniversary approaches, we can uncover novel trajectories for the long-lasting legacies of the reformation throughout the world and in so doing address some of the fun- damental debates of the reformation era. it opens up new per- spectives on both our histories of non-conformist groups in the early modern world, and the implications for how religious change has shaped global culture. the debates over anniversaries have sharpened questions of the interaction between the refor- mation legacies of anabaptism and lutheranism (and other tra- ditions) and brought to the fore the continued global power of these anabaptists networks of memory. such trends undermine the sense of marginality and separateness that has shaped ana- baptist historiography, but also call into question broader reli- gious narratives which still seem to rest on notions of confessionalisation. the nature of the relationship between these different religious communities and the -year celebrations matters, and any student of the reformation needs to understand those labeled both marginal and mainstream. it is only from the margin though that we can rewrite the centre. until we question the narratives of the marginal, we will be forever locked into the modes of persecuted and persecutor. anniversaries do not always help in this reassessment since they have in some ways reasserted confessional narratives and nor- mative divisions. in , as preparations for were getting under way, the lutheran world fellowship offered an official apology to anabaptists for past persecutions. the divided mem- ory cultures sought rapprochement but also in many ways reit- erated division (roth, , – ). such an event reinforces normative mennonite self-definitions of the confession as a per- secuted minority without asking how this cultural narrative evolved, or what happened when communities or individuals chose not to follow this path. looking from the edges, we can see that anabaptists were not always a persecuted minority, they were not marginal to histories, and they did not always search for the peaceful, quiet way (urry, ). and looking from the centre, we have neglected the impor- tance of supposedly marginal groups in our long histories of the reformation. anabaptist descendants are a visible presence across much of america. nearly every north american, it seems, has a mennonite, hutterite or amish story. they have seen the buggies, been to the farms, or visited the churches. yet these communities still seem a curiosity. amish communities in pennsylvania, for example, are a tourist attraction more than a subject of scholarly discussion. amish, hutterites and more conservative mennonites of the old order tradition do not necessarily sit easily in our narratives of historical development and modernity. for those from outside the tradition, they seem an outdated relic of an older time, but their existence problematizes our notions of reforma- tion legacies. it becomes difficult to argue, for example, that the unintended effect of the reformation was secularization (gregory, ). in a series of six essays, gregory proposed that the protestant refor- mation questioned authority in ways which led to a multiplicity of competing claims to truth and this resulted ultimately in the privatization of faith, the power of the state over church, and secularization. but there are problems with this account. if we are to write narratives which escape the pitfalls of a return to con- fessionalisation but also appreciate reformation legacies on their own terms we have to be able to understand the dynamics of the communities of pennsylvanian amish or old order mennonites in belize. and we also have to be able to contain accounts of mennonites who are integrated into modern canada, hutterites who reject televisions and much modern media but embrace the best farming technologies, or amish communities who live separate lives but actively engage in a form of tourism which plays on their traditionalism. such solutions do not represent secular- ization necessarily but alternative models for recreating faith and adapting. for gregory, division has shattered a more universal sense of faith but for mennonites, for example, the broken body of the church can also be a symbol of the quest for faithfulness and of following the right path which diverts from the main- stream (roth, , p. ). splintering may have led to diversity, but it can also provide energy. furthermore, a sense of secular- izing decline can also be seen as a particularly western-centric narrative, and reformation legacies must be able to appreciate the explosion of christianity in the global south. mennonite memory brings into sharper focus other issues about reformation memory and the need to look beyond the official celebrations. focusing on luther in a way which reinforces the norms of the mainstream and the marginal absents a major and important part of the reformation legacies in eur- opean, eurasian and north american history, and beyond into africa, japan, india, and korea. deeply rooted identity and multifaceted memories have shaped anabaptist communities and cultures across the world: from prussia militarism to tsarist expansion, from the american west to the world wars, from south american colonies of mennonites to the power of contemporary protestant churches in the global south, even to questions of how mennonites should respond to trump. understanding the geo- graphical spread of anabaptist groups and the way in which their communities evolved across the diaspora opens up other archives, resources and memory cultures. new archives, new sources and new regions all offer promising concrete areas for research on reformation legacies. first, scholarship can look to understudied or neglected archives and records which provide alternative histories to accounts of confessional change. whilst mennonite archives in north america, for example, are an important resource for scholars of mennonite history and communities themselves, they remain little studied by reformation historians more generally. yet, there is a wealth of material in the church and family fonds which continues to come into these repositories. there are sur- prising finds in archives across europe and beyond, such as the histories of mennonite communities in regional polish archives or the church books of mennonites, quakers and other groups that have made their way into german state archives. a com- prehensive understanding of the complex archival traces would allow a much richer account of the long legacies of the reformation. second, we must think about the diverse way in which memory was enacted and histories recorded. this might be by paying closer attention to the way in archives themselves and their construction shape memory. the contents, materials and orga- nization of archives reflect power relations (stoler, ) and scholars have started to write the social history of archives (ketelaar, ). unpicking these archival histories, such as the reasons why mennonites have come to create their own archives, will in turn shed light on the history of confessional memory and memory making. furthermore, focusing on the transmission and function of memory could lead us to think about the very dif- ferent memory cultures amongst all those included amongst anabaptists. the memory practices of mennonites who have created extensive records differ from the old order amish who eschew formal archiving but rely on family and oral histories. the implications of different practices of recalling pasts and the power relations between different memory cultures is essential to the construction of more dynamic narratives of religious cultures. third, we might think about the way in which memory and confessional legacies were enacted across different media. comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms discussions of reformation anniversaries have tended to focus on written narratives, documents and recorded history. but memory and connections to the past exist in other ways. how did objects function as embodiments of tangible connections with a past? how did the landscape and environment tell stories of connection? mennonites draw on memories of the great chortitza oak which grew in ukraine where mennonites settled in the late eighteenth century but whose acorns have traveled across the atlantic. considering material and environmental sources, as well as written documents will help us understand legacies in diachronic and global perspective or the ways in which communities negotiate their interaction with the contemporary world. finally, scholarship can think about memory, community and identity in areas which have not been part of more conventional narratives of reformation legacies. this means uncovering new trajectories for communities who are not part of the traditional accounts of survival, such as mennonite who migrated down to the black sea from russia and ukraine rather than crossing the atlantic. more broadly, it means focusing on global histories of mennonites and protestantism in general, particularly in the global south, exploring questions of community, race and place in a post-colonial era. these new avenues for research will help reveal religious communities which existed beyond institutional and national structures and the problematic way in which big anniversaries reinforce grand narratives. paying more attention to the local and the individual has the effect conversely of broadening memories across seas and generations. the contentious / cele- bration not only provokes questions about anabaptist history but demands we find more nuanced ways of thinking about memory, the ways it is embedded in language, landscape, and people, and the traces it leaves. conclusions i would like to finish with one example of this power of memory at the level of the individual and the family which also touches on the way in which it expands our global and cross-period histories of religious change. in the mennonite archives in bethel college in north newton, kansas there are boxes which contain family papers donated to the archive for safe-keeping. papers inside have not been categorized into type and are often an eclectic mix of items preserved and curated by the family over generations. opening these folders, i was given a snapshot into the way in which histories, church, and communities are built on individual and family memories but also the importance of placing these in the context of globally connected communities. these collections are not the usual stuff of institutional or national memory. however, precisely because they are personal and have been kept by groups and families on the move, they embody the connected communities of dispersion which are at the core of mennonite identity. one folder has a tiny notebook, meticulously translating and transcribing the daily record kept by their forebears who traveled from russia, russian passports, a handwritten book of early nineteenth century remedies for colic and much spider bites. the jacob f. and marie banman fond contains beautiful eighteenth century fraktur examples, modern hand-written genealogies and family record and copy books. like their owners, these objects had migrated across land and sea, and the juxtaposition of documents which record lives lived across centuries and borders encapsulates the connections, memories and emotions that sustained mennonite communities. these collections of memories go far beyond the -year anniversary and remind us of the power of the local and the glocal (the term coined to express the interplay between the global and the local) in communities bound together by remembrance (freist, , p. ). whether or not mennonites celebrate the -year centenary in or , their debates reveal the global and diachronic power of anabaptist memories, and these memoryscapes offer not only ways of thinking about mennonite identity but broader memory cultures of early modernity and reformation history. memories of the reformations and their global legacies must be understood in cross-confessional contexts. scholarship can use these comparative histories of memories and legacies as a way out of the debates of marginal versus mainstream and con- fessionalisation to consider questions of global protestantisms, long term legacies, and concepts of diaspora and exile. anniver- saries always offer us a chance to rethink histories. in analyzing the various reformation anniversaries, it is not a question of ‘memory wars’—whose anniversary we should be celebrating, whose reformation was better, or which had more positive or long-lasting effects. rather scholars can take the opportunity of these discussions over commemorations to diversify our concepts of the reformation and its legacies. received: january accepted: july notes for information on the variety of celebrations see the official luther website. https://www.luther .de/en/ /reformation-anniversary/. german plans to spend relatively little on centenary events compared to the uk and france were criticized. see https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ / germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary. an example of a more subtle and low-key exhibition was that at the neues museum weimar, ‘krieg der geister: weimar als symbolort deutscher kultur vor und nach ’. http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th- anniversary-is- -not- /. see also https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to- celebrate- -years/. https://mwc-cmm.org/renewal . https://anabaptisthistorians.org/. this is the series quellen zur geschichte der täufer. see for example the joint statement by the lutheran world federation and the vatican. https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html. a booklet was produced to recognize this by the lwf and the pontifical council for promoting christian unity, from conflict to communion: lutheran-catholic common commemoration of the reformation in ( ). the latest triennial census conducted by the mwc counted , , members as of november . this includes various groups such as the mennonites, the amish, and hutterites. this was the first known anabaptist confession written by michael sattler. references agnew v ( ) diaspora, memory and identity: a search for home. university of toronto press, toronto baronian m-a, besser s, jansen y ( ) diaspora and memory: figures of dis- placement in contemporary literature, arts and politics. rodopi, amsterdam and new york brady jr. ta ( ) confessionalizaiton—the career of a concept. in: headley jm, hillerband hj (eds) confessionalization in europe, – : essays in honor and memory of bodo nischan. ashgate, aldershot dipple g ( ) the radical reformation will not be televised. sixt century journal ( ): – driedger md ( ) obedient heretics: mennonite identities in lutheran hamburg and altona in the confessional age. ashgate, aldershot evangelical church in germany (ekd) perspectives : writings on the reformation ( ). evangelische kirche in deutschland, hanover freist d ( ) lost in time and space? glocal memoryscapes in the early modern world. in: kuijpers e, pollmann j, müller j, van der steen j (eds) memory before modernity: practices of memory in early modern europe. brill, leiden, p. – goossen b ( a) chosen nation: mennonites and germany in a global era. princeton university press, princeton goossen b ( b) why years?: a critique of anabaptism’s upcoming anni- versary celebration. mennonite life palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - comment palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms https://www.luther .de/en/ /reformation-anniversary/ https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ /germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary https://www.theguardian.com/world/ /mar/ /germany-plans-first-world-war-centenary http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th-anniversary-is- -not- / http://mennoworld.org/ / / /the-world-together/anabaptisms- th-anniversary-is- -not- / https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to-celebrate- -years/ https://themennonite.org/daily-news/how-to-celebrate- -years/ https://mwc-cmm.org/renewal https://anabaptisthistorians.org/ https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/pubblico/ / / / a.html www.nature.com/palcomms www.nature.com/palcomms goertz h-j ( ) the anabaptists, trans. trevor johnson. routledge, london and new york gregory b ( ) the unintended reformation: how a religious revolution secu- larized society. belknap press of harvard university press, cambridge, mass and london hill k ( ) baptism, brotherhood, and belief in reformation germany: ana- baptism and lutheranism, – . oxford university press, oxford hoffmann sp ( ) the gdr, luther and the german question. rev polit ( ): – ketelaar e ( ) prolegomena to a social history of dutch archives. in: blok a, lucassen j, sanders h (eds) a usable collection: essays in honour of jaap kloosterman on collecting social history. amsterdam university press, amsterdam lotz-heumann u ( ) the concept of “confessionalization”: a historiographical paradigm in dispute. mem y civón : – lwf (the lutheran world federation and pcpcu (the pontifical council for promoting christian unity)) ( ) from conflict to communion: lutheran- catholic common commemoration of the reformation in . evangelische verlagsanstalt: leipzig and bonifatius marshall p ( ) : martin luther and the invention of the reformation. oxford university press, oxford monge m ( ) des communauteś mouvantes: les societ́eś des frer̀es chret́iens en rheńanie du nord: juliers, berg, cologne vers – . libraire droz, geneva osborne t ( ) “golden age” or “global age”: commemorating anabaptists past, present and future. mennonite life räisänen-schröder p ( ) ketzer im dorf: visitationsverfahren, täuferbe- kämpfung und lokale handlungsmuster im frühneuzeitlichen württemberg. universitatsverlag konstanz, konstanz roth jd ( ) how to commemorate a division? reflections on the th anniversary of the lutheran reformation and its relevance for the global anabaptist mennonite church today. mennon q rev : – scott t ( ) the luther quincentenary in the gdr. ger hist ( ): – stayer jm ( ) anabaptists and the sword. new edition of edition. wipf and stock, eugene stayer jm, depperman k, packull wo ( ) from monogenesis to polygenesis: the historical discussion of anabaptist origins. mennon q rev : – stoler al ( ) along the archival grain: epistemic anxieties and colonial com- mon sense. princeton university press, princeton and oxford urry j ( ) mennonites, politics, and peoplehood: europe-russia-canada, to . university of manitoba press, winnipeg urry j ( ) memory: monuments and the marking of pasts. conrad grebel rev ( ) acknowledgements thanks to proofreaders in the early modern work in progress group and james urry for references and discussions on mennonites. additional information competing interests: the author declares no competing interests. reprints and permission information is available online at http://www.nature.com/ reprints publisher’s note: springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. open access this article is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. if material is not included in the article’s creative commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. to view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/ . /. © the author(s) comment palgrave communications | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - palgrave communications | ( ) : | https://doi.org/ . /s - - - | www.nature.com/palcomms http://www.nature.com/reprints http://www.nature.com/reprints http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / www.nature.com/palcomms 	memories from the margins? anniversaries, anabaptists and rethinking reformations 	introduction 	anabaptists memories 	conclusions 	references 	references 	acknowledgements 	competing interests 	acknowledgements the american archivist / vol. , no. / january the international scene: news and abstracts ronald j. plavchan, editor regional seminar on archival training in arab states. unesco sponsored at khartoum, sudan, - march , a regional semi- nar for individuals who are responsible for archival training programs in arab countries. experts from eleven arab states (egypt, iraq, jordan, kuwait, leba- non, morocco, qatar, saudi arabia, sudan, tunisia, and the united arab emir- ates) attended the seminar and represented the diverse interests within the re- gion. topics of discussion included a definition of categories of archives and records personnel and assessment of specific training needs, regional advanced training courses to be organized in connection with the arab archivists training institute at baghdad, organization of a traveling seminar for prominent archival personnel to update professional knowledge in the rapidly changing technical and specialized areas and to increase the exchange of archival experiences. the main part of the discussion focused upon the training institute at bagh- dad, which was established in accordance with recommendations from arbica and began limited operation in the fall of . salim abboud al-alousi, dean of the institute, called upon the participants for improvement of the study courses on archives administration and archival techniques as well as enlargement of the number of students from other arab countries. a majority of the participants advocated revision and completion of the institute's program, which currently offers a two-year certificate leading toward advanced academic degrees in ar- chives. detailed discussions on existing training programs stressed the necessity of adequate language proficiencies, and special attention focused on the need for establishment of a model laboratory for archival restoration and reprography to serve as a technical training center for the arab region. materials for this department should be sent to ronald j. plavchan, presidential materials staff, na- tional archives and records service, washington, dc . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january ecarbica. the fifth general conference of the east and central african re- gional branch of ica (ecarbica) was held in khartoum, sudan, - april . delegates from kenya, malawi, sudan, tanzania, uganda, and zambia at- tended the week-long conference. topics of the eleven papers which were pre- sented included a wide variety of interests: utility of archives in development planning, role of the committee on archival development (cad), progress in the retrieval of migrated archives, sudanese records in great britain, effectiveness of archival legislation in east and central africa, problems of appraisal, archives in east africa in a scientific and technical information network, progress in the re- gional survey of business archives, the new pro building at kew, and a report on a visit to the regional training center at accra, ghana. during the conference delegates passed resolutions dealing with the role of cad, continuing support for archival training at the regional training center, support for the concept of a microcopying assistance fund managed by unesco with regard to the retrieval of migrated archives, the retirement and appraisal of records, and preservation of the archives of zanzibar. the next general conference, which will celebrate the tenth anniversary of the founding of ecarbica, will be held in nairobi, kenya, in . intergovernmental council of unesco general infor- mation program. the first session of the intergovernmental council for the general information program, established by the unesco general confer- ence in , was held at unesco house in paris, - november . par- ticipants from thirty member states attended in addition to representatives from various united nations organizations as well as from the international federation for documentation (fid), the international federation of library associations and institutions (ifla), ica, the international council of scientific unions (icsu), and the international organization for standardization (iso). the coun- cil endorsed the proposed outlines of the - program and presented a number of recommendations. these recommendations were that: ( ) priority should be given to the development of information infrastructures and the train- ing and education of information professionals as well as users; ( ) a balance should be achieved in carrying out the program between archives, information, and library activities corresponding to the needs of member states; ( ) more atten- tion should be given to the archives, information, and library needs and problems of developing countries and to the promotion of mechanisms for bilateral and regional cooperation in these activities; ( ) member states should take effective action at the national level and the unesco secretariat at the international level to coordinate information policy within the un systems and urge the director- general to undertake appropriate studies; and ( ) unesco should continue to arrange annual informal conferences on the planning and implementation of na- tional information, library, and archives activities on the same level as has been done with conferences on national scientific and technical information activities. journal name change. in an expression reflective of the new vitality and growth of american jewish studies, the american jewish historical society announces changes in the format of its journal, american jewish historical quarterly. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts with the publication of the september issue (vol. , no. ), the journal becomes american jewish history. other changes include new feature articles; larger, more readable, type size; and a new cover color (blue). the academic council of the society and its editorial board are seeking to stimulate and dissem- inate high historical scholarship to an ever widening audience and to show that scholarship does not necessarily imply dullness. subscribers can expect to see other differences in subsequent issues including a special annual issue (compris- ing about two hundred pages) based on a major theme in american jewish life, regular special feature articles by individuals who were themselves involved in the making of history, expansion of the book review section to incorporate more re- views and occasional review essays, a yearly review of the entire field of american jewish studies, and periodic thematic essays by distinguished american historians and social scientists on major recurrent questions in american jewish history. international council on archives (ica). preparation for the ninth international congress on archives, scheduled to be held at london, - september , is proceeding. a list of the individuals who have accepted invitations to prepare papers for discussion at the four plenary sessions of the congress, and the subject matter of each of the papers, appear in the ica bulletin (no. , june ). each of the sessions and associated meetings will be held in the london hilton hotel. in connection with the planning of its program, the publications committee is soliciting information about unpublished manuscripts of technical and profes- sional works which might be appropriate to include in either the ica handbook series or the studies in archival science series. please direct any suggestions along with a copy of the manuscript to peter walne, chairman of the publications com- mittee, hertfordshire county council, county hall, hertford sg de, eng- land. a meeting of the working party charged with the preparation of a multilingual glossary of archival terminology was held in strasbourg, - april . at this meeting it was resolved that the base language of the proposed glossary will be english with definitions of the terms in both french and english and equiva- lences in german, russian, and spanish. the order of the terms will be alphabet- ical in english, in addition to alphabetical (except in english) and classified in- dexes of terms in all languages. as a result of the meeting, the total number of terms to be included in the glossary was expanded to about six hundred. the working party also appointed peter walne and f. himly as general editors for the multi-lingual glossary. a further meeting of the working party is scheduled for either late or early to review progress on the work and to consider definitions. international journal of archives. the publications committee of the international council on archives (ica), at its meeting at the heaquarters of verlag dokumentation munich, - february , tentatively endorsed a proposal to launch a new international periodical primarily devoted to archival techniques and methods as well as records management. based upon the report of the publications committee, the ica bureau decided at its regular meeting, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january held at princeton, new jersey, - march , to pursue the matter further and also approved the appointment of james e. o'neill, deputy archivist of the united states, to direct the project. final approval of the project came from the executive committee, meeting in dar es salaam, tanzania, - october . the new international archives periodical, to be known as the international journal of archives, will appear twice a year under the editorship of o'neill and be published by verlag dokumentation munich. no date has been set for the inaugural issue, but it is expected that it will be published in late or early . articles will be printed in either english or french at the choice of the author. individuals wishing to submit substantive articles should write to james e. o'neill, national archives and records service, washington, dc . swarbica. the second meeting of the executive board was held at srinagar, india, on april . among the decisions of the board were the launching of a membership drive in swarbica member states, and arrangement for the training seminar and general conference to be held at colombo, sri lanka, in the last week of january . other important decisions taken at this meeting in- cluded the approval for establishment of a regional reprography demonstration center at new delhi as a part of the already existing institute of archival train- ing, appointment of n. h. kulkarnee to dacca and islamabad for greater liaison, and possible appointment of countries in the swarbica region for a survey of records in private custody. third world archival awareness symposium. the report on the proceedings of the third world archival awareness symposium, held in new york city on march , under the sponsorship of ica and its committee on archival development (cad), has been included as a supplement to the ica bulletin no. (june ). the twofold purpose of the symposium was: ( ) to provide internationally-oriented foundations with background information on the importance of archives/records management services for developing countries as well as on problems and needs of such institutions in offering these services, and ( ) to seek supplementary aid from private foundations in helping to meet those needs. twenty-five individuals, representing various international archives, organizations, and foundations, attended the one-day symposium at the center for inter-american relations and heard a nine-member panel discuss various as- pects of the problem. in a luncheon address, jeffrey ede, keeper of public rec- ords, stressed that, despite the demonstrated value of archives, third world gov- ernmental authorities have awarded a low priority to archives/records management because of pressing socio-economic goals and have thus had to rely upon external assistance which has been frequently slow and/or inadequate in meeting the needs. ica and cad have tried to supplement conventional sources of archival support, but the scope of the problem is too great for their limited resources. ede, therefore, called upon internationally oriented foundations to expand their as- sistance for archival purposes by either contributing to the ica international ar- chival development fund or increasing their own assistance to specific archival projects. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts canada. the public records division of the public archives of canada (pac) has received and made available for research the exhibits, transcripts of hearings, reports, files, and indexes of the mackenzie valley pipeline inquiry (berger commission). the core of the collection consists of volumes of tran- scripts of the formal and community hearings, and , submissions and exhibits filed by individuals, environmental and native groups, oil and pipeline compa- nies, and government organizations. the record group documents all activities of the inquiry during its existence from to and provides a rich source for the study not only of resource development and pipeline routes, but also of north- ern wildlife, native culture, environmental issues, and land claims. the war diaries from world war ii of units and formations of the canadian army, both in canada and overseas, have been transferred to the public records division. case records of the supreme court of canada containing documents produced by the court for use in its deliberations, documents introduced as evi- dence and from hearings of lower courts, and records of judgments ( - ) have been accessioned by the division. this is the result of an agreement con- cluded with the supreme court by means of which the division is to acquire all case records of the court up to , and on a yearly basis for each successive year thereafter. provincial archives of alberta. recent acquisitions include: a diary, photo- graphs, and twenty-four oil paintings (ca. - ) depicting aspects of al- berta's history, by viola martin; fourteen sketches (ca. - ) by philip silver of citadel theatre sets and costumes; the papers (ca. - ) of hugh w. morrison, a former vegreville lawyer and edmonton judge; records (ca. - ) of the strawberry plains community association; records (ca. - ) of the bow valley mutual telephone company; inmate case files (ca. - ) of the lethbridge correctional institution; files (ca. - ) from the centennial branch, alberta provincial secretary; and the files (ca. - ) of former min- isters of alberta municipal affairs. the provincial archives has also published a new information leaflet entitled sources of genealogical information at the provincial archives of alberta. the provincial archives of ontario was host for the annual meeting of the dominion, provincial, and territorial archivists, held in toronto, may- june . on june, the provincial archives introduced a new schedule of reproduction rates reflective of rising costs. this schedule is available upon request from the archives (address: grenville street, toronto, ontario m a r ). recent accessions of note include: the norris-neelor papers ( - ), ship- owners in st. catharines; records ( - ) of the paisley city roller mills; records ( - ) of the ontario music educators association; records ( - ) of the toronto typographical union no. ; the hardy family papers ( - ); records ( - ) of the university women's club of north york; the notebooks ( - ) of judge eric cross; the r. c. smith photograph collection ( - ) pertaining to the village of swansea which is now a part of metropolitan toronto. a calendar to the mackenzie/lindsay collection has been completed and is available to researchers in the public reading room. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january the ottawa city archives has expanded its activities to include both official languages. with the appointment of a francophone member to the staff, it has been possible to organize an exhibition of the "french canadians of old lower- town" which draws on material from the local community. also, the conserva- tion unit, established in september , is now fully operative. queen's university archives. recent accessions include the papers of jason albert hannah (ca. - ), john rhodes sturdy (ca. - ), gail fox (ca. - ), hugh gordon conn (ca. - ), lawrence gladwyn macpherson (ca. - ); some records related to the thousand islands area residents association (tiara); and additions to the hugh garner papers (ca. - ), the ontario federation of agriculture records (ca. - ), the kingston chamber of commerce records (ca. - ), and the liberal party of canada (ontario) records (ca. - ). a catalog of the major holdings of the queen's university archives and the city of kingston archives was published in the fall of and is available at a cost of $ per copy. requests should be addressed to the queen's university archives, douglas library, queen's university, kingston, ontario k l c . the university archives and the united church archives are now engaged in a cooperative project involving the microfilming of the presbyterian church of canada records at the university archives. these records consist of the correspon- dence, minutes, reports, memorials, petitions, memoranda, and reports for the period from to . the bulk of the documents, however, relate to the years from to . archives of the maritime history group. the maritime history group was formed in with a mandate to acquire documents relating to the history of fisheries and shipping on a worldwide basis, and to undertake research into this field and assist others in their research. the archives, located at memorial uni- versity, st. john's, newfoundland, is open to the public monday through friday between the hours of a.m. and p.m. the maritime history group will under- take also to answer inquiries and prepare data sets for persons who cannot per- sonally visit the archives. the holdings of the archives amount to approximately , feet of docu- ments together with a large collection of microfilm. scope of the collection is worldwide, covering the period from to the present with a special emphasis on shipping of the british empire and commonwealth. documents held include crew lists and agreements of the british empire ( - ); copies of the reg- istries of all colonial vessels registered ( - ); a large collection of the reg- isters of classification societies such as lloyds, american bureaux of shipowners, norske veritas, bureau veritas, and germanischer lloyd; polish, russian, and japanese registers of shipping; and a wide variety of specialized shipping journals and newspapers. a general inventory is in the process of being published. conference of mennonites in canada archives. existing explicitly as a reli- gious archives, the holdings of the conference of mennonites in canada archives (cmc) form the largest mennonite archival deposit in the country. built around such collections as the immigration records of the canadian mennonite coloni- zation board, the mennonite central committee (canada), and the , -mem- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts ber cmc, these files provide a major source in the study of religious, social, and institutional history of western canada. integral to this body of material are several series of german and english news- papers published by the mennonite community. der bote ( —present), origi- nating in rosthern, saskatchewan; der mitarbeiter ( - ) and the red river valley echo ( -present) of gretna and altona, manitoba, respectively; and mennonitische rundschau (in canada from to the present) represent substan- tial sources of information on regional and interprovincial developments of the country. special collections of documents from european points of origin for canadian mennonite immigrants provide a further insight into the history of both the men- nonite community and the country. microfilm records of prussian church regis- ters and newspapers, german diaries and memoirs from southern russia, and several runs of mennonite periodicals from germany form this dimension of the cmc holdings. over a thousand photographs, part of a larger -item picture collection, relate to the prusso-russian past of the mennonite experience. [d. l. mcdonald, public archives of canada] great britain. with the retirement of jeffrey r. ede at the end of may , alfred w. mabbs, formerly deputy keeper since june , became the new keeper of the public records. mabbs has extensive experience in archives with various departments of the public record office (pro) since the s. the january issue of the american archivist reported a public controversy as described in an article of the times of london ( april ) concerning the effectiveness of the procedures for selecting public records for transfer to the pro and making them available for public inspection. as a result of disclosure of this controversy, the government has set up a three-member committee of in- quiry. the members of the committee are sir duncan wilson, master of corpus christi college, cambridge; margaret gowing, professor of the history of science at the university of oxford; and paul osmond, secretary to the church commis- sioners. they have been appointed by the lord chancellor to: review the arrangements for giving effect to those provisions of the public records act and which relate to the selection of records for permanent preservation and to subsequent public access to them in the light of ( ) the requirements of public business, of historical and other researchers, and of other users of public records generally, for an efficient records service; ( ) the volume of records generated by government departments; ( ) technological changes in the format and storage of records; and ( ) the staff and accom- modation costs of maintaining public records and the need for economy in the use of resources; and to make recommendations. bedfordshire record office reports the resumption of a plan for the publica- tion of indexed transcripts of important genealogical sources: parish register in the county; non-parochial registers; and baptismal, marriage, and burial registers of the major dissenting churches (baptist, congregational, methodist, and mora- vian) to cover the period up to and beyond . the first volume was planned to appear during , and it is hoped to publish one or two volumes each year thereafter. only a limited number of copies, however, will be printed and these d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january will be made available to subscribers at a cost of about £ . (approximately $ ) per copy, plus postage. full details may be obtained from the bedfordshire rec- ord office, county hall, bedford mk ap. devon record office (east and west branches) reports a plan to adapt pre- cis, a multi-faceted computerized index being developed by the british national bibliography, to the needs of a local archives office. the computer applications committee of the society of archivists is undertaking a survey of such applica- tions in records offices, and it is thought that a significant proportion of such offices now have some plans for developments along these lines. gloucestershire record office, at present scattered among a number of old buildings, is to move into a new headquarters. the record office will be housed in a specially adapted former school building erected in , in the center of gloucester. the adaptions provide storage areas which will conform to british standard (storage and exhibition of archival materials) and also to the re- quirements of recent health and safety legislation. the county archivist, brian s. smith, reports that "it is our experience that fire prevention and health and safety inspectors demand conditions for the safeguarding of life which conflict with ar- chival security needs." the records office's new address is gloucestershire rec- ord office, worcester street, gloucester gl dw. lancashire record office has received the largest deposit in its history of rec- ords from outside sources. the deposit consists of the archives of platt saco low- ell, the textile machinery manufacturing division of stone platt international. they comprise a total of eight tons of records and have been occupying, prior to their deposit with the record office, an embarrassingly large proportion of work space at the firm. the society of archivists during established a records management group, which has adopted an active program. this includes a series of one-day conferences, of which three conferences have already been held at liverpool (oc- tober ), glasgow (april ), and warwick (september ). proceedings of these conferences are scheduled to be published by the group sometime in the near future. this program, which seeks to introduce records management con- cepts to business and other agencies, will continue in with meetings at lon- don and in the north east. in addition to the one-day conferences, the group held a two-week residential course on records management at liverpool univer- sity in july , attended by twenty-four participants who occupy managerial- level positions with records management responsibilities. the contemporary scientific archives centre, oxford, sponsored jointly by the royal society and the british library, has announced a grant from the well- come trust. it will enable the centre to continue its work until . by septem- ber , the centre had completed work on three more collections and work was in progress on thirteen additional collections. completed collections were placed in the universities of glasgow, birmingham, and oxford. the centre's progress report no. ( april- september ) provides details on the collections. training. the roehampton institute of higher education has announced a course leading to a diploma in archives and records administration. it is intended to be a day-release training course for those individuals involved in archives or records work in the london area. the course will last one year, starting in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts autumn of or the spring of . the society of archivists has also started an in-service training course in archives administration. the society's course is a correspondence course lasting two years, and is open to those who occupy posi- tions of professional responsibility in archives but who have not received any professional training. the course starts in january with a preliminary en- rollment of twenty-nine students. students who successfully complete the course will receive the society's certificate. these two training courses are in addition to those courses provided by the universities of liverpool, london, wales, and oxford. final figures for the num- ber of students who successfully completed training courses in the / academic year are not yet available. indications at present, however, reveal that virtually every graduate was successfully absorbed into the full-time job market by the autumn of , and thus temporarily put aside the fear that there would be a high rate of unemployment among diplomates (graduates). enrollment of stu- dents for the new / sessions is expected to show a slight increase in numbers. [michael cook, university of liverpool] india. the english edition of the annual report of the national archives for (annual report of the national archives of india [ ]) notes that the indian archives has been elevated from the status of a subordinate office to that of an attached office. the elevation allows it greater authority and will facilitate its work in the area of records management. mentioned in the report is the notice that the archives has established a school for archival training of both local and foreign archivists. a progress report is included on its regular program of micro- film exchange with the india office library and records, london, and other foreign repositories, and also on efforts made to share its experience in record keeping practices with other developing nations. the report also includes a reg- ular selection of accession lists, comments on preservation programs and re- search, and a review of reference services and significant publications. [lawrence h. m c d o n a l d . national archives and records service] new zealand. the archives and records association of new zealand (ar- anz) has recently published the report of wilfred i. smith, dominion archivist of canada, who had visited various archives repositories in the country between february and march . the purpose of smith's visit was to evaluate current archival institutions and practices and to make recommendations for fu- ture archival development and appropriate legislation. smith's survey of archives, as well as analysis of a questionnaire which aranz had circulated, reveal seven basic problems: ( ) the fragmented nature of archival collections which do not have the mandate, resources, and staff to provide ade- quate archives services; ( ) a lack of a distinct identity with regard to separate budgets, accommodations, and relationships with records creators, and lack of authority to perform archival functions; ( ) a lack of adequate archives to serve the major regions in the country; ( ) serious records management weaknesses for central government bodies and a lack of any records management systems for most private corporate bodies; ( ) a lack of rationalization in the collection of private archival material; ( ) inadequate provision for education and training for d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january archivists, records managers, and technicians; and ( ) a lack of conservation facil- ities for most archival material. the twenty-eight specific recommendations smith provides in his report attempt to resolve the problems listed above in greater detail. most of the recommendations seem to pertain in one manner or another to strengthening the national archives. according to smith, the core of a national archives system must be a strong national archives which has the necessary au- thority, resources, and staff to execute its assigned functions and to provide lead- ership, guidance, and assistance to other archives in the country. also, a strong national archives must set archival standards, develop new techniques, and foster an awareness and appreciation of the value of archives as an important national resource among government officials, users, and the general public. some of the recommendations call specifically for the establishment of regional archives, a national film archives for motion picture film, sound and video recordings, a na- tional oral history program, and the nucleus of a map section in the national archives; the planning for a new national archives building; revision of the archives act; public access to more recent records and lowering of the thirty-year restriction to twenty-five years; greater efforts to preserve the records of busi- nesses, churches, and labor unions; development of university archives; develop- ment of educational uses for archives; and continued support for aranz as a professional association. peru. t h e first issue of therevista del archivodepartamentalde ayacucho ( ) has appeared as a -page mimeographed periodical. articles in this issue per- tain to such topics as the new image and social feeling of archives by guillermo durand florez, the need of an archival awareness by cesar gutierrez munos, and other historical themes. lorenzo huertas vallejos, director of the departmental archives of ayacucho, provides a transcription of the valuable document: "rein- spection of the doctrine of santa maria magdalena of the city of huamanga ( )." there is also a miscellaneous section dealing with the activity program of the departmental archives for as well as various cultural notices of the city. the riva-agiiero institute (catholic university) and the institute of historical maritime studies of peru organized a course on document description at the uni- versity, - august . this course was intended to teach archivists at his- torical repositories, and history students, the theory and techniques of description of archival documents including textual, audiovisual, and cartographic records. the archives of fuero agrario organized and held a seminar, between oc- tober and november , on the dual subjects of peruvian agrarian history and the theory and techniques of archives. this seminar was directed toward university students and archivists of historical repositories. in september , hoja archivera, the monthly bulletin of the peruvian asso- ciation of archivists (apa), completed its first year of publication. the purpose of the bulletin is to serve as a vehicle of communication between apa and archi- vists and friends concerning peruvian and international archival news. [cesar gutierrez munos, riva-agiiero historical archives] scotland. political events in scotland are having consequences on archives. the growth of a powerful nationalist movement aiming at independence has led d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts to pressure on parliament to create an elected legislative assembly in edinburgh with wide devolved powers. the result of this pressure has been the scotland act ( ) which provides for such an elective assembly on condition that it obtain sufficient support in a referendum to be held probably in . the field of records, both private and public, including those in the scottish record office, would be within the powers of this assembly, but to what extent its activities would be in this area is difficult to foresee at this time. there are fears in some quarters, however, that the assembly might reorganize local government into smaller units financially incapable of providing adequate archives services. within the profession itself, a number of scottish archivists feel that the admin- istrative and legal differences already existing would make the formation of a separate scottish society of archivists preferable to the current situation in which scotland forms a region within the british society. this attitude is naturally viewed with disfavor by the society of archivists, and there are doubts about the practicability of such a separate scottish association. on the other hand, the soci- ety is not in a position of strength in scotland. in great britain as a whole, it has traditionally been dominated by local-authority archivists, with a small, almost token, membership from such national institutions as the public record office. in scotland this has been true to a lesser extent, but the corresponding national repositories, the scottish record office and the national library of scotland, are numerically and in other ways much more important, and the comparative weak- ness of the society in this area is the more important. those individuals who oppose the fragmentation of the present society are cur- rently discussing ways to make the local regions within the society of archivists more active—for example, by enabling local regions to organize archival events and perhaps issue publications. as on the wider political stage, the alternative to devolution along these lines might be a demand for separation, perhaps on lines similar to the association des archivistes du quebec. it is certainly debatable, however, whether the currently fashionable demands for smaller and more local governmental units should be reflected in the organizational structure of such small professional bodies as societies of archivists. [andrew m. jackson, strath- clyde regional archives] singapore. the national archives and records centre, a department within the ministry of culture, has published its annual report. increasing attention during the past year seemed to focus on records management. with the return of teo seng hwee, senior archives officer, from australia where he com- pleted a diploma course in archives administration at the university of new south wales, the department established a records management division. in order to insure proper planning of a records management program, division personnel carried out a survey in april-july to secure up-to-date information on spe- cific aspects of records management practices in the government departments. a report on the survey is expected in and will probably be published in . the director also reports that the department surveyed several old buildings offered by the government buildings committee, but is continuing its search for alternative accommodations. the department hopes to obtain either a new or suitably renovated building to accommodate its fast growing holdings as well as to d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january improve its services to users and simultaneously bolster its efforts to preserve singapore's national historical resources. the national archives received the first installment ($ , ) of the $ , gift from the lee foundation for the purchase of old newsreel film about singa- pore. during the archives purchased , feet of newsreel film from the british firm of visnews limited. the rest of the newsreel film will be acquired over the next five years in regular increments. south africa. in compliance with the terms of section of the archives act (act of ), j. f. preller, director of archives, issued his annual report on the activities of the government archives for to the minister of national education. the report has been published by the department of national edu- cation as annual reports of the director of archives for . in it he mentions that special attention was given during the year to measures for promoting the pres- ervation and care of archives of statutory bodies and institutions in the private sector. although the archives of these bodies and institutions do not fall under the provisions of the archives act, the archives commission and other members of the profession are greatly concerned about these archives and their potential loss as a significant source for the study of south african economic history. he also states that a full-time archivist has been canvassing and collecting archives still in private possession in the transvaal. in another area of the report, preller reports the completion in june of the publication of the list of archivalia in south african archives depots. this publica- tion, stressing the complete holdings of archives, will supersede the list of finding aids in archives depots which was compiled in june and concentrated on avail- able finding aids. as a result of the new publication, for the first time the total archival content of all the archives depots are fully described in a single publica- tion. also, since a computer compiled and printed the data in the list, it can be easily kept up to date. other areas mentioned in the report include problems of securing additional storage space at the archives and intermediate archives depots, progress toward data processing of archives, records management, microfilm projects, and a list- ing of the arrangement and description of records at the eight archives and inter- mediate archives depots. appendix b contains a listing of the most important accessions at the various archives depots, and a list of donors. in the sixteenth ( ) annual report of the director of archives, which has been published in a bilingual (afrikaans/english) edition, preller reports that the south african parliament has passed the archives amendment act (act of ). the important provision of this amendment is that it is now possible for a statutory body to be declared a government office for purposes of the ar- chives act, and that the archives of such bodies can be administered under the provisions of the act. in other areas of his report to the minister of national education, the director states that, to facilitate the retrieval of information, the archives service is com- puterizing all information on files in all archives depots to provide faster refer- ence service via a display screen terminal. installation of the first terminal took place during in the reading room of the archives depots in pretoria. also, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene: news and abstracts with the storage space at the central archives depot reaching the critical point, preller urged the government to construct a national archives building in pretoria as soon as possible. the anglo-american corporation of south africa limited, johannesburg, and de beers consolidated mines limited, kimberley, implemented archival programs during . the archives of these two companies, together with the records in the barlow rand archives, will provide an excellent coverage of the history of the south african diamond and gold mining industry from its earliest beginnings in the s. a one-day archives workshop, the first of its kind in south africa, was held in johannesburg on may . the main theme, "current issues confronting archivists and manuscript librarians," was discussed during the morning ses- sion under the headings of coordinated collecting, copyright problems, and care of collections and sensitive materials. during the afternoon session, a paper on the national register of manuscripts was presented and discussion on this topic followed. the session chairman then proposed the formation of an association which would represent the interests of archivists, manuscript librarians, and other interested parties. this proposal was unanimously accepted by the participants, and a steering committee consisting of three members was elected to investigate the matter. national register of manuscripts. this project, known by the acronym na- rem, is the joint undertaking of the government archives, pretoria, and the south african library, cape town. it supersedes the union catalogue of man- uscripts in south african libraries (umisal) which was begun by the south african library in the s. [maryna fraser, barlow rand archives] abstract canada. [maida loescher, national archives and records service] archi- varia, no. (summer ). several of the articles in this issue concern access and privacy. gordon robertson, a career public servant, supports (pp. - ) a greater degree of openness but believes there are three categories of information that should still be considered confidential. the first has to do with the process of decision-making in a parliamentary government; the second includes matters that can affect the integrity of the state such as information concerning defense, na- tional security, and international relations; and the third embraces a variety of classes of documents whose disclosure could injure individuals or particular groups. to increase access, the author suggests using different security marks for these three categories. except in cases involving litigation, robertson does riot believe the courts should make the final decision as to whether a particular doc- ument should be opened to the public. linda s. bohnen disagrees (pp. - ) with robertson's outright rejection of judicial review. she accepts an information auditor as an alternative to judicial review if the auditor's decision would be conclusive and binding on the govern- ment. jean tener describes (pp. - ) the growing trend toward accessibility throughout history and recent developments affecting access in the united states, sweden, the soviet union, and, most specifically, canada. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / january the author discusses also problems which archivists will face if current restric- tions are significantly reduced and the dilemma created by demands both for access and the individual's right to privacy. the privacy problem is further ex- amined by peter gillis in his article (pp. - ) on the acquisition of and access to federal case files. other articles in this issue concern specific collections or specific types of rec- ords which either create special problems for archivists or have been neglected by archivists. jean e. dryden describes the history of the william lyon mackenzie king papers (pp. - ) from to . veronica strong-boag accuses (pp. - ) archivists of neglecting to collect the type of documents most relevant to women's history. geographer conrad e. heidenreich describes (pp. - ) the five periods of seventeenth-century maps of the great lakes and explains how one should examine a map. geographers a. j. w. catchpole and d. w. moodie discuss (pp. - ) the value of archives to the environmental scientist. ken larose of the national film archives discusses (pp. - ) some of the problems facing archivists who must decide which films and television programs should be preserved. larose warns, however, that although archivists are aware of the needs of film scholars and television producers, they need to learn more about how films can be used by historians. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .x m n q h by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril sex-specific association between metabolic abnormalities and elevated alanine aminotransferase levels in a military cohort: the chief study international journal of environmental research and public health article sex-specific association between metabolic abnormalities and elevated alanine aminotransferase levels in a military cohort: the chief study kai-wen chen , fan-chun meng , yu-lueng shih , fang-ying su , yen-po lin , felicia lin , jia-wei lin , wei-kuo chang , chung-jen lee , yi-hwei li , chung-bao hsieh , and gen-min lin , , ,* department of medicine, hualien armed forces general hospital, no. , jin-feng st., hualien , taiwan; az @gmail.com (k.-w.c.); flwoolol@gmail.com (f.l.); albert @yahoo.com.tw (c.-b.h.) departments of medicine, tri-service general hospital, national defense medical center, taipei , taiwan; drking @gmail.com (f.-c.m.); albreb@ms .hinet.net (y.-l.s.); weikuohome@hotmail.com (w.-k.c.) department of public health, tzu-chi university, hualien , taiwan; @gms.tcu.edu.tw (f.-y.s.); yihwei@mail.tcu.edu.tw (y.-h.l.) department of critical care medicine, yonghe cardinal tien hospital, fu-jen catholic university, new taipei city , taiwan; b @tmu.edu.tw department of dentistry, national yang-ming university, taipei , taiwan; ljw @gmail.com department of nursing, tzu-chi college of technology, hualien , taiwan; guggilee@ems.tcust.edu.tw college of science and engineering, national dong hwa university, hualien , taiwan * correspondence: farmer @gms.ndhu.edu.tw or farmer @yahoo.com.tw; tel.: + - - - ; fax: + - - - received: march ; accepted: march ; published: march abstract: the association of metabolic syndrome (mets) components with elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (alt) levels, a marker of hepatic injury, may differ between men and women. however, the sex-specific association in a military young population which has a low prevalence of mets was unclear. we conducted a cross-sectional examination in men and women, aged – years, from the cardiorespiratory fitness study in armed forces (chief) in eastern taiwan. the components of mets were defined according to the updated international diabetes federation (idf) ethnic criteria for asians. elevated alt levels were defined as ≥ u/l for both sexes and ≥ u/l for women alternatively. multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine the sex-specific association between mets components and elevated alt. the prevalence of mets and elevated alt in men were . % and . % respectively, and in women were . %, and . % respectively. in men, high-density lipoprotein < mg/dl, blood pressures ≥ / mmhg, serum triglycerides ≥ mg/dl, and waist size ≥ cm were associated with elevated alt (odds ratios (or) and % confidence intervals: . ( . – . ), . ( . – . ), . ( . – . ), and . ( . – . ); all p < . ); whereas in women, only fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl was associated with elevated alt ≥ u/l (or: . ( . – . ), p = . ) and alt ≥ u/l ( . ( . – . ), p = . ). our findings suggest that the relationship between metabolic abnormalities and elevated alt may differ by sex, possibly due to the mets more prevalent in young adult men than in women. keywords: alanine aminotransferase; metabolic syndrome; military cohort; sex difference int. j. environ. res. public health , , ; doi: . /ijerph www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph http://www.mdpi.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijerph \num [minimum-integer-digits = ]{ }\num [minimum-integer-digits = ]{ } http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . introduction non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (nafld), characterized by excessive accumulation of hepatic fat, is defined as the presence of steatosis in more than % of hepatocytes [ ]. nafld affects – % of adults in different countries and the prevalence in taiwan is estimated to be . % to . % [ , ]. today, nafld has become a leading etiology of chronic liver disease worldwide [ ]. nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (nash) is a more aggressive form of nafld and covers a wide spectrum of disease severity, including hepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma [ ]. nash commonly coexists with elevated markers of liver injury, particularly serum alanine aminotransferase (alt), which is closely related to the severity of fat accumulation in the liver and frequently used as a marker of nafld in relation to type diabetes mellitus in several epidemiology studies [ , ]. metabolic syndrome (mets) is defined as central obesity occurring in parallel with two of the following components: ( ) raised levels of blood pressures, triglycerides, and fasting plasma glucose; and ( ) reduced high-density lipoprotein concentration based on the international diabetes federation (idf) criteria [ ]. in addition, obesity, diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and hypertension may lead to nafld, which has been considered as the liver’s manifestation of mets [ ]. prospective studies have also shown that elevated alt levels related to nafld or nash is associated with the occurrence of new-onset mets and type diabetes, independent of age, obesity, and alcohol intake [ , ]. previous studies reported sex differences in the prevalence of nafld, with it affecting more men than women [ ]. this finding was also reflected in the distribution of visceral fat, where women have less visceral fat than men [ ]. similarly, the prevalence and components of mets may also differ by sex [ ]. studies had suggested that female hormones could protect against visceral fat accumulation and metabolic abnormalities, leading to a lower prevalence of mets and hepatic injury related to nafld among premenopausal women [ ]. since there were few studies investigating the association of mets components and elevated alt levels between young men and women, we decided to examine the sex-specific association in a large military cohort in taiwan. . materials and methods . . study population from january to december , there were military participants enrolled in the cardiorespiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces (chief) study. we further excluded participants who had unavailable relevant covariates and those with viral hepatitis and without a ultrasound-proven fatty infiltration of liver, leaving a final sample of individuals ( . %) including men and women, ages between and years for analysis. the study design has been described in detail previously [ ]. in brief, each participant was asked to self-report a questionnaire including demographic information, medical history, current cigarette smoking habits, and alcohol consumption. all participants underwent physical examinations, anthropometric measurements for height, weight, and waist circumference at standing position, and hemodynamic status of pulse rate and blood pressures, which were automatically measured by the parama tech ft- blood pressure monitor over the right upper arm at sitting position, after taking a rest for at least min. blood tests were performed for concentrations of fasting plasma glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, serum uric acid, aspartate transaminase (ast), and alanine transaminase (alt) in the hualien armed forces general hospital which is the only military referral center in hualien, taiwan, able to perform the whole body health exams. . . definitions in our analyses, elevated alt levels were defined as ≥ u/l for both sexes and ≥ u/l for women alternatively [ ]. the updated idf definition of mets includes the major component of waist size ≥ cm for asian men and ≥ cm for asian women in addition to two or more of the four minor int. j. environ. res. public health , , of components: ( ) serum triglycerides ≥ mg/dl; ( ) high-density lipoprotein < mg/dl for men and < mg/dl for women; ( ) systolic blood pressure ≥ mmhg, or diastolic blood pressure ≥ mmhg, or use of antihypertensive medication; ( ) fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl, or use of antidiabetic medication [ ]. alternatively, the national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel (ncep atp iii) guideline for mets for men and women was defined as the presence of three or more of the previously mentioned major and minor criteria [ ]. body mass index was defined as weight (kg)/square of height (m ). obese, overweight, normal-weight, and underweight were defined by a body mass index ≥ , – . , – . , and < kg/m , respectively. this study was reviewed and approved by the institutional review board of the mennonite christian hospital in taiwan and written informed consent was obtained from all participants. . . statistical analysis demographic characteristics and laboratory data are presented as means ± standard deviations or percent for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. chi-square or fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables and student’s t-tests for continuous variables were used between the two groups (normal levels of alt vs. elevated alt, and women vs. men). univariate logistic regression was used to identify the risk factors for elevated alt based on sex. multivariate logistic regression analysis was also performed in men and women for those variables with statistically significance in the univariate analysis to determine the association between the mets components and elevated alt. a two-tailed value of p < . was considered statistically significant. analyses were performed using sas statistical software (version . , sas institute inc., cary, nc, usa). . . ethical approval all procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards (mennonite christian hospital institutional review board/ethics committee approval code: - - ). . results . . descriptive characteristics the baseline characteristics of those with and without elevated alt ≥ u/l are shown in table . the mean age of overall participants was years. participants with elevated alt were relatively older, more likely to be male, and had more prevalent obesity, current cigarette smoking, current alcohol intake, metabolic abnormalities, and an alt/ast ratio > , an indicator of hepatic injury not caused by alcohol toxicity. the prevalence of idf- and ncep-atp iii-defined mets was estimated to be . % and . % respectively in the overall cohort and much higher in those with elevated alt than those without. table s shows similar results if elevated alt was defined as ≥ u/l for women alternatively. table . baseline characteristics of the study cohort based on serum alt levels. overall alt < alt ≥ u/l p-value n = n = n = age (year) . ± . . ± . . ± . < . specialty, % < . air forces . . . army . . . navy . . . sex, % < . women . . . men . . . int. j. environ. res. public health , , of table . cont. overall alt < alt ≥ u/l p-value n = n = n = bmi (kg/m ), % . ± . . ± . . ± . < . underweight (< . ) . . . < . normal ( . – . ) . . . overweight ( – . ) . . . obesity (≥ ) . . . current smoker, % . . . < . current alcohol intake, % . . . < . alt/ast ratio ≥ , % . . . < . elevated blood pressure, % * . . . < . waist circumference, % ∫ . . . < . serum tg ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . fpg ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . low serum hdl, % $ . . . < . total cholesterol ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . metabolic syndrome (atpiii), % . . . . metabolic syndrome (idf), % . . . < . continuous variables are expressed as mean ± standard deviation and categorical variables as number (percentage). abbreviations: alt, alanine aminotransferase; ast, aspartate aminotransferase; atp iii, national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel iii; bmi, body mass index; fpg, fasting plasma glucose; hdl, high density lipoprotein; idf, international diabetes federation; tg, triglycerides. * elevated blood pressure: blood pressure ≥ / mm hg or use of antihypertensive agents. ∫ waist circumference: ≥ cm in men and ≥ cm in women. $ low serum hdl: < mg/dl in men and < mg/dl in women. . . sex differences the prevalence of elevated alt ≥ u/l in men and women stratified by age are shown in figure . in general, elevated alt levels were much more prevalent in men than women ( . % vs. . %). the prevalence of elevated alt in men at ages of – years was . % and increased sharply to the peak of % at ages of – years. by contrast, the prevalence in women at ages of – years was estimated only . – . % and rose to the peak of . % at ages of – years. figure s shows that the prevalence of elevated alt ≥ u/l in women was estimated . % and the peak was . % at ages of – years. int. j. environ. res. public health , , x for peer review of overweight ( – . ) . . . obesity (≥ ) . . . current smoker, % . . . < . current alcohol intake, % . . . < . alt/ast ratio ≥ , % . . . < . elevated blood pressure, % * . . . < . waist circumference, % ∫ . . . < . serum tg ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . fpg ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . low serum hdl, % $ . . . < . total cholesterol ≥ mg/dl, % . . . < . metabolic syndrome (atpiii), % . . . . metabolic syndrome (idf), % . . . < . continuous variables are expressed as mean ± standard deviation and categorical variables as number (percentage). abbreviations: alt, alanine aminotransferase; ast, aspartate aminotransferase; atp iii, national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel iii; bmi, body mass index; fpg, fasting plasma glucose; hdl, high density lipoprotein; idf, international diabetes federation; tg, triglycerides. * elevated blood pressure: blood pressure ≥ / mm hg or use of antihypertensive agents. ∫ waist circumference: ≥ cm in men and ≥ cm in women. $ low serum hdl: < mg/dl in men and < mg/dl in women. . . sex differences the prevalence of elevated alt ≥ u/l in men and women stratified by age are shown in figure . in general, elevated alt levels were much more prevalent in men than women ( . % vs. . %). the prevalence of elevated alt in men at ages of – years was . % and increased sharply to the peak of % at ages of – years. by contrast, the prevalence in women at ages of – years was estimated only . – . % and rose to the peak of . % at ages of – years. figure s shows that the prevalence of elevated alt ≥ u/l in women was estimated . % and the peak was . % at ages of – years. figure . the age-based prevalence of elevated alt in men and women. the baseline characteristics of men and women are shown in table . men were modestly older and had more prevalent obesity, current smoking, current alcohol consumption, metabolic abnormalities, elevated alt, and alt/ast ratio > compared with women. the prevalence of idf- figure . the age-based prevalence of elevated alt in men and women. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of the baseline characteristics of men and women are shown in table . men were modestly older and had more prevalent obesity, current smoking, current alcohol consumption, metabolic abnormalities, elevated alt, and alt/ast ratio > compared with women. the prevalence of idf- and ncep-atp iii-defined mets in men is . % and . % respectively, which are much higher than the . % and . % found in women. table . baseline characteristics of the study cohort of men and women. variables women men p-value n = n = age (year) . ± . . ± . < . specialty, % < . air forces . . army . . navy . . bmi (kg/m ), % . ± . . ± . < . underweight (< . ) . . < . normal ( . – . ) . . overweight ( – . ) . . obesity (≥ ) . . current smoker, % . . < . current alcohol intake, % . . < . alt, % < . < u/l . . ≥ u/l . . alt/ast ratio ≥ , % . . < . elevated blood pressure, % * . . < . waist circumference, % ∫ . . . serum tg ≥ mg/dl, % . . < . fpg ≥ mg/dl, % . . < . low serum hdl, % $ . . . total cholesterol ≥ mg/dl, % . . < . metabolic syndrome (atpiii), % . . < . metabolic syndrome (idf), % . . < . continuous variables are expressed as mean ± standard deviation and categorical variables as number (percentage). abbreviations: alt, alanine aminotransferase; ast, aspartate aminotransferase; atp iii, national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel iii; bmi, body mass index; fpg, fasting plasma glucose; hdl, high density lipoprotein; idf, international diabetes federation; tg, triglycerides. * elevated blood pressure: blood pressure ≥ / mm hg or use of antihypertensive agents. ∫ waist circumference: ≥ cm in men and ≥ cm in women. $ low serum hdl: < mg/dl in men and < mg/dl in women. table shows the results of univariate analysis for men and women. in men, all variables including older age (odds ratio (or) per five-year increase: . ), metabolic risk factors, and current alcohol intake (or: . ) were associated with elevated alt ≥ u/l. the strongest associations in the metabolic components were waist circumference ≥ cm or obesity (or: . and . respectively) and mets (or: . and . according to the ncep-atp iii and idf based-criteria respectively). in contrast, for women, two of the metabolic risk factors—elevated blood pressures and total cholesterol, as well as current alcohol intake—were not associated with elevated alt. the strongest associations in the metabolic components were fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl (or: . ) and mets (or: . and . based on the ncep-atp iii and idf based-criteria respectively). table s shows consistent results for women if elevated alt was defined as ≥ u/l, alternatively. the strongest associations in the metabolic components were fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl (or: . , % confidence intervals (ci): . – . ), serum triglycerides ≥ mg/dl (or: . , % ci: . – . ), and mets (or: . , % ci: . – . and . , % ci: . – . based on the ncep-atp iii and idf based criteria, respectively). int. j. environ. res. public health , , of table . univariate analysis of risk factors predicting elevated alt ≥ u/l based on sex. variables overall p-value women p-value men p-valuen = n = n = or ( % ci) or ( % ci) or ( % ci) age (by five-year increment) . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . bmi (kg/m ) – . . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . ≥ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . elevated blood pressure * . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . waist circumference ∫ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . serum tg ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . fpg ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . low serum hdl $ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . total cholesterol ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . current alcohol intake . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) . metabolic syndrome (atpiii) . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . metabolic syndrome (idf) . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) < . data are expressed as odds ratio (or) and % confidence intervals (ci). abbreviations: atp iii, national cholesterol education program adult treatment panel iii; bmi, body mass index; fpg, fasting plasma glucose; hdl, high density lipoprotein; idf, international diabetes federation; tg, triglycerides. * elevated blood pressure: blood pressure ≥ / mm hg or use of antihypertensive agents. ∫ waist circumference: ≥ cm in men and ≥ cm in women. $ low serum hdl: < mg/dl in men and < mg/dl in women. table presents the multivariate logistic regression analyses results using age, body mass index category, total cholesterol concentrations, and the five mets components to predict elevated alt ≥ u/l for the overall, male, and female groups, respectively. as expected in the overall group, men were more likely to have elevated alt than women (or: . ). in men, the strongest associations in the metabolic risk factors were being overweight and obesity (or: . and . respectively) and serum triglycerides ≥ mg/dl (or: . ). by contrast in women, although obesity and waist circumference ≥ cm were associated with two-fold higher risk of elevated alt (or: . and . respectively), the levels of statistical significance were not attained. only fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl (or: . ) was associated with elevated alt levels ≥ u/l in women. table s shows that both fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl and serum triglycerides ≥ mg/dl were borderline associated with elevated alt levels ≥ u/l in women (or: . , % ci: . – . and . , % ci: . – . , respectively). table . multivariate analysis of the metabolic risk factors predicting elevated alt ≥ u/l based on sex. variables overall p-value women p-value men p-valuen = n = n = or ( % ci) or ( % ci) or ( % ci) sex (men vs. women) . ( . – . ) < . n/a n/a age (by five-year increment) . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) . bmi (kg/m ) – . . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . ≥ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . serum tg ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . fpg ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) . elevated blood pressure * . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . waist circumference ∫ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . low serum hdl $ . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . total cholesterol ≥ mg/dl . ( . – . ) < . . ( . – . ) . . ( . – . ) < . data are expressed as odds ratio (or) and % confidence intervals (ci). abbreviations: bmi, body mass index; fpg, fasting plasma glucose; hdl, high density lipoprotein; n/a, not available; tg, triglycerides. * elevated blood pressure: blood pressure ≥ / mm hg or use of antihypertensive agents. ∫ waist circumference: ≥ cm in men and ≥ cm in women. $ low serum hdl: < mg/dl in men and < mg/dl in women. int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . discussion this is the first cross-sectional cohort study focusing on the prevalence of mets and the metabolic risk factors for abnormal levels of liver enzyme in young military men and women in taiwan. we found a low prevalence of mets in men and women which is consistent with that in other young asian adults ( – . % in men and . – . % in women) [ , ]. furthermore, we identified that the association between mets components and elevated alt levels might differ by sex in young adults. metabolic abnormalities associated with hepatic injury and elevated alt levels have been reported in previous studies for other asian populations [ – ]. in the present study, an alt/ast ratio > was found in more than % of those with elevated alt, presumably from nafld [ ]. we also noticed that young adults appeared to be at risk of having elevated alt levels, especially in the age – group. schmucker [ ] reported that these age-related liver function changes can be explained by change with age in liver volume, hepatic dense body compartment, shifts in the expression of a variety of proteins, a lower inflammatory response to oxidative stress, diminished hepatobiliary functions, and increased fibrosis. in addition, dong et al. [ ] demonstrated that alt levels decreased with age, independent of sex, alcohol use, and metabolic risk factors in a longitudinal follow-up. the association of the mets components with elevated alt may differ by sex. previous studies have shown that prevalence of nafld in non-diabetic men was higher than that in non-diabetic women in an asian population [ ], and this was consistent with the finding in another study of a u.s. adult cohort [ ]. these data suggested that diabetes or high fasting plasma glucose in women is highly correlated with nafld and inflammation status on liver. liver-fat accumulation or nafld was also reported with an association with insulin resistance in women [ , ]. moreover, levitzky et al. uncovered that impaired fasting glucose levels in women were associated with higher risk of coronary heart disease risk, which may share a similar pathogenesis with nafld [ ], whereas this was not shown in men. by contrast, the association of obesity dyslipidemia, and hypertension rather than abnormal fasting plasma glucose with elevated alt seemed to be stronger in men. the mechanism for the difference in association based on sex is not clear and needs further investigation. due to our female population being mostly at premenopausal ages, the prevalence of mets and elevated alt were particularly low. this result was also shown in other epidemiology studies [ , ]. hamaguchi et al. have revealed an association of the postmenopausal state with nafld and indicated that the postmenopausal state was a risk factor for nafld [ ]. estrogen can provide many benefits in body metabolism such as maintaining proper fluid balance, increasing high density lipoproteins and decreasing low density lipoproteins. female estrogens also have many benefits for the liver such as inhibition of fibrogenesis, promotion of antioxidant effects, increase in innate immunity, inhibition of cellular senescence, and protection of mitochondrial structure and function [ ]. loss of estrogen has been associated with an increase of central fat [ ]. in addition, grobe et al. found women without nafld had higher levels of serum estradiol compared with nafld patients [ ]. therefore female hormones, especially estrogen, may have a protective effect of against nafld in women. this study has several limitations. first, behavioral characteristics such as smoking, drinking, and physical activity are collected by self-report and lack of quantitative measures, which may result in some errors and confounding effects. second, the temporal association between the five mets components and elevated alt levels could not be made as a cross-sectional design in nature. third, there were only women compared to men in the present study. with this relatively limited sample size of the female subjects, it is important to note that the conclusions drawn from women were statistically less powerful and evident, and deserve further study to verify our findings. . conclusions the relationship between metabolic abnormalities with elevated alt levels may differ by sex in young military adults below years of age in taiwan. fasting plasma glucose ≥ mg/dl was more specific to elevated alt in women, whereas obesity, dyslipidemia, and hypertension were more int. j. environ. res. public health , , of specific to elevated alt in men. the mechanisms for the sex difference might be related to the mets and current alcoholic intake more prevalent in young adult men than in women. supplementary materials: the following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s , table s : baseline characteristics of the study cohort based on serum alt levels, table s : univariate analysis of risk factors predicting elevated alt ≥ u/l in women, table s : multivariate analysis of the risk factors predicting elevated alt ≥ u/l based on sex, figure s : the age-based prevalence of elevated alt in men and women. #elevated alts are defined as alt level ≥ u/l in men and ≥ u/l in women. acknowledgments: this study was funded by the hualien armed forces general hospital (grant number -c - and -c - ) and the ministry of national defense medical affairs bureau (grant number mab- - ). author contributions: kai-wen chen wrote the paper; fan-chun meng, yu-lueng shih, yen-po lin, wei-kuo chang, chung-jen lee, and chung-bao hsieh made critical suggestions and revisions on the study; felicia lin and jia-wei lin collected the data; fang-ying su and yi-hwei li analyzed the data; gen-min lin conceived, designed, and corresponded to the study. conflicts of interest: the authors declare no conflict of interest. references . european association for the study of the liver (easl); european association for the study of diabetes (easd); european association for the study of obesity (easo). easl-easd-easo clinical practice guidelines for the management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. j. hepatol. , , – . . chen, c.-h.; huang, m.-h.; yang, j.-c.; nien, c.-k.; yang, c.-c.; yeh, y.-h.; yueh, s.-k. prevalence and risk factors of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in an adult population of taiwan: metabolic significance of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in nonobese adults. j. clin. gastroenterol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . hsiao, p.j.; kuo, k.k.; shin, s.j.; yang, y.h.; lin, w.y.; yang, j.f.; chiu, c.c.; chuang, w.l.; tsai, t.r.; yu, m.l. significant correlations between severe fatty liver and risk factors for metabolic syndrome. j. gastroenterol. hepatol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . vernon, g.; baranova, a.; younossi, z.m. systematic review: the epidemiology and natural history of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in adults. aliment. pharmacol. ther. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . starley, b.q.; calcagno, c.j.; harrison, s.a. nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma: a weighty connection. hepatology , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . xu, l.; jiang, c.q.; schooling, c.m.; zhang, w.s.; cheng, k.k.; lam, t.h. liver enzymes and incident diabetes in china: a prospective analysis of participants in the guangzhou biobank cohort study. j. epidemiol. community health , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . sattar, n.; scherbakova, o.; ford, i.; o’reilly, d.s.j.; stanley, a.; forrest, e.; macfarlane, p.w.; packard, c.j.; cobbe, s.m.; shepherd, j. elevated alanine aminotransferase predicts new-onset type diabetes independently of classical risk factors, metabolic syndrome, and c-reactive protein in the west of scotland coronary prevention study. diabetes , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . alberti, k.g.m.m.; zimmet, p.; shaw, j. metabolic syndrome—a new world-wide definition. a consensus statement from the international diabetes federation. diabet. med. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . burgert, t.s.; taksali, s.e.; dziura, j.; goodman, t.r.; yeckel, c.w.; papademetris, x.; constable, r.t.; weiss, r.; tamborlane, w.v.; savoye, m.; et al. alanine aminotransferase levels and fatty liver in childhood obesity: associations with insulin resistance, adiponectin, and visceral fat. j. clin. endocrinol. metab. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . fan, j.g.; li, f.; cai, x.b.; peng, y.d.; ao, q.h.; gao, y. effects of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease on the development of metabolic disorders. j. gastroenterol. hepatol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . doi, y.; kubo, m.; yonemoto, k.; ninomiya, t.; iwase, m.; tanizaki, y.; shikata, k.; iida, m.; kiyohara, y. liver enzymes as a predictor for incident diabetes in a japanese population: the hisayama study. obesity , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . carulli, l.; lonardo, a.; lombardini, s.; marchesini, g.; loria, p. gender, fatty liver and ggt. hepatology , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / /s http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /hep. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jech- - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /diabetes. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /jc. - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /oby. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /hep. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . lemieux, s.; prud’homme, d.; bouchard, c.; tremblay, a.; despres, j.p. sex differences in the relation of visceral adipose tissue accumulation to total body fatness. am. j. clin. nutr. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . lee, s.; ko, y.; kwak, c.; yim, e.-s. gender differences in metabolic syndrome components among the korean -year-old population with metabolic syndrome. bmc geriatr. , , . . gutierrez-grobe, y.; ponciano-rodriguez, g.; ramos, m.h.; uribe, m.; mendez-sanchez, n. prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in premenopausal, posmenopausal and polycystic ovary syndrome women. the role of estrogens. ann. hepatol. , , – . [pubmed] . lin, g.m.; li, y.h.; lee, c.j.; shiang, j.c.; lin, k.h.; chen, k.w.; chen, y.j.; wu, c.f.; lin, b.s.; yu, y.s.; et al. rationale and design of the cardiorespiratory fitness and hospitalization events in armed forces study in eastern taiwan. world j. cardiol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . ruhl, c.e.; everhart, j.e. determinants of the association of overweight with elevated serum alanine aminotransferase activity in the united states. gastroenterology , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . huang, p.l. a comprehensive definition for metabolic syndrome. dis. models mechan. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . tsai, t.y.; cheng, j.f.; lai, y.m. prevalence of metabolic syndrome and related factors in taiwanese high-tech industry workers. clinics , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . perera, s.; lohsoonthorn, v.; jiamjarasrangsi, w.; lertmaharit, s.; williams, m.a. association between elevated liver enzymes and metabolic syndrome among thai adults. diabetes metab. syndr. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . kim, h.c.; choi, k.s.; jang, y.h.; shin, h.w.; kim, d.j. normal serum aminotransferase levels and the metabolic syndrome: korean national health and nutrition examination surveys. yonsei med. j. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . sorbi, d.; boynton, j.; lindor, k.d. the ratio of aspartate aminotransferase to alanine aminotransferase: potential value in differentiating nonalcoholic steatohepatitis from alcoholic liver disease. am. j. gastroenterol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . schmucker, d.l. age-related changes in liver structure and function: implications for disease? exp. gerontol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . dong, m.h.; bettencourt, r.; brenner, d.a.; barrett-connor, e.; loomba, r. serum levels of alanine aminotransferase decrease with age in longitudinal analysis. clin. gastroenterol. hepatol. , . [crossref] [pubmed] . chen, s.c.-c.; tsai, s.p.; jhao, j.-y.; jiang, w.-k.; tsao, c.k.; chang, l.-y. liver fat, hepatic enzymes, alkaline phosphatase and the risk of incident type diabetes: a prospective study of , adults. sci. rep. , , . [crossref] [pubmed] . lazo, m.; hernaez, r.; eberhardt, m.s.; bonekamp, s.; kamel, i.; guallar, e.; koteish, a.; brancati, f.l.; clark, j.m. prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in the united states: the third national health and nutrition examination survey, – . am. j. epidemiol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . tiikkainen, m.; tamminen, m.; häkkinen, a.-m.; bergholm, r.; vehkavaara, s.; halavaara, j.; teramo, k.; rissanen, a.; yki-järvinen, h. liver-fat accumulation and insulin resistance in obese women with previous gestational diabetes. obesity res. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . foghsgaard, s.; andreasen, c.; vedtofte, l.; andersen, e.s.; bahne, e.; strandberg, c.; buhl, t.; holst, j.j.; svare, j.a.; clausen, t.d.; et al. nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is prevalent in women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus and independently associated with insulin resistance and waist circumference. diabetes care , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . levitzky, y.s.; pencina, m.j.; d’agostino, r.b.; meigs, j.b.; murabito, j.m.; vasan, r.s.; fox, c.s. impact of impaired fasting glucose on cardiovascular disease. j. am. coll. cardiol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . hwang, l.c.; bai, c.h.; chen, c.j. prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome in taiwan. j. formos. med. assoc. , , – . [crossref] . hamaguchi, m.; kojima, t.; ohbora, a.; takeda, n.; fukui, m.; kato, t. aging is a risk factor of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in premenopausal women. world j. gastroenterol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajcn/ . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /wjc.v .i . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /gast. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /dmm. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.dsx. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /ymj. . . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j. - . . .x http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.exger. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.cgh. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /aje/kws http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /oby. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /dc - http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.jacc. . . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - ( ) - http://dx.doi.org/ . /wjg.v .i . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ int. j. environ. res. public health , , of . brady, c.w. liver disease in menopause. world j. gastroenterol. , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] . völzke, h.; schwarz, s.; baumeister, s.e.; wallaschofski, h.; schwahn, c.; jörgen grabe, h.; kohlmann, t.; john, u.; dören, m. menopausal status and hepatic steatosis in a general female population. gut , , – . [crossref] [pubmed] © by the authors. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://dx.doi.org/ . /wjg.v .i . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /gut. . http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	materials and methods 	study population 	definitions 	statistical analysis 	ethical approval 	results 	descriptive characteristics 	sex differences 	discussion 	conclusions 	references homozygous and compound heterozygous mutations in zmpste cause the laminopathy restrictive dermopathy see related commentary on page xii homozygous and compound heterozygous mutations in zmpste cause the laminopathy restrictive dermopathy casey l. moulson,� gloriosa go,� jennifer m. gardner,w allard c. van der wal,z j. henk sillevis smitt,y johanna m. van hagen,z and jeffrey h. miner�# �department of internal medicine, renal division and wdepartment of genetics, washington university school of medicine, st louis, missouri, usa; zdepartment of cardiovascular pathology and ydepartment of dermatology, academic medical center, amsterdam, the netherlands; zdepartment of clinical genetics and human genetics, vu university medical center, amsterdam, the netherlands; #department of cell biology and physiology, washington university school of medicine, st louis, missouri, usa restrictive dermopathy (rd) is a lethal human genetic disorder characterized by very tight, thin, easily eroded skin, rocker bottom feet, and joint contractures. this disease was recently reported to be associated with a single heterozygous mutation in zmpste and hypothesized to be a digenic disorder (navarro et al, lamin a and zmpste (face- ) defects cause nuclear disorganization and identify restrictive dermopathy as a lethal neonatal laminopathy. hum mol genet : – , ). zmpste encodes an enzyme necessary for the correct processing and maturation of lamin a, an intermediate filament component of the nuclear envelope. here we present four unrelated patients with homozygous mutations in zmpste and a fifth patient with compound heterozygous mutations in zmpste . two of the three different mutations we found are novel, and all are single base insertions that result in messenger rna frameshifts. as a consequence of the presumed lack of zmpste activity, prelamin a, the unprocessed toxic form of lamin a, was detected in the nuclei of both cultured cells and tissue from rd patients, but not in control nuclei. abnormally aggregated lamin a/c was also observed. these results indicate that rd is an autosomal recessive laminopathy caused by inactivating zmpste mutations that result in defective processing and nuclear accumulation of prelamin a. key words: fatp protein/lamin a/nuclear envelope/ste protein j invest dermatol : – , restrictive dermopathy (rd), also known as lethal tight skin contracture syndrome (mim ), is a rare genetic dis- order that results in death, usually within several hours or days of birth. babies with rd have tight, translucent, par- tially eroded skin, joint contractures, rocker bottom feet, and distinctive craniofacial abnormalities that typically in- clude micrognathia, a facial expression with the mouth fixed in an ‘‘o’’ position, a small pinched nose, and low-set ears (welsh et al, ; mau et al, ; sillevis smitt et al, ). in most patients, death results from respiratory distress as a result of severely restricted movements. of the few rd cases reported in the literature, many arose in children of consanguineous parents, and the disease re- curs within families; its mode of inheritance had therefore been presumed to be autosomal recessive (welsh et al, ; sillevis smitt et al, ). recently, however, navarro et al ( ) used a candidate gene approach to identify a single inactivating heterozygous mutation in zmpste (c. dupt) associated with rd in six unrelated, noncon- sanguineous families of french and dutch heritage. zmpste encodes a zinc metalloproteinase required for lamin a maturation (bergo et al, ; pendas et al, ), suggesting that rd is a laminopathy that affects the structure of the nucleus. because only one allele was found to be mutated in each affected individual, and the parents carrying that allele were normal, the authors hypothesized a digenic mode of inheritance for rd (navarro et al, ). contrary to this, we have identified four patients with three different homozygous mutations and one patient with com- pound heterozygous mutations in zmpste that are as- sociated with rd, providing strong support for a simple autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. we also show that in two patients with different homozygous mutations, there are nuclear abnormalities associated with accumula- tion of unprocessed prelamin a, thereby providing novel evidence that rd is a laminopathy. results identification of zmpste mutations associated with rd we became interested in rd upon discovering a spontaneous, autosomal recessive mouse mutation that we named wrinkle free (wrfr). wrfr �/� mice have very tight, thick skin, and their mouths are fixed in an open position (moulson et al, ). they die within h of birth from an inability to breathe properly or to suckle, because of abbreviations: dhplc, denaturing high-performance liquid chro- matography; face, farnesyiated protein-converting enzyme ; mrna, messenger rna; pbs, phosphate-buffered saline; pcr, polymerase chain reaction; rd, restrictive dermopathy; snp, single nucleotide polymorphism copyright r by the society for investigative dermatology, inc. severely restricted movements. the overall phenotype is thus reminiscent of rd. positional cloning of wrfr revealed a retrotransposon insertion in slc a , which encodes fatty acid transport protein (moulson et al, ). in an effort to determine whether slc a plays a role in human rd, we obtained blood and/or tissues from mem- bers of six rd kindreds, three of which were known or suspected to involve consanguinity. dna was prepared from individuals with rd, all of whom died within hours or days of birth and exhibited the classic features described by witt (witt et al, ). dna was also prepared from parents and any unaffected full siblings when available. we se- quenced slc a exons and intron–exon junctions in three unrelated patients but found no mutations. to formally rule out slc a as a candidate, and to identify potential can- didate regions, we performed genome-wide single nucleo- tide polymorphism (snp) genotyping using affymetrix genechip mapping arrays (matsuzaki et al, ) on a small but potentially informative subset of these dna (data not shown). using dna-chip (dchip) software (lin et al, ) to display the results, and assuming an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance, we identified a mb locus on chromosome p – as a major rd candidate region, whereas the slc a locus at q was ruled out. con- sistent with the report of navarro et al, p – contains zmpste . therefore, we sequenced zmpste exons and flanking intronic sequences amplified by polymerase chain reaction (pcr) from rd family members’ dna to search for mutations and to determine their association with rd. a consanguineous dutch family had one child affected with rd and five unaffected children. we identified in this family the same c. dupt insertion reported by navarro et al ( ) (fig a and b). in contrast to the findings of navarro et al, however, here the mutation was homozygous in the affected patient, whereas both parents were het- erozygous (fig a and b). dna was also available from four of the five unaffected siblings; three were heterozygous for the insertion, and one did not carry it. we found this same mutation in a nonconsanguineous american family of ger- man ancestry (fig c). the mutation was homozygous in one affected child, and both parents and one brother were heterozygous; the other brother did not carry the mutation. no dna from the second affected child was available. in this family, the apparently identical mutations were linked to different genotypes at a novel snp in zmpste intron (data not shown), suggesting that the mutations arose independently. analysis of zmpste in a consanguineous guatemalan family with two affected children revealed a novel single base duplication in exon (c. dupt) (fig d and e). this mutation was homozygous in one affected child and het- erozygous in both parents (fig d and e). dna from the second child was not available. a novel single base duplication was present in zmpste exon (c. dupt) in a mennonite kindred with five affected children out of six born to two families (fig f and g). dna was only available from one affected child; the mutation was homozygous in her and heterozygous in both her parents. the other parents and their unaffected son were heterozygous for the same mutation. rd has been reported in a mennonite kindred before (lowry et al, ), suggesting that this unique mutation is segregating in the mennonite population. we also assayed dna extracted from archived paraffin- embedded tissues taken from a dutch rd patient. two dif- ferent heterozygous mutations were detected: the exon mutation found in the guatemalan family (c. dupt) and the previously identified exon insertion (c. dupt). we conclude that this patient is compound heterozygous, al- though we cannot formally prove it because parental dna are not available. might these mutations actually be common polymorph- isms? the c. dupt mutation in exon has been pre- viously reported, and it was not found to be present on control chromosomes (agarwal et al, ; navarro et al, ). denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (dhplc) analysis of exons and amplified by pcr from ceph grandparent dna showed no evidence of the c. dupt and c. dupt mutations, respectively (data not shown). searches of the celera discovery system (http://myscience.appliedbiosystems.com/) and public snp (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/) databases did not re- veal any insertions in the zmpste coding region, al- though snp have been identified in the gene. together with the fact that all three sequence variants shift the mes- senger rna (mrna) reading frame, these findings suggest that they are genuine pathogenic mutations. consequences of the mutations on expression of zmpste all three mutations are single base duplications in zmpste coding exons. they are therefore frameshift mutations that would be expected to lead to production of truncated versions of zmpste , which normally consists of amino acids. c. dupt would encode p.ile - tyrfsx ; c. dupt would encode p.ile tyrfsx ; and c. dupt would encode p.leu phefsx , according to standard nomenclature (den dunnen and antonarakis, ; see also http://www.genomic.unimelb.edu.au/mdi/ mutnomen/recs.html). these truncated proteins would be expected to have little if any normal function, as zmpste is conserved in terms of both sequence and enzymatic activity from yeast to humans. indeed, human zmpste can complement the yeast ste mutation (schmidt et al, ), but p.leu phefsx , which is en- coded by the c. dupt mutation, is noncomplementing (agarwal et al, ). aside from encoding truncated proteins, the mutant transcripts might also be subject to nonsense-mediated mrna decay (nmd) (hentze and kulozik, ), which could preclude synthesis of any truncated zmpste pro- teins. to assay for nmd, we analyzed rna isolated from fibroblasts derived from the american patient carrying the c. dupt mutation and from a control. northern blotting did not reveal a significant decrease in zmpste mrna levels in the rd fibroblasts (data not shown), suggesting that nmd was not a major factor. one possibility to explain this is that exon containing the frameshift might be skipped, leading to an in-frame splice from exon to exon and elimination of the premature stop codon. but reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (rt-pcr) analysis did not reveal any evidence for skipping of exon (fig a). moulson et al the journal of investigative dermatology rna was also prepared from the liver of the guatemalan patient, but it was highly degraded and not suitable for northern blotting. nevertheless, rt-pcr analysis revealed that there was no in-frame skipping of the mutated exon (fig a), which could have led to production of a protein. consistent with these rt-pcr data, western blotting with a zmpste cooh-terminal antibody detected little if any zmpste in patient fibroblasts or liver, but an appropriate � kda band was observed in controls (fig b). consequences of the mutations on localization of nu- clear envelope proteins the only known substrate for zmpste is lamin a, encoded by the lmna gene. this gene also encodes lamin c, a shorter form that is translated figure family pedigrees, zmpste genotypes, and sequence chromatograms. arrows indicate individuals whose dna was tested. zmpste mutations are shown below the pedigree symbols; all are hypothesized to cause loss of activity. (a) pedigree of a consanguineous dutch family; the father’s maternal grandmother and the mother’s paternal grandmother were sisters. the affected child had a homozygous thymidine duplication in zmpste exon . (b) sequence chromatograms of exon (reverse direction) show a duplicated thymidine in a stretch of nine. overlap of the normal and mutated strand sequences occurred after the insertion in this and in all the other heterozygous samples described. (c) pedigree of a nonconsanguineous american family carrying the same mutation as the dutch family. (d) pedigree from a consanguineous guatemalan family; the father’s paternal grandfather was a paternal uncle of the mother. (e) sequence chromatograms of exon (forward direction) show a duplicated thymidine in a stretch of seven. (f) five affected children were born to two pairs of related parents from a mennonite kindred; the fathers were brothers of each other, and the mothers were first cousins of each other. (g) sequence chromatograms of zmpste exon (reverse direction) show an extra thymidine homozygous in the affected child. zmpste mutations in restrictive dermopathy : november from an alternatively spliced mrna. lamin a maturation requires zmpste activity, but lamin c maturation does not. lamin a/c distribution is abnormal in rd patients re- ported to have a heterozygous c. dupt mutation in zmpste (navarro et al, ). because the c. dupt mutation in the patient from whom we obtained fibroblasts was homozygous, we examined whether there was aberrant distribution of lamin a/c using an antibody that recognizes both (fig a, b). lamin a/c appeared to be distributed in clusters in the nucleus, as opposed to the homogeneous, smooth, uniform distribution in nuclei from normal fibroblast cultures. accumulation of unprocessed prelamin a, which is toxic (fong et al, ), has been reported in zmpste knockout mice (bergo et al, ; pendas et al, ). to examine whether there was accumulation of prelamin a in rd pa- tients as well, cultured fibroblasts were stained with a pre- lamin a-specific antibody. strong prelamin a staining was observed in rd fibroblast nuclei (fig d), whereas no pre- lamin a was detected in control fibroblasts (fig c). nuclear prelamin a was also observed in frozen liver sections from the guatemalan patient (fig f) but not in liver from a con- trol, although lamin a/c was clearly present (fig e). the presence of prelamin a in patient but not control liver was confirmed by western blotting (fig c). we conclude that rd is associated with a specific defect in prelamin a processing caused by the absence of functional zmpste . discussion in this study, we identified two novel mutations and a third previously described mutation in zmpste that are as- sociated with rd. importantly, we also show that rd is a simple autosomal recessive disorder. though zmpste had already been implicated in rd, only one heterozygous mutation was identified, and it was also present in unaf- fected family members, leading to the conclusion that rd figure analysis of zmpste messenger rna (mrna) and protein in control and restrictive dermopathy (rd) samples. (a) reverse tran- scriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis of total rna from liver and fibroblasts reveals no evidence of splicing around the exons con- taining the c. dupt (exon ; lanes and ) and c. dupt (exon ; lanes and ) mutations. glyceraldehyde- -phosphate dehydrogenase primers were used as a control in lanes , , , and . control fetal liver, lanes and ; c. dupt liver, lanes and ; control fibroblasts, lanes and ; c. dupt fibroblasts, lanes and . (b) western blot analysis of zmpste (top) and b-actin (bottom). zmpste was detected in control but not rd extracts; the same blot reprobed for b-actin shows protein in all lanes. lane , control fetal liver; lane , rd liver (gua- temalan patient); lane , control fibroblasts; lane , rd fibroblasts (american patient). (c) western blot analysis of prelamin a and b-actin. prelamin a ( � kda) was detected in liver from the rd patient (lane ) but not from the control (lane ). the blot was reprobed for b-actin to show that protein was present in both lanes. figure immunofluorescent localization of lamin a/c and prelamin a in control and restrictive dermopathy (rd) samples. the organization of lamins in fibroblast nuclear envelopes is disrupted by accumulation of prelamin a in the absence of zmpste . confocal micrographs show localization of lamins a and c in nuclei of a control fibroblast (a) and a fibroblast from the american rd patient (b). prelamin a was undetectable in control fibroblasts (c), but there was nuclear accumu- lation in rd patient fibroblasts (d). in liver sections, prelamin a was undetectable in the control (e) but clearly present in rd patient nuclei (f). the control section did contain nuclei, which are stained for lamin a/c (inset in e). moulson et al the journal of investigative dermatology was a digenic disorder (navarro et al, ). rather than there being a digenic mode of inheritance, we favor the pos- sibility that there exist zmpste mutations that are diffi- cult to detect by conventional pcr-based methods. this is perhaps the most straightforward explanation for how there could be an absence of mature lamin a even with one ap- parently wild-type copy of zmpste . such mutations could lie in the gene’s promoter, or could involve segmental deletions that are complemented—only as far as pcr is concerned—by normal regions of the other allele. indeed, we could not find any mutations in a pair of affected fra- ternal twins from finland, though snp genotyping showed that the twins share genotypes on the segment of chromo- some containing the zmpste locus (data not shown). all mutations identified thus far to cause rd are single base duplications that result in mrna frameshifts, which likely prevent production of a functional protein. one mis- sense zmpste mutation (c. t c; p.trp arg) has been found, however, in a belgian patient with severe man- dibuloacral dysplasia with type b lipodystrophy (madb— mim ) (agarwal et al, ). this patient was actually compound heterozygous; the other allele bore the same c. dupt-inactivating mutation that navarro et al ( ) and we have subsequently found to be associated with rd. the mutant protein carrying the p.trp arg substitution is partially active in yeast complementation assays, whereas p.leu phefsx , which is encoded by c. dupt, is totally inactive (agarwal et al, ). thus, the limited infor- mation available regarding zmpste mutations suggests that inactivating mutations cause rd, whereas partial loss of function mutations are associated with less severe dis- ease, as is madb. identification of mutations in additional patients will help determine whether a definitive genotype/ phenotype correlation exists. accumulation of prelamin a has been reported in zmpste knockout mice (bergo et al, ; pendas et al, ) and in cultured cells from human patients with hut- chinson–gilford progeria syndrome (hgps) (mim ) (goldman et al, ); its presence has also been hypoth- esized but not proved in other human laminopathies (agarwal et al, ; navarro et al, ). our study dem- onstrates accumulation of prelamin a in affected human tissue in situ (fig f), suggesting that it is not merely a consequence of cell culture. accumulation of prelamin a has recently been shown to be toxic; disease phenotypes in zmpste �/� mice are ‘‘rescued’’ by only a % reduction in the amount of prelamin a, via knockout of one lmna allele (fong et al, ). the presence of large amounts of pre- lamin a may also account for the increased severity of rd as compared with laminopathies with either lamin a muta- tions or a missense mutation in zmpste . given the lack of detectable nuclear prelamin a in normal cells, it is pos- sible that a simple immunofluorescence assay for prelamin a in amniocyte and/or chorionic villi cell nuclei, in conjunc- tion with dna analysis, might serve as a definitive prenatal test for rd and perhaps for other laminopathies. preim- plantation genetic diagnosis (sermon et al, ) should also be possible. further studies will be necessary to de- termine the feasibility of these approaches. we found lamins a and c clustered and distributed in aggregates in the nuclei of rd patient fibroblasts, whereas normal fibroblast nuclei showed a homogeneous and smooth, even distribution, concentrated at the nuclear periphery. abnormal distribution of lamins a and c in foci, aggregations, and honeycombs has been reported in a number of human patients carrying lamin a/c gene mutations (novelli et al, ; capanni et al, ; caux et al, ; muchir et al, ) as well as in cells transfected with lamin a/c mutants (ostlund et al, ; holt et al, ). the mechanism whereby mutations in lmna and zmpste that result in aberrant lamin a processing cause disease has not been determined. several lines of evidence suggest that it is likely to be a combination of impaired nuclear stability and the resulting nuclear deformations (lammerding et al, ) causing secondary alterations in heterochromatin localization and significant changes in gene expression (nikolova et al, ). (for a review of these hypotheses, see reference worman and courvalin ( ).) in addition, lamin a binds directly or indirectly to a number of nuclear proteins, including emerin (lee et al, ; sakaki et al, ) and nesprin (mislow et al, ), and attach them to the nuclear envelope. lamin a also binds to transcription factors such as mok (dreuillet et al, ), retinoblastoma (mancini et al, ), and srebp (lloyd et al, ). (see (zastrow et al, ) for a review of lamin-binding proteins.) mislocalization of lamin a, as we and others have observed, is likely indicative that some of its binding partners are also mislocalized and not bound to the nuclear envelope, which may have profound secondary effects on cells. interestingly, the neonatally lethal wrinkle-free phenotype of slc a �/� mice that we and others have reported (herrmann et al, ; moulson et al, ) appears to be much more similar to the human rd phenotype than that exhibited by zmpste �/� mice, which survive for several months. this may be coincidence, but the possibility exists that there is some special mechanistic relationship in humans between nuclear architecture and expression of genes involved in fatty acid homeostasis. indeed, one of the features of the diverse laminopathies that are less severe than rd is lipodystrophy. genetic and allelic heterogeneity appear to explain in part the phenotypic differences among the related lamino- pathies hgps, mad, and most recently, rd. navarro et al included in their study two patients several months old with a skin disease less severe than typical rd, and they found one novel and one previously reported mutation in the lmna gene. these are both likely to be sporadic, het- erozygous, dominant-negative mutations. the latter muta- tion had been found previously in several patients with hgps. there is clearly a marked difference in disease se- verity between zmpste -based neonatally lethal rd and lmna-based progeria. to avoid confusion, we propose that the descriptor ‘‘restrictive dermopathy’’ be reserved for individuals with the severe, neonatally lethal disease de- scribed by witt (witt et al, ). children with some rd-like features who survive well past the neonatal period are more likely to manifest features of progeria or mad and should be described as such. the ability to screen for zmpste and lmna mutations may make these distinctions possible at the molecular level. zmpste mutations in restrictive dermopathy : november materials and methods amplification of genomic dna, dna sequencing, and dhplc the washington university school of medicine human studies committee approved this study, which was conducted according to the declaration of helsinki principles. informed pa- rental consent was obtained in all cases, except for one that in- volved archived tissues; for this a waiver of consent was approved. genomic dna was extracted from the blood of six affected indi- viduals from five different kindreds and from their parents and available unaffected siblings using qiaamp dna blood kit (qiagen inc., valencia, california). dna was extracted from paraffin-em- bedded tissues from a seventh affected individual as described (coombs et al, ). exons and intron–exon junctions from genomic dna samples were amplified using klentaqla (bd bio- sciences clontech, palo alto, california). each ml reaction contained � kla (klentaqla) buffer, mm dntp (deoxribo- nucleotide triphosphates) . mm mgcl , pmoles of each prim- er, ng genomic dna, and u klentaqla. cycling conditions were a min initial denaturation at c, followed by cycles of s at c, min at c, and min at c. pcr products were gel purified and recovered using the wizard sv gel clean-up sys- tem (promega, madison, wisconsin). the washington university protein and nucleic acid chemistry lab performed automated sequencing reactions using internal primers with big-dye termi- nator . and an applied biosystems dna sequencer (ap- plied biosystems, foster city, california). the pcr and sequencing primer sequences used are shown in table si. for dhplc, exons and were amplified from ceph individuals and from heterozygous parents as described above. following denaturation and slow reannealing, amplicons were subjected to dhplc analysis on a transgenomic wave system containing a dnasepht column (transgenomic, omaha, nebras- ka) in a linear acetonitrile gradient. rna purification and rt-pcr total rna was isolated from liver homogenized in tri-reagent (molecular research center, cincin- nati, ohio) and from fibroblasts scraped into tri-reagent according to the manufacturer’s instructions. . mg of total rna was reverse transcribed using superscript iii (invitrogen, carlsbad, california) with oligo(dt) – primers in a ml reaction. touchdown pcr was performed in a ml reaction using ml of complementary dna. pcr reactions contained manufacturer-supplied � reac- tion buffer, . mm magnesium chloride, . mm of each dntp, pmoles of each primer, and . u biolase dna polymerase (midsci, st louis, missouri). primers are shown in table sii. western blotting proteins were extracted from liver by sonication in m urea, mm tris ph . , mm ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and complete protease inhibitors (roche diagnostics, india- napolis, indiana). fibroblasts were scraped into cold phosphate- buffered saline (pbs) containing protease inhibitors, pelleted, resuspended in the urea buffer, and sonicated. proteins were separated on % sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels and blotted on to nitrocellulose. blots were incubated in % nonfat dry milk in tbst (tris-buffered saline/ . % tween- ) for h prior to incubation with primary antibodies overnight at c. primary antibodies were goat anti-human prelamin a (sc- ; santa cruz biotechnology, santa cruz, california), rabbit anti-human zmpste (ap b; abgent, san diego, california), and rabbit anti-human b-actin ( ; cell signaling technology, beverly, mas- sachusetts). the secondary antibody for b-actin was conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, whereas secondary antibodies for pre- lamin a and zmpste were detected with avidin–biotin and horseradish peroxidase. visualization was by enhanced chemilu- minescence (amersham, arlington heighst, illinois). cell culture and immunofluorescence skin fibroblasts from the american rd patient and normal skin fibroblasts (detroit from the american type culture collection, manassas, virginia) were cultured in earle’s minimal essential medium modified to contain mm l-glutamine, mm sodium pyruvate, . mm nonessential amino acids, . g per liter sodium bicarbonate, and % fetal bovine serum. for immunostaining, cells were cultured for several days on glass falcon biocoat cultureslides (bd biosciences dis- covery labware, bedford, massachusetts). cells were fixed for min at c in % fresh paraformaldehyde in pbs, washed in pbs, permeabilized for min in cold methanol, and air-dried. liver tissue from the guatemalan rd patient and from a control were frozen in oct, sectioned on a cryostat, air-dried for min, and fixed and permeabilized as described for cultured cells. for immunofluorescence, samples were blocked in either % bovine serum albumin (bsa) in pbs or % heat-inactivated normal goat serum in pbs. antibodies were as follows: anti-lamins a and c (mab ) and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated anti-goat immunoglobulin g (igg) from chemicon (temecula, california); goat anti-prelamin a; and alexa -conjugated anti-mouse igg from molecular probes (eugene, oregon). all antibody dilutions were in pbs containing % bsa, and washes were in pbs. fol- lowing primary and secondary antibody incubations at room tem- perature for h each and washing, slides were mounted in mg per ml p-phenylenediamine/ . � pbs/ % glycerol. confocal microscope images were obtained using a zeiss compound microscope (carl zeiss international, jena, germany) with a biorad mrc confocal adaptor (biorad laboratories, inc., hercules, california). all other micrographs were obtained with a spot cooled color digital camera (diagnostic instruments, sterling heights, michigan) attached to a nikon eclipse e compound microscope (nikon usa, melville, new york). images were imported into adobe photoshop and adobe illustrator for processing and layout. we are extremely grateful to the families who participated in this study and to the referring physicians, scientists, and genetic counselors for their invaluable contributions. we thank the laboratory of develop- mental biology at the univerisity of washington in seattle, supported by national institutes of health grant r hd , for supplying human fetal liver tissue, and edward fox and the dana-farber cancer institute microarray core for performing snp genotyping; the wash- ington university school of medicine division of human genetics genotyping core for facilitating dhplc analysis; martin pollak and alan beggs for advice; phillip stahl and didier hodzic for use of the confocal microscope; and paul goodfellow for helpful suggestions and comments on the manuscript. this work was funded by national in- stitutes of health grant r ar to jhm. supplementary material the following material is available online for this article. table s primers used to amplify and sequence zmpste exons and flanking itronic sequences. table s primers used for rt-pcr. doi: . /j. - x. . .x manuscript received february , ; revised april , ; accept- ed for publication may , after this paper was accepted, we found a novel zmpste nonsense mutation, c. g t, predicted to encode p.glu x, in both parents of an affected child from southern india. dna from the child was not available, but we consider this to be a pathogenic mutation. navarro et al. recently published a paper (loss of zmpste (face- ) causes autosomal recessive restrictive dermopathy and accumulation of lamin a precursors. hum mol. genet : – , ) showing that both alleles of zmpste are in fact mutated in their patients with restrictive dermopathy; these patients were previously reported to carry only heterozygous mutations. based on these new findings, they have withdrawn their hypothesis of digenic inheritance. address correspondence to: dr jeffrey h. miner, renal division, box , washington university school of medicine, s. euclid ave., st louis, missouri , usa. email: minerj@wustl.edu moulson et al the journal of investigative dermatology references agarwal ak, fryns jp, auchus rj, garg a: zinc metalloproteinase, zmpste , is mutated in mandibuloacral dysplasia. hum mol genet : – , bergo mo, gavino b, ross j, et al: zmpste deficiency in mice causes spon- taneous bone fractures, muscle weakness, and a prelamin a processing defect. proc natl acad sci usa : – , capanni c, cenni v, mattioli e, et al: failure of lamin a/c to functionally assemble in r l mutated familial partial lipodystrophy fibroblasts: altered inter- molecular interaction with emerin and implications for gene transcription. exp cell res : – , caux f, dubosclard e, lascols o, et al: a new clinical condition linked to a novel mutation in lamins a and c with generalized lipoatrophy, insulin-resistant diabetes, disseminated leukomelanodermic papules, liver steatosis, and cardiomyopathy. j clin endocrinol metab : – , coombs nj, gough ac, primrose jn: optimisation of dna and rna extraction from archival formalin-fixed tissue. nucleic acids res :e , den dunnen jt, antonarakis se: mutation nomenclature extensions and sug- gestions to describe complex mutations: a discussion. hum mutat : – , dreuillet c, tillit j, kress m, ernoult-lange m: in vivo and in vitro interaction between human transcription factor mok and nuclear lamin a/c. nu- cleic acids res : – , fong lg, ng jk, meta m, et al: heterozygosity for lmna deficiency eliminates the progeria-like phenotypes in zmpste -deficient mice. proc natl acad sci usa : – , goldman rd, shumaker dk, erdos mr, et al: accumulation of mutant lamin a causes progressive changes in nuclear architecture in hutchinson–gilford progeria syndrome. proc natl acad sci usa : – , hentze mw, kulozik ae: a perfect message: rna surveillance and nonsense- mediated decay. cell : – , herrmann t, van der hoeven f, grone hj, et al: mice with targeted disruption of the fatty acid transport protein (fatp , slc a ) gene show features of lethal restrictive dermopathy. j cell biol : – , holt i, ostlund c, stewart cl, man n, worman hj, morris ge: effect of path- ogenic mis-sense mutations in lamin a on its interaction with emerin in vivo. j cell sci : – , lammerding j, schulze pc, takahashi t, et al: lamin a/c deficiency causes defective nuclear mechanics and mechanotransduction. j clin invest : – , lee kk, haraguchi t, lee rs, koujin t, hiraoka y, wilson kl: distinct functional domains in emerin bind lamin a and dna-bridging protein baf. j cell sci : – , lin m, wei lj, sellers wr, lieberfarb m, wong wh, li c: dchipsnp: significance curve and clustering of snp-array-based loss-of-heterozygosity data. bioinformatics : – , lloyd dj, trembath rc, shackleton s: a novel interaction between lamin a and srebp : implications for partial lipodystrophy and other laminopathies. hum mol genet : – , lowry rb, machin ga, morgan k, mayock d, marx l: congenital contractures, edema, hyperkeratosis, and intrauterine growth retardation: a fatal syndrome in hutterite and mennonite kindreds. am j med genet : – , mancini ma, shan b, nickerson ja, penman s, lee wh: the retinoblastoma gene product is a cell cycle-dependent, nuclear matrix-associated pro- tein. proc natl acad sci usa : – , matsuzaki h, loi h, dong s, et al: parallel genotyping of over , snps using a one-primer assay on a high-density oligonucleotide array. genome res : – , mau u, kendziorra h, kaiser p, enders h: restrictive dermopathy: report and review. am j med genet : – , mislow jm, holaska jm, kim ms, lee kk, segura-totten m, wilson kl, mcnally em: nesprin- alpha self-associates and binds directly to emerin and lamin a in vitro. febs lett : – , moulson cl, martin dr, lugus jj, schaffer je, lind ac, miner jh: cloning of wrinkle-free, a previously uncharacterized mouse mutation, reveals cru- cial roles for fatty acid transport protein in skin and hair development. proc natl acad sci usa : – , muchir a, medioni j, laluc m, et al: nuclear envelope alterations in fibroblasts from patients with muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy, and partial lipo- dystrophy carrying lamin a/c gene mutations. muscle nerve : – , navarro cl, de sandre-giovannoli a, bernard r, et al: lamin a and zmpste (face- ) defects cause nuclear disorganization and identify restrictive dermopathy as a lethal neonatal laminopathy. hum mol genet : – , nikolova v, leimena c, mcmahon ac, et al: defects in nuclear structure and function promote dilated cardiomyopathy in lamin a/c-deficient mice. j clin invest : – , novelli g, muchir a, sangiuolo f, et al: mandibuloacral dysplasia is caused by a mutation in lmna-encoding lamin a/c. am j hum genet : – , ostlund c, bonne g, schwartz k, worman hj: properties of lamin a mutants found in emery–dreifuss muscular dystrophy, cardiomyopathy and dun- nigan-type partial lipodystrophy. j cell sci : – , pendas am, zhou z, cadinanos j, et al: defective prelamin a processing and muscular and adipocyte alterations in zmpste metalloproteinase-de- ficient mice. nat genet : – , sakaki m, koike h, takahashi n, sasagawa n, tomioka s, arahata k, ishiura s: interaction between emerin and nuclear lamins. j biochem (tokyo) : – , schmidt wk, tam a, michaelis s: reconstitution of the ste p-dependent n-terminal proteolytic step in yeast a-factor biogenesis. j biol chem : – , sermon k, van steirteghem a, liebaers i: preimplantation genetic diagnosis. lancet : – , sillevis smitt jh, van asperen cj, niessen cm, et al: restrictive dermopathy. report of cases. dutch task force on genodermatology. arch de- rmatol : – , welsh km, smoller br, holbrook ka, johnston k: restrictive dermopathy. re- port of two affected siblings and a review of the literature. arch dermatol : – , witt dr, hayden mr, holbrook ka, dale ba, baldwin vj, taylor gp: restrictive dermopathy: a newly recognized autosomal recessive skin dysplasia. am j med genet : – , worman hj, courvalin jc: how do mutations in lamins a and c cause disease? j clin invest : – , zastrow ms, vlcek s, wilson kl: proteins that bind a-type lamins: integrating isolated clues. j cell sci : – , zmpste mutations in restrictive dermopathy : november [pdf] rational therapy from bench to bedside for a rare epilepsy | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . / - - . . corpus id: rational therapy from bench to bedside for a rare epilepsy @article{patino rationaltf, title={rational therapy from bench to bedside for a rare epilepsy}, author={gustavo a patino and j. parent}, journal={epilepsy currents}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	gustavo a patino, j. parent 	published 	medicine 	epilepsy currents commentary the mammalian (also called mechanistic) target of rapamycin (mtor) is a protein kinase critical for integrating extracellular and intracellular signals to control multiple cell functions, including autophagy, rna expression and translation, mitochondrial and lipid metabolism, cell polarity and growth, and cytoskeletal organization. mtor hyperactivation has been linked to many human diseases, among them diabetes, cancer, and developmental brain malformations ( , ). mtor exerts its… expand view on sage aesnet.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all topics from this paper 	epilepsy citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the effect of translational medicine idea in training nerve internal medicine graduate students 	wang xiang-qing save alert research feed management of long‐lasting phantosmia: a systematic review 	mohamad z saltagi, cyrus c. rabbani, j. ting, thomas s higgins 	medicine 	international forum of allergy & rhinology 	 	 save alert research feed references showing - of references dissecting the role of mtor: lessons from mtor inhibitors. 	r. dowling, i. topisirovic, b. fonseca, n. sonenberg 	biology, medicine 	biochimica et biophysica acta 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed mtor: a pathogenic signaling pathway in developmental brain malformations. 	p. crino 	biology, medicine 	trends in molecular medicine 	 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed everolimus in the treatment of subependymal giant cell astrocytomas, angiomyolipomas, and pulmonary and skin lesions associated with tuberous sclerosis complex 	d. franz 	medicine 	biologics : targets & therapy 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed rapamycin prevents epilepsy in a mouse model of tuberous sclerosis complex 	l. zeng, lin xu, d. gutmann, m. wong 	medicine 	annals of neurology 	 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed stradalpha deficiency results in aberrant mtorc signaling during corticogenesis in humans and mice. 	k. orlova, whitney e. parker, + authors p. crino 	biology, medicine 	the journal of clinical investigation 	 	 	highly influential 	 	view excerpts, references background save alert research feed development of everolimus, a novel oral mtor inhibitor, across a spectrum of diseases 	d. lebwohl, Ö. anak, + authors w. berg 	medicine 	annals of the new york academy of sciences 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed mtor: from growth signal integration to cancer, diabetes and ageing 	r. zoncu, a. efeyan, d. sabatini 	biology, medicine 	nature reviews molecular cell biology 	 	 , 	pdf 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed polyhydramnios, megalencephaly and symptomatic epilepsy caused by a homozygous -kilobase deletion in lyk . 	e. puffenberger, k. strauss, + authors d. morton 	medicine 	brain : a journal of neurology 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed stradα deficiency results in aberrant mtorc signaling during corticogenesis in humans and mice 	j clin invest 	 related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ anuscript clamshell boxes all boxes have card holders clamshell drop front { x n { x } stock boxes available for immediate shipment long-life protection for valuable documents, such as manuscripts, first editions, folios and flat-stored newspapers, archives and legal instruments. easy to store . . . easy to open for frequent reference. these clamshell manuscript boxes were especially designed to serve libraries, museums, law offices and government agen- cies. all clamshell boxes are cloth cov- ered, triple-strength cloth hinged and lined with permalife paper, which has a life expectancy of years. unsurpassed dur- ability for preserving valuable documents. boxes shown are our most popular mod- els. for many uses the style, with hinged lid for ready access from the top, is pre- ferred. other models have a drop front, or drop side. send for price quotation, stating size, model and quantity requirements. these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined with permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents pohlig bros. inc, th & franklin streets richmond, virginia years i i i u i i u i d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril inman st. cambridge, ma. mcrofilmcrefiche • readers, reader printers, • microform publishing and supplies -microform systems • microfilming to specifications • book catalogs/catalog •microform enlargements cards work done in your plant or ours call - for fast, dependable service d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american university department of history in cooperation with the national archives and records service, gsa library of congress and maryland hall of records announces three offerings during - the institute: introduction to modern archives administration national archives building pennsylvania avenue and th street, n.w. washington, d.c. november - , february -march , june - , for details and application forms, write department of history the american university massachusetts and nebraska avenues, n.w. washington, d.c. n the american university provides equal opportunity for all qualified persons in its educational programs and activities. the university does not discriminate on the basis of race, creed, color, national and ethnic origin, age or sex. the policy of equal opportunity applies to every aspect of the university's operations and activities generally and that indeed extends to admissions and to employment. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january material like still and motion pictures or machine-readable records; and on prob- lems characteristic of particular types of archival repositories, such as church or col- lege and university archives. such institutes or seminars are essential for the contin- uing education required by the professional archivist. should the certification-by- examination program of our records management colleagues also prove successful, elements of that program could very well be incorporated into the society's pro- gram. in conclusion, we are very much indebted to historians and librarians for the as- sistance they have given and continue to give us in the development of our profes- sion. in the critical matter of training, however, we owe it to ourselves, as well as to all of our users, to make a serious effort to have archivists train archivists in a realis- tic program intended to meet the needs of those without adequate training who are already in archival positions. the american archivist the american archivist: index to volumes - ( - ) index to volumes - ( - ) mary jane dowd, compiler $ members $ others $ members $ others the american archivist ( - ) $ roll, $ set members mm. microfilm, rolls $ roll, $ set others add $ postage and handling charge on orders under $ not prepaid. society of american archivists the library university of illinois at chicago circle box , chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril professional reading paul v. g u i t e , compiler t h e following list of articles of current interest to archivists and manuscript curators has been compiled from recent archival and library periodicals received by the national archives library. t h e listing is selective and is not intended to sup- plant the more complete annual bibliographies published in the american archi- vist. it is meant to provide the reader with more immediate access to current profes- sional literature. association of college and research libraries. "statement on access to original research materials in libraries, archives, and manuscript repositories: proposed revisions." col- lege to research libraries news (april ): - . . "statement on the reproduction of manuscripts and archives for noncommercial purposes: proposed revisions." college to research libraries news (april ): - . bein, alex. "the publication of historical documents." offprint from yad lahore (jan. ); (oct. ): pp. bellamy, v. nelle. "minimum standards for church archives." georgia archive (summer ): - . bennett, james c. "education for records management in the two-year community col- lege." records management quarterly (jan-. ): - . berkeley, edmund, jr. "archivists and thieves." manuscripts (summer ): - . brock, kenneth l. "new york state's public records." national genealogical society quar- terly (june ): - . burke, j. l. and c. m. shergold. "what are archives." archives and manuscripts (feb. ): - . butler, lindley s. "mass education in archival resources: a case study." georgia archive (summer ): - . donovan, lynn bonfield and linda chiswick, comp., "day-by-day records: diaries from the chs library." california historical quarterly (winter ): - . engle, ralph l., jr. "health records, the new technology, and the law." american society for information science, bulletin (may ): . eustis, truman w. "get it in writing: oral history and the law." oral history review ( ): - . hale, richard w., jr. and james m. o'toole. "archives and the flow of records: massachu- setts as a case study." georgia archive (summer ): - . hall, jacquelyn dowd. "documenting diversity: the southern experience." oral history review ( ): - . hewitt, joe a. "the impact of oclc." american libraries (may ): - . holroyd, michael. "the wrongs of copyright." library journal (may , ): - . the compiler is a librarian on the staff of the national archives and records service. the american archivist vol. , no. january d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january hopler, frederick b., jr. "micrographics—processing, storage and protection." records management quarterly (april ): - . horn, david e. "to survey or not to survey?" georgia archive (summer ): - . jenkins, o. crawford. "vital records protection—a case study." records management quarterly (jan. ): - , . lando, robert h. "there ought to be a law." records management quarterly (april ): - , . lee, col. leonards. "background to the paper mode personnel record system." journal of micrographics (sept. ): - . "legal validity of microfilms: some recommendations." unesco bulletin for libraries (march-april ): - . malone, donald m., esq. "copyright law." american society for information science, bul- letin (may ): - . mansbach, alfred f. "to file, retain or roundfile." records management quarterly (april ): - , . meadow, charles t. "more about criminal records." american society for information science, bulletin (may ): - . "microforms for libraries." microforms (sept. ): - . montgomery, austin h., jr. "speeding indexing of genealogical data by computer." national genealogical society quarterly (march ): - . orlovich, peter. "some basic assumptions underlying the education and training of archivists." archives and manuscripts (feb. ): - . osburn, william d. "international records management." records management quarterly (april ): - . plotnik, art. "oclc for you—and me?" american libraries (may ): - . pomrenze, seymour j. "the freedom of information and the privacy acts and the records manager—selected considerations." records management quarterly (july ): - . ratner, jane faux. "local history collections: the practical problems." library journal (nov. , ): - . redmond, robert m. "considerations in a copying study." records management quarterly (jan. ): - . russell, e. w. "archival ethics." archives and manuscripts (feb. ): - . saffady, william. "evaluating coin-operated copying equipment for library applica- tions." library resources & technical services (spring ): - . schinkel, peter e. "archival and manuscript holdings in georgia outside atlanta: a preli- minary survey." georgia archive (summer ): - . stewart, jerry m. "records management in government." records management quarterly (july ): - . vander noot, theodore j. "libraries, records management, data processing—an informa- tion handling field." records management quarterly (jan. ): - . wagner, lynda m., monroe m. king, and vincent j. bosak. "records management in gov- ernment." records management quarterly (april ): - , . weimar, norman j. "vital records in a records management program—lec." records management quarterly (april ): - . yoho, charles h. and thomas w. riley. "fire protection of records—by the use of high expansion foam." records management quarterly (april ): - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes clark w. nelson, editor archival color separation negatives. as greater interest is shown in the preservation of color images, processing laboratories are responding by providing the necessary technical services to insure the maximum life of these materials. berkey k+l custom services, inc., east th st., new york, n. y. , is one of the leading eastern photof inishing laboratories providing these services. it does reg- ular color work for some of the world's leading photographers. berkey will make the highest quality archival separation negatives, contact size from color sheet film or enlarged separations from color roll film. these black and white separation films can later be used to produce dye transfer color prints that closely approximate the color found in the photographer's original work. black and white film is used because it contains no dyes with the tendency to degrade and shift in color over long periods of time. the process involves the preparation of three black and white negatives of each color view. each of these separations, as they are called, is filmed through a differ- ent color filter which separates the original color image into three black and white images whose tonal values correspond to the intensity of the primary colors found in the original color transparency. when color prints are desired, the black and white separations are each individually printed through the proper color filter onto a special transfer material that can be dyed the corresponding primary color. these dyed images are then transferred to a special paper base one after another in exact registration so that the three colors together form the original color view. it is a demanding process but one which offers great fidelity and beauty in its color rendition. the process has similarities to the production of color illustrations in magazines and books. as part of their service, berkey offers a black and white contact print for record purposes. this will be returned along with the original color to the customer. ber- key will then file the separation negatives in their vault for later printing. the price of $ for each original is costly, but berkey has helped minimize that cost by agree- ing to apply this fee to the production costs for a complete dye transfer print whenever it is ordered. you are, in effect, prepaying a portion of the later printing expense along with receiving free storage for the separation negatives. if an archives wishes to keep the separations themselves, an additional $ is added to the base charge. for special color photographs of high artistic value or great research value, this service offers one of the best ways to preserve them. it is hoped that more and more institutions will analyze their holdings and select some of their rare gems for such treatment before any additional deterioration happens to them. error in paper ph determinations. during the early part of , the national bureau of standards released "a source of error in paper extract ph determina- readers are encouraged to send contributions to this department and should address them to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo foundation, rochester, minnesota . the american archivist vol. , no. january . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january tions: contact between paper and reference electrodes." the -page report was prepared for the national archives by edwin j. parks and r. l. hebert of the national bureau of standards. it is part of the continuing investigations being sponsored by nars in its quest for better understanding of the problems of paper deterioration. the report's abstract summarizes the study as follows: if the reference electrode of a ph meter is permitted to contact paper suspended in an aqueous medium, the ph observed is lower than that observed with no contact. the effect has been observed with papers of widely different ph, and varies in magnitude with the proximity of contact and with different papers. the problem can be avoided by taking measurements on decanted equilibrium solutions instead of suspensions of paper. the cause of this effect may be analogous to the suspension effect in colloidal systems. those desiring copies of the complete paper may contact the national technical information service (ntis), springfield, virginia , requesting publication nbsir - . the price is $ . . forgery-proof id cards. in britain, inland revenue is issuing some uniquely produced id cards. the new cards are designed to identify people doing sub- contract work in the british construction industry. persons without such identification are subject to having a percent tax taken out of their pay at source. the cards are an attempt to eliminate tax evasion in an industry that employs one and three-quarter million people. the new style cards are considered to be virtually fraudproof. they are made of plastic and contain a full-face image of their holders. each applicant supplies two full-face photos—one for the records and one for an electronic etching machine. the photo is scanned by this machine in much the same way that a tv camera changes what it sees into electronic impulses. these impulses in turn control a cut- ting stylus. the stylus cuts down through the black and white plastic sandwich making up the id card and literally carves out a monochrome picture mm. x mm. in size. the process works in much the same way as electronic photo- engraving. the halftone images are produced by variable line thicknesses. by using such an engraving technique, any attempt to alter the original becomes imme- diately apparent. pictures on tape. at a recent hi-fi seminar in osaka, japan, the matsushita com- pany demonstrated cassette tapes that will carry up to , color pictures as well as the normal stereo audio track. a specially designed machine is used to play back the color photos. it is only slighdy larger than a conventional cassette player. matsu- shita feels that if it can keep die cost of the player reasonable, it will be a serious chal- lenge to existing slide-tape methods of audiovisual presentations. in conventional audio cassette tapes there are two stereo pairs, each consisting of two separate recording tracks. matsushita has managed to squeeze onto the tape two extra tracks, one for each stereo pair. digital signals are carried on these tracks and read by an extra head in the special cassette player. they are fed to a memory. playing at conventional speed, the tape takes a little over three seconds to feed enough digital information into the memory to produce a color picture on a monitor screen. using this process, a total of , color photographs can be com- bined with an hour-long dialogue or music on the special tape. the audio tracks are the same as those found on conventional cassettes so that the special cassette produces normal stereo sound when played on a regular recorder. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l n o t e s matsushita has also developed a related technique whereby it can transmit single video pictures over telephone lines. in this process, the input video picture is put on a drum rotating at two rpm. t h e stretched field is then transmitted over ordinary telephone lines at seconds per picture. disc record preservative. in its earlier days, the ball corporation, p. o. box , muncie, indiana , was best known for its jars and lids used in home canning. today, the corporation's research activities into dry lubricants for nasa have pro- duced new technology which is gaining notice in the field of record preservation. introduced in , sound guard is ball's contribution to the protection of disc rec- ordings. we are all aware that the stylus used in playing phonograph records ultimately causes wear and degradation to the recording's frequency response. t o alleviate this condition, a number of products have appeared which u p o n application to the disc are supposed to minimize its wear. unfortunately, many of these are silicone based and sticky in nature. they tend to build u p residues in the recording's grooves and diminish its fidelity. ball's sound guard product is a new dry-lubricant designed to minimize disc rec- ording deterioration. since it is not silicone based, it does not cause noticeable fidel- ity losses to records. it is applied to a disc in spray form. t h e solution evaporates quickly, and an invisible coating of the sound guard lubricant is left on the rec- ord's surface. t h e record is then buffed with a velvet pad, supplied also. this action leaves a coating five millionths of an inch thick on the recording's grooves. also incorporated into the solution are cleaning and anti-static materials. since sound guard's introduction, various reports have appeared in audio jour- nals commenting on the attributes of the new lubricant. independent laboratory tests have also been conducted and, to date, all reports have been most laudatory. in more than one case it has been called one of the best things to happen in the disc rec- ording field. apparently, it has been demonstrated that sound guard does minimize the loss of frequency response normally produced in repeated playings of both stereo and cd- records. t h e treatment decreases harmonic distortion that normally occurs after repeated playings, as well as surface noise and dust that is attracted to the record sur- face. according to its manufacturer, sound guard might show wear after twenty-five playings. t h e various press reports indicate that this is a very conservative figure. sound guard can be reapplied and adheres only to the record's bare spots. it appar- ently does not adhere to itself. it is a most remarkable lubricant. besides its application on vinyl discs, the product can also be sprayed on old 's to reduce their background hiss before they are transferred to tape. sound guard does reduce friction between the stylus and the record's groove. because of diis, users are advised to monitor their anti-ska ting force which may need a slight reduction. t h e enthusiasm with which this product has been received by those who are often negative about such materials testifies to its utility. ball corporation has copies of some of the test reports available for those interested in more specifics. for those desiring purchase, it comes in a plastic container holding a -ounce bottle of fluid, a p u m p sprayer, and a velvet buffer pad. t h e package retails for $ . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january -cent video disc. digital record corporation, new york, has exhibited a pro- totype video recording system that stores thirty minutes of tv on a five by seven inch plate. the firm feels that preproduction units will be available late this year. the system features optical recording which produces records of digitized material in the form of micrometer-sized dots and spaces on a fixed photosensitive plate. the plate can be replayed on equipment estimated to cost as little as $ . drc's machine is unlike any other videodisc system in that it uses a static record instead of a spinning disc. the record is a plastic laminated card that is expected to cost less than c to produce. in operation, a tv signal is digitally encoded using conventional analogue to digital electronic techniques. a photo-diode produces a modulated optical signal which is serially scanned onto a photosensitive plate by a scanning head which has several equally spaced apertures around its periphery. an optical distributor fixed in the spindle of the scanning head switches the recording beam from one aperture to another. at the end of each recording line, the scanning head moves laterally. the curved lines of microspots and spaces can be replayed using a similar optical system in reverse. tracking adjustment is necessary if the record is to be replayed on another unit. drc feels that this system has significant advantages over other methods of video recording because of its convenience and flexibility. it is supposed to be less sensi- tive to dust and focusing errors as well as being more compact. archivists will be interested to learn that the digital recording system could be adapted for many other applications such as document storage. with a density stor- age of million bits per square inch, it produces records several thousand times smaller than microfilm. also, recorded information can be encrypted for security reasons. video disc at last. it appears that will finally be the year for the introduc- tion in the u.s. of the much discussed video disc. over the past several years, many reports have been circulating relative to this new technology. often these stories have been most laudatory and enthusiastic. regrettably, the enthusiasm has not been followed by the necessary equipment. the equipment delay has even been panned in the professional video press. obviously, with many competitors involved and several approaches available, the manufacturers are jockeying for the best sales position, while at the same time trying to determine the lay of the land for potential sales. it has even been suggested that porno material will be a best seller on video discs. much of the literature to date has been about plans, market potential, and the dif- ferent technical approaches available. in surveying the scene, such system designa- tions as thomson-csf, ted, mca/philips, rca, mdr, and optodisc are found. the total number passes two dozen, with technical data available on less than percent. many prognosticators feel that it will be the late s before video discs become viable in the consumer market. to back up such observations, they cite the fact that new media often are a long time aborning. the time between the discovery of basic feasibility and commercial viability can be several decades or more. the west german ted videodisc player was die first on the commercial scene, in . manufactured by aeg-telefunken, the player has had sluggish sales in ger- many and scandinavia during its first years. it has been suggested that one of the reasons for this has been its limited playing time of ten minutes. telefunken has attempted to counteract this by developing an automatic record changer which can d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l notes handle u p to twelve discs. unfortunately, the changer is still a prototype model and there are no present plans to manufacture it. apparently the ted player does show good color pictures when coupled to a reg- ular television set. since march , ted has developed a catalog of two-hundred disc titles available to its european purchasers. these amount to thirty-three hours of playing time. t h e disc used by t e d is made of polyvinyl chloride. it is flexible; paper-thin, weighing about a third of an ounce; and it measures % inches in diameter. its grooves per millimeter are played mechanically. ted is currently studying optical pickups. t h e player capability features fast-forward and reverse. a repeat button allows single frames to be repeated for ten seconds. disc life is reported to be the same as conventional lp's. a protective sleeve is used for storing and handling the disc. the disc is left inside this sleeve until inserted into the player. t h e player then automati- cally removes it for playing and, after playback, reinserts it into the sleeve. cost of the ted players in germany runs between five and six hundred u.s. dollars. disc prices are between and percent of comparable l p records. other european activity in this field involves the thomson-csf optical video disc system. t h e french company plans to concentrate first on institutional needs in europe before going to the larger consumer market. they do not believe europe is economically sound in the consumer area because color tv sets are few on the continent and people would opt for them before video disc players. t h e thomson-csf video disc player for institutions will feature a flexible disc stored in a cassette which is inserted as a unit into the player. t h e outer jacket is then withdrawn and the disc remains in the player, positioned by the drawer of the cassette left to support it. in playback, the disc is raised by an electromagnetic p l u g from the drawer, engag- ing with the player's drive shaft. after playback, the protective sleeve is reinserted and the entire cassette is withdrawn. t h e thomson record is transparent and read by an optical laser system. freeze- frame and random access are both possible with the t h o m s o n player. like the mca/philips unit, each -degree track on the record is numbered for fast access to individual frames. thomson has two read-out methods available. t h e first features an air-jet which cleans and stabilizes the disc as the laser beam reads it. t h e alternative method util- izes electronic circuits with an astigmatic sensor as the stabilizer. thomson will choose between these before it finally introduces its european model in . news in the united states centers around mca/philips and rca. mca has been granted <a government contract to produce units specifically designed for noncon- sumer applications. t h e firm will provide the mastering services and programming necessary for the contract. t h e players are being designed for high-density information storage, education, and computer interface. in the meantime, rca has been field testing some of its selectavision disc players, and expects that sometime in , tv viewers in certain parts of the country will be able to experience the new technology found in both makes of disc players. t h e mca/philips disc player is being manufactured by magnavox. it features discs which rotate at rpm. rigid . -inch thick or . -inch flexible discs can both be accommodated. in playback, only the center spindle touches the discs which are stabilized by an air bearing. readout is achieved by using a low-power laser which is focused through a mirror/lens system onto bumps located on the bot- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january torn of the disc. these spirally arranged bumps scatter the laser beam, and a shiny aluminum surface between them reflects the light back through a two-way prism to a photodetector. the code thus transmitted is converted by the detector into a tv signal which is relayed to the household set via antenna connections. tracks of the mca/philips disc are less than two microns apart. a disc will hold u p to thirty minutes of material on one side only. the mca player can freeze a frame and show fast and slow motion sequences. a total of , separately coded frames can be accommodated on one disc. mca is covering its discs with a heavy coating of clear plastic. smudges and dust thus are kept out of the laser's focus and handling becomes less of a worry. because there is no stylus to wear the record, the longevity of the disc's information should be enhanced. the helium-neon laser, which acts as the stylus, is designed to last , hours before replacement. the player also features hi-fi output jacks and frame numbers that appear on the tv screen. the rca selectavision player accommodates a rigid, grooved disc twelve inches in diameter. unlike the mca, it can accommodate thirty minutes of program mate- rial on each side of the disc. the groove is designed to guide the stylus as in the con- ventional audio disc. before operation, the selecta vision's cover must be closed. the disc is spun at rpm. the information is encoded into rectangular depressions on the bottom of the disc's groove. these rectangles vary in spacing and width, some being as small . microns. the discs are vinyl based with a topping of thin metal, insulating plastic, and an oil lubricant to minimize stylus wear. a metal tipped, sapphire stylus is used to read the rectangles of the disc. tracking at about milligrams, the stylus and the disc produce an electrical circuit. as the slots spin past the stylus, the current is changed and these changes cause an oscilla- tor circuit to produce a tv signal. selecta vision discs are shiny in appearance. they contain grooves per inch and a circular groove stores four, / of a sec- ond tv frames. rca has purposely made its disc player simple and easy to use. provision is made for fast-forward and reverse. however, care must be exercised in handling the discs because smudging can cause interference. each disc can be played about times. the $ stylus must be replaced after to hours of use. it does indeed look like we are on the threshold of a new and potentially exciting technology. obviously, archivists will be especially interested in the great potential that these new systems have for the storage of documents. electronic reader. raymond kurzweil of cambridge, massachusetts, has devel- oped a machine that will enable the blind to read virtually any book or typewritten page. using electronics, the system features a desktop reading unit and a small key- board. in use, the printed page is placed face down on the glass top of the unit. a camera then scans it line by line and converts the image received into electronic sig- nals. through a miniature computer, the letters are grouped into words, pronunci- ation determined, and speech sounds produced according to a preset program. it is reported that the voice produced has an eerie but easily understood metallic quality. the device can handle up to words per minute. if a page is mistakenly placed upside down on the unit, the machine will utter gibberish so the user can quickly make the required change. the unit is programmed to read most of the common type styles. it can be made to repeat or skip passages or mark points to be returned to later. it can be asked to spell out the individual letters in unfamiliar words. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t e c h n i c a l notes it is estimated that the unit will cost $ , in a few years. at present, eleven of the experimental visual aids are being built for the department of health, education, and welfare and the national federation for the blind. t h e unit can be manufac- tured as a portable briefcase. instant polaroid movies. more reports continue to filter out about polaroid's instant movie process. according to various tidbits gleaned from the literature, the new film will use a cassette similar to the super cartridge already available; and therefore the film can be used in the super cameras currently on the market. expo- sure will be made in the normal way. t h e film will produce a positive color image in much the same way as conventional reversal emulsions. after exposure, the cassette containing the film is placed into a processing unit which is connected to a projector. upon activation, the film moves through the processor where it is developed in a matter of seconds. after passing over an air blower, it is automatically threaded through the projector where it may be instantly viewed. thereafter, the film is w o u n d onto a takeup reel. sources agree that the new system is fully developed. according to them, produc- tion is scheduled for sometime in - . t h e size of the new unit is said to be about that of a small tv set. it will have a built-in screen and the ability to project onto standard movie screens. t h e eumig company is reported to be producing the first of these new polaroid projectors in their austrian factories. one model of the new projector is reported to have provision for playing back a sound track, thereby making sound movies possible with the system. t h e effects of such a system on a number of related fields are interesting to con- template. however, until more information becomes available on the permanency, duplication, and editing of the new film, one can only speculate about its impact. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril one is soon after information design's microfilm reader was intro- duced in , it was rated "best" in side-by-side tests with virtually every mm roll film viewer in use. it's still the easiest reader for patrons to use. and it's still the only reader that offers you all of these advantages: a big " screen that pro- jects an entire newspaper page; an automatic film gate that protects your film from being scratched; full ° image rotation. since , we've made dozens of engineering modifications to improve the i.d. 's performance and ease of operation. prove it to yourself—the big one's still the best and better than ever! for a copy of the study entitled "user evaluations of micro- film readers," or to arrange a demonstration of the model - microfilm reader, write to information design, inc., middlefield road, menlo park, ca . or telephone ( ) - . information design, inc. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes thomas e. weir, jr., editor the news notes department includes brief reports of events, new programs, sig- nificant new accessions and openings, publications, education and training op- portunities, and other news of professional interest to members of the society. many of these news notes have been supplied by one or more of the several reporters listed below. in addition, information has been extracted from publicity releases and news- letters sent the american archivist and to the national archives library. more cur- rent information about training opportu- nities, professional meetings, and legisla- tive trends can be found in the saa newsletter. members are urged to contribute items to these news notes. information can be sent direct to the editor, american archivist, national archives building, washington, d.c. , or to one of the following reporters: news of state and local archives to julian l. mims, south carolina depart- ment of archives and history, box , capitol station, columbia, s.c. ; news of manuscript repositories to carolyn h. sung, manuscript division, library of congress, washington, d.c. ; news of scientific and technologi- cal archives to maynard j. brichford, uni- versity archivist, library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, illinois ; news of religious archives to f. donald yost, general conference of seventh-day adventists, eastern avenue nw., washington, d.c. ; and news of regional and state archival associations to alice m. vestal, special collections department, main library, room , university of cincinnati, cin- cinnati, ohio . the american institute of physics has accessioned the papers of henry a. barton ( - ). barton was the institute director from to and his papers contain the director's files for those years. noteworthy among the barton papers are letters documenting attempts by physicists to limit the publication of information about nuclear fission in the years before the second world war. recent accessions at the smithsonian institution's archives of american art include the papers ( - ) of martin birnbaum including upton sinclair's revi- sions and notes on birnbaum's book, the last romantic; and an interview with imogen cunningham ( - ), photo- grapher. the u.s. army history research center announced the following additions to its manuscript holdings: a scrapbook of news- paper clippings, letters, articles, and poems recounting and commenting on the congressional investigation of and the - army court of inquiry into major general alexander b. dyer's administra- tion of the ordnance department, - ; the letters, diaries, reminiscences, and offi- cial papers ( - ) of brig. gen. samuel ovenshine covering his entire military career but concentrating on the sioux war of and operations on luzon in and ; and the official reports, corres- pondence, minutes, memorandums, and historical papers of major floyd oles, reflecting his service on the british military mission ( - ) that reestablished a functioning free government in denmark, and also covering his service ( - ) in the rd u.s. coast artillery regiment. the twentieth-century archives of bos- ton university has received a collection ( - ) of theodore roosevelt papers from the reverend paul c. richards. the collection is the third largest of the roose- velt papers collections, after those of harvard and the library of congress; and it includes correspondence, drafts of speeches and articles, and photographs. the california state archives, for a period of six months beginning in febru- ary , will display an exhibit about the yosemite valley and the yosemite valley commission. the exhibit will draw from the archives own documentation and will also be supplemented by a collection of the american archivist vol. , no. january d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january early photographs of the yosemite valley from the california state library collec- tion. in addition, the archives will host a group of junior and senior high school stu- dents from the local community in a series of five sessions designed to acquaint young people with the functions and goals of this organization. included will be tours of the facilities, lectures on cataloging, and an opportunity to participate in a research project. the program, entitled "commu- nity life centered semester," is sponsored by the sacramento city unified school district. based on the concept of a "school without walls," the program provides stu- dents with a wide variety of business, civic, and industrial experiences. the regional oral history office of the bancroft library at the university of cali- fornia at berkeley has compiled several new collections. one consists of interviews with leaders of the california wine indus- try. the work of some of those interviewed dates back to the beginning of the century. the series is of particular importance because prohibition interrupted the orderly creation and retention of wine industry records. two other collections cover labor in the s and s when later chief justice of the united states earl warren was the district attorney for alameda county and prosecuted many labor cases. another project, "bay area foundation history, - ," contains interviews with foundation directors, trus- tees, and grant recipients. as part of a pro- ject to document bay area architecture, the office has compiled a series of interviews with friends and associates of julia mor- gan, a prominent architect in the s and s. california state university at chico has begun to collect and preserve archival and manuscript material and books relating to northeastern california. the scope and span of the collection will be comprehen- sive within the university's service area. they would appreciate help in collecting materials. the center for migration studies, staten island, new york, has arranged and opened for research the following acces- sions: records ( - ) of the american committee on italian immigration; rec- ords ( - ) of the national office of the italian welfare league, inc.; records( - ) of the st. raphael society, founded in to aid newly arrived italian immi- grants; and the papers ( - ) of judge juvenal marchisio, one-time president of american relief for italy. recent accessions at the chicago histor- ical society include: papers of ralph g. newman ( - ) relative to his lincoln book shop business, manuscript appraisal (restricted), and other business and public service ventures. also accessioned were the files of tlhe chicago typographical union no. ; letterbooks ( - ) of rosen- thai c hamill, and other partnerships which were predecessors to the current chi- cago law firm of king, robin, gale and pillinger; and papers of paul m. angle, historian and director of the chicago his- torical society. the concordia historical institute has broken ground for a $ , expansion of its archives. the addition has been under consideration since and will comprise stack space, office and work areas, increased research facilities, and an audito- rium for conferences. a new journal entitled cryptologia has begun publication. the journal will carry articles from a wide range of disciplines and may present material of interest to archivists whose records contain enci- phered information. for further informa- tion contact: brian j. winkel, department of mathematics, albion college, albion, michigan . the manuscript department of the per- kins library at duke university announced the cataloging of the labor archives, a collective title representing forty-four separate collections. these var- ious groups contain papers concerning the labor movement in the south, particularly the american federation of labor. the east carolina manuscript collec- tion has moved into new quarters in the j. y. joyner library on the east carolina university campus at greenville, north carolina. during the past year, friends of the repository have established the east carolina manuscript collection endow- ment fund. it is anticipated that over a period of years a sizable fund can be devel- oped through small contributions. revenue from the fund will be used to finance projects not covered through nor- mal budgetary channels. the regional economic history research center of the elutherian mills- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes hagley foundation announces an interdis- ciplinary research program on the eco- nomic history of the mid-atlantic states, - . the center invites the partici- pation both of historians and of scholars from other disciplines such as economics, sociology, anthropology, and geography. postdoctoral fellowships of one year will be offered as will grants for shorter periods for postdoctoral and predoctoral fellow- ships. the national historical publications and records commission has awarded a program grant to the foundation for a sur- vey of seven eastern railroads that form conrail. staff members will make a six- month survey of the extant records and make disposition suggestions. the foun- dation is looking for storage space for the records selected for preservation. the hofstra university library has recently accessioned the papers of george r. bidwell, prominent new york city republican political figure and bicycle manufacturing pioneer. bidwell served as collector of the port of new york from until . the idaho historical society has acces- sioned the photographs ( - ) of the idaho department of employment. in addition to documenting the agency's activities, the photographs provide excel- lent documentation of the lives and liveli- hood of migrant workers. recent accessions of the illinois histori- cal survey library include the papers ( - ) of william downs, a missionary of the american home missionary society for chicago and northern illinois; the journals ( - ) of the gilbert family describing trips to illinois from ohio and texas; and the meharry family collection ( - ) including personal and busi- ness correspondence and farm business rec- ords. among recent accessions at the illinois state historical society are the records ( - ) of the illinois nurses associa- tion, including minutes, correspondence, collective bargaining papers, legislative files, and photographs; records ( - ) of the peoria labor temple association, including the records of several formerly independent unions founded in the nine- teenth century; papers of norman buel judd who nominated lincoln for presi- dent in and who served as minister plenipotentiary to berlin ( - ), con- gressman ( - ), and collector at the port of chicago ( - ); and records ( - ) of the grand army of the republic, department of illinois. at the university of iowa, the special collections department of the library has accessioned the papers of calvin benham baldwin ( - ). baldwin was special as- sistant ( - ) to henry a. wallace in the department of agriculture, assistant administrator ( - ) of the resettle- ment administration, and assistant admin- istrator ( - ) of the farm security administration. in baldwin left the government to take a series of political jobs including service as campaign manager for henry a. wallace in the presidential election. the papers complement other material, including the wallace papers and the progressive party records, in the special collections department. a partial list of accessions at the iowa state historical department includes the financial records ( - ) of the iowa council of churches; time books ( - ) of the garrison brick and tile works; and papers ( - ) of robert a. krause, a member of the iowa house of representa- tives and chairman of the transportation committee. a major new collection is the senatorial papers ( - ) of jack r. miller, formerly a u.s. senator and cur- rently a judge on the u.s. court of cus- toms and patent appeals. judge miller will control access to the papers until he retires from federal service. at that time he will also decide whether to deposit his court papers with the department. t h e library of congress has acces- sioned the papers of nannie helen burroughs ( - ). burroughs was the founder of the washington, d.c., national training school for women and girls, inc., now called the nannie helen bur- roughs school. for many years burroughs served as chairman of the women's auxil- iary of the national baptist convention, and her school became a center for baptist meetings and publications. she was also active in the civil rights and women's rights movements. the library has accessioned also a small collection of thomas jefferson letters ( - ) which detail jefferson's financial plight after he left public office and tried to restore his plantation to financial success d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january while satisfying his expensive tastes in wine, books, and entertainment. the maryland historical society recently accessioned the minute books ( - ) of the canton vau verein; a min- ute book ( - ) of the canton per- manent building association; minute books ( - ) and cash books ( - ) of the st. george's society of balti- more; and the diaries of herbert c. de roth ( - ), an international banking expert. also accessioned were: records ( - ) of ellicott city landand loan association; papers ( - ) of the mccullogh family of pennsylvania and maryland; two volumes ( - ) of pro- ceedings of the commercial and farmers bank of baltimore; diaries and letters of jameson parker ( - ), a maryland businessman, journalist, writer, diplomat, and director of gunston hall in virginia; and papers ( - ) of the shriver family of union mills, maryland. the michigan historical collections of the university of michigan has acces- sioned the papers of the mccreery family of flint, michigan, including the letters and diaries of william b. mccreery ( - ), u.s. consul to chile in the s, and his son, fenton mccreery ( - ), diplo- mat to various latin american countries. correspondents represented in the collec- tion include porfirio diaz, joseph c. grew, john hay, and john sherman. other accessions include the papers of icie macy hoobler ( - ), nutritionist and gerontologist; papers of the family of bartel j. jonkman ( - ), congress- man from grand rapids ( - ); and pa- pers of arnold s. kaufman ( - ), professor of philosophy and activist on behalf of the democratic party and liberal the immigration history research cen- ter of the university of minnesota has ac- cessioned the papers ( - ) of antonino crivello, poet and labor leader from brooklyn, including records of the interna- tional ladies garment workers union local ; papers ( - ) of anthony capraro, labor leader and journalist from northampton, massachusetts; and papers ( - ) of vito pittaro, italian-american businessman, writer, and civic leader of stamford, connecticut, including the rec- ords of the italian cooperative and com- mercial company. the minnesota historical society has moved to mississippi street, st. paul, minnesota . the society has begun a five-month survey of the district court rec- ords for the state. the analysis will begin with a detailed study of hennepin county records as a sample because they are volu- minous and rnodernly managed. after the one-county study, the society will examine the records of other counties to see if the pilot program can be adapted to the vary- ing circumstances of quantity, condition, and accessibility. bob bailey has been named director of the division of archives and library of the mississippi department of archives and history. the western historical manuscript col- lection, university of missouri at colum- bia, has processed and opened for research the following material: pamphlets ( - ) of the american civil liberties union; business and personal papers ( - ) of william l. bradshaw, political scientist and dean of the school of business and public administration, university of mis- souri; papers ( - ) of congressman clarence cannon; a microfilm copy of the papers ( - ) of congressman william r. hull, jr.; papers ( - ) of justice laurance m. hyda of the missouri supreme court; papers ( - ) of congressman frank m. karsten; papers ( - ) of u.s. senator james p. kern; a microfilm copy of the papers ( - ) of c. e. lemmon, disciples of christ minis- ter; papers ( - ) of clyde wilson, contender in for congress from mis- souri's th district; records ( - ) of the american association of university women, missouri division; records ( - ) of the missouri society for sociology and anthropology; and the records (var- iously dated, - ) of several university departments. the following collections have been processed and opened for research, but all have various restrictions. information about the restrictions is available upon request at ellis library, university of missouri, columbia, missouri : pa- pers ( - ) of congressman thomas b. curtis and papers ( - ) of thomas c. hennings, congressman ( - ) and senator ( - ). also accessioned, but not yet open, are the p a p e r s of r i c h a r d b o i l i n g , congressman ( - ), and the papers of stuart symington, senator ( - ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the university of missouri at st. louis, archives and manuscripts division, reported the accession of the freie gemeinde collection ( - ), includ- ing a history of this independent congrega- tion of free thinkers; records ( - ) of the national organization of women, missouri, containing folders on the columbia chapter, st. louis chapter, and the equal rights amendment drive; rec- ords ( - ) of the rotary club of mis- souri; records ( - ) of the st. louis metropolitan league of women voters; and records ( - ) of the young women's christian association, brent- wood, missouri. the montana historical society has recently finished processing and opened for research the papers ( s- ) of thomas c. powers. powers was important in the commercial development of mon- tana where he owned a large merchandise store and a riverboat line and where he invested in cattle and sheep ranching, real estate, lumbering, coal mining, electrical power generation, hotels, and other com- mercial ventures. he served one term ( - ) in the united states senate. the society has closed its photographic collection for restoration and preservation measures and to rearrange the collection. the collection will be reopened for research in july of . the mount vernon ladies' association of the union has received on permanent loan letters ( - ) of george wash- ington. the letters, with few exceptions, were written by washington in philadel- phia to william pearce, manager of mount vernon. the association also accessioned the lewis family papers ( - ) which contain much information on the settlement of the washington estate, woodlawn plantation, and other lewis family matters. william w. abbot, james madison pro- fessor of history at the university of vir- ginia, has been appointed editor of the papers of george washington, replacing donald jackson who retired from the pro- ject in december. a joint project of the university of virginia and the mount ver- non ladies' association, the papers of george washington was begun in and is expected to take about twenty years. national archives and records service. more complete details about recent acces- sions and openings of records will be found in prologue: the journal of the national archives. the national archives and records service has accessioned the major records ( - ) of the american national red cross. the records document the disaster relief efforts of the red cross, efforts which often closely paralleled the work of the federal government. the archives has also accessioned the records ( - ) of the office of domestic gold and silver operations in the office of the under secretary of the treasury for mone- tary affairs; investigative case files ( - ) of the federal bureau of investigation; records ( - ) of the fbi's office of alien property; records ( - ) of the united states mission to the united nations; records ( - ) of the environ- mental protection agency and its predeces- sors. military records accessioned by the archives include records ( - ) of the office of the chief of civil affairs, which document the activities of the army in occupied countries after the second world war; cardlists ( - ) of marine corps casualties; and historical material on the navy nurse corps, including biograph- ical sketches of former superintendents and studies covering, among other topics, nurses as prisoners of war, black nurses, and involuntary recalls to duty during the korean war. kansas city federal archives and records center. the center has recently ac- cessioned the records ( - ) of the mis- souri state coordinator of the soil conservation service. among other sub- jects, the records document soil conserva- tion, farm income, land use policy, and civilian conservation corps activities. laguna niguel federal archives and records center. records accessioned by the center include: records ( - ) of the u.s. district court for southern california and records ( - ) of the u.s. district court for nevada. presidential libraries openings and accessions. nars suggests that prospec- tive users of these and other records in the presidential libraries make further inquiry of the particular library concerned. herbert hoover presidential library, west branch, iowa . the papers ( - ) of delph e. carpenter, lawyer and interstate water rights consultant, have been opened for research. carpenter was instrumental in arranging the seven-state agreement which led to the construction of the boulder, now hoover, dam. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january franklin d. roosevelt library, hyde park, new york . the library has ac- cessioned the papers (principally - ) of claude wickard. wickard served in var- ious posts in the department of agricul- ture under roosevelt and headed the rural electrification administration under tru- man. the library has opened the papers ( - ) of mordecai ezekiel, agricultur- al economist. in , ezekiel formulated the details of what was to become the agri- cultural adjustment act. during his career he served in various positions with the department of agriculture, food and agriculture organization, and united nations division of the agency for inter- national development. harry s. truman library, indepen- dence, missouri . recent accessions at the library include the papers ( - ) of arthur z. gardiner, a foreign service officer, department of state; papers ( - ) of francis f. lincoln, a member of the u.s. aid mission to greece; and correspon- dence ( - ) with president truman of jacob m. avery, a chicago democratic leader. the library has recently completed the following oral histories: eben a. ayers, assistant press secretary ( - ) and spe- cial assistant to the president ( - ); francis h. russell, director of the office of public affairs, department of state ( - ); anna lord strauss, president of the league of women voters ( - ); john d. hickerson, assistant secretary of state ( - ); george l. warren, u.s. repre- sentative, general and executive commit- tee, international refugee organization ( - ); and harry n. howard, a u.s. delegate to united nations commissions and committees ( - ). dwight d. eisenhower presidential library, abilene, kansas . the library has accessioned the papers ( - ) of various members of the foster and dulles families. the correspondence, note- books, and diaries relate particularly to travels in the pacific area. recently opened oral histories include interviews with dale alford, james t. karam, and everett tucker, all dealing with the little rock school desegregation crisis ( ); nancy jensen mccarty, personal secretary to eisenhower ( - ); hans von her- worth, a west german government offi- cial; leonard d. heaton, commanding general ( - ) and senior surgeon ( - ), walter reed army medical cen- ter, and surgeon general of the army ( - ); and thor c. tollefson, congressman ( - ) from washington. lyndon b. johnson library, austin, texas . the papers ( - ) of lyndon johnson while a member of the house of representatives have been opened for research. the papers reflect johnson as both campaigner and legisla- tor. also opened was the president's daily diary (november , -january , ). the diary is a log kept by the presi- dent's secretaries recording his official and personal activities, including appoint- ments, telephone calls, and travels. gerald r. ford library. president ford has deeded his papers to the national archives with the stipulation that they be preserved in a library building to be con- structed and owned by the university of michigan. among manuscripts recently acces- sioned at the nebraska state historical society are the folsom family papers ( - ). the papers include correspondence and journals of arthur and mary folsom, missionaries to china. also accessioned were the letters (ca. - ) of the kirk- patrick family of cass county; papers of frank zehrung, several times mayor of lincoln; and the letters ( - ) of the poet john g. neihardt. among official rec- ords accessioned were the keith county district court records ( - ) and tax lists ( - ); annual reports ( - ) of the county superintendents of edu- cation; and manuscript laws ( - ) of the nebraska legislature. the society has microfilmed the register ( - ) of the arcade hotel, of omaha; the diaries of w. j. lamb ( - ); and the records of the new england congregational church of stan ton. the new hampshire historical society has opened the papers of long-time congressman perkins bass ( - ). the bass papers include correspondence with presidents eisenhower and nixon, with former new hampshire governor and presidential assistant sherman adams, and with many cabinet officers and members of the white house staff. the new jersey bank of patterson has begun preserving historical papers related to its service area. the first major acces- sion, in addition to the bank's records, are the papers of roswell colt, an older cousin of samuel colt and a prominent early nineteenth-century manufacturer in pat- terson. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the archives and manuscripts depart- ment of the earl k. long library at the university of new orleans has accessioned the records ( - ) of the new orleans typographical union no. . the found- ing date of makes this union the oldest extant labor organization in new orleans. the records include variously dated min- utes, convention proceedings, contracts, ledger books, and the original constitution and bylaws. the archives has also accessioned the cash ledger ( - ) for the bricklayers', masons', and marble masons' interna- tional union no. of louisiana and the minute books ( - ) of the new orleans federation of classroom teachers, local . the department recently became the re- pository for the archives of the chamber of commerce of the new orleans area. pri- marily consisting of administrative rec- ords of the chamber from its reorganiza- tion in to the present, the collection also contains the records of the chamber's predecessors, the new orleans progressive union ( - ) and the association of commerce ( - ). in the future the library will accession inactive material as it becomes available. the department of history at new york university, with the aid of a grant from the national endowment for the humanities, has established a training program in archival management and historical edit- ing. the program will include courses in history, archival management, historical editing, and related museology courses. each student will obtain practical experi- ence in archival and editorial practices. the program has been established at the m. a. level, but may be used to fulfill one of the three field requirements at the ph.d. level. tamiment library of nyu has organ- ized an oral history of the american left project to record the experiences of veterans of radicalism in labor, politics, and cul- ture. the project will create a central repos- itory for existing interviews and insure that many activists not yet interviewed will have their experiences recorded. the library will house and classify tapes, many of which will be borrowed from individu- als and institutions, for duplication. the archives/special collections of the city college of the city university of new york, has received the phonographic library of contemporary poets, taped at the college between and . included are readings by edgar lee mas- ters, richard aldington, marianne moore, robinson jeffers, allen tate, john peale bishop, and w. h. auden. in addition to the recordings, the collection comprises some seventy-five volumes of poetry from the period, many of them signed first edi- tions. the city college library has received a $ , grant from the japan foundation, in tokyo, for the microfilming and preser- vation of the townsend harris papers. harris, who founded city college as the free academy in , later served as the first american minister to japan. the j our- nals and correspondence that make up the collection are primarily concerned with harris's diplomatic career in japan. the special collections section of the state university of new york at stony brook has been given a collection ( - ) of material on the long island rail road. the collection includes , pho- tographs, system maps, time tables, track diagrams, and other material on the lirr, its predecessors, and competitors. for the next three years, the newberry library, with support from the national endowment for the humanities, will sponsor national conferences on college teaching of state and local history. of par- ticular interest to archivists will be sessions on student archival research, oral history, community and demographic studies, and cooperation with museums. the ohio historical society is arrang- ing and describing the large photograph collection of ihna t. frary ( - ). the collection documents in depth the architecture of the western reserve and gives a more general view of early architec- ture throughout the united states. ^-•"the oregon state archives has lately ac- | cessioned the records ( - ) of the com- i merce department, banking division; rec- i ords ( - ) of the constitutional revision commission; records ( - ) of the secretary of state; records ( - ) of the transportation department; rec- ords ( - ) of the world war veteran's state aid commission; security microfilm ( - ) of lane county; and security microfilm of records ( - ) of the port of portland. the medical college of pennsylvania, in philadelphia, the only institution in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january western hemisphere devoted primarily to the education of women physicians, will receive a grant from the national endow- ment for the humanities to support the es- tablishment of an archives of women in medicine. now that the collection, the largest of its kind, has been moved to the college's new library, space is available to allow the manuscripts to be processed and opened to scholars. official records recently accessioned by the division of archives and manuscripts of the pennsylvania historical commis- sion include the following: annual reports ( - ) of transportation utilities, pub- lic utilities commission; files ( ) of the william penn tercentenary committee of the department of public instruction; con- vict registers and related population rec- ords ( - ) of the western state peni- tentiary, department of justice; minutes ( - ) of the state board of private academies; picture files ( - ) of the department of forestry; school district reports ( - ), teacher certification applications ( - ), and exam- ination reports ( - ), department of education; reports ( - ) of the state emergency relief board, department of public assistance; correspondence ( - ) of the executive director of the penn- sylvania historical and museum commis- sion. also accessioned were the minutes ( - ) of the pennsylvania state plan- ning board; minutes ( - ) of the water and power resources board; and minutes ( - ) of the industrial board, depart- ment of labor and industry. the philadelphia city archives has begun indexing the journals of the coun- cil ( - ). because the city government was not organized in specialized depart- ments, the city council, through its com- mittees, handled much of the ordinary administrative and policy decisions. these journals therefore provide a wealth of concentrated information about philadel- phia and its government. princeton university has announced that it has been selected by common cause to house the archives of that organization. the national endowment for the humanities has granted $ , to the schlesinger library of radcliffe college to support the processing of papers and the preparation of finding aids for the library's extensive collection of historical manu- scripts documenting the careers and family patterns of american women. the library has also received a grant from the national historical records and publications com- mission to arrange and describe the rec- ords ( s- s) of the north bennet street school as the first step in a project in a program to collect and process the pa- pers of massachusetts women and organi- zations. the rockefeller archive center has ac- cessioned the papers of john d. rockefeller, sr. ( - ). the papers include financial records, correspondence, and scrapbooks of press clippings covering personal, business, and philanthropic activities. the st. olaf college archives has com- pleted its cataloging of the o. g. felland photograph collection ( - ). the collection, the work of ole g. felland, who taught for many years at st. olaf's, docu- ments the history of the college and life on norwegian pioneer farms in minnesota and wisconsin. the south carolina department of archives and history has announced the retirement at the end of june of w. edwin hemphill, editor of the papers of john c. calhoun.a founding member of saa and a fellow of the society, hemphill took charge of the calhoun project in . the project, administered by the archives department, is sponsored jointly by that department, the university of south caro- lina, the south caroliniana society, and the national historical publications and records commission. eight volumes doc- umenting the entire period of calhoun's service as secretary of war ( - ) have appeared as a result of hemphill's efforts, and much has been accomplished toward the remaining volumes in the series. clyde n. wilson, who has been assistant editor, has been appointed editor, effective july , . the urban archives center of the tem- ple university libraries has recently ac- cessioned the records ( - ) of the citi- zens crime commission of philadelphia, records ( - ) of the legal aid society; records ( - ) of the germantown ymca; records ( - ) of the citizens charter committee; records ( - ) of the citizens budget committee; and rec- ords ( - ) of the delaware valley regional planning commission. collections which have been processed and are available for research in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes archives division of the texas state library include the records ( - ) of the texas constitutional revision commis- sion and the texas constitutional convention. the commission's records include minutes, transcripts, reports, and files pertaining to research, administra- tion, and committees. the convention rec- ords cover convention proceedings, reports, committee history, records of indi- vidual delegates, administration, and pub- lic information. records ( - ) of the texas offshore terminal commission have also been processed, including files of the commissioners, minutes, transcripts, newspaper clippings, films, slides, and maps. the collection totals over linear feet, half of which is an extensive library of books and periodicals relative to the sub- jects of deepwater ports, supertankers, and regulations. the library has been indexed by subject, title, author, publisher/issuer, in addition to its master index. the archives division's photograph collection was significantly strengthened by the accession of two major collections. the william deming hornaday collec- tion consists of , photographs, copy photographs, photoengravings, and post- cards covering the period from the turn of the century to the s. the collection is an outgrowth of the journalistic activities of hornaday ( - ) as a newspa- perman, special correspondent, editor, publicity director for the mexican national railways until the nationaliza- tion of railroads in , and publicity director for the university of texas ( - ). the second important accession was from the texas department of public safety which transferred a group ( - ) of photographs and over , nega- tives of major political figures of the period. there are a number of accessions to report for the regional historical re- sources depository program of the archives local records department; these are, from anderson county: texas cotton book ( - ), election minutes ( - ), record of marks and brands ( - ), estray record ( - ), chattel mort- gage registers ( - ), prisoner reg- ister ( - ), probate dockets ( - ), probate minutes ( - ), convict labor record ( - ), record of drummer's licenses ( - ), notice of intention to marry ( - ); from andrews county: chattel mortgage regis- ters ( - ), hunters and trappers record ( - ), finance ledger ( - ), automobile licenses ( - ), record of scalp accounts ( - ), notice of intention to marry ( - ); from collingsworth county: chattel mort- gage registers ( - ), estray record ( - ), record of hides and animals inspected ( - ), record of election returns ( - ); from deaf smith county: notice of intention to marry ( - ), record of animals slaughtered ( - ), assessor's abstract to town lots and lands ( - ); from erath county: commissioners court minutes and index ( - ), texas cotton book ( ), minutes of board of equalization ( - ), list of registered voters ( - ); from upton county: notice of inten- tion to marry ( - ), record of scalp accounts ( - ), chattel mortgage registers ( - ); and from wilson county: convict record book ( - ), doctor's register ( - ), divorce minute book ( - ), district court civil docket ( - ). david b. gracy ii, who is a member of the society's council and the editorial board of this quarterly, has left georgia state university to become director of the archives division of the texas state library. recent accessions of the southwest col- lection at texas tech university include the scrapbooks ( - ) of mrs. c. c. slaughter, wife of the cattle baron and banker; the microfilmed papers ( - ) of john l. mccarty, historian and former editor of the amarillo globe-news; and the microfilmed minute books ( - ) of the pitchfork land and cattle company. the development of the pecos river compact commission is well docu- mented in the papers ( - ) of j. c. wil- son, prcc commissioner for texas, and the papers ( - ) of emil c. rassman, legal advisor to the commissioner. the southwest collection is continuing to microfilm the chamber of commerce rec- ords of west texas towns and cities, and the voluminous materials pertaining to the fort worth and denver railway. among manuscripts recently acces- sioned at the marriott library of the uni- versity of utah are the papers ( - ) of philip blair, including correspondence with brigham young from the s and s; records ( - ) of the combined metals reduction company which pio- neered fine grind and selective flotation; and the papers ( - ) of u.s. senator d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january frank e. moss who served on the interior committee, budget committee, and the aeronautics and space science committee. the manuscripts department of the university of virginia library has recently accessioned records ( - ) of the th virginia regiment; papers (ca. - ) of the hammond family in delaware, maryland, and virginia; papers ( — ) of the bonner, pelham, and mercer families; papers (ca. - ) of ralph erskine conrad; papers ( - ) of robert w. claibome, a civil servant and experimental farmer in puerto rico; and papers ( - ) of sarah petterson consisting principally of the records of a one room school for blacks and the records of several black churches in buckingham county. the walt disney archives has moved into a new and greatly expanded quarters at the disney studio in burbank, califor- nia. the archives now consists of , square feet, , square feet being a temperature and humidity-controlled stor- age area and the balance consisting of a reading/display room, an office, two lis- tening rooms, and a workroom. for the first time, the archives has brought together all of its collections in an area that will insure adequate preservation. the washington state archives has ac- cessioned the administrative papers ( - ) of governor daniel j. evans. governor evans served three consecutive terms as governor, which is unprecedented in washington history. under a national historical publications and records com- mission grant to the washington state library, the division of archives micro- film services has filmed the washington territorial volunteers papers of the indian war of - , including orders, courts martial and disputes, fiscal records, and correspondence. copies are deposited with the washington state library and the uni- versity of washington libraries. the di- vision of archives records management has published an -page manual, records management manual for school districts in the state of washington. this manual was developed in cooperation with the washington association of school busi- ness officials (wasbo) and the washing- ton state superintendent of public instruc- tion. it contains records retention schedules and chapters on establishing a school district records management pro- gram. the manual will be supplemented by additional schedules as prepared. it costs $ . and is available from the divi- sion of archives, general administra- tion building, olympia, washington, . the archives of labor history and urban affairs at wayne state university has agreed to preserve the historical and vital records of the american federation of state, county, and municipal employees. the records that are now held by the archives cover the years to . the archives will accession regular accretions and all records will be opened for general research ten years after their creation. other recent accessions include the pa- pers ( - ) of edward j. falkowski, a coal miner, journalist, and teacher; the executive board minutes ( - , - , and - ) of the congress of indus- trial organizations; andgeneral, legal,and financial records ( - ) of the agricul- tural workers organizing committee, one of the predecessors of the united farm workers. the western reserve historical society of cleveland has opened the papers ( - ) of tom l. johnson, congressman ( - ) and mayor of cleveland ( - ). these papers were among a much larger body of records pertaining to the terms of all of cleveland's mayors from to , and are the first from this group available for research. the state historical society of wiscon- sin has recently accessioned records ( - ) from the governor's council on migra- tory labor; records ( - ) of the selective service system, madison office; records ( - ) of the department of health and social services, wisconsin child center; defunct domestic and foreign corporation files ( ), secretary of state. local records accessioned include school records (variously dated - ) of the towns of sumpter, merrimac, prairie du sac, and kingston, and the county of por- tage. other material accessioned includes records ( - ) of the american associa- tion of university women, wisconsin di- vision; records ( - ) of the student mobilization committee to end the war in vietnam; records ( - ) of the reeds- burg woolen mill; records of the tay- choper foundation, a non-profit organi- zation devoted to the preservation of buildings of architectural and historical d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes significance; and the papers ( - ) of agnes moorehead. the society has begun a two year oral history project on the textile workers union of america. the project will pio- neer a new technique in oral history. to avoid the expensive process of transcrip- tion, processors will transfer the interview to a two-track master tape. one track on the master will carry the interview; the other will carry an audible time-marking at five second intervals. researchers then use a cassette copy of the timed master and an abstract and index keyed to the time mark- ings. this method permits rapid retrieval of information, bypassing the need to read through a long transcription or to listen to an entire tape. two organizations, the women histori- ans of the midwest and the chicago area women's history conference, will sponsor the second conference on the history of women, to meet in october at the col- lege of st. catherine in st. paul, minne- sota. persons wishing to read papers there should submit two copies of an abstract by may , , to: conference on the history of women, college of st. catherine, st. paul, minnesota . religious archives baptist. the mississippi baptist histori- cal commission reports the pub- lication of a history of the first baptist church of jackson, mississippi by richard aubrey and nannie pitts mclemore. richard mclemore of the historical com- mission's staff passed away august . at the southern baptist theological seminary, louisville, kentucky, clara m. mccartt became part-time archivist august . she attended an indexing seminar in october sponsored by the national federation of abstracting and indexing at its meeting in edmonton, alberta. catholic. the diocese of honolulu cele- brated its th anniversary with the pub- lication of faith in paradise, a history of the catholic church in hawaii from to the present. the diocesan archives of the diocese of burlington (vermont) has produced a half- hour mm. film, "the history of the catholic church in vermont." the catholic archives of texas has acquired the texas conference papers ( - ) pertaining to the work of the church in texas along social, educational, and religious lines. in addition, it has received three nineteenth-century french periodicals spanning - , including the rare annales de la propagation de la fox; nouelles recues des missions. the diocese of missouri reports the death in august of rev. edward r. voll- mar, s.j., archivist for the missouri pro- vince of the society of jesus. recent acquisitions reported by the department of archives, manuscripts, museum collections of the catholic uni- versity of america are: the john tracy ellis papers ( - ); and the papers ( - ) of joseph d. kennen, international secre- tary of the international brotherhood of electrical workers. a finding aid by erne- rich oswald has been issued: "a prelimi- nary inventory to the papers of aloisius cardinal muench: - ." rev. howard j. brown has been appointed the first archivist-historian for the diocese of marquette in michigan. the archives is supplying a weekly column, " —renewal— ," in the diocesan paper. episcopal. the diocese of utah archives has recently received the inactive files ( - ) of bishop charles, current bishop of the diocese, and has microfilmed the bishop's confirmation records. some mission records of baptisms, confirma- tions, marriages, and burials have also been microfilmed. using volunteer help, the archivist is transferring other records from cardboard dead-storage cartons to metal filing cases. friends. j. arthur funston became archivist of lilly library, earlham col- lege, richmond, indiana, upon the death of opal thorn burg in october . jewish. several congregational records, personal collections, and papers from or- ganizations have been accessioned recently by the american jewish historical society, waltham, massachusetts. during laura margolis has become cataloger, replacing david karp. during karp's year of service under an neh grant, he cataloged in whole or in part ten major col- lections. among them were papers of the american jewish congress, the council of jewish federations and welfare funds, the raphael lamkin collection, and the jew- ish community council of metropolitan boston collection. margolis has beencatal- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january oging the samuel oppenheim papers. materials accessioned during the past two years include ( ) congregational records of temple beth el, detroit; beth israel, cam- bridge; mishkan israel, dorchester, massa- chusetts; and shaarai shomayim, lancas- ter, pennsylvania ( - ); ( ) personal papers of louis broido, benjamin rabalsky, rabbi ber boruchoff, robert e. seigel, philip w. lown, and harold deb- rest; and ( ) organizational papers of the cambridge hebrew ladies charitable society; the jewish family and children's service of denver; institute for policy research, washington, d.c.; hebrew free loan society, boston; the combined jew- ish philanthropies of metropolian boston; grand lodge of masons in massachusetts; bureau of jewish education, boston; friends of ida kaminska theatre founda- tion; jewish academy of arts and sciences; and materials relating to the jewish stu- dent movement of the s. remodeling in the library's basement now provides space for accessions expected within the next three to five years, according to nathan m. kaganoff, librarian-editor. among recent accessions at the philadel- phia jewish archives center are: records ( s- ) of the philadelphia branch of the american jewish conference; papers ( s- s) of the loeb family, including correspondence and photographs; papers (ca. - s) of elias hersh, a philadel- phian who was born in poland; and pa- pers ( s- s) of sybil margolis, including letters from poland and israel. lutheran. the concordia historical institute, st. louis, missouri, broke ground in october for a half-million dollar expansion that will more than double its capacity for published items and will mea- surably increase space for archives and manuscript collections. among recent ac- cessions to this missouri synod facility are files ( - ) of the lutheran women's missionary league; files of paul m. bretscher ( - ), concordia semi- nary professor; records ( - ) of st. paul lutheran church, serbin, texas; diaries ( - ) of rev. h. earl miller, missionary to india; files ( - ) of clar- ence peters concerning the board for young people's work of the missouri synod; and minutes ( - ) of the board of governors of the lutheran laymen's league. archival facilities at krauth memorial library of the lutheran theological semi- nary, philadelphia, have been completely refurbished, providing movable ranges for the storage area and new equipment for researchers and staff. joann reeser has replaced linda beck as archival worker. mennonite. accessions of the archives of the mennonite church, goshen, indiana, include papers of david shank and john howard yoder pertaining to mennonite post-world war ii relief work in europe and north africa; papers of melvin gingerich ( - ), former archivist of the mennonite church; papers of c. f. yake (b. ), writer and editor; and the papers of silas hertzler ( - ), educator, and compiler of the hertzler- hartzler family history. a manual of procedures for this archives, compiled by sharon klingelsmith, is available in pho- tocopy for $ from archives of the menno- nite church, goshen college, goshen, indiana . rachel yoder has joined the archives staff as administrative assistant. the center for mennonite brethren studies (canada), to be located at the men- nonite brethren bible college, winnipeg, manitoba, was formally inaugurated in october, , with john a. toews as resi- dent scholar. his a history of the menno- nite brethren church: pilgrims and pio- neers, published in , is the first definitive history of the church. the archives of the conference of men- nonites in canada, in winnipeg, manito- ba, has accessioned a microfilm copy of the records ( - ) of the mennonite trust company in waldheim, saskatche- methodist. among the recent accessions of the commission on archives and his- tory, central illinois conference, are dis- trict records (champaign, galesburg, rock island, and geneseo group), eleven groups of local church records, and women's missionary records. the commis- sion saw the fruition of four years of research and promotion when the general conference of the united methodist church last may designated the church at pleasant plains, illinois, as the peter cartwright national united methodist historic shrine. the september dedica- tion service was p l a n n e d by the commission. the detroit conference archives and history office reports the publication of the methodist church in michigan: th century by a. douglas macnaughton. meyer fishbein of the national archives was guest speaker for the archives of indi- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes ana united methodism as it celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of its establish- ment. recent expansion of the stack area has provided an additional feet of floor space. the commission on archives and his- tory of the alabama-west florida confer- ence is now staffed by rev. lester spencer, president; mrs. j. p. coleman, vice presi- dent; and rev. d. a. newsome, secretary- treasurer. rev. spencer has been elected to the alabama state historical commission filling the place occupied by rev. f. s. moseley as a representative of the confer- ence. seventh-day adventist. the department of archives and special collections, of loma linda university in california, has recently accessioned the minutes ( - ) of the general conference committee, transferred by the archives at church head- quarters in washington, d.c. the heri- tage rooms on both campuses have installed microfiche readers, and one has acquired a microfilm reader-printer. jerry daly is giving half time now to heritage room work. since the department has published adventist heritage magazine. united church of christ. william g. chrystal is the new archivist at eden archives and library, webster groves, missouri, replacing virginia witte. united church board for world minis- tries. harvard university library, reposi- tory of the board's papers, has named carolyn e. jakeman, former assistant librarian for reference at houghton library, as the honorary curator of ameri- can missionary papers. the collection con- sists chiefly of records of the american board of commissioners for foreign mis- sions, an organization that was amalgam- ated with the united church board. new you are invited . . . to write for your personal copy of our exciting new catalog. the largest collection of library/a v equipment, furniture, and supplies in the world. over new items; almost , listings in all. an indispensable tool, and it's free to those who can use it! the highsmith co., inc. p.o. / fort atkinson, wl d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! "x " "x " "x " "x " "x " "x " acid free museum board • archival board with a professional appearance • designed tor absolute protection of your prints • will last to years • completely acid free hollinger off-white mounting board is alkaline (ph . ), and is buffered to combat atmosphere pollutants and acids that may migrate from papers attached to it. available in sizes . . . order in units of or more. the hollinger corporation write today for free information, sample and prices -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor annual meeting the th annual meeting of the society of american archivists was held concur- rently with the eighth international congress on archives in washington, d.c., september -october , . nine hundred saa participants and six hundred ica delegates, the largest assemblage of professional archivists, manuscript cura- tors, and records managers in history, convened at the statler hilton hotel. partici- pants attended committee meetings and over sixty panels, workshops, and special events, which offered to the beginner information about the latest techniques, and to the experienced professional reflection and stimulation. festivities included a re- ception in the great hall of the library of congress, a buffet at the pan american union building, and the presidential banquet with its special recognition of the founding members of the society. saa president elizabeth hamer kegan, library of congress, presided through- out the meeting until friday, october , when robert m. warner, university of michigan, assumed the presidency. walter rundell, jr., university of maryland, has been elected to serve as vice president for the coming year; mary lynn mccree, university of illinois, will serve as treasurer. assuming positions on the council are frank g. burke, national historical publications and records commission, and david b. gracy ii, george state university. the society named five of its members fellows for their outstanding contribu- tions to the archival profession. honored were edmund berkeley, jr., university of virginia; ann morgan campbell, society of american archivists; c. f. w. coker, national archives and records service; richard a- jacobs, national archives and records service; and hugh a. taylor, public archives of canada. the distin- guished service award, which recognizes archival institutions whose outstanding work has brought credit to the profession, was awarded to the archives of labor history and urban affairs, wayne state university. the waldo gifford leland prize, awarded for an outstanding published work, was presented to kenneth w. duckett for his book, modern manuscripts: a practical manual for their manage- ment, care and use. charles f. hobson, of the papers of james madison project, received the philip m. hamer award, given annually to a junior editor who has done distinguished work on a documentary publication sponsored by nhprc. the sister m. claude lane award, funded by the society of southwest archivists, was given to august suelflow, director of the concordia historical institute. the lane award recognizes accomplishment in the area of religious archives. ghislaine pleasonton of louisiana state museum and edward l. galvin, winchester, massa- chusetts, town historian, were named as the recipients of the colonial dames of america scholarships. material for this department should be sent to the executive director, society of american archivists, university of illinois at chicago circle, box , chicago, illinois . the american archivist vol. , no. january d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january annual business meeting president elizabeth hamer kegan called the meeting to order september , , in the statler hilton hotel, washington, d.c.; virginia hughes scholtzhauer served as parliamentarian. the president announced that a quorum was present. the agenda distributed in advance of the meeting was approved. the minutes of the previous meeting were approved as published in the american archivist (january ): - . president kegan's proposal to appoint a committee to review and approve the minutes of the meeting prior to their publication in the jan- uary american archivist was accepted by unanimous consent. the president appointed david horn, marshall white, and arnold brown to accomplish this task. mr. horn will chair the group. executive director ann morgan campbell and treasurer howard l. applegate gave the reports of their respective offices. william b. miller, chairman of the audit- ing committee, reported that the accounts of the society were found to be in order. the reports of the treasurer and the chairman of the auditing committee were adopted by the meeting. on behalf of lynn bonfield donovan, chairperson of the nominating com- mittee, executive director campbell gave the report on the election. the can- didates elected were vice president walter rundell, jr., university of maryland; treasurer mary lynn mccree, university of illinois at chicago circle; council members frank g. burke, national historical publications and records commis- sion, and david b. gracy, georgia state university. elected to the nominating committee were ann pederson, georgia department of archives and history; jean preston, huntington library; and richard strassberg, cornell university. herbert finch, cornell university, chairman of the resolutions committee, presented the following for adoption: whereas, the city of washington has served as a most gracious host for this the th annual meeting of the society of american archivists, and whereas, it is to the officers, council, program committee, local arrange- ments committee, and the chairpersons of the various committees that the society owes its thanks and appreciation for much of the success of this meeting, be it resolved that the society of american archivists, through its executive direc- tor formally extend its thanks and appreciation to the staff of the international con- gress on archives for their cooperation; to the national endowment for the humanities for its assistance in bringing together the world community of archi- vists; and also to the following organizations for their support: the association of records managers and administrators; the eleanor roosevelt institute; the inter- national records management federation; the international visitors service council; the library of congress; the national archives trust fund board; the organization of american states; the renwick gallery, national collection of fine arts, smithsonian institution; the tinker foundation. the society also expresses its gratitude to the following institutions which sponsored program ses- sions in their facilities: georgetown university, the national archives and records service, the library of congress, the sisters of mercy generalate, the smithsonian institution; to the national academy of sciences, the national geo- graphic society, and the national historical publications and records commis- sion for providing rooms for committee meetings; and to the members and staff of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists the national endowment for the humanities, the national historical publica- tions and records commission, the national study commission on records and documents of federal officials for their availability during the annual meeting. the society's appreciation is extended to the chairman of the local arrangements committee, donald f. harrison, and to the committee members mary boccaccio, maygene daniels, william deiss, dale floyd, daniel goggin, phebe jacobsen, john jessup, mary lethbridge, charlotte palmer, carolyn sung, frank tusa, patricia williams; and to the chairwoman of the program committee, elsie f. frei- vogel, and the committee members nelle bellamy, arnold r. brown, john daly, david b. gracy ii, edie hedlin, patricia l. kennedy, charles e. lee, john f. stew- art, robert svenningsen, jarritus b. wolfinger, the united states marine band and joint armed forces color guard led by staff sergeant schafer, the hollinger cor- poration for flowers and wine at the presidential banquet, xerox corporation for providing a copying machine, william w. buchanan, carrollton press, for the social hour provided for university archivists; kevin moran, tom witmer and the staff of the statler hilton; dick greene of trade associates incorporated, and tom miller of andrews bartlett and associates incorporated; and be it further resolved, that the society extend its gratitude and appreciation to its retiring officers and council members for their many years of service: elizabeth hamer kegan, vice president and president; howard l. applegate, treasurer; elsie f. freivogel and richard c. berner, council members. whereas, the society has sustained losses during the year since its last annual meeting in the deaths of: charles braibant; bernard davis; herman g. goldbeck; victor gondos, jr.; richard hale; kenneth w. richards; lionel w. van kersen; william s. wallace, therefore, be it further resolved, that the sympathy of the society be extended to their families. vice president robert warner gave a council report which reflected the desire of the council to communicate more effectively with the membership. to facilitate a better flow of information in the future, council will actively solicit suggested agenda items from the membership, the council's tentative agenda will be pub- lished in advance, and the membership forum will be a regular feature of the annual meeting. in response to a question from the floor regarding action taken on the resolution of the annual business meeting ordering the executive director to "take all steps necessary for the society of american archivists to become a party to the current [nixon materials] suit, if that is legally and financially possible," ms. campbell reported that it had been determined that it was not possible for the society to enter the pending litigation in october as arguments had been com- pleted and the case was then being considered by the three-judge panel which rendered a decision in january . after an informal membership forum, the meeting was adjourned. these minutes were approved by the committee of david horn, marshall white, and arnold brown, appointed by president kegan at the beginning of the meeting. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january report of the executive director when i traveled to chicago two years ago to begin managing the saa's affairs, a story the then president of the society, f. gerald ham, told me was very much in my mind. jerry recalled the day his youngest daughter reported to kindergarten for the first time. she and her classmates sat in a circle and related what their parents did for a living. tommy's father was a doctor, mary's mother was a lawyer, and so forth. when it was the young ham girl's turn, she confounded both her new classmates and the teacher when she said her father was an archivist. this was an acute embar- rassment for a five year old! as fate would have it, a year later on the first day of first grade, a similar procedure began. sally's mother was a business manager, melvin's father was a teacher—when it was the turn of jerry's daughter, she saved herself a lot of explanations by saying simply that her father was dead. i am pleased to report that archivists, manuscript curators, and records manag- ers, and their professional society are alive and well. but although records and those who care for them were often in the spotlight in , we still encounter occasional misunderstandings. remember this spring when there was some question about congress appropriating funds for a delegation to travel to england to receive the magna carta on loan? i happened to be up on capitol hill at the time and decided to take an informal poll of some lawmakers to find out if they all, in fact, understood what the magna carta was all about. one asked if that was a new california wine. another asked if that was wayne hays' newest flame. a third said he'd wait and see the movie. finally, a fourth said he didn't want to bring it to the united states capitol because he was afraid daniel schorr would leak it. seriously, as you know, things are happening almost daily in washington, state capitals, and elsewhere that affect you. as individuals, few of us can do very much to shape the outcome of these events. but, as members of a large and respected organi- zation, we can accomplish a great deal; that was demonstrated in . representation the views of the profession were heard regularly in important forums. a repre- sentative of the aha/oah/saa joint committee on historians and archives testified before a senate committee and called for a national archives independent of the control of the general services administration. your executive director testi- fied in january before a house hearing which considered proposed regulations for the administration of nixon presidential materials. in an action apparently related to this hearing, responsibility for custody and control of nixon materials was trans- ferred from the office of the administrator of general services to the archivist of the united states. this hearing and related activities resulted in another first for saa; we were added to richard nixon's enemies list when he went to court in march asking that nars officials be declared unfit to administer his materials—partially because of their professional affiliation with saa. the government responded that the motion was "unsound in theory, unprecedented in law and unsupportable in fact." the court agreed and quickly dismissed the nixon motion. in march, philip p. mason, edward weldon, and i were invited to testify before a house subcommittee in support of funding for the new records program of the national historical publications and records commission. the society was the only organization which presented testimony both in and in this regard. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists thanks to the effective efforts of a coalition of archivists, editors, historians, and others, one million dollars was written into the administrations's fy budget. these funds become available beginning this week for distribution in grants to rec- ords projects throughout the nation. a number of archivists are involved in the ongoing work of the national study commission on the records and documents of federal officials. data gathering is almost complete. public hearings on the issues of concern to the commission will be announced soon. they will be scheduled in several geographic locations through- out the nation. a report to the president and congress is due in spring of . the society is now preparing an important analysis for the privacy protection study commission of the potential effect of the so-called buckley amendment on the administration of college and university archives. in a related effort, we have asked the department of health, education, and welfare to clarify the status of ac- cessioned student records under the new legislation. the society's council recognized the importance of closer cooperation between archivists and records managers by accepting the invitation of the institute of certi- fied records managers to become a sponsor of this new program. services to the profession the archival security program, supported by a grant from the national endow- ment for the humanities, has, in its first year of existence, made a substantial impact on a most serious professional problem. the security staff has compiled a register of thousands of missing manuscripts. it is now in the hands of manuscript dealers throughout the country and is already proving its value. the security pro- gram became front page news this summer following a highly successful panel dis- cussion at the annual meeting of the american library association. the next major project of the security program is a consultant service which will be announced shortly. saa's placement service continues to work to match qualified candidates with professional employment opportunities. and those opportunities came to the at- tention of the national headquarters office in greater numbers than ever before. in order to furnish you the information you need, when you need it, the society is establishing saa information central. a concept which originated in the state and local records committee, this membership service will entitle any member to turn to us as a source of accurate information, facts and figures—and for successful ideas already used by a colleague. the saa national office announced a new publication service for members this year. a selection of books issued by other publishers is being made available to indi- vidual and institutional members at special reduced prices. the response thus far to this program has indicated that it will be another major activity of the chicago office. publications in - , the society continued its very best efforts to meet the needs of the membership through its own publications program. the american archivist, edited by c. f. w. coker, is the most widely distributed journal in our field in the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january world. every registrant at the international congress on archives is being provided with a copy of our special july international issue. t h e sassy kid brother of the american archivist, the saanewsletter, is produced in the chicago office. it attempts to communicate with you effectively in a timely and lively fashion. we are grateful to you for reading it—and for giving us your reactions to it. we hope that the newsletter can become just as interesting as the saa members for and about whom it is written. a study conducted in - concluded that, next to the journal and the newslet- ter, the category of publication most needed by the profession was manuals on archival functions. in the same period our current president, elizabeth hamer kegan, made archival manuals one of the planks of her platform statement as an saa candidate. we are pleased to announce that the society is now sponsoring the publication of just such a manual series, supported by a new grant from the national historical publications and records commission. t h e volumes will cover surveys, appraisal and accessioning, arrangement and description, and refer- ence and access. these four titles will be available for distribution next year. we hope to expand this series later to cover other archival functions, as well as materials and types of institutions. another basic guide, inventories and registers: a handbook of techniques and examples, is just off the press and available for sale here at the annual meeting. this work was a project of the society's committee on finding aids. t h e chicago office was responsible for the compilation of two additional pub- lications issued in summer : the education directory and the individual mem- bership directory. revenue derived from the sale of saa publications in will be more than dou- ble that realized in . it is our intention to emphasize this important society activity which benefits both the profession and the budget. t h e society the steady pattern of membership growth which we reported to you last year con- tinues. this fact is particularly encouraging since the society has not made a major and sustained drive to increase its membership in the past two years. the organization ended its last fiscal year in very good economic health— through lots of hard work, careful planning, many economies, and some good luck. we anticipate that this performance will be duplicated in . throughout this year, the executive director's office has assumed more responsibility for administer- ing the society's finances which are becoming very complex as additional funds become available for special projects. by the end of , all collections and dis- bursement activities will be the responsibility of the chicago office. in we will explore the possibility of establishing a functional accounting system to provide more guidance for policy formulation. the duties and responsibilities of the chicago office have grown in almost geo- metric proportions over the past two years. the growth rate of the staff has not kept pace. therefore, the demands on each person have been very considerable indeed. the society is fortunate to have the services of these talented and dedicated individuals: kathy nelson and timothy walch, whose energies are devoted mainly to the archival security program; susan zivalic, our program assistant for member- ship records; daniel lambert, our program assistant for this meeting; and joyce gianatasio, my assistant who spends her days contending with the whys, where- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists fores, and why nots of the executive director, the officers, the council members, the committee chairpersons, etc., etc. generous grants to the society from two foundations, the national endowment for the humanities and the tinker foundation, have made possible crucial support for this international meeting, helping to make saa/ica the largest assemblage of archivists ever. the neh funds enabled the united states, as host country, to defray the travel expenses of many international program participants; the tinker funds were used to assist with travel expenses of latin american delegates and to sponsor an additional week's conference directed specifically toward the needs and concerns of those archivists. american archivists did their own share of international travel during as well. the fourth annual study tour arranged by the international archival affairs committee featured visits to public and private archival agencies, manu- script depositories, and libraries in athens, cairo, amman, jerusalem, bethlehem, tel aviv, istanbul, and rome. the education and professional development committee, after lengthy study and consideration, has prepared a draft set of curriculum guidelines for graduate archival education. these guidelines provide for a basic program leading to a grad- uate degree in archives to be offered in accredited colleges and universities in coop- eration with established archival repositories. the guidelines will be considered by the council in the near future. the society has prospered under the guidance of president elizabeth hamer kegan, vice president robert m. warner, treasurer howard l. applegate, and council members richard c. berner, j. frank cook, elsie f. freivogel, ruth w. helmuth, andrea hinding, j. r. k. kantor, hugh a. taylor, and edward weldon. your society's good health and its numerous recent accomplishments are en- couraging. yet i am concerned about the problem of maintaining our strength and growth and good works in the years ahead. we must bring more archivists, manu- script curators, and records managers into our ranks, involve more of them in our programs, and obtain more funds for our work on behalf of you all. for this reason, the council has authorized a major membership recruitment drive during the next few months. a large number of you have already contributed to its success by rec- ommending one or more of your colleagues for membership. we are grateful for your cooperation. the need for the saa is greater than ever before. the demands on the society are greater than ever. the costs of operating its programs are higher than ever. this is no time for complacency. the society requires the involvement of each of you to carry on its increasingly demanding tasks in the next year. it is not necessary for archivists to repeat lily tomlin's plaint, "we're all in this together—by ourselves." together we will suc- ceed. together we are really something. ann morgan campbell, executive director minutes council meeting, april , . president elizabeth hamer kegan called the meeting to order at : a.m. in the chase park plaza hotel, st. louis, missouri. also present were vice president robert m. warner, and council members j. frank cook, elsie f. freivogel, ruth w. helmuth, andrea hinding, j. r. k. kantor, hugh a. taylor, and edward weldon. editor c. f. w. coker, and executive direc- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january tor ann morgan campbell attended without vote. treasurer howard l. applegate and council member richard c. berner were absent. the council approved the minutes of january , . national coordinating committee for the promotion of historical studies and the employment of historians. vice president warner reported that he and ms. campbell had attended a meeting at which the organization of a committee to address the current job crisis in the historical profession was discussed. current sponsors of the effort are the american historical association, the organization of american historians, southern historical association, american studies associa- tion, and the new england historical association. an additional goal of the group will be to broaden historical knowledge among the general public, to promote his- torical studies in the schools, and to restore confidence in history throughout amer- ican society. the council, while expressing great interest in the undertaking, decided to refrain from becoming an active sponsor of the committee. copyright legislation. president kegan reported that the senate had passed leg- islation which provides for the revision of current copyright laws. a subcommittee of the house is presently marking up the bill which would do away with perpetual common law literary property rights. the house is considering compromises for the photocopying restrictions found in the senate bill which might severely curtail interlibrary loan practices. financial report. ms. campbell reported that records maintained in chicago indicate that the society's income during the first quarter of the year had exceeded income in the same period last year. the treasurer will provide a complete first quarter statement to the council shortly. the executive director also informed the council that recent irs rulings have suggested that the income of professional associations from advertising and exhibit sales is to be considered as taxable income. irs's policy is presently being contested by a coalition of associations. annual meeting program. ms. freivogel, chairperson of the program committee, provided the council with an overview of the plans for the washing- ton annual meeting. the council passed a unanimous vote of gratitude to ms. frei- vogel and the members of her committee for their outstanding work. public documents commission. president kegan and executive director camp- bell reported that the work of the public documents commission was progressing slowly. staff members and consultants are still being selected, an overall plan of research has not been promulgated. it is hoped that sufficient staff work will be completed to enable a public hearing of the commission to be scheduled during the annual meeting in washington. national historical publications and records commission. mr. philip mason, mr. weldon, and ms. campbell testified in favor of funding for the records program of nhprc on march before the treasury, postal service and general govern- ment subcommittee of the house committee on appropriations. the subcommit- tee is considering the administration's budget request. omitted from the request was records program funding authorized in legislation approved in december . the executive director's office has received an inquiry concerning the eligibility of aaslh members for associate membership in saa. the business meeting adopted the associate membership plan in an effort to ameliorate the impact of the graduated dues plans that are based on salaries and were adopted by related organi- zations. oah had approved a similar plan prior to saa's action; aha's governing d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e society o f american archivists council followed suit late in . reciprocity with other professional organiza- tions with graduated dues schedules and similar membership services was integral to the plan proposed by the council and approved by the business meeting in octo- ber . it was the judgement of the council that the saa constitution indicates that an extension of the associate plan to aaslh members would require consid- eration by a future annual business meeting. ms. campbell asked that the council define the benefits of sustaining institutional saa membership—an area of some ambiguity since january . mrs. helmuth's motion which provided that sustaining institutional members receive two copies of the american archivist and the saa newsletter and one copy of each newly issued saa publication was approved. finding aids handbook. editor coker asked for and received the council's per- mission to expend u p to $ on the publication of the report of the finding aids committee. international bibliography. mr. coker reported that the public archives of can- ada had expressed interest in furnishing editorial assistance for the publication of an international archives bibliography compiled by frank b. evans, which mr. evans has offered to the society. efforts by mr. coker and ms. campbell to find financial support for the publishing venture have, to date, not been successful. it was the sense of the council that some outright financial assistance would be nec- essary in order for the society to publish the volume. ohio historical society. a march th letter to president kegan and executive director campbell from andrea lentz and sara fuller larson requested that the saa conduct an investigation into the circumstances of their dismissal from the ohio historical society. acting with the concurrence of the executive committee, ms. campbell contacted all parties to the controversy—andrea lentz; sara larson; thomas smith, director of the ohio historical society; and james kaval, ohs president; and others—to gather information for a preliminary report on the mat- ter. after considerable discussion of the situation, the council authorized a committee composed of mr. kan tor, mr. weldon, and ms. campbell to draft a state- ment expressing council's sentiments. t h e following statement was approved by the saa council: the society of american archivists has received representations from andrea lentz and sara fuller larson asking for an investigation of their dismissal from the ohio historical society. saa's executive director has sought explanations of the actions of all concerned parties and received their cooperation. the council of the saa deeply regrets this unfortunate situation in ohio. great and per- haps irreparable harm is being done to the reputations of the individuals involved as well as to the institution. when the light of publicity falls in the way it did in march upon inter- nal administrative decisions and professional practices, when archival reputations, individ- ual and collective, are affected adversely, they are long in repair and at great cost—to the detriment of collecting, funding, staffing, and users. the council of the society of american archivists has a vital interest in this matter and wishes to see a speedy and satisfactory adj udi- cation of the grievances. although the ohio historical society is a private corporation whose employees do not have civil service protection, generally accepted rights of professionals with respect to dismissal procedures appear to have been compromised. the saa council is deeply con- cerned about the precipitous action, and urges that ohio historical society adopt and pro- mulgate appropriate personnel and dismissal procedures to avoid similar problems or mis- understandings in the future. the council also recognized that andrea lentz and sara fuller larson apparently did not exhaust administrative remedies which might have resulted in a resolution of their grievan- ces, for example, their failure to request a hearing before the ohs board of trustees. the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january council regrets the public confrontatory measures which they have chosen as their means of redress. because andrea lentz and sara fuller larson chose to seek immediate redress through the courts and before state legislative committees, the council of the saa feels that further direct involvement is inappropriate at this time. the council will continue to follow this impor- tant matter and stands ready to reassess its position if future events warrant reconsideration. t h e vote of the council on the statement follows: approve—kegan, applegate, cook, freivogel, helmuth, kantor, taylor, and weldon; n o t approve— hinding; abstain—warner; n o t voting—berner. statement on the reproduction of manuscripts and archives for reference use. t h e council approved a revised draft of the statement. see american archivist (july ): , for text. institute of certified records managers. t h e council voted to accept an invita- tion from icrm to become a sponsor. t h e saa will be entitled to one member on the board of regents; financial support of at least $ per year to icrm will be paid by saa; saa's regent will be appointed for a three-year term beginning janu- ary , , from among those persons who have already received the crm designa- tion. leland a ward. a query has been received by the executive director concerning the eligibility of periodical publications and articles for consideration for the leland award. mrs. kegan reported that such eligibility was not mr. leland's intention when the award was established. t h e council passed mrs. helmuth's motion that periodical publications and articles not be eligible for the leland award. saa publications service. t h e council approved the executive director's pro- posal to establish a program for distributing archival publications of other pub- lishers to the membership at reduced prices. saa information central. t h e council received a proposal from the state and local records committee to establish a system for the exchange of technical data and procedural examples between saa members. t h e executive director reported that she believed a modified version of the pro- posal could be instituted within the current limitations to her time and staff in the chicago office. t h e council approved the proposal in principle and instructed the executive director to implement it. resolution on theses and dissertations. t h e following resolution, approved by the college and university archives committee, september , , was approved by the council: whereas, masters theses and doctoral dissertations constitute a series of records of the graduate college or division of an institution of higher education and serve as the final reports of research conducted at the institution, by students of the institution, under the direc- tion of the faculty of the institution, and, whereas, theses and dissertations are the evidence of the scholarship of an institution, its faculty and students, therefore, be it resolved by the college and university archives committee of the society of american archivists that theses and dissertations accepted as fulfillment of part of the requirements for graduate degrees of a college or university constitute records of endur- ing value, and that appropriate steps be taken by each institution to preserve and make avail- able its theses and dissertations. appropriate steps include: . keeping a record copy in a non-circulating collection in the institution's archives or other location that has proper security. . being certain that the record copy is on paper that meets archival standards of perma- nence and durability. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e society o f american archivists . being certain that the record copy does not contain corrections made by liquid, powder, paste-on, or other impermanent methods. corrections should be made by clean erasure and retyping. a clean photo- or electrostatic copy is more consistent with the permanent value of the records than an original containing impermanent portions. . providing appropriate finding aids for locating theses and dissertations by author and subject at the minimum, and preferably by principal faculty advisor and title as well. be it further resolved that a copy of this resolution be placed in the records of the college and university archives committee of the society of american archivists and that it be included in a policy manual for college and university archivists if and when a man- ual is completed. resolved at the annual business meeting of the college and university archives com- mittee of the society of american archivists at john m. clayton hall, university of dela- ware, newark, delaware, this th day of september, . college and university archives directory. the council considered a proposal from the college and university archives committee to compile and publish a directory of college and university archives. it was decided to defer this project due to the current project of the national historical publications and records commis- sion to update the hamer guide. this decision will be reassessed at the fall meeting. nixon papers. the executive director reported that in an action taken march , , the administrator of general services transferred custody and control of nixon presidential materials from gsa's office of presidential materials to the archivist of the united states. this transfer of authority was one which ms. campbell, on behalf of the society, had called for in congressional testimony. shortly after the transfer was effective, attorneys representing richard nixon filed a motion in u.s. district court asking that the gsa administrator be ordered to revoke the delega- tion of authority. the motion made two major points: the transfer of custody and control of the materials ( ) altered the status quo pending nixon's appeal to the su- preme court of a lower court's ruling which upheld the transfer of authority, and ( ) placed the material within the custody and control of persons who were in direct conflict of interest with mr. nixon. the motion's objections focused on the profes- sional memberships and activities of the archivist and other nars employees in the society of american archivists and the american historical association. mr. nix- on's motion was denied by the court. the meeting was adjourned at : p.m. ann morgan campbell, executive director council meeting, september , . president elizabeth hamer kegan called the meeting to order at the statler-hilton hotel in washington, d.c. also present were vice president robert m. warner, treasurer howard l. applegate, and coun- cil members richard c. berner, j. frank cook, elsie freivogel, ruth w. helmuth, andrea hinding, j. r. k. kantor, hugh a. taylor, and edward weldon. vice president-elect walter rundell, jr., treasurer-elect mary lynn mccree, council member-elect david b. gracy ii, editor c. f. w. coker, and executive director ann morgan campbell attended without vote. the council approved the minutes of its april , , meeting. national study commission on the records and documents of federal officials. president kegan reported that the next meeting of the documents commission would be held at the library of congress, october - . a session at saa's annual meeting will explore the commission's progress to date. the executive director reported that a session at the annual meeting would consider the progress of the commission. participating will be members of the commission, its staff and consul- tants. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january committee on committees. vice president warner has appointed ms. freivogel to chair a committee on committees. t h e group is to evaluate saa's present com- mittee system—its structure, goals and accomplishments—and make recom- mendations to the council and to the constitutional revision committee for needed changes. constitutional revision committee. an open hearing of the constitutional revision committee will be conducted on september . mr. applegate, chairman of the group, reported that he had received several useful suggestions. his commit- tee will submit a report recommending changes to the present constitution to coun- cil prior to its spring meeting. membership. t h e executive director reported the following: september september individual institutional subscriptions total ms. campbell asked for and received the council's endorsement of a recruitment drive for individual members. financial analysis. ms. campbell presented to the council the following analy- sis of income sources of the society's general fund: saa—sources of income (without grants) membership dues subscription fees advertising publications sales annual meeting interest other amount , , , , , , , % . . . . . . . amount , , , , , , , % . . . . . . . (projected) amount , , , , , , , % . . . . . . . , . , . , . according to ms. campbell, the society must increase its sale of publications and its membership in order to assure a balanced budget with funds sufficient for expanded membership services in . during that year a substantial increase in some costs is anticipated and a possible drop in income from the annual meeting must be anticipated. a proposed general fund accounting procedure for was presented to the council by the executive director. in addition to accounting for expenditures by object, they will also be accounted for by function. thus, for the first time it will be possible to determine the actual costs of various programs. ms. campbell also reported that she had completed the negotiation of an indirect cost ratio with the national endowment for the humanities. neh conference grants. the national endowment for the humanities is fund- ing a conference planned by the aha/oha/saa joint committee on historians and archives, october - , , in new harmony, indiana. conferees will direct their attention to problems of access to papers of recent american public figures. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists a second neh conference grant went directly to saa for a january conference which will consider funding priorities for archival projects. the meeting, to be held at the university of illinois at chicago circle, is being directed by ms. mccree with the assistance of timothy g. walch. national historical publications and records commission. congress has made available funding for the new records grant program of nhprc. strongly support- ing this action in testimony before congress on behalf of saa were philip mason, robert williams, mr. rundell, mr. weldon, and ms. campbell. nhprc manual series. the following persons are preparing manuals spon- sored by the saa and funded by nhprc: appraisal and accessioning—maynard brichford; arrangement and description—david b. gracy ii; reference and access—sue holbert; surveys—john fleckner; preservation—george cunha, edi- tor, with members of the saa preservation methods committee. jan shelton danis will assume editorial responsibilities for the series. finding a ids handbook. inventories and registers: a handbook of techniques and examples, a report of the society's committee on finding aids, was published in september . after comment about the publication is received from the pro- fession, the council has stated its willingness to consider the handbook as a society standard. education directory. a revised edition of the saa's education directory has been compiled and published by the executive director's office. the costs of the pub- lication were partially offset by the generous contributions of the university of alberta, george c. marshall research foundation, georgia department of archives and history/emory university, palmer graduate library school of long island university, public archives of canada/university of ottawa, dolores c. renze, and wright state university. membership directory. the first membership directory published by the society since was issued by the chicago office in the summer of . the directory was distributed free of charge to individual and institutional sustaining members. mr. cook was thanked by the council for his assistance in making arrangements to print the directory. religious archives reader. the council authorized publication of a religious archives reader composed of articles previously published in the american archi- vist. saa history archives project. the council recommended that president-elect warner appoint a three-person ad hoc committee to make recommendations regarding saa archives and other records closely related to archives and archives de- velopment in the united states. future council meetings. ms. hinding's motion that the next meeting of coun- cil be held in conjunction with the december meeting of the american histori- cal association, in washington, d.c., was seconded and passed. the motion was opposed by mr. cook, mrs. helmuth, and mr. kantor. saa fiscal year. a proposal from the executive director that the society's fiscal year be changed from january-december to july-june was reviewed. two benefits of the plan were identified: ( ) more timely and authoritative information concern- ing the society's financial status would be available at the fall annual meeting, as a fiscal year would have ended several months before; and ( ) since the annual budget would be prepared in the spring, the need for a winter council meeting would be greatly diminished and therefore serious consideration could be given to reducing council's current schedule of meetings from three annually to two. the council d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january approved mr. applegate's motion to change the society's fiscal year to july -june . the executive director was instructed to prepare an -month transitional budget for consideration in december . the meeting was adjourned until september , . the meeting of the council reconvened september , . open council meetings. the council discussed at length the possibility of opening its meetings to the entire membership. the consensus was that while there was appreciation of the desire to be better informed about the conduct of saa busi- ness, meetings should remain closed. however, to facilitate a better flow of informa- tion, council will actively solicit suggested agenda items from the membership; in the future the council's tentative agenda will be published in advance; and the membership forum at the annual meeting will be a regular feature of the program. international federation of archival associations. the creation of an interna- tional federation of archival associations, associated with the international coun- cil on archives, has been proposed by helmut dahm of the federal republic of ger- many. dahm has also proposed to president kegan that saa, the largest and best financed archival association in the world, assume secretariat functions for the new federation. the council instructed mr. warner and ms. campbell to report to the meeting of international archival associations, scheduled for september , that it looked with favor on the creation of the proposed section of ica and that saa would be willing to consider the possibility of performing temporary secretariat functions for the group should ica recognize the federation. annual meeting sites. the executive director presented brief analyses of each potential future meeting site recommended by members of council for and . the council authorized ms. campbell to make a thorough report in december on four cities: san francisco, seattle, boston, and richmond. travel expenses for council meetings. a proposal made by mr. berner that the society assume some or all travel expenses for members of council was discussed. recognizing that the financial burden on the institutions of members of council or on members personally will be eased somewhat by a revised schedule of council meetings, ms. hinding's motion that no change be made in the present policy per- mitting travel support only for officers was approved. at the close of the meeting, president kegan expressed her gratitude to the coun- cil for their cooperation and support during her term. the meeting was adjourned. council meeting, october , . president robert m. warner called the meet- ing to order at the statler hilton hotel, washington, d.c. also present were vice president walter rundell, jr., and council members frank g. burke, j. frank cook, david b. gracy ii, ruth w. helmuth, andrea hinding, j. r. k. kantor, and hugh a. taylor. attending without vote were treasurer-elect mary lynn mccree, editor c. f. w. coker, and executive director ann morgan campbell. treasurer howard applegate and council member edward weldon were absent. agenda. the council approved the adoption of the proposed agenda. executive board. members of the - council selected hugh a. taylor as their representative to the executive board. aha/oah/saa joint committee on historians and archives. mr. warner pro- posed that the term of the members of the joint committee be set at two years each. mr. rundell proposed that these terms should be renewable once. council approved both proposals. in order to establish a basis for rotational appointments, mr. warner named philip p. mason to a one year term and edward weldon to a two year term on the committee. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e society o f american archivists archival conferences. after brief discussion of saa's involvement in conferences—one on machine readable records and the other on the appraisal of the papers of members of congress—president warner agreed to prepare draft propos- als for the council's consideration at its december meeting. selection of saa fellows. mrs. helmuth's motion instructing president warner to ask the professional standards committee to review the present procedures for selection of fellows and to provide a report to council with any recommended changes in procedure was adopted. china study tour. t h e possibility of a study tour to the people's republic of china was discussed. no action was taken. archives of the ancient world study tour. based on his experiences on the august saa study tour, mr. rundell recommended greater involvement of saa's council and executive director's office in future tours. national archives. vice president rundell presented the following resolution and moved its adoption: whereas, actions of a recent administrator of general services presented a real threat to the integrity of the nation's archival heritage and demonstrated the need for the national archival system to be protected from political intrusion, and whereas, the national archives establishment was subordinated to the general services administration by the federal property and administrative services act of as one means of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the executive branch of government, and whereas, the passage of years under this administrative arrangement has not proven effi- cient and effective, but rather inefficient and burdensome, therefore be it resolved, that the council of the society of american archivists strongly recommends that the national archives should be re-established as an independent authori- ty to guide the administration of records throughout the united states government and to preserve and make accessible the permanently valuable archives of the united states of amer- ica. independence should insure the following four conditions, as enunciated by walter robertson, the recently retired executive director of nars whose service in that agency dated from (in his paper on "nars: the politics of placement"): " . return to the archivist of the united states statutory authority relating to archival programs. . appointment of the archivist, as a matter of law, by the president and with senate confir- mation, and based upon a set of professional criteria. . creation by statute of a governing body to oversee national archives programs. . submission of an annual report by the archivist to be required by law." if the exigencies of governmental re-organization should preclude independence for nars, the council insists that it is vital that the four foregoing conditions prevail for nars, whatever the administrative arrangement. be it further resolved that the council of the society of american archivists communicate this resolution to the national study commission on records and documents of federal officials. the council adopted mr. rundell's resolution. mr. burke abstained. although he was not present, mr. weldon provided council with notification that he wished to be recorded as voting in favor of the measure. the council also adopted mr. cook's motion instructing ms. campbell to arrange for the publication of walter robertson's paper in the november newsletter as a preprint from the american archivist. mr. burke abstained on this vote as well. small archives assistance program. a proposal from the office of the executive director to request foundation funding for a small archives assistance program, consisting of workshops and a consultant service, was referred to the executive committee for final action. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist—january international federation of archival associations. mr. warner and ms. camp- bell reported on the organizational meeting of the international federation of archival associations and strongly urged the saa to join the federation and assume a leadership role. t h e council adopted mr. cook's motion authorizing saa mem- bership on the working committee of the new federation, and in addition autho- rized the expenditure of u p to $ in in this regard. annual meeting site— . because of her concern that saa had never met in chicago, ms. hinding asked that council reconsider its designation of kansas city as the annual meeting site. her motion was not accepted. college and university archives directory. ms. helmuth reported that the col- lege and university archives committee was interested in exploring the possibili- ties of publishing a directory. archival education curriculum guidelines. on behalf of the education and professional development committee, ms. helmuth presented draft guidelines toward a curriculum for graduate archival t r a i n i n g for the council's consid- eration. ad hoc committee on micrographics. t h e creation of a committee on micro- graphics, proposed by albert leisinger, was approved by the council. t h e ad hoc group was established for two years. saa placement service. council determined that saa placement services would henceforth be made available only to applicants who are saa members. as in the past, all employers will be eligible to use the service. library of congress task force. mr. warner requested, and council concurred, that vice president rundell draft a response to the request of the library of con- gress to furnish comments to its task force on goals, organization, and planning. t h e response will be circulated to the council. armalsaa joint committee. council approved the society's participation in an arma/saa joint committee. saa's three members will include the executive director. t h e terms of the appointed members will be two years, renewable once. t h e meeting was adjourned. ann morgan campbell, executive director treasurer's report this report covers the society's fiscal year beginning january , , and ending december , . general fund t h e general fund (operating account) is tax-exempt under section (c)-( ) of the internal revenue code and carries the employee identification number - - . cash on hand as of january , , amounted to $ , . with cash revenues during the year totaling $ , . . cash revenues consisted of the following: membership dues, $ , . ; subscriptions to the american archivist, $ , . ; advertising revenues, $ , . ; and sales of back issues of the american archivist and other society publications, $ , . . gross revenues obtained from the annual meeting in philadelphia amounted to $ , . . interest income earned on savings and certificate accounts amounted to $ , . . miscellaneous revenues of $ . and gifts received were $ . during the year. transfers to the general d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists fund from the following special projects fund were as follows: life membership, $ . ; permanence of paper, $ . ; and institute fellowship, $ . . cash expenditures from the general fund during the year totaled $ , . . labor costs incurred in operating the executive director's office were $ , . . related payroll taxes amounted to $ , . . general and administrative expenses were as follows: bank charges, $ . ; computer services, $ , . ; employee benefits, $ . ; dues, $ . ; duplicating and printing, $ , . ; meetings, $ , . ; moving and freight, $ . ; office expenses, $ . ; postage, $ , . ; professional fees, $ , . ; refunds, $ . ; stationery and supplies, $ , . ; and telephone, $ . . committee expenditures, which are mostly travel reim- bursements for committee members, amounted to $ , . . printing and mailing expenditures for the american archivist were $ , . , and $ , . was expended on modern archives and manuscripts: a bibliograhic guide. other pub- lication expenses amounted to $ , . . annual meeting expenses for the meeting in philadelphia totaled $ , . . the annual gondos award was made in the amount of $ . . during the year, the society was awarded grants from the national endowment for the humanities. partial receipt of grant funds amounted to $ , . during the year. expenditures incurred in fulfilling grant commitments as of december , , were as follows: labor costs $ , . ; related payroll taxes, $ . ; general and administrative, $ , . , and committee and travel expenses were $ , . . the general fund cash balance as of december , , amounted to $ , . held in the following financial institutions: western savings banks, philadelphia, pennsylvania, $ , . ; the fidelity bank, philadelphia, pennsylvania, $ , . ; michigan avenue national bank, chicago, illinois, $ , . ; first pennsylvania bank, philadelphia, pennsylvania, $ . ; and the national repub- lic bank of chicago, chicago, illinois, $ . . special projects funds in addition to the general fund, the society in maintained separate fund accounts that are exempt under internal revenue code (c) having the collec- tive identification no. - - . these funds are maintained apart from the operating account and are so reported to the internal revenue service each year. these funds may be used by direction of the council and then only within the purposes for which each was established. as of january , , these special pro- jects funds totaled $ , . , and as of the end of the year, december , , the funds totaled $ , . . the status of the society's special projects funds as of december , , was as follows: waldo g. leland prize fund $ , . interest earned for year $ . . life membership fund $ , . transfer of interest to general fund $ . . interest earned for year $ . . meeting fund $ , . interest earned for year $ . . publications revolving fund $ , . interest earned for year $ . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist—january saa endowment fund research manual fund permanence of paper fund philip m. hamer fund institute fellowship fund tinker foundation fund $ , . interest earned for year $ , . . received $ . from contributions and royalties. $ , . interest earned for year $ . . transfer of $ , . received from permanence of paper fund. $- - disbursements during year were a $ , donation to the national archives trust fund and transfers to the research manual fund, $ , . ; and general fund, $ . . interest earned for year $ . . $ , . disbursed $ . for award. interest earned for year $ . , and gifts and grants received in amount of $ . . $ . donations were received in the amount of $ , . . interest earned for year, $ . . disbursed $ , . for awards, and transferred $ . to general fund. $ , . received grant of $ , . during year. interest received on funds, $ . . summary the cash balance as of the close of business december , , for the general fund amounted to $ , . , and the special projects fund totaled $ , . thus making the total of all funds belonging to the society $ , . . total interest earned for year amounted to $ , . . howard l. applegate, treasurer - committee chairpersons. the following saa members will be chairing committees this year: archives/library relationships. robert l. brubaker, chicago historical society, clark street and north avenue, chicago, illinois . archives of science. joan n. warnow, american institute of physics, east th street, new york, new york . auditing. william b. miller, presbyterian historical society, lombard street, philadelphia, pennsylvania . aural and graphic records. sam kula, national film archives, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa, ontario, canada k a n . automated records and techniques. richard lytle, smithsonian institution archives, washington, d.c. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists awards. harold t. pinkett, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . buildings and technical equipment. mary boccaccio, university of maryland, archives, mckeldin library, college park, maryland . business archives. edie hedlin, wells fargo bank, history department, th floor annex, sansome street, san francisco, california . collecting personal papers and manuscripts. virginia stewart, university of illi- nois at chicago circle, p.o. box , the library, chicago, illinois . college and university archives. shonnie m. finnegan, state university of new york at buffalo, jewett parkway, buffalo, new york . education and professional development. f. gerald ham, state historical society of wisconsin, state street, madison, wisconsin . ethnic archives (ad hoc). francis blouin, university of michigan, bentley histori- cal library, beal avenue, ann arbor, michigan . finding aids. richard c. berner, university of washington library, #fm- , seat- tle, washington . international archival affairs. robert s. gordon, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa, ontario, canada k a n . joint aha/ oah/saa committee on historians and archives. philip p. mason, wayne state university, general library, detroit, michigan . joint ala/saa committee on archives/library relationships. mattie u. russell, duke university, durham, north carolina . local arrangements ' . jay m. haymond, utah state historical society, e. south temple, salt lake city, utah . nominating. ann pederson, georgia department of archives and history, capitol avenue, se., atlanta, georgia . oral history. james v. mink, department of special collections, university library, university of california at los angeles, los angeles, california . preservation methods. george cunha, new england document conservation cen- ter, merrimack valley textile museum, massachusetts avenue, north andover, massachusetts . professional standards. elizabeth hamer kegan, library of congress, washing- ton, d.c. . program ' . herbert finch, cornell university library, ithaca, new york . records management. forest l. williams, gsa-nr, th and pennsylvania avenue, nw., washington, d.c. . reference and access policies. james e. o'neill, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. . regional archival activity. alice vestal, university of cincinnati, main library, special collections department, room , cincinnati, ohio . religious archives. august suelflow, concordia historical institute, de mun avenue, st. louis, missouri . state and local records. james d. porter, office of the secretary of state, oregon state archives division, broadway, ne., salem, oregon . status of women. elsie f. freivogel, national archives and records service, wash- ington, d.c. . terminology and statistics. david horn, de pauw university, greencastle, indi- ana . wider use of archives (ad hoc). archie motley, chicago historical society, clark street and north avenue, chicago, illinois . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril document v-.m.sgs • • • now with added alkaline buffers. f ^acid free a stronger alkaline buffer has been added to our document cases. this provides the same high ph for archival longevity, but more protection against atmospheric pol- lutants and migrating acids from stored documents. full " storage width: (above) # letter size ( a" x l o ' a " x ") # legal size ( v " x /i" x ") # oversize legal ( / " x / " x ") vi" storage width: (left) # letter size ( / " x k m " x vz") # legal size ( / " x /i" x vz") the hollinger corporation write today tor prices and complete catalog for permanent durable acid free storage materials p. o. box -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril fellows of the society of american archivists j o h n c. l. andreassen herbert e. angel howard l. applegate robert h. bahmer h e r m i n e m. baumhofer henry p. beers v. nelle bellamy william benedon edmund berkeley, j r . richard c. berner william e. bigglestone julian p. boyd maynard j. brichford p h i l i p c. brooks frank g. burke lyman h. butterfield ann morgan campbell edward g. campbell lester j. cappon robert claus c. f. w. coker meredith b. colket, j r . agnes c. conrad lewis j. darter, j r . william n. davis, j r . mabel e. deutrich leon devalinger, j r . mary jane m. dowd elizabeth b. drewry david c. duniway sherrod e. east frank b. evans ivan d. eyler h . b. fant c. herbert finch shonnie finnegan meyer h . fishbein edith m. fox elsie f. freivogel herman r. friis james richard fuchs james l. gear dorothy h i l l gersack robert s. gordon f. gerald h a m bruce c. harding josephine l. h a r p e r allie carroll hart r u t h walter h e l m u t h william edwin h e m p h i l l edward e. h i l l robert w. h i l l oliver w. holmes richard a. jacobs j o h n m. jennings almer k. johnson, j r . edward n. johnson h . g. jones lucile kane elizabeth h. kegan j o h n m. kinney paul a. kohl p h i l i p d. lagerquist w. kaye lamb charles e. l e e albert h. leisinger, j r . paul lewinson robert w. lovett mary lynn m c c r e e william lewis mcdowell, j r . p h i l i p p. mason david c. mearns thornton w. mitchell clark w. nelson margaret c. norton marguerite j. pease harold t . pinkett seymour j. pomrenze ernst m. posner jean f. preston morris l. radoff leonard rapport dolores c. renze james b. rhoads morris rieger walter robertson, j r . william l. rofes walter rundell, j r . vernon b. santen fred shelley jane f. smith lester w. s m i t h wilfred i. smith august r. suelflow h u g h a. taylor karl l. trever peter walne robert m. warner edward weldon merle william wells dorman h . winfrey d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists st annual meeting, salt lake city october - , gome to a going piaoei salt lake! structure an educational experience particularly suited to your special interests. workshops, seminars, panel discussions, tours, film festivals, gala entertainments publications a basic glossary for archivists, manuscript curators, and records managers; $ . members, $ . others forms manual; $ . members, $ . others inventories and registers: a handbook of techniques and examples; $ . members, $ . others oral history program manual by william w. moss; $ . members, $ . others modern archives and manuscripts: a select bibliography by frank b. evans; $ . members, $ . others the modern manuscript library by ruth bordin and robert warner; $ . members, $ . others available from saa in spring —a basic manual series archives and manuscripts: surveys by john a. fleckner archives and manuscripts: appraisal and accessioning by maynard j. brichford archives and manuscripts: arrangement and description by david b. gracy ii archives and manuscripts-. reference and access by sue e. holbert archival security by timothy walch set of five: $ . members, $ . others; or $ . each to members, $ . others. a postage and handling charge of $ . will be added to orders under $ . which are not prepaid. for a complete list of publications and membership information write society of american archivists library, po box university of illinois at chicago circle chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .j q gu by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e mennonites op a l b e r t a the mennonites op alberta by ? peter ft bargen a thesis submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the requirements for the degree of master of arts i n the department of history the university of b r i t i s h columbia a p r i l summary the mennonites op alberta by peter p. bargen the only claim that this thesis can make is that i t is an introductory account of the mennonites in alberta. it has been attempted to give a brief but clear account of the origins of the various mennonite denominations and their movement in canada an general and into alberta in particular. the common religious found- ation (fundamentals of faith) enjoyed by most mennonite bodies today can be traced to the common origins in the anabaptist movement of the l t h century in europe. prom switabrland and holland the mennonites have spread to a l l parts of the world. there have been four well defined movements of ̂ ermonites into western canada ranging in time frm to ^ . these movemnts are important not only for their separation in time but also for their divirgence in outlook which resulted from the different cultural background of the various immigrants. today mennonite differences, socially, culturally and religiously, make i t clear that no one way ofl mennonite l i f e exists. in alberta the majority of mennonites belong to two denomin- ations : the mennonite general conference and the mennonite brethern, both of which can trace their western canadian origin back to the immigration from russia - . in addition to these two denomin- ations alberta contains smaller elements of old mennonites, mennonite brethern in christ, church of god in christ and old colony mennonites. in alberta today prosperity and numerical strength have made coaldale headquarters of mennonitism in the province. the more l i b e r a l outlook of the general conference church and the mennonite brethern church have given these tjo groups economic and cultural dominance in alberta mennonite c i r c l e s . the l a n d settlement p o l i c i e s of the mennonites have always favoured group settlements;; i n western canada they found i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r such developments. although communal beginnings were common the average mennonite does not take to communism and p r e f e r e d to seek land on h i s own. in h i s search there were o n l y two determining f a c t o r s : n a t u r a l f a c t o r s and the presence of people of h i s own f a i t h . the settlement of the mennonites on the l a n d was l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n under the c o n t r o l of the c.p.r. and the mennonite land settlement board l a t e r amalgamated w i t h the canadian mennonite board of c o l o n i z a t i o n . a c o n f l i c t soon developed between advocates of settlement c o n t r o l l e d by mennonite agencies and c o n f l i c t advocates of f r e e settlement of farmers. this ssfefeieiashfe r e s u l t e d i n a confuted p o l i c y of l a n d settlement. mennonite economic development i n a l b e r t a has been r a p i d , e s p e c i a l l y i n the areas dominated by the g-eneral conference and mennonite brethern denominations; economic co-operation among the r i ennonites has been l a r g e l y confined to these two groups. in a l b e r t a the vertreterversammluhg (representative assembly) i s the c o n t r o l l i n g body of most mennonite enonomic endeavours. organizations have been set up on sc. l o c a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e v e l s and provide s e r v i c e s such as insurance i n various f i e l d s , domestic and f o r e i g n r e l i e f and producer's co-operatives. a problem that was c o - o p e r a t i v e l y s o l v s d b$it the russian mennonites was the reiseschuld ( t r a v e l l i n g expenses) to the amount of # , , . , which had been loaned £s£si the c.p.r. to a i d the immigrants of - . this debt was j o i n t l y l i q u i d a t e d i n i}- . the general problems of the mennonites i n r e l a t i o n to the community i n which they l i v e r e s l o v e themselves i n t o the s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s and e d u c a t i o n a l f i e l d s . the s p e c i f i c problems along these* l i n e s have been a s s i m i l a t i o n , the german language, and pacifism (non-resistance). most mennonites, outside of the more conservative elements, w i l l assimilate i n a l l things except r e l i g i o u s l y and s o c i a l l y ; the german language i s only a temporary problem and w i l l disappear i n the near future; non-resistance ,is a funda- mental part of the mennonite f a i t h and compromise here is very u n l i k e l y outside of the l a t e s t immigrants the mennonites i n general are w e l l on t h e i r way to "canadianization". this fact becomes doubly evident i n the l i g h t of the differences between the older immigrants and the ̂ ennonite "new canadian". the mennonites the themselves now are faced with/at problem of assimilating the new-comers. the thesis includes an appendix containing the following information; i , order-in-council regarding the mennonite rights i n canada . „ an excerpt regarding mennonite settlement i n canada. . a p e t i t i o n of the mennonite churches regarding m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and a l t e r n a t i v e services i n case of another war, . i i , an article,"am i a national s o c i a l i s t ? " — b y b . b . janz. £. a map of alberta showing a l l areas containing mennonite elements. table of contents page introduction chapter i. origins and doctrines of the mennonites.... i i . the mennonite settlements i n alberta i i i . reiseschuld lj. iv. land settlement p o l i c i e s v. economic aspects vi. s o c i a l , religious and educational aspectslol vii. m i l i t a r y service and post war develop- ments v i i i . conclusion appendix a. order i n council regarding mennonite rights i n canada • • ±k° b. regarding mennonite settlement i n canada... . x c. p e t i t i o n of mennonite churches regarding m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and alternative ser- v i c e s , +. d. a r t i c l e , "am i a national s o c i a l i s t ? " lij. bibliography introduction this thesis attempts to present an introductory account of the mennonites i n alberta, without attempting an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n or an evaluation of the mennonite way of l i f e . major emphasis has been placed on mennonite migrations, s e t t l e - ments, and common problems a r i s i n g out of the clashes of a l i e n cultures on new s o i l . rather than deal with one p a r t i c u l a r mennonite group, an attempt has been made to deal more with general problems which have been the concern of the mennonite people as a whole, i n the province of alberta. attention has been given to the mennonite economic organizations which have been established and the educational e f f o r t s which have been made to preserve the mennonite i d e n t i t y in a dominantly strange culture. although the study i s l a r g e l y confined to the menno- nites i n alberta, where necessary, the larger background has been given insofar as i t helps to bring about an understanding of developments i n that province. as has been stated, the aim of t h i s thesis i s not an interpretation but rather a presentation of f a c t s . the reasons for t h i s approach are twofold: t. the mennonite s e t t l e - ments i n alberta are comparatively young, a few being founded i n the early part of t h i s century, the majority having been founded i n the *s, and some as l a t e as the t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s . i t i s impossible at present to a t t a i n the proper h i s t o r i c a l perspective necessary f o r a just i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . . the great need i n the f i e l d of mennonite h i s t o r y i n alberta i i i s not so much one of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n as i t i s of the need to gather a l l the material into a more comprehensive whole. the material and the sources are there, but are scattered through- out canada and the united states. one purpose, therefore, has been to gather t h i s material and put i t on record. because , of the l a t e beginnings of the settlements many of the pioneers are s t i l l a l i v e and have, at least i n t h e i r minds, the e a r l i e s t h i s t o r y of the mennonites i n alberta. but t h i s knowledge w i l l die with them and now i s the opportune time to make t h i s h i s - tory secure by transferring i t from the perishable minds of men to the semi-permanence of written record. the mennonites op alberta chapter one origins and doctrines of the mennonites the o r i g i n of the denominations classed under the head of mennonite bodies can be traced to an early period i n the history of the c h r i s t i a n church. as various changes i n doctrine and church organization came about, i n both the east and the west, a number of communities, unwilling to accept them and preferring the s i m p l i c i t y of the apostolic church, remained more or less d i s t i n c t through the middle ages. these communities received various names i n d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s and i n d i f f e r e n t centuries, but from the time of the f i r s t general council at nicaea i n the early part of the fourth century to the conference-of dordrecht, holland, in , they represent a general protest against e c c l e s i a s t i c a l rule and a r i g i d l i t u r g y , and an appeal to the simpler organization, worship, and f a i t h of the apostolic age.^" at the time of the reformation, the members of the scattered communities who l a i d p a r t i c u l a r stress upon the doc- t r i n e of believer's baptism, as opposed to infant baptism, found a leader i n menno simons. he i s regarded by mennonites, however, not so much the founder of the church as a prominent factor i n i t s organization. the name mennonite dates from department of commerce and labor, bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , religious denominations: f washington, government p r i n - t i n g o f f i c e , part i i , , p. k.°k* smith, g. henry, the story of the mennonites, berne, indiana, mennonite book concern, h » p. f» » but would scarcely be recognized i n holland where the usual name i s "doopsgezinde", or"dooper", the dutch equiva- lent for the english "baptist". s i m i l a r l y i n parts of ger- many, switzerland and a u s t r i a , the german form "taufgesinnte", or "taeufer", was used to indicate baptists. i t was some of the flemish mennonites, who, upon i n v i t a t i o n of king henry v i i i , s e t t l e d i n england and became the pioneers of the great weaving industry of that country. i t was to t h i s group that the baptists of england were p a r t l y indebted for t h e i r organ- i z a t i o n as a r e l i g i o u s body. i t must be understood, however, that the r i s e of the modern baptists was l a r g e l y independent of the anabaptist movement on the continent.^- the only con- nection seems to be the one already mentioned above, and also that the two founders of the baptist church i n england, john smyth and thomas helwys, had to f l e e england and thus came into contact with the anabaptists on the continent of europe. both of these men wex-e baptized according to • the anabaptist fashion.^ as was stated, the o r i g i n of the mennonites goes beyond menno simons. the cradle of the anabaptist movement was i n zurich, switzerland. i t was here that conrad grebel turned from roman catholicism and became an evangelical be- l i e v e r through the ministry of zwingli.^ in a break oc- curred between zwingli and grebel over the relationship of department of commerce and labor, op. c i t . , p. + . ll "baptists," i n encyclopedia britannica, chicago, london, tor- onto, encyclopedia britannica, inc., vol. i l l , °» p» • . loc. c i t . . wenger, j.c., "the cradle of the mennonite church," mennonite l i f e , jan. l%- , p. . the church and state. the former believed that the church and state were one while grebel taught they should be separ- ated. besides, for grebel the-reformation was going f a r too slowly and the new church s t i l l retained too many ceremonies and forms from the roman catholic worship to s u i t him; espe- c i a l l y the mass and infant baptism were attacked. grebel went h i s own way and inaugurated what has come to be c a l l e d "believer's baptism," thus founding what he c a l l e d the "free" church. to grebel t h i s "free" church meant "a fellowship of voluntary christians, e n t i r e l y separated as a body from the state and state control."? persecutions set i n at once but i n s p i t e of imprisonment and death the new church grew. by t h i s movement consisted of seventy-one congregations throughout switzerland, and was spreading to the neighboring countries to the north. most of these congregations were l a t e r r u t h l e s s l y exterminated. at about t h i s time a s i m i l a r movement was taking place i n northern germany, where a man by the name of mel- chior hofmann had been licensed by luther to preach the new reformation. because of hofmann's r a d i c a l views, luther l a t e r regretted t h i s freedom of the ministry that had been granted to so unstable an enthusiast, who held some f a n a t i c a l notions i n the realm of prophecy. hofmann f i r s t taught that christ's second coming would take place i n * and when the event did not take place he allowed a "prophetess" to teach that he, hofmann, was the e l i j a h of the old testament. , the mel- chior movement, as i t came to be c a l l e d , spread throughout i b i d . , p. - germany and into friesland and holland. two brothers, obbe and dirck p h i l i p s , f r i s i a n cath- o l i c s from leeuwarden, had i n the early 's a f f i l i a t e d themselves with the melchiorites. when the coming of christ did not materialize and the "saints" were persecuted unto the death, the brothers r e a l i z e d that they had heeded a f a l s e prophet. obbe and dirck then became the leaders of the ana- baptists opposing the melchiorites, appealing to the less f a n a t i c a l followers of the new church. they taught that the purpose of true christians should be to continue the struggle against s i n and put f o r t h every e f f o r t to b u i l d the kingdom of god on earth. this branch of the anabaptist movement be- came known by the name of obbenites, and i t was t h i s group with which menno simons l a t e r a f f i l i a t e d . menno simons was born i n lij. i n the l i t t l e v i l l a g e of witmarsum i n friesland. he was trained f o r the roman catholic priesthood and i n l% li became assistant p r i e s t at pingjum, a small neighboring v i l l a g e . he was promoted to parish p r i e s t i n witmarsum i n , a n<i remained there u n t i l the end of h i s catholic career i n . as early as menno had questioned some of the roman catholic doctrines. through a study of the new testament he came to the conclusion that in the matters of the mass and infant baptism the cath- o l i c church was wrong. the bible did not state that the bread and wine used i n the mass actually became the body and blood of c h r i s t , nor did the new testament mention anything but "believer's" baptism. i t was not t i l l a p r i l , , that menno broke with the church i n a s p i r i t u a l sense, and i t was not u n t i l january, &, that he openly renounced roman cath- o l i c i s m . menno openly announced h i s new found f a i t h and as a r e s u l t soon had to f l e e persecution. he took refuge i n the v i l l a g e of groningen where a c e r t a i n measure of r e l i g i o u s freedom s t i l l existed. here he met obbe p h i l i p s and was im- mediately attracted to him as one who shared a s i m i l a r r e l i g - ious b e l i e f . menno was baptized by obbe and thus became a member of the dutch non-resistant anabaptists. i t was not long u n t i l menno, by h i s energetic and fearless proclomation of h i s f a i t h , drew upon him the wrath of the a u t h o r i t i e s , and i n ̂ - the emperor charles v, issued an edict against him.^ obbe l a t e r deserted the cause of the young church and menno simons became the established leader of the dutch anabaptists, thus giving h i s name to the entire movement. menno died on his sick bed on january * & . i t should be understood that the mennonites formed the largest denomination i n the anabaptist movement. h i s t - orians have even gone so f a r as to say that "after menno's death anabaptists became known-as m e n n o n i t e s . t h i s state- ment i s an o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n but indicates that the predom- inant group surviving the catholic reformation following the general break-away of the sixteenth century were mennonites. this edict i s reproduced i n wenger, j.c, glimpses of menno- n i t e history and doctrine, harold press, scottdale, pa., p. . ' " lucas, h.s., the renaissance and the reformation, new york, harper and brothers, » p» . today there seem to be three d e f i n i t e branches of anabaptists i n existence, the mennonites, the swiss brethern, and the h u t t e r i t e s . " ^ in the case of the f i r s t two mentioned denomin- ations the differences i n doctrine seem only to be the r e s u l t of geographical separation and the f a c t that menno simons never taught in switzerland; there i s l i t t l e difference i n b e l i e f . the hutterites, on the other hand, are s p i r i t u a l descendants of jacob huter, whose f i e l d of a c t i v i t y was mora- v i a and who stressed the p r i n c i p l e of a "community of goods" as a necessary part of a christian l i f e . through the centuries t h i s type of economy has cut the hutterites off from the world around them, made them ultra-conservatives i n r e l i g i o n to such an extent that today they are considered "backward" i n a l l . things except the art of making money. there i s very l i t t l e s i m i l a r i t y between t h i s group and the average mennonite except, perhaps, i n t h e i r p a c i f i s t attitude. for p r a c t i c a l purposes, however, the hutterites w i l l not be considered as mennonites i n t h i s work. during the reformation there were numerous anabap- t i s t p a r t i e s . newman divides them into f i v e main classes; the c h i l i a s t i c anabaptists such as thomas muenzer, hans hut, melchior rinck, melchior hofmann, jan matthys and the muenster sect, were the r a d i c a l s whose philosophy was dictated by med- i e v a l modes of thought. this group disappeared e n t i r e l y and represents the unstable and f a n a t i c a l element i n the, anabap- newman, a.h., a manual of church history, chicago, the am- erican baptist publication society, vol. i i , i l\li> pp» - . i b i d . , pp. - . t i s t r e v o l t . the second group are the b i b l i c a l anabaptists, including the swiss brethern, the mennonites, and the moravian anabaptists i n which the hutterites have t h e i r o r i g i n . these three branches of the b i b l i c a l anabaptists have remained and have absorbed many'elements of the other p a r t i e s . in add- i t i o n there were the mystical anabaptists, the pantheistic anabaptists and the a n t i - t r i n i t a r i a n anabaptists, a l l of which have died out with the exception, perhaps, of small groups here and there which s t i l l tend to agree with one or the other party to a l i m i t e d extent. for a l l p r a c t i c a l purposes, how- ever, the anabaptists of today may be divided into the swiss brethern, mennonites, and hutterites. i t i s interesting to note that these three groups were the only ones professing pacifism during times of war, but whether t h i s fact has done anything to help preserve and propogate t h e i r f a i t h i s a mat- ter f b r conjecture. in the following statement of doctrine • attention s h a l l be paid mainly to the teachings of menno sim- ons and those persons closely associated with him. , the mennonites are not a "creedal" church, that i s , no human system of doctrine i s d e f i n i t i v e for the l i f e and a c t i v i t i e s of i t s members. they were and are a bible-centered group.. the reformers such as luther and zwingli permitted what was not s p e c i f i c a l l y forbidden by the scriptures, the anabaptists believed what was not s p e c i f i c a l l y taught by s c r i p - ture, or by the example of christ and the apostles, was an anathema. -lt- i t should be mentioned that a number of i n d i v i d - uals i n the mennonite church have, i n the past, prepared. waltner, e., "anabaptist concept of the church" mennonite l i f e , oct., , p. formal statements of doctrine dealing with the p r a c t i c a l aspects of c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g , menno simons was not the least of those who prepared writings for the guidance of h i s follow- ers; but there was a d e f i n i t e lack of theological treatises among the mennonites, a f a c t that stresses the b i b l i c a l rather than the theological nature of mennonitism. the writings which do e x i s t , however, w i l l serve as the basis of the f o l - lowing d o c t r i n a l statements.^ the anabaptist doctrine has always viewed the church i n i t s v e r t i c a l relationship as the body of christ of which he i s the r e a l and l i v i n g head. p i l g r i m marpeck, one of the early leaders of the swiss anabaptists wrote, "christus s t das haubt seiner kierchen, die da s t sein l e i b aus seinem f l e i s c h und aus seinen gebainen warhaftig g e b o r e n . m e n n o simons i n holland echoed the same doctrine when he said, "for a l l who are i n christ are new creatures, f l e s h of his f l e s h , bone of his bone and members of his body."^ the anabaptists always made a precise d i s t i n c t i o n between the 'true' church, by which they meant themselves,: . and the 'church of the a n t i - c h r i s t ' , by which they meant the roman catholic church. there was great disappointment i n t h e i r ranks when luther and zwingli f a i l e d to carry the r e f o r - mation f a r enough and adopted, what the anabaptists thought, were halfway measures, by compromising with p o l i t i c a l exped- the following confessions s h a l l serve as a basis: "the schleitheim confession of f a i t h " , adopted by the swiss bre- thern conference, feb. ii, ; "the dordrecht confession of f a i t h , " adopted by the dutch mennonite conference, a p r i l , . both confessions are reproduced i n wenger, op. c i t . , pp. - . ill waltner, op. c i t . , p. a .o. loc. c i t . iency rather than carry t h e i r o r i g i n a l e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ideals into actual r e a l i z a t i o n . thus i t remained for the "brethern" to become the 'true' body of christ on earth. menno simons l i s t e d the following s i x earmarks by which the "true" church of christ was to be distinguished, . by an unadulterated pure doctrine... . by a s c r i p - t u r a l use of the sacramental signs;.. . . . by obedience to the word...ii. by unfeigned brotherly love... . by an unreserved confession of god and christ... . by op- ,/ pression and t r i b u l a t i o n f o r the sake of the lord's word. the anabaptists believed i n a v i s i b l e church of god consist- ing of those "...who have t r u l y repented, and r i g h t l y believed; who are r i g h t l y baptized, united with god i n heaven, and i n - corporated into the communion of the saints on earth.""^ luther accepted the concept of a volkskirche or landeskirche (state church) because he believed that the church existed wherever the gospel i s preached i n purity and the sacraments are properly administered. to the anabaptists this concept was most u n b i b l i c a l , f o r the boundaries of the church could not be defined according to sacramental r i t e s or geographical l i n e s . as stated i n the dordrecht confession of f a i t h , the church was a "church of believers," of those who had personally accepted christ and who showed the true f r u i t s of repentance. the church was not a society of the baptized or a "church of the e l e c t , " as zwingli taught. menno simons stated, those are the true church of christ who were conver- ted, who are born from above of god, who are of a re- generated mind, and by the operation of the holy s p i r i t from the hearing of the divine word have become c h i l d - ren of.god; who obey him and l i v e unblamably i n his holy commandments and according to his holy w i l l a l l loc. c i t . r loc. c i t . „ t h e i r days or a f t e r t h e i r c a l l i n g . in the anabaptist concept of the church, regeneration, obed- ience, fellowship, brotherhood, were the key.words defining the boundaries of the 'true' church. in the a c t u a l i z a t i o n of t h i s church they believed that there were four necessary steps; the preaching of the word; regeneration of the heart of the hearer; baptism of the regenerated; fellowship of the believers i n the form of p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the lord's supper. because the anabaptists believed that the word must be preached before a renewal of s p i r i t u a l l i f e could be poss- i b l e , they became active and vigorous preachers. spreading the word was considered the duty of not only the ministry but of a l l the members; every believer had the personal comm- and of god to preach. the anabaptists were the f i r s t to make the great commission (christ's command to preach the word to a l l mankind) binding upon a l l church members. the necessity of a regeneration became a f o c a l point i n anabaptist and mennonite doctrine. there must be a genuine repentence from s i n and a b i r t h of a genuine f a i t h i n christ, a process which produces an inward change manifested by out- ward conduct. nowhere is the nature of t h i s change elaborated upon by the leaders of the movement, but i t s necessity and results are emphasized by menno simons, who stated that with genuine f a i t h must come obedience and true regeneration issues i n a l i f e of p r a c t i c a l holiness making the i n d i v i d u a l a s i n - cere nachfolger c h r i s t i (follower of c h r i s t ) . f a i t h alone i s menno simons, complete works, elkhart indiana, ? , i: l l - l , quoted i n waltner, op» c i t . , p. . not s u f f i c i e n t , there must be manifest-the p r a c t i c a l f r u i t s of f a i t h . in t h i s concept menno went beyond luther's slogan of sola f i d a ( f a i t h alone). in regard to baptism the anabaptists d i f f e r e d mark- edly from the roman as well as from the reformed churches. the whole movement received i t s name from the fact that i t s adherents believed i n baptism only after regeneration had taken place. thus the name anabaptist was attached to the new movement. child baptism was rejected as unscriptural for neither christ nor the apostles ever practiced i t . the lead- ers stated that i t was the blood of christ and not the waters of baptism that insured salvation of the i n d i v i d u a l . baptism became to the anabaptists an outward sign of the inward change, a pledge of the one baptized to walk i n obedience to the words of c h r i s t , and thus was merely of symbolic significance but had no sacramental value. since regeneration required a degree of understanding (vernunft) , infant baptism was looked upon as a deception based upon superstition rather than upon the word of cod. menno simons wrotej we are not regenerated because we have been baptized ...but we are baptized because we have been regener- ated by . f a i t h and the word of god (i pet. : ) . re- generation i s not the r e s u l t of baptism but baptism i s the r e s u l t of regeneration. . in the schleitheim confession of faith ( ) the brethern i n - s i s t e d that baptism be administered only to those "who have learned repentance and amendment of l i f e , and who believe t r u l y that t h e i r sins have been taken away by c h r i s t . . . . " menno simons, op. c i t . , p. l « quoted i n waltner op. c i t . , p. • wenger, op. c i t . , p. . in regard to the lord's supper, the anabaptists be- l i e v e d that i t was symbolic and had no sacramental quality. they rejected both the roman catholic doctrine of transubstan- t i a t i o n and the lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation. for conrad grebel the lord's supper was purely "a symbol of the fellowship of the brethern with one another and with christ... i t i s also a pledge of brotherly love' and f a i t h f u l s a n c t i f i e d christian l i v i n g . " i t was the question of "mass" which had caused the f i r s t s p i r i t u a l struggle i n menno simons and even- t u a l l y l e d him out of the roman catholic church. -menno con- sidered the lord's supper as a proclamation of the death of christ, as a sign of christian love and peace i n the church, and as a "fellowship of the f l e s h and blood of c h r i s t . " the anabaptists regarded the lord's supper as the most solemn act i n which a christian could p a r t i c i p a t e , f o r i t involved the renewal of the believer's covenant to devote h i s l i f e unreser- vedly to the service of christ renouncing a l l s e l f i s h and sec- ular interests. -^ everywhere they went the anabaptists took great pains to organize churches according to the b i b l i c a l pattern. this objective they accomplished by adhering s t r i c t l y to the doctrines as stated above and by a vigorous emphasis on "non- conformity to the world," by which the brethern meant that the church must be kept without "spot or wrinkle" i n as f a r as i t was humanly possible. i t was clear to them that the church could never be perfect i n the sense of being e n t i r e l y free of unworthy members, f o r human i n t e l l i g e n c e was capable only i n waltner, op. c i t . , p. i l i . loc. c i t . newman, op. c i t . , p. . a l i m i t e d degree to separate the "goats from the sheep." even menno simons admitted the l i m i t a t i o n s of church d i s c i p - l i n e when he said, the church judges that which i s v i s i b l e . but what- i s inwardly e v i l , but does not appear outwardly to the church, such god alone w i l l judge and pass sen- tence on them; for he alone, and not the church, discerns hearts and reins. l i the aim of church p u r i t y has throughout mennonite h i s t o r y posed some of the most d i f f i c u l t questions f o r t h i s group. to maintain a "pure" church i n the midst of a s i n f u l society implies a separation from the world. in- the s c h l e i t - heim confession of paith the early brethern wrote, a separation s h a l l be made from the e v i l and from the wickedness which the d e v i l planted i n the world; i n t h i s manner, simply that we s h a l l not have f e l - lowship with them (the wicked) and not run with them i n the multitude of t h e i r abominations. to t h i s day the mennonites declare that- the church i s " i n the world" but not "of the world." this i d e a l of"separation" has posed many d i f f i c u l t problems f o r the mennonites i n the past and has contributed much to the persecution arid misunderstand- ing which have followed the mennonite church since i t s incep- t i o n . to be separate from the world meant that there must also be a separation from the state, f o r the state was of the world. this separation from the state was then carried out i n three ways; they refused to take the oath, they refused to accept or f i l l public o f f i c e or any p o s i t i o n i n the govern- ment, and they refused to bear arms or "take the sword" even li quoted i n waltner, op. c i t . , p. \\ . wenger, op. c i t . , p. . i f threatened by death. the schleitheim confession of faith states, the sword i s ordained of god outside the perfection of christ...and i s ordained to be used by the worldly magistrates.... i t i s not appropriate for a christian to serve as a magistrate because... the government mag- i s t r a c y i s according to the f l e s h , but the christian's i s according to the s p i r i t ; t h e i r houses and dwelling remain i n t h i s world, but the christian's are i n heaven; t h e i r c i t i z e n s h i p i s i n t h i s world, but the christian's c i t i z e n s h i p i s i n heaven; the weapons of t h e i r c o n f l i c t and war are carnal and against the f l e s h only, but the christian's weapons are s p i r i t u a l , against the f o r t i f i c a t i o n of the d e v i l . in p r a c t i c a l l y a l l the migrations of the mennonites this p r i n c i p l e of "non-resistance" or "pacifism" has played a leading r o l e . in mennonite c i r c l e s i n canada and the united states non-resistance i s under discussion today as never be- fore, and i t has been throughout t h e i r h i s t o r y one of the most obtrusive features of the mennonite branch of the anabaptist movement and i t w i l l be expedient to examine t h i s p r i n c i p l e i n a l i t t l e more d e t a i l . ^ the mennonites are, to a large degree, b i b l i c a l l i t e r a l i s t s . a number of new testament verses teach unquali- f i e d love f o r , and non-resistance to, e v i l men, as the divine ethic f o r c h r i s t i a n believers. such passages as matthew : - ^ , luke : - , john : , romans : - , and others require no special i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to the mennonite but are accepted at face value. in simple acceptance of t h i s as being the fundamental p r i n c i p l e f o r christian l i v i n g as taught by christ, the mennonitesoppose the use of force i n private l i f e and r e j e c t m i l i t a r y service even during times of i b i d . , pp. - . modern developments i n t h i s f i e l d are discussed in chapter vii. c— war as u n b i b l i c a l and "unchrist l i k e . " <^ as early as +, conrad grebel wrote, "true, be- l i e v i n g christians are as sheep i n the midst of wolves.... they use neither the worldly sword nor engage i n war, since among them taking human l i f e has ceased e n t i r e l y , f o r we are no longer under the old covenant." f e l i x manz, a colleague of grebel, said, "no c h r i s t i a n smites with the sword nor re- . s i s t s e v i l . " dirck p h i l i p s declared, "the people of the • lord arm themselves not with carnal weapons...but with the armor of god, with the weapons of righteousness...and with christian patience, with which to possess t h e i r souls and overcome a l l t h e i r enemies."^ menno simons t e s t i f i e d , "the regenerated do not go to war, nor engage i n s t r i f e . they are the children of peace...and know of no war. " a r t i c l e xiv of the dordrecht confession of f a i t h rejects defense by force. non-resistance i s one key to mennonite migrations. in order to l i v e according to t h e i r f a i t h , the mennonites have sought refuge i n countries enjoying the greatest degree of r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . soon they were scattered throughout holland, switzerland and the various german states including prussia. in , on the i n v i t a t i o n of catherine i i , many mennonites from prussia migrated to russia where they were promised r e l i g i o u s freedom, t h e i r own schools, and m i l i t a r y exemption forever. "forever" lasted u n t i l i o when the russian government threatened to withdraw m i l i t a r y exemption and the mennonites looked around f o r a new home. in the end ( ibid. , p. loc. c i t . i b i d . , p. + loc. c i t . a form of alternative service not under supervision of the m i l i t a r y was granted, but the confidence and the security of the mennonites had been shaken and a great migration to u.s.a. and canada set i n . during world war i the mennonites who had remained i n russia were allowed alternative service. the bolshevik revolution, however, swept the mennonite s e t t l e - ments with f i r e and sword and following the establishment of the communist re'gime a new migration to canada set i n . since the second world war a new migration to canada has been i n = progress and thousands of mennonites have found new homes here. in a l l of these mass movements the motive to migrate has been r e l i g i o u s freedom sparked by the p r i n c i p l e of non- resistance. in canada and the united states i s found the bulwark of mennonite wehrlosigkeit (pacifism). a l l of the mennonite groups who have come to canada or the united states have believed strongly i n pacifism as a s c r i p t u r a l and essential christian doctrine. today i t i s i n canada and the united states where devotion to t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s most c l e a r l y seen. when the mennonites f l e d from persecu- tion i n europe they were usually those who strongly believed i n the p r i n c i p l e of non-resistance who f l e d . the ones who stayed were forced to compromise with the c i v i l authorities and usually consented to m i l i t a r y service under pressure of losing t h e i r goods and property. this d i v i s i o n has been go- ing on among the mennonites for ij. years and has been slow and inperceptible, but i t s effects have been world wide. the european mennonites today have largely given up t h i s p o s i t i o n on war. through the t r o u b l e d p e r i o d o f the napoleonic wars and t h e i r aftermath the mennonites of h o l l a n d , p r u s s i a and germany were g r a d u a l l y f o r c e d away from t h e i r n o n - r e s i s t a n t stand and today a - c l e a r d i v i s i o n e x i s t s between the mennonites of the old and new worlds. a mennonite world conference i s scheduled to take p l a c e i n august, , i n b a s e l , switzerland, and many informed mennonite l e a d e r s f e a r t h a t a permanent s p l i t w i l l occur over the d o c t r i n e of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e . - ^ the f o r e g o i n g d o c t r i n e s are the f o u n d a t i o n stones upon which h i s t o r i c a l mennonitism i s b u i l t . n a t u r a l l y there have been many d i v i s i o n s among the mennonites i n the l a s t lj. y e a r s , most of them o c c u r r i n g because of d i f f e r e n c e s i n forms such as baptism, s t y l e of c l o t h i n g e t c . in a l b e r t a alone there are f o u r main mennonite denominations; the old mennon- i t e s , mennonite b r e t h e r n i n c h r i s t (now c a l l e d u n i t e d m i s s i o n - ary church), general conference mennonites, and the mennonite b r e t h e r n church. in the f a r n o r t h at p o r t v e r m i l i o n , a s e t t l e - ment of old colony mennonites ekes out a meagre e x i s t e n c e . a l l mennonite groups have s i m i l a r d o c t r i n a l stand- ards and agree that the new testament d i c t a t e s the r u l e s f o r c h r i s t i a n l i v i n g . they r e j e c t i n f a n t baptism and p r a c t i c e " b e l i e v e r s " baptism; they b e l i e v e t h a t the c h r i s t i a n l i f e i n - v o l v e s a s e p a r a t i o n from the s i n i n the world and a s t r i v i n g a f t e r the simple l i f e . they agree, that the b i b l e p r o h i b i t s for a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of the p r a c t i c a l h i s t o r y of the d o c t r i n e of n o n - r e s i s t a n c e see schaefer, p.j., woher? wohin? mennonitenl die mennoniten i n canada, t e l l , mennonite a g r i c u l t u r a l a d v i s o r y committee, a l t o n a , man., pp. ltl - l . smith, op. c i t . , pp. - * wenger, op. c i t . , pp. - . a l s o see chapter vii of t h i s t h e s i s . p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n warfare and i n l i t i g a t i o n , and forbids the use of the oath. the dissentions i n the ranks of mennonitism arise c h i e f l y i n the varying attitudes towards such newer i n s t i t u t i o n s of christendom as the sunday school, toward the adoption of new inventions i n the realms of transportation and communication, and toward newer forms of clothing. these l a t t e r points, of differences may seem t r i v i a l and even amus- ing to some observers, but they play a decisive part i n the unraveling of mennonite h i s t o r y . chapter two mennonite settlements in alberta mennonite immigrations to canada f a l l into four d e f i n i t e periods: the movement into upper canada from the united states in , after the american revolution; the movement i n the 's from russia into canada and the united states; the coming of the russian mennonites, to ; the movement of- displaced persons which occurred a f t e r world war i i and i s s t i l l i n progress ( ) . in this chapter b r i e f attention w i l l be paid to the f i r s t three phases with major emphasis on the t h i r d . the fourth movement w i l l be dealt with i n a l a t e r chapter. a l l of these migrations have given alberta new settlers^and the purpose here i s to examine b r i e f l y the h i s t o r y of each movement and the settlement i n alberta of the various mennonite denominations entering with each group. the f i r s t mennonites came to north america from switzerland i n a n d s e t t l e d i n william penn's newly found- ed colony, where germantown became t h e i r centre.^" here they enjoyed peace and prosperity u n t i l the american revolution burst upon them and m i l i t a r y service was demanded of them. disturbed by t h i s c a l l to arms many mennonites joined the stream of the united empire l o y a l i s t s who sought refuge i n b r i t i s h north america. the year marks the f i r s t s e t t l e - ment of mennonites i n vineland, i n lincoln county where they gibbon, j.m., canadian mosaic. the making of a northern nation. mcclelland and stewart ltd., toronto, , p. . i b i d . , p. . s e t t l e d i n block communities which were l a t e r assimilated but never l o s t the virtues of conservatism which have made the mennonites "a s t a b i l i s i n g element i n a world of change."-^ between i and another , came to upper canada. i t was not u n t i l the turn of the t h century that the f i r s t of these swiss mennonites from'ontario penetrated west to s t a r t settlements i n saskatchewan and alberta. the alberta colonies of t h i s mennonite denomination started i n / and ^ i n saskatchewan. these two provinces united i n ^ into the alberta-saskatchewan mennonite conference with e. s. hallman as "overseer. "^j- this mennonite group, usually c a l l e d the old menno- n i t e s , form the oldest element among the canadian mennonites. they are the d i r e c t descendants of the swiss brethern who came to the united states when persecution i n europe was at i t s height. in t h i s denomination had , members i n congregations, served by bishops and ministers.^ the church i n canada had a membership of , with about ° i n alberta. this branch of mennonitism i s characterized by "staunch conservatism i n f a i t h and d i s c i p l i n e coupled with a vigorous program of mission, publications, education, and mu- • tual a i d . . . " church d i s c i p l i n e i s r i g i d and the church rules necessitate simple and p l a i n dress, plus a denial of many i b i d . , p. . k- letter from e.s. hallman to p.f. bargen, dated july , . zook e.d. (ed.) t mennonite yearbook and directory , menn- onite publishing house, scottdale, pa., , p. l » i b i d . , p. . wenger, op. c i t . , p. . minutes and reports of the annual conference of the alberta- saskatchewan conference, , p» ^ modern luxuries and ornaments such as wedding rings and con- ventional wedding gowns.^a the mennonite church holds f i r m l y to the doctrine of non-resistance and i s one of the most con- servative denominations on t h i s question. l i f e i s to be-lived simply, void of luxuries and the s e l f i s h indulgences of the wealthy. this s i m p l i c i t y i s carried over to t h e i r churches where the structures are simple and lack any ornamentation of the i n t e r i o r . this group i n canada has refused to accept old q to age pensions, widows .allowances and family allowances be- cause these measures involve a r e l a t i o n between the state and church and therefore should be rejected, and the members are urged not to apply for t h i s a i d . ^ this separation of church and state i s carried over into the economic f i e l d and the mem- bers are advised not to p a r t i c i p a t e i n any of the co-operative e f f o r t s i n the community, such as wheat pools,.milk pools, cream pools and "kindred organization," f o r "the a f f i l i a t i o n with organizations of the above character compromises and en- dangers the s p i r i t u a l r e l a t i o n s of our brethern and adds no- thing to s p i r i t u a l fellowship and growth." although o r i g i n - a l l y speaking german, the old mennonites have now adopted the english language which i s used i n a l l church services and in sunday school. the old mennonites are counted as the f i r s t menno- n i t e s e t t l e r s i n alberta. in a certain e l i a s w. bricker s e t t l e d near high river, alberta, having come out on the c.p.r.*s a i b i d . , - . p. . alberta-saskatchewan conference, , p. alberta-saskatchewan conference, - , p» loc. c i t . alberta-saskatchewan conference, , p« k-* loc. c i t . homeseekers excursion of that year.-^ in and l a t e r he was followed by other mennonite s e t t l e r s from ontario and the united states, so that by most of the settlements by mem- bers of this denomination had been established i n the province. in the high river area a church was b u i l t i n and the mount view mennonite congregation came into existence. the organizational work was done by s.p. goffman who had been commissioned by the ontario conference to ordain ministers and organize churches i n the west. today the mount view church has eighteen members, with h.r. boettger as minister. ^ at about the same time,the west zion mennonite church was organized near carstairs, alberta. the f i r s t menno- nite s e t t l e r i n t h i s d i s t r i c t was andrew weber of ontario who came west i n l j-« the main settlement was established i n and the church was organized by s.p. coffman i n the same year. a church was b u i l t i n but soon became too small and a new structure was erected i n * this congre- gation i s unique among mennonite; churches i n that approxim- ately h a l f of the membership i s composed of people of b r i t i s h o r i g i n who have accepted the mennonite f a i t h . the present membership of the church i s seventy-six with gordon buschert as p a s t o r . ^ the mayton mennonite church, located seventeen miles east of olds, alberta, was also organized by s.p. coffman. the f i r s t mennonite s e t t l e r s to t h i s area had come from north- western :. iowa. this congregation i s now extinct, d i s s o l u t i o n l l j . mennonite encyclopedia and questionnaire^ zook, e.d., op. c i t . , p, « also questionnaire. questionnaire. s t a r t i n g i n when the minister, john k. lehman, moved to oregon. in p r a c t i c a l l y the entire congregation moved to the t o f i e l d d i s t r i c t and united with the salem mennonite con- gregation there. through inter-marriage they are now thor- oughly amalgamated into t h i s new church. ' the o r i g i n of the t o f i e l d old mennonite settlement can be traced to the a c t i v i t i e s of two brothers o.c. and t.a. blackburn, from nebraska, u.s.a. they became interested i n the canadian west and i t s settlement p o s s i b i l i t i e s . having l i v e d i n the same community with the amlsh mennonites of seward county, nebraska, they became interested i n s e l l i n g land to them and were instrumental i n d i r e c t i n g the f i r s t group of home-seekers to the t o f i e l d d i s t r i c t . the home-seek- ers excursion took place i n but i t was not u n t i l that the f i r s t group of mennonite s e t t l e r s moved to the to- f i e l d d i s t r i c t . there had been s e t t l e r s i n the d i s t r i c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y norwegians, for twenty years previous to , and homesteading had occurred on every other section. this l e f t about h a l f the land s t i l l unsettled and the mennonites found ample opportunity to found prosperous farms. o r i g i n a l l y t h i s group of s e t t l e r s belonged to the amlsh mennonite church, but they joined the alberta-saskatchewan conference i n * membership increased by newcomers from ontario and the united states and i n as the mayton congregation moved to t o f i e l d . the f i r s t church was b u i l t i n and enlarged i n and . today the salem congregation has a membership of with john b. stauffer as bishop. questionnaire questionnaire and mennonite encyclopedia. k other d i s t r i c t s s e t t l e d by the old mennonites w i l l be dealt with very b r i e f l y . the clearwater congregation near youngston, alberta, was formed by ptfennonites from michigan and indiana. due to drought the mennonites moved away and this congregation i s now e x t i n c t . in the duchess area, s.b. ramer was the f i r s t mennonite s e t t l e r and a congregation was organized i n , the s e t t l e r s coming mainly from pennsyl- - vania and are often referred to as pennsylvania dutch. this congregation at present has a membership of ninety-eight. near westward ho, alberta, we f i n d the mount calvary congre- gation which was organized i n ^- * although mennonites had been i n the area since * present membership i s . at s t i r l i n g , alberta, there i s a small congregation of seventeen members, who i n ^ broke away from the hutterian brethern and joined the old mennonite church. near smith, alberta, a congregation was organized i n ̂ - and now has a membership of twenty. a small congregation of seven members i s also located near acadia valley. the t o t a l membership of- the old mennnnite church i n alberta ( ) i s another mennonite denomination which belongs to the f i r s t mennonite movement into the west was the united mission- ary church, previously c a l l e d mennonite brethern i n christ. this group arose out of a schism that developed i n the old mennonite church i n , and was led by william gehman of at pennsylvania, and daniel hoch and solomon eby, both of ontario. this- group broke away from the main body of mennonitism be- cause they thought the old church was too conservative. in zook, e.d., op. c i t . , p. also questionnaire. wenger, op. c i t . , p. . f a i t h the u n i t e d m i s s i o n a r y church i s i n l i n e w i t h the h i s - t o r i c mennonite c o n f e s s i o n s . they emphasize a vigorous pro- gram o f evangelism, an emotional type of c o n v e r s i o n and immer- s i o n as the .mode of baptism. in economic and p o l i t i c a l areas they do not draw such a c o n s e r v a t i v e l i n e between the church and s t a t e as the old mennonites. in , jacob y. janz of the mennonite b r e t h e r n i n c h r i s t came from ontario and s e l e c t e d didsbury, f i f t y miles n o r t h of calgary, as a s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n f o r a new mennonite s e t t l e m e n t . in i i - a colony was e s t a b l i s h e d con- t a i n i n g t h i r t y - f o u r r e s i d e n t s from waterloo county, o n t a r i o . t h i s p i o n e e r s e t t l e m e n t has .grown r a p i d l y , others were estab- l i s h e d , and today members of t h i s church may be found at ac- a d i a v a l l e y , allingham, cremona, bergen, james r i v e r b r i d g e , olds, galahad, and edmonton. in a l b e r t a t h i s denomination i s b e i n g served by twenty-four m i n i s t e r s and has a membership of approximately f i v e hundred. .another group of mennonites b e l o n g i n g to the f i r s t era of settlement i n a l b e r t a i s the church of god i n c h r i s t denomination. the mennonite brethern i n c h r i s t had broken w i t h the old church because the l a t t e r was c o n s i d e r e d too c o n s e r v a t i v e , the church of god i n c h r i s t , l e d by john hold- eman o f ohio, broke away i n , because i t c o n s i d e r e d the old church too l i b e r a l . t h i s i s a mennonite denomination where s t r i c t d i s c i p l i n e i s p r a c t i c e d , shunning or avoidance i s s t i l l emphasized, and the men are r e q u i r e d to wear beards, zook, e.d., op. c i t . , p. . l i t t l e more i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e about t h i s denomination i n a l b e r t a . the q u e s t i o n - n a i r e s sent out have not been r e t u r n e d . wenger, op. c i t . . p. . this group i s w i d e l y known as holdemans. " f o r t h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t of the moral law of god." ^ as the russian mennonites came to canada many of them j o i n e d t h i s denomination and as a r e s u l t the d i s c i p l i n e was r e l a x e d to the extent t h a t t h i s denomination w i l l a l l o w f e l l o w s h i p w i t h other mennonite denominations. yet they s t i l l adhere to the s t r i c t l e t t e r of the c o n f e s s i o n of f a i t h and some char- a c t e r i s t i c d o c t r i n e s are taught, n o t a b l e among them being the r e f u s a l to take i n t e r e s t on money loaned, which i s c a l l e d usury and c o n s i d e r e d w r o n g . ^ there are two congregations of the church i n a l - b e r t a ; at linden and at rosedale. the f i r s t s e t t l e r s of t h i s denomination came to linden i n from the s t a t e of oregon and were l e d by rev. samuel boese. in more came from manitoba under the l e a d e r s h i p of rev. p e t e r baerg. today there i s a w e l l " e s t a b l i s h e d community at linden, the church a having a membership of and a sunday school enrollment of l-j- ( +- ). the rosedale congregation at crooked creek, i n northern a l b e r t a , was o r g a n i z e d i n and now has a member- ship of n i n e t y - f o u r . ^ these' then are the a l b e r t a mennonite settlements which owe t h e i r d i r e c t o r i g i n to the mennonites of swiss or (jutch ancestory, and who belong to the f i r s t movement of menno- n i t e s i n t o western canada. the t o t a l number o f church members i n these groups i n a l b e r t a i s approximately , while the t o t a l church membership of a l l mennonite groups i s approximately . prom t h i s i t i s e v i d e n t that the l a r g e r mennonite i . department of commerce and labour, op. c i t . , p. lj. ' mennonite e n c y c l o p e d i a . f i g u r e s compiled by author from v a r i o u s sources: mennonite e n c y c l o p e d i a ; zook, e.d., op. c i t . ; q u e s t i o n n a i r e . . j ^ u . element i n alberta owes i t s o r i g i n to l a t e r immigrations, mainly from russia. the churches'dealt with here, with the exception of the united missionary church, belong to the more conservative mennonite elements, and consequently t h e i r i n - fluence on the general course of mennonite h i s t o r y i n alberta has been less than that of the groups entering l a t e r . the second great mennonite immigration to canada came from russia, beginning i n i j ., the s e t t l e r s going p a r t l y to the western united states but l a r g e l y to the canadian p r a i r i e provinces. manitoba was chosen as the main area of settlement. these s e t t l e r s were seeking new homes because the r e l i g i o u s freedom promised forever by catherine i i of russia, to entice the s e t t l e r from prussia, suddenly lapsed under czar alexander i i , who thought, that he might make up for l o s t manpower by russifying the mennonite farmer. thus i t was that three years a f t e r the supression of the f i r s t r i e l rebellion, a large mennonite settlement arose i n the red river valley of southern manitoba. this group was direc- ted to canada by william hespeler, a canadian of german or- i g i n from waterloo county, ontario. j.m. gibbon points out the effect of this new imm- i g r a t i o n on the settlement of the west. these s e t t l e r s came well equipped with clothing for the manitoba winter, but they heeded supplies, implements and t o o l s , which they purchased with gold russian roubles, "which were a godsend to the winni- peg merchants, who saw l i t t l e enough cash i n these pioneer days." ashdown's hardware store i s reported to have sold over sibbon, op. c i t . , ~p~. . (for'many years gibbon was chief p u b l i c i t y agent for the c.p.r.) i b i d . , pp. l -l§ii. $i|. worth of implements to the mennonites i n one day. in addition, the new s e t t l e r s brought with them the seeds of new grains and vegetables such as f l a x , muskmelons and watermelons. "they are also credited with introducing groves of trees as windbreaks on hitherto treeless p r a i r i e . " the mennonites had come as strangers to a new land, and had chosen canada because of the many p r i v i l e g e s offered them by the'government. in a delegation of four men had been sent out to scout the land and make arrangements with the canadian government. the p r i v i l e g e s granted were very l i b e r a l and consisted of exemption from m i l i t a r y service, the reservation of eight townships of land f o r the exclusive use of the mennonites; to each s e t t l e r over twenty-one years of age the government promised acres of homestead land and the mennonites received the f u l l e s t p r i v i l e g e of exercising t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s without any kind of molestation or r e s t r i c t i o n whatever, and the same p r i v i l e g e was extended to the education of t h e i r children. in addition the govern- ment advanced $ , to the immigrants to help them get established. many mennonites took advantage of t h i s generous offer. in the summer of lord dufferin v i s i t e d the manitoba settlement and welcomed the newcomers. his welcome- read i n part^ i have come here today i n the name of the queen of england to bid you welcome on canadian s o i l . you have come to a land where you w i l l f i n d the people with whom you are to associate engaged, indeed, i n a great struggle, and contending with foes whom i t requires t h e i r best energies to encounter. but see appendix a. p. ijffi. those foes are not your fellowmen, nor w i l l you be c a l l e d upon i n the struggle to s t a i n your hands with human blood - a task which i s so abhorrent to your r e l i g i o u s feelings. the war to which we' invite you as r e c r u i t s and comrades i s a war waged against the brute forces of nature; but those forces w i l l welcome our domination, and reward our attack by placing t h e i r treasures at our disposal. i t i s a war of ambition, - for we intend to annex t e r r i t o r y , - but neither blazing v i l l a g e s nor dev- astated f i e l d s w i l l mark our ruthless track; our battalions w i l l march across the i l l i m i t a b l e plains which stretch before us as sunshine steals athwart the ocean; the r o l l i n g p r a i r i e w i l l blossom i n our wake, and corn and peace and plenty w i l l spring where we have trod. in t h i s address lord dufferin revealed c l e a r l y that he under- stood the mennonite psychology, f o r -the type of warfare depic- ted therein would t h r i l l the hearts of these new s e t t l e r s . i t was a month l a t e r that lord dufferin paid his personal t r i b u t e to the progress of the mennonite settlement when speaking i n winnipeg; although i have witnessed many sights to cause me pleasure during my various progresses through the dominion, seldom have i beheld any spectacle more pregnant with prophecy, more fraught with promise of a successful future than the mennonite s e t t l e - ment. (applause) when i v i s i t e d these i n t e r e s t i n g people, they had only been two years i n the prov- ince, and yet i n a long ride i took across many miles of p r a i r i e , which but yesterday was absol- utely bare, desolate, and untenanted, the home of the wolf, the badger, and the eagle, i passed v i l - . lage a f t e r v i l l a g e , homestead a f t e r homestead, f u r - nished f o r t h with a l l the conveniences and incidents of european comfort, and a s c i e n t i f i c agriculture, while on either side of the road cornfields already ripe f o r harvest, and pastures populous with herds of c a t t l e stretched away to the horiz.en. (applause) even on this continent - there has nowhere, i im- agine, taken place so marvellous a transformation — (cheers) -- and yet when i n your name, and i n the name of the queen of england, i bade these people welcome to t h e i r new homes, i t was not the improvement i n t h e i r material fortunes that pre-occupied my thoughts. glad i was to have the power of applotting them so ample a portion of our teeming s o i l - a s o i l which gibbon, op. c i t . , p. i i . seems to blossom at a touch-- ( c h e e r i n g ) — and which they were c u l t i v a t i n g to such m a n i f e s t advantage -- i f e l t i n f i n i t e l y prouder i n being able to throw over them the aegis of the b r i t i s h c o n s t i t u t i o n - - ( l o u d c h e e r i n g ) — and i n b i d d i n g them f r e e l y share with us our u n r i v a l l e d p o l i t i - c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , our untrammelled p e r s o n a l l i b e r t y . the $ , which had been advanced to the menno- n i t e s by the canadian government was p a i d back i n . in announcing t h i s the m i n i s t e r of the i n t e r i o r s t a t e d , in a l l the h i s t o r y of our country, there i s not to be found a case i n which a company or i n d i v i d u a l has more f a i t h f u l l y met h i s o b l i g a t i o n to the gov- ernment than has been the case here. - not a s i n g l e i n s t a n c e i s known where one of the s e t t l e r s or of the men who had g i v e n s e c u r i t y made any attempt to withdraw from h i s o b l i g a t i o n s . t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of honoring the g i v e n word was a l a r g e f a c t o r i n persuading the c.p.r. to extend about $ , , worth of c r e d i t to the mennonite immigrants to o. ' ' the mennonites who s e t t l e d i n manitoba were com - posed of three w e l l d e f i n e d communities. two of these groups a had l i v e d i n separate s e t t l e m e n t s i n russia where they had been f a i r l y s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , namely the p u e r s t e n l a n d and b e r g t h a l c o l o n i e s . the p u e r s t e n l a n d group i s b e t t e r known as a l t k o l - o n i e r or old colony mennonites. the t h i r d group was the k l e i n e gemeinde, a d i s s i d e n t church group which had sprung up i n the molotschna colony i n r u s s i a about . the name of the l a t t e r group, "small church," i s \ very a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i t has ( ) o n l y , members.^ the b e r g t h a l e r group i b i d . . p. loc. c i t . , d i s c u s s e d i n chapter i i i . i . f r a n c i s , e.k., " t r a d i t i o n and progress among the mennonites i n manitoba," mennonite q u a r t e r l y review, oct., > p« » wenger, op. c i t . , p. . o zook, op. c i t . , p. • belong to the o r i g i n a l mennonite group but today belong ^.y^ l a r g e l y to the general conference mennonite church. the a l t k o l o n i e r represents a l l that i s reactionary among mennonites today. the members are very s t r i c t i n the exercise of the ban or shunning of expelled members. they have few sunday schools, no evening or protracted meetings, church conferences, missions, or benevolent i n s t i t u t i o n s . they worship f o r the most part i n private homes and use the german language exclusively i n t h e i r services. they do not associate i n r e l i g i o u s work with other mennonite bodies, and are d i s t i n c t i v e and p l a i n i n t h e i r costume, using hooks and eyes instead of buttons. they c l i n g to old t r a d i t i o n s , reject progress and f i g h t the modern school. the a l t k o l o n i e r settled mainly i n the west reserve i n manitoba. in manitoba the p r i v i l e g e s granted to the mennonite s e t t l e r s had been very l i b e r a l , the r e s u l t being that the communities grew, having complete freedom i n the organization of.schools and l o c a l government. the responsible "authorities were more concerned with a t t r a c t i n g e f f i c i e n t s e t t l e r s than with t h e i r c u l t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n , or t h e i r s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l integration."^^ thus the mennonites in- these colonies lay down the law according to t h e i r own t r a d i t i o n s rather than to the canadian p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l system. this period of peaceful development came to an end i n the early 's when the p r o v i n c i a l government demanded that the mennonite reserves be reorganized into m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . this proposal met with l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y except i n the ranks francis, op. c i t . , p. . o f the a l t k o l o n i e r who r e f u s e d to accept the proposed changes, f o r they meant t h a t the l o c a l schools would be c o n t r o l l e d by the government. as the "world" c l o s e d more t i g h t l y around them the a l t k o l o n i e r looked f o r an escape. they found t h i s escape i n the ' s when many migrated to mexico and para- guay, w i t h a number going to saskatchewan.^ j n old colony mennonites l e f t saskatchewan and founded a new colony on the n o r t h bank of the peace r i v e r i n northern a l b e r t a . these were soon j o i n e d by newcomers from the chihuahua p l a t e a u i n mexico and as l a t e as j u l y , , about f o r t y a l t k o l o n i e r from there c r o s s e d the i ^ t h p a r a l l e d a t coutts, a l b e r t a , on t h e i r t r e c k n o r t h to j o i n t h e i r b r e t h e r n at f o r t v e r m i l i o n . ^ the a l t k o l o n i e r colony at f o r t v e r m i l i o n , about j .oo m i l e s n o r t h o f edmonton, i s completely i s o l a t e d from the r e s t of c i v i l i z a t i o n — an i s o l a t i o n t h a t must be near the a l t k o l o n i e r h e a r t . the o n l y c o n t a c t w i t h the o u t s i d e w o r l d i s the p l a n e , the boat or dogteam. here i n t h i s w i l d e r n e s s , where they have assumed s q u a t t e r s r i g h t s , the old colony menno- n i t e has found, to a c e r t a i n degree, t h a t i s o l a t i o n from the "world" which he seeks. there are no s c h o o l s , no i n t e r f e r e n c e from a u t h o r i t y , and i n t e r l o p e r s are r a r e . the other mennonite denominations are concerned about the s p i r i t u a l w e l f a r e of these people and have sent m i n i s t e r s to the area. the m i n i s - t e r s have been r e c e i v e d but not allowed to speak i n p u b l i c ; t h e i r o f f e r s to send up good teachers have been f i r m l y r e f u s e d . the s c h o o l q u e s t i o n i s too complex to be d e a l t w i t h here. those i n t e r e s t e d see i b i d . , pp. - * mennonite e n c y c l o p e d i a \\q the a l b e r t an. j u l y , . one v i s i t i n g minister said, "they are c u l t u r a l l y retarded and s p i r i t u a l l y b l i n d , and yet they think they are suffering for christ's sake." the settlement i s scattered f o r t y miles along the peace river on either side of port vermilion. the church membership of t h i s group at present i s . ^ " the other two mennonite denominations that reached canada i n the 's also expanded into alberta, although only to a very small degree.""*"̂ " the kleine gemeinde started a settlement i n the peace river area i n the year i l i . the s e t t l e r s came from the united states and were w e l l supplied with funds, having sold t h e i r holdings p r o f i t a b l y i n that country. due to disunity and f r i c t i o n among them, coupled- with poor business management, the settlements never prospered and the s e t t l e r s slowly moved away. by.l ij- none of the kleine gemeinde s e t t l e r s remained i n alberta. the f i r s t bergthaler s e t t l e r s came to alberta from the west reserve i n manitoba i n . they came to the dids- bury area were they found a number of mennonite s e t t l e r s who had previously come from ontario. the open p r a i r i e between didsbury and red deer impressed the s e t t l e r s favorably. more f a m i l i e s came, some from oregon, some from the east reserve i n manitoba, but many also moved away so that the settlement stayed small. the beginnings were made by growing feed grain, and c a t t l e r a i s i n g became a p r o f i t a b l e occupation,^** in ^ + zook, op. c i t . , p. . \\z the following information from a pioneer of the peace river d i s t r i c t , h. kornelson. i . schaeffer, op. c i t . , p. kk vertreterversammlung, • (pr^tokoll der vertreterversammlungen dermennonittschen siedler von alberta) k the f i r s t church was b u i l t and i n t h i s group joined the general conference mennonite church. today t h i s group, through intermarriage and.co-operative association, i s i d e n t i f i e d com- p l e t e l y with the immigrants of - . i t i s evident that the mennonites of this second immigration to canada, l e f t t h e i r imprint l a r g e l y on the province of manitoba. even today they are the main mennonite group there. alberta, however, even though eventually receiv- ing a few of t h e i r numbers remained outside the orbit of their settlements. the groups that did s e t t l e i n alberta now l i v e i n i s o l a t i o n , moved away, or have become amalgamated with the immigrants who came l a t e r . the coming of the russian mennonites i n the 's mafeks a new chapter i n the colonization of western canada. when the new immigration started i n the.newcomers often s e t t l e d i n areas of previous mennonite settlement but over- flowed more into the provinces of saskatchewan and alberta than the previous movements. these l a s t s e t t l e r s belonged mainly to two church d i v i s i o n s , the bruedergemeinde (brethern church), and the o r i g i n a l group from which the mennonite brethern had broken i n i . these groups entered canada penniless and in the early years sought employment as labour- ers on farms. some were fortunate enough to obtain farms either on a rent or sale basis. because of three-men, david toews, b.b. janz, and cp'. klassen, and t h e i r e f f o r t s on be- h a l f of the immigrants, the canadian p a c i f i c railway extended credit to the newcomers which enabled them to enter canada. besides showing a philanthropic s p i r i t , the c.p.r. i n aiding these new immigrants, was looking to the future when the pro- ducts of newly opened areas i n the west would provide t r a f f i c for i t s struggling r a i l l i n e s . ^ the west, one of the r i c h e s t a g r i c u l t u r a l areas i n the world, was to be turned into a huge production machine. as s i r edward beatty l a t e r put i t , "our task was to convert.western canada into a land of homes. the russian mennonites were to help i n t h i s task of opening the west and were encouraged to take up land. the c.p.r. was aware of the mennonites desire to s e t t l e i n commun- i t i e s and consequently large areas of land were thrown open f o r mass settlement. since alberta contained large areas of c.p.r. land which had been granted to the company as a subsidy f o r building the railway, the o f f i c i a l s of the company were anxious to obtain s e t t l e r s of the mennonite calibre f o r these lands. without s e t t l e r s the land was of no value and the company saw that only through e f f o r t s and expenditures of i t s own funds and the private funds of i t s organizers, and through organized colonization schemes, could the west be populated and made p r o f i t a b l e . this was the general p o l i c y but the mennonites played a very large part i n the f u l f i l m e n t of that p o l i c y . ^ the canadian west opened i t s doors and the menno- nites thronged i n . as water s e t t l e s i n low areas so the menno- nites tended to establish themselves i n homogeneous groups on the p r a i r i e s . a s e t t l e r would move to an area and f i n d i t r i c h k c.p.r., i r r i g a t i o n farming i n sunny alberta, , p. . lj. canadian p a c i f i c staff b u l l e t i n , feb. , , lj- loc. c i t . - for c.p.r. and settlement see chapter iv. d and rewarding; r e l a t i v e s and friends were n o t i f i e d and joined the group. slowly large areas of land f e l l exclusively into the hands of the newcomers. the mennonite settlement at coal- dale, today the largest i n the province,^ began when one man, klaas enns, and h i s family consented to clean beets f o r a l o c a l farmer. through the years there have been movements of mennonite s e t t l e r s to and fro across the plains and f o o t h i l l s of alberta* the picture seems as r e s t l e s s as the waves of the sea. one year an area would contain a number of settlements, the next year the s e t t l e r s were gone. many f a m i l i e s moved alone and remained i s o l a t e d from others of t h e i r f a i t h ; they were not as fortunate as klaas enns - no new s e t t l e r s followed and they remained alone, either to move away or remain and be absorbed into the dominant culture of the area. although there are records of such cases, absorption has been rather a rare occurrence. the two mennonite denominations p a r t i c i p a t i n g , i n the t h i r d mennonite migration to canada were the mennonite brethern church, and the o r i g i n a l body from which the menno- nite brethern had broken i n i . the former body originated as a r e v i v a l i s t movement i n the molotschna mennonite colony i n southern russia. in the eyes of t h i s dissident group the o r i g i n a l mennonite body was no longer pure and therefore i t could not approve of the l i f e and conduct of many of the church members. on january , i , eighteen family heads signed a statement of withdrawal from the parent body. the i . vertreterversammlung, > p« . man who l i t t h i s new r e l i g i o u s flame was a german evangelical by the name of edward wuest. fundamentally the mennonite brethern church remained a true mennonite body, but emphasized a more bible-centred l i f e f o r i t s members. in spite of per- secution from the parent body, the mennonite brethern church prospered and by membership had r i s e n to . the d i s t i n c t i v e views of t h i s new branch of menno- nitism were summarized by p.c. hiebert, a leading minister of the -new church. . a d e f i n i t e r e l i g i o u s experience followed by a changed l i f e , as a prerequisite of admission to membership. . baptism by immersion upon confession of f a i t h as the only recognized form. . a negative reaction against a l l tendencies to- ward formalism as i t hindered early church pro- cedure, and toward systematic r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n of children. ii. definite opposition to a l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g and service. . limiting communion to baptized members i n good standing i n the l o c a l church. • . active evangelism characterized by a keen per- sonal interest i n the personal conversion and s a l - vation of one's associates. .' a thorough study of a l l the scriptures, which i s recognized as the word of god, and an urgent demand that every member l i v e up to what god requires i n the bible of those who have accepted christ as t h e i r personal saviour. * although the largest number of mennonite brethern came to america i n the 's, they had, as early as the l 's, s e t t l e d i n kansas, nebraska, minnesota, and south dakota, while only a small number reached canada and s e t t l e d mainly i n manitoba. in the 's many members of the parent mennonite k wenger, op. c i t . , p. « i b i d . , p. . lohrenz, john h., the mennonite brethern church, the menno- n i t e publishing house, h i l l s b o r o , kansas, , pp. - . body in southern russia also migrated to canada. once i n t h e i r new homeland t h i s group was faced with two alternatives: either to form a .church conference of t h e i r own or to j o i n one of the e x i s t i n g mennonite conferences i n canada. small, numbers joined the bergthaler church and the church of god i n christ (holdeman), but by f a r the largest percentage a f f i l - iated with the general conference mennonite church of north america.-' this l a t t e r body had originated when two small mennonite congregations i n leeds county, iowa, held a confer- ence to discuss the possible union of a l l the mennonite bodies i n america. among those especially interested was john ober- holzer of pennsylvania, who had taken an advanced stand i n the matter of aggresive work and missions. together with sixteen other ministers he was charged with insubordination to the then established mennonite church government, and was disowned. as a r e s u l t oberholzer, i n oct. l k , organized a separate conference i n eastern pennsylvania. the new union movement gained strong support and promised to advance along broader and more l i b e r a l l i n e s than the old conference had permitted. in may of i , these dissident groups organized the general conference mennonite church of america. membership grew rap- i d l y and the movement spread north into canada. by a w e l l organized branch of the church existed i n canada. in.doctrine the general conference church i s , with few exceptions, i n s t r i c t accord with other mennonite confess- ions, but i t does not interpret the mennonite •confession of f a i t h as l i t e r a l l y as other mennonite bodies do. the main ibid... p. . department of commerce and labor, op. c i t . . p. kl . difference between t h i s body and. the mennonite brethern church i s i n the demand of the brethern for a personal r e l i - gious experience leading to a manifest emotional conversion. they d i f f e r also i n the form of baptism; the general confer- ence baptize by pouring, the mennonite brethern by backward immersion. while the mennonite brethern church joined t h e i r own brethern church on a r r i v a l i n canada, the parent body largely joined the general conference mennonite church. in alberta today, these two groups form the largest mennonite element, having a combined church membership of approximately , l t . ^ " there are very few mennonite settlements i n alberta that consist of only one mennonite denomination. in most areas there i s a medley of general conference and menno- n i t e brethern with perhaps smaller elements of other denom- inations. this statement applies especially to the s e t t l e - ments started i n the "s. in the early years necessity compelled co-operation on economic as well as r e l i g i o u s l i n e s , and often one church b u i l d i n g served a l l denominations i n the area. i t was not u n t i l prosperity set i n that each denomina- t i o n erected i t s own building and segregated i t s services from that of the others. today, i n some smaller areas such a la- combe and chinook, one building s t i l l serves the purposes of a l l . since the mennonite brethern broke away from the parent body i n i a d e f i n i t e d i v i s i o n has existed between these two branches of mennonitism. that d i v i s i o n has been carried over to canada since the mennonite general conference church + & rtretereeraaimiiurigy , p. . i n canada consists l a r g e l y of members of the o r i g i n a l menno- nite body i n russia. by the l a t t e r the brethern are consid- ered rebels while the brethern i n turn, look upon the general conference as having l o s t the true fundamentals of c h r i s t i a n i t y and consequently can no longer be regarded as t r u l y mennonite. in the higher c i r c l e s of mennonite organization a determined e f f o r t i s being made at co-operation between these two denom- inations. during the war t h i s co-operation was achieved es- p e c i a l l y i n the f i e l d of r e l i e f work and on the question of non-resistance. as i s the case even among nations peace often brings disunity, and t h i s has been discernable among the menno- nites also. these complex emotions e x i s t among the mennonites at large and greatly hinder any co-operative movements which try to heal the breach between the two bodies. thus, as often i s the case, the misunderstandings of the past may lead to further a l i e n a t i o n i n the future. as subsequent chapters w i l l prove, however, a certain degree of co-operation does e x i s t and may well provide the basis f o r future rapprochement. the . vertreterversammlung has done much to repair the shattered ranks of mennonite unity i n alberta. the f i r s t general conference mennonite s e t t l e r s moved into alberta from manitoba as early as and s e t t l e d near didsbury. the majority, however, s e t t l e d i n the pro- vince a f t e r world war i, most being of the new immigration from russia. today the largest mennonite conference church mennonite encyclopedia. ' "questionnaires were sent out to a l l mennonite conference churches i n alberta, but only one has been returned. since no written information on these churches, outside of the reports of the vertreterversammlung, e x i s t , the discussion of these settlements i s of necessity meagre and incomplete. exists at rosemary, and has a membership of * the f i r s t mennonite s e t t l e r s were brought to t h i s area i n by the canada colonization association which sponsored the s e t t l e - ment.v the s e t t l e r s were able to buy t h e i r land so. that by about acres were mennonite owned. in the can- adian p a c i f i c railway company, who owned the land, handed the whole area of * acres over to the d i s t r i c t , at the same time cancelling the land debt of the farmers.^ this step was taken i n order to escape the high cost of constructing and operating i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , while at the same time trans- f e r i n g these problems to community co-operation. lying i n the heart of an i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t , rosemary has prospered and today i s the centre of a populous mennonite area. the general conference church also has large denominations at c o a l d a l e ^ and didsbury. the l a t t e r s e t t l e - ment was started i n , when a group of about twenty menno- n i t e .families came from the west reserve i n manitoba and sett- l e d there. the church continued to grow and i n had a membership of l> the following table shows the location and membership of the various mennonite conference churches i n a l b e r t a : ^ vertreterversammlung, l> p* this was a subsidiary organization founded by the c.p.r. f o r the s p e c i f i c purpose of s e t t l i n g people on the land. general manager was t.o.p. herzer of winnipeg. this organ- i z a t i o n had then, and s t i l l has, branch o f f i c e s i n the four western provinces, and has i n a long range work s e t t l e d the majority of the mennonite farmers. see chapter iv of this thesis. vertreterversammlung, > p« . coaldale s h a l l be dealt with l a t e r . vertreterversammlung, > p» « vertreterversammlung, l » p» . loc. c i t . place no. of families members persons coaldale k vauxhall springridge rosemary . k gem munson calgary $k didsbury k t o f i e l d l k l k wembley k new brigden k chinook l . lacombe in , the mennonite brethern church i n alberta had a t o t a l membership of . ^ the f i r s t settlement of this denomination i n alberta began i n with the establish- ment of the community at coaldale. with coaldale as centre other settlements soon came into existence, and i n the various churches united into a p r o v i n c i a l organization known as the p r o v i n c i a l conference of the mennonite brethern church. in , tbe following churches i n alberta constituted the conference:^ coaldale ( ) , gem ( l k ) , grassy lake ( k ) la glace ( l ) , lindbrook ( ) , linden ( d , namaka (ko), pincher creek ( ), and vauxhall ( ). a l l of these congregations, outside of coaldale, are r e l a t i v e l y small and s h a l l be dealt k mennonite brethern church, s t a t i s t i c s , ^ loc. c i t . membership shown i n brackets. k with only b r i e f l y . the gem mennonite brethern church was organized i n june, , with a membership of t h i r t y - f i v e , and was accepted into the mennonite brethern d i s t r i c t conference the same year. the grassy lake congregation was founded i n with a membership of seven; the f i r s t s e t t l e r s having come to the area i n . in la glace, located i n the peace river area of northwestern alberta, a mennonite brethern church was organized i n ; the same year a church was organized at lindbrook. the linden mennonite brethern church i s located about eight miles north of acme, alberta, and was formerly a f f i l i a t e d with the evangelical mennonite brethern conference, but i n - united with the canadian conference of the menno- n i t e brethern. the church at namaka, organized i n , also belonged to the evangelical mennonite brethern u n t i l + , when i t became a member of the mennonite brethern church. at pincher creek a mennonite brethern church was organized i n + and remained a f f i l i a t e d with the coaldale church u n t i l + . in that year i t organized i t s e l f as a separate church and constructed i t s own church building. in a mennonite brethern church was organized at vauxhall, and a church was erected i n . in + , as a r e s u l t of arson, both the mennonite. brethern and the general conference churches at vauxhall were destroyed by f i r e . in addition to the above mentioned organized mennonite churches small groups e x i s t at carstairs, c r o s s f i e l d , carseland, strathmore, duchess, brooks, irma, castor, provost, drumheller, craigmyle, monitor, consort, the following information obtained from questionnaire and mennonite encyclopedia. kk ryley, countess, lymburn, and beaverlodge.^ coaldale, the centre of alberta mennonitism, deserves special attention. at coaldale we f i n d the greatest concentration of mennonites i n alberta. i t i s estimated that coaldale and i t s environs contain i mennonites including mennonite bre- them and general conference mennonites. situated i n the centre of , acres of good i r r i g a t i o n land coaldale be- came the f i r s t settlement i n alberta dominated by the russian mennonites. through private e f f o r t s , and e f f o r t s of the can- adian p a c i f i c railway company, the mennonites were brought to t h i s area i n and ; today, amidst a cosmopolitan population of twenty r a c i a l groups, they form the dominant element there. when the mennonites arrived coaldale already had a twenty-five year history behind i t . the pioneer founder of coaldale i s considered to be h.a. suggit who came from i l l i n o i s about l^olx, and -with the co-operation of a family named cokeley, organized a com- pany to colonize and s e t t l e a block of some twelve thousand acres of i r r i g a t e d l a n d . ^ suggit promoted numerous community plans and also b u i l t the f i r s t house at the present s i t e of coaldale, only to lose h i s investments during the depression. being i n dire f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s suggit misappropriated about $ . of the school board funds and served a s i x months j a i l term as a r e s u l t . a l f a l f a and grain were the staple crops around coaldale u n t i l the sugar beet came and ushered i n a new period. the sugar beet brought d r a s t i c chan- t see map at end of this thesis. vertreterversammlung, , p» . coaldale flyer, december , , p. « i b i d . , p. . material j.b. janz. ges i n farm practices, and p r a c t i c a l l y overnight extensive farming gave place to intensive c u l t i v a t i o n . the l o c a l f a r - mers, unwilling to make the change and unable to meet the demands of new methods, looked for greener pastures elsewhere and moved away. the change to intensive farming also demanded a much larger population than coaldale possessed at that time, and the c.p.r.-, who owned most of the land, began to look around f o r new s e t t l e r s . their choice f e l l upon the menno-v nites who just then were entering canada. on t h e i r a r r i v a l the mennonites were t o l d by t.o.p.- herzer, an o f f i c i a l of the com- pany, that only on condition that they raise sugar beets could that land be turned over to them. ̂ j_t w a s a wise condition, for the sugar beet has become the staple product of the coal- dale area and has enabled the coaldale mennonites to a t t a i n t h e i r present l e v e l of prosperity. the mennonite pioneer of coaldale was klaas enns, who came to canada from russia with h i s family i n . he was not s a t i s f i e d with conditions i n manitoba and shortly after h i s a r r i v a l there journeyed on to alberta. his family acquired a job as beet workers near s t i r l i n g , alberta, but s t i l l not s a t i s f i e d mr. enns began to look around for a place of his own. one of h i s journeys took him to coaldale, where a mr. lathrop, who had been an agent for the c.p.r. f o r many years, offered him h i s large farm f o r sale. in agreement with h i s three brothers and t h e i r f a m i l i e s mr. enns accepted the o f f e r and i n the spring of the f i r s t four mennonite families moved to c o a l d a l e . t h e nature of the purchase was unheard material j.b. janz. material j.b. janz. k of, for i t involved a sum of $ » uo» uo without the security of a written contract and without the safeguard of a down pay- ment. , the only condition made upon the buyers was that they raise acres of beets annually and d e l i v e r them under the name of mr. lathrop, 'until the farm was paid f o r . the neigh- bors shook t h e i r heads over the s i m p l i c i t y of the newcomers and watched.the outcome with i n t e r e s t . in. due time the farm was paid f o r and ownership was transfered to the mennonites. the deal proved to be a success. the coaldale settlement grew rapidly as the cana- dian. p a c i f i c railway company continued to bring i n more menno- n i t e s e t t l e r s . the majority of mennonites of coaldale received t h e i r lands d i r e c t l y from the c.p.r., without any down payment but under the condition that for-every eighty acres of land received they would r a i s e ten acres of sugar beets, the proc- eeds of which were to go to the company f o r the payment of . the farm.'. as a further gesture the company advanced lumber and materials to the setters f o r the construction of necessary 'farm buildings. by the end of about f o r t y mennonite fam- i l i e s were i n the a r e a . ^ ten years l a t e r coaldale contained f a m i l i e s with lli+ii. persons and the mennonites owned and worked about , acres o f ' l a n d . ^ steps to foster the s p i r i t u a l growth of the s e t t l e r s were immediately undertaken i n when the f i r s t s e t t l e r s arrived. meetings f i r s t took place in the barn l o f t of the lathrop farm which had become the centre of mennonite a c t i v i t y i n the area. a year l a t e r permission was obtained + material j.b. janz. vertreterversammlung, » p» ' to hold weekly meetings i n the local- school and i n ser- vices were started i n the newly b u i l t church. the mennonite brethern church was organized i n the area i n , under the leadership of klaas enns, while the general conference church did not organize u n t i l . ^ although the two denominations had held j o i n t meetings u n t i l then, the organization of the l a t t e r church inaugurated a policy of separatism. the present mennonite general conference church building was erected i n , while that of the mennonite brethern was erected i n * the l a t t e r church has a seating capacity of and a mem- bership of . prosperity and numerical dominance have made coaldale the headquarters of alberta mennonitism. locally coaldale possesses more mennonite economic establishments than any other.area. mennonites there not only own farms but also the two largest general stores, two blacksmith shops, a garage, a hatchery, a feed m i l l , a restaurant, a photographic studio and the towns only printing:shpp. on a co-operative basis the mennonites of coaldale support and operate a cheese factory, a credit union society, a doctor and h o s p i t a l society and a l o c a l h o s p i t a l . on a p r o v i n c i a l basis coaldale i s head- quarters f o r the p r o v i n c i a l r e l i e f committee, the mennonite f i r e insurance society, and the b u r i a l fund society. in add- i t i o n the mennonite brethern church of alberta sponsors the ft alberta mennonite high school situated at coaldale. coal- dale i s indeed the heart of alberta mennonitism. coaldale flyer. dec . , , p. . ~ : \ vertreterversammlung, , p« . these various i n s t i t u t i o n s are dealt with i n chapter v of t h i s thesis. for the alberta mennonite high school see chapter vi. k of the three mennonite migrations to canada the l a s t one has had the most profound and l a s t i n g effects upon alberta. the mennonites of the f i r s t two movements were of the more conservative mennonite elements and have now been numerically swamped by the russian mennonites who soon assumed active dominance of mennonite a f f a i r s i n the province. out- side of very minor exceptions a d i s t i n c t d i v i s i o n has remained between the immigrants of the 's and the e a r l i e r mennonite s e t t l e r s . this d i v i s i o n has been the r e s u l t not only of d i f f - erences i n b e l i e f but also variations i n interests r e s u l t i n g from a l i e n backgrounds. therefore when one speaks of the mennonites i n alberta, just precedence must be given to the russian mennonites, the l a t e s t but the most active mennonite element i n the province. chapter three reiseschuld reiaeschuld-y—what a c o l o r f u l variety of response t h i s word has c a l l e d f o r t h on the part of the mennonites! p r i o r to m , the word engendered anger i n some, despair i n others, indifference, weariness, and hopelessness i n s t i l l others. i t compassed the f i e l d of human emotions and on i t s return the word was s t i l l there to trouble the dreams of the mennonite people. some faced i t with determination and re- solve and due to such people the word since - , has found a smaller place in the mennonite vocabulary and i s incapable of arousing the f i e r c e emotions associated with i t previously. today the word i s greeted more often with a f a i n t show of pride and engenders a. sense of a job w e l l done. but ithere are s t i l l a number of those who face i t with shame, even after over a quarter of a century has passed since i t was f i r s t coined. the connotations which the one word reiseschuld has had for the mennonites i n the past, cannot be f u l l y understood by someone unless they too have l i v e d under i t s grim shadow for over twenty years. reiseschuld, l i t e r a l l y translated, means " t r a v e l l i n g debt," and refers s p e c i f i c a l l y to the canadian p a c i f i c railway debt incurred by the russian mennonites i n t h e i r great migra- t i o n to canada i n the 's. the canadian p a c i f i c had exten- ded to these people a c r e d i t of nearly | , , . , to be repaid as soon as possible. unfortunately f o r the immigrants they entered canada when the earning p o s s i b i l i t i e s were de- creasing and the world was on the brink of the greatest econ- omic depression i n i t s hi s t o r y . reiseschuld was a word that f o r the next twenty years was to hang over the mennonites l i k e a black cloud; i t was to haunt many dreams and shatter many hopes. but the mennonites plagued by this great debt which i t seemed impossible to repay, owed t h e i r l i v e s to the credit which this debt represented; there were those who f o r - got this f a c t and l a t e r cast shame upon the name "mennonite" by t h e i r i n d i f f e r e n t and often h o s t i l e attitude to t h i s "debt of honour." those who remembered redeemed the mennonite hon* our by the l i q u i d a t i o n of the debt on november , l .^~ p r i o r to the mennonite immigration movement of the 's, the canadian government had passed a law forbidding the entrance into canada of people of the mennonite f a i t h . yet the mennonites i n russia, who were looking to a new home, chose canada as a refuge from the communist terror. this choice was l a r g e l y dictated by the fact that so many of them had friends and r e l a t i v e s i n canada who had come to the new world i n the second great mennonite migration of the l 's." but the doors to canada were closed and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of set- tlement there seemed very remote. the work of paving the way f o r the new movement f e l l to the canadian mennonite board of ' thiessen, j . j . , " jahre cm. board", mennonitische rund- schau. wed., march , . p r o t o k o l l der vertreterversammlung der mennonitischen sied- l e r alberta's, , p . izjt̂ k : . r wo ted as vertreter"^ versammlung. colonization.^ in the year , a f t e r the annual convention of the canadian conference of the mennonite churches, a delegation was appointed by that body to go to ottawa to p e t i t i o n the government to revoke the law forbidding the entrance of menno- nites into canada. the delegation then formed was t y p i c a l of the executive of the cm.b.c., i n that i t contained mem- bers from the largest mennonite groups i n canada,'the general conference and the old mennonites. the f i r s t delegates were h.a. neufeld representing the mennonite brethern, h.h. ewert and a.a. friesen representing the general conference, and s.p. coffman, representing the old mennonites. the l a t t e r was the same man who had so energetically organized menno- n i t e churches i n alberta i n the early 's. in ottawa the delegation was given hope that i t s wishes would be considered. in february or march , , the same delegation with three new members, gerhard ens, g. goudie, and david toews, again went to ottawa. the new prime minister, w.l. mackenzie king, gave them to understand that the r e s t r i c t i n g law would be l i f t e d as soon as possible. i t was removed on july , ^ the cm.b.c. was founded i n gretna, manitoba, on may , , with the understanding that the main o f f i c e was to be i n rosthern, saskatchewan. the f i r s t executive consisted hereafter referred to by the i n i t i a l s cm.b.c. unless other- wise stated the following dates and figures are taken from thiessen, j.j., op. c i t . k this i s one reason why the mennonite s e t t l e r s i n canada have, almost exclusively, supported the l i b e r a l party. mackenzie king had been raised i n an area inhabited by mennonites and was a personal f r i e n d of david toews, f i r s t chairman of the cm.b.c. of: david toews chairman c.j. andres secretary-treasurer h.a. neufeld—member a.a. friesen—corresponding secretary almost immediately a delegation was sent to montreal to begin talks with the c.p.r. regarding the immigration of mennonites. the company was interested, f o r they remembered the sturdy mennonite pioneers of the 's, and were looking for such farmers for t h e i r lands i n the west. the delegation presen- ted the s i t u a t i o n to colonel j.s. dennis, chief commissioner of the department of immigration and development f o r the can- adian p a c i f i c railway, and asked i f i t would be possible to obtain c r e d i t from the company f o r immigration purposes. colonel dennis promised to present the case to s i r edward beatty, then president of the c.p.r. dennis gave the dele- gates to understand that since the mennonite immigrants of the 's had been so honorable i n regard to the c r e d i t ex- tended to them then, there should be l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y i n making new arrangements f o r c r e d i t . ^ on june , , dennis reported that the c.p.r. was w i l l i n g to bring mennonites to canada on c r e d i t , and on june , the f i r s t credit con- t r a c t was signed between the c.p.r' and the cm.b.c., with david toews signing for the board. thus toews made himself responsible for repaying the loan and on his return home he was severely c r i t i c i z e d for signing away, by a simple stroke of the pen, the future f i n a n c i a l security of the mennonites. later dennis informed toews that he had received l e t t e r s and see chapters two and four of this thesis. mennonltische rundschau, dec. , * telegrams from mennonites protesting against the credit con- t r a c t . one l e t t e r had pointed out that the contract had been drawn up i n such a way that l e g a l l y the c.p.r. could not c o l l e c t the money l a t e r . this observation was true enough and makes the reiseschuld that much more unique as a long term c r e d i t loan. l i t t l e did the mennonites i n canada then r e a l i z e that not only but nearly l k , mennonites would enter canada on t h e i r c r e d i t . david toews, a teacher at gretna, manitoba, had indeed assumed a grave r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , as a r e s u l t he was loved, c r i t i c i z e d , and made fun of. during the ^ * someone wrote the following sarcastic poem about him: mein l i e b e r bruder "irgendwie" verzweifelt w i r k l i c h nie. . er laesst die dinge ruhig gehen, ohn' ihnen i n den weg zu stehen, und glaubt, die allerschwersten sachen werden s i c h irgendwie schon machen... und sieh wir leben tag fuer tag, was immer uns auch kommen mag; behalten unsern frohen mut; am ende wird doch a l l e s gut. but the s i t u a t i o n had not been handled as haphazardly as the poem suggested, f o r david toews considered i t a "work of faith, of a t r u s t i n god and the honor of the immigrants."^ the new immigration began i n , governed by the loc. c i t . janzen j.h., david toews, rosthern, d.h. epp, publisher, , p. i d . free t r a n s l a t i o n of the poem: my dear brother "somehow" is discouraged nohow. he l e t s thing go without standing i n t h e i r way you know, and believes that problems of the greatest kind w i l l solve themselves as you w i l l f i n d . and look, we're l i v i n g and we sing, what'er the future has to bring; and our high s p i r i t s keep we s h a l l , for the end w i l l always turn out w e l l . vertreterversammlung, , p. . o r d e r - i n - c o u n e i l , p.c. , i s s u e d on january , . t h i s law removed the monetary q u a l i f i c a t i o n of $ . nec- essary f o r immigrants and which had been e s t a b l i s h e d by p.c. i n . " ^ the only requirement necessary f o r immigra- t i o n to canada was the assurance of an a g r i c u l t u r a l occupation upon a r r i v a l . in the case of the mennonites t h i s occupation was guaranteed by the c.p.r- and the cm.b.c. d i f f i c u l t i e s arose, however, as l a r g e numbers of immigrants were brought forward from i n t e r i o r p o i n t s of the c o n t i n e n t to the p o r t s of embarkation, only to be r e j e c t e d by f a i l u r e to meet the h e a l t h requirements f o r canada. a . s o l u t i o n to t h i s problem was found i n t h a t the c.p.r. appointed i n s p e c t i o n a l o f f i c e r s designated as " c e r t i f i c a t e i s s u i n g o f f i c e r s " , whose duty i t was to " i n s p e c t the p r o s p e c t i v e immigrants a t i n t e r n a l p o i n t s and to i s s u e c e r t i f i c a t e s which guaranteed placement, c e r t i - f i e d h i s e l i g i b i l i t y from the standpoint of the o c c u p a t i o n a l t e s t , and c a r r i e d a statement from the immigrant t h a t he was proceeding as an a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t and would take up a g r i c u l - t u r a l work i n canada." in moscow the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the mennonites, mr.' b.b. janz, who had a l s o been chosen by the c.p.r. as a cer- t i f i c a t e i s s u i n g o f f i c e r , p o i n t e d out t h a t not a l l the menno- n i t e s sought.to e n t e r canada on the c r e d i t terms arranged by the cm.b.c.; many mennonites had money to pay cash. t h i s l a t t e r group was e a g e r l y accepted by the cp.r. as "paying england, ,r., the c e n t r a l european immigrant i n canada] toronto, macmillan company of canada l t d . , s), p. . loc. c i t . p e r s o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n from b.b. janz. england, o'p. c i t . , p. . customers. ""^ thus, two types of mennonite immigrants enter- ed canada, those on c r e d i t and those paying t h e i r way. the following chart shows the number entering each year either on c r e d i t or cash terms: ^ year credit cash total /# , — , k , k • i , i k ,ok , , , , k a i , ko k k kc- , , k total , k , k , the t o t a l c r e d i t extended to these immigrants by the' c.p.r. was $ , , . , """̂ a sum that the mennonites soon came to c a l l the reiseschuld. the duty of the cm.b.c. now was to c o l l e c t this money and repay the c.p.r. i n the shortest possible time. before the immigrants could be expected to pay, however, they must be s e t t l e d and put into a p o s i t i o n where payment was possible. in k the mennonite land settlement board was founded to aid the s e t t l e r s i n acquiring land. in co-oper- ation with the c.p.r. and the cm.b.c. this body was success- ik information from b.b. janz. mennonitische rundschau, wed., march , « loc. c i t . f u l i n providing land for many mennonites. in >k-> the land settlement board was absorbed by the cm.b.c., the l a t - ter taking over the settlement duties of the former. the cm.b.c. was incorporated i n and h.b. janz was appointed as "collector" of the reiseschuld. janz held t h i s position u n t i l , when he was succeeded by cp. klassen, who re- mained on the job u n t i l the debt was l i q u i d a t e d . on a p r i l k, k , david toews resigned as chairman of the cm.b.c. and was succeeded by j.j. thiessen who i s s t i l l i n that posi- t i o n . david toews died on february , k , a scant four months a f t e r the l i q u i d a t i o n of the debt had again made him a free man. prom the beginning the cm.b.c. r e a l i z e d that the c o l l e c t i o n of the reiseschuld would not be an easy task. i t was p r a c t i c a l l y impossible f o r the board to supervise closely the c o l l e c t i o n work i n a l l areas where the new immigrants had s e t t l e d . in order to f a c i l i t a t e c o l l e c t i o n s and increase the e f f i c i e n c y of the organization, the new immigrants i n each province were requested £ form a " p r o v i n c i a l committee" to supervise the work of c o l l e c t i o n . the provinces were then to be divided into d i s t r i c t s each having a distriktmann (dis- t r i c t representative), who would be responsible f o r the reise- schuld payments i n his area. of the d i s t r i c t s formed i n canada, forty-three were i n alberta. the p r o v i n c i a l comm- i t t e e s and the distriktmaenner were responsible £ the ver- vertreterversammlung, , p« . i b i d . , p. . vertreterversammlung, , p. . vertreterversammlung, i k , p« • treterversammlung (representative meeting), which i n turn was responsible to the cm.b.c. i n rosthern. in most of the l a r - ger mennonite settlements, such as coaldale, an ortskomitee (local committee) was formed to aid the d i s t r i c t represent- ative i n h i s work. in general, the following diagram portrays i n a s i m p l i f i e d way the organization as i t functioned u n t i l - : canadian mennonite board op colonization provincial ver 'reter ver sammlung provincial committees local committees f o r larger d i s t r i c t s distriktmann to finance t h i s organization a levy of three d o l l a r s was placed on each immigrant over l years of age. this levy had to be repeated i n k, and an additional charge of f i f t y cents, i n • much trouble was encountered i n c o l l e c t i n g t h i s levy i n i t s entirgty. the main function of the organization, u n t i l i k , was the elimination of the c.p.r. debt. closely associated with this purpose was the e f f o r t to help the mennonite immi- grants obtain land and s e t t l e i n areas where they would not be i s o l a t e d from others of l i k e ' f a i t h . as the years progress- ed, other functions of an economic and co-operative nature f e l l to i t s l o t , as w e l l as the supervision of r e l i e f work, p a r t i c u l a r l y during and a f t e r world war i i . in fact these l a t t e r duties soon became so important that on one occasion > a representative said, "gut dass wir noch die reiseschuld haben, sonst haetten wir keine provinzielversammlungen mehr und das waere schade; denn nebenbei besprechen wir ja noch manche andere fragen." in l a t e r years the p r o v i n c i a l ver- treterversammlung became the c e n t r a l i z i n g body and ultimate authority for most mennonite endeavors i n alberta. the f i r s t gigantic task, however, was the l i q u i d a - tion of the c.p.r. debt. by only about credit con- tracts had been repaid i n a l l of canada. j the promissory notes, signed by the immigrants when they entered canada, were not returned however, because the debt was considered not an i n d i v i d u a l one but the debt of the mennonite people as a whole. the board intended to keep the notes u n t i l the entire debt was paid. this step caused much opposition and had to be abandoned, ^" and consequently since , promissory notes were returned when an i n d i v i d u a l paid h i s own share of the reiseschuld i n f u l l . payments lagged and the canadian p a c i f i c expressed concern over the matter. ^ by july, , the debt plus i n - terest s t i l l amounted to $l, k , . , of which $ , . was owed by the mennonites i n alberta. injspite of the these functions s h a l l be dealt with i n l a t e r chapters. vertreterversammlung, , p'» vertreterversammlung, , p. [\. loc. c i t . p r o t o k o l l der versammlung der mennoniten gruppe bei coal- dale, march , k. hereafter referred to as v.m.g. vertreterversammlung, , p. . generous premiums f o r prompt payment, extended to the menno- n i t e s by the c.p.r., i t took alberta u n t i l the end of k to l i q u i d a t e her debt, and she was the f i r s t province to accom- p l i s h t h i s feat. the following table gives a comprehensive picture of payments made and premiums received i n the province of alberta: year premiums received debt paid . interest paid levy (# . ) total * $-ki- . k $ $ i k, . k , k . k ,l+ .k , k . k ,l+ .k . , k . i , k . , . . , k . i , k . , . , . k , . k . kkk. i , k . , . , . k , . . . l l , . l k k, . , . . . , . j , . i , l . k , . . , . , . ] , . k. . , .kk i k , . , . . . , k- k l | , . k , . . l , k k . , . i k | , . , . , .- , . , k. i k kl, s . , , . , . , . ko, . kk , . , - , . , . , k. k , . , . k i+i.o . k i , k . i k , . , . k , .^ , . , . total i , k k . o k k, k. kk i , . k , . k , kk- the t o t a l c.p.r. debt paid by the mennonites i n alberta: vertre terver sammlung, dec, k , p. *. total debt paid — $ , . premium received , k k . ok total debt covered , k . the t o t a l c.p.r. debt paid by the mennonites i n canada: p r i n c i p a l — $ , , . interest , . total- l , k , . this figure does not include the more than $ , , . granted to the mennonites as premiums by the c.p.r. why did i t take so long to repay the debt? t the great majority of the mennonites at a l l times recognized the moral o b l i g a t i o n to pay, a f a c t that i s c l e a r l y evident when the mennonite newspapers of the period and the reports and minutes of the various organizations are studied. yet there was a small but stubborn minority who took either an i n d i f f e r e n t attitude or even a h o s t i l e stand against the debt and sought every possible escape from t h e i r obligations. even- t u a l l y some did evade payment by an outright refusal to pay, but i t was at the price of having the mennonite public opinion against them even though the church ban was not used. the greatest d i f f i c u l t y i n connection with the payment of the reiseschuld was the depression of the 's, which h i t canada soon a f t e r the immigrants arrived. the con- ditions during the great depression are f a m i l i a r and need not be discussed here. scarcity of jobs, weakness of earning power, low prices of farm products, and drought, played havoc with the plans of the mennonites as they did with those of thiessen j.j., op. c i t . other people. during the f i r s t years of the depression the willingness to pay was there, but the p o s s i b i l i t i e s were not. considering the circumstances i t i s rather amazing that so .much was paid during the time. the t o t a l debt paid by the mennonites i n canada from to i n c l u s i v e was # , . , a figure that d e f i n i t e l y speaks of a w i l l to pay, ^ however, i t did take the wartime boom to eliminate the debt e n t i r e l y . as was'.mentioned, there were always those who t r i e d to escape payment by d i s c r e d i t a b l e , i f l e g a l means. one me- thod t r i e d was a declaration of bankruptcy; ® i t was not successful. others believed that with the death of the head of the family the reiseschuld could be buried with him.-^ there is even record of some debtors who t r i e d to return to germany, although they had promised not to leave canada u n t i l the debt was p a i d . j the cm.b.c. did everything i n i t s power to hinder any attempt to evade making payments. there were, of course, those who outright refused to pay. the cm.b.c. had to point out that the reiseschuld was not an insured .debt and that i t was not a debt i n the ordinary sense of the term; i t had not arisen through business transactions which looked to a p r o f i t , rather i t arose through " r e l i e f action" aimed at "saving l i v e s . " ^ the debt was to be considered not only as the debt of an i n d i v i d u a l but also as a debt of the mennonite society; not only the head of the family was responsible for vertreterversammlung, , p. ibid., p.~ tjt ibid., p. . vertreterversammlung, , p' . vertreterversammlung, , p. . i t but the entire family must assume the obligation. k in alberta various methods were employed i n order to stimulate payment. in the vertreterversammlungen of the 's a representative of the g.m.b.c. was always•present. on most occasions david toews, chairman, and cp. klassen, collector, gave reports and attempted to stimulate | enthusiasm. the reports given usually contained more of an emotional app- eal to the "honor of the mennonites" than actual figures as ~" to the progress made. this was p a r t i c u l a r l y true of david toews; c p . klassen, as c o l l e c t o r , kept meetings informed of payments made and the amounts s t i l l owing. constant stress was l a i d i n the f a c t that the c.p.r. credit had been made possible by the "honorable" dealings of the i o immigrants with the canadian government at that time. ^ the c.p.r. debt was a debt of honor that had to be repaid. i f the menno- nites now f a i l e d to l i v e up to the moral obligations i n regard to the present debt, the p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r helping future mennonite immigrants would be greatly damaged. mr. cp. kla- ssen urged that i f large payments were impossible to make then small payments should be made. this would at least bear witness that the w i l l to pay was there.-" i t was urged that the children of parents owing the c.p.r., should be made f u l l y aware of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n regard to the reiseschuld., when the children became of age ( ) , , they were required to sign promissory notes making them- k loc. c i t . see page of t h i s thesis. report of david toewsin vertre terversammlung, , p« » report of cp. klassen i n vertreterversammlung, , p« » ' selves d i r e c t l y responsible f o r the debt. in the case of marriage the husband assumed the debt f o r h i s wife.^ by these means a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the debt was passed on to the children. a - scheme that was i n i t i a t e d i n the early t h i r t i e s was that of insuring the head of the family, that i n case of his death money to pay the debt would be available. this scheme seems to have been a f a i l u r e for i t was given up.^ in , 'it was requested by the mennonite s e t t l e r s at goal- dale that the c.p.r. be contacted and requested that a l l pay- ments on the debt should be used to reduce the p r i n c i p l e , and that no interest be paid on the i n t e r e s t . t h e cm.b.c. was informed of this wish but there i s no record of action being taken regarding i t . as a l a s t attempt to stimulate payment, i t was decided to publish the names of the f a m i l i e s s t i l l owing as w e l l as the amounts outstanding.^" this step may have been successful i n a minor degree but seemed to c a l l f o r t h more anger than payments. in the l a t e summer of , s i r edward beatty was v i s i t i n g western canada. he had plans to v i s i t calgary and lethbridge and expressed the desire to v i s i t a mennonite s e t t - vertreterversammlung, , p. . the writer r e c a l l s how h i s mother often prevented the purchase of some desired but unnecessary a r t i c l e with the words, "kinder, nicht ehe die reiseschuld bezahlt i s t . " (children, not before the reise- schuld i s paid). how many youthful hopes were shattered by that wordl vertreterversammlung, , p. ik lio loc. c i t . lj. v.m.g., dec. , . k. v.m.g. , jan. , i k l . k lement i n alberta. the mennonite leaders eagerly seized the opportunity and i t was decided to have s i r edward,come to coaldale, the largest mennonite settlement i n alberta. the time was very opportune for such a v i s i t . because of the gen- e r a l discouragement occassioned by the depression and the apathy of many mennonites regarding the reiseschuld, t h i s v i s i t was u t i l i z e d to refresh the memory of the mennonite people of t h e i r great escape from russia. the leaders also looked to the future and saw c l e a r l y that the time might come again when the goodwill of the c.p.r. would be a necessary ingred- ient of future mennonite migrations.""^ again, the mennonites wanted to show that even i f they had been slow to pay, they were thankful for the great help which had been extended to them by the c.p.r. i t was a move i n which diplomacy and thankfulness had an equal share, and to the frayed f i n a n c i a l bonds between the c.p.r. and the mennonites were now to be added the bonds of sentiment. the s e t t l e r s i n coaldale a l l remember " s i r edward beatty day" with genuine warmth and thankfulness. i t i s one day which w i l l go down i n the h i s t o r y of the mennonites of alberta as a high-water mark of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with the great company. colonel j.s. dennis, who had been i n r e t i r e - ment since i n v i c t o r i a , b.c., was also i n v i t e d , and with him came a number of c.ve.r. o f f i c i a l s including w.m. n e i l , vice president of the c.p.r. present also were t.o.p. herzer, chairman of-the canada colonization association, senator buchanan of alberta, and-mr. elton, the mayor of lethbrldge. k personal information from b.b. janz. on september , , these noteables entered the mennonite brethern church at coaldale, to experience something new. in the speeches which followed, the whole story of the mennonite escape from russia was reviewed, f i r s t by rev. b.b. janz and th en by rev. david toews. the c.p.r. was por- trayed as the saviour of the , mennonites who had entered canada i n the ' s . then came the most impressive part of the ceremony. ten russian born mennonite g i r l s , aged nine to twelve, a l l dressed i n white, came to the f r o n t i n pairs to where s i r edward and colonel dennis sat, and each placed a bouquet of flowers at t h e i r feet. in doing so one said, "you saved our l i v e s , " the other, "we thank you." this was repea- ted by each p a i r of g i r l s . the mennonitlsche rundschau, l a t e r reported, "president beatty was deeply moved and tears f i l l e d the eyes of colonel dennis. " ^ in the address of welcome-rev. b.b. janz said, f a i t h f u l prayers of thousands of our people i n russia have knocked at the gate of our heavenly father, who transferred these knocks to the o f f i c e of s i r edward beatty and colonel dennis, who i n turn allowed t h e i r o f f i c e s to become a house of god, where the resolution to save so many l i v e s was passed and carried out, an act of christian charity unequalled i n the history of today. k following the presentation of the bouquets by the g i r l s , an ..illuminated address was presented to s i r edward beatty. i t read; i t w i l l be recorded i n the pages of history and engraved on , l i v i n g , g r a t e f u l hearts that the association with the canadian p a c i f i c railway was an essential and indispensible l i n k i n the kk mennonitlsche rundschau, dec. , ' ii- gibbon, op. c i t . , p. . ko photographic copy of address obtained from j.b. janz. chain of circumstances by which our people were saved from s p i r i t u a l and moral r u i n . under the guidance of divine providence, a door of escape was opened for our people by the canadian p a c i f i c railway, and subsequently by the- government and people of canada. in this land of adoption we have found peace, security, d a i l y bread and a home. a l l t h i s was accomplished on a basis of good f a i t h . we on our part s h a l l always endeavour to do a l l i n our power to j u s t i f y the confidence placed i n us, and we hope that the canadian paci- f i c railway and the government and people of can- ada w i l l never have reason to withdraw t h e i r con- fidence. our people, men of f a i t h and conscience, w i l l guarantee t h i s . your personal decision favourable to t h i s move- ment, esteemed s i r edward beatty, was a determining factor i n the deliverance of our people. neither the present nor the future generations of our people w i l l ever forget. god be with you. the mennonite s e t t l e r s at coaldale, alberta. september t h , . a s i m i l a r address was presented to colonel dennis.^- more than , people who were rescued from a s p i r i t u a l and moral disaster remember grate- f u l l y , that years ago there sat i n the coun- c i l s of the canadian p a c i f i c railway a man who had the v i s i o n and the f a i t h to save a whole people - t o t a l strangers to him - who were f i n - a n c i a l l y crushed and ruined. this noble confidence and the act of trans- porting them to canada, was under the providence of god, the cause of t h e i r deliverance.. while ravages continue overseas, we here enjoy l i b e r t y , peace, security, subsistance and a home. your great confidence i n us, noble colonel dennis, as w e l l as that of the canadian p a c i f i c railway, the government and the people of canada, w i l l not be dishonored by us. our people, strong i n f a i t h and faithfulness w i l l vouch for that. your confidence i n us stands out as one of the most glorious pages of our h i s t o r y . never s h a l l we forget. god be with you. the mennonite s e t t l e r s at coaldale, alberta. september t h , . following the presentation of these addresses s i r k photographic copy of address obtained from j.b. janz. edward and colonel dennis were asked to speak. s i r edward - said that the manner i n which the mennonites of western canada were repaying t h e i r obligations was ample j u s t i f i c a t i o n for what the c.p.r. had done. he expressed the hope that the mennonite communities might continue long to enjoy the homes they were carving out f o r themselves.""^ colonel dennis said, "may i say i n a l l s i n c e r i t y that i appreciate the sentiments expressed i n this memorial. i have been associated with the ® movement of mennonite people into western canada ever since my boyhood. the f i r s t colonies were brought to canada because of a loan of a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s made by the dominion government. every cent of that loan was r e p a i d . " ^ he went on to say that the fact that the loan had been repaid had much to do with h i s being able to persuade s i r edward to advance some $ , , to help bring the mennonite refugees to canada ten years pre- viously. the ceremony ended with the singing of god save the king. the beatty celebration was a diplomatic triumph for the mennonites i n alberta. by t h i s i s not meant that the s e t t l e r s were insincere i n the expression of t h e i r thankful- ness. the large majority had never forgotten the debt they owed to the c.p.r., and the sentiments expressed were sincere. the celebration s t i r r e d the sluggish consciences of the people, and many, who u n t i l now had been i n d i f f e r e n t , r e c a l l e d the suffering and the misery of the past and the resolve to l i v e up to t h e i r obligations was born again. this i s c l e a r l y seen by the fact that i n the mennonites of alberta paid a h canadian p a c i f i c staff b u l l e t i n , oct. , . lj. loc. c i t . dennis seems to have made an error. the sum was $ , . t o t a l sum of $ , . , the highest figure paid i n any one year before k l . ^ n "the death of colonel dennis on novem- ber , , and of s i r edward beatty on march , i j . , deep g r i e f and genuine sympathy were expressed by the menno- n i t e s . of colonel dennis, rev. david toews wrote, "sie haben einen guten mann begraben. uns aber war er mehr. sentiment alone was not enough and the p r o v i n c i a l committee had to make renewed e f f o r t s to c o l l e c t the remaining money. the end of the depression made a marked change i n the paying a b i l i t i e s of the mennonites. "this change i s c l e a r l y evident i n the payments made to the c.p.r. after k l . in , c.p. klassen made arrangements with the c.p.r. that i f any one of the d i s t r i c t s paid t h e i r . e n t i r e debt, a premium of $ % or more of the interest would.be gran- ted to that area. ^- this was a new stimulus and the d i s t r i c t s i n alberta, under the leadership of the p r o v i n c i a l committee, began to organize i n an e f f o r t to eliminate t h e i r entire debt i n three y e a r s . i t was again stressed that a l l mennonites were debtors, and that as long as one d o l l a r debt remained the mennonites of canada were bound by a moral obligation. the debt was incurred by the mennonite society and must be paid by them.^ the vertreterversammlung decided that pressure be brought to bear on debtors to pay i n f u l l . some would s t i l l not pay, but the remaining money was to be collected from the mennonite society at the rate of $ k . per family and thus the debt was to be liquidated. see table page -of t h i s thesis. mennonitlsche rundschau, dec. , vertreterversammlung, , p. vertreterversammlung, , p. ik k vertreterversammlung, , pp. - http://would.be although t h i s plan was not completed i n three years, the province of alberta was the f i r s t to cast off the burden of the reiseschuld. slowly, by d i s t r i c t s , the debt disappeared. , gem, rosemary, duchess, and others, accomplished this i n k . in i|i|., lindbrook, t o f i e l d , wembley and la glace were suc- cessful i n t h e i r e f f o r t s . ^ b on february , k > at the ver- tre terver sammlung held at rosemary, the chairman of the pro- v i n c i a l committee, mr. a.a. toews, announced the l i q u i d a t i o n of the alberta reiseschuld i n the following elated words,^ ... .wir wissen e'igentlich garnicht was uns und euch geworden i s t , nachdem endlich die grosse schulden- l a s s t abgewaelzt i s t . es geht uns so wie i n psalm geschrieben steht: dann werden wir sein wie die ' traeumenden. i s t es w i r k l i c h k e i t , oder i s t es nur ein schoener traum? das, was uns vor etlichen jahr- en ganz unmoeglich schien, i s t j e t z t zur tatsache ge^ worden: die provinz alberta hat als solehe keine reiseschuld mehr der c.p.r. gegenueber und auch die notenschuld i s t abgetan. ja, wir koennen mit recht ausrufen: der herr hat grosses an uns getan, des sind wir f r o e h l i c h . ihm i n erster l i n i e a l l e ehre. outside of a few sums overlooked previously, the mennonites of alberta were free of the persistent heavy c.p.r. load. of l a t e the word reiseschuld has again attained a respectable place i n the mennonite vocabulary. vertre terver sammlung, k» p» llj- loc. c i t . vertreterversammlung, k , p« . chapter pour land settlement policies throughout t h e i r entire h i s t o r y the mennonites have tended to s e t t l e i n groups, and whenever migration and resettlement have been necessary, as i t often was, the menno- n i t e leaders endeavoured to obtain land i n "blocks" which would insure group settlement. the motives behind group settlement are simple. the mennonites have always s t r i v e n at "separation" from the world and t h i s i n turn meant the gemeinschaft ( f e l l - owship) of the believers. group settlements, therefore, have been motivated as much by the desire to have the fellowship of those of l i k e b e l i e f , as they have been to remain apart from the " s i n f u l " world. on the part of the mennonite.s there has always been the j u s t i f i e d fear that unless they s e t t l e d i n homogeneous groups, i t would be impossible to avoid assimila- t i o n , with, and absorption i n t o , the main stream of the coun- try's culture. for four-hundred years t h i s has been a domin- ating p r i n c i p l e of mennonite group settlement, and i n canada the pattern has been l a r g e l y the t r a d i t i o n a l one. although economic factors do play a minor part i n stimulating the menno- n i t e s to adhere to t h e i r own kind, they are only of very minor importance. in canada the mennonites have been l a r g e l y absor- bed i n an economic sense, but s o c i a l l y and r e l i g i o u s l y they remain an ethnic group. pear of losing t h e i r f a i t h i n the stream of modern complex culture and b e l i e f s has been, and remains, the dominant incentive to mennonite group settlement. in canada the desire to s e t t l e i n "closed" commurii- t i e s met with exceptional success. as has already been seen, the mennonite immigrants of the 's had blocks of land re- served f o r t h e i r special use. even today, i n the east and west reserves i n manitoba, the mennonite element i s completely dominant. although such large areas were never again set aside f o r the settlement of any p a r t i c u l a r ethnic group, the c.p.r. and the large landowners i n canada were greatly interested i n s e t t l i n g t h e i r large tracts of land with groups of people. the work of settlement which was attempted by the cm.b.c. was accelerated by the private interests of the railway company and large landowners. the pre-war and wartime booms were things of the past, and the large landowners i n the canadian west were "eager to reduce or s e l l e n t i r e l y , t h e i r large hold- ings. there were only two alternatives: either to cut up the large land areas and s e l l to individuals or to s e l l entire holdings to groups of f a m i l i e s . the l a t t e r method was preferr- ed as being simpler and cheaper f o r the vendor and more promi- sing of success f o r the fundless mennonite s e t t l e r s . since the c.p.r. was concerned to make the mennonite colonization i n the west a success, they also favored t h i s method. the menno- nites had no objection; f o r them i t was an answer to prayer. the desire of the mennonites to l i v e i n groups has often l e d uninformed observers to accuse them of tendencies toward communism. nothing could be more erroneous. the average mennonite is an i n d i v i d u a l with the best of them, and communism has no appeal for him whatever. co-operation with persons of his own f a i t h has always been near to the mennonite h e a r t — b u t communism never has. rarely i s property owned communally among the mennonites, and then only where conditions make i t necessary to use the communal form i n order to make the beginnings somewhat easier. the mennonite i s an i n d i v i d u a l with an i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c desire f o r complete personal freedom within the l i m i t s of h i s own group. e the majority of the newcomers of the 's, settled on c.p.r. lands, or lands found f o r them by the c.p.r. and i t s a f f i l i a t e d organizations. james b. hedges, i n his book build- ing the canadian west, has c l e a r l y and a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y t o l d the story of the colonization of the canadian west through the e f f o r t s of the canadian p a c i f i c railway company.""" the company, i n close co-operation with the canadian mennonite board"of colonization, put f o r t h every e f f o r t to make the mennonite colonization scheme a success. the company also maintained the canada colonization association as a "medium f o r the settlement of private land," and i n order to achieve a greater harmony and unity i n the work of s e t t l i n g the mennonites, the mennonite land settlement board was organized, which, although containing a mennonite member, was dominated and directed by colonel dennis of the c.p.r. the mennonites as a society, at a l l times lacked a w e l l defined settlement p o l i c y , a f a c t that was to work i n a deterimental way on the plans .and hopes of the canadian mennonite board of colonization. the element of planning which did e x i s t was a d i r e c t r e s u l t of the organ- hedges, j.b.. building the canadian west, the land and col- onization p o l i c i e s of the canadian p a c i f i c railway, new york, the macmillan co., , pp. q- . i b i d . , p. i z a t i o n under the d i r e c t i o n of the c.p.r' i t s e l f . i t i s evident that the c.p.r. has been the most important factor in the settlement of the lands i n the canadian west. a f t e r the completion of the railway, the company had , , acres of crown lands to dispose of and consequently desired to create i n the west a r i c h and productive farming community which would furnish t r a f f i c f o r the company's strugg- l i n g r a i l l i n e s . to aid i n t h i s venture and to meet the de- mands of colonization, the department of colonization was f o r - med i n with colonel j.s. dennis at i t s head. in t h i s name was changed to department of immigration and coloni- zation.^" to receive for constructing the railway, the company was'vbb- l i g e d to accept areas which were not " f a i r l y f i t f o r s e t t l e - ment."^ as f a r as the lands i n alberta were concerned, the c.p.r. declined to accept the area along the main l i n e between moose jaw and the mountains because the land was too dry and therefore u n f i t f o r settlement. by not a l l land had been selected and the government issued an order that the balance of the land grant must be selected before the end of that year, the deficiency at that time being , , acres. the poss- i b i l i t i e s of i r r i g a t i o n i n the dry b e l t i n alberta had been investigated under the d i r e c t i o n of j.s. dennis, then the in- see appendix b p. ii colley, j., "company colonization a c t i v i t i e s aid settlement of the dominion", canadian p a c i f i c staff b u l l e t i n , march , - i . , p. . porter, s.g., "the canadian p a c i f i c land grants and t h e i r administration", canadian p a c i f i c staff b u l l e t i n , feb., , in selecting the land subsidy which the c.p.r. was k spector of surveys f o r the dominion government. the i n v e s t i - gation showed that p o t e n t i a l f e r t i l e lands were tributary to the st. mary's and bow r i v e r s east of calgary. the c.p.r. accepted t h i s block of land and decided to b u i l d i r r i g a t i o n works to serve i t . the entire i r r i g a t i o n block was subsequently d i v i - ded into three sections known as eastern, central, and w e s t - ls e m sections. although 'the central section i s only now being f i t t e d out with i r r i g a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s the eastern and western sections were soon completed. the western section comprises , , . k . actes with , under i r r i g a t i o n . ^ the cost of the i r r i g a t i o n construction i n these two sections amounted to | , , . in , the c.p.r. purchased the alberta railway and i r r i g a t i o n company system, which l i e s d i r e c t l y south of the main c.p.r. i r r i g a t i o n b l o c k . this area was f i r s t developed by the alber/ta railway and i r r i g a t i o n company and i s the old- est i r r i g a t i o n area of any size i n canada. i t was opened f o r operation i n . thus two types of farming land were opened to the mennonites when they came west i n the ' s - - i r r i g a t e d land and dry land. being unfamiliar with i r r i g a t i o n the pioneer mennonites preferred the dry land, but i t was inevitable that some would come into contact with i r r i g a t e d land. in k the s e t t l e r s bought land at didsbury and t o f i e l d , both situated i n loc. c i t . see map page . i r r i g a t i o n farming i n sunny alberta, , p. . porter, op. c i t . , p. see map page . i r r i g a t i o n farming i n sunny alberta, p. « dry areas, while the i r r i g a t i o n area around lethbridge was at f i r s t neglected. slowly the mennonites also' penetrated the i r r i g a t i o n blocks, not as farmers at f i r s t , but as laborers i n the sugar beet f i e l d s . soon farms were bought and regular mennonite homes established. the superiority of the i r r i g a t i o n land over dry land was proven i n the next decade when drought brought the dry land s e t t l e r s to the verge of starvation while the s e t t l e r s .in the i r r i g a t e d areas prospered. since the ear- l y t h i r t i e s the movement of mennonites to i r r i g a t e d land has been persistent and today the larger portion of them are s i t u - ated on i r r i g i b l e land. most of the settlements i n the dry areas have remained small while the reverse has been the case i n the i r r i g a t i o n blocks. in the dry land the chief areas of mennonite settlement are didsbury and t o f i e l d . smaller sett- lements are found east of the calgary-edmonton l i n e and i n the peace river area. in the i r r i g a t i o n areas the main mennonite settlements are coaldale, rosemary, gem, vauxhall, brooks and duchess. group settlements were established i n alberta as well as i n the other western provinces. large tracts of land, owned by wheat farmers or c a t t l e ranchers, were rented or sold to groups of mennonite f a m i l i e s , who then worked the land on a communal basis, at l e a s t for the f i r s t few years. this scheme met with a f a i r amount of success but also had i t s d i f f - i c u l t i e s , the main ones being the i n d i v i d u a l i t y and the indep- endence of the s e t t l e r s . one such group settlement was made i n the carseland-namaka-strathmore d i s t r i c t where, i n , the russian mennonites took over a large t r a c t of land from the george lane company ltd., calgary. the land was to be paid f o r with one h a l f the crop produced i n a period of ten years. the work i n the early years was of necessity done communally, and the machinery bought and the buildings erected i n the same manner. as among a l l good i n d i v i d u a l i s t s differences of opinion soon brought f r i c t i o n . when one farmer wanted to leave work f o r a day and go to calgary, the reply was, "wann ena no calgary f o e t , dann w e l l wi a u l l a foere." ( i f one goes to calgary, then we a l l go).. as soon as possible the land was divided among the f a m i l i e s and gradually i n d i v i d u a l farms arose u n t i l today the communal system here has e n t i r e l y d i s - appeared. although many f a m i l i e s from here have moved away, mainly to b r i t i s h columbia, t h i s area s t i l l contains a pros- perous mennonite settlement. a s i m i l a r story can be t o l d of the wembley d i s t r i c t . the russian mennonites arrived i n swalwell i n , where they spent the winter under the care of the e a r l i e r mennonite s e t t - l e r s . land scouts were sent out and had no d i f f i c u l t y i n making arrangements to purchase a ranch of twenty-two quarters, with acres under c u l t i v a t i o n , from the adair ranch comp- any. the deal was made for $ . per acre with machinery, to be paid by h a l f the crop i n f i f t e e n years at li% interest f o r the f i r s t two years and % f o r the remaining time. the t o t a l purchase price was $ , . . contrary to mennonite practice t h i s purchase was made soley by the group concerned questionnaire. without assistance or d i r e c t i o n by the mennonite land s e t t l e - ment board. the l a t t e r organization immediately informed other immigrants not to purchase land independently. j the f i r s t two years the land was worked communally but i n i t was parcelled out to the i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l i e s . today very few scattered mennonite families s t i l l l i v e i n the area. in the didsbury area another group of eleven fam- i l i e s comprising seventy-four i n d i v i d u a l s , s e t t l e d on the burns ranch. as i n other places, the work was started on a communal* basis and l a t e r divided into small farms. these cases show c l e a r l y that a community of goods i s not desired by the mennonites, although they w i l l "tolerate" such conditions i f necessity dictates. the settlements at irma, crowfoot, rosemary, countess and many others were f i r s t s e t t l e d by groups, many of whom practiced communal ownership i n the f i r s t years. this was done to insure progress while supplying the means of . attaining independence. the large tracts could be bought at cheaper prices than the then e x i s t i n g small farms. in alberta today there i s not one case of communal ownership of land among the mennonites. ^" the settlement of the mennonites -on the land was one. of the main functions of the mennonite p r o v i n c i a l committee. under the supervision of the vertreterversammlung (representa- t i v e meeting of the mennonites i n alberta), i t watched over the vertreterversammlung, b, p. . ik community of goods i s practiced by the hutterites, but they are not mennonites. the other functions was the c o l l e c t i o n of the reiseschuld. see chapter three of this thesis. r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l development of the infant s e t t - lements. this control, however, was very l i m i t e d , consisting mainly of reports and recommendations to the areas and the committee had no force but persuasion to see that i t s recomm- endations were carried out. i t s suggestions - consisted mainly of encouragement to e s t a b l i s h religious and german schools on saturday, and the establishment of a german l i b r a r y . when a settlement found i t s e l f i n d i f f i c u l t economic s t r a i t s , a rec- ommendation •for f i n a n c i a l help was usually brought at the next vertreterversammlung. large group settlements were recommen- ded and mennonites who were l i v i n g alone i n i s o l a t e d areas were b constantly urged to r e s e t t l e i n mennonite centres. during the-years to mr. jacob gerbrandt was the alberta representative on the mennonite land settlement board. through h i s o f f i c e i n lethbridge he was kept informed of the settlement p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n the province. e f f o r t s were made to s e t t l e the mennonites on land as soon as possible and landless families were encouraged, and often aided, to rent or buy farms. coaldale has always had the largest number of landless mennonite families of any area i n alberta, the reason probably being that those wishing to take up farming i n the province"chose coaldale as a stopover u n t i l land was found. in addition, the i r r i g a t i o n area, and the large acreage sown' to sugar beets, provided these f a m i l i e s with s u f f i c i e n t work while they waited. in there were f i f t y - o n e landless fara- vertreterversammlung, , p« , and , p. j. v.m.g., oct. , . . x i l i e s i n coaldale alone. t r a d i t i o n a l l y the mennonites belong to the land and the large number of families without farms caused great concern. there were reasons, however, why the number was so large. since most of the s e t t l e r s had come from russia with- out funds, the lack of money was the greatest cause of f a i l u r e to purchase farms. the depression offered l i t t l e . o p p o r t u n i t y to better t h e i r finances. many of the areas available f o r settlement i n the 's could not be accepted by the menno- n i t e s because of the large amount of cash necessary f o r pur- chase. in ° the p r o v i n c i a l committee reported that good i r r i g a t i o n land north east of coaldale, was available for $ k . to $$ . per acre. a cash payment of % was required and because of this the land could not be purchased f o r menno- n i t e purposes. in rev. b.b. janz reported that, land was availabe near the athabasca river, ninety miles north of ed- monton. the terms were favorable, being $ . down payment and fko.oo when the t i t l e was received. but this area was homestead land and to the mennonites who were acquainted with the well equipped farms i n southern alberta, the thought of clearing bush and breaking land was not very attractive. ^ . the pioneer s p i r i t seemed to be lacking and escape was sought from the rigors of pioneer l i f e . at about t h i s time a s e t t l e - ment was started at irma, but a f t e r long years of drought and v.m.g.. dec. , . vertreterversammlung, , p« . v.m.g., nov. , - v.m.g.. march , k . h a i l , very few mennonite f a m i l i e s remain i n the area. good open land required much cash, i n f e r i o r homestead land was not desired, and the number of landless f a m i l i e s grew. the lack of unity among the mennonites themselves, regarding the best settlement p o l i c y , was i n i t s e l f a detrimen- t a l factor i n the mennonite land settlement p o l i c y . there was a clear d i v i s i o n of thought regarding group settlement. the cm.b.c. and the p r o v i n c i a l organizations emphasized the nec- essity o f co-operative e f f o r t s i n which land was found and settled by the mennonite society as a whole; others thought that the search for land was the concern of the i n d i v i d u a l only. although t h i s difference caused d i f f i c u l t i e s , and the group scheme often suffered because of lack of i n t e r e s t on the part of the s e t t l e r s , the co-operative method has enjoyed the greatest popularity and success. the i n d i v i d u a l i s t s received a great boost i n t h e i r views when i n , david toews, chair- man of the cm.b.c., discouraged over the many f a i l u r e s of t h i s branch of the boards a c t i v i t i e s , stated-that perhaps i t was. better that people f i n d land independently of mennonite organizations. the settlements which found t h e i r beginnings i n the co-operative method have been mostly successful, although a few f a i l u r e s can be noted. the mennonite settlement at blue ridge was founded i n l|.- , and consisted o r i g i n a l l y of s i x families com- p r i s i n g t h i r t y i n d i v i d u a l s . the settlement, situated on the south bank of the athabasca r i v e r north-west of edmonton, con-. s i s t e d of homestead land and o r i g i n a l pioneer conditions exis- vertreterveraammlung, , p. ted. constant appeals f o r help were made to the vertreterver- sammlung, with special emphasis being put upon the necessity of more s e t t l e r s i f the success of the settlement was to be assured. new s e t t l e r s did not materialize and i n the area was closed to further homesteading by the government. ̂ the resident mennonite s e t t l e r s were l e f t i s o l a t e d and by + only two families remained. today there are no mennonite s e t t l e r s i n the area. the story of blue ridge i s not t y p i c a l but i t portrays developments i n certain other areas as w e l l . in irma, castor, crowfoot, beaverlodge, provost, munson, new brigden, monitor, pawson creek (b.c.), gundy (b.c.) and pouce coup small mennonite settlements grew up i n the t h i r t i e s , but to- day they have either died out e n t i r e l y or contain only a few mennonite. f a m i l i e s . most of the s e t t l e r s i n these areas soon became discouraged because of the severe conditions or because t h e i r crops either dryed, froze or were h a i l e d out, and most moved to the southern part of the province, or to b r i t i s h columbia. during world war i i , a l l active, attempts at opening new mennonite settlements ceased because of the unfavorable attitude of the general public to mennonite land expansion. the mennonites considered the s i t u a t i o n serious enough without aggravating i t by excessive land acquisitions. in + * how- ever, a new settlement was started just north of gem, and was named new gem. this project was carried through because arr- angements had been started p r i o r to the war, ^ but were comple- i b i d . , p . . " + vertre terver sammlung, + , p'» ' ted. only i n lql+l when fourteen mennonite f a m i l i e s settled there on- bought land, inspite of the help extended to the new s e t t l e r s by the eastern i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t and the mennonite society i n general, the settlement f a i l e d to grow and the farms were l o s t through lack of payment. today the settlement here does not e x i s t . since world war i i only one large settlement pro- ject has been undertaken by the mennonites of alberta, i t i s not yet completed. the canada land and i r r i g a t i o n company had, since the war, been preparing a block of land for i r r i - gation i n the central i r r i g a t i o n d i s t r i c t of the old c.p.r. block. in k , they informed the mennonite p r o v i n c i a l committee that the land would be ready f o r settlement within two years.^ the committee immediately gathered l i s t s of app- l i c a n t s who desired to take up land in the area. by august, , there were ^ mennonite applicants l i s t e d . the pro- ject had not been completed i n the time announced and the area had not been opened to date. the l a t e s t information regarding this area was received on august , , when h.c.p. cres- w e l l , ^ head of the department of immigration and colonization for the c.p.b., stated that the area would not be ready u n t i l i+-, and then, p r i o r i t y would be given to veterans of world war i i and dryed out farmers from saskatchewan. when the de- mands of these two groups had been met general applications from alberta would be accepted. loc; c i t . see map page . p r o t o k o l l des mennoniten provinzieles hilfskomitee, sept. , k l , hereafter noted as m.p.h. m.p.h., aug. , . on a v i s i t to rev. b.b. janz on that date. k mention should be made of the mennonite a g r i c u l - t u r a l society established i n i n alberta f o r the purpose of supplying funds, on a loan basis, to those mennonites wish- ing to buy land but lacking the f i n a n c i a l means to do so. the society as a whole was a f a i l u r e because i t lacked the c o n f i - dence of the general mennonite public. the society was l a t e r liquidated and a credit union was formed on a sound f i n a n c i a l basis. the l a t t e r organization had extended large sums to mennonites and s t i l l exists as one of the successful mennonite endeavours. ^ perhaps i f the mennonites had not attempted to organize a body to supervise the settlement of mennonites on land, the f a i l u r e of t h e i r planned land settlement would not be so obvious. i t is true that these people did tend to s e t t l e i n groups, but this was not the r e s u l t of a conscious policy on the part of the mennonites, but rather the consequence of a natural adhesion of the mennonite f o r h i s own people, and the f r u i t s of the e f f o r t s of the c.p.r. and the canada colon- i z a t i o n association. the mennonites on t h e i r own lacked the unity necessary for success i n t h i s f i e l d , and the few s e t t l e - ments such as blue ridge, which were established as a r e s u l t of a defined and supported p o l i c y , often proved a f a i l u r e . no small ingredient i n t h i s f a i l u r e i s the essential i n d i v i d u a l i t y of the average mennonite who i s w i l l i n g to bear the consequences of h i s own misjudgement but cannot forget i f his i l l f o r t u n e i s due -to someone else! these organizations are dealt with more f u l l y i n chapter v. chapter five economic aspects economic co-operation among the mennonites has i t s o r i g i n i n two factors which arise out of the nature of the mennonite r e l i g i o n . co-operation is looked upon as an aid i n keeping the mennonite people close adherents to t h e i r group i n a s o c i a l and s p i r i t u a l sense. to the mennonite re- l i g i o u s t i e s economic ones have been added. among the menno- nites co-operation l a r g e l y takes the nature of " r e l i e f " , i n that many economic services are offered by organizations which do not look to a p r o f i t but are concerned with extending these services at as low a cost as possible. this l a t t e r fact makes i t possible f o r the mennonites i n alberta to receive health insurance, f i r e insurance, and related services f o r a much lower price than would be possible by ordinary insurance companies. such organizations as the co-operative cheese factory and the credit union are established f o r the same purposes. the men serving on the executives and i n the comm- i t t e e s of these organizations do so with only small f i n a n c i a l remuneration, and often none at a l l . only t r a v e l expenses and operating expenses of the members are paid f o r . in studying the economic phases of mennonite l i f e i n alberta a few evident facts have to be taken into con- sideration. the f i r s t i s that the mennonites are an a g r i c u l - t u r a l people and, not including the l a t e s t immigrants, about q$f l i v e on farms. this i s as i t always has been and as the questionnaire. mennonite leaders desire i t . the second f a c t i s that in matt- ers of economic organization there i s a clear r i f t between the mennonite s e t t l e r s who came i n the f i r s t movement to the west and the ones who came i n the immigration of the 's. in s p i r i t u a l matters there i s sympathy and co-operation but on n o n - s p i r i t u a l l i n e s the two groups remain d i s t i n c t . the e a r l i e r group has few a c t i v i t i e s that are not controlled by the church. the attitude of the old mennonites to pools and co-operatives has already been indicated. i t has remained to the l a t e r immigrants to b u i l d economic organizations to serve t h e i r society, and i t w i l l be to the l a t e r immigrants that emphasis s h a l l be given throughout t h i s chapter. the reasons f o r t h i s d i v i s i o n i n the economic f i e l d are not too clear but c e r t a i n observations can be made. the general attitude of the old mennonites to economic co-op- eratives has already been mentioned and i s , perhaps, the best answer to t h i s question. there are other factors involved, however. most of the organizations which have been founded among the mennonites as a whole are d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y responsible to the vertreterversammlung, many having t h e i r o r i g i n i n t h i s body. the vertreterversammlung came to l i f e i n and was concerned with two main problems: reiseschuld and settlement. both of these problems had no i n t e r e s t to the old mennonites because they were not concerned i n those matters. consequently the vertreterversammlungen were not attended by the old mennonites nor by the united missionary church or the church of god i n christ, and no part was taken i n t h i s see page jfrfof this thesis. organization. during world war i i and immediately following i t the old mennonites did attend the meetings; but then the common problems of m i l i t a r y service and r e l i e f work temporarily gave a l l mennonite groups the shadow of a common ground upon which to meet. to some extent, therefore, the basis of non- co-operation between these two groups l i e s i n the lack of common problems. one has to look a b i t deeper, however, i f the true nature of t h i s economic r i f t between the various menno- n i t e denominations i s to be understood. the old mennonites have been i n america since and have always been a min- o r i t y group i n a society that was progressive and enjoyed economic leadership. prom the early years they have taken advantage of the l o c a l businesses and industries and did not f i n d i t necessary to co-operate as a group i n order to have economic services extended to them. the individualism of the american f r o n t i e r also played i t s part i n the l i f e of the mennonites. the group from russia has had a d i f f e r e n t history. in that country the mennonites enjoyed a much higher standard of l i v i n g and culture than t h e i r russian neighbors. the russian peasants, for centuries suppressed by despotic r u l e r s , had l o s t a l l i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e and were content to l i v e t h e i r l i f e of dependency upon the aristocracy. in order to have the necessary economic f a c i l i t i e s to ensure progress the mennonites had to b u i l d them on t h e i r own. the wide powers of self-government granted to the mennonites i n russia enabled them to supply t h e i r own needs. within seventy years a f t e r t h e i r founding i n southern russia the mennonite settlements were blooming with f l o u r milllfl, f a c t o r i e s of various kinds, and other economic establishments. in order to a t t a i n this economic leadership i t was necessary that economic co-operation become a r e a l i t y . this s p i r i t of co-operation among themselves has not been l o s t by these people and has been carried over into canada. in alberta t h i s co-operative movement got underway about the year , when the mennonite s e t t l e r s around coal- dale began holding regular meetings o f , a l l mennonite immigrants, regardless of denomination, f o r the purpose of mutual aid and the solution of common problems. i n t h i s movement was expanded to a p r o v i n c i a l scale and the vertreterversammlung came into existence to act as the "assembly" of mennonite ec- onomic and r e l i e f e f f o r t s i n the province. the f r u i t s of this movement can now be seen i n the a c t i v i t i e s of the various economic and s o c i a l organizations which have t h e i r o r i g i n i n t h i s co-operative e f f o r t . oneof the e a r l i e s t organizations to be formed by the mennonite group at coaldale was the doktor verein (doc- tor society) i n when a contract was entered into with dr. w.s. galbraith of lethbridge, who agreed to render a l l professional services to the members of the society and t h e i r f a m i l i e s f o r a monthly fee of $ . ©per family.^" the purpose of the society was to extend medical services to the menno- nites at a price payable by the average s e t t l e r . ^he society v.m'.g.. nov. , . k v.m.g., dec. , "statutes of the society" given i n v.m.g.. jan. , ^ . started with twenty-five members but membership grew rapidly and today k f a m i l i e s are l i s t e d as members. in a con- t r a c t was secured -with the gait hospital i n lethbridge and h o s p i t a l services were extended at a much lower rate than pre- viously. this contract expired and a new one was made with the st. michaels hospital i n lethbridge. the need f o r a l o c a l mennonite doctor was keenly f e l t because many of the s e t t l e r s could not speak english s u f f i c i e n t l y to make themselves under- stood. in dr» d.l. epp, a mennonite, declared himself w i l l i n g to serve the community on a contract basis. a menno- n i t e graduate nurse, miss helen martens, next suggested that coaldale was prosperous enough to be able to support.a menno- n i t e hospital. the r e s u l t was the formation i n k of the coaldale mennonite hospital society, and the founding of a q three bed h o s p i t a l i n a vacant building. the society has grown, has acquired a twelve bed h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g and i s ser- ved at present by a doctor of japanese extraction, dr. okamura. the membership i n the society i s r e s t r i c t e d to mennonite fam- . , , l l i e s . closely akin to the doctor and hospital societies i s the beerdigung kass"e (burial fund) which was established i n f o r the purpose of providing f i n a n c i a l aid for the b u r i a l of the deceased. ^" in the r e g i s t r a t i o n fee was f i f t y cents per family and a levy of $ . for every ten deaths b v.m.g., a p r i l , . loc. c i t . y?m.g.. oct. , . v.m.g., sept. k , m v.m.g., nov. , - vjlg., jan. , k . statutes of the mennonite b u r i a l fund society. making a demand on the treasury. the sums paid out i n case of a death are $ . f o r adults and $ . f o r children. under ten years of age. in t h i s organization had a t o t a l membership of k f a m i l i e s and seemed f i n a n c i a l l y sound ^ the mennonite f i r e insurance society has a unique history of i t s own. in , the mennonite s e t t l e r s of alberta decided to j o i n the canadian mennonite mutual f i r e insurance company, which had i t s headquarter i n plum coullee, manitoba!^" this organization was not a commercial business looking f o r a p r o f i t , but had been undertaken for the purpose of providing a r e l i e f program i n the insurance f i e l d . in the next few years four d i s t r i c t s were organized i n alberta and a l l menno- nites were urged to j o i n the company. the company was not registered or incorporated. in i k the company was registered i n manitoba by the p r o v i n c i a l government and one of the requirements f o r t h i s step was that i t s a c t i v i t i e s be confined to the provin- c i a l boundaries. a short time l a t e r saskatchewan took a sim- i l a r step and alberta found i t s e l f l e f t a l o n e . , t h e only s o l - ution was to organize on a p r o v i n c i a l basis and this was done by the formation of the alberta mennonite f i r e insurance so- c i e t y . the province retained the previous four d i s t r i c t s , coaldale, rosemary, didsbury, and peace river, each with a representative on the executive of the society. ' loc. c i t . vertreterversammlung, , p» ii - lk v.m.g., dec. . . p r o t o k o l l des brandaeltesten, aug. , i . . vertreterversammlung, nov. + , pp. - . loc. c i t . the question, of incorporation was immediately discussed and statutes were drawn up and submitted to the pro- v i n c i a l government. government o f f i c i a l s , however, advised against incorporation because t h i s step would necessitate the society to meet certain conditions as w e l l as face higher costs of operation. the mennonites were assured that as long as 'the society stayed within the boundaries of " r e l i e f " and showed no p r o f i t no obstacles would be put i n i t s way by the government. although incorporation was waived on the receipt of t h i s information, the mennonites f e l t that the government might not always be as "well wishing" as i t was then, and many favoured incorporation while the p o s s i b i l i t i e s for such a step were s t i l l there. in december of , there were mennonite f a m i l i e s registered as members with insured property worth $ , , . . money i n the treasury at that time amoun- ted to $ , i w . the society extended insurance not only f o r f i r e but also for storm damage to crops and buildings. to date the society has functioned very successfully and has ex- tended a very necessary service to the mennonites at rates that are below the regular insurance costs, the premium at present ( ) being $ . per $ . . the l a s t authority i n matters of the society i s the vertreterversammlung. in k the p r o v i n c i a l mennonite r e l i e f organization of alberta was organized for the purpose of uniting a l l vertreterversammlung, dec. i kk, p« vertre terver sammlung, , p« - • vertre terver sammlung, \. , p. ik* following information from the statute of the p r o v i n c i a l mennonite r e l i e f organization of alberta. mennonite denominations i n the province into a cohesive and active society f o r carrying on various r e l i e f a c t i v i t i e s at home and abroad. this organization has remained subordinate to the canadian mennonite board of colonization i n that i t has confined i t s a c t i v i t i e s more or less to a p r o v i n c i a l scale. i t s a c t i v i t i e s include, support of mennonite sick and insane; support in case of death i n a family; support i n case of f i r e or storm destruction; regulation of the settlement questions and search f o r new areas of settlement, and many other a c t i v - i t i e s not c l e a r l y defined i n the statute. a l l mennonites, who are members of a denomination supporting the organization, are automatically members of t h i s body. this organization, as many others, i s under the f i n a l supervision of the vertreter- versammlung. mennonite economic co-operation was also practiced on a local- scale. the coaldale mennonite credit union had i t s o r i g i n i n the coaldaler w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e r verein (coaldale- agri- c u l t u r a l society). the l a t t e r society had been formed i n f o r the purpose of giving f i n a n c i a l aid to the needy i n the community especially those who wanted -to buy land but did op. not have the funds to do so. after this society, was formed great e f f o r t s were made to e n l i s t new members but by -i k the society had acquired a c a p i t a l of only a l i t t l e over $ . and had made only ten loans t o t a l l i n g less than $ k . to seven persons. the society proved a t o t a l f a i l u r e and was p r o t o k o l l des coaldaler w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e r verein, july $, w. : l i q u i d a t e d i n + . j in i t s place a new organization arose, the coaldale mennonite security and credit union, which with- out much e f f o r t or many membership drives, i n three years had a membership of , and i n the l a s t year ( ) i t made loans to individuals to the value of $ , . . ^ this change i n fortune and public support can be explained by the f a c t that from i t s inception the credit union has been under the control and supervision of the government. i t operates i n accordance with government regulations and the books are regularly inspected by o f f i c i a l auditors. loans are made according to government regulations. the a g r i c u l t u r a l society, on the other hand had been b u i l t on the trust.and honesty of the s e t t l e r s and there was no governmental super- v i s i o n . the a g r i c u l t u r a l society, therefore, lacked the se- c u r i t y which was necessary before the people would invest money i n i t . the credit union today has a c a p i t a l of $ , . with a membership of l . ^ among the few f i n a n c i a l f a i l u r e s experienced by the mennonites was the coaldale cannery which was b u i l t i n . the reasons for this f a i l u r e are d i f f i c u l t to deter- mine because no records are available and information has to be gathered verbally from various individuals who were share- holders i n the enterprise. i t i s a story which most mennonites wish to forget and v e r y . l i t t l e information i s v o l u n t a r i l y given. certain generalizations regarding the unsuccessful venture can be made from the information gathered. p r o t o k o l l der coaldale mennonite security and credit union, march , + . k i b i d . . may , . i b i d . , feb. k, . k the cannery faced keen competition from the brodar canneries i n taber and lethbridge. in how f a r this i s a v a l i d reason f o r f a i l u r e and i n how f a r i t i s merely an ex- cuse i s d i f f i c u l t to determine. other enterprises, with as much of more l o c a l competition, have prospered and i t i s i n - conceivable that t h i s competition had very much to do with the collapse, except i n so f a r as i t added the " l a s t straw" to an already weak and struggling business. more to the point seems to be the a l l around poor management of the cannery from i t s founding to i t s collapse. the cannery was b u i l t as a co-operative e f f o r t and shares were sold at $ . each. arrangements were made by which i n - dividuals might obtain shares by helping i n the construction of the. b u i l d i n g . this was an easy way to obtain shares and many took advantage of i t f o r i t meant that i t required no cash to become a shareholder. the end r e s u l t , however,, was that the cannery was erected but the money on hand f e l l f a r short of the c a p i t a l necessary to cover the amount of the shares given out. this weak f i n a n c i a l basis, seems to be the main reason f o r the eventual collapse. then again the machinery bought to equip the building was second-hand and very old and i t required double the labour necessary to operate a more modern cannery. the building was also erected on an extremely low s i t e and the drainage system had to be constructed at a f a r greater cost than would have been necessary had a higher s i t e been chosen. taken a l l together these factors were enough to insure finan- c i a l f a i l u r e , and three years from i t s founding the cannery closed i t s doors and was given over to the executive of the cheese factory to dispose of with as l i t t l e f i n a n c i a l loss as possible. although i t had operated for three years the strugg- l i n g enterprise never r e a l l y paid for i t s e l f . the cannery was used during - and + to can l o c a l meat f o r the european r e l i e f program. a co-operative cheese factory appears to f i n d great support among the mennonites i n alberta. since no less than- four cheese factories, have been b u i l t by the menno- nites of t h i s province,"and some young settlements, such as vauxhall, have not l o s t the dream of building one. the men- nonite* iraaiigrants of the 's had become acquainted with creameries and cheese f a c t o r i e s i n russia where i n s i b e r i a , orenburg and samara they had t h e i r own establishments of t h i s kind. these enterprises were very successful i n russia and when the mennonites came to canada t h i s type of co-operative again found favor. - the f i r s t mennonite cheese factory i n alberta was b u i l t i n the early 's by the mennonites around swalwell. due to the scattered nature of the settlement and the d i f f i c u l - t i e s of transportation (many s t i l l used oxen), the factory f a i l e d because not enough milk was delivered. by ° more mennonites had moved to the area and the transportation f a c i l - i t i e s had improved, and a new factory was b u i l t i n that year. this factory i s s t i l l operating and seems f i n a n c i a l l y sound.- at didsbury and rosemary cheese f a c t o r i e s were established i n vertreterversammlung, u \.> p« . vertreterversammlung, * p . . vertreterversammlung, , p . . , but remained i n operation only a few years. at bidsbury disunity among the shareholders and outside competition forced the factory into bankruptcy. at rosemary not enough support- and ers could be found/the struggle came to an end when the fac- tory burned to the ground. i t was never r e b u i l t . at a, meeting on july , , of the mennonite groups around coaldale, i t was decided to canvas the d i s t r i c t and s o l i c i t support f o r the building of a cheese f a c t o r y . ^ in august of the same year a committee of f i v e was voted to organize the work. ° the committee v i s i t e d the cheese factory at swalwell i n order to obtain information and draw up building plans. in november of ,'the committee reported that the factory i n coaldale had been completed except f o r the machinery which had not yet arrived.^" " a l l who delivered milk to the factory were to become shareholders on the following basis: those with one cow to pay a fee of twenty-five cents; those with two cows must buy a quarter share at $ . ; those with three of four cows must buy h a l f a share at $ . ; those with s i x cows one share f o r $ . . ^ the t o t a l cash cost of the building and machinery was $k , . . - ^ the factory soon be- came too small and a new building was erected i n , and the old one was converted into an egg-grading station and a locker plant._ the p r o f i t from the factory i n the f i r s t year was $ . , l + while i n i t had a t o t a l income of $ , l . , v.m.g., july, , - v.m.g.. aug. , . loc. c i t . vertreterversammlung, , p« . loc. c i t . k income tax f i l e of cheese factory f o r . l e s s expenses, and showed a clear p r o f i t of $ , k . k . since other functions have been taken over by the cheese factory co-operative; i t now operates an egg-grading s t a t i o n , a poultry feed r e t a i l store, a locker plant and a lumber yard. these aspects of the business i n brought a p r o f i t of f l , » . the cheese factory at coaldale has also been outstanding i n that i t has taken f i r s t p r i z e f o r i t s cheese at the canadian p a c i f i c exhibition i n vancouver i n i k , and at the edmonton and calgary exhibitions i n i a ; i t took t h i r d prize at the b r i t i s h empire exhibition i n k , and i n received eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh prizes at the royal-winter p a i r i n toronto. today the factory has much supp- ort and under i t s manager, j.j. klassen, appears to be one of the more successful economic ventures of the alberta mennonites. in addition to the a c t i v i t i e s involving economic co-operation the mennonites of alberta organized f o r d i r e c t re- l i e f a c t i v i t i e s which were extended to a l l people regardless of f a i t h . during and a f t e r world war i i the two continents of europe and south america were the spheres of mennonite r e l i e f programs. these r e l i e f a c t i v i t i e s were organized on a provin- c i a l basis and were under the control of the vertreterversamm- lung. the f i r s t meeting of the vertreterversammlung was held i n , ahd since that time has supervised most mennonite a c t i v i t i e s within the province. since t h i s body was too large to function e f f i c i e n t l y as an executive, a p r o v i n c i a l committee trading p r o f i t and loss statement of the cheese factory, • dec. , . loc; c i t . • was elected to be the executive of the mennonite r e l i e f e f f o r t s . as has been previously noted, the two main problems dealt with by t h i s committee u n t i l ^ were the reiseschuld and the menno- nite settlement problem. in i k i t was f e l t that a new chapter i n the history of the mennonites i n alberta was beginning. the reise- schuld had -just been paid and the vertre terver sammlung turned from that problem to the one of r e l i e f f o r europe and other needy countries. i t was decided to create a mennonitisches provinzieles hilfskomitee (mennonite p r o v i n c i a l r e l i e f commi- ttee), which was to replace the old p r o v i n c i a l committee and • take over the supervision of the r e l i e f program. the comm- i t t e e was to be open to representatives of a l l mennonite de- nominations i n alberta who desired to co-operate i n this work. in each congregation a local relief committee was to be organ- ized to control the a c t i v i t i e s within the d i s t r i c t . the old p r o v i n c i a l committee was dissolved and i t s a c t i v i t i e s and funds taken over by the new organization. the.'first chairman of this new committee was j.j. klassen, of coaldale. he i s s t i l l ser- ving i n that capacity. the duty of the m.p.r.c. was to o f f e r help on two general l i n e s : to help preserve l i f e and clothe the naked, and to aid i n the new mennonite immigration to canada. num- erous other minor but important duties, such as support of the i l l and poverty stricken mennonites within the province, en- couragement of mennonite endeavours along c u l t u r a l and s p i r i t - ual l i n e s , and the supervision of the co-operative mennonite vertreterversammlung, u- , p. . loc. c i t . see chapter vii. enterprises which operated on a p r o v i n c i a l basis, were taken over by the committee. the foreign r e l i e f program, however, was one of i t s main concerns. following world war i i , the economic chaos i n europe resulted i n starvation and suffering f o r the people there. the mennonites declared themselves w i l l i n g to aid i n a r e l i e f program to a l l e v i a t e this suffering as much as possible. in alberta the m.p.r.c. i n - immediately went to work on a project of meat canning as a f i r s t step i n the r e l i e f e f f o r t . the cannery at coaldale was s t i l l standing i d l e and a l l the mennonite d i s t r i c t s i n alberts were urged to send meat to coal- dale, or i f that was not possible, to send money to be used to cover the cost of canning.'"'" a l l labour i n connection with this project was to be voluntary. work started on january , - , and by march , a carload of canned meat, containing over $ , cans, was sent to europe v i a new york."̂ """" this carload represented head of c a t t l e and ten sheep k i l l e d and canned at a cost of $k, « ^ " in addition to t h i s meat blankets and t h i r t y pairs of shoes were-sent to europe. the alberta mennonite r e l i e f e f f o r t i n k t o t a l l e d $ k , k . , including the value of the meat canned. the r e l i e f e f f o r t was continued and i n i k meat was again canned, t h i s time using head of c a t t l e and two sheep t o t a l l i n g , k l b s . which gave , b cans of meat worth $ , .ko. blankets were bought and collected and also k reports of the m.p.r.c., dec. , k . hereafter m.p.r.c. k l m.p.r.c., march , k . lj. vertre terver sammlung, dec. i k , p. . k loc. c i t . sent to europe. c l o t h e s and a g r i c u l t u r a l t o o l s (hoes, spades, e t c . ) were c o l l e c t e d and sent to paraguay.^" in k meat c o u l d not be canned because the cannery had been dismantled, and as an a l t e r n a t i v e a c a r l o a d of f l o u r was sent to europe. in and the r e l i e f program of the a l b e r t a mennonites c o n s i s t e d of sending r o l l e d oats, canned beans, soap, c l o t h e s , b l a n k e t s , and o t h e r n e c e s s a r y items to europe and south america. by the end of the mennonites i n a l b e r t a had donated or spent a sum of $ l , k . on f o r e i g n r e l i e f w o r k . ^ i t must be remembered t h a t t h i s r e l i e f a c t i v i t y i n c l u d e d the e f f o r t s of a l l mennonite denominations i n a l b e r t a . the old mennonite congregations, who u n t i l now had remained -aloof from the main stream of mennonite endeavours, j o i n e d i n the work and d i d h e l p to make i t a success. b a s i c a l l y , how- ever, the r e l i e f e f f o r t was the work of the mennonite general conference church and the mennonite brethern; they i n i t i a t e d i t , d i r e c t e d i t and f i n a n c e d i t , w i t h only v o l u n t a r y h e l p from other mennonite denominations. during the war the mennonites had p r o c l a i m e d t h a t they r e f u s e d to take l i f e but were prepared to save l i f e . in the post-war p e r i o d they had the o p p o r t u n i t y to prove that these were not empty words. the r e l i e f program continues today, but has d i m i n i s h e d s i n c e europe has been on i t s way to economic r e c o v e r y . kk vertreterversammlung, dec. k , p. « ij- f i g u r e compiled by the w r i t e r from the annual r e p o r t s of the s e c r e t a r y - t r e a s u r e r of the m.p.r.c. chapter six social. religious, amd educational aspects the mennonites have always been a group that has stood apart from the general culture i n which they found them^ selves. in russia t h i s separation was not d i f f i c u l t to a t t a i n due to the many p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by the mennonites. i t was made easier by the fact that the mennonite culture there was higher than that of t h e i r russian neighbors, and there was l i t t l e desire to acquire the s o c i a l customs of the russian peasant. ^the greatest legacy of russia to the mennonite way of l i f e seems to have been the world renown soup borscht, which today can s t i l l be found i n the best mennonite homes.^ in can- ada this separation has been preserved with greater d i f f i c u l t y , for the "world" here offers many things which the mennonites, especially the young people desire. . consequently the efforts to remain a group apart must be so much more determined and energetic i f success i s to be assured. the motive behind the mennonite separation from the "world" are simple but fundamental. contrary to modern philosophic thought, the mennonites have always believed i n absolute good and absolute e v i l . between these two extremes exist the amoral elements which may be used either for good or e v i l . the'one absolute truth dominating t h e i r f a i t h i s that man i s born a sinner and cannot achieve salvation except through "heart ' f a i t h i n the only son of god, jesus christ, who shed h i s blood on calvary f o r the salvation of mankind. this work of salvation must be accepted by each i n d i v i d u a l by f a i t h , and he must then become a follower of christ. the mennonites do not believe that only they are r i g h t , but any church i s wrong i f i t denies the above absolute truth and makes salvation a matter of good works or i n d i v i d u a l endeavor. humanism, with i t s high sounding p r i n c i p l e s , i s good i n i t s e l f but w i l l not "save" mankind, and i n modern times.serves to confuse the r e a l truth of the salvation offered through jesus christ. therefore separation from t h i s "world s p i r i t " i s an absolute necessity i f the "true" f a i t h i s to be preserved, and the preservation of t h e i r f a i t h i s the fundamental cause of a l l s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and educational a c t i v i t i e s among the mennonites. there i s a fear that i f the modern world with i t s humanism, evolution, and sanction of a l l r e l i g i o n s i s allowed to poison the minds of t h e i r children, without an antidote being administered, the e x t i n c t i o n of mennonitism would be a matter of only a short time. in the b a t t l e between absolute good and absolute e v i l there can be no compromise; fundament- a l l y there i s a r i g h t and a wrong with numerous amoral factors which can be used i n either way depending upon t h e i r applica- t i o n to the word of god. in t h i s philosophy of l i f e l i e s the key to the mennonite f a i t h with i t s resultant s p i r i t of separ- atism. the s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s of the mennonites are not numerous and those which e x i s t are l a r g e l y controlled by the church. a jugendverein (young peoples society) e x i s t s i n every denomination i n alberta, except f o r the old colony menno- n i t e s a t p o r t v e r m i l i o n . the purpose of the jugendverein i s to p r o v i d e s p i r i t u a l refreshment which i s accomplished by means of r e l i g i o u s programms brought on an average of once every two or three weeks, depending upon the denomination. the c h o i r supplements the work of the young peoples s o c i e t y and p r a c t i c e s are h e l d every week. about o%% of the mennonite churches i n a l b e r t a have c h o i r s . such a c t i v i t i e s as m u s i c a l programs, annual church p i c n i c s , and i n some d i s t r i c t s orches- t r a s o f f e r s o c i a l o u t l e t s f o r the mennonite youth. of course there are o f t e n g a t h e r i n g s of groups at p r i v a t e homes where s p o r t s and games are enjoyed, and t h i s o f f e r s the best appor- t u n i t y f o r young people to get acquainted. as a whole the s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s among mennonites have been n e g l e c t e d , mainly because so few s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s are s a n c t i o n e d by the church. t h i s l a t t e r statement i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n which, per- haps, does not h o l d true f o r a l l mennonite denominations i n canada. the g r e a t l o c a l autonomy of the churches g i v e s room f o r g r e a t divergence i n the s o c i a l f i e l d . the church has always been the c e n t r e of mennonite l i f e . in a l b e r t a , the f i r s t o r g a n i z a t i o n to a r i s e i n each settlement was a church. i f a b u i l d i n g c o u l d not be e r e c t e d immediately, meetings were h e l d i n p r i v a t e homes, or more o f - ten i n the l o c a l s c h o o l b u i l d i n g . of the s i x t y odd areas i n a l b e r t a where the mennonites l i v e , o r have l i v e d , church meet- ings were held' from the f i r s t week of the founding of the settlement. as soon as p o s s i b l e a b u i l d i n g was e r e c t e d and weekly s e r v i c e s were h e l d . c l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h the church i s , que s t i o n n a i r e . k of course, the sunday school f o r the c h i l d r e n and o f t e n f o r the a d u l t s a l s o . since i t i s the sunday school which acquaints the c h i l d r e n w i t h the b i b l e and with the p a r t i c u l a r d o c t r i n e s of the mennonite church, i t has always r e c e i v e d g r e a t emphasis, and i s o r g a n i z e d at the same time as the church. in canada today i t i s not the s o c i a l or the p u r e l y r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s of the mennonites which draws the a t t e n t i o n of the p u b l i c eye. many o t h e r denominations such as p r e s b y t e r i a n , b a p t i s t , and m i s s i o n a r y a l l i a n c e , have s i m i l a r fundamental b e l i e f s along r e l i g i o u s l i n e s . rather i t i s the matter of e d u c a t i o n and m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e which draws the a t t - e n t i o n of the p u b l i c , because i n these f i e l d s the mennonites seek s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s under the law. the matter of m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s h a l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r . outside of the very c o n s e r v a t i v e mennonite elem- ents ( a l t k o l o n i e r ) , the mennonites have always been e n t h u s i a s - t i c advocates of e d u c a t i o n . contrary to p u b l i c o p i n i o n that the mennonites sought escape from knowledge, thay have r a t h e r t r i e d to use i t as a means to educate t h e i r young people i n harmony w i t h t h e i r f a i t h . to them knowledge i s amoral, and the o b j e c t i o n i s not to knowledge i t s e l f but to i t s a p p l i c a - t i o n to d a i l y l i v i n g and-to t h e i r f a i t h . in canada there i s no i l l i t e r a c y among the mennonites and the younger g e n e r a t i o n u s u a l l y i s acquainted w i t h two languages, e n g l i s h and german, i n a d d i t i o n to what i s c a l l e d low german, the language used i n the m a j o r i t y o f the mennonite homes apart from the old mennonites. i n s r u s s i a s c h o o l s were b u i l t i n mennonite s e t t l e - ments even before education became compulsory there. in t h e i r time i n russia the mennonites supported koo public 'schools, high schools, k high schools for g i r l s , normal schools, one school f o r the deaf and dumb and one college. in a l l of these i n s t i t u t i o n s the regular curriculum set by the government was taught. in.canada and the united states, however, the same freedom of school administration has not been granted, rather the schools are supported by the govern- ment and free compulsory education i s extended to a l l inhabi- tants. yet i n spite of t h i s the mennonites have established t h e i r "private" schools i n order to control, to a certain de- gree, the education of t h e i r young people. in k ifchere were mennonite colleges and high schools i n the united states.-^ in canada today seven high schools are operating as private mennonite i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n addition to two mennonite colleges i n winnipeg. of these i n s t i t u t i o n s one i s i n ontario, four i n manitoba, one i n saskatchewan, one i n alberta, and two i n b r i t i s h columbia. the bible schools play an important part i n mennonite education. the purpose of these schools i s to give the young people a sound foundation i n the bible and to pro- pogate the mennonite f a i t h . the bible schools operate during a f i v e month period (november to end of march), and are supported by the various congregations who establish them. in k the number of bible schools i n canada and the united lethbridge.herald. march , . warkentin a., and gingerich m., who's who among the menno- n i t e s , newton kansas, bethel college press, q- > pp. r t|t" io states numbered twenty-nine. in alberta today s i x are oper- ating with an enrollment of approximately students. the largest bible schools are at coaldale, didsbury and gem. i t would not be an exaggeration to say that of a l l the mennonite young people i n .alberta about $ can be expected to attend a bible school for one or more years. the desire f o r private schools arises d i r e c t l y out of the fact that modern education teaches many things con- trary to the fundamentals of the mennonite f a i t h . private schools employing mennonite teachers are to insure that science and scripture are kept i n harmony and not i n c o n f l i c t . for example, the children are acquainted with the theory of evol- ution but i f this theory presents a c o n f l i c t with the scrip- tures, they are t o l d i t i s the theory that i s wrong and not the bible. i t i s therefore, a matter not of the material taught but of the manner i n which i t i s taught and how i t i s interpreted. some writers have stated^ that the "attempt to r e t a i n the german language," i s one of the basic motives f o r the establishment of mennonite private schools. this factor may play a small part but when one considers that german i s taught regularly i n the "german schools" on saturdays or after regular day school, and the fact that the nature of the instruc- t i o n i n the private school i s overwhelmingly english with only a few r e l i g i o u s subjects taught i n german, one cannot accept such a thepry. the schools are not established to r e t a i n the german language but to r e t a i n the mennonite f a i t h and the k i b i d . , pp. k - . % reimer, d.p., the mennonites of b r i t i s h columbia, thesis, u.b.c, k , p. . german language i s a by-product.^ not only mennonites have private schools i n canadaj tn alberta alone there are private schools and only one i s mennonite. as early as the s e t t l e r s around coaldale sought information regarding the founding and operation of t h e i r own school. in january, * rev. b.b. janz and mr. j.b. janz were sent.to edmonton to investigate the rights en- q joyed i n educational matters by minority groups. an audience with the prime minister, aberhart, s a t i s f i e d them that they had the r i g h t to b u i l d t h e i r own school i f they so desired, but they had to support i t themselves and were not exempt from the l o c a l school tax which went to the support of the l o c a l public school. to receive recognition, however, the school must be supervised and the curriculum prescribed by the prov- es i n c i a l department of education. because the depression made extra f i n a n c i a l burdens impossible the plan was dropped u n t i l a more opportune time. the coming of the war i n post- poned the plans i n d e f i n i t e l y . the question arose again on the annual p r o v i n c i a l conference of the mennonite brethern church held at namaka, on november and , kk» a committee of s i x was voted to gather information and report to the next conference. in november, k > the committee reported that government permi- ssion had been received f o r the founding of a school and a the language problem i s more f u l l y discussed on pages ho-//y o f f i c i a l l i s t of private schools obtained from the department of education. v.m.g., jan. , - v.m.g., feb. , . p r o t o k o l l der p r o v i n z i e l l e n hahressitzung der mennoniten bruedergemeinde von alberta] kk» p~ ^ piece of land was being held i n reserve by the coaldale sett- l e r s as a l o c a t i o n f o r the school. a group of mennonites (ready made corner) had donated a building which had already been moved near to the desired location."*"^ the s i t e was to be a acre farm one h a l f mile north of coaldale, of which s i x acres were to be reserved f o r the school and the rest rented or sold to meet expenses. the conference passed two resolu- tions on t h i s o c c a s i o n : . the school was not to be a "church" school i n that the required finances be supplied by that body, but that a society be formed within the mennonite brethern conference and membership be voluntary. . shares i n the school to be available at $$ . each. on march , ^ x , the mennonite educational society of alberta was organized and steps were taken to open the school i n the f a l l of that year. in september the school opened with k l students and two teachers, mr. henry thiessen, p r i n c i - p a l , and mr. jacob regehr. grades nine to twelve were taught. in k , two new classrooms were added and at present ( ) the construction of two more classrooms i s i n progress. in the grades seven and eight were added thus making the school a junior-senior high school with an enrollment of students, employing four teachers. in the l a s t year the t u i - tion fees f o r the various grades were as follows: grades vii and.viii — $ . grade i x — . grade x $ . i b i d . , p. k . p r o t o k o l l des komitees der mennonitischen hochschule, march a, + . grade xi $ . grade xii $ . these fees are too low to cover the cost of operating the school and the deficiency i s made good by private donations, c o l l e c t i o n s and money gathered when the school presents a program at the various churches. in the course of the l a s t s i x years three teacherages have been constructed, the l a s t being completed i n . a l l construction work on and at the school i s done by voluntary labour. the t o t a l value of school property i n stood at $ , . , not including the new classroom additions valued at roughly $ , . without labour. the curriculum of the alberta mennonite high school i s that prescribed by the p r o v i n c i a l department of education, and the school i s under the supervision of the d i v i s i o n a l high school inspector. in addition to the regular curriculum r e l i - gious subjects such as bible story i n the lower grades and christian ethics i n the higher, are taught; t h i s i s only nat- u r a l since the lack of r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n i n the public schools was a major factor f o r the establishment of this i n - s t i t u t i o n . the aim i n r e l i g i o n i s not so much one of indoc- t r i n a t i o n as one of providing "god and bible centred" knowledge and information to the children. as a required foreign lang- uage german i s taught. german also receives emphasis i n that i t i s taught i n the lower grades where a foreign language i s not required. protokoll der jahresversammlung des mennonitischen bildungs- verein, a p r i l . , p. . the i n s t r u c t i o n l.h the german language takes p l a c e mainly i n the saturday schools o r g a n i z e d by the v a r i o u s menno- n i t e churches. from the month of october to the end of march, the mennonite c h i l d r e n are gathered i n the l o c a l s c h o o l s or b i b l e schools and i n s t r u c t i o n i s g i v e n i n german and r e l i g i o n , w i t h the g r e a t e s t emphasis on the l a t t e r . only i f the s e t t l e - ment i s too s m a l l or the s e t t l e r s s c a t t e r e d w i t h poor means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , i s t h i s branch of e d u c a t i o n n e g l e c t e d . the vertreterversammlung has c o n s t a n t l y urged a l l churches, i f at a l l p o s s i b l e , to open saturday schools i n t h e i r areas. in a l b e r t a there are f o u r t e e n mennonite areas which make a d e t e r - mined e f f o r t to teach german and r e l i g i o n , e i t h e r on saturdays or d u r i n g a few weeks i n the summer months. ^- where g e n e r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s not p o s s i b l e many parents make e f f o r t s i n the home to educate t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n these two • f i e l d s . in the s e t t l e r s i n c o a l d a l e had s i x saturday schools i n o p e r a t i o n w i t h s i x teachers- and k s t u d e n t s . ^ in these s c h o o l s were c o n s o l i d a t e d and a t p r e s e n t f u n c t i o n as one school w i t h seven teachers and an enrollment of » german schools are not supported by the e a r l y mennonite s e t t - l e r s (old mennonites) s i n c e t h i s denomination has long used the e n g l i s h language i n i t s s e r v i c e s and sunday s c h o o l s . the russian mennonites are making a determined e f f o r t to r e t a i n the german language i n o r d e r to a v o i d a r i f t between young and o l d . the german l i b r a r y i s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the l k q u e s t i o n n a i r e . vertreterversammlung, , p« - i l l german school. the vertreterversammlung has urged each s e t t - lement to acquire german books which could be made available to the children. the areas boasting saturday schools almost a l l have l i b r a r i e s of this nature. i t i s a general observation, however, that though the books are there, the vast majority of children would f a r rather read english. the danger i s there that the more pressure i s put on to read german the more antipathy w i l l develop towards the language. the e f f o r t s are being made but the german language must eventually be given up. at present the language serves to bridge the gap between the older generation who do not master english and the younger generation interested mainly i n the english language. the german language has posed some of the most d i f f i c u l t problems f o r the mennonites, e s p e c i a l l y during a time of war. the war-year newspapers of alberta are f i l l e d with accusations against the mennonites charging them with d i s - l o y a l t y and treason, mainly because of t h e i r language and the l e f f o r t s to r e t a i n i t . various organizations made e f f o r t s to root out the german language among the mennonites. they were unsuccessful because the government seemed a l i t t l e more t o l e r - ant than many of the c i t i z e n s . the lethbridge c i t y council i n . passed a resolution which, i f endorsed by the education authorities, would deny i n s t r u c t i o n i n other than the english or french language to be given i n any r e l i g i o u s community schools. the endorsement was not forthcoming. in coaldale the l o c a l women's i n s t i t u t e "resolved to co-operate with the lethbridge herald, nov. , + . loc. c i t . l o c a l board of t r a d e i n the p r o t e s t to be sent to the proper a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n s t b i b l e s c h o o l and saturday school b e i n g taught i n german a t the l o c a l mennonite church d u r i n g the i ft d u r a t i o n of the war." under constant p u b l i c pressure the mennonites d i d c l o s e the saturday schools and the german l i b - r a r y f o r the d u r a t i o n , but i n k they were once more opened. the b u l k of the f e e l i n g of the g e n e r a l p u b l i c again- s t the german language was caused by emotion r a t h e r than by reason. yet the mennonites, f a i l i n g to understand the h a t r e d the g e n e r a l p u b l i c had f o r anything german, s t u b b o r n l y r e f u s e d to y i e l d to the p r e s s u r e . the concessions made by the c l o s i n g of the german s c h o o l and l i b r a r y d i d soothe the aroused f e e l - ings somewhat, but emotions s t i l l r a n h i g h . the p u b l i c resen- ted the sound of german i n p u b l i c p l a c e s . "why should our ears be offended by the sound of a non b r i t i s h language...", was the o p i n i o n of many. many mennonites very u n t a c t f u l l y r e f u s e d to l i s t e n to these warnings and continued to speak german i n p u b l i c p l a c e s . i f one c o n s i d e r s the b i t t e r n e s s and the d i f f i c u l - t i e s caused f o r the mennonites by the german language, why i s there such a r e a l attempt a t i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n ? the answer from a mennonite p o i n t of view i s g i v e n by rev. b.b. janz i n the l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d of j u l y , j- . he p o i n t s out t h a t the german language i s not a fundamental p a r t of the mennonite f a i t h as many have b e l i e v e d . the h i s t o r y of the mennonites shows t h a t they have changed t h e i r language s e v e r a l times. l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , j u l y , u- . l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , j u l y , k ' o r i g i n a l l y they spoke dutch or swiss, but i n p r u s s i a , under constant p r e s s u r e they adopted the german language. this change at t h a t time o c c a s s i o n e d as much d i f f i c u l t y as the t r a n s i t i o n from german to e n g l i s h does now. in r u s s i a , due to the p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed t h e r e , the r u s s i f i c a t i o n of the mennonites d i d not take p l a c e . in canada the mennonites are again f a c e d w i t h the problem of adopting a new language. the s o l u t i o n of t h i s d i f f i c u l t y i s c l e a r l y demonstrated by the h i s t o r y of the mennonites who i n the th century migrated to the u n i t e d s t a t e s ; the m a j o r i t y i n america have l o s t t h e i r former language and adopted the tongue of t h e i r new homeland. the same p r o c e s s of the i n d i c a t e d change among the mennonites i n the u n i t e d states i s a l s o c l e a r l y seen i n i t s beginnings among the younger g e n e r a t i o n of the l a t e s t immigrants to canada. rev. janz f u r t h e r p o i n t e d out t h a t f i f t y per cent of the mennonite people were unable to f o l l o w an e n g l i s h s e r - mon w i t h i t s b i b l i c a l terminology. even though many of them had l e a r n e d through the years to express themselves i n e n g l i s h i n the realm of everyday a f f a i r s , i t remained f o r them an a l - t o g e t h e r more d i f f i c u l t t h i n g to l e a r n the e n g l i s h language f o r r e l i g i o u s purposes. in a d d i t i o n , the m i n i s t e r s were mostly men who had come over from r u s s i a and i t was i m p o s s i b l e f o r them to use the e n g l i s h language i n b i b l i c a l d i s c o u r s e . the change from one language to another should not and c o u l d not be expected i n one g e n e r a t i o n . "this makes i t e v i d e n t t h a t the r e l i g i o u s body, the mennonite church, c o n s i d e r s i t impera- t i v e to teach t h e i r c h i l d r e n the l i t e r a r y book language of ger- i l k man, i n o r d e r to prevent the catastrophe of a d i v i s i o n w i t h i n „ the church between the young and o l d . " mr. janz goes on to say, our dominion government i s very wise i n not a p p l y i n g any f o r c e i n t h i s matter because the change of language f o r the immigrant takes care of i t s e l f h i s t o r i c a l l y , i n the course of time the mennonites i n t h e i r e f f o r t s to main- t a i n a saturday s c h o o l of t h e i r own f o r the c h i l d r e n do nc^t pursue any other aim but an exclusive *' r e l i g i o u s purpose... they are to enable the c h i l d to read the same b i b l e which i t s ( s i c ) mother reads, that i t ( s i c ) may s i n g the same song which mother s i n g s , and understand the worship i n which the f a m i l y p a r t i c i p a t e s . the german language t h e r e f o r e , i s to serve as a l i n k between young and o l d , u n t i l the e n g l i s h language can serve the pur- poses of a l l . thus the g e n e r a l p u b l i c and the mennonites both have arguments f o r t h e i r stand and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s seem to be found on both s i d e s of the q u e s t i o n . what i s needed, perhaps, i s a l i t t l e more understanding on the p a r t of the e n g l i s h speaking p u b l i c , who have never been i n the p o s i t i o n of a min- o r i t y group, and a l i t t l e more e f f o r t to l e a r n e n g l i s h on the p a r t of the mennonites who do n o t master i t . but the g e n e r a l course of h i s t o r y i n t h i s matter i s c l e a r ; the mennonites have a l r e a d y changed t h e i r language once and they can be expected to do i t again. there i s the f e a r i n the h e a r t s of some menno- n i t e s that they w i l l a l s o l o s e t h e i r f a i t h when the german language i s g i v e n up; t h i s i s not the view of the g e n e r a l mennonite p u b l i c . loc. c i t . loc. c i t . the mennonites have t r i e d to maintain t h e i r group i n d i v i d u a l i t y i n the midst of a culture strange to them. their s o c i a l , r e l i g i o u s , and educational endeavors have been moti- vated by the desire to maintain t h e i r r e l i g i o u s separation. this struggle has often led them into c o n f l i c t with t h e i r non- •mennonite neighbors i n areas of a c t i v i t y which seem unimportant to the l a t t e r but constitute a v i t a l l i n k i n mennonite r e l i - gious development. the question i s often asked, "to what extent have the mennonites been assimilated?" this question i s rather d i f f i c u l t to answer and depends upon the f i e l d of a c t i v i t y which i s considered. economically the mennonites have been assimilated, s o c i a l l y and educationally they maintain a reserve, p p r e l i g i o u s l y they make no compromise. some observers t h i n k ^ that when the german language has disappeared from among them assimilation w i l l have been completed. this i s a f a l l a c y ; i t may make assimilation somewhat easier and more rapid, but the mennonites of the united states have proven that the foundation of mennonitism i s not a language but a b e l i e f , i t i s a p h i l o - sophy of l i f e . as long as this philosophy remains unassimil- ated the mennonites also remain so. the core of mennonitism i s s t i l l f i r m , even though i n recent years there has been evident a "breaking away" from the mennonite f a i t h . this was especially true during the war years when accompanying s o c i a l and economic upheavals also reached into the mennonite way of l i f e . i t i s indeed doubtful i f complete assimilation of these people would be desireable. wordsworth, j.s., strangers within our gates, frederick clarke stephenson, toronto, l^oo, p« » t h e i r b e l i e f s and c o n s e r v a t i v e p o l i t i c a l l e a n i n g s have a p l a c e i n the modern world; t h e i r i n d u s t r y and t h r i f t c o u l d serve as a noble example to many o t h e r s . the m a j o r i t y of the young people remain w i t h the f a i t h of t h e i r f a t h e r s and are assuming r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n a l l walks of c a n a d i a n , l i f e as t e a c h e r s , engineers, u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , doctors, a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s and many o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s . in a l b e r t a alone ( - ) there were mennonite h i g h s c h o o l students of which were i n p u b l i c h i g h schools and i n mennonite p r i v a t e s c h o o l s ; there were t h i r t y - s e v e n u n i v e r s i t y students, and t h i r t y - t w o nurses or nurses i n t r a i n i n g . ^ the m a j o r i t y of mennonite youth, however, s t a y on the farm. w r i t i n g i n the family h e r a l d and weekly s t a r of june n d , , mariaia green e l l i s s a i d , i t i s estimated that $ of the mennonite sons have stayed on the farm, and that has not j u s t happened. i t has been by d e f i n i t e i n t e n t and t r a i n i n g . the o t h e r f o u r per cent, are the e x c e p t i o n s . you w i l l f i n d a mennonite doctor i n golden, b r i t i s h columbia, an e x t e n s i o n worker i n bran- don, an i n t e r p r e t e r i n winnipeg, a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r i n b r i t i s h columbia and another a t oxford. the l a t t e r went over i n the f i r s t p l a c e as a rhodes s c h o l a r from manitoba, and remained to become head of the department of romance languages. but mennonite boys and g i r l s are by t r a d i t i o n and t r a i n i n g 'of the s o i l ' , and the problem which w o r r i e s the mennonite f a t h e r s today i s what i s g o i n g to happen when the s u r p l u s i s f o r - ced away from the community. undoubtedly i t w i l l weaken the church, but i t w i l l a l s o hasten t h e i r a b s o r p t i o n i n t o canadian l i f e . k during and f o l l o w i n g world war i i t h i s l i s t of p r o f e s s i o n a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e and vertreterversammlung, l » pp* - . k quoted i n gibbon, op. c i t . , p. . mennonite men and women has increased greatly, because the "surplus" has already been forced away from the community, e s p e c i a l l y i n ontario and british.columbia. in alberta agri culture i s s t i l l the dominant aim of the young people. in another ten years the picture here w i l l also have changed. chapter vii military service and post war developments " i f they were only as good citizens as they are good christians." (calgary herald, june £, - ) the mennonite stand to m i l i t a r y service i n the past has, been b r i e f l y mentioned i n chapter one. they were, and i n canada and the united states, s t i l l are p a c i f i s t s who de- c lare, "we should not provoke or do violence to any men - even, when necessary, to f l e e for the lord's sake from one country to another, and take p a t i e n t l y the s p o i l i n g of our goods, but to do violence to no man.""'" this attitude has been affirmed and reaffirmed i n the past and has been extended also into the f i e l d of government where o f f i c e holding i s considered "unspir- i t u a l , " because the "world can be controlled only by the sword and the weapons of our warfare are not carnal." what then i s the mennonite r e l a t i o n to the state? the answer, as given by the majority of p a c i f i s t mennonites the world over i s as f o l - lows: - we accept the teaching of scripture that the gov- ernments of the world are i n s t i t u t e d of god for the purpose of keeping law and order i n ( s i c ) the earth among men. to do t h i s the state enacts laws, judges between parties i n contention (i cor. : l ) , threatens and punishes criminals and i f necessary bears the sword i n order to cufcb crime (rom. : .). according to the same scripture the state i s also given f o r the purpose of p r a i s i n g the well doer and protection of the good. i pet. :k. since the bible i s our rule of conduct, we want to take the c h r i s t i a n attitude toward the state. the following we believe to be the s c r i p t u r a l re- l a t i o n s h i p : . honor the king. i pet. : gibbon, op. c i t . , p. alberta-saskatchewan conference reports, a* p» . pray f o r the r u l e r s , t h a t we may l e a d a q u i e t and peaceable l i f e i n a l l g o d l i n e s s and hon- e s t y . i tim. : - . . to obey the laws of the l a n d , w i t h t h i s o n l y e x c e p t i o n t h a t when the s t a t e asks something of us t h a t i s c o n t r a r y to the t e a c h i n g of the b i b l e , we ought to obey god r a t h e r than man. acts : . k. in no case to r e s i s t the government (acts : ) , nor speak e v i l of r u l e r s ( t i t . : ) , nor take p a r t i n s e d i t i o n s (gal. : ) . » to g l a d l y pay tax, customs, and revenues that may be r e q u i r e d of us. rom. : ; matt. : . t h i s g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e of the mennonites to the s t a t e has been a p o i n t of vigorous d i s c u s s i o n a t the mennonite world confer- ence i n b a s e l , s w i t z e r l a n d , which was h e l d i n august, . ^ the mennonites of the world r e a f f i r m e d t h e i r fundamental ob- j e c t i o n to the use of arms, but l e f t u n r e s o l v e d the d i f f e r e n c e s which have grown among the european and american mennonites s i n c e the t h century. a compromise was reached i n a unani- mously adopted message: as c i t i z e n s o f our c o u n t r i e s , we d e s i r e to be sub- j e c t to our governments, to pray f o r them and to seek the w e l f a r e of the n a t i o n , under the c o n d i t i o n t h a t where the requirements of human laws are con- t r a r y to the word of god, we must obey god r a t h e r than man. our r u l e of l i f e must always be the word o f god. t h i s r e s o l u t i o n g i v e s ample room f o r i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , but the p r i n c i p l e i s c l e a r - n o n - r e s i s t a n c e i s s t i l l a deep- seated p a r t of the mennonite f a i t h . during times of war the h o s t i l e f e e l i n g a g a i n s t the mennonites i n c r e a s e s because of these p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s . yet the a t t i t u d e of the mennonites has always been that one should "obey god r a t h e r than man" i n such circumstances, even i b i d . , , p» » u n d e r l i n i n g i s mine. k l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , aug. l , . loc. c i t . u n d e r l i n i n g i s mine. i f i t means the l o s s of "wbrdly" goods and p o s s e s s i o n s . dur- i n g the reformation the mennonites r e s i s t e d any attempts to make them perform m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e and as a r e s u l t they were f o r c e d to f l e e or s u f f e r p e r s e c u t i o n — t h e y f l e d to p r u s s i a . here again, i n time, they found i t necessary to defend t h e i r p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s and although a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s were f o r a time allowed many accepted the i n v i t a t i o n of catherine i i of r u s s i a and migrated to the lower dneiper area. in i o an a c t of the russian government (ukas) withdrew r e c o g n i t i o n of the mennonite p r i n c i p l e s and the g r e a t i n f l u x of the 's i n t o canada and the u n i t e d s t a t e s took p l a c e . the mennonites remaining i n r u s s i a escaped w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s or with m e d i c a l s e r v i c e i n the russian army. a f t e r the communist rev- o l u t i o n had withdrawn a l l p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by the mennonites the g r e a t m i g r a t i o n of the 's began. the a l t e r n a t i v e s e r - v i c e men i n r u s s i a were supported and s u p p l i e d by the v a r i o u s mennonite churches, and at the h e i g h t of world war i, there were , mennonites i n the v a r i o u s s e r v i c e s , c o s t i n g the churches $ , ' , a n n u a l l y . in north america the experience of the mennonite p a c i f i s t s has been v a r i e d . during the american r e v o l u t i o n the mennonites i n the u n i t e d s t a t e s were f o r c e d to bear arms o r j o i n the stream of u n i t e d empire l o y a l i s t s to b r i t i s h north america. in the war of , the mennonites i n canada were exempt from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e but had to f u r n i s h t h e i r horses and oxen and serve as teamsters. during the american c i v i l v e r e i n i g t e n mennoniten gemeinden i n o n t a r i o , jahrbuch, i lt p. . h e r e a f t e r noted as.v.m.g. ., jahrbuch. gibbon, op. c i t . , p. * war the united states allowed m i l i t a r y exemption i n return for a money payment c a l l e d commutation fee. world war i again raised the question of m i l i t a r y service. non-combatant service i n the army was allowed by the canadian government, but there was no guarantee that the draf- tee would not be shifted around and placed i n a combatant po- s i t i o n . the s i t u a t i o n grew serious and the mennonites of can- ada, on jan. , , handed an address to the government of canada, asking i t to remember the promised p r i v i l e g e s to the ,q mennonites; the government stated that i t s promises had not been f o r g o t t e n . through the c i v i l i a n board of inquiry;, a l l the conscientious objectors were screened and the insincere cases eliminated from the p a c i f i s t ranks. the others were given work on farms. the whole a f f a i r , however, frightened the more conservative elements and caused another mennonite migration i n the " s when the a l t k o l o n i e r treked to m e x i c o h world war i i caught the canadian mennonites un- prepared for the emergency. p r i o r to the war no e f f o r t s had been made to arrange f o r alternative services i n case war came. this lack of foresight was not caused so much by indifference as by the differences of opinion among the various mennonite denominations regarding the type of service to be done. the very conservative elements (altkolonier) absolutely refused any type of service during wartime; the old mennonites were w i l l i n g to do work under c i v i l i a n supervision ? but rejected a l l v.m.g.o., jahrbuch, , p. text of address i n schaeffer, op. c i t . , pp. ik -i l. i b i d ; , p. . some of these have returned to canada and s e t t l e d at port vermilion- i n northern alberta. non-combatant s e r v i c e , even under s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the medical corps; the general conference .and the mennonite bre- t h e r n were w i l l i n g to do f o r e s t r y and farm work but were a l s o i n c l i n e d to accept non-combatant s e r v i c e i n the m e d i c a l corps. when the war broke out the mennonites were i n c a p a b l e of p r e - s e n t i n g a u n i t e d f r o n t on t h i s q u e s t i o n . under p r e s s u r e of war, however, compromises were soon reached and the government granted a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s . in t h i s r e s p e c t there was no d i s t i n c t i o n made .between menno- n i t e s and other groups who p r o f e s s e d p a c i f i s t p r i n c i p l e s . a l - t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e was g r a n t e d on the b a s i s of the m i l i t i a law passed i n , which s t a t e d i n p a r t , the f o l l o w i n g persons only s h a l l be exempt.from l i a b i l i t y to serve i n the m i l i t i a . . . . p e r s o n s , who from the d o c t r i n e s of t h e i r r e l i g i o n , are averse to b e a r i n g arms or r e n d e r i n g p e r s o n a l m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , under such c o n d i t i o n s as are p r e s c r i b e d . a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e camps arose f i r s t i n ontario, near montreal r i v e r , and then i n manitoba, saskatchewan, a l b e r t a and b r i t i s h columbia. the m a j o r i t y of' camps were i n b r i t i s h columbia, where a t the h e i g h t of the war n i n e t e e n camps were occupied by approximately k men. the d u t i e s of the men were mainly f i r e f i g h t i n g , f e l l i n g scorched t r e e s and p l a n t i n g new ones. i t i s estimated t h a t k , t r e e s were p l a n t e d by men .in these camps.^ these c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s r e c e i v e d o n l y f i f t y cents per day and had to supply t h e i r own c l o t h i n g and support t h e i r own f a m i l i e s . the government undertook the support of s c h a e f f e r , op. c i t . , p. -. - v.m.g. ., jahrbuch, , p. « l k loc. c i t . the camps. in ^ these men were g i v e n the choice of work on the farm at $ . per month, w i t h the r e s t of the s a l a r y being p a i d d i r e c t l y to the red cross, or to remain i n camp. most of the men accepted the new s e r v i c e and a l l f o r e s t r y camps except seven were closed. '"' during the l a s t years of the war c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s were a l s o allowed to serve i n h o s p i t a l s throughout canada. the ones who chose t h i s s e r v i c e were us- u a l l y sent to the v a r i o u s mental h o s p i t a l s as o r d e r l i e s . the d e l e g a t i o n which was sent to ottawa to a r - range f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e c o n s i s t e d o f mennonites of a l l denominations; a d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n was soon e v i d e n t . the members of the old mennonites r e j e c t e d any s e r v i c e which was c o n t r o l l e d by the m i l i t a r y , even i f t h i s s e r v i c e i n v o l v e d o n l y care of the s i c k and wounded. they argued that i f a man took such s e r v i c e s he became an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a " f i g h t i n g f o r c e " arid a cog i n the wheel of a f i g h t i n g machine. the suggestion was made by rev. b.b. janz t h a t s e r v i c e i n the m e d i c a l corps, under s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s , would expose mennonite young men to the same p h y s i c a l dangers as the o r d i n a r y s o l d i e r , and y e t r e q u i r e of them only to perform a c t s of mercy and h e a l i n g . because t h i s s t i l l i n v o l v e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n " p a r t " of the army which was under m i l i t a r y s u p e r v i s i o n , this' p l a n was r e - j e c t e d by the d e l e g a t i o n . the main o b s t a c l e s . t o t h i s p l a n seemed to be that b a s i c t r a i n i n g , even i n t h i s noncombatant u n i t , r e q u i r e d arms t r a i n i n g and there"was no guarantee that the men would not be t r a n s f e r e d to an a c t i v e combatant u n i t . the p l a n was t h e r e f o r e , r e j e c t e d i n i t s e n t i r i t y . of the e i g h t loc. c i t . k delegates only one, b.b. janz, seemed to favour the p l a n . in september k , an order-in-council allowed the s e r v i c e s of the conscientious objectors i n the medical and dental corps. s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s s t a t e d that even b a s i c t r a i n - ing was to be done without arms and the men could not be t r a n s - f e r e d to another u n i t without t h e i r consent. when t h i s became known the p a c i f i s t s of a l l r e l i g i o u s complexions joined t h i s branch of the s e r v i c e . i t i s not d e f i n i t e l y known how many j o i n e d but the f i r s t of t h i s group r e c e i v e d b a s i c t r a i n i n g i n peterboro, ontario, i n december of k and january of k k . in t h i s f i r s t group there were f o r t y - t h r e e men representing the mennonite, p e n t e c o s t a l , seventh-day-adventist and plymouth l brethern churches; of these men twenty-five were mennonites. as f a r as i s known, t h i s was the l a r g e s t number to be t r a i n e d as a group. the men who j o i n e d l a t e r went through t r a i n i n g as i n d i v i d u a l s and not as a p a r t of a l a r g e " r e s t r i c t e d " group. the p r i v i l e g e s enjoyed by these men on discharge were the same as those of the r e g u l a r serviceman. in t r a c i n g the o r i g i n of t h i s order-in-council no w r i t t e n i n f o r m a t i o n or sources are a v a i l a b l e . rev. b.b. janz r e l a t e s that a f t e r the mennonite d e l e g a t i o n had arranged f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e , he p e r s o n a l l y got i n touch w i t h major general l a f l e c h e , m i n i s t e r of war, and proposed a scheme which would make i t p o s s i b l e f o r mennonite young men to serve i n the medical corps. a paper was drawn up s t a t i n g the c o n d i t i o n s under which such s e r v i c e s could be made p o s s i b l e . these con- d i t i o n s i n c l u d e d no t r a i n i n g w i t h arms, n o n t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y personal experience of w r i t e r . the f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n is obtained from rev. b.b. janz. to o t h e r u n i t s , and s e r v i c e i n groups w i t h arrangements f o r s p i r i t u a l s u p e r v i s i o n by the mennonite church. general la- f l e c h e was e n t h u s i a s t i c and promised to do a l l i n h i s power to a i d i n such a -program. he promised b.b. janz to keep him informed as to developments. a y e a r l a t e r janz was informed t h a t the department of defense had r e j e c t e d any p l a n by which c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t o r s c o u l d serve i n the army except under r e g u l a r c o n d i t i o n s . the i s s u e seemed dead. then came the o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l of september, k , i n which p a r t of the con- d i t i o n s asked f o r by mr. janz were granted, e v i d e n t l y a-:result of the audience w i t h major general l a f l e c h e . i t i s c l e a r that the " r e s t r i c t e d " s e r v i c e i n the royal canadian army m e d i c a l corps and the royal canadian army dental corps, o r i g i n a t e d o u t s i d e of the u n i t e d a c t i o n • "f ̂ the mennonite churches and t h e r e f o r e d i d not enjoy church endorsement. today the p u b l i c seems much more f a v o r a b l e to such a p l a n and i t can be expected t h a t i n case of another war t h i s s e r v i c e s h a l l r e c e i v e major emphasis. in a l b e r t a the s i t u a t i o n of the mennonites r e g a r d - i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e was the same as of those i n other p r o - l v i n c e s . the p i c t u r e i n a l b e r t a was the f o l l o w i n g : in the armed s e r v i c e s . • in the r e s t r i c t e d m e d i c a l corps s e r v i c e in the c o . camps and farms in h o s p i t a l s in p r i s o n because of p a c i f i s m other s e r v i c e s tsjuestionnaire & v e r t r e t e r v e r sammlung, kh> k > ^ . i n c a s e s w h e r e t h e y o u n g men i j o . l n e d t h e r e g u l a r m i l i t a r y s e r - v i c e s s p e c i a l a c t i o n w a s t a k e n r e g a r d i n g t h e m o n t h e i r r e t u r n . t h e g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e a n d t h e m e n n o n i t e b r e t h e r n c h u r c h e s d i d n o t t a k e a u n i f o r m a c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e m . i n some l o c a l i t i e s t h e m e n l o s t t h e i r c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p w h i l e i n o t h e r s n o a c t i o n w a s t a k e n . t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e o l d m e n n o n i t e d e n o m i n a t i o n who j o i n e d t h e s e r v i c e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y f o r f e i t e d c h u r c h m e m b e r s h i p . i n a l l b u t t h e l a t t e r c h u r c h , t h e m a t t e r o f m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n m a d e a m a t t e r o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s c i e n c e . s i n c e w o r l d w a r i i t h e m e n n o n i t e s i n c a n a d a a n d t h e u n i t e d s t a t e s h a v e m a d e d e t e r m i n e d e f f o r t s t o e n s u r e t h a t a u n i t e d s t a n d s h a l l b e m a d e r e g a r d i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i n c a s e o f a n o t h e r w a r . t o t h i s e n d v a r i o u s " p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e s " h a v e b e e n h e l d t h r o u g h o u t b o t h c o u n t r i e s , w h e r e t h e q u e s t i o n o f n o n - r e s i s t a n c e a n d m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e h a v e t a k e n t h e s p o t l i g h t . i n a l b e r t a s u c h c o n f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n h e l d a t c o a l d a l e i n * a n d a t d i d s b u r y i n j u n e , . i n f e b r u a r y , a n i n e man d e l e g a t i o n w a s s e n t t o o t t a w a t o i n t e r v i e w t h e n e w p r i m e m i n - i s t e r , s t . l a u r e n t , i n r e g a r d t o t h i s q u e s t i o n . t h e p r i m e m i n - i s t e r p r o m i s e d t h a t n o a c t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d b e t a k e n i n t h i s r e g a r d w i t h o u t p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e g r o u p o r g r o u p s c o n c e r n e d . t h i s g a v e t h e m e n n o n i t e s a s s u r a n c e t h a t i n t h e f u t u r e t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f c a n a d a w o u l d l e n d a s y m p a t h e t i c e a r t o t h e i r w i s h e s r e g a r d i n g m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . t h e m e n n o n i t e s h a v e b e e n a c c u s e d o f h y p o c r i s y i n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e e a p p e n d i x c . p . the matter of m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e . the q u e s t i o n has been asked, "in how f a r are the mennonites s i n c e r e when they c l a i m m i l i - t a r y exemption?" in some cases the charge of h y p o c r i s y may be w e l l founded, f o r some have used the p r i v i l e g e s of c o n s c i e n - t i o u s o b j e c t i o n to escape m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e not because of per- s o n a l c o n v i c t i o n s but r a t h e r because of p r e s s u r e from the home, f e a r of combatant duty, p r o s p e c t s of f i n a n c i a l g a i n , or o t h e r " u l t e r i o r " motives. the number of such cases i s s m a l l , how- ever, f o r the p r i n c i p l e s of p a c i f i s m has been i n d o c t r i n a t e d i n t o the mennonite c h i l d from h i s e a r l y years. the mennonite stand i s a s i n c e r e one, and the motives of the men who have been a c t i v e i n o b t a i n i n g the a l t e r n a t i v e s e r v i c e s cannot be questioned. the p o p u l a r stand of the mennonites i n regard to the m i l i t a r y q u e s t i o n was expressed i n + by rev. b.b. janz of c o a l d a l e , a l b e r t a , when he s a i d , i may w e l l say t h a t our r e s t r i c t i o n i n the matter of war does not mean f o r us to s i t at home and do n o t h i n g . no; where our f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s are r e q u i r e d to go out, then a l s o our young men can go out to serve t h e i r coun- t r y , but without b l o o d . whether the govern- ment should p l a c e them i n any c i v i l s e r v i c e f o r the u p b u i l d i n g of the country, or red cross work to the ( s i c ) care f o r the s i c k and woun- ded, or even p a t i e n t s w i t h most contagious d i s e a s e s . whatever the s e r v i c e may be, though i t r e q u i r e s s a c r i f i c e , s i c k n e s s , s u f f e r i n g or even death, we have no r i g h t to s h r i n k back before anything. only one request: "don't r e q u i r e of us to k i l l or work f o r d e s t r u c t i o n -- and p l a c e a l l s e r v i c e , a l s o the most danger- ous under a c i v i l command"... under no c o n d i t i o n f e a r or cowardice or comfort or anything e l s e should be p e r m i t t e d to keep our young man back, o n l y the p o i n t of c o n s c i e n t i o u s o b j e c t i o n as i n d i c a t e d above i s to r e c e i v e due c o n s i d e r a t i o n . l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , j u l y , + . this statement i s clear and speaks of a s i n c e r i t y that cannot be questioned. during world war i i the matter of mennonite l o y a l t y to canada was a topic of frequent discussion, especially i n d i s t r i c t s where mennonites l i v e d . in t h i s regard the mennonite himself was rather confused at times. he knew that he was no nazi, but at the same time he had a deep -.regard f o r germany as a country. i t was germany that had given shelter to the thou- snads of refugees from communist russia and had clothed and fed them free of charge f o r many months while they had waited for embarkation to canada. i t took the mennonites a while to adjust to the fact that the nazis had taken power and the very government which had extended aid to them had been eliminated, . i t took only a few stories of nazi a t r o c i t i e s to set the menno- nites r i g h t , and outside of a few f a n a t i c s , the mennonites a l l re jected ..nazism as unchristian and t e r r i b l e . as a rule the mennonites do not mix i n p o l i t i c s and even sympathy f o r germany never carried within i t the seeds of danger for canada. the t i e with germany i s sentimental and not p o l i t i c a l . in the post-war period the mennonites have attempted to readjust themselves to the dislocations caused by the war. some young men once more took up land while others entered the schools and u n i v e r s i t i e s of canada and the united states to seek occupations- i n other f i e l d s . the older generation again seemed more content now that the war was over and t h e i r young men home. the word came from europe that many mennonites among them friends and r e l a t i v e s of mennonites i n canada, sought see appendix d f o r the o f f i c i a l mennonite view of national socialism. entrance i n t o canada. immediately the o r g a n i z a t i o n a l machin- ery of the north american mennonites was geared i n an e f f o r t to h e l p open canada's doors to these u n f o r t u n a t e s . thus a f o u r t h g r e a t movement of mennonites i n t o canada got underway. most new comers o r i g i n a l l y came from r u s s i a , having escaped from there w i t h the german f o r c e s i n t h e i r r e t r e a t from the east i n k k . these mennonites have come to canada as d i s p l a c e d persons. in the l a s t y e a r of im- m i g r a t i o n mennonites from the danzig area and some german nat- i o n a l s have been i n c l u d e d i n t h i s movement which s t a r t e d i n k . ^ the new immigration to canada has been made•possible by the a i d and the e f f o r t s of the canadian mennonites. by march, , n e a r l y , mennonites from europe, paraguay, b r a z i l , uruguay and china have entered t h i s country. t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n i n canada has been as follows: ""*" p r i n c e edward i s l a n d new brunswick quebec o n t a r i o ' manitoba saskatchewan alberta-- -ioi . b r i t i s h columbia t o t a l these mennonite refugees have entered canada under f o u r c a t - e g o r i e s . ^ mennonitische rundschau, march , . k- i b i d . , march , . vertreterversammlung, l , p» l b . the f i r s t group to r e c e i v e entrance p e r m i s s i o n were near r e l a t i v e s of mennonites i n canada. the a p p l i c a n t i n canada f i l l e d out an a p p l i c a t i o n s t a t i n g h i s circumstances and the degree of r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the immigrant, and made h i m s e l f r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the t r a v e l l i n g expenses of the refugee. he a l s o guaranteed t h a t when the immigrant was i n canada he would not become a p u b l i c charge. by the end of k , about a p p l i c a t i o n s had been accepted by the cm.b.c. f o r the b r i n g i n g over o f near r e l a t i v e s , and by about k , l of these refugees had e n t e r e d canada. ' on october , + , the p r e s i d e n t of the cm.b.c., j . j . thi e s s e n , and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the mennonite c e n t r a l committee, w.i. snyder, handed a p e t i t i o n to the canadian government a s k i n g f o r p e r m i s s i o n to b r i n g to canada about mennonite d i s p l a c e d persons who had no r e l a t i v e s or f r i e n d s i n canada. " although promised an answer w i t h i n two weeks i t was g i v e n only i n january, + - i t appeared t h a t o t h e r r e - l i g i o u s groups such as lutherans, b a p t i s t s and roman c a t h o l i c s had made s i m i l a r requests at about the same time.^ the f o l - lowing i s p a r t of a l e t t e r dated january , - , by mr. a.l. j o l l i f f e , d i r e c t o r of immigration, a l l o w i n g the movement but s e t t i n g d e f i n i t e c o n d i t i o n s : i am p l e a s e d to advise t h a t approval has been given f o r the admission to canada of up to such work- ers together w i t h t h e i r dependents. i t i s under- stood that these d i s p l a c e d persons are under the man- date of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l refugee o r g a n i z a t i o n , but vertreterversammlung, + » p. minutes of the meeting of the, cm.b.c.. august, + . a mennonite r e l i e f o r g a n i z a t i o n i n the u n i t e d states super- v i s i n g the mennonite immigration from europe to south america. reptffrt of the cm.b.c., feb. , + . loc. c i t . are not persons e l i g i b l e f o r entry i n t o canada under the c l o s e r e l a t i v e c l a s s e s , but w i l l have to be s e l e c t e d on an o c c u p a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r emp- loyment on farms. i t i s d e s i r e d that the s e l e c t i o n s of f a m i l y groups be g i v e n p r i o r i t y and that every encour- agement w i l l be given to the movement of f a m i l y groups to canada. the canadian mennonite board of c o l o n i z a t i o n w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f i n d i n g employment and s u i t a b l e housing f o r these d i s p l a c e d persons. a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r the employment of f a m i l i e s or i n d i v i d u a l s on the farms w i l l be completed on the forms s u p p l i e d by the department of labour, by the i n d i v i d u a l farmer a p p l i c a n t a p p l y i n g f o r the f a m i l y or i n d i v i d u a l farm l a b o u r e r f o r employ- ment on the farms. the a p p l i c a n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d to g i v e the u s u a l assurance of a minimum of twelve months employment at going wages and adequate housing accomodation, each a p p l i c a n t w i l l be en- dorsed by the canadian mennonite board of c o l o n i - z a t i o n as h a v i n g s a t i s f i e d i t s e l f t h a t employment i s a v a i l a b l e , t h a t the a p p l i c a n t i s a s a t i s f a c t o r y employer, and t h a t s u i t a b l e housing accomodation i s a v a i l a b l e . the completed a p p l i c a t i o n s as so endorsed' w i l l be sent i n to the dominion-provin- c i a l committee f o r the p r o v i n c e where the a p p l i - cant farmer r e s i d e s . arrangements w i l l be made, i f d e s i r e d , and where p r a c t i c a b l e , to enable a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of your o r g a n i z a t i o n to be p r e s e n t at meetings of the d o m i n i o n - p r o v i n c i a l committee at which the a p p l i c a t i o n s are c o n s i d e r e d . the d o m i n i o n - p r o v i n c i a l committee w i l l undertake the necessary i n v e s t i g a t i o n to s a t i s f y i t s e l f t h a t the a p p l i c a t i o n s are i n order. the s e l e c t i o n of the above persons w i l l be made i n the u s u a l manner overseas by the canadian gov- ernment s e l e c t i o n teams. i f the overseas r e p r e - s e n t a t i v e s of your o r g a n i z a t i o n are i n a p o s i t i o n to a s s i s t the i n t e r n a t i o n a l refugee o r g a n i z a t i o n i n l o c a t i n g and p r e s e n t i n g these mennonite d i s - p l a c e d persons to the s e l e c t i o n teams, t h i s w i l l be of d e f i n i t e a s s i s t a n c e . a l l persons s e l e c t e d f o r employment w i l l be r e - q u i r e d to complete an undertaking to take employ- ment f o r a p e r i o d of at l e a s t twelve months follow- i n g t h e i r a r r i v a l i n canada. the u n d e r t a k i n g w i l l be i n accordance w i t h the u s u a l undertaking r e - q u i r e d from other d i s p l a c e d persons s e l e c t e d on an o c c u p a t i o n a l b a s i s . the i.r.o. w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the payment of the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s to canada. the can- adian mennonite board of c o l o n i z a t i o n and the mennonite c e n t r a l committee w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r paying the costs of transportation from the port of entry to the -place of employment i n can- ada. the l a t t e r costs may be paid on a recover- able basis. i t i s understood that arrangements covering t h i s movement can be cancelled on s i x t y days' notice. thus the way f o r these new immigrants was opened and on march , + , at a general meeting of a l l mennonite churches with representatives of lutheran, baptist, and catholic groups as well as representatives of the dominion and p r o v i n c i a l gover- nments, the l a s t minute arrangements were made. i t was stres- sed that p r i o r i t y was given to farm workdrs and domestics and the applicant should be a farmer i n actual need of farm help. by august of + , about persons i n this category had en- tered canada. today t h i s movement has been completed. the t h i r d category consisted of immigrants coming to canada through the e f f o r t s and sponsorship of the canadian department of 'laboufc. this group included workers f o r the various industries i n canada. by the end of about + mennonites had entered canada under t h i s arrangement. ^ the c.m.b.g. did not encourage mennonites to seek entrance i n t h i s category, because on a r r i v a l the refugees were scattered a l l across canada and i t was p r a c t i c a l l y impossible f o r the church to remain i n contact with them. the board made e f f o r t s to get permission to place this group near large mennonite settlements where s p i r i t u a l supervision would be possible. they met with success only i n southern alberta where the immigrants were given work i n the large sugar-beet f i e l d s of that region. report of cm.b.c., jan. , + . letter of j.j. thiessen to members of the cm.b.c. and the p r o v i n c i a l committees, march , + . bericht der cm.b.c. , aug. , + - l+ vertreterversammlung, , p* l o . some of the mennonites i n europe were german nat- ionals and this group posed a p a r t i c u l a r problem. they re- ceived no rights under the international refugee organization arrangements and t h e i r entrance into canada was barred u n t i l * this group included hot only mennonites but lutherans, baptists and roman catholics as w e l l . in order to unify t h e i r e f f o r t s on behalf of this group the above mentioned r e l i g i o u s denominations founded the canadian christian council f o r re- settlement of refugees (c.c.c.r.r.) i n + , with dr. t.o.p. herzer (lutheran) as president. on february , a c.c. c.r.r. delegation headed by herzer interviewed the minister of immigration, the hon. walter e. h a r r i s , with reference to the further extension of regulations f o r the admission to canada of refugees of german ethnic o r i g i n and possibly of german n a t i o n a l s . ^ b y orddr-in-council p.c. of march , , the refugees of german ethnic o r i g i n were allowed to immigrate to canada. in september of the same year an order-in-council , p.c. i+ i+, allowed a l l german nationals interested i n immigra- tion to apply f o r entrance into canada. this group could not enter on c r e d i t but had to come on a cash basis. of the , germans brought over by the c.c.c.r.r. since + about were mennonites. ^ the financing of the mennonite immigrants was under- taken by the cm.b.c. in each province the p r o v i n c i a l commi- ttees provided a fund on which applicants might draw to finance the immigration of t h e i r near r e l a t i v e s and friends. by dec- m.p.h., aug. , + minutes of the meeting of the cm.b.c., feb. , . vertreterversammlung,, , p» loc. c i t . ; ember, , the t o t a l amount of c r e d i t extended by the c.m.b. c. was $ , .ik, of which $ i+,l+ . had again been repaid. o r i g i n a l l y the c.m.b.c. and the p r o v i n c i a l committees had been against the creation of a new reiseschuld f o r they s t i l l remembered the d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered i n the l i q u i d a t i o n of the old one. i f a p o l i c y of "no dredit" was to be carried out, however, i t meant that thousands of refugees would have to remain i n europe. the s i t u a t i o n seemed to warrant i t and credit was once more extended. even the c.p.r. offered the mennonites a c r e d i t of $ , f o r immigration purposes, i f the-mennonites would come to canada on the company's ships. the c r e d i t was to be repaid within two years at $ i n t e r e s t . by march, , about $ , of t h i s credit had been used. k in december, + , the mennonites of alberta crea- ted the "immigration fund", from which money was to be used to help the new immigrants come to canada. although the fund then contained only $ +.l+ , there was s t i l l over $ , i n the- reiseschuld fund; this was transfered to the new treasury, the fund was to be f i l l e d by personal loans, g i f t s , c o l l e c t i o n s and any other means which could be carried out with reasonable success. from the fund, loans f o r two or three years could be made at a rate of % i n t e r e s t . vigorous e f f o r t s were made by the committee to f i l l the treasury and the support of a l l mennonite denominations was s o l i c i t e d . by a p r i l , a t o t a l + of ninety-seven loans had been made amounting to $ k , . . loc. c i t . + mennonitlsche rundschau, march , . + m.p.h., feb. , k . + m.p.h., a p r i l , . . - most of the loans were rapidly repaid and the fund i s consid- ered a success i n every sense of the term. since the immigra- t i o n movement has almost come to a stop the fund i s to be u t i l i z e d i n other ways not yet defined. the mennonite p r o v i n c i a l r e l i e f committee undertook not only to supply money for immigration but accepted the re- s p o n s i b i l i t y of finding jobs- and land for the immigrants as well.. the attempts, to keep the immigrants near mennonite settlements was, of course, one of i t s major concerns. contact was maintained with immigrants who had work outside of menno- n i t e c i r c l e s and i f v i s i t s were not possible then letterswere written to them. the churches i n a l l areas were urged to con- tact a l l mennonite newcomers and draw them into the mennonite + s p i r i t u a l o r b i t . the committee regre^ed the rapid urbanization of "fc" the new immigrants. warnings were sent out time and time again urging the "new canadians" to l i v e up to the terms of t h e i r contracts by remaining on the farms f o r at least twelve kh months. due to the high price of land and the s c a r c i t y of good land, no large settlement scheme could be undertaken. applicants were accepted f o r the land i n the newly opened i r r - i g a t i o n area near vauxhall. the high s a l a r i e s i n towns and c i t i e s have been an added incentive to seek employment outside of agriculture. due to this new immigration the mennonites them- selves faced the problems of assimilating and absorbing the + m.p.h., aug. , + . + + loc. c i t . newcomers. this i s proving to be a d i f f i c u l t task/for the new immigrants are s t i l l europeans and i t i s i n the contrast between these two groups that one can see the extent to which the old immigrants have become "canadianized." twenty f i v e years under a communist regime has given many of the newcomers s t a r t l i n g economic and s o c i a l ideas. the r e s u l t often i s misunderstanding and i n most mennonite centres today a clear l i n e of demarcation can be discerned between the old and the new. these varying ideologies w i l l again demand a period of time before assimilation of the two groups w i l l be completed. as i t i s , the convulsions of s o c i a l and economic d i s l o c a t i o n and adjustment must be endured. chapter eight conclusion in the eyes of the canadian people, the mennonites have always presented a problem in assimilation. the obser- vant reader i s constantly under a bombardment of words which ask, or even demand, the assimilation of a l l minority groups i n canada. i t must be admitted that a degree of assimilation i s necessary f o r the good of the country; complete assimilation would be a catastrophe of no mean proportions. each minority group, no matter of what physical extraction or geographic o r i g i n , has some contribution to make to the general culture; each group enriches, and enlarges the l i f e of the nation. i t would be an irreplrable loss i f the many ethnic groups i n can- ada should loose t h e i r r a c i a l genius and p e c u l i a r i t i e s , even f o r the sake of creating a common canadian i n d i v i d u a l . the richness and beauty of a nation's culture does not depend upon s i m i l a r i t y but upon the d i v e r s i t y and variety which only diver- gent groups and races can give i t . a l l great cultures have arisen because of the contribution made to them by other cultures. the mennonites i n canada have t h e i r contributions to make to the general canadian culture. in alberta this con- t r i b u t i o n has, u n t i l the present, been on a g r i c u l t u r a l l i n e s . although the mennonite society i n alberta to the present has been predominantly a g r i c u l t u r a l , the young people today are being forced from the land into other occupational f i e l d s there i s now a t r e n d to the c i t y which promises to develop i n t o an o b s t i n a t e problem f o r the mennonite l e a d e r s . i f t h i s t r e n d i s n e g a t i v e i n one sense, i t i s p o s i t i v e i n another, f o r i t w i l l open v a s t areas i n which mennonite genius may f i n d ample room f o r development. the a s s i m i l a t i o n of the mennonites has not y e t taken p l a c e . to become a s s i m i l a t e d the mennonite must not o n l y change h i s dress and language, but h i s p h i l o s o p h y of l i f e . this change i s not l i k e l y to occur i n a f r e e s o c i e t y where a m i n o r i t y group i s at l i b e r t y to l o o k a f t e r i t s own s p i r i t u a l and e d u c a t i o n a l needs. as soon as the s o c i e t y i s no l o n g e r f r e e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , the mennonites w i l l once more migrate to a country o f f e r i n g b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . of course there w i l l always be a c e r t a i n crumbling at the edges of mennonite s o c i e t y , but the centre remains f i r m and w i l l attempt to change the world r a t h e r than l e t the world change i t . as l o n g as mennonitism remains s i n c e r e , honest and i n d u s t r i o u s , i t w i l l never, i n any way, t h r e a t e n the w e l f a r e of the country i n which i t e x i s t s . the c o n s e r v a t i v e mennonite elements have a d e f i n i t e c o n t r i b u t i o n to make to p o l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y i n an u s s t a b l e world. may canada never r e g r e t the open doors w i t h which i t welcomed them. appendix "a" the mennonite agreement o f the f o l l o w i n g is a copy i n f u l l of the o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l o f l o , g i v i n g the mennonites c e r t a i n r i g h t s i n canada, department of a g r i c u l t u r e , immigration branch, ottawa, r d j u l y , . gentlemen,- i have the honour, under i n s t r u c t i o n of the hon. the min- i s t e r of a g r i c u l t u r e , to s t a t e to you, i n r e p l y to your l e t t e r of t h i s days date, the f o l l o w i n g f a c t s r e l a t i n g to advantage o f f e r e d to s e t t l e r s , and to the immunities a f f o r d e d to menno- n i t e s , which are e s t a b l i s h e d by the s t a t u t e law of canada, and by o r d e r o f h i s e x c e l l e n c e , governor-general i n c o u n c i l , f o r the i n f o r m a t i o n of german mennonites, having i n t e n t i o n to em- i g r a t e to canada, v i a hamburg: . an e n t i r e exemption from m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e i s , by law and o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l , granted to the denomination of c h r i s t i a n s c a l l e d "mennonites . . an o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l was passed on the r d of march l a s t , to r e s e r v e e i g h t townships i n the p r o v i n c e of manitoba, f o r f r e e grants on the c o n d i t i o n of settlement as p r o v i d e d i n the dominion lands a c t , t h a t i s to say: "any person who i s the head of a f a m i l y , or has a t t a i n e d the age of twenty-one y e a r s , s h a l l be e n t i t l e d to be entered f o r one q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n or a l e s s q u a n t i t y of u n a p p r o p r i a t e d dominion lands f o r the purpose of s e c u r i n g a homestead r i g h t i n r e s p e c t t h e r e o f . " » the s a i d r e s e r v e of e i g h t townships i s f o r the e x c l u s i v e use of the mennonites, and the s a i d f r e e g r a n t s of one q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n to c o n s i s t of l acres each, as d e f i n e d by the a c t . +. should the mennonite settlement extend beyond the e i g h t townships s e t a s i d e by the o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l of march r d , l a s t , o t h e r townships wi±l be, i n the same way, r e s e r v e d to meet the f u l l requirements of mennonite immigration. . i f , next s p r i n g , the mennonite s e t t l e r s , on r e c e i v i n g the e i g h t townships s e t a s i d e f o r use, should p r e f e r to exchange them f o r any o t h e r e i g h t , unoccupied townships, such exchange w i l l be allowed. . in a d d i t i o n to the f r e e grant of a q u a r t e r - s e c t i o n of l acres to every person over twenty-one years of age, on the con- d i t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t , the r i g h t to purchase the remaining three- q u a r t e r s of the s e c t i o n a t $ . per acre, which i s the l a r g - est q u a n t i t y of l a n d the government w i l l g r a n t a patent f o r one person. . the s e t t l e r w i l l r e c e i v e a patent f o r f r e e grant a f t e r three y e a r s ' r e s i d e n c e i n accordance w i t h the-terms of the dominion.lands a c t . anderson, j.t.m., the education of the new-canadian, j.m.- dent & sons, l t d . , london and toronto, , pp. lj. - l+ • lk. . i n the event of the death of the s e t t l e r , the lawful h e i r can claim the patent f o r the free grant, upon proof that set- tlement duties for three years have been preformed. . prom the moment of occupation, the s e t t l e r acquires a homestead r i g h t i n the land. . the f u l l e s t p r i v i l e g e of exercising t h e i r r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s i s by law-afforded to the mennonites, without any kind of molestation or r e s t r i c t i o n whatever, and the same p r i - vilege extends to the education of t h e i r children i n schools. . the p r i v i l e g e of affirming, instead of making a f f i d a v i t s , i s afforded by law. . the government of canada undertakes to f u r n i s h passenger warrants from hamburg to port garry, f o r mennonite families of good character, f o r the sum of $ . per adult person; under eight years, h a l f p r i c e , or $ $ . , and f o r infants under one year, $ . . . the minister s p e c i a l l y authorized me to state that t h i s arrangement as to p r i c e s h a l l not be changed f o r the seasons of i i . and i . i+. i am further to state that i f i t i s changed, thereafter, the price s h a l l not, up to the year , exceed $ij. . per adult, and children i n proportion, subject to the approval of parliament. . the immigrants s h a l l be provided with provisions on the portion of the journey between liverpool and collingwood', but during other portions of the journey they are to f i n d t h e i r own provisions. i have the honour to be, gentlemen, your obedient servant, p.m. lowe, secretary of department of agriculture. messrs. david klassen jacob peters heinrich wiebe cornelius toews delegates from southern russia. ik appendix "b"x r e g a r d i n g mennonite s e t t l e m e n t i n canada , the agency i n w e s t e r n canada w h i c h was to see the mennon- i t e immigrant t h r o u g h the w i n t e r and a i d them i n f i n d i n g t h e i r p l a c e i n the economic l i f e o f the dominion was the canadian mennonite board o f c o l o n i z a t i o n . w h i l e t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n was e n t i r e l y c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g temporary c a r e f o r the newcomers, i t s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r s e t t l i n g them on the l a n d were d i s t i n c t - l y l i m i t e d by the s l e n d e r means o f the mennonite communities i n the west. a l t h o u g h a t h r i f t y and i n d u s t r i o u s f a r m i n g f o l k , these p e o p l e l a c k e d the l a r g e r e s o u r c e s , the p r e s t i g e , and the machinery n e c e s s a r y f o r the s u c c e s s f u l c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the new a r r i v a l s i n the p r a i r i e p r o v i n c e s . what was r e a l l y needed was the u n i o n o f the mennonite b o a r d o f c o l o n i z a t i o n w i t h some agency o f the canadian p a c i f i c , the company w h i c h had made p o s s i b l e the coming o f the i m m i g r a n t s i n t o canada. the r a i l w a y was m a i n t a i n i n g the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n as a medium f o r the s e t t l e m e n t o f p r i v a t e l y owned l a n d . i n r e c o g n i t i o n of canadian p a c i f i c a s s i s t a n c e , the b o a r d was d e s i r o u s , as f a r as p o s s i b l e , o f p l a c i n g them on l a n d s i n canadian p a c i f i c t e r r i - t o r y . t h i s s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t e d the importance o f a w o r k i n g arrangement between the mennonite o r g a n i z a t i o n and the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n . d u r i n g the w i n t e r and s p r i n g o f k the canadian menno- n i t e board o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , i n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h the c o l o n i z a - t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n , b u s i e d i t s e l f w i t h the s e t t l e m e n t on the l a n d o f the mennonites b r o u g h t f o r w a r d d u r i n g the p r e c e d i n g y e a r . the i m p o r t a n c e o f l o c a t i n g them p r o m p t l y was apparent. consent o f the dominion a u t h o r i t i e s to a f u r t h e r movement o f mennonites would n a t u r a l l y be c o n t i n g e n t upon the s a t i s f a c t o r y d i s p o s i t i o n of the f i r s t comers. y e t midsummer found many o f them u n p l a c e d . the l a c k o f p r o g e s s seemed to r e s u l t from an i n s u f f i c i e n t l i a i s o n between the two o r g a n i z a t i o n s . to b r i n g them i n t o c l o s e r harmony and more a c t i v e c o - o p e r a t i o n , a mennonite land s e t t l e m e n t board was formed, w i t h t h r e e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from the canadian mennonite board o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , t h r e e ' f r o m the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n , and t h r e e f r o m the mennonite newcomers. (dennis t o rev. d a v i d toews, j u l y , k, p i l e no. , s e c t i o n ,m.) these s t e p s , o f c o u r s e , were taken upon the i n i t i a t i v e o f dennis i n b e h a l f o f the canadian p a c i f i c . the company, t h r o u g h i t s department o f c o l o n i z a t i o n and development, had assumed the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r the movement o f the mennonites to canada and f o r t h e i r placement on the l a n d . i n e f f e c t i n g t h i s c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n between the mennonite o r g a n i z a t i o n and the cana- d i a n c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n , dennis sought to s e c u r e f o r the company a degree o f c o n t r o l and o v e r s i g h t commensurate w i t h the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i t had assumed. the canadian p a c i f i c would be the g u i d i n g s p i r i t i n a p a r t n e r s h i p w h i c h e x i s t e d f o r the mu- hedges, j.b., b u i l d i n g the canadian west, the land and c o l o n - i z a t i o n p o l i c i e s o f the canadian p a c i f i c r a i l w a y , new york, the m a c m i l l a n co., , pp. - . * t u a l benefit of the railway and the mennonite people. but while keeping his hand on the t h r o t t l e , dennis was careful to make his control as unobtrusive as possible. to t h i s end, one of the three representatives of the canada colonization asso- c i a t i o n on the land settlement board was himself a mennonite. under the new arrangement, substantial progress was made during the l a t t e r part of ). i n the settlement of mennonite f a m i l i e s . the primary functions of the land settlement board were to f i n d owners of improved- land who were disposed to s e l l t h e i r holdings, to bring such owners together with the menno- n i t e immigrants, to see that contracts f o r the sale of such lands were f a i r to a l l concerned, and to provide after-care and supervision f o r the new s e t t l e r s . the day was gone when the settler.was placed on the land,and promptly forgotten, while he shifted for himself as best he could. the aim and purpose of immigration promotion now was to b u i l d the s e t t l e r into the economic l i f e of the country. every precaution must be taken, therefore, to guard against f a i l u r e of the newcomer; care must be taken to prevent the immigrant from becoming a public charge. with a strong public opinion which was at best merely tolerant of continental immigration, mennonite coloni- zation must be a success. since the mennonites were meagerly provided with funds, and since they were being s e t t l e d on lands which sold at a sub- s t a n t i a l p r i c e , p a r t i c u l a r care was necessary i n evolving a p r a c t i c a l plan by which they could acquire t i t l e to land. there were i n western canada many large farms, s u r v i v a l of the.bon- anza days when wheat farms of great proportions were a common sight. with the passing of the prosperous conditions which had prevailed i n agriculture during the pre-war and war periods, many of these farms had l o s t t h e i r attractiveness to t h e i r owners. the depressed prices of farm products a f t e r made these men receptive to proposals that they dispose of t h e i r holdings. but the meare willingness of them to s e l l offered no solution of the problem. there remained the question of the buyer; and i n the face of the p r e v a i l i n g farm s i t u a t i o n there was no demand f o r the large farms. the obvious solution was either to divide these large holdings into small units for sale to i n d i v i d u a l families or to s e l l them i n t a c t to groups of f a m i l i e s who would operate them on a community basis. by virtue of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l devotion to the community form of settlement, the mennonite immigrants whom the canadian p a c i f i c was bringing to canada were c l e a r l y indicated as the ones who would make a success of group settlement on large farms. but while the mennonites were good human material, they were so l a r g e l y without means as to preclude the p o s s i b i l - i t y of t h e i r purchasing the land i n the ordinary way. in working out special arrangements f o r purchase by the mennonites there was needed some responsible organization commanding the confidence of bothi; the vendor and the buyers. as the chief sponsor of the mennonite immigration, and as the agency which had made i t possible for them to come forward, the canadian p a c i f i c was the l o g i c a l intermediary: and i n i t s canada col- onization association i t had an instrument at hand for such work. mot only c o u l d the l a t t e r co-operate w i t h the mennonite land settlement board i n l o c a t i n g the lands a v a i l a b l e f o r pur- chase, but, what was more important, through i t s agents i t c o u l d guarantee a j u s t a p p r a i s a l of the l a n d and d e v i s e con- t r a c t s f o r s a l e which would safeguard the i n t e r e s t s of a l l p a r t i e s concerned. the p a r t i c u l a r form of c o n t r a c t evolved to meet t h i s s i t - u a t i o n was one c a l l i n g f o r purchase on a crop-payment b a s i s . where groups of mennonite f a m i l i e s were s e t t l e d on the l a r g e farms, a d d i t i o n a l b u i l d i n g s and equipment must be p r o v i d e d by the vendors and added to the p r i c e of the l a n d . the t o t a l c o s t was then to be l i q u i d a t e d by the annual d e l i v e r y to the vendor of one-half of a l l crops and l i v e s t o c k produced on the l a n d . in t h i s way every i n c e n t i v e was g i v e n to s e t t l e r s to achieve maximum p r o d u c t i o n as a means of e f f e c t i n g the most r a p i d payment f o r the l a n d . once a community of mennonites had been s e t t l e d on a l a r g e farm the i n s p e c t o r s of the menno- n i t e land settlement board and of the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n asso- c i a t i o n p r o v i d e d s u p e r v i s i o n and a f t e r - c a r e i n order to reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y of f a i l u r e to a minimum. in t h i s way the canadian p a c i f i c e f f e c t e d not merely a s o l u t i o n of the problem of e s t a b l i s h i n g the mennonites on the land, w i t h reasonable assurance of t h e i r success, but i t a l s o inaugurated something i n the nature of a r e v o l u t i o n i n l a n d h o l d i n g i n p o r t i o n s of the canadian west. e x t e n s i v e c u l t i v a - t i o n , a marked f e a t u r e of the e a r l y development throughout the wheat b e l t on the american and canadian p r a i r i e s , was to be r e p l a c e d i n a measure by a more i n t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n by the hands.of a t h r i f t y and i n d u s t r i o u s people long accustomed to unremitting-, t o l l . and i n t e n s i v e a g r i c u l t u r e meant balanced farming i n which d i v e r s i f i e d p r o d u c t i o n would supplant the e x c l u s i v e g r a i n p r o d u c t i o n which had attended the o p e r a t i o n of the l a r g e farms. the new system was a r e c o g n i t o n , too, of the f a c t that the mennonites were more l i k e l y to succeed through community e f f o r t than when each f a m i l y was l e f t to work out i t s own s a l v a t i o n . . . . as a r e s u l t of the adoption o f t h i s p l a n f o r mennonite s e t t l e m e n t , the canadian p a c i f i c was soon able to show g r a t i - f y i n g r e s u l t s from i t s e f f o r t s , which warranted i t i n seeking a u t h o r i z a t i o n from dominion a u t h o r i t i e s f o r a f u r t h e r movement of these people from r u s s i a . the encouraging p r o s p e c t s f o r mennonite success on the l a n d i n the west had the e f f e c t , too, of p r e d i s p o s i n g p r e s i d e n t beatty of the canadian p a c i f i c toward a continued movement of the mennonites on a c r e d i t b a s i s , care being taken at a l l times, however, to guard a g a i n s t the grant- i n g of e x c e s s i v e c r e d i t s to the canadian mennonite board of c o l o n i z a t i o n at any g i v e n time. through the decade of the twen- t i e s the immigrationof the mennonites and the work of the can- ada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n went hand i n hand. the canadian p a c i f i c continued to move mennonites on both a cash and c r e d i t b a s i s . . . . t o march, , the canadian c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n had s e t t l e d on p r i v a t e l y owned l a n d a t o t a l of , mennonite f a m i l i e s , not to mention some f a m i l i e s of other n a t i o n a l i - t i e s . (herzer to m a c a l i s t e r , march , , p i l e no. * -, & s e c t i o n , m.). by the c l o s e of the season i t had p l a c e d more than -, mennonite f a m i l i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g over , s o u l s . (report of the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n f o r ) . the area of l a n d thus c o l o n i z e d was i n excess of , a c r e s , w i t h a c o n t r a c t p r i c e of almost # , , . through experience the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n g r a d u a l l y evolved c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e p r i n c i p l e s governing i t s procedure with r e s p e c t to t h i s type of l a n d s e t t l e m e n t . i t r e f u s e d to accept f o r a s s i s t e d settlement any f a m i l i e s which c o u l d not be p e r s o n a l l y i n t e r v i e w e d and i n s p e c t e d by the p r o s - p e c t i v e vendors. in order to i n t e r e s t the s e l l e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y f i n a n c i a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , assurance must be g i v e n t h a t some o r - g a n i z a t i o n would p r o v i d e o v e r s i g h t and d i r e c t i o n of the immi- grants p u r c h a s i n g the l a n d . for the performance of t h i s f u n c - t i o n among the mennonite s e t t l e m e n t s there were, of course, the canadian mennonite board of c o l o n i z a t i o n and the mennonite land settlement board, both of which f u n c t i o n e d i n c l o s e har- mony w i t h the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n . . . . the primary concern of the canadian p a c i f i c i n t h i s work was, of course, the i n c r e a s e d settlement of the country t r i b - u t a r y to i t s own l i n e s i n the west. on o c c a s i o n , however, the lands thus s e t t l e d were t r i b u t a r y to both the canadian p a c i f i c and the canadian n a t i o n a l railways.' as a p r o t e c t i o n to i t s i n t e r e s t s i n such cases, the company, through the canada c o l - o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n , i n s i s t e d that there be i n s e r t e d i n the c o n t r a c t a c l a u s e r e q u i r i n g the p a r t i e s p u r c h a s i n g the l a n d to d e l i v e r t h e i r crops to canadian p a c i f i c s t a t i o n s . u n t i l the a c t i v i t i e s of the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n asso- c i a t i o n were c o n f i n e d almost w h o l l y to the three p r a i r i e pro- v i n c e s . in the e a r l i e r years manitoba had been the scene of g r e a t e s t a c t i v i t y , but i n b o t h saskatchewan and a l b e r t a were f a r ahead of manitoba i n number of f a m i l i e s as w e l l as a r e a of l a n d s e t t l e d . by the time most of the farms i n mani- toba had been colonized:! on a community b a s i s , and now the same process was being extended to the other p r o v i n c e s . . . . the r e l - a t i v e importance of mennonites, as compared w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n - a l i t i e s , i n the settlement work of the canada c o l o n i z a t i o n a s s o c i a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the f i g u r e s f o r the y e a r . of a t o t a l of f a m i l i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g , souls estab- l i s h e d on the l a n d i n t h a t year, were mennonites. german f a m i l i e s numbered , of whom bad been s e t t l e d through the a i d of the lutheran immigration board, while, the remaining j . f a m i l i e s were c a t h o l i c s i n whose. s e t t l e m e n t the v.d.c.k. had p l a y e d an important p a r t . of o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n - c l u d e d i n the year's t o t a l , k b r i t i s h f a m i l i e s were the l a r - g e s t group. v i k appendix "c" text of the mennonite p e t i t i o n to the canadian govern- ment, regarding the prospects of alternative service i n case of a future war. the audience with the prime minister occurred on february , , at k o'clock i n the afternoon. ottawa, den febr., . rt. hon. louis st. laurent, prime minister of canada. honourable s i r : the h i s t o r i c peace churches of canada, namely: mennonites, brethern i n christ (tunker) / society of friends (quaker), and the church of the brethern have enjoyed residence i n t h i s do- minion f o r over one hundred and f i f t y years. we sincerely appreciate our country, the tolerant attitude of her govern- ment, and her strong e f f o r t s to promote peace among a l l nations. we especially wish to pay respectful t r i b u t e to the l a t e prime minister of canada, the rt. hon. w.l. mackenzie king. at the same time we wish to take t h i s opportunity to assure you, our present prime minister, of our prayers that the blessing of god may rest upon you and the government of canada. h i s t o r i c a l l y , as peace churches whose number exceeds f i f t y thousand members, we have a b i b l i c a l background and deep-rooted, sacred conviction against p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n war i n any form. we are indeed grateful to our government f o r granting to us freedom of conscience and r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y which enables us to worship almighty god according to our understanding of his word. we have enjoyed t h i s p r i v i l e g e ever since our church f a t h - ers came to t h i s country i n . since that time l e g i s l a t i o n i n canada has consistently respected the peace convictions of a l l our groups including those which have come during the i n - tervening years. during world war i the government granted to a l l our draf- ted young men postponement from m i l i t a r y service. again, i n world war i i exemptions were provided for conscientious objec- tors by allowing them to serve i n projects of national impor- tance under c i v i l i a n supervision. we as peace churches, believe that war i s out of harmony with the teaching of the gospel and the s p i r i t of our lord jesus christ; consequently we are restrained" from engaging i n war or violence of any kind. we are not asking f o r safety that avoids danger and sac- r i f i c e but we cannot have any part i n the taking of human l i f e . we are w i l l i n g to serve our country and fellowmen i n r e l i e f mennonite brethern church of canada, yearbook of the forty- f i r s t canadian conference, the columbia press, yarrow, b.c., , pp. kl-kk. - work at home or abroad or to engage i n work of national impor- tance such as service i n hospitals, mental i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n dustry or agriculture under c i v i l i a n administration. in the unfortunate event of national emergency which i n the view of the canadian government demands the mobilization of manpower, i t would be appreciated i f an opportunity could be given f o r consultation with government o f f i c i a l s as to ways i n which we might serve i n accord with our peace testimony. we trust our r e l i g i o u s convictions w i l l continue to be understood i n the future as they have been i n the past. we hope our government w i l l continue to respect the conscience of minority groups and i n d i v i d u a l s . may the blessing of god be upon the parliament of canada and may he grant you, our honourable prime minister, wisdom i n the discharging of your many duties as chief executive of our dominion. respectfully submitted, fred haslam, c.j. rempel, union str. j.g. rempel, b.b. janz, coaldale, a l t a . j.b. mart i n rosthern, sask. david schulz, altona, manitoba. elven shantz. david reimer, giroux, man. e.j. swalm, duntrun, ont. ̂ appendix "d" "am i a n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t " , by b.b. janz,as i t appeared i n the l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , june, j-j- . t h i s a r t i c l e was w r i t t e n by b.b. janz, c o a l d a l e , a l b e r t a i n december and p u b l i s h e d i n january - i n f o u r menno- n i t e weekly newspapers i n the german language i n canada and u.s.a. - at t h a t time there was no immediate danger of• war w i t h germany, and i t i s obvious that the purpose was not to p r o t e c t h i s own s k i n , but to thoroughly warn h i s people a g a i n s t the s u b v e r s i v e propaganda. the expressed views are g e n e r a l l y the a t t i t u d e o f the mennonites i n canada. many of the church- l e a d e r s have expressed t h e i r a p p r e c i a t i o n , but the german con- s u l i n winnipeg wrote him an angry l e t t e r demanding to revoke h i s d e c l a r a t i o n p u b l i c l y i n the p r e s s , and some agents of the propaganda from overseas threatened the time would come to s e t t l e w i t h him. they t r i e d to make i t hard to take a f i r m stand of a l l e g i a n c e to the b r i t i s h throne and t h i s home coun- t r y and to g i v e d e f i n i t e d e c l a r a t i o n s . but the author f e l t no remorse h a v i n g done so. the , immigrants w i l l have to use t h e i r mother tongue f o r the time being, as the o l d e r g e n e r a t i o n does not master any other language, i n which to enjoy the church s e r v i c e . but t h i s w i l l change i n the course of time, as h i s t o r y i n o n t a r i o has proven. - we are deeply g r a t e f u l to the government and the country, that they understand us i n t h i s r e s p e c t . and we s i n - c e r e l y hope there w i l l be no d i f f i c u l t i e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n and t h a t we may enjoy the same p r i v i l e g e unmolested as the other or so languages i n canada do. and i t i s to be remembered, t h a t a couple of c e n t u r i e s ago the f o r e f a t h e r s of most of these people spoke the dutch language and f u r t h e r , t h a t these people are born and r a i s e d i n r u s s i a f o r a century and a h a l f as c i t i z e n s of t h a t country and they themselves have never been i n germany. am i a national socialist ? - god forbid i am i (here i n canada) a conservative? - god f o r b i d l - am i (here i n canada) a l i b e r a l ? - god f o r b i d l - - am i (here i n canada) a s o c i a l c r e d i t e r ? - god f o r b i d i - am i (here i n can- ada) a n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t ? - god f o r b i d l and y e t i n a l l s e r i o u s n e s s i t seems i am expected by the people overseas to answer the l a s t w i t h 'yes' or 'of course", to confess myself a member of a f o r e i g n s p e c i f i c p o l i t i c a l p a r t y ; while over there no one, even i n h i s dreams, would t h i n k of c a l l i n g h i m s e l f a canadian l i b e r a l , s i n c e the l i b e r a l s are i n power here today, t h e i r p o l i c i e s seeming the most popular a t the p r e s e n t . for anyone over there to deny h i s adherence to the n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t p a r t y and to confess adherence to a canadian p a r t y would be c o n s i d e r e d nonsense or t r e a s o n by a l l . in germany the people are n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t s , and they expect t h a t i, a canadian c i t i z e n , who does not belong to any l k p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , w i l l , i n s p i t e of that, confess myself e i t h e r s e c r e t l y of openly a n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t a c c o r d i n g to the a r t - i c l e which appeared i n the "b o t e" no. kq, • whoever speaks german here i n canada ( i n the u.s.a., b r a z i l , paraguay) i s to confess h i m s e l f a member of the n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t p a r t y . that i s t r e a s o n . there may be german c i t i z e n s here ( t h a t i s people who are not canadian c i t i z e n s ) whose c a l l i n g has t e m p o r a r i l y brought them here from germany and who are d e f i n i t e l y e x p e c t i n g to .return to germany, who may c l i n g to the p o l i t i c a l f a i t h of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d without b e i n g accused of t r e a s o n f o r t h a t reason. they may. but as soon as i t should come to a new c o n f l i c t between peoples, ,the canadian government w i l l know how to a c t , and the german government w i l l a c t i n the same way with canadian c i t i z e n s oyer there: c o n c e n t r a t i o n camps e t c . when t h e r e f o r e f o r e i g n e r s as guests of t h i s country confess themselves adherents to the p r i n c i p l e s of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d , that i s , they f a v o u r these p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d and f o r themselves, .others may shrug t h e i r shoulders, but they have t h a t p r i v i l e g e . but t h a t does not mean t h a t these p r i n - c i p l e s must without q u e s t i o n be i n t r o d u c e d here, or that these people should t r y to win c o n v e r t s . they may a f t e r a l l be s i n - c e r e l y fond of t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d without b e l o n g i n g to i t s p o l - i t i c a l p a r t y . and a l l of us can on o c c a s i o n d e s c r i b e communism t r u t h f u l l y , without b e l o n g i n g to this or that p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . we may speak as human beings from i n n e r c o n v i c t i o n without membership i n a p a r t y or without p a r t y d i s c i p l i n e . but to-day n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s m as been p r e s e n t e d to us here i n canada, i s , i n f a c t , almost f o r c e d upon us, so the q u e s t i o n i s : w e a n d n a t i o n s o c i a l i s m . now, a l l of us have come h&re from r u s s i a . no country i n the world wished to g i v e us a home. canada opened her doors wide f o r us: to admit , the doors had to be opened wide. a c r e d i t of two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i s an i n d i c a t i o n how wide the doors were opened. the homeless have found a home. those who were hungry a t one time are now e a t i n g good bread, some are l i v i n g i n p l e n t y . i t i s true that i n the b e g i n n i n g , i.e.. i n the f i r s t ten y e a r s , we had to work hard and f i g h t a g a i n s t d e s t i t u t i o n , f o r we had n o t h i n g . our american b r e t h e r n devoted some $ > , to p r o v i d e us w i t h c l o t h i n g , they devoted a s i m i l a r sum to the s i c k and other s u f f e r e r s , and another l i k e sum to h e l p us a c q u i r e land.. we have become c i t i z e n s . during these y e a r s some k churches have been e r e c t e d . we have i n f a c t found food and s h e l t e r , peace and r e s t i n t h i s country, complete freedom and the p r a c t i c e of our f a i t h . we are a l l adherents of the mennonite f a i t h founded on the b i b l e . u n t i l now these people have, h i s t o r i c a l l y speaking, been without p o l i t i c s ; i n simple language, f o r those who cannot understand, l e t us aay: these mennonites ( i n c l u d i n g the a f o r e - s a i d , ) have i n former times never adhered to any p o l i t i - c a l p a r t y , not i n russia.nor here i n canada. and our n a t i v e b r o t h e r s here have not done so. f o r that reason the canadian government c o n s i d e r e d i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l acquainted w i t h the mennonites. an o r d e r - i n - c o u n c i l , i n , made i t imposs- i b l e f o r mennonites to come to canada. .premier w.l. mackenzie king was requested by representatives of native born mennonites to set aside t h i s order-in-council. he was w i l l i n g to do so, cost what i t may. he himself had been a schoolmate of menno- n i t e boys i n kitchener, ont., had learned to :know and value the mennonites personally, they were people who l i v e d according to t h e i r confession of f a i t h , a blessing to t h e i r community and good c i t i z e n s of the state; o r i g i n a l l y most of them were ger- mans, but with the passing of time a l l had become english speaking. a new order-in-council removed the d i f f i c u l t y , and the door was opened once more. now we are here. our brethern i n russia are s t i l l suffer- ing. we here i n canada, when the question of memberhsip in a p o l i t i c a l party i s raised, can quietly say: "god f o r b i d ! " and even i f i t concerns the party of the head of our government. no one i s concerned about that, and we are i n no p o l i t i c a l danger on that account, as would be the case |if we pursued a s i m i l a r p o l i c y over there, i . e . i n russia (or i n germany). and now consider these points: / you have experienced a l l these things ;and have taken advantage of them. that puts you under some o b l i g a t i o n , or does i t not? / becoming a c i t i z e n of this fatherland 'also has a mean- ing; did you not become a c i t i z e n ? i t means that you are sat- i s f i e d with t h i s land as your fatherland and this excludes any p o s s i b i l i t y of preferring any other country. that means ano- ther obligation. or do you think that i t i s quite i n order to become a c i t i z e n , to take r e l i e f from a kind government, and to cry or write "heil h i t l e r " , as i s supposed to have happened i n . . . / the r e l i g i o u s basis of the mennonites teaches us to be submissive to e x i s t i n g authorities, (adherence to this or that p o l i t i c a l f a i t h i s not included i n t h i s statement), but not to play p o l i t i c s . k/ now, you are asked to i d e n t i f y yourself with a foreign p o l i t i c a l party which i s absolute, i . e . , which permits no other p o l i t i c a l party to e x i s t , and i n consequence destroys a l l other parties as soon as i t (the absolute; party) comes into power. adherence to the p r i n c i p l e of national socialism i s at the same time the negation of a l l p o l i t i c a l or other parties or societies over here. / hitherto we as a congregation have been h i s t o r i c a l l y without p o l i t i c s and now to enter p o l i t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y to accept adherence to a party which i s i n contrast to that of our chosen fatherland at any rate, would be ah h i s t o r i c a l mis- take, and h i s t o r i c a l catastrophe. that i s breach of f a i t h against the state and against our own confession. / she mennonites i n canada and the united states have helped us to come to t h i s country on account of t h e i r f a i t h i n us and on account of t h e i r kindness toward the mennonites from russia, t h e i r suffering brothers and s i s t e r s , and the many many innocent children. they have borne with us and helped us again and again. should the unheard of thing now happen that these newcomers should go an.entirely d i f f e r e n t way, to become i n v o l v e d p o l i t i c a l l y , and that p a r t i c u l a r l y with a f o r e i g n p o l i t i c a l i d e a l seasoned w i t h m i l i t a r i s m (be- cause i t s propaganda l a y s emphasis on defence)? in t h a t case not o n l y the newcomers are f i n i s h e d here, but the heavy and deep shadow of g u i l t , of f a i t h l e s n e s s , of u n r e l i a b i l i t y , would s e t t l e on a l l the mennonites i n canada and the u n i t e d s t a t e s , at l e a s t upon those who speak german. then t h e i r kindness w i l l b r i n g much sorrow. i t w i l l s t r i k e the german speaking congre- g a t i o n w i t h p a r t i c u l a r f o r c e . at the p r e s e n t time we are i n s t r u c t i n g our c h i l d r e n i n sabbath schools and even i n some p u b l i c schools i n german (the upper grades and before and a f t e r s c h o o l hours f o r i n s t a n c e ) . in the case of p o l i t i c s or treason you may expect t h a t , as s'oon as a c r i s i s o c c u r s , a n a t u r a l con- sequence w i l l be t h a t s t r i c t measures w i l l be taken not only a g a i n s t our language, but even a g a i n s t our people. these mea- sures w i l l be taken by the government, while the p u b l i c w i l l l e t us f e e l t h e i r d i s p l e a s u r e i n o t h e r ways. and not without cause then i n case of f o r e i g n p o l i t i c s . we have a l r e a d y seen how i n c e r t a i n cases the i l l w i l l of e n g l i s h speaking c i t i z e n s has been aroused by the i l l c o n s i d e r e d a c t i o n s of n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i s t i c a l l y minded persons. during the days of the munich c r i s i s i t was a l r e a d y e v i d e n t t h a t some persons were o b j e c t s of s u s p i c i o n . however, h i t h e r t o the e n g l i s h speaking c i t i z e n s have had no r e a l cause to be alarmed. the mennonite churches, i n c l u s i v e of the newcomers have throughout remained f a i t h f u l to t h e i r r e l i g i o n and to the s t a t e . for that reason the mennonites have not h e s i t a t e d to become c i t i z e n s a f t e r the p r o b a t i o n a r y p e r i o d of f i v e y e a r s . the above mentioned suggestions i n the "b o t e" d i d not come' from here, they came from o u t s i d e . i t was the f i r s t attempt at propaganda. but when we examine the numerous a r t - i c l e s which have appeared i n our papers and which came from our s i d e , we see that i t i s not the f i r s t not even the t e n t h attempt to draw us i n t o the stream of i d e o l o g i c a l viewpoints which e x i s t on the o t h e r s i d e of the rhine. a l l t h i s e x t r a v a - gant emphasis on language, which i n c l u d e s a c e r t a i n contempt f o r o t h e r languages, t h i s emphasis on german blood, ary.anism, defence, german books, book-clubs, stamp c o l l e c t i o n s , e t c . , have only one o b j e c t : to t i e us g e o g r a p h i c a l l y to germany. the mennonites do not a s s o c i a t e themselves to any extent w i t h the c e l e b r a t i o n of german n a t i o n a l bund - days, otherwise such p r a c t i c e would have to be condemned. so we w i l l l e t i t pass. - i t i s w e l l known t h a t i p e r s o n a l l y have done my share i n working f o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n of the german language f o r church purposes, but that does not mean that i have i n c l u d e d i n the german language adherence to german p o l i t i c s . we have, f i g u r a t i v e l y speaking, signed a marriage c o n t r a c t w i t h the canadian government: we were d e s t i t u t e , homeless, ragged as to c l o t h i n g but not as to c h a r a c t e r and mind. we have j o i n e d o u r s e l v e s f o r b e t t e r or worse w i t h t h i s state; we b e l i e v e d a t t h a t time, and we s t i l l b e l i e v e , that i t was gods w i l l to b r i n g us here; we would g l a d l y have a l l our b r e t h e r n here from paraguay and b r a z i l as w e l l . we l i v e , i f not i n the r i c h e s t and the most b e a u t i f u l part of the world, at least i n the most peaceful. this i s the answer to our struggles, our prayers and entreaties while i n russia before the doors both here and over there were opened. we are s a t i s f i e d , and more - we are happy, s t i l l more - we are sincerely g r a t e f u l . i f now i n our p o l i t i c a l attitude we were to prefer some other state as our partner i n marriage, that would mean adultery, i n our case treason to the state. to the best of my knowledge, our reputation as mennonites has never been tarnished,and we have never been g u i l t y of unfaithfulness to the state. i t must not happen now. i f the aforementioned propaganda were to be succ- e s s f u l , i t would be the cause of endless misery and c o n f l i c t i n the hearts of i n d i v i d u a l persons and i n whole f a m i l i e s . the physical i m p o s s i b i l i t y on t h i s side of the ocean according to the p o l i t i c a l dogma which prevails overseas leads to awk- ward s i t u a t i o n s . i f t h i s attitude were to spread i t would be a calamity f o r a l l our people. be warned, my people, and put an end to t h i s propaganda.from over yonder. i t i s not to be understood from what i have said that i consider everything over here to be good and everything found i n germany to be e v i l . not at a l l . on the other hand the opposite i s not the case either. our allegiance to our chosen fatherland i s not affected by the conditions under which we l i v e . the fact that there i s much good over there has never been questioned. a l l those achievments i n germany i n the f i e l d of c h r i s t i a n f a i t h , and c h r i s t i a n l i f e , i n the f i e l d of culture and science, of good l i t e r a t u r e , i n a r t , i n medicine, i n tech- n i c a l education have earned the respect of everyone, and par- t i c u l a r l y of ourselves. we are glad of a l l those things, and we should make as much of them our own as possible. but any- thing that concerns p o l i t i c a l attitude and p o l i t i c a l f a i t h i s not our business. we need not forget that germany's f i r m stand against comm- unism was also the means of saving the whole of europe from communism and t h i s should have our p a r t i c u l a r approbation, since we ourselves suffered so t e r r i b l y i n russia from t h i s movement. and we must not forget that adherence to communistic p r i n c i p l e s i n canada and the united states i s to be c r i m i n a l l y negligent. from our experience we know what a t e r r i b l e , bloody, harvest t h i s awful seed w i l l bring f o r t h , unless god works a special miracle. in the bible we read of people who were weighed i n the balance and found wanting. they perishedl - we as mennonites, and the newcomers p a r t i c u l a r l y are i n the balance with r e f e r - ence to three points: / whether we s h a l l pay our f i n a n c i a l debts, i . e . , i f we are honest i n business; / whether we adhere to our confession of f a i t h as nonre- s i s t a n t s ; / whether we s h a l l be drawn into p o l i t i c a l action, p a r t i - c u l a r l y i n connection with a foreign movement, or whe- ther we s h a l l remain f a i t h f u l to our government. through f a i t h we s h a l l conquer. b.b.janz. coaldale, alberta. bibliography in w r i t i n g a thesis of t h i s nature much information has to be gathered verbally from those persons who have helped to make the history therein presented. that has also been the case here. much valuable information has been obtained by means of a questionnaire sent out to the leaders of the var- ious churches of a l l mennonite denominations i n alberta. such information has been acknowledged throughout the thesis as questionnaire. i have drawn most heavily upon the information thus obtained and upon that presented i n the various minutes and reports put at my disposal by individuals interested i n the work. + bibliography primary sources minutes and reports . protokolle der versammlungen der mennoniten gruppe bei coaldale, f o r the years nov. . to feb. k. . a very valuable source f o r the coaldale d i s t r i c t i n p a r t i c u l a r and f o r the province i n general. deals author- i t a t i v e l y with many of the economic;and r e l i e f organiza- tions at present functioning under the supervision of the russian mennonites. . protokolle des provinzielen mennoniten hilfskomitees. for the years k l to . ' minutes and reports of the annual conferences of the a l - berta-saskatchewan conference, f o r the years and to . !+•• protokolle der jahressitzungen der mennoniten bruederge- meinde von alberta,, f o r the years . k l , and kk to . protokolle und berichte der vertreter-versammlungen der mennonitischen gemeinden von alberta, for the years to . this i s one of the most valuable sources since i t deals with a l l aspects of mennonite endeavors i n the province of alberta. these reports are the backbone of t h i s thesis. . protokolle der jahresversammlungen des mennonitischen bildungsverein, for the years kb to . . protokolle des mennonitischen hochschulkomitees, f o r the years march , k to march , . . protokolle der ,coaldaler kaserei, f o r the years aug. l , to feb. ;, . . protokolle buch des brandaeltesten der coaldaler d i s t r i k t s , f o r the year dec. , to dec. , . . protokolle des wirtschaftlichen vereins, f o r the years march , to k . . protokolle der coaldaler mennonite security £ credit union, march + to . . report of the m.c.c. peace section study conference, held at winona lake, indiana on november to , * these reports contain a good statement of the mennonite non-resistant philosophy. a. reports of the canadian mennonite board of colonization, under the following dates: feb. , ; jan. , ; march , j aug. , ; feb. , . • c o a l d a l e mennoniten brueder gemeinde, gedenk unddanfeier, c o a l d a l e , a l b e r t a , may , . reports of the a n n i v e r s a r y c e l e b r a t i o n of the c o a l - dale mennonite b r e t h e r n church. v a l u a b l e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on the c o a l d a l e s e t t l e m e n t . newspapers . the l e t h b r i d g e h e r a l d , l e t h b r i d g e , a l b e r t a . . the a l b e r t a n , calgary, a l b e r t a . . die mennonitische rundschau, c h r i s t i a n p r e s s , winnipeg, k. the.coaldale f l y e r , c o a l d a l e , a l b e r t a . yearbooks . general conference mennonites, mennonitisches jahrbuch, mennonite p u b l i c a t i o n o f f i c e , newton, kansas, and . . general conference mennonites, jahrbuch der v e r e i n i g t e n mennoniten gemeinden i n ontario, niagara p r e s s , v i r g i l , o n t a r i o . . o . mennonite brethern church of north america, yearbook, mennonite b r e t h e r n p u b l i s h i n g house, h i l l s b o r o , kansas, . k. mennonite brethern church of north america,. yearbook of the f o r t y - f i r s t canadian conference^ * the columbia p r e s s , yarrow, b.c., . . mennonite yearbook, mennonite p u b l i s h i n g house, s c o t t d a l e , pa., . c l i p p i n g s and p e r s o n a l reports much v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l was put at my d i s p o s a l by mr. j.b. janz, c o a l d a l e , who has been g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n of the mennonites i n g e n e r a l and of the coaldale area i n p a r t i - c u l a r s i n c e . there are numerous r e p o r t s of v a r i o u s p i o n e e r s who f i r s t opened up t h i s area. the m a t e r i a l has been acknowledged i n the t h e s i s as m a t e r i a l -- j.b. janz. secondary sources magazines and pamphlets . mennonite l i f e , b e t h e l c o l l e g e , north newton, kansas, u.s.a. the following a r t i c l e s have been especially h e l p f u l : enns, d.p., "mennonite education i n russia", july, , p. . francis, e.k., "mennonite contributions to canada's middle west", a p r i l , + , p. . kaufman, e.g., "the general conference of the mennonite church of north america", july + , p. . krahn c, "mennonites the world over", january, + , p. . rempel, j.g., "mennonites on the a i r i n western canada", july, , p. . schellenberg, d.j. "a moses of our day—david toews", july, , p. . suderman d., "the returning c i v i l i a n public service man", january, + , p. » thiessen j . j . , "present mennonite immigration to canada", july , p. . waltner e., "the anabaptist concept of the church", october, , p. + . wenger, j.c., "the cradle of the mennonite church", jan- uary, + , p. . . canadian p a c i f i c staff b u l l e t i n , the following a r t i c l e s : colley, j., "company colonization a c t i v i t i e s aid s e t t l e - ment of dominion", feb. , + . porter, s.g., "the canadian p a c i f i c railway land grants and t h e i r administration", feb. , + and may , + . . c.p.r., i r r i g a t i o n farming i n sunny alberta, . • +. coaldale commercial club, coaldale, the gem of the west, i . horsch j-., symposium on war, mennonite publishing house, scottdale, pa., . . horsch j., war and the christian conscience, mennonite publishing house, scottdale, pa. . krahn c., menno simons' lebenswerk, wetenschappelijke boekhandel, j. g l e i j s t e i n , amsterdam, . . mennonite b r e t h e r n church of north america, handbook on peace, . . mennonite b r e t h e r n church of north america, fundamentals of f a i t h i n question and answer form, i k » e n c y c l o p e d i a s . e n c y c l o p e d i a b r i t a n n i c a , e n c y c l o p e d i a b r i t a n n i c a inc., chicago, london, toronto, ^' the f o l l o w i n g a r t i c l e s have been used. " a n a b a p t i s t s * " b a p t i s t s " "menno simons" "mennonites" . t a y l o r c.r., (ed.) the american e n c y c l o p e d i a , books inc., new york, k . "anabaptists'* " b a p t i s t s " "menno simons" "mennonites" . warkentin a., g i n g e r i c h m., who's who among the mennonites, newton, kansas, k * k« mennonite e n c y c l o p e d i a . t h i s e n c y c l o p e d i a has not been p u b l i s h e d y e t ( ) but the m a t e r i a l on the mennonites of a l b e r t a was put at my d i s p o s a l by the managing e d i t o r , m e l v i n g i n g e r i c h . the m a t e r i a l has been i n v a l u a b l e . t h e s i s reimer, david p h i l i p , the mennonites of b r i t i s h columbia, submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of requirements foi? the degree of bachelor of a r t s to the department of h i s t o r y of the u n i v e r s i t y of b r i t i s h columbia, a p r i l , k . a u s e f u l essay but tends to d e a l a l i t t l e too much w i t h the mennonites as a r e l i g i o u s group and n e g l e c t s the developments i n b r i t i s h columbia. not too sound a t r e a t - ment. p e r i o d i c a l s f r a n c i s , e.k., " t r a d i t i o n and progress among the mennonites i n manitoba", mennonite q u a r t e r l y review, october, ° . (mennonite h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y , goshen c o l l e g e , goshen, indiana) a s c h o l a r l y a r t i c l e on the f i r s t russian mennonite group i n manitoba. deals p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h the s c h o o l problem. very u s e f u l . books . anderson j.t.m., the e d u c a t i o n of the new-canadian, lon- don and toronto, j.m. dent & sons, l t d . , . deals w i t h the g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l problems posed by the canadians of n o n - b r i t i s h e x t r a c t i o n . p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s made to the mennonites, pp. - . . dyck, p e t e r p., orenburg am u r a l , columbia press, yarrow, b.c., deals i n g e n e r a l w i t h the mennonite settlements i n r u s s i a w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e s to education and i n d u s t r i e s . v a l u a b l e f o r a g e n e r a l background. . p r i e s e n john,j., an o u t l i n e o f mennonite h i s t o r y , h e r a l d p u b l i s h i n g co.,' newton, kansas, k k . a v a l u a b l e b o o k l e t d e a l i n g w i t h the m i g r a t i o n s of the mennonites the world over, and the reasons f o r them. k. england robert, the c e n t r a l european immigrant i n canada, macmillan company of canada l t d . , toronto, . a study of the a s s i m i l a t i o n i n canada of the con- t i n e n t a l immigrants. p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e i s made to the mennonites on pages to su-' . department of commerce and labor, bureau of s t a t i s t i c s , r e l i g i o u s denominations: , washington, govern- ment p r i n t i n g o f f i c e , p a r t i i , ! . a b r i e f but u s e f u l survey of the o r i g i n of the v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s bodies i n america and t h e i r p r e s e n t ( ) s t a t u s . gives a sound treatment of mennonite o r i g i n s . . gibbon john murray, canadian mosaic, the making of a northern n a t i o n , m c c l e l l a n d and stewart l t d , , toronto, . a v a l u a b l e s t o r y of the v a r i o u s immigrant n a t i o n - a l i t i e s which make up the canadian people. the c o n t r i b u t i o n of each group are d e a l t w i t h i n a s c h o l a r l y f a s h i o n . an e x c e l l e n t p i c t u r e of the mennonites i s g i v e n i n chapter vii, "germany and canada". very v a l u a b l e . . hedges james b., b u i l d i n g the canadian west, the land and c o l o n i z a t i o n p o l i c i e s of the canadian p a c i f i c r a i l - way, the macmillan co., new york, * an e x c e l l e n t survey of the c o l o n i z a t i o n and s e t t l e - ment p o l i c i e s of the canadian p a c i f i c railway. an i n v a l u a b l e source f o r the mennonite immigration of the 's. . h i l d e b r a n d j . j . , h i l d e b r a n d ' s z e i t t a f e l , j . regehr, north kildonan, man., + . a c h r o n o l o g i c a l summary of the h i s t o r y of the mennonites. is of l i m i t e d value.. . lucas henry s., the renaissance and the reformation, harper and b r o t h e r s , new york and london, h-. v a l u a b l e f o r the account of the r i s e of anabaptism, .chapter xxxix. . neckar, he.ilborn a., die mennoniten-gemeinden i n russland waehrend der kriegs-und r e v o l u t i o n s jahre, + b i s . aus dem h o l l a e n d i s c h e n uebersetzt.und ergaenzt, kommissions v e r l a g der mennonitischen p l u e c h t l i n g s f u e r s o r g e , . is of. l i m i t e d value o n l y . . newman, a l b e r t h., a manual of church h i s t o r y , the americai b a p t i s t p u b l i c a t i o n s o c i e t y , chicago, kansas c i t y , los angeles, s e a t t l e , v o l . i i , + +. a g e n e r a l h i s t o r y of the a n a b a p t i s t movement i s i n c l u d e d . of l i m i t e d v a l u e . . schaefer, p a u l j . , woher? wohin? mennoniten, . t e i l . die mennoniten i n canada, mennonite a g r i c u l t u r e a d v i s o r y committee, a l t o n a , man., + . a b r i e f but v a l u a b l e survey of the mennonites i n canada. the mennonites i n a l b e r t a are very b r i e f l y d e a l t w i t h . u s e f u l . . smith, henry c., the s t o r y of the mennonites, mennonite book concern, berne, indiana, + * an a u t h o r i t a t i v e work on the mennonites by a mennonite s c h o l a r . very v a l u a b l e f o r a g e n e r a l background to t h i s t h e s i s . +. smith, henry c. , the coming of the russian mennonites, an episode i n , t h e s e t t l i n g of the l a s t f r o n t i e r , +- +, mennonite book concern, berne, indiana, to a comprehensive study of the f i r s t m i g r a t i o n of russian mennonites to the american and the can- adian west. v a l u a b l e . . wedel, c.h., a b r i s s der geschichte der mennoniten, '--i b e t h e l c o l l e g e , newton, kansas, ° + . the s t o r y of the mennonites i n s w i t z e r l a n d , p r u s s i a , and i n north.america. of very l i m i t e d v a l u e . . wenger, john. c., glimpses of mennonite h i s t o r y and d o c t r i n e , h e r a l d press, s c o t t d a l e , pa., + . a very v a l u a b l e source of i n f o r m a t i o n f o r the v a r i o u s denominations among the mennonites. the i o e x p r e s s i o n of d o c t r i n e i s g e n e r a l l y sound. . wiebe, gerhard, ursachen und geschichte der auswanderung der mennoniten aus russland nach america, druck- e r e i des nordwesten, winnipeg, . deals w i t h the mennonite immigration to canada i n the l 's. v a l u a b l e . . lohrenz, john h., the mennonite b r e t h e r n church, the mennonite brethern p u b l i s h i n g house, h i l l s b o r o , kansas, . the most r e c e n t h i s t o r y of the mennonite brethern church. a g e n e r a l survey of the v a r i o u s a c t i v i t - i e s c a r r i e d on by t h i s mennonite denomination. of l i m i t e d value f o r t h i s t h e s i s . . hallman e.s., the hallman-clemens genealogy w i t h a fam- i l y s reminiscence, the record p r i n t i n g company, hesston, kansas. cno date given) u s e f u l f o r the h i s t o r y of the early-mennonite ( o l d ) church i n the p r o v i n c e s of saskatchewan and a l b e r t a . a l b e r t a areas marked all contain mennonite elements the 'intergenerational stake hypothesis' in indonesia and germany : adult daughters’ and their mothers’ perception of their relationship the ‘intergenerational stake hypothesis’ in indonesia and germany adult daughters’ and their mothers’ perception of their relationship gisela trommsdorff university of konstanz, germany beate schwarz university of basle, switzerland abstract: the aim of this study is to test the general hypothesis that parents and their children systematically differ with respect to the perception of their relation- ship as described by the literature on the ‘intergenerational stake’. to this end, the study compared dyads of adult daughters and elderly mothers from indonesia and germany. mothers and daughters were interviewed with respect to their value orientations and their evaluation of the present mother–daughter rela- tionship. the results demonstrated that the ‘intergenerational stake’ hypothesis could be replicated for different aspects of the relationship quality in the german sample as compared to the indonesian sample. besides a pattern of mother– daughter differences consistent with the ‘intergenerational stake hypothesis’, two groups with different patterns were found: one group in which daughters per- ceived the relationship as more positive than mothers and another group charac- terized by low maternal self-disclosure. culture and mothers’ collectivism were associated with the assignment to the latter group. the results are interpreted in a culture-informed theoretical framework of intergenerational relations. keywords: culture ✦ individualism–collectivism ✦ intergenerational relations ✦ life span ✦ self-disclosure ✦ values introduction the study of intergenerational relations has recently gained in importance since massive demographic and socioeconomic changes all over the world http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz: -opus- http://www.ub.uni-konstanz.de/kops/volltexte/ / / http://csi.sagepub.com/ may affect the way generations are linked to each other. due to the still increasing longevity in most parts of the world, people have to face the fact that the amount one’s lifetime overlaps with one’s parents’ lifetime is greater than in the past. this is related to various questions of solidarity between the generations, such as patterns of intergenerational assistance, systems of family eldercare, quality of intergenerational relations over time and similarities and differences between the generations with respect to values and mutual perception. therefore, the study of intergenerational relations is of increasing importance. however, developmental and cross- cultural studies on intergenerational relations are still rare. the topic of intergenerational relationships has been mostly confined to parent–child relationships in early childhood and adolescence. only recently has a life course perspective shifted the focus on parent–child relationships to later developmental ages including ageing parents and their adult children (e.g. schaie and willis, ). these studies have been confined to western samples. particularly, comparative research focusing on different cultures outside the western industrialized areas is still lacking. it is as yet unknown whether in less individualistic cultures the same or different patterns of inter- generational relations, asymmetry in parent– child perception and family eldercare can be observed. in order to answer these questions, a culture- informed approach to the issue of intergenerational relations is needed. the intergenerational stake hypothesis how can the quality of intergenerational relations be described? ‘objective’ indicators have often been used to measure the closeness of the relationship such as the frequency of contact or the geographical distance between parents and their children. ‘subjective’ criteria of the relationship quality focus on the subjective perception and evaluation of the relationship by the respective partners (parents, children). the latter approach offers informa- tion about the quality of the relationship from the subjective perspectives of both partners, which may be similar or may differ. a systematic bias in subjective evaluation with respect to the perception of the parent–child relationship was reported several decades ago by bengtson and kuypers ( ) in studies on middle-aged parents and their adolescent children. parents consistently reported higher levels of close- ness and harmony in the parent–child relation compared to their children. the authors suggested the ‘developmental stake hypothesis’ to explain this phenomenon. they regarded such systematic differences as a result of different developmental concerns of each generation, which were assumed to influence a different ‘stake’ in the intergenerational relation- ship. parents are more interested in a stable continuation of positive relationships in the family including continuity of values, and so tend to overstate the positivity of their relationship with their children. in contrast, adolescent children who intend to become independent from their parents may feel less commitment to the parents and overstate negative aspects in their relationship to their parents. differences in the goals and needs of the parents and the adolescent children depend on the respective developmental age. thus, the phenomenon of perceptual dif- ferences may be a result of ‘developmental stake’. therefore, the question is whether this difference in perception of parent–child relationships is confined to adolescent children and their parents, or whether such differ- ences also occur in later development, e.g. for adult children (who are par- ents themselves) and their elderly parents, who may increasingly face the need for assistance from their adult children. the question thus is whether past and expected future investment of parents and children in their relationship affects their mutual perception of their relationship. in order to take into account sociocontextual influences from a life course approach, the individual-level ‘developmental stake hypothesis’ was changed to the sociostructural-level ‘generational stake’ and there- after to the ‘intergenerational stake hypothesis’ (giarrusso et al., ). this revised approach predicts more positive perceptions of parent–child relationships by parents as compared to children across the life span. the cross-generational perceptual difference is explained by both differential investment and also by differential development. giarrusso et al. ( ) examined the intergenerational stake hypothesis in a longitudinal study of grandparents, parents and young adult children years after the first measurement. their measures included parents’ and children’s percep- tion of the emotional quality of the relationship and they also took into account gender differences. their data supported the original intergener- ational stake hypothesis to a large degree. the authors explained their findings on the basis of the generational lineage position and rejected the explanation of the individual developmental stage. further studies on the intergenerational stake hypothesis revealed more than simple mean differences. besides the parent–child dyads, which are characterized by a more positive view of the relationship by the parents compared to their children, there is a substantial number of parent–child dyads in these studies with a high intergenerational agree- ment as well as with a more positive evaluation by the children than by their parents (aquilino, ; giarrusso et al., ). however, the question arises whether such differences in the percep- tion of the relationship between parents and their children are a universal phenomenon or are affected by the sociocultural context. so far, there has been little empirical work on cross-cultural variations or similarities in intergenerational perceptions of the parent–child relationship. a study by bond and harvey ( ), comparing mennonites and non-mennonites in the us, found that adult children in both groups reported less family solidarity than the parents, with somewhat larger differences in the mennonite group. however, the situation of mennonites who live within a dominant culture to which the younger generation may want to adapt represents a specific problem in acculturation and minority research. the present study deals with the question of whether the often replicated asymmetry in the perception of parent–child relations also occurs in cul- tures where parent–child relations are based on relatively stable values of mutual reciprocity and connectedness, and where independence is less valued. the question is whether other patterns of intergenerational differ- ences prevail in a non-western cultural setting. this study thus is expected to contribute to the general research question whether the intergenerational stake hypothesis is a universal or a culture-specific phenomenon. intergenerational relationships from a cross-cultural perspective empirical data from anthropological and cross-cultural studies clearly contradict the assumption that adolescents and young adults universally try to achieve autonomy and independence from their parents (dasen, ; rothbaum and trommsdorff, ; trommsdorff, ). in some cultures, a preference for independence and autonomy is highly valued, whereas in other cultures interdependence and relatedness are preferred (markus and kitayama, , ). this distinction of culture-specific value orientations has proven useful for the explanation of cultural differences in self-development, in the development of emotions and cog- nitions, and the development of interpersonal interactions and relations (fiske et al., ; greenfield et al., ; kitayama et al., ; mesquita and markus, ; rothbaum et al., ; trommsdorff, ). this differentiation between cultures is based on the influential studies of hofstede ( , ), who attempted to identify five dimensions under- lying the value orientations prevalent in different countries. hofstede’s distinction between individualism and collectivism has become the most frequently cited. accordingly, cultures differ with respect to a predominance of individualistic or collectivistic values. on the individual level, differences with respect to allocentrism and idiocentrism (triandis, ) can (but not necessarily) coincide with membership in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. several studies have pointed out that it is much too simple to con- ceive of this concept as only one dimension with two opposite poles (e.g. kağitçibaşi, ; oyserman et al., ). what do these cultural values mean for research on intergenerational rela- tionships, particularly with regard to the intergenerational stake hypothesis? one may assume that higher values of independence as compared to inter- dependence among people in a culture may lead to fewer similarities between the generations than in cultures where people favour interdependence between family members. accordingly, it might be that in highly industrialized and modernized, as compared to traditional, countries, more intergenerational differences in value orientations develop, since values change rapidly, and mobility is high. in line with this assumption, a compari- son between german and indonesian samples found that german adult daughters and their mothers differed considerably with respect to values regarding developmental timetables, while the indonesian dyads shared the same value orientations (schwarz et al., ). however, it is unclear whether value orientations and respective similarities in parent–child dyads are related to a bias regarding the perception of the parent–child relationship. parents in individualistic cultures as compared to their counterparts in collectivistic cultures may differ from their children in other aspects as well, including the positive evaluation of their relationship with their children. in line with the intergenerational stake hypothesis, they may overestimate the positive aspects of their relationship with their children. thus, it is assumed that in cultures where preferences for values of individualism/independ- ence prevail as compared to cultures with a preference for values of collec- tivism/interdependence, the discrepancies in the perception of parent–child relationships are higher, and that these are based on a bias towards a relatively more positive perception by the parents and a bias towards a rel- atively more negative perception by the adult children. cultural and sociodemographic characteristics of germany and indonesia in order to test this assumption by means of a cross-cultural comparison, we included german and indonesian samples for the following reasons. both countries differ strongly in sociodemographic characteristics relevant for intergenerational relationships. with regard to urbanization, in indonesia about percent of the population lives in cities, while in germany the pro- portion is almost percent. the household size also differs. in indonesia, as compared to germany, both the proportion of households with more than two generations and the average number of children ( . vs . children per woman) are higher. in indonesia, an average household consists of . persons, in germany of only . persons. the actual average life expectancy in indonesia is lower, with years for women and years for men, com- pared with years for women and years for men in germany (united nations statistics division, ; for further information, see albert et al., ). with regard to value orientations, only a few studies on value orienta- tions have included indonesia. the religious orientation in the two coun- tries differs significantly, with a mostly islamic (about percent) population on java (indonesia) and a mostly christian but secular popu- lation in germany. according to hofstede ( ), indonesia was low in individualism and germany was moderately high ( vs on a scale ranging from to ). indonesia, like other asian countries, and in con- trast to germany, was characterized by large ‘power distance’ (acceptance of exertion of power) but weak ‘uncertainty avoidance’. furthermore, indonesians as compared to germans showed less ‘masculinity’ orienta- tion, which indicates a stronger emphasis on serving others and striving for consensus. thus, we expect that among our participants from germany the preference for values of individualism and independence should be more pronounced than in the indonesian sample, whereas the preference for values of collectivism and interdependence should be more pronounced in the indonesian sample. in western countries like germany, parent–child relationships are rather structured on the basis of equal partnership where reciprocal acceptance and exchange are based on individualism and independence (rothbaum et al., ; trommsdorff and kornadt, ). in traditional asian countries like indonesia, parent–child relationships are hierarchi- cally structured and at the same time characterized by emotional close- ness and filial piety based on interdependence (geertz, , ; mulder, , ). in indonesia, many ethnic minorities still carry on their traditional beliefs even though social changes have occurred (williams, ). however, at the same time, one may generalize that the indonesian population is characterized by predominating socially oriented values and traditions. in our study we included a sample from west java (mostly adhering to the sundanese and partly to the javanese culture). according to javanese ethics, attaining the right rasa (moral attitude and behaviour) is the most important goal in life. ‘a right rasa means that one is perfectly, or harmo- niously, embedded in reality and, therefore, it implies the fulfillment of social and individual duties’ (magnis-suseno, : ). parents and children in indonesia occupy different roles; both strive to fulfil their well-known duties in a context of social harmony; since the par- ent–child relationship is clearly structured, no significant differences in mutual perception of the relationship are expected. this is in contrast to german parent–child relationships, which are negotiated according to individual goals and interests in a context of individualistic organization of family relationships. in this context, the developmental task is to focus on one’s autonomy. this becomes more prevalent during and after adolescence, when adult daughters start a family of their own. they choose their partner on the basis of romantic attraction, while in traditional asian countries the main goal is to serve the wishes and interests of the family, and to get married to someone who is accepted by the family (mulder, ). thus, forming a new family in germany takes place in the context of individualistic values of autonomy and individual choice, in contrast to indonesia, where a context of group-oriented values requires adult children to act in accordance with family interests. when establishing a new family oneself, the parent–child relationship in the individualistic context becomes characterized by the goal of being freed from normative constraints, interference from and obligations to the descendant family in order to take responsibility for the new family as an independent new system. this does not, however, imply disconnected family ties over the life course; on the contrary, family relationships may still be based on emotional closeness and solidarity (bengtson, ; schwarz et al., ). in contrast, in the collectivistic context, marriage and children (the establishment of a new family) means the continuation of the existing family network by an extended in-group. new developmental tasks emerge at this stage of development, such as the obligation to take care of parents as they age. according to giarrusso et al. ( ), differences between the generations are still based on the lineage positions and not on differences in the individual developmental stages. the parent–child relationship over the life span has seldom been studied, and even more rarely been analysed in different cultures (trommsdorff, ). according to the literature, in the collectivistic context the lifelong intercon- nectedness of parent–child relations acquires a new quality after marriage. its stability increases especially since the next generation of grandchildren will be integrated as continuing the family line. for adult daughters, an increase in responsibility and obligation for the ageing parents lies ahead in both con- texts. however, in a socially oriented context such as indonesia the lifelong obligation of adult children to their parents, including filial piety, respect and support, is in stark contrast to the individualistic german context. thus, the psychological conditions for adult children’s dealing with their responsibility towards their parents are different in the two countries and characterize the culture-specific parent–child relationship over the life span. our own earlier results on a higher individualism/independence of the german sample in contrast to a higher collectivism/interdependence of the indonesian sample document the validity of the selection of different cultural samples (albert et al., ; mayer et al., ). research questions and hypotheses on the basis of these notions, the present study deals with the following questions: . do we find intergenerational differences in accordance with the inter- generational stake hypothesis in a western culture (germany) as well as in an asian culture (indonesia)? we expect the differences to be larger in an individualistic culture like germany than in a collectivistic culture like indonesia. . above and beyond these mean comparisons, do we find different patterns of intergenerational differences in the two cultures? . are certain cultural characteristics like value orientations related to the expected intergenerational differences? we expect that collectivistic or interdependent value orientations will be related to fewer intergenera- tional differences in mutual perception, and individualistic or inde- pendent orientations to be related to more differences. methods procedure as part of the three-generational ‘value of children and intergenerational relationship’ study in cultures (see trommsdorff and nauck, ), a total of participants from germany and indonesia each were inter- viewed. a convenient sampling method was used. in indonesia, the participants were recruited via schools from two locations: in bandung, a large city in west java, and in a rural area where agricultural production still prevails (about – km from bandung). in germany, the partici- pants were recruited through residents’ registration offices from three dif- ferent cities in germany: chemnitz, essen and konstanz. the interviews were carried out individually with each person face-to- face. the mothers and their daughters were interviewed by interviewers trained in the multi-thematic standardized interview. each interviewee answered all questions in the assigned sequence. a small gift was presented at the end of the interview (for more details, see albert et al. [ ] for the indonesian sample, and mayer et al. [ ] for the german sample). participants for the following analyses, a smaller subsample consisting of adult mother–daughter dyads from each culture is used in order to focus on a two-generational sample of mother–daughter dyads. the majority of the indonesian sample was of sundanese descent, the rest javanese, and mostly islamic, while a majority of the german women belonged to christian churches. mothers and daughters from the indonesian sample were significantly younger than their counterparts from germany (mothers: t = . , d.f. = . , p < . ; daughters: t = . , d.f. = , p < . ). the mean age of indonesian mothers was . years (sd = . ) compared to . years (sd = . ) of the german mothers. the respective mean ages of the daughters were . (sd = . ) and . (sd = . ). furthermore, the number of children was higher among the indonesian mothers (m = . , sd = . ) and daughters (m = . , sd = . ) compared to the german mothers (m = . , sd = . ; t = − . , d.f. = . , p < . ) and daughters (m = . , sd =. ; t = − . , d.f. = . , p < . ). among the indonesian mothers, . percent had not completed any schooling, . percent had a lower education and . percent a middle education. the indonesian daughters were better educated, with only . percent without any school certificate, . percent with a lower, . percent with a middle and . percent with a higher education. all german mothers and daughters had finished secondary school. among the mothers, percent had a lower, . percent had a middle and . percent had a higher education. the respective figures for german daughters were . percent, . percent and . percent. compared to national statistics, the german daughters were biased towards higher education. furthermore, the indonesian mothers and daughters lived closer together as compared to the german dyads (t = . , d.f. = . , p < . ), and the frequency of their contact (personal or by phone or mail) was higher (t = . , d.f. = . , p < . ). measures all measures used are based on standardized instruments, most of which had previously been used in cross-cultural studies (for a detailed descrip- tion of the whole questionnaire including the specific instrument, see schwarz et al., ). self-reports of the adult daughters and elderly mothers were assessed for the variables described as follows. quality of the mother–adult daughter relationship we selected three subscales of the network of relationship inventory (nri) (furman and buhrmester, ). mothers and daughters reported on intimacy (e.g. how often do you tell your mother/daughter everything that is on your mind?), conflict (e.g. how often do you and your mother/daughter disagree and quarrel?) and admiration (e.g. how often does your mother/daughter let you know that you’re good at things?) in their relationship. additionally, emotional support (given to the daughter by the parents in the last months reported from the perspective of the daughter and from the perspective of the mother, e.g. how often have they/have you given advice in the last months?) was assessed. each scale consisted of three items, the response format ranged from (never) to (always). the satisfying to good internal consistencies ranged between cronbach’s alpha = . and cronbach’s alpha = . . value orientation value orientations were assessed with two instruments measuring the collectivism/individualism and the interdependence/independence dimensions. a short version of the individualism/collectivism scale by schwartz and bilsky ( ) was used, which was developed as part of the colindex (chan, ). the collectivism scale comprised six items (e.g. honour of your parents and elders [showing respect]) and the individualism scale, seven items (e.g. an exciting life [stimulating experiences]). mothers and daughters rated the importance of each item on a five-point scale rang- ing from (not important at all) to (very important). the internal consisten- cies ranged between cronbach’s alpha = . and cronbach’s alpha = . . interdependence (e.g. it is important to me to respect decisions made by my family) and independence (e.g. i enjoy being unique and different from family members in many respects) were assessed by a short version of the self construal scale by singelis ( ), developed and modified for the value of children study. after modification of the wording, the items referred to the respondents’ family. the items were rated on a five-point scale from (strongly disagree) to (strongly agree). the internal consisten- cies for interdependence were satisfying or good (cronbach’s alpha between . and . ). the independence scale only reached high cronbach’s alpha for the mothers (indonesia . , germany . ) but not for the daughters (indonesia . , germany . ). thus, in the following analy- ses independence of the daughters was omitted. results intergenerational differences in the perception of the relationship quality in germany and indonesia in a first step of analyses, we investigated whether intergenerational dif- ferences in accordance with the intergenerational stake hypothesis could be found in indonesia and germany, i.e. whether the mothers had a more positive view of the relationship than their daughters. to test this ques- tion, analyses of variance for dependent measures with relationship qual- ity perceived by daughter and mother (intimacy, conflict, admiration and emotional support) as dependent variables, generations as within-subject factor, and culture (germany, indonesia) as between-subject factor were conducted. significant interactions of generation and culture point to cultural differences in the perception of the relationship by mothers and daughters. furthermore, these analyses give information about overall generation and overall culture effects (see table ). in three out of four indicators, an overall cultural difference occurred. indonesian as compared to the german women reported less intimacy (m = . vs m = . ), less admiration (m = . vs m = . ), but more emotional support given to the daughter (m = . vs m = . ). above and beyond the interaction effects, we found only one overall intergenera- tional difference. independent of culture, mothers perceived more intimacy in the relationships than daughters (m = . vs m = . ). this intergenera- tional difference was in line with the assumption of the intergenerational stake hypothesis. significant interactions occurred with respect to intimacy and conflict in the mother–daughter relationship and emotional support given to the daughter. no interaction of generation and culture was found for per- ceived admiration. with respect to intimacy and conflict, t-tests for dependent measures revealed intergenerational differences in accordance with the intergenerational stake hypothesis in the german sample only. the german mothers reported more intimacy (m = . , sd = . vs m = . , sd = . ; t = . , d.f. = , p < . ) and less conflict (m = . , sd = . vs m = . , sd = . ; t = − . , d.f. = , p < . ) than their daughters, while the two generations within the indonesian sample did not differ (intimacy: t = . , d.f. = , ns; conflict: t = . , d.f. = , ns). these results are in line with our expectation that intergenerational dif- ferences in the perception of the relationship quality only occur in more individualistic cultures where values of independence prevail. however, the data on emotional support given to the daughter revealed an opposite pattern. here, only in indonesia did an intergenerational dif- ference in accordance with the intergenerational stake hypothesis occur. the degree of emotional support indonesian mothers reported offering was higher (m = . , sd = . ) than the amount of emotional support daughters reported receiving (m = . , sd = . ; t = − . , d.f. = , p < . ). in the german sample, a significant intergenerational difference resulted (t = . , d.f. = , p < . ), however, with an opposite pattern. here, mothers reported giving less emotional support (m = . , sd = . ) than the daughters reported receiving (m = . , sd = . ). thus, our general expectation that the intergenerational stake hypothesis is only valid for individualistic or modernized cultures needs further differentiation. for table analyses of variance with dependent measures for adult mother–daughter relationship quality (f-values and significance) conflict intimacy admiration emotional support between subjects culture (c) . . * . *** . *** within subjects generation (g) . . *** . . c × g . *** . * . . *** note: d.f. = , . *p < . , ***p < . . a deeper understanding, in a second step of analyses we analysed the patterns of differences between the generations. patterns of intergenerational differences as giarrusso et al. ( ) and aquilino ( ) showed, the simple focus on mean differences between generations can obscure the variety of patterns that lay behind those results. in the study by giarrusso et al. ( ), – percent of the sample showed a pattern where children’s affection for parents was higher than the reverse. almost one-quarter of the sample in the study by aquilino ( ) belonged to a cluster with a similar pattern. in order to test whether our samples also include dyads with patterns of inter- generational differences that do not fit the intergenerational stake hypothe- sis, we computed difference scores (mother’s report minus daughter’s report) and conducted cluster analyses across the difference scores. in order to indicate the appropriate number of clusters, we followed the suggestions of wiedenbeck and züll ( ) and first conducted hierarchical cluster analyses across the four difference scores for intimacy, admiration, conflict and emotional support, choosing ward’s method. according to the analy- sis, a two- or three-cluster solution was appropriate. since the literature suggested three patterns (mother positive, equal, daughter positive) we chose the three-cluster solution. in a second step, we used k-means cluster analyses to improve the classification of the intergenerational differences into the three clusters. the means of the difference score for the dyads assigned to the three clusters are shown in table . according to these means, cluster fits best with the intergenerational stake hypothesis with a more positive view held by mothers than by daughters concerning intimacy, admiration and emotional support, while both generations agreed about conflict in their relationship. cluster was in most instances the opposite of cluster and was best described as ‘daughter perceives the relationship more positively than the mother’. this was true for intimacy, admiration and emotional support but not for conflict. contrary to the other indicators, daughters in this cluster reported more conflicts than the mothers, though the difference score was small. cluster was not characterized by high agreement, as in the study by aquilino ( ). instead, this cluster was characterized by a high negative discrepancy between intimacy reported by mothers and reported by daughters. since the intimacy items assessed how much self- disclosure the respective person was willing to engage in, cluster reflects dyads with a mother who displayed less self-disclosure as com- pared to the daughter. simultaneously, these dyads showed several char- acteristics consistent with the pattern predicted by the intergenerational stake hypothesis: the mothers in cluster reported less conflict, more admi- ration and more emotional support than their daughters. prediction of intergenerational differences by culture and value orientations by comparing the german and indonesian samples, we attempted to compare dyads from a more individualistic and a more collectivistic culture. in fact, indonesian mothers favoured values of interdependence to a significantly higher extent and tended to be less individualistic and more collectivistic as compared to german mothers. however, the mothers from both cultures did not differ with respect to independence. the daughters from indonesia favoured values of collectivism and interdependence significantly more than the german daughters. however, the daughters from both cultures did not differ with respect to individualism. additionally, we expected that individualistic and independent orienta- tions would be associated with larger intergenerational differences, particu- larly those which are in accordance with the intergenerational stake hypothesis, while collectivistic and interdependent orientations would be associated with smaller differences. therefore, we investigated whether cul- ture and individual value orientations predicted the cluster assignments. a cross-table showed that percent of the dyads in cluster (mother more positive) were from germany and percent from indonesia and comparable numbers ( percent vs percent) were shown for the oppo- site cluster (daughter more positive). only percent of the dyads in cluster (less self-disclosure of mother) were from germany as compared to percent from indonesia, however, the difference was not significant (χ = . [ , n = ] ns). to predict the assignment to specific clusters, multinomial logistic regressions were conducted with culture and value orientations as table means of the four mother–daughter difference-scores for the three clusters cluster cluster cluster mother more daughter more less positive than positive than self-disclosure daughtera mother of mother conflict . −. −. intimacy . −. −. admiration . −. . emotional support . −. . n note: positive differences refer to mothers reporting higher scores than daughters, negative differences refer to daughters reporting higher scores than mothers, and scores around zero refer to similarities between the generations. a consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis. predictors and geographical distance as a control variable. cluster , which was different to clusters found in the us studies, was chosen as the reference group. the multinomial logistic regression estimates simultaneously the likelihood of a dyad to fall into the ‘mother more positive’ cluster or the ‘daughter more positive’ cluster versus the ‘less self-disclosure of mother ’ cluster. the coefficients indicate the tendency of the dyad to fall into the ‘less self-disclosure of mother ’ cluster. all value indicators that had no significant effects were dropped, leaving one indicator: mothers’ collectivism. as indicated in table , geograph- ical distance did not play a role. additionally, the likelihood of falling into the ‘less self-disclosure of mother ’ cluster instead of the ‘daughter more positive’ cluster was not affected by maternal collectivism but, at least as a tendency, by culture. the indonesian dyads showed a higher likelihood of belonging to the ‘less self-disclosure of mother ’ cluster than to the ‘daughter more positive’ cluster as compared to the german dyads. furthermore, the likelihood of a dyad belonging to the ‘less self- disclosure of mother ’ cluster versus the ‘mother more positive’ cluster was influenced by maternal collectivism but not by culture. the higher the mothers’ collectivism, the higher their likelihood of belonging to the ‘less self-disclosure of mothers’ cluster. in sum, it seems that the ‘less self-disclosure of mother ’ cluster was more typical for indonesian mother–daughter dyads and for dyads in which mothers were high in collectivism. table multinomial logit model predicting cluster membership in comparison to the ‘less self-disclosure of mother’ cluster from geographical distance, collectivism and culture b se b wald exp(b) cl: mother more positive than daughtera geographical distance −. . . . collectivism . . . * . cultureb . . . . cl: daughter more positive than mother geographical distance −. . . . collectivism . . . . cultureb . . . + . notes: a consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis. b = germany, = indonesia. +p < . , *p < . . discussion to summarize the results, the intergenerational stake hypothesis was only partly confirmed. three types of analyses were performed to examine the research questions. the results on mean differences for the german mother–daughter dyads with respect to intimacy and conflict supported the intergenerational stake hypothesis, while emotional support given by the mother was more frequently reported by mothers than daughters in the indonesian sample. thus, the intergenerational stake hypothesis should be specified with regard to the aspects of the relationship quality that are subjectively evaluated by both generations. the results on mean differences among evaluations of mothers and their adult daughters are only one aspect of a complete analysis of inter- generational relations. assuming that these means may be based on dif- ferent patterns, we carried out a cluster analysis including difference scores of the four indicators of relationship quality. the results revealed three different patterns, of which only one was consistent with the inter- generational stake hypothesis. of the entire sample, percent of moth- ers perceived the relationship more positively than their daughters. a second cluster comprised percent of the mother–daughter dyads and can be characterized as the opposite pattern, where daughters perceived the relationship more positively than their mothers. a third cluster com- prised percent of the dyads and was characterized by lower self- disclosure of the mother compared to the daughter. indonesian dyads tended to have a higher likelihood of belonging to the last cluster as com- pared to the second cluster. maternal collectivism was also associated with a higher likelihood of belonging to this cluster. furthermore, our results have demonstrated clear differences in value orientations between the more individualistic german and the more interdependent/socially oriented indonesian samples in the expected direction. the similarities between the cultures with respect to maternal independence and daughters’ individualism indicate that individualistic/independent tendencies also occur in the indonesian sample. differential confirmation of the intergenerational stake hypothesis the intergenerational stake hypothesis was confirmed only in the german sample with respect to intimacy and conflict and only in the indonesian sample with respect to emotional support given by the mother. the items on intimacy in our study refer to the tendency of the participants to open them- selves up in the relationship (talk about own sorrow or communicate per- sonal experiences). self-disclosure is a more relevant communication style in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures. high self-disclosure by mothers in the relationship with their daughters might be a less acceptable behaviour in collectivistic cultures where clear role definitions regulate inter- actions. this interpretation is supported by our data, which showed that less maternal self-disclosure is more typical among dyads with collectivistic mothers. furthermore, in line with the often reported cultural value of harmony in the javanese family (e.g. geertz, , ; magnis-suseno, ; mulder, ), less conflict between indonesian as compared to german mothers and daughters and no intergenerational difference in the perception of this aspect among the indonesian dyads occurred in our study. possibly, the respect for the older generation in indonesia inhibits the younger genera- tion from experiencing conflict or complaining about conflict with parents. this interpretation is reaffirmed by the result that indonesian daughters report less conflict with mothers than do german daughters (statistical results not reported here due to space limitation). thus, the finding that the intergenerational stake hypothesis was confirmed with respect to intimacy and conflict only in the german sample is in line with the cultural values regarding the intergenerational relationship. when it comes to other aspects of the relationship, like the emotional support the mother has given to her daughter, indonesian mothers’ reports were more positive than those of their daughters. to give support and help to the children is part of javanese ethics (magnis-suseno, ). based on the value of interdependence, this tendency prevails throughout the life span in the indonesian context. even if transfer of support from parents to children is an ordinary phenomenon in germany (kohli et al., ), we assume that help and support given to the adult children is more highly valued by indonesian than by german mothers. this may explain the asymmetric reports about emotional support in the indonesian dyads. the patterns of intergenerational differences were only partly affected by culture. consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis, similar percentages of mother–daughter dyads were observed in the german and in the indonesian sample in cluster . the same was true for the opposite pattern, in which daughters had a more positive view of the relationship. only with respect to the pattern of less maternal self-disclosure were the indonesian dyads somewhat overrepresented. this fits with our earlier explanation that the culture-specific role definition and collectivistic val- ues undermine an individualistic communication style characterized by self-disclosure. role of value orientations to explain the intergenerational stake hypothesis although differences in value orientations between the german and indonesian samples occurred in the expected direction, the correlations of the various value orientations with patterns of intergenerational differ- ences were not strong. however, in line with our argumentation, the more the mothers preferred collectivistic values, the higher the probability that the mother–daughter dyad was characterized by the pattern with less maternal self-disclosure. our expectation that the intergenerational stake pattern is more frequent among individualistic or independently oriented dyads was not confirmed by this study. our results rather pointed to dif- ferent patterns of intergenerational relations, which partly overlap with cultural membership and value orientation. it therefore seems to be too simple to assume that parents always view their relationship with their children more positively than do the children. though it is well known that parents and children may differ in the way they perceive their relationship, the factors underlying this difference are less well known. these factors may include past experience, future- oriented expectations, social comparison processes (with other parent–child dyads) and, of course, person variables. beyond these, cultural values also guide the mutual perception and thereby affect such reports. also, the ver- bal reports are coloured by cultural values of socially desirable answers for both generations. further research should search for theoretically relevant variables to explain some of the variance in perceptual differences. a focus on value orientations seems to be a promising start. when com- paring samples with different preferences for collectivistic and individu- alistic values in sociocultural contexts that are undergoing massive changes, one should refrain from the simple one-dimensional approach. a focus on different patterns of combinations in collectivism and individ- ualism may be more appropriate in order to take into account possible changes in value orientation that are adaptive to ongoing social change and that affect the parent–child relationship. a certain degree of auton- omy or independence may be quite adaptive in either individualistic or collectivistic societies (rothbaum and trommsdorff, ). taking into account also the relative importance of relatedness or interdependence and its possible culture-specific meaning may therefore allow us to clarify different patterns (in the perception) of intergenerational relations. conclusions our cross-cultural comparisons clearly demonstrate that more culture- sensitive differentiations of the intergenerational stake hypothesis are necessary in future research. in line with a cultural value perspective, parent–child relationships and their development follow culture-specific pathways (rothbaum et al., ). the results presented here are based on analyses of the data from the cross-national value of children (voc) study, which focuses on intergenerational relations. further analyses are currently being undertaken and are needed to better understand the cul- tural differences as well as similarities in intergenerational relationships. these analyses will in general follow the theoretical model that underlies the ongoing voc study (see trommsdorff, ), taking into account the intergenerational similarities and differences in value orientations (and their relative importance) to explain intergenerational differences in the perception of the relationship quality. further variables, such as socio- demographic indicators (e.g. education or job status) as well as personal characteristics like attachment and socialization experiences will be included in these analyses. cross-cultural studies such as this one can demonstrate the limitations of previous studies on intergenerational relations focused entirely on western samples. obviously, culture-specific patterns in intergenerational relations have to be taken into account to differentiate the intergenerational stake hypothesis. the way adult daughters and their mothers perceive their rela- tionship depends on the cultural context and, more specifically, on the value orientations that have been socialized in the specific culture. therefore, since the quality of the parent–child relationship influences parent–child interactions, including the willingness of parents and adult children to sacrifice certain resources and give (mutual) support in case of need, the question may be raised: to what degree will the present value orientations be transmitted to the next generation and affect the quality of the relationship between parents and their children over the life span? note this research was supported by grants from the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft (tr / – , , ) to the first author. the project is part of the study ‘value of children revisited’ (principal investigators: gisela trommsdorff, university of konstanz and bernhard nauck, technical university of chemnitz). the indonesian study was directed by lieke wisnubrata and the bandung team: samsunuwijati marat, kusdwiratri setiono and peter r. nelwan. the german data were collected by the chemnitz and the konstanz team headed by the principal investigators. references albert, i., trommsdorff, g., mayer, b. and schwarz, b. ( ) ‘value of children in urban and rural indonesia: socio-demographic indicators, cultural aspects and empirical findings’, in g. trommsdorff and b. nauck (eds) the value of children in cross-cultural perspective: case studies from eight societies, pp. – . lengerich: pabst science. albert, i., trommsdorff, g. and wisnubrata, l. ( ) ‘intergenerational transmission of values in different cultural contexts: a study in germany and indonesia’, submitted to the proceedings of the th international congress of the international association for cross-cultural psychology (iaccp), spetses, greece. aquilino, w. s. ( ) ‘two views of one relationship: comparing parents’ and young adult children’s reports of the quality of intergenerational relations’, journal of marriage and the family ( ): – . bengtson, v. l. ( ) ‘beyond the nuclear family: the increasing importance of multigenerational bonds’, journal of marriage and family ( ): – . bengtson, v. l. and kuypers, j. a. ( ) ‘generational difference and the developmental stake’, aging and human development ( ): – . bond, j. b. and harvey, c. d. ( ) ‘ethnicity and intergenerational perceptions of family solidarity’, international journal of aging and human development ( ): – . chan, d. k.-s. ( ) ‘colindex: a refinement of three collectivism measures’, in u. kim, h. c. triandis, c. kağitçibaşi, s.-c. choi and g. yoon (eds) individualism and collectivism: theory, method, and applications, pp. – . thousand oaks, ca: sage. dasen, p. ( ) ‘ein integrativer theoretischer rahmen menschlicher entwicklung aus öko-kultureller perspektive’ [an integrative theoretical frame of human development from an eco-cultural perspective], in g. trommsdorff and h.-j. kornadt (eds) enzyklopädie der psychologie. theorien und methoden der kulturvergleichenden psychologie, vol. , pp. – . göttingen and toronto: hogrefe. fiske, a. p., kitayama, s., markus, h. r. and nisbett, r. e. ( ) ‘the cultural matrix of social psychology’, in d. t. gilbert, s. t. fiske and g. lindzey (eds) the handbook of social psychology, vol. , th edn, pp. – . boston, ma: mcgraw-hill. furman, w. and buhrmester, d. ( ) ‘children’s perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks’, developmental psychology ( ): – . geertz, h. ( ) the javanese family: a study of kinship and socialization. prospect heights, il: waveland press. geertz, h. ( ) ‘the vocabulary of emotion: a study of javanese socialization processes’, in r. a. levine (ed.) culture and personality, pp. – . chicago, il: aldine. giarrusso, r., stallings, m. and bengtson, v. l. ( ) ‘the “intergenerational stake” hypothesis revisited: parent–child differences in perceptions of relationships years later’, in v. l. bengtson, w. k. schaie and l. m. burton (eds) adult intergenerational relations: effects of societal changes, pp. – . new york: springer. greenfield, p., keller, h., fuligni, a. and maynard, a. ( ) ‘cultural pathways through universal development’, annual review of psychology : – . hofstede, g. h. ( ) culture’s consequences: international differences in work- related values, th edn. newbury park, ca: sage. hofstede, g. h. ( ) ‘der kulturelle kontext psychologischer prozesse’ [the cultural context of psychological processes], in g. trommsdorff and h.-j. kornadt (eds) enzyklopädie der psychologie. theorien und methoden der kultur- vergleichenden psychologie, vol. , pp. – . göttingen and toronto: hogrefe. kağitçibaşi, c. ( ) family and human development across cultures: a view from the other side. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. kitayama, s., karasawa, m. and mesquita, b. ( ) ‘collective and personal processes in regulating emotions: emotion and self in japan and the united states’, in p. philippot and r. s. feldman (eds) regulation of emotion, pp. – . mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates. kohli, m., künemund, h., motel, a. and szydlik, m. ( ) ‘families apart? intergenerational transfer in east and west germany’, in s. arber and c. attias-donfut (eds) the myth of generational conflict: the family and state in ageing societies, pp. – . london: routledge. magnis-suseno, f. ( ) javanese ethics and world view: the javanese idea of the good life. jakarta: gramedia pustaka utama. markus, h. r. and kitayama, s. ( ) ‘culture and the self: implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation’, psychological review : – . markus, h. r. and kitayama, s. ( ) ‘the cultural construction of self and emotion: implications for social behavior’, in s. kitayama and h. r. markus (eds) emotion and culture: empirical studies of mutual influence, pp. – . washington, dc: american psychological association. mayer, b., albert, i., trommsdorf, g. and schwarz, b. ( ) ‘value of children in germany: dimensions, comparison of generations, and relevance for parenting’, in g. trommsdorff and b. nauck (eds) the value of children in cross-cultural perspective: case studies from eight societies, pp. – . lengerich: pabst science. mayer, b., trommsdorff, g., wisnubrata, l. and setiono, k. ( ) ‘a comparison of indonesian and german adolescents’ family models’, in g. trommsdorff (convenor), ‘value of children and intergenerational relations in different cultures (part ii)’ symposium conducted at the th international congress of the international association for cross-cultural psychology, xi’an, china, august. mesquita, b. and markus, h. r. ( ) ‘culture and emotion: models of agency as sources of cultural variation in emotion’, in a. s. r. manstead, n. frijda and a. fischer (eds) feelings and emotions: the amsterdam symposium, pp. – . cambridge: cambridge university press, mulder, n. ( ) individual and society in java: a cultural analysis. yogyakarta: gadjah mada university press. mulder, n. ( ) inside indonesia society: cultural change in indonesia. amsterdam: pepin press. oyserman, d., coon, h. m. and kemmelmeier, m. ( ) ‘rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses’, psychological bulletin : – . rothbaum, f. and trommsdorff, g. ( ) ‘do roots and wings complement or oppose one another? the socialization of relatedness and autonomy in cultural context’, in j. e. grusec and p. hastings (eds) the handbook of socialization, pp. – . new york: the guilford press. rothbaum, f., weisz, j., pott, m., miyake, k. and morelli, g. ( ) ‘attachment and culture: security in the united states and japan’, american psychologist : – . schaie, k. w. and willis, s. l. ( ) ‘perceived family environments across generations’, in v. l. bengtson, k. w. schaie and l. m. burton (eds) adult intergenerational relations, pp. – . new york: springer. schwartz, s. h. and bilsky, w. ( ) ‘toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: extensions and cross-cultural replications’, journal of personality and social psychology : – . schwarz, b., chakkarath, p. and trommsdorff, g. ( ) ‘generationenbeziehungen in indonesien, der republik korea und deutschland’ [intergenerational relationships in indonesia, the republic of korea and germany], zeitschrift für soziologie der erziehung und sozialisation ( ): – . schwarz, b., chakkarath, p., trommsdorff, g., schwenk, o. and nauck, b. ( ) ‘report on selected instruments of the value of children (main study)’, unpublished manuscript. schwarz, b., trommsdorff, g., albert, i. and mayer, b. ( ) ‘adult parent–child relationships: relationship quality, support, and reciprocity’, applied psychology: an international review : – . singelis, t. m. ( ) ‘the measurement of independent and interdependent self- construals’, personality and social psychology bulletin : – . triandis, h. c. ( ) individualism and collectivism. boulder, co: westview press. trommsdorff, g. ( ) ‘parent–adolescent relations in changing societies: a cross- cultural study’, in p. noack and m. hofer (eds) psychological responses to social change: human development in changing environments, pp. – . berlin: de gruyter. trommsdorff, g. ( ) ‘value of children and intergenerational relations: a cross- cultural psychological study’; at: www.uni-konstanz.de/fuf/sozwiss/ fg-psy/ag-entw/ trommsdorff, g. ( ) ‘parent–child relations over the life-span. a cross- cultural perspective’, in k. h. rubin and o. b. chung (eds) parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent–child relations: a cross-cultural perspective, pp. – . new york: psychology press. trommsdorff, g. and kornadt, h.-j. ( ) ‘parent–child relations in cross- cultural perspective’, in l. kuczynski (ed.) handbook of dynamics in parent–child relations, pp. – . thousand oaks, ca: sage. trommsdorff, g. and nauck, b. (eds) ( ) the value of children in cross-cultural perspective: case studies from eight societies. lengerich: pabst sciences. united nations statistics division ( ) ‘handbook on poverty statistics: concepts, methods and policy use’; at: unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/poverty wiedenbeck, m. and züll, c. ( ) klassifikationen mit clusteranalysen. grundlegende techniken hierarchischer und k-means-verfahren [classification with cluster analyses: basic techniques of hierarchical and k-means procedures], zuma how-to-reihe, no. . mannheim, germany: zuma. williams, w. ( ) javanese lives: men and women in modern indonesian society. new brunswick, nj: rutgers university press. gisela trommsdorff holds the chair for developmental and cross-cultural psychology at the university of konstanz, germany (since ). her research interests cover cross-cultural psychology, future orientation, life span develop- ment, intergenerational relationships, social change, subjective developmental theories, motivation and intentionality. address: department of psychology, post box d , university of konstanz, konstanz, germany. [email: gisela.trommsdorff@uni-konstanz.de] beate schwarz is assistant professor at the university of basle, switzerland. her main research interests focus on social relationships and problem behaviour in adolescence, children and adolescents in divorced and stepfamilies, parent–child relationships in adulthood and cross-cultural psychology. address: department of psychology, university of basle, missionsstr. a, basle, switzerland. [email: beate.schwarz@unibas.ch] 	trommsdorff, schwarz _ _. the intergenerational stake hypothesis..current sociology 	trommsdorff, g., & schwarz, b. ( ). the “intergenerational stake hypothesis” in indonesia and germany. adult daughters. current sociology 	text : first publ. in: current sociology ( ), , pp. - 	text : konstanzer online-publikations-system (kops)
url: http://www.ub.uni-konstanz.de/kops/volltexte/ / /
urn: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz: -opus- csch presidential address aspects of canadian evangelical historiography robert k. burkinshaw this presentation examines the study of the history of evangelicalism in canada by describing and explaining the changes which have occurred during the last several decades as historians have turned from virtual neglect of evangelical history to placing a significant, and growing, emphasis upon it. the essay also outlines some of the directions in that historiography as indicated at a major conference held at queen’s university in may . two incidents, separated by about seventeen years, illustrate from a personal vantage point some of the dramatic changes which have occur- red recently in the historical study of canadian evangelicalism. the first occurred at the university of british columbia (ubc) during the late s. as an undergraduate considering future studies, i told a member of the history department of my growing interest in studying the history of canadian evangelicalism. he was sympathetic but responded, “i don’t be- lieve you can do that at any university in canada.” the second occurred at queen’s university in may . the occa- sion was a conference of historians entitled, “aspects of the canadian evangelical experience.” i understand that it was the largest, best-funded conference dealing with any aspect of the history of religion ever held in canada. approximately people registered for the four days of meet- ings with larger crowds attending the public evening sessions. most of the historical papers : canadian society of church history aspects of canadian evangelical historiography participants were canadians, but the conference also drew some prominent historians from britain, the usa and australia. furthermore, several display tables were filled with recent scholarly books on various aspects of canadian evangelical history. i propose to look at some of the reasons for the major shift from such scant historical interest in canadian evangelical history to significant attention and suggest some of the current directions in research and writing. i am aware that evangelicalism is just one of several areas of study undertaken by members of this society but hope that all members will gain some insights from this survey. the shift many in this audience will no doubt remember a time when there ap- peared to be a nearly all-pervasive aversion to religion in general as a category of historical enquiry. all but the younger members, perhaps, will recall a period in which many historians, particularly in english canada, engaged in a process of “reading backwards” from a quite secular modern era, and thus missed much of the importance of religion in canadian his- tory. or they will recall when large numbers of historians were, for ideo- logical reasons, uninterested or opposed to focusing on religion. further, some members of csch will remember the particular aver- sion to evangelical history which, in addition to the above mentioned difficulties, suffered from other handicaps. michael gauvreau summarizes some of the impressions common among canadian academics regarding evangelicalism: . . . the mental universe of nineteenth-century evangelicals emerges . . . (from literary works) as something of a caricature of calvinism, a closed, inflexible system of “orthodox” theological doctrines, a brittle mind-set destined inevitably to shatter after under the hammer- blows of “darwinism” and the higher criticism. and, to further confirm the literary and historical revolt against “victorianism,” canadians in the s and s have witnessed the scorn directed towards the resurgence in north america of a politically active, con- servative “fundamentalist” protestantism which has appropriated the designation “evangelical.” the word “evangelicalism” thus incarnates not only the opprobrium against “victorianism” by a self-proclaimed literary and cultural “avant-garde,” but raises the spectre of a militant robert k. burkinshaw anti-modernism engaged in a successful undermining of scientism, pluralism and tolerance, the supposed hallmarks of a liberal society. for most english canadians, “evangelicalism” is thus viewed as a victorian skeleton best hidden in the closet. yet, by the late s and early s increasing numbers of cana- dian scholars were paying attention to the significant role of evangelicals in the history of english canada. graduate students are currently re- searching aspects of the topic at numerous canadian universities including mcgill, toronto, queen’s, british columbia, carleton, mcmaster and memorial. numbers of scholarly books are being written and published by several university presses. in one of the officials at mcgill-queen’s university press noted that their series, “studies in the history of reli- gion,” in which volumes dealing with canadian evangelicalism play a significant part, was selling better than almost all of their other academic series. why has the change occurred? why has canadian evangelical his- torical study metamorphosed from a scholarly “wasteland” to one of our new “growth industries?” firstly, we have to note the role of american studies. i am one of those who argue that canadian evangelicalism is far more than being simply an import from the united states, but in this case american scholars such as timothy l. smith, ernest sandeen, george marsden, nathan hatch, mark noll and joel carpenter have provided models for canadians to follow. their sophisticated and respected studies have shown it is possible for academic historians to take evangelicalism seriously as a subject without sacrificing their own scholarly integrity. george marsden’s fundamentalism and american culture, for example, helped pave the way for certain members of the history department at ubc to look more favourably upon my proposal to study twentieth-century evangelicals in british columbia. secondly, we must note the role of canadian scholars. mention of the conference at queen’s brings to mind the name of george rawlyk, professor of history at queen’s and organizer of the conference. rawlyk’s own work on revivalism, especially in the maritimes, has been trailblazing in its own right. further, he has frequently included a strong apologetic element in his writing, calling for a recognition by historians of the major, culture-shaping role of the revivalist tradition in much of aspects of canadian evangelical historiography english canada. his mcgill-queen’s series, “studies in the history of religion,” while including volumes dealing with a broad range of christian traditions, has provided an important forum for a number of historians studying various aspects of canadian evangelicalism. finally, the large group of graduate students under his supervision at queen’s provides evidence of both his influence and of the ongoing and future vitality in this area of research. other canadian scholars have also played an important role in this change. the works of william westfall, marguerite van die, michael gauvreau, phyllis airhart, john g. stackhouse and david r. elliot, among others, have gained growing recognition and respect. while it should be noted that these scholars have received a great deal of encouragement and help from older canadian historians such as john w. grant, john s. moir, ian rennie and george rawlyk and from americans such as martin marty and mark noll, it should also be pointed out that this society has provided an important forum for the work of most of them. the members of the csch, most of whose primary research interests lay in forms of christian- ity other than evangelicalism, have expressed interest in, and provided encouragement for, work on evangelical topics and have thus played an important role in the development of a canadian evangelical historiogra- phy. these scholars have been aided by, and have contributed to, the movement of religion in general in english-speaking canada into the “mainstream” of historical enquiry. michael owen refers to the work of historians of religion such as john w. grant in raising awareness that “. . . religion has been an integral element of the way in which canadians have confronted the broader society.” marguerite van die, in her csch presidential address, points out that the recognition of religion as a valid subject for research is largely due to refinements in social history which have led to religion being “. . . recognized as a significant force in the modernization of western society.” because evangelicalism has often taken the form of a populist religious movement in canada and elsewhere, and has attracted large numbers of workers and women among others, it has become increasingly difficult for social historians to ignore it. ironically, a new type of “backward reading,” a reversal of the earlier form which saw evangelicalism as a fading remnant of the victorian era, has come to the fore in recent decades. by the late s it began to become clear that canadian evangelicalism would not disappear but was robert k. burkinshaw indeed showing increased signs of vitality. whether or not evangelicalism has actually grown in proportion to the national population since the mid- twentieth century has been the subject of some discussion, but it clearly has survived better than its more liberal, mainline protestant counterpart. this relative growth in the modern era has forced scholars to take evan- gelicalism in canada more seriously as an historical reality. a member of the ubc department of history, in discussing the department’s approval of my dissertation proposal on twentieth-century bc evangelicalism, observed that they felt it important someone did such a study because “we need an historical understanding of what’s happening out there.” aca- demics have become curious enough about the origins of, and develop- ments within, churches that are building modern edifices seating thou- sands, establishing significant schools and exerting increasing political influence, to encourage historical enquiry. evangelical growth in the latter half of the twentieth century has influenced evangelical historiography in some practical ways. many of the scholars of evangelicalism would not consider themselves to be evangeli- cals but the numerical growth of many evangelical denominations, coupled with increasing interest in scholarship in some evangelical quarters, has resulted in increasing numbers of young scholars who are themselves evangelicals and have a strong interest in examining aspects of their own tradition. in addition, a growing number of evangelical colleges and seminaries began supporting such scholarship by the s. themes and directions in canadian evangelical historiography the “aspects of the canadian evangelical experience” con- ference held at queen’s illustrated some of the current major themes and directions in canadian evangelical historiography and pointed towards some directions it might take in the future. . “forward reading” in michael gauvreau called historians of religion to a “forward reading” of history, as opposed to the “backwards reading” which so com- monly takes place. the recovery of the relationship between protestant religion and the culture of english canada requires a new approach, one less con- aspects of canadian evangelical historiography cerned with discerning the pedigree of the twentieth century mind than one which takes as its principal task the situation of the religious experience within its historical context. informed by a “forward reading,” such a historian will treat religion as an integral and dynamic element of any given historical period, at once influenced by the surrounding culture, and creatively shaping the social and ideological matrix. several presenters at queen’s likewise prodded historians to take religion more seriously in its own context. marguerite van die, in dealing with canadian methodism from to , warned against seeing this as simply a period of declension within methodism. it was more than a fal- ling away from the enthusiasm of the hay bay camp meetings to a middle- class gentility, and to the reputed secularism of the grimsby park camp meeting grounds in . the religious expressions of the latter half of the nineteenth century must be taken seriously on their own terms. their different experiences, expressions and concerns arose from the very dif- ferent settings in which they found themselves as middle-class methodists in an emerging capitalist society. similarly, sharon cook warned of the danger of a “whiggish” ap- proach in the study of the hundreds of thousands of canadian women who were evangelicals. while noting the lack of focus on women in evangelical historiography, she decried the lack of attention in feminist history on the evangelical beliefs of so many women; rarely are the religious ideas of women studied. her observations, of course, are not entirely new. they echo the theme of ruth compton brouwer’s paper presented to this society in . cook’s study of “christian nurture” ideas of the members of the wctu demonstrates the validity of her concerns by illustrating how these women do not fit some modern stereotypes. although modern scholars of- ten view the wctu as uninterested in challenging the structures of so- ciety, cook shows that “christian nurture” ideas of training the next generation of men did constitute a challenge. implicit in these evangelical womens’ desire to raise their boys into very different types of men was indeed a rejection of contemporary views of masculinity. robert k. burkinshaw . informal twentieth-century evangelical networks compared to denominational ties most of the papers at the queen’s conference followed the common pattern of being categorized according to denomination (e.g., evangelicals in the presbyterian church). because of the importance of evangelicalism in all the major protestant denominations and because of the emergence of significant new denominations since the late-nineteenth century, much can be learned from such an approach. several papers, however, pointed out the tendency within twentieth-century evangelicalism to create informal but very real networks regardless of the denominational affiliation of participants. john stackhouse’s recent book, canadian evangelicalism in the twentieth century: an introduction to its character, pioneered this direction as he focused on “transdenominational” institutions and the networks supporting them and linking them. several additional important evangelical networks were revealed at queen’s. bruce hindmarsh explored an important but largely unknown network based in winnipeg and comprised of closely related and mutually supportive institutions that influenced much of the prairies. the indepen- dent elim chapel, the canadian sunday school mission (cssm) and the winnipeg bible institute, all based in winnipeg, shared board members and constituencies for several decades after the s. the bible school, for example, supplied workers for the cssm which, in turn, provided converts as students for the school. elim chapel members played vital role in both organizations. hindmarsh’s work challenges the alberta prism through which most of canadian prairie evangelicalism is viewed. he shows how the begin- nings of the winnipeg network antedated the founding of prairie bible institute by about a decade and spread westward beyond manitoba to include much of saskatchewan. the cssm was very active in saskatch- ewan, winning converts and forming new churches over a wide area. under the direct influence of the winnipeg school, several bible institutes, such as the christian and missionary alliance’s school in regina and the currently very large briercrest bible institute, sprang up in saskatchewan. alvyn austin showed how toronto functioned at the centre of another large and important evangelical network, one that spread throughout much of north america. the city functioned for many years as the north american headquarters of the giant, non-denominational china inland mission. the toronto bible college and city missions in aspects of canadian evangelical historiography toronto served as training grounds for potential missionaries from the eastern sections of the continent. denominations will no doubt remain as useful categories of analysis for historians but both hindmarsh and austin do well to point out that much of the dynamic activity of twentieth-century evangelicalism will be missed if the focus remains exclusively on denominations. in an ironic twist, evangelicals, who have usually eschewed official ecumenism throughout most of this century, have nonetheless practised a pragmatic kind of ecumenism that often renders denominations almost irrelevant. . class very little attention has been paid to the question of class and canadian evangelicalism. nancy christie and michael gauvreau pre- sented a striking paper at queen’s that suggests how important a line of enquiry the question is. they challenge some common assumptions about evangelicalism and workers. the study of labour and religion in winnipeg in this period almost always focuses upon the labour churches which, at least in some cases, disregarded their evangelical heritage. christie and gauvreau argue, however, that larger numbers of workers in winnipeg were attracted to revivalism, particularly after the war. workers flocked to a great variety of independent and denominational missions, pentecostal services, and lectures by fundamentalist leaders brought to the city by elim chapel. in contrast, it was many in the “strike-jolted” middle-classes who were far more inclined than were most workers to experiment with social gospel solutions. it is noteworthy that william ivens was ousted from his methodist pulpit not by middle-class members uncomfortable with his radicalism but by conservative working-class members who were uncomfortable with his lack of tradition and his doctrinal experimentation. christie’s and gauvreau’s picture, although more noteworthy because of the context provided by the general strike, is generally comparable with the situation my research uncovered in vancouver. in that city, while conservative evangelicals could be found in every socio- economic level, most of the numerical strength of the more radically revivalistic or militantly conservative lay in the working-class districts. further, barry mack’s paper at queen’s revealed the middle-class oriented presbyterian denominational leadership in the early twentieth century moving towards a more centralized, bureaucratic and social-service, as opposed to evangelistic, style. such a shift of focus within the leadership robert k. burkinshaw of a major denomination might help explain the growing attraction which the more revivalistic alternatives held for many common people who continued to crave immediate, personal spiritual experiences. much more research needs to be done in this area. for example, canadian pentecostalism experienced explosive growth in the two decades after world war i, especially in contexts such as that described in win- nipeg by christie and gauvreau, so that it numbered nearly half a million adherents in the census. very little, however, is known about this development. . immigrant churches immigration and canadian evangelicalism is also a relatively little explored phenomenon despite the fact that by the mid-twentieth century, at least in western canada, people of non-british origins had become better represented in evangelicalism than they were in the general population. europeans of dutch, scandinavian and german origins and, by the s, asians, all became very strongly represented in numerous evangelical groups. bruce guenther’s paper at queen’s focused on one of the largest and most important of such groups: the mennonites. a growing literature exists on canadian mennonites who have played a major, shaping role on evangelicalism in much of western canada and ontario. guenther highlighted the ambivalent view towards evangelicalism held by many mennonites. most mennonites hold to the historic, defining characteristics of evangelicalism and large numbers, especially the mennonite brethren, have a history of cooperation and identification with evangelicals. however, many mennonites are repelled by enough cultural and political features of mainstream north american evangelicalism to avoid a close identification with it. virtually no scholarly historical work has been done on other sig- nificant evangelical groups with their roots in relatively recent immigra- tion. the reformed churches of dutch heritage, most notably the christian reformed church, have existed in canada since the turn of the century but renewed immigration after world war ii and high birth rates caused them to grow significantly into the hundreds of thousands of members and adherents by the s. of equal importance to numbers, the christian reformed have strongly challenged many canadian evangelicals to re- evaluate their views of education, politics and social engagement. the aspects of canadian evangelical historiography reformed view of christ’s lordship over all areas of society has led to a significant re-adjustment in the thinking of many pietistically inclined evangelicals who previously practised a more privatistic faith. more recently, the immigration of many evangelical chinese, fili- pinos and koreans and the very dynamic growth in their numbers in canada through evangelism has led to strong concentrations of asian evangelical churches in urban centres like toronto and vancouver. in bc, for example, a much higher percentage of chinese identify themselves as baptist and christian and missionary alliance than does the general population and high proportions likewise are identified as pentecostal and mennonite. however, virtually nothing is known of the origins of these evangelicals and their experiences and influences within the asian immigrant and canadian-born communities. . native canadians and evangelicalism research into the frequently positive response of natives in canada to revivalist preaching has become one of the more fascinating, and impor- tant, directions in evangelical historiography. the work of susan neylan, graduate student at ubc, is of particular importance. rather than fo- cusing on the missionaries, she focuses instead on the “context of encoun- ters,” especially the role of the native catechists. her interest lies in examining the native views of revivalism and their use of it as a strategy for survival; as a way of making sense of changes brought by europeans. her work is somewhat reminiscent of that of clarence bolt’s, thomas crosby and the tsimshian but represents an important endeavour to shift the focus more to the complex responses of the native themselves rather than on the activity of the missionaries. . comparative history over the past several years considerable comparative work has been done between canadian and, especially, american evangelicalism. indeed this was a primary focus of a major historical conference in wheaton, illinois, entitled “evangelicalism in transatlantic perspective” in and of the two volumes of papers resulting from that conference. canadian evangelical scholars appear quite eager to highlight the very real differ- ences between canadian evangelicalism and its more notorious american counterpart while american scholars of evangelicalism appear quite in- trigued with the different characteristics they observe across the border to robert k. burkinshaw . the papers from this conference are scheduled for publication in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience, ed. george a. rawlyk (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, forthcoming). . michael gauvreau, “protestantism transformed: personal piety and the evangelical social vision, - ,” in the canadian protestant experi- ence, - , ed. george a. rawlyk (burlington: welch publishing co., ), - . . fundamentalism and american culture: the shaping of twentieth-century evangelicalism, - (new york: oxford univ. press, ). the north. the non-canadian historians at queen’s continued the focus on comparative history. with more than a twinge of wistful longing, american historian mark noll explored at some length the “kinder, gentler” version of evangelicalism found to the north of his own country. british evangelical historian david bebbington rightly warned, however, of overly simple generalizations which attribute the calm, sober and respectable elements of canadian evangelicalism to british influences and the fanatical and militant elements to american influences. he showed how quite frequently british immigrants to canada have brought with them a brand of religious radicalism and populism which has sometimes to led to turmoil and division in the new country. conclusion many significant developments have occurred in recent years in the historiography of canadian religion in general. i have been addressing just one of those changes. as with the other developments, this society has played an important role in nurturing it. this, i believe, has been a sig- nificant contribution. given that most of the areas of enquiry into this area of canadian history are barely underway, i would suggest that future pro- gram chairs of the csch should expect, perhaps, to receive more propo- sals from historians wishing to present the results of their research into aspects of canadian evangelical history. endnotes aspects of canadian evangelical historiography . e.g., see ravished by the spirit: religious revivals, baptists, and henry alline (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); champions of the truth: fundamentalism, modernism and the maritime baptists (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); and the canada fire: radical evangelicalism in british north america, - (montreal: mcgill- queen’s univ. press, ). . the series is supported by the jackman foundation of toronto. . e.g., see william westfall, two worlds: the protestant culture of nine- teenth-century ontario (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); marguerite van die, an evangelical mind: nathaniel burwash and the methodist tradition in canada, - (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); michael gauvreau, the evangelical century: college and creed in english canada from the great revival to the great depression (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); phyllis airhart, serving the present generation: revivalism, progressivism and the methodist tradition in canada (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ); john g. stack- house, jr., canadian evangelicalism in the twentieth century: an introduc- tion to its character (toronto: univ. of toronto press, ); and david r. elliot and iris miller, bible bill: a biography of william aberhart (edmon- ton: reidmore books, ). . michael owen, “preface,” historical papers: canadian society of church history ( ): v. . “recovering religious experience: some reflections on methodology,” historical papers: canadian society of church history ( ): . . using census data for conservative protestant denominations, reginald bib- by, argues that while evangelicals are growing in absolute numbers they are just holding their own as a proportion of the general population, at about or % (fragmented gods: the poverty and potential of religion in canada [toronto: irwin, ]). by using a broad definition of evangelical developed by david bebbington and commonly used by historians (i.e., evangelicals are people who, regardless of denominational affiliation, are characterized by a quadrilateral of beliefs and priorities – “conversionist, biblicist, crucicentrist and activist”), andrew grenville places the proportion of evangelicals in canada much higher at %, or . million canadian adults (“the awakened and the spirit-moved: the religious experience of canadian evangelicals in the s,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience). . e.g., regent college, trinity western university, ontario theological seminary and acadia divinity college. robert k. burkinshaw . “beyond the half-way house: evangelicalism and the shaping of english canadian culture,” acadiensis , no. ( ): . . “‘a march of victory and triumph in praise of “the beauty of holiness”’: laity and the evangelical impulse in canadian methodism, - ,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . david b. marshall makes the point that the grimsby park camp-meeting grounds came to resemble more a recreational resort for the middle-class than a site devoted wholly to the saving of souls (secularizing the faith: canadian protestant clergy and the crisis of belief, - [toronto: univ. of toronto press, ], - ). . “beyond the congregation: women and canadian evangelicalism recon- sidered,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . see “transcending the ‘unacknowledged quarantine’: putting religion into english-canadian womens’ history,” historical papers: canadian society of church history ( ): - . . “the winnipeg fundamentalist network, - : the roots of transden- ominational evangelicalism in manitoba and saskatchewan,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . “the transplanted mission: the china inland mission and canadian evangelicalism,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . s.d. clark looked for it in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (church and sect in canada [toronto: univ. of toronto press, ], and the developing canadian community [toronto: univ. of toronto press, ]). lynne marks examines aspects of it during the nineteenth century (“knights of labour and the salvation army: religion and working class culture in ontario, - ,” labour/le travail [fall ]: - ). i attempt to do some of it in twentieth-century vancouver in pilgrims in lotus land: conservative protestantism in british columbia, - (montreal: mcgill-queen’s univ. press, ). . “‘the world of the common man is filled with religious fervour’: the labouring people of winnipeg and the persistence of revivalism,” forthcom- ing in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . pilgrims in lotus land, - , - . aspects of canadian evangelical historiography . “from preaching to propaganda to marginalization: the lost centre of twentieth-century presbyterianism,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . some regional studies and brief overviews exist. e.g., see donald klan, “pentecostal assemblies of canada church growth in british columbia from origins until ,” mcs thesis, regent college, vancouver ; ronald a. n. kydd, “the pentecostal assemblies of canada and society,” canadian society of church history papers ( - ): - ; erna a. peters, the pente- costal assemblies of canada: a brief history (toronto: full gospel publish- ing house, ). . “living with the virus: the enigma of evangelicalism among mennonites in canada,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . e.g., see henry poettcker and rudy h. regehr, eds., call to faithfulness: essays in canadian mennonite studies (winnipeg: canadian mennonite bible college, ); william klassen, “mennonites in canada: taking their place in society,” international review of mission (july ): - ; frank h. epp, mennonites in canada, - (toronto: macmillan, ); and mennonites in canada, - (toronto: macmillan, ); gerald c. ediger, “deutsch und religion: ethnicity, religion and canadian mennonite brethren, - ,” th.d. thesis, toronto school of theology, . . some research has been done: e.g., see w.w.j. van oene, inheritance preserved: the canadian reformed churches in historical perspective (winnipeg: premier printing ltd., ); albert vandermey, to all our children: the story of the postwar dutch immigration to canada (jordan station: paideia press, ); william petersen, planned migration: the social determinants of the dutch-canadian movement (berkeley: univ. of california press, ). . some of the recent developments in evangelical higher education described by stackhouse bear the influence of reformed thinking (see canadian evangelicalism, - ). reformed thinking also informs a great deal of the growing christian school movement in canada (e.g., see van brummelen, telling the next generation: educational development in north american calvinist christian schools [lanham: univ. press of america, ]); and harry j. groenewold, “the christian reformed tradition in canada,” in church & canadian culture, ed. robert vandervennen [lanham: univ. press of america, ], - ). robert k. burkinshaw . her report at queen’s updated the paper read a year earlier at the csch meeting: “shamans, missionaries and prophets: comparative perspectives on nineteenth-century religious encounters in british columbia,” historical papers: canadian society of church history ( ): - . . thomas crosby and the tsimshian: small shoes for feet too large (vancouver: univ. of british columbia press, ). . see robert handy, “dominant patterns of christian life in canada and the united states: similarities and differences,” religion/culture: comparative canadian studies, ed. william westfall, et al (ottawa: association for canadian studies, ); and mark noll, “christianity in canada: good books at last,” fides et historia , (summer ): - . . “canadian evangelicalism: a view from the united states,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. . “canadian evangelicalism: a view from britain,” forthcoming in aspects of the canadian evangelical experience. genotypic analysis of genes associated with transmission and drug resistance in the beijing lineage of mycobacterium tuberculosis genotypic analysis of genes associated with transmission and drug resistance in the beijing lineage of mycobacterium tuberculosis j-r. chang *, c-h. lin *, s-f. tsai , i-j. su , f-c. tseng , y-t. chen , t-s. chiueh , j-r. sun , t-s. huang , y-s. chen and h-y. dou ) division of infectious diseases, ) division of molecular and genomic medicine, national health research institutes, zhunan, miaoli, ) department of clinical pathology, tri-service general hospital, taipei and ) department of microbiology, kaohsiung veterans general hospital, kaohsiung, taiwan abstract the beijing genotype of mycobacterium tuberculosis is an endemic lineage in east asia that has disseminated worldwide. it is a major health concern, as it is geographically widespread and is considered to be hypervirulent. to elucidate its genetic diversity in taiwan, phylogenetic reconstruction was performed using m. tuberculosis beijing family clinical isolates. region-of-difference analysis revealed the strains from taiwan to be distributed among six subgroups of a phylogenetic tree. synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms at chromosomal positions were also analysed. among the isolates analysed for single-nucleotide polymorphisms by using mass spectrometry, the most frequent strain found was st ( . %), followed by st ( . %) and st ( . %). tests of drug resistance showed that the sublineages st , st and st were over-represented in the multidrug-resistant population. the presence of muta- tions in putative genes coding for dna repair enzymes, which could confer a mutator phenotype to facilitate spreading of the pathogen, did not demonstrate an association with multidrug resistance. therefore, the dna repair genes may be involved in transmission but not in drug resistance. keywords: beijing lineage, drug resistance, mycobacterium tuberculosis original submission: july ; revised submission: november ; accepted: november editor: m. drancourt article published online: november clin microbiol infect ; : – . /j. - . . .x corresponding author: h-y. dou, division of infectious diseases, national health research institutes, no. keyan road, zhunan town, miaoli county , taiwan e-mail: hydou@nhri.org.tw *these authors contributed equally to this work. introduction tuberculosis (tb) remains a worldwide healthcare concern and has been characterized as an epidemic by the world health organisation (who). it is estimated that one-third of the world’s population has been infected with mycobacte- rium tuberculosis (mtb) and that million people die of tb annually. although both the incidence and mortality rates of tb in taiwan have shown a steady decline since , tb remains a leading notifiable infectious disease on the island. in , cases were reported, with a notification rate of . per people [ ]. amongst the most prevalent mtb strains, the beijing genotype is a major concern on a global basis. beijing strains are rapidly spreading worldwide and are most often associ- ated with major tb outbreaks [ – ]. at present, beijing strains account for > % of tb cases worldwide and are highly endemic throughout much of east and southeast asia, where they account for > % of tb cases [ , ]. the impor- tance of this genotype is further highlighted by the fact that the recent epidemic spread of beijing strains is frequently associated with multiple drug resistance (mdr) [ – ]. recent studies have demonstrated worldwide dissemination of modern strains of the beijing family (characterized chromo- somally as having an is insertion in the ntf region of the genome) [ , – ] and have led to speculation about the hypervirulent features of this sublineage [ – ]. in contrast to the worldwide prevalence of modern beijing strains, the ancient beijing strains (having an intact ntf region) are highly diverse and dominant in japan [ , ]. in a previous study we reported that the beijing family strains in taipei mainly belong to the modern subfamily; this suggested that they became endemic after originating from the evolutionary stream that led to the dominant modern beijing subfamily [ , ]. therefore, phylogenetic investigation of ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases original article bacteriology beijing family strains in taiwan will be useful for understand- ing how they acquired hypervirulent phenotypes and adapted to the taiwanese human host population. it was suggested that variable number of tandem repeats (vntr) alleles are phylogenetically informative for the m. tuberculosis beijing family. in the present study, sublineages of the beijing family were classified by using ten synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (snps) [ , ]; in addition, the is inser- tion in the ntf region, the presence or absence of five large sequence polymorphisms (rd , rd , rd , rd and rd ) [ , ], and non-synonymous snps in putative dna repair genes (mutt , mutt , and ogt) [ ] were analy- sed. all strains were subjected to mycobacterial inter- spersed repetitive units (miru)-vntr analyses [ ] to detect probable epidemiological linkage amongst patients. our analyses will promote a better understanding of the pop- ulation genetic structure of the beijing family and extend the information obtained from the vntr genotyping method. materials and methods study population and bacterial isolates isolates were collected between and from the mycobacteriology laboratories of five general hospitals located in four geographical regions in taiwan, namely, taipei tri-service general hospital (northern region), mennonite christian hospital (eastern region), wan-ciao veterans hos- pital (central region), tainan chest hospital (southern region), and kaohsiung veterans general hospital (southern region). all of the patients were sputum microscopy positive and culture positive. mycobacterial genomic dna was extracted from cultured cells as described previously [ ]. briefly, mycobacterial colonies were resuspended in – ll of distilled h o and incubated at �c for min to obtain genomic dna. after centrifugation of the suspension, the supernatant containing the dna was removed and stored at ) �c until further use. ntf locus analysis a multiplex pcr approach was used to determine possible is insertion(s) in the ntf region of m. tuberculosis strains. the method, including primer choices within the ntf region, the is sequence and pcr parameters, was adapted from a paper by plikaytis et al. [ ]. detection of rd deletions previous studies have shown that the type of rd deletion correlates with the relative evolutionary age of the mtb strain [ ]. beijing strains in our collection were further classified by using pcr amplification to determine the pres- ence of an rd deletion. a primer set was used to check for the presence or absence of rd , rd , rd , rd and rd . the pcr mixture consisted of . lg dna tem- plate, . ll q buffer, ll · buffer, ll mm deoxy- nucleoside triphosphates, ll of each primer ( pmol/ll), ll dmso, and . ll herculase ii fusion dna polymer- ase (stratagene, la jolla, ca, usa). sterile water was used to dilute the mixture up to ll. a detailed explanation of this methodology has been described [ ]. snp typing pcr and extension primers were designed using massarray assay design . software (sequenom, san diego, ca, usa). pcrs contained, in a volume of ll, pmol of the corre- sponding primers, ng genomic dna and hotstar reaction mix (qiagen, valenca, ca, usa) in -well plates. pcr condi- tions were as follows: �c for min, followed by cycles of �c ( s), �c ( s) and �c ( s), and a final exten- sion of �c for min. in the primer extension procedure, each sample was denatured at �c, followed by cycles of �c ( s), �c ( s) and �c ( s). the mass spectrum from time-resolved spectra was retrieved by using a mass- array mass spectrometer (sequenom), and each spectrum was then analysed using spectrotyper software (sequenom) to perform the genotype calling. although the application of mass spectrometry-based genotyping of the m. tuberculosis genome had been demonstrated in previous studies [ , ], the sanger sequencing method was used to validate ran- domly-selected snp calls. the false-positive and false-negative rates of mass spectrometry-based genotyping in this study are both equal to %, showing that the results of mass spectrome- try-based genotyping are highly accurate and sensitive. results molecular polymorphisms and drug resistance of m. tuberculosis beijing isolates from a collection of beijing strains a total of nine inde- pendently evolving beijing sublineages were identified (table ). two of these, st and st , each possessing intact rd and ntf regions, correspond to ancient sublin- eages whilst the rest correspond to modern sublineages: st , st , st , st , st , stk, and newly assigned stn in this study; all possess an rd region deletion and some of them have an is insertion on the right side of the ntf region [ , , , ]. the most frequent strain found was st ( . %), followed by st ( . %) and st ( . %), which all belong to modern sublineages. clinical microbiology and infection, volume number , september cmi ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases, cmi, , – all clinical isolates were tested for drug resistance (isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol and streptomycin) and clas- sified as either sensitive (s) to all four drugs, resistant to any one of the drugs (r), or multi-drug resistant (mdr; resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin) (table ). of the nine lineages, st is associated with a higher percentage of mdr ( . %) as compared with strains of all other eight lineages ( . %), with the difference being statistically significant (p . by exact test; table ). chuang et al. [ ] reported that modern beijing sublineag- es can be distinguished from ancient lineages based on snps in the antigen (ag ) complex genes fbpa and fbpb. in our analysis, none of the ancient beijing sublineages (rd type – ) were found to have an snp in the fbpa or fbpb gene; however, the modern beijing sublineages (rd type – ) were found to carry an snp in fbpb codon (table ). we also tested the isolates for the presence of missense mutations in mutt , mutt , ogt and ogt , which are genes encoding putative dna repair enzymes. mutations in the four putative repair genes were detected with variable per- centages in all of the modern (st , st , st , st , st , stk and stn) sublineages. however, mutations were not observed in the st and st ancient sublineages, the lat- ter of which had the highest rate of mdr. thus, our data suggest that mutations in these dna repair enzymes may more likely be present in the modern beijing sublineages, but they were not associated with the presence of mdr (table ). the relatively high rate of cluster formation that was found in the st strains, as observed by -miru-vntr analysis (table ), suggests the occurrence of recent trans- mission at a significant frequency. phylogenetic classification of beijing family isolates based on miru-vntr typing and rd typing the phylogenetic classification was projected into a cluster analysis of -miru-vntr (fig. ). the majority of the mod- ern beijing sublineages were not clustered according to their st classifications. amongst these, the isolates st and st were actually merged together in the tree. similar results were reported in a recent study in japan, in which the phylo- genetic interpretation based on miru-vntr genotyping also table . distribution of drug resistance and various genetic characteristics of each sublineage beijing sublineage a allele in indicated snp position of h rv age no. (%) of isolates of the indicated strain s b r c mdr d st ( ) c c c g a t a g t c . ( ) st ( ) c t c g a t a g t c . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) st ( ) t c c g a t a g g c . ( . ) ( . ) ( ) stk( ) t t c g a t a g g c ( ) ( ) ( ) st ( ) t t c g a c a g g t . ( ) ( ) ( ) st ( ) t c c g a c a g g t . ( . ) ( . ) ( ) st ( ) t t t g a c g a g t . ( . ) ( . ) ( ) st ( ) t t t g a c a g g t . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) stn( ) e t c t g a c a g g t ( ) ( ) ( ) total ( ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) a types of sequence of beijing sublineages; designations from filliol et al. [ ] and iwamoto et al. [ ]. b sensitive to any one of the four anti-tb drugs. c resistant to any one of the anti-tb drugs. d resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin. e new sublineage found in this study. table . genotypic characteristics of the beijing lineage of m. tuberculosis isolates beijing sublineage %% of n branch a point mutations in indicated putative repair genes (%%) snp in fbpa and fbpb (%%) no. of cluster no. of cases in cluster no. of vntr patternmut mut ogt ogt fbpa fbpb st ( ) st ( ) st ( ) stk( ) st ( ) st ( ) st ( ) st ( ) stn( ) a defined by is insertion in the ntf region. cmi chang et al. genotypic analysis of the beijing lineage of m. tuberculosis ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases, cmi, , – resulted in poor resolution of modern beijing strains [ ]. the ancient beijing strains st and st were positioned away from the major miru-vntr genotypes, indicating their more distant genetic relationship to the modern sublineages. to validate the phylogenetic reconstruction by rd typing, we analysed sts of our isolates using ten snps, as previously described [ , ]. nine sts were identified in our popula- tion. rd group sublineage: isolate of st ; this isolate shows a deletion of the rd region. rd group sublin- eages: isolates of st and st ; these isolates show deletion of the rd and rd regions. rd group sub- lineages: isolates of st , st , st , st , stk and stn; these isolates show deletion of the rd , rd and rd regions. rd group sublineages: isolates of st and st ; these isolates show deletion of the rd , rd , rd and rd regions. rd group sublineages: isolates of st , st , st , st and stk; these isolates show deletion of the rd , rd , rd and rd regions. rd group sublineages: seven isolates of st and st ; these isolates show deletion of the rd , rd , rd , rd and rd regions. strains in groups and have neither a deletion of rd nor an insertion of is in the ntf region, and can be thought of as being ancestral to the modern beijing lineage (fig. ). discussion the reasons for the apparent global success of the beijing strains are not yet understood, but could include a variety of host-related factors, such as human population movements [ ], selective pressure due to increases in worldwide bcg vaccine coverage [ ], and ineffective treatment of drug- resistant strains, leading to increased transmission periods. the high adaptability of these bacteria to stress conditions, such as the host’s immune response and/or exposure to anti-tuberculosis drugs, has been hypothetically attributed to defects in dna repair systems, which would confer selective advantages due to an increased mutation rate [ ]. a num- ber of genes coding for presumptive dna repair enzymes, such as ogt, mutm, mutt and muty, have been detected in the m. tuberculosis genome [ ], and analysis of strains represent- ing different branches of the beijing genotype has shown that beijing strains display unique missense alterations in putative mut genes, designated ogt, mutt and mutt [ ]. although it fig. . a minimum spanning tree based on -miru-vntr genotyping of mycobacte- rium tuberculosis beijing isolates. the circles represent different types classified by - miru-vntr genotypes and were coloured according to the st classification described in the text. the sizes of circles represent the number of isolates with a particular genotype. rd type (no.) n branch (%) st ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) st st , st insertion of is in ntf ( ) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) ( ) ( . ) ( ) ( . ) st , st , st , st , st , stk, stn st , st st , st , st , st , stk st , st fig. . scheme of the proposed evolution of beijing lineages. the scheme is based on the deletion of genomic regions (rd, region of difference, shown in grey rectangles), the ntf region with is insertions, and types of sequence designations from the studies of filliol et al. [ ] and iwamoto et al. [ ]. clinical microbiology and infection, volume number , september cmi ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases, cmi, , – has been recently shown that the product of mutt is unlikely to function as a dna repair enzyme, its role in regu- lating the availability of cellular cytidine-triphosphate may help explain the success of beijing strains expressing the mutated mutt [ ]. mutations in the mutt and mutt genes occur in the most recently evolved beijing lineages, which are associ- ated with an increased ability to spread and cause disease [ ]. in the present study, mutations were observed in most of the beijing sublineages, except st and st . thus, our data do not demonstrate an association between the pres- ence of mutations in these genes and mdr, but an association between the snp subclassification and polymorphism of the genes. we have also demonstrated that sublineage st occurs at a higher frequency in the mdr population. to our surprise, our findings are similar to those of wada et al. [ ]. our -loci miru-vntr data also support the hypothesis that parts of the ancestral beijing lineage may come from two different branches (fig. ). this is contrary to colonal evolution of mtb [ ]. however, further investi- gation of this dual-origin possibility is required. furthermore, the -loci miru pattern of one of the strains from the present investigation was determined to be , which is the most predominant pattern for the classical beijing type (st ) in taiwan [ ]. interestingly, this strain was also found in other countries, including russia, china, japan and vietnam [ ]. sequence typing per- mitted us to further subdivide this major group of strains into st , st , st , st and st in our studies. we believe that these modern beijing strains, with their high degree of transmissibility, are currently spreading throughout the world. it was previously reported that the bcg vaccina- tion favours the positive selection of modern beijing strains [ ]. our results support this finding. in a previous study we established that modern beijing sublineages are the most predominant strains in taiwan [ , ]. moreover, a recent study showed that % of the strains from modern beijing sublineages, but not from ancient sublineages, synthesize relatively high quantities of phenolic glycolipid (pgl), which suppresses proinflammatory cytokines. these findings suggest that modern sublineages may be more pathogenic [ ]. in addition, studies have shown that the ag complex plays a role in survival of tuberculosis bacilli and their ability to escape the human immune response [ ]. although chuang et al. [ ] reported that modern beijing sublineages can be distinguished based on snps in the ag complex genes fbpa and fbpb, in the present study we found that ancestral and modern beijing sublineages can be distinguished by an snp only in fbpb. we also demonstrated that most modern beijing sublineages carry a mutated mutt gene and deletion rd , which may facilitate their spreading ability. st should be assigned to the early ancestral beijing sublineage, and did not have an snp in mut , mut or ogt, although it occurred at a signifi- cantly high frequency in the mdr population. this finding suggests that different sublineages of the beijing family may differ in their mechanisms of adaptation to the host’s immune response and drug selection pressure. acknowledgements we thank the mycobacteriology laboratories of mennonite christian hospital, tri-service general hospital, tainan chest hospital, wan-ciao veterans hospital and kaohsiung veterans general hospital for providing bacterial isolates. we also thank dr daryl henderson for his kind help in improving the english of this manuscript. all participants of this consortium are acknowledged for valuable discussions. transparency declaration this project was supported by grants from the national health research institutes and national science council (nsc - -b- - ), taiwan. other authors had no conflicts of interest. references . chen zc. tuberculosis annual report. center for disease control doh, ; – . . bifani pj, mathema b, kurepina ne et al. global dissemination of the mycobacterium tuberculosis w-beijing family strains. trends microbiol ; : – . . brudey k, driscoll jr, rigouts l et al. mycobacterium tuberculosis com- plex genetic diversity: mining the fourth international spoligotyping database (spoldb ) for classification, population genetics and epide- miology. bmc microbiol ; : . . glynn jr, whiteley j, bifani pj et al. worldwide occurrence of beij- ing/w strains of mycobacterium tuberculosis: a systematic review. emerg infect dis ; : – . . filliol i, driscoll jr, van soolingen d et al. snapshot of moving and expanding clones of mycobacterium tuberculosis and their global distri- bution assessed by spoligotyping in an international study. j clin micro- biol ; : – . . drobniewski f, balabanova y, nikolayevsky v et al. drug-resistant tuberculosis, clinical virulence, and the dominance of the beijing strain family in russia. jama ; : – . . kurepina ne, sreevatsan s, plikaytis bb et al. characterization of the phylogenetic distribution and chromosomal insertion sites of five is elements in mycobacterium tuberculosis: non-random integra- tion in the dnaa-dnan region. tuber lung dis ; : – . . mokrousov i, jiao ww, valcheva v et al. rapid detection of the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing genotype and its ancient and cmi chang et al. genotypic analysis of the beijing lineage of m. tuberculosis ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases, cmi, , – modern sublineages by is -based inverse pcr. j clin microbiol ; : – . . mokrousov i, ly hm, otten t et al. origin and primary dispersal of the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing genotype: clues from human phylogeography. genome res ; : – . . ebrahimi-rad m, bifani p, martin c et al. mutations in putative muta- tor genes of mycobacterium tuberculosis strains of the w-beijing family. emerg infect dis ; : – . . hanekom m, van der spuy gd, gey van pittius nc et al. evidence that the spread of mycobacterium tuberculosis strains with the beijing genotype is human population dependent. j clin microbiol ; : – . . kremer k, van-der-werf mj, au bk et al. vaccine-induced immunity circumvented by typical mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing strains. emerg infect dis ; : – . . mokrousov i, jiao ww, sun gz et al. evolution of drug resistance in different sublineages of mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing genotype. antimicrob agents chemother ; : – . . iwamoto t, yoshida s, suzuki k et al. population structure analysis of the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing family indicates an association between certain sublineages and multidrug resistance. antimicrob agents chemother ; : – . . wada t, iwamoto t, maeda s. genetic diversity of the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing family in east asia revealed through refined popu- lation structure analysis. fems microbiol lett ; : – . . dou hy, tseng fc, lin cw et al. molecular epidemiology and evolu- tionary genetics of mycobacterium tuberculosis in taipei. bmc infect dis ; : . . dou hy, tseng fc, lu jj et al. associations of mycobacterium tubercu- losis genotypes with different ethnic and migratory populations in taiwan. infect genet evol ; : – . . plikaytis bb, marden jl, crawford jt et al. multiplex pcr assay specific for the multidrug-resistant strain w of mycobacterium tubercu- losis. j clin microbiol ; : – . . tsolaki ag, hirsh ae, deriemer k et al. functional and evolutionary genomics of mycobacterium tuberculosis: insights from genomic dele- tions in strains. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . supply p, allix c, lesjean s et al. proposal for standardization of opti- mized mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable-number tandem repeat typing of mycobacterium tuberculosis. j clin microbiol ; : – . . kolk ah, schuitema ar, kuijper s et al. detection of mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples by using polymerase chain reaction and a nonradioactive detection system. j clin microbiol ; : – . . afanas’ev mv, ikryannikova ln, il’ina en et al. molecular characteris- tics of rifampicin- and isoniazid-resistant mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the russian federation. j antimicrob chemother ; : – . . tosh k, campbell sj, fielding k et al. variants in the sp gene are associated with genetic susceptibility to tuberculosis in west africa. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . chuang pc, chen ym, chen hy et al. single nucleotide polymor- phisms in cell wall biosynthesis-associated genes and phylogeny of mycobacterium tuberculosis lineages. infect genet evol ; : – . . wada t, iwamoto t. allelic diversity of variable number of tandem repeats provides phylogenetic clues regarding the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing family. infect genet evol ; : – . . moreland nj, charlier c, dingley aj et al. making sense of a missense mutation: characterization of mutt , a nudix hydrolase from myco- bacterium tuberculosis, and the g r mutant encoded in w-beijing strains of m. tuberculosis. biochemistry ; : – . . hanekom m, van der spuy gd, streicher e et al. a recently evolved sublineage of the mycobacterium tuberculosis beijing strain family is associated with an increased ability to spread and cause disease. j clin microbiol ; : – . . gagneux s, deriemer k, van t et al. variable host-pathogen compat- ibility in mycobacterium tuberculosis. proc natl acad sci u s a ; : – . . mokrousov i, valcheva v, sovhozova n et al. penitentiary population of mycobacterium tuberculosis in kyrgyzstan: exceptionally high preva- lence of the beijing genotype and its russia-specific subtype. infect genet evol ; : – . . reed mb, domenech p, manca c et al. a glycolipid of hypervirulent tuberculosis strains that inhibits the innate immune response. nature ; : – . . armitige ly, jagannath c, wanger ar et al. disruption of the genes encoding antigen a and antigen b of mycobacterium tuberculosis h rv: effect on growth in culture and in macrophages. infect immun ; : – . clinical microbiology and infection, volume number , september cmi ª the authors clinical microbiology and infection ª european society of clinical microbiology and infectious diseases, cmi, , – 	genotypic analysis of genes associated with transmission and drug resistance in the beijing lineage of mycobacterium tuberculosis 	introduction 	materials and methods 	study population and bacterial isolates 	ntf locus analysis 	detection of rd deletions 	snp typing 	results 	molecular polymorphisms and drug resistance of m. tuberculosis beijing isolates 	phylogenetic classification of beijing family isolates based on miru-vntr typing and rd typing 	discussion 	acknowledgements 	transparency declaration 	references pone. .. genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel diseases erik g. puffenberger , *, robert n. jinks , carrie sougnez , kristian cibulskis , rebecca a. willert , nathan p. achilly , ryan p. cassidy , christopher j. fiorentini , kory f. heiken , johnny j. lawrence , molly h. mahoney , christopher j. miller , devika t. nair , kristin a. politi , kimberly n. worcester , roni a. setton , rosa dipiazza , eric a. sherman , james t. eastman , christopher francklyn , susan robey-bond , nicholas l. rider , , , stacey gabriel , d. holmes morton , , , kevin a. strauss , , clinic for special children, strasburg, pennsylvania, united states of america, department of biology and biological foundations of behavior program, franklin & marshall college, lancaster, pennsylvania, united states of america, the broad institute, boston, massachusetts, united states of america, department of biology, swarthmore college, swarthmore, pennsylvania, united states of america, department of pathology and laboratory medicine, school of medicine and public health, university of wisconsin, madison, wisconsin, united states of america, college of medicine, university of vermont, burlington, vermont, united states of america, lancaster general hospital, lancaster, pennsylvania, united states of america abstract the clinic for special children (csc) has integrated biochemical and molecular methods into a rural pediatric practice serving old order amish and mennonite (plain) children. among the plain people, we have used single nucleotide polymorphism (snp) microarrays to genetically map recessive disorders to large autozygous haplotype blocks (mean = . mb) that contain many genes (mean = ). for some, uninformative mapping or large gene lists preclude disease-gene identification by sanger sequencing. seven such conditions were selected for exome sequencing at the broad institute; all had been previously mapped at the csc using low density snp microarrays coupled with autozygosity and linkage analyses. using between and patient samples per disorder, we identified sequence variants in the known disease-causing genes slc a and flvcr , and present evidence to strongly support the pathogenicity of variants identified in tubgcp , brat , snip , cradd, and hars. our results reveal the power of coupling new genotyping technologies to population-specific genetic knowledge and robust clinical data. citation: puffenberger eg, jinks rn, sougnez c, cibulskis k, willert ra, et al. ( ) genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel diseases. plos one ( ): e . doi: . /journal.pone. editor: andreas r. janecke, innsbruck medical university, austria received september , ; accepted november , ; published january , copyright: � puffenberger et al. this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. funding: this research was supported by the following: an award to franklin & marshall college from the howard hughes medical institute’s undergraduate science education program; the eyler endowment for biochemistry at franklin & marshall college; mr. sam lombardo; franklin & marshall college; grants from the national human genome research institute of the national institutes of health (nih), u hg , to the broad institute for the large scale sequencing program; and dhm through a gift from the john d. and catherine t. macarthur foundation. the funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. competing interests: the authors have declared that no competing interests exist. * e-mail: epuffenberger@clinicforspecialchildren.org introduction the plain populations of pennsylvania are descended from small groups of swiss immigrants who organized into multiple endogamous demes that have remained genetically isolated over the last – generations [ , ]. certain recessive disorders are highly concentrated in plain sects [ , ]. the overwhelming majority (. %) of affected individuals are homozygous for their respective pathogenic variant, which resides within a relatively large, homozygous haplotype block. we have exploited this knowledge to map dozens of recessive conditions using low- density (i.e. , and , marker) single nucleotide polymorphism (snp) microarrays with as few as two patients [ ]. this is an efficient, low-cost strategy [ ]. the ease of genetic mapping is counterbalanced by the difficulty of disease gene identification. shared homozygous blocks among affected individuals tend to be large (mean . mb) and contain dozens or hundreds of genes [ , , , , , , ]. large gene lists are significant obstacles, particularly if expression and functional data provide few clues to prioritize the list. since , we have mapped loci for genetic disorders within amish and mennonite demes. for ( %) of these, we could not identify the causative gene as no pathogenic variants were found after sequencing all high-priority candidate genes within the mapped interval. exome sequencing has recently been shown to expedite disease gene discovery [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ]. in a pilot study to investigate the utility of exome sequencing, the clinic for special children and the broad institute initiated a collaboration to combine thorough phenotyping, autozygosity mapping, and exome sequencing. within months, we identified pathogenic variants for seven disorders, six of them novel. to delineate the functional consequences of these variants, we designed and executed studies of mutant protein expression and function. this work highlights the extraordinary potential of next generation technologies for the investigation of monogenic disease among appropriately selected individuals, families, and communities. it provides a realistic model for using next generation sequencing strategies in everyday clinical practice. plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e results phenotypes the phenotypes are summarized in table . detailed descriptions of each disorder are presented below. infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome. the pheno- type and gene defect for infantile parkinsonism-dystonia have been described elsewhere [ ]. briefly, our patient developed irritability and feeding difficulties soon after birth. generalized rigidity and dystonia developed during early infancy, impeding motor development, and evolving into severe rigid parkinsonism by late childhood. the proband cannot speak or use her hands to communicate, and it has thus been difficult to assess cognitive function or thought content. brain structure is normal. in cerebrospinal fluid, homovanillic acid (hva) is elevated, - hydroxyindoleacetic acid ( hiaa) is normal, and the concentration ratio of hva to hiaa is . – . mol:mol (normal – . mol:mol). treatment with haloperidol, tetrabenazine, levodopa-carbidopa, trihexyphenidyl, and tyrosine restriction have been ineffective. lethal neonatal rigidity and multifocal seizure syndrome. episodic jerking begins in utero. newborns have small heads ( . to sd below normal for age), overlapping cranial sutures, small or absent fontanelles, and depressed frontal bones. hands are fisted and extreme axial and limb rigidity prohibit volitional movements and tendon reflexes. brief focal jerks of the tongue, face and arms are prominent soon after birth and occur in a nearly continuous sequence throughout each child’s short life. neuroimaging is normal or reveals mild hypoplasia of the frontal lobes. electroencephalograms show bilateral medium- high voltage spikes over temporal and central regions, frequent multifocal seizures, background slowing, and no posterior rhythm. seizures are only partially responsive to anticonvulsants and not affected by high-dose pyridoxine. affected children have stagnant head growth, remain visually inattentive, do not feed independently, and make no developmen- tal progress. they have frequent spontaneous apnea and bradycardia that uniformly culminates in cardiopulmonary arrest before age months. the brain of a child who died at weeks of age weighed grams (expected for age +/ g) but was otherwise normally developed. primary lesions were localized to most regions of the corpus striatum and cerebral cortex with relative sparing of the anterior caudates and parietal lobes. lesions consisted of neuronal loss associated with a striking microglial reaction and proliferation of alzheimer type astrocytes (figure , a–c). microcephaly with chorioretinopathy. the phenotype was originally described by victor mckusick [ ]. all patients are born with microcephaly, a sloping forehead, diminutive anterior fontanelle, and sutural ridging (figure , a). head circumference is more than standard deviations below normal at birth and remains so into adulthood (figure , b). affected neonates transition well and feed normally. children walk independently between and months of age and language emerges at an appropriate age but remains rudimentary. cognitive impairment ranges from moderate (adult mental age – years) to severe (adult mental age , months); intelligence quotients of two young patients were and (normal ). two of nine patients ( %) have epilepsy: one started having drop attacks in late childhood and another developed nocturnal epilepsy as an adult. magnetic resonance imaging shows diffuse pachygyria (figure , c). the cerebral hemispheres are small relative to the cerebellum, which has a hypoplastic vermis (figure , d). although myelin volume appears reduced, it has normal signal quality. the surface table . phenotype summary. disease group omim clinical synopsis infantile parkinsonism-dystonia m – infantile-onset rigidity, dystonia, or chorea dopamine non-responsive parkinsonism progressive frontal lobe degeneration lethal neonatal rigidity and seizure syndrome a – in utero myoclonic spasms neonatal-onset intractable focal seizures congenital rigidity dysautonomia (hypothermia, apnea, bradycardia, sids) mental retardation, non-syndromic m – delayed language development mild-moderate mental retardation microcephaly with chorioretinopathy m congenital pachygyric microcephaly global developmental delay chorioretinopathy and retinal detachment posterior column ataxia with retinitis pigmentosa m impaired propioception retinitis pigmentosa symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia a – global developmental delay intractable epilepsy skull dysplasia usher syndrome a – retinitis pigmentosa progressive sensorineural hearing loss episodic psychosis doi: . /journal.pone. .t exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e area of the corpus callosum is approximately half that of an age- matched control child ( . cm versus . cm ). visual impairment becomes evident during the first year of life. the retina and choroid are underdeveloped and have focal defects that reveal bare sclera. just posterior to the equator of the eye, much of the retina has a scalloped appearance that suggests focal areas of arrested development. the more anterior parts of the retina, near the periphery and pars plana, have a grayish hue and figure . corticobasal degeneration in the brain of an infant who died from a homozygous brat mutation. (a) throughout frontal, occipital and temporal cortex, there is marked neuronal loss, gliosis with astrocytes (arrowheads) and swollen oligodendroglia. the arrow indicates a perivascular microcalcification (superior frontal gyrus, deep cortex, ). (b) the anterior hippocampus is smaller than expected and there is neuronal loss and gliosis in zone ca- (sommer’s sector), demarcated from the ca- sector by the dotted line ( ). (c) at magnification, the putamen shows a paucity of neurons, abundant alzheimer type astrocytes (arrowhead) and scattered microglial nodules (arrow). heterologous overexpression of n-terminal flag-tagged human brat (d) and hbrat c. _ insa (e) in mouse imcd cells. wild-type brat localizes to the nucleus and cytoplasm of mimcd cells. mutant brat (c. _ insa) does not localize to the nucleus and instead forms punctate aggregations in the cytoplasm. similar results were obtained in harpe- cells (data not shown). (f) rt-pcr demonstrating the stability of overexpressed human brat transcripts (, . kb) in harpe- cells. a b-actin amplicon (, bp) was used as a loading control on the same gel. (g) western blot of lysates from human arpe- cells transiently transfected with wt hbrat displaying flag-hbrat fusion protein at , kda or with hbrat c. _ insa displaying the truncated flag-hbrat mutant fusion protein at , . kda (flag-tag and linker = . kda). b-actin was labeled as a loading control. doi: . /journal.pone. .g exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e diminutive vasculature similar to retinopathy of prematurity. condensations of vitreous may attach to the retina in transition regions between scalloped and gray tissue, marking points of traction for retinal detachment. non-syndromic mental retardation. the phenotype is typical of that described for other forms of non-syndromic mental retardation. all milestones are mildly delayed and cognitive function remains significantly impaired, precluding independent living and self-care. speech is rudimentary but articulate. affected individuals are not autistic. posterior column ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa. the axpc phenotype has been described elsewhere [ ]. tunnel-like visual loss and photophobia begin early in childhood when fundoscopy reveals signs of non-spiculated retinitis pigmentosa and cellophane maculopathy. as vision deteriorates throughout adolescence, patients might develop posterior subcapsular cataracts. motor milestones are slightly delayed (independent ambulation by months). sensory ataxia, wide-based gait, and rombergism emerge by age . signs of sensory neuropathy include pan-areflexia, stocking- glove loss of vibration and position sense, astereognosia, agraphesthesia, and blunted sensation of applied force (e.g. accidentally crushing paper cups). muscle tone, power, and electromyography are normal. mri reveals t signal hyperinten- sity running the length of the dorsal spinal cord. sensory sural nerve action potentials and h waves are absent. some patients develop focal epilepsy marked by interictal focal spike-wave discharges. cognitive function is normal. symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia. affected neonates are hypotonic and feed poorly. dysmorphic features that evolve over time include a bulbous nose, wide mouth and tongue, broad jaw with protuberant angles, short hands, short tapered fingers, and broad thumbs (figure , a). affected children have severe psychomotor delay and do not learn to walk or speak. many retain use of their hands to scoot, maneuver a wheelchair, or gesture. some children show behavioral responses to language, but they do not socially engage or follow verbal commands. examination typically reveals a subdued child with strabismus, slow horizontal nystagmus, hypotonia, and weak or absent tendon reflexes. magnetic resonance imaging reveals ventriculomegaly, thin corpus callosum, white matter abnormalities, and an undulating or ‘‘lumpy’’ skull surface (figure , e). the cortical ribbon follows the irregular skull contour (figure , e–f). multifocal spike-wave discharges from central, occipital, and figure . microcephaly and chorioretinopathy due to a homozygous tubgcp mutation. (a) an affected infant has marked microcephaly (. sd below normal), a receding forehead, diminutive anterior fontanelle, and sutural ridging. she has cognitive delay and visual impairment but is socially engaged. (b) head circumference and length plots for mennonite microcephaly patients. (c) brain magnetic resonance imaging (mri) shows diffuse pachygyria, normal myelination, and (d) a hypoplastic cerebellar vermis. doi: . /journal.pone. .g exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e temporal regions typically begin by months of age and are accompanied by focal or generalized seizures that can manifest as dystonic posturing, drop attacks, myoclonic jerks, or generalized tonic-clonic events. multiple intractable seizure types can afflict an individual patient. physical anomalies found in some patients include subglottic stenosis, aortic stenosis, bicuspid aortic valve, umbilical hernia, and hydrocele. usher syndrome. growth and development are normal during infancy. visual impairment becomes evident during early childhood with the emergence of fine horizontal nystagmus, light aversion, and optic pallor. as vision deteriorates, fundoscopic exam reveals marked attenuation of retinal arteries and veins, pigmentary changes and a cellophane-like reflex that produce ‘‘bull’s eye’’ maculae and diffuse pigmentary stippling of the peripheral retinae, consistent with retinitis pigmentosa. this constellation suggests a combination of optic nerve disease, retinal dystrophy, and cone dysfunction. patients are typically blind by the second or third decade of life but the pace of visual deterioration is highly variable. we do not have auditory data from affected newborns, but some auditory function is present during infancy and deteriorates during early childhood; all five evoked auditory waveforms are absent by age . amplifiers or cochlear implants can partially restore hearing. patients have delayed gross motor development, hyperactive patellar tendon reflexes, mild truncal ataxia, and a wide-based gait. in contrast, upper limb coordination (allowing for visual impairment) and reflexes, peripheral nerve function, strength, tone, and intelligence are normal. based on the current classification scheme, this condition is most consistent with the type iii variant of usher syndrome, which is characterized by progressive vision and hearing loss during early childhood years. infectious illnesses may provoke vivid visual hallucinations (the charles bonnet syndrome). these attacks begin during early childhood and may be accompanied by nonsensical speech, inappropriate laughter, repetitive eye blinking, or psychomotor agitation. in one case, acute psychosis merged into a deep catatonia that lasted several days. hallucinations typically respond to anti-psychotic medications (e.g. haloperidol, thorazine) and are sometimes associated with transient myopathy (elevated serum creatine kinase). rarely, children die suddenly and unexpectedly during an illness. these are presumably cardiac events, but routine figure . symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia due to a homozygous snip mutation. (a) two affected brothers presented with severe psychomotor delay, intractable seizures, bulbous nose, wide mouth and tongue, broad jaw with protuberant angles, short hands, short tapered fingers, and broad thumbs. (b,c) brain mri (b, axial t ; c, coronal t ) mri showed enlarged ventricles, a thin corpus callosum, hypomyelination, and an irregular, undulating skull surface. (d) mouse flag-snip (wt) fusion protein, when transiently overexpressed in mimcd cells, localizes to the nucleus in a punctate pattern consistent with transcriptional complexes. (e) mouse flag-snip (p.glu gly) localizes to the nucleus, but with a more aggregated distribution. (f) top – reverse-transcriptase pcr from three wild-type msnip -transfected samples and four c. a.g msnip -transfected samples. msnip amplicon – bp. mgapdh (loading control) – bp amplicon. bottom – western blot of lysates from mimcd cells transiently transfected with wt (lanes wt & ) or c. a.g (lanes p.glu gly & ) msnip displaying the flag-msnip fusion protein at , kda. the -kda non-specific band was used as a loading control. data shown are two out of four replicate sets of transfections. doi: . /journal.pone. .g exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e electrocardiogram and -hour holter monitor results have been normal. genetic mapping we chose to study patients representing the seven discrete phenotypes described above (table ). all patients were originally genotyped using , ( k) and/or , ( k) single nucleotide polymorphism (snp) microarrays as previously de- scribed [ , , , , , , ]. using between and samples, we genetically mapped five disorders using k snp arrays; four of these were localized with ease using multiple affected children from separate sibships (figure , panels e–h). for two conditions, a shared homozygous block could only be identified at k snp resolution (see below). shared autozygous blocks were an average of . mb (range . – . mb) and contained a mean of (range – ) genes. the genetic mapping studies are summarized in table . for infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome, the proband was one of the first patients to be examined at the csc nearly years ago. a similarly affected sister died, but a lymphoblastoid cell line was available for study. no other affected individuals were known in the mennonite population. dna samples were isolated from the proband, her parents, six unaffected siblings, and her deceased sister’s cell line. autozygosity mapping of the two affected individuals identified a single, large block of homozygosity on chromosome (figure , panel a, yellow peak). analysis of the unaffected siblings excluded this homozygous block, but identified genomic regions greater than mb in size consistent with linkage in the family (figure , panel a, red peaks, and panel b). none of these regions had large homozygous blocks at k snp resolution. three affected individuals from three separate sibships with lethal neonatal rigidity and multifocal seizure syndrome were genotyped figure . genetic mapping of seven plain disorders. the results of autozygosity mapping using affymetrix genechip k or k snp microarrays are plotted for each disorder. the x-axis depicts chromosomal location on autosomes. yellow peaks represent the number of contiguous homozygous snps shared by affected individuals and the purple peaks depict location scores. (a) autozygosity mapping of two affected individuals identified a single, large block of homozygosity on chromosome (yellow peak). genotyping of unaffected siblings excluded this homozygous block, but identified genomic regions greater than mb in size (red peaks) that were consistent with linkage in the family. (b) list of genomic regions consistent with linkage in the single nuclear family with infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome. panels c–h provide mapping plots for the other disorders. for two disorders (c,d), k microarrays were used after k microarrays failed to unequivocally localize the disease gene. the other four disorders (e–h) were mapped with k microarrays. doi: . /journal.pone. .g table . genetic mapping summary. disease sample size chr snp start snp stop size (mb) genes infantile parkinsonism-dystonia many – – – – lethal neonatal rigidity and seizure syndrome rs rs . mental retardation, non-syndromic rs rs . microcephaly with chorioretinopathy rs rs . posterior column ataxia with retinitis pigmentosa rs rs . symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia rs rs . usher syndrome rs rs . doi: . /journal.pone. .t exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e t a b le . e x o m e v a ri a n t s u m m a ry . a v e ra g e a u to s o m a l v a ri a n ts p e r s a m p le in fa n ti le p a rk in s o n is m - d y s to n ia s y n d ro m e (n = ) l e th a l n e o n a ta l ri g id it y a n d m u lt if o c a l e p il e p s y (n = ) m ic ro c e p h a ly w it h c h o ri o re ti n o p a th y (n = ) n o n -s y n d ro m ic m e n ta l re ta rd a ti o n (n = ) p o s te ri o r c o lu m n a ta x ia a n d re ti n it is p ig m e n to s a (n = ) s y m p to m a ti c e p il e p s y a n d s k u ll d y s p la s ia (n = ) u s h e r s y n d ro m e (n = ) n o v e l a n d h o m o z y g o u s s n p s s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l s n p s in m a p p e d in te rv a l t o ta l n o v e l n o v e l a n d h o m o z y g o u s t o ta l l in k e d in te rv a ls t o ta l n o v e l t o ta l n o v e l t o ta l n o v e l t o ta l n o v e l t o ta l n o v e l t o ta l n o v e l - f la n k in g - u t r - u t r in tr o n m is s e n s e , n o n s e n s e r e a d -t h ro u g h s p li c e s it e s y n o n y m o u s , m ir n a ig r o th e r in d e ls * * * * t o ta l , *n o v e lt y fo r in d e ls m e a su re d a g a in st d b s n p o n ly , a u to m a te d in d e l c a ll e r d o e s n o t d e te rm in e zy g o si ty . d o i: . /j o u rn a l.p o n e . .t exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e originally with k snp arrays. no significant shared blocks of homozygosity were identified. as the patients were from different yet related pennsylvania amish demes, we suspected that the shared homozygous block might be small and thus below the resolution of a k microarray. we subsequently genotyped these patients at k resolution and mapped the disease locus to chromosome p (figure , panel c). in , a microcephalic mennonite baby was evaluated at the csc and thought to have the same disorder first described by victor mckusick in (microcephaly with chorioretinopathy, omim ) [ ]. we were able to locate and genotype four affected individuals from mckusick’s original study as well as another patient related to our index case. genotyping at k snp resolution was required to identify a small . mb shared block of homozygosity in the subtelomeric region of chromosome q (figure , panel d). for both disorders that required higher density arrays, a dearth of snps on the k microarray and high recombination rates in these subtelomeric regions complicated mapping. exome sequencing prior to exome analysis, we sequenced between and candidate genes for each condition and found no pathogenic variants. as defined here and throughout the paper, novelty of dna sequence variants was determined by absence in dbsnp and the genomes project. all putative pathogenic exome variants described below were confirmed by sanger sequencing in the affected individuals used for genetic mapping. in addition, siblings and parents were also sequenced, when available, to confirm appropriate segregation of the allele within the family. we developed an unlabeled probe melting analysis for each putative pathogenic variant and genotyped population-specific controls for these variants. for each disorder, over population-specific chromosomes were screened, the allele frequencies ranged from – . %, and no homozygous controls were identified. the exome variant data are summarized in tables and . infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome. exome sequencing was performed on the single living patient. the data were constrained by first tabulating all homozygous, novel variants. nineteen novel homozygous variants were identified: synonymous, missense, -utr, and splice site (table ). of the potentially pathogenic changes, only one localized to a region consistent with linkage in the family, slc a ivs + g.t. the slc a gene encodes the dopamine transporter, a known cause of infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome (omim ). direct sequencing revealed both parents were heterozygous for this change, both affected individuals were homozygous, and the unaffected siblings were either heterozygous or homozygous wild-type. this confirmed the linkage block that was identified on chromosome by snp genotyping. genotyping of old order mennonite control samples identified no carriers (table ). lethal neonatal rigidity and multifocal seizure syndrome. exome data from two patients revealed nine variants in the mapped interval, but only one, brat c. _ insa, was novel (table ). genotyping by unlabeled probe melting analysis for old order amish control samples identified carriers ( . %)(table ). further confirmatory evidence for the pathogenicity of this variant was provided by two unrelated old order amish infants from different demes in wisconsin and kentucky who had an indistinguishable clinical phenotype and were homozygous for the brat c. _ insa variant. their samples were tested for the brat variant after local physicians contacted our clinic for clinical guidance. microcephaly and chorioretinopathy. exome data from a single affected patient identified sequence variants within the mapped interval. only one was novel, tubgcp c. t.g (table ). an unlabeled probe melting analysis in old order mennonite control samples identified carriers ( . %)(table ). this read-through variant is predicted to incorporate extra amino acids at the c-terminus of tubgcp and/or may accelerate mrna degradation via non-stop mediated decay. non-syndromic mental retardation. exome sequencing of affected individuals identified homozygous sequence variants within the mapped interval. only a missense variant in cradd (c. g.c; p.gly arg) was novel (table ). polyphen- predicted this change to be ‘‘probably damaging’’ (score = . ). an unlabeled probe melting analysis detected carriers among old order mennonite control individuals ( . %) (table ). posterior column ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa. exome data from a single axpc patient revealed coding variants in the mapped interval; were non-synonymous and only one missense variant was novel, flvcr c. a.g (p.asn asp) (table ). polyphen- predicts the p.asn asp change to be ‘‘probably damaging’’ (score = . ). an unlabeled probe melting analysis for this variant detected heterozygotes out of old order mennonite control chromosomes ( . %) (table ). the pathogenicity of this variant and several others in flvcr has recently been confirmed independently by others [ ]. symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia. exome data on three affected individuals from two sibships revealed table . pathogenic variant summary. disease sample size gene gene variant protein variant population-specific allele frequency infantile parkinsonism-dystonia slc a ivs + g.t – . % ( / ) lethal neonatal rigidity and seizure syndrome brat c. _ insa – . % ( / ) mental retardation, non-syndromic cradd c. g.c p.gly arg . % ( / ) microcephaly with chorioretinopathy tubgcp c. t.g p.ter gly . % ( / ) posterior column ataxia with retinitis pigmentosa flvcr c. a.g p.asn asp . % ( / ) symptomatic epilepsy and skull dysplasia snip c. a.g p.glu gly . % ( / ) usher syndrome hars c. a.c p.tyr ser . % ( / ) doi: . /journal.pone. .t exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e figure . overexpression of mouse cradd in mimcd cells. (a) wild-type n-terminal flag-cradd localizes to the cytoplasm and nucleus. (b) mutant n-terminal flag-cradd (p.gly arg) localizes to the cytoplasm and nucleus in a manner that is indistinguishable from the wild-type localization. (c) western blot of lysates from mimcd cells transfected with wt flag-cradd and wt v -mpidd, wt v -mpidd, or flag-cradd (p.gly arg) and wt v -mpidd. blot was labeled with anti-v monoclonal antibody. note that full-length v -mpidd ( . kda) was cleaved into a . kda n-terminal fragment, suggesting normal autocatalytic activity. (d) co-transfection of flag-cradd (wt) and wt v -pidd death domain (dd) results in uniform colocalization of the fusion proteins throughout the cytoplasm and nucleus (yellow). (e) overexpressed v -mpidd dd (wt) localizes to the cytoplasm and the nucleus. (f) co-overexpression of flag-cradd (p.gly arg) with v -mpidd dd (wt) results in dense aggregations of flag- cradd in the cytoplasm. (g) co-transfection of flag-mcradd (wt) and v -mpidd (wt) results in relatively uniform colocalization of the fusion proteins throughout the cytoplasm (yellow); punctate flag-mcradd aggregation is also evident (green). flag-mcradd (wt) localizes to the nucleus (green), v -mpidd does not (red). (h) overexpressed v -mpidd (wt) localizes to the cytoplasm as previously reported (berube et al., ). (i) co- overexpression of flag-mcradd (p. gly arg) with v -mpidd (wt) results in dense aggregations of flag-mcradd in the cytoplasm, decreased mcradd:mpidd colocalization, and a relative loss of localization of mcradd to the nucleus. green fluorescence – anti-flag m antibody ( : ); red fluorescence – anti-v antibody ( : ); blue fluorescence – dapi-labeled nuclei ( . mg/ml); western blots – anti-flag m antibody ( : ). (j) co- immunoprecipitation (co-ip) of v -tagged mouse pidd death domain (dd) with flag-tagged mouse cradd dd in mimcd cells. wild-type flag- cradd dd co-immunoprecipitates wild-type pidd dd; the flag-cradd dd p.gly arg variant does not. the upper blots were labeled with the anti- flag m antibody ( : ). the lower blots of the same lysates/eluates were labeled with the anti-v antibody ( : ). doi: . /journal.pone. .g exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e homozygous variants in the mapped region. of these, only one was novel, snip c. a.g (p.glu gly) (table ). polyphen- predicts the p.glu gly substitution to be ‘‘probably damaging’’ (score = . ). an unlabeled probe melting analysis for this variant identified carriers among old order amish controls ( . %) (table ). usher syndrome. exome data from two patients revealed homozygous variants within the mapped interval. only one variant, hars c. a.c (p.tyr ser), was novel (table ). unlabeled probe melting analysis detected carriers among old order amish controls ( . %) (table ). further evidence for pathogenicity was provided by an old order amish patient who was from an unrelated deme in ontario, canada. this amish settlement arose from a separate migrational event from europe than the lancaster county settlement. the patient had an identical phenotype to our patients and was homozygous for the hars c. a.c variant. in vitro studies the brat gene encodes brca -associated protein required for atm activation- (brat ) [ ]. wild-type human brat displays prominent nuclear and diffuse cytosolic localization (figure , d) and its c-terminus (amino acids – ) interacts with brca [ ]. the c. _ insa change is a frameshift variant that is predicted to alter the amino acid sequence after lys by introducing a stop codon that prematurely truncates the protein at leu ( . kda vs. wild-type . kda) (figure , f), abolishes its nuclear localization, and renders the protein unstable in human arpe- cells (figure , e–g). similar results were obtained with mouse brat (data not shown). abundance of the c. _ insa variant was . . % (n = ) lower than that of wild-type human brat for flag-fusion proteins overexpressed in human arpe- cells (figure , g). these data suggest that the amish variant destabilizes the protein and may disrupt an interaction between brat and brca that is required for nuclear localization of brat . knockdown of brat results in p -induced apoptosis independent of dna damage [ ]. the destabilization of brat observed might underlie the catastroph- ic epilepsy and corticobasal neuronal degeneration observed in affected infants [ , , , , ]. cradd. cradd (aka raidd) is a caspase-recruitment- domain (card) and death domain containing adaptor protein. it links pidd (p -induced protein with death domain) and caspase- in the formation of the piddosome required for caspase- activation during apoptosis [ , , , ]. the cradd c. g.c mutation alters a highly conserved residue (p.gly arg) within the cradd death domain. we overexpressed wild-type and mutant (p.gly arg) murine cradd in mouse inner medullary collecting duct cells (mimcd ) and found no significant difference in protein localization (figure , a– b) [ ]. however, mutant p.gly arg cradd formed large aggregates when co-overexpressed with wild-type pidd (figure , i) or the pidd death domain (figure , f). we found that overexpressed pidd localized to cytosol (figure , h) as described previously [ ] and was autocatalytically cleaved as expected (figure , c) [ ]. these data suggest that the p.gly arg mutation alters one of the interaction surfaces of the cradd death domain to decrease affinity for the pidd death domain and increase homotypic binding to the cradd death domain [ ]. this is further supported by co-immunoprecipitation assays demonstrating that wild-type cradd dd co-immunoprecipitates pidd dd, but cradd dd p.gly arg does not (figure , j). in rat pc- cells and cultured sympathetic neurons, similar perinuclear cradd aggregations are associated with caspase- activation and initiation of apoptosis [ ]. in humans, alteration of caspase- initiated apoptosis (resulting from disruption of the piddosome) during nerve growth factor mediated proliferation of synaptic contacts may lead to inappropriate synaptic pruning that results in cognitive impairment. snip . wild-type snip (smad nuclear interacting protein ) contains an n-terminal nuclear localization signal [ ], bridges c- myc activity with cbp/p activity during development, and competitively inhibits tgf-b and nf-kb signaling [ , ]. snip glu is highly conserved and the p.glu gly mutation is in the c-terminus where snip interacts with c-myc [ ], smad and smad [ , ]. reverse transcriptase-pcr suggests that the snip c. a.g (corresponding to human snip c. a.g) transcript is expressed at levels comparable to wild-type (figure , f). we transiently overexpressed wild-type and mutant snip in mimcd cells. wild-type protein localized to the nucleus with a punctate appearance, consistent with its involvement in transcrip- tional complexes [ , ] (figure , d). however, snip p.glu gly (corresponding to human p.glu gly) had a more aggregated appearance (figure , e) and western blotting proved it unstable (figure , f); its band density was . . % sd lower than wild-type (n = independent transfections each). decreased abundance of snip likely results in decreased c- myc activity and increased tgf-b and nf-kb signaling. disruption of c-myc or cbp/p signaling in mice can result in abnormal development of the brain, skull, craniofacial bones, and distal limbs [ , , , , ]. inappropriate increases in tgf- b/smad signaling and in nf-kb signaling in the mouse brain have been shown to independently initiate epileptogenesis [ , ]. hars. histidyl-trna synthetase (hars/hisrs) is a homodimeric class iia aminoacyl trna synthetase that charges trna with the amino acid histidine [ ]. the p.tyr ser change rests in the interface between the catalytic domain and anticodon binding domain suggesting that it may alter anticodon recognition and/or catalytic activity. overexpression of wild-type and mutant (p.tyr ser) murine hars in mimcd cells did not reveal any significant differences in localization (figure , a– b). in chinese hamster ovary (cho) cell lysates, both wild-type and mutant murine protein dimerized properly with endogenous hars and were expressed at qualitatively similar levels (data not shown). our data suggest that the p.tyr ser change reduces the maximal forward reaction velocity (vmax) of the enzyme for aminoacylation of human trnahis with histidine nearly two-fold (figure , c). discussion next generation sequencing technologies promise to expedite disease gene discovery and allowed us to identify known and novel pathogenic variants in our patients. although costly, exome sequencing is practical as it interrogates the . % of the genome that contains approximately % of pathogenic variants [ , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ]. to assess the utility of exome sequencing in an active clinical setting, we selected patient samples representing different genetic conditions. each disorder had previously been mapped to a chromosomal locus and candidate gene sequencing failed to identify the pathogenic variant. for six disorders, an average autozygous block of . mb ( . % of the human genome) contained only one novel homozygous variant and rendered disease gene identification straightforward. even in the case of infantile parkinsonism-dystonia syndrome, for which autozygosity and linkage mapping were only partially informative, a manage- exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e able list of candidate variants was assembled simply by assuming mutation homogeneity. prior mapping data and thorough knowledge of the patient implicated a single variant from this list (slc a ivs + g.t). for four of the conditions, more than one affected individual was available for exome sequencing. even in the absence of mapping data, the identification of the putative pathogenic variant would still have been unambiguous. when we examined the shared, novel homozygous variants in affected individuals, we found one, and only one, that was not homozygous in any other (unaffected) individuals in the study. thus, the assumption of mutation homogeneity obviates the need for snp genotyping and mapping; we reach the same conclusion by exome sequencing of multiple affected individuals without the added time and expense of snp genotyping. the number of novel homozygous variants in each individual was surprisingly small. average inbreeding coefficients of % and . % in the lancaster amish and mennonite populations, respectively, suggested that a small but significant fraction of variation will be homozygous. on average, we found only novel homozygous variants per sample across the exome. of these variants, only were predicted to be potentially pathogenic (missense, nonsense, splice site). this represents . % of all novel variants per exome. for the two disorders where a singleton was sequenced, we identified only potentially pathogenic novel variants which were homozygous in the patient but in no other figure . overexpression of mouse hars in mimcd cells. (a) wild-type n-terminal flag-hars localizes to the cytoplasm. (b) mutant n- terminal flag-hars (p.tyr ser) localizes to the cytoplasm in a manner that is indistinguishable from the wild-type localization shown in a. transfected and non-transfected cells were labeled with anti-flag m monoclonal antibody and alexafluor -conjugated anti-mouse igg (green fluorescence). (c) reaction velocity vs. human trna his concentration for histidine aminoacylation of trna his by wild-type murine hars (hars) and p.tyr ser (y s) hars. scale bar = mm in a and b. doi: . /journal.pone. .g exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e samples. since our total sample size was small ( individuals), we expect that future studies which leverage accumulated exome data will allow us to sequence single individuals to identify rare, uniquely homozygous pathogenic variants. in the outbred population, a strategy that scans for homozygosity or compound heterozygosity for novel variants in the same gene should yield equally manageable candidate gene lists. among the fifteen individuals studied, we found different novel autosomal sequence variants, roughly % of which have pathogenic potential. we infer that . % of these variants were non-pathogenic changes as they were homozygous in one or more unaffected individuals. as more amish and mennonite exomes are analyzed within a clear clinical context, our ability to determine pathogenicity will improve. the exome data also provided a broader view of the genetic disease burden within these populations. we have catalogued known pathogenic sequence variants within the plain populations that should be detectable by exome sequencing. of these, were represented in at least one individual. on average, each individual harbored . known plain pathogenic alleles (range, – ). we also compared our exome results against the human gene mutation database (hgmd) [ ]. carrier status for hgmd mutations, that cause phenotypes not yet encountered in the plain populations, was detected in our patients. these data permit us to generate a more comprehensive molecular differential diagnosis list when faced with a new clinical phenotype. it is notable that several hgmd- dm mutations were homozygous in one or more patients, casting some doubt on the pathogenicity of these variants. similar results have been reported elsewhere and highlight the need for better curation of mutation databases [ ]. critics will argue that we have failed to exclude all possible variants due to incomplete coverage. our sequencing metrics show excellent, albeit incomplete, exome coverage. on average, . % and . % of the targeted exome was sequenced to a depth of and , respectively. while this is a potential hazard, our study design minimized this risk. prior mapping analyses narrowed the focus to a vanishingly small . % of the genome. within these mapped regions, we discovered only one novel homozygous variant. this is significantly better coverage and stronger evidence than we and others have demonstrated for disease gene identification prior to the advent of exome sequencing. addition- ally, our snp filtering strategies might be questioned; dbsnp is polluted with many pathogenic variants and their numbers continue to grow as data accrues. our current conservative strategy used dbsnp and the genomes project to filter exome variants. the risk to our analyses is relatively small since we study very rare and highly penetrant alleles. nonetheless, in our population and elsewhere, local population-specific variant databases will prove most useful for inferring pathogenicity. pathogenicity is difficult to prove, but for four conditions we provide ample functional data to demonstrate abrogation of protein function. in vitro studies of protein localization and function in mammalian cells provide further confirmation that the homozygous variants identified were indeed pathogenic. the predicted consequence of the brat c. _ insa frameshift variant is a truncated protein at amino acid position . overexpression of this truncated protein abolished nuclear localization and demonstrated protein instability ( . % decrease relative to wild-type). an alternative disease mechanism, nonsense- mediated mrna decay, has not been investigated. others have shown that knockdown of brat results in p -induced apoptosis [ ]. this is consistent with the neurodegeneration observed in patients with the brat variant. when transfected into mouse imcd cells, the mouse counterpart of the cradd c. g.c variant disrupts interaction with mouse pidd (it’s normal binding partner) and forms dense aggregates when co- expressed with wild-type mouse pidd. this is in contrast to a pattern of uniform colocalization of wild-type cradd and pidd throughout the cytoplasm and nucleus. mouse snip protein, when transiently overexpressed in imcd cells, localizes to the nucleus in a punctate pattern consistent with transcriptional complexes, while mutant mouse snip (p.glu gly, correspond- ing to human p.glu gly) localizes to the nucleus, but with a more aggregated distribution. western blotting proved this structure unstable. for the hars c. a.c variant, we demonstrate that reaction velocity (vmax) for aminoacylation of human trnahis with histidine is reduced nearly two-fold. while these studies cannot prove pathogenicity beyond a shadow of doubt, the totality of evidence is compelling and strongly suggests that we have identified the disease-causing alleles. the association between flvcr and slc a variants and disease has previously been established. we provide no further evidence for pathogenicity of the tubgcp c. t.g variant. however, the primary micro- cephalies result from disruption of the centrosomal complex during mitosis, reducing the neural progenitor pool during development ( – ). centrosomal proteins such as cdk rap and cenpj/cpap interact with the c-tubulin ring complex (c- turc) to regulate microtubule nucleation ( – ). tubgcp (gcp ) is a component of the human c-turc ( ), where it is required for cdk rap to activate microtubule nucleation ( ). we predict that defects in tubgcp , cdk rap and cenpj cause primary microcephaly by similar mechanisms. all seven variants described in this paper interfere with neurological development. functional studies of brat and snip will expand our understanding of epilepsy and also deepen our knowledge of dna damage repair and transcriptional regulation in cortical development and neuronal survival. selective degeneration of photoreceptors and dorsal column afferents caused by flvcr mutations suggest an unusual vulnerability of these cells to deranged heme transport, or may reveal an altogether different function of the flvcr protein. despite its ubiquitous expression, a defect in aminoacylation by hars selectively damages elements of afferent sensory systems and, by unknown mechanisms, predisposes to episodic psychosis and sudden death. abnormalities of neuroblast proliferation and migration caused by tubgcp mutations fit nicely with our existing knowledge about centrosomal complexes, microtubular arrays, and cortical growth, but also introduce new questions about the diverse brain morphologies linked to various specific tubulin-associated proteins and the role of these proteins in early eye development. finally, further studies on the connection between cradd and general intelligence will certainly change our understanding of the microanatomical and molecular bases of cognition. small focused studies as described herein will be a steady engine of progress for understanding the specific connec- tions between genes and the human brain. ultimately, genomics can only shape medical practice within the context of regional particulars and clinical facts. our local, patient- and family-based approach to gene discovery stands in stark contrast to the prevailing model of genomic research, where the people who produce genotype data are frequently separated from those who collect and analyze clinical facts, and both struggle to translate genetic knowledge into primary care. although we are focused on specific regional populations ( , ), these studies reveal concepts of broad biological and economic relevance ( , ). the discovery of rare, highly penetrant alleles among small social groups may prove more useful than large genome-wide association studies exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e for revealing the basic genetic foundations of complex disease, particularly when these alleles can be viewed against a background of population-specific genetic variation. even at current prices, microarray analyses to detect copy number abnormalities coupled with exome sequencing are an order of magnitude cheaper than the standard workup for a complex patient at a tertiary medical center. thoughtful and appropriately scaled application of these genetic technologies to other regional populations should yield similar economic and clinical benefits in the years ahead. materials and methods the study was approved by institutional review boards at lancaster general hospital and the broad institute. all parents consented to participation. patients were from old order amish or mennonite populations, received medical care at the clinic for special children (csc), and presented with a distinctive recessive clinical phenotype (table ). genetic mapping genetic mapping of the seven disorders presented in this study was performed as previously described [ , , , , , , ] with the exception that two disorders required higher density arrays (affymetrix k) to establish chromosomal location. single- nucleotide polymorphism (snp) genotyping was performed with the genechip mapping k and k assay kits (affymetrix, santa clara, ca, usa) as previously described. data were analyzed in microsoft excel spreadsheets (microsoft corporation, redmond, wa, usa) that were custom formatted at the clinic for special children. snp positions came from affymetrix genome annotation files and genotype data came from the affymetrix genechip human mapping k xba and k xba arrays. data analyses were designed for rapid identification of genomic regions that were identically homozygous between all affected individuals. these analyses assumed mutation and locus homogeneity. two- point lod scores were calculated for each genotyped snp using an approach similar to broman and weber [ ]. cumulative two-point lod scores for blocks of homozygous snps were considered the location score for that region, providing a relative measure that a specific homozygous block harbored the disease gene. genotype data from healthy population-specific (amish or mennonite) females were used for estimation of snp allele frequencies. exome sequencing exome sequencing was performed using the agilent sureselect all exon kit (v. , mb) as previously described [ ]. a solution hybrid selection methodology was used to isolate exomic dna, which was subjected to sequencing on the illumina ga-ii platform. briefly, dna oligonucleotides, corresponding to bp of target sequence flanked by bp of universal primer sequence, were synthesized in parallel on an agilent microarray, then cleaved from the array. the oligonucleotides were pcr amplified, then transcribed in vitro in the presence of biotinylated utp to generate single-stranded rna ‘‘bait.’’ genomic dna was sheared, ligated to illumina sequencing adapters, and selected for lengths between – bp. this ‘‘pond’’ of dna was hybridized with an excess of bait in solution. the ‘‘catch’’ was pulled down by magnetic beads coated with streptavidin, then eluted, and sequenced on the illumina ga-ii. massively parallel sequencing data were processed by the sequencing platform at the broad institute using two consecutive pipelines. the first pipeline, called ‘‘picard’’, utilized the reads and qualities produced by the illumina software for all lanes and libraries and produced a single bam file (http://samtools. sourceforge.net/sam .pdf) representing a sample. the final bam file stored all reads with well-calibrated qualities and alignments to the genome. the second pipeline, called genome sequencing analysis, then performed post-processing and analysis of the data including snp identification, small insertion and deletion identification, local realignment of insertion or deletion containing reads, gene annotation and filtering with common polymorphisms ( genomes, dbsnp build ). the details of our sequencing data processing have been described elsewhere [ ]. inter-exome analyses were performed by importing variant call data into a filemaker pro database (filemaker, inc., santa clara, ca) and querying mapped intervals for novel variants shared among affected individuals. candidate disease gene cloning total rna extracted with trizol (invitrogen, carlsbad, ca) from wild-type mouse tissues, cultured mouse imcd cells, or human arpe cells was reverse transcribed with superscript ii reverse transcriptase (invitrogen). gene specific primers were used to amplify full-length cdna (coding sequence, cds) for the candidate disease genes by the polymerase chain reaction (pcr). mouse pidd was amplified from pcdna . ( )/mpidd (a gift from s. benchimol, york university, toronto, ontario, canada). constructs were ligated into d-topo gateway entry vectors (invitrogen) for cloning, and site-directed mutagenesis (quik- change ii, agilent, santa clara, ca) was used to introduce the mutations discovered by exome sequencing. wild-type and mutant constructs (confirmed by sanger sequencing of the full-length inserts) were subcloned into pcag/flag/rfc/a and/or pcag/v /rfc/a (gift of q. zhang and e.a. pierce, university of pennsylvania, philadelphia, pa) for expression of n-terminal flag- and/or v -fusion proteins in mammalian cells. immunohistochemistry for protein localization studies, mimcd cells grown to – % confluence on glass coverslips in six-well plates were transfected with flag and/or v -fusion protein expression vector plasmid dna using lipofectamine (invitrogen). cells were grown for – h post-transfection and then fixed for min in % paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (pbs), permeabilized for min with . % triton x- in pbs, blocked for min with % bovine serum albumin in pbs with . % triton x- , and incubated with primary antibodies for h at room temperature (rt). following a wash in pbs, cells were incubated in secondary antibodies for h at rt. nuclei were counterstained with dapi ( , -diamidino- -phenylindole – . mg/ml; santa cruz biotechnology, santa cruz, ca) and coverslips were mounted with fluoromount g (electron micros- copy sciences, ft. washington, pa). fluorescent images were captured with a leica dm rb microscope. primary antibodies – monoclonal anti-flag m igg ( : ; sigma, st. louis, mo) and/or monoclonal anti-v igg a ( : ; invitrogen). secondary antibodies – dylight -conjugated goat anti-mouse igg ( : ; jackson immunoresearch, west grove, pa), alexafluor - conjugated goat anti-mouse igg ( : ), and/or alexafluor - conjugated goat anti-mouse igg a ( : ; invitrogen). western blotting, co-immunoprecipitation, and rt-pcr western blotting was used to assess relative protein overexpres- sion levels. briefly, % confluent mimcd cells in six-well or -cm plates transfected as described above were lysed in either lds sample buffer (invitrogen) or in lysis buffer (cellyticm, sigma) containing protease inhibitor and phosphatase inhibitor cocktails (roche applied science, indianapolis, in). lysates were exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e sonicated briefly and cleared by centrifugation at rpm for – min. following sds-page, proteins were blotted to nitrocellulose, and the membranes were blocked for h at rt with % nonfat dry milk in tris buffered saline (tbs) with . % tween- . membranes were then incubated with primary antibody (anti-flag m – : or anti-v – : ) overnight at uc, washed in tbs with . % tween- , and then incubated with secondary antibodies for h at rt. secondary antibodies – horseradish peroxidase (hrp)- conjugated goat anti-mouse igg ( : ) and hrp-conjugated anti-biotin ( : ). proteins were detected with enhanced chemiluminescence using lumiglo (cell signaling technology, danvers, ma) and chemiluminescence signals were imaged on biomax light film (kodak, rochester, ny). band densities were measured with imagej (http://rsbweb. nih.gov/ij/) following calibration with a nist calibrated step tablet (kodak ek ). co-immunoprecipitation was carried out using the flag-m affinity resin according to the manufacturer’s protocols (sigma cellmm /f ) with the following exception: cleared lysates were incubated at uc for h prior to overnight incubation on the resin. reverse transcriptase-pcr was used to assess relative transcript levels for genes overexpressed in cultured mimcd cells. cells were transfected on -cm plates and cultured as described above. total rna was harvested, incubated with dnase ( u/mg rna) at uc for min, and reverse transcribed as described above. a flag-tag specific forward primer and gene specific reverse primers were used to determine the transcript levels for the overexpressed gene relative to endogenous gapdh or b-actin expression using – cycles of pcr. total transcript levels (endogenous+overexpressed) for the gene of interest were deter- mined with gene specific primer pairs for short ( – bp) amplicons relative to gapdh expression. aminoacylation assays murine hars and the variant p.tyr ser hars were expressed in chinese hamster ovary (cho) cells as flag-tagged enzymes and affinity purified. enzymes were stored at uc in mm tris hcl, ph . , mm nacl, % glycerol at a concentration of mm and diluted to mm in cold reaction buffer ( mm hepes ph . , mm kcl, mm mgcl and mm dtt) just before use. human trnahis, which has an identical sequence to murine trnahis, was prepared from human placenta as described, with minor modifications [ ]. isolated placental rna was stored at uc in mm na cacodylate (ph . ). this preparation yields approximately mg rna/g tissue, of which . % ( . pmol/a unit) can be aminoacy- lated with histidine by murine hars. kinetics assay enzyme assays were performed under steady state conditions for atp and histidine, with the concentration of trna varied from approximately . to km, as previously described [ , ]. briefly, atp ( . mm), [ h] histidine mixed with histidine ( mm, % radiolabeled), pyrophosphatase ( ng/ml) and buffer ( mm hepes ph . , mm kcl, mm mgcl and mm dtt) were mixed with placental trna ( . to mm, of which . % could be histidylated). the reaction was initiated by addition of enzyme ( nm), and quenched by spotting on filter paper pre-soaked with % trichloroacetic acid. after washing away unbound radiolabeled histidine, the histidy- lated trna was quantified by scintillation counting. the time course reactions were analyzed using kintek explorer software, yielding a velocity versus substrate curve from which kinetic parameters were determined. acknowledgments we acknowledge the broad biological samples, genotyping, and sequencing platform for excellent data production. author contributions conceived and designed the experiments: egp rnj jte cf sg dhm kas. performed the experiments: egp rnj raw npa rpc cjf kfh jjl mhm cjm dtn kap knw ras rd eas jte cf sr-b. analyzed the data: egp rnj cs kc raw npa rpc cjf kfh jjl mhm cjm dtn kap knw ras rd eas jte cf sr-b. contributed reagents/ materials/analysis tools: cs kc jte cf nlr sg dhm kas. wrote the paper: egp rnj kas. delineation of phenotype: nlr dhm kas. patient management, collection of samples, and summarization of clinical data: nlr dhm kas. references . puffenberger eg ( ) genetic heritage of the old order mennonites of southeastern pennsylvania. american journal of medical genetics part c (semin med genet) c: – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg ( ) genetics, medicine, and the plain people. annu rev genomics hum genet : – . . mckusick va, hostetler ja, egeland ja ( ) genetic studies of the amish, background and potentialities. bull johns hopkins hosp : – . . mckusick va, hostetler ja, egeland ja, eldridge r ( ) the distribution of certain genes in the old order amish. cold spring harb symp quant biol : – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, craig dw, panganiban cb, lee am, et al. ( ) genome-wide snp arrays as a diagnostic tool: clinical description, genetic mapping, and molecular characterization of salla disease in an old order mennonite population. am j med genet a : – . . lohr nj, molleston jp, strauss ka, torres-martinez w, sherman ea, et al. ( ) human itch e ubiquitin ligase deficiency causes syndromic multisystem autoimmune disease. am j hum genet : – . . puffenberger eg, hu-lince d, parod jm, craig dw, dobrin se, et al. ( ) mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function. proc natl acad sci u s a : – . . puffenberger eg, strauss ka, ramsey ke, craig dw, stephan da, et al. ( ) polyhydramnios, megalencephaly and symptomatic epilepsy caused by a homozygous -kilobase deletion in lyk . brain : – . . sherman ea, strauss ka, tortorelli s, bennett mj, knerr i, et al. ( ) genetic mapping of glutaric aciduria, type , to chromosome and identification of mutations in c orf . am j hum genet : – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, bunin n, rider nl, morton mc, et al. ( ) clinical application of dna microarrays: molecular diagnosis and hla matching of an amish child with severe combined immune deficiency. clin immunol : – . . strauss ka, puffenberger eg, huentelman mj, gottlieb s, dobrin se, et al. ( ) recessive symptomatic focal epilepsy and mutant contactin-associated protein-like . n engl j med : – . . anastasio n, ben-omran t, teebi a, ha kc, lalonde e, et al. ( ) mutations in scarf are responsible for van den ende-gupta syndrome. am j hum genet : – . . becker j, semler o, gilissen c, li y, bolz hj, et al. ( ) exome sequencing identifies truncating mutations in human serpinf in autosomal-recessive osteogenesis imperfecta. am j hum genet. . bolze a, byun m, mcdonald d, morgan nv, abhyankar a, et al. ( ) whole-exome-sequencing-based discovery of human fadd deficiency. am j hum genet : – . . caliskan m, chong jx, uricchio l, anderson r, chen p, et al. ( ) exome sequencing reveals a novel mutation for autosomal recessive non-syndromic mental retardation in the tecr gene on chromosome p . hum mol genet. . gilissen c, arts hh, hoischen a, spruijt l, mans da, et al. ( ) exome sequencing identifies wdr variants involved in sensenbrenner syndrome. am j hum genet : – . . glazer nl ( ) exome sequencing links gene mutation in angiopoietin-like protein with low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. circ cardiovasc genet : – . . haack tb, danhauser k, haberberger b, hoser j, strecker v, et al. ( ) exome sequencing identifies acad mutations as a cause of complex i deficiency. nat genet : – . exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e . johnson jo, mandrioli j, benatar m, abramzon y, van deerlin vm, et al. ( ) exome sequencing reveals vcp mutations as a cause of familial als. neuron : – . . krawitz pm, schweiger mr, rodelsperger c, marcelis c, kolsch u, et al. ( ) identity-by-descent filtering of exome sequence data identifies pigv mutations in hyperphosphatasia mental retardation syndrome. nat genet : – . . montenegro g, powell e, huang j, speziani f, edwards yj, et al. ( ) exome sequencing allows for rapid gene identification in a charcot-marie-tooth family. ann neurol. . musunuru k, pirruccello jp, do r, peloso gm, guiducci c, et al. ( ) exome sequencing, angptl mutations, and familial combined hypolipidemia. n engl j med : – . . ng sb, bigham aw, buckingham kj, hannibal mc, mcmillin mj, et al. ( ) exome sequencing identifies mll mutations as a cause of kabuki syndrome. nat genet : – . . ng sb, buckingham kj, lee c, bigham aw, tabor hk, et al. ( ) exome sequencing identifies the cause of a mendelian disorder. nat genet : – . . ostergaard p, simpson ma, brice g, mansour s, connell fc, et al. ( ) rapid identification of mutations in gjc in primary lymphoedema using whole exome sequencing combined with linkage analysis with delineation of the phenotype. j med genet. . sirmaci a, walsh t, akay h, spiliopoulos m, sakalar yb, et al. ( ) masp mutations in patients with facial, umbilical, coccygeal, and auditory findings of carnevale, malpuech, osa, and michels syndromes. am j hum genet : – . . walsh t, shahin h, elkan-miller t, lee mk, thornton am, et al. ( ) whole exome sequencing and homozygosity mapping identify mutation in the cell polarity protein gpsm as the cause of nonsyndromic hearing loss dfnb . am j hum genet : – . . wang jl, yang x, xia k, hu zm, weng l, et al. ( ) tgm identified as a novel causative gene of spinocerebellar ataxias using exome sequencing. brain : – . . kurian ma, zhen j, cheng sy, li y, mordekar sr, et al. ( ) homozygous loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the dopamine transporter are associated with infantile parkinsonism-dystonia. j clin invest : – . . mckusick va, stauffer m, knox dl, clark db ( ) chorioretinopathy with hereditary microcephaly. arch ophthalmol : – . . higgins jj, morton dh, patronas n, nee le ( ) an autosomal recessive disorder with posterior column ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa. neurology : – . . rajadhyaksha am, elemento o, puffenberger eg, schierberl kc, xiang jz, et al. ( ) mutations in flvcr cause posterior column ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa. american journal of human genetics : – . . aglipay ja, martin sa, tawara h, lee sw, ouchi t ( ) atm activation by ionizing radiation requires brca -associated baat . the journal of biological chemistry : – . . tan z, sankar r, tu w, shin d, liu h, et al. ( ) immunohistochemical study of p -associated proteins in rat brain following lithium-pilocarpine status epilepticus. brain research : – . . engel t, murphy bm, hatazaki s, jimenez-mateos em, concannon cg, et al. ( ) reduced hippocampal damage and epileptic seizures after status epilepticus in mice lacking proapoptotic puma. the faseb journal: official publication of the federation of american societies for experimental biology : – . . morris lg, veeriah s, chan ta ( ) genetic determinants at the interface of cancer and neurodegenerative disease. oncogene : – . . biton s, barzilai a, shiloh y ( ) the neurological phenotype of ataxia- telangiectasia: solving a persistent puzzle. dna repair : – . . barzilai a ( ) dna damage, neuronal and glial cell death and neurodegeneration. apoptosis: an international journal on programmed cell death : – . . duan h, dixit vm ( ) raidd is a new ‘death’ adaptor molecule. nature : – . . ahmad m, srinivasula sm, wang l, talanian rv, litwack g, et al. ( ) cradd, a novel human apoptotic adaptor molecule for caspase- , and fasl/ tumor necrosis factor receptor-interacting protein rip. cancer research : – . . lin y, ma w, benchimol s ( ) pidd, a new death-domain-containing protein, is induced by p and promotes apoptosis. nature genetics : – . . berube c, boucher lm, ma w, wakeham a, salmena l, et al. ( ) apoptosis caused by p -induced protein with death domain (pidd) depends on the death adapter protein raidd. proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the united states of america : – . . shearwin-whyatt lm, harvey nl, kumar s ( ) subcellular localization and card-dependent oligomerization of the death adaptor raidd. cell death and differentiation : – . . park hh, logette e, raunser s, cuenin s, walz t, et al. ( ) death domain assembly mechanism revealed by crystal structure of the oligomeric piddosome core complex. cell : – . . jabado o, wang q, rideout hj, yeasmin m, guo kx, et al. ( ) raidd aggregation facilitates apoptotic death of pc cells and sympathetic neurons. cell death and differentiation : – . . kim rh, wang d, tsang m, martin j, huff c, et al. ( ) a novel smad nuclear interacting protein, snip , suppresses p -dependent tgf-beta signal transduction. genes & development : – . . kim rh, flanders kc, birkey reffey s, anderson la, duckett cs, et al. ( ) snip inhibits nf-kappa b signaling by competing for its binding to the c/h domain of cbp/p transcriptional co-activators. the journal of biological chemistry : – . . fujii m, lyakh la, bracken cp, fukuoka j, hayakawa m, et al. ( ) snip is a candidate modifier of the transcriptional activity of c-myc on e box-dependent target genes. molecular cell : – . . ueberham u, lange p, ueberham e, bruckner mk, hartlage-rubsamen m, et al. ( ) smad isoforms are differentially expressed during mouse brain development and aging. international journal of developmental neuroscience: the official journal of the international society for developmental neuroscience : – . . toyo-oka k, hirotsune s, gambello mj, zhou zq, olson l, et al. ( ) loss of the max-interacting protein mnt in mice results in decreased viability, defective embryonic growth and craniofacial defects: relevance to miller-dieker syndrome. human molecular genetics : – . . wei k, chen j, akrami k, galbraith gc, lopez ia, et al. ( ) neural crest cell deficiency of c-myc causes skull and hearing defects. genesis : – . . bhattacherjee v, horn kh, singh s, webb cl, pisano mm, et al. ( ) cbp/ p and associated transcriptional co-activators exhibit distinct expression patterns during murine craniofacial and neural tube development. the international journal of developmental biology : – . . wey a, knoepfler ps ( ) c-myc and n-myc promote active stem cell metabolism and cycling as architects of the developing brain. oncotarget : – . . viosca j, lopez-atalaya jp, olivares r, eckner r, barco a ( ) syndromic features and mild cognitive impairment in mice with genetic reduction on p activity: differential contribution of p and cbp to rubinstein-taybi syndrome etiology. neurobiology of disease : – . . cacheaux lp, ivens s, david y, lakhter aj, bar-klein g, et al. ( ) transcriptome profiling reveals tgf-beta signaling involvement in epileptogen- esis. the journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the society for neuroscience : – . . lubin fd, ren y, xu x, anderson ae ( ) nuclear factor-kappa b regulates seizure threshold and gene transcription following convulsant stimulation. journal of neurochemistry : – . . francklyn cs, arnez j ( ) histidyl-trna synthetases. in: ibba m, francklyn cs, cusack s, eds. the aminoacyl-trna synthetases, eurekah.com: landis bioscience. pp – . . stenson pd, ball e, howells k, phillips a, mort m, et al. ( ) human gene mutation database: towards a comprehensive central mutation database. j med genet : – . . bell cj, dinwiddie dl, miller na, hateley sl, ganusova ee, et al. ( ) carrier testing for severe childhood recessive diseases by next-generation sequencing. sci transl med : ra . . broman kw, weber jl ( ) long homozygous chromosomal segments in reference families from the centre d’etude du polymorphisme humain. am j hum genet : – . . gnirke a, melnikov a, maguire j, rogov p, leproust em, et al. ( ) solution hybrid selection with ultra-long oligonucleotides for massively parallel targeted sequencing. nat biotechnol : – . . depristo ma, banks e, poplin r, garimella kv, maguire jr, et al. ( ) a framework for variation discovery and genotyping using next-generation dna sequencing data. nat genet : – . . roe ba ( ) studies on human trna. i. the rapid, large scale isolation and partial fractionation of placenta and liver trna. nucleic acids res : – . . francklyn cs, first ea, perona jj, hou ym ( ) methods for kinetic and thermodynamic analysis of aminoacyl-trna synthetases. methods : – . . yan w, augustine j, francklyn c ( ) a trna identity switch mediated by the binding interaction between a trna anticodon and the accessory domain of a class ii aminoacyl-trna synthetase. biochemistry : – . exome sequencing and rare monogenic diseases plos one | www.plosone.org january | volume | issue | e chh volume issue cover and front matter • h ^hurch^ histor^ wchristianity & culture hi american society of church history ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ _ march ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ • core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history president ronald l. numbers, university of wisconsin-madison president-elect hansj. hii.lerbrand, duke university executive secretary henry w. bowden, rutgers university editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater hansj. hillerbrand grant wacker duke university members of the council class of yvonne chireau philip krey amanda porterfield mark g. toulouse charles i. wallace class of john h. erickson aian hayes evelyn kirkley amy oden john piper class of r. scott appleby dennis c. dickerson nancy a. hardesty albert g. miller r. bruce mullin the society was founded in by philip schaff, was reorganized in , and was incorporated by act of the legislature of the state of new york in . core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core vol. march no. church history studies in christianity & culture published quarterly by the american society of church history , the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history studies in christianity and culture editors elizabeth a. clark richard p. heitzenrater hans j. hillerbrand grant wacker senior assistant to the editors jay s. f. blossom assistants to the editors caroline t. schroeder anne blue wills duke university associate editors william adler north carolina state university david aers duke university peter iver kaufman university of north carolina at chapel hill laurie f. maffly-kipp university of north carolina at chapel hill donald g. mathews university of north carolina at chapel hill russell e. richey duke university david c. steinmetz duke university thomas a. tweed university of north carolina at chapel hill advisory editors jon butler yale university caroline walker bynum columbia university averil cameron keble college, oxford university robert e. frykenberg university of wisconsin-madison nathan o. hatch university of notre dame christine leigh heyrman university of delaware e. brooks holifield emory university hartmut lehmann max planck institute, university of gottingen patricia cox miller syracuse university heiko a. oberman university of arizona robert a. orsi indiana university andrew porter king's college, university of london john h. van engen university of notre dame merry wiesner-hanks university of wisconsin-milwaukee church history (issn - ) core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core articles the spirituality of reform in the late medieval church: the example of nicolas de clamanges christopher m. bellitto where was your church before luther? claims for the antiquity of protestantism examined s. j. barnett what children did not learn in school: the intellectual quickening of young americans in the nineteenth century r. laurence moore lending a hand to labor: james myers and the federal council of churches, - elizabeth fones-wolf and ken fones-wolf putting the amish to work: mennonites and the amish culture market, - david weaver-zercher books review essays africans' religions in british america, - jon butler religious goods elizabeth mckeown book reviews and notes brooten, bernadette j., love between women: early christian responses to female homoeroticism david g. hunter jefford, clayton n. with kenneth j. harder and louis d. amezaga jr., reading the apostolic fathers: an introduction kenneth d. snyder petersen, joan m., trans, and ed., handmaids of the lord: holy women in late antiquity and the early middle ages caroline t. schroeder amidon, philip r., s.j., trans., the church history ofrufinus of aquileia: books and william g. rusch stewart, columba, cassian the monk david brakke long, marceau and francois monnier, eds., la france, i'eglise quinze siecles deja thomas kselman somerville, robert and bruce c. brasington, comm. and trans., prefaces to canon law books in latin christianity: selected translations, — kathleen g. cushing markus, r. a., gregory the great and his world carole straw daley, brian e., s.j., trans, and intro., on the dormition of mary: early patristic homilies stephen j. shoemaker core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core backus, irena, ed., the reception of the church fathers in the west: from the carolingians to the maurists mickey l. mattox venarde, bruce l., women's monasticism and medieval society: nunneries in france and england, - catherine peyroux watt, d., ed., medieval women in their communities constance h. berman antonopoulou, theodora, the homilies of the emperor leo vi z. j. kosztolnyik phillips, jonathan, ed., the first crusade: origins and impact george beech coureas, nicholas, the latin church in cyprus, - charles a. frazee gilmour-bryston, anne, inrro. and trans., the trial of the templars in cyprus: a compete english edition james m. powell dale, thomas e. a., relics, prayer, and politics in medieval venetia: romanesque painting in the crypt of aquileia cathedral meredith j. gill tyerman, christopher, the invention of the crusades james a. brundage housley, norman, ed. and trans., documents on the later crusades, - priscilla baumann da milano, fra nicola, m. michele mulchahey, ed., collationes de beata virgine: a cycle of preaching in the dominican congregation of the blessed virgin mary at imola, - gavin ferriby lansing, carol, power and purity: cathar heresy in medieval italy maureen c. miller allmand, christopher, ed., the new cambridge medieval history. vol. : c. -c. marcia l. colish kieckhefer, richard, forbidden rites: a necromancer's manual of the fifteenth century jeffrey burton russell watt, diane, secretaries of god: women prophets in late medieval and early modern england nicholas watson oliva, marilyn, the convent and the community in late medieval england sharon k. elkins french, katherine l., gary g. gibbs, and beat a. kumin, eds., the parish in english life, - dan g. danner parker, douglas h., the praier and complaynte of the ploweman unto christe john r. griffin muir, edward, ritual in early modern europe todd e. johnson burns, j. h. and thomas m. izbicki, eds., conciliarism and papalism francis oakley wengert, timothy j., human freedom, christian righteousness: philip melanchthon's exegetical dispute with erasmus of rotterdam erikarummel den hollander, a. a., de nederlandse bijbelvertalinge, - irvinb. eorst marissen, michael, lutheranism, anti-judaism and bach's "st. john passion" kyle c. sessions de leon-jones, karen silvia, giordano bruno and the kabbalah: prophets, magicians, and rabbis rebecca moore whiting, robert, local responses to the english reformation stanford lehmberg ogier, d. m., reformation and society in guernsey matthew pinson mccullough, peter e., sermons at court: politics and religion in elizabethan and jacobean preaching susan wabuda doerksen, daniel w., conforming to the word: herbert, donne, and the english church before laud annabelles. wenzke maltby, judith, prayer book and people in elizabethan and early stuart england peter iver kaufman cope, esther s., ed., prophetic writings of lady eleanor davies teresa feroli worcester, thomas, seventeenth-century cultural discourse: france and the preaching of bishop camus james c. deming core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core greaves, richard l., dublin's merchant-quaker: anthony sharp and the community of friends, - marcella biro barton jago, judith, aspects of the georgian church: visitation studies of the diocese of york, - myron c. noonkester hindmarsh, d. bruce, john newton and the english evangelical tradition between the conversions of wesley and wilberforce w. r. ward mcleod, hugh, piety and poverty: working-class religion in berlin, london and new york, - david martin davie, martin, british quaker theology since thomas d. hamm swatos, william h., jr. and loftur reimar gissurarson, icelandic spiritualism: mediumship and modernity in iceland s. k. johannesen heschel, susannah, abraham geiger and the jewish jesus arnold eisen melloni, a., ed., vatican ii in moscow ( - ): acts of the colloquium on the history of vatican ii moscow, march -april , john d. basil reese, thomas ]., inside the vatican: the politics and organization of the catholic church sandra yocum mize fulop, timothy e., and albert j. raboteau, eds., african-american religion: interpretive essays in history and culture dennis c. dickerson kuklick, bruce and d. g. hart, eds., religious advocacy and american history chris r. armstrong shriver, george h. and bill j. leonard, eds., encyclopedia of religious controversies in the united states lisa j. pruitt claghorn, george s., ed., the works of jonathan edwards. vol. : letters and personal writings wayne s. hansen carroll, bret e., spiritualism in antebellum america stephen prothero startup, kenneth moore, the root of all evil: the protestant clergy and the economic mind of the old south kurt o. berends sarna, jonathan d., ed., minority faiths and the american protestant mainstream mary farrell bednarowski hamstra, sam, jr. and arie j. griffioen, eds., reformed confessionalism in nineteenth-century america: essays on the thought of john williamson nevin paul westermeyer bealle, john, public worship, private faith: sacred harp and american folksong daniel w. patterson flynt, wayne, alabama baptists: southern baptists in the heart of dixie george h. shriver launius, roger d. and linda thatcher, eds., differing visions: dissenters in mormon history douglas d. alder wider, sarah ann, anna tilden: unitarian culture and the problem of self-representation margaret bendroth albanese, catherine l., a cobbler's universe: religion, poetry and performance in the life of a south italian immigrant david l. salvaterra weisenfeld, judith, african american women and christian activism: new york's black ywca, - cecilia a. moore wilson, charles reagan, judgment and grace in dixie: southern faiths from faulkner to elvis beth barton schweiger siry, joseph m., unity temple: frank lloyd wright and architecture for liberal religion randall balmer hawkins, merrill m., jr., will campbell: radical prophet of the south peter a. huff harding, vincent, martin luther king: the inconvenient hero dwight n. hopkins friedland, michael b., lift up your voice like a trumpet: white clergy and the civil rights and antiwar movements, - james findlay core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core merton, thomas, and patrick hart, o.c.s.o., ed., the other side of the mountain: the end of the journey mark s. massa aldridge, marion d. and kevin lewis, eds., the changing shape of protestantism in the south michael e. williams sr. wright, stuart a., ed., armageddon in waco: critical perspectives on the branch davidian conflict richard kyle demerath, n. j., ill, peter dobkin hall, terry schmitt, and rhys h. williams, eds., sacred companies: organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations r. stephen warner janz, denis r., world christianity and marxism daniel m. bell jr. mckenna, joseph c , finding a social voice: the church and marxism in africa ogbu u. kalu megged, amos, exporting the catholic reformation: local religion in early-colonial mexico carlos m. n. eire drogus, carol ann, women, religion, and social change in brazil's popular church anna l. peterson fletcher, jesse c , bill wallace of china gary j. bekker gilhus, ingvild saelid, laughing gods, weeping virgins: laughter in the history of religion john corrigan coakley, sarah, ed., religion and the body amy hollywood kienzle, beverly mayne and pamela j. walker, eds., women preachers and prophets through two millennia of christianity catherine a. brekus johnson, elizabeth a., friends and prophets: a feminist theological reading of the communion of saints jill raitt kyle, richard, the last days are here again: a history of the end times stephen j. stein collinge, william j., historical dictionary of catholicism richard gribble, c.s.c. mcgonigle, thomas d. and quigley, james f., a history of the christian tradition: from the reformation to the present robert f. rea pellicia, guerrino and giancarlo rocca, eds., dizionario degli istituti di perfezione. vol. : saba-spiritualii pellicia, guerrino and giancarlo rocca, eds., dizionario degli istituti di perfezione. vol. : spiritualita-vezelay bernard mcginn bendix, regina, in search of authenticity: the formation of folklore studies seanmccloud young, lawrence a., ed., rational choice theory and religion: summary and assessment lynn robinson books received core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ gynecological surgery caused vesicovaginal fistula managed by latzko operation available online at www.sciencedirect.com taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e www.tjog-online.com original article gynecological surgery caused vesicovaginal fistula managed by latzko operation chi-yuan liao a , robert shan fon tasi a , dah-ching ding b,* a department of obstetrics and gynecology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan b department of obstetrics and gynecology, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, tzu-chi university, hualien, taiwan accepted february abstract objective: in developed countries, vesicovaginal fistula (vvf) is a rare complication after gynecological surgery. in this report, the latzko procedure was used to repair vvf to evaluate its safety and efficacy. materials and methods: between and , cases in which vvf developed after various gynecological surgeries and repaired using the latzko procedure were included. the cause of vvf and outcome after latzko procedure were reported. the previous published reports regarding latzko procedure were also listed and compared. the median follow-up period was years. results: six cases of vvf were documented in this period. all fistulas were simple type with a fistular size of less than cm. in three of six cases, fistulas developed after a hysterectomy for carcinoma in situ of cervix. of those remaining, one case developed after staging an operation for endometrial adenocarcinoma, while the other two cases occurred after hysterectomy for myoma. five cases were repaired successfully. one case had postoperative complications such as fever and urinary tract infection. intraoperative blood loss and hospital stay were minimal. there was no recurrence of vvf postoperatively among successful cases during the follow-up period. conclusion: adequate exposure of the fistular site is a key point to a successful repair. the latzko method is a minimal access procedure for vvf repair. this technique may be considered a first-line treatment of vv fistula. copyright � , taiwan association of obstetrics & gynecology. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. keywords: hysterectomy; latzko operation; vesicovaginal fistula introduction in developed countries, vesicovaginal fistula (vvf) is often caused by injury to the bladder at the time of pelvic surgery. the rate of iatrogenic bladder injury during abdominal hysterectomies is estimated to be between . % and . % [ ]. mathevet et al [ ] reported the incidence of bladder injury during vaginal hysterectomy to be . % in cases, with all injuries being recognized and repaired intraoperatively. gynecologic surgery is the cause of vvf in % of fistulas [ ]. other causes of vvf in the industrialized world include * corresponding author. department of obstetrics and gynecology, buddhist tzu chi general hospital, tzu chi university, # , section , chung yang road, hualien city, hualien , taiwan. e-mail address: dah @yahoo.com.tw (d.-c. ding). - /$ - see front matter copyright � , taiwan association of obstetri http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . malignant disease, pelvic irradiation, and obstetric trauma, including forceps lacerations and uterine rupture. the most common symptom in patients with vvf is constant urine drainage per vagina. the amount of urine leakage can vary considerably from patient to patient, and may be proportional to the size of the fistula track. in the supine position, when sleeping, the amount of leakage reported by the patient may be minimal; but upon rising to a seated or standing position, the amount of leakage may increase precipitously. most techniques for vv fistular management use a trans- abdominal, transvaginal, or laparoscopic approach. the abdominal route has a good success rate, and is mostly favored by urologists when dealing with complex fistular types. urologists have developed laparoscopic or robotic laparo- scopic approaches, but such methods are technically complex with a steep learning curve. the transvaginal approach is cs & gynecology. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. mailto:dah @yahoo.com.tw www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . http://www.tjog-online.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . c.-y. liao et al. / taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e popularly favored because it has short operative time, brief inpatient stay, quick return to normal activities, and minimal postoperative pain. the latzko repair method is an age-old technique with great popularity among reconstructive surgeons, and has a % success rate. advantages of the latzko procedure include minimal blood loss, zero need for ureteral reimplantation, and short convalescence. however, currently, there is no consensus as to which surgical procedure should be the first line of treatment. we repaired six cases in our hospital using the latzko procedure. in this paper, we present our experience with vvf repair using this technique and compare our results with those in previously published reports. materials and methods patients selection between and , a total of six patients were admitted to the mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan, for the surgical treatment of post-hysterectomy vvf using the latzko method. methods: latzko procedure the patient was placed in the lithotomy position. cysto- scopic inspection of the bilateral ureter orifice was carried out to identify if the ureter orifice was adjacent to the fistula; we catheterized the orifice to avoid unintentional injury. when fig. . the process of latzko operation. (a) circumferential de-epithelialization of vaginal walls. (c) the vaginal fistular site after closure. possible, a pediatric foley catheter size or was inserted into the fistular opening, and then a balloon was inflated within the bladder lumen. this makes the fistula more accessible. depending on fistular size, we then circumcised the vaginal mucosa inclusive of the fistular opening, with a - to -cm oval disk (fig. a). the excised area was divided into four quad- rants for ease of removal of vaginal epithelium. all exposed epithelial tissues in the disk were completely removed. fis- tulectomy was not done in all cases. the epithelial layer around the fistular site on the vaginal wall was denuded and then plicated by interrupted e vicryl sutures (fig. b). foley catheter was removed during plication of this layer. the second layer of interrupted stitches tightens the denuded vesical musculature, and the vaginal wall is closed with further interrupted sutures (fig. c). water seal of fistula site after repair was checked with approximately ml of normal saline. postoperatively, the bladder was decompressed by catheter drainage for to days. patients took laxatives to avoid straining during defe- cation. the following data were recorded: postoperative complication, days of convalescence, recurrence rate, and resumption of satisfactory quality of life. all cases were operated on by the same surgeon (dr chi-yuan liao). results patients’ characteristics are illustrated in table . patients in the reported sample were divided into two groups. group consisted of three patients who received conization of cervix the perifistulous area. (b) closure of the fistula by approximating the denuded table patients’ characteristics (n ¼ ). characteristics values mean age � sd, y (range) . � . ( e ) cause of the fistula, n (%) laparoscopic vaginal hysterectomy ( %) abdominal hysterectomy ( %) mean delay between initial surgery and fistula (d) � sd (range) . � . ( e ) mean size of the fistula � sd (mm), (range) . � . ( e ) previous surgical treatment of the fistula(times) s ( . %) bmi < . . e > parity p p p p bmi ¼ body mass index. c.-y. liao et al. / taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e followed by hysterectomy. out of these three patients, one patient received conization twice while the other two had the procedure done just once. the group patients received hysterectomy without conization. of the three cases in group , one patient developed fistula after undergoing an operation for endometrial adenocarcinoma, while for other two patients this occurred after hysterectomy for myoma. all patients received preoperative evaluations: ultrasonog- raphy, cystoscopy, methylene blue test, tampon test, intrave- nous pyelogaphy, and cystourography. the mean age of the patients is . years, with a range of e years. the fistula type was simple with a size of less than cm in diameter. the median follow-up time was years. most of our patients were obese (body mass index > kg/m , n ¼ ) and premeno- pausal (n ¼ ). history of previous cesarean section was noted in two patients. all patients delivered at least one baby. the main results of this procedure are illustrated in table . the procedure was successful in five cases without sequela. the only case that was unsuccessfully repaired had three previous abdominal surgeries including abdominal total hysterectomy. other nonsurgical preexisting conditions that may have contributed to the difficulties of her surgery include obesity and a congenitally deep, narrow vagina vault. table latzko procedure (n ¼ ). characteristics values median delay between fistula diagnosis and latzko operation (y) (range) . � . ( . e ) mean operative duration (min) � sd (range) . � . ( e ) intraoperative complications, n (%) fever ( %) postoperative complications, n (%) fever ( . %) mean postoperative urinary drainage (d) � sd (range) . � . ( e ) mean postoperative hospital stay (d) � sd (range) . � . ( e ) success rate, n (%) ( . %) no intraoperative complications regarding latzko surgery were noted. one case developed a postoperative urinary tract infection with fever, which responded well to intravenous antibiotics. the mean hospital stay was days. all patients were able to void postoperatively after the removal of the foley catheter. no recurrence was noted in the five success- fully repaired cases. these patients resumed normal vaginal intercourse after being discharged from the hospital. the one patient previously reported as a failed repaired case was subsequently lost to follow-up. table compares the results of this study with those of previously published reports. the success rates of this kind of operation range from % to %. the complication rate and types are both rare. the most common complication of latzko repair is urinary tract infection ( %) followed by bladder lithiasis ( %) [ ]. other reported complications are rare and can include hydroureter ( . %), according to tancer [ ]. the rate of history of previous fistula surgery ranged from % to % (table ). discussion vvf is an uncommon post-hysterectomy complication with a reported incidence of . e . % [ ]. fistulas may be repaired through a transabdominal, transvaginal, or laparoscopic approach depending on the surgeon’s preference and experi- ence. in terms of morbidity, operative time, blood loss, and patient discomfort, latzko repair is comparable with laparo- scopic repair. the advantages of latzko procedure compared to laparoscopy is the short learning curve and zero major operative complication(s) such as bowel injury or trocar- induced epigastric artery injury [ , , ]. the timing of fistula repair is normally e months after fistula development. some of our patients waited somewhere between months and years to seek surgical consultation. this is because the majority sought treatment elsewhere with failed results before coming to our hospital; only two were our own cases. there are several advantages worth noting with the latzko procedure. although the repair does not follow the basic principles of fistula surgerydseparation of all layers, excision of fistula tract, freshening of margins, nonoverlapping suture lines, and tissue interpositiondit still provides excellent results because the vaginal subepithelial layer, which is inverted toward the bladder using a series of inverting sutures, helps to provide the necessary support [ , , ]. we may therefore conclude that the latzko procedure is a simple and easy procedure that can be elected as the first line of treatment for vvf repair. nonetheless, we achieved an . % success rate after our attempts using the latzko method (table ). the only failed case involved a patient whose anatomy and preexisting conditions such as obesity posed a great challenge to repair. the patient’s fistular site was located near the apex of her vagina; a deep and narrow vagina also makes it difficult for the surgeon to access the fistular site via the transvaginal route. we tried the abdominal route as an alternative, but found severe adhesions of the bladder, colon, and fistula that table results of the latzko procedure (english literature review). author, year n previous fistula surgery, n (%) complications, n (%) success, n (%) latzko, [ ] d ( %) (bladder lithiasis) ( %) everett and mattingly, [ ] d ( %) ( %) szendi, [ ] ( %) ( %) ( %) falk and kurman, [ ] d ( %) ( %) rader, [ ] ( %) ( %) ( %) käser, [ ] d ( %) ( %) tancer, [ ] ( %) ( . %) grade hydroureter ( %) ansquer et al, [ ] ( %) ( %) urinary tract infection ( %) present study, ( %) ( %) urinary tract infection ( %) total d ( . %) ( %) c.-y. liao et al. / taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e limited our maneuverability when freeing the fistula. we consulted a urologist who recommended transvesical approach to repair the fistula. however, her family did not accept this treatment proposal. as a result, we performed the latzko procedure as our last treatment option. unfortunately, her case resulted in failure. from this case, we learned that adequate exposure of the fistular site is a key point for successful repair. although factors such as size, location, exposure, and use of radiation are also important factors for a successful repair, the most important factor is commonly the experience of the surgeon [ ]. other important points of surgical techniques include placing the patient in the exaggerated lithotomy position, making a schuchardt incision [ , ], and stabilizing the opening with a bookwalter retractor (codman, raynham, slidell, ma, usa) instead of a deaver retractor (cs surgical inc., la, usa). using a fiberoptic headlight is also recom- mended, if necessary. previously failed repair does not preclude patients from the success of a subsequent latzko procedure. one woman had three attempts with regard to transvaginal repair before she was repaired again with the latzko method. she was free from her symptoms years after her surgery. in three out of six cases, patients who had a hysterectomy followed by a coniza- tion due to carcinoma in situ of cervix, easily developed scars and shortening of cervix, which could be the major cause of fistula formation. latzko procedure offers the advantage of not narrowing the bladder, and theoretically, it does not jeopardize the ureter. dorairajan and coworkers [ ] also reported excellent results with fistular repair using the same technique. however, tancer [ ] reported a case of hydroureter, which was diagnosed weeks after the latzko operation and was successfully managed with an intraureter stent for weeks. in this study, there is no ureter injury. in this study, the average time between the diagnoses of fistula to latzko operation was years, compared to the other series which are often treated within weeks to months [ ]. the longest interval before a patient sought surgical treatment was years. factors such as personal inconvenience, physical discomfort, emotional distress, and the possible medicolegal issue between medical practitioners and patients are the reasons that delayed the vvf repair. traditionally, fistula repair surgery is usually performed e weeks after the previous surgery [ ]. there is no evidence that the failure of surgical repair is related to the time of surgery. in conclusion, the latzko technique is a simple, effective procedure to treat vvf. therefore, it may be considered the first line of the treatment for vaginal repair, unless otherwise contraindicated. references [ ] keettel wc, sehring fg, deprosse ca, scott jr. surgical management of urethrovaginal and vesicovaginal fistulas. am j obstet gynecol ; : e . [ ] mathevet p, valencia p, cousin c, mellier g, dargent d. operative injuries during vaginal hysterectomy. eur j obstet gynecol reprod biol ; : e . [ ] lee ra, symmonds re, williams tj. current status of genitourinary fistula. obstet gynecol ; : e . [ ] latzko w. post operative vesicovaginal fistulas, genesis and therapy. am j surg ; : e . [ ] tancer ml. the post-total hysterectomy (vault) vesicovaginal fistula. j urol ; : e . [ ] modi p, goel r, dodia s. laparoscopic repair of vesicovaginal fistula. urol int ; : e . [ ] ou cs, huang uc, tsuang m, rowbotham r. laparoscopic repair of vesicovaginal fistula. j laparoendosc adv surg tech a ; : e . [ ] sotelo r, mariano mb, garcia-segui a, dubois r, spaliviero m, keklikian w, et al. laparoscopic repair of vesicovaginal fistula. j urol ; : e . [ ] dorairajan ln, khattar n, kumar s, pal bc. latzko repair for ves- icovaginal fistula revisited in the era of minimal-access surgery. int urol nephrol ; : e . [ ] ansquer y, mellier g, santulli p, bennis m, mandelbrot l, madelenat p, et al. latzko operation for vault vesicovaginal fistula. acta obstet gynecol scand ; : e . [ ] gerber gs, schoenberg hw. female urinary tract fistulas. j urol ; : e . [ ] massi g, savino l, susini t. schauta-amreich vaginal hysterectomy and wertheimemeigs abdominal hysterectomy in the treatment of cervical cancer: a retrospective analysis. am j obstet gynecol ; : e . [ ] primicero m, montanino-oliva m, casa a, cirese e. laparoscopic lymphadenectomy and vaginal radical hysterectomy for the treatment of cervical cancer. j am assoc gynecol laparosc ; :s e . [ ] everett hs, mattingly rf. vesicovaginal fistula. am j obstet gynecol ; : e . [ ] szendi b. repair of vesicovaginal fistulas according to latzko. acta med acad sci hung ; : e . [ ] falk h, kurman m. repair of vesicovaginal fistula: report of cases. j urol ; : e . [ ] rader es. post-hysterectomy vesicovaginal fistula: treatment by partial colpocleisis. j urol ; : e . [ ] kaser o. the latzko operation for vesico-vaginal fistulae. acta obstet gynecol scand ; : e . 	gynecological surgery caused vesicovaginal fistula managed by latzko operation 	introduction 	materials and methods 	patients selection 	methods: latzko procedure 	results 	discussion 	references master layout sheet ataxia-telangiectasia (a-t) is an autosomal recessive genomic instability syndrome characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous telangiectasias, immuno- deficiency, hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation, and cancer predisposition, with lymphoid malignancies predominating in the first two decades of life - . mutations in the ataxia- telangiectasia mutated (atm) gene result in markedly decreased or absent levels of atm kinase, a protein that phosphorylates many downstream targets. a deficiency of atm kinase leads to cell cycle defects, faulty repair of dna damage, defective apoptosis, and poor responses to oxidative stress , , . abstract: background: the onset of progressive cerebellar ataxia in early childhood is considered a key feature of ataxia- telangiectasia (a-t), accompanied by ocular apraxia, telangiectasias, immunodeficiency, cancer susceptibility and hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation. methods: we describe the clinical features and course of three mennonite children who were diagnosed with a-t following the completion of therapy for lymphoid malignancies. results: prior to cancer therapy, all had non-progressive atypical neurological abnormalities, with onset by age months, including dysarthria, dyskinesia, hypotonia and/or dystonia, without telangiectasias. cerebellar ataxia was noted in only one of the children and was mild until his death at age eight years. none had severe infections. all three children were "cured" of their lymphoid malignancies, but experienced severe adverse effects from the treatments administered. the two children who received cranial irradiation developed supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the brain, an association not previously described, with fatal outcomes. conclusions: the range of neurological presentations of a-t is broad. ataxia and telangiectasias may be minimal or absent and the course seemingly non-progressive. the diagnosis of a-t should be considered in all children with neuromotor dysfunction or peripheral neuropathy, particularly those who develop lymphoid malignancies. the consequences of missing the diagnosis may be dire. radiation therapy and radiomimetic drugs should be avoided in individuals with a-t. rÉsumÉ: mode de présentation atypique et toxicité du traitement anticancéreux chez les patients atteints d’ataxie-télangiectasie. contexte : l’apparition d’une ataxie cérébelleuse progressive dans la petite enfance est considérée comme une manifestation clé de l’ataxie-télangiectasie (a-t), accompagnée d’apraxie oculaire, de télangiectasies, d’un déficit immunitaire, de susceptibilité au cancer et d’hypersensibilité aux radiations ionisantes. méthodes : nous décrivons les manifestations cliniques et l’évolution chez trois enfants mennonites chez qui un diagnostic d’a-t a été posé après un traitement pour cancer lymphoïde. résultats : avant le traitement anticancéreux, tous présentaient des anomalies neurologiques atypiques non évolutives, dont l’âge de début se situait vers mois, soit de la dysarthrie, des dyskinésies, de l’hypotonie et/ou de la dystonie sans télangiectasies. une ataxie cérébelleuse a été notée chez un seul des enfants et elle est demeurée légère jusqu’à son décès à l’âge de huit ans. aucun n’a présenté d’infection grave. les trois enfants ont été « guéris » de leur cancer lymphoïde. cependant tous ont présenté des effets secondaires du traitement. les deux enfants qui ont reçu une irradiation crânienne ont présenté des tumeurs cérébrales neuroectodermiques primitives sus-tentorielles, une association jamais décrite auparavant, dont l’issue a été fatale. conclusions : le mode de présentations neurologiques de l’a-t est vaste. l’ataxie et les télangiectasies peuvent être minimes ou absentes et sans évolution apparente. le diagnostic d’a-t devrait être envisagé chez tous les enfants qui présentent une dysfonction neuromotrice ou une neuropathie périphérique, surtout chez ceux qui présentent éventuellement un cancer lymphoïde. si le diagnostic n’est pas posé, les conséquences peuvent être sérieuses. la radiothérapie et les médicaments radiomimétiques devraient être évités chez les individus atteints d’a-t. can. j. neurol. sci. ; : - ataxia-telangiectasia: atypical presentation and toxicity of cancer treatment rochelle a. yanofsky, sashi s. seshia, angelika j. dawson, kent stobart, cheryl r. greenberg, frances a. booth, chitra prasad, marc r. del bigio, jens j. wrogemann, francesca fike, richard a. gatti from the section of pediatric hematology/oncology (ray, ks), department of pediatrics & child health (ray, ajd, crg, fab), departments of biochemistry & medical genetics (ajd, crg), division of laboratory medicine & pathology, section of genetics and metabolism (ajd), university of manitoba & health sciences centre (ajd, mrd, jjw), winnipeg, mb; section of pediatric neurology (sss), department of pediatrics, university of saskatchewan, saskatoon, sk; department of pediatrics, northern alberta children’s cancer program (ks), university of alberta, edmonton, ab; department of pediatrics (cp), university of western ontario, london, on, canada; department of pathology (mrd), diagnostic imaging, section of pediatric radiology (jjw), departments of pathology & laboratory medicine and human genetics (ff, rag), ucla/geffen school of medicine, los angeles, ca, usa. received february , . final revisions submitted march , . correspondence to: rochelle a. yanofsky, section of pediatric hematology/oncology, cancercare manitoba, mcdermot ave., winnipeg, manitoba, r e v , canada. originalarticle https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – july we describe three mennonite children who were diagnosed with a-t after completing treatment for lymphoid malignancies. all had mild, atypical, seemingly non-progressive pre-existing neurological abnormalities, without telangiectasias. subsequently, all suffered severe adverse effects of cancer therapy; two developed supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors (pnet) of the brain following cranial irradiation. case reports patient (index case) this child was born at term to a mennonite mother and a salvadorian father. consanguinity was denied. the family history was positive for dystonia in several maternal male and female cousins, many of whom are now over years old; none were available for examination. the child was noted to be clumsy at age one year, when he began to walk. speech was delayed. he was diagnosed with t-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (t-all) without central nervous system involvement at age months. he was treated with multiagent systemic chemotherapy, intrathecal chemotherapy, cranial irradiation ( centigray [cgy]) and mediastinal irradiation ( cgy), according to pediatric oncology group protocol . he did not experience excessive toxicity during treatment. his care was transferred to our center three months after he completed therapy. dysarthria, jerky movements of the eyes, face, head and neck, generalized dyskinesia, and mild ataxia were noted at that time, with no telengiectasias. he drooled continually. his mother did not feel that his neurological function had deteriorated since infancy. a serum alpha-fetoprotein (afp) level was performed as a screening test for a-t when he was four years and four months old, and was elevated (table). subsequent testing confirmed the diagnosis of a-t (table and figure ). magnetic resonance imaging (mri) of the brain was normal, as were his serum igg, iga, and igm levels. at age seven years and nine months, he presented with recurrent vomiting and lethargy. magnetic resonance imaging of the brain showed two mixed cystic and solid tumors with peripheral enhancement, including one in the left temporoparietal region ( . to . cm diameter) and one in the left occipital lobe ( . - . cm diameter) (figure ). the histologic diagnosis was supratentorial pnet (figure ). gross residual tumor remained following surgery. the family opted for palliation. the child died four months later. an autopsy was not performed. patient this child was born at term to mennonite parents, who were second cousins. the family history was positive for familial dystonia in several paternal male and female relatives, including the father’s sister, who is now over years old and has cervical dystonia. the child was noted to have poor balance and coordination when he started to walk at age one year. he table: results of testing for ataxia-telangiectasia (a-t) patient age at diagnosis of a-t y, mo y y serum afp* (µg/l) rearrangements of chromosomes & † increased increased increased colony survival assay (survival fraction)‡ % % % atm protein§ absent absent absent *serum alpha-fetoprotein: normal range - after age two years; †cytogenetic analysis of spontaneous and bleomycin-treated peripheral blood lymphocytes ; ‡radiosensitivity assay. diagnostic range is < % , ; §ataxia-telangiectasia mutated protein (immunoblot) . figure : immunoblot of nuclear lysates, developed with antibodies to atm and aprataxin (aptx) (loading control). note absence of atm protein in patients , and . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences exhibited choreiform posturing of his hands and twisting movements of his mouth. he was diagnosed with familial dystonia. he did not have telangiectasias, then or subsequently. his development was normal. he was diagnosed with high-risk t-cell all with central nervous system involvement at age months. computed tomogram scan of the brain performed with and without contrast revealed no significant abnormalities. he received multiagent chemotherapy, intrathecal methotrexate, and craniospinal irradiation ( cgy to the brain and cgy to the spine), according to regimen c of children’s cancer group protocol . he exhibited neurodevelopmental regression ten months after starting therapy, and was considered to have severe treatment-related leuko-encephalopathy, a diagnosis supported by mri of the brain. he completed therapy at age six years. seizures, growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, precocious puberty, bilateral conductive hearing loss, and scoliosis were diagnosed between ages eight and ten years. because of the severe adverse effects that he experienced from radiation therapy, his pre-existing neurological abnor- malities, and our experience with the index case, he was evaluated for a-t at age ten years. his serum afp level was elevated (table). subsequent testing confirmed the diagnosis of a-t (table and figure ). the child developed a right hemiparesis and lethargy at age years. an mri of the brain showed two mixed solid and cystic tumors, including one in the left parieto-occipital lobe ( . to . cm in diameter), and one in the left parietal region ( . to . cm diameter) (figure ). the solid portion of the masses showed avid gadolinium enhancement. the histologic diagnosis was supratentorial pnet (figure ). gross residual tumor remained following surgery. the family opted for palliation. the child died six months later. an autopsy was not performed. patient this child was born at term to an australian mother and a mennonite father. patients and were second cousins. patient was not related to patient by family history. generalized hypotonia was evident by age months, accompanied by delayed fine motor skills, clumsiness, and slurred speech. his handwriting was subsequently noted to be slow and disorganized. at age years he presented with generalized lymphadenopathy and was diagnosed with stage iv t-cell lymphoblastic non-hodgkin lymphoma, with bone marrow involvement, but no central nervous system involvement. he was lymphopenic, with an absolute lymphocyte count of . x /l (normal . to . ). serum igg, iga, and igm levels were normal. he received intensive multiagent chemotherapy and intrathecal methotrexate, without radiation therapy, according to children’s cancer group protocol . he completed treatment at age thirteen years and six months. he had significant problems with peripheral neuropathy, a toxicity which was likely due to vincristine, and which has still not completely resolved. because of his pre-existing neurological abnormalities and his relationship to patient , he was screened for a-t at age seventeen years. his serum afp level was elevated (table). figure : patient : axial t -weighted mri at level of basal ganglia showing multifocal pnet (arrows) and white matter injury from previous chemotherapy and radiotherapy (arrowheads). figure : patient : microscopic examination of the tumor showed a highly cellular small cell neoplasm with brisk mitotic activity and necrosis. the cells were immunoreactive for s , neuron specific enolase (nse), synaptophysin, protein gene product . (pgp . ), neuronal nuclei (neun) (regional), ki (> %) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (gfap) (very rare), but not epithelial membrane antigen (ema) or cytokeratin cam . . the final diagnosis was supratentorial pnet (who grade iv). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – july subsequent testing confirmed the diagnosis of a-t (table and figure ). at age years, his neurologic status is stable. he remains cancer-free. discussion individuals with “classic” a-t are usually ataxic by age two years, and are often wheelchair-bound by age ten years. telangiectasias are typically evident by age six to ten years , - . our patients had seemingly non-progressive neurological abnormalities, including dysarthria, dyskinesia, generalized hypotonia and/or dystonia, and drooling, without telangiectasias. only patient was ataxic when first referred. none had excessive problems with recurrent infection, even while receiving treatment for their lymphoid malignancies. milder phenotypes or atypical presentations of a-t have been described in the literature , , - . some individuals with a-t have no neurological signs or symptoms . others have no telangiectasias, even in adulthood , , . mild ataxia, the onset of ataxia in adulthood, , , slow neurological deterioration , a progressive axonal sensorimotor polyneuropathy - , and late- onset spinal muscular atrophy have also been described. extrapyramidal features are more prominent in older children. dystonia , or chorea may be the initial or most prominent manifestation of a-t. oculomotor apraxia , , drooling, progressive hypomimia, slow speech with abnormalities of articulation, and progressive difficulty with chewing and swallowing are commonly seen , - , , . handwriting is typically affected by age eight years . milder a-t phenotypes are sometimes associated with missense mutations and/or reduced (but detectable) amounts of atm protein , , - , , , . our a-t patients had a “milder” neurological phenotype. however, they had no atm protein and did not have missense mutations, nor did they have the c. g>t atm mutation previously reported in other mennonite families , . the results of their genotyping and haplotying analyses are beyond the scope of this paper and will be reported subsequently. the lifetime frequency of cancer in a-t patients approaches % , with % of patients developing more than one malignancy . as exemplified by our patients, the diagnosis of malignancy may precede the diagnosis of a-t , ; management of the cancer may be confounded by increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation and radiomimetic drugs - . patients , , and were cured of their lymphoid malignancies. however, all had severe adverse effects from the treatment that they received. patient had a severe peripheral neuropathy which was likely due to vincristine. this is in keeping with the reported heightened sensitivity to the neurotoxic effects of vincristine seen in individuals with neuromuscular disorders . patients and received cranial irradiation; both developed a second malignant neoplasm (a supratentorial pnet of the brain). this was likely radiation-induced, and had a fatal outcome. while medulloblastomas , , , astrocytomas , , - , craniopharyngiomas , and primary central nervous system (cns) lymphomas have been described in individuals with a- t, supratentorial pnet’s have not. also of note is that atm gene mutations do not appear to play a role in the pathogenesis of figure : patient : axial t -weighted mri at level of lateral ventricles showing multifocal pnet (arrows) and white matter injury from previous chemotherapy and radiotherapy (arrowheads). figure : patient : microscopic examination of the tumor showed a highly cellular small cell neoplasm with brisk mitotic activity and endothelial hyperplasia. the cells were immunoreactive for pgp . , synaptophysin (regional), neun (rare), and ki (~ %), but not gfap or cytokeratin cam . . the final diagnosis was supratentorial pnet (who grade iv). https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the canadian journal of neurological sciences medulloblastoma in children who do not have a-t . the development of a pnet of the brain following cranial irradiation has been described in individuals without a-t, but is very uncommon; it is usually fatal . to our knowledge, our patients represent the first published cases of a second malignant neoplasm in the radiation field in patients witha-t, as well as the first published cases of a supratentorial pnet of the brain following cranial irradiation in individuals with a-t. it is intriguing that the brain tumors seen in these two patients appeared to be multifocal. patient also experienced many other adverse effects of craniospinal irradiation, including leukoencephalopathy, growth hormone deficiency, precocious puberty, hypothyroidism, bilateral conductive hearing loss, and scoliosis. leuko- encephalopathy has been described in children with a-t after prophylactic cranial irradiation as well as in children without a-t. serum alpha-fetoprotein is a simple, rapid, and reliable screening test for a-t; it is elevated in more than % of a-t cases . cytogenetic studies reveal rearrangements involving chromosomes and in to percent of normal peripheral blood lymphocytes in individuals with a-t - . however, karyotyping can be technically difficult because the patients are often lymphopenic and the lymphocytes may not respond well to phytohemagglutinin (pha). confirmatory tests for a-t include the colony radio-sensitivity assay and identification of the atm protein by immunoblotting , , - . these tests currently take three months to complete. dna sequencing is usually not definitive because the full spectrum of atm mutations has not yet been established and not all mutations are detected by any single laboratory platform . a new flow cytometry-based assay that detects atm kinase activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells promises to shorten diagnostic testing to three days . the range of neurological presentations of a-t is broad. ataxia may be minimal or absent and the course seemingly non- progressive. the diagnosis of a-t should be considered in all children with neuromotor dysfunction or peripheral neuropathy, especially those who develop acute lymphoblastic leukemia, non-hodgkin lymphoma or hodgkin lymphoma. radiation therapy and radiomimetic drugs such as bleomycin are best avoided in a-t patients with cancer , , , . the observations herein suggest that cranial irradiation may be especially dangerous. the need for a cooperative experience in the treatment of a-t patients who develop cancer is being addressed by the a-t cancer clinic at st. jude children’s research hospital . acknowledgements the authors thank dr. shareef nahas for his technical assistance; diane riordan for her cytogenetic expertise; dr. sara israels for critiquing the manuscript; and florinia vicente for her assistance in preparing the manuscript. funding sources dr. gatti’s work was supported by grants from the ataxia- telangiectasia medical research foundation (los angeles), the a-t ease foundation (new york), and usphs grants ns and ai . references . chun hh, gatti ra. ataxia telangiectasia, an evolving phenotype. dna repair. ; : - . . regueiro jr, porras o, lavin m, gatti ra. ataxia-telangiectasia. a primary immunodeficiency revisited. immunol allergy clin n am. ; : - . . spacey sd, gatti ra, bebb g. the molecular basis and clinical management of ataxia telangiectasia. can j neurol sci. ; : - . . crawford to. ataxia telangiectasia. sem pediatr neurol. ; : - . . gatti ra, boder e, vinters hv, sparkes rs, norman a, lange k. ataxia-telangiectasia: an interdisciplinary approach to pathogenesis. medicine. ; : - . . boder e. ataxia-telangiectasia: an overview. in: gatti ra, swift a, editors. ataxia-telangiectasia: genetics, neuropathology, and immunology of a degenerative disease of childhood. new york, ny: alan r. liss; . p. - . . gatti ra, good ra. occurrence of malignancy in immuno- deficiency diseases. cancer. ; : - . . boder e, sedgwick rp. ataxia-telangiectasia. a familial syndrome of progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous telangiectasia, and frequent pulmonary infection. pediatrics. ; : - . . morrell d, cromartie e, swift m. mortality and cancer incidence in patients with ataxia telangiectasia. j natl cancer inst. ;( ): - . . taylor amr, metcalfe ja, thick j, mak y-f. leukemia and lymphoma in ataxia telangiectasia. blood. ; : - . . gatti ra. ataxia-telangiectasia. in: scriver cr, beaudet al, sly ws, valle d, editors. the metabolic & molecular bases of inherited disease. th ed. new york, ny: mcgraw-hill; . p. - . . cabana md, crawford to, winkelstein ja, christensen jr, lederman hml. consequences of the delayed diagnosis of ataxia-telangiectasia. pediatrics. ; : - . . gilad s, chessa l, khosravi r, russell p, galanty y, piane m, et al. genotype-phenotype relationships in ataxia-telangiectasia and variants. am j hum genet. ; : - . . alterman n, fattal-valevski a, moyal l, crawford to, lederman hm, ziv y, et al. ataxia-telangiectasia: mild neurological presentation despite null atm mutation and severe cellular phenotype. am j med genet a. ; : - . . crawford to, skolasky rl, fernandez r, rosquist kj, lederman hm. survival probability in ataxia telangiectasia. arch dis child. ; : - . . tayloramr, byrd pj. molecular pathology of ataxia telangiectasia. j clin pathol. ; : - . . trimis gg, athanassaki ck, kanariou mm, giannoulia-karantana aa. unusual absence of neurologic symptoms in a six-year old girl with ataxia-telangiectasia. j postgrad med. ; : - . . tayloramr, grooma, byrd pj.ataxia-telangiectasia-like disorder (atld)-its clinical presentation and molecular basis. dna repair. ; : - . . sutton ij, last jik, ritchie sj, harrington hj, byrd pj, taylor amr. adult-onset ataxia telangiectasia due to atm ins mutation homozygosity. ann neurol. ; : - . . dork t, bendix-waltes r, wegner r-d, stumm m. slow progression of ataxia-telangiectasia with double missense and in frame splice mutations. am j med genet. ; a: - . . saviozzi s, saluto a, taylor amr, last jil, trebini f, paradiso mc, et al. a late onset variant of ataxia-telangiectasia with a compound heterozygous genotype, a g/ insa. j med genet. ; : - . . goyal v, behari m. dystonia as presenting manifestation of ataxia telangiectasia: a case report. neurol india. ; : - . . crawford to, mandir as, lefton-greif ma, goodman sn, goodman sn, sengul h, et al. quantitative neurologic assessment of ataxia-telangiectasia. neurology. ; : - . . lavin mf, concannon p, gatti ra. eighth international workshop on ataxia-telangiectasia (atw ). cancer res. ; : - . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques volume , no. – july . larnaout a, belal s, ben hamida c, ben hamida l, hentatif f. atypical ataxia telangiectasia with early childhood lower motor neuron degeneration: a clinicopathological observation in three siblings. j neurol. ; : - . . klein c, wenning gk, quinn np, marsden cd. ataxia without telangiectasia masquerading as benign hereditary chorea. mov disord. ; : - . . mcconville cm, stankovic t, byrd pj, mcguire qyy, lennox gg, taylor mr. mutations associated with variant phenotypes in ataxia-telangiectasia. am j hum genet. ; : - . . bodensteiner jb, goldblum rm, goldman as. progressive dystonia masking ataxia in ataxia-telangiectasia. arch neurol. ; : - . . verhagen mm, van alfen n, pillen s, weemaes cm, yntema jl, hiel jap, et al. neuromuscular abnormalities in ataxia telangiectasia: a clinical, electrophysiological and muscle ultrasound study. neuropediatrics. ; : - . . willems pj, van roy bc, kleijer wj, van der kraan m, martin jj. atypical clinical presentation of ataxia telangiectasia. am j med genet. ; : - . . wong v, yu yl, chan-lui wy, woo e, yeung cy. ataxia telangiectasia in chinese children. a clinical and electro- physiological study. clin neurol neurosurg. ; : - . . barbieri f, santoro l, crisci c, massini r, russo e, campanella g. is the sensory neuropathy in ataxia telangiectasia distinguishable from that in friedreich’s ataxia? morphometric and ultrastructural study of the sural nerve in a case of louis bar syndrome. acta neuropathol. ; : - . . lewis rf, crawford to. slow target-directed eye movements in ataxia-telangiectasia. invest opthalmol vis sci (ivos). ; : - . . lewis rf, lederman hm, crawford to. ocular motor abnor- malities in ataxia telangiectasia. ann neurol. ; : - . . chun hh, sun x, nahas sa, teraoka s, lai ch, concannon p, et al. a. improved diagnostic testing for ataxia-telangiectasia by immunoblotting of nuclear lysates for atm protein expression. mol genet metab. ; : - . . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet. ; a: - . . mitui a, bernatowska e, pietrucha b, piotrowska-jastrzebska j, eng l, nahas s, et. al. atm gene founder haplotypes and associated mutations in polish families with ataxia- telangiectasia. ann hum genet. ; : - . . loeb dm, lederman hm, winkelstein ja. lymphoid malignancy as a presenting sign of ataxia-telangiectasia. j pediatr hemat oncol. ; : - . . gotoff sp, amirmokri e, liebner ej. ataxia telangiectasia. neoplasia, untoward response to x-irradiation, and tuberous sclerosis. am j dis child. ; : - . . abadir r, hakami n. ataxia telangiectasia with cancer. an indication for reduced radiotherapy and chemotherapy doses. br j radiol. ; : - . . hart rm, kimler bf, evans rg, park ch. radiotherapeutic management of medulloblastoma in a pediatric patient with ataxia telangiectasia. int j radiat oncol biol phys. ; : - . . pritchard j, sandland mr, breatnach fb, pincott jr, cox r, husband p. the effects of radiation therapy for hodgkin’s disease in a child with ataxia telangiectasia: a clinical, biological and pathological study. cancer. ; : - . . toledano sr, lange bj. ataxia-telangiectasia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia. cancer. ; : - . . cunliffe pn, mann jr, cameron ah, roberts kd. radiosensitivity in ataxia-telangiectasia. br j radiol. ; : - . . morgan jl, holcomb tm, morrissey rw. radiation reaction in ataxia telangiectasia. amer j dis child. ; : - . . kersey jh, spector bd, good ra. primary immunodeficiency diseases and cancer: the immunodeficiency-cancer registry. int j cancer. ; : - . . shuster j, hart z, stimson cw, brough aj, poulik md. ataxia telangiectasia with cerebellar tumor. pediatr. ; : - . . varan a, büyükpamukçu m, ersoy f, sanal Ö, akyüz c, kutluk t, et al. malignant solid tumors associated with congenital immunodeficiency disorders. pediatr hematol oncol. ; : - . . miyagi k, mukawa j, kinjo n, horikawa k, mekaru s, nakasone s, et al. astrocytoma linked to familial ataxia-telegiectasia. acta neurochir (wien). ; : - . . groot-loonen jj, slater r, taminiau j, voûte pa. three consecutive primary malignancies in one patient during childhood. pediatr hematol oncol. ; : - . . berkel ai, ersoy f. ataxia-telangiectasia and malignancies. turk j pediatr. ; : - . . masri at, bakri fg, al-hadidy am, musharbash af, al-hussaini m. ataxia-telangiectasia complicated by craniopharyngioma – a new observation. pediatr neurol. ; : - . . murphy rc, berdon we, ruzal-shapiro c, hall ej, kornecki a, daneman a, et al. malignancies in pediatric patients with ataxia- telangiectasia. pediatr radiol. ; : - . . liberzon e, avigad s, cohen ij, yaniv i, michovitz s, zaizov r. atm gene mutations are not involved in medulloblastoma in children. cancer genet cytogenet. ; : - . . hader wj, drovini-zis k, maguire ja. primitive neuroectodermal tumors in the central nervous system following cranial irradiation. cancer. ; : - . . eyre ja, gardner-medwin d, summerfield gp. leuko- encephalopathy after prophylactic irradiation for leukemia in ataxia telangiectasia. arch dis child. ; : - . . lowery mc, sinclair-hess c, carey jc, brothman ar. ataxia telangiectasia revitalized: the importance of cytogenetic analysis in the diagnosis of at. appl cytogenet. ; : - . . kojis tl, gatti ra, sparkes rs. the cytogenetics of ataxia- telangiectasia. cancer genet cytogenet. ; : - . . aurias a, dutrillaux b, buriot d, lejeune j. high frequencies of inversions and translocations of chromosomes and in ataxia telangiectasia. mutat res. ; : - . . sun x, becker-catania sg, chun hh, hwang mj, huo y, wang z, et al. early diagnosis of ataxia-telangiectasia using radiosensitivity testing. j pediatr. ; : - . . huo yk, wang z, hong jh, chessa l, mcbride wh, perlman sl, et al. radiosensitivity of ataxia-telangiectasia, x-linked agamma-globulinemia, and related syndromes using a modified colony survival assay. cancer res. ; : - . . perlman s, becker-catania s, gatti ra. ataxia-telangiectasia: diagnosis and treatment. sem pediatr neurol. ; : - . . mitui m, nahas sa, chun hh, gatti ra. diagnosis of ataxia- telangiectasia: atm mutation associated with cancer. in: nakamura rm, grody ww, wu jt, nagle rb, editors. cancer diagnostics: current and future trends. totowa, nj: humana press; . p. - . . nahas sa, butch aw, du l, gatti ra. rapid flow cytometry-based structural maintenance of chromosomes (smc ) phosphor- ylation assay for identification of ataxia-telangiectasia homozygotes and heterozygotes. clin chem. ;jan . [epub ahead of print]. . sandoval c, swift m. treatment of lymphoid malignancies in patients with ataxia-telangiectasia. med pediatr oncol. ; : - . https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core genomic continuity of argentinean mennonites scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep www.nature.com/scientificreports genomic continuity of argentinean mennonites jacobo pardo-seco , ,*, cintia llull , gabriela berardi , andrea gómez , fernando andreatta , federico martinón-torres , , ulises toscanini & antonio salas , ,* mennonites are anabaptist communities that originated in central europe about years ago. they initially migrated to different european countries, and in the early th century they established their first communities in north america, from where they moved to other american regions. we aimed to analyze an argentinean mennonite congregation from a genome-wide perspective by way of investigating > . autosomal snps. several analyses show that argentinean mennonites have european ancestry without signatures of admixture with other non-european american populations. among the worldwide datasets used for population comparison, the ceu, which is the best-subrogated central european population existing in the genome project, is the dataset showing the closest genome affinity to the mennonites. when compared to other european population samples, the mennonites show higher inbreeding coefficient values. argentinean mennonites show signatures of genetic continuity with no evidence of admixture with americans of native american or sub-saharan african ancestry. their genome indicates the existence of an increased endogamy compared to other europeans most likely mirroring their lifestyle that involve small communities and historical consanguineous marriages. anabaptists represent a christian movement that traces its origins to the th century, at the time of the radical reformation in europe. it differentiates from other movements in their assertion of the necessity of adult baptism, in contrast to the infant baptism practiced by the roman catholic church . there are several anabaptists commu- nities, as for instance, the amish, hutterites, and mennonites; being the amish the largest one. the mennonites separated from the amish already in the late ’s, and they slightly diverged from amish in regards to their costumes and lifestyle (http://jamesportmissouri.org/index.html, refs and ). their denomination comes from the anabaptist religious leader menno simons ( – ). initial migrations of mennonites to america originated in the netherlands and west germany (krefeld) and disembarked in new york and germantown in the th century. prussian mennonites mainly settled in the unites states, while the chostitza (present-day ukraine) migrants largely moved to the manitoba province in canada. starting in the early s, some colonists migrated from canada to the provinces of chihuahua and durango in mexico, and to a lesser extent to different destinations in south america, namely paraguay, bolivia, uruguay and brazil. nowadays, there are about . million mennonites worldwide (http://gameo.org; ), and about . live in south america, most of them in paraguay, bolivia and brazil. small communities were also established in argentina and uruguay very recently. the argentinean mennonite colony ‘la nueva esperanza’ was established in the mid s in the department of guatraché, in la pampa province, where other immigrant communities of non-mennonite origin also exist nowadays , . the first settlers arrived in , when they initially acquired the lands that would later be structured and subdivided according to their socio-political rules. the founding members of ‘la nueva esperanza’ origi- nated from the mexican and bolivian communities, and belong to the anabaptist branch known as Ältkolonier reinlaender mennoniten gemeinde (Ärmg) or ‘the community of mennonites from the old colony of unidade de xenética, departamento de anatomía patolóxica e ciencias forenses, instituto de ciencias forenses, facultade de medicina, universidade de santiago de compostela, and genpop research group, instituto de investigaciones sanitarias (idis), hospital clínico universitario de santiago, galicia, spain. grupo de investigación en genética, vacunas, infecciones y pediatría (genvip), hospital clínico universitario and universidade de santiago de compostela (usc), galicia, spain. pricai-fundación favaloro, buenos aires, argentina. hospital dr manuel freire, guatrache, la pampa, argentina. infectious diseases and vaccines unit, department of pediatrics, hospital clínico universitario de santiago, santiago de compostela, galicia, spain. *these authors contributed equally to this work. correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to a.s. (email: antonio.salas@usc.es) received: june accepted: october published: november open http://jamesportmissouri.org/index.html http://gameo.org mailto:antonio.salas@usc.es www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep reinland’, who initially reached these latitudes in search of new horizons to expand their population where their religious, educational and socio-cultural traditions could be respected, also in a legal state frame , , – . historical records indicate that pioneers of the argentinean mennonite community came from chostitza and ultimately central europe, pointing to the netherlands as the core of the original mennonite diaspora , . apart from the early studies on classical markers (e.g. refs and ), only a few molecular genetic studies have been carried out on mennonite communities , , ; a few other studies have focused on other non-mennonite anabaptist communities . thus, two very early studies carried out by jaworsky et al. , analyzed genetic con- ditions among canadian mennonites in regards to the old colony (chortitza) mennonites; the authors focused on their singular epidemiological characteristics as well as molecular genetic features related to common and rare inherited disease. the more recent study by demarchi et al. analyzed apoliproproteins and lpl variation in mennonites from kansas and nebraska, the study indicating important frequency differences with respect to other europeans. the analysis carried out by demarchi and colleagues could not however identify the causes for such differences. strauss and puffenberger reviewed medical genetic conditions of mennonites from pennsylvania, highlighting the need of these medical studies for disease prevention and reduction of medical costs in these communities. the two most recent articles carried out on mennonites focused on the analysis of uniparental markers in a population genetic context. thus, melton et al. sequenced segments of the mito- chondrial dna (mtdna) control region of mennonite communities from the usa; the authors reported the non-admixture nature of these communities. males from the congregation of ‘la nueva esperanza’ were recently analyzed for a selection of y-chromosome short tandem repeats (ystrs); ref. . this study revealed that the y-chromosomes of mennonites from ‘la nueva esperanza’ are genetically related to populations living in central europe, with the netherlands being the population that best represents the genetic background of this commu- nity. the sample from ‘la nueva esperanza’ exhibited lower variability when compared to variation observed in neighboring populations, which was attributed to a higher level of endogamy. besides, analyses of male lineages in this population did not show signals of admixture with native american, african, or other local groups. however, it is important to note that y-chromosome analysis may fail to detect admixture when the inbreeding with local people is low and/or when the sample size is limited . the aim of the present study was to carry out a genome-wide study of the mennonite community of ‘la nueva esperanza’. genome-wide studies offer several advantages with regards to uniparental markers. for instance, single genomes can be informative concerning historical admixture and demography (e.g. refs and ). it was expected that results of this analysis would shed light on the genetic background of mennonites and be of interest from socio-anthropological, medical, and forensic genetic perspectives. results identity-by-descent, identity-by-state, and multidimensional scaling analysis. analyses of identity-by-descent (ibd) values were carried out in order to detect close relationships between individuals that could not be detected based on the genealogical information provided by the donors. this analysis allowed the identification of a few cryptic relationships (fig.  a). figure  b summarizes ibd values in mennonites, while fig.  c uses the ceu population for comparison. a total of five individuals showing ibd values > . were elim- inated to prevent interference with other analyses. f-inbreeding coefficients (fixation indexes) were obtained for mennonites and other reference european samples from the genome project (hereafter g). mennonites show the highest fixation index when compared to europeans (fig.  b), and this difference is statistically significant (mann-whitney test, p-value < . ). the multidimensional-scaling (mds) plot based on identity-by-state (ibs) values (fig.  a) displays three main clusters located at the vertices of a triangle, and representing the three main continental groups, europe, africa and asia. while dimension (accounting for ~ % of the variation) separates african profiles from european and asian ones, dimension (~ %) separates asian from european and african profiles. a number of samples from different population groups fall in between these three main clusters, reflecting the existence of two or three-side admixture. mennonite variation falls perfectly within the european cluster, with no evidence of admixture with other continental groups. within europe, mennonites cluster together with the ceu and the gbr samples (fig.  b). the dendogram in fig.  c identifies the mennonites within the european cluster, with the ceu being the most closely related population set. average ibs distances (fig.  d) between mennonites and reference popula- tions indicate that mennonites are closely related to other europeans from g. in particular, the ceu is the population with closest genetic affinity with the mennonites. fst were also computed between mennonites and different datasets. in good agreement with the analysis of ibs, the data indicate that the mennonites are closely related to the european datasets. the highest fst were found to be with africans and asians (figure s ). a mds plot based on fst values reasserts this observation, while a dendogram indicates that the mennonites are located in the european cluster, in a separate branch to the rest of the other european datasets used (figure s ). additional analysis carried out using other european population sets form behar et al. and human genome diversity project (data not shown) also indicate that the ceu is the most closely related population to the mennonites. admixture analysis of mennonite genomic profiles. admixture analysis was carried out using a selection of g population sets that represent the main continental ancestries. with the selected popula- tions, k = yielded the analysis with the lowest cross validation value; this analysis classifies profiles into four main groups that coincide with europeans, native americans (represented here by peruvians), east asians, and sub-saharan africans (fig.  a). this analysis allocates most of the mennonite genomic variation ( . % on average) to european ancestry. www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep the results of pcadmix show virtually the same results (fig.  b,c), with ~ % of the ancestry allocated to the european cluster. d-statistics. the f -statistic test determines whether the relationships between three populations can be explained with or without admixture, while the f -statistic adds additional information about the direction of the gene flow. we carried out these analyses in order to explore if the mennonite profiles could be explained by recent admixture between european variations and african and/or native american ones. both f -statistics and f -statistics showed no evidence of admixture (fig.  ). discussion and conclusions the present study represents the first attempt aimed at exploring genome-wide snp variation of mennonites. previous efforts were carried out on uniparental markers, using y-strs and mtdna control region variation , , . uniparental markers have however some limitations for the interpretation of historical admixture when explored individually. the historical routes followed by mennonite communities once they arrived to america from european coun- tries exposed them to population scenarios that favored conditions for admixture with locals of african and native american ancestry. our data indicate however that the variation observed in mennonites is virtually of % european ancestry. the native american ancestry identified by admixture and pcadmix, apart from being very low, is most likely due to the presence of european component in the native american populations used as references (see barplot of pel in fig.  ). in fact, admixture and pcadmix analysis using other reference native american populations, e.g. aymara and quechua samples from reich et al. , corroborate a virtually % native american component in the genome of mennonites (figure s ). therefore, this residual non-european figure . (a) cryptic relatedness of mennonites inferred from pi_hat values, which were computed as p(ibd = ) + . × p(ibd = ) (ref. ); (b) ibd values in argentinean mennonites; (c) ibd values in the ceu reference population (from g); and (c) f-inbreeding coefficient boxplots for mennonites and european population sets. www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep ancestry cannot be considered to be real. the results obtained from the d-statistics (f and f -tests) corroborate the lack of admixture between argentinean mennonite profiles and african and/or native american variation. according to historical documentation, the ultimate homeland of argentinean mennonites was the netherlands. among the set of reference populations used for comparisons, the ceu (from g) is the popu- lation set that best represents a central european population. not surprisingly, it is the ceu that appears in the results as the population most closely related to the mennonites. this suggests that, despite the complex routes followed by mennonites across america, from north to south, and the different populations they were in con- tact with, they have preserved their most ancestral european ancestry. this is also in good agreement with the increased consanguinity observed in the argentinean congregation compared to other european groups; which is favored by low effective population sizes, limited gene flow, and endogamic marriages. overall, the results obtained in the present study fit well with those obtained in the analysis of y-chromosome for male argentinean mennonites, particularly in two main aspects. first, ancestry in both the autosomes and the uniparental markers is virtually % european. second, the y-chromosome profiles analyzed in toscanini et al. already suggested the existence of endogamy in mennonites. the results of the present study cannot directly identify the possible admixture that could have occurred in america with non-mennonites of european ancestry. however, the genomes of argentinean mennonites seem to show more affinities with central europeans than to e.g. mediterranean (represented e.g. by spanish from g) or atlantic europeans (represented e.g. by great britain from g). this would indirectly suggest limited inbreeding of mennonites with non-mennonite american communities. finally, our study focused on an argentinean mennonite congregation, and therefore, extrapolating the present results to other american con- gregations should be taken with caution. it is important to note however that argentinean mennonites have figure . (a) mds plot of mennonite genetic variation in the context of worldwide population samples. (b) detail of the european pole in the mds plot of (a). (c) dendogram based on ibs values. (d) average ibs values in the different popul × ations used for comparison with the mennonites. www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep derived very recently from other american mennonites and therefore, its genomic architecture should resemble the genomic architecture of their most recent american ancestors. summarizing, the variation observed in argentinean mennonites is coherent with their known style of life and mating rules. these demographic features together set the ground for higher historical consanguinity and could also explain a higher incidence of certain mendelian diseases in these small communities . methods sampling. a total of saliva samples were recruited on oragene dna collection kits (dnagenotek) from individuals belonging to the mennonite congregation of ‘la nueva esperanza’ (la pampa, argentina). non related males from this dna collection were previously analyzed for y-chromosome markers . we obtained written informed consent for all the donors prior the research, which includes consent for publication of individual data. rights of participants were safeguarded during the research and their identity was protected. the study conforms with all applicable spanish normative, namely the biomedical research act ( / - of july), the autonomy of the patient act ( / ), decree sas/ / for observational studies and the data protection act ( / ). the experimental protocol was approved by the ethical committee of the fundación favaloro (acta ) from buenos aires, (argentina). dna was extracted from oragene kits using manufacture protocols. considerations on sample size. the colony of “la nueva esperanza” was founded by families coming from méxico and bolivia in . almost two decades after the first colonists’ arrival, the internal census yielded a population of , individuals. taking into consideration the size of the mennonite founders of “la nueva esperanza”, and assuming that parents of these families were unrelated, the individuals analyzed in the present study would represent about % of unrelated founders ( out of ). this proportion of population ana- lyzed is by far very high when compared to most of molecular studies on human populations. moreover, the snp genome-wide approach carried out in the present study is able to capture demographic histories from individual genomes. recent studies on contemporary populations or ancient dna , were carried out on one or a few individuals, from which demographic past histories could be reconstructed. genotyping. all the samples were genotyped using the axiom® genome-wide human origins arrays at the centro nacional de genotipado (cegen) of santiago de compostela (spain). the affymetrix genotyping console™ (gtc) . . software package was used to generate qc metrics and genotype calls following com- mercial recommendations; including generation of sample dish qc (dqc) values. all the samples yielded dqc values above the default threshold of . . the “axiomgt _all” algorithm was used for genotyping this group of high quality samples using all snps on the array. a final set of , snps could be used for the analyses. all figure . (a) analysis of admixture of mennonites using admixture. the bar-plot represents individual ancestries in reference populations and mennonites. the analysis was carried out using the unsupervised clustering algorithm implemented in admixture and considering the run with the lowest cross validation value. (b) genomic (chromosome) ancestry mosaic for one mennonite (#men ) using pcadmix (reference populations: ceu, yri, chb, pel). (c) admixture proportions of mennonites using pcadmix (reference populations: ceu, yri, chb, pel). www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep individuals had less than . % of missing alleles. the quality of the genotyping was very high; thus, only , , and variants showed %, %, and % of missing data, respectively. from all pairs of individuals related, the one with the highest missing data proportion was eliminated (see below). a total of five donors were finally excluded from the analysis because they showed cryptic relatedness. reference populations. different snps genome repositories from diverse human populations were inter- sected with the snp data obtained from the mennonites; supplementary data table s . data from g pro- vides the dataset with the largest snp overlap with the mennonites. the data from g was retrieved from the original repository as done in pardo-seco et al. ; these analyses involved , snps. in our figures and text we renamed the iberian sample, ibd, as ibr in order to avoid confusion with the identity-by-state acronym. in order to explore for the existence of native american component in the genome of mennonites, we also used the masked dataset from reich et al. . this dataset, merged with g data and the mennonites data, yielded a total of , overlapped snps. statistical analysis. a number of analyses were carried out using plink (ref. ). first we computed ibd values from snp data. we also tested mennonite snp data for potential close relationships between individuals. for this, we followed the procedure detailed in gómez-carballa et al. . ibd values show a few close relationships among the mennonites sampled. for this reason, we excluded one individual from each parent-offspring and sibling-sibling par, which correspond with ibd values around . (refs and ). mds was carried out on a matrix of pairwise individual ibs values with the aim of exploring clusters of genetic variation in the population sets analyzed. mds was performed using the function cmdscale (library stats) from r (http://www.r-project.org). average ibs distances (used in fig.  c,d) were computed as the average of the figure . f -statistics (a,b) and f -statistics (c,d) of mennonites versus different sub-saharan (a,c) and native american (b,d) populations. http://www.r-project.org www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep matrix of ibs distances computed between individual mennonites against all the individuals from each reference population. admixture in mennonite genomes was explored using two different approaches. firstly, we used admixture software , which uses a maximum likelihood estimation of individual ancestries from multi-locus snp data. secondly, we used pcadmix . (ref. ) to explore local ancestry assignment of ancestry-specific haplotypes across the genome. in order to create input files for pcadmix, snp unphased data were imputed and haplotypes were built using beagle . . . (ref. ). this analysis was carried out using reference populations from g representing main continental ancestries: ceu (europeans), yri (sub-saharan africans), pel (native americans) and chb (east asians). we assigned genomic segments to the three main ancestries following a posterior probability threshold of . . due to the fact that the peruvian population set from g has a propor- tion of european ancestry, as an alternative we also run admixture and pcadmix using aymara and quechua populations from reich et al. as native american dataset. these results of all these admixture analysis were in agreement with each other. the -population test or f -statistics of the form f (ceu,xafr;men) and f (ceu,xnam;men) were computed in order to test for genetic admixture between different african (xafr) and native american (xnam) population sets with the mennonites (men). a non-negative mean would indicate that the profile of mennonites cannot be explained by recent admixture with africans or native americans. in order to determine the relationship existing between the mennonite snp profiles and the different population sets , we further computed a -population test or f -statistics (ref. ). this is a formal test for admixture that measures allele frequency correlations among populations; it provides statistical evidence of admixture and information on the directionality of the gene flow. the f -statistic was computed using the weighted block jackknife procedure (block size of mb) (ref. ). an outgroup is needed for the computation of f -statistics. we used an outgroup that is symmetrically related to all modern human population groups, obtained by creating an individual profile possessing the ancestral alleles at all sites. this artificial outgroup ensures that there is no differential gene flow between this outgroup and the pop- ulation sets used. more details on how this outgroup was built can be found in pardo-seco et al. . references . estep, r. e. the anabaptist story: and introduction to sixteenth-century anabaptism. (william b eerdmans publishing co., cambridge, ). . cañás-bottos, l. christenvolk: historia y etnografía de una colonia menonita. (antropofagia, buenos aires, argentina, ). . bender, h. s. the mennonite encyclopedia. a comprehensive reference work on the anabaptist-mennonite movement. (scottdale, mennonite publishing house, ). . cañás-bottos, l. transformations of old colony mennonites: the making of a trans-statal community. global networks ( ), ( ). . martin, k. et al. immunoglobulin haplotype frequencies in anabaptist population samples: kansas and nebraska mennonites and indiana amish. hum biol ( ), ( ). . martin, l. j. & crawford, m. h. genetic and environmental components of thyroxine variation in mennonites from kansas and nebraska. hum biol ( ), ( ). . melton, p. e. mennonite migration: genetic and demographic consequences. (cambridge university press, cambridge). . waltner, r. from anabaptism to mennonitism: the mennonite encyclopedia as a historical document. mennonite life , ( ). . toscanini, u. et al. charting the y-chromosome ancestry of present-day argentinean mennonites. j hum genet ( ). . melton, p. e. et al. mitochondrial dna diversity in mennonite communities from the midwestern united states. hum biol ( ), ( ). . pichler, i. et al. drawing the history of the hutterite population on a genetic landscape: inference from y-chromosome and mtdna genotypes. eur j hum genet ( ), ( ). . jaworski, m. a. et al. genetic conditions among canadian mennonites: evidence for a founder effect among the old colony (chortitza) mennonites. clinical and investigative medicine. medecine clinique et experimentale ( ), ( ). . jaworski, m. a. et al. inherited diseases in north american mennonites: focus on old colony (chortitza) mennonites. am j med genet ( ), ( ). . demarchi, d. a., mosher, m. j. & crawford, m. h. apolipoproteins (apoproteins) and lpl variation in mennonite populations of kansas and nebraska. am j hum biol ( ), ( ). . strauss, k. a. & puffenberger, e. g. genetics, medicine, and the plain people. annual review of genomics and human genetics , ( ). . pardo-seco, j. et al. mapping the genomic mosaic of two ‘afro-bolivians’ from the isolated yungas valleys. bmc genomics ( ), ( ). . schröeder, h. et al. genome-wide ancestry of th-century enslaved africans from the caribbean. proc natl acad sci usa ( ), ( ). . behar, d. m. et al. the genome-wide structure of the jewish people. nature ( ), ( ). . li, j. z. et al. worldwide human relationships inferred from genome-wide patterns of variation. science ( ), ( ). . reich, d. et al. reconstructing native american population history. nature ( ), ( ). . lazaridis, i. et al. ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day europeans. nature ( ), ( ). . pardo-seco, j. et al. a genome-wide study of modern-day tuscans: revisiting herodotus’s theory on the origin of the etruscans. plos one ( ), e ( ). . purcell, s. et al. plink: a tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses. am j hum genet ( ), ( ). . gómez-carballa, a. et al. indian signatures in the westernmost edge of the european romani diaspora: new insight from mitogenomes. plos one ( ), e ( ). . stevens, e. l. et al. inference of relationships in population data using identity-by-descent and identity-by-state. plos genet ( ), e ( ). . lee, w. c. testing the genetic relation between two individuals using a panel of frequency-unknown single nucleotide polymorphisms. ann hum genet (pt ), ( ). . alexander, d. h., novembre, j. & lange, k. fast model-based estimation of ancestry in unrelated individuals. genome res ( ), ( ). . henn, b. m. et al. genomic ancestry of north africans supports back-to-africa migrations. plos genet ( ), e ( ). www.nature.com/scientificreports/ scientific reports | : | doi: . /srep . browning, s. r. & browning, b. l. rapid and accurate haplotype phasing and missing-data inference for whole-genome association studies by use of localized haplotype clustering. am j hum genet ( ), ( ). . genomes project consortium et al. an integrated map of genetic variation from , human genomes. nature ( ), ( ). . green, r. e. et al. a draft sequence of the neandertal genome. science ( ), ( ). . durand, e. y., patterson, n., reich, d. & slatkin, m. testing for ancient admixture between closely related populations. mol biol evol ( ), ( ). acknowledgements the research leading to these results has received funding from the people program (marie curie actions) of the european union’s seventh framework program fp / – / under rea grant agreement no. ; from the “ministerio de ciencia e innovación” (saf - ), the “plan galego idt” (em / ) and a grant from the “sistema universitario gallego - modalidad redes” ( -pg ) from the xunta de galicia (a.s.). author contributions u.t. and a.s. conceived the study. a.s., u.t. and f.m.-t. provided reagents, materials and analysis tools. j.p.-s. and a.s. analyzed the data. c.l., g.b., a.g. and f.a. obtained the samples at ‘la nueva esperanza’, and extracted and conditioned the dna for the genotyping procedures. a.s. and u.t. drafted the article and all the authors critically revised it and gave final approval of the version to be published. additional information supplementary information accompanies this paper at http://www.nature.com/srep competing financial interests: the authors declare no competing financial interests. how to cite this article: pardo-seco, j. et al. genomic continuity of argentinean mennonites. sci. rep. , ; doi: . /srep ( ). publisher’s note: springer nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. this work is licensed under a creative commons attribution . international license. the images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s creative commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if the material is not included under the creative commons license, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to reproduce the material. to view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / © the author(s) http://www.nature.com/srep http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . / 	genomic continuity of argentinean mennonites 	introduction 	results 	identity-by-descent, identity-by-state, and multidimensional scaling analysis 	admixture analysis of mennonite genomic profiles 	d-statistics 	discussion and conclusions 	methods 	sampling 	considerations on sample size 	genotyping 	reference populations 	statistical analysis 	additional information 	acknowledgements 	references application/pdf genomic continuity of argentinean mennonites srep , ( ). doi: . /srep jacobo pardo-seco cintia llull gabriela berardi andrea gómez fernando andreatta federico martinón-torres ulises toscanini antonio salas doi: . /srep nature publishing group © nature publishing group © the author(s) . /srep - nature publishing group permissions@nature.com http://dx.doi.org/ . /srep doi: . /srep srep , ( ). doi: . /srep true religiosity in black and white older americans | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /md. corpus id: religiosity in black and white older americans @article{yang religiosityib, title={religiosity in black and white older americans}, author={c. yang and m. ford and b. tilley and ruth l. greene}, journal={medicine}, year={ }, volume={ } } 	c. yang, m. ford, + author ruth l. greene 	published 	medicine 	medicine abstract racial difference of religiosity in a heterogeneous older population had long been a focal point of gerontological research. however, most religiosity measures were developed from homogenous sample, few underwent rigorous psychometric validation, and studies on racial difference of religiosity had been obstructed. this cross-sectional study adapted a religiosity measure originally designed for blacks only to a heterogeneous older population of blacks and whites, validated its… expand view on wolters kluwer doi.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations methods citations view all topics from this paper 	genetic heterogeneity 	geriatrics 	experience 	acclimatization citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency validation of the chinese version of the centrality of religiosity scale (crs): teacher perspectives 	j. lee, xiaoxue kuang 	psychology 	 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites methods save alert research feed constructing model to explore the influence of religiosity and spirituality on organizational performance through organizational commitment 	hatem mohammed rouhoma, bablu kumar dhar, kalsom ali, m. osman 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed constructing model to discover the effect of religiosity and spirituality on organizational performance 	hatem mohammed rouhoma, bablu kumar dhar, kalsom ali, m. osman 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency religious effects on health status and life satisfaction among black americans. 	jeffrey s. levin, l. chatters, r. taylor 	psychology, medicine 	the journals of gerontology. series b, psychological sciences and social sciences 	 	 save alert research feed racial bias in the assessment of cognitive functioning of older adults 	r. jones 	psychology, medicine 	aging & mental health 	 	 save alert research feed antecedents and dimensions of religious involvement among older black adults. 	l. chatters, jeffrey s. levin, r. taylor 	sociology, medicine 	journal of gerontology 	 	 	highly influential 	view excerpts, references methods and background save alert research feed religious and spiritual involvement among older african americans, caribbean blacks, and non-hispanic whites: findings from the national survey of american life. 	r. taylor, l. chatters, j. jackson 	sociology, medicine 	the journals of gerontology. series b, psychological sciences and social sciences 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed religion, health, and psychological well-being in older adults 	j. s. levin, l. chatters 	psychology, medicine 	journal of aging and health 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed spiritual assessment in african-americans: a review of measures of spirituality used in health research 	l. lewis 	psychology, medicine 	journal of religion and health 	 	 save alert research feed non-organizational religious participation, subjective religiosity, and spirituality among older african americans and black caribbeans 	r. taylor, l. chatters, s. joe 	sociology, medicine 	journal of religion and health 	 	 	view excerpt, references background save alert research feed measurement in a multi-ethnic society. overview to the special issue. 	j. teresi, a. stewart, l. morales, s. stahl 	mathematics, medicine 	medical care 	 	 	 save alert research feed differences in cultural beliefs and values among african american and european american men with prostate cancer. 	c. hughes halbert, f. barg, + authors s. malkowicz 	medicine 	cancer control : journal of the moffitt cancer center 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed the association of health and functional status with private and public religious practice among rural, ethnically diverse, older adults with diabetes. 	t. arcury, j. stafford, r. bell, s. golden, b. snively, s. quandt 	medicine 	the journal of rural health : official journal of the american rural health association and the national rural health care association 	 	 	 save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue the boundary between "us" and "them" readers and the non-english word in the fiction of canadian mennonite writers by beth ellen janzen b.a., the university of guelph, a thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree master of arts in the faculty of graduate studies (department of english) we accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard the university of british columbia september © beth ellen janzen, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. (signature) department of enty ; il the university of british columbia vancouver, canada date serie fa , -; de- ( / ) abstract this study asks whether the use of non-english words in the novels of canadian mennonites perpetuates a cultural binary, and concludes that it does not. the use of the non-english word, rather than enforcing a binary between "us and them", ultimately reveals that cultural boundaries are permeable and unstable. recent reader-response theory, which sees the reader as always influenced by a context, is central to this inquiry. analysis of readers' responses in the form of questionnaires constitutes part of the support for my assertions, while an examination of typography, orthography, interlanguage, and theme in three novels by canadian mennonites provides the balance. chapter one lays the theoretical framework for the investigation. it discusses: reader-response theory and the impossibility of accessing a stable textual meaning coincidental with the author's intention, the challenge of the non-english word to the concept of universality, and the distinction between proper "english" and non-institutional "english". chapter two examines some readers' responses to non-english words and finds that "inside" readers have interpretations in common with "outside" readers, and that variations exist between the interpretations of "inside" readers. a binary model is too simplistic to encompass the range of contexts from which readers read. chapter three discusses typography, orthography, and interlanguage in relation to (low) german, and suggests the importance of these features to a discussion of the texts. chapters four through six examine rudy wiebe's the blue mountains of china ( ), anne konrad's the blue jar ( ), and armin wiebe's the salvation of yasch siemens ( ) respectively. each novel's thematic concern with cultural boundaries serves as a framework for interpreting its physical and linguistic features. chapter seven concludes by examining the influence of my own fragmented identity on the development of my argument, and revisits the issue of authorial intent in our politically less-than-perfect world. a lengthy appendix serves as a pluralistic glossary to the texts, and contains the responses to my questionnaires. a brief section outlines some of the appendix's interesting patterns and trends. an index to the appendix is provided since the appendix is not arranged alphabetically. iv table of contents abstract table of contents^ iv acknowledgement : reader-response theory and the non-english word^ : readers' responses to the non-english word^ : orthography, typography, interlanguage^ : the blue mountains of china by rudy wiebe^ : the blue jar by anne konrad^ : the salvation of yasch siemens by armin wiebe^ : a reader's response^ works cited^ works consulted^ appendix: readers' responses^ the salvation of yasch siemens^ the blue mountains of china^ the blue jar^ the missing child^ final comments^ comments on the appendix^ index of non-english words and phrases^ acknowledgement i would like to thank professor krtiller for her supervision of this thesis, and for the stimulating discussions we shared while i was doing the reading course which led up to this study. i would also like to thank professor ricou and professor smith, the other members of my committee, for their participation and input. i would like to point out that this thesis was written without the aid of potato chips, chocolate, sugar, or in fact any junk food (not even zwieback), and that any of its shortcomings can probably be attributed to this sad fact! due to the aforementioned dearth of interesting edibles, i was a particularly difficult thesis- writer to be around; i therefore appreciate(d) the support of my friends and family all the more. thanks to catherine, the other members of beck (kathy & elaine), gabi & julie & nancy for always being there for me--and for having faith in me when i had none, to my aunt and uncle for all the help, and to mom and dad for their continued love & support (beyond the call of duty) and for the time & energy they put into helping with this project. and thanks, jamie, for putting up with so much thesis-whining, for picking up my organic vegetables, and for being such a wonderful friend and partner. i: reader-response theory and the non-english word w.j. keith, in a discussion of non-english words in rudy wiebe's the blue mountains of china, observes: "one should.. .have faith that if wiebe (or any other responsible writer) [feels] that the meaning of any word [is] essential, it ...[will be]...explained in some way" (keith, "where" ). keith's comments reveal a belief that a "responsible" author makes a contract with the reader; he or she promises to make his or her "meaning" accessible, ready to be discovered. this belief assumes first of all that a text has some objective, stable meaning; and second, that this meaning is somehow related to (or coincidental with) the author's intentions. keith, in his discussion of his reaction to non-english words in wiebe's novel, is responding to an argument made by hildi froese tiessen that foreign words in the literature written by canadian mennonites constitute a boundary that alienates "outside readers" (tiessen, "stranger" ). keith and tiessen disagree about whether a knowledge of german and/or low german is essential to an understanding of the "meaning" of the texts in which words in these languages appear. in other words, are the texts "accessible"? keith rejects the suggestion that wiebe would write a text which is not "universal" (universally accessible to everyone). even if wiebe intended to write a universally accessible text, however, (which is a reasonable assumption according to penelope van toorn's persuasive argument in "rudy wiebe and the historicity of the she expands this argument in "mother tongue as shibboleth in the literature of canadian mennonites." the second article is the one to which keith is specifically responding. word"), it does not mean that rudy wiebe's intended message (evangelical or otherwise) will be understood by all readers. keith's essay is marked by the interests of reader-response criticism. reader-response criticism is "a term that has come to be associated with the works of critics who use the words reader, the reading process, and response to mark out an area of investigation" (tompkins ix). keith frames the debate between himself and tiessen in terms of reader-response. in reference to tiessen's argument that mennonites have traditionally used language "to effect separation from and nonconformity to the world" (tiessen "shibboleth" ), keith comments: now i have no wish to dispute that argument. it seems to me a perfectly valid point to make--and an extremely interesting one so far as i am concerned, since i hadn't thought of the matter in these terms. but i do feel the need to observe that this argument itself represents a decidedly mennonite perspective (and is valuable because of this). as a non- mennonite, however, i look at the matter very differently. ("where" ) i find this exchange intriguing enough to refer to it at some length. keith's reader-response strategy sets up an "us and them" binary between himself and tiessen; this binary is precisely what tiessen proposes that mennonite writers are perpetuating in their use of non-english words (tiessen, "stranger" ). presumably, a non-mennonite could assign the same significance to non-english words in these texts as tiessen has. the fact that mennonites have traditionally used language as a barrier is clearly explained and dramatized in rudy wiebe's novel peace shall destroy many ( ). although tiessen's reading is influenced by her cultural background, no essential ethnic component controls and creates tiessen's reading of the text. keith is arguing that both mennonites and non-mennonites have equal access to the "meaning" of the text, but at the same time he is making a gesture toward tiessen's "mennoniteness", her ethnicity, and therefore distinguishing her interpretation on this basis. on the topic of the binary component in ethnic identity, irene portis winner states: ethnic identity arises from the universal situation that cultures are not isolated. they are either pluralistic, composed of ever-changing interrelated subcultures, or at least they are in contact with other cultural groups. the members of a particular culture or subculture consider themselves as "we" as opposed to, and differentiated from, the "other". thus an ethnic group exists only in opposition to some other ethnic group. ( ) winner's point that cultures are composed of "pluralistic ever- changing interrelated subcultures" emphasizes that although members of a group see themselves as defined by their differentiation from members of another group, relationships are always changing. no essential difference exists between ethnic groups; ethnicity is a cultural construction. "ethnic" is usually defined as being in contrast to a dominant culture. the dominant culture sees itself ^i use "essential" as an antonym to "constructed". essential as essence. and its values as "universal". when it comes to a discussion of literature, "ethnic literature" is often seen as being in opposition to "mainstream literature". but mainstream literature is, of course, ethnic literature as well. perhaps in response to this social and economic pressure, reviewers of mennonite writers sometimes find it necessary to assert that the texts they are reviewing are "universal". early reader-response theorists like stanley fish, for example, thought that criticism should focus on the reading experience. but he posited a reader who reads according to a particular set of codes which fish sees as universal: "the reader reacts to the words on the page in one way rather than another because he operates according to the same set of rules that the author used to generate them [my italics]" (tompkins xvii). the non-english word, however, foregrounds the fact that authors and readers cannot wholly operate according to the same sets of codes. in "literature in the reader", fish talks about the application of his theories in the classroom; he teaches his students "to recognize and discount what is idiosyncratic in their own responses" (fish ). the idiosyncrasies of an individual response, however, are an expression of the context of the reader. from the oxford english dictionary, meaning .a.: "of or pertaining to the universe in general or all things in it; existing or occurring everywhere or in all things; occas., of or belonging to all nature." for example: "thus a narrative poem like patrick friesen's the shunning has as its theme a particular mennonite belief practice, but its appeal is universal" (loewen, "witness" ). peter pauls' review of another friesen volume makes the same claim: "in unearthly horses friesen describes his own personal spiritual journey but it is one that is also universal" ( ). the use of non-english words in mennonite writing draws attention to the context of the reader's ethnicity because the form of low german called "plautdietsch" is closely associated with a particular ethnic group, the mennonites; the reader is unlikely to know the language through scholarship although he or she may know high german. as harry loewen writes in his article about the reception of mennonite literature, "it goes without saying that the reception and interpretation of canadian-mennonite literature varies, depending in part on the background from which the critic is writing" (loewen, "mennonite literature" ). jane tompkins' excellent introduction to reader-response criticism traces a chronological movement. the movement begins with a critical interest in a reader's interaction with a meaning which is present in the text, and develops into the critical position which asserts that meaning resides with the reader, or that the reader creates the text by reading. keith and tiessen both work from the position which posits the author's intentions as the repository of a text's meaning. if this position is abandoned in favour of the later developments in reader-response criticism, however, a more interesting exploration of the significance of non- english words is possible. walter benn michaels' article "the however, a course in low german exists at the university of winnipeg. also, i do not mean to suggest that to be mennonite you must speak plautdietsch (low german). see why i am a mennonite for a range of opinions on this issue. logocentrism "involves the belief that sounds are simply a representation of meanings which are present in the consciousness of the speaker. the signifier is but a temporary representation through which one moves to get at the signified....and the written word is an even more derivative and imperfect form: it is the representation of a sound sequence which is itself a representation (continued...) interpreter's self: peirce on the cartesian 'subject'" discusses why abandoning the pose of neutrality in interpretation does not release anarchy in the realm of criticism. he shows that "since the self is already an interpretation as well as an interpreter, it is not radically free...to impose its own meanings on any and all texts (tompkins xxiv). the self is not "free to assert its subjectivity" (michaels ). michaels sees the illusion of objective neutrality or free subjectivity as "simply the flip sides of the context-free self, active and passive; one generates any interpretation it pleases, the other denies that it interprets at all" ( ) he goes on to say: ...the self is already embedded in a context, the community of interpretation or system of signs. the rhetoric of the community of interpretation emphasizes the role readers play in constituting texts, while the rhetoric of the self as sign in a system of signs emphasizes the role texts play in constituting consciousness--the strategy in each case is to collapse the distinction between the interpreter and what he interprets... .the most we can say is that we can choose our interpretations but we can't choose our range of choices. ( ) (...continued) of the thought. interpretation by this model, is a nostalgic and retrospective process, an attempt to recover the concepts which were present to the consciousness of the speaker or writer at the time of writing. and of course for logocentrism, as indeed is the case with saussure, the sign is the fundamental unit; phonemes and letters are simply convenient devices which in combination can be used to represent the essence of the sign, which is the signified ....meaning should not be something that we simply recover but something that we produce or create; interpretation should transform the world, not merely attempt to recover a past...." (culler, saussure ). in other words, we interpret the texts in a particular way because of our contexts: we are never freely independent readers. the text also constitutes how we look at our self as a sign. do we think of ourselves as "outsiders" or "insiders"? the non-english word foregrounds the necessity for examining the context of the reader. similar interpretations of texts exist because some people learn to read and interpret literature according to similar codes: they read from similar contexts. a reader's context is clearly the key to his or her interpretation of non-english words, in matters of meaning and of significance; a reader's context is therefore the key to his or her interpretation of the text. the concept of ethnicity is a cultural construction. winner explains that ethnic identity is based on a binary between "we" and "they". but she also points out that relationships are always changing. the boundaries between different cultures and subcultures are permeable and unstable. a collection like why i am a mennonite illustrates the range of opinions about the category "mennonite" and who belongs in it. tensions exist in the group between those who see "mennonite" as a primarily ethnic category and those who see it as a religious category (or want to revolutionize it so that it will be one). historically, it was of utmost importance for mennonites to maintain a distance between themselves and the outside world to avoid corruption and "worldliness". language is a key site of theological upheaval; it is a battleground for resisting assimilation. german was used but linguistic differences also prohibited the conversion of the people in the surrounding cultures to christianity, or to mennonite doctrine. this tension is dramatized in wiebe's first novel peace shall destroy many. as a barrier to keep mennonites separate from the culture around them. the fact that "cultures are not isolated" (winner ) means that separatism must be used as a conscious strategy to prevent assimilation, or, for the more fundamentalist groups of mennonites, as a strategy to avoid contamination from more liberal mennonites. the differences between the kanadier (mennonites who immigrated to north america before ) and russlander (mennonites who immigrated later) are of this kind. the differences between these two groups is also a linguistic one as my relatives and parents have pointed out, and as rudy wiebe has illustrated in the blue mountains of china. keith regards the non-english word as "a mysterious sign that establishes connection or otherness depending upon the reader's origin" ("where" ), but the plurality of mennonite groups reveals that the categories are not as simple as a binary between "us" and "them". mennonites are not a monolithic group or culture. as margaret loewen reimer writes: no two groups [of mennonites] are quite alike. on the other hand, there are many similarities and it is often difficult to understand •and appreciate the multitude of splits and breakaways which have occurred. ( ) eugeen roosens states, "...an ethnic group is first of all, a form of social organization in which the participants themselves make use of certain cultural traits from their past, a past which may or may not be verifiable historically...." ( ). roosens claims that groups give themselves markers of difference and choose which ^different spellings of "canadier" exist as well. "kanadier" is a more german version of the word. things will define themselves as members of that group. the number of subcultures within the mennonite group makes consensus difficult. ° in her introduction to acts of concealment tiessen suggests: post-colonial literary theory may well prove to be instructive in any future study of the development and place of the literature of the mennonites in canada in so far as it has focused on how language and writing in post-colonial cultures have been appropriated for use away from a "privileged norm" or dominant cultural centre.... ( ) the empire writes back claims that the post-colonial author makes use of particular strategies to mark his or her text as different from the dominant culture. "cultural difference is not inherent in the text but is inserted by...strategies" (ashcroft ). the text does not display these markings as an expression of some kind of genetic ethnicity. the non-english word is "metonymic of cultural difference" (ashcroft ). according to this argument, the use of (low) german words by mennonite authors could be interpreted as a deliberate strategy to mark a text as different from the dominant culture. fish comments that readers and writers operate according to the same code. the non-english word, however, is part of a different kind of code which might be called "english" according to ashcroft et al. and their theory of writing. ashcroft and his obviously, the same thing happens in the larger culture. the larger culture decides which traits they will characterize an ethnic group by. in this context it is important to mention the work of the mennonite historical society, who, through its translation and publication of documents pertaining to mennonite history, creates a version of history which can become institutionalized. collaborators make a distinction between "english" and "english": we need to distinguish between what is proposed as a standard code, english (the language of the erstwhile imperial centre), and the linguistic code, english, which has been transformed and subverted into several distinctive varieties throughout the world. ( ) i propose to use the same distinction throughout this discussion. "english" will denote the english of dictionary meanings, while "english" will be synonymous with the non-official language use. when i refer to the "non-english" word, then, i am referring to a word that is unlikely to show up in the oed, or any other dictionary of "proper" english. english is increasingly seen as a "universal" mode of communication. whether using non-english words, or using the vernacular in prairie poetry (cooley), each constitutes a challenge to the universal status of english, and rather emphasizes that many englishes exist. naomi schor argues in her book the theory of the detail that inclusion of specific details in the evolution of painting and sculpture was seen as a challenge to the platonic ideal of universal beauty and forms: "the censure of the particular is one of the enabling gestures of neo-classicism, which recycled into the modern age the classical equation of the ideal with the absence of all particularity" (schor ). merle good, an american mennonite writer comments on the traditional antagonism between novelist and religious fundamentalist in similar terms: magdalene redekop argues that the difficulty jakob friesen encounters at the airport in the blue mountains of china indicates that english is increasingly becoming a "lowest common denominator" ("translated" ). "in telling stories, we assume that if you want to communicate an idea like forgiveness, the less specific it is, the more universal it will be. and i think the church has quarrelled with this over the centuries" (pinsker ). of course universality can never be achieved. even jesus' parables are culturally marked; they reflect the culture in which they were written. the presence of non-english words in a text, by foregrounding the "particular", is a challenge to the concept of universality itself. this challenge to universality does not create a stable boundary between minority culture and dominant culture, however. rather than enforcing a binary between "us and them", the use of the non-english word in the texts of canadian mennonites ultimately reveals that the cultural boundaries between "us" and "them" are permeable, ambivalent, unstable. my discussion will be based primarily on three quite different novels by canadian mennonite authors: rudy wiebe's the blue mountains of china ( ), anne konrad's the blue jar ( ) and armin wiebe's the salvation of yasch siemens ( ). in choosing to call these authors "mennonite", i am side-stepping the question of identity and following hildi tiessen's definition of a mennonite artist", since it is she who asserts that mennonites are producing "an insider literature" ("stranger" ). reader-response theory is important i am not arguing that this "message" is the intent of the authors, or that it will be evident to all readers. actually, tiessen provides a definition of mennonite art: "...mennonite literature and art consist of work which has been produced by individuals who were nurtured within a mennonite community, who--especially during their formative years--had access to the inside of the gemeinschaft. whether they chose later to withdraw in part or in whole from the mennonites is--for my purposes here--irrelevant..." ("role" ). to my investigation for several reasons. examining readers' responses to features of these texts reveals the binary between "us" and "them" to be arbitrary. readers from the "outside" group sometimes interpret unfamiliar words in a similar way to those in the "inside" group, despite their cultural difference. and readers from the "inside" group produce a surprising diversity of interpretation. thus, while cultural contexts are integral to interpretation, the construction of an "us" and "them" binary is not an adequate model. reader-response theory is also important for situating my own interpretation of the texts' features. ethnographic discourse is present in these texts along with various forms of direct and indirect glossing; the strategy of glossing seeks to enforce the idea that stable boundaries exist between cultural groups. typography in texts, however, plays an important role in signalling both difference through italicization, and ambivalence through inconsistent usage. the technique of blending two languages (interlanguage) is present in these texts, and is important to my discussion of the permeability of boundaries. finally, the novels have thematic concerns with the permeability of boundaries which can be interpreted in tandem with the other strategies to reveal a fundamental ambivalence about language and ethnic identity. tiessen challenges canadian mennonite writers to "augment the audiences, diminish the ambivalences, and raise the readers' awareness of who the mennonites were--and who they continue to be" (tiessen, "stranger" ). an exploration of the fiction of canadian mennonites reveals a great deal of ambiguity, but given the plural identities of readers, and the shifting nature of the debate surrounding mennonite identity (and more generally, ethnic identity), ambiguity is not only necessary, but desirable in the literature. : readers' responses to the non-english word the saussurian gap between the signifier and the signified means that the relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. no objective meaning resides in the text for the reader to access. readers use cultural codes to interpret texts: the way people have been institutionally taught to read determines to a certain extent how they will decide upon an acceptable interpretation. the non-english word foregrounds the fact that the writer and the reader do not interpret the world using identical codes. how do readers figure out what is obviously unknown to them, what is not included in their conventional code of interpretation? in under the tumtum tree: from nonsense to sense, marlene dolitsky presents her investigation into readers' strategies for interpreting nonsense words as a "key to the phenomenon of linguistic comprehension" (dolitsky ). ^in her concluding chapter she summarizes the strategies of readers: when the meaning of neologisms in a partially understandable text is asked for, interpretation will begin by association through phonetic and orthographic resemblance and may depend on a semantic probability element where meaning must be in agreement with the words in the immediate environment of the neologism as well as in accordance with the frame of the text taken as a whole" ( ) readers begin with homonyms and rely heavily on context. in the spirit of dolitsky's work, i have undertaken a small- scale idiosyncratic study of readers' responses to non-english words in the texts that i am studying (see appendix a). undertook this task partially out of curiosity, but also because i felt that a range of answers would be forthcoming, and would serve as a necessary contrast when juxtaposed against my own interpretations of unfamiliar words in the texts. as might be expected, i found that my readers (myself included) rely heavily on phonetic associations to produce meaning. dolitsky found that: the participant, when presented with a free morpheme, immediately matches it to a conventionally coded homonym whose meaning is known, which is then assigned to the 'unknown slot'.^unknown linguistic signs are associated with and automatically translated into known linguistic signs. ( ) homonymic strategies are key to hazarding a guess at a word's meaning. as a reader who understands a little high german through university training and no low german, i use homonymic strategies to relate foreign words to english ones. the fact that english is a germanic language cannot be ignored; it probably affects my interpretations of texts and ensures a reasonably satisfactory interpretation of unfamiliar words. the homonymic strategy is quite useful in hazarding interpretations of words in armin wiebe's i do not pretend that my questionnaires were in any way objective or scientific. as such, the responses have satisfied my curiosity and been extremely helpful in the definition of my beliefs about readers' responses to texts. dolitsky's study, although it is presented in a scientific framework of linguistic exploration, is constructed from her subjective assumptions and interpretation of her data. unlike dolitsky, i provide the reader of this study with my questionnaires and the responses in an appendix for him or her to peruse and contemplate; dolitsky, for the most part, only presents her reader with her conclusions. see "comments on the appendix" (page ) for further information. the salvation of yasch siemens. for example, "christlich" ( ) is easily recognizable as "christlike"; and "gruelich" ( ) i construe as similar to the english word "gruesome". the low german dictionary gives a meaning for "griilijch": "fearful, frightful" (rempel ). another example: yasch says, "my heart starts to clapper real fast". the clapper of a bell serves as a homonym for me in english; i imagine yasch's heart swinging back in forth in his chest. what i understand him to mean is that he is excited or nervous. other readers use homonyms in other languages. one uses "kleppern", "to rattle" (appendix ). another responds, "'claupaht we'd say in low german. rattling would be the translation" (appendix ). the point that i want to make here, is that i can understand the phrase reasonably well although i do not have the linguistic advantages of the two respondents who know german and/or low german. the word does not create a stable boundary between "insiders" and "outsiders". homonymic strategies can lead both "insiders" and "outsiders" astray, however (see appendix). as dolitsky claims, local context and larger context is of utmost importance in the interpretation of the unfamiliar word. in fact, it is difficult to separate the homonymic strategy from the contextual one. words do not have meanings except in context. a local context is helpful according to a non-german-speaking reviewer of the salvation of yasch siemens: "...the context always makes clear the meaning of german words. can't you just hear grandfather 'knacking' sunflower seeds and see him 'qwauleming smoke' from his pipe?..." (martens) . please note that page numbers are not available for specific quotations from martens' review. martens assumes that when we "hear grandfather 'knacking' we will imagine something similar to what she imagines. she is relying on the similarity of our interpretive strategies. a larger context is useful for figuring out a repeated word such as "hartsoft". "hartsoft" appears throughout yasch siemens as a kind of intensifier word. rempel in his dictionary of plautdietsch glosses the word's meaning as "with force or might" ( ). my own understanding of the word is enhanced by the homonymic associations of "heart" and "soft": something that makes a heart go soft must be powerful. my parents , however, who lack the context of the novel, figure out a similar meaning based on its presence in several of the sentences presented to them in my questionnaire (appendix ). my father and my aunt point out the homonym "hard" from the german (appendix ). similarly, i interpret words like "schultenbot" ( ) and "hof" ( ) in rudy wiebe's the blue mountains of china with some patience by taking note of repetition and context. the ultimate point of the comparisons i am making it might seem odd that i use my father and my mother as references in this thesis. by referring to them in their familial relationship to me, i am continually emphasizing that i am a reader positioned within a framework, a context; i am not an objective, neutral commentator (nor does this beast exist). it might seem somewhat unprofessional to use them as sources of information, but other authors writing in the same subject area do not refer to anthropologists' texts on the behaviour of mennonites (and anthropologists are not objective either...), but to their own experience. some authors give this information as fact while some (like magdalene redekop) highlight the personal basis of their theoretical positions. it would not make my work any more objective if i referred to my father as edward g. janzen and my mother as h. susan janzen. likewise, i do not apologize for the idiosyncrasies of the exercise, because under the conditions it would be beyond the scope of my work to pretend to an objective "scientific" study on reader-response. and close inspection of the linguistic study of dolitsky reveals her biases clearly, and indicates that the information gleaned is not necessarily "objective fact". between my interpretationp of words and those of my respondents is that despite my ignorance of low german i manage to come up with interpretations which i find acceptable for producing meaning, and which, in many cases are similar to the interpretations of my respondents who know the languages in question. but i must return to keith's assumption that if "any... responsible writer...[feels] that the meaning of any word [is] essential, it ...[will be].. .explained in some way" ("where" ). surely i am satisfied with my navigation of the texts because it is the intent of the authors that i should understand the meaning of non-english words? certain phrases, however, are not easily understandable through a direct gloss, an indirect gloss, obvious homonyms, or context. stanley fish asserts that a simple sentence gives the following message: because [an easy an comprehensible sentence] gives information directly and simply, it asserts (silently, but effectively) the 'givability', directly and simply, of information; and it is thus an extension of the ordering operation we perform on experience whenever it is filtered through our temporal- spatial consciousness. in short, it makes sense, in exactly the way we make (i.e. manufacture) sense of whatever, if anything, exists outside us; and by making easy sense it tells us that sense can be easily made and that we are capable of easily making it. ( ) what message then, is given, by a sentence which is not easily comprehensible? a phrase from sandra birdsell's the missing child ( ) mystifies me (but might make perfect sense to some other reader). the unglossed phrase must be interpreted like most literary meaning, from the wider structure of the text using the interpretive codes and strategies that the reader has mastered culturally and institutionally. "mene, mene, tekel, upharsin" appears in birdsell's the missing child in italics. i am intrigued by the possible significance of these words, but can only figure out that they might be an obscenity, which would supply a contrast to the speaker's apparent angelic knowledge of scriptures. or it could be another biblical invocation which foreshadows the doom of jacob and the valley. or it could be words he picked up as he and his mother fled from germany. i gather that they might be german because the words are italicized, and because they sound vaguely german to me. also, the speakers are supposed to be talking in german. my respondents have trouble with this phrase, given to them out of context. my mother writes, "my, my (name) ?" (appendix ). she makes a guess based on the interpretive codes on which she draws. another respondent hazards "menetekel--warning" (appendix ). does this response confirm my feeling that the words might have something to do with a warning or is it simply another way of asymptotically approaching the "meaning" of the text? the words "tekel" and "upharsin" might in fact be unfamiliar biblical allusions. by now i am unsure which language these words belong to, if any. the boundaries between languages are the only other "foreign" phrase in the novel is "schnell" ( ) which i for one recognize from watching too many hogan's heroes reruns as a child. prof kr er comments on my first draft: "you do know it's the proverbial writing on the wall, don't you?" see new bible dictionary, page . dn. : . blurred. because i do not know the meaning of these words, they do not necessarily act as a barrier, especially because i cannot pinpoint someone who might easily interpret them, but can also act as a site of fantasy as dolitsky discovered in her study of children's reactions to nonsense. "it is obvious that, as conventional linguistic code markers are taken away, something must fill the vacuum to decode the message" (dolitsky ). codes of literary interpretation that i have learned institutionally step in to fill the gap. the coincidence of my interpretation of this phrase with sandra birdsell's authorial intentions depends upon similar codes of interpretation, (in this case institutionally accepted literary interpretation) not on my inclusion as an "insider" in one of her ethnic groups. another example of a context-dependent phrase which is not easily understandable comes from armin wiebe's novel. when sadie asks yasch if he is "taking oata with", he responds, "chinga freow met sukka bestreit" ( ). this phrase is quite confusing to me, but i assume from the context that it is some parting shot to sadie. my respondents translate each word in the phrase but cannot make sense of the whole; my aunt, however, writes: children questions with sugar sprinkled—the reply we were given when adults didn't want to answer our question. always ^dolitsky's use of the phrase "decode the message" implies that one message, the "meaning", exists for a text.^her interpretation is based on the assumption that literary texts are communications between the author and the reader. she points out that authorial intention is the key to participant interest. participants must feel that the words have some meaning or value for the emitter of the message ( - ). sandra birdsell's mother is mennonite and her father is metis. frustrating because the saying made no sense. (appendix ) although several of my respondents know low german, only one responds with recognition, highlighting the fact that readers come from many contexts. not all of the "insider" readers can make sense of the phrase. thus the binary configuration of "insiders" and "outsiders" to a culture proves to be too simplified a model. the idea of the ideal mennonite reader who can fully understand the "meaning" (a stable objective meaning) of the text is not feasible. the experiment that i conducted with my readers reveals that they recognize some words and not others. differences exist between their interpretations despite the fact that they grew up in reasonably close proximity to each other and attended the same church. the importance of context is paramount. my father does not know the exact usage of a certain word "hingst", something to do with a horse. my mother's comments indicate that she (who grew up on a farm) knows the word (appendix ). my father recognizes and glosses the word "zirks" because of his interest in mechanics, while my mother does not recognize the word at all (appendix ). the cultural context is important to the reader, but many other contexts are equally important: russlander versus kanadier (my parents and relatives are russlânder), farmer family versus teacher family, and male versus female. my mother comments at the end of the exercise that she feels that the blue jar is written by a woman, just by the kinds of words that i ask her to gloss. she has this impression because the other word lists include crude, earthy language (appendix ). magdalene redekop comments on the data rhyme: it is what we would call prust--very crude--and it ends with oata tasting a bit of what she thinks is an easter egg, only to find that it is excrement. i always find that i can hardly bear to read the rhyme to myself and i certainly cannot read it aloud to my students--this despite the fact that it is in a strongly ironic context. (redekop, "madonna" ) who is the ideal reader? unlike fish, i believe that readers come from so many different contexts that there is no generic reader, despite the similarities between the ways that people read! no generic reader exists to discuss. my own interpretation is a mélange; my critical practice is a collage of my own reading mixed with critics' readings and comments from relatives. a contrast even exists between myself as a first reader and myself as a second reader, almost a year later, with that much more knowledge of my subject matter. dolitsky found that children use texts to further their own fantasies and aims; they use the text to say what they want to say. i hope that my interpretation will be more text-based than the interpretations of children, but as francesco lorrigio asserts, theories are integrally linked to the texts upon which they are built ( - ). : orthography, typography, interlanguage thus far, i have not suggested that any features of the texts themselves contribute to ambivalence surrounding the separation between cultures, but only that the nature of readers generates the permeable boundaries. i have chosen three texts in which to explore these ideas further: rudy wiebe's the blue mountains of china ( ), anne konrad's the blue jar ( ), and armin wiebe's the salvation of yasch siemens ( ). the use of the non-english word in each text acts as a marker of ambivalence toward the separation of languages and boundaries. e.a. levenston's analysis of the "stuff of literature", the physical aspects of texts, asserts that form is integral to interpretation of literature. in these three texts, orthography, typography and interlanguage contribute in varying degrees to the creation of a text which is ambivalent about cultural boundaries. the novels are thematically concerned with the boundaries between "us" and "them"; the physical aspects, therefore, act in concert with theme to produce this ambivalence. levenston begins his chapter on spelling with the observation that "the history of english spelling records a process of ever- increasing standardization. from a time when men spelled as they spoke, and were thought none the worse for so doing, we have reached a state of near complete uniformity...." ( ). high levenston's discussion of interlanguage falls under the category of "spelling". spelling is obviously an important part of interlanguage, especially for the discussion of armin wiebe's work, but generally, my discussion will be more concerned with the syntactical fusion between languages. german, of course, is standardized in a similar way. in contrast, low german is a language that exists in many forms: "the low german language does not exist in a standardized form, but in numerous dialects, plautdietsch being one of them" (reuben epp ). even the name for the language is not used by all; rudy wiebe uses the term "lowgerman". i use the two-word form along with the majority of commentators. the lack of standard orthography introduces another marker to indicate the plurality of this language. reuben epp explains the history of the decline of written low german: ..when a people sees its culture and language disintegrate, it becomes more receptive to the language and culture of a more successful people. low german gradually ceased being the overall written language and yielded to the high german of the successful south. it continued for a long time in written form as a disdained second-rate language to be used only in jest, in ridicule and for amusement" (epp - ). high german became the language of church and legality while low german remained as a mainly oral language to be spoken at home. variations exist, then, between authors' spellings of the same low german word. as magdalene redekop comments, "low german is essentially an unwritten language and the spelling of words, being wiebe uses this term in the blue mountains of china, but "low german" in peace shall destroy many. epp comments on the widespread opinion of low german as a degraded language; this opinion was/is certainly shared by my relatives. my father, however, writes on his questionnaire: "i loved the exercise...i learned to love the low g words because they were so efficient in expressing exactly what i 'know' they meant....i grew up with a low opinion of the low g language. this exercise changed my mind and i see what i missed" (appendix ). phonetic, is as varied as the number of people who try to write it" ("translated" ). low german dictionaries exist, but they did not prove useful in my investigations because of the variations in spelling. armin wiebe opts for english modes of spelling while other authors opt for german orthographic rules. the variation between spellings reduces the chance that even "insiders" to the language will consistently recognize low german words as being familiar to them. my mother comments, "...it took some time to remember. low german is not easily read...would have to say the word or words out loud" (appendix ). similarly my father says, the combination of vowels and consonants used by the authors to sound a word took some work. it helped if i said it again and again breaking the word at different places. sometimes it clicked. sometimes it didn't" (appendix ). dolitsky: "it would seem...that the ability to call on strategies to assign word meaning is not a faculty that is equally distributed among the population" (dolitsky ). when dolitsky has her participants attempt to interpret concrete poetry in a foreign language, she concludes that form is integral to interpretation: certainly when words are comprehensible, the role of form is diminished.^however, the important effect of form on interpretation when the words give little to go on implies that a form factor contributes to text meaning. (dolitsky ) in the case of typography, the italic font indicates otherness. the non-english word is usually presented in an italic font, a convention widely in use by the end of the sixteenth century (levenston ). the mla style manual instructs: some titles are italicized...as are...foreign words in an english text. the numerous exceptions to this last rule include.. .foreign words anglicized through frequent use. since american english rapidly naturalizes words, use a dictionary to decide whether a foreign expression requires italics. ( . . .) what is significant about these guidelines is that even if a phrase is found in an "american" dictionary, anglicized or naturalized, it is still considered a "foreign expression". the difficulty comes when it is time to decide if a phrase has been "naturalized through common use" or not. the only way of figuring out if something is english or not is by referring to a dictionary, which is an institutionalized set of conventions: there is nothing intrinsically "english", only a group of words which have institutionally been declared "english". diversity between dictionaries indicates the constructed nature of the concept "english". all three texts display idiosyncrasies and inconsistency in the typography of the non-english word, which ultimately indicate the permeability of the boundaries between english and other languages. the most obvious blending of languages in these texts comes from the use of "interlanguage". •ashcroft describes interlanguage as the "fusion of the linguistic structures of two languages" ( ). the term comes from studies of the learning processes of students of a second language. a student's use of interlanguage is marked by erroneous usage according to the the term "interlanguage" was first used by larry selinker in his article "interlanguage" i.r.a.l. . ( ): - . standards of the target language, but displays a "certain regularity, a systematic use of language forms that lie somewhere between two languages" (levenston ). ashcroft insists that an interlanguage is a "genuine language system" ( ). in the texts under discussion, interlanguage is both a genuine language system and a marker for dialogue in a foreign language, represented in english. the actual grammar and syntax of the interlanguage between low german or german and english, however, acts as a symbol of the mixture between cultures that occurs. these physical aspects of the texts (orthography, typography, and interlanguage) act in tandem with thematic concerns about the boundaries between cultures to signal to the reader that boundaries between languages and cultures cannot be perceived as stable. there is no true boundary between "us" and "them". : the blue mountains of china by rudy wiebe my discussion will begin with rudy wiebe's novel because it is the blue mountains of china that forms the subject of the debate between keith and tiessen. rudy wiebe is the best-known canadian mennonite writer, and therefore his use of language has been discussed more widely than the other two writers with which this study is concerned. van toorn advances the theory that "by unveiling the...question" of "social injustice" in the last chapter, wiebe "reaccents the entire text retroactively" ( ). to a certain extent, my reading of armin wiebe's novel has done the same to my interpretation of both the blue mountains of china and the blue jar. features apparent in the salvation of yasch siemens and also in anne konrad's novel, are also present in rudy wiebe's text, i would argue, but not in the same way. the other novels' use of typography and orthography, for example, is more significant, but all three texts use interlanguage as a device. the question to be answered, however, is whether wiebe's use of non-english words perpetuates an "us" and "them" binary. i would argue that it does not when examined within the context of the novel. the blue mountains of china is a departure in style from rudy wiebe's first novel peace shall destroy many. peace shall destroy many does not contain any non-english words because it was written as an m.a. exercise for a professor who did not encourage linguistic experimentation (keith, " where" ). the tension between languages and cultures forms an integral part of the novel. in wapiti, language is used as a barrier. as pastor lepp explains to thom, "there's nothing christian about the language itself....the fact is, it's a barrier between us and the worldly english surroundings we have to live in. there is merit in that, for it makes our separation easier; keeps it before us all the time" ( ). it is ironic, then, that the debate about language should come to us in english (keith, "where" ). the language barrier has not proved to be effective in maintaining a boundary around a metaphorical "wapati". in an ethnographic passage, which keith takes as evidence that wiebe is not writing with a mainly mennonite audience in mind ("where" ), wiebe's narrator explains the linguistic practices of the mennonite community: they [talk] in low german. the peculiar russian mennonite use of three languages [causes] no difficulties for there [are] inviolable, though unstated, conventions as to when each [is] spoken. high german [is] always used when speaking of religious matters and as a gesture of politeness toward strangers; a low german dialect [is] spoken in the mundane matters of everyday living; the young people [speak] english almost exclusively among themselves. thought and tongue [slip] unhesitatingly from one language to the other. ( ) in this passage, the narrator would have us believe that the boundaries between english, low german, and high german are stable, almost palpable.^no one ever mixes up the languages or the contexts in which they are appropriate. the noted mennonite historian h.s. bender has a different version of this polyglot background. he argues that "the speaking of several languages is probably only an enrichment for 'highly intelligent persons' while others suffer from 'confusion of vocabulary and ideas, undesirable carry over of idioms from one language to the other...and undesirable foreign accents'" (redekop, "translated" - ). in the blue mountains of china, wiebe explores the "confusion of vocabulary and ideas" and the "carry over of idioms from one language to another". wiebe does not make use of any uncommon typographical strategies in his use of the non-english word. words like "schluss" ( ), "hauptcheuik" ( ), and "dummheit" ( ) appear throughout the text in italics. wiebe makes use of both german and low german words. the non-english word is effectively separated by the use of italics. "campo" ( ), "kolkhoz" ( ), and "droshky" ( ) are not italicized, though they seem just as "foreign" as the other words just mentioned. a trip to the dictionary reveals, however, that these must be "foreign words anglicized through frequent use" (mla . . .) . so far the typography reveals nothing about the specific text, but only reinforces my previous knowledge of the historically situated and institutionally reinforced creation of english through the institutions of dictionaries. a few (low) german expressions escape italicization, like "muttachi" ( ), "mutti" ( ), and "na ya" ( ). of course, "uhhhhgg" ( ) and "yuck" ( ) are not italicized; but then, they cannot be said to belong to a non- english language. these slight typographical inconsistencies are magnified in anne konrad's text; in the blue mountains of china i must look to other techniques to see the permeability of the campo: "a large, grassy south american plain with occasional bushes and small trees". droshky (also drosky): "an open, four-wheeled, horse-drawn carriage once common in russia." kolkhoz: "a soviet collective farm." webster's ii ed. boundaries of "us" and "them". at the beginning of the novel, the reader encounters non- english syntax within a few sentences. this german syntax reflects the german word order; frieda friesen is speaking in low german, one would assume, but no guide, like the ethnographic description in peace shall destroy many, is given for the reader. redekop asserts that frieda's "syntax and vocabulary evoke the sounds of the low german which can be heard, simultaneously, as one reads the english" ("translated" ). redekop calls this technique "oversetting", a well-known term (to mennonites) also mentioned by my aunt in her response to my questionnaire. redekop goes on to say that "the interpolated low german words.. .ensure that the reader will be forced into activity--moving constantly between separate worlds" ("translated" ). are the boundaries between these worlds stable? the yoking of english and german into an interlanguage of "english" suggests that they are not. wiebe's text shows his characters struggling with the boundaries between "us" and "them" and argues that a truly christian vision would discard such boundaries (van toorn ). in "the well", the emphasis is on the boundaries between cultures, the needless schisms that exist between different groups of mennonites. anna friesen's dangerous attraction to a russlander is the topic of this story. the russlander are seen as different; they are less conservative, and, significantly, they speak i believe that the first example of the use of interlanguage as metonymy, in this case for, pennsylvania "dutch", in canadian mennonite literature is the trail of the conestoga by b. mabel dunham. (toronto: macmillan co., ). for example, christian says, "i was chust thinkin'....mebbe till next winter we are in canada already" ( ). differently. this passage is written from the kanadier perspective: they [russlander] [speak] the same lowgerman as the kanadier, though with a very different accent, with some unheard-of words. and they emigrated only once for their faith. ( ) the man who enchants anna at the well speaks to her, "the lowgerman voice slightly off-accented" ( ). the passage suggests that language can somehow embody culture, and carry its religious freight. the arbitrary boundaries between culture, class and hemispheres is also emphasized in "over the red line". in this story liesel ventures up to the deck for first class passengers on the ship that is taking her people to south america. she hears languages which she considers beautiful; even the high german is "refined" ( ). low german is associated, in her mind, with "the heavy feltboots some men still [wear], so stinking when they [schluff] by" ( ). liesel "suffers from linguistic as well as social claustrophobia" (van toorn ). to liesel the boundaries between "us" and "them" seem unbridgeable, though ironically, the black shawl which she ties around her middle so that she can achieve the effect of a trailing long skirt ( ) is coveted by one of the first-class passengers ( ). the hand-made shawl is juxtaposed with the artificiality of the tourists on the upper deck. each seems to want something that the other has. the cultures are not so exclusive as they would first appear. the arbitrary nature of boundaries between classes is highlighted in the book's second chapter "sons and heirs". the narrative thrust of the story suggests that the two main characters, yascha and escha, have much in common despite their class and linguistic differences. when escha first comes to the friesen household looking for work, the only low german word that he knows is "awbeide" (the low german version of "arbeit"). jakob (the son and heir) scornfully reflects that his father probably knows russian better than the russian peasant does ( ). in other words, language mastery is not a cultural marker but a marker of privilege in this context. the ethnic and religious differences between escha and jakob are erased, however, when jakob returns from prison to a different reality. fragmented bible verses keep appearing in jacob's head; now that the hierarchical structure of discipline (the father and the community of "fathers") is gone he knows only the words; they are empty for him. when escha refuses to stay in the barn, when he crosses the perceived boundary between the animal and the human, jakob cannot ignore the animalistic side to himself (van toorn ). van toorn (and other critics) see escha and jakob as parts of the same personality. the plural title "sons and heirs" suggests that jacob's fall is his failure to perceive the boundary between himself and the lower- class peasant as arbitrary and fragile; "the border between self and other is problematic" (van toorn ). certain characters in wiebe's novel suggest a "vision of universal human kinship" (van toorn ). frieda friesen's story envelopes all the other stories with the force of her kinship bonds: "her family expands so greatly as to raise the question, the question about the spiritual relevance of repetition and recitation of the words of the bible comes up in sandra birdsell's the missing child in the ambivalence surrounding hendrick's "gift". it is also relevant in the blue jar when an index of spirituality is correlated by the community with the number of bible verses a child can memorize ( ). who is not kin to frieda?" (van toorn ). she crosses social boundaries between kanadier and russlander, rural and urban, and also moves between continents, finding family and friends everywhere (van toorn ). the story of "the vietnam call of samuel u. reimer" also questions the arbitrary boundaries between self and other. in his debate with the pastor reimer asks: "okay. my kid deserves to live more than a vietnamese?" "well, in theory, of course--no but--" ( ) the obstacles of the geographical location of vietnam, the boundaries between east and west, are nothing compared to those sam encounters at home. the text asserts that these human boundaries should be subsumed and erased in a "true" christian spirit. the same theme is emphasized in the last story when everyone meets in a ditch, and they discover that they are all related. they all speak low german and come from the same culture, but how differently they live their lives! elizabeth (liesel) driedger, is master of many languages, and acts as interpreter and good samaritan for jakob friesen. when she finds that they are both mennonite, they switch from russian to low german, but she is initially disturbed: "she [laughs] a little, pushed quite off- balance now...by the impossibility of now speaking to him as a complete stranger" ( ). friesen is technically still a "complete" stranger, but the boundary between them has suddenly been shattered by a name (his recognizably mennonite name). the significance of language in the construction and diminishment of boundaries is also illustrated in the figure of dennis willms. ^it also questions the socially constructed boundaries between sanity and insanity. whims has anglicized his surname, disguised it as "williams" and "sold out", it is implied. when he speaks low german to john reimer, the man carrying the cross, willms thinks that he is speaking privately in a minority language that not many people are likely to know; later he is surprised to find that the language that he is using to exclude, to alienate a segment of his listeners (and to upbraid one of his group), is not private at all. "does everyone in this ditch speak lowgerman?" ( ), he finally asks. everyone in the ditch speaks low german, but the same cannot be said for wiebe's readership. the unexpected kinship of the characters, even though they disagree, shows how interconnected their lives are despite the fact that they have not met each other. redekop: "beginning with young jakob and escha, we have been led to discover kinship in apparent foreigners....the pluralism of languages and voices is.. .defined against a backdrop of ultimate unity..." ("translated" ). keith goes so far as to assert that the group in the ditch is "not only a representative group of the mennonites of but (as the centenary date suggest) a microcosm of canadian society--and even of the contemporary world as a whole" (keith, introduction ). alan wald's critique of the "ethnicity school" of criticism points out the problems in subsuming race under the rubric of ethnicity, and i see similar problems with keith's assertion that this group of mennonites can truly represent a cross-section of canadian society, let alone the world. i would argue that the kinship and paradoxical plurality in the ditch shows that the boundaries between foreigner and family, self and other, or more accurately, exploited his own people during the war (blue mountains of china ). are surprisingly flexible. in his introduction to the ncl edition, keith comments that the blue mountains of china is "admittedly a difficult novel" ( ). ut as redekop asserts, it is not the non-english words that make the novel difficult: although the absence of a glossary is a possible irritation for many readers, it indicates that the interpolated low german words have, in themselves, no arcane significance which, if glossed, might provide the key to the novel's often baffling complexities. ("translated" ) the presence of a glossary, however, would not put all readers on the same ground. the reader's context is still of the utmost importance, and as i have tried to point out, the plurality within the community of proposed "insiders" means that they are not reading homogeneously. leaving words untranslated, according to ashcroft, "is a political act, because... glossing gives the translated word, and thus the 'receptor' culture, the higher status" ( ). discarding glossing releases language from "the myth of cultural authenticity" and demonstrates "the fundamental importance of the situating context in according meaning" (ashcroft ). discarding glossing allows the boundaries between "us" and "them" to be more permeable and less predictable. : the blue jar by anne konrad anne konrad's novel can be found in the juvenile section of the library; the connected short stories centre on the perspective of annchen (anne) klassen as she grows up. clara thomas discusses the novel as a telling of "the childhood", and comments that "the blue jar might be sub-titled 'elegy to a simple, hard, godly--and lost--way of life'" ( ). its linguistic strategies seem to be linked to its audience. konrad uses appositives to gloss her foreign words clearly: "the spruche, those sheets of perforated cards each with a picture of birds, flowers, butterflies." ( ) she even provides an etymological purpose to her definitions; the narrator explains that a spruch is a bible verse. the foreign words are usually glossed parenthetically in an invasive manner or sometimes explained in a more elegant contextual manner. generally, interpretation of the language is direct. the narrator even clarifies for her audience that her family is "german- speaking" and the next word is a german word to emphasize that these italicized words are in that language ( ). the glossing technique serves to highlight the differences between cultures by explaining the meanings of words in an ethnographic (nostalgic) context. the function of glossing, "to form a bridge between the 'centre' and 'margin', simultaneously defines their unbridgeable separation" (ashcroft ). the aberrations in the typography, however, undermine the sense of "unbridgeable separation" between cultures. ashcroft maintains that "the word in the bracket is ironically given the status of 'the real'" ( ) in glossing. in one instance, however, the text reverses this convention: "head cheese (zilkase)" ( ). i would not argue that the typographical features of the text which undermine the exclusiveness of the various languages are konrad's intentions; perhaps the idiosyncrasies of the text show a sloppy editing process. after all, queenston house publishing is not mcclelland and stewart, which is the publisher of wiebe's the blue mountains of china. nevertheless, the inconsistencies highlight the confusion between languages that i experience when i read the blue jar. sometimes "tante" is italicized and sometimes it is not. the same is true of "zwiebach" and "leiter". occasionally italicized words are placed in quotation marks as well! the instability of the typography (though probably not deliberate) undercuts the one-to-one translations and explanations offered by the narrator, and confuses the boundaries between english and (low) german. interlanguage is used in konrad's text as well. the characters in the novel speak german most of the time; their dialogue in german is represented by impeccable english. when the german immigrants are trying to communicate with their norwegian neighbours, however, they speak a stilted english, an interlanguage which is marked by irregularities of pronunciation represented by aberrant spelling. this interlanguage builds community: annchen recounts an incident which all the immigrants find funny; "everyone at beaverdam [laughs] in bush-english" ( ). here is an example of the mother speaking with her next-door norwegian neighbour, mrs. helderson, about the new-born twins: incidentally, i don't get the joke. "you tink de live, mrs. helderson?" "ja, sure dey live." "not drink, de boy. i.. .not yunuf milk?" ( ) it is easy to figure out what these people are saying to one another, but most words are not italicized. these words belong to the lower-case english interlanguage rather than to english; but the words are english according to the typography. note that the word "ja", however, remains italicized because it comes from a different language. and yet, a few lines later father says, "i talk mit mama" ( ). "mit" is the german "with", and not a distortion of some english word. this example is just one of many ambivalences and contradictions that the text displays when it comes to the divisions between languages. these ambivalences and contradictions make it difficult to assert that konrad's use of language reinforces a boundary between "insiders" and "outsiders". these linguistic aberrations occur in a text which is strongly concerned with the boundaries between "us" and "them". annchen explains the divisions this way: the pupils at poplar hill school [are] divided between mennonite children and "englische". englische [is] a general term for the fowlers, howells, sanderquists, torgersons, larsens, johannsens, in short, anyone not one of us. ( ) the italics reinforce the strength of the division between "us" and "them" in this passage. "englische" not only stands for those of british origin;^it encompasses everyone.^maintaining these boundaries is difficult, however, especially when the norwegian neighbours of the klassens are kinder to them than the hypocritical mennonites who should look after their own. again and again the theme of hypocrisy and betrayal comes up when mennonite community is discussed. the friendliness of the norwegians is not an adequate substitute for the support of one's own people, some stories suggest. annchen's mother tells her the story often about how annchen almost became norwegian. the opening to this tale is quite ambivalent about the division between ethnic groups: then, and later, my parents always spoke very warmly about our norwegian neighbours, but it was understood that they weren't "us". had i not been saved in the nick of time from becoming norwegian? "you'd be talking norwegian now and not even know us," mother would tell me. "i wouldn't. of course i talk german and english, " i'd protest.... ( ) if the norwegians are not "us", mennonite, then how is it that annchen could have almost become norwegian? the first phrase seems to indicate that an essential difference exists between the norwegians and the mennonites, while the later sentences imply that the-acquisition of language is the important thing. there is a connection: if annchen had grown up speaking norwegian, she would not have known her own genetic family. the young annchen is given to some norwegian neighbours to care for while her mother recovers from the birth of twins. mrs. helderson's sister-in-law is childless, in contrast to the kinderreich ( ) klassens, and wants to keep annchen. mrs. helderson tells the klassens: "my sister-in- law, she hopes.... lars says your annchen talks norvegian. maybe you tink about it...?" ( ). father goes to the household and waits for annchen to wake up. when she does she cries: "mama...(norwegian)" ( ) according to konrad. the parenthetical "norwegian" is not clear. i would suppose that it means the child is crying out in norwegian, but the author cannot provide the norwegian word for "mama" and so provides the english. father klassen wins the baby back by speaking to it in german: "annchen," father [says], "what are you doing my child?" he [speaks] it in german.^annchen [looks] unsure...."kind, liebes kind, hast du vergessen..."^he [talks] to her in german until slowly the child [looks] away from christine hanson and [studies] father. he [picks] her up.... ( ) the german phrase has no direct or indirect gloss in the text. it has a biblical echo, especially since father is speaking in high german and not low. father seems rather god-like in this scene, winning an erring lamb back. do these words mirror christ's on the cross asking god if he has forsaken him? (my mother comments on this phrase: "i don't know where it's from", as if it should be from somewhere.) ^the german language is made to bear the cultural burden of religious morality. when the child looks toward the man speaking german, father picks her up...not before. it is the familiarity of his language that wins annchen's attention. and yet, the possibility that annchen could have become norwegian shows just how permeable the boundaries can be between families and cultures. the boundaries between "us" and the "englische" are challenged throughout annchen's narrative. the mortality of the flesh is a great leveller in the blue jar. in the first chapter, in which annchen describes her childish confusion at the death of an older sibling, she is surprised to see "levalton the norwegian...sitting prof. kr er comments that it "sounds like a folksong to me, actually." on the men's side [of the church]." she asks herself, "why [is] he in our mennonite church?^mrs. helderson [sits] beside him. [doesn't] she know women sit on the opposite side?" ( ).^the boundary between "us" and "them" has been crossed.^and mrs. helderson does not respect the boundary that the mennonite church traditionally enforces between men and women. at a different funeral annchen remarks that her non-mennonite schoolteacher looks like a "stranger" because of her lipstick and short skirt. about miss smith's appearance annchen thinks: "worldly." how often preacher hiebert [has] warned the congregation, "be not like this world." yet she cried at susie's funeral. ( ) the evidence of miss smith's humanity, her compassion, makes annchen question the religiously upheld division between the mennonites and the "englische". while miss smith's tears make her closer to annchen in an attractive way, the discovery that another school teacher (they are always "englische" teachers [ ]) is all too human in an earthy way destroys the boundary in a more devastating manner. the chapter entitled "school" begins with a description of how the beautiful schoolteachers bring the world to the isolated students, and stimulate their imaginations ( ). in the spring, however, the children find tin cans with "brown lump[s]" in them around the teacherage and discover that miss waterford was "too scared to go to the outhouse" during the winter ( ). annchen: i [stare] at the rust-edged cans and suddenly [feel] very sad. [is] she just like us then, my teacher, my perfect teacher... .velvet plush boots and lace collars, when it [comes] right down to the important questions, like shadows at night, or fear and alone in the dark, [is] she just like me, her pupil? no magic? no answers? [is] that all there [is]? tin cans? ( ) the fact that miss waterford is not different dashes the hopes of annchen the child, who is enchanted with the "magic" of the "englische", with king george, queen elizabeth, renfrew of the royal mounted, and christmas cards. the destruction of the boundary between "us" and "them" leaves annchen with nothing to hope for. when annchen's older sister tina becomes baptised she looks for evidence of a change in her sister. will she suddenly become more holy? ( ). everywhere annchen looks for the evidence of real boundaries and does not find it. the mennonite churches create and support boundaries between themselves, not just between themselves and the worldly "englische". in "the kirchliche", annchen discusses the differences between the religious rules of two mennonite groups. annchen sums up the difference between them as a linguistic one (and shows that the gap between signifier and signified is also one of context): their fathers smoked; some even drank wine or beer and they danced at their weddings. for them it was "fun"; for us it was "sin". ( ) the quotation marks surrounding the words "fun" and "sin" show that the narrator is marking a linguistic equivalence between them, based on (in this case) a religio-cultural context. annchen's friendship with flora who is "kirchliche", shows that she can cross this boundary, but when flora's sister wants to marry someone from outside her church, the marriage is never announced because it would mean that one person in the couple would have to switch churches. the results of the switch, however, would be quite drastic. the defector would be shunned by his or her own family and congregation: "in german shunning [is] ausgeschlossen and that word by itself [has] the ring of eternal damnation" ( ). the boundary between these groups must be maintained with extreme vigilance, it seems; the seriousness of shunning reflects how much is required to conserve the boundaries between "us" and "them". annchen and the other children, however, are the generation which desires to assimilate, to fit into a new land. they do not perceive the interlanguage "english" as acceptable. annchen and the other children mercilessly mock a bible school teacher who cannot master the correct code of english. he invites the children to "summa bible school" and the children react with incredulity: "a grown man with a huge moustache and he [cannot] say his 'r's'!" ( ). julius schier teaches the kids to sing: "it is summatime in my hat" ( ). (i assume it should be "summertime in my heart".) the concert for the parents turns out to be a fiasco when the children sing the words with julius schier's accent: "the parents [sit] stunned. even german-speaking mennonite parents [cannot] be fooled by so blatant an imitation of julius schier's i found it interesting that my relatives did not identify "ausgeschlossen" as "shunning" (appendix ). obviously it does not carry the ring of eternal damnation for them! for probing exploration of the custom of shunning see patrick friesen's book by the same title. for a hilarious folk tale about a young widow's exploitation of the custom, see sara stambaugh's, "how lena got set back" in liars and rascals. ^see my father's comments on pronunciation under "fudderingham" (appendix ). voice" ( ). by imitating his improper english, the children are in a way criticizing the "bush-english" of their own parents; they are rejecting their past. the crowning touch comes when schier insists that "precious" should be spelled "pretcious" as it says in his teaching manual ( ). the extra "t" in "precious" stands for the cross of christ in an anagrammatic recitation. the absence of the cross is not possible for schier; he won't suit himself to the codes of english that the children try to teach him. his difference earns the scorn of both children and parents by the end of the story. the children's ability (or desire) to adapt to the english ("englische") culture better than the older generation is a repeated theme in konrad's book. when annchen's sister tina gets married, for example, she insists on many english customs. her brothers make a banner at the church saying "wilkommen" and annchen surmises that "tina would [like] it better if it were english..." ( ). anne konrad's novel focuses on a child's perceptions of boundaries. annchen's opinions of boundaries are always being revised by her life experience. the boundaries between right and wrong, between english and mennonite, and between languages are shown to be permeable. within this thematic context, the ambiguities in the typography, and the presence of interlanguage reinforce the idea that konrad's use of the non-english word does not contribute to an "us" and "them" boundary or alienate a non- dolitsky points out in her study that the younger the child, the more rigid his or her conception of the rules of language: "younger, less mature children were more strongly attached to conventional word-to-meaning associations and could not break away from what is for them a fixed preordained code" ( ). mennonite audience. : the salvation of yasch siemens by armin wiebe armin's wiebe's novel has an epigraph which clearly alerts the reader to expect language play: my god, how we adored this buggering up of our lovely language for we felt that all languages were lifeless if not buggered up a little. armin wiebe's epigraph announces his novel's project, and points to the source of his novel's spirit. the language spoken by the narrator yasch siemens, is primarily interlanguage. he uses low german words and english words; he uses english words in german word order; he conjugates low german words according to english grammar, and sprinkles the text with neologisms. the orthography of the text is anglicized: an effective blend of the languages. my aunt comments that the low german words are "bastardized, so to speak, forced to sound more english" (appendix ). this 'buggered-up' language is not, however, that difficult to understand, much like "jabberwocky" seems intelligible because it is grounded in english syntax. the reader is able to determine that a certain word is a verb or an adjective based on the recognizable english morphemes in the sentence. whether the interlanguage in the salvation of yasch siemens is symbolic of the low german language, as it is in the trail of the conestoga or the blue mountains of china, is a matter for discussion. e. dyck assumes that the characters are speaking in low german, not english. but i am more inclined to think that yasch is speaking his version of english. my father points out that this word order is quite familiar to him, that mennonites indeed speak in this way (appendix ). the language in the novel, although it has the ring of authenticity, only seems to be an approximation. literary discourse is "always a matter of invention and construction" (ashcroft ). because the text does not use italics to separate english from low german, the reader is not able to distinguish between low german, neologism or idiomatic usage. by abandoning the conventional use of italics, the boundaries between languages are erased. italics are used only several times in the novel to indicate "foreign" words: the words are "schmallen lebensweg ( ), "allein" ( ), jugendverein ( ), juide frei ( ), and wehrlosigkeit ( ). these phrases are high german; the division between high german and low german still seems to be operating for yasch (although the languages overlap, obviously). the fact that these words are italicized suggests that all the other words are "english", at least for yasch. this exchange between armin wiebe and his editor at conference only increases the ambiguity surrounding the "accessibility" of the text: armin wanted a glossary; i refused it. armin said people who don't know low german will miss the joke. [comment from armin wiebe: 'dave, you've got that wrong,.'] well, it doesn't have a glossary. [armin wiebe: 'i supplied david carr with a glossary for publicity purposes after the book came out.'] oh yeah, yeah. you wanted a glossary. the truth is [comment from the audience: 'half truth!']....you've got to handle them like children; they forget everything. (arnason ) as a reader unfamiliar with low german, i still found the book humorous. from an examination of the names that my respondents glossed for me, it seems that the humour of the novel is definitely enhanced by the understanding of the names of character in the book. i knew that these names had significance for several reasons. book reviews by speakers of low german refer to the names. also, clues are present in the text which point to the significance of the names. yasch comments at one point about shaftich shreeda: "it is easy to see that shreeda isn't shaftich today" ( ). this is a cue to the reader that the names of the characters are significant in another language. the first time i read the book i had no idea that they "meant" something. there are a few nick-names which are recognizable english too, like "hula hoop". are these the real names of the characters, nicknames, or names for a moralistic fable? my father comments that nicknames are more popular with the kanadier than with the russlander, and that everyone has a nickname among this group (appendix ). understanding the names creates another kind of reading of the text, but it is not a hierarchically better one because it is an "insider's" view. again, the responses of my helpers were not consistent. names are a way of having plural identities. there are german, low german and english versions of first names and surnames, just as there are nicknames. this practice again points to the fragmentation of the self, the lack of boundaries, and the definition of the self through texts and language. armin wiebe's novel contains direct glosses as well as indirect ones. context is always important, both local and general. new year's eve church is glossed almost directly in the text for sylvesterabend ( ), but yasch himself is unaware of the significance of the title: he makes a pun on "sylvester the catlicker". catlicker can be interpreted as a humorous homonym for catholic. yasch's question, "now why would the people call the new year's eve church after a cat in the comics?", reveals his ignorance of his people's own traditions. is wiebe illustrating that yasch has no more knowledge about the real meanings and sources of his community's traditions than an ignorant reader? just as most readers have enough urban experience to laugh at yasch's ignorance in winnipeg, his "translation" of everything into farm implements , most readers would correctly assume that the german holiday is not named after sylvester the cat. yasch is cut off from his own past. this chapter (the brummtup chapter) foregrounds yasch's alienation by contrasting him with bova jake's grandfather who knows all about the past traditions. when the grandfather is dumped from the truck rides, the young people go across the border toward the u.s., and toward the t.v. tower, source of the siege of "canadian culture" by american mass culture. the lack of any references to mennonites, only to flat germans is "...an indication of the progressive secularization of the mennonites, who here distinguish themselves from the majority only through their linguistic otherness" (strauss ). as michael strauss points out in his article "a second look at yasch siemens", "the clearest indication of the decreasing influence of the mennonite world view on yasch and his increasing assimilation into canadian context is evident in the development of his language" (strauss ). yasch's language changes throughout yasch's description of the "bale loader stairs" in eatons ( ) is one of my favourites. the novel. the big threat to the elimination of the flat german culture is not "mainstream" canadian culture, but the american culture that lies just over the border at gutenthal. the crossing of boundaries is a key theme in the novel. in the first story, yasch's sexual initiation takes place while going over the border to the states. he thinks that maybe he should save this for fleeda shreeda instead of schups (whose name might mean "push" according to several of my respondents [appendix ]). but the boundary between the countries is not guarded though; there is only a ditch that the couple walk over ( ). the permeability of this particular boundary is the problem. the t.v. tower transmits mass american culture to its audience. at the end of the novel yasch is not going to get a colour t.v. and a satellite dish, because "in these troubled times you have to watch out" ( ). ironically the fact that his language has calmed down indicates that he has already lost what (perhaps) he was trying to preserve. yasch's son, doft, calls him "papuh" ( ), not "futtachi", which is the endearing term for a parent that yasch used with his father. after years yasch has been changed by mass culture. the invasion of american values is also represented by the "states women" who visit knibble thiessen and result in his thinking a little too highly of himself: knibble thiessen is getting to be a real spitz poop. his sign doesn't say 'bone setter'; it says 'knockenartzt' in german letters, and then 'general massage'. ( ) "bone setter" would be good enough for the flat germans around to know what his occupation is. thiessen's use of high german (and gothic characters) is meant to impress both the flat germans and the states women for whom the ethnicity of knibble thiessen might be a drawing card. (ironically, thiessen's newest addition of foot massage is a skill that he learned in california. [ ]) michael strauss laments that armin wiebe's novel is not more widely accepted: unfortunately the salvation of yasch siemens is considered not only as an ethnic novel but as regional fiction, because it is only fully accessible to a 'germanophile-anglophile' public. a further limiting factor is the profound knowledge of the bible which is required of the reader to understand the text...." (strauss ). as i have tried to assert throughout this exploration, the lack of a stable, objective, "correct" interpretation to the works in question puts the question of accessibility in a different context. the more relevant knowledge that a reader has, the more satisfied he or she might be with his or her interpretation. yasch's interpretation of "twa corbies", however, may serve as a hilarious manual for interpreting the novel. sadie is attempting to the fact that knibble thiessen refuses to call himself a 'bone setter' (which would probably appear simply red-neck to the states women rather than exotic) is significant in light of jack thiessen's low german story (trans. into english by a. schroeder) called "bonesetters". it begins: what is a mennonite you ask? i mean a real mennonite, an unmistakable mennonite? well, that's a tough question, a very tough question. . . .a mennonite is this: a person of the human persuasion who speaks low german and who patronizes a bonesetter. ( ) according to jack thiessen, knibble thiessen is refusing to acknowledge his own "mennoniteness"! the narrator of this story also singles out t.v. as the enemy to a good folk tale: "but that isn't answering your question, which i'll do forthwith, if you'll just turn off the tv and give me a moment of your time..." ( ). the low german word for bone setter (which thiessen/schroeder choose to spell "bonesetter") is "trajchtmoakasch" according to the thiessen collection. understand the scottish ballad and enlists yasch's help. he explains, "you see, this poem is like it was made up from flat german mixed up with english" ( ). here is his extended interpretation: alane is like allein in german. i herd two corbies making a mane. mane could be like a horse's mane or it could be the main street. anyways, the crows are making a mane. the tane unto t'other say. the tane, that's the one with the big tooth, and he says to the other one, where sail we gang and dine today? sall is like zell in flat german and gang is like gang in german, only it means not the place between the house and the barn like they have in the old darps. see these crows can talk and one asks the other one where they shall eat today. ( ) yasch's mixed-up interpretation of the poem comes out all right in the end. it is as if the text is telling us to use all the resources that we can muster; english homonyms in combination with context bring comparable results to german ones when it comes to interpretation. anything goes. some of the children in dolitsky's study were reluctant to hear the "meaning" of the foreign language poems that they had discussed because "it would ruin their personal representations of it; it would force them to see a reality that was not theirs. and for some of them, this could only be a disappointment" (dolitsky ). and like sadie, who is somewhat disappointed to hear that the poem is about "how these crows plan to eat this dead guy that is lying behind this old full ditch..." ( ), we are invited to hold onto our own interpretations. : a reader's response it may seem contradictory to assert that the ultimate effect of the non-english word in an english text is to highlight the socially constructed nature of ethnicity itself. i originally began this project with a prospectus that strongly implied that the presence of non-english words in a text provokes the label "ethnic writer" by the reviewers. now i have come to claim that the presence of these words in texts questions the binaries of "ethnic" versus "mainstream", "us" versus "them". the personal nature of my research and my own position as both inside and outside of the mennonite community contributes to my development of a theory that asserts that the boundaries between cultures are permeable and socially constructed. walter benn michael's summation of interpretation hold true: we can choose our interpretations, but not the range from which we choose ( ). given that my interpretation is fuelled by my own sense of a fragmented identity, are there other reasons to explain these patterns in the texts of canadian mennonites? magdalene redekop argues that the language techniques of rudy wiebe stem from his background in a polyglot community: in canadian mennonite communities of the recent past, english both my parents grew up as mennonites, but my brother and i grew up outside of the mennonite community, not speaking german (although my parents tried to bribe us into learning it when we were children), and not attending a mennonite church. am i a mennonite? the problem of the identity of the later generations is highlighted in rudy wiebe's "the black vulture" in blue mountains of china and also in the introduction to a book produced by the mennonite literary society in part to preserve mennonite heritage and designed to "appeal [to] a new generation of english readers...." (al reimer ). was the language of education and literature; high german, the language of the bible was for use in the church, and low german was for everyday life. according to george steiner, this sense of languages simultaneously available for use in different contexts is what distinguishes the polyglot from the bilingual experience of knowing a second language". ("translated" ) the authors whom i discuss straddle many cultures . di brandt's comments illustrate some of the contexts from which writers write: "i hate having to choose between my inherited identity & my life: traditional mennonite versus contemporary canadian woman writer, yet how can i be both & not fly apart?" ( ). the polyglot experience of rudy wiebe, anne konrad, and armin wiebe is evident in their novels' use of language. but as di brandt's comments suggest, the marriage between cultures, the permeability of boundaries, is not always easy. my comments on the background of these authors, their polyglot experience, is a return to the question of authorial intention. authors, however, become readers of their own work, along with the public. memory itself is re- construction of the past, imperfect; and the self is always embedded in a context. memory cannot be treated as objective, absolute truth.° i agree with culler that "interpretation should i use the word "many" because gender, ethnicity, class, etc. can be considered different "cultures" or "subcultures". i read my journal entries and old essays and cannot recall having written phrases in them. can i then absolutely interpret what i "intended" by them? this assertion can lead to difficulty in a legal case. but i am not saying that memory is "untrue", and therefore unreliable, but that it is reconstructed in the present. transform the world, not merely attempt to recover a past...." ( ). i disagree, however, with arnason's arrogant claim that authors need to be treated like children ( ). their interpretations should not be hierarchically placed above those of other readers; nor should they be placed below. the identity of an author is important. according to lorrigio, the author's signature is the only way of identifying an ethnic work: "an ethnic work is a work written by someone who, in a particular society, is perceived to be ethnic" ( ). authorship is a significant code along with the rest of the text. we never write or read from a position which is objective: "...there is never a moment when we are not in the grip of some value-system, never a statement we make that is not value-laden" (tompkins xxv). in the ideal world, a democracy of interpretation and readers would exist. this world, however, is certainly not ideal. thus, the opinions of authors who "in a particular society [are] perceived as ethnic" should be examined in light of social prejudices and hierarchies which already exist. mennonites have been persecuted and mennonites have persecuted. they have tried to maintain boundaries and they have tried to abolish boundaries. i do not claim that the literature of contemporary canadian mennonites is "universal" (i have tried to show that "universality" does not exist) but only that the literature reflects the interpenetration of cultures, and the fragmented nature of identity. i do not deny that a language, "plautdietsch", exists, that people can understand it and communicate in it, but i do affirm that its use in mennonite canadian fiction does not produce a binary split between cultures. this language strategy, the fusion of languages, creates a "text of bliss" from the barthesian perspective: text of bliss: the text that imposes a state of loss, the text that discomforts,...unsettles the reader's historical, cultural, psychological assumptions, the consistency of his [or her] tastes, values, memories, brings to a crisis his relation with language" ( ). these texts may not bring every reader's relationship with language to a crisis, nor will every reader find a crisis, no matter what kind, desirable. in addition to the question "kjenn jie noch plautdietsch?", these texts ask the reader the (perhaps) more discomforting question: "do you know english?" works cited achtert, walter s. and joseph gibaldi. the mla style manual. new york: the modern language association of america, arnason, david.^"a history of turnstone press."^acts of concealment:^mennonite/s writing in canada.^eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . ashcroft, bill, gareth griffiths, and helen tiffin. the empire writes back: theory and practice in post-colonial literatures. london and new york: routledge, . barthes, roland. the pleasure of the text. trans. richard miller. new york: the noonday press, . birdsell, sandra. the missing child: a novel. london: vintage u.k., . brandt, di. "personal statement." prairie fire . ( ) . cooley, dennis.^"the vernacular muse in prairie poetry." the vernacular muse: the eye and ear in contemporary literature. winnipeg: turnstone, . - . culler, jonathan. saussure. hassocks, sussex: harvester press, . dolitsky, marlene. under the tumtum tree: from nonsense to sense, a study in nonautomatic comprehension. praqmatics and beyond . amsterdam/philadelphia: john benjamins publishing co., . douglas, j.d. ed. the new bible dictionary. nd ed. leicester, england: inter-varsity press, . dunham, mabel b. the trail of the conestogas. macmillan, . dyck, e.f. "the true colours of plain speech." books in canada . ( ):^ - . epp, reuben. "plautdietsch: origins, development and state of the mennonite low german language." journal of mennonite studies. ( ): - . friesen, patrick. the shunning. winnipeg: turnstone, . fish, stanley. "literature in the reader: affective stylistics." reader-response criticism:^from formalism to post- structuralism.^ed. jane p. tompkins.^baltimore:^johns hopkins up, . - . keith, w.j. introduction. the blue mountains of china. by rudy wiebe. toronto: mcclelland & stewart, . - . ---. "where is the voice going to? rudy wiebe and his readers." acts of concealment: mennonite/s writing in canada. eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . konrad, anne. the blue jar. winnipeg: queenston house publishing co., . levenston, e.a. the stuff of literature: physical aspects of texts and their relation to literary meaning. new york: state university of new york press, . loewen, harry.^"mennonite literature in canada:^beginnings, reception and study." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . ---. "the mennonite writer as witness and critic." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . ---, ed. why i am a mennonite: essays on mennonite identity. kitchener, on: herald press, . loriggio, francesco. "the question of the corpus: ethnicity and canadian literature." future indicative: literary theory and canadian literature. ed. john moss. ottawa: ottawa up, . - . martens, debra. rev. of the salvation of yasch siemens by armin wiebe. rubicon ( - ): - . michaels, walter benn. "the interpreter's self: peirce on the cartesian "subject"."^reader-response criticism:^from formalism to post-structuralism.^ed. jane p. tompkins. baltimore and london: johns hopkins up, . - . pauls, peter.^rev. of unearthly horses by patrick friesen. journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . pinsker, sanford. "the mennonite as ethnic writer: a conversation with merle good." the journal of ethnic studies . ( ): - . redekop, magdalene. "the pickling of the mennonite madonna." acts of concealment: mennonite/s writing in canada. eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . "translated into the past: language in the blue mountains of china." a voice in the land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. william john keith. edmonton: newest, . - . reimer, al. introduction. hans harder's no strangers in exile. by al reimer. winnipeg, canada: hyperion press, . - . reimer, margaret loewen.^one quilt many pieces:^a concise reference guide to mennonite groups in canada. waterloo, on, . rempel, herman. kjenn jie noch plautdietsch?: a mennonite low german dictionary: low german-english, english-low german. ed. al reimer. revised edition. winnipeg: mennonite literary society, . roosens, eugeen e.^creating ethnicity:^the process of ethnogenesis. newberry park, ca: sage publications, . schor, naomi. reading in detail: aesthetics and the feminine. new york: methuen, . strauss, frank michael. "the salvation of yasch siemens: a second reading." journal of mennonite studies. ( ): - . thiessen, jack.^the eleventh commandment.^trans.^andreas schroeder. saskatoon, sask: thistledown press, . thomas, clara. "western women's writing of 'the childhood' and anne konrad's the blue jar." acts of concealment: mennonite/s writing in canada. eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . tiessen, hildegard froese. "the author as stranger: mennonite literature looks homeward."^internal and external perspectives on amish and mennonite life.^eds.^werner enninger, joachim raith and karl-heinz wandt. vol . essen: unipress, . - . • "introduction:^mennonite writing and the post-colonial condition." acts of concealment: mennonite/s writing in canada.^eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . • "mother tongue as shibboleth in the literature of canadian mennonites."^studies in canadian literature . ( ): - . "the role of art and literature in mennonite self- understanding."^mennonite identity:^historical and contemporary perspectives. eds. calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner. lanham, md: up of america, . - . ---. ed. liars and rascals: mennonite short stories. waterloo, on: university of waterloo press, . tompkins, jane p. "an introduction to reader-response criticism." reader-response criticism: from formalism to post- structuralism. baltimore and london: johns hopkins up, . ix-xxvi. toorn, penelope van. "rudy wiebe and the historicity of the word." diss. u of british columbia, . wald, alan. "theorizing cultural difference: a critique of the 'ethnicity school'." melus . ( ): - . wiebe, armin.^the salvation of yasch siemens.^winnipeg: turnstone press, . wiebe, rudy. the blue mountains of china. toronto: mcclelland & stewart, . ---. peace shall destroy many. toronto: mcclelland & stewart, . winner, irene portis. "segmentation and deconstruction of ethnic culture texts: narration, montage, and the interpenetration of the visual and verbal spheres." issues in slavic literary and cultural theory. eds. karl eimermacher, peter grzybek, georg witte. bochum: universitatsverlag, . - . works consulted anderson, alan b. and james s. frideres.ethnicity in canada: theoretical perspectives. toronto: butterworths, . anderson, alan b.^"the sociology of mennonite identity:^a critical review."^mennonite identity:^historical and contemporary perspectives. eds. calvin wall redekop and samuel j. steiner. lanham, md: up of america, . - . baltensperger, bradley h.^"germans on the great plains: environment and acculturation."^ethnicity in canada: international examples and perspectives. ed. alfred pletsd. marburg/lahn: university of marburg, barthes, roland. "the death of the author." image-music-text. trans. stephen heath. new york: noonday press, . - . birdsell, sandra. "a conversation with sandra birdsell." with eric mccormack, kim jernigan, and peter hinchcliffe. the new quarterly . ( ): - . ---. introduction. the new quarterly . ( ): . burnet, jean. "ethnic studies." the canadian encyclopedia. ed. james h. marsh. nd ed. edmonton: hurtig publishers, . vols. clifford, james and george e. marcus, eds. writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography. berkeley: university of california press, . diehl-jones, charlene.^"sandra birdsell's agassiz stories: speaking the gap."^contemporary manitoba writers:^new critical studies.^ed. kenneth james hughes.^winnipeg: turnstone press, . - . dijk, teun a. van.^"how 'they' hit the headlines:^ethnic minorities in the press."^discourse and discrimination. detroit: wayne state up, . - . doerksen, victor g.^"in search of a mennonite imagination." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . driedger, leo. "ethnic identity." the canadian encyclopedia. ed. james h. marsh. nd ed. edmonton: hurtig publishers, . vols. ---. mennonite identity in conflict.^studies in religion and society . queenston, on: e. mellan press, . and peter hengstenberg.^"non-official multilingualism: factors affecting german language competence, use and maintenance in canada." canadian ethnic studies . ( ): - . duncan, mark, ed. section lines: a manitoba anthology. winnipeg: turnstone press, . dyck, cornelius j., ed. an introduction to mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptists and the mennonites. scottdale, pa: herald, . epp, frank h. mennonites in canada, - : the history of a separate people. toronto: macmillan, . erb, peter c. "critical approaches to mennonite culture in canada: some preliminary observations." visions and realities: essays, poems and fiction dealing with mennonite issues. eds. harry loewen and al reimer. winnipeg: hyperion press: . - . fish, stanley. is there a text in this class? the authority of interpretive communities. cambridge: harvard up, . freund, elizabeth. the return of the reader: reader-response criticism. london and new york: methuen, . friesen, john, ed. mennonites in russia - : essays in honour of gerhard lohrenz. winnipeg, manitoba: cmbc, . goerzen, t.w. low german in canada: a study of 'plautditsch' as spoken by mennonite immigrants from russia. (phd thesis) toronto: department of germanic languages and literature, . revised and republished in edmonton, . gundy, jeff. "essays: being mennonite and writing mennonite." mennonite life . ( ): - . ---. "separation and transformation: tradition and audience for three mennonite poets." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . ---. rev. of liars and rascals ed. by hildi froese tiessen. the mennonite quarterly review. january . - . hutcheon, linda. "'the canadian mosaic: a melting pot on ice': the ironies of ethnicity and race." splitting images: contemporary canadian ironies. toronto, oxford: oxford up, . - . janzen, j.h. "the literature of the russo-canadian mennonites." mennonite life january, . janzen, william. limits on liberty: the experience of mennonite, hutterite and doukhobor communities in canada. toronto: university of toronto press, . krahn, cornelius.^"literary efforts among the mennonites of russian background." mennonite life . ( ): - . kroetsch, robert. "the grammar of silence: narrative patterns in ethnic writing." canadian literature ( ): - . kr er, eva-marie.^"the cultural contribution of the 'other' ethnic groups:^a new challenge to comparative canadian literature."^critical approaches to new literature in english:^a selection of the th annual conference on 'commonwealth' literature and language studies, koenisstein, - june . ed. dieter riemenschneider. the new literatures in english . essen: die bliime ente verlag, . - . lehmann, heinz.^the german canadians - : immigration, settlement and culture. trans and ed. gerhard p. bassler. st. john's, nwfld: jesperson press, . loewen, harry. "canadian mennonite literature: longing for a lost homeland." the old world and the new: literary perspectives of german-speaking canadians. ed. walter e. riedel. toronto: toronto up, . - . ---. "leaving home: canadian-mennonite literature in the s." ethnic forum: journal of ethnic studies and ethnic bibliography . ( ): - . mcilroy, randal.^"author sees life through wry comic eye" winnipeg free press nov. . miller, elmer s. "marking mennonite identity: a structuralist approach to separation." conrad grebel review . ( ): - . moore, mayor. "cultural politics." se connaitre: politics and culture in canada. ed. john lennox. toronto: york university department of communication, . - . morton, donald.^"the body in/and the text:^the politics of clitoral theoretics." rev. of reading in detail: aesthetics and the feminine, by naomi schor. the american journal of semiotics . / ( ): - . moss, john. ed. future indicative: literary theory and canadian literature. ottawa: university of ottawa press, . neuman, shirley. "unearthing language: an interview with rudy wiebe and robert kroetsch." a voice in the land: essays by and about rudy wiebe. ed. william john keith. edmonton: newest, . - . new, w.h. a history of canadian literature. macmillan history of literature. houndmills, england: macmillan education, . pache, walter. "literary history in canada and the ethnic factor." cross-cultural studies: american, canadian and european literatures: - . ed. mirko jurak. ljubljana: eng. dept., filozofska fakulteta, . - . palmer, tamara j., and beverly j. rasporich. "ethnic literature." the canadian encyclopedia. ed. james h. marsh. nd ed. edmonton: hurtig publishers, . vols. pauls, peter. "the search for identity: a recurring theme in mennonite poetry." mennonite images: historical, cultural, and literary essays dealing with mennonite issues. ed. harry loewen. winnipeg: hyperion press, . - . radhakrishnan, r.^"ethnic identity and post-structuralist difference." the nature and context of minority discourse. eds. abdul r. janmohamed and david lloyd. new york: oxford up, . - . redekop, calvin. "the mennonite romance with the land." visions and realities:^essays, poems and fiction dealing with mennonite issues.^eds.^harry loewen and al reimer. winnipeg: hyperion press: . - . redekop, magdalene. "through the mennonite looking glass." why i am a mennonite: essays on mennonite identity. ed. harry loewen. kitchener, ontario: herald press, . - . reimer, al. rev. of liars and rascals edited by hildi froese tiessen. journal of mennonite studies. ( ): - . reimer, mavis. "a question of audience? two views of home in the russian-mennonite novels of barbara smucker." journal of mennonite studies ( ): - . riedel, walter e. "canada's cultural mosaic and the literature of the german-speaking canadians." the old world and the new: literary perspectives of german-speaking canadians. ed. walter e. riedel. toronto: toronto up, . - . saint-jacques, bernard.^"ethnic languages."^the canadian encyclopedia. ed. james h. marsh. nd ed. edmonton: hurtig publishers, . vols. scheier, libby, sarah sheard, and eleanor wachtel, eds. language in her eye: views on writing and gender by canadian women writing in english. toronto: coach house press, . the steinbach committee.^the mennonite treasury of recipes. steinbach, manitoba: derksen printers, . stubbs, andrew. "the rhetoric of narration in sandra birdsell's fiction."^acts of concealment:^mennonite/s writing in canada.^eds. hildi froese tiessen and peter hinchcliffe. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . - . thiessen, j. "canadian mennonite literature." canadian literature ( ): - . thiessen, jack. "low german (plautdietsch) in manitoba." german- canadian yearbook/deutschkanadisches jahrbuch ( ): - . tiessen, hildi froese.^introduction.^liars and rascals: mennonite short stories.^by tiessen.^ed.^hildi froese tiessen. waterloo, on: waterloo up, . xi-xiii. tiessen, paul. "the naming of rudy wiebe." journal of mennonite studies. ( ): - . toews, john b.^lost fatherland:^the story of the mennonite emigration from soviet russia, - .^scottdale, pa: herald press, . tompkins, jane p. ed. reader-response criticism: from formalism to post-structuralism. baltimore and london: johns hopkins up, . vladiv, slobodanka.^"the question of language in 'ethnic' literature." australian slavonic & east european studies . ( ): - . weaver, laura h. "mennonites' minority vision and the outsider: rudy wiebe's peace shall destroy many and the blue mountains of china." melus . & ( ): - weaver, robert.^introduction.^agassiz stories.^by sandra birdsell. winnipeg: turnstone, . wiebe, rudy.^"the skull in the swamp." journal of mennonite studies. ( ): - . wiebe, rudy. "the words of silence: past and present." silence, the word and the sacred. eds. e.d. blodgett, h.g. coward. waterloo: wilfrid laurier up for calgary inst. for the humanities, . - . winner, irene portis.^"ethnic culture texts as narration." literary anthropology: a new interdisciplinary approach to people, signs and literature. ed. fernando poyatos. amsterdam/philadelphia: john benjamin, . - . appendix: readers' responses although i have argued that a reader is free to interpret texts without the aid of a glossary, the aim of this appendix is to create a pluralistic glossary for the curious, those interested in the contexts and readings of others. in this interest, i have attempted to tabulate the results of my questionnaires. i gave my "volunteers" lists of words, some in context and some not. even though some words and phrases were glossed directly in the text, i wanted to see how my respondents would "gloss" the words. please note that two versions of the questionnaire exist. i felt free to foist an extremely long version on my parents, while the rest of the respondents received a shortened version, which also has more words displayed in contexts. my questionnaire is displayed in bold courier type; responses are displayed in roman unbolded type. the number on the far left indicates the page on which the word first (mostly) appears in the text. my editorial efforts are marked with square brackets to indicate omissions and/or changes to protect the innocent. after all, i am not sure that my respondents knew what they were getting into! respondents: (a) my father (edward g. janzen):^knows low german (plautdietsch) by ear, but never actually spoke it because high german was considered the language of education. his parents spoke low german to each other but high german to the children. (b) my mother (h. susan janzen): spoke low german in her teen years while attending high school and staying with a family that spoke mostly low german. she thinks that low german is the language of adults, that children were spoken to in high german. (c) father's sister (winona rempel) and her husband (william rempel) (my aunt and uncle): my aunt spoke low german while staying with a family who spoke mostly low german. her parents spoke low german to each other but high german to her. my uncle has spoken low german since he was a child. (d) helpful friend (g. helms): german national who does not know mennonite plautdietsch but is familiar with other forms of the language. note: all of my respondents know high german. my mother and father did not talk about the questionnaires with each other until they were finished. my responses to the language do not appear as part of the questionnaire, but rather as the substance (in part) of this study. my own background: i lack a knowledge of low german and have a limited knowledge of german through university study. please explain what the following words and phrases mean, and include any associations that they have for you if any. if you don't recognize the word or half-recognize it, please say so, and then guess at its meaning if you can. indicate what language you think it is in, if it isn't in english. if you think that the word should be spelled differently, mention this point, and hazard a spelling. please note that any responses that you make are useful to me whether you think they are "right" or not. some of the following references aren't language references but historical references that might have significance to you. use the back of the page if you need to! don't use the dictionary! (unless you feel you must, then indicate which words you looked up!) the salvation of yasch siemens (c) we've both read it some years back. names:^do these names mean anything? do they seem normal, strange? (a) these names are mostly "nick-names" joined with the last name of the individual, like peter the great, ivan the terrible, jack the ripper. i don't know why nick-names are created often first for children and then/also for adults e.g. my nickname as a child in early grade school was edda. i don't know where it came from. my childhood name was eddie which my family called me. we called you bethy-mow sometimes but i don't know why. [....] this is how i remember nick-names among the mennonites. among us (russlander) it was rarely apparent but among the canadia who spoke much more low german it was always there. my friend [h. k.] loved to create these stories which pointed fun at someone particularly with nick- names. some stories (and poems) were vulgar and pornographic. i remember only one (see later). i guess nick-names might arise because of some incident, some habit or skill, some attribute etc. some individuals might like their handle; other[s] likely not. [....] (b) they are all low german. [...] they are rhyming names which could be descriptive but not complimentary. ^shaftich shreeda (a) shreeda is the name schröder or schroeder, a german last name fairly common in some mennonite circles. it itself means to shred, grind or pulverize. shaftich is much more difficult to translate although i know the meaning well in the low german: able to accomplish things, active, bustling, comes from work, or working, able to work, and in particular has the wherewithall to work things out. (b) low german. shaftich indicates he was a happy man. ^shtemm gaufel friesen (a) friesen is the last name friesen;^shtemm means voice or pitch; gaufel is fork; thus "pitch fork friesen" but more correctly "tuning fork friesen". maybe this friesen (probably mr.) was able to get a pitch for singing from a tuning fork (not a mean feat in itself) perhaps for the church choir [...] for the congregation. maybe he was the "fursanger" elected by the church membership to lead the singing. if there was no piano, or no pianist someone would have to strike a pitch. the tuning fork would be useful to someone who knew how to use it. (b) low german--meaning "tuning fork"--perhaps he was versanger--a person who would give the pitch for the songs to be sung in church. (c) l.g. tuning fork friesen; probably related to his being director of a choir ^yut yut leeven (a) leeven is loewen or lowen a german mennonite last name. i have no idea what "yut yut" is. not a clue. yuta or yutta was a woman's name which i think means katie. (b) low g--is how you pronounce the letter j. j.j. loewen (c) l.g. j.j. loewen; j is pronounced or called "yut" in low german. (d) (? good life) ^shtramel stoezs (a) stoezs probably is a last name, stozs, but i have never known anyone by this name. i don't know what shtramel is. in high german "shtram" is good looking or well-dressed. i can't get a connection to decide whether this may fit. (b) low g. shtramel means strip or very thin. ^shups stoezs (a) stoezs, sozs is a last name. shups was something women wore. i think it was a bun of hair on the back of the head--a braid wound around a center held together with pins? were these a couple-- shtramel stoezs and shups stoezs? (b) low g. "shups" means to push. stoezs is the name. (c) l.g. shups is the bun on the back of a woman's head; also giving someone a "shups" is giving a push rather abruptly. (d) "push" (schubsen, stoi en) ^hova jake (a) jake is the first name of a guy. hova is oats so i guess jake was known to be a good oats grower. (b) low g--"hova"--oats, just a nick name. (c) l.g. oats jake ^hingst heinrichs (a) heinrichs is a last name; hingst is a male horse i think, a stallion?^on the next page is the word "kunta" but i can't remember the exact meaning of these words. i think they are both male horses but maybe one is castrated like not every male cow is a bull. "hingst" or "kunta" were never explained to me because an explanation would involve sex (i guess) and since i didn't grow up on an animal farm it passed me by. my guess is the combination "hingst heinrichs" had some special meaning. the obvious would be that he owned a male horse capable of mating with a female horse (mare i guess). whether heinrichs was himself as virile as a stallion is an interesting thought. is there a connection between "hingst" and "well hung"? (b) low g. "hingst" is a male horse--heinrichs probably took his stud around the community servicing the mares when needed. fortz funk from puggefeld (a) funk is a last name (my good friend whose girl-friend and susan were room-mates in wpg when i was in normal school was called bernie funk) forz means to fart; thus farting funk! (b) "fortz"--fart. "puggefeld"--frogfield. imaginary name. penzel panna (a) panna means penner. penzel means brush. somewhere i think i remember "penzel" being used somewhat for mild ridicule, not as strong as "stupid" but more like absent-minded, fuddle-headed, foolish, immature, something like that. also i think it could mean real thin and lanky but i'm not sure about this. (b) penzel—pain[t] brush. panna is penner. just rhymes well. kunta klassen (a) klassen is a last name among mennonites. i would like to note that some names are given here as in low german but some are as in high german; klossi would be the low german pronunciation of klassen. similarly panna is low german, spelled the same way in both languages i guess but it is pronounced a little differently. how to show the difference? funk low german is pronounced further back in the throat. funk high german is said with a smaller mouth more forward towards the teeth! shreeda is low german; schröder is high german. leeven is even more interesting. true low german (i think) would be leuva. now the canadia had some differences in their pronunciation of the same low german words. they added an "n" to the end of certain words, here leeven where we russlander would say leeve or leuva. loewen is high german. kunta is male horse i think. maybe this one is the castrated one to keep the animal more docile? i don't know for sure. (b) kunta may be a wagon or something. (c) l.g. kunta is a gelding or castrated stallion laups leeven (a) leeven is canadia low german for loewen. laups is a young lad, youth or some young male who hasn't grown up yet, at least as judged by someone. (b) laups is sort of slang name for young irresponsible boy. pracha platt (a) platt is a last name in high german. pracha means to beg; hence mr. (probably) platt has no hesitation to beg or borrow as in tools, implements, feed, seed or even money. (b) "pracha"--beg (c) l.g. beggar platt (d) flat hauns jaunses' fraunz (a) frauntz is low german for frank (my english); jaunses' is janzen's (in english); hauns is hans or john all in low german. this usage is meant to mean relationship or translated: frank is the son of john janzen's family. (b) hans janzen's franz zoop zack friesen (a) friesen is a last name in high german. zoop means to drink but used not for normal liquids but for alcoholic beverages; "zoop" definitely means to drink rather regularly. it does not imply "alcoholic" since i don't think that term was known to mennonites in the medical sense in the early days. zack means sack; thus friesen drank as if the liquid went into him like a sack. (b) soup sack friesen. beluira bergen (a) bergen is a mennonite last name in high german. luiri or beluira (it took me a while to get [it] around my tongue) means to wait; i guess bergen was chronically late. always someone had to wait for him (or her). (i don't think women were given nick-names )) (b) beluira i [am] not sure. bulls buhr (a) i think bulla is a first name in low german and buhr is a last name spelled the same in either low or high german but pronounced differently. the "r" is rolled in the high german. (b) --just two names [...] willy wahl (a) willy is a first name for william in either german. wahl is a german last name in high german. (b) willy--william haustig neefeld (a) neefeld is low german for newfeld or neufeld a common mennonite german name. hastiq means quickly. neefeld was always rushing or even more interesting made decisions too fast (and often made the wrong choice).^mennonite men were supposed to be deliberate, act in measured steps and give lots of thought to all actions before making choices. "toe haustig" or "too quickly" was a common phrase used almost with pity when someone "jumped before he looked". since i don't know "the salvation of yasch siemens["] (jack siemens) i don't know how intentional the following is, but it certainly is obvious: shaftich shreeda--both words start with sh, the same sound. [....] is this a kind of poetry in prose? i like even better the rhythm of sounds in shtemm gaufel friesen bova jake zoop zack friesen etc. the combination of consonants and vowels almost sounds like a jingle. i assume it was intended by the author. wonderful. (b) haustig--fast neufeld nobah naze needarp (a) needarp is low german for neudarp (in high german, i think). nobah means neighbour and naze or naz means nose. the strong implication is that needarp is a nosy neighbour! (b) "noba" neighbour. naza high g for nose. needarp for neudarp which is a family name. (c) l.g.^nobah is neighbour, naze is nose.^nosey neighbour needarp. zamp pickle peter (a) peter is peter in high german; peta would be low german. [....] zamp i think means mustard, so mustard pickle peter (?) (b) "zamp" mustard. schlax wiebe, the himmelshtenda (a) wiebe is a last name in high german; wieb in low german. schlax is difficult. i think i remember this to mean a long lanky frame in a young man. mabye himmelshtenda has something to say about reaching the sky since himmel means heaven or sky; "the" is english of course. oh yes, shtenda means a wooden scaffolding to support something. so wiebe is so long and lanky that he actually carries or supports the sky or heaven. (?) what do you think about this? (b) "schlax" is a slang for no-good male.^himmelshtend--sky stand, means nothing. schneeda giesbrecht, the steermaker (a) giesbrecht is a high german last name; schneeda i think is a tailor or seamstress; steermaker is a maker of something but i don't know what. (b) tailor. i don't know what steermaker is--needs more context. ha ha nickel (a) nickel is a last name in either german; ha ha i don't know except to guess it means to laugh as in ha! ha! (b) high g family name. (c) l.g. letter "h" is called "ha" in low german. h.h. nickel (d) -making fun, laughing knibble thiessen (a) thiessen is a last name in high german;^thiessi in low german. knibble is something to eat i think but i don't know what? kind of dough fried? (b) low g slang for knochen artzt or chiropractor. (c) l.g.^knibble^is^to^rub/probe/massage,^a mix^of massure/masseuse/chiropractor. (d) meticulously (knibbeln) shuzzel shroeder (a) shroeder is a last name in high german. shuzzel i don't know. (b) don't know. low g family name. winkle wieler (a) wieler is a high german last name. winkle is an angle. how an angle applies to a person i could only guess. i never heard it before. (b) high german family name--winkle could be descriptive but i don't know its meaning. schacht schulz (a) schulz is a german name either in high or low. schacht i think means chess[....] thus schulz plays chess. (b) low g (i'm not sure) to shaft someone. schallemboych pete (a) pete is short for peter in low german. schallemboych is low german for shellenberg or schellenberg (dick toews family name on his mother's side); thus peter is the son of the schellenbergs. (b) low g. family name. tiedig wiens (a) wiens is a mennonite name in either german. tiediq means early; thus wiens always was early before he needed to be there. our church had members who always came early; likewise there were some who always were late. we tended to be the latter! (b) low g for early. trudy teichroeb's (a) teichroeb is a high german last name. trudy is a nice version of gertrude. (b) teichroeb is a family name. irene olfert (a) two names. irene (english); irani in high german maybe. olfert a german last name. i don't know it as a "mennonite" name however! (b) it's a name. milyoon moates (a) ok this is funny. moates is martins in low german. millyoon is million in low german. thus rich man martins as if he had millions of dollars! (b) low g--"million" moates (martens) refers to a rich man. a.m. kuhl and p.m. kuhl (a) i don't get this one. kuhl i guess is a german last name. i've never heard it among mennonites. a.m. and b.m. [i confess to typologically complicating the issue.] are initials for two names? (b) just proper names which i don't recognize. yelttausch yeeatze (a) yeeatze is low german for geortzen, a german mennonite last name. yeltausch or yelttausch means money pocket; so mr. geortzen had a pocket full of money, always, not sometimes but always! (b) low g for purse or wallet. "yeeatze" low g for goertzen fam. name. rape rampel (a) rampel means rempel in low german but i don't know what rape is. (b) rampel is low g for rempel and the rape--i don't know about that word. barley king barkman (a) barkman i guess is a german name but i don't know any russlander with that name. this sounds english as does "barley king". gevitta ginter's widow (a) widow is english. gevitta is thunder and lightening in low german, ginter is high german last name; so this means the husband who died was called gevitta ginter (why a mix of low german, high german and english?) (b) low g for thunder. lectric loewen (a) lectric is short for electric; so electric loewen in high german. (b) low g for electric (as in light) loewen family name. klaviera klassen (a) klavier is piano; so the businessman who sells pianos is called klaviera klassen (why klaviera--i would think klavier klassen would be more correct?) (b) nklavier" is high/low g for piano--so perhaps she was pianist for the church. forscha friesen (a) forscha means sort of fat, big, well padded, staulky; therefore fat friesen. (b) low g--very sturdy (c) l.g. research friesen; probably used in this context in the book, but hforschn can also mean big/fat. (d) brisk, unrestraint (forsch) fuchtig froese (a) fuchtig is an explicative like terrible, awful, disgusting, stinking; therefore maybe an unbearably smelly friesen! (b) low g--sly susch and tusch (a) i don't know. i guess tusch does not mean tusch as we know it, one's seat. susch i don't know. gnurpel giesbrecht (a) giesbrecht is a last name in high german. gnurpel is like a joint, something in meat as tough as grizzle. it may also mean like a bump or wart or disfigured part of a limb. it may mean an ornery person (?) (b) low g--for the hard parts of meat (not bones) (c) l.g. hgnurpelnis adhesions/cartilage, the stuff in meat that can't be bitten through; gristle. dola dyck (a) dyck is a dutch mennonite last name with high german pronunciation. dola, or dol means angry; thus angry dyck. (b) dola--low g--dollar yasch siemens (a) siemens is a german last name in high or low. yasch is low german for jake or jack. (b) just a name but hjaschn is not formal. (c) l.g. jake/jacob/jack siemens doft siemens (a) doft is deaf i think or could even mean a little out of your mind since perhaps a deaf person appears a little stupid until it is known that he is deaf. (c) l.g. david siemens lowt leeven (a) leeven is loewen in canadia low german. lowt means to praise, compliment or recognize. it does not seem to fit but it could also be a first name. (b) low g for late. puch panna (a) [....] puch means to boast in low german. thus penner tends to boast, again a tendency among german people but definitely not consistent with mennonite "humble" doctrine. (b) low g for show-off yeeat shpanst (a) shpanst is a mennonite name i guess but i don't know anyone by this name, only in my janzen story. yeeat is low german for yeerat, or gerhard or george. my mother always called my father yeeat--and how this brings back memories from long long ago--she loved him so when she said yeeat. (b) low g--shortened version of gerhard. shpanst is family name. (c) l.g. gerhard shpanst. your grandma janzen called grandpa janzen "yeeat". another newspaper man with a funny name like fudderingham (a) this kind of expression i have heard before--newspaperman. my dad called the mechanic garageman (see my manitoba memories i). fudderingham is of course fotheringham because mennonites like authentic germans cannot say the "th". my father worked hard to pronounce the english correctly. our high school teachers mr. lohrenz, mr. schaefer, mr. peters who were not born in canada always said fudderingham. (b) is this a referal to fatheringham in macleans? gopher goosen (a) goosen is a common german mennonite name in high german and english; goosi in low german. gopher looks english to me as in prairie dog. (b) just a nick name fuchtich froese (a) froese is probably high german; froes in low german (?). fuchtich was rarely used in our house if at all. i think it means confrontational, full of fight? i don't know. (b) low g means sly--"froese" just being the last name. places: do these places really exist? do the names "mean" anything? neche (a) i don't know (c) e. little town just south of gretna in u.s.--just south of borders. exists. ^puggefeld (a) sounds like a name of a place but i don't know a place myself by that name. does the author make up this name? (b) low g--no--interpreted to "frogfield" (c) l.g. not exist. frog field. (d) ...field ^prachadarp (a) this means literally translated, beggar's village. this word could be a depricating term for a type of village. i've never heard of such a place by name. it's low german of course. (b) low g--no--means "beggar village". (c) l.g. not exist. beggar village. dietschlaund (a) this means deutschland or germany in low german and is an actual place, a country. (b) low g--yes deutschland or germany. hullaund (a) this is low german for holland or the netherlands. (b) low g--yes--holland panzenfeld (a) i know of no actual place by this name but it could be a village i guess. i don't know the meaning of the word. it [is] either low or high german (b) high g--it could have been a real place. (c) l.g. not exist. big belly field. i heard it as referred to man's belly. bill says panz usually ref ered to big balooning cow belly. (d) ...field yanzeed (a) interesting. this word means the other side, or the beyond side. thus it's not an actual place, in low german. (b) low g. means other side. (c) l.g. east reserve of mennonites largely settled by mennos in . altwiese (a) this is high german meaning old meadow. it could be a place but i know no town or place myself by that name. (b) high g. this is probably a real name of a place interpreted as "old meadow". (c) g. (sounds more german). old way. we know of no existing town of this name. (d) "old lawn" "pauss up that nothing squirts out!" (a) this is the first example of mixing low german with english, a common occurrence among mennonites. "pauss up" means watch out, but more interesting perhaps, "pauss up" was used a lot in conversation for many things even in religion so that the devil didn't trick you into doing bad things! (b) low g. "pauss up" means "be careful". (c) l.g. be careful nothing squirts out. (d) watch out that nothing comes out "holem de gruel! where did you get that thing?" (a) mennonites had their cussing words just like other people. "holem" was used in various ways. i guess like "holy" in english: holy cow. i don't know the meaning of "de gruel" but grueli means to scare. maybe this means "holy smokes this really scares me!" or "scary, eh?" (b) low g. "holem de gruel" is an exclamation of big surprise. i am not sure about "gruel" (a fright) but it means "something will get you or something like that-- (c) l.g. get the scare. or "get the porridge." opa says an unattractive woman looks like a "haisch gruel"--millet porridge. ^"vowt vell ye met me?" (a) this translated means "what want you with me?" in low german. also note ye means either a group or the formal version of you (like sie in high german). it could have been "vowt vellst du met me?" which is directly you. (b) low g. what do you want with me? (c) l.g. what want you with me? "vua rum best du nich en ne choyck? angst die nich dowt kullde zoyck?" (a) translated is: why (vua rum) are you not in the church? fear you not the cold coffin? obviously a warning to those lazy about attending church! (b) low g. why are you not in the church? aren't you afraid of the cold grave? or coffin. (c) l.g. why aren't you in church? frightens you not the cold grave? (d) ? why aren't you in ...? don't you have that cold stuff? ^"portzelcke, fortzelcke, shpecka droats tien!^sylvester chempt met dei fortz machine!" (a) translated is : "portzelche" (deep fried raisin dough balls usually prepared at new year's), "fortzelche" (rhymes with portzelche but begins with fortz a fart), shpecka droats tien (i don't know); sylvester comes with the farting machine. i guess this is a vulgar rhyme chanted by children (?) (b) low g--a pretty crude chant or rhyme about sylvester. "portzelcke--new year's cookie, fortz--using the word "fart" to rhyme--barbed wire "tien" (i don't know) sylvester comes with a fart machine. (c) l.g.^raisin fritter, fart...made to rhyme with st word, barbed wire tina. sylvester comes with the fart machine. a rhyme not used in our circles. (d) [chempt met del.] kommt mit de. ^"opp en desh doa shteit ne buddel bae'a, vaae doa von drinkt dei shrinkt!" (a) translated: on the table (desk) there stands a bundle (some amount) of beer; who from it drinks he shrinks.^i guess the meaning is clear. (b) low g. on the table stands a bottle of beer, whoever drinks from it will shrink? i don't exactly know what "shrinkt" means. (c) l.g. on the table there stands a bottle beer, who from it drinks will schrink. also unfamiliar. (d) on the table there is a bottle of beer, who drinks from it will shrink. knibble thiessen is what we flat germans call a gooseberry boor. (a) knibble thiessen is a name with a nick-name; "flat germans" means people who speak low german a lot (maybe canadia) since another name for low german is "plat deutsch" (in high german) and plat means flat.^in low german we would say "plaut deetschu. gooseberries were grown as a shrub by mennonites or hedge but the berries are very sour except when ripe (reddish). the fruit and its products like jam, were considered low value food, not as good as plums, or even as apples, pears of peaches. hence a derogatory term for thiessen, namely a boor, simple, insensitive. (b) i guess flat germans means "low g"--knibble could refer to massaging. (c) not familiar--doesn't make sense to us. flat germans?--well low german is flat and not tall, hence flat german. even the flat german ones have often learned themselves away from the schmallen lebensweg. (a) overall meaning is that even those mennonites who speak low german a lot, have accepted enough schooling to veer way from the narrow life's highway; learned themselves away are three words whose sequence comes from direct translation from german to english. this backwards sequence was common among mennonites who did not have formal english training. ( ) low g. i can only speculate what it means--low german is often equated w. less educated. the "schmallen lebensweg" refers to the straight and narrow or the right way--higher education meant to be taken away from the straight and narrow. (c) direct oversetting. flat germans were often very fundamental in religion & uneducated. it was thought education confused people and drew them away from their simple belief. but even these learned themselves away from the "narrow life road". (d) "schmalen"--narrow path of life knibble thiessen is getting to be a real spitz poop. his sign doesn't say 'bone setter'; it says 'knockenartzt' in german letters, and then 'general massage'. (a) "spitz poop" is of course a term for a dandy, someone inflated with himself. "knockenartz" is bone doctor. of course some of these men and women had no formal training but became self- proclaimed chiropractors or "traichtmochasch". (c) spitz poop is unfamiliar, but probably means high falutin. knockenartzt is "bonedoctor". (d) "spitzbub"--rascal^"knochenarzt"--bone doctor dievel, deivel, dunna, and schinda! mustard boar! (a) again a cussing phrase by mennonites (also my father used to say "donner wetter" or "thunder weather" as an explicitive). here "dievel" [...] is devil; "dunna" is thunder; "schinda" i don't know; "mustard boar" i don't know but might mean a mr. boar with a nick-name mustard. (b) devil devil thunder and scheister.^angry and disturbed exclamation. (c) [mustard boar] absolutely no idea. not used in our circles. devil, devil thunder and skinner. bill thinks refers skinning animals in slaughterhouse. we also heard "go tein schinda", almost like go to hell. (d) teufel (devil) himmelfahrt (a) himmelfart is high german for journey to heaven, heavenward. (b) low g. jesus' rising into heaven. (c) g. religious holiday--ascension day (d) ascension day sylvesterabend (a) sylvesterabend is a special day in the year. i've forgotten exactly which one but it's around new year. maybe the evening before new year's day? (b) high g. new years eve. (c) g. new years eve, spent in church being hauled over the coals for all one's sinning during the year. one last good whack from the preacher. (d) new year's eve - oata, oata ossentoata pesst em woata truff emn koata truck sich dann bei becksi oot funk doa einen brunen kloot howd sich dann ne groute frei docht dowt yeah emn ouster ei schmeickt seh eesht emn kleenet beet yowma me dowt ess blous sheet (a) this is a scatological poem, or rhyme which translated goes as follows. oata, oata (i don't know) oss en toata (i don't know but translated could be, like a theatre (doesn't make sense) pissed into water hit a cat (probably a male cat) took his then the pants off found there one brown clod had himself then the great joy thought that was an easter egg tasted him first one small piece (woh is me) that is only shit^comment: scatological or vulgar or pornographic poems or rhymes or stories were not commonly circulated among the russlander. i never heard any in my entire life, although bill might know some. the canadia i met had many examples all in low german of course.^eg. [h.k.]^i can only remember part of one; it ended like this dunkel es daut loch^dark is the hole [...] grot es de pruntel^ big is the post [...] oba nen mut de doch^but go must it anyway chaucer (unabridged) had some poems like this, but not quite as vivid perhaps. (b) a very crude poem i guess we never had that kind of entertainment in our home--maybe the boys did? i don't know. i was reading this while eating a sandwich and it had an adverse effect on my appetite-- oata-- is a womans or female name. ossentoata--just an uncomplimentary rhyme word.^pisst in the water. struck a male cat. took off her pants. found a brown chunk. had herself a big happy surprise. she thought it was an easter egg. tried a small piece. mercy me that was just shit. (c) l.g. oata, oata^oxenpuller (or carrier)^pisses in water hits a tom cat pulls herself then the pants off^finds there a brown clooter^had herself then a big delight^thought it was an easter egg^taste she first a little bit^complainer me, it is just shit. (d) that is was an easter egg^tasted first a little bit schmauntzup (a) (low german) translated means, "cream soup". we never had any at our house. this was low grade food for russlander! (b) low g. cream soup glumms (a) (low german) translated is cottage cheese. glumms was never eaten straight in our house. it was ok if fixed into something like fried with some spices maybe. then we called it "glummskoeki" or cottage cheese cookies (but not cookies). (b) low g. cottage cheese. verenichi (a) translation is not possible. these are cottage cheese in dough boiled until firm but not too hard in either low or high german. sometimes fruit was used instead of cottage cheese, like cherries.^i can't remember whether this is one of the items learned from the ukrainian population around the mennonite villages in russia. in canada the ukrainians also have potato verenechi which they call perogies. you might know that the mennonite german language was considerably influenced by the ukrainian language (it is important to note that the mennonites like the ukrainians but not the russians).^the influence came because the mennonite farmers who could afford it (most of the russlander farmers were wealthy in russia) hired ukrainian workers both male for outside work and female for inside work like cooks. hence a ukrainian cook might try her own recipes on the mennonite family. with large families mother had enough to do looking after the brood i guess. certainly this was the case in the dyck (susan's parents) and janzen families or the janzen family on my side. [my mother's mother's maiden name is janzen.] (b) low g or high--perogies i don't even like to eat glumms, except when they are in verenichi. (c) l.g. & r. cottage cheese, in our day dry curd used to fill dough pockets. ukrainians call them perogy. our moms all made their own, placing sour milk on the back of the warm stove. they would play old songs from the evangeliums book (a) evangeliums is the evangelic collection of songs. selection of songs to sing which everyone would likely know would be old church songs. (b) high g. evangelic song book (c) g. evangeliums (book) (buch) is still around.^our church disdained to use it. the hymns in there were very bouncy, words simple and often gory, & theology fundamentalistic. (d) gospel snuddernose (a) this was a combination of a low german word snudder, snot and english, nose meaning snotnose;^in low german it should be snuddernclz (b) low g. snot nose. ^...the half ton is schwaecksing from side to side on the slippery mud.... (a) the half ton is a small truck like a pick up; the chassiz for our suburban is / ton.^schwaecksing is a bastardization of schwank, or to sway and an english ending "ing".^schwach is actually "weak" but this is not to meaning. (b) low g. slipping. (c) l.g. slipping from side to side, especially the back end when the back wheels are pushing, making an [squiggley] design across the road. (d) ? "schwingen"^pendle ^"...the nurse at the front was my muttachi's second cousin from yanzeed who is such a pluida zack that i knew for sure that before the sun went down me and oata would be married with thirteen grandchildren." (a) this is a combination of low german and english.^[....] muttachi is mother, said in a loving way, as if small as a child. yanzeed is from yonder or yonderside; pluida zack is gossip sack who of course the nurse at the front is; apparently oata is someone's name (which i know from the scatological poem!) (b) [muttachi's] low g mother (mumsy's).^[yanzeed] perhaps a village called "the other side". [pluida] gossip low german (c) l.g. "pluida zack" is a "gossip sack". she works so fast that by sun down the gossip being spread will have it that not only are they married, had children, but also already grandchildren. oata nutzed me out. (a) nutzed has many meanings but all around "used up", "tired out", "took advantage of", ."all pooped out", "worn out". again a combination of german (either high or low) and english. (b) "nutzed" low german and high g for using a person. (c) l.g. to be nutzed out, is to be used. (d) oata exploited me "ausnutzen" ^"dunner and blitzen it is raining hartsoft again and i can hardly see to the house from the barn." (a) "dunner and blitzen" is an explicative cuss phrase sort of allowed among mennonites. hartsoft i don't really know. my guess it means "heartily", "vigorously"; i don't think it means hard- soft! the phrase "to the house from the barn" is nice "german english". it brings back memories! (b) obviously it means v[ery] hard--i think it's low g. because of how it is spelled. (c) g. & l.g. thunder and lightening, it is raining heartily again. (d) [hartsoft] hard.^"donner und blitze"^thunder and lightening... "and when i tickled her roll of fat by her belly while she was standing there by the washing up pan, she threw the tubdewk at me and hit me right in the face." (a) this is lovely, beautiful--i like it. i can see it. [....] tubdewk is wash cloth: tub is tub dewk is actually cloth cover comes from diack, a blanket; however tubdewk is low german with the canadia accent (the w makes it so); russlander would probably not have a w sound: more like tubduke (like duke of windsor). tubdewk is a lovely word. i never thought there was so much beauty in the low german language. (b) [tubdewk] wash cloth low g. (c) direct oversetting & l.g.^[tubdewk] direct translation: tubkerchief. actually, dishcloth. "but that would laugher everybody just as much and oata would maybe throw the drankahma at me." (a) "laugher" would mean "provide enjoyment", a nice use of laugh (i) and drankahma is low german for slop pail; since houses did not have plumbing, a big pail would be placed under the sink. our house had one; it was my job to empty it outside. the slop pile had a special smell. (b) [laugher] make someone laugh it's low g. spelling should be "lacher". [drankahma] low german for slop pail. (c) direct oversetting & l.g. in low german laugh is "lach", & if you say it made you laugh, you say "lachat" (soft ch as in bach). in direct oversetting (as we used to call it) then, it laughers you. the drankahma was a horrible pail--the slop pail. hova grits (a) hova is oats in low german; grits is porridge in high german; low german would be hova gretts. (b) low g--oatmeal. hybrid of low & english g. hova (low g) grits (english). grits is short for gritze (oatmeal). "they said you were so old and such a dow-nix too." (a) dow-nix, i think means do nothing but i'm not sure. (c) l.g. we would not use this expression, but say "de dowgt yi nuscht"--he/she is worth nothing. (d) "tu-nix" / nichts --do nothing that kammers you nothing (a) kammers is a bastardization of "cummer" or "ciimmern" from high german which means to pay attention to, or be concerned about, but in the negative it means it shouldn't bother you, or it's none of your business. (b) low g. none of your business, it's half english and / low g. tjemmert (c) direct oversetting & l.g. englisized low german word as so many of these are. we used "tchemat". that is none of your business. (d) ? "kimmern" that doesn't bother you chinga freow met sukka bestreit (a) chinga freow i'm not sure but could mean "children's woman", freow is woman or wife; with (met) sukka (sugar) bestreit (spread, sprinkled). if my translation is right, a nice woman who loves children (?). (b) low g children ? with sugar spread (c) l.g. children questions with sugar sprinkled--the reply we were given when adults didn't want to answer our question. always frustrating because the saying made no sense. (d) mit zucker bestreut^early sprinkled with sugar i almost fuhschluck myself because it will cost so much (a) fuh schluck is low german for "misswallow" a word not used in english but means, coughing from something going down the wrong way. this is a marvellously descriptive word commonly used in german. (b) low g. chocked (c) l.g. taking a breath and swallow at the same time in surprise & almost having the liquid going down the wrong throat. (d) "verschlucken" choke "i am you so good" (a) lovely. it means "i like or love you"--somewhere between like and love. (b) a direct translation from "ich bin dir so gut" i love you so much. (c) direct oversetting. no word for love in low german--maybe "lave" but not used as in english. so "eck sie die goat" is the closest to i love you, or "overset" as above, i am you good. (d) ? ich bin dir gut. i like you ? "you are me so good" (a) lovely.^it means "you like or love me"--again somewhere between like and love. (b) a direct translation from "du bist mir so gut". (c) ditto. there is also no word for depression in low german! jugendverein (a) literally this means translated, youth organization; most mennonite churches had or were supposed to have a youth activity. the young people would get together, learn some songs to present, maybe some poems or readings: this was presented maybe once a month on sunday afternoon:^jugend is young people;^verein actually means together or togetherness, both in high german. church functions were formally read in high german. (b) young adult's club usually associated with the church. (c) h.g. jugendverein or youth club/organization or? later we called it young peoples' sunday evening service of song and poetry prepared & presented by youth. often we would present the program in other menno churchs. (d) youth group juide frei (a) i don't know this one. juide might be jude, a word for jew. frei of course means free, but i don't know the expression. (b) low g. translated--jew free but i have no idea of where the term comes from. (c) l.g. jews free sadie and pug peters are having a hurry up shroutflint wedding next week. (a) shrout flint literally translated is: crushed grain.(shrout), flint is gun. this is a shotgun wedding, usually because somebody is pregnant! (b) low g. shotgun. (c) l.g. shotgun wedding (shrout is actually ground up grain) (d) "schrotflinte"--shotgun wehrlosigkeit (a) wehr losig keit is literally "defense less ness", or not willing to defend one.^this term is a mainstay of mennonite doctrine, pacifism, conscientious objector (co). this term is high german. (b) high g.^"wehrlos" means nothing to fight with. the word describing the mennonite issue of not going to war. (c) g. ...all full of pacifism (d) --helplessness defencelessness buttered out (a) buttered out means worn out. origin is interesting. in low german "ut ye buttart" is common for used up or worn out. but where does "butta" come from? i don't know. is it the sound of a machine endlessly going butta-butta-butta-butta-butta-butta-butta- butta? (b) i don't know--perhaps worn out. (c) direct oversetting l.g. "dot yi buttad" is all pooped out. ^heista kopp (a) heista kopp means "heads over heels" in high german or low german. origin? heista might mean "high over"; thus high over the head". (b) low g. stand on your head or head over heels. ^shluhdenz (a) shluhdenz means stupid or foolish person. (b) low g--sloppy person ^feemaesich (a) i don't know this time. maybe it will come to me later (?) ^fortzes (a) the only meaning i know is farts for fortzes ^muttachi (a) muttachi is a loving term for mother or mutter (high german) or mutta (low german) in low german. (b) low g. momsy endearment term for mother but i'm not sure. ^knacking sunflower seeds (a) knacking is low german for "cracking"; knack could also be high german. (b) low g cracking (c) direct oversetting l.g. cracking sunflower seeds, a great menno pastime. in one side of the mouth & shells out the other. (d) "knacken"--crack ^qwauleming smoke from his cigarette (a) cmauleming must mean huge volumes as in english quaff? forgot but dictionary for quaff says large volumes of liquid! (b) not familiar with that word. (c) l.g. belching or just coming out in clouds of smoke. ^clapper (a) i don't have a clue except clapper in english. (b) noise maker? (c) l.g. "claupaht" we'd say in low german. rattling would be the translation. (d) "kleppern" rattle ^beckhouse (a) probably beckhouse means back house or the outside toilet always in the back of the yard so that smells and flies were as far away as possible. (b) don't know but perhaps the backhouse or outside toilet. (c) direct oversetting, pidgeon english.^flat german'd "backhouse", the biffy or outdoor privy. (d) ? backhouse--bakery ^futtachi (a) futtachi is a loving term for father or foda in low german or vater in high german. (b) high g. some kind of pocket. ^dukkat (a) dukkat is a nice word describing the situation when something (like a fridge) isn't level and you can wiggle it, or tilt it back and forth. (b) a coin. (c) [what the dukkat] l.g. not used by our people. sort of like "what the heck". ^i am trying to gribble out (a) gribble out; i'm not exactly sure. we never used it. i guess it could be to nibble out information or maybe just to get along, make do, mellow out? (b) i have no idea. (c) l.g. gribble is thinking, figuring out. darp (a) darp is low german for village; dorf in high german. (b) low g village faspa (a) faspa is low german for the coffee and cake/zwiebach snack in mid afternoon between lunch and supper; fesber or fesper in high german. (b) low g. tea time in afternoon (c) l.g. bill's favourite meal. best known is sunday aft : coffee, tweback, or some bread, cheese, jam & then cookies, cakes. like a fancy coffee break. some people had them every day & then supper later. it sure seems like a hartsoft long way yet (a) here is the word hardsoft again; i guess to be consistent with my meaning for the heavy shower, hardsoft must mean considerable, substantial, quite a bit. (b) we never used this word that way--but it seems to mean "very" (c) l.g. ....a hearty long way to go yet. brummtupp (a) literal translation is "humming top", a top which makes a sound when it spins in low german; it means a person who complains quietly, complains wines a lot in low tones maybe to himself or herself. (b) low g--complainer--winer (c) l.g. (if someone called you this as a child you were a complainer or whiner.) we know of these only as to their use in the book. (d) brummen--growl, hum rommelpot (a) i don't know this one; noisy pot maybe, again referring to a person. (c) ditto [we know of these only as to their use in the book.] reibtrommel (a) i don't know but reib means to rub; trommel is a drum. are there drums you play by rubbing? (b) high g--something for rubbing against? (c) ditto [we know of these only as to their use in the book.] (d) "reiben" rub^drum rubbeltrumm (a) i don't know rubbeltrumm either. (c) ditto [we know of these only as to their use in the book.] brumm (a) brumm could mean to complain, mumbling complaint. (b) to complain (c) a person who couldn't keep a tune was a brummer. rummel (a) rummel i don't know except a noisy sound like a low roar with no distinct features, rumbling thunder maybe? (b) not familiar with that word. (c) ditto [we know of these only as to their use in the book.] (d) fuss, lots going on, noisy fortz (a) fortz i don't know other than fart or farts. (c) l.g. fart. (d) ? "furz"--fart dummheit (a) dummheit is a stupid thing in high german. (b) high or low g. stupidity sylvester the catlicker (a) sylvester is a name and catlicker is english for catlicker i guess! (b) some one who loves cats?--i don't really know. (c) e. could come from a comic strip called sylvester. russlaund (a) russland is russia land in low german. (b) high and low g--russia russiche dummheit (a) this means russian stupidity in high german, or a stupid thing of russian type. (b) high and low g--russian stupidity badels (a) badels are young lads, somewhat derogatory: "daut sent dumme badels" in low german; those are stupid boys. (b) low g. a do-no-good. stookey house (a) stook was a group of sheaves standing up, but i don't know anything about stookey house. (b) i have no idea. (c) men's residence at mci gretna. ^friewilliges [i admit to a typo--should be "freiwilliges".] (a) i have a problem with this. in high german it should be freiwilliges;^in low german more friewelliges.^this means voluntary contributions^like in jugendverein.^(youth togetherness). (b) high g--voluntary contribution to a program or concert. (c) g. that presented at programs, anniversaries etc of the free will, e.g. poems, comments, music, solo etc. (d) "freiwilliges"--s. th . out of free will christlich (a) this [is] high german for christlike. (b) high g--christlike or christian. even the calendar is trying to nerk you (a) nerk you, maybe means to fool you, deceive? (c) l.g. tease. holem de gruel! [repeat] (a) holem de gruel we had before is like holy cow, scary eh? (b) low g. unpleasant wish for someone used as an exclamation when something extra-ordinary happens or is done-- you mean shoevanack like on hallowe'en? (a) shoevanack is a practical joke or prank like on hallowe'en or april fool's day. however mennonite boys might play practical jokes on anyone at anytime. young men were tempted sometimes too. (b) shobanack--low g. for tricks. (c) l.g. we said it shobanack--mischief hauns jaunses' fraunz (a) we had this one already (b) low g. john janzens' franz ^that brummtupp is rummeling hartsoft loud (a) that humming top is making a rumbling sound quiet loudly, would be my translation, at least to be consistent with my earlier translations? (b) "hart"--high g for hard. ^"vowt vell ye met me?" [repeat] (a) we had this before. (b) low g. what do you want with me? what are you going to do to me? ^"schmuynge" (a) wow; i don't know but maybe this means to smootch in english schmustre or schmusta means to smerk or smile, which is where i got my guess from. (b) i really don't know but it's probably low g. perhaps it means to butter someone up. (c) l.g. smooch fraunz blinkers his eyes (a) fraunz is frank, blinkers means blinks his eyes i guess. actually blinkers means the side shields harnessed horses have to prevent startling from the side. (b) blinks his eyes. her ears will shring (a) shring means to buzz, maybe because someone is talking about her! (b) probably her ears will burn because someone's talking about her. (c) l.g. someone talking about you and your ears ring or get red or something. what is purple gas? (a) i don't know? (b) i don't know. (c) farm gas, to be used only for agricultural purposes. schemmel cow (a) schemmel is spotted i think or maybe a spotted color like beige? (b) low g. i thought schemmel was a male horse. footwear: four-buckles (a) four-buckles may be overshoes we used in winter, black rubber with -snapbuckles; richer people had sippered overshoes. (b) probably overshoes w. buckles--they used to have metal buckles. (c) overshoes that are half way to knees with four buckles to close up front. men's wear. flyclapper (a) flyclapper may mean a fly-swatter? (b) fly swatter. booker stove (a) booker stove was used by many (included is our family--see my old car stories) which used small sized coal pieces, booker coal. (b) booker is a trade name for a very popular stove used as a space heater burning low grade coal. we had two--one in the l.r. and one in the large d.r. (c) had a problem of emitting some acrid stink, but could be stoked with coal for overnight slow heating. we had one, almost everyone did for awhile. narsch (a) narsch is rear-end like in ass in high german, norsch would be low german. (b) high g. for bum as in anatomy is you the bearing loose? (a) bearing means bearing, and loose, maybe loose or worn out. (b) poor translation from german or mixed up english--have you lost a bearing? meaning "you're out of your nut". ^...i got stuck on the field and he had to borrow zamp pickle peter's to pull me out. (a) zamp pickle peter we had already--and was probably a tractor. (b) "zamp" low g for mustard. (c) l.g. [zamp] mustard. [ ] john deere tractor i swear at the cluck (a) cluck probably is clock used in low german expressions. (b) "cluck" low g old hen oh, thousand, i have the steinback post forgotten (a) should be dowsent not thousand; this was an acceptable cuss word steinbach post is a newspaper; again backward german english. (b) translation of the low g. word "doozent" meaning thousand but used as an exclamation of frustration--the rest is a direct translation from german. footlicking (a) footlicking i don't know except to imagine it as groveling. (b) comes perhaps from the custom of washing feet--doing a service for reward. rightmaker (a) rightmaker may be someone who made things right (?) (b) i don't know but sounds like a word to describe someone who can make wrong into right--a mediator-- knibble (a) knibble i don't know. we never used this word. maybe nibble? (b) could refer to massaging huy yuy yuy (a) this expression is still common (winona says it) to mean exclamation, surprise, wonderment, but approving surprise. (b) high or low g. boy oh boy oh boy! used when someone is in deep trouble. outcallers (a) outcallers, i don't know. (b) i can only guess--one who calls out at an auction. himmel-shine (a) himmel-shine; could it mean sun-shine? (b) "himmel": low g for heaven. a little bengel boy (a) a little bengel boy; a young, youthful, lanky, immature (b) low g for a naughty boy. katzen-jammer (a) jabbering and whining like cats-meowing, waiting for milk should be more like katzen-yammer (c) g. cat yowling. there was a comic strip called katzen jammer kids. (d) --depressed mood, feeling sorry for yourself, sometimes for a hangover corbies...twa corbies (a) twa is two in low german; thus two corbies but what is corbies? a name? i don't know. fire evening (a) fire evening is high german with english; fire-abend is fully high german meaning free evening like holiday or special evening. it can also be fire-tag or special day or holiday. where the word fire comes from i don't know because it does mean "fire" (in english) as well. candles in church service a long time ago? or is it free evening as in nothing planned or nothing to do? (b) low g. "fieur ovend" meaning resting in the evening. (c) pidgeon english. englisized german word feirabend. saturday evening when folks quit working & prepared themselves in quite mediation for sunday. (d) "feierabend"--time after work you don't have to string yourself on (a) i think it should be "you don't have to streng yourself on" in both germans there is the phrase "an strengen" (high) or "aun strenge" (low). it literally means to strain yourself or exert yourself. thus "you" don't have to exert yourself ("string" yourself) on. the "on" comes again from the german "an strengen" (high) or "aun strenge" (low) (c) direct oversetting. aunstrengi--to put effort into work or whatever. (d) "sich anstrengen"--try hard flutzed [my error: should be glutzed in later questionnaires this word was corrected for (c) and (d)] (a) i don't know this one; flooded maybe? (c) l.g. [glutzed] stared. (d) "glotzen"--stare penzel (a) we had; this is a paint brush. (b) low g. for a person who is preoccupied or forgets everything-- a bit irresponsible. dem dry bones, i hear de word of de lord (like the blackwood brothers) (a) mennonites and germans cannot or will not or do not say "th" sounds. should be "them dry bones, i hear the word of the lord". (c) negro spiritual this come back again burro sits down (a) this is another example of backwards english based on german. "come back again" adjective can be one word in german: "zurlickgekommene" himmelfahrt [repeat] (a) this means heaven wards, to go to heaven, journey to heaven (in high). ^"i didn't know you was a france hose" (a) france hose is spoken together;^franscose meaning french person. ^"he drove all over his farm ... looking for the cowfoot so i could stamp the earth down around the posts." (a) translated, "he looked all over for a tool called a cowfoot which would pack the earth around the posts he was placing in the ground in his farm." (b) i think a cowfoot would be some tool or was he actually looking for a cow. (c) bill calls it a "crowfoot". we have one--about ft tall one in. diameter steel bar, very heavy, slightly flatted on the bottom, used for pounding around fence posts to solidify their stance. laugher themselves (a) they were laughing to themselves (b) high g word where laugher comes from is "das lachert mir" means that makes me laugh. (c) direct oversetting. making themselves laugh danny orlis books (a) danny orlis' books, i guess. (b) i don't know who he was. (c) on menno radio station cfam southern manitoba used to be every morn (maybe still is) "back to the bible hour" run by theodor epp. sat. morn they had kids program with (soap) story of danny orlis & gang. i guess there were also books available. oabeida (a) could be "over each one"? i don't really know. (b) low g--workers (employees) knecht (a) knecht is a male servant, usually young male servant. (b) high g--servant (c) g. servant (d) --labourer / (slave) onioning her eyes out (a) since onions make eyes water, she was crying her eyes out. (b) crying because of cutting onions a klunk of earth (a) a klunk of earth, would mean a chunk of dirt. (b) chunk my stomach is hanging crooked (a) it was a common saying among mennonites (women?) that their aches and pains are due to a stomach hanging crooked! (b) probably means stomach is empty. (c) too empty--hungry individual (d) "mein magen hangt sclief."--my stomach is upset washcumb (a) cumb is a basin, a bowl; washcumb would be low german for a washing basin. (b) low g. basin for washing. (c) e & l.g. washbasin. low german would be vauschcumb. evening in schanzenfeld perfume (a) schanzenfeld is a village in southern manitoba i think. (b) [schanzenfeld] substitute for paris. proost (a) proost:^germans say when they raise their glass, like "cheers", "here's to your health". (b) low g--very simple or crude. my nose sucks in a sinus-full of evening in schanzenfeld perfume and i proost so hard that one gob of mucus membrane sizzles on the muffler. (c) l.g. this type of description was what turned many russlaender & their kids against the book--it was not the kind of thing they would say--too crude. proost is sneeze. we would say "proosti". (d) "prusten"--snort panz (a) danz, probably pants but i don't know;^panzer is a war machine like a tank. (b) low g--i think is a name for a man's stomach which protrudes but i really don't know. ovenside of the chicken barn (a) ovenside may mean on the side of the yard where the outdoor oven was? i don't know. (b) ? unless it's the warm or sunny side. (c) i suppose the outdoor oven was on one side of the barn. snudder (a) snudder is snot, combined snudda (low german) with english (er). (b) snot consequentlies (a) means consequently i guess, but it could mean more, like those things which comes as the consequence of something--interesting. she tells me not to be so shittery (a) i think here shittery may mean jittery, not a derivative of shit but i would have to have the context to know better. (b) perhaps scared. (c) direct oversetting.^in low german we loved to use "sheeterich", describing someone with loose bowels, easily scared. footfeed (a) footfeed, i don't know. (c) excelerator. wynola (a) i think wynola was a cola drink carbonated like coca cola? (b) must be a name of a person? (c) how i hate the word. they'd have a hard time with a name like winona (mennos knew only maryhelenannamargaret) & often it would become wynola, a cola drink. klingers (the little bell klingers) (a) someone ringing a bell (b) is an adapted word to describe the little strikers in bells. nip (a type of food) (a) was nip a chip like a french fry? i've forgotten (b) we called hot dogs "nips" when we were young but it was an english word i thought. huttatolas (a) does this mean a kind of sect like the hutterites? (c) hutterites. ^"[she]... rutches herself over to the middle of the seat." (a) rutches means to slide both in high and low german. (b) low or high g slides over. (c) l.g. pushing, keeping contact with the seat; slides. (d) (herliber)--"rutschen"-- slide (over) •those penzels (a) those guys or daft guys, or dumb guys or those characters (b) a name used for men or boys usually who forgot something or did something foolish or stupid. she shteepas herself (a) she shteepas, means to support herself, shteepa, low german. (b) low g. braces. (c) l.g. braces--shteepat shnuitsboat (a) i don't really know. (b) i have no idea. (c) l.g. direct translation: nosebeard. "shnuits" is comic term of nose. we said "schneerboat". what "schneer" means i don't know. what the hund (a) there is a cuss phrase which is "want de hund" meaning "what the dog"; here's combined with english (b) german for dog--an exclamation for exasperation or "what the heck" fuschels (a) i don't know (b) low or high german for whispering. (c) l.g. whispers. your foda (a) your father; foda is low german for father (b) food low g. spitz (a) spitz is point (b) high g meaning either sharp or a clever thief "spitzboob" the lamplight funkles in her brown eye (a) funkle means twinkling;^again a german (low or high) combination with eng. (b) low g--twinkles schmaus (a) i don't know--it sounds like something i should know. (b) high g----a snack--i think. ^schluffs off (a) ab schluffen (high) means to do a poor job of; scimp; shoddy workmanship, cut corners; hence schluffs off (b) low g. something done sloppily. clawed out of there (a) an animal like a cat clawing in to get traction for more speed to get away. (b) using hands to get something out of a hole or tight spot. mensch (a) mensch is a human in german (high or low); now in german i think mensch means a very positive opinion of a human being; like a real person (b) low or high g. person menschen--people. kompliziet (a) this kompliziert means complicated (b) low g spelling kompliziert meaning complicated fruemensch (a) frue means female, woman or wife but fruemensch probably means a female human. (b) low g for female hackelwire (a) hacke (high) or hauk (low) means hook in german; thus hooked wire or barbed wire; german/english combination hack el wire (b) not sure but it could be barbed wire. mist-acre (a) i don't know; maybe a funny way to say mistake? (b) high g for manure. perhaps were they took the manure from the barn for fertilizing. (c) g. & e. manure acre (d) --? mistacrer manure field pluida zack [repeat] (a) we had this one: a gossip sack (b) low g for gossip. (c) l.g. gossip sack (d) --"pludepack" wide bag angst (a) angst means fear. (b) low g. or high g. scared or frightened. gruelich (a) grue lich is terribly scared, or very frightened (b) low g--terrible shtollt (a) comes from shtellen or stellen (high) to steal shtollt is low german for stealing (b) low g. proud. (c) l.g. proud (d) --? "stolz" proud ^frie (a) frie is free or marry in low german (b) low g--free omchi (a) (beautiful) omchi is an older, pleasant, plump, man generically speaking maybe like me now at my age (b) low g--older man. what would have freid nobah naze the most (a) frei in low german is to make happy; frei (low german) d (english ending) (b) "given joy" low g. (c) l.g. to make happy--what would have "happyfied" nobah naze.... (d) en/ "freuen"" --pleased she wobbled her head (a) wobbled means shook i guess (b) shook her head probably but i don't know if it has a german origin. my necktie was schneering my throat (a) schneer means to rub because something is too tight: aun schneere (low) tighten the belt or corset to make a small waist (b) high and low g. chocking my throat. soldot, soldoten (a) soldot is soldier in low german; soldoten is plural in low g. (b) low g--soldier, soldiers. ^"nun danket aller gott" (a) should be "nun danket alle gott" now thank everyone god, a song i think with this title. (b) high g--name of a hymn (c) g. "nun danket alle gott" hymn often sung in church "now thank we all our god." (d) ? alle --now all thank the lord bedoozled (a) my mom used to say this a lot meaning just a little dizzy say after a nap or getting up quickly in the morning; could also be befuddled by something else like a persuasive salesman, courteor, or alcoholic beveridge; mixed up as in loss of direction. (b) low g. confused. the dank for the food (a) dank is thankyou as in danken (high g) (b) low g--thank schwaecks [repeat?--no comment from dad] (b) i don't know (c) l.g. sway/swerve schuzzel (a) schuzzel is probably saucer or plate; schuzzel (high german) (b) low g--for bussel in a woman's gown? i hear the shtrulling sound (a) shtrulling--i don't know (b) low g--not sure--when liquid (as in milking cows) hits the container. zoop zack [repeat] (a) had this already (b) low g. "soup sack" (c) l.g. a drunk, zoop is impolite term for drink, & "zack", sack. ^"i'm all full of mist!" (a) mist is fog; i guess i'm foggy headed? i've just come back from page # reminded me that mist also means manure; i'm all full of manure or shit. it could be on the clothes from working with manure--yeh! (b) high g. for manure. perhaps if he had worked in cleaning the barn that it would mean he was soaked with it. that kammers you nothing [repeat] (a) had this already (b) it's a cross between low and high g. low chemet or high kimmert--meaning doesn't concern you (c) that is none of your business. low german word is changed, englisized as i call it. made to sound english. (d) kiimmern --bother i am a bit bedutzed about that (a) bedutzed, also means befuddled, but more on the stupid side, screwed up. (b) low g--confused and surprised honey wagon (a) door-to-door salesman with a honey wagon? i don't know. (b) i don't know (c) e.^hog barn liquid manure pumped into tank on wagon & dispersed on fields. winnipeg in the cellar (a) i don't know. (b) i don't know. (c) e. eatons basement bargain centre. don't be so dupsich (a) dupsich comes from dups which is ass, as in rear end of us, hence don't be an ass, don't be a shit-head (although a little too strong) (b) not sure but it's low g--"dups" means bum as in anatonmy--i guess "don't be such a bum" could fit frindschoft (a) low german for relations (uncles, cousins, aunts etc.); freundshaft in high g (b) low g. relatives fromm (a) fromm means holy, righteous, good, humble, nice, gracious (b) low and high g. religious (c) g. our evening bedtime prayer was: lieber heiland mach mich fromm, das ich in dem himmel komm.^make me (holy) good; righteous, pious. (d) --pious schmooz (a) i don't know (b) don't know (c) l.g. smooch (d) schmusen--to cuddle glutz (a) i don't know (b) low g "klutz" is a big piece of wood--but i don't know what glutz is. schluks (a) schluk means swallow, as in drinking and swallowing (b) low g--a swallow as in drinking flitz (a) flitz might mean to flit about? (b) low g--very fast as in a split-second shmuyng (a) i don't know (b) i would guess it was low g but i don't know how to use it. but i lawve her (a) lawve is love (b) i'm guessing the word is love--but i don't know why-- (c) e. flat german "love". (d) love? what the shinda (a) this is a cuss phrase, but i don't know what shinda is; i think shinda is a non-reputable person, bad bad, a small crook. (b) low g. for a horse--"what the devil?" (c) l.g. expression such as "what the heck" only "schinda" was not nice to say. becksishetta (a) (low german) becksi is pants sheeta is someone who shits; hence literally a small baby who still shits in his/her pants, but also used to describe someone who is young but immature, or who is not thought to be very grown-up, or ridiculed for being too proud before his age.^i have only heard this used for males, not females. (b) low g--someone soils their pants--a derogative name calling. ganz geviss (a) high german meaning completely (clanz) certain (creviss) (b) high german--for sure (c) g. completely for sure (d) "ganz gewi "--for sure schwengel (a) (low g.) schwengel is something that swings, a hinge maybe, hook and eye? (c) l.g. schwengel, bengel are interchangeable....young guy mid teens immature kind of rascal. (d) ? bengel--rascal shaubelkopp (a) shaubel is bean; kopp is head; thus a bean-head, not too smart. (b) low g--bean head (c) l.g. same as above. direct translation "bean head". (d) kopf--head --some sort of "dummkopf" hingst yuckers himself like crazy (a) "yuckers" is a lovely word with no direct translation. it is applied to cases where someone works too hard; overworked himself, a common mennonite trait. (b) hingst--low g being a male horse--"yuckers" coming from the word "yucken" (high g) which means itching. schaps (a) schaps i don't know. schnaps is whiskey (c) l.g. same as above. [schwengel and shaubelkopp] shtimm (a) shtimm is voice, pitch, or agree, or plumb as in carpenter work where boards are vertical or horizontal exactly or parrellel (b) high g. for agree or voice "shtimme" (c) g. voice. this not low german (schtem) but high german (d) stimme--voice then it slowly seepers into my head (a) seepers literally means seeps into my mind (b) i don't know the origin but it definitely means dawns on me a load of junk by the mist-acre (a) mist-acre, may mean the field or acre where the manure pile was (b) high g for manure--i am not familiar with the term "mist- acre"--we always talked about mist "haufen" hill. eltesta (a) church congregations elected men (now men and women i think) to be eltesta or elders, like in the presbyterian church (i was one in athens georgia) they had leadership responsibilities in the church. (b) low g. for senior (in rank) minister in the church. "eltester" would be high g. (c) l.g. bishop pumping all the zirks full (a) zirks are grease inserts where one can pump grease into to lubricate surfaces of machines; this is done when you get a grease job on your car. (b) don't know. (c) grease nipple i'm yasch, not jack (a) yasch is jack in low german (b) low g name for jack (c) l.g. same as saying, "i'm karl, not charles." buttered out (a) -we had this- (b) worn out--i'm not sure--depending on the pernounciation of the u--it could be low or high--the shorter sound being low g. coming from the word butter. the blue mountains of china ^urgrossmuttchi (a) low german: great grandmother in loving terms "chi" (b) high g--an endearing word for great grandmother (c) l.g. great grandmother (d) "urgrobmutti"--great grandmother ^it was time to make schluss (a) schluss (low g) comes from schliessen (high g) to close, or lock; here it means to end (b) high and low g--to end the speech or do the closing. (c) g. an end. (d) "schlubmachen"--to finish ^bashkir hut (a) i don't know (c)^? ^froutzen (a) froutzen is an ugly face in low . g (b) low g--making faces (c) l.g. faces (funny or horrible) (d) "fratzen" (plural)--funny faces / grimaces ^fritz (a) fritz is a name but fritz i don't know (b) nick name for fred [...] ^friedlich (a) friedlich is peaceful in high g since frieden in peace (b) low g or high--peaceful (c) l.g. peaceful (d) --peaceful ^grout estov (a) groute stove is big room in low g (b) low g--big room or living room (c) l.g. great room--living room ^betchla (a) betchla is low g for bachelor, single man (b) low g for bachelor (c) l.g. batchelor (d) ?--"bachelor" ^die deutsche fibel (a) in high g translated, the german primer book (b) high g--the german book that teaches children to read german (c) g. we remember it. german primer. (d) german primer bone fixer (a) a chiropractioner, a common "medicine man" (or women) among these people (b) refers to a bone setter if you have a sprain or something like that-- (c) e. chiropractor waisenamt (a) weisen amt weisen is orphan. amt here means organization or control or office (b) --amt is a position as in a job (c) g. amt=position.^committee/organization to take care of widows or orphans. (d) orphan office hauptcheuik (b) i don't recognize this word at all except for "haupt" which means main as in part or most prominent (c) ? verlobta (a) verlobta means engaged as in a couple planning to marry in low g, i think the male since ver lobt a (b) low g--one who is engaged to be married or [verlobt]er--high g. (c) l.g. the engaged one (to be married) (d) verlobter--someone engaged verlobung (a) verlobunq is high g which is the actual engagement event (b) high and low g--the engagement ceremony (c) g. the engagement (d) engagement hof (a) hof is yard in low g (b) low g for yard of a home (c) g. yard (d) "hof"--yard zentralschul (a) zentral schul means central school in low g. schul is low g. schuhle is high g. (b) low g--college. schule--high g. (c) g. highschool in russia sommastov (a) somma stov is summer room in low g (b) low g for summer room (c) l.g. summer room, often a little building not insulated used only in summer to cook & serve food, thus keeping the main house cooler. ackstov (a) ack stove is corner room in low g (b) low g for corner room (c) l.g. corner room "...knowing one lowgerman word: awbeide, awbeide. (a) awbeida is work in low g (b) to work (c) l.g. work work. yes that's what our childhood & teen years at home seemed to be composed of. schlunga (a) schlunga may mean lanky good looking slim boy i think from schlank maybe in low g cosheet (a) cosheet is cow shit. co sheet in low g (b) cow shit? low g. (c) l.g. cow shit nuscht (a) nuscht is nothing in low g (b) low g for nothing (c) l.g. nuscht (d) ? nischt/--nothing --nichts atje (a) atje may mean corner but ackstov (above) was spelled differently. this could be plural, many corners in low g (b) low g for corner (c) l.g. several... .or some, but what? [... ] schwengel [repeat] (a) we had this; swinging hinge or hook (b) long stem w[ith] a knob to grab it like a gear shift so let your schwengel nose around--nobody's watching! (c) l.g. a schwengel is a handle or leaver.^used also interchangeably by some with bengel fri edenstimme (a) frieden stimme is free voice or peace voice in high g (b) high g--peace voice but i don't know how it's used. (c) g. must be some menno paper, unfamiliar to us. die post (a) die post could be the mail or the name of a newspaper in high g. (b) high g--the post. de post--low g. (c) g. paper--weekly published by derksen printers in steinbach. (d) --common newspaper title schultenbot (a) schulten bot i think this is the person elected in the village to serve on the mayor's council, like alderman maybe in low g (b) low g--meeting of some kind (c) g. meeting of elders (who had a village position) on this sad earth i am a pilgrim, and my journey, o my journey is not long. (a) a good mennonite doctrine that we lease but temporarily here on earth; it all is better on the other side (b) sounds like a hymn in high g. (c) e. sounds like a hymn (much like "this world is not my home, i'm just passin' thru." yeah tell me about it. methuselah (a) i guess this means metusala (b) you know better than i who that was--the oldest person in the bible? (c) from the bible--someone very old. schundt (a) a despicable act or person i think? i don't know (b) low g for junk (c) l.g. junk (d) schund--rubbish liesel, liesel, dried'ger's spriesel, uppity and thin as a measle, (a) liesel is a girl's name, from liese, betty i think is liesa? driediger is a last name; spriesel i don't know. should this be "thin as a weasle"? i don't know more than what it says. (b) [liesel] is a female womens name in high or low g. dried'ger's is the possessive of a family name--spriesel lisprien might mean chaff as in straw--it's just a rhyme w[ith] no special meaning. (c) l.g. [spriesel]--whirlwind, dust devil come now and dig my grave, for i am weary the wandering; from earth would take my leave, for i am weary the groaning. for i am called by the holy peace of angels, whose rest can never cease. (a) nice hurtin' verse. what can i say? it speaks for itself (b) is it a poem written by someone who is ready to die (c) sounds like a translated hymn twieback (a) low g for zwiebach, or double buns mennonites make (b) low g for zweiback (c) l.g. two cheeked bun. (d) ? zwiebach--? biscuit etiskauste (a) etis kauste eti is to eat in low g, kauste is chest as in money chest, or money bank, treasury. (b) eti kauste--low g for eating box (c) l.g. eats box gently falleth the snow; still and white rests the sea; woods glisten under the moon; joy to thee^christchild comes soon! (a) sounds like a verse for a song just before christmas (b) a christian hymn (c) translation of one of my favourite german christmas carols. (d) leise rieselt der schnee^still und starr ruht der see weihnachtlich glanzet der wald,^freue dich's christkind kommt bald --christmas song names of towns: (b) all in high g schoenbach (a) schoen/bach probably a town meaning nice brook (b) beautiful stream (c) g. beautiful brook. don't know if it exists. (d) nice creek gartental (a) gartental a town or village meaning garden valley but "tal" is a broad valley or plain. (b) garden valley (c) g. garden valley. don't know if it exists. (d) garden valley blumenau (a) blumen/au means flower, a town or village (b) flower meadow? (c) g. flowermeadow. don't know if it exists. (d) flowers meadow rosenfeld (a) rosen feld means rose field, a town or village (b) rose field (c) g. rosefield. exists in southern manitoba (d) roses field friedensruh (a) friesens ruh means peaceful rest, a town or village (b) peace rest (c) g. peacerest. don't know if it exists. (d) peace quiet kirchenbuch (a) high g for church book, kirchen buch probably the official (b) high g--church book (c) g. church book. church register. (d) church register tschmaking (a) tsch making, tsch is table in either high or low g and english "making" a carpenter who makes tables. (b) schmaking--low g--making noise when one eats-- those russlander certainly knew nothing about tschmaking, as they called it in the chaco. (c) l.g. we said it "tschmaking", but it means smaking & making noise while eating. russlaender were more refined & had better manners. song: "kommt emn vogel geflogen" (a) translated directly: comes a bird flying (b) high g. comes a bird flying. i recognize the song--we did sing it when i was growing up. (c) german song sung to little children. grandma janzen sang it to tees & mart often. (d) children's song liebche (a) lieb che means someone you love (b) low g for loved one i think toem schinda noch immol (a) this is a cuss phrase quite serious or high level in low g translated: to schinda (something bad) once again (schinda is bad but what it is i don't know) (b) [she adds exclamation marks to the phrase] low g. go to the devil! would be a good interpretation in english. [schinda] only is a derogatory name but not devil. (c) l.g. not nice to say. in our family not used. kind of "to hell with you!" (d) zum...noch mal --damn it! schatz (a) schatz is treasure, also a person we treasure or love (b) high g--a special friend of the opposite sex (c) g. treasure. used for little kids and lovers. (d) term of endearment "darling, love" schlarafenland (a) high german schlarafen land; schlarafan is sloppy, absent- minded, scattered person. thus a place for lazy, unorganized, laid-back people. (b) high g--never neverland (c) g. never, never land (d) schlaraffenland--land of milk and honey--from a children's book bulchi (a) bulchi is bread in low g, brat is bread in high g (b) low g--bread (c) l.g. or maybe r. bread kolkhoz (a) i have heard this word by russlander and has something to do with the ukraine or russia, maybe means cancisis a region in southern russia? (b) don't know (c) a grouping, commune farm in russia. russian word droshky (a) droshkv is a horse drawn wagon, but i can't remember how many wheels it had, two or four, and how elegent simple or ordnate? (b) ukrainian word for a kind of wagon or buggy (c) r. two horse buggy used mostly in russia schinda noch immol (a) as above--cuss phrase (b) !! low g. angry exclamation (c) l.g. it seems to me perhaps "shinda" was someone already damned by his/her sinfulness. after reading the term several times, somehow i thought i remember it as such---???? bengel [repeat] (a) a young strapping lad (b) low g a young boy who has misbehaved (c) l.g. bengels are immature guys (d) bengel--rascal butzas (a) in low german butza s is a young boy around years old or so, mabye slavic not german? i keep thinking its when boys have very short hair cuts in summer. (b) low g--young hefty boys and lively too. what was loose over there (a) loose comes from high g, was ist los, what is the matter over there, except the word has been change to the english loose as if not right but which is not too bad for an adulterated expression either! (b) happened. was los in high g (c) direct oversetting. was ist los? what is loose is directly translated. what is the matter over there? (d) was war da los--what was going on over there that blonde maedele (a) maedele is girl, that blonde girl in high g (b) high g--girl woat derchfaul (a) woat is becomes, is, will be...derchfaul is diarrhea. derchful could also mean failure as in an business. (b) low g. woat what derchfaul used for diarrhea (c) l.g. [woat] ? diarhea fiera (a) fie era is the front of something in low g (b) low g--for leader (c)^? darp (a) village in low g (b) low g--village (c) l.g. menno village. to call someone "darpsh" is to say they are somewhat simple, slow, crude, perhaps even. dummheit (a) stupidness in high g. dumm is stupid; heit is some property of. (b) high g--stupidity a halunk in the ditch (a) halunk is a clotz, stupid person with connotation big, large bum in low g (b) low g--a bum (c) l.g. stupid guy, dumb jerk. (d) halunke--rogue, rascal foada (a) foada is father is low g (b) low g--cattle feed (c) l.g. father the blue jar ^sprliche (a) spruch is a verse from the bible that children are to memorize. spruche is the plural of that in high g. (b) high g--bible verses (c) german. poems, also verses from the bible which had to be learned by memory for sunday school (d) --sayings ^feierabend (a) feierabend is a holiday. feier to celebrate abend is evening. an evening to celebrate in high g. (b) high g--time for rest in the evening (d) --time after work ^tante reisen (a) tante is aunt, hence aunt reisen in high g. (b) tante auntie or women if reisen is a family name. tante means mrs. ^rinderreich (a) kinder is children; reich is country, land, region, all in high g (b) high g. childrens world or kingdom (c) g. children kingdom. could be rich in children, but that would be two words ^ (d) world for kids ^der bote (a) der bote is the mennonite newspaper out of winnipeg; susan's uncle used to be assoc. editor or something. (b) high g--is the name of a newspaper that circulated among the mennonites also written by menno. also religious stuff about happenings in churches etc-- (c) g. bill still receives this weekly paper. (d) common title for newspapers--"messenger" ^mennonitische rundschau (a) mennonite rundschau is the other mennonite newspaper also out of wpg. der bote means the message. rundschau means to look around. rund = around, schau = look or show (b) high g. was also a paper which came every week a little more interesting to read. both came to our house. i found both quite boring. (c) g. the general conf. german paper--not published anymore. ^"there they come, the relief - fraiters." (a) fraiter could mean free loading eaters but i'm not sure (b) a cross between low g. origin and english too--fraite is a verb used to describe animals eating so if used in context w[ith] people it would mean more gobbling than mannerly eating. (c) e & l.g. fraita; fraitash (many) eaters, but impolite term. ^strain (a) stram is high g for good looking, well-dressed, well-groomed. (b) very trim and well dressed--high g. (c) g. shtram--pretty, dressed-up (d) stramm--tight, straight frauenverein (a) frauenverein is women's gathering, togetherness, like jugend verein we had earlier. (b) high g--women's club in church (c) g. ladies aid. (d) women's club ^"prips" coffee in sealers (a) prips was cold coffee but even more probably was the roasted grain substitutes like postum which we drank during the wwii since coffee was not available. sealers are the preserve jars which had a lid you could seal. (b) [prips] like postam--low g--a type of coffee made not from coffee beans i believe--coffee in "sealers" were the canning jars or sealers you could seal. (c) weak coffee made of roasted [no more] zwieback buns (a) zwiebach is two backed literally, the double buns we know mennonites make in high g (b) high g. means the double buns made by the mennos. ^"kind, liebes kind, hast du vergessen..." (a) "child, lovely child, have you forgotten" in high g (b) high german "child, loving child have you forgotten" i don't know where that is taken from. (c) g. child, loving child, have you forgotten.... (d) child, dear child, have you forgotten ^"vaspah" (a) "vaspah" is the snack break between lunch and supper in low g (b) low g--for afternoon coffee/tea time (c) g. faspa, that glorified p.m. coffee break. ^"jugendverein" [repeat] (a) young people's gathering--we had this before (b) high --youth club in the church they would perform usually once a month in the eve., songs poems, or plays for the congregation. i could read the jerry and jane primer. (a) jerry and jane were the boy and girl in early school text books i guess but i though it was dick and jane. primer is first book. (b) a book which is used teaching reading. (c) the-book i learned to read in in grade i ^"blitzkrieg" (a) blitz krieq was hitler's sudden air attacks on london for example. blitz means lightening; krieg means war in high g (b) high german--has to do w. world war i perhaps meaning a lightening war--i remember hearing that word but i am not sure exactly what it referred to-- (c) g. uproar. even that happened in germany during w.w.ii (d) --war (short, intense) the pupils at poplar hill school were divided between mennonite childrean and "englishe". [note: should be "englischeu] (a) children; is it really childrean? enqlishe is low g for the english. [i admit to the error!] (b) low g--the english (c) g. the brits. the nonmennonites. (d) englische (adjective form) ^"lutsch" (a) lutsche is to suck; lutsch could be the soother babies suck on either low or high g i think. (b) high g--suck as in candy or a finger (c) g. pacifier used by babies. lutsch = suck (d) "lutschen"--suck kinder (a) kinder is children in high g. (b) high g--children katers (a) katers are the last name i think. (b) a family's name? (c) e & l.g. perhaps meaning male cats. yes! in l.g. kotash. one is a kota. such is tobi's [my aunt and uncle's cat's] name: tobias d'kota ich krieg was. ich krieg was (a) translated means:^i'm getting something;^i'm getting something: i get something literally in high g. (b) high g--what a child might say when he/she is excited about getting something "i'm getting something" (c) g. i get something. i receive something. (d) ich krieg was.--i get something prediger franz (a) prediger is preacher, preacher frank in high g. (b) high g--pastor franz (c) g. preacher franz (d) preacher fromm (a) fromm we had means holy, good, righteous, in high g (b) high g--religious or pious kinderfest (a) translated means children' fest, or celebration, in high g. (b) childrens' celebration (c) g. children festival (d) children's party kirchof (a) kirch hof is a church yard, sometimes the cemetary i guess in high g (b) high g--church yard krebs (a) krebs is cancer in high g (b) high g or low--cancer or crabs (c) g. cancer (d) cancer begrabnismahl (a) begrabnismahl is a funeral in high g; it comes from prab is to dig, or grave, begraben is to bury in a grave, the funeral service included an afternoon meal maybe fasba or a little more like a small dinner hence begrabnis mahl (meal). all in high g (b) high g--funeral meal (c) g. funeral meal. (d) meal after a funeral rakavashakie candy at christmas (a) only at christmas were some of these wonderful imported candy available and rakavashakie was one of these, red pillows containing a peanut butter like hard candy inside. (b) they were christmas candy imported from europe--made w. peanuts--shape of humbug but red w. black stripes--we always had them at christmas-- (c) r. yes! red, crumbly pillow about / in. long, tasted kind of like crispy crunch. my great uncle, ohm gheet (a) ohm means an older gentleman. gheet probably means yeet or yeat we called gerhard before. (b) low g.--ohm used as mr. gheet is low g--for gerhard-- (c) l.g. the senior, the old man gheet, could be as i would spell it yeat, the short name of gerhard. forstei (a) forstei means the forest where co's were sent to work in russia during wwi, hence mennonite boys cut trees for a government job. susan's dad spent some time in the forstei i think, high or low g (b) was an alternate service in russia for conscientious objectors--my father was not conscripted because he was to small and low in weight but my uncle served there. (c) both g & l.g. russian organized forestry work for the menno c.o. (conscientious objectors) norweger (a) norweger, someone from norway in high g (b) high g for norwegian--from norway lehrer zeiting (a) high g. lehrer zeitung translated is teacher newspaper (if its zeitung) zeiting maybe. zeit inci where ing is english! (b) high g--teacher's newspaper rollkuchen (a) deep fried dough previously rolled hence roll (rolled) kuchen (cookies) in high g; these were a mennonite speciality. (b) high g for deep fried pastry (c) g. yum! deep fried kind of thin biscuit dough (thin as in batter). (d) .../cake verschelpt, mother said (a) literally translated means dragged--high g--ver schlept i think; lost in exile, never heard from again, this is a common ending for many in my father's generation--men only. (b) high g--lost or during war and revolution taken away involuntarily. (c) g. fer-dragged. taken away against ones will. bubbat (a) bubbat is the dressing inside a chicken or turkey, a raisin dough in birds in low g--very tasty. (b) high or low g--a kind of bread used in poultry dressing w. raisins--could be baked as a meat dish w. sausage. (c) l.g. could have russian roots.^soft biscuity slightly sweetened dough laden with dried fruits, esp. prunes & raisins & baked in & beside roast chicken. pluma moos (a) plumma (plum or plums) moos a fruit soup, a thick sweet soup in high g (b) low g--a sweet soup made from dried fruits often made for sunday brunch and served w. cold meats because they could be prepared ahead. (c) l.g. fruit soup (pluma = plums) served cold.^i make with dried fruit mix, add / unsqueezed lemon, / squeezed orange, half just thrown in and brown and white sugar to sweeten and some cornstarch to slightly thicken. also cinnamon stick & whole star aniseed to flavour. schinkenfleisch (a) high g. schinken (is ham, hip, one side of rear end) fleisch is meat as in a slide of pork ham; sometimes also applied to humans who have substantial hips. (b) high german for ham smoked (c) g. ham (d) ham meat porselky (a) low g for a kind of dough ball cooked in deep fry fat contained raisins, apple or other fruit baked to celebrate new year's day. (b) ukranian fritter deep fried w. raisins eaten only at new years day (c) r. new years fritters. made with yeast dough & raisins. very slightly like robins donut shops raisin fritters. niejohschskuke (a) nie johschs kuke means new years cookies in low g (b) low german for the above--new year's cookies (c) l.g. same thing as above. paska (a) in low g, paska is easter bread, the sweet dense loaf mom used to make with icing sugar, decorations, chocolate bits, m & m's etc etc. (b) low and high g. ukranian easter bread (c) r. mine is made with eggs & potato water & stuff & is so tender and yummy ( loaves) the huge cast-iron kettle we called the miagrope. (a) when hogs were slaughtered the big cast-iron kettle on the yard was used to boil off the fat and make other large amounts of product like grubbeln or greben (see below) which was a fatty pork meat which would look like ground beef. [....] mia (from mehr which means a lot, big) grope (a big pan, shallow pot, big tub). (b) it's already described--used over an open fire outside in summer to heat water for washing clothes or cooking whatever needed to be cooked in big quantities. (c) l.g. cast iron kettle standing on brick enclosure on the floor. the fire box was built in underneath; holding about gallons it was huge. we had one in our church kitchen. there the borscht was made for big church gatherings. big lid went over top. wurst (a) sausage in high g (b) high g. sausage greben (a) mennonites liked this and even spread this on bread--but lard, fat, cholesterol city! wow. (b) high g--for chitlins? i have forgotten the english word they make down south beth--out of fat of a pig--they are salty and pure fat--like bacon but no meat. (c) l.g. pork crackles. zilkase (a) zil kase high g i think but i don't know zil ???? kase is cheese. (b) high g--i think a pate made from tongue of a cow or calf. (c) g. head cheese (d) / käse--cheese grebenschmalz (a) as explained earlier greben is the fat plus small pork pieces; schmalz is fat, lard, grease all this in high g. (b) high g--lard "schmalz" greben would be what gets too hard little particles when cooking the fat of a pig in a coldron or "miagrope" and the rest would be used as lard. (c) g. porkfat with a smattering of pork crackles here & there. this was a spread for many--never us. bill says it was a sandwich filling for school lunches--says it tasted okay with honey. yuk is my reaction. (d) fat summatime (a) means summertime but summa is low g. this word combines a low g word with english. (b) part low g and part english. summa is sommer (c) i don't know--summertime? (d) summertime leiter (a) leiter is a leader in high g or a ladder as well (b) high german for leader as in choir leader or director reiseshuld (a) the debt rlisslander had for the boat-fare across the atlantic; the trip debt is direct translation for reiseschuld. i remember my father still having to pay reiseshuld when i was a boy. in high g. (b) high or low g.--travel debt that the menno. incurred when they came from europe (d) ? reiseschuld ? travel guilt ^...beute ist mit uns bruder julius schier von black creek, die people's bible institute...." (a) this is a typical introduction to a visiting speaker for the church congregation in high g. brother julius schier (b) the st part is high g--an introduction--today we have with us brother julius schier from-- "die" the (d) with us today is brother... kinder! kommt sofort her! (a) translated: children, come immediately here in high g. (b) high g. command children come here immediately! perishky (a) perishkv is the wonderful pastry which is a long snakelike hollow with fruit pie dough [....] in high g. (b) i believe a ukranian name of a pastry dish usually fruit wrapped in pie dough either in squares or long tube like--always made for sunday for vesper time (c) r. pie dough (i use) rolled out cut in lengths. in middle chopped fresh apples, or peaches, or rhubarb (real good) with sugar & flour to thicken. dough pinched shut on top gives long as cookie sheet round cylinder. when baked cut into shorter pieces. schnetke (a) schnetke is also a food.^is it dough fried?^i don't remember. low g (b) low g--biscuit (c) l.g. rich biscuits, made smaller, folded over. kluters (a) i don't know. (b) low g--balls of mud. "klieter" noodles (c) ? could be lumps as in gravy? klose (a) i don't know; maybe also a kind of dough, cooked or fried? (b) high g--noodles (d) ?^klob / klöse -- dumpling was ist los (a) high g what is the matter? is a direct translation (b) high g. what is the matter "los" means loose in english (c) g. what's wrong? (d) what's up? kirchliche (a) translated in high g to church like, church character. (b) high g--church like (c) g. general conference as opposed to mennonite brethern. (d) (adjective) church tauffest (a) tauf means to duck under, submerge. fest is celebration in high g hence this was baptism in the bruder gemeinde (brother congregation) by submerging candidates. (b) high g--baptism (c) g. baptism service (d) baptism gemeindestunde (a) high german. gemeinde is congregation. stunde is hour but was meant to be more a study session for members rather than a business meeting i think. (b) high g--meeting of the church members? (c) g. meetings for decision making or problems or concerns of congregation or just a meeting to study together. (d) parish group scheune (a) scheune is a grainary, a building for storage of grain or implements. (b) high g--granary (c) machine shed--was of larger size. (d) barn ausgeschlossen (a) schlossen is locked, guarded, protected, sealed. geschlossen means locked up; aus geschlossen means to lock out in high g maybe excommunicated, locked out. (b) high g--locked out as in church (c) g. locked out (d) locked out (fig.) impossible taufling (tauflinge) (a) taufling is the young person just baptized by emersion usually but also applied to baptism by sprinkling in high g. tauflinge is plural. it was considered that everyone was young in the journey towards salvation just after the baptism. (b) high g--persons being baptised (c) g. [nufling, tauflinge] the one to be baptised & several of the same. (d) the one to be baptized (plural) gott is gegenwartig lasset uns anbeten... (a) translated means in high g god is here (gegend means surrounding region) w&rtig is genuine, worth something. god is actually surrounding us.^lasset (lets) uns (us) give prayer (anbeten). beten is pray; anbeten is more, do homage like praying to a god on your knees but can also be used for emperors, lords, kings, queens... (b) high g is a well known german hymn. god is here.... (c) g. god is present--beginning words to well known hymn. let us pray to him (d) gegenwartig god is present let's pray to...^church hymn ach, du lieber augustine, augustine, augustine, ach, du lieber augustine, alles ist hin! hut ist weg.... (a) this we used to sing when we played games among us young people (dancing was not allowed). i will translate in high g: oh you dear augustine, everything is done (finished) hat is gone. (i think this signified that everyone had to sit down or something--i forgot--i remember only holding many strange wonderful girls hands. (b) a folk song in high g. (c) g. ditty we all know (d) everything is gone/over hat is gone... (stupid/silly) --song alles weg...alles weg...stock is weg. (a) everything gone. everything gone, stick is gone. (d) everything is gone.. .stick's gone stiefel (a) stiefel is boots, as in big black rubber over boots used on the farm to do farm work in high g (b) high g--boots (c) g. rubber boots which bill went to buy this week. (d) boot the jugend (a) the young people in high g (b) high g--the youth weihnachtsmann (a) weinachts is christmas; mann is man or christmas man or santa claus in high g. (b) high g--santa claus or the christmas man (c) santa claus (d) santa claus verlobt (a) means engaged in high g (b) high g--engaged to be married verlobung (a) verlobung is the engagement event in high g (b) the engagement ceremony wie perlen an der schnur (a) translated: as pearls on the chain in high g (b) high g--like pearls on a string (c) g. as pearls on a rope/string/belt. (d) like pearls on a string vorsanger (a) vor s&nger means before singers in high g. these men were selected to lead the congregation in singing. they had a strong voice and could keep a tune and find a good pitch. (b) high g. they would be a group of men who had a good musical sense and would sit usually elevated up front facing the congregation and be leaders for singing and learning new songs-- (c) g. they (always men or ) sat in the front row & decided which hymns the congregation would sing, loudly speaking the page number & then beginning the hymn (not too high, not too low in pitch). (d) principal singer schnoor (a) schnoor i don't know. (b) high g or low--like on a string as in beads. (c) l.g. rope/string/belt jesus christus herrscht also ronig [my error: should be "als"] (a) high g, translated jesus christ rules as king; als should be; if also it means as an explanation. (b) "als" --high g--hymn (c) g. hymn--[konig] jesus christ reigns as king. (d) "ktinig" reigns king? heiratsfieber (a) heirat is wedding; fiber is fever in high g. means hot to tro[t], in a fever to get married. (b) high g.--marrying fever (c) g. getting married fever. (d) -fever / urgency to get married wilkommen (a) high g for welcome or literally will comen (will you come in?) (b) high g--welcome boutonnieres (a) i never saw this before--i guess it is buteniers as in a flower for men? i don't know. (b) --this has stumped me! sorry. unless of course it refers to flowers worn in a buttonhole. herz und herz vereint zusammen sucht in gottes herzen ruh (a) heart and heart bonded together. search in god's heart rest or calm, solitude, translated form high g. (b) high g--hymn appropriate for a wedding--search for peace in god's heart (c) g. heart & heart joined together search in god for hear peace. hymn. (d) heart and heart together^seek peace in god's rest nachochzeit (a) i don't know yet. it might come to me. (b) high g--post wedding--usually held at the parents of the bride i think the day after to view gifts and perhaps to support the parents in the loss of the child in a way. (c) g. day or sometimes a week later wedding celebration (usually evening) or sometimes , days in a row. (bill says like yours next morning) (d) nachrochzeit--after wedding nochast (a) no chast is the celebration after a wedding in low g literally after wedding. (b) low g for nachochzeit (c) l.g. same as above. schleusselbund (a) schleussel (i don't know maybe a game where you are turned around blindfolded!) bund is a bond or union. anyway this meant the games played after a wedding. here the young people could meet and touch hands in various games. (b) high g--translated as "key bond"--games played usually to music and in a large circle at the reception-- (c) circle games enjoyed at evening after wedding--time for youth to walk with partner of opposite sex. instead of dance. (d) schlusselbund--keys on a chain? bunch of keys jugens, raus! (a) jugend is high g for youth; maybe jugens meant the same. raus means get out, go. (b) a command in high g--boys, out! perhaps they misbehaved or were too noisey. the missing child mene, mene, tekel, upharsin (a) i don't know. (b) my, my, (name)? (c) r? ? (d) "menetekel" -- warning please make some final comments on the exercise. was it difficult? did you feel that certain words needed more context? is there a difference in the types of words that the different books use? (a) . i loved the exercise; for me personally i learned to love the low g words because they were so efficient in expressing exactly what i "know" they meant. i also learned a lot about the english language in my attempt to translate as correctly as possible. the former is more significant because i grew up with a low opinion of the low g language. this exercise changed my mind and i see what i missed. please help me to read these books. it was difficult. maybe i tried too hard to give all i knew but i was frustrated with my lack of knowledge of the full vocabulary of this language. words in context i think i could understood better--but the combination of vowels and consonants used by the authors to sound a word took some work. it helped if i said it again and again breaking the word at different places. sometimes it clicked. sometimes it didn't. but we never spoke low g. i never learned it. different spellings of low g words do come out in different books. [....] (b) was it difficult? for me not exactly but it took some time to remember. low german is not easily read would have to say the word or words out loud. yes at least for me some more context would have been helpful but perhaps a bit much for you to supply. hope this is useful to you. i guess it's not too neat. book # is mostly to entertain i guess and in low german but the exercise evoked a lot memories--the language is pretty earthy--book# --has of course a different purpose--not having read the book it's hard to see--it has more high german-- book# --blue jar uses words used in connection w. church or religion perhaps more high german--i feel it's written by a woman--just from the words-- (c) interesting to note that russian, german, & low german words are used. then especially in yasch (salvation of...) low german words are just bastardized, so to speak, forced to sound more english. they then aren't really low german anymore, but a kind of pidgeon low german.^i've circled some of them in red.^the "kanadia", those mennos arriving before were not as educated as the later russlaender & their low german was different. they ended many words with n. we said "ate" (sound the e) for eating, they said "aten". for blue the color, we said blau, they said blaev. our low german was pretty pure, the kanadia, (so called because they were several generation canadian to our parents still being born in russia) mixed in a lot of low german and english or vice versa. then kanadia didn't roll their r's as russlaender did in speaking german or low german, but pronounced them as english. they changed such a word as bed and spoke it as bad. tho we also "flattened" the english language, never as drastically as the kanadia, & we thought they sounded absolutely ridiculous. their way of speaking was always a joke to us. when one knows two languages it becomes fun to speak in one language as one would in the other. those who know both catch the strang[e?] sound which makes sense but sounds hilarious. "salvations of..." has a lot of that. english, german & low german have all been murdered with hilarious results. well, it's been fun. brings back a host of memories & people one loved; situations, experiences happy & sad one is reminded of. i notice i start writing & sounding like the stuff i'm reading & i'm not concerned whether i'm writing good english or making complete sense. the kanadia was generally more crude & so "salvation of...." was almost boycotted by russlaender in the beginning. i think now the feeling has changed because so much is being written by mennos, & there is more a feeling of pride than revulsion at present. even so, we (bill & i) are still kind of surprised by the impudence of the author. certainly in our growing up, much in that book would not have been okay to say. boy, am i sounding simple & dumb. better stop before it gets worse. thanks a millioniiiiiiiiii (a) ok it took - hours. comments on the appendix an analysis of the material contained in this appendix could easily fill another thesis if not two. in these notes, however, i will attempt to provide some context surrounding the birth of the appendix, and to note briefly some of the interesting trends in it. my thesis discusses the importance of the reader's context. my context as a student attempting to budget time and energy has shaped this study. thus, the sprawling shape of the appendix is due, in part, to my lack of forethought before i sent out the questionnaires. i wanted to know what the german and low german words meant to speakers of the languages, but i realized that the opinions of one respondent would not be enough; the result was multiple questionnaires. when i sent the questionnaires to my family i was not yet sure how i would use the results. i did not foresee the massive task of incorporating them into this document. thus, the repeated items in the questionnaires are not necessarily deliberate; the repetition has, however, yielded interesting results. because the questionnaires were not conceived of as an "objective" linguistic experiment, no one with a total lack of german knowledge was recruited. i have used the comments by the reviewer debra martens, who claims to be ignorant of german, to illustrate the perspective of someone without knowledge of german (see page ). at one point i considered polling a wide variety of readers for their responses, but abandoned the idea as an unrealistic one given the time factor involved. many responses in the appendix surprised and intrigued me. in some cases i was interested to note a surprisingly similarity in responses when the readers had very little context to guide them. the wide range of responses to other items was equally interesting. for example, my father says that "dola, or dol means angry" while my mother responds, "dola--low g--dollar" (appendix ). the difference between "praise" and "late" as responses to "lowt" is also a good example (appendix ). context is important to understanding--for speakers of the languages and for non-speakers. my aunt and uncle respond to the word "proost" in context as "sneeze" and my friend says "snort"; when the word is presented out of context, my father interprets "proost" as a toast like "to your health" and my mother says that it means "very simple or crude" (appendix ). context may explain why my mother recognizes "schwengel" the second time it appears in the questionnaire but not the first time (appendix and ). orthography is also important to the respondents. for example, dad responds to "feierabend" with an etymology (appendix ), but "fire evening" (appendix ) confuses him. the difference in spelling between "foada" and "foda" provokes different responses from my mother. in fact, due to the lack of context, mom fails to identify "futtachi", "foda", or "foada" as "father" (appendix , , ) . also, dad changes his interpretation of the word "fuchtich" depending on the context and orthography, while my mother responds with the same word "sly" (appendix and ). armin wiebe himself varies the orthography of this name between "fuchtig froese" ( ) and "fuctich froese" ^i asked mom what she called her father and she said "papuh". likewise, my father says he calls his father "dad". i call my grandparents "opa" and "oma" though. ( ), although presumably the narrator might be referring to different people. the spelling aberrations (which i have tried to preserve) are sometimes significant. my father spent hours over a weekend working on the questionnaire; his spelling starts to deteriorate, perhaps because of the german influence. see for example, "smerku (appendix ), and "sippered" (appendix ). similarly, my aunt spells "shrink" "schrink" (appendix ) and my mother spells "pissed" "pisst" (appendix ). immersion in the (low) german language affects english usage. as my aunt comments at the close of the exercise, "i notice i start writing & sounding like the stuff i'm reading & i'm not concerned whether i'm writing good english or making complete sense" (appendix ). index of non-english words and phrases a.m. kuhl and p.m. kuhl^.^. cosheet ^ ach, du lieber augustine cowfoot ^ ackstov ^ dank ^ allein ^ , danny orlis books ^ altwiese ^ angst ^ , arbeit ^ darp ^ , darps ^ der bote ^ atje ^ die deutsche fibel^. ausgeschlossen^ , awbeide ^ , badels ^ die post ^ dietschlaund ^ dievel,^deivel,^dunna, barley king barkman .^.^.^. and schinda!^.^. bashkir hut ^ doft siemens ^ beckhouse ^ dola ^ , becksi ^ , becksishetta ^ dola dyck ^ dow-nix ^ bedoozled ^ drankahma ^ bedutzed ^ droshky ^ , beet^.^.^.^.^....... dukkat ^ begrabnismahl ^ dummheit^.^.^.^.^ ,^ , beluira bergen ^ dunner and blitzen^.^.^.^. bengel^.^.^ ,^ ,^ , betchla ^ dupsich ^ eltesta ^ blinkers ^ englische^.^ ,^ - ,^ , blitzkrieg ^ etiskauste ^ blumenau ^ evangeliums book ^ bone fixer^.^.^•^•^•^• faspa ^ ,^ , booker stove ^ feemaesich ^ boutonnieres ^ feierabend^.^ ,^ , brumm ^ fiera ^ brummtupp ^ , bubbat ^ buddel baefa ^ fire evening^.^•^•^•^ , flat germans^.^.^.^ ,^ , flitz ^ bulchi ^ flyclapper ^ bulla buhr ^ burro ^ foada ^ , foda ^ ,^ , buttered out^.^•^•^ , butzas ^ footfeed ^ footlicking ^ campo ^ forscha friesen ^ chinga^freow^met^sukka forstei ^ bestreit^.^.^ , fortz ^ ,^ , choyck ^ fortz funk ^ christlich ^ , clapper ^ , claupaht ^ , clawed out ^ fortz machine ^ fortzes ^ four-buckles ^ fraiters ^ cluck ^ france hose ^ come^now^and^dig^my frauenverein ^ grave ^ consequentlies ^ frei^.^.^.^ ,^ ,^ ,^ , freid ^ corbies ^ ,^ , frie ^ friedensruh ^ honey wagon ^ friedenstimme ^ hova grits ^ friedlich ^ hova jake ^ ,^ , friewilliges ^ hullaund ^ frindschoft ^ huttatolas ^ fritz ^ huy yuy yuy ^ fromm ^ ,^ , froutzen ^ i am you so good ^ ich krieg was ^ fruemensch ^ irene olfert ^ fuchtich froese ^ jesus^christus^herrscht fuchtig froese^.^ , also konig^•^• fudderingham , fuhschluck ^ funkles ^ jugend^•^•^ ,^ ,^ , jugendverein^ ,^ , , jugens, raus ^ fuschels ^ juide frei , futtachi^.^ ,^ , ganz geviss ^ kammers ^ , katers ^ gartental ^ katzen-jammer ^ gemeindestunde ^ kind,^liebes^kind,^hast gemeinschaft ^ du vergessen , gently falleth the snow . kinder^•^•^ ,^ ,^ , gevitta ginter's widow^. kinderfest ^ gheet ^ glumms ^ kinderreich ^ , kirchenbuch ^ glutz ^ glutzed ^ kirchliche ^ , kirchof ^ gnurpel giesbrecht^.^•^•^. klaviera klassen ^ gooseberry boor ^ kleppern ^ , gopher goosen ^ klingers ^ gott is gegenwartig . kloot ^ greben ^ klose ^ grebenschmalz ^ klunk ^ gribble out ^ kluters ^ groutestov ^ gruelich , grflhijch ^ knacking ^ ,^ , knecht ^ knibble^•^.^ ,^ ,^ ,^ , ha ha nickel ^ hackelwire ^ halunk ^ knibble thiessen , ,^ , knockenartzt , koata ^ hartsoft^.^.^.^ ,^ ,^ , kolkhoz ^ , hauns jaunses' fraunz^.^ , hauptcheuik ^ , kommt emn vogel geflogen kommt sofort her^•^.^.^. haustig neefeld ^ kompliziet ^ heiratsfieber ^ krebs ^ heista kopp ^ kunta ^ , herz^und^herz^vereint kunta klassen ^ zusammen^.^.^. laugher ^ , heute ^ laups leeven ^ himmel-shine ^ lawve ^ himmelfahrt ^ , himmelshtenda ^ , lectric loewen ^ lehrer ^ hingst ^ ,^ , leiter ^ , hingst heinrichs ^ liebche ^ hof^•^•^•^•^ ,^ ,^ , lowt ^ ,^ , holem de gruel^.^.^.^.^ , lowt leeven ^ lutsch ^ , maedele ^ mene,^mene,^tekel, tien' pracha platt ^ prachadarp ^ upharsin^.^ , prediger franz ^ mennonitische rundschau . pretcious ^ mensch ^ prips ^ methuselah ^ proost ^ , , miagrope^ prust ^ milyoon moates ^ puch panna ^ mist ^ ,^ , mist-acre ^ , mit ^ ,^ ,^ , puggefeld ^ purple gas ^ qwauleming ^ , , mustard boar ^ rakavashakie ^ muttachi ^ ,^ , mutti ^ , rape rampel ^ reibtrommel ^ na ya ^ reiseshuld ^ nachochzeit ^ , narsch ^ rightmaker ^ rollkuchen ^ neche ^ rommelpot ^ nerk you ^ rosenfeld ^ niejohschskuke ^ rubbeltrumm ^ nip ^ rummel ^ nobah naze needarp^.^. rummeling ^ nochast ^ russiche ^ norweger ^ russl&nder^ ,^ ,^ , , , nun danket aller gott .^.^. nuscht ^ , nutzed ^ ,^ ,^ ,^ , russlaund ^ rutches ^ , oabeida ^ schacht schulz ^ oata rhyme ^ schallemboych pete .^. ohm ^ schanzenfeld ^ omchi ^ schaps ^ on this sad earth i am a schatz ^ pilgrim^.^.^.^. schemmel cow ^ onioning her eyes out .^.^. scheune ^ ossentoata , schinda^.^ ,^ ,^ , , ouster el ^ outcallers ^ schinda noch immol^. schinkenfleisch ^ , ovenside ^ schlarafenland ^ panz ^ , schlax wiebe ^ panzenfeld ^ schleusselbund ^ paska ^ schluffs off ^ pauss up ^ schluks ^ penzel ^ ,^ , schlunga ^ penzel panna ^ penzels ^ schluss ^ schmallen lebensweg ^ , .^ , perishky ^ schmauntzup ^ pesst em woata ^ schmaus ^ plautdietsch^•^•^.^ ,^ , , schmeickt ^ - ,^ ,^ - pluida zack ^ ,^ pluma moos ^ schmooz ^ schmuynge ^ schneeda giesbrecht . .^.^. porselky ^ schneering ^ portzelcke,^fortzelcke, schnell ^ shpecka^droats schnetke ^ schnoor ^ spriesel ^ schoenbach ^ schultenbot ^ , schundt ^ sprliche ^ , stiefel ^ stomach^is^hanging schuzzel ^ crooked ^ schwaecks ^ stookey house ^ schwaecksing ^ stram ^ schwengel^.^.^ ,^ , seepers ^ string yourself on^.^.^. sukka ^ , shaftich shreeda^.^ ,^ , shaubelkopp ^ summatime ^ , susch and tusch ^ sheet ^ ,^ , shittery ^ shluhdenz ^ shmuyng ^ sylvester the catlicker , sylvesterabend^.^.^.^.^ , tante ^ , tante reisen ^ shnuitsboat ^ tauffest ^ shoevanack ^ taufling ^ shring ^ tauflinge ^ shrinkt ^ tiedig wiens ^ shroutf lint ^ toem schinda noch immol . shteepas ^ trajchtmoakasch ^ shtemm gaufel friesen . , shtimm ^ trudy teichroeb's ^ tschmaking ^ shtollt ^ tubdewk ^ shtramel stoezs ^ shtrulling ^ twa ^ , twieback ^ shups stoezs ^ uhhhhgg^.^.^.^.^..^.... shuzzel shroeder ^ urgrossmuttchi ^ snudder ^ , snuddernose ^ vaspah ^ verenichi ^ soldot ^ verlobt ^ soldoten ^ verlobta ^ sommastov ^ verlobung ^ , songs verschelpt ^ ach,^du^lieber vorsanger ^ augustine^.^.^. vowt veil ye met me .^. , come now and dig my waisenamt ^ grave ^ was ist los ^ , gently^falleth^the washcumb ^ snow ^ wehrlosigkeit ^ , gott is gegenwartig weihnachtsmann ^ herz^und^herz what the hund ^ vereint what the shinda ^ zusammen^.^.^. wie perlen an der schnur jesus^christus herrscht^als wilkommen ^ , willy wahl ^ konig ^ winkle wieler ^ kommt^emn^vogel winnipeg in the cellar^. geflogen^.^.^. woat derchfaul ^ nun^danket^aller woata ^ gott ^ wurst ^ on this sad earth i wynola ^ ^ am a pilgrim^. spitz ^ ,^ , spitz poop , yanzeed ^ , yasch siemens^.^.^iii,^ , ,^ ,^ ,^ , , , , - , , yeeat shpanst ^ yelttausch yeeatze . • . ^ you are me so good . • . ^ yowma me ^ yuck ^ yuckers ^ yut yut leeven ^ zamp pickle peter . . . , zell ^ zentralschul ^ zilkase ^ , zirks ^ , , zoop zack ^ , , zoop zack friesen ^ . . , zoyck ^ zwieback ^ v, 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page 	page ocheretina o, morose w, gauthier m, joseph p, d’meza r, escuyer ve, et al. multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in port-au-prince, haiti. rev panam salud publica. ; ( ): – . suggested citation rev panam salud publica ( ), multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in port-au-prince, haiti oksana ocheretina, willy morose, marie gauthier, patrice joseph, richard d’meza, vincent e. escuyer, nalin rastogi, guy vernet, jean w. pape, and daniel w. fitzgerald objective. to determine the prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (mdr-tb) among patients with new smear-positive pulmonary tb in port-au-prince, haiti. methods. sputum samples were cultured from patients newly diagnosed with tb in . the core region of the rpob gene that is associated with resistance to rifampin was sequenced. all isolates with rpob mutations were sent to the new york state reference laboratory for conventional drug susceptibility testing (dst). all isolates were also tested with the genotype mtbdrplus line-probe assay. results. mycobacterium tuberculosis was isolated from patients. twenty-six ( . %) of the isolates had missense mutations or deletions in rpob and were resistant to rifampin by dst. all were also resistant to isoniazid and classified as mdr-tb. forty-six control isolates without rpob mutations were found to be rifampin sensitive by dst. the genotype mtbdrplus line-probe assay correctly identified mdr-tb strains. it misclassified one pansusceptible isolate as rifampin resistant. conclusions. this study shows an mdr-tb prevalence of . % in newly diagnosed tb patients in haiti and suggests that rpob sequencing and hybridization assays are good screening tools for early detection of mdr-tb. tuberculosis, multidrug resistant; cross-sectional studies; haiti. abstract key words haiti has the highest rate of tubercu- losis (tb) in the western hemisphere, with an estimated prevalence of per population ( ). because of longstanding poverty and political in- stability, a significant number of hai- tians emigrate to countries around the world. in , the world bank reported that approximately million haitians, or nearly % of haiti’s resident popula- tion, were living abroad in countries that include the dominican republic, the bahamas, the united states of america, canada, france, and other parts of the francophone world ( ). haiti was the most frequent country of birth among foreign-born tb patients in montreal, where haitians account for . % of all tb cases, and the fifth most frequent in new york, with . % of all tb cases ( , ). therefore, an understanding of mycobacterium tuberculosis strains circu- lating in haiti, especially drug-resistant strains, has both country-specific and global health significance ( , ). findings from the three m. tuberculosis drug-resistance prevalence studies con- ducted over the past years suggest that the rate of drug resistance may be increasing in haiti. in a study, the rate of isoniazid resistance was % but multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (mdr- tb), defined as resistance to both isonia- zid and rifampin, was not found in any investigación original / original research center for global health, division of infectious diseases, department of medicine, weill cornell medical college, new york, new york, united states of america. send correspondence to: o. ocheretina, oko @med.cornell.edu les centres gheskio, port-au-prince, haiti. fondation mérieux, lyon, france. programme nationale de lutte contre la tubercu- lose, ministère de la santé publique et de la popu- lation, port-au-prince, haiti. laboratory of clinical mycobacteriology, wads- worth center, new york state department of health, albany, new york, united states of america. world health organization supranational tuber- culosis reference laboratory, institut pasteur de la guadeloupe, pointe-à-pitre, guadeloupe, france. rev panam salud publica ( ), original research ocheretina et al. • prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in haiti patient newly diagnosed with tb ( ). in a study of recent migrants from haiti to cuba, monoresistance to isonia- zid was found in % of tb patients but mdr-tb was not found ( ). however, a study in of patients presenting to an hiv/aids center in port-au-prince, haiti, with new onset tuberculosis found a rate of primary mdr-tb of % ( ). the study was small and limited to a single hiv testing center but suggested an increase in mdr-tb. in , the world health organiza- tion (who) estimated that . % of new tb cases globally and . % of new cases in the americas were mdr-tb ( ). in the caribbean, rates of mdr-tb range from < . % of new cases in cuba to . % in the dominican republic ( , ). because of limited data on drug resist- ance, the who has not provided a de- finitive assessment of trends in mdr-tb over time globally or in the americas. it is hoped that with recent advances in molecular techniques, more drug- resistance data will be forthcoming and the who will be able to determine whether the prevalence of mdr-tb is increasing. a survey of tb drug resistance at the five largest tb treatment centers in port- au-prince was conducted to determine the prevalence rates of primary mdr-tb and to determine whether there has been an increase since . a secondary ob- jective of this study was to validate the use of molecular tests for the diagnosis of mdr-tb in haiti before their clinical application. methods study design this was a cross-sectional prevalence study of m. tuberculosis drug resistance among patients presenting with new acid-fast bacillus smear-positive active pulmonary tuberculosis at the five larg- est tb treatment centers in the metropol- itan port-au-prince area in . sputum samples were cultured from these five centers for m. tuberculosis. isolates were then examined by sequence analysis of the rpob gene, which is known to be associated with > % of rifampin resis- tance ( ). m. tuberculosis isolates resis- tant to rifampin by rpob dna sequence analysis were sent to the mycobacte- riology laboratory of the new york state department of health for drug susceptibility testing (dst). a subset of isolates negative for rifampin resistance by rpob gene analysis was also sent to the new york reference laboratory. the prevalence of mdr isolates is reported, defined as isolates that were resistant to rifampin by rpob gene analysis with confirmation of resistance to rifampin and isoniazid by dst at the new york reference laboratory. study setting and population the five tuberculosis centers in port- au-prince and its environs included grace children’s hospital, the haitian state sanatorium, gheskio centers, sigueneau sanatorium, and the men- nonite mission of croix des bouquets. these centers cover about % of all tb cases treated in the port-au-prince area. the patients were consecutively diag- nosed with an acid-fast bacillus-positive smear in . they did not report a prior diagnosis of tb. a laboratory technician placed a - to -ml aliquot of sputum from each patient into a -ml plastic tube. the tube was la- beled with the patient’s age, gender, and hiv status (positive, negative, unknown). the sample was refrigerated at °c and transported within days to a central laboratory at the gheskio centers. laboratory studies sputum samples were decontaminated with sodium lauryl sulfate and cultured on lowenstein–jensen slants (becton dickenson, franklin lakes, new jersey, united states of america). for positive cultures, a loopful of mycobacteria was resuspended in µl of nuclease-free water, heat-killed by min of incuba- tion at °c, and disrupted by three cycles of freezing at – °c and heating at °c. dna was separated from de- bris using spin-x centrifuge filter tubes, . -µm pore size (costar, corning inc., lowell, massachusetts, united states). the -bp rpob fragment was amplified in cycles of polymerase chain reaction (pcr). pcr parameters were s of denaturation at °c, min of annealing at °c, and min of exten- sion at °c. each -µl reaction mix- ture consisted of µl of dna extract, . µm each primers rpob-f ( ’-cca- ccc-agg-acg-tgg-agg-cga-tca- cac- ’) and rpob-r ( ’-cgt-ttc-gat- gaa-ccc-gaa-cgg-gtt-gac- ’), mm dntps, and . units of hot- start taq polymerase (qiagen, hilden, germany) in buffer provided with plym- erase kit. pcr fragments were purified with a qiaquick pcr purification kit (qiagen, hilden, germany), premixed with the primers used for pcr ampli- fication, and sent for sanger ( xl) sequencing at cornell university bio resource center (ithaca, new york, united states). the sequences obtained were compared with the wild-type rpob sequence of h rv for m. tuberculosis complex identification and for detection of mutations. isolates were provision- ally classified as rifampin resistant if they had a polymorphism previously described as conferring resistance ( ). dna extracts from all isolates were tested for mutations associated with re- sistance to isoniazid and rifampin by a commercially available line-probe assay according to the manufacturer’s instruc- tions (genotype mtbdrplus, hain life sciences, nehren, germany). the op- erator performing the test was blinded to the results of rpob sequence analysis. all isolates with rpob mutations, along with a subset of isolates with- out rpob mutations, were sent to the laboratory of clinical mycobacteriol- ogy, wadsworth center, new york state department of health (albany, new york, united states). all specimens were confirmed as m. tuberculosis complex by real-time pcr assay ( ). in new york, drug sensitivity testing to first-line antituberculosis drugs was performed in mycobacteria growth indicator tubes (bactec , becton dickenson, frank- lin lakes, new jersey, united states) in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. for isolates resistant to at least one first-line drug, dst to isonia- zid, rifampin, ethambutol, streptomycin, capreomycin, cycloserine, ethionamide, kanamycin, p-aminosalicylc acid, amika- cin, and ofloxacin was performed with the proportion method on h agar as recommended by the clinical and labo- ratory standards institute ( ). analysis the prevalence, with % confidence intervals, of mdr-tb at five major tb treatment centers around port-au-prince is reported. proportions were compared using fisher’s exact test and medians with the wilcoxon rank sum test. this rev panam salud publica ( ), ocheretina et al. • prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in haiti original research study was approved by the institutional review board at gheskio and weill cornell medical college (new york). results study population the five sites sent sputum samples from patients to the central labora- tory at gheskio for analysis. of them, grew mycobacteria on lowenstein– jensen media and yielded dna extracts suitable for pcr sequencing. of the isolates, belonged to the m. tubercu- losis complex. the characteristics of the patients from whom m. tuberculosis was isolated are presented in table . the median age was years, . % were female, and . % of patients were hiv- seronegative. each site contributed ap- proximately the same number of samples. prevalence of mdr-tb the -bp core region of the rpob gene was sequenced for all isolates. of the m. tuberculosis isolates, ( . %) con- tained missense mutations or deletions in the rpob gene that are known to be associated with rifampin resistance. one additional isolate had a silent mutation or synonymous single nucleotide poly- morphism in rpob codon t (acc → act). the m. tuberculosis isolates with missense mutations or deletions in rpob were sent to the new york state tb laboratory. twenty-six isolates grew in new york, and one isolate was nonvi- able upon subculture. all isolates that grew in new york were confirmed as m. tuberculosis. all isolates tested resistant to rifampin by conventional culture dst on solid and liquid media. all were also resistant to isoniazid and hence were classified as mdr-tb. the complete drug sensitivity profile of the mdr isolates is shown in table . in total, of ( . %) m. tuberculosis isolates were confirmed to be mdr. no statistically significant associations were found between patient age, gender, or hiv status and multidrug resistance. the one isolate that had a silent mu- tation or synonymous single nucleo- tide polymorphism in rpob codon t (acc → act) was also analyzed by dst in the reference laboratory and found to be sensitive to rifampin. an additional isolates, which were negative for mu- tations in the core region of rpob, were also sent to the new york state labora- tory for control dst. all isolates were sensitive to rifampin. screening with genotype mtbdrplus line-probe assay a line-probe assay was performed on dna extracts from the m. tuberculosis isolates. the mtbdrplus assay identi- fied ( . %) samples as resistant to ri- fampin. this number included all iso- lates identified by sequencing as having a missense mutation or deletion in the rpob gene and the one isolate that had a synonymous single nucleotide polymor- phism in rpob codon t (acc → act). the remaining isolates were sensitive to rifampin by the mtbdrplus assay. discussion this study documents that at least . % of patients newly diagnosed with smear-positive pulmonary tb in port- au-prince had mdr m. tuberculosis. this value is an increase from two studies in the s, when mdr-tb was not de- tected in any new tb cases in haiti. this study also suggests that rpob sequencing or hybridization assays are good screen- ing tools in this population for early detection and appropriate treatment of mdr-tb. these data document that the rates of mdr-tb have increased in haiti since studies in the s showed that fewer than . % of patients with newly di- agnosed tb were resistant to isoniazid and rifampin ( , ). studies from the neighboring dominican republic, which shares the island of hispaniola with haiti, also have shown a high mdr-tb rate of . % in all cases and . % in new tb cases ( ). given the large amount of immigration between countries through- out the western hemisphere, the results of these studies are of particular concern for the spread of previously localized disease. the results of this study have become even more relevant since the january earthquake, when the headquar- ters of the national tb program and several large tb treatment centers were destroyed, including three of the five centers that participated in this study ( ). thousands of tb patients in port- au-prince defaulted on therapy and are now living in crowded tent cities. rates of mdr-tb could climb even higher un- der these catastrophic conditions. this study was limited in that gold- standard culture-based drug sensitiv- ity testing was performed only on the samples that tested positive for rpob mutations and only on a subset of the isolates that were negative for the rpob mutations. therefore, the prevalence of mdr-tb may be underestimated. how- ever, all isolates without rpob muta- tions tested negative for rifampin re- sistance by a standard culture method, and other studies suggest a > . % cor- relation between rpob sequence analysis table . characteristics of patients with a diagnosis of new onset sputum smear- positive tuberculosis, port-au-prince, haiti, characteristic no. %a age, years median na interquartile range – na female . hiv status positive . negative . unknown . site grace children’s hospital . state tuberculosis sanatorium . gheskio centers . sigueneau sanatorium . mennonite mission of croix des bouquets . note: na: not applicable. a may not sum to due to rounding. table . drug resistance of mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates with mutations in rpob gene from patients with new diagnosis of active pulmonary tuberculosis, port-au- prince, haiti, drug resistancea mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates with rpob mutationsb no. % isoniazid . rifampin . isoniazid and rifampin (multidrug resistant) . ethambutol . pyrazinamide . streptomycin . ethionamide . a no strains were resistant to p-aminosalicylic acid, ofloxa- cin, capreomycin, cycloserine, kanamycin, or amikacin. b mutations include missense mutations or deletions in the -bp core region of rpob but do not include isolates with silent mutations or synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms. rev panam salud publica ( ), original research ocheretina et al. • prevalence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in haiti . world health organization. global tuber- culosis control: . geneva: who; . available from: http://www.who.int/tb/ publications/global_report/ /gtbr _ full.pdf accessed december . . world bank. the migration and remit- tances factbook . washington, d.c.: world bank; . available from: http:// s i t e r e s o u r c e s . w o r l d b a n k . o r g / i n t l a c / resources/factbook -ebook.pdf ac- cessed january . . rivest p, tannenbaum lb, bedard l. epide- miology of tuberculosis in montreal. can med assoc j. ; : – . . new york city department of health and mental hygiene. new york city is stopping tb. annual summary . new york: new york city department of health and men- tal hygiene; . available from: http:// www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/ tb/tb_annualsummary .pdf accessed november . . schwartzman k, oxlade o, barr rg, grimard f, acosta i, baez j, et al. domestic returns from investment in the control of tuberculo- sis in other countries. n engl j med. ; : – . . cain kp, benoit sr, winston ca, mackenzie wr. tuberculosis among foreign-born per- sons in the united states, – . jama. ; : – . . scalcini m, carré g, jean-baptiste m, hirshfield e, parker s, wolfe j, et al. antitu- berculous drug resistance in central haiti. am rev respir dis. ; : – . . malone jl, paparello sf, malone jd, hill he, conrad ka, myers jw, et al. drug susceptibil- ity of mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from recent haitian migrants: correlation with clin- ical response. clin infect dis. ; : – . . joseph p, severe p, ferdinand s, goh ks, sola c, haas dw, et al. multi-drug resistant tuber- culosis at an hiv testing center in haiti. aids. ; : – . . montoro e, lemus d, echemendía m, armas l, gonzález-ochoa e, llanes mj, et al. drug-resistant tuberculosis in cuba. results of the three global projects. tuberculosis. ; : – . . espinal ma, báez j, soriano g, garcia v, laszlo a, reingold al, et al. drug-resistant tuberculosis in the dominican republic: re- sults of a nationwide survey. int j tuberc lung dis. ; : – . . ramaswamy s, musser jm. molecular genetic basis of antimicrobial agent resistance in my- cobacterium tuberculosis: update. tuber lung dis. ; ( ): – . . halse ta, edwards j, cunningham pl, wolfgang wj, dumas nb, escuyer ve, et al. combined real-time pcr and rpob gene pyro- sequencing for rapid identification of myco- bacterium tuberculosis and determination of rifampin resistance directly in clinical speci- mens. j clin microbiol. ; ( ): – . . national committee on clinical laboratory standards. susceptibility testing of mycobac- teria, nocardiae, and other aerobic actinomy- cetes. approved standard. nccls document m -a. wayne, pennsylvania: nccls; . . pape jw, johnson wd jr, fitzgerald dw. the earthquake in haiti—dispatch from port-au- prince. n engl j med. ; : – . manuscript received on june . revised version accepted for publication on december . references objetivo. determinar la prevalencia de tuberculosis (tb) multirresistente en pacientes con tb pulmonar nueva con baciloscopia positiva en puerto príncipe, haití. métodos. se cultivaron muestras de esputo de pacientes con diagnóstico reciente de tuberculosis efectuado durante el . se secuenció la región nuclear del gen rpob, que se asocia con la resistencia a la rifampicina. todos los aislados con mutaciones de rpob se enviaron al laboratorio de referencia del estado de nueva york para llevar a cabo un antibiograma convencional. todos los aislados se estudiaron también con el ensayo de sonda lineal genotype mtbdrplus. resultados. se aisló mycobacterium tuberculosis de pacientes. veintiséis ( , %) de los aislados presentaban mutaciones de sentido erróneo o deleciones en rpob y fueron resistentes a la rifampicina en el antibiograma. los aislados fueron resistentes también a la isoniacida y se clasificaron como tb multirresistente. cuarenta y seis aislados de control sin mutaciones de rpob resultaron sensibles a la rifampicina en el antibiograma. el ensayo de sonda lineal genotype mtbdrplus identificó correctamente a las cepas de tb multirresistente y clasificó de manera errónea un aislado sensible a múltiples fármacos como resistente a la rifampicina. conclusiones. este estudio revela una prevalencia de tb multirresistente de , % en los pacientes con tb recién diagnosticada en haití e indica que los ensayos de secuenciación e hibridación de rpob son estudios de detección sistemática adecuados para la detección temprana de la tb multirresistente. tuberculosis resistente a múltiples medicamentos; estudios transversales; haití. resumen tuberculosis multirresistente en puerto príncipe, haití palabras clave and phenotypic drug sensitivity testing. therefore, it is unlikely that the actual rates of mdr-tb are significantly higher than . %. at least . % of patients newly diag- nosed with smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis in port-au-prince have mdr-tb. sequencing or hybridization assays of the rpob gene are good screen- ing tools in this population for early detection and appropriate treatment of mdr-tb. acknowledgments. this project was supported by fondation merieux and grants tw , tw , and tw from the fogarty interna- tional center of the national institutes of health. orm overland. immigrant minds, american identities: making the united states home, – . urbana: university of illinois press, . pp., x, . index. us$ . all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine orm overland. immigrant minds, american identities: making the united states home, – . urbana: university of illinois press, . pp., x, . index. us$ . royden loewen volume , numéro , march uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce compte rendu loewen, r. ( ). compte rendu de [orm overland. immigrant minds, american identities: making the united states home, – . urbana: university of illinois press, . pp., x, . index. us$ . ]. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -v -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ book reviews i comptes rendus "reflects the social embeddedness of invention and innova- tion." ( ) what this means, i think, is that inventors registered the largest number of patents when the bicycle market was booming, to take advantage of the opportunity for profit. in his determination to demonstrate the singular importance of the bicycle, norcliffe also makes some rather extravagant claims. he argues that early bicycle trekkers "stretched space by travelling to new frontiers on their bicycles," creating "a new geography in which travel to the ends of the earth was increas- ingly the norm." ( ) yet his own evidence shows that such treks were not at all the norm and that the handful who did un- dertake such world travels depended on other modes of trans- portation to get to the furthest reaches of the planet. he also asserts that farming communities "were less given to mechani- cal invention than the towns of central canada engaged in mak- ing various kinds of machinery." i think that the historical record of agricultural innovation shows the exact opposite: canadian farmers were constantly inventing, adapting, and building ma- chines to help them do their work. some of their innovations were far more significant and enduring than the largely cosmetic refinements offered up by most canadian bicycle inventors. fi- nally, he suggests that the bicycle was responsible for turning the countryside into "a recreational space" for city dwellers. ( ) this might come as a surprise to historians of sport, rec- reation, and boat-building in this country who have documented our long tradition of recreational use of the countryside. i also had problems with professor norcliffe's writing style. he writes almost exclusively in the passive voice which tends to ob- scure the human actors who are generally at the centre of his- torical events. when he does use the active voice, it is the ideas, movements, and projects that are acting. thus, we have innovations occurring, arriving in clusters, developing, and driv- ing industrial modernity. modernity is a movement and a project that is contested and marches, advances, and otherwise moves forward, all apparently without the help of human beings. when people do appear in the story it is either as part of a specific nar- rative - the karl kreelman tour - or as subjects being acted upon by the forces of modernity. this not only makes the book difficult to read, it also leaves readers with the erroneous impres- sion that technological and cultural change are not the products of human action. norcliffe's "two-wheeled" approach to his subject did not work. the theoretical analysis is not well integrated into the narrative but seems to sit on top of it. as a result, he presents us with de- tailed theoretical discussions followed, often abruptly, by long passages devoted entirely to descriptive narrative that only tenu- ously relate to the arguments he is making. the detailed ex- cerpts from karl kron's travels ( - ) tell us a great deal about the state of roads but not how the bicycling community contributed to their improvement or whether kron saw himself in the vanguard of cultural and technological progress. for all of its problems, i think that this book is worth a careful read. norcliffe's research is first rate and he has documented hitherto unknown events, artifacts, and individuals central to the history of cycling in canada. though his theoretical analysis was not very successful, he nevertheless demonstrates the value of exploring the history of technology and the necessity of placing technological developments in a broad social and cul- tural context. given the appalling lack of academic interest in the field of technological history in this country, this alone makes the book an admirable effort. sharon babaian canada science and technology museum ottawa orm overland. immigrant minds, american identities: making the united states home, - . urbana: university of illinois press, . pp., x, . index. us$ . . this book reflects the american immigration historian's ongoing fascination with the process of integration and even assimilation into american society. recent works by george sanchez, jon gjerde, donna gabaccia, mario maffi, and others have de- scribed processes of ethnicisation. they agree widely that eth- nicity is invented, not some kind of transplanted cultural "essence." what then can another book on the topic add to this discussion, especially one that emphasizes western european immigrants that became integrated into american society with seeming effortlessness? much indeed, for overland has made an intelligent and insight- ful contribution. unlike other works on ethnicisation, he looks at the process by which immigrant group organizations sought the favour of the wider american society by asserting and even her- alding their ethnicities. in these proclamations of ethnicity they did not contest america, but sought to place themselves at its very centre. each group advocated a particular "foundation story," claiming a seminal place within american culture. the ob- vious claims italians had on columbus the "discoverer" of amer- ica, the irish on the idea of liberty, or the norwegians on the status of "frontiersman", were made alongside more obscure as- sertions of washington's "italian sentiment" ( ), of columbus's jewishness, of german socialism's affinity with american citizen- ship, of dutch "true religion", of norwegian "discovery" of four- teenth-century minnesota. it did not matter that such assertions often were spurious; they constituted a particular strategy of inte- gration. the book has many strengths. the first is this central thesis. but the many ironies and surprises that support the central thesis make the book a fascinating account. the fluid nature of in- vented identities undermines any notion of national "essential- ism", but the very phenomenon of "myth making", argues overland was an "essential feature of american ethnicity," the creative identity of white non-english immigrants wishing "inclu- sion" ( ). the drive for inclusion was that of the european immi- grant, but "excluded" groups also found paths of integration: african americans by asserting national partnership with the english, the chicanos by professing true spanish descent from urban history review i revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxx, no. (march ) book reviews i comptes rendus the conquistadors. the assimilative message of the public schools diminished immigrant cultures initially, but the assimila- tive language of "acceptance" propelled the immigrant mind not into a cultural acquiescence but towards ethnic assertions of worthiness. full acceptance may have been presented to the im- migrant in terms of minority-majority relations, but the fact was that the greatest challenge to being accepted lay in outwitting other ethnic groups willing to wage acrimonious interethnic "homemaking wars," each group seeking to weaken the other groups' claims to legitimacy. thus ethnicity was not about conti- nuity, but was in fact the final act of discontinuity. its assertion was always an attempt by the immigrant to be integrated into a nation that itself was obsessed with questions of belonging, le- gitimacy, merit, and acceptance. ethnic identities did not mark the shibboleth of americanism, they were its very expression ( ). a second strength of the book is that overland has identified a phenomenon that is dynamic. the book is specifically about contestation; "how organized groups responded to the problem of being considered foreigners." ( ) much information is offered on the western european immigrant elite - the journalists, the editors, the novelists, the preachers - but their writings are never one-dimensional. they arise in the context of immigrant in- feriority complexes, anglo-american exceptionalism, the anomie of assimilation, and the desire to be american. the immigrant groups could see what the host society and its historians could not and that was that the great divide between "history" and "heritage", to employ david lowenthal's concepts, was duplici- tous: the mayflower compact was as interwoven with teleology as the most "grotesque" filiopietist narrative of contribution his- tory. and the book is also historical, arguing that the ethnic proc- lamations marked a particular stage in the integration of european groups; after the birth of racial theories of anglo- saxon superiority, but mostly before world war ii when waning immigrant waves weakened american xenophobia ( ). each of the three sections of the book carries this message of irony and dynamism. these sections describe three kinds of identity creating myths, the stories placing the immigrant at the very seat of the nation founding, stories suggesting that the im- migrant was a truer voice of the nation's ideals that the host so- ciety itself, and stories recounting the valour of sacrifice. in this wide coverage the book leaves few gaps. still some questions remain. how did the many sectarian immi- grants, such as the amish and hutterites, who placed their very legitimacy as people on a successful rejection of the wider soci- ety, jibe with the book's sweeping explanation of ethnicisation? how can one still argue that the phenomenon of ethnic identi- ties was a new world phenomenon, when scholarship has shown that the mindset of european groups was shaped by monarchical patriotism, religious wars and internal migrations? how can one suggest that ethnicisation ended in the context of the tolerant post-world war ii era, when hostilities were directed to such groups as the haitians, koreans, and arabs who in turn were compelled to assert athletic prowess, entrepreneurial skill, or peaceful tradition. the story may just be even more complex than overland's evocative portrayal demonstrates. royden loewen chair of mennonite studies university of winnipeg isabelle backouche. la trace du fleuve. la seine et paris ( - ), paris : Éditions de l'École des hautes Études en sciences sociales, , pp. . glossaire, bibliographie, cartes, figures, tableaux, index. la seine « était dynamique au xviiie siècle, animée par une grande diversité de pratiques et d'acteurs et dominée par une tension permanente entre les usages et leur régulation. elle dev- ient statique au xixe siècle, la ceinture de quais ayant pour ob- jectif principal d'enfermer et de contenir le fleuve » (p. ). depuis nous dit isabelle backouche, le fleuve - et ses abords - est un « espace étranger à la vie de la capitale ». il est « musée », il est architecture, il est esthétique; il n'est plus le moteur d'urbanité qu'il a été, l'« espace urbain » au cœur de la vie parisienne. partant de ce constat, l'objectif backouche est de faire con- naître la relation entre paris et son fleuve avant et pendant la « rupture » opérée au cours de la première moitié du xixe siècle. comment la seine a-t-elle perdu le rôle prédominant qu'elle tenait dans paris? comment le lien entre paris et son fleuve a été tissé puis, quand et comment s'est opérée la rupture? divisé en trois parties, l'ouvrage couvre la période à , soit au moment où de « réels enjeux, économiques et politiques, s'at- tachent aux relations entre paris et son fleuve », jusqu'au mo- ment où le devenir de paris devient indépendant de son fleuve. dans la première partie de l'ouvrage (un espace partagé), l'au- teure dresse le portrait des pratiques sur le fleuve et ses abords au tournant des années . grâce à un usage judicieux des documents légaux et administratifs de l'époque, l'auteure re- trace les multiples rôles du fleuve : réception de produits de toutes sortes, accueil de migrants, constitution de « dynasties fluviales » familiales propriétaires de nombreux bateaux. en examinant la disposition des bateaux et des quais, des ponts et des rues avoisinantes au fleuve, l'auteure dévoile le processus de « zoning » dont la seine est à l'époque l'objet et l'instigatrice. le fleuve est « un espace qui envahit la vie urbaine » (p. ) en . il agrémente ou impose des contraintes aux déplace- ments de tous les parisiens, se pose comme un lieu de rassem- blement et de consommation, permet à tout un chacun de s'investir d'une appartenance géographique intra-parisienne (ap- partenance à la rive gauche, à la rive droite). enfin, backouche démontre que, de par son rôle central, la seine bénéficie d'un statut - juridique notamment - complexe qui la distingue dans la cité (p. ) et dont le contrôle est jalousement gardé par les autorités locales et leurs représentants (inspecteurs, con- trôleurs, receveurs). urban history review /revue d'histoire urbaine vol. xxx, no. (march ) wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ untitled original article a truncating mutation in cep is the likely cause of march, a novel syndrome affecting neuronal mitosis patrick frosk, , heleen h arts, , julien philippe, carter s gunn, emma l brown, bernard chodirker, , louise simard, jacek majewski, somayyeh fahiminiya, chad russell, yangfan p liu, forge canada consortium canadian rare diseases: models & mechanisms network, robert hegele, , nicholas katsanis, conrad goerz, marc r del bigio, , erica e davis abstract background hydranencephaly is a congenital anomaly leading to replacement of the cerebral hemispheres with a fluid-filled cyst. the goals of this work are to describe a novel autosomal-recessive syndrome that includes hydranencephaly (multinucleated neurons, anhydramnios, renal dysplasia, cerebellar hypoplasia and hydranencephaly (march)); to identify its genetic cause (s) and to provide functional insight into pathomechanism. methods we used homozygosity mapping and exome sequencing to identify recessive mutations in a single family with three affected fetuses. immunohistochemistry, rt-pcr and imaging in cell lines, and zebrafish models, were used to explore the function of the gene and the effect of the mutation. results we identified a homozygous nonsense mutation in cep segregating with march. testing the effect of this allele on patient-derived cells indicated both a reduction of the overall cep message and the production of a message that likely gives rise to a truncated protein. suppression or ablation of cep l in zebrafish embryos recapitulated key features of march, most notably renal dysplasia, cerebellar hypoplasia and craniofacial abnormalities. these phenotypes could be rescued by full-length but not truncated human cep message. finally, we expressed the truncated form of cep in human cells, where we observed a failure of truncated protein to localise to the midbody, leading to abscission failure and multinucleated daughter cells. conclusions cep loss of function mutations likely underlie march, a novel multiple congenital anomaly syndrome. this association expands the involvement of centrosomal proteins in human genetic disorders by highlighting a role in midbody function. introduction hydranencephaly is a congenital anomaly with a frequency of ∼ in births. it is defined as the almost complete absence of the cerebral hemi- spheres, replacement of the missing neural tissue with fluid-filled sacs, relative preservation of the posterior fossa structures and a normal intracranial compartment. on prenatal ultrasonography, hydra- nencephaly may resemble extreme hydrocephalus, but can be differentiated through fetal or postnatal mri. it is usually an isolated anomaly, although there are reports of syndromic associations. underlying causes are thought to include teratogens (eg, congenital infections, valproic acid exposure), chromosomal disorders (eg, trisomy , triploidy) and single-gene disorders (eg, proliferative vasculo- pathy, x-linked hydranencephaly with abnormal genitalia). the pathophysiology in the majority of cases of hydranencephaly is thought to be early intracranial vascular obstruction in a fetus, leading to necrosis and cystic degeneration of the cerebral hemispheres, although there may be other mechan- isms. – here we report a family with an apparently auto- somal recessive form of hydranencephaly that includes additional congenital anomalies and dys- morphisms. literature review shows that this is a rare, but consistent, syndromic association and pro- vides additional evidence for a recessive inheritance pattern. neuropathological analysis identified a unique pathophysiology underlying the hydranence- phaly likely related to arrested neuronal mitosis, suggesting that this anomaly is probably caused by non-vascular mechanisms. through the combined application of homozygosity mapping and exome sequencing, we identified the likely causative genetic defect, a nonsense mutation in cep (c. c>a; p.s x), which encodes centroso- mal protein- kda (cep ). although not impli- cated previously in any genetic disorder, cep is known to be essential for the final step of cytokin- esis, abscission and has also been found to be upre- gulated in some tumours. more recently, loss of cep l, the zebrafish ortholog of cep , was also shown to result in various developmental defects in zebrafish embryos. in the present study, we link aberrant fetal development in humans with a cep mutation; we reproduce several of the key pheno- types in zebrafish models and we show that the observed c-terminal truncation of the protein likely interferes with the midbody functions of cep , thereby providing insight into pathomechanism. methods patient material the study was conducted on a single canadian family of dutch-german mennonite ancestry. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci to cite: frosk p, arts hh, philippe j, et al. j med genet ; : – . ► additional material is published online only. to view please visit the journal online (http://dx.doi.org/ . / jmedgenet- - ). for numbered affiliations see end of article. correspondence to dr patrick frosk, fe community services bldg, sherbrook st., winnipeg, manitoba, canada mb r a r ; pfrosk@hsc.mb.ca and dr erica e davis, n duke st., carmichael building, room - , durham, nc usa; erica.davis@duke.edu received september revised november accepted december published online first  march  o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /jmedgenet- - &domain=pdf&date_stamp= - - http://jmg.bmj.com/ postmortem sampling, pathological analysis, karyotype and com- parative genomic hybridisation were done during the provision of clinical care using standard protocols. all subjects (or legal guardians) gave written informed consent to participate. genetic mapping genotyping of the nuclear family was performed using illumina human omni . snp arrays at the centre for applied genomics, toronto, canada. these data were analysed using the autosnpa and phaser snp mapping tools developed at the university of leeds. additionally, x-linked markers were sorted manually in a spreadsheet to determine x-chromosome segregation. exome sequencing sequencing and analysis were conducted as described. briefly, we enriched for the coding sequence regions with the agilent sureselect mb (v ) all exon kit (agilent technologies, santa clara, california, usa). the resultant library was sequenced with an illumina hiseq platform to generate > gb of bp paired-end reads. read alignment to the reference genome (hg ) was done with the burrows-wheeler aligner. picard and annovar were used to identify and annotate var- iants. variants of low quality that did not meet objective criteria (read depth (dp)> ; quality (q) ≥ ; mapping quality (mq)≥ ; quality by depth (qd)< . ) were excluded. coverage of consensus coding sequence (ccds) bases was assessed using the genome analysis toolkit. we assessed population frequency of variants using dbsnp , the genomes data set ( / release) and the exomes in the nhlbi exome variant server. in addition, we assessed variant frequency using the genome quebec innovation centre database (∼ exomes). we confirmed all candidate variants using sanger sequencing. rna isolation from patient cells and expression studies using rt-pcr we isolated total rna from fibroblasts derived from a healthy individual ( ) and a multinucleated neurons, anhydramnios, renal dysplasia, cerebellar hypoplasia, and hydranencephaly (march) patient using the rneasy mini kit (qiagen) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. cdna was made using superscript iii first-strand synthesis system and oligo (dt) primers (life technologies) according to manufacturer’s instructions. we pcr amplified cdna using a veriti -well thermal cycler (model , applied biosystems) and the fol- lowing conditions: °c for min, followed by cycles of ° c, °c and °c of s periods each and min of °c. specifically, we amplified cep exons – ( and bp) and exons – ( bp), respectively, and a gapdh control fragment ( bp). we obtained primers from sigma-aldrich. the cep bp fragment i was amplified with forward and reverse ( - ) primers ‘ccagtttctttacacatctctgc’ and ‘cagtattccacatggacaagc’, the bp fragment ii with ‘ccagtttctttacacatctctgc’ and ‘tctgtttt cagtctctccttgg’, and the bp fragment iii with ‘aagtaagtggggatcgaagc’ and ‘tctcttccagctgtt caagc’. the - sequences of the gapdh primers are ‘tctcctctgacttcaacagcga’ and ‘tacatggcaactgt gaggaggg’. the cep bp fragment was sanger sequenced to validate the absence or presence of the c. c>a (p.s x) mutation in control and patient cdna, respectively. transient gene suppression in zebrafish embryos all zebrafish studies were conducted with approval from the duke university institutional animal care and use committee. two splice-blocking morpholino (mo) antisense oligonucleo- tides targeting cep l (sb , -ctgagataaagcgactaatt cacct- and sb , -gttgagcttttcttaccatcag act- ) were obtained from gene tools, llc. to determine the optimal dose for in vivo complementation assays, we injected , and ng of mo into one-to-four-cell stage zebrafish embryos obtained from natural matings of heterozygous - . col a :egfp transgenic adults. to determine mo efficiency, we harvested embryos in trizol (invitrogen), extracted total rna according to the manufacturer’s instructions and generated oligo-dt- primed cdna with the quantitect reverse transcription kit (qiagen) for use as rt-pcr template. sanger sequencing of rt-pcr products was used to identify the precise alteration of endogenous transcript. for rescue experiments, ng mo and pg rna were used either independently, or combined. crispr/cas genome editing of cep l we used the chopchop design tool to identify cep l guide (g)rna target sequences, for which one pair of oligonucleotides were synthesised and annealed. annealed oligos were ligated into the t cas sgrna vector as described, and plasmids were sequence confirmed. template vector was linearised with bamhi and grna was transcribed with the megashortscript t kit (life technologies). in total, pg of cep l grna and pg of cas protein (pna bio) was co-injected into the cell of one-cell stage embryos. to determine targeting efficiency in f mutants, we harvested single embryos at days post- fertilisation (dpf) and dpf, extracted genomic dna and pcr amplified a region flanking the grna target site. to estimate the percent mosaicism, pcr products were cloned into a topo- therapeutic abortion (ta) vector (thermofisher); plasmid was prepped from multiple individual colonies (n= – ) per embryo (n= – embryos/condition) and sanger sequenced on an abi . ngs library preparation and sequencing for crispr/cas outcomes gene-specific primers were used to amplify a region flanking the grna target site; with tags -cgctcttccgatct ctg- and -tgctcttccgatctgac- appended to the side of the gene-specific portion for forward and reverse primers, respectively. these amplicons were used as a template for the second pcr to add the ion xpress barcode adapters. equimolar concentrations from each amplicon were pooled to make the final sequencing library. the library was diluted to pm and sequencing template was prepared using the ion pgm hi-q ot kit on the ion one touch instrument according to manufacturer’s instructions. templated ion sphere particles were enriched on an ion one touch es and sequencing was performed on an ion torrent pgm with the ion pgm hi-q sequencing kit. demultiplexing of barcoded samples was performed using torrent suite software . . and reads were trimmed using cutadapt. crispr-cas outcomes were quan- tified using crispresso computational pipeline. automated zebrafish imaging larvae were positioned and imaged live with the vertebrate automated screening technology (vast) platform (union biometrica) as described. larvae were anaesthetised with . mg/ml tricaine prior to being loaded into the sample frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ reservoir. dorsal and lateral images were acquired at a > % minimum similarity from the pattern-recognition algorithm. once recognised inside the μm capillary of the vast module on the microscope stage, larvae were rotated ° to capture a fluorescent image of the jaw. nih imagej software was used to measure the angle of the ceratohyal cartilage. whole mount tunel and immunostaining we used the apoptag rhodamine in situ apoptosis detection kit (chemicon) as described. for whole-mount immunostain- ing, embryos were fixed in dent’s solution and stained with primary antibody (anti-phospho-histone h (ser )-r antibody (sc- -r, santa cruz, : ); anti-acetylated tubulin (t , sigma-aldrich, : ) and anti-nak atpase (a f, dshb; : )); and secondary detection was accomplished with alexa fluor goat anti-mouse igg (a , invitrogen; : ) in blocking solution as described. fluorescent signals were imaged on laterally or ventrally positioned larvae and z-stacked on a nikon az microscope using nis elements ar software. we quantified staining by counting positive cells in defined regions of the head by using imagej software; positive cells in the eyes were removed from cell counts (tunel and phospho-histone h ). nih imagej software was also used to measure the area of the proximal renal convolution or the cere- bellum. data were analysed and graphed using graphpad prism software (graphpad, san diego, california, usa). holm-Šídák multiple comparison testing following one-way ana- lysis of variance was performed separately for each set of data corresponding to a phenotype. p values less than . , . , . and . are summarised with *, **, *** or ****, respectively. p values > . are indicated by ‘ns’ (non-significant). molecular cloning and site-directed mutagenesis we obtained a gateway-adapted full-length cep open reading frame entry clone (invitrogen clone ioh ; nm_ . ). we conducted site-directed mutagenesis to insert the c. c>g (p.h q) or c. a>t (p.h l) var- iants as described. the c. c>a (p.s x) mutation was introduced by norclone biotech. the integrity of all clones was confirmed by restriction analysis and sanger sequencing. the gateway system (life technologies) was used to generate either monomeric red fluorescent protein (mrfp)-tagged cep constructs (wild-type (wt) or mutant) from pdest- for n-terminal fusion with mrfp (protein localisation studies); or template for sp in vitro transcription using pcs +-dest (rna injection into zebrafish embryos) according to standard protocols. cell culture, transfections and subcellular localisation cos- cells (crl- from atcc), fibroblasts from a healthy individual ( ) and fibroblasts derived from infant were grown in dulbecco’s modified eagle’s medium (gibco) supplemented with % fetal bovine serum (gibco) and % antibiotic-antimycotic (gibco) in a humidified °c % co incubator. we seeded cos- at – % confluence on sterile glass cover slips in -well plates, incubated them for hours and transfected with μg of plasmid dna for hours using effectene transfection kit (qiagen) according to the manufac- turer’s instructions. cells were fixed in . % paraformaldehyde in phosphate buffered saline (pbs; gibco) for min at room temperature, washed twice with pbs and incubated in . % triton x- (sigma) in pbs for min. slides were blocked for min using % bovine serum albumin (bsa) in pbs before both the primary and secondary antibody incubation. we incu- bated the slides with primary anti-α-tubulin antibody (rat mono- clonal antibody, mca g, cedarlane; : in % bsa in pbs) for hour at room temperature. we then used a goat α-rat igg (h+l) alexa antibody diluted : in % bsa in pbs incubated at room temperature for min. the cover- slips were washed three times with pbs, dipped in deionised water, inverted and mounted onto glass microscope slides with vectashield with dapi (vector laboratories) and sealed with nail polish. microscopic imaging was performed on an olympus bx fluorescent microscope (olympus, canada, on, canada) at × magnification with comparable exposure times for each experiment. images were recorded with northern eclipse soft- ware (empix, on, canada) and processed with photoshop cs and illustrator cs (adobe). western blotting -hours post transfection, protein lysates were harvested from cos- cells. after a brief wash with pbs (ph . ), cells were harvested in hot ( °c) ×sds sample buffer ( mm tris-hcl, ph . , % sds and % glycerol). we used qiashredder columns (qiagen) to homogenise samples accord- ing the manufacturer’s instructions. subsequently, we added reducing buffer ( ×sds sample buffer and -mercaptoethanol (sigma) in a : ratio, supplemented with bromphenol blue dye (sigma)). samples were heated at °c for min and placed on ice for min. mg of each protein lysate was analysed by sds-page (using a biorad mini-protean tgx stain-free gel) followed by western blotting using immobilon-fl polyvinylidene fluoride (pvdf) membranes (emd millipore). the membrane was first incubated with blocking buffer consist- ing of % milk powder in tris buffered saline (tbs, thermo scientific) without tween- , and then incubated with anti-cep ( : ; mouse polyclonal antibody raised against full-length human protein; h -b p; abnova) in blocking buffer consisting of % milk powder in tbs with . % tween- at °c overnight. after washes with tbs with . % tween- , blots were incubated with blocking buffer con- taining irdye cw goat anti-mouse igg (h+l) ( : ; mandel scientific) for min at room temperature. prior to imaging, blots were washed with tbs with . % tween- , fol- lowed by a -min incubation in tbs. mrfp-cep protein bands were detected with an odyssey fc imager (li-cor) and imaging was conducted with image studio v. . software (li-cor). results clinical features the family visited our genetics clinic with their first pregnancy after an ultrasound examination at weeks gestation showed anhydramnios, small dysplastic kidneys and hydranencephaly. the mother was years old and the antenatal history was unremarkable, with normal prenatal screening and no known teratogenic exposures. both parents had dutch-german mennonite ancestry, suggesting a possible degree of relatedness, but they were not aware of any consanguinity. the family history was otherwise non-contributory. this fetus was stillborn at weeks gestation (infant ). our fetal assessment unit fol- lowed three subsequent pregnancies from the first trimester. two of these fetuses were also found to have abnormalities similar to the first fetus and were each delivered in the third tri- mester; one male died within minutes of birth at weeks ges- tation (infant ) and the other male was stillborn at weeks gestation (infant ). frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ postmortem examination of all three affected children showed evidence of potter sequence including microretrognathia, limb contractures, single transverse palmar creases, fifth finger clino- dactyly, talipes equinovarus and pulmonary hypoplasia. we noted additional dysmorphisms that included a pinched nose with a bulbous tip, choanal narrowing, broad hands with a short fifth digit and cutaneous syndactyly of the toes with a wide first web space (see figure a and online supplement for detailed pathologic description). the two infants who had full autopsies ( and ) showed dysplastic aortic valves, dilated left ventricles and only vestigial remnants of renal tissue with a few glomeruli in a background of collagenous tissue. the third infant ( ) had an incomplete autopsy because advanced autolysis compromised tissue examination. all three had hydranencephaly with a normal head size relative to the rest of the body and cystic replacement of most of the neural tissue figure morphological and histological phenotypes of march syndrome. (a) postmortem photographs depicting consistent dysmorphology among the three infants. features secondary to potter deformation sequence are evident: microretrognathia, flattened face, fifth finger clinodactyly, single palmar creases, talipes equinovarus and proximal flexion contractures (not depicted here). also evident is a pinched nose with a bulbous tip, anteverted nares, choanal narrowing, small palpebral fissures, epicanthal folds (infant ), low set ears, shortened neck with redundant skin and microstomia. infant had a particularly small mouth with ankyloglossia. the hands show brachydactyly with tapered fingers and a shortened fifth finger. the feet show variable degrees of cutaneous (and in one case osseous) syndactyly with a wide first webspace. (b) in utero sonograms showing the progression of the hydranencephaly in infant . gestational age is in the upper corner of each photograph. a cystic hygroma is highlighted by the white arrowhead. (c) postmortem mri scan of infant . shown is a slightly off-sagittal view of the cranium depicting the almost complete absence of the cerebral hemispheres. the hypoplastic tissue in the frontotemporal region and from within the posterior fossa are evident. (d) postmortem view inside the cranial vault of infant . the view is from an occipital opening and the lack of most neural structures is evident. the top of the cerebellum and brainstem is visible as is the remnants of the frontotemporal lobes. (e) neun immunolabelling of frontal lobe sections at × magnification. a multinucleated neuron is highlighted by the strong neun staining. such neurons represent – % of the neurons amongst all sections. (f) glial fibrillary acidic protein (gfap) immunolabelling of a frontal lobe section at × magnification. multiple nuclei within a glial cell (astrocyte) are highlighted by black arrowheads. multinucleated glial cells tended to be less common than multinucleated neurons in all sections. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://jmg.bmj.com/ (figure b–d). the cerebellum, brain stem, basal nuclei and the basal portions of the temporal and frontal lobes were present, although hypoplastic. the bulk of the cerebral cortex was absent or reduced to islands of tissue attached to a leptomenin- geal sac (see online supplementary figure s . a, b). to assess pathology further, we conducted microscopic examination; these analyses showed that the temporal cortex was disorga- nised. approximately – % of neurons and glial cells were multinucleated in all regions of the brain (figure e, f) as well as in retroperitoneal sympathetic ganglia adjacent to the kidney tissue (see online supplementary figure s . b) and the ganglion cell layer of the retina (see online supplemental figure s . e). normal human brain, even at an early developmental stage, does not have such abnormal neurons, although they have been reported recently in association with a severe form of primary microcephaly caused by autosomal recessive mutations in cit, a gene involved in cytokinesis. we did not appreciate any evi- dence of infection, inflammation or vascular obstruction. several known syndromes have hydranencephaly as a rare feature, including cousin syndrome (omim# ), neu-laxova (omim# ) or roberts syndrome (omim # ). however, hydranencephaly is the primary feature only in proliferative vasculopathy and hydranencephaly- hydrocephaly syndrome (omim# ), microhydranence- phaly (omim# ) and hydranencephaly with abnormal genitalia (omim# ). none of these coincide clinically with our patients’ presentation due to the lack of vascular abnormalities in the brain; proportionate head size; normal genitalia; renal dysplasia and characteristic dysmorphic features. the closest match with our patients is a single case report of two male siblings with hydranencephaly and renal aplasia (omim# ). through further literature searches, we identified four more reports of infants with the combination of hydranencephaly and renal dysplasia/aplasia. – these nine reported infants all had remarkably similar phenotypes to our patients (table ); they all have hydranencephaly and eight of the nine have renal aplasia or severe renal dysplasia. one child had presumably functioning kidneys (given that he survived for more than month), but it is not clear whether there was renal dysplasia since he was not investigated in this respect. he likely has the same disorder, given that his sister had the full phenotype. of those patients with neuropathological examin- ation, a high incidence of multinucleated neurons was described. at least five of the infants had unusual feet, including large first web spaces and/or syndactyly. of the nine cases, two were singletons and seven were from families with two or three affected children each. four of the nine reported cases were female. combined with our family, these data argue strongly for an autosomal-recessive aetiology, particu- larly since our family is from a population with a strong founder effect, although we cannot definitively rule out alterna- tive aetiologies such as an x-linked inheritance or multiple inde- pendent genetic effects. we propose that this phenotype be known as march syndrome. gene identification we obtained postmortem dna samples from all three fetuses. an amnion sample from infant had a ,xy karyotype at band resolution. dna from infant that was extracted from cultured fibroblasts showed a normal chromosomal micro- array, ruling out the possibility of significant copy number abnormalities ( k oligoarray, combimatrix diagnostics, irvine, california, usa). given the high recurrence rate and degree of similarity between the affected children, we suspected a single-gene aetiology, probably through the inheritance of an ancestral mennonite founder allele. given an expectation of either homozygosity by descent or x-linked inheritance, we used snp genotyping to identify table clinical spectrum of march syndrome article hamby et al hamby et al strauss et al bendon et al bendon et al gschwendtner et al chu et al chu et al chu et al this study this study this study patient # # # # # # # # # sex f m m m m f f f m m m m mode of death sb nnd ta sb sb ta sb ta ta sb nnd sb hydranencephaly + + + + + + + + + + + + cerebellar hypoplasia + + + + + + + + multinucleated neurons + + + + + + + + + renal dysplasia + + + + + + + + + + + ureteral agenesis + + + + + + + + + + + pulmonary hypoplasia ± ± ± + + + + + + + oligohydramnios ± + + + + + + + + + + contractures ± + ± ± ± + + + + + + cystic hygroma + + + redundant neck skin + + + + + cutaneous syndactyly + + + + + + + wide first webspace + + + + + + brachydactyly + + + vertebral abnormalities + + + nnd, neonatal death; sb, stillborn; ta, therapeutic abortion. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://jmg.bmj.com/ candidate regions. all four siblings had multiple regions of homozygosity. total levels of homozygosity ranged from . % to . % of the genome, supporting our suspicion of distant relatedness due to founder effect. one region of . mb on chromosome showed segregation consistent with an autosomal-recessive disease model (figure a). in addition, there were two regions ( . and . mb) on the x chromo- some that showed segregation consistent with an x-linked disease model (figure b). next we performed exome sequencing on one of the affected infants. mean ccds coverage was x with % of bases covered by > reads. we identified ∼ variants that exceeded quality thresholds. filtering for rare non-synonymous/ splice variants (< . % based on variant frequencies from publicly available and in-house exome datasets) in the candidate regions identified (figure a, b), we narrowed the list to a single candi- date (figure c): a homozygous nonsense mutation in cep (rs , c. c>a, p.s x (nm_ . )). this variant has been reported previously in a large-scale variant identi- fication project in two separate individuals, both of whom were heterozygous (http://genome.sph.umich.edu/wiki/exome_chip_ design). the exac database reports an allele frequency of . % (january ). the variant maps to the final exon of the gene and is predicted to escape nonsense mediated decay, resulting in a truncation of amino acids at the c-terminus. orthologs from / primates and placental mammals show conservation of this region, especially three serine residues (s , s and s ), which have all been shown to be phosphory- lated, and are essential for the function of this protein. sanger sequencing in the family confirmed that the variant showed segregation consistent with autosomal-recessive inherit- ance (figure d). in an effort to identify additional variants that could contribute to the phenotype, we analysed the exome data using relaxed variant filtering (not shown). we included all regions that segregate under a compound heterozygous model and the frequency cut-offs were increased to < %. under these criteria, we only identified a single additional candidate gene, r hcc l (homozygous rs ). although we cannot exclude the possibility of involvement, it has not been implicated in human disease and the variant is unlikely to be pathogenic (cadd score . ). thus, cep remains the most likely candi- date molecular driver of disease. figure genetic analysis of the march syndrome pedigree. (a) circular ideogram of the genome (agile multiideogram; http://dna.leeds.ac.uk/). the outer circle represents the ideograms of chromosomes – . each inner circle represents homozygosity data from an individual from the family as marked. homozygous blocks are coloured in either grey (unaffected), red (affected but not present in all three affected siblings) or blue (present in all three affected siblings and not in unaffected). (b) segregation of the x chromosome in the four male siblings. areas that are common among the affected fetuses but not present in the unaffected are highlighted. (c) exome sequencing data from infant . the filtering parameters used to sort through the variant data set are shown. the most likely candidate disease-causing mutation is highlighted in the grey rectangle. (d) sanger sequencing data for the cep variant, showing traces bearing the mutation segregating in the family under an autosomal-recessive paradigm. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://genome.sph.umich.edu/wiki/exome_chip_design http://genome.sph.umich.edu/wiki/exome_chip_design http://genome.sph.umich.edu/wiki/exome_chip_design http://dna.leeds.ac.uk/ http://dna.leeds.ac.uk/ http://jmg.bmj.com/ cep expression most reported functional studies on cep have been per- formed either in cell culture or in tumour tissue. – to investigate the spatiotemporal expression of cep , with emphasis on the developing human brain, we interrogated the brainspan transcriptome database for cep mrna levels in the human brain during different time points of gestation. the highest levels of cep expression were in fetuses – weeks gestation, with a decline by weeks and minimally detectable levels by weeks, which continued into adulthood. this corresponds to the timing of asymmetric cell division to produce neurons from neural progenitor cells destined for the neocortex and basal nuclei. structures with the highest expres- sion included the ganglionic eminence and occipital cortex, fol- lowed by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. lowest levels (approximately / of highest values) were in the cerebellum and inferolateral temporal cortex, which we note to be regions of the brain spared from the major destructive process in our patients. we derived a fibroblast cell line from infant and studied the expression of cep (figure a). we conducted rt-pcr and detected cep mrna expression, although it was decreased compared with a normal control, suggesting reduced, but not extinguished, mrna stability (figure b). there was no evidence of splicing abnormalities and the mutant transcript could be detected by sequencing (figure c). we attempted to perform immunohistochemical and western blot analysis of cep in normal human tissue as well as samples obtained from the affected fetuses at autopsy using multiple commercial antibodies. we had significant difficulty obtaining reliable staining with most of these antibodies. we provide a detailed discussion of these experiments in online supplement given the implications for future work involving cep . modelling the effect of cep truncation in vivo to investigate the relevance of cep disruption to the hall- mark features of march syndrome, we targeted the sole cep ortholog in zebrafish (cep l). a recent report showed that cep l is expressed near-ubiquitously in developing zebra- fish embryos, and that either transient suppression or stable mutation of cep l leads to gross developmental defects likely due to altered akt stability. notably, these homozygous mutants display cell cycle dysregulation and massive apoptosis in anterior structures subsequent to the depletion of maternal transcript. to complement these studies, and to test the patho- genic potential of p.s x, we first obtained two mos that target the splice donor sites of cep l exons and (sb and sb , respectively; online supplementary figure s . a). first, we confirmed that both mos reduce endogenous cep l message. we injected ng of each mo into zebrafish embryos at the one-to-two-cell stage, harvested rna at dpf and evaluated cep l splicing near mo target sites with rt-pcr. for each of sb and sb , we observed a reduction of detectable quantities of wt cep l message in morphants, likely due to mo-induced aberrant splicing that introduced premature termination codons (see online supplementary figure s . b). figure cep expression studies in fibroblasts from a march syndrome patient. (a) schematic of cep . cep mrna transcript (nm_ . ) and the encoded protein (np_ . ), indicating two polymorphisms (black) and the nonsense mutation detected in this study (red). the regions that were amplified using rt-pcr are indicated (fragments i, ii and iii). polymorphisms rs and rs are common (allele frequencies of . and . , respectively) based on the exac browser ( january ). (b) cep mrna expression is lower in patient-derived fibroblasts compared with control fibroblasts. shown are rt-pcr fragments involving (i) exon – ( bp), (ii) exon – ( bp), (iii) exon – ( bp) and (iv) control (gapdh) expression ( bp). cdna input for each pcr was twofold in the patient compared with the control to equalise gapdh expression. (c) sanger sequences of fragment i of the patient and a healthy control from position c. to c. . the asterisk indicates the position of the stop mutation c. c>a, resulting in p.s x. there are no indications that this mutation induces aberrant splicing. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://jmg.bmj.com/ although cep l mutant zebrafish display a constellation of gross anatomical abnormalities, we characterised further these defects in the cell and tissue types relevant to march syn- drome. we have shown previously that automated fluorescent imaging of live - . col a :egfp zebrafish larvae can demarcate structures in the pharyngeal skeleton, while enabling quantitative assessment of altered craniofacial morphology in zebrafish models of human disease. we injected zebrafish embryo batches with increasing doses of cep l sb and sb and acquired ventral images of gfp-positive cells at dpf (see online supplementary figure s . c). we observed a significant and dose-dependent increase in cartilage disorganisation, as figure transient suppression or crispr/cas mediated genome-editing of cep l results in craniofacial, neurological and renal abnormalities in zebrafish. (a) representative live ventral views of dpf - . col a :egfp larvae showing craniofacial structures. cep l f mutants or sb morphant larvae show significantly broader ceratohyal (ch) angles compared with controls. (b) plot indicates the measurement of the ceratohyal angle (as shown in panel a). rna injected alone shows no effect. larvae injected with sb or sgrna+cas display significantly increased ceratohyal angle compared with controls. this phenotype can be rescued with coinjection of sb and wild-type (wt) (p.h -rna) or p.l -rna. sb +s x rna does not rescue significantly. n= – embryos/injection; repeated. (c) dpf larvae stained for acetylated tubulin show hypoplasia of brain regions, including the cerebellum and optic tecta. box and zoomed image indicate the cerebellum; asterisks (*) indicate optic tecta. (d) plot indicates the quantification of the total area (mm ) of the cerebellum at dpf, as indicated by orange outline in the control and sb insets of (c). n= – embryos/injection; repeated. (e) larvae fixed at dpf and stained for na+/k+atpase are shown (lateral view; zoomed image represents the proximal convoluted tubule; outline indicates the area quantified in (f). embryos injected with cep sb or sgrna + cas display proximal tubules of decreased area (mm ) and decreased presence of convolutions compared with control embryos. (f) plot indicates the total area (mm ) of the proximal tubule in dpf larvae; n= – embryos/injection, repeated. *, **, *** and **** indicate p< . , . , . and . respectively. ns, not significant. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://jmg.bmj.com/ quantified by the angle of the ceratohyal cartilage. both mos produced similar micrognathia phenotypes and could be rescued significantly with co-injection of wt human cep message (figure a, b and online supplementary figure s . d, e; repeated, with masked scoring). next, we fixed and immunostained sb mo-injected larvae to evaluate brain structures at dpf. demarcation of the axon tracts using an anti-acetylated α-tubulin antibody revealed a significant reduction in the size of brain structures. similar to the cerebellar hypoplasia observed in march cases, we saw an ∼ % reduction in dorsal cerebellar area of cep l morphants in comparison to controls (p< . ; figure c, d). to deter- mine whether cep l morphants display renal atrophy, we marked the renal tubules of dpf larval batches with anti-na +/k+ atpase antibody. we observed a significant reduction in the lateral area and convolution of the proximal tubule in sb mo-injected batches (p< . ; figure e, f). importantly, each of the brain and renal phenotypes could also be rescued sig- nificantly by co-injection of mo with capped human cep mrna. finally, on the cellular level, we reproduced the previ- ously reported and apparently normal m-phase marker staining (phospho-histone h ) with concomitant apoptosis in cep l sb morphants (see online supplementary figure s . a–d and ref. ). to confirm further that the observed anatomical and cellular phenotypes were specific, we targeted the zebrafish cep l locus with crispr/cas genome-editing and repeated a subset of phe- notyping measures. consistent with the transient cep l model, f mutants displayed altered craniofacial patterning with a sig- nificantly more obtuse ceratohyal angle than controls (p< . ), and atrophy of the proximal renal tubules (p= . vs. controls). a next-generation sequencing approach estimated that targeted mutation was present in as much as % of cells sequenced from dpf embryos, but decreased to – % by dpf (see online supplementary figure s . f, g). the most likely explanation for the reduction is apoptosis in cells with cep l disruption, which is supported by tunel assay at dpf (see ref. and online supplementary figure s . c, d). prompted by the observations that cep mrna harbouring p.s x was detectable by rt-pcr from patient tissue and is predicted to produce a truncated protein, we carried out in vivo complementation assays to determine variant pathogenicity. first, we confirmed our assay specificity by comparing the rescue efficiency of human wt message (encoding p.h ) to that of message encoding a common variant at the same amino acid position, which was also identified in the affected fetuses (p.l ; rs , allele frequency . in exac). for each of the craniofacial (ceratohyal angle measurement) and cerebel- lar area phenotyping approaches, we observed that cep p.l also rescued the sb mo defects significantly (p< . ; both phenotypes, respectively; figure b, d). however, co-injection of sb mo with cep mrna harbour- ing the p.s x variant produced jaw phenotypes that were sig- nificantly worse than wt mrna (p.h or p.l ) but not significantly different from mo alone (figure b). the trend was similar in the cerebellar assay, but significant only for the p. l encoding mrna (figure d). taken together, our cep l transient and f mutant data show relevance of gene disruption to the primary clinical features of march syndrome and indi- cate that the cep is a functional null variant. subcellular localisation previous studies have shown that cep localises to the centri- ole during interphase and to the midbody on the intracellular bridge between two daughter cells during cytokinesis. abnormal phosphorylation at the c-terminus of the protein pre- vents the association with the midbody and causes abscission failure. the mutation identified in our patients (c. c>a; p.s x) is predicted to truncate the protein, causing a loss of all three key phosphorylated serines. we hypothesised that the patient mutation would lead to a similar mislocalisation of cep . to test this idea, we transfected cos- cells with four different full-length cdna cep constructs that contain an mrfp tag. these constructs encode wt mrfp-cep , mutant mrfp-cep (p.s x) or mrfp-cep with a common polymorphism (p.h q, minor allele frequency . in exac; or p.h l) (figure a, b). at hours or hours post trans- fection, we examined protein localisation. as expected, wt and polymorphism-containing mrfp-cep , but not the s x-encoding mutant localise to the midbody in dividing cells. on western blot with anti-cep antibody, either wt or polymorphism-containing mrfp-cep migrate to the expected size ( kda), while mutant cep is truncated ( kda; figure c); these observations support our imaging studies and together suggest that the last amino acids of cep are essential for targeting cep to the midbody of divi- ding cells. discussion here we report the identification of a homozygous truncating mutation in cep as the likely cause of a new perinatal lethal syndrome we term march. the genetic data that led to the identification of the cep mutation is from a single family, and therefore, it is difficult to rule out the possibility of multiple genetic effects leading to this phenotype. however, our func- tional data strongly support cep as the sole contributor to this complex condition. cep encodes, a amino acid peptide that contains three central coiled-coil domains. cep is an essential regulator of the final stages of mitosis; in cultured fibroblasts, the protein localises to the centrosome and pericentriolar matrix during most of the cell cycle but diffuses throughout the cell at the onset of mitosis (prophase). later in mitosis (anaphase/telo- phase) cep aggregates at the midzone, where cell separation will eventually take place. during cytokinesis, it is concentrated in the midbody, the protein complex present in the cytoplasmic bridge between the two daughter cells. there, it recruits the endosome sorting complex required for transport machinery, and other components involved in membrane fission, to promote the formation of the cleavage furrow and eventually induce abscission of the two cells. the disassociation of cep from the centriole appears to be dependent on phos- phorylation of the two c-terminal serines, p.s and p.s , by the protein kinases erk and cdk . subsequently, myotu- bularin proteins connect cep to another protein kinase, plk , which phosphorylates cep at p.s . this stabilises the protein and leads to its orderly introduction into the midbody. if either of these phosphorylation events does not occur then cytokinesis fails with mitosis taking place but the daughter cells being unable to separate, leading to a binucleated cell. we show that the nonsense mutation (c. c>a; p.s x) identified in our family likely truncates cep . in cell culture experiments, the truncated version of cep does not localise to the midbody during cytokinesis. given the loss of the three phosphorylated residues, our data suggest the presence of multi- nucleated cells in the affected fetuses is a consequence of failed cytokinesis. we also show that cep l knockdown and crispr/ frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://dx.doi.org/ . /jmedgenet- - http://jmg.bmj.com/ cas mutation in zebrafish recapitulates most key features of the syndrome: we reproduce the cellular apoptosis and neurological abnormalities reported previously in zebrafish f mutants har- bouring a homozygous c. c>t; p.e x mutation; we quan- tify further the cerebellar, renal and craniofacial features of our cep l zebrafish models; and show that these phenotypes can be rescued by full length, but not truncated human cep mrna. it is possible that the lack of overt hydranencephaly in zebrafish morphants or mutants is due to interspecies differences, particu- larly with regard to brain development and anatomy. the mechanism by which this nonsense mutation in cep ultimately leads to such a dramatic human neurological phenotype remains incompletely understood. we know that there are large numbers of multinucleated cells in what remains of the patient brain tissue, suggesting that abscission failure likely plays some part in the creation of this anomaly. it is not clear how the production of multinucleated neurons along with a potential migration abnormality would induce such wide- spread cell death in the cerebral hemispheres. one potential mechanism is through suppressed pi k/akt signalling as this pathway has been found previously to be downregulated in zeb- rafish with absent cep function. previous work has shown that activation of the pi k/akt pathway protects against cere- bral ischaemic damage in animal models and protects cultured figure subcellular localisation of cep . (a) confocal images show midbody localisation of wild-type and polymorphism (p.h q or p.h l) containing monomeric red fluorescent protein (mrfp)-cep in cos- cells. mutant mrfp-cep (p.s x) did not localise to the midbody in transfected cells. a representative image of dividing cells is shown for each condition, and a magnification of the intracellular bridges is provided underneath each image. α-tubulin (green) marks mitotic bridges and nuclei were stained with dapi (blue). mrfp-cep is shown in red. scale bars represent μm. (b) histogram showing the localisation of mrfp-tagged cep proteins in cos- cells following and -hour transfections, respectively. wild-type mrfp-cep and mrfp-cep with polymorphisms p.h q or p.h l localised to the midbody near the end of cytokinesis, while the mutant (p.s x) did not. the differences between wild-type, polymorphisms and mutant conditions were significant (p< . ). the number of mitotic cells that were counted for the -hour transfection are n= (wild-type), n= (p.s x), n= (p.h q) and n= (p.h l). the number of mitotic cells analysed in the -hour transfection are n= (wild-type), n= (p.s x), n= (p.h q) and n= (p.h l). the -hour and -hour transfections were performed in duplicate. (c) western blot analysis of mrfp-cep in cos- cells. lower bands (indicated by *) show the expected sizes: kda for mrfp-fused wild-type cep and cep with polymorphisms, and kda for the mutant protein. no cep expression was detected in cells transfected with the empty vector. the origin of the higher band evident in the first four lanes is unclear. one potential explanation is a post-translational modification of the tagged cep occurring in cos- cells. frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jmg.bmj.com/ neurons against hypoxic and excitotoxic injury. – a similar pathway is involved in ischaemic damage to kidney. deficient pi k/akt signalling may thus help explain the destructive fea- tures in the brains of the fetuses affected with march. interference with the pi k/akt signalling pathway by virtue of mutant cep could allow ischaemic-type damage in vulnerable organs, such as the parts of the brain with distal circulation, thereby leading to destruction of the cerebrum with resultant hydranencephaly. in summary, we report a novel human phenotype that com- bines hydranencephaly, renal dysplasia, multinucleated neurons, syndactyly and characteristic dysmorphism that we have named march syndrome. we provide evidence that it is caused by autosomal-recessive loss-of-function mutation in cep , a gene not associated previously with human disease. our data provide insight into the developmental functions of cep particularly as it relates to brain development. future directions in our research include exploring the role of cep in the creation of new neurons and understanding how pi k/ akt may be involved in hydranencephaly in this syndrome and other conditions that include this anomaly. we propose that both measuring akt activity in animal models of this dis- order, and also testing the hypothesis that amelioration of akt signalling might improve some of the observed neuroanatom- ical defects will provide further insight into the basis of this syndrome. author affiliations departments of pediatrics and child health, university of manitoba, manitoba, canada departments of biochemistry and medical genetics, university of manitoba, manitoba, canada departments of biochemistry, university of western ontario, london, ontario, canada department of human genetics, radboudumc, nijmegen, the netherlands center for human disease modeling, duke university medical center, durham, north carolina, usa mcgill university and genome quebec innovation centre, montreal, quebec, canada departments of medicine, university of western ontario, london, ontario, canada departments of pathology, university of manitoba, manitoba, canada diagnostic services manitoba, manitoba, canada acknowledgements the authors thank the family for agreeing to allow them to publish this research. they also acknowledge the contribution of the high-throughput sequencing platform of the mcgill university and genome quebec innovation centre and the centre for applied genomics, toronto, canada, for snp genotyping. they further thank h. almadhoun, s.m. farhan, j. wang, m. ban, j. robinson, j. samsoondar, c. o’neil, v. ly, and x. mao for technical assistance and/or discussions, s. phillips for postmortem examination, r. roepman for vectors, g. pickering for use of laboratory equipment, v.m. siu for her ethics contribution, and l. gyenis and d.w. litchfield for scientific input. collaborators forge canada consortium (forge steering committee membership is listed in supplement ) canadian rare diseases: models & mechanisms network (canadian rare diseases: models & mechanisms network committee memberships are listed in supplement ). contributors pf and hha contributed equally. pf provided clinical care, designed the study, performed homozygosity mapping and wrote the initial manuscript. hha and rh performed confocal microscopy, rt-pcr, aided in study design and contributed to manuscript preparation. jp, csg, cr and ypl performed zebrafish experiments and contributed to manuscript preparation. elb performed confocal microscopy, rt-pcr, and contributed to manuscript preparation. bc provided clinical care and contributed to manuscript preparation. ls performed variant validation and contributed to manuscript preparation. jm and sf provided bioinformatics support and contributed to the manuscript preparation. forge and rdmm are consortia that supported the study and members were involved in gene identification, connecting the collaborating authors and providing feedback on the manuscript. nk and eed designed the zebrafish experiments, aided in overall study design and contributed to manuscript preparation. cg and mrdb performed neuropathological analysis, immunohistochemistry, western blotting and contributed to manuscript preparation. funding this work was supported in part by the forge canada consortium and a catalyst grant from the canadian rare diseases: models & mechanisms network (rdmm). both of these initiatives are funded through grants from the canadian institutes of health research (cihr) and genome canada with additional funding for forge being provided by the ontario genomics institute, genome quebec, genome british columbia, and the mclaughlin centre. this work was also supported by us nih grants dk , dk and hd (nk); dk and dk (nk and eed). pf received support from the rare disease foundation and the b.c. children’s hospital foundation (p# ). hha also received support from the netherlands organization for scientific research (nwo veni- ) and the dutch kidney foundation (cp . ‘kouncil’). mrdb is supported through the canada research chair in developmental neuropathology. csg was supported by a summer studentship from the children’s hospital research institute of manitoba. nk is a distinguished jean and george brumley professor. competing interests none declared. patient consent obtained. ethics approval university of manitoba. university of manitoba, university of ottawa, university of western ontario, and mcgill university. provenance and peer review not commissioned; externally peer reviewed. open access this is an open access article distributed in accordance with the creative commons attribution non commercial (cc by-nc . ) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. see: http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc/ . / references dixon a. hydranencephaly. radiography ; : – . stevenson re, hall jg. hydranencephaly. in: stevenson re, hall jg, eds. human malformations and related anomalies. oxford monographs on medical genetics. usa: oxford university press, : . najafzadeh tm, reinisch l, dumars kw. etiologic heterogeneity in hydranencephaly. birth defects orig artic ser ; : – . cecchetto g, milanese l, giordano r, viero a, suma v, manara r. looking at the missing brain: hydranencephaly case series and literature review. pediatr neurol ; : – . jeffery j, sinha d, srihari s, kalimutho m, khanna kk. beyond cytokinesis: the emerging roles of cep in tumorigenesis. oncogene ; : – . jeffery j, neyt c, moore w, paterson s, bower ni, chenevix-trench g, verkade h, hogan bm, khanna kk. cep regulates embryonic growth and development by promoting akt stability in zebrafish. faseb j ; : – . carr im, diggle cp, touqan n, anwar r, sheridan eg, bonthron dt, johnson ca, ali m, markham af. identification of autosomal recessive disease loci using out-bred nuclear families. hum mutat ; : – . carr im, flintoff kj, taylor gr, markham af, bonthron dt. interactive visual analysis of snp data for rapid autozygosity mapping in consanguineous families. hum mutat ; : – . dyment da, smith ac, alcantara d, schwartzentruber ja, basel-vanagaite l, curry cj, temple ik, reardon w, mansour s, haq mr, gilbert r, lehmann oj, vanstone mr, beaulieu cl, forge canada consortium, majewski j, bulman de, o’driscoll m, boycott km, innes am. mutations in pik r cause short syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . kague e, gallagher m, burke s, parsons m, franz-odendaal t, fisher s. skeletogenic fate of zebrafish cranial and trunk neural crest. plos one ; :e . montague tg, cruz jm, gagnon ja, church gm, valen e. chopchop: a crispr/ cas and talen web tool for genome editing. nucleic acids res ; (web server issue):w – . jao le, wente sr, chen w. efficient multiplex biallelic zebrafish genome editing using a crispr nuclease system. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . chen c, khaleel ss, huang h, wu ch. software for pre-processing illumina next-generation sequencing short read sequences. source code biol med ; : . ecollection . pinello l, canver mc, hoban md, orkin sh, kohn db, bauer de, yuan gc. analyzing crispr genome-editing experiments with crispresso. nat biotechnol ; : – . isrie m, breuss m, tian g, hansen ah, cristofoli f, morandell j, kupchinsky za, sifrim a, rodriguez-rodriguez cm, dapena ep, doonanco k, leonard n, tinsa f, moortgat s, ulucan h, koparir e, karaca e, katsanis n, marton v, vermeesch jr, davis ee, cowan nj, keays da, van esch h. mutations in either tubb or mapre cause circumferential skin creases kunze type. am j hum genet ; : – . golzio c, willer j, talkowski me, oh ec, taniguchi y, jacquemont s, reymond a, sun m, sawa a, gusella jf, kamiya a, beckmann js, katsanis n. kctd is a major driver of mirrored neuroanatomical phenotypes of the p . copy number variant. nature ; : – . frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.pediatrneurol. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /onc. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /fj. - http://dx.doi.org/ . /humu. http://dx.doi.org/ . /humu. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://dx.doi.org/ . /nar/gku http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . / - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /nbt. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /nature http://jmg.bmj.com/ brooks ss, wall al, golzio c, reid dw, kondyles a, willer jr, botti c, nicchitta cv, katsanis n, davis ee. a novel ribosomopathy caused by dysfunction of rpl disrupts neurodevelopment and causes x-linked microcephaly in humans. genetics ; : – . drummond ia, davidson aj. zebrafish kidney development. methods cell biol ; : – . lindstrand a, davis ee, carvalho cm, pehlivan d, willer jr, tsai ic, ramanathan s, zuppan c, sabo a, muzny d, gibbs r, liu p, lewis ra, banin e, lupski jr, clark r, katsanis n. recurrent cnvs and snvs at the nphp locus contribute pathogenic alleles to bardet-biedl syndrome. am j hum genet ; : – . niederriter ar, davis ee, golzio c, oh ec, tsai ic, katsanis n. in vivo modeling of the morbid human genome using danio rerio. j vis exp ;( ):e . roepman r, letteboer sj, arts hh, van beersum se, lu x, krieger e, ferreira pa, cremers fp. interaction of nephrocystin- and rpgrip is disrupted by nephronophthisis or leber congenital amaurosis-associated mutations. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . lahiry p, lee lj, frey bj, rupar ca, siu vm, blencowe bj, hegele ra. transcriptional profiling of endocrine cerebro-osteodysplasia using microarray and next-generation sequencing. plos one ; :e . harding bn, moccia a, drunat s, soukarieh o, tubeuf h, chitty ls, verloes a, gressens p, el ghouzzi v, joriot s, di cunto f, martins a, passemard s, bielas sl. mutations in citron kinase cause recessive microlissencephaly with multinucleated neurons. am j hum genet ; : – . bendon rw, siddiqi t, de courten-myers g, dignan p. recurrent developmental anomalies: . syndrome of hydranencephaly with renal aplastic dysplasia; . polyvalvular developmental heart defect. am j med genet suppl ; : – . gschwendtner a, mairinger t, soelder e, alge a, kreczy a. hydranencephaly with renal dysgenesis: a coincidental finding? case report with review of the literature. gynecol obstet invest ; : – . hamby wb, krauss rf, beswick wf. hydranencephaly; clinical diagnosis; presentation of cases. pediatrics ; : – . strauss s, bouzouki m, goldfarb h, uppal v, costales f. antenatal ultrasound diagnosis of an unusual case of hydranencephaly. j clin ultrasound ; : – . chu gc, miller wa, norton m, kinney hc, genest d, folkerth rd. hydranencephaly with binucleate neurons-renal dysplasia-syndactyly syndrome in three siblings (abstract). j neuropathol exp neurol ; : . orton nc, innes am, chudley ae, bech-hansen nt. unique disease heritage of the dutch-german mennonite population. am j med genet a ; a: – . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajmg.a. schweingruber c, rufener sc, zünd d, yamashita a, muhlemann o. nonsense-mediated mrna decay—mechanisms of substrate mrna recognition and degradation in mammalian cells. biochim biophys acta ; : – . fabbro m, zhou bb, takahashi m, sarcevic b, lal p, graham me, gabrielli bg, robinson pj, nigg ea, ono y, khanna kk. cdk /erk - and plk -dependent phosphorylation of a centrosome protein, cep , is required for its recruitment to midbody and cytokinesis. dev cell ; : – . van der horst a, simmons j, khanna kk. cep stabilization is required for normal execution of cytokinesis. cell cycle ; : – . kircher m, witten dm, jain p, o’roak bj, cooper gm, shendure j. a general framework for estimating the relative pathogenicity of human genetic variants. nat genet ; : – . bastos rn, barr fa. plk negatively regulates cep recruitment to the midbody to ensure orderly abscission. j cell biol ; : – . chang yc, wu ch, yen tc, ouyang p. centrosomal protein (cep ) stability is negatively regulated by p protein through polo-like kinase (plk ). j biol chem ; : – . inoda s, hirohashi y, torigoe t, nakatsugawa m, kiriyama k, nakazawa e, harada k, takasu h, tamura y, kamiguchi k, asanuma h, tsuruma t, terui t, ishitani k, ohmura t, wang q, greene mi, hasegawa t, hirata k, sato n. cep /c orf , a tumor antigen derived from a centrosome residing protein in breast carcinoma. j immunother ; : – . zhao wm, seki a, fang g. cep , a microtubule-bundling protein, associates with centralspindlin to control the midbody integrity and cell abscission during cytokinesis. mol biol cell ; : – . van der horst a, khanna kk. the peptidyl-prolyl isomerase pin regulates cytokinesis through cep . cancer res ; : – . brainspan: atlas of the developing human brain [internet]. funded by arra awards rc mh - , rc mh - , and rc mh - . . http://developinghumanbrain.org stiles j, jernigan tl. the basics of brain development. neuropsychol rev ; : – . magini p, pippucci t, tsai ic, coppola s, stellacci e, bartoletti-stella a, turchetti d, graziano c, cenacchi g, neri i, cordelli dm, marchiani v, bergamaschi r, gasparre g, neri g, mazzanti l, patrizi a, franzoni e, romeo g, bordo d, tartaglia m, katsanis n, seri m. a mutation in pak with a dual molecular effect deregulates the ras/mapk pathway and drives an x-linked syndromic phenotype. hum mol genet ; : – . margolin dh, kousi m, chan ym, lim et, schmahmann jd, hadjivassiliou m, hall je, adam i, dwyer a, plummer l, aldrin sv, o’rourke j, kirby a, lage k, milunsky a, milunsky jm, chan j, hedley-whyte et, daly mj, katsanis n, seminara sb. ataxia, dementia, and hypogonadotropism caused by disordered ubiquitination. n engl j med ; : – . martinez-garay i, rustom a, gerdes hh, kutsche k. the novel centrosomal associated protein cep is present in the spindle midzone and the midbody. genomics ; : – . morita e, colf la, karren ma, sandrin v, rodesch ck, sundquist wi. human escrt-iii and vps proteins are required for centrosome and spindle maintenance. proc natl acad sci usa ; : – . agromayor m, martin-serrano j. knowing when to cut and run: mechanisms that control cytokinetic abscission. trends cell biol ; : – . st-denis n, gupta gd, lin zy, gonzalez-badillo b, pelletier l, gingras ac. myotubularin-related proteins and interact with polo-like kinase and centrosomal protein of kda to ensure proper abscission. mol cell proteomics ; : – . tsai cy, chen ch, chang ay, chan jy, chan sh. upregulation of flj , a pi k- association protein, in rostral ventrolateral medulla impairs brain stem cardiovascular regulation during mevinphos intoxication. biochem pharmacol ; : – . luo t, liu g, ma h, lu b, xu h, wang y, wu j, ge p, liang j. inhibition of autophagy via activation of pi k/akt pathway contributes to the protection of ginsenoside rb against neuronal death caused by ischemic insults. int j mol sci ; : – . zhang l, qu y, tang j, chen d, fu x, mao m, mu d. pi k/akt signaling pathway is required for neuroprotection of thalidomide on hypoxic-ischemic cortical neurons in vitro. brain res ; : – . satake a, takaoka m, nishikawa m, yuba m, shibata y, okumura k, kitano k, tsutsui h, fujii k, kobuchi s, ohkita m, matsumura y. protective effect of beta-estradiol on ischemic acute renal failure through the pi k/akt/enos pathway. kidney int ; : – . frosk p, et al. j med genet ; : – . doi: . /jmedgenet- - new loci o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://jm g .b m j.co m / j m e d g e n e t: first p u b lish e d a s . /jm e d g e n e t- - o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://dx.doi.org/ . /genetics. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /b - - - - . - http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . / http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . /journal.pone. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /jcu. &nbsp;http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajmg.a. &nbsp;http://dx.doi.org/ . /ajmg.a. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.bbagrm. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.devcel. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /cc. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ng. http://dx.doi.org/ . /ng. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jcb. http://dx.doi.org/ . /jbc.m . http://dx.doi.org/ . /cji. b e a d http://dx.doi.org/ . /mbc.e - - http://dx.doi.org/ . / - .can- - http://developinghumanbrain.org http://developinghumanbrain.org http://dx.doi.org/ . /s - - - http://dx.doi.org/ . /hmg/ddu http://dx.doi.org/ . /hmg/ddu http://dx.doi.org/ . /nejmoa http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ygeno. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /pnas. http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tcb. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /mcp.m . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.bcp. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /ijms http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.brainres. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /sj.ki. http://jmg.bmj.com/ 	a truncating mutation in cep is the likely cause of march, a novel syndrome affecting neuronal mitosis 	abstract 	introduction 	methods 	patient material 	genetic mapping 	exome sequencing 	rna isolation from patient cells and expression studies using rt-pcr 	transient gene suppression in zebrafish embryos 	crispr/cas genome editing of cep l 	ngs library preparation and sequencing for crispr/cas outcomes 	automated zebrafish imaging 	whole mount tunel and immunostaining 	molecular cloning and site-directed mutagenesis 	cell culture, transfections and subcellular localisation 	western blotting 	results 	clinical features 	gene identification 	cep expression 	modelling the effect of cep truncation in vivo 	subcellular localisation 	discussion 	references chapter : stories of helping in the aftermath of katrina all rights reserved ©, adele baruch, daniel creek ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : narrative works issues, investigations, & interventions chapter stories of helping in the aftermath of katrina adele baruch et daniel creek special issue: a narrative works monograph. listening to stories of courage and moral choice: creating conversations about inclusive care in our schools and communities volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) centre for interdisciplinary research on narrative, st. thomas university issn - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article baruch, a. & creek, d. ( ). chapter : stories of helping in the aftermath of katrina. narrative works, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article the special circumstances related to helping in the aftermath of hurricane katrina—both a natural disaster and a man-made catastrophe—are explored. stories of individual, formal, and informal networks of helping, alongside stories of exploitation and despair, were shared by participants. significant to the history of the aftermath of katrina was the eventual formalizing of some of the informal helping networks, such as the establishment of a musician’s village and performance center in the th ward of new orleans. the theme of “doing the right thing” echoed throughout our participant interviews, as did “the chance to move beyond angry.” stories of helping appeared to provide examples of hope to the citizens affected by the storm, as well as encouragement towards purposeful action. the stories of helping, along with participation in altruistic social networks, appear to provide a pathway to the recollection and transformation of traumatic memories. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/nw/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/nw/ -v -n -nw / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/nw/ narrative works: issues, investigations, & interventions ( ), – © adele baruch, robert atkinson, & holly khiel, contact: adele.baruchrunyon@maine.edu lliisstteenniinngg ttoo ssttoorriieess ooff ccoouurraaggee aanndd mmoorraall cchhooiiccee creating conversations about inclusive care in our schools and communities edited by adele baruch, robert atkinson, and holly khiel special issue: a narrative works monograph chapter stories of helping in the aftermath of katrina adele baruch & daniel creek university of southern maine the special circumstances related to helping in the aftermath of hurricane katrina—both a natural disaster and a man-made catastrophe—are explored. stories of individual, formal, and informal networks of helping, alongside stories of exploitation and despair, were shared by participants. significant to the history of the aftermath of katrina was the eventual formalizing of some of the informal helping networks, such as the establishment of a musician’s village and performance center in the th ward of new orleans. the theme of “doing the right thing” echoed throughout our participant interviews, as did “the chance to move beyond angry.” stories of helping appeared to provide examples of hope to the citizens affected by the storm, as well as encouragement towards purposeful action. the stories of helping, along with participation in altruistic social networks, appear to provide a pathway to the recollection and transformation of traumatic memories. keywords: helping networks, man-made catastrophe, the right thing, transformation baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter there are both similarities and dramatic differences between the stories of helping in the aftermath of katrina and of helping during the holocaust. the first and most obvious difference is that, while thousands suffered oppression and discrimination in the aftermath of katrina (with whole neighborhoods and hospitals left behind in large-scale rescue efforts), basic individual rights were still protected by law. while thousands were literally trapped by catastrophic weather conditions, helping those individuals was not forbidden by the state, and those who helped did not fear for their lives and their family’s lives because of their acts of providing help. katrina was a natural disaster and a man-made catastrophe, compounded by neglect and by a callous and uneven response, but it was not a calculated extermination. however, helping was frequently dangerous, at least in the immediate aftermath. trent angers ( ) tells a moving story of doug bienvenu, who used his airboat to rescue victims in neighborhoods deemed too dangerous to enter by the local government (pp. - ). roger, a participant who helped with the red cross in the week just after the hurricane, described confrontations with gun-wielding angry residents. since all of the victims of this man-made and natural disaster remained free citizens, there is an added dimension to these stories. the reciprocity in response to being helped was fairly immediate instead of occurring years later when freedom was attained. additionally, news of helping traveled very quickly in both formal and informal networks. bob, a teacher and resident of southern mississippi, tells stories of working on a food distribution truck with a man from spain, who claimed to be royalty who garnered local media attention by helping while stranded in mississippi. those who helped constantly heard stories of informal and formal networks of helping. those stories were immediate and highly visible, and they continued for many weeks and months after the hurricane. additionally, a natural disaster can be an equalizer of sorts. while many neighborhoods were discriminated against and essentially left to suffer, those who might ordinarily live with great privilege were also left homeless with unresponsive insurance companies and little formal help for many weeks. out of this suffering, however, arose networks of helping. one respondent described the social interaction as, “the way life should be,” with neighbors checking on and helping neighbors, not diverted by other kinds of demands or interests. it is worth noting that the devastation and the helping response played out differently in different regions across the gulf coast. narrative works ( ) however, while the interviewees for this study came from different regions (two from new orleans, one from rural mississippi, one from western florida, and one from new england who volunteered for several weeks in new orleans), each talked about stories of helping from both formal and informal networks of individuals. the formal networks were extremely diverse, from the national guard, to the mennonite community, to the red cross. informal networks of helping sprang up among artists, coworkers, women in public assistance, and neighbors, among many other groups. our informants did not want to sugarcoat the response engendered by the catastrophic conditions. along with stories of helping, there were also stories of violence and exploitation demonstrating staub’s ( ) central hypothesis that we are all capable of both great evil and great goodness, and it is worth examining the conditions that engender both extremes. since the effects of the aftermath of katrina continued for many years, it was possible to observe the formalization of informal helping networks. for example, artists and musicians worked with habitat for humanity to create the ongoing community of a musician’s village in the th ward of new orleans, anchored by a donated multipurpose performance center. interviewees spoke about being influenced by the stories of helping they heard and witnessed. melody described a “spark” that was created when she heard stories of helping. bob describes an experience in the early days after katrina: “i saw the red cross trucks . . . . i went to get a meal for myself and in that truck, i saw my neighbor. i asked him what he was doing there, and he said that he volunteered . . . and i realized, ‘this is what i want to do.’ . . . i spent all my days on emergency vehicles.” the stories and his experiences changed bob’s view of people and their potential: but seeing people come together, volunteering . . . changed my perspective on people. . . . to know we are eight hours away to be able to go to what life was intended to be like . . . one’s “stuff” is not in the way. . . . there is really something special about the human spirit. . . . we think we need more stuff to make us happy, but it takes us away from each other. monroe ( , ) has observed that a helping identity influences the choice to act with courage. she has also noted, however, names of interviewees have been changed to protect confidentiality. baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter that “interactive effects are critical parts of our own perception of ourselves” ( , p. ). bob recalled that upon seeing his friend in a red cross vehicle, he recognized a connection between his friend’s actions and what he wanted for himself. christakis and fowler ( ) discuss important observations about interactive influences on the expressions of altruism. they observe that altruism tends to spread in social networks, but also that the “benefits tend to be magnified” by those social networks (p. ). they note that in experiments invo lving giving in undergraduate student networks, “altruistic and selfish undergraduates each had the same number of friends, on average. but altruistic people were embedded in networks of other altruistic people” (p. ). wilson ( ) has noted that “people who help others are more likely to form an image of themselves as effective, worthy people” (p. ). most relevant to our inquiry here is wilson’s further assertion that narratives change how people interpret events in ways that can make it easier for them to act altruistically in the future. bob saw his friend helping, and the subtext of his observation appears to be that he also saw his friend expressing himself in vital, active, and helpful ways during the midst of a catastrophe. building on wilson’s premise that narratives can influence the ways in which we interpret events, this investigation asked if hearing stories about the courage and moral choices of others supports the development of a helping identity in the same way that witnessing courageous acts supports the emergence and development of helping behaviors (staub, ). out of the accounts of the interviewees that follow emerges a critical element of the development of a helping identity. hearing stories of helping appears to inspire helping behaviors, but it is through action that a helping identity appears to become fully realized. stories and altruistic social networks may also encourage the development of a helping identity. the actual act of helping appears to be influential in expanding one’s identity to include a sense of oneself as someone who helps. hearing and telling one’s own story about how one has helped appears to solidify this view of oneself over time. we now know that action or an “active coping strategy” (ledroux & gorman, ) is an important step in ameliorating the deleterious effects of conditional anxiety generated by traumatic memories. stories of helping in the face of trauma may be seen as an important cognitive bridge between the expression of devastation and the imagined possibility of constructive, hopeful action. narrative works ( ) therefore, we see stories told about experiences of living through a catastrophe as having at least four functions. the first of these functions is as a means of expression. narratives provide a way to express the pain, shock, and loss experienced during a catastrophe, and in turn, that pain, shock, and loss are recognized and understood by a fellow human being. chris rose ( ), a reporter for the times-picayune who won a pulitzer prize for his reporting on hurricane katrina, wrote that in the weeks after katrina, people in new orleans told and listened to stories over and over again: so the guys at hall piano listen to the stories, as all of us— postmen, pharmacists, waitresses, barbers, ups guys, meter readers, coffee shop clerks, real estate agents, reporters—listen to the stories. that’s all of our jobs now, because all anyone really wants—all anyone really needs here—is to have someone listen to their stories. (p. ) the second function of stories is to remember and reconstitute the past. with stories about the past, memories are often changed in the telling. this was beautifully expressed by natasha trethewey ( ), a poet and pulitzer prize recipient who grew up on the mississippi gulf coast: remembering is an exercise: to keep the memory of an event alive, we must rehearse it, recall it over and over for ourselves or in stories we tell others. and yet in so doing, memory is often transformed, revised a bit each time in the telling—linked always to its conjoined twin, forgetting. . . .outside my grandmother’s house, the hydrangea blooms again and again—the blossoms themselves like memories, each one a repetition of another, never quite the same. the third function stories have after a catastrophic event are as a call to action, the “spark” that melody spoke of when she stated that the stories of sharing inspired others. this can be described as an inspiration for transformative action: helping behavior that elicits more helping behaviors, once listeners sense, the enlivening effects, for both those we help, and those who receive the help. the fourth function of stories that we observed is their role in creating a coherent view of oneself as someone who copes in the face of devastation. this function can be described as integrative, as it enables baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter one to see oneself as an individual who was hurt and as one who effectively helps others. at the conclusion of this chapter, we will note the observed effects of hearing stories of helping which appear to run parallel to these four functions. for this section of the book, we will not divide the stories of katrina and the actions it inspired into geographic distinctions, even though the hurricane’s physical impact and the corresponding responses to it stretch across several distinct regions. instead, in order to more fully discuss the functions of stories after traumatic events, we will divide the recollected stories into two categories. the first category, which we call “stories of the storm,” comprises recollections of the hurricane and its aftermath. the second category of stories, called “stories of helping,” consists of recollections of help shared. both categories of stories represent an array of experiences of hurricane katrina throughout the gulf region, from new orleans to florida. stories of the storm hurricane katrina was a contemporary catastrophe of historic proportions, and most adults spent some time in immersed in stories about it. in this section, we revisit some of those stories through the accounts of our interviewees, who shared the unique narratives they had each constructed about their experiences during and after the storm. the individuals we interviewed were all in the gulf region, either as the storm hit, or within a few weeks after the storm. some of our interviewees were residents of the gulf coast and went back home to assess the damage to their homes and neighborhoods, and some interviewees went to the region to assist early rescue efforts. the analysis in this chapter is built on nine interviews. five people were interviewed, and four of the interviewees were available for second interviews that focused on clarification of their original interview and dialogue about our developing analysis (consistent with our hermeneutical approach to research). in addition, three sets of previously published, first-person accounts are integrated into our data (angers, ; rose, ; trethewey, ). two of our interviewees, melody and robin, were from new orleans; bob was from the mississippi gulf coast; sarah was working near the florida coast; and roger was a first responder who was working in new orleans for several weeks immediately after the storm. narrative works ( ) we'll begin with a description from robin, whose husband had worked on the mississippi river as a tugboat captain for many years: friday before katrina hit, my father said, “where are you going?” my husband is a tugboat captain and he had to pick people up, evacuating people from the rigs. . . . he said, “i can’t babysit you—where are you going to go?” my dad said, “you can always go to houston.” and i told him that i still wasn’t sure what i was going to do. he said, “okay, please call when you do.” we packed up a few things—shorts, that kind of thing. . . . i thought i was going for the weekend. . . . my husband called and i told him that i went to walmart. he said “what are you doing going to walmart?” i went to our neighbor’s and asked when we were leaving. she said, “my husband will not leave.” finally, we convinced him that we had to go. i said, “sam, we have to get out of here!” we got there at : . five of us on the road. we left her husband there. when we got to baton rouge, we had to go out to get supplies. . . . we picked up the baby food. the storm came that night. we stayed up all night. we lost power. her father brought a generator for hours. it was very hot! these hours could keep the fridge going. when we had a television, we could see what was happening here. days passed. … i didn’t know where my people were. bob described the first few days after katrina hit his home in mississippi: my wife grew up on the gulf coast. she kept trying to convince me that we needed flashlights, groceries; i thought she was overreacting. so when she got back, she told me, “it took me two hours to get gas.” so i wrapped up the music session and i started to watch wlox from the coast. . . . you could see the look of urgency in the newscasters’ eyes. they were saying, “this is the big one. we've all compared hurricanes to camille; this will be bigger than camille.” i found myself willfully suspending my disbelief. my wife's parents lived in socier, on the gulf coast, and we knew they would get some of it. . . . we begged them to come up, but they saw it as safe. . . . the family built the house together, baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter starting in ; it took them four years. . . . my father-in-law built it with my brother-in-law and they built it to camille standards. they put their complete faith in the building and the reinforcements they put in. . . . we had just purchased our house. our first mortgage was coming up. . . .what we worried about was if we could make our first insurance claim before we paid our first mortgage payment. then it broke loose—i have never been so frightened. you could see it on tv. we had power for a little while, then we lost all power. . . .we realized the eye of the storm was heading towards hattiesburg, our town. our neighbors had a yard fence— it was getting ripped up and tossed. . . . power lines were being ripped up. . . . it was like armageddon. it was one thing to see it on tv and another thing to experience it. the might was awesome. we were afraid for our lives. . . . you could hear the creaking of the house. we were seeing trees fall into people's houses. . . . those sustained winds lasted for hours. once it had blown over, you could not recognize the neighborhood. . . . people were crying, walking the streets. the sheer force of the destruction—people were finally coming to grips with it. we went to see our neighbors to see if they were okay. . . . to that point we only knew three neighbors . . . next door and across the street. . . . but then we met everyone in the neighborhood. . . . we had to rely on everyone to survive. melody, who was working in public health, and her husband lived in the heart of new orleans when katrina hit. she spoke about her family’s initial efforts to get financial help after the devastation of the storm: my home was devastated. . . . the help we were supposed to get from the federal government was not happening. . . . we had homeowner’s insurance . . . but they couldn’t pay. . . . can you imagine? they called it a man-made disaster because the levees broke. we paid on that every year, for years. we thought the federal government would be stepping up, with the road home program. but we received a reduced amount, narrative works ( ) based on some formula. we would have been back already . but we only received $ , , and that wasn’t near enough to repair the damage in the house. so we built a small house in baton rouge and we decided to hold onto this house so we could rebuild slowly. chris rose ( ) was a reporter for the times-picayune in new orleans when the hurricane struck. he and his family went to baton rouge to ride out the storm, but he returned by the first week in september to continue to write his column and to tell the stories of his beloved adopted city after the storm: my colleagues who are down here are warriors. there are a half- dozen of us living in a small house on a side street. . . . we have a generator and water and military food rations and doritos and smokes and booze. . . . some of these guys lost their houses— everything in them. but they’re here, telling our city’s story. (p. ) rose noted that, about a year after the storm, while most of the world heard the stories of new orleans, many were unaware of the scope of the destruction to an entire region: “as the memory and impact of katrina fades in the national consciousness, so, too, it seems, does the geographical and emotional scope of its damages, not to mention rita’s. from the texas border to mobile bay, a huge swath of america took a grenade” (p. ). bob described the mississippi gulf coast this way: “all of the gulf coast was flattened. you go down highway —you could drive down three counties; . . . there was so much life there—now there’s nothing. you do not know what town you are in.” roger came into new orleans with the red cross two weeks after the storm: we had been instructed. . . . these are the things to expect. . . . we were told there would be lots of insects and snakes—we needed boots higher than the ankle. . . . everything had to be put in one bag for quick movement. . . . there were no functioning hospitals, so you had to bring enough to support yourself. in our deployment area, a guy got up and said “ninety per cent of the people in louisiana have never left the state . . . . a lot of people never left baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter their block . . . . do not take their responses personally. do the right thing.” you couldn’t drive through the city—it was closed. route was closed. so we took a bridge. . . . it was three white folks, one black social worker. . . . there were no houses lit, no lights, and we went over a bridge built in the s. . . . you could drive miles. . . . miles with no cars, deserted houses. roger’s story provides a segue into the many recounted stories of helping after the storm. each interviewee had stories to share about both receiving and offering help. all described occasions of extreme and heartfelt generosity, although most of the interviewees also described incidents that ranged from civic laziness to violence. stories of helping robin recounted her stay in baton rouge immediately after the storm, and how she housed and supported co-workers in her home after her return to new orleans: we stayed for three weeks in baton rouge—there was support for my family, for my neighbors, my father-in-law. . . . while i was there, i tried to help . . . to clean up the house. before my friend went to work, she would make breakfast for everyone on the coleman stove. when we returned to new orleans i called larry from work and i told him our house was okay. i said, “if you want to come check your property with your wife, that’s okay. bring her.” i didn’t have any food, but i had canned food. i stood in line for three hours at walmart. i told my husband, “my people will have to stay here for awhile.” and he said, “you have to do what you have to do.” i said to larry before they went to check their house, “now you’re a grown person, but you have to be ready for what you are going to find.” as soon as larry and his wife came back, i said, “here are your robes. take your robes, shower.” my heart was broken for them. . . . a few days later my husband said, “they can stay as long as they want . . . we have enough beds.” narrative works ( ) robin was among the many neighbors and relatives who helped others with the multitude of forms required for both temporary and permanent housing. she was especially helpful to her spanish speaking neighbors, as she is fluent in spanish. in addition to this neighborly, informal support, red cross volunteers provided help negotiating the maze of insurance and bureaucratic requirements. melody stayed in natchez, mississippi for the first six months after the storm, while her temporary home was being built in baton rouge: we stayed in natchez, mississippi, for six months . . . with my husband and my dog. talk about altruism—they kept all of us, and they didn’t even like dogs that much. friends and others just started sending clothes. . . . could you imagine, all your clothes are gone? and i just started getting boxes of clothes . . . from people i didn’t really know—friends of friends. is there anything you want to change? melody and her husband were only able to develop a viable plan for returning to new orleans after she learned of the service work that teams of mennonites were doing in the city: a friend asked me if we were coming back . . . and i said, “we can’t afford to come back.” she said, “let me tell you how i got back. mennonites, they’re really master builders,” she said. “let me give you their numbers.” i called. the person who answered said “this is moses m. from weaver land disaster services.” they were working in new orleans as part of a crew from a different part of the country come and they work on what they can do. he asked, “can you wait until november?” i said, ‘i’ve been waiting since , so i don’t have any problem waiting until november.” they called before they were ready to come . . . and when they work, they are so calm and focused. . . . they build for hours, then they take a short break. they asked me, “is there anything you want to change?” and we had a flat roof on our den that always leaked, so i said, “we could use a new roof” . . . and they built a new roof on the porch in a day. . . . and we had this spiral staircase we really hated, so they built us a new staircase in a day. baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter we had some brick walls we never liked and they took down those walls. do the right thing we close this section with a few more excerpts of stories of helping by the national guard, as relayed by two participants, roger and robin, as well as chris rose ( ), in his essays on the response to katrina. the guardsmen were described repeatedly as “the real heroes.” the final story is of an ordinary citizen who traveled down to new orleans on his own with his boat. his story speaks to the transformative effects of helping. roger was serving with the red cross when hurricane rita came through new orleans, right on the heels of katrina. the region was already devastated. shelters and rescue services were functioning at their highest capacity before rita hit the area: when we got word that rita was coming through . . . there was no place to go. the nd airborne was there, . . . professional soldiers. . . . they all left when rita came through. they were all business. the national guard guys were different—they weren’t hamstrung by hierarchy. . . . they did things because it was the right thing to do. . . . they were regular people. . . . they wanted to be there, they set up distribution sites. . . . they gave out mres, water—people would line up all day long. red cross workers in new orleans after hurricane katrina. used by permission of the united states federal emergency management agency. photo: andrea booher. narrative works ( ) the theme of “doing the right thing” echoes throughout all of the interviews. we heard it in the instructions roger described receiving from the red cross and we hear it in his descriptions of the national guard’s approach: “the national guard were the real heroes . . . they came from iraq and afghanistan. . . . my neighbor’s son was in the guard . . . and they heard people were coming to help. . . . they brought mres [meals ready to eat] and water.” chris rose ( ) also talks about the national guard: “national guard patrol our area and have given us their mres (the beef ravioli is to die for), and they have generally treated us with more respect, grace, and kindness than one has a right to expect under martial law (p. ). rose describes one particular citizen soldier: he came down alone, as many had . . . or with one or two friends . . . to do whatever he could with a small boat in tow. i remember sitting on my front step near the end of the first week of september last year when a disheveled and seemingly disoriented guy pulled up in front of me in his pickup truck. he had michigan plates and was pulling a boat behind him. “which way?” he shouted. “who is in charge here?” he shouted. i had to laugh at that part. “no one is in charge,” i told him. but if he wanted to put that boat to good use, i said, “keep going straight and you’ll hit the water.” he nodded and then he started crying. “i’m sorry i took so long, man,” he told me. “i got here as fast as i could.” and he drove off. i saw him two days later on canal street, looking fresh and invigorated. he had been rescuing people and pets ever since i’d seen him. (p. ) rose is quoted at length here largely to highlight the final observation. he noted that non-stop work in grueling conditions transformed an exhausted and weeping man into a man who was revitalized. loading up the dead and smelly fridge interviewees did not want to sugarcoat the overall response to hurricane katrina. there were many examples of indifference, lack of civility, and direct violence, and they often made the nightly news. sarah, in addition to describing many who helped after the storm’s devastation in florida, also talked about “those who appeared to be not so much baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter engaged. . . . they sat and wallowed more—it was a part of who they were.” roger shared some examples of similar behavior: that’s not to say people weren’t shot at. . . . you saw people fly off the handle . . . and you had to be careful. . . . there was just a sense that so much had to be done—you couldn’t be bothered worrying. . . . you could see the potential for problems. . . .there was this argument over a cooler: a woman in a wheelchair was yelling at me. . . . she couldn’t get her check. her son grabbed my cooler . . . and he was not letting go. . . . his mother said “that’s his cooler,” . . . and he let go of it. robin talked about the more extreme violence that happened inside the superdome and around new orleans, which appeared to be under-reported: “a lot of people will not talk about some of the things going on there; . . . it was open season on women. . . . the government will not talk about it to this day. . . . groups of women would go together to the bathrooms.” she described an act of violence against one woman: “one local singer, . . . she could have gotten out, . . . but she stayed to help her neighbors . . . and she was raped there . . . while people were waiting to be rescued, gang members were shooting.” chris rose ( ) searingly documented the general deterioration of civility in the months following the hurricane: “a small instance would be the case of the jerk who loaded his dead and smelly fridge into his pickup truck one night and drove around uptown looking for a place to get rid of it, rather than putting it on his curbside like the rest of us and taking his chances on the latest gambling craze sweeping our town, fema garbage pickup lotto” (p. ). the effects of stories of helping the chance to move beyond angry in the passage above, rose describes one particular way in which a systemic breakdown generated further incivility. however, in many other instances the opposite response occurred: systemic breakdowns generated the transformation of neighborhood and civic groups into informal helping networks. we will examine how stories of these networks sustained and generated further efforts to help. narrative works ( ) one group that rose up out of a systemic breakdown in the immediate aftermath of katrina was common ground relief. rebecca solnit ( ) interviewed one of the founders, malik rahim, a former black panther, who reported to anyone who listened that vigilantes were murdering african-american men in algiers point, a part of new orleans (p. ). he described early efforts to establish a first aid station that grew into a health clinic: we started calling around the country to everyone we knew, and started asking them for assistance. . . . after that, here comes veterans for peace from florida, and they brought up a bunch of supplies. the next thing you know, people start coming. cindy sheehan came. and with her came a lot of help. . . . we organized common ground relief on the fifth of september, and on the ninth we organized a first-aid station. and then maybe three weeks later, we made the transition from a first-aid station to a bona fide health clinic. (p. ) here is how aislyn colgan, a young medic, described her experience at the common ground relief clinic: it is so rare that you get an opportunity to put into action what maybe you’ve sat around the coffee table and talked with someone about. when do you ever see that the powers that be are failing at their duty, and when do you ever get the chance to move beyond being angry about it and actually do something very concrete and tangible and immediate? like you can’t provide these people with health care, but we’re here and we can do it. we would get calls from the red cross asking if we had any gloves because they were out of gloves. . . . here we are getting everything donated to us through all these informal networks of organization, and the national guard was referring people to us. (solnit, , p. ) informal networks: beyond hierarchy and the transformation of despair what do you need, son? while the many stories of violence are indisputable, interviewees shared just as many stories of the ways in which both simple and complex baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter efforts at helping transformed a potentially violent or despairing situation. roger described two incidents at a southern baptist encampment set up to help and feed those in need: the national guardsmen were trying to fix broken equipment. . . .the southern baptists were giving food to the red cross. the baptists were cooking chili, and a group of missouri guardsmen came to get chili for themselves, and one said, ‘chili again?” the captain took him aside and said, “i’ll teach you a lesson to disrespect those helping.” . . . but do you know what these old farts, southern baptists did? one came over to him and said, “what’s your favorite meal, son?” and he said, “fried chicken.” and they cooked it for everyone in that -degree heat. . . . we had an incident at a drop point . . . a guy walked in with a glock—and he started shooting. . . . one of the older men— probably unstable—walked over to him and said, “what do you need, son?” he said, “well . . . i could use some water.” the man said, “okay, here’s some water. what else do you need?” they brought him water and they told him to take a seat. melody noted that she and others had to work to respond differently to those in formal aid organizations who were dismissive or disrespectful: you cannot treat someone in an ugly way . . . even if that is the way you’ve been treated. if you do, you have been reduced. . . . so i said, “everyone has to get on the mat . . . to have a buddhist focus on being compassionate. . . . accept the way they are. . . . and one of the residents said, “i talked to a woman that residents felt had treated them harshly and displayed compassion for her. i’m glad we had that conversation.” roger described the experience of two working men from up north who ran a truck through the poorest, hardest hit neighborhoods, collecting lists, to deliver items the next day: there were these groups, . . . the gotti boys. . . . they could be a pretty vicious group. . . . well, these guys drove into this area, and those guys drew gun. . . . these men didn’t really know who they narrative works ( ) were dealing with. . . . “okay, so what are you going to do . . . kill us?” and then he said, “you’ve got your people here . . . show us your people. . . . what do you need?” every day they would go back and ask, “what do you need?” and those guys they first met would come back … with lists. “the way it should be” bob described his interactions with neighbors after the storm as “the way it should be,” with little social stratification and time for huma n interaction. again, none of our informants, nor do we, wish to downplay the violence. however, these stories of violence transformed offer an important counterpoint to the stories of the breakdown of civility. in catastrophes such as katrina, the possibility of responding to the initiation of violence with an effectively transformative response presents itself. additionally, in catastrophic situations where larger political systems become dangerously ineffective, or worse, violent, there is an opportunity for informal networks to step in with a sense of purposefulness that may transform individual despair. as bob put it, people were walking, sharing their feelings, and listening to each other’s stories. we got so involved with stuff instead of interactional relationships. . . . there was no gas, . . . no food, nowhere to buy things. no one was more wealthy or had more power. you can’t get out; . . . no gas. for the next days, there we are, as neighbors and basic human beings trying to survive. . . . it was the strangest thing to see everyone in the streets. in august, it’s chokingly hot; . . . it’s like a swamp, the heat and humidity, but people were walking in the streets sharing their stories. they were asking, “where do we go from here?” melody talked about the inspiration she felt from hearing other people’s stories: “listening to other people’s stories—what they did when their homeowner’s insurance didn’t pay—but they were able to get back into their homes because someone shared. . . . you are inspired. . . . it’s almost like a spark is created.” roger identified an “infectiousness” in being a part of the transformation of a bad situation: “and you want to be a part of that—to take a bad situation and to turn into something of value. … there is an baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter infectiousness about that kind of presence . . . that you don’t get on a daily basis.” rebuilding new orleans. used by permission of the united states federal emergency management agency. photo: marvin nauman. solnit ( ) identifies the sense of “purposefulness” that occurs during disasters as neighbors help neighbors to survive. she also points out that transformative action during disasters demonstrates our highest potential, often latent in day-to-day life: we need ties, but they along with purposefulness, immediacy and agency also give us joy—the startling sharp joy i found in accounts of disaster survivors. these accounts demonstrate the citizens of any paradise would need—the people who are brave enough, resourceful enough, and generous enough—already exist. (p. ) the participants we interviewed did not speak directly of joy, but they spoke repeatedly about being inspired into effective action by the loving support of family, their experiences among friends and neighbors, and the stories of helping. as we suggested at the beginning of this chapter, stories of helping may serve as a cognitive bridge to purposeful action. purposeful action appears to build a coherent sense of oneself as one who acts, who helps, and who is therefore not simply victimized by a catastrophe. bob narrative works ( ) talked about being inspired by his neighbor’s work on food trucks and his mother-in-law’s work at a food pantry: my wife went into a local radio station. it was an old-fashioned radio station, and my wife went on it to tell people that her mother had a food pantry . . . with food to help people. i saw red cross trucks and i realized this was what i wanted to do. i spent all of my days on emergency vehicles. we were based in the main street baptist church. people would cook all day and we would load food on ervs [emergency response vehicles] . . . and we went to all the communities on ervs and fed people lunch and dinner. robin heard about others’ efforts to help immediately after the storm, and despite housing families from her workplace, she still felt frustrated about the enormity of the problems: my husband’s nephew put roofs on houses for a whole summer. . . . i said, “i feel so helpless.” my husband said, “you need a project. you feel like you’re doing something when you are helping others.” . . . they [her co-workers] had taken out all their silver that they could find in their flooded house. we got a bucket and all the utensils. we sat on the floor and, with all the harry potter movies playing, polished all the silver. robin also began to offer more formal support to others, as well as a continued support for friends: i helped both hispanics and non-hispanics. they were trying to fill out “the road home” forms [for a post-katrina homeowners’ assistance program]. . . . i helped them with the list of things they needed. i helped with the initial interview paperwork and with the closing. for my friend, t—she was trying to clear up her kitchen . . . and i could see that look in her eyes. . . . i took her by the shoulder and said, “we’re going to redo your kitchen . . . and i’m going to help you pick out the stove, the refrigerator.” all radio stations were given air time to share information about shelter, propane, and meat, among other important things. baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter bob described the ways in which helping and the purposeful action inspired by the stories of his neighbors and relatives enabled him to “keep going.” stories appear to spark active helping and purposeful action, and witnessing the reception of that help by beneficiaries enabled bob to persevere: “the thing that kept me going—if there was going to be life after this, you had to keep going; to know that you are helping someone . . . who may not be able to help themselves . . . and to see how much they appreciate it. to see that side of so many people kept me going.” whenever you need a place a catastrophe that occurs in a society with civil protections for its citizens presents an opportunity for people to express reciprocity in an immediate fashion. the onslaught of hurricane gustav in presented many such opportunities. as michele recounted, “we had a chance to house people during hurricane gustav. we said, ‘wherever you need a place.’ we get our power from a generator . . . so when baton rouge lost its power, we were fine . . . and we had people stay with us. i said, ‘you can stay here as long as you need to.’” reciprocity, we found, sometimes took the form of consistent appreciation or the shared appreciation of a transformed home. robin reflected that “there is always one partner in the law firm who always says, ‘if it wasn’t for you . . . .’ children of the parents called to say thank you.” melody shared the following story about her interactions with moses, who (along with a crew of people who identified as mennonites) helped melody and her husband rebuild their home: i did some reading ahead of time, so i could understand their mennonite culture. i wanted to be respectful of their culture. i told him, “moses, my husband wants to give something back. is there anything we can do to help you?” he said, “we are totally self- sufficient.” mostly they are very reserved . . . but one couple, they were very demonstrative. they said, “when we come back through, we want to see you in your new home.” stories of helping and a helping identity participants frequently noted that they felt compelled to help as a natural outcome of “the way we were raised.” they saw their efforts to be narrative works ( ) in keeping with the values they were taught as children, affirming monroe’s ( ) thesis that courageous altruistic choices often grow out of an altruistic identity. it appears that the helping behaviors expressed in these stories support an altruistic identity, and that they might also offer a vehicle for the transmission of these values in very concrete terms. melody’s observation supports this notion: it is the mentality of haitian immigrants. . . . relatives are always coming to stay. . . . it’s also a part of the south, although that is another side to the south. in my professional career, i’m always giving back. at one point, i started to tutor haitian children because their parents didn’t know the language. they needed someone to be the director, so i came on board as the director. sarah noted that women helping women was an integral part of the puerto rican culture in which she was raised. “with b., that is how she was socialized . . . with this ‘women helping’ component.” recollection: a bridge to healing and action these stories represent a specific kind of recollection. they are recollections of our ability to care for one another, even under extreme duress. they provide a narrative of hope encouraged by purposeful action. in this way, we see that stories of helping may form a cognitive bridge to purposeful action. stories of helping may support a socially- sanctioned helping identity, and it is hypothesized here that they may also provide a pathway to the recollection of traumatic memories for those who hear them. roger, who told stories of the devastation of hurricane katrina, notes that this “is a part of the natural process of healing.” rose ( ) surmised that “all anyone around here wants is someone to listen to their stories.” yet memory of the stories, of the violence, and of the terror of the flood have not been fully told. robin noted that her daughter’s children were still frightened by a heavy rain: “when there is a rain . . . they start to get worried.” michele noted that many of the children who experienced the storm “are experiencing mental health issues.” might stories of helping provide a safer bridge to the recollections of terror and violence? if remembering traumatic memories is a natural part of healing, might stories of active care and purposeful coping provide baruch, atkinson, & khiel: chapter a holding context for the full expression of the stories related to traumatic events? in our next chapter, we explore the perspectives of students and teachers engaged in an educational project specifically focused on stories of helping as well as links to purposeful action. the themes of stories act as a cognitive bridge to action, as support to informal networks of helping, as support for a developing helping identity, and as a “holding context” for the exploration of traumatic stores. we wonder: can the evocation of stories of generosity, courage, and perseverance allow for the exploration of terror, injustice and helplessness in a way that grounds these experiences in a context of other possible outcomes? references angers, t. ( ). an airboat on the streets of new orleans: a cajun couple lends a hand after hurricane katrina floods the city. lafayette, la: acadian house. christakis, n. a., & fowler, j. h. ( ). connected: the surprising power of our social networks and how they shape our lives. new york, ny: little, brown. ledroux, j. e., & gorman, j. m. ( ). a call to action: overcoming anxiety through active coping. american journal of psychiatry, ( ), – . monroe, k. r. ( ). explicating altruism. in s. post, l. g. underwood, j.p. schloss, & w. b. hurlbot (eds.), altruism and altruistic love: science, philosophy, and religion in dialogue (pp. – ). oxford, england: oxford university press. monroe, k. r. ( ). the hand of compassion: portraits of moral courage during the holocaust. princeton, nj: princeton university press. rose, c. ( ). dead in attic: after katrina. new york, ny: simon & schuster. solnit, r. ( ). a paradise built in hell: communities that arise in disaster. new york, ny: viking penguin. staub, e. ( ). the psychology of good and evil: why children, adults, and groups help and harm others. new york, ny: cambridge university press. trethewey, n. ( , august ). our loss, through the eye of the storm. new york times. retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/ / / /opinion/ trethewey.html wilson, t. d. ( ). redirect: the surprising new science of psychological change. new york, ny: little, brown. adele baruch, phd, is associate professor and chair of counselor education in clinical mental health counseling at the university of southern maine. daniel creek, ms, is a clinical mental health counselor in private practice in portland, maine. tour choice (free samples) light impressions manufactures a variety of quality, acid free envelopes to meet your needs. we have many different styles and sizes for the storage and protection of valuable prints, negatives, documents or anything else that needs an acid free enclosure. to place a sampling of our quality products in your hands, we are offering five envelopes of our most popular designs for free. here is the chance to find the right envelope to fit your specific needs. . . paper envelopes, mylar polyester sleeves, seamless, thumb cut, flap style, or file folders. check out our different acid free materials and formats. write us and request envelope samples, product code # . act now! (call our toll free number - - ) light impressions p.o. box , rochester, ny d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril this is the new shape of archival storage. lightweight, economical, acid-free containers that ship flat, store flat, and assemble in seconds for secure preservation of documents, prints, textiles this is a new concept in acid-free archival storage, made possible because of the development of a new material. the material is a unique acid-free corrugated board, never before manufactured. rigid and lightweight, it is not only made of entirely acid-free materials, but buffered against acid deterioration, treated with fungicides to resist mildew, and laminated with neutral ph, water-resistant adhesives. with this new material, we have designed archival storage boxes which can be shipped and stored flat—eliminating waste in inventory and shipment—and can be assembled quickly and easily, without fasteners or adhesives, to hold documents, prints, drawings, photographs, microfilms, textiles, costumes and other artifacts, and any other items requiring secure, acid-free protection. these boxes were designed to the specifications of a number of major national and international institutions, ranging from galleries, museums and the municipal archives of the city of new york to the australian archives. they are available from stock in sixteen sizes, and may also be supplied in any dimensions required, on a special-order basis. please write or telephone us for full specifications. document box, available in letter and legal sizes. textile, costume and artifact boxes, in sizes to x inches. process materials corporation a lindenmeyr company veterans boulevard, rutherford, nj ( ) - print and photo box available in a wide range of sizes, somt featuring hinged tof and drop-down sidt opening for easy access. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril photofile the ultimate in archival record preservation acid-free envelopes rare manuscripts and documents can be stored and preserved indefinitely in these high qualify add-free envelopes. stock is completely free of any contaminating or deteriorating chemical agents. available in ivory only, with or without flap. acid-free adhesive secures binding seams. manuscript sizes. photographic negative sizes. manuscript and photograph protectors clear see-thru polyester binders. inside binding edge grips manuscript firmly in place. completely protects contents from fingerprints and out- side contamination while document is being read or copied for referral purposes. available in sizes. transparent mylar®sleeves. negative protection with ample space for indexing. negatives can be easily viewed without removal from envelope. ^ ^ send for free brochure p h o t o f i l e lewis avenue • zion, illinois • ( ) - ® mylar is a du pont trade mark. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall professional reading paul v. guite, compiler t h e following list of articles of current interest to archivists and manuscript curators has been compiled from recent archival and library periodicals received by the national archives library. the listing is selective. it is meant to provide the reader with more immediate access to current professional literature than he or she might otherwise have. arena, franca. "ethnic archives." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . ethnic archives in australia. bamberger, mary ann; and mccree, mary lynn. "the manuscript collection at the university of illinois at chicago circle." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . berlin, ira r. "the northwestern memo- rial hospital archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . bowen, laurel g. "the manuscripts sec- tion of the illinois state historical library." illinois libraries (march ): - . bujkovsky, gustav j. "com: past, present, and future." information &f records man- agement (may ): - , - , . bunce, peter w.; shanks, w. kenneth; and weber, david s. "of trials, tribes, and topographers: holdings of the chicago regional branch of the national archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . burns, david d. "michael reese hospital: archives and public affairs." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . charman, derek. "the expanding role of the archivist." records management quarterly (jan. ): - , - . conrad, james. "etsu launches project to copy old photographs." texas librar- ies (spring ): - . crouse, moses c ; and colby, doris k. "the aurora college archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . daly, john. "the illinois state archives." illinois libraries (march ): - . darling, pamela w., and sherelyn, ogden. "from problems perceived to programs in practice: the preservation of library resources in the u.s.a., - ." library resources & technical services (janvmar. ): - . debolt, dean. "education and public affairs: documenting illinois' first senior university." illinois libraries (march ): - . devlin, mary; and fallucco, marguerite. "the archives of the american medical association." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . fischer, g. l. "the clock of history." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril reviews — . modified version of presiden- tial address given at the second biennial conference of the australian society of archivists. gianatasio, joyce e. "the society of american archivists." illinois libraries (march ): - . grace, brother michael, sj. "loyola uni- versity of chicago archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . gwinn, nancy e. "crl and preservation." college & research libraries (march ): - . the grants program of the council on library resources. in- cludes bibliography. hamilton, david. "an archive of sound." opera news , no. (aug. ): - , . hansen, james e., ii; and newman, john. "training history students in working archives." history teacher (feb. ): - . haring, jacqueline. "manuscript collec- tions in the knox college archives." illinois libraries (march ): - . haskell, diana. "midwest manuscripts at the newberry library." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . janzen, mary e. "archival literature relating to illinois repositories and their holdings, - : a selective bibliography." illinois libraries (march ): - . koch, david v. "the university archives of southern illinois university at car- bondale." illinois libraries (march ): - . lance, david. "sound archive develop- ment and practice: a case study." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . establishment and development of a sound archives at the imperial war museum's department of sound rec- ords, london. lange, janet m. "everett dirksen's leg- acy: a research center devoted to the study of congress and congressional leadership." illinois libraries (march ): - . larson, sarah. "records of the southern claims commission." prologue (win- ter ): - . leonard, kevin b. "the northwestern university archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . lundeen, joel w. "the lutheran church in america's archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . lynch, james r. "brethren historical library and archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . mccauley, margery j. "information policy and the national audiovisual center." government publications review a, no. ( ): - . mcmillan, john. "archival and related legislation." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): - . madaj, m.j. "the chicago archdiocesan archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . maher, william j. "the illini archives: a laboratory for retrospective research." illinois libraries (march ): - . morrison, robert c. "conservation notes." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . motley, archie. "the chicago historical society manuscripts collection." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . norton, margaret cross. "archives in illi- nois: t h e pioneer period." illinois libraries (march ): - . norwood, terrence s. "the cook county hospital archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . osborn, walter. "the moody bible insti- tute archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . patenall, dianne. "records management: three years' experience at the records management office of new south wales." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): - . perotin-dumon, anne. "l'audiovisuel, nouveau territoire de la conservation." gazette des archives n.s., no. ( ): - . includes abstract in english. porter, john. "the changing world of information management." information & records management (may ): - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall quinn, patrick m. "the archival situation in illinois." illinois libraries (march ): - . saclier, michael. "the australian society of archivists: the first five years." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . schoelwer, susan prendergast. "the chi- cago public library special collections division." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . scott, p. j.; smith, c d . ; and finlay, g. "archives and administrative change— some methods and approaches (part )." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . shuster, robert. "the archives of the billy graham center and the preserva- tion of the history of evangelicals." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . smith, clive. "the australian archives." archives and manuscripts (june ): - . sommerfeld, marcia. "the northern illi- nois regional history center." illinois libraries (march ): - . stegh, leslie j. "deere & company archives and records services." illinois libraries (march ): - . sutton, robert p. "western illinois uni- versity archives and special collec- tions." illinois libraries (march ): - . teleky, elizabeth stege. "the university archives and manuscript collections in university of chicago library." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . turnbaugh, roy. "the evolution of an archives network: the illinois regional archives depository system." illinois libraries (march ): - . walsh, timothy. "a typical archival conservation laboratory." archives and manuscripts (nov. ): - . fac- tors involved in conservation laboratory design in australia. westberg, sigurd f. "the archives of the evangelical covenant church of amer- ica." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . westerberg, wesley m. "the swedish pioneer archives." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . wittman, elisabeth. "the historical rec- ords and archives of the university of illinois at the medical center." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . zukowsky, john. "burnham's gift to chi- cago: the burnham library of archi- tecture." illinois libraries (apr. ): - . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ vol. , no. / fall technical notes ben dewhitt, editor product guide on solid state emitters. a twenty-four page product guide providing tabulated data and outline configurations for rca's line of solid state emitters has been released by rca electro-optics and devices, lancaster, pennsylvania. the line includes the following types of ir emitters and injection lasers: infra-red emitting diodes, pulse and cw operated injection lasers, stacked diode lasers, and laser systems. the product guide, sse- , features an applications section depicting schematics of typical drive circuits for ir-emitting diodes and injection lasers. selection guides are also included. copies of the sse- product guide may be obtained by writing to rca, box , somerville, nj . report of oclc users council meeting in st. louis. the oclc users council dealt with issues of membership, determination of number of delegates, and a statement on the library of congress network advisory committee (nac) discussion paper on nation- wide network development and governance support at a two-day meeting in st. louis, - june . richard chapin, director of libraries at michigan state university, and president of the oclc users council, will present an official statement at the nac hearing at the ala annual conference in san francisco. the users council position on a national network is that it will continue to evolve. the position paper said: "the idea of legislating an agency to oversee a national network is rejected on philosophical and economic grounds. a governmental, quasi-public or independent agency to oversee a national network would not be sufficiently sensitive to market forces, technology development, or user feedback, despite all protests and claims to the contrary. the artificial control by such an agency would probably cause enough problems to stifle any cooperation among the various components of the national network." the statement continues: "the oclc users council believe strongly in the evolution- ary process. libraries and library related organizations have a history of cooperation and there is no reason to believe that that spirit will cease in the s. indeed, economic pressures alone would seem to indicate that cooperation may be a necessary tool for survival. cooperation among the components of a national library network has been happening, is currently happening, and will continue to happen. libraries should take readers are encouraged to send contributions to "technical notes." address them to ben dewhitt, nars (nnr), washington, dc . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall no other stand than to encourage those organizations to continue to cooperate in the best interests of all." users council delegates sent back to the ocls board of trustees for clarification a proposal that would create two types of membership in oclc, voting and non-voting. a voting member, basically, would use oclc's cataloging and interlibrary loan subsys- tems, while non-voting members, generally, could use one or more oclc subsystems other than cataloging. depending on board action, the users council may take up the matter again at its september meeting. the delegates accepted recommendations from the task force on delegate algorithm that would limit the size of the council to sixty delegates (presently there are seventy- eight delegates). the primary factors determining representation are number of general members in each network at the end of the fiscal year, and the total non-pass-through revenue flowing from each network to oclc for the previous fiscal year. the delegates accepted the report of the task force on system priorities and needs, which recently conducted a survey of participating libraries selected by random sample. the response rate was an impressive percent. the purpose of the survey was to identify preferences for enhancements in, or improvements to, oclc's existing sub- systems, and the development of new products and services. respondents were asked to limit their choices to ten items in each section, and to identify their first, second, and third choices from among the ten selections. the first tier of enhancements/improvements to existing subsystems selected by more than percent of respondents included subject access for cataloging, response time, catalog card production, and shared cataloging. fifty percent of respondents put into the first tier for new products and services the following: subject access for public services and processing of oclc marc subscription service tapes for aacr . the report includes observations on the findings and recommendations for applying them to activ- ities of the users council. reactions to the report have been forwarded to the users council task force on effectiveness. copies of the report are available from: sharon walbridge, users council coordinator, frantz road, dublin, ohio . the users council task force on effectiveness conducted hearings in small group sessions the afternoon of june to respond to a preliminary report that evaluates the council's performance after its first two years of operations. the report includes a set of recommendations designed to improve effectiveness of the council. a final report will be submitted to the council in september. the delegates passed a resolution requesting a plan from oclc regarding future expansion of hours of operation of the on-line system in . another users council resolution urged oclc to begin a study to determine services for users that can be undertaken to provide mechanized (as opposed to manual and repetitive) entry of hold- ings in the data base. delegates also heard reports from oclc management, including user services divi- sion director mary ellen jacob, and president rowland c. w. brown. scott bruntjen, executive director of prlc, reported on activities on regional networks. warren haas, president, council on library resources, spoke on clr's activities at a users council network luncheon on june. clr committee issues interim report on book paper. the committee on production guidelines for book longevity has issued its interim report on book paper. formed in by the council on library resources with the assistance of the andrew w. mellon foundation, the committee consists of experts on paper manufacturing, publishing, and library book preservation programs. the committee's aim is to encourage the improve- ment of the physical qualities of publications, particularly books. the initial work of the group has centered on book paper. members have gathered information about book d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes paper supply and use, concentrating specifically on promoting production and use of acid-free paper as the single most important element in assuring book permanence. the report notes that certain economic considerations and anti-pollution laws have increased interest in the production of acid-free book paper. in about one-fourth of the paper manufactured in the united states for book production was acid-free, and this percentage is likely to increase during the next decade. because the supply of acid- free paper is limited, a major task is to determine which categories of material should receive priority in the production of acid-free books. although publishers will have to make the final judgments, the committee suggests that such decisions can be guided by professionals in the field and members of the scholarly community. the committee notes that neither publishers nor librarians have made permanence an important consideration in either production or purchase decisions. the report asserts that "the aims of our committee would be largely realized if publishers would be more aware of the need for 'permanence' and would make thoughtful decisions about the paper used to print their books." the committee's specific recommendations are addressed to both librarians and pub- lishers. an appendix includes guidelines for paper to be used in book production, and the committee encourages publishers who use paper conforming to the specifications to identify their acid-free books with an appropriate statement in each book. the recom- mendations addressed to the library community include recognition of the responsibility to make publishers, including the u.s. government, aware of their preservation needs. finally, the report urges publishers to stock acid-free paper for use on appropriate titles. members of the committee on production guidelines for book longevity are: herbert s. bailey, jr., chairman (princeton university press); frank g. burke (national historical publications and records commission); warren j. haas (council on library resources, inc.); peter mollman (random house, inc.); leonard d. schlosser (lindenmeyr paper corporation); david h. stam (new york public library); and r. gay walker (yale university library). copies of the -page report are available from the council on library resources, inc., suite , one dupont circle, nw., washington, dc , upon receipt of a request and a self-addressed mailing label. the council on library resources is a private operating foundation. through directly administered projects as well as grants to and contracts with other organizations, it attempts to assist in finding solutions to the problems facing libraries, particularly aca- demic and research libraries. clr was established in by the ford foundation and continues to receive support from it as well as others. free catalog of furniture and media for computer systems. a new catalog from inmac (international minicomputer accessories corporation) introduces more than sixty new products including computer supplies, accessories, and cables designed to improve productivity, save time, and promote safety and security. the publication presents two new product lines: datamaster, a modular furniture system for adp environments; and inmac plus, premium quality magnetic media. the catalog is cross-referenced and con- tains articles on data processing. for a free, one-year subscription, write: inmac, depart- ment , augustine drive, santa clara, ca . new, luminescent, non-slip floor tread. mactac has introduced a luminescent, non- slip floor tread that provides safety during temporary power failures. glo-grit is available in rolls or pre-cut treads. an instant-bonding adhesive fixes the high strength, plastic, carrier film to steps, ramps, and walkways, providing a gritty, non-slip surface and visual guidance by self-illumination. for a sample, write or call mactac industrial products division, darrow road, stow, ohio . [telephone: ( ) - ]. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall new office-size microfilm camera/processor. fuji photo film u.s.a., inc., has intro- duced a new floor-model microfilm camera/processor, usable with volt power and weighing pounds. operation requires no special technical skills. features of the micle include exposure control for overly light or dark originals, and reminder lights for film or chemical replacement. copying costs are approximately cents per documents, and a rate of one -frame strip each seconds is possible. the devel- oping system is self-contained, requiring no external plumbing hook-ups. chemistry replacement is necessary after each feet of processed film. two optional accessories are available—a document feeder and a microfilm storage jacket inserter. micle has been tested for a year at records management and archival institutions. for more information contact: ed malin, fuji film u.s.a., inc., northgate drive, suite , san rafael, ca . ala report covers movable, compact shelving. a comprehensive report entitled "movable compact shelving: a survey of u.s. suppliers and library users," has been issued by the american library association in library technology reports, vol. , no. , january-february . it presents an objective review of library movable shelving sys- tems, with data on site visits and comments from library staff members in evaluating systems. the report describes a wide variety of electric, manual-assist, and manual shelv- ing systems and includes diagrams and photographs showing how movable stacks can conserve space over conventional fixed-in-place shelving. the technology report is avail- able at $ per copy. contact: howard s. white, editor, library technology reports, american library association, east huron street, chicago, il . ; " an example of lacing: deed, john star to christopher wadsworth, duxbury, massachusetts, bearing signature of myles standish ( ). see pp. - . copyright pilgrim society d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes folklore and paper restoration folk remedies usually have little to do with archival methodology, much less with the conservation of documentary sources. it was therefore all the more interesting to learn about a r a r e little volume entitled, a new system of domestic cookery formed upon principles of economy and adapted to the use of private families by a lady with the addition of many new receipts and embellished with engravings (halifax: milner and sowerby, ). among its many useful suggestions for a farming population, such as formulas for dyes to look like "york tan" with the use of saffron or "to prevent the rot in sheep," was, strangely, "a liquor to wash old deeds on paper or parchment when the writing is obliterated, or when sunk, to make it legible." the fact that anyone at that early time was attempting to remedy the problem of fading and eventually the lacing (the cutting through the paper of the ink image) of iron gall inks would, i thought, be of interest to the membership of the society of american archivists. the remedy as set forth in is as follows: "take five or six galls, bruise them, and put them in a pint of strong white wine; let it stand in the sun for two days. then, dip a brush into the wine and wash the part of the writing which is sunk; and by the color you will see whether it is strong enough of the galls." wishing to obtain an expert opinion on this nineteenth-century folk-conservator's work, i communicated her suggestions to george martin cunha at his laboratory in topsfield, massachusetts. i was more than a little surprised to find that what the lady had to say in could be successfully applied. cunha's letter to me of july is of interest, therefore, from a historical as well as a practical point of view for those of us who have labored over faded iron gall inks with ultra-violet readers, or have lamented our total loss when the inks have completely destroyed the papers upon which they were used. cunha writes: the formula will work on faded iron inks because the tannic acid in the oak galls is one of the two principal ingredients in iron gall ink. the other is iron from any one of several sources, and the combination makes ferric tannate which is brown-black ink seen on so many of the early documents in your archives. when the ink fades, the ferric tannate is reducing (the opposite of oxidizing), to ferrous tannate which is very light brown, sometimes difficult to read, writing. the mixture of galls and strong white wine (acetic acid), will re-oxidize the ferrous tannate back to the darker ferric tannate. cunha went on to write that he uses a percent solution of tannic acid that, when brushed on faded iron ink, or immersed in it, will darken the faded ink very rapidly. the fact is that the tannic acid solution will not work on aniline inks unless it is mixed with iron ink, and the writing could be lost if the inks are of water-soluble aniline colors. according to cunha, the key to the restoration is first to test for water solubility, and to deacidify the paper after using the percent solution, as it is an acid itself. would that the more home-grown variety of restoration techniques, or the more mod- ern scientific methods, were available in earlier years to former archivists and keepers of records. this knowledge and its application would surely have prevented the lacing found in many seventeenth-century documents in this historic county and in others. (l. d. geller, plymouth, massachusetts) d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril archives an<i manuscripts: exhibits by gail farr casterline this new addition to the society of american archivists' basic manual series is a practical, how-to manual for persons planning exhibits of archival materials. the manual contains chapters on planning and development, conservation, design and technique, program coordination, and administrative considerations. some of the specific topics covered include locating and selecting material; evaluating the site; case and panel layout; mounting techniques; exhibit catalogues; traveling exhibits; estimating costs; and loans and insurance. over drawings and photographs illustrate the text. the appendices include sample forms and a list of suppliers of exhibit equipment. pages, softbound. $ to saa members, $ to others. order from the society of american archivists, s. wells, suite , chicago, il . a postage and handling charge will be added to all non-prepaid orders. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / fall the international scene ronald j. plavchan.mfor we are indebted to the following correspondents: australia: r. g. neale; austria: josef riegler; bahamas/caribbean: d. gail saunders; brazil: maria amelia gomes leite; china: sun fangjiu; federal republic of germany: wolfram werner; finland: eljas orrman; france: michael duchein; german democratic republic: horst schetelich; england & wales: bruce jackson; india/swarbica: n. h. kulkarnee; israel: haya wolovsky; italy: donato tamble; malawi/east and central africa: steve m. mwiyeriwa; malaysia/sarbica: zakiah hanum nor; netherlands: t. p. huijs; new zealand: judith s. hornabrook; nigeria/west africa: j. c. enwere; organization of american states: celso rodriguez; peru/ala: cesar gutierrez murioz; poland: jerzy szczepariski; scotland: andrew m. jackson; senegal/west africa: m. saliou mbaye; solomon islands/ oceania: r. g. a. chesterman; south africa: maryna fraser; spain: margarita vazquez de parga, vatican city: claudio de dominicis; and zimbabwe: r. g. s. douglas. argentina publisher seeks permission to print selected american archivist articles in spanish. the publishing firm, major ediciones, of cordoba, has sought permission to print selected articles from the american archivist in the new publication, el mundo de los archi- vos. seven articles have been selected by the publisher and translated into spanish. since the new journal is intended to acquaint spanish and latin-american archivists with basic archival knowledge in their own language, the publisher selected articles dealing with such topics as sampling, appraisal, accessioning, preservation, records centers, and new viewpoints on establishing state archives. canada archivaria offices have moved. since , when archivaria first appeared as the official journal of the association of canadian archivists (aca), the public archives of canada (pac) has been the business address for the journal. as of june , the campus of the university of british columbia became the new home of archivaria. all corre- spondence relating to the journal should now be sent to the following address: archivaria, school of librarianship, university of british columbia, main hall, vancouver, b.c. v t y . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall aca annual conference. the ac a held its annual conference at the public archives of nova scotia in halifax, - june . the theme of the conference was "total archives: blessing or burden?" efforts toward establishment of a national archival records commission. the president of aca has been writing to various archivists as well as to government officials at various levels to solicit their support of the aca proposal to have the federal gov- ernment establish a national archival records commission. in his letters, president kent m. haworth included a copy of the aca response to the social sciences and humanities research council of canada (sshrcc) consultative group report on canadian archives, and a copy of the aca response to the applebaum/herbert cultural policy review committee. both the symons report ( ) and the consultative group report ( ) have documented the neglect of archives in canada. the association for canadian stud- ies and the canadian historical association have also been asked to support this cause by adopting the resolution calling for creation of a national archival records commis- sion. the purpose of the national commission would be to set priorities for the devel- opment of archives and assist in the coordination of federal and provincial funding programs devoted to the preservation and use of historical records. it is also assumed that, once the federal government has established the national commission, the provinces would likewise establish provincial archival coordinating boards. exhibits at the public archives. to observe as canada's census year, pac pre- pared a small exhibit entitled "census, - ." it ran from march through june . thirty items, including a facsimile of the first census ( ) and several sample census forms that had been used over the years, comprised the exhibit. another exhibit at pac marked the occasion of the international year of the handicapped. the national photography collection mounted an exhibit of twenty-two photographs, entitled "the magic word," which ran from february to june . the photographs were taken in by canadian-born photographer john reeves, and document the various activities of l'arche (ark), a community home for mentally handicapped persons estab- lished in france by jean vanier, the son of canada's former governor general. new russo-ukranian mennonite project. the mennonite heritage centre, winnipeg, manitoba, through a gift from isaac p. klassen, has begun an archives and research program in russian mennonite studies. the four aims of the new project are: ( ) to prepare an exhaustive listing of existing printed and archival holdings of russian men- nonite-related materials in the centre's library and archives; ( ) to add other items to the collection; ( ) to expand existing bibliographies of books, articles, dissertations, studies, and monographs published on mennonites in russia; and ( ) to initiate various study projects to explore untapped areas of russian mennonite research. a special advisory committee has been set up to provide guidance and assistance to the project. public archives of prince edward island slated to move. during the spring of , the public archives of prince edward island will be relocated on the third floor of the old court house building, which is adjacent to the historic province house. the move from the confederation centre, charlottetown, is prompted by the need for more space. first annual meeting of the alberta society of archivists. the alberta society of archivists, organized in march , held its first annual general meeting on march , at the university of alberta, edmonton. the meeting was held in conjunction with a one-day workshop on aacr (anglo-american cataloging rules ). some thirty-six people attended the meeting to discuss and vote on a draft constitution for the society. to handle the society's business until it is registered under the alberta societies act, the members present elected a five-member interim executive committee. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene disaster planning workshop sponsored by toronto area archivists. on april , the toronto area archivists group (taag) sponsored a one-day workshop on disaster planning. the workshop was held at george brown college's st. james campus. topics covered during the workshop included preventative measures, developing a dis- aster contingency plan, initial coping with a disaster, and salvage efforts. england & wales society of archivists annual conference, . the society of archivists held its annual conference in belfast, northern ireland, - march. the travel distance to the site of the annual meeting resulted in lesser attendance this year than in previous years, but seventy delegates did attend the conference. discussions included one on the report of the working party on retention schedules for local government social work records, which was set up by the society's records management group. the report may be published by the society as one of the records management group's occasional papers series. other group papers to be published deal with the removal of a records center, and the effects of office automation on records management. the records management group itself has a rapidly expanding membership, and is continuing its policy of holding seminars around the country. by involving businessmen and administrators as well as archivists/records managers, the group seeks to stimulate knowledge of and interest in records management techniques. freedom of information bill suffers setback. hopes for passage into law of a private member's bill in the house of commons, aimed at freeing more information from gov- ernment sources and repealing a section of the official secrets act, were dashed in february . the conservative government by use of procedural tactics and a calling up of their "payroll-vote" forced the bill out, stating that it could not be justified on dual grounds: expense, and that parliament and the general public were being told more by the present government than by many previous governments. this latter view is disputed by many individuals, including some conservative mps. wilson report on modern public records submitted. in the first major reappraisal of its own record keeping since the mid- s, the government received in april the report of the committee chaired by sir duncan wilson. the report, while ranging widely in its considerations on the selection of and access to modern public records, opposed any major restructuring of the records review procedures as established under the recommendations of the grigg report and embodied in the public records act of . the committee especially rejected the concept of a national archives and rec- ords service in the british context, and argued that the grigg report, with its five and twenty-five-year reviews, is basically sound. the main problems the wilson committee found are familiar to records managers: failure to use sufficient or qualified staff for the review process. other recommendations in the report include longer opening hours at the public record office, and a more constructive and imaginative use of microfilming as a conservation measure for modern departmental records. the committee also believes that immediate action must be taken to preserve machine-readable records, and urgently recommends the establishment of a data archives center and other measures. criticism of the royal historical manuscripts commission. evidence of an increasing public awareness of the importance of the archival heritage was revealed on june , when the government was pressured into publishing a report submitted by the civil service department, a report critical of the workings of the seventeen-member royal historical manuscripts commission (hmc). the hmc, initially established in by queen victoria, is responsible for recording the location and content of archives in d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall private possession and listing them in a national register, and advising the government on the acceptance of manuscripts in lieu of tax and death duties. it also plays a general advisory role to private record owners. although the government had demanded that the department produce the report in thirteen weeks, it failed to reveal any findings upon receipt of the report in april , nor has any action been taken. the government acknowledges that it would have never published the report had there not been much criticism about it after printed correspondence in the times. daniel caplan, a former civil servant appointed by the department to draw up the report, criticized the hmc, which is comprised of senior academics and possessors (mainly aristocratic) of private archives, as a "self-perpetuating body," too dominated by old men who meet too infre- quently (once every six months) to deal with matters fully. the report recommends a maximum age of seventy-five for hmc members and a limit of five years service on the commission, and it also suggests removal of the present prohibition on the inclusion of professional archivists. if hmc fails to comply with the recommendations of the report within five years, the commission recommends the abolition of the hmc. this is the first independent commission to investigate the hmc since its formation in . finland new archives law enacted. during the past two decades, changes in the state admin- istration and records management, together with advances in information handling tech- niques, have resulted in new tasks for the public archives. although the law on public archives ( ) was considered very modern and met the needs of time, it had become inadequate in some respects. in , efforts were started to modernize finland's archival legislation. on december , parliament enacted the law on archives (promulgated on february ), which replaces the law, but does not become effective until january . according to the new law, the valtionarkisto (national archives), as it has been doing, functions as a central administrative board to instruct, supervise, and develop the administration of archives of the state administration and municipal authorities. a notice- able change is that the archival authorities, the valtionarkisto and the provincial archives, are better able to give instruction and advice concerning records management. the new law also defines more precisely the term record. in addition to the traditional paper records, it now classifies maps, drawings, pictures, films, recordings on punchtape or magnetic tape, and other similar materials accumulated as the result of official functions as records, and so subject to the archival legislation. by , every state agency or governmental office must issue special archival regu- lations as may be necessary to comply with the provisions of the new law. among the things agency officials will need to do is to identify the record-producing units within the agency, establish records registration procedures, and prepare general disposal schedules for different records series. central archives for business records established. for many years, the business archives association has had as one of its goals the establishment of a central archival repository for the preservation of historical records of business enterprises. in , the central organizations of commerce and industry, together with other related or interested associations, established a foundation for the maintenance of such an archives. with financial assistance from the government, the realization became a possibility. in may , the central business archives began operations in the city of mikkeli. prior to the establishment of this business archives, the preservation of the older rec- ords of finnish commercial and industrial businesses had been haphazard. some of the large business firms have their own well-managed archives, and some provincial archives d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene have accessioned the records of smaller enterprises. economic historians have repeatedly lamented the irreparable loss to research when companies have gone out of business and their valuable records have vanished. the situation should now be different with the opening of the central business archives, for it will acquire and preserve business archives of historical value as source material for research and make them available to scholars. south africa conservation survey underway. the libraries of the university of cape town, in cooperation with the association for archivists and manuscript librarians (aml b/ ambib), are conducting a survey into conservation practices in south africa. a ques- tionnaire was circulated with recent issues of the amlib/ambib newsletter. the editors are hoping to publish the results of the questionnaire in a subsequent issue of the news- letter. fourth south african conference of bibliophiles. the fourth south african confer- ence of bibliophiles was held, - september , at the south african library in cape town. papers presented at the four-day conference covered a wide range of topics, including black writers in south africa. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril for people who know all about records storage paige boxes are for professionals, experienced people who have learned all about the equipment available for handling, transporting, and storage of records, microfilm, data processing material, and computer printouts. those people know that paige files are durable equipment at lowest possible cost. available acid free. prices at wholesale level. no sales people. no distributors. no stores. write for brochure, prices, case histories. the paige company park avenue south new york, n.y. d or - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / fall news notes f. l. eaton and thomas e. weir, jr., editors send notes for publication to the news notes editor, the american archivist, national archives building, washington, dc , or to one of the following reporters: state and local archives to richard j. cox, records management division, department of legisla- tive reference, city of baltimore, md ; religious archives to john r. woodard, p.o. box , reynolda station, winston-salem, nc ; scientific and technical archives to arthur r. abel, national park service, edison national historic site, main street and lakeside avenue, west orange, nj ; business archives to linda ed- gerly, w. th street, new york, ny ; state and regional archival associations to alice vestal, special collections department, main library, room , university of cincinnati, cincinnati, oh ; and manuscript repositories to peter j. parker, histor- ical society of pennsylvania, manuscripts department, locust street, philadelphia, pa . the american institute of physics, center for the history of physics, has completed its study of records manage- ment and appraisal at major physics lab- oratories, particularly of the department of energy. in addition to identifying materials valuable for the history of phys- ics, the project produced two sets of guidelines: "handbook for doe secretar- ies and files administrators," and "appraisal guidelines: selection of per- manent records of doe laboratory man- agement and policy and physics research." for further information on the project and its products, write: joan warnow, american institute of physics, center for the history of physics, east th st., new york, ny . the charles babbage institute for the history of information processing is con- ducting a nationwide survey of , archival, governmental, and industrial institutions to determine if they hold rec- ords and artifacts that document the tech- nical and socio-economic development of information processing. the survey is being conducted by mail questionnaires, and each institution is invited to submit general information on archives or manu- script holdings that contain historical source materials related to information processing. computer corporations and allied industries are requested to provide a brief overview of the types of computer- related records generated and maintained by individual companies. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist/ fall the institute will use the preliminary data to evaluate current practices in sci- ence and technology documentation and to alert librarians, archivists, and com- puter professionals to the importance of preserving historical resources in the field of information processing. for more information write to roger h. stuewer and maria woroby, the charles babbage institute, walter library, pleasant st. se., university of minnesota, minne- apolis, mn . the cincinnati art museum and the art academy of cincinnati have estab- lished a joint archives, through an nhprc grant. the material, dating from to , consists of correspondence; exhibi- tion records and other museum docu- ments; student and faculty information from the academy, where many well- known artists studied and taught; and photographs from both institutions. important documents and photographs from the archives are being used in the museum's centennial exhibition, "art pal- ace of the west," through august . in february, the cincinnati historical society launched a $ million sesquicen- tennial challenge grant fund drive in response to an neh challenge grant. funds generated by this campaign will go for one-time conservation projects such as construction of a carpentry shop, pur- chase of shelving for general collections, restoration and organization of museum objects, processing and microfilming of architectural drawings, and purchase of the library equipment needed for research and conservation. remaining money will be placed in the endowment fund, with the income designated for the establish- ment of an in-house conservation pro- gram. an act passed by the georgia gen- eral assembly, amending the geor- gia records act, will help counties, munic- ipalities, school boards, and courts to con- trol their mounting collections of old records. the amendments are designed so that the governing body of the state and of each county, municipality, and consol- idated government will have a records management plan by january . the georgia department of archives and his- tory will provide training and assistance to local governments, as required. one fea- ture of the new law is its provision for these governing bodies to place significant historical records in the state archives. the la crosse public library, of la crosse, wisconsin, has formed a depart- ment of local history and archives, which will have as its major collecting areas the city of la crosse, the surround- ing communities, and the mississippi river valley adjacent to la crosse. adjacent to the historic san fernando mission, the archdiocese of los angeles has completed a two-story archival facility which doubles the storage area available for the archives of the archdiocese. this new building includes a work room, a walk-in vault, offices for the archivist and secretary, a large library, and a display the mennonite library and archives at bethel college has prepared a guide to its manuscript and archival holdings. the -page book contains the registers of and an index to personal manuscript collections. also included are outlines of every archival series, and descriptions of each special collection. for more infor- mation, contact david a. haury, menno- nite library and archives, north newton, kansas . the michigan archival association announces the publication of a program for disaster response in michigan. t h e doc- ument is intended to provide guidance and a sense of order to those faced with a natural disaster. the publication includes six sections: ( ) preparation for disaster response, ( ) guidelines to follow during the recovery operation, ( ) a checklist for supplies and equipment, ( ) sources for supplies, ( ) consultants, and ( ) a bibliog- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes raphy. though the publication is directed toward institutions in michigan, those elsewhere also may find parts of it useful. copies are available for $ from: richard harms, maa secretary, archives & his- torical collections, eg- main library, michigan state university, east lansing, michigan . the michigan state library will be the recipient of the funding of a statewide project begun by the michigan genea- logical council, to gather and preserve church and cemetery records. for more information, contact ms. carol ring, phillips ave., berkley, michigan . the mississippi state legislature passed, and the governor signed "an act to establish a comprehensive archives and records management program for mississippi." the law is a culmination of a long effort to achieve records manage- ment for mississippi, and appropriates $ , to the department of archives and history to administer the program for fiscal . in april, a special exhibit opened in the john ben snow room of the elmer holmes bobst library, initiating a year- long celebration of the th anniversary of the founding of new york university. the exhibit, "a sesquicentennial exhibi- tion: new york university - ," features photographs, documents, and other memorabilia, many of which were drawn from the new york university archives. this exhibit will be on display through june . the regional history center at north- ern illinois university, with the help of a grant from neh, has recently com- pleted a three-year project to collect manuscript materials documenting the history of the northern illinois region. with the completion of the grant, the cen- ter became a fully integrated department within the university and now includes three major sections: regional collections, university archives, and local public rec- ords which are a part of the illinois regional archives depository system. the center's spindex-generated guide will be completed in . a new publication, national archives computer data bulletin, provides informa- tion on the holdings, functions, and ref- erence services of the machine-readable archives division of the national archives. the first issue (spring ) includes articles on military files, educa- tion data, appraisal methods, and record center .activities. the new jersey state library's bureau of archives has received a grant from the caroline foster fund of the joint free public library of morristown and morris township, to complete the microfilming of nineteenth-century non-population census schedules for new jersey. the money will be used to film the products of agriculture schedules in the and censuses. the poor condition of these records had previously limited their accessibility. in august , san diego initiated a city-wide comprehensive records manage- ment program. administered by the city clerk, it is intended to reduce the prolif- erating stock of records maintained in active storage, convert expensive office space from filing to more productive pur- poses, standardize record-keeping proce- dures, reduce the labor spent on records processing, consolidate filing and records handling equipment, and provide for the preservation of historical records. in an initial review of the existing state of the city's records by its records man- agement officer, many problem areas were identified. the review pointed to the inadequacy of the current records reten- tion schedules in meeting legal and administrative requirements, inappro- priate records classification systems which reduce retrieval capabilities, inefficient storage of records in high-cost office space, the lack of low-cost storage space to d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall accommodate additional records, and technological alternatives to records stor- age. to address these conditions, the pro- gram is composed of the following key elements: records control, forms manage- ment, archives, and a program for vital records. it is anticipated that all program phases will be developed by late , with full implementation occurring in about two years. the computerized survey of local his- tory resources, compiled by the santiago library system southern california con- sortium heritage project, is now available for distribution. the survey was devel- oped in as a means to respond to the constant requests by library patrons for local historical information not found in publications. one hundred and fifty-three institutions, organizations, and agencies located in inyo, los angeles, orange, riv- erside, and san bernardino counties responded to the request for collection information. the heritage project was funded dur- ing the planning and implementation phases by a grant from neh. because other county agencies have requested to be included in the survey, a new grant proposal has been submitted to neh, as well as to private foundations. the cost for a copy of the survey is $ , including postage. for additional infor- mation, write to the heritage project, e. chapman ave., placentia, ca . on may , at the winthrop col- lege archives and special collections, the recently formed archives and special collections roundtable of the south car- olina library association held its first workshop. the workshop was entitled, "organizing archival collections: a basic workshop," and was geared toward librar- ians, archivists, and others responsible for an archives but with little training in archi- val principles or practices. archivists from south carolina gave presentations on various subjects, includ- ing arrangement and description, geneal- ogy, conservation and security, oral his- tory, and exhibits. archivists on the pro- gram came from the south caroliniana library, furman university archives, the greenville public library, the university of south carolina library school, the south carolina department of archives and history, and the winthrop college archives. the roundtable plans to hold more workshops in the future, concentrating on specific aspects of archives administration. the technology applications commit- tee, information technology division, special libraries association, is collecting information on library and related appli- cations using new technologies, particu- larly microcomputers, video discs, word processors, and in-house retrieval systems. anyone who can supply such information is asked to contact the division chairman, nolan f. pope, university of florida, uni- versity libraries, gainesville, fl . effective july , utah's state archivist will be a political appointee. through senate bill , central admin- istrative services act, a bill creating an office comparable to the u.s. general ser- vices administration, the state archives will be one of seven divisions of a new department, with each division head being designated as deputy. despite a telegram and letter-writing campaign from the society of american archivists and many members of the con- ference of intermountain archivists, the advice of lobbying archivists was ignored. the bill was saved until the next to the last day of the legislative session, when word went out that there were to be no substantive changes if the legislature was to receive any preferential treatment from the governor's office on several other pieces of legislation important to the law- makers. john sillito, chairman of the confer- ence of intermountain archivists, was on the floor of the legislature talking to law d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes makers when the bill was introduced; and he was successful in orchestrating one change. sillito asked that the word "archi- val" be inserted so the bill would read: "the executive director of the department of administrative services, with approval of the governor, shall appoint an archivist and records administrator who is qualified by archival education, training, and expe- rience to direct the division of archives and records." this, he maintains, was a small compromise, but one that will, at the very least, provide that an archivist be appointed rather than a general manager. dow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril religious archives: an introduction by august r. suelflow written by a distinguished pioneer in north american religious archives, religious archives: an introduction provides needed guidance in this period of unprecedented growth in the field. topics addressed include the history and nature of religious archives, the place of the archives in religious organizations, collections policies, basic requirements for an archival program, acquisitions and processing, reference services, exhibits, publications, photoduplication, and microfilming. over photographs illustrate the test. pages of sample forms are also included. pp., paper. $ . saa members, $ . others. order directly from the society of american archivists, s. wells, suite , chicago, il . a postage and handling charge will be added to all non-prepaid orders. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / vol. , no. / fall the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor minutes: council meeting, - january president ruth helmuth called the meeting to order at : p.m. at airlie house, warrenton, virginia. present were vice president edward weldon, treasurer mary lynn mccree, and council members edmund berkeley, jr., lynn a. bonfield, shonnie fin- negan, meyer h. fishbein, robert gordon, richard h. lytle, paul h. mccarthy, jr., and virginia c. purdy. executive director ann morgan campbell attended without vote. the proposed agenda for the meeting was adopted and the minutes of council's september-october meetings were approved. president's report. a. president helmuth reported that she had appointed david b. gracy ii to complete edward weldon's term on the national historical publications and records commission. weldon resigned his commission seat when he was appointed dep- uty archivist of the united states. shonnie finnegan has been selected by the general services administration from a slate of nominees provided by the society to fill saa's seat on the national archives advisory council. b. president helmuth has sent an interim response to the office of personnel man- agement, providing the society's views on opm's study of position descriptions and qualifications for the federal government's archivist and archives technician job classifi- cations. c. the council joined president helmuth in expressing appreciation to mary jane dowd, outgoing chair of the awards committee, for her thorough review and revisions to the provisions for the conduct of the society's awards program. d. after hearing president helmuth's report of recent activities directed toward encouraging native americans in their efforts to preserve tribal archives, council passed the following resolution, moved by mary lynn mccree and seconded by richard lytle: the society of american archivists endorses the concept of the native american archives project, and wishes to commend herman viola for his efforts in developing it. the society wishes to inform the native american archives project steering committee that saa is supportive of its efforts. e. president helmuth reported that she had received a communication from the com- mittee on the status of women in the archival profession, indicating that the committee wished to defer its request for council's approval of an employment monitoring project. the committee's agenda will be filled with other activities this year. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall treasurer's report. mccree reported that she has received several suggestions from the membership regarding possible sources of external funding for society activities. on a motion made by finnegan, seconded by purdy, the president was authorized to create a committee charged with exploring the possibility of external fund raising. executive director's report. a. campbell reported on the society's financial per- formance for the first six months of the fiscal year. based on anticipated receipts from the new dues schedule, which takes effect in january , campbell predicted that the deficit expected in the budget would be erased. b. the investigation being conducted by the office of the gsa inspector-general, of the thirty-year-old relationship between the national archives, and the society and its journal, the american archivist, was reviewed by campbell. gsa investigators visited campbell without prior notice, in mid-june . at that time she was fully responsive to their questions about the nature of the cooperative relationship for the publication of the journal. several national archives employees have also been questioned in the inves- tigation. campbell received a subpoena in december from the office of the inspector general, requiring the society to produce copies of five-year runs of over twenty saa records series. in subsequent discussions, the requirements were narrowed to materials relevant to the business operations of the american archivist, the topic of the subpoena. according to the executive director, the investigation appears to be proceeding very slowly, even though everyone involved from the society's perspective has promptly fur- nished all information requested about the american archivist. campbell suggested that the manner in which the investigation has been conducted has led many to conclude that it was begun as a result of the society's stands on inde- pendence of the national archives, in general; and in opposition to gsa administrator freeman's interference in professional activities of the national archives, in particular. c. campbell reported that the program committee, influenced by evaluations of the annual meeting, had changed the format of the berkeley meeting to schedule pag meetings concurrently with program sessions. publications committee report. a. virginia purdy reported that the committee recommended the insertion of a publication on museum archives as the sixth title in the second series of basic manuals now being produced under a grant from the national historical publications and records commission. council approved the committee's rec- ommendation on a motion made by purdy and seconded by mccree. b. president helmuth reported that she had accepted purdy's resignation as chair of the publications committee. the president proposed to institute a search for a part-time editor to coordinate the society's efforts in the non-periodical publication area. in a motion made by berkeley, seconded by weldon, the executive committee was authorized to conduct such a search and select a person to begin work on or about july . the publications committee was abolished. president helmuth proposed that the editorial board be asked to assume advisory responsibilities for the society's non-periodical publications as well as the journal. she will contact members of the board to ask if they are willing to assume this broader responsibility. other business: meeting site. on a motion made by mccree and seconded by lytle, the washington, d.c., area was named as the society's meeting site. the executive director was instructed to continue to investigate both hotel and campus sites for the meeting. the meeting was recessed at : p.m. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists the meeting resumed at : a.m., january. the council was joined by larry j. hackman, chair of the program committee, and two members of his committee, linda henry and victoria irons walch. after a presentation by hackman and a discus- sion, council approved the following resolution introduced by finnegan and seconded by weldon: council welcomes the recommendation of the program committee that the society should promote great involvement of the society and the profession in the concept of planning. because of council's support of this concept, it directs that: ( ) the president, with the advice of the vice president, shall immediately appoint a small task force to receive orientation in the process of long-range planning, to develop a plan for operation of a major society task force, and to prepare for submission to council at its spring meeting a draft of a grant proposal. ( ) this grant proposal, as modified and approved by council, shall ask a funding agency to provide funds to enable a major society task force to prepare a program of involvement of archivists at all levels, and of the profession in general, in planning. ( ) a sum of up to $ , is appropriated to the small task force to enable it to meet and to consult with a professional planner who will assist in its work. national information systems project. at the conclusion of a report from richard lytle about the work of the society's nis task force, which he directs, the council unani- mously expressed its appreciation to him and his working group for their effective lead- ership in this significant area of professional concern. additionally, on a motion made by finnegan and seconded by gordon, council adopted a position paper submitted by the task force, and directed that it be published in the saa newsletter and distributed to other interested parties. constitutional revision. after extended consideration of the proposed revisions in the society's constitution, received from the constitutional revision task force, council created a conference committee to discuss the document further. the group, chaired by weldon, will include chairman j. frank cook of the committee; two committee members selected by cook; and two members of council, named by president helmuth. museum archives task force. on a motion by purdy, seconded by mccarthy, council authorized the creation of a task force on museum archives. federal funding for archives. campbell sought and received guidance from the council about the society's policy in response to anticipated federal budget cuts that will affect archival programs. saa will work to seek restored funding for die national archives and records service, the national historical publications and records commission, and the national endowment for the humanities. the meeting was recessed at : p.m. the meeting reconvened at : a.m., january. nhprc national data base proposal. the nis position paper adopted by council will be submitted in response to nhprc's request for comments on its national data base proposal. additionally, on a motion made by bonfield, seconded by finnegan, president helmuth was authorized to send a letter explicating the concerns of council and other archivists to mccree and gracy, saa's nhprc commissioners, for transmission by them to the commission. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist / fall saa study tours. council affirmed a long-standing position of the society that it does not compensate society members who have organized travel tours on behalf of the society. professional affinity groups. the council conducted an intensive discussion of the devel- opment of professional affinity groups, which included reviewing the correspondence received from pag chairs, considering a name change, and suggesting the possibility of increased direction from council. it was decided to schedule a meeting of pag chairs and council at the berkeley meeting, for further discussion, especially as the council would like to continue the policy that each pag establish its own procedures and goals. in addition to the two mailings sent out to each pag membership, the chicago office will also provide all pag chairs with copies of mailings sent out from each other pag chair to members. addi- tionally, pag chairs will receive regular updates on society activities. the meeting was adjourned at : noon. ann morgan campbell, executive director recent deaths david c. mearns, december — may . the life of david mearns gave testimony to the accuracy of thomas carlyle's description of the true university as a collection of books. david mearns forsook formal higher education after a year of it, and in went to work in the library of congress. in the horatio alger tradition, more familiar then than now, he started at the bottom and worked his way to the top and all the while grew rich, not in material things but in treasures of the mind and spirit, and in friends. his first position was as a humble reference assistant in the order department. in he began nineteen years of service in the reading rooms and stacks, in a succession of positions until he was appointed superintendent of the reading room in . in the war years of - he moved rapidly upward through still other posts until he became director of the reference department. he was appointed assistant librarian in , and in he was named assistant librarian for the american collections, chief of the manuscript division, and incumbent in the chair of american history. from these several positions and active service he retired in . this greatly surprised all who knew him and who confidently expected him to stay a full half-century. he was not able. however, he continued until his association with the library, his alma mater, as honorary consultant in the humanities. from the library david mearns learned much, and from the library he taught many. he became widely known as the master of several subjects, but he was best known for the wealth of his information, and his publications, on abraham lincoln and the civil war, and the history of the library of congress, and the life of its best known librarian, herbert putnam. indeed, the world so constantly consulted him on the life and lore of lincoln that some wags came to speak of lincoln as the one true god and mearns as his prophet, and the library as the holy see of the church of a. lincoln. hearing this gave the prophet much amusement, for he had an irrepressible sense of humor, from which he drew a fine perspective and a healthy outlook on life. his good humor underlay his conspicuous proclivities as playful wordsmith and punster, and permitted him to suffer fools and foolishness with an outward courtesy and an inward amusement. learning from david mearns was always pleasant and entertaining, as he meant it to be. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the wpa historical records survey a guide to the unpublished inventories, indexes, and transcripts compiled by loretta l. hefner this guide is the product of a survey of unpublished hrs materials conducted by the society of american archivists with a grant from the national endowment for the humanities. it lists repositories in the united states which hold hrs materials. the guide contains summaries of hrs activity in each state, separate entries for repositories in which hrs materials have been located and lists of specific holdings in each repository. detailed lists of counties, municipalities, and denominations that are covered by inventory forms in specific project areas are included on microfiche. ( ) pp., paper. $ saa members, $ others. a postage and handling charge will be added to all non-prepaid orders. to place an order or to obtain a complete list of saa publications, write the society of american archivists, s.weils st., suite , chicago, il . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril .the. american archivist volume the american archivist virginia c. pur dy, editor douglas penn stickley, jr., assistant editor department editors christopher m. beam, brenda beasley kepley, reviews shorter features ronald j. plavchan, international scene ben dewhitt, technical notes mary elizabeth ruwell, reviews f. l. eaton, news notes michael j. sullivan, shorter features paul v. guite, bibliography thomas e. weir, jr., news notes editorial board francis x. blouin, jr. j. r. k. kantor j. frank cook trudy huskamp peterson mabel e. deutrich james b. rhoads ruth w. helmuth hugh a. taylor the society of american archivists president ruth w. helmuth vice president edward weldon treasurer mary lynn mccree executive director ann morgan campbell council members edmund berkeley, jr. robert s. gordon lynn a. bonfield richard h. lytle shonnie finnegan paul h. mccarthy meyer h. fishbein virginia c. purdy published quarterly by the society of american archivists d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril contents of volume , articles three pious hopes ruth w. helmuth finding aids: a multi-media, systems perspective nancy sahli efficient finding aids: developing a system for control of archives and manuscripts lydia lucas archival training in europe william j. orr the future course of archival theory in the united states frank g. burke trouble is my business: a private view of "public" history david a. clary social history and archival practice fredric m. miller sampling in archives frank boles citation patterns and documentation for the history of science: some methodological considerations clark a. elliott no grandfather clause: reappraising accessioned records leonard rapport access to government information in canada: some recent developments richard j. bazillion the practicum: a repository view william g. lefurgy archives in the seventies: promises and fulfillment philip p. mason archival strategies for the post-custodial era f. gerald ham american archival theory: the state of the art harold t. pinkett the varnhagen collection is in krakow deborah hertz d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the challenge of nuclear power development records george t. mazuzan the minnesota basic workshops project james e. fogerty the distribution and pattern of nhprc records program funding in the states, - sandra p. anderson, larry j. hackman, timothy walch photocopying in archives timothy prentiss and william e. brown education for american archivists: a view from the trenches ruth w. helmuth ernst posner: the bridge between the old world and the new rodney a. ross theodore r. schellenberg: americanizer and popularizer jane f. smith morris leon radoff: the man and the monument marcia d. talley "the world turned upside down": reference priorities and the state archives phebe r. jacobsen faculty papers and special-subject repositories jane wolff oral history in american business archives gary d. saretzky collection processing as a team effort richard m. kesner, susan tannewitz karnes, anne sims, and michael shandor folklore and paper restoration l. d. geller departments the forum , , , shorter features , , reviews , , , professional reading , technical notes , , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the international scene , , news notes , , , the society of american archivists , , , the president's page , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril n€w it€ms! just o/ the many new items in our - catalog o/ archival quality materials. frcdclka formula leather preservativ^restorer archival aids dook repair tope d k& print cleaner gallery print boxes f send for your free catalog today! university products, inc. p.o. box • so. canal st. • holyoke. ma d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .m n l ql by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril [pdf] web camera use in the neonatal intensive care unit: impact on nursing workflow | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /cmr. . corpus id: web camera use in the neonatal intensive care unit: impact on nursing workflow @article{joshi webcu, title={web camera use in the neonatal intensive care unit: impact on nursing workflow}, author={a. joshi and p. chyou and zoya tirmizi and j. gross}, journal={clinical medicine & research}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	a. joshi, p. chyou, + author j. gross 	published 	medicine 	clinical medicine & research background many neonatal intensive care units (nicu) are using web camera systems to allow virtual visitation of the infant by family members. generally, families appreciate the web camera and utilize this service. however, no one has looked into the change on nursing workload after implementation of a web camera. objective this study was designed to explore the perception of nurses and their workflow and identify determinants that may disrupt or facilitate the use of a commercially available… expand view on publisher clinmedres.org save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citationsbackground citations results citations view all tables and topics from this paper 	 table 	 table 	 table 	 table 	intensive care units, neonatal 	neonatal intensive care 	infant, newborn 	intensive care unit 	infant care citations citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by relevance sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency neonatal nurses’ perceptions of using live streaming video cameras to view infants in a regional nicu 	meegan kilcullen, y. kandasamy, + authors m. baxter 	psychology 	 	 save alert research feed the impact of web-cameras on parent-infant attachment in the neonatal intensive care unit. 	rachel gibson, meegan kilcullen 	medicine 	journal of pediatric nursing 	 save alert research feed use of an internet camera system in the neonatal intensive care unit: parental and nursing perspectives and its effects on stress 	z. kubicka, e. zahr, p. clark, d. williams, l. berbert, b. arzuaga 	medicine 	journal of perinatology 	 	pdf 	view excerpt, cites results save alert research feed parents’ and healthcare professionals’ perceptions of the use of live video recording in neonatal units: a focus group study 	aude le bris, nadia mazille-orfanos, + authors p. pladys 	medicine 	bmc pediatrics 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background and results save alert research feed parent stress in relation to use of bedside telehealth, an initiative to improve family-centeredness of care in the neonatal intensive care unit 	katherine f guttmann, c. patterson, + authors j. chuo 	medicine 	journal of patient experience 	 	 	view excerpts, cites background save alert research feed asynchronous video messaging promotes family involvement and mitigates separation in neonatal care 	s. kirolos, lynsey sutcliffe, + authors n. patel 	medicine 	archives of disease in childhood 	 	pdf save alert research feed a password-protected web site for mothers expressing milk for their preterm infants 	maryann blatz, donna dowling, p. underwood, a. bieda, g. graham 	medicine 	advances in neonatal care : official journal of the national association of neonatal nurses 	 	 save alert research feed transition to parenthood in the neonatal care unit: a qualitative study and conceptual model designed to illuminate parent and professional views of the impact of webcam technology 	s. kerr, c. king, + authors s. ainsworth 	medicine 	bmc pediatrics 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed integrative review of technology to support communication with parents of infants in the nicu 	e. epstein, jaqueline arechiga, margaret dancy, jordan simon, daniel wilson, jeanne l. alhusen 	medicine 	journal of obstetric, gynecologic, and neonatal nursing : jognn 	 	 	 save alert research feed impact of social media interventions and tools among informal caregivers of critically ill patients after patient admission to the intensive care unit: a scoping review 	stephana j cherak, b. rosgen, + authors k. fiest 	medicine 	plos one 	 	pdf 	view excerpt save alert research feed ... ... references showing - of references sort byrelevance most influenced papers recency virtual visitation in the neonatal intensive care: experience with the use of internet and telemedicine in a tertiary neonatal unit. 	c. yeo, selina k y ho, k. khong, yy lau 	medicine 	the permanente journal 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed challenges of implementation of a web-camera system in the neonatal intensive care unit 	sarah j. rhoads, a. green, shannon d. lewis, l. rakes 	computer science, medicine 	neonatal network 	 	 save alert research feed perceptions of webcams in the neonatal intensive care unit: here's looking at you kid! 	g. hawkes, v. livingstone, c. ryan, e. dempsey 	medicine 	american journal of perinatology 	 	 save alert research feed videophone use improves maternal interest in transported infants. 	r. piecuch, r. roth, r. clyman, s. sniderman, p. riedel, r. ballard 	medicine 	critical care medicine 	 	 save alert research feed staff workload and adverse events during mechanical ventilation in neonatal intensive care units. 	f. lamy filho, a. silva, j. m. lopes, z. c. lamy, v. simões, a. d. dos santos 	medicine 	jornal de pediatria 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed successful implementation of new technologies in nursing care: a questionnaire survey of nurse-users 	a. veer, m. fleuren, n. bekkema, a. francke 	medicine, computer science 	bmc medical informatics decis. mak. 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed neonatal intensive care nurse stressors: an american study. 	l. heuer, m. bengiamin, v. downey, n. j. imler 	medicine 	british journal of nursing 	 	 save alert research feed mothers in the nicu: outsider to partner. 	j. heermann, m. wilson, patricia a. wilhelm 	medicine 	pediatric nursing 	 	 save alert research feed patient volume, staffing, and workload in relation to risk-adjusted outcomes in a random stratified sample of uk neonatal intensive care units: a prospective evaluation. 	j. tucker 	medicine 	lancet 	 	 save alert research feed carga de trabalho de profissionais da saúde e eventos adversos durante ventilação mecânica em unidades de terapia intensiva neonatal 	f. l. filho, a. silva, j. m. lopes, z. c. lamy, v. simões, a. m. d. santos 	medicine 	 	 	pdf save alert research feed ... ... related papers 	abstract 	tables and topics 	 citations 	 references 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue settlement abandonment: a case study of walhachin all rights reserved © urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine, ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : urban history review revue d'histoire urbaine settlement abandonment a case study of walhachin nelson riis resources for the study of urban history in the public archives of canada numéro , june uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer cet article riis, n. ( ). settlement abandonment: a case study of walhachin. urban history review / revue d'histoire urbaine,( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ -n -uhr / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/uhr/ settlement abandonment a case study of walhachin many settlements in western canada have failed. to date, most research has tended to ignore these urban failures and has concentrated on those centers which eventually evolved into thriving communities. much has been written to explain the factors responsible for the growth of successful communities. but, failure factors are certainly as valid as success factors in attempting to understand the processes involved in urban development. the ethnic community of walhachin, near kamploops, british columbia, was selected as a case study. walhachin was chosen for a number of reasons. it may be re- garded as exemplifying a number of general themes relating to british columbia settlement; sequent occupance, agriculture and the frontier, and the search for utopia and, as a result, was an obvious topic for one interested primarily in settlement and in western canada. as a research topic, walhachin was also chosen because of its distinc- tiveness (remnant orchards in sage- brush and elitist social structure) would pique the interest of any geographer. also, time was becoming critical. although the site and historical records are readily accessible, a substantial part of the data for this inquiry was available only from informants, of whom the most useful were the original settlers. it was also felt that the existing hypothesis offered as an explanation for walhachin s failure as a community was unacceptable. it has commonly been assumed that walhachin, settled by british aristocracy during the immigration boom at the turn of the century, was eventually abandoned consequent to most of its manpower being lost as casualties during world war i. (see, for example, m.a. ormsby, british columbia: a history, p. ) . with investigation it became evident that this explanation was simply not acceptable and a new thesis was formulated involving a multi-factor explanation with the was casualties being only one relatively minor factor. the research was concerned with the identification and examination of the less obvious and yet more critical variables associated with the settlement's abandonment and viewed these variables associated with the settlement's productivity and associated living standard. the results of the inquiry suggested that walhachin never existed as a viable community due to the inter- action of a host of failure factors, the most important being the indi- vidual's inability to function effectively in a new physical and culture environment. since walhachin may be regarded virtually as a microcosm of variables inherent in frontier abandonment, its failure variables may be con- sidered applicable not only to other similar colonization or settle- ment schemes but to frontier regions generally. in british columbia, the role of the agricultural frontier has received little consideration. although much of the province's original impetus for exploration was the fur and mining frontiers, which have received considerable attention, it was the agricultural frontier which added permanence to the new settlement patterns. associated with the agricultural frontier is ethnic group settlement. with varying economic bases these types of settlements have been attempted throughout the province with notable successes such as the mennonites in the lower fraser valley and the doukhobors in the kootenays. there appears to be an under- laying theme in both agricultural frontier and ethnic group studies. often these people were searching for some form of utopia such as political or religious freedom or perhaps a fundamental desire for land ownership. an interesting theme would be to study the settle- ment pattern and rise of urban centers as a manifestations of a utopian quest. research sources and techniques information for the walhachin study was derived from a wide variety of sources, each common to the historical geographic approach. they may be considered within four major catagories: archival research, oral research, photographic inter- pretation and field work. archival research included in this area was a wide range of journalistic accounts varying from articles written during walhachin's development to those written many years after its abandonment. during the settle- ment's inception and growth, local newspapers gave the scheme extensive coverage, while over the years the major provincial newspapers have featured extensive articles on the british aristocratic settlement. perhaps the most useful source was the walhachin chronicle« published as a weekly during the community's period of prosperity. as well as the local and provincial news- papers, a number of british news- papers were extremely useful^ since many of the settlers were from families very much in the news in great britain. this source yielded information concerning the individual's background and included the entire societal heritage. two rather unusual sources were the c.b.c. and national film board files. both contained material on the settlement used for broadcasts. taped interviews with original settlers who have subsequently died were particularly important. a number of unpublished manu- scripts and various forms of promotional literature were available in archives and local museums, both in b.c. and in england and wales. many of the families in britain had personal archives. however, as with many of the company files available in london, they proved to be the greatest source of bias through selective deposit and retention. personal records were occasionally selected for my scrutiny while many had been selectively destroyed. this, however, was revealing in itself as this action was often explained as the research continued. to study such topics as site conditions and property ownership there were numerous government reports and records pertaining to walhachinfs development. these included b.c. sessional papers, water rights reports, land registry records, soil and water feasibility reports and court reports. fre- quently the most valuable informa- tion was comments written on a sketch or in the margins of a report, referring to various observations and impressions the author had made of the settlers or some situation at walhachin. original documents, such as the b.c. horticultural estates limited papers, were used primarily to assess the financial basis of the community through an analysis of the various contractual agreements and company constitutions. the documents were also useful in another sense. the backgrounds of members serving on the various company directorships and of major share-holders were important in assessing the quality of leader- ship and the process of decision- making in the community which was significant in explaining walhachin s demise. oral research interviews included the use of both open and closed questionnaire techniques depending upon the information desired. factual data was usually elicited with a closed questionnaire; whereas the open-ended questionnaire and focused interview provided greater flexibility in obtaining subjec- tive information and for probing the sentiments that underlay certain opinions and attitudes. this particular study re- quired interviews rather than mailed questionnaires as the number of reliable informants was extremely limited. due to the relative lack of written material» questionnaire credibility was im- portant and during the interviews the interviewer had numerous opportunities to appraise the validilry of the informant's responses. every effort was made to complement personal interviews with informal group discussions made up usually of two or three informants from various categories. these often proved to be the most useful in terms of data collection as the individuals tended to jog one another's memories (very useful considering the mean age of the informants was years) and would discuss questions freely with one another that had met reluctance in the personal interview. this aspect of the research, as well as the archival, included work in both british columbia and great britain. photographic interpretation this technique was used primarily to obtain data pertaining to the physical characteristics of the site such as the relative location of such structures as homes, shops, industrial plants and hotels; the extent and variety of crops, field patterns, communication systems and transport facilities; the community's physical amenities in- cluding swimming pools, polo grounds, cricket courts, and parade or fair grounds; and the size and form of various buildings and topographic features. since the study was essentially one of historical geography, the sequence of developments was critical and in this respect photographs were invaluable. the earliest aerial photographs were flown in , followed by a number of subsequent flights, and these, combined with ground photographs taken at the time by individuals presented data on which to apply photographic interpretation and measurement techniques. thus, it was possible to measure precisely the evolution of the settlement, using such variables as streets, homes, businesses and property lines. also, since no adequate maps of the area existed, the aerial photographs provided data from which to construct a base map. photographs from both personal collections and early newspapers were used to augment demographic statistics. many cultural events were extensively photographed which led to many generalizations about the community's life-style, value system and social structure. demographic data was determined largely through photographs of all fairs, major sporting events, mili- tary exercises and of various ceremonies and documents. field work this was one of the most rewarding research techniques. various relics over the landscape were studied to obtain data for topics concerned with such areas as architectural styles, garden design, fence types and home futnishings in an effort to determine the extent of class and cultural retention once the aristocrats had settled on the frontier. field work was also useful in check- ing the accuracy of the maps based on information from aerial photo- graphs . nelson riis cariboo college, kamloops new developments in neonatal screening kim bartlett, simon j eaton, morteza pourfarzam there have been significant advances in the methods available for the detection and investigation of individuals with inherited metabolic disorders. the burgeoning of mo- lecular biology in recent years and the discov- ery of new classes of inherited metabolic disor- ders, such as inborn errors of fat oxidation, are well known. what is perhaps less well recog- nised, is that there have been comparable advances in analysis and laboratory automa- tion. the combination of the development of generic analytical technology of great power and sophistication, and the discovery of new treatable metabolic diseases detectable in the newborn period, has, we believe, resulted in a sea change in neonatal screening. neonatal screening for metabolic diseases became feasible as a result of the pioneering work of guthrie. he developed a simple, robust, and evective technique for the detec- tion of elevated concentrations of pheny- lalanine in blood—the “guthrie test”— which was used to detect phenylketonuria by means of a semi-quantitative microbiological bioassay. screening for this disorder (pku; phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency; mckusick ) was subsequently imple- mented in the uk in . the specimens used are dried blood spots which are usually collected by means of a heel-prick on the sixth day of life, although later sampling, up to days, can occur. this form of specimen collec- tion has become almost universal. quantitative assays specific for phenylalanine have been introduced by some centres, driven by the desire to introduce a degree of automation. an alternative approach is to use chromato- graphic methods, and this has been adopted by some centres. the proponents of this technol- ogy contend that other inherited disorders of amino acid metabolism can be detected and that improved prognosis may be achieved by early diagnosis. however, chromatographic methods are time consuming and diycult to automate, particularly in respect of the recog- nition of abnormal chromatograms. none the less, the concept of a generic technology capa- ble of detecting several disorders by a single procedure is attractive, and single dimension paper and thin layer chromatography with nin- hydrin staining has been used successfully for many years in some centres in the uk for the detection of pku and other inherited disorders of amino acid metabolism. the justification for pku screening is that early detection of avected individuals and the introduction of treatment, a diet low in pheny- lalanine, avoids irreversible brain damage. similarly, the measurement of tsh or thyrox- ine for the detection of congenital hypothy- roidism was adopted throughout the uk in and is also universal. the dried blood spot, it turns out, is a surprisingly robust form of sample collection and a plethora of condi- tions have been proposed as candidates for neonatal screening, although the benefits are sometimes far from clear. – the ability to detect genetic disease directly by means of molecular biological techniques suggests that, at least in principle, screening for all inherited conditions is possible.however, in most inborn errors a given phenotype is caused by a large number of diverent mutations and thus if direct mutational analysis is contemplated a multiplicity of probes is required.clearly,novel previously unknown mutations contributing to a given pathological phenotype would be missed. since the introduction of the guthrie test there has been a remarkable expansion in the known number and types of inherited meta- bolic disorders. thus new classes of disorders such as inherited defects of mitochondrial â-oxidation, peroxisomal metabolism, and of the respiratory chain are now known. further- more, the early concept of an inborn error of metabolism presenting as a florid biochemical disorder detectable in the first days of life has been modified by the recognition of episodic, late presenting disease. the commonest of the â-oxidation disorders,medium chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency (mcad), presents most frequently with episodic hypoglycaemia which may be life threatening. these hypogly- caemic episodes can be precipitated by other- wise unremarkable intercurrent infections, or simply by prolonged fasting. conventional investigations during periods of remission are generally uninformative, but characteristic ab- normal acylcarnitines are detectable in blood. mcad is readily treated by the simple dietary manipulation of the avoidance of fasting, although if a metabolic crisis secondary to stress should occur, more aggressive interven- tion such as the intravenous administration of glucose is necessary. thus mcad,which is at least as common as pku, is easily and cheaply treated, and failure to recognise children with the disorder and institute timely and appropri- ate management can lead to brain damage or death.mcad is one of several inborn errors of mitochondrial â-oxidation. long chain -hydroxyacyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency (lchad) and very long chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency (vlcad) are also members of this group of disorders and seem to be relatively common and amenable to dietary treatment. the question arises: is it possible to detect mcad and other disorders of â-oxidation by analysis of dried blood spot specimens? archives of disease in childhood ; :f –f f spence biochemical genetics unit, department of child health, sir james spence institute of child health, university of newcastle upon tyne, royal victoria infirmary ne lp k bartlett s j eaton m pourfarzam correspondence to: dr k bartlett. email: kim.bartlett@ncl.ac.uk o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://fn .b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild f e ta l n e o n a ta l e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /fn . . .f o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://fn.bmj.com/ an inherited metabolic disorder may be identified by detection of an abnormal gene,an abnormal gene product, an abnormal gene product property (enzyme activity) or the pres- ence of an abnormal metabolise resulting from attenuation of a metabolic pathway. most tech- niques currently in use rely on the detection of abnormal metabolises usually by means of some form of chromatography. thus analyses of blood and urinary amino acids and urinary organic acids are commonly used for the inves- tigation of children who present with symp- toms.chromatographic methods are time con- suming,diycult to automate and,although not an issue for the investigation of the relatively small numbers of patients presenting in hospi- tal, for the purpose of neonatal screening, are inappropriate. a generic technology capable of detecting several disorders (including pku and mcad) but avoiding the disadvantages of chromatography is clearly preferable to a large number of single disease tests. tandem mass spectrometric (tms) analysis of acylcarnitines and amino acids has been described recently and pilot studies suggest that this technology is suitable for neonatal screening programmes. mass spectrometry is a powerful technique for the characterisation of the structure and of the molecular weight of compounds and for quantitative measurements and has found widespread biomedical applications. several hyphenated techniques, whereby a mass spec- trometer is linked to other chromatographic separation procedure, have been developed, of which gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (gc-ms) is perhaps the best known. indeed, gc-ms is currently the method of choice for the analysis of urinary organic acids. in recent years tandem mass spectrometry (tms) has become available for routine analysis. tms overs major advantages over single stage mass spectrometry in term of speed and selectivity of analysis and specificity in molecular structure determination. in tms two consecutive stages of mass analysis are used. the first stage of mass analysis separates a compound of interest from other parent ions produced in the ionisa- tion source. following this mass filtering stage there is a collision cell where the relatively sta- ble molecular ions are caused to fragment, usually by collision induced dissociation (cid) with a neutral gas such as argon. the fragment ions produced are transmitted into the second mass analyser where they are separated and detected. the result is a “daughter” or “prod- uct” ion spectrum of the selected precursor essentially free of interferences from other components present in the sample which can be interpreted to reveal structural information of the selected compound. other common tms experiments include precursor ion scan and neutral ion scan. one of the major applications of tms is the analysis of mixtures by eliminating the need for chromatographic separation or purification of individual components of complex samples (such as dried blood spots), because separa- tion and analysis take place simultaneously and entirely within the mass spectrometer. in table inborn errors of metabolism detectable by tandem mass spectrometric analysis of acryl-carnitines and amino acids inherited enzyme defect mckusick number incidence short chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase ? medium chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase : very long chain acyl-coa dehydrogenase ? long chain -hydroxyacyl-coa dehydrogenase ? long chain- , -dienoyl-coa reductase ? glutaryl-coa dehydrogenase : multiple acyl-coa dehydrogenase ? propionyl-coa carboxylase : methylmalonyl-coa mutase : isovaleryl-coa dehydrogenase : branched chain ketoacid dehydrogenase : phenylalanine hydroxylase : tyrosinaemia type i : non-ketotic hyperglycinaemia : -hydroxy- -methylglutaryl-coa lyase ? citrullinaemia : â-ketothiolase ? -methylcrotonyl-coa carboxylase ? maple syrup urine disease : camitine palmitoyltransferase i ? carnitine palmitoyltransferase ii ? figure tandem mass spectra (parents of m/z amu;acylcarnitines) of butylated dried blood spot extracts from a control and an mcad deficient subject (mcadd):* significant diagnostic analytes characteristic of mcadd. f bartlett,eaton,pourfarzam o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://fn .b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild f e ta l n e o n a ta l e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /fn . . .f o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://fn.bmj.com/ the context of acylcarnitine analysis all acyl- carnitines undergoing cid produce a com- mon daughter ion (m/z = amu) and there- fore if ms is scanned and ms set to detect only ions of mass amu (“parents of scan”), an instantaneous analysis of acylcarni- tines is achieved. a similar approach can be used for the detection and quantitation of amino acids and thus as a sample is introduced into the source of the instrument two analyte specific scan functions are used to detect first acylcarnitines and then amino acids. some typical examples are shown in figs and taken from our own studies. in principle, fur- ther scan functions can be designed to detect further classes of analyses such as bile acids and therefore other classes of disorders can be detected. in theory, then, any disorder in which the substrate of the defective enzyme is a coa ester will result in the formation of the corresponding carnitine ester and such a defect is detectable by acylcarnitine analysis. clearly, any disorders characterised by accu- mulation of the parent amino acid will become apparent by amino acid analysis. table sum- marises the disorders which are detectable by means of tms analysis of acylcarnitine and amino acid analysis of dried blood spots. it should be noted, however that the incidences quoted are citations and are population dependent. recently, a combined retrospective and pro- spective pilot screening programme was re- ported at the meeting of the inter- national society for neonatal screening (naylor ew, expanded screening for meta- bolic disorders; abstract) in brief, a total of about blood spots were analysed by two centres (pittsburgh and rayleigh, usa). the total number of positive results detected was , giving an overall incidence of in , and it is particularly noteworthy that of the total of positives detected, were pku plus mcad. the incidence of the other rarer disorders is probably inflated because the population screened included the mennonite communities of lancaster county, pennsylva- nia, who have a particularly high prevalence of inborn errors.none the less the authors of this study claimed zero false positives and zero false negatives. our own experience confirms this. we conducted a blinded multicentre study in which dried blood spots from babies with confirmed disorders, and from babies with no evidence of metabolic disease, were submitted to our laboratory for analysis by tms. in all cases where an abnormality was anticipated it was found. there were no false positive results. tms screening of dried blood spots is therefore a technique of high sensitivity and specificity. it might be sus- pected that a complex analytical technology such as tms would be inappropriate in the context of routine service delivery. however, our experience is that the method is robust and should be seriously considered for pilot screening programmes in the uk. what, then, is the cost of a neonatal screen- ing programme based on this technology? the simple analytical cost of tms is undoubtedly higher than current technologies, but the cost per test will depend on the total number screened because the major fixed cost is the amortisation of instrument purchase. set against this, however, are some major cost benefits: (i) the recall and retest rates for analyses carried out by means of tms are close to zero; (ii) the technique is quantitative and thus follow up by means of conventional (and expen- sive) amino acid analysis is unnecessary; (iii) management of positive cases and moni- toring of dietary control can be achieved by the same technology; (iv) it is highly probable that other disorders are amenable to concurrent analysis of the same blood spot with the added value of one stop testing; (v) the adoption of tms screening, as it is inherently more sensitive, allows neonatal figure tandem mass spectra (neutral loss of m/z amu;amino acids) of butylated dried blood spot extracts from a control and a child with pku:* significant diagnostic analytes characteristic of pku. new developments in neonatal screening f o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://fn .b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild f e ta l n e o n a ta l e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /fn . . .f o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://fn.bmj.com/ screening to be carried out earlier than the conventional — days of life, and earlier treatment will result in improved out- comes. the costs relating to sample collection, administration, and follow up would be in- curred irrespective of the analytical method used. however, it is obvious that the evective detection of an increased number of patients with inherited metabolic disease, most of whom are treatable, in the early neonatal period, will place an additional burden on clinical services. it could be argued that the early detection and treatment of such infants will result in savings to society in that lifelong disability is avoided. furthermore, even if the prognosis is poor, as it is for some of the rarer conditions, evective screening will at the very least provide parents with genetic advice early in their reproductive life. but this does not mean that there will be savings to the health service—most probably the reverse. thus the body charged with determining how to spend its limited budget, the nhs, has a vested inter- est in promoting policies which do not result in further financial burdens. neonatal screening is one of many medical interventions currently the subject of meta-analysis commissioned by the nhs, in the “health technology assess- ment” exercise. we await the results with great interest. guthrie r, susi a. a simple phenylalanine method for detecting phenylketonuria in large populations of newborn infants. paediatrics ; : - . department of health and social security, welsh oyce. screening for early detection of phenylketonuria. hm( ) . cardiv: dhss. mccaman mw, robins e. fluorometric method for the determination of phenylalanine in serum. j lab clin med ; : - . kirkman hn, carroll cl, moore eg, matheson ms. fifteen year experience with screening for phenylketonuria with an automatic fluorometric method. am j hum genet ; : - . ireland jt, read ra. a tlc method for use in neonatal screening to detect excess aminoacidaemia. ann clin bio- chem ; : - . snyderman se. newborn metabolic screening: follow-up and treatment results. in: carter tp, wiley am, eds. genetic disease: screening and management. new york: alan r. liss, : - . guthrie r. newborn screening: past, present and future. in: carter tp,wiley am, eds. genetic disease: screening and management. new york: alan r liss, : - . doh. joint standing committee on screening in medical care.screening for congenital hypothyroidism.hn( ) and appendix . london: department of health and social security. wendel u, gonzales j, hummel w. neonatal screening for maple syrup urine disease by an enzyme-mediated colori- metric method. clin chim acta ; : - . naylor ew, guthrie r. newborn screening for maple syrup urine disease (branched-chain ketonuria). pediatrics ; : - . levy h. hammersen g. newborn screening for galactosae- mia and other galactose metabolic defects. j pediatr ; : - . pang s, hotchkiss j, drash al, et al. a microfilter paper method for -hydroxyprogesterone radioimmunoassay: its application for rapid screening for congenital adrenal hyperplasia. j clin endocrinol metab ; : - . dove pettit da, amador ps, wolf b. the quantitation of biotinidase activity in dried blood spots using microtrans- fer plates: identification of biotinidase-deficient and heterozygous individuals. anal biochem ; : - . bartlett k. methods for the investigation of hypoglycaemia with particular reference to inherited disorders of mito- chondrial â-oxidation. j clin endocrinol metab ; : - . eaton sj,bartlett k,pourfarzam m.mammalian mitochon- drial â-oxidation. biochem j ; : - . chace dh, millington ds, terada n, kahler sg, roe cr, hofman lf. rapid diagnosis of phenylketonuria by quan- titative analysis for phenylalanine and tyrosine in neonatal blood spots by tandem mass spectrometry. clin chem ; : - . millington ds, norwood dl, kodo n, roe cr, inoue f. application of fast atom bombardment with tandem mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/mass spectrom- etry to the analysis of ascyl-carnitines in human urine, blood and tissue. anal biochem ; : - . pourfarzam m, besley gtn, addison gm, turnbull dm, craft aw, bartlett k. tandem mass spectrometric analysis of dried blood spots is evective for the screening of multi- ple inherited metabolic disorders. clin sci (in press). f bartlett,eaton,pourfarzam o n a p ril , b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://fn .b m j.co m / a rch d is c h ild f e ta l n e o n a ta l e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /fn . . .f o n s e p te m b e r . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://fn.bmj.com/ a trying question: the jury in nineteenth-century canada by r. blake brown copyright © the ontario historical society, this document is protected by copyright law. use of the services of Érudit (including reproduction) is subject to its terms and conditions, which can be viewed online. https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ this article is disseminated and preserved by Érudit. Érudit is a non-profit inter-university consortium of the université de montréal, université laval, and the université du québec à montréal. its mission is to promote and disseminate research. https://www.erudit.org/en/ document generated on / / : p.m. ontario history a trying question: the jury in nineteenth-century canada by r. blake brown lori chambers imagining new worlds in the new world: entertainment, agency, and power in upper canada volume , number , fall uri: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi: https://doi.org/ . / ar see table of contents publisher(s) the ontario historical society issn - (print) - (digital) explore this journal cite this review chambers, l. ( ). review of [a trying question: the jury in nineteenth-century canada by r. blake brown]. ontario history, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar https://apropos.erudit.org/en/users/policy-on-use/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/ https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ -v -n -onhistory / https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/onhistory/ ook reviews autumn b • a trying question: the jury in nineteenth-century canada • mohawks on the nile: natives among the canadian voyageurs in egypt - • labour pains: thunder bay’s working class in canada’s wheat boom era • an historian’s notebook: stories – mostly peterborough • one hundred rings and counting: forestry education and forestry in toronto and canada, - • woldemar neufeld’s canada: a mennonite artist in the canadian landscape, - • art and politics: the history of the national arts centre • creating memory: a guide to outdoor public sculpture in toronto a trying question: the jury in nineteenth- century canada by r. blake brown toronto: osgoode society for canadian legal history and university of toronto press, . xiii + pages. $ . hardcover. isbn - - - - (www.utppublishing.com) the jury remains a central symbol of justice and, writes brown, “holds a cherished place in the legal im- agination of many canadians.” (p. ) ju- ries, however, try only a small minority of modern cases in canada, an apparent contradiction that has its origins in the nineteenth century. r. blake brown’s im- pressive monograph, a trying question: the jury in nineteenth-century canada, provides a detailed and perceptive explana- tion of the intellectual, geographical and political reasons for the decline of the jury. the jury came to british north america “as a key plank of english legal culture” (p. ) but local conditions created challenges from early in the history of the colonies. brown explores the decline of the jury in two jurisdictions—nova scotia and upper canada/ontario—as test cases to explore the ways in which geography, infrastruc- ture and development, climate, politics, economics and immigration impacted the ontario history / volume cii, no. / autumn ontario history history of the jury. brown divides his monograph into three parts that are broadly chronological. first he explores juror apathy and allega- tions of jury packing prior to , before responsible government had been estab- lished in either upper canada or nova scotia. he illustrates convincingly that jurors complained of the time and travel spent meeting their responsibilities, plus the out-of-pocket expenses. he finds that these problems were particularly acute in nova scotia because of the distance be- tween settlements and the chronic poor state of the roads. they were even worse than those in upper canada! in the ten- sion-filled era preceding the achievement of responsible government, moreover, al- legations of packed juries “flew furiously” (p. ) in newspapers in both jurisdictions and undermined the image of law as just and neutral. in response to these concerns, upper canada reformed the process of jury selection, reducing discretion and im- posing safeguards to ensure wide political representation, but by so doing produced new problems of complexity and expense. in nova scotia, such reform came more slowly, the manner of selecting jurors con- tinuing to be highly political well into the era of responsible government. in the second part of a trying ques- tion brown explores the impact of respon- sible government on the jury as an insti- tution, and on public ideas about jurors themselves. brown writes, “jurors were per- ceived to lack the competence to evaluate evidence, particularly in complex cases.” (p. ) he argues that reforms in jury selec- tion in upper canada continued to arouse complaints about costs and inconvenience. in nova scotia, a series of highly politi- cized cases in which jury selection was con- tentious for party and ethnic reasons fur- ther undermined citizens’ faith in juries. ironically, moreover, in both colonies the achievement of responsible government undercut the perceived need for the jury; if the state was not an oppressive institu- tion, and instead represented the interests and values of the majority, the protection of the individual by a jury of his peers was no longer necessary. liberal thought, ris- ing to prominence at the middle of the nineteenth century, threatened the very existence of the jury. finally, brown turns his attention to the fate of the jury in post-confedera- tion canada. complaints about the cost of the jury system remained endemic, and he records that citizens were as disinclined as ever to serve. jurors were perceived as “irrational decision makers” (p. ) and, particularly in ontario, were thought to be a threat to economic expansion because they were overly keen to punish corpora- tions in the era of emerging monopoly capitalism. fear that the jury could be ei- ther prejudiced or simply inadequately educated for the task at hand was offset by a growing faith in the general popula- tion that judges and lawyers were impartial professionals (a view certainly encouraged by lawyers themselves). brown sees the de- cline of the jury as intimately linked to the rise of law as a self-regulating and power- ful profession. in nova scotia, limits were placed on the use of trial juries; in ontario, legislation eliminated the jury in all but a minority of trials. brown concludes that, despite dif- ferences between nova scotia and upper canada/ontario, similar factors led to the decay of the jury system in both provinces. he makes four points. jury service was sim- ply too personally burdensome for too many people and it became increasingly difficult to empanel juries. citizens believed that elected legislatures reduced the likelihood of government tyranny; the grand jury in book rev�ews local administration—“cloistered and se- cretive” (p. )—could not withstand the appeal of responsible government. thirdly, newspaper evidence convincingly demonstrates that as juries became more expensive they became increasingly un- popular. and finally, citizens believed that legally-trained legislators were well suited to introducing liberal principles that re- flected the tenor of the late victorian era. brown weaves these themes together in a seamless narrative that is as entertaining as it is informative. the test case jurisdictions, nova scotia and upper canada/ontario, reflect both problems and ideas linked to local conditions, and broad themes that should be further explored in comparison with other regions, colonies and provinces. a trying question should be required read- ing for anyone interested in the historical administration of justice. lori chambers lakehead university trapped in khartoum and besieged by muslim forces, major-general charles gordon sent a desperate message to the british army requesting aid. the only route to sudan was south along the nile river, a trip that required an incred- ible expenditure of men, supplies and money. in the end it was all for naught: gordon was killed, the muslims cap- tured khartoum, and the british empire re- corded another story of english bravery. carl benn has found an overlooked el- ement of this story: the british army’s deliberate recruitment of mohawk boatmen from several iroquois communities, engaged to navigate the expedition south- ward up the nile. benn’s purpose for writ- ing this story is twofold. first, he wished to show that the mohawks’ contribution fell within norms of iroquois “cultural prac- tices, work patterns, and alliance relationships.” (p. ) secondly, benn contends that aborigi- nal history, if it is to be comprehensive, “ought to be understood within broader settings beyond the narrower realms that tend to structure schol- arly inquiry about the first nations.” (p. ) mohawks on the nile is a bit disappointing at first, but more satisfy- ing in its final chapters. the first three chapters recount the mohawk mohawks on the nile: natives among the canadian voyageurs in eg ypt - by carl benn toronto: dundurn press, . pages. $ . hardcover. isbn - - - - (www.dundurn.com) wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ the refugee woman and as survivors of a u, refugee families arrive already under the stress produced by the refugee experience. upon arrival they have to continue to cope with these stresses, as well as the new stresses that are part of the immigrant experience. in order to help, we need to know more about the dynamics of the refugee family and the ways support can be given in restoring its members' sense of well-being to a reasonable level of functioning. the refugee family has to deal with many losses: loss of the support of the extended family; the sense of loss of dignity and self, particularly in the case of victims of torture and imprisonment; loss of material possessions; loss of status; and, loss of culture and language. to cope with these losses there is a need after escape to reorganize and reconstitute. it is essential for the survival of the family after a crisis to readjust the roles of its members to the new situation. a critical factor of stress for refugees is not only the dislocation they experience, but also that the time between dislocation and settlement can take anywhere from six months to many years. in some cases, the rebuilding and restructuring of family life needs to start three or four times before the final destination is reached. some of the symptoms of stress become entrenched and others are suppressed. since the functional necessities of life -- shelter, food and the need to secure a final destination -- are overwhelming, the psychological effects of the stress are often dclayed. in studies of families that are victims of a disaster, the capacity of the family to rally around, to reorganize its internal resources by eva allmen her family is a key element in its members' emotional and economic recovery. coping mechanisms often include the following: in some cases, families go to the extreme of isolating themselves from the outside world until it is safe to connect again. there may be intense activities involving all family members with a great deal of interaction and time spent together. they may develop ways that would supplement the loss of the extended family, such as establishing networks with fellow refugees which provide a semblance of the extended family. roles of women women's pivotal role in family life is a known fact, but this role is even more critical in the refugee situation. a great deal of the rebuilding, reorganizing and nurturing of the family falls on women. they are called upon to continue their task of maintaining a home during transition and immediately upon arrival. regardless of the circumstances, they must cook, take care of the children and be supportive to others. women in these situations have to expand their traditional roles. they must maintain their status as homemakers and mothers and must assume additional roles as workers or students. at the same time, men's role as providers may be undermined in the context of a new country, forcing them to assume tasks that were previously considered female functions. very often the extension of the woman's role is resented as it is seen as a threat to the family. helping strategies at ontario welcome house, hundreds of refugee women come for services. this is but one of the agencies that services refugees in toronto, and is the one with which i am most familiar. through many years of obse~ation, i have formulated the following suggestions to facilitate and improve the services rendered to refugees: ) it is important to recognize that most refugees are successful and capable individuals. they are only recent casualties of political and social events well beyond their control. ) service provided should investigate and note their previous life style and not make assumptions based on what they do or where they live now. ) child care requires sensitive support. the economic need that leads to a parent's decision to place a child in the care of strangers is difficult to cope with. ) refugee women are often extremely isolated. they feel the loss of the extended family's support. alternative networks of women with similar experiences would help. ) because of the stresses and the length of the transition from exile t settlement, refugee women's h may have been neglected. they extensive health care and nueiho iilfolmation. of the family. n the trauma and the losses of e often cause emotional problema moreover, a new life in a new l a d carries with it addi tional pressures burdens. eva allmen, a supervisor qf se services on leave from ontario house, is currently involved tablishing a national working g refugee women under the sponso the canadian council for r@ug women and religion: "mennonite hmong" by daphne abergel the hmong of laos, a wtionally animist and preliterate people, speak a sinetibetan language and are culturally close to the chinese. due to their strategic location and scouting and fighting skills, the hmong were singled out during the war in indochina to collaborate with the cia as front line guerrillas. the eventual assumption of power in in laos of communist- backed pathet lao forces, resulted in increasing hardships and danger for those hmong who had complied with the u.s. army special forces. by , more than , hmong were forced to flee thailand. most hmong from thai refugee camps resettled in the u.s., france, australia and canada. the mennonite central committee's (mcc) policy to aid sponsor cases like the preliterate and non- industrial hmong resulted in a proportionately high influx of hmong to ontario; hence kitchener-waterloo (k-w) has been dubbed the "hmong capital" of canada by immigration officials. of the fdteen to twenty hmong families that initially resettled in kitchener- waterloo in , only five or six were baptized christians before their arrival. over the last seven years in canada there has been a steady increase in the numbers of hmong converting to christianity, specifically the mennonite faith. the hmong christian church (mennonite), es- tablished under the auspices of the men- nonite conference of ontario and quebec in , has proven to be an important are- na for the negotiation of hmong beliefs, values and norms, specifically those relating to male-female relationships. of the estimated sixty-five hmong families now living in the waterloo region, approximately one half attend the hmong christian church, a substantial increase fiom six years ago. the hmong church has adopted an "open door" policy for those hmong who are intimidated by rigid institutional rules or structures. among older hmong in particular, the church serves more as a facility for social interaction with other hmong than as a source of spiritual help. the church leadership has struggled over the last few years to get people involved. recently hmong women began to be very active in the church. although the young hmong pastor hied to draw women into the church by offering hmong literacy classes to women and organizing workshops on nutri- tion and hygiene, the women themselves have taken the initiative by contributing their services to the congregation. when hmong women first arrived, they were unresponsive to volunteer efforts. they were also reluctant to get involved in government and community-sponsored language and job-placement programmes. when asked why they resisted attempts to resettle and integrate them into their new community, they responded that they felt uncomfortable participating in these programmes with hmong men. hmong women were in these and other cases abiding by traditional norms governing malelfemale roles. for example, the traditional custom of arranged marriages between young teenagers continued until mennonite church officials intervened and counselled hmong on acceptable christian and canadian legal practices concerning marriage. the involvement of women in the workforce has brought about significant changes to the traditional notion of the family as an economic unit, particularly in those cases in which women are the sole source of family income. virtually all hmong women are wage earners working on assembly lines in local factories. women now exercise greater freedom in choosing marriage partners and are marrying later. although these changes to same extent parallel thase of the much largea hmong communities in the u.s., there are majar diffeaences b e t s e a canadian hmong and their americarr c o u n m in bme- cities such as denvw, h&hwapo& ad orange countyf segmentary kinship based on corporate sub-lineages at the clan and lineage levels is common. relationships based on common descent link many hmong families within the wider hmong people from all parts of laos, most of whom are not related to others in the area. thus what one finds in k-w is a relatively small community of hmong, internally differentiated along geographical, ethnic, linguistic, religious and other lines. it is clear then that a significant number of hmong attend church out of a desire for community and not doctrine. the hmong christian church thus provides an opportunity for regular social in~raction which would otherwise be severely curtailed. however, the church proviaes additional incentives for women in particular. the women's fellowship committee is available as a forum in which women can share their ideas and concerns. church attendance not only gives women the chance to socialize but also share information and make use of educational facilities and other services offered by the church. most importantly, it provides an opportunity to build important support networks. although it may be a while before these women gain the confidence to face new challenges, the congregation will continue to provide them with a non-threatening environment in which they can continue to negotiate their identities as hmong women in canadian society. daphne abergel is a doctoral candidate in sociology at york university working on"mennonites" in kitchener- waterloo. food and money that make it possible for the lao to maintain their ritual traditions in toronto. new experiences for refugee women by joy simmonds latin aqxican refugee women new to toronto, have tremendous obstacles to overcome% settling here. disorientation, uncmployrnent and an inability to communicate in english, prevent them from integrating into their new society. over the past four years new experiences for refugee women (ne.w.) has developed a unique programme that addresses these and other problems. the goal of the programme is to assist refugee women with their social. cultural and economic integration into canadian society. to achieve this we focus on each woman as a whole person with many varied and interrelated abilities, experiences and needs. we see her as a woman fmt, as a refugee, a mother, a wife, a social bcing, a worker. our three-component programme of english, orientation and employment has been designed to build on all of these. who are the refu ee women at n.e.w.. the refugee women at n.e.w. come primarily from central america, mainly from el salvador and guatemala these women have been forced to leave their countries due to the escalation of civil war. they have seen and experienced violent repression in the form of killings and disappearances of family members and in some cases have themselves been in prison and tortured. they have been forced lo leave their homelands and make the long and arduous journey to canada. many have been fortunate enough to have been sponsored by the canadian government and so have come here directly. others have had to go via the illegal and dangerous route through mexico, crossing into the u.s., and slowly proceeding north to canad& some of our participants have taken years to get here and have lost family and friends along the way to illness, death and deportation. while still dealing with the emotional, psychological and physical trauma of the past, these refugee women arrive in toronto and are bombarded by the demands of a new society. most are mothers and wives and have the awesome responsibility of holding their families together. marital and family problems often include abuse and violence. many have limited work experience and those who have skills find that they are not recognized in, or transferable to the c a n d i labour market. financial crisis is common. affordable housing is practically non-existent. the women often have less access to english classes than their husbands and children and so become isolated from canadian society. the loss of community and familiar surroundings, coupled with an inability to fend for themselves leads to a loss of identity and self-worlh. n.e.w. programme n.e.w.'s programme is six months long and is offered to refugee women in groups of fifteen. reasons for coming to canada tbe following results are fnnn research conduced by n.e.w. in july . the total number d people surveyed m s seventy-flve. the flgures reprosent percentages. i - - - lives of family members in danger . no longer wanted to live in a state of war . life in daneer . " family members of friends: imprisoned . tortured . killed . to join relatives . to join husband . i othcr reasons . the fmt foutteen weeks of the programme take place on the premises of new.. and involve classoom training, including: english as a second language wl). orientation/lnformation/life skills. employment preparation. the final twelve weeks consist of on-the- job training and canadian work experience. during the six months, each participant receives a training salary and a mettopass. english as a second language intensive esl instruction is provided to prepare participants to communicate effectively in day to day situations. emphasis is on participants speaking english and role playing. activities include field trips hto the community, i audio visual materials, and music. the programme is staffed by bilingual instructors and volunteers. orientation, information and life skills this component specifically addres sense of alienation and the loss of id and confidence experienced american refugee women in the settlement. through orientation/inforrnation participants begin to historical. political and within which immigrants an have come to canada. th familiar with the basic i n h community and learn how utilize the resources. f to know legal rights and as a woman, a refugee, tenant. the life skills sessions assessing personal american woman in identifying personal needs and a~piratio~ls service delivery to developing communications and assertive skills southeast asian refugee women setting goals and making decisions. i personal counselling is provided throughout this process. employment component the employment preparation provides participants with an opportunity to assess vast work experience, skills, education, sessions prepare women to do job search, to conduct themselves in a job interview, to fill out application forms and employment contracts. information is also provided on employment standards, labour legislation, employee rights and benefits and pay cheque deductions. they learn of possible entry-level employment opportunities and of their qualification requirements. and english levels. the work placement involves on-the-job training in an organization. work placements are secured with the understanding that the participant will work and receive training for four months and will then be hired as a permanent employee. i the employment component has always faced somewhat of a dilemma the reality. of today's employment market, is that most of the entry level jobs currently available to participants in n.e.w.'s programme are found at the lower ends of traditional female occupations such as clerical work, community work, day care, home service and light manufacturing assembly work. past experience has been that latin american refugee women are primarily interested in jobs they can relate to and that have good working conditions and reasonable wages. it is inevitable that the majority of participants will find employment in traditional women's occupations. joy simmonds is the community liaison workxr at n.e. w. by john van esterik the delivery of senices to refugees in three counties of upstate new york occupied much of my time and attention for almost four years in the early s. as an anthropologist who managed a i c mgramme of educational and :mployment services to refugees, i was interested in applying an anthropological malysis to the &livery of such services. the refugee population in the three rural counties of upstate new york covered at the time was mainly southeast asian. almost half of the adult population had little or no education, the bulk of these being women. women are responsible for household operations in all southeast asian groups. thus, women were particularly affected by the limitations attendant upon large family size and low incomes. southeast asian women play important roles in the household, participating in all family decisions and usually handling the family budget and income. yet, refugee women are especially disadvantaged in north american society since the majority of the women have much less education than local populations or refugee men. the women are responsible for the care of children in a society where child care is expensive and difficult to obtain. in their own societies, child care was often left to elderly relatives, friends, or neighbours, all of whom lived close by. the programme of services sought to provide educational and employment placement services to all refugee adults in the three-county area. but it was soon discovered that refugee women faced problems that impeded the delivery of programme services to them. education backgrounds many southeast asian refugee women were very poorly educated and therefore unprepared for living in the modern, post- industrial society they were entering. rural southeast &ans often prefer to have males formally educated than women. yet, refugee women wanted and expected to work and earn money. it became very apparent that a one entry-level salary family could not afford many consumer goods in the new society they had entered. refugee women seeking employment had to face the problem of limited educational backgrounds and their continuing responsibilities of homemaking. a few students i n the beginning class, st. paul's methodist church, ithaca, new york. day-care services the english as second language (esl) classes were held in space provided by two churches in the largest urban centre (population: , ) in the counties. a problem that arose immediately was day- care services. no provision was made for day.care. the programme sought to solve the problem by planning class time so refugee women could uade off babysitting chores. elderly relatives suffering their own disorientations in a new land were not prepared to care for two or three young children. besides, refugees did not live all together and were not necessarily neighburs or, for that matter, friends. as a result, some private sponsors paid for professional day care. a classroom space with a day-care facility was donated, and two day-care workers were hired. however, none of these "solutions" was satisfactory. travel anolher problem was getting children to the day-care centre, since new yo& law rcquired infant seats for any young child travelling in a car. some refugees did not have cars and walking with three or four children through winter snows was not very convenient. this was usually solved by breaking the law and canying several children in a car owned by one of the refugees. child care in the home in southeast asian villages, seven, eight, and nine-year-old daughters often take care of younger siblings. of course, this is done in a context of open dwellings in proximity with the houses of relatives and well known neighbours. in housing projects even in small towns people are not always very friendly or understanding. in one case where both refugee parents worked, a number of complaints was raised against their leaving young children alone at home. at one point the state child abuse agency was catled in by a neighbur. state workers seemed receptive to cultural explanations but ultimately the law was obeyed. training courses education involved mors than english language training. some special courses were &vised to directly appeal to women's interests and concems. one of the most successful was a sewing class utilizing resources of the local vocational high school. using patterns and power sewing machines appealed to many refugee women who in their home country weaved cloth and made their family clothing. to do piecewopk in the home. this course, however popular and well attended, was therefore dropped. other courses such as housekeeping, food preparation, and health services, which had specific employment goals, were not as popular, but offered better opportunities for jobs in local restaurants, cleaning jobs, and other service occu@m some refugee women waiting for their sewing class to begin. refugee women attending a popular sewing course. this course had to be dropped nterwards because it could not be readily juswed for employment purposes. unfortunately, it was difficult to justify the course for employment purposes. a cottage industry in sewing could not be supported because it was against the law on-the-job training with their poor eduational background, many refugee women had difficulty learning to read and write. it was soon discovered that even seemingly simple, labour-intensive jobs like cleaning required knowledge that many southeast asian refugee women did not have. cleaning motel rooms, fraternity houses, and private homes demanded a knowledge about a wide range of products, techniques, and equipment these women had no experience with. the programme had to provide on-the-spot tutors and interpreters to lead the refugee woman through the job. otherwise, even this minimum wage employment could be lost to the family. summary *are barriers for women to access services. these constraints in government and legal restrictions limited the development of c industries, traditional child to day care. the cultural c refugee women, including their literacy, education and job readiness, additional difficulties. science divisio microsoft word - d .rtf farm safety issues in old order anabaptist communities: unique aspects and innovative intervention strategies paul jones manager breaking new ground resource center purdue university west lafayette, in william e. field, ed.d. department of agricultural and biological engineering purdue university west lafayette, in introduction old order anabaptists, such as the amish and old order mennonites, hold a unique place in american agriculture. from the time they arrived in america during the late s until today, old order anabaptist communities have been inseparably tied to agriculture. their farming practices have also made a significant impression on the larger society, not only because of their unusual, often antiquated, agricultural technologies, but also because of their consistent agricultural successes. commentaries on amish farming practices during the s consistently praised them as being among the best farmers (cosgel, ), and earlier in this century kollmorgan stated that it is doubtful that any other socio-religious bodies have so consistently distinguished themselves in agricultural enterprise as the amish and mennonites ( ). another essential factor that distinguishes old order anabaptist agriculture from the remainder of the farming population is the anabaptist view that farming is not just a method of economic survival but also a primary means of preserving their entire culture. hostetler states that the charter of the amish requires that members make their living from farming, rural, or semi-rural occupations ( ). cosgel demonstrated that the amish were not always as productive as other farmers during the mid and late s, but he concluded that the reason for their lower productivity was their sacrifice of current income to increase their bequests to the next generation ( ). other researchers have shown that the more successful amish parents are at getting their children into farming, the more likely that the children will remain amish (ericksen, et.al., ). amish leaders decry dwindling farmland, and the corresponding difficulty with keeping children in farming, as one of their greatest frustrations (ericksen, et.al., ). although the old order anabaptists have such an inseparable link to agriculture, and even though by they had settlements in nearly half of the american states (friesen and friesen, ; redekop, ), centralized statistics regarding farm-related injuries and interventions among the old order anabaptists have been sparse. a review of over published farm accident or injury reports from more than states revealed none that specifically addressed work-related injuries within old order anabaptist communities or categorized data such that these cases could be identified. even in the three states with the largest amish and mennonite populations, ohio, pennsylvania, and indiana, this type of summary had not been done. to help bridge this information gap and to assist with developing an appropriate response, this paper focuses on the problem of farm-related injuries within old order anabaptist communities. basic cultural, historical, and religious beliefs are examined, farm-related fatality statistics are summarized, and best-practice intervention strategies are explored. the authors believe that current evidence suggests that certain old order anabaptist choices concerning farm safety issues may be directly related to their socio-religious beliefs. researchers who have explored the problem of farm-related injuries have largely ignored, or dismissed as irrelevant, the contributing roles played by personally held religious beliefs or religious worldviews held by certain groups of agricultural producers or the community in which they live. this omission is reflected in the near absence of published research on topics relating to agricultural safety and health in which even secondary attention is given to the religious beliefs of those impacted by farm injuries. even articles published by rural sociologists, economists, agricultural historians, geographers, and other social scientists have rarely addressed the relationship between religious beliefs and agricultural practices (swierenga, ). the few studies that have been done, however, appear to suggest that different religious views do, in fact, influence how farmers view agriculture, how they work and how they approach risk taking (winter, ; swierenga ; cosgel ; salamon, ; van den barr, ). as the topic of old order anabaptist farm-related injuries is examined, especially in relation to their religious beliefs, the authors also believe that important implications beyond old order communities will become apparent. for example, amish farmers not only use production methods similar to those used by the larger agricultural community years ago, but their overall worldview, based on a scriptural framework, is also similar to that of many american farmers of the nineteenth century and earlier. therefore, by taking a close-up view of old order anabaptists and the possible effects of their religious beliefs on farming practices, it may be possible to make inferences about some of the underlying beliefs and related behaviors of the larger agricultural population. such beliefs and behaviors may, in fact, have had their roots in religious principles but with time have become diluted as rural society has become more urbanized and the overall society influenced by secular humanism. in other words, old order communities may provide a "window to the past" not only in regard to the farming practices of earlier generations but also in reference to some of the underlying, shared beliefs of the larger agricultural community that affect aspects of farming such as risk taking. using such a lens may provide additional insight that would be helpful in designing more effective injury prevention strategies. though these issues cannot be fully addressed within this paper, they are worthy of further consideration. cultural background information as previously indicated, consolidated farm injury data concerning old order communities are rare. there are undoubtedly multiple reasons for the lack of information, and some probable contributors relate to cultural factors. within the rules of their society, the amish, especially, stress separateness from the larger culture (hostetler, ), and that results in little information about their activities being communicated to outsiders. in addition, this separation creates a tendency among the amish to shun assistance from those outside their communities (kollmorgan, ; kraybill, ). for example, they rarely participate in health or disability insurance programs, a common source of data on injury and disease. old order anabaptists are seldom a vocal political force, especially on the national level, and most amish do not pay social security taxes (kraybill, ) or participate in government farm programs (kollmorgan, ). consequently, there is little political pressure for federal or state governments to give special consideration to their situation, especially with respect to safety and health issues. finally, reporting agencies generally do not separate farm-related fatalities according to religious affiliation, even though old order communities are not solely religious groups: hostetler labels the amish with such terms as "little commonwealth," "sectarian society," and "folk society" ( ). kreps, et. al., classify the amish as a subculture rather than simply a religious group and identify four dimensions of their subcultural status apart from religious beliefs: historical, geographical, social, and economic dimensions( ). to better define the population being addressed and to further explore the effect of socio- religious beliefs on farm-related behavior, additional historical and cultural background information is provided below. today's old order anabaptist communities have common roots in the anabaptist movement that began in switzerland during the early th century. the first anabaptists separated from the roman catholic and reformed churches over issues such as the anabaptist refusals to participate in military activities or baptize infants. (the term "anabaptist," meaning "re- baptizer," was coined by opponents of the anabaptists because of their insistence on baptizing adults, even if they had been baptized as infants.) in , menno simmons broke from the state church in the netherlands for reasons similar to those of the swiss anabaptists, and his followers were known as mennonites. later, in , jacob amman began a separation from the swiss mennonites because of controversies concerning such issues as clothing and church discipline, and thus, the amish sect began (hostetler, ). the largest migrations to the united states by amish and mennonites occurred during the mid s, primarily to escape persecution in europe (hostetler, ). since that time, these groups have continued to differentiate themselves from each other in a series of debates on various doctrinal issues (umble, ). in general, the mennonites have taken a more moderate stance than the amish concerning contact with the world outside their communities, and many mennonite groups have moved toward mainstream american religious traditions (redekop, ). however, there remain groups of "old order mennonites" that resemble the amish in almost every respect (redekop, ), including strict group discipline, an emphasis on humility and nonresistance, the control of technological innovations (umble, ), and distinctive, plain clothing. the next step toward liberality on the mennonite belief continuum is a group that this paper identifies as conservative mennonites. members of this group may use agricultural technologies that are more modern than the amish, such as steel-wheeled tractors, and they may use automobiles, but they are, overall, less modern in their technologies than typical american farmers. because of the similarities between conservative mennonite, old order mennonite, and amish beliefs and practices, fatalities from all these groups are included in the statistical observations found in this paper. it should also be noted that there are other types of old order or conservative anabaptist communities in north america, such as the hutterites and the old order german baptists. some of these groups use traditional practices based on the use of horses, while others live simply but have adopted modern agricultural technologies and practices, and are know as innovative producers (hostetler, ). an ongoing review of farm-related fatalities within these communities has resulted in very few documented cases. several characteristics of old order anabaptist socio-religious beliefs are important factors when considering farm-related fatalities within their populations. these include selective use of technology, a higher than average birth rate and family size, attitudes toward child labor, and beliefs about death. amish and old order mennonite choices in regard to technology are some of the most conspicuous labels of their societies. in areas near amish settlements, horses pulling buggies or plows are familiar sights, and such common technologies as electricity and telephones are used with reticence. the amish contend that these technological choices help to keep their communities in tact (hostetler, ). because many of these methods also necessitate increased contact with animals, a higher than average number of farm injuries and fatalities involving animal behavior would be expected. and though some amish farm with steel-wheeled tractors, many use no tractors or only use them for stationary power; thus, amish fatalities caused by events such as tractor rollovers or pto entanglements should be sparse or nonexistent. the technological distinctions regarding most old order mennonites and conservative mennonites are less dramatic than with the amish since many of the former groups use steel-wheeled tractors for fieldwork (umble, ). however, horses and wagons are still used on some mennonite farms. the amish have large families and prohibitions against birth control (hostetler, ). the average number of live births per amish couple is seven, and the amish population doubles approximately every years (hostetler, ). in one survey of the amish in lancaster county, pennsylvania, % were under the age of eighteen (kraybill ). it is not uncommon to encounter amish families with or more offspring ranging from infants to married adults. in addition, teaching children the importance of work is a high priority for amish parents (hostetler, ). amish children are expected to begin helping with chores soon after they can walk, and children frequently begin driving teams of horses before the age of ten (kraybill, ). in addition, since work is seen as a calling from god and not just a job, and since it is a central fiber in the fabric of amish community life, the integration of children into the family workforce takes on a sacred dimension (kraybill, ). kraybill states: amish children assume daily chores by five or six years of age, and their responsibilities in the barn and house grow rapidly. they are not seen as economic burdens but welcomed as blessings from the lord and as members who will contribute their fair share to the family economy ( , p. ). these socio-religious beliefs and practices point toward the probability of higher than average child injury and fatality rates in regard to participation in work-related activities. however, old order beliefs and practices may, in fact, result in lower than average injury and fatality rates with respect to other hazardous activities in which amish children do not generally participate, such as riding in automobiles or operating atvs, motorcycles, or snowmobiles. the anabaptist view of death is also a significant factor in addressing farm fatalities among their populations. while death is not treated lightly among the amish, they accept the biblical view that life in this world is temporary and that eternity is infinitely more significant (hostetler, ). according to hostetler: for all people who cling to life and enjoy it to the full, death is the greatest menace. the amish, who profess not to have conformed to this world, turn to the promise of life beyond death. their belief in the divine order of all things, including immortality, is a source of comfort to the mourning family and community ( , p. ). the central anabaptist concept of "gelassenheit," or yielding to authority, involves submission to the will of a sovereign god (kraybill ), even in matters of death. this belief that "the best is yet to come" may make it difficult to motivate old order anabaptists into complying with safety efforts simply out of a fear of death or serious injury. anabaptist fatality statistics in order to begin constructing an empirically based picture of old order anabaptist farm injury patterns, and to see if their socio-religious beliefs may affect those patterns, ninety-five ( ) case reports of old order anabaptist farm fatalities were drawn from the records of purdue university, the ohio state university, pennsylvania state university, the commonwealth of kentucky cabinet for health services, the new york state department of health, finger lakes occupational health services (n.y.), the new york center for agricultural medicine and health, the university of wisconsin, and from newspaper articles and farm reports submitted by a variety of sources. the inquiry focused on identifying fatalities that occurred during the performance of, or exposure to, farm work or within the farm environment. in addition to farm- related fatalities, several deaths were documented which involved motor vehicle and buggy collisions, but these were not included in this analysis. for reporting purposes, children were considered individuals years of age and younger, a classification consistent with most agriculture-related injury statistics. part of the reason for this distinction was that persons under the age of years are not legally permitted to operate farm machinery unless they are formally trained or are working for their parents or guardians. furthermore, in the amish community, children, especially boys, do not generally attend school beyond the eighth grade or age , the minimum age for formal education mandated by most states. information regarding the cases was initially categorized according to the following factors: state of origin, i.e. ohio; year of fatality; age of victim; time of fatality; day of week of fatality; month of year of fatality; and finally, source of injury. in several instances, specific information, such as time of day or date of death, was not reported in the original case summaries. of the ninety-five ( ) cases identified as old order anabaptist farm-related fatalities, four cases ( %) occurred in the s, seventy-six cases ( %) occurred in the s, and fifteen ( %) occurred in the s. seventy-six ( ) of the fatality victims were identified in the reports as amish, were mennonite, and one victim's religious affiliation was undetermined. figure shows a breakdown of the cases in regard to the state from which the fatality report originated. the distribution of fatalities by state was generally reflective of the distribution of the old order population. the one noted exception was the lower number of cases reported from ohio, which has the second largest population of amish. gender as would be expected in a study of agricultural, work-related fatalities, the vast majority ( %) of the cases occurred among males. this figure, however, is a lower percentage than would be found in non-old order anabaptist farm communities, suggesting greater involvement of females in agricultural tasks. in two cases ( %), the sex of the victim was not reported. age of the cases in which the age of the victim was reported, % of the fatalities were to children fifteen years and under, and % occurred in children six years and under. in at least of the fatalities involving children fifteen years and under ( % of all fatalities where age was reported), the victim was directly engaging in work-related activities at the time of death ; the remaining occurred in a work-related environment. youth aged - comprised only nine ( %) of the fatalities. in % of the cases, the victims were between the ages of and . only five fatalities ( %) were documented that occurred in individuals over the age of years. the latter figure is dramatically different from the distribution in non-old order populations where those over the age of typically account for more than one third of reported fatalities (purschwitz, ; whitman, ). among females, all the victims were aged years and figure : fatality reports by state under, and fourteen of nineteen female victims ( %) were under the age of years. the average age of all fatality victims was . years; the median age was years. figure provides a representation of the overall age distribution of fatalities. source of injury there is little consensus among researchers on how to group agricultural injury data regarding the source of injury (purschwitz, ; murphy & yoder, ). of particular concern in this report was the role of secondary sources, especially animal behavior, as contributors to the fatalities. for example, in % of the cases the immediate source of injury was due to being run over by a wagon or other vehicle. such fatalities were sometimes attributable to human behavior such as a father backing over an infant or the victim losing his or her balance and falling off a wagon. however, runovers were often precipitated by a horse becoming unruly and throwing the vehicle out of control, thereby ejecting the victim into the path of the wagon wheels. consequently, it was important to distinguish between primary and secondary sources of injury, especially when animal behavior played a role. figure : fatalities by age the following categories were chosen in regard to the primary source of injury: being run over by a vehicle; direct animal behavior (i.e., being kicked or stepped on); falls; entanglement in farm machinery; suffocation; being crushed by or between heavy objects or machinery; drowning; being struck by an object; fire/explosion; heat stroke; tractor rollovers; unintentional firearms fatalities; and "other" fatalities. figure summarizes the fatality statistics for sources of injury. by far, the largest number of fatalities was attributed to being run over by vehicles. of all the fatalities, fell into this category ( %), and as would be expected in the old order anabaptist community, a large number of these ( ) involved horse drawn vehicles. unlike data reported on farm-related fatalities within the larger agricultural community in which well over % relate to agricultural tractors, only nine old order anabaptist cases, or %, involved tractors. in regard to secondary sources of injury, of the fatalities were attributable to human behavior and to indirect animal behavior . in one run-over case, the secondary sources were uncertain, and in another, a wagon tongue broke, causing the victim to be ejected from the vehicle and run over, thereby making machinery failure a secondary source of injury. in children years and under, being run over caused of fatalities ( %). only eight of the latter cases were attributable to indirect animal behavior, while were attributable to human behavior, either on the part of the child or an adult. in approximately eight cases, it appears that figure : fatalities by source of injury children were run over by adults or older siblings who were simply unaware of the child's location. in cases ( % of total fatalities), children were run over after falling from farm implements, wagons, or tractors they had been riding on or driving. the second most prevalent source of injury to both adults and children was direct animal behavior, such as being kicked, stepped on, or dragged by horses, mules, or cattle. sixteen cases ( % of total fatalities) were listed in this category. in one of these cases, horses dragged the victim when he became entangled in reins after a vehicle tongue broke, thereby making machinery failure a secondary source of injury. nine of the direct animal fatalities ( % of total fatalities) involved children years and under. in addition to the direct animal-related fatalities, sixteen cases ( % of total fatalities) were related indirectly to animal behavior such as bolting. therefore, % of all fatalities were directly or indirectly related to animal behavior. (see figure .) in nine cases ( %), the victims were crushed between or by heavy objects, and six of them were aged eight years and under. five of these children were crushed by heavy objects, and one was pinned between a tractor and a wagon. one of these fatalities was indirectly caused by animal behavior: horses bolted, thereby throwing a boy and two logs from a wagon, and the boy was crushed beneath the logs. the only adult victim was crushed between a skid steer loader bucket and frame when a hydraulic line broke. in regard to other sources of injury, entanglements and falls proved to be significant sources of injury, as they are in the general farm population (nsc, ). a total of five victims died by drowning; three drown in farm ponds, while the other two were small children who fell into horse tanks. all of the suffocation victims ( ) died in grain or feed bins. one fire victim was killed when a leaking propane heater exploded in a farm building; the other two were children who died in a barn fire after playing with matches in a hayloft. one old order mennonite youth was killed when a steel-wheeled tractor overturned. the lone firearms victim was an adolescent who was crawling through grass, was mistaken for a woodchuck, and was inadvertently shot by a figure : fatalities by animal behavior neighbor. in the "other" fatality category, one of the victims had been using a horse drawn implement; the horses were later found in the barn, while the victim was found in a field with head and chest injuries from which he later died. no specific source of injury was determined. in the remaining case classified as "other," the victim was reported to have experienced a seizure, came into contact with an electric fence, and suffered cardiac arrest. month recent statistics show that summer months and midwestern harvest times are peak periods for all agricultural fatalities (murphy & yoder, ). some reasons for this include increased exposure to work hazards during the growing season, longer workdays, and a larger number of workers, such as children out of school (murphy & yoder, ). fatalities documented in the old order anabaptist community followed a similar pattern, as shown in figure . june is usually a prime time for haymaking, corn planting, and crop cultivation among the amish. the pattern for fatalities according to month was similar between all cases and those involving children. in both groups, the number of fatalities for july appeared unexpectedly low. day of week sunday is normally the day with the lowest number of farm fatalities, (purschwitz, ; murphy & yoder, ). in addition, because of the anabaptist belief in a sabbath rest, it would be expected that the fewest farm fatalities would occur on sunday. that was indeed the case with the observed cases, though thursday was only slightly higher in fatalities. a possible reason for the sunday fatalities is the fact that livestock must still be cared for on sunday, and thus, some chores must be done. in the cases where the day of fatality was discernable, friday had the highest percentage of fatalities with %, followed by wednesday with %, saturday with figure : fatalities by month (children shown in white) %, and monday and tuesday with %. for children years and under, % were killed on saturday, % on wednesday, and % on friday and tuesday. in the childhood cases in which complete information was reported, approximately % of the fatalities occurred during the weekend period of friday evening through sunday. apart from the fact that children are out of school during this time period, another explanation for this finding is possibly the increased involvement of members of the old order anabaptist community in off-farm occupations, causing a greater intensity of farm work over the weekend period. figure shows fatalities by the day of week. fatality statistics observations though children are frequently the victims of fatal farm injuries in the overall population (field & tormoehlen, ; murphy, ; national committee for childhood agricultural injury prevention, ), the percentage of old order anabaptist childhood fatalities was unexpectedly high in the cases identified and summarized. the national safety council reports that % of agricultural work fatalities in were under years of age (nsc, ). (national safety council data is reported as " and under," whereas this report classified data as " and under".) in comparison, for the current survey, the percentage of fatalities involving children or adolescents under years of age was %. as previously indicated, the average age of victims in the current survey was . years. in contrast, the farm fatality summary for indiana, a state representing % of the cases currently being considered, revealed an average age of years (field, ). a study of farm-related fatalities in indiana revealed that % involved figure : fatalities by day of week (children shown in white) persons over years of age (purschwitz & field, ), while only one fatality victim identified in this summary was over years of age. it is possible that the high number of child fatalities may be related to the old order anabaptist beliefs concerning large families and the involvement of children in farming activities. however, several mitigating factors should also be considered in regard to the lower than average age of victims observed in this summary. first, the number of cases considered was too small to draw concrete comparisons between the amish and non-amish populations. in addition, national sources of injury data do not routinely collect data on workers under the age of (murphy & yoder, ); therefore, non-amish childhood farm-related fatalities might be understated. it is also possible that a younger than average retirement age among the old order anabaptist farmers further contributes to a lowering of the average fatality age. for example, hostetler reports that the amish may retire from active farming at age ( ). according to meyers, the tendency of amish farmers in northern indiana is to retire in their late s to allow other family members to get started in farming. however, they generally remain active on the farm or employed in other areas ( ). therefore, given these factors, it cannot be concluded that childhood farm-related fatality rates are higher among the amish than in the general population. it should also be noted that jones reported that overall mortality and morbidity appeared lower in the amish population than in the general population ( ). it is also inappropriate to compare child mortality rates between the old order anabaptist community and the overall farm population without taking into consideration the exposures non- amish children have to hazards typically not found in old order anabaptist communities. the incidence of fatalities associated with motor vehicles, motorcycles, atvs, snowmobiles, firearms, and other agents are much higher in the general population because such agents are rarely used by old order children. even activities such as football and other contact sports result in several deaths per year (nsc ). though amish children are required and encouraged to begin contributing to the family and community well-being at an early age, for religious and cultural reasons, they are prohibited or discouraged from pursuing most recreational activities that typically dominate the lives of many north american farm children. since a significant number of children were directly involved in work-related activities at the time of their deaths, it is evident that some amish children were attempting tasks too dangerous for their maturity levels or were being placed or allowed to be in hazardous situations (as is undoubtedly also the case with some non-amish children). however, it should be noted that hostetler perceives that in amish society parents attempt to create a safe environment for their children, protecting them from physical and moral danger ( ). hostetler and huntington's research also indicated that young children are encouraged to be useful but are not pushed to perform tasks beyond their abilities ( ). still, even if the typical amish farm family conforms to the standards of hostetler and huntington's comments, it is clear from the results of this summary that exceptions occur. it should also be stated that even though child labor is clearly beneficial to amish families and communities, it would be erroneous to conclude that the amish place low value on their children or simply use them for labor. hostetler states, "children are treasured. child care and nurture are the most important adult activities." ( ). erickson reiterates that the amish value children highly ( ). run-overs were a very high percentage of the overall fatalities. apart from small children being run over inadvertently, many of these fatalities occurred when a rider was ejected from a vehicle. it appears that old order farms could benefit from initiatives that have proven successful in the general farm population regarding tractor safety. these include warnings against extra riders and possibly the introduction of safety devices such as child passenger seats and safety belts in vehicles. animal behavior was a significant factor in many runovers in addition to the cases where animal behavior resulted directly in the death of the victim. approximately % of all fatalities were related directly or indirectly to animal behavior such as kicking or bolting. in contrast, according to the national safety council, only % of agricultural work fatalities in the overall farming community were attributable to animals in (nsc, ). this finding suggests the need for further consideration of possible injury prevention interventions, such as more intensive instruction about handling and training farm animals, more selective use of livestock, re- evaluation of certain work practices, and utilization of specialized livestock handling equipment. intervention strategies in order to effectively influence change among the amish, it is essential to understand their social structure and attitudes toward those outside their communities. drake and james point out that this is necessary for making education information compatible with doctrine and community, and applicable to the context of their lives ( ). in contrast to modern society, old order anabaptists view tradition as superior to change (kraybill, ), and as previously indicated, old order communities are generally resistant to assistance or interference from sources outside their church communities. usually, this simply means avoiding participation in activities and programs outside their groups. however, throughout their history in america, matters of conscience have periodically brought the amish into direct conflict with the rules of the larger society. they have frequently prevailed in their ability to practice their beliefs unhindered by the state or have negotiated acceptable compromises in such areas as military service, education, and taxation (kraybill ). some amish are currently seeking exemptions from child labor laws that restrict their youth from certain activities, such as working in sawmills. as kraybill states, "reluctant to demand rights and privileges, the amish will not, however, acquiesce on deeply held beliefs but will respectfully take a stand, even if it brings fines, imprisonment, prosecution, or migration…" ( ). it is also important to understand the old order anabaptist worldview that is rooted in the biblical doctrine of the two kingdoms: the kingdom of god, and the kingdom of the world (kraybill ). in general, those within the amish community (or similar groups) are viewed as belonging to the kingdom of god, while everyone outside their communities belongs to the kingdom of the world. the amish hold strongly to the belief that these two groups should remain as separate as possible so as not to contaminate the purity of their spiritual communities. these views create an inherent tension in attempts to establish cooperative relationships between the amish and outsiders, even on issues that might prove beneficial to both communities. this tension is especially evident in dealings with the government: old order anabaptists view it with suspicion because its use of force to gain compliance violates the anabaptist belief in non- violence (kraybill, ). however, exceptions to this strict separation of church and state, or church and other outside organizations, are possible. for example, in , lagrange county, indiana, the home of one of the nation's largest amish settlements, experienced a high number of amish farm-related fatalities, almost all children. in response, a series of meeting were held involving amish leadership, local county extension educators, concerned citizens, and purdue university's agricultural safety and health program staff. the result was the formation of the northern indiana family safety committee, a group of amish and non-amish leaders who address safety issues within the amish and the non-amish communities. in some of their first efforts, the committee sponsored a series of farm safety workshops specifically targeting the amish community. to date, approximately eleven of these events have been conducted, involving over members of the amish community. the committee also produced and distributed, both in indiana and other states, a culturally and spiritually sensitive farm safety coloring book called weed in our gardens for old order anabaptist children. approximately , copies of this book have been distributed to a wide variety of audiences, including nearly all second and third graders in the amish school districts in the lagrange county area. recently, the committee coordinated a program to install smv emblems and reflective tape on amish buggies throughout the community. they also facilitated the design and production of an amish buggy/auto safety brochure targeting tourists in highly amish areas. approximately , copies have been distributed in several states. in another effort to influence old order anabaptist children with farm safety information, penn state university's school of nursing developed an interactive board game called "amos and sadie's farm: a pathway to safety." the game quizzes players about safety issues, such as potentially dangerous aspects of haylofts, silos, and livestock. a variety of other cooperative intervention efforts were presented at the extension education in anabaptist communities conference in shipshewana, indiana, in may . among the recurring ideas presented was the concept that amish settlements have doctrinal similarities but also characteristics unique to the individual communities. thus, attitudes toward outsiders, and cooperative efforts with such parties, can vary significantly between settlements depending on the rules or "ordnung" of the individual communities. conference participants reiterated that the more professionals know about anabaptist doctrine and its impact on lifestyle, the more effectively they can interact with this population. also, according to extension educators at the conference, in dealing with the amish it is more effective to address them in informal settings instead of through structured programs or external services from state agencies. as kraybill states, "instead of secondary relationships, amish life revolves around primary, face to face social ties…" ( ). it is also important to avoid a patronizing attitude or the image of being an "outside expert," according to the extension educators at the conference. a second conference for professionals working with old order anabaptist communities is scheduled for march in holmes county, ohio, the location of the largest amish settlement in the country. the indiana state police have also initiated intervention strategies of conducting informational meetings with amish audiences and providing special training to law enforcement personnel in counties with amish populations. the focus of these meetings has been on highway safety and responding to emergency situations. recommendations . to better address the overarching issue of old order anabaptist farm-related fatalities, a centralized, ongoing database and a more uniform reporting procedure would be helpful for gathering and quantifying relevant data. this would enable the old order anabaptist community, and professionals working with them, to better understand the problem, draw more concrete conclusions, and develop more effective prevention strategies for reducing injuries and fatalities among their population. . efforts should be made to develop more farm safety materials that are culturally and religiously sensitive to the old order anabaptist community and that reflect their traditional agricultural practices. special attention should be given to material oriented toward children but also designed for use in a family setting to communicate safety messages. . appropriate farm safety information should be made available for dissemination through the channels most frequently used by the old order anabaptist community, such as their community schools, livestock auctions, and farm markets. . community-based farm and family safety committees should be encouraged in geographical regions with high concentrations of old order anabaptists. . in response to the large number of small children run over in circumstances where the driver was unaware of the child's location, the use of more clearly defined or fenced-in play areas should be considered. . the role of extra riders on horse drawn equipment needs further exploration to determine the actual risks involved and possible intervention strategies, such as passenger seats in buggies and wagons and improved seating on horse drawn implements. references cosgel, m.e. ( ). religious culture and economic performance: agricultural productivity of the amish, - . journal of economic history, ( ): - . drake, b.h, & james, r.e. ( ). extension in religious communities. journal of extension, ( ): - . ericksen, e.p., ericken, j.a., & hostetler, j.a. ( ). the cultivation of the soil as a moral directive: population growth, family ties, and the maintenance of community among the old order amish. rural sociology, ( ): - . field, w. e. ( ). indiana farm fatality summary. west lafayette, indiana: purdue university. field, w.e. & tormoehlen, r.l. ( ). analysis of fatal and non-fatal farm accidents involving children. paper no. - . st. joseph, michigan: american society of agricultural engineers. friesen, k. & friesen, j. ( ). perceptions of the amish way. dubuque, iowa: kendal/hunt publishers. hostetler, j. a. ( ). amish society. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. hostetler, j. a. ( ). a new look at the old order. the rural sociologist, ( ): - . hostetler, j. a. ( ). amish life. scottdale, pennsylvania: herald press. hostetler, j. a. ( ). hutterite society. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. hostetler, j. a. & huntington, g. e. ( ). amish children: education in the family, school, and community. fort worth, texas: harcourt brace jovanovich college publishers. jones, m. w. ( ). a study of trauma in an amish community. the journal of trauma, ( ): - . kreps, g.a., donnermeyer, j.f., kreps, m.w. ( ). the changing occupational structure of amish males. rural sociology, ( ): - . kollmorgan, w. m. ( ). the old order amish of lancaster county pennsylvania. in culture of contemporary rural communities. westport, conn.: greenwood press, . kraybill, d. b. (ed.). ( ). the amish and the state. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. kraybill, d. b. ( ). the riddle of amish culture. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. murphy, d. j. ( ). safety and health for production agriculture. st. joseph, michigan: american society of agricultural engineers. murphy, d. j. & yoder, a.m. ( ). census of fatal occupational injury in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing industry. journal of agricultural safety and health, special issue ( ): - . meyers, t. j. ( ). personal contact. oct., . national committee for childhood agricultural injury prevention. ( ). children and agriculture: opportunities for safety and health. marshfield, wi: marshfield clinic. national safety council. ( ). accident facts. itasca, illinois: author. purschwitz, m.a. & field, w.e. ( ). scope and magnitude of injuries in the agricultural workplace. american journal of industrial medicine, : - . purschwitz, m.a. & field, w.e. ( ). farm-related fatalities involving persons years of age and older. paper no. - . columbia, missouri: nifs. redekop, c. ( ). mennonite society. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. salamon, s. ( ). prairie patrimony. chapel hill: university of north carolina press. swierenga, r.p. ( ). the little white church: religion in rural america. agricultural history, ( ): - . umble, d. z. ( ). holding the line: the telep hone in old order mennonite and amish life. baltimore: the johns hopkins university press. van den barr, a.w. ( ). locality group differences in the adoption of new farm practices. rural sociology, : - . winter, m. ( ). sociology of religion and rural sociology whitman, s. d. & field, w.e. ( ). assessing senior farmers' perceptions of tractor and machinery-related hazards. journal of agricultural safety and health, ( ): - . gordon kaufman and a theology for the seeker religions article gordon kaufman and a theology for the seeker hans le grand independent author, steenhoffstraat , bh soest, the netherlands; hanslegrand@hotmail.com received: may ; accepted: august ; published: august ���������� ������� abstract: this article begins to develop a theology for the multi-worldview seeker, based on the constructive theological work of gordon kaufman. seeking, as discussed in this article, is an attitude of life, characterized by interest in more than one theological, philosophical, or spiritual worldview, without any short or mid-term intention to commit oneself to one of them. in the united states, the unitarian universalist association is a denomination that houses many theological seekers. the principles and sources of faith of that denomination offer an interesting foundation for the attitude of seeking. constructing a theology for the seeker based on these principles should include a coherent account of concepts such as truth, god, spiritual growth, and ethics as they might follow from those principles. this article identifies possible incoherencies in the use of these concepts by seekers and proposes ways to escape them. keywords: pluralism; (religious) seekers; unitarian universalism; religious liberalism; gordon kaufman; constructive theology; pragmatic truth; spiritual growth; multiple religious belonging; unitarian universalist principles . introduction in secularizing societies such as those in western europe as well as, to a lesser extent, in the us, being part of one specific religious, philosophical, or spiritual worldview is no longer taken for granted. membership in many religious denominations is decreasing. people may not be willing to commit to one singular worldview, because they are not willing to limit themselves to one specific tradition, do not consider these traditions to be authoritative for their personal religious view, or because they do not want to commit themselves to a denomination. yet, this does not necessarily imply an absence of interest in these traditions or in religion, philosophy, and spirituality at large. another route is to look for a way to order life in a meaningful and ethical way by searching for inspiration in various traditions and looking for insight and spiritual growth by a variety of means such as lectures, retreats, books, tv programs, discussions, etc. this attitude in life, which i will call seeking, increasingly seems to be practiced by many people in western secularizing multicultural societies. although a large majority of seekers search without membership in any denomination or group, that is not necessary. in fact, various liberal religious groups house multi-worldview seekers. some even explicitly mention seeking in their principles, mission statements, or in texts describing their identity. such groups, including the congregations of vrijzinnigen nederland in the netherlands, the general assembly of unitarian and free christian churches in the uk, and the unitarian universalist association in the us, offer religions , , ; doi: . /rel www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions http://www.mdpi.com http://www.mdpi.com/ - / / / ?type=check_update&version= http://dx.doi.org/ . /rel http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions religions , , of pluralist programs derived from various worldviews aimed to facilitate the seekers’ search for truth and meaning. surprisingly, little systematic reflection has been done on this attitude of seeking. how can seeking be done in a coherent way? what reasons are there to adopt that attitude? which ideas are implied by seeking, and which ideas or religious views are incoherent with that attitude? it seems that what is needed is a theology for the seeker that systematically reflects on the coherence and implications of the seeker’s view and practices. this should be a theology that helps seekers to shape their search in a coherent and meaningful way, a theology that helps seekers to understand what they are doing and how they can do better and be more effective, especially if they are gathering or worshipping together. such a theology is to be understood very broadly and does not necessarily include theist views only. the religious reflection of seekers may also consider nontheist worldviews and science, and therefore, a theology for the seeker should include those as well. most religious traditions only use one source of faith, a limited set of sources of faith (e.g., the books included in the bible), or consider one source or one set of sources authoritative above all others. here, it is important to realize that most sources of faith never came into existence with the intent to be compatible with other sources of faith. thus, it is not surprising that incompatibility between sources of faith often occurs. as most traditions use only one sources of faith, to them the possible incompatibility of their source of faith with other sources of faith is not very important. for seekers, specifically, as they use many sources of faith, such incompatibility may occur. for them it is important, as they have to find ways to deal with these incompatibilities, to build a meaningful personal integrated religious view. it is for this reason, that prevention of incoherencies is an important aspect of a theology of the seeker. thus, although incoherence may not bet the worst thing that can happen to humanity (living a good life probably is more important (see section )), this article to a large extent concentrates on the prevention of incoherence. the theology to be developed should be able to help seekers to understand what they are doing and how they can do better and be more effective, especially if they are gathering or worshipping together. such a theology may also function as a theology for those denominations (such as the groups mentioned) who aim to house seekers and who try to describe their identity in positive wording . among seekers, a number of religious concepts which are frequently used may lead to incoherence. among these concepts four are discussed in this article: truth, god, spiritual growth, and ethics. this article aims to be a starter for the development of a theology of the seeker. in section , the seeker is described, and it is indicated where seekers can be found. this section will also demonstrate that american unitarian universalists (uus, i.e., people being part of the unitarian universalist association, uua) can be considered as a group that houses seekers. this will be done by showing that the principles and sources of faith as formulated by the uua are in agreement with my description of seekers. in section , the need for a theology of the seeker is explicated and possible incoherencies that may arise in constructing such a theology will be identified. in section , the constructive theological work of gordon kaufman is introduced, which will prove to be helpful in constructing a theology for the seeker. in sections – the possible incoherencies in the four concepts mentioned will be identified and discussed, and with help of the work of gordon kaufman, escape routes will be indicated. in this respect, section discusses the meaning of the concept of truth for in this article i make a distinction between the words “worldview” and “tradition”. worldview will be used in the philosophical, religious, or spiritual sense and includes both theistic and nontheistic views. thus, there are marxist wordviews, christian wordviews, and buddhist worldviews. tradition is to be understood in the sociological way as a group of people. thus, unitarian universalism is primarily to be seen as one tradition, being inspired by many worldviews. see, respectively, www.vrijzinnigen.nl, www.unitarian.org.uk and www.uua.org. this broad use of the word theology is in agreement with its use by gordon kaufman. many people who are a member of these groups tend to describe their identity in negative wordings: we don’t believe in dogmas, we don’t believe the bible to be the single source of authority, etc. gordon kaufman was not a unitarian universalist, but a liberal mennonite. however, because the framework kaufman constructs is thoroughly pluralistic, his work has important applicability outside christianity, especially also for seekers. www.vrijzinnigen.nl www.unitarian.org.uk www.uua.org religions , , of seekers, section deals with the concept of god, section with spiritual growth and section with ethics. section concludes this article. . the seeker and where to find them the multi-worldview seeker, as i will use this concept in this article, is described by the following: . interested in religion and spirituality as offered by more than one religious, philosophical, or spiritual worldview. . at least for the mid-term, not willing to exclusively commit oneself to one of those worldviews. by “mid-term” it is meant that seekers are not short-term seekers, looking to find a suitable religious home relatively soon. seeking is an attitude towards life that can be adopted for many years, although of course, seekers will not exclude the possibility that they will eventually feel sufficiently at home in one worldview to commit fully to it and participate in denominations built around that worldview. . convinced that, although a group or community may be a fruitful environment for seeking, in the end, the direction of their religious path is individual . there is an eagerness to search and pursue their individual path with some level of dedication. . looking for inspiration from e.g., various authors, scriptures, films, workshops, retreats, lectures, friends, and developments in society. generally, seekers may feel inspired by the classical religious scriptures and have an interest in them, but do not consider scriptures as ultimate authorities. a couple of remarks have to be made about this definition. first of all, the worldviews as mentioned in point are to be understood broadly and may include inspiration by science, logic, and direct experience of miracle and wonder, such as e.g., mystical experience. a second remark has to do with the word “religious”: for many seekers their seeking process might be considered religious in character. some, however, will not identify with the word religious. this may be because they relate the word “religious” with religious organizations or denominations (a sociological understanding, conform for example dürkheim ), while they don’t, or because they understand religion as something which has to do with an unseen reality (tylor) , which is for them not the essence of their belief. such seekers may, or may not, identify more strongly with words such as spiritual or philosophical. in this article, religious is meant as reflection on ultimate concern (tillich or yinger) . similarly, the word seeking does not necessarily involve a search for a religious home or denomination (see section for a discussion of this). neither does it necessarily seek an unseen reality. although both may be included in the search process, at least a search for concerns, and especially ultimate concern, is included, as well as ways to ascribe that/those concern(s). in the netherlands and the uk, many seekers are not part of a single religious, philosophical, or spiritual organization, but look for their religious needs in a mixture of books, discussions, courses, retreats, etc. some seekers are part of organizations which are welcoming diversity in their groups such as liberal christian denominations, religious humanist groups, buddhism in the tradition of thich nhat hanh, and freemasonry. in the netherlands, vrijzinnigen nederland, being rooted in two worldviews (religious humanism and liberal christianity) explicitly claims to house seekers, and in the uk, the same applies to the general assembly of unitarian and free christian churches, although this is not to say that the individual is necessarily solipsistic or unmoored. next to personal genetics and the personal story of life, the path the individual chooses will strongly depend on the scoial environment, family background, and culture the individual originates from and exists in. (dürkheim , p. ). (tylor , pp. , ). yinger (yinger , p. ) defines religion by: “religion is the organized effort to make virtue of our ultimate necessities: it is a system of beliefs and practices by means of which a group of people struggles with these ultimate problems of life. it expresses their refusal to capitulate in the face of death, to give up in the face of frustration, to allow hostility to tear apart human associations”. religions , , of both these groups are only reaching a small part of the seekers in those countries . in the us, seekers can find a home in one the congregations of the uua. the description in the previous paragraph of seekers finding a home in existing denominations seems paradoxical, as the existence of these denominations, being spiritual traditions themselves, suggests that seekers find their home here, thus ending their search. the way out of this paradox appears to be the fact that these denominations, although they are religious organizations similar to many other religious organizations, do not commit themselves to one of the main spiritual worldviews, but offer a program that offers elements out of various worldviews. thus, their program may include mindfulness meditation out of the buddhist worldview combined with liberal christian church services, earth-oriented rituals, as well as lectures on various philosophical traditions in the more creative communities of these denominations, members develop their own rituals that feed their spiritual needs at that moment, in that place. the fact that inspiration is obtained from various worldviews does not imply that groups of seekers are syncretist. the various traditions remain separate sources of inspiration existing next to each other. there is no attempt to integrate these traditions into one doctrine that is valid for the entire group or denomination. if there is an attempt at integration, it is integration at the individual level, allowing each individual to make his or her own integration out of the pluralism offered. the functioning of the uua as a home for seekers becomes clear from their principles and sources of faith (see appendix a). in this declaration, we find in the sources of faith a list of traditions within which uus seek for truth, while the principles serve as a description of moral commitments, as well as a framework to regulate and place limits on their seeking. later in this article i will use the principles and sources of faith of the uua as a description of seeking, therefore, i will now start with checking whether indeed, all characteristics of seekers as i have introduced them in the beginning of this section can be found implicitly or explicitly in those principles and sources of faith. interest in religion and spirituality as offered by more than one religious, philosophical, or spiritual worldview is clear from the sources of faith. they describe the world religions that inspire them. although uus are inspired by the various sources of faith, at least for the mid-term many are not willing to exclusively commit themselves to one of those worldviews. this is clear from the fact that uus have many long-term members, a fact which could not be explained if they were just some sort of introduction course and/or educational institute for the various religious worldviews that inspire them. that means that people become part of uuism because, at least for the mid-term, they are not willing to exclusively commit themselves to one of the main religious worldviews . the fourth principle of uuism mentions a free search for truth and meaning. this implies that, in the end, the direction of their religious path is individual. there is an eagerness to search and pursue their individual path with some level of dedication. that this search is free is very important for uus, and that is to be taken very strictly. if the search for truth and meaning would be expected to lead to a correspondence with a view of the group (i.e., group pressure) or of any authority such as scripture or doctrinal tradition, that search would not be considered free . for this reason, dogmatics, or any authority to doctrine, is rejected. the freedom of search, as well as the acceptance of one another, is to safeguard the individuality of the search. the participation of individual uus in uu communities shows that they consider those groups as a fruitful environment for this individual search. the mentioning of encouragement to spiritual growth implies dedication to the search process. the sources of faith are not limited to the holy scriptures of any single worldview. next to words and deeds of prophetic women and men (to be understood as from various traditions), both organizations are member groups of the international council of unitarians and universalists. not all uus are seekers exactly. some may stick with uuism because they have a primary commitment to one worldview coupled with a willingness to learn from others and to be in community with people of diverse worldviews. the limitation of this freedom is the fact that the search is a responsible one, as the search is not to endanger the individual seeker nor the fellow worshippers. in that sense there is a responsibility to the group. religions , , of the uu sources mention individual experience of mystery and wonder, as well as science. this is reflected in worship, which can strongly vary in form, contents, and sources of inspiration used. thus, uus can look for inspiration from various authors, scriptures, films, workshops, retreats, lectures, friends, and developments in society. because the uu principles fit well with the description of the seeker, they can be used to get a further understanding of the seeker, to identify possible incoherencies in seeking, and possible ways out of these incoherencies. . the need for a theology of the seeker in the present multicultural and multireligious society, it is not surprising that people look for inspiration as offered by the various religious, philosophical, and spiritual worldviews, as such worldviews are engaged continuously in daily life. such a search for inspiration, if it aims for finding a religious home (let us call this a type- search), should be considered as an intermediate phase: that phase could get two forms: ( ) between a stage in life in which there was no interest in religion and a stage where the awakening interest finds its home, or ( ) a stage of being at home in one tradition and the stage of feeling at home in another tradition (or none at all). such a phase is characterized by not-knowing; a lack of orientation; and a process of reflection on self, the world, and the way to make life meaningful. as long as the people in this phase do not claim knowledge about the topics they are in doubt of, not knowing or lack of orientation can hardly be considered incoherent. the search of the seeker is of another kind (let us call this a type- search). here, the search is no intermediate phase, but a consciously or unconsciously chosen way of life, at least for the medium term. it is a way of life committed to the search itself rather than committed to possible outcomes of that search. it is a way of enduring openness, enduring curiosity of what more the world has to offer, enduring critical consideration of the self, looking for correction, and relativization of religious views held so far. the type- search, in contrast to type- , is vulnerable to incoherencies. these possible incoherencies are investigated in this article. due to its openness to all kind of sources for inspiration, traditions, and methods of reflection, the possibilities for individual constructive theologies of seekers are basically endless. in fact, the various sources of faith that inspire seekers offer plenty of possibilities for personal theologies, and as a consequence, the theologies of seekers may widely differ. the criterion for each of them is that it orders the life of any one specific seeker in a way that is meaningful to that seeker. therefore, it is not straightforward to say something generally about a theology of the seeker in affirmative terms. however, what is specific to the theology of the seeker is the way of dealing with diverse and contradicting views. this way of dealing may have implications for the seeking process. moreover, assumptions implied in the seeking process have to be made explicit as they may influence and limit the possible outcomes of the seeking process. if these aspects are not carefully considered, seeking may lead to incoherencies and if so, it may fail to order life in a meaningful way. thus, the possibilities for individual theology of seekers may be endless, but they are not limitless. while affirmations about personal beliefs are highly personal, possible incoherencies in certain views transcend the individuals that hold them. for this reason, i will now turn to possible incoherencies in seeking, identifying limits of theologies for seekers and indicating ways to keep away from these limits. as suggested, type- searches can hardly be incoherent. such a search can result in a view on religion and life, and that results in the end of the search. those results, of course, can be incoherent, but that does not imply incoherence of the search itself. as long as there is a stage of not knowing, lack of orientation, knowledge, and orientation, it cannot be incoherent. for type- search, this is different. the searching attitude is deliberately chosen, it includes a choice of not committing to any religious, philosophical, or spiritual worldview; it includes a conviction that criteria to adopt certain ways of searching are individual; it includes the idea that the criteria for what satisfies in the available answers are individual; it declines the ultimate authority of any religions , , of specific scripture; and it may (and likely does so) include ethics, based on tolerance, or based on progressive principles. therefore, the type- search, as adopted by seekers, in contrast to the type- search, may be open to various traditions, but it is not value neutral, or wholly free of normative principles. for this reason, the position of the seeker needs careful consideration. in this paper, four concepts that may lead to incoherencies will be discussed. the first concept that needs closer consideration is the concept of truth. the principles of the uua state that their congregations are to promote a free search for truth and meaning. now, if finding truth is impossible, the search for truth makes no sense. thus, we have to assume that it is possible to find truth. if that is the case, it seems that truth limits the possibilities for the search going forward, as further search outcomes, if they are to order life in a meaningful way, should be coherent with truth already found. thus, truth can be experienced as a limitation of the freedom of the search. more specifically, seekers will have to assess whether the various sources of faith mentioned contain truth, and subsequently they have to select only those sources of faith that correspond to the concept of truth that they discovered. as it is convincingly shown in literature that the truths of the various traditions often contradict, this should lead to the exclusion of some sources of faith, thus limiting the further search for truth and meaning. the complexities with respect to the concept of truth are discussed in section . the second concept that needs consideration is “god”. some of the traditions which inspire the seeker do use a concept of god, but others, such as humanism or some forms of buddhism, do not, or they consider the existence and worship of god of secondary importance this means that among seekers there are people who consider themselves theists, others are atheists, and many, one way or another, call themselves somewhere in between. the use of the word god has important implications for worship. in fact, it might be debatable if for proper worship, it is necessary to have an entity to worship, being called god or otherwise. of course, this depends on what is considered worship and what is considered “proper worship”. in uu congregations, worship is a common practice, and in this worship, uus participate independent of whether they are theists or atheists. but that does not mean this is true for all seekers. in fact, some seekers may consider worship that does not assume an object of worship irrelevant, because they consider worship only relevant if their act of devotion has an object. other seekers may consider worship irrelevant, because they assume that worship always assumes a pregiven object of worship; because they do not consider such an object in their own religious view, they prefer to refrain from worship at all. as the religious views of seekers widely vary, so do their concepts of worship and proper worship. for this reason, in this article worship is to be interpreted very broadly, which means that it includes gatherings and rituals in which no given object of worship is presumed. in worship by uus, the word god is regularly used. for example, the word god appears frequently in the hymnbooks uus are using , and that is true for the uk unitarians and vrijzinnigen nederland as well. this may lead to at least two possible incoherencies. first, how is it possible that the word god is used in worship and singing, without alienating seekers who mainly feel inspired by atheist worldviews? secondly, if god is considered as ultimate point of reference, how is it possible to adhere to a search which is free, in the sense that it may end both in theist and atheist positions? or in other words, isn’t the religious pluralism, as adopted by uus, basically a form of polytheism, and isn’t that incompatible with inspiration from monotheist worldviews? a third issue to be considered, is the actual meaning of the word god. if the views on god so widely vary among the sources seekers use, and therefore also among seekers, what do seekers do when they use the word god in their worship? and finally, if individual seekers, being inspired by several interpretations of the concept of god, for example in the hymnbook “singing the living tradition” (belletini ), out of the first hymns mention the word god. religions , , of use the word god, what do they mean? to investigate this further, these four issues with the use of the concept of god by seekers are discussed in section . the third concept that needs consideration is “spiritual growth”. for seekers, such as uus, spiritual growth is important, to the extent that their principles state the encouragement to spiritual growth as an explicit element of uuism. obviously, the authors and uu readers of the principles have an implicit idea of what spiritual growth is, taking the principle on spiritual growth as a guideline for the activities of the uu community, but: what is spiritual growth? is it a concept to be derived from one of the worldviews that inspire seekers at the expense of other worldviews? or is it a kind of common denominator of all those concepts, or the total of all possibilities to grow as appearing in the various traditions? how can i grow spiritually in a coherent and consistent way, if on day one, when i feel inspired by christianity, i aim to grow following jesus and on day two, when i feel inspired by buddhism, i aim to grow according to the teachings of the buddha? it is clear that spiritual growth, being one of the main reasons for seekers to gather and worship, needs closer consideration, and that will be done in section . the fourth and last concept that will be discussed in this paper is ethics. each of the religious worldviews that inspire the seeker offers their own ethics. these ethics sometimes contradict. this may lead to a lack of guidance on moral issues, but may also lead to undesirable inconsistency over time. if seekers are willing to be inspired by the various religious worldviews in a continuously changing mix, it might follow that their personal ethics continuously change as well. this may be experienced as religion failing to help order and live life in a coherent and meaningful way. thus, the ethics of the seeker needs consideration, which will be done in section . . gordon kaufman “there really is no universally human position available to us; every religious (or secular) understanding and way of life we might uncover is a particular one” for many conventional theologians, theology is a process of discovery or explication of an authoritative position, e.g., as found in sources like the bible. for seekers, this approach, although delivering insights, in the end may have little use for discovering ultimate truth, because the seeker may realize that such a task of discovery and explication executed in the various traditions in the world results in images and concepts that often contradict . thus, the results fail in giving guidance for what is of ultimate orientation in life. an alternative approach is the so-called constructivist approach, i.e., the analysis, criticism, and construction of religious images and concepts such as god . the constructivist approach was promoted, for example, by the liberal mennonite gordon kaufman ( – ), edward mallinckrodt, jr. professor of divinity at harvard divinity school. in his main work, “in face of mystery”, as well as his other books, kaufman builds a thoroughly pluralistic framework , based on an agnostic starting point and assuming just formal, but not any material, overlap between the various worldviews (including atheist worldviews). the formal overlap is that religious worldviews are looking for symbols and creating them to help to order and live life in a meaningful way, preferably fitting with the culture they exist in. kaufman, considering himself a christian, sees himself living in a culture that he considers basically christian, but in this culture a specific interpretation of christian symbols is not taken for granted, and christian symbols are often interpreted in an old fashioned, and now poorly functioning (i.e., “parochial”) way. within his pluralist framework, and using the room the framework offers, kaufman continues to construct a specific christian theology that should satisfy three requirements: (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , preface). religions , , of it should be coherent; it should help to order and live life in a meaningful way; and it should fit in the present age, i.e., help humanity with the present problems of society, including the threat of nuclear destruction and environmental catastrophe. the christian part of his theology comes in, when kaufman defines six small steps of faith. the six steps, although arguments are given for them, are not logically necessary. if one does not take one of the six steps or takes them differently, the process may lead to non-christian worldviews. for the purpose of doing theology for the seeker, kaufman is very helpful for a number of reasons. first of all, it is constructive theology that he proposes. as explained above, discovery and explication is just part of the search of the seeker. discovery and explication may be important for seekers because they help to identify and clarify sources of faith and inspiration. however, discovery and explication are not enough to order life and make it meaningful. to make sense of all things discovered and explained, which are often contradicting views, seekers will have to construct symbols and concepts. these symbols and concepts should, on the one hand, embrace the plurality of religious insights discovered around them; on the other hand, they should provide coherent views and help to order and live life in a meaningful way. thus, the construction of theology as proposed by kaufman as well as the criteria he proposes to do so, may be helpful for the seeker. a second reason to use kaufman’s work for this purpose is his agnostic starting point. as kaufman states: “critical theology, then, is not to be understood as a discipline that attempts to transcend all particular commitments and perspectives through developing a universal or generic theological stance (an impossible project, in my view). it is to be seen, rather, as a pluralistic discipline that attempts to investigate and understand, and to find ways of assessing and reconstructing the actual orientational commitments to which women and men today give themselves.” . this starting point is recognizable for seekers without an upbringing in a specific religious tradition, and it may be experienced as liberating by seekers with a religious upbringing who wish to critically investigate the bias this upbringing has given them. a third reason to consider kaufman is his pluralistic framework, which denies any privilege or authority to any of the religious traditions or scriptures up front . this agrees with the tendency of seekers to open up to whatever any religious tradition has to teach us. a fourth reason to consider kaufman is his openness to any religious, philosophical, and spiritual worldview, and therefore also to nontheist worldviews such as marxists and humanists, which deny, or relativize, the importance of an ultimate metaphysical reality called god. kaufman states: “i am suggesting that we need secularist and marxist theologians as much as christian and muslim ones” . for other liberal, pluralist authors like john hick, an ultimate reality is assumed, and each view within the variety of religious worldviews in the world can be seen as an attempt to approach this reality . for seekers, especially if they are willing to seriously consider science and humanism (for example, as formulated in the uu principles), these nontheist worldviews may be important sources of inspiration, and the existence of an ultimate metaphysical reality cannot be taken for granted. thus, for them, kaufman offers a better starting point than for example hick. there are three aspects of kaufman’s work in which seekers may deviate from him, or at least interpret his framework in a specific way. first of all, kaufman considers himself to live in a christian culture and he has a christian (mennonite) background. for him, this is a reason to construct a contemporary christian theology out of his pluralist framework. this cultural background is not the case for many seekers, especially in western europe, because that continent is strongly secularized. seekers may consider their background secularized and multicultural, while their upbringing (in increasing amounts) is not necessarily christian but often agnostic or pluralist. thus, for seekers, there is no cultural reason, as for kaufman, to look for a specifically suitable christian theology (even though a contemporary (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , chps. , ; , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ). (hick ) j. hick, glifford lectures. (kaufman , chps. – ). religions , , of pluralist christian theology will be of more meaning for the seeker than an old-fashioned parochial exclusivist version of christian theology). second, for kaufman, the human is a biohistorical creature , shaped by evolution bringing about all characteristics they have in common with animals (hence bio), as well as shaped by their history (hence historical). kaufman mainly sees historicity as a cultural process that shapes humans over many generations and constitutes their view on concepts such as god, world, and humanity. for seekers, although they may do so in communities, the search for truth and meaning is individually chosen. it is an individual search, which means that according to seekers, and in spite of the fact that kaufman correctly points at the importance of cultural background in religious perception, he may underestimate the influence of the individual, their personal story of life, background, and genetic characteristics on religious choices. moreover, although a cultural background over several generations may still have influence on an individual, so have friends, contemporary news, and all kind of triggers for a change of heart, readily available in our present-day culture. thus, present-day society may be more dynamic than kaufman suggests. for the seeker, during his or her life time, making several shifts of emphasis between the various worldviews is not improbable at all. third, kaufman states, the role of the various worldviews is to contribute their insights to the ongoing discussion among humanity in the world. seekers would not disagree with this at all, as they agree with this pluralist view, and it offers them room and inspiration in their seeking process. however, they would formulate it even stronger: the various worldviews do not only contribute to the discussion between humans. they continuously contribute to the ongoing reflection in the head of the individual seeker: “the pluralism isn’t just out there, it is in me”, which makes up for a pluralism which may be more radical and far reaching than most theologians, among whom even kaufman may be one, have realized so far. using the strong points of kaufman’s approach, with the possible limitations and interpretations indicated in mind, we will now progress in addressing the issues which are important in constructing a theology for the seeker. . truth as described above, the search for truth and meaning is so essential to the seeker that this even ended up as one of the principles of the uua. yet, at the same time, seekers have many reasons to reject truth claims and refrain from making truth claims for themselves. the first reason is, as indicated, that truth claims may be incompatible with a free search for truth and meaning. next, truth claims often cannot be proved. in fact, there are many different truth claims, often contradicting, and there is no way to decide between them. according to kaufman a universal point of view to assess these truths and choose between them is simply not available to humanity . third, truth claims, and the willingness to defend them, if necessary, by violent means, have brought an enormous amount of suffering. in the present age, this point carries a large amount of weight given the threat of nuclear destruction. fourth, in an ever more multicultural society, acceptance of one another (see also the uua principles) is of crucial importance to live together in one society. claiming truth for the own opinion may make it more difficult to accept the other individual and assess the opinion of the other in an open and positive way. fifth, a complete respect for the truth and dignity of every individual requires us to accept that the truth for somebody else is as true for that person as our truth is for us. sixth, the unfoldment of human potential, both on the individual level as well as on the level of the human species, benefits from the openness to every new idea. finally, denying truth claims and refraining from them is a foundation for an attitude of active openness for ideas and religious views of others that the seeker may be eager to adopt. (kaufman , chps. , ). (kaufman , chp. ). openness is an attitude seekers have in common with mennonites, see gordon kaufman in (weaver , chp. ). religions , , of obviously, a search for truth and meaning as indicated by the uu principles, in combination with all the indicated objections against truth claims, may lead to incoherence. before looking for a way out of this incoherence, let us look at what kaufman has to say about truth. kaufman claims that modern historical understanding enables us to see that many quite diverse patterns of religious understanding and truth have emerged historically: the situation of humanity is pluralized through and through . for this reason, kaufman criticizes the conception of religious truth as if there were some single unified truths to which all religious truth claims approximate. the consequence, for kaufman, is that truth is not about correspondence to a reality out there. rather the criteria for truth are pragmatic , as earlier argued by william james : something can be considered true if it succeeds in illuminating humanity’s situation in the world and if it helps to orient human life. with this concept of truth in mind, the various great religious traditions deliver their deepest insights and truth in a historical and pluralistic way, each seeing its own insights as contributions to the larger conversation of humankind . a correspondence truth concept is basically not individualistic. if some religious concept, symbol, or insight corresponds with a reality out there, it does so for all people. a pragmatic truth concept leaves more room for an individual view: a certain insight may help to order and give guidance to the life of one individual but may not do so for another individual. thus, the fact that the pragmatic truth of individual or group a (i.e., it is useful to that individual or group) does not contradict the fact that that same statement is not, or is less useful, for individual or group b. thus, if a and b diverge in their concept of truth, this is not considered an incoherence. rather this divergence is a source of inspiration as various individuals and groups may inspire and relativize each other’s views. this view of kaufman and james helps to escape the indicated incoherence in the use of the word truth by seekers, as there are two different concepts of truth involved. the truth that seekers reject is a correspondence truth and the reasons they are doing that are indicated above. in the meantime, the truth seekers are seeking, is led by a pragmatic view on truth. thus, the religious truth the seekers are seeking consists of insights that are that convincing (to the individual seeker) that they are useful to give meaning and guidance to their individual life. the role of the great religious worldviews is that they offer their deepest insights, not just contributing to a discussion between people of different traditions, but contributing to an ongoing contemplation within the individual seeker as well. going through the list of reasons to reject truth claims, they are all reasons to reject truth claims of correspondence; none of them are reasons to reject pragmatic truth claims. thus, the proposal that seekers are seeking for pragmatic truth and that they should refrain from truth claims of correspondence solves the indicated danger of incoherence . moreover, pragmatic truth and being meaningful are almost synonyms. thus, the pragmatic truth concept helps to order life in a meaningful way, directly bringing effectiveness to the process of seeking. a final remark has to be made with respect to the truth claimed for this article. like other religious claims, the truth claimed for this article is to be pragmatic in character as well. in the view of the author, it is unlikely to be pragmatic to hold incoherent religious beliefs, as they fail to help order life in a meaningful way. thus, seekers may find it pragmatic to search for possible incoherencies and ways to prevent them. in that sense, and only in that sense, this article is claimed to be true. (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , epilogue). (james , chp. ). (kaufman ), god, mystery, diversity, chp. . this discussion is also interesting with respect to kaufman’s opinion that one should refrain from reifying religious concepts. see (kaufman , chp. ). implications of this for the seeker should be investigated further. religions , , of . god some religious traditions that inspire the seeker make extensive use of the symbol god: god is described as the ultimate point of reference, ultimate concern, ground of all being, or otherwise. among these traditions and even within them, the concepts of god irreconcilably vary, god being a person, some abstract thing (nature, something of which nothing greater can be conceived), or a process. there are also traditions which tend not to use the symbol god, or leave it open, even if they do consider some form of ultimate metaphysical reality or mystery. this pluralism is reflected in the various views of theologians, making proposals of how to see god, either as the result of a process of discovery or explication (e.g., explication of holy scripture) or as a construction of the human mind, using various criteria. many of these views contradict, or reflect views on humanity, the world, or ultimate reality that contradict. as several of these views may inspire seekers, this pluralism is also found in the belief systems of seekers, some of them ordering and living their lives based on a very firm and sometimes specific concept of god, while other seekers do not. moreover, one seeker may feel inspired by various interpretations of this symbol, or to degrees varying in time, leading to pluralism within the belief system of that individual seeker. both pluralism between seekers, as well as pluralism within the individual seeker, may lead to incoherence. with respect to pluralism between seekers, first, the word god may be used in worship and singing in which seekers who are predominantly inspired by worldviews which have little room for the concept of god, participate too. such worship and singing may be experienced as incoherent by seekers skeptical of the concept of god. the other way around, worship that expresses awe for the wonders of nature or that expresses thanks to the buddha for his insights, or which admires the achievements of science (all of them being in disagreement with certain theist views), may be idolatrous to seekers who believe in god as their ultimate concern or ultimate point of reference. with respect to pluralism within the individual seeker, such a seeker may also experience incoherence. serious consideration, reverence, and worship of god understood and confessed in a specific way may exclude the possibility to seriously consider atheism, or other views of god. in fact, consideration of various sources of faith as adopted by uus may be considered a form of polytheism, and in that sense, it may be incompatible with inspiration from monotheist worldviews. let us first consider some of what gordon kaufman has to say about god. kaufman signals that the word god is a word in the english language and therefore, that word has significance as a cultural symbol and tool of self-understanding, whether we are believers or not . second, the proper business of theology is the analysis, criticism, and construction of the concept of “god” . therefore, it is not an activity of description or exposition . as a definition of god kaufman proposes: “god is the name, of that to which we can give ourselves without reservation, that in terms of which human life in the world can most properly be oriented, of that which designates the ultimate point of reference in terms of which all else must be understood.” . this leaves open the question as to whether god should be thought of as a being, as nonbeing, or in some other way. according to kaufman, among possible other concepts, a viable christian concept of god that fits in the present age is to consider god as a process of serendipitous creativity evident in world history . for the seeker, kaufman’s thoughts help in building a theology that is coherent, meaningful, and contemporary, although as we will see, it is possible to formulate and discuss the concept of god in a way that is more inclusive than kaufman does. first of all, starting with kaufman, if the approach of the theologian is that of discovery (of characteristics of the divine) or explication of the divine by means of studying authoritative sources (such as scripture), we could assume that such a process of (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , prologue). (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , preface). religions , , of discovery could be successful, or the process of explication could be convincing, but in such cases that would lead to conclusions limiting the freedom of the search for truth and meaning: after the successful conclusions have been reached, any search on a path towards further conclusions that contradict the conclusions so far are false and should be rejected as being idolatrous . thus, doing theology as a process of discovery or explication is either senseless (it cannot be successful) or it leads to incoherencies in the theology of the seeker. the alternative kaufman offers, to consider theology as a process of construction, works for seekers if the criteria for a successful construction are that it results in pragmatic truth (see section ). thus, an essential element in the proper business of theology for the seeker is analysis, criticism, and construction of concepts of “god”, such that it helps seekers in ordering and guiding their life. the question remains what criteria seekers could use to see what helps them in ordering and guiding their life. here, kaufman uses a two-level approach. the first level is a level that discusses the word god at an interreligious level: what does the word mean in english language, how can it be properly used between believers and nonbelievers, and what is the overlap in meaning of the word god among various people who worship specific differing concepts of god? at this first level, the definition of god that kaufman offers, as introduced previously, is: god is the name, of that to which we can give ourselves without reservation, that in terms of which, human life in the world can most properly be oriented, of that which designates the ultimate point of reference in terms of which all else must be understood. this definition is rather formal: for each individual it can be combined with a specific individual view, that is, a description of what it is that deserves our giving without reservation or what it is, that we use as orientation in the world. it is exactly this extra that is added when giving a description or definition of god at the second level. the second level of definition is an individual level, possibly, but not even necessarily, shared by people of similar religious faith. for kaufman the first level definition leaves room for a lot of possible second level definitions of god, and epistemologically there is no compelling reason to choose any one of them. having created this room for various second level definitions of god, kaufman continues to construct a concept that for him is a contemporary, coherent, relevant, and christian concept: god as a process of serendipitous creativity . this is a second level approach, indicating what for him deserves his giving without reservation, and what he is willing to use for his orientation in the world. now the question arises how seekers can deal with god. would the proposals of kaufman work for them? in giving his level one definition, kaufman probably did not have in mind the idea that seekers can easily switch between the inspiration of various theist worldviews, and between theist and atheist worldviews. however, because kaufman’s approach is rather formal it leaves a lot of room for the seeker to make such switches. however, although kaufman in his theology tends to leave this room for nontheist belief systems, his definition of god in this respect is not very clear . in fact, his way of defining god, seems to suppose that god exists, or even, that it is necessary that god exists. that being undesirable to seekers, who may consider the idea that god does not exist, or that god is no proper way to symbolize what they believe, i propose to adjust kaufman’s proposal using an approach introduced by uu minister forrest church : “god’ is not god’s name. referring to the highest power we can imagine, ‘god’ is our name for that which is greater than all and yet present in each”. making church’s’ definition more precise, clear, and broad it becomes: “god is the name of that which i/an individual consider(s) or experience(s) to be the ultimate mystery or the ultimate point of reference in life.”. this leaves more room for atheism than kaufman’s definition, as for atheists it is (kaufman , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ; , chp. ). kaufman would be more clear and more inclusive if instead of “god is the name, of that to which we can give ourselves without reservation . . . ” he would have written: “god is a name, individuals can give to that which they think deserves giving themselves without reservation . . . ”. (church ). religions , , of very well possible to agree with this definition, while claiming that they do not have any experience or understanding of ultimate mystery or ultimate point of reference in life, or that they do have such experience or understanding, but that they choose not to identify that experience or understanding with the word god. kaufman’s second level definition of god may be an appealing proposal, as one may agree with kaufman that it fits with contemporary understanding of the world, that it is not incoherent with the christian tradition, and that is useful in ordering and guiding life. however, so are many different proposals of many theologians from many traditions. for the seeker it adds one relevant possible construction of the symbol god, no more and no less. using this two-level approach, seekers can escape possible incoherence in their use of the word god. using the first level, god can be used among seekers in their discussions and worship, as that definition does not assume that god exists or is a symbol that is necessary. it is a descriptive definition, describing the actual use of the word of god by religious seekers. in the meantime, using a second level definition of god, the specific religious view of an individual seeker can be clarified and examined. for that individual, such a definition can be normative, as that individual may believe that that is the only, or the best proper way, to worship god. by making this distinction in the use of the word god, the issues with the use of that word are solved. as the level one definition is not normative, the freedom in the search for truth and meaning is guarded. possible differences in the concept of god between various seekers and between the various sources of faith used by them do not necessarily lead to polytheism for the individual seeker, as in the level two definition of that particular seeker, god may be unique and single. . spiritual growth as indicated, “spiritual growth” is another important concept that needs further investigation for the seeker. seekers derive their inspiration from various religious, philosophical, and spiritual worldviews. many of these worldviews have implicitly or explicitly a view on humanity. what is humanity, what is humanization, what is the direction humanity should go, what is the way to salvation, to liberation, insight, etc. an important part of this view on what humanity is, and what the human is and should be, is understood as spiritual growth. the various worldviews have various concepts of spiritual growth. these concepts can overlap, can even be identical, they can be complementary, or they can contradict. if they overlap or if they are identical that is no problem for seekers, as that overlap may be a strong indication that such an aspect of spiritual growth, pointed at by various worldviews, should be relevant to order and guide their life. if they are complementary, that is no major problem for the seeker either (except that the energy, available time, and span of attention of the seeker may be limited). in fact, the reason seekers look for inspiration in various worldviews, is most likely their differences: it is assumed that these sources of inspiration differ and that each can contribute to the ongoing reflection and spiritual growth in the individual. each proposes points of view that the other may lack, and in that way, seekers get and aim to get a more complete, more relativized perception of themselves, humanity, the world, and ultimate reality. the various concepts of spiritual growth, as far as they are complementary, each point at different ways to grow, and in that way constitute a spiritual growth that is as broad, as deep, and as multidimensional as humanity has to offer. indeed, for this reason, the seeker could argue that there is more incoherence on the part of people who commit to a single tradition, since this would seem to place arbitrary limits on one’s opportunities to grow. a problem arises, if the various concepts of spiritual growth contradict. let us say that at day one, the seeker feels inspired by worldview a and that that worldview suggests growing in direction a*. then on day two, the seeker feels inspired by worldview b and let’s assume that that worldview suggests growing in direction b*, more or less opposite to a*. the result would be that this seeker does not benefit much from this growth over these two days. now, when this happens for the first time, such a process itself may be a process of development and learning. it may be part of a process of trial religions , , of and error, and by going this route, seekers have learned that either a* or b* is not the proper way to go and they should reconsider their individual path of seeking. but now, assume that it is day three, and the seekers realize that, again, they feel inspired by worldview a and that it is not unlikely that on day four they will feel inspired by worldview b again. should they go for spiritual growth a* and b* again? i think our seekers would consider such a choice incoherent, as it would contribute little to understanding, ordering, and guiding their life. ordering and living a life in a meaningful way may require some consistency in the spiritual growth process. for seekers, this constitutes a strong reason to find a concept of spiritual growth that transcends the concepts of spiritual growth from the various worldviews, and that transcends the opportunities for short-term growth as they may experience them at various moments and in various circumstances. but there are more reasons. as the search for truth and meaning is individual, so is the concept of spiritual growth. this means that if i want to get to know the path of other people, possibly learn from them, or if i think my own insights could contribute to their spiritual growth, knowledge and understanding of my own concept of spiritual growth will not suffice: i will need to understand the concept of spiritual growth of the other person, understand what we have in common, and develop language in terms of which we can discuss our differences. this becomes even stronger if we consider a community of seekers such as uus, with the explicit commitment to promote spiritual growth in their congregations. what is that spiritual growth, and how does a group promote that if spiritual growth is strictly individual? to find direction in how to grow and in what direction, the seeker may be helped with a concept of growth that transcends the concepts of spiritual growth from the various worldviews, but also takes the individual concepts as well as their diversity in serious consideration. moreover, the concept of spiritual growth to be constructed should be dynamic, realizing the possibility that directions of desired growth may change in the process of seeking. in fact, such changes, if resulting from progressive insight, are desirable and an implicit goal of the search. the phrase “spiritual growth” is hardly, or not, used explicitly by kaufman. however, a great deal is said implicitly. as stated in section , a theology should be coherent, it should help to order and live life in a meaningful way and it should fit in the present age and help humanity with the present existential problems of society, which kaufman considers to be the threat of nuclear destruction and environmental catastrophe. implicit in these criteria for theology is a concept of spiritual growth, i.e., spiritual growth being a process of living more coherently, a process in which life becomes more ordered and meaningful, and that is especially so if it is appropriate for the age in which individuals are presently living. for the present age this is the case if they are conscious of the threat of nuclear destruction and conscious of the environment. this would be the concept of spiritual growth that corresponds to the first level of doing theology, corresponding with kaufman’s first level of defining god. but we can consider kaufman also on the second level, i.e., the level where he defines a christian concept of god, as a process of serendipitous creativity. at this level, spiritual growth is a process of individual humanization and relativization , a process that promotes and stimulates serendipitous creativity in self, in the other, and in the world. as with the concept of god, at first level, interpretation of kaufman suggests a definition of spiritual growth that is as broad as possible, useful for interreligious dialogue and in communities of pluralist worship. like the concept of god, at this first level, spiritual growth is defined more or less in a descriptive way. the second level indicates what could work as an individual concept of spiritual growth, being one among many alternatives. at this individual level, the definition of spiritual growth is normative for that individual. similar to the discussion of the concept of god, for the theology of the seeker, i take a two-level approach, similar to that which resulted from my interpretation of kaufman in this respect. in that discussion, the proposal for the first level definition of spiritual growth, as derived from kaufman, (kaufman , chp. ). religions , , of seems to work more or less for our purpose but still may be a bit too specific to transcend all concepts of spiritual growth that the seeker may encounter. the reason is, that it is still specifically pointing at nuclear destruction and environment, rather than being formal and descriptive, and therefore, not all relevant concepts or aspects of spiritual growth may fit in. thus, we need a concept of spiritual growth that is broader than kaufman’s thinking would imply. what would be most beneficial to the seeker is a first level concept of spiritual growth that is more formal and more relativizing, thus allowing room for all aspects of spiritual growth and taking seriously the various concepts of spiritual growth, as derived from the various worldviews, and as found in various seekers. in this case concepts of growth in psychology may help, as that discipline more or less investigates at a distance from specific religious traditions. more specifically the theory of nondirective therapy, helping individuals to find their way, according to their personality is most promising, as it is a most individualistic approach, looking for the norms of the patient rather than solving problems by external diagnosis and solutions based on authoritative psychological sources. indeed, the father of nondirective therapy, also called person-centered therapy, the american psychological scientist and therapist carl rogers offered a concept of personal growth that can well be applied for our theological purpose of constructing a concept of spiritual growth. according to rogers, personal growth is a process in which the image of self, and the image of ideal self, become increasingly similar. in his academic research he supports this by an analysis that such an increasing correlation indeed occurs during, and after, what he considers to be successful psychotherapy . in order to construct a useful concept of spiritual growth rogers’ concept of personal growth can be easily translated and applied. in this approach, the first level definition understands spiritual growth as a process in which the image of self as a religious person, and the image of ideal self as a religious person, become increasingly similar. this can be applied to various aspects of spirituality, e.g., • ethics: spiritual growth includes a process in which my behavior and my thoughts about how i should behave become increasingly similar. • practical theology: spiritual growth includes a process in which my religious practice (prayer, worship, etc.) and my ideal religious practice (e.g., should i pray? how should i worship?) become increasingly similar. • systematical theology: my actual belief system becomes more in agreement with what i think my belief system should be, e.g., be coherent, guide me to be a better human, give proper place to my ultimate concerns, etc. in this whole concept of spiritual growth there is room for change in the concept of self, as well as in the concept of ideal self. thus, my ethics, religious practice, or personal doctrine may change, but my ideals (moral, religious practice, what i think the role of god in my life should be, etc.) can change as well. on the second level, the room that the first level concept of spiritual growth offers can be supplemented by an idiosyncratic concept of spiritual growth. this works in a similar way as we showed for using the concept of god. my personal, level two concept of spiritual growth builds on my concept of self as a religious person, my concept of ideal self as a religious person, and my view on how these individual concepts become increasingly similar. this approach to spiritual growth satisfies the requirements indicated above: its first level definition is formal, and because of that, it leaves room to be filled in specifically by an individual. individuals can do so by using a multitude of contributions of various religious, philosophical, and spiritual worldviews that inspire them personally in their search for truth and meaning. it also helps in ordering and guiding life: spiritual growth requires reflection on who i am, on what i would like (rogers , chp. ). religions , , of to be, as well as the possibilities to make these two increasingly similar. yet, it leaves room for a very personal individual result. this approach to spiritual growth is helpful for groups of seekers such as uus, willing to encourage spiritual growth in their congregations, as it sets an agenda of reflection on self (who am i and who should i be?) reflection on the group (who are we as a group and who should we be?), and reflection on the world (what is the world and what should it be?), but also on social action and pastoral care, as such action is a means to bring the actual self (as an individual or as a group) closer to what i/we think it should be. with these proposals in mind we can go back to the example of the seeker who is inspired by worldview a and worldview b to see if the possible incoherence is escaped. assume again that at the first day, he is inspired by worldview a. that means that on that day, the seeker considers a to be a source of spiritual growth. possibly seekers adjust their self-concepts a bit, or their concepts of ideal self, or their insights on how they can bring these concepts more closely together. on the second day, a similar thing happens with worldview b. about the claims of what spiritual growth is, worldviews a and b may contradict. however, that does not imply that the way worldview a helps seekers is incoherent with the way worldview b helps them. the reason is that, although the concepts of spiritual growth of worldviews a and b may contradict with each other, or that their concept of spiritual growth contradicts with the concept of spiritual growth of the seeker, this does not exclude the possibility that certain aspects of worldview a and worldview b that do not contradict, inspire seekers and are part of their path of spiritual growth. therefore, if worldview a and worldview b contradict, the individual seeker can go back to reflection on his actual self as a religious person and his ideal self as a religious person and use those as criteria for what he accepts from worldview a and what he accepts from worldview b. in conclusion, this two-level approach to spiritual growth, along with the proposed level one definition of spiritual growth, offers an escape out of possible incoherencies in the use of the concept of spiritual growth among seekers. . ethics we will now give consideration to the ethics of the seeker. let us again go to the uua principles as an example of a description of the believes of the seeker. many of the worldviews mentioned in the sources of faith have their own ethics and these worldviews often contradict. if seekers are willing to be inspired by the various religious worldviews in a continuously changing mix, it might follow that their personal ethics continuously change as well. this may be experienced as religion failing to help order and live life in a coherent way. moreover, reading the principles and sources of faith of the uua, it surprises that in spite of the pluralism in sources of faith, the uua is very clear on its ethics, as described in principle no. one, two, six, and seven, as well as the first half of principles three and five. it seems that the moral principles of the uua precede the sources of faith and function as criteria for evaluating what the various worldviews have to offer on moral issues. this is surprising, because for some of the worldviews that inspire uuism it is the other way around. for example, in the christian tradition, god gave humanity the ten commandments. thus, their moral principles are there because of god, not the other way around. thinking this way, it may seem incoherent to be inspired by the morality of religious worldviews as derived from god, while the uua puts morality first, limiting the room for ethics as divinely given. this possible incoherence becomes clearer by asking the following questions: • does ethics follow from religion, or the other way around? • how to find a proper foundation for ethics, in case of religious pluralism? • what justifies the adoption (or rejection) of certain religious views? • what justifies the adoption (or rejection) of certain moral rules? religions , , of let us first again look at what kaufman has to say about these questions. for kaufman, and in that sense his view is typical for mennonite spirituality, ethics has priority over religious doctrine : “moral and ethical concerns are taken as foundational . . . and religious and other metaphysical truth-claims are regarded as gaining their deepest meaning through the ways in which they help to provide orientation in life, thus facilitating living rightly.” . kaufman gives the following reasons for this: the human person “is most fundamentally a practical or active being . . . in this respect, moral questions (what ought i to do?) . . . are prior to questions of truth and being (what is the world really like?) . . . and cannot be suspended until the latter be answered.” furthermore, the great streams of civilization now rapidly flow together into one world history. that means that humanity cannot afford to stick with a pluralist system of morals, each given by its own worldviews. the dangers of climatic disaster and the threat of nuclear war are global issues facing humanity, and thus, are to be faced on a global level. thus, ethics that suit the contemporary age must be conscious of the environment and be thoroughly pluralistic, independent of the religious worldview or specific doctrine . for seekers, these arguments all may be very important, and they may justify a priority of ethics over religious doctrine. this can be seen in the uua principles, as they actually satisfy kaufman’s requirements for a contemporary ethics: the seventh principle expresses a concern for the environment, the principles one, two, and the first half of three and five safeguard pluralism, while principle six guards against threat of nuclear destruction. for the uua, this emphasis on ethics over, roughly, the last years became that important, that rather than characterizing themselves as a pluralist community, they consider themselves as first of all a community of religious progressives, its main point being the promotion of an ethics that helps guiding the world (and most in particular the american society) going forward . given the argumentation above, this combination of a priority of progressive ethics with a pluralism in sources of faith is not surprising. however, it does not hold for liberal denominations in the netherlands, such as vrijzinnigen nederland. although most of the seekers in these denominations will agree with the idea that it is more important to live in a moral way than to find the right religious doctrine, this does not result in these denominations being very progressive or as morally activist as the uus. among other reasons, this may be because dutch society is more left-wing and less polarized than the us, and because in the netherlands, outside the churches, there are many other organizations that defend moral progressive views. therefore, the congregations of these denominations are better characterized as places of religious reflection, than as places of social action and reflection on society. thus, it can be argued that there is a link between seeking and priority of ethics over doctrine, but the link between seeking and being progressive and activist is not universal. the issue that remains to be considered is to what extent the variety of ethics of the various worldviews can be of inspiration to the seeker. let us first signal that in fact, to a large extent, the ethics of many of the worldviews do not contradict with the morality of seekers as worded by the uua principles. it is for this reason, that the uua principles correspond to quite some degree with the preamble of the charter of the un , as they articulate the overlap between various worldviews and give guidance on how to bridge the differences. what remains are the contradicting aspects of those morals, e.g., the permissibility of meat-eating, capital punishment, polygamy, and same-sex marriage. the answer to this issue is similar to that in the preceding section on spiritual growth: a worldview can be of inspiration, without being authoritative for ordering and guiding life in all respects. we can now answer the various questions asked with respect to the ethics of seekers. first of all, in order to be of practical guidance in life, seekers have to assume a priority of ethics over religious (kaufman , chp. ). gordon kaufman in (weaver , chp. ). (kaufman , chp. ). rebecca parker in (buehrens and parker ), a house for hope, john buehrens and rebecca parker. see http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/preamble/index.html. http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/preamble/index.html religions , , of doctrine. a proper foundation for these ethics has to be found in the most pressing issues of human culture, and as present human culture is to a certain extent global, presently such an ethic should be global as well. moral rules that contradict these global ethics should be rejected. as religious doctrine follows ethics, criteria for relevant doctrines can be found, and have to be found, in the global ethics adopted. as far as these global ethics do not cover every aspect of human life, there is room for personal morality. for the larger part, using these guidelines, undesirable incoherence as well as inconsistence over time can be prevented. for the rest, personal morality can be a subject of the individual search. . conclusions this article has presented a first impression of what one encounters when constructing a theology for the seeker. first of all, we gave a description of the multi-worldview seeker. it was discussed that most seekers in europe do not belong to a specific denomination, and that in the us many seekers find their home in the unitarian universalist association. the principles and the sources of faith of this organization can be considered as a text that describes the beliefs of the seeker well, and therefore, can be used as a text to confront a theology of the seeker. that has been done in this article. to build a theology for the seeker, a theological framework is needed that is thoroughly pluralistic, and is that broad that it also includes nontheist worldviews such as humanism, buddhism, and marxism. in this article it is shown that the constructive theological work of gordon kaufman offers such a framework. constructing a theology for the seeker, this article signals various possible incoherencies and makes suggestions on how to prevent them. a first incoherence may result from the concept of truth: on the one hand it characterizes that seekers they search for truth and meaning, but on the other hand, seekers reject and refrain from truth claims. incoherence of these two characteristics is escaped if one realizes that in the former characteristic, seekers likely use a pragmatic concept of truth, while in the latter characteristic a truth concept of correspondence is used. second this article signals possible incoherence in the view on the concept of god by the seeker. on the one hand, god is used in worship as a symbol of ultimate concern or ultimate reference; on the other hand, seeking does not imply believing in god. it is shown that incoherencies following from this can be prevented by a two-level approach. at the first level god is defined in a broad, more or less formal way: “god is the name of that which i/an individual consider(s) or experience(s) to be the ultimate mystery or the ultimate point of reference in life”. at this level god can be discussed between seekers, or be used in the language of worship. at the second level, god is defined as a concept within the personal belief system, and such definitions can strongly vary between individuals. in this way, a meaningful individual way of believing in god is possible, while such a belief does not exclude a free search for truth and meaning. inspiration from nontheist worldviews, as well as concepts of god that contradict the individual view, is not incoherent. a third concept that may lead to incoherencies is spiritual growth. each of the worldviews the seeker is inspired by may propose its own concept of spiritual growth. combining all these proposals may lead to incoherence or confusion rather than ordering life and guiding towards a meaningful life. here again, to prevent these problems, a two-level approach is proposed, in this case based on the work on personal growth by carl rogers. at the first level, spiritual growth is defined as a process in which the concept of self as a religious person and the concept of ideal self as a religious person become increasingly similar. at the second level, both self and ideal self are made explicit for the individual along with a description of how these concepts approach each other. finally, the ethics of the seeker are discussed. it is shown that if inspiration from the various worldviews implies adopting their various and contradicting ethics in a continuously changing mix, the attitude of seeking fails to guide life in a meaningful way. furthermore, humans are acting individuals, and the morality that influences their acting cannot wait until the debate about religious doctrine is resolved. therefore, for seekers, morality should have priority over religious doctrine, religions , , of which means that the latter should support the former instead of the other way around. this is something that unitarian universalists have in common with the mennonite background of kaufman. in order to be coherent, one final remark must be made: i will make no claim for the truth of the ideas in this article, in so far as these are supposed to correspond to a reality out there. rather my claims of truth for the ideas in this article are pragmatic: they should be considered true if they succeed in a better understanding of seeking, and if they assist seekers to order and guide their life in a more meaningful way. funding: this research received no external funding. acknowledgments: this article is the first presentation of ideas resulting from a phd research project. the author is indebted to christian h. doude van troostwijk of the vrije universiteit and of luxembourg school of religion and society and to daniel p. mckanan from harvard divinity school for their inspiring and enthusiastic supervision of this project. conflicts of interest: the author declares no conflict of interest. appendix a the principles and sources of faith of the unitarian universalist association the following principles and sources of faith are mentioned at the website of the unitarian universalist association, www.uua.org: “principles: • the inherent worth and dignity of every person; • justice, equity and compassion in human relations; • acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations; • a free and responsible search for truth and meaning; • the right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large; • the goal of world community with peace, liberty, and justice for all; • respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part. sources of faith: • direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life; • words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love; • wisdom from the world’s religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life; • jewish and christian teachings which call us to respond to god’s love by loving our neighbors as ourselves; • humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit. • spiritual teachings of earth-centered traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature. references belletini, mark. . the hymnbook resources commission. in singing the living tradition. boston: unitarian universalist association. buehrens, john, and rebecca parker. . a house for hope. boston: beacon press. church, forrest. . the cathedral of the world, a universalist theology. boston: beacon press. dürkheim, emile. . les formes elementaires de la vie religieuse. paris: alcan. hick, john. . glifford lectures, an interpretation of religion: human responses to the transcendent. london: macmillan. james, william. . the will to believe and other essays in popular philosophy. london: new impression, longmans, green & co. www.uua.org religions , , of kaufman, gordon. . god the problem. cambridge: harvard university press. kaufman, gordon. . theology for a nuclear age. philadelphia: westminster john knox press. kaufman, gordon. . in face of mystery. cambridge: harvard university press. kaufman, gordon. . an essay on theological method, rd ed. an american academy of religion book. new york: oxford university press. kaufman, gordon. . god, mystery, diversity: christian theology in a pluralistic world. minneapolis: augsburg fortress publishers. kaufman, gordon. . in the beginning—creativity. minneapolis: augsburg fortress publishers. rogers, carl. . on becoming a person. london: little brown. tylor, edward b. . primitive culture, volumes, i. london: murray. weaver, alain, ed. . mennonite theology in face of modernity: essays in honor of gordon d. kaufman. north newton: bethel college. yinger, john m. . the scientific study of religion. london: macmillan. © by the author. licensee mdpi, basel, switzerland. this article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the creative commons attribution (cc by) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /). http://creativecommons.org/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /. 	introduction 	the seeker and where to find them 	the need for a theology of the seeker 	gordon kaufman 	truth 	god 	spiritual growth 	ethics 	conclusions 	the principles and sources of faith of the unitarian universalist association 	references mpp .indd e-mail karger@karger.com original paper med princ pract ; : – doi: . / the frequency of the lct * – c>t polymorphism associated with lactase persistence diverges among euro-descendant groups from brazil stefanie epp boschmann   a angelica beate boldt   a, b ilíada rainha de souza   c maria luiza petzl-erler   b iara jose messias-reason   a   a   laboratório de imunopatologia molecular, hospital de clínicas, alto da glória, and b   laboratório de genética molecular humana, setor de ciências biológicas, universidade federal do paraná, curitiba , c   laboratório de polimorfismos genéticos, universidade federal de santa catarina, florianópolis, brazil tiba displayed differences when compared to all other brazil- ian groups (p < . ), even to euro-brazilians from a differ- ent geographic region (p = . ), but were similar to those from porto alegre (p = . ). conclusion: differences in the – * t- associated lactase persistence distribution among euro-brazilian groups reflect the ancestry and admixture of each particular group and should be considered for adult- type hypolactasia screening. © s. karger ag, basel introduction the lactase enzyme hydrolyzes lactose into galactose and glucose at the brush-border membrane of the small intestine. this enzyme is encoded by the lactase gene lct located at chromosome q , with exons encoding an mrna of , nucleotides [ , ] . although lactase ex- pression and activity are high in newborns, they become downregulated after weaning in approximately % of in- dividuals, causing adult-type hypolactasia or lactase non- persistence [ ] . a lower capacity to hydrolyze lactose can result in gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain and distention, flatulence, diarrhea and vomiting, a condition known as lactose intolerance disorder [ ] . a key words lct gene · lactase persistence · hypolactasia · euro-brazilians · mennonites abstract objective: the aim of this study was to investigate the fre- quency of the lct * – c>t polymorphism associated with a high expression of lactase in the small intestine dur- ing adulthood, and to infer the lactase persistence and adult-type hypolactasia phenotypes among euro-brazilians and mennonites from south brazil. materials and meth- ods: a sequence-specific pcr method to genotype the lct * – c>t polymorphism in euro-brazilians and mennonites (a group with european ancestry and a long history of endogamy) was developed. using an exact test of population differentiation, the genotype and allele frequen- cy between these and other brazilian populations were com- pared. results: the frequency of – * t was significantly higher among the mennonites when compared to the euro- brazilian cohort ( . vs. . , p < . ). accordingly, mennonites had a higher prevalence of the lactase persis- tence genotype ( . vs. . %, p < . ). the distribu- tion of – * t differed between mennonites and all other brazilian groups (p < . ). the euro-brazilians from curi- received: november , accepted: september , published online: november , prof. dr. iara jose messias-reason laboratório de imunopatologia molecular, hospital de clínicas universidade federal do paraná, rua general carneiro alto da glória, curitiba, pr - (brazil) e-mail iarareason   @   hc.ufpr.br © s. karger ag, basel – / / – $ . / www.karger.com/mpp th is is an open access article licensed under the terms of the creative commons attribution-noncommercial . un- ported license (cc by-nc) (www.karger.com/oa-license), applicable to the online version of the article only. distribu- tion permitted for non-commercial purposes only. http://dx.doi.org/ . % f the frequency of lct * – c>t med princ pract ; : – doi: . / high prevalence of lactase persistence (lp) occurs in pop- ulations with a long history of pastoralism and milking, mainly in northern europe and among nomads in africa and the middle east [ ] . this phenotype is characterized by high levels of lactase during adulthood and a higher capacity to digest lactose. enattah et al. [ ] identified the major polymorphism responsible for this trait in europe- ans, a c>t substitution in an enhancer region . kb upstream of the lct gene (– c>t) , in intron of the mcm gene. other causative single-nucleotide poly- morphisms for lp occur in africans and middle-eastern populations, all of them located in the same enhancer re- gion [ ] . the – *t allele is associated with enhanced mrna expression of the lct gene, causing lp in adult- hood, even among heterozygotes, thus being inherited as a dominant trait [ ] . brazilian admixture has occurred since the portuguese met different amerindian tribes and africans from an- gola and mozambique, brought in as slaves between the th and th century. after the abolishment of slavery in , the brazilian government encouraged and sup- ported the immigration of europeans. although euro- pean ancestry is predominant in brazil, the range of ad- mixture diverges across the geographic regions of the country [ ] . the mennonites are a pacifist group of ger- man and dutch ancestry, well-suited for genetic and epi- demiological studies due to successive bottleneck effects caused by persecution in the th century, endogamy and successive migratory waves to the soviet union at the end of the th century and from there to north america, paraguay and brazil in the early th century [ ] . although lct * – c>t has been indicated as a good genetic marker for adult-type hypolactasia in eu- rope and in non-european countries [ , , ] , its frequen- cy is unknown for mennonites and is poorly estimated for euro-brazilians [ , ] . hence, the goal of this work was to estimate the prevalence of – c -associated adult-type hypolactasia among mennonites and euro-brazilians from curitiba (a major city of paraná state) and to com- pare our results to those for other brazilian groups. port alegre – euro curitiba – euro mennonites sp – euro sp – admixed recife – admixed belém – admixed % sp – african* port alegre – african** . % . % . % % . % . % . % . % . % . % . % % % . % . % % % rr am ac ro mt pa ap ma pi ce rn pb pe al se es rj ba to df go ms pr rs sc sp mg fig. . distribution of the – c>t- associated lp (dark gray) and hypolactasia (light gray) among different brazilian groups. *  admixed people of african ancestry were not included; * *  admixed people of african ances- try may have been included.   [ ] ;   [ ] ;  our study. http://dx.doi.org/ . % f boschmann/boldt/de souza/petzl-erler/ messias-reason med princ pract ; : – doi: . / materials and methods a total of mennonites ( females and males aged – years) and euro-brazilians ( females and males aged – years) from south brazil were included. the euro-brazil- ians were mainly blood donors from two blood banks of curitiba. they were classified as ‘european-derived’ based on physical char- acteristics and self-reported ancestry. the project was approved by the ethics committee of the hospital de clínicas, universidade federal do paraná. all participants were informed about the aims of the study and their written informed consent was obtained. peripheral blood samples were collected with edta and nu- cleic acid (dna) extracted and amplified as previously published [ ] using a touchdown strategy ( cycles at   °   c, at   °   c and at   °   c). a fragment of bp of the human growth hormone gene was coamplified in each reaction [ ] . the lct * – c>t was identified using pcr sequence-specific (ssp) amplification of a -bp fragment with the forward primer lctf ( ′ -gtt- tatagagtgcataaagacg- ′ ) and the specific reverse prim- ers lct– cr ( ′ -gttcctttgaggccagggg- ′ ) or lct– tr ( ′ -gttcctttgaggccaggga- ′ ). genotype and allele frequencies were obtained by direct counting and ana- lyzed using the arlequin . software and fisher’s exact test. results both groups were in hardy-weinberg equilibrium. the allele frequency of – * t was almost twice as high in mennonites ( . ) as in euro-brazilians ( . ). the genotypes for lct * – t -associated lp, – c/t and t/t , were observed in % of mennonites and in . % of euro-brazilians (p < . ). conversely, the genotype for lct * – c -associated adult-type hypo- lactasia ( – c/c ) was observed in % of mennonites and in . % of euro-brazilians (p < . ). in other words, mennonites had an almost times higher chance of presenting the – t -associated lp than euro-bra- zilians [or . ( % ci . – . )]. the distribution of – * t differed significantly between mennonites, euro-brazilians and other brazilian groups (p < . ). the euro-brazilians were similar to those from porto alegre (p = . ), a city also located in south brazil, but differed from all other brazilian groups (p < . ), even from euro-brazilians from a different geographic region (p = . ; fig. ). discussion according to our results, across all brazilian groups investigated, mennonites had the highest frequency of the lct * – c>t polymorphism and, accordingly, of the lp-associated genotypes, followed by euro-brazilians from south brazil. the mennonites differed from euro- brazilians who live in the same geographic area, which could be due to the founder effects suggested to have oc- curred among them [ ] . the – * t frequency was higher in euro-brazilians than in admixed and afro-bra- zilian groups. thus, the allelic distribution of – * t may reflect the ancestry and different admixture rates across various brazilian geographical regions. conclusion differences in the – -associated lp distribution across the various brazilian groups are remarkable. they should thus be considered for adult-type hypolactasia screening as well as for dietary genetic counseling regard- ing milk consumption and digestive problems. since there are other causative variants for lp, further studies are needed to investigate whether the distribution of the – * t polymorphism is consistent with the distribu- tion of the lp phenotype in brazil. boll w, wagner p, mantei n: structure of the chromosomal gene and cdnas coding for lac- tase-phlorizin hydrolase in humans with adult- type hypolactasia or persistence of lactase. am j hum genet ; : – . harvey cb, fox mf, jeggo pa, et al: regional localization of the lactase-phlorizin hydrolase gene, lct, to chromosome q . ann hum genet ; : – . ingram cje, mulcare ca, itan y, et al: lactose digestion and the evolutionary genetics of lac- tase persistence. hum genet ; : – . enattah ns, sahi t, savilahti e, et al: identifica- tion of a variant associated with adult-type hy- polactasia. nat genet ; : – . rasinperä h, kuokkanen m, kolho kl, et al: transcriptional downregulation of the lactase (lct) gene during childhood. gut ; : – . pena sd, di pietro g, fuchshuber-moraes m, et al: the genomic ancestry of individuals from dif- ferent geographical regions of brazil is more uni- form than expected. plos one ; :e . jaworski ma, slater jd, severini a, et al: un- usual clustering of diseases in a canadian old colony (chortitza) mennonite kindred and community. cmaj ; : – . mattar r, monteiro ms, villares ca, et al: fre- quency of lct- c>t single nucleotide polymorphism associated with adult-type hy- polactasia/lactase persistence among brazilians of different ethnic groups. nutr j ; : – . friedrich dc, santos se, ribeiro-dos-santos Âk, et al: several different lactase persistence- associated alleles and high diversity of the lac- tase gene in the admixed brazilian population. plos one ; : e . boldt ab, sanchez mi, stahlke er, et al: susceptibility to leprosy is associated with m-ficolin polymorphisms. j clin immunol ; : – . references http://dx.doi.org/ . % f 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : 	citref_ : uva-dare is a service provided by the library of the university of amsterdam (https://dare.uva.nl) uva-dare (digital academic repository) [review of: e. hiebert ( ) the helmholtz legacy in physiological acoustics] kursell, j. doi . / publication date document version final published version published in isis link to publication citation for published version (apa): kursell, j. ( ). [review of: e. hiebert ( ) the helmholtz legacy in physiological acoustics]. isis, ( ), - . https://doi.org/ . / general rights it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), other than for strictly personal, individual use, unless the work is under an open content license (like creative commons). disclaimer/complaints regulations if you believe that digital publication of certain material infringes any of your rights or (privacy) interests, please let the library know, stating your reasons. in case of a legitimate complaint, the library will make the material inaccessible and/or remove it from the website. please ask the library: https://uba.uva.nl/en/contact, or a letter to: library of the university of amsterdam, secretariat, singel , wp amsterdam, the netherlands. you will be contacted as soon as possible. download date: apr https://doi.org/ . / https://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/review-of-e-hiebert- -the-helmholtz-legacy-in-physiological-acoustics( ae - ce - -b - dd e be ).html https://doi.org/ . / book reviews: early modern (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries) early modern (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries) erwin hiebert. the helmholtz legacy in physiological acoustics. (archimedes: new studies in the history and philosophy of science and technology, .) xxiii + pp., figs., apps. cham: springer, . € . (cloth). this volume in the archimedes series publishes a manuscript from the papers of the late erwin hiebert ( – ). it reflects the work of two decades during which he studied the intertwinings of science and music in the nineteenth and early twentieth century. the book’s four parts each focus on one protagonist: hermann von helmholtz, shohé tanaka, max planck, and adriaan fokker. all of them were physicists and had a passion for music, and they all used their training and scientific networks to produce and promote new insights in music. what is more, all of them used the same instrument to do so: the harmo-nium. while hiebert is likely to have encountered it in the context of mennonite religious services, the harmonium was also a regular—now often forgotten—part of private music making in the mid-nineteenth century. this instrument was a nineteenth-century invention that shared the traditional keyboard with the piano and the pneumatic drive with the organ. in contrast to the organ, the harmonium was relatively small and cheap—enabling it to enter the middle-class home. as the tones in a harmonium are produced with metal reeds of a few inches at most, many separate tone- producing elements could be encompassed in a single instrument that still did not exceed the dimensions of a piano. in contrast to the latter, however, the harmonium’s tones would continue as long as the air supply was maintained, and this made them a privileged object of study for the researcher in acoustics. first to realize this was helmholtz. the “helmholtz setting” that hiebert sets out to study is characterized by a “tripod of discipline-connected and discipline-overlapping domains” (p. ). it is this interaction of physics, physiology, and aesthetics on which helm-holtz’s work rested and which interests hiebert. if, for a long time, the history of physics was the domain in which helmholtz’s contributions to science were most appreciated, hiebert insists that this setting called for scientific involvement with the living organism, just as much as it depended on involvement with sensory perception and the arts. helmholtz’s ingenuity in bringing the three domains together, for hiebert, consisted in his making musical intonation the touchstone for the viability of his speculations on the functioning of the ear. starting from the problem of nonlinear distortion in vibrating media, “helmholtz was led to perceive that the vibration of small non-negligible dimensions represents the essential anchor point for research on the problem of intonation in fixed-tone keyboards” (p. ). the intervals used in european traditional music exposed such distortion, especially when out of tune. the range of questions helmholtz could tackle on the basis of this assumption is impressive, comprising, among others, nonlinear distortions, the decoding of sound in the inner ear, and insights into the attribution of “dissonance” to musical intervals. this did not fail to attract further researchers to the device that allowed helmholtz to substantiate his claims. although the this content downloaded from . . . on march , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). isis—volume , number , september harmonium was soon overtaken by the piano in private households, it persisted as an experimental device in the laboratory. the case studies assembled in hiebert’s manuscript are exemplary for the expansion and outreach of the “helmholtz setting.” the japanese physicist tanaka traveled to europe to discuss with helmholtz his enharmonium, which allowed late nineteenth- century music to be played in just intonation. what seems a contraditio in adjectu nevertheless convinced tanaka’s contemporaries, such as the composer anton bruckner. another afficionado of the harmonium was max planck. he used an instrument commissioned by helmholtz for the university of berlin to experiment on intonation habits among singers, publishing the results in a respected musicological journal. the dutch theoretical physicist adriaan fokker, to whom the third case study is devoted, constructed an instrument with thirty-one rather than twelve tones in an octave that is still in use today at the muziekgebouw in amsterdam. although it is clear that parts of hiebert’s manuscript were left in an unfinished state, the book presents them in the best possible way to facilitate further research. readers will profit from the rich archival ma- terials that have been translated into english and can easily be traced through the separate bibliographies that conclude each chapter. in particular, the sources on tanaka and fokker, including an appendix devoted to the dutch composer willem pijper, provide new insights into helmholtz’s afterlife in music that will be of interest to both historians of science and musicologists. the piano also won the central place in erwin hiebert’s own household, when in he married elfrieda, an accomplished pianist who later earned a ph.d. in musicology and initiated and directed the chamber music program at harvard’s mather house. in their joint contribution to the volume universalg- enie helmholtz ( ), erwin and elfrieda hiebert claimed that helmholtz’s work has to be seen against the background of his engagement with musical practice. their article opened up a new field. a genera- tion of researchers ventured to investigate the entanglements of music and science; and many of them have been directly indebted to the generous intellectual support of the hieberts. the helmholtz legacy in physiological acoustics thus celebrates a chapter in the history of the history of science—one that embod- ies the bridging between disciplines and cultures. julia kursell julia kursell is professor of musicology at the university of amsterdam. she was coeditor of osiris, volume : music, sound, and the laboratory and of the isis focus section on the humanities and sciences ( ). her current area of research is the history of systematic musicology. this content downloaded from . . . on march , : : am all use subject to university of chicago press terms and conditions (http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/t-and-c). wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ introduction: special issue on private sponsorship in canada copyright (c), refuge: canada’s journal on refugees ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d’auteur. l’utilisation des services d’Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d’utilisation que vous pouvez consulter en ligne. https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ cet article est diffusé et préservé par Érudit. Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l’université de montréal, l’université laval et l’université du québec à montréal. il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. https://www.erudit.org/fr/ document généré le avr. : refuge canada's journal on refugees revue canadienne sur les réfugiés introduction: special issue on private sponsorship in canada johanna reynolds et christina clark-kazak private sponsorship in canada volume , numéro , uri : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar doi : https://doi.org/ . / ar aller au sommaire du numéro Éditeur(s) centre for refugee studies, york university issn - (imprimé) - (numérique) découvrir la revue citer ce document reynolds, j. & clark-kazak, c. ( ). introduction: special issue on private sponsorship in canada. refuge, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / ar résumé de l'article https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . / https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/ https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/refuge/ https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/ ar https://doi.org/ . / ar https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/refuge/ -v -n -refuge / https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/refuge/ volume refuge number © johanna reynolds and christina clark-kazak, . this open-access work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noncommercial . interna- tional licence, which permits use, reproduction, and distribution in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original authorship is credited and the original publication in refuge: canada’s journal on refugees is cited. cette œuvre en libre accès fait l’objet d’une licence creative commons attribu- tion-noncommercial . international license, laquelle autorise l’utilisation, la reproduction et la distribution de l’œuvre sur tout support à des fins non commer- ciales, pourvu que l’auteur ou les auteurs originaux soient mentionnés et que la publication originale dans refuge : revue canadienne sur les réfugiés soit citée. introduction: special issue on private sponsorship in canada johanna reynolds and christina clark-kazak introduction the canadian government, community organizations, sponsorship agreement holders, and ordinary people have invested significant time, energy, and resources in the reset- tlement of refugees to canada since the establishment of the private sponsorship program in . other countries are beginning to adopt and adapt private sponsorship in very different contexts. however, there has been limited research to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of sponsorship as a resettlement process. the private sponsorship of refugees (psr) program pro- vides canadian citizens the opportunity to identify and spon- sor refugees for resettlement to canada. for twelve months or more, sponsored refugees receive settlement and financial support from their sponsorship group. a sponsorship group can be formed in various ways: by five or more permanent residents or citizens, also called a group of five (g ), who collectively arrange to sponsor a particular refugee living abroad; or by community sponsors, such as an organization, corporation, or association; and a constituent group, working with a sponsorship agreement holder (sah), can also support a refugee or family in their community of settlement. sup- port during this first year of sponsorship (both through direct service provision and financial support) is provided by the sponsorship group in partnership with service providers. the blended visa office–referred (bvor) program, launched in , is a new category of hybrid sponsorship, a cost-sharing initiative between the canadian government and sponsorship groups, through which refugees are referred for resettlement by unhcr and approved by immigration, refugees and citi- zenship canada (ircc). to complement a previous refuge special issue focusing on the historic establishment of canada’s private sponsor- ship and a forthcoming edited volume by shauna labman and geoffrey cameron, this special issue focuses specifically on lessons learned from sponsorship efforts and concrete suggestions for future policy and programming. the articles in this issue make empirical and conceptual contributions to understanding the diversity and context specificity of spon- sorship, particularly in relation to the variability of “success,” as well as the ways in which canadian-specific examples can or cannot be “exported” to other countries. literature review: private sponsorship in canada while canada’s private sponsorship program has existed for forty years, until recently there was little academic literature evaluating the program and its impacts. shortly after the large-scale sponsorship and resettlement of indochinese refugees to canada in the late s and early s, a few articles described and analyzed the process and evaluated volume refuge number refugees’ integration. in the early s some practitioners published reflections on private sponsorship, while schol- ars analyzed resettlement outcomes of sponsored refugees and relationships and partnerships amongst actors involved in sponsorship. there was also limited literature on the world university service of canada’s (wusc) student refu- gee program (srp). despite these important efforts, there was no comprehensive systematic account and evaluation of canada’s private sponsorship system. to partially redress this gap, a special issue of refuge focused on the historical establishment of private sponsorship in response to indochinese refugees. subsequently molloy and colleagues published a book recounting the experiences of canadian government officials who set up and implemented those early private sponsorship efforts. in the context of relatively large-scale resettlement of syr- ian refugees to canada through private sponsorship, govern- ment assistance, and bvor channels in – , and efforts to “export” the canadian sponsorship model, new research has emerged. scholars have focused on motivations and experi- ences of sponsors, peer networks, regional variations, and new administrative processes and categories of spon- sorship. a forthcoming edited volume by labman and cameron will use case studies to explore the conceptual and historical basis for sponsorship and prospects for successful “exportation” of the program. this research has established several important findings about private sponsorship as a resettlement strategy. the dis- cretionary decision-making involved by unhcr, government actors, and private sponsors naming specific persons to reset- tle has resulted in some variability in who gets chosen, from what areas, and what resources they have once they arrive in canada. for example, turner has critiqued the exclusion of single syrian men from recent resettlement efforts. hynd- man, payne, and jimenez demonstrate how the prioritization of private sponsorship of syrians by the canadian govern- ment in – caused delays in the resettlement of refu- gees from other regions. sponsorship groups have variable experience in sponsorship, resulting in uneven support to, and resettlement outcomes of, refugees. the introduc- tion of a new bvor sponsorship category also blurs private sponsorship with government assistance. relatedly, some critique the privatization of refugee protection. this special issue complements this literature in three ways. first, while much of the literature has focused on the legal and bureaucratic process of private sponsorship, kyriakides et al.; hynie et al.; mckee et al.; lenard; good gingrich and enns; and haugen in this issue turn their attention to the micro-level human relationships at the heart of sponsor- ship. second, two articles in this issue (kwadrans and bond; hirsch, hoang, and vogl) provide a comparative perspective on sponsorship in canada and other countries. third, articles in this special issue attempt to offer practical lessons learned to guide current and future private sponsorship. measuring the “success” of the canadian private sponsorship of refugees program the articles in the first section consider the variability of “success” in sponsorship programs and perceptions of “suc- cess” by sponsored and sponsoring groups. the program has been recognized globally as unique “because it deeply empowered ordinary individuals from any background to take primary responsibility for all aspects of welcoming and integrating the newcomers” (kwadrans and bond, this issue). indeed, the personal efforts and deep commitment of many individuals and refugee sponsorship groups is immeasurable. what motivates civil society to engage in refugee sponsor- ship? what are some of the complexities of the sponsor– sponsored relationship, and how might they be resolved? how is “success” defined and by whom? what markers of “success” are achievable within the first year of arrival, and how can sponsored refugees best achieve them? what condi- tions make a private sponsorship “successful”? alternatively, what is viewed as a sponsorship “failure”? the following articles provide strong empirical contributions that frame sponsorship programs in canada, including student-led ini- tiatives and faith-based groups. good gingrich and enns aptly explain how markers of refugee success or “integration” are falsely based on an expectation that the sponsored refugee will adapt quickly to the new society, typically defined by a narrow understanding of self-sufficiency, framed as financial independence or an emotional sense of belonging and trust. the authors employ a reflexive analysis that shifts our gaze from the refugee “other”—the targets of these policies—to the institutional and interpersonal relationships of private refugee sponsor- ship. they outline the complex nature of these relationships and show how these roles and relationships develop and change. the authors focus on the mennonite central com- mittee (mcc) as their case study, the first agency to set up the private sponsorship of refugees in canada. they dem- onstrate how the mennonite or mmc ethos influenced spon- sor–newcomer relationships and associated values and goals in mcc’s refugee sponsorships. according to kyriakides et al., resettlement success depends in part on pre-arrival communication. kyriakides et al. demonstrate the importance of regular pre-arrival contact via digital applications such as facebook, skype, and whatsapp for more “successful” and positive resettle- ment experiences. in their study with groups of privately sponsored syrian refugees in ontario, understanding reset- tlement “needs” was influenced by the level of interpersonal volume refuge number trust that had developed between refugees and their sponsors. pre-arrival exchanges that were conducted via social media have the potential to translate resettlement information into resettlement knowledge assets, what the authors term “third spaces of refugee resettlement,” reducing uncertainty by bridging the gap between interpretation and expectation, and the actual conditions encountered in resettlement. the result was to mutually reduce the uncertainty of resettle- ment. as noted by the authors, another important result of pre-arrival correspondence is that both sponsored and spon- sors engaged and corresponded from their respective social roles, thereby also recognizing the needs that corresponded to those roles, be it as parents, spouses, and so on. however, conditions of variability influence the settlement experience of refugees in canada. in their mixed-methods study on newly arrived adult syrian refugees in british colum- bia, ontario, and quebec, hynie et al. consider whether early integration benefits observed among government- assisted refugees (gar) and psrs can be attributed to pre- migration differences, or to the anticipated benefits of pri- vate settlement, specifically potential differences in social capital between gars and psrs. they apply the holistic inte- gration model, which moves the responsibility for success (or failure) of integration purely from the individual level, to also include conditions in the dominant host society and broader socio-political contexts of integration (e.g., colonial, racist, and xenophobic policies). the authors demonstrate that a host of pre-migration conditions affect the integration pathway, including length of time in transit and associated physical and psychological hardships, previous knowledge of english/french, having relatives in canada, and the impor- tance of local contexts in which they settle. importantly, the authors show that psrs are not a homogenous group and that comparing settlement outcomes of psrs with other groups such as gars is ineffective, given the variability within and between the categories. the importance of place in settlement outcomes is also clearly demonstrated in haugen’s article, which discusses the important role that smaller cities or rural communities play in hosting privately sponsored refugees. despite inad- equate infrastructure and settlement challenges in smaller communities (e.g., lack of newcomer services, lack of public transportation, limited access to higher education, and reli- gious and racial discrimination), rural communities can also offer benefits to refugee families who decide to remain there, including affordable housing and strong social supports. the author’s findings from rural communities in alberta, sas- katchewan, ontario, and nova scotia emphasize the unique- ness of place while at the same time contribute to knowledge about the process of integration and refugee resettlement experiences outside urban centres. lenard draws attention to the structural conditions that make independence within one year difficult to achieve. the infamous “month ” requires that refugees become independent with a year of their arrival, and sponsors are tasked with supporting their pathway to independence. and yet multiple conditions and variables result in refugees not being prepared to be on their own by the time their sponsor- ship ends. lenard explains that there is also a common mis- understanding of what constitutes independence, or what skills are needed for newcomers to become independent, including tensions between sponsors and sponsored around financial budgeting. for example, a common misconception is that financial self-sufficiency is synonymous with integra- tion. lenard shows that there is need for a deeper and more nuanced understanding of what “success” at month looks like and that independence and integration into canadian society is gradual: “the failure to attain it by month means neither that the newcomers have failed, nor that the sponsor- ship has failed.” the article by mckee et al. focuses on the world university services of canada (wusc) student refugee program. this youth-to-youth sponsorship model is an effective approach to integrate young refugees into their receiving community. youth volunteers, they argue, can play an important role in supporting integration for newcomers to canada. more than refugee students are resettled to canadian post- secondary institutions each year, through more than ninety campus-based wusc local committees. the authors argue that resettling refugee youth to canadian post-secondary institutions reduces many barriers to integration faced by other refugee youth, such as providing access to education, language training, and employment opportunities. their results show that local committees were instrumental in providing refugee students with job opportunities both on and off campus. furthermore, interviewed participants also indicated feeling “at home” and attributed this feeling to the support of the local committee and the broader community, even in cases where their ethnic community was largely absent. an important lesson from the srp is that “youth are uniquely positioned as innovative leaders capable of mobi- lizing their peers and community on global issues.” engaging students in refugee sponsorship by raising awareness about global migration can have ripple effects both on campus and in the broader community. these articles collectively demonstrate that pre-arrival conditions, social and structural barriers, policies, and insti- tutional supports all need to be carefully considered when assessing what constitutes the “successful” integration of newcomers to canada. volume refuge number private sponsorship in a global context the second section highlights examples of private sponsor- ship programs in other countries that seek community-based solutions to fill the resettlement gap. community sponsor- ship programs are unique in that they empower ordinary cit- izens to welcome and integrate refugee newcomers into their communities. they are viewed as a complementary model to state-led resettlement commitments. how does such a pro- gram function when there is no national framework, as in the united states? or when the state uses community-based solutions in lieu of their own national commitments, which result in downloaded responsibility, as in australia? bond and kwadrans provide a comparative analysis of the legal and administrative frameworks that have under- pinned sponsorship programs in canada, the united king- dom, new zealand, and argentina. they also briefly exam- ine the introduction of co-sponsorship in the united states, a country without any formal national program. what policy structures are required to operationalize community spon- sorship programs? the authors highlight a historic overview of the canadian model, focusing on the original legislative changes that created the foundations for the world’s largest community sponsorship program. as they further explain, the canadian model offered a unique referral mechanism that permitted sponsors to identify refugees they wished to resettle and was enabled by an explicit provision in the immigration act. this model underscores the very minimal legislative framework necessary to facilitate introduction of this radically different approach to refugee resettlement. the united kingdom and new zealand, on the other hand, each introduced community sponsorship into pre-existing and well-established refugee resettlement infrastructure. alter- natively argentina—a newer resettlement country—created a resettlement program delivered exclusively through a sponsorship model. the final case study, the united states, is a large resettlement country that does not have a national community sponsorship program. nevertheless, a number of american civil society organizations have recognized the potential of sponsorship and built their own mini infra- structure within the country’s broader overall resettlement scheme. the authors show that sponsorship models are not “one size fits all,” encouraging countries to consider new sponsorship programs without undertaking wide-scale leg- islative reform. hirsch, hoang, and vogl examine australia’s current community support program (csp), which began in late , as a cautionary tale: a sponsorship program that reduces government accountability and financial commitment to humanitarian resettlement programming. the authors also demonstrate that the eligibility criteria for csp shows a pref- erence for “job ready,” “economically self-sufficient” refugees between the ages of eighteen and fifty, with “functional eng- lish,” an overall higher integration capacity, and from par- ticular countries of origin. this “cherry picking” of refugees undermines the humanitarian nature of this program and discriminates on the basis of gender, age, and other criteria. the authors provide an important discussion on whether this program can preserve its humanitarian focus as a dura- ble solution for refugees or whether economic independ- ence and other criteria in fact support an economic model of self-sufficiency. the future of private sponsorship? the global compact on refugees calls upon states “to estab- lish private or community sponsorship programs that are additional to regular resettlement” in order to provide timely access to durable solutions to refugees.” canada’s private sponsorship program has gained global attention as a leader in refugee resettlement. in canada will resettle four times more privately sponsored refugees than in . it is thus imperative that we pay close attention to the evalua- tion of canada’s private sponsorship system and the lessons learned provided in new and emerging research to guide future private sponsorship. notes for more on settlement-sponsor collaboration, see allies for refugee integration (ari), promoting settlement-sponsor collaboration: best practices report—april , http://ocasi .org/sites/default/files/promoting-settlement-sponsor- collaboration-best-practices-report.pdf. michael c. lanphier, “refugee resettlement: models in action,” international migration review , no. ( ): – ; doreen marie indra, “the spirit of the gift and the politics of resettlement: the canadian private sponsor- ship of south east asians,” in the international refugee crisis, ed. vaughan robinson, – (london: palgrave macmillan, ). gertrud neuwirth and lynn clark, “indochinese refu- gees in canada: sponsorship and adjustment,” interna- tional migration review , no. – ( ): – ; yuen- fong woon, “indochinese refugee sponsorship: the case of victoria, – ,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): . thomas r. denton, “understanding private refugee spon- sorship in manitoba,” journal of international migration and integration/revue de l’intégration et de la migration internationale , no. ( ): – ; barbara treviranus and michael casasola, “canada’s private sponsorship of refugees program: a practitioner’s perspective of its past and future,” international migration & integration ( ): . morton beiser, “sponsorship and resettlement success,” journal of international migration and integration/revue de volume refuge number l’intégration et de la migration internationale , no. ( ): – ; soojin yu, estelle ouellet, and angelyn warming- ton, “refugee integration in canada: a survey of empiri- cal evidence and existing services,” refuge , no. ( ): – ; nicole ives, “more than a ‘good back’: looking for integration in refugee resettlement,” refuge , no. ( ): – . michael lanphier, “sponsorship: organizational, sponsor, and refugee perspectives,” journal of international migra- tion and integration , no. ( ): – ; laura simich, “reinforcing refugee resettlement: an introduction to private sponsorship and partnerships,” journal of interna- tional migration and integration/revue de l’intégration et de la migration internationale , no. ( ): – ; nicole ives and jill witmer sinha, “the religious congregation as partner in refugee resettlement,” settlement of newcomers to canada , no. ( ): – . glen peterson, “‘education changes the world’: the world university service of canada’s student refugee program,” refuge , no. ( ): – ; robyn plasterer, “investi- gating integration: the geographies of the wusc student refugee program at the university of british columbia,” refuge , no. ( ): – . a good summary of the program can be found in jennifer hyndman, william payne, and shauna jimenez, “the state of refugee private sponsorship in canada,” rrn/crs policy brief submitted to the government of canada, december , https://refugeeresearch.net/rrn_node/private-refugee- sponsorship-in-canada/; and jennifer hyndman, william payne, and shauna jimenez, “private refugee sponsorship in canada,” forced migration review; oxford (february ): – . refuge , no. , https://refuge.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/ refuge/issue/view/ . michael j. molloy, peter duschinsky, kurt f. jensen, and robert j. shalka, running on empty: canada and the indochinese refugees, – (montreal and kingston: mcgill-queen’s university press, ). government of canada, “global refugee sponsorship ini- tiative,” last modified july , https://www.canada.ca/ en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/ corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative .html. patti tamara lenard, “resettling refugees: is private spon- sorship a just way forward?,” journal of global ethics , no. ( ): – ; audrey macklin, kathryn barber, luin goldring, jennifer hyndman, anna korteweg, shauna labman, and jona zyfi, “a preliminary investigation into private refugee sponsors,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – , https://doi.org/ . /ces. . ; shan- non tito and sharolyn cochand, “the story of a small canadian congregation sponsoring a refugee family,” forced migration review ( ): ; anna hutchinson, “‘welcome to canada’: hospitality, inclusion and diversity in private refugee sponsorship,” ucl migration research unit working papers no. / . alexander norfolk, “establishing a stronger peer resource network for the private sponsorship of refugees program at the inter-cultural association of greater victoria” (ma thesis, university of victoria, ). sandeep kumar agrawal, “canadian refugee sponsorship programs: experience of syrian refugees in alberta, can- ada,” journal of international migration and integration , no. ( ): – . shauna labman and madison pearlman, “blending, bar- gaining, and burden-sharing: canada’s resettlement programs,” journal of international migration and inte- gration , no. ( ): – , https://doi.org/ . / s - - - . lewis turner, “who will resettle single syrian men?” forced migration review ( ): – . hyndman, payne, and jimenez, “private refugee sponsor- ship in canada,” . tito and cochand, “story of a small canadian congrega- tion,” ; julie drolet, richard enns, linda kreitzer, janki shankar, and anne-marie mclaughlin, “supporting the resettlement of a syrian family in canada: the social work resettlement practice experience of social justice matters,” international social work , no. ( ): – . jill hanley, adnan al mhamied, janet cleveland, oula haj- jar, ghayda hassan, nicole ives, rim khyar, and michaela hynie, “the social networks, social support and social capital of syrian refugees privately sponsored to settle in montreal: indications for employment and housing during their early experiences of integration,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – ; navjot k. lamba and har- vey krahn, “social capital and refugee resettlement: the social networks of refugees in canada,” journal of inter- national migration and integration/revue de l’intégration et de la migration internationale , no. ( ): – ; morton beiser, “sponsorship and resettlement success,” journal of international migration and integration/revue de l’intégration et de la migration internationale , no. ( ): – ; lisa kaida, feng hou, and max stick, “the long-term economic integration of resettled refugees in canada: a comparison of privately sponsored refugees and government-assisted refugees,” journal of ethnic and migration studies , no. ( ): – ; michaela hynie, “canada’s syrian refugee program, intergroup relation- ships and identities,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – . anthea vogl and a. hirsch, “community members should be able to sponsor refugees for the right reasons, not to save the government money,” conversation, march ; shauna labman and madison pearlman, “blending, bar- gaining, and burden-sharing: canada’s resettlement pro- grams,” journal of international migration and integration , no. ( ): – ; shauna labman, “private spon- sorship: complementary or conflicting interests?” refuge https://refugeeresearch.net/rrn_node/private-refugee-sponsorship-in-canada/ https://refugeeresearch.net/rrn_node/private-refugee-sponsorship-in-canada/ https://refuge.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/refuge/issue/view/ https://refuge.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/refuge/issue/view/ https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative.html https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/global-refugee-sponsorship-initiative.html https://doi.org/ . /ces. . https://doi.org/ . /s - - - https://doi.org/ . /s - - - volume refuge number , no. ( ): – ; lenard, “resettling refugees; lori wilkinson and joseph garcea, the economic integration of refugees in canada: a mixed record? (washington, dc: migration policy institute, ); ray silvius, “neo-lib- eralization, devolution, and refugee well-being: a case study in winnipeg, manitoba,” canadian ethnic studies , no. ( ): – ; hyndman, payne, and jimenez, “pri- vate refugee sponsorship in canada,” . genevieve ritchie, “civil society, the state, and private sponsorship: the political economy of refugee resettle- ment,” international journal of lifelong education , no. ( ): – . see also samantha arnold and emma quinn, “resettle- ment of refugees and private sponsorship in ireland,” eco- nomic and social research institute research series ( ); shahana bhaduri, “exploring private refugee sponsorship option(s) for the united states” (phd diss., harvard uni- versity, ). united nations high commissioner for refugees, “global compact on refugees,” , https://www.unhcr.org/gcr/ gcr_english.pdf. united nations high commissioner for refugees, “amid record high global displacement, un refugee agency calls for international solidarity, welcomes canadian generosity towards refugees,” https://www.unhcr.ca/news/ amid-record-high-global-displacement-unhcr-welcomes- canadian-generosity-towards-refugees/. government of canada, “canada welcomes more privately sponsored refugees in ,” https://www.canada.ca/en/ immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/ policies-operational-instructions-agreements/timely- protection-privately-sponsored-refugees.html. johanna reynolds is research coordinator for a sshrc-funded project on private refugee sponsorship in canada. she may be contacted at jreynol@yorku.ca. christina clark-kazak is associate professor, graduate school of public and international affairs, university of ottawa. she may be contacted at cclarkka@uottawa.ca. mailto:jreynol@yorku.ca mailto:cclarkka@uottawa.ca wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ rac _ _corbett .. for god and country: religious minorities striving for national belonging through community service rosemary r. corbett on saturday, august , , muslim americans from across the nation boarded buses bound for some of detroit’s blighted west-side neighborhoods. the bus riders, participants in the community service program at the fifty-first annual convention of the islamic society of north america (isna), the largest muslim organization on the conti- nent, spent the morning learning about muslim-led community service initiatives in the city and then choosing between an hour and a half of either urban gardening or urban housing restoration. was not the first year that isna emphasized community service at its convention. in fact, nearly one thousand attendees that year signed up for isna’s fifteenth annual community service recognition luncheon, which culminated with the bestowal of the mahboob khan community ser- vice award. yet in , for the first time, isna leaders provided attendees the opportunity, through direct community service work, to enact their roles as productive citizens in a national body politic. isna’s directors had only recently begun to emphasize com- munity service in these more expansive terms. between and , for example, isna development foundation officials and founder’s committee members changed the description of the com- munity service recognition luncheon to make it clear that such ser- vice should be undertaken on behalf of people of all religions. whereas convention materials described the lunch as an event where “the nation’s muslim leaders, scholars, and government officials join to honor an individual dedicated to community service within the muslim community,” the annual convention program description of the luncheon—at which former president and nobel prize winner jimmy carter delivered the keynote—omitted that last clause, turning service into a broader national mandate. in addition to sincere conviction and the desire to encourage other muslim americans to live out their own ethical commitments, religion and american culture: a journal of interpretation, vol. , issue , pp. – , issn: - , electronic issn: - . © by the center for the study of religion and american culture. all rights reserved. please direct all requests for permission to photocopy or reproduce article content through the university of california press’s reprints and permissions web page, http://www.ucpress.edu/journals.php?p=reprints. doi: . /rac. . . . . terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core many muslim leaders believed that such community service engage- ments would help overcome discrimination by demonstrating to non-muslims that, like jews and catholics who faced discrimination in the past, muslim americans could make vital contributions to the united states. the emphasis on service as a road to eventual acceptance was not new in . in fact, it was so pronounced among muslim lead- ers in that daisy khan—then one of the leaders of the contested manhattan islamic center project erroneously dubbed the “ground zero mosque”—put forth the service-as-assimilation narrative during the height of that controversy. “all religions americanize over time,” khan told reporter christiane amanpour in an august , , episode of this week. “they go from a place of worship to a place of service, and community centers have been developed by christian communities like the ymca, and the jewish community has developed the jcc. and [the] muslim community is inevitably going to also develop such a center.” long before the islamic center controversy, even, khan’s husband—feisal abdul rauf, the imam first associated with the islamic center project—had suggested that community service endeavors would aid in the integration of muslims. in fact, he included this idea in his larger book about how muslim americans, following the example of catholics and jews, could “americanize” and help turn the united states from a “judeo-christian” (protestant-catholic- jewish) country into an “abrahamic” (muslim-christian-jewish) one. it remains to be seen whether such service projects will aid muslim americans in gaining recognition and acceptance from non-muslims. as i discuss in the conclusion to this article, several contemporary factors—unaccounted for in these hopeful narratives—call that possi- bility into question. before conjecturing on that issue, though, it is worth investigating how and to what extent appeals to particular kinds of service actually have enabled other religious minorities to lay claim to american identity or to receive recognition as part of the u.s. “judeo-christian” fold. this article examines how participation in twentieth-century government-affiliated service programs—sometimes voluntary, some- times compulsory—helped religious minorities assert claims to faith in a common god, observance of common ethics, and belonging in a common body politic. historians have described world war ii as a time of enshrining “judeo-christian” narratives in culture, legislation, and politics, and of allowing jews greater—though still limited— access to these arenas than they had experienced previously. due largely to participation in the armed forces, the argument goes, religious and racial minorities gradually gained increasing social acceptance during religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core the twentieth century. while participation in the military is important to this account, my primary subject is the service provided outside of the armed forces: service religious groups initially offered as a complement to military activity as early as world war i, but then expanded and generalized—sometimes under government commission—into commu- nity care work that often relieved the state of the economic burden of supplying certain citizenship benefits or that gave international endeav- ors a friendlier face. marginalized white protestants were the first to offer such services, but other minoritized religious groups—primarily white ethnic catholics and jews—followed their example, patriotically echoing military themes throughout the twentieth century when creating “ser- vice” organizations and volunteer “corps” to assert national belonging by emphasizing that—like dominant white protestants—their religious ethics led to serving the nation and serving the needy, too. in providing such services, which ranged from staffing domes- tic soup kitchens to distributing relief supplies abroad, marginalized jews and christians demonstrated their loyalties to the united states after world war ii, muslims—some of whom had served in the mili- tary and others who immigrated in later decades—sought to have their civic contributions recognized, as well, and helped make community service the proving grounds for claims that the united states could be an “abrahamic” country, rather than just a “judeo-christian” one. in the service of civilizing although service of different kinds (missionary, civil, social, and—especially—military) has long informed what could be consid- ered truly american and truly religious, it was only during the late- nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries that marginalized religious groups began emphasizing their americanness in such terms. partici- pation in the armed forces was not the only means by which nondom- inant americans could demonstrate their national loyalty, but it was by far the most accessible. while “civil service” was a highly esteemed vocation, such occupations were primarily reserved for elites. the pendleton civil service reform act of helped to change that situation—known as the “spoils system,” in which civil service jobs were doled out as political favors rather than on the basis of merit—by instituting measures to ensure the qualifications of federal employees. by , more than percent of federal government positions were assigned based on civil service exams, though women and racial and religious minorities were not generally encouraged to sit for them— particularly not after segregationist president woodrow wilson worked for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core to expunge black americans from the ranks of civil servants, thus dev- astating the lives and holdings of hundreds, if not thousands, who had only recently worked their ways into the lower middle class. “service to mankind” was also an important turn-of-the- century theme—one under which gilded age industrialists financed progressive era efforts to address the severe social problems that acc- ompanied u.s. economic and territorial expansion. by doing so, some industrialists also attempted to deflect accusations of immoderate acc- umulation, monopolistic activity, and unfair labor practices. andrew carnegie, for example, established several philanthropic institutions between and , when the carnegie corporation of new york (designed to handle philanthropic endowments left over from the sale of carnegie steel) received a state charter. influenced by carnegie’s call for more systematized giving (and while fighting an antitrust suit that would ultimately break up standard oil), john d. rockefeller signed over nearly , shares of his company in to the trustees of his proposed foundation. four years later, new york governor william sulzer granted rockefeller a legal charter for the foundation “to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world.” equipped with the redirected largess of the gilded age, late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century public leaders ranging from missionaries to political officials—often citing the noble ideals of “service to humanity” and “social service”—attempted to assimilate non-“white” non-protestants (native americans, freed slaves moving north for jobs in industry, and non-protestant immigrants arriving on u.s. shores). for dominant americans at that time, progress and protestantism went hand in hand, and the massive influx of jews and catholics from europe and non-protestant religious groups from asia seemed to threaten american might. social and civic acceptance almost invariably required being—or, at least, seeming—middle- class, protestant, and white. one leader in the new “social service” sector was josiah strong, the protestant clergyman and reformer who insisted on the need to “civilize and christianize” immigrants and native americans so as to protect the “anglo-saxon” race. strong established his league for social service in . by , the re-named american institute of social service claimed “forty members and one hundred associates, american men and women distinguished in social, philanthropic, and religious work,” as well as “one hundred collabora- tors” overseas. by the s, industrialist funding undergirded not just imp- licitly and explicitly racist social services projects, but also pseudo- scientific attempts to purify the american populace. (both the carnegie institute and the rockefeller foundation devoted funding to the new religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core discipline of eugenics. ) unsurprisingly, not all migrants found prot- estant progressive era service projects to their liking. some, such as inayat khan—an indian sufi musician who toured the united states from to —re-deployed the language of “service to human- ity” to assert the civilizational superiority of their own traditions. others, both immigrants and freed slaves, created organizations to aid co-religionists or co-immigrants. these included the jewish social service association (known as the united hebrew charities until ) and the mutual aid societies that bosnian muslims cre- ated in turn-of-the-century chicago and that arab muslims later cre- ated in detroit. while these mutual aid societies filled important functions by providing populations alienated by progressive era programs with services ranging from health care to burial plots, involvement in such organizations did not afford racial and religious minorities the grounds to claim that they contributed to the larger american society in the ways protestant reformers and social work- ers did. world war i marked a significant turning point for the ways religion and service were defined, initiating a process by which the two became indelibly intertwined in legislation and popular culture. politi- cal, business, and more popular leaders during the “war to end war” stressed military service as a potent means of demonstrating model citizenship. their emphases on service—and, more importantly here, governmental responses to those who refused combat—inaugurated the first of several twentieth-century periods in which “community ser- vice” engagements became a means of regulating and assimilating reli- gious minorities into the mechanisms of the state. the selective service act, passed to marshal forces for world war i, instituted the first universal draft in u.s. history and included a mandate for “all male citizens” between the ages of twenty- one and thirty-one to register for military service. previously, each state marshaled its own armies or militias and propertied whites often sent others to battle in their place. under the law, however, substitu- tions could not be sent or bought, and the only exemption allowed (aside from essential occupations and care for dependents) was for certain religious “conscientious objectors”—including anabaptists and quakers, but not seventh day adventists, jehovah’s witnesses, or socialists. in response to the act, the religious society of friends (quakers) created the friends national service committee (later renamed the american friends service committee, afsc) to organize “alternative service” programs for objectors. rather than dissolve the organization after the war, the afsc expanded its mission to providing social services for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core in urban areas and providing relief services more broadly in europe. the u.s. government (which first used humanitarian aid as a foreign policy tool during world war i ) had allowed the afsc to work along- side the red cross in france during the war, provided they did not pro- mote pacifism or proselytize, but afsc leaders avoided germany—a decision they made so as to appear more patriotic, and a situation that only changed when hoover commissioned them to provide aid there after the war’s end. throughout the war, service was promoted as the great equalizer that brought men of different religious traditions together in their com- mon national identity under a common god, and protestant organiza- tions set the tone for how religious groups were to participate. two devel- opments gave particular force to this new emphasis on service ethics and the performance of national citizenship: the wilson administration’s war- time efforts to forge a common moral culture across americans’ religious differences and the birth of a new genre of war-related work called “com- munity service.” in the service of citizenship americans had long been scandalized by the ways soldiers acted when away from home. president wilson had received scathing letters about troop comportment after the build-up of american forces on the mexican border in , and, with u.s. involvement in europe imminent, the war department sought to provide sailors and soldiers with opportunities for wholesome entertainment and personal moral improvement. in attempts to prevent drinking, gambling, prostitution, and other such activities, the war department created a commission on training camp activities (ctca) and assured citizens that their sons and husbands would not return from combat corrupt. instead, service members would be made into better men through religion—a hardly surprising project, coming from the liberal protestants who staffed wilson’s cabinet. administration members such as raymond fosdick—brother of protestant minister harry emerson fosdick and a pacifist social re- former who had directed john d. rockefeller, jr.’s, bureau for social hygiene until appointed chair of the ctca—also saw in the immedi- ate national crisis a means of solving longstanding social problems. “as men and women, soldiers and civilians, pulled together to improve themselves and their nation, adherence to common values would elimi- nate the competing loyalties and parochialism that divided americans along the lines of class, race, ethnicity, region, and religion. out of the war religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core effort would emerge a new american citizen, loyal first and foremost to the nation and united with other citizens through shared values.” fosdick’s ctca undertook this unifying and civilizing endeav- or with a two-pronged strategy: providing educational activities within the camps to improve both morals and morale and creating a distinct branch of the war department to work outside of the camps, promoting wholesome entertainment and keeping unsavory groups out of commu- nities near bases. this latter segment of the war department was named war camp community service. quickly realizing that their objectives for the ctca required significant material assistance and volunteer labor, fosdick and his colleagues enlisted the young men’s christian association (ymca) in their cause. not long after, other religious organ- izations clamored to be involved. while wilson administration members intent on forging com- mon national ethics through religious—if not racial—integration trusted the protestant ymca to meet all service members’ moral needs, their confidence was not shared by religious leaders of the pop- ulations that protestant reformers usually targeted. the ymca did ini- tially assure u.s. officials that it would provide recreational and educa- tional services to members of all traditions. when it failed to allow any catholic representatives on its national war work council, however, catholics protested. the war department then allowed the knights of columbus—a catholic fraternal organization that had supported u.s. efforts during border tensions with mexico in —to offer serv- ices similar to those of the ymca, while a group of u.s. archbishops formed the national catholic war council to oversee military-related issues. not to be excluded, leaders of prominent jewish organiza- tions gathered to address the noticeable lack of services available to jewish troops in the new conflict. they founded the jewish board for welfare work in the united states army and navy, shortening its name to the jewish welfare board (jwb) by , and successfully lobbied secretary of war newton baker to be the primary volunteer contractor for jewish servicemen. the jwb effectively took over the disparate tasks previously provided by the army and navy branch of the young men’s hebrew association, a jewish organization founded in to provide an alternative to the ymca’s social services and that was also previously active on the mexican border. both the knights of columbus and the jewish welfare board worked hard to demonstrate that their religious traditions fostered progressive morals and patriotic morale just as much as protestant ones did. in a article in the new york tribune, the jwb explained that it was a “win-the-war organization that is helping the united states government to build up the morale of more than , jewish for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core men in the army and navy” and that—most important—their work did “not conflict or duplicate that of the y.m.c.a., k. of c. [knights of columbus], war camp community service or any other welfare agency. the jewish welfare board has a place of its own in camp life,” the orga- nization insisted. “it steps in where the other agencies would be less effective and it works with the other agencies, making the jewish contribution to the larger welfare programme of the country.” true to its word, the jwb even offered classes on how to americanize to poor jews and recent immigrants serving in the military. the federal attempt to enlist religious organizations in the war effort was hugely successful—at least, as far as using volunteers to fund and supply federal government services was concerned. the work of the war department’s own war camp community service proved miniscule in terms of staff and budget compared with the enor- mous efforts of the ymca, ywca, knights of columbus, and jwb. yet, despite this massive mobilization of volunteer labor and private funding, fosdick’s attempt to create a common moral culture seemed less than effective to war department officials. although the religious service organizations professed unity, neutrality, and cooperation, the war department found that political posturing and competition for adherents had undermined rather than uplifted service member morale. consequently, after the conflict ended, war department officials dis- solved the ctca and encouraged the different organizations that had participated in the war effort to offer their services instead to vet- erans and to the larger communities, which most did. like the jwb, the national catholic war council—having “instilled in catholics in the u.s. a consciousness of their resources and their responsibility”— transitioned from war work to social work under a new name (the national catholic welfare council). ultimately, although inter- religious rivalries in the ctca disappointed fosdick, his effort to unify disparate americans through common progressive values— specifically, a reformist, americanizing impulse expressed through the ethic of service—can only be seen now as successful. not only had various religious minority groups competed for the privilege of performing war-related service work during world war i, the volunteer associations were so eager in their endeavors, so effec- tive in promoting their respective causes, that the war department was able to outsource most of its “community service” work to them by world war ii. the one caveat the government issued on the eve of that second conflict, as i discuss below, was that the respective groups would have to learn to work together. not content to leave the various religious organizations alone with such an important task, officials in both the roosevelt and truman administrations aggressively promoted religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core the idea of “judeo-christian” heritage and identity and created ways for protestant, catholic, and jewish americans to enact it through service— both combat and community-related. in the meantime, with the american citizenry far from homog- enous after world war i, some progressives redoubled their efforts to assimilate certain elements of the population. for one editor of the new york times, the new project of community service assumed the same importance as other kinds of social work. claiming to represent the views of “thoughtful men,” the writer argued that the war camp’s community service work “should be extended to the whole american people.” like wilson, fosdick, and other leaders who had attempted to fashion a national moral and political culture in the great crucible of war, the times editor pleaded with readers to understand the impera- tive of consolidating the citizenry by extending military initiatives into peacetime. the “americanization of the foreign-born is to be the concern of community service,” he argued, and in lofty prose reasoned that the very fate of the country, if not the world, depended on americans, “native and foreign born,” becoming “truly democratic in thought and deed and service, members of one great family of freemen, which cannot be until they understand one another and keep step in the march of progress.” military metaphors and the making of judeo-christians during the s, as many peace churches and populations that had undertaken wartime service devoted energy to other community needs, immigrant and black american groups continued to organize mutual aid societies—ones that became ever more important when the prosperity of the “roaring twenties” collapsed and the united states entered the great depression. in the s, president roosevelt used federal funds to put millions back to work. he created civilian service programs and, using the patriotic reminder of u.s. wartime success, titled some with the military metaphor of “corps” (such as the “civilian conservation corps”: the largest federal work program of the s). for those who could not work (the elderly, the disabled, and widows with children), congress passed the social security act of . for some, financial aid provided as a result of new deal legislation began to reduce the need for religiously organized social services. according to the national association for the advancement of colored people, however, the exemptions built into social security and disability insur- ance made the social security act like “a sieve with holes just big enough for the majority of negroes to fall through.” agriculture, for for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core example, which was primarily nonwhite, was excluded, as was domes- tic work (an occupation undertaken almost exclusively by women, and in which almost two-thirds of working african american females were employed). as they had during world war i, political leaders gave white ethnic religious minorities the opportunity to prove their national loy- alties through service in the s, but this time in more carefully crafted ways. prior to entering world war ii officially, congress passed the selective training and service act of , thereby institut- ing the first peacetime draft in u.s. history. the act included greater provisions for religious conscientious objectors than world war i leg- islation had, and an official organization for “civilian public service” (cps) followed in . rather than engage in alternative service, as did members of peace churches, some marginalized americans rejected the fight in any form. elijah muhammad, leader of the nation of islam, for example, was jailed in for refusing to register for selective or alternative service, or—as he put it—refusing to “fight a white man’s war.” his son, w. d. mohammed, would follow suit during the war in vietnam. meanwhile, with the recent example of damaging disputes in- side the ctca in mind, the war department opted to task religious ser- vice providers with the same responsibilities they had undertaken dur- ing world war i, but under greater centralization. in , president roosevelt commissioned a joint organization consisting of the national travelers aid association and five different religious groups: the salvation army, the ymca, the ywca, the national catholic com- munity service organization, and the national jewish welfare board. thus, the united service organization (uso) was born. through this expansion and federal institutionalization of voluntary service organi- zations (and in the diverse population of enlisted troops—“whites” and “blacks,” though segregated; protestants, catholics, jews, sikhs, and muslims), world war ii became another watershed for the ways religion, service, and citizenship were defined in the united states. crucially, though, national leaders did not try to forge just a common (implicitly protestant) moral culture through this conflict, but a specif- ically “judeo-christian” fusion of white ethnics united against fascism, communism, and secularism. all of the uso constituent organizations except national catholic community service had worked with the war department during world war i to address the needs of their communities. neither the knights of columbus nor the national catholic welfare council participated in the uso because, having already anticipated u.s. entry into the conflict, american bishops created national catholic religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core community service (nccs) in to serve catholics in the mili- tary. nccs joined the other religious organizations in response to roosevelt’s wartime request, thus repeating a process similar to that which occurred after world war i with the afsc: once again, an orga- nization that marginalized religious americans created to meet their own community’s needs was assimilated into the workings of the state. moreover, as the creation of nccs demonstrates, the military- derived metaphor of “community service” had by become a key way for minorities to demonstrate their adherence to common ethics and their contribution to u.s. society. in , philanthropist john d. rockefeller, jr., helped pro- mote the uso and simultaneously provided a widely cited frame- work for pan-religious patriotism. just after the fourth of july, in a broadcast appeal for the uso and national war fund that was later broadly distributed in print, rockefeller declared that “the rendering of useful service is the common duty of mankind.” he described this obligation to serve as required by “an all-wise and all-loving god, named by whatever name.” while rockefeller presented military and community service during and after world war ii as patriotic labor that should unite all citizens under a common god, other americans, especially those involved with the military, emphasized not a general religious calling to serve, but a specifically “judeo- christian” one. one crucial proponent of judeo-christian identity was carl j. friedrich, a german immigrant and influential professor of govern- ment at harvard university who obtained naturalized citizenship during the war and helped to found harvard’s school of overseas administration for training military officers. according to friedrich (a later mentor to henry kissinger), democracy was rooted in “judeo-christian ethics.” what hung in the balance during world war ii was nothing less than a judeo-christian culture that could sta- bilize the world. friedrich’s and others’ world war ii promotion of a “transatlantic judeo-christian identity” to challenge the anti-semitic, imperialist designs of nazi germany had far-reaching domestic con- sequences. although the narrative of judeo-christian commonality was initially to form the basis of “a ‘multinational’ alternative to fascism, communism, and traditional rivalries among european[s],” argues kissinger biographer jeremi suri, a transatlantic judeo-christian identity legitimized, and in fact mandated, increased jewish partici- pation in universities, corporations, and especially the military. it made jews “white” by outlawing many of the anti-semitic assump- tions about race and ethnicity that had largely excluded them from circles of economic, intellectual, and military power. for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core the world war ii recognition of white ethnic catholics and, especially, jews in formerly protestant-dominated narratives and insti- tutions did seem like progress to many americans, and certainly was a form of inclusion. yet some religious minorities still balked at the pres- sure to assimilate to protestant forms of national service and public life. military officers acting under the aggressive campaign to consoli- date judeo-christian identity (and often acting with supplies provided by the jewish welfare board, nccs, and other uso constituents) forced catholic and jewish service members to act in identifiably religious ways when some had no personal inclination to do so. for jewish troops, this involved “volunteering” to work on christmas in an ostensible show of inter-religious unity that allowed christian members time off, as well as showing up for jewish services. at one such officer- mandated event, a protestant minister was the only clergy available to preside over a passover seder for two bemused servicemen who—being secular jews—had no advice on how to proceed. as these challenges indicate, the recognition that wartime service afforded particular religious minorities was often qualified. still, white ethnic catholics and jews were increasingly folded into an expanded national narrative of religious commonality and divine mandate. jewish traditions were no longer treated simply as the rudi- mentary foundations of protestantism, but as co-conscripts in defending morality worldwide. even the nomenclature had changed with world war ii: whereas the u.s. government had previously employed the term “hebrew” to designate difference, “jew” was the new term of distinc- tion—one that, for many, indicated “a fluid culture rather than a pri- mordial race.” this reformulated recognition was not universal, however, and jews and catholics continued to face multiple exclusions in various social arenas throughout the twentieth century. additionally, even at their most inclusive, these frameworks left secular jews without a basis of belonging. nevertheless, despite the ambiguity of their in- clusion under the new “judeo-christian” national rubric, white ethnic religious minorities found that wartime service to the nation could have very real benefits—ones that helped move many of them out of the resource-poor urban environments where social services were nec- essary and up through the ranks of the middle class. postwar political and economic transformations would, again, have a dramatic and last- ing impact on americans’ understandings of their fellow citizens, reli- gion, and “service.” as after world war i, white ethnic religious minorities and their service organizations underwent profound changes during and after world war ii. in , congress had passed the servicemen’s readjustment act, more commonly known as the g.i. bill of rights, religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core which provided returning servicemen with possibilities of low-interest loans for housing and funding for college, among other things, and helped many formerly working-class and poor families (including the descendants of catholic and jewish immigrants) move up the economic ladder and out of the cities. as in the s, when the federal govern- ment began providing social security and disability insurance, these s federal programs eased some of the pressures that mutual aid societies once addressed. unprecedented economic abundance, com- bined with heightened concern for european refugees, caused some groups—with the u.s. government’s financial and logistical support— to shift their focus from providing for needy members of domestic religious communities to providing relief aid overseas, while others con- centrated on offering social and cultural activities. importantly, not all mutual aid societies and service organi- zations changed their focus, as not all people who served the nation during wartime were eligible for the g.i. bill and not all of those eli- gible could overcome racial barriers to housing and education. among those excluded from g.i. bill benefits were conscientious objectors. partly for this reason, concerned mennonites founded mennonite mutual aid in for returning civilian public service workers (those employed in roosevelt’s world war ii program) who had not only lost wages or work opportunities during the war, but had had to pay for their own living expenses while laboring on cps projects. significantly, mennonite leaders also recognized the social and political importance of aiding noncommunity members and created mennonite voluntary services for domestic and overseas re- lief in . in , quaker and brethren churches joined with mennonites to create international voluntary service. meanwhile, u.s. catholic bishops had organized massive aid campaigns for european refugees by establishing catholic relief services (initially called “war relief services” and funded partly by the national war fund) in . with the narrative of “judeo-christian” commonality taking root in popular culture by the s and the federal government con- tracting with religious minorities’ organizations to provide domestic and international services, it would seem that jews and catholics— many now middle class—had successfully gained recognition and acceptance through their community service work. the election of the nation’s first catholic president could also be seen as proof of this trend. yet, as the controversies over that election and over john f. kennedy’s attempts to integrate catholics into federal service pro- grams reveal, such acceptance was neither unequivocal nor inevitable. the history of kennedy’s attempts to involve catholic relief services for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core in the peace corps provides a cautionary tale for muslims attempting to replicate judeo-christian inclusion. protestant-catholic-jewish competition, continued on september , , kennedy, then the democratic party’s presidential nominee, sought to reassure the predominantly protestant populace that his catholicism posed no threat to the country’s security or heritage. standing before the greater houston ministerial associa- tion and speaking about the role of religion in public life, kennedy delivered one of his most famous speeches—one that gives subsequent generations a glimpse at the intertwined ways americans understood religion, national belonging, and service at that time, and at the limits of the postwar judeo-christian consensus. rather than allowing him to address the pressing issues of communist aggression, continued domestic poverty, and a second- place status in the space race, kennedy lamented, his opponents’ attempts to inspire fear of catholic tyranny forced him to reassure the public repeatedly that he would not serve at the behest of the pope. to demonstrate his simultaneous commitments to civic religiosity and to “an america where the separation of church and state is abso- lute,” kennedy echoed protestants who promoted secularism so as to block tax dollars from funding catholic education. “i believe in an america,” he assured the protestant ministers, “where no church or church school is granted any public funds or political preference.” the school controversy to which kennedy referred was at least a century old by this point. when what have since become known as the “great school wars” first started, nineteenth-century catholic (and sometimes jewish) immigrants objected to the use of protestant scriptures and prayers in public schools and sought to shield their children from protestant proselytizing under the guise of common education. instead of removing such scriptures or prayers from the curriculum, protestant school board members in philadelphia, cincinnati, and elsewhere often required such scriptural readings while simultaneously accusing catholic schools that sought public funds of violating the separation of church and state. protestant groups had repeatedly and selectively appealed to the ideal of secularism over the course of the subsequent century—not to limit the power of religion in public life, but to limit the public power of catholics. whatever bonding had occurred between protestants, catholics, and jews during world war ii had not changed this. in speaking so frankly of the challenges that caused him to address the ministerial association, and then immediately referring to religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core the school controversy, kennedy was acknowledging that catholics were still not as accepted in the protestant-dominated country as world war ii narratives of judeo-christian commonality would sug- gest. in case anyone missed his point, he finished his brief monolog on the america he believed in with a reminder of the touted ideal yet to be achieved: “finally, i believe in an america where religious intolerance will someday end.” for those who still doubted his national fidelity, kennedy cited the ultimate proof of his patriotism: service. [t]his is the kind [of america] i fought for in the south pacific, and the kind my brother died for in europe. no one sug- gested then that we may have a “divided loyalty,” that we did “not believe in liberty,” or that we belonged to a dis- loyal group that threatened the “freedoms for which our forefathers died.” catholics had served in every conflict from the revolution- ary war to the alamo, kennedy insisted. four months later, in his first inaugural address, kennedy expanded on the kinds of service that could be considered both evidence of patriotism and a fulfill- ment of the mission to make “god’s work” into “our own.” military service had proven such commitment in the past, but now “the trum- pet summons us” to a different kind of service: a struggle against “tyranny, poverty, disease, and war, itself.” to encourage such labor, kennedy launched the peace corps—a civilian service program that echoed both the military metaphor roosevelt had used with the “civilian conservation corps” and the religiosity of the catholic youth program—the jesuit volunteer corps—begun in . kennedy’s election to the presidency did mark a milestone in american history as far as protestant public power is concerned, but as he soon learned, the end of religious intolerance was not yet at hand. a furor over church-state separation greeted his announcement of the peace corps. trying to protect his re-election prospects, kennedy had stopped mentioning religion in public (as a senator, he had frequently quoted catholic theologians) except in moments when he tried to unite all americans against the specter of communism. however, he believed not only that the peace corps was an example of the kind of service all religious groups should offer to the nation, but that it could be a weapon in the fight against communist expansion. accordingly, kennedy invoked jesus’ sermon on the mount when first announcing the program and described the corps as an endeavor to counteract the hundreds of “missionaries . . . [who are] prepared to spend their lives abroad in the service of world communism.” despite—or, perhaps, for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core because of—his attempts to normalize the program by appealing to common religious ethics, historical precedent, and contemporary threats, his proposals were met by additional protestant insistence on secularism. not all protestants opposed the peace corps, to be sure. while liberal protestants and liberal secularists objected most vociferously to it, those in kennedy’s cabinet worked to minimize dissent. protestant leaders such as bill moyers (an administration official) argued that the corps was an example of the “importance of service” characteristic of the baptist tradition. wary of the church-state issues already engulf- ing kennedy’s presidency in its first year, peace corps lawyer morris abrams sought to appease the program’s detractors by mandating that corps activities—ones initially to be undertaken largely by volun- teers associated with catholic relief services (crs)—involve no pros- elytizing or aid to parochial schools. crs and other agencies readily agreed to these conditions. still, not everyone believed that the admin- istration would sufficiently safeguard the line between politics and religion—or, more specifically, between government and the catholic church. just days before peace corps director sargent shriver was to testify about the program before the senate foreign relations com- mittee, the new york times ran a front-page story focused on the “church issue.” the article’s author quoted several protestant min- isters, all but one of whom opposed government funding for reli- giously organized relief services (a contrast from the era of world wars). citing comments made on vatican radio, the times author highlighted the supposed threat of catholic infiltration, claiming that of “all the religious officials polled, the catholics appeared most wholeheartedly in favor of church participation in the government projects,” and noting that an executive assistant of crs was already staffing a peace corps desk in the washington office of the national catholic welfare conference. other protestant leaders were divided on the issue of govern- ment cooperation with religious service groups—or, as in earlier deca- des, on co-optation of such organizations by the state. ted sorensen, kennedy’s speech writer, acknowledged that religious service groups were “doing good work abroad, and we would like to use their facili- ties,” just as the government had commissioned religious groups— including crs—to provide relief services prior to the peace corps controversy. the issue, he lamented, was one of public image more than legal precedent. bill moyers and secretary of state dean rusk agreed. the national council of churches (representing mainline protestant and some eastern orthodox churches) opposed the peace corps’ religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core arrangements with religious service providers. meanwhile, concerned for the sanctity of churches more than the secularity of the state, other protestants opposed the corps for fear that missionaries performing truly religious service would be “siphon[ed] off” by the government. as the political and public pressure over church-state separa- tion increased, crs officials suggested that the corps contract with a protestant organization before it contracted with them so as to avoid the appearance of favoritism. the first partnership the corps formed was with the secular heifer project, but this did nothing to dampen questions from congress about governmental ties to reli- gious groups—questions that seemed to overshadow even the weighty issue of the corps’ significant cost. during the summer con- troversy, crs was informed that its project proposals would be put on hold; by the end of the year, the once-favored catholic organiza- tion realized it would likely receive no peace corps contracts at all. by the beginning of , reported the new york times, the peace corps had decided to refrain from contracting with “agencies that are ecclesiastically controlled.” by then, however, the national council of churches had opened an office to liaise with the peace corps and to “aid [protestants] in the private practice of their religion while they are overseas.” simultaneously, the national catholic welfare congress decided to close down the washington peace corps desk that crs had staffed. the implicit message of the times article (with the subheading that read, “protestants will tell agency of projects and will help vol- unteers in worship”) was that a protestant-derived secularism would hold sway over the state department’s peace corps operations. this protestant-derived secularism would allow pious americans (particu- larly protestants) to enact their ethics through civic service, and would simultaneously ensure that no religious agencies (particularly catholic ones) could accept government funding or imprimatur for their projects. evangelicals also monitored peace corps endeavors for any signs of catholic favoritism throughout the kennedy presidency. thus, just as catholic americans reached new heights of institutional and social power—something that should have been uncontroversial in the “judeo-christian” america that ostensibly embraced them— many protestants insisted on secularism in order to preserve their own privilege. protestant dominance of american society was not dampened by the greater inclusion of minorities (as twenty-first cen- tury muslim leaders believe and hope will happen again with them). rather, increased minority involvement sparked opposition from protestants trying to maintain their privilege. as catholics attempted to demonstrate their loyalties through service, protestants and secu- larists tried to thwart their attempts. for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core even prior to the protestant backlash, jewish and catholics dif- fered about whether or not to partner with the government on service projects. some catholics and jews also appealed to secularism—often to protect their traditions from government interference, rather than to combat the “national menace” of pluralism (as the mainline protestant magazine christian century put it in the s) that had begun to erode protestants’ powerful position. and there were those who approved of the apparent increasing secularism of the s (when supreme court cases resulted in the removal of both protestant bibles and pray- ers from public schools). others, however, lamented their inability to prove their loyalties through service. as catholic political theorist francis canavan opined in the pages of one of the leading catholic periodicals in , recent developments had not furthered the cause of true pluralism or judeo-christian unity. for him, true pluralism (and patriotism) “permits and encourages private, including reli- gious, institutions of welfare to serve the public as effectively as state institutions do.” this is not to say that catholics and jews did not eventually gain greater acceptance in the united states, only that such accep- tance was not the inevitable consequence of a liberal, progressive trend, nor was it solely the result of catholics’ and jews’ own efforts to prove their loyalties. instead, such acceptance often depended on the accidents of only tangentially related domestic and foreign policy considerations. for example, politically conservative protestants have increasingly employed “judeo-christian” terminology since the s—not to express the equality of jewish americans, necessarily, but to express evangelical attachments to the state of israel (a “co- opting” of the term that initially began in response to the perceived increase in secularism under kennedy and the simultaneous decline of protestant power). and ronald reagan—who saw pope john paul ii as an ally in the fight against communism—helped temper american protestant suspicion of catholicism in the s by an- nouncing formal ties with the vatican, thus finalizing a strategic part- nership that u.s. presidents had sought since the s, but which had previously been anathema to much of the american populace. catholic relief services and many other religious service organ- izations did eventually receive state contracts from an agency created during the kennedy administration. that agency was the united states agency for international development (usaid), established in to counter communist influences abroad by furthering “america’s foreign policy interests in expanding democracy and free markets.” usaid increasingly partnered with catholic and evangelical organizations after president george w. bush issued a executive order allowing religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core it to do so. (this executive order expanded the government’s ability to contract with religious organizations as per s “charitable choice” legislation.) it is not insignificant that the full public inclusion of catholic service organizations in the u.s. government’s domestic and overseas operations has occurred not during the fight against godless communism, but as u.s. officials increasingly focus on a new religious enemy: so-called radical muslims. conclusion will community service projects allow muslim americans to demonstrate their patriotism to a largely skeptical public? it is impossible to know for sure. the civil rights movement, affirmative action legisla- tion, and increased immigration after have indisputably changed the social and demographic profile of the nation since kennedy’s presi- dency, giving rise to strands of liberal multiculturalism and pluralism, to greater awareness and acceptance of religious diversity, and to an expanded understanding of who counts as “american”—all of which bodes well for american muslims. these transformations also stoked reactionary backlash, however. moreover, as i discuss elsewhere, the social gains some catholics and jews have made in the decades since have come as much from the efforts of conservative white catholics and jews to distance themselves from nonwhite groups and from the specter of foreign influence (european and latin american communism) as from the expansion of liberal multiculturalism. meanwhile, muslim americans have struggled to have their service recognized since world war ii, proving that such endeavors do not guarantee inevitable or irrevocable inclusion. in the s, muslim american servicemen of arab descent, disillusioned by the anti-islamic prejudice they encountered during world war ii, successfully lobbied the eisenhower administration to create military id tags (“dog tags”) stamped with a crescent to recognize muslim service members. some of the same individuals also served as liaisons between the white house and gamal abdel nasser in egypt. two decades later, several nationally prominent politicians lauded elijah muhammad (leader of the nation of islam—a previously disparaged religious group), for encouraging the individual ethics and community service that helped transform inner- city neighborhoods across the nation. then, during the first gulf war in the s, elijah muhammad’s son, w. d. mohammed (who assumed leadership of his father’s organization in ), traveled to saudi arabia to assure arab muslims of the united states’ benign intentions. addi- tionally, he contracted with the military to provide meals-ready-to-eat for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core (mres) for use in that conflict. as during previous military campaigns, political elites embraced and lauded the efforts of these religious minori- ties. the white house and state department both began holding iftars (celebrations at the end of daily fasting during the muslim holy month of ramadan) in the s and, for the first time, an imam was invited to deliver prayers on the floor of congress. despite their services, however—and due as much to u.s. military campaigns in the middle east over the last fifty years as to the tragic events of / —muslim americans continually find themselves depicted as alien to america and pressed, by political leaders and by the non-muslim general public, to demonstrate their loyalties and ethics. shortly after taking office in , president obama established the white house office of faith-based and neighborhood partnerships to replace george w. bush’s office of faith based and community ini- tiatives (ofbci), which bush established in to facilitate his policy of “compassionate conservatism” (accomplishing social good by replac- ing “government bureaucracy” with “neighbors serving neighbors”). in modifying the office, obama added a new advisory board to which he appointed eboo patel—the muslim american founder of the inter- faith youth core (formerly, interfaith youth corps ) community service organization. six months later, in june of , obama announced the creation of united we serve—an agency designed to “make volunteerism and community service part of the daily lives of all americans in order to help build a new foundation, one communi- ty at a time.” unveiling this national service initiative in the wake of the largest economic contraction since the great depression, obama emphasized the need for volunteer labor to turn the nation’s fiscal tide. “economic recovery is as much about what you’re doing in your communities as what we’re doing in washington,” he explained, “and it’s going to take all of us, working together." one can almost hear the echoes of raymond fosdick and president wilson’s other cabinet mem- bers who seized upon the wartime services religious minorities offered as a means of accomplishing their foreign and domestic aims and of forging a common moral culture across difference. following the president’s lead in , isna leaders encour- aged muslim americans to participate in the first ever national day of service (designated for september of each year—the anniversary of the terrorist attacks on the world trade center and pentagon). the following year, , fifteen muslim american leaders and organ- izations (including the three largest north american organizations: isna; the islamic circle of north america, or icna; and the council on american islamic relations, or cair) encouraged muslims across the united states to join the effort under the banner of “muslimserve” religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core and to use the obama administration’s website (serve.gov) to search for projects in their areas. the goal, according to their “call to action” in (the year of the “ground zero mosque” controversy and of isna’s “nurturing compassionate communities: connecting faith and service” conference), was “to turn the tide of hatred” and “dem- onstrate our core islamic values and our dedication to our neighbor- hoods and our country.” like the jewish welfare board, which argued in for the importance of their service efforts, muslim americans are well aware that they are under scrutiny and even suspi- cion. “all eyes will be on us this eid and on / ” the call to action read. “let’s show that we can rise above prejudice and hatred and be the kind of conscientious citizens who give back to our country.” the impact of muslim american community service endeavors on non-muslim public opinion remains to be seen. as of the summer of , americans regarded muslims less warmly than any other religious minority, according to polls conducted by the pew research religion and public life project. while muslim americans seem undaunted by such polls and may even be inspired to engage in more service because of them, other challenges have proved far more difficult to surmount. in february , three young muslim americans devoted to community service were executed by a white neighbor in their north carolina apart- ment complex. speaking after the funeral to a reporter, one local woman expressed her disillusionment and fear. muslims were told that they would be safe in america after / if they had “exemplary character” and performed community service acts, she said. the murders of such ideal american muslim citizens had shredded these hopes for her. “to see that it happened to them means it can happen to anyone.” while such increased service has failed so far to guarantee the acceptance or even the safety of muslim americans, it has indisputably helped further the goals of the most recent republican and democratic presidential administrations: shrinking the size of government and effecting economic recovery, respectively. this is particularly the case as the u.s. government has cut the amount of federal funding going to ser- vice activities since , thereby placing more of the financial burden of caring for disenfranchised and dispossessed citizens directly on other citizens. muslim americans trying to follow catholics, jews, and other religious minorities in gaining acceptance through service may, like those other groups, find themselves faced with a struggle—financial, physical, ethical, and political—to avoid co-optation from the govern- ment as they try to meet the needs of their own communities and make their case for national inclusion. local community service has become a primary way for muslim americans to live out their religious commitments for other reasons, as for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core well. for example, many fulfilled religious duties by giving to interna- tional charitable organizations in the past, but legislation passed in the wake of the terrorist attacks has made this much more difficult and even dangerous. while only a handful of muslim charitable organiza- tions (mostly those operating in the hamas-controlled region of gaza, where engaging hamas is required to deliver aid) have been convicted of aiding “terrorist groups,” muslim americans fear giving to any chari- ty that the u.s. government may one day decide to criminalize and pros- ecute. intentionally or not, the effect of such legislation and fears has been to reduce the flow of money and voluntary labor going to interna- tional muslim communities and increase the amount of both going to aid u.s. communities in distress. the greatest obstacle to the broad acceptance of muslims in the united states is not their supposed lack of moderation or lack of service to community. rather, it is the continued specter of islamic ter- rorism stoked by politicians such as the contenders for the repub- lican presidential nomination and the attention given to militant groups such as isis (the islamic state in iraq and syria)—an organiza- tion whose leaders met while imprisoned in a u.s. detention center in iraq and who formed a violent militia bent on ridding the area of u.s. influence and establishing what they believe is a proper islamic nation. isis has engaged in a concerted effort to inspire disaffected young muslim americans to support them by joining their fight in the middle east or, short of that, by launching terror attacks at home. while the prospect of such attacks unnerves most americans—none more than muslim parents, who worry about predatory attempts to recruit their children online—new america, a washington research center, confirmed in what department of homeland security ana- lysts found in : that the greatest threat of violence in the united states comes not from radicalized muslims, but from the white suprema- cists and right-wing, antigovernment domestic militias who have killed nearly twice as many people as would-be jihadists since / . terrorism has never been the province of muslims, alone. since the iranian hostage crisis of the late s, however, american media have focused much more on so-called islamic terrorism than on the acts of terrorism, foreign and domestic, sponsored or committed by white americans. as long as media outlets and politicians gain view- ers and votes by stoking fears of islam, muslim americans will contin- ue to face obstacles to acceptance, regardless of how much community service they perform. importantly, the answer for those who want to prove their national loyalties through community service endeavors is not to refrain from assisting one’s neighbors or bettering one’s local or religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core national community. many devout muslims (such as those who cre- ated the muslimserve website and who firmly insist, with reference to qur’anic passages, that god has called them to perform such acts of benevolence) would be reluctant to stop engaging in acts of service even if these activities came at a more direct cost to them. but muslim americans who do participate in such service efforts—particularly those involved in federal or other government programs—should recognize that, in addition to proving that muslims are as patriotic and as concerned about the common good as anyone else, such actions can have other, less desirable ramifications. if community service renders some muslims—those who are most economically able to engage in it—more acceptable and more american than others, that will replicate power dynamics at work decades earlier, when marginalized catholics and jews gained provi- sional acceptance by taking up the physical (and, often, financial) burden of providing community services to those disenfranchised and dispossessed by america’s unequal laws and institutions. repli- cating these dynamics would mean confirming to many dominant americans their pre-existing ideas about the inherent pathology or inferiority of those whose skins seem darker, whose traditions seem different, or whose economic situations seem like natural consequen- ces of their ostensible abilities rather than the result, centuries in the making, of racist policies and individual prejudice. what muslim americans can do, instead—and what they are increasingly doing—is to partner with people whose races, ethnicities, and socio-economic backgrounds are different from their own, and to deliberate jointly (which will sometimes mean awkwardly and painfully) over the best ways to improve their communities, both through service and through demands for justice for those neglected or oppressed. doing so in- volves not just acts of benevolence or charity, but acts of solidarity stemming from the recognition that the fates of all racial, religious, and socio-economic groups—particularly marginalized ones—in the united states are fundamentally connected. notes . isna annual convention program, “generation rise: elevating muslim american culture,” (http://webcache.googleusercon- tent.com/search?q=cache:mkwr bej cej: www.isna.net/uploads/ / / / / / _convention_program_ _web.pdf+&cd= &hl=en&ct= clnk&gl=us&client=firefox-a, accessed november , ). compare with page of the isna development foundation’s “sponsorship for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core package” pamphlet for potential corporate donors (http://www.isna.net/ uploads/ / / / / /sponsorship_booklet_csrl_ .pdf, accessed august , ). . the events of / challenged the common assumption that muslim immigrants will follow the same route to acceptance as earlier catholic and jewish immigrants, as yvonne yazbeck haddad, jane i. smith, and john l. esposito note in their “introduction: becoming american—religion, identity, and institution building in the american mosaic,” in religion and immigration: christian, jewish, and muslim expe- riences in the united states, ed. haddad, smith, and esposito, (walnut creek, calif.: altamira press, ), . as this article makes clear, how- ever, / did not dispel that hope. . feisal abdul rauf, what’s right with islam: a new vision for muslims and the west (san francisco: harpersanfrancisco, ). i discuss rauf’s work and the islamic center controversy in greater detail in rose- mary r. corbett making moderate islam: sufism, service, and the “ground zero mosque” controversy (palo alto: stanford university press, ). . see, for example, deborah dash moore, “jewish gis and the creation of the judeo-christian tradition,” religion and american culture (december ): – ; j. f. wilson and d. l. drakeman, church and state in american history (boulder: westview press, ); and j. t. todd, “the temple of religion and the politics of religious pluralism: judeo-christian america at the – new york world’s fair,” in after pluralism: reim- agining religious engagement, ed. courtney bender and pamela e. klassen (new york: columbia university press, ), – . . james p. pfiffner, “government legitimacy and the role of the civil service,” in the future of merit: twenty years after the civil service reform act, ed. james p. pfiffner and douglas a. brooks (washington, d.c.: woodrow wilson center press, ), – ; j. edward kellough, understanding affirmative action: politics, discrimination, and the search for justice (washington, d.c.: georgetown university press, ), – ; and eric s. yellin, racism in the nation’s service: government workers and the color line in woodrow wilson’s america (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ). . although the rockefeller foundation sought a federal charter at the beginning of the twentieth century, it was ultimately forced to accept state accreditation due to a hostile climate in congress during the anti- trust suit. ron chernow, titan: the life of john d. rockefeller, sr. (new york: vintage books, ), – , – ; quote on . on the rise of religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core “scientific” philanthropy and private foundations, see also judith sealander, “curing evils at their source: the arrival of scientific giving,” in charity, philanthropy, and civility in american history, ed. lawrence friedman and mark mcgarvie (cambridge: cambridge university press, ), – . . several historians have documented dominant american lib- eral protestant understandings of progress and emphasis on assimilation. especially instructive here are tisa wenger, we have a religion: the s pueblo indian dance controversy and american religious freedom (chapel hill: university of north carolina press, ); sarah gaultiere, between arab and white: race and ethnicity in the early syrian american diaspora (berkeley: university of california press, ); eric l. goldstein, the price of whiteness: jews, race, and american identity (princeton: princeton univer- sity press, ); and the essays in henry goldschmidt and elizabeth mcalister, eds., race, nation, and religion in the americas (new york: oxford university press, ). . josiah strong, our country: its possible future and its present crisis (new york: american home missionary society, ), – . an anonymous writer for the new york times reported on strong’s creation of the league for social service (“league for social service”) on january , . . mary rankin cranston, “what is the american institute of social service,” new york times (may , ). crucially, for strong and his social gospel colleagues, such betterment required reforming the lives and habits of both donors and recipients. . joshua a. krisch, “when racism was a science: ‘haunted files: the eugenics records office’ recreates a dark time in a labora- tory’s past,” new york times, october , . . edward e. curtis, muslims in america: a short history (new york: oxford university press, ), – . . ibid., – . . in fact, with a few notable exceptions like khan, muslims affiliated with mutual-aid societies generally did not appreciate the stakes of claiming that their religious traditions supported service to humanity and common ethnics. most grouped together under ethnic or nationalist terms, rather than in religious ones (curtis, muslims in america, – ). a few exceptions to this trend may be found in barbara blige, “voluntary associations in the old turkish muslim community of metropolitan for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core detroit,” in muslim communities in north america, ed. yvonne yazbeck haddad and jane idleman smith (abany: suny press, ), – . . michael barnett, empire of humanity: a history of humanitari- anism (ithaca: cornell university press, ), – . . allan w. austin, quaker brotherhood: interracial activism and the american friends service committee, – (champaign: university of illinois press, ), – . . nancy k. bristow, making men moral: social engineering dur- ing the great war (new york: new york university press, ), . see also weldon b. durham, “commission on training camp activities,” in the united states in the first world war: an encyclopedia, ed. anne cipriano venzon (new york: garland publications, ), – . . bristow, making men moral, – . . on the knights of columbus, see durham, “commission on training camp activities,” . information regarding the national catholic war council can be found on the catholic university of america archives’ website under “national catholic community service” (http:// archives.lib.cua.edu/findingaid/nccs.cfm, accessed january , ) and in jay p. dolan, the american catholic experience: a history from colonial times to the present (notre dame, ind.: the university of notre dame press, ), . . museum of family history, “we supported our troops: the jewish welfare board” (available at http://www.museumoffamilyhistory. com/wsot-jwb.htm; accessed january , ). . kerry m. olitzky, “jewish welfare board” in the united states in the first world war, ed. anne c. venzon (london: routeledge, ), . . durham, “commission on training camp activities,” . after the conflict, the jwb effectively took over the work of the young men’s hebrew association. the organization is now known as the jewish community center association (olitzky, “jewish welfare board,” ). . quoted in joan faraone, “the evolution of the secretariat of hispanic affairs of nccb/usccb and its contribution to catechesis for hispanics/latinos in the united states” (ph.d. diss., catholic university of america, washington, d.c., ), . religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . editorial, “community service,” new york times (june , ). after world war i, the army assumed nominal control of the organization, simplifying its name to “community service” and folding it into the army’s offices for education and recreation (bristow, making men moral, ). . ira katznelson, when affirmative action was white: the untold history of racial inequality in twentieth-century america (new york: w.w. norton, ), – . . alice kessler-harris, in pursuit of equity: women, men, and the quest for economic citizenship in twentieth-century america (new york: oxford university press, ), . . curtis, muslims in america, – . . william h. young and nancy k. young, world war ii and the postwar years in america: a historical and cultural encyclopedia, vol. (santa barbara: abc-clio publishing, ), – . . on anticommunism and antisecularism as the animating impulse of interreligious coalition building during this time, see k. healan gaston, “demarcating democracy: liberal catholics, protestants, and the dis- course of secularism,” in american religious liberalism, ed. leigh e. schmidt and sally promey (bloomington: indiana university press, ), – . . quoted in rockefeller’s biography on the rockefeller archive center website, “john d. rockefeller, junior, – ” (avail- able at http://www.rockarch.org/bio/jdrjr.php, accessed july , ). . quoted in jeremi suri, henry kissinger and the american cen- tury (cambridge: harvard university press, ), . . ibid., . . dash moore, “jewish gis,” – ; suri, henry kissinger and the american century, – . . suri, henry kissinger and the american century, . . as laura levitt has demonstrated, such framings often pro- vide less room for diversity than they seem and accommodate jewish americans only insofar as they remain religious, leaving secular jews at the limits of liberal protestant-secular inclusion. see levitt, “impossible assimilations, american liberalism, and jewish difference: revisiting jewish secularism,” american quarterly (september ), – . for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . keith olson, “the g.i. bill and higher education: success and surprise,” american quarterly (december ), – . see also suzanne mettler, soldiers to citizens: the g.i. bill and the making of the greatest generation (new york: oxford university press, ); jennifer keane, doughboys, the great war, and the remaking of america (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, ); and on failures of the g.i. bill, ira katznelson, when affirmative action was white (new york: w.w. norton), . . on the world war ii refugee crisis and proliferation of humani- tarian aid agencies, see craig c. calhoun, “the imperative to reduce suffer- ing: charity, progress, and emergencies in the field of humanitarian action,” in humanitarianism in question: politics, power, ethics, ed. michael barnett and thomas g. weiss (ithaca: cornell university press, ), – . for the u.s. government’s role in encouraging—and funding—religious voluntary organ- izations to provide services, see rachel m. mccleary, global compassion: private voluntary organizations and u.s. foreign policy since (new york: oxford university press, ), and david c. hammack, “failure and resil- ience: pushing the limits in depression and wartime,” in friedman and mcgarvie, charity, philanthropy, and civility in american history, – . . mennonite church usa historical committee and archives, “a century of ministry: mennonite church programs in context” (http:// www.mcusa-archives.org/features/centryofmin-narrative.htm, accessed february , .) . joan neal, “transformation from relief to a justice and soli- darity focus,” in the pulse of humanitarian assistance, ed. kevin m. cahill (new york: fordham university press and the center for international humanitarian cooperation, ), – . . all quotes of this speech are from the john f. kennedy pres- idential library and museum transcript, “address of senator john f. kennedy to the greater houston ministerial association, september , ” (http://www.jfklibrary.org/assetviewer/all yebjmekygmcntn scvg.aspx, accessed october , ). as thomas j. carty discusses, kennedy had supported funding for catholic schools while serving as a u.s. representative from a heavily catholic massachusetts district, but reversed course when seeking a national constituency and anti-catholic lobbyists and protestant liberals quickly opposed him. see carty, “protestant-catholic conflict in the united states: the cases of john f. kennedy and ronald w. reagan,” in protestant-catholic conflict from the reformation to the twenty-first century: the dynamics of religious difference, ed. john wolffe (new york: palgrave macmillan, ), – . religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . on the school wars and protestant appeals to secularism, see tracy fessenden, culture and redemption: religion, the secular, and american literature (princeton: princeton university press, ), – . . john f. kennedy presidential library and museum tran- script of john f. kennedy, “inaugural address, january ” (http://www.jfklibrary.org/assetviewer/bqxiem f ntfl svaja.aspx, accessed october , ). . kennedy had proposed an updated version of new deal projects—a “youth conservation corps,” as he called it—as early as . see “remarks of senator john f. kennedy, lewisburg-white sulphur springs, west virginia, may , ,” in “john f. kennedy speeches” at the jfk presidential library and museum (http://www.jfklibrary.org/ research/research-aids/jfk-speeches/lewisburg-wv_ .aspx, accessed october , ). . david allen, “religion and politics in the kennedy era, – ” (m.phil. thesis, university of cambridge, june ), – , . . “speech of senator john f. kennedy, cow palace, san francisco, november ,” (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid= #axzz v qqm s and quoted in ibid., – ). . hoffman, all you need is love, – (quoted in allen, “reli- gion and politics in the kennedy era,” ). . allen, “religion and politics in the kennedy era,” . despite kennedy’s campaign assurances, the issue of public funding for catholic schools again incited fierce debate during his first months in office. . ibid., . john wicklein, “peace corps ties stir church issue,” new york times (june , ), – . . memorandum of conversation, july , , office of the director, peace corps, box (quoted in allen, “religion and politics in the kennedy era,” – ; on rusk and moyers, see allen – ). . wicklein, “peace corps,” ; allen, “religion and politics in the kennedy era,” – . on the attitudes of nae officials toward kennedy, see carty, “protestant-catholic conflict,” . . allen, “religion and politics in the kennedy era,” – . for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . ibid., – . . john wicklein, “church council sets up office for liaison with peace corps,” new york times (january , ), (emphasis added). . on evangelicals monitoring the peace corps, see allen, “re- ligion and politics in the kennedy era,” . on the institutional power and social positions of catholics who, by the s, were more likely than white protestants to go to college and enjoyed slightly higher wages after- ward, see kevin m. schultz, tri-faith america: how catholics and jews held postwar america to its protestant promise (new york: oxford university press, ), . . citing multiple studies, carty demonstrates that the kennedy presidency coincided with an unprecedented level of catholic american participation in philanthropy and civic engagement (“protestant-catholic conflict,” ), and that service in the peace corps was a primary way that catholics sought to demonstrate their commitments. . for some of the unique issues facing jewish philanthropic and service organizations, see shaul kelner, “religious ambivalence in jewish american philanthropy,” in religion in philanthropic organizations: family, friend, foe? ed. thomas j. davis (bloomington: indiana university, ), – . . the christian century quote comes from schultz, tri-faith america, . see schultz, also, on the activities of american jewish organ- izations that favored secularism as a means of protecting their specific interests and traditions. . quoted in schultz, tri-faith america, . . ibid., – . . see carty, “protestant-catholic conflict,” , and william inboden, religion and american foreign policy, i – : the soul of con- tainment (new york: cambridge university press, ). . from the usaid website under “usaid history” (accessed august , , http://www.usaid.gov/who-we-are/usaid-history). crs and two evangelical organizations, (world vision and samaritan’s purse) have received far more usaid funding than any other religiously affiliated organization over the course of the agency’s history, although— until the passage of charitable choice legislation in the s that allowed religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core religious organizations to deliver services formerly provided by the state (legislation first passed as part of welfare reform)—this sometimes required creative solutions to objections raised by congress and members of the public. in , for example, world vision administrators estab- lished an ostensibly nonconfessional branch of operations called world vision relief organization, which began contracting with usaid almost immediately. crs and other organizations did likewise and quickly re- gained some of the federal funding they had enjoyed prior to the peace corps controversy. see david p. king, “heartbroken for god’s world: the story of bob pierce, founder of world vision and samaritan’s purse,” in davis, religion in philanthropic organizations, – . see also david m. ackerman and vee burke, charitable choice: background and issues (huntington, n.y.: novinka books, ). . on the effects of charitable choice legislation, see sheila s. kennedy, “religious philanthropies and government social programs,” in davis, religion in philanthropic organizations, – . . on usaid’s contracts with religious organizations since , see liora danan, mixed blessings: u.s. government engagement with religion in conflict-prone settings (washington, d.c.: center for strategic and international studies, ), – . . see corbett, making moderate islam. on muslim americans and the limits of liberal multiculturalism, see rosemary r. hicks, “between lived and the law: power, empire, and expansion in studies of american religions,” religion (july ): – . . events noted in this paragraph are discussed in more detail in kambiz ghaneabassiri, a history of islam in america: from the new world to the new world order (new york: cambridge university press, ), – , and in corbett, making moderate islam. . on the relationship between u.s. foreign interests and domes- tic depictions of muslims, see melani mcalister, epic encounters: culture, media, and u.s. interests in the middle east since (berkeley: university of california press, ). . bush clarified his aims in establishing the ofbci at a event celebrating the office. see white house office of the press secretary, “president bush attends office of faith-based and community initiatives’ national conference” (june , ; available at http://georgewbush- whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/ / / – .html; ac- cessed november , ). for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . eboo patel, acts of faith: the story of an american muslim in the struggle for the soul of a generation (boston: beacon press, ): . . white house office of the press secretary, “obama announ- ces white house office of faith-based and neighborhood partnerships,” (feb , ; available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/ obama-announces-white-house-office-faith-based-and-neighborhood- partnerships, accessed november , ). . white house office of the press secretary, “president obama unveils ‘united we serve,’ calls on all americans to commit to meaning- ful volunteer service in their daily lives” (june , ; available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/president-obama-unveils- united-we-serve-calls-on-all-americans-to-commit-to-meaningful- volunteer-service-in-their-daily-lives, accessed august , ). . islamic society of north america, “isna newsletter” (august , ). . all quotes from muslimserve, “a call to action: join muslim- serve national campaign for service and understanding on / ” (posted on the icna website and available at http://www.icna.org/wp-content/ uploads/ / /muslimsservecalltoaction .pdf; accessed november , ). . pew research center religion and public life project, “how americans feel about religious groups” (july , ; available at http://www.pewforum.org/ / / /how-americans-feel-about- religious-groups/, accessed november , ). . jonathan m. katz, “funeral for muslims killed in chapel hill draws thousands,” new york times, february , . . see shariq a. siddiqui, “myth vs. reality: muslim american philanthropy since / ,” in davis, religion in philanthropic organizations, – , and kathryn ruff, “scared to donate: an examination of the effects of designating muslim charities as terrorist organizations on the first amendment rights of muslim donors,” new york university journal of legislation and public policy (march ): – . . malise ruthven, “inside the islamic state,” new york review of books, july , , – . . scott shane, “homegrown extremists tied to deadlier toll than jihadists in u.s. since / ,” new york times, june , . religion and american culture terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core . mcalister, epic encounters, – . . in february of , for example, isna leaders launched a “striving for justice” conference tour. the first stop was ferguson, missouri, where arab american social justice activist linda sarsour joined imam siraj wahhaj to discuss, among other things, “creating a just society,” “mercy as a tool for uniting communities,” and the “role of masjid is promoting so- cial justice.” the event ended with a “community service recognition award ceremony” during which wahhaj—the keynote speaker—addressed the issue of creating “social justice for community at large.” event informa- tion on isna’s website (accessed february , ) at http://www.isna. net/uploads/ / / / / /isnastltentativeprogram.pdf. abstract this article examines how religious minorities (specifically, marginalized protestants, catholics, jews, and muslims) have participated in government-affiliated service programs as part of attempts to assert claims to faith in a common god, observance of common ethics, and belonging in a common body politic. historians have described world war ii as—thanks to the interreligious military—a time of enshrining “judeo-christian” narratives in culture, legislation, and politics, and of allowing jews greater access to these arenas than they had experienced previously. while military service is also important here, my primary sub- ject is the service religious groups initially offered as a compliment to mili- tary activity but then expanded and generalized—often under govern- ment commission—into community care work that relieved the state of the economic burden of supplying certain citizenship benefits or that gave international endeavors a friendlier face. marginalized white protestants were the first to offer such services, but other minoritized religious groups followed their example, patriotically echoing military themes throughout the twentieth century when creating “service” organizations and volunteer “corps.” while many contemporary muslim american leaders believe that community service engagements will help muslims overcome discrimina- tion by demonstrating that they also make vital contributions to the u.s., several current factors call that possibility into question—not least of which is the history of only partial acceptance earlier religious minorities enjoyed as a result of their efforts. keywords: community service, religion, muslim american, peace corps, united service organization (uso) for god and country terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge core https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /rac. . . . https://www.cambridge.org/core << /ascii encodepages false /allowtransparency false /autopositionepsfiles true /autorotatepages /none /binding /left /calgrayprofile () /calrgbprofile (adobe rgb \ \ ) /calcmykprofile (none) /srgbprofile (srgb iec - . ) /cannotembedfontpolicy /error /compatibilitylevel . /compressobjects /off /compresspages true /convertimagestoindexed true /passthroughjpegimages true /createjobticket false /defaultrenderingintent /default /detectblends true /detectcurves . /colorconversionstrategy /leavecolorunchanged /dothumbnails false /embedallfonts true /embedopentype false /parseiccprofilesincomments true /embedjoboptions true /dscreportinglevel /emitdscwarnings false /endpage - /imagememory /lockdistillerparams true /maxsubsetpct /optimize true /opm /parsedsccomments true /parsedsccommentsfordocinfo true /preservecopypage false /preservedicmykvalues true /preserveepsinfo true /preserveflatness true /preservehalftoneinfo false /preserveopicomments false /preserveoverprintsettings true /startpage /subsetfonts true /transferfunctioninfo /apply /ucrandbginfo /remove /useprologue false /colorsettingsfile () /alwaysembed [ true ] /neverembed [ true ] /antialiascolorimages false /cropcolorimages true /colorimageminresolution /colorimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplecolorimages true /colorimagedownsampletype /bicubic /colorimageresolution /colorimagedepth - /colorimagemindownsampledepth /colorimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodecolorimages true /colorimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltercolorimages false /colorimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /coloracsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /colorimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg coloracsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg colorimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasgrayimages false /cropgrayimages true /grayimageminresolution /grayimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplegrayimages true /grayimagedownsampletype /bicubic /grayimageresolution /grayimagedepth - /grayimagemindownsampledepth /grayimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodegrayimages true /grayimagefilter /dctencode /autofiltergrayimages false /grayimageautofilterstrategy /jpeg /grayacsimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /grayimagedict << /qfactor . /hsamples [ ] /vsamples [ ] >> /jpeg grayacsimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /jpeg grayimagedict << /tilewidth /tileheight /quality >> /antialiasmonoimages false /cropmonoimages true /monoimageminresolution /monoimageminresolutionpolicy /warning /downsamplemonoimages true /monoimagedownsampletype /bicubic /monoimageresolution /monoimagedepth - /monoimagedownsamplethreshold . /encodemonoimages true /monoimagefilter /ccittfaxencode /monoimagedict << /k - >> /allowpsxobjects false /checkcompliance [ /none ] /pdfx acheck true /pdfx check false /pdfxcompliantpdfonly true /pdfxnotrimboxerror true /pdfxtrimboxtomediaboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxsetbleedboxtomediabox true /pdfxbleedboxtotrimboxoffset [ . . . . ] /pdfxoutputintentprofile (none) /pdfxoutputconditionidentifier () /pdfxoutputcondition () /pdfxregistryname () /pdfxtrapped /false /createjdffile false /description << /chs <feff f f fd e b bbe b a b efa f b f d a c fd f e e a e e e a fe f bb ea c b a f c e e b efa b f d c be ec fe fff c bf c a f b a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b efa > /cht <feff f f e b a d f e efa acb f ef b f d a f bc f c f ba f bb ea db c c b a a e dc bc efa acb b f d f bc ef a d cc a aff c acb c b c f f f d a ef ee f f f c f e ee ca f ad c f b f df efa acb ef > /dan <feff e c c e e c f f d f b d e c f b c e e d c c b c f f c f d a c e f d e c b c e b e f c e c f c e e f d f c f d d b f d c d f b d e e e e f e c f e f d f b d e b e e e f c c f e f e e> /deu <feff e e e c c e e a d c c e f e f d a d b f d c e f d f b d e e e f d e f d e f d fc e f e e e c e e e f d f e e a d c c e f e f d d b f d c e d f b d e e e e d f d e e c c d f b d e b f e e e d f e f e f f f e e e> /esp <feff c f e f e f d e f f e f d f f e d c c e f d f f d a e d f f e e f e f e f e d e e f d f e f c f e f d e f f d c f e c e f d f d c f e c c ed c f f e e f d e f f f e f c f e f e f f e> /fra <feff c a f f e e e f d e f f e ea e e f ea f e f d e c e f d f d a c e e f d f e e f e e e f c e c c e f e f d e f e f d e c e f d f d c f c c c f e c f d e e e e ea f e f c e f e f e c e e> /ita (utilizzare queste impostazioni per creare documenti adobe pdf che devono essere conformi o verificati in base a pdf/x- a: , uno standard iso per lo scambio di contenuto grafico. per ulteriori informazioni sulla creazione di documenti pdf compatibili con pdf/x- a, consultare la guida dell'utente di acrobat. i documenti pdf creati possono essere aperti con acrobat e adobe reader . e versioni successive.) /jpn <feff b e d a c af b f c f c e db b bfe b f a e f c e f d a b e e f f f f c b f b f f e f d e e e f f c b f f e fc b ac a c c f e a d b a f c c f d a a eb f f a f e ee d b f c d e > /kor <feffc c c c c acc a d c ec c c d b f bb c cb d c c d c d ba adf b d d cee d d b b c ad d d b bc bc c d b d c f d cc c f d a c addcaca c d b dec c c d b c b e e f d d d bb c c c c c d b d c c c d c c bcf b f c acc a c ba c cb c cc c d c edc dcc e c b ac c c c b c bb c cb f bc f f e c c c c d c c c f c c c b b c b e e> /nld (gebruik deze instellingen om adobe pdf-documenten te maken die moeten worden gecontroleerd of moeten voldoen aan pdf/x- a: , een iso-standaard voor het uitwisselen van grafische gegevens. raadpleeg de gebruikershandleiding van acrobat voor meer informatie over het maken van pdf-documenten die compatibel zijn met pdf/x- a. de gemaakte pdf-documenten kunnen worden geopend met acrobat en adobe reader . en hoger.) /nor <feff b e e c c e e c e f f d f b d e f d b c b f e f c c c c c f d d e e b f d c d f d a c e f d e f b c e b e e f c e c d e f d a f e f d f e f f d d b f d c d f b d e c b e e f b e f f e d f b d e e b e e e f c c f e c c e e> /ptb <feff c a f e e f f d f d e f f a d f f d d f e f d f d f f d a c d e f f f e e d f f e fa f e f e f d e f d e f f f d f f d e f f d ed f d f f d c f e c f f e f f f e f f d e f f f d f f d f f f f e f f f e> /suo <feff b e e e e e b c b e c f f d f b d e a c a f b b e a f e e e f f d a a e c f d e e e c c f e e d e e e c e f a f d d e f e d f b d e e c f d f e f e b e f f e c f d f b d e f e f c c a f e a c c a d d c c e> /sve <feff e e e e e e c c e e e f d c c b f d f b d e f d b b f e f c c c c f d d e d f f d a c e f d e f b e e e c c e d e f d f e f d d e b f d d b f d c d f b d e e e e e e e f b e c c f e b d f b d e b e f e f f f e f e e> /enu (use these settings to create adobe pdf documents for submission to the sheridan press. configured for adobe acrobat distiller v . - - .) >> /namespace [ (adobe) (common) ( . ) ] /othernamespaces [ << /asreaderspreads false /cropimagestoframes true /errorcontrol /warnandcontinue /flattenerignorespreadoverrides false /includeguidesgrids false /includenonprinting false /includeslug false /namespace [ (adobe) (indesign) ( . ) ] /omitplacedbitmaps false /omitplacedeps false /omitplacedpdf false /simulateoverprint /legacy >> << /addbleedmarks false /addcolorbars false /addcropmarks false /addpageinfo false /addregmarks false /convertcolors /converttocmyk /destinationprofilename () /destinationprofileselector /documentcmyk /downsample bitimages true /flattenerpreset << /presetselector /highresolution >> /formelements false /generatestructure false /includebookmarks false /includehyperlinks false /includeinteractive false /includelayers false /includeprofiles false /multimediahandling /useobjectsettings /namespace [ (adobe) (creativesuite) ( . ) ] /pdfxoutputintentprofileselector /documentcmyk /preserveediting true /untaggedcmykhandling /leaveuntagged /untaggedrgbhandling /usedocumentprofile /usedocumentbleed false >> ] >> setdistillerparams << /hwresolution [ ] /pagesize [ . . ] >> setpagedevice the struggle for an orthodox church: calvinists and anabaptists in east friesland - | semantic scholar skip to search formskip to main content> semantic scholar's logo search sign increate free account you are currently offline. some features of the site may not work correctly. 	doi: . /bjrl. . . corpus id: the struggle for an orthodox church: calvinists and anabaptists in east friesland - @article{pettegree thesf, title={the struggle for an orthodox church: calvinists and anabaptists in east friesland - }, author={a. pettegree}, journal={bulletin of the john rylands library}, year={ }, volume={ }, pages={ - } } 	a. pettegree 	published 	art 	bulletin of the john rylands library in march a protestant layman named adriaen de kuyper appeared in emden, in east friesland, and presented himself before the consistory (the weekly meeting of the ministers and elders) of the local reformed church. he came from breda, where since the previous year he had been part of a small secret evangelical community; indeed it was this congregation which had despatched him to emden, in order that he might be trained to act as their minister. but it was not for this purpose that kuyper… expand view via publisher escholar.manchester.ac.uk save to library create alert cite launch research feed share this paper citations view all one citation citation type citation type 	all types 	cites results 	cites methods 	cites background has pdf publication type author more filters more filters filters sort by most influenced papers sort by citation count sort by recency the convent of wesel: the event that never was and the invention of tradition 	jesse a. spohnholz 	philosophy 	 	 save alert research feed related papers 	abstract 	 citations 	related papers stay connected with semantic scholar sign up about semantic scholar semantic scholar is a free, ai-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the allen institute for ai. learn more → resources datasetssupp.aiapiopen corpus organization about usresearchpublishing partnersdata partners   faqcontact proudly built by ai with the help of our collaborators terms of service•privacy policy the allen institute for ai by clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our privacy policy, terms of service, and dataset license accept & continue transmigrant literature. translating, publishing, and printing in seventeenth-century frankfurt’s migrant circles | scholarly publications skip to main content leiden university scholarly publications 	home 	submit 	about 	 select collection all collections this collection academic speeches dissertations faculty of archaeology faculty of governance and global affairs faculty of humanities faculty of science faculty of social and behavioural sciences leiden journals, conference proceedings and books leiden law school leiden university press medicine / leiden university medical centre (lumc) research output ul search box persistent url of this record https://hdl.handle.net/ / documents 	 	download 	 transmigrant literature. 	 not applicable (or unknown) 	 open access 	 full text at publishers site in collections this item can be found in the following collections: 	institute for history 	 müller, j.m. ( ) 	 transmigrant literature. translating, publishing, and printing in seventeenth-century frankfurt’s migrant circles 	 article / letter to editor 	all authors 	müller, j.m. 	date 	 	journal 	 german studies review 	volume 	 	issue 	 	pages 	 - 	doi 	 doi: . /gsr. . © - leiden university 				a service provided by leiden university libraries 	contact 	about us 	recently added 	digital collections 	student repository _c .indd www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. objectives: to introduce historical and sociocultural influences on health and health care decisions that should be considered by pharmacists and other health professionals when serving amish patients and to describe the roles of pharmacists in working with amish populations, as an example of culturally and linguistically appropriate care. setting: community independent pharmacy in arthur, il, from to . practice description: reflections of a pharmacist–owner whose community prac- tice serves a sizeable amish population. case summary: the old order amish are a religious group that values health and actively participates in its health care decisions. the amish possess a strong sense of community responsibility and often seek advice of friends, family, and community in health care decisions. their explanatory models of health and illness differ, in some respects, from the larger american society. the amish are open to the use of folk medi- cine, complementary and alternative medicine, and conventional care when deemed nec- essary. they are receptive to health care information and explanations of options from trusted sources and use increased self-care modalities, including herbal remedies. results: knowledge of salient cultural differences is important, but care should be given to avoid stereotyping patients because amish rules and customs differ across dis- tricts. culturally competent pharmacist care should be individualized based on patient needs and in consideration of aspects of differences in amish cultures and districts. when serving amish patients, special consideration should be given to addressing poten- tial barriers to health care use, such as unique dialects, affordability issues for largely cash-paying customers, lower prenatal care use, and lower vaccination rates. conclusion: enhanced awareness and sensitivity to amish lifestyles and beliefs can lessen misconceptions and minimize barriers that interfere with optimal provision of patient-centered pharmacy care and services. by working through established com- munity norms, building trust, and effectively applying cultural competency techniques, pharmacists can best serve the amish communities. keywords: amish, community pharmacy, cultural competence, barriers, alternative medicine. pharmacy today. (dec); ( ): – . pharmacists’ considerations when serving amish patients stephanie y. crawford, aimée m. manuel, and bruce d. wood review © by the american pharmacists association • all rights reserved. • printed in u.s.a. stephanie y. crawford, phd, is associate professor and associate head, depart- ment of pharmacy administration, and aimée m. manuel is student pharmacist, college of pharmacy, university of illinois at chicago. bruce d. wood, bs, is pharma- cist–owner, dicks pharmacy, arthur, il. correspondence: stephanie y. crawford, phd, department of pharmacy adminis- tration, college of pharmacy, university of illinois at chicago, s. wood st. (mc ), chicago, il . fax: - - . e-mail: crawford@uic.edu continuing education credits: see learning objectives below and assess- ment questions at the end of this article, which is acpe universal program number - - - -h -p in apha’s edu- cational programs. the ce examination form is located at the end of this article. to take the ce test for this article online, go to www.pharmacist.com/educa- tion and follow the links to the apha ce center. disclosure: the authors declare no con- flicts of interest or financial interests in any product or service mentioned in this article, including grants, employment, gifts, stock holdings, or honoraria. acknowledgments: to theresa binion, executive director for the arthur-amish country visitor center, for reviewing background information pertaining to the amish residing in the arthur, il, area. funding: article development sup- ported in part by a grant from the project export center for excellence in rural health, the national center for rural health professions, the university of illi- nois college of medicine at rockford, and the national institutes of health national center on minority health and health disparities. the contents of this article are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the of- ficial views of the sponsors. published concurrently in pharmacy today and the journal of the american pharmacists association (available online at www.japha.org). abstract pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review a ccording to the american pharmacists association code of ethics for pharmacists, the primary obligation of a pharmacist is individual patient care, and service obli- gations sometimes extend beyond the individual to the com- munity and society. ethical guidelines also note the need for pharmacists to respect individual and cultural differences. cultural competence involves the ability of individuals and systems to deliver culturally and linguistically appropri- ate services, interventions, and care. , aspects of culture include race and ethnicity, gender, age, religion, socioeco- nomic status, geographic region, disability, sexual orienta- tion, and health beliefs, among others. cultural competency techniques (at the systems level), designed to reduce health disparities, have been described elsewhere – and are sum- marized in table . table provides brief descriptions of the applicability of the techniques to amish populations, which will be discussed in this article. the effective use of cultural competency techniques should result in ( ) greater knowl- edge of illness, disease, and treatments; ( ) improved com- munications; ( ) increased trust; and ( ) improved under- standing of patient beliefs and expectations. the amish require special considerations from health pro- fessionals because of unique aspects of their culture, which varies in different districts across the country. currently, a limited body of published information is available for health professionals treating the amish. a better understanding of amish perspectives on health and health care practices can help provide patient-centered care to this population. because of shortages of health professionals in many rural locations (including communities near amish settle- ments), necessary health care services may be unavailable or limited. dickinson et al. reported that % of amish respondents in a small wisconsin survey stated that they would use the services of a pharmacist, if one were avail- able. using reports in the literature and the experience of a pharmacist practitioner, the current article introduces his- torical and sociocultural influences on health care decisions that should be considered by pharmacists and other health care practitioners when serving the amish community and describes the role of the pharmacist in working with amish patients. although relatively few pharmacists will interact with amish patients on a routine basis outside of localized regions with heavy populations, this report aims to increase understanding of the community and to illustrate the appli- cability of general cultural competency recommendations to a specific subpopulation. at a glance synopsis: enhanced understanding of amish beliefs and culture can help pharmacists serving amish com- munities to minimize barriers that may interfere with optimal care. the reflections of a pharmacist–owner whose community practice serves a sizeable amish pop- ulation and observations from the literature are provided to inform pharmacists of special considerations when serving the amish. unique dialects, affordability issues for mainly cash-paying customers, lower prenatal care use, and lower vaccination rates may be potential barri- ers to health care use in this population. the amish use folk medicine, complementary and alternative medicine, and, when deemed necessary, conventional care. they are receptive to health care information and explana- tions of options from trusted sources and use increased self-care modalities, including herbal remedies. analysis: culturally competent pharmacy care should be individualized in consideration of aspects of differences in cultures and rules among amish dis- tricts. to effectively counsel patients on therapeutic use and safety and to check for potential drug interactions, pharmacists serving amish communities should strive to be nonjudgmental about folk care and knowledge- able of herbal remedies and vitamins. the amish may be receptive to vaccination outreach programs if the topic is openly discussed and individual concerns are addressed. outsiders to amish communities need to establish rela- tionships in order to be accepted, usually by first consult- ing and working with community church leaders through established local community structures. collaborative efforts then can be established with other health profes- sionals serving the amish community. learning objectives n list four potential outcomes of effective cultural competency techniques. n provide six examples of cultural competency techniques that are applicable to amish cultures. n state health beliefs and explanatory models of health and illness accepted in amish cultures. n differentiate the three sectors of the health care system that may be used by amish people. n name four reasons for lower vaccination rates among the amish. n identify examples of how pharmacists can help alleviate logistical, communication, and cost barriers to effective health care provision for amish patients. www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review table . summary of cultural competency techniques and applicability in serving amish patients cultural competency techniquesa applicability to amish populations language assistance services (interpreter services or bilingual providers) individuals may speak english and/or a blended english–german dialect (e.g., penn- sylvania dutch). language assistance services may be needed if patients have lim- ited english proficiency, although many amish community members are bilingual. recruitment, retention, and training of staff who reflect community diversity hire and train staff who are respectful of, sensitive to, and knowledgeable of patient health beliefs, practices, and illnesses. coordination of efforts with traditional healers consider possible patient use of alternative care and folk care providers (e.g., brauchers) and remedies. collaboration with community health workers attempt to work with district bishops and other church leaders through established local structures to disseminate information in the amish community; collaborate with other health professionals, as appropriate, in offering preventive and educa- tional services locally. use of appropriate health interventions develop and/or disseminate culturally and linguistically appropriate health promotion and education materials. inclusion of family and community members decisions about illness and health behaviors often emanate from discussions with family and community members; work with the patient and his or her support group (as appropriate and allowable). immersion into culture make staff available to patients in one-on-one interactive counseling sessions, invite amish community members to service functions, and learn about the culture and community. administrative and organizational accommodations establish accommodating service hours and on-call policies; consider pharmacy delivery service to amish community; create organizational climate of respect and cooperation. asources of competency techniques: references – . setting located in east-central illinois, the town of arthur has a popula- tion of approximately , , and its surrounding farmland area is settled by the largest concentration of amish people in the state. the community was founded by a small number of families in and is currently home to more than , individuals. the local amish have one church, but different amish church districts are located around arthur (personal communications, theresa binion, november ), spanning miles east and west and miles north and south of town. each district has its own set of rules (ordnung), which govern customs and practices. dicks pharmacy, a community independent pharmacy, is located in the town of arthur. two full-time equivalent (fte) pharma- cists (including the owner), one fte pharmacy technician, two fte clerks, and six part-time clerks are employed at the phar- macy. dicks pharmacy dispenses an average of prescriptions per day and is open from : am to : pm monday through saturday (closing : pm on saturdays). the original pharmacy was established in the s or s. bruce wood began working at the pharmacy in and became the pharmacist proprietor years later. wood has a notable his- tory of community and professional service and has engaged in civic activities for the greater arthur community, including serving as current president of the local chamber of commerce. approximately % to % of the patients and customers at his pharmacy are amish. based on years’ experience, his per- spectives and advice in serving the amish community are sum- marized and presented as a first-person account in the following section and, where possible, throughout the article as an adjunct to the literature. although one individual’s observations cannot be considered generalizable to the larger population, relevance and practical applicability are augmented by including a pharmacist practitioner’s reflections. wood’s introductory reflections on serving the amish “we have a typical, old-fashioned community pharmacy. cus- tomer service is what we stress the most. at dicks pharmacy, our experience with serving the amish has been pretty similar as with serving our other ‘english’ (as the amish refer to us) customers. the amish that live in our area are very concerned with their health and that of their children as well. one might note pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review that there seems to be a higher incidence of certain disease states in this group over others (for example, whooping cough). aside from vaccinations, we do see that the amish are quite active in receiving medical care. in arthur, many amish receive traditional (conventional) care; however, some do use the other methods of alternative care. “when seeking care, the amish do not necessarily need to go to the doctor’s office and often practice self-care. they call me a lot (sometimes early in the morning before the store opens), often asking, ‘do you have [medication or other treatment].’ they call to find out my recommendations for themselves or their families. they also call seeking advice for veterinary medications. on the farms, they have more use for veterinary preparations. “in the pharmacy, we counsel the amish the same way as the english. for all of our patients, we interact on a one-on-one basis regarding how medications should be taken and how patients can take care of themselves. “the amish customers that we serve are primarily cash- paying customers. a few of our customers require the assistance of the church to pay some more outstanding bills. we also have some amish customers that do have a form of insurance. i have really enjoyed serving the local amish community in the arthur area.” when asked about the training, if any, that his staff (pharma- cists, pharmacy technicians, and clerks) receive before interact- ing with amish patients, wood added the following: “i tell staff that they (the amish) are very honest. they are willing to learn. they are interested in taking their meds. most of the people hired have lived in the community a long time and respect the amish traditions.” brief history and background of the amish the amish originated from the anabaptist movement of the swiss brethren. a number of people fled switzerland in to escape religious persecution by protestants and catholics. , these people were called anabaptist christians because they rebaptized their adult followers. from switzerland, the movement spread to germany, france, and the netherlands. the anabap- tists believed in the separation of church and state and a commit- ment to pacifism and nonviolence and were considered radical. a key leader in the anabaptist religion was menno simons, whose followers were called mennonites. members of the mennonite religious group became less strict in their ways of life over time and began to adopt more modern practices. some followers, however, had different biblical interpretations and did not believe in the laxity of practices, which resulted in embracing too many worldly conveniences. among these was a swiss–german men- nonite named jacob ammann (sometimes spelled as amman). in , a conservative group of mennonites broke off from the religion to follow ammann—they became known as amish. , the amish migrated to america, first settling in a pennsylvania colony in the early th century. , three major amish groups exist: the old order amish and the more progressive amish mennonites, which include the beachy amish (e.g., car ownership and use of electricity from public utili- ties allowed) and new order amish (e.g., use of electricity and telephones in homes and use of modern farm equipment may be permitted). the old order amish is the largest and strictest (most conservative) group in terms of traditional beliefs and practices. as the most populous group and the most iconic with societal perceptions of conduct, any reference to the amish from this point forward in the article refers to the old order amish. the populations of different amish communities can total hundreds or thousands of individual members. amish community structures consist of settlements, church districts, and affilia- tions. settlements are composed of proximate households. the size of settlements may range from small, including only a few households and their religious leader, to large settlements that might encompass several counties. self-governing church dis- tricts (i.e., congregations) are established within geographic areas of each settlement. the size of congregations depends on how many families can gather at a farm dwelling or home. each autonomous congregation typically consists of about to families, and every church district is led by a bishop—the chief authority who decides how conservative the congregation will be by clarifying the code of conduct, religious practices, and rules (ordnung) of social behavior. , , , approximately , amish congregations exist. groups of church districts with similar dis- cipline structure can commune together, and these congregations represent an affiliation. amish behaviors and practices should not be generalized or stereotyped in a singular image, as diversity exists among groups within amish communities. amish culture varies by location; different bishops may approve different prac- tices across respective church districts. each district may differ across the united states in terms of religious practices, customs, conduct, dress, buggy styles, and other rules. noted concentrations of amish communities in north amer- ica are located in states and ontario, canada, with the great- est numbers of amish people and districts in ohio, pennsylvania, and indiana. in , professor donald kraybill (elizabethtown college) estimated that the amish american population totaled , old order and new order amish, including children; adult baptized members were estimated to total , . the amish are considered to be conservative christians who live a simple life in geographic and social separation (though not seclu- sion) from the predominant american culture. the basic amish tenets include integrity, order, responsibility, obedience (to par- ents, church, and god), nonresistance, and consideration of the human body as god’s temple. the amish lifestyle the amish believe in conserving their traditions and practices, and they reject or avoid unnecessary material possessions. they are well known for living a simple life with minimal technology www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review in the fast-changing world around them. the amish dress plainly and have a limited use of modern conveniences for fear of becom- ing too worldly. technology can be adopted if approved by the district bishop, based on group discussions with congregation elders about its effect on the community way of life. electricity is rarely, if ever, used in amish homes. electric generators are used in some amish communities for work reasons, such as welding, milk production, and battery recharging. the amish generally travel by walking and riding a bicycle or horse-drawn buggy. they may hire a driver or take a bus or taxi for distance travel. in an emergency, they may have a non-amish person drive them, for example, to the nearest hospital. the amish neither watch television nor have telephones inside their homes because those are means of bringing the outside world into the home, which is verboten. use of business, public, or communal phones may be permitted by a district bishop, espe- cially for outgoing calls. attitudes toward phone ownership are changing, with reluctance, in some communities as more amish have access to cell phones and their multiple capabilities. the amish settle in rural communities, and farming is the historical way of life for amish households. as farmland has grown more scarce, other sources of income and livelihood have grown. more amish men have found jobs in bookstores and voca- tional crafts, such as woodworking/carpentry, canning, carriage making, performing repair work, and working in farm equipment stores and print shops. , amish women work around the house (e.g., tending the garden, cooking natural foods from the garden and farm, making clothes). the amish also sell homemade fur- niture, quilts, produce, and prepared foods and other goods near their homes or in nearby markets; this trade is fueled by curiosity and demand from tourist shoppers and others. , most amish children are formally educated only through the eighth grade, which is deemed a sufficient level to live the amish lifestyle. , the amish resist sending their older children to high school because of concerns that outsiders (i.e., non-amish peo- ple) and higher education will negatively alter their thinking and behaviors. the lifestyle and culture of the amish directly affect their views on sickness and health care. wood’s reflections. “they (the amish) leave school after a limited number of years of formal education, but they continue to read voraciously. amish families read a great deal in the evenings. reading is a normal activity in the home; they do not watch tele- vision or play video games. they also read a lot on health care. they listen attentively to advice and are avid readers most of the time. they will do research on all kinds of things, including their medications, and they definitely ask questions.” amish health beliefs and health care practices the amish value health, are health conscious, and generally rec- ognize when someone is sick. their explanatory models of illness and treatment approaches, however, differ in some respects from those that are traditionally used by people in the larger american society. the amish do not perceive illness as a frailty but rather as part of life. they believe that good health, both mental and physical, is a gift from god that they can help achieve by working hard, living simply and cleanly, and eating a well-balanced diet. in amish terms, a healthy person is one who “gets up early, gets enough rest, needs fresh air, eats as naturally as possible, wants to work, wants to be healthy, helps to create a happy atmosphere, accepts what one has and goes on, does not worry; at least not too much, has faith, and has not too much stress.” compared with the traditional biomedical perspective, the amish possess a holis- tic outlook on health and healing. the amish are actively involved on a daily basis in decision making and actions about health and treatment of illness. many amish may take food supplements, vitamins, and eat natural or organic food. a strong sense of soli- darity, responsibility, and caring for their own exists within amish communities. they promote individual, family, and community well-being. three sectors of the health care system may be used by the amish. in the terminology used by the national center for complementary and alternative medicine, these sectors include conventional care and complementary and alternative medicine (including biologically based therapies, energy/biofield therapies, and manipulative and body-based therapies). these practices are commonly categorized as folk care, alternative care, and professional care in literature on the amish. , , no aspect of professional medical or other health care is forbidden among the amish; however, individuals may show more reluctance or hesi- tancy toward using certain services, and health care practices may vary among districts. the amish generally embrace use of conventional medicine in treating incapacitating and traumatic diseases and infections. with nondebilitating chronic illnesses, treatment modalities include conventional care, folk care, and complementary and alternative medicine. folk care and complementary and alternative care folk care includes the influences of the popular sector (i.e., seek- ing advice on illness from family, friends, and community mem- bers). when a member of the amish community becomes ill, the family members generally weigh their options, including folk care and alternative medicine, before seeking professional care. this pattern has led to misconceptions that the amish shun pro- fessional care. folk care is indigenous in amish communities, and treatments are passed down through generations. examples of folk care may include heavy use of teas, chelation therapies, onions, mustard plasters, camphor applications, herbs, and, increasingly, commercial herbal remedies. , (depending on the source, herbal remedies are included under both folk care and alternative care.) the amish often grow gardens of herbs and teas to use as curative medicine. if approved in the district, folk care is generally provided in the home or amish community, using home remedies or the services of brauchers, who are amish pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review healers. practitioners serving amish communities should strive to be nonjudgmental about folk remedies and knowledgeable on herbal remedies and vitamins so that they will be able to counsel patients on therapeutic use and safety and check for potential interactions. the amish may be hesitant to discuss their use of herbal remedies, home remedies, and alternative care. wood’s reflections. “we realize that the amish today do take herbal remedies, but getting them to tell us that they are using something other than the prescribed medications is often difficult (as with the general population). most of the time, we just have to ask what else they are using for this or that condition, and then they will spill the beans about what else they are taking. unfortu- nately, we do not always ask if they are taking something else. as with any of our patients, all we can do is counsel them on what we know about their conditions, medications, and lifestyles.” the term braucher comes from the word brauche, which means folk-healing art. some amish believe that individuals inherit the power of healing through touch. brauchers are amish practitioners who generally use their warm hands to touch (or place near the person’s body) and physically manipulate the prob- lem area in an attempt to draw out the illness. brauchers do not have prescriptive authority, although they can recommend herbs and many folk remedies. brauchers sometimes refer to them- selves as braucher–chiropractors; however, they are not licensed practitioners (and are not recognized to practice chiropractic medicine by the state) but may have observed aspects of chiro- practic treatments from others. in an article from , emanuel stoltzfus, a full-time self-described braucher–chiropractor, said that he discovered one day that he had “electric” in his hands and could feel where a person was sick and would treat accord- ingly. brauchers learn the techniques of the art of healing from a member of the opposite sex upon promising to keep the art a secret. brauchers are generally seen when amish patients do not know what is wrong or want to avoid drug therapies. , amish parents often take their ailing babies and small children to visit the braucher because the children are too young to readily describe their pain or other symptoms. the braucher is said to be able to touch the child and pull out the pain. brauchers prac- tice their folk art using physical manipulations, charms, incanta- tions, and sacred rituals. in past years, aspects of traditional european occult practices (e.g., sorcery and “black magic”) may have routinely been included in the practices of amish brauchers and other community healers; such practices have largely been abandoned. , mixed feelings exist within the community about the prac- tice of brauche, with some amish questioning the practice and/ or expressing skepticism and embarassment ; however, many amish believe that brauchers can help some people. , in certain districts, brauchers may be the preferred care provider because they are easily accessible and less expensive and are trusted as members of the community. brauchers and other folk care pro- viders do not charge a fee (for historical reasons and to avoid the appearance of practicing medical therapies without a license), but donations are accepted and sometimes expected. in addition to money, donations may include brokered goods or services. , , wood’s reflections. “personally, i have only once been approached by the amish about what a braucher had told them, and that was a number of years ago, so i do not remember the exact details at all. if i remember correctly, the information that they had been given was fairly accurate, and we did not have a problem assisting the family member in what they were look- ing for. the use of brauchers in this area does not appear to be very high.” the executive director for the arthur-amish country visitor center provided further insight, stating that the use of a braucher does not exist in the arthur, il, area (personal com- munications, theresa binion, november ). some authors include powwow healers (including brauchers and informal family/friends who use sympathy curing or faith healing) under the category of alternative healers, but most categorize as folk care providers. examples of alternative care services that may be used by the amish include traditional chiro- practic care, lay midwifery, reflexology, massage, foot treatments, homeopathy, iridology, and herbal therapists. , alternative care may be sought regularly by the amish for body adjustments, treat- ment of back pain, and other maladies for which patients believe it may be effective. alternative care providers charge a fee for ser- vices, which is perceived to be less expensive than physicians. conventional care professional or conventional care is offered by health care practi- tioners who have been formally educated and trained in the domi- nant medical and health system. most amish members pay their bills in cash for services and care rendered at hospitals and by physicians, nurses, dentists, pharmacists, and other providers in the traditional professional sector. most amish families have a physician whom they visit when they recognize the need for scientific medical practice. reasons for choosing a family physician extend beyond medical knowl- edge and include family tradition, proximity, recommendation by others, affordability, trust, sympathy, and integrity. , con- ventional care is generally sought by the amish in cases of high fever and when surgery or stitches, hospital care, or prescription medication are needed. compared with non-amish, the amish are much less likely to seek professional care for preventive medicine because of lack of convenience, high costs, and a perception that it is not necessary. conventional care is most often sought when an emergency occurs. the amish will visit hospital emergency departments in cases of severe abdominal pain, chest pains, lacerations, frac- tures, and traumatic injuries, among other urgent conditions. , farm accidents resulting in severe injuries are commonly seen on an emergency basis. children are often the victims of these trau- matic injuries (e.g., falls, machinery accidents, animal injuries) www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review in amish communities because they begin working the farm at a young age. a number of emergency visits and deaths also result from lack of protections with respect to buggy and automobile accidents. , prenatal care medical means of birth control reportedly are not practiced in amish communities, and average households include six or seven children. , , most amish women visit a physician for initial confirmation of a pregnancy diagnosis. however, most amish women do not seek professional prenatal care throughout the pregnancy. if prenatal care is initiated, it is often late in the preg- nancy, such as the third trimester. reasons for minimal prenatal care use include ( ) amish views of uncomplicated pregnancies as valued normal states that do not require medical interventions and ( ) logistical barriers pertaining to transportation difficul- ties, child care arrangements, and costs. many amish women prefer to deliver their babies at home using house-call physicians, nurse midwives, or lay midwives and other alternative care pro- viders. if the expectant mother shows serious symptoms that could result in a high risk of complications, the delivery will be scheduled to take place in a hospital. , wood’s reflections. “all of them (expectant amish mothers) seem to get prenatal vitamins. they are more aware of the situ- ation than they were in years past. they know the healthier their bodies, the healthier their babies. the amish buy more breast shield, breast pumps, and nursing pads than others, which may be indicative that they breast-feed more often.” hereditary disorders in addition to an increased incidence of twinning, some dis- tinct amish communities in different regions show a higher prevalence of certain chromosomal and genetic abnormalities (e.g., ellis-van creveld syndrome or dwarfism, cartilage–hair hypoplasia, pyruvate kinase deficiency anemia, hemophilia). the hereditary disorders result in part from common blood- lines of offspring from endogamous unions among members of a relatively closed society. , genetic screening and counsel- ing have been advocated for high-risk populations when early diagnosis may decrease morbidity and mortality. pharmacists and other health professionals could serve as sources of refer- ral to medical and public health specialists in genetics, when deemed appropriate. such initiatives, however, are controver- sial and may have psychological and ethical implications. most amish would reject prenatal screening. efforts are undertaken within amish communities to prevent genetic diseases and to understand their causes and outcomes. professional care is not always sought for such genetic conditions because they are viewed as god’s will by the amish, although some communities are accepting of promising gene therapy. many amish may have treatable autoimmune thyroid diseases. wood’s reflections. “many amish (we serve) have hereditary thyroid diseases and need thyroid replacement medicines. they may start see the appearance of thyroid problems in their late teens or early s, and often the amount of replacement therapy can be very extensive.” vaccination rates while not prohibited by their religious doctrine, many amish people do not get vaccinated, which places them at increased risk for acquiring vaccine-preventable diseases. outbreaks of rubella, childhood tetanus, pertussis, measles, poliovirus infec- tions, and haemophilus influenzae type b (hib) have occurred in amish communities at disproportionately high rates. , , , for example, fry et al. found full childhood hib vaccination coverage in two pennsylvania amish communities to be only % and %, whereas % coverage occurred in the non-amish comparison group. on the other hand, yoder and dworkin found that % of respondents from households in an illinois amish settlement self-reported that all of their children had been vac- cinated (though these reports could not be validated with health records), which was attributed in part to learning about the low vaccination rates and outbreaks experienced in other amish communities. despite isolated success stories, vaccination cov- erage levels among the amish tend to be very low. wood’s reflections. “we have seen a few outbreaks of whoop- ing cough in the past years. the amish do not get vaccinated for this disease, nor do they get boosters as adults. i have not noticed any differences in vaccination rates in the arthur com- munity in recent years.” the reasons most amish do not get their children vac- cinated include lack of recognized need for vaccines, fears of adverse effects/vaccine safety for their children, religious or philosophical objections, and lack of priority in life. , , , another reason pertains to logistical barriers (e.g., need to travel long distances to get vaccinated, limited transportation in general, inconvenient clinic hours). , efforts can be made by pharmacists and other health professionals to help promote vaccination. the amish may be receptive to vaccination outreach pro- grams if the topic is openly discussed and efforts are put forth to address individual concerns. developing culturally and lin- guistically appropriate educational materials would be useful, and information approved by the district bishops and other church leaders can appear in local community newsletters and other readily utilized publications. clinical and public health professionals in amish communities could also try to set up immunization drives within amish communities so that travel to the clinic or physician’s office would not be as burdensome, which would eliminate one of the logistical barriers. local pharmacists can partner with local physicians, nurses, and/ or public health departments in attempts to contact church leaders to educate them on the greater benefits (and potential adverse effects) of vaccination. pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. barriers and opportunities to pharmacist care and services the lack of available transportation is a logistical barrier that may limit access to medical and pharmacy care for amish patients. to help alleviate that problem, wood said, “we added delivery ser- vice at the pharmacy when i took over in the s. the service is available for all patients, but mainly exists for the amish and elderly patients, who use the service extensively. the delivery service was established to make life easier and to ensure that patients obtain their medications (new and refill) in a timely man- ner. there is no charge for prescription delivery. we deliver to five different counties over about a -mile radius (from arthur, il) on a weekday basis, starting each day at : pm.” language language barriers could be a challenge for health professionals serving an amish community. most often, pennsylvania dutch (also known as pennsylvania german or deitsch)—a blended dialect of german and english—is spoken in amish communi- ties, at home, and at church. , children will learn english at school, but often preschool-aged children only speak pennsyl- vania dutch, if that is the language spoken in their home. the amish refer to the non-amish in their surrounding area as “the english” because that is the language they typically use. , , in rural areas, finding translators is difficult; therefore, health professionals must be as descriptive and complete as possible when counseling patients with limited english proficiency. dem- onstrations (of correct medication use, for instance) often help. if language is a barrier, having patients repeat to the health care provider the counseling information that he or she heard, in order to help ascertain whether the communicated message was under- stood in the manner intended, may be helpful. wood’s reflections. “the previous pharmacy owner spoke some german, and the original owner in the s spoke fluent ger- man. the amish patients learned to watch what they said in the store in the presence of the former proprietors since they knew that the staff understood their personal conversations. i know virtually no german, but their [the amish] english is usually very good; they learn both languages.” costs of conventional care high costs can present another barrier to health care among the amish. the amish strive to live plain, uncomplicated lives, including the means of paying for health care. many amish self- pay for health care services and products. they are reluctant to accept any government insurance programs because of lack of trust in the knowledge sources and lack of community consensus and clear approval by the district bishops. amish may perceive the buying of health insurance as a lack of faith. some who work for non-amish employers may accept health insurance coverage, but most amish tend to eschew social security benefits or other financial assistance from the government, and most frown on commercial health insurance. this pattern is slowly changing. wood’s reflections. “the local members of the amish com- munity are some of the most trusted customers. they are more honest than the ‘english’ and more likely to pay their bills in full. today, with the increase in members of the amish community getting jobs outside of the family farm due to the scarcity of the farmland, insurance is more common. “i find it interesting that the percentage of amish with medi- care is certainly less than those in the general population, but higher than i had suspected as well. in this area, many of the amish who are ineligible for social security benefits do qualify as beneficiaries for illinois cares rx (an income-based state pre- scription drug assistance program for qualified individuals age years or older, as well as other eligible beneficiaries, including some disabled). they are taking advantage of that plan, much like the rest of the population, but they do not get assigned to a medicare part d company because they (currently) do not qualify for medicare.” delaying or refusing a necessary visit to a physician or other health professional because of cost concerns or failing to obtain needed medications can cause patients to become sicker, which could result in even more costly and more complicated medical therapies. in line with reliance on support of the church and community, some districts form their own insurance fund, known as church aid or amish aid, to which each family contributes an initial amount and contributes again when someone is in need. , amish members accept financial assistance from these commu- nity funds, if they exist, only when they are personally unable to pay medical expenses. even then, some individuals in the amish communities will go without health care services if they believe the burden for the community would be too much. to help mini- mize costs, amish people may venture outside of the united states (especially to mexico) to obtain more affordable health care ser- vices. the amish honor their financial obligations and pay their debts in a timely manner. providers (e.g., hospitals, physicians) serving amish populations may make special arrangements for these cash-paying customers, including discounted rates for ser- vices. if cost is a barrier, pharmacists may have an opportunity to recommend a less-expensive generic substitute or therapeuti- cally similar agent. in some communities, pharmacy owners allow members of the amish community to charge prescriptions to the family for later (e.g., monthly) cash payment. building trust health care practitioners have an important opportunity to build trusting relationships with their amish patients so that the patients feel at ease when asking questions and seeking help. amish members welcome provision of health information from trusted sources. , this desire for information facilitates oppor- tunities for pharmacists in amish communities to counsel and educate patients, including welcomed explanations of options that can be considered. outsiders to amish communities need www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. to establish relationships in order to be accepted, usually by first consulting and working with community leaders through estab- lished local community structures. collaborative efforts then can be established with other health professionals serving the amish community. wood’s reflections. “each month on the third thursday, we host the lincolnland visiting nurses blood screenings. each month, there are usually or so people wanting one of the various screenings they offer. there is a charge for the cholesterol screen- ings, but blood pressure and blood sugar tests are administered free of charge. over half of the people seen in this -hour time slot are normally of the amish faith.” culturally competent care as aspect of patient-centered care the knowledge of salient cultural differences when serving cross- cultural patient populations is needed to provide competent phar- macy practice. however, all individuals within amish cultures do not think or act the same, and care must be given to ensure that these patients are not stereotyped based on intrinsic and extrin- sic cultural aspects. within the setting described in this article, each district in the arthur, il, area adheres to its own rules, including use of home remedies and conventional health care services (personal communications, theresa binion, november ). universal application of the described general amish char- acteristics to all patients in the subpopulation may result in sub- optimal health care decisions and actions. individualized patient care by pharmacists is needed to help patients make the best use of their medications, promote safety, and avoid unintended and harmful effects. conclusion to our knowledge, this is the first article to address pharma- cists’ considerations when serving amish patients. bruce wood’s reflections supported much of the information culled from the literature review. pharmacists in all settings play an important role in ensuring that patients get good health care. special con- siderations may need to be made by health care practitioners when serving the amish because of their culture, health beliefs, and lifestyles. culturally competent pharmacist care should be individualized based on patient needs and in consideration of aspects of differences in amish cultures and districts. increased understanding and accommodation of amish beliefs and culture can help pharmacists and other health care practitioners better serve the community and minimize barriers that may interfere with optimal care provision. references . american pharmacists association. code of ethics for pharmacists. accessed at www.pharmacist.com/am/tem- plate.cfm?section=search &template=/cm/htmldisplay. cfm&contentid= , november , . . american college of clinical pharmacy, o’connell m, korner e, et al. cultural competence in health care and its implications for pharmacy. part . overview of key concepts in multicultural health care. pharmacotherapy. ; : – . . shaw-taylor y. culturally and linguistically appropriate health care for racial or ethnic minorities: analysis of the u.s. office of minority health’s recommended standards. health policy. ; : – . . brach c, fraser i. can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic health disparities: a review and conceptual model. med care res rev. ; (suppl ): – . . dickinson n, slesinger d, raftery p. a comparison of the perceived health needs of amish and non-amish families in cashton, wisc. wis med j. ; : – . . yoder j, dworkin m. vaccination usage among an old-order amish community in illinois. pediatr infect dis j. ; : – . . amish country marketing. arthur … “the heart of the illinois amish country.” accessed at www.illinoisamishcountry.com, october , . . amish country marketing. the amish. accessed at www. illinoisamish.net/amish/amishmain.htm, december , . . wood b. dicks pharmacy. accessed at www.dicks-pharmacy. com, may , . . brewer j, bonalumi n. health care beliefs and practices among the pennsylvania amish. j emerg nurs. ; : – . . hostetler j. amish society. th ed. baltimore, md: johns hop- kins university press; . . wenger a. cultural context, health and health care decision making, . j transcult nurs. ; : – . . amish country marketing. amish religion. accessed at www. amishillinois.com/religion/amish_religion.htm, november , . . weyer s, hustey v, rathbun l, et al. a look into the amish cul- ture: what should we learn? j transcult nurs. ; : – . . campanella k, korbin j, acheson l. pregnancy and childbirth among the amish. soc sci med. ; : – . . young center for anabaptist and pietist studies, elizabeth- town college. amish population growth - highlights. accessed at www .etown.edu/amishstudies/population_ trends_ _ .asp, november , . . nolt s, meyers t. plain diversity: amish cultures and identities. baltimore, md: johns hopkins university press; . . von gruenigen v, showalter a, gil k, et al. complementary and alternative medicine use in the amish. complement ther med. ; : – . . graham l, cates j. health care and sequestered cultures: a perspective from the old order amish. j multicult nurs health. ; : – . . miller k, yost b, flaherty s, et al. health status, health condi- tions, and health behaviors among amish women: results from the central pennsylvania women’s health study (cepawhs). women’s health issues. ; : – . . hostetler j. amish life. scottdale, pa: herald; . . patton m. genetic studies in the amish community. ann hum biol. ; : – . . centers for disease control and prevention. pertussis outbreak in an amish community: kent county, delaware, septem- ber -february . mmwr morb mortal wkly rep. ; : – . . national center for complementary and alternative medi- cine. what is cam? accessed at http://nccam.nih.gov/health/ whatiscam, may , . pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review ce credit: to obtain . contact hours of continuing education credit ( . ceus) for “pharmacists’ considerations when serving amish patients,” complete the assessment exercise, fill out the ce examination form at the end of this article, and return to apha. you can also go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. ce processing is free for apha mem- bers and $ for nonmembers. a statement of credit will be awarded for a passing grade of % or better. pharmacists who complete this exercise successfully before december , , can receive credit. the american pharmacists association is accredited by the accreditation council for pharmacy education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education. the acpe universal program number assigned to the program by the accredited provider is - - - -h -p. “pharmacists’ considerations when serving amish patients” is a home-study continuing education program for pharmacists developed by the american pharmacists association. . weaver-zercher dl. writing the amish: the worlds of john a. hostetler. university park, pa: penn state press; . . miller l. the role of a braucher-chiropractor in an amish com- munity. mennon q rev. ; : – . . vitale m, rzucidlo s, shaffer m, et al. the impact of pediatric trauma in the amish community. j pediatr. ; : – . . rhodes d, hupcey j. farm injuries among old order amish children. clin excell nurse pract. ; : – . . aaland m, hlaing t. amish buggy injuries in the st century: a retrospective review from a rural level ii trauma center. am surg. ; : – . . mcardle p, pollin t, o’connell j, et al. does having children extend life span? a genealogical study of parity and longevity in the amish. j gerontol a biol sci med sci. ; : – . . ross l, moon m. ethical issues in genetic testing of children. arch pediatr adolesc med. ; : – . . grady d. at gene therapy’s frontier, the amish build a clinic. the new york times. june , . . allen e, hsueh w, sabra m, et al. a genome-wide scan for autoimmune thyroiditis in the old order amish: replication of genetic linkage on chromosome q . -q . . j clin endocrinol metab. ; : – . . centers for disease control and prevention. poliovirus infec- tions in four unvaccinated children: minnesota, august-octo- ber . mmwr morb mortal wkly rep. ; : – . . fry a, lurie p, gidley m, et al. haemophilus influenzae type b disease among amish children in pennsylvania: reasons for persistent disease. pediatrics. ; :e . . salmon d, haber m, gangarusa e, et al. health consequences of religious and philosophical exemptions from immuniza- tion laws: individual and societal risks of measles. jama. ; : – . . mccollum m. the uninsured: uncovered–and unfazed. hosp health netw. ; ( ): . www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review assessment questions instructions: you may take the assessment test for this program on paper or online. for each question, circle the letter on the answer sheet corresponding to the answer you select as being the correct one. there is only one correct answer to each ques- tion. please review all your answers to be sure that you have circled the proper letters. to take the ce test for this article online, go to www.pharmacist.com and click education. once you are on the education welcome page, search for this article with the search function, using “ce” and a keyword. follow the online instructions to take and submit the assessment test. this ce will be available online at www.pharmacist.com after december , . you can also find it on www.pharmacytoday.org. . which of the following is not an example of a cultur- ally competent technique that could be used in serv- ing amish patients? a. language assistance if patients speak deitsch and demonstrate limited english proficiency b. universal application of knowledge about amish health beliefs to all amish patients c. outreach and working with church leaders through established local structures to disseminate information d. consideration of possible use of folk care and alterna- tive care by amish patients . what term is often used by the amish to describe people who are not amish? a. the outsiders b. the americans c. the english d. the seculars . what amish group is the most conservative regarding traditional beliefs and practices? a. amish mennonites b. old order amish c. new order amish d. beachy amish . what amish group is the most populous in the united states? a. amish mennonites b. old order amish c. new order amish d. beachy amish . which of the following is correct? a. all old order amish adhere to the same social behav- iors and practices. b. the majority of pharmacists interact with at least one amish patient routinely. c. the largest amish population is located in the state of new york. d. local bishops interpret the rules of conduct within each amish church district. . what is the highest level of formal education for most amish? a. sixth grade b. eighth grade c. ninth grade d. twelfth grade . which of the following is not correct regarding amish health beliefs and practices? a. the amish view illness as an individual frailty. b. the amish read a great deal about health care and ask questions about their medications. c. amish people are health conscious and actively involved in health care decisions. d. the amish possess a holistic perspective on health and illness. . which of the following aspects of well-being is/are promoted in the amish culture? a. community well-being b. family well-being c. individual well-being d. all of the above alternatives are correct. . which of the following is not an example of folk care in the amish culture? a. health advice from family and community members b. teas used for health purposes c. chelation therapies d. traditional chiropractic care . which of the following is generally forbidden in old order amish culture? a. use of telephones in homes b. use of vitamins and herbal remedies c. professional medical care d. vaccinations pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. review . which of the following is not correct regarding brauchers? a. brauchers are also known as braucher–chiropractors. b. brauchers are licensed by the state and granted pre- scriptive authority. c. brauchers may recommend herbal remedies. d. brauchers are preferred healers in some amish com- munities. . which of the following does not typically charge a fee for services? a. brauchers b. homeopaths c. lay midwives d. herbal therapists . the amish generally do not seek conventional care for which of the following? a. traumatic injuries b. infections c. prenatal physician care beyond confirmation of preg- nancy d. prescription medications . which of the following is correct? a. amish women routinely practice medical means of birth control. b. most amish are amenable to prenatal screening to detect hereditary disorders. c. amish women tend to shun use of prenatal vitamins. d. many amish need thyroid hormone replacement thera- pies because of increased prevalence of some thyroid disorders. . which of the following is not a reason for low vaccina- tion rates among amish people? a. lack of recognized need for vaccines b. fear of adverse effects c. religious doctrine prohibiting vaccines d. transportation difficulties . which of the following would not be an appropriate method for promoting vaccination use among amish people? a. developing linguistically appropriate educational mate- rials on vaccines for inclusion in community newslet- ters b. establishing immunization drives within amish com- munities to minimize travel burdens c. partnering with local health departments and/or health providers to educate local church leaders about vac- cines d. distributing comprehensive, technical product infor- mation on vaccines from product manufacturers . which of the following languages is not typically spo- ken or learned by school-aged amish children? a. english b. french c. pennsylvania dutch d. pennsylvania german . which of the following is not correct regarding pay- ment for health care services among the amish? a. many amish pay for health care out of pocket. b. many amish are reluctant to use government insurance programs; however, these attitudes are slowly chang- ing. c. the amish refuse all types of commercial health insur- ance. d. some amish church districts form their own insurance programs. . which of the following is not correct? a. the amish insist on paying for services at the time of service provision and would not agree to paying over time. b. the amish honor their financial obligations and pay their debts. c. even if their church is willing to pay, amish people may go without needed health care services if they believe the community burden would be too great. d. amish individuals may seek health care options outside the united states to minimize costs. . which of the following is not correct? a. pharmacists should build trusting relationships with members of the local amish community in order to be accepted as health care practitioners. b. knowledge of relevant cultural and district differences is an important aspect of providing competent pharma- cist care. c. all old order amish adhere to the same philosophies, and pharmacists should treat all members the same. d. individualized patient-centered pharmacist care is needed by amish patients. www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today review go to www.pharmacist.com and take your test online for instant credit. . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d . a b c d ce examination form ce assessment questions—answers please circle your answers (one answer per question). participant information name address cit y state zip e-mail work phone home phone how long did it take you to read the program and complete this test? _____ hours ____ minutes my signature certifies that i have independently taken this ce examination: excellent poor please rate the following items. . overall quality of the program . relevance to pharmacy practice . value of the content please answer each question, marking whether you agree or disagree. . the program met the stated learning objectives: agree disagree after reading this ce article, the pharmacist should be able to: 	 •	list four potential outcomes of effective cultural competency techniques. ❏ ❏ 	 •	provide	six	examples	of	cultural	competency	techniques	that	are	applicable	to	amish	cultures. ❏ ❏ 	 •	state health beliefs and explanatory models of health and illness accepted in amish cultures. ❏ ❏ 	 •	differentiate the three sectors of the health care system that may be used by amish people. ❏ ❏ 	 •	name four reasons for lower vaccination rates among the amish. ❏ ❏ 	 •	identify examples of how pharmacists can help alleviate logistical, communication, and cost barriers to effective health care provision for amish patients. ❏ ❏ . the program increased my knowledge in the subject area. ❏ ❏ . the program did not promote a particular product or company. ❏ ❏ impact of the activity the information presented (check all that apply) : . ❏ reinforced my current practice /treatment habits ❏ will improve my practice /patient outcomes ❏ provided new ideas or information i expect to use ❏ adds to my knowledge . will the information presented cause you to make any changes in your practice? ❏ yes ❏ no . how commit ted are you to making these changes? (very commit ted) (not at all commit ted) . do you feel future activities on this subject mat ter are necessary and /or important to your practice? ❏ yes ❏ no program evaluation pharmacists’ considerations when serving amish patients follow-up as part of our ongoing quality-improvement effort, we would like to be able to contact you in the event we conduct a follow-up survey to assess the impact of our educational interventions on professional practice. are you willing to participate in such a survey? ❏ yes ❏ no this ce will be available online at www.pharmacist.com af ter december , . to receive . contact hours of continuing education credit ( . ceu), please pro- vide the following information: . type or print your name and address in the spaces provided. . mail this completed form for scoring to: american pharmacists association—ce exam p.o. box baltimore, md - . ce processing is free for apha members. if you are not an apha member, please enclose a $ handling fee for grading the assessment instrument and issuing the statement of credit. a statement of credit will be awarded for a passing grade of % or bet ter. if you fail the exam, you may retake it once. if you do not pass the second time, you may no longer participate in this continuing pharmacy education program. please allow weeks for processing. pharmacists who complete this exercise success- fully before december , , may receive credit. the american pharmacists association is accredited by the accredi- tation council for pharmacy education as a provider of continuing pharmacy education. the acpe universal program number assignedto the program by the accredited provider is - - - -h -p. pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org classifiedadvertising classifi edadvertising for more great jobs—go to www.pharmacist.com may • pharmacy today cvs caremark redefi nes pharmacy by integrating the personalized reach of the nation’s largest retail pharmacy with the innovative delivery technology of the nation’s premier pharmacy benefi ts management provider. the result is health care that has the ability to enhance the lives of millions of patients in the united states. we leverage the tremendous resources of cvs caremark to provide our pharmacists limitless possibilities to grow personally and professionally. we seek only the best pharmacists to join our team and advance the quest to deliver outstanding health care every day. everyday redefi ning health care... cvs caremark is an equal opportunity employer supporting a drug-free work environment. of�$ �%sjwf�t� ppotpdlfu
� *������ www.cvscaremark.com/careers www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today we offer a competitive salary, outstanding benefits and a pleasant work environment. please e-mail resume to: adopportunity@yahoo.com eoe pharmacist no nights or weekends new york city ambulatory health care seeks nys registered pharmacist with minimum years experience. requires solid knowledge of health care delivery systems, drug utilization, strong communications and pc skills. manager pharmacy employee training (boston, ma) train & supervise pharmacy technicians & student interns. bach or equiv in pharmaceutical sciences & yr mgmt exp req’d. must be a registered pharmacist in massachusetts. hpw. mail resume to: boston pharmacy management company inc., stevens ln, cohasset, ma . research analyst/qa executive - ny. undertake research, compile & analyze cases relating to proper dispensation of medicines; establish medicine dispensation methodologies in accordance to health regulations; counsel clients re: medications & med. eqpmnts purchased by clients as per doctor’s instructions. bs medical science or rel. fi eld. hrs/wk. fax res. to kwik aid pharmacy inc. at - - . pharmacist wanted. must be registered in nj. must be  uent in korean & english. must be available at night & weekends. must have at least yrs of retail exp. full time only. fax resume to herbert’s drug & surgical at - - and we will contact you. accs provides specialized consulting services that assist, support, and enable health care providers in obtaining accredited status with the accreditation commission for health care (achc) all travel expenses are included in the cost. get a step ahead by contacting us today for details and find out how we can help the accreditation process work for you! classifiedadvertising it’s time for a for pharmacy professionals search that works the american pharmacists association would like to announce the launch of the apha pharmacist’s buyers guide powered by multiview. this one-stop online resource will provide pharmacists and pharmacy industry professionals with a unique online tool that will give them quick access to pharmacy products and services being offered by a host of suppliers all in one place. pharmacists can compare the same or similar products and services and prices to get the best deal. visit www.pharmacist.com to start using this tool for all of your buying needs. get started now! www.pharmacist.com december • pharmacy today pharmacytoday advocacy (apha) ...................................................... d, apha advance program (apha) .................... – atacand (astrazeneca) ................................................. – book of the month (apha) ............................................ d bps (apha) ........................................................................ buyers guide (apha) ........... (select copies only), carmex (carma laboratories) .......................................... dear pharmacist letter, actonel (procter & gamble) ................................................. – effi ent (eli lilly, daiichi sankyo) ................................... humalog (eli lilly) ................................................... – c immunization webinars (apha) .................................... c kids-eeze (quigley) .......................................................... c lexi-comp (apha) ............................................................ pharmacy today subscriptions (apha) ....................... smoking cessation (pfi zer) ............................................ c stability of compounded formulations (apha) ......... adindex g pharmacy today’s medication therapy management (mtm) tips offer practical information you can use now? g pharmacy today’s continuing education opportunities allow you to earn a minimum of two credits each month? g pharmacy today’s product showcase highlights new product approvals of selected rx, generic, and otc items? g pharmacy today’s ismp error alert information can help you recognize potential drug problems? g pharmacy today’s practical otc information can be used when you’re in the aisles with your patients? g pharmacy today’s counseling corner gives tips for educating your patients about their acute or chronic conditions and treatment options? to receive a free full-year subscription to pharmacy today, click onto www.pharmacist.com/subscription.php and complete the online subscription form. offer code: ptha- - ? j a n u a r y n v o l u m e , n u m b e r p h a r m a c y t o d a y n w w w . p h a r m a c i s t . c o m nilotinib for cml heart health update rxwiki: pharmacy facts by the keystroke supervalu pharmacist sherry butler brings small-town service to patients pqa paves the way for high-quality health care disciplinary action for tpn error icaac : infectious disease update for pharmacists p visit www.pharmacytoday.org ° j a n u a r y n v o l u m e , n u m b e r p h a r m a c y t o d a y n w w w . p h a r m a c i s t . c o m nilotinib for cml heart health update rxwiki: pharmacy facts by the keystroke supervalu pharmacist sherry butler brings small-town service to patients pqa paves the way for high-quality health care disciplinary action for tpn error icaac : infectious disease update for pharmacists visit www.pharmrmacytoday.org v p y y g ° j a n u a r y n v o l u m e , n u m b e r p h a r m a c y t o d a y n w w w . p h a r m a c i s t . c o m nilotinib f or cml heart hea lth update rxwiki: p harmacy f acts by the key stroke super valu pha rmacist sherry bu tler brings small- town serv ice to pati ents pqa pave s the way for high-quali ty health c are disciplina ry action f or tpn error icaac : inf ectious diseas e updat e for ph armaci sts p visit www.p harmacytod ay.org ° and did you know, as a practicing pharmacist, you are eligible to receive a full-year subscription to pharmacy today, absolutely free? be in the know by joining thousands of informed pharmacists who subscribe to pharmacy today and receive the regularly featured mtm tip, continuing education, product showcase, ismp error alert, otcs today, counseling corner tip, and much more! did you know… some things can’t be measured by degrees as the profession of pharmacy becomes more specialized and more demanding, the board of pharmaceutical specialties offers a unique opportunity to demonstrate advanced clinical profi ciency in fi ve major practie areas: nuclear pharmacy, nutrition support pharmacy, pharmacotherapy, oncology pharmacy, and psychiatric pharmacy. visit the bps web site for details. board of pharmaceutical specialties www.bpsweb.org th street, nw, suite | washington, dc - pharmacy today • december www.pharmacytoday.org c olor-coded schemes for ophthalmic products have produced look-alike problems for nurses and pharmacists for many years. at the request of ophthalmol- ogists seeking a method to help differen- tiate eye products on their office trays, the american academy of ophthalmology (aao) endorsed a color-coding scheme in that was later approved by fda for use by manufacturers. this voluntary scheme is based on therapeutic class; for example, anti-infective ophthalmic containers and carton labels use a tan background, mydriatics and cycloplegics use red, miotics use green, beta-blockers use yellow or blue, and so on. for details, refer to www.aao.org /about /policy/ upload/color_codes_for_topical_ocu- lar_medications.pdf. although aao intended to reduce errors with this policy, color coding instead often makes items in the same therapeutic class much more difficult to differentiate. because of similar and highly stylized corporate logos, fonts, package sizes, and color combinations, designs that seem to work well in an office setting or patient’s home do not necessarily translate to pharmacies or other clinical locations. as a result, the usp–ismp medication error reporting program has long received reports of mix-ups among items within each class. no to grab and go errors with ophthalmic prod- ucts can occur with dispensa- tion or administration of these products on nursing units, in ophthalmology clinics, and in hospital and ambulatory care pharmacies; however, ophthalmologists continue to endorse the system. “the sys- tem results in a time saver for the physi- cian who can read the label on the drugs once a day—at the beginning of the day,” said an aao spokesperson at a fda center for drug evaluation and research hearing on the issue. this “grab and go” approach to selecting medications with- out fully reading the label can lead to medication errors. despite ismp’s efforts over the years to convince aao, fda, and drug manu- facturers that color coding can lead to errors, no changes have been made to improve safety. confusion among these products continues, as evidenced by a recently reported mix-up between vials of bausch & lomb cyclopentolate % and tropicamide % (figure ). bausch & lomb is not alone in its adherence to the color-coding scheme. for example, for many years, merck’s timoptic (timolol) ophthalmic contain- ers had different colored caps, depend- ing on the drug’s concentration; light blue represented . %, while yellow was . %. however, merck recently started using yellow caps for both con- centrations based on an aao-endorsed update to the color-coding system. the old system recommended either blue or yellow caps for beta-blockers; the new scheme assigns yellow caps to beta- blockers and dark blue caps to beta- ismperroralert caution regarding color-coded eye meds blocker combinations. mix-ups have occurred with simi- lar packaging between ophthalmic and otic drops as well, where ear drops are instilled into the eyes. a community pharmacy reported that a prescription was written for ocuflox (ofloxacin) . % ophthalmic drops ml. the prescription was entered into the pharmacy order entry system cor- rectly and days after the eye drop was dispensed, the child’s mother called and said she had noticed the phrase “for use in the ears only” on her child’s eye drops. she was advised to discontinue the otic drops that had been given to her in error, and the ophthalmic preparation was dispensed. carton coding not enough cartons of alphagan p (brimonidine tar- trate—allergan) ophthalmic solution use color effectively to differentiate between the two available strengths of . % and . % (figure ). however, the enclosed bottles are not color coded and appear virtually identical. as a result, they could easily be replaced in the incorrect carton, increasing the risk of error. alphagan p is an alpha- adrenergic agonist indi- cated for lowering intraocular pressure in patients with open-angle glaucoma or ocular hypertension. ismp has contacted allergan to ask that the actual bottles be color coded to match the cartons. ismp has also requested that the size of the text denot- ing the strength be increased. in the meantime, outpatient areas, patient care facilities, and patients should avoid stor- ing alphagan p bottles outside of their cartons. —institute for safe medication practices the reports described in this column were received through the usp–ismp medication errors reporting program (merp). errors, close calls, or hazardous conditions may be reported on the institute for safe medication practices (www.ismp.org) or u.s. pharmacopeia (www.usp.org) web sites or communicated directly to ismp by calling -fail-saf ( - - ) or e-mailing ismpinfo@ismp.org. the topics in this column are covered in greater detail in medication errors, nd edition, written by ismp president michael r. cohen, bpharm, ms, scd. the book may be purchased from apha at www.pharmacist.com or by calling – – . figure . a patient recently received atropine instead of cyclopentolate. figure . color helps differentiate strength on cartons but is missing from bot tles. the american pharmacists association (apha) and the national association of chain drug stores (nacds) are pleased to continue to offer a four-part webinar series presenting cutting-edge topics related to pharmacy-based immunization programs. the webinar series will highlight innovations in pharmacy- based immunization related to practice, advocacy, and science. pharmacy-based immunization webinar series: innovations in practice, advocacy, & science wednesday, january , , : p.m. est federal and state regulatory update: increasing opportunities for pharmacist-provided immunizations thursday, february , , : p.m. est challenges of pharmacy-based immunization services: key operational issues tuesday, march , , : p.m. est emergency preparedness and the role of immunizing pharmacists wednesday, april , , : p.m. est innovations in vaccine science more details and registration coming soon… visit www.nacds.org/immunization or www.pharmacist.com for more detailed program information in the near future! the national association of chain drug stores (nacds) foundation and the american pharmacists association (apha) are accredited by the accreditation council for pharmacy education (acpe) as providers of continuing pharmacy education. each webinar offers participants the opportunity to earn . contact hours ( . ceu) of continuing pharmacy education credit. statements of continuing pharmacy education credit may be printed online by visiting the nacds foundation's ce center and completing an evaluation for each program. then save the date now for these free live ce webinars! attention pharmacists do you immunize? educate? advocate? supported, in part, by independent educational grants from: new so kids can feel better sooner. new kids-eeze ® chest relief hones in and relieves chest congestion without overmedicating. unlike multi-symptom remedies, kids-eeze chest relief with guaifenesin targets chest congestion without overmedicating. and only kids-eeze chest relief comes in a convenient, great-tasting chew with patented taste-masking technology. which means no more messy spoons or yucky medicine aftertaste, so it’s easy on parents and kids. recommend it today, and you’ll be helping kids and moms both breathe easy. one symptom. one remedy. equals a ton of happy moms. one symptom. one remedy. equals a ton of happy moms. kids-eeze.com crashing out of a career reflections in family medicine crashing out of a career brenda neufeld, md this article is meant as a personal reflection on my unexpected retirement, and includes memories and thoughts about my career with the indian health service near the border with mexico, serving the tohono o’odham tribe. ( j am board fam med ; : – .) keywords: arizona, family physicians, native americans, mexico, personal satisfaction, retirement, united states indian health service my career began with a rainbow. i had driven cross country from charleston, south carolina to sells, arizona, stopping in kansas where my mother joined me as a companion on the second half of my road trip. my hometown of emporia seemed like a rough boundary or membrane between east and west, a place where tree-covered hills changed to grass-covered prairie. we enjoyed stopping in little towns along the way, places where cafes had signs saying, “free coffee for all law enforcement,” bulle- tin boards held notices of community events, and all heads swiveled briefly when we walked in the door. gradually, fields and plains became desert and mountains. the last stretch was a mountain- flanked drive from tucson through the sonoran desert, thick with saguaros, chollas and ocotillos. we could not believe that it was over degrees in late september. i made my job decision late in the third year of my family medicine residency, after considering and rejecting other options for reasons such as lim- ited practice scope and minimal vacation time. usually the opposite of a procrastinator, my tardi- ness in job choice did not worry me, as there would always be the option of continued shifts in small town south carolina emergency departments. my interview on the tohono o’odham reservation was an afterthought, an add-on to what i thought was a more promising interview in tucson. although i had spent a month on the zuni reservation during residency, like most people in our country i was ignorant of this tribe of desert-dwellers on their vast land bordering both tucson and sonora, mexico. what was it that exerted a draw for me? somehow the unpretentious facility, the petro- glyphs near the small, dirt airstrip with the tattered windsock, the dedication of the medical staff, and the beauty of the desert conspired to seduce me. as i drove back to tucson, a silver moon shone on the dark silhouettes of the desert plants and the myste- rious mass of the mountains, and i knew that i would be working on the reservation. but not forever, i thought—perhaps for two years. charleston still exerted a pull, as did kansas. this job would be an adventure, a way station on the way to something else that might be more per- manent. as we drove over the rise into the small town of sells, the rainbow seemed to be blessing my adventure, a gateway to new experience. i soon discovered that not all would be rainbows; this was apparent when i discovered that my gov- ernment housing had a gas leak. the indian health service has always been and remains low on resour- ces, and those who work with native people learn how to make do with less. at times less meant a brutal shortage of medical staff, leaving those of us remaining exhausted as we provided clinic, inpa- tient, and emergency department care for a people dealing with a very high burden of diabetes and other chronic illness. early on, clinic days were especially long. call was frequent and often involved riding along with ambulance patients, as emergency medical technicians were few and this article was externally peer reviewed. submitted august ; revised september ; accepted september . from the indian health service, san xavier health center, retired, tucson, arizona (bn); university of arizona clinical assistant professor, tucson, arizona (bn). funding: none. corresponding author: brenda neufeld, md, n. th avenue, tucson, az (e-mail: brendaneufeld@ hotmail.com). doi: . /jabfm. . . crashing out of a career o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m mailto:brendaneufeld@hotmail.com mailto:brendaneufeld@hotmail.com http://www.jabfm.org/ paramedics nonexistent. a year in, i turned down federal loan repayment—i thought it unlikely that i could last for the two-year commitment. when i was diagnosed with lupus almost two years into my career with the o’odham, i felt that this added to the solidarity that i already felt with patients. there were many rewards. i had what is so rare, long-term relationships with those i cared for— because despite my initial plans and my health chal- lenges, i stayed with the indian health service on the tohono o’odham reservation for years, my entire career following residency. as a family doctor i had the perfect job. early on i delivered babies who are now well into their s, and i treated numerous generations of many families. i learned about the rich culture of the tohono o’odham as well as many other tribes. tight family networks often reminded me of my ancestral background of rural midwestern mennonites. it was revealing to see people in their homes on occasional home visits, and an honor to attend funerals at the beautiful san xavier del bac mission church. i met many fascinating people and heard many compelling stories. i always enjoyed see- ing patients who had good senses of humor, despite their health issues; with some patients i laughed to the point of tears. i worked with dedicated medical and clinic staff, and together we made many hard- won improvements to patient care. i remain in a long-running book group with many of the doctors on staff, as well as their spouses. lupus continued to remind me of its presence, sometimes forcefully and sometimes softly. eventually i had to stop taking call and gradually reduce my number of clinic hours. since lupus means wolf in latin, when it was active i had an image of a hungry wolf on the hunt. late last year the wolf was particularly active, as she warned me insistently that work was no long compatible with caring for myself adequately. a flare of long-time pleuritic, pericardial, arthritic, and neurological symptoms that had waxed and waned through the years like unpredictable tides was now, along with migraines and crushing fatigue, too much to ignore. of necessity my decision to retire was rather ab- rupt, with no chance to say good-bye during clinic visits as i would have liked. my symptoms were too severe to allow continued work on a temporary ba- sis, and bureaucratic consideration of insurance waiting periods and federal disability retirement details also prevented me from doing any further hours in the clinic. brexit was much in the news at the time and i joked sardonically that i needed to “crash out” of my career—retirement was a firm border between before and after. medicine is such a helping profession that at first i had a panicky feeling about not aiding people in any formalized fashion. where would that caregiv- ing impulse go now? the sudden absence of my patients felt like a hole in my life. in the immediate phase i was helped by trying to make the transition as orderly as possible, caring for patients by manag- ing the handoff as best i could. i wrote a letter to be sent to all my patients, expressing regret that i needed to retire, thanks for my time with them, and assurance that my colleagues would take good care of them. i called as many long-time patients as i could. patients were unfailingly kind and gracious as i bid them farewell. they were already aware that i had health challenges, as the signs were visible. i had worked while using an arrange of wraps, splints, special shoes, canes, walkers, and scooters, many of which came in handy as visual aids when i was urg- ing devices on patients who had needed them. not wanting visits to become about me, i had not talked much with patients about my health challenges. however, in response to questions i did often give short-hand versions that patients could often relate to. “i have neuropathy” illicited knowing sympathy, diabetes-related neuropathy being an ever-present scourge on the reservation. perhaps the knowledge that we were both persons with impairments helped in some cases for the of us to more easily form an alliance. as i called patients to say good-bye and to wish them well, i knew that patients would be curi- ous and that vague explanations might make closure difficult for them. as a result i felt more free to talk about lupus and the challenges that it had brought me, while at the same time assuring patients that retirement would be good for my health and that they need not worry about me. as i contemplated my new life, it was also help- ful that i had started the process of acceptance years prior, during other major lupus flares. i had always known that early retirement could be a possibility, and now tried to cultivate gratitude that i had worked as many years as i did. of course, i had not done the job perfectly, but i had the satisfaction of knowing i had done it to the best of my ability. my work would live on through the patient care that my colleagues picked up from me, the committee assignments and chair positions i handed over, and the policies i had written and revised that would jabfm march–april vol. no. http://www.jabfm.org o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://www.jabfm.org/ remain in effect and gradually take different shapes under new hands. it was deeply fulfilling to think of the hundreds of medical students that i had super- vised through the years, especially those who were influenced to choose family medicine for careers. i started work on this essay as soon as i knew i would need to retire, realizing somehow that it would be useful to review my career and put my thoughts into words. i gradually came to feel that each of my myriad patient encounters continued to reside in me in some way, and that in some indefinable fashion the work of memory was continuing service, built into a career in medicine from the beginning. some memories came back to me vividly whether from visits long ago or last year. surely even a visit that i did not remember continued to be a part of me, just as a dinner with friends, a poetry reading, or a hike that i no longer was part of my layered experience. that experience of memory, both conscious and below the surface, consisted of so many strata of joy—prenatal patients await- ing new life, squirmy children happy to chatter as i examined them, college students anticipating their careers, elderly patients tenderly cared for by family, and so much more. of course there was also a toll of sadness. historic trauma is a heavy load for large popula- tions of peoples in our country, my patients included. many patients have told me of unbearable personal trauma and crushing family tragedy. as physicians we all see the effects of social, environ- mental, and historic factors that we cannot change, and that was certainly the case for me. many of my patients struggled with poverty, lack of opportunity, and the difficult burdens of chronic illness. many died too young. caring for this population was challenging, but incredibly meaningful. now i find meaning in time with family and friends, enjoyment of nature, and the study of humanistic pursuits other than medicine. always a voracious reader, my appetite for books has only grown. i am taking full advantage of the university of arizona humanities seminars, studying every- thing from chinese poetry to the musiciology of the beatles to the surrealist films of luis bunuel. in my more whimsical moments i imagine, without in any way regretting the path i did take, other paths i might have taken, such as my childhood ambition of becoming a librarian. had that happened i might be now reviewing my library career, whimsically wondering what life would have been like had i become a family doctor! life contains so much pos- sibility for experience and knowledge that perhaps it takes a multiverse to contain it. as i continue to live in tucson, which abuts the reservation, i sometimes see patients and their fam- ilies around town. i run into them in stores, at events, in church, and at the wonderful san xavier mission when i take visitors onto the reservation. i’ve attended a tohono o’odham community college basketball game, and i intend to go to patient funerals when i can. a friend asked me, “are you still a doctor?” a question that surprised me. retirement does not negate that identity, but it does change it. now my interactions with former patients, though tinged by the memory of my time in examination rooms with them, are of human beings interacting on a more level playing field. does anyone really understand the term “life’s work” at the start of a career? i am so grateful that i had the privilege of sharing joys and burdens with patients. i continue to do so in retirement through memory as i proceed with a different phase of life’s work. as i told patients good-bye they offered their prayers, good wishes, and assurances that they would remember me. i am happy that my patients remain presences for me, even as i no longer see them in the same role, and that i can offer the same to them. maybe i was successful in softening the ex- perience of “crashing out.” maybe the border of retirement is more of a membrane than a wall. to see this article online, please go to: http://jabfm.org/content/ / / .full. doi: . /jabfm. . . crashing out of a career o n a p ril b y g u e st. p ro te cte d b y co p yrig h t. h ttp ://w w w .ja b fm .o rg / j a m b o a rd f a m m e d : first p u b lish e d a s . /ja b fm . . . o n m a rch . d o w n lo a d e d fro m http://jabfm.org/content/ / / .full http://jabfm.org/content/ / / .full http://www.jabfm.org/ poster presentation open access screening for metabolic syndrome risk factors in mestizo, tarahumara and mennonite scholars from chihuahua mexico i leal-berumen *, v santana-rodriguez , p hernández-rodríguez , v moreno-brito , a licón-trillo , e gonzález-rodríguez , i alcalá-sánchez , m conchas-ramírez , c santiago-antonio from metabolism, diet and disease washington, dc, usa. - may background obesity and diabetes mellitus prevalence has increased during the past decade among adults and adolescents in mexico. according to la encuesta nacional de salud y nutrición , % of adult population is obese and % has overweight, whereas in adolescents is close to %. diabetes prevalence is estimated to be . % in adult mexican population [ ]. metabolic syndrome (ms) in adults is defined as a cluster of risk factors including abdominal obesity, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance and hypertension, the presence of three or more components increases the risk for heart disease, diabetes mellitus type and obesity [ , ]. early identification of children at risk of developing ms must be estimated. objective to screen for ms risk factors among mestizo, tarahu- mara and mennonite teenagers from chihuahua, mexico materials and methods a convenient study was performed in high schools from chihuahua small towns (guachochi, cuauhtemoc and carichí) including teenage students from - years old, % males, % females. blood pressure, anthropo- metric measures, fasting glucose, triglycerides and choles- terol hdl were obtained with signed parental informed consent. we used an adapted ms definition [ ]. results in total population . % had abnormal abdominal obe- sity, . % had increased fasting glucose, . % had abnormal triglycerides, and . % low hdl cholesterol levels. within populations, triglyceride abnormal levels where observed in % tarahumaras, in % mestizos and in . % mennonites, being greater in females. hdl cholesterol abnormal levels where observed in . % tar- ahumaras, in . % mestizos and in . % mennonites. abnormal blood pressure was mainly detected in men- nonites. according to bmi female percentile classifica- tion, tarahumaras showed greater overweight ( . %), mestizas greater obesity ( . %) and . % male tarahu- maras were overweight. conclusions this is the first study in chihuahua that looks for ms risk factors among scholars from different ethnicity. in general, tarahumaras seem to be at higher risk to develop ms, females from this population, had greater overweight, as well as abnormal triglycerides and hdl cholesterol levels. mennonites were healthier than mestizo and tarahumara teenagers. our results imply that cultural habits and genetic play an important role in developing ms risk fac- tors that we need to consider when prevention strategies are designed. acknowledgements multidisciplinary metabolic syndrome study group, uach for financial support and students that had joined this project. author details multidisciplinary metabolic syndrome study group, universidad autónoma de chihuahua, chihuahua, , mexico. colegio de nutriólogos, chihuahua, , mexico. published: june multidisciplinary metabolic syndrome study group, universidad autónoma de chihuahua, chihuahua, , mexico full list of author information is available at the end of the article leal-berumen et al. bmc proceedings , (suppl ):p http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / /s /p © leal-berumen et al; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . references . olaiz-fernández g, rivera-dommarco j, shamah-levy t, rojas r, villalpando- hernández s, hernández-avila m, et al: encuesta nacional de salud y nutrición . cuernavaca, méxico, instituto nacional de salud pública. . alberti kg, zimmet p, shaw j: metabolic syndrome – a new world-wide definition. a consensus statement from the international diabetes federation. diabet med , : - . . sattar n, gaw a, scherbakova o, et al: metabolic syndrome with and without c-reactive protein as a predictor of coronary heart disease and diabetes in the west of scotland coronary prevention study. circulation , : - . . cárdenas-villarreal vm, lópez-alvarenga jc, bastarrachea ra, rizo-baeza mm, cortés-castell e: prevalencia del síndrome metabólico y sus components en adolescentes de la ciudad de monterrey, nuevo león. arc cardio mex , ( ): - . doi: . / - - -s -p cite this article as: leal-berumen et al.: screening for metabolic syndrome risk factors in mestizo, tarahumara and mennonite scholars from chihuahua mexico. bmc proceedings (suppl ):p . submit your next manuscript to biomed central and take full advantage of: • convenient online submission • thorough peer review • no space constraints or color figure charges • immediate publication on acceptance • inclusion in pubmed, cas, scopus and google scholar • research which is freely available for redistribution submit your manuscript at www.biomedcentral.com/submit leal-berumen et al. bmc proceedings , (suppl ):p http://www.biomedcentral.com/ - / /s /p page of 	background 	objective 	materials and methods 	results 	conclusions 	acknowledgements 	author details 	references articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org this is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited original article j clin med res. ; ( ): - resselmer seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in mennonites in mexico cosme alvarado-esquivela, c, luis francisco sanchez-anguianob, jesus hernandez-tinocob abstract background: the seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus (hev) in- fection in mennonites has not been studied. we aimed to determine the seroprevalence of anti-hev igg antibodies in mennonites in du- rango, mexico, and to compare it with the seroprevalence in general population in rural durango. the socio-demographic, clinical and behavioral characteristics of mennonites associated with hev sero- positivity were also investigated. methods: we performed a case-control study to determine the fre- quency of anti-hev igg antibodies in mennonites (mean age . ± . years old) and age- and gender-matched non-men- nonites controls using an enzyme-linked immunoassay. we used a standardized questionnaire to obtain the socio-demographic, clinical and behavioral characteristics of the mennonites. results: anti-hev igg antibodies were detected in ( . %) of mennonites and in ( . %) of controls. seroprevalence of anti-hev igg antibodies was significantly lower in mennonites than in controls (odds ratio (or) = . ; % confidence interval (ci): . - . ; p < . ). logistic regression of socio-de- mographic and behavioral characteristics of mennonites showed that hev seropositivity was only associated with increasing age (or = . ; % ci: . - . ; p = . ). while sex, birth place, residence, educational level, socio-economic status, occupation, animal contacts, foreign travel, frequency of eating away from home, consumption of raw or undercooked meat, type of meat consumed, consumption of unpasteurized milk or untreated water, and consumption of unwashed raw vegetables or fruits were not associated with hev seropositivity. none of the mennonites suffered from clinical hepatitis. manuscript accepted for publication september , abiomedical research laboratory, faculty of medicine and nutrition, juarez university of durango state, durango, mexico binstitute for scientific research “dr. roberto rivera damm”, juarez univer- sity of durango state, durango, mexico ccorresponding author: cosme alvarado-esquivel, biomedical research laboratory, faculty of medicine and nutrition, av. universidad s/n, durango, dgo, mexico. email: alvaradocosme@yahoo.com doi: http://dx.doi.org/ . /jocmr w conclusions: results demonstrate: ) serological evidence of hev exposure in mennonites; however, mennonites have a lower sero- prevalence of hev antibodies than controls from the rural general population; ) seroprevalence in mennonites increased with age. fur- ther studies with a larger sample size to determine more contributing factors for hev infection in mennonites are needed. keywords: hepatitis e virus; ethnic groups; seroepidemiologic studies; rural population; case-control study; mexico introduction hepatitis e virus (hev) causes infections worldwide regard- less of the development of the countries [ , ]. hev is con- sidered the most frequent pathogen responsible for acute viral hepatitis in the world [ ]. hev can be transmitted by a number of routes including fecal-oral transmission [ , ], blood trans- fusion [ , ], and consumption of meat from hev-infected animals, i.e., pork, wild boar and deer [ - ]. infections with hev have caused outbreaks especially in developing countries by drinking water contaminated with feces [ - ]. infections with hev usually lead to an acute self-limited disease [ ], but fulminant acute hepatitis may occur [ ]. hev causes a low clinical illness rate in children but a high fatality rate in pregnant women [ ]. in immunocompromised individuals, hev may cause chronic infection with rapidly progressive disease [ , ]. in addition, hev infection is responsible for mortality in patients with underlying chronic liver disease [ ]. the seroepidemiology of hev infection in ethnic groups in the world has been poorly studied. there is a lack of in- formation about the seroepidemiology of hev infection in mennonites (an ethnic group of mexican citizens of german descent or origin). mennonites in durango, mexico live in ru- ral areas and work usually in agriculture and livestock raising. we sought to determine the seroprevalence of anti-hev igg antibodies in mennonites in durango, mexico, and to compare it with the seroprevalence in general population in rural du- rango. the socio-demographic, clinical and behavioral char- acteristics of mennonites associated with hev seropositivity were also investigated. articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org hepatitis e virus and mennonites j clin med res. ; ( ): - methods study design and study population through a case-control study design using archival serum samples, we compared the seroprevalence of hev infection in mennonites and age- and gender-matched people of the general population in rural durango, mexico. archival serum samples were originally used to determine the seroepi- demiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in mennonites [ ] and general population [ ] in rural durango, mexico. the lat- ter population was also recently studied to determine the epi- demiology of hev infection in rural durango, mexico [ ]. inclusion criteria for the mennonites (cases) were: mennonites living in nuevo ideal, durango, aged years and older and who accepted to participate in the study. exclusion criteria for mennonites were: insufficient amount of serum and incom- plete socio-demographic data. in total, mennonites ( male and females) were included in the study. they were - ( . ± . ) years old. inclusion criteria for the gen- eral population of rural durango (controls) were: inhabitants table . distribution of hev infection among case-control pairs case control total or ( % ci) p-value exposed (hev infection) unexposed (no hev infection) exposed (hev infection) unexposed (no hev infection) total . ( . - . ) < . . has been added to each cell for calculations. table . socio-demographic characteristics of mennonites and seroprevalence of hev infection characteristic no. of subjects testeda prevalence of hev infection p value no. % gender male . . female . age groups (years) or less . . - . > . birth place durango state . . other mexican state or abroad . residence place durango state . abroad . educational level no education . . - years . or more years . occupation laborerb . . non-laborerc . socio-economic level low . . medium and high . asums may not add up to because of missing values. bemployee, factory worker, busi- ness, student, professional, other, none. chousewife, student, none occupation. articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org alvarado-esquivel et al j clin med res. ; ( ): - of rural durango, aged years and older, and who accepted to participate in the study. exclusion criteria for controls were the same as in cases. controls were randomly selected and in- cluded males and females aged - ( . ± . ) years old. cases and controls had comparable number of males and females (p = . ) and age (p = . ). general characteristics of mennonites we used a standardized questionnaire to obtain the socio- demographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics of the mennonites. socio-demographic items included age, sex, birth place, residence, educational level, socio-economic status, and occupation. clinical data included health status, history of blood transfusions or transplants. behavioral characteristics included animal contacts, foreign travel, frequency of eating away from home (in restaurants or fast food outlets), con- sumption of raw or undercooked meat, type of meat consumed (pork, lamb, beef, goat, boar, chicken, turkey, rabbit, venison, squirrel, horse or other), consumption of ham, sausages or sa- lami, and hygiene practices as consumption of unpasteurized milk or untreated water, and consumption of unwashed raw vegetables or fruits. laboratory tests serum samples were analyzed for anti-hev igg antibodies by a commercially available enzyme immunoassay “hev- igg elisa” kit (diagnostic automation inc., calabasas, ca, usa). according to the manufacturer, this assay has a sensi- tivity of . % and a specificity of . %. all immunoassays were performed following the manufacturer’s instructions, and negative and positive controls were tested in each assay. statistical analysis we used the software microsoft excel, epi info version . . and , and spss version . for the statistical analysis. for calculation of the sample size, we used a % two-sided con- fidence level, a power of %, a : ratio of cases and con- trols, a reference seroprevalence of . % [ ] as the expected frequency of exposure in controls, and an odds ratio of . the result of the sample size calculation was cases and controls. age in cases and controls was compared by the paired student’s t-test. we used the mcnemar’s paired test for comparison of the hev seroprevalence in cases and controls. in addition, we used the pearson’s chi-squared test and the two-tailed fisher’s exact test (when values were small) for an initial assessment of the association of hev seropositivity and mennonites’ characteristics. socio-demographic and behav- ioral characteristics of the mennonites with a p value < . obtained in the bivariate analysis were further analyzed by multivariate analysis using backward stepwise logistic regres- sion analysis. variables with zero values were not included in the multivariate analysis. odds ratio (or) and % confidence interval (ci) were calculated by the mantel-haenszel analysis. statistical significance was set at a p value less than . . ethical aspects we used only archival serum samples and data from two previ- ous surveys [ , ]. both surveys were approved by the in- stitutional ethical committees of the mexican social security institute and the general hospital of the secretary of health in durango city. the purpose and procedures of the surveys were explained to all participants, and a written informed consent was obtained from all of them. results anti-hev igg antibodies were detected in ( . %) of mennonites and in ( . %) of controls. seroprevalence of anti-hev igg antibodies was significantly lower in men- nonites than in controls (or = . ; % ci: . - . ; p < . ) (table ). of the socio-demographic characteristics of mennonites (table ), three variables showed p values < . by bivari- ate analysis: sex (p = . ), age (p = . ), and occupation (p = . ). other socio-demographic characteristics including birthplace, residence, educational level, and socio-economic status had p values > . by bivariate analysis. with respect to the behavioral characteristics assessed, the variables consumption of pork, beef, pigeon meat, ham, un- washed raw fruits, and untreated water as well as eating away from home and traveled abroad had p values < . by bi- variate analysis (table ). other behavioral characteristics in- cluding animal contacts, consumption of raw or undercooked meat, consumption of meat other than pork, beef, or pigeon meat, consumption of sausages or salami, unpasteurized milk or unwashed raw vegetables had p values > . by bivari- ate analysis. the variable consumption of unwashed raw fruits had a zero value in the bivariate analysis and was not evaluated in the multivariate analysis. further analysis using logistic re- gression of socio-demographic and behavioral characteristics of mennonites showed that hev seropositivity was only as- sociated with increasing age (or = . ; % ci: . - . ; p = . ). concerning clinical characteristics, seroprevalence of hev infection was similarly observed in ill ( / : . %) and healthy ( / : . %) mennonites (p = . ), and none of the mennonites was suffering from clinical hepatitis. in addition, none of the mennonites with history of blood transfusion or transplantation had anti-hev igg antibodies. discussion there is a poor knowledge on the seroepidemiology of hev infection among ethnic groups in the world. the present study was performed to investigate the presence of hev infection in a sample of mennonites in rural durango, mexico. we found articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org hepatitis e virus and mennonites j clin med res. ; ( ): - table . bivariate analysis of a selection of behavioral characteristics of mennonites and hev infection characteristic no. of subjects testeda prevalence of hev infection p value no. % raising animalsb yes . . no . pork meat consumption yes . . no . beef consumption yes . . no pigeon meat consumption yes . . no . duck meat consumption yes . . no . degree of meat cooking undercooked . . well done . raw cow milk consumption yes . . no . sausages consumption yes . . no . ham consumption yes . . no . salami consumption yes . . no . unwashed raw fruits yes . no . untreated water yes . . no . traveled abroad yes . . no . national trips yes . . no . frequency of eating out of home up to times a year . . more than times a year . asums may not add up to because of missing values. braising of any kind of animals. articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org alvarado-esquivel et al j clin med res. ; ( ): - that hev infection exits in mennonites but in a low seropreva- lence rate. the seroprevalence of hev infection in mennon- ites ( . %) was significantly lower than the seroprevalence found in the gender- and age-matched controls ( . %). the low seroprevalence of hev infection in mennonites was unex- pected. mennonites live in rural communities and an increased ( . %) seroprevalence of hev infection has been found in general population in rural durango [ ]. it is not clear why mennonites have a lower seroprevalence of hev infection than the one in general population in rural durango. both pop- ulations groups reside in rural communities, have comparable age and number of males and females, and have contact with animals. we are not aware of further studies on the seroepide- miology of hev infection in mennonites or any other ethnic group in mexico. therefore, the hev seroprevalence found in mennonites cannot be compared with other seroprevalence rates in ethnic groups in the country. there have been two pre- vious studies on the seroepidemiology of hev infection in ru- ral durango state. one study included pregnant women [ ] and the other study included general population [ ]. how- ever, seroprevalences found in such studies are not suitable for comparison with the seroprevalence found in mennonites be- cause of the lack of gender and age controlling. in the national context, there have been two previous seroepidemiological studies about hev infection. however, seroprevalences found in such studies cannot be compared with that in mennonites because of differences in serological assays and characteristics of the population groups among the studies. in a first study, bernal-reyes and licona-solis [ ] found an hev seropreva- lence of . % in general population in hidalgo state which is located in central mexico. in a national survey, researchers found a . % seroprevalence of hev infection in subjects aged - years old [ ]. in contrast, the mean age of the mennonites studied was . years old. in the international context, seroprevalence of hev infection in mennonites is as low as the . % national seroprevalence in general population in the usa reported recently [ ]. concerning socio-demographic and behavioral charac- teristics of mennonites associated with hev seropositivity, multivariate analysis showed that hev exposure was only as- sociated with age. older mennonites have a higher seropreva- lence than younger mennonites. this finding is consistent with results of other studies where seroprevalence of hev infection increases with age [ , ]. no further characteristics of men- nonites were found associated with hev infection in the pre- sent study. the low frequency of hev infection in mennonites did not allow us to obtain enough power to reach statistical sig- nificance in the analysis of likely contributing factors for hev infection. consumption of untreated water and availability of water at home have been associated with hev exposure in ru- ral durango [ ]. mennonites with consumption of untreated water had a higher (but not statistically significant) seropreva- lence ( . %) than those without such practice ( . %). intrigu- ingly, mennonites do not obtain water from any public water supplying system but obtain water from their own water wells at home. this is a clear difference among mennonites and con- trols. people in rural communities in durango usually obtain water from pipes of public water supplying systems, and con- tamination of such system might lead to a wide dissemination of hev to many houses. the lack of such contributing factor for hev in mennonites might explain the low seroprevalence of hev infection in mennonites. this fact suggests a reduc- tion in the transmission of hev infection by using water from individual water wells in each house. conclusions we conclude: ) results of the present study demonstrate se- rological evidence of hev exposure in mennonites; however, mennonites have a lower seroprevalence of hev antibodies than controls from the rural general population; ) seropreva- lence in mennonites increased with age. further studies with a larger sample size to determine more contributing factors for hev infection in mennonites are needed. conflict of interest none. references . dalton hr, pas sd, madden rg, van der eijk aa. hepa- titis e virus: current concepts and future perspectives. curr infect dis rep. ; ( ): . . song yj, park wj, park bj, lee jb, park sy, song cs, lee nh, et al. hepatitis e virus infections in humans and animals. clin exp vaccine res. ; ( ): - . . kamar n, bendall r, legrand-abravanel f, xia ns, ijaz s, izopet j, dalton hr. hepatitis e. lancet. ; ( ): - . . verghese vp, robinson jl. a systematic review of hepatitis e virus infection in children. clin infect dis. ; ( ): - . . kmush b, wierzba t, krain l, nelson k, labrique ab. epidemiology of hepatitis e in low- and middle- income countries of asia and africa. semin liver dis. ; ( ): - . . dalton hr, hunter jg, bendall rp. hepatitis e. curr opin infect dis. ; ( ): - . . dreier j, juhl d. autochthonous hepatitis e virus infec- tions: a new transfusion-associated risk? transfus med hemother. ; ( ): - . . christou l, kosmidou m. hepatitis e virus in the west- ern world--a pork-related zoonosis. clin microbiol infect. ; ( ): - . . meng xj. zoonotic and foodborne transmission of hepa- titis e virus. semin liver dis. ; ( ): - . . ruggeri fm, di bartolo i, ponterio e, angeloni g, tre- visani m, ostanello f. zoonotic transmission of hepati- tis e virus in industrialized countries. new microbiol. ; ( ): - . . abravanel f, lhomme s, dubois m, peron jm, alric l, kamar n, izopet j. hepatitis e virus. med mal infect. articles © the authors | journal compilation © j clin med res and elmer press inc™ | www.jocmr.org hepatitis e virus and mennonites j clin med res. ; ( ): - ; ( ): - . . freshwater da. hepatitis e: the forgotten virus. j r army med corps. ; ( ): - . . kamar n, dalton hr, abravanel f, izopet j. hepatitis e virus infection. clin microbiol rev. ; ( ): - . . arends je, ghisetti v, irving w, dalton hr, izopet j, hoepelman ai, salmon d. hepatitis e: an emerg- ing infection in high income countries. j clin virol. ; ( ): - . . alvarado-esquivel c, rojas-rivera a, estrada-martinez s, sifuentes-alvarez a, liesenfeld o, garcia-lopez cr, dubey jp. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infec- tion in a mennonite community in durango state, mexi- co. j parasitol. ; ( ): - . . alvarado-esquivel c, cruz-magallanes hm, esquivel- cruz r, estrada-martinez s, rivas-gonzalez m, liesen- feld o, martinez-garcia sa, et al. seroepidemiology of toxoplasma gondii infection in human adults from three rural communities in durango state, mexico. j parasitol. ; ( ): - . . alvarado-esquivel c, sanchez-anguiano lf, hernandez- tinoco j. seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in general population in rural durango, mexico. hepat mon. ; ( ):e . . bernal reyes r, licona solis je. [seroepidemiology of hepatitis e in the state of hidalgo]. rev gastroenterol mex. ; ( ): - . . alvarado-esquivel c, sanchez-anguiano lf, hernandez- tinoco j. hepatitis e virus exposure in pregnant women in rural durango, mexico. ann hepatol. ; ( ): - . . alvarez-munoz mt, torres j, damasio l, gomez a, ta- pia-conyer r, munoz o. seroepidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in mexican subjects to years of age. arch med res. ; ( ): - . . ditah i, ditah f, devaki p, ditah c, kamath ps, charlton m. current epidemiology of hepatitis e virus infection in the united states: low seroprevalence in the national health and nutrition evaluation survey. hepatology. ; ( ): - . mennonites, amish, and the american civil war (review) mennonites, amish, and the american civil war (review) sean a. scott ohio history, volume , , pp. - (review) published by the kent state university press doi: for additional information about this article [ this content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the covid- pandemic. ] https://doi.org/ . /ohh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ https://doi.org/ . /ohh. . https://muse.jhu.edu/article/ bo ok reviews of these men joined harrod and bowman on the unsuccessful ohio foray, and subsequently “capt. wm. harrod, with others, went up the ohio to red stone in the two keel boats &c. and took along several bones & tusks got at the big bone lick.” what became of these specimens remains unknown, but this was an important early effort at “mining” the deposits at big bone. similarly, neither jillson nor hedeen mentions thomas rodney’s well-doc- umented stop there on october , , less than a week after meriwether lewis’s collecting visit for thomas jefferson. rodney not only took measure- ments of several of the remaining fossil bones but speculated (incorrectly) that no animals larger than bison ever existed there, larger bones being “only fossil concretions.” rodney himself collected a mastodon tooth and a tusk fragment, but these were lost when his boat sank at natchez. curiously, hedeen merely reproduces without explanation a photograph of three paleo-indian points “collected” at big bone lick. elsewhere, he has written that these were discovered in the lowest level of the big bone de- posits during william clark’s excavations for thomas jefferson and are “now likely” housed at the cincinnati museum center. the significance of associated paleo-indian artifacts and megafauna at big bone lick should certainly be acknowledged but so too should the considerable debate exist- ing about the precise provenance and pedigree of these artifacts. such strictures aside, this book provides ample context for the present big bone lick state park museum and should remain a standard resource for many years. ja m e s l . m u r p h y the ohio state university mennonites, amish, and the american civil war. by james o. lehman and steven m. nolt. (baltimore: johns hopkins university press, . xiv, pp. cloth $ . , isbn - - - .) when war engulfed virginia in the summer of , mennonite christian good was conscripted into the state militia. after good experienced battle and failed to discharge his rifle, his perturbed captain asked him why he . henry hill, “bowman’s campaign— ,” ohio archaeological and historical publica- tions ( ): . . simon gratz, “thomas rodney,” pennsylvania magazine of history and biography . ( ): ‒ . . stanley hedeen, natural history of the cincinnati region. cincinnati museum center scientific contributions no. (cincinnati: the center, ), . in the same publication, these artifacts are captioned only as “most likely [discovered] during william clark’s expedition” (plate ). ohio history had refused to shoot at union soldiers in clear view. the committed pacifist reportedly responded, “they’re people; we don’t shoot people” ( ). while most protestants north and south wholeheartedly supported their governments and sent scores of soldiers to fight in the civil war, members of anabaptist sects struggled to balance the conflicting duties of citizen- ship in both an earthly state and a heavenly kingdom. as religious outsiders who traced their origins to the radical fringe of the protestant reformation, many mennonites and amish had settled in america to avoid compulsory military service in europe. more significant than challenging their civic loyalty and threatening their commitment to the principles of pacifism, the civil war forced them to engage the political and cultural mainstream and adapt to the contingencies of war in order to protect their distinctive and countercultural religious beliefs. in a compelling narrative, lehman and nolt effectively recount the unique circumstances of american anabaptists in three geographic regions. in vir- ginia’s shenandoah valley, conscripted pacifists could secure an exemption from military service by paying a $ commutation fee or furnishing a substitute. although a few mennonites fought for the confederacy, many more attempted to flee north and avoid supporting the rebellion. during the autumn of , the union’s hard war policy resulted in the destruction of several mennonite farms, and these southern conscientious objectors suf- fered at the hands of rebels who confiscated their crops and livestock and federals who destroyed what remained. pennsylvania mennonites, in contrast, benefited from political ties to radical republican senator thaddeus stevens, who helped his constituents secure military exemptions from the state militia without paying a commu- tation fee. most pennsylvania pacifists realized that political participation was essential to the preservation of their religious privileges. for several reasons, midwestern mennonites and amish lacked the po- litical connections of their pennsylvania brethren. many pacifists drafted in ohio and indiana paid a $ commutation fee or hired substitutes to avoid service. several ohio anabaptists supported the democratic party, and townships with large pacifist populations in holmes and wayne counties produced large majorities for clement vallandigham in the gubernato- rial contest. however, by the campaigns of , many midwestern menno- nites had adopted the apolitical stance espoused by john funk, who began publishing the herald of truth in elkhart, indiana, and asserted in its pages that a consistent application of pacifist principles prevented a conscientious objector from voting, seeking public office, or purchasing a substitute. most mennonites and amish, the authors conclude, remained true to their spiritual convictions despite the turbulent conditions of civil war. by highlighting the struggles of these religious outsiders who strived to keep bo ok reviews the church distinct from the world, lehman and nolt have produced an insightful study that further elucidates the centrality of religion for a proper understanding of the civil war. s e a n a . s c o t t ouachita baptist university politician extraordinaire: the tempestuous life and times of martin l. davey. by frank p. vazzano. (kent, ohio: kent state university press, . xiv, pp. cloth $ . , isbn - - - - .) with his biography of martin davey, frank vazzano sets out to tell the “good story” of a “very, very interesting man” (x). he accomplishes this goal admi- rably as an “unabashed story teller” and as an historian. certainly, no one knows davey better than the author who has written three articles about davey’s terms as governor, all of which appeared in ohio history. an effective biography not only examines the subject’s life but also the nature of place and time and the meaning of change. as the title indicates, vazzano understands this well. vazzano is especially successful in describing davey’s life and times during his formative years and early career during the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries. born of an immigrant father obsessed with the apparently quixotic quest for scientific tree care and raised in poverty in small town kent, ohio, davey grew to manhood as a gifted salesman and businessman, community booster, and brilliant politician. vaz- zano captures the transformation of davey during changing times as he turns his father’s vision into a successful business with customers across much of the nation and helps “boost” kent from a nineteenth-century village with dirt streets to a modern community with all the amenities of public services. vazzano successfully captures the emergence of modern america and the nature of local politics. barely out of his teens, davey is traveling to cleveland to sell his father’s book, the tree doctor, and then new york to promote the davey tree expert company. he boldly cultivates captains of industry, wins the tree care of the capitol grounds, and uses advertising to creatively expand the reach of the business. at the same time, vazzano aptly shows davey mastering local politics: the network of friendships and personal alliances, the use of patronage to reward friends and define politi- cal power, the necessity of strong organization, and the efficacy of public speaking. he was elected mayor of kent, served well, and, as countless poli- ticians before and after him, used that base to win higher office. although one of ohio’s most successful politicians in the twentieth cen- tury who served multiple terms as mayor, in congress, and as governor of ohio, davey remains elusive as a political leader. vazzano documents davey’s brilliance and limitations as a politician; his organizational skills, his tireless t h e e t h n i c c h u r c h a n d i m m i g r a n t i n t e g r a t i o n : s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , c u l t u r a l p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d t h e r e - d e f i n i t i o n o f c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y by l a u r a j e a n b e a t t i e b . a . (hons), u n i v e r s i t y of g u e l p h , a t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f m a s t e r o f a r t s i n the f a c u l t y o f g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s d e p a r t m e n t of g e o g r a p h y w e accept this thesis as c o n f o r m i n g to the r e q u i r e d s t a n d a r d t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a a u g u s t © l a u r a j e a n beattie, in presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the university of british columbia, i agree that the library shall make it freely available for reference and study. i further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. it is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. department of ( & &^t\+^j the university of british columbia vancouver, canada date s q p f - i j ftft de- ( / ) a b s t r a c t consideration o f the significance o f religious institutions i n the experience o f immigrant settlement is, at best, marginalized i n immigration and church history literature. the limited amount o f research that has been carried out is limited i n time frame and/or by its lack o f consideration o f the wider social service functions o f the church. it is rarely recognized that for new immigrants, churches can function as critical access routes to the host society or as protective cultural communities. churches provide stability in unfamiliar territory through the creation o f a sense o f community, a sense o f place and an extended family o f support. this research seeks to understand how the church has served the german ethnic and immigrant community; how the church has aided cultural preservation as w e l l as immigrant integration; and finally, how some churches have re-defined themselves i n the face o f member 'assimilation,' generational changes and neighbourhood transition. for some churches, their mission has been extended beyond their original german ethnic community to local neighbourhood residents, predominantly o f a s i a n origin. unstructured interviews w i t h over twenty-five church leaders from ten german ethnic churches in vancouver suggest that for many immigrants, the church provided stability and acted as a centre o f social networks through w h i c h , for example, employment and housing were found. however, the position o f the church i n maintaining culture is significantly more complex; often dependent upon various factors including church age and the histories o f immigrant congregations. this research demonstrates that churches have significant but generally unrecognized impacts on the immigrant settlement experience and that ethnic churches can, but do not necessarily, play supportive roles i n maintaining culture. churches that have recognized the social changes impacting their congregations have found new models o f mission to integrate new immigrant communities. t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s a b s t r a c t p . i i t a b l e of c o n t e n t s p . i i i l i s t of t a b l e s p.v l i s t of f i g u r e s p . v i a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s p . v i i c h a p t e r o n e introduction p . l c h a p t e r t w o a r r i v i n g i n the promised l a n d : the history o f german immigration and settlement i n vancouver p. . counting 'germans' . german immigration to canada . r o l e o f church organizations i n german immigration t o canada . german immigration to b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . german immigration to vancouver . settlement patterns o f germans i n vancouver . changes i n the south vancouver neighbourhood . conclusions c h a p t e r t h r e e methods, m o d e l s and the stories o f vancouver's german churches p. . research methodology . church congregation m o d e l s . german churches i n vancouver . issues between german immigrant cohort groups . german baptist churches . . ebenezer baptist church . . bethany baptist church . . immanuel baptist church . german lutheran churches . . m a r t i n luther evangelical c h u r c h . . st. m a r k ' s lutheran c h u r c h . . german lutheran church at oakridge . mennonite brethren churches . . vancouver mennonite brethren . . fraserview mennonite brethren . . culloden mennonite brethren . h o l y f a m i l y catholic church i n . conclusions c h a p t e r f o u r the r o l e o f the church i n service provision, settlement and a d j ustment p. . social functions o f the church . overall social significance o f the german c h u r c h . formal programs and services . informal service functions . sense o f community and belonging . n e w social service roles . conclusions c h a p t e r f i v e ethnic preservation or immigrant adjustment? p. . the debate: encouraging preservation or adaptation . preserving/maintaining ethnic identity . encouraging adjustment to canada . d o i n g b o t h : preserving culture and facilitating adjustment . church denominational organizations and the ethnic church . issues o f cultural preservation and adaptation i n other ethnic churches . conclusions c h a p t e r s i x changes i n the ethnic church: f r o m m o n o - to m u l t i - e t h n i c ? p. . f r o m generation to generation? . m o v i n g out and m o v i n g in: neighbourhood change . . out-migration . . in-migration . secondary factors affecting german culture i n the church . n e w faces?: responses to change . optional m o d e l s to r e - b u i l d the neighbourhood church . successful ' a d a p t i n g ' strategies o f case study churches . conclusions c h a p t e r s e v e n conclusions p. r e f e r e n c e s p. a p p e n d i x p. iv l i s t o f t a b l e s table . german immigration to canada, - p. . population o f german o r i g i n , b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , - p. . summary o f characteristics o f the ten german churches p. v l i s t o f f i g u r e s figure . percentage o f population o f german o r i g i n , - p. , , . concentration o f mennonite population i n south vancouver, p. . residential pattern o f church members o f t w o mennonite brethren churches, p. . percentage o f the total population using german language i n the h o m e , - p. , . percentage o f the total population born i n germany, , and p. , . y e a r o f church establishment p. . a n n u a l membership o f three german churches p. . o r i g i n a l locations o f german ethnic churches p. . photos o f various church choirs, sunday school and y o u t h groups p. - . residential location o f members o f ebenezer baptist church, , and p. - v i a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s there are so many people who have helped to make this thesis a reality either through their direct contributions or their supportive words o f encouragement. i want to first thank my supervisor, d r . d a v i d l e y for his thoughtful, insightful and timely comments! h i s confidence i n me as w e l l as his consistent interest and encouragement has meant a great deal. i w o u l d also like to thank my reader, d r . john zimmerman for his thorough reading and helpful guidance. there w o u l d be little substance to this thesis without the w i l l i n g participation and generous contributions o f the ten churches and the over thirty interviewees and informants who gave up their time to share their thoughts and experiences on a very personal and often emotional subject matter. i hope that this thesis adds encouragement and ideas to their work and visioning processes. i must also thank the metropolis project (research on immigration and integration - r u m ) for their generous funding and support as w e l l as greg cunningham for the production o f the maps. the department o f geography has been my home for the past two years and i am so pleased to have enjoyed the camaraderie and friendship o f so many fellow graduate students and faculty. there are a few friends i w o u l d like to thank i n particular: a a r o n and margaret have been wonderful office-mates, vincent was my computer hero i n times o f crisis, n e i l and e m m a have been wonderful supporters and jenny has listened to the events o f my good and bad days w i t h love and encouragement. there are a few people i want to thank from outside o f the department: jen, k a r e n and a l l i s o n - my crazy planning friends, my auntie e r n a - my mother away from home, and my friends i n the graduate christian fellowship group at u b c who have prayed for me and challenged my faith to grow enormously over the past year. this thesis is dedicated to my parents and my sister k a r e n who have, without question, been my greatest motivators and inspiration. their love has been unending and without their wise words and unconditional support i w o u l d not be who i am. f i n a l l y , i thank g o d for h i s grace, love, mercy and faithfulness. h e has truly provided for all my needs and warmly blessed my life. m a y h i s k i n g d o m grow through the work o f h i s church. c h a p t e r o n e i n t r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g our annual visits to vancouver my family always stayed at my mother's oldest sister's house i n east vancouver i n the heart o f what was, i n the s and s, the german neighbourhood. m y grandparents were ethnic germans who immigrated to canada i n the s from russia, and first settled, like many ethnic germans, i n winnipeg. m y grandparents and their children moved to vancouver i n the late s and bought a house on th avenue just off fraser street. m y aunt consequently purchased a home only a few blocks to the south where she still lives. the whole family attended the church at the end o f the street. it was the social centre for every member o f m y mother's family. the church housed a german speaking congregation, but by the late s it had become 'canadianized' (compared w i t h the other german churches) w i t h e n g l i s h as its language o f worship, although most o f the members remained o f german heritage. i remember visiting my aunt's neighbours and church friends across the street, across the back lane, next door and around the corner to take over some extra garden tomatoes or to deliver something for the church luncheon on sunday. m a n y o f my aunt's neighbours were a part o f her church community and the larger german immigrant population. in the last ten to fifteen years there have been enormous changes i n the south vancouver neighbourhood. fewer and fewer o f my aunt's neighbours are the german people she has k n o w n and most are new immigrants from south and east a s i a n countries. it was during the s that 'for sale' signs became increasingly common on neighbourhood front lawns. a r o u n d the time o f expo' , when m y family was visiting, stories were told in my aunt's l i v i n g r o o m about the buses o f a s i a n investors seen driving up and down the streets o f east vancouver; business people p i c k i n g out properties on w h i c h they w o u l d make offers to purchase. m y aunt's neighbours are n o w almost a l l south a s i a n and chinese immigrants who have bought or are renting homes along her transformed street, where close to half o f the war-time stucco bungalows have n o w been replaced by larger, more exotic looking fenced i n houses. m y aunt attends the church at the end o f her street, as do most o f her friends and while many have moved away, a core remain active. the church o f course has lost a lot o f members over the years as the neighbourhood has been emptied o f its german cohort, but it has made a decision to try to minister to its new neighbours regardless o f their nationalities or origins. the story o f the german ethnic church is the subject o f this thesis. it examines ten churches, a l l begun by german immigrants i n south vancouver, and their historical roots, developments and present ministries. m o r e generally the thesis is about ethnic churches and their place in neighbourhoods that experience ethnic transition. the ten institutions it studies have been facing enormous challenges i n ministry, some because they still c l i n g to their original cultural identity, and others, w h i c h have shed their ethnic heritage, because they are looking for means to evolve into multicultural or 'canadian' churches. this thesis aims to bring together several strands o f research on the themes o f religion, ethnicity, immigration and neighbourhood by examining the role that the ethnic church has played i n the german community i n vancouver. o n a general level it examines the role that religious institutions play i n immigrant settlement and more specifically investigates the significance o f the church i n the german community. it also considers the changing role o f the church i n a neighbourhood that has experienced an out-migration o f germans and in-migration o f several other ethnic groups. research was carried out through a literature review, by examining census data, by selectively analysing church records, and through qualitative interviews w i t h church leaders and pastors i n the german ethnic churches. the thesis investigates three themes: the church as a provider o f social services; the church as a venue for maintaining an ethnic culture; and the church as an institution experiencing and constructing a new cultural identity. the rationale for choosing the german population is threefold. a s the greatest period o f german immigration to vancouver was just prior to and after the second w o r l d war, the churches established at the time o f arrival are now aging thus providing a longer term perspective on the role o f the church i n balancing ethnic preservation versus social integration over several generations. second, the spatial dispersion and social integration o f the german population has increasingly deprived the churches o f their ethnic constituency, and led to deep and sometimes anguished reflection on their present and future ministry. third, and more personally, this is a community to w h i c h i had access through my extended family but w h i c h i could study without feeling compromised as i have not actively participated i n it. the focus o f the research is on the churches and less on the german community as it extends beyond the church. though a substantial amount o f time is devoted to german immigration and settlement i n vancouver, it is necessary to establish this context i n order to examine the role o f the church w i t h i n that community and to understand both the generalities o f the role o f the church as w e l l as the particular circumstances that may only be characteristic o f the german churches because o f historical events. the church as an institution that aids and affects immigrant settlement is a topic that has been overlooked i n much o f the work on immigrant integration and ethnic churches but there the research is a part of a larger study on ethnic churches in vancouver funded by the metropolis project. two other studies by dr. john zimmerman (carey theological college) and dr. edwin hui (regent college) are respectively studying the korean and chinese churches in the lower mainland. these two groups of ethnic churches w i l l provide an alternative perspective through documenting social services and cultural preservation in much more recently established churches. the chinese and korean churches are currently at much earlier stages of their life cycle than the german churches discussed here. see warner ( ) for greater elaboration. has been some more general research examining the influence o f religion i n the experience o f immigration. palinkas ( ) examined the significance o f the church for chinese immigrants i n the united states, w i l l i a m s ( ), the integration o f indian and pakistani religions into the a m e r i c a n urban landscape, while in warner's ( ) edited book over a dozen transplanted religious communities and groups are presented by various a m e r i c a n researchers o f religion. there are several reasons why research presented i n this thesis is valuable in the context o f the larger body o f literature on ethnic churches. w h i l e several authors have reported on the significance o f the ethnic church i n immigrant life (for example m i n ; henry ; k a n t o w i c z ) few have examined the ethnic church from a long term perspective. a s m u l l i n s ( ) notes, religion often influences the maintenance o f ethnicity but few researchers have analyzed the "long-term effectiveness o f ethnic churches as agents o f cultural preservation" ( m u l l i n s : ). part o f the uniqueness o f this study is that it profiles an ethnic community over a longer time period than most studies are able to offer; the age o f my case study churches range from thirty to over seventy-five years. a s a result o f the age o f these institutions, they have had the opportunity to move through a life cycle o f growth, development and decline. thus their experiences over the long term open a valuable window through w h i c h to v i e w the church's experiences i n dealing w i t h generational changes and local neighbourhood transformation. a second contribution o f this thesis is its comparison o f cultural issues across church denominations that have the same immigrant base, thus allowing for an examination o f the influence o f denominational bodies on the preservation o f culture w i t h i n the church. nagata ( ; ) was the only other author to explore the role o f churches i n the integration o f south-east a s i a n immigrant groups by comparing different denominational policies or attitudes. in most o f the w o r l d there is a close geographic relationship between religion and ethnicity. indeed geographers o f religion, though they are few, have attempted to draw relationships specifically between landscape and religion, examining social, cultural and environmental associations and effects. r e l i g i o n as a human institution and the relationship between religion and human and physical settings have dominated the literature o f the geography o f religion (park ; see also isaac , sopher , k o n g ). d r a w i n g a l i n k between religion, geography and immigration is quite natural because migration is the primary vehicle for the diffusion o f religion and religious institutions at varying scales (park ). park identifies ways that religious landscapes are altered through migration; first, when groups are driven to new territories by religious persecution and second, when groups who are motivated to migrate for socio-economic reasons carry their religious beliefs and institutions to their new homeland as a part o f their cultural identity. integrating the theme o f immigration w i t h ethnicity and religion, several calls have been made, most commonly by sociologists (hexham ; k i v i s t o ) but also by park ( ), to consider ethnicity i n studies o f the sociology o f religion and examine the role o f immigration and ethnicity in canada's religious landscape. park ( ) claims that the relationship between religion and ethnicity, " w h i c h can strongly influence both religious persistence and cultural assimilation" must be considered i n the context o f "the impact it has on the integration o f immigrants into their new society. this is reflected i n a variety o f ways, including social integration, social mobility (particularly upwards), and social stability" ( ). m a n y researchers argue that there is an elevated significance o f religious institutions for immigrants. m o b e r g ( ) believes that though o l d w o r l d religions have "promoted ethnocentrism and hindered assimilation, they also have contributed to social w e l l being, preventing...social disorganization, reducing problems related to immigration, and profoundly influencing the churches that received immigrants" ( ). in a new environment, religious institutions can act as stabilizers, presenting opportunities for social networking both w i t h i n and outside o f the transplanted ethnic community. bankston and z h o u ( ) further elaborate on the significance o f the religious institution for immigrants: church or temple membership is a prime source of identity and motivation because it is a focus for organizing the social relations of a group. first- generation immigrants perceive the ethnic religious institution as the one element of real continuity between their country of origin and their new home and also as an effective strategy for linking their american-born or american-reared children to the ethnic group while acquiring acceptance in the host society ( ). in a thesis w h i c h deals w i t h issues o f ethnicity and immigrant adjustment there is the need for certain terms to be defined and while the definitions i w i s h to use are by no means universally accepted, they serve to clarify for the purposes o f this thesis. culture is probably one o f the most ambiguous and problematic terms; in this thesis it is used interchangeably w i t h customs, heritage, tradition, and ethnic traits. culture embodies the languages, religions, laws, symbols, beliefs and associations among individuals and groups as expressive i n church, family, club or informal group membership w h i c h are common to people o f like origin. german culture is thus used i n the broadest sense to define the attributes o f an ethnic group o f germanic origin peoples. u s i n g the term ' g e r m a n ' homogenizes german speakers, german ethnics and german born who may not necessarily have all o f the common traits o f 'culture' as defined above. a s w i l l be discussed, the term german is problematic as the origins and experiences o f the germans i n canada (and before arriving i n canada) are widely varied (see chapter two). w h i l e there may be no essential german culture, and while recognizing that germanness is expressed differently by individuals depending on their history, experience o f immigration to canada, their dialects, place o f origins, political views, or church denominational backgrounds, there is the need to speak o f ' g e r m a n ' for productive discussion to occur. w h e n reference to the german ethnic community is made it describes the network o f ethnic institutions, the ethnic neighbourhood, individuals and groups. there are two other terms w h i c h require definition and differentiation: assimilation and integration. a s s i m i l a t i o n describes the process by w h i c h an ethnic group moves toward homogenization and disappears w i t h i n a dominant culture. a s s i m i l a t i o n is basically what has occurred w i t h the german population i n canada. in vancouver there are small traces o f german culture, food, history and/or way o f life but most germans have blended i n w i t h the canadian mainstream. integration is something different and describes the interactive contact o f a minority population and the mainstream society i n a process that combines the qualities and characteristics o f each population. integration is the greater goal o f the multicultural church w h i c h seeks not to blend and assimilate members o f new cultures into the dominant culture o f the church but instead to a l l o w each ethnic culture to be reflected w i t h i n the church community. this then allows the church to change and reflect the ideas and styles o f new members o f different ethnicities and become a community o f communities. "ethnic churches flourishing" (todd ) was the recent title o f a vancouver sun article profiling the growth and expansion o f mono-ethnic chinese, korean, f i l i p i n o , vietnamese and punjabi congregations i n the l o w e r m a i n l a n d . it could w e l l have been a newspaper title from the s when immigrants to vancouver were plentiful and most ethnic communities were centred around their respective ethno-religious institutions (see waldhouse ). german immigrants to vancouver established seventeen ethnic churches, all o f them i n the south vancouver neighbourhood where german residential concentrations were the highest. the church held tremendous significance for the immigrants. here they found social services to smooth their transition to canadian life, language assistance for themselves, and german schools for their children. c h u r c h was where relationships for business and pleasure were cultivated into life long friendships. it was where reminders o f the homeland and the familiar sounds o f the german language were welcomed. a s immigrants improved their socio-economic standing and their children entered the home-ownership stage, they were forced to look beyond the german neighbourhood and buy homes and property in the suburban areas o f vancouver. s l o w l y the german neighbourhood lost its geographical focus and new immigrant groups began to transform fraser street to reflect their o w n identity. w i t h virtually no german community left i n the area, the german churches still stand i n their original locations today; several still seek to preserve the german language and culture o f the homeland. o f the ten churches that are profiled here, eight still h o l d worship services i n the german language and i n half o f the churches, the german members are the financial backbone o f the church. but these churches have almost l i v e d through their first life cycle; some have completed it and are moving into new areas o f neighbourhood mission, while others are now contemplating their insecure futures. children have moved away and no longer speak e n g l i s h . they feel little connection to a german church that is based on a culture and liturgy unfamiliar to them. a l l o f the churches experienced some degree o f conflict and tension over whether or not to allow for e n g l i s h language worship services on sundays. introducing e n g l i s h meant the beginning o f the loss o f german but it was the only way the church could maintain the attention o f its young people. one o f the men i interviewed shared his thoughts on the preservationist attitude o f his church and the present experience o f the chinese churches who are now at the life cycle stage o f language conflict: i smile about what i think i see going on over there [in the chinese church that meets right beside us] because it's exactly what i went through as a child of immigrants living in the church that was hoping it was going to protect their language...i'm old enough to remember the battle in my home church about whether we would have english in the church...they started to have english sunday school for the kids but i remember sitting through german services that meant absolutely nothing to me and i didn't want them to mean anything to me. the thesis begins i n chapter two w i t h a review o f the patterns o f immigration and settlement o f germans i n canada and vancouver. it discusses the challenges o f the use o f the term ' g e r m a n ' i n census enumeration and then examines the distribution o f the german population i n vancouver using data on german ethnic origin, german home language use and german place o f birth. m a p s o f these three variables over five decades provide evidence o f the disappearance and dispersion o f the german population i n vancouver. chapter three addresses first the research methodology, then examines several church models around w h i c h churches are geographically and ethnically classified. the remainder o f the chapter reviews briefly the stories o f each o f the ten german churches. the fourth chapter discusses the theme o f the role o f the church i n social service provision and includes discussion on the informal roles o f the church and the significance o f the church as a place o f belonging. the fifth chapter develops this latter theme, examining the role o f the church as a promoter o f ethnic heritage and a reminder o f things german, compared w i t h the church as an institution facilitating and aiding immigrant adjustment to canada. the chapter also investigates the role o f the denominational church bodies as they influence the church's mission to reach out to germans alone or people o f a l l national and religious backgrounds. chapter six investigates how the ten churches have experienced change and their o w n adjustments to generational succession as w e l l as neighbourhood transition. a concluding chapter seeks to review and integrate these findings and suggest potential areas o f further research. all quotations without references are from interview transcripts. interviewees have not been identified expect in some cases by general characteristics of church denomination, gender or affiliation in order to maintain anonymity. c h a p t e r t w o a r r i v i n g in t h e p r o m i s e d l a n d : t h e h i s t o r y o f g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n a n d s e t t l e m e n t in v a n c o u v e r the role played by the church within an immigrant community is determined i n large part by the needs o f that community and the events surrounding the circumstances o f their immigration. o f course immigrant needs are dynamic as new cohorts o f immigrants arrive under varying circumstances. before examining the role o f the church i n the german immigrant community it is necessary to briefly review the history o f german immigration to canada, most specifically to vancouver. a t the local scale within the city it is also imperative that changing patterns o f settlement be considered over time. a s w i l l become evident i n later chapters, the unique differences between the cohorts o f immigrants arriving during distinct periods o f history w i t h varied experiences i n europe have had significant impacts on the courses o f life histories o f the german immigrant churches i n vancouver. churches have split apart, borne new daughter congregations and have been heavily impacted by the pre-vancouver histories o f german ethnic immigrants and their changing settlement patterns i n the city. this chapter w i l l briefly look first at the problematic category o f german, then at the various waves o f german immigrants to canada and finally w i l l examine the residential settlement patterns o f germans i n greater vancouver, i n particular, the core neighbourhood i n south vancouver where the oldest german community established itself. . c o u n t i n g ' g e r m a n s ' to count 'germans' or to speak o f ' g e r m a n ' immigration is a complicated and problematic task. u s i n g published statistics canada data three useful variables have been chosen to examine the germans i n vancouver: i) german ethnicity, ii) germany as a place o f birth and, i i i ) german home language use. e a c h variable misses or misrepresents the germans i n some form but examining the three variables, i n combination with other reports, provides a valuable portrait o f the community. the german ethnicity variable is probably the best variable to use when representing a l l german ethnics but it is affected by inconsistencies i n how the question o f ethnicity is asked i n census questions and how it is counted in subsequent census years. there are also issues to be discussed later around the willingness to identify oneself as german i n the face o f much hatred i n the years following the t h i r d r e i c h . place o f birth is a useful variable but ignores a l l o f the germans born outside o f germany. germans are a heterogeneous m i x o f nationalities as a result o f their diasporic settlement i n vast agricultural areas o f russia and eastern europe i n the th and th centuries w h i c h lasted almost years. germans may also be counted using german mother tongue or home language statistics but these numbers underestimate the german population o f vancouver as they report only those families who chose to continue speaking german i n the home. after the war a good number o f immigrants sought to disassociate themselves w i t h a l l things german and as a result, studies show that german immigrants adapted to e n g l i s h faster than any other language group. several authors o f works on german immigration to canada have dealt w i t h these issues at a broader and less quantitative scale and their observations add to the list o f reasons that statistical data are problematic. a s m c l a u g h l i n ( ) notes, "the shifting geo-political boundaries o f the german states prior to their unification and the twentieth-century conflicts between nationalism and ethnicity have played havoc w i t h the concept o f a common german identity" ( ). it is difficult to imagine the complexity o f factors weighing on the psychological m i n d set o f german immigrants as they arrived i n canada and began to negotiate their new identities - as germans? german-canadians? dutch-canadians? austrian-canadians? friedmann ( ) i n reviewing the status o f german immigration to canada i n a federal government report w e l l encapsulates these complexities: the problem of german immigration obviously has certain unique aspects. they stem predominantly from the psychological effects of the recent world war in which germans were, for the second time in this century, the enemies of the british commonwealth of nations. they stem also from the extraordinary political and psychological complications which the collapse of the nazi regime, the total military occupation of germany by her conquerors, the subsequent split between the allies, the consequent division of germany into two separate states, and the mass exodus of millions of germans from eastern europe into western germany, have produced ( ). the author o f a thesis comparing ethnic groups in vancouver i n the late s points out that german origin statistics display large discrepancies and a lack o f regularity from one census year to the next prohibiting an analysis o f changes i n the years prior to the s (waldhouse ). she identifies two reasons for the difficulties i n studying the germans, particularly i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . the first is, due to the fact that the german speaking people include not only people born in germany and austria, but also those of the mennonite faith born either in russia or canada who still speak german, ethnic germans of poland, hungary, romania and bulgaria, plus such small minorities coming from other parts of europe, north and south america (ibid, ). the second reason relates to the self-identification o f german immigrants. waldhouse explains that: the two world wars and the removal of non-naturalised germans to the interior [of british columbia], had repercussions that led many to conceal their identity, especially those who had not come from germany. this partially accounts for the german population of the city [of vancouver], as recorded in the census volumes, declining from , to , during the ten years between and (ibid, ). there are several category labels w h i c h identify groups o f germans who arrived from different origins under different immigration status designations. the displaced persons were those immigrants who were forcefully or voluntarily moved from their homeland to germany where their labour was needed and exploited. m o s t o f these immigrants were national russians, poles, bulgarians, letts, latvians, hungarians, czechs and yugoslavians. the volksdeutsche were those born and raised i n eastern europe but were o f german parentage and spoke the german language (for the mennonites this was a low-german called plattsdeutsche). f i n a l l y , the reichsdeutsche were the original residents o f west germany, whose population doubled w i t h thousands o f refugees entering the country from east prussia, mecklenburg, saxony and thuringia (sturhahn : ). despite their differences, all o f these groups fall under the census category label o f ' g e r m a n ' . the differences i n values, language, culture and history o f these groups are hardened and ingrained. a s w i l l be discussed, one o f the only unifying characteristics o f these groups is their german mother tongue. for some o f the german churches i n vancouver this was enough to b i n d faithful believers but i n other churches it caused divisions and acrimonious feelings. despite these w i t h i n group differences, this thesis w i l l use the term ' g e r m a n ' to describe a l l o f these immigrants w i t h diverse national origins except when these differences were reflected i n church structure and evolution. a s gumpp explains i n her thesis on german canadians, because most post-world war t w o immigrants were born i n germany and the overwhelming majority o f german immigrants (including refugees and displaced persons from east germany and other eastern european states) emigrated from west germany, the category ' g e r m a n ' is used i n both the broader ethnic as w e l l as the narrower national/geographic sense (gumpp ). . g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n t o c a n a d a the history o f german immigration to canada begins i n the s and is broken down by m c l a u g h l i n ( ) into four distinct waves. between and , german immigrants settled primarily i n the regions o f upper and l o w e r canada w i t h a particular concentration i n what is now kitchener-waterloo, ontario (then berlin). the second wave o f immigrants arrived between and and many o f these immigrants settled i n western canada, primarily manitoba, saskatchewan and alberta. in , , german speaking settlers were reported i n western canada and by the number multiplied six-fold to over , . the third wave o f german immigrants arrived between and . whereas until this time the germans were favoured as immigrant settlers, they now became the enemy and were forced to close their german schools and german speaking churches. m a n y germans i n canada anglicized their surnames and/or chose to record other countries as their place o f birth to hide their german roots for fear o f attack and vandalism. this is evidenced i n the . % decrease i n the german population i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a between and (table . ). in , immigration restrictions against germans were repealed and tens o f thousands o f germans, mainly those fleeing russia, arrived i n canada in the later half o f the s. in , the canadian census recorded , people o f german origin i n canada, % o f them i n western canada (with % from russia, % from austria-hungary, % from u s , % from germany ). though immigration restrictions had been lifted, hatred against germans was still quite prevalent. german immigrants were guarded i n using their native language even i n the home, and as a general result there was less attempt made by these immigrants to maintain their german culture and tongue. the final wave o f immigration stretches from until the present. w i t h i n this period these proportions may seem surprising to some but were characteristic of pre-world war two immigration. after the second world war the majority of immigrants were from germany proper. the % from the united states reflects the acute anti-german prejudice after world war one. there are o f c o u r s e s e v e r a l s m a l l e r w a v e s as g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n the s a n d t h e n b e g a n d e c l i n i n g i n the v e r y late s a n d e a r l y s. b e t w e e n a n d , f r o e s c h l e ( ) reports that i m m i g r a t i o n to c a n a d a f r o m g e r m a n y , a u s t r i a a n d s w i t z e r l a n d t o t a l l e d , p e r s o n s (this i n c l u d e s the 'stateless' volksdeutsche). t h o u g h r e t u r n m i g r a t i o n f i g u r e s are n e c e s s a r i l y estimates, he b e l i e v e s o v e r one-third o f the , r e t u r n e d to g e r m a n y l e a v i n g a t o t a l net g a i n o f , g e r m a n s to c a n a d a . a s m e n t i o n e d , the m i g r a t i o n o f g e r m a n s to c a n a d a p e a k e d i n the s ( t a b l e . ) a n d at that t i m e g e r m a n s b e c a m e the t h i r d largest ethnic g r o u p i n c a n a d a after the b r i t i s h a n d the f r e n c h , r e p r e s e n t i n g b e t w e e n a n d % o f the n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n ( f r o e s c h l e ). t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f these ' g e r m a n s ' w h o i m m i g r a t e d as refugees a n d d i s p l a c e d p e r s o n s b y p l a c e o f b i r t h o r i g i n is r e p o r t e d b y m c l a u g h l i n ( ) as: % f r o m g e r m a n y , % f r o m the n o w p o l i s h parts o f e a s t e r n g e r m a n y , a n d % f r o m c z e c h o s l o v a k i a , r o m a n i a a n d the rest o f e a s t e r n e u r o p e . in a d d i t i o n to these e u r o p e a n g e r m a n i m m i g r a n t s there w a s a s e c o n d a r y m i g r a t i o n to c a n a d a b y a g r o u p o f g e r m a n s p e a k i n g m e n n o n i t e s w h o f i r s t i m m i g r a t e d to s o u t h a m e r i c a after t h e i r d i s e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t f r o m r u s s i a . m a n y o f these i m m i g r a n t s w e r e d e n i e d access to c a n a d a i n the s a n d s because o f h e a l t h reasons. t h e y w e r e a c c e p t e d to s o u t h a m e r i c a w h e r e t h e i r o w n g e r m a n c u l t u r e r e m a i n e d strong but w a s m o d i f i e d as t h e y w e r e a c c u l t u r a t e d w i t h the s p a n i s h s p e a k i n g s o u t h a m e r i c a n s i n p a r a g u a y , u r u g u a y , a n d a r g e n t i n a . it w a s i n the s a n d s that m a n y o f these g e r m a n a n d n o w s p a n i s h s p e a k i n g i m m i g r a n t s m o v e d to v a n c o u v e r a n d the l o w e r fraser v a l l e y w h e r e m a n y o f their r e l a t i v e s h a d b e e n l i v i n g f o r several decades. t h e y w e r e a d i s t i n c t g r o u p a m o n g the m e n n o n i t e s because they h a d a d o p t e d n e w c u l t u r e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s a l o n g s i d e their m e n n o n i t e heritage but the c l o s e n e s s o f the m e n n o n i t e p e o p l e m e a n t that m o s t o f the s o u t h a m e r i c a n m e n n o n i t e s w e r e w e l c o m e d a n d a c c e p t e d i n t o vancouver's well established mennonite churches. due to the method of recording immigration data, there is no statistical data available to reflect this immigration of german speaking mennonites from south america but one of my interviewees had immigrated from paraguay and several interviewees at the vancouver and culloden m b churches spoke of their fellow members who came to vancouver as part of this immigrant cohort. in the - bracket, almost % of the german immigrants to canada were married or widowed, % were between and years old and, most had achieved relatively high levels of formal education (mclaughlin ). many of these post world war ii immigrants were sponsored by canadian relatives (gumpp ). census figures reported for the last years show an increase in the number of canadians of german descent; in there were . million, by . million and by almost . million . examining language statistics the trend would seem to be the reverse as the number of people reporting german as their mother tongue has declined steadily from , in to , in to , in . rapid assimilation by the germans is evidenced then in these national mother tongue statistics; by the s the rank of german had fallen from third to fifth place behind english, french, italian and chinese (froeschle : ). the factors motivating german immigration to canada varied for different waves of immigrants. the primary motivations influencing the final two waves were: economic, the desire to reunite with relatives and friends overseas and for many, expulsion from their home country and fear of subsequent war (friedmann ). as gumpp ( ) elaborates, "even more caution must be exercised in reading these figures as ethnic definitions have changed. since the census canadians have been permitted to record both multiple origins as well as 'canadian' origin. additionally, ethnic origin may now be traced both through mother and father whereas prior to , only paternal ethnic origin was reported. important were the concrete problems o f survival: shortages o f land, demographic pressures caused by the reception o f m i l l i o n s o f refugees i n west germany, high unemployment, and lack o f housing and food" ( ). canada then appeared as a welcoming host to german immigrants and "the land o f opportunity", attractive because of, "its expanding economy, rapid industrialization...an abundance o f land, political tranquillity, and a high degree o f individual freedom" (gumpp : ). table . : german immigration to canada, - years total german percentage of total immigration canadian immigration - , . - , . - , . - , . - , j. j - , . - , . (from m c l a u g h l i n ) . r o l e o f c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s in g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n t o c a n a d a c h u r c h organizations have played a significant role in aiding and facilitating german immigration and settlement to canada. the involvement o f national organizations i n conjunction w i t h local churches has had a substantial impact on both the numbers o f immigrants and their adjustment to canadian life. a s gumpp ( ) explains: canadian churches became instrumental in arranging for the transfer of german ethnic immigrants. the churches enjoyed the trust of both the canadian authorities and the german-canadian public, they could organize the movement through already existing international networks, and they had the financial resources - supplied by german and non-german members - to extend monetary assistance to needy emigrants ( ). prior to their role i n the actual movement o f immigrants, church organizations played a role i n making immigration to canada possible for particular groups o f germans after w o r l d w a r t w o . g u m p p ( ) reports that: the canadian christian council for the resettlement of refugees, whose humanitarian concern with helping displaced persons and refugees was widely respected, also advocated a reconsideration of canada's existing immigration regulations...the council questioned the validity of the concept of 'german national,' and pointed out to the canadian government that every german-speaker who was resettled during the third reich had german citizenship automatically conferred upon him or her ( ). c h u r c h organizations were denominationally based, and often times temporary, thus making the reports o f statistics on the numbers o f immigrants aided by such organizations a difficult task. the n o r t h a m e r i c a n baptist immigration and colonization society settled , people between and , (over % o f these between and ) (sturhahn ; renfree ). other denominational bodies o f catholic, lutheran and mennonite churches organized similar immigrant societies. between and the mennonite board o f colonization settled , immigrants, primarily russian mennonites, helping them to find jobs and then pay back their travel debt (interviews). the railway companies worked closely w i t h several church organizations including the lutheran immigration board, the canadian lutheran immigration a i d society, and the association o f german catholics to organize travel, and determine payment plans. . g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n t o b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a the very first german settlers to b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a arrived during the g o l d r u s h days i n the m i d s ( m c l a u g h l i n ) but the german origin population in b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a d i d not reach a substantial size until after w o r l d war t w o . in the inter-war period, during the great depression and the drought o f the 'dirty s,' a number o f german prairie settlers migrated to vancouver i n search o f employment. b y , there were , people o f german origin i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . a s more german prairie immigrants learned o f b r i t i s h columbia's milder climate, the german origin population more than doubled from to (table . ). in , o f the , people o f german origin, it was estimated that % were p r e - w o r l d w a r t w o immigrants, often referred to as the 'old-timers', and % were post-world w a r t w o immigrants (waldhouse : ). the majority o f the b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a destined german population settled i n vancouver but other popular areas included the interior and the l o w e r fraser v a l l e y area (particularly for mennonites). table . : population of german origin, british columbia, - year total number of germans , , , , , , , , b.c. germans as a percentage of total population of germans in canada . . . . . . . . (from m c l a u g h l i n ) . g e r m a n i m m i g r a t i o n t o v a n c o u v e r waldhouse reported i n her thesis that the greater vancouver population o f german o r i g i n was approximately , however this w o u l d later appear to be an overestimation. the canadian census reported that the german ethnic origin population o f the vancouver census metropolitan area was , . waldhouse estimated that % o f the german population l i v e d i n the c i t y o f vancouver and that the break down o f these inhabitants was: % german political origin, % austrian origin and % ethnic volksdeutsche from other countries (waldhouse : - ). a g a i n these percentages are difficult to verify and are generally 'guestimates' provided by leaders i n the german community. she also notes that, the german population in vancouver includes a very large number, approximately percent, of 'newcomers,' or post second world war immigrants. these, in contrast to the 'old-timers,' were selected by the immigration authorities largely on their mechanical and industrial skill and ability to earn a living in canada. many of those in vancouver arrived in the eastern provinces first and later came to vancouver by internal migration. the direct migration to british columbia reached very large proportions for the three years to , then it declined during and , to increase again in . (waldhouse : - ). . s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s o f g e r m a n s in v a n c o u v e r m o v i n g away from the overall numbers o f immigrants it is important, particularly for our purposes, to examine the settlement patterns o f the germans i n greater vancouver. f o r reasons mentioned above, only patterns from to are discussed; the census data prior to these years are problematic i n their consistency o f questioning and also i n the discrepant numbers they provide. settlement w i l l be discussed using data on german ethnic origin, germany as a place o f birth and german home language use. german ethnic origin data w i l l primarily be used to describe patterns o f settlement and the additional two variables w i l l be used to understand the differences i n settlement patterns between the pre- and post-world w a r t w o immigrant groups. factors contributing to the settlement patterns o f the german population i n vancouver reflect: urban development, socio-economic characteristics, the desire for home ownership, the availability o f transportation and the cultural and economic importance o f the ethnic neighbourhood (gumpp ). prior to , germans i n vancouver represented less than % o f the city population and were concentrated in small numbers i n the west e n d - r o b s o n street area o f the d o w n t o w n and in the vancouver south neighbourhood (gumpp ) around the existing german speaking churches. a c c o r d i n g to the census, vancouver had , residents o f german ethnic origin ( . % o f the city's population) (figure . a ) . these residents were clustered i n the vancouver south neighbourhood, where they comprised - percent o f the population, but were also over-represented in the newly incorporated cities o f r i c h m o n d and surrey. the vancouver south neighbourhood emerged as the centre o f german organizational, religious and economic life and was home to the vancouver a l p e n c l u b , the edelweiss credit u n i o n , german shops and services as w e l l as five german speaking churches. the german community was bounded, "on the north by k i n g edward avenue, on the east by v i c t o r i a d r i v e , on the south by the n o r t h a r m o f the fraser and on the west by cambie street" (siemens : ). without widespread car ownership, transportation issues were important considerations i n residential location, particularly for those immigrants arriving prior to the second w o r l d war. a mapping o f the membership o f the first mennonite brethren church i n vancouver revealed a close grouping around the church, a significant finding considering the fact that the "concentration that was achieved resulted from the efforts o f the individual buyer to find property close to that o f the others o f his group...since the area into w h i c h they came was already largely occupied by residences" (siemens : ). indeed the clustering o f most mennonite families followed the locations o f mennonite churches (figures . and . ). despite the fact that maps o f the german population clearly reveal the south vancouver neighbourhood as the german centre, "there was no real german [residential] concentration after w o r l d w a r ii i n figure . : percentage of the total population of german ethnic origin, by census tract - b ) source: statistics canada, census division, & , vancouver f i g u r e . : c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f m e n n o n i t e p o p u l a t i o n i n s o u t h v a n c o u v e r , source: siemens ( : m a p ) f i g u r e . : r e s i d e n t i a l p a t t e r n of c h u r c h m e m b e r s o f t w o m b c h u r c h e s , source: siemens ( :map ) vancouver as they exist for other ethnic groups. the german population quickly acquired their o w n residences i n vancouver and in the s i n the suburbs o f vancouver" (doerrenbaecher : ). in , the german ethnic population o f vancouver rose to , ( . % o f the census metropolitan area). in three o f the census tracts i n vancouver south, over % o f the population was o f german ethnicity (figure . i b ) indicating a significant concentration. in the decade leading up to this census, the largest influx o f german immigrants arrived i n canada necessitating the establishment o f several more german speaking churches as w e l l as the expansion o f ethnic businesses in the district. b y , the population o f german ethnicity had increased to , ( . %) o f the vancouver region) and the same census tracts o f vancouver south recorded one i n four inhabitants as ethnic germans (figure . c). important to note however, i n both the and maps are the darkened areas o f the suburban regions o f surrey, r i c h m o n d , n o r t h vancouver and coquitlam. between and there was an increase i n the german population i n almost every census tract (dorrenbaecher ). u s i n g raw numbers to compare census tracts, dorrenbaecher found that the highest gains were i n west vancouver, delta, and southwestern burnaby. other areas with significant gains were port m o o d y , coquitlam and parts o f n o r t h vancouver as w e l l as burnaby, west surrey and r i c h m o n d (ibid). these increases i n the german population coincided w i t h overall total population increases i n these areas. in , significant settlement pattern changes appear. the total german ethnic population declined for the first time to , (now only . % o f the vancouver region total). the reasons for this are difficult to conclusively determine but are l i k e l y the result o f return migration because o f the improved german economy as w e l l as natural decrease as the r f i g u r e . : percentage o f the total p o p u l a t i o n o f g e r m a n e t h n i c o r i g i n , b y census tract source: statistics canada, census division, & , vancouver immigrants from the inter-war period reached their most senior years. the most significant reason for the decline was the new method o f recording census ethnic origin wherein respondents were given the opportunity to identify multiple ethnic origins . t w o patterns i n the map are worthy o f note (figure . i d ) . first, the original vancouver south neighbourhood saw a significant decline i n its german population. second, i n contrast the peripheral areas o f the city (delta, south surrey, langley, m a p l e ridge, coquitlam and some areas o f n o r t h and west vancouver) show continued or increased percentages o f germans. b y the german population had declined again to , and almost a complete emptying out o f the south vancouver neighbourhood is evident (figure . i e ) . in fact the map shows a remarkable disappearance o f germans, an observation deserving further examination. the map shows a similar pattern (figure . i f ) . before discussing the changing settlement patterns at a more localized scale a brief look at maps o f german home language use and place o f birth data for germany may help to decode some o f the complicated settlement patterns revealed. a s a result o f inconsistencies in the availability o f published data at the census tract level, only data for , and were available for place o f birth and , , and for home language. the mapping o f this data, however, provides additional insight into the german community not provided i n the ethnic origin data. the home language maps (figure . a , b , c & d ) lend evidence to the arguments by gumpp and doerrenbaecher that the use o f the german language was strongest among those l i v i n g in the traditional german neighbourhood. previously only paternal ethnicity was recorded. additional problems are mentioned with regard to the listed options of ethnic groups that one could check off. for example, in some years austrian and swiss were listed as separate groups and other years they were not. respondents were either responsible to fill them in as 'other' categories or simply choose another option that they felt was closest to their ethnic origin. these discrepancies naturally led to inconsistencies in reporting. a reminder that the and maps include only those indicating single origin as german. f i g u r e . : percentage o f the total p o p u l a t i o n o f g e r m a n e t h n i c o r i g i n , b y c e n s u s tract source: statistics canada, census division, , vancouver g u m p p ( ) reports that when, comparing the number of residents who usually spoke german in their homes with the number of german ethnics in every given census tract, one discovers that the highest ratio occurred in vancouver south, where up to every second german-canadian appears to have maintained the ethnic tongue in the private sphere. germans in the suburban areas displayed a much lower propensity toward employing their mother tongue in their homes even though they often were recent immigrants ( ). g u m p p attributes the persistence o f the german language in this neighbourhood to the high concentration o f germans i n these census tracts and to the accumulation o f ethnic institutions figure . f : percentage of the total population of german ethnic origin, by enumeration area, vancouver cm a kilometers city ofvancouver k i l o m e t e r s . - . % . - . % . - . % . - . % < . % no data n a source: canadian census data. the vancouver cm a and the city ofvancouver. projection: utm. gc & dh figure . : percentage o f the total population using g e r m a n language i n the home, by census tract - ) source: statistics canada, census division, & , vancouver f i g u r e . : percentage o f the total p o p u l a t i o n u s i n g g e r m a n language i n the home, b y census tract w h i c h encouraged the use o f the german language by both foreign and canadian-born germans. overall there is a general decline i n the number o f census tracts recording more than % o f the population using german i n the home, but even with the declining german population there are still a few census tracts where german is more prevalent than anywhere else i n the greater vancouver area and they remain predominantly i n the traditional german neighbourhood. a recently produced map i n the vancouver province identified the top three home languages i n each o f the municipalities and cities i n greater vancouver and highlighted the suburbanization and exurbanization o f the community (dec. , , p a ) . u s i n g census data, german home language was reported as the third most common language i n m i s s i o n and abbotsford after e n g l i s h and punjabi. the map also reported the top three mother tongue languages ( e n g l i s h was always first). german mother tongue was ranked third i n west vancouver (after chinese), third i n pitt meadows (after punjabi), second i n white r o c k , second i n the c i t y o f langley and langley district, second i n m a p l e ridge and third again i n both m i s s i o n and abbotsford (after punjabi) . the place o f birth maps for , and count only germans born i n germany (figures . a , b & c ) . though this limits their representation o f the german community as a whole, the maps do provide support for the observation that the more recent immigrants (those most l i k e l y to be born i n germany) prefer suburban residential locations. in there are several pockets o f census tracts with higher than expected percentages o f the population born in germany. m o s t notable are those i n the traditional neighbourhood but also many census tracts in n o r t h vancouver, several i n r i c h m o n d and a few i n surrey and coquitlam. b y there are virtually no german born people left in the traditional neighbourhood and interesting (but minor) concentrations i n n o r t h and west vancouver as w e l l as in port m o o d y and coquitlam. a similar but more extreme pattern is notable in . u s i n g special cross-tabulation census data g u m p p ( ) reported that, of the pre- arrivals recorded by the census authorities, . % still lived in vancouver south census tracts. by comparison, . % of the - immigrants, . % of the - arrivals, . % of the - immigrants and only . % of the - german-born newcomers were living in the traditional german neighbourhood ( ). discrepancies between the home language and mother tongue rank positions of german reflect the assimilation of germans who may have learned german at birth but who now communicate in the home using english. figure . d: percentage of the total population using german language in the home, by enumeration area, city ofvancouver kilometers | | . - . % ~ . - . % . - . % ] < . % ~| no data ln a source: canadian census data. the vancouver cma and the city ofvancouver. projection: utm. gc & dh figure . : percentage o f the total population born i n germany, by census tract, ( - ) source: statistics canada, census division, & , vancouver figure . c : percentage of the total population born in germany, by enumeration area, . c h a n g e s in t h e s o u t h v a n c o u v e r n e i g h b o u r h o o d p r i o r to the second w o r l d war, "the most dense and persistent german cluster [was] found i n the vancouver south area, a residential district o f predominantly single family units. it appealed i n particular to employees i n the secondary industries, service personnel and shop- owners, and less so to professionals or technicians" (gumpp : ). though it had the largest concentration o f vancouver's german population, the south vancouver area was not necessarily the major intake area (other than to meet immediate needs i n the short term) for the post w o r l d w a r t w o immigrants. a s demonstrated by the place o f birth maps (figure . ), the majority o f the ethnic germans i n vancouver south were actually born outside o f germany. the more recent german-born immigrants, "had a particular preference for n o r t h and west vancouver and parts o f r i c h m o n d " (gumpp : ). despite the fact that the traditional german neighbourhood declined as the residential choice for post w o r l d w a r t w o immigrants, its concentration o f pre-war german immigrants, ethnic stores, and german institutions meant that the german mother tongue was preserved for several decades and for the second generation i n the postwar era. there is little doubt that its stability as an ethnic neighbourhood was due i n part to the interaction facilitated by its german churches w h i c h , unlike some other ethnic institutions, engaged its membership on at least a weekly basis . the persistence o f the ethnic neighbourhood network is particularly interesting when one considers the distance developing between the old established centre and the new suburban residential patterns. the most recent arrivals, those one w o u l d assume to be most l i k e l y to speak german, most often located i n the suburban areas yet they continued "to patronize gumpp ( ) pointed out that german clubs tended to attract members only for special events whereas the churches gathered members on a much more regular and frequent basis. ethnic institutions i n the o l d ethnic neighbourhood as w e l l as the new ethnic halls, restaurants, schools, and businesses established i n the suburbs" (gumpp : - ). d u r i n g the s the centrality o f the vancouver south neighbourhood began to fade for vancouver's german community. doerrenbaecher ( ), who interviewed several key informants i n the german community, concludes that there are two major reasons for this decline. h e argues that the first is due to the out-migration o f the second generation who were n o w marrying and having families. their departure stunted the continued growth o f the community. the children o f immigrants chose more rural or suburban areas o f greater vancouver i n part to get away from city life but more importantly because o f the high cost o f housing i n vancouver proper. this really is a part o f the larger trend o f suburbanization that was affecting the city as a whole and was followed with vigour by both the german immigrants and their children. g u m p p ( ) identifies four factors that promoted the settlement o f germans in the suburbs. the first is simply that vancouver was growing so rapidly both spatially and i n total population that many seeking housing were forced to look to the outlying areas. the second factor relates to the demographics o f the germans, "the vast majority belonged to average income, middle-class occupations i n the manufacturing and service industries, and therefore were attracted to the middle-class housing market in the suburbs" ( ). the germans preferred single- detached residences and were w i l l i n g to move to find them; there was virtually no desire to segregate or concentrate as a group (doerrenbaecher ). related to this, the third factor is the propensity o f the german-born to prefer home ownership and the suburban areas were the areas w i t h the greatest opportunities. the final factor influencing suburbanization, and part o f the explanation for the and ethnic origin maps displaying considerable growth i n suburban areas, relates to canadian immigration policy changes i n the s and s. the p o l i c y favoured, "professionals, highly skilled manual immigrants and entrepreneurs," w h i c h meant that, "the upper income brackets were more strongly represented among german arrivals o f the late s and s than i n earlier years" (gumpp : ). these immigrants preferred the n o r t h and west vancouver areas w h i c h were recognized as the "new, expanding high status residential areas" (ibid, ). the second element identified by doerrenbaecher affecting the decline o f the german population i n vancouver south was a push factor due to the in-migration o f new immigrant groups to the neighbourhood. beginning i n the m i d s there has been a continued inflow o f an east indian population to the fraser street-south vancouver neighbourhood focussed around the s i k h temple on m a r i n e d r i v e just east o f fraser street. germans ceased to be the dominant majority group as the population o f asians increased from . % to . % between and . in the indo-pakistani population represented . % o f the area and the chinese population rose to % o f v a n c o u v e r south residents (gumpp : ). this factor perhaps paints the germans as racist or at least uncomfortable w i t h their non-white neighbours. there is little research to sustain either claim as it is possible that the out-migration o f germans may have had as much to do w i t h their potential cash-windfall from selling their properties (which had multiplied enormously i n value from the inter-war period) as w i t h being uncomfortable w i t h the changing social geography o f their neighbourhood. . c o n c l u s i o n s germans have a long history o f immigration to canada. understanding the differences i n immigrant cohort groups, their migration patterns and circumstances o f immigration and finally their substantive size as an ethnic group, is necessary to help contextualize both the settlement patterns i n vancouver and the chapters to follow on the evolution o f their ethnic churches. relative to other large ethnic groups in vancouver such as the italians, chinese or south asians, the germans have demonstrated little continuous residential segregation or clustering, particularly after the late s. their high degree o f residential assimilation is i n part due to the circumstances under w h i c h they left their homeland (gieb ) w h i c h has subsequently led to the virtual disappearance o f the german language i n the home (gieb ; stadler ). the desire o f many germans to participate i n e n g l i s h speaking society resulted i n rapid assimilation to vancouver life. however, many immigrants developed a divided sense o f allegiance both to germany and to canada (stadler ) and, while integrating w i t h canadian ways i n most aspects o f their lives, maintained some degree o f their 'germanness,' for many through their participation i n german churches. a s schmidt ( ) summarizes, the first-generation german immigrants have left their first place of settlement in the core of major cities. with progressive integration into canadian society and their economic well-being they tend to move into suburban areas. while it has been noticed by government and other agencies that the german immigrants are the best integrated, least vocal, and the least politically active ethnic group, many of them are nevertheless still tied to germany's umbilical cord ( ). c h a p t e r t h r e e m e t h o d s . m o d e l s a n d t h e s t o r i e s o f v a n c o u v e r ' s g e r m a n c h u r c h e s w i t h a larger picture o f german immigration as a backdrop, this chapter w i l l begin w i t h an explanation o f the research methods employed i n studying the german churches. f o l l o w i n g this, an examination o f some o f the models or typologies used to classify church congregations w i l l lead to an introduction to each o f the ten churches participating i n the study, churches w h i c h were built to minister to the german community taking shape during the s i n south vancouver. . r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y documents chronicling church histories are scattered and inconsistently preserved and as such, experiences, memories and information were primarily collected from those who l i v e d them. m o s t churches have recorded their story i n anniversary books or bulletins but some have failed even this modest collection o f details. interviews with church members who have been consistently active i n church leadership were undertaken to provide a detailed and personal account o f the particular aspects o f church history that are o f thematic interest. f o r two churches, interviews provided the only source o f church memory. the process o f research began with the development o f a complete inventory o f churches established i n vancouver as german speaking churches by people o f german origin. several studies were helpful i n completing this list (gumpp ; sturhahn ; burkinshaw ) as were preliminary interviews with three church leaders o f german origin. informal conversations and correspondence w i t h personal contacts confirmed the inventory. the final list identified seventeen churches i n vancouver ministering primarily to german origin members and using german language i n worship services. the churches represented several denominations: lutheran, baptist, mennonite, catholic, pentecostal and independent. special census statistics on vancouver from and estimated that % o f germans were catholic, between % and % were lutheran, between % and % were baptist and the rest were a combination o f mennonite and independent denominations (gumpp ; statistics canada). in , a special tabulation o f german born immigrants reported that % were catholic, . % were protestant and . % had no religious affiliation (statistics canada) . it was decided that for the purposes o f this study, a broad selection o f churches and denominations w o u l d provide a more general but comparative picture o f the role o f the church in the german community. i attempted to contact a l l seventeen churches by telephone to present a brief questionnaire survey (appendix); for two churches telephone contact proved impossible. in most cases, the respondent was the current senior pastor o f the church though i n a few cases, the church secretary was able to supply adequate answers. ten questions were asked in order to establish a comparative base from w h i c h to select the churches to be interviewed i n greater detail. f r o m the list o f churches, ten churches were chosen based on their age, denominational affiliation, their original and current demographic profile and their willingness to participate in the research project (judged by their interest i n the initial questions). each o f the ten selected churches received two letters; the first introduced the research project as part o f a larger study o f immigration and religion; the second outlined the specific project i n greater detail. letters were addressed to the head pastor and further broken down, . % associated with the united church, . were anglican, . % were baptist, . % were lutheran, . % were mennonites and . % were associated with other protestant religions. this breakdown is clearly different from the / statistics provided by gumpp as hers were tabulated by german ethnic origin not by germany as place of birth. obviously most german born immigrants are catholic and lutheran. w i t h i n two weeks o f being sent, each pastor was contacted by telephone. pastors were asked whether the church was w i l l i n g to participate i n the study and i f so, for the names and telephone numbers o f church leaders who were w i l l i n g to be interviewed. i asked that the church pastor approach the respective church leaders to determine i f they were comfortable being interviewed. a s a result, a l l o f those i contacted were w i l l i n g to participate (though one suggested interviewee proved impossible to contact). t w o or three leaders were interviewed from each o f the ten churches and a total o f twenty-five interview sessions were conducted between february and a p r i l , . in five interview sessions both the husband and wife contributed to the interview conversation; these couples have been counted as one person i n the total o f twenty-five. m y reasoning for this is that each person did not respond to every question though the couples equally contributed to the overall interview. including these five wives, a total o f eight women were interviewed. their input was particularly valuable because comments were made on a wider range o f issues and services and community activity. s i x o f the interviewees were church pastors. they were interviewed because they had an extensive knowledge o f their church's history. they also proved helpful i n explaining the church's current situation i n terms o f programs and demographics. a l l o f the interviews were conducted i n respondents' homes except for the six interviews w i t h the church pastors all o f w h i c h took place at the respective church. interviews lasted between one and two hours. they were audio taped with the interviewees consent and were transcribed i n full by the author. the interviews were semi-structured so while i had a list o f questions to ask each respondent, each interview took its o w n conversational course at the end o f w h i c h i was sure to ask any undiscussed and applicable questions (see a p p e n d i x ) . m o s t interviews began w i t h informal conversation about my choice o f research topic and general studies. it was important to establish a level o f comfort and ease w i t h the interviewees as some seemed a bit anxious about the kinds o f questions i was about to ask. m o s t interviewees closely read the interview consent form and several asked questions about either the process o f the interview, the overall purpose o f the study or what was to be done w i t h the interview material. the environment o f most interviews felt relaxed and comfortable as we sat i n the respondents' l i v i n g or dining room. relationships were easily established, i n part i believe because my maternal family was, and is, a part o f this german church community and some o f my interviewees knew (of) my relatives. for several people, the interview was much like a story telling time as the respondent passed on their oral history. this was the case particularly i n interviews where i represented the general age o f the respondent's grandchildren. i enjoyed the development o f the interview relationship as i believe it brought an honesty and sincerity to interviewees' remarks but it also means that many stories took on a nostalgic tone and a yearning for the 'good o l ' days' perhaps influencing the choice o f more positive memories or experiences. the church leaders (non-pastors) were almost all retired persons and seemed for the most part flattered to be asked about their churches and their immigrant experiences. the interviews w i t h church pastors took a very different tone than those w i t h church members themselves. pastors spoke at greater length without the prompting o f questions; i n some cases, the interview was more like a sermon! i enjoyed them just the same and appreciated the frankness and critical viewpoints offered by the pastors on the role o f ethnic culture i n the church. a n audio recorder was used to tape all o f the interviews. before beginning i explained that this was the simplest way to ensure that an accurate record o f statements was taken but that i f the interviewee was uncomfortable w i t h the tape recorder i could instead simply take notes. a l l o f the interviewees consented to using the tape recorder and its presence did not appear to interfere w i t h the flow o f the interview. o n l y one interviewee appeared to be particularly conscious o f the tape recorder and he was careful to discuss only the positive aspects o f the church. h e wanted to confirm when i had turned the recorder off and then proceeded to mention some o f the difficulties the church is currently facing. the process o f interviewing went remarkably smoothly and there were few surprises. the one thing that i did not anticipate was the emotional power o f evoked memories. w h i l e telling particular stories o f the grace experienced by a church as it tried to financially establish itself, o f the death o f a pastor who had given his life to helping immigrants and o f the sacrifices made by the entire church community i n order to b u i l d a spiritual home, several o f the interviewees became very emotional. three actually broke down into tears. i suppose i was most surprised because i have seen few men o f this age group with traditional upbringings display such passionate emotions. i was quite comfortable w i t h their overwhelming emotional expressions. i took them as confirmation o f the centrality o f the church i n their lives. it also confirmed m y belief i n the importance o f the spiritual significance o f the church community for these german immigrants. i did wonder i n reflection i f they w o u l d have allowed themselves to reveal such feelings had i been male. . c h u r c h c o n g r e g a t i o n m o d e l s in attending to particular contexts, whether the local neighbourhood, an ethnic or linguistic group, or an economic class, churches attempt to mould themselves into fitting particular models or typologies. w i t h or without intention, churches evolve through these models as they experience growth and decline and as meeting spaces become crowded or empty. individual churches must constantly assess their demographic circumstances. it became clear after m y first few interviews that, among other factors, the impact o f a changing neighbourhood has significant bearing on the evolution o f the life cycle o f the church. churches must be dynamic institutions, observing and anticipating changes i n their social environments; those failing to do so risk losing members and, most significantly, losing young people. those churches attached to particular neighbourhoods and serving a specific sub-group o f residents must be particularly conscious o f their relationship w i t h the community. norton ( ) explains, when the urban areas began to grow, the church did not understand that the very concept of community was changing... if there had previously been some real significance in the coterminous relationship between the community and the parish, it was immediately cancelled out in the proliferation of parishes as a result of this tactic. the tactic fixed a special kind of kinship between church and place of residence... thus it was that the church, by the very nature of its organization, fostered the subcommunity insularity ( - ). v e r y few neighbourhood based ethnic churches avoid what norton describes here. m o s t , "function w i t h indifference to the context around them and end up as sub-communities i n their neighbourhoods" (posterski & n e l s o n : ). a s a result o f such criticism, many church leaders i n the past ten years have become interested i n a body o f literature i n theological studies concerned w i t h church growth that identifies church models or typologies. the models are organizational formats after w h i c h churches may attempt to pattern themselves as appropriate to their particular context and circumstance. it is w e l l recognized that churches, ethnic churches i n particular, cycle through common sequences o f life events such as those described here by m u l l i n s : minority churches are initially established to meet the needs of the immigrant generation. during this first stage, the services and activities are naturally dominated by the language and clergy from the old country. the emergence of a native-born generation leads minority churches into the second stage. in order to effectively recruit the acculturated generation, bilingual clergy must be secured and english services introduced. failure to adapt means an end to successful membership recruitment and certain decline as the first generation disappears from the scene. structural assimilation generates new problems for minority churches and brings them to a third stage. membership leakage through mobility and intermarriage makes organizational survival a critical concern. the disappearance of the original immigrant members means that minority churches are again in a monolingual stage, but at this point they are dominated by the language of the host society (mullins : ). a l l churches cycle through a life cycle that normally lasts approximately forty-five years. after establishing themselves, churches often have a very slow period o f growth for the first two to three years before they experience an exponential growth as families who value the church as a source o f morality and socialization j o i n with their young children. after the period o f rapid growth, churches reach a plateau at w h i c h they remain for approximately twenty-five years as children age. w h e n the children leave to start their o w n families and churches, the church begins its cycle o f decline at w h i c h time a decision is made by church leaders that w i l l either restart the life cycle or w i l l end i n the church's death. for immigrant or ethnic churches, the cycle presented here is exacerbated by cultural and linguistic issues i n the church. the ten churches examined here each represent different points o f the life cycle (most however, are at the end or beyond the plateau stage) and later each w i l l serve as an example o f some o f the models below w h i c h categorize churches by the residential geography o f their membership and their ethnic composition. in chapter six i w i l l consider why and how churches move through these models. there are essentially only two geographic models identified i n the literature on church growth and many churches w o u l d fit neither o f these models. the first is the parish neighbourhood church w h i c h functions as the local chaplain i n the european system. e v e r y neighbourhood is served by a parish church and the priest o f that church is responsible for the spiritual well-being o f those i n his catchment area (bakke & roberts ). the parish church functions much the same as the community church, though the community church is generally united by a c o m m o n identity most often based on characteristics o f history, geography, ethnicity or social class ( b i b b y ) whereas the parish church is simply united by arbitrary geographic boundaries. these parish and community models operate at the scale o f neighbourhood and traditionally it meant that most members lived within walking distance o f their place o f worship. one interviewed pastor called his a neighbourhood church, describing it as, ...identified by fixed boundaries. its people share the same services, they go to the same schools, they shop in the same stores, they go to the same library, they see each other on the street every day. and the church is just all a part of that neighbourhood...that's how the ethnic churches for the first generation [of german immigrants] identify themselves. h e further suggested that "there are shared assumptions," w h i c h means that less work is necessary to bring about understanding between people. unfortunately the existence o f already shared assumptions can sometimes mean there are limits to growth because, " y o u are subject to changes [in the neighbourhood]...you can only draw upon certain people so y o u stick at a plateau." in contrast, the second geographic model is the larger scale regional church serving geographically dispersed members who travel from a l l parts o f the city to their place o f worship. the regional church is a product o f the automobile and the willingness o f members to travel longer distances often for a wider range o f church programs for a l l ages. kawano ( ) explains that many o f these regional churches are attracting members based on worship or organizational preferences: in cities...many of us drive to the church which best serves our needs, even if it is not the closest. thus, in a sense, many mainline parishes become 'ethnic' in order to survive. they specialize in a particular type of preaching, prayer or organization: they stress certain traditions, from england or ireland or newfoundland ( - ). regional churches tend to have much larger memberships (some even approaching or exceeding , ) and are most often located on major transportation arteries. it is suggested that their lack o f identification w i t h any particular community eliminates their vulnerability to the life-cycle o f a neighbourhood ( b i b b y ). these churches have been criticized for being too large and anonymous and for abandoning communities w h i c h they w o u l d serve. their size allows them to profit from an economy o f scale, running a greater number and variety o f programs for more people o f a greater range o f ages, justifying their employment o f a specialized pastoral staff for music, outreach, family ministry, children's ministry, youth and/or the elderly. canadian regional churches are toned down versions o f the a m e r i c a n megachurch described here by c o n n : in this decentralized world the church loses its grip on local geographical neighbourhood and is transformed into a megachurch, twenty-five minutes away by car. the size of the megachurch becomes limited only by the size of its parking lot. and the lost community created by this change finds its replacement in the small cell groups and house meetings also characteristic of the successful megachurch (conn : ). the interviewee above who identified the neighbourhood church, contrasted the local church model w i t h one similar to the regional church. h e called their model the neighbourhoods' church w h i c h , serves a number of neighbourhoods and has to be very clear about what draws [members] to the centre and very distinct about engaging people where they live on the edge. i think it is a little harder to manage a neighbourhoods church because the assumptions will vary from community to community of the people who are involved...we have become a neighbourhoods church. somewhere w i t h i n and between these models fits the description o f most o f the churches interviewed i n this study. i w i l l call them city-wide churches. a s explained by a current church moderator, "what kept our church alive for a long time was people driving i n from the suburbs. w e called it a metropolitan church, that was the model we were l o o k i n g at." the german ethnic churches for the most part began as community or neighbourhood churches. s l o w l y , beginning i n the s but accelerating i n the s and s, they experienced an out-migration o f members to outlying suburban and exurban areas. m a n y o f these members continued to commute back to the church but others have left to find a place o f worship closer to home. the german churches do not have the benefits o f size or youthfulness that regional churches generally enjoy. n o r have they been able to maintain their geographical closeness and intimacy as a neighbourhood church. m o s t are caught i n a difficult and hopefully transitionary model still attracting a relatively small city-wide congregation. another body o f church model literature focuses on the ethnographic characteristics o f church members. m o s t e t h n o g r a p h i c models focus on homogeneous ethnic or linguistic communities (bakke & roberts ); multi-ethnic or multi-cultural church congregations receive m i n i m a l attention i n examples though issues o f diversity i n the church are becoming more w i d e l y recognized (see cenkner ; foster & brelsford ). there are four church models based on the ethnic profile o f the congregation. the immigrant church is a first and sometimes second generation phenomenon wherein religious customs, symbols and ceremonies o f the native land are transplanted to a church i n the new host country (bakke ). the experiences o f immigration and the challenges o f settlement and adjustment become a unifying call to immigrants o f like origin. initially at least, the mother tongue is the only language used in worship. eventually this becomes an issue o f conflict as the second generation become less comfortable w i t h their mother tongue and more comfortable w i t h e n g l i s h . w h e n language transition begins to take place immigrant churches may develop into ethnic churches. in cities where there is a high degree o f residential segregation or concentration, immigrant churches may also be identified as community or neighbourhood churches. n o longer functioning exclusively i n the language o f its mother country, the ethnic church preserves a formidable degree o f the cultural ethos o f that country, even when it accepts non-ethnic members. a s kawano ( ) explains, "ethnic parishes form because a group o f people find themselves isolated - geographically, culturally or linguistically - i n a larger society. part o f this isolation may be deliberate...or the racial or cultural group may isolate itself to protect its special characteristics i n a new land" ( ). if the isolation or concentration is geographic then, like the immigrant church, the ethnic church also functions as a community church. f o r some german churches i n vancouver the ethnic church was deliberately segregated to protect the german culture i n vancouver. for others, it was the case that there was a need to establish a segregated german church as germans were labelled as undesirables after the war. this parallels the experience o f the b l a c k churches i n b r i t a i n o f both caribbean and a f r i c a n origin; churches that were established because o f exclusionary experiences. they, "are explainable by the fact that this christianity developed i n response to the need for black christians to make sense o f the state o f 'ethnic minority' imposed on them when they came to b r i t a i n " ( k a l i l o m b e : ). in the international church model members are drawn together from diverse national backgrounds to break from the nationalistic and linguistic constraints o f the ethnic church (bakke & roberts ). descriptions o f this model are vague and perhaps the label o f multicultural church may be more appropriate w i t h an emphasis on the desire to attract members who pro- actively choose to worship, interact and socialize w i t h members o f multiple ethnic groups. k a w a n o ( ) is the only author to articulate the multicultural model w h i c h he argues can be used to save dying congregations from extinction through deriving strength from a number o f integrated groups. for several o f the interviewed churches, this model o f a multicultural church was what they are trying to become, though not all i n the congregation agreed as one interviewee explained: i think if you speak with the people who vision about where the church should go and should be, multicultural is the dream. probably if you talk to the rank and file older generation, multicultural is not something you'd want. and if you push hard enough it was probably some stupid idea that pierre trudeau dreamed up. the multicultural church is biblically justified (espin ) and for some, an attractive and engaging model. one leader from one o f the churches closest to representing this model explained: we are really one people. we are different colours and backgrounds but we are one creation. god didn't create any of us better than any other... it is up to us to see how we're different and how we can work together. i think it adds a lot of interest to our church. when we have a potluck dinner and we have chinese food and punjabi food and we have german food, it adds a lot of diversity which is interesting and even a bit exciting. i think it would be rather boring to have all german. the fourth model is the multi-language cluster church most commonly found i n transitional urban neighbourhoods. in this model, host churches share building space with separate and autonomous congregations worshipping i n different languages, often at different times. though there is little interaction between the congregations except for administrative or logistical purposes, the multi-language church model is used by many churches to bridge out o f a mono- ethnic church tradition to reach new ethnic groups in the neighbourhood. a s w i l l be seen, when left to their o w n devices some administratively separate congregations become more intimately connected as canadian born children attend the sunday schools o f the larger e n g l i s h congregation. a final model not explicitly identified i n the literature is, what i term the successive ethnic congregation model. in this instance, the movement o f ethnic communities into and out o f the church m i m i c s the presence or absence o f the same ethnic groups i n the neighbourhood. burns ( ) alludes to this model i n his discussion o f a san francisco church built by the irish community, 'infiltrated' by the new local hispanic community and finally attended by a wave o f f i l i p i n o residents from the community. services were continually provided i n a l l languages though membership numbers o f particular ethnic groups waxed and waned as the dominant group shifted. this church example represents a unique model i n that the church never became multi-cultural i n the integrated sense, nor can it be considered a multi-language church because it administratively remained one church congregation. this model is extensively used i n catholic churches where masses are offered i n several languages. . g e r m a n c h u r c h e s in v a n c o u v e r the seventeen german churches i n vancouver were established between and ; the first four were established in the interwar period and the remaining thirteen began after w o r l d w a r t w o , as a result o f the impact o f the post war german immigration (figure . ). the earlier churches began w i t h a small number o f committed members and most later churches either developed as daughter congregations or splits from the earlier established congregations. m o s t o f the churches experienced growth i n membership to at least members, several churches reached over and at least five churches recorded over members at their highest point (figure . ) . it is necessary to point out that a good number, i f not most germans in vancouver did not participate i n german ethnic religious l i f e . this is easily determined by counting the number o f as some churches do not keep membership records not all of the trends in membership can be reported. membership figures for lutheran churches are not used because they are particularly problematic and bear little reflection on the actual number of church attendees. mennonite churches chose not to reveal their membership records and therefore the three baptist church membership records were used. they are well reflective both of the church attendance and of the experience of declines in membership. in o'bryan's ( ) study on non-official language groups in canada, he reported that nationally, the percentage of germans who were associated with churches where almost all members were also of german ethnicity was figure . : establishment of selected german ethnic churches - vancouver o s s o o ta h o l y family german parish culloden vancouver mennonite brethren fraserview ____—— m b * mennonite . killarney brethren park m b martin luther evangelical st. mark's - lutheran german lutheran church of oakridge ebenezer ^bethany immanuej pilgrim baptist " baptist baptist " baptist t t t y e a r source: various church documents and interviews immigrants and comparing this w i t h the total memberships for a l l churches. g u m p p ( ) suggested that this lack o f participation may have been the result o f "accelerated secularization from immigration, preoccupation w i t h material and social adjustments or rejection o f the structure o f n o r t h a m e r i c a n churches" ( ). she also notes that because germans were not approximately %, . % were associated with churches where more than half were also german. thirty-eight percent were associated with churches were there were less than half or no other germans; % were not associated with any church. on g ' b « u u a ee e i- o sm h o oh x wj - i . a e c s- wd diqsjaquiapv ibnuuy necessarily tied to particular denominations many assimilated into canadian churches. she notes that i n , % o f ethnic germans belonged to the united c h u r c h . o n a regular basis there is little interaction between the german speaking churches but they do have some connections through the german a l l i a n c e . one pastor o f a still german speaking congregation explained the activities o f the a l l i a n c e : the german alliance meets for the prayer week in january and then we also have like a crusade in the fall with a speaker from germany who comes to preach for one or two evenings. they have a pastor exchange in october. that's the only link between the german congregations of various denominations. u s i n g the models outlined above, the german churches i n vancouver w o u l d best be classified i n their early years as neighbourhood, immigrant/ethnic churches. o f the ten churches interviewed there are a few exceptions to the neighbourhood classification, but for the most part the churches began as community based, ethnically and linguistically homogenous institutions. a l m o s t a l l o f the german churches were located i n the original german neighbourhood (figure . ) identified i n chapter two (see figure . a ) though later established churches are less l i k e l y to located w i t h i n the precise boundaries o f the german concentration (though they are still i n the general v i c i n i t y o f south vancouver). the membership o f the fraserview church, "shows a more evenly dispersed distribution o f families. this is a reflection o f the fact that these new churches were established to serve families already scattered...from the original core area and families coming into the city and settling in an extensive area, a l l o f w h o m felt no great need or desire for close settlement" (siemens : ). the more even distribution still lies w i t h i n the frame o f the german neighbourhood (see figure . ). as just another indication of how confusing the issue of 'counting' germans is, a reminder that in the percentage of those born in germany who identified themselves as united church members was less than %. figure . : original locations o f german ethnic churches, vancouver, b . c . w i t h the exception o f the first german church i n the city, the churches established between and were, 'tucked away' off o f main streets. one respondent suggested that, a lot of that boils down to what was happening during world war ii. they did not want to be seen or highlighted. there are people in our congregation who have very bad memories during world war ii of having to report into the authorities every week because they were german by descent even though they were canadian citizens. there are memories people have of worship services being stopped by the police and people being marched out onto the sidewalk and the building being searched for radio transmitters. so it was not in their interests at that time to be prominent. there is a second factor w h i c h l i k e l y influenced the location o f churches; the master p l a n for the c i t y o f vancouver i n the late s intentionally moved a l l churches off o f arterial road ways to side streets. a s a result, almost all churches i n vancouver, not just the german churches, are 'tucked away.' the less pronounced locations o f the churches has meant that they do not enjoy the prominence o f churches whose signage and visible community presence gives them a welcome advantage when seeking to reach the larger neighbourhood. b o t h the unique and common histories o f each o f the ten churches warrants that attention be given to their situations (table . ). . i s s u e s b e t w e e n g e r m a n i m m i g r a n t c o h o r t g r o u p s there is one issue that requires consideration before attention is turned to the specifics o f the german churches i n vancouver. it is an issue raised by several o f my interviewees and one that is common i n the literature on ethnic churches. sturhahn ( ) writes that one o f the greatest areas o f conflict i n the german churches strangely developed " w i t h i n the circles o f immigrants." the seriousness and frequency o f these clashes, he wrote, were "far-reaching and [they] often had p u z z l i n g consequences" ( ). o n one hand, continuing immigration maintained ethnic church growth, but on the other hand, alienation and fear often developed between new arrivals and their forerunners (warner ). friedmann ( ) described the tensions between the german immigrants o f the pre and post w o r l d war t w o cohorts: they are separated by outlook and experience. the older germans feel that the new german immigrants expect too much spoon-feeding and have little self-reliance. the younger germans often feel that the older immigrants are smug and not interested in their problems. germans... [can tend] to disintegrate into bitterly antagonistic factions ( ). c u rr en t im m ig ra nt p ro gr am s/ s er vi ce s k id s cl ub ; e sl ; y ou th p ro gr am n on e n on e - lo ok in g in to f or fu tu re w il l be gi n e sl , re fu ge e sp on so r, b oy s & g ir ls c lu bs r ef ug ee p ro gr am y ou th d ro p in , k id s pr og ra m s c hi ne se m in is tr y, e sl st ar te d m om s & t ot s gr ou p (p ri m ar ily g er m an ) n on e y ou th p ro gr am ; in fo rm al p ro gr am s by ch ur ch m em be rs c u rr en t w or sh ip s er vi ce l an gu ag es (_ )= te n an t e ng lis h, ( c hi ne se ) & p un ja bi g er m an & e ng li sh g er m an & e ng lis h g er m an , e ng li sh & ( sp an is h) g er m an , e ng li sh & s pa ni sh e ng lis h & (c hi ne se ) g er m an & e ng li sh g er m an & e ng lis h g er m an & e ng lis h g er m an , e ng lis h, g re ek (v ie tn am es e) c ur re nt e th no gr ap hi c m od el m ul ti -l an gu ag e cl us te r, be co m in g m ul ti cu lt ur al et hn ic g er m an tr yi ng t o be co m e m ul ti cu lt ur al m ul ti la ng ua ge c lu st er , tr yi ng t o be co m e m ul ti cu lt ur al et hn ic s u cc es si on m od el m ul ti la ng ua ge c lu st er , tr yi ng t o be co m e m ul ti cu lt ur al et hn ic v s. t ry in g to b ec om e m ul ti cu lt ur al et hn ic g er m an ( ex pe ct s to fo ld ) et hn ic g er m an m ul ti la ng ua ge c lu st er , tr yi ng t o be co m e m ul ti cu lt ur al c ur re nt g eo gr ap hi c m od el ne ig hb ou rh oo d an d ci ty w id e re gi on al sp ec ia l 'n ei gh bo ur ho od s' m od el ne ig hb ou rh oo d an d ci ty w id e ci ty -w id e (g er m an s) an d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ci ty -w id e an d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ci ty -w id e ci ty -w id e re gi on al ne ig hb ou rh oo d g eo gr ap hi c m od el w he n e st ab lis he d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ne ig hb ou rh oo d ci ty -w id e ci ty -w id e ne ig hb ou rh oo d ci ty -w id e ci ty -w id e ne ig hb ou rh oo d a pp ro xi m at e c u rr en t m em be rs hi p o f> o cn m o >n m (b et w ee n - at te nd in g) o o o o tn on ap pr ox im at el y ( - at te nd in g) ( at te nd in g) o cn y ea r e st ab li sh ed d en om in at io n b ap ti st l ut he ra n b ap ti st m b c at ho lic m b b ap ti st l ut he ra n l ut he ra n m b c hu rc h e be ne ze r b ap ti st m ar ti n l ut he r e va ng el ic al b et ha ny b ap ti st v an co uv er m en no ni te b re th er en h ol y f am il y g er m an p ar is h f ra se rv ie w m en no ni te b re th er en im m an ue l b ap ti st l ut he ra n c hu rc h of o ak ri dg e st . m ar k' s e va ng el ic al l ut he ra n c ul lo de n m en no ni te b re th er en cleavages between immigrant cohort groups split churches and led, i n a few denominations, to the establishment o f daughter congregations. sturhahn ( ) described the divisions i n the german baptist churches as follows: " w h e n i n great numbers o f baptists from inside the german r e i c h came, the various 'water currents' found it exceedingly difficult to m i x into one large stream. it appeared at times that the only common factor was the german language and the treasure o f songs and hymns" ( ). differences existed not only between german baptist immigrant cohorts but also between german immigrants i n the other three denominations; they were particularly emphasized by german lutheran church members. one lutheran pastor explained that the divisions between the german lutheran churches are still visible today: i can still see that now a days when it comes to contacts between for example our congregation and [x lutheran congregation], [they have] a number of people from east prussia, from polish areas and we have quite a number of people from baden- wurtenberg...some how...imean there are no animosities but...somehow, maybe the wave length is not there. no arguments. no hassles. but there is no frequency on which to communicate. another lutheran church member similarly explained the significance o f the cultural differences between the immigrant cohorts w i t h i n one particular lutheran church. he was trying to be diplomatic when he said: now when i spoke of cultural differences, those cultural differences exist almost as strong today as they did years ago. the clash between the old german-english and the post war people of german origin still exists [in our church today]. as far as integration is concerned, the two groups really have not integrated [together]. they work together somewhat but when it comes down to the family and the heart you are not seeing that integration take place. in this case differences were not enough to break the congregation but obviously tension still exists between the cohort groups. in some cases congregations were able to hang together and b u i l d a cohesive church community. where that was the case, one member explained that, it was the faith o f church members w h i c h overrode cultural differences. one member explained that i n his congregation, where there were quite a number o f immigrants both from the pre- and post- w o r l d w a r t w o immigrant cohort groups, spiritual convictions maintained congregational unity: there were some immigrants coming from west germany and they had a whole different outlook than the people coming from poland or from russia. they had a different mentality, different values, different traditions, different habits, different taboos. it was really difficult to bring these people together and hold them together as a unit. there i think the spiritual impact was felt. that the christ that brought us together was stronger than the things that divided us. though that was not always apparent. n o t always apparent nor always true; not all the churches were able to claim such victory as w i l l become evident now i n examining each o f the ten churches being studied. . g e r m a n b a p t i s t c h u r c h e s prior to there were two german baptist churches i n vancouver belonging to the n o r t h a m e r i c a n baptist general conference. post w o r l d war t w o immigration from germany and other parts o f europe as w e l l as from the prairies, where german baptists had been strongly established since the first w o r l d war, resulted in the addition o f two more german baptist churches i n vancouver i n the s and s (burkinshaw ). ebenezer baptist church (initially named first german baptist church) was established i n but by the end o f the second w o r l d war, "ebenezer baptist church had established itself as an e n g l i s h speaking congregation" (sturhahn : ). a daughter congregation, bethany baptist, broke off i n because o f differences i n culture and traditions and "because the ebenezer church had begun to use the e n g l i s h language" (pousett : ). bethany became the german speaking congregation and its strength grew after the w a r when it "experienced a strong influx o f immigrants." (sturhahn : ). the church membership grew so much and so rapidly that another daughter congregation was begun i n . the pastor from bethany started immanuel baptist w i t h members from bethany's congregation. in history repeated itself again when the same pastor took o f immanuel's members to begin another new church, p i l g r i m baptist only a few blocks away. a sudden drop i n the number o f german immigrants halted church planting i n the german neighbourhood. p i l g r i m remained small as the " f l o w o f immigrants had by that time ebbed to a mere tric kle " (sturhahn : ). though a l l o f the immigrants attending the german baptist churches were german speaking, their actual place o f origin differed (see chapter two) and this was the major factor precipitating the splitting off o f daughter congregations. a s a church pastor o f one o f the churches explained, the first wave was actually [from] germany proper, the second wave was more [from] prussia, poland and the ukraine and the third wave was then from another place and that kind ofprecipitated a move from bethany to immanuel...then among all of them there was still kind of that feeling of distance and that then fawned pilgrim. so i think it was more that each church had been identified as social territory, familiar territory...[their differences] kind of enforced the breaks and the moves. even...just their accents...the way they spoke. importantly the cleaving o f german baptist congregations is not an isolated phenomenon as the same cultural differences between cohort groups o f immigrants has split lutheran, and to a lesser extent, mennonite congregations. this theme w i l l be returned to i n greater detail i n chapter four. several additional daughter congregations o f the german churches were planted i n the suburban areas o f greater vancouver i n the s and s but in these churches, e n g l i s h was the primary language o f worship. these churches were founded and attended by both first and second generation immigrants who had chosen suburban residential locations. these churches included mary hill baptist in coquitlam, sunshine ridge in surrey, oceanview in white rock and rose of sharon in richmond. . . e b e n e z e r baptist c h u r c h ebenezer baptist began as a "small and humble" church i n an empty store at m a i n street and m a r i n e d r i v e i n south vancouver. its members had migrated to vancouver from the prairie provinces and were o f german speaking origin, "a lot o f those people came from the diaspora o f german speaking people from russia, poland." the church moved later i n its first year to a small church at rd and m a i n street, then again to m a p l e h a l l near fraser street and th avenue. they first purchased property and built a church i n on nd avenue just off o f fraser street and moved across the street to their present location i n . e a c h move was precipitated by the need for more space as membership grew. a s the first german speaking church i n vancouver, ebenezer initially served those o f mennonite and lutheran background before such german denominations were established: for a while it seemed that our church served in the form of an alliance fellowship. although baptist in doctrine, ministry and practice, members of mennonite, evangelical, brethren and other faiths had found a spiritual home in our midst. in a sense we are actually the mother church of five or six churches that now exist in our community. the church membership grew consistently until the departure o f the members who started the bethany church i n . e v e n w i t h the loss, membership continued to grow until the second w o r l d w a r when the church had approximately members. the influx o f german speaking immigrants facilitated further growth through the s (figure . ). the church history book (ebenezer c h u r c h history, undated) notes that i n there was a sunday school enrollment o f , a youth group o f , two women's m i s s i o n s societies with members and several choirs w i t h a total o f participants. the membership peaked i n the early s at members and then s l o w l y began to decline. the residential distribution o f ebenezer's membership is patterned as most o f the early churches were; most members initially lived w i t h i n w a l k i n g distance o f the church but i n the post war years began to suburbanize, some commuting back to the church on sundays (see figure . ). in a church history report (konnert, undated) a church leader described the multiple challenges beginning to face the church i n the late s: we could not foresee the youth rebellion against the status quo...which would ultimately also reach into the churches. by the mid- s, we had already undergone a difficult pastoral change...and the passing of other pillars of the church pretty well brought to an end the total family involvement in the activities of the church as we had known it. other contributing factors were the now mobile society that we were living in and the fact that our children were now being educated in various educational institutions and entering vocations and professions, often taking them out of the mainstream of the church activities. w h e n the church began, all o f the worship services at ebenezer were i n german but e n g l i s h began to creep into use as the children o f the german immigrants became more comfortable w i t h e n g l i s h and as the international circumstances o f war necessitated actions at the local level: by the beginning of the 's we were at war and many changes would follow. since our name was the 'first german baptist church' and hostilities were running high, the name was changed to 'ebenezer baptist' and the process of changing from an all german speaking service to bilingual was begun, although, a german speaking service would remain for many years. the bilingual service ended i n the s though by this time german use was m i n i m a l . ebenezer had decided early on that its priority was the e n g l i s h congregation: our church was one of the first to recognize that we wanted to minister to english speaking and other languages and so when our church initially separated from what is now bethany church, we maintained the english language and the people who went to bethany, they maintained the german language. that was the incentive for the membership to split apart. recognizing that one group wanted to switch to english very quickly so they could teach the children english so they could get jobs more quickly and the other group was more nationalistic and wanted to keep their german heritage intact. today german traditions and language have virtually disappeared from ebenezer. in the past three years the church has made a concerted effort to become a community church again and has developed programs and outreach to include and involve its new neighbours. the church hosts a chinese church congregation that is independent as w e l l as a punjabi congregation w i t h w h i c h it has a genuine relationship. the three groups meet separately but are beginning to interact more and more as the children o f the chinese and punjabi churches begin to participate i n the e n g l i s h sunday school o f the main congregation. . . b e t h a n y b a p t i s t c h u r c h established i n , bethany's first congregation was german speaking comprised o f inter-war immigrants from poland, russia and germany. but as the current german pastor explained, bethany's congregation really grew as a result o f post w o r l d w a r ii immigration hence, [now] the majority of our people that identify with the german congregation...are immigrants...from [between] ' [and] ' ...most of our people came over as younger families with children and they are of course getting on in years now...their children have grown up in this country and they identify with the english culture and congregation...the older people still identify with the german because this is their mother tongue. god spoke german as far as they were concerned. bethany was established i n an attempt to prolong the use o f the german language i n worship and conversation. successful i n that mission to this day the church still maintains a german worship service as w e l l as a german speaking seniors group w i t h over members. bethany's transition to include an e n g l i s h worship service took place in the early s and though it was not an easy transition it d i d not damage the spirit o f the church (as it had i n other congregations). the need for an e n g l i s h service was supported by the german congregation who saw the need for e n g l i s h as the way to keep the young people at church. in return, the younger second generation have upheld the german congregation who are respected as the church founders. bethany's first church was located at th avenue and prince albert street i n south vancouver. t h i s church was remodelled twice to accommodate a growing congregation but became so crowded during the s that i n it purchased five lots at th a v e n u e and quebec to b u i l d a new larger church (this even after members left the church to form immanuel). a s one member explained the pressures o f growth, "there was not a sunday when there wasn't a dozen or two dozen new people in the congregation." in the s, two congregations were using bethany's facilities for their worship meetings: the indo-canadian christian church and the a f r i c a n evangelical christian fellowship. however these two groups were simply renting space from the main congregation and there was no relationship among the members o f the various fellowship groups. after bethany made the decision to sell their church and move to a new location, no other church congregations have used the church's facilities. in february o f this year, bethany relocated to the h a m i l t o n neighbourhood o f east r i c h m o n d . the move had been i n the planning and development stages for over ten years. services recently began i n the new seat capacity sanctuary i n m a y ; the current membership is . the decision to move is explained by the pastor o f the still active german congregation: the church evaluated its ministry and also evaluated the trend and it was soon discovered that the younger families were not going to live in south vancouver...a task force...said if we are going to keep our younger families in the church, we will have to relocate our facility because of difficulty with people living in surrey...in white rock and so on...the trend was to lose these families and therefore it was decided to find a location that was central... [this location] is... centrally located as far as the map is concerned...it is not difficult [to travel] from surrey, from vancouver, from richmond, from white rock and that has kept some of our younger families in the church. the decision to move was actually made after applications to the c i t y o f vancouver to expand the existing building were turned down. the new church i n r i c h m o n d is described by the pastors as a 'communities' church meaning members are part o f one of, nine different communities [in greater vancouver]. these communities have their own home bible studies and things like that but on sundays we meet here at church..distance [to the church] is not a factor as transportation is not a problem especially because they have developed this network of good highways, it's really accessible. interestingly bethany is only one o f only two churches (fraserview is the other) that has chosen to relocate outside o f the south vancouver neighbourhood. . . i m m a n u e l b a p t i s t c h u r c h immanuel baptist church separated from bethany during the greatest period o f german immigration to canada. w i t h a similar reasoning as that expressed by bethany when they separated from ebenezer, immanuel's motivation, "was to establish an all german church that w o u l d not be e n g l i s h or h a l f e n g l i s h , that w o u l d be strictly german and the unity, rallying cry was german o n l y . " the members who joined immanuel were a l l post w o r l d w a r t w o immigrants from russia, bulgaria, hungary, germany, poland and prussia who, "tried to maintain their german heritage a little more vigorously than bethany d i d . " this preservationist attitude toward culture has brought about much tension and alienation w i t h i n the congregation. the struggle between e n g l i s h and german has been difficult as the german members see their language and culture put on the back bench i n favour o f attending to the e n g l i s h congregation and possible new ethnic communities. e n g l i s h was introduced into the worship services i n the s and the church had a particularly difficult time adjusting. the congregation struggled w i t h language issues even i n the late s and s. u n l i k e the mennonite churches, immanuel has lost many o f its second generation because, as was explained to me, the "church wanted to be such a german stronghold and the next generation said, t don't care about this stuff.'" its membership has declined to around . a s a result o f the understood purpose o f the church to serve only the german community, immanuel has been particularly i l l prepared to deal with the out-migration o f its members to the suburbs. w h e n german immigration to canada dropped off, it created a very disorientating experience especially for the church...because they had been accustomed to the fact that all you had to do was hang out your german shingle and then people will come...well things don't operate that way now-a- days. l i k e many o f the others, the church is no longer a neighbourhood church though some w i s h it w o u l d become so again. one member explains, we are not necessarily a community church though we are active in it, we have our outreach programs...my wish for our church would be that we are a city church. that it doesn't matter where you live or what you are but that you are invited to immanuel. and it's difficult let's say when you have many asians in the community around you. the future o f the church has been a significant topic o f discussion at immanuel over the past five years as some members saw it best to sell the church and j o i n back w i t h bethany as they moved to their new church home. the conflict w h i c h developed over the issue o f selling and j o i n i n g or continuing the current ministry has made the church, " i n a sense even more german now than it was [five years ago]." a s a result o f the conflict ninety members left immanuel to return to bethany. the church is now still struggling to deal w i t h hurt feelings and bitterness over this issue. out o f this turmoil the church has resolved to maintain its german ministry for as long as it is needed but has also made a commitment to, "move in a multicultural direction." the church n o w has chinese attenders and is facing issues o f how to effectively develop a multicultural congregation without following the multi-language model o f renting out facilities to separate congregations worshipping i n other languages. . g e r m a n l u t h e r a n c h u r c h e s o n the whole, vancouver's german lutheran churches have remained m u c h more ' g e r m a n ' than their baptist and mennonite church neighbours. the very first german lutheran church i n vancouver was started just before the first w o r l d war but it became an e n g l i s h congregation very q u i c k l y and never went back to being german. immediately f o l l o w i n g the first w o r l d war, the same situation repeated itself and it was not until that a german lutheran congregation was established w i t h any lasting success. this church was m a r t i n luther evangelical, located i n the south vancouver neighbourhood, established by german o r i g i n immigrants who moved to vancouver after a short stay i n rural prairie settlements. t w o more german lutheran congregations were established after w o r l d w a r t w o by recent immigrants and though there was some membership transfer from m a r t i n luther to these two new congregations they were formed as a result o f missionary work by a lutheran pastor from the synod not as daughter congregations o f m a r t i n luther. the synod body had not sent the missionary pastor w i t h the intent o f having h i m establish a church but when he chose to do so at the request o f his church followers he was essentially fired from the synod and two churches resulted. the pastor founded his o w n congregation and the synod sent another german pastor to form the other church. these two churches respectively became st. mark's evangelical lutheran (independent) and what is now the german lutheran church o f oakridge, originally the lutheran c h u r c h o f the cross (affiliated w i t h the western canada lutheran synod). m u c h like the baptist churches, the lutheran church members see their congregations as distinct and separate based on the origin o f their members. one church leader and post w o r l d w a r t w o immigrant explained, martin luther is a different church...they have people from pre-war and those martin luther people are totally different from our congregation. different totally... because of regions... because of where they come from. they haven't experienced real germany as we knew it... [the congregation of st. mark's] were different people from us too. the younger people were [different from the oakridge congregation] just in age but the older ones were reichsdeutsche and from northern germany. so they were supported by the german church... the german church bought their building and we really suffered very greatly after [the separation of st. mark's and oakridge]. . . martin luther evangelical church m a r t i n luther church was established i n by interwar immigrants, mainly displaced persons from russia, poland, and other parts o f eastern europe. the church grew significantly f o l l o w i n g the second w o r l d war when it received many more displaced persons who tripled its membership to over . m a r t i n luther church began e n g l i s h services i n the s but has managed to maintain its german service despite losing some o f the post war immigrants to the other younger german lutheran congregations as w e l l as many more to suburban and exurban out-migration. today part o f the membership o f m a r t i n luther wishes to carry on maintaining elements o f their german culture through, for example, monthly german sing-a-long meetings. between % and %> o f church attenders are german speaking. but there is some conflict over the future direction that the church w i l l take. the church has lost many o f its younger families, some who have joined other churches not identified w i t h german culture and others who have chosen not to attend any church. the church has not made attempts to serve new ethnic communities o f its neighbourhood, i n part because it sees other churches successfully including the new communities. . . st. m a r k ' s l u t h e r a n c h u r c h w h e n the congregation o f st. mark's lutheran church split from the synod affiliated german c h u r c h o f the cross (oakridge), they began renting facilities from a u n i t e d c h u r c h at th avenue and f l e m i n g street i n east vancouver. w h e n the u n i t e d church decided to sell its building the germans purchased it and have remained there since . m o s t o f the congregation at st. mark's arrived after the second w o r l d war from germany and the b a l t i c countries. the church core formed with or members and grew to a congregation o f over . its present average sunday attendance is around though the number o f members on the church rolls number close to . b y current standards, the real membership o f this congregation is about ( members x %). in germany, one must go through a rigorous process to be dropped from the church r o l l , hence a long membership list. this congregation (as do the other two lutheran congregations) operates by the same rule. the church has firmly maintained its german identity and has consistently hired pastors whose mother tongue is german, often directly from germany. the church today is still " % german," but a senior church leader explains that now the aging congregation is beginning to question its future as a german church, we conducted a survey a little while ago and... [it] showed that about % of the members are years and older. all of a sudden there is a gap and you [only] have a few younger ones. but the older people, years and older, that is the backbone of the congregation right now. they support the church and they support the german services. w i t h this demographic profile the church is committed to continuing the german services because these members are the primary church supporters; without them the church w o u l d not exist. the church does however see the future danger i n sticking only to the german. f o r this reason, the church is also committed to the e n g l i s h congregation, we will not abandon [the english service]. someday we will need it and it would be dead wrong for us to say well why waste expenses for the service... when there is only or or people in church. never mind, we want to keep it up and we must keep it up. the church realizes the need to take action in future planning and the issue was raised at the last annual meeting where a commitment was made by the church council to formally consider the church's mission directions. one member explains his concerns, where we are seeing ourselves in or years? what are we doing now? what should we be doing? my summation of that was, we are doing many things well...we know we are doing them well or we would not be where we are....but let's have a look where we can do things better...there are a lot of germans who don't go to church and we should make an effort to find them... our congregation is not ready to go to an all-out effort to raise the english service. this is not racism we are saying, this is what i see...they are just simply not ready...where else could we recruit? only from the chinese population in our area. there is no other way because this area is about % chinese. so the only ones we could reach is the chinese. i don't think our congregation is ready for that. to have chinese council members, a chinese pastor, they are just not ready for that...i am realistic on this and this has nothing, i hope you do not sense this as racism. i have wonderful chinese neighbours. st. m a r k ' s has been one o f the few i f not the only church still receiving german immigrants since the post-war boom, many o f w h o m have been directed there by german consular officials. b u t the number o f recent german immigrants is o f course not sufficient to sustain the church nor do these immigrants necessarily become associated or stay associated w i t h the church after they establish themselves i n the city. the future direction o f st. mark's ministry is a significant issue o f consideration for the church. . . g e r m a n l u t h e r a n c h u r c h at o a k r i d g e the evangelical lutheran church o f the cross was the synod affiliated german congregation that is now called the german lutheran church at oakridge. the oakridge congregation is actually a merger o f the german church o f the cross congregation and the icelandic lutheran church o f christ congregation. the c h u r c h o f the cross congregation (which initially included those now at st. mark's lutheran) met at the danish lutheran church at th avenue and prince e d w a r d streets before buying the o l d redeemer lutheran church in . when the two congregations split i n , those choosing the non-synod affiliated group left to establish st. m a r k ' s lutheran. the remaining members struggled w i t h a new pastor. when the city expropriated some o f the church land to b u i l d a school and park, the church decided to sell the building and move into a shared arrangement w i t h the struggling icelandic lutheran church located at st avenue and cambie street. the german congregation moved into the icelandic building i n and the two congregations formally joined in ; languages o f worship include both e n g l i s h and german. since that time the german speaking congregation has provided most o f the church leadership as the icelandic congregation (comprising most o f the e n g l i s h speaking congregation) has continually lost members. the german members are predominantly post w o r l d w a r t w o immigrants, "a few from west germany, a lot from east germany and then a lot o f b a l t i c s , actually, the baltics were the instrumental people." u n l i k e most o f the german ethnic churches, the oakridge congregation was never really a neighbourhood church but drew german speakers from the larger vancouver city region. w i t h i n the german congregation there has been a conscious effort to maintain the german language. the current pastor was hired from germany; the ability o f the pastor to speak and preach i n h i g h german is a top priority for german lutheran congregations. the desire to maintain the german heritage is evident in the singing o f german hymns, the traditional german christmas service, and the german spring sing-a-long. but now that church members are aging they are f o l l o w i n g the same life cycle as the icelandic congregation, "the situation is exactly the same it's just about maybe years later...the same story has repeated itself again and now we [german congregation] are just waiting to be swallowed up by another congregation or a community." in the last ten years the church has made attempts to invite its neighbours to church, "the council members walked from door to door to door and handed out invitations and pamphlets and the result was nothing...that was very discouraging because we tried to offer projects and programs to the neighbourhood and the response was n i l . " w i t h only one-third o f church members attending e n g l i s h services, the congregation recognized the necessity o f increasing membership i n its e n g l i s h congregation but thus far it has not been successful. n o w the congregation is l o o k i n g to close its doors as its sunday attendance has declined to less than forty, i always promised when i was chairman that we would have german services for as long as we can afford it. right now we are in the process where we [are] seek[ing] two or three congregations who will dissolve their congregations and we will dissolve ours and form one church and choose one property to make one large church. people get too old, people who are running the churches. there are too few of them and it is not good stewardship to waste good money just running the church. . m e n n o n i t e b r e t h r e n c h u r c h e s the mennonite churches discussed here are o f the mennonite brethren tradition, a partner body i n the national mennonite central committee w h i c h acts as the social and welfare arm o f the mennonite churches . the mother congregation o f the mennonite brethren denomination is the vancouver mennonite brethren ( m b ) c h u r c h located i n the heart o f the south vancouver neighbourhood around a hub o f mennonite immigrants. it the other large mennonite church that is represented in vancouver is the mennonite conference division and they too have several churches in the south vancouver area as well as daughter congregations in other parts of greater vancouver. i chose the mennonite brethren division churches somewhat arbitrarily as had better contacts. was established largely by immigrants who had initially settled i n rural areas o f the l o w e r m a i n l a n d and the prairies and, "it became a local spiritual home for m b s l i v i n g i n that area." the mennonite brethren strongly adhered to their german mother tongue, emphasized their religious and ethnic characteristics and developed a strong group consciousness (froeschle ). in fact, the mother congregation still holds services i n german, this almost years after the church was established. in contrast, the d u t c h reformed churches i n vancouver only maintained their language for an average o f ten years (burkinshaw ). the vancouver mennonite churches experienced continued and significant growth particularly i n the post w o r l d w a r t w o period and the constant influx o f immigrants necessitated the establishment o f several daughter churches. the first daughter church o f the vancouver m b was fraserview ( ) and from the fraserview m b church, k i l l a r n e y park m b ( ) was planted. a l s o in , approximately members o f vancouver m b , mainly middle aged couples and young people, left to begin the w i l l i n g d o n m b church i n burnaby w h i c h is now a flourishing church incorporating seven languages (other than english) in their sunday services and enjoying a weekly attendance close to , . the last o f the vancouver m b daughter churches was the c u l l o d e n m b church i n and it was initially intended to replace the mother church as it was much larger and only a few blocks away. the vancouver m b church closed its doors for only a few weeks. a t the first worship service i n the new c u l l o d e n building, the church was nearly filled to its capacity and so it was decided that both churches w o u l d continue to serve the community. . . vancouver mennonite brethren established i n , most members o f v a n c o u v e r mennonite brethren came to canada from russia i n the s. m a n y were initially settled in the l o w e r m a i n l a n d and the church grew through serving many o f the children o f the immigrants who were m o v i n g to vancouver for employment and educational reasons. the church thrived w i t h the influx o f the post w o r l d w a r t w o settlers; in the early s the church membership more than doubled and the seating capacity o f was grossly inadequate for the almost sunday attenders. e v e n after several churches were planted and took w i t h them members the mother m b church, the church building remained too small for its congregation. after the new culloden church was built, vancouver m b recommenced meeting after being closed for only one or two sundays and both churches continued to grow into the s when they became home to russian mennonites who had immigrated first to south a m e r i c a and were now sponsored to come to canada. a church pastor explained, ...paraguay, argentina, brazil, uruguay, were the chief receptors of many of the mennonites that were disenfranchised due to the war...as soon as it was possible for these immigrants who were in south america, they came to canada. canada at that time offered much better opportunity to get ahead. u n t i l the m i d s the church remained mainly german i n large part because o f the german speaking south a m e r i c a n immigrants. it was not until that the church separated their services for e n g l i s h and german members, though they had held bilingual services since . the church membership began to decline i n the late s and early s as more and more members moved back to the fraser v a l l e y or to the suburbs. in recent years, the congregation o f about has become somewhat multicultural w i t h members o f latino, lebanese, peruvian, and f i l i p i n o backgrounds participating. a long time church leader explains his v i e w o f the future o f the german service, "i think the german language, you give it another ten years and i think the bilingual w i l l be dropped all together. it's more and more switching over to the e n g l i s h and y o u can't get any more ministers that are still b i l i n g u a l . " . . fraserview mennonite brethren fraserview was the first daughter church o f the vancouver m b church and was established i n . the church was located at th and k n i g h t street but it moved to a location i n north r i c h m o n d i n and sold its former building to a chinese baptist church group. w h e n first established, h a l f o f the fraserview congregation were prairie born germans o f post- w o r l d w a r one immigrants, some even o f pre-world war one immigrants. the other h a l f o f the congregation were russian born and arrived i n the interwar period (siemens ). the church was started w i t h members and quickly doubled in size by to almost members. w i t h the addition o f adherents the church had over participants. a newspaper article profiling the church highlights the church's emphasis on young people (regehr ). w i t h a youth group o f over the church exerted a great deal o f effort to maintain the interest o f its youth. the fraserview church moved in when it recognized that a large proportion o f its membership was moving to r i c h m o n d . the factors contributing to the church's decision to move were explained by the church pastor, i think it was urbanization and economic kind of stuff...it was the suburban move of a number ofpeople who were making it economically and moved out of east vancouver and were...breaking new ground economically and with housing and all of this land was developed here. this land immediately here was developed by the people of this church. all of these houses and the condo units were built by the people who had the vision to build this church and they had a whole... they in essence created a community to service the church so that the church then in turn would have the resources to service the community, you know the symbiotic relationship. in the new church building, members tried to maintain the community/neighbourhood church model. in fact the church acted as a developer and bought a large tract o f land, built residential units around the church and sold them, i n part to help finance the church. in the process o f the church's move, it lessened its devotion to its german origins and became essentially an e n g l i s h church. today the german language is absent from the congregation. the church n o w hosts a daughter congregation o f the chinese baptist church that bought its o l d building i n south vancouver but there is no relationship between the chinese church and fraserview's congregation. their current relationship is essentially as landlord-tenant. . . culloden mennonite brethren since its first sunday, culloden has been the largest o f the two mennonite brethren churches remaining i n south vancouver. m o s t o f culloden's members are transfers from the vancouver m b church (which was going to close) but the large initial attendance as w e l l as the anticipation o f continued immigration from south a m e r i c a kept both churches alive. in retrospect one leader expressed thought that the decision was not a wise one, now we sort of feel that we should have sold the other church (vancouver mb) because our church (culloden) has dwindled from members down to and we are struggling and the vancouver mb church is struggling... trying to keep a pastor for the german as well as for the english and having a youth pastor as well. it's quite a struggle financially. but we're not quite ready yet to join... but really that would be the best thing...to sell one of the churches and just concentrate on one church that has german and english. though most o f the first church members were neighbourhood residents, most n o w commute from r i c h m o n d ( - %) and many o f the original congregation members have moved to the fraser v a l l e y . in the last five years, the church has made strong efforts to connect w i t h its local community through youth and children's programs. the church now hosts two other language groups, a greek congregation o f between to members meet while the e n g l i s h service is held and a vietnamese congregation o f approximately young families uses the sanctuary on sunday afternoons (this congregation essentially has a landlord-tenant relationship w i t h the church). the church still has a german congregation o f - people to meet the needs o f the elderly german speaking church members. the largest church service is the e n g l i s h and attendance runs between and i n a church that seats . . h o l y f a m i l y c a t h o l i c c h u r c h h o l y f a m i l y church was built by displaced persons and those from russia and s l o v a k i a who came to canada i n and . the first generation o f people who came from germany proper arrived i n the s and the differences between these two cohort groups d i d not lead to outright conflict but as one long time member explained, "we had different outlooks on life, different educations...we just had to adjust to each other." the church was established as a national parish and therefore was the home to any german speaking catholic i n vancouver. members were from russia, romania, austria, poland, hungary, y u g o s l a v i a , south a m e r i c a and germany. the church first met at the u k r a i n i a n catholic parish i n the d o w n t o w n eastside. in the church bought property at its current location and built a school on the west h a l f o f the property just ten years later. the location was chosen w i t h the help o f , "a large city map showing the concentration o f the [german speaking people interested i n the parish] w h i c h proved that v i c t o r i a d r i v e and rd. avenue was about the centre." the church was a strong religious and social centre for german catholics but it has experienced significant decline, particularly i n the past ten years as members have passed away or moved up the v a l l e y . a once very involved member now l i v i n g i n abbotsford explained, they had a very active youth group when we were still there but now they don't have any thing... except the knights of columbus.... nothing else is going on there... [but] because the facilities are there... the bishop said you better take in the spanish people because they need the space. and as we see when we drove into vancouver or to holy family church, this is a young community and there is life again. but the german parish will just disappear one of these days... we always have a shock when we go into the church and there are only a few [german] people there. a s a national parish, the purpose o f the church was to provide a place o f worship for german speakers. n o w that most members feel equally at home with e n g l i s h , many have moved to their local parishes. the decline o f the church is explained by this long time member, in our case, some die, some retire and move to the valley for financial reasons. most of us, our kids move away where the jobs are and then they are so far that they don't go to the german parish anymore. the other half doesn't speak german so they go to an english parish. so this is why it will eventually die. unless a new wave of german immigrants come. members expect that w i t h i n ten years the german w i l l be completely gone and the parish w i l l perhaps be taken over by the new spanish congregation. the same church member explained the arrival o f the spanish congregation just a few years ago: the latinos, the spanish speaking latin americans, they couldn't get their own parish, they were always somewhere else and we also gave them the school to use for their own parish centre. they come from different countries. the only thing that unites them is the spanish language and religion. . c o n c l u s i o n s churches, like neighbourhoods, move through a life cycle. the high watermark o f these german congregations was around , benefiting from vigorous immigration and a clearly defined german sense o f place in south vancouver. it was a period o f rapid congregational growth, even w i t h the h i v i n g off o f daughter churches. however, w i t h the diminution o f german immigration, the anglicization o f the second generation, and the suburbanization o f members, every church faces significant challenges i n the s. in the remaining chapters, i shall consider, first, the churches' roles as service providers to their immigrant members, second how the german church influenced the propensity o f the congregation to either maintain and preserve its ethnic heritage or integrate into canadian society. f i n a l l y , i w i l l consider how both the churches and their members have faced the challenges presented i n time and in place as they move from an immigrant to a canadian identity. c h a p t e r f o u r t h e r o l e o f t h e c h u r c h i n s e r v i c e p r o v i s i o n . s e t t l e m e n t a n d a d j u s t m e n t the purpose o f this chapter is to examine the social functions and social services provided by the german churches i n vancouver. the discussion begins w i t h a review o f the social functions o f the church i n general and then considers the specific functions o f the ethnic church. it is crucial to recognize from the beginning that the social functions o f the church play, for the most part, a secondary role to the spiritual purpose o f the church. it is also critical to recognize that the church was not only a place that served german immigrants but it was a place where they could serve each other. members have invested themselves tremendously: spiritually, emotionally and financially in their respective church homes. enormous sacrifices were made to ensure their establishment: when the church was built, when immanuel was built, the people, they stayed in basement suites for instance, many of them instead of buying a home so that the church could be up and work... we had not a fridge not anything for us it was empty... i spent months working on the church from the start...giving my job up for the construction of the church... this interviewee was not the only one to sacrifice his energy, time and money; several o f the churches were built w i t h volunteer labour including ebenezer baptist, immanuel baptist, vancouver m b , and h o l y f a m i l y parish. a s such, churches cannot only be seen as providers o f social services. they were and are communities offering their hands and finances to give to others beyond their church doors. i w i l l speak primarily to the social functions and services here i n part because this an area that has traditionally been understudied and undervalued. it is also an area o f church activity that has changed significantly over the years for a number o f reasons to be further explored i n this chapter. . s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e c h u r c h before reporting on the social service functions o f the church, it is necessary to recognize this part o f church service w i t h i n the larger literature on the social functions o f ethnic or immigrant churches. m o b e r g , i n his book the church as a social institution, identifies eight social functions o f the church. w h i l e we might expect that the social functions he identified w o u l d be out o f date thirty-five years later, they have maintained an interesting permanence i n christian communities. m o b e r g first identifies the church as an agent o f socialization wherein an individual brought up i n the church learns to interpret the standards, traditions, folkways and mores o f society. in her study o f the german lutheran community i n the rural town o f b l o c k corners, coburn ( ) gives evidence o f the significant role played by the church i n educating four generations o f community members, "this institution provided the most continuous, consistent, and pervasive mechanism for training young and o l d how to think and how to l i v e " ( - ). socialization by the church can backfire when children are exposed to other ways o f life, ethnic groups or simply, i n the case o f the ethnic church, when children feel alienated by the cultural overtones o f the religious institution (warner ). in ethnic churches, this process o f socialization is o f particular concern because o f the propensity o f children to feel alienated from both their immigrant parents and the immigrant church. the second social function o f the church is to concede status. b y appointing members to positions o f status and importance w i t h i n the church, they receive not only prestige among the church community but often outside o f it. the significance o f the church as a status g i v i n g agency w i l l be further discussed i n the context o f the immigrant church. the third social function o f the church identified by m o b e r g is to provide social fellowship. the importance o f social fellowship was mentioned by almost all o f my interviewees. it is also one o f the most meaningful social functions o f the immigrant church. the church provides a primary opportunity for face-to-face interaction and relationship building. it fulfils the needs for primary group relations, particularly for immigrants who often have few i f any family members i n close proximity. f e l l o w s h i p is one function serving all age groups and is particularly significant for youth for w h o m it may be a determining factor i n their willingness and desire for continuing participation i n the church community. a fourth function is the church's role in promoting social solidarity. a s m o b e r g ( ) explains, " r e l i g i o n is a basic source o f social solidarity i n many family, nationality, and status groups i n rural communities, especially at the neighbourhood l e v e l " ( ). a s discussed i n the context o f church models (see chapter three), many community churches are solidified around a common identity o f history, geography, ethnicity or social class ( b i b b y ). the grouping o f people around this identity i n the church makes it a centre for the promotion o f those group characteristics. a s a promoter o f solidarity, the church also functions as a social stabilizer as it, "helps to conserve values and practices that have been found beneficial through trial and error experience." (moberg : ). a c t i n g as a stabilizer, the church can unfortunately also become an institution preserving the status quo, u n w i l l i n g to accept or even debate new social values and roles, often resulting i n conflict between church generations. s i m i l a r l y , the sixth function o f the church according to m o b e r g is to act as an agent o f social control to direct members to behave i n particular ways i n varying types o f situations. w h i l e there is much to say about this function it is not the focus o f this chapter. one o f the most significant roles o f the church (and the focus o f this chapter) is the church as a welfare institution. p l a y i n g a part i n both the organization and running o f programs as w e l l as w o r k i n g for social reform, the church's role is "evident i n pertinent recommendations made by religious bodies, commissions to study social problems, lobbying for welfare purposes, occasional direct participation i n politics, and alms-giving" (moberg : ). c h u r c h organized benevolent work is a smaller proportion o f church activity today because o f the "secularization o f social welfare," (ibid: ). hexham ( ) argues that church run social welfare programs are better and more efficiently run than government programs and suggests a return to church based welfare programs. examples o f such welfare roles include the provision o f meals for the elderly and homeless, personal and family counselling, running o f second-hand clothes shops, work training programs, provision o f c h i l d care, food banks, homeless shelters, seniors' homes, camps etc. (hexham ). a s i w i l l discuss later i n this chapter, programs for new immigrants have also been a key area o f social aid by churches. the last social function o f the church identified by m o b e r g is a philanthropic role. here he points out that the church is both a receiver o f donations (for the promotion o f spiritual well-being as w e l l as maintaining and developing social welfare programs) and also a giver o f funds to other religious and non- religious institutions and agencies. m o b e r g ' s social functions are intended to apply to most i f not a l l church bodies. let us turn now to a more specific category o f churches. in his study o f the korean ethnic church i n n e w y o r k , m i n ( ) identifies four fundamental social roles of the ethnic church. interestingly though m i n does not appear to have been aware o f m o b e r g ' s research, he identifies very similar social roles. e a c h o f m i n ' s four roles w i l l be discussed i n greater detail, after w h i c h i w i l l make reference to the broader social service functions o f the church: formal services, informal services and the importance o f the church as a place o f belonging. the first role o f the ethnic church is to provide a source of fellowship, comfort and sense of belonging ( m i n ; m i l l e t ). a s m i l l e t ( ) explains, one of the functions of an identifiably ethnic parish or congregation is precisely to make its members feel at ease' in this sense. it provides them with words of understanding and familiar rituals which, at least once a week, free them from the tension of speaking another language or of being continually m isunderstood. ..( ). in this manner the ethnic church functions as a centre o f community both physically and socially ( m o h l & betten ). interviewees unanimously identified the sense o f community as being the second most important function o f their church after attending to spiritual needs. one interviewee pointed out that i n the immigrant church the social role at times seemed even to usurp the spiritual, "some people i n the church have criticized [us] and said we are going too far, this is a church not a social club...at the time [the church] played a very strong [social] role." m i n ' s second social function o f the ethnic church is also found in m o b e r g ' s list; that is the church as a social service provider. historically, canadian churches have played a much greater role i n providing assistance like shelter, food, and financial aid but their role has changed w i t h the evolution o f the welfare system as w e l l as the proliferation o f secular non-profit agencies like the united w a y that fund community based social service agencies. seeing the church as a social service provider is particularly interesting i n the case o f german churches because o f the tight relationship between church and state in germany. because churches are supported by state-collected taxes they play a much greater role i n service provision. one interviewee who had been hosting a visiting student pastor from germany held an opinion on the church role i n providing social services. he had asked the visiting student: how many people are employed by your church? how many people under your jurisdiction, because the pastor is the boss of all activities in a way; in the end he is responsible because [activities are] run by the church. he employed people. i said, 'you've got to be kidding?' then he started counting, he had municipal nursing, home nursing, day care...they have, i can't remember! i said, 'is that really the church's duty? when do you have the time to look after the spiritual needs of the congregation?' i said, 'can you visit everyone in your congregation in two years?' he said 'oh no'...i said, '[social services are] the state 'sjob really and truly, not the church's. there is clearly a necessary balance here illustrated by this extreme example wherein the church is really no longer a church. let it be understood that social services are a significant part o f the church's mission; they exemplify the church's compassion and care for the community. but they are not the essence o f the church nor w o u l d any o f my interviewees argue that they should be. the third social function o f the ethnic church identified by m i n is to maintain ethnic identity and subculture. h e argues that the need for primordial ties and group preservation are fulfilled by an ethnic church w h i c h uses the mother tongue and provides cultural education for the second generation. this social function is an issue o f debate i n the literature and w i l l be discussed i n greater detail in chapter five. m i n ' s fourth social function also appeared on m o b e r g ' s list and that is the role o f designating social status as members aspire to be appointed to positions o f leadership. m i n argues that the social status function is a latent function, neither intended nor recognized by church members. the status function however has received attention from several other researchers. nagata ( ) i n her studies o f south-east a s i a n religious institutions, argues that the church is the ideal "arena for achievement and leadership," because its size and scale are more compatible and manageable, "than the anonymous urban environment o f [immigrants'] professional l i v e s " ( ). status becomes important particularly for those immigrants who have i n effect been demoted i n their new place o f work relative to their status position i n their homeland. in this manner the church "offers an arena to reclaim the honour they were deprived o f by the immigrant experience" (warner ). in his book on the history o f the immigration o f german baptists to canada, sturhahn ( ) illustrates the importance o f the church i n status achievement as w e l l as the ensuing conflicts because o f the different points o f origin and thus different ways o f administering church organizations: it was not uncommon that mr. x, formerly a well established landowner... came to canada with great visions and plans to recapture his past. in poland or russia he was in a commanding position. he now comes to [a large canadian city]. theoretically he is prepared to accept any job as was suggested to him but his knowledge of the english language is very limited. in fact, his employer or canadian colleagues let him know that he is a second rate canadian. his wages are minimum, his work is menial. he feels frustrated, but cannot very well show his feelings at work. he is still very much at home in his church. here his language is spoken; he has a leading position. if he were the only frustrated person in the congregation, things might go on peacefully, but mr. y and mr. z have similar experiences and disappointments. on top of it all, mr. x's basic concept of church administration, originating in poland, differs radically from that of mr. y and mr. z, who are from east prussia and from west germany. besides, there can only be one bible teacher, and each of the three claim full qualification... or there is need only for one additional deacon (sturhahn : ). sturhahn poignantly illustrates the importance and self-worth bestowed by the appointment to positions o f power w i t h i n the church. i w o u l d agree w i t h nagata's observation that the function is latent - not one interviewee mentioned the concession o f status by the church as an important role o f the church. m i n ' s research on the social functions o f immigrant churches comes out o f studies done on k o r e a n churches i n the united states. in the past ten years, the k o r e a n church has become the most researched ethnic church group i n the united states and m i n ' s observations are supported by several other korean church studies. c h o y ( i n h u r h & k i m ) lists several functions o f the korean ethnic church: as a social centre, as a means o f cultural identification, as serving educational needs by teaching language, history and culture and as a means o f keeping k o r e a n nationalism alive. k i m ( i n h u r h & k i m ) identifies non- spiritual functions including the church role as a pseudo-extended family, and as an emotional support network for individuals experiencing crises. in fact, h y u n ( ) i n examining the best means to address the emotional and physical needs o f korean immigrants points to the institution o f the church. h e argues that, the korean ethnic church is the best resource available in the korean ethnic community with which to meet the psycho-social needs of korean immigrants. it can integrate both the social service functions of church and the classic community based intervention approach...[which] must be culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate (hyun : ). the fact that he argues that the church should be the central venue around w h i c h information on "health care, housing, immigration and naturalization services, welfare services, ethnic social service agency services, counselling, education, services for the elderly, legal services and postal services" ( h y u n : ) should be distributed speaks to the principal role o f the church i n this ethnic community. . o v e r a l l s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e g e r m a n c h u r c h e a c h interviewee was asked at some point during the interview i f (s)he could try to express i n a general sense what overall role the church played for those immigrants who participated i n church life. several quotations begin to paint an image o f the church and its meaning i n the immigrant experience. the church was the primary place o f social and spiritual fellowship for the believing immigrants. it became, as one immigrant explained, the focal point of their spiritual life and also their social life to such an extent that they had no other contacts except with church people. they had their jobs and they did that everyday but weekends and evenings were taken up with fellowship and socializing among their own kind. the idea that the church was the centre o f social activity was echoed by another second generation immigrant and church leader who explains that the church, "was their social life. that is where their activities were. other than going to work during the day, the rest o f their social life was at the church. a lot o f mine was too when i was growing up." in some instances, the primacy o f the social role meant that the provision o f social services and the import o f spiritual guidance fell secondary "to the concern that people had to find an identity...somehow this is a place o f familiarity to them, whether it is the language or the customs." this pastor explained that the notion o f church as a place o f community rather than a spiritual centre can have negative effects on the church's true role if, "much o f what [members] bring is not an issue o f religious conviction as much as it is a feeling o f home." a s another pastor and immigrant admitted, there were some attendees who took advantage o f the church as a home and as a service provider but he adds, "as a whole the german community looked after each other and i think during the first ten years this i think was the great strength o f these churches." the church was a supportive community that, "looked after...emotional needs, spiritual needs and physical needs." it was a centre i n a spiritual, physical and emotional sense where immigrants, "found stability and where [they] could always go and ask for help." a s a prelude to a fuller discussion o f the social functions and services provided by the church, the f o l l o w i n g quotation coherently summarizes the formal programs and services, the informal services and the sense o f belonging bestowed by the church: the founding pastor...went to the train station in vancouver and picked up those immigrants who were newly arrived and asked them if they were interested in a german community in a church... [he said] we are just in the process of establishing a congregation, please come and join us. we've got german lessons for the kids, we've got english lessons for adults...we have all kinds of activities. so the church in the beginning was somewhere in between a religious group and a community centre so it served both purposes. this was so important for those people who left everything behind, got on a ship, got on a train, didn't know anybody and in many cases, hardly spoke any english. it was like finding a second home right away. another immigrant explained that i n his upbringing the church was o f central significance. a s was the case w i t h the german community i n b l o c k corners (coburn ), the first thing that people were concerned w i t h when they arrived i n vancouver was, "where am i going to worship?...when y o u settle down somewhere, school and the church were the two first priorities for the community." this primary significance was expressed by every immigrant i interviewed. the church was the community meeting place, both i n the geographic and social sense. . f o r m a l p r o g r a m s a n d s e r v i c e s german ethnic churches in vancouver offered various programs and services to the german immigrant community including language schools, participatory programs, settlement houses, library services and more recently refugee assistance and sponsorship. language schools were significant both i n attracting new german church members and i n perpetuating the use o f the german language i n the second generation. language schools were not limited to teaching the mother tongue language; some churches also provided schooling for adults w i s h i n g to learn e n g l i s h (see also k i n c h e l o e ). a s records o f the german schools in the city are only anecdotal it is difficult to determine exactly how many schools were operating and h o w many students were enrolled. in , the peak year o f german school expansion, , students were taught at german schools i n canada. thirty percent o f the total number o f german school students between five and seventeen years o f age (about , ) were i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a (schmidt ). in vancouver, the earliest german school was organized at ebenezer baptist church. a former student o f the church school explained, "we went to german schools so that we could learn the german language and that was fostered by the church itself and paid for by the church itself." waldhouse ( ) reported a german saturday school at the vancouver mennonite brethren church and gumpp ( ) reported a german saturday school established i n at immanuel baptist church. these two schools had combined enrolments o f over students. the vancouver m b school started i n and was sponsored by the church for students up to a grade six level. teachers were qualified volunteers who received small honoraria i n later years but whose prime motivation was to "keep up the german language because we [the church] were still b i l i n g u a l . " immanuel's program was financially supported by the german consulate as w e l l as the church and focused on reading and writing (sturhahn ). immanuel's german language school continued into the s. a church leader from st. m a r k ' s lutheran church w h i c h did not have its o w n german language school sent his children to the baptist school. the churches were quite cooperative i n supporting the german church schools because the immigrants, "were concerned about the preservation o f the german language among their children...that is why they had german school every saturday morning. c h i l d r e n were sent to german school and though they may not have always liked it, they always went." clearly the primary motivation o f the german saturday school program was the preservation o f the german language. the german catholic parish also held a german school taught by the priest and attended by the children from the immigrant families. this school was also supported i n part by the german consulate. the church's german school existed from the time the church began until but was closed when there was no one left to teach and when families, like the one i interviewed, had moved to suburban areas too far away to make it practical to travel back. today there is still a saturday morning german school i n surrey with an enrolment o f close to students. the program is no longer sponsored by or connected to any o f the german churches but is organized through the german government; it provides an example o f the secularization o f social welfare activities. in addition to school programs in german, some churches offered classes i n e n g l i s h to newly arrived immigrants. ebenezer baptist had such an e n g l i s h program, as d i d h o l y f a m i l y parish. in recent years, c u l l o d e n has had an e n g l i s h as a second language program for members o f the vietnamese congregation meeting in its church. immanuel baptist, vancouver mennonite brethren and fraserview mennonite brethren are a l l planning to offer e s l programs to the new immigrants i n their communities, primarily o f chinese ethnic origin. the most challenging obstacles to organizing and carrying out these programs are finding committed volunteer teachers and then establishing links to new immigrant communities. immanuel baptist is hoping to connect w i t h the vancouver chinese immigrant services society, s . u . c . c . e . s . s . and fraserview m b church was going to work with the r i c h m o n d school board before they ran into funding barriers. the second example o f formal programs and services run by the church i n support o f immigrants is not a particular service but more general church activity. participatory programs serve a key integrative role i n the immigrant settlement process. participatory programs are a part o f normal church activities but choirs, men's and women's societies and youth programs serve a wider function for immigrants. the organized groups and programs facilitated interactions from w h i c h developed friendships and support communities. w o m e n found advice on finding doctors, dentists, and grocery stores and men learned o f business opportunities, and received tax and banking advice. the participatory programs were not only a 'service' for the immigrants but opened up opportunities to take on leadership roles o f status and prestige i n the church. in h o l y f a m i l y parish the range o f activities included: w o m e n ' s a u x i l i a r y group, german language school, sunday school, choir, youth choir, brass orchestra group, regular f a m i l y night meetings, y o u t h group, f o l k m u s i c group, the k o l p i n g society, knights o f columbus, seniors' group, assistance at the german canadian rest home, and refugee sponsorship ( h o l y f a m i l y parish ). a t oakridge lutheran, activities were much more limited but included: the w o m e n ' s group, the young women's fellowship, youth group, sunday night school, sunday school, and several choirs (annual report o f the evangelical lutheran c h u r c h o f the cross, ). m o s t churches had active w o m e n ' s groups, m e n ' s groups, youth groups, choirs, musical groups, youth groups and o f course sunday schools, b i b l e study groups and weekly worship services. one elderly interviewee recalled dramatic presentations that the women used to perform, "there was so much activity....the women used to have plays and we'd have to memorize pages...there wasn't much [money] for outings as there is today. a t that time everyone had to plug along to make a l i v i n g . but church was utmost i n everybody's m i n d . " without means o f transportation nor the financial means to participate i n extravagant events, most church groups made their o w n activities. y o u t h at ebenezer w o u l d travel by trolley downtown to go ice skating, or over to the n o r t h shore for h i k i n g trips up to the top o f m o u n t seymour. one church leader talked o f activities happening almost every night o f the week, we had english classes...we had music classes...there were educational activities all week and then there was of course the church services and ministry on sundays... they taught piano and violin to the kids so we have always had an abundance of musical talent and there are still some at church today who were taught by church volunteers to play instruments. there were other things like sewing classes and such but it goes through phases. they had a couple of years of that and then they'd do something else. m u s i c has always been an important part o f german church culture and the churches i n vancouver were no exception. every church had large choirs, often separated into men's and women's as w e l l as m i x e d groups and youth choirs (figure . ). churches had their o w n bands and orchestras and regularly put on concerts for members and non-members alike, "i think o f a l l the concerts we had. the concerts were mostly a l l i n german and there was some really l i v e l y singing. y o u t h choirs and other choirs and male choirs. they were huge, big choirs." a t the catholic parish, one immigrant couple also began a group called the k o l p i n g society. the society was initially founded i n germany by a catholic priest to provide a home and a fellowship group for men who moved from rural areas to the cities for employment. a t h o l y f a m i l y the society became both a spiritual and social fellowship group as w e l l as a philanthropic group serving at missions both i n the local community and abroad through lending financial assistance. the wife o f the founder o f vancouver's k o l p i n g society explained, my husband started the kolping society here in holy family church...because all the immigrants came at that time and there were quite a few bachelors and young people who came to the church...we founded a group there that really gave us stability and we had all kinds of different activities. we met socially, we went out to the beautiful countryside every sunday and discovered something new and being young we were skiing and did all kinds of different things. participation i n these groups then meant that ties to both the church and its community were established. a s w i l l be discussed later, these participatory groups served as the structural foundation to facilitate the development o f personal networks. a third example o f formal services was a g i r l s ' home for single german women who moved to vancouver to work as nannies and domestic housekeepers. organized and run by the vancouver mennonite brethren church, it served as a critical support network. the home became the central spiritual and social home for women who had no family i n the city. the f i g u r e . : photos of v a r i o u s c h u r c h c h o i r s , s u n d a y s c h o o l a n d y o u t h g r o u p s sunday school, approximately , dr. a.s. felberg, pastor source: ebenezer: fifty years of ministry figure . : continued . i t youth group, source: immanuel baptist church. th anniv. f i g u r e . : continued church pastor l i v e d i n the home that provided both spiritual food for the young women and friendships w i t h women who became their pseudo-family. the settlement house run by this church was the only one o f its k i n d i n the formal sense. m a n y families also played host to new immigrants. m o r e recently the same churches that served as support communities for german immigrants have assisted and sponsored refugee families from south-east a s i a and eastern europe. the mennonite churches, organized through the mennonite central committee have been particularly active i n refugee sponsorship (lescheid ) in addition to services such as running social housing projects, thrift stores (whose revenue supports disaster relief efforts), and drop-in centres for single mothers. through the efforts o f the mennonite central committee , refugees came to b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a between and , % o f those from south-east a s i a (lescheid ). one o f the interviewed churches recently sponsored a refugee family from a r m e n i a and has previously supported at least five other families mainly from south-east a s i a (thailand and vietnam). sponsorship entails financially providing for the family for a year but church members also play a role i n helping the family with day-to-day settlement needs such as enroling children at school, grocery shopping and learning public transportation. refugee sponsorship has become a primary social welfare role o f churches (see harvey ). in the s, a refugee resettlement centre set up i n a chinese mennonite church i n vancouver welcomed up to two hundred refugees each month. lescheid ( ) explains that, "refugees were met at the vancouver airport and taken to suitable accommodation. jobs had to be found for them. some received material assistance. introducing refugees to canada's medical, legal, and school systems required many hours o f translating, counselling, and ' w a l k i n g alongside t h e m ' " ( ). h o l y f a m i l y catholic parish has also been involved in the sponsorship o f refugees. a church leader explained why the parish became active in sponsorship: "because we knew what we went through and now we had the [financial] means." the church owned a house i n its neighbourhood and voluntarily renovated the entire house for a vietnamese family w i t h eight children that they decided to sponsor; " o f course all o f our work was done voluntarily and it didn't cost them a thing. w e put the house into shape and bought furniture and finished it a l l . w e always had different projects where we could help." the church has recently sponsored a family from poland, another church leader explained, "we settle them, we collect furniture, we find them a place to live...this and that. after a l l we went through it ourselves years ago." a final service, mentioned only by one interviewee but undoubtably a part o f most german churches was the availability and lending o f german library books. m u c h like german language schools, library material provided the opportunity to practice and continue german language use. b o o k s also provided spiritual teaching i n the mother tongue w h i c h , as w i l l be discussed i n chapter five, was o f particular importance for the immigrants. . i n f o r m a l s e r v i c e f u n c t i o n s though i have identified them as informal services, the social roles o f the church discussed here are really ways by w h i c h the church functioned as a hub o f relationships and as a community centre. the various 'services' were not necessarily a formal part o f the church, they were not discussed at church board meetings, they were not tasks assigned to particular individuals, they were simply done because these are support services that inevitably come out o f a caring community. in the baptist churches, church women organized welcoming showers for newly arrived immigrant families. members felt a keen interest in helping new families and fellow immigrants establish themselves and become active church members. one post-war immigrant and church pastor explains, "there was a lot o f interest i n the newcomers, the early immigrants who came i n the late s and early s. they were received w i t h a lot o f enthusiasm and they were given many many gifts and benefits." several o f the women that i interviewed either participated i n hosting showers or were recipients when they arrived. the welcoming showers were much like wedding showers, i n that women were given food and household items to stock their shelves. though never extravagant, their practical and symbolic significance had an enormous impact on those who arrived. one woman who remembered her mother hosting the showers explained they were mainly "food showers...and we gave them household things. i think that really brought a lot o f immigrants closer to the church because they felt so welcomed." another woman explained her f a m i l y ' s experience, / never forget when our family came to canada, when a new family was the first time in the church, right away it was a shower that was provided for them, that was a grocery shower or cooking pots, something like that, everything for the kitchen and even the groceries...and that was wonderful. if you came and you had nothing, living in an empty basement suite it was wonderful, even some towels or some sheets or something like that... o f the eight women i interviewed, five spoke o f the importance o f the welcoming showers. a woman interviewed from the catholic church additionally mentioned wedding and baby showers organized for and by church women. she explained, "wedding showers and baby showers...i think i had at least or i n my home. a s i mentioned we were the first ones to have a house and we had showers by the dozens. this was a l l church community." in friedmann's government report on german immigration he pointed to the challenges experienced by women i n adjusting to canadian life. he says: the assimilation of the married woman is usually more difficult. most of them lack the contacts which employment in a factory or business provides and they feel their loneliness more acutely. their way into the new community is mainly through their husbands or children (friedmann : - ). i f what friedmann suggests was indeed true for german immigrant women then the community built around the church holds an even greater significance. for women who had fewer means to develop social contacts, the church became the central node o f their social web. it also means that for as much was given i n hosting these showers and through church work i n general (hosting luncheons, organizing teas, doing sunday school work), much more was received i n building relationships and a sense o f belonging. the theme o f sense o f place and community w i l l be returned to i n the final section o f this chapter. • f o r both men and women, the church was key in the development o f social and business networks. in o'bryan's comparative study o f ten ethno-linguistic groups i n canada he wonderfully summarizes breton's findings regarding the significance o f the church as an ethnic institution: of all the types of ethnic institutions investigated in the study, breton found religious institutions and publications to have the greatest effect on the immigrants 'personal networks. the former had great effect because it was usually the centre of activities in the community, the experiences in church were similar to those of the country of origin, and the religious leaders were frequently advocates of national ideology (o'bryan : ). d u r i n g several o f the interviews, the church was described as a critical support network, "whether it was helping to b u i l d a house...or feed them or educate their kids. the church had that complete role i n the social life o f the family where today that is a much more separated role." f o r most o f the people i interviewed the importance o f the church i n social life was to be taken for granted. c h u r c h was a logical place for new immigrants to go, as one interviewee said, there were always new people coming over and looking for a contact and where do you find it? well at a german church, the german pastor... they always contacted him, sometimes only for help and later when they settled some decided to come back and become a member of the church. e v e n though immigrant children and the canadian-born children o f recent immigrants were able to b u i l d their social networks through school, they also placed a high value on the social life o f the church. one o f my interviewees, who was the only canadian-born c h i l d i n his immigrant family, was the youth social convenor at his church at the age o f fifteen. h e told o f the youth activities: we used to arrange ice skating parties with or kids. these were young people aged to . sixty of them and i remember we'd have car loads of people and then we'd go to a restaur ant... had banquets at the georgia hotel for people... you had to make your own fun you know. on summer evenings, it was the thing to do to go up fraser street and get ice cream. the whole street would be filled with kids from church at the ice cream parlours and soda fountains. f o r most o f m y interviewees church was where friendships developed into marriages. a senior member o f one lutheran church explained, " w h e n i got [to the church] i was i n the youth group where i met m y wife...we had an extensive youth group going from the ages o f to ; mainly young people coming independently from germany. w e congregated and had a good time together." one interviewee guessed that the majority o f church couples met i n the congregation. t h i s has had important implications for the german church because it meant youth (at least i n theory) were more l i k e l y to stay at their home church after marriage because their spouse also spoke german and attended the same church. in the realm o f business the church played a significant role i n helping new immigrants to find j o b opportunities but it also offered the opportunity for trade and business networking. coburn ( ) noted that the church i n b l o c k corners, "reinforced trading w i t h other german lutherans, as first- and second-generation men preferred to trade w i t h someone they knew and trusted" ( ). a similar pattern o f business networks existed i n vancouver's german churches; i n one church a list o f the primary occupation o f each church member was distributed so members could contact each other for services rather than having to depend on advertisements or other w o r d o f mouth referrals. perhaps not a unique idea today, at the time and w i t h i n the setting o f an ethnic church it encouraged and facilitated trade and business w i t h i n the german group rather than w i t h the at-large community. a t another church, a german-speaking builder from v i e n n a routinely hired labourers and trades people from w i t h i n his congregation. overall the most common response to my question probing the kinds o f things the church did to help immigrants settle i n vancouver was the church's role i n helping people to find employment and accommodation. v i r t u a l l y every interviewee mentioned how the pastor and/or the church had functioned as both an employment agency and a housing board, as w e l l as providing other kinds o f general settlement assistance. it is widely recognized i n the literature that pastors o f immigrant congregations function i n multiple roles including that of, "community worker, social organizer, immigration law counsellor and advocate, and often ethnic promoter as w e l l as pastor" (kawano : ). they regularly provide information and counselling on employment, business, housing, health care, and children's education, sometimes even interpreting and f i l l i n g out necessary forms ( m i n ). interviews revealed that more than anything, pastors act as coordinators matching the needs, skills and opportunities o f the immigrant congregation. one o f the lutheran church leaders explained, some of the pastors they were very active for people who needed a job. they could phone him or he would be having his feelers out. where is a german firm or a german boss somewhere where we could get this guy who has just arrived, get him a job until he was established? so it was quite interwoven this whole thing. also with advice. some people, i don't know how many tax forms they made out because some people couldn't read...and things like that. do you know a good doctor? you know what i'm saying? it was a centre where the lines come together in one spot...that's in the pastor's office or at the church where others came in and exchanged information. still today [the church] still does this. a fellow church member explained the process o f coordination by the minister i n order to extend support to new immigrants: / think the minister, he would contact some congregation members and ask for help because he himself could only do so much. then the question was generally asked by the minister, what type of work [new immigrants] could do and so on and then maybe [the pastor would] contact some members in the congregation to see if they could help finding a place to live or a place to work. so the minister would contact members or make an announcement on sunday and ask if anybody could help out in these areas [like] providing a temporary home for them. then the question was also asked if they could help out as far as work was concerned. sometimes help [was] also [given] with the children too, to enroll them in english classes and so on. some people could speak the [english] language and some could not so they needed help. but as far as the minster was concerned, he couldn't really handle it all. one immigrant couple from the catholic church were in contact w i t h the german parish priest before they arrived. h e was their only acquaintance and the church was their only support: [father riffel] had written to us in germany that if my husband would be willing to take any kind of a job then we could come and he would look after us with a place to stay.... this letter we took along when we came here to vancouver and my husband...went to father riffel the very first sunday and introduced himself and this is how we got a place we could always go to and ask questions. if we needed some help he was there. swendsen and wachtel ( ) label the pastor as gatekeeper i n that he often became the sole source o f referral and access to information. the extent o f the job o f the pastor to fulfil a l l o f these immigrant needs was sometimes beyond the church's control. one interviewee explained h o w the pastor was forced to deal with helping immigrants not only because they were forever k n o c k i n g at his door but also because the canadian immigration office demanded it, the pastors had to deal with the situation, many of them went out of their way to personally help these people to find work and find accommodation because the immigration board was quite strict on the pastors on that. the immigration board really pressed on [encouraging] pastors to help out...because the immigration board was so swamped. besides the work o f individual pastors, the church congregation as a whole provided significant support and aid for newly arrived immigrants. some o f the more established church members who had businesses o f their o w n employed those looking for work. one leader explains, some people had established themselves already, had businesses, other people worked in certain companies and were able to help those people to apply for jobs because language was always a problem when people arrived and they needed help. [the church] was one of the places to make the contact. another mennonite church leader added, they were very helpful in finding jobs for those newcomers. i guess that's probably true in any community...whenever somebody new came in here, he didn't have to wonder what he would do. he just came to the church and said what he did and everybody knew this...someone would say we need construction workers... of course many were in construction at that time. i think that was really a plus for the newcomers. they didn't have to worry. language was a new thing anyway and if they had to find jobs through some other agency that was just english speaking they would have been lost. in the oldest mennonite church, one woman took on the role o f employment coordinator for german w o m e n arriving i n vancouver looking for work as housekeepers. through her contacts and efforts many women found jobs cleaning and cooking i n homes in vancouver's wealthier neighbourhoods o f shaughnessy and kerrisdale. several o f m y interviewees had either received or offered assistance i n finding and/or providing accommodation. one couple who arrived just prior to the largest immigrant influx and who had purchased their o w n home opened their doors to house bachelors who arrived w i t h no place to stay. they had up to five men staying w i t h them at a time and were often called upon when the priest was unable to place a newcomer. another interviewee's family ran a boarding house. h e remembered his mother receiving calls from the church pastor, saying that there were fellows who had just arrived in... she'd have up to five or six fellows boarding...then through the network and my dad, they'd either direct them to burrard shipyards [to find work] as shipwrights or trained carpenters or the various mills in the fraser river area for employment. a l m o s t a l l o f the immigrants arrived w i t h nothing but their travel debt owed to the canadian pacific r a i l w a y company for the expense o f their journey. for those w i t h virtually nothing the practical assistance o f church congregation members made an enormous difference. a s one woman who arrived as a c h i l d explained, "you came here w i t h nothing...we lived i n basement suites and we didn't necessarily have furniture so the people who were here already gave y o u furniture or whatever y o u needed for your house...it was a very close knit community." one baptist church member told me about a shopkeeper on fraser street who sold discounted groceries to recently arrived immigrants. a s a church member he recognized the needs o f newly arrived families. w h e n it could, the church treasury made up the difference i n the cost o f groceries. the church pastor and members served each other i n extensive ways: helping each other to find apartments, g i v i n g legal advice to those buying their first house, accompanying members to the bank to request loans or mortgages; "they provided us warmth and welcome and any [help] needed finding a doctor, finding a dentist a l l those little things...helped us with the shopping because we didn't k n o w what to buy or where to buy or any thing... it was mainly informal [assistance]." i was told by one church leader that someone i interviewed from his church had hosted countless immigrant families during their first few weeks or months i n vancouver. he and his family volunteered room i n their home to new arrivals who were searching for accommodation, trying to find jobs and adjusting to their new environment. c h u r c h members gave newcomers advice, as one said, "real hands on stuff...other than the spiritual because they assisted i n that regard too y o u know." the significance o f the spiritual can not be left i n the backdrop because, as was shared by each o f my interviewees, the kindness and generosity shown to new immigrants was motivated by their spiritual beliefs and nothing less. there has been no reward for the compassion and love demonstrated by church member but for many o f those families who received such attention, the impact o f the church is still dearly remembered: the church became an extended family, a tremendous support community. i remember we arrived in winnipeg on june of and my father had some friends who had immigrated the year before and we were picked up at the railway station. already they had rented an apartment for us and put food in the fridge...that was all done by the church. . s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y a n d b e l o n g i n g the final area of'service' w h i c h is really more a part o f the general social functions o f the church and less a 'social service' is the creating o f a sense o f belonging and a sense o f community. h o w a r d ( in k a l i l o m b e ) explains the multidimensional role o f the church: the church became a place of refuge and of acceptance by god and by people of like background and common experience: it was a place where people could find fulfilment, where their spiritual, social, economic and emotional needs could be met and where they could make a contribution towards meeting the needs of others ( ). it is a difficult task to try to capture the sense o f community and belonging created i n the church family as expressed by my interviewees. the sense is really best described using their words. frustratingly, the words seen as text here seem less emphatic and passionate than the conversations i was engaged i n . words removed from the intonations and excitement o f their voice seem to lose the intensity o f their meaning and sincerity. m o r e than just a community centre, the church became a place o f instant relations for those without relatives i n canada, / think as a whole, it was a hard time for the immigrants at the time and they did go to the church for the church reason but then it became the first place you met all the people with the same problems and kids. it became almost like a community centre. a community in itself. and stayed that way... even more than a community centre it became like an extended family and that is the way that it is still. c h i l d r e n came to k n o w their parent's friends as uncles and aunts. one interviewee explained , we all came, we couldn't speak, we had no money and we had no jobs. we created friendships, instant relatives....kids would say uncle helmut or to me they would say uncle alfred. they were relatives you might say because nobody had relatives, only friends so these were created right away. families opened their homes to host large dinners on sunday evenings and though they were not family dinners i n the traditional sense, they resembled the larger family o f immigrants. interviewees emphasized different facets o f the social role o f the church as being the most significant. w h i l e some saw the hand it extended i n finding employment as the most valuable, others emphasized the sense o f community. one woman saw her church as less a provider o f names have been changed to protect the identity of the interviewee. social services and more as a network o f support. for her the activities discussed here as formal services were secondary to both the spiritual and social roles, the german congregation was a drawing point for families to come and worship and then they began to get together with friends there. but they didn't come for work or to find work in the church...it's definitely a church family. it's not a community centre, it's a family. i noticed that when we were in germany for four months, i missed the congregation. i have relatives there but they don't know me or the kids as well as the congregation. when we came back it was like coming home. it is a recognition that there is this small town in the city. they still ask how are your kids doing. w h e n asked about the level o f importance o f the church's role i n settlement, another interviewee emphasized the impact o f formal activities but only because o f their ability to facilitate church community development: at the beginning [the church played] a fairly substantial role. because remember these people who came were uprooted from somewhere. like myself i left all my relatives, my place of work. i came to a completely new country, a new town, didn't speak words of english when i arrived here...it became, in addition to a spiritual centre, it became a social centre. to a smaller degree of course. we had family evenings, very popular, about once or twice a month. all kinds of activities. but the key was to get the people together so they could talk with each other, exchange stories and history and hardships and happy times. it was an exchange in a language they all understood. there is little doubt that part o f the need for a sense o f place and belonging stemmed from the experience o f war out o f w h i c h many o f the immigrants had recently come. some had been stateless and others were disillusioned by what their state had come to represent. one o f the current church pastors recalled his family experience after the war and the place o f the church i n the midst o f hopelessness, the church provided in a sense, a security blanket, security home for all of these displaced people. all of them had gone through the trauma of the second world war and that was a horrible, horrible experience. my parents... you see i lost my mother when i was four and we lived in the ruins of eastern europe for two and a half years and so all of the immigrants had gone through this horrible war experience and so this was the immigrant experience that had bonded them all together. they had all been a part of that. out o f this trauma, the immigrants arrived w i t h new hope. m a n y became much stronger christian believers. several o f the interviewees shared w i t h me their belief that their life had been spared from the war by g o d . the opportunity to move to canada was a g o d given blessing and their thankfulness was expressed through sharing their blessings and love w i t h other german immigrants. those i n the church felt as much a family o f german immigrants as they did members o f the family o f g o d . one particular comment speaks to the importance placed on finding other christians, "[the church] was really the only way they had contact w i t h other christians, not k n o w i n g anybody in the city it was a place where they could get together and help each other. so i think it was quite important really." . n e w s o c i a l s e r v i c e r o l e s one o f the most interesting changes between the churches as they were and as they are now is the role that they fulfil i n terms o f social services, both formally and informally. several o f the church leaders mentioned that many o f the traditional functions o f the church have been taken away or lost because o f a lack o f commitment o f volunteers. a s women have become increasingly active participants i n the labour force the volunteer base from w h i c h churches have traditionally drawn has been drastically reduced. a s two women commented, jobs that used to be done by volunteers, traditionally housewives and mothers, are now done by paid church staff members. one o f the church pastors talked about this shifting role o f the church w i t h regard to social services and welfare, see [today] nobody looks toward the church for help. you have all of these social and community services to do these things for you. forty years ago the church was the dominant source, don't forget there was no social security in those days...no community groups. all of these things have come in during the last forty years....[there is so much dependence on] the social security net. that is why there is a lot of unease among people today when the government says we need to cut back on social services and hospitalization and all this stuff... the older generation is saying yes [cut] because the church picked up this kind of thing. the church was doing this type of work and had always been doing this type of work. a member o f this congregation also spoke to the changing welfare role o f the church as government and non-profit agencies take responsibility for many o f the roles traditionally accepted by the church, i think the situation today is also a little bit different because the state does help out much more than when our generation came. we got no support from the government while now we have all these groups like s. u.c.c.e.s.s., the chinese group that helps each other so it's a little bit different. if of course we have contact with a person who has need our church has such good people that they would help however they could. c h i l d r e n ' s clubs and youth ministries are organized by youth workers or christian education ministers and often these activities are largely outreach projects to children from non-christian homes i n the community. today's programs need to have an innovative edge; most children participate i n so many activities that church activities must compete for children's attention w i t h sports clubs, dance and music activities, and any number o f programs organized by local community centres. several o f the churches now organize weekly ' k i d s ' c l u b s ' and youth groups intentionally geared to target children and youth from non-christian homes (interestingly most are also from lower socio-economic status families). a t culloden m b , the pastor estimates that the youth group is composed o f up to two-thirds neighbourhood kids, who come from non- christian homes, and one-third 'church k i d s ' . a t ebenezer, a church leader explained, " w e started a k i d s ' c l u b about years ago and now we have or kids coming i n from the community [for] wednesday night activities that include crafts, woodworking, g y m night and then o f course we take them to camp a number o f times each year." ebenezer's new social services also include an e s l class for neighbourhood punjabi immigrants. the punjabi pastor's wife also wanted, to put in a sewing class and buy a bunch of sewing machines and teach the ladies some skills in the community but there was so much red tape involved in setting that up that it just never got off the ground. we had the machines and everything lined up but then we had to provide air quality and lunch rooms and all that, then they wanted a day care for the kids...so when the government heard what we wanted to do they just put in all sorts of requirements as if it was a full blown commercial school. of course, forty or fifty years ago we would have just done it and the government wouldn't have heard about it. the provision o f social services evidently takes on new meanings i n such dramatically different contexts. one church member even mentioned the church's role i n serving the large number o f german tourists who visit vancouver each summer. i w i l l return i n chapter six to the redefinition o f the identity o f german churches i n the s. . c o n c l u s i o n s the church plays a tremendous role i n the settlement and adjustment o f immigrants. b o t h i n terms o f identifiable social services and assistance and as a community centre and place o f belonging, the church i n the german community formed the hub o f neighbourhood connections and social networks. it is difficult to paint a picture o f the sheer density o f the activities around w h i c h the church existed. photographs provide some evidence o f the large communities served by the church but still cannot convey the centrality o f the church for the german speaking people i n the south vancouver community. b o t h formal and informal programs and services offered by the church made the difference between successful integration and social isolation when immigrants arrived. the churches helped immigrants both by fulfilling basic needs as w e l l as providing opportunity for s k i l l development (in music programs, leadership, organization and various other activities) and friendships. social services are one o f the many social functions o f the church. in the ethnic church, many o f these social functions are similar to the mainstream church but they become more significant for those who have no other means for establishing themselves. the extent to w h i c h these ethnic german churches provided and sustained a cultural home w i l l be examined i n the next chapter. c h a p t e r f i v e e t h n i c p r e s e r v a t i o n o r i m m i g r a n t a d j u s t m e n t ? in assessing immigrant adjustment i n a new society there is considerable debate i n the literature as to whether identification w i t h an ethnic/immigrant group is, or is not, advantageous i n seeking to adapt and adjust to the dominant host society (bankston & z h o u ). o n the one hand it is argued that a sustained focus and involvement in the activities o f the ethnic group constrain the ability o f immigrants to improve their socio-economic status and impedes assimilation. the opposite argument holds that ethnic group cohesion and participation helps groups to adapt to the host culture w i t h the support o f fellow immigrants who can then better achieve upward mobility (ibid). naturally i f immigrants are to maintain and b u i l d within-group interaction there must be a venue around w h i c h ethnic group participation takes place. there may be any number o f formal or informal institutions around w h i c h ethnic groups may congregate, for example ethnic clubs, restaurants or businesses but m i l l e t ( ) argues that, " o f a l l the institutions supporting the survival o f distinctive cultures, the church is usually the strongest and the most active" ( ). to this end, this chapter w i l l examine the role o f the ethnic church i n influencing the adjustment or assimilation o f immigrants to the host society versus encouraging the preservation o f heritage and ethnic tradition. in the context o f the german churches, consideration must be given to the influences o f public sentiment toward germans after the war. d i d public treatment o f germans influence whether they chose to j o i n german churches? d i d it affect whether the church became a place o f refuge where being german was acceptable? after an elaboration on the debate o f preservation o f ethnic culture versus adapting to the host society a brief consideration o f the specifics o f this case study group w i l l situate the position o f the german immigrants. the remainder o f the chapter w i l l discuss whether or not the german churches i n vancouver facilitated adjustment or assimilation o f immigrants or whether they played a role i n maintaining german culture. o f course the possibility remains that the church fulfilled both roles. f i n a l l y , the policies and actions o f denominational church bodies w i l l receive attention i n attempting to interpret some o f the local differences in attitudes toward preserving german culture. . t h e d e b a t e : e n c o u r a g i n g p r e s e r v a t i o n o r a d a p t a t i o n whereas the debate o f bankston and z h o u ( ) focused generally around issues o f identification w i t h an ethnic group, the discussions o f h u r h and k i m ( ) and m u l l i n s ( ) speak directly to the role o f religion and the ethnic church i n the promotion or delaying o f upward mobility and assimilation. in their research on korean immigrants i n the u n i t e d states, h u r h and k i m identify the two sides o f the debate on the role o f the ethnic church: (a) the ethnic church "enhances the ethnic cohesion and identity o f immigrants but may slow d o w n their assimilation process; thus the ethnic church functions as a ' m o b i l i t y trap.'" (hurh & k i m : ) versus (b) the ethnic church "functions to promote the education, assimilation and m o b i l i t y o f immigrants" (ibid). in m u l l i n s ' canadian research on christian and buddhist japanese immigrants he too examines the role o f the ethnic religious institution i n immigrant assimilation. h e explains the first perspective w h i c h emphasizes the church's influence i n maintaining ethnic customs and traditions: one major perspective on this relationship emphasizes the conservative role of religion in maintaining ethnic customs, language, and group solidarity. this approach is clearly reminiscent of durkheim's functionalist theory of religion. religious beliefs and rituals, he maintained, bind individuals together and provide the social context necessary for the transmission of traditions and values (mullins : ). o n the other side o f the c o i n the church or religious institution is presented as an adapting organization promoting assimilation: a second major perspective on religion and ethnicity emphasizes that immigrant churches are best viewed as adapting organizations. the basic assumption of this approach is that the assimilation process invariably transforms an ethnic group over the course of several generations. organizational survival, therefore, will eventually require adapting to the acculturated generations (mullins : ). m u l l i n s found that for the japanese, affiliation with christian churches was viewed as movement into anglo-society and therefore "an indicator o f assimilationist orientation" (ibid, ) whereas buddhist churches were seen as symbols o f japanese culture and therefore affiliates tended to be more conservative and stronger supporters o f japanese tradition and heritage. f o r m u l l i n s , conclusions on the role o f the ethnic church i n affecting the maintenance o f culture and tradition versus adapting and assimilating were drawn along the lines o f religious beliefs. f o r german immigrants, any differences i n the role o f the church must be attributed to something other than the religious differences as almost all german immigrants were christian believers o f either catholic or protestant background. in the case o f german immigration, the role o f the church i n promoting ethnic cohesion or i n encouraging assimilation must be couched i n an understanding o f the social circumstances around w h i c h the german churches i n vancouver were trying to establish themselves. interviewees provided much food for thought around the public attitudes toward germans and the influence that had on the process o f self-selection dividing those who chose to go to a german church, those who chose to go to a 'canadian' church, and those who chose not to go to church at a l l . several interviewees noted what is a generally w e l l recognized observation, that "probably no other nationality assimilates itself into the community quicker than the germans." a lutheran church leader explained the common attitude held by many o f the german immigrants: as you know, the german immigrants tried as quickly as possible to integrate. for more than one reason...i was in the war for two years and the memory and the media to this day... well at that time, was very strong and i think every german immigrant here felt that the best thing was to not make any waves at the time but to just mould into the system here as quickly as possible. that's the honest truth... what most of them want is to be left in peace. they had enough of war and enough commotion. i came here to put that all behind me so just leave me alone. that's about the size of it for a lot ofpeople, they just want to live with their family the way they deserve. several interviewees recounted stories about the way that german immigrants tried to assimilate and almost blend into the vancouver landscape. here a pastor explains the reasons for immigration and then the implications o f arriving under such circumstances: the incident that triggered the german immigration was losing the war...people had a fairly difficult time after that and still in the early s i remember people who said that when they walked down the street people pointed fingers at them and said those are the nazis and they started the war. at that time many parents...a german husband and a german wife would only speak english at home between each other and to the kids. so basically they denied their mother tongue because they tried to assimilate as fast as they could and sometimes they even denied their heritage because it was bad, hitler, nazis, everything. and the strange thing is that quite a number of our second generation german immigrants barely understand german and they don't speak a word of it because under the circumstances of a lost war it wasn't fashionable to speak german. m y o w n german ethnic grandparents who immigrated from russia i n the s changed their surname from ' n i k k e i ' to ' n i c h o l . ' their new last name was assumed to be scottish w h i c h made it easier for them to be accepted into their host society after escaping to canada after the first w o r l d war. f o r many during the inter-war period there were repercussions for being german; attitudes were carried over to similarly impact the german churches. here one church leader explains the treatment o f germans and describes one incident he remembers at bethany baptist: basically because my sister and brother were born in germany itself, my parents had to report to the mounties (police) every month. they had to report and get fingerprinted and even though they were canadian citizens they were classed as enemy aliens so many people did, they had to report to the mounties. there were certain repercussions. for example, bethany was already a separate church in but they had german services...in a german battleship came into the harbour like many battleships did at that time and of course being a german battleship [the church] wanted to be of service and so they invited them to church and for dinner...there were dozens of german soldiers who came. well the mounties kept track of this and realized this was happening and so then later on when war broke out, members of bethany baptist church became high on the list of enemy aliens and that became news to the neighbourhood and they became very hostile to the church. they had to virtually board up the windows because they were broken by stones... the impacts o f violent incidents against the church forced many german immigrants to learn e n g l i s h and adjust as best and as fast as they could: even [at] ebenezer, i remember that they did things to the church, tried to ruin things a bit...they used to call them nazis. but a lot of our people did try and learn the english and i remember my mother, she tried to learn english as much as she could... she tried to help herself but she too was quite an elderly lady you know. the thing is, at home we always spoke german... the impact o f the war and the unpopularity o f being german really had two consequences for the german churches. f o r german immigrants the circumstance o f war acted as an incentive to assimilate quickly and to lose identifiably german characteristics as explained by one church leader, "it was just after the first w o r l d war so that was their incentive to assimilate very quickly because it wasn't popular to be german or have a german background. that's really w h y there wasn't much protection o f the german culture." in the baptist church denomination, outside presses o f war influenced the renaming o f the denominational conference: during world war two the german churches felt the pressure of being associated with a nation with which canada was at war. german names of churches were dropped in favour of english ones, and the whole denomination adopted the designation north american baptist general conference (renfree : ). f o r some german churches, however, the pressures to assimilate quickly that penetrated every aspect o f life from grocery shopping to business to education and neighbourhood relationships, left the church as the only remaining arena i n w h i c h it was acceptable to be german, to speak the german language, to sing german hymns and to speak about the horrors o f war and the challenges o f resettling. it is fascinating that the approach or reaction to one's o w n german identity at the time has had such a lasting effect on the church's history, growth and process o f self-definition. the churches that became the main arena and venue o f german culture have experienced much greater difficulty w i t h issues o f adjusting to their new social landscapes and challenges o f generational evolution. those who have always taken a more assimilative approach, a l l o w i n g german characteristics to die, have had an easier (but not easy) time looking at local missions beyond the german community. . p r e s e r v i n g / m a i n t a i n i n g e t h n i c i d e n t i t y the role o f the church i n preserving and maintaining ethnic identity has been w e l l documented (moberg ; m i l l e t ; h u r h & k i m ; coburn ; k a w a n o ). w h e n speaking o f upholding ethnic heritage, identity, or culture we are really speaking o f the continuation o f language, history, music, holiday celebrations, food, values and ties to the motherland. w i t h i n the church this means that values are passed on during sermons and lessons, that concerns about the motherland are the subject o f prayer and that missionary activity is continued, i n the case o f the germans, on both sides o f the atlantic ocean. coburn's ( ) study found that the use o f the german language and the presence o f a german speaking pastor who spoke the high german tongue significantly impacted the preservation o f culture and practices thus, "solidifying and maintaining the immigrants' ties to the mother country" ( ). m o r e than simply preserving ethnic identity, m i l l e t ( ) argues that "institutions i n their linguistically-defined or origin-defined structure encourage and perhaps permit the survival o f a great many ethnic groups," ( , emphasis mine). this is particularly the case for churches who began and ran german language schools on saturday mornings whose sole purpose was to perpetuate the german mother tongue in the second and even third generations. m o b e r g ( ) argues that transplanted ethnic churches become, "a centre o f allegiance holding the group together, preserving old-world culture traits, perpetuating the native tongue, and thus helping to retard assimilation" ( ). in the lutheran church that held its o w n small german school, part o f the curriculum was intended to teach children about the ' h e i m a t ' , the german homeland such that they w o u l d sense and learn an attachment to and appreciation for their heritage. speaking more i n terms o f recent immigrant groups, particularly a s i a n immigrants, k a w a n o ( ) further asserts that the chief role o f religion for new arrivals, is keeping alive the ethnic subculture. thus the subculture takes pride in its religious activities. this is especially true if large numbers of the new immigrants are of one religion or denomination. in this way both religious and cultural identities are transferred together in immigration ( ). in many ways the german ethnic church has become a depository o f culture and customs such that they are and have been preserved in the church much longer than i n any other public sphere. one o f m y interviewees affirmed that his church preserved german ethnicity and d i d not function to help to integrate immigrants because integration was not w i t h i n its purview; integration was to occur elsewhere. h e believed, our immigrant church did more to help preserve the history and culture where we come from. because to integrate in canadian society, that is sort of beside the church; on the job or playing soccer through schools and so on. we don't look to the church for all that although we do recognize that we do need the young people, we do it for the young, bring the english into the church, not for ourselves. h e recognized that some integration must occur, integration here equals using e n g l i s h , but his rationale suggests that 'integration' should only be adopted for generational reasons. another interviewee explained that following the traditions o f the churches i n germany and russia, the churches were very strict about both their beliefs, practices and liturgy. there were formats and ways o f doing things that, to the outsider, w o u l d have identified the church as uniquely german. h e explained that i n the church, "we could still keep our o w n ways o f doing things, keep our traditions where out i n the workplace you had to adjust to the ways o f the w o r l d or the way other people d i d things. w e o f course then adopted a lot o f things that are different from our traditions." n o t only d i d the church preserve german culture and liturgical tradition but for the early immigrants it was seen as a protector o f german identity. some immigrants pretentiously viewed their german faith as better than the faith o f non-german christians and to them the german church shielded them from the dangers o f the more secular e n g l i s h church: the church was really here to protect us from the big bad world. and i grew up in a very tight mennonite brethren german speaking community in southern manitoba and we talked about the 'anglander,' the english. there were them and us and although it was never really articulated and it couldn't be because it's not a very theological concept, really we were here to protect the christian culture and if it was only german culture well that was part of it too. i f the church plays such an important part i n the preservation o f ethnic identities, the question o f w h y the church holds such central importance must be asked. for those i interviewed, the church represented 'home' and this in itself obviously held multiple meanings. it represented the home church i n the motherland, the motherland itself and it represented the new home o f the immigrants i n vancouver. in keeping the german language and its familiar liturgical traditions, the church also was a place o f comfort and an environment that welcomed and accepted ones' 'germanness.' several quotations by my interviewees include mention o f the importance o f 'home' and describe what characterizes their german church. m o s t speak for themselves and they are included to recognize this overarching theme: for an immigrant community, everything else is forcing them to adjust and adapt and this is one place where they don't have to...my experience has been that the church is really controlled or directed for that first generation immigrant community. its mandate is primarily to preserve the familiarity of home and that's not just within the german church. you also see this in the sikh culture. i'm beginning to see that with some of the guys i work out with down at the ymca by langara [college]. in our church still we have lots of german traditions. you can see at our christmas time even with our advent thing. we have lots of german traditions, we celebrate certain dates even in the year. pentecost for instance in germany, you celebrate that. you know even the way things are decorated, the way certain things are done, it's typical german and it's amazing that, the english speakers, those who are not from germany, they enjoy that extremely, they really like the traditions, while the germans who came as teenagers over here, who wanted to assimilate very quickly, they don't cherish that. but see this is home, church is home and that is why these german churches, as long as they have their founding members, they will still have a german part in their service because this is home. they have established it, they have lived together. they went through very hard times together and there is a bond, not only a christian one but there is an inter-personal bond. another explanation for why the church, in particular, maintains german culture lies i n the spiritual significance o f maintaining the mother tongue. for more than h a l f o f m y interviewees, e n g l i s h is n o w their preferred language o f conversation. after forty or more years i n canada, e n g l i s h comes most naturally to them i n daily communication. f o r many o f them, however, german still holds a particular significance i n worship because o f its familiar terminology and the peculiarities o f translation. the b i b l i c a l w o r d cannot be adequately expressed for these immigrants i n the e n g l i s h language. several o f the post-world w a r t w o immigrants expressed sentiments similar to this church leader's: when you go to a service in your own mother tongue, it's not just the words that you hear. it is more than that. there is feeling in it that in your own language means a lot more than in english though we can understand [english]. that's why german people hang onto the german service. it's just more meaningful. if that wasn't the case, people from surrey, white rock and west vancouver, wouldn't drive all the way to the german service. another interviewee explained his sense o f comfort in teaching and leading church activities i n the german language. h e explained how his wife, who used to be very involved i n church activities, is less active now and he attributed their waning participation to the church's preference for e n g l i s h where they (both husband and wife) felt more comfortable teaching, speaking and praying i n german. h e says, "my wife, she couldn't offer i n e n g l i s h what she can do i n german. [in german] she can talk to sunday school [classes]...even the ladies when they have some program she can prepare a speech. in e n g l i s h she wouldn't." one o f the most amazing results o f this study, because it examines an ethnic group and ethnic church that have existed for over sixty years, is that the role o f the church i n preserving ethnic identities is not necessarily a one generation phenomenon. the ethnic church i n fact can have a lifespan much longer than the time period even w i t h i n w h i c h a group is considered to be assimilated. a s mentioned, it is quite safe to state that the germans i n vancouver are a highly assimilated ethnic group. data from the census suggests almost a disappearance o f a once strong german core. a s discussed in chapter two there is (geographically and socially) virtually no german community left yet there are still almost a dozen german speaking church congregations. several o f these churches are still keen to preserve their german traditions and though members are long-since canadian citizens they have not chosen to give up their heritage. a t one interview w i t h a lutheran church leader the following conversation unfolded: interviewer: the church has been very successful i n maintaining the german culture is that true? respondent: o h yes. interviewer: has that changed at a l l since the church began? is it stronger or weaker or... respondent: i think over % according to our survey o f our members have been members since between ' and . there are some german people i think who believe i f is time for us to build up the e n g l i s h side more. but some o f the german people are so opposed to it. it has to be german. speaking o f the same church, another leader explained the extent o f the church's efforts to ensure that the german language is maintained to the high standards o f the congregation: this is why we hire all our pastors from germany... we could find someone here who speaks wonderful english and broken german but that's not for our congregation. most people there...want a perfect german not broken, like my way of speaking english with an accent. they want someone who is educated. someone who doesn't preach too high over their heads. the speaking of german in correct sentences is necessary...so far we have been able to find pastors. there are no shortage of them, you just put an ad in the paper. you have to be careful though. in germany there are pastors now in the seminary who read the bible somewhat differently. but we bring them over and we will tell you if you are suitable to us or not. a s was mentioned earlier, the pastor or priest holds a key role i n maintaining language w h i c h is probably the most defining and obvious characteristic o f culture or identity. but he also plays a key role i n encouraging, both verbally and structurally, the preservation o f german heritage. one couple i interviewed suggested that one o f the reasons that german traditions had been lost i n their church was because o f a lack o f effort and encouragement on the part o f the minister to promote identifiable german characteristics i n the church program. another issue raised i n the quotation above spurs another important matter regarding the preservation o f the german culture i n these churches. true i n some cases, the ethnic church plays a large part i n keeping the german culture alive, but it is a very particular version o f both culture and theology that are maintained. the german churches i n vancouver still holding to their german liturgy are, generationally speaking, churches that began i n the s and s (most n o w include small elements o f canadian church culture). a church leader from one o f the baptist churches explained: in german, [worship] is very traditional because it's also the way that it was in the old country in those years. it has changed quite a bit in those years now but if you come from a country you bring your ideas and you cherish those. now in years germany has developed itself in quite a different manner but still people here are not as well connected...they like [worship] of course the way that they are used to it in their home country...so we are still very traditional. elements o f canadian culture that have crept into these churches that traditionally encouraged the preservation o f german tradition have brought about dividing tension that is most visible across generations. in the german baptist churches, issues o f generational conflict began when e n g l i s h use first crept into the church through the youth group: in a few instances this tendency was counteracted with the utmost discipline and force; [the church] lost young people. in most cases the younger parents - now in control of church affairs - together with canadian trained pastors saw the handwriting on the wall and worked toward a language compromise (sturhahn : ). b u t as g u m p p ( ) describes, most churches took a level-headed approach that balanced the need for german tradition (found w i t h i n the church) with behaviours favouring adjustment to life outside o f the church. she explains, their desire for religious services in familiar forms, their need for social contact with fellow ethnics, and their wish to pass on their culture to their children did not preclude their aiming at full admission into canadian society, at friendship with non-germans, and at providing their offspring with the best chances for life in the chosen land (gumpp : ). in the end, the importance o f the preservation o f the german culture i n the church is i really a non-issue though as nagata ( ) comments, it is amazing "the degree to w h i c h theological refinements...are subordinated to preoccupation w i t h identity by birthplace, language, and ' e t h n i c i t y ' " ( ). the church's primary role remains spiritual. its mission is to spread the christian gospel. a n y t h i n g cultural must come secondary to the spiritual or not at a l l . w h e n i asked the longest l i v i n g member o f one church how much german culture had been preserved i n the church he thoughtfully responded, well the part that has been lost is substantial but i think that some of the stuff, well the most important things have, through the grace of god, been kept up. there are some things that, say have been side stepped or dropped but the basic principles have been maintained and the most important thing is that we haven't lost faith. . e n c o u r a g i n g a d j u s t m e n t t o c a n a d a the second perspective on the ethnic church is that it acts as an adapting organization by encouraging adjustment to canada; essentially this position o f the church stands i n opposition to preserving ethnicity. in park's ( ) review o f the geography o f religion and examination o f the impact o f immigration on the religious landscape he notes that "religion is one o f the institutional areas o f a society i n w h i c h indigenous and immigrant populations can m i x and integrate" ( , italics mine). this m i x i n g is necessary i f social integration is to be achieved and when the, " r e l i g i o n o f immigrants is similar to the dominant religion o f the new territory, assimilation w i l l occur more q u i c k l y " (moberg : ). a s i d e from the german churches themselves, this holds true i n the german community who assimilated rapidly and whose religion was similar to that o f the b r i t i s h majority i n vancouver. bankston and z h o u ( ) studied the religious participation and ethnic identification o f vietnamese adolescents i n an immigrant community to determine h o w they were adapting to their new environment. in support o f the argument for the church as an institution promoting adaptation, they found that while religious participation contributed to ethnic identification, on the other hand, ethnic religious participation also facilitated positive adaptation to a m e r i c a n society. in the case o f the ten german churches studied there is less evidence for the argument that the church acted to facilitate immigrant adaptation. m o s t o f the case study churches followed the model o f ethnic preservation. they may not be the majority however (and unfortunately this study is not able to reliably position the ten case study churches w i t h i n the general scope o f churches i n the entire l o w e r m a i n l a n d as burkinshaw has done), as burkinshaw ( ) argues that for most vancouver churches, trying to integrate into the mainstream church culture was the norm: several mennonite groups, a variety of reformed churches transplanted by dutch immigrants and baptist denominations with scandinavian and german origins, among others, added tens of thousands of evangelicals to the province after large- scale immigration began in the s. significantly, most did not remain culturally isolated groups but became integrated into the wider evangelicalism in the province to a large degree and began to incorporate considerable numbers of members from outside their original cultural groups....they increasingly defined themselves in terms of evangelicalism rather than in ethnic and cultural terms ( ). it is unclear whether burkinshaw is referring to ethnic churches formed after w o r l d w a r t w o (which is the majority i n the case o f the germans) or before, but it is clear that one o f the major reasons that churches encouraged integration and the reception o f members from outside o f the original ethnic group is because o f the restrictions the preservationist attitude put on membership growth. a t ebenezer baptist, it was the church leadership who decided that the church was to remain community oriented and w o u l d minister to members from any cultural background who desired to worship there. a s this church leader explained, the church leadership made the decision for the church to be more community oriented and then the rest of the people went along with that. the church is really a flock to some degree. they'll follow the leaders if the leaders are strong enough. and i think that's what happened there...the leadership said this is what we want to do and this is why we want to do it and this is why it's good for our community. probably the strongest evidence for the church taking the position o f encouraging adaptation comes from an interview w i t h a current lutheran pastor who spoke o f the first lutheran pastor who collected and led the large number o f post-world war t w o immigrants. h e explains how the church facilitated adaptation not through direct means but really i n the sense that m u l l i n s and h u r h and k i m were trying to explain: pastor marx was apparently really good at that, integrating immigrants into canadian society. he put a lot of effort into that. since it didn't take long and the german community and congregation turned into something like a firm bond of immigrants, formed like a little society within society but not in order to cut themselves off from canadian society but to maybe find strength in relationships they had between one another to go out into canadian society and do their jobs and be faithful and hard workers and build their homes. thus the churches themselves did not take on the position o f encouraging adaptation. they d i d want to be german and to preserve german culture. however, they also wanted their church members to be successful citizens i n the community. in such a position, the churches encouraged adaptation through the provision o f social services and a sense o f place that allowed them to be grounded i n a church home while exploring and developing outside o f that home, i n a largely non-german environment. . d o i n g b o t h : p r e s e r v i n g c u l t u r e a n d f a c i l i t a t i n g a d j u s t m e n t it is tempting to portray churches as conforming to one o f these two perspectives as both h u r h and k i m and m u l l i n s have attempted to do, but many churches act i n both roles and it is important to recognize that while churches can accomplish both, many do so without realizing it. m o h l and betten ( ) i n their study on immigrant churches i n indiana acknowledged this dual role o f the church explaining that, " r e l i g i o n provided a form o f security through tradition and a continuation o f what was k n o w n and respectable i n an alien, rough and tumble industrial t o w n " ( ). they recognize that the church defended culture by trying to preserve and transfer immigrant heritage to the new society but at the same time it was, "aiding the immigrant i n understanding and accepting a new society" ( ). in their example they noted how ethnic churches attempted to introduce and affirm a m e r i c a n values. the f o l l o w i n g quotation sings o f a m e r i c a n nationalism and though nothing as elaborate as this existed i n any o f the german churches there are certainly strong elements o f canadian (church) values w h i c h have crept into organizational structures and for some churches into worship services. m o h l and betten explain this bridging: although the churches maintained a continuity with the old and familiar, they also interpreted american society to the immigrants and aided integration into the new society. american flags hung in church sanctuaries, church classrooms provided citizenship classes, and children of many parishes joined church-based boy scout troops. church-sponsored interfaith meetings, political clubs, credit unions, and scholarships more subtly prepared the newcomer and his family for american urban life. the churches themselves often took on american ways in order to retain the interest and eventual support of parish children growing up in an american environment ( : ). one o f my interviewees from the catholic church also spoke to much the same issue o f the church bridging both functions o f preserving ethnicity and adapting to a canadian system. she noted that church members both "clung to...traditions...on the other side we wanted to adjust to the new country too." she elaborated to explain just how that was done, "...we brought speakers i n , political speakers, speakers from the immigration, we had public speaking courses, we had cooking courses, and so we tried to educate ourselves too besides just having fun together so it was always interesting." the idea that both preservation and adjustment were supported by the church is confirmed i n the church's fortieth anniversary book w h i c h explains that h o l y f a m i l y , "served those o f german origin as a place o f worship, as a focus o f christian community, and as a centre o f cultural heritage. in all o f these ways it has helped them to make the necessary transitions to a new home and a new culture" (forty years. h o l y f a m i l y parish). one o f the lutheran church leaders explained how his church acted in both capacities as preserver and adaptor. h i s is an example o f a church that perhaps unconsciously was facilitating adjustment because it was not i n any organized or formal sense. he said that, "the churches at first help the immigrants a lot when they first come i n to get established and also feel they have a place to go to speak their o w n language and ask questions. but also when they integrated, they need advice for a j o b or an interview for a job or..." the fact that advice on integration was found i n and through church members points to the hidden but common role o f the church i n aiding adjustment. i w o u l d like to be able to say more about the role o f the german churches i n aiding both immigrant adaptation and ethnic preservation but interviews did not produce much discussion on such issues. perhaps it is difficult to look objectively at one's o w n church to examine h o w the church has encouraged or discouraged culture. that was certainly the sense that i got when trying to probe into such questions. perhaps the v i e w o f an outsider is necessary but that outsider w o u l d need to k n o w the church w e l l enough over a long period o f time to make that k i n d o f assessment. unfortunately i am not qualified to do so. m y historical knowledge o f these churches comes only from what i have been able to read and hear from the mouths o f those who have been a part o f these communities for a very long time. before leaving the issue o f ethnic preservation there is an additional factor w h i c h sheds a valuable perspective through the denominational lens. . c h u r c h d e n o m i n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e e t h n i c c h u r c h in the introduction to this chapter, several explanations for why churches have chosen to pursue preservationist versus adaptive goals were sought. requiring more attention here is the role that denominational bodies play i n influencing, and i n some instances dictating, the directions that churches w i l l take with respect to preserving their ethnic heritage. the most pronounced and outspoken body has been the canadian lutheran church synod. a weaker stance has been taken by the baptist and mennonite denominations. the role o f each body w i l l be discussed. in coburn's ( ) book on the rural german lutheran community i n the a m e r i c a n m i d - west there is significant attention dedicated to the influence o f the m i s s o u r i synod on the local affairs o f the b l o c k church. w e l l into the twentieth century, the standard language o f the church and school was german; this o f course influenced the communities' ties to their mother country and the preservation o f their culture and practices. the protectionist hand o f the synod reached into the daily life o f the community: ethnic and religious biases against the 'outside world' established a powerful bulwark between german-lutheran communities and american society. the missouri synod tried desperately to shield its members from 'the world' through conservative doctrine and the use of the german language in church and school; preservation of the 'true faith' demanded constant and unrelenting stewardship (coburn : ). o f course the preservation o f german culture was made simpler by the rural character o f the community; a transition to the e n g l i s h language and 'americanization' o f life were accelerated i n urban churches. the power o f the church i n perpetuating german culture is intriguing. d u r i n g the first w o r l d war, german churches were threatened and as a result, the m i s s o u r i synod instructed churches to appear, at least to outsiders, as patriotic to their new homeland as possible. f e w churches actually dropped the use o f the german language i n their schools but teachers were asked to use e n g l i s h more and more; many i f not most churches dropped the label ' g e r m a n ' from their church name. in response to the instructions from the synod, coburn says that many church members became resentful o f the dictatorial commands and demands made by the synod. their response was a refusal to deny their german roots. what is interesting about the story coburn relates is that almost the exact same situation occurred i n the canadian lutheran synod i n the s when the canadian german lutheran synod j o i n e d w i t h the canadian norwegian lutheran synod. the new head o f these amalgamated synods called for a de-ethnicization o f church congregations using languages other than e n g l i s h i n worship. several interviewees reconstructed this situation: at that time the word was out in canada and the u.s. in church circles that only english is the language of the church. so we said fine then, we'll look for our own pastor (normally the synod found the pastor). the emphasis then was to drop all the ethnic stuff and that of course brought the congregation up in arms. the synod decision to discourage ethno-linguistic congregations d i d not sit w e l l w i t h many o f the lutheran congregations; they were unclear about the rationale for eliminating non-english speaking congregations. in the case o f the german lutheran congregations i n vancouver, they rejected the decision: we [now] have very good cooperation with [the synod] but in the beginning, they made a blunder... [it was] the leader of the synod. i met him once, the leader of [synod] and he was strictly against germans. why? who knows, it's personal. he said [germans] all speak english and there won't be any german spoken anyway so forget it as far as creating a church. t h i s interviewee was speaking specifically o f the desire for st. mark's to establish itself as a german congregation. the synod's rejection o f that request has meant that st. m a r k ' s has never j o i n e d the synod, choosing instead to remain an independent german lutheran congregation. t w o other leaders from each o f the other two churches mentioned the same conflict w i t h the synod. another member recounts his participation and reaction to the decision: the lutheran church [synod] in was uniting...with the norwegian body. in personally had a discussion with the president of the lutheran church...and he said, we're closing down the german services because we're uniting with the norwegians and we're all going to be only english. and that was from the top down and what happened...i was in winnipeg at the time... the german part of the congregation met and they told the pastor that any attempt to [become all english] would mean that they would walk out en masse and if they did that there wouldn't be enough there to carry out a congregation. the same thing happened here [in vancouver] because i spoke with [a pastor here] on this...he said yes, i got that letter too and i just wrote them back and said no way, they might as well close down the church if they do that. so the feeling from the synod has not been conducive... eventually there was so much backlash from the congregations that the president o f the synod lost his re-election campaign and the ethnic churches carried on w i t h an even greater determination to succeed as german churches. the influence o f the denomination is not the only factor influencing the perpetuation o f german culture i n vancouver's german lutheran churches. a second factor deserving attention is the state connection to the church i n germany. n o t directly related to the lutheran denominational body, state financial control meant that lutheran churches had a very different understanding o f the role o f the church: the lutheran church in germany was the state church and what happened...my father was lutheran and i went to a lutheran church... but because it was a state church you went to church because it was the thing to do and the state church never had the outreach, evangelistic outreach. it was there if you wanted to go to it but there was no concerted effort to reach out into the community because it (the church) was the community. so if you transport those people here they have the same attitude. a s a result the lutheran churches here have made less o f a conscious effort to reach out and extend an invitation and welcome to the non-churched o f their community. the interviewee further suggested that as a result o f this attitude there has been little "outreach [even] to the young people w i t h i n the church...the young people didn't find it meaningful." t h i s o f course has tremendous implications for the future o f the church. generational issues w i l l be elaborated upon i n the next chapter. w i t h respect to the baptist congregations there has been less denominational controversy over perpetuating german identity within the church. m u c h o f this is due to the fact that baptist churches are, for the most part, empowered with much greater decision making autonomy. in general, baptist church denominations have been supportive o f ethnic congregations. nagata ( ) mentions that several baptist churches i n both the u . s . and canada have developed policies on immigrant memberships and have, for almost a century cultivated a policy of'home missions', which encouraged the formation of separate immigrant congregations, and perpetuated ethnic and cultural differences. this policy caused conflicting responses within the 'anglo' baptist community, some of whom advocated swift assimilation, while others refused to associate with immigrants. the baptists' mode of 'conference' organization permits considerable power devolution, and local congregations, ethnic or not, can manage most of their day-to-day affairs independently... ( ). the devolution o f power and decision making has had an interesting effect on the church histories o f the three baptist churches i n this study. a s was made evident i n the brief church histories already presented (chapter three), each church has taken a somewhat different perspective on ethnic preservation. ebenezer has moved away from the ethnic church model whereas immanuel, until very recently, conformed quite closely to it. the observation that some german baptist churches i n the l o w e r m a i n l a n d "dropped elements o f their ethnic identity" (burkinshaw : ) was also documented by burkinshaw who explained the change as, "an attempt to appeal to the wider community" (ibid: ). t w o other authors have noted the declining identification o f german churches w i t h their exclusive german identity (pousett ; renfree ). in his book, pousett noted that most baptist churches were, "no longer bilingual - their activities are carried on entirely i n e n g l i s h . o n the whole, they no longer consider their mission i n terms o f reaching german immigrants and their children, but are attempting to reach a wider community" ( ). though it is impossible to attribute causality or k n o w o f the rationale behind these changes, the impact o f the denomination must be recognized. sturhahn ( ) listed three concerns o f the denomination w h i c h were presented to the german ethnic churches w h i c h , i n effect, make quite strong statements on the role o f the church i n issues o f cultural concern. the concerns were as follows: i) the church role was not to foster the development o f one particular language or to preserve cultural values; i i ) language i n the church should never become an end i n itself, it is a means to convey the message; and i i i ) the spiritual growth o f children is more important than the acquisition o f a second language (sturhahn : ). these issues, discussed by district secretaries o f the baptist denomination w i t h individual congregations, were adhered to w i t h varying degrees by each o f the individual churches. s i m p l y the fact that the denomination made such a policy statement against the preservation o f the ethnic church for cultural reasons above spiritual is o f itself significant. the actual impact o n baptist churches i n western canada is almost impossible to evaluate. the mennonite church body has taken an altogether different approach from the lutheran synod by discouraging the preservation o f ethnic identity, specifically ethnic mennonite identity. the history o f the mennonite denomination has its geographical roots in eastern europe as a peaceful but persecuted church. the experience o f persecution has made the mennonite church and its members a solidly cohesive group. mennonites have been identified both as an ethnic and religious group holding strictly to values and traditions. in , two articles appeared i n the vancouver province on the local mennonite population and the move to separate ethnic m e n n o n i t i s m from religious mennonitism (virtue a & b). virtue explained that church leaders sought to publicize their position that one must not be o f ethnic mennonite origin to be a member o f a mennonite church. the distinction between these categories o f 'mennonitism' are best described by redekop: . ethnic mennonites have no religious commitment but are still classified as mennonite because o f names, food, lifestyle and/or language. . ethnic-religious mennonites share the traits o f the first category but are also religious. they may be dominantly ethnic or religious depending on personal emphasis. . religious mennonites was the original category that now includes new converts and new members w i t h no mennonite ethnic identity (redekop : - ). discussions on the necessary separation o f ethnic and religious mennonitism have been taken up by redekop ( ; ) since the late s. in , redekop identified ' s i x winds o f change' that he believed the church needed to attend and respond to: de-ethnicization, language and culture change, urbanization, dispersion, professionalization and class change (redekop : ). the 'winds o f change' he identified were issues he saw that resulted from a number o f social changes and events including: the social impact o f w o r l d w a r t w o ; a new concern for authentic community evangelism; transition from the german to the e n g l i s h language; increased urbanization and social absorption; increased intermarriage o f mennonites w i t h non-mennonites; and o f course questions on relationship between the church and ethnicity. a s one o f these ' w i n d s ' , redekop argued that ethnic identity should be repressed i n the church as it is secondary to primacy o f christian faith and inhibits the invitation to and acceptance o f other ethnic groups. a prominent leader i n the mennonite community, redekop specifically addressed the denomination w i t h his concerns: there is a place for ethnic congregations, especially if a language barrier exists. but such congregations must then reach out to the non-christians who speak that language... the ethnic churches which are growing rapidly are those ministering to immigrant people who still have their own closed communities. most mennonites in canada, and certainly the mennonite brethren, can no longer claim to be such a church or conference. our mandate must at least match our secular penetration of society (redekop : ). the shifting source o f immigrants to b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a as w e l l as the, "secular, transient character o f [the province]'s population and the high growth rate o f an ethnically m i x e d population i n areas o f mennonite settlement militated against the maintenance o f a closed, ethnically based group" (burkinshaw : ). the m b church's response was to de-emphasize ethnic and denominational distinctiveness and instead to focus on evangelizing to outsiders (burkinshaw ). the translation o f redekop's ideas into the reality o f church life took place over a period o f ten to twelve years such that i n the late s and s, mennonite churches really began to embrace the idea o f a non-ethnic mennonite church. a g a i n this is a change away from the traditional mennonite church. one church leader explains, [mennonites] were very narrow in their [outreach]... so if you weren't mennonite you weren't accepted. now many of the growing churches in the city have shed their mennonite name so they can reach the community. but that wasn't always the way, they had the same narrow perspective in terms of being evangelical as your roman catholic or lutheran church have in terms of being liturgical. in effect the diminishment o f culture has had quite an effect on the three case study m b churches who have a l l adopted this separation o f ethnic and religious mennonitism and who have now increasingly multicultural congregations. in the past ten years i n particular the churches have clearly adopted the approaches advocated by the m b denomination and its leaders and they are n o w struggling w i t h issues o f how to adapt and invite members o f other ethnic groups into their worshipping communities. f i n a l l y , the catholic church system has encouraged the preservation o f ethnic congregations. under the national parish system, catholics whose first language is not e n g l i s h are invited to attend national parishes o f their native language thus facilitating the separation o f linguistic groups. in the case o f the germans, h o l y f a m i l y parish was established to meet just this linguistic need. a s german catholics have become more comfortable w i t h e n g l i s h and have moved much greater distances from the parish, many have chosen to attend their local e n g l i s h parish rather than travel back to the national parish. a s discussed above this system has demonstrated the catholic church's ability to function both as a preserver o f ethnic culture and as an adapting institution. . i s s u e s o f c u l t u r a l p r e s e r v a t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n in o t h e r e t h n i c c h u r c h e s perhaps before leaving this discussion it is useful to reflect on these same issues as they have been played out for other ethnic and religious groups immigrating to canada. research focusing on the relationship between religion and ethnicity has been taken up by several researchers o f a s i a n ethnic groups (ward ; nagata ; m u l l i n s ; k n o w l e s ). nagata ( ) argued that many recent a s i a n immigrants have joined christian churches to become more 'canadian.' k n o w l e s ( ) has argued the same assimilating motive i n discussing the historical situation o f japanese immigrants to b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a but offers an interesting twist on the acceptance o f the assimilationist aims o f the church: for many [japanese], the [church] missions became an important part of a well- articulated strategy aimed at achieving economic and social security... despite the assimilationist aims of the church, the missions often became cultural anchors which supported ethnic identity and community (knowles : & ). w a r d ( ) also reflects on the assimilationist aims o f the anglo-canadian church among a s i a n i m m i g r a n t s i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . c h u r c h a c t i v i t i e s were u s e d b y m i s s i o n a r i e s to try to a s s i m i l a t e a s i a n i m m i g r a n t s but they also p r o v i d e d k e y s o c i a l s e r v i c e s a n d a c t i v i t i e s : m i s s i o n a r i e s h e l d s u n d a y s c h o o l a n d c h u r c h s e r v i c e s , s p o n s o r e d s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , e n g l i s h e v e n i n g c l a s s e s , e d u c a t i o n a l a n d r e c r e a t i o n p r o g r a m s f o r c h i l d r e n , teas a n d s o c i a l g a t h e r i n g s f o r w o m e n a n d h o s t e l s f o r those n e e d i n g shelter ( w a r d ). in the c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n o f japanese i m m i g r a t i o n , m u l l i n s ( ) demonstrates that f o r i m m i g r a n t s o f n o n - e u r o p e a n b a c k g r o u n d s , j o i n i n g c h u r c h e s i n c a n a d a o f t e n meant a s s i m i l a t i n g . t h u s f o r the japanese, c h u r c h e s h a v e n o t b e e n s t r o n g centres o f e t h n i c p r e s e r v a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y because o f e t h n i c i n t e r m a r r i a g e , m o b i l i t y , a n d the loss o f language a b i l i t y i n s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s . h e argues that g e n e r a t i o n a l c h a n g e i s , "at the root o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g m i n o r i t y c h u r c h e s " ( m u l l i n s : ) . . c o n c l u s i o n s c o m p a r e d to b o t h h i s t o r i c a l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y a s i a n i m m i g r a t i o n it appears that the e x a m p l e s p r o v i d e d b y g e r m a n c h u r c h e s are l i k e l y representative o f the e x p e r i e n c e o f e t h n i c c h u r c h e s o f e u r o p e a n b a c k g r o u n d . m o s t o f the g e r m a n c h u r c h e s p r e s e r v e d t h e i r g e r m a n h e r i t a g e m u c h m o r e t h a n they e n c o u r a g e d a d a p t a t i o n to c a n a d a t h o u g h they f a c i l i t a t e d that a d a p t a t i o n t h r o u g h the p r o v i s i o n o f s o c i a l s e r v i c e s a n d a sense o f b e l o n g i n g . o n l y o n e case s t u d y c h u r c h r e a l l y e n c o u r a g e d a d a p t a t i o n a n d e v e n that d i d not o c c u r u n t i l after a p e r i o d o f e t h n i c p r e s e r v a t i o n . s o m e c h u r c h e s d i d t h e i r best to b o t h p r e s e r v e the e t h n i c c u l t u r e a n d adapt, the c a t h o l i c c h u r c h best e x e m p l i f i e s this m o d e l . t o d a y f e w o f the c h u r c h e s are s t i l l h o l d i n g see mullins ( ) on how the japanese who joined the united church did so to become more 'canadian.' the church thus acted as a strong assimilating force. onto their g e r m a n heritage; most have embraced new models o f ministry (see chapter six) and it is to these issues o f change and adaptation in terms of church mission that discussion w i l l now turn. c h a p t e r s i x c h a n g e s in t h e e t h n i c c h u r c h : f r o m m o n o - t o m u l t i - e t h n i c ? t h i s final chapter is an attempt to bring the histories o f the german churches to the present and to examine the changes that have taken place as a response to outside influences. the central theme o f the chapter is institutional change; how have the churches evolved through their life cycles? w h y have changes occurred in these churches? what has influenced the churches to alter their ministry or what has kept the churches the same? the two most significant issues impacting the churches are generational shifts - the aging o f the immigrants and the l i k e l i h o o d o f the second generation staying at or leaving the church - - and neighbourhood transition, the impacts o f the new social landscape o f the church neighbourhoods. respectively, these issues reflect changes i n time and space. f i n a l l y the responses o f the churches to such changes w i l l be examined both i n theory and i n practice. one w o u l d assume, at least i n theory, that churches, like most institutions, are not static. park ( ) argues that size, activities and the wider societal context o f churches have adjusted through time as needs and opportunities have shifted. h o w church congregations alter over time is particularly interesting as congregations grow and shrink for various reasons including both " l o c a l factors (such as the immigration or emigration o f local people) and some related to wider change (such as broad demographic trends or religious revival)" (park : ). b u t some churches change very little as they become comfortable and perhaps complacent w i t h their identity, community and mission. one o f my interviewees from a church that, at the institutional level, is much closer to the cultural preservation end o f the spectrum explains: we have made very few changes...the only change that has taken place is that we have lost some members and we've gained some members. and also, different ministers we've had over the years [because] every minister brings something new. as far as changes, those were the changes...the people haven't changed much. they're older! m a n y churches find comfort and ease i n "doing things the o l d w a y " as one interviewee put it. b u t other churches recognize that complacency and a lack o f future visioning w i l l eventually bring crisis or even death to the church congregation. one church leader from one o f the most active and innovative congregations explained what the church saw: basically the choice is change or die, take your pick. if you don't change, well the last one can turn out the lights. if you do change and become more relevant to people around you, you can survive. it's traumatic for a lot of people and a lot of them never do make the transition. they'll go from church to church trying to find where that tradition still exists...that's okay too. [change is] not for everybody. a s was discussed i n the previous chapter, much o f the literature suggests that a key role o f the immigrant church is to preserve ethnic culture. consciously or unconsciously, there is the potential for ethnic churches to become centred on or even preoccupied with their ethnic identity rather than basing themselves on religious doctrine (meyer ; m i l l e t ). m i l l e t ( ) recognizes that the focus on ethnicity, happens to different degrees and with varying effectiveness depending on the size of the ethnic population, the number of generations that have been in canada, the regularity of the flow of immigrants, and whether a whole church is involved or only an ethnic parish of an english or french-language sponsoring church ( ). a s time progresses, most ethno-centred churches tend to lessen their cultural focus, instead accentuating theological or liturgical beliefs w i t h the goal to, "gain the loyalty o f the second generation, w h i c h was not as likely to be attracted by cultural individuality" (meyer : ). t h i s shift from a partly cultural institution to a purely religious institution is difficult for some churches whose history is grounded by people o f a particular origin. a l m o s t all o f the churches that were interviewed were experiencing or have experienced the challenge o f this shift. a s one pastor explained, the churches have had to endure this attitude shift so that now, "the fabric o f the church really focuses on the ministry o f the church rather than as a depot for culture." in the a m e r i c a n context, warner ( ) explains that, for the first generation, religion is in part a refuge from america. but the arrival of a second generation...suggests to many participants that some old country ways, in particular, languages, must be sacrificed in order to maintain the attention of the children. conducting worship in the english language is one of the classic paths by which ethnicity [is transmuted] into religion, where what gives the group its identity is no longer urdu, for example but islam, not japanese but buddhism, not yiddish but judaism ( ). have the german churches dealt with this necessary shift away from culture? i f they have, how have they adjusted? these questions w i l l be dealt w i t h in the last section o f this chapter. ethnic churches share a dual purpose o f sustaining culture and providing a spiritual centre, though most church members w o u l d l i k e l y argue that the church's purpose is solely theological. the german churches were however, very much cultural institutions (some more than others) and for many churches this preoccupation with cultural 'ways o f d o i n g ' has interfered w i t h their ability to deal w i t h changes in their social environment w h i c h ultimately are having significant effects on the ability o f the churches to sustain themselves i n the s. this is not to say that it is wrong for the church to act as a sustainer o f culture but there comes a time when the church must recognize that the culture is not what makes the church and its perpetuation may be a limitation to growth and the goal o f christian mission. t h i s realization is particularly necessary when younger generations grow up without the understanding and attachment to their cultural heritage. a s one pastor explained, it was not wrong for the churches to begin as institutions o f cultural support but it is wrong for them to remain as such without constantly assessing their reasons for remaining as a mono-ethnic institutions: what god called us to in the s and s as an immigrant people...it wasn't wrong to circle the wagons for self-protection. you were tired. you were hurt. you were lost. you were without... [but now] we're part of the mainstream of society. we can stop hiding so let's get going. we have to change the page and yet psychologically i know what that does when somebody strips away our experience. what he is speaking to is the challenge o f dealing with the sense o f loss experienced by the immigrant generation, some o f w h o m have a very difficult time accepting the challenge to shift away from what they may not even recognize as the cultural ethos o f the church. gladys tsang ( ), i n her thesis on ethnic churches asserts the necessity o f this difficult shift: mono-ethnic churches are justifiable when language and culture become a barrier for a person to become a christian. in other words, when an ethnic group is unmeltable or non-assimilatable, then ethnic churches are necessary...ethnic churches should never exist just for the sake of racial ties - for then, the church becomes a social community and loses sight of the dynamic power of the gospel and the christian bond of love (tsang : ). f o r the germans, assimilation i n arenas outside o f the church occurred quite rapidly. f o l l o w i n g tsang's logic, the necessity o f the german ethnic church must be evaluated i f its purpose is simply to exist for the sake o f perpetuating german ties. to the outsider, some o f the interviewed churches may appear as primarily social communities and though they may not have lost sight o f the power o f the christian gospel, several have been b l i n d to opportunities to share their faith outside o f the german community. the challenges i n shifting away from a cultural or ethnic church identity are easily confused and compounded by shifts to more contemporary styles o f worship and organization. often these two simultaneous adjustments make dealing with change significantly more complicated and often more sensitive. sturhahn ( ) identified one o f the major conflicts i n german baptist churches existing between what he termed 'canadian christianity,' associated w i t h the e n g l i s h language, and north a m e r i c a n songs and 'european christianity,' associated w i t h the german language and its songs, poetry and literature. simultaneously there are pressures to become more contemporary and to become less liturgically german (and perhaps more multi-ethnic). one pastor explains the confusion o f these two challenges: it is true of a church like ours...we are faced with a big challenge of becoming more contemporary as well as becoming more neighbourhood oriented...and the two are becoming confused, people are reacting to one. the two get woven together... there is language... we've stuck with the mother tongue... and there is also the other shift and that is to a new upbeat contemporary way of worship. f o r some churches, this shift to the contemporary style o f worship is a more significant issue than the loss o f german culture. but yet, these changes are intimately woven together. in many churches the style o f worship is as connected to the german culture as other elements such as the celebration o f particular holidays and/or the use o f the mother tongue. despite the difficulty i n sifting through these changes, it is the change presented i n both o f these challenges that is influencing discussions about what it means to be a german church and what the future o f such an identity brings. in the end what often forces the shift out o f a mono-ethnic church model is a multitude o f influences w h i c h bring the church to the point where their existence is threatened. a s m u l l i n s ( ) argues, though churches may be intent on maintaining characteristics w h i c h are ethnically distinctive, the history o f immigrant churches suggests that they must ultimately face the forces influencing them. h e argues that, "the process o f assimilation forces the churches to choose between accommodation and extinction" ( m u l l i n s : ). successive generations experience a different life history; they are raised i n a new environment where "the language and culture o f the o l d w o r l d becomes increasingly unfamiliar and foreign. this inevitably leads to generational conflict over w h i c h language should be used i n religious and social activities" ( m u l l i n s : ). . f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n ? one o f the two most significant factors influencing changes i n the german churches is that o f generational change. the majority o f literature on ethnic churches presents generational issues and the way that generational conflicts are dealt w i t h as the most central element i n determining the life cycle o f immigrant churches. traditionally, the second generation o f immigrants have been less attracted to and interested i n the ethnic religious institution. m c k a y ' s ( ) research on second generation syrian-lebanese christians i n australia summarizes four reasons for the distancing o f the second generation from the religious community o f their parents: when asked why they did not attend the ethnic churches regularly, respondents usually gave one or more of the following reasons: ) they couldn't speak arabic and thus couldn't understand the service; ) they had drifted away from the traditional beliefs of their parents and grandparents; ) the ethnic church was inconvenient because it was either too small, too far away or only held services once a week; or ) they never attended the ethnic church when they were young (mckay : - ). referring to various immigrant churches i n indiana, m o h l and betten ( ) concluded that the second generation consciously rejected the cultural and linguistic baggage o f the o l d w o r l d and that i n doing so, they rejected the language and religion o f their parents. k a w a n o ( : - ) speaks o f generational changes w i t h i n the framework o f a gradual shift i n loyalties. h e explains that the first generation o f immigrants are a closely knit group still intimately connected w i t h their homeland. f o r the second generation, loyalties remain to the ethnic culture but not to the homeland of their parents, a homeland they may never have seen. f o r the third generation there is almost no connection to the homeland and little loyalty to the ethnic culture; primary loyalty is given to the larger host culture. the lack o f parallel loyalties among the successive generations became a significant theme i n interview conversations. a m o n g the german immigrants there was a c o m m o n experience that was not and could not be shared w i t h subsequent generations. one baptist church pastor explained: we have to recognize that the first generation of immigrants shared something that was unique to themselves and themselves alone...that only lasts for a generation and there needs to be an adaptation that takes place from that point and an adaptation that really does something to tie the lines between the generations. in our case it is faith that ties the lines and it transcends culture. if we can actively disciple the second and third generation then they will be able to share something that the first generation had. the second and third generation will not be able to share the sights and the sounds and the smells of the old land but they will be able to share in jesus christ. t h i s pastor clearly sees the challenges o f generational divisions but in this case, the willingness to change from church as cultural institution to theological home successfully bridged the conflict i n immigrant experience and understanding to subsequent generations. interestingly this quotation comes from a leader whose church was able to make a relatively smooth transformation out o f its ethnic skin. a leader from a church that has had a great deal o f internal conflict over its identity as a german church and consequently between generations shares a much less utopian picture o f the impact o f generational issues on the ethnic church, the next generation that was born here could no longer identify with the immigrant experience... with the war experience... the economy was picking up here and they were always at the cutting edge of technology and education and all of these things were available to them...they could not relate to not having food...that was a totally alien experience to them. so that [lack of common experience] led to a tremendous amount of tension...the younger generation came into times of intense conflict with the older generation. the older generation said 'you don't value your heritage'... the language issue became a very critical one... they tried to have german school here, a lot of the immigrant communities attempt to teach their children the mother tongue so that they could understand the worship in the mother tongue. you see the younger generation did not understand the older generation and the older generation that came here did not understand the new dynamics of the generation that had grown up here...it all led to very strong church conflicts in many of these ethnic groups. a lot of internal conflicts. f o r the ten churches interviewed, there was a range o f experiences o f conflicts i n generational shifts. some churches have been quite successful i n keeping their second and third generations active i n their churches while others have dismally failed. naturally those churches that have been less successful are the same churches who have had or are going to have much more difficulty i n planning their futures. another example o f the impacts o f generational change on the ethnic church comes from a lutheran church that has firmly remained german and has lost many o f its young people. the church has kept its mother tongue for the older church members who feel more at ease and a greater sense o f comfort i n hearing their native tongue. but this member realizes that i n keeping the mother tongue there is a sense o f alienation by the next generation. it is a problem he says, and the church is just n o w beginning to think about how it w i l l handle the issue: naturally i see with our church that the big problem is, you go to church on sunday and you look around and percent of the people are plus...the young generation, like our daughter, she never goes to church...very few of the young ones come back...but it has to do with the older people, some of them, very few, are sticklers against the english language and they want to keep the german tradition which i personally think is wrong...why would you, a young person, come to a german congregation where the minister speaks english but with a big accent?...i think this is another problem in the long run. a german catholic interviewee echoed these sentiments explaining that comments made by her o'bryan ( ) reports that nationally, the percentage of second generation germans who are fluent in german is only . %. for third generation germans, the percentage fluent in german is %. son influenced the family's move to a non-german parish: my second son, he came thirteen years later than his brother, of course he went to church with us every sunday and then he wanted to become an altar boy but he said to me, 'mom, i don't want to be an altar boy in holy family church, i really don't understand what father is saying'. so then we switched to an english speaking parish in coquitlam...because we wanted to give him an upbringing in the church too and he should at least understand what he is talking about. this is when we went to holy family church for the special events but we went to the english speaking parish [on a regular basis]...it's wonderful to keep the ethnic group together but you have to reach out too, otherwise you are too narrow minded, you concentrate just on yourself and you don't want to reach out. f o r the most part the mennonite churches have been more successful than any other denomination i n keeping subsequent generations but even they have not been totally immune to the trend o f a decline i n the youthful church population. part o f the reason for the decline is the geographical movement o f the second generation to other parts o f the city but part o f the reason also lies i n the difficulty o f keeping children who feel distanced from their ethnic roots at a church that has little meaning for them. a s explained i n chapter three, fraserview m b church moved i n from the original german neighbourhood to a suburban location i n r i c h m o n d . this move allowed me to ask a question that could not be answered (except in theory), by any o f the other churches. i asked i f the church had been more successful i n keeping the second generation because it had moved to a location closer to where the second generation had also migrated. m o s t church leaders had previously attributed the loss o f the second generation to their migration out o f the city due to the cost o f housing. m y respondent told me that the second generation had not stayed at his church i n great numbers. he rejected the excuse that real estate was the only cause for departure. " c h i l d r e n left," he answered, "because we were so r i g i d . " one o f the lutheran church leaders shared a story about a family from one o f the other german lutheran churches. in this friend's family, while the second generation had remained at the f a m i l y ' s home church, the third generation chose to attend a 'canadian' church that was actually a longer drive for them because they simply could not identify w i t h their parents' german church: the third generation is there already, their son is in his s and he has a wife and kids. they've left the [german lutheran] church and drive from vancouver to richmond to another church because they didn't like the minister [at the german lutheran church]. he didn't offer too much in the english [language] and the kids didn't want to go because [the church] didn't speak proper english. they left that church about years ago to go to church in richmond and drive farther! [keeping the german and losing the next generation] is a problem. a s second and third generations o f families leave the ethnic churches, the core group o f young people is naturally a diminishing one. a d d i n g to their reasons for leaving, younger families find other churches that offer greater fellowship w i t h people o f their o w n age. a strong church w i t h a struggling youth group explained that families are no longer attracted to them because they cannot offer the kinds o f programs that other larger and younger churches can. h e explained: why do our young people [leave]? one single reason is there is not enough activity. we have a youth group but youth like to be with a lot of other youth not just or or kids. you go to willingdon [church] where there are or youth...that is what [families with kids] are looking for. c h u r c h decline becomes a downward spiral. families may leave because they cannot culturally identify w i t h the church o f their parents. they move away and there is little incentive to travel back to a church that worships i n a language they may understand but cannot communicate i n . without young families at the church it is tremendously difficult to attract other families and the congregation ages and approaches its uncertain future. a final description o f the loss o f successive generations is explained by a baptist church leader and brings the discussion to the next major factor influencing the ethnic church life cycle - neighbourhood change and the out- migration o f members from the geographic-ethnic community, " w e lost a lot o f the young adults. there were a couple o f things that happened, we started four other churches i n the greater vancouver area...so as a result when young couples got married and moved out to the suburbs, they went out to those churches." . m o v i n g o u t a n d m o v i n g in : n e i g h b o u r h o o d c h a n g e the term 'ethnikitis' was coined by wagner ( ) to describe the disease suffered by a neighbourhood church that is unsuccessfully dealing w i t h ethnic immigration/emigration. a church w i t h 'ethnikitis' is unable to adapt to its new neighbourhood reality to see the connection between the community o f the church and its geographic community. it is almost a certainty that what some o f the german churches are suffering from is a case o f 'ethnikitis.' here i want to talk about the impacts o f geographical change on the ethnic church. this is a tremendous issue for these churches and volumes o f quotations speak to this problem. there are two major factors that are changing both the local neighbourhood and i n turn, the church community. the first is the out-migration o f the original immigrants and the second generation from the traditional german neighbourhood (as was made evident i n chapter two). the result o f this out-migration is that the church undoubtably loses members though it may keep some thus becoming a dispersed congregation that travels back to the church from a l l over the greater vancouver area. the second factor is the in-migration o f new ethnic groups to the local community. these ethnic groups do not, unfortunately, easily fit into the existing german church communities. b u r k i n s h a w ( ) mentions the influence o f these two factors on the decline o f the baptist churches i n east vancouver: only part of the relative decline...stemmed from the upward mobility on the part of the second and third generations and their movement to the suburbs. much of it came from a major demographic shift in the overall population in major parts of the city as a result of immigration, especially from asia... (burkinshaw : ). these two factors have proven to be most serious because the churches have had difficulty determining h o w they are to deal w i t h these changes i n the social landscape. one pastor explains: the german churches in this area, the ethnic churches have gone through major struggles because they have never fully identified who they are and the demographics changed so rapidly and they have failed to identify their new mission field. who are we? where are we going? what is our mission field? these things were never articulated...i see that churches were always reactionary rather than [being proactive and] saying what is happening here or even what is god doing here? the two factors w i l l be discussed and elaborated upon as they have impacted the ten churches; indeed every church and every interviewee mentioned some aspect o f neighbourhood change as being a critical factor i n shaping the future plans o f the church. . . out-migration the fact that the majority o f the german churches began as neighbourhood churches has meant that the out-migration o f germans from the original neighbourhood has had more serious ramifications than w o u l d otherwise be experienced by a church that began w i t h a city-wide membership base. one church member from the oldest mennonite church explains: at the beginning, most people would move close to where the church was located generational changes are most commonly discussed in the literature and in many ways are a within group issue. a s a result the church sees generational conflict as something they have the power to control or manipulate. neighbourhood changes, on the other hand, are outside of the control of the church making them more difficult to deal with. because...a lot of them didn't have automobiles and [therefore] no [means of] transportation. but later on as they became more well-to-do they bought cars and so on and then they moved farther out away from the church. now of course people are living all over the place. driving sometimes quite a distance to church. that has really changed. m a p s o f the membership o f ebenezer baptist church i n (its peak year o f membership), and demonstrate both the very significant decline i n overall membership but also the suburbanization o f members (figure . a , b & c ) . the most obvious change displayed i n the maps is an enormous loss o f members in the postal district immediately surrounding the church. the total number o f members in this district declined from in to just i n and only i n . w h i l e there is not an enormous increase i n the number o f members travelling greater distances, there are members commuting in from white r o c k , surrey and delta i n and ; i n no members travelled from these southern vancouver regions. e v e n i n the younger churches the same phenomenon o f out-migration was experienced. a t st. m a r k ' s , most members settled "more or less i n vancouver or burnaby" but between and many church members moved to the outskirts o f the city. in the late s and early s, the churches experienced the first wave o f out-migration as the children o f the earlier ' immigrants and some o f the more recent immigrants moved to r i c h m o n d , surrey, c o q u i t l a m or the n o r t h shore. one previously very active church couple explained their first move out o f the city o f v a n c o u v e r to the suburbs: "as soon as you got established y o u wanted to get out o f the o l d house that y o u bought and y o u wanted a new one. this is why we moved to coquitlam. a n d this happened to most o f our families." w i t h the greater distance between their new home and the church, compounded by the fact that their children were less comfortable w i t h german than e n g l i s h , this couple lessened their ties to their parish, attending only for special occasions. figure . a : residential location of members of ebenezer baptist church, , by postal code district, vancouver total church membership = source: ebenezer c h u r c h directory, figure . ib: residential location of members of ebenezer baptist church, , by postal code district, vancouver total church membership = source: ebenezer c h u r c h directory, figure . c: residential location of members of ebenezer baptist church, , by postal code district, vancouver total church membership = source: ebenezer c h u r c h directory, another interviewee mentioned the same issue explaining that, " i f you[r family] moved...and i f y o u didn't teach your kids [german] then it was a hassle...why should i drive miles [to a german church] when i have an e n g l i s h speaking church around the corner. there was not the connection to the church as much." the result for some churches has been a total loss o f members but for others it has meant a shift from a neighbourhood church to one that attracts members from the city-wide region o f greater vancouver. one such city-wide church member explains that, "the people from our church do not necessarily live around our church. w e have people c o m i n g from r i c h m o n d , surrey, burnaby...we have someone l i v i n g way out at horseshoe b a y . so it is not necessarily that the members live around the church." in the mid- s a second out-migration continued to drain what was remaining o f the german church memberships as many o f the german immigrants and their children who had prolonged their stay i n the traditional german neighbourhood now moved even further afield to the fraser v a l l e y , particularly abbotsford and c h i l l i w a c k . one mennonite member explained, " n o w the majority, once they reach they move to the l o w e r m a i n l a n d , to abbotsford. there are two churches there that are bilingual (english and german)." it was surprising that close to h a l f o f the interviewees mentioned this more recent out-migration to abbotsford, w h i c h was referred to as ' g e r m a n heaven' by one interviewee. a lutheran church leader who is one o f the remaining members still l i v i n g close to his church discussed this second out-migration: we have a second problem, not only do people get old and depart from this world but a lot of them who have lived in the city of vancouver and burnaby, who have lived in comfortable houses, have come to retirement age. the kids are gone. the house is too big and they move to the valley...a lot of the older people do that, they move to abbotsford, langley, but most of them still come to our church. some of them as they get older cannot travel that far and there we are losing some of the people. the two waves o f out-migration i have described are not quite as clearly broken by the dates indicated. the suburban (but not ex-urban) migration has continuously impacted the church while the abbotsford migration is a more recent phenomenon o f the last twenty years. a final quotation from a leader at bethany (the church that has recently moved from vancouver to east richmond) explained his observation o f the moves made by bethany's members: in i mapped out where our people lived. [they were] right around the church and it was such a concentration that i couldn't even find enough pin holes. now that picture has changed very dramatically because the younger families have moved away from the city...to surrey and the outlying areas...the older people have stayed [in the church neighbourhood] until it was no longer possible for them to stay...the south vancouver scene has changed dramatically... the other churches have the same problem, the younger families move out of the city because it is not possible for them to afford to buy property in that area...have relocated and many churches have lost many members on account of that. [younger families] now live in their own communities and they have found a community church. herein lies the explanation o f the out-migration that was so pervasively given without any prompting on m y part; real estate was the unanimous factor explaining out-migration. f o r the first wave o f out-migrants, the search for new and bigger homes attracted germans to the suburbs; for young families it was the lower cost o f housing that permitted them to purchase a home they could not have otherwise afforded i n vancouver proper. a lutheran pastor explained that his church had only a few second generation members, this has its reason in the property prices and real estate in vancouver... a young family trying to build a house and buy a property have to move to surrey or port coquitlam...very few of them have remained in vancouver and even fewer still attend church services. there must have been a youth group of at least to members and most of them moved to the suburbs or disappeared never to be seen again which is sad really. another church leader explained the experience o f members o f his church: the older people were able to buy a house and pay it off [in abbotsford] and were able to capitalize on a very good price. [abbotsford] became a very good place to retire, put a little bit of money in the bank, cheaper housing... [out-migration] is still happening. not in the droves that it did. the younger generation get married and the price of housing is just formidable in vancouver when a lot is $ , and that's not even a house! so delta, surrey, langley, abbotsford, chilliwack, not as much chilliwack, those areas have benefited by many of the younger generation, [aged] and under. f o r the later out-migrants to the abbotsford and c h i l l i w a c k areas, it was the opportunity to cash i n on their property values i n vancouver that acted as incentive to initiate their moves to the fraser v a l l e y areas. the mennonite churches i n particular spoke to this issue: [our church membership]peaked at close to members probably or years ago. ever since the hong kong money started to make its presence known in vancouver it became very advantageous for people who had moved to... vancouver or years ago who purchased a house here for $ , maybe later at $ , , or $ , ?...all of a sudden they could sell it for $ , because of the asian money. it became very attractive...it became their retirement package because rrsps just weren't something that they had...many of them have relocated to abbotsford which has become a hub for the mennonite community to a great extent. despite the strong out-migration o f many german church members, many o f the interviewed churches are carrying on business as usual and for some, though out-migration has been significant, the willingness o f members to travel back to their home church has permitted their survival. . . in-migration the second factor o f neighbourhood change has had less o f a direct impact on the churches than the out-migration o f members. chapter two briefly mentioned the in-migration o f new immigrant/ethnic groups to the south vancouver neighbourhood that is still home to most o f the german ethnic churches. since the late s the presence o f east indian and a s i a n families has presented challenges to the german churches who are o f different minds on how to deal w i t h such neighbourhood change. the actual responses to such changes w i l l be discussed later i n this chapter; here i simply want to elaborate on the neighbourhood changes as presented by the interviewees. in the s and s, explained one couple, the population i n the south slope area o f vancouver was mainly o f european origin. the germans were concentrated around the fraser street area until the in-migration o f other ethnic groups among other factors influenced their out- migration: robson strasse (street) was almost entirely owned by german business people. they sold [their businesses] maybe in the early s and they closed their shops...now robson is [owned by] other [business people] and fraser street has changed also. there are a few people who still live in the neighbourhood maybe but not too many... i've heard many people say [that] all of a sudden they were surrounded by hindu people and chinese. they say this is not my neighbourhood, my environment. i prefer to move away from here. i mean there are lovely hindu or chinese people but [the germans] didn't want to be taken over by other groups. they always figured, fraser street, this is our territory. since it started to disintegrate now they've all gone to small towns... the sense o f being taken over as expressed here was not a unanimous experience but it was common. m o s t interviewees saw the disappearance o f the local german community as part o f a process o f natural neighbourhood succession. a baptist church leader gave a more elaborate explanation o f this: when we (the germans) arrived here the people on the south slope ofvancouver wondered what hit them because we invaded their community... drove a lot of them all away. all the british people who were there left it to the germans and now all the punjabis and chinese and koreans come along and of course we feel a little threatened. like we are being forced out but i think we have to keep it in context. we ourselves were there at one time and there were people here who made us feel comfortable and now we need to do the same for the people who are coming now. the way that the changes i n the neighbourhood are perceived o f course is reflected i n how the churches reacted to the in-migration o f these other ethnic groups. the church leader quoted above is a member o f a church that is trying to make new community members feel welcome i n the church. tsang ( ) speaks o f the influence o f local changes i n the social and economic culture on the church. she argues that, "the church i n a changing neighbourhood is faced w i t h new challenges and new m i s s i o n " but that, "many churches i n urban communities have failed to plan for a positive and orderly transition because they don't want to face the fact that things are no longer the same" ( ). a s a result, she sees churches becoming, "stagnant, passive and insensitive to the changes i n the community" ( ). some churches resist while others resent changes i n their community. they try to defend themselves from behind fortress walls but are eventually forced to die or sell their church building. one church leader used this same fortress metaphor to explain his congregation's reaction to neighbourhood change. h e said that, what happened [is that] the immigrant churches went through an intense emotional fear [about] what was happening in our community... 'we don't understand it.' our children are now gone and our community is changing so much and even if we tried to cluster around our fortress we won't succeed. this is where there was a sense of panic and loss of identity and mission mentality. this church is n o w trying to move out o f the arena o f fear and into the more positive m i n d set presented by tsang. she explained that while some churches have had difficulty dealing w i t h neighbourhood transition, others who have "recognized the spiritual significance o f immigration" have been able to discern other options to define a "clear and renewed v i s i o n " (tsang : ). it is clear that both the out-migration o f members and the in-migration o f new ethnic groups have been major factors o f change and it is also evident that to a greater or lesser degree, each o f the ten german churches are trying to assess their own standing i n the new neighbourhood. one mennonite church leader maintained that the out-migration o f church members had still affected the church more than the in-migration o f new groups. h i s church now has a f i l i p i n o family attending but has no chinese members; "we have had chinese visitors but no chinese [members] and they are the most numerous [in the neighbourhood]. n o east indians [members] either. but we have spanish and peruvian but they don't live i n the neighbourhood." a s a final example, after explaining the move o f many o f the church's ' k i d s ' to the outlying areas because o f real estate prices, a church leader whose church has not walled itself i n explained that, "the mission o f your city church has to change...you adapt to that change and y o u reach out to the community and i n our case the area is chinese and east indian." unfortunately adapting to change is easier said than done and it is a real challenge for churches to attempt to reach new cultures so foreign to their own. one baptist pastor said that there were many attempts by the church to reach the new community but language became a significant barrier as the church's surrounding community was chinese and east indian. a t bethany, the church that moved just this year, the decision was that "the best gift that we could give the community was to get out o f the way and let those who could most naturally reach this community do it." before going much further into discussing how the churches have dealt w i t h their changing environments there are a few other factors w h i c h have contributed to both the maintenance and loss o f german culture i n the church and the process, for most churches, o f gradually lessening german identity. . s e c o n d a r y f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g g e r m a n c u l t u r e in t h e c h u r c h in addition to generational issues and neighbourhood change, several secondary factors have influenced the diminishment o f culture i n the german churches. chapters two and five discussed the influence o f the first and second w o r l d wars on the church and its members; coburn ( ) concedes that the wars were the most significant events influencing the assimilation o f germans into a m e r i c a n culture and hence discouraging the persistence o f the ethnic church. there is little doubt that the process o f self-selection also hindered the persistence o f the german ethnic church i n connection with these events as many german immigrants chose not to be affiliated w i t h either the ethnic church or any religious group at a l l . immigrants who chose to attend the ethnic church separated themselves from the mainstream i n their religious life. a lutheran church leader explains, " i f i as an immigrant were to go to...a canadian lutheran church, i w o u l d have to apply m y s e l f i n canadian culture. that's different. w e are strictly an immigrant congregation and we choose to be a german group." special census statistics from lend evidence to the important issue o f self-selection suggesting a large number o f german born immigrants now attend non-ethnic churches (see chapter three). in g u m p p ' s ( ) discussion o f the german community i n vancouver she too discussed the choice o f many german immigrants to attend non-ethnic or 'canadian' churches, or not to attend at a l l : large sections of nominal believers among the german immigrant cohort did not seek religious guidance after their arrival in canada...dwindling fluency in the ethnic tongue, exogamy, and other aspects of assimilation led many germans to join mainstream religious institutions such as the united church of canada. this religious acculturation and integration again reduced the distinctiveness of german immigrants and encouraged their interaction with non-germans (gumpp : - ). a third factor influencing german culture i n the churches has been the f l o w and supply o f new german immigrants to refresh and revive old german customs and heritage i n the church. a s m u l l i n s discussed i n the context o f japanese immigration, "without new immigrants to replenish the ethnic membership base, the probable end o f the minority church life-cycle appears to be either organizational dissolution or transformation into a multi-ethnic church" ( m u l l i n s : ). f r o m the late s to the early s the large numbers o f german immigrants brought w i t h them a pure german language that was o f enormous benefit to the german churches as recent immigrants infused new life and perpetuated german traditions. in particular, the mennonite churches who received south a m e r i c a n german immigrants seem to have kept their german language and traditions much longer despite one being the oldest m b church. one church leader explained, as the oldest church you would imagine that it would have changed first...for some reason during the s or so there was such an influx from south america and they were all german speaking and they joined our church. you know if you have a young [german] couple then the german language is being maintained and kept for a longer period of time. but now of course the [german] group is not getting any larger and some of those young couples have gone back [to south america] and others have more readily switched over to the english. churches that d i d not experience the continuous inflow o f immigrants slowly moved to become less and less german. in the case o f the baptist churches, immigrants who came and found the ' g e r m a n ' churches to be 'not pure enough' started their o w n churches until they too became less ' g e r m a n . ' a member o f the oldest baptist church explained, you had one church leaving another church because this church was now english... then after two generations they went through the same procedure and they became english and those who wanted german started another church... the only thing that kept it going was consistent flow of immigrants that kept people coming. now that the immigration has stopped and you don't see that anymore [and] in years there will be no german church. the fourth factor influencing the continuation o f german i n the churches has been the attitude o f church leaders and members to language transition from german to e n g l i s h . the stages o f language transition are common to almost every non-english speaking church. the gradual inclusion o f e n g l i s h into church activities follows a quite natural pattern: first...the pastor found it necessary to perform occasional weddings or christenings in english; next he added an extra, english-language sunday school class. since the children learned english quickly in public schools and on the streets, the parish soon found itself with an all-english sunday school and occasional english worship services. eventually the english-language services became a regular sunday feature, scheduled at a more convenient time than the german services, which were attended largely by older people. at long last, the parish would be entirely english (kantowicz : ). the precise process o f m o v i n g toward a main worship service i n e n g l i s h and a secondary service i n german may be slightly different but i n most churches it is relatively similar to k a n t o w i c z ' s description above. what does separate the churches, however, is their reaction and attitude toward this process. where some churches quite congenially accept the process and inclusion o f e n g l i s h as a natural phenomenon necessary i f young people are to be included i n church life, other churches oftentimes violently oppose any decisions to slip away from the german language. in most cases it is those churches who oppose the use o f e n g l i s h who temporarily remain strong but whose futures remain misguided. after a l l , church members and german speakers only get older. a church leader from one such church explained, we made one mistake. we did not start speaking english in our meetings early enough. it was mostly german and our kids hesitated to speak because they couldn't speak perfectly. we switched over [to english] in the s but then our children were already , . churches who began their transition to e n g l i s h too late have suffered by putting themselves i n situations o f playing catch-up rather than being proactive i n keeping their future generations: we have tried english services...we had three or four or five people and then it was given up on... the next year we tried again but it never worked for any length of time. so we started sunday school in english... we were always conscious that the young people needed english but the main service just never got started...[but] a lot of people thought sunday school was a german school rather than english. a s a result o f their lack o f success this church has really suffered huge membership losses. o n the other hand, those churches who dealt w i t h language transition i n a more open-spirited manner have been able to successfully evolve into primarily e n g l i s h congregations with associated german worship services. w h e n i asked a leader o f such a church i f language had been a problematic issue, he responded: we never really, as far as i remember, had that problem when we switched over to [english]... there were some people who were disgruntled about it but it kind of settled you know and they learned to accept it. i don't think we had people leaving [the church] because of it. not that i'm aware of some were not too happy about it but they learned to accept it and then eventually they could see that this is how it had to be. a leader from the same church compared his congregation's attitude to another church that still struggles w i t h conflicts over language-use: [we] had accepted, i believe right from the outset, that we are going to minister in two languages and language is not going to be a problem. where [the other church] started out to be german only, and 'german' was spelled with a capital "g". it was very very important to them and the early beginnings were very difficult. the loss o f one's mother tongue as the primary language o f worship is understandably a difficult p i l l to swallow. discussions o f language'transition were never easy and though it was not always acrimonious, the process was lengthy and tensions inevitably and ultimately had to be dealt w i t h and moved beyond. the final factor influencing the persistence o f german culture w i t h i n the church has been that o f marriage either w i t h i n the german community or outside o f the ethnic group. several interviewees mentioned that they had met their husband or wife i n the church and/or through youth group activities. some even suggested that most o f their friends met their husbands and wives at the church and this in turn impacted the church's ability to reproduce its culture i n the next generation. n o interviewees spoke to this issue but several mentioned the impact o f increasing intermarriage outside o f the ethnic group. a mennonite church leader explained, people intermarrying with others... that has changed. that was something that was very rare when we first came to vancouver. or even back in our [mennonite] communities, well anywhere in the prairies or vancouver. it is very seldom that a mennonite would marry somebody from another church. that has really really changed. now i'd say almost half our young people, maybe more, intermarry with others because they get together more. they go to the same schools, they have events where they get together with other young people from other churches. intermarriage w i t h other ethnic groups has been another reason for the loss o f younger families. w h e n one partner has no connection to or understanding o f the german language there is little reason for them to stay at a german church i f they choose to attend church at a l l . intermarriage was one o f the main reasons that one baptist church made the transition to e n g l i s h when it did. the pastor explained, there were some young people who were born in this country and they married english speaking partners and then the church had to make a decision. are we going to just let them go or are we going to provide for them and their spiritual needs? it was very wisely decided that we were going to be open to english speaking people and that was never a real conflict in the church, that's why they felt at home even though they were a small minority. w i t h a l l o f these factors influencing the loss o f german culture, what are the churches doing to survive and adapt to their new landscapes, environments and communities? what does the literature suggest are the options for the church to move out o f the ethnic model? what have the ten churches i n fact done to sustain themselves and plan for their futures? . n e w f a c e s ? : r e s p o n s e s t o c h a n g e after reflecting on a l l o f these factors impacting the german churches the bottom line is that i f churches want to survive, thrive and fulfil their christian mission they must respond to these changes. responding need not mean a total loss o f culture. in some cases, self-evaluation may miss some o f the cultural traits that remain even when congregations believe they have left them behind. a s warner explains, even the most acculturated o f religious communities still bear some signs o f their heritage, " i n the hymns they sing, the languages they pray i n , the special garments their members wear [or] the architecture o f the buildings they worship i n " (warner ). a t some point there must come a time when the past is left as history and the church embraces a new future. one o f the pastors i interviewed called the point at w h i c h this decision is made the event o f the 'cultural funeral.' h e explained that this was a time, when you bury the past. you honour it, you eulogize it, you help it find its place in history and in memory. but when the funeral is done you go on. there is some who have done a very gracious funeral but have moved on. there are some whose whole ministry is a lingering funeral. churches located i n the heart o f new ethnic subcultures need to be able to re-define themselves and as was discussed i n the context o f the attitudes toward language transition, the approach to change is critical. kawano argues that i f congregations cannot see, "the growing diversity o f [their] community and neighbourhood, and i f [their] systems and structures cannot respond appropriately, then the society w i l l find other systems and structures to respond to its growing diversity" (kawano : ). a lack o f response by the church puts it i n a gradually weakening position to gain acceptance into the new communities. in b u r k i n s h a w ' s review o f the evangelical church movement i n the l o w e r m a i n l a n d he observed that for churches that did change, there were "significant dividends, i n the form o f extremely rapid growth, to formerly ethnically based denominations" (burkinshaw : ). b u t the means by w h i c h most o f these churches achieved their growth was through emphasizing assimilation o f new members from outside o f the original ethnic group. these churches d i d not embrace the ideal o f a multi-cultural congregation that w o u l d accept members because o f their faith without forcing changes i n their cultural practices. some o f the churches who are just now beginning to make changes to become multi-cultural congregations are consciously trying to avoid becoming assimilating institutions. others are less decided, instead choosing to become ' c a n a d i a n ' churches, however those may be defined. tsang ( : ) has identified four options for churches whose congregations are largely commuter based and whose outreach into the neighbourhood is either small or non- existent; a perfect description o f most o f the german churches i n the s. the choices the churches have are as follows: ) remain status-quo - "it may decide to remain and minister to its constituency without community outreach. it may draw a few new members that are o f similar racial and economic backgrounds." ) remain status-quo doing some outreach - "[the church may] try various outreach programs while retaining a basic commuter orientation. however it is difficult to hold commuters and when they start dropping out, the church w i l l decline i n membership." ) move to members - "the church may simply choose to move out to where the members live and abandon the original location. the church may sell the property, hopefully to a church that can minister to the community." ) rebuild as a neighbourhood church - "perhaps the most radical [option is to build] a congregation w h i c h decides to identify with, communicate with, and relate christ neighbour to neighbour." i have given each option a name but the quotation/description comes from tsang. examples o f each o f these four options can be found in the ten case study churches. in general, the three lutheran churches have chosen the first option and remain german churches w i t h no outreach to any other ethnic groups. several o f the baptist and mennonite churches have chosen the second and fourth options; it is difficult to judge precisely as options two and four lie along a continuum. the third option has been adopted by bethany baptist and i n the late s was selected by fraserview m b but it has also been considered by several other congregations. w h e n ebenezer found itself i n a struggle for re-definition itself it considered the option o f m o v i n g to a new location. one member explained the situation: there was a time, iforget what year it was, that they wanted to move. to sell our church and move elsewhere where there was less chinese and other ethnic groups you know. but then the majority lived around here and they were getting up in years, well how are we going to get there?... when they move elsewhere how are the older folks going to go? they don't drive anymore. o b v i o u s l y the issue o f distance became a problem but the church had pastors who were not committed to the community and who did not see the option o f staying and ministering to the local community as a viable one. a senior leader explained, we had three pastors who decided that we shouldn't be there anymore and they said we can't minister to this community so we need to move... we (the congregation) said no, we can do better than that. we can have chinese pastors and punjabi pastors who will share the gospel to them right here. we send all kinds of missionaries overseas to do the same thing so why can't we have those same people here ministering to the people who are right around our doors? that has been our philosophy at ebenezer to provide services and ministries to the people that they can use. ebenezer is still dedicated to the attitude that it adopted at that time i n the s. the philosophy o f the pastors who left is common i n ethnic churches fleeing a changing neighbourhood. traditionally church mission has been viewed only i n the international arena so the idea that the church is to reach unchurched members i n its immediate neighbourhood is an unfamiliar concept (bakke ). kawano ( ) concedes that when people from other countries come to canada, host churches becomes confused about how to react. they are unable or u n w i l l i n g , he says, to cross ethno-cultural barriers. so too for those german churches who chose the fourth option, the challenge has been and remains immense. a c c o r d i n g to tsang and kawano, however, the fourth option is the best. k a w a n o uses the example o f a new immigrant group moving into an a n g l o - s a x o n neighbourhood to present the options open to local churches. h i s example may also be easily extended to describe the situation o f the german churches: when an anglo-saxon neighbourhood changes through the influx of immigrating peoples, the anglo parish perceives that evangelism in the immediate area is no longer possible. the people who were historically drawn to the local parish no longer live nearby. this is an old phenomenon in north america. the church becomes a little english-speaking ghetto in an immigrant community. eventually, that congregation faces tough choices. it can withdraw to the suburbs. it can continue its struggle. it may amalgamate with another parish in a similar situation. or it may simply die. there is one other alternative. it can make strenuous and super human efforts to reach out to the new peoples about itself (kawano : ). the options presented by kawano are similar to tsang's. he adds the option to amalgamate w i t h another congregation i n a similar situation w h i c h is what the oakridge lutheran church is l o o k i n g to do. clearly, however, kawano presents the alternative o f reaching out to the new community as the preferred option. unfortunately the next step to "make super human efforts to reach out to the new peoples" is where most churches have difficulty. in the case o f the german churches, the new neighbours are not e n g l i s h speakers and are not from culturally christian states; attracting interest is almost a monumental task. one church leader explained some o f his church's attempts at reaching the new community: we've tried just about everything. we've sent out flyers through the mail. we've had bbqs on our front parking lot for the community...you get a few families to that...because our customs are quite different they come once or twice to see what's happening and then they usually don't come back. the biggest success has been with the younger generation, the second and third generation [of new immigrants]. but we've called door-to-door. we've canvassed our neighbourhood within about a two kilometre radius but without much success. people are all very polite, they'll listen to what you say but most of them never come [to our church]. the problem is that new people are invited into a church that is designed to meet the needs o f its members. in this case, to come to a ' g e r m a n ' church, even i f the language o f worship is e n g l i s h . to address this problem a church must become culturally sensitive to the new ethnic communities it is attempting to reach. it must intentionally strip away everything that may be a barrier to interested seekers. . o p t i o n a l m o d e l s t o r e - b u i l d t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d c h u r c h i f churches do seek to follow this option there are models w h i c h can be assessed and followed to help the churches emerge from their ethnic base. tsang ( : - ) has identified three such models and while some o f the german churches fit into her characterizations there are problems w i t h each suggested solution. the assimilationist model involves hiring an ethnic minister onto the church staff to focus outreach to one or more o f the ethnic groups in the church neighbourhood. the goal is to integrate members o f the new ethnic groups who are likely (but not necessarily) o f similar socio- economic status as the majority o f the congregation. the church, while eventually desiring one 'integrate' is tsang's word choice. in the definitions i have presented i would use 'assimilate' here. the difference in meaning is important enough to require differentiation. community, w o u l d a l l o w for or encourage smaller groups to meet the specific needs o f the particular ethnic group. the obvious danger o f this model is its tendency to become paternalistic and homogenizing. the second model involves temporary sponsorship wherein a congregation uses its o w n resources to minister to neighbourhood ethnic groups. in turn it helps them to establish their o w n congregation by supporting the new church. the host church allows the new church to use its facilities and hosts provide some organizational structure while a l l o w i n g the church to retain its autonomy. the final model is called the multi-congregational model and is similar to the multi-language cluster church model presented i n chapter three. w i t h i n this framework, independent congregations share the same church building and contribute equally i n terms o f finances, ministry and governance. it has the advantage o f allowing congregational freedom while witnessing to a number o f ethnic/linguistic groups i n the community. in the model suggested by tsang, each o f the multiple congregations holds equal power. i w o u l d suggest however, that there are i n fact two types o f multi-congregational churches: balanced and unbalanced. a n example o f a balanced model is the german lutheran church at oakridge prior to (when the icelandic and lutheran congregations merged). initially the two congregations shared equal power with balanced memberships on boards and committees. u s i n g the same term - the multi-congregational church - c o n n ( ) further explains what i w o u l d term a 'balanced' multi-congregational church: in this model, two or more ethnic churches, not simply individuals, are joined together under the umbrella of a single church...the model centres around ethnic churches often using separate languages but within a single church. much more than just sharing a common building, this model requires a common church membership roll, joint planning and programming, a common budget and, on regular occasions, common worship. but they also retain their own distinctness as an ethnic fellowship within the one fellowship. a joint pastoral ministry team includes pastors from each of the ethnic churches that make up the one church ( ). the unbalanced multi-congregational model is much more common and is characterized by churches w i t h one large congregation (usually e n g l i s h speaking) and one or more smaller congregations o f other linguistic groups. these congregations have a relationship that mutually extends the work o f both o f their groups. separate from the multi-congregational model is the landlord-tenant model whereby ethnic congregations simply rent space from a landlord congregation. the landlord keeps the church operating at a financial level, partially by means o f rent charged to the tenant congregation. there is little communication between the congregations. posterski and barker ( ) speak o f the prevalence o f multi-congregational arrangements but the examples they give are more likely to be o f landlord-tenant relationships than actual multi-congregational arrangements: from coast to coast, but particularly in our major cities, local churches from every denomination share their buildings with ethnic-based congregations. church signs in multiple languages are a common sight across the country. in fact, if it were not for the growth and multiplication of chinese, korean, vietnamese, portuguese and other ethnic churches, denominational increases would be fewer and declines would be much more severe than the present pattern (posterski & barker : ). several o f the ten case study churches demonstrate the model o f an unbalanced m u l t i - congregational church as a means o f i n v o l v i n g new ethnic groups i n church activities. generally speaking i f the ethnic church shares the same denominational affiliation, the relationship is l i k e l y more than landlord-tenant; i f now, the relationship is primarily financial. c u l l o d e n m b shares its building w i t h a greek congregation while it has a landlord-tenant relationship w i t h its vietnamese group; fraserview m b is the landlord o f a chinese baptist church; the vancouver m b church used to rent space to a vietnamese congregation and now has a spanish congregation holding services i n its building; h o l y f a m i l y church is now home to a spanish national parish that contributes financially to the operation o f the church; for a few years the german lutheran c h u r c h at oakridge rented its facilities to a chinese church but after conflicts over church use it no longer does so; for short periods o f time bethany baptist was rented to an a f r i c a n f e l l o w s h i p group and east indian christian group; ebenezer rents space to a chinese congregation and, i n the previous model o f temporary sponsorship (and perhaps in the future as a m u l t i - congregational example) has begun a ministry w i t h a punjabi pastor among the east indian immigrants i n its neighbourhood. a final model w h i c h must be added is the multicultural church w h i c h is advocated by tsang but not articulated as a model. the multicultural church model was presented i n chapter three as an ethnographic model but is appropriate for mention here as an option for churches l o o k i n g to change their ethnic balance. the multicultural church requires that more than one ethnic group be represented i n one congregation. the basic principle is that there are no structural or organizational divisions or barriers w h i c h separate groups into individual congregations. one vancouver church w h i c h began as a b r i t i s h ethnic church i n kerrisdale/oakridge on the city's west side is an example o f such a model. in this congregation one-third o f the attendees are o f chinese origin, one-third are 'canadian' (mainly o f b r i t i s h origin), and one-third are f i l i p i n o ; many other members represent other ethnic groups and i n total, over twenty-seven nationalities are represented. this church has successfully adapted to neighbourhood changes but is constantly challenged by its new demographic circumstances w h i c h require constant re-evaluation. t o elaborate on some o f the successful stories o f adaptation to the new neighbourhood by the german churches i w i l l review some o f the new activities and programs at the churches that have chosen to f o l l o w options other than the status quo (as presented by tsang). before getting to the current situations it is important to note that, though the models outlined above can be successful (particularly the last three) they do not always work; multiple congregation arrangements can lead to tensions over the use o f the building and conflicts i n management. o n the other hand, f o l l o w i n g the suggested models can also result i n positive and unexpected opportunities arising. in ebenezer's case, the relationship with the chinese congregation using the facilities downstairs has become more than landlord-tenant now that some o f the e n g l i s h - speaking chinese children attend the e n g l i s h sunday school program taught by teachers o f the church's main congregation. a church leader explains, we've had a number ofpeople from the faith [chinese] church downstairs, they still speak in mandarin there, they've joined our sunday school classes because they say, 'we want our kids to learn english' so they're coming to our sunday school classes so they can learn english. once those kids spend or years with us in the english class they won't go back to the mandarin because % of their involvement during the week will be in english. t h i s is just one example o f the opportunities presented by the multi-congregational model when there is a willingness and desire to reach beyond the german ethnic group. . s u c c e s s f u l ' a d a p t i n g ' s t r a t e g i e s o f c a s e s t u d y c h u r c h e s s i x o f the ten case study churches have made earnest attempts to adapt to their changing neighbourhoods i n some shape or form. m o s t have done so through childrens' or youth ministries, reaching the canadian-born children o f immigrant parents from a wide range o f ethnic backgrounds. ebenezer, immanuel, fraserview, culloden, and vancouver m b a l l have some k i n d o f children and/or youth ministry that now includes a high proportion o f children o f east indian or chinese background. immanuel and ebenezer have also been able to attract immigrant parents themselves, the former through an e n g l i s h as a second language program and the later through the church's ministry to the punjabi people. it is important to stress h o w difficult it has been for these churches to reach out to their 'unchurched' neighbours. initially it was a challenge for church leaders or pastors to convince the church community that there were areas o f need i n the community that the church could play a role i n fulfilling. the reality o f trying to communicate and attract participants has presented a second challenge. m o s t o f the german churches do not operate programs that specifically target new immigrants though such programs might enhance their neighbourhood connections and presence. churches who want to reach out to new immigrants must find some means by w h i c h to connect w i t h them, either through a church member who may have befriended a new immigrant neighbour or though some k i n d o f institutional connection like the immigrant services society. s i m p l y organizing a program without having the connections to the targeted community w i l l l i k e l y result in few interested participants. the churches who have for several years now been presenting programs and opportunities to their neighbourhood community (generally the children i n the neighbourhood) are now beginning to see the fruit o f their labour and god's love. a b o u t ten years ago, ebenezer b a p t i s t made the decision not to relocate to a new area o f greater vancouver. a t that time it was faced with the option o f either relocating or changing its ministry focus. the decision to stay in their current home resulted i n the departure o f the three church pastors who said that i f the church did not want to move, they would. a s new pastors were hired they were brought on with the understanding that the church wanted to focus on its local community. the current pastor i n particular has embraced the v i s i o n o f the church. one leader explained his position and the result o f the efforts o f the church to reach the community: [our current pastor], that is exactly where his heart is at, to minister to the people. it doesn't matter what nationality, what colour, anybody with a need. his philosophy is that if the church is meeting the needs of the people physically, emotionally, spiritually, then the people will come. and they are starting to come. a s discussed earlier, ebenezer houses two other congregations. faith chinese baptist church is an independent baptist congregation affiliated w i t h the same denominational body as ebenezer's m a i n congregation but is separate from them i n their administrative and leadership structures. it has been at ebenezer for over twelve years. the second congregation is a punjabi fellowship group that is more intimately connected w i t h the main congregation. the punjabi group has been meeting for two years; their small group participates more regularly i n church congregational dinners and events. though these congregations are divided by barriers o f language they do plan events together: we have functions together where we are together, our church, the chinese church and the punjabi church. we respect each others' cultures and traditions but being a church there is one thing that binds you together and that is our beliefs...of course our common beliefs really enhance us and makes something that could be very negative, very positive. one elderly interviewee told me about some o f the pot-luck dinners she has attended: "...the punjabs bring some o f their food and it's put a l l on the table. w e have [these] suppers occasionally and we invite the punjabs and also the chinese downstairs...that's one thing we do enjoy, the dinners together. it's okay!" in addition to dinners together, the congregations are now becoming increasingly more connected through the children o f the east indian and chinese congregations who participate in the sunday school o f the main congregation. one member explained, the original immigrants from china and hong kong and from india, the first generation [keep]pretty much to themselves. but their kids and their grandkids now want to be part of the english community... [they] usually start in kids' club... we have some teeners who are ethnic, and in our young adults club, some of those are ethnic... just last sunday we had a new families luncheon and there were people...and probably two-thirds of them were ethnic just from our own community. in the last five or six years, one member explained, the church has become much more community oriented. their k i d s ' club now has between and children attending each week for crafts, woodworking, sports activities and, once a year, a trip to camp. recently the church hired a christian education minister to focus on the non-caucasian families i n the community. h i s work w i l l involve contacting the families o f the children who attend the k i d s ' c l u b program. ebenezer has made some exciting contacts w i t h its new community but it must be careful to avoid an attitude o f paternalism and assimilation. the development o f close relationships w i t h new members as w e l l as the involvement o f new members i n positions o f leadership w i l l help to mitigate against the church's development into the a s s i m i l a t i o n model described above. b e t h a n y b a p t i s t has recently relocated and because o f that they are really i n a transition phase o f trying to re-establish themselves. in terms o f programs they are probably one o f the least active but only because they are just finishing building facilities at their new home; w i t h i n a few months they w i l l l i k e l y have a great deal more going on. bethany o f course still has a german service but it is certainly not the centre o f the long term v i s i o n o f the church. it has made a commitment to continue the german worship service for as long as it is needed but it w i l l not be 'artificially prolonged' as one member articulated. the church sees its mission field both i n the greater vancouver area, i n the 'neighbourhoods' it holds a presence i n , but also i n the immediate neighbourhood around the church w h i c h is newly developed and not served by any other church congregation. l i k e its old home, the community it has moved to is also heavily populated w i t h chinese and east indian people. u n l i k e ebenezer, however, bethany has made a "dedicated commitmerit...not to be a mosaic o f ethnic ministries but to be a composite...to be a canadian ministry." this has been a conscious decision o f the church and as was explained, there are churches that approach the ethnic issue in a completely different way. they see themselves as a composite of different congregations so they have a spanish congregation or a hong kong congregation and somehow they share space... [those churches] work in some cases. but for us we say we are a canadian congregation and that is our primary ground on which we all meet. w i t h i n this new context it w i l l be interesting to see how the church proceeds w i t h fulfilling its mission w i t h a 'canadian' identity. i m m a n u e l b a p t i s t has only recently emerged from some very strong and intense within- congregation conflicts over language issues and the future o f the congregation. a number o f factors played into the conflicts: immanuel's congregation was shrinking; bethany had made the decision to sell their building and relocate; immanuel is a daughter congregation o f bethany and some members felt it was appropriate for immanuel to also sell its building and j o i n bethany in their new project. h a l f o f the congregation was i n favour o f selling and j o i n i n g bethany but half were adamantly opposed to it, seeing themselves as a completely separate church u n w i l l i n g to simply close down and j o i n bethany. bethany was not open to the idea o f merging congregations but they were happy to accept immanuel's members into their family. the result was that members did leave immanuel and j o i n bethany . n o w out o f this conflict, immanuel is just beginning to organize new programs like family nights, after-school clubs and summer kids programs. several years ago the church actually closed its sunday school program because there were virtually no children attending. n o w the kids programs are attended by for several years the german congregations at bethany and immanuel have worshipped together, alternating buildings every two months. the german pastor who ministered to the joint congregation is associated with bethany. most of the members who left immanuel to join bethany went because they felt at home with bethany's german congregation after worshipping with them for several years. chinese children from the neighbourhood; its summer d a i l y vacation b i b l e school program has attracted over children, % o f w h o m are chinese. the church also started an e n g l i s h as a second language program about four years ago through contacts w i t h the chinese immigrant services society ( s . u . c . c . e . s . s . ) . that program initiated the church's contact w i t h chinese people i n the neighbourhood. immanuel is making a slow transition to become a multicultural church. it is still l o o k i n g and experimenting w i t h ways to do cross-cultural ministry to successfully make its transition. v a n c o u v e r m b c h u r c h is currently dealing with finding a new pastor to serve both its original german congregation as w e l l as its main e n g l i s h congregation. l i k e several o f the other churches, it too has made the recent decision to focus its ministry and outreach on its local neighbourhood. one member described this decision and the challenges involved i n reaching it: well for a long time i don't think we had a clear vision of reaching into the neighbourhood...somehow maybe it was a feeling that each one should stick with his own. but if you obey the lord's command you are supposed to go and make disciples of all nations. so these last years it has been emphasized more and more that we have to reach into the neighbourhood because mission starts at home... we are already multicultural in our church. i mean we are still classified as mennonites but there are different cultures [represented]. what this member describes is the beginnings o f a multicultural congregation that does not necessarily represent the church's immediate chinese and east indian neighbourhood but it is more than just a mono-ethnic german church. activities with local high school students have been initiated by the church's youth pastor as w e l l as summer programs for children, a large number o f w h o m come from the neighbourhood. vancouver m b is beginning to move i n the multicultural church direction. f r a s e r v i e w m b c h u r c h has also opened its doors to neighbourhood youth w i t h a drop- i n centre on friday nights as w e l l as a ' k i d ' s c l u b ' program and sports activities two or three afternoons a week. f o r the most part fraserview, like most others, is still very much a ' w h i t e ' congregation. a s one interviewee explained, the youth and children's activities do not reflect the sunday morning crowd: "in no way ethnically do any o f [these kids/youth] programs reflect our sunday morning crowd...these are canadian-born chinese and east indian kids who live i n the neighbourhood." fraserview has adapted an attitude o f servanthood, seeking to serve the community, "whether or not they buy our faith." the church leadership believes that it is important to communicate to its community that it wants to be a "citizen on the street." it w i l l be through the neighbourhood youth and children that they w i l l hopefully gain a greater presence i n their community. c u l l o d e n m b c h u r c h has traditionally concentrated their efforts on reaching the non- christian family members o f church goers; this was the range o f the church's mission field. a s the local neighbourhood has changed and members have moved to the fraser v a l l e y , the church has made new attempts to reach its community through new ministries: in the last... years or so there have been concerted efforts to reach out through club ministry...girls and boys club, midweek ministries and some of our college and career people have really embraced ministry into culloden court ... the people there are low income, multiracial, and multiethnic by and large...[there are] just a whole host of different family needs...people with aids, people who are single moms with small children... all kinds of difficult arrangements...our boys club program at the church runs [with] about half of the kids from the neighbourhood. when i say in the neighbourhood it also means non-white as a rule. the girls club has up to % from the neighbourhood. culloden court is a social housing project located adjacent to the church. while it is not connected to the church it has become a focus of ministry by several of the young adult church members who have made particular efforts to invite residents to church activities. as an interesting note, one church leader told me that since church members have developed relationships with culloden court residents, vandalism which used to be quite frequently experienced by the church, has ceased. the mid-week youth group now has an attendance averaging around to teenagers. a b o u t one-third are the children/teens o f church members and the remaining two-thirds are from the neighbourhood. these neighbourhood youth are not traditional church members and it is understandable that the senior church elders have expressed hesitation w i t h respect to the direction that some o f the younger church members and staff have taken. one interviewee explained that the youth group now includes, kids that are involved in street gangs in some cases. kids who are struggling in school or have dropped out... there is a whole host of different kids. you have portuguese background, you have spanish background you have east indian, you have [kids] from africa, chinese [background]...just a hodgepodge...we've had kids come here with smoke bombs, with drugs, and part of gangs, checking it out and saying 'this is cool, i think i'll come back' and then two hours later involved in a shooting incident where they've been shot...just two blocks away. that's the kind of neighbourhood [we are in and] that has changed dramatically from when the church was first built. c u l l o d e n ' s situation is a particular one, in part because its very immediate neighbourhood has changed so drastically. the other four churches, the three lutheran churches and the catholic parish have made few or no attempts to minister to new ethnic neighbours. the catholic parish is somewhat o f an exception as it appears to be winding down its german ministry. the bishop instead is encouraging the efforts to b u i l d up the growing spanish congregation w h i c h w i l l l i k e l y take over the church. the spanish congregation has its o w n priests and is not really connected to the german congregation at a l l . none o f the german lutheran churches have any programs for new immigrants or even second generation immigrants o f the new ethnic groups. one interviewee suggested that part o f the reason was that his church saw the needs o f new immigrants being met by, for example ethnic chinese congregations. w h i l e this may be the case, the future o f the lutheran churches is a much more uncertain one without a large cohort o f young members to take on the necessary leadership roles and financial responsibilities. . c o n c l u s i o n s a l l churches are subjected to changes that affect their growth and decline. ethnic churches that begin w i t h a neighbourhood-based congregation are particularly vulnerable to ethnic transition i n the immediate district and generational aging. the ten case study churches are excellent examples o f institutions that have been seriously impacted by a second generation that has often chosen not to be affiliated w i t h the immigrant church their parents attended as w e l l as institutions located i n neighbourhoods that are no longer german. earlier a pastor referred to the idea o f a cultural funeral; it is clear from the discussion o f the new adaptive strategies o f the churches that some have held their cultural funerals. they have celebrated their past but are now l o o k i n g forward to new missions i n their new communities. other churches are struggling w i t h the thought o f surrendering their cultural identity. their ministry is, as the pastor said, a lingering funeral. churches must themselves assess the long term health o f such a ministry and the impact it w i l l have on the future opportunities o f the church. this chapter has presented a number o f options that are available to churches whose circumstances have forced or are forcing the articulation o f a new v i s i o n and mission. though not all o f the german churches have yet dealt w i t h planning for their long term futures, seven have made decisions and have begun to take actions to become reacquainted with their neighbourhoods through the introduction o f programs, often aimed at children and youth. it is easy to be quick to judge churches that have not dealt w i t h issues o f change or made efforts to open their doors to their new neighbourhoods as fast or as wide as one w o u l d hope. but the challenge o f change is a tremendous issue and churches that have chosen to deal w i t h their new circumstances must be commended and encouraged to learn from one another. c h a p t e r s e v e n c o n c l u s i o n s t h i s thesis has explored the interesting histories and activities o f ten german churches i n vancouver that were established under varying historical circumstances by groups o f german speaking people from both eastern and western europe. it has examined the histories o f the german immigrants themselves, their patterns o f settlement i n vancouver and the neighbourhood changes experienced i n the original german neighbourhood. it has reviewed geographical and ethnic church models and has described each o f the ten churches w i t h i n the framework o f these models as w e l l as their local circumstances. the role o f the church i n social service provision has been examined both historically, w i t h respect to formal and informal services, as w e l l as i n the contemporary circumstances o f church mission. the church as an influence on the assimilation o f german immigrants versus the church as an arena o f cultural preservation has been debated. in their present situations, demographic changes o f generational succession and neighbourhood transition have been discussed as they have influenced the future plans o f the ten churches. the reasons for pursuing these questions and themes i n research are many; i have been interested i n the role o f the church i n an immigrant community and the level o f importance held by the church i n the lives o f the german immigrants. the activities and social services organized by the church and the social functions that the church serves have rarely been documented or traced over time. i have sought to investigate how culture has been preserved i n the church as w e l l as how the church was, and is, dealing with changes i n its neighbourhood, its decline i n membership and, for some, the challenge o f shedding ethnic skin. there have been benefits to examining churches that have been long established though it has been challenging to reflect on church histories that are so long and varied. this thesis has concluded that indeed the church did play a very significant role i n the settlement o f thousands o f german immigrants to vancouver. the church was an institution o f great importance to the immigrants who served and were served i n its community. a l o n g w i t h schools, church was considered to be the most important institution i n the german community. first and foremost the church was a home that resembled the 'home'land. it was a place where the mother tongue was spoken, where liturgy was familiar, where stories o f war experiences could be silently exchanged and where community was defined. the church's role was at its centre, a spiritual one, but its social functions were o f equal importance. the church ran numerous programs for immigrants to help them settle both i n the physical and social sense. the church also became a centre o f culture where those who wished to preserve their heritage were permitted to do so. the fact that the preserved culture was not familiar to the children o f immigrants meant that its significance had to either succumb to anglicization or suffer the loss o f the next generation o f church members. over time, several o f the churches have lost a large proportion o f their membership to the suburban and exurban areas o f greater vancouver. this outflow o f members has meant that churches have faced difficult decisions about their future directions. their neighbourhoods are no longer german and the churches cannot survive w i t h a membership o f aging commuters. this is the place at w h i c h most o f the german churches sit i n their life cycles; it is the time o f decision making that w i l l determine how their future church w i l l look. some o f the churches have made conscious decisions to change their focus to again become neighbourhood churches as they once were. these churches have a geographical focus, drawing from a new ethnic neighbourhood base that is south and east a s i a n . other churches are postponing decisions about their future directions while others have chosen completely different paths to reach their future goals o f mission. what may be concluded is that while churches may have quite similar histories and circumstances o f establishment, they often choose very different avenues o f outreach and direction, particular to neighbourhood differences, church attitudes and contact opportunities w i t h new immigrants. what this means is that the church must be recognized as an institution that can play a significant role i n the settlement and adjustment o f immigrants to canada. the social services and the sense o f community that the church provides are crucial components i n the process o f establishing oneself i n canada. it means that churches must be aware o f the changing needs o f canada's immigrant populations and must be self-aware o f the longer term effects o f building churches that serve particular language or national groups. the issues that have faced the german churches and have been the foci o f chapters i n this thesis are not unique to the experience o f germans. one interviewee who has regular contact w i t h a chinese congregation made the following comments: interestingly the chinese have some of the same dynamics at work that the mennonites did years ago. years ago when mennonites moved from the german [language] to [using] english, the language issue was a big one; similar to the music issue today. the chinese have the same issue now, the older generation wants to keep the mother tongue and the younger generation says, 'we want to see our friends come to christ and we need to have english'. they are going through some of the exact and identical dynamics [as we went through] and the same will be true for other language groups as well. it's very, very noticeable in the chinese. w h i l e the experiences o f ethnic church congregations may be similar i n terms o f issues o f language transition and generational succession may be similar there are important differences that must be considered. m i n ( ) points out that caution must be exercised i n comparing the ethnic churches o f european origin immigrants and more recent a s i a n immigrants: the earlier european immigrants, who were predominantly of low economic class origin, usually came without personal resources, and thus meeting basic economic needs was very important for their adjustment. by contrast, family and other non-economic adjustment problems are more serious than economic problems for middle-class korean immigrants, the vast majority of whom have brought a moderate or significant amount of money and belongings from korea (min : ). the social services needed by korean immigrants and offered by ethnic churches as w e l l as multicultural or 'canadian' churches are very different than those o f the german immigrants. recent immigrants are more likely to require counselling and educational services whereas social services i n the german churches were organized i n part to meet the economic needs o f immigrants, helping them to obtain housing and jobs ( m i n ). tsang ( ) spoke o f the new church social services i n demand by chinese immigrants: some of the most popular services that can be provided to the ethnic new immigrants are esl classes and chinese language schools. establishment of an esl class often attracts non-christians. the purpose of this school is to serve as an arm to reach out to the new immigrants and befriend them. an esl school can be structured as an ongoing project which is attractive because it is free of charge or at most costs a minimal fee... other projects which can attract non-christian youths are the starting of a big brother or big sister program or sponsorship of a new immigrant orientation program ( - ). a s several o f the german churches move toward multicultural ministry, particularly to chinese immigrants the outreach suggestions by tsang are valuable options for both attracting and serving new immigrants i n the congregation. indeed one area worthy o f further research is an investigation o f the programs and services offered by a l l churches and the methods o f outreach used to incorporate a diverse population. d o 'ethnic' and 'canadian' churches approach mission differently? d o they target particular social, economic or ethnic populations? another area requiring further research relates back to issues raised i n chapter two regarding the origin o f congregational members and the separation o f congregations. though statistics are somewhat elusive the issue o f point o f origin is a significant factor determining cleavages i n church congregations and denominational affiliations. posterski and barker ( ) summarize the characteristics o f effective churches and particularly emphasize the opportunities for church development through social services: as governments face dwindling sources of revenue and as budgets continue to focus on spiralling deficits, allocations to social programs will continue to decline. as the government reduces its role in the provision of social services, there will be an opportunity for churches to increase their role in caring for the needs of canadians. effective churches will conduct needs assessments of their surrounding communities and respond in ways that send the message that people who love god also love their neighbours ( ). the opportunity to care for new neighbours i n particular is one that the church (mono-ethnic or multi-ethnic) cannot afford to pass by; church social service programs o f course do not relieve government o f their responsibility for social programs but churches now have new opportunities to reach new and o l d canadians. the german churches profiled here must recognize that they have a responsibility to share the gospel w i t h their neighbours regardless o f ethnic background; some are courageously doing so in the face o f very real obstacles. the churches that reach back to their neighbourhood, through whatever means they are enabled, w i l l fulfill their christian mission and hopefully begin a new congregational life cycle that w i l l include people o f multiple ethnic backgrounds. r e f e r e n c e s b a k k e , r a y . . the urban christian: effective m i n i s t r y i n today's u r b a n w o r l d . (downers grove, illinois: intervarsity press). b a k k e , r a y m o n d j. & samuel k . roberts. . the expanded m i s s i o n o f ' o l d first' churches. ( v a l l e y forge, pennsylvania: judson press). bankston, c a r l l . & m i n z h o u , . "religious participation, ethnic identification, and adaptation o f vietnamese adolescents i n an immigrant community," the sociological quarterly. ( ), pp - . b i b b y , reginald, . fragmented gods: the poverty and potential o f r e l i g i o n i n canada. (toronto: irwin). , . u n k n o w n gods: the ongoing story o f r e l i g i o n i n canada. (toronto: stoddart). burkinshaw, robert k . . pilgrims i n lotus l a n d : conservative protestantism i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a - (montreal & kingston: m c g i l l - q u e e n ' s university press). burkinshaw, robert. . "evangelicalism in b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a : conservatism and adaptability," journal o f the canadian church historical society. ( ), pp. - . cenkner, w i l l i a m , ed. . the multicultural church: a n e w landscape i n u . s . theologies. ( n e w y o r k : paulist press). coburn, c a r o l , . l i f e at four corners: r e l i g i o n . gender, and education i n a german- lutheran c o m m u n i t y . - . (lawrence, kansas: university press o f kansas). c o n n , harvie m . . the a m e r i c a n c i t y and the evangelical church: a historical overview. (grand rapids, m i c h i g a n : baker books). doerrenbaecher, peter. . "aculturation, a s s i m i l a t i o n and m o b i l i t y o f the german ethnic group i n vancouver. is there a time-space relationship?" i n ethnic vancouver: essays i n cultural geography. discussion paper, department o f geography, s i m o n fraser university, burnaby, b c . foster, charles r . & theodore brelsford, . w e a r e the church together: cultural diversity i n congregational l i f e ( v a l l e y forge, pennsylvania: trinity press international). froeschle, harmut, . the german-canadians. a concise history, translated by g . k . weissenborn, (toronto: historical society o f mecklenburg upper canada), german-canadian yearbook v o l . g i e b , m i c h a e l . . "comparative cultural geography: a european v i e w o f the germans i n vancouver" i n ethnic vancouver: essays i n cultural geography. discussion paper, dept. o f geography, s i m o n fraser university, burnaby, b c . g u m p p , ruth. . ethnicity and a s s i m i l a t i o n . german postwar immigrants i n vancouver. - . unpublished m . a . thesis, department o f history, univeristy o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . harvey, b o b . . "canadian churches: a bridge for refugees," the canadian baptist. february, pp. - . henry, francis, . the caribbean diaspora i n toronto: learning to l i v e w i t h r a c i s m (toronto: university o f toronto press). hessel, dieter t., ed, . the church's p u b l i c r o l e : retrospect and prospect (grand rapids, m i : w . b . eerdmans publishing co.). hewitt, w . e . . " r e l i g i o n and social change: a n agenda for further research," i n the sociology o f r e l i g i o n : a canadian focus. w . e . hewitt, ed. (toronto: butterworths), pp. - . h e x h a m , irving. . "canadian evangelicals: facing the critics," i n the sociology o f r e l i g i o n : a canadian focus. w . e . hewitt, ed. (toronto: butterworths), pp. - . hildebrand, henry. . in h i s l o v i n g service. (caronport, sask: briercrest b i b l e college). h u r h , w o n m o o & k w a n g chung k i m , . "religious participation o f k o r e a n immigrants i n the u n i t e d states," journal for the scientific study o f r e l i g i o n . ( ), pp. - . h y u n , k y o u n g ja, . " a primary prevention training m o d e l for the unmet needs o f n e w l y a r r i v e d k o r e a n immigrants," prevention i n human services. ( ), pp. - . isaac, e r i c h . . "the a c t and the covenant: the impact o f r e l i g i o n on the landscape," landscape. ( ), pp. - . k a l i l o m b e , patrick. . " b l a c k christianity i n britain," ethnic and r a c i a l studies. ( ), pp - . k a w a n o , r o l a n d , . the g l o b a l c i t v : multicultural m i n i s t r y i n urban canada ( w i n f i e l d , b c : w o o d l a k e b o o k s ) . k i n c h e l o e , samuel c . . "the behavior sequence o f a d y i n g church" i n the social fabric o f the metropolis: contributions o f the chicago school o f urban sociology, ed by j.f. short, jr. (chicago and l o n d o n : university o f chicago press), pp. - . k i v i s t o , peter. " r e l i g i o n and the n e w immigrants," i n a future for r e l i g i o n : n e w paradigms for s o c i a l a n a l y s i s . w . h . swatos, jr, e d , (newbury park, california: sage), pp. - . k n o w l e s , n o r m a n , . "religious a f f i l i a t i o n , demographic change and f a m i l y formation among b r i t i s h columbia's chinese and japanese communities: a case study o f c h u r c h o f england m i s s i o n s , - " canadian ethnic studies. ( ), pp - . k o n g , l i l y , . "geography and r e l i g i o n : trends and prospects," progress i n h u m a n geography. ( ), pp. - . lee, fatima, . "chinese christian churches in metro toronto," canada & h o n g k o n g update n o . , winter, pp - . lehmann, h e i n z , . the german canadains - : immigration settlement and culture, translated by g . bassler (st. john's, newfoundland: jesperson). l i n k , e d w a r d , . "north a m e r i c a n (german) baptists," i n baptists i n canada: search for identity a m i d s t diversity. (j. zeman, ed.) (burlington, ontario: g . r . w e l c h company), pp. - . m a r t i n , r o n a l d bruce. . faith without focus: neighbourhood transition and religious change i n inner-city vancouver. unpublished m . a . thesis, department o f geography, university o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , vancouver, b . c . m c k a y , jame, . "religious diversity and ethnic cohesion: a three generational a n a l y s i s o f syrian-lebanese christians i n sydney," international m i g r a t i o n r e v i e w . ( ), pp. - . m c l a u g h l i n , k . m . . the germans i n canada. (ottawa: canadian historical association). m e y e r , judith, . "ethnicity, theology, and immigrant church expansion," geographical r e v i e w . ( ), pp. - . m i l l e t , d a v i d . . " r e l i g i o n as a source o f perpetuation o f ethnic identity," i n sounds canadian: languages and cultures i n m u l t i - e t h n i c society. p . m . m i n g u s , ed. (toronto: peter m a r t i n associates) pp. - . m i n , p y o n g gap, . "the structure and social functions o f korean immigrant churches i n the u n i t e d states," international m i g r a t i o n r e v i e w . ( ), pp. - . m o b e r g , d a v i d . . the church as a social institution: the sociology o f a m e r i c a n r e l i g i o n (englewood c l i f f s , n . j . : prentice-hall). m o h l , r a y m o n d & n e i l betten, . "the immigrant church i n gary, indiana: religious adjustment and cultural defense," ethnicity. ( ), pp. - . m u l l i n s , m a r k . . religious minorities i n canada: a sociological study o f the japanese experience. (queenston, ontario: e d w i n m e l l e n press). nagata, judith, . the r o l e o f christian churches i n the integration o f south-east a s i a n immigrants i n toronto. w o r k i n g paper n o . , joint centre on m o d e r n east a s i a - university o f t o r o n t o - y o r k university. nagata, judith, . "is multiculturalism sacred? the power behind the pulpit i n the religious congregations o f southeast a s i a n christians in canada," canadian ethnic studies. ( ), pp - . n i p p , d o r a , . "the chinese i n toronto," in gathering place: peoples and neighbourhoods o f toronto. - . r . f . harney (ed), (toronto: multicultural history society o f ontario), pp - . n o r t o n , perry l . . church and metropolis: a city planner's viewpoint o f the slow-changing church i n the fast-changing metropolis. (new y o r k : seabury press). o ' b r y a n , k . g . et al. . n o n - o f f i c i a l languages: a study i n canadian m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m (unknown) palinkas, lawrence a . . rhetoric and religious experience: the discourse o f immigrant chinese churches. (fairfax, v i r g i n i a : george m a s o n university press) park, c h r i s , . sacred worlds: a n introduction to geography and religion. ( l o n d o n and n e w y o r k : routledge). posterski, d o n a l d c . & irwin barker. . where's a g o o d church? canadians respond from the pulpit. p o d i u m and pew. (winfield, b c : w o o d lake b o o k s ) . posterski, d o n & gary nelson. . future faith churches: reconnecting w i t h the power o f the g o s p e l for the st century (winfield, b c : w o o d lake books) pousett, g . h . . "baptists i n b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , " i n c i r c l e o f v o i c e s : a history o f the religious communities o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a . c p anderson et al., ed. (lantzville, b c : o o l i c h a n b o o k s ) , pp. - . priestly, d a v i d , . "the effect o f the baptist "home m i s s i o n " among alberta's german immigrants," i n m e m o r y and hope: strands o f canadian baptist history. (d. priestly, ed.) (waterloo: w i l f r e d laurier university press), pp. - . redekop, john, h . . a people apart: ethnicity and the mennonite brethren. (winnipeg, manitoba: k i n d r e d press). renfree, harry, . heritage and h o r i z o n : the baptist story i n canada. (mississauga: canadian baptist federation). rutledge, p a u l , . the r o l e o f r e l i g i o n in ethnic self-identity: a vietnamese c o m m u n i t y (lanham, m d : university press o f america). schmidt, h e r m i n i o . . "the german-canadians and their umbilical cord - an analysis o f immigrant behaviour and its implications for canada and germany" i n german canadian studies - c r i t i c a l approaches. (p. l i d d e l , ed.) c a u t g publications n o . . siemens, a l f r e d henry. . mennonite settlement i n the l o w e r fraser v a l l e y . unpublished m . a . thesis, department o f geography, university o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , vancouver, b . c . sopher, d a v i d , . geography o f religions. (englewood c l i f f s , n . j . : prentice-hall inc.). , . "geography and religions," progress i n human geography. ( ), pp. - . stadler, beatrice. . language maintenance and a s s i m i l a t i o n : the case o f selected german speaking immigrants to vancouver. canada. c a u t g publications n o . . sturhahn, w i l l i a m j . h . . they came from east and w e s t . . a history o f immigration to canada. (winnipeg, manitoba: n o r t h a m e r i c a n baptist immigration and c o l o n i z a t i o n society) tsang, gladys lee, . churches i n ethnic transition: the surge o f the ethnic chinese i n vancouver and its impact and implication on the christian m i s s i o n . unpublished t h m thesis, regent college, vancouver, b c . v i r t u e , d a v i d , a. "mennonites: f r o m a humble start to status o f power" the vancouver province. saturday a p r i l , pp . v i r t u e , d a v i d , b. ' " n i g h impossible to tell a mennonite from a baptist'" the vancouver province. saturday a p r i l , pp . wagner, c.peter. . y o u r church c a n g r o w : seven v i t a l signs o f a healthy c h u r c h . (glendale, california: g / l publications). waldhouse, freda, . the influence o f m i n o r i t y ethnic groups on the cultural geography o f vancouver. unpublished m . a . thesis, department o f geography, university o f b r i t i s h c o l u m b i a , vancouver, b . c . w a r d , peter, . "the oriental immigrant and canada's protestant clergy, - ," b c studies. ( ), pp. - . warner, r . stephen. . "introduction: immigration and religious communities i n the united states," i n gatherings i n diaspora. warner, r . stephen. . "work i n progress toward a n e w paradigm for the s o c i o l o g i c a l study o f r e l i g i o n i n the u n i t e d states," a m e r i c a n journal o f sociology. ( ), pp - . w i l l i a m s , r a y m o n d brady. . religions o f immigrants from india and pakistan: n e w threads i n the a m e r i c a n tapestry. (cambridge: cambridge university press). zeman, jarold, . "they speak in other tongues: witness among immigrants," i n baptists i n canada: search for identity a m i d s t diversity. (j. zeman, ed.) (burlington, ontario: g . r . w e l c h company), pp. - . c h u r c h h i s t o r y r e p o r t s jahre - evangelische-lutherische kreuzgemeinde vancouver. b c . . bethany baptist church a n n u a l reports, various years. bethany c h u r c h history, dedication program, a p r i l , ebenezer baptist c h u r c h directory and reports, various years. ebenezer c h u r c h history b o o k , unpublished, undated. ebenezer: fifty years o f m i n i s t r y . - . ekkert, jakob. geschichtliche ubersicht der vancouver mennoniten brudergemeinde. - . m a r c h . evangelisch lutherische st. markus gemeinde. jahre. . fifty years. bethany baptist church. - . forty years. h o l y f a m i l y parish. - . giesbrecht, jacob. history o f vancouver mennonite brethren church, unpublished, december . history o f c u l l o d e n mennonite brethren church, unpublished, undated. immanuel baptist church. th anniversary. - . konnert, w . b . , historical report o f ebenezer baptist church, unpublished, october . regehr, henry. "activities for y o u n g people at fraserview m . b . church" the canadian mennonite. november , . pp . st. m a r k ' s evangelical church. year anniversary b o o k . st. m a r k ' s evangelical church. th anniversary b u l l e t i n . "vancouver m . b . c h u r c h has members" the canadian mennonite. novermber , . . a p p e n d i x i seventeen churches originally contacted by telephone: m a r t i n luther evangelical ebenezer baptist h o l y f a m i l y german parish bethel pentecostal (renamed from german pentecostal) immanuel baptist p i l g r i m baptist german c h u r c h o f g o d st. m a r k ' s evangelical lutheran first u n i t e d mennonite fraserview mennonite brethren sherbrooke mennonite m o u n t a i n v i e w mennonite brethren (recently became m o u n t pleasant international church) german lutheran church at oakridge bethany baptist vancouver mennonite brethren c u l l o d e n mennonite brethren k i l l a r n e y park mennonite brethren ii telephone interview questions to all churches: ) what year was the church established? ) d i d it begin as a german speaking church? ) is the congregation still german speaking? and/or o f largely german ethnic origin? ) a r e other non-german ethnic groups represented? ) is the church presently located i n its original building? what was its original address? were there any subsequent moves prior to its current location? ) does the church hold services in languages other than german or english? w h i c h ones? a r e they separate or integrated congregations? ) is the church membership largely neighbourhood based? i f not, h o w w o u l d y o u describe its geography? ) what is the approximate membership o f the church? ) does the church organize any programs or have services available for recently arrived immigrants? ) does the church have any daughter congregations or is the church itself a daughter congregation? i l l schedule of interview questions to interviewees (from churches: a ) c o u l d y o u describe to me the general background o f the german church members attending your congregation when y o u first began? (when did they arrive; where did they come from; what was their economic status?) how has the church ministered to people as immigrants? b ) what k i n d o f things did the church or church members do to help german immigrants settle i n vancouver? c ) what needs did the german immigrants who came to vancouver have and how d i d the church help to f u l f i l l those needs? d ) in a broad sense, how important was the church to the german immigrants? e ) c o u l d y o u tell me about the types o f services your church currently offers, particularly to immigrants? f ) does the church reach beyond its o w n membership base i n offering services to immigrants? i f so, how are the connections made with the wider community? how did/does the church aid integration into canadian society? g ) has the church fostered the preservation o f german culture and identity or has it encouraged its members to integrate w i t h canadian society or has it done b o t h ? h ) has the church lead the movement toward integration or has the church followed the integration o f its members? i) h o w has the church dealt w i t h the issues o f the second generation? has it tried to connect w i t h the canadian born generation? h o w and why? how has the church as an institution adjusted/integrated into canadian society? j) a s church members have aged, how has the church adjusted its cultural orientation? has it redefined itself? has it lost its german identity? k ) h o w has the changing social compositon o f the church's neighbourhood affected the church? l ) t o what extent does your church regard its community as including the district immediately around this building? o r do you see yourselves primarily serving a more dispersed community that shares a cultural tradition? m ) does the concept o f multiculturalism have a particular meaning that guides the work o f your church? wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ xanthogranulomatous inflammation of myometrium with uterine perforation available online at www.sciencedirect.com sciencedirect taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e www.tjog-online.com research letter xanthogranulomatous inflammation of myometrium with uterine perforation chi-yuan liao a,*, cheng-hui chiu b , fuh-jinn luo c a department of obstetrics and gynecology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan b department of radiology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan c department of pathology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, taiwan accepted december xanthogranulomatous inflammation of the female genital tract is unusual and is essentially limited to the endometrium [ , ] and the fallopian tubes [ e ]. we report a rare case of xanthogranulomatous inflammation of the myometrium. this case is of interest because the xanthogranulomatous inflam- mation destroyed the myometrium and further extended to the pelvis with uterine perforation. the findings were first seen on ultrasonographic images and computed tomography (ct) with pathological confirmation after a surgical operation. a -year-old married female, gravid , parity , with a history of poorly controlled diabetes, presented to the emer- gency room with complaints of lower abdominal pain, flank pain, and an intermittent fever of week duration. she was febrile with a temperature of . �c. physical examination showed a mildly enlarged uterus with tenderness on the right adnexa. ultrasonography revealed an enlarged uterus with pyometra, suspected uterine perforation, and a right tuboovarian abscess (fig. b). abdominal ct revealed pyometra and a pelvic abscess with a suspected uterine wall defect (fig. a). the laboratory data showed the following detailsdwhite blood cell count, . thsd/ml; neutrophil, . %; c-reactive protein, . mg/dl; and glucose spot, mg/dl. the patient was admitted and received an antibiotic, cefmetazole (daiichi sankyo, tokyo, japan) gm iv stat, followed by gm iv q h. she then underwent an endometrial aspiration and foley catheter drainage for her pyometra, which was acutely inflamed with numerous polymorphonuclear leukocytes and necrotic debris. accordingly, she received a laparoscopic surgery. a thick adhesion mass about cm in diameter on the * corresponding author. department of obstetrics and gynecology, mennonite christian hospital, hualien, number , minchuan road, hualien city , taiwan. e-mail address: mchliaochiyuan@yahoo.com.tw (c.-y. liao). - /$ - see front matter copyright � , taiwan association of obstetri http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . right adnexadaffecting the sigmoid colon, omentum, right tube, and ovarydwas found. pus was found, and a culture was conducted. adhesion lysis was performed, and a hole approximately . cm in diameter was observed on the right uterine fundus. a laparoscopy-assisted vaginal hysterectomy was performed smoothly. the culture reports from the blood, pyometra, and right adnexa were all negative. the patho- logical report of the uterus revealed localized xanthogranu- lomatous inflammation at the right uterine fundus with perforation (fig. a). postoperative antibiotic with cefme- tazole gm iv q h was administered. drainage using the jacksonepratt drain was carried out. the patient recovered without incident. xanthogranulomatous inflammation is rare. it mainly in- volves the kidneys or the gall bladder [ , e ]. primary xan- thogranulomatous inflammation that involves the female genital organ has been reported in only a few cases, and it usually af- fects the endometrium or fallopian tubes. however, to date no case of myometrium involvement with uterine perforation has been reported. xanthogranulomatous inflammation is a form of chronic inflammation that is destructive to the affected tissue, as in the case reported here, in which the myometrium was replaced with lipid-laden, foamy macrophages (xanthoma cells) and polymorphonuclear leukocytes, lymphoplasma cells (figs. a and b). the etiology of the disease has not been fully elucidated. the proposed causes include occlusion of the cer- vical canal, hemorrhage, and infection [ , ]. multiple factors may be responsible. in the case considered herein, cervix obstruction and infection with tissue necrosis occurred, fol- lowed by the release of cholesterol and other lipids. therefore, phagocytosis by the macrophage may explain the formation of foam cells that is associated with xanthogranulomatous inflammation. in some cases, bacteria including proteus mir- abilis or escherichia coli have been identified [ ]. however, very often, neither organism [ ] is identified, as in our case. cs & gynecology. published by elsevier taiwan llc. all rights reserved. mailto:mchliaochiyuan@yahoo.com.tw http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.tjog. . . &domain=pdf www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/ http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.tjog. . . http://www.tjog-online.com fig. . (a) oblique-sagittal reformation imaging showed dilated uterine cavity (arrowhead). presence of a defect of myometrium at right anterior aspect (bold arrow) and abscess formation (arrow). (b) ultrasonography revealed a perforation hole, about . cm in diameter, that was enclosed with an echogenic, septate mass cm � . cm in diameter on the fundal region. c.-y. liao et al. / taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e in our case, the histological involvement of xanthogranu- lomatous inflammation is present only in the myometrium with transmural extension to the peritoneal cavity. however, the endometrium and fallopian tubes were simply present with acute and chronic inflammation (fig. a). this characteristic, fig. . (a) xanthogranulomatous inflammation of the uterus. the myometrium disp inflammation. (hematoxylineeosin, original magnification, � ). (b) high magnifi and neutrophils (hematoxylineeosin; original magnification, � ). (c) periodic ac � ). pathological phenomenon associated with uterine perforation is similar to the formation of fistula in xanthomatous pyelo- nephritis and xanthomatous cholecystitis. most cases of xan- thogranulomatous endometritis resolve spontaneously or after antibiotic treatment [ , , ]. in the case presented here, lays xanthogranulomatous inflammation and overlying endometrium with usual cation reveals abundant foamy histiocytes, admixture of lymphoplasma cells id schiff staining reveals no michaelisegutmann body (original magnification c.-y. liao et al. / taiwanese journal of obstetrics & gynecology ( ) e xanthogranulomatous inflammation destroyed the myome- trium and extended to the pelvis with uterine perforation, as revealed by the ultrasonographic images and ct scan, which is an exceptional occurrence. whether the patient’s poorly controlled diabetes is a contributing factor is not known. the most important differential diagnosis of xanthogra- nomatous inflammation is malakoplakia. the histopatholog- ical diagnosis of malakoplakia depends on the presence of intracellular and extracellular laminated inclusions, the so- called calcispherites or michaelisegutmann bodies, and spe- cial foamy histiocytes, which are called von hansemann cells [ ]. in the case reported here, the lack of a michae- lisegutmann body in histochemical periodic acid schiff staining almost excludes this diagnosis (fig. c). in conclusion, a rare case xanthomatous inflammation of the myometrium with uterine perforation associated with fe- male genital organ infection is presented. a poorly controlled diabetes with a very high level of spot sugar ( mg/dl) was noted. whether it was a causal factor is uncertain. to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a xanthomatous inflammation of the myometrium with uterine perforation in a patient with poorly controlled diabetes. surgeons will recog- nize the possibility of xanthomatous inflammation in pelvic inflammatory disease with pyometra, especially in patients with uncontrolled diabetes. acknowledgment the authors thank yinju chen, mhs, department of medical research and education, mennonite christian hos- pital, hualien, for the writing and editing assistance in this manuscript. references [ ] noack f, briese j, stellmacher f, hornung d, horny hp. lethal outcome in xanthogranulomatous endometritis. apmis ; : e . [ ] lopez ji, nevado m. exuberant xanthogranulomatous-like reaction following endometrial curettage. histopathology ; : . [ ] yener n, ilter e, midi a. xanthogranulomatous salpingitis as a rare pathologic aspect of chronic active pelvic inflammatory disease. indian j pathol microbiol ; : e . [ ] howey jm, mahe e, radhi j. xanthogranulomatous salpingitis asso- ciated with a large uterine leiomyoma. case rep med ; : . [ ] idrees m, zakashansky k, kalir t. xanthogranulomatous salpingitis associated with fallopian tube mucosal endometriosis: a clue to the pathogenesis. ann diagn pathol ; : e . [ ] gray y, libbey np. xanthogranulomatous salpingitis and oophoritis: a case report and review of the literature. arch pathol lab med ; : e . [ ] ladefoged c, lorentzen m. xanthogranulomatous inflammation of the female genital tract. histopathology ; : e . [ ] russack v, lammers rj. xanthogranulomatous endometritis. report of six cases and a proposed mechanism of development. arch pathol lab med ; : e . [ ] barua r, kirkland ja, petrucco om. xanthogranulomatous endometritis: case report. pathology ; : e . [ ] buckley ch, fox h. histiocytic endometritis. histopathology ; : e . [ ] blanco c, fernández f, buelta l, garijo f, val-bernal jf, sánchez s. xanthomatous endometritis. appl pathol ; : e . [ ] chou sc, wang js, tseng hh. malacoplakia of the ovary, fallopian tube and uterus: a case associated with diabetes mellitus. pathol int ; : e . 	xanthogranulomatous inflammation of myometrium with uterine perforation 	acknowledgment 	references the special collections in the peace palace library and the work of library director dr jacob ter meulen this paper was originally presented under the title, “the peace palace library. its collections: historic and those serving the objective of contemporary arbitration and adjudication. its users: courts, academics and the general public” at the socio-legal sources and methods in international law workshop, held at the institute of advanced legal studies in london on november th, . since the - peace palace library director dr jacob ter meulen played such a crucial role in the shaping of the special collections about which the above mentioned lecture was centered the text and form of everything hereunder focuses extensively on dr jacob ter meulen. moreover, it is worth addressing the life and work of dr jacob ter meulen because he has not received much scholarly attention in easily available publications such as legal information management. . general introduction on the aims and collections of the peace palace library andrew carnegie, a passionate pacifist (he was a firm believer in the idea of ‘peace through justice’) and a champion of libraries (because documentation was educationally quintessential for acquiring knowledge to avert war and achieve peace), donated $ . million in - for the construction of his strongly desired temple of peace, -being a court house, housing the permanent court of arbitration established at the first hague peace conference of , and the peace palace library (or carnegie library as it was sometimes called)-, which was formally and ceremonially inaugurated in as the peace palace. in this manner andrew carnegie ( - ) contributed to the establishment of the phenomenon of the hague as, “the legal capital of the world” or the “le capital juridique du monde” after boutros boutros ghali’s ’s words. this concept was swiftly embraced by wim deetman, mayor of the city of the hague, promoting the international status of the municipality and utilizing the peace palace as the most persuasive symbol to emphasize the goals of ‘peace, justice and security’. contributing further to this concept, even before any building activity for the peace palace had started, in k.p.c. de bazel had designed an internationalist (i.e. pacifist) city plan for the hague. still, andrew carnegie as promotor of the concept of ‘the hague as the legal capital of the world’ complemented the work of the nineteenth century dutch international legal diplomat tobias asser ( - ), who was professor of international commercial law, founder of the hague conference on private international law ( ) and contributor to the formation of the permanent court of arbitration at the first hague peace conference of . and andrew carnegie similarly complemented the activities of austrian baroness bertha von suttner ( - ), who authored the novel “die waffen nieder!” (“lay down your arms”) - *diermanse, p.j.j., jacob ter meulen, in: jaarboek van de maatschappij der nederlandse letterkunde te leiden - , leiden, , pp. - . **from erasmus to tolstoy. the peace literature of four centuries. jacob ter meulen's bibliographies of the peace movement before , edited, with an introduction by peter van den dungen, foreword by arthur eyffinger, new york, . ***russer, w.s., dr. jacob ter meulen, in: bibliotheekleven, year , issue (november ), pp. - . ****diermanse, p.j.j., landheer, b., in memory of dr. jacob ter meulen, in: american journal of international law, vol. , no. (april ), pp. - . http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=erasmus http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=tolstoy http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=peace http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=literature http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=four http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=centuries http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=jacob http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=ter http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=meulen's http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=bibliographies http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=peace http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=movement http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=before http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm= http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=dr. http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=jacob http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=ter http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=meulen http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=bibliotheekleven http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm= , http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm= http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=nov. http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm= http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=memory http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=dr. http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=jacob http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=ter http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=meulen http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=american http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=journal http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=international http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=law http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=april http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm= a book that convinced the nineteenth century bourgeoisie about the horrors of warfare and demonstrated well what war inflicts upon a family. this seminal book eventually resulted in the establishment of a series of peace societies throughout europe. bertha von suttner also functioned as a key confidant or private counsel for kings, statesmen, diplomats and politicians with meetings often taking place in the kurhaus hotel during the first and second hague peace conferences of and . even hugo grotius ( - ), the seventeenth century dutch founder of modern international law is advanced as another possible father of the hague as today’s city of international law. this persuasive argument is based on grotius’s seminal work “de iure belli ac pacis” (“on the laws of war and peace”). a set of editions of “de iure belli ac pacis” the remaining interesting question is how the peace palace library itself acted as a pivotal generator of the hague as ‘city of peace and justice’. the peace palace library is world-famous for its public and private international law collections. it also holds large collections on comparative law and national laws, and on diplomatic history and the history of conflict areas. its primary institutional users are the permanent court of arbitration (established in ) and the international court of justice (established in , successor to the permanent court of international justice, founded in ), both housed in the peace palace. secondly other international courts and tribunals in the hague benefit from the peace palace library’s collections, e.g. the international criminal court (established under the rome statute and concluded in ) and the ‘hoge raad’ (i.e. the dutch supreme court). in addition to providing access by these courts and tribunals, the peace palace library operates as the library for the hague academy of international law which has offered summer courses since . finally, the peace palace library is an international law library for a general readership that mostly consists of professors, scholars and research students based both inside and outside the netherlands. life and work of dr jacob ter meulen jacob ter meulen was born into a mennonite family in the hague on december rd, . he was the son of françois pieter ter meulen, a painter, famous for heathland scenery landscapes with sheep and a member of the somber impressionist realist post-hague school. jacob ter meulen studied constitutional law and public international law and political economy at the university of amsterdam (then the municipal university), with the professors a.a.h. struycken and d. van emden. he was awarded his phd (magna cum laude) in from the university of zürich. his thesis concerned early ideas on a league of nations, “beitrag zur geschichte der internationalen organisation - ” and was authored under the guidance of max huber in zürich. his related publication “de ontwikkeling der statengemeenschap. historische schets” (“the development of the community of states. historical sketch”) appreared in the grotius internationaal jaarboek and was published in . ter meulen had decided to undertake his university training in zürich, since he was a pacifist and was was much under the spell of max huber (who had participated in the second hague peace conference of ). his thesis on the development of internationalist thought, was published in an enlarged form and entitled “der gedanke der internationalen organisation in seiner entwicklung - ” (ending with a section on immanuel kant) and appeared as the first volume of a trilogy in . this trilogy was published by martinus nijhoff betwen and . the second volume, covering the period - (e.g. containing information on the french socialist utopists) was published in ; the third volume covered - (culminating in chapters on international law and international arbitration) was published in . this trilogy mirrors very much ter meulen’s sympathy for idealist thinkers and limitless dreams about a world pacified. for ter meulen, as a mennonite, war was unacceptable, he believed in peaceful resistance and stood for defencelessness (although he was willing to be militarily mobilized as a conscript in the first world war). this explains clearly the pacifist and anti- militaristic collections of the peace palace library as formed by ter meulen (see below). after a short career as a secondary school teacher he started at the utrecht university library and shaped the structure for the classification of law. thereafter ter meulen became director of the library of the netherlands school of commerce, now erasmus university rotterdam. on january st, ter meulen started his career at the peace palace library. because of the special character of the peace palace library and the international political climate ter meulen increasing entered anti-militarist circles and subsequently got involved in pacifism. his view was very much of a christian anti-militarist kind, based upon the belief of the mennonite church in the netherlands. ter meulen joined the working group of mennonites against military service, also called the mennonite peace association (ter meulen fulfilled many roles in international mennonite networks). in addition to his regular work, jacob ter meulen was also president of the dutch library association, founder and co- editor of the “grotius jaarboek” ( - ) and from onwards was a member of the dutch committee on international intellectual cooperation. jacob ter meulen died ten years after his retirement on august th, . ter meulen working in his office surrounded by the rare books of the hugo grotius collection the hugo grotius collection the peace palace was inaugurated on august th, , and the permanent court of arbitration moved into these new premises; a ‘standard library of international law’ came into existence at the same time: the peace palace library. soon after the formal opening, in , martinus nijhoff, the bookseller in the hague and renowned bibliographer and humanities scholar, donated his personal collection of copies of “de iure belli ac pacis”, in various languages, to the peace palace library. the nijhoff- assortment comprised editions, of course in latin (the original language of the publication), but also in french, english, german and dutch. imprints ranged from the entire early modern era, but amidst the donated books a ‘de iure belli ac pacis’ (third press run of the first edition of ) was included as well (tmd -iii; tmd is the bibliographer’s manner of referring to grotius editions, an abbreviation of ‘ter meulen – diermanse’, standing for the canonistical compilation j. ter meulen and p.j.j. diermanse, “bibliographie des écrits imprimés de hugo grotius”, the hague, nijhoff, , being the most comprehensive overview of titles by hugo grotius in various editions and with various imprints). ter meulen must have felt the inaugural initial donation to the peace palace library as an impetus or obligation to consistently expand the collection of hugo grotius’ “de iure belli ac pacis” (“on the laws of war and peace”), and of other legal works of hugo grotius, such as “mare liberum” [ ] (“the free sea”) and “inleidinge tot de hollandsche rechtsgeleerdheid” [ ] (“introduction to dutch jurisprudence”). this all combined in ter meulen’s achievement of the vast and unique “history of international law collection” which we see today at the peace palace library. additionally, ter meulen dedicated his efforts to expand the hugo grotius collection to other scholarly and artistic domains of hugo grotius: philology, history, theology and poetry. (all items ever published being bibliographically listed in the abovementioned tmd, i.e. j. ter meulen and p.j.j. diermanse, bibliographie des écrits imprimés de hugo grotius. the hague, nijhoff, .) in short, the legal history scholar hugo grotius specialist jacob ter meulen, especially after he had prepared a book section of a exhibition in at the tricentenary of “de iure belli ac pacis”, relentlessly worked on the expansion of the hugo grotius book collection in particular, and by doing so he built upon the first bricks laid by his predecessor dr p.c. molhuysen. the hugo grotius collection in the peace palace library stacks the peace movement collection in addition to his other considerable achievements, jacob ter meulen is also to be remembered as a bibliographer, e.g. his work on hugo grotius is of seminal value. he introduced himself as a systematic classifier of law at the utrecht university library, and ter meulen has always remained a classifier and an expert on classification systems and on thesauri of subject headings. his classifying work “catalogue de la bibliothèque du palais de la paix” / “catalogue of the peace palace library” ( - , vols.), printed and bound in the bordeaux red wine volumes, are evidence of his expertise. equally significantly ter meulen developed as a bibliographer of the peace movement. his “bibliography of peace” demonstrates his skills. after henri la fontaine’s “bibliographie de la paix et de l’arbitrage internationale” ( ) was published at the international institute of peace in monaco and the catalogue of the library of the norwegian nobel institute ( ) in oslo (and after the first printed catalogues of the peace palace library, compiled by p.c. molhuysen) the “bibliography of the peace movement before ” [ ] (covering the period - , listing , items; a second part covering - was published in , containing items) was created by ter meulen, which made him, in conjunction with his bibliographic work on hugo grotius, the undisputed bibliographer of peace. the peace movement collection as a special collection consists of books, brochures, pamphlets, conference reports, newspaper clippings, letters and photographs from pacifist organizations and individuals connected with these organizations. these groups and individuals all strived for world peace in the period - . most of the materials are in dutch, but there are also books and documents in english, german, french and other languages. all items in the peace movement collection were added to an inventory list, published in j. haasbeek (ed.), “vredescollectie - collection de dossiers relatifs du mouvement pacifiste (“collection of dossiers concerning the peace movement”) ( , st ed., , nd ed.). the records in the peace movement collection, roughly , items, are now searchable in a database on the peace palace library’s website. in - the massive digitization of the peace movement collection took place through the metamorfoze project of the ‘koninklijke bibliotheek’ (royal library, the national library of the netherlands) and all items were put on microfilm at the same time. the peace palace library commemorated the start of the first world war with a centenary exhibition and with a series of blogs and items on the website. the peace palace library’s collection on the great war is focused on aspects of international law: the laws of war, the paris peace conference, the peace treaties of - , the war reparations and the politics of its memory. for that purpose, an extensive research guide on the topic was prepared as a starting point for research in the peace palace library. the first world war centenary exhibition was based on the peace palace library’s ‘image’ collection, telling the story of the first world war through posters. this ‘image’ collection contains engravings, posters (woodcuts, etchings, lithographs, drawings), cartoons, photographs and maps. together, the components of the ‘image’ collection form a visual supplement to the book collection. they show important historical scenes or persons. they refer to themes and subjects, which are research topics in the library. the so-called “poster collection” particularly reflects subjects such as “peace”, “war” and “anti-war movements”. the images on the posters from world war i and world war ii give vivid impressions of the horrors of war, calling for support for the war parties and the fight against fascism. as such, the ‘image’ collection is an integral part of the peace movement collection. a selection of the often dramatic posters are below. http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=vredescollectie http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=collection http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=dossiers http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=relatifs http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=mouvement http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=pacifiste http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=collection http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=dossiers http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=concerning http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=peace http://catalogue.ppl.nl/db= /set= /ttl= /clk?ikt= &trm=movement jeroen vervliet library director the peace palace, the hague, the netherlands see also: www.peacepalacelibrary.nl http://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/ inherited podocytopathies: fsgs and nephrotic syndrome from a genetic viewpoint martin r. pollak renal division, brigham and women’s hospital, boston, massachusetts. recent progress in defining the genetic basis of inherited glomerular disease has helped illuminate inadequacies in the way we describe many of these diseases. too often, we talk about histologic patterns of injury, such as focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis (fsgs), as if they were diseases rather than descriptions of kidney biopsy specimens at particular points in time. some patients “with fsgs” respond to steroids, some do not; some patients present with nephrotic syndrome (ns), others with mild proteinuria; some present in childhood, some as adults. fsgs can be primary or secondary to other primary processes. pathologists may further subdivide fsgs (for ex- ample, into collapsing nephropathy, glomerular tip lesion, cel- lular variant). some, but not all, fsgs recurs in transplanted kidneys. do these phenotypic differences reflect differences in the underlying biology of the disease? is the phrase “focal segmental glomerulosclerosis” as a clinical diagnosis very meaningful, or is it too far downstream from the biologically important disease process? will genetics help us to understand the biologic basis of the similarities and differences between individuals diagnosed with proteinuric disease? will genetic testing help guide our therapy? these questions are clinically significant. fsgs, broadly defined as a pattern of injury, is a major cause of renal failure and is increasing in frequency ( ). we need to know how many biologically distinct diseases cause the histopathology we call fsgs and how best to distinguish these diseases to determine how best to treat patients whose biopsies show this lesion. certainly fsgs and non-glomerulosclerotic disorders of the podocyte are complex and overlapping phenotypes involving the interplay of genetic and environmental factors. here we will review recent progress in the understanding of the genetic basis of fsgs and ns. the forms of fsgs we will focus on in our discussion here belong to that subset of patients in whom the fsgs lesion is a downstream response to podocyte injury. mendelian genetics studies of mendelian forms of disease have provided (and will continue to provide) some of the most novel insights into the mechanisms of human disease. clinicians have observed familial aggregation of proteinuric disease for quite some time, though recognition of these entities have not been widespread. for over half a century, there have been scattered reports in the medical literature of familial nephrosis ( ). four siblings with nephrotic syndrome were described in a report ( ). pa- thology showed minimal change disease in some children, fsgs in others. the absence of disease in the parents sug- gested recessive inheritance. additional scattered reports of both single-generation and multigeneration disease have con- tinued to appear in the case literature ( – ). of course, familial disease is not always inherited; multiple members of a family may be exposed to the same environmental insults. however, recent studies of mendelian disease have begun to clarify the clinical spectrum of the group of disorders that make up familial fsgs and familial nephrotic syndromes. studies in- volving genetic manipulations in mice have identified addi- tional genes involved in regulating the normal podocyte phe- notype and in the development of fsgs. in the last several years, entirely novel proteins have been identified by purely positional genetic approaches taken to identify the most up- stream cause of two childhood forms of nephrotic syndrome (table ). genetics congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type (cnf), a disease of in fact widespread geographical distribution, is characterized by autosomal recessive inheritance and the de- velopment of severe nephrosis in utero ( ). the nephrosis in cnf is massive; neonates have on the order of to g/d proteinuria and typically die from nephrotic complications (rather than renal failure) at a young age unless nephrectomy and renal transplantation are performed. in the absence of renal transplantation, mortality approaches %. infection, growth retardation, prematurity, and the development of renal insuffi- ciency are common ( ). obligate heterozygotes (parents of cnf infants) have no apparent phenotype, though prenatal proteinuria (evidenced by elevated afp) is observed in a substantial number of heterozygotes. kestila et al. ( ) mapped the cnf gene to chromosome q by means of a genome-wide linkage analysis. subse- quently, nphs , the cnf gene, was cloned by positional methods ( , ). the nphs gene spans kb of genomic dna and contains exons ( ). the gene product, called nephrin, is a -kd protein containing eight ig c motifs, a fibronectin iii-like domain, and a single transmembrane seg- correspondence to dr. martin r. pollak, renal division, brigham and wom- en’s hospital, ave louis pasteur, boston, ma . phone: - - ; fax: - - ; e-mail: mpollak@rics.bwh.harvard.edu - / - journal of the american society of nephrology copyright © by the american society of nephrology doi: . / .asn. . . e j am soc nephrol : – , ment. nephrin is predominantly expressed in the podocyte, where it localizes to the slit diaphragm ( – ). evidence now suggests a role for nephrin in regulating signaling pathways. nephrin activation can stimulate mitogen- activated protein kinases, and this signaling is enhanced by podocin (see below) ( ). localization to the signaling do- mains known as lipid rafts has been demonstrated ( , ). two nphs mutations, termed fin major (the deletion of nucleotides to leading to a frameshift) and fin minor (encoding a premature termination signal at amino acid ) cause most of the congenital nephrotic syndrome in finland. however, a long and growing list of disease-associated muta- tions exists and includes missense and splicing as well as truncation mutations ( – ). defective nephrin trafficking has been demonstrated experimentally for some nephrin mu- tations ( ). frank disease is evident only in individuals with defects in both nephrin alleles. however, in utero proteinuria has been described in heterozygotes for nephrin mutations ( ). in addition to the high prevalence in finland, nphs mutations are common in mennonites in lancaster county, pennsylvania ( ). in the groffdale conference mennonites, the incidence is in live births, and % of this population carry a mutant nphs allelle. in a significant fraction of affected children, the develop- ment of less severe proteinuria is observed post-renal trans- plantation. in recent studies, ns developed in to % of kidneys transplanted into finnish children with cnf. a high percentage of these patients displayed anti-glomerular and anti-nephrin antibodies ( , ). the development of anti-neph- rin antibodies is certainly a plausible disease mechanism, as the nephrosis-inducing monoclonal antibody mab - - has been shown to identify the extracellular domain of nephrin ( ). the ability to perform antenatal diagnosis of cnf is much improved with the identification of nphs . in finland, where cnf is frequent, high concentrations of alpha-fetoprotein have traditionally been used for prenatal diagnosis of cnf. how- ever, prenatal proteinuria and elevated afp is observed in fetuses both heterozygous and homozygous for nphs defects ( ). particularly in finland, where two mutations account for % of disease, testing for just these two alleles can provide a low-cost and highly sensitive screening test. carrier status of the fin major and fin minor alleles can be easily identified before conception, and prenatal testing offered if appropriate. like humans with two mutant nphs alleles, mice homozy- gous for targeted disruption of nephrin have neonatal nephrosis ( – ). interestingly, nephrin knockout mice initially show fairly normal-appearing podocytes despite abnormal-appearing slit diaphragms, suggesting that nephrin’s primary role is func- tional rather than developmental ( ). familial ns: recessive a distinct form of ns was described by fuchshuber et al. ( , ) characterized by recessive disease, early onset, resis- tance to steroid therapy, and rapid progression to end-stage kidney failure. most affected children showed an fsgs pattern on renal biopsy, though some showed minimal change disease (mcd). the gene for this second recessive podocytopathy was mapped to chromosome q – and subsequently cloned. the responsible gene, nphs , encodes a membrane protein named podocin. podocin is predicted to encode a –amino acid integral membrane protein of approximately kd. it exhibits homology to stomatin family proteins and mec- , part of the mechanosensing apparatus of c. elegans, thought to link ion channels to the cytoskeleton ( ). podocin has been localized to the slit diaphragm and has now been shown to interact directly with nephrin ( , , , ). the nphs gene is encoded by eight exons. this relatively small number facilitates mutational analysis of human dna. several papers have helped define the mutational spectrum of nphs -associated disease. a substantial number of the re- ported mutations encode truncated proteins, suggesting that disease results from a loss of function of nphs ( – ). most affected individuals in these reports presented with dis- ease in early childhood. r q appears to be a common disease-causing variant, and has been observed in several fam- ilies without recent common ancestors. r x seems to be particularly common in arab-israeli children with steroid- resistant nephrosis ( ). podocin is responsible for disease in a sizable fraction of both familial and nonfamilial instances of childhood-onset recessive fsgs. fuchshuber et al. ( , ) found nphs mu- tations in % of such families. recent studies suggest that nphs mutations underlie disease in to % of children with sporadic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. a recent report described assays of glomerular permeability in five patients with recessive nphs -associated ns ( ). plasma permeability activity was high in all cases. on the basis of assays performed on urine, the authors concluded that there is loss of plasma permeability inhibitors in these individuals. two of four patients receiving a renal allograft had recurrent proteinuria that responded to treatment with plasmapheresis. this observation complicates our interpretation of glomerular table . known genes for non-syndromic podocytopathies disease locus inheritance gene protein mimnumber* reference congenital nephrotic syndrome q . ar nphs nephrin [ ] steroid-resistant ns q - ar nphs podocin [ ] fsgs q ad actn �-actinin- [ ] a mendelian inheritance in man number. j am soc nephrol : – , inherited podocytopathies permeability assays, as they suggest that alterations in this activity may be an effect, in addition to being a cause, of ns. it also illustrates that while recurrent fsgs is more rare in familial forms of disease, it does occur. growing evidence suggests a podocin-nephrin interaction at both a protein-protein and at a genetic level. direct physical interactions have been demonstrated ( , ). there is also evidence of a genetic interaction. koziell et al. ( ) have presented genetic data suggesting that the presence of a single nphs may modify the course of nphs -associated congen- ital nephrosis. recessive steroid-resistant ns is genetically heterogeneous. in their initial article mapping srn to chromosome q – , fuchshuber et al. ( ) identified one large family unlinked to this locus. our own unpublished data also suggests heteroge- neity in recessive disease. given the existence of several re- cessive loci for ns in mice, genetic heterogeneity in human disease is not surprising. electron micrographs from patients with actn and nphs associated disease are shown in figure . steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome fuchshuber et al. ( ) recently reported a group of families with familial steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome and ap- parent autosomal recessive inheritance. age of onset is typi- cally low, with a median age of onset at . yr in this report. exclusion of nphs as a cause for disease demonstrated that this disease is biologically and genetically distinct from the other forms of recessive childhood nephrosis. it is unknown whether this disease is a primary podocytopathy versus an extrarenal abnormality (e.g., an inherited t cell disorder). autosomal dominant disease autosomal dominant forms of fsgs are typically of later onset and more slowly progressive than recessive forms ( – ). two genetic loci have been identified, but these loci seem to be responsible for only a fraction of dominant disease. mutations in actn , the �-actinin- gene, cause a slowly progressive form of disease characterized by dominant inher- itance, generally subnephrotic proteinuria, and renal insuffi- ciency. the penetrance of actn -associated disease is high but not %; in these families, a small number of individuals carry disease-associated mutations but have no proteinuria or renal insufficiency. actn is one of four actinin genes. the four genes encode highly homologous proteins, which are biochemically similar (except for the difference in the calcium sensitivity of a c- terminal ef hand). the �-actinins all encode approximately -kd head-to-tail homodimers. actn is the only actinin significantly expressed in the human glomerulus ( ). the identified actn mutations are all missense, and increase the affinity of the encoded protein to filamentous actin ( ). �-ac- tinin/actin affinity affects mechanical properties of actin gels, these mutations, among other effects, may alter the mechanical properties of the podocyte ( ). this form of disease appears to be more rare than nphs - and nphs -associated nephrosis. most families with autosomal dominant fsgs do not map to actn . winn et al. ( ) mapped a family with dominant disease to chromosome q. most families large enough for mendelian genetic methods to be useful exclude both the actn locus on chromosome q and this q locus. it is unknown whether or not disease in most of these families is due to inherited podocyte defects or defects in genes which alter the response to some primary injury (e.g., mediators of cell growth, cell division, fibrosis, etc.) syndromic disease podocyte disease is also seen as part of well-defined inher- ited syndromes. the best described of these is the spectrum of disease seen with wt mutations. wt , a transcription factor, was positionally cloned on the basis of its role in the develop- ment of wilms tumor ( , ). frasier syndrome and denys- drash syndrome are related and overlapping syndromes caused by mutations in wt ( – ). both syndromes are character- ized by the development of male pseudohermaphroditism and glomerular disease. frasier syndrome is caused by donor splice mutations in intron of wt . an fsgs pattern is seen on renal biopsy. frasier syndrome can present as fsgs in ,xx females in association with gonadal malignancy ( , ). wt mutations do not appear to be a significant cause of isolated glomerular disease in the absence of other genitourinary fea- tures ( ). denys-drash syndrome (dds) is a related disorder characterized by diffuse mesangial sclerosis on renal biopsy, genitourinary tumors, and pseudohermaphroditism. a different spectrum of mutations is associated with dds, most com- monly in exon of the wt gene ( , ). although nail-patella syndrome is typically thought of as a disease of the basement membrane rather than the podocyte, it is probably both. individuals with this autosomal dominant disorder typically demonstrate dysplastic nails, absent or hyp- oplastic patellae, and nephropathy. although altered gbm typically predominates on histologic analysis, the renal disease is highly variable and can present as nephrotic syndrome ( ). the responsible gene is the lmx b transcription factor ( , ). lmx b contributes to the transcriptional regulation of matrix proteins by the podocyte ( , ) as well as regulation of the figure . electron micrographs from fsgs patients with (a) two mutant nphs (podocin) alleles and (b) one mutant actn allele. em (a) courtesy of drs. bernard kaplan and pierre russo. em (b) courtesy of dr. helmut rennke. journal of the american society of nephrology j am soc nephrol : – , podocyte genes cd ap and nphs ( , ). other rare inher- ited syndromes are associated with an increased incidence of fsgs lesions. charcot-marie tooth disease ( ) and the gal- loway-mowat syndrome ( ) are both forms of inherited neu- ropathy in which nephrosis and/or fsgs are seen with in- creased frequency. the possible and the actual: animal models observing natural variation in humans helps elucidate the actual causes of disease that may have developed as past mutational “accidents.” understanding this variation helps un- derstand disease pathways, even when these variations are quite rare. on the other hand, experiments in model organisms (like mice) allow us to investigate the role of genes and gene products in biologic pathways, whether or not actual genetic variation in these genes mediate human disease. multiple genes have been identified that encode products critical to the normal podocyte phenotype in mice. mice with a targeted disruption of cd ap develop severe nephrosis. cd ap was originally identified as an approxi- mately -kd sh domain-containing protein involved in sta- bilizing contacts between t cells and antigen-presenting cells ( ). however, the major phenotype in cd ap deficient mice is renal; mice die at to wk from kidney failure. histology shows podocyte foot process effacement, mesangial cell hy- perplasia, and glomerulosclerosis ( ). cd ap localizes to the slit diaphragm and directly interacts with the c-terminal por- tion of nephrin ( , ). together, these results support a role for cd ap in mediating nephrin signaling. mice lacking neph , a nephrin homolog sharing structural features as well as high renal expression with nephrin, develop severe nephrosis and die perinatally ( ). electron microscopy studies showed podocyte expression of neph , and, in neph -deficient mice, diffusely effaced foot processes. other nephrin homologs may be similarly important in slit diaphragm function. studies of nephrin family members in model organ- ism (e.g., hibris and sticks-and-stones in drosophila [ , ]) may help clarify the biology of these molecules. despite the high degree of homology, human and mouse genetics suggests that the functions of these molecules are non-redundant. a variety of other mouse models develop podocyte abnor- malities. mice deficient in rhogdi�, a regulator of the rho gdp dissociation inhibitor family, develop massive nephrosis ( ). the importance of the rho pathway in mediating cy- toskeletal rearrangements again points to a disregulated cy- tokeleton as the cause of this phenotype. mice deficient in fyn, a member of the src family of tyrosine kinases, develop a lymphocyte-independent form of proteinuria ( ). mice with an interruption in the mpv gene, which encodes a preoxi- somal protein that resulates mmp production, develop fsgs ( – ). podocalyxin-deficient mice exhibit multiple renal and nonrenal abnormalities, including failure of the podocytes to form foot processes ( ). mice deficient in glepp , a tyrosine phosphatase on the podocyte surface, have severely altered podocyte morphology. foot processes are widened, intermediate filament distribution is altered, and mice have lower gfr despite the absence of albuminuria. this model in particular supports the notion that specific and separable func- tions can be assigned to the various gene products that cause mouse and human podocytopathies ( ). tgf-� transgenic mice have increased plasma levels of tgf-� and exhibit glomerulosclerosis ( ). although the pri- mary defect is not in the podocyte, podocyte depletion appears in these mice as a direct effect of smad -amplified tgf-� signaling ( ). thus, podocyte damage may not just initiate fibrotic pathways, their structure may be directly affected as well, accelerating the process. a variety of rat models develop proteinuria and progressive kidney disease. among the most interesting is the buffalo/mna rat. these rats develop proteinuria and fsgs histology at mo of age. disease recurs in transplanted kidneys; however, when buf/mna serve as kidney donors, the glomerulopathy regresses ( ). one locus partially responsible for the glomerulopathy has been mapped to a region of rat chromosome named pur and partially overlaps the rat region syntenic to the nphs locus ( ). these rats also develop thymoma and anti-ryanodine receptor antibodies. this phenotype supports the notion that a circulating factor is responsible for the kidney lesion. genetic differences that alter the activity of a circulat- ing factor in rats increase the suspicion that variation in genes involved in the encoding or the metabolism of such factor(s) may also be important in human disease ( , ). genetic models relevant to ns/fsgs are not limited to rodents. for example, a very high percentage of cheetahs, a species with minimal genetic diversity, develop glomeruloscle- rosis and renal failure ( ). secondary disease the role of human podocytopathy genes in acquired disease is a subject of ongoing investigation. some of these studies have noted increased nephrin expression in specific animal models of disease, others decreased expression in a different set of models ( – ). results from human studies have not yet provided a clear unifying picture of the nature and role of nephrin expression in acquired glomerular disease ( , ). clinical spectrum of disease why do different defects in the podocyte lead to different clinical presentations? nphs -, nphs -, and actn -associ- ated disease forms a spectrum from onset before birth, to childhood onset, to adult onset disease. one simple hypothesis to explain the clinical presentations could be presented essen- tially as follows. severe structural defects in the podocyte (e.g., no nephrin) present as severe nephrosis; individuals with more subtle defects in the podocyte (e.g., �-actinin- mutations) present with chronic, milder proteinuria, and the secondary glomerulosclerotic response is the major clinically apparent phenotype. this is not the only reasonable hypothesis, how- ever. perhaps mutations in fsgs genes perturb a different biologic pathway than ns genes. this possibility is raised by the suggestion that patients with two defective nphs alleles and a third mutation in nphs show a congenital fsgs phenotype, rather than simple congenital ns ( ). some genes may encode proteins whose major (or sole) function is to j am soc nephrol : – , inherited podocytopathies maintain the glomerular filtration barrier, whereas others en- code proteins that function primarily to establish or maintain the normal podocyte architecture. this may still oversimplify the situation; some genes that affect the filtration barrier may also, to greater or lesser extent, alter the podocyte’s production of gbm matrix proteins, accounting for variations in sclerosis. furthermore, differences in genes encoding members of other biologic pathways, as well as differences in environmental factors, may introduce further phenotypic variability. sporadic fsgs we are left with the basic question: what causes “typical” fsgs and mcd? how much is genetic? it is now clear that a significant fraction of sporadic fsgs in children is due to nphs mutations. it is important to emphasize that a clinician cannot say on clinical grounds that a given sporadic (e.g., nonfamilial) case of ns/fsgs is not inherited. this point simply reflects the fact that in most families without large sibships, recessive disease will be apparent in only one child. in addition, a sizable subset of “sporadic” disease may turn out to be oligogenic, due to combined defects in a few different genes. it is still reasonable to assume that most podocytopathies are not inherited as mendelian traits. complex genetic factors are undoubtedly critical to the development of non-mendelian podocyte disease, including disease triggered by environmental factors. it has been suggested, for example, that parvovirus infection is associated with the development of fsgs ( , ). hiv infection is associated with a distinct podocytopathy (see review by ross and klotman in this issue [ ]). we will ultimately need to explain why some people with hiv infec- tion (and perhaps parvovirus) develop disease and others do not. it may be the case that some moderately frequent variants in podocyte proteins alter the response of these cells to an altered immune function, or the podocytes themselves demon- strate genetically mediated variation in susceptibility to direct insults. implications for clinical care prenatal diagnosis is theoretically possible for any inherited disease with known genetic basis. certainly, nphs -associ- ated disease appears to be a frequent enough cause of child- hood disease to make such testing useful. as noted above, clinical prenatal testing for cnf alleles has already been shown to be a useful tool. the utility of nphs testing to determine response to treatment still needs to be verified. nphs was cloned on the basis of a shared steroid-resistant phenotype within families. while the nature of the nphs product, podocin, strengthens the hypothesis that nphs -as- sociated disease will be steroid-resistant, this needs verification by testing steroid-sensitive populations of sporadic ns. if ns individuals with two mutant nphs alleles are, as a rule, steroid-resistant, then genetic testing will be of great value in tailoring therapy. the societal value of genetic testing for other podocytopathies will depend on the frequency of these forms of disease as well as their implications for response to specific treatments. future genetics of the podocyte what is the role of the podocyte and inherited variation in podocyte proteins in common disease? does the human vari- ation in response to primary insults (such as diabetes, hyper- tension, reflux) involve common differences in genes that regulate podocyte structure and function? it seems reasonable to hypothesize that variations in some genes are involved in the (heritable) response to podocyte injury, while other genetic variation causes altered podocyte function directly. progress in the genetic and biologic understanding of inherited podocyto- pathies will continue. ultimately, we may regard much of the ns/fsgs group of diseases as a collection of inherited defects in the podocyte, as well as perhaps the immune system and genes involved in the response to injury. we can hope such progress will aid the development of novel, biologically based, and genetically targeted therapies that will be tested in rigorous clinical trials. references . ichikawa i, fogo a: focal segmental glomerulsoclerosis. pediatr nephrol : – , . werner m: handbuch der erbbiologie, berlin, springer, . vernier rl, brunson j, good ra: studies on familial nephrosis. am j dis child : , . fanconi g, kousmine c, frischknecht w: die konstitutionelle bereitschaft zum nephrosesyndrome. helv paediatr acta , - , . tejani a, nicastri a, phadke k, sen d, adamson o, dunn i, calderon p: familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. int j pediatr nephrol : – , . conlon pj, butterly d, albers f, gunnels jc, howell dn: clinical and pathologic features of familial focal segmental glo- merulosclerosis. am j kidney dis : – , . moncrieff mw, white rh, glasgow ef, mh winterborn, cam- eron js, ogg cs: the familial nephrotic syndrome. ii. a clini- copathological study. clin nephrol : – , . mehls o, scharer k: familial nephrotic syndrome. monatsschr kinderheilkd : – , . faubert pf, porush jg, familial focal segmental glomeruloscle- rosis: nine cases in four families and review of the literature. am j kidney dis : – , . rapola j, congenital nephrotic syndrome. pediatr nephrol : – , . srivastava t., whiting jm, garola re, dasouki mj, ruot- salainen v, tryggvason k, hamed r, alon us: podocyte pro- teins in galloway-mowat syndrome. pediatr nephrol. : – , . kestila m, mannikko m, holmberg c, gyapay g, weissenbach j, savolainen er, peltonen l, tryggvason k: congenital ne- phrotic syndrome of the finnish type maps to the long arm of chromosome . am j hum genet : – , . mannikko m, kestila m, holmberg c, norio r, ryynanen m, olsen a, peltonen l, tryggvason k: fine mapping and haplo- type analysis of the locus for congenital nephrotic syndrome on chromosome q . . am j hum genet : – , . kestila m, lenkerri u, mannikko m, lamerdin j, mccready p, putaala h, ruotsalainen v, morita t, nissinan m, herva r, kashtan c, peltonen l, holmberg c, olsen a, tryggvason k: positionally cloned gene for a novel glomerular protein - nephrin journal of the american society of nephrology j am soc nephrol : – , - is mutated in congenital nephrotic syndrome. molecular cell : – , . lenkkeri u, mannikko m, mccready p, lamerdin j, gribouval o, niaudet pm, antignac ck, kashtan ce, homberg c, olsen a, kestila m, tryggvason k: structure of the gene for congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type (nphs ) and character- ization of mutations. am j hum genet : – , . holzman lb, st. john pl, kovari ia, verma r, holthofer h, abrahamson dr: nephrin localizes to the slit pore of the glo- merular epithelial cell. kidney int : – , . holthofer h, ahola h, solin ml, wang s, palmen t, luimula p, miettinen a, kerjaschki d: nephrin localizes at the podocyte filtration slit area and is characteristically spliced in the human kidney. am j pathol : – , . ruotsalainen v, ljungberg p, wartiovaara j, lenkkeri u, kestila m, jalanko h, holmberg c, tryggvason k: nephrin is specifi- cally located at the slit diaphragm of glomerular podocytes. proc natl acad sci usa : – , . schwarz k, simons m, reiser j, saleem ma, faul c, kriz w, shaw as, holzman lb, mundel p: podocin, a raft-associated component of the glomerular slit diaphragm, interacts with cd ap and nephrin. j clin invest : – , . huber tb, kottgen m, schilling b, walz g, benzing t: inter- action with podocin facilitates nephrin signaling. j biol chem : – , . simons m, schwarz k, kriz w, miettinen a, reiser j, mundel p, holthofer h: involvement of lipid rafts in nephrin phosphor- ylation and organization of the glomerular slit diaphragm. am j pathol : – , . patrakka j, kestila m, wartiovaara j, ruotsalainen v, tissari p, lenkkeri u, mannikko m, visapaa i, holmberg c, rapola j, tryggvason k, jalanko h: congenital nephrotic syndrome (nphs ): features resulting from different mutations in finnish patients [in process citation]. kidney int : – , . beltcheva o, martin p, lenkkeri u, tryggvason k: mutation spectrum in the nephrin gene (nphs ) in congenital nephrotic syndrome. hum mutat : – , . koziell a, grech v, hussain s, lee g, lenkkeri u, tryggvason k, scambler p: genotype/phenotype correlations of nphs and nphs mutations in nephrotic syndrome advocate a functional inter-relationship in glomerular filtration. hum mol genet : – , . aya k, tanaka h, seino y: novel mutation in the nephrin gene of a japanese patient with congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type. kidney int : – , . liu l, done sc, khoshnoodi j, bertorello a, wartiovaara j, berggren po, tryggvason k: defective nephrin trafficking caused by missense mutations in the nphs gene: insight into the mechanisms of congenital nephrotic syndrome. hum mol genet : – , . patrakka j, martin p, salonen r, kestila m, ruotsalainen v, mannikko m, ryynanen m, rapola j, holmberg c, tryggvason k, jalanko h: proteinuria and prenatal diagnosis of congenital nephrosis in fetal carriers of nephrin gene mutations. lancet : – , . bolk s, puffenberger eg, hudson j, morton dh, chakravarti a: elevated frequency and allelic heterogeneity of congenital ne- phrotic syndrome, finnish type, in the old order mennonites [letter]. am j hum genet : – , . patrakka j, ruotsalainen v, reponen p, qvist e, laine j, holm- berg c, tryggvason k, jalanko h: recurrence of nephrotic syndrome in kidney grafts of patients with congenital nephrotic syndrome of the finnish type: role of nephrin. transplantation : – , . wang sx, ahola h, palmen t, solin ml, luimula p, holthofer h: recurrence of nephrotic syndrome after transplantation in cnf is due to autoantibodies to nephrin. exp nephrol : – , . topham ps, kawachi h, haydar sa, chugh s, addona ta, charron kb, holzman lb, shia m, shimizu f, salant dj: nephritogenic mab – - is directed at the extracellular domain of rat nephrin. j clin invest : – , . rantanen m, palmen t, patari a, ahola h, lehtonen s, astrom e, floss t, vauti f, wurst w, ruiz p, kerjaschki d, holthofer h: nephrin trap mice lack slit diaphragms and show fi- brotic glomeruli and cystic tubular lesions. j am soc nephrol : – , . putaala h, soininen r, kilpelainen p, wartiovaara j, tryggvason k: the murine nephrin gene is specifically expressed in kidney, brain and pancreas: inactivation of the gene leads to massive proteinuria and neonatal death. hum mol genet : – , . hamano y, grunkemeyer ja, sudhakar a, zeisberg m, cos- grove d, morello r, lee b, sugimoto h, kalluri r: determi- nants of vascular permeability in the kidney glomerulus. j biol chem , in press . fuchshuber a, jean g, gribouval o, gubler mc, broyer m, beckmann js, niaudet p, antignac c: mapping a gene (srn ) to chromosome q -q in idiopathic nephrotic syndrome con- firms a distinct entity of autosomal recessive nephrosis. hum mol genet : – , . boute n, gribouval o, roselli s, benessy f, lee h, fuchshuber a, dahan k, gubler mc, niaudet p, antignac c: nphs , encoding the glomerular protein podocin, is mutated in autoso- mal recessive steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. nat genet : – , . huang m, gu g, ferguson el, chalfie m: a stomatin-like protein necessary for mechanosensation in c. elegans. nature : – , . roselli s, gribouval o, boute n, sich m, benessy f, attie t, gubler mc, antignac c: podocin localizes in the kidney to the slit diaphragm area. am j pathol : – , . palmen t, lehtonen s, ora a, kerjaschki d, antignac c, leh- tonen e, holthofer h: interaction of endogenous nephrin and cd -associated protein in mouse epithelial m- cell line. j am soc nephrol. : – , . frishberg y, rinat c, megged o, shapira e, feinstein s, raas- rothschild a: mutations in nphs encoding podocin are a prevalent cause of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome among israeli-arab children. j am soc nephrol : – , . fuchshuber a, gribouval o, ronner v, kroiss s, karle s, brandis m, hildebrandt f: clinical and genetic evaluation of familial steroid-responsive nephrotic syndrome in childhood. j am soc nephrol. : – , . wu mc, wu jy, lee cc, tsai ch, tsai fj: a novel polymor- phism (c c�t) of the nphs gene identified in a taiwan chinese family. hum mutat : – , . wu mc, wu jy, lee cc, tsai ch, tsai fj: two novel poly- morphisms (c t�c and c a�g) in exon of nphs gene identified in taiwan chinese. hum mutat : , . caridi g, bertelli r, carrea a, di dm, catarsi p, artero m, carraro m, zennaro c, candiano g, musante l, seri m, ginevri f, perfumo f, ghiggeri gm: prevalence, genetics, and clinical features of patients carrying podocin mutations in steroid-resis- j am soc nephrol : – , inherited podocytopathies tant nonfamilial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. j am soc nephrol : – , . karle sm, uetz b, ronner v, glaeser l, hildebrandt f, fuchs- huber a: novel mutations in nphs detected in both familial and sporadic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. j am soc nephrol : – , . carraro m, caridi g, bruschi m, artero m, bertelli r, zennaro c, musante l, candiano g, perfumo f, ghiggeri gm: serum glomerular permeability activity in patients with podocin muta- tions (nphs ) and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. j am soc nephrol. , – , . conlon pj, lynn k, winn mp, quarles ld, bembe ml, pericak- vance m, speer m, howell dn: spectrum of disease in familial focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. kidney int : – , . mathis bj, kim sh, calabrese k, haas m, seidman jg, seidman de, pollak mr: a locus for inherited focal segmental glomeru- losclerosis maps to chromosome q : rapid communication. kidney int : – , . vats a, nayak a, ellis d, randhawa ps, finegold dn, levinson kl, ferrell re: familial nephrotic syndrome: clinical spectrum and linkage to chromosome q . kidney int : – , . kaplan jm, kim sh, north kn, rennke h, correia la, tong hq, mathis bj, rodriguez-perez jc, allen pg, beggs ah, pollak mr: mutations in actn , encoding alpha-actinin- , cause familial focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. nat genet : – , . wachsstock dh, schwartz wh, pollard td: affinity of alpha- actinin for actin determines the structure and mechanical prop- erties of actin filament gels. biophys j : – , . winn mp, conlon pj, lynn kl, howell dn, slotterbeck bd, smith ah, graham fl, bembe m, quarles ld, pericak-vance ma, vence jm: linkage of a gene causing familial focal seg- mental glomerulosclerosis to chromosome and further evi- dence of genetic heterogeneity. genomics : – , . haber da, buckler aj, glaser t, call km, pelletier j, sohn rl, douglass ec, housman de: an internal deletion within an p zinc finger gene contributes to the development of wilms’ tumor. cell : – , . gessler m, poustka a, cavenee w, neve rl, orkin sh, bruns ga: homozygous deletion in wilms tumours of a zinc-finger gene identified by chromosome jumping. nature : – , . pelletier j, bruening w, kashtan ce, mauer sm, manivel jc, striegel je, houghton dc, junien c, habib r, fouser l: germ- line mutations in the wilms’ tumor suppressor gene are associ- ated with abnormal urogenital development in denys-drash syn- drome. cell : – , . mctaggart sj, algar e, chow cw, powell hr, jones cl: clinical spectrum of denys-drash and frasier syndrome. pediatr nephrol : – , . barbaux s, niaudet p, gubler mc, grunfeld jp, jaubert f, kuttenn f, fekete cn, souleyreau-therville n: donor splice-site mutations in wt are responsible for frasier syndrome. nat genet : – , . klamt b, koziell a, poulat f, wieacker p, scambler p, berta p, gessler m: frasier syndrome is caused by defective alternative splicing of wt leading to an altered ratio of wt �/-kts splice isoforms. hum mol genet : – , . demmer l, primack w, loik v, brown r, therville n, mcel- reavey k: frasier syndrome: a cause of focal segmental glomer- ulosclerosis in a , xx female. j am soc nephrol : – , . denamur e, bocquet n, mougenot b, da silva r, martinat l, loirat c, elion j, bensman a, ronco pm: mother-to-child transmitted wt splice-site mutation is responsible for distinct glomerular diseases. j am soc nephrol : – , . denamur e, bocquet n, baudouin v, da silva f, veitia r, peuchmaur m, elion j, gubler mc, fellous m, niaudet p, loirat c: wt splice-site mutations are rarely associated with primary steroid- resistant focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis. kidney int : – , . schumacher v., scharer k, wuhl e, altrogge h, bonzel ke, guschmann m, neuhaus tj, pollastro rm, kuwertz-broking e, bulla m, tondera am, mundel p, helmchen u, waldherr r, weirich a, royer-pokora b: spectrum of early onset nephrotic syndrome associated with wt missense mutations. kidney int : – , . simila s, vesa l, wasz-hockert o: hereditary onycho-osteodys- plasia (the nail-patella syndrome) with nephrosis-like renal dis- ease in a newborn boy. pediatrics : – , . dreyer sd, zhou g, baldini a, winterpacht a, zabel b, cole w, johnson rl, lee b: mutations in lmx b cause abnormal skel- etal patterning and renal dysplasia in nail patella syndrome. nat genet : – , . chen h, lun y, ovchinnikov d, kokubo h, oberg kc, pepicelli cv, gan l, lee b, johnson rl: limb and kidney defects in lmx b mutant mice suggest an involvement of lmx b in human nail patella syndrome. nat genet : – , . morello r, zhou g, dreyer sd, harvey sj, ninomiya y, thor- ner ps, miner jh, cole w, winterpacht a, zabel b, oberg kc, lee b: regulation of glomerular basement membrane collagen expression by lmx b contributes to renal disease in nail patella syndrome. nat genet : – , . morello r, lee b: insight into podocyte differentiation from the study of human genetic disease: nail-patella syndrome and tran- scriptional regulation in podocytes. pediatr res : – , . miner jh, morello r, andrews kl, li c, antignac c, shaw as, lee b: transcriptional induction of slit diaphragm genes by lmx b is required in podocyte differentiation. j clin invest : – , . rohr c, prestel j, heidet l, hosser h, kriz w, johnson rl, antignac c, witzgall r: the lim-homeodomain transcription factor lmx b plays a crucial role in podocytes. j clin invest : – , . chance pf, fishbeck kj: molecular genetics of charcot-marie- tooth disease and related neuropathies. hum mol genet spec. no: – , . cohen ah, turner mc: kidney in galloway-mowat syndrome: clinical spectrum with description of pathology. kidney int. : – , . dustin ml, olszowy mw, holdorf ad, li j, bromley s, desai n, widder p, rosenberger f, van der merwe pa, allen pn, shaw as: a novel adaptor protein orchestrates receptor pattern- ing and cytoskeletal polarity in t-cell contacts. cell : – , . shih ny, li j, karpitskii v, nguyen a, dustin ml, kanagawa o, miner jh, shaw as: congenital nephrotic syndrome in mice lacking cd -associated protein [see comments]. science : – , journal of the american society of nephrology j am soc nephrol : – , . shih ny, li j, cotran r, mundel p, miner jh, shaw as: cd ap localizes to the slit diaphragm and binds to nephrin via a novel c-terminal domain. am j pathol : – , . donoviel db, freed dd, vogel h, potter dg, hawkins e, barrish jp, mathur bn, turner ca, geske r, montgomery ca, starbuck m, brandt m, gupta a, ramirez-solis r, zambrowicz bp, powell dr: proteinuria and perinatal lethality in mice lack- ing neph , a novel protein with homology to nephrin. mol cell biol : – , . artero rd, castanon i, baylies mk: the immunoglobulin-like protein hibris functions as a dose-dependent regulator of myo- blast fusion and is differentially controlled by ras and notch signaling. development : – , . dworak ha, charles ma, pellerano lb, sink h: characteriza- tion of drosophila hibris, a gene related to human nephrin. development : – , . togawa a, miyoshi j, ishizaki h, tanaka m, takakura a, nishioka h, yoshida h, doi t, mizoguchi a, matsuura n, niho y, nishimune y, nishikawa s, takai y: progressive impairment of kidneys and reproductive organs in mice lacking rho gdial- pha. oncogene : – , . yu cc, yen ts, lowell ca, defranco al: lupus-like kidney disease in mice deficient in the src family tyrosine kinases lyn and fyn. curr biol. : – , . weiher h, noda t, gray da, sharpe ah, jaenisch r: trans- genic mouse model of kidney disease: insertional inactivation of ubiquitously expressed gene leads to nephrotic syndrome. cell : – , . reuter a, nestl a, zwacka rm, tuckermann j, waldherr r, wagner em, hoyhtya m, meyer zum gottesberge am, angel p, weiher h: expression of the recessive glomerulosclerosis gene mpv regulates mmp- expression in fibroblasts, the kidney, and the inner ear of mice. mol biol cell : – , . zwacka rm, reuter a, pfaff e, moll j, gorgas k, karasawa m, weiher h: the glomerulosclerosis gene mpv encodes a peroxisomal protein producing reactive oxygen species. embo j : – , . doyonnas r, kershaw db, duhme c, merkens h, chelliah s, graf t, mcnagny km: anuria, omphalocele, and perinatal le- thality in mice lacking the cd -related protein podocalyxin. j exp med : – , . wharram bl, goyal m, gillespie pj, wiggins je, kershaw db, holzman lb, dysko rc, saunders tl, samuelson lc, wiggins rc: altered podocyte structure in glepp (ptpro)-deficient mice associated with hypertension and low glomerular filtration rate. j clin invest : – , . kopp jb, factor vm, mozes m, nagy p, sanderson n, bottinger ep, klotman pe, thorgeirsson ss: transgenic mice with in- creased plasma levels of tgf-beta develop progressive renal disease. lab invest : – , . schiffer m, bitzer m, roberts is, kopp jb, ten bp, mundel p, bottinger ep: apoptosis in podocytes induced by tgf-beta and smad . j clin invest : – , . le bl, godfrin y, gunther e, buzelin f, perretto s, smit h, kerjaschki d, usal c, cuturi c, soulillou jp, dantal j: extrare- nal effects on the pathogenesis and relapse of idiopathic ne- phrotic syndrome in buffalo/mna rats. j clin invest : – , . murayama s, yagyu s, higo k, ye c, mizuno t, oyabu a, ito m, morita h, maeda k, serikawa t, matsuyama m: a genetic locus susceptible to the overt proteinuria in buf/mna rat. mamm genome : – , . savin vj, sharma r, sharma m, mccarthy et, swan sk, ellis e, lovell h, warady b, gunwar s, chonko am, artero m, vincenti f: circulating factor associated with increased glomer- ular permeability to albumin in recurrent focal segmental glo- merulosclerosis. n engl j med : – , . sharma m, sharma r, mccarthy et, savin vj: “the fsgs factor:” enrichment and in vivo effect of activity from focal segmental glomerulosclerosis plasma. j am soc nephrol : – , . bolton la, munson l: glomerulosclerosis in captive cheetahs (acinonyx jubatus). vet pathol : – , . luimula p, ahola h, wang sx, solin ml, aaltonen p, tikkanen i, kerjaschki d, holthofer h: nephrin in experimental glomer- ular disease. kidney int : – , . luimula p, sandstrom n, novikov d, holthofer h: podocyte- associated molecules in puromycin aminonucleoside nephrosis of the rat. lab invest : – , . yuan h, takeuchi e, taylor ga, mclaughlin m, brown d, salant dj: nephrin dissociates from actin, and its expression is reduced in early experimental membranous nephropathy. j am soc nephrol : – , . bonnet f, tikellis c, kawachi h, burns wc, wookey pj, cao z, cooper me: nephrin expression in the post-natal developing kidney in normotensive and hypertensive rats. clin exp hyper- tens : – , . bonnet f, cooper me, kawachi h, allen tj, boner g, cao z: irbesartan normalises the deficiency in glomerular nephrin ex- pression in a model of diabetes and hypertension. diabetologia : – , . patrakka j, ruotsalainen v, ketola i, holmberg c, heikinheimo m, tryggvason k, jalanko h: expression of nephrin in pediatric kidney diseases. j am soc nephrol : – , . doublier s, ruotsalainen v, salvidio g, lupia e, biancone l, conaldi pg, reponen p, tryggvason k, camussi g: nephrin redistribution on podocytes is a potential mechanism for protein- uria in patients with primary acquired nephrotic syndrome. am j pathol. : – , . tanawattanacharoen s, falk rj, jennette jc, kopp jb: parvo- virus b dna in kidney tissue of patients with focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. am j kidney dis : – , . moudgil a, nast cc, bagga a, wei l, nurmamet a, cohen ah, jordan sc, toyoda m: association of parvovirus b infection with idiopathic collapsing glomerulopathy. kidney int. : – , . ross md, klotman pe: recent progress in hiv nephropathy. j am soc nephrol : – , access to uptodate on-line is available for additional clinical information at http://www.jasn.org/ j am soc nephrol : – , inherited podocytopathies book reviews j. howard kauffman a n d l e o driedger, tlze merzlzorzite mosaic: identity nlzd model-rzization (scottdale: herald press, ). paperback, pages. in j. howard kauffman and leland harder published the results of the first major survey of north american mennonite and brethren in christ church members. melzrzolzite mosaic reports and interprets the data gathered in a second parallel survey in , seventeen years after the first study. with about two-thirds of the questions identical to those asked in , valid comparisons can be made and trends discerned. the five denominations studied in both surveys (mennonite church, general conference mennonite, mennonite brethren, brethren in christ, and evangelical mennonite church) include some , of the , baptized mennonites in north america. data were gathered from over members by a -page question- naire administered in group settings and analyzed with the aid of current computer technology. the survey developed a profile of religious beliefs, attitudes and practices of members of the participating denominations. in addition to validating and up-dating that profile, the study sought to identify trends "that would provide clues regarding the impact of modernization" ( , ). it also added questions to explore in-group identity, male-female roles, and other aspects not included in . most of the trends revealed by the study were not unexpected. mennonite brethren have changed most and brethren in christ least in the intervening years ( ). but "similarities between these five bodies [remain] more significant than their differences" ( ). and, of course, on most items the whole range of responses was represented in each denomination. the five groups are very close to each other when compared with the largerecumenical scene in north america. from time to time the authors make helpful comparisons of their findings with similar data from surveys of other religious bodies (e.g. reginald bibby in canada) or national samples (e.g. gallup poll). the tables provide a wealth of summarized data. the authors have presented this information in very accessible form and added helpful interpretation in each case. especially valuable are the tables of correlations made possible by computer analysis. conference and congregational leaders as well as those involved in mennonite educational and community organizations will benefit greatly from a study of the presented data. if the authors have not identified as many practical implications as some readers would like, the information is there to draw one's own conclusions. the study gives major attention to the impact of modernization. in an occasional lapse from social scientific detachment it even becomes the "onslaught" of modernization ( , ). relating it to technological society, the authors use five b o o k re iew.s dimensions or indicators of modernization: education, urbanization, mobility, occupational rank, and income. all five denominations have become more urban and increased in educational attainment since (mbs most; bics least); professional, business and clerical ranks have grown, while farm and labour segments are down: urbanization has increased mobility. that "objective" sense, then, mennonites have clearly modernized during the past years. an important question is how this nlodernization will have affectedmennon- ite identity: "beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviour" ( ). how far will it have led in the direction of greater secularization, individualism, and materialism ("con- comitants of modernization") as social theory predicts it should? the answer is unclear. in fact, contrary to expectation, higher education andsocio-economic status correlate negatively with secularism and individualism ( , ). sinularly surprising is the finding that the age distribution of those scoring high on all three concomitants of modernization is not lineas, but concave, with teenagers and the over group higher than the three intermediate groups ( ). this raises important questions for the authors. is the assumption that secularism, individualism, and materialism are concomitants of modernization wrong? do mennonites simply not fit the expected pattern? ( ) readers may further wonder: did the questionnaire gather adequate data, and were the scales of "secularism" etc., appropriately defined? to that the authors might well respond in the words of kauffman and harder in their report of the survey: of course, the validity of such findings depends much on the way the questions were asked and the scales defined. there is a sense, however, in which their meaning transcends the researchers' ability to control the instrument. church members responded to over three hundred questions and gave a wide range of answers on many subjects. when a conglomerate of information is fed into the computer and i t reports plus and minus correlations of various magnitudes, we are pushed to make sense of the reports whether or not we have defined the factors in advance (arlnbnptists fo~rr- cerlt~rr-ies later-, ). some interesting findings: scores on "devotionalism" were unchanged from ; ( ) opposition to abortion has significantly increased for all of the options offered, from pregnancy resulting from rape to "does not want baby;" ( ) farmers are the category in which the highest percentage has a household income below $ , ; ( ) males inore strongly support women in leadership roles than do females in of categories, from "worship leader" ( - %) to "conduct ordinations" ( - %)( ). chapter , comparing the five denominations, shows mcs and gcs to be the most compatible with each other, although fewer than one fourth of either group favours "uniting with another mennonite or bic group" ( ). in a number of areas there appears to be a considerable gap between attitude (what people believe) and behaviour (what they do). thus, % agreed that "members of our denomination should vote in public" elections ( % in ) but only % did so in recent years ( % in ) ( ). fifteen percent believed that youth should refuse to register with the draft, but only % would take that position if faced with the draft ( ). tables to in chapter show a consistent spread between "moral attitudes" and "moral behaviour," with attitudes generally but not always rating higher. the authors might have given more attention to this than their brief comments ( f). my few criticisms are not meant to detract from the value of this study. the historical contexts plrovided in the introduction of a number of the chapters are usually carefully stated. elsewhere imprecise remarksjar unnecessarily: e.g.that the evangelical mennonites split away from the "old" mennonites ( ) when the latter had been equated with the mcs on the previous page; or the curious juxtaposing of menno simons and thomas muentzer ( ) when menno and jan van leyden or even hubmaier would have been much more appropriate. similarly, survey results are usually interpreted carefully and precisely, avoiding unwarranted cause-effect language. elsewhere less care is evident: e.g. "with urbanization came greater interest in education" ( ) [vice versa?] or "agrarian lifestyle brought with it large extended families, strongly patriarchal." when the categories "liberal" and "conservative" are used in comparing mennonite groups or positions, the results are often unenlightening. kauffman and driedger ( of) introduce the terms carefully and give them specific content from the survey questions. even so it becomes problematic to identify those who hold strongly to pacifism as "liberal" ( ) when that belief is identified as a central element of anabaptist orthodoxy. identity and modernization may not have been the most central questions to address in this survey, as some of the ambiguous results suggest. nevertheless, the book contains an enormous wealth of information to stimulate further study, interpretation and extrapolation. it will undoubtedly become a basis for many important decisions within the five conference bodies in the decade ahead. adolf ens canadian mennonite bible college c.j.dyck, william e. keeney, and a.j.beachey, eds., tlze writings of dirk plzilips (classics of tlze radical refor~~zatio~z, volume ) ( scottdale and waterloo: herald press, ). pages. the writings of dirkphilips are generally little known, even though his name is familiar to students of mennonite history as an important co-worker of menno simons, and, as translators and editors have insisted, his writings are more accessible than those of menno in the sense of being more clearly written. in fact, dirkphilips (perhaps more correctly dirk philipsz) writings have been available in a useful translation since , that by a. kolb and published by j.f.funk (reprinted in bonk reliebc~s ). a german translati of the eizcl~iridioi~ oclei- hrrizrlduclzleii~ was published in the usa in i . it is chiefly this book that was made available in english by kolb. the editors of the classics series decided on anew translation of this work and others by dirk philips for several reasons, perhaps most importantly because of their desire to "annotate or contextualize the documents within the framework of dirks' life and thought." there is no doubt that this volume adds valuable information to the texts thenlselves, thus making these works available to a new, more general readership. from alimited sampling withinits more than pages it can beestimatedthat the translations, which came through several hands and benefitted from that editorial process, are very good. their improvement on the earlier one is chiefly in the revision and reformulation of the very numerous biblical quotations. the text itself is not as problematic as that of menno and the editors have wisely included some original t e r n s in parentheses (wederdooper, p. ), since the reader is entirely dependent on the translators in the absence of the original. it is not so clear which bible translation has been used, surely something which should be clarified in the introduction. and so the reader will find the quotation on page : "what did our arrogance profit us, ourrichness, oui-ostentatiousness"(wisdom of solomon : ), when a good, contem- porary translation, the neb, renders: "what can we show for all our wealth and arrogance?" other writings beside the eizclziridion are included in this generous volume, several individual tracts, letters and even two songs. these hymns understandably do not scan well and it is a shame that these brief texts could not be reproduced in the original as well, perhaps in photocopy. technically, the volume is well put together, with an introductory biography by william keeney and excellent anno- tation and footnoting. the review copy had some unclear printing in the early pages and the single portrait is not even of xerox quality. but apart from such minor criticisms there is much reason to be grateful for a readable and useful presentation of the works of one of the outstanding leaders of the anabaptist movement. victor g. doerksen university of manitoba clarence b a u m a n , tlze spiritual legacy of harzs derzck. irzterpretcrtiorz arzd trarzslation of key texts (leiden: e.j.bril , ). pages. to those who have read and heard clarence bauman, either in his doctoral opus gewrrltlosigkeit, his volume on the sermon on the mount or on other occasions, it will not come as a surprise to see this translation of, and commentary on, the writings of hans denck, writings which have always been key texts forbauman. after speaking with him as a young graduate student in germany it wasnatural for me to acquire denck's writings in the fellmann edition and to read vorz delel- vvc~rw~ lieb for myself. many students of professor bauman will have been similarly affected. clarence bauman's teaching and writing bespeak a world of spiritual experience which we refer to as mystical. his voice encourages us to be still and to listen, to contemplate, to explore spiritual resources within as did the mystics of earlier times. of hans denck he says: hans denck represents the contemplative genius of the anabaptist movement at its highest and best. no understanding of the anabaptist vision is complete without coming to terms with the uniqueness of denck's intellectual spirituality: its inner dynamic, its medieval context, its mystic content, and its jewish roots ( i ) . this edition begins with a forty-page essay on denck's life and thought, a clear, well-documentedrecordof this brief ( years) life and adiscussion ofdenck's spirituality, emphasizing and explaining his "jewish biblical mysticism" ( ). bauman concludes: denck's spiritual consciousness appears to transcend all the fixed categories with which he has hitherto been identified. he was too undogmatic to beanevangelical reformer and too quietistic to be an anabaptist radical. he was too biblical to be a rationalist and too theological to be a humanist: tooecumenical to be asectarian and too christological to be a unitarian. his faith was too articulate for pietism, his hope too evangelicalfor liberalism, and hislove too universal forconservatism. his heart was tooethically- mindedforan individualisticspiritualist,andhis spirit was toomystically orientedfor asocial activist. his mentality was toodynamic to be doctrinally fixed, and his spirituality was too radical to be existentially safe. his jewishness was too prophetic to be tolerated, and his christianity was too authentic to be endured-almost as though his faith were too real to be true and his life too true to be real ( ). part i contains the chosen texts, with an introduction and the german original facing its translation. the originals are reprinted with their annotation from the fellmann edition (quellen zirzd forsclzzirzgerz z ~ t r refor zntiorzsgescizicizte x x i v ) . they include the major texts with the exception of the micah commentary, which cannot be certainly ascribed to denck. a part i deals with some latin poems, polemics and the micah commentary. the beautifully made volume is completed by a bibliography, glossary and indices. a translation of denck's major texts by edward furcha has been available in two editions, a rather basic one from and a revised edition in . furcha's translations are, as he says, "aimed at transmitting the sense of a given passage in good english without unduly violating the original" ( , vi). a coinparison of selected passages indicates that both furcha and bauman have done well with a difficult text, but that there are significant differences. where furcha aims at "good english,"bauman clearly opts for faithfulness to thegerman original. forexa~nple, denck's reference to himself, nirz au~a~tseligernlerzsclz, is rendered by furcha as "a pitiable man." baulnan says: "a poor in spirit person." one might have preferred "a person poor in spirit," but bauman's faithfulness is almost that of the medieval interlinear version. a footnote in bauman's edition then expands on this interesting word, pointing out that this paradoxical formulation ("blessed-poor") derives from book rnliervs the beatitudes of jesus. furcha's text is not always successful in arriving at "good english;" for example, he uses the pronoun "she" in speaking about love (von dei- mi-en lieb), but naturally cannot be consistent in that usage ( ). in contrast with furcha, bauman's work gives the reader the wherewithall to approach and to understand the german original, for which the original, the annotation and the translation are all necessary. this has resulted in a splendid, if expensive book. clarence bauman himselfwouldlikely call the price of the volume "siindhaft teuer" and one would be inclined to agree, although one should also bear in mind that the word teuei- means valuable as well as expensive. victor g. doerksen university of manitoba ursula lieseberg, studieu rltrn m l i l - ~ r e r l i e d der tiiufei- inz . jnlzrlzundel? (european university studies )(frankfurt/main: p e t e r l a n g , ). pages. this recent study is "a first attempt to define the still relatively unfamiliar genre of the german mastyr songs of the anabaptists and to introduce these songs with regard to content, structural characteristics and function" (back cover). although lieseberg has drawn on all the significant existing sources of anabaptist studies (e.g. wolkan, liliencron, h.s.bender, rosella duerksen and others) she makes two rather remarkable observations: .thereis adearth ofresearch on the poetry of th century anabaptist songs, in comparision with the research on prose texts, and . the martyr song is to a great extent still a little understood species of sacred song. basic to this study is lieseberg's definition of the miii-tyr-er-lied: "...a song in strophic narration about a martyr event, written in the th or th century by lutheran or anabaptist authors." this definition rules out the inclusion of other kinds of hymns as martyr songs which were written by persons who later met a martyr's death. with this definition as a basis, and with an impressive fund of fresh documentary material at her disposal (see liter-crtun~e~eichr~is, pp. - ), the author, using selected lnartyr hymns (see ver,eichliis der- lieder, pp. - ), developed the outline, structure and content of this thesis. lieseberg presents a tri-partite classification of lnartyr songs: . by sources: lutheran, anabaptist, hutterite; . by period: early ( - ) , middle ( - ). late ( - ), beginning with the first lnartyr song by mastinluther andending with the last known song in this genre in ; . according to priinary and secondary song texts. primary songs dealt with the death of conte~nporary martyrs, usually well known to the author. secondary songs concerned biblical and early church martyrs, as well as a few "special" martyr songs of a general nature. in chapter six lieseberg uses pages to present a clear and comprehensive study of the structural features, narrative and stylistic elements of typical martyr songs. a comparison with other studies, for example yoder's " years with the ausbu~zcf" and rosella duerksen's dissertation on anabaptist hymnody ( ), as well as various articles would help us to recognize the additional new information and the clear manner in which this fascinating new material has been presented here. in chapter nine the author makes a little excursion into the music (melodies and singing styles) of the martyr songs. only five pages aredevoted to this rich field. the information is largely a summary of some of the information given in much greater detail by wolkan and rosella duerksen. in the section dealing with present singing practices among north american hutterites the reviewer is left to wonder why such a significant resource as helen martens' "die lieder der hutterer" was not consulted. the extensive commentaries which lieseberg provides on individual songs is a rich source of information for hyrnnologists and authors of handbooks to hymnals. a case in point is the commentary on wer clz~isto jetzt v~~ill~folge~l rznclz (who now would follow christ in life, mh , the first martyr song of the anabaptists. this was a popular hymn sung by swiss anabaptists and hutterites alike, the latter having adopted it in thirteen hymn books with frequent textual variants. the thesis includes five very valuable indices: ) an alphabetical list of the songs used in the research. for each song lieseberg lists hymnals, codices and other source material in which the song appears. ) index of first lines, providing page references to hymns dealt with throughout the study. ) index to the martyrs referred to in the study. ) index to melodies. ) an index of the nineteen different rhyming schemes used in martyr songs. the final five pages, a facsimile reproduction of hutterite songs written in fraktur, add a delightful artistic touch to the paperback volunle. in this study ursula lieseberg has provided sources and opened doors for further meaningful research in sixteenth and seventeenth century anabaptist hymnody in general and martyr songs in particular. for this we are gratefully indebted. the author was born in loetzen, east psussia, in . she studied germanistik, anglistilc and general linguistics at kiel university. this thesis was written in fulfillment of her master's degree in . george wiebe canadian mennonite bible college winnipeg book r e ~ d e l ~ ~ s g e r a l d r. brunk, ed., meizno siinons. a renppr-nisnl. essays in h o n o r of irvin b. h o r s t o n t h e th anniversary of t h e f~~rzdnnzeiztboek (harrisonburg, virginia: eastern m e n n o n i t e college, ). hardcover, pp. this collection of essays includes the papers presented at a conference on menno simons held on march - , , at eastern mennonite college and seminary. the book honours the well-known anabaptist and menno silnons scholar irvin b. horst who for many years taught at eastern and at the university of amsterdam. included in the collection are the following scholars and their essays: myron augsburger (on horst as a scholar and churchman), walter klaassen (on the relevance of menno simons today and menno research), sjouke voolstra (on themes in menno's early theology), helmut isaak (on menno's vision of god's kingdom), pieter visser (onmenno simons printed, readanddebated), ma-jan blok (on discipleship in menno), abraham friesen (on menno and miinster), and irvin horst (on the meaning of menno today). augsburger's essay on horst and iuaassen's biographical essay were not presented at the conference but were added for the book. the collection concludes with a bibliography of horst's writings. while most of the essays are generally of a scholarly nature, the tone of some is personal, even humorous (augsburger, friesen), and some are celebratory and didactic in intent and purpose (horst, klaassen). like horst's life-long work, the essays reflect scholarship in the service of the church and faith. and this is certainly in the spirit of menno simons, who was always wary of the "learned ones" and scholarship detached from faith. time and again the authors refer to the ground-laying work of harold s. bender, who with his "anabaptist vision" inspired horst and a whole generation of anabaptist scholars and churchmen. horst expresses his appreciation for bender's vision when he writes: "...as amiddle class group ofchristians living in aprosperous society, we tend to regard discipleship as a contingent issue rather than a central one ... as christians we avoid confrontation by favouring religious expressions that stress piety rather than ethical demands' '(p. ). all writel-s, while acknowledging menno's evangelical theology and practice, at least imply that the dutch anabaptist leader would be averse to what is known as fundamentalist evangelicalism today. does the book advance our knowledge of menno simon's life and work? the purpose of the essays is to restate, reappraise and emphasize some of the themes and issues in menno's early writings, especially in his f~oirhn~entboek. we still do not know ~lluch about menno's early life, including whether he received his training in a monastery or in a latin school. with regard to the authorship and date of tize blrrsl~he~~zy ofjokrz ofle)lde~l, friesen argues persuasively that menno wrote this work in , before he officially joined anabaptism, but he does not explain why menno does not mention polygamy among the sins of john of leyden. it is unfortunate that there is not a single woman among the contributors of essays, although some writers, not all, use inclusive language (klaassen, for example, refers to congregational ministers alternately as "he" and "she"). this absence of female scholars in the book (surely there must have been female students whom horst taught) is all the more unfortunate when it is considered that menno simons addressed in his writings both "brothers" and "sisters," took the side of a woman in her struggle against the harsh rules of the ban and shunning, and, as augsburger surmises, even commissioned "elizabeth dirks as the first woman to serve in a deaconess role in the church" (p. ). mennonite study groups and pastors will find this bookhelpful. it isrelatively free of misprints. page xii, line , should read "as" not "we," and page , line , should read "pragmatism." the following sentence on page is obscure: "in it he offers pre-eminently an evangelical basis for the preaching of the people." the author here refers to the fzazdanzeiztboek of menno simons. harry loewen the university of winnipeg james r. coggins, jolztz srnytlz's congregation. englislz sepnmtisnz, mennonite bzjluetzce, and tlze elect nntioa. no. in the studies in anabaptist and mennonite history series (waterloo, ontario/scottdale, pa: herald press, ). hardcover, pages, $ . (cdn.). in the first decade of the seventeenth century, during the reign of king james i of england, some puritan separatists together with their spiritual leader john smyth (c. - ) left for amsterdam in search of religious freedom. soon after their arrival on dutch soil the group split into three factions. the largest faction, led by john robinson, moved to leiden and later as pilgrim fathers to new england, where they influenced america through congregationalism. the group which remained true to john smyth in joined the waterlander mennonites in amsterdam. the smallest group, a mere ten members, adhered to thomas helwys and returned to england, establishing there the first baptist congregation. coggins' book, based on his ph.d. dissertation at the university of waterloo, deals with the john smyth congregation as a group, describing and interpreting its leaders, their theology, and the congregation's struggles, divisions, and search for divine truth. while the book recounts the stories of all three factions, its focus is on john smyth and his group's relationship to the dutch mennonites. in six chapters the author deals with issues that were important to both the smyth group and the mennonites, including the relationship between church and state, religious freedom and tolerance, authoritarianism in church leadership, nationalism and patriotism, predestination and election, and believer's baptism. this fascinat- ing story is not only well told but it also contributes to a better understanding of the early mennonite-baptist connection. book r e ~ ~ i e w s drawing upon primary andsecondary sources, coggins corrects some earlier held views and misconceptions with regard to the relationship between the smyth group and the dutch mennonites. for example, by means of a careful analysis of the purpose, date and content of hans de ries's "short confession" and john smyth's "defense" of the "short confession" against a certain critic's attack, coggins is able to establish that the alliance between the smyth group and the waterlander mennonites was concluded in , two years before smyth died, and not in as some had formerly believed. what happened after smyth's death was a merger or complete union between the two bodies (pp. - ). of significance is also the effect that this alliance had upon the dutch mennonites. since the mennonites like the smyth group had a congregational form of church government and as autonomous congregations were loosely allied with all other dutch congregations, it was difficult to come to a decision and consensus with regard to accepting the english congregation. when the waterlander and high german mennonite congregations favored an alliance with the smyth group but the frisian and flemish mennonites opposed it, the mennonite alliance known as the "pacified brotherhood came to an end. the clash between the more tolerant and liberal waterlanders and the more conservative and exclusive mennonites resulted in the breakup. the alliance between the english and the mennonites also had a decided effect upon members in smyth's congregation. led by thomas helwys, a small group was not willing to join the mennonites. english nationalism and culture, an inability to speak dutch, and some aspects of mennonite theology, notably christology, separation of church and state and nonresistance, made it difficult for the helwys group to go along with smyth's decision to join the mennonites. while the historical narrative is well researched and carefully interpreted, coggins' treatment of some theological issues is less satisfactory. for example, in his discussion of "mennonite christology" coggins leaves the impression that there was a particular and normative mennonite christology. while it is true that melchior hoffman, menno simons and some of their followers adhered to a "celestial f l e s h view of the incarnation of christ, there were many other anabaptists andmennonite% particularly in southern europe and among the waterlanders, who rejected this view. moreover, menno's christology certainly grew out of his concept of al'pure church," but that does not necessarily mean that there is a connection between menno's "celestial flesh" theology and mennonite "perfectionism" and "spiritual arrogance" (p. ). coggins' detailed analysis of hans de ries's "short confession" and smyth's "defense" makes it quite clear that the mennonite concern for holiness and righteous living derivedfro~n many specific new testament passages on the subject and not necessarily from a narrow theology of incarnation. similarly, coggins speaks of tl e anabaptist and tlze mennonite "view of the state" (p. ), implying that all anabaptists and mennonites separated church and state, refused to serve in government, and upheld the principle of nonresistance. a study of sixteenth century anabaptism indicates that there were at least two major positions with regard to church-state relations: the schleitheim separatist position and the balthasar hubmaier position, which accepted christians' involvement in government and their serving with the sword. it is thus incorrect, or toogeneral at best, to state that "from the beginning, anabaptist attitudes toward the state were based on a concept of separation" (p. ). incidentally, hubmaier whom baptists today consider their anabaptist hero, is not mentioned at all in this study. the book includes six appendices, including "members of the john smyth congregation," "others associated with the smyth congregation," "the robinson congregation," "the helwys congregation," "letter of thomas helwys to the mennonites," and an excellent english translation of the latin "defense of the ries's confession." copious notes for each chapter, an extensive list of primary and secondary sources, and a useful general index complete this study. the text is relatively free of typographical errors and misprints. in the sebastian franck quotation on page the word should be "sects" not "sentences." harry loewen the university of winnipeg heinrich sawatsky, merzrzonite tenzplers, translated by victor g. doerksen (winnipeg: cmbc publications and the manitoba mennonite historical society, ). paperback, xvi, pp. heinrich goerz, metzizotzite settlenzerzts irz crirnen, translated by john b. toews (winnipeg: cmbc publications and the manitoba mennonite historical society, ). paperback, xiii, pp. these two books bring to three the total number of books in the echo verlag series of volumes to be translated andpublished. the first volume was tlze k~ldarz settlernerzt ( -see review in jms, vol. , ). the very dissimilar nature of the two books makes it difficult to do justice to both in the same review. memzorzite settlerne~zts irz crirnea was written by someone who hadnoteven livedin the crimea and thereforerelied on the reflections of others. although, as the translator remarks, there is "a sense of the authentic and the graphic," there is nevertheless also a sense of distance. considerable detail concerning the settlements, their geography, agriculture, industry, institutions and religious leaders is given. some of the information can be found in much more detail in other accounts (e.g., the stories of some of the prominent leaders such as the unruhs and the kroekers). there is also very little drama in the accounts. book rei~iews sawatsky's book on the templer movement is of a very different nature, although it too lacks drama. first, it is told by someone who was only two years old when the temple church (friends of jerusalem in russia) was organized in in gnadenfeld, molotschna. sawatsky therefore was connected with the movement virtually from its beginnings until the book was published in (sawatsky died in ). no one could have understood the inside story better. sawatsky was a student of p. m. friesen in halbstadt, spent the years ( ?) to in palestine where he met his future wife, went back to the caucasus for fifteen years, then moved to palestine where he helped establish a new settlement in , was banished to germany for a short period after world war i, then came back to palestine and eventually was forced to spend his final years (after the establishment of the state of israel) in australia! it is impossible to imagine the drama and hardship of such an experience. it would be most interesting to compare this story with the story of franz bartsch, a participant in the exodus to asia (urlser auszug rzaclz mittelasierz, echo verlag no. ). in fact, sawatsky's bookreveals much less of the drama, passion and hardship than bartsch's, although it must certainly have been there. sawatsky always remains quite distant and the events scarcely betray any transcendent dimensions. does this in itself say something about the nature of the templer leaders, many of whom were among the "best and the brightest" of the mennonite colonists in russia? on the whole, the religious and theological dimensions of the templer movement are scarcely touched on. the concluding essay (which was not in the original german edition), purports to address the issue under the title "the battle for existence and the pursuit of the kingdom of god." this is basically an autobiographical account with a wealth of interesting detail, but there is little that helps us to understand the religious pulse of the movement. helpful additions to the original books include maps of the regions in russia which relate to the content of the books. some pictures have also been added to the templer volume. the quality of the reproductions of the photographs from the original volumes is not always up to the standards possible. a few typographical errors can be discovered (e.g., "kirshcenhardhof," p. , merzrzorlite terizplers; "selbstschutsz," pp. , , merzrzorzite s e t t b n e n t s ) . it is also unfortunate that a consistent spelling of "templer" has not yet been arrived at (s.v., "templar movement," by v. g . doerksen in me v). the binding of the templer volume was also poor. the quality of the translations of both books is excellent and should make it possible for many english-only readers to become more familiar with important dimensions of the mennonite experience. abe dueck centre for mennonite brethren studies r o y d e n l o e w e n , blu??ze?zort. a me~z~zo?zite conznzuizi~ in trmuitior? - (steinbach, manitoba: t h e b l u m e n o r t m e n n o n i t e historical society, . s e c o n d printing ). hardcover, pp. in an attempt to return to the early anabaptist mennonite faith and practice, the kleine gemeinde (today evangelical mennonite church), led by klaas reimer in , was the first group among the russian mennonites to break away from the old congregations. this reforming group objected to the increasing materialism, secularism and worldliness among their co-religionists and insisted that simplicity, humility, non-violence and christian love in all areas of life were the characteristics of true christianity. opposed anddespised by the larger mennonite body, the kleine gemeinde, together with other conservative mennonites, left russiain the s for canada, hoping to establish their ideal community there. blumenort nearsteinbach, manitoba, became the early kleine gemeinde centre in canada. loewen's massive book on the village of blumenort is a kaleidoscopic historical portrait of a typical mennonite community in southern manitoba. by means of community and church records, letters and interviews, the author, himself a farmer and historian living in the blumenort area, has reconstructed a community history which will be of interest to the people of the area and to the historian and sociologist of mennonite and ethnic studies. to read the story of blumenort is to read the history of the mennonites who came to manitoba between and . loewen deals in great detail with the religious, social, cultural and economic factors which shaped andeventually changed the blumenortcommunity. beginning with the religious conservatismof the community in which even the reading of more liberal mennonite newspapers was proscribed and the first automobiles were rejected, the author traces the blumenorters' gradual acceptance of new methods of fanning, more up-to-date education, and eventually modem conveniences that the late twentieth century provided. especially after the second world war the community registered a higher standard of living, more openness to "worldly" influences, and an interaction with non-mennonites. while loewen does refer to external events and factors which influenced the faith and life of blumenort, he is most sketchy with regard to the larger canadian and world context in which his story unfolds. fewer details about blumenort and its people and greatercontextualizing would not haveenlarged the volume but would haveenhanced this valuable history. also in an attempt to be as objective as possible, loewen seems to shy away from an analysis and evaluation of the conservative views and values of the blumenort community. in an epilogue written for the reprinting of the book, loewen states that while the community has changed (first seminary-educated pastor, greater orienta- tion toward the city of winnipeg and steinbach, % of the households bearing non-mennonite names), conservative life values are still dominant. there is an antipathy toward such issues as divorce, alcohol consumption, dancing, and abortion. in the federal election % of the areas people voted in favour of the conservative candidate jake epp. loewen concludes: " ... blumenort's people were book revie s still organizing their lives with reference to family lines, ethnic identity and rural values" (p. ). this book, together with esther epp-tiessen's altonn and peter zacharias' reitzlnnd, helps us to understand and appreciate more fully the "kanadier" mennonite contribution to the multicultural mosaic of canada. harry loewen the university of winnipeg peter a n d elfrieda d y c k , up.fi-onz tlze rubble (scottdale, pa/ waterloo, ont.: herald press, ). paperback, pages. up fronz tlze r~lbble tells the story of the work of peter and elfrieda (klassen) dyck in europe during and immediately after the second world war. as representa- tives of the mennonite central committee, they devoted themselves to the task of aiding victims of the war. the book is unique in that it is written jointly, each one serving as narrator at different points in the story. the style is conversational, the authors claiming that they are not writing history nor an autobiography, but telling a story - that of their involvement in the lives of thousands of refugees. since peter and elfrieda have reported extensively on their experiences in the congregations of north america, the story is well known to an older generation of mennonites, but not to the youngergeneration born since those turbulent times some years ago. the informal narrative style make the book accessible to a wide reading audience, and it is indeed a dramatic and compelling tale which the authors relate. peter was sent to england on behalf of the mennonite central committee in on what was originally tobe aone-year assignment. elfrieda hadalso been sent to england to work as a nurse. both were assigned to work in a convalescent boys' home, and they married in . in they were transferred to the netherlands to begin the mcc relief programme there. refugees of mennonite background from the soviet union began to find their way to the netherlands, seeking asylum on the basis of the fact that their forebears had left this country in the sixteenth century. as more refugees tried to enter the country, officials began to resist, and dyck tells of promising authorities on behalf of mcc that the refugees would be looked after and moved at the earliest opportunity to another country. to allow this temporary asylum he had to produce adocument for these people withoutpapers; the menno pass, a document in three languages, was devised, and this allowed russian mennonites of dutch descent to enter the netherlands. as a sizeable number of mennonite refugees from the soviet union began to find their way to berlin, the dycks were asked to go there to direct refugee operations. a camp was established, but plans had to be made to move the group out of berlin, since they had no wish to be re-patriated to the soviet union. a provision of the yalta agreement was that refugees be re-patriated following the war, and the russians were insisting that soviet citizens be returned. dyck was promised by the u.s. military that they would transport the refugees by train from berlin through the soviet zone, provided permission was granted by the soviets. a ship was waiting in bremerhaven to transport the refugees to paraguay - one country willing to open its doors to the homeless group. after several delays permission was eventually granted and the group travelled without major incident through the soviet zone. there has been much discussion around this "miracle," the fact that the soviet authorities actually signed the papers. one rumour, dismissed as "sheer nonsense" by dycli, was that the russian official, sokolovsky, was drunk and didn't know what he was doing when he signed the papers. dyck does not give an explanation for the decision to sign the permission papers. a thoroughly researched account by t.d. regehr ("anatomy of a miracle," jms, vol. , ) concludes that it was the "fundamentally decent and humanitarian refugee policy officially enunciated slightly more than a year before the rescue of the mennonite refugees in berlin that made possible the rescue." this policy stipulated that soviet refugees would only be turned over to the authorities if they had voluntarily become involved with the enemy forces. regehr also attributes the fact that the train was allowd to go through the soviet zone to the amicable and practical way in whichlieutenant general clay, the american military official, and marshall sokolovsky dealt with many problems that arose between the two occupying powers. peter and elfrieda, sometimes elfrieda alone, accompanied several shiploads of refugees to new homes in south america. the latter part of the book is an account of the challenge of helping people on difficult voyages and in settling in the challenging conditions of uruguay and the paraguayan chaco. peter and elfrieda bring to life the horror and suffering of countless people uprooted by a terrible war and its dreadful aftermath. one is impressed by the dedication, resourcefulness and courage of these two people. also impressive is the account of the supporting role played by the mennonite central committee. we should read this book, lest we forget. ruth vogt winnipeg, manitoba harry huebner, ed., the clzul-clz as theological conznzu~zity: essays ilz hoizo~~l- of david schl-oedel- (winnipeg: c m b c publications, ). xviit- pp. this is an outstanding festsclzl-ift - scholarly, interesting and well-edited. rodney sawatsky, president ofconradgrebelcollege, waterloo, ontario, opens the volume with a speech which was prepared for the occasion of honouring dr. book rel~ietvs schroeder. at times light-hearted and personal but always insightful, it radiates friendship and respect. it also contains some weighty themes-the meaning of suffering, the significance of scholarship, and the concern for peace. particular attention is directed to the cornmunal centre of christian existence, the church, understood as the "hermeneutical community." schroeder's scholarly contribution is evaluated as follows: "what makes his theology so important to us in themennonite church is that his is a theology ofthe church forthe church" (p. ) in which message and lifestyle are mutually supportive. then, as a quiet but visible proof of the significance of schroeder, there follows "a selection from david schroeder's presentations and writings," pp. - . it is an impressive list. the first of the subsequent essays is schroeder's own, entitled "once you were no people " - a carefully analyzed interpretation of the centre of i peter, with particular attention to holiness and service in obedience. the editor is to be congratulated for including this luminous text. the second part of the festschrifi, devoted to historical theology, opens with "theology of the hermeneutical community in anabaptist-mennonite thought" by adolf ens. he follows the lead of george h. williams: "there is one principle or practice-group study and reverent d i s p u t a t i o n o m m o n to the entire radical reformation which goes far to explain the spirit of the movement as a whole" (pp. - ). contrasting such an approach with the practice of magisterial reformers and the spiritualists, ens goes a long way to establish the uniqueness of the anabaptist "hermeneutical community." this study should stimulate further research, which will need to look at the sources in their original languages as well as to pay closer attention to other perspectival issues, notably church discipline and martyrdom. waldemar janzen's "a canonical rethinking of the anabaptist-mennonite new testament orientation" offers a refreshing evaluation of the traditional mennonite view of the old testament, subordinated to the new testament. this approach, thinks janzen, has resulted in a significant neglect, notably of the theological understanding of family and land. in the first instance the stress of the individual faith decisions has hindered more explicit covenantal concerns, specifi- cally in reference to the children of believers who have remained outside thechurch. in the second instance, "the rich land theology of the old testament has scarcely been addressed by our ancestors other than in a spiritualized form" (p. ). the third part of the festsclzr-(fi, identified as "biblical theology," begins with a brilliant statement by mary h. schertz: "interpretation as discipleship: luke as model." to those of us who have read and celebrated-and sometimes only celebrated-dietrich bonhoeffer's tlze cost of discipleslzip, "discipleship" may have drifted into a superlative category. professor schertz makes it very clear that "the synoptic disciples at times appear to be something less than saints" (p. ). she also makes clear that there are times when the gospel is proclaimed "through the words and the actions of the poor, the outcast, the outsider, the women" (p. ). in this way the basis for true discipleship is seen in grace rather than in accomplished perfection. william klassen, "the voice of the people in the biblical story of faithfulness," as always profound and charming, underscores the christian indebt- edness to the bible for the "commitment to basic human rights, justice and peace." here klassen observes that the bible has always acknowledged the reality of human "unfaithfulness" (p. ). hence the meaning of grace is that god's love is not earned by human faithfulness. from within such a context klassen deals with the role of the community in the formulation and the interpretation of the bible. he concludes with the challenge that the local congregation needs to be a dialogical participant in the formulation of theology. in the fourth part, "contemporary theology ," the first offering is by a. james reimer, "how modem should theology be? the nature and agenda of contem- porary theology." here we encounter an overview of what the author regards as significant contemporary developments. he discusses at some length hans jonas and modem technology, gregory baum and social justice, andseveral other thinkers on pluralism. perhaps the reviewer failed to grasp the full depth of this chapter- assuming that it had something to say in the first place. lydia harder, "discipleship reexamined: women in the hermeneutical community," argues that there should be "no privilege of the powerful," but instead "mutual dialogue and counsel" (p. ). while i appreciate her rejection of the traditional misrepresentation of the discipleship of women as mere submission, i think that it might have been helpful to reflect on the administrative structure of the hermeneutical community. the fifth part, "theological ethics," begins with "a critical analysis of narrative ethics" by duane k. friesen, in which critical attention is devoted to stanley hauerwas. the conclusion is forceful: "the fact is that the categories of narrative ethics do not give very precise guidance for our decisions" (p. ). "christian pacifism and the character of god" by harry huebner views pacifism as the only authentic perspective for acceptable theological thinking. having with some care and respect reviewed a variety of alternatives, huebner quickly offers his central insight: "in christ jesus we come to know not merely another side of god, but we come to know the very character of god" (p. ). a variety of texts which have led other interpreters to other conclusions, however, have remained unexamined. moreover, to state that dietrich bonhoeffer was "in prison for his political peace activities" (p. ) is to offer a half-truth. bonhoeffer was executed for participation in an attempt on the life of adolf hitler. indeed, bonhoeffer soughtpeace, but was charged with doing it through other than peaceful means. the concluding sixth part of the festsclzl-ift is somewhat oddly entitled "practical theology." indeed, practical concerns are present, but such was the case in the preceding chapters as well! peter c. erb in "traditional spirituality and mennonite life" offers a truly vintage contribution-wise, insightful, stimulating. it reflects in depth on several weighty religious issues: "the problem of return" to one's religious roots found in an age which widely differs from the present: "defining spirituality" as a concern with the interplay of "spiritual life, love and the book revie\~j.s trinity;" the problem of "spirituality and the baptism of adultsm-probably the most searching and potentially the most controversial statement; concerns with action and contemplation; and "the spirituality of the gospel of peace." finally, james n. pankratz reflects on "mennonite identity and religious pluralism" in a mennonite perspective. having known dr. schroeder personally as a highly respected, valued and loved colleague during the occasions of his teaching directly at the university of manitoba, i can attest that agreat friend and genuine scholar has been well celebrated by this festsclzrif. it should have a wide circulation and an appreciative readership. egil grislis, university of manitoba p e t e r brock, freedom fro violence, sectarian norzr-esistarzce fi- tlze middle ages to tlze great war- (toronto/buffalo/london: university of t o r o n t o press, ). hardcover, pp, $ . . peter brock's book freedom fronz v i o l e ~ ~ c e is part of a trilogy. the other two studies are the qllakerpeace testirnorzy ( ) and freedonz fronz w a r ( ). other books by brock on the subject of pacifism are: pncifisilz in tlze uilited states: from tlze colorzinl era to tlze first world war ( ), t~i)entietlz-cer~t~lv pacifisnz ( ), and pacifisriz irz europe ( ). brock's writing combines skilful summarizing of historical events and probing analysis of issues and their development. on the subject of pacifism brock has gained an enviable reputation surpassed by none. with so many books on pacifism some repetition can hardly be avoided, but generally brock's studies are amazingly fresh, interesting, and informative. this holds true for freedom frori~ violer~ce as well. the pacifist groups included in this book are the following. the medieval waldenses and the followers of petr chelcicky in czechoslovakia; the early swiss and german anabaptists, including the hutterites; the polish anabaptists and the socinians; the dutch, german, french, russian and american mennonites; and the american seventh-day adventists and plymouth brethren. brock ends his study with the beginning of the first world war. about two-thirds of the book, fifteen chapters out of twenty-three, deals with anabaptist-mennonite pacifism. the author shows correctly that anabaptist pacifism, initiated by the swiss brethren and codified in the schleitheim confession of , formed not only the basis but also the norm for later mennonite faith and practice. intending to restore the faith of the early christian church, the anabaptist- mennonites made rejection of sword power, separation of church and state, and the ethic of love in all human relationships the centre of their confessional life. this, according to brock, differentiated the pacifism of the mennonites from that of the medieval groups, including the so-called "vocational pacifism" of monks and some heretical individuals and communities. while the "vocational pacifists" renounced war because of their order or status in society, the mennonites as followers of christ demanded nonresistance of all their members. mennonite pacifism, however, was not consistently sustained throughout the centuries, nor in all the countries in which mennonites came to dwell. social and political pressures and assimilation often weakened, diluted and sometimes even destroyed the earlier pacifism of many mennonites. this happened first in the netherlands, then in prussia and russia, and more recently in modern germany. those mennonites who in spite of governmental pressures sought to uphold their traditional nonresistance emigrated to the americas, particularly the united states, canada and some latin american countries where they were exempt from serving in the army. it thus becomes clear from brock's study that mennonites were able to preserve their pacifism primarily in countries where because of their thrift, skills and economic contribution to society, they were tolerated and allowed to practice their traditional faith. the chapter on canadian-mennonite nonresistance is the shortest chapter in the book, a mere six pages in length. for a fuller treatment of pacifism in canada the reader might turn to the excellent study by thomas socknat, wit~zess against war: pacifisr z itz carzada - (univ. of toronto press, ). this book argues convincingly that it was the so-called "historic peace churches," including the mennonites and hutterites, that established the pacifist tradition in this country. the more modem non-mennonite peace groups treated in brock's study are the seventh-day adventists and the plymouth brethren. while their contribution to the pacifist tradition is significant and similar to that of the mennonites, it is, according to brock, of a different kind. together with the jehovah's witnesses and the christadelphians, two groups not treated in this book, these "eschatological pacifists," as brock has called them, profess a kind of interim ethic. as brock points out, correctly i think, these groups "required their members to become conscientious objectors while at the same time supporting participation in fighting at some final day of reckoning when christ would descend from heaven to overthrow the wicked ....[ tlhese types are all peripheral to the main stream of pacifism" (p. ). nevertheless, i believe that especially the pacifism of the jehovah's wit- nesses requires to be investigated and analyzed by historians of brock's stature. it was the jehovah's witnesses who in hitler's germany suffered more on account of their pacifism than any other group, including the mennonites. in fact, among the mennonites in nazi germany there was not a single recorded mennonite who because of his pacifism went to jail or was executed by the government, whereas there were between , and , jehovah's witnesses who refused to serve in hitler's army, , of whom were sent to concentration camps and more than either died in prison or were executed (see eberhard rohm, sterde~zfiirclerz friecler~, , p. ). the book includes an appendix on "christian pacifism in denmark and sweden to ," an annotated "bibliographical postscript," citing the literature on pacifism which has appeared since the book had gone to press, copious notes, twenty-four book titles for further reading, and a useful index. the book's selling price may be a bit steep for the average student, but for the interested reader and student of the subject brock's book is definitely a must. harry loewen the university of winnipeg r o s s t. b e n d e r a n d alan p.f. sell, eds., baptisni, peace and tl?e state in tlze reformed and merzrzorlite traditiorzs (waterloo, ont.: wilfrid laurier university press, ). hardcover, xi + pages. $ . the context of ecumenical dialogue between the streams of the christian tradition has shifted notably in the last generation. in the s and s, some of us, under the spell of both rationalistic self-confidence and pietistic enthusiasm, and encouraged by the remarkable changes in the roman catholic church, anticipated that the divisions which had proved such a handicap to the proclamation of the gospel would perhaps be overcome in our lifetime. with the shift of the christian centre of gravity to what in the time of superpower confrontation we called the "third world," the resolution of disputes which arose among western europeans four centuries priviously has moved to the background, while issues which most of us have regarded as more global and urgent have takencentre stage in the ecumenical drama. fortunately, the dialogue on unresolved issues from the reformation of the sixteenth century has not been forgotten. indeed, the conduct, if not the conclusion, of this dialogue may be crucial to the wholesome participation of those of us with european roots in the tasks of the global christian community. both the acrimony of the reformation disputes and the persecution and bloodshed with which they were too often linked represent demons which will trouble us until they are exorcised. this exorcism will no doubt require of us at least as much intellect and energy as the original debates received from those who conducted them. in this generation the dialogue has been unhitched from discussio~ls of institutional mergers, and from an immediate concern for the total ecumenical vision. rather, issues dividing one particular stream from another have been taken up in an atmosphere of patient civility and modest expectation. the results have had a low public profile but have been admirable and encouraging. we may celebrate, for example, the achievements of the lutheran-roman catholic dialogue as reflected in the three volumes of lutl~er- s arzcl crrtlzolics in dicrloglre , edited b y paul c. empie and others, and published by augsburg/fortress press. the volume being reviewed here is another example of this worthwhile kind of dialogue between two streams of the christian tradition. the occasion behind this book was a consultation held in october at the university of calgary under the sponsorship of that university's institute for humanities. it was initiated by alan p.f. sell, incumbent of the chair of christian thought in that institution andformerly theological secretary of the world alliance of reformed churches. inspired by the reformed-mennonite consultation held in strasbourg in , dr. sell sought and received support from both the warc and the mennonite world conference for a north american sequel. this co-operation of the churches and the academy brought together an exceptionally fine (although unfortunately all male) collection of scholars from canada and the united states. as the title suggests, the dialogue focused on three topics which have typically been at issue between mennonites and the reformed churches: baptism, peace, and the proper relationship between church and state. six papers - two on each topic - form the first and largest part of the book. although reformed and mennonite views are thus presented alternately, almost as if to structure the contrast between them, the tone of the presentations is irenic without being unfaithful to the presenters' roots. charles west records his own ambivalence about pedobaptism, and reminds us of reformed theologian karl barth's verdict against it. marlin miller, while making a strong case for what he understands to be the "best" mennonite view of baptism, recogilized the wide diversity of mennonite baptismal practice. harry loewen lifts up somewhat neglected dimensions of the anabaptist heritage, such as the thought of balthasar hiibinaier and pilgram marpeck, to show that there are points of contact with the reformed concern for responsibility for civil justice. iain nicol presents a clear summary of calvin's critique of the anabaptists on this topic, but concludes with questions about the contemporary adequacy of calvin's views. to this reviewer, the middle two papers were the most complex and interesting. max stackhouse links the topic of peace to persistent questions about church, family and state, breaking through stereotypes of opposition between the two traditions to a recognition of unresolved issues which will require us to draw upon the "plurality of gifts" given to our churches. howard john loewen points to the need for continuing re-interpretation of the mennonite tradition of social ethics, attempting to show that contemporary mennonites are articulating an approach to peace which is, within the terms of h.r. niebuhr's well-lcnown typology, transfor- mational, a typification which niebuhr himself believed was best expressed by the reformed churches. dialogue on these topics, of course, involves more than reformed and mennonite perspectives, and it raises interpretational questions of concern to the whole academy. both the conference and the booli recognized this wisely. part two of the booli gives us the responses of catholic philospher hugo meynell, united church historian torn sinclair-faulkner, and two baptist scholars: sociologist har-ry h. hillar and theologian andrew d. macrae. the first two, in particular, add book rel~irt~'.r the lustre of imaginative writing to an aready well-crafted set of presentations. in fact, the whole bookis amazinglyreadable for being the proceedings of aconference. further, the editing and printing are both of exceptional quality. this reader found only ony typographical ersor (p. ). even the five-page conclusion which, with a list of nine recommendlt' ions to the sponsoring denominations, makes up the brief third part of the book is unusually well-written. it goes beyond mere summary of what was said, charting a course for the future of the dialogue in compelling fashion.we are not told who wrote the conclusion. the two editors and the calgary institute for the humanities are to be commended for organizing this fruitful dialogue, and for presenting it to us in this well-crafted book. we may hope that this achievement will encourage further, and broader, dialogue. john badertscher the university of winnipeg titus p e a c h e y and l i n d a g e h m a n peachey, seelcitzg peace (intercourse, pa: g o o d b o o k s , ). there are some things that story does better than other kinds of discourse. it can, for instance, cany truth into the heart more directly than either essay or sermon. seeking peace is, for thisreason, abookfor the heart. it is an omnibus of stories (more than ) with a common theme: how do mennonites around the world close the gap between what they profess to believe about non-violence and how they live out that profession? the focus is pretty well narrowed to the mennonite response to war- related destruction and violence. such response, in these stories, most frequently is the refusal of one of three activities: taking up arms, employment which aids the war industry, or paying war taxes. (incidentally, some readers may be surprised, as i was, to learn that war tax refusal is not just a recent stance, but one taken by anabaptists in the th century.) individual stories vary in intensity and impact on the reader. some are merely sketches, less than a page, while others are more fully developed, allowing the characters to take on life and the described events to exert a degree of dramatic force on the reader. it's the cumulative effect of story piled on story that eventually compels the reader, creating for her the sensation of being sussounded by a veritable cloud of witnesses. these witnesses, like those of hebrews, are not restricted to one historical era, and, although most livedllive in america, collectively they represent the world. they speak with a rich diversity of voices, reaffirming, for the most part, what the lancaster, pennsylvania, mennonites said in november, : "we find no free- dom in giving, or doing, or assisting in any thing by which men's lives are destroyed or hurt" (p. ). individually, the stories represent varying degsees of success in working out the mennonite, amish and hutterian teaching on non-violence. for instance, the controversial experiment in self-defence undertaken by russian mennonites after the revolution stands in contrast to zairian pastor kobangu thomas's refusal to take a gun during the volatile events in zaire during the early s. pastor thomas could say, "i icnow my hands are clean of human blood." siegfried bartel, on the other hand, came to his peace position nfrer- serving as captain in the german army in world war . conviction came when he heard the russian soldiers singing the same carols his soldiers were singing in german; and when, in the polish corridor, he realized that, "icould have killed my cousin!" during the same war, marian claassen franz, growing up in rural kansas, observed how her mother invited gesman prisoners, who helped on the family farm, into their home for lunch. for mary, the american guards accompanying these prisoners were more frightening than the "enemy." the irony is intensified when a guard falls asleep while supervising the pows and a jeep full of military superiors arrives. the pows walce the guard in time to save him from the wrath of his superiors. at firstreading, i was puzzled by the organizationof the book: the stories jump from continent to continent, from century to century. why aren't they grouped according to time and place, or around specific wars? i came to the conclusion that the collage effect deliberately chosen by the authors was appropriate. by placing in sequence elena munoz, a latin american mennonite struggling to live out peace principles in a compromising work situation; paul and loretta leatherman, modem americans deliberately withholding war taxes; and jan smits, a sixteenth centuryanabaptist martyr, the authors once more make their point: the way of peace demands sacrifice from followers of christ, regardless of time and place. at the end of the book, there are indices that organize the stories according to general issue, geography, and era. and the bibliography will be useful for readers whose appetite has been whetted for more information on the anabaptist experience and peace theology. the authors, titus peachey and linda gehman peachey, have long been acquainted with peace issues. from - they served as directors of mennon- ite central committee relief and development programmes in laos. following their return to the u.s. they completed a study of military-related industries in lancaster county, pennsylvania, titled wor-ldpeace begirls irz lnncnster: at present they serve as co-executive secretaries for mennonite central committee. u.s. peace section. sarah klassen winnipeg, manitoba book re ~irn .s you doll't get to be a saint. p o e m s by patrick friesen (winnipeg: t u r n s t o n e press, ). patrick friesen has established himself as a poet with a distinctive voice in canadian letters. his explorations of experience which is of necessity mennonite but not necessarily mennonite has been sensitive and profound. in the past several years he has also extended his range by recasting his powerful poem the sh~rr lillg as a stage production, and this season his play tlze raji had a very successful run at the prairie theatre exchange in winnipeg, demonstrating that friesen's compelling lines have dramatic as well as lyrical intensity. his new book of poems is named after its last poem, a conversation of sorts at the margin of death, but this title characterizes rather well what is a collection of diverse pieces, including texts for a multi-media performance (a hcl rlfill ofrnir~), a dance collaboration (nmzn), a radio reading (sillgel-), as well as several groups of new poems. apart from his ventures into new avenues of expression, the poems of patrick friesen remain keen and taut because of his unending pursuits of the lifelines of his experience. dennis lee refers to his "furious equipoise" on the cover, which is a fittingly dramatic collage by the artist esther warkov. my own favorites among the many splendid poems are those evoking those earlier memories which have become his frequent preoccupations, like: rowing home sundays after a week of the hammer after ladders and beams and skyline father collapsed in a sprawl like an idling motor about to stall like a tamarack leaning into a fall like a bundle of clothes or a doll it frightened me as if he was dying as if the strength of his arms was flowing through his fingers into the air as if the continent of his body was sinking away as if his breath was a sigh from the end of the world i watched the hesitant rise and fall of his chest i imagined his red heart slow-pulsing the blanket slid from his shoulders and he turned against the cold reaching blindly in his sleep for comfort he seemed a wounded lord i wanted to bury his name take him into my arms and carry him to the river to find the boy he was i wanted to row him home in poems such as thesepatrickfriesen not only shows adeep love of language but his language betrays layers of his own love, which he is exploring. as he says in his "biography": i'm a child in a northern tree still climbing at the sky in a brief review it is impossible to represent the varieties of friesen's style. readers will find an intriguing variation on t.s. eliot in the poem "godly w o r l d , a text which would have appeared here, were it not for fear of the dreaded f-word in this journal. another great gift of this poet is his recognition of the meaning of silence, the silence which so essentially surrounds and accompanies the poet's word. he brings his own tribute here to silence if it's chosen silence is not an enemy it is where words begill and end silence is the heart's chamber between beats we have reason to be grateful to the turnstone press for producing this and the other poetry collections which have allowed a gifted mennonite generation to find a free voice and an understanding audience which is by no means limited to the mennonite world. victor g. doerksen university of manitoba s a r a h klassen, violeizce and mercy. p o e m s (windsor: netherlandic press, ). paper, pages. $ . where violence is dismemberment, mercy consist of making whole again. while many poets mirror the fragmentation of violence, sarah klassen ap- proaches it from a desire to heal. violerzce nr d mercy, her second collection of poetry, speaks of the desire to soar above this broken earth and see it whole. i came away from this book saddened by her evocations of murder and v i c t i m - zation, yet grateful for the courage and faith with which she shares her vision, and grateful, as well, for the dedication with which she attends her work. these poems are carefully and lovingly crafted. klassen handles free verse with admirable discipline. the rhythm of her lines is simultaneously natural and dramatic; the imagery is vivid. violer~ce arzd mercy opens with poems about the complex relationship between a teacher of literature and her students. klassen is very aware of the failure of language to bridge the gaps between us. the teacher can only "dispense connectives" ("language arts"). even the confessional journals of the students, filled with their private terroranddesperation, bring theirteacher only slightly closer to them: ~ o o k r e i i e \ ~ ~ s ... there is nothing i can do. nothing except point out perhaps the lack of punctuation, circle the misspelled words with a soft pencil, join all disconnected fragments ... ("evidence") it is a brilliant touch, that "soft" pencil -as though tenderness could only be bestowed through marks on the page. language and human mercy, it seems, are often inadequate for the violence of the world. but the poet refuses to despair. this theme carries through into many of the poems of domestic and military violence which follow. "while waitingfor war" captures the "long white silence" and "terrible emptiness" of january , as george bush's deadline approached and the world prepared for war. the stanzas are numbered one to ten, recalling the grim countdown of those days, the inevitability, the willfulness, the premeditation. but there is more faith than anger here. the poem speaks of prayer and of petition. "eachcedar tree holds snow in its upliftedarms," as if in supplication. klassen treats this difficult theme with humility and with a sense of wonder. there is no righteousness here, no pronouncements, only an invitation to question: "what will you beg for?" viole~lce and mercy closes with a series of poems about leonardo da vinci, his "obsession with motion" and his "desire/ to master each tiny nerve/ and artery, each bone,/ the stubborn direction of blood" ("anatomy"). the artist's desire to masterthe impossible resonates sweetly and sorrowfully with the natureof i<lassen's own work. for da vinci longed to devise a way to fly and a way to paint "the face ofchrist" ("you, leonardo"). klassen's lastpoem, "venice, from space," speaks to da vinci from the future: "you should hear us now, leonardo, laughing as the earth spins away from our feet." listen. you can hear us singing like the meadowlark children wait for in spring on the wet stubble. in the diamond air its gold throat swells. every desperate feather trembling. art, perhaps, will have some small triumph, will lift us up above the earth for a moment, will lend us vision. that's all we can ask of a poet - and sarah klassen gives it to us with sure skill and considerable grace. catherine hunter the university of winnipeg a r m i n w i e b e , mlli-der irz gz~terztlznl. a sclzrzeppa kjrznls mystery (winni- peg: turnstone press, ). the wide success of armin wiebe's sah~ation of yclsclz siellzelzs was asurprise and something of a shock in the mennonite constituency. what many could not understand was that its apparently convolutedflat german syntax could be read and enjoyed by ordinary welt~~zensclze~z, even across canadaon the cbc! and then there was its "questionable" narrative, claiming to deal with salvation, no less. it was the realization by many readers that this claim was justified-in its own way-that created a kind of aura of profundity around this work. no one was sure how serious, how important, how good this book really was. already critics are suggesting that yasch sienzelzs will occupy a pivotal place in the transitional history of canadian mennonite writing because of its successful merging of low german and low canadian. all of this makes things very difficult as armin wiebe presents a new novel, and it is well that mur-del-irz gurentlzal is clearly identified as abookof another genre. whether we call themdetective stories, who-done-its orpot boilers, it should beclear that we have no business looking for metaphysics (or even metalinguistics) in what proposes to be the first in a series of schneppa kjnals mysteries, in spite of the fact that a bible is mentioned in the first sentence. wiebe, having found a locale and an idiom, turns them loose and leads the reader on a more or less merry chase through a series of complications which lead neither to salvation nor damnation (unless that be confusion). this will leave mennonite readers very unfulfilled. of course, a private eye or snooper is not supposed to bring about salvation, but a solution of some kind is calledfor. and in thatregard perhaps wiebe has scatteredabout too many false leads and clues and has really not succeeded in tying up the right ones. for some readers like me the asides and reflections of armin wiebe are among the best parts. the schneppa becomes something of a seer (or mystic?) when he ruminates about the windows of the soul: don't ask me how i know this, or how i know it's true, or if i know it's true. of course, you know what comes in through the windows of the soul, but the guy who said theeyes are the window of the soul left a lot of windows boarded up, i think, at least when it comes to knowing what is true. what is true is what you make of it. i f enough people make the same thing of it as you do, then it's true. if you make something different of it than everybody else, then you're crazy. truth is no use without believers. of course, it helps if you take the boards off all the windows so as much light as possible comes in ( ). for mennonites bibles, zippered or unzipped, are serious subject matter, as are other items such as women and cars, and many readers will not share schneppas view of them. maurice mierau in a pmirie fire review quite arbitrarily attributes this view to wiebe himself. finally, it is aquestion of whether the mennonite reader (and others too) will suspend herlhis belief long enough to enjoy what is nothing book re jie .s more or less than (dare i say it?j aromp through the southern manitobacountryside. victor g. doerksen university of manitoba sara stainbaugh, tlze sign of tlze fox (intercourse pa: good boolts, ). the author of the fine first novel, i hear tlze r e q e r ' s song, here presents another pennsylvania story, but one which is quite different from her lyrical earlier work. the sign o f the fox is a much busier novel, very readable but scarcely as memorable; this does seem to be a problem with second novels, as stambaugh's mentor, rudy wiebe, may recall (what was the title of his second novel?). sara stambaugh writes about a locale which she obviously "remembers" well. the fox is an inn in lancaster county run by a german immigrant family (carpenters, who were zimmermann), whose heavy-handed head, squire will carpenter, confronts the surrounding mennonite folk with tough, entrepreneurial realism (the "world") and places the neighboring family of the heroine in a suitable posture of suffering for their quiescent faith. together with his slick lawyer son, carpenter outmaneuvers gideonlandis in an attempt to obtain the rights to land and a quarry which will become valuable as the railway is built through the area. the carpenter family and its aspirations form an important part of the novel, much more than a backdrop, so much so in fact that the mennonite "angle" is almost lost from view at times. this certainly gives the novel a more substantial social framework than is often the case in ethnic literature, but the complexity of plot and character is too muchforthe short novel and various individuals who might well have grown on the reader remain confined to epithets and even clichcs. this is evident not only in the stock characters who spit and drink, or the complaining cook, but much more disturbingly when the author includes episodes like that of the escaping slave, making the fox an involuntary stop on the underground freedom railroad. there are simply too many such disparate elements, from american national politics and corruption to divorce, suicide and single parenthood. such freight is too much even for jake, the jovial waggoner, and certainly for a novel of pages. the heroine, gideon's attractive and dutisul daughter, catherine, is syrnpa- thetically drawn in spite of being attractive and dutiful. she suffers the fate of many heroines who are long-suffering, and is saved for a twentieth-century reader only by the author's careful understatement. even so, the "happy ending" strongly supports the contention that there is more soap here than that manufactured by the hardworking heroine. knowing the kind of strong, lyrical writing of which this author is capable, one must express the hope that this too-busy tale will be a brief waystation enroute to more substantial depictions of the human condition. meanwhile, this story may serve a younger readership very well. victor g. doerksen university of manitoba victor peters a n d j a c k thiessen, pla~~tdietsche jesclziclzten, gesl~rflcke-i~~ter-vievvs- elziihlzl~zgerz ( marburgilahn: n.g. elwert verlag, ). paperback with dustjacket, pp., c a n . $ . . this book is acollection of interviews and stories written in the low german dialect of the netherlandic mennonites who emigrated to america via prussia and russia since . the interviews have been conducted mostly with mennonite seniors in southern manitoba, but several took place in mexico and elsewhere. they provide interesting side-lights on events of history involving mennonites since world war i, describing personal views and reactions in the words of those who experienced and survived those events. one interview is with a canadian doctor of scottish descent who lived and practised among mennonites and learned to speak their language better than many. among the more than forty short stories by the authors, most tend toward the humorous, many with thought-provoking undercurrents. one story about "sotknacka" derksen and his misadventure among the beams of the neighbour's hay-loft first appears in peters' interview with nikolaus neufeld (p. ) and then later in changedforin inthiessen'sstory "adam, wobist du?" (p. ). it is stroi~gly reminiscent of the stories entitled "icasper-ohm un ick" written in the low german of mecklenburg by john brinckman in the s and since republished. readers who stem from the first migration of mennonites from the molotschna colony of the ukraine to american in the s, as does this writer, will notice that the low german of victor peters differs from that of jack thiessen, and that the language of both differs from ours. victor was born in the old colony (chortitza) and speaks in the old colony manner of that period. thiessen's father is from the old colony but jack was born in canada. his speech resembles more that of the molotschna colonists. a minor example of the difference is found in the index where peters writes "jeschichten" whereas thiessen writes "jeschichte." the plauidietsch of both authors reflects those changes that infiltrated the dialect in russia under the influence of intensified use of high german and russian among mennonites there in the period after . a problem for writers of plautdietsch is that it has no generally-accepted written form. consequently, the authors have made choices in spelling with which some may not agree, but which one now cannot fairly criticize. however, readers will wonder why inconsistencies in spelling which detract from easy reading were not eliminated at the proofreading stage. the index to short stories lists a number of titles consisting of a name followed by "en aundre menschen." it is quite understandable that a character named in atitle interacts with other peoplein the story, but tolist asstory titles aseries of names, each followed by "and other people" eight times in a row seems overly repetitious. this book is the culmination of years of work by two capable authors. their interviews and stories cover a broad spectrum of subject matter and points of view. a glossary of terms with translations into english and german, together with over fifty pictures of people and places round out those dimensions. since it is written in mennonite low german, it will be of particular interest to those who speak or study the language. reuben epp, kelowna, b.c. paton yoder, tradition atzd traizsitiorz: ai zislz mennoi~its ciiid old orcier- aiuish - (scottdale, pennsylvania: herald press, ). pp. hardcover. at a gathering of amish ministers in the spring of in wayne county, ohio, a turning point was reached for the amish church which would come to be known as the great schism. this date maslced the beginning of the distinction between the old order amish on the one hand, and other amish congregations, who would eventually join with the mennonite church. this historic gathering was not, in fact. an isolatedevent. it was one of aseriesof similarmeetings, beginning in , which were a response to conflicts that had been emerging for some time between conservatives and change-minded factions among the amish. these gathelings had, however. themselves seemed to have theeffect of polarizingexpectations. they thus led to the presentation, by i ministers representing conservative congregations, of a position paper at the gathering which they deemed to be right and biblical, and therefore non-negotiable. the events leading up to this historic series of meetings, as well as the subsequent progress of the two emerging factions, are described in considerable detail by paton yodcr. yoderhirnselfhas amish mennoniteroots. he has also taught american history for the past fol-ty years. yoder treats the great schism as a focal point. several introductory chapters set the stage by providing an overview of early amish history in north america; an era which has been neglected by other amish scholars. some valuable glimpses into the amish way of life in the early nineteenth century, their faith, and their traditions is also provided. the account of the early struggles of the amish in north america may be of interest, as well as the descriptions of the structure of the amish ministry. for example, a detailed account is provided of the origin and use of the practice of choosing ministers by lot. yoder does not simply present an idealized image of amish life during this period. his descriptions also convey some of the stresses and conflicts that were experienced. for instance in describing the practice of ordination by lot, he includes the story of a john stolzfus of the buffalo valley congregation, who upon being informed that the lot had fallen on him, fainted, frothed at the mouth and could not be revived for half a day. one limitation of this work lies in its focus on the political activities of a relatively small group of church leaders. this is particularly true with reference to the great schism and its consequences. while references are made to broader social forces, they seem to become secondary to the personalities and activities of a relatively small group of men who were organizers and participants in the various meetings, and whose correspondence forms the basis for yoder's analysis. within this context, ambiguities also arise regarding the actual issues which divided the amish during this period. for example, frequent references ase made in the preceeding discussion to the practice of stream baptism as a point of contention. however, we note that it is not even mentioned in the position paper of . yoder states that this omission was deliberate, but then does not tell us why it was not included. yoder does nevertheless contribute to our understanding of the amish way of life through his elaboration of the historical precedents of the amish as they exist today. this historical background provides us with some important insights into the emergence and development of this unique and distinctive culture. paul redekop the unversity of winnipeg book re~zie~c,s hical notes donovan e. smucker, tlze sociology of mero~onites, h~rtterites ar~cl ai~zish. a bibliograplzj~ cvitlz anr~otations, vol~rrize ii, - . (waterloo: wilfrid laurier university press, ). this bibliography provides an annotatedsurvey andanalysis of the "sociological literature" concerning "the highly va-ied mennonites, the com~nunal hutterites and the semi-communal anti-industrial amish." (p. ix) while not complete and attimes not clear as to whether an entry is of a sociological, literary or historical nature, this sequel to smucker's earlier volume ( ) is a welcome addition to mennonite bibliography. the volume includes titles of published books, pamphlets, graduate theses and articles, as well as unpitblished sources. the special issue of tlze g e n i z ~ ~ ~ - c a ~ ~ a d i a ~ ~ yearbook, vol. i, edited by hartmut froeschle and lothar zimmesmann (toronto: historical society of mecklenburg upper canada, ), includes , entries of titles of histol-ical, cultural and literary studies by german-canadian and mennonite writers. this is an invaluable bibliography for anyone working in german-canadian andcanadian- mennonite research. tlze radical refolnzatiorz, edited and translated by michael g. baylor (cambridge university press, j, includes writings by the most important radical reformers including: thomas miintzer, andreas karlstadt, conrad grebel, felix mantz, hans denck, hans hut, michael sattler, balthasal-hubmaier, hans hergot, and an anonymous writer. the appendices include the following documents: "the eleven miihlhausen articles," "the twelve articles," "the memlningen federal constitution," "the document of articles of the black forest peasants," "the forty-six frankfurt articles," and michael gaismair's "te~ritorial constitution for tyrol." this collection, which includes a valuable introduction and helpful biographical notes, is a welcome text for radical reformation studies. john s. oyer androbert s. kseider, mirrorofthe m a r ~ r s . storiesofco~rrage, irzspirirlgly retold o f / century arzabaptists wlzo gave their lives,for tlzeir.faitlz (intercourse, pa: good books, ). this is an attractive paperback introducing the reader to the massive mar-tyrs mirror of thieleman j . van braght. the illustrations, reproduced from the original work, and the text in modern english will appeal to both young and older readers. thomas p. socknat, witrzess agairzst war. pac(fisriz in ccirlackr - (toronto: university oftoronto press, j, argues convincingly that peace groups such as the mennonites, hutterites and jehovah's witnesses laid the foundation for the pacifist tradition in canada. the author shows that members of the united church of canada and various women's groups were most active during the two world wars and how they suffered for their pacifist stance. donald wiebe, tlze imny of tlzeolog~~ arzd the nature of religio~ls tl~ouglzt (mcgill-queen's university press, ), argues that theology as a rational, academic discipline, rather than being supportive of religion, actually undermines and even destroys religious faith. this study draws upon sources in philosophy, history, anthropology and sociology, thus appealing to scholars involved in these disciplines. wiebe seems to confirm what anabaptist-mennonites have felt all along: that the "learned ones" are dangerous to christian faith. merzrlorziie wtdtirzg in cnrzcrdcr, a special issue of tlze new, qll~i-ter-ly: nelv dii.ections in cnrzadinrz writing, vol. x , numbers and (springisummer ), guest-edited by hildi froese tiessen, includes the following: articles by e.f. dyck, peter erb, jeff gundy, lorraine janzen kooistra, and henry wiebe; stories by h o l d dyck, sarah klassen, anne konrad, andreas schroeder, sara stambaugli, jack thiessen, armin wiebe, rudy wiebe, and others; poems by di brandt, patrick friesen, jeff gundy, sarah klassen, douglas schulz, david waltner-toews and others; and translations by a reimer and andreas schroeder. included also is the editor's interview with the poet patrick friesen. tlze balarlcirlg of the cloucls, pnirltirlgs of mary klassen, by john unrau (winnipeg: windflower communications, ). beautifully combines picture and text, theillustratedstory, by herson, ofa mennoniteartist who followed her vocation with courage. a painter "bowled over" by the work of lawren harris, who developed her own powerful and varied landscape style - while being a wife, mother and all the things expectedin the generation before the current one. excellent reproductions and an eloquent text make this a fine and unique book. one cannot do justice in a brief bibliographical note to merzrlor~ite f ~ ~ r . r ~ i t ~ ~ r e . a migrarlt trnditioil ( i - ) (intercourse, pa: good books, ), hardcover, pp., $ . u.s., written and compiled by reinhild kauenhoven janzen and john m. janzen. this book, which includes figures of full-colour and black and white photographs of mennonite furniture and other household items, is a delight for the eyes and mind. art lovers, historians, and other persons interested in things mennonite will find this artistic and scholarly book a pure pleasure. the pictures, the text, the endnotes and the binding are of the highest quality. the editors pq p a human model for multigenic inheritance: phenotypic expression in hirschsprung disease requires both the ret gene and a new q locus stacey bolk*, anna pelet†, robert m. w. hofstra‡, misha angrist*, remi salomon†, david croaker§, charles h. c. m. buys‡, stanislas lyonnet†, and aravinda chakravarti*¶ *department of genetics and center for human genetics, case western reserve university school of medicine and university hospitals of cleveland, cleveland oh ; †department of genetics and unite institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, u- , hopital des enfants malades, paris, france; ‡department of medical genetics, university of groningen, groningen, the netherlands; and §department of surgical research, new children’s hospital, westmead, australia communicated by victor a. mckusick, johns hopkins university school of medicine, baltimore, md, october , (received for review may , ) reduced penetrance in genetic disorders may be either dependent or independent of the genetic background of gene carriers. hirsch- sprung disease (hscr) demonstrates a complex pattern of inheritance with ' % of familial cases being heterozygous for mutations in the receptor tyrosine kinase ret. even when identified, the penetrance of ret mutations is only – %, gender-dependent, and varies with the extent of aganglionosis. we searched for additional susceptibility genes which, in conjunction with ret, lead to phenotypic expression by studying multiplex hscr families. haplotype analysis and extensive mutation screening demonstrated three types of families: six families harboring severe ret mutations (group i); and the six remaining families, five of which are ret-linked families with no sequence alterations and one ret-unlinked family (group ii). al- though the presence of ret mutations in group i families is sufficient to explain hscr inheritance, a genome scan reveals a new suscepti- bility locus on q exclusively in group ii families. as such, the gene at q is a modifier of hscr penetrance. these observations imply that identification of new susceptibility factors in a complex disease may depend on classification of families by mutational type at known susceptibility genes. a major hallmark of phenotypes displaying a complex pattern ofinheritance is the segregation of multiple factors. in principle, linkage analysis on a collection of families can identify multiple loci, although an individual family may segregate only a few of the relevant genes. multilocus segregation is compatible with two distinct hypotheses. thus, a phenotype could be multigenic or multifactorial, resulting from the cumulative effects of mutations in multiple genes; disease expression and penetrance may then be sensitive to an individual’s genetic background. this hypothesis is in contrast to the simple association of a disorder with multiple genes, genetic (locus) heterogeneity, in which mutations in any one of several genes are sufficient for phenotypic expression and are independent of genetic background. in either scenario, linkage heterogeneity exists, but, for the multigenic hypothesis to prevail, we need to demonstrate multiple gene segregation in the same families ( ). although unequivocal evidence for multigenic inher- itance exists in the many rodent models of human disease, and is strongly suspected in complex human disorders, it remains largely unproven. however, in the human, in rare instances, retinitis pigmentosa can arise from digenic inheritance ( ); segregation of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus depends on interactions be- tween both hla and an x-linked gene ( ). hirschsprung disease (hscr), or congenital aganglionosis, is a model complex genetic disorder in which we can test these hypoth- eses. hscr is associated with the lack of intrinsic ganglion cells in the myenteric and submucosal plexuses of the distal gastrointestinal tract. the phenotype has ' % heritability ( ) but shows variable presentation and reduced penetrance, even in multiplex kindreds, with affected individuals differing in the length of aganglionosis, association with pigmentary anomalies and sensorineural deafness, and severity of intestinal blockage. segregation analyses ( ) of hscr have established two genetic hallmarks: (i) recurrence risks are ' – %, with a non-mendelian pattern of inheritance; and (ii) recurrence risk to relatives varies with length of aganglionosis and gender of the proband. molecular genetic analyses have identified five functionally dependent hscr susceptibility genes in pathways crucial for the normal development of the enteric nervous system ( – ). the major hscr gene is the receptor tyrosine kinase ret, in which coding sequence mutations can be identified in % of familial and % of sporadic cases ( – ). the functional ligand for ret is the type b transforming growth factor-like glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (gdnf), which activates ret through a three-component complex by using the glycosylphos- phatidylinositol-linked anchor protein gfra (glial cell line- derived neurotrophic factor-family receptor) ( , ). mutations in gdnf are rare in hscr ( – ); no mutations in gfra have been revealed on extensive testing ( ). a second biochemical pathway compromised in hscr is encoded by the g-protein coupled endothelin-b receptor ednrb ( ) and its ligand endo- thelin- (edn ); ' % of familial and sporadic hscr cases are explained by mutations in these genes ( ). finally, mutations in the gene encoding the transcription factor sox , which regulates ednrb expression ( ), have also been identified in multiple patients with hscr and pigmentary anomalies (shah-waarden- burg syndrome) ( , ). in addition to finding mutations in single genes, we and others have presented preliminary evidence of multigenic inheritance in hscr. in a large inbred mennonite kindred segregating hscr, we identified a hypomorphic change (w c) in ednrb on chromo- some q and demonstrated significant nonrandom association between hscr and polymorphisms within the ret gene ( , ). in addition, the penetrance of hscr in this kindred depends on genetic interaction between ret and ednrb because parent-to- offspring transmission of w c is significantly associated with transmission of multiple polymorphisms within ret (ref. ; m. carrasquillo and a.c., unpublished data). extensive sequence analysis of the ret coding sequence has failed to identify a mutation in the mennonites. nevertheless, the strong association between hscr and ret, and association between the joint trans- mission of ret and ednrb to patients, emphasizes that ednrb in conjunction with ret determines hscr susceptibility in this abbreviations: hscr, hirschsprung disease; npl, nonparametric linkage; rt, reverse tran- scription; cm, centimorgans. ¶to whom reprint requests should be addressed at: department of genetics brb , case western reserve university, euclid avenue, cleveland, oh - . e-mail: axc @po.cwru.edu. the publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” in accordance with u.s.c. § solely to indicate this fact. – u pnas u january , u vol. u no. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , kindred and that the ret mutation is located in the non-coding regions. additionally, in some outbred families, gdnf mutations do not appear to act alone but co-occur with mutations in ret or trisomy ( , ). these data underscore the complex inheritance and provide the first clues that multiple genes may be required to modulate the expression of hscr. to test whether hscr results from multigene segregation in outbred families, we have focused attention on families showing vertical transmission. in such families, few segregating loci are expected a priori because they largely, not exclusively, segregate long-segment hscr and have higher penetrance than short- segment hscr ( , ). we chose families with three or more affecteds across two or more generations with phenotypic charac- teristics typical of other reported large families. the variable expressivity and reduced penetrance in these families may be explained by environmental effects, stochastic developmental events, or multigenic inheritance. to distinguish between these hypotheses, we conducted allele-sharing tests and linkage analysis to identify multiple segregating genomic regions, followed by mutation analysis of known genes. we present data that demon- strate the segregation of ret in the majority ( y ) of families and additional segregation of a new locus at q . mutation analysis identified severe ret mutations in only % of families. impor- tantly, q segregation was limited to those six families lacking coding sequence missense or nonsense ret mutations. thus, the nature of the ret mutation in hscr patients is a strong predictor of the presence (segregation) of additional genetic changes, sup- porting multigenic inheritance. a corollary of these observations is that hscr patients heterozygous for multiple mutations have weak (hypomorphic) changes at ret and, thus, explains the reduced ret penetrance. materials and methods family ascertainment. multiplex families segregating hscr were ascertained under informed consent and were classified into those with affected siblings only and those with three or more affected individuals in two or more generations. the latter families show vertical transmission of hscr and have higher penetrance. we identified families for this study, of which families – and – have been reported previously ( , ); the mennonite families ( ) are not a part of this study. genomic dna was extracted and lymphoblastoid cell lines were established from participating mem- bers as described ( ). linkage analysis. polymorphic microsatellite markers were geno- typed by using standard methods ( ), and allele sizes were determined by using centre d’etude du polymorphisme humain (ceph) individual - as a genotyping standard. parametric linkage analysis is powerful, but the major hindrance is the lack of an accurate inheritance model ( ) and concomitant reduction of power of detecting linkage when parameters are specified incor- rectly. one cannot a priori predict the number of different loci, the mutant allele frequency at each locus, and the penetrance associ- ated with each hscr susceptibility allele. we, therefore, relied on model-free tests of allele-sharing at marker loci among all affecteds within each family and searched for regions in which allele-sharing exceeds mendelian expectations. all multipoint parametric and nonparametric linkage analyses were performed by using the computer program genehunter . ( ). the genetic markers used for linkage analysis had intermarker map distances as pub- lished ( ); allele frequencies from ceph families were used for these markers and were not different from those estimated from founders in the families. for lod score analysis, we specified an autosomal-dominant mode of inheritance, a mutant allele fre- quency of %, and penetrance of % in males and % in females; these estimates are based on our previous segregation analysis ( ). linkage analyses were also performed allowing for heterogeneity, by using the ‘‘total heterogeneity’’ command in genehunter; we calculated both a heterogeneity lod score and estimated the pro- portion of linked families (a). to compute the posterior probability of linkage on chromosome , we placed the disease locus at the ret intron marker and used eq. . in ref. ; linkage was declared whenever the posterior probability exceeded the estimated a. nonparametric analysis used the nonparametric linkage (npl) score and the ‘‘sharing all’’ option. mutation detection. mutation analysis was performed on all exons of ret comprising , bp and , bp of adjacent intronic sequence by using published human cdna and partial genomic sequences ( – ) as wild-type standards. single-strand conforma- tional polymorphism, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, and automated nucleotide sequencing using dye terminator chemistry were performed by standard methods ( , , ). rna isolation and reverse transcription (rt)–pcr. total rna was extracted from lymphoblastoid cell lines by using rnazolb (cinnaybiotecx laboratories, friendswood, tx); extractions were performed twice to help reduce dna contamination. rna ( mg) was reverse transcribed by using superscriptii (gibcoybrl) with random hexamer primers, and ml of the rt reaction was used for subsequent -ml pcr amplifications. primers for specific ampli- fication of ret exon were designed such that forward and reverse oligonucleotides were in exon and , respectively, so that the product would span introns and control for genomic dna contamination. the primers used were retx f: -ttccct- gaggaggagaagtgc- and retx r: -ccacttttc- caaattcgcctt- ; these were used in amplification reactions as follows: s at °c; s at °c; and s at °c for cycles. results ret is the major gene for hscr. human chromosome is the site of two hscr genes, ret at q ( , ) and gfra at q ( ). we searched for linkage in multiplex families segregating hscr (fig. ) by using polymorphic microsatellite markers spanning the entire genetic length of chromosome and at a resolution of centimorgans (cm) (fig. a). we performed both parametric and nonparametric multipoint linkage analysis using the computer program genehunter ( ). we detected significant linkage with the ret locus with a nonparametric linkage (npl) score of . (p . ) and a lod score of . (table ; fig. a). no linkage was evident at the gfra locus consistent with our previous observations ( ). haplotype analysis using markers flanking and within ret demonstrated that all families except were linked to ret (table ). consequently, ret is the major segregating factor in multigenerational hscr families, but additional genes must also exist. we demonstrated significant linkage heterogeneity (x . , p . ) and obtained a multipoint heterogeneity lod score of . at ret with a % of families linked ( ). calculations of the posterior probability of linkage for each family showed that of the families have a . % probability of being linked to ret (table ). there was no evidence for a common ret haplotype in the linked families. diverse ret mutations in hscr. to determine the nature of the mutations in ret, we conducted extensive mutation analysis of all probands in the linked families (table ). we identified eight putative mutations distributed across the ret gene in the linked families relative to reference sequence data ( – ) and studies of control individuals: four probands had missense changes (n k, r w, r c, and s l in families – , respectively), two pro- bands had nonsense mutations (w x in family and e x in family ), and two families harbored sequence alterations that could affect normal splicing (s s in family and ivs g a in family ). the synonymous serine change at residue (tcg tca) in exon of the ret gene has previously been observed ( ) in one patient. with the observation of this second mutation, we bolk et al. pnas u january , u vol. u no. u g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , sought to determine whether this was a polymorphism. the g-to-a nucleotide change created a ddei restriction site and allowed a rapid screen of ceph control individuals and hscr probands; we did not encounter this again in chromosomes. the second splicing mutation occurs in intron in the consensus splice donor site, altering the sequence of the splice donor site from (exonyintron) agygtgagt to agygtgaat. the remaining three ret-linked families (families – ) have been extensively screened, but no causative sequence changes could be identified. to assess which changes might be functional mutations, and which benign rare variants, we also compared the nature of the residue altered (conservative, nonconservative, or neutral) and the evolutionary conservation of that amino acid by protein sequence alignment of human, mouse, chicken, zebrafish, and drosophila ret. as shown in table , the changes in families – are either nonconservative residue changes or alterations at evolutionarily conserved residues and likely lead to diminished protein function. the mutations in families and are nonsense changes at very highly conserved sites. thus, we conclude that the sequence alter- ations in families – are ret mutations that lead to hscr. these mutations are likely loss-of-function variants. the ret s s synonymous change is a variant splicing mutation. the synonymous substitution s s is a priori an unlikely candidate mutation. we hypothesized that the underlying nucleotide change (tcg tca) causes aberrant splicing of ret exon because the substitution creates a sequence [cttcatcgtctcagt] that closely resembles the consensus splice acceptor site [(ct) ncagg] (fig. a). if this novel site within exon were used in splicing, then this would result in the deletion of the first amino acids of exon . given that exon encodes the transmembrane domain of ret, it is likely that this deletion would not allow membrane anchoring and would be a loss-of-function allele. we used rt-pcr analysis (fig. b) to show functionally that the mutation base at residue creates a novel splice acceptor site within ret exon that is used in splicing in lymphoblastoid cells. however, these data do not clarify whether the new splice acceptor site is used exclusively or not. to determine whether the rt-pcr band of wild-type molecular weight was a single molecular species or not, we used an expressed bani polymorphism, g s, in exon for which carriers of the s s variant were also heterozygous. as shown in fig. c, the wild-type band consisted of amplification products from two sources: the transcript carrying the wild-type sequence and the transcript carrying the s s mutation. there- fore, the novel splice site is only partially used. on this basis, we conclude that the s s mutation is a hypomorphic allele and that carriers will express an intermediate level of ret. we were unable to assay the effect on splicing caused by ivs g a because of unavailability of cell lines from family . a new hscr locus at chromosome q modifies ret penetrance. to search for additional susceptibility factors, we have begun a ge- nome-scan in the pedigrees, initially concentrating on chromo- some based on a two-point lod score of . , in one family, with a microsatellite marker within the hexabrachion locus at q – . we genotyped and performed linkage analysis using polymor- phic microsatellite markers spanning the entire genetic length of chromosome at a map resolution of cm (fig. b). we obtained weak evidence of linkage with a peak npl score of . (p . ) between markers d s and d s (table ). parametric analysis provided a peak lod score ' -cm proximal to the peak npl value, probably because of incorrect specification of param- fig. . hscr families used in linkage analysis. individuals with confirmed hscr and clinical diagnosis of chronic severe constipation are indicated by filled and shaded symbols, respectively. asterisks indicate individuals used in genotyping. u www.pnas.org bolk et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , eters in the analysis. further, we obtained a peak heterogeneity lod score of . with a % of families linked. these results are consistent with haplotype analysis (table ; fig. b), which shows segregation of the q locus in families – only. there was no evidence for a common q haplotype in the linked families. the results of mutation analysis at ret and linkage analysis on chromosome suggested classification of the families into two groups: ret-linked families – (group i), which carried severe nonsense and missense coding sequence ret mutations but no segregation at q ; and those without ret missense or nonsense mutations (families – , group ii) but segregation at q . this association between ret mutation type and q segregation is highly significant (x , df, p . ) and demonstrates that segregation of the additional q locus is restricted to families that do not have missense or nonsense ret mutations. we reanalyzed the linkage data by the type of ret mutation (fig. ) and show significant linkage in the group ii families with a npl score of . (p . ) between markers d s and d s ; as expected, no evidence of linkage was obtained in the group i families. analogous parametric analysis showed a peak lod score of . in group ii families at the same map location defined by the peak npl score; no significant linkage to q was evident in group i families. to distinguish between multigenic inheritance and locus heter- ogeneity, we next reanalyzed ret linkage data by family type. as shown in table , ret linkage is significant in both group i and ii families with npl scores of . (p . ) and . (p . ), respectively. under parametric analysis, significant lod scores were also observed in both groups (lod . , a % in group i; lod . , a % in group ii). in group i families, ret is the sole contributory factor because there is no evidence of segregation of the q locus. in the remaining group ii families, there is overall significant evidence of linkage to both ret and q using npl and lod score analysis. one family (family ) in this latter group, analogous to those in group i, might harbor a severe mutation in the q gene only. these data clearly demonstrate the existence of at least two types of hscr families: families with missense or nonsense ret mutations sufficient to lead to hscr and those with weak alleles in which additional genetic changes are required for disease expression. we suspect that ret-linked fam- ilies without recognized mutations (families – ) either harbor common polymorphic variants (excluded from being considered as mutations) or noncoding sequence changes that make partial contributions to hscr risk. the demonstration of q segrega- tion in these latter families suggest both multigenic inheritance and that hscr results from the cumulative genetic effects at ret and the yet unknown q locus in some families. discussion segregation of hirschsprung disease is decidedly non-mendelian; in most families, the phenotype is variable and the mutant genotype fig. . linkage analysis of hscr. (a) chromosome . (b) chromosome . the x axis indicates the genetic map of the indicated chromosome with intermarker distances in centimorgans (cm), and the y axis indicates the linkage score. (solid line, npl score; dashed line, parametric lod score. although depicted on the same graph, npl and lod scores have distinct properties and are not synonymous; thus, they should not be numerically compared against each other.) table . segregation of ret and a chromosome q locus in hscr families family posterior probability of ret linkage* ret† q haplotype shared‡mutation type evolutionary conservation . n k n m, c, z no . r w nc m no . r c nc m, c no . s l nc m no . w x — m, c, z, d no . e x — m, c, z, d no . s s — — yes . ivs g . a — — yes . nd — — yes . nd — — yes . nd — — yes . nd — — yes *posterior probability of ret linkage (see materials and methods): haplotype sharing among all affecteds within each family, based on markers d s -retint -d s , was consistent with posterior probability estimates (shared in families – ; not shared in family ). †ret mutations in exons [ , reported previously ( ); nd, none detected]; listed are mutational change, residue change classified as nonconservative (nc) or neutral (n), and evolutionary conservation of human residue (m, c, z, and d denoting conservation in mouse, chicken, zebrafish, and drosophila, respectively). ‡haplotype sharing within each family based on markers d s -d s -d s -d s . bolk et al. pnas u january , u vol. u no. u g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , displays reduced penetrance ( ). the central genetic question is, therefore, whether the reduced penetrance is random and depen- dent on environmental or stochastic developmental factors, non- random and dependent on an individual’s genetic background, or both. we have presented significant evidence that the latter is true because hscr shows multigenic inheritance with ret-mediated susceptibility being the major theme. moreover, additional genes with large effect, such as the one we have mapped to q , must also exist. significant evidence argues that ret is the major gene for hscr and is involved in ' % of families ( , – , ). nevertheless, investigators have failed to find coding sequence mutations in . % of familial cases ( – , ). this inability to detect ret coding sequence mutations in linked families is not attributable to mutation detection technology but is a persistent finding that requires alternative explanations, such as: (i) ret linkage is spurious in small families; (ii) a gene closely linked to ret harbors susceptibility mutations; (iii) mutations other than those in the ret coding sequence, including introns and the promoter regions, compromise ret function; and (iv) ret is under epigenetic regulation that can affect its normal expression and function. scenario i is undoubtedly true for some families but cannot be the major explanation because the sum total of families without iden- tified ret mutations still demonstrates linkage to chromosome q (table ). indeed, family reported here is the first description of a multiplex family in which ret-mediated suscepti- bility can be definitively excluded. scenario ii, in which a gene different from, but tightly linked to, ret contributes to suscepti- bility, cannot be currently ruled out. however, our preliminary analysis of ' kilobases of nucleotide sequence proximal to ret (genbank accession no. al ) has not identified any specific transcripts that might be implicated. rigorous identification and testing of all genes in this region is required and is currently underway. we conclude that the related scenarios iii and iv are the most likely explanations, both of which suggest misregulation of ret in hscr. in this study, we have demonstrated the diverse nature of ret mutations in hscr (table ). although functional tests have not been performed on each mutation, the genetic data strongly argue for loss-of-function mutations in group i families. the two nonsense mutations we observed, e x and w x, occur in the tyrosine kinase domain and are expected to abolish kinase activity as suggested by in vitro functional studies of similar mutants ( ). additional studies imply that the four missense mutations, s l, r c, r w, and n k, occur in the extracellular domain at fig. . nonparametric linkage (npl) analysis of chromosome markers in hscr on subdividing families by ret mutation status. dashed line, those with ret coding sequence mutations (families – ); solid line, those without ret coding sequence mutations (families – ). fig. . functional consequences of the s s variant in ret splicing. (a) normal and mutant splicing events of ret exon and its resulting translation. the site of the g a transition observed in hscr family does not alter the serine residue but does create a sequence closely resembling the consen- sus splice acceptor site [(ct) ncagg]. (b) rt-pcr on rna isolated from a lymphoblastoid cell line. one band of the expected size ( bp) on normal splicing and a smaller band ( bp) resulting from aberrant exon splicing are amplified in affected carriers of the serine variant (lanes – ). the unaf- fected grandmother (lane ) who does not carry the s s variant has only one rt-pcr product of the expected size ( bp) on normal splicing. (c) bani restriction digest of rt-pcr products. an expressed polymorphism in ret, which alters a bani restriction site in exon , was used to analyze rt-pcr products. the wild-type band in lane (labeled as ) and the mutant band in lane ( ), as well as the band in lane ( ), were gel-extracted. two bands ( bp and bp) are observed after the digestion of lane , indicating homozygosity for the bani site. lane contains three bands: one undigested band ( bp) and two bands resulting from the bani digest ( bp and bp), indicating that the wild-type band observed in b has been amplified from both the wild-type and mutant alleles. the novel acceptor splice site is thus only partially used when present in an affected individual. table . linkage analysis of chromosome and genetic markers and family classification by ret mutational type family type ret q locus npl (p value) lod score (a) npl (p value) lod score (a) missenseynonsense mutations, . . . . families – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( ) splice variantsyno detected . . . . changes, families – ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) all families . . . . ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) families were classified according to presence (families – ) or absence (families – ) of missense or nonsense mutation. nonparametric analysis provided the npl score and p value; parametric analysis provided the heter- ogeneity lod score and the estimated proportion of linked families (a) (see materials and methods). u www.pnas.org bolk et al. d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , residues that are either highly conserved andyor lead to radical substitutions, are expected to alter protein folding, and inhibit transport of ret protein to the cell surface ( – ). these obser- vations, together with microdeletions of chromosome q . including ret in rare patients, have supported the view that hscr results from haplo-insufficiency because % ret cannot support normal enteric development in the human. in group i families, these severe mutations may be sufficient to lead to hscr. the group ii families hold the key to further understanding of hscr. although these families show significant linkage to ret, only two splice variants, ivs g a and s s, of which s s is a weak ret allele (fig. ), have been identified. such weak alleles compromise but do not abrogate ret activity and thus require additional genetic changes for hscr expression. the segregation of q in group ii families adds weight to this conclusion. in three of the remaining five (group ii) families, despite a . % probability of ret linkage, we have failed to identify any coding sequence ret mutations. we conclude that mutations in group ii families are hypomorphs and harbor muta- tions in the noncoding regulatory regions. in addition, polymor- phisms within the gene, which have been excluded as disease- causing, may contribute to disease risk as well. genetic disorders with variable expressivity and incomplete penetrance can arise from either structural or regulatory hypomor- phic mutations. in familial retinoblastoma, structural mutations that result in only partial loss of protein function, rather than complete abrogation of normal gene function, are associated with incompletely penetrant forms of the disease ( , ). in addition, splicing mutations with variable efficiency in usage of novel splice sites have been proposed as the molecular basis for reduced penetrance in cystic fibrosis ( ). epigenetic (regulatory) modifi- cation of a gene, such as through position effects, is another type of mutation that may be responsible for reduced penetrance. first, position effect mutations can occur hundreds of kilobases away from the target gene, explaining both linkage and failure to observe coding mutations ( ). second, position effect changes have phe- notypes similar to loss-of-function mutations; several examples are known in the human and mouse ( ). the best-studied is the receptor tyrosine kinase c-kit, known to be subject to position effect variegation as a result of specific mutations affecting chromosomal rearrangement and, as a consequence, control elements of the gene. in this case, gene function is not completely abolished, but the effect of the mutation represses transcription in a tissue-specific manner ( ). similar factors may be operating in hscr. we postulate that the degree of ret expression is critical for hscr expression: severe alleles lead to hscr directly; weak alleles also require the effects of a q gene. a corollary is that the q gene is a modifier of hscr penetrance. consequently, the q gene could be a member of a signaling pathway that affects ret expression, and a ‘‘hit’’ at multiple locations within the pathway may be the cause of hscr in families with weak ret mutations. proving this hypothesis will require identification of this gene; unfortunately, the current linkage location is still too broad ( % support limits are ' cm) to allow positional cloning. it is possible that this q gene is the same as that which is mutant in riley-day syndrome [mendelian inheritance in man (mim) ]. the latter, also known as familial dysautonomia, is a hereditary neu- ropathy that results from a loss of subsets of autonomic neurons and is associated with lack of tearing, emotional lability, paroxysmal hypertension, increased sweating, cold hands and feet, corneal anesthesia, and blotching of the skin. riley-day syndrome, common in ashkenazi jews, has been shown to co-occur with hscr and has been mapped to an ' -kilobase segment in q ( ). this gene, when identified, will be an excellent candidate gene for hscr. we are indebted to the hscr families for participation and the american pseudo-obstruction & hirschsprung disease society, inc., for cooperation. we gratefully acknowledge the work of jennifer scott for family studies, james gabriel for advice with rna studies, kimberly bentley and carl kashuk for excellent technical assistance, and drs. hunt willard and evan eichler for comments on the manuscript. this work was supported by a grant from the national institutes of health (hd ) to a.c. . chakravarti, a. & lander, e. s. ( ) in genetics and biology of alcoholism, ed. c. r. cloninger, h. begleiter (cold spring harbor lab. press, plainview, ny), pp. – . . kajiwara, k., berson, e. l. & dryja, t. p. ( ) science , – . . cucca, f., goy, j. v., kawaguchi, y., esposito, l., merriman, m. e., wilson, a. j., cordell, h. j., bain, s. c. & todd, j. a. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . badner, j. a., sieber, w. k., garver, k. l. & chakravarti, a. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . edery, p., pelet, a., mulligan, l. m., abel, l., attie, t., dow, e., bonneau, d., david, a., flintoff, w., jan, d. et al. ( ) j. med. genet. , – . . angrist, m., bolk, s., thiel, b., puffenberger, e. g., hofstra, r. m., buys, c. h. c. m., cass, d. t. & chakravarti, a. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . attie, t., till, m., pelet, a., amiel, j., edery, p., boutrand, l., munnich, a. & lyonnet, s. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . treanor, j. j. s., goodman, l., de sauvage, f., stone, d. m., poulsen, k. t., beck, c. d., gray, c., armanini, m. p., pollock, r. a., hefti, f., et al. ( ) nature (london) , – . . trupp, m., arenas, e., fainzilber, m., nilsson, a.-s., sieber, b.-a., grigoriou, m., kilkenny, c., salazar-grueso, e., pachnis, v., arumae, u., et al. ( ) nature (london) , – . . angrist, m., bolk, s., halushka, m., lapchak, p. l. & chakravarti, a. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . salomon, r., attie, t., pelet, a., bidaud, c., eng, c., amiel, j., sarnacki, s., goulet, o., ricour, c., nihoul-fekete, c., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . hofstra, r. m., osinga, j. & buys, c. h. ( ) eur. j. hum. genet. , – . . ivanchuk, s. m., myers, s. m., eng, c. & mulligan, l. m. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . angrist, m., jing, s., bolk, s., bentley, k., nallasamy, s., halushka, m., fox, g. & chakravarti, a. ( ) genomics , – . . puffenberger, e. g., hosoda, k., washington, s. s., nakao, k., dewitt, d., yanagisawa, m. & chakravarti, a. ( ) cell , – . . chakravarti, a. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . southard-smith, e. m., angrist, m., ellison, j., agarwala, r., baxevanis, a., chakravarti, a. & pavan, w. j. ( ) genome res. , – . . pingault, v., bondurnad, n., kuhlbrodt, k., goerish, d. e., prehu, m. & puliti, a. ( ) nat. genet , – . . romeo, g., ronchetto, p., luo, y., barone, v., seri, m., ceccherini, i., pasini, b., bocciardi, r., lerone, m., kaarianen, h. & martucciello, g. ( ) nature (london) , – . . edery, p., lyonnet, s., mulligan, l. m., pelet, a., dow, e., abel, l., holder, s., nihoul fekete, c., ponder, b. a. & munnich, a. ( ) nature (london) , – . . attie, t., pelet, a., edery, p., eng, c., mulligan, l. m., amiel, j., boutrand, l., beldjord, c., nihoul fekete, c., munnich, a., et al. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . angrist, m., kauffman, e., slaugenhaupt, s. a., matise, t. c., puffenberger, e. g., bolk, s., washington, s. s., lipson, a., cass, d. t., reyna, t., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . ott, j. ( ) analysis of human genetic linkage (johns hopkins univ. press, baltimore). . kruglyak, l., daly, m. j., reeve-daly, m. p. & lander, e. s. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . dib, c., faure, s., fizames, c., samson, d., drouot, n., vignal, a., millasseau, p., marc, s., hazan, j., seboun, e., et al. ( ) nature (london) , – . . ceccherini, i., bocciardi, r., luo, y., pasini, b., hofstra, r., takahashi, m. & romeo, g. ( ) biochem. biophys. res. commun. , – . . takahashi, m., buma, y., iwamoto, t., inaguma, y., ikeda, h. & hiai, h. ( ) oncogene , – . . takahashi, m., buma, y. & hiai, h. ( ) oncogene , – . . myers, s. m., eng, c., ponder, b. a. & mulligan, l. m. ( ) oncogene , – . . kusafuka, t., wang, y. & puri, p. ( ) j. pediatr. surg. , – . . hofstra, r. m. w., osinga, j., tan-sindhunata, g., wu, y., kamsteeg, e.-j., stulp, r. p., van ravenswaaij-arts, c., majoor-krakauer, d., angrist, m., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . edery, p., attie, t., amiel, j., pelet, a., eng, c., hofstra, r. m., martelli, h., bidaud, c., munnich, a. & lyonnet, s. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . seri, m., yin, l., barone, v., bolino, a., celli, i., bocciardi, r., pasini, b., ceccherini, i., lerone, m., kristoffersson, u., et al. ( ) hum. mutat. , – . . pasini, b., borrello, m. g., greco, a., bongarzone, i., luo, y., mondellini, p., alberti, l., miranda, c., arighi, e., bocciardi, r., et al. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . iwashita, t., murakami, h., asai, n. & takahashi, m. ( ) hum. mol. genet. , – . . carlomagno, f., de vita, g., berlingieri, m. t., de franciscis, v., melillo, r. m., colantuoni, v., kraus, m. h., di fiore, p. p., fusco, a. & santoro, m. ( ) embo j. , – . . pelet, a., geneste, o., edery, p., pasini, a., chappuls, s., attie, t., munnich, a., lenoir, g., lyonnet, s. & billaud, m. ( ) j. clin. invest. , – . . sakai, t., ohtani, n., mcgee, t. l., robbins, p. d. & dryja, t. p. ( ) nature (london) , – . . otterson, g. a., chen, w., coxon, a. b., khleif, s. n. & kaye, f. j. ( ) proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . rarve-harel, n., kerem, e., nissim-rafinia, m., madjar, i., goshen, r., augarten, a., rahat, a., hurwitz, a., darvasi, a. & kerem, b. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , – . . bedell, m. a., jenkins, n. a. & copeland, n. g. ( ) nat. genet. , – . . duttlinger, r., manova, k., chu, t. y., gyssler, c., zelenetz, a. d., bachvarova, r. f. & besmer, p. ( ) development (cambridge, u.k.) , – . . slaugenhaupt, s., blumenfeld, a., liebert, c. b., mull, j., maccormack, k., lebel, a., o’leary, k., breakefield, x. o., maayan, c., mccormick, m. k., et al. ( ) am. j. hum. genet. , (abstr.). bolk et al. pnas u january , u vol. u no. u g en et ic s d o w n lo a d e d a t c a rn e g ie m e llo n u n iv e rs ity o n a p ri l , novel homozygous deletion in strada gene associated with polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and epilepsy in two siblings: implications for diagnosis and treatment novel strada mutation in two siblings katherine nelsona, jennifer bell, pharmdb christopher jackman, mdc chie-schin shih, mdd katelyn paynee stephen dlouhyf laurence walsh, mdg word count: a department of medical and molecular genetics, indiana university health, riley hospital drive, indianapolis, in, , usa; kln@iu.edu; permanent address foxfield ct., st charles, il b department of pediatric oncology, indiana university school of medicine, riley hospital dr., indianapolis, in, , usa ; jbell @iuhealth.org c department of neurology, division of child neurology, indiana university school of medicine, riley hospital drive, indianapolis, in, usa; cjackman@iupui.edu ___________________________________________________________________ this is the author's manuscript of the article published in final edited form as: nelson, k., jackman, c., bell, j., shih, c.-s., payne, k., dlouhy, s., & walsh, l. ( ). novel homozygous deletion in strada gene associated with polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and epilepsy in siblings: implications for diagnosis and treatment. journal of child neurology, ( ), – . https://doi.org/ . / mailto:kln@iu.edu https://doi.org/ . / d department of pediatrics, division of hematology/oncology, indiana university school of medicine, indianapolis, in, , usa; shih @iu.edu e department of neurology, division of child neurology, indiana university school of medicine, riley hospital drive, indianapolis, in, usa; kpayne @iuhealth.org f department of medical and molecular genetics, indiana university school of medicine; sdlouhy@iu.edu g department of neurology, division of child neurology, indiana university school of medicine; lewalsh@iupui.edu permanent address: foxfield ct., st charles, il corresponding author: christopher jackman, md riley hospital drive, indianapolis, in cjackman@iupui.edu mailto:kpayne @iuhealth.org mailto:sdlouhy@iu.edu mailto:lewalsh@iupui.edu abstract mutations in the ste -related kinase adaptor α (strada) gene have been reported to cause an autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by infantile-onset epilepsy, developmental delay, and cranio-facial dysmorphisms. to date, there have been reported individuals diagnosed with strada mutations, of which are from a single old order mennonite cohort and share a deletion of exons - . the remaining individual is of consanguineous indian descent and has a homozygous single base pair duplication. we report a novel strada gene deletion of exons - in two sisters from non-consanguineous parents, as well as an improvement in seizure control in one sibling following treatment with sirolimus, an m-tor inhibitor of potential benefit to patients with this genetic mutation. keywords children, epileptic encephalopathy, genetics, neonatal seizures, neurodevelopment, next- generation sequencing, seizures introduction the strada gene, located on q . , contains exons and encodes ste -related kinase adaptor protein. it is translated into the pseudokinase protein ste -related kinase adapter protein α (stradα/strada), which is an upstream inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex (mtorc ). [ ] mutations in strada have been associated with a rare clinical neurodevelopmental syndrome,first described in a cohort of old order mennonite patients, all of whom shared a terminal deletion in the strada gene and whose disorder was termed polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and symptomatic epilepsy syndrome (pmse). [ ] an additional patient of consanguineous parents with a similar phenotype was subsequently found to have a single base pair duplication in the same gene, causing a translational frameshift and premature termination. [ ] mutations in strada have been shown to cause activation of the mtor pathway, potentially indicating a therapeutic target for mtor inhibiting medications. [ ] we describe two sisters of non-consanguineous parents with a novel pathogenic strada mutation and their response to treatment with sirolimus, an mtor inhibitor. clinical report patient a, the older sibling, is a year old girl of caucasian descent born at + weeks gestation following a pregnancy complicated by polyhydramnios. she was noted to have mild epicanthal folds, prominent nasolabial folds, full lips, and macrocephaly (figure a). as an infant she was hypotonic and had poor weight gain. [insert figure ] global developmental delays were present throughout. she did not sit independently until age , and she began to stand at age . she has remained non-verbal and non-ambulatory to date. she developed stereotyped and repetitive behaviors, and was diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. obstructive sleep apnea was present as an infant, and at age three she was diagnosed with nephrocalcinosis and nephrolithiasis, requiring nephrolithotomy. hypothyroidism was later diagnosed at age . radiographically she was found to have hypoplastic distal phalanges in all toes, mild hypoplasia of the distal first phalange on one hand, and mild pectus carinatum. magnetic resonance imaging (mri) at nine months of age showed moderate-to-severe diffuse white matter volume loss, and the most recent mri at age showed additionally mild cerebellar volume loss, focal encephalomalacia of the left middle temporal gyrus, and severe foramen magnum stenosis due to due to the presence of os odontoideum and ligamentous laxity (figure a and b). muscle biopsy identified a deficiency in complex , leading to an initial diagnosis of possible mitochondrial cytopathy. [insert figure ] at months of age, the patient developed tonic motor seizures of unknown onset with duration of to seconds, and was initially treated with phenobarbital with good response. at months of age, the patient developed infantile spasms, which were confirmed on electroencephalography demonstrating an ictal pattern of high amplitude sharp wave discharges on a hypsarrhythmic background. infantile spasms initially remitted following treatment with adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth), but would recur around one year of age. throughout her childhood, she continued to have refractory focal and bilateral clonic seizures, with multiple seizures daily and periodic status epilepticus. her epilepsy would prove refractory to multiple anticonvulsants. patient b, the younger sister, is currently years old. she was born at weeks gestation following a pregnancy also complicated by mild polyhydramnios. she had facial dysmorphism similar to her older affected sibling (figure b). neonatally she had feeding dysfunction and aspiration requiring gastrostomy tube placement. a post-natal renal ultrasound was normal, but a follow-up study at months of age revealed nephrocalcinosis, which would remain largely stable until her most recent renal ultrasound at age . she did not develop hydronephrosis or frank nephrolithiasis. her first brain mri at months of age showed periventricular leukomalacia and subsequent imaging has shown a stable moderate degree of cerebral white matter volume loss and a few small foci of nonspecific gliosis in the frontal and parietal subcortical white matter (figure c and d). sleep study at age showed severe central sleep apnea. in regards to her epilepsy, she first had a left focal tonic seizure at months of age, and eeg at that time demonstrated left temporal-occipital sharps. she was treated with phenobarbital. by months of age she developed infantile spasms associated with a hypsarrthymic eeg. these responded to acth therapy, and all seizures remitted until age while she was maintained on lamotrigine. at that time she had onset of focal motor seizures with impaired consciousness, and her eeg evolved to show severe diffuse slowing and multifocal sharps, most prominent in the bitemporal areas. her seizures would prove refractory to multiple anticonvulsants, and she experienced multiple bouts of status epilepticus, until age . at that time she was started on valproic acid, and she had a period of seizure remission for several years before they ultimately returned and would subsequently prove medically refractory to date. materials and methods whole exome sequencing was performed through genedx. patient a and parental serum samples were obtained and tested using xomedxplus, which combines whole exome sequencing with mitochondrial genome sequencing and deletion testing. the patient’s sample was run on the agilent clinical research exome kit. exonic regions and flanking intronic splice junctions were sequenced simultaneously by massively parallel (nextgen) sequencing on an illumina hiseq instrument. base pair reads were bidirectionally sequenced, assembled, and aligned to the grch /ucsc hg reference sequence. sequences were analyzed for variants using xome analyzer analysis tool. capillary sequencing was used to confirm pathogenic variants. results exome sequencing of patient a identified a novel homozygous kb deletion in the strada gene of exons - at chr : , , - , , , respectively. genedx clinical test xomedxplus was utilized for the patient’s genetic testing. this deletion is at the prime end of the strada gene in the protein kinase domain. functional studies have not been done to verify rna transcript or protein function. only loss of function mutations have been reported associated with strada, and it is likely this deletion also causes loss of function. [ ] parental samples from the exome trio showed bilineal inheritance of a heterozygous deletion of exons - of the strada gene. polymerase chain reaction (pcr) analysis through genedx was done for patient b which revealed an identical homozygous deletion. intervention sirolimus binds to fkbp- , an intracellular protein, to form an immunosuppressive complex which inhibits the regulatory kinase, mtor.[ ] based on previous studies suggesting benefit in regards to epilepsy following treatment with an m-tor inhibitor, both sisters were treated with sirolimus oral solution at . mg/m /dose once daily. [ ] doses were adjusted on a weekly basis initially to achieve a target trough level of – ng/ml. of note, patient b was on phenobarbital, which is a known cyp a inducer. after one year of sirolimus therapy, the family reported that patient a’s seizure frequency has decreased significantly. where previously she was having multiple daily seizures, after treatment her seizure frequency decreased to where she would have days without seizures, and could go as long as days without a seizure. this decrease was quantified in a seizure log maintained by her parents, which unfortunately was not started until months after beginning therapy (figure ). her parents also reported subjective improvement in her behavior, attention, and a decrease in somnolence. [insert figure ] patient b, however, continued to have many seizures per day. her sirolimus trough levels remained low despite increasing her dose, likely due to co-commitant phenobarbital therapy. attempts were made to wean phenobarbital in the hope of increasing her sirolumus levels, which was not tolerated due to an increase in seizure burden. she did show some mild, subjective improvements in alertness, but had no other obvious benefits to therapy. similar to that reported in the mennonite children, no obvious effects on expressive language, gross motor function, or adaptive learning were reported in either sibling. [ ] sirolimus was tolerated well, the only side effect being hypertriglyceridemia, which was treated with finofibrate. discussion this novel strada exon - deletion, in addition to the previously described case of a -year- old boy with a single base duplication, demonstrates that pathogenic changes in this gene occur outside of the old order mennonite community. despite homozygosity for an exon - deletion in the strada gene, there is no reported or clinically suspected consanguinity in this case. while we cannot discount the possibility of the parents being distantly related beyond the known family history, homozygosity for a rare gene mutation in a suspected rare disorder can also be explained by potential mutational hotspots or coincidentally occurring mutations. either mechanism implies that strada mutations may not be limited to restricted populations and may be an under-recognized in children with infantile epileptic encephalopathies. while several of these syndromes are clinically distinct, they may be difficult to differentiate phenotypically. accurate diagnosis is important as prognosis, recurrence risk, and potential for treatment may vary. strada-related disorders may be one of a relatively small number of these disorders for which treatment of the underlying defect has shown promise, although further study is needed to establish the efficacy of m-tor inhibitors in these disorders. given that our patients’ phenotype is severe and similar to that described in the mennonite population, it is possible that they have a similar biochemical phenotype that would also respond to sirolimus therapy, although our patients differed from that previously reported in several ways. first, their mutation differed from that described in the mennonite population, which may cause different functional effects on the strada protein and the mtorc pathway. secondly, our subjects were significantly older at the time of treatment, so it is possible earlier treatment would have resulted in a more robust response. ultimately, patient a seemed to show a sustained improvement in seizure control, while no clear effect was seen in patient b. strada mutations are associated with a severe early-onset childhood epilepsy phenotype. while these children have several features that may differentiate their disorder from other severe childhood epilepsies, such as nephrocalcinosis and megaloencephaly, the phenotype may otherwise overlap significantly with other infantile epileptic encephalopathies. our cases demonstrate that this disorder occurs outside of a sequestered population, and suggests these disorders have a potential specific therapy. we propose that early identification of strada- associated disorders allows more effective surveillance, anticipatory guidance, and potential treatment for affected children. we also propose that strada mutation analysis be added to the increasingly comprehensive next-generation sequencing panels now available for infantile and childhood epilepsies. references [ ]laplante m, sabatini dm. mtor signaling at a glance. j of cell sci. ; : - . [ ] puffenberger eg, strauss ka, ramsey ke, et al. polyhydramnios, megalencephaly and symptomatic epilepsy caused by a homozygous -kilobase deletion in lyk . brain. ; ( ) - [ ] bi w, glass ia, muzny dm, et al. whole exome sequencing identifies the first strada point mutation in a patient with polyhydramnios, megalencephaly, and symptomatic epilepsy syndrome (pmse). am j med genet part a; ; a: – [ ] orlova ka, parker we, heuer gg, et al. stradα deficiency results in aberrant mtorc signaling during corticogenesis in humans and mice. the j of clinl investigation. ; ( ): - [ ] thomson aw, turnquist hr, raimondi g. immunoregulatory functions of mtor inhibition. nature reviews immunology. ; ( ): - [ ] parker we, orlova k a, parker wh, et al. rapamycin prevents seizures after depletion of strada in a rare neurodevelopmental disorder. sci translational med. ; ( ), ra author contribution kn was primary in drafting and finalizing the manuscript. cj, lw, cs, jb contributed significantly to the body of the manuscript, and cj did the majority of revisions for resubmission. lw, kp and sd provided revisions and guidance throughout the drafting process. lw, cs, jb and kp all participated in the clinical care of the patients. declaration of conflicting interests the authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research authorship and/or publication of this article. funding the authors received no financial support of the research, authorship and/or publication of this article. ethical approval photography consent forms were obtained from the patients guardians. figure a and b: both sisters (patient a being the elder) affected by the same strada mutation showed similar dysmorphic features figure : axial flair mri images from patient a showing focal encephalomalacia in the left temporal lobe ( a). patient a ( b) and patient b ( c and d) demonstrated a decrease in white matter volume with punctate t white matter hyperintensities figure : seizure log demonstrating decrease in seizure burden for patient a following sirolimus treatment chh volume issue front matter church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols charles lyttle volume viii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles pages arbaugh, george b., gossner missionaries m america - baron, hans, calvinist republicanism and its historical roots - bella, julius l, father tyrrell's dogmas - downey, glanville, julian the apostate at antioch - gray, john r., the political theory of john knox - harkness, r. e. e., the development of democracy in the english reformation - hawley, charles arthur, gerald massey and america - hershberger, guy franklin, pacifism and the state in colonial pennsylvania ., - hudson, winthrop s., the morison myth concerning the founding of harvard college - hudson, winthrop s., the scottish effort to presbyterianize the church of england - kristeller, paul oskar, florentine platonism and its rela- tions with humanism and scholasticism - odlozilik, otakar, bohemian protestants and the calvinistic churches - outler, albert c, origen and the regulae fidei - pennington, edgar legare, john wesley's georgia ministry .... - spinka, matthew, latin church of the early crusades - sweet, william warren, church archives in the united states - minutes of the society minutes of the forty-sixth consecutive (thirty-second annual) meeting of the society and of the council, december, - minutes of the forty-seventh meeting of the society and of the council, april, - book reviews angus, s., essential christianity - attwater, donald, st. john chrysostom beardsley, frank granville, the history of christianity in america bentwich, n., solomon schechter: a biography - bernhart, joseph, the vatican as a world power berthold, s. m., thomas paine, america's first liberal - be"venot, maurice, st. cyprian's be unitate, chapter billington, e. a., the protestant crusade, - - binns, l. e., the church in the ancient world bonner, c, some baptist hymnists from the th century to modern times burton, k., paradise planters - cadbury, henry j., annual catalogue of george fox's papers - corrigan, kaymond, s. j., the church and the nineteenth century - coulton, g. g., inquisition and liberty coulton, g. g., medieval panorama: the english scene from conquest to 'reformation; coulton, g. g., social life in britain from the conquest to the reformation - davis, helen c. m., comp., some aspects of religious liberty dodd, charles harold, history and the gospels - dru, alexander, ed., the journals of soren kierkegaard > - duckett, eleanor shipley, the gateway to the middle ages - eisenach, g. j., a history of the german congregational churches in the united states - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pages fairchild, hoxie n., 'religious trends in english poetry, vol. i - finkelstein, louis, the pharisees, the sociological background of their faith - flew, r. newton, jesus and his church - foster, frank hugh, the modern movement in american theology - garraghan, gilbert j., the jesuits of the middle united states - garrett, c. h., the marian exiles, a study in the origins of elizabethan puritanism _ - gingerieh, melvin, the mennonites in iowa - gipson, lawrence henry, ed., the moravian indian mission of white river: diaries and letters - gobbel, l. l., church-state relations in education in north carolina since l ye - goodenough, erwin, the politics of philo judaeus: practice and theory - goodwin, mary c, papal conflict with josephinism gordon, antoinette k., the iconography of tibetan lamaism hagen, lois d., a parish in the pines - haller, william, the rise of puritanism - halperin, s. william, italy and the vatican at war - hardy, e. n., george whitefield, the matchless soul winner horstmann, j. h. and wernecke, h. h., through four centuries - hull, william i., the rise of quakerism in amsterdam, - - jordan, w. k., the development of religious toleration in england, - - jorgensen, j., saint catherine of siena - knapton, ernest john, the lady of the holy alliance: the life of julie de krudener - knox, wilfred l., st. paul and the church of the gentiles - latourette, k. s., the thousand years of uncertainty, a.d. -a.d. - lietzmann, h., die reichskirche bis zum tode julians; and the founding of the church universal - mackinnon, james, the origins of the reformation - mareuse, ludwig, soldier of the church-. the life of ignatius loyola - mcconnell, francis j., john wesley mckinney, w. w., early pittsburgh presbyterianism - mcneill, john t. and gamer, helena m., medieval handbooks of penance - merkel, h. m., history of methodism in utah - moland, e., the conception of the gospel in the alexandrine theology .... - moore, ernest carroll, the story of instruction - muller, karl, kirchengeschichte murison, w., sir david lyndsay, poet and satirist of the old church of scotland - nelson, william, john skelton, laureate - nobbs, douglas, theocracy and toleration, a study in dutch calvinism from - - parsons, ernest william, the religion of the new testament - payton, james simpson, our fathers have told us pennington, e. l., apostle of new jersey, john talbot phelan, m., a history of the expansion of methodism in texas, - pratt, parley p., jr., ed., life and letters of parley p. pratt - riley, arthur j., catholicism in new england to - smith, h. maynard, pre-reformation england - smith, joseph fielding, ed., teachings of the prophet joseph smith - sonne, niels henry, liberal kentucky — - - sturge, c, cuthbert tunszal, churchman, scholar, statesman, administrator - torrey, norman l., the spirit of voltaire - - trobridge, george, swedenborg: life and teachings - walten, m. g., ed., thomas fuller's the holy state and the profane state - walter, johannes von, die geschichte des christentums, vol. i i wenger, j. c, history of the mennonites of the franconia conference - wertenbaker, thomas jefferson, the founding of american civilization: the middle colonies - white, l. t., latin monasticism in norman sicily - williamson, claude, ed., great catholics - winters, r. l., francis lambert of avignon ( - ) - zyzykin, m. v., patriarch nikon - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by phtt.ip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for charles lyttle president roland h. bainton vice-president matthew spinka secretary robert hastings nichols . treasurer robert fortenbaugh assistant secretary other members of the council william warren sweet herbert wallace schneider conrad henry moehlman reuben e. e. harkness frederick w i l l i a m loetscher f. w. buckler j o h n thomas mcneill e. r. hardy, jr. wllhelm pauck percy v. norwood editorial board of church history matthew s p i n k a , managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols charles lyttle, ex officio vol. viii september, no. table of contents florentine platonism and its relations with humanism and scholasticism paul oskar kristeller origen and the regulae fidei albert c. outler gossner missionaries in america george b. arbaugh john wesley's georgia ministry edgar legare pennington t h e scottish effort to presbyterianize the church of england winthrop s. hudson book reviews: dodd, charles harold : history and the gospels, henri r. pearcy angus, s.: essential christianity ..;.. robert hastings nichols core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents williamson, claude, ed. : great catholics john m. lenhart, o. m. cap. bern hart, joseph : the vatican as a world power, c. c. eckhardt duckett, eleanor shipley: the gateway to the middle ages john t\ mcneill marcuse, ludwig: soldier of the church: the life of ignatius loyola robert hastings nichols haller, william : the rise of puritanism leland h. carlson cadbury, henry j.: annual catalogue of george fox's papers paul g. morrison mcconnell, francis j.: john wesley arthur w. nagler goodwin, mary c.: papal conflict with josephinism matthew spinka riley, arthur j.: catholicism in new england to thomas f. o'connor wertenbaker, thomas jefferson: the founding of american civilization: the middle colonies, william w. sweet beardsley, frank granville: the history of christ- ianity in america —- charles t. thrift, jr. smith, joseph fielding, ed. : teachings of the prophet joseph smith clifford m. drury halperin, s. william : italy and the vatican at war herbert w. schneider foster, frank h u g h : the modern movement in american theology edwin e. aubrey davis, helen c. m., comp. : some aspects of religious liberty matthew spinka core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential wednesday, february , a -pos board b cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin- related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission natalia stepanyants, patrick macdonald, rajesh ramachandran. physiology and biophysics, case western reserve university, cleveland, oh, usa. cardiolipin (cl) is a unique, dimeric phospholipid essential for mitochondrial dynamics in eukaryotic cells. dynamin-related protein (drp ), a member of the dynamin superfamily of large gtpases, maintains the balance of mitochon- drial division and fusion by rapidly catalyzing mitochondrial fission. although recent studies have indicated a role for cl in stimulating drp self-assembly as well as gtpase activity on the mitochondrial surface, the exact mechanism by which cl functions in membrane fission remains unclear. here we use a variety of fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging approaches, together with model membranes, to demonstrate that drp and cl function cooperatively in effect- ing membrane fission in three distinct steps: (i) drp ’s preferential association with unconstrained, fluid-phase cl molecules located at a high spatial density in the membrane bilayer, (ii) cl’s reorganization in concert with drp self- assembly, and (iii) cl’s rapid phase transition from a lamellar, bilayer structure to an inverted hexagonal, non-bilayer configuration in the presence of drp and gtp, resulting in the creation of localized membrane constrictions that are primed for fission. we propose that drp thus catalyzes mitochondrial division. -pos board b vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin- sensitive channels oscar teijido hermida , adam j. kuszak , susan k. buchanan , sergey m. bezrukov , tatiana k. rostovtseva . program on physical biology, nichd, nichd, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa, program on physical biology, nichd, niddk, national institutes of health (nih), bethesda, md, usa. the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac) forms the major pathway for metabolites across the mitochondrial outer membrane (mom). mammalian mitochondria have three isoforms of this protein: vdac , vdac , and vdac which may play different roles in the regulation of mitochondrial func- tions. vdac is the most studied isoform, since it is the major protein of the mom in most cells, followed by vdac . both, vdac and vdac recon- stituted into planar membranes form voltage-dependent anion-selective chan- nels whose conductance is modulated by dimeric tubulin. as counterpart, the poor channel-forming ability of vdac together with its low proficiency in restoring normal growth in pore-less yeast led to hypothesize that this isoform does not form channels and could be just a modulator of the other two isoforms. we developed an improved protocol of purification and refolding of mouse re- combinant vdac that allowed us to fully characterize channels formed by vdac reconstituted in planar lipid membranes and to compare its channel properties with those of vdac and vdac . we observed the typical vdac channel behavior of vdac , such as high conductive open state ( . - . ns in m kcl) and multiple low conductive states at potentials r mv, selectivity for anions with pcl -/pk þ¼ . , and typical voltage- gating. this suggests a structural homology of vdac with the other two iso- forms. interestingly, the most distinct characteristic of vdac is its signifi- cantly lower sensitivity to the blockage by tubulin, which would lead to an increased permeability of this channel to atp and other metabolites. this might explain why the down-regulation of vdac expression among the three vdac isoforms in some cancer cells causes the most drastic decrease in their mitochondrial membrane potential, or why vdac is predominantly ex- pressed in the short-term high energy demanding cells, such as spermatozoa. -pos board b channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential victor v. lemeshko. escuela de fisica, universidad nacional de colombia, medellin, colombia. mitochondria are the main source of energy in eukaryotic non-proliferating aer- obic cells. in cancer cells, significant part of the energy metabolism is sup- ported by the aerobic glycolysis. oxidative phosphorylation metabolites cross the mitochondrial outer membrane through the voltage dependent anion channel (vdac). the possibility of the voltage-gating functioning of vdac under physiological conditions and proposed mechanisms of generation of the outer membrane potential (omp) require further study. in this work, we present a computational thermodynamic analysis of a possible generation of omp by the creatine kinase(ck)-vdac and vdac-hexokinase(hk) com- plexes, as well as by their intermembrane complexes with the adenine nucleo- tide translocator (ant). the ck-vdac and vdac-hk complexes function as direct steady-state voltage generators, using the free energy of kinase reac- tions, while the ant-ck-vdac and ant-vdac-hk complexes allow the application of a part of the sum of the corresponding ‘‘kinase voltage’’ and the inner membrane potential to the outer membrane. the developed computa- tional models demonstrate a high probability of generation of the metabolically-dependent omp with magnitudes high enough to close free vdacs. we suggest that in case of cardiac cells, the ck-vdac-mediated channeling of mitochondrial energy, earlier postulated by saks and wallimann, leads to the metabolically-dependent generation of a high omp during systole, thus causing electrical closure of free vdacs and essentially avoiding the mitochondrial atp usage by non-contraction system consumers. in case of cancer cells, that have a very high percentage of hexokinase attached to mito- chondria, the electrical closure of free vdacs by omp allows the preferential vdac-hk-mediated channeling of the mitochondrial atp to initiate the aer- obic glycolysis by an anti-turbo mode. (research grants # and # , colciencias). -pos board b alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease philip a. gurnev , , tatiana k. rostovtseva , david p. hoogerheide , , olga protchenko , thai leong yap , jennifer c. lee , sergey m. bezrukov . physics department, umass-amherst, amherst, ma, usa, section on molecular transport, ppb/nichd/nih, bethesda, md, usa, center for neutron research, nist, gaithersburg, md, usa, liver diseases branch, niddk/nih, bethesda, md, usa, laboratory of protein conformation and dynamics, nhlbi/nih, bethesda, md, usa. alpha-synuclein (a-syn), an intrinsically disordered neuronal protein, is impli- cated in the etiology of parkinson disease (pd) and a number of other neurode- generative dementias. though recent research demonstrates the involvement of a-syn in a variety of mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration, the mo- lecular mechanism of a-syn toxicity and its effect on neuronal mitochondria remain vague. we demonstrate a functional interaction between a-syn and the voltage-dependent anion channel (vdac), the major conduit for atp and other bioenergetics metabolites in the mitochondrial outer membrane. we found that at nanomolar concentrations, the full-length a-syn, its amino acid c-terminal truncated mutant, as well as b- and a-synuclein isoforms induce reversible and highly voltage-dependent blockage of vdac reconsti- tuted into planar lipid bilayers. binding parameters varied with each isoform, revealing the key role of the negatively charged c-terminal of synucleins in blocking a positively charged pore of vdac. synuclein-blocked states of vdac differ in ionic selectivity, implying the existence of several conforma- tion states of synuclein molecules in the channel pore. we propose a model of a-syn interaction with vdac, in which the negatively charged c-terminus of a-syn enters the net-positive channel pore, providing a steric block for atp flux. experiments with a yeast strain deficient in vdac demonstrate that a-syn toxicity in yeast depends on vdac, revealing a-syn interaction with the channel in living cells. thus, our findings show the long-sought physiolog- ical and pathophysiological roles for monomeric a-syn, which reconcile previ- ous observations of various synuclein effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics. -pos board b mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter meagan mcmanus , martin picard , alessia angelin , prasanth potluri , jagat narula , douglas wallace . chop/upenn, philadelphia,, pa, usa, mt sinai, new york, ny, usa. cardiac conduction defects and cardiomyopathy are commonly reported in pa- tients with inborn errors of metabolism harboring pathogenic mutations in either mitochondrial or nuclear dna (mtdna and ndna, respectively). we hypothesized that the pathophysiology of inborn errors of metabolism varies due to synergistic heterozygosity between the two genomes. we examined a -generation mennonite pedigree with autosomal recessive cardiomyopathy due a mutation in the adenine nucleotide translocator- (ant ). substantial variability in the progression of heart disease segregated with maternal lineage, and the severity of cardiomyopathy correlated with the mtdna haplogroups (strauss, et al ). to determine the causative nature of this correlation, we examined the influence of inherited mtdna mutations on ant - cardiomyopathy in the mouse. we introduced homoplasmic mtdna nd or coi missense mutations into the mouse female germ line, generating mice with complex i or iv deficiency, respectively, and analyzed ant -dependent cardiomyopathy on the different mtdna backgrounds. on wt mtdna back- ground, the ant -/- mice developed a distinctive concentric dilated cardiomy- opathy, characterized by substantial myocardial hypertrophy and ventricular dilation. both coi and nd mtdna mutations accelerated ant -/- age- dependent cardiomyopathy, as evidenced by ultrastructrural abnormalities, bio- energetic defects, mtros production, sensitized mitochondrial permeability transition, increased mtdna damage, and heart failure, which ultimately 	cardiolipin reorganization and phase transition induced by dynamin-related protein facilitates mitochondrial membrane fission 	vdac forms typical voltage-gated, anion-selective, and tubulin-sensitive channels 	channeling of mitochondrial energy in cardiac and cancer cells by the metabolically-dependent outer membrane potential 	alpha-synuclein blocks vdac suggesting mechanism of mitochondrial regulation and toxicity in parkinson disease 	mitochondrial dna: the heart of the matter american church archives- an overview by mabel e. deutrich* national archives stories about the pilgrims and their quest for religious free-dom, revived each thanksgiving day, have caused many topicture the colonists as well-behaved, religious persons. ac- tually, however, only a small percentage of the total population of the thirteen colonies were members of churches. most colonials came from the lower stratum of european society and, until the eighteenth-century "awakenings," were little influenced by or- ganized religion. the revolutionary war period was one of stag- nation insofar as religion was concerned. later, the influences stem- ming from the war and the french revolution, with the accompany- ing political, social, and intellectual upheavals, helped to undermine morals and religion. the orthodox views of religion lost their ap- peal to many americans of the rising generation, who were at- tracted by deism of the tom paine type. the actions of church leaders during the eight years of the revo- lution also affected the later importance and influence of the various denominations. the leaders of the church of england (later—in the united states—the protestant episcopal church) were mainly loyalists and therefore suspect. the methodists, though an insignifi- cant body at the close of the revolution, having obtained only a precarious foothold in america ten years before the declaration of independence, were helped by the fact that the english preachers, all staunch loyalists, returned to their native land during the con- flict. the leaders of the presbyterian churches, such as john with- erspoon, john rodgers, and george duffield, generally were im- bued with fervor for independence, and most of them were well educated and forceful. the baptists, who in the decades preceding the revolution had been considered radicals, gained stature and began to wield important influence for religious liberty, especially in • t h e author, a member of the committee on church records, society of american archivists, has been on the staff of the national archives since . her paper is based on material she assembled for american university's th institute in the pres- ervation and administration of archives, held in washington, d. c, june - , . most of the information for the introductory part of this paper was obtained from william warren sweet's four-volume series religion on the american frontier. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist virginia, where in they helped in the passage of the law separating church and state. but the largest and most influential church in america, although confined almost exclusively to new england, was the congregationalist. an interesting sidelight is the part that the moravians, in and around bethlehem, pa., played in the revolutionary w a r . most moravians had deep-seated conscientious scruples against bearing arms. their scruples were generally understood and respected by colonial leaders. because of its proximity to philadelphia, however, bethlehem was of strategic importance. many prominent colonial leaders passed through its streets, and at different times its build- ings were commandeered as hospitals. in fact, after the british cap- tured philadelphia, some thought was given to making bethlehem the seat of the continental congress. when the revolution came to a close, the people found their troubles were not over. the new nation was faced with a general economic depression, in which small farmers as well as big planters were overwhelmed by debt, while their surplus products found no ready market. and, as we all know, the people began in increasing numbers to trek to the west to find a way out of their dilemma. t h e settlements across the alleghenies before the revolution were made up largely of hunters and indian fighters. although some of the settlers were affiliated with religious denominations (the boones, for example, were of baptist stock; and squire boone, brother of daniel, was a baptist preacher), these earlier settle- ments were temporary; and since no cultural institutions were estab- lished they had little permanent influence. but after the revolution an entirely new group of immigrants began to swarm westward in ever increasing numbers—immigrants who were to transform back- woods communities into new states. the american churches were now faced with the challenge of following these western migrations—into western new york and pennsylvania, kentucky and tennessee, and down the ohio and into the settlements bordering the mississippi. the challenge was in- deed tremendous. if the common people along the eastern seaboard were largely unchurched, it is not surprising that the frontiersmen also were. furthermore, many who had been connected with churches forgot this membership when they left the older communi- ties. they were engrossed with the material things of life; cultural and spiritual matters had to wait while there were lands to clear and homes and roads to build. and since moral, cultural, and re- kenneth g. hamilton, "the resources of the moravian church archives," in pennsylvania history, : (july i ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview ligious conditions in the older settlements left much to be desired, it should not be surprising that drinking, fighting, gambling, and sabbath-breaking prevailed in many frontier communities. fortunately this westward migration took place at a time of religious revivalism. presbyterian preachers were largely respon- sible for the great revival that swept over the frontier settlements in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but the other churches also participated in it. baptists and methodists were es- pecially quick to join the movement, and they profited from it more than the other denominations did. presbyterians, congregation- alists, and lutherans were handicapped by the fact that each of these sects was concerned with particular groups of settlers rather than with frontier society as a whole. the presbyterian missionar- ies sought out frontier communities peopled by scotch-irish with a presbyterian background; the congregationalists, transplanted new england settlements; and the lutherans, german settlements. the baptist and methodist preachers, however, went out into the wil- derness intent on drawing any and all kinds of people into the fold. the pure democracy of baptist church government and the metho- dist missionary system with its network of circuits gave them ad- vantage and thus help to explain the growth of these churches. all the missionaries or frontier preachers, however, played important roles; and the records they made and kept are vital to an under- standing of this phase of our history. the type and range of influence wielded by frontier churches and their preachers—and the records of their activities—were pre- scribed in large part by the organization of the church government. the presbyterians, for example, have a form of representative government through a system of four graded courts, in the follow- ing ascending order: the session, the presbytery, the synod, and the general assembly. inherent in this system of courts is the privilege of appeal from the lower to the higher and the obligation of a low- er court to carry out the injunction of a superior one. the church session, consisting of the pastor and elders of a local congregation, is responsible for the spiritual government of that congregation. as for its duties, it could and did inquire into the conduct of the mem- bers of the church; it summoned and examined the accused and witnesses; and it admonished, suspended, or excluded from the sac- raments offenders deserving such punishment. and, very impor- tantly, it kept a record of its proceedings, as well as records of bap- tisms, marriages, deaths, new members, and communicants. a further illustration of variety in church organization and gov- ernment—and the need for researchers to understand this in order d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril o t h e a m e r i c a n a r c h i v i s t to k n o w w h a t records to consult—is the society of f r i e n d s , or q u a k e r s . t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n consists of the following m e e t i n g s : weekday, monthly, q u a r t e r l y , and yearly. t h e weekday or "first d a y " meetings, h o w e v e r , are purely for w o r s h i p . i t is at t h e m o n t h l y meetings t h a t local congregations t a k e care of their busi- ness activities, and the records of these meetings t h e r e f o r e contain i n f o r m a t i o n c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t of the p r e s b y t e r i a n sessions. i n all the frontier churches much of the business t r a n s a c t e d by local congregations, w h a t e v e r the denomination, p e r t a i n e d t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of discipline. but in the social development of fron- t i e r communities religious activities w e r e closely linked with agri- cultural, industrial, commercial, political, and educational i n t e r e s t s . besides disciplining m e m b e r s for drinking, fighting, stealing, gam- bling, and o t h e r i m p r o p e r acts, the churches interceded in family affairs and even ruled on m e m b e r s ' misunderstandings or business disputes. t h e r e can be no question of the value of church r e c o r d s to the church h i s t o r i a n — o f a local c o n g r e g a t i o n or of the entire church. but these records are also g o l d mines of i n f o r m a t i o n for the social and economic historian. f e w o t h e r bodies of records give so com- plete and accurate a picture of the backwoods community. t h e j o u r n a l s of m e t h o d i s t circuit r i d e r s a r e frequently illuminating. t h e s t a n d s the churches t o o k on slavery a r e r e c o r d e d n o t only in local records but in those of h i g h e r g o v e r n i n g bodies. i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g t o i n d i a n s is a b u n d a n t in the records of missionary societies. c h u r c h records are also of singular i m p o r t a n c e to persons needing vital statistics and to genealogists, p a r t i c u l a r l y for the p e r i o d b e f o r e . i n the f e d e r a l decennial censuses from t h r o u g h , only the names of h e a d s of families were listed. f u r t h e r m o r e , regis- t r a t i o n of vital statistics by cities and states was not begun u n i f o r m - ly, and in some states it w a s well beyond the civil w a r b e f o r e these r e c o r d s were maintained. t h e churches, however, h a d been ac- customed to keeping records of their m e m b e r s l o n g b e f o r e the colo- nists came to a m e r i c a , and these early records serve t o fill m a n y g a p s in public vital statistics. i n describing a m e r i c a n church archives, one m i g h t divide t h e m into ecclesiastical records and institutional r e c o r d s . t h e first classi- fication would include the official archives of the individual churches a n d the higher g o v e r n i n g bodies, such as the dioceses and a r c h d i o - ceses of the catholic c h u r c h or the presbyteries a n d synods of the p r e s b y t e r i a n c h u r c h . t h e second classification w o u l d include the archives of monasteries, universities, missions, lay o r g a n i z a t i o n s , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview charitable foundations, and the like. such a classification, however, would give the impression that the provenance of these various rec- ords has been maintained. unfortunately, this is not generally true. although some depositories are limited primarily to ecclesiastical archives—a notable example being the archives of the archdiocese of baltimore—most of them contain collections or fragments of collections from other than ecclesiastical sources. many deposi- tories are at universities or other educational institutions. the university of notre dame, for example, has papers of the arch- dioceses of detroit, new orleans, and cincinnati; but it also has records of the university and personal papers of catholic clergy- men and laymen. some depositories have also collected nonreligious records, such as those relating to the history of american labor in the department of archives and manuscripts of the catholic university of america and the "peace collection," including papers of jane addams and other peace advocates, in the friends histori- cal library at swarthmore college. strictly speaking, most of the record holdings are manuscript col- lections rather than archives. this, of course, is what should be expected, particularly for the earlier records. the churches were no different from businesses and other institutions—or for that matter from the government—in that they did not fully realize the value of some of their records. documents, passed from one per- son to another, were stored in basements, attics, and other out-of- the-way places, were sometimes forgotten and sometimes destroyed during a spring housecleaning or after the death of the holder. furthermore, we seem always to have been hero worshippers and hence we have tended to collect personal papers. and thus it is that church depositories, like many other institutions, tend to have pri- marily manuscript collections. some of them, of course, also have ecclesiastical and institutional archives. many are closely connected with museums and libraries, sometimes as divisions of libraries. many important depositories were established because some one man or a small group of men became convinced of the importance of preserving the records. sometimes depositories were established because of failure to find records necessary to write a history or to prepare a speech. in , samuel colgate, then president of the american home mission society, was asked to speak about the work of the baptist women's association. his failure to find many of the reports he needed fired his determination to collect baptist records of all types and resulted in the large and important col- lection bearing his name. the splendid historical foundation, the official depository for the presbyterian church in the united states d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist (southern), at montreat, n . c , owes much to the determination of the rev. samuel mills tenney to awaken "the church from her indifference and lack of appreciation of the past." t h e magnificent collection at the university of notre dame owes its beginnings to the inspiration and perseverance of prof. james f . edwards, who canvassed chancery offices, educational and religious institutions, and parishes, begging for inactive records that were in danger of destruction for lack of suitable care or storage. sometimes the establishment of historical societies provided the necessary stimulus. outstanding examples are the presbyterian historical society, or- ganized in , which today has a large collection of manuscripts in the witherspoon building in philadelphia relating to the pres- byterian church in the united states of america ( n o r t h e r n ) ; and the lutheran historical society, organized in , with its de- pository at the lutheran theological seminary, gettysburg, p a / many church records and papers of religious leaders have been preserved by state historical societies, libraries, and similar cultural institutions. among state historical societies that have church rec- ords are those of massachusetts, pennsylvania, minnesota, and wisconsin. the massachusetts historical society, for example, has, for many protestant clergymen, personal collections—several of which, such as the papers of the mathers, date from the colonial period—while the wisconsin historical society has a part of the shane collection (in turn part of the draper collection), containing much information on presbyterianism in kentucky. some state and other institutions have collected church records for their par- ticular areas. the state historical society of wisconsin, again, which already had some records of both catholic and protestant churches and church officials in the state, was designated in i as the official depository for the records of baptist and methodist churches in wisconsin. the south carolina historical society has several hundred volumes from south carolina congregational and episcopal churches and church societies, and the alabama depart- ment of archives and history has records of methodist, baptist, episcopal, and presbyterian churches of that state. the connecti- cut state library, interested in centralizing church records of its state, has the records of about churches, - . the vir- ginia state library has some volumes of records of protestant churches, chiefly of the period - . t h e southern historical thomas hugh spence, jr., the historical foundation and its treasures, p. (montreat, n. c.; historical foundation publications, ). this society, however, suffered a gradual decline in activity in recent decades and in was described officially as "dormant." d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview collection at the university of north carolina contains many papers of southern religious leaders. other collections are at the university of chicago, union theological seminary in new york, and duke university. the new york public library, besides per- sonal papers of clergymen, has records of some local church or- ganizations ; those of the methodist church in new york city and vicinity (deposited by the methodist historical society) are prob- ably the most extensive. thus it is obvious that a total picture or diorama of the loca- tions of church records is like an elaborate patchwork quilt, but without a systematic design. large quantities of church records have been preserved, but they are scattered among all sorts of de- positories, religious and nonreligious. several denominations have already established central depositories. those that have not, should do so. it is time—in fact it is past time—that more denomi- nations should consider systematic archival programs. among en- couraging signs in recent decades are the activities of the mennonite church, the presbyterian church in the united states (southern), and the lutheran church—missouri synod. the mennonites established a central archives for their church in at goshen college, goshen, ind. under the guidance of h. s. bender until , and since then of melvin gingerich, rapid strides have been made toward systematic accessions of archives and the collection of historical manuscripts and related materials. the presbyterian church in the united states established the historical foundation of the presbyterian and reformed churches in at texarkana, tex., to collect and preserve materials of, and to promote knowledge of, churches of the presbyterian order. in the fall of the following year the institution was moved to mon- treat, n. c , where, under the devoted guidance of the rev. samuel m. tenney and, after his death in , of the rev. thomas h. spence, jr., the foundation has become an outstanding church de- pository. having outgrown its old quarters and recognizing the need for a building specifically designed to service and protect its treasures, the church constructed a completely modern building in to house its archives, library, and museum. developments in the lutheran church—missouri synod have been very similar. in the synod designated the concordia historical institute in st. louis as its official records depository. the records were housed in one of the buildings of concordia semi- nary and a curator was appointed. this curator, however, was also librarian and professor of church history at the seminary and therefore could devote only part of his time to the institute. never- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist theless, he made some progress in collecting materials and, with the help of seminarians, accomplished some description and arrange- ment work. but it was not until after november , when first karl kretzmann and then (in ) august r. suelflow were ap- pointed full-time curators, that substantial progress was made. the concordia historical institute, like the presbyterians' historical foundation, soon found that it needed additional and better housing. and, like the foundation, it constructed a modern building in . the missouri synod, furthermore, has developed an organiza- tion for the control of all its archives that has a very significant po- tential. not only has a central depository been established for the synod, but provision has been made for each of the districts com- posing it to have its own archives and archivist. in addition, local congregations have been encouraged to appoint archivists. al- though the success of this system is somewhat spotty, it is an impor- tant step forward. furthermore, beginning in , about every three years the synod has held two-day conferences primarily for district archivists. subjects discussed at these conferences have in- cluded the relationship of the curator of the concordia historical institute to the district archivists, the duties of these archivists, con- gregational archives, and the indexing and cataloging of materials. such conferences can be very fruitful in the establishment and maintenance of an effective archival program. another encouraging sign is the interest of the american theo- logical library association in the care, handling, and acquisition of manuscript holdings. a recent survey conducted by a committee of that association revealed that few of the libraries were pursuing an active acquisition program and that many would not accept manu- script materials if offered. these librarians were sufficiently in- terested in record material, however, to include a workshop session on manuscript collections, administration, and cataloging at their annual meeting last june. religious seminaries and universities can and should play an im- portant part in developing and maintaining archival establishments. they are natural locations for either central or intermediate deposi- tories; and, since they sprang up all over the country during the nineteenth century, much research material has gravitated toward them. many of these institutions accepted their responsibility to give these materials adequate care and to make them available to researchers. but some of them, in common with other colleges and universities, still have not faced up to the responsibility of preserv- roscoe m. pierson, "denominational collections in theological seminary and church historical society libraries," in library trends, : (oct. i ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview ing their own archives, let alone the archives of their denomina- tions. the boxes or packages of musty, dirty records that somehow found their way to these institutions may deteriorate in obscure corners, but they will not disappear. nor will they magically be- come properly arranged and indexed. and as more and more stu- dents seek higher degrees and more and more educational institu- tions expand into graduate fields, these centers will find it necessary to acquire original research materials if they want to attract scholars. depositories there is now no adequate guide to denominational archives and manuscripts. allison's -year old guide to protestant materials is still the best and most inclusive. sweet's paper, read before the annual meeting of the society of american archivists and pub- lished in the following year, contains excellent information relating to denominational collections. there are also several guides and inventories to church records produced some years ago by the historical records survey of the works progress administration and various articles relating primarily to the records of particular churches. the titles to some of these are listed in a bibliography prepared by the church records committee of the society of the american archivists. the new guide to archives and manuscripts, compiled for the national historical publications commission under the editorship of philip m. hamer, contains considerable information about denominational records. this work covers all types of depositories and is arranged alphabetically by state and thereunder alphabetically by city or town. although one cannot easily visualize the holdings of a particular denomination, it is pos- sible, by using the extensive index, to reconstruct such information. the genealogist will find kirkham's recent guide useful, particularly for information on local or congregational records. although drawing on the above sources and admittedly incom- plete, the summary following may give some useful information on william h. allison, inventory of unpublished material for american religious history in protestant church archives and other repositories (washington, d. c.; carnegie institution of washington, ). william warren sweet, "church archives in the united states," in church his- tory, : - (mar. ). edmund l. binsfeld, "church archives in the united states and canada; a bibliography," in american archivist, : - (july ). » philip m. hamer, ed., a guide to archives and manuscripts in the united states (new haven, ). e. kay kirkham, a survey of american church records, vols. and (salt lake city, , ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist the various depositories of church records. the amount of infor- mation about a particular depository indicates not the size or value of the collections but rather the extent of the writer's knowledge. detailed listings of the records in the depositories may, at least in most cases, be found in allison's inventory and hamer's guide, mentioned above. catholic church depositories the archives of the catholic church are so extensive that little more can be given here than a listing of some of the depositories and a recommendation that the reader consult thomas f. o'connor's excellent article on catholic archives. his article describes both ecclesiastical and institutional archives and gives pertinent facts on the establishment of dioceses and archidoceses, necessary for understanding the vast archives network of the catholic church. the foremost of the ecclesiastical archives is, of course, the archives of the archdiocese baltimore, formerly the baltimore cathedral archives. papers of the archdioceses of cincinnati, detroit, new orleans, and vincennes are in the university of notre dame archives. the important archives of the archdioceses of boston, new york, portland, st. louis, san francisco, and santa fe are for the most part in the respective chanceries. the archdiocesan archives of st. louis and santa fe are especially valuable to the social and economic historian. there are also, of course, archives of the various dioceses. the foremost of the catholic institutional archives is that of the university of notre dame. besides the archdiocesan archives mentioned above, it con- tains records of dioceses and other organizational records, a large number of personal papers of catholic clergymen and laymen, and records relating to the university. the st. louis university library has original records and great quantities of microfilm copies of manuscripts relating primarily to the religious and educational work of the jesuit order in the middle west and latin ameri- ca. it is also the depository for microfilm copies of vatican library manu- scripts. the st. louis roman catholic theological seminary library has collections relating to the archdiocese of st. louis and to the catholic church in the mississippi valley, as well as archives of the seminary. the collections of the american catholic historical society at saint charles seminary in philadelphia contain personal papers and other documents important for ameri- can catholic history. the georgetown university archives and the de- partment of archives and manuscripts of the catholic university of america, both in washington, d. c , contain the archives of their universities and catholic historical manuscript collections. other archives that should be mentioned are the oregon province archives at gonzaga university in spo- for a more detailed description of catholic archives, see the article by thomas t. mcavoy, in this issue.—ed. thomas f. o'connor, "catholic archives of the united states," in catholic his- torical review, : - (jan. ). this paper, in modified form, also was pub- lished a "historical and archival activities of the roman catholic church in the united states," in american association for state and local history, bulletin, : - (apr. ). d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a m e r i c a n c h u r c h archives—an o v e r v i e w kane, which has a valuable collection of original and microfilmed records of jesuit missionary activities in the pacific northwest; st. mary's college ar- chives, st. marys, kans., containing materials relating to the activities of jesuit missionaries among the kickapoo and potawatomi indians and of cath- olic ministry to pioneers on the kansas-missouri border; and the woodstock college archives, woodstock, md., which has materials relating to jesuit activities and some personal papers. items relating to the franciscans in california are in the santa barbara mission archives. conception abbey in conception, mo., has documents relating to missions in missouri and the dakotas, records relating to the abbey, and other manuscripts. jewish depositories two jewish theological seminaries have made significant progress in assem- bling important library and manuscript materials—the hebrew union col- lege in cincinnati, ohio, and the jewish theological seminary of america in new york city. the historical manuscripts at the hebrew union college consist of those in the college library and the american jewish archives. the library holdings, dating from before the tenth century, are highly specialized in the fields of hebraica, judaica, and the ancient near east. included is an outstanding jewish music collection. the american jewish archives, founded as recently as , has collected about , items; many of these are microfilm and photostatic copies, although there are extensive collections of originals. in furthering its objective to collect material on the life and his- tory of american jewry—including economic, secular, religious, and cultural activities—the archives has gathered extensive records of jewish congrega- tions, family documents, papers valuable for genealogy, and other records. the library of the jewish theological seminary of america has a large col- lection of manuscripts, beginning as early as the ninth century, relating to jewish history and literature. also at this seminary are the manuscript hold- ings of the american jewish historical society, which date from and relate primarily to the history of jews in america. the holdings of the yivo institute for jewish research, also in new york city, relate to jewish life in the united states and elsewhere. protestant church depositories baptists. the foremost baptist collection is the extensive one, - , of the american baptist historical society at rochester, n. y. it consists of the records of the society—which include baptist state convention reports, minutes of associations, many church record books, photographs, and corre- spondence—and of other records, those formerly at the crozer theological seminary, chester, pa., and (even larger) the samuel colgate baptist histori- cal collection, formerly at colgate university, hamilton, n. y.; the rev. edward c. starr, who for several years was curator of the records at colgate, is in charge of the combined material. other collections, at baptist semi- see jacob r. marcus, "the american jewish archives," in american archivist, : - (jan. i ).—ed. formerly the yiddish scientific institute—yivo. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist naries and universities, are for the most part restricted to papers of clergymen who were professors at these schools and to records relating to the geographic areas of the institutions. among these educational institutions are the south- ern baptist theological seminary, louisville, ky.; the furman university library, greenville, s. c.; baylor university library, waco, tex.; frank- lin college library, franklin, ind.; the university of richmond; and bethel theological seminary, st. paul, minn., which has the records of the historical committee of the baptist general conference. the papers of isaac backus and other collections formerly in the new england baptist library at boston are now in the andover newton theological school library at newton center, mass. christian reformed c h u r c h . records of the christian reformed church are in the library of calvin college, grand rapids, mich. congregationalists. the most important collections of congregational material are those at the congregational library in boston, the records of the american board of commissioners for foreign missions, and the records of the american home missionary society. the papers in the congregational library pertain largely to new england congregationalism and include rec- ords of a number of churches, letters and sermons of prominent ministers, and some groups of personal papers. the records of the american board of com- missioners for foreign missions were also at the congregational library, but in most of these archives were transferred to the harvard college li- brary. under an agreement between the college and the board, which retains ownership, harvard has assumed responsibility for administering the archives. every ten years a further accumulation of materials is transferred to the li- brary. these extensive records consist of correspondence, reports, diaries, and other papers relating to foreign missionary activities conducted chiefly by con- gregational churches. since indian missions also were under the auspices of the american board of commissioners, there is extensive correspondence re- lating to that work. the records of the american home missionary society, correspondence of the congregational church building society, records of the chicago congregational association, church records, and other materials are in the chicago theological seminary library. the correspondence of the american home missionary society contains letters and reports of missionaries and the letter books of the secretary of the society. other collections, varying in size and importance, are at various educational institutions. among these are the congregational house, hartford, conn.; grinnell college library, grinnell, iowa; andover-harvard theological seminary library, cambridge, mass.; dartmouth college library, hanover, n. h . ; and oberlin college library, oberlin, ohio. disciples of christ. although the disciples of christ is one of the small- er religious bodies, it has growing and significant historical collections in the college of the bible library, lexington, ky., and in the disciples of christ historical society, nashville, tenn. the records at the college include church records, numerous diaries and sermons, and a number of personal papers of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview ministers. the historical society, housed in a new and modern building, has extensive correspondence and other manuscripts relating to the history of this church. evangelical and reformed c h u r c h . the evangelical and reformed church was formed in by the merger of the reformed church in the united states and the evangelical synod of north america. the principal records of the church are under the control of its historical society, organized by the reformed church in the united states in . from time to time, especially in the earlier years, the society's existence was precarious, but in recent years it has been revitalized. in , when the fackenthal library was built at franklin and marshall college, lancaster, pa., rooms were offered the society for a permanent headquarters. at almost the same time the newly formed general synod appointed a historical commission to investigate the historical organizations of the uniting churches. in accordance with the com- mission's recommendations, which were adopted by the synod of , three official archives were established for the entire church. the records of the former reformed church were to be at lancaster and those of the former evangelical synod at eden theological seminary, webster groves, mo.; and the synods and classes of the northwestern section of the reformed church might either deposit their records in the library of the mission house seminary at plymouth, wis., if they wanted them nearer home, or send them to lan- caster. the collection at plymouth eventually was transferred to the main depository at lancaster, leaving the church with two official depositories. evangelical mission covenant c h u r c h of america. the archives of the evangelical mission covenant church of america are at the north park college and theological seminary, chicago, . most of the documents in the archives are in swedish. evangelical u n i t e d brethren c h u r c h . the historical society of the evangelical united brethren church has records of this church and its predecessors. they are in the library of united theological seminary, dayton, ohio. there is also a collection of materials at otterbein college library, westerville, ohio. friends. the two most important depositories for the religious society of friends (quakers) are the friends historical library, swarthmore college, for the hicksites; and the department of records, society of friends of philadelphia, arch street, sometimes called the friends arch street cen- ter, for the orthodox quakers. but because from the beginning the friends kept meticulous records, there are record collections in a number of other places—to name a few, the depository of the society of friends records com- mittee in new york city, the haverford college library, haverford, pa., and the guilford college library, greensboro, n . c. latter-day saints. the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints probably has expended far more time and money for collecting and maintaining records than any other religious body. its archives at salt lake city are organ- ized in two general divisions—the church historian's office and the genea- logical society of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints. the first d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist constitutes the official archives of the church while the second has about , rolls of microfilmed genealogical records. lutherans. the archives of the lutheran historical society in gettys- burg, pa., together with those in the lutheran theological seminary library, in philadelphia, comprise the most important and complete manuscript collec- tions on lutheranism in america. together they hold thousands of docu- ments, including records of the earliest lutheran churches in america. the official depository of the lutheran church—missouri synod is the concordia historical institute in st. louis. the official archives of the augustana luth- eran church are in augustana college library, rock island, ., but some other records are in the library of gustavus adolphus college, st. peter, minn. records relating to norwegian lutherans are in the luther college library, decorah, iowa, and the luther theological seminary, st. paul, minn. the records of the american lutheran church are at the wartburg theological seminary, dubuque, iowa. m e n n o n i t e s . the archives of the mennonite church at goshen college, goshen, ind., is referred to earlier in this paper as having recently made en- couraging progress in the establishment of a good archival program. other collections of this church are in the bethel college historical library, north newton, kans., and the mennonite historical library, bluffton college, bluffton, ohio. methodists. many of the methodist church seminaries have strong col- lections of manuscript materials, and many historical societies have significant collections. the most important of the collections at educational institutions are those at drew university, madison, n . j . ; emory university, atlanta, ga.; and the garrett biblical institute, evanston, . in addition depauw university, greencastle, ind., has archives of the methodist church in indiana; and ohio wesleyan university, delaware, ohio, has papers relating to the church in ohio. while some records of the historical societies have been trans- ferred to these libraries (drew university has papers formerly held by the methodist historical society of new york and ohio wesleyan has some col- lected by the ohio methodist historical society), important ones that have not been transferred are those of the historical society of the philadelphia annual conference in philadelphia, the new england historical library in boston, and the methodist historical society of the baltimore conference, in that city. these, however, are by no means all the places where methodist materials can be found. moravians. the american moravian church consists of two provinces: bethlehem, pa., and winston-salem, n. c. although together they include only congregations, each province maintains an archival depository rich in materials not only for the church historian but for the social and economic historian as well. the bethlehem archives date from and those at winston-salem from . since the moravian centers were required to main- tain detailed records of their activities, the materials contain important diaries for a further description of methodist archives, see the article by william e. lind, in this issue.—ed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril american church archives—an overview kept by local ministers, letters, memoirs, and manuscript music, as well as the usual church registers and related records. presbyterians. of the major protestant denominations, the presbyterians probably have the best and most complete archival administration. the ex- tensive holdings of the presbyterian historical society, witherspoon building, philadelphia, pertaining to the presbyterian church in the united states of america, serve as the archival center of the recently organized united pres- byterian church in the u. s. a. included among its holdings, which begin in , are official records of the annual general assembly and of synods, presbyteries, and other church organizations, as well as , letters from domestic missions in america and , microfilm copies of letters written by missionaries to the board of foreign missions, about , letters from missionaries among the american indians, the sheldon jackson collection, and part of the john d. shane collection. an important subsidiary archives is in the san francisco theological seminary library, san anselmo, calif. the manuscripts in this seminary comprise the official records of the church and papers of or relating to missionaries and ministers of this geographical area. other subsidiary archives are the libraries of the following theological seminar- ies: princeton, n. j . ; mccormick at chicago; and dubuque, iowa (primarily for materials on the german-speaking section of the church). there are also archives in the maryville (tenn.) college library. records of the former united presbyterian church and of its predecessors, the associate and asso- ciate-reformed presbyterians, are in the pittsburgh theological seminary library. the large and important central archives of the presbyterian church in the united states (southern) is the historical foundation of the presby- terian and reformed churches at montreat, n . c. containing records of its higher courts (general assembly, synods, and presbyteries), collections of per- sonal papers, and related records, it rivals that of the northern church. in addition to the records collected in the foundation, minutes of organizations of the church and related records are in the libraries of the union theological seminary, richmond, va., and the louisville presbyterian theological semi- nary, louisville, ky. protestant episcopal c h u r c h . the church historical society, with quarters in the library of the theological seminary of the southwest in aus- tin, tex., is the official custodian of the general archives of the protestant epis- copal church. among the depositories containing episcopal diocesan archives are the library of trinity college, hartford, conn.; the maryland diocesan library, baltimore; the massachusetts diocesan library, boston; and the vir- ginia diocesan library, richmond. other significant collections relating to the episcopal church are in the general theological seminary in new york city and at yale university. reformed c h u r c h i n america ( d u t c h ) . the archives of the re- formed church in america are in the new brunswick theological seminary for further details on moravian archives, see the articles by the rt. rev. ken- neth g. hamilton and by w. h. whiteley, in this issue.—ed. t the archives in austin are discussed in an article by dorman h. winfrey, in this issue.—ed. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e a m e r i c a n a r c h i v i s t library, new brunswick, n . j. the library of the holland society of new york, in that city, also has some records relating to dutch reformed churches. schwenkfelders. t h e schwenkfelders, a small religious sect in south- eastern pennsylvania with only five churches and a total membership of about , , have the kind of library of which many large denominations would be proud. the schwenkfelder library at pennsburg, pa., boasts some , items, chiefly - , containing a wealth of information relating to the history of the churches and their members in europe and america. unitarians. the library of the meadville theological school in chicago is one of the principal depositories of the unitarian church in america. universalists. the universalist historical society has a collection of archives and manuscripts in its library at the crane theological school, tufts university, medford, mass. specialized materials. in discussing the records of various denomina- tions, some information has been given relating to certain mission collections, such as the records of the american board of commissioners for foreign mis- sions and the american home missionary society. there are, however, a few other specialized collections that should be considered. one is the missionary research library in new york city. this research center originally was sponsored by the foreign missions conference of north america. by the late 's it had a sizable collection of protestant missionary literature, but its existence was threatened by the depression. the union theological seminary thereupon cosponsored the library, and in it was moved to the seminary. it now operates under a committee of twelve, which represents the division of foreign missions of the national council of the churches of christ in the u. s. a. (the former foreign missions conference of north america) and the union theological seminary. among the archives in its custody are those of various missionary conferences and movements, as well as papers of eminent missionaries and some records relating to early mission work among north american indians. other specialized collections are the moodyana exhibit at the moody bible institute in chicago and the records of the american bible society in new york city. this survey is, of course, neither inclusive nor conclusive. much remains to be done to publicize the whereabouts and holdings of church archival repositories. the american theological library association now plans to publish a guide to the archival, historical, and periodical literature of american religious bodies ; and august r. suelflow, as chairman of the church records committee of the society of american archivists, plans to issue a list of depositories of religious archives of the united states. these projected works will, when completed, be very useful. pierson, in library trends, : . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . . u x by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril bre g the silence: aussiedler s of the soviet m nite tragedy a review essay harvey l. dyck, universiol of toronto sarah dyck, ed. and trans., the silence echoes: memoirs of tratima and tears (waterloo, ontario: pandora press, ). $ . . this is the kind of book in english we have long been waiting for, a representative collection of strong, g~lileless first-person stories, mainly by attssiedlel; about innocent mennonite suffering and community destn~ction in the soviet inferno. most of these stories first appeared in german in der bote. well-chose, superbly edited, translated and introd~~ced by sarah dyck, this collection of memoirs appears as a tribute to the mennonite victims of suffering and death in the soviet union in the ~ o l k decades after the revolution of . the book implicitly recognizes personal and community destruction as a central strand of soviet mennonite history. (das ueberlebeiz, the struggle of terrorized survivors for simple physical life through adaptation and compro- mise, is another.) the dead in this htunan tragcdy-victims of exposure, beatings, overwork, disease, starvation and shootings-n~unbered, according to jour-tzal of mettt~o~lite studies t'ol. , jourilal ofmej onite studies informed calculations of the late george epp, roughly a third of all soviet mennonites, well over , people! in its magnitude and brutality, mennonite suffering regrettably belongs in the major leagues of twentieth-century cruelty and guiltless misery. the book represents a long overdue effort, together with like initiatives presently underway, to break the silence, noted in thc title, that has long enveloped the subject of mennonite suffering. there is, of course, the silence inherent in the resting places of the victims, isolated, nameless bogs, mine shafts, quarries, forest camps, along remote railway sidings, in inass secret graves close to their one-time homes in southern ukraine and russia and across the breadth of the ussr. as well, there is the eerie silence experienced by tourists even today visiting hundreds of once vigorous villages emptied of their mennonite inhabitants through starvation, killings, deportations and flight. a different silence long persisted among mennonite s ~ w i v o r s in the ussr fearful ofpublicly, or even in the privacy of their families, recalling inelnories of soviet criminality so long as the empire survived. "thanks be to god! those dark days are behind us," a lnelnoirist explains from the security of her now-german home. a less justifiable silence is that long maintained by many english-speaking scholars who have written of mennonite life in the r ~ ~ s s i a n and soviet empires. for example, the journal of mel ite studies, that specializes in the area, under its first editor, virtually ignored the subject. a handfill of historians did not, notably george epp, jolm b. toews and walter sawatsky, of an older generation, and leonard friesen, marlene epp and peter letkemam, of a young. also helping to break the silence are a cohort of young historians now publishing in post- russia and ukraine who have talcen up the subject of mennonite suffering in a spirit ofprofound respect for the victims and of the pro~niscs of russian mennonite life aborted by soviet rule. sarah dyck has sensibly arranged the aussiedler memoirs chronologically to follow the six main chapters in the history of the inferno. the early memoirs are about pogrom-like violence crashing in literally out of the blue, anarchic attacks and violence from below during the revolution and civil war with its bolshevik and makhnovite terror. this part-targeted, part-random horror lives on in the mennonite imagination as a kind of ultimate manichean abomination. there follow niunbing stories linked to the state-organized terror of collectiv- ization, farnine and the stalin purges in the s that paralyzed people, destroying mennonite coin~nunity life and exacting a hugely disproportionate nuunber of mennonite casualties. although the anthology contains no memoirs about the wartime trek of mennonites westward from ukraine to germany, it includes numerous heart- rending stories about suffering and losses attending the forcible soviet deporta- tions of from mennonite villages as wcll as the repatriations in and eastward of large niunber of mennonites who has reached gennany. also absent are stories of mennonites in the t~tidun ziia, the so-called "labour breahiitg the sileitce: aussiedler ii~zages of tlte soviet meititoitife tragedy army," literally a slave-labour organization that dragooned masses of menno- nite men and women into its ranks. my own research suggests that under percent survived the world war i and early post-war ordeal. still, while not totally comprehensive, the anthology comes close to covering the widest range of mennonite suffering. and whatever the specific period and locale dealt with, the memoir-stories pay equal attention to the men, women and children (masses of children) who perished and those, also victims, who survived. in her eloquent introduction, sarah dyck calls these the "stories of every- man, related by the few who have dared to tell, stories emerging out of a self- imposed (or fear-induced) past silence, originating always in great pain and suffering, sometimes (but rarely) in bitterness, occasionally in utter despair, never in thoughts of hatred or revenge, retribution or retaliation, often in gratitude for an unexpected human kindness or for a miracle from god, sometimes with exhortation or a fable-like moral attached." diverse soviet and international developments naturally provide the context for these stories. tllese include two world wars, two revolutions, two gennan occupations, terror-enforced programs of sweeping social and human engineer- ing and two terrible famines, one natural, the other artificial. yet the stories in this anthology have a remarkable narrative unity arising from the fact that destruction followed logically from deeply-rooted, sometimes clashing, twenti- eth-century ideological fanaticisms and utopian secular visions-anarchist maklnovite, bolshevik and nazi-and was inflicted upon a single, helpless mennonite population. i know of no minority in the ussr that suffered more proportionately. the strength of these stories lies in their detail, their emotion, the stark contrasts they offer between a peacefi~l, innocent people and the sudden, titanic forces that tyrannized and destroyed them. "how can one write about such sadness," one memoirist mourns, describing a lifetime of repeated trauma that included the starvation death of her infant daughter in exile. "sometimes i can scarcely find my way through the internal maze," another confesses. a third offers a simple moral explanation of soviet cruelty and misadventure: "[the com~nunists] were human beings who wanted to achieve the good by using evil means." but however unadorned the stories, with little conscious effort to analyze or provide the interpretation, they nevertheless strongly suggest underlying themes and conclu~sions. in story after story the atissiedlel- memoirs remember past mennonite life, before the terror, as a veritable idyll of community and falnily life. they document subtle shifts in the marks of their identity, froin ethno- religious "mennonite" in the s to more ethno-cultural "german" in the s and s. the shift accompanied the brutal sovietization of their society in the s, which they depict as a systematic demolition of mennonite institutions and leaders: of the disproportionately large number of mennonite lay clergy, deacons, choir leaders, and sunday school teachers; ofindependent- minded and/or devout school teachers; ofentrepreneurial merchants; of some of jour-tlal o f m e t ~ t ~ o r ~ i t e studies the best farmers of the empire, hunted down as bilalis; and, finally, of a high proportion of adult mennonite males. as we watch the men, especially from to , being swept away in massacre-like secret police raids with genocidal overtones ~ m t i l fewer than half remained in the mennonite villages, we witness the birth of a new theme, the emergence of strong mennonite women self-sacrificingly resculng what they can from the rubble. and as their communities are eroded, then destroyed, we see adult mennonite survivors, the majority now womcn, clinging ever more tightly to what rcmains, remnants of their families, or made-over families stitched together from whatever shards of several survive. these stories are strong medicine and most readers will likely read only a handful of them at a time. but when they finally put down this sad and disturbing anthology, a residue of gnawing questions is likely to remain behind. what moral claim do these stories make on the reader'? is redemption of a sort to be found in remembering innocent suffering, as the mennonite and larger judeo- cluistian tradition suggests? is it better, even cathartic, to go through long- postponed mourning over tragic loss than to try to blot it out as no more than fables or a bad dream? why have mennonite ethicists and theologues failed to reflect on this unequaled chapter of saffering in a q ~ ~ e s t for a more modern understanding of innocent suffering in the mennonite tradition? there are of course questions on the other side as well. would it not perhaps be better to put something so painful behind us and move on. do we not otherwise risk plunging so deeply into our grief that we lost sight of what we must smely grasp, the futme? by focussing on this admittedly huge wrong in the soviet mennonite past do we not n m the risk of overlooking terrible injustices in the here and now. to each of these legitimate questions, and there are others, sarah dyck's azissiecller memoirists implicitly offer a respectfill and persuasive answer. they suggest that when done with the sympathy and understanding that these stories evoke, the remembrance of innocent suffering and death can make mennonites, and others, more sensitive to comparable wrongs in their world and more compassionate. in such a wide-ranging, multi-authored anthology, small crrors inevitably creep in and should be eliminated in a second printing. some are errors of fact and interpretation, as in the historical preface. there are errors with respect to the physical landscape and to place names. transliterations from the russian are not always consistent. a handful of pec~diarities have crept into the maps. but such easily remedied blemishes aside, sarah dyck's anthology will be wannly welcomed by scholars and a popular audience alike as a signal effort to breaking the english-language silence on soviet mennonite suffering. religious differentation in spanish lookout — vrije universiteit amsterdam 	 skip to main navigation 	 skip to search 	 skip to main content 	 help & faq 	 home 	 profiles 	 research units 	 research output 	 datasets 	 activities 	 prizes 	 press / media search by expertise, name or affiliation religious differentation in spanish lookout a. schoonderwoerd, c.h. roessingh 	network institute research output: chapter in book / report / conference proceeding › chapter › academic downloads (pure) 	 overview 	original language	english 	title of host publication	between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america 	editors	c.h. roessingh, t. plasil 	place of publication	amsterdam 	publisher	vu university press 	pages	 - 	number of pages	 	isbn (print)	 	publication status	published - access to document 	roesschoon cite this 	 apa 	 author 	 bibtex 	 harvard 	 standard 	 ris 	 vancouver schoonderwoerd, a., & roessingh, c. h. ( ). religious differentation in spanish lookout. in c. h. roessingh, & t. plasil (eds.), between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america (pp. - ). vu university press. schoonderwoerd, a. ; roessingh, c.h. / religious differentation in spanish lookout. between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america. editor / c.h. roessingh ; t. plasil. amsterdam : vu university press, . pp. - @inbook{c c e e c d ddbc aaf a, title = "religious differentation in spanish lookout", author = "a. schoonderwoerd and c.h. roessingh", year = " ", language = "english", isbn = " ", pages = " -- ", editor = "c.h. roessingh and t. plasil", booktitle = "between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america", publisher = "vu university press", } schoonderwoerd, a & roessingh, ch , religious differentation in spanish lookout. in ch roessingh & t plasil (eds), between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america. vu university press, amsterdam, pp. - . religious differentation in spanish lookout. / schoonderwoerd, a.; roessingh, c.h. between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america. ed. / c.h. roessingh; t. plasil. amsterdam : vu university press, . p. - .research output: chapter in book / report / conference proceeding › chapter › academic ty - chap t - religious differentation in spanish lookout au - schoonderwoerd, a. au - roessingh, c.h. py - y - m - chapter sn - sp - ep - bt - between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america a - roessingh, c.h. a - plasil, t. pb - vu university press cy - amsterdam er - schoonderwoerd a, roessingh ch. religious differentation in spanish lookout. in roessingh ch, plasil t, editors, between horse & buggy and four-wheel drive. change and diversity among mennonite settlements in belize, central america. amsterdam: vu university press. . p. - 	 	 	 	 	 powered by pure, scopus & elsevier fingerprint engine™ © elsevier b.v. we use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content. by continuing you agree to the use of cookies log in to pure vrije universiteit amsterdam data protection policy about web accessibility wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ biomed central orphanet journal of rare diseases ss open accereview early onset torsion dystonia (oppenheim's dystonia) christoph kamm* address: department of neurodegenerative diseases, hertie-institute for clinical brain research, university of tübingen, hoppe-seyler str. , tübingen, germany email: christoph kamm* - christoph.kamm@uni-tuebingen.de * corresponding author abstract early onset torsion dystonia (eotd) is a rare movement disorder characterized by involuntary, repetitive, sustained muscle contractions or postures involving one or more sites of the body. a us study estimated the prevalence at approximately in , . the estimated prevalence in the general population of europe seems to be lower, ranging from in , to in , , although precise numbers are currently not available. the estimated prevalence in the ashkenazi jewish population is approximately five to ten times higher, due to a founder mutation. symptoms of eotd typically develop first in an arm or leg in middle to late childhood and progress in approximately % of patients to other body regions (generalized dystonia) within about five years. distribution and severity of symptoms vary widely between affected individuals. the majority of cases from various ethnic groups are caused by an autosomal dominantly inherited deletion of bp (gag) in the dyt gene on chromosome q . this gene encodes a protein named torsina, which is presumed to act as a chaperone protein associated with the endoplasmic reticulum and the nuclear envelope. it may interact with the dopamine transporter and participate in intracellular trafficking, although its precise function within the cell remains to be determined. molecular genetic diagnostic and genetic counseling is recommended for individuals with age of onset below years, and may also be considered in those with onset after years having a relative with typical early onset dystonia. treatment options include botulinum toxin injections for focal symptoms, pharmacological therapy such as anticholinergics (most commonly trihexiphenydil) for generalized dystonia and surgical approaches such as deep brain stimulation of the internal globus pallidus or intrathecal baclofen application in severe cases. all patients have normal cognitive function, and despite a high rate of generalization of dystonia, % of those patients are able to maintain ambulation and independence, and therefore a comparatively good quality of life, with modern treatment modalities. disease name and synonyms early onset torsion dystonia oppenheim's dystonia dystonia musculorum deformans definition early onset torsion dystonia (eotd) is characterized by involuntary, repetitive, sustained muscle contractions or postures, typically of the limbs, which may spread to other body parts, in the absence of other neurological abnormalities. it is inherited in an autosomal dominant published: november orphanet journal of rare diseases , : doi: . / - - - received: october accepted: november this article is available from: http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / © kamm; licensee biomed central ltd. this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/about/charter/ orphanet journal of rare diseases , : http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / fashion with a penetrance of only – % [ ], suggesting that various genetic and/or environmental factors contrib- ute to development of the disease. the majority of cases are caused by a deletion of bp (gag) in the dyt gene on chromosome q . the term "dystonia" in general refers to a large diverse group of movement disorders involving involuntary mus- cle contractions or postures. it may be classified in three ways: ( ) clinically, i.e. according to age at onset or distribution of affected body regions; ( ) etiologically, i.e. into primary, secondary, dystonia- plus or heredodegenerative; ( ) genetically, with loci described to date. diagnostic criteria the following diagnostic criteria have been established for eotd [ - ]: definite dystonia characteristic overt twisting or directional movements and postures that are consistently present. probable dystonia postures or movements suggestive of dystonia that are insufficient in intensity or consistency to merit classifica- tion as definite (e.g. excessively tense and labored writing with minimal posturing, flurries of blinking but no epi- sodes of sustained closure, etc.). possible dystonia muscle contractions not considered abnormal but remotely suggestive of dystonia (e.g. unusual hand grip with mild excess hand tension but normal flowing hand- writing, increased blinking with no flurries or sustained contractions, etc.). only the category of "definite dystonia" was shown to be % specific in dyt families [ ], suggesting that only those patients with definite signs of dystonia should be considered affected in genetic research studies. epidemiology eotd is a rare disease, with an estimated prevalence of . : , and annual incidence of . : , in rochester, minnesota [ ]. the prevalence in the ashkenazi jewish (aj) population is estimated to be five to ten times higher [ ], due to a founder mutation which appears to have arisen approximately years ago in byelorussia/lithuania [ ]. the frequency of the dyt gag deletion in the aj population is high, between : and : . in contrast, the prevalence in the gen- eral population of europe seems to be lower. estimates range from . to . : , although precise numbers are currently not available. clinical description eotd is characterized by involuntary, repetitive, sus- tained muscle contractions or postures involving one or more sites of the body. typically, symptoms develop first in an arm or leg in middle to late childhood (mean age of onset: . years) [ ] and progress in approximately % of patients to other body regions (generalized dystonia) within about five years [ ]. "torsion" refers to the twisting nature of body movements observed in eotd, often affecting the trunk. patients may be severely physically incapacitated, but are normal intellectually and show no other neurological symptoms. distribution and severity of symptoms vary widely between affected individuals, ranging from mild focal dystonia, e.g. writer's cramp [ ] to severe generalized dystonia, even within families [ ]. earlier age of onset and onset in the legs predicts a more severe clinical course, i.e. development of generalized dys- tonia [ , ]. the dyt gag deletion is responsible for the majority of typical early onset dystonia cases of diverse ethnic origins, whether inherited or caused by a de novo mutation, whereas only a small minority of patients with atypical, e.g. focal dystonia, harbor this mutation [ , - ]. if mutant gene carriers pass the age of approximately years without developing symptoms, they usually escape the disease for life. etiology neuropathologically, eotd is characterized by a lack of neurodegeneration, suggesting that neuronal dysfunction, rather than loss of neurons, underlies disease symptoms. however, cell bodies of dopaminergic neurons appear to be enlarged in brains from dystonia patients [ ]. in the brains of four dyt patients, perinuclear inclusion bodies in specific brainstem areas (pedunculopontine nucleus, periaqueductal gray) have been reported [ ]. these find- ings have been recapitulated in two different dyt animal models, both in transgenic mice overexpressing human mutant ∆e-torsina [ ] and in male dyt ∆gag knock- in mice [ ]. despite the low penetrance of only – % for clinical symptoms, functional imaging studies found metabolic hyperactivity in the lentiform nuclei, cerebel- lum and supplemental motor areas, and impaired sequence learning in both manifesting and non-manifest- ing carriers of the dyt gag deletion, indicating that penetrance of the gag deletion is greater than that assumed based on clinical grounds [ , ]. in addition, a recent study found that striatal d receptor binding was reduced in non-manifesting carriers of the dyt gag page of (page number not for citation purposes) orphanet journal of rare diseases , : http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / deletion. this reduction may be a trait feature of dyt dystonia, with other factors being necessary for manifesta- tion of the signs and symptoms. alternatively, clinical penetrance may be linked to the extent of the decrease in striatal d receptor binding [ ]. the dyt gene encodes the torsina protein. torsina is an endoplasmic reticulum/nuclear envelope (ne) atp- dependent chaperone protein [ , ] involved in intrac- ellular trafficking [ ]. mutant ∆e-torsina relocalizes to the ne [ , , ], and postmigratory neurons from both torsina null and homozygous mutant knock-in mice develop membrane abnormalities of the ne [ ]. in addi- tion, recent studies in mammalian cell lines have shown that overexpression of wild-type torsina appears to regu- late the intracellular trafficking of the dopamine trans- porter, whereas overexpression of mutant ∆etorsina had no effect. these results establish a potential link between torsina and the dopaminergic system [ ]. several lines of evidence suggest that the disease is caused by a dysfunction of the basal ganglia: ( ) although torsina is ubiquitously expressed, expression levels within the human brain are highest within dopaminergic neu- rons of the substantia nigra [ ]; ( ) striatial [ f]dopa uptake is mildly reduced in manifesting dyt gag dele- tion carriers [ ]; ( ) an increase in the ratio of dopamine metabolites to dopamine was found in the postmortem striatum of dyt dystonia brains as compared to controls [ ]; ( ) a phenotypically similar form of inherited dys- tonia, dopa-responsive dystonia (drd), is caused by insufficient synthesis of dopamine [ , ], and sympto- matic dystonia frequently affects patients with acquired lesions of the basal ganglia (e.g. stroke) [ , ]. diagnostic methods molecular genetic diagnostic in conjunction with genetic counseling is recommended for individuals with age of onset below years, and may also be considered in those with onset after years having a relative with typical early onset dystonia [ ]. differential diagnosis differential diagnosis includes other forms of primary dystonia and disorders in which dystonia is one of several neurological conditions present. the second large and diverse group includes the dystonia-plus syndromes, the heredodegenerative dystonias, the secondary ("sympto- matic") dystonias, other dystonia-like conditions, and early-onset parkinsonism. other forms of primary dystonia (dyt , , , and ) the phenotype of dyt dystonia, an autosomal recessive form of dystonia, resembles early onset torsion dystonia (dyt ) in three of the four families reported to date (early onset of symptoms, frequently in the feet, followed by rapid generalization) [ , ]. however, there is a debate as to whether the mode of inheritance in these families is actually autosomal recessive or autosomal dominant with reduced penetrance [ ]. the dyt locus has been assigned to an australian family with predominant whispering dysphonia and additional variable dystonic symptoms [ , ], clearly different phe- notypically from classical dyt dystonia. dyt refers to another autosomal dominant form of dys- tonia of mixed-type described in two german-mennonite families [ ]. in contrast to dyt dystonia, the average age at onset in these families was higher ( . years, range – ), and in many patients dystonic symptoms were pre- dominantly cranio-cervical, with progression to general- ized dystonia in only a few cases. dyt refers to a locus for adult-onset focal, predomi- nantly cervical dystonia mapped in a german family [ ]. the dyt locus has been mapped in a non-jewish italian family [ ] with mostly segmental dystonia with promi- nent cranio-cervical and arm involvement, more closely resembling the dyt than the dyt phenotype. dystonia-plus (dyt , dyt and dyt ) dystonia-plus refers to conditions in which dystonia is one of only two neurological abnormalities present, the other usually being either parkinsonism or myoclonus. this group includes dopa-responsive dystonia (drd, dyt ), myoclonus-dystonia (dyt ) and rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism (dyt ). heredodegenerative dystonias (dyt and others) in heredodegenerative dystonias, dystonia is part of a more widespread neurodegenerative syndrome, often with known inheritance, and may or may not be a prom- inent feature. this large group includes x-linked dysto- nia-parkinsonism ("lubag", dyt ), idiopathic parkinson's disease (ipd), multiple system atrophy (msa), progressive supranuclear palsy (psp), haller- vorden-spatz disease, wilson's disease, rett syndrome, neuroacanthocytosis, and many others. secondary dystonia secondary (symptomatic) dystonias are caused by envi- ronmental insults such as stroke, tumors, infections, drugs and toxins or by metabolic disorders (e.g. homocysteinu- ria, metachromatic leukodystrophy, lesch-nyhan syn- drome, and others). page of (page number not for citation purposes) orphanet journal of rare diseases , : http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / other dystonia-like conditions (dyt , dyt , and dyt ) this group includes conditions mimicking symptoms of dystonia (e.g. psychogenic dystonia or pseudodystonia) and paroxysmal disorders, such as paroxysmal non- kinesigenic dystonia (pnkd, dyt ), paroxysmal chore- oathetosis with episodic ataxia and spasticity (dyt ), par- oxysmal kinesigenic dystonia (pdk, dyt ), and others. early onset parkinsonism a considerable proportion of early onset parkinson's dis- ease, with onset of symptoms before years of age, is caused by mutations in the parkin gene [ ] and fre- quently presents with dystonia, especially in the lower limbs [ ]. thus, this condition should be considered in the differential diagnosis of eotd. genetic counseling based on a systematic genetic and clinical analysis of individuals with primary torsion dystonia, including ashkenazi jewish and non-jewish patients, diagnostic dyt testing in conjunction with genetic counseling is recommended for individuals with an age of onset below years, and may also be considered in those with onset after years having a relative with typical eotd [ ]. genetic counseling should take into account that dyt dystonia is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner with a low penetrance of – % and great clinical varia- bility. few cases of de novo mutations have been reported [ , ]. asymptomatic adult relatives should be informed before testing that onset of dyt dystonia after age is very unlikely, and that, if it occurs, symptoms are usually mild and unlikely to progress [ ]. testing of asympto- matic at-risk individuals during childhood is not recom- mended. in addition to prenatal testing through chorionic villus sampling, preimplantation genetic diagnosis has recently been reported [ ]. management including treatment drug therapy as drd (dyt ) is phenotypically very similar to eotd, but its symptoms, in contrast to eotd, typically respond very well to dopaminergic therapy, it is recommended that every patient with early onset focal dystonia (onset below years) be given a trial of l-dopa/decarboxylase inhibitor, starting with mg/kg per day of levodopa and slowly increasing until complete benefit is achieved or dose-limiting side effects appear. most drd patients respond well to – mg/kg per day [ ]. in general, drug therapy in eotd is not very effective. anticholinergics, especially in a high dosage (e.g. trihex- iphenydil up to – mg/day), are the only substance class for which controlled studies are available [ ]. dos- age should be increased very slowly to prevent side effects such as cognitive or memory deficits, which are frequently dose-limiting, although children can generally tolerate much higher doses than adults. other substances, which may or may not be effective, include baclofen, benzodi- azepines such as diazepam or clonazepam, pimozid or tetrabenazin. in severe cases of segmental or generalized dystonia, especially of the lower body and trunk, intrath- ecal baclofen administration may be considered [ ]. botulinum toxin injections independent of genetic background, local botulinum toxin injections directly into affected muscles now repre- sent the first line treatment of focal dystonias (reviewed in [ ]). therefore, botulinum toxin injections by trained movement disorder specialists may be a useful therapy for selected muscle groups in eotd, such as neck muscles for torticollis, facial muscles for blepharospasm or hand/arm muscles for writer's cramp. if successful, the injections need to be repeated on a regular basis (usually every – months). surgical approaches due to technical advances in recent years, interest in func- tional surgical approaches in dystonia has been renewed, in particular deep brain stimulation (dbs) of the globus pallidus and pallidotomy (reviewed in [ ]). although experience with this approach is still limited, preliminary results in patients with primary generalized dystonia, especially dyt gag deletion carriers, are very promising [ ]. therefore, dbs may be helpful in selected eotd patients with severe generalized dystonia. prognosis only few studies on the natural history of eotd in genet- ically confirmed patients have been conducted. in one report following the clinical course of patients from israel [ ], . % had progressed into generalized dysto- nia after a mean of . +/- . years of symptoms, % were wheelchair-bound and % were using walking aids. all patients had normal cognitive function. despite the high rate of generalization, % of those patients were able to maintain ambulation and independence, and therefore a comparatively good quality of life, with mod- ern treatments combining drugs, botulinum toxin and functional neurosurgery. unresolved questions very little is known yet about the normal cellular function of the torsina protein. further studies are required to address how mutant torsina causes neuronal dysfunction, and how this mutation leads to a dominantly inherited disease with a markedly low penetrance and a very selec- tive neurological phenotype. since the age of onset is asso- ciated with a period of motor learning and high synaptic plasticity, a possible role of torsina in coordinated neuro- nal development merits further investigation. in addition, page of (page number not for citation purposes) orphanet journal of rare diseases , : http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / further evidence for or against direct involvement of the dopaminergic system in eotd is warranted. references . bressman sb, de leon d, brin mf, risch n, burke re, greene pe, shale h, fahn s: idiopathic dystonia among ashkenazi jews: evidence for autosomal dominant inheritance. ann neurol , : - . . cassetta e, del grosso n, bentivoglio ar, valente em, frontali m, albanese a: italian family with cranial cervical dystonia: clini- cal and genetic study. mov disord , : - . . bressman sb, raymond d, wendt k, saunders-pullman r, de leon d, fahn s, ozelius l, risch n: diagnostic criteria for dystonia in dyt families. neurology , : - . . nutt jg, muenter md, aronson a, kurland lt, melton lj rd: epi- demiology of focal and generalized dystonia in rochester, minnesota. mov disord , : - . . zeman w, dyken p: dystonia musculorum deformans. clini- cal, genetic and pathoanatomical studies. psychiatr neurol neu- rochir , : - . . risch n, de leon d, ozelius l, kramer p, almasy l, singer b, fahn s, breakefield x, bressman s: genetic analysis of idiopathic torsion dystonia in ashkenazi jews and their recent descent from a small founder population. nat genet , : - . . bressman sb, sabatti c, raymond d, de leon d, klein c, kramer pl, brin mf, fahn s, breakefield x, ozelius lj, risch nj: the dyt phe- notype and guidelines for diagnostic testing. neurology , : - . . greene p, kang uj, fahn s: spread of symptoms in idiopathic torsion dystonia. mov disord , : - . . gasser t, windgassen k, bereznai b, kabus c, ludolph ac: pheno- typic expression of the dyt mutation: a family with writer's cramp of juvenile onset. ann neurol , : - . . opal p, tintner r, jankovic j, leung j, breakefield xo, friedman j, ozelius l: intrafamilial phenotypic variability of the dyt dystonia: from asymptomatic tor a gene carrier status to dystonic storm. mov disord , : - . . marsden cd: investigation of dystonia. adv neurol , : - . . burke re, brin mf, fahn s, bressman sb, moskowitz c: analysis of the clinical course of non-jewish, autosomal dominant tor- sion dystonia. mov disord , : - . . kamm c, castelon-konkiewitz e, naumann m, heinen f, brack m, nebe a, ceballos-baumann a, gasser t: gag deletion in the dyt gene in early limb-onset idiopathic torsion dystonia in germany. mov disord , : - . . ozelius lj, hewett jw, page ce, bressman sb, kramer pl, shalish c, de leon d, brin mf, raymond d, corey dp, fahn s, risch nj, buckler aj, gusella jf, breakefield xo: the early-onset torsion dystonia gene (dyt ) encodes an atp-binding protein. nat genet , : - . . valente em, warner tt, jarman pr, mathen d, fletcher na, marsden cd, bhatia kp, wood nw: the role of dyt in primary torsion dystonia in europe. brain , ( pt ): - . . klein c, friedman j, bressman s, vieregge p, brin mf, pramstaller pp, de leon d, hagenah j, sieberer m, fleet c, kiely r, xin w, breake- field xo, ozelius lj, sims kb: genetic testing for early-onset torsion dystonia (dyt ): introduction of a simple screening method, experiences from testing of a large patient cohort, and ethical aspects. genet test , : - . . kamm c, naumann m, mueller j, mai n, riedel l, wissel j, gasser t: the dyt gag deletion is infrequent in sporadic and famil- ial writer' s cramp. mov disord , : - . . grundmann k, laubis-herrmann u, bauer i, dressler d, vollmer- haase j, bauer p, stuhrmann m, schulte t, schols l, topka h, riess o: frequency and phenotypic variability of the gag deletion of the dyt gene in an unselected group of patients with dystonia. arch neurol , : - . . rostasy k, augood sj, hewett jw, leung jc, sasaki h, ozelius lj, ramesh v, standaert dg, breakefield xo, hedreen jc: torsina protein and neuropathology in early onset generalized dys- tonia with gag deletion. neurobiol dis , : - . . mcnaught ks, kapustin a, jackson t, jengelley ta, jnobaptiste r, shashidharan p, perl dp, pasik p, olanow cw: brainstem pathol- ogy in dyt primary torsion dystonia. ann neurol , : - . . shashidharan p, sandu d, potla u, armata ia, walker rh, mcnaught ks, weisz d, sreenath t, brin mf, olanow cw: transgenic mouse model of early-onset dyt dystonia. hum mol genet , : - . . dang mt, yokoi f, mcnaught ks, jengelley ta, jackson t, li j, li y: generation and characterization of dyt deltagag knock- in mouse as a model for early-onset dystonia. exp neurol , : - . . eidelberg d, moeller jr, antonini a, kazumata k, nakamura t, dha- wan v, spetsieris p, deleon d, bressman sb, fahn s: functional brain networks in dyt dystonia. ann neurol , : - . . ghilardi mf, carbon m, silvestri g, dhawan v, tagliati m, bressman s, ghez c, eidelberg d: impaired sequence learning in carriers of the dyt dystonia mutation. ann neurol , : - . . asanuma k, ma y, okulski j, dhawan v, chaly t, carbon m, bress- man sb, eidelberg d: decreased striatal d receptor binding in non-manifesting carriers of the dyt dystonia mutation. neurology , : - . . breakefield xo, kamm c, hanson pi: torsina: movement at many levels. neuron , : - . . naismith tv, heuser je, breakefield xo, hanson pi: torsina in the nuclear envelope. proc natl acad sci u s a , : - . . kamm c, boston h, hewett j, wilbur j, corey dp, hanson pi, ramesh v, breakefield xo: the early onset dystonia protein torsina interacts with kinesin light chain . j biol chem , ( ): - . . goodchild re, dauer wt: mislocalization to the nuclear enve- lope: an effect of the dystonia-causing torsina mutation. proc natl acad sci u s a , : - . . bragg dc, camp sm, kaufman ca, wilbur jd, boston h, schuback de, hanson pi, sena-esteves m, breakefield xo: perinuclear bio- genesis of mutant torsin-a inclusions in cultured cells infected with tetracycline-regulated herpes simplex virus type amplicon vectors. neuroscience , : - . . goodchild re, kim ce, dauer wt: loss of the dystonia-associ- ated protein torsina selectively disrupts the neuronal nuclear envelope. neuron , : - . . augood sj, martin dm, ozelius lj, breakefield xo, penney jb jr., standaert dg: distribution of the mrnas encoding torsina and torsinb in the normal adult human brain. ann neurol , : - . . playford ed, fletcher na, sawle gv, marsden cd, brooks dj: stri- atal [ f]dopa uptake in familial idiopathic dystonia. brain , ( pt ): - . . augood sj, hollingsworth z, albers ds, yang l, leung jc, muller b, klein c, breakefield xo, standaert dg: dopamine transmission in dyt dystonia: a biochemical and autoradiographical study. neurology , : - . . ichinose h, ohye t, takahashi e, seki n, hori t, segawa m, nomura y, endo k, tanaka h, tsuji s, fujita k, nagatus t: hereditary pro- gressive dystonia with marked diurnal fluctuation caused by mutations in the gtp cyclohydrolase i gene. nat genet , : - . . nygaard tg, wilhelmsen kc, risch nj, brown dl, trugman jm, gil- liam tc, fahn s, weeks de: linkage mapping of dopa-respon- sive dystonia (drd) to chromosome q. nat genet , : - . . bhatia kp, marsden cd: the behavioural and motor conse- quences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man. brain , ( pt ): - . . munchau a, mathen d, cox t, quinn np, marsden cd, bhatia kp: unilateral lesions of the globus pallidus: report of four patients presenting with focal or segmental dystonia. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry , : - . . gimenez-roldan s, delgado g, marin m, villanueva ja, mateo d: hereditary torsion dystonia in gypsies. adv neurol , : - . . khan nl, wood nw, bhatia kp: autosomal recessive, dyt - like primary torsion dystonia: a new family. neurology , : - . . fletcher na: the genetics of idiopathic torsion dystonia. j med genet , : - . page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= orphanet journal of rare diseases , : http://www.ojrd.com/content/ / / publish with biomed central and every scientist can read your work free of charge "biomed central will be the most significant development for disseminating the results of biomedical researc h in our lifetime." sir paul nurse, cancer research uk your research papers will be: available free of charge to the entire biomedical community peer reviewed and published immediately upon acceptance cited in pubmed and archived on pubmed central yours — you keep the copyright submit your manuscript here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/publishing_adv.asp biomedcentral . ahmad f, davis mb, waddy hm, oley ca, marsden cd, harding ae: evidence for locus heterogeneity in autosomal dominant torsion dystonia. genomics , : - . . parker n: hereditary whispering dysphonia. j neurol neurosurg psychiatry , : - . . almasy l, bressman sb, raymond d, kramer pl, greene pe, heiman ga, ford b, yount j, de leon d, chouinard s, saunders-pullman r, brin mf, kapoor rp, jones ac, shen h, fahn s, risch nj, nygaard tg: idiopathic torsion dystonia linked to chromosome in two mennonite families. ann neurol , : - . . leube b, rudnicki d, ratzlaff t, kessler kr, benecke r, auburger g: idiopathic torsion dystonia: assignment of a gene to chromo- some p in a german family with adult onset, autosomal dominant inheritance and purely focal distribution. hum mol genet , : - . . valente em, bentivoglio ar, cassetta e, dixon ph, davis mb, ferraris a, ialongo t, frontali m, wood nw, albanese a: dyt , a novel primary torsion dystonia locus, maps to chromosome p . -- . in an italian family with cranial-cervical or upper limb onset. ann neurol , : - . . kitada t, asakawa s, hattori n, matsumine h, yamamura y, minoshima s, yokochi m, mizuno y, shimizu n: mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinson- ism. nature , : - . . lucking cb, durr a, bonifati v, vaughan j, de michele g, gasser t, harhangi bs, meco g, denefle p, wood nw, agid y, brice a: asso- ciation between early-onset parkinson's disease and muta- tions in the parkin gene. n engl j med , : - . . klein c, brin mf, de leon d, limborska sa, ivanova-smolenskaya ia, bressman sb, friedman a, markova ed, risch nj, breakefield xo, ozelius lj: de novo mutations (gag deletion) in the dyt gene in two non-jewish patients with early-onset dystonia. hum mol genet , : - . . hjermind le, werdelin lm, sorensen sa: inherited and de novo mutations in sporadic cases of dyt -dystonia. eur j hum genet , : - . . rechitsky s, verlinsky o, kuliev a, ozen s, laziuk k, beck r, gleicher n, verlinsky y: preimplantation genetic diagnosis for early- onset torsion dystonia. reprod biomed online , : - . . segawa m: hereditary progressive dystonia with marked diur- nal fluctuation. brain dev , suppl :s - . . burke re, fahn s, marsden cd: torsion dystonia: a double-blind, prospective trial of high-dosage trihexyphenidyl. neurology , : - . . walker rh, danisi fo, swope dm, goodman rr, germano im, brin mf: intrathecal baclofen for dystonia: benefits and complica- tions during six years of experience. mov disord , : - . . jankovic j: dystonia: medical therapy and botulinum toxin. adv neurol , : - . . vercueil l, krack p, pollak p: results of deep brain stimulation for dystonia: a critical reappraisal. mov disord , suppl :s - . . vidailhet m, vercueil l, houeto jl, krystkowiak p, benabid al, cornu p, lagrange c, tezenas du montcel s, dormont d, grand s, blond s, detante o, pillon b, ardouin c, agid y, destee a, pollak p: bilateral deep-brain stimulation of the globus pallidus in primary gen- eralized dystonia. n engl j med , : - . . anca mh, zaccai tf, badarna s, lozano am, lang ae, giladi n: nat- ural history of oppenheim's dystonia (dyt ) in israel. j child neurol , : - . page of (page number not for citation purposes) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=abstract&list_uids= http://www.biomedcentral.com/ http://www.biomedcentral.com/info/publishing_adv.asp http://www.biomedcentral.com/ 	abstract 	disease name and synonyms 	definition 	diagnostic criteria 	definite dystonia 	probable dystonia 	possible dystonia 	epidemiology 	clinical description 	etiology 	diagnostic methods 	differential diagnosis 	other forms of primary dystonia (dyt , , , and ) 	dystonia-plus (dyt , dyt and dyt ) 	heredodegenerative dystonias (dyt and others) 	secondary dystonia 	other dystonia-like conditions (dyt , dyt , and dyt ) 	early onset parkinsonism 	genetic counseling 	management including treatment 	drug therapy 	botulinum toxin injections 	surgical approaches 	prognosis 	unresolved questions 	references translational notes scibx: science–business exchange copyright © nature publishing group translational tidbits by kai-jye lou and stephen parmley, senior writers, and mark zipkin, staff writer tankyrase translation with a few pharmas entering the search for tankyrase inhibitors for cancer, merck kgaa is hedging its bets by joining forces with the institute of cancer research and the wellcome trust to accelerate development of selective inhibitors of the enzymes. the two tankyrases—tankyrase trf -interacting ankyrin-related adp-ribose polymerase (tnks) and tnks —are members of the poly(adp-ribose) polymerase (parp) family of enzymes that transfer adp-ribose groups to a range of cellular proteins and are upregulated in a variety of cancers. last year, several groups identified selective compounds that inhibited tankyrases but not other parps, including teams at the university of oslo, novartis ag’s novartis institutes for biomedical research and roche’s genentech inc. unit. , however, genentech’s program is no longer active, and the current development status of the university of oslo and novartis compounds was unavailable at press time. under the terms of the merck kgaa deal, the pharma’s merck serono unit and the team at the institute of cancer research (icr) will initially focus on translating existing leads from both groups into the clinic and identifying backup compounds. merck serono will make milestone payments to icr and wellcome—which originally funded the program at icr—based on regulatory and sales goals, plus royalty payments on net sales of future products discovered or developed under the agreement. the partners will combine their portfolios of tankyrase inhibitors, continue parallel screening efforts and work together on biomarker identification and animal studies. the icr team is led by alan ashworth, a professor of molecular biology at icr, and chris lord, team leader and reader in cancer biology and therapeutics at icr. the two have experience with small molecule inhibitors of parp. andree blaukat, head of translational innovation platform oncology at merck serono, told scibx that both partners have confirmed the selectivity of their initial leads and that studies are under way to profile the therapeutic window of the compounds. “our tankyrase inhibitors are also very selective, so they do not inhibit other parps at all,” he said. blaukat added that biomarker identification was also one of the key goals. “we will only move programs forward if we have biomarkers either preclinically validated or a very solid hypothesis for additional markers,” he said. although merck declined to disclose funding details, blaukat said that both merck and icr are contributing resources to the collaboration. he added that each partner will contribute scientifically based on its particular strengths—for example, by performing animal models or biophysical analyses that are well established at the respective institutions. case for pluristem pluristem therapeutics inc. is wasting little time in advancing its second cell therapy product—plx-rad—toward the clinic. a week after the biotech said that it was ready to begin large-scale gmp manufacturing of plx-rad for a planned phase i study in , it announced a new research collaboration with case western reserve university to test the cell therapy in preclinical models of human umbilical cord blood transplantation. chairman and ceo zami aberman said that the company will begin glp toxicology studies on plx-rad early next year. the biotech’s first cell therapy, plx-pad, is in phase ii or earlier testing to treat multiple cardiovascular, musculoskeletal and pulmonary disorders. both plx-rad and plx-pad are composed of expanded populations of placenta-derived stromal cells, but the majority of cells in plx-rad are of fetal origin, whereas cells in plx-pad are mainly of maternal origin. under the collaboration, pluristem will provide plx-rad to researchers at case western for preclinical studies to evaluate whether the cells can increase the speed of engraftment and the efficiency of new blood cell formation in mice receiving a human umbilical cord blood transplant. the partners will split research costs evenly. umbilical cord blood is an alternative to bone marrow for hematopoietic stem cell transplants and carries a lower risk for graft- versus-host disease (gvhd) than bone marrow. cord blood transplants require less stringent matching but take longer to engraft. that lag leaves recipients highly vulnerable to infections for longer periods of time. earlier results from compassionate use cases suggested that plx-pad can restore the ability to produce hematopoietic cells and improve survival in patients who have failed a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. however, aberman said that the company decided to study plx-rad for this indication based on mouse data that showed it had a more pronounced benefit than pluristem’s first product. a study from researchers at hadassah medical center and pluristem showed that in lethally irradiated mice, intramuscular injection of plx-rad resulted in a % survival rate versus % for vehicle or % for plx cells of maternal origin that are similar to plx-pad. astellas takes aim at boston after launching an external innovation strategy last year, astellas pharma inc. is bringing the initiative stateside with two new boston- based academic collaborations. the pharma is partnering with harvard medical school to find new treatments for ophthalmologic diseases and with dana-farber cancer institute to discover small molecule inhibitors of the k-ras (kras) oncogene. under the terms of both deals, astellas will fund the academic partners for up to three years and has the option for exclusive licenses from the respective institutions to develop any therapies obtained from the research collaborations. if astellas exercises an option, it will develop and commercialize the compounds. http://www.scibx.com http://www.biocentury.com/companies/merck_kgaa?utm_source=nature http://www.icr.ac.uk/ http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tankyrase_trf -interacting_ankyrin-related_adp-ribose_polymerase?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tankyrase_trf -interacting_ankyrin-related_adp-ribose_polymerase?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tnks?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tnks ?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/poly(adp-ribose)_polymerase?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/parp?utm_source=nature http://www.uio.no/english/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/novartis_ag?utm_source=nature http://www.nibr.com/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/roche?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/genentech_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/pluristem_therapeutics_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.case.edu/ http://www.hadassah-med.com/ http://www.biocentury.com/products/plx_cells?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/astellas_pharma_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/astellas_pharma_inc?utm_source=nature http://hms.harvard.edu/ http://hms.harvard.edu/ http://www.dana-farber.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/targets/k-ras?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/kras?utm_source=nature scibx: science–business exchange copyright © nature publishing group analysis translational notes table . selected public-private partnerships for october . public-private partnership activity in october was buoyed by johnson & johnson (nyse:jnj) and the als association, with each announcing a quartet of new collaborations or consortia. notably, the gpcr consortium was launched last month to bring together academic institutions in asia and the u.s. with international biopharmas to define the structures of at least gpcrs to aid drug development, and the merck serono unit of merck kgaa (xetra:mrk) partnered with the institute for cancer research to advance anticancer inhibitors of tankyrase trf -interacting ankyrin-related adp-ribose polymerase (tnks) and tnks that were independently discovered at the pharma unit and the institute. source: biocentury archives; company websites companies institutions business area disclosed value purpose general electric co. (nyse:ge) the als association; als finding a cure foundation neurology $ million als accelerated therapeutics (als-act) partnership xagenic inc. university of toronto; genome canada infectious disease up to $ million partnership for the development of low-cost chip and device for hcv testing kineta inc. oregon health & science university; nih; vaccine & gene therapy institute of florida; university of washington infectious disease $ million partnership to develop new vaccine adjuvants that could boost the effectiveness of vaccines for infectious diseases biogen idec inc. (nasdaq:biib); isis pharmaceuticals inc. (nasdaq:isis) the als association; cedars-sinai; university of california, san diego; gladstone institutes neurology $ million neuro collaborative project to discover and develop potential new therapies for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (als) none the als association; new york genome center; the tow foundation neurology $ million new york genome center consortium of neurodegenerative disease to employ big data approaches to identify causes of als children’s hospital of philadelphia; temple university; nih infectious disease $ . million partnership to investigate new methods to eradicate hiv that lurks in brain cells despite conventional antiviral treatments the als association; emory university; the netherlands als center; university medical center utrecht; university of massachusetts medical school neurology $ million project mine to understand the genetic basis of als pluristem therapeutics inc. (nasdaq:psti; tel aviv:psti) case western reserve university hematology undisclosed partnership to do preclinical evaluation of pluristem’s plx-rad cells to improve hematopoietic stem cell transplant outcomes amgen inc. (nasdaq:amgn); ono pharmaceutical co. ltd. (tokyo: ); sanofi (euronext:san; nyse:sny) shanghaitech university; shanghai institute of materia medica; university of southern california pharmaceuticals unavailable gpcr consortium to advance gpcr research for drug development astellas pharma inc. (tokyo: ) harvard medical school ophthalmic disease unavailable partnership to discover pathologic mechanism for retinitis pigmentosa and identify new therapeutic targets astrazeneca plc (lse:azn; nyse:azn) university of cambridge neurology unavailable partnership to focus on advancing r&d in neurodegenerative diseases bristol-myers squibb co. (nyse:bmy) the university of texas md anderson cancer center cancer unavailable partnership to evaluate opdivo nivolumab, yervoy ipilimumab and three undisclosed clinical stage immuno-oncology compounds separately and in combination johnson & johnson china pharmaceutical university cancer unavailable partnership to investigate an antibody-drug conjugate to treat solid tumors james cook university autoimmune disease unavailable partnership to study proteins produced by hookworms to treat inflammatory bowel disease (ibd) peking university neurology unavailable partnership to identify agonists and antagonists for gpcrs to treat cns diseases zhejiang university endocrine/ metabolic disease unavailable partnership to investigate the role of human lactate receptor, g protein–coupled receptor (gpr ), in metabolic diseases such as dyslipidemia, obesity and diabetes merck kgaa the institute for cancer research; wellcome trust cancer unavailable partnership to identify inhibitors of tnks and tnks to treat various cancers (continues on p. ) http://www.biocentury.com/companies/johnson_and_johnson?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/johnson_and_johnson?utm_source=nature http://www.alsa.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/merck_kgaa?utm_source=nature http://www.icr.ac.uk/ http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tankyrase_trf -interacting_ankyrin-related_adp-ribose_polymerase?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tnks?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/tnks ?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/general_electric_co?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/xagenic_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.utoronto.ca/ http://www.genomecanada.ca/en/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/kineta_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.ohsu.edu/xd/ http://www.nih.gov/ http://www.vgtifl.org/ http://www.vgtifl.org/ http://www.washington.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/biogen_idec_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/isis_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/isis_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://cedars-sinai.edu/ http://ucsd.edu/ http://gladstoneinstitutes.org/ http://www.nygenome.org/ http://www.nygenome.org/ http://towfoundation.org/ http://www.chop.edu/ http://www.temple.edu/ http://www.temple.edu/ http://www.emory.edu/home/index.html http://www.encals.eu/center/als-centre-netherlands/ http://www.umcutrecht.nl/en/- http://www.umcutrecht.nl/en/- http://www.umassmed.edu/ http://www.umassmed.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/pluristem_therapeutics_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/pluristem_therapeutics_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.case.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/amgen_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/ono_pharmaceutical_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/ono_pharmaceutical_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/sanofi?utm_source=nature http://www.shanghaitech.edu.cn/en/en_index.asp http://english.simm.cas.cn/ http://english.simm.cas.cn/ http://www.usc.edu/ http://www.usc.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/astellas_pharma_inc?utm_source=nature http://hms.harvard.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/astrazeneca_plc?utm_source=nature http://www.cam.ac.uk/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/bristol-myers_squibb_co?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/bristol-myers_squibb_co?utm_source=nature http://www.mdanderson.org/ http://www.mdanderson.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/products/yervoy?utm_source=nature http://en.cpu.edu.cn/ http://www.jcu.edu.au/ http://english.pku.edu.cn/ http://www.zju.edu.cn/english/ http://www.biocentury.com/targets/g_protein-coupled_receptor_ ?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/gpr ?utm_source=nature http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ scibx: science–business exchange copyright © nature publishing group analysis translational notes the collaboration with harvard medical school will be led by constance cepko, a professor of genetics and ophthalmology at harvard, and will focus on identifying and validating gene therapies to prolong vision in individuals with retinitis pigmentosa—an inherited retinal degenerative disease characterized by loss of peripheral, night and color vision that leads to complete blindness. the partners hope that any resulting therapies might also be effective in other ocular diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (amd) or glaucoma. the collaboration with dana-farber will be led by nathanael gray, a professor of biological chemistry and molecular pharmacology at harvard medical school. gray’s group previously identified a k-ras inhibitor that covalently binds the enzyme’s catalytic site and confirmed the interaction with crystal structure studies. the partnership will support optimization of the compound and additional screening for druggable leads. kenji yasukawa, svp and chief strategy officer at astellas, told scibx that both of these partnerships are being managed by the astellas innovation management (aim) unit, which was established last year as part of a reshaping initiative. he said that the pharma is looking for new opportunities in drug discovery through external innovations. “aim is interested in platform technologies and new molecular entities in preclinical stages in the areas of oncology, emerging biology and therapeutic areas where unmet medical need exists,” said yasukawa. “aim is looking to flexibly collaborate with various partners such as startup biotech companies, academia and venture capital groups around the world.” gain of function, loss of time after recent revelations about biosafety incidents in u.s. government– run labs and criticism of the white house’s handling of the ebola response in the u.s., the office of science and technology policy announced in october a funding pause for new gain-of-function studies. the office also requested a voluntary freeze at labs with other funding sources. gain-of-function experiments confer new attributes to existing organisms and have been used to study how dangerous mutations affect the function of known pathogens. but safety concerns have led some researchers to question whether the risks inherent in this type of study outweigh the benefits. over the next year, the nih’s national science advisory board for biosecurity (nsabb) and the national research council of the national academies (nrc) will work in tandem to generate a new policy framework covering gain-of-function studies on influenza, middle east respiratory syndrome (mers) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (sars) viruses. the policy will fill a gap left in rules issued in september covering dual-use research of concern, which is research conducted for legitimate purposes that could be misapplied for harmful uses that pose a significant threat to public health and safety. the nsabb will review the risks and potential benefits of this type of research and draft a set of recommendations, and it is considering widening the funding pause to other pathogens. nih spokesperson renate myles told scibx that the pause will affect planned intramural project, contracts and grants on enhanced pathogenicity or respiratory transmissibility in mammals. “ the pause is a responsible step to take while the period of deliberation is under way,” said andrew hebbeler, assistant director for biological and chemical threats at the office of science and technology policy. “the deliberative process will enable the life sciences community to assess the risks and benefits of gain-of-function studies and will result in the adoption of a u.s. government policy to guide future federal investments in this area of research.” once the nsabb creates a set of draft recommendations governing approval and conduct of gain-of-function experiments, the nrc will hold a conference to review the recommendations with the scientific community. final recommendations should be complete within months, and the new policy is expected before the end of . public-private partnership round-up the quartet of new research alliances seeded with funds from the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (als) ice bucket challenge and a stream of new r&d collaborations announced by multiple pharmas and large biotechs drove the bulk of public-private partnership activity in october (see table , “selected public-private partnerships for october ”). johnson & johnson’s j&j innovation unit coupled the official opening of its asia pacific innovation center in shanghai with the announcement of four new collaborations between various subsidiaries of the pharma and research institutes in the region, the extension of an ongoing collaboration and a new partnering office at suzhou industrial park biotech development co. ltd., a life sciences incubator. also in october, the gpcr consortium was launched with the goal of defining the structures of at least of the known human gpcrs to aid drug development. the initial disease areas of focus are diabetes, cancer and mental disorders. research outputs of the not-for-profit table . selected public-private partnerships for october . (continued) companies institutions business area disclosed value purpose proximagen group plc (lse:prx) mrc technology autoimmune disease; inflammation unavailable partnership to progress small molecules targeting macrophage migration inhibitory factor (mif) for the treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune disease regeneron pharmaceuticals inc. (nasdaq:regn) columbia university medical center; clinic for special children; baylor college of medicine functional genomics unavailable partnership to study various inherited genetic diseases ubiquigent ltd. university of dundee pharmaceuticals unavailable partnership to design, develop and market libraries of small molecules targeting ubiquitin system proteins http://www.nih.gov/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/johnson_and_johnson?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/suzhou_industrial_park_biotech_development_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/suzhou_industrial_park_biotech_development_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/proximagen_group_plc?utm_source=nature http://www.mrctechnology.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/targets/macrophage_migration_inhibitory_factor?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/targets/mif?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/regeneron_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/regeneron_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/ https://clinicforspecialchildren.org/ https://www.bcm.edu/ https://www.bcm.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/ubiquigent_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ scibx: science–business exchange copyright © nature publishing group analysis translational notes consortium, such as d structures of gpcrs, will be compiled and released into the public domain. planned research under the consortium will be carried out at various academic centers including the ihuman institute at shanghaitech university, shanghai institute of materia medica and the university of southern california. the consortium was started by raymond stevens, a professor of molecular biology and chemistry at the scripps research institute and founding director of the ihuman institute. the consortium’s founding industry members are amgen inc., ono pharmaceutical co. ltd. and sanofi. it aims to recruit up to five additional industry members. in addition, the regeneron genetics center unit of regeneron pharmaceuticals inc. announced research collaborations in october with columbia university medical center, the clinic for special children and the baylor college of medicine to study inherited genetic diseases. the columbia collaboration will focus on cardiometabolic diseases, familial cancer predisposition and rare genetic diseases; the clinic for special children collaboration will study early onset and familial forms of pediatric disorders in amish and mennonite populations; and the baylor collaboration will study the function of mendelian disease genes discovered at the college. regeneron opened its regeneron genetics center unit in january to enhance the biotech’s in-house commitments to genomics-guided drug discovery. the center is tasked with analyzing the genomes of at least , geisinger health system patients over the next years. lou, k.-j. et al. scibx ( ); doi: . /scibx. . published online nov. , references . osherovich, l. scibx ( ); doi: . /scibx. . . shultz, m.d. et al. j. med. chem. , – ( ) . gaberman, e. et al. plos one , e ; published online june , ; doi: . /journal.pone. . hunter, j.c. et al. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – ( ) . boettner, b. scibx ( ); doi: . /scibx. . . mccallister, e. biocentury – (nov. , ) . cain, c. scibx ( ); doi: . /scibx. . companies and institutions mentioned amgen inc. (nasdaq:amgn), thousand oaks, calif. astellas pharma inc. (tokyo: ), tokyo, japan baylor college of medicine, houston, texas case western reserve university, cleveland, ohio clinic for special children, strasburg, pa. columbia university medical center, new york, n.y. dana-farber cancer institute, boston, mass. geisinger health system, danville, pa. genentech inc., south san francisco, calif. hadassah medical center, jerusalem, israel harvard medical school, boston, mass. the institute of cancer research, sutton, u.k. johnson & johnson (nyse:jnj), new brunswick, n.j. merck kgaa (xetra:mrk), darmstadt, germany national institutes of health, bethesda, md. novartis ag (nyse:nvs; six:novn), basel, switzerland novartis institutes for biomedical research, cambridge, mass. ono pharmaceutical co. ltd. (tokyo: ), osaka, japan pluristem therapeutics inc. (nasdaq:psti; tel aviv:psti), haifa, israel regeneron pharmaceuticals inc. (nasdaq:regn), tarrytown, n.y. roche (six:rog; otcqx:rhhby), basel, switzerland sanofi (euronext:san; nyse:sny), paris, france the scripps research institute, la jolla, calif. shanghai institute of materia medica, shanghai, china shanghaitech university, shanghai, china suzhou industrial park biotech development co. ltd., suzhou, china university of oslo, oslo, norway university of southern california, los angeles, calif. wellcome trust, london, u.k. http://www.shanghaitech.edu.cn/en/en_index.asp http://www.shanghaitech.edu.cn/en/en_index.asp http://english.simm.cas.cn/ http://www.usc.edu/ http://www.usc.edu/ http://www.scripps.edu/ http://www.scripps.edu/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/amgen_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/ono_pharmaceutical_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/sanofi?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/regeneron_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/regeneron_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/ https://clinicforspecialchildren.org/ https://clinicforspecialchildren.org/ https://www.bcm.edu/ http://www.geisinger.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/amgen_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/astellas_pharma_inc?utm_source=nature https://www.bcm.edu/ http://www.case.edu/ https://clinicforspecialchildren.org/ http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/ http://www.dana-farber.org/ http://www.geisinger.org/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/genentech_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.hadassah-med.com/ http://hms.harvard.edu/ http://www.icr.ac.uk/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/johnson_and_johnson?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/merck_kgaa?utm_source=nature http://www.nih.gov/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/novartis_ag?utm_source=nature http://www.nibr.com/ http://www.biocentury.com/companies/ono_pharmaceutical_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/pluristem_therapeutics_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/regeneron_pharmaceuticals_inc?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/roche?utm_source=nature http://www.biocentury.com/companies/sanofi?utm_source=nature http://www.scripps.edu/ http://english.simm.cas.cn/ http://www.shanghaitech.edu.cn/en/en_index.asp http://www.biocentury.com/companies/suzhou_industrial_park_biotech_development_co_ltd?utm_source=nature http://www.uio.no/english/ http://www.usc.edu/ http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/ 	translational tidbits 	tankyrase translation 	case for pluristem 	astellas takes aim at boston 	gain of function, loss of time 	public-private partnership round-up 	companies and institutions mentioned 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ analysis - in terms of the relative impor- tance of institutions, and of the value of socioeconomic vs. political influences." senior distinguished research professorships murray edelman and leon epstein have been selected for senior distinguished research professorships at the univers- ity of wisconsin-madison. the professor- ships, effective until retirement, were of- fered for the first time this year by the wisconsin alumni research foundation. recipients are enabled to have one-half of their time available for research. murray edelman is a senior distinguished research professor at the university of wis- consin-madison. leon epstein is a senior distinguished re- search professor at the university of wiscon- sin-madison. in memoriam bruce edward wilson bruce edward wilson, a founder of the department of political science at cali- fornia state polytechnic university, pomona, died suddenly on january , at the age of . the academic career of professor wilson centered in his passionate defense of the individual's unfettered freedom t o choose and the hallmark of that freedom: total deliverance from constraint and compulsion. bruce wilson's political philosophy was epitomized in his remark that " i n societies where property rights have been suppressed other rights have almost inevitably been adversely af- fected as w e l l . " in demand as a public speaker on first amendment issues, he was a true libertarian. wilson was equally dedicated to the fur- therance of social justice, especially in areas of race relations and world peace. his concerns were evidenced in his pro- people in political science fessional capacity through his course on race relations and the law, and in his per- sonal life through his activities on behalf of the mennonite central committee. recipient of the baccalaureate degree from the university of miami, and the m.a. and ph.d. from the claremont graduate school, dr. wilson taught at california state polytechnic college, pomona, from . in the s he was a mainstay in what are now the departments of history, political science and social sciences. in anticipation of the transformation of the college to university status, bruce was a founder in of the department of political science, serving as its chair on several occasions. professor wilson specialized in public law, american government and politics, and research methods. an authority on computer applications in political science and department coordinator for student advisement, including pre-law advising to students from a variety of majors, bruce wilson's contributions to the university were literally invaluable. bruce is survived by his wife, four grown children and a grandson, daryl bruce, born two days after his grandfather's death. john h. esterline california state polytechnic university ps spring mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr sustainability original article elizabeth de la reguera, elizabeth a. castner, james n. galloway, allison m. leach, neil leary, and jianwu tang introduction a nitrogen (n) footprint quantifies the amount of reactive nitrogen re- leased to the environment as a result of an entity’s resource consump- tion. reactive nitrogen (nr) is de- fined as all nitrogen except nitrogen gas (n ). humans create reactive nitrogen by breaking the triple bond of n through the haber-bosch pro- cess, the cultivation of legumes, and the combustion of fossil fuels. the detrimental impacts to ecosystems and human health caused by nr in- dicate the importance of managing nitrogen emissions in order to re- duce its impact on the environment. this article examines how chang- ing system boundaries affects the n footprint results of different in- stitutions. setting system boundar- ies is important because it provides a common baseline for comparison as well as allows different entities within an institution to have direct interaction with their footprint. the following topics are addressed: defining system boundaries of an institution nitrogen footprint abstract a nitrogen (n) footprint quantifies the amount of reactive nitrogen released to the environment and can be measured at different scales. the n footprint of a university includes activities and consumption within its geographic boundar- ies as well as activities that support the institution. determining system bounds of an n footprint depends on the in- stitution’s mission and provides a common baseline for comparison. a comparison of three scopes of the n footprint, which describe how emissions are directly related to an institution’s activities, was conducted for seven institutions. scopes follow the established definition for the carbon footprint. in this article, the authors propose a new system bounds definition (core campus versus adjunct). two case studies were explored: how the n footprint of dickinson college changed with air travel, and how the n footprint of the marine biological laboratory changed with scientific research. of the three scopes, scope was consistently the largest proportion of the n footprint for all seven institu- tions. the core campus activities of dickinson college made up percent of its n footprint, with air travel making up the remaining percent. the marine biological laboratory’s core campus activities made up percent of its n footprint and the scientific research made up the remaining percent. institutions should define system bounds based on their mission and stay consistent with their boundaries following the baseline year. the core campus foot- print could be used to compare institution footprints using consistent system bounds. how institutions define their boundaries will impact the recorded amount of nitrogen as well as how the institution will set reduction strategies. marine biological laboratory, the ecosystems center, woods hole, massacheusetts. department of environmental sciences, university of virginia, charlottesville, virginia. department of natural resources & the environment, the sustainability institute, university of new hampshire, durham, new hampshire. center for sustainability education, dickinson college, carlisle, pennsylvania. keywords: adjunct footprint; core campus footprint; nitrogen footprint; scopes; system boundaries the scopes for the n footprints of seven institutions are compared. a new system bounds definition is proposed for comparing insti- tutions: the core campus footprint . . © elizabeth de la reguera et al., ; published by mary ann liebert, inc. this open access article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution noncommerical license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/ . ), which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and the source are credited. sustainability mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr the various system bounds dis- cussed in this article focus on the scopes, the core campus activities, other components of energy con- sumption, and research activities. methods system bounds and scopes the n footprint could be measured at different scales, from an individ- ual person to institutions, regions, and the globe. , , , the n footprint of an institution, such as a university, includes activities and consumption within the geographic boundaries of the institution as well as support- ing activities and consumption that occur outside the boundaries (e.g., food production, commuting, elec- tricity generation). to calculate an institution’s n footprint, the system bounds must be clearly and care- fully designed. setting boundaries determines what will be included in the footprint. for example, in track- ing carbon dioxide (co ) emissions, the climate registry describes the parameters used for defining the boundaries, which include scopes, gases, activity types (e.g., stationary combustion), and geographic/op- eration boundaries. one framework for determining systems bounds is to allocate emis- sions into three scopes based on where they occur relative to the given institution as well as how di- rectly those emissions are related to the institution’s activities. scopes are groupings of sectors that ac- count for emissions that occur as a result of direct or indirect activity by the institution. the sectors allo- cated to scopes are defined by the world resources institute and the world business council on sustain- able development. both the carbon footprint tool for institutions (the carbon management and assess- ment platform) and the n footprint tool collect data for scopes through . scope includes direct emissions that occur from institution-owned- and-operated equipment. in scope , both footprints report on-campus stationary sources, direct transpor- tation sources, research animals, and the amount of fertilizer applied to landscape. scope accounts for indirect emissions from purchased utilities; both footprints report pur- chased electricity. finally, scope includes losses from other indirect consequences of institutional activi- ties and consumption patterns (e.g., commuting and food production) that may not necessarily occur with- in institution-owned equipment (e.g., wastewater). for the carbon footprint tool, scope is considered optional. institutions that have signed the american col- lege and university presidents’ cli- mate commitment (acupcc) are required to report scope emissions for commuting and air travel that is paid for by the institution. there are many types of scope emissions. the consumption associated with these emissions is often not col- lected in a centralized way, making them difficult to track and report. some institutions determine which parts of scope to include based on finances or control boundaries. in contrast, all institutions in the n footprint network include scope in their calculations and have included food purchases in their footprint. including food in the n footprint is important because virtual nitrogen (any nitrogen used in the food pro- duction process but not contained in the food we consume) associ- ated with food is one of the largest contributors of reactive nitrogen for most higher education institutions. in addition, many activities in scope (such as food purchases) are nec- essary to support an institution’s op- erations. given the significance of scope , it is important to identify other methods of defining system bounds that better emphasize rel- evant environmental impacts that are also integral to an institution’s activities. the n footprints for the seven insti- tutions that completed the calcula- tion were compared by scope. each institution similarly calculated its n footprint by following methods established by the nitrogen foot- print tool. the average proportion for each scope was calculated, and the contribution and importance of scope was considered for the n footprint. core campus footprint versus adjunct footprint another way of defining system boundaries is by distinguishing core facilities and activities from adjunct facilities and activities. for example, a university may have a main cam- pus at which its core undergraduate and graduate education activities are conducted, a separate facility that is primarily research and not an educa- tion facility, a hospital, and/or a farm. the core footprint encompasses the main campus and its educational activities, while an adjunct footprint original article . versus the adjunct footprint, illus- trated by results from six institu- tions. two case studies for specific insti- tutions are explored. case study a analyzes how the n footprint of dickinson college changes with the inclusion of air travel. case study b assesses how the n footprint of the marine biological laboratory changes with scien- tific research. mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr sustainability encompasses the other facilities and activities. the core campus footprint includes any activity that occurs on the cam- pus and contributes to the core func- tioning of that institution. it also includes the upstream emissions associated with the production or distribution of that activity. the core campus footprint supports baseline institutional activities, including on- campus energy usage, public transit, commuting, fertilizer, and food. the adjunct footprint includes all off-campus research activities that are not directly related to the core campus activities. it should be noted that some research is encompassed within the core campus footprint; the adjunct footprint focuses on ma- jor off-campus research initiatives. through using scopes to determine the system bounds of both core campus footprints and adjunct foot- prints, institutions can capture the full depths of each scope within the campus. the distinction between the two footprints will assist institu- tions in setting reduction strategies appropriate for each footprint. this article compares the two levels of footprint system bounds (core campus footprint and adjunct foot- print) of six institutions, with a focus on case studies for dickinson college and the marine biological laboratory. in addition, it explores a specific example of research activi- ties for each institution. case study a: dickinson college and air travel dickinson college, a small residen- tial liberal arts school located in carlisle, pennsylvania, emphasizes global study, sustainability, and civic engagement. the first n footprint was calculated for the period august through july as a senior undergraduate thesis, and was up- dated for august through july . , in addition, dickinson re- ports its carbon footprint annually to the acupcc and has set reduc- tion goals to reduce greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions percent from the level by , and to reach net zero emissions in that same year. dickinson set its boundaries based on the boundaries used in its carbon footprint. dickinson owns a college farm where some food grown is sup- plied to the college and the remain- der is sold to community supported agriculture members or at the local farmers’ market. the farm opera- tions that were included in the n footprint were all college food pur- chases from the farm, fertilizer pur- chased by the farm, and all fuels and electricity used. for dickinson, accounting for air travel included any air travel di- rectly financed by the school. the campus carbon calculator™ allows for the accounting of “directly en- couraged emissions,” which include study abroad air travel and regular commuting by faculty, staff, and students. if dickinson was directly financing a visiting faculty member or student, then their travels were included in the footprint. air travel is a scope activity that not all institutions track. the dick- inson footprint was compared with and without air travel. case study b: marine biological laboratory and scientific research the marine biological laboratory (mbl) is a private nonprofit scien- tific research institution affiliated with the university of chicago and • • • • located in woods hole, massachu- setts. it has a small number of year- round employees (approximately ), but in the summer season the mbl grows in size due to visiting scientists and students. the first n footprint was calculated for the pe- riod january to december as a research project for the semester in environmental science; the foot- print was updated for january to december . , the mbl set its system boundar- ies based on the geographic bounds of its campus. although mbl has numerous field sites, they were ex- cluded because experiments are temporary and only a few mbl em- ployees reside at field sites. in addi- tion, these scientific activities were not included in the core campus footprint (e.g., fertilization experi- ments) because setting a reduction goal does not include altering the research of scientists. the scenario unique to the mbl is its research activities. therefore, its footprint was compared with and without research activities in their base year. results and discussion scopes of the three scopes, scope is con- sistently the largest proportion of each institution’s n footprint (fig- ure ). on average, scope contrib- utes percent of the n footprint for the seven institutions that have calculated their footprint. the range is from percent to percent. scope is the second-largest con- tributor, making up an average of percent (range: % - %). scope has the smallest contribution, averaging just percent (range: % - %) of the total n footprint. sustainability mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr original article according to carbon footprint accounting protocols, only scopes and must be calculated and reported—scope is optional. if only scopes and were reported for the n footprint, then just percent of the total n footprint would be accounted for. food production makes up the largest proportion of scope . by includ- ing this scope, an important sector that makes up the majority of all calculated n footprints can be included (figure ). core campus footprint versus adjunct footprint in addition to their main campus, institutions often have research facilities such as a hospital, veteri- nary school, or agricultural facili- ties. these institutionally owned op- erations can be large enough that they have their own geographical boundaries and activities that span all three scopes and most of the sec- tors. however, their activities are focused on research, which is often part of the mission of an institution. the contributions of the core foot- print versus the adjunct footprint can vary widely based on an institu- tion’s activities (figure ). two ex- amples that represent the extremes of institution focus are dickinson college and the mbl (figure ). dickinson is an undergraduate col- lege with limited research, whereas the mbl is a research institution with limited coursework. the foot- prints reflect these activities. the core campus activities make up percent of the dickinson n foot- print but just percent of the mbl n footprint. adjunct facilities make up almost half ( %) of the n foot- print for mbl when all research ac- tivities are accounted for. calculating a footprint focusing just on the core campus activities initial- ly is beneficial because it can make comparing footprints across insti- tutions more comparable. compar- ing institutions with different sys- tem bounds can lead to misleading or erroneous conclusions. the core campus activities footprint resolves this issue by focusing on activities consistent across institutions. in ad- dition, reduction strategies that are focused on core campus activities will not affect an institution’s mis- sion related to research. figure . food purchases, and figure . the percent contribution of scopes , , and to the n footprint of seven institutions: the marine biological laboratory (mbl), eastern mennonite university (emu), dickinson college, brown university, university of new hampshire (unh), colorado state university (csu), and the university of virginia (uva) figure . the percent contribution of six sectors to the nitrogen footprint of seven institutions: the marine biological laboratory (mbl), eastern mennonite university (emu), dickinson col- lege, brown university, university of new hampshire (unh), colorado state university (csu), and the university of virginia (uva) mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr sustainability case study a: dickinson college and air travel dickinson college strongly encour- ages students to study abroad and take advantage of the global educa- tion opportunities it offers. roughly percent of dickinson students will study abroad during their aca- demic career and more than per- cent of faculty members have led a study abroad program. other air travel associated with dickinson’s campus is athletic teams traveling for games and tournaments and faculty members traveling for re- search and development. although air travel is a small portion of dick- inson’s overall footprint, it is part of the overall educational mission and is included in its carbon footprint. therefore air travel was included in the n footprint. dickinson in released a total of metric tons n, which included all air travel (for study abroad, athletics, and research and development). (see figure .) air travel of all three types totaled approximately . metric tons n, which is about . percent of total nitrogen released by dickinson. by removing air travel from the foot- print, the total dropped by . met- ric tons n, to . many institutions base their n foot- print calculations on annual per person totals. in order to ensure a uniform comparison, dickinson calculated its total kilograms of ni- trogen released per person annually and found that for food production, food consumption, utilities, and fer- tilizer, nitrogen per person was , . , . , . metric tons n, respec- tively. when excluding air travel, transportation releases were . kg n/person; when including air travel the release of nitrogen per person doubled to . kg n/person. al- figure . the percent contribution of the core campus footprint and the adjunct footprint for six institutions: the marine biological laboratory (mbl), eastern mennonite university (emu), dickinson college, brown university, university of new hampshire (unh), and colorado state university (csu) figure . the percent contribution from the core campus footprint and the adjunct footprint: dickinson college and the marine biological laboratory though air travel is a small portion of dickinson’s overall footprint, it is a part of their overall educational mission and so to include it is im- portant. case study b: marine biological laboratory and scientific research the total n footprint for the marine biological laboratory in was . metric tons n. the footprint is based on the campus size, , gross square meters, which in- cludes cottages that are rented dur- ing the summer, but excludes the warehouses and storage facilities in other towns. the cottages were in- cluded in the footprint because they are owned by the mbl and are uti- lized by visiting scientists during the summer season. also included is a sustainability mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr original article dining facility on campus that caters to students, visiting scientists, em- ployees, and visitors. upstream food production nitrogen losses released . metric tons n in , and food consumption released . metric tons n. commuting for year-round employees was accounted for, which contributed . metric tons n to the overall footprint. the mbl n footprint can be di- vided into core campus activities (food, utilities, transportation) and research-related activities (fertil- izer application for scientific experi- ments, research animals). when ac- counting only for core activities, the n footprint was . metric tons n. however, research activities contrib- ute a significant addition: research animals added . metric tons n, and a fertilizer application experi- ment in added . metric tons n (figure ). although the fertilizer experiment lasted for a short period of time, it made up over percent of mbl’s n footprint that year. the kilograms of nitrogen per per- son on the mbl campus for food production, food consumption, utilities, and transportation are . , . , . , . metric tons n, respectively. however, research increased the use of fertilizer and the number of research animals. fertilizer increased the nitrogen loss from kg n/person to . kg n/person; research animals in- creased the nitrogen loss from kg n/per person to . kg n/person. including research activities is important in accounting for all nitrogen losses associated with an institution’s activities. other examples of the adjunct footprint two other examples of research activities that can be a large con- tributor to an institution’s total n footprint are agricultural research and a hospital. colorado state university (csu) and the univer- sity of virginia (uva) are insti- tutions that have agricultural re- search and a hospital, respectively. csu has a substantial agricultural research program, which includes multiple agricultural research facili- ties. core campus activities make up just percent of csu’s total n foot- print; the remainder ( %) is a result of agricultural research. exclud- ing the agricultural research sector would miss an important sector for nitrogen losses for csu. however, including agriculture could be mis- leading when comparing it to other institutions. uva has a hospital where its medi- cal students work and it also pro- vides services to the general public. the hospital is included in uva’s carbon footprint. the sectors that could be affected by adding an in- stitution’s hospital include food (production and consumption) and figure . dickinson college n footprint with and without air travel. figure . marine biological laboratory n footprint with and without scientific research. mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr sustainability utilities. preliminary results indicate that the hospital contributes a large proportion of the uva n footprint. uva includes the hospital in its reduction goals and sustainability efforts; however, because the hospi- tal is not part of uva’s core campus activities, it should not be included in comparisons to other institutions. recommendations for defining system bounds based on this research, it is recom- mended that institutions define their core campus footprint system bounds based on their institution’s mission. a core campus footprint is a necessary initial start for calculat- ing an institution’s n footprint, but if there is a research component to an institution, then it should be in- cluded in the adjunct boundaries for completeness. these decisions should be made for the baseline cal- culation year of an institution and followed for all additional updates to the n footprint. if an institution has or intends to calculate its carbon footprint, the same system bounds should be followed for both foot- print calculations. the consistency in system bounds for footprints will aid in setting reduction strategies that can reduce both footprints. a drawback of including research activities is that the total n footprint will be larger; however, adding re- search activities results in a more complete picture of an institution’s contribution to nitrogen pollution. another drawback is the difficul- ty in setting reduction strategies. potentially, the adjunct footprint could have its own set of reduction strategies, separate from the core campus footprint, which would en- courage institutions to think criti- cally about creative ways to reduce their footprints. it is especially im- portant to include a secondary cam- pus when reduction strategies can be applied to the secondary campus. when comparing n footprints, it is important to compare the core cam- pus footprints so that only compa- rable activities are included for each institution. conclusion how institutions define their system boundaries when calculating their n footprint will impact not only the recorded amount of nitrogen re- leased, but also how the institution will go about setting reduction strat- egies. boundaries should represent the institution’s mission and focus, and should also follow the same bounds used for a carbon footprint being calculated simultaneously. acknowledgments the work of the nitrogen footprint tool network was supported by co- operative agreement no. awarded by the u.s. environmen- tal protection agency. the data at dickinson college was collected and analyzed by students in the center for sustainability education and the data from the marine bio- logical laboratory was collected by sam kelsey and kate morkeski. author disclosure statement no competing financial interests exist. references . leach a, galloway jn, bleeker a, et al. a nitrogen footprint model to help consumers understand their role in nitrogen losses to the envi- ronment. environ dev ; : - . . galloway, jn, aber jd, erisman jw, et al. the nitrogen cascade. bio- science ; : - . . leach a, majidi an, galloway jn, et al. toward institutional sus- tainability: a nitrogen footprint model for a university. sus j record ; : - . . leip a, weiss f, lesschen jp, et al. the nitrogen footprint of food prod- ucts in the european union. j agric sci ; : - . . otia a, malik a, kanemoto k, et al. substantial nitrogen pollution embedded in international trade. nat geosci ; : - . . the climate registry. general re- porting protocol for the voluntary reporting program. january . https://www.theclimateregistry.org/ wp-content/uploads/ / /gen- eral-reporting-protocol-version- . .pdf. (last accessed / / ). . world resources institute and the world business council for sus- tainable development. the green- house gas protocol: a corporate accounting and reporting standard, rev. ed. world resources institute and the world business council for sustainable development, ge- neva/washington, dc, . http:// www.ghgprotocol.org/standards/ corporate-standard. (last accessed / / ). . carbon management and analy- sis platform (carbonmap). http:// campuscarbon.com. (last accessed / / ). . the clean air-cool planet cam- pus carbon calculator. http:// www.sustainableunh.unh.edu/sites/ sustainableunh.unh.edu/files/im- ages/v . _users_guide.pdf (last accessed / / ). . leach a, majidi a, galloway jn, et al. how to calculate your in- stitution’s nitrogen footprint. us environmental protection agency, washington, dc, . https://cf- sustainability mary ann liebert, inc. • vol. no. • april • doi: . /sus. . .edlr original article pub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_ report.cfm?direntryid= (last accessed / / ). . de la reguera e. the nitrogen footprint of dickinson college. se- nior thesis, dickinson college, . . leary n, de la reguera e, and fitzpatrick s. reducing the nitrogen footprint of a small residential col- lege. sus j record ; : - . . notopolos m. toward institu- tional sustainability—a nitrogen footprint for the marine biologi- cal laboratory. . http://www. mbl.edu/ses/files/ / /noto- poulos-maggie.pdf (last accessed / / ). . castner ea, am leach am, n leary n, et al. the nitrogen foot- print tool network: a multi-institu- tion program to reduce nitrogen pol- lution. sus j record ; : - . . dickinson college global phi- losophy. http://www.dickinson.edu/ homepage/ /about. (last accessed / / ). . kimiecik j, baron j, taylor e, et al. adding a nitrogen footprint to col- orado state university’s sustainabil- ity plan. sus j record ; : - . . leach am, galloway jn, cast- ner ea, et al. an integrated tool for calculating and reducing institution carbon and nitrogen footprints. sus j record ; : - . address correspondence to: elizabeth de la reguera marine biological laboratory the ecosystems center mbl street woods hole, ma e-mail: elreguera@gmail.com slavic review made the book’s argument more powerful. for example, since the ottoman empire took captives from many european countries, study of captivity narratives provides an opportunity to evaluate what distinguished russian understandings of captivity from that of other countries. taki includes linda colley’s influential captives: britain, empire, and the world – ( ) in his bibliography (although with her name misspelled) but does not engage it in his text. taki is right to suggest in his conclusion that “orientalist discourse does not nec- essarily present the other as immutable, stagnant, or ahistorical” ( ). taki’s careful work through much rich material illuminates well russia’s changing understanding of itself and the ottoman empire. charles steinwedel northeastern illinois university protestanten und altgläubige—juden und muslime: die ethno-konfessionelle struktur der russländischen unternehmerschaft vor . ed. dittmar dahl- mann, klaus heller, and jurij a. petrov. essen: klartext verlag, . pp. notes. bibliography. index. figures. tables. € . , paper. doi: . /slr. . the multiplicity and diversity of the russian and then soviet empires have been noth- ing short of an obsession in the historiography of the past quarter-century. the present fascinating volume brings together sixteen prominent german and russian historians to address a vital, and fraught, aspect of this multiplicity: the nexus between religion (specifically, religious minority) and commerce and entrepreneurship in the nineteenth century. with the ghost of max weber hovering more or less explicitly in the background, contributors examine the mindsets, community structures, individual ambitions, and negotiations with state regulation that different religious-ethnic groups—specifically, jews, germans, old believers, and muslims—brought to the tumultous and sometimes uneven economic growth of the industrializing nineteenth century. following a series of three framing introductory articles, matthias winterschladen and lutz häfner set the stage with a locally-based discussion of young moscow entre- preneurs’ resistance to the regime, and the ethnic-religious dimensions of entrepre- neurship in the provincial city of saratov in the second half of the century. a set of five articles turns to the question of jewish entrepreneurship, meticulously tracing the evolution of legislation regulating the assimilation of the jewish population from the polish partitions to the late-nineteenth-century pogroms (galina n. ulianova), docu- menting the vicissitudes of the participation of jewish businessmen in the commer- cial infrastructures of st. petersburg (sergei k. lebedev, pavel v. lizunov), and telling the story of two important entrepreneurial and banking families, the ginzburgs and the poliakovs, and their role as public figures (johannes raschka, iurii petrov). in each of these very different articles, the ways in which individual actors negotiated the considerable limitations on physical movement, social advancement, and com- mercial success take center stage. germans come next, and introduce a different set of issues: germans were for- eigners or descended from foreigners, and likely to be voluntary settlers in the empire. the authors recreate the image of germans in literature and business (klaus heller), a collective portrait of german large-scale entrepreneurs in st. petersburg (wolfgang sartor), the role of germans in the moscow chemical industry (iurii a. petrov), and a sketch of the prominent knoop family (dittmar dahlmann). there seems to be less emphasis on religion in this section, but the articles are replete with tactile detail. http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /slr. . &domain=pdf book reviews we learn, for example, that marriage outside the ethnic group was relatively unlikely until the third generation; and that the knoop family was able to forge a far-reaching network of international connections, building upon the empire they built in russia. as eric lohr has also shown, german businessmen were thoroughly squeezed out of the economy in the course of world war i. the old believers are relatively underrepresented in this volume, with one piece by valerii v. kerov. kerov sets out to concretize the trope of old believers’ propensity for commerce, documenting their commercial activity, and success, in various regions of the empire. in moscow, for example, fully % of entrepreneurs and workers in the cotton industry professed the old belief. kerov further argues that specific com- munal structures gradually gave way to individual and family entrepreneurship and proposes that certain ethical principles (among them the evolving image of the busi- nessman or khoziain) in the belief system played into commercial success. repressive legislation, while it might have been one stimulus for old believers to channel their energies into economic activity, was neither a decisive nor a unique factor. while radik r. salikhov and ramil΄ r. khairutdinov examine the workings of muslim (mostly tatar) entrepreneurship in kazan΄ with its significant muslim popula- tion, mikhail k. shatsillo engages the minority muslim communities of the imperial capitals. if muslim entrepreneurship was a world apart even in the early nineteenth century, by the early twentieth muslim traders and businessmen had become almost fully integrated into “mainstream” merchant networks, belonged to russian guilds, and were able to influence the course of politics in their regions. like kerov, salikhov and khairutdinov address weber’s suggestion that religious minorities, because limited in their spiritual expression, tend to channel their energies into economic activity. salikhov’s examination of islamic modernism and the construction of “new teaching” schools, particularly in kazan, shows how reformers were able to shape their local environment without coming into conflict with the central government. the present volume grew out of an extended russian-german research project that culminated in january , when participants gathered at bad honnef on the outskirts of bonn to discuss entrepreneurship in the russian empire from to , focusing on confessional and ethnic structures, local politics, charitable activi- ties, and with a comparative glance at the german empire over the same time period. protestanten und altgläubige is the second publication to result from this collaborative venture: an overlapping but distinct version in russian, chastnoe predprinimatel śtvo v dorevoliutsionnoi rossii: etnokonfessional΄naia struktura i regional΄noe razvitie, xix-nachalo xx v., came out with rosspen in . while some of the articles are pre- cisely duplicated, in translation, others are new or substantially different. an inter- esting advantage of this double format is that, for example, a reader more interested in old believers can read kerov’s much longer piece—nearly a monograph, replete with archival materials, statistics, and personal stories—in the russian version. capitalism, private entrepreneurship, and their history became a topic of near- universal fascination in russia as the new economy struggled to find its sealegs in the s, and took off in earnest in the first decade of the new millenium. protestanten und altgläubige, while a significant contribution to the blizzard of incredibly detailed archival scholarship on all matters commercial, stands apart in its attention to links with religion and ethnicity. the nineteenth-century russian empire emerges as a bril- liant, interactive patchwork of cultures and communities, each with its strategies for commercial success and local political influence, in which individuals and families played the defining role. the bourgeoisie of the russian empire is abundantly in evi- dence, rather than missing, weak, or apolitical, as soviet-era historiography insisted. although, by now, neither empire, nor commerce, nor religious minority are neglected topics, their combination leaves plenty of room for exploration. this slavic review important volume’s broad scope and precision of documentation place the conversa- tion on a high level. the book is dedicated to the memory of the much-beloved and highly influential st. petersburg historian, boris vasil évich anan΄ich, who did much to define this collective agenda and who died in . catherine evtuhov columbia university chosen nation. mennonites and germany in the global era. by benjamin w. goossen. princeton: princeton university press, . xiv, pp. notes. bibliography. index. illustrations. photographs. tables. maps. $ . , hard bound. doi: . /slr. . chosen nation presents a sweeping history of mennonites and germany in what benjamin goossen calls a “global era,” roughly the nineteenth and twentieth centu- ries. though he focuses on mennonites within germany, goossen also comments on mennonites in imperial russia, the soviet union and, to a lesser degree, paraguay, brazil, canada, and the dutch east indies. goossen uses such a vast landscape to consider the relationship between reli- gion and nationalism, terms that he deems highly malleable. nations, he writes, “are amorphous to the point of incoherence” ( ), as are “faith formations” ( ). in their place, goossen is attracted to those who bypass the “vagaries of ‘identity’ altogether” ( ) and focus more on a collectivism that is inherently dynamic and necessarily fragmentary ( ). he believes that the investigation of mennonites and germany in “a global era” will allow us to better understand “the fluidity of group loyalty” ( ). goossen also finds it almost impossible to define who mennonites are, or how mennonite identities changed over time. mennonites emerged out of sixteenth cen- tury anabaptism but he accepts that it was always “disunited in even basic prin- ciples” ( ) and that its statements of faith were “multiple and contested.” goossen suggests that there is no core to who mennonites are, at least no “core values”; all is merely process ( ). even “christ’s foundation” ( ) is in constant flux, a claim he makes but does not investigate or substantiate. with such a vast and indeterminate approach it will not surprise readers that his study struggles to attain an overall coherence, nor will readers find an overview of the book’s argument in the introduction. goossen first investigates how selected mennonite leaders in the german lands and beyond responded to german unifica- tion. here and elsewhere he is primarily interested in mennonite “activists” ( ), pro- gressive leaders like carl harder, hermann mannhardt, and hinrich van der smissen who sought to create a broader pan-german mennonitism within a pan-german nationalist mold. leave aside the difficulty of knowing what terms like “progressive” and “conservative” mean within the great indeterminacy of mennonite identities for goossen, he is at his best in his portrayal of these mennonite progressive “activists” within germany proper. mennonites themselves, however, are rarely investigated, which is ironic given goossen’s stated commitment to collectivism. for example, we are told ( ) that only a small fraction of the seventy-one mennonite congregations in the new german reich joined the union of mennonite congregations, but the mennonites in those seventy-one congregations are rarely given a voice. this lack of voice is particularly troublesome in his chapter on ukrainian mennonites during the nazi invasion and holocaust. his approach is best captured in the book’s cover photo. what the reader american political science review vol. , no. february james madison’s principle of religious liberty vincent phillip muñoz north carolina state university a lthough james madison has been invoked by justices and judicial scholars for over years, madison’s principle of religious liberty has never been fully grasped or adopted by the supreme court. judges and scholars have failed to understand madison’s radical but simple teaching that religion is not part of the social compact and, therefore, that the state may not take religion within its cognizance. in this article i set forth madison’s principle of “noncognizance” in light of the social compact theory he articulates in the “memorial and remonstrance.” i then attempt to show how it consistently explains madison’s political actions and writings on religious liberty. i conclude by explaining how a “madisonian” approach, properly understood, would adjudicate the first amendment’s religion clauses. n o man is more responsible for the u.s. consti- tution than james madison. leading delegate at the philadelphia convention, advocate and expositor as publius, author and sponsor of the bill of rights, madison rightfully earned his title “father of the constitution.” madison also played the leading role in virginia’s battle for religious freedom, which was won, in no small part, because of his “memorial and remonstrance.” it should come as no surprise, then, that, along with thomas jefferson, he has been con- sidered an authoritative guide to the meaning of the first amendment’s religion clauses. yet madison’s un- derstanding of the proper relationship between church and state continues to be debated vigorously. for estab- lishment clause jurisprudence, “strict-separationist” judges and scholars claim that madison sought to erect a wall separating state from church, thereby prohibiting all governmental support for religion. “nonpreferen- tialists” challenge this interpretation, contending that madison meant only to prevent the state from favoring one religious sect over others. the state may support religion, they claim, so long as it supports all religions equally. in recent free exercise cases, madison has been invoked as defending the right to religious exemp- tions from facially neutral but burdensome laws. justice scalia, the court’s most articulate defender of “origi- nalism,” has authored the court’s rejection of this po- sition, but his court opinions have failed to respond to his opponents’ madisonian arguments. thus, although madison’s authority for first amendment religion ju- risprudence has been nearly universally accepted, what he says on these matters remains sharply contested. did madison think any and all state aid to religion violates constitutional principles? if so, did he also intend to protect the free exercise of religion by granting reli- gious citizens exemptions from oppressive laws? this article attempts to answer these questions by articulating madison’s principle of religious liberty. it begins by reviewing the leading interpretations and constitutional applications of madison’s thought on re- vincent phillip muñoz is assistant professor of political science, department of political science & public administration, north carolina state university, campus box , raleigh, nc - (vpmunoz@ncsu.edu). the author would like to thank mark blitz, charles r. kesler, nicholas may, ralph a. rossum, and michael uhlmann for their comments on drafts of this article. ligious liberty, all of which, i suggest, have failed to grasp madison’s position. i then offer my alternative in- terpretation, focusing on the social compact framework of madison’s “memorial and remonstrance.” i argue that madison champions a “religion-blind” constitu- tion, a constitution that prohibits the state from taking cognizance of religion. the state, in madison’s view, may not classify citizens on the basis of religious beliefs or religious affiliation, which means that the state may neither privilege nor penalize religious institutions, reli- gious citizens, or religiously motivated conduct as such. i defend my interpretation by showing how the princi- ple of a “religion-blind” constitution explains madi- son’s political actions, statements, and writings made as a state legislator, congressman, president, and elder statesman. i conclude by explaining the implications that a correct understanding of madison’s principle of religious liberty has for first amendment religion ju- risprudence. the use and abuse of madison about federal and state court decisions have high- lighted madison’s role in crafting the religion clauses of the first amendment (drakeman , ). in judicial decisions and scholarship on the establishment clause, madison has been identified both as a “strict separa- tionist” who stands against any and all public support of religion and as a “nonpreferentialist” who proscribes only aid that favors some religions over others. for the free exercise clause, madison has been invoked as a defender of the right to religious exemptions from laws that burden religious exercise. all three of these interpretations, i argue, are incorrect. madison and the establishment clause the “strict-separationist” interpretation of madison began in the supreme court’s landmark incorpora- tion decision everson v. board of education ( ). everson was decided five to four, but all nine justices agreed that the meaning of the establishment clause was to be found in jefferson’s and madison’s writ- ings establishing religious freedom in virginia, and that these writings indicated that the founders intended “to erect a wall of separation between church and state” madison’s principle of religious liberty february (p. ). justice wiley rutledge, writing in dissent, paid particular attention to madison. his historical research led him to conclude that “madison opposed every form and degree of official relation between religion and civil authority” (p. ) and, therefore, that the establish- ment clause “forbids any appropriation, large or small, from public funds to aid or support any and all religious exercises” (p. ). this “strict-separationist” interpretation of madison received authoritative confirmation four years later by irving brant, the distinguished biographer of the fourth president. according to brant ( , ), freedom of religion was for madison “the fundamental item upon which all other forms of civil liberty depended,” and the fundamental requirement for religious freedom “was the total separation between government and religion.” brant canvassed all of madison’s major writings on religious liberty, but he employed most forcefully the then newly rediscovered “essays on monopolies.” in that essay, madison calls the appointment of taxpayer- funded legislative chaplains by the first congress a “palpable violation” of constitutional principles. reli- gious proclamations by the president are “shoots from the same root.” madison goes so far as to identify a prohibition on taxpayer-funded chaplains for navy crewmen insulated at sea as “the consequence of a right principle” (brant , – ; fleet , – ). brant ( , ) took the date and the dispassionate, retrospective tone of the “essay on monopolies” as conclusive proof that madison “regarded any compul- sory contribution to religion, through taxes, as a viola- tion of the individual taxpayer’s religious liberty.” as the supreme court continued to hear establish- ment clause cases in the s and s, the prolific and influential leo pfeffer ( ) augmented brant’s interpretation with a “strict-separationist” reading of madison’s “memorial and remonstrance.” pfeffer fo- cused on the “memorial’s” political context, pointing out that madison wrote it with a specific legislative in- tention, to defeat patrick henry’s pending “bill estab- lishing a provision for teachers of the christian reli- gion.” henry’s measure, according to pfeffer, represents the closest approximation in american history to absolutely non-preferential government aid to religion. it is difficult to conceive of any measure which adheres the justices disagreed only on where the wall stood in the case at hand. the majority ruled that the new jersey program in ques- tion, which reimbursed the transportation costs incurred by parents sending their children to catholic schools, did not breach the wall. madison’s “essay on monopolies” had been published in harper’s magazine in but was lost and forgotten until rediscovered and republished by elizabeth fleet ( ). the exact date of its compo- sition is unknown but it is thought that madison drafted it between and . according to gregg ivers ( , ) it is “impossible to overes- timate the impact that leo pfeffer, as an individual and as a public interest lawyer, had on the constitutional development of church– state law during the latter half of this [twentieth] century. . . . [f]or no lawyer has exercised such complete intellectual dominance over a chosen area of law for so extensive a period. . . .” cushing strout ( , ) reports that of some adversarial cases between and involving the establishment clause, pfeffer was active in of them at the trial stage and in at the appellate stage. more closely to the requirements of non-discrimination and equality among sects. (p. ) pfeffer thus concluded that madison could not be un- derstood as opposing only preferential aid to religion. his opposition to henry’s nonpreferential measure demonstrated that he opposed every form of aid to religion. attention to madison waned in the s as the supreme court eschewed the philosophy of “orig- inal intent.” in , however, then associate jus- tice william rehnquist’s “originalist” dissent in the public school-moment-of-silence case wallace v. jaffree ( ) marked a resurgence of interest in madison. building on the scholarship of robert cord ( ), jus- tice rehnquist denied that the founders in general or madison in particular intended to erect a wall sepa- rating church and state or to require state neutrality between religion and irreligion. the founders, justice rehnquist claimed, intended to prohibit only sectar- ian government support to religion. the establishment clause, accordingly, should be read only to prohibit preferential aid to some religions over others. to make his case, justice rehnquist turned to the drafting of the establishment clause in the first federal congress. there he found, contrary to the court’s everson ruling, that madison was not trying to introduce jefferson’s “virginia statute for reli- gious liberty.” madison, rather, was “an advocate for sensible legislative compromise” (wallace , ). justice rehnquist zeroed in on madison’s original draft amendment, “nor shall any national religion be es- tablished,” and on his subsequent explanation on the house floor that it meant “that congress should not es- tablish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law” (p. ). these statements indicated to justice rehnquist that madison saw the [first] amendment as designed to prohibit the es- tablishment of a national religion, and perhaps to prevent discrimination among sects. he [madison] did not see it as requiring neutrality on the part of government between religion and irreligion. (p. ) everson and the “strict-separationist” jurisprudence built on it, justice rehnquist concluded, were con- structed on a “mistaken understanding of constitu- tional history” (p. ). “nonpreferentialism,” not a “wall of separation,” best reflects madison’s and the founding fathers’ original intentions. in his dissent in the released-time for religious instruction case mccollum v. board of education ( , ), justice stanley reed also cited madison’s explanatory statement on the house floor as evidence that the establishment clause aimed only to proscribe an official state church. both cord and rehnquist also introduce as evidence numerous instances in which the founding fathers endorsed and supported religion, including the reenactment of the northwest ordinance by the first congress, which proclaimed, “religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, school and the means of education shall forever be encouraged”; calls for national days of prayer and thanksgiving by presidents washington, adams, and madison; and jefferson’s autho- rization of direct payments by the federal government to a catholic american political science review vol. , no. justice rehnquist’s reinterpretation brought forth a wave of “strict-separationist” scholarship, the influence of which now can be seen most pronouncedly in jus- tice david souter’s opinions. in two nonmajority opin- ions in the s, justice souter established himself as the leading “originalist,” “strict separationist” on the court. in lee v. weisman ( ), the prayer-at-public school-graduation case, justice souter poured over the same historical materials that justice rehnquist did in his wallace dissent. like justice rehnquist, justice souter focused on madison’s original draft amend- ment. but justice souter pointed out that madison’s initial draft was not adopted. a comparison of re- jected drafts of the establishment clause with the ac- tual adopted text, he argued, reveals that the farm- ers considered but ultimately rejected prohibiting only nonpreferential aid to religion (lee , ). when the court ruled three years later that a university of virginia christian student newspaper could receive student activity funds, in rosenberger v. university of virginia ( ), justice souter further developed his position with a “strict-separationist” reading of madison’s “memorial and remonstrance.” his dissent- ing opinion in that case emphasized article of the “memorial,” where madison states, “who does not see that . . . the same authority which can force a citizen to contribute three pence only of his property for the support of any one establishment, may force him to conform to any other establishment in all cases what- soever?” (rosenberger , ). this statement, in addition to the fact that the “memorial” was written against a general assessment, demonstrated to justice souter that madison objected to any government sub- sidization of religion. justice souter wrote his rosenberger dissent in re- sponse to justice clarence thomas’s “nonpreferen- tialist” concurring opinion in the same case. justice thomas picked up chief justice rehnquist’s argument that the entire edifice of establishment clause jurispru- dence has been built on a mistaken understanding of history. in addition to focusing on the records of the first federal congress, justice thomas also returned to the “memorial and remonstrance,” specifically ar- ticle , which argues that henry’s proposed assessment “violates that equality which ought to be the basis of every law.” according to justice thomas, madison op- posed henry’s assessment bill “not because it allowed religious groups to participate in generally available benefits, but because the bill singled out religious en- tities for special benefits” (rosenberger , – ). a proper interpretation of the “memorial,” and thus priest ministering to native americans. the deficiency in cord’s “nonpreferentialist” interpretation of madison is that he cannot square it with madison’s seemingly “strict-separationist” “detached memoranda.” as such, cord ( , – , , – ) is forced to say that madison was inconsistent or that he changed his mind as “an old man” in his “declining years,” both highly dubious propositions. the scholarship cited by justice souter includes leonard levy and douglas laycock . souter also trumpeted madison’s “detached memoranda,” em- ploying the same evidence and reaching the same conclusion that irving brant did nearly years prior (lee , – ). the establishment clause, prohibits government only from favoring some religious faiths over others. although justice thomas employed the “memo- rial” to defend “nonpreferentialism,” his opinion be- trays a leery suspicion of madison. justice thomas concedes that others have interpreted the “memo- rial” differently than he does (rsenberger , – ; citing laycock ), and perhaps because the “strict-separationist” interpretation of madison looks so strong, he suggests that “the views of one man do not establish the original understanding of the first amendment” (p. ). is madison, then, a “strict sepa- rationist?” did he think that any and all aid to reli- gion violates constitutional principles? if so, why did he not say so clearly in either his initial proposed con- stitutional amendment or his later clarifying remarks made during the constitutional convention? and if madison did intend strictly to separate religion and pol- itics through the establishment clause, did he also, as some claim, intend vigorously to protect religion from politics with the free exercise clause? madison and the free exercise clause until the s, madison was not invoked for free ex- ercise jurisprudence nearly to the extent that he was for establishment clause cases. this was partially because when the supreme court first addressed the meaning of free exercise in the mormon polygamy case reynolds v. united states ( ), it turned to jefferson. when the court later incorporated the free exercise clause in cantwell v. connecticut ( ), and then expanded its reach to grant religious exemptions from generally applicable regulations and laws in the s and s, it did so again without invoking madison. the court overlooked madison one more time in its controversial smith decision, which denied a constitutional right to religious exemptions from generally applicable laws. a conservative reaction to this decision, however, has led to a vigorous application of madison’s thought to the free exercise controversies. the leading scholar to apply madison to the free exercise clause is michael mcconnell. in a widely cited harvard law review article, mcconnell ( ) meticulously defends the case for religious exemptions from laws that burden religious exercise. at the center of his arguments stands madison’s “memorial and re- monstrance.” in article of the “memorial,” madison derives the right of religious liberty from “the duty of the court ruled that the free exercise clause protects beliefs, not actions, and therefore that reynolds was not exempt from federal laws banning polygamy. see, in particular, sherbert v. verner ( ), ruling that sherbert, a seventh-day adventist, was entitled to unemployment compensa- tion despite being fired with cause (refusing to work assigned hours on saturday), and wisconsin v. yoder ( ), ruling amish parents exempt from state laws requiring parents to send their children to school past the eighth grade. employment division, department of human resources of oregon v. smith ( ) ruled that smith’s and other native american church members’ sacramental use of peyote was not constitutionally protected. madison’s principle of religious liberty february every man to render to the creator such homage, and such only, as he believes to be acceptable to him.” “this duty,” madison continues, “is precedent both in order of time and degree of obligation, to the claims of civil society.” mcconnell ( , ) reasons, if the scope of religious liberty is defined by religious duty (man must render to god “such . . . homage as he believes acceptable to him”), and if the claims of civil society are subordinate to the claims of religious freedom, it would seem to follow that the dictates of religious faith must take precedence over the laws of the state, even if they are sec- ular and generally applicable. this is the central point on which madison differs from locke, jefferson, and other enlightenment advocates of religious freedom. if religious duties conflict with civic regulations, civic regulations must give way. although mcconnell admits that the “memorial” does not call for judicial exemp- tions explicitly, he claims that it “suggests an approach toward religious liberty consonant with them” (p. ; see also mcconnell ). to support this reading of the “memorial,” mcconnell also introduces into evidence madison’s proposed revisions of the “free exercise provision” of the virginia declaration of rights. he reports that, as drafted by george mason, article xvi proposed that all men should enjoy the fullest toleration in the exer- cise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience, un- punished and unrestrained by the magistrate, unless under color of religion any man disturb the peace, the happiness or safety of society. (mcconnell , ) madison, mcconnell claims, objected on two grounds. first, madison criticized the use of the word “tol- eration,” because religious liberty is a right derived from duties more sovereign than civic obligations. he moved, accordingly, to strike mason’s language of tol- eration and substitute instead, “all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of religion accord- ing to the dictates of conscience.” second, mason and madison clearly anticipated exemptions from generally applicable laws, which is why they included balancing test standards at the ends of their drafts. mason would have extended exemptions only to religious actions that did not disturb the “peace, happiness, or safety of soci- ety,” a standard, mcconnell suggests, “that would en- compass virtually all legitimate forms of legislation” (p. ). madison, according to mcconnell, aimed to create a test much more favorable to religious citizens. he proposed to narrow the compelling state interest in denying religious exemptions only to cases manifestly endangering “the preservation of equal liberty and the existences of the state.” this standard, mcconnell con- cludes, “only the most critical acts of government can satisfy” (pp. – ). mcconnell’s arguments have found a voice on the supreme court in justice sandra day o’connor. in her mcconnell’s history on this point suffers from his reliance on sanford cobb’s ( , – ) incomplete account of madison’s proposed revisions to mason’s text. what mcconnell presents as mason’s original proposal is actually a slightly amended committee version of mason’s initial draft. madison then offered two different sets of revisions on two different dates. what mcconnell reports as madison’s proposed revisions is actually the second set of revisions dissenting opinion in city of boerne v. p.f. flores ( , ), justice o’connor calls for a reversal of smith and a restoration of the sherbert balancing test because “the historical evidence casts doubt on the court’s current [nonexemption granting] interpretation of the free ex- ercise clause.” for her historical evidence, she relies heavily on mcconnell’s madison. mcconnell’s and o’connor’s arguments have been criticized sharply both on and off the bench by those who deny that the first amendment secures a right to religious exemptions from generally applicable laws. these critics have failed, however, to address adequately the mcconnell/o’connor interpretation of madison. philip hamburger ( ), the most thorough and persuasive critic of religious exemptions on historical grounds, has countered mcconnell’s historical research point by point. when it comes to mcconnell’s reading of madison’s “memorial and remonstrance,” however, hamburger is noticeably silent (see especially pp. – , which discuss mcconnell’s use of madison). the same omission also can be attributed to justice antonin scalia, the court’s leading critic of exemptions. in both his smith majority opinion, in which he originally overturned the court’s exemption-granting balancing test, and then his defense of smith in response to o’connor in city of boerne v. p.f. flores, justice scalia fails to address mcconnell’s and o’connor’s strongest argument: that james madison, architect of the first amendment, grounds the right to religious liberty on the premise that religious obligations are precedent in time and obligation to civil obligations. those who defend a constitutional right to religious exemptions from burdensome laws seem to have madison on their side. as is true of the “strict-separationist” and “nonpref- erentialist” interpretations of madison, so too is the “proexemption” interpretation incorrect. madison is misinterpreted for both establishment clause and free exercise jurisprudence because scholars and judges have failed to see the social compact framework of the “memorial and remonstrance.” prior interpreters thus fail to see madison’s clearly stated doctrine about the meaning of religious liberty in a constitutional republic limited by and dedicated to the protection of natural rights—namely, that the state must remain noncog- nizant of religion. madison’s principle of “noncognizance” the historical and political context of the “memorial” madison’s most mature and most philosophical de- fense of religious liberty is his “memorial and he offered—madison’s initial revisions were rejected. mcconnell ap- pears to be unaware of madison’s first proposed revisions and thus fails to consider them. unfortunately for mcconnell, it is these re- visions that reveal most clearly madison’s intentions (see discussion below, under the “memorial’s” argument). for a complete account of the drafting of article xvi of the virginia declaration of rights, see dreisbach , – . american political science review vol. , no. remonstrance.” he drafted the “memorial and re- monstrance” in the spring of , in the midst of a fierce debate over patrick henry’s proposed bill “es- tablishing a provision for teachers of the christian re- ligion.” before discussing the “memorial’s” argument, it is important to note what exactly madison was arguing against. according to leo pfeffer ( , ), as noted above, henry’s proposed assessment bill represents the closest approximation in american history to absolutely non-preferential government aid to religion. it is difficult to conceive of any measure which adheres more closely to the requirements of non-discrimination and equality among sects. pfeffer is simply wrong. though more accommodat- ing than the prerevolutionary establishment or the proposed establishment of , it is incorrect to claim that henry’s bill was nondiscriminatory or es- tablished equality among all religious sects. the title alone, “a bill establishing a provision for teachers of the christian religion,” belies pfeffer’s interpretation. only ministers of recognized christian sects were eligi- ble for state funding. in december , an amendment was passed to drop the word “christian,” in order to open up the assessment to any religious society, but benjamin harrison, the former governor, managed to have the change reversed (buckley , ). instead, in the final text appeared a statement of the bill’s liber- ality, which more clearly reveals its limits: [i]t is judged that such a provision may be made by the legislature, without counteracting the liberal principle heretofore adopted and intended to be preserved by abol- ishing all distinctions of preeminence amongst the different societies or communities of christians. henry’s bill may have erased distinctions among protestants, but it was not nonsectarian. what it was a property tax. under the bill’s provi- sions, each property owner was to specify the christian denomination to which he wished his tax directed. the sheriffs of the several counties would then distribute the taxes accordingly, minus % for administration. if a taxpayer failed or refused to specify a christian society, his tax would go to the public treasury “to be disposed of under the direction of the general assembly, for the encouragement of seminaries of learning . . . and to no other use or purpose whatsoever.” similarly, the taxes received by the various denominations were to be “appropriated to a provision for a minister or teacher of the gospel, or the providing of places of divine wor- ship, and to none other use whatsoever.” an exception to this rule was made for quakers and mennonites, who were allowed to place their distribution in their general funds because they lacked the requisite clergy. the restrictions on how funds were to be distributed, with the noted exceptions, were due to the bill’s stated educational purpose. the bill began, the text of henry’s assessment bill can be found in buckley , – . whereas the general diffusion of christian knowledge hath a tendency to correct the morals of men, restrain their vices, and preserve the peace of society, which cannot be effected without a competent provision for learned teach- ers . . . . this educational facade was not present in the bill’s original version, which was designed to support christian ministers, churches, and worship. a drafting committee added it, probably to increase the bill’s ap- peal (buckley , ; cf. braun , ). even with these changes, however, all knew that the purpose of the bill was to keep the christian ministry, particularly episcopalian clergy, active and solvent (buckley , ). and even with the educational preamble, minis- ters who received appropriations were not required to use them for educational purposes. in its effect, the bill granted a direct subsidy to christian clergymen. madison revealed his perception of the measure and what he thought was at stake in a letter to thomas jefferson on january . “should the bill ever pass into law in its present form,” he wrote, “it may and will be easily eluded.” madison probably had in mind the as- sessment’s provision that allowed citizens not to name their denomination and thereby steer their taxes to a state general education fund. “it is chiefly obnoxious,” he continued, “on account of its dishonorable principle and dangerous tendency” (madison , : ). for madison, defeating henry’s assessment was primarily a matter of principle. this understanding is reflected in the nature of the “memorial’s” argument. it addresses specifics of henry’s bill and its immediate political consequences, but its true force is its theoretical ar- gumentation. while not ignoring immediate politics— indeed, while intending directly to influence them—the “memorial” offers a philosophical understanding of the proper relationship between church and state. the “memorial’s” argument the “memorial and remonstrance” consists of arti- cles. each article is written as if to stand alone, but there is an obvious sequence. articles through argue from principle articles through offer pragmatic reasons for defeating henry’s proposed assessment. article returns to the principle articulated in article . madison sets forth his doctrine of religious liberty in the first article. although almost all commentators focus on it, its exact meaning has been missed. the structure of article ’s argument follows locke’s social compact theory. in the second treatise ([ a] ), locke teaches that men are originally born into the state of nature, a condition in which every man possesses the rights to life, liberty, and property and the right to execute the law of nature. but because of the tendency of each man to execute the law of na- ture to his own advantage, no effective common law exists among men. the state of nature tends to break down into a state of war. to escape this situation of war and poverty that ill secures man’s rights to life, lib- erty, and property, men enter into a social compact with one another. they consent equally to give up their full madison’s principle of religious liberty february natural right to execute the law of nature in exchange for governance under the rule of law as expressed by the majority. rights such as property, which in the state of nature are left to each individual to secure for him- self, are protected by common civil law executed by a government whose ultimate authority derives from the unanimous consent of the governed. following locke, the “memorial” begins with a statement of natural rights: men have a natural right to exercise religion according to conviction and con- science. madison derives this right from the “funda- mental and undeniable truth” that had been set forth previously in article xvi of the virginia declaration of rights: religion or the duty which we owe to our creator and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence. (article ) the “memorial” presupposes this truth as its funda- mental starting point. it does not attempt to demon- strate how or why religion can be directly only by reason and conviction; it takes this as given. because the exercise of religion must follow one’s own conscience and conviction, it is a particular kind of natural right, an inalienable natural right. madison gives two reasons why. the first is because the opinions of men, depending only on the evi- dence contemplated by their own minds, cannot follow the dictates of other men. . . . (article ) since religion is a matter of conviction and conscience, the essence of religion is opinions—namely, opinions about the duties man owes to the creator and how those duties ought to be discharged. and opinions, madison says, depend only on the evidence contemplated by the mind. he follows here the argument of locke’s ([ b] ) a letter concerning toleration. every man, locke claims, comes to his opinions and beliefs individually by virtue of the evidence he sees and finds persuasive. since opinions and beliefs can be shaped by evidence alone, no man can impose his opinions on any other man: all that can be proffered is persuasive evidence and argument. similarly, no man can simply accept the opinions of another, even if he wishes to, if he is not truly persuaded (locke [ b] , ). opinions, then, are very different from other types of property such as land and money. whereas a man can freely give away his money or have it stolen from him, no man can cede or lose his opinions unless he loses his mind. the right to one’s opinions, accordingly, is different from one’s right to other forms of property. gary rosen ( , ) identifies this starting point as “the obvious protestant subtext” of the “memorial and remonstrance.” rosen then draws out the following theological implications: “religious truth becomes a particular sort of experience rather than a doctrine. in this view, sincerity takes the place of right-thinking and -acting.” rosen is correct that the starting point of madison’s argument is compatible with certain strains of protestantism, but this does not make madison’s argument necessarily protestant or even theologi- cal. madison leaves it unclear whether the “memorial’s” argument is theological, strictly rational, or both. whereas men transform their natural right to one’s pos- sessions into a civil right to property upon entering into the social compact, men do not similarly transform the right to their opinions. opinions by their nature cannot be alienated, and therefore religion, which is essentially opinion, is an inalienable natural right. the second reason madison gives for the inalienable character of man’s natural religious right is that what is here a right towards men, is a duty towards the creator. it is the duty of every man to render to the creator such homage, and such only, as he believes to be accept- able to him. this duty is precedent both in order of time and degree of obligation, to the claims of civil society. (article ) here, again, madison relies on a distinction made by locke in a letter concerning toleration. civil society, locke maintains, arises in order to overcome war and poverty. at the most basic level, the social compact aims at the protection of life and to secure the condi- tions that allow for material comfort (locke [ b] , ). religion, in contrast, is concerned with the good of the soul, which means, ultimately, either eter- nal salvation or damnation (locke [ b] , ). madison assumes locke’s separation of religion from civic obligations and, from this, concludes that religious duties take precedence over the claims of civil society. religious duties are precedent in time because a man’s relationship with god exists prior to his citizenship. more importantly, religious duties are precedent in de- gree of authority because man’s eternal soul is of higher status than his temporal body. just as no rational man would ever sacrifice his eternal soul for the temporary good of his body, a man could never rationally forsake his duties to god in order to fulfill his duties as a citi- zen. duties of citizenship—that is, the obligations one agrees to upon entering the social compact—cannot trespass upon duties to god. it would be irrational and contrary to the gravity and nature of man’s religious obligations for men to agree to a social compact that in- cludes religious obligations or precepts. religion, thus, is an inalienable natural right. having established the inalienable nature of man’s natural religious right, madison’s argument reaches its pinnacle: we maintain therefore that in matters of religion, no man’s right is abridged by the institution of civil society, madison also makes the distinction between alienable (e.g., money) and inalienable (e.g., opinions) types of property in his essay on property, which appeared in the national gazette in : in its larger and juster meaning, it [property] embraces everything to which a man may attach a value and have a right, and which leaves to every one else the like advantage. in the former sense, a man’s land, or merchandise, or money, is called his property. in the latter sense, a man has a property in his opinions and the free communication of them. he has a property of peculiar value in his religious opinions, and in the profession and practice dictated by them. . . . in a word, as a man is said to have a right to his property, he may be equally said to have a property in his rights. . . . conscience is the most sacred of all property; other property de- pending in part on the positive law, the exercise of that being a natural and unalienable right. ( , – ; madison’s emphasis) american political science review vol. , no. and that religion is wholly exempt from its cognizance. (article ) the inalienable character of man’s natural right to re- ligion has a precise meaning and implication. be- cause man’s religious right is inalienable, it does not become part of the social compact. literally, it is not alienated; men retain what they possessed in the state of nature. the status of man’s religious right, then, is different from property rights such as land and money within the social compact. whereas the right to land or money is limited equally within civil society (and thereby better secured), religion, madi- son says, “is wholly exempt from its [civil society’s] cognizance.” used in a legal sense, the word “cognizance,” then as now, means “the action of taking judicial or au- thoritative notice,” or “jurisdiction.” more generally, it means “knowledge,” “perception,” or “the state of being aware of” (oxford english dictionary, nd ed., s.v. “cognizance”; see also the entries under “cognition” and “cognizance” in johnson and ash ). a state noncognizant of religion lacks jurisdiction over religion. it may not take authoritative notice of or perceive religion or the religious affiliation of its cit- izens. a government noncognizant of religion, in other words, must be blind to religion. it cannot use reli- gion or religious preference as a basis for classifying citizens. this is the doctrinal teaching of the “memo- rial and remonstrance.” the state, which is a prod- uct of the social compact between men originally born in the state of nature, must remain noncognizant of religion because religion is not a part of the social compact. religion cannot be part of the social com- pact because of the inalienable character of man’s right to direct his religion according to conviction and conscience. insofar as henry’s bill is cognizant of religion, then, it usurps power. it violates the fundamental princi- ples of the social compact. this is why madison uses the language of tyranny and slavery in article of the for a discussion of the founders’ understanding of the differ- ence and relationship between natural rights and civil rights, see hamburger . although the “memorial and remonstrance” adopts locke’s ba- sic social contract framework, madison’s derivation of the principle of “noncognizance” represents a significant break from locke. in a letter concerning toleration, locke does not speak of religion as an “inalienable” right, nor does he claim that the state must remain noncognizant of religion. he explicitly says that civil magistrates are not obliged to tolerate “opinions contrary to human society, or to those moral rules which are necessary to the preservation of civil society” (locke [ b] , ). in this context, locke fa- mously teaches that civil magistrates need not tolerate atheists or “that church [whose members] . . . ipso facto deliver themselves up to the protection and service of another prince” (p. ), i.e., catholics. locke clearly allows the state to be cognizant of a citizen’s religious belief or lack thereof. madison breaks from locke on this point; his principle of “noncognizance” is uniquely his own. in this context, one should also note that other leading american founders adopted an approach more lockean than madisonian. george washington, for example, did not share madison’s conclusion that the state must remain noncognizant of religion. for a discussion of washington’s differences from madison on matters of church and state, see muñoz . “memorial.” the preservation of free government, he says, requires, first, the separation of powers, but also, and more importantly, that no branch of government “overleap the great barrier which defends the rights of people.” this great barrier is the social compact through which the people grant legitimate authority to those who govern. rulers guilty of an encroachment on the social compact “exceed the commission from which they derive their authority, and are tyrants.” it may seem hyperbolic and demagogic to characterize the virginia house of delegates as tyrannical if they pass a bill favored by a majority of the voting citizens, but madison’s point is that every encroachment of the social compact, even a popular one, usurps power. it is to rule without legitimate consent, which is tyranny. “the people who submit to it,” madison continues, “are governed by laws made neither by themselves, nor by an authority derived from them. . . ” (article ). no free people can approve legislation that classifies citizens and grants them benefits on account of their religious affiliation, because religion lies outside the jurisdiction of any social compact that respects and secures natural rights. in the “memorial’s” fourth article, madison derives the implications of “noncognizance” with regard to equality. “if all men are by nature equally free and independent,” madison reasons, all men are to be considered as entering into society on equal conditions; as relinquishing no more, and therefore retaining no less, one than another, of their natural rights. above all they are to be considered as retaining an equal ti- tle to the free exercise of religion according to the dictates of conscience. . . . as the [henry’s] bill violates equality by subjecting some to peculiar burdens; so it violates the same principle, by granting to others peculiar exemptions. (article ; madison’s emphasis) madison does not identify whom the law burdens but presumbly he means non-christians. like every- one else, they had to pay the tax, but their religions alone were not eligible for funding under the bill. the “extraordinary” privilege madison rails against is that quakers and mennonites (or “menonists,” as both the bill and madison called them) would receive their ap- propriations with no restrictions attached. on its face, this exception does not seem like a distinct privilege but rather a realistic accommodation for denomina- tions that lacked ministers of the gospel—in order to use the funds appropriated to them for christian ed- ucation, quakers and mennonites would have to fall under a different set of rules. a corollary to the doc- trine of “noncognizance,” however, is equality. mem- bers of different religions may not be treated differ- ently on account of their religion, because any legal exemption or exception based on religious affiliation by definition takes religion into the state’s cognizance. to grant exemptions or exceptions on the basis of re- ligious affiliation requires the recognition of religion. all exemptions and exceptions, therefore, no matter how miniscule or convenient, violate the principle of madison’s principle of religious liberty february religious liberty. the principle of equality follows from the principle of “noncognizance.” articles through of the “memorial” offer prag- matic arguments. the assessment should be rejected, madison contends, because it implies either that the civil magistrate is a competent judge of religious truth or that he may employ religion as an engine of civil policy (article ), is not needed for the support of the christian religion (article ), will corrupt the purity and efficacy of religion (article ), is unnecessary for the support of civil government (article ), is a signal of persecution and thus will discourage immigration (article ) and encourage emigration (article ), will i disagree with steven d. smith’s criticism of the “memorial” regarding its treatment of quakers and mennonites. smith ( , – ) writes, “the fudginess in madison’s treatment of quakers and mennonites points to a larger problem that afflicted madison’s ‘memorial and remonstrance’ at all levels”; namely, that madison begged the question of the meaning of religious liberty by appeal- ing to “equality.” smith fails to recognize that madison’s use of “equality” in article derives from his social compact argument in article . smith thus does not see the solid grounds from which madison derives his principle. although i agree with most of weber’s ( ) interpretation, i disagree with his contention that equality is the fundamental teaching of the “memorial and remonstrance.” the “memorial’s” argument from equality, weber correctly points out, clearly reveals madison’s understanding that a proper church–state relationship requires the state to treat all religions and religious citizens equally to one another and equally to nonreligious citizens. equality does not exhaust the principle of “noncognizance,” however. the demand for equal treat- ment could be met while still using religion as a basis for classification (the census, discussed below, is an example of such a case). to say the same thing differently, equality relates only to the application of a law to different classes of citizens; it says nothing about the authority of the state to make those classifications in the first place. in the assessment case, equality demands that all citizens be treated equally regardless of religion. but equality alone does not consider whether the state has the authority to pass an assessment for religion. the “memorial’s” fundamental teaching, with which it both begins and ends, is jurisdictional—namely, that states lack jurisdiction to enact a law that takes cognizance of religion. this is why madison concludes in article by calling henry’s bill a dangerous “usurpation” by the legislature, violating “the trust committed to them.” while the assess- ment does violate the equality “which ought to be the basis of every law,” its most egregious offense is its “dangerous abuse of power,” which will allow the legislature to act tyrannically, thus enslaving the people. the shortcoming in weber’s interpretation is that he overem- phasizes article of the “memorial” at the expense of recognizing madison’s social compact argument in article . this leads him to misinterpret article of the “memorial,” which begins “because, finally, ‘the equal right of every citizen to the free exercise of his religion according to the dictates of conscience’ is held by the same tenure with all our other rights.” weber takes this statement to mean that individuals’ religious rights are protected just like other natural rights. for madison, weber contends, “religion is an inalienable right on a par with other natural rights such as life and property” (p. ). madison’s point in article is actually that religious rights, like other rights, are secure only if the legislature respects the terms of the social compact. both inalienable natural rights (religion) and natural rights limited and protected as equal civil rights (property) are secured by the maintenance of the social compact. madison’s point is not that they have the same status under that compact, but that they are both protected by respecting the limits of the compact. nonetheless, i agree with weber’s conclusion that “madison’s principle [of reli- gious liberty] was that religious individuals had the same rights and privileges—and no other—as any other individuals and associations” (p. ). it is precisely because religion is an inalienable natural right, different from other natural rights, that this conclusion is true. encourage rivalry between sects to control the gov- ernment (article ), is adverse to the diffusion of the light of christianity (article ), and is obnoxious to a great proportion of the citizens, who will not follow the law, thus enervating the authority of the law in general (article ), and because a matter of such importance should not be imposed without the clearest evidence of a support of the majority, which is not secured (article ). article , as mentioned, concludes the “memo- rial” by returning to its social compact foundations. the principal and principled argument of the “memorial,” to repeat, is that the exercise of religion is an inalienable natural right and therefore that religion is not part of the social compact. the state, accordingly, must remain noncognizant of religion, which means that it can nei- ther privilege nor punish citizens on account of religion or religious affiliation. the “memorial and remonstrance” offers madison’s most comprehensive philosophical statement on the fundamental political principles excluding religion as such from civil jurisdiction. it stands as the pinnacle of his theoretical reflections on the subject of church and state. we must not overlook, though, that madison was a man of political practice as well as political philosophy. he labored for the cause of religious liberty throughout his entire political career, from his first year in the virginia house of delegates to his final station as the nation’s foremost retired statesman. these efforts offer ample material to test any hypothesized interpretation of madison’s principle of religious liberty. a careful consideration of these events demonstrates that the principle of “nonc- ognizance” consistently explains madison’s actions. madison maintained an unwavering commitment to the maxim that the state may neither privilege nor penalize citizens on account of their religion. madison’s political efforts to establish religious liberty madison’s revision of the virginia declaration of rights madison’s first political contribution to the cause of religious liberty took the form of a proposed amend- ment to the religion article of the virginia declaration of rights. in the late spring of , virginia’s rev- olutionary convention moved to adopt a declaration of rights. george mason’s slightly revised initial draft stated, that religion or the duty which we owe to our creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be governed only by reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and therefore, that all men should enjoy the fullest toleration in the exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience, unpublished and unrestrained by the magis- trate, unless, under colour of religion, any many disturb the peace the happiness, or safety of society. and that it is the for a helpful restatement of the bare bones on the “memorial’s” argument, see braun , . american political science review vol. , no. mutual duty of all to practice christian forbearance, love and charity, towards each other. (madison – , : ) dissatisfied with mason’s text, madison initially pro- posed the following revision: that religion or the duty we owe to our creator, and the manner of discharging it, being under the direction of rea- son and conviction only, not violence or compulsion, all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of it accord[in]g to the dictates of conscience; and therefore that no man or class of men ought, on account of religion to be invested with peculiar emoluments or privileges, nor subjected to any penalties or disabilities unless under &c. (madison – , : ) most commentators highlight madison’s replacement of mason’s language of toleration with the language of rights (see, e.g., buckley , ; dreisbach , ; and hunt , : ) more important, however, is madison’s clarification of what the right of free exercise means. men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise of religion according to conscience; therefore, madison explains, no man or class of men is to be in- vested with particular privileges or subject to particular penalties on account of religion. the full and free ex- ercise of religion and freedom of conscience means no privileges or penalties on account of religion (cf. soifer ). madison says here exactly the same thing he would declare a decade later in the “memorial and re- monstrance.” religious citizens are to be treated the same as all other citizens, with no distinctions made on the basis of religious affiliation. civil government is to be blind to religion as such. the virginia convention quickly rejected madison’s proposed amendment because his language seemed in- compatible with the existing anglican establishment (buckley , ). if no class of men was eligible for peculiar emoluments on account of their religion, then anglican clergy could not be employed by the state. instead, virginia adopted an amendment that declared that “all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience. . . .” the exact parameters of “free exercise of religion” were left unstated, and debate over the anglican estab- lishment was left for another day. madison, however, for a discussion of the difference between religious “toleration” and religious “liberty,” see palm . michael mcconnell ( ) fails to address the meaning of madison’s proposed language “therefore that no man or class of men ought, on account of religion to be invested with peculiar emol- uments or privileges, nor subjected to any penalties or disabilities.” because of his use of sanford cobb’s incomplete historical account of madison’s proposed revisions (see footnote ), mcconnell appears to be unaware that madison offered such language. the following was adopted as article xvi of the virginia decla- ration of rights: that religion, or the duty to which we owe to our creator, and the manner of discharging it, can be directed only be reason and conviction, not by force or violence; and therefore, all men are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of all to prac- tice christian forbearance, love, and charity, towards each other. had already arrived at his understanding of the princi- ple of religious liberty. a decade later, when political circumstances had changed, he would bring virginia’s law of religious freedom more in accordance with his understanding of the right to religious freedom. madison and the drafting of the bill of rights by madison had left the virginia house of dele- gates to represent virginia in the u.s. house of rep- resentatives. one of his first legislative aims was to se- cure the adoption of a bill of rights. the drafting of the first amendment, however, offers little guidance in understanding madison’s principle of religious lib- erty. along with nearly every member of the consti- tutional convention, madison did not think a bill of rights essential to the protection of liberty. repub- lican liberty required a carefully designed system of representation, the separation of powers, and the culti- vation of republican character in an extended, diverse, commercial republic—elements that were provided by the unamended constitution. bills of rights were no more than parchment barriers and, therefore, not to be relied on. madison’s view of the necessity of adopting a bill of rights would change, but not his appreciation of its utility for protecting liberty. robert goldwin ( , es- pecially chaps. , ) has demonstrated persuasively that madison’s leadership in securing amendments to the constitution was primarily defensive. madison’s inten- tion was to keep the promise made to those states that had ratified the constitution expecting amendments. at the same time, he sought to silence the consti- tution’s critics and to prevent a second meddlesome and damaging constitutional convention. last in his priorities was to procure amendments that might do some good in further protecting the essential liberties of the people. for madison, the adoption of the bill of rights was more pragmatic than principled. this is why later in his life he identified the battle for disestablish- ment in virginia and the virginia statute, and not the debates in first congress and the first amendment, as “where religious liberty is placed on its true foundation and is defined in its full latitude” (fleet , ). it is naı̈ve and mistaken to turn to the drafting of the first amendment to find madison’s deepest reflections on religious liberty. compounding this difficulty is also the fact that the final text of the first amendment was the product of the constitutional convention spent almost no time considering whether to include a bill of rights in the constitution. when adopting a bill of rights was proposed on september , no state delegation voted in favor of the motion (farrand , : ). see also james wilson’s recollection during the pennsylvania ratifying convention of the constitutional convention’s near-unanimous opinion of the lack of necessity of a bill of rights (farrand , : – ). for publius’ (hamilton) classic federalist statement against a bill of rights. see federalist (madison, hamilton, and jay [ ] ). for madison’s ( , : ) view of the possible danger of a second constitutional convention, see his letter to edmund randolph, april . see madison’s ( , : – ) letter to george eve, january . madison’s principle of religious liberty february debate and compromise within and among legislative committees. the religion clauses, in particular, went through several changes offered by numerous congress- men. although madison certainly had his influence, he was not the sole author and, hence, not simply respon- sible for the adopted text. what we know for certain is that madison drafted the intial text proposed and that he made a few com- ments on subsequent proposals on the house floor. his initial proposal consisted of two amendments. for the national government he suggested, the civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of re- ligious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience be in any manner or in any pretext, infringed. ( – , : ) he also proposed an amendment to apply against the states, no state shall violate the equal rights of conscience. ( – , : ) if we are searching for what madison hoped to secure, it is reasonable to assume that he expressed it in his initial drafts (weber , ). the one clear principle that emerges is that madison sought to prevent the federal government from penal- izing citizens because of their religious affiliation. this can be seen in his proposal that “the civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religion or worship.” madison also sought to prohibit a certain class of privi- leges toward religion—“nor shall any national religion be established”—and prevent infringements of the lib- erty of conscience by both the national and the state governments. what he meant by “an establishment of religion” and “the equal rights of conscience” is clari- fied by a statement he made on the house floor on august . at the time, the text under consideration was, “no religion shall be established by law, nor shall the equal rights of conscience be infringed,” which was close to his initial proposal minus the first clause: mr. madison said he apprehended the meaning of the words to be, that congress should not establish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law, nor compel men to worship god in any manner contrary to their con- science; whether the words were necessary or not he did not mean to say, but that had been required by some of the state conventions, who seemed to entertain an opinion that under the clause of the constitution, which gave power to congress to make all laws necessary and proper to carry into execution the constitution, and the laws made under it, enabled them to make laws of such a nature as might infringe the rights of conscience or establish a national reli- gion. to prevent these effects he presumed the amendment was intended, and he thought it as well expressed as the nature of language would admit. (annals of the congress of the united states, – , , : ) madison thought that the proposed text made clear that congress lacked authority to legislate a traditional for a discussion of the degree to which madison is responsible for the final text of the first amendment’s religion clauses, see drakeman . establishment akin to the anglican church’s privi- leged position in england. what is most revealing in his comment, however, is the indifference it reveals toward the precise language used. the real purpose of the amendment and the bill of rights as a whole, madison says, is to satisfy those who ratified the consti- tution with reservations. he is recorded here as say- ing that it is not necessary to say whether such an amendment is necessary, but all familiar with his politics knew that one year earlier he had vehemently argued that such an amendment was absolutely unnecessary. at the virginia ratifying convention on june , madison had argued that “there is not a shadow of a right in the general government to intermeddle with religion” and that the national government’s “least in- terference with it [religion] would be a most flagrant usurpation” (elliot , : ). because the national legislature’s powers were enumerated, what was not granted was denied. with or without an amendment, congress lacked all authority over religion, and thus, the exact language used to restrict congress’s power over religion did not matter. any language aimed at restricting congress would be redundant. the only amendment imposing a new, substantive restriction on governmental power was madison’s pro- posal to prohibit state governments from violating the equal rights of conscience. this is why madison called it “the most valuable amendment on the whole list” (annals of the congress of the united states, – , , : ). unfortunately, during congress’s deliber- ations, madison was never recorded clearly defining what he meant by the “equal rights of conscience.” his august statement directed at the national amend- ment that prohibited congress from infringing the “equal rights of conscience” would have prohibited states, in his recorded words, from “compel[ling] men to worship god in any manner contrary to their con- science.” this provides some insight into one type of state legislation that madison intended to prohibit, but whether this is all that the “equal rights of conscience” covers is unclear. also unclear is how madison would have legally defined “compulsion” and “the worship of god.” given madison’s expressly stated political intention in securing a bill of rights and the paucity and unre- liability of the congressional record, the drafting of the first amendment is a relatively poor source of in- formation for madison’s doctrine of religious liberty. from what can be determined, madison’s proposals in the first congress approach the principle of “nonc- ognizance.” madison’s proposed clause preventing the national government from abridging the civil rights of citizens on account of their religion is the same as the no-penalty provision. his prohibition against the establishment of any national religion and his restric- tions on infringements of the equal rights of conscience approach the no-privilege provision. thus regarding no privileges on account of religion may be what madison meant by “the equal rights of conscience,” but he does not say so as explic- itly as he did in the drafting of the virginia declaration of rights. madison may have limited what he was willing to state on the house american political science review vol. , no. madison’s actions in the drafting of the religion clauses of the first amendment, we can say that they are con- sistent with the doctrine of “noncognizance,” though they do not reaffirm it in its full latitude. madison on government classifications based on religious affiliation when madison first had the opportunity to interpret the first amendment a few months later, however, he returned to his strict “noncognizance” doctrine. in early , following article i, section , of the con- stitution, the house of representatives made prepara- tions to conduct the first national census. madison sug- gested that in addition to obtaining an enumeration of the population, the census include questions that might provide information useful to congress, such as the relative proportions of citizens engaged in agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce (annals of the congress of the united states, – , , : ). there was a limit, however, to what questions congress could ask. the census, he said, should ascertain information “only so far as to be extremely useful, when we come to pass laws, affecting any particular description of peo- ple.” it could not ask, therefore, whether a citizen was a religious minister: as to those who are employed in teaching and inculcating the duties of religion, there may be some indelicacy in sin- gling them out, as the general government is proscribed from interfering, in any manner whatever, in matters re- specting religion; and it may be thought to do this, in as- certaining who, and who are not ministers of the gospel. (annals of the congress of the united states, – , , : ) madison’s comments suggest two problems with asking citizens if they are religious ministers. first, knowing the relative number of ministers would in no way be useful to congress. ministers as such could never prop- erly be the subject of legislation because the constitu- tion proscribes the federal government from intermed- dling with religion. second, the very act of ascertaining who is and who is not a minister itself violates consti- tutional principles. to identify ministers as ministers is to classify citizens on account of their religion. even floor on account of his experience in virginia. just as virginia had a state establishment in , six of the states had official religious establishments in . to deny explicitly the states’ authority to privilege religion as such surely would have been rejected out of hand, just as it was in virginia in . one of the primary reasons madison doubted the efficacy of adopting a bill of rights, in fact, was that any public attempt to define the rights of the people would fail to do so in the requisite latitude. “i am sure that the rights of con- science in particular,” he wrote to jefferson in , “if submitted to public definition, would be narrowed much more than they are likely ever to be by an assumed [federal] power” (madison , : ). madison may have hoped to secure whatever vague language he could and then to define it later when the opportunity presented itself. regardless, madison would have at least denied explicitly some forms of privilege to religion, which may or may not have included all privileges to religion as such. in something as innocuous as a census, madison stood firm on the principle of “noncognizance.” madison had taken exactly the same position on a different issue two years earlier. in he had received a letter from john brown, a leading politi- cian from kentucky, asking his opinions about thomas jefferson’s draft of a constitution. jefferson had pub- lished his proposed constitution for virginia as an ap- pendix to notes on the state of virginia, and it was being read with attention because kentucky was draft- ing its own constitution in preparation for statehood. jefferson’s constitution included a provision excluding “ministers of the gospel” from the legislative assembly, a practice that was common at the time, especially in the south. in his response to brown, madison singled out this exclusion for particular disparagement: exclusions. does not the exclusion of ministers of the gospel as such violate a fundamental principle of liberty by punishing a religious profession with the privation of a civil right? does it [not] violate another article of the plan itself which exempts religion from the cognizance of civil power? does it not violate justice by at once taking away a right and prohibiting compensation for it? does it not in fine violate impartiality by shutting the door against the ministers of religion and leaving it open for those of every other. ( – , : ) to single out ministers for exclusion from political of- fice penalizes them on account of religion. it is to act on the basis of religion, which is what the principle of religious liberty forbids. here, again, madison requires the law to be blind to the religious affiliation of citizens. madison on government support to religion as such as president, madison employed the principle of “non- cognizance” to veto two congressional statutes. in february , congress passed a bill incorporating the protestant episcopal church of alexandria, d.c. in addition to recognizing the church as a corporate irving brant ( , – ) interprets madison’s remarks on the census to support his larger contention that madison sought to pro- hibit all federal aid to religion. while it is true that madison would prohibit aid to religion as such, brant fails to recognize that this con- clusion is derivative from madison’s principle of “noncognizance.” the principle of “noncognizance” also forbids singling out religion for denial of aid. madison would prevent the government from know- ing the religious affiliation of its citizens, which means that govern- ment may not single out religion for either privilege or penalty. be- cause of privacy concerns (see mr. livermore’s objections in annals of the congress of the united states, – , , : ), the census asked only the names and number of persons in every household. about half the states belonging to the union in the first half- century after independence, including virginia, had constitutional provisions excluding clergymen and ministers of the gospel from serving in their state legislatures (stokes , : – ). madison’s reference “to another article of the plan” refers to text just three paragraphs below the provision excluding clergymen from public office, which stated, “the general assembly shall not have power to infringe this constitution, to abridge the civil rights of any person on account of his religious belief, to restrain him from profess- ing and supporting that belief. . .” the relevant passages of jefferson’s draft of a constitution can be found in jefferson , : – . madison’s principle of religious liberty february body, the bill specified rules for electing and remov- ing the church’s ministers. this, madison said, would make the church a religious establishment by law. it would subject sundry rules and proceedings pertaining purely to the church’s internal organization to enforce- ment by the state. a government blind to religion can- not make or enforce laws for the internal governance of a church. madison ( –, : ) also objected to section of the bill, which stated, “that it shall and may be lawful for the said vestry to make such pro- visions for the support of the poor of the said church as shall by them be thought proper. . . .” this provision, madison ( –, : ) claimed, “would be a precedent for giving to religious societies as such, a legal agency in carrying into effect a public and civil duty.” the most important words of madison’s sentence are “as such.” his objection is not that the bill would allow a religious society to participate in the carrying out of public du- ties, but that a specific legal sanction to help the poor in a bill of incorporation would suggest that the church had legal sanction to help the poor because it was a church. madison objects to giving religious societies as such a legal agency in carrying into effect public duties, which means giving religious groups a special privilege because they are religious. it is the singling-out of reli- gion, the treating of religious groups as religious groups as such, that violates the constitution. for the same reason, madison vetoed a second bill concerning religion one week later. congress passed a bill resolving the land claims of five individuals in the mississippi territory. the sixth section of the bill granted five acres to the baptist church, which had erected a meeting house on the land. madison ( –, : ) vetoed the bill on the straightforward grounds that reserving a certain parcel of land of the united states for the use of said baptist church, comprizes [sic] a principle and precedent for the appropriation of funds of the united states, for the use and support of religious societies. . . . congress first passed the bill on february . following madison’s veto, the house of representatives debated the consti- tutionality of the bill and the means of reconsidering it before voting against its passage on february . see annals of congress, th congress, rd session, , , , – , – . james hutson ( , – ) claims that the veto represents madison’s effort undertaken later in life to limit the political influence of ecclesiastical institutions, i.e., that madison targeted religious in- stitutions for unfavorable treatment. in his “detached memoranda,” madison does warn that “there is an evil which ought be guarded agst [sic] in the indefinite accumulation of property from the capacity of holding in perpetuity by ecclesiastical corporations.” but madison also says that “the power of all corporations, ought to be limited in this respect” (fleet , ; emphasis added). madison’s concern about the accumulation and concentration of property was not ex- clusively about the property of religious institutions as hutson seems to suggest. “an act for the relief of richard tervin, william coleman, edwin lewis, samuel mims, joseph wilson, and the baptist church at salem meeting house, in the mississippi territory,” passed by congress on february (american state papers: , miscellaneous : ). on march , both houses of congress reconsidered the bill. the house failed to override madison’s veto, then passed the bill after removing section . the senate concurred on march . see annals of congress, th congress, rd session, , , – both vetoes reflected madison’s ( –, : ) under- standing that the rights of conscience and the functions of religion are, as he stated in his first inaugural address, “wisely exempted from civil jurisdiction.” it would seem that madison violated his principle of “noncognizance” in when he issued the first of his four presidential proclamations declaring national days of prayer and thanksgiving. the practice of issuing religious proclamations had been started by george washington and continued by john adams. jefferson refused to issue them and madison sought to follow jefferson’s example. during the war of , however, congress requested that president madison revive the tradition. in his “detached memoranda,” (fleet , ) madison says that he issued the proclamations because he thought “it was not proper to refuse a compliance [to congress] all together.” removed from the exigencies of war and politics, however, madison forthrightly revealed that his true position was that religious proclamations by the president violated the constitution. this revelation has been interpreted as conclusive proof that madison stood for the “strict-separationist” wall between church and state (brant , ). madison’s own explanation is more nuanced, however. first, madison explicitly permits public leaders to make religious proclamations as private individuals, a point that is often overlooked: in their individual capacities, as distinct from their official station, they [government officials] might unite in recom- mendations of any sort whatever, in the same manner as any other individuals might do. but then their recommen- dations ought to express the true character from which they emanate. (fleet , ) what violates the constitution are religious proclama- tions made by a government official acting in his official capacity. even though proclamations alone are only ad- visory, “they imply a religious agency, making no part of the trust delegated to political rulers” (fleet , ). for the president acting in his official capacity to advise citizens to pray and give thanksgiving to god suggests that prayer is a legitimate subject for govern- ment legislation. but prayer, like every other aspect of , , , , , , , . see also madison’s ( , : – ) letter, dated june , to the baptist churches on neal’s creek and on black creek, north carolina, discussing his veto. madison’s four proclamations requesting days of prayer and thanksgiving can be found in richardson , : , – , , – . a perusal of the text of the proclamations reveals madison’s ambivalence in issuing them. each one begins with a state- ment that congress has requested that such a proclamation be issued. madison’s first proclamation, which is typical of all four, begins, “whereas the congress of the united states, by a joint resolution of the two houses, have signified a request that a day may be recom- mended to be observed by the people. . . .” madison never takes per- sonal responsibility for initiating the proclamations. he is extremely careful, moreover, to emphasize their advisory character. he “rec- ommends” “to all those who shall be piously disposed to” pray to do so. madison is also extremely careful to use nonsectarian language. he recommends that citizens render homage to the “sovereign of the universe” and “the benefactor of mankind” and celebrate “the goodness of the great disposer of events.” locke ([ b] , ) makes this same point in a letter con- cerning toleration. american political science review vol. , no. religious worship, is not a part of the social compact. to issue an official religious proclamation implies that the state has authority over religion, which indicates a lack of understanding of the legitimate authority of the state and nature of man’s inalienable religious right. in his “detached memoranda,” madison also writes that congressional and military chaplains violate the first amendment for the same reason. the purpose of chaplains is to facilitate religious worship, and although “it [may] be proper that public functionaries, as well as their constituents shd [sic] discharge their religious duties,” such is not a proper object for the law (fleet , ). it would have been much better proof of their pious feelings, madison ( – , : ) later wrote to edward livingston, if individual congressmen would have maintained a chaplain with contributions from their own pockets. the same would go for the military. madison’s discussion of legislative chaplains nicely summarizes his doctrine of “noncognizance” and how, in his judgment, that principle leads to better, safer politics. the selection of a legislative chaplain neces- sarily requires favoring one religion over others unless a chaplain of every denomination is employed. with such a selection before them, legislators are encour- aged to think of themselves along sectarian lines. one sect’s benefit is necessarily another sect’s loss. “nonc- ognizance” moderates sectarian politics by preventing the government from either privileging or punishing re- ligion as such. sectarian political aspirations are limited because religious affiliation is not allowed as grounds for government action. legislators and citizens are thus encouraged to see themselves not as sectarian parti- sans, but as fellow citizens who mutually respect one another’s rights. the multiplicity of sects further en- courages this by giving every religion an interest in mutual toleration and respect. the intractable prob- lem of religious oppression that follows from religious diversity is thus submerged within a republic dedicated to respecting individuals’ natural rights. the ground for the principle of “noncognizance” is man’s inalienable natural right to religious freedom. because religion is not part of the social contract, gov- ernment must remain blind to religion as such. it can neither privilege religion nor punish citizens on account of their religion. madison held fast to this position throughout his entire political life, from his first year in the virginia legislature, when he proposed amend- ments to the virginia declaration of rights, to his last reflections as the “father of the constitution” in his “detached memoranda.” madison and contemporary first amendment religion jurisprudence it is relatively easy to apply madison’s principle of religious liberty to contemporary constitutional controversies. a madisonian approach to the first amendment would utilize the straightforward rule that it is important to note that one should not assume that madison’s principle of “noncognizance” represents the “original intentions” of the state must remain noncognizant of religion. no state actor or government policy could classify, punish, distribute, or withhold benefits from individual citizens or organizations on account of religion or religious affiliation. to borrow from contemporary civil rights discourse, the constitution must be “religion blind.” the establishment clause a madisonian interpretation of the establishment clause would prevent the state from singling out religious citizens or religious organizations for any reason. government policies that require cognizance of religion or religious affiliation in order to bene- fit religion, then, violate the first amendment. the nebraska taxpayer-funded legislative chaplaincy up- held by the supreme court in marsh v. chambers ( ) exemplifies such a violation. nebraska became cognizant of religion in two ways: it hired an em- ployee on the basis of religious affiliation—a prereq- uisite for the chaplain position, no doubt, was that one be a religious minister—and it employed an individ- ual specifically to conduct a religious exercise, to open the state legislative session with a prayer. a second example of an impermissible state recognition of reli- gion is the new york tax exemption upheld in walz v. tax commissioners of new york city ( ). new york exempted from taxation real property “owned by a corporation or association organized exclusively for . . . religious . . . purposes” and used “exclusively for carrying out” such purposes. new york became im- permissibly cognizant of religion from a madisonian perspective when it made religion a criterion for a government classification (nontaxpayer status). for the same reason, a madisonian approach also would have struck down the tax exemption ruled unconstitutional by the supreme court in texas monthly inc. v. bullock ( ). the texas statute in question exempted from sales and use taxes “[p]eriodicals . . . published or dis- tributed by a religious faith . . . consist[ing] wholly or writings promulgating the teachings of the faith and books . . . consist[ing] wholly of writings sacred to a re- ligious faith.” government must remain blind to reli- gion, which means that it cannot benefit individuals or organizations on account of their religious character. walz offers a clear example of how “noncognizance” differs from “nonpreferentialism.” chief justice warren burger’s majority opinion upheld the new york exemption on the grounds that tax exemptions for religious organizations are “deeply embedded in the framers and drafters of the first amendment. madison did not ex- plicitly propose the principle of “noncognizance” in the first federal congress and his proposed amendment protecting the equal rights of conscience against state encroachments was not adopted. this article attempts only to offer a “madisonian” approach to first amendment religion jurisprudence, not a more general interpretation of the “orig- inal understanding” of the first amendment’s religion clauses. philip b. kurland ( ) advocated for the court to adopt a test similar to madison’s position. kurland did not, however, trace his position back to madison, suggesting instead that a proper construc- tion of the religion clauses “cannot now be confined to the application they might have received in ” (p. ). madison’s principle of religious liberty february the fabric of our national life” and that such policies reflect “benevolent neutrality toward churches and re- ligious exercise generally” without favoring one reli- gion over others (walz , – ). his opinion in- voked what has become standard “nonpreferentialist” reasoning: government policies that aid religion meet constitutional muster if they support all religions equally. “noncognizance” respects equality, but it does not make equality among religions the grounds for constitutional sanction. under the principle of “nonc- ognizance,” what matters is whether the government makes religion a criterion for governmental classifica- tion. as a result, all religions stand in formal equality with one another before the law. but this is not all. madison’s principle also requires that religious indi- viduals and organizations stand in formal equality with nonreligious citizens and organizations, a demand that “nonpreferentialism” does not make. in order for a tax exemption to pass madisonian constitutional muster, it must base eligibility on a nonreligious classification, e.g., charitable nonprofit organizations. religious or- ganizations as well as nonreligious organizations then may apply for the exemption without needing to make reference to the religious or nonreligious character of their organization. an example of a permissible “religion-blind” tax exemption came before the court in mueller v. allen ( ). the state of minnesota al- lowed a state income tax deduction for tuition, text- book, and transportation expenses incurred for sending a child to any elementary or secondary school. since the tax deduction did not inquire into the religious charac- ter of the child’s school, the state remained noncog- nizant of religion. the principle of “noncognizance” also forbids the state from using religious affiliation to exclude in- dividuals or organizations from generally available benefits. if, for example, new york extended tax exemptions to nonprofit organizations but excluded religious organizations as such from qualifying for them, this would violate the first amendment. in rosenberger v. university of virginia ( ), the court evaluated a university of virginia policy that explic- itly excluded groups that sponsored religious activities from receiving student activity funds. following its own rules, the university denied funding to a student group that published a multicultural christian newspaper, despite its general policy of funding student-sponsored newspapers. a majority of the supreme court struck down the university regulation on the grounds that it violated the free speech rights of students. a madisonian interpretation of the first amendment would have reached the same result on the grounds that to deny a student newspaper generally available news- paper funds because their paper contains religious con- tent subjects religious students to a particular disability. the university became unconstitutionally cognizant of religion by singling out religious activities for exclusion from generally available funds. the state must remain blind to religion, which means that if a public univer- sity chooses to fund student-sponsored newspapers, it cannot exclude religious newspapers because they are religious. rosenberger reflects the distance between a madiso- nian approach to the establishment clause and “strict separationism.” as discussed above, in rosenberger justice souter (with whom justices stevens, ginsburg, and breyer agreed) offered a “strict-separationist” dissent that argued that to allow direct funding to core religious activities by an arm of the state vio- lates the establishment clause. justice souter’s “strict- separationism” demands that no government benefit directly support religion or religiously motivated activ- ities. if pushed to its logical conclusion, it requires state actors to identify and to monitor religious recipients of benefits to ensure that they do not use them in a man- ner that directly supports religion. to ensure compli- ance with prior “strict-separationist” rulings, the uni- versity of virginia adopted the safest course of action— singling out religious groups in order to deny funding them so as to avoid a possible establishment clause violation. madisonian “noncognizance” requires a dif- ferent course of action and a different line of inquiry. it asks whether the policy in question takes religion into account for either privilege or penalty. if religion or re- ligious affiliation is not made the basis for qualification or exclusion, the policy stands. “noncognizance” does not require state actors or judges to ask about or to monitor the use of governmental benefits by religious recipients. quite the opposite, it prevents the state from taking religion or religious affiliation into its view. the simplicity of the principle of “noncognizance” offers perhaps its most important advantage in the vexing realm of religion in public schools and public money supporting private religious schools. madison would have viewed prayer in public schools in the same way that he viewed government-funded military chap- lains and religious proclamations made by the presi- dent. religion is not part of the social compact, and therefore, the state has no authority over religious ex- ercises as such. states and state actors acting in their official capacity lack authority to command or direct religious activities. a madisonian interpretation of the establishment clause, then, would have supported the court when it ruled that public school officials cannot compose and direct prayer (engel v. vitale ) or mandate daily bible readings at the beginning of the school day (abington v. schempp ). by the same principle, however, voluntary prayer and bible read- ings by students—or even school officials when not act- ing in their official capacity—on public school grounds or at public school events are constitutional. a public school may not require such activities, but it also may not single out religious activities to prohibit them. regarding the constitutionality of public money go- ing to private religious schools, the madisonian ap- proach would adjudicate the issue like any other policy of governmental funding. the government may not use religious affiliation as a classification or criterion for either privilege or penalty. the government may not fund schools because they are religious, but it also may not fund schools only because they have a religious affiliation. if the government chooses to adopt a gen- eral policy to fund educational programs in public and private schools, it may not adopt standards that take american political science review vol. , no. religion into account. religiously affiliated schools can- not be disqualified automatically from federal or state funds that provide, for example, sign-language inter- preters for deaf students (upheld in zobrest v. catalina foothills school district ), school teachers for remedial education for disadvantaged children (ini- tially ruled unconstitutional in aguilar v. felton but then ruled constitutional in agostini v. felton ), or library services and computer hardware for secu- lar education (upheld in mitchell v. helms ). the first amendment prohibits religion or religious affilia- tion from entering the government’s consideration. a madisonian interpretation of the establishment clause would allow a general program of school vouchers, in- cluding vouchers to private religious schools, so long as religious schools are in no way singled out for special privileges or particular penalties. similarly, “charitable choice” legislation, which extends government funding to faith-based organizations, would pass a madisonian test as long as funding decisions do not require cog- nizance of religious affiliation. the free exercise clause the same standard for establishment clause jurispru- dence would also apply to free exercise cases: gov- ernment must remain blind to religion and, hence, may not privilege or penalize religion as such. the domi- nant free exercise issue over the last decade has been whether the free exercise clause grants to religious individuals and organizations exemptions from neutral, generally applicable laws that have the indirect effect of burdening religious exercise. as discussed above, michael mcconnell and justice sandra day o’conner invoke madison as the founding father who champi- ons religious exemptions. a proper understanding of madison’s principle of “noncognizance,” however, leads to the conclusion that madison would find re- ligious exemptions from neutral, generally applicable laws to violate the principle of religious liberty. to clas- sify citizens or organizations as “exemption eligible” on account of religion requires the government to take cognizance of religion. it grants religion as such special treatment, which violates the principle of a “religion- blind” constitution. madison would have agreed with most of the court’s early free exercise jurisprudence, which denied to religion and religious groups exemp- tions from generally applicable laws (e.g., reynolds v. united states ; denying a practicing mormon an exemption form federal laws banning bigamy and polygamy). he would have objected to the modern court’s introduction of a compelling state interest test in sherbert v. vener ( ; granting a religious exemp- tion to a seventh-day adventist from unemployment insurance regulations requiring saturday work) and its subsequent implementation in wisconsin v. yoder ( ; granting amish parents exemptions for state laws requiring school attendance past the eighth grade). he would have cited with approval the court’s return to its pre-sherbert position in employment division v. smith ( ; ruling that the free exercise clause does not grant religious individuals and organizations a con- stitutional right to exemptions from generally applica- ble laws that do not target religion but have the effect of burdening religious exercise). a madisonian inter- pretation of the free exercise clause would prohibit the government from making laws that single out a reli- gion or religion generally for unfavorable treatment. it would also deny the government the authority to make laws or exemptions singling out a religion or religion generally for favorable treatment under the law. although james madison has been invoked by jus- tices and judicial scholars for over years, madison’s principle of religious liberty has never been fully rec- ognized or adopted by the supreme court. judges and scholars have failed to understand madison’s radical but simple teaching: religion is not part of the social compact, and therefore, the state may not take religion within its cognizance. a madisonian interpretation of the establishment clause would prevent the state from supporting religion as an end in itself, but it also would prevent the state from excluding religious individu- als and organizations from generally available benefits supporting a secular purpose. a madisonian interpre- tation of the free exercise clause would prevent the state from prohibiting religious exercises directly, but it would not extend to religious individuals and orga- nizations special exemptions from generally applicable laws that indirectly burden religious exercise. references abington v. schempp. . u.s. . agostini v. felton. . u.s. . aguilar v. felton. . u.s. . american state papers . miscellaneous. , vol. . washington, dc: gales and seaton. annals of the congress of the united states, – . – . vols. washington, dc: gales and seaton. ash, john. . the new and complete dictionary of the english language. london. printed for edward and charles dilly in the poultry and r. baldwin in pater-noster row. braun, eva. . “madison’s ‘memorial and remonstrance.” in the past present: selected writings of eva braun, ed. pamela kraus. annapolis, md: st. john’s college press. brant, irving. . “madison: on the separation of church and state.” william and mary quarterly, rd series, (january): – . buckley, thomas. . church and state in revolutionary virginia. charlottesville: university of virginia press. cantwell v. connecticut. . u.s. . city of boerne v. p.f. flores. . u.s. . cobb, sanford h. . the rise of religious liberty in america. new york: macmillan. cord, robert. . separation of church and state: historical fact and current fiction. new york: lambeth press. cord, robert. . “original intent jurisprudence and madison’s ‘detached memoranda.” benchmark ( – ): – . drakeman, donald l. . “religion and the republic: james madison and the first amendment.” journal of church and state (autumn): – . drakeman, donald l. . “james madison and the first amend- ment establishment of religion clause.” in religion and politi- cal culture in jefferson’s virginia, ed. garrett ward sheldon and daniel l. dreisbach. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield, – . dreisbach, daniel l. . “george mason’s pursuit of religious liberty in revolutionary virginia.” virginia magazine of history and biography : – . elliot, jonathan, ed. . debates in the several state conventions on the adoption of the federal constitution. washington, dc. madison’s principle of religious liberty february employment division, department of human resources of oregon v. smith. . u.s. . engel v. vitale. . u.s. . everson v. board of education. . u.s. . farrand, max, ed. . the records of the federal convention of . rev. ed. vols. new haven, ct: yale university press. fleet, elizabeth. . “madison’s ‘detached memoranda.” william and mary quarterly, rd series, (october): – . goldwin, robert a. . from parchment to power: how james madison used the bill of rights to save the constitution. washington, dc: aei press. hamburger, philip a. . “a constitutional right of religious exemptions: an historical perspective.” george washington law review (april): – . hamburger, philip a. . “equality and diversity: the eighteenth- century debate about equal protection and equal civil rights.” in the supreme court review, ed. dennis j. hutchinson, david a. strauss, and geoffrey r. stone. chicago: university of chicago press, – . hunt, gaillard. . “james madison and religious liberty.” in annual report of the american historical association for the year . washington, dc: government printing offices, – . hutson, james. . “james madison and the social utility of re- ligion: risks vs. rewards.” presented at the symposium, james madison: philosopher and practitioner of liberal democracy, lib- rary of congress, washington, dc. ivers, gregg. . to build a wall: american jews and the separation of church and state. charlottesville. university of virginia press. jefferson, thomas. . the writings of thomas jefferson, ed. andrew a. lipscomb. washington. dc: thomas jefferson memo- rial association. johnson, samuel. . a dictionary of the english language. london: w. strahan. kurland, philip b. . “of church and state and the supreme court.” university of chicago law review (autumn): – . laycock, douglas. . “‘nonpreferential’ aid to religion: a false claim about original intent.” william and mary law review (summer): – . lee v. weisman. . u.s. . levy, leonard. . the establishment clause: religion and the first amendment. new york: macmillan. locke, john. [ a] . two treatises on government, ed. peter laslett. cambridge: cambridge university press. locke, john. [ b] . a letter concerning toleration, ed. james h. tully. indianapolis: hackett. madison, james. . letters and other writings of james madison. vols. new york: r. worthington. madison, james. – . the writings of james madison, ed. gaillard hunt. vols. new york: g.p. putnam’s sons. madison, james. – . the papers of james madison. congres- sional series, ed. william t. hutchinson et al. vols. chicago: university of chicago press; charlottesville: university of virginia press. madison, james. . the mind of the founder: sources of the po- litical thought of james madison, ed. marvin meyers. rev. ed. hanover and london: brandeis university press. madison, james. –. the papers of james madison. presidential series, ed. j.c.a. stagg et al. vols. charlottesville: university of virginia press. madison, james, alexander hamilton, and john jay. [ ] . the federalist papers, ed. clinton rossiter. new york: mentor. marsh v. chambers. . u.s. . mccollum v. board of education. . u.s. . mcconnell, michael w. . “the origins and historical under- standing of free exercise of religion.” harvard law review (may): – . mcconnell, michael w. . “believes as equal citizens.” in obligations of citizenship and demands of faith, ed. nancy l. rosenblum. princeton, nj: princeton university press, – . mitchell v. helms. . u.s. . mueller v. allen. . u.s. . muñoz, vincent phillip. . “george washington and religious liberty.” review of politics (winter). palm, daniel. . “religious toleration and religious liberty at the founding.” in on faith and free government, ed. daniel palm. lanham, md: rowman & littlefield, – . pfeffer, leo. . “the case for separation.” in religion in america: original essays on religion in a free society, ed. john cogley. new york: meridian book, – . reynolds v. united states. . u.s. . richardson, james d. . a compilation of the messages and the papers of the presidents – . vols. washington, dc: government printing office. rosen, gary. . american compact: james madison and the prob- lem of founding. lawrence: university of kansas press. rosenberger v. university of virginia. . u.s. . sherbert v. verner. . u.s. . smith, steven d. . “blooming confusion: madison’s mixed legacy.” indiana law journal (winter): – . soifer, aviam. . “the fullness of time.” in obligations of citi- zenship, ed. nancy rosenblum. princeton, nj: princeton univer- sity press, – . stokes, anson phelps. . church and state in the united states. new york: harper & brothers. strout, cushing. . “jeffersonian religious liberty and american pluralism.” in the virginia statute for religious free- dom: its evolution and consequence in american history, ed. merrill d. peterson and robert c. vaughn. cambridge: cambridge university press, – . texas monthly inc. v. bullock. . u.s. . wallace v. jaffree. . u.s. . walz v. tax commissioners of new york city. . u.s. . weber, paul. . “james madison and religious equality: the per- fect separation.” review of politics (april): – . wisconsin v. yoder. . u.s. . zobrest v. catalina foothills school district. . u.s. . chh volume issue front matter church history volume reprinted with the permission of the original publisher by periodicals service company germantown, ny core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core printed on acid-free paper. this reprint was reproduced from the best original edition copy available. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history edited by matthew spinka robert hastings nichols reuben e. e. harkness volume vii published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core the american society of church history founded by philip schaff, : reorganized, : incorporated by act of the legislature of new york, officers for reuben e. e. harkness president charles lyttle vice-president matthew spinka secretary robert hastings nichols treasurer robert fortenbaugh assistant secretary other members of the council william david schermerhorn wilhelm pauck william warren sweet herbert wallace schneider conrad henry moehlman roland h. bainton frederick william loetscher f. w. buckler john thomas mcneill e. r. hardy, jr. editorial board of church history matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols reuben e. e. harkness, ex ofiicio publication office, berne, indiana executive and editorial office, chicago, illinois core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table of contents articles pages bainton, roland h., new documents on early protestant rationalism - - barker, h. w., the maugerville church and the american revolution - batten, j. minton, henry m. turner, negro bishop extraordinary - bender, harold s., conrad grebel, the founder of swiss anabaptism - bergendoff, conrad j. i., the swedish church on the delaware - daniel, marjorie, anglicans and dissenters in georgia, - - downey, glanville, ephraemius, patriarch of antioch - eells, earnest, an unpublished journal of george whitefield - hopkins, c. howard, walter rauschenbusch and the brother- hood of the kingdom - kirby, ethyn w., "the naked truth": a plea for church unity - kull, irving stoddard, presbyterian attitudes toward slavery - leonard, richard d., the presbyterian and congregational convention of wisconsin, - - mullett, charles f., some essays on toleration in late eigh- teenth century england - oliphant, j. orin, the american missionary spirit, - - schneider, herbert wallace, the intellectual background of william ellery channing - shepherd, massey hamilton, jr., the anthropomorphic contro- versy in the time of theophilus of alexandria - vsmith, h. shelton, the church and the social order in the old south as interpreted by james h. thornwell - minutes of the society minutes of the thirty-first meeting of the society and of the council, december, - minutes of the fourteenth spring meeting of the society and the council, april, - book reviews andrae, tor, nathan soderolom - anson, peter f., the catholic church in modern scotland, - - bainton, eoland h., david joris - beardsley, f. g., a mighty winner of souls: charles g. finney - brown-olf, lillian, pius xi: the apostle of peace calder, i. m., ed., letters of john davenport - cash, w. w., christendom and islam - gate, j. l. and anderson, e. n., eds., medieval and historiographical essays - chambon, j., der franzosische protestantismus clark, e. t., the small sects in america - clark, e. t., ed., what happened at aldersgate - courtines, le"o pierre, boyle's relations with england and the english .... - cullen, t. f., the catholic church in rhode island - curtayne, a., st. catherine of siena - dix, gregory, ed., the apostolic tradition of st. eippolytus of rome .... - drury, c. m., marcus whitman - core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core pages eyre, edward, ed., european civilisation, vol. vi - fulop-miller, e., leo xiii and our times - garber, p . n., john carlisle kilgo - geismar, e., lectures on the religious thought of sb'ren kierkegaard - goodspeed, e. j., new chapters in new testament study halperin, s. w., the separation of church and state in italian thought from cavour to mussolini - harper, marvin h., the methodist episcopal church in india harris, e. v., charles inglis, missionary, loyalist, bishop - henderson, g. d., religious life in seventeenth-century scotland - - hieronymus a fellette, be s. laurentii a brundusio, , m. cap., activitate apostolica ac operibus testimoniorum elenchus - hoffmann, m. m., the church founders of the northwest - holborn, h., tjlrich von eutten and the german reformation - hyma, albert, christianity, capitalism, and communism - joy, j. e., john wesley's awakening - kauffman, daniel, mennonite cyclopedic dictionary - kelley, c. and birney, h., holy murder kraemer, h., the christian, message in a non-christian world - krahn, c , menno simons lincoln, a., some political and social ideas of english dissent, - - lowe, h., the contact of pharisaism with other cultures - lydekker, j. w., the faithful mohawlcs - lyons, t., the theory of religious liberty in england, - - macfarland, charles s., steps toward a world council - martin, m. a., the catholic church on the nebraska frontier - mather, c, manuductio ad ministerium - maurer, osear edward, a puritan church and its relation to community, state, and nation - mecann, dom justin, st. benedict - mccann, p., a valiant bishop against a ruthless king: the life of st. john fisher - mcneill, j . t., christian hope for world society - - meyer, james, o. f . m., social ideals of st. francis - monsma, peter h., karl barth's idea of revelation morey, dom a., bartholomew of exeter mozley, j. f., william tyndale - muller, j. a., apostle of china: s. i. j. schereschewsky myers, a. j. w., horace bushnell and religious education - niebuhr, h. e., the kingdom of god in america - oesterley, w. o. e., judaism and christianity, vol. i., oppermann, c. j. a., the english missionaries in sweden and finland - page, i. marshall, the life story of rev. francis makemie - pendrill, c, old parish life in london - piette, maximin, john wesley in the evolution of protestantism * - eichards, george w., creative controversies in christianity - eiehardson, c. c, the church through the centuries - sippel, t., werdentes quakertum - smith, waldo e. l., episcopal appointments and patronage in the reign of edward ii - stanley, e., the archer of paradise - stoudt, j . j., consider the lilies how they grow stowe, w. h., the life and letters of bishop william white - sweet, w. w., indiana asbury-depauw university, - - sweet, w. w., makers of christianity, vol. i l l - thorp, m., charles kingsley, - tornay, s. c, ockham, studies and selections - tucker, henry st. george, the history of the episcopal church in japan - wand, j. c , first century christianity - williams, d. j., one hundred years of welsh calvinistic methodism in america - yeo, margaret, reformer: st. charles borromeo - zenos, andrew c , presbyterianism in america - zernov, n., moscow the third rome core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history editorial board matthew spinka, managing editor robert hastings nichols reuben e. e. harkness, ex ojficio vol. vii march, no. table of contents t h e intellectual background of w i l l i a m ellery c h a n n i n g herbert wallace schneider some essays on toleration i n late e i g h t e e n t h century england charles f. mullen " t h e naked t r u t h " : a plea for c h u r c h u n i t y ethyn w. kirby m i n u t e s of the t h i r t y - f i r s t meeting of t h e society and of the council, december, book r e v i e w s : mcneill, j. t.: christian hope for world society roland h. bainton. oesterley, w. o. e.: judaism and christianity, vol. l, the age of transition e. f. scott. cash, w. w.: christendom and islam w. d. schermerhorn. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contents zernov, n.: moscow the third rome matthew spinka. morey, dom a.: bartholomew of exeter w. e. l. smith. curtayne, a.: st. catherine of siena m. h. shepherd jr. pendrill, c.: old parish life in london j. t. mcneill. mozley, j. f . : william tyndale m. m. knappen. sippel, t.: werdentes quakertum rufus m. jones. henderson, j. d.: religious life in seventeenth century scotland w. k. jordan. lyons, t.: the theory of religious liberty in englcmd - , m. m. knappen. joy, j. r.: john wesley's awakening kathleen macarthur. niebuhr, h. r.: the kingdom of god in america. r. h.. nichols. harris, r. v.: charles inglis, missionary, loyalist, bishop ~— william w. manross. stowe, w. h.: the life and letters of bishop william white . j. a. muller. clark, e. t.: the small sects in america merril e. gaddis. kauffman, daniel: mennonite cyclopedic dictionary c henry smith. stoudt, j . j.: consider the lilies how they grow roland h. bainton. beardsley, f. g.: a mighty winner of souls: charles g. finney , mervin m. deems. martin, m. a.: the catholic church on the nebraska frontier ~ charles j. kennedy. stanley, r.: the archer of paradise clifford m. drury. kelley, c. and birney, h.: holy murder clifford m. drury. drury, c. m.: marcus whitman c. b. goodykoontz. muller, j. a.: apostle of china: s. i. j. schereschewsky k. s. latourette. fulop-miller, r.: leo xiii and our times .... j. p. mcgowan. halperin, s. w.: the separation of church and state in italian thought from cavour to mussolini herbert wallace schneider. monsma, peter h.: karl barth's idea of revelation .... w. pauck. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ eur volume issue cover and back matter european journal of sociology numeros speeiaux < * - s p e c i a l i s s u e s * i sondernummern i ii iii iv v vi v i i viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii i industrial society and rep- resentative government. a a la recherche des classes perdues. i le sabre et la loi. on the welfare state. - universitat im umbau : anpassung oder wider- stand ? i in quest of political par- ticipation. trois etudes sur la science. i organisation der macht, macht der organisation. tocqueville, marx, weber. i simulation in sociology. armed forces and society in western europe. i alienation et structure or conscience and conscious- ness. on suicide. i paradoxes of transitional societies. sympathy for alien con- cepts. i weber et durkheim : le solitaire et le chef d'ecole. zur problematik der mo- dernisierung or the con- cept of modernity. i survivances et permanen- ces or continuity and re- enactment. myths and mass media. i la planification dans des nations du tiers monde : bilan critique. la foi et les moeurs or faith and morals. i permanent non-revolution. reflections on durkheim. i permanent non-revolution (continued). "a sack of potatoes" ? i the political elite, british and french. tantum religio... i faith and power. citoyens armes, pretoriens desarmes. i observer's analysis of caste and clientele. from madness to mental illness. i structure and interest. professions avec ou sans competence. i might and rite. whither the unwithered state ? xix xx xxi xxii xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi xxvii i i i i i i i i i le prix moral de lvgalite. sociologie de la science. hidden god, visible cleric. auslese in der kultur- geschichte. capitalism and the rise of religion. racines aristocratiques de la democratic michels and his critics. comprendre les cas extre- mes. soziologische selbstbespie- gelung. watersheds. overt and covert politics clients, factieux, brigands. unnecessary revolution. auslese durch erziehung oder technik ? tending the roots nation- alism and populism. ne'cessite' de la vie poli- tique. le mythe du mythe. caste, feudality, nation. vin nouveau, vieilles outres. les series computes sont vendues par cambridge university press, aux conditions mentionnies page de la couverture.cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core imprimerie f. paillart a b b e v i l l e issn - le gdrant : j a c q u e s l a u t m a n printed in france cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core contributions a la connaissance des elites africaines j tchad regards sur les elites ouaddaiennes issa hassan khayar • les elites tchadiennes, et plus particulierement ouaddaiennes, pendant les periodes pricoloniale et coloniale et leur evolution : comment les systemes €du- catifs et les institutions politiques de ces epoques ont produit leurs elites et quelle etait leur capacite d'adaptation aux diverses evolutions et a leur peuple changement et continuite au tchad; termes de reference; methodes de i'etude formation du tchad le ouaddai et ses elites rapports des elites aux partis politiques x / p. / broehi cart. isbn - - - f quai anatole france. paris ccp paris - - tel. . . cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core rtvu* annales economies soctette civilisations t ladan k b v m at marc bloch. mraataar > rvrtwml brauo cbinwrtrklk pumite • • p w i s l t l * « v m i* caacawntfw canlr* naliawal d« la luchwdw sciantifiqu* cemtt< * • d rtctl«n : charles morazfe andre burguiere - marc ferro - jacques le goff emmanuel le roy ladurie - jacques revel - lucelte valensi secritaira da la ridacllon : bernard lepetit eann^e~n° janvier-f^vrier art et histoire svetlana alpers, rembrandt, un rtialtre dans son atelier daniel milo, le musical et le social : variations sur quatre textes de william weber (note critique) naissance de l'opinion publique keith michael baker, politique et opinion publique sous i'ancien regime sarah maza, le tribunal de la nation : les memoires judiciaires et i'opinion publique a la fin de i'ancien regime religion et society peter m. jones, quelques formes elementaires de la vie religieuse dans la france rurale (fin xviiie et xixe siecles) john h. mundy, le manage et les femmes a toulouse au temps des cathares £glises et societ^s (comptes rendus) arch^ologie rurale antique jean-pierre vallat, les structures agraires de i'ltalie republicaine jean-luc fiches, l'espace rural antique dans le sud-est de la france : ambitions et realite"s archeologiques redaction : boulevard raspail, paris abonnements • france : f - £tudiants france : f • stranger : f • le numero : f - le numevo special (double): f les abonnements doivent etre souscrits auprfes d'armand colin boulevard saint-michel, paris cedex (comptes cheques postaux: paris n* - ) cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core revue frangaise de sociologie publiee avec le concours de l'institut de recherche sur les societes contemporaines centre national de la recherche scientifique - , rue pouchet, paris cedex - til. : avril-juin , xxviii- isbn - - -x stratification socialo, types d'intaractions dans la famille at justice distributive la double vision de la selection scolaire condukes marginales des jeunes et classes sociales les jeunes maghrebins n s en france : assimilation, mobilisation et action note critique la d mographie des juifs de la diaspora les livres jean kellerhals josette coenen-huther marianne modak christine ungerer francois dubet didier lapeyronnie dominique schnapper abonnements : l'ordre et le paiement sont a adresser dlrectemeit a : centrale des revues, cdr , rue gossin, montrouge cedex - tel. : ( ) . . . ccp la source - - cdr-gauthier-villars les abonnements sont annuels et partent du premier numero de l'annee en cours. tarif : l'abonnement ( numeros) france f etranger f vente ou numero : par correspondance : presses du cnrs, - , rue saint-amand, paris. tel.: ( ) . . . - telex : f. a la librairie du cnrs, , rue saint-jacques, paris. tel.: ( ) . . . . tarif : le numero f cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core table quinquennale des tomes xxi a xxv i - i a i c b i i , margaret s. process without system, xxiv . a r j o m a n d , said amir. the shi'ite hierocracy and the state in pre- modern iran : - , xxii . a u g u s t i n s , georges. esquisse d'uue comparaison des systemes de per- petuation des groupes domestiques dans let tocietes paysannes europeennes, xxiii z. b a b a d z a n , alain. inventer des mythes, fabriquec des rites ? xxv s. b a i c h l e h , jean. les origines dc la democratic grecque, xxi . la nourriture des homines. essai sur le neoli- thique, xxiii . b eeth am, david. michels and his critics, xxii . d r h b t o nf philippe. la dynarnique revolutionnaire ou la logique du totalitarismc. a propos de l'interpretation de la revolution francaisc par augustin cochin, xxii . b e n - r a f a e l , eliezer and sasha weithan. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutz, xxv . c a h n m a n, werner j. toennies and weber : a rejoinder, xxii . c h e r k a o u i , mohamed. changement social et anomie : essai de formali- sation de la theorie durkheimienne, xxii . c o s e r, lewis a. the notion of civility in contemporary society, xxi . d r i s s s e n , henk. the 'noble bandit' and the bandits of the nobles : brigandage and local community in nineteenth- century andalusia, xxiv i. e i s e n s t a d t , shmuel n. the axial age : the emergence of trancendental visions and the rise of clerics, xx i . elstkr, jon. negation active et negation passive. essai de sociologie ivanienne, xxi . far m e r, mary k. rational action in economic and social theory : some misunderstandings, xxiii . f o x , renee c. is religion important in belgium ? xxiii . g o o d ell, grace. from status to contract : the significance of agrarian relations of production in the west, japan, and in 'asiatic' persia, xxi . g r a y , john n. lamb auctions on the borders, xxv . ld, liah. the role of the public in the success of artistic styles, xxv . g u r e v i c h , aaron j. medieval culture and mentality according to the new french historiography, xxiv . h a l l i d a y , terence c. professions, class and capitalism, xxiv s. h a l s e y , a. h. provincials and professionals : the british post- war sociologists, xxiii . h a s s a n , riaz. suicide in singapore, xxi . h e l l i n o , ingeborg. das erklarungsmodell der situationslogik bei popper : eine logische rekonstruktion und kri- tik, xxiii . j a n i k , allan. schorske's vienna, xxii t. k a h a n e, reuven. religious diffusion and modernization : a prelim- inary reflection on the spread of islam in indonesia and its impact on social change, xxi z. k a n t o w s k y , detlcf. die rezeption der hinduismus/buddhismus- studie max webersin sudasien: ein mi verstand- nis ? xxiii . k e d o u r i e , elie. minorities and majorities in the middle east, xxv a. k e m e h y , jim. professional ideologies and organizational struc- ture : tanks and the military, xxiv a. k e n ha, margaret e. institutional and transformational migration and the politics of community : greek internal migrants and their migrants' association in athens, xxiv . k h a z a n o v , anatoli! m. myths and paradoxes of nomadism, xxii i. k i l b o r n e , benjamin. anthropological thought in the wake of the french revolution : the 'societe des observa- teurs de l'hoiiune', xxiii . kumar, krishan. class and political action in nineteenth-century england : theoretical and comparative perspec- tives, xxiv z. kuper, adam. the man in the study and the man in the field. ethnography, theory and comparison in social anthropology, xxi . l i e b e r s o h n , harry. leopold von wiese and the ambivalence of func- tionalist sociology, xxiii z. cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core l i h d b o l w , charles. images of the pathan : the usefulness of colonial ethnogr.iphy, xxi . miches el, claude. don et reciprocity en europe, xxiv . m a l a m o u d , chnrles. srruantique et rhetorimie dans la hierarchic hin- doue des • buts de 'hoinme •, xxiii . m a n n , michael. the autonomous power of the state, xxv . m k i q i i i o r, jos£ guilherme. mort a i'liomo ceconoimcus ? xxi . m i l t o n , john r. the origin and development of the concept of the 'l.iiw of nature , xxii . m o m ms£ s*, woliimng j. max wvbt-r and rotarlo michels. an asymmet- rical partnership, xxii i. m o s s , david. the kidnapping and murder of aldo moro, xxii . o • e l, mark j. going to the people : popular culture and the intellectuals in brazil, xxv . o t t , sandra. buvwrtl bread, 'first neighbours' and asymmetric exchange in the masque country, xxi , p a t t e r s o n b l o w s , ellen. the ultimate withdrawal : suicide among the sara nar, xxii . p o o g i , gianfranco. the place of political concerns in the early social sciences, xxi . ray. laurence j. models of madness in victorian asylum practice, xxii . r h o d e s , aaron a. material and nonmaterial incentives in political machines, xxv . r o n g x r, luis. modem patron-client relations and historical clientclism. some clues from ancient republic- an rome, xxiv i. r o i i l , jakob. the economy of an indian temple : landed endow- ment and sacred food, xxiv . r u l e , james b. law and strategy in sociological explanation, xxv . ru nci max, w. g. comparativr sociology or narrative history ? a note on the methodology of perry anderson, xxi . unnecessary revolution : the case of france, xxiv . s a n t c a s s i a , paul. patterns of covert politics in post-independence cyprus, xxiv . s m i t h , anthony d. ethnic myths and ethnic revivals, xxv . s t a e r m a n , e. m. zu problem™ dcr sozialdkonomiachen gesdiich- te rorus, xxi i. s w a r t z, david. classes, educational systems and labor mar- kets, xxii . t a p p e r , nancy. m trons .ind mistresses : women and boundaries in two middle eastern tribal societies, xxi i. t h k o h a l d , robin. the decline of patron-client relations in devel- oped societies, xxiv . t r a u o o t t , mark. d'lrkhcim .ind social movements, xxv . u i i r . .lames. vvi arc the mennonites ? xxiv . v a n par i j s . phil'ppe. sociology as general economics, xxii . w t. k d e, erich. ordnunksgrnlitik und sicherheitspolitik all ble- mente der siclierungspolitik, xxv . w x i n g r o d , alex. rashomon in jerusalem : ideology and power in an urban dispute, xxii . w e i s s , linda. the italian state and small business, xxv . w h i t m a n , sasha and eliezer bfn-rafael. the reconstitution of the family in the kibbutx, xxv i. windolr, paul. l'expansion de l'enseignement et la surqualifica- tion sur le march* du travail, xxv i. w o o d , geoffrey. frazcr's magic wand of anthropology : inter- preting the golden bough, xxiii i. z a r e t , david. ideology and organization in puritanism, x x i . i s s n - may c a m b r i d g e u n i v e r s i t y p r e s s the pitt building, trumpington street, cambridge cb irp east wth street, new york n y , usa stamford road, oakleigh, melbourne , australia cambridge core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ untitled circles of support and accountability: engaging community volunteers in the management of high-risk sexual offenders robin j. wilson, andrew mcwhinnie, janice e. picheca, michelle prinzo and franca cortoni robin j. wilson is professor and program co-ordinator, humber institute of technology and applied learning, toronto, canada; andrew mcwhinnie is director, andrew mcwhinnie consulting services, victoria, british columbia; janice e. picheca is psychologist, correctional service of canada; michelle prinzo is psychological associate, centre for addiction and mental health, toronto, canada; franca cortoni is director of programs research, correctional service of canada abstract: the release to the community of a sexual offender is frequently accompanied by intense coverage in the news media. too often, the type of coverage these releases receive serves only to force many offenders into hiding or out of one community and into another. forced to move to another community, the scapegoating process starts all over again. it is well known that secrecy and isolation are critical elements in sexual offending behaviour. thus, forcing offenders into hiding does nothing to increase community safety or offender accountability and, arguably, increases the risk that new victims will be created. the most problematic releases are those in which sexual offenders arrive in a community with few or no links, and with little access to appropriate treatment and supervisory services. this article outlines a restorative approach to the risk management of high-risk sexual offenders in canada using professionally-facilitated volunteerism. the circles of support and accountability model grew out of an ad hoc, faith-based response to a situation much like that described above in south-central ontario, canada. the resultant pilot project has since reached its twelfth anniversary and the model has proliferated both nationally and internationally. in the summer of , a notorious sexual offender, joseph fredericks, succeeded in achieving a conditional release allowing him to serve the remainder of his sentence in the community under supervision. he subsequently kidnapped, raped, and killed eleven-year-old christopher stephenson. fredericks, himself, was later murdered in jail. although other tragedies had occurred around about the same time, the stephenson the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – r the authors journal compilation r the howard league published by blackwell publishing ltd, garsington road, oxford ox dq, uk case seemed to galvanise canadian society and acted as a catalyst for sociopolitical change regarding the management of sexual offenders in canada. in the ensuing years, and with the spotlight falling on some of our culture’s sports and entertainment icons, sexual offending has become one of the most hotly-debated social pathologies. in their recent book innocence betrayed, silverman and wilson ( ) have likened the public’s abhor- rence of – and morbid fascination with – child molesters to a ‘moral panic’. certainly, it was unlikely that readers of major canadian daily newspapers in the late s would have happened upon words like ‘pedophile’ or ‘predator’ in print. however, today, hardly a news week goes by without a story making use of one or both of those words in describing some terrible event in a canadian community. official control the recommendations of the coroner’s jury in the stephenson inquest of had a dramatic impact on the canadian judicial system. indeed, the past ten years have been marked by numerous attempts to ensure greater official control of offenders. in canada, these attempts generally fall in the following categories: (i) changes to sentencing practices; (ii) orders of prohibition; (iii) peace bond modifications; and (iv) sexual offender registries (sors). canada has a long tradition of conditional release and parole; however, incidents like the fredericks case have caused lawmakers to consider that there may be some offenders who should not be released at any point prior to sentence completion (referred to as warrant expiry date (wed) in canada). in most cases, criminal offenders in canada are allowed re-entry to communities under strict supervision, after having served two-thirds of their sentence. this is called statutory release. facilitated re-entry has long been considered the safest and surest means of re-engaging offenders with their community, following sentence. however, in the s, the corrections and conditional release act was amended to permit the detention of certain offenders until their wed. the following criteria must be met in order to ‘detain’ an individual past their statutory release date (srd): . the offender must be serving a sentence for an offence involving crimes of violence or crimes against persons, and . the commission of the offence caused the death of or serious harm to another person and there are reasonable grounds to believe that the offender is likely to commit another such offence before the end of the sentence, or . the offence was a sexual offence involving a child and there are reasonable grounds to believe that the offender is likely to commit another sexual offence involving a child before the end of the sentence. one of the more unfortunate side-effects of detaining offenders until the last day of their sentence (wed) is that these are often the very offenders most in need of a gradual, supervised re-entry to the community. they are r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – also the least likely to receive any form of assistance. indeed, for many of these men (they are almost always men), the term ‘reintegration’ becomes something of a misnomer, as many of them were never ‘integrated’ in the first place. so, while the practice of detention is intended to protect the public for as long as possible by keeping the offender inside until the very last day of his sentence, it often has the opposite effect because it sets both the community and the offender up for failure. further victims are almost a certainty. interestingly, in the realm of official control in canada, it appears that some measures have been instituted as a means to accommodate the problems caused by earlier measures. for instance, the practice of detention has required the passage of at least two further pieces of legislation, both intended to manage the community risk of persons released at wed with no official supervision. in , the canadian federal government introduced changes to the peace bond section of the criminal code of canada (ccc . ; . ): any person who fears on reasonable grounds that another person will commit an offence under certain sections of the criminal code of canada, in respect of one or more persons who are under the age of fourteen years, may lay an information before a provincial court judge, whether or not the person or persons in respect of whom it is feared that the offence will be committed are named. (criminal code of canada, section . ) generally, orders of this sort are sought prior to an offender’s release at wed, and are brought before the court by the crown attorney, acting on information contained in a police report based on information from a variety of sources. the offender, who is about to be released from prison after completing his sentence, is brought before the court and charged with the peculiar offence of ‘causing fear’. if convicted, he is sentenced to reside in the community under terms and conditions akin to being on probation or parole. in effect, the offender is sentenced not for behaviour he has already committed, but for behaviour he may engage in at some time in the future. although civil libertarians have labeled this process (called ‘ orders’) ‘proactive sentencing’, and therefore an infringement of individual rights otherwise guaranteed under canada’s charter of rights and freedoms, the ontario court of appeal (r v. budreo [ ] c.c.c. [ d] [ont c.a.]; leave to appeal to supreme court of canada dismissed [ ] s.c.c.a. # ) nevertheless upheld the constitutionality of the community’s right to safety in abridging individual (that is, potential offenders’) rights. a further legislative attempt to ensure community safety came in revised dangerous offender legislation where, upon conviction, an offender could be sentenced to an indefinite term under revised dangerous offender provisions. as well, in a bid to ensure increased accountability for offenders at the expiration of their sentence for periods of up to ten years, new legislation was enacted in the form of long-term supervision orders (ltso). community supervision under the terms of ltsos is now frequently given to those offenders whose risk profile did not warrant an indeterminate sentence (that is, designation as a dangerous offender). r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – in many cases, offenders handed ltsos are also the same offenders who would be considered for detention and, indeed, many are nevertheless detained until wed, even though the imposition of ltsos by the court was made on the basis that the offender could be successfully maintained in the community under supervision. sexual offender registries although sexual offender registries (sors) have been in place in the united states for many decades (for example, jacob wetterling act, megan’s law, pam lyncher sexual offender identification and tracking act), canada’s first sexual offender registry, instituted in ontario and named christopher’s law, was only enacted in . when the ontario sor was launched, it was heralded as a ‘bold measure in community safety’; however, many have questioned whether the people of ontario are really any safer now that christopher’s law is in effect. a canadian federal sor was enacted in late . sors are based largely on three premises: (i) sexual offenders are ‘predatory prowlers’; (ii) reoffence rates are high; and (iii) nothing else will work ( john howard society of alberta ). predatory prowlers? relatively few sexual crimes ( % – canadian centre for justice statistics ) involve a stranger to the victim. in fact, it is generally known in the sexual offence literature that over two-thirds of offences occur in homes, specifically, the victim’s home, and are committed by parents, step-parents, or a trusted family member or family friend. further, it is also well known that the mixed feelings held by the child victim of a parent often prevent that child from reporting abuse by his/her parent. as a result, sexual offender registries are unlikely to protect people from victimisation by a parent or other family member. the public’s view of a sexual offender as a sex-crazed, dirty old man with greasy fingers, hanging out in parks and playgrounds is patently false. in fact, the vast majority of child molesters seen by these authors look and behave quite similarly to most individuals in our communities, save for their sexual offending behaviour. for those few individuals who act on impulse (what some refer to as ‘predatory’ behaviour), the fact that they are listed on a sexual offender registry fails to act as a deterrent to their impulse behaviour. this fact has been demonstrated, sadly, in recent cases in both california and florida, where known, duly registered sexual offenders have sexually reoffended. while sors may act as a valuable law-enforcement tool, used to quickly identify potential suspects, they should in no way be thought of as increasing community safety and preventing further victims. indeed, there is virtually no evidence in the literatures supporting such claims. reoffence rates are high? essentially, the question to ask here is: ‘will past criminal records tell us who the future sexual offenders will be?’. a national survey of r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – canadian sexual offenders in federal penitentiaries found that % of inmates currently serving a sentence for a sexual offence had been convicted in the past for sexual offences (porporino and motiuk ). internationally, the average reoffence rates noted by hanson in two benchmark meta-analyses of sexual offence predictor variables (hanson and bussière ; hanson and morton-bourgon ) hover around the % to % range. taking a rough average, the most likely scenario is that four out of five sexual offenders will not reoffend sexually. this means that a high proportion of currently active sexual offenders will not appear on any sor. these are the sexual offenders we do not yet know about – those who have not yet been caught and who continue to offend. nothing else will work? one review of studies relating to the effectiveness of treatment found that far more studies reported positive results (treated group with significantly lower recidivist rates than untreated) than inconclusive results (federoff and moran ). the association for the treatment of sexual abusers’ (atsa) collaborative data project (hanson et al. ) has recently demonstrated a treatment effect, in which the treated group reoffended at a rate considerably less than the untreated control group ( % vs. %, respectively). results are also available showing that co-ordinated, multi- disciplinary approaches to community-based sexual offender management can further decrease recidivism (wilson et al. ). further, in terms of identifying who is at risk to reoffend sexually, research has shown that attitudes supportive of sexual offending are surprisingly poor predictors of sexual reoffence risk. however, hanson and morton-bourgon ( ), in discussing these findings suggest: ‘it may be that attitudes expressed within relationships of trust (e.g., in treatment) are more reliable risk indicators than those expressed in adversarial contexts’ (p. ). the ‘nothing works’ argument is a tired old saw. compliance in , california was the first state to establish a sexual offender registry. there are now registries in each state, with the number of registered sexual offenders reportedly reaching a current us national total of nearly , (us national center for missing and exploited children, undated). however, issues related to compliance abound, with state sor compliance rates varying from less than % to better than % (center for sex offender management ). the us national center for missing and exploited children suggests that a conservative estimate for ‘lost’ sexual offenders (that is, those who have not complied with regulations requiring them to report, among other things, their current address) stands at , , owing to law enforcement’s inability to track their whereabouts. they also say that the resources for supervising compliance with registration requirements are overwhelmed. with respect to christopher’s law, the ontario government (ministry of community safety and correctional services ) reported a % compliance rate for r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – signing onto the sor. however, that percentage drops when one looks at the compliance rate for maintenance of current addresses and yearly check-ins (offenders listed on the ontario sor are required to report changes of address within days, and are to physically check in with police on an annual basis). one could reasonably argue that those offenders who diligently comply with the terms and condition of any sor are least likely to be a problem. it only makes sense that those who flout the law are those most likely to break it – either by refusing to register or maintain current data or, ultimately, by reoffending. despite the shaky premise on which sors are instituted and the obvious difficulties in regard to compliance, sors continue to be particularly popular with law enforcement, politicians, and the general public. clearly, the police require accurate data regarding dangerous offenders and, for that reason, we believe that sors do have some merit. law-enforcement officials will argue – and we agree – that any tool allowing them to intercept the commission of a crime or even a crime ‘spree’ is a valuable protocol. however, we also strongly believe that the public has been misled into believing there are value-added safety issues of sors. no matter how good any individual police service may be, it is unlikely that there will ever be sufficient resources to hire enough officers to ensure the totality of public safety. for us, a ‘best practice’ approach involves collaboration between respective operational, professional, and jurisdictional domains. this type of cross-jurisdictional communication is critical, and initiatives which encourage this type of communication and collaboration are to be encouraged. and, these initiatives must seek to involve the community in the process. circles of support and accountability the offenders who cause the greatest degree of professional concern and community outcry in canada are repeat sexual offenders released from prison at the end of their sentences. this occurs when the parole board judges an offender to be at such high risk that he cannot be released at any point earlier in the judicial mandate (see above). paradoxically, these offenders, arguably those in most need of community supervision and professional attention, are those most likely to receive neither. essentially, the day they reach the expiry of their warrant is the day they are no longer the jurisdiction of the government – they revert to being ‘free’ citizens. in a cruel system of logic that beggars description, the safety of both the community and the offender are jeopardised by a failure of the system to account for the ongoing needs of such offenders. canadians were in dire need of a creative solution. in the summer of , charlie taylor was released from federal custody at the end of his sentence to a veritable media frenzy. as a repeat child molester, charlie was well known to police and was the immediate topic of discussion in most households in the city to which he was released. the police answered the calls for action of the community with ‘around the clock’ surveillance, at a cost of tens of thousands of dollars in overtime. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – meanwhile, the local television station ran stories at every possible opportunity, complete with ‘mug shot’ photographs. charlie was an instant pariah. however, he was also considerably institutionalised, having been in hospitals or other secure settings for the vast majority of his life, and he was developmentally delayed. but, lest the reader believe it is our intention to curry sympathy for him, be assured that charlie had committed crimes that caused considerable and lasting harm for his victims. the key issue in the summer of was how to keep the community safe while ensuring that charlie had a place in it. the reverend harry nigh was the pastor of a small, urban mennonite congregation in the city to which charlie was released. prior to that release, institutional staff had tried to establish professional links in the community, to no avail. as a last ditch effort, the institutional psychologist contacted reverend nigh, whom charlie had noted was formerly his religious leader. initially, reverend nigh did not remember charlie, and when he did remember him, his memory was that he didn’t much care for him. however, in spite of his initial reluctance to have anything to do with this man, reverend nigh agreed to meet with charlie and see what could be arranged. together with several of his congregants, reverend nigh formed a group of supportive volunteers in a model that is now widely known as circles of support and accountability (cosa – see wilson, huculak and mcwhinnie ; wilson and picheca ; wilson and prinzo ; wilson, picheca and prinzo ). when a similar offender was released a few months later in neighbour- ing toronto, the reverend hugh kirkegaard, a colleague of reverend nigh’s, decided to try the same approach. a short time later, the mennonite central committee of ontario (mcco) accepted a small contract from the correctional service of canada (csc) to establish a pilot project to investigate whether reverend nigh’s approach could be operationalised and more broadly implemented. parallel to that endeavour, a research protocol was established to ascertain the efficacy of circles of support and accountability in promoting community safety, the results of which are discussed elsewhere (wilson, picheca and prinzo ). formalised in (mennonite central committee of ontario ), the cosa model has now proliferated across canada, into many of the united states, and has taken good hold in the thames valley, uk, with other projects in various stages of development around the world. what started out as an ad hoc response to a difficult situation has become something of an international cause célèbre in the toolbox of innovative community options for managing sexual offender risk. cosa mission statement to substantially reduce the risk of future sexual victimization of community members by assisting and supporting released men in their task of integrating with the community and leading responsible, productive, and accountable lives. (correctional service of canada , pp. - , italics added) r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – target population the cosa initiative was originally conceived as a means to fill a gap in service left by government policy, that is, regarding those individuals detained until wed. these individuals are released without a formal process of aftercare and cosa has generally sought to work with those among them who are most likely to fail, presumably because of a lack of community support or other resources. these are also the individuals who are most likely to attract significant media attention. goal of the project the goal of cosa is to promote successful integration of released men into the community by providing support, advocacy, and a way to be meaningfully accountable in exchange for living safely in the community. in doing so, safety is enhanced for the community, particularly where risk exists for women, children, or other vulnerable persons. simply put, cosas promote safety for victims (past or potential) by validating their needs for healing and continued safety while, at the same time, supporting ex-offenders with their daily needs and holding them accountable for behaving responsibly. in return for remaining accountable, the ex- offender’s rights as a citizen are protected. cosa mechanics in canada, circles of support and accountability is a community-driven and professionally supported model. the inner of two concentric circles is comprised of community volunteers and the outer circle is comprised of professional groups, who offer support to the volunteers (see figure ). in other jurisdictions, such as the thames valley region in the uk, and in the state of oregon, usa, cosas are professionally-driven, community- supported projects. in british terms, cosas are ‘statutory’ agencies supported by the voluntary sector (quaker peace and social justice ). the positions of the ‘core’ circle and the ‘supportive’ circle are reversed. in canada, individuals from the community volunteer time to assist a released offender (known as a core member) as he attempts to integrate to the community. volunteers are screened and trained (correctional service of canada ) prior to being placed in a cosa, and have access to a pool of professionals (for example, psychologists, physicians, law enforcement, correctional workers, etc.). these professionals are called upon to volunteer their time and expertise to prepare, support, and educate community volunteers in their work with the core member. this professional group, drawn from the local community, act as a ‘safety net’ for the volunteers. their advice is often sought, and is freely given. through this type of collaboration and communication, community safety is greatly enhanced. in the thames valley, cosa is a more treatment-focused project working with individuals still within the criminal justice system, where the r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – community is cast in a supporting role for the work of professionals. where appropriate, cosa works within the framework of a brilliant british innovation called the multi-agency public protection arrangement (mappa). there is now sufficient anecdotal evidence from the thames valley project (quaker peace and social justice ) to suggest that this professionally-focused model is working. in canada, however, cosa functions outside the criminal justice framework with individuals for whom there are no services such as those available to offenders in the thames valley. under these circumstances, we feel the community-centred model is the one which embraces and validates the basic premise that, when faced with imminently dangerous situations, ordinary people, correctly prepared and professionally supported, are more than capable of taking care of their own safety needs. the ‘conflict’ is thus returned to its rightful owners – the community, and volunteers fill the gap. we have seen this in the aftermath of such tragedies as / , the recent hurricanes in the us gulf coast, and the ontario-quebec ice storm of . in most canadian communities, local cosa projects are guided by an advisory panel or steering group and, in some cases, by a board of directors. usually, a local faith organisation sponsors the advisory panel or steering group while maintaining an administrative framework that supports the local project. in the thames valley project, collaboration between the religious society of friends (the quakers) and the church of core member volunteers professionals figure graphic representation of a cosa r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – england’s board of social responsibility comprises a steering committee along with local police and probation services units. similarly, the oregon department of corrections chaplaincy program operates a cosa variant through its home for good program. across canadian jurisdictions, the circle of support and accountability model remains consistent in that a circle is comprised of one core member, five to seven community volunteers, and a supportive group of professionals and administrators. the core member and volunteers comprise the inner circle depicted in figure , while their support is found in the outer circle. for the most part, funding for this initiative has come from the canadian federal government, although some private funders have had to be solicited in order to meet the growing demand. volunteer recruitment by far the biggest challenge faced by canadian cosa projects has been that of volunteer recruitment. and, given that these initiatives are entirely reliant on the participation of volunteer community members, it is understandable that this issue will occupy much of a local project co- ordinator’s time. part of the difficulty comes in ensuring that the motives and capabilities of potential volunteers are appropriate to the task of providing support and accountability for high-risk sexual offenders in the community. to that end, cosa projects look for volunteers who: � are stable in the community � are known in the community (references checked) � have demonstrated maturity � possess healthy boundaries � are available � have balance in lifestyle and viewpoint (more on this under volunteer training below). to date, the vast majority of the volunteers associated with these projects have come from the faith community, with virtually all faiths and denominations represented. this population has been described by some as having a ‘calling’ for volunteerism, or that they are ‘natural born volunteers’. however, recruitment of volunteers, even from this reportedly proactive population, is not without its difficulties. project co-ordinators often approach various local congregations looking for potential volun- teers or for other support. however, some of these congregations have instead requested assistance with a problematic member of their congregation, not necessarily accompanied by a pledge to assist from that congregation. in other cases, local faith communities have said their resources were already overwhelmed. this is particularly the case for inner city congregations. others have told us that their congregation was not the type where a convicted sexual offender would be welcomed. often, it takes one congregant who understands the need to spur a particular church into action. in one such parish in ottawa, canada, the entire church has decided that part of their mission as a church is to r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – welcome the ‘least of the least’ into their midst. several known sexual offenders – one with a fair degree of national notoriety – are ‘out’ in the church. as a congregation, they have embraced the idea of a circle of support and accountability. with the help of professionals in their community, they have instituted safety plans around their new members. this is an example of a community caring for itself and its members in a proactive, knowledge-based manner. as cosa projects mature and become a part of the social landscape in canada, volunteers from secular backgrounds have also come forward. indeed, in vancouver, bc – canada’s third largest urban center – the local cosa project has come under the umbrella of a wellness college. nonetheless, volunteer recruitment remains of critical import to the long-term existence of cosa. recruitment of professionals has also, at times, presented difficulties. generally, cosa projects seek to include professionals already involved in the core member’s life in the community (for example, the family physician monitoring medications and other similar issues). the biggest challenges centre largely on getting professionals to understand, accept, and support the work of the circle(s). law enforcement and corrections officials generally approach the idea of cosa with caution. some tend to instruct cosa volunteers as if they were surrogate professionals, urging them, for instance, to erect and maintain boundaries that define professional relationships. the learning curve for professionals is that cosa volunteers seek relationships not based on professional respect and distance, but in terms of friendships. this means that there are times, when all safety concerns have been thought through and evaluated, that a volunteer may invite a core member home for dinner. some professionals have had great difficulty with the idea that volunteers involve core members in their family and social circles. however, the ‘currency’ of a circle’s influence on the prosocial behaviour of a core member is founded on relationships of trust and friendship that are, at times, different from those founded on authority and professionalism. integration cannot be achieved when there is an ‘us-and-them’ mind set. volunteer training clearly, cosa volunteers were never meant to be seen as an alternative to proper professional care in the community for high-risk/high-needs offenders. rather, the training regime instituted by cosa projects in canada is intended to ensure that volunteers have enough knowledge of the dynamics of sexual offending to be effective in their role as volunteers. the benefit for the volunteers is that through training, volunteers become more knowledgeable members of their community. in this way, the capacity of the community to deal with the existence of threats to safety and for dealing with conflict in its midst is broadened and deepened through the experience of these volunteers. further, being educated on how to recognise the signs of impending relapse assists volunteers in knowing when to involve professional assistance in the risk-management process. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – the core components of the training programme are provided prior to volunteering in an actual cosa, with continuing education opportunities available via partnership with local professionals. the first step in training, which actually provides an opportunity for screening of potential volunteers, is a half-day orientation session during which the basics of the project are outlined. this is available in two formats, one for potential volunteers and another for professionals willing to volunteer expertise to the project. once volunteers are ‘screened-in’ following the orientation session, they progress through a four-phase training regime, consisting of an additional four days (or equivalent). the phases are: (i) ‘the core workshop’; (ii) skill building; (iii) forging a circle; and (iv) walking with a core member. the specifics of this training programme are discussed in the aforementioned guidelines (correctional service of canada ). topics of training over the four days or equivalent period include (but are not limited to): � overview of the criminal justice system � restorative justice � needs of survivors � the circle model � effects of institutionalisation � human sexuality and sexual deviance � risk assessment � boundaries and borders � conflict resolution � group dynamics � building group cohesion � circle functions � crisis response and preparing for critical incident stress � working with correctional officials, police, news media and other community professionals � needs assessment � building a covenant � court orders � closing a circle. potential volunteers must also undergo a criminal records check before they are admitted to the project. during the training period, co-ordinators and the professionals they involve in the training sessions have a chance to see potential volunteers in action. one of the most difficult tasks for a local project co-ordinator is to ‘screen out’ a potential volunteer during this phase. the cold, hard truth is that not everyone who steps forward as a volunteer is suited to this task. often, the difficulty is found in a volunteer’s ability to strike a balance between the needs of the core member, victims, and the community’s need for safety. additionally, difficulty may result as a consequence of a particular volunteer’s inability to appreciate the consensus model at the heart of cosa. in a climate where finding good r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – volunteers is difficult to begin with, screening out a willing participant is very hard. resourcing all cosa projects in canada function almost exclusively on monies received under contract from the correctional service of canada through its chaplaincy directorate. these contracts represent a unique approach by csc. recall that cosa works with core members who have been detained until their wed, and then released. the government has no technical authority to supervise or finance the management of offenders not currently serving a sentence. the funding is provided, interestingly, not on the basis of a legal responsibility but, rather, as a reflection of the government’s moral responsibility to both the community and ex- offenders. the funds received as a result of these contracts are used to fund project co-ordination and community engagement activities in each of canada’s ten provinces. generally, financial stability has been an issue of critical importance in ensuring the long-term viability of the canadian projects. to date, this issue remains tentative. conclusion this cosa mission statement above clearly outlines an admirable goal; however, community perspectives continue to be that sexual offenders are untreatable and destined to fail over and over again, creating more victims and greater community suffering in the process. in establishing the canadian projects, the goal has been two-fold: (i) to respond to a clear need in the community for co-ordinated, grassroots risk management, and (ii) to investigate whether high-risk sexual offenders could be safely returned to the community using a model blending community volunteerism with professional facilitation. support for the continued expansion of the cosa model has been found in anecdotal results from projects in a variety of international jurisdictions (for example, quaker peace and social justice ). empirical evaluation data supporting the model are now also available. specifically, the effectiveness of the world’s pioneer toronto pilot project has been established (wilson, picheca and prinzo ), with statistically significant decreases having been demonstrated in regard to both sexual and violent reoffending. post-script a few months after this article was first offered for publication, charlie taylor died on christmas day , after a long battle with diabetes. at the time of his death, he had spent eleven years and six months in the community, completely free of any sexual or violent offending. charlie maintained contact with his circle volunteers – his ‘friends’ – until the very end. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – note acknowledgements: portions of this article were adapted, with permission, from a chapter by wilson and picheca ( ) written for the sexual offender. the views expressed in this article are not necessarily those of the humber institute of technology and applied learning, the correctional service of canada, or the centre for addiction and mental health. the authors would like to thank eileen henderson, rev. harry nigh, rev. hugh kirkegaard, det. wendy leaver, gerry minard, evan heise, ed vandenburg, rick cober bauman, and rev. david molzahn for their ongoing work in the cosa project in south-central ontario, canada. we also acknowledge cosa volunteers and project managers from coast-to-coast in canada whose work is often accomplished with little support or acknowledgement. their contribution to our collective wisdom is incalculable. last, but by no means least, we are particularly indebted to the core members across canada who have shown much courage in the face of great adversity and challenge – all the while demonstrating that the ‘lowest of the low’ can make a worthwhile contribution to society. references canadian centre for justice statistics ( ) ‘sex offenders’, juristat, , ottawa: statistics canada. center for sex offender management ( ) sex offender registration: policy overview and comprehensive practices. available at: http://www.csom.org/pubs/sexreg.html (accessed september ). correctional service of canada ( ) circles of support and accountability: a guide to training potential volunteers, training manual , ottawa, on.: correctional service of canada. federoff, j.p. and moran, b. ( ) ‘myths and misconceptions about sex offenders’, canadian journal of human sexuality, , – . hanson, r.k. and bussière, m.t. ( ) ‘predicting relapse: a meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies’, journal of consulting and clinical psychology, , – . hanson, r.k., gordon, a., harris, a.j.r., marques, j.k., murphy, w., quinsey, v.l. and seto, m.c. ( ) ‘first report of the collaborative outcome data project on the effectiveness of psychological treatment for sexual offenders’, sexual abuse, , – . hanson, r.k. and morton-bourgon, k. ( ) predictors of sexual recidivism: an updated meta-analysis (user report - ), ottawa, on.: the department of public safety and emergency preparedness canada. john howard society of alberta ( ) offender registry. available at: http://www. johnhoward.ab.ca/pub/offender.htm (accessed september ). mennonite central committee of ontario ( ) the green manual, toronto, on.: mennonite central committee of ontario. ministry of community safety and correctional services ( ) first year of ontario sex offender registry a success. available at: http://ogov.newswire.ca/ontario/gpoe/ / / /c .html?lmatch=&lang=_e.html (accessed september ). porporino, f.j. and motiuk, l.l. ( ) preliminary results of national sex offender census (user report r- ), ottawa, on.: correctional service of canada. available at: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/reports/r /r e_e.pdf (accessed september ). quaker peace and social justice ( ) circles of support and accountability in the thames valley: the first three years april to march , london: quaker peace and social justice. silverman, j. and wilson, d. ( ) innocence betrayed: paedophilia, the media and society, cambridge: polity press. r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – us national center for missing and exploited children (undated) sex offender laws. available at: http://www.missingkids.com/missingkids/servlet/pageservlet?language country=en_us&pageid= (accessed september ). wilson, r.j., huculak, b. and mcwhinnie, a. ( ) ‘restorative justice innovations in canada’, behavioral sciences and the law, , – . wilson, r.j. and picheca, j.e. ( ) ‘circles of support and accountability: engaging the community in sexual offender risk management’, in: b.k. schwartz (ed.), the sexual offender, vol. , new york, ny.: civic research institute. wilson, r.j., picheca, j.e. and prinzo, m. ( ) circles of support and accountability: an evaluation of the pilot project in south-central ontario (research report r- ), ottawa, on.: correctional service of canada. wilson, r.j. and prinzo, m. ( ) ‘circles of support: a restorative justice initiative’, journal of psychology and human sexuality, , – . wilson, r.j., stewart, l., stirpe, t., barrett, m. and cripps, j.e. ( ) ‘community- based sexual offender management: combining parole supervision and treatment to reduce recidivism’, canadian journal of criminology, , – . date submitted: october date accepted: december r the authors journal compilation r the howard league the howard journal vol no . february issn - , pp. – turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / , p. - doi number: http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. issn: - , ankara-turkey article info/makale bilgisi  referees/hakemler: prof. dr. kemal polat – prof. dr. sami kiliÇ this article was checked by ithenticate. mennonİt kİlİsesİ’nİn İnanÇ esaslari, ÖĞretİlerİ ve sakramentlerİ* hatice keleŞ**- davut kiliÇ*** Özet bu makale, mennonit kilisesi’nin inanç esaslarını, öğretilerini ve sakramentlerini anlatmak amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. mennonit kilisesi, . yüzyılda meydana gelen reform hareketlerinden biri olan anabaptist hareketin temel taşıdır. anabaptist hareketini diğer reform hareketlerinden ayıran en önemli fark, bebek vaftizini reddederek yetişkin vaftizini savunmasıdır. . yüzyılda ortaya çıkan reform hareketi birçok katolik rahibi etkisi altına almıştır. bu katolik rahiplerinden biri olan menno simons, katolik kilisesi’nin uyguladığı bebek vaftizinin kitab-ı mukaddes’te yer almadığını ileri sürmüştür. menno simons, kitab-ı mukaddes’te İsa mesih’in ve havarilerin yetişkin iken vaftiz olmalarını ve diğer yetişkinleri vaftiz etmelerini delil göstererek gerçek vaftizin yetişkin vaftizi olduğunu iddia etmiştir. bununla birlikte menno simons, katolik kilisesi’nin ekmek şarap ayinine yüklediği anlamı da reddetmiştir. yani katolik kilisesi’nin ekmek şarap ayini sırasında, ekmeğin İsa mesih’in gerçek etine, şarabın da İsa mesih’in gerçek kanına dönüşmesi olayını reddetmiştir. bu nedenlerle yılında katolik kilisesi’nden ayrılarak anabaptist harekete katılmış ve mennonit kilisesi’ni kurmuştur. menno simons, kendi fikirleri konusunda kitab-ı mukaddes’ten ayrılmadığını belirtmiştir. mennonitler, menno’nun ölümünden sonra mennonit ikrarının son şeklini belirlemiştir. mennonit kilisesi, mennonit ikrarını oluştururken kitab-ı mukaddes’i, eski kilise liderlerinin yazılarını, vilayet kilise ilahiyatçılarının halk tartışmalarını, martry’s mirror’u ve yapılan konferansların kararlarını temel alarak hazırladıklarını belirtir. mennonitlerin inanç esaslarını oluşturmada temel aldıkları kaynak olan konferans kararları arasından bugün kullanılan inanç ikrarı, peter janz twisck ve cornelis ris ikrarlarıdır. * bu makale danışmanlığını prof. dr. davut kılıç’ın yaptığı ve hatice keleş tarafından yazılarak yılında kabul edilen “mennonit kilisesi Üzerine bir araştırma” adlı doktora tezinden hazırlanmıştır. ** dr., diyanet İşleri başkanlığı, elâzığ müftülüğü, kur’an kursu Öğreticisi, el-mek: hatice.keles_@hotmail.com *** prof. dr., nevşehir hacı bektaş veli Üniversitesi eğitim fakültesi, sosyal bilimler ve türkçe eğitimi bölümü, el-mek: dkilic@nevsehir.edu.tr http://dx.doi.org/ . /turkishstudies. hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / anahtar kelimeler: reform, mennonit kilisesi, İnanç İkrarı, sakrament, yetişkin vaftizi. sacraments and, doctrines, faiths of mennonİte church abstract this article is investigated to describe the beliefs and sacraments of the mennonite church. the mennonite church is the cornerstone of the anabaptist movement, one of the reform movements that took place in the th century. the main difference that distinguishes the anabaptist movement from other reform movements is that it defends the adult baptism by rejecting the baby baptism. the reform movement, that took place in the th century, influenced many catholic priests. menno simons, one of these catholic priests, declared that adult’s baptism is written in the bible instead of the baby’s ones. menno simons, claimed that the true baptism was an adult baptism, proving that jesus christ and the apostles were baptized when they were grown up and baptized other adults. menno simons, also rejected the implication that the catholic church put it on the lord’s supper. at the same time he rejected the turn of the bread into the real meat of jesus, and the wine into the true blood of jesus, during the lord’s supper. for this reason he left the catholic church in and joined the anabaptist movement and founded the mennonite church. menno simons stated that he did not leave the bible about his own ideas. the mennonites have determined the final form of mennonite confession after the death of menno. the mennonite church states that it takes the bible as its basis for its own testimony, the writings of the old church leaders, the public debates of the provincial church theologians, martyr's mirror, and the decisions of the conferences. peter janz twisck and cornelis ris are today's belief conviction among the conference decisions that the mennonites used as a basis for establishing its belief conviction. structured abstract the greatest religious movement in the western world in the th century is the reform movement. the most important feature of the reform movement is emerged the religious movements of lutheranism, calvinism and zwinglian in christianity. in addition to these movements, a fourth reform movement is accepted. this movement is the radical reform movement. the radical reform movement consists of three main groups. these are the anabaptists, the spiritualists, and the evangelical rationalists. the anabaptists appeared in zurich, switzerland, in january . conrad grebel, who played the most influential role in the emergence of the anabaptist movement and applied the first adult baptism. however, thomas müntzer was the first person to stand the idea of anabaptist. the man who took the leadership of the anabaptist movement was menno mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / simons who returned from catholicism in . menno simons prevented the destruction of the anabaptist by set up the mennonite church which is an anabaptist movement. after the death of menno simons, mennonites organized many conferences to create their own confession. there are two confessions today accepted by mennonites. these are confessions written by peter janz twisck and cornelis ris. the mennonites claimed that christianity was deceived in particular about the baptism and the lord’s supper. they claim that the true baptism is passed as an adult baptism in the bible. in this regard, indicates in the bible that jesus christ and the apostles were baptized when they were adults, and that other adults were baptized. they has also rejected catholic beliefs about ord’s supper rituals. according to the mennonites, bread is not really the meat of jesus christ, nor the wine that really turns into the blood of jesus christ during lord’s supper. they claim that this liturgy carries a feast celebrated in the bible in memory of jesus christ. unlike mennonites, catholic and other reformers, they accept foot wash as sacrament. the fact that this practice is sacrament is also evidence of the promise that jesus christ will wash the feet of the apostles at the last dinner and that you, like me, wash the feet of another. the mennonites stated that the book of the one authority for christianity is biblical. what teaches them how to follow jesus christ is to have the experience of god through the holy spirit, prayer, the bible and the church. according to mennonites, in order to truly believe, they must stay away from military and violent things and live in justice and peace. true faith depends on the kingdom of god, not on nation, state or ethnic groups. true faith is not to deviate from profanity, to speak truthfully, to protect the chastity of the marriage, to protect the body from all kinds of addictive things as god's temple, to act with a sense of peace and compassion instead of a sinful life. thus believing that their faith in jesus christ will be the people whom god has appointed as witness to the church community in love. the mennonites indicate that they are simply spoken of by saying yes or no to them and that they are willing to avoid the swearing that is caused by swearing. they argue that this teaching helps them to avoid evil paganism and encourages them to be true verbal. according to them, an oath shows only one truth. in this sense, when one does not take an oath, it is a statement like saying less truthfully. for this reason mennonites forbid to swear. mennonites who believe that the words that are said without oath must always be true, as followers of jesus christ in this matter, always assert that they are correct spoken. mennonites believe that god has appointed them in peace. so mennonites, as followers of jesus christ, see themselves as representatives of peace. they follow the discipline of jesus christ and do not go to the military and join the war. they stay away from all violent work. taking jesus christ as an example, they even love their enemies, becoming forgiving instead of revenge, and resisting evil from violence. mennonites, however, do not consider it appropriate to work in state hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / affairs. according to mennonites, some state institutions are sinister institutions in their structure. mennonites claim that the state authority and the church authority are separate institutions, and that the state should not interfere with church affairs. however, they state that they are respectful to the state authorities and will obey the rules of the state. moreover, they do not bring any institution or person like the papal, councils or others in a position above the bible. from this point of view, we can say that mennonites have no political aims. nevertheless, the mennonites were not able to occupy their homeland in the th century. the place where mennonites have a comfortable life is america. as a result, the majority of the mennonites are in america today. mennonites express that the only authority for them is the church of jesus christ and the bible. the mennonites argue that all christians should only accept the bible as authority. for this reason they express that jesus christ and the bible must be spread all over the world and that they are the only representatives of god in the provision of peace in the world. thus, they have established the mennonite central committee, which is actively operating around the world (mcc). keywords: reform, mennonite church, confession of faith, sacraments, baptism, lord’s supper. giriş . yüzyılda batı dünyasında meydana gelen en büyük dini hareket, reform hareketidir. reform hareketinin en önemli özelliği, hıristiyanlığın içinde luteranizm, kalvinizm ve zwinglian adındaki dini hareketlerin kendini göstermesidir. buna ek olarak söz konusu dini hareketlerden bazı doktrinal konularda ayrılan radikal reform hareketi, dördüncü reform hareketi olarak kabul edilmektedir. doktrinlerdeki farklı görüşleri sebebiyle (goertz, , s. ; williams- mergal, , s. ) radikal reform hareketi, üç ana topluluktan oluşur. bu üç ana topluluk, anabaptistler, spiritualistler ve evanjelik rasyonalistlerdir. bugünkü bazı kiliseler, kendilerinin doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak bu üç ana topluluktan geldiklerini iddia etmektedir. mennonitler, amişler ve hutterit mezhebi anabaptistlere bağlıdır (williams- mergal, , s. ). bu kiliselerin en belirgin özelliği bebek vaftizini reddedip, yetişkin vaftizini kabul etmeleridir (Özkan, , s. ). anabaptizm, yılının ocak ayında, İsviçre’nin zürih ilinde ortaya çıkmıştır. anabaptist hareketin ortaya çıkışında en etkili rolü oynayan ve ilk yetişkin vaftizini uygulayan kişi conrad grebel’dir. ancak anabaptist fikrini öne süren ilk kişi thomas müntzer’dir (snyder, , s. ). anabaptist hareketin liderliğini üstlenen kişi ise yılında katoliklikten dönüş yapan menno simons’dur. menno simons, katolik kilisesi’nden ayrıldıktan sonra almanya ve hollanda’da kendi fikirlerini yaymaya çalışmıştır. menno simons’un çalışmaları sonucunda, onun adı avrupa’nın gitmediği bölgelerinde bile anılmış ve birçok kişi mennonitliği kabul etmiştir. böylece anabaptist harekete katılan kişiler mennonit olarak adlandırılmıştır. bundan sonra mennonit kilisesi, anabaptist hareketin önderliğini üstlenmiştir. mennonitler, yetişkin vaftizini uygulamaları ve ekmek şarap ayininin İsa mesih hatırasına kutlanan bir anma ayini olduğunu ileri sürmeleri sebebiyle katolikler, protestanlar ve devlet otoriteleri tarafından takibata alınmış, işkence ve idamlara maruz kalmıştır. buna rağmen resmi olmasa da evlerde ve şehir dışlarında kendi kiliselerini kurmuşlar, kendi inançlarını özgür bir şekilde yaşamak için avrupa’nın ve rusya’nın çeşitli bölgelerine göç etmişlerdir. yılında hollanda’da, mennonitlerin resmi mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / olarak kilise kurmalarına izin verilmiştir. bununla birlikte mennonitlerin göç ederek dini özgürlüklerini kazandıkları ve kilise kurdukları yerler arasında prusya ve rusya da vardır. otoriteler mennonitlerin bu bölgelerde resmi bir şekilde kilise kurmalarına izin vermiştir. ancak mennonitlerin kendi benliklerini ısrarla koruması, zenginleşmesi ve nüfuslarının artması üzerine endişelenen rusya, mennonit yerleşim yerlerini küçültmek istemiş ve mennonitler üzerinde ruslaştırma politikası uygulamıştır. sonuç olarak kendi benliklerini korumak isteyen ve avrupa ile rusya’da istedikleri gibi bir yaşam süremeyen mennonitlerin rahat bir yaşama kavuştukları son durakları amerika olmuştur (hartzler- kauffman, , s. - ; horsch, , s. - ; smith, , s. - , , ; dosker, , s. ; fretz, , s. ; dyck, , s. - ; leowen- nolt, , s. ). mennonit kilisesi’nin kurucusu olan menno simons, katolik ve protestanlardan farklı görüşlere sahip olup onların kitab-ı mukaddes’e göre hareket etmediklerini, kendi doktrin ve sakramentlerini uygulamaya çalıştıklarını iddia etmiştir (menno, a foundation and plain instruction, , s. ). menno, özellikle bebek vaftizi konusunda bütün hıristiyanların aldatıldığını, bebek vaftizi hakkında kitab-ı mukaddes’te kesin bir delil bulunmadığını, yetişkin vaftizinin yer aldığını, İsa mesih’in de yetişkin iken vaftiz olduğunu ve havarilerin de yetişkin vaftizini uyguladıklarını ifade etmiştir (tinsley, , s. - ). bununla birlikte menno, ekmek şarap ayini konusunda da hıristiyanların aldatıldığını öne sürmüştür. bu konuda menno, kitab-ı mukaddes’i derinlemesine araştırdığını ve ekmek şarap ayini sırasında ekmeğin İsa mesih’in gerçek etine ve şarabın da İsa mesih’in gerçek kanına dönüşmediğini, bu ayinin kitab-ı mukaddes’te sembolik bir şekilde yer aldığını belirtmiştir. menno simons yazılarında, luther ve zwingli’nin kitab-ı mukaddes’i yorumlama biçimini örnek alarak kitab-ı mukaddes’i yorumladığını, onun için tek otorite ve vaazlarının tek kaynağının kitab-ı mukaddes olduğunu, bu kaynaklar dışında hiçbir kişiyi veya oluşumu otorite olarak kabul etmediğini belirtmiştir (menno, the conversion of menno simons and his renunciation of the church of roma, , s. ; pettegree, , s. - ). mennonitler, inanç ikrarı konusunda hiçbir zaman tek bir yolda hareket etmemiştir. bu yüzden, mennonitlerin dini inançları farklı kaynaklardan toplanarak hazırlanmıştır. bu kaynaklar, kendilerine ait olan eski kilise liderlerinin yazıları, vilayet kilise ilahiyatçılarının halk tartışmaları, martry’s mirror ve yapılan konferansların kararlarıdır. mennonit gruplar, mennonit kilisesi kurulduğundan beri birçok konferans düzenlemiştir (hartzler- kauffman, , s. ). mennonitlerin iman ikrarının temelini konferanslarda alınan bu kararlar oluşturmuştur. yüzyıllar boyunca kitab-ı mukaddes temelli düzenlenen konferanslarda alınan kararlar arasından kabul edilen iki ikrar mevcuttur. bunlar peter janz twisck ve cornelis ris’in yazdıkları ikrarlardır (smith, , s. ). . mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları mennonitler, bir hıristiyan kilisesi olarak kabul edilmektedir. ancak mennonitler, kendilerini basitçe, İsa mesih’in takipçileri olarak gördüklerini ve İsa mesih’in öğretileri olan kitab-ı mukaddes’e göre yaşam şekillerini ve inançlarını belirlediklerini ifade ederler. bu sebeple, mennonitler, kendi inanç esaslarının diğer hıristiyan inançları ile benzerlik göstermesinin normal olduğunu çünkü aynı İncil’e inandıklarını ve aynı İsa mesih’i takip ettiklerini belirtirler (wenger, , s. ). . . tanrı mennonitler, diğer hıristiyan toplulukları gibi tanrı’nın tek, ölümsüz, sonsuz, mükemmel ve değişmez olduğuna inanır. ayrıca tanrı’nın üç şahısta var olduğunu ve kendisinin bu üç şahısta tezahür ettiğini kabul ederler. bu üç şahıs da baba, oğul ve kutsal ruh’tur (heatwole, , s. hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / ). mennonitler, teslis konusunun mistik bir konu olduğunu ve anlaşılmasının zor olduğunu ifade ederler. tanrı baba, oğul İsa mesih ve kutsal ruh’u kapsayan tanrı’yı yani teslis inancını kabul ettiklerini belirtirler. İbadet ettikleri tanrı’nın, tek tanrı olduğuna inanırlar (roth, , ). mennonitler, kutsal kitap’a dayanarak cenneti, yeryüzünü, denizi ve bunların içindekilerini yaratan, tek ve sonsuz olan tanrı olduğunu söylerler. mennonitlere göre, cennetin tanrısı ve tanrıların tanrısı idrak edilemez (ris, , s. - ; horsch, , s. ). mennonitler, tanrı, İsa mesih ve kutsal ruh’un kutsallıkta, güçte ve çalışmada bir olduğuna, birbirlerinden ayrı olmadığına, biri olmadan diğerinin olamayacağına inanmaktadır (horsch, , s. ). onlara göre, İsa mesih, tanrı’nın isteğiyle tanrı’nın oğlu olarak İsa olduğu zaman insan olmuş ve tanrı İsa’yı göndererek insanların nasıl yaşaması gerektiğini göstermesini istemiştir (wenger, , s. - ). . . İsa mesih mennonitler, diğer hıristiyanlar gibi İsa mesih’in tanrı’nın ilk ve tek oğlu olduğuna inanırlar. o akıl ile idrak edilemeyen ve ölümsüz vahiy (söz) olup, her şey onun vasıtasıyla yaratılmıştır. her şey yaratılmadan önce ilk o doğmuştur (heatwole, , s. ). mennonitler, kutsal kitap’a göre cenneti ve yeryüzünü kuranın ve onlara hükmedenin İsa mesih olduğunu ifade eder. bu sebeple mennonitler İsa mesih’e ibadet ve hizmet ederek, günahlarının affolunacağına ve ölümsüz bir hayatın onlara bahşedileceğine inanmaktadır. yine kıyamet günü ölümden dirileceklerini ve İsa mesih’in kendilerini yargılayacağını kabul ederler. ayrıca İsa mesih’in babasıyla birlikte gerçek bir tanrı olduğuna inanırlar (horsch, , İbraniler, : , , s. ; s. ). mennonitlere göre, İsa mesih, kutsal ruh’un gücü ile kutsal bakire meryem’de ete ve kana bürünerek, görülebilir, somut hale gelmiştir. fakat onun doğumunun anlaşılması imkânsızdır. o, Âdem gibi ölümlü bir adama dönüşmüştür. ancak günahı yoktur. mennonitler, İbrahim ve diğer peygamberlerin de İsa mesih’in bir tanrı olduğunu ilan ettiklerini ileri sürer. onlara göre, İsa mesih’te kusursuz, saf insan doğası da bulunmaktadır. günahsız olan İsa mesih, haçta ölerek, onun akan kanı insanların günahlarına kefaret olmuştur. daha sonra ölümden kalkarak cennete yükselmiştir. İsa mesih’in kendilerine şefaat edeceğine inanırlar. o, bu gerçek insan doğasını, açlık, susuzluk, yorgunluk, acı ve ölüm ile göstermektedir. İsa mesih’in isteği, hıristiyanların kendisi gibi olmalarıdır. o, görünmez tanrı’nın gerçek simgesidir. tanrı, insanların nasıl yaşaması gerektiğini göstermesi için İsa mesih’i insan olarak yeryüzüne göndermiştir. ancak insan olan İsa, hala gerçek bir tanrı’dır ve asla günah işlemez. İsa mesih, tanrı’nın oğlu olduğunu itiraf ettiği için ölüm acısı çekmiştir. İsa mesih, bütün pişman olan kalplerin iyileştiricisidir. o, hastaları iyileştirmeye yardım edecektir. günahı, cehennemi ve şeytanı yenmiş, onlara sonsuz yaşam ve merhamet vermiştir. bu yüzden hıristiyanların günlük hayatında İsa mesih’in izinden giderek yaşamaları gerektiği, böylece onun ihtişamlı krallığına katılacaklarına ve kendilerinin kutsanacağına inanırlar (ris, , s. - ; wenger, , s. ; heatwole, , s. ). . . kutsal ruh İsa mesih, tanrı’nın insanlara olan sevgisinden dolayı yeryüzüne gönderildikten sonra kendini insanlığın günahına kefaret olması amacıyla feda etmiş, çarmıha gerilip öldükten sonra yeniden dirilmiş ve cennete yükselmiştir. İsa’nın cennete yükselmesinin ardından tanrı, kutsal ruh’u insanlara bekledikleri yeni doyum için göndermiştir. tanrı’nın kutsal ruh’u gönderdiği gün, pentakost bayramı olarak kutlanmaktadır (wenger, , s. ). mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / mennonitler, kutsal ruh’un da akıl almaz, ifade edilemez ve tanımlanamaz olduğuna inanmaktadır. kutsal ruh, tanrısal bir özelliğe sahiptir. oğul sayesinde baba’dan neş’et etmiştir. o, baba ile birlikte ve baba’da kalmadığı halde, baba ve oğul’dan ayrılmamıştır. onun, gerçekten tanrı’nın ruh’u olduğuna, onları günahtan kurtardığına, onların kalplerine ve akıllarına huzur, sevinç ve memnuniyet verdiğine ve onları İsa mesih’te kutsal kıldığına, inananları savunduğuna, iyileştirdiğine, takdis ettiğine, barıştırdığına, avuttuğuna, neşelendirdiğine, güvence altına aldığına ve kınadığına inanırlar. mennonitler tanrı’nın çocukları olmak için ona inanmak gerektiğini ifade ederler (horsch, , s. ). zaten kutsal ruh, tanrı tarafından iyi işler yapması için İsa mesih’in gönderilmesiyle birlikte gönderilmiştir. ayrıca, kutsal ruh’un kibar bir şekilde kendilerine günahlarını hatırlatarak, İsa mesih’e dönüş yapmaları için yardım ettiğini söylerler. böylece kişi günahtan arınmak isteği zaman, kutsal ruh o kimseyi değiştirir. İşte mennonitler bu duruma yeni doğum derler. ayrıca kutsal ruh, yeni hıristiyan olmuş birisini de tanrı’nın isteğini anlaması için yüksek bir maneviyatla donatır. kutsal ruh’un, dünyaya insanlara rehber olması için gönderildiğine inanılır (wenger , s. - ). . . kutsal kitap’ın yanılmazlığı ve otoritesi menno simons, katolik kilisesi’nin, İsa’nın vekili ve yanılmaz otorite olarak papa’yı kabul etmesini reddederek, insanların yaptıkları doktrinlere bağlı kalınmaması gerektiğini, İsa mesih’e ve onun sözüne inanılması gerektiğini ifade etmiştir. menno, eski zamanlarda da modern zamanda da ilahiyatçıların birbirlerinin aleyhine çalıştıklarını, bu yüzden sahte doktrinlere ve şeytanın gücüne aldanılmaması gerektiğini vurgulamıştır. papalığın otoritesini kabul etmeyen mennonitler, kutsal hıristiyan kilisesi’nin sadece bir tane doktrini olduğuna, bu doktrinin de saf tanrı’nın vahyi (sözü) ve rab İsa mesih’in kitab-ı mukaddes’i olduğuna inanırlar. onlara göre, doktorların fikirleri, papaların fermanları, ekümenik konsiller, insanların buyrukları veya bu gibi şeyler İsa mesih’in doktrini değildir. İsa mesih’in kilisesi, İsa’nın vahyi (sözü)’dir (horsch, , s. ; wenger, , s. - ). mennonitler, kutsal kitap’ın incelenmesiyle insanların yanlış yoldan doğru yola geçebileceklerini söyler. Çünkü onlara göre tanrı, örnek almaları amacıyla, kutsal kitap’ta insanların hikâyelerini anlatmıştır. ayrıca İsa mesih’in yaşam tarzını anlatmasıyla kendilerinin de nasıl bir hayat sürmeleri gerektiğini öğrendiklerini kabul ederler (wenger, , s. - ). mennonitlik’te vizyon, melekten veya başka şeyden ilham alma gibi durumlar yoktur. bu tarz şeyleri aramamaktadırlar. mennonitler için sadece İsa mesih’in sözü yeterlidir. dolayısıyla sahte kehanetlerle, sakin kelimelerle, kutsalımsı görünüşle, palavralarla, sahte sözlerle sadece romalı papalara benzenildiği ileri sürülmüştür. yalnızca kutsal kitap’a inanılması ve uyulması gerektiği vurgulanmıştır (horsch, , s. - ). . mennonit kilisesi’nin Öğretileri mennonitlere göre tanrı, insanlara çok merhametli bir şekilde davranmaktadır. bu merhametiyle tanrı, insanlara kurtarıcı göndermiş ve insan olmanın yükümlülüğünün, kendi öğretisine inanmaları ile mümkün olacağını belirtmiştir (wenger, , s. ). . . yaratılış mennonitler, tanrı’nın cenneti, yeryüzünü ve yeryüzünün içindeki bütün her şeyi yarattığını kabul eder. ayrıca yarattığı şeyleri koruduğuna ve bu yarattıklarının tekrar tekrar yenilenmesini sağladığına da inanırlar. yaratılmış olan her şey tanrı’ya aittir ve tanrı hayat için gerekli olan bütün imkânları temin etmektedir. tanrı’nın kendisi iyi olduğu için dünya da iyidir. kâinat da tanrı’nın sevgisinin ve egemenliğinin bir göstergesidir. yaratılmış olanlar ise tanrı’nın kendinden olan kutsallığının ve sonsuz kudretinin işaretidir. bu yüzden tanrı, kendilerine hayat hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / vermesi sebebi ile övülmeye ve ibadet edilmeye layıktır (kauffman, , s. - ). mennonitler, tanrı’nın yarattığı her şey için bir devamlılık ve değişimin olmasını mümkün kıldığını belirtir. onlara göre, tanrı yarattığı şeylerde bir düzen belirlemiştir (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). . . kader mennonitler kaderin bir kişinin başına gelen bir musibet, bela veya lanetin, kendi özgür iradesini kullanarak kötülüğü seçmesi ile başına gelen bir olay olduğuna inanmaktadır. onlara göre tanrı, önceden kesin bir şekilde bela veya günahkâr bir yaşam belirlememiştir. tanrı, bütün insanlık için kurtuluşu yaratmıştır. bu açıdan felaketler, kişinin kendisinden gelmekte olup iyi olan yaratıcıdan kaynaklanmamaktadır. Çünkü İsa mesih, iyi olan bütün şeyleri yaratmıştır. bu yüzden kendilerinin de bu iyi yolda yürümeleri gerekir. yaşam ve ölüm insanların seçimine bırakılmamıştır. kötülüklerin tanrı’dan gelmediğine, kötülüklerin ve belaların tanrı’dan ileri geldiğine inanan kimselerin, tanrı’ya küfrettiklerine inanırlar. kötülüklerin iyi şeylerden gelemeyeceğini kabul ederler. aydınlıkların babasının kötülük yaptığına dair bu tür iddiaların sadece kişilerin işledikleri günahların üzerini örtmek için söylendiğine inanırlar. yargılama hakkı da İsa’ya verilmiştir (horsch, , s. ; general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). . . günah mennonitler, genesis’te yaratılış hikâyesinin anlatılışından yaratıcıya karşı isyan içinde olarak doğmanın kaynağını, Âdem ile havva’nın tanrı’ya karşı itaatsizlik göstererek, günahkâr olmalarına ve böylece kendilerinin de asli günaha düşmüş bir şekilde dünyaya gelmelerine bağlamaktadır. mennonitlere göre olay, Âdem ile havva’nın şeytani yılan tarafından ısırılarak zehirlenmesi şeklinde gerçekleşmiştir. yılan ısırığıyla birlikte Âdem ile havva da ölümlü hale gelmiştir. bu günah doğum yoluyla insanlara geçtiğinden kendilerinin günahkâr olarak dünyaya geldiklerini düşünürler. dünyaya geldikleri zaman da günahın kendilerini etkilemeye başladığına inanırlar. bu yüzden doğuştan gelen bu günahı affettirmek için İsa’nın sözüne inanılarak yeniden doğuş kazanılmalıdır (horsch, , s. ; wenger, , s. - ). günah işlemek kişiyi tanrı’dan uzaklaştırır. günah, kişinin veya grubun kendi isteğiyle yaptığı bir şey olup, tanrı’nın verdiği iyiliği ve merhameti önemsememektir. günah işleyen kişi veya grup, tanrı’nın vaadine ve tanrı’nın insanlarına karşı sadık kalmamış demektir. günah işlemenin bir hastalık veya şeytandan kaynaklandığını ileri süren bir açıklamanın mümkün olmadığını belirtmektedirler. mennonitler, bazı organizasyonların da günah alameti olduğunu ileri sürer. bu organizasyonlar, hükümetler, askeri servisler, ekonomik sistem, eğitim ve dini enstitüler, aile sistemleri, sınıf, ırk, cinsiyet ve millet yapıları şeytani ruhlara elverişlidir. İnsanların birbirlerine karşı şiddet uygulamaları ve nefret duymaları, kadınların erkek üzerinde egemen olması, hayat şartlarının aksilikleri, hep günah alametleridir (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). mennonitler, İsa mesih’in ve kutsal ruh’un, günah işleyen kişiden haberdar olduğuna bu yüzden günah işleyen kişiye veya gruplara İsa’nın kelimesine göre ihtarda bulunulması gerektiğine inanır. kişi şayet pişman olur, kutsal yazıya uygun olarak tövbe ederse ve bu pişmanlığını da davranışlarıyla gösterirse, günah işlememiş gibi kabul edilir. ancak kişi, günahına tövbe etmezse, kötülüğünde ısrar ederse, İsa ve onun sözünü küçümsemiş olur ve davranışları da açıkça günah işlediğini gösterir. bu kişi yaptıklarının sonucu olarak ölecektir. bununla birlikte İsa’ya ve kutsal ruh’a yönelik günahlar affedilmeyecektir. ancak kişi günahlarından tövbe ederse kutsal kitap’a göre mükafatını alacaktır. yani mennonitlere göre ister ruhsal olarak ister davranışsal olarak mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / yapılan bütün günahlara karşı, erdemli bir şekilde uzlaşma sağlanmalı ve pişman olunmalıdır (horsch, , s. - ). . . kurtuluş hıristiyanlar, tanrı’nın kendilerine merhamet ve lütuf gösterdiğine inanırlar. Çünkü tanrı, Âdem ile havva’nın işlemiş olduğu günahtan ötürü, kaçmak veya saklanmak zorunda kalmayan insanları kurtarmak amacıyla İsa mesih’i göndermiştir. mennonitlere göre, İsa mesih’in bütün yaşamı, ölümü ve dirilişi, tanrı’nın bütün insanlara sunduğu günahtan kurtulmanın ve yeni yaşamın bir yoludur. Çünkü günahkâr olan insan, tek başına tanrı ile kendisi arasında bir bağ kuramaz. tanrı ile kendisi arasındaki ayrılığın birleşmesini sağlayan köprü İsa mesih’tir. mennonitler, tanrısal kurtuluşun, günahlardan pişmanlık duymak ve İsa mesih’i, rab ve kurtarıcı olarak kabul etmek ile mümkün olacağına inanırlar. tanrı ile İsa mesih’te bağdaştıklarına inanırlar. tanrı, İsa mesih imanına sahip olan kimseleri affetmek için hazırdır. mennonitlere göre tanrı, daha önceden insanları kurtarmak için İsrail ile bir anlaşma yapmıştı. İsa mesih’in insanlar için akıttığı kan ile de yeni bir anlaşma yapılmış oldu. böylelikle İsa mesih’in onların günahlarını bağışladığını, onları iyileştirdiğini, şeytanın esaretinden, yeniden dirilişi ile günahtan ve ölümün etkisinden kurtardığını, onların günah borçlarını hükümsüz kıldığını, onlara yeni bir yaşam bahşettiğini ve böylece onların tanrı’nın merhametiyle kurtulduklarını savunmaktadırlar. vaftiz ile de kendi kurtuluşlarını doğruladıklarına inanırlar. böylece tanrı’ya ve kiliseye olan bağlılıklarını kanıtlarlar. bu durum yeni bir doğuş gibi tanrı’nın ailesine katılmayı ifade eder (wenger, , s. , ; general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). . . tövbe katoliklere göre tövbe, çok önemli bir uygulama olup ergenlik çağına gelen her hıristiyan’ın yılda bir kere günah çıkarmasını gerektirir. günah işleyen hıristiyan bir kimse, rahip huzurunda işlediği bütün günahları itiraf eder (katar, , s. ; erbaş, , s. , ;). Çünkü rahibin İsa’dan aldığı görev ile tövbe eden kişiyi affetmesi, bu kişinin de tanrı tarafından bağışlanmış olduğunun göstergesi olduğuna inanılır (aydın, , s. ). mennonitler ise roma papalık makamının bu fikirlerinin kitab-ı mukaddes ile bağdaşmadığını ileri sürer (wenger, , s. ). menno simons, tövbenin eski günahkâr yaşantılarını terk etmek olduğunu ileri sürmüştür. günahlardan nefret edilmeli ve tanrı’ya içtenlikle ağlanmalıdır. kişi işlediği günahlardan dolayı kederlenmeli, pişman olmalı ve sıkıntı duymalıdır. daha sonra tanrı’ya doğru bir şekilde günahlarını itiraf etmelidir. ayrıca, günahkâr kişi teselli bulmak için, komşusuna yardım etmeli, hizmet etmeli, onu rahatlatmalı, doğru ve sevecen olmalıdır (horsch, , s. - ). kilisenin güvenilir olmadığını söylemek, tövbeyi gerektirir. tövbe etmede hatalarında ısrar eden mennonitlere, toplumun huzurunu korumak için toplumdaki görevinden alınma ve uzaklaştırma cezası verilir (general conference mennonite church, , s. , ). kişinin aceleci tavrıyla, bilmeden günah işlemesi hafif bir derece olarak görülür. bunun için tövbe etmesi yeterlidir. ancak kişinin, kanıtlı bir şekilde günah işlemesi ve bu günahında devam etmesi halinde, cemaatin de bu günahı bilmesi durumunda yargılamaya gidilir, kişinin utanması ve tövbe etmesi sağlanır (ris, , s. - ). böylece topluluğun önünde, günah itirafı ile utanma duygusunu ön plana koyarak, kişilerin günah işlemesine engel olunmak istenmiştir. Özellikle ailevi durumlarda meydana gelen şiddet gibi günahların itirafının saklanması halk içinde utanmama isteğinden kaynaklandığı belirtilir (roth, , s. ). hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / . . kilise misyonu mennonitler için kilise, tanrı’nın krallığının bir nişanesidir. tanıklığıyla, bütün uluslar için getirdiği kurallarla, onları vaftiz etmesiyle ve buyurduğu bütün şeyleri gözetlemesiyle kilisenin otoritesine sahip olan kişi de İsa mesih’tir. İsa mesih, öğüt vermek, öğretmek ve iyileştirmek ile görevlidir. tanrı’nın hükümdarlığından sonra İsa mesih’in hükümdarlığının kanıtı, kilise olarak adlandırılmıştır. yani kilise, tanrı’nın egemenliğinin kanıtı olup kişiyi tövbe ve ibadete çağırır. kilise adaleti ve doğruluğu temsil eder. kilise, mazlumun refaha ulaştığı ve tanrı’nın insanları bir parçası olarak kabul ettiği, kutsal yağ ile acıların dindirildiği, kişinin stresten kurtulduğu, barış ve huzur bulduğu yerdir. kilise, İsa’nın yaşamının örneğini teşkil etmekte ve İsa’yı cisimlendirmektedir. bununla birlikte kilise, İsa mesih’in dirilişinin gücünü ifade eder. bu yüzden, İsa’nın papazları olarak tanrı’nın yeni insanlarını toplamak amacıyla İsa mesih’in görevini devam ettirmeleri, kilisenin misyonu olarak değerlendirilmektedir (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). mennonitlere göre kilisenin görevi, İsa mesih’in takipçilerinin kutsal kitap’ın öğretilerini öğrenmeleri için birbirlerine yardım etmesidir (wenger, , s. - ). . . tanrı’nın egemenliği mennonitler, bütün umutlarını bir gün yükselmiş olan rab İsa mesih’in tekrar gelmesine, yaşayanları ve ölüleri yargılamasına bağlamıştır. İşte bu olay, tanrı’nın egemenliğini ifade etmektedir. o gün İsa mesih, tanrı’nın geleceği güne hazırlık olarak yaşayanları, tanrı’nın egemenliği altında kilisesinde bir araya getirecektir. kötü ile iyinin arasındaki mücadelenin sonucunun tanrı’nın zaferi ile sonuçlanacağına, ölülerin dirileceğine, yeni bir cennet ile yeni bir dünyanın ve yeni bir kudüs’ün meydana geleceğine inanmaktadırlar. bu meydana gelecek olan yeni cennet, kudüs ve dünyada barış, doğruluk, adalet olup, içinde açlık, susuzluk ve üzüntü olmadan İsa mesih ile birlikte tanrı’nın insanları, sonsuza kadar hüküm sürecektir. böylece günaha, kötülüğe ve zulme karşı zafer kazanılmış olacaktır. gelecek olan bu tanrı’nın egemenliğinin modeli olarak kilise gösterilir. mennonitlere göre kilise, tanrı’nın krallığının ön izlemesi olarak kabul edilir. kilisenin bu dünyanın krallığı olduğuna, ileride İsa’nın krallığı olacağına inanılmaktadır (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). . mennonit kilisesi’nin sakramentleri mennonitler, katolik kilisesi’nin yedi sakrament uygulamasının, ayinlerinin ve geleneklerinin geçersiz olduğunu iddia ederek gerçek sakramentlerin vaftiz, ekmek şarap ayini ve ayak yıkama olduğunu ileri sürmüştür (wenger, , s. , ). . . vaftiz vaftiz, hıristiyanlığa giriş ayini olarak kabul edilmektedir. vaftiz uygulaması ile kişi günahlarından arınır ve hıristiyan topluluğunun bir parçası olur. ancak anabaptistler dışındaki hıristiyanlar, bebek vaftizi veya çocuk vaftizini uygulamaktadır (aydın, , s. ; aydın, , - ). mennonitler, vaftiz konusunda yetişkin vaftizini kabul ederler. Çünkü onlara göre, kitab- ı mukaddes’te bebek vaftizine dair herhangi bir işaret bulunmamaktadır. bu sebeple, diğer hıristiyanların uyguladığı bebek vaftizini bir sakrament olarak görmezler. gerçek sakramentin, kitab-ı mukaddes’te geçtiği üzere yetişkin vaftizi olduğuna inanırlar (weaver, , s. , ). bu inanca kanıt olarak da İsa mesih’in otuz yaşına kadar vaftiz olmadığını, İsa mesih’in vaftizinin tövbe ile birlikte olduğunu ve vaftize inanan herkesin kurtulacağını söylediğini belirtirler. bu tarz mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / bir uygulamayı bir bebeğin yapamayacağını ifade ederler. günahlarından dolayı affedilmek isteyen kişinin tövbe edip, vaftiz olması gerektiğini belirtirler (roth, , s. - ). mennonitler için bebek vaftizi, tövbekâr olmamış kiliselerin mahkûm ettiği ve zorla yaptırılan evrensel bir işarettir. mennonitlere anabaptistlik aslını veren olgu, onların yetişkin veya inananların vaftizi üzerinde kararlılıkla durmaları olmuştur. vaftiz, kurulmuş inananlar topluluğunun yani kilisenin bir üyesi olabilmek için ilk yapılması gereken ayindir. İlk mennonitlerin vaftiz şekli, yaygın olarak su serpme biçimindedir. bununla birlikte daldırma şeklinde uygulayan gruplar da vardır (smith, , s. - ). mennonitlere göre, günahtan kurtuluşu sağlayan vaftiz, yeni ahit’te iki şekilde geçmektedir. birincisi su ile yapılan vaftiz, ikincisi ise iç gerçekliktir. suyla yapılan vaftiz, günahtan kutsal bir şekilde kurtuluşu gösterir. aynı zamanda günah lekelerini yok ettiğine ve temizlenme sağladığına inanılır. İç gerçeklik ise İsa mesih’in ruh ile vaftizidir. aynı zamanda ölümün sembolünü, günaha sırt çevirmeyi ifade ettiğini söylerler. bu yüzden su ile vaftiz gerçekten vücudun temizlenmesi için değil, İsa mesih’in onların günahları için ölümünün sembolü olarak kabul edilir (wenger, , s. - ; matta : , s. ; markos : , s. ; luka : , s. ; yuhanna : , s. , elçilerin İşleri : , s. ; . korintliler : , s. - ). bazı mennonit toplulukları, vaftiz törenlerini çok sessiz bir şekilde uygular. tören çok hareketli bir şekilde yapılmaz. vaftiz töreni sırasında topluluğun lideri ve piskopos bulunur. vaftiz olacak kişi, nasıl vaftiz olacağını bilir. Çünkü vaftizden önce kişiye vaftiz töreninin videosu izletilir. mennonit vaftizi, diğer hıristiyan vaftizleri gibi bir anlam taşımaz. vaftiz olacak kişi ne yaptığının farkındadır. vaftiz olacak kişi, aklında vaftizle ilgili herhangi bir soru işareti bulunmayacak şekilde bilgilendirilmiştir. kişi vaftiz ile şeytandan uzaklaştığını ve rab İsa’ya yaklaştığını, yeni bir yaşama kavuştuğunu, yeni bir doğum gerçekleştirdiğini ve kişiyi korkulardan kurtardığını anlamaktadır (kreider, , s. - ). mennonitler, vaftiz törenini bahar sabahında yaparlar. vaftiz törenini gerçekleştirmek için cemaat sabah vaktinde kahvaltı salonunda toplanır. masalar temizlenir. birisi geleneksel bir ilahi olan “i went down to the river to pray” adlı ilahinin söylenmesi için önder olur. herkes bu ilahiyi söyler. güneşin yükselmesiyle, kilisenin genç bir üyesi ki bu genellikle danışman olur, kısa bir tanıtım yapar ve vaftiz olacak adaya öğüt verir. vaftiz olacak adaylar, kendi inanç ve niyetlerini açıklar. daha sonra resmi ant içilir ve herkes heyecanla olaya odaklanır. vaftiz yapılır. cemaat de yeni vaftiz olan kişiye kutsanması için dua eder. bu ayinin daima neşeli ve hareketlilik içinde geçtiği belirtilir (roth, , s. - ). iowa first mennonit kilisesi’ni ziyaretim esnasında, papaz max villatoro ile yaptığım mülakatta; papaz, yetişkin vaftizi yaptıklarını, genellikle bireyin on bir- on iki yaşlarına gelince, kendi isteği ile bilinçli olarak vaftiz olmayı istemesiyle olayın gerçekleştiğini, vaftiz olacak kişinin vaftizin ne anlama geldiğini bilmesinin önemli olduğunu, bundan dolayı da yetişkin vaftizi dediklerini belirtmiştir (max villatoro). . . ekmek Şarap ayini ekmek şarap ayini, şükür anlamına gelmekte olup (erbaş, , s. ; aydın, , s. ) İsa mesih’in ölmeden önce havarilerle birlikte son akşam yemeğinde, ekmeği ve şarabı, havarilere kendi eti ve kanı olarak sunmasıdır (kılıç, , s. ). katolikler, ekmek şarap ayinini uygularken, ekmeğin gerçekten İsa’nın etine, şarabın da gerçekten İsa’nın kanına dönüştüğüne inanırlar. bu inançlarının dayanağı olarak İsa’nın son akşam yemeğinde, ekmeği kendi eti, şarabı da kendi kanı gibi sunmasını gösterirler (menno, menno simons’s renunciation of the church of rome, , s. - ). hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / mennonitlerde ekmek şarap ayini, kurtarıcının yaşam ve acı çekme anısına düzenlenen bir anma töreni olarak algılanır. kilise öğretilerinde ekmek ve şarap, İsa mesih’in gerçek kanı ve eti veya ruhani olarak kanı ve eti olarak değerlendirilmez (smith, , s. ). mennonitler ekmek şarap ayini icrasını, tanrı’nın egemenliğinde İsa mesih ile bayramlaşma olarak kabul ederler. ayrıca mennonitler, ekmek şarap ayini olarak kutladıkları bu günü Şükran günü, komünyon, eucharist diye de adlandırmaktadırlar (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). mennonitlere göre, ekmek şarap ayini, İsa mesih’in ölmeden önceki son akşam yemeğinin anısına kutlanan bir hatıradır. ekmek, İsa mesih’te birliği sembolize eden bir somun olarak görülür. mennonitler, ekmek şarap ayinine, kutsal bir neşe olarak bakarlar. eskiden insanların, bu ayine katılırken üzgün oldukları ve koyu renkli elbiseler giydikleri, şimdi ise bu ayindeki ruhsal durumun değişime uğradığı belirtilmektedir (dosker, , s. ; wenger, , s. - ). mennonitlerde ekmek şarap ayini, genelde yılda iki veya üç kez, ilkbahar ve sonbaharda uygulanır. ancak bazı durumlarda yılda beş veya altı kez uygulandığı da olur. ayin, kilise yönetim kurulu ve papaz adaylarının sınavı olduğu zaman, aday olan papaz veya papazların elleriyle hazırlanır. ayine katılanlar yerlerinde otururken, ekmek ve şarap onların arasından geçirilerek getirilir. Şarap, cemaate yetecek kadar tekrar doldurabilecek şekilde hazırlanır. ekmek önce bütün cemaate dağıtılır ve herkes ile aynı anda yenilir. eğer masa yoksa, papaz ekmeği dağıttıktan sonra diyakozlar şarabı dağıtır. kadehleri boşalanların şarapları tekrar doldurulur. Çünkü mennonitlere göre, kutsal kitap’ta “şarabı iç” (matta : , s. ) denmesinin anlamı içmek demektir. yani az bir yudum almak demek değildir. bu ayin sırasında, kutsal kitap’tan pasajlar ve yorumlar okunur. aynı zamanda cemaat ilahi söyler (dosker, , s. - ; roth, , s. ). . . ayak yıkama mennonitler, İsa’nın son akşam yemeğinde ölümünden önce havarilerin ayaklarını yıkaması ve yıkama işlemini yaparken durup onlara, sizin İsa’nız öğretmeniniz olan benim, sizin ayağınızı yıkadığım gibi siz de bir diğerinizin ayağını yıkamalısınız, sözlerine binaen uygularlar. bu uygulama ile gururun ve dünyevi sevginin giderilmesinin amaçlandığı belirtilir. aynı zamanda hıristiyanların birbirlerini sevmeleri için yapıldığı ifade edilir (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). anabaptistler, ayak yıkama uygulamasını açılış merasimi yapmak için kullanmaktadır. bu uygulamaya, İsa’nın son akşam yemeğinde yaptığı uygulamanın bir canlandırması olarak bakılır. bu uygulama iki şekilde yapılır. bazıları İsa’nın son akşam yemeğinde yaptığı şekilde uygular. bazıları da eski ahit’teki şeklini uygular (smith, , s. ). mennonitler İsa’nın ayak yıkama sakramentini takipçilerine statü ve saygınlık amaçlı yaşamamalarını öğretmek için uyguladığını belirtir. İsa, son akşam yemeğinde havarilerin ayağını yıkayarak bunu göstermek istemiştir (wenger, , s. - ). ayak yıkama sayesinde hıristiyanların birbirlerine karşı güven duymaları istenmiştir. aynı zamanda sınıf, eğitim ve ırk farklılıklarının kişileri etkilememesi sağlanmaya çalışılmıştır. böylelikle hıristiyanların, birbirlerine karşı iyi davranış sergilemesi istenmektedir (roth, , s. ). kuzey amerika mennonitlerinin ayak yıkama pratiğini uygulayışı şöyledir. erkekler iman ile çift oluşturur. kızlar da çift oluşturur. sonra birbirlerinin ayaklarını yıkarlar ve biri diğerine kutsal bir öpücük verir. daha sonra ise ayağı yıkayan kişi, ayağını yıkadığı kişiye onu, İsa mesih’in kutsamasını söyler. ancak bu pratiğin mum gibi sönerek azaldığı ifade edilir. son zamanlarda birçok mennonit cemaatin bu uygulamayı canlandırmaya uğraştığı belirtilir. bu ayinin insanların birbirine hizmet etmeyi unuttuğu şu dünyada, eşitliğin ve hizmet etmenin güçlü bir resmi olarak kaldığı ileri sürülür (wenger, , s. - ). mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / mennonitler ayak yıkamanın, fiziksel bir yakınlığı sağladığını belirtir, ayak yıkama ile birlikte kutsal öpücük dedikleri bir geleneği de uygular. İki ayağın yıkanması ve kutsal öpücük, sevginin ve yakınlığın göstergesi olarak ifade edilir. bu öpücükte herhangi bir seksüel amaç olmadığı ifade edilir (roth, , s. ). . mennonit cemaat ve kilise yapısı mennonitler, kişinin kiliseye kabulü ile yeni bir doğum yaşadığına inanır. kilise, tanrı’nın kanunlarının hüküm sürdüğü bir yerdir. kilise evanjelistik bir özelliğe sahiptir. kilisenin hıristiyanlığın temel taşı olduğuna inanılır (wenger, , s. ). . . İsa mesih’in kilisesi mennonitler kilisenin, İsa mesih vasıtasıyla, tanrı’nın kurtuluş teklifini kabul eden meclis olduğuna, tanrı’nın egemenliğini sağlamak amacıyla havarilerin oluşturduğuna ve kutsal ruh tarafından desteklenen yeni bir topluluk olduğuna inanır. kutsal ruh’un kilise topluluğunu, kutsal yağ ile yağladığına inanırlar. kutsal ruh, bu yağlaması ile milletlerin içindeki sınıf farklılıklarını, ırk ve cinsiyet ayrımlarını ortadan kaldırmıştır. kilise, tanrı’nın ev ahalisidir. kilise topluluğunda, tanrı’nın sevgisi ile herkesin birbirine olan sevgisi açığa çıkmaktadır. herkes maddi, manevi, disiplin ve birbirini önemseme konularında ortak bir duygu paylaşmaktadır. bu yüzden, tanrı’nın ev halkının bir üyesi olmak için İsa mesih’e katılmak isteyen herkese kapılarının açık olduğunu ifade ederler. İsa mesih, dünyanın yöneticisi olduğu gibi kilise de bu yöneticilik görevini üstlenmiş olup İsa mesih’in görünen bedeni olarak kabul edilir. kilisenin, İsa mesih’in bedenine benzetilmesiyle tüm kilise üyelerinin de tek bir beden oluşturduğu ileri sürülür. bu yüzden bütün üyeler, İsa mesih’in tek olan bedenine katılıp, tek beden ve tek ruh olabilmek için vaftiz olmaktadır. böylece inananların, kilisenin başı olan İsa mesih’in onları sevmesi gibi birbirlerini sevmesi gerektiği belirtilir (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). . . papazlık ve liderlik orta Çağ’da katolik kilisesi, sıkı otoriteye sahip olup insanları, papaz, piskopos ve piskoposların piskoposu olan papa, kardinaller, rahipler, rahip adayları ve rahip sınıfından olmayanlar şeklinde ayırıma gitmiştir. bu ayırım, mennonitleri rahatsız eden bir düzenlemedir. mennonitler, matta : ’da geçen pasaja dayanarak, İsa’nın takipçilerinin baba veya haham gibi unvanlarla anılmalarının faydasız olduğuna inanırlar. onlara göre din adamları, birer öğretmendir ve herkes kardeştir. yine matta : - pasajlarını kanıt göstererek, İsa’nın, bir kimse muhteşem biri haline dönüşmek istiyorsa, bir hizmetçi veya köle olmalıdır, sözlerini rehber edinirler. bir papazın saygı, otorite ve mevki sahibi olmasının, ona üstünlük sağlamayacağını belirtirler. sonuç olarak bir papaz, asla tanrı’nın aile üyelerinin üzerinde bir mevkie sahip olamaz. bir papaz, güvenilir ve tanrı’nın sözünü öğretme sorumluluğunu taşıyan kimse olmalıdır (wenger, , s. - ). piskopos ve papazların, kardeşlerinin ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak ve hayatın zor anlarında, onlara yardım etmek için hiçbir ücret istemeden hizmet etmesi gerektiğine inanılır. papazların maaş almadan hizmet etmeleri gerektiği savunulur. bu konuda, kutsal kitap yazılarına göre İsa mesih’in, havarilerin ve peygamberlerin tanrı’nın sözünü öğretmek için herhangi bir ücret veya karşılık istemediklerini kanıt olarak gösterirler (horsch, , s. ). papazlar, kilise ile ilgili olan bütün işlerden sorumludur. bu işleri yerine getirebilmek için onlara ofis verilir. böylelikle kiliseyle ilgili olan her şeyi gözlemleyebilirler. daima tanrı’nın sözüne göre konuşmalı ve doktrinlere göre hareket etmelidir. görevlerini yerine getirirken tanrı korkusu taşımalı, sevgi ve kibarlıkla hareket etmelidir. diğer papazlara karşı her zaman saygılı olmalıdırlar (ris, , s. ). hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / . . kilise yönetimi . yüzyılda anabaptistler, kendilerini ilk modern “özgür kilise” olarak tarif etmektedir. Özgür kilise, avrupa’da hüküm süren devletin ve halkın hıristiyanlık anlayışına karşı oluşturulan bir yapıdır. kiliselerin, devletten bağımsız bir şekilde kurulması gerektiğine inanmaları sebebiyle, anabaptist kiliseler özgür kiliseler olarak tanımlanmıştır. din, devletten farklı bir kurum olarak değerlendirildiği için kilisenin yönetimine devlet ve benzeri otoritelerin müdahale etmeye hakkı olmadığına inanılır (peachey, , s. - ). kilise yönetimi hususunda, ilk bağımsız kilise yanlısı olan kilise mennonitlerdir. buna göre, her cemaat bağımsız bir birimdir. arada bir çelişkili durumları karara bağlamak üzere konferanslar yapılır. Çeşitli konferansların ortak kararına göre, papazlar iki sınıfa ayrılır. bunlar kıdemliler veya piskoposlar ve diyakozlardır. uygulamada ise papazlar üç sınıftır. bunlar kıdemliler, papazlar ve diyakozlardır. kıdemliler, sakramentleri yönetir ve kilise disiplinini yaptırırlar. papazlar, sıradan vaizlerdir (smith , s. ). diyakozlar ise fakirlere yardım eder ve cemaatte meydana gelen her kişisel olayı düzeltir. diyakozlar, genel refah olarak isimlendirilen sosyal yardımlaşmayı sağlayan kimselerdir. cemaatin barış ve mutluluğundan sorumludur. Özellikle dul ve yetimler için finansal ihtiyacın karşılanmasını sağlar. diyakoz gibi görev yapan kadınlar da vardır. bu kadınlara phoebe denilir (wenger, , s. - ). mennonitlere göre, papazlık ruhban sınıfı değildir (krahn, , s. ). bütün organizasyon ve ibadetler, kilisenin erkek üyelerinin yönetimi altındadır. kadınların oy hakkı yoktur. kadınlara kilisede konuşma hakkı verilmez. cemaat ile ilgili herhangi bir durumda mesele, bütün erkek üyelerin oluşturduğu toplantıda karara bağlanır (dosker, , s. - ). . . kilise düzeni ve birliği mennonitlere göre kilise ofis, bina, komite veya bir meclisten öte günahtan uzaklaşarak, İsa mesih’e yönelen insanların, tanrı’nın ruhunda oluşturduğu bir vücut gibidir (wenger, , s. ). bütün kilise üyelerinin tek bir ruh ve beden halinde, İsa mesih’in kilisesini oluşturduklarına inanırlar. bu yüzden kilise üyeleri, kilise liderlerini seçmede, herhangi bir olayı çözüme kavuşturmada, açık bir şekilde dualarla birlikte, kutsal kitap’ın rehberliğinde, birbirlerini dinlerler ve birbirleriyle konuşarak ortak karar alırlar. herhangi bir durum karşısında, doğrulamalarda veya cezalandırmalarda, acele etmeden oy birliği ile karar verilmelidir. kilise, aynı zamanda düzenli toplantıların, yerel kongrelerin ve geniş konferansların yapıldığı bir yerdir. bu çeşitli aktivitelerin kilisede yapılması inananların tanrı’ya olan minnettarlığının bir göstergesi olarak düşünülür. bu düşünce tarzı, apostolik kiliselerin yerel kongre ve geniş çaplı konsil düzenlemelerini temel almaktadır. Çünkü bu kiliseler, ortak bir misyona karar vermek için birlikte çalışmıştır. bu yüzden mennonitler de bir konu üzerinde karar almak için temsilciler tarafından geniş kongreler ve konferanslar düzenler. yerel papazlar da bu toplantıları destekler (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). kilise organizasyonu, cemaatlerden üstün olup, bölgesel konferansların kararlarını içerir. vaizler ve delegeler bu organizasyon tarafından seçilir. papazlar ve delegeler, problemleri birbirlerine yardım ederek halleder. cemaatlerin daha iyi bir inanç üzerine kurulması hakkında çalışmalarda bulunur (wenger, , s. - ). günümüz amerika’sındaki mennonit kiliselerinin işlevini, iowa first mennonite kilisesi’nde yaptığım gözlemlere göre şöyle tarif edebiliriz. gördüğüm kadarıyla, mennonit kilisesi’nin en önemli işlevi, içinde ihtiyaç duyulabilecek her şeyi barındırmasıdır. kilisenin içi oldukça modern bir şekilde yapılmıştır. İki kattan oluşan kilisenin ayin salonu iki bölüm halinde uzun tahta sıralarla kaplıdır. sahne kısmının bir tarafında kürsü vardır. diğer tarafında da vaftiz havuzu bulunur. bu havuz kişinin bel hizasına gelecek uzunlukta dört ayaklıdır. kilisede ayinlerin mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / yapıldığı salon haricinde mutfak, alt ve üst katta olmak üzere iki tane tuvalet, kütüphane, konferans odası, bilgisayar, tepegöz, bateri, org, piyano, gitar gibi müzik aletleri, önemli gün ve olayları göstermek adına koridorda bir pano vardır. bu panonun karşısında duran masada o hafta kilisede düzenlenecek olan programın içeriğini anlatan broşürler dizilidir. ayrıca, yine masanın üzerinde sigara, alkol, depresyon, aile içi çatışmalar gibi sosyal yaşamda karşılaşılan problemlerle ilgili birçok konuda broşür vardır. ayrıca papazın kendisine ait odası da mevcuttur. papazın odasında masası, sandalyesi, bilgisayarı, kitaplığı, ziyaretçileri için sandalyeleri vardır. kilisenin duvarlarında ise önemli kişilerin resimleri asılıdır. kilise baştan sona halıfleksle kaplıdır. . . hıristiyan yaşamı ve yardım mennonitler, tanrı’nın kendilerini kurtarmasının bir lütfu olarak İsa’nın ruhu ile dopdolu bir şekilde onun öğretilerini ve disiplinini takip etmeleri gerektiğine inanırlar. böylelikle İsa mesih’in yolundan gitmek demek, onun şekline dönüşmek, dünyadaki kötülüklerden ayrılmak ve tanrı’nın isteğine ulaşmak demektir. İsa mesih’i nasıl takip edeceklerini onlara öğreten şeyler ise kutsal ruh aracılığıyla tanrı’nın deneyimine sahip olmak, dua, kutsal kitap ve kilisedir. İsa mesih ile uyum içinde olmak için dünya hayatına uyum sağlamamak gerekmektedir. gerçekten iman etmek için de askerlik ve şiddet içeren şeylerden uzak durup, adalet ve barış içinde yaşanmalıdır. gerçek iman, millet, devlet veya etnik gruplarda değil, tanrı’nın krallığına bağlı olmakta bulunur. gerçek iman, küfre sapmamak, doğru konuşmak, evlilik yemini ile iffetini korumak, bedeni tanrı’nın tapınağıymış gibi kabul edip bağımlılık yapan her türlü şeyden korumak, günahkâr bir yaşam yerine barış ve merhamet duygularıyla hareket etmektir. böylece İsa mesih’e olan imanlarının sevgi içinde kilise topluluğuna tanık olarak, tanrı’nın görevlendirdiği insanlar olacaklarına inanırlar (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). mennonitler, İsa mesih’in, sizi sevdiğim gibi siz de diğer birini sevin, şeklindeki ifadesini örnek alırlar. sevginin gösterilmesi gerektiğini ifade ederler. bir kimse kardeşine karşı kalbini kapatırsa, o kimse tanrı’nın aşkına nasıl uyabilir, şeklindeki İsa mesih’in sözleriyle gerçek bir hıristiyan’ın diğer bir kimsenin ihtiyaçlarına karşı bencil davranmaması gerektiğini belirtirler. bu yüzden mennonitler, İsviçre, hollanda, rusya ve kuzey amerika’daki yaşlı, yetim, sakat, hasta ve ruhsal olarak hasta olan kimselerle ilgilenmiştir. mcc olarak bilinen mennonit merkez komitesi ihtiyacı olan bu kimselere yiyecek, giyecek ve koruma sağlamıştır. aynı zamanda bu organizasyon, dünya çaplı olarak faaliyet de göstermektedir (wenger, , s. - ). . . hıristiyan maneviyatı- ruhaniliği mennonitler, İsa’nın yolundan gitmenin, ruh önderliğinde yaşamı bilmek ile anlaşılacağını düşünmektedir. yani kişisel ve ortak ibadetlerde kutsal ruh’un, tanrı’nın ilmi ile derin bir şekilde kendilerine önderlik ettiğine inanırlar. bu sayede, kendilerinin İsa mesih’in yaşamını, ölümünü, dirilişini ve tanrı ile olan bağını tattıklarını düşünürler. bu bağdaki en önemli nokta da İsa mesih’i ve vaftizi kabul etmeleridir. bu şekilde tanrı sevgisine nail olduklarını, yeni bir yaşam ve düzene eriştiklerini ifade ederler. kutsal ruh’un önderliğinde, İsa mesih’e benzer bir yaşam sürmeleri sayesinde kendilerini tanrı’ya adadıklarına inanırlar. böylece, içleri kutsal ruh ile dolu olarak İsa mesih’in yolundan giderek tanrı ile bağ kurduklarını ifade ederler. hıristiyan maneviyatına sahip olmak için de kutsal kitap’a çalışmaları ve dua eden kişiler olmaları gerektiğine inanırlar. bu inançtan kasıt, ibadetleri hep beraber yapmaları, birlikte ilahi söylemeleri, gösterişten uzak durmaları, dine hizmet etmeleri ve dindar olmalarıdır (general conference mennonite church, , s. ). hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / . . hakikat ve yeminden sakınma mennonitler, kendilerini basit bir şekilde evet veya hayır diyerek doğru sözlü olmaya ve yemin etmenin yol açtığı küfürden sakınmaya adadığını belirtir. bu öğretinin, kendilerini putperest dilden sakınmaya yaradığını ve doğru sözlü olmaya teşvik ettiğini ileri sürerler. bir yemin, sadece bir doğruyu gösterir. bu anlamda, bir kişi yemin etmediği zaman, daha az doğru söylüyormuş gibi bir ifade söz konusudur. bu yüzden yemin etmeden de söylenen sözlerin, daima doğru olması gerektiğine inanan mennonitler, bu konuda İsa mesih’in takipçileri olarak daima, doğru sözlü olduklarını savunurlar. İsa mesih’in de yemin kullanarak, gelecek hakkında, tanrı’yı mecbur bırakmayı yasakladığını ifade ederler. bu sebeple adliye yüksek memurluğu, devlet memurluğu veya polislik gibi mesleklerde çalışılması yasaklanmıştır. hangi sebeple olursa olsun bir hıristiyan’ın yemin etmesi yasaktır (dosker, , s. ; general conference mennonite church, , s. ). . . barış, adalet ve direnmemek mennonitler, tanrı’nın dünyayı barış içinde yarattığına ve tanrı barışının İsa mesih’te ortaya çıktığına inanır. bu barışın da tüm dünya barışını ifade ettiğini söylerler. kutsal ruh’un önderliğinde barış, adalet, uzlaşma yanlısı olup savaşa savaş ve şiddete şiddetle karşılık verilmemesi gerektiği konusunda İsa mesih’i örnek alırlar. tanrı’nın dünyayı barışçıl bir yer olarak yarattığını ancak, insanların haksızlık, intikam hissiyatı ve zulüm getirdiğini ifade ederler. onlara göre tanrı, barışı İsa mesih’in doğumuyla ortaya çıkarmıştır. İsa mesih, düşmanlarını bile sevmiş, yanlış yapmalarına rağmen onları affetmiş ve onları doğru yola çağırmıştır. İsa mesih, tehdit edildiğinde bile direnmemiş, kendi isteğiyle canını feda etmiştir. onun ölümü ve dirilişi, ölümün hâkimiyetini kaldırmış, kendilerine tanrı’nın barışını ihsan etmiştir. böylece kendilerinin tanrı ile barıştığına ve tanrı’nın da barışı sağlamada kendilerini görevlendirdiğine inanmaktadırlar. bu yüzden mennonitler, İsa mesih’in takipçileri olarak, kendilerini barışın temsilcileri olarak görürler. İsa mesih’in disiplinine uyarak askere gitmezler ve savaşa katılmazlar. İsa mesih’i örnek alarak düşmanlarını bile severler, intikam yerine affedici olurlar ve şiddet içermeden kötülüğe karşı direnirler. Çünkü mennonitler, milletler arası savaş, ırklar ve sınıflar arası düşmanlık, çocuk ve kadın tacizi, kadın erkek arası şiddet, kürtaj ve ölüm cezası gibi bütün şiddet çeşitlerine tanık oldukları için tanrı’nın egemenliğini ümit ederek, günlük yaşamlarında iyilik ve adalet ile kötülüğü yenerek barışa ulaşacaklarına inandıklarını belirtirler (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). bu sebeple mennonitler, devlete karşı kılıç ve silah ile direnmeye karşıdırlar. Çünkü onlara göre hıristiyanlık, kılıç ve silah kullanan savaş yanlısı bir din değildir. bu doktrinlerini de “direnmeme” şeklinde ifade ederler (horsch, , s. ). . . kilisenin toplum ve devlet ile olan İlişkisi . yüzyılda katolikler, dini ve dünyevi işleri birlikte yürüten bir yapıya sahipti. papalık, krallık ve devlet otoritesi işleriyle iç içe olmuştur. bununla birlikte papalık, insanlardan vergi almış, para karşılığı cennetten yer satmış ve kutsal kitap’ı sadece rahip sınıfından olan kimselerin okuyabileceğini öne sürmüştür (erbaş, , s. , ). mennonitler ise katolik kilisesinin bu tür inanç ve uygulamalarını reddetmiştir. bu yüzden bütün sivil otoriteleri ve devlete bağlı olan kiliseleri kabul etmezler ve kilisenin dünyevi işlere karışmasını uygun görmezler. mennonitlere göre devlet, kilisenin işlerine karışmamalıdır. bununla birlikte gerçek bir hıristiyan da sivil otoritelerin işlerinden uzak durmalıdır. Çünkü mennonitlere göre, bu dünya otoritesi geçicidir. bu yüzden bu otoriteler, kötü insanları cezalandırmak için var olmalıdır. ancak hıristiyanların bu konuda herhangi bir müdahalesi olmamalıdır. Çünkü İsa mesih’in öğretisi, “düşmanlarını sev” şeklindedir. bu sebeple mennonitler, barışçıl bir yapıya sahip olan anabaptist olduklarını ifade ederler (smith, , s. - ). mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / mennonitler, toplumda düzeni korumak ve adaleti sağlamak için tanrı tarafından kurumları kurduklarını iddia eden devlet otoritelerini, tanrı’nın isteğine karşı gelen putperestler olarak tanımlamaktadır. Çünkü en iyi bir devlet bile kilise dışında İsa mesih’in kurallarına iman etmede ve tanrı’nın adaletine göre yönetmede başarılı olamaz. yine de mennonitler, birer hıristiyan olarak devletlere ve otoritelere karşı saygı duyduklarını ve onlar için dua ettiklerini ifade ederler. aynı zamanda şiddet içermediği sürece, kendilerinin toplum kuruluşlarında ve devlet içinde görev alma hususunun da uygun olduğunu kabul ederler (horsch, , s. - ; general conference mennonite church, , s. ). devlet ise sadece dünyevi otoriteyi temsil etmektedir (peachey, , s. ). bu sebeple mennonitler, tanrı’nın sözüne aykırı olmadığı sürece, imparator, kral, efendi, prensler ve tüm otoritelerin kanunlarına uyacaklarını belirtir. vergi vermek ve devletin verdiği görevleri yerine getirme konusunda da itaatkâr olduklarını dile getirmektedirler (horsch, , s. - ). mennonitlere göre kilise, özgür bir yapıya sahiptir. Özgür kiliseler de kanun, ülkenin resmi dini kuruluşu veya milleti tarafından kurulamaz. onlara göre kilise, devletten ayrı bir kurumdur (wenger, , s. , ). . . hıristiyan yöneticiliği mennonitler, her şeyin sahibinin tanrı olduğunu kabul eder, ancak tanrı’nın, hayat ile ilgili konularda yönetimi kiliseye devrettiğine inanırlar. bu durumda kendilerini tanrı’nın hizmetçilerine ve onun evinde kâhyalık yapan kişilere benzetirler. kudüs’teki ilk kilise, hastalara ve ruhu ele geçirilmiş olan insanlara, kitab-ı mukaddes dualarıyla yıldönümünde yardım etmiştir. kudüs’te kurulan ilk kiliseden sonra inşa edilen kiliseler de yıldönümü zamanında, ekonomik olarak ilk kiliseye yardım eder. kendilerini tanrı’nın yeryüzü için görevlendirdiği kâhyaları olarak gördükleri için ekonomik, adalet, yardım ve yaşam için gerekli olan her şeyde malın ve paranın sahibi olarak, kendilerinin sorumlu olduğuna inanırlar. yeni cennet ve yeni dünya için her şeyi hazırladıklarını ifade ederler (general conference mennonite church, , s. - ). sonuç anabaptistler, hıristiyanlığın yüzyıllar boyunca ana sakrament olarak uyguladığı bebek vaftizini reddedip, yetişkin vaftizini savunmalarıyla hıristiyanlık aleminde şok dalgası yaratmıştır. anabaptistler, ileri sürdüğü fikirleriyle devlet, katolikler ve reformcular tarafından zulme uğramış ve takibat altına alınmıştır. reform hareketinden etkilenen katolik rahip menno simons, anabaptist harekete katılarak mennonit kilisesi’ni kurmuş ve böylece anabaptist hareketin yok olmasına engel olmuştur. menno simons’un takipçileri olan mennonitler, yüzyıllar boyunca katolik ve protestan kiliselerin fikirlerini ve uygulamalarını reddederek birçok konferans düzenlemiş ve kendi ikrarlarını oluşturmuştur. mennonitler, teslis inancının yanına kutsal kitap’ın yanılmazlığı ve otoritesi maddesini eklemişlerdir. bununla birlikte mennonitlerin vaftiz, ekmek şarap ayini dışında farklı olan özellikleri, ayak yıkama uygulamasını bir sakrament olarak kabul etmeleri, yemin etmeyi reddetmeleri, askerlik gibi şiddet içeren işlerden kaçınmaları, devletin kilise işlerine karışamayacağı, otorite olarak kişiler, papalık, konsiller, devlet gibi hiçbir kimse veya kurumu, kitab-ı mukaddes’in üzerinde bir konuma getirmemeleri ve aynı zamanda herhangi bir otoriteye karşı direnmemeleri yani isyan çıkarmamalarıdır. bu açıdan mennonitlerin herhangi bir siyasi amaçlarının olmadığını söyleyebiliriz. yine de mennonitler, . yüzyılda kendi vatanlarında yer edinememişlerdir. mennonitlerin rahat bir yaşama kavuştukları yer amerika olmuştur. bu sebeple bugün mennonitlerin çoğunluğu amerika’da bulunmaktadır. mennonitler için tek otorite, İsa mesih’in kilisesi ve kitab-ı mukaddes’tir. mennonitler, bütün hıristiyanların sadece kitab-ı mukaddes’i otorite kabul etmeleri gerektiğini ileri sürerler. bu sebeple tüm dünyada İsa mesih’in hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / ve kitab-ı mukaddes’in yayılması gerektiğini ve dünyada barışın sağlanması hususunda sadece kendilerinin tanrı’nın temsilcileri olduklarını ifade ederler. böylece dünya genelinde aktif bir şekilde faaliyet gösteren mennonit merkez komitesi’ni kurmuşlardır (mcc). kaynakÇa aydın, mahmut, anahatlarıyla dinler tarihi, İstanbul, . aydın, mehmet, hıristiyan kaynaklarına göre hıristiyanlık, ankara, . dosker, henry, elias, the dutch anabaptists, the stone lectures delivered at the princeton theological seminary - , the judson press, philadelphia, . dyck, cornelius, an introduction to mennonite history: a popular history of the anabaptists and the mennonites, herald press, third editon, scottdale, pennsylvania, . erbaş, ali, hristiyanlık, İstanbul, . ________, hristiyanlık’ta reform ve protestanlık tarihi, . baskı, İstanbul, . fretz, joseph winfield, the waterloo mennonites: a community in paradox, waterloo ontario, canada, . general conference mennonite church, confession of faith in a mennonite perspective, published by arrangement with the general board of the general conference mennonite church and the mennonite church general board, herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, waterloo ontario, . goertz, hans jürgen, “karlstadt, müntzer and the reformation of the commoners, - ”, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , edit. john d. roth, james m. stayer, brill’s companions to the christian tradition, a series of handbooks and reference works on the intellectual and religious life of europe, - , volume , leiden, boston, . hartzler, j. s.- kauffman, daniel, mennonite church history, mennonite book and tract society published, scottdale, pennsylvania, . heatwole, l. j., mennonite handbook of information, mennonite general conference through its historical committee, mennonite publishing house, scottdale pennsylvania, . horsch, john, menno simons, his life, labors and teachings, mennonite publishing house, scottdale pennsylvania, . katar, mehmet, hıristiyanlık, yahudilik ve İslam’da tövbe, töre basım yayın, ankara, . kauffman, daniel, manual of bible doctrines, mennonite publishing co., elkhart indiana, . kılıç, sami, İlahi dinlerde yiyecek ve İçecekler, sarkaç yayınları, ankara, . krahn, cornelius, dutch anabaptism, origin, spread, life and thought, ( - ), the hague, netherlands, . kreider, alan, “initiation: becoming resident aliens”, mennonite life, vol. no. , bethel college, june, . mennonit kilisesi’nin İnanç esasları, Öğretileri ve sakramentleri turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / kutsal kitap, kitab-ı mukaddes Şirketi, ohan matbaası, . basım, İstanbul, . leowen harry- nolt, steven, through fire and water, an overview of mennonite history, herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, . Özkan, ali rafet, “baptistler, anabaptistler”, yaşayan dünya dinleri, dİb, edit. prof. dr. Şinasi gündüz, ankara, . peachey, paul, “the “free church?”: a time whose idea has not come”, anabaptism revisited, essays on anabaptist/ mennonite studies in honor of c. j. dyck, edit. walter klaassen, herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, . andrew pettegree, the reformation: critiacal concepts in historical studies, ii. cilt, routledge, . ris, cornelis, mennonite articles of faith, as set forth in public confession of the church, pastor of the mennonite church at hoorn, holland, translate: mennonite book concern, berne, indiana, . roth, john, d., practices, mennonite worship and witness, herald press, scottdale pennsylvania, . simon, menno, “a foundation and plain instruction”, the complete works of menno simons, elkhart, indiana, . ______, “menno simons’s renunciation of the church of rome”, the complete works of menno simons, elkhart, indiana, . ______, “the conversion of menno simons and his renunciation of the church of roma”, the complete works of menno simons, elkhart, indiana, . smith, c. henry, the mennonites, a brief history of their origin and later development in both europe and america, berne, indiana, . ______, the mennonites of america, mennonite publishing house, scottdale pennsylvania, . snyder, c. arnold, “swiss anabaptism: the beginnings, - ”, a companion to anabaptism and spiritualism, - , edit. john d. roth- james m. stayer, brill’s companions to the christian tradition, a series of handbooks and reference works on the intellectual and religious life of europe, - , volume , leiden, boston, . tinsley, barbara sher, pierre bayle’s reformation: consicience and criticism on the eve of the englightenment, danvers, massachusetts, . weaver, j. denny, becoming anabaptist: the origin and significance of sicteenth- century anabaptism, scottdale, pennsylvania, waterloo, ontario, . wenger, john, christian, what mennonites believe, revised edition, herald press, scottdale, pennsylvania, waterloo, ontario, . williams, george h.; mergal, angel m., spiritual and anabaptist writers, edit. george h. williams, angel m. mergal, the library of christian classics, westminster john knox press, lousville, kentucky, . hatice keleŞ - davut kiliÇ turkish studies international periodical for the languages, literature and history of turkish or turkic volume / kaynak kİŞİ max villatoro, , iowa, usa, eylül , first mennonite church of iowa city papazı. chh volume issue back matter church history edited by jerald c. brauer, robert m. grant and martin e. marty with the cooperation of robert t. handy james hennesey winthrop s. hudson james hastings nichols jaroslav pelikan george h. williams assistant to the editors janet i. summers katharine l. dvorak and marvin l. bergman volume published by the american society of church history core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core index to church history , volume articles arnal, oscar l., why the french christian democrats were condemned baranowski, shelly, the german protestant church elections: machtpolitik or accommodation? belletzkie, robert j o s e p h , pope nicholas i and john of ravenna: the struggle for ecclesiastical rights in the ninth century blackburn, gllmer w., the portrayal of christianity in the history textbooks of nazi germany brockwell, charles w., j r . , answering "the known men": bishop reginald pecock and mr. richard hooker carpenter, j o e l a., a shelter in the time of storm: fundamentalist institutions and the rise of evangelical protestantism, - chrystal, w i l l i a m g., "a man of the hour and the time": the life of gustav niebuhr coalter, m i l t o n j., j r . , the radical pietism of count nicholas zinzendorf as a conservative influence on the awakener, gilbert tennent d a n i e l , d a v i d p., ecumenicity or orthodoxy: the dilemma of the protestants in the lands of the austrian habsburgs gerrish, b. a., schleiermacher and the reformation: a question of doctrinal develop- ment gordon, frank j., the german evangelical churches and the struggle for the schools in the weimar republic h a m m e r , c a r l i., j r . , country churches, clerical inventories and the carolingian renaissance in bavaria hlll, m a r v i n s., cultural crisis in the mormon kingdom: a reconsideration of the causes of kirtland dissent klrsch, g e o r g e b., clerical dismissals in colonial and revolutionary new hamp- shire klawiter, frederick c , the role of martyrdom and persecution in developing the priestly authority of women in early christianity: a case study of montanism kosztolnyik, zoltan j., the church and b'ela iii of hungary ( - ): the role of archbishop lukacs of esztergom n o l l , m a r k a., moses mather (old calvinist) and the evolution of edwardseanism ... norwood, frederick a., two contrasting views of the indians: methodist involve- ment in the indian troubles in oregon and washington shiels, r i c h a r d d., the second great awakening in connecticut: critique of the traditional interpretation t o d d , m a r g o , humanists, puritans and the spiritualized household book reviews albert, phyllis cohen, the modernization of french jewry: consistory and community in the nineteenth century oscar l. arnal aylmer, g. e. and cant, reginald, eds., a history of york minister paul f. vieson barlow, frank, the english church, - richard w. pfaff bastide, roger, the african religions of brazil henry mckennie goodpasture bendix, reinhard, kings or people: power and the mandate to rule gerald christianson bennassar, bartolome, the spanish character: attitudes and mentalities from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century t. bentley duncan benoit, andre; philonenko, marc; vogel, cyrille, eds. paganisme, juda'isme, christian- isme: influences et affrontements dans le monde antique robert l. wilken bercovitch, sacvan, the american jeremiad william a. clebsch bernard of clairvaux, the life and death of saint malachy the irishman william d. carpe bernstein, alain e., pierre d'ailly and the blanchard affair: university and chancellor of paris at the beginning of the great schism richard luman betten, neil, catholic activism and the industrial worker w. barry smith core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core index bouchard, constance brittain, spirituality and administration: the role of the bishop in twelfth-century auxerre philip f. gallagher boveland, karin; burger, christoph peter; and steffen, ruth, eds., der antichrist und die funfzehn zeichen vor dem jungsten gericht bernard mcginn brady, thomas a., jr., ruling class, regime and reformation at strasbourg, - j . w a y n e baker brown, peter, the making of late antiquity patricia l. cox cairns, earle e., god and man in time: a christian approach to historiography henry warner bowden canary, robert h . and kozicki, henry, eds., the writing of history: literary form and historical understanding henry warner bowden capp, bernard, english almanacs, - brian p. copenhaver carroll, jackson w.; johnson, douglas w.; and marty, martin e., religion in america: to the present w. clark gilpin carwardine, richard, transatlantic revivalism: popular evangelicalism in britain and america, - c.c. goen caspary, gerard e., politics and exegesis: origen and the two swords joseph w. trigg chadwick, owen, catholicism and history: the opening of the vatican archives peter iver kaufman chesnut, glenn f., the first christian histories: eusebius, socrates, sozomen, theo- doret and evagrius e. glenn hinson christianson, paul, reformers and babylon: english apocalyptic visions from the reformation to the eve of the civil war robert g. clouse coffman, ralph j., soloman stoddard e. brooks holifield colledge, edmund, o.s.a. and walsh, james, s.j., eds., a book of showings to the anchoress julian of norwich caroline walker bynum copenhaver, brian p., symphorien champier and the reception of the occultist tradition in renaissance france earle e. cairns crew, phyllis mack, calvinist preaching and iconoclasm in the netherlands, — j o h n h . primus crosby, donald f., s.j., god, church, and flag: senator joseph r. mccarthy and the catholic church, - robert trisco delumeau, jean, catholicism between luther and voltaire: a new view of the counter- reformation allan hauck dickinson, j. c , the later middle ages: from the norman conquest to the eve of the reformation charles f. lasher distad, n. merrill, guessing at truth: the life of julius charles hare desmond bowen dowley, tim, ed., eerdmans' handbook to the history of christianity timothy p. weber dunn, dennis j., the catholic church and the soviet government, - thomas e. blantz, c.s.c. eisenstein, elizabeth l., the printing press as an agent of change: communications and cultural transformations in early-modern europe ernest g. schwiebert eliade, mircea, a history of religious ideas. volume , from the stone age to the eleusinian mysteries kees w. bolle euwood, robert s., jr., alternative altars: unconventional and eastern spirituality in america catherine l. albanese epstein, dena j., sinful tunes and spirituals: black folk music to the civil war sandra s. sizer falk, peter, the growth of the church in africa paul r. dekar finlay, ian, columba joseph f. kelly firth, katharine r., the apocalyptic tradition in reformation britain, - cecile zinberg flower, elizabeth and murphey, murray g., a history of philosophy in america edwin s. gaustad freiday, dean, the bible: its criticism, interpretation and use in sixteenth and seventeenth century england alan l. hayes friedman, jerome, michael servetus: a case study in total heresy elisabeth g. gleason gibson, elsa, the "christians for christians" inscriptions of phrygia : frederick w. norris core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history grimm, harold j., lazarus spengler: a lay leader of the reformation roland h. bainton halvbrson, peter l. and newman, william m., atlas of religious change in america: - w. clark gilpin hasler; august b., pius ix. ( - ), papstliche unjehlbarkeit und . vatikan- isches konzil john jay hughes hastings, adrian, ed., bishops and writers: aspects of the evolution of modem english catholicism james c. holland hastings, adrian, a history of african christianity, - paul r. dekar hayburn, robert f., papal legislation on sacred music: a.d. to a.d. ross j. miller hayes, t. wilson, winstanley the digger paul s. seaver headley, john m., ed., the complete works of st. thomas more. volume , responsio ad lutherum william j. bouwsma heinzelmann, martin, bischofsherrschaft in gallien harry rosenberg helmreich, ernst christian, the german churches under hitler: background, struggle, and epilogue arthur a. preisinger idung of prufening, cistercians and cluniacs: the case for citeaux bede k. lackner johnson, robert c.; keeler, mary frear; cole, maija jansson; bidwell, william b., eds., commons debates mark a. kishlansky kenyon, john philipps, revolution principles: the politics of party - murray tolmie kessell, john l., kiva, cross and crown: the pecos indians and new mexico, - arne hassing kieckhefer, richard, repression of heresy in medieval germany jeffrey b. russell klassen, william and klaassen, walter, trans, and ed., the writings of pilgram marpeck rollin s. armour knowlton, robert j., church property and the mexican reform, - justice c. anderson kreider, alan, english chantries: the road to dissolution horton davies kremer, ulrich michael, die reformation als problem der amerikanischen historiogra- phie frank j.wray ladurie, emmanuel le roy, montaillou: the promised land of error george h. shriver larkin, emmet, the roman catholic church and the plan of campaign in ireland, - john v. kelleher larkin, emmet, the roman catholic church in ireland and the fall of parnell, - john v. kelleher leone, mark, roots of modern mormonism marvin s. hill lienhard, joseph t., s.j., paulinus of nola and early western monasticism robin darling little, lester k., religious poverty and the profit economy in medieval europe bernard mcginn lutz, heinrich, ed., zur geschtchte der toleranz und religionsfreiheit gottfried g. krodel manier, edward, the young darwin and his cultural circle lee e. grungel maruyama, tadataka, the ecclesiology of theodore beza: the reform of the true church jill raitt matson, daniel s. and fontana, bernard l., eds., friar bringas reports to the king: methods of indoctrination on the frontier of new spain - justice c. anderson mcginn, bernard, ed., three treatises on man: a cistercian anthropology dominic v. monti mcgoldrick, james edward, luther's english connection: the reformation thought of robert barnes and william tyndale david l. clark meeks, wayne a., and wilken, robert h.,jews and christians in antioch in the first four centuries of the common era robin darling meijering, e. p., augustin uber schb'pfung, ewigkeit und zeit: das elfte buch de bekenntnisse robert m. grant miller, samuel j., portugal and rome c. - : an aspect of the catholic enlightenment john f. broderick millor, w. j., s. j. and brooke, c. n. l., eds., the letters of john of salisbury. volume , the latter letters ( - ) frances a. underhill core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core index minninger, monika, von clermont zum wormser konkordat thomas e. morrissey moore, r. laurence, in search of white crows robert c. fuller murray, alexander, reason and society in the middle ages william j. gourtenay murray-brown, jeremy, faith and the flag: the opening of africa andrew e. murray nader, helen, the mendoza family in the spanish renaissance, to t. bentley duncan nicol, donald m., church and society in the last centuries of byzantiun. walter emil kaegi, jr. o'donnell, j. dean, jr., lavigerie in tunisia: the interplay of imperialist and missionary patrick w. carey o'donnell, james j., cassiodorus richard w. pfaff olivier, daniel, the trial of luther hans-fredrik gustafson partner, nancy f., serious entertainments: the writing of history in twelfth-century england grover a. zinn pelikan, jaroslav, the christian tradition: a history of the development of doctrine. volume , the growth of medieval theology ( - ) dominic v. monti perry, lewis and fellman, michael, eds., antislavery reconsidered: new perspectives on the abolitionists david w. wills piepkorn, arthur carl, profiles in belief: the religious bodies of the united states and canada. volume , protestant denominations robert t. handy piepkorn, arthur c , profiles in belief: the religious bodies of the united states and canada. volume , holiness and pentecostal robert t. handy piepkorn, arthur c , profiles in belief: the religious bodies of the united states and canada. volume , evangelical, fundamentalist and other christian bodies robert t. handy pope, norris, dickens and charity daniel pals pritchard, arnold, catholic loyalism in elizabethan england leland h. carlson pruett, john h., the parish clergy under the later stuarts: the leicestershire experience j. sears mcgee quere, ralph walter, melanchthon's christum cognoscere: christ's efficacious presence in the eucharistic theology of melanchthon lewis w. spitz quinn, arthur, the confidence of british philosophers, an essay in historical narrative leonard t. grant rambaux, claude, tertullien face aux morales des trois premiers siecles robert m. grant richard, jean, la papaute et les missions d'orient au moyen age (xiif-xv siecles) e. randolph daniel richards, jeffrey, the popes and the papacy in the early middle ages, - bernard mcginn rius-camps, j., the four authentic letters of ignatius, the martyr william r. schoedel rothrock, george a., the huguenots: a biography of a minority... charles f. johnston rousseau, philip, ascetics, authority and the church in the age of jerome and cassian robin darling ruether, rosemary and mclaughlin, eleanor, eds., women of spirit: female leader- ship in the jewish and christian traditions sandra sizer sanders, ronald, lost tribes and promised lands: the origins of american racism thomas v. peterson schoedel, william r. and wilken, robert l., eds., early christian literature and the classical intellectual tradition rowan a. greer schuettinger, robert l., lord acton: historian of liberty james hastings nichols schutte, anne jacobson, pier paolo vergerio: the making of an italian reformer william gilbert smart, ninian, in search of christianity: discovering the diverse vitality of the christian life emil oberholzer smith, mahlon h., ill, and taking bread. . . : cerularius and the azyme controversy of harlie kay gallatin solberg, winton u., redeem the time: the puritan sabbath in early america conrad wright sommerfeldt, john r., ed., cistercian ideals and reality william d. carpe sorauf, frank j., the wall of separation: the constitutional politics of church and state john m. swomley, jr. core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history speck, paul, kaiser konstantin vi: die legitimation einer fremden und der versuch einer eigenen herrschaft george t. dennis, s.j. spicciani, amleto, la mercatura e la jormazione del prezzo nella riflessione teologica medioevale julius kirshner springer, nelson p, and klassen, a. j., comps., mennonite bibliography, - j. c. wenger stange, douglas c , patterns of antislavery among american unitarians, - peter w. williams stieber, joachim w., pope eugenius iv, the council of basel, and the secular and ecclesiastical authorities in the empire: the conflict over authority in the church thomas e. morrissey stoever, william k. b., "a faire and easie way to heaven": covenant theology and antinomianism in early massachusetts theodore dwight bozeman strauss, gerald, luther's mouse of learning: indoctrination of the young in the german reformation : roland h. bainton sucher, c. bernd, luthers stellung zu den juden: eine interpretation aus german- istischer sicht mark u. edwards, jr. sumption, jonathan, the albigensian crusade george h. shriver tavard, george h., the seventeenth century tradition: a study in recusant thought john bossy thompson, craig r., ed., the collected works of erasmus: literary and educational writings albert rabil, jr. van den berg, j. and van dooren, j. p., eds., pietismus und reveil f. ernest stoeffler van der meer, frederick, apocalypse: visions from the book of revelation in western art bernard mcginn vander stelt, john c , philosophy and scripture: a study in old princeton and westminster theology james h. smylie verkamp, bernard j., the indifferent mean: adiaphorism in the english reformation to alan l. hayes weber, timothy p., living in the shadow of the second coming: american premillen- ntalism, - grant wacker wilkinson, alan, the church of england and the first world war william h. petersen woodbridge, john d.; noll, mark a.; hatch, nathan o.; the gospel in america: themes in the story of america's evangelicals c. g. goen yarrow, g. h. mike, quaker experiences in international conciliation . hugh barbour yearley, lee h., the ideas of newman: christianity and human religiosity paul misner zivojinovic, dragan r., the united states and the vatican policies, - robert trisco booknotes aarflot, andreas, hans nielsen hauge: his life and message trygve r. skarsten aland, kurt, four reformers: luther, melanchthon, calvin, zwingli abe j. dueck bainton, roland h., yesterday, today, and what next? reflections on history and hope c. t. mclntire beaver, r. pierce, the native american christian community: a directory of indian, aleut, and eskimo churches robert h. keller, jr. bernardi, jean, ed., gregoire de nazianze: discours - eugene te selle bjork, daniel w., the victorian flight: russell conwell and the crisis of american individualism philip d. jordan brandenburg, hans, the meek and the mighty charles a. frazee clark, elizabeth a., clement's use of aristotle: the aristotelian contribution to clement of alexandria's refutation of gnosticism robert m. grant clemoes, peter, ed., anglo-saxon england william a. chaney clemoes, peter, ed., anglo-saxon england william a. chaney davis, moshe, ed., with eyes toward zion franklin h. littell dechanet, jean, guillaume de saint-thierry: aux sources d'une pens'ee....david n. bell desroche, henri, the sociology of hope jon butler dooyeweerd, herman, roots of western culture: pagan, secular and christian options rodney l. petersen core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core index erdmann, carl, the origin of the idea of crusade bernard mcginn evans, j. a. s. and unger, r. w., eds., studies in medieval and renaissance history, volume julius kirshner fontaine, j. and perrin, m., eds., lactance et son temps: recherches actuelles: actes du iv colloque d'itudes historiques et patristiques, chantilly, - septembre glenn f. chesnut gallay, paul, ed., gregoire de naziane: discours - eugene teselle garrow, david j., protest at selma: martin luther king, jr., and the voting rights act of penrose st. amant gauthier, pierre, la pensee religiouse de richard hurrell froude, - john jay hughes girardin, benoit, rhetorique et theologie: calvin, le commentaire de i'epitre aux romams richard a. muller goertz, hans-jurgen, radikale reformatoren: biographische skizzen von thomas muntzer bis paracelsus cornelius krahn gower, joseph f., and leliaert, richard m., eds., the brownson-hecker correspon- dence francis x. curran, s.j. green way, diana e., compiler, john le neve: fasti ecclesiae anglicanae, - richard w. pfaff grugel, lee e., society and religion during the age of industrialization: christianity in victorian england george j. griffin hall, stuart george, ed., melito ofsardis, on pascha and fragments harlie kay gallatin hatfield, edwin f., the poets of the church: a series of biographical sketches of hymn-writers with notes on their hymns paul westermeyer holli, melvin g., and jones, peter d'a., eds., the ethnic frontier: essays in the history of group survival in chicago and the midwest l. david lewis hudson, anne, ed., selections from english wycliffite writings charles w. brockwell, jr. isaac of stella, sermons on the christian year, volume william d. carpe isetti, ronald eugene, f.s.c., called to the pacific: a history of the christian brothers of the san francisco district, - edwin sylvest kannengiesser, charles, ed., politique et theologie chez athanase d'alexandrie. actes du colloque de chantilly - septembre patrick henry klaiber, wilbirgis, ed., katholische kontroverstheologen und reformer des . jahrhun- derts hans-fredrik gustafson klassen, peter j., europe in the reformation richard l. harrison klein, richard, ed., julian apostata george t. dennis kohl, benjamin g. and witt, ronald g., the earthly republic: italian humanists on government and society john w. o'malley laiou-thomadakis, angeliki e., peasant society in the late byzantine empire: a social and demographic study cyril mango leaver, robin a., catherine winkworth: the influence of her translations on english hymnody paul westermeyer ljunmark, lars, swedish exodus trygve r. skarsten l^nning, inge and rasmussen, tarald, martin luther verker i utvalg ...kenneth hagen members of the language department, eds., the letters of marsilio ficino carlc. christensen mensing, raymond c , jr., toleration and parliament - leo f. solt miquel, pierre, la vie monastique selon saint benoit robert s. urekew new jersey catholic historical records commission, the bishops of newark, - john p. marschall nieto, jose c , mystic, rebel, saint: a study of st. john of the cross e. ann matter parker, harold m., jr., studies in southern presbyterian history dwyn mecklin mounger st. patrick, confession et lettre a coroticus william o. paulsell riche, pierre, daily life in the world of charlemagne charles b. ashanin robertson, d. g., reinhold niebuhr's works: a bibliography martin e. marty roca, paul m., spanish jesuit churches in mexico's tarahumara. edwin e. sylvest, jr. ronda, james p. and axtell, james, indian missions: a critical bibliography r. pierce beaver rupp, george, culture-protestantism: german liberal theology at the turn of the twentieth century john c. fout core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core church history schwartz, hillel, knaves, fools, madmen, and that subtile effluvium: a study of the opposition to the french prophets in england, - james a. de jong smith, timothy l. and pitzer, donald e., the history of education in the middle west john e. mccaw swidler, leonard, aujklarung catholicism - : liturgical and other reforms in the catholic aujklarung john f. broderick temperley, nicholas, the music ojthe english parish church horton davies victor, joseph m., charles de bovelles, - : an intellectual biography robert d. linder wenzel, siegfried, verses in sermons: fasciculus morum and its middle english poems ronald e. osborn core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/ . /s downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. carnegie mellon university, on apr at : : , subject to the cambridge https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms https://doi.org/ . /s https://www.cambridge.org/core codas syndrome is associated with mutations of lonp , encoding mitochondrial aaa+ lon protease article codas syndrome is associated with mutations of lonp , encoding mitochondrial aaaþ lon protease kevin a. strauss, , , , ,* robert n. jinks, , erik g. puffenberger, , , sundararajan venkatesh, kamalendra singh, , iteen cheng, natalie mikita, jayapalraja thilagavathi, jae lee, stefan sarafianos, abigail benkert, , alanna koehler, anni zhu, victoria trovillion, madeleine mcglincy, thierry morlet, matthew deardorff, , a. micheil innes, chitra prasad, albert e. chudley, , irene nga wing lee, and carolyn k. suzuki , codas syndrome is a multi-system developmental disorder characterized by cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, and skeletal anomalies. using whole-exome and sanger sequencing, we identified four lonp mutations inherited as homozygous or compound-heterozygous combinations among ten individuals with codas syndrome. the individuals come from three different ancestral backgrounds (amish- swiss from united states, n ¼ ; mennonite-german from canada, n ¼ ; mixed european from canada, n ¼ ). lonp encodes lon protease, a homohexameric enzyme that mediates protein quality control, respiratory-complex assembly, gene expression, and stress responses in mitochondria. all four pathogenic amino acid substitutions cluster within the aaaþ domain at residues near the atp-bind- ing pocket. in biochemical assays, pathogenic lon proteins show substrate-specific defects in atp-dependent proteolysis. when ex- pressed recombinantly in cells, all altered lon proteins localize to mitochondria. the old order amish lon variant (lonp c. c>g[p.arg gly]) homo-oligomerizes poorly in vitro. lymphoblastoid cell lines generated from affected children have ( ) swollen mitochondria with electron-dense inclusions and abnormal inner-membrane morphology; ( ) aggregated mt-co , the mtdna-encoded subunit ii of cytochrome c oxidase; and ( ) reduced spare respiratory capacity, leading to impaired mitochondrial pro- teostasis and function. codas syndrome is a distinct, autosomal-recessive, developmental disorder associated with dysfunction of the mitochondrial lon protease. introduction cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, skeletal (codas) syn- drome (mim ) was first described in as a distinctive constellation of developmental delay, craniofa- cial anomalies, cataracts, ptosis, median nasal groove, delayed tooth eruption, anomalous cusp morphology, malformed helices, hearing loss, short stature, delayed epiphyseal ossification, metaphyseal hip dyplasia, and vertebral coronal clefts. codas is a rare disease; only three additional cases (from brazil, canada, and france) were reported between and . – autosomal- recessive inheritance of codas syndrome was first sug- gested by shebib et al., who identified the phenotype within an endogamous mennonite community, and it was corroborated by the observations of innes et al. we used whole-exome and sanger sequencing to study ten individuals with codas syndrome from three distinct ancestral backgrounds: amish-swiss from the united states (n ¼ ), mennonite-german from canada (n ¼ ), and clinic for special children, strasburg, pa , usa; lancaster general hosp dations of behavior program, franklin and marshall college, lancaster, pa genetics, new jersey medical school, rutgers, the state university of new jerse university, cleveland, oh , usa; department of molecular microbiolo missouri, columbia, columbia, mo , usa; auditory physiology and psy ton, de , usa; division of human genetics, the children’s hospital of p man school of medicine, university of pennsylvania, philadelphia, pa research institute, cumming school of medicine, university of calgary, ca pediatrics, children’s health research institute and western university, lond university of manitoba, winnipeg, mb r a s , canada; department of mb r a s , canada these authors contributed equally to this work *correspondence: kstrauss@clinicforspecialchildren.org http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . . � by the american societ the amer mixed european (german, scottish, irish, english) from canada (n ¼ ). our analysis revealed four different mutations within lonp (refseq accession number nm_ . [isoform ]; [mim ]). these muta- tions were either homozygous (lonp c. c>g [p.arg gly] and lonp c. c>t [p.pro ser]) or compound heterozygous (lonp c. c>a/c. c>t [p.ser tyr/p.ala val]) (table ). in humans, lonp encodes the atp-dependent mitochondrial lon protease, which belongs to the aaaþ superfamily of atpases associ- ated with various cellular activities. aaaþ proteins share a conserved atpase module and mediate diverse cellular pro- cesses such as dna replication, membrane fusion, signal transduction, and transcriptional regulation. – lon is an atp-driven proteolytic machine and is highly conserved from archaea to mammals. in human mito- chondria, lon is the simplest of four energy-dependent proteolytic systems that include clpxp, m-aaa, and i-aaa. mutations of clpp (mim ), which encodes the proteolytic component of clpxp, are associated with ital, lancaster, pa , usa; department of biology and biological foun- , usa; department of microbiology, biochemistry, and molecular y, newark, nj , usa; department of chemistry, case western reserve gy and immunology, christopher bond life sciences center, university of choacoustics research laboratory, dupont hospital for children, wilming- hiladelphia, philadelphia, pa , usa; department of pediatrics, perel- , usa; department of medical genetics and alberta children’s hospital lgary, ab t n n , canada; medical genetics program, department of on, on n c v , canada; department of pediatrics and child health, biochemistry and medical genetics, university of manitoba, winnipeg, y of human genetics. all rights reserved. ican journal of human genetics , – , january , mailto:kstrauss@clinicforspecialchildren.org http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /j.ajhg. . . &domain=pdf table . four pathogenic lonp alleles among ten individuals with codas syndrome origin of sample n ancestry lonp variants previously reportedallele a allele a pennsylvania amish-swiss arg gly arg gly canada mennonite-german pro ser pro ser shebib et al., canada mixed european ser tyr ala val ain every case, genotyping showed allele segregation consistent with recessive inheritance. perrault syndrome type (mim ), and mutations of spg , which encodes a subunit of m-aaa, are linked to hereditary spastic paraplegia (mim ). in humans, lon functions as a protease, chaperone, and dna-binding protein. it contributes to mitochondrial proteostasis by eliminating misfolded and oxidatively damaged pro- teins – and supports cell viability during proteotoxic, hypoxic, and endoplasmic-reticulum stress. – lon also degrades key regulatory proteins of mitochondrial metabolism, for example alas- and star, rate-limiting enzymes of heme and steroid hormone biosynthesis, respectively. , independent of its proteolytic activity, lon influences function of the mitochondrial genome and respiratory chain. its chaperone-like function promotes assembly of respiratory-chain complexes within the mitochondrial inner membrane, , , and knockout of lon-encoding genes in yeast and mammals leads to mtdna deletions and depletion, respectively. , , lon binds single- stranded mtdna in a sequence- and strand-specific manner – and associates preferentially with the mtdna control region where replication and transcription are initiated. here, we establish a link between lonp and codas syndrome in humans and discuss potential mechanisms linking the dysfunction of mitochondrial lon to diverse clinical manifestations. subjects and methods subjects we studied a total of ten individuals from two countries (united states, n ¼ and canada, n ¼ ). all had the core develop- mental, ocular, dental, auricular, and skeletal features of codas syndrome. – detailed phenotype studies were conducted on four children homozygous for lonp c. c>g, a founder mutation among the pennsylvania amish (figures and ). the study was approved by the institutional review board of lancaster general hospital. parents consented to research on their affected children on their behalf and signed a separate con- sent to reproduce photographs. affected children were evaluated by routine clinical methods, including bone radiographs, . t magnetic resonance imaging, slit-lamp and dilated indirect ophthalmoscopy, middle-ear tympanometry, distortion-product otoacoustic emissions, evoked auditory brainstem responses, and direct laryngoscopy. the american journal of human genetics , – , january molecular genetics genetic mapping of codas syndrome was performed as previ- ously described. – in brief, snp genotyping was performed with the genechip mapping k assay kits (affymetrix). data were analyzed in microsoft excel spreadsheets that were custom formatted at the clinic for special children. snp positions came from affymetrix genome-annotation files, and genotype data came from the affymetrix genechip human mapping k xba arrays. data analyses were designed for rapid identification of genomic regions that were identically homozygous between affected individuals. exome sequencing was performed as previously described. – a solution-hybrid-selection methodology was used for isolating exomic dna, which was subjected to sequencing on the illumina ga-ii platform. in brief, dna oligonucleotides, corresponding to bp of target sequence flanked by bp of universal primer sequence, were synthesized in parallel on an agilent microarray, then were cleaved from the array. the oligonucleotides were amplified by pcr, then transcribed in vitro in the presence of bio- tinylated uridine- -triphosphate so that single-stranded rna ‘‘bait’’ would be generated. genomic dna was sheared, ligated to illumina sequencing adapters, and selected for lengths between and bp. this ‘‘pond’’ of dna was hybridized with an excess of bait in the solution. the ‘‘catch’’ was pulled down by magnetic beads coated with streptavidin, eluted, and sequenced on the illumina ga-ii. massively parallel sequencing data were processed by the sequencing platform at the broad institute via two pipelines. the first, called ‘‘picard,’’ utilized the reads and qualities produced by the illumina software and produced a single bam file represent- ing each sample. the second pipeline, called genome sequencing analysis, then performed post-processing and analysis of the data, including snp identification, small-insertion and -deletion identi- fication, local realignment of insertion- or deletion-containing reads, gene annotation, and filtering with common polymor- phisms ( genomes, dbsnp build ). the details of the sequencing-data processing have been described elsewhere. for inter-exome analyses, variant call data were imported into a file- maker pro database, and rare and novel variants shared among affected individuals were queried. molecular modeling a homology model of the human mitochondrial lon hexamer was generated from the crystal structure of b. subtilis lon (pdb m a). , in brief, we generated a homology model of a single lon subunit that lacks its amino-terminal mitochondrial-targeting sequence (mts) (see figures b– d) by using three independent molecular modeling software tools: prime (schrodinger), modeller (see web resources), and the i-tasser online server at the , figure . codas phenotype (a and b) a year-old child who is homozygous for lonp c. c>g (p.arg gly) and who has characteristic physical features of codas syndrome. features include (a) broad skull and flattened midface; ptosis; grooved nasal tip; anteverted nares; and (b) helix hypoplasia (‘‘crumpled’’ ears). (c) laryngoscopy of an affected child revealed airway narrowing secondary to paretic, atrophic vocal cords (inset: normal vocal cords for comparison). (d) dense bilateral nuclear cataracts develop rapidly between and months of age in all codas-syndrome-affected amish individuals. (e and f) scoliosis and genu valgum progress with advancing age. (g) despite previous reports of developmental delay in children with codas syndrome, timely ophthalmologic and audiologic inter- vention appear to be critical developmental determinants; at age years our oldest subject has a vocabulary of more than words, reads at the first grade level, communicates effectively by signing, and has advanced drawing and writing skills. university of michigan. we obtained the final model of the lon subunit by averaging three models. we obtained the lon hexamer by superimposing the structure of one subunit onto the crystal structure of b. subtilis lon (pdb m a). cdna constructs human lonp cdna (refseq nm_ . ) that was amplified from arpe- (human adherent retinal pigment epithelium- ) total rna by rt-pcr (superscript ii reverse transcriptase, life tech- nologies; phusion dna polymerase, new england biolabs) was cloned into pentr/d-topo (life technologies), and codas mutations were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis (quik- change ii, agilent) (table s ). for mammalian expression of lon proteins with c-terminal v or flag tags, the lonp cdna was cloned in frame into pcdna . /v -dest or pcdna . /flag- dest by recombination from pentr/d-topo/lonp constructs with lr clonase ii (life technologies). for bacterial expression, cdnas encoding lon proteins that lacked the first amino acids (containing the predicted mts) were sub-cloned into pet c(þ) as well as into pproex- ; the latter constructs encoded a his tag fused to the n terminus. all amino acid numberings were assigned on the basis of the full-length lon precursor. purification of recombinant lon wild-type and pathogenic lon variants were overexpressed in ro- setta (de ) (novagen) and purified as previously described. – the amer lon constructs were cloned into either pet c(þ) (figure ) or proex (hexa-histidine tag ) (figure s ). for figure , lon-positive fractions were pooled and concentrated, and protein concentra- tions were determined via the bradford assay, for which bsa was used as a standard and uv absorbance was set at nm, and us- ing the equation ε ¼ w( ) þ y( ) þ c( ), where ε is the molar absorptivity at nm and w, y, and c are the numbers of tryptophan, tyrosine, and cysteine residues, respectively. , protein concentrations were further corrected on the basis of pro- tein-band optical density normalized to lonwt in coomassie- stained sds-page gels (image j). recombinant steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (star) and mitochondrial transcription factor a (tfam) were purified as described previously. , enzymatic assays peptidase and protease assays fmoc-protected amino acids, boc-abz, fmoc-protected lys-wang resin, and hbtu (n,n,n ,n -tetramethyl-o-( h-benzotriazol- -yl) uronium hexafluorophosphate, o-(benzotriazol- -yl)-n,n,n ,n - tetramethyluronium hexafluorophosphate) were purchased from advanced chemtech and novabiochem. peptide substrate s was purchased from genscript. peptide synthesis of s was per- formed with fmoc solid-phase synthesis methodologies as described previously. peptidase activity was measured on a fluo- romax- spectrofluorimeter (horiba group). all reactions mixtures contained mm hepes (ph . ), mm mg(oac) , mm dtt, ican journal of human genetics , – , january , figure . radiographic features of codas syndrome (a) sagittal t (upper) and axial t (lower) images of an affected -year-old amish child show mild diffuse cortical atrophy, an immature pattern of myelination, and hypoplasia of the corpus callosum. (b) skeletal radiographs show metaphyseal dysplasia most evident at hip joints (upper) and valgus knees with both hypoplasia and delayed ossification of epiphyses (lower). (c) severe scoliosis is evident early in childhood, and coronal clefts are observed at various levels of the vertebral column. (d–g) prenatal imaging of a -week-old fetus with codas syndrome revealed polyhydramnios, a two-vessel umbilical cord, midfacial hypoplasia, (d) crumpled helices, (e) a balanced atrioventricular canal, (f) common atrium, omphalocele, (g, arrow) and absence of left lower long bones, which were replaced by a relatively well-formed foot attached directly to the hip. (g, arrowhead) the asterisk in (g) marks the left palpebral fissure for orientation. nm wild-type and mutant lon proteins, and . mm s . to avoid problems from the inner filter effect, we used s , a mixed substrate consisting of % fluorescently labeled peptide s [y(no )rgitcsgrqk(abz)] and % non-fluorescent analog of the peptide s (yrgitcsgrqk(ac)). after the mixture equili- brated at �c for min, the reaction was initiated with mm atp. we measured the amount of hydrolyzed peptide by deter- mining the maximum fluorescence generated per micromole of peptide after complete digestion by trypsin. the steady-state rate of the reaction was determined from the tangent of the linear portion of the time course. this rate was converted to an observed rate constant (kobs) by division of the rate by the enzyme concen- tration. at least three identical experiments were performed. peptidase assays using the fluorescent dipeptide substrate rhodamine , bis-(cbz-l-alanyl-l-alanine amide) (aa -rh , anaspec), were performed in quadruplicate ( ml) in -well plates as previously described. lon ( nm monomer) or no- enzyme controls were incubated in a reaction buffer ( mm nacl, mm hepes [ph . ], and mm mgcl ) containing aa -rh ( mm) and atp ( mm) for hr at �c, after which fluorescence was measured at an excitation and emission of and nm, respectively, with a perkin elmer victor v. the american journal of human genetics , – , january the relative fluorescence units (rfu) of the background (no- enzyme control) measurements were subtracted, and the resultant values were normalized to percent activity of the no-drug reac- tions. data were fit to -parameter dose-response curves using graphpad prism , and the error bars represent the sd of four repli- cate reactions. at least three identical experiments were per- formed. star and tfam purification and degradation assays were performed as previously described. , , , atpase assay the atpase activity of wild-type and mutant lon variants was measured in quadruplicate reactions ( ml) in a -well plate via the adp-glo assay (promega) according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. all steps were performed at room temperature. purified human lon ( nm monomer) was incubated in a reaction buffer ( mm tris-hcl [ph . ], mm mgcl , and . mg/ml bsa) with ultra pure atp ( mm; promega) for min. adp-glo� reagent ( ml) was added for min followed by kinase detection substrate ( ml) for min, which was linear with [adp]. relative luminescence units (rlu) were measured on a perkin elmer victor v, and background (no-enzyme control) rlu were subtracted. at least three identical experiments were performed. , figure . location of amino acids that are mutated within mitochondrial lon in codas syndrome (a) domain structure of the human lon subunit. mitochondrial targeting sequence (mts), substrate recognition/binding (n) domain, atpase domain (aaaþ), and a pro- tease domain (p). red arrows indicate the position of pathogenic codas mutations. (b) homology model of human mitochon- drial lon. the model shows the position, within a single lon subunit (shown in amber), of amino acids that are altered in codas syndrome. (c and d) the positions of amino acids pro and arg (yellow), which are altered in proteins encoded by codas homozygous alleles. adp is shown occu- pying the atp- and adp-binding pocket (a green dashed line represents a proline-induced kink in the helix; a yellow dotted line represents a salt bridge; starbursts represent hydrophobic interac- tions). (c) the pro -induced kink pro- motes hydrophobic interactions between ala , leu , leu , and val . (d) the positions of arg as well as pro , glu , and the atp- and adp-binding site are located on the same lon subunit (amber). arg and glu form salt bridges with glu and lys , respectively, which are located on the adjacent lon subunit (green). cell culture arpe- cells, human embryonic kidney (hek t) cells, hela cells (atcc, manassas, va), and mouse auditory sensory epithe- lium (ub/oc- ) cells (gift from matthew holley, university of sheffield, uk) were cultured in dmem:f , dmem, eagle’s mem, or mem with glutamax and u/ml interferon-gamma (life technologies), respectively, each with % fetal bovine serum (fbs; sigma or life technologies) at �c/ % co . ep- stein-barr virus (ebv)-transformed b-lymphoblastoid cell lines (lcls) were generated from two amish codas-syndrome- affected probands homozygous for lonp c. c>g (p.arg - gly) as well as from their respective heterozygous parents (lineberger comprehensive cancer center, university of north carolina). lcls were cultured in rpmi (atcc formulation) with % fbs at �c and % co . genotyping of lcls was performed by sanger sequencing (the pennsylvania state university nucleic acid facility). in brief, superscript iii reverse transcriptase (life technologies) and oligo dt primers were used for reverse transcrip- tion of cdna from lcl total rna (trizol, life technologies). cdna was then amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (pcr) with lonp -specific primers (table s ) and purified for dna sequencing with qiagen pcr purification spin columns. lon knockdown in hela, pc , and hek t cells was performed as previously described (and as also described in supplemental data). mitochondrial localization wild-type and mutant lon variants were overexpressed by tran- sient transfection (fugene , promega) in arpe- , hela, and ub/oc- cells cultured on glass coverslips. after – hr, cells were incubated with mitotracker red cmxros ( nm) at �c/ % co for min, washed with pbs (ph . ), and fixed in % paraformaldehyde in pbs for min at �c. cells were per- meabilized in acetone at � �c for min, washed with pbs, and the amer blocked in % bovine serum albumin (bsa) with . % triton x- in pbs for min. immunofluorescence detection of lon- v fusion proteins was conducted as described elsewhere. immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation cells were lysed in the following buffers as indicated: in ripa buffer ( mm tris-hcl [ph . ], mm nacl, . % octylphe- noxypolyethoxyethanol ca- , . % sodium deoxycholate, and . % sodium dodecyl sulfate) supplemented with mm edta, mm naf, mm na vo , and protease-inhibitor cocktail (roche); triton x- buffer ( mm tris, [ph . ], mm nacl, and . % triton x- ) supplemented with halt protease- and phosphatase-inhibitor cocktail (thermoscientific); or urea buffer ( mm triethylammonium bicarbonate buffer [teab, sigma] [ph . ], m urea) supplemented with protease-inhibitor cocktail and phosphatase-inhibitor cocktail (sigma). when the ripa or triton x- buffer was used, cells were incubated for min on ice, then centrifuged at , rpm for min at �c so that lysates would be cleared. for the urea buffer, cells were son- icated with microprobe for s followed by a s pulse, and this was repeated – times before centrifugation at �c cleared lysates. the protein concentration of cell extracts was measured with the bradford assay and then normalized. immunoblotting and co-immunoprecipitation were performed as described else- where; washes following immunoprecipitation contained % tween- . the following antibodies were employed: rabbit anti- lon ( : , custom made and affinity purified as previously described) or rabbit anti-lon ( : , novus, h - d p); rabbit anti-clpx ( : , , custom made by dr. irene lee); rabbit anti-aconitase ( : , provided by dr. luke szweda, okla- homa medical research foundation); mouse anti-clpp ( : , , abcam ); rabbit anti-pink ( : , abcam ); rabbit anti-mt-cytochrome oxidase subunit ii ( : , , abcam ); ican journal of human genetics , – , january , figure . enzymology, cellular expression, and homo-oligomerization of pathogenic lon proteins (a) atp-dependent degradation of the fluorogenic peptide substrate s . the rates of s cleavage were determined with recombinant lon proteins ( nm monomer) and . mm of s ( . -fold km) in buffer. the degradation reactions were initiated by the addition of mg-atp at �c for – s. s cleavage was monitored as an increase in fluorescence at an excitation and emission of nm and nm, respectively (three or more replicates). error bars represent sem. (b) star ( . mm) or tfam ( mm) were combined in buffer with mg-atp, and reactions were initiated by the addition of lon ( nm) at �c. aliquots were removed at time points, reactions were terminated with reducing sample buffer, and aliquots were analyzed by sds-page and coomassie brilliant blue staining. imagej was used for determining the percent star and tfam degraded after a min incubation period with the same lon variant (no replicates). (c and d) overexpression of (c) wild-type lon-v and (d) p.arg gly-v (green ¼ v immunofluorescence) in arpe- cells counter- stained with mitotracker red (red) and dapi (blue). nontransfected cells display only red mitotracker fluorescence. (e) coimmunoprecipitation (ip) of lon-v by lon-flag (co-overexpressed in hek t cell lysates) with anti-flag m antibody. immunoblotting (ib) with anti-flag and v antibodies followed. oxphos antibody cocktail ( : , mitoscience ); goat anti- actin ( : , , ; santa cruz); mouse anti-b-actin (sigma, : , , ); rabbit anti-mt-cytochrome b ( : , , aviva systems biology arp _p ); mouse monoclonal anti-v ( : , , life technologies) or mouse anti-flag m ( : , sigma); and hrp-conjugated secondary antibodies (cell signaling technologies or santa cruz biotechnology). immunoblots were developed by chemiluminescence. transmission electron microscopy lcls were prepared for transmission electron microscopy (tem) as described previously. , in brief, cells were pelleted by centrifuga- tion at , rpm for min, washed with pbs, re-pelleted, and re- suspended in . % glutaraldehyde and % paraformaldehyde in . m pbs overnight at �c. lcls were then post-fixed in % osmium tetroxide for hr at �c and dehydrated with ethanol; infiltration with spurr’s resin (electron microscopy sciences) fol- lowed. infiltrated lcls were collected by centrifugation and embedded directly into beem capsules, which were gently centri- fuged so that the cells would be driven to the bottom of the capsule. ultrathin sections ( - nm) were cut with glass knives, the american journal of human genetics , – , january mounted on naked copper grids ( mesh), and stained with a saturated solution of uranyl acetate in % ethanol for min, fol- lowed by reynold’s lead citrate for min. differences in the fre- quency of abnormal mitochondrial morphology between proband and parent cells were analyzed by two-way anova with bonfer- roni post-hoc correction (spss, ibm). quantitative pcr (qpcr) determination of mtdna copy number genomic dna ( ng) from peripheral blood lymphocytes and lcl cells was used for amplification of both the mtdna- encoded mt-cyb gene and the nuclear-dna-encoded app gene as a reference control. genomic dna was amplified in reactions ( ml; applied biosystems; universal pcr master mix) with the following taqman primers. forward: app, -tttttgtgtgct ctcccaggtct- ; and mt-cyb, -gcctgcctgatcctccaa at- ). reverse: app -tggtcactggttggttggc- ; and mt cyb, -aaggtagcggatgattcagcc- . taqman probes: app, -[ fam]ccctgaactgcagatcaccaatgtggtag[tam]- ; and mt-cyb, -[ fam]caccagacgcctcaaccgcctt [tam]- an ab rt-pcr system (applied biosystems) and , standard qpcr conditions were employed: �c for min, cycles at �c for s, and �c for min. all reactions were performed in triplicate. relative quantitation of the mtdna copy number was calculated by the ddct method. mitochondrial oxygen-consumption measurements proband and parent cells ( /well) in a ml unbuffered assay medium (dmem with mm glucose, mm pyruvate, and mm glutamine) were plated in poly-d-lysine-coated seahorse xf -well plates ( mg/ml) and centrifuged so that cells were adhered to the plates. after the uniformity of cells plated in each well was ensured, plates were transferred to a �c incubator without co for min, ml warm assay medium was added, and then plates were left in the incubator for another min. each plate was transferred to the xf analyzer, and the oxygen consumption rate (ocr) was measured at baseline. sequential injections were then performed with the following: oligomycin ( mm), an inhibitor of complex v (the atp synthase); fccp ( nm), an uncoupler that dissipates the membrane potential across the mitochondrial inner membrane; and rotenone ( mm), an inhibitor of complex i (nadh dehydrogenase), which blocks the transfer of electrons from complex i to ubiquinone. the spare respiratory capacity (src), which is the maximum ocr after fccp injection, was calculated as a percentage of baseline ocr. the mean, standard deviation, and statistical significant difference between proband and mother cells were calculated by student’s t test in microsoft excel. results molecular genetic studies we initiated a genetic mapping study involving two amish children who were affected with codas syndrome. affy- metrix genechip mapping k dna microarrays were initially used for genotyping, but no significant regions of homozygosity were detected. exome sequencing was performed, and variants were filtered so that those with minor allele frequencies (mafs) > % in either genomes or the exome variant server or with maf > % in our own internal amish variant database were excluded. analysis of variants detected in codas-affected individuals revealed a single shared homozygous allele, lonp c. c>g (p.arg gly), located at physical position chr : , , (ncbi grch , hg ) the gene mapped to a region of chromosome with poor coverage on the affymetrix k array, hence our inability to conclusively map the phenotype. the presence of lonp c. c>g was confirmed by sanger sequencing, and we verified proper segregation by genotyping parents and siblings. using an unlabeled probe to genotype amish controls by high-resolution melt analysis, we found a surprisingly high population allele fre- quency of . %. we next acquired additional codas-syn- drome dna samples accompanied by clinical data from collaborators in canada and designed primers to amplify and sequence all exons of lonp . the first sample was from a mennonite child from manitoba, canada, who was the subject of a previous publication. she was the amer found to be homozygous for lonp c. c>t (p.pro ser). the second sample was from a child of mixed european ancestry (german, scottish, irish, and en- glish) from ontario, and she was found to be compound heterozygous for lonp c. c>a (p.ser tyr) and c. c>t (p.ala val)(table ). phenotype associated with codas syndrome eight children from the old order amish community of pennsylvania were homozygous for lonp c. c>g (table ). three died of laryngeal obstruction in the first days of life, and one with a tracheostomy died from pneu- monia during early infancy. four remaining children (ages . – . years, two female) required tracheostomies to sur- vive infancy; only one child was subsequently decannu- lated. all three surviving children who underwent sedated laryngoscopies had paretic, atrophic vocal cords, glottic narrowing, chronic sialorrhea, and swallowing dysfunc- tion. three of four surviving affected children were nour- ished exclusively by gastrostomy tube. lonp c. c>g homozygotes had physical features characteristic of codas syndrome. – these included broad skull and flattened midface, helix hypoplasia (‘‘crumpled’’ ears), ptosis, grooved nasal tip, anteverted nares, and with advancing age, short stature, scoliosis, genu valgus, and pes valgus (figures a– f). teeth erupted late with cusp-tip extensions. dense bilateral nuclear cata- racts developed rapidly between and months of age. audiological testing showed impaired tympanic mem- brane mobility (type b pattern), normal otoacoustic emissions and neural synchrony, and low-frequency conductive hearing loss. the two oldest individuals had a mixed pattern involving mild-to-moderate sensory hear- ing loss in the – khz range. all affected children had hypotonia, developmental delay, and variable intellectual disability, some of which was remediable. one child with delayed ambulation was able to walk independently when knee-ankle-foot orthoses were applied at age years. this same child had early audi- ological intervention (myringotomy tubes and amplifica- tion). by age , he had a vocabulary of more than words, could read at the first grade level, could communi- cate effectively by signing, and had advanced drawing and writing skills (figure g). neuroimaging of one affected child (age years) was notable for prominent cortical sulci, symmetric ventriculo- megaly, subcortical hypomyelination, and a thin corpus callosum (figure a). skeletal radiographs showed meta- physeal dysplasia (most evident at hip joints) and both hy- poplasia and delayed ossification of epiphyses (figure b). two children had cervical radiographs that showed dens hypoplasia and, in one case, synostosis between the odon- toid and c . scoliosis was evident within the first few years of life, and coronal clefts could be observed at various levels of the vertebral column (figure c). two surviving lonp c. c>g homozygotes had an imperforate anus, in one case associated with omphalocele ican journal of human genetics , – , january , table . phenotype of codas-syndrome-affected children homozygous for lonp c. c>g (p.arg gly) agea . b . . . gender f m f m cerebral hypotonia and motor delay þ þ þ þ intellectual disability þ þ n/a n/a epilepsy þ � � � ocular ptosis þ þ þ þ cataractsc þ þ þ þ dental delayed tooth eruption þ þ n/a n/a enamel dysplasia þ þ n/a n/a auricular scapha and helix dysplasia (‘‘crumpled’’ ears) þ þ þ þ conductive hearing loss n/a þ þ þ sensorineural hearing loss þ þ � � skeletal short stature þ þ þ þ metaphyseal dysplasia þ þ þ þ epiphyseal hypoplasia and delayed ossification þ þ þ þ scoliosis þ þ þ þ genu valgus þ þ þ þ pes valgus þ þ n/a n/a vertebral coronal clefts þ þ n/a n/a dens hypoplasia þ þ n/a n/a other grooved nasal tip þ þ þ þ anteverted nares þ þ þ þ tracheostomy þ þ þ þ vocal-cord paresis � þ þ þ endocardial cushion (atrial septum defect)d � þ þ � gastresophageal reflux � þ � þ gastrostomy tube feeding � þ þ þ omphalocele � � � þ imperforate anus þ � � þ rectovaginal fistula þ � � � cryptorchidism n/a þ n/a � tongue hemiatrophy � þ � þ abbreviations are as follows: f, female; m, male; n/a, not applicable because age or clinical data were not available. alimited clinical data are available for four of eight children who had codas syndrome and died in the perinatal period as a result of respiratory the american journal of human genetics , – , january and in the other with a rectovaginal fistula. omphalocele was also observed in two codas-affected siblings who died during infancy. one of two affected males had unilat- eral cryptorchidism. two affected children had striking hemiatrophy of the tongue, presumably because of hypo- plasia or aplasia of the ipsilateral hypoglossal nerve; both also had vocal cord paresis and chronic sialorrhea. given the diverse roles of lon in mitochondrial homeo- stasis, we screened affected individuals for biochemical indices of mitochondrial dysfunction. plasma lactate ( . . mm; reference range . . mm) and alanine ( mm; reference range mm) were normal in children with codas syndrome, as were all urine-tricarboxylic-acid-cycle intermediates, including citrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate, fumarate, and ma- late (data not shown). prenatal presentation of codas syndrome one unborn female amish infant with codas syndrome had a prenatal ultrasound at weeks’ gestational age. esti- mated weight ( , g; st centile) and femur length ( . cm, th centile) were low; estimated head circumfer- ence was normal ( . cm; rd centile). the study was notable for the presence of polyhydramnios, a two-vessel umbilical cord, midfacial hypoplasia, crumpled helices, retrognathia, a balanced atrioventricular canal, omphalo- cele (containing intestine, stomach, and part of the liver), and mild thoracic scoliosis and the absence of left lower long bones, which were replaced by a relatively well- formed foot attached directly to the hip (figures d– g). she was stillborn at weeks’ gestation. location of amino acids altered in codas syndrome within the homology model of lon the lon holoenzyme is composed of six identical subunits that each consist of four domains: an mts, a substrate recognition and binding (n) domain, an atpase (aaaþ) domain, and a proteolytic (p) domain (figure a). the amino terminal mts targets the newly synthesized cytosolic polypeptide to the mitochondrial matrix, where removal of the mts produces mature lon. the aaaþ domain contains walker boxes a and b that mediate atp binding and hydrolysis, and the p domain active site contains a ser -lys dyad required for peptide-bond hydrolysis. using the crystal structure of b. subtilis lon as a tem- plate, we established a homology model of human mito- chondrial lon, which has a homohexameric ring-shaped arrangement. all four lon variants identified in codas complications (these children are not represented in table ). two had ompha- locele. bdied at . years of age as a result of accidental trauma. cdense nuclear cataracts develop rapidly between and months of age. dtwo surviving children with codas syndrome have atrial septal defects; two who died perinatally had atrioventricular canal defects. the total incidence of congenital heart disease was %. , syndrome resulted in amino acid substitutions within the aaaþ domain. ser , arg , and ala are located at the interface between lon subunits and mediate subunit interactions. pro is at the atp-binding site (figures a and b). replacements of pro with serine (p.pro ser) and arg with glycine (p.arg gly) are pathogenic in the homozygous state (table ), allowing homo-oligomeric composition of the holoenzyme to be inferred. pro is on an alpha-helix near the atp-binding pocket and is involved in subdomain interactions (figure c); it gener- ates an alpha-helix kink that facilitates hydrophobic inter- actions between leu , ala , leu , and val . these interactions most likely maintain the geometry of the atp-binding pocket. arg contributes to intersubu- nit interactions by forming a salt bridge with glu on the neighboring subunit (figure d). arg is near glu , which also forms a salt bridge with lys in the aaaþ domain of the neighboring subunit (figure d). the p.arg gly substitution most likely weakens intersu- bunit interactions and reduces stability of the holoenzyme. recombinant codas proteins show substrate- specific defects in enzymatic activity individual codas variants were purified as recombinant proteins from bacteria, and their respective peptidase, pro- tease, and atpase activities were compared with those of wild-type lon. we measured atp-dependent peptidase activity by using the fluorogenic decapeptide reporter substrate s . relative to wild-type protein, all four codas variants (p.ser tyr, p.pro ser, p.arg gly, and p.ala val) showed decreased energy-dependent peptidase activity; cleavage of s ranged from %– % of wild-type activity (figure a). for the amish p.arg gly variant, we also determined atp-independent peptidase activity by using the fluores- cent dipeptide reporter aa -rh , which is cleaved by wild-type lon. in the absence of atp, p.arg gly and wild-type lon showed significantly increased cleavage of aa -rh . however, in the presence of atp, peptidase ac- tivity of wild-type lon was augmented -fold in compari- son to minimal augmentation of p.arg gly, and direct determination of atpase function showed that p.arg - gly was % less active than wild-type lon (data not shown). finally, we examined atp-dependent proteolysis of p.pro ser and p.arg gly by using two purified recom- binant natural lon substrates: star , , and tfam , (figures b and s ). compared to wild-type lon, which degraded %– % star, p.pro ser and p.arg gly degraded only %– % star during a min incubation. in contrast, tfam degradation by both p.pro ser and p.arg gly was comparable to that of the wild-type ( %– % of tfam was degraded during min incubation)(figure b). control experiments confirmed that tfam degradation was dependent on both atp and lon (figures s c and s d). the efficiency with which the amer p.pro ser and p.arg gly degrade different proteins is probably influenced by the substrate’s secondary or ter- tiary structure (i.e., whether the substrate is tightly or loosely folded). for example, folded and unfolded tfam have been shown to be in equilibrium with one another. these results suggest that in codas syndrome, lon-mediated degradation of some but not all protein sub- strates is impaired. impaired homo-oligomerization of transiently expressed r g to characterize the behavior of codas variants in cultured cells, we engineered fusion proteins with c-terminal epitope tags to distinguish them from endogenous lon. when transiently expressed in arpe- , ub/oc- , or hela cells, codas and wild-type lon were expressed at similar levels (figures , s , and s ). all four codas vari- ants localized to mitochondria, as determined by double labeling with immunofluorescence and mitotracker red (figures , s , and s ). to determine whether p.arg gly was able to oligo- merize with wild-type or other p.arg gly lon, we per- formed co-immunoprecipitation experiments by using recombinant proteins with different epitope tags (e.g., flag and v epitopes) (figure e), and we transiently co-expressed p.arg glyflag or wild-typeflag with either p.arg glyv or wild-typev in hek t cells. both wild- typeflag and p.arg glyflag co-precipitated wild-typev ; p.arg glyflag co-precipitated significantly less wild- typev (figure e). co-immunoprecipitation of p.arg - glyv by p.arg glyflag was barely detected, suggesting impaired homo-oligomeric assembly of p.arg gly or disassembly of an unstable complex during the experi- mental procedure. normal mtdna copy number and lon substrate levels in immortalized codas lymphoblast cell lines we generated ebv-immortalized b- lcls from the periph- eral blood of two amish family trios, each consisting of a homozygous p.arg gly/p.arg gly proband and his or her unaffected heterozygous p.arg gly/wt parents. no difference in lonp transcript abundance was observed by rt-pcr in proband versus parent cells (figure s ). immunoblot analysis of whole-cell extracts demonstrated that lon protein abundance was virtually identical in cell lines from the proband, mother, and father (figure a). there was no compensatory upregula- tion of clpx or clpp, subunits of another mitochondrial aaaþ protease, and we found no change in the abundance of mitochondrial aconitase or tfam (figure a), which are natural lon substrates under conditions of oxidative stress or mtdna depletion, respectively. , recent work sug- gests that lon is involved in degrading the pten-induced putative kinase (pink ). , however, an increase in pink abundance was not detected in proband or parent cells, not even in the presence of proteasome inhibitors ican journal of human genetics , – , january , figure . lon protein levels and mtdna copy numbers in co- das-syndrome-affected probands are similar to those of their unaffected heterozygous parents (a) proteins were extracted from lcls generated from codas- syndrome-affected probands and their parents. triton x- lysis buffer was used, and mg of the extract was immunoblotted for the proteins as shown. (b) quantitative pcr (qpcr) was performed so that the relative mtdna copy number in codas-syndrome-affected probands and their respective mothers and fathers could be determined with genomic dna isolated from the peripheral blood lympho- cytes from the family members as shown. qpcr was performed with taqman probes and primers for the mtdna-encoded mt- cyb gene and the nuclear dna-encoded app gene as a reference. the relative quantity of mtdna copy number was calculated by the ddct method. error bars represent the maximum and mini- mum relative quantitation. mg or epoxomicin (data not shown), which stabilize pink in vitro. , in lower and higher eukaryotes, knocking out lon leads to reduced mtdna copy-number or mtdna dele- tions. , , , we performed mtdna copy-number anal- ysis and mtdna sequencing by using total genomic dna isolated from peripheral blood lymphocytes obtained from three homozygous p.arg gly probands and their unaffected heterozygous parents. quantitative pcr showed no consistent difference of mtdna copy number between probands and parents (figure b). similar results were obtained with genomic dna isolated from proband and parental lcls (figure s ). using genomic dna iso- lated from peripheral blood lymphocytes for deep sequencing of mtdna exposed no deletions or significant differences between mtdna sequences of each proband and that individual’s mother (table s ). abnormal mitochondrial morphology in codas lymphoblast cell lines transmission electron microscopy of proband lcls re- vealed enlarged mitochondria with swollen intra- or inter- cristal compartments, uniform vesicular structures, and electron-dense intramitochondrial inclusions (figures a and c), suggestive of abnormal inner-membrane topol- ogy. , by contrast, parental lcls showed typical mito- chondrial morphology with well-organized cristae and only occasional swollen cristal spaces (figures b and d, and s ). approximately . % (sem) of mitochondria (n ¼ ) examined from two codas probands displayed the american journal of human genetics , – , january abnormal mitochondrial morphology (p < . ), whereas only . . % of paternal (n ¼ ), . . % of maternal (n ¼ ), and . . % (n ¼ ) of homozy- gous-normal lcl mitochondria were abnormal. there was no significant difference between maternal and paternal mitochondria (p ¼ . ). reduced mt-co and src in codas mitochondria lon has been shown to mediate protein quality control and remodeling of cytochrome c oxidase, which is com- plex iv of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. , , we examined the abundance of various protein subunits belonging to respiratory chain complexes i-v and detected a specific and substantial reduction of mtdna-encoded subunit ii of cytochrome c oxidase (mt-co ) in proband cells (figure a). in contrast, proband and parental lcls had similar abundances of other mtdna-encoded (mt- cyb, mt-co ) and nuclear-encoded (ndufb , sdhb, uqcrc , atp a ) respiratory chain subunits. one possible explanation for reduced mt-co abun- dance in codas cell lines was its poor solubility in the protein extraction buffer employed, which contained . % triton x- . to address this, we used cell-lysis buffer with m urea, which effectively solubilizes most aggre- gated proteins and inclusion bodies. when cells were ex- tracted with this strong denaturant, similar abundances of mt-co were observed in proband and parental lcls. urea did not alter solubility of other mtdna- or nuclear- encoded respiratory-chain subunits (figure a). insolubility of mt-co might be caused by the failure of p.arg gly to properly degrade and/or assemble this sub- unit into complex iv. to determine whether mt-co is a natural substrate of lon, we knocked down the protease in different cell lines. mt-co is highly hydrophobic and difficult to purify; we therefore used a cellular system rather than directly testing purified lon activity against that of mt-co . inducible or transient knockdown of lon was associated with increased mt-co abundance in hela, hek t, and pc cells (figure b). taken together, these results suggest that mt-co is a natural lon sub- strate, and that p.arg gly’s failure either to degrade or to properly assemble this protein in codas cells results in its aggregation within mitochondria. after observing the reduced solubility of mt-co , we investigated the efficiency of mitochondrial respiration. normalized basal mitochondrial oxygen consumption and atp-linked respiration were similar in proband and parental cells, but codas cells had significantly lower src when mitochondrial membrane potential was dissi- pated by the uncoupler fccp (figure c). discussion pathophysiology of codas syndrome mitochondrial lon is a multi-functional enzyme with diverse roles that include ( ) elimination of misfolded and oxidatively damaged proteins, – , , ( ) selective , figure . abnormal mitochondrial ultra- structure in codas cells (a–d) transmission electron micrographs were generated from cell lines of (a and c) two codas-syndrome-affected chil- dren homozygous for p.arg gly (gly /gly ) and (b and d, respectively) their heterozygous unaffected mothers (arg /gly ). (a and c) in codas cells, % of mitochondria (n ¼ cells, p < . ) display abnormal morphology, including swollen intracristal space and/or vesiculated cristae and electron-dense ag- gregations (white arrows). the mitochon- drion below the asterisk in (a ) appears to be in transition toward the vesiculated state when it is compared to the normal mitochondrion to the left of the asterisk. (b and d) the mothers’ cells display normal mitochondrial morphology (e.g., arrowheads); % show swelling of the intracristal space (n ¼ cells, p < . ) (n ¼ nucleus). scale bars represent mm in (a–d) and . mm in magnified regions (a –d ). the fathers’ cells show normal mitochondrial morphology, and only . % show cristal-space swelling (n ¼ ) (figure s ). degradation of key rate-determining mitochondrial pro- teins in response to metabolic flux and cell stress, – , , ( ) chaperone-like assembly of protein complexes within the respiratory chain, , and ( ) regulation of mitochondrial gene expression. homozygous loss of lon in mice results in embryonic death associated with poor growth and reduced mtdna copy number, indicating the vital importance of this protein in mammals. in contrast, heterozygous mice mature similarly to wild- type. these findings, combined with our enzymatic studies, support the idea that allele combinations giving rise to codas syndrome must result in alteration and not complete abrogation of lon function. we speculate that the complex pathophysiology of codas syndrome most likely reflects dysregulation of multiple lon-dependent proteins and pathways. there are clinical similarities between codas syndrome and other mitochondrial disorders, including hypotonia, motor delay, ptosis, and sensorineural hearing loss. , – however, many classic clinical and biochemical hall- marks , , of mitochondrial dysfunction were not observed in codas children, and several codas manifes- tations, including postnatal cataracts, skeletal and dental abnormalities, and conductive hearing loss, are atypical of mitochondrial disease. such complications might reflect lon-dependent processes that are currently unknown. moreover, tissue-specific defects could arise because of dif- ferential histological dependence on lon as a protease, a the american journal of human g chaperone, and/or a dna-binding protein. for example, some tissues might be more dependent on lon to degrade oxidatively damaged pro- teins, whereas others might depend critically on as-yet- unknown lon-mediated pathways. the reduced src of codas lcls suggests limited capacity to boost atp pro- duction in response to high energy demands, such as oc- curs during increased cellular stress and work load. further investigations using tissues with metabolic demands higher than those of lymphoblastoid cells are needed if we are to delineate the physiological relevance of mecha- nistic defects in mitochondrial function and morphology associated with codas syndrome. pathogenic amino acid changes in codas syndrome cluster in the aaaþ domain our structural analysis of homozygous codas variants is consistent with observed alterations of their enzyme activ- ity in vitro. proline is located within an a helix near the atp-binding pocket and generates a kink in this a helix (figure c). removal of the kink at pro might alter key hydrophobic interactions with four other residues— ala (on the same helix as pro ), leu , leu , and val —that likely help to shape the active site (figure c). the p.pro ser substitution could disrupt this kink, changing active site geometry or flexibility of the aaaþ module (figure c) and decreasing the protein’s capacity for atp binding and hydrolysis. accordingly, we found reduced atp-dependent peptidase (figure a) and substrate-specific protease (figure b) activities of the p.pro ser variant. enetics , – , january , figure . alterations in the structure and function of the electron transport chain in proband lcls (a) for extraction of cellular proteins, lysis buffer containing . % triton x- (tx ) or m urea (urea) was used. immunoblotting was performed for proteins as shown. mt-co abundances were selectively reduced in codas cells but were recovered in the presence of m urea. (b) mt-co is a protein substrate of mitochondrial lon. a hela cell line with a stably integrated anhydrotetracycline (atc)-inducible shrna targeting lon was grown in the presence or absence of atc ( ng/ml) for days. hek t cells and pc cells were transiently transfected with a sirna targeting the untranslated regionof lon or a control sirna and cultured for days. cell extracts ( mg) were immunoblotted for lon, mt-co , or actin as the loading control. (c) basal normalized oxygen-consumption rate was established at min (representing %), followed by addition of oligomycin (oligo, mm); fccp ( nm); and finally rotenone ( mm). a student’s t test showed that cells from codas-syndrome-affected probands had significantly (p < . ) lower spare mitochondrial respiratory capacity in the presence of the uncoupler fccp. error bars represent sd. arg also makes an important intersubunit contact by forming a salt bridge with glu from the aaaþ module of the neighboring subunit (figure d). this salt bridge, together with one formed between glu and lys , appears to be critical for stabilizing the lon complex. p.arg gly might thus destabilize the lon complex and explain reduced homo-oligomerization, atpase activity, and peptidase activity of this variant (figure ). functional consequences of homozygous lon p.arg gly in human cells our studies using recombinant protein and codas lcls indicate that the p.arg gly pathogenic variant has altered activity. purified p.arg gly has reduced atpase and peptidase activities and degrades some natural sub- strates (e.g., tfam) but not others (e.g., star) (figure b). substrate-restricted protease activity might reflect poor conformational resilience or stability of the p.arg gly holoenzyme, as suggested by co-immunoprecipitation experiments (figure e). in this study, we show that mt-co is upregulated when lon is knocked down in three different cell types, suggest- ing that mt-co is a lon substrate. in codas cells, we observed insolubility and aggregation of mt-co (figure a) but not mt-co , which is similarly hydropho- bic. previous work shows that wild-type lon plays a role in the assembly of the cytochrome c oxidase complex and in its remodeling the during adaptive switching between normoxic and hypoxic conditions. , , work in yeast and mammalian cells suggests that lon promotes cyto- chrome c oxidase assembly through a chaperone function independent of its protease activity. , the american journal of human genetics , – , january the failure of p.arg gly to degrade or chaperone mt-co (and possibly other inner-membrane proteins yet to be identified) might promote protein aggregation and explain the morphological and bioenergetic changes observed in codas cell mitochondria (figures and ). in this study, we examined immortalized b-lcls generated from codas-syndrome-affected probands and their par- ents. because this cell type is not principally affected in codas syndrome, future studies are aimed at employing primary cells and tissue samples as well as cell lines engi- neered with specific codas lonp mutations. natural history and treatment of codas syndrome the high allele frequency (maf ¼ . %, carrier fre- quency ¼ . %) of lonp c. c>g among the amish was unexpected. of all the known pathogenic alleles in the lancaster county amish population, the lonp variant has the second-highest carrier frequency, eclipsed only by that of a founder mutation for ellis-van creveld syndrome (evc; mim ; refseq nm_ . ); c. þ g>t; carrier frequency ¼ . %). the eight known amish codas-syndrome-affected individuals comprise six sibships. in two sibships, three affected children died shortly after birth. one affected fetus was stillborn. given the high allele frequency and perinatal mortality, the amish codas variant might result in a high rate of fetal demise. this could explain an apparent discrepancy between the relatively low birth incidence of codas syndrome and the high allele frequency of lonp c. c>g in the amish population. accurate prenatal diagnosis of codas syndrome has important clinical implications (figure ). newborns , with codas syndrome are likely to struggle through the neonatal transition. for syndrome variants (e.g., p.arg - gly) associated with neonatal vocal-cord paresis, the ability to anticipate and prevent perinatal asphyxiation can be life saving. three of eight ( %) amish codas- syndrome-affected individuals died of airway complica- tions shortly after birth, and one was stillborn. surviving children required intubation, mechanical respiratory support, and tracheostomy. incomplete cardiac septation occurred in % of p.arg gly homozygotes and mani- fested in two cases ( %) as a complete atrioventricular defect. thus, supportive cardiopulmonary care for babies with a suspected or confirmed diagnosis of codas syndrome requires tertiary-level subspecialty services and must begin immediately after birth. a careful, staged approach to subsequent management can allow for rela- tively good cognitive outcome and for independence in affected individuals. supplemental data supplemental data include six figures and two tables and can be found with this article online at http://dx.doi.org/ . / j.ajhg. . . . acknowledgments we thank kimberly jacob, prashant patel, ana quiroz, and jennie silver for technical assistance and d. streck from the molecular genetics laboratory at the rutgers new jersey medical school for next-generation mtdna sequencing. r.n.j., e.g.p., and k.a.s. were supported by howard hughes medical institute undergradu- ate science education awards and . r.n.j. was also supported by the center for research on women and newborn health and by connectcare . i.l. was supported by national science foundation grant che- . c.k.s. was supported in part by national institutes of health grants r gm and r ns and also by the nj health science foundation. the clinic for special children is supported by charitable donations from the communities it serves. received: november , accepted: december , published: january , web resources the urls for data presented herein are as follows: i-tasser online protein structure and function predictions, zhang laboratory, university of michigan, http://zhanglab.ccmb.med. umich.edu/i-tasser/ modeller, https://salilab.org/modeller/ online mendelian inheritance in man (omim), http://www. omim.org refseq: ncbi reference sequence database, http://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/refseq/ sali laboratory, university of california san francisco, http:// salilab.org/index.html samtools, http://samtools.sourceforge.net/ the amer references . shebib, s.m., reed, m.h., shuckett, e.p., cross, h.g., perry, j.b., and chudley, a.e. ( ). newly recognized syndrome of cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, skeletal anomalies: codas syndrome—a case report. am. j. med. genet. , – . . de almeida, j.c., vargas, f.r., barbosa-neto, j.g., and llerena, j.c., jr. ( ). codas syndrome: a new distinct mca/mr syndrome with radiological changes of spondyloe- piphyseal dysplasia. another case report. am. j. med. genet. , – . . innes, a.m., chudley, a.e., reed, m.h., shuckett, e.p., hildes- ripstein, g.e., and greenberg, c.r. ( ). third case of cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, skeletal anomalies (codas) syndrome, further delineating a new malformation syndrome: first report of an affected male and review of literature. am. j. med. genet. , – . . marlin, s., ducou le pointe, h., le merrer, m., portnoi, m.f., chantot, s., jonard, l., mantel-guiochon, a., siffroi, j.p., garabedian, e.n., and denoyelle, f. ( ). fourth case of cerebral, ocular, dental, auricular, skeletal syndrome (codas), description of new features and molecular analysis. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . lee, i., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). functional mechanics of the atp-dependent lon protease- lessons from endogenous pro- tein and synthetic peptide substrates. biochim. biophys. acta , – . . hanson, p.i., and whiteheart, s.w. ( ). aaaþ proteins: have engine, will work. nat. rev. mol. cell biol. , – . . neuwald, a.f., aravind, l., spouge, j.l., and koonin, e.v. ( ). aaaþ: a class of chaperone-like atpases associated with the assembly, operation, and disassembly of protein com- plexes. genome res. , – . . truscott, k.n., lowth, b.r., strack, p.r., and dougan, d.a. ( ). diverse functions of mitochondrial aaaþ proteins: protein activation, disaggregation, and degradation. biochem. cell biol. , – . . venkatesh, s., lee, j., singh, k., lee, i., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). multitasking in the mitochondrion by the atp-depen- dent lon protease. biochim. biophys. acta , – . . jenkinson, e.m., rehman, a.u., walsh, t., clayton-smith, j., lee, k., morell, r.j., drummond, m.c., khan, s.n., naeem, m.a., rauf, b., et al.; university of washington center for mendelian genomics ( ). perrault syndrome is caused by recessive mutations in clpp, encoding a mitochondrial atp- dependent chambered protease. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . casari, g., de fusco, m., ciarmatori, s., zeviani, m., mora, m., fernandez, p., de michele, g., filla, a., cocozza, s., marconi, r., et al. ( ). spastic paraplegia and oxphos impairment caused by mutations in paraplegin, a nuclear-encoded mito- chondrial metalloprotease. cell , – . . bota, d.a., van remmen, h., and davies, k.j. ( ). modula- tion of lon protease activity and aconitase turnover during aging and oxidative stress. febs lett. , – . . bota, d.a., and davies, k.j. ( ). lon protease preferentially degrades oxidized mitochondrial aconitase by an atp-stimu- lated mechanism. nat. cell biol. , – . . ngo, j.k., pomatto, l.c., and davies, k.j. ( ). upregulation of the mitochondrial lon protease allows adaptation to acute oxidative stress but dysregulation is associated with chronic stress, disease, and aging. redox biol. , – . ican journal of human genetics , – , january , http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://dx.doi.org/ . /j.ajhg. . . http://zhanglab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/i-tasser/ http://zhanglab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/i-tasser/ https://salilab.org/modeller/ http://www.omim.org http://www.omim.org http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/refseq/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/refseq/ http://salilab.org/index.html http://salilab.org/index.html http://samtools.sourceforge.net/ . quiros, p.m., espanol, y., acin-perez, r., rodriguez, f., barcena, c., watanabe, k., calvo, e., loureiro, m., fernan- dez-garcia, m.s., fueyo, a., et al. ( ). atp-dependent lon protease controls tumor bioenergetics by reprogramming mitochondrial activity. cell rep. , – . . hori, o., ichinoda, f., tamatani, t., yamaguchi, a., sato, n., ozawa, k., kitao, y., miyazaki, m., harding, h.p., ron, d., et al. ( ). transmission of cell stress from endoplasmic reticulum to mitochondria: enhanced expression of lon pro- tease. j. cell biol. , – . . fukuda, r., zhang, h., kim, j.w., shimoda, l., dang, c.v., and semenza, g.l. ( ). hif- regulates cytochrome oxidase subunits to optimize efficiency of respiration in hypoxic cells. cell , – . . tian, q., li, t., hou, w., zheng, j., schrum, l.w., and bonkovsky, h.l. ( ). lon peptidase (lonp )-dependent breakdown of mitochondrial -aminolevulinic acid synthase protein by heme in human liver cells. j. biol. chem. , – . . granot, z., kobiler, o., melamed-book, n., eimerl, s., bahat, a., lu, b., braun, s., maurizi, m.r., suzuki, c.k., oppenheim, a.b., and orly, j. ( ). turnover of mitochondrial steroido- genic acute regulatory (star) protein by lon protease: the un- expected effect of proteasome inhibitors. mol. endocrinol. , – . . wohlever, m.l., baker, t.a., and sauer, r.t. ( ). roles of the n domain of the aaaþ lon protease in substrate recognition, allosteric regulation and chaperone activity. mol. microbiol. , – . . rep, m., van dijl, j.m., suda, k., schatz, g., grivell, l.a., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). promotion of mitochondrial membrane complex assembly by a proteolytically inactive yeast lon. science , – . . suzuki, c.k., suda, k., wang, n., and schatz, g. ( ). requirement for the yeast gene lon in intramitochondrial proteolysis and maintenance of respiration. science , – . . van dyck, l., pearce, d.a., and sherman, f. ( ). pim encodes a mitochondrial atp-dependent protease that is required for mitochondrial function in the yeast saccharo- myces cerevisiae. j. biol. chem. , – . . lu, b., liu, t., crosby, j.a., thomas-wohlever, j., lee, i., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). the atp-dependent lon protease of mus musculus is a dna-binding protein that is functionally conserved between yeast and mammals. gene , – . . fu, g.k., and markovitz, d.m. ( ). the human lon prote- ase binds to mitochondrial promoters in a single-stranded, site- specific, strand-specific manner. biochemistry , – . . liu, t., lu, b., lee, i., ondrovicová, g., kutejová, e., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). dna and rna binding by the mitochon- drial lon protease is regulated by nucleotide and protein sub- strate. j. biol. chem. , – . . chen, s.h., suzuki, c.k., and wu, s.h. ( ). thermody- namic characterization of specific interactions between the human lon protease and g-quartet dna. nucleic acids res. , – . . lohr, n.j., molleston, j.p., strauss, k.a., torres-martinez, w., sherman, e.a., squires, r.h., rider, n.l., chikwava, k.r., cummings, o.w., morton, d.h., and puffenberger, e.g. ( ). human itch e ubiquitin ligase deficiency causes syndromic multisystem autoimmune disease. am. j. hum. genet. , – . the american journal of human genetics , – , january . puffenberger, e.g., hu-lince, d., parod, j.m., craig, d.w., dobrin, s.e., conway, a.r., donarum, e.a., strauss, k.a., dunckley, t., cardenas, j.f., et al. ( ). mapping of sudden infant death with dysgenesis of the testes syndrome (siddt) by a snp genome scan and identification of tspyl loss of function. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . puffenberger, e.g., strauss, k.a., ramsey, k.e., craig, d.w., stephan, d.a., robinson, d.l., hendrickson, c.l., gottlieb, s., ramsay, d.a., siu, v.m., et al. ( ). polyhydramnios, megalencephaly and symptomatic epilepsy caused by a homozygous -kilobase deletion in lyk . brain , – . . sherman, e.a., strauss, k.a., tortorelli, s., bennett, m.j., knerr, i., morton, d.h., and puffenberger, e.g. ( ). genetic mapping of glutaric aciduria, type , to chromosome and identification of mutations in c orf . am. j. hum. genet. , – . . strauss, k.a., puffenberger, e.g., bunin, n., rider, n.l., morton, m.c., eastman, j.t., rd, and morton, d.h. ( ). clinical application of dna microarrays: molecular diagnosis and hla matching of an amish child with severe combined immune deficiency. clin. immunol. , – . . strauss, k.a., puffenberger, e.g., craig, d.w., panganiban, c.b., lee, a.m., hu-lince, d., stephan, d.a., and morton, d.h. ( ). genome-wide snp arrays as a diagnostic tool: clinical description, genetic mapping, and molecular charac- terization of salla disease in an old order mennonite popula- tion. am. j. med. genet. a. a, – . . gnirke, a., melnikov, a., maguire, j., rogov, p., leproust, e.m., brockman, w., fennell, t., giannoukos, g., fisher, s., russ, c., et al. ( ). solution hybrid selection with ultra-long oligo- nucleotides for massively parallel targeted sequencing. nat. biotechnol. , – . . puffenberger, e.g., jinks, r.n., sougnez, c., cibulskis, k., willert, r.a., achilly, n.p., cassidy, r.p., fiorentini, c.j., heiken, k.f., lawrence, j.j., et al. ( ). genetic mapping and exome sequencing identify variants associated with five novel diseases. plos one , e . . puffenberger, e.g., jinks, r.n., wang, h., xin, b., fiorentini, c., sherman, e.a., degrazio, d., shaw, c., sougnez, c., cibul- skis, k., et al. ( ). a homozygous missense mutation in herc associated with global developmental delay and autism spectrum disorder. hum. mutat. , – . . depristo, m.a., banks, e., poplin, r., garimella, k.v., maguire, j.r., hartl, c., philippakis, a.a., del angel, g., rivas, m.a., hanna, m., et al. ( ). a framework for variation discovery and genotyping using next-generation dna sequencing data. nat. genet. , – . . duman, r.e., and löwe, j. ( ). crystal structures of bacillus subtilis lon protease. j. mol. biol. , – . . bernstein, s.h., venkatesh, s., li, m., lee, j., lu, b., hilchey, s.p., morse, k.m., metcalfe, h.m., skalska, j., andreeff, m., et al. ( ). the mitochondrial atp-dependent lon protease: a novel target in lymphoma death mediated by the synthetic triterpenoid cddo and its derivatives. blood , – . . lee, i., and berdis, a.j. ( ). adenosine triphosphate-depen- dent degradation of a fluorescent lambda n substrate mimic by lon protease. anal. biochem. , – . . lu, b., lee, j., nie, x., li, m., morozov, y.i., venkatesh, s., bogenhagen, d.f., temiakov, d., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). phosphorylation of human tfam in mitochondria impairs , dna binding and promotes degradation by the aaaþ lon protease. mol. cell , – . . bradford, m.m. ( ). a rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. anal. biochem. , – . . pace, c.n., vajdos, f., fee, l., grimsley, g., and gray, t. ( ). how to measure and predict the molar absorption coefficient of a protein. protein sci. , – . . ondrovicová, g., liu, t., singh, k., tian, b., li, h., gakh, o., perecko, d., janata, j., granot, z., orly, j., et al. ( ). cleav- age site selection within a folded substrate by the atp- dependent lon protease. j. biol. chem. , – . . fishovitz, j., li, m., frase, h., hudak, j., craig, s., ko, k., berdis, a.j., suzuki, c.k., and lee, i. ( ). active-site- directed chemical tools for profiling mitochondrial lon prote- ase. acs chem. biol. , – . . lu, b., yadav, s., shah, p.g., liu, t., tian, b., pukszta, s., villaluna, n., kutejová, e., newlon, c.s., santos, j.h., and suzuki, c.k. ( ). roles for the human atp-dependent lon protease in mitochondrial dna maintenance. j. biol. chem. , – . . di sant’agnese, p.a., and de mesy-jensen, k.l. ( ). diag- nostic electron microscopy on reembedded (‘‘popped off’’) areas of large spurr epoxy sections. ultrastruct. pathol. , – . . dimauro, s., schon, e.a., carelli, v., and hirano, m. ( ). the clinical maze of mitochondrial neurology. nat rev neurol , – . . barshop, b.a. ( ). metabolomic approaches to mitochon- drial disease: correlation of urine organic acids. mitochon- drion , – . . botos, i., melnikov, e.e., cherry, s., tropea, j.e., khalatova, a.g., rasulova, f., dauter, z., maurizi, m.r., rotanova, t.v., wlodawer, a., and gustchina, a. ( ). the catalytic domain of escherichia coli lon protease has a unique fold and a ser-lys dyad in the active site. j. biol. chem. , – . . thomas-wohlever, j., and lee, i. ( ). kinetic characteriza- tion of the peptidase activity of escherichia coli lon reveals the mechanistic similarities in atp-dependent hydrolysis of peptide and protein substrates. biochemistry , – . . matsushima, y., goto, y., and kaguni, l.s. ( ). mitochon- drial lon protease regulates mitochondrial dna copy number and transcription by selective degradation of mitochondrial transcription factor a (tfam). proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . wong, t.s., rajagopalan, s., freund, s.m., rutherford, t.j., andreeva, a., townsley, f.m., petrovich, m., and fersht, a.r. ( ). biophysical characterizations of human mitochon- drial transcription factor a and its binding to tumor suppres- sor p . nucleic acids res. , – . . jin, s.m., and youle, r.j. ( ). the accumulation of mis- folded proteins in the mitochondrial matrix is sensed by pink to induce park /parkin-mediated mitophagy of polar- ized mitochondria. autophagy , – . . thomas, r.e., andrews, l.a., burman, j.l., lin, w.y., and pallanck, l.j. ( ). pink -parkin pathway activity is regu- the amer lated by degradation of pink in the mitochondrial matrix. plos genet. , e . . um, j.w., stichel-gunkel, c., lübbert, h., lee, g., and chung, k.c. ( ). molecular interaction between parkin and pink in mammalian neuronal cells. mol. cell. neurosci. , – . . lin, w., and kang, u.j. ( ). characterization of pink pro- cessing, stability, and subcellular localization. j. neurochem. , – . . quirós, p.m., español, y., acı́n-pérez, r., rodrı́guez, f., bárcena, c., watanabe, k., calvo, e., loureiro, m., fernán- dez-garcı́a, m.s., fueyo, a., et al. ( ). atp-dependent lon protease controls tumor bioenergetics by reprogramming mitochondrial activity. cell rep. , – . . guha, s., lópez-maury, l., shaw, m., bähler, j., norbury, c.j., and agashe, v.r. ( ). transcriptional and cellular re- sponses to defective mitochondrial proteolysis in fission yeast. j. mol. biol. , – . . mannella, c.a. ( ). structure and dynamics of the mito- chondrial inner membrane cristae. biochim. biophys. acta , – . . scorrano, l., ashiya, m., buttle, k., weiler, s., oakes, s.a., mannella, c.a., and korsmeyer, s.j. ( ). a distinct pathway remodels mitochondrial cristae and mobilizes cytochrome c during apoptosis. dev. cell , – . . smakowska, e., czarna, m., and janska, h. ( ). mitochon- drial atp-dependent proteases in protection against accumu- lation of carbonylated proteins. mitochondrion (pt b), – . . teng, h., wu, b., zhao, k., yang, g., wu, l., and wang, r. ( ). oxygen-sensitive mitochondrial accumulation of cys- tathionine b-synthase mediated by lon protease. proc. natl. acad. sci. usa , – . . solheim, c., li, l., hatzopoulos, p., and millar, a.h. ( ). loss of lon in arabidopsis changes the mitochondrial prote- ome leading to altered metabolite profiles and growth retarda- tion without an accumulation of oxidative damage. plant physiol. , – . . di fonzo, a., ronchi, d., lodi, t., fassone, e., tigano, m., lamperti, c., corti, s., bordoni, a., fortunato, f., nizzardo, m., et al. ( ). the mitochondrial disulfide relay system pro- tein gfer is mutated in autosomal-recessive myopathy with cataract and combined respiratory-chain deficiency. am. j. hum. genet. , – . . hirano, m., nishigaki, y., and martı́, r. ( ). mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (mngie): a dis- ease of two genomes. neurologist , – . . koopman, w.j., distelmaier, f., smeitink, j.a., and willems, p.h. ( ). oxphos mutations and neurodegeneration. embo j. , – . . breuer, m.e., koopman, w.j., koene, s., nooteboom, m., rodenburg, r.j., willems, p.h., and smeitink, j.a. ( ). the role of mitochondrial oxphos dysfunction in the devel- opment of neurologic diseases. neurobiol. dis. , – . . wilman, h.r., shi, j., and deane, c.m. ( ). helix kinks are equally prevalent in soluble and membrane proteins. proteins , – . ican journal of human genetics , – , january , 	codas syndrome is associated with mutations of lonp , encoding mitochondrial aaa+ lon protease 	introduction 	subjects and methods 	subjects 	molecular genetics 	molecular modeling 	cdna constructs 	purification of recombinant lon 	enzymatic assays 	peptidase and protease assays 	atpase assay 	cell culture 	mitochondrial localization 	immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation 	transmission electron microscopy 	quantitative pcr (qpcr) determination of mtdna copy number 	mitochondrial oxygen-consumption measurements 	results 	molecular genetic studies 	phenotype associated with codas syndrome 	prenatal presentation of codas syndrome 	location of amino acids altered in codas syndrome within the homology model of lon 	recombinant codas proteins show substrate-specific defects in enzymatic activity 	impaired homo-oligomerization of transiently expressed r g 	normal mtdna copy number and lon substrate levels in immortalized codas lymphoblast cell lines 	abnormal mitochondrial morphology in codas lymphoblast cell lines 	reduced mt-co and src in codas mitochondria 	discussion 	pathophysiology of codas syndrome 	pathogenic amino acid changes in codas syndrome cluster in the aaa+ domain 	functional consequences of homozygous lon p.arg gly in human cells 	natural history and treatment of codas syndrome 	supplemental data 	acknowledgments 	web resources 	references wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ ^ ^ ' ^ -'' v: : / ' ' : ' ' the american university department of history in cooperation with the national archives and records service, gsa library of congress, and maryland hall of records announces the thirty-third institute: introduction to modern archives administration september - , national archives building pennsylvania avenue and th street, nw washington, d.c. for details and application forms, write department of history thirty-third archives institute the american university massachusetts and nebraska avenues, nw washington, d.c. , or telephone ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril bertha bassam lecture series th open lecture training in information sciences an interdisciplinary approach main speaker: d a v i d l a r s o n panelists: william benedon frank dolan dolores donnelly hugh taylor archives — library coordinator, ohio historical society chief, records management, lockheed aircraft corporation professor of information science, university of western ontario professor of library science, university of toronto director, historical branch, public archives of canada saturday, april lecture: : a.m. panel: : p.m. faculty of library science st. george st. university of toronto address pre-registration and enquiries to: bertha bassam lecture alumni house university of toronto wilcocks st. toronto, ontario sponsored by university of toronto faculty of library science alumni association and the toronto area archivists group d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes clark w. nelson, editor records managers certification. members of the american rec- ords management association and the association of records execu- tives and administrators have been working for many years to develop a certification program for records managers. their efforts have finally brought about an examination program for which the first group of candidates have taken the examination. to administer this emerging program, the arma and area or- ganizations have each chosen five members who will form the initial governing board. after the organizational meeting of these represen- tatives, an institute of certified records managers will be formed to handle the records certification program for both societies. icrm is to be operated independently of both arma and area, with its sole function being the certification of individuals who meet the stipulated qualifications. individuals named to serve on the first icrm board of regents include: william benedon, lockheed aircraft corp.; maj. stanley gordon, city of los angeles; dudley f. judd, exxon corp.; h. j. koenig, recently retired from the national archives and records service; t. w. mitchell, state of north carolina; mrs. katherine a. mutchler, lever bros. co.; col. s. j. pomerenze, department of the army; mary f. robek, eastern michigan university; william l. rofes, ibm corp.; and l. ruth thomas, national archives and records service. fire publications. the current issue of spotlight, published by the national fire protection association, atlantic ave., boston, mass. , lists a variety of new and popular fire-prevention publications and visual aids. the leaflet features special prices on certain collected packages of this reference material. the -volume. set of the new ig national fire codes is described. a -page, fingertip guide on the handling of emergencies and critical accidents by chief charles w. bahme is also noted. this spiral-bound volume is entitled fire officers guide to emergency action and lists for $ . a new basic-training pro- gram for teaching fire protection in industry, business, and schools is of readers are encouraged to send contributions to this department and should address them to clark w. nelson, archivist, mayo foundation, rochester, minn. . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april interest. it is designed to increase employees' awareness of fire safe- ty. the course materials include an instructor's manual, color slides, a fire protection handbook reference text, the -volume set of the national fire codes, and a -page fire-brigade training manual. the course focuses on organizing for fire safety, the nature and theory of fire-hazard control, sources of ignition, fire protection equipment, fire control operations, and restoring normal operations. the com- plete package, with thirty-five attendance certificates, lists at $ . a smaller package, omitting the major reference works, is available for $ . computer output microfilm essay. connis o. brown, jr., of the virginia state library has privately published an essay, computer output microfilm and the state archivist: opportunity and responsibility (an ap- proach to the administration of modern state archives). t h e contents of the paper are as follows: introduction, defining nature of the prob- lem, com capability, the organizational placement of com, com and the evaluation of modern archives, com: opportunity for the modern archivist, responsibilities of the antiquarian archivist, and summary and conclusion. according to brown, "this work focuses on three matters of particu- lar interest to the archivist, records manager, and data processor in state government: ( ) the continuing reorganization of state agencies, including the archives, ( ) the difficulties that have been encountered in preserving and making available the data-processed archives of the s and early s, and ( ) the impact of computer technology on the methods and procedures of archival practice. for illustrative purposes, the essay examines the application of computer-output microfilm in state government, with emphasis on the archival capability of the process; however, the principles described are readily applicable to other types of records programs." brown further notes that, "it is judged necessary to publish this essay outside the established professional literature in order to communicate directly and promptly with the state government officials responsible for and concerned with the preservation and administration of modern archives. unfortunately, many archival programs have mistaken the tools of the manuscript librarian for the substance of the archival profession and the antiquarian archivists have become enamoured with the hollinger box and the barrow laminator. this essay is a statement illustrating a professional view of the archival responsibility." copies of the essay may be ordered directly from brown at i - g derbyshire rd., richmond, va. . it is available in paper for $ per copy and in microfiche for cents. national archives word processing. word processing has finally been organizationally recognized in the national archives and records service. ruth thomas, who has been a senior management analyst for the office of records management, nars, has recently been reas- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril technical notes signed to the interagency reports and standard forms division. in her new position, she will have managerial responsibility for inter- agency reports and word processing programs. the program is a new one for nars. it is designed to promote government-wide use of word processing at the lowest possible cost. it is envisioned that this will be accomplished through the combined use of systems management procedures, automated technology, and well- trained personnel. under the program, consultant services will be provided to other government agencies, word processing regulations will be developed, and a government-wide inventory of word processing systems de- veloped. the program will also provide an interface between gov- ernment and industry of the developments and what's new in word processing. new government publications. during the past months, a number of new government publications have appeared dealing with records management practices. the general services administration issued "records management program evaluation guidelines" from the nars office of records management. records managers will find information on a general records management program, correspon- dence management, reports management, forms management, direc- tives management, and some other areas of interest. the work is available from the u.s. government printing office, washington, d.c. . records personnel will also find some reports to congress of in- terest. a general introduction to com is found in "increased use of computer-output-microfilm by federal agencies could result in savings" (b-i ). this report includes the advantages and disad- vantages of com use in federal agencies. conclusions and recom- mendations are given. the second report, "ways to improve record management practices in the federal government" (b- ), tells how such practices can be upgraded. it also shows how records retention periods can be reduced and the internal operations of federal records centers improved. the reports are available from the u.s. general accounting office, room , g street nw., washington, d.c. , for $ each. massachusetts conservation project. the new england document conservation center, north andover, massachusetts, is conducting a year-long public library materials conservation project for the mas- sachusetts bureau of library extension. funds for the project are made available under a grant from title i, library services and con- struction act. project objectives are to inform administrators and librarians of the need for long-range planning in the preservation and use of library materials, provide practical training in preventive conser- vation measures and preservation techniques, and provide incentives to massachusetts public libraries for use of nedcc services. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april the new england document conservation center was established in april by the new england library board as authorized by the terms of an agreement, subscribed to by the six new england in- terstate library compact administrators. the document conserva- tion center provides restoration services and guidance in the manage- ment of conservation programs by public libraries; state and local archival agencies; and private, non-profit historical, educational and cultural institutions in new england on an "at cost" basis. inquiries about services offered to new england states by the docu- ment conservation center should be addressed to george m. cunha, director, new england document conservation center, mas- sachusetts ave., north andover, mass. . inquiries about the public library materials project in massachusetts should be addressed to howard lowell, project officer, bureau of library extension, beacon street, boston, mass. . clamshell manuscript send for price quotation on your size and antity requirements. clamshell these boxes are cloth covered, cloth hinged and lined with permalife, the years life expectancy paper. unsur- passed for storing valuable documents. pohlig bros. inc th & franklin streets richmond, virginia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes f. p. dowling, editor this department is intended to include brief reports of events, new programs, significant new accessions and openings, publications, educa- tion and training opportunities, and other news of professional interest to members of the society. in some cases, information has been furnished by one or more of the several reporters mentioned below. in addition, news notes have been abstracted from publicity releases and news letters sent to the american archivist and to the national archives library. members are urged to contribute items for this department. infor- mation can be sent direct to the editor, american archivist, national archives building, washington, d.c. , or to one of the following reporters: news of state and local archives to julian l. mims, south carolina department of archives and history, box , , capitol station, columbia, s.c. ; news of manuscript repositories to carolyn h. sung, manuscript division, library of congress, washington, d.c. ; news of scientific and technological ar- chives to maynard j. brichford, university archivist, library, univer- sity of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, illinois, ; news of religious archives to john r. woodard, jr., baptist historical collec- tion, wake forest university, box , reynolda station, winston- salem, n.c. ; news of regional and state archival associations to alice m. vestal, cincinnati historical society, eden park, cincinnati, ohio ; bicentennial news to adrienne thomas, nda, national archives and records service, washington, d.c. ; and news of canadian institutions to j. atherton, public archives of canada, wellington street, ottawa, ontario kia on . the archives of the american library association is seeking photo- graphs relating to the history of ala and the development of libraries and librarianship. photographs of individuals, groups, and library buildings are of special interest when they are identified by name, date, and location. anyone desiring to contribute such photographs is invited to write to ala archives, library, university of illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, . . the american philosophical society, philadelphia, has just received the personal papers of edward u. condon ( - ). condon's d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april research interests included quantum mechanics, atomic and molecular spectra, and nuclear and solid-state physics. two major new accessions have been announced by the archives of american art, a subsidiary of the smithsonian institution. the pa- pers and records of joseph cornell and moses soyer have been given by the families of the late artists. the soyer papers are available to qualified researchers, but scholars wishing to research the cornell papers must direct written requests to the director. both collections contain thousands of items now being microfilmed for distribution to the five regional centers of the archives, in washington, new york, detroit, boston, and san francisco. other recent accessions include sketches and drawings by samuel chamberlain (b. ) and allen howard cox ( - ). the efforts of george anthony dondero ( - ) to alert congress and the public to the alleged dangers of communism in the arts supply the theme of his papers from to . the records of the gardner museum in boston and the personal papers of isabella stewart gardner cover the period from to , and include her photographs and letters. the university of arizona is seeking documents and recollections regarding astronomer gerard kuiper. for further information please contact ewen a. whitaker, lunar and planetary laboratory, university of arizona, tucson, ariz. . the university of arkansas library has completed the arrangement and preliminary description of its initial accession of the personal papers of u.s. senator james william fulbright, and limited research access may now be had to this first series ( - ). interim finding aids consisting of a file-title inventory and an index to the file titles are available. inquiries may be addressed to: curator, special collections, university library, university of arkansas, fayetteville, ark. . the u.s. army military history research collection, carlisle bar- racks, pennsylvania, announces the acquisition of most of the holdings of the massachusetts commandery of the military order of the loyal legion of the united states. the commandery's library contains approximately , books and pamphlets on the civil war. unpub- lished material includes institutional papers of the veterans group plus personal and official wartime and postwar manuscripts of partici- pants. perhaps most important are , photographs of leaders, soldiers, units, camps, and battlefields, many of the photos never before published. the auburn university archives has received the papers of several noteworthy alabama congressmen. the senator james lawrence pugh collection ( - ) includes three scrapbooks of newspaper clippings about his career and contemporary political developments, a d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes brief biographical sketch, pugh's reminiscences, and a speech by pugh concerning the th congress, - . the papers of congressman george william andrews span his career from - . this collec- tion, totaling , pieces, consists primarily of official and personal correspondence, newspaper clippings, financial records, photographs, movie film, and miscellaneous printed materials. there is extensive correspondence for the period - , concerning patronage dis- tribution in the third district of alabama. much of andrew's corre- spondence deals with his role in the development of rivers and dams in the third district. his daily correspondence with constituents during the s is highly revealing of public opinion on such issues as vietnam withdrawal, campus unrest, drug abuse, pornography, and civil rights. significant correspondents include: governors james fol- som, john patterson, albert brewer, and george wallace; and senators barry goldwater, everett dirksen, john sparkman, and lister hill. the papers of congressman william flynt nichols cover his careers in the alabama house and senate, - , and in the u.s. house of representatives, - . this collection of , pieces consists largely of official and personal correspondence, newspaper clippings, financial records, photographs, and miscellaneous printed materials. there are numerous questionnaires and constituent opinion ballots that give some indication of public opinion on such issues as bussing and vietnam withdrawal. much of the correspondence is concerned with the fha, farm bureau, house agriculture committee, armed services committee, selective service, and the cia. the con- gressman luther patrick collection covers his career from - and includes official and personal correspondence, newspaper clip- pings, speeches, photographs, radio scripts, unpublished poetry and prose, phonograph records, tape-recordings, and scrapbooks. the correspondence covers the period - and includes the following correspondents: estes kefauver, adlai stevenson, eleanor roosevelt, senators lister hill and john sparkman, governor james folsom, and alben barkley. there are several letters concerning the montgomery bus boycott of and the democratic convention of . researchers desiring to use any of these collections should write to: allen w. jones, university archivist, department of archives, auburn university, auburn, ala. . the regional oral history office of the bancroft library, univer- sity of california at berkeley, was established to house tape-recordings of significance to western history. interviews related to books and printings and to the wine industry in the san francisco bay area have been completed. the series on the california wine industry includes interviews of wine industry members and university research men, some of whose recollections extend to the first decade of this century. in addition, an oral history memoir ( - ) of percy h. mcgauhey, emeritus professor of sanitary engineering and public health, has been completed as has an oral history memoir of social welfare leader helen d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april valeska barry ( - ), entitled "labor administration and social security, a woman's life," part of the suffragists oral history project funded by the rockefeller foundation. boston university's megar memorial library has received the pa- pers of physicist lancelot law whyte ( - ), and these are arranged and available for research use. the collection documents whyte's work in the philosophical as well as other aspects of physics. the california institute of technology archives has accessioned papers of walter s. adams ( - ), primarily correspondence on the development of palomar observatory and his astronomical work at mount wilson observatory ( - ). also included are the records of the institute's division of astronomy, mathematics, and physics, with correspondence, drawings, and other materials documenting the build- ing of palomar observatory. the cinema library at the university of southern california has added the ronald reagan collection, including death valley days radio scripts ( - ), through the cooperation of j. neil reagan, the former governor's brother. also received during the summer was early silent film material from anthony slide, noted film historian, including taped interviews with pioneer film personalities lillian gish, anita loos, blanche sweet, and ruth waterbury. there are also files of correspondence and photographs covering such personalities as marion davies, mary pickford, harold lloyd, hal roach, and charles "buddy" rogers. the university of chicago library has received letters sent from albert einstein to walther mayer ( - ) documenting the de- velopment of the unified field theory and the personal activities of einstein and mayer during the nazi rise to power. the papers are part of the schaffner collection on the history of science. personal recollections of french army and navy officers who fought in the american revolution are to be found in the archives of the society of the cincinnati, located in anderson house, washington, d.c. founded on may , , the society included among its charter members the renowned lafayette, the comte d'estaing, comte de talleyrand-perigord, the due de laval, the baron de montesquieu, the vicomte de mirabeau, and the comte de fersen, friend of queen marie antoinette. one of the foremost acquisitions of the year for columbia univer- sity is nikita khrushchev's oral reminiscences, hours of fascinating ruminations by the world's most celebrated prisoner in the years before his death in . the tapes came into the oral history collection through marshall shulman, director of the russian institute, who got them from time, inc., which provided a voice print authenticating the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes tapes and, beyond this, funded a verbatim transcript and index of them in russian. a gathering of the world's leading sovietologists sampled the material at columbia in april , and the material was to become available on a "permission required" basis in . other russian additions are the reminiscences of count george strogonov-sherbatov, elicited by marc raeff and funded by mrs. lloyd hilton smith. at the university of delaware, the national endowment for the humanities is supporting a project designed to develop a new model for history courses. under the direction of willard fletcher, chairman of the university's department of history, a series of undergraduate seminars in american, european, and latin american history will be developed over a two-year period enabling students to explore histori- cal topics by working directly with the audiovisual collections of the national archives. the national endowment for the humanities has announced the funding of a project initiated by the recently formed dunlap society to enhance appreciation of america's artistic heritage. the project, to receive $ , , will develop a complete visual record of a select number of major buildings in the nation's capital from the first ar- chitectural drawings through various remodelings to their present appearance. the dunlap society plans that the nation's capital proj- ect will become the core of a central archives of visual documentation of all aspects of american art including painting, sculpture, and folk art. named after william dunlap who, in the s, was the first historian to pay serious attention to american art; the society was recently formed out of concern for the neglect of studies in american art and the lack of research and visual materials in that field. the society's activities are guided by an initial advisory council of twenty members who work in diverse aspects of american art. president bates lowry, of the department of visual arts, university of mas- sachusetts, boston, is an architectural historian, author, and a former director of the museum of modern art, in new york city. recent acquisitions of the east carolina manuscript collection, east carolina university, greenville, n.c., include some collections related to world war ii naval operations. the papers of vice admiral jules james include material on south atlantic and mediterranean naval operations; papers of vice admiral walden lee ainsworth shed light on naval operations in the solomon islands, and the papers of rear admiral william alexander kirkland reflect his duties as commander in the mediterranean theater. the library of congress is making part of the wpa's federal theater project collection available to researchers through a coopera- tive arrangement with george mason university which will assist in developing the collection. this includes thousands of playscripts, theater posters, photographs, radio scripts, set and costume designs d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april and research documents, housed until the transfer in a library of congress warehouse at middle river, maryland. the library of congress retains ownership of the materials, but most of the ftp collection is expected to remain at george mason university. the harvard university archives has received administrative rec- ords of the cambridge electron accelerator ( - ); a collection deposited by astronomer donald h. menzel, including correspondence ( - ) and records of his course in cryptanalysis ( - ); records of the international astronomical union and of the associated univer- sities for research in astronomy; and papers of stanley smith stevens ( - ), including personal files and materials pertaining to the psychoacoustics laboratory. the university of illinois at chicago circle has received a grant of up to $ , from the national endowment for the humanities for the -microfilming and editing of the papers of jane addams, a cofoun- der of the social settlement, hull-house and a leader in the reform movement of the early twentieth century. recent accessions of the university's manuscript section include supplements to collections as follows: the saul alinsky papers, office files of the industrial area foundation, including information on the woodlawn organization ( - ); the chicago board of trade rec- ords ( - ), including market reports, executive documents, correspondence, minutes, and reports; and the papers ( - ) of lee demarest taylor relating to jane addams, the chicago commons, and the national federation of settlements. the illinois state historical library has accessioned the records of the illinois state federation of labor and congress of industrial organizations, from the federation offices in springfield ( - ). the records generally reflect the work of reuben g. soderstrom ( - ), president from - . l. quincy mumford, eleventh librarian of congress, retired de- cember , , after serving at the request of the president for a year past the date of his intended retirement. in a special announcement to the staff of the library of congress, john g. lorenz was named acting librarian of congress until a librarian of congress is named by the president and confirmed by the senate. roy p. basler, chief of the manuscript division, library of con- gress, retired in december after more than twenty-two years of service. he is succeeded by john c. broderick who joined the library staff in as manuscript historian-specialist in american cultural history. broderick, a graduate of the university of north carolina, specialized in american literary history and english during his teaching career at wake forest university and the universities of virginia, d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes texas, and north carolina. he is the author of a number of articles, pamphlets, and textbooks in his field. the manuscript division has announced the acquisition of a ninety- one-page manuscript by james mchenry ( - ) justifying his conduct as secretary of war between may and , when he was forced to resign under combined pressures from elements of the public and of congress, and particularly from president adams. as a con- sequence of the congressional attempt to investigate mchenry's expen- ditures as a cabinet officer, he prepared this defense which was read in the house of representatives on december , , and privately printed in . an extensive addition to the american colonization society papers in the library is the microfilm of the liberian records in the london public records office ( - ). the papers of sir henry howard ( - ), british diplomat serving in peking ( - ), and those of eugene meyer ( - ), owner-publisher of the washington post as well as banker and government official, who served with the advisory council on national defense and the federal reserve board, have also been accessioned. the hans p. kraus collection of manuscript items relating to the history and culture of spanish america in the colonial period has been made fully available in microfilm form and is located in the manuscript reading room. the collection includes letters and documents relating to the explorers amerigo vespucci, giovanni de verrazzano, and alvar nunez cabeza de vaca. included in the collection are contemporary colonial writings that document the government of new spain (mexico), the workings of the inquisition, taxation and economic condi- tions in the colonies, spanish relationships with the indians and the french, and the loss of parts of the spanish empire to american encroachment. the impact of the post-world war ii civil-rights movement is reflected in the , -item collection given this year to the library of congress by the leadership conference on civil rights. the bulk of the records covers only a decade ( - ) and consists largely of correspondence, position of procedural papers, related news items, and reports. in the scientific field, the library has acquired the papers of john von neumann ( - ), hungarian-born mathematician who made fundamental contributions to the quantum theory, to the development of computers, and to the development of the atomic bomb. his giant computer, designed at princeton, made it possible for the united states to build and test the first full-scale model of a hydrogen bomb in . t h e library has also acquired the personal papers of carl eckart ( - ) relating to physics and geophysics ( - ), as well as his administrative files pertaining to the university of california at san diego and the scripps institution of oceanography ( - ). the maryland historical society has received a large collection of d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april correspondence, account books, diaries, deeds, and other papers of the shriver family, of union mills, maryland. much of the material concerns politics and the operation of the family mills from the s to the ig os. the society also acquired the business papers ( - ) of hamilton downs, merchant of williamsport, maryland; and book of accounts ( - ) of thomas moale, baltimore merchant, which includes notations for sales of slaves and property. the society has received a large group of records and other mate- rials, from the firm of robert garrett & sons, inc., through harrison garrett. covering the period from to , the records include over volumes and several boxes of loose papers and provides not only a complete chronicle of the company's history, but also records of other baltimore businesses owned or financed by the garrett family. most important of these is the collection from eutaw house, a leading baltimore hotel of the mid-nineteenth century. in cooperation with the essex institute of salem and the national archives, the archives division of the commonwealth of mas- sachusetts is undertaking an inventory of all historic documents held, whether in public or private hands, in the state. reporting forms will be circulated and the results of the survey will be compiled with a view toward publishing a catalog and determining what preservation needs exist. this will be the first time that such a complete survey has been taken. existing descriptions of holdings (in the hamer guide and nucmc, for example) are being examined and recorded to save institutions the work of duplicating what they have already reported. in addition, the forms will be forwarded to the national archives and the library of congress for inclusion in the planned new edition of the hamer guide and, where applicable, in nucmc. holding institutions will thus be bothered as little as possible in reporting the same informa- tion more than once. the statewide inventory is being directed by james m. o'toole, newly appointed assistant chief of the archives. the michigan historical collection of the university of michigan has recently accessioned the papers of william h. stoneman, foreign correspondent for the chicago daily news for over forty years. papers concerning the italian-ethiopian war ( - ), the impending out- break of the second world war from london and paris, and the development of the hungarian rebellion of are included as well as correspondence with adlai stevenson, william shirer, and other journalists and world figures. the papers of james oliver curwood ( - ), popular novelist and motion picture producer, reflect his lifelong interest in the conservation of america's natural resources. the finnish-american collections have also been increased by mi- crofilm additions of correspondence between immigrants and their families, and other manuscripts. the microfilms were obtained through the cooperation of the university of turku, finland, and suomi college, hancock, michigan. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the minnesota historical society recently opened for research the papers of clark macgregor (b. ), with some restrictions. the papers ( - ) relate to his career as a u.s. congressman ( - ) and reflect his concern with urban problems, civil rights, governmental ethics, and international relations. also included are materials emanating from his activities during the republican national conven- tions of and , and as minnesota chairman and midwest chairman of the nixon-for-president committee, in . the society is expanding its search for papers of well-known min- nesota women, and recently has accessioned several new collections. among these are the eugenie moore anderson papers ( - ) recording her political activities in senator hubert humphrey's presidential campaign; the rhoda lund papers ( - ), centering on her political activities in behalf of the republican party and includ- ing her records of richard nixon's presidential campaign. the papers of abigail quigley mccarthy, covering the period from to , also shed light on the presidential campaign of . the montana historical society has acquired the christian and casey barthelmess memorial collection, consisting of several hundred negatives from original photographs depicting life in eastern montana before the turn of the century. the photographs are the work of christian barthelmess, an amateur photographer who enlisted in the u.s. army in as a musician and who frequented the northern cheyenne reservation. the emphasis is on army frontier life and cheyenne history. the photographer's son, casey barthelmess, pre- served and identified his father's work. the national archives and records service and cbs, inc., have agreed to establish an archives of television news broadcasts available nationwide, beginning in early . videotape copies of all regularly scheduled and special hard news broadcasts on the cbs television network will be available for research use at the national archives in washington, d.c., its eleven regional archives branches, and the six presidential libraries. the national archives also plans to provide videotape copies of these broadcasts to fill requests from libraries operating under the interlibrary loan code of the american library association. the national archives has indicated that it is interested in similar arrangements with other networks. videotapes of the telecasts of the entire public impeachment deliber- ations of the house judiciary committee, july - , , have also been donated by cbs. the audiovisual archives division has accessioned an additional , photographs from the forest service of the department of agriculture covering the period - . a data process subject printout was received with the records, enabling the researcher to locate photographs by subject or by state. a few of the non-forestry subjects include cities and towns, clothing, indians, mining, monu- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril ° the american archivist ~ april ments, recreation, transportation, and wildlife. the treasury de- partment, bureau of engraving and printing, has deposited over two hundred engraved portraits of u.s. cabinet members, vice presidents, and presidents, from president john adams to secretary of the trea- sury douglas dillon. the center for polar archives has received records from several different sources. the elks lodge of san raphael, california, pre- sented the louise a. boyd collection of motion picture film taken during the twenties and thirties in arctic and subarctic regions, particu- larly greenland. lt. cdr. david c. canham, jr., contributed a narra- tive log of the u.s. naval mobile construction battalion stationed at mcmurdo sound, antarctica, - . arnold h. clarke donated a variety of papers and news clippings relating to his service on the byrd antarctic expedition ( - ). edward e. goodale sent letters re- ceived and copies of letters sent relating to his arctic and antarctic service ( - ). henry t. harrison supplied a photocopy of the diary that he kept on the byrd antarctic expedition ( ) and copies of the "byrd antarctic expedition i news," a mimeo news sheet. jane m. mcclary gave a manuscript draft of jennie darlington's account, my antarctic honeymoon, and other papers related to the ronne antarctic expedition ( - ). palle mogensen contributed all of the follow- ing: family, academic, and general papers and correspondence; papers relating to chinese maritime customs and other chinese service, - ; and papers relating to u.s. army service, including service in greenland ( - ). finally, edward w. remington donated diaries from south pole station and other antarctic service ( - ) and motion picture films of africa, antarctica, and australia. the records of general george c. marshall's' mission to china ( - ) have been opened for research. the collection includes files of the state department, office of far eastern affairs and division of chinese affairs, and records of the war department transferred to the custody of the state department after the conclusion of the mission. also accessioned were richard nixon's letter resigning the office of president of the united states, presidential proclamations - , and executive orders - ( - ), and electoral college papers for . included among the proclamations are president ford's pardon of richard nixon and that announcing the amnesty program for draft evaders and military deserters of the vietnam war. copies of these documents may be ordered from the diplomatic branch, national archives (gsa), washington, d.c. . copies of the international wheat agreement of , the interna- tional grains agreement of , and treaties and international agreements for the period from january to march have been accessioned. included are agreements with the soviet union on the prevention of nuclear war and the peaceful uses of atomic energy. several state department files have been accessioned, including records relating to the allied control council for germany ( - ); d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the south pacific commission ( - ); the joint brazil-u.s. techni- cal commission ( - ); the various inter-american conferences and organizations ( — ); and the dean acheson's files relating to lend-lease and the u.n. relief and rehabilitation administration ( - ). the largest group of records relate to reciprocal tariff negotiations ( - ); the international trade organization; and the general agreement on tariffs and trade, . these records, through , are currently open for research. new microfilm publications include internal revenue assessment lists for the state of rhode island created as a result of the internal revenue act of taxing legacies, income, personal property, man- ufactures, and business. they contain information on trades and occupations, financial institutions, and insurance companies; and they are valuable to genealogists as well as those interested in local or business history. also microfilmed are the records of the united states nuernberg war crimes trials, case , u.s.a. v. josef altstoetter, et al., sixth in a series of twelve microfilm publications reproducing the case records of the united states tribunals that prosecuted war criminals at nuremberg from to . the altstoetter, or "justice," case involved the prosecution of sixteen judges, prosecutors, and adminis- trators for perversion of justice in the third reich. three groups of records recently microfilmed will be of interest to researchers and historians of the reconstruction era in mississippi and arkansas. the letters received by the u.s. department of justice from the state of mississippi ( - ) include not only administrative matters, such as internal revenue and customs, the regulation of trade, commerce, and transportation, and the protection of the rights and property of the united states, but also matters of civil and voting rights and reconstruction conflicts. two divisions of the state of arkansas' bureau of refugees, freedmen, and abandoned lands provide rec- ords of the period from to : the office of the assistant commissioner and that of the superintendent of education. the assistant commissioner supervised bureau operations in arkansas, in- cluding issuing food and clothing to the destitute; establishing freed- men's schools; adjusting labor contracts between freedmen and their employers; helping black soldiers and sailors to collect bounty claims, pensions, and back pay; and disposing of confiscated or abandoned lands. the office of education records reproduce correspondence and monthly school reports from teachers, superintendents, and agents, as part of the bureau's program to establish schools and to direct and support educational efforts by private organizations. more than a quarter of a century of u.s. navy history is narrated in the journals of thomas a. dornin, who served in the navy from to . presented to the navy by dornin's grandchildren in , his four journals contain his notes written while serving aboard the ships brandywine, vincennes, falmouth, shark, dale, portsmouth, lausanne, a n d plymouth. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april t h e office of the federal register has begun a new dial service and undertaken a reader survey to promote use of the federal register by the public. one may hear quick, summary highlights of selected documents to be published in the next day's issue by dialing ( ) - . the reader survey asks readers to identify proposed and existing regulations which they find unclear or believe impose imprac- tical requirements on them. the survey form has been carried several times on the last page of the federal register. copies may be obtained from the office of the federal register, national archives and records service (gsa), washington, d.c. . presidential libraries accessions. the following are brief listings of recently accessioned records. since previously accessioned records are constantly being opened for research in the several presidential libraries, interested researchers are advised to keep abreast of newly available research sources by contacting individual libraries or by read- ing announcements of openings of records in prologue: the journal of the national archives. the franklin d. roosevelt library has received papers of the american diplomat, adolf berle, and of isador lubin. the papers supplementing the adolf berle collection include correspondence be- tween and , some of which emanated from his office as chamberlain of new york ( - ); and additional state department material, oral history transcripts, and photographs. the isador lubin papers consist of personal papers and records of the franklin delano roosevelt foundation. in the foundation records ( - ) may be seen general correspondence, minutes of meetings, financial records, and copies of roosevelt's speeches. the personal papers of lubin consist of correspondence and files created during his service as com- missioner of the bureau of labor statistics ( - ); special assistant to the president ( - ); and industrial commissioner in the new york state department of labor ( - ). t h e harry s. truman library has accessioned the papers of ralph davies, petroleum administrator for war ( - ); frederick osborn, deputy representative to the united nations atomic energy commis- sion ( - ); additional papers of samuel rosenman, special counsel to president truman ( - ); additional papers of eleanor bon- tecou, attorney in the civil rights section of the u.s. department of justice ( - ); and selected transcripts of hearings and press con- ferences from the records of the senate foreign relations committee ( - ). oral history interviews with the following persons have been made available for research at the truman library: david k. e. bruce, assistant secretary of commerce ( - ), chief of the economic cooperation administration mission to france ( - ), u.s. ambassador to france ( - ) and under secretary of state ( - ); brigadier general cornelius j. mara, assistant military aide to the president ( - ); george m. elsey, special assistant to the president ( - ), administrative assistant to the president ( - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes ), and assistant to the director for mutual security ( - ); and frank pace, jr., director of the bureau of the budget ( - ), and secretary of the army ( - ). the dwight d. eisenhower library recently received the papers of fred a. seaton ( - ). a newspaperman, seaton served in the nebraska legislature ( - ), in the u.s. senate ( - ), as assis- tant secretary of defense for legislative affairs ( - ), as an assistant to president eisenhower, and as secretary of the interior ( ). also received were the papers of harry darby comprised mostly of material from darby's term ( - ) as u.s. senator from kansas, and the world war ii papers of major general charles w. ryder. the john f. kennedy library recently accessioned papers of jack n. behrman, assistant secretary of commerce ( - ); papers of thomas p. o'neill, congressman from massachusetts since and majority whip since ; papers of david e. koskoff relating to his book, life and times of joseph p. kennedy; and speeches of ronald r. renne, assistant secretary of agriculture for international affairs ( - ). also accessioned were supplemental papers of elmer b. staats, deputy director of the bureau of the budget ( - ), and william vanden heuvel, a new york lawyer, aide to robert f. ken- nedy and delegate to the new york constitutional convention of . the nebraska state historical society has been selected as the repository for the company archives of the union pacific railroad. some volumes of incoming and outgoing correspondence known as the new york-boston papers comprise the bulk of the collection which spans the period from until the company went into receiv- ership in . in addition to their obvious value for railroad and business studies, the new york-boston papers deal with such topics as government regulation, development of natural resources, land policy, state and national politics, community building, labor history, and technological development. records of important personalities also appear within the company archives. a notable example is the large quantity of correspondence of charles francis adams, jr., as president of the union pacific, - . related materials include the papers of j. s. and d. t. casement, contractors for the construction of the railroad. the operational archives of the naval history division, department of the navy, has prepared a microfilm publication of the reports of the u.s. naval technical mission to japan, - . the reports in this series relate to numerous aspects of japanese naval technology and science during the world war ii period. further information on the contents of the microfilm publication and on ordering procedures may be obtained by writing to the operational archives, building , washington navy yard, washington, d.c. . the microfilm division of the nebraska state historical society has completed the filming of the gather family letters, many of which were d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april published in the winter issue of nebraska history. t h e letters cover the period from - and . t h e new jersey state department of community affairs has re- ceived a grant of $ , from the state bicentennial commission for publication of a bibliography on the history of women in new jersey. research for the bibliography was begun in with a grant of $ , from the new jersey historical commission. the work is being done by elizabeth steiner-scott of piscataway, a rutgers univer- sity ph.d. candidate in history. the archives of the state university of new york at buffalo has recently received papers of stanislaw mrozowski documenting his work on carbon research and spectroscopy, including his records as editor of carbon international journal and director of the carbon research center. a multi-volume edition of the letters of henry adams ( - ), being prepared under the editorship of ernest samuels of northeast- ern university, is underway, with four thousand letters already lo- cated, half of them previously unpublished. the editors will be grateful for copies of unpublished letters by adams and to him, and for information about additional letters still in private hands. corres- pondence should be addressed to the project's associate editor, charles vandersee, department of english, university of virginia, charlottes- ville, va. . the archives-library of the ohio historical society has established the ohio data archives, a program to collect data in quantitative form and convert material in the society's holdings from original records into machine-readable form. the ohio data archives is conducting a search for quantitative material and will administer the technical functions of accessioning, storing, and diffusing the data on a basic cost basis. the major requirements for data set accessions are that the material must be related to some aspect of ohio, it must have been collected in a professionally competent manner, and it must have a potential interest for other users. scholars and institutions who donate a copy of their data sets also must be willing to give the archives legal control in dissemination of the materials, subject to prior agreement on restric- tions. the ohio data archives encourages all persons interested in any phase of quantitative research to contact the data archives. any- one having data sets that might be copied for the archives is asked to write: dr. eugene watts, ohio data archives, ohio historical society, i- and th avenue, columbus, ohio . recent accessions of the society include papers of several governors of ohio including arthur st. clair ( - , northwest territory); samuel huntington ( - ); return j. meigs, jr. ( - ); d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes thomas worthington ( - ); and ethan allen brown ( - ). in addition, recent audiovisual contributions include recordings of radio-ohio, inc. ( - ), wbns-tv ( - ), and wtvn-tv ( - ). the papers of frederick enos woltmann ( - ), pulitzer prize- winning journalist of the new york telegram, have been given to the university of oregon library by his widow. the collection includes manuscripts, correspondence, and subject files. the ethnic culture survey of the pennsylvania historical and museum commission has broadened into a widespread program in- volving collection of historical material, original research, and publica- tion of accounts of the commonwealth's ethnic past. material now available to researchers at the commission is concentrated in three areas: oral interviews, newspapers, and church anniversary histories. the commission is interested in expanding the collection and invites any church, fraternal group, or other ethnic organization having his- torical documents and records to contact the ethnic studies program, box , harrisburg, pa. , ( ) - . the princeton theological seminary has received a $ , grant from the rockefeller brothers fund to try four cooperative pro- grams. two of them seek to enable the seminary's speer library to utilize princeton university library's application of computer technol- ogy and its experience in collecting and organizing latin american literature. the third program will investigate cooperative collection development in four major theological research libraries. the last will provide continuing education workshops for theological librarians in the areas of microform applications and equipment, acquisitions, and archival management. the papers of the late louis fischer, and much of the library of the news correspondent and famed authority on the soviet union, have been given to the library of princeton university. fischer, a resident of princeton at the time of his death in , was a research associate and visiting lecturer at princeton university's woodrow wilson school of public and international affairs for almost a decade. princeton has also announced the acquisition of a major portion of the files of the development and resources corporation, new york, which has formu- lated and executed programs of economic and social development in many countries over the past twenty years, but principally in iran with which country more than half of the files are concerned ( - ). the university has received $ , , in matching funds to con- struct a manuscript library. the building will house the personal papers of major public figures such as adlai e. stevenson, bernard m. baruch, justice john m. harlan, and james forrestal. hugh stubbins, boston architect, has designed the library. planners hope to break d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april ground this year. the grant comes from a $ million fund for new college facilities established by the will of seeley g. mudd, late dean of the university of southern california medical school. the arthur and elizabeth schlesinger library, radcliffe college, has announced a rockefeller foundation grant for $ , over a two-year period in the broad subject-areas of women's history and population control. the oral history interviews conducted under the grant include those with women who have provided leadership in the planned parenthood federation of america and in the development of family-planning clinics in america, asia, and south america. the library also reports the addition of papers to the hamilton cousins collection, the holt-messer collection, and the poor family collec- tion. a new collection, the pouzzner papers, includes family papers of bessie london pouzzner, who was editor and publisher of the lowell sunday telegram from to and a member of the radcliffe class of . the samuel and narcissa chamberlain collection includes over , cookery items from the eighteenth century to today. the smithsonian institution reports an increased use of its research facilities during , when research requests nearly doubled. the oral history program initiated in to record the history of the smithsonian will continue for one more year. the natural history and anthropology archives has underway a program to facilitate the arrangement of an extensive backlog of over six million documents. among the collections recently accessioned by this division are the paintings and papers of acee blue eagle, a noted twentieth-century creek indian artist. this collection includes forty of his paintings, a variety of his craft work and correspondence, and notable samples of the work of eighty other indian artists with whom he corresponded. union county records filmed by the south carolina department of archives and history are now available. filmed and prepared by the county records division, they include records of the board of education—annual reports (ig g- o), list of teachers ( - ), min- utes ( - ), teachers' association minutes ( - ), teacher cer- tificates ( - ); clerk of court as register of mesne convey- ance—conveyances ( - ), mortgages ( - ); clerk of court of common pleas—pleadings and judgments ( - ); county court minutes ( - ); district court ( - ); probate judge—administration and guardian bonds ( - ), estate papers ( - ), guardian returns ( - ), inventories, appraise- ments and sales ( - ), journals of the ordinary ( - ), real estate books ( - ), wills ( - ); sheriff—executions ( - ), writs ( -gg); auditor or treasurer—tax duplicates ( - ); and board of commissioners-—minutes ( - ). a summary of the filmed records of all south carolina counties, detailed d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes lists of filmed records of individual counties, and the roll film may be ordered from the publications division, south carolina department of archives and history, p.o. box , , columbia, s.c. , at a cost of $ per reel. recent accessions at the archives include records of the general assembly, house of representatives, committee on the judiciary— administrative assistant file ( - ), administrative assistant work papers ( ), attorney general's recommendations ( ), bills ( ), bills in subcommittee ( ), bills and requests ( - ), constitu- tional laws ( - ), constitutional revision steering committee file ( ), correspondence ( - ), criminal laws ( - ), and elec- tion laws ( - )- the south dakota board of cultural preservation recently ap- pointed the state's first archivist. stephen plummer will serve as state archivist and director of the archives resource center, a division within the department of education and cultural affairs. presently south dakota does not have an archives law, and therefore drafting a workable law is one of the archivist's first priorities. moreover, south dakota has recently undergone reorganization of the executive and judicial branches necessitating the urgent transfer of records now in the custody of agencies whose existence has been terminated. the records management function is performed by the bureau of ad- ministration, but there is close liaison between the archivist and the records manager. retention of state government records was formerly the duty of the state historian, and the archivist is currently negotiating for the transfer of those records to the new archives facility located on the outskirts of pierre in the records management building. con- struction of a new state library will begin during fiscal year , and when completed the new building will house the library, the library for the blind, the office of the state historian, and the state archives. the two-story structure will be completed by . the manuscripts section of the tennessee state library and ar- chives has microfilmed and made available for interlibrary loan a series of records known as the civil war questionnaires. these were com- pleted during the period - and contain varied information about civil war soldiers. early johnson county newspapers and entire volumes of mid-twentieth-century mountain city newspapers have been added to the microfilm collection. scheduled for microfilm- ing are the records of eight counties—humphreys, perry, decatur, hardin, anderson, campbell, morgan, and fentress. indexed and ready for use are the legislative records of the th general assembly. the records management section is now conducting an internship program. this period of training, which lasts from six to ten weeks, deals with the technical, philosophical, and administrative approaches to records management. it is available to graduate students in master's d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april degree programs in records management or history and to designated records officers in state agencies. the manuscripts department of the university of virginia library has acquired the papers ( - ) of the garrett family of wil- liamsburg, virginia, together with correspondence and printed mate- rial relating to woodrow wilson; family papers ( - ) of john cowdery taylor, physician, of norfolk, virginia, which includes cor- respondence concerning the siege of vicksburg, together with miscel- laneous papers ( - ) of harry b. taylor, sr., medical missionary to china; civil war letters ( - ) °f harry allen as a union prisoner; and a -page bound volume (april , ) entitled "report of cornelius p. van ness, one of the commissioners ap- pointed under the th article of the treaty of peace and amity, between his britannic majesty and the united states of america, concluded at ghent on the th day of december ." a conrad aiken collection of correspondence, manuscripts, and miscellany ( - ), which was sealed until his death, has been opened for research at washington university libraries, st. louis. the manuscript division has accessioned additions to the modern literature collection, including correspondence, manuscripts, and mis- cellany of james merrill, donald finkel, lee anderson, stanley elkin, mona van duyn, alexander tfocchi, denise levertov, stevie smith, and william troy. robert creeley has recently added his correspon- dence ( - ) with william carlos williams and letters ( - ) of charles olson which are on deposit and are currently being edited, but are open for research. the american federation of state, county, and municipal employees has named the archives of labor history and urban affairs of wayne state university as the depository for the union's historical records ( - ). the records consist of convention pro- ceedings, minutes, correspondence, publications, tape recordings, legal cases, and related materials. the papers of maurice sugar, noted labor lawyer and general counsel for the united automobile workers, contain his correspondence with homer martin, george addes, r. j. thomas, walter reuther, and frank murphy. among the labor disputes also described in the collection are the trial of united au- tomobile workers' officers in , the general motors injunction cases ( - ), the detroit citizens league, the black legion, the dearborn ordinance cases, the ford massacre, and the related topics such as sugar's song, "fighting inflation." persons interested in receiving the archives newsletter can write: newsletter, archives of labor history and urban affairs, wayne state university, detroit, mich. . the state historical society of wisconsin has announced the acces- sion of the records of the honorable robert kastenmeier, u.s. rep- resentative from wisconsin, including documents prepared for him d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes and other members of the house judiciary committee for the nixon impeachment inquiry. among these are summaries of evidence, tape transcripts, copies of memos, copies of court testimony, and other papers related primarily to watergate but also concerning the bombing of cambodia, the associated milk producers' donation, and the break- in at daniel ellsberg's psychiatrist's office. also among the recent accessions are the papers of martin glaeser, economist, public utilities expert, and university of wisconsin, madison, professor, concerning the tennessee valley authority and other projects; and the papers ( - ) of william b. hesseltine, civil war historian and professor. the society has received three recent awards. the archives and manuscripts division has received a grant of $ , from the national historical publications and records commission for a one-year project to prepare a microfilm edition of the samuel gompers presidential files ( - ) in the records of the american federation of labor. a grant of $ , for an environmental study of temperature and humid- ity controls at its headquarters building, and a grant of $ , for the preparation of an exhibit entitled "americans at home: the domestic art, - ," have both been received from the national endow- ment for the arts. canada news notes relating to canadian institutions have, in some cases, been published in recent issues of the canadian historical review. public archives of canada. two new divisions have emerged in the historical branch: public records and machine-readable archives. a special "diffusion program" designed to disseminate archival resources across canada entered its second year. as a result of this program all ten provincial archives now have a microfilm copy of the laurier papers, and the macdonald papers are scheduled for similar distribu- tion this year. in addition, various series of federal government records of provincial interest are being filmed and deposited in provin- cial archives, including: the house of commons unprinted sessional papers, - (all provinces); post office department local rec- ords (british columbia and the maritime provinces); immigration branch files, - (prairie provinces); provincial secretary's cor- respondence, canada east, - (quebec); and the upper canada sundries, - (ontario). a new edition of the union list of manuscripts in canadian repositories, three times the size of the original ( ) edition, is in progress, as is a national union catalogue of maps. one hundred collections of paintings, drawings, and prints on microfiche, with accompanying notes, are in preparation. historians and other researchers will be pleased to note that the union list of manuscripts in canadian repositories is being revised, considerably expanded, and republished. it will be available for distribution in the spring of . the ulm, which is a national catalog of archival holdings in canada, was first published in as a joint project of the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april public archives of canada, the humanities research council, and the archives section of the canadian historical association. the new edition will list some , entries representing the holdings of all but a few minor repositories. because of the vastly expanded scope of holdings of the major archives, which now include such areas as arts, business, labor, ethnicity, law, science, and sports, the ulm will be a useful reference tool not only for the professional historian, but also for the artist, the sociologist, the geographer, the scientist, and the other professional and amateur researchers. it will place at their disposal a key to the existence, location, and nature of all primary textual sources in canadian archival repositories that have been re- ported to the ulm. the literary executors of the mackenzie king papers have au- thorized the dominion archivist to apply the thirty-year rule of access to the king diaries in the custody of the public archives. therefore, from january the diaries will be open to researchers up to december . further annual portions will be opened on january each year until . the period from january to november (the date of mr. king's retirement as prime minister) will be opened on november . the literary executors have deferred a decision as to the availability of the diaries for the period between mr. king's retirement and his death in . the national map collection continues to expand its holdings in both cartographical and architectural archives. the "posterity" hy- drographic charts and british admiralty charts of canadian waters have been transferred from the canadian hydrographic service. the division's holdings of world war i maps has expanded. it now holds the british ordnance survey's new : , series; coverage for the southern portion of the country is completed and the coverage for the northern portion is expected to be completed by . a recent accession of note from the canadian national railways features ar- chitectural plans of stations, hotels, ymca's, and round-houses, as well as town plans and plans of railway accidents. among recent purchases are a map of north and south america by theodore de bry; a map of the village of preston, ca. , printed in preston; and a tremaine map of the county of waterloo, . the division has signed a contract with the g. k. hall company to reproduce the card catalog of its canadian section. the printed catalog will probably be available in - . the national map collection is preparing for publication a series of descriptive illustrated catalogs of maps on such themes as ottawa, winnipeg, prince edward island, and the riel rebellions. also under way is a series of cartobibliographies/check-lists on themes of current research interest. scheduled for appearance this year are publications on the township plans of the west, the "inch-to-the-inch" series, insur- ance atlases and plans, and maps relating to telecommunications. during the past year the division purchased from charles e. goad, limited, in london, england, the significant collection of detailed fire d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes insurance plans and atlases that the goad company produced in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. the public records division has begun a project to locate extant records created by the canadian department of the interior between and , many of which are now in provincial custody. an eventual publication is planned. work is well under way on a source study of public records documenting immigration and land settlement, the results of which will appear in a combined microfilm/hard-copy guide and index. a special program involving the microfilming and indexing of the indian affairs branch records in archives custody has begun. during this year the division plans to publish inventories of several of its groups of records, including indian affairs (rg ), north west mounted police (rg ), governor general's office (rg ), and finance (rg ). the machine-readable archives division has as its purpose the acquisition, preservation, and servicing of machine-readable records of historical value produced by the federal government and those of national significance produced privately. the division's first large project, cleaning and preparing of the machine-readable research files of the royal commission on bilingualism and biculturalism, will be completed in - . the picture division, historical photographs section, has acces- sioned a number of collections of military interest, relating to such subjects as the activities of the international commission of control and supervision in south vietnam, , the operations of the polish army during the italian campaign, and plays staged by cana- dians captured at dieppe and imprisoned in the eichstatt prisoner of war camp. as well as receiving additions to the toronto daily star, globe and mail, and windsor star collections, the section acquired photographic files from the canadian tribune. a valuable collection for labor historians is that acquired from the united electrical, radio, and machine workers of america. from imperial oil, limited, came photographs depicting all aspects of its operations. central mortgage and housing corporation transferred a useful collection illustrating housing developments and slum conditions in cities and towns from to . in cooperation with the canadian aviation hall of fame the section has acquired photographs illustrating the development of aviation in canada. the section also acquired a portrait daguerreotype of louis joseph papineau. although the photographer has not yet been identified, the photograph has been dated , which makes it the earliest known portrait photograph of papineau. the technique, style, and perfect condition of this daguerreotype place it in a special category with the beaver hall hill daguerreotype acquired in . the division's paintings, drawings and prints section, has embarked on an educational slide project in cooperation with the national film board. the purpose of the project is to make works of art in the public archives available as reproductions to students, teachers, and d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april researchers in canadian history and art history. two projects of mm. color slides have already been prepared for distribution and other series are in the planning stage. each of these "archives canada series" revolves around a theme and is accompanied by a book contain- ing texts relevant to the slides. the first series of slides illustrates the work of alfred jacob miller ( - ), whose watercolors depict buffalo hunts, indians, and the nomadic life as he experienced it in his journey to the rocky moun- tains in . the texts were written by the artist expressly to accompany these watercolors. the second series, entitled "image of canada," is a selection of forty slides derived from the exhibition of the same name that circulated during - . several artists in differ- ent ways depict the canadian scene from to . an accom- panying book contains quotations from texts of the same period, giving the series an added historical perspective. the "archives canada series" slides and books are available through the national film board of canada. during the past year the section received a number of interesting accessions, including an oil painting of t. c. keefer by george ernest fosberry ( - ); an album presented to princess louise in by the school children of victoria, b.c., watercolors, drawings, and photographs of victoria and vicinity; four engravings, consisting of portraits of nicholas leate, sir walter raleigh, and capt. beechey, and a view of the siege of quebec from hennepin's voyages ( ); sixty-five watercolors and sepia sketches by princess louise pertaining to her canadian tours ( - ), as well as european views ( - ); a watercolor of spencer wood, quebec, by princess elizabeth of hesse- homberg, done in ; a charcoal portrait by an anonymous artist of a mr. spratt, a rideau canal engineer; two portraits of sir mackenzie bowell and lady bowell by william sawyer ( - ); a collection of twenty-three watercolors by joanna wilson, dealing with the kwakiutl indians, showing in great detail colorful headbands, button blankets, talking sticks, totem poles, house posts, and mortuary poles. the portraits of various indian leaders at alert bay are beautifully painted and of considerable historical value. archives nationales du quebec. the archives nationales (the ar- chives of the province of quebec) has announced the completion of a two-year project to prepare a descriptive inventory of the manuscript collections deposited in the saguenay-lac saint jean area. this is the first finding aid available for these holdings which include record groups located in parishes; religious communities; colleges; local, pro- vincial, and federal government archives; and businesses, hospitals, and families. the archives has published the methodology of the project and the system of classification by which the various record groups are arranged. provincial archives of new brunswick. the gradual collection of business records at the provincial archives over the past few years has d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes led to a current wealth of documentation for researchers. while the very size and complexity of some collections previously baffled both archivists and historians, the archives has overcome most of these problems through the creation of useful finding aids. the following units are of special interest: the burchill company records, south nelson, n.b., - (lumbering); the w. s. loggie company records, chatham, n.b., - (lumbering, brickmaking, blueberries, merchandising); the maritime electric company records, - ; the neil stewart collection of architectural drawings, - ; the michael samuel papers, chatham, n.b., - (merchandis- ing, lumbering); the shaw and ellis clam company records, pocolo- gan, n.b., - (shellfish processing); and the todd family papers, - (lumbering, horsebreeding). glenbow-aiberta institute archives. recent acquisitions of particular interest are: a group of papers, photographs, and artifacts originating with supt. k. v. begin, nwmp, - ; copy of a journal of dugald macdonald sinclair, describing his trip to and experiences in the red river area, - , received from a grandson in south africa; a series of land examination records, prepared by inspectors of the department of natural resources of the cpr on lands in western canada, - , which contain a wealth of geographical and general data; a number of historical films, including "calgary stampede," a western taken in , and "sunrise in the west," a production on the history of the alberta wheat pool. city of edmonton archives. both the archives itself and a records retention committee were formed in , a manager of archives was appointed in , and in january a public documents commit- tee was appointed by the legislative committee of city council to consider all requests for destruction of documents. the former his- torical exhibits building has been renovated to house the archives, the major collections being from the various departments of the civic administration. city of toronto archives. a. r. n. woadden, the city archivist, reports that his staff has completed a useful calendar and index to the records of the finance and assessment committee, - , a n o - n a s begun similar work on its successor, the executive committee, - . since the minutes of neither committee survive, these finding aids render the papers easily accessible to researchers for the first time. city council minutes, - , previously in manuscript and unin- dexed, are now available as indexed typescripts. this project has led one member of the staff to a reappraisal of william lyon mackenzie's mayoralty, and to begin work on a history of the city council from to i . the city archivist has also begun a program of microfilming the assessment rolls, council minutes, and bylaws of the city from to the present. in october , city council adopted a liberal new policy on the d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril t h e american archivist ~ april accessibility of municipal records. briefly, the policy provides that those records outside the meaning of section ( ) of the ontario municipal act r.s.o. , are available for research immediately upon accession by the archives. records designated by section , mostly departmental records, are available with the permission of the head of the creating department and, once made available, are consid- ered permanently open. for administrative purposes, some records are scheduled for permanent retention in central records (e.g., leases, deeds, agreements, etc.). these are considered to have been acces- sioned by the archives twenty-five years after their transfer to central records. a continuing campaign to persuade municipal politicians and prom- inent civic employees to place their papers in the archives is beginning to bear fruit. among others, william dennison has deposited over twenty-five feet of records of his political life from the s to . these become open in . the city surveyor has transferred a number of early plans relating to the city, including several by john g. howard made between and . the photograph collection consists of approximately , prints and , negatives, most of which were produced by the city works department's photography and blueprinting section between the early s and the early s (when the section was discontinued). the photographs document the daily operations of various departments, from the building of bridges to the investigation of slum conditions in . there is an index to the prints and a descriptive inventory of the negatives. national archives appraisal board. archival repositories in canada have for some time now felt a need for independent appraisal service to enable them to evaluate donations of historical materials. respond- ing, the council of the canadian historical association, at the request of its archives section, has constituted a national archival appraisal board to conduct such appraisals with the view of determining the fair market value of donated collections. in establishing the naab, the council wished to provide a broad spectrum of appraisal activities. this expertise is being drawn from the historical and archival profes- sions, and includes dealers in manuscripts and related documents. invitations have been issued to a number of individuals to serve on the board. some outside funding will be necessary to launch the scheme. eventually, the naab will be financially self-sustaining. at present the board is using the address of the public archives of canada, ottawa, kia on . the annual report of the archivist of mcgill university has been received for the year ending may , . in addition to useful information on the activities of the archives, the report describes briefly the papers of past university principals, and other acquisitions in its d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes custody. of special note are the records of the montreal general hospital and its school of nursing, which have been selected, inven- toried, and made accessible to scholars. the report closes with a list of the near-print publications of the archives during - . copies of the report are available. announced also are the completion of preliminary guides to the extensive papers of the canadian geologist, sir john william dawson ( - ), and the availability on microfilm of the f. cyril james papers and the h. rocke robertson papers. in its special collections, mcmaster university has recently acquired a large collection of world war i material. in addition to nearly , books, there is a large amount of archival material in the collection. the files and documents relating to particular individuals and british regiments during the war are supplemented by a large collection of photographs, including more than aerial photographs of the western front between and . there are also official maps which do not bear trench marking, scrapbooks, "brief-entry" diaries, printed ephemera, typescripts, and newspapers. also, the library has acquired a collection of letters written by thomas carlyle, the scottish historian and essayist. the collection consists of letters, of which were written by carlyle to his brother, alexander, who had emigrated to a farm near paris, ontario, in . carlyle wrote an additional eighteen letters to other members of his family in both britain and canada. the remaining related family letters in the collection were written by other members of the family to one another. the manuscripts and canadiana division of the metropolitan to- ronto central library has announced the acquisition of papers con- cerning irish immigration into canada in the period prior to , when a select committee of the house of commons to inquire into the state of ireland (london, , volumes) reported that unrest after the act of union, and the poverty and lack of opportunity in ireland should be dealt with by emigration to canada, a course which was subsequently followed. also received is correspondence between president james madison and john henry, an irish adventurer acting as a secret agent of the british government in march . included is a vindication by daniel webster, u.s. secretary of state, of a canadian deputy sheriff of niagara district, alexander mcleod, who had engaged in hostilities against a u.s. steamer, the caroline, on december , . the university of ottawa centre has acquired magnetic tapes of broadcasts about the french-canadian community in ontario, from cjbc in toronto. holdings of the centre now surpass linear feet and sound recordings. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril a the american archivist ~ april religious archives baptist. the alabama baptist historical society, samford univer- sity, birmingham, in cooperation with the west jefferson historical society, has recently reprinted hosea holcombe's history of the rise and progress of the baptists in alabama, originally printed in (with a biographical preface and complete index). the bicentennial will be featured and given emphasis in course iv of their institute on genealogy and historical research, in june . an official archives has been established by the foreign mission board of the southern baptist convention, as a part of the jenkins memorial library and archives, the research unit of the board. historical materials of the board date to its beginning in . the oklahoma baptist historical society and collection announces the publication of louise haddock's history of tulsa baptist association. an oral history workshop was conducted at oklahoma baptist uni- versity, shawnee, on september , . catholic. the archives of the santa barbara mission in california has published a listing of its holdings dating from the founding of the mission in . the archives of the seminary of quebec contains mainly religious, but also civil, records dating from the founding of the city of quebec. the first methodical inventories, in , , and , listed and described , items. during successive sieges of quebec, these records were transported by ship away from the scene, and sub- sequently were housed in specially prepared vaults. important collec- tions donated over the years include the faribault collection containing valuable historical manuscripts, among them the famous journal des jesuites ( - ). the classification system was devised by the mid- nineteenth-century archivist, abbe napoleon maingui, who analyzed the collection and created a card index, subsequently continued and expanded. by the end of the nineteenth century, the collection contained , items, the more remarkable as the archives has survived three sieges ( , , and ) and three fires ( , , and —and another in i ). researchers and historians can be accommodated, and the collection is particularly suited for scholarly research. protestant episcopal. the milwaukee county historical society has acquired the papers of the rt. rev. william w. webb, th episcopal bishop of milwaukee, and the papers of william gardner, president and dean of nashotah house ( - ). included in the gardner papers are letters from the rt. rev. charles c. grafton, d episcopal bishop of fond du lac and bishop of milwaukee. there are also letters from fr. rene vilatte to bishop grafton and gardner, covering d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes the early years of the old catholic movement in wisconsin and switzerland. evangelical. the archives of the evangelical united brethren have been moved from their former location in dayton, ohio, to temporary quarters at lake junaluska, north carolina. huguenot. the huguenot historical society of new paltz, new york, has recently published a guide to huguenot street and preservation efforts of the huguenot historical society, by kenneth e. hasbrouck. jewish. the ohio historical society has received manuscript acces- sions of the b'nai b'rith hillel foundation at ohio state university ( - ), the records of the columbus jewish federation ( - ), the jewish family service (columbus, - ), the national council of jewish women ( - ), and an oral history interview series including the columbus jewish history project. the yivo institute for jewish research, new york city, has pub- lished recent additions to the yivo collection listing major acquisitions, newly cataloged manuscript collections, and printed materials. lutheran. concordia historical institute has published the first volume of a bibliography and index to their microfilm collection on lutheran history in europe and america ( , reels). in addition, a bibliography of lutheran serial publications has also been prepared, in- cluding some , listings. for further information contact: infor- mation service, concordia historical institute, demun avenue, st. louis, mo. . the finnish-american historical archives, suomi college, hancock, michigan, reports a new publication edited by ralph jalkanen, faith of the finns: historical perspectives on finnish lutheranism in america. the archives of the american lutheran church, at wartburg theological seminary, dubuque, iowa, is collecting the works of kent s. knutson, international churchman, ecumenical leader, and president of the american lutheran church at the time of his death in march at the age of forty-eight. the archives is assembling his pub- lished, mimeographed, manuscript, and taped works, excluding his correspondence. a separate project of the archives has recorded on microfiche the annual parochial reports of over , congregations, using computer output microfilm. mennonite. the archives of the mennonite brethren church of north america has recently prepared a detailed classification scheme for their collections of church and conference records and manu- scripts. work is also proceeding on a single catalog of archival hold- ings in the three major mennonite repositories located at fresno, california; hillsboro, kansas; and winnipeg, manitoba. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april during the centennial year, , historical committees associated with the mennonite brethren church have either commissioned or otherwise encouraged the writing of local as well as regional histories and pageants. several published works arising directly from these centennial efforts are the following: frank h. epp, mennonites in canada; jacob bekker, origin of the mennonite brethren church; clarence hiebert (comp.), brothers in deed to brothers in need: a scrapbook about mennonite immigrants from russia, - ; and sandra van meter, marion county, kansas: past and present. the mennonite library and archives, north newton, kansas, has received files from the council of mennonite colleges, the commission on overseas missions, and the commission on home missions. methodist. the north carolina methodist conference of raleigh reports the formation of a bicentennial task force to plan for a bicentennial celebration to be held april , . they are also engaged in a research project to determine the founding date of more than churches in eastern north carolina. the wisconsin commission on archives and history announces the publication of cross and flame in wisconsin: the story of united methodism in the badger state, by william blake. the united methodist confer- ence has established a committee for the bicentennial for the state of wisconsin. presbyterian. the archives of the national council of churches has been transferred to the presbyterian historical society at lombard street, philadelphia. estimated at several million items, the archives is the major extant collection reflecting the programs and activities of the american protestant ecumenical movement in the twentieth century, as well as the areas of american church history, religious education, and world missions. the society serves also as the official archives for the american theological library association, the national temperance society, and the american sunday school union. seventh-day adventist. the archives of the seventh-day adven- tists reports the acquisition of the papers of evangelist frederick carnes gilbert ( - ) and extensive holdings of seventh-day adventist periodicals dating from to the present. a records management manual has also been developed by the archives. universalist. the universalist historical society of tufts univer- sity plans to microfilm a significant portion of its collection in coopera- tion with microfilm corporation of america. a biographical directory of unitarian and universalist women ministers, by catherine f. hitch- ings, is in preparation for . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes archival organizations at a meeting held october , , at simon fraser university, burnaby, b.c., the members of the association of british columbia archivists heard from and expressed their views to the constitutional committee of the archives section, canadian historical association. members of the abca generally supported the initiative to form an autonomous, national organization for professional archivists in canada. hugh taylor of the public archives of canada delivered an informal talk on the future directions of archival work in canada. at a short business meeting, the membership moved toward approval of a constitution and established a committee to investigate the feasibility of a cooperative purchase plan for acid-neutral materials, a plan of particular interest to smaller institutions. the society of california archivists held two fall workshops on the administration of photographs. at the first, held october in sacramento, suzanne gallup of the bancroft library reviewed a variety of options available for setting up pictorial collections in a presentation entitled, "concepts in picture cataloging." at the same meeting, threse lawrence of the california section of the state library, explained the philosophy and procedures of the historic photographs section of that library, while the preservation and care of historical photographs was discussed by harvey himmelfarb, photographer, and member of the faculty of the university of california at davis. the second workshop was hosted by the los angeles county museum on october . at this session, larry booth, head, photo- graphic collections, title insurance company of san diego, gave a presentation on the preservation of photographs and the philosophy of collecting. members of the society of california archivists who planned the workshops include ken pettitt of the california state library, suzanne gallup, john cahoon of the los angeles county museum of natural history, and hilda boehm of the graduate li- brary of the university of california at los angeles. thirty-three members attended the third annual meeting of the society of indiana archivists, held in bloomington on september , to examine the relationship between the archivist and the historian. in the morning session john j. newman, state archivist, provided the group with his thoughts on his role in providing documentation for the inquiring historian. in the afternoon, students and faculty of indiana university joined the membership to hear the views of samuel p. hays, department of history, university of pittsburgh, on the archivist's role in historical research. officers elected at this meeting for the new year were: president, rev. cyprian davis, o.s.b., st. meinrad college; vice d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril ° the american archivist ~ april president, howard eldon, anderson; secretary-treasurer, thomas krasean, vincennes university; and two-year board members, leona alig, indiana historical society, and david horn, depauw university. the most recent meeting of the conference of intermountain ar- chivists was its annual workshop, held november , , in boise, idaho. this session dealt with the collection, arrangement, and de- scription of manuscripts. guest speaker for the meeting was f. gerald ham. at the fall meeting of the long island archives conference, held at the c. w. post center, long island university on november , guest speaker edward j. smits, director of the nassau county museum, suggested useful techniques and related anecdotes from his experience in collecting manuscripts and newspapers on long island in a presen- tation entitled "long island paper history." naomi rosenthal, lec- turer, suny-stony brook, along with marion groves, archivist, adel- phi university, led a workshop on the location of women's history collections. evert volkersz distributed his draft of "a guide to arrang- ing and handling printed ephemera" to the members of his work- shop. james rose, chief researcher, black genealogy research cen- ter, queens college, discussed the location of historical sources about blacks and the techniques of tracing the genealogy of blacks. approximately people attended the fall meeting of the mid- atlantic regional archives conference held november - in newark, new jersey. especially well received were the preservation sessions conducted by carolyn horton and william spawn; another on the appraisal and disposition of archives moderated by frank evans with a panel of loh keng aun (u.n. archives), edward papenfuse (maryland hall of records), martha slotten (dickinson college), and ronald perkins (united artist corporation); and a panel discussion dealing with role definition, the participants of which included amy doherty (syracuse university), meyer fishbein (nars), diane frese (maryland hall of records), and mary elizabeth ruwell (ina). other sessions dealt with oral history, micropublication, the ethics of acces- sion, publicity for new collections, access to records, machine-readable records, the legal aspects of photocopying, and how to organize a statewide manuscripts conference. the new jersey historical society hosted the members for their business meeting and a wine and cheese hour. one of the highlights of the meeting was the friday evening tour of newark conducted by charles f. cummings, head of the new jersey reference division of the newark public library. eighty-two people participated in a november workshop on the preparation of archives/manuscripts finding aids sponsored by the new england archivists. at the morning session, three archivists/ manuscripts curators discussed finding aids for collections processed d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes l under their direction. charlotte price, curator of manuscripts in the pilgrim society, explained special problems in providing intellectual access to the arthur lord papers. david maslyn, special collections librarian in the university of rhode island library and instructor in the library school there, explained registers prepared under his direc- tion for the jerome frank papers and the loomis-wilder family papers. megan floyd desnoyers, archivist on the staff of the kennedy library, discussed the special problems of arranging and describing the presidential office files, the national security files, and the mi- crofilmed papers of the council of economic advisors for the period of walter heller's chairmanship. the panel was coordinated by wil- liam l. joyce, curator of manuscripts in the american antiquarian society. following lunch, richard phillips, special collections librarian and archivist of amherst college, explained procedures used to ad- minister the collections under his direction, and described in particular the processing of the rolfe humphries papers, the louise bogan papers, and the liberation news service collection. the theme of the fall meeting of the society of ohio archivists, held november at the university of toledo, was ancestor research. the keynote address, "the building of the historical genealogical collection of the fort wayne public library," was delivered by fred- erick j. reynolds, head librarian of that institution. more than a strict genealogical approach to the theme was indicated by the titles of the morning workshops: "local government records and family re- search," "family history: techniques and problems," "library mate- rials for family research," "computers and family history," and "cataloging and reference techniques and problems." the after- noon session was devoted to a panel discussion of the problems of access to materials for ancestor research. sixteen representatives of repositories in alberta and manitoba at- tended the september meeting of the prairie archivists' confer- ence in banff. much of the meeting was devoted to plans to continue the conference on its present informal basis and to the future of the proposed national canadian archival organization. other matters dealt with included the diffusion program operated by the public archives of canada, canadian sources for archival-quality paper, in- stitutional collecting policies, and the need for an updated and officially authorized survey of archivists' salaries in canada. to meet the need for professional education of archivists in western canada, the con- ference endorsed the proposal that the archive institute of the school of library science at the university of alberta be repeated, and the meeting participants reaffirmed their wish to work closely with the canadian conservation institute. the society of quebec archivists reports a rapid increase in mem- bership since its inception in as the first independent archival d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april association in canada. in the society became a member of the international council on archives, and prior to that was represented at the international meetings in madrid in and in moscow in . a special problem for the archivist and historian in quebec is the widespread and distant locations of the various deposits of documents, a condition that makes a central depository desirable. an additional difficulty has been the absence of specifically archival training, a prob- lem being solved with the aid of intensive sessions offered by the public archives of canada and the national archives of france. the society's terminology committee has published the results of a year-long definitions project. the definitions are intended to serve as guidelines for archivists in determining what record groups should be considered public, private, parapublic, or semipublic, and in classifying various kinds of record groups other than papers. the executive board of the society of southwest archivists met september , , in austin where it created an award in memory of the late sister claude lane of the catholic archives of texas, a founding member of the ssa and a former member of its executive board. each year at the annual meeting of the society of american archivists, the person designated by the ssa committee on awards for his or her contribution to the field of church archives will receive a cash award of $ from the ssa. the committee was able to make a selection at the toronto meeting and awarded the prize to melvin gingerich of the mennonite historical and research committee, goshen, indiana. bicentennial news the greater boston women's center has received a grant of $ , from the national endowment for the humanities for the production of a series of twenty-six television films concerning great women in american history. t h e subjects of the films include elizabeth cady stanton, an early feminist; the anthropologist ruth benedict; eliza lucas, builder of the indigo trade in south carolina; and the black journalist, ida wells-barnett. the films, which are planned as a part of the bicentennial celebration, will be made available to public television and will be distributed to universities, secondary schools, museums, and women's centers. the first major foreign bicentennial project to be announced by the american revolution bicentennial administration in conjunction with the mount vernon ladies association is a bicentennial gift of the french people to the people of the united states dramatizing events in the life of the nation's first president. the project was developed with the cooperation of the french ambassador jacques kosciusko- morizet. historical scenes in sound and light will be presented at d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril news notes george washington's home at mount vernon, starting in . the production will be a semi-permanent installation. the library of congress will hold the fourth of its american revolution bicentennial symposia on may and g, . under the chairmanship of richard b. morris, gouverneur morris professor of history emeritus of columbia university, seven distinguished histo- rians will discuss "the impact of the american revolution abroad." the keynote address will be given by robert r. palmer, professor of history at yale university. other participants include claude fohlen of the centre de recherches d'histoire nord-americaine, university of paris, speaking on "the impact of the american revolution on france"; j. w. schulte nordholt of the state university of leiden on the influence of the american revolution on the united provinces (the netherlands); j. h. plumb of cambridge university on "the impact of the american revolution on great britain"; n. n. bol- khovitinov of the institute of general history, academy of sciences of the ussr on the impact of the american revolution on the russian empire; mario rodriguez, professor of latin american history at the university of southern california, discussing the revolution's impact on the spanish and portuguese-speaking world; and owen dudley edwards speaking about the impact on ireland. edwards, professor of history at the university of edinburgh since , is also a correspon- dent for the irish times and consultant in history to radio telefis eireann. registration information can be obtained from the american revolution bicentennial office, library of congress, washington, d.c. . proceedings of the symposia series are published through a grant from the morris and gwendolyn cafritz foundation. currently avail- able from the information office, library of congress, washington, d.c. , are the development of a revolutionary mentality ($ . ), fundamental testaments of the american revolution ($ . ), and leadership in the american revolution ($ . ). the university of massachusetts and its university press are offer- ing an award of $ , for a worthy book-length manuscript, such as a monograph, biography, or interpretive study, on a topic related to the american revolutionary era. the deadline for submission is may , , and further details may be acquired from the commonwealth award committee, university of massachusetts press, p.o. box , amherst, mass. . the award carries with it a guarantee of publication by the university of massachusetts press. the national historical publications and records commission has in recent years assisted many documentary letterpress and microfilm projects dealing with themes and individuals prominent during the period of the american revolution. in , the commission re- ceived a matching grant of $ , from the american revolution d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist - april bicentennial administration to be used to fund bicentennial-related projects. from this grant the commission has generated financial support for such projects as the papers of haym salomon, the papers of the sheftall family, and the papers of aaron lopez (jewish historical society); the papers of william livingston (new jersey historical commis- sion); the plymouth court records (pilgrim society); the papers of josiah bartlett (new hampshire historical society); the papers of henry bouquet (pennsylvania historical and museum commission); and a documen- tary study of the impact of the american revolution on the british west indies (island resources foundation, u.s. virgin islands). the new jersey historical commission and the new jersey ameri- can revolution bicentennial commission are interested in learning of extant william livingston documents. livingston, a member of the continental congress and the u.s. constitutional convention, was governor of new jersey from until his death in . those knowing of such letters and other documents to or from livingston spanning the years to are invited to communicate with professor carl e. prince, editor, the papers of william livingston, department of history, new york university, washington square, new york, n.y. . a scholarly article contest sponsored by the new york state ameri- can revolution bicentennial commission and the new york state historical association offers $ to each of four winners. article- length manuscripts are desired on any aspect of new york or new yorkers in the revolution, on the coming of the revolution in new york, or on the consequences thereof. the deadline for submission is november , . for contest rules write: article contest, new york state american revolution bicentennial -commission, washington avenue, room , albany, n.y. . the american revolution bicentennial administration has provided $ , to the historical office of the department of state to support the writing and publication of a bicentennial commemorative volume on the great seal of the united states. the work is under the direction of richard s. patterson and will be printed in . the last official book on the subject, by gaillard hunt, was published in . the seal, designed by william barton and approved by congress in , is used to authenticate official documents. its most familiar use to americans is on the one dollar bill. the great seal itself is on permanent display in the exhibit hall of the department of state building in washington, d.c. the wisconsin american revolution bicentennial commission has received a $ , grant from the national endowment for the humanities for a conference on taxation and historic preservation, to create a public dialogue on the problems that relate to public fiscal policy and preservation. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the president's page james b. rhoads t h e economic difficulties that are currently facing this country are reflected in the financial straits that many corporations, businesses, professional organizations, and individuals are experiencing. the society of american archivists is no exception. much of the difficulty that we face financially is due to a meteoric rise in our costs while at the same time there is a concomitant rise in the demands of the member- ship. thus, in order to serve the membership more professionally, we have engaged the services of a competent and effective full-time executive director. the dues increase, voted by the membership at st. louis in , has brought a mixed reaction and a number of membership lapses. the reasons given for not renewing memberships were varied. in a number of cases members stated that they were operating on the brink of economic stability before the dues increase, and the rise put the cost of membership out of their reach. some members indicated that it was a matter of priorities, and they had to make a choice between professional organizations when all of their dues went up. i will say more about that later. what was most distressing to the officers and council, however, was the decision of some to drop their memberships because they did not feel that the benefits received were proportionate to the investment. we are at that transition stage now where in order to provide more services we must receive more resources from the membership. so far we have levied the fee, but the benefits of our new professional leadership have not yet had a chance fully to be felt. i can only hope that the members of the saa will make the investment for a year or two before deciding that the tariff is too high for the goods received. however, if the only reason for membership is receipt of services commensurate to dues paid, part of the reason for belonging to a professional organization will have been missed. i doubt that many members of any professional association consider that they receive direct, tangible benefits commensurate with their dues. most professional people contribute to professional societies so that their profession will continue to grow, to disseminate its principles, to establish its identity, to expand the application of professional standards, and to give new members an opportunity to learn through d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april its professional journal and to contribute new ideas at the annual meeting. the contributory attitudes of the many are necessary to prevent professional stagnation, and therefore to maintain the organi- zation's growth and professional leadership. membership dues are not strictly an interest-bearing loan, but rather an investment in the future of the profession. i urge those who have hesitated about renewing or continuing their membership to reconsider and to take the long view. at the same time, it is a certainty that many archivists—as well as members of other professions—must reanalyze their membership in a number of professional organizations. as archivists, we are all profes- sionally schizophrenic. we hold additional professional interests, either as historians, social scientists, librarians, cartographers, office managers, or what have you. each of many professional associations has a hold on us. the american library association, american historical association, organization of american historians, and american association for state and local history have dues rates established, as ours are in the saa, to produce enough revenue to support the services required by the membership. the cumulative effect of these dues on one person who joins a number of organizations is, in many cases, becoming prohibitive. it would seem to be in the interest not only of archivists, but of members of allied professions to seek a reciprocal solution to the problem. both archivists and historians, for example, have much to gain by professional association with each other, and one way of insuring the possibility of this is through "associate" memberships. both the american historical association and the organization of american historians have recently adopted new dues structures based on members' incomes. the oah has wisely provided for an associate membership category which will enable archivists to be members of that organization at a base rate unrelated to income. i would hope that the aha will see the wisdom of making a similar provision. surely the saa can do no less. it is essential that a small society such as ours work toward as inclusive a membership as possible and that we not cut ourselves off from the benefits that academic historians can bring to us. the action taken by the saa, at its business session last year in toronto, in rejecting the council's recommendation for an associate membership category for non-archivists, has unfortunately had pre- cisely that effect. we have lost from our membership rolls a number of historians who would still be with us had the council's recommenda- tion been adopted. at our annual meeting in philadelphia this fall, i would expect that a similar proposal will once again be presented to the membership—this time with more and better information. in the light of the intervening year's experience, and the forward-looking action of the oah, i hope the membership of the saa will take action that supports the broad self-interest of our profession. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the society of american archivists ann morgan campbell, editor annual meeting—philadelphia the local arrangements committee for the society's annual meeting met in philadelphia on february , , and approved the following schedule for program copy and advance registration dead- lines: may : program copy deadline. camera-ready copy should be available by this date. june : program copy to be sent to printer. june : programs to be returned from printer. july : programs to be mailed to members. august : advance registration deadline. saa third archives tour the international archival affairs committee of the society of american archivists has announced its third archives study tour: archives in central and northern europe, for august - , . the program will feature visits to public and private archival agencies, manuscript repositories, and libraries in copenhagen, stockholm, leningrad, prague, vienna, and paris. in each city there will be opportunities for local historical orientation tours and visits to museums and related cultural institutions. the study tour has been arranged through sanders world travel, inc., and is available to members of the society of american archivists, their families, and other persons interested in archives, manuscripts, libraries, and records management activities. for further information write: frank b. evans, chairman, saa international archival affairs committee, room —regional office building, washington, d.c. . minutes council meeting, september , . president f. gerald ham called the meeting to order at : p.m. in the royal york hotel in toronto. material for this department should be sent to the executive director, society of american archivists, university of illinois at chicago circle, box , chicago, . . d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april. in addition to the president, those present were vice president james b. rhoads, treasurer howard applegate, council members richard berner, elsie freivogel, a. carroll hart, ruth helmuth, mary lynn mccree, walter rundell, and hugh taylor. attending without vote were edward weldon, editor of the american archivist, vice president- elect elizabeth hamer kegan, council members-elect j. frank cook and j. r. k. kantor, and executive director ann morgan campbell. also present was joyce gianatasio, assistant to the executive director. the council approved council minutes of april , , and , , and accepted the executive committee minutes of june and , - president ham announced the appointment of ann morgan campbell as one of the society's representatives to the aha-oah- saa committee on historians and archives. other saa representa- tives are herman kahn and philip p. mason. mr. mason was recently selected as chairman of the entire committee. herbert finch has been appointed as the society's representative on the general services ad- ministration's committee for the protection of archives and records centers. the president announced the establishment of a scholarship fund by the colonial dames of america, washington chapter, to enable ar- chivists to attend the institute in modern archives administration. recipients will be chosen by a subcommittee of the saa's awards committee, chaired by frank g. burke. the society of southwest archivists has established the sister m. claude lane award which will recognize contributions in the field of church archives and be awarded annually by the saa. the society of southwest archivists originally stipulated that the saa's church ar- chives committee select the award winner. the council determined that this responsibility be assigned instead to a newly created subcom- mittee of the awards committee. wilfred i. smith has reported to mr. ham that a subcommittee under his direction concluded that no major revisions are required at this time in the society's constitution. it was suggested, however, that any change in ad hoc or standing committee structure be made subject to the advice and consent of the council. mr. ham reported that herman kahn would prepare for the consideration of the professional standards committee a draft code of ethics for the profession. mr. ham reported the creation of the national association of state archivists and records administrators. robert williams, chairman of the saa state and local records committee, serves as president of the group whose membership will be limited to five representatives from each state. vice president rhoads reported that h.r. , the act which would redesignate the national historical publications commission as the national publications and records commission, has been approved by the government operations committee of the house of represen- d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists tatives. the council adopted the following resolution which was of- fered by mrs. helmuth and seconded by ms. freivogel: be it resolved that congressman jack brooks and congressman frank horton be commended for their leadership and vision in sponsoring h.r. to redesignate the national historical publications commission as the national historical publications and records commission, to increase the membership of the commission by adding two representatives of the society of american archivists and two representatives from the american association for state and local history, and to increase the annual authorization of appropriations for the commission to $ , , , to permit the commission to undertake projects relating to the collection and preservation of historical records of the united states in addition to its present activities concentrating on the publication of papers of historical significance to the nation: be it further resolved that the society of american archivists encourages senators and members of congress and the president of the united states to consider closely the merits of the measure proposed by congressmen brooks and horton. mr. rhoads also reported on h.r. , introduced in the house of representatives september , , by representatives john brademas and orval hansen. the measure provides for the creation of a commission to study rules and procedures for the disposition and preservation of records and documents of federal officials. one member of the fourteen-person body would represent the society. ms. campbell reported on membership statistics for the first half of . the impact of the dues increase has been felt in the category of individual memberships where attrition for the period january-june is now i .g percent. no attrition has been experienced in the institutional and subscription categories. mr. applegate reported that the society's unaudited receipts for the period january g, -september , , amounted to $ , . . disbursements for the period january , -october , , amounted to $ , . . mr. applegate reported that a review of the society's current invest- ments in savings accounts indicated that reinvestment of the funds at higher interest rates currently available would be advantageous. mr. rundell moved that the treasurer be granted permission to transfer the funds at an opportune time. the motion was seconded by ms. freivogel and passed by the council. the council instructed the executive committee and the executive director to seek appropriate counsel on possible long-range investment programs for the society. mr. applegate reported that the society's auditor has recommended that a more structured system be developed to manage the revenue derived from annual meetings. the council directed the treasurer and the executive director to develop a procedures manual for annual meetings. the treasurer asked for and received council approval to distribute seed money in the amount of $ to the philadelphia d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april local arrangements committee and $ to the washington local arrangements committee. mr. applegate suggested that a policy be developed providing for approval of publications of saa committees before they are distrib- uted. the council concluded that all society publications should eventually be distributed by the office of the executive director. mr. applegate noted that over one-half of a man-year had been devoted in his office to the sales and distribution of society publications in the past twelve months. the editor presented a table of costs for the american archivist showing that, in the present press run of , the average cost per issue was over $ . and the cost per page was about $ . . since january , printing expenses have risen about percent and postage was up nearly percent. articles in the october issue, he reported, would be set in smaller, point type, gaining percent more space. mr. weldon reported that the bibliography on the administration of modern archives and manuscripts, prepared by frank b. evans, has been edited and is ready for design and printing bids. mr. applegate moved, it was seconded and passed, that the editor, treasurer, and executive director be instructed to solicit bids and arrange for print- ing. the bibliography should be ready for distribution in the spring. mr. weldon said that a draft of the revised directory of state and provincial archives had been prepared by the texas state library for the state and local records committee of the society, and submitted to the editorial board. the board recommended that the directory be edited, submitted to the states for a final verification, and then printed. ms. freivogel's motion to adopt the editorial board's rec- ommendation was seconded and passed. mr. rhoads noted that mr. weldon's three year term as the society's editor expired at this meeting. on a motion made by mrs. helmuth and seconded by mr. rundell, mr. weldon's term was extended to the end of . c. f. w. coker was appointed to serve as associate editor of the journal for the next few months, and council extended an invitation to mr. coker to attend its future meetings. the creation of an associate membership category for persons who are not archivists but who wish to retain their affiliation with the society was proposed by mr. rhoads. mr. ham reported that corre- spondence addressed to him and to the executive director indicated that a number of historians and administrators of historical agencies would maintain their membership and active participation in society affairs only if such a category were established. it was decided to postpone action in this area until the next day's meeting of council. mr. ham reported that the chairman of the ad hoc committee on research and development, david larson, had resigned. no action had been taken on council's april mandate to the committee to seek a planning grant from neh to formulate a pilot project for the establishment of a regional archival network. other possible grant d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists proposals were discussed. mr. rundell moved that the council au- thorize the executive director, in consultation with the executive committee, to prepare and submit grant proposals on behalf of the society. miss hart seconded the motion and it was passed. mr. rhoads reported that, after consultation with the executive committee, a proposal had been submitted to neh asking assistance in funding certain aspects of the international congress on ar- chives, to be co-hosted by the saa in washington. on a motion by mr. applegate, seconded by miss mccree, the council approved this action. the council next considered a proposed publication of the commit- tee on techniques for the control and description of archives and manuscripts entitled "the archival finding aid: a handbook." mr. applegate moved that the handbook be accepted and published as a working draft and that the committee be thanked for its efforts. his motion was seconded by mrs. helmuth and passed. mr. rhoads sought council approval for the following proposed changes in the committee structure: ( ) abolish the standing committee on federal and state governmental relations, the function of which will be largely assumed by the office of the executive director and facilitated by ad hoc committees as the need arises; ( ) establish an ad hoc committee on historic records legislation; ( ) abolish the ad hoc committee on research and development, as little interest was shown in this committee on preference forms recently returned by the mem- bership to mr. rhoads; ( ) abolish the ad hoc committee on paper research, but make this body an identifiable subcommittee of the preservation committee; ( ) retitle the committee on techniques for the control and description of archives and manuscripts to the com- mittee on finding aids; ( ) create a standing committee on archives- library relationships to replace the present ad hoc body; ( ) create a standing committee on the status of women in the archival profession (this committee has been asked to consider expanding its respon- sibilities to include minorities as well); and ( ) create two new subcom- mittees within the awards committee to administer the colonial dames of america scholarship fund and the sister m. claude lane award. ms. freivogel moved that the proposed changes be approved. her motion was seconded by miss hart and passed. mr. berner proposed the following resolution for council considera- tion: the society of american archivists, in the interest of both a responsible management program for federal records and a national archives of the highest integrity, urges that the national archives and records service be given independent administrative status in the federal government. congress is hereby urged to call and hold hearings on the matter. no action was taken on the resolution. t h e council then discussed a letter sent by mr. berner on april , d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april , to senator birch bayh, which commented on s. , the senator's bill relating to papers of public officials. the meeting was adjourned at : p-m- council meeting, october , igj - president ham called the meeting to order at :oo a.m. at the toronto men's press club. also present were vice president rhoads, treasurer applegate, and council representa- tives berner, freivogel, hart, helmuth, mccree, rundell, and taylor. attending without vote were vice president-elect kegan, council members-elect cook and kantor, editor weldon, executive director campbell, and ms. gianatasio. on a motion made by mr. applegate and seconded by mr. rundell, the council adopted a resolution to be presented at the annual business meeting for adoption: be it resolved that council recommends a new associate membership category, defined as persons whose full or part-time occupation is not the curatorship, management, or administration of manuscript collections, archives, and cur- rent records. this category would become effective immediately with dues to be set at the individual base rate. recognizing that no established procedure existed, the council adopted a motion made by mr. applegate and seconded by mr. rhoads to authorize the treasurer, editor, and executive director to establish prices for the society's publications. the report of the ad hoc committee on the status of women in the archival profession was considered and accepted by the council. on a motion made by mr. applegate and seconded by ms. freivogel, it was decided to publish an abstract of the report in the american archivist and to publish the entire report as a publication of the society. mr. applegate asked for and received council approval to provide $ in seed money to the conference of intermountain archivists. mr. applegate agreed to conduct a drive to encourage sustaining memberships in . the meeting was adjourned at : a.m. council meeting, october , . president rhoads called the meeting to order at : p.m. in the royal york hotel, toronto. in addition to the president, those present were vice president kegan, council mem- bers cook, freivogel, hart, helmuth, and kantor. attending without vote were edward weldon and c. f. w. coker of the american archivist, executive director campbell, and ms. gianatasio. not present were treasurer applegate and council members berner, rundell, and taylor. mrs. kegan reported that s. , the copyright revision bill, had passed the united states senate. action is not expected in the house this term. mrs. helmuth proposed changing the date of the next council meeting to coincide with the january meeting of the american library d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril society of american archivists association instead of the annual meeting of the american historical association which is held d u r i n g the christmas season. mrs. hel- muth's proposal was adopted. ms. campbell circulated a report on possible dates and hotels for the ig annual meeting in salt lake city. t h e council determined that the meeting will be held october - , , at the hotel utah. mr. rundell was chosen by his fellow council members as represen- tative to the executive committee for the upcoming year. mrs. hel- muth moved that the society pay mr. rundell's travel expenses to executive committee meetings if necessary. t h e motion was seconded by ms. freivogel and passed. a request received by the council from victor gondos, jr., for aid in the formal publication of his work, " t h e movement for a national archives of the united states," was considered. noting that council is interested in encouraging publication, a motion was made by mr. cook, seconded by mrs. kegan and passed, instructing the president and editor to investigate the possibilities of publication. noting that he felt the resolution passed by the annual business meeting relating to papers of public officials was not sufficient, mr. cook moved the adoption of the following resolution: the council of the society of american archivists supports the principle of public ownership of the official records of elected or appointed public officials. since careful attention must be given to policies that ( ) define these records, ( ) determine their appropriate place of deposit, ( ) respect the confidential nature of some records, and ( ) establish reasonable and proper access which preserves the rights of privacy, the council believes it essential that these and related policies be set in consultation with qualified archivists. mr. cook's resolution was seconded by ms. freivogel and adopted. mr. cook then formally requested that he be made a member of any a n d all committees, task forces, or other groups appointed to consider policy in regard to ( ) implementing the provisions of the mccree resolution passed at the annual business meeting or ( ) any other actions council proposes in regard to the issue of ownership of the papers of public officials. mr. rhoads responded that he would give serious consideration to mr. cook's request if such appointments become necessary. mr. rhoads presented to the council a resolution adopted by the executive committee of the national association of state archives and records administrators, september , , which commented on certain aspects of h.r. , a d m t o amend records management provisions of the federal records act. o n a motion made by ms. freivogel and seconded by mrs. hamer, the council voted to commend saa member mabel deutrich and her sister bernice deutrich, who is not a member of the society, for their efforts in compiling the report of the ad hoc committee on the status of women in the archival profession. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril the american archivist ~ april mr. weldon sought the council's direction as to how prices of publications are to be established. it was observed that the society's publications program is a service which is not designed to make money. ideally, however, the program would break even financially. mrs. kegan asked for suggestions for the program committee and stated her desire that the group be broadly representative of the major groups and interests in the saa. the meeting was adjourned at : p.m. there's more to records storage than storing records! reasons why paige miracle box does more than store office records — miracle box offers unmatched economy. because of its interlocked double walls and floor, miracle box lasts ten times as long as single-walled corrugated storage files. miracle box never splits at corners, never warps, never sags. miracle box saves your personnel's time and labor. miracle box is a completely-finished, file (not a "do-it-yourself" project), sets up instantly, automatically—no folding, no taping, no tabbing. miracle box doesn't need shelving! you may use shelving for semi-active records but inactive records can be stacked high without shelving. miracle box is top quality records storage equipment. made of virgin kraft #-test corrugated fibreboard in the three most wanted sizes: " wide x " long x " high, " wide x " long x " high, " wide x " long x '//' high. write or phone for brochure a- and prices the paige company, inc. park avenue south, new york, n. y. • ( ) - four convenient shipping points coast-tocoast d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril you save more than space with fuji microfilm behind every roll there's an expert to help you. benefits you can't see are yours when you ask for the green box of fuji microfilm. for behind that roll lies expert technical help, quality service of a highly selected fuji dealer. . . . and for you special space and time savers, ask about new fuji thin-pak high speed, fine grain microfilm on /? mil polyester base that doubles the data you can store on a roll. distributed exclusively by: u.s. microfilm sales corr boston • st. louis • san francisco for further facts, contact: montgomery s t , san francisco, ca. phone: ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril efficiency + economy = cost control troubled with rising overhead costs and slimmer profits? then let fuji microfilm — with its formula for cost-control—work for you as it has for hundreds of others: microfilm highest technical qualities at costs that will make your controller smile. for complete facts, call or write: u.s. microfilm sales corporation, montgomery street, san francisco, ca . ( ) - distributed exclusively by: u.s. microfilm sales corp. boston • st. louis • san francisco d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril do you have n o n - e s s e n t i a l materialinyour archives? if you desire to establish and/or augment an archives fund, a recommended course of action is to dispose for fair market value material that you consider non-essential. in addition to purchases, the following services are available: • evaluation of . manuscripts . letters . military directives . presidential documents . deeds . stamps and coins • consultation consultation and travel are not charged to the client. references (client and bank) will be furnished upon request. j o s e p h b f r a n k l i n . c o l o n e l u . s . a r m y . r e t i h e d b a n k o f a m e r i c a b l o g — s u i t e e . t h o u s a n d o a k s b l v d . t h o u s a n d o a k s , c a l i f o r n i a ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril xerox model m records* motorrnaiic mpg xerox model 'which is the best microfilm reader?" asked the national archives and records service "the i.d. m o d e l - /'said the users. in a recent study entitled, "user evaluations of microfilm readers," the nars asked vol- unteers to rate virtually all of the mm roll film readers now in use. ten qualities were evaluated indicating ease, comfort and effi- ciency in use. in all but one category the information design model - ranked first or second. when asked which was the "best" reader, the users overwhelmingly preferred the i.d. model - manual drive reader. now available with either manual or motor- ized drive, the model - accepts both reels and cartridges in mm and mm sizes. it s automatic film gate protects your film from being scratched, and its big inch square screen displays a clear bright image of a full newspaper page. the model - with manual drive is $ *, with motorized drive—$ *. if there are some new micro- film readers in your future, you should see the nars report. complete copies are avail- able on request from nars, washington, d.c. or from information design. information design, inc. middlefield road menlo park, ca. ( ) - *f.o.b. menlo park, california note: the nars study and nars does not endorse any product or equipment. moreover, user evaluations must be considered together with technical evaluation, service, and price in purchase of a reader. but write us at i.d. for further information about these factors too. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril new! £ acid free mm microfilm storage boxes write-on surface tor direct indexing tan hollinger acid-free stock, . thick maximum folding endurance, tear resistance last to years hollinger mm microfilm storage boxes are acid free (ph . ), protecting your valuable film from dete- rioration. economical, yet permanent and durable. shipped flat in units of . the hollinger corporation write today for prices and complete catalog for permanent durable acid free storage materials -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril best att new! acid free "x " " x " "x " museum mounting board • archival board with a professional appearance • designed for absolute protection of your prints • will last to years • completely acid free hollinger off-white mounting board is alkaline (ph . ), and is buffered to combat atmosphere pollutants and acids that may migrate from papers attached to it. available in three sizes . . . order in units of or more. the hollinger corporation write today for free information, sample and prices -aa south four mile run drive, arlington, va. d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril sometimes. small is better. ' • • • is your library sinking under the weight of your book collection? do you find yourself abandoning important materials because of lack of space? don't give up the ark! the answer is microfilm: , pages of newspaper will fit on one small roll. general microfilm company offers complete microform services for all types of libraries. microform collections of over , titles are now available for immediate shipment! other materials can be duplicated on microfilm, microfiche, or paper exactly to your specifications. our complete range of services includes library catalog card duplication, microfilm and microfiche duplication, enlargements back to paper, and mm, mm, and mm microfilming. even the smallest library with the most limited space can have an unlimited collection with microfilm. write or call for complete^nformation on our microform publications and other services. sspffi.. m company inman street, cambridge, massachusetts ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril in our years of existence, general microfilm company has acquired years of experience handling archival documents. we know what we're doing. may we help you with your preservation program? genefal microfilm company inman street, cambridge, massachusetts ( ) - d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril saa publications the american archivist • various issues - and all issues - members $ , others $ per issue • microfilm edition, volumes - ( - ) members $ a set or $ a reel others $ a set or $ a reel • index to volumes - ( - ) members $ , others $ • index to volumes - ( - ) members $ , others $ directories • state a n d provincial archivists ( ) members $ , others $ readers • archives and the public interest essays by ernst posner. ( ) $ • archives and records center buildings by victor gondos, jr. ( ) $ • forms m a n u a l prepared by the saa college and university archives committee, members $ , others $ • a glossary of basic terms for archivists, manuscript curators, a n d records managers by the saa committee on terminology. ( ) $ each; in orders for or more, $ each • adp and archives: selected publications on automatic data processing, compiled by meyer h. fishbein. ( ) $ each • report of the status of women in the archival profession, by the saa committee on the status of women, mabel e. deutrich, chairperson. ( ) $ each; in orders for or more, $ each order from • executive director, society of american archivists box , university of illinois at chicago circle chicago, illinois d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril sustaining institutional members annual sustaining memberships provide an opportunity for archives and manuscripts-related institutions to give a much-needed extra measure of finan- cial support to the society. in ii)j the following institutions gave $ to the society as sustaining members: u n i t e d states department of agriculture t h e balch institute barnard college archives buffalo and erie county historical society public archives of canada coca-cola company archives colorado state archives department of manuscripts and university archives, cornell university illinois state archives kentucky state archives and records center university of kentucky library commonwealth of massachusetts michigan historical collections, university of michigan western historical manuscripts collection, university of missouri archives of the moravian c h u r c h , bethlehem, pennsylvania national archives and records service n e w jersey state library n o r t h carolina division of archives and history o h i o state university archives pennsylvania historical and museum commission t e x a s state library washington state, division of archives and records management archives of labor history and urban affairs, wayne state university state historical society of wisconsin d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril d ow nloaded from http://m eridian.allenpress.com /doi/pdf/ . /aarc. . .xq q by c arnegie m ellon u niversity user on a pril wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk params is empty sys_ exception wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk no params is empty exception params is empty / / - : : if (typeof jquery === "undefined") document.write('[script type="text/javascript" src="/corehtml/pmc/jig/ . . /js/jig.min.js"][/script]'.replace(/\[/g,string.fromcharcode( )).replace(/\]/g,string.fromcharcode( ))); // // // window.name="mainwindow"; .pmc-wm {background:transparent repeat-y top left;background-image:url(/corehtml/pmc/pmcgifs/wm-nobrand.png);background-size: auto, contain} .print-view{display:block} page not available reason: the web page address (url) that you used may be incorrect. message id: (wp-p m- .ebi.ac.uk) time: / / : : if you need further help, please send an email to pmc. include the information from the box above in your message. otherwise, click on one of the following links to continue using pmc: search the complete pmc archive. browse the contents of a specific journal in pmc. find a specific article by its citation (journal, date, volume, first page, author or article title). http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/ with expanded carrier screening, founder populations run the risk of being overlooked original article with expanded carrier screening, founder populations run the risk of being overlooked inge b. mathijssen & merel c. van maarle & iris i.m. kleiss & egbert j.w. redeker & leo p. ten kate , & lidewij henneman , & hanne meijers-heijboer , received: february /accepted: may /published online: may # the author(s) . this article is an open access publication abstract genetically isolated populations exist worldwide. specific genetic disorders, including rare autosomal recessive disorders may have high prevalences in these populations. we searched for dutch genetically isolated populations and their autosomal recessive founder mutations. we investigated whether these founder mutations are covered in the (preconception) expanded carrier screening tests of five carrier screening providers. our results show that the great majority of founder mutations are not covered in these screening panels, and these panels may thus not be appropriate for use in founder populations. it is therefore important to be aware of founder mutations in a population when offering carrier tests. keywords founder population . community . carrier screening . autosomal recessive . netherlands introduction the general dutch population is relatively outbred (ten kate et al. ). however, several genetically isolated populations exist (for definitions of terms see box ). also, in many other countries worldwide, genetically isolated populations are present. often these populations are geographically, culturally, or for religious reasons isolated for centuries and as a conse- quence show less genetic variation. because of the low genet- ic heterogeneity, these populations have proven to be very suitable for the identifications of genes involved both in mendelian as well as in complex disorders. bottleneck effects in the history of a population and/or founder effects may result in high prevalences of monogenic recessive disorders in these populations compared with the nationwide prevalences. because of high carrier frequencies in founder populations, carrier screening programs have been introduced in some of these populations. the aim of these programs is to identify carrier couples with a one-in-four risk of affected offspring, enabling autonomous reproductive decision making, which consequently might reduce perinatal morbidity and mortality. examples are carrier screening programs for genetic disorders in people of eastern european jewish (ashkenazi) descent (for example tay-sachs disease) (acog committee on box definitions genetically isolated population or founder population: a population that is or was geographically, culturally, or for religious reasons isolated and as a consequence has restricted genetic variation. bottleneck effect: occurs when there is a sharp reduction in the size of a population due to a natural disaster or similar event with, as a consequence, reduction of the genetic variation in the population. founder effect: the reduction of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is founded by a small number of individuals (founders) from a larger population and this population remains isolated to other populations. founder mutation: a gene mutation on an identical haplotype background, observed with high frequency in a genetically isolated population in which one or more of the ancestors were carriers of the gene mutation. recurrent mutation: a gene mutation on more than one haplotype background, reoccurring multiple times in a population history. this article is part of the topical collection on inclusion of diverse populations in genomics research and health services: a scientific and health equity imperative * inge b. mathijssen i.b.mathijssen@amc.uva.nl department of clinical genetics, academic medical center, amsterdam, the netherlands department of clinical genetics, vu university medical center, amsterdam, the netherlands amsterdam public health research institute, vu university medical center, amsterdam, the netherlands j community genet ( ) : – doi . /s - - - mailto:i.b.mathijssen@amc.uva.nl http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi= . /s - - - &domain=pdf genetics ), targeted carrier screening for severe and fre- quent disorders in different isolated (mainly arab and druze) communities in israel (basel-vanagaite et al. ; falik- zaccai et al. ; zlotogora et al. ), screening for four recessive diseases in the saguenay-lac-saint-jean region of quebec, canada (tardif et al. ), and screening for four severe autosomal recessive disorders in a dutch genetically isolated community (mathijssen et al. ). meanwhile, technological advances have enabled the de- velopment and offer of preconception expanded carrier screening (ecs) in which couples without an a priori in- creased risk of having a child with a genetic disorder can be screened for several (hundreds of) disorders simultaneously (edwards et al. ; henneman et al. ). an increasing number of mainly commercial laboratories offer these screen- ing panels (borry et al. ; lazarin et al. ). however, the carrier frequencies of several autosomal re- cessive disorders in genetically isolated populations can be very skewed from nationwide or worldwide carrier frequen- cies. in some genetically isolated populations, carrier frequen- cies of disorders which are rare or almost non-existent in the general population may be very high. in contrast, carrier fre- quencies of more frequent disorders in the general population may be very low in genetically isolated populations. the aim of this study was to make an inventory of dutch genetically isolated populations and their autosomal recessive founder mutations, and to investigate whether dutch founder mutations are covered in the (preconception) expanded carrier screening tests of carrier screening providers. methods we searched for genetically isolated populations in the netherlands (total population million people) and their founder mutations in the databases pubmed, on-line mendelian inheritance in man (omim), and google semi- systematically by using the keywords bgenetically isolated population,^ bfounder,^ bmutation,^ bgene,^ and bdutch^ or bnetherlands.^ also, dutch clinical (molecular) geneticists were asked about their knowledge of genetically isolated pop- ulations and their specific founder mutations. only autosomal recessive mutations were included. recurrent mutations (box ) and dutch founder mutations not related to a specific ge- netically isolated community were not included (zeegers et al. ). to prevent possible stigmatization, the genetically iso- lated populations are numbered and the specific names of the villages are not mentioned. our purpose was not to be complete, but to illustrate the importance of being aware of founder populations and foun- der mutations. we therefore made a selection of founder mu- tations present in different genetically isolated populations for which the most information was available in the literature and from personal information. information about the carrier frequencies of founder muta- tions were derived from the scientific articles and personal communication with clinical (molecular) geneticists. carrier frequencies in the dutch general population were derived from the genome of the netherlands (gonl) project (http://www.nlgenome.nl, accessed february ) (the genome of the netherlands consortium ). we investigated whether the specific founder mutations were present or absent in the expanded carrier screening panels offered by five ecs providers. results in table , several founder mutations present in six different dutch genetically isolated populations are shown, including the carrier frequencies of these disorders in the specific genet- ically isolated population and in the dutch general population. as can be seen, the carrier frequencies of generally rare dis- orders are high in these genetically isolated populations. for the five selected carrier screening providers, the cover- age of founder mutations in the carrier screening tests is shown. for each carrier screening provider, on average . (range – ) of the founder mutations are covered in the test. eleven ( %) of the founder mutations are covered in none of the five carrier screening tests. in the test of two providers, a selection of mutations in the specific gene of three disorders is included in the carrier screening test, but the foun- der mutation is not. discussion in genetically isolated populations, carrier frequencies of ge- netic disorders can be very different from the carrier frequen- cies in the general population. the great majority of these founder mutations are not covered in the ecs panels of the five selected providers. this also applies to most of the foun- der mutations present in genetically isolated populations in other countries. offering a (commercial) routine ecs panel to inhabitants of these genetically isolated populations is not appropriate because it may give false reassurance to couples with an in- creased risk for founder mutations related disorders they are not being tested for. for a reliable carrier test offer, it is therefore important to know the genetically isolated populations and their founder mutations in each country. nationwide databases in which the genetically isolated populations, their relatively frequent ge- netic disorders, and the specific genes and mutations are listed, are a suitable solution. a database is not only very important j community genet ( ) : – http://www.nlgenome.nl t ab le f o u n d er m u ta ti o n s in d if fe re n t d u tc h g en et ic al ly is o la te d co m m u n it ie s an d th e co v er ag e o f th es e m u ta ti o ns in ex p an d ed ca rr ie r sc re en in g te st s d is or de r o m im d is ea se se v er it y a g en e m u ta ti o n p o p u la ti o n b c ar ri er fr eq u en cy g en et ic is o la te c c ar ri er fr eq u en cy d ut ch g en er al p o p ul at io n d c o u n sy le g en p at h d ia g n o st ic sf m o u n t s in ai g p at h w ay g en o m ic sh r ec o m b in ei r ef er en ce s f et al ak in es ia de fo rm at io n se qu en ce (f a d s ) m u sk c. t > c p .( il e t hr ) . – . % < . % − − − − − m at hi js se n et al . ( ) an d t an -s in dh un at a et al . ( ) o st eo ge ne si s im pe rf ec ta ty pe ii b /i ii (o i) c r ta p c. _ d u pg g p .( a la fs ) . % < . % − − − − − m at hi js se n et al . ( ) an d va n d ij k et al . ( ) p h en yl k et o nu ri a (p k u ) pa h c. + g > a . % < . % + + + – j + o o rt h uy s et al . ( ) p o nt o ce re be ll ar hy p op la si a ty pe (p c h ) t se n c. g > t p .( a la s er ) . – . % . % − − − − + b ar th et al . ( ), b u d d e et al . ( ), an d m at hi js se n et al . ( ) p ri m ar y ci li ar y dy sk in es ia (p c d ) c c d c c. g > a p .( g ly t hr fs ) % . % − − − − − o n ou fr ia di s et al . ( ) p se u do x an th om a el as ti cu m (p x e ) a b c c c. de lt p .( t rp g ly fs ) ca se s de sc ri be d (~ , ) . % − – j − − − b er ge n et al . ( ) an d p lo m p et al . ( ) r et in it is pi gm en to sa ty pe (r p ) c r b c. t > c p .( m et t hr ) . % < . % − – j + − − d en h ol la nd er et al . ( ) an d m at hi js se n et al . ( ) r hi zo m el ic ch on d ro dy sp la s- ia pu n ct at a ty p e (r c d p ) p e x c. t > a p .( l eu x ) . % < . % + + + − + m at hi js se n et al . ( ) v an b uc he m di se as e (v b c h ) so st k b d el et io n ap p ro xi m at el y kb do w ns tr ea m o f g en e ≥ ca se s de sc ri be d (~ , ) < . % − − − − − b al em an s et al . ( ) an d v an b uc he m et al . ( ) c on g en it al re ti na l dy st ro ph y r p e c. t > c p .( t yr h is ) . – . % . % − − + − + s ch ap pe rt -k im m ij - se r et al . ( ) an d y ze r et al . ( ) r et in it is pu nc ta ta al be sc en s (r pa ) l r a t c. d el c p .( m et c ys fs x ) ca se s de sc ri be d (~ , ) < . % − − − − − l it ti nk et al .( ) v ic i sy nd ro m e (v ar ia nt fo rm ) e p g c. g > a p .( a rg g ln ) ± % (p c) < . % − − − − − b en ig n re cu rr en t in tr ah ep at ic a t p b c. - c > a , sk ip pi ng of ex o n < . % − − − − − d e k on in g et al . ( ), h ou w en j community genet ( ) : – t ab le (c o n ti n u ed ) d is o rd er o m im d is ea se se v er it y a g en e m u ta ti o n p o p u la ti o n b c ar ri er fr eq u en cy g en et ic is o la te c c ar ri er fr eq u en cy d ut ch g en er al p o p u la ti o n d c o u n sy le g en p at h d ia g n o st ic sf m o u n t s in ai g p at h w ay g en o m ic sh r ec o m b in ei r ef er en ce s ch ol es ta si s (b r ic ) ≥ ca se s de sc ri b ed (~ , ) et al . ( ) an d k lo m p et al . ( ) c hu d le y -m cc ul lo - ug h sy n dr om e (c m c s ) g p sm c. de lg p. (p h e s er fs x ) ca se s de sc ri b ed (~ , ) < . % − − − − − a lm om an i et al . ( ) an d h en d ri k s et al . ( ) ju ve n il e ne ur o na l ce ro id li p of u sc in o si s (c l n ) c l n . k b de le ti on ca se s de sc ri b ed . % + − + − − t as ch n er et al . ( ) p ar ki ns on d is ea se ty pe (p a r k ) d j- kb d el et io n . % < . % − − − − − b o n if at i et al . ( ) b+ ^ p re se n ce o f th e m u ta ti o n in p an el . b− ^ ab se n ce o f th e m u ta ti o n in p an el , pc p er so n al co m m u n ic at io n s a d is ea se se v er it y; = m il d , = m o d er at e, = se v er e, = p ro fo u n d (l az ar in et al . ). s co re d in d ep en d en tl y b y im an d ik . d is cr ep an ci es w er e d is cu ss ed u n ti l co ns en su s w as re ac h ed b s ix d if fe re n t d u tc h fo un d er p o p u la ti o n s (c o d ed fr o m to ) c if th e ca rr ie r fr eq u en cy in th e g en et ic al ly is o la te d co m m un it y is n o t k n o w n , th e nu m b er o f ca se s d es cr ib ed in th e li te ra tu re an d th e cu rr en t p o p u la ti o n si ze o f th e g en et ic al ly is o la te d co m m u n it y is n o te d d d er iv ed fr o m g en o m e o f th e n et h er la n d s (g o n l ) pr o je ct , h tt p :/ /w w w .n lg en o m e. n l; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y e f am il y p re p s cr ee n ( d is o rd er s) ; h tt p s: // w w w .c ou n sy l. co m /s er v ic es /f am il y -p re p -s cr ee n ; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y f in h er ig en p lu s ( di so rd er s) ; h tt p :/ /w w w .g en p at h d ia g n o st ic s. co m /w o m en s- h ea lt h /i n h er ig en ; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y g n ex ts te p p an -e th n ic c ar ri er s cr ee n ( d is o rd er s) ; h tt p :/ /n ex ts te p te st .c o m ; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y h c ar ri er s ta tu s d n a in si g h t ( d is o rd er s) ; ht tp s: // w w w .p at h w ay .c o m /c ar ri er -s ta tu s- d n a- in si g h t; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y i c ar ri er m ap ( d is o rd er s) ; h tt p :/ /w w w .r ec o m b in e. co m /c ar ri er m ap ; ac ce ss ed f eb ru ar y j a se le ct io n o f m u ta ti o ns is in cl u d ed in th e ca rr ie r sc re en in g , b u t th e fo u nd er m u ta ti o n is n o t j community genet ( ) : – http://www.nlgenome.nl https://www.counsyl.com/services/family-prep-screen/ http://www.genpathdiagnostics.com/womens-health/inherigen/ http://nextsteptest.com https://www.pathway.com/carrier-status-dna-insight/ http://www.recombine.com/carriermap for carrier screening programs but also for making a rapid (differential) diagnosis by clinicians, genetic counseling, and research in these populations. for some genetically isolated populations such (online) databases are already available. examples are the amish, mennonite, and hutterite genetic disorder database (www.biochemgenetics.ca/plainpeople) (payne et al. ) and the israeli national genetic database (www.goldenhelix.org/israeli) (zlotogora ). ideally, a customized carrier test will be developed for each country/region in which both country/region-specific muta- tions as well as genetic isolate-specific founder mutations are present. this approach may also reduce potential stigma- tization of genetic isolates, while specific mutations still are included. in the netherlands, carrier screening is only (partly) paid by health insurance companies in case of an increased risk of being a carrier; e.g. carrier screening for four autosomal reces- sive disorders in a genetically isolated community (mathijssen et al. ) and carrier screening for nine disorders in individ- uals of ashkenazi jewish descent (holtkamp et al. ). recently, the academic medical center in amsterdam started a non-profit offer of carrier screening for severe autosomal recessive disorders. most of the severe disorders currently known in dutch genetically isolated populations are included. probably, in a non-commercial setting, it will be more likely to take into account the founder mutations present in founder populations than for commercial companies to include those mutations. it is expected that in the near future, it will become possible to use whole-exome sequencing (wes) or whole-genome se- quencing (wgs) for ecs, in which all known disease genes can be screened, including very rare disease genes prevalent in genetically isolated populations. however, correct interpreta- tion of test-results (e.g. variants of unknown clinical signifi- cance) when using wes or wgs is complex. also, the iden- tification of carrier couples for mild disorders which are un- likely to alter reproductive plans is an important point to take into consideration (beaudet ; sallevelt et al. ). in the meantime, descendants from genetically isolated populations should be made aware that a (commercial) routine ecs panel may not be appropriate and can give false reassur- ance because the population-specific genes and/or mutations are not covered. currently, this information is not mentioned by expanded carrier test providers. not only genetically isolated populations but also consan- guineous couples and populations with a high rate of consan- guineous unions have an increased risk of having a child with an autosomal recessive disorder (teeuw et al. ). many of these disorders are rare disorders which are also not covered in the (commercial) routine ecs panels. these panels may there- fore also not be appropriate for use in consanguineous couples and in countries/populations with a high rate of consanguine- ous unions. conclusions in genetically isolated populations, carrier frequencies of gen- erally rare autosomal recessive founder mutations can be very high. the great majority of these founder mutations are not covered in most (commercial) routine ecs panels. it is impor- tant to be aware of founder populations and founder mutations when using these ecs panels and to check whether the muta- tions are covered. if these founder mutations are not covered, customized screening tests should be developed which in- clude the founder mutations. compliance with ethical standards conflict of interest all authors are affiliated to a hospital that offers expanded carrier screening in a non-commercial setting. funding lh supervises research evaluating carrier screening, finan- cially supported by the netherlands organization for health research and development (zonmw grant no. ). consent this article does not contain any studies with human partici- pants performed by any of the authors. open access this article is distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution . international license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ . /), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appro- priate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the creative commons license, and indicate if changes were made. references acog committee on genetics ( ) acog committee opinion no. : preconception and prenatal carrier screening for genetic dis- eases in individuals of eastern european jewish descent. obstet gynecol : – almomani r, sun y, aten e, hilhorst-hofstee y, peeters-scholte cm, van haeringen a, hendriks ym, den dunnen jt, breuning mh, kriek m, santen gw ( ) gpsm and chudley-mccullough syndrome: a dutch founder variant brought to north america. am j med genet a a: – balemans w, patel n, ebeling m, van hul e, wuyts w, lacza c, dioszegi m, dikkers fg, hildering p, willems pj, verheij jb, lindpaintner k, vickery b, foernzler d, van hul w ( ) identification of a kb deletion downstream of the sost gene in patients with van buchem disease. j med genet : – barth pg, vrensen gf, uylings hb, oorthuys jw, stam fc ( ) inherited syndrome of microcephaly, dyskinesia and pontocerebellar hypoplasia: a systemic atrophy with early onset. j neurol sci : – basel-vanagaite l, taub e, halpern gj, drasinover v, magal n, davidov b, zlotogora j, shohat m ( ) genetic screening for autosomal recessive nonsyndromic mental retardation in an isolated population in israel. eur j hum genet : – beaudet al ( ) global genetic carrier testing: a vision for the future. genome med : bergen aa, plomp as, schuurman ej, terry s, breuning m, dauwerse h, swart j, kool m, van soest s, baas f, ten brink jb, de jong pt j community genet ( ) : – http://www.biochemgenetics.ca/plainpeople http://www.goldenhelix.org/israeli ( ) mutations in abcc cause pseudoxanthoma elasticum. nat genet : – bonifati v, rizzu p, van baren mj, schaap o, breedveld gj, krieger e, dekker mc, squitieri f, ibanez p, joosse m, van dongen jw, vanacore n, van swieten jc, brice a, meco g, van duijn cm, oostra ba, heutink p ( ) mutations in the dj- gene associated with autosomal recessive early-onset parkinsonism. science : – borry p, henneman l, lakeman p, ten kate lp, cornel mc, howard hc ( ) preconceptional genetic carrier testing and the commercial offer directly-to-consumers. hum reprod : – budde bs, namavar y, barth pg, poll-the bt, nurnberg g, becker c, van ruissen f, weterman ma, fluiter k, te beek et, aronica e, van der knaap ms, hohne w, toliat mr, crow yj, steinling m, voit t, roelenso f, brussel w, brockmann k, kyllerman m, boltshauser e, hammersen g, willemsen m, basel-vanagaite l, krageloh-mann i, de vries ls, sztriha l, muntoni f, ferrie cd, battini r, hennekam rc, grillo e, beemer fa, stoets lm, wollnik b, nurnberg p, baas f ( ) trna splicing endonuclease mutations cause pontocerebellar hypoplasia. nat genet : – de koning tj, sandkuijl la, de schryver je, hennekam ea, beemer fa, houwen rh ( ) autosomal-recessive inheritance of benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis. am j med genet : – den hollander ai, ten brink jb, de kok yj, van soest s, van den born li, van driel ma, van de pol dj, payne am, bhattacharya ss, kellner u, hoyng cb, westerveld a, brunner hg, bleeker- wagemakers em, deutman af, heckenlively jr, cremers fp, bergen aa ( ) mutations in a human homologue of drosophila crumbs cause retinitis pigmentosa (rp ). nat genet : – edwards jg, feldman g, goldberg j, gregg ar, norton me, rose nc, schneider a, stoll k, wapner r, watson ms ( ) expanded carrier screening in reproductive medicine-points to consider: a joint statement of the american college of medical genetics and genomics, american college of obstetricians and gynecologists, national society of genetic counselors, perinatal quality foundation, and society for maternal-fetal medicine. obstet gynecol : – falik-zaccai tc, kfir n, frenkel p, cohen c, tanus m, mandel h, shihab s, morkos s, aaref s, summar ml, khayat m ( ) population screening in a druze community: the challenge and the reward. genet med : – hendriks ym, laan la, vielvoye gj, van haeringen a ( ) bilateral sensorineural deafness, partial agenesis of the corpus callosum, and arachnoid cysts in two sisters. am j med genet : – henneman l, borry p, chokoshvili d, cornel mc, van el cg, forzano f, hall a, howard hc, janssens s, kayserili h, lakeman p, lucassen a, metcalfe sa, vidmar l, de wert g, dondorp wj, peterlin b ( ) responsible implementation of expanded carrier screening. eur j hum genet :e –e holtkamp kc, van maarle mc, schouten mj, dondorp wj, lakeman p, henneman l ( ) do people from the jewish community prefer ancestry-based or pan-ethnic expanded carrier screening? eur j hum genet : – houwen rh, baharloo s, blankenship k, raeymaekers p, juyn j, sandkuijl la, freimer nb ( ) genome screening by searching for shared segments: mapping a gene for benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis. nat genet : – klomp lw, vargas jc, van mil sw, pawlikowska l, strautnieks ss, van eijk mj, juijn ja, pabon-pena c, smith lb, deyoung ja, byrne ja, gombert j, van der brugge g, berger r, jankowska i, pawlowska j, villa e, knisely as, thompson rj, freimer nb, houwen rh, bull ln ( ) characterization of mutations in atp b associated with hereditary cholestasis. hepatology : – lazarin ga, haque is, nazareth s, iori k, patterson as, jacobson jl, marshall jr, seltzer wk, patrizio p, evans ea, srinivasan bs ( ) an empirical estimate of carrier frequencies for + causal mendelian variants: results from an ethnically diverse clinical sam- ple of , individuals. genet med : – lazarin ga, hawthorne f, collins ns, platt ea, evans ea, haque is ( ) systematic classification of disease severity for evaluation of expanded carrier screening panels. plos one :e littink kw, van genderen mm, van schooneveld mj, visser l, riemslag fc, keunen je, bakker b, zonneveld mn, den hollander ai, cremers fp, van den born li ( ) a homozygous frameshift mutation in lrat causes retinitis punctata albescens. ophthalmology : – mathijssen ib, florijn rj, van den born li, zekveld-vroon rc, ten brink jb, plomp as, baas f, meijers-heijboer h, bergen aa, van schooneveld mj ( ) long-term follow-up of patients with retinitis pigmentosa type caused by crb -mutations: a severe phenotype with considerable interindividual variability. retina : – mathijssen ib, henneman l, van eeten-nijman jm, lakeman p, ottenheim cp, redeker ej, ottenhof w, meijers-heijboer h, van maarle mc ( ) targeted carrier screening for four recessive disorders: high detection rate within a founder population. eur j med genet : – onoufriadis a, paff t, antony d, shoemark a, micha d, kuyt b, schmidts m, petridi s, dankert-roelse je, haarman eg, daniels jm, emes rd, wilson r, hogg c, scambler pj, chung em, pals g, mitchison hm ( ) splice-site mutations in the axonemal outer dynein arm docking complex gene ccdc cause primary ciliary dyskinesia. am j hum genet : – oorthuys jw, gons mh, kwakman jv, schutgens rb, tegelaers wh ( ) screening for raised serum phenylalanine levels in women of reproductive age in volendam. ned tijdschr geneeskd : – payne m, rupar ca, siu gm, siu vm ( ) amish, mennonite, and hutterite genetic disorder database. paediatr child health :e – e plomp as, bergen aa, florijn rj, terry sf, toonstra j, van dijk mr, de jong pt ( ) pseudoxanthoma elasticum: wide phenotypic vari- ation in homozygotes and no signs in heterozygotes for the c. delt mutation in abcc . genet med : – sallevelt sc, de koning b, szklarczyk r, paulussen ad, de die- smulders ce, smeets hj ( ) a comprehensive strategy for exome-based preconception carrier screening. genet med. doi: . /gim. . schappert-kimmijser j, henkes he, van den bosch j ( ) amaurosis congenita (leber). ama arch ophthalmol : – tan-sindhunata mb, mathijssen ib, smit m, baas f, de vries ji, van der voorn jp, kluijt i, hagen ma, blom ew, sistermans e, meijers- heijboer h, waisfisz q, weiss mm, groffen aj ( ) identification of a dutch founder mutation in musk causing fetal akinesia deformation sequence. eur j hum genet : – tardif j, pratte a, laberge am ( ) experience of carrier couples identified through a population-based carrier screening pilot pro- gram for four founder autosomal recessive diseases in saguenay- lac-saint-jean. prenat diagn. doi: . /pd. taschner pe, de vos n, post jg, meijers-heijboer ej, hofman i, loonen mc, pinckers aj, bleeker-wagemakers em, gardiner rm, breuning mh ( ) carrier detection of batten disease (juvenile neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinosis). am j med genet : – teeuw m, waisfisz q, zwijnenburg pj, sistermans ea, weiss mm, henneman l, ten kate lp, cornel mc, meijers-heijboer h ( ) first steps in exploring prospective exome sequencing of consanguineous couples. eur j med genet : – ten kate lp, teeuw me, henneman l, cornel mc ( ) consanguinity and endogamy in the netherlands: demographic and medical genetic aspects. hum hered : – j community genet ( ) : – http://dx.doi.org/ . /gim. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /gim. . http://dx.doi.org/ . /pd. the genome of the netherlands consortium ( ) whole-genome se- quence variation, population structure and demographic history of the dutch population. nat genet : – van buchem fs, hadders hn, ubbens r ( ) an uncommon familial systemic disease of the skeleton: hyperostosis corticalis generalisata familiaris. acta radiol : – van dijk fs, nesbitt im, nikkels pg, dalton a, bongers em, van de kamp jm, hilhorst-hofstee y, den hollander ns, lachmeijer am, marcelis cl, tan-sindhunata gm, van rijn rr, meijers-heijboer h, cobben jm, pals g ( ) crtap mutations in lethal and severe osteogenesis imperfecta: the im- portance of combining biochemical and molecular genetic anal- ysis. eur j hum genet : – yzer s, van den born li, schuil j, kroes hy, van genderen mm, boonstra fn, van den helm b, brunner hg, koenekoop rk, cremers fp ( ) a tyr his rpe founder mutation is asso- ciated with variable expression and progression of early onset retinal dystrophy in families of a genetically isolated population. j med genet : – zeegers mp, van poppel f, vlietinck r, spruijt l, ostrer h ( ) founder mutations among the dutch. eur j hum genet : – zlotogora j ( ) the molecular basis of autosomal recessive diseases among the arabs and druze in israel. hum genet : – zlotogora j, carmi r, lev b, shalev sa ( ) a targeted population carrier screening program for severe and frequent genetic diseases in israel. eur j hum genet : – j community genet ( ) : – 	with expanded carrier screening, founder populations run the risk of being overlooked 	abstract 	introduction 	methods 	results 	discussion 	conclusions 	references